A Reference Grammar of Modern Hebrew
EDNA AMIR COFFIN Professor Emerita of Hebrew Language and Literature Department <Jf Near Eastern Studies University of Michigan
SHMUEL BOLOZKY Professor of Hebrew Department of Judaic and Near Easlem Studies University of Massachusetts
CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS
l'l!RLISHED RY THE PRHSS SY!'\DICATE OF THE lJNIVfRSITY 01' CAMRRIDGii
The Pitt Huilding, Trumpington Stret:l, Cambridge, United Kingdom C-\:\1 R R li)G li UNI VHRSITY PRESS
The Edinburgh Building, Cambridge CB2 2RU, UK 40 West 20th Street, New York, NY 10011-4211, USA 477 Williamstown Road, Port Melbourne, VIC 3207, Australia Ruiz de Alarcon, 280 14 Madrid, Spain Dock House, The waterfront, Cape Town 8001, South Africa http:!/www .cambridge.urg
D Edna Coffin and Shmuel Tlolozky 2005 This book is in copyright Subject to statutory exception and to the provision~ of relevant collective licensing agreements, no repmductionof any part may take place without the written pem1i ssiun of Cambridg~: University Press. First published 2005 Printed in the United Kingdom at the University Press, Cambridge
Typeset by authors A catalogue record of this book is uvai/ab/e.fi"om the British Library
ISBN 0 521 820332 hardback ISHN 0 521 527333 paperback
For Leah. Jonah, Rachel, Aaron and Harlan For Michal and Noa
CONTENTS Preface Chapter 1 1.1 1.2
1.3
1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 Chapter 2 2.1
2.2 2.3
2.4
2.5 2.6 2.7 2.8
Chapter 3
3.1
3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5
3.6 3.7 3.8
XIll
Preliminary discussion Parts of speech Grammatical functions Words and patterns Gender and number Open and closed word classes Phrase constituents Rules of agreement
M~TJ'M
1
1:::1~1 ~p~n
1!)01:)1 1'r.l
3 4 7
mmn!l O'~'l:l m~1JP
7
nPpnpl
'w~pll!l
o~~m~1 O'l::lr.l
m1m:;~1
0'!l11'S ':::1':>1 ill:lNl'lil ,~,::J
Writing and pronunciation M'')fll !at!~ Introduction NlJY.l Consonants and OilY./ 0'Nlili11 0'11~')1 Cl')~))Y.) corresponding sounds The Hebrew vowel system n'1:J.Y::l mll1mn nJ1YI:l Texts with and without 'JY.l'O '~J1 0)1 CJ'\:)0j7\:) l'l))ll)ll vowels Diacritic marks other than Ol'NY.I )nJil 'lY.l'O vowels mllun Syllables m1::1n Stress patterns nr.J)J\:)il m'lJn Dialectal variation in n"m:J n'"P~N'1 nmw consonant articulation 0'11::1')1 ))1,£11'1 tl~.,,.~ The verb system Introduction: verb ~)Jl!lil ':I 'Jl : Nl::IY.l components Citation fonns m'll7"Y.l nn1~ Verb tenses ')Jl!lil 'lY.l l Historical notes: Biblical CJ'll:l't: m'll\:)O"il nn)Jn tenses and aspects ~)Jl!l::l 0'"P!l0Nl Moods and verbal nouns n'l)J!l mY.lwl CJ'onm Verb pattern groups 0'l"l::l Verb categorization O'~).l!l ')10 With and without linking verbs '').l!l ''Jl 0).1
1l)l
12
13 16 16
17 21 23 25
27 2~
31
33 33 34 35 40 44
47
51 52
viii
3.9
Contents
m~'m tl'~~!l
Verbs with obligatory prepositions
m:::>i~lY-3
3.10
Chapter 4 4.1 4.2
'~~1!1 ,0":J.'t1jJN tl'~~!:l
Active, stative and inchoative verbs
:J.!IY.) 'll''tll
4.7
Verb pattern groups Verb pattern: pa 'a/ Verb pattern: nij'al Verb pattern: pi'el Verb pattern: pu 'al Verb pattern: hilpa 'el Verb pattern: h(fil Verb pattern: hr~fal
Chapter 5 5. L
The noun system Introduction to the noun system
4.3 4.4 4.5 4.6
53
on'
54
:::1~ Y.)
n,,m O'l"l3
56
(~p) ~~~ )''):::1
56 71
~~!?~ )"l:J. C'J)J'!l) ~.)l!il )ll):J.
C'Jln!l) ~~~ 1"l:J ~)!~J;1D 1"lJ ~))'.!?i) )"))
C~ll!lm) ~)!!?D l"l:J. a~n
n:t,»D
n:>,yr.~~
z..ctm
Sl
90 97
108 119 125 125
O'tlil
5.2 5.3
5.4 5.5 5.6
5.7 5.8 5.9 Chapter6 6.1
6.2 6.3
6.4
Indefinite and definite noun f()rms Gender tt~atures Number features Noun patterns Nouns derived from verbs Noun patterns associated with semantic features Significant patterns with no semantic association Acronyms Pronouns Forms of personal pronouns Independent subject pronouns Pronoun suffixes and prefixes in verbs and in existential expressions Pronouns suffixed to nouns and prepositions
m'N'tll O')lil'Y-3 rm:::l\!1
131
0'll1l'r.l 'l'r.lil m'l):>n
132
1!loon mm:>n
137
rwm\!J :nl'l::m
131)
O'~Y!lY-3 D'iH)o :nlr.IYJ
143
m7l':J DYJ :nl'l:m
147
l11't1l1JO 111'll:>n 1\'Jpn
N''
O\!J nPl:J.n 't1lY.lO
153
D'llP'1t1ll
155
O"U':J
158
onn,:m 'llO
158
0'111!1 ~l)
"))':;)
160
n'~'nn> O'"l1:m O"ll'=>
164
~l'1!l:J
Cn'!llO 1N
Dl'P "1\J'J.J.l l11'!ll0:> D'11J.n 0"1l':> on, m~m71 oYJ~
168
Contents
6.5 6.6 6.7 Chapter 7 7.1 7.2 7.3 7.4
Demonstrative pronouns Interrogative and relative pronouns Impersonal pronouns
IX
UJ1 ''1l':::l
iiP' t
~~1)~::>1 n'N'll nu>:>
o~~,l~:>
164
t'l',.l)~~
177
i11'!)0
177 182 183
O"r.ll10
Numerals Free counting Cardinal numbers Noun phrases with cardinal numbers Ordinal numbers
170 173
{0"110') Ol))):) 0'1.!:!0):) 0)1 CJll)r.l\!J
0~!)11~~
0~))):)
0'1.!:!0):)
Ol1i10
CJ~1!l0r.l
IR7
(Oll11i~O)
7.5 7.6 7.7
Fractions Multiplication values Numeric value of letters
7.8
Phrases: days of the week. dates, telling time, age
0~1::J.\!J
'\!}
D'~!l:J '1!l0r.lil 11lli1
188 189 190
l11ll11N 'Y.ll : Ol!l11 >:::!
191
, 0':::l>iNl1 ,ll1::J.\!Ji1
'~~ ,ml'\!J
Chapter 8 8.1
8.2 8.3 8.4
Adjectives Introduction: fanning adjectives Comparative and superlative adjectives Forming adjectives by adding suffix -i Nouns and adjectives of affiliation
194
194
1N1l1 i1N11\!Jil ~\!J 0~1Nl1
195
111l1~1
_,)) 1N1l1 l11Y.l\!J
l1l>~~
,_ ]1!)01]1 o~l"~r.ln o~1Nm
197
~,.,
mr.l\!J
198
l11:l"\!J n~mpr.ltl1'l1~llp
8.5 8.6
Participles that function as adjectives Special patterns
Chapter 9
Adverbs and adverbial expressions
9.1
Introduction Adverbs grouped according to t{)rm
9.2
nnp!lnr.ln 'l1)'J m11~
202
0~1Nl1:> nnnw~ m~l:Jl1
204
'.01..,,!11, ~.»,.Oft ,,NlS'I
209
·n~e~n
N1JY.l l!l ~)) Ol11N>l1l11~0 0]111!::1
209 209
Content.~
9.3 9.4
Adverbs grouped according to function Adverbs and 'degree' words
9.5
Sentential adverbs
Chapter 10
Particles
10.1 10.2
Introduction The particle 'et' before definite direct objects
10.3 10.4 10.5 10.6 10.7
Prepositions: prefixes, independent prepositions Prepositions or adverbs'? Coordinating and correlative conjunctions Subordinators Exclamation particles and expressions
Chapter 11
Noun phrases
11.1
Introduction to noun phrases
11.2
Noun phrase: noun+ adjective Comparative and superlative adjectives Apposition noun phrases Construct phrases Phrases ofpossession Phrases with demonstrative pronouns Prepositional phrases Numerical and quantifier phrases Noun phrases with determiners Gerunds and infinitives in noun phrases
t 1.3
11.4 11.5 11.6 11.7 11.8 1l.9 11.10 11.11
'!:1 ':7~ o,,,Nm l11'0
213
on'l'P!:In m~:nr.n 0'11N'n
214
n1'0 tl!:l\!.10 ,,,N'n
218
J'll'~'D
I'•O:JO 'l!:IJ "nN" n'~"on Ql}I11'1J O"ln'C Ql!))1'!! 1'\!.l'n N\!.l"::m ;.., ,m,~nnn : on' m'J'r.> ml11!:1 on' m':7'm ?':7lll!:l '1N1n 1N on' m':7'o
225 225 225
228
11\!.I'P m'J'O
244 246
l):J~'ll
)'11J'.O
248
''1tl':J1 nN'1P m';no
250
nN'1P C"3D~ C'!:ll,,~
O'!ln'!!J N'l:JO Oll)n\!)
+ 0!1~ O'tl : lJIJ\!.1 I'J'l1'!!
252 252 253
1Nm 0\!.1 m7!ln '1N1m )'1n' '1Nm
257
'!l'l"'''~
260 261 275
n11on m:::.,.oo
'!In'~
l"lP '!l'l1'!1 n:n "'ll':J Oll O'!l'l1'!1
277
on' '!111'::1 nm:::.1 1!10.0 '!1'1'~
281 281
m':7'.0 0~ O''liJ'tl O'!l)1l.:::l mv;:m
2R3
~Yl!:l
mr.>\!.11 n';:!l~!l mo~t~ 0"JO'tl 0'!:11"'1':::1:::1
287
Contents
Chapter 12 12. t 12.2 12.3 12.4
12.5 12.6 12.7
Verb phrases Introduction to verb phrases Verb phrases: verbs and objects Compound verb phrases Grouping verbs by semantic considerations Modal verbs Habitual aspect phrases Subjunctive and possibility phrases
Chapter 13
Modal \-'erbs and expressions
13.1 13.2 13.3
Introduction to modality Modal verb phrases impersonal modal expressions Temporal aspects in modality Modality expressed by phrases with nm
13.4 13.5
Chapter 14
Clauses and sentences
14.1 14.2 14.3 14.4
Introduction Verbal sentences Nominal sentences Equational sentences Existential sentences Sentences of possession Elliptical sentences Classification of sentences by function Sentence classification by structure Simple sentences Coordinate/compound sentences
14.5 14.6 14.7 14.8 14.9 14.10 14.11
XI
t:t"!1)11~ a•~,,,~
288
O"~)J)!l 0'!lll'!t~ N1Jr.:l
288
0'~).1!) : 0"7)11!) 0'011'~
2&8
0'N'01r.l1 0':J=>l1Y.l 0"~lll!l O'!l'll'~ O'!ln':::~ ~\? 'tllOU ln>u
291 297
Ol'>~).ll!l
O"~N11Y.l O'>~)J!l ('~llil?) \JjJ!lUN '!l11'~ i1~N\!IO , l)'}ln '!lll'~
298 298 299
nn'tl!lN1 t:I"~N'TU3 t:l""''21 t:l'7)1.!:1
300
In''JN1l0; Nl:JO
O''Dnu 0'''JN11r.l 0'"1\J':J
300 301 305
J"nl~Ni10J )Y.lli1 \JjJ!>UN
306
0)1 0''1\JlJJ In''JNiu:l
311
0"'JN11r.l O"'J)I)!l 0'!l1l'!t
'i1'il' t:I'".!:I'0~1 ,,,,~.!:!
NlJO on;)ll!l O'\J!l\!10 onm\!1 0'\J!l\!IO l)il)l l\J!I\!Ir.:l Ol'P '\J!l\!IY.l l"ljJ )\:)!)\!JJJ 0'1tm 0'\J!l\!IY.l )!)
,)I 0'\J!l\!10 l wu
314 314 316 318 318 323 324 330 332
01'f.'!ln O)J)J '!l ;)I 0'\J!l'OO lll'U
334
O'\JW!l 0'\J!l\!lr.:l
335 337
O'n'NO 0'\J!l\!lr.:l C0'1:nnr.:l)
Contents
XII
14.12 14.13 14.14 14.15 14.16 14.17 14.18
Complex sentences Complement clauses Attributive clauses Relative clauses Adverbial clauses Conditional sentences Integrated sentences
Chapter 15 15.1
Language in context Introduction Sentence or utterance? Topic and comment Focus and topic Deixis - reference to person, time and place Reported speech- direct and indirect Language registers Genres oftext Cohesion and coherence of text Language in context: sample texts
15.2 15.3 15.4 15.5
15.6 15.7 15.8 15.9 15.10
Appendices Appendix 1 Appendix 2 Appendix 3 Appendix 4 Appendix 5
Verb tables Noun tables Particle tables Punctuation rules Plene writing
Index of grammatical topics
C':J:nm
0'\J!l~t~P
nlt.l'~\!.1~ TIPplO!l 'Nll~ m'jJlO!l
np'l nl'PlO!l nl'~N'::l1ll"TN m'jJlO!l
338 340 344 345 349
l\J!)\!)~
357
Ol:J~llt'~ Ql\J!l\!.1~
337
,vpn:a ,,v~
364 364
ll'()l1
Nllt.l ! }I:JO lN \J!llt'O ~mm
N\!m
ilP'm N~t~ll , ")U~ Tlltm,nm nP~1
365 366 369
369
Olpo7l )OlJ "l'P).Il
1'~t~'
:1om 1l:J'i
373
1llt'J ':J'It'O
377
\JOP\J 'J\!J m:rm l1'1':J7l nl'il\!JljJ
381 382
mmn : 1~t~pn:::t 11~t~'J
384
b'nOV3
390 390 416
O'~Y!l nl'm mm~ nm~t~ m'm mm~
nl'J'P mm~
425
plO'!ln 'JJJ
428
N~Y.l
O"Pl"TPl
O'N~t~lJ
:JlTIJ
436
Up1l'N
438
Preface The main purpose of this book is to serve as a reference grammar tor Modern Hebrew. It is designed to teach about the language and to give readers a reference tool for looking up specific details of the language. The intended audience is a varied one; it includes non-native speakers who arc students of Hebrew, native speakers of Hebrew who seek a comprehensive coverage of Hebrew grammar, instructors and teachers of Hebrew, students and scholars of Biblical Hebrew who would like to have a better understanding of contemporary Hebrew, students of linguistics, and the general public interested in Hebrew language and culture. Particular care was taken to make the presentation as simple as possible, and to avoid use of excessive linguistic terminology or complex linguistic analyses, in order to make this volume as accessible as possible to everyone, and to give pedagogical considerations equal weight to those of Linguistic explanations and analysis. The book is based on the study of formal Hebrew and of Hebrew as a spoken language, and it includes some historical notes on pre-modern Hebrew (Biblical and Post-Biblical). We consider the Hebrew language both as a system and as a communicative tool. Whenever possible, equivalent Hebrew terminology is given in order to facilitate use of Hebrew grammar and language textbooks.
A Reference Grammar of Modern Hebrew combines modern and traditional approaches in the description of language structures and uses. The term 'normative' is used to convey the adherence to the formal rules of grammar, while 'common use' alludes to the rules applied by educated speakers in their daily use. While most speakers perceive 'correct' Hebrew to be the language usage as prescribed by the fonnal rules of Hebrew, in fact their own actual language usage, particularly in informal contexts, often departs somewhat from the normative rules. The language is thus described both in its written and more forma] contexts, and in the spoken conversational mode, where there is a relaxation of some ofthe normative rules, as is common to all languages in use. The formal presentation of rules and tables associated with language structures uses Hebrew texts with vowels, 10n ::Pn:l ktiv haser, while
xiv
Preface
the examples, on the whole, use N~Y.l.l'l1::l ktiv mate, without vowels, as in daily use in contemporary Hebrew adult texts. A R~jerence Grammar of Modern Hebrew is organized according to universal structural categories. The book describes the basic structures of Modern Hebrew, and provides a generous number of examples, based on the authors' experience of teaching Hebrew to Englishspeaking students, and research work in the field of Hebrew linguistics. We wish to acknowledge our colleague Robert Hoberman, Professor of Linguistics at the State University of New York Stony Brook, whose feedback comments were very insightful and helpful from both linguistic nnd pedagogical aspects. We also wish to acknowledge Liz Brater, who as a student of Hebrew gave us much needed insight into learners' needs, and as a professional editor, helped us with organizing the text. We are particularly thankful to her, since she found time during her busy schedule as a Michigan State Senator, to do careful reading of large parts of the text. [n addition, we thank Neta Bolozky and Tris Coffin for their steady support during the writing of the book. We also wish to express our gratitude to Cambridge University Press for the opportunity to write and publish this work.
June 2004
Chapter 1 Preliminary discussion 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 I .7
Parts of speech Grammatical functions Words and patterns Gender and number Open and closed word classes Phrase constituents Rules of agreement
1.1 Parts of speech One of the major issues in the presentation of grammar is the definition of language categories. Language categories can be described as parts of speech, i.e. language units in isolation, or in terms of their function in context. For instance. a noun can be described as belonging to the parts-of-speech category 'noun', and also as functioning either as a subject or an object within the clause or sentence structure, as the modifier of another noun, etc. While we recognize that all language items belong to a whole network of interrelationships, we shall limit the present discussion to context-free (i.e., parts-of-speech), and contextdependent (i.e., functional) relationships. The following are the main traditional categories of parts of speech: Verbs Nouns Pronouns Adjectives Adverbs Prepositions Conjunctions
C'~)J.!:l
Tnr.l'll ~n
''))''
1Nm mo'l.l ~)J)!lil '1NUl on,m':mJ 1t:Pn m~:mJ
ln many cases, the distinction between the part-of-speech characterization of some item and its function in context is obvious. Thus, for instance, in the noun phrase 0'1!!0 mm 'bookstore', we have two nouns (part of speech), and although the second one is a modifier
2
Chapter I: Preliminary di.scuj·j·ion
of the first, and thus functions as if it were an adjective, it is still a noun from the part-of-speech point of view. On the other hand, there are words that even in isolation cannot be assigned unambiguously to a single category. Every word functions as at Least one part of speech, but there are words that can serve as two or more parts of speech, depending on the context. For instance, some present participle forms can function as verbs in the present tense, as nouns or as adjectives:
Adjective
The new worker did not arrive at work today. The computer does not work properly. The executive (working) committee decided to raise membership fees.
ow1 ~n.:m N~ Ynnn ~).ll!lil .ilil:J).I~
.'lN,_, ~l'l!l N~ :JYJn~n m~).ln~ '.J'~nn ~l'l!ln iYm
.I:Jnn
,~,
nN
The same word can also function as both an adjective and an adverb: .nYJp Y.I'N Nlil ~nmn Adjective The director is a ditlicult man. Adverb He makes everyone work hard. .O~l-' nN nYJp i>:J)J~ Nlil Below are some illustrations of parts of speech and grammatical functions. A more detailed discussion wil1 follow in the main chapters of the book. Verbs o•'l.u9 Verbs in tense
Dan hurried home. They will oppose the plan tor ideological reasons.
.nn>:::~n
1n>o rr
m:J>ot:J n>l:~m;. lilln' on .m>ll~1N'1'N
Non-finite verbs Dan wants to run in the Boston
Marathon.
Nouns and pronouns
D 11 IJ 1 JI n1nw
Nouns I have coffee and cake for you. Verbal nouns
Dan is a cooking expert. She proved a profound understanding ofthe subject.
.~1Y.I'J~ nno1o
11
.NYJU:l nj:mJY mJ.n iln'::>1n N'il
Chapter I: Preliminary discussion
3
Personal pronouns
He likes to cook and she likes to eat.
m.nn·-c N'ill 'J'I!'::J.'J ::J.illN N.m .'J1:>N'J
Demonstrative pronouns
This food is Muroccan food.
Adjectives Adjectives in noun phrases He is an excellent cook. Adjectives as predicates
.l'1~r.:! l'J\U::l
N.1il
.l\U:>UJ mn i'O'JTln
This student is talented.
Adverbs He cooks a lot but eats little.
.,lll!>il .,Hin .\JYO ?:nN. 'J::J.N il::J.1il ?\U::J.JJ N.1il
Particles
m•'l•n/m..,•n
Prepositions
Dan goes with friends to shows.
.ml~il~ 0'1::m oy
1'Jm )i
Conjunctions
Do you want to walk or to go by car? Subordinators They went to the restaurant that I
!Y1t7)'J 1N
'Jn:J Tl:J'J'J
m~m
om.c
.m~?on il''JY~ myuo? 1::.'::m on
recommended. Interrogatives
Who is this?
!ill '.O
Interjections ~::J.N.1:J
Ouch! It hurts!
m P1N
1.2 Grammatical functions Another way to classify the components of an utterance is by their grammatical function. Here are some of the terms that arc used to describe the roles the parts of speech play in sentences: Subject Predicate Attribute Object Adjunct
N\U1) NWl 'N11'J
N\UUl n!lt7l
4
Chapter 1: Preliminary discussion
M~ll
Subject Noun phrases
The new cook is from France. Subordinate clauses
That he studied cooking in France is of no interest to me.
1"l}.lr.l N~ n~i~:a ~lt~':a lr.l' Nm'll .;.::.J:a 'mN
Predicate Verb predicates
Dan started studying in the summer. Nominal predicates
He is a student in law school. Attribute Expansion of phrases with additional information
Dan met friends from work at a pub on the beach.
J>' :JN!l:l i1i':J)InY.l D'l:Jn 'lll!l 11 .om Tl!l'll
Object complement Direct object
Dan met his friends. Indirect object
Dan got together with his friends. Adjunct
nDOl
Temporal
Dan was not at home this morning. Spatial
Dan traveled in England for three months.
1.3 Words and patterns
o•.,iJ\!IDI
Dl
1 11
l:l
,D•.,n
All verbs, many nouns, and a good number of adjectives and adverbs are based on a combination of roots and patterns. The root 'llii'll shoresh is a consonantal skeleton. It is a hypothetical sequence of consonants shared by related words. Roots do not constitute actual words. Each one is applied to a pattern, from which actual words are formed. In the verb system the pattern is called 1"ll hinyan, and elsewhere it is called ~PIVY.l mishkal.
Chapter 1: Preliminary discussion
Verbs Gloss wrote dictated
5
Word :Jl)~
::l'.l'l:m ':.
Nouns and adjectives
Gloss magician (noun) charming (adjective)
Word 09ip
l!.nl\!1
o-u-p
0'1li?~
There are seven verb pattern groups (binyanim) in Hebrew. The third person singular in the past tense is traditionally used to represent each of these groups. To label each of these groups generically, a prototypical root is used. The generic verb ~)l!:l is used in combination with the pattern of each binyan, giving it its name.
pa'al nifal pi'el pu'a/ hitpa'el hifil hf.!fal
Root
Bin"t,an's name
Citation Form
~~~
P1l
p-1-l
7~~~
1~~~
1-:J-\!1
Cnn!:l)'JV.~
(1!:1'0} 1~1?
1-!)-t;l
P~9.
p-'J-u
':J)!~J;ln
\!I~'JJ;liJ
\!)-)-1
'J'l.'~n (Jll!:lln) 'J).I!;)!.I
"'~i?n
\)·J-p
(7).11!:1) '~~
Cp71t!)
cn:mnJn~m
n-s-l
The root consonant is labeled ~))l!:ln '!:l (marked in English as C1). The second root consonant is labeled 'JYl!ln ')) (C 2) and the third root consonant is 'J)Jl!:lil ·~ (C3 ). Verb form
Root
'7l.ll~il ''7
'7~1~il
PlJ"'
Binr..an Jll!:l
up~
~ll!:ll
Q-J-~
0
)
:>
(07'\!1) 0~~
~ll'!:l
T.)-J-\!1
T.)
l'i'$.!
~)J)!)
1-\)-!)
,
::lt1~l;1iJ
'Jll!:l11il J'lol!:lil
:1-n-J
:J
"n'
\!)
:::1-!1-:l
:J
n
J
J))!))il
\)-J-p
"
~
p
(1\)~!;l)
::l'J;l?iJ '"~pm> ";..i?t!
p-n-\!1
p
n
'v
'11JI9il '9 \!)
!)
J
6
Chapter I: Preliminary discussion
A comparative note The verb pattern groups m Hebrew are somewhat similar to special groups of verbs in English, where the base undergoes predictable internal changes, and the modifications within the stem arc regular. Some examples of such groups: (a) drive-drove-driven, write-wrote-written, ride-rode-ridden (b) speak-spoke-spoken, freeze-froze-frozen, steal-stole-stolen Although the root does not exist on its own, many words sharing a common root tend to have a common meaning or related meaning. Verbs Citation form Gloss 1-'tl-p tie be tied get in touch; get connected Nouns and adjectives Gloss tied, connected (adj.) tie, connection (noun) context (noun)
11'tli?
1l'o
{l) 1'<Ji?
Cl'll
Cl) 1Wi?i)
O'll
1.3.2 Deriving new words New words in Hebrew, as in other Semitic languages, arc formed in two ways: I. Linearly, without affecting the base for derivation. For instance, the adjective )1~3.)~ 'public, in the public domain' is derived from the noun 1):1)~ 'the public'. There are also cases of chains of derivations. Noun child Abstract noun derived from -1':(~: childhood childish Adjective derived from nn?~: childishness Abstract noun derived from 'JWI'~!:
1??. nn':(~
'nn~~ Jwnn?~
2. New verbs can also be derived from an existing root, by combining it with an existing derivation pattern. For instance, the following recent verbs were formed with existing roots and their new combination with patterns:
Chapter 1: Preliminary discussion
Existing verb New verb in shlfel pattern Existing verb New verb in ljfe/ pattern:
write rewrite act, do operate, activate
7
::l.!J~
:l.fl?'?'
'~-? ,).1!;11;'
1.4 Gender and number Nouns, adjectives and verbs have gender and number features. The gender is either masculine 1~! or feminine n;tm. A distinction is made between two major noun categories: [lJ nouns that represent living entities: human beings and other living beings with biological gender features, and [2] nouns that represent other entities, mostly inanimate and abstract nouns (for example, objects, concepts, plants and others}. The biological gender of living beings and their inherent masculin~ ur feminine features are reflected in their grammatical gender features. Other nouns have an assigned grammatical gender, which is prescribed and cannot be predicted. There arc regular number features, which indicate whether a noun is a singular noun n1~n~lim' or whether it is a plural noun nt:niD'::l1. The feminine singular noun endings (ili'n'l are frequently marked by a final n.- -a or a final n- -t. The plural noun endings are represented by the sutlixes D'- -im and m- -ot. In nouns the plural ending 0'- -im most frequently but not necessarily reflects the masculine gender of the nouns, while the plural ending m- -ot most frequently but not necessarily reflects the feminine gender of the nouns. (See pp./30-139for more informalion) Verb forms in Hebrew also have gender and number features. In most past and future tenses they also have subject person features, i.e. personal pronoun features (1, you, he), which are often affixed to the verb forms. (See pp.36-3H.for more il?/ormation)
1.5 Open and closed word classes The parts of speech can be classified as belonging to two large categories: to 'open' classes or to •closed' classes. The open classes consist of these parts of speech: verb, noun, adjective, and adverb. The various particles (prepositions and conjunctions and others) are closed
8
Chapter 1: Preliminary discussion
classes. The closed classes are fixed sets of a limited number of function words, whereas the open classes have a large membership. 1.5.1 Open classes These are productive classes to which new words are continuously added, responding to the need for new vocabulary to serve the changing times. The new words are added either according to existing rules of morphology tor the formation of new words, or by borrowing words from other languages and either leaving them as they arc, or adapting them to Hebrew structures and patterns. The closed classes resist the addition of new members. Formation of verbs Adaptation from existing words: Gloss Derived Verb
to market to report
P~W~
Derived Root p-,-'l,l <
on?
n+l<
Gloss
market report
Base p!!\!J
nnn
-n t- prefix added to existing roots: Gloss Derived Verb Derived Root to communicate 1-\!J-p-n < iWi?tl~ to brief ::.-1-1-n < TJ!tl~
tie guide
Root 1-'l.l-p ::>-i-1
-1!1 sh- prefix added to existing roots: Gloss Derived Verb Derived Root
Gloss
Root
work write
.J-n-::>
to subjugate to rewrite
l~~W~
1-.J·~-ltl
.J~9W?
.J-n-::>-\!J <
<
Gloss
1-J-).1
Formation of nouns Derived from verbs Gloss Derived Noun
frame guard, watch
l1')~~Y.l 1Y;l'I(JY,)
Gloss
close guard
Derived from other nouns Gloss Derived Noun
Gloss
brotherhood privacy
brother individual
il)Q~ m~~;J?~
Base
Root
,~V
j-)-tl
ir.l~
1-Y.)-\!,1
Base nl$
.'
\J19
Chapter 1: Preliminary di.vcu.vsion
Derived from adjectives Gloss Derived Noun
Gloss
pennissiveness health
permissive healthy
mY~~l:IY.l
TnN'"J:;I
9
Base
'n'J:lt,) N">"J~
Borrowing words from other languages Direct borrowing of nouns:
high tech prime time
pt>-"il D"\J o.,.,,!l
~~
u~
Deriving new verbs from borrowed words: Gloss Derived Verb Extracted Root 1-U-J.-U subsidize 19:!tl?
sympathize
\J;lJ;l~
\J-!:1-~-u
Gloss
Base
subsidy sympathy
n~·pl?~~u
il?\?~~'1?
Borrowed words with Hebrew suffixes
Plural Suftixes Feminine ending Adjective endings
intellectuals Practice digital
0'~1'<1\JjJ~\J))I'( np~\JjJ,!l
J1l~\Jllli/'~\J'l'1
Note that the noun system is the most open, and nouns from other languages can be adopted into the language without alterations or with little alteration, such as Oi\JN 'atom', )1!l':m 'telephone', mt'n~m 'television', il'li~ilJ\J 'technology', and many others. However, new borrowed verbs and adjectives require adaptation into the existing system. For instance, the verb 19~~ sihsed 'to subsidize' above requires vowel modification from the borrowed noun i1?7~l?~~u subsidya 'subsidy' in order to fit into a Hebrew verb pattern. 1.5.2 Closed classes The closed classes of words consist ofthe grammatical function words, such as: I. Pronouns ill ,Nm ,'JN J. ,-~,~!liN ,0)1 2. Prepositions ~:JN ,) 3. Conjunctions -jJ 4. Determiners o',!ltm 1N ,nJ.,n .~:J 5. Quantifiers 1\!JN,\!J 6. Subordinators
10
C'hapter 1: Preliminary discussion
All of the above do not have gender or number teatures, and as a general rule, do not fill the slot of the head of a phrase. They are called closed because they contain a limited number of items, and their membership is not likely to be expanded. Function words are hardly ever borrowed from other languages.
Prepositions on• m'J•n Prepositions are usually followed by a noun phrase or by a pronoun sutlix. Prepositions function as heads of prepositional phrases. Some verbs must be followed by obligatory prepositions. Some prepositions are followed by a subordinating particle -~ that introduces a subordinate clause. Prepositional phrase
After the holiday meal Subordinating item: preposition+ clause
After they ate the holiday meal.
Determiners, articles and quantifiers JII"T.. m'l•n Articles, determiners, and quantifiers precede and modity nouns: Not everyone agrees with you. He is a billionaire! He has lots of money. Each person brought something.
.1:nN O'Y.l':JOY.J 0'\!JlNn 'J:J
N'J
.'lU:J )U~il l~ "I!J' !il'''J'l Nlil .lil\!JY.l N'lil inN ~J
Coordinators ,1:1•n nr'J•n Common coordinators are_, 'and' and ':J 'because' and 1N 'or'. They can be found in several levels of the hierarchy: words, phrases, or clauses. Phrases
Who is the boss here, you, or your brother? Are you and your brother going to the offic.e?
Chapter 1: Preliminary discus.~ion
II
Clauses OJ~1Jl,~J1N P'!:IOY.l W'
There is enough food, and you can all come and cat.
.J1JNJ NlJJ 0'J1J'
Subordinators The most frequently used subordinator is the particle -'? 'that', after which a subordinate clause follows. When the subordinate clause is an object (complement) clause, the word '' can be used as a subordinator but only in higher registers. When the subordinate clause is a relative clause, 1\!.IN may be used in higher registers. Reporting
We all know that you did not mean to say this. At a press conference the American Secretary of State said that an important strategic change has taken place.
nmJr.n N~ nnN~ D'Yll' 1l':71J .iH!lN1Y.ll~ i\!.1 "lr.3N 0'Nl1!1')1 1l:l'0Y.):J
'll'W ':7n ':::l
'lP'lr.ll:m ~mn .::11\!.ln ll\Jl"ON
Introducing a relative clause
The girl who is walking towards us is my cousin. The patient's rights law, which became valid in 1996, is a pioneer in its field.
-n.l N'n 1mN1p~ mo(J~ nim.ln
_,,,,
Ul::Jl
·wN ,n7mn n1'1Jl pm
'<1':7n 1l'n , 1996 mYJ:J 1!lpm':7 .1Y.3ln!ll
Introducing an adverbial clause
He did not arrive on time because his plane was late. He came to the office even though he was sick.
)ll>JY-3 1Y.lll Y':ln NJ Nli1 .ln'N 1omr.3~
mnw nnY-3':7 11\!.IY.l~ NJ Nm .n~m
Interrogatives Interrogatives are question words or phrases used to transform statements to questions. They can be pronoun question words PY-3 'who?' or mn 'what?'. They can also be adverbial question words about time mm 'when?' or about location !n!l'N 'where?'. They can pose questions about the reason for doing something mY-3~ 'why?' or ask to quantify things mn:> 'how much? how many?'.
12
Chapter I: Preliminary discussion
Questions about the subject or object:
Who called you? What did he te11 you on the phone?
?1''JN )!I'J\J .,~ !11!l'J\J:ll'J 1~N Nln i1~
Questions about time or location:
When is Dan coming? Where is he going? Where will he be this evening?
!N1:l'J J'llm )i ,n~ q'Jm Nm .ll:Q ?l1.Yi1 i1'i1"> Nln i1!l'N
Questions about cause or reason:
Why doesn't Dan want to come? Why was he so late?
?Nll'J mm N'J
11 nr.l'J
!p 'J::> 1nN Nln Y1ir.l
Questions with prepositions:
The question words 'r.l and ilr.l can be preceded by prepositions, as in 'Jy ?nr.l •about what?', or !'r.l Dl' •with whom?'. About whom did you talk? With whom did you go to the movies?
Interjections i'IM•1il m'l•n Interjections are words or phrases used to exdaim or protest or command. They sometimes stand by themselves, but they are often contained within larger structures. Most interjections are usually used in speech. Nice! You finished everything on time. Wow! I won the lottery! We won- Hallelujah! How awful! Everything is lost.
! 1u1'Jn
m-< ,,.m111n ! or.lnr.3 ! i1'''~m - 1ln~'l
. i1:l'N'J 1~'i1 'J::>n !'1:lN1 '1N
1.6 Phrase constituents Observe the following sentence: Small children go to kindergarten. The sentence can be clearly divided into two main constituents: verb phrase noun phrase
Chapter 1: Preliminary disc:uss ion
13
Each of these constituents is a phrase and the two of them together form the sentence. The first one is a noun phrase, while the second one is a verb phrase. The central item of the noun phrase is O'l~' 'children', while the modifying item is O'JVP 'small'. In the verb phrase, the central item is the verb O':>~m 'go', and the destination is indicated by the prepositional phrase that completes the verb phrase ·p~ 'to kindergarten'. A phrase, as we saw above, consists of an obligatory item, which we call the head or nucleus, and it is always essential to the phrase. It sets the syntactic category of that phrase. Other elements may be optional. Only words that belong to open classes can be heads of phrases. They combine with other words to t'brm larg~r unils, and within the phrase they constitute the central item around which the other words are organized. Head nouns determine the gender and number of the other components in the phrase, as well as in the sentence. Types of phrase: noun phrase
Head word- noun: n!liv 'language' In context: [The Hebrew language) changes. Types of phrase: verb phrase
Head word- verb: llp 'bought' In context: The children [bought ice cream].
1.7 Rules of agreement The head of a syntactic unit, such as a phrase, a clause or a sentence determines many of the features of the other nouns, adjectives or verb forms in these units. Beyond the phrase there is agreement between the head noun of a subject and its predicate (verb, noun or adjective), or between any noun and its co-referent pronoun anywhere in the sentence or beyond. Let's see how the head noun in the following sentence determines the features of some other components in the sentence: .p~ O'~~m O'l\.?p O'i~' • Head noun: C'i~'. Gender: masculine. Number: plural. • Adjective reflects the teatures of the head noun: O'l\.?P.
14
Chapter I: Preliminary discussion
•
The verb reflects the plural masculine features of the head noun: o>~~nn.
1. 7.1 Gender agreement 1. Noun phrase: head noun + adjective The~
·1"lYtJ )JtJ\!.Il \!.1-rnn \:nun
movie sounds interesting.
The new exhibit is attracting a lot of visitors. They say that i! is very interesting.
n~\!.lm
n'1!J1nn n:ni)Jnn
N>il\!.1 O>i}J)N . D':li D'if.':ltJ .11NY.l m»lYtJ
2. Noun phrase: head noun+ demonstrative pronoun Since demonstrative pronouns can modi(y nouns in a noun phrase, they agree in gender and number with the head nouns. This pool is an Olympic pool. .n'!lr.J'''N m'i:l Nm m-tm il:l'i.Ji1 That game was riveting. 3. Noun phrase+ verb predicate Nira was accepted to work in the otlice of an architectural tirm. They hired her as soon as she finished her studies. Noam works in a bank. Many friends of his work there.
~\!.1 1"1\!.IY.l.J ni,:lY~ n~:1pnn ili'l
1''Y.l nmN l~:l'P .o>\Jj7t1'~1N
..D.'iu:J'~ om oy 1~\!.1 0':::11 D'"1.Jn .jJl.J:l 1:1W OlJU
. 0\!.1 D'l:lllJ
4. Noun phrase+ adjective predicate
Your choice (is) very good.
.11NY.l il:::ll\:1 1~\!.1 i1"1'n:lil
The voting rate (is) low.
.11m
illl:l~nn
ill'' \!.I
1.7.2 Number agreement 1. Noun phrase: head noun + adjective
The new~ are interesting. We strolled in the small streets of the town.
. D'l"l:l.IY.l o>\!.linn mmr.m .-,>yn 7\!.1 0'lt1pn m:Jlni.J 11~mo
2. Sentence: noun phrase+ predicate: verb
Moshe and Danny arrived late. Aliza and Dina live in the dorms.
.inlNY.lW'lil '111 il\!.IY.l .nm:l.lr.J:l m1:~
ill', m'7ll
15
Chapter I: Preliminary discussion
3. Sentence: noun phrase+ predicate: adjective
These flowers are very pretty. The girls in my class are not particularly friendly.
1.7.3 Agreement in person 1will finish the paper tomorrow. You didn't hear the bell?
. 1lN~ D'!l' n?Nn D'nl!lil
:mmn::m NJ nn'J.J mnn .1nllY.lJ.
.1rm
n-rn~n
1~n:~'l~n
nN 1mlN 'JN
nN omn:ri!J N? onN
Personal pronouns (subject, object, possessive, etc.) reflect the person that they represent. The girl said that she was hungry.
Her parents also said that they were hungry.
1.7.4 Definite/Indefinite status When the head noun is indefinite, so is the adjective that modifies it. However, when the noun modifier is a prepositional phrase, the head noun does not influence it. Indefinite head noun
There arc small and nice restaurants there. We bought an old house. Did you visit any art museums?
.)~.n
!l'J U'JP
1!l1))::lNJ D'JlN'n~:J D!llj7'J
When the head noun is detinite, the adjectives that modify it are also definite. A definite concept consists of a noun introduced by a definite article, or one with a possessive suffix, or a proper name. However, when the noun modifier is a prepositional phrase, the head noun does not int1uence it. Definite head noun
The blossoming trees are apple trees. His second wife was born in Canada. Our Ilana is a gifted musician.
.D'nl!>n
'~Y
on D'n1l!li1
D'~~n
. i11)j7J. i11~Jl) i1ll)~i1 ln'iJN
.nmnY.'l !l'NP'UlY.'l N'il UJ~ m'l'N
Chapter 2 Writing and pronunciation 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 2. 7 2.8
Introduction Consonants and their corresponding sounds The Hebrew vowel system Texts with vowels and without vowels Diacritic marks other than vowels Syllables Stress patterns Dialectal variation in consonant articulation
2.1 Introduction In Hebrew, as in other Semitic languages, consonants are regarded as the primary units that compose a word. There are twenty-two letters in the Hebrew alphabet, with eight additional variations. Each consonant is assigned a letter of the alphabet. Four consonants may also represent vowels, but generally, vowel signs are marked by dots and short lines inserted below, above, and inside the consonants. In contemporary Hebrew texts, sequences of consonants represent words. Vowel signs are not used in most texts, with the exception of poetry, children's literature, textbooks for early grades, and liturgical literature. In writing without vowels, each sequence of consonants can have more than one vowel pattern assigned to it, and thus has several possible pronunciations and consequently several possible meanings, e.g., in a sequence like l!lO: Gloss
book; literary work ( l) te II, narrate; talk about (2) to cut hair be recounted, be narrated count, enumerate count! barber border, edge, fringe
With vowels
Without vowels
s~fer
l!fQ
l!lO
siper
1~1?
l!)'tl
supar
l~P.
l!l,O
.w~far
l!;.!V
l!ltl
s.for sapar
,.!lV
1)!)0
l!;l~
l!ltl
.~far
,~~
l!ltl
17
Chapter 2: Writing and pronunciation
The consonantal skeleton of a word carries its basic sense, and the vowel string usually identities the word grouping to which a particular word belongs. Pattern recognition is aided by affixes (attachments), which facilitate the reconstruction of the associated vowel configuration. The following example demonstrates the combination of a consonantal skeleton with two different word patterns. Gloss number narrator
Patterns mispar mesaper
Prefix ,~~Y,l
-Y,l
1~Qt;:l
2.2 Consonants and sounds Tn the table below, you will find the Hebrew consonantal alphabet, traditionally arranged. Five consonants have a special torm when they come at the end of the word ('"1'!:1; '"<·~;'I 'l; •o •o; '1 ·~).Note that shin and sin are represented by the same symbol (a dot is used to distinguish between them); and that some consonants were modified with diacritics to also represent non-native sounds (•s ,'l ,'l). The letters are dispLayed in both print and script forms. The transcription sign is displayed under the sound column, referring to the sound realization of that letter and the conventional way to transcribe it in English. Short notes about pronunciation are added in a separate column next to each letter. Note
Single Hebrew Letters in isolation are marked with an apostrophe. When the letters are referred to by name in texts, they often have an inverted double comma inserted in between the last two letters, such as in the fo11owing examples: 1"'ll ,'"i~ ."1"~ •'"'' ,TI"'l ,t"J"7N. The reason tor inserting the double inverted comma into the spelling of the names of letters is to avoid confusion with actual words. In the toll owing table neither an apostrophe nor a double-inverted comma are inserted, since there is no confusion as to what they stand for when they appear in a table.
Chapter 2: Writing and pronunciulion
18
Consonants Letter N
Sound
k
(J
Notes on pronunciation
Name
It carries the sound of the following
'cilef
~?z:t
bet
JP:;J
vet
n'~
vowel, as in :l':;tz:t aviv. It is never realized at the end of words:
N":~i?
kara.
N''J~ hari.
'
In deliberate speech it is realized as a glottal stop with a stressed vowel: nz:t";li?
::1
,
kar'a. h
h, as in the first sound of flpy, word
intially: p ben, or after a closed syllable: i1:;J";ID harhe,
:J
11'
v
or after an open syllable in
some patterns: 1~1 diber. v, as in the first sound of y_ine, atlcr a vowel or at the end of words:
NJ;l~V
savta, ::llJ:;t katav.
l
~
g
gas in the first sound in green
'l
~~
j
as in the first sound in George ('l";li'l)
l
?
d
i1
f)
h
gfmel
~t;l')
d as in the first sound in door
dalet
n~J
Aspirated h, as in !J.ello, before a stressed vowel, e.g., 10 har; or when n is final,
he
NiJ
vav
1)
preceded by a, preceded by another
{j
vowel: ;;JiJ~ gaw)ah; or to mark a fern. sing. suffix: i'l~ lah. At the end of a word, following an a or e: n~~ yofd, n~~ yqfe, or optionally before an unstressed vowel: '7i;:fN ohel- 6e/
1
I
v
v as in the first sound of l')J vered, or
after a vowel as in
n~p
kiva, 1p kav. ~Ji?
l
I
u
The vowel u as in mp kmn,
'
i
0
II
v
The vowel o as in "'iP kof: i11 ho. Alternative for a single '1 consonant.
w
win foreign words, 1i\J,P''<.Ii1 Washington
11
kanu.
19
Chapter 2: Writing and pronunciation
,,'
~
z
z as in the first sound of g_oo.
,~
zh
In foreign (borrowed) words, such as the
zayin
l~!
final sound in gara~ ('lN')~). n
n
n
fi is pronounced as in Loch Ness.
net
n'>l}
For alternate pronunciation sec explanation on page 3 I. \J
6
I
t as in the first sound of [able
tel
ll'\?
')
I
y
y in any position, as in x.eam, kaJ!.ak
yod
l)>
)
I
i
,,::::'
~y
))
,
The vowel i as in speed, or in seal The diphthong ey as in ww: Alternative tor a single'' consonant.
:J
:;il
k
k~f
C'J~
;:,
;I
kh
kh4
C'j:;l
1
p
'
y
~
I
I
Y.l
"
m
0
p
)
J
l
I
n
k as in fan: at the beginning of a word l:;? ken, or after a closed syllable: n~?r.> maiko, or after an open syllable in some patterns: 'li'l? siken. kh is pronounced as in Loch Ness, after a vowel or at the end of words. An orthographic variation at the end of words: TJ rakh. I as in the tirst sound of lean. m as in the first sound of mother. An orthographic variation at the end of words. n as in the first sound of t1,ever.
nun
'\~)
An orthographic variation of at the end
nun
'\U
of words.
St~/il
khaf
C'J~
s~fit
n~iu
kimed mem
0):;)
mem
Ol;;l
sofll
n->~)U
u
0
s
s as in the first sound of ~un.
samekh
)I
~
(1
In standard speech it only carries the
'4vin
sound ofthe following vowel, just as 'N does. For alternative pronunciation see explanation on page 3.1.
lt;;J?
n'>~)U
wv ~~~
20
.!!1
Chapter 2: Writing and pronunciation
a
p
pas in the first sound ofQearl: at the
pe
N!,ll
syllable in some patterns: 1~~ siper. f as in the first sound of.fun: after a
fe
N~
vowel: "V~~ safwl or initially in borrowed words: 'J~''V'i?~festival. Orthographic variation offat the end of
.fe s~flt
N~
beginning of the word or after a closed syllable: ,0!~ parpar, or after an open !l
')
;)
l
1
words: ~
'I ·~
''I p
,
'1
, ~1
ts
ch
~t
')~9
ll'~)O
kesef.
ts pronounced as one segment, as in the
tsadi
,,.~
first segment of P'ry-~ !§.adik. Orthographic variation of Is at the end of
tsadi
''1~
so.fit
l1'~'0
k
\9l,
words: '(~::l.'i? kihbutz. ch in foreign words, such as Charlie ('~1·~).
p
k
?
r
k as in the tirst sound of !s_id r as in the tirst sound of r_un. It is
'l'P
pronounced almost like the r in French or German. Some pronounce it like the rolling r as in Spanish. 'tlj
e
sh
sh as in the first sound of shop.
sin
1'\!J
\1.1
e
s
s as in the first sound of ~un.
sin
1'YJ
n
J?
t
t as in the first sound of [able.
tav
)J;I
The following letters, which were historically distinct, have the same sound today. Words with different spelling can have the same sound: Pronounced
kar
.shote ala sar lakh lsav
cold drink went up minister to you summons
Word 1 ,i? n~i't!l
Word 2
pillow fool
n?)J
club, bat
,."'
go aside humid turtle
1~ l~
Letters
1;>
p,::>
il\;''YJ
ll,\:1
n"?~
)I,N
,v
't!I,O
n'?
::>,n
::t~
, ,J
21
Chapter 2: Writing and pronunciation
nu.mn
2.3 Vowels
lsraeli Hebrew has only five vowel sounds: i e a o u. There are many more different vowel signs, reflecting historical differenc.es in vowel quality and length that no longer exist in contemporary use (other than what is determined automatical1y by the stress pattern and the context). Pronunciation
Vowel Name
kamats ~Y.li? v patah nJ;J:i'l 'i? nata{-f!_atan nJ;J~-<'J"IJ IJ ,,~0 e (as in get) segol ., v nataf-segol "~9-C"J\?Q 0 shva na )I~ N'\? ~ tsere ill'~ . .. ............... . .. . . . . . . . . .J?. . ey (as in m~y) tsere il"')'~ 'Q i (as in dear) nirik fwser 1QQ P'':l'IJ 0 nirik male N~Y;'! P'':l'IJ 'o () (as in stop) nolam ha.~er 1QQ o~'n nolam mate iO N~J?0~1n kamals katan Wi? ~r.li? ~ hatafkamats n ~Y.li? '1"1J u (as in soup) kubuts ~~1lj:? p jJ~l~\(J shuruk m 0 (as in glue) shva nan n~ Nl~ 1? short e (as in yeladim) shva na ' ).llNW In this table the letter 10 is used as a prototypical consonant, •nji.Jr a prototypical guttural. a (as in start)
:~
~:
0
Note 1: Comment on kamats vowels
There are two realizations of the ~Y.li? kamats vowel: The normal realization ofthe vowel in 1), for instance, is a, but in a few words (as a rule in a closed, unstressed syllable) it is pronounced o. Note 2: Comment on segol and related vowels
In Israeli Hebrew, the segol, the liatq{-segol and the shva na' arc all realized as e, and so are most cases of tsere that are not fo11owcd by yod.
22
Chapter 2: Writing and pronunciation
Note 3: Comments on shva vowels
The usual realization of shva is no vowel, but in some environments where a sequence of consonants is difficult to pronounce (because of the nature of the consonant clusters involved), it is pronounced as a short e. Traditionally, the absence of a vowel at the end of a closed syllable, as in 17~~ mis-dar or 1.;!,~~ mush-be1·, is called n~ ~)1~ shva nan. When a shvt1 at the beginning of a sy11able is reali2ed as e, as in Ol~;t{ levanim, it is called Y~ N)l~ shva na '. Originally, every word-initial consonant cluster was split by a shva na ·: 0'?-il-~ ge-do-lim; however, in Israeli Hebrew, which al1ows many initial consonant clusters. most initial shva 's are realized as zero vowels: 0'~-ii~ < 0'~-il-~ ge-do-lim > gdo-/im. When the consonant clusters arc difficult to pronounce, the shva will be pronounced as e, as in 0'~-;t-{ le-va-nim. This is true when a word begins with a consonant cluster the tirst member of which is '', ''· 'Y.l, '), '1, or when the second is 'N, 'il, or'}!, which makes the consonant sequence hard to articulate. levanim neshama zehirut she'onim
Cl'~;t~ ilQ~~
m1'Dl O'~~y~
yeladim mesiha reshima te 'una
0'1~? n~1;'~ ilQ'~';l
n~'NJ;I
The same applies to a shva that immediately follows another shva: *nivdka > niv-de-ka
*tisgru > tis-ge-ru
Note 4: Comments on vowels marked with Frataf
Tht! four guttural consonants, ':,1 ,rn ,•n ,'N, arc hard to pronounce with no vowel (i.e., a shva nan). There are many word patterns which include a zero vowel in particular positions in the word, so to facilitate the pronunciation of each of the tour guttural consonants where a zero vowel was supposed to occur, one of three auxiliary vowels is inserted: shorter versions of the kamats, patah and segol. These auxiliary vowels are known as hatafim 0'~\?0· Today, however, they are no longer short.
23
Chapter 2: Writing and pronunciation
Replacement of 0 by auxiliary vowels: natof:putan l'tataf-segul liataf-kamats
a e o
n:J;1!,11-C)\(()
o~~IJO
~t\9-"1\?Q
il~~~t<
'(Y,lj?-C)\(0
O'~.I'JQ
< < <
0'1'?~ n'?~1~ O':;l)~
Note 5: 'furtive' patah (patali gnuva) The furtive paton is an a vowel that is added to a word-final 'Y ,'n ,'il when it is preceded by a vowel other than a (as required by the word fonnation pattern), because it is easier to pronounce a word-final guttural. which is a low consonant, when it is preceded by a low vowel, i.e., by the patal't a.
Here are some examples: Pattern: CaCiC CaCuC CaCoC CoCeC/CaCeC
Final 'n
J:o'inal 'll
Final •n
iJ'~Y,)
~P:;l~
O'JJ~
i3ml;1
l:'n~
om~
i3tl~
l/)~~
l)i:)~
i}r,;ll;l
l/J)'
I)"Ji9
However, this rule does not apply when the word-final vowel is a. CaCaC n~~ YY.l~ n]J~ Note on the pronunciation of furtive patali When you see a patal't under a word-final 'll ;n, read it as if a silent 'N with a paton has been inserted before it: O.f.li9 potean, ~~"T? yadua '. The stress is always on the vowel bet(lre the furtive patan. It never falls on the furtive patan itselt~ A historical note The development of Hebrew orthographic signs for consonants is much earlier than that of vowels. The first sign of vowels emerges in what are called nN'1Pil mm-t malres lectionis. where some consonants were also used to represent vowels: '1, ''. tinai'N and fina1 1il. l. The letter '1 vav represents the consonant v (historically pronounced w), as well as two vowels: ) stands for o ()l-¥ ,Oi'l, and ~ for u (mi? ,mp).
2. The letter yod represents the consonant y as well as the vowel i ('~-¥ ,1'~), and on some occasions the diphthongs ay C'?~l or ey (').~ ,m;J.) (diphthongs are vowels combined with the "semi-vowels" y or w).
24
Chapter 2: Writing and pronunciation
3. The use of,, and '' as vowels applied in medial as well as in final position. 4. In Hebrew orthography as it eventually became stabilized, all final vowels are represented by letters, with ,, for o and u, '' tor i, ey and ay, and '"for a Cil~~J and e (ii~~~J. Similarly, 1N is silent at the end of words CN"Ji?) or syllables C,N~ ,'.DN')i(), but is stiU maintained in the spelling. Vowel marks and other diacritical signs were added later to the Biblical Hebrew text to aid in the pronunciation of the text.
2.4 With or without vowel signs? Although native speakers can easily deduce the vowels from the morphological patterns in which words are realized and from the rest of the context, the optional use of yod and vav to represent the vowels i and o!u, respectively, has been a long tradition for many generations and has become the norm today. It is taught in schools, documented in all recent dictionaries, and used with complete regularity by publishers. When this is done, we refer to the result as N~Y;) :J'l:l~ ktiv male, 'plene writing', as opposed to 1QQ :l'lJ~ ktiv liaser, which includes vowels marks (for a summary ofplene writing rules, see Appendix 5). In a text with ktiv ma/J most olu vowels can be represented with a vav throughout, but the usc of yod for i is generally restricted to open syllables, or to alternants of words with open syllables, e.g., 1:1,., and l1J'1, but lli:J.,rm, not 'li:J.':mm· (see description of open and closed syllables on p. 27). Although the distinction between N7n :Jm:J ktiv male and 10n :J))"l:J ktiv liaser only refers to the presence or absence of optional vowel letters for i and for o/u, respectively, in practice the former is typically also characterized by the absence of any diacritic vowel marks, which ktiv haser usually displays. Note, however, that a 'hybrid' practice is emerging, in which the two representations are merged when users feel the need for it, so as to achieve maximal redundancy, as in 1~'"':1 alongside 1~1 and 1:::1''1. It should be emphasized that ktiv mate only relates to optional vowels; many vowel signs are obligatory, as in oipY;) ,1'~~ ,1~9~ ,o~p~ etc. Such vowels have always been obligatory. Also, note that the use of the
25
Chapter 2: Writing and pronunciation
matres lectionis 'nand 'N to represent a and e is essentially still limited to the ends of words - although 'N is often used in rendering internal a in borrowed words and foreign names: )N\J~:m:' 'sultan', n\JI'OlO 'sonata', !1NiNU 'Sadat'.
Another long-standing tradition associated with ktiv male is to distinguish between consonants and their corresponding vowels by representing the former with a double letter, i.e.,)) for v from vav (1))'n liiver) and '' for y from .vod e:mn nayaf).
H'llll ,on l.•nJ N~O
1t:>n
N~Y.l
1t:>n
N~O
1:::1'1
1~-::r
J.'rl::l'
J.'T-l~~
1n~l\!.l
lQ~~
11::1U'n
11::l9f:1 nt;J;>Q
!10"\)
!lV?~
111:mn
l~:;,IJ;'ID
11J.'l
1~::17
''~)l
'?~
no.:>m
JQ.D
2.5 Other diacritics Along with the vowel signs Lhat were developed in post-biblical Hebrew, there are other diacritic marks that came to signify either a variant pronunciation of a letter, or its length, or a grammatical function. These diacritic marks are the following: dagesh kal, dagesh liazak and mapik. They are marked by insertion of a dot into the middle of a letter. The three have different labels, as they have different values and functions.
2.5.1 Dagesh kal
'liJ "l'T Historically, six Hebrew consonants were pronounced in two different ways, depending on their position in the word: '!1 •!) •:> •1 'l 'J.. The dagesh kal consists of a dot inserted into these letters to distinguish two variant pronunciations: 'T-l '9 'ZI ,,. ') ·~ (stops) and '!1 '!) ':I '1 'l ':::1 (continuants), respectively. The latter occurred after vowels, the former elsewhere. Three of the six, '!l ,'J ,':::1, have maintained the two variants (b, k, p vs. v, kh,f~ respectively), while the other three, 'l1 ,'i ,'l, have lost that distinction. In texts with vowels, all six letters keep the two distinct variants, indicated by the presence or absence of dagesh ka/, but only the tollowing are maintained in current pronunciation: v as in sevivon ,1J':;l1? J h as in barvaz l))~ ::1 kh as in mikhtav ::J~l:;)r,l ::1 k as in karlis 0'\;J):;,l ::J p as in patish f as in silriya
26
Chapter 2: Writing and prommciatinn
2.5.2 Dagesh »azak jJTn w.:n The dagesh lurzak uses the same sign as the dagesh kal, a dot in the middle of a letter, but has a totally different function. Historically the presence of a dagesh na:;ak reflected a doubling of the length of the letter. The dagesh could be inserted into most of the letters of the alphabet, with the exception of the 'guttural' consonants ('l 'll •n •n 'N). In Israeli Hebrew, the dagesh liazak no longer retlects a doubling of the length of a consonant, but it still functions as part ofthc distinct pattern of some verb and noun groupings. It is also part of the definite article structure: in texts with vowel markings, dagesh nazak is inserted into the first consonant of the noun the definite article -n is attached to (with the exception of 'l 'll'n •n 'N- which could not be doubled). Definite article + consonant with dagesh:
has¢fer
l~t?iJ
I
n~~D
hahayit
Definite article followed by guttural consonant:
ha 'arets
'OZ,Q
I
tmQ
haruali
Because the length, or doubling, represented by a da[?esh nazak no longer exists in Israeli Hebrew, all Hebrew consonants. including the ones with dagesh liazak, are considered and are pronuunced <;short". Note
Since the dagesh cannot be inserted into the letters 'l 'Y •n •n 'N, there were mles tor compensating tor the absence of the dagesh ('llr] m4;1Y,Jtl). This process no longer makes any difference in pronunciation, but in writing, vowels ofl.en changed from what used to be short vowels to formerly long vowels. In many cases the following changes occurred: Short vowel > long vowel
patali > kamats nirik > /sere kubuts > fwlam 11aser
2.5.3 Mapik
:-~:>nH
:"lllllll
< ;,,:rj7 i"llllll
ll'JW < 4;1~~ 1~Nt:1
< 1~!'!11?
(lNU"It.:l) ,z,·m;> < l~t?>;>
il'!!l"
A dot (mapik), though looking the same as a dagesh, has a distinct function. It can be inserted into the letter •n when it is in a final position in the word, to signal an audible h sound and to distinguish it from the
Chapter 2: Writing and pronunciation
27
typical final •n, which is silent. It is used for the small numbt!r of items that contain a true h as tht!ir last root consonant, as in i)i:J~, but in most cases it also has a morphological function. It is attached at the end of a noun, or a preposition, to indicate a third person feminine singular pronoun suffix: i'l)!;l~ •her book', i'l'? 'to her', i'l~~ 'her(s)'. In Israeli Hebrew the final 'i'l is silent. In formal readings, there arc those who may pronounce it as an aspirated h for stylistic reasons. Note
The mapik is only present in the feminine singular third person form of possessive pronouns. When the pronoun is teminine plural, there is no mapik in the pronoun suffix. without mapik .~f'areha
her books
Q'':J~V
with mapik her book
s{fi'rih
i'l)~~
nn:::a.i\
2.6 Syllables
Words arc composed of syllables. Tht!re are two types of syllables, n1nU1!i! n11~0 'open syllables' and ni1~l9 nii~t) 'closed syllables'. Whereas in English, many syllables start with vowels (e.g., apple), most Hebrew syllables start with a consonant. Following the consonant, the syllable has one vowel. The open syllable ends with a vowd, \'lfhile the closed syllable ends with a consonant (or consonants). cv = se =open sy1lable .w!:fer ~~~ eve= .fi?l' =closed sy11ablt! CV== sha =open syllable shaJ;l';IY.l~ CVCC= mart= closed mart syllable CCV= shmi-ni shmi = open syllable CV= ra = open syllable (C stand~fbr consonanls and V.for
vowel.~).
Note
There are some morphological arguments for assigning consonantal value to the 'guttural' consonants •n ,')1 ,'N in dt!scribing the syllabic structure of a word, even when they are not actually realized. One may wish to do so because consonantal slots indicate the morphological pattern to which particular words belong. Insotar as syHable structure proper is concerned, however. it depends on the likelihood of actual
28
Chapter 2: Writing and pronunciation
realization. Since under certain circumstances, 'N, ~~ or 'il may be realized phonetically before a stressed vowel, as in n~";li? kar 'a 'she read', we may be justified in granting them consonantal value, even though it is not always pronounced. At the end of a word, the same letters are even less likely to have consonantal value insofar as the structure of the syllable is concerned: 'N is never realized phonetically (e.g., NJ;;)~ tsame), nor is 'il from original '' (e.g., ilD raze), and realization of 'Y is rare (e.g., Yr) rega · > rega). Such words are thus regarded as ending with an open syllable. Final •y or •n preceded by a, itself preceded by another vowel, as in Y.Ji> or tttl~, is just as unlikely to be realized: yodea' > yodea, gavoah > gavoa.
2.7 Stress
im1n:m
Every word has a stressed vowel, which is usually pronounced as a longer vowel and often more emphatically. Stress is part of the pattern of the word. Two words can have the same sound sequence (not necessarily spelled alike), but still have a different stress pattern, and thus have different meanings. For instance, the sequence bo-ker can have two different stress patterns: The first syllable can be stressed: lj(":l b6ker, which means 'morning', or stress can fall on the second syllable: lpiJ boker, which means 'cowboy'. (Note that both are written 1j7tl when they appear in texts without vowels). Hebrew stress normally falls on the final vowel of the word, regardless of the number of syllables. Final vowel stress is called l''J~Y.l milri(. Hebrew ivrit l1''J~.).J secret sod iio thing davar 1:n There are well-defined word groups, where the stress falls on the vowel before last (penultimate), called ~~~Y.l mil-e!, but all other words follow the general rule. The largest group of mil'el words are the segolate nouns known by that name because of the prominence of the segol vowel as part of their pattern: CeCeC man gever derekh way A detailed discussion of the segolate nouns can be found in Chapter 5, pp. 153-155. For additional examples, see the noun index.
Chapter 2: Writing and pronunciation
29
The feminine singular conjugation of many verbs in the present tense has a similar sef?olate pattern, and thus the same ~:\:l?r.> stress: ... CeCet says omeret n:JQiN gets excited mitrageshet 11\?PJ;!Y.l Past tense forms in the first and second person (whose suffixes usually start with a consonant) arc also stressed ~~~Y,l: ... +ti I wrote katavti '3:1:;tlJ~ ... +nu we spoke diharnu ~).,ill So is the final '' i or ,, u!o or e of a past or future verb stem (or a whose root contains'' i or,, u) that is followed by a sumx vowel: they will run yarotsu l~~,~ she explained hisbira il')'~Vil they got up ktimu ~Y.)i? they will come yavou ~Nil~ she protected hegena n~~D Another class of items stressed -ayim: legs -ayim twice
~~?Y.l
is forms with the dual-noun suffix
raglayim pa'amayim
Stress patterns in borrowed words GeneraJly, borrowed nouns maintain the stress pattern they had in the original language, e.g., artist artist \JV'\J';l~ flashback jleshbek P~'<-1~!? manyak maniac
Certain foreign suffixes (especiaJiy from Eastern European languages) are associated with non-final stress in the source, and maintain it in Hebrew as well, as in nouns ending with +ika: politics politika ili?'\;)'~'9 ceramics keramika ili('Y.l"JP music musika ili7'~~~
Chapter 2: Writing and pronunciation
30
Changes when affixes are added When an affix is added to a native Hebrew word, stress normally shifts from Lhe stem to that sutlix: Native words: Stress > last syllable SU.\'Q
shirim
Suffixed
mare poems
n~'Q O''J'~
Stress
Base
sus shir
horse poem
Q'Q ,,~
In borrowed words and in acronyms, however, stress remains on where it was in the word in isolation: Borrowed words Stress unchanged
tankim johim
Acronyms Stress unchanged mankalim CEO's
makamin
Stress
Base
Ol:J.i')
tank }db
tank job
Suffixed
Stress
Base
Ol';?••~~Y.l
mankal makilm
CEO radar
Suffixed
tanks jobs
O'iJ?Q
radars
O'Y,)"?Y,l
'"?tY.l O''?Y.l
Stress patterns in casual and rapid speech Speech is conveyed in a connected stream of words, rather than in singular words, and therefore the stress pattern of words that are strung together may change from the stress pattern of each of these words viewed out of context, as single entities. What do you mean? m')~iN m•O nY.l Stress in individual words: : l1)i1!)) 0'''t.J nui ZOI omeret m')~iN + m·.ft + nY,l : ·pni"J .,,J.'i Rapid speech: mastomeret'!
It is not all right. Stress in individual words: ze 16 be.w?der Rapid speech: zlopseder
?.n)~i·n~r.>
.1"JP~ N?
n!
, nn1!>l D'''t.J .1JQ;t + N?
+
n}
: 1'ni"J 1lJ'i
·rJQ~''!
Chapler 2: Writing and pronunciation
31
Primary and secondary stress There are two degrees of stress, which are noticeable in such sequences as the ones above: a primary stress, and a secondary stress. In expressions like !nJJ?'N nN·l m~. the primary stress still falls on the stressed vowel of onuJret, whereas the secondary stress falls on rna. ln pronouncing the sequence, the secondary stress is less dominant than the first one, but is still audible. Also, note that in a sequence like Nm 01~YJ 1l~ lON u anuir lanu shaMm 'he said hello to us', the secondary stress of tanu normally moves forward, resulting in lanu, to avoid a stress clash with the primary stress of '1mar: uamar lanu shalOm.
2.8 Dialectal variation
o•11ll 1ll n 11 lill. n•oiJ~H.·"T nunu
In the early days of the revival of Llcbrew as a spoken language (late 19111 and early 201h centuries), two main dialects were recognized in Modern Hebrew, and in the popular vernacular they were referred to as 'Ashkenazi' and 'Sepharadi'. The Ashkenazi dialect referred to the Hebrew of European Jews or recent immigrants from mostly Eastern European background, while the Sepharadi dialect was used as a general term to refer to the llebrcw of Jews from Arabic-speaking countries, who spoke Arabic as their native tongue, as well as to Jews from the Balkans and parts of the Middle East who spoke JudeoSpanish (Ladino). However, today Israeli Hebrew is the one standard language. Most variations within Israeli Hebrew involve language registers, but may also reflect communities of speakers by the countries of their origin. (The situation is never stable, since the waves of immigration continue to bring groups of speakers from a variety of countries, tix instance, Ethiopia and Russia). There is a formal standard Hebrew, which is used by the media: newspapers, radio and television. An even higher register is used for language of the courtroom and formal speeches and addresses. As in most spoken languages, there are also several informal registers and sub-dialects in Israeli llcbrcw, such as street Hebrew, army jargon, pop culture and children's language. The term Mizrahi (Eastern) has now replaced Sepharadi, and it refers to the spoken pronunciation of Israelis from Eastern (mostly Arabicspeaking) backgrounds. The main teature of the Mi:::.rahi dialect is the preservation of the original pronunciations of •n and ').1. Both are articulated low, in the pharynx, and both are fricative. The difference between them is in voicing; when 'll is pronounced, the vocal cords
32
Chapter 2: Writing and pronunciation
vibrate, while in •n they do not. Few older members of Eastern immigrant groups maintain the distinction between ·~ k and 'P q that exists in Arabic, pronouncing the latter further back in the mouth (at the uvula). Even more rarely is the historical difference between •n and'\) maintained (this involves the articulation of '\) like t, while simultaneously raising the back of the tongue, creating the impression of emphasis). The historical pronunciation of the letter tsadi was s with the raising of the back of the tongue, and the articulation of the letter '' was »'. However, in contemporary Hebrew, such features of pronunciation are extinct. There are some who pronounce '1 not in the back of the mouth as in standard Israeli Hebrew, but as a dental roll, like Spanish or Polish r. As a rule, these variations ::Jre not characteristic of all of the speakers of Eastern origin and depend a great deal on whether they are immigrant or native Israelis, and in the case of the fonner, of their age at the time of immigration. Standard Hebrew is gradually replacing other dialects in daily speaking. Some special pronunciation is maintained in the t(Jlk tradition, particularly in popular and traditional music, folksongs and story-telling.
Chapter 3 The verb system 3.1 3.2 3. 3 3.4 3.5 3.6 3.7 3.8 3.9 3.10
Introduction: verb components Citation forms Verb tenses Historical notes: Biblical tenses and aspects Moods and verbal nouns Verb pattern groups 0')n)::J. Verb categorization With and without linking verbs Verbs with obligatory prepositions Active, stative and inchoativc verbs
3.1 Introduction: verb components Verbal forms in Hebrew are composed of two main components: verb stems and morphemes of inflection that denote person, gender and number. Suffix Stem/base Prefix Verb form Root Gloss _.,~v -,-l-U I closed 'T:l'T:l')~V ,_ -,-)-U you will close . .,~1?- -J;J ,.,~1?:1:1 .,~1;'tells 1-!:1-0 1~V'? "'? 1'Y.)~-,');:,~? 1-Y.l-'tl to guard -':? A traditional constituent of each verb is its root. Roots are not actual words, but rather sequences of consonants, which provide the common base for verbs and nouns. Roots can be common to a number of verb patterns and noun patterns: Verbs
be written be dictated
Root ::J.]J~~
:m::m - ... ~
write dictate correspond
:u:q
.
::J.l1J~i1 :.
-
Jl'l::ll1i1 .. ; .
Nouns
handwriting correspondence dictation
::J.-31-:l
Root JJ;q n~·n~l;l
n:tND
spelling letter desk
l'N :lJ;9~
n~t~~r,J
::J.-]1-~
34
Chapter 3: The verb ·'J'Siem
Verb stems are formations through which roots, which are not actual words but rather sequences of consonants, are organized into a variety of verb tonns. The stem sequences are composed of vowel patterns combined with root consonants and in some cases additional consonants. Conjugation markers are added to verb stems in order to indicate person, gender, and tense or mood. For example, the verb torm 'J:l)~V 'I closed' is made up ofthe stem -1~V and the first person subject sutlix ')n-, which designates first person singular in the past tense. The verb form 1$.1\:1'? 'tells' is composed of the stem 1!,\!Q- and the -t;J prefix marking the present tense ofpi'e/.
3.2 Citation forms Verbs are usually entered into the dictionary either by root or by the past tense, third person singular fi>rm. Different dictionaries use different principles to organize lexical entries, even when alphabetization is by root. The sub-entries within each root are by the past tense form ofthe third person masculine singular. A verb torrn like ~1':J~D 'they explained', for instance, is never listed as such. One needs to look tor the form 1'~~D 'he explained', which would be listed either under the 'root' 1-:J-U, or as is, in simple alphabetical order, regardless of root. At times the present tense form ,,~~~ 'explain, masculine singular' is included as a separate dictionary entry, also irrespective of root. In either case, the torm is marked for category (a verb, in this case), and sometimes tor verb pattern (here, hffil). This type of dictionary entry is rcf~rrcd to as 11m7'Y.l n11~, a 'citation form'. An example of a minimal dictionary entry is (!:!) 1~~ '(to) study (v)'. More information may be included, such as regarding a preposition that obligatorily tollows the verb to link it with an object, as in <'~~) -~ n')~ •trust (in)'. The citation form, although it mirrors the third person past tense, refers to the general meaning of the verb, and to all the various possible actual uses, i.e. the entire verb paradigm. For instance, 1'-'Jl;ID is not only the past tense, m~aning 'he explained', but also stands tor all the verbal forms associated with that hffil verb. ln English similar representation is achieved by entering verbs under the infinitive 'to explain', or simply 'explain'.
35
ChtJpfer 3: The verb :;ystem
Here is an illustration of the above concepts: l!nuu Gloss l"lJ. explain ''V!m l-J-u
n 'll'7•n
ill I~
l':,tl(D
These are the various forms associated \vith the dictionary entry l'::J.Uil: Tense/mood Person Verb forms Stems J;l)~l(D
D"):;Jt;:'D
lr:rJ~t?D D.tJ";l~t;:'D
3rd
Present Future
all singular
plural
'J:I';l~l(D
U-;t::J.l(D
~1'~9D
Oil ,il')':,lt;:'D N'il ,l'~t;'n Nm l1i1':;1l(Y.l 0'')':,1 t;:'Y.l il')'~t?Y.l , ':;ltft;) ,,~t?~ "'ll:;ll(! '')'~t?~ 1':;11(~ ,,~17~ n'~V~ cnn~t?D) ~l';,tt?JJ
1'Jtm . :.
_,,::mo . ~
1':;11?1
cnn:;Jt?JJ)
Imperative Infinitive
Cnn~t?D) n>:ll(iJ '"J'~ t;:'iJ 1~1;'0
l':;ll(D~
-lN!It;:'iJ 1':;Jt;:'D
As can be seen in the above table, each verb stem is present in the actual verb fonns listed next to it. Verbs conjugated in tense have a dynamic quality since they express ditlercnt ongoing processes.
3.3 Verb tenses
a,lll9il •JDT
Verbs can be classified in two different groups: those that arc conjugated in tense, and those that are not. Verb tense is the expression of the time frame tor the action, state or event that the verb signifies. The verb fonn itself denotes the time frame. There are three tenses in modem Hebrew: past, present and future. The past tense indicates a completed one-time action, or a process that started at some point in the past and was completed or ceased. llebrew expresses past perfect by the simple past. The present tense indicates an ongoing action, event or state, or habitual action. The future tense indicates actions or states contemplated, planned or considered fbr a future time. i'Uiil 1nr 3.3.1 The present tense The present tense refers to an ongoing state or action repeated with regularity, or a continuous action. The present tense of all verbs has four forms. These forms have gender attributes (masculine or feminine), and number markings (singular or plural). They do not have any person attributes and thus do not include a subject (unlike the past
36
Chapter 3: The verb system
and future tenses). Jn the following tables the present tense verb base (U'~~) and the suffixes that arc added to it are represented. Present tense suffixes ).)N
Tllil
')N
m11
+ U'tl:l
•U'ti:J
nnN
N'il
Nlil
UnlN
1)n.lN
l'1i + ti'U:J.
D' .+ U'U:J.
)TIN
OTIN
nli•n•
m/c•::n
on
)il
•o'O.l the Hehrew term for 'stem', standr;.for any presell/ tense ::,·tern
Here are some of the nuances conveyed by the use of the present tense: 1. The present moment of the speaker
She cannot come to the phone llilli: because she is working.
'' )1!:17\J:J. 1'\!.IJ)' 1:117
n71J'
N7 N'm
.n-r:m.1 N'il
2. Ongoing progressive activity
She has been sitting and waiting here for hours.
.mY\!.1 1:J.J INJ n:mr.:n Tl:J.\!.11' N'il
3. Habitual/repetitive action
Every day they leave home at seven.
.).I::J.\!.1::1 Tl'li1Y.3 D'N:lll' on 01' 'J
4. Completed action resulting in a state
The meal is ready. .m::m:l nnnNn The context for the above sentence is a process of meal preparation that took place and was completed, and the result is that now it is ready. 5. Action that started in the past and is ongoing
They have been teaching this course for five years.
\UJ::m 1::1:::1 nm u11pn nN 0'11::l'1J on .D'l\!.1
Grammatical functions of present tense forms The present tense forms can function as verbs, as adjectives, and as agent nouns. They are referred to as participles m)'::l nn1~. 1. As verbs:
She closes the door and leaves. We are looking for an apartment.
.~1 n.,,n nN n,:nu N~il
. il1'1 D''ll!lnY.3 llnJN
37
Chapter 3: The •·erb system
2. As adjectives:
The dog is a faithful animal. The cooked food is in the refrigerator. 3. As nouns: There are many distinguished people in the audience. The organizers did a good job.
.mtJNl
3.3.2 The past tense
mn Nm .J.~jil
,:lll 1nr
The past tense has nine forms. The subjects of the verbs are suffixed to the verb stems in the first and second persons. Therefore the past tense is sometimes referred to as the suffixed tense. In the third person, both singular and plural, the subject is not included in the verb form and has to be expressed by a noun or pronoun or some other entity. Past tense suffixes
'1:'1 +t!'t!l 1;1 +t''t!l
(llN)
'1:'1 +*t!'t!.J.
('lN)
(nl.'o()
1;1 +t!'t!.J.
cnnN)
ilT +t!'t!.J.
N'il
U'U.J.
Nm
+U'U.J.
(l)f'l)N)
+U'U.J.
(1lnlN)
)t:J + U'tiJ.
()nN)
Ol;J + t!'t!.J.
conN)
lil
) +O't!.J.
Oil
~.)
~
+0'0:1
* 0'0~
~l
ni/D'.J.l
the Hebrew term for 'stem·, stands .for any past tense stem
In Hebrew, unlike in English, it is not necessary to have an independent subject pronoun in the first and second persons of the past tense, since these pronouns are already incorporated in the subject suffixes and thus would be redundant. I finished You finished
Subject
Stem
'1:'1
+1~~
1;1
+ 1t;l~
= 'T:I')Y,)~
('lN)
J;l')Y,)~
(nnN)
:0
However, it is possible to include them as separate pronouns for emphasis, and in common use even without emphasis. ! found the lost item, not he. .Nm N~ ,ili:JNil nN '!1N!in '-'N ! finished eating before you. ·l'.:l!l~ ~tJN~ m1m ')N
3S
Chapter 3: The verb sysfl!m
The past tense refers to an aspect of a completed action, an event or a situation that was completed and is no longer taking place. 1. Completed action
l read the book you wrote. 2. Duration of action The author had been writing the book for ten years. 3. Past perfect I had read his last novel. before I started reading his first book.
.n::m::>\!J '1!ltm nN 'nN'1jJ 1\!J~ 1\!JOJ "'\!>tm !'IN J:n::> '1:J.non
.O'l\!J l)!:)~ I)~\!)
)ni'"INn v:mn :nN ll1N'1jJ
)WN1n 1!>tm nN Nnp~ m?nnn\!J . '~\!)
3.3.3 The future tense ,.•n.vanr The future tense forms combine a prefix subject pronoun with the future stem of the verb. The feminine singular and the plural fonns also have suftixes indicating gender and number. Future tense affixes
+N n o'O.J + n
('lN)
O'O.J + N
('lN)
(:nN)
O'O.J + :n
(n:nN)
N'il
0'0.J t-'
N'n
O'Ol + J
()lmN>
+J
()lf"IJN)
+ 0't1l+ 1'1
(11'1N)
+O'O:J.+ n
(Ol1N}
+O'O:l+'
Oil
\JlOJ
'+ OlO:l +
~
0'0J ~
em + 0'0:::1 + n> ~
+ O'Ol+'
)il
~
em + o'o:J + :n) "0'0:1,
the Hebrew term for 'stem', stands .for any future tense stem
Note
As in the past tense, independent personal pronouns arc redundant for the first and second persons, since they are already incorporated in the suffixes of these forms. However, they may be added when the pronoun requires emphasizing, as well as in colloquial use. It should be noted that in the first person singular, the independent pronoun 'lN has become the norm in everyday speech.
Chapter 3: The verh .l'ystem
39
There are two variants for the feminine plural meaning of the second person and third person: I. The first one employs a special form for the feminine second and third person pI ural: il~?~!?J:l FV~J~!;J' )i1 ; n~?~~J:l 1l1W)J~?n )ll!'(. The form n~?~~n, which is found in biblical Hebrew, is rarely in use in contemporary Hebrew. ll was considered for many years to be the normative form, but is now restricted to usc in formal speech, and sometimes when addressing a female audience. 2. The shared plural form for both masculine and feminine in the second and third persons is the standard torm in ordinary speech and is part of the accepted norm:~'~?? )il/~.,~!;1? on; ~?~?n 1l1N./)J~?n onN..
3.3.4 Planning, anticipation and contemplation The future tense refers to an action or process that is being planned, anticipated or contemplated. Plans
Dan will be working on the program during the year. Anticipation Everybody hopes that there will not be a strike. Contemplation They may not (it is 1ike ly that they w i11 not) arrive on time, and then we'll be late for the show. Cond itiona Is lfthcre is (will be) a strike, we won't be able to get home, since the trains won't be running.
1WOJ m:nnn J)II1J)I' 11 .ml!ln il'nn N.JW 0'11Pr.J o.,t) .illl'J IV ,v:nJ ~!'(., Oil IV l1Pi1J J)J' .m~n? 1nN.) ~N.)
).r~mJ
?:m N.J nn~JIV nmn
.lJ)J!:l~ N.J
DN.
mJJ1il 'J ,illl'Jil
A comparative note
Three tenses in Hebrew cover eight categories oftense in English 1. Present tense- habitual action He goes to work at eight. 2. Present progressive- action in ongoing present He has been driving for eight hours already. .m)JIV mmw 1JJ mu
N.li1
40
Chapter 3: The verb ~ystem
3. Past tense- action occurred in the past He drove all the way. 4. Past progressive -ongoing action in past l~ O'll N~'l )jl) Nm He was driving along, and did not notice the .)Y.ll~ time. 5. Past perfect progressive He had been working there for eight 'l~'ll=>ll1 0' J\!.1 nm~\!.1 O'll llY 1'(1il . ill'l~lln :nN l'llY'J V'~nn 1'(1il years, and now he called it quits. 6. Past Perfect Nlil ,1N=> 11ll''J 'J~nrm 1'(1il'll 'l!)., Before he started working here, he ...,nN 11'liOl i:lll had been working in another office. 7. Future He will work here if the conditions 'I'M' O'Nl:nil 01'( ,N::J illY' Nm .Olll\J p~!lOY.l will be satisfactory. 8. Future Continuous He will be working here in the next O"llll 'llil 1'liY.ll 1N:I 1l~ll' N1i1 .011-(~il two weeks.
3.4 Historical notes L. Many linguists view Biblical Hebrew as having no tenses, only aspects: actions or states are considered as either complete or incomplete, perfect or imperfect, rather than being related to time and tense. 2. In Biblical Hebrew there are two additional verbal fonns related to the imperfect: the jussive and the cohortative moods (see below). They are maintained in high registers of Israeli Hebrew, especially in written texts for stylistic reasons. 3. Past tense in Biblical Hebrew is normally indicated by the use of the imperfect form prefixed by the waw consecutive. Future tense can be indicated by the use of the perfect form prefixed by a waw consecutive. (see discussion below for i11ustrations).
3.4.1 Jussive and short form of the imperfect ,llljln "T'nll In classical Hebrew, a brief form of the imperfect (and of some imperatives) exists in some of the "defective" (or non-regular) verb classes and in some regular hifil forms. It is used in the third person. less commonly in the second person, and rarely in the first person: l1J:;>~ < rP"J:;>~ , l;J? < np~ , N';l ~ < nt<~? , 'iJ? < n~~~
Chapter 3: The verb system
41
The short form of the imperfect can function as a jussive, i.e., a moderated command, as in the following example: ."1iN ~iJ~) - 1iN ~iJ~ : o~iJJ~ 1)?N~) And God said, Let there be light: and there was light. {Genesis, 1:3) (.:~:.H n'\!JN.·n.) When it combines with the special ·wal-r consecutive' wa- (vs. regular we-), it assumes a narrative function, as wetl as past tense time reference, and is used mostly in narrative style (see discussion below): (i:N. n'IV.HlJ.) ·1¥,i"nD 1';J~ "1iNQ 1'~ O~i)J~ 'n:;t~) Ji\J ~~ liNQ n2:;t O~iJJtt N~~) And God saw the light, that [it was] good: and God divided the light from the darkness. (Genesis, 1:4)
It should be noted, however, that not all imperfect forms used as a jussive are necessarily shortened; many remain intact. A significanl number of verb types are unaffected, and even when the singular form is shortened, the comparable plural one may not be. And he said to his father, let my father sit up and eat of his son's game. (Genesis, 27:31) Abner said to Joab, Let the young men come forward and play before us. (Samuel II, 2:14)
~~~Y,) ';ll'<.') '~~ Oi?,~ )~~~? l'?l'<-~1 (H'J:T) n'IVNl::t) . iJ:;t
N~ ~r.:np~ J~i'-'~ ip~ lr,;lN.~)
. U'~~? ~PQ~'1 O~"J)}~D · (-r•:J. 1:1 7Htn1V)
3.4.2 Cohortative ,,H.Jl'l "T'nll This is a quasi-imperative mode, used exclusively in the tirst person (singular and plural), to express a wish, command or request, often in the form of self-encouragement (as one would expect from a "command to oneself'). An -a suffix is added to the verb form. 1~t person singular 1st
person plural
Future Cohortativc Future Cohortative
'eshmor 'eshmera nishmor nishmera
j)J'?'l:;t
i1)9'?'~
.,.~'?~ iiJJ?'?~
The meaning attached to this type of future verb is •Jet' s do something'. Tn modern Hebrew it is used in the literary register, usually with the
42
Chapter 3: The verb sywtem
initiating verb of address: il;tiJ 'let us'. as in the famous tune n~,~~ il;tiJ i1Qf;>'?'l) 'Let us rejoice and be happy'. Here are examples from biblical literature: And they said one to another, Go to, Jet n;to ,m):IJ-?~ 'li'~ n>;>N-~1 us make brick. and bum them ; il.!;!J'<J? i1~";1'?J~) D'~:;)~ i1~:!;1~~ thoroughly. And they had brick for 1>;!1JiJ) ,);J~~ i1~J?D Di)~ 'iJ3;'1l stone. and slime had they for mortar. {:I:N• n'I!JN,:J.) .,J?n';:o Ci)~ il!iJ (Genesis, 11 :3)
Let us go down, and there contclund their language. that they may not understand one another's speech.
Dtl!}\? D'{) n~:;m ,i1T)~ il;tiJ .m~) 1l~\? 'ti'N W>;>~~ N"';! 1~~ ·(r:N' n'I!JNU}
(Genesis, 11 :7)
3.4.3 The uses of waw consecutive 119•nn n The 'waw consecutive' is one of the most frequently used partic.1es in the verb system of Biblical Hebrew. Pretixing this particle to verbal forms turns it into a constituent of a verb sequence (narrative and other), and sets its time reference. Waw consecutive prefixed to imperfect verb forms When this particle is prefixed to the imperfect verb form, it places it in a narrative sequence, and sets its time reference to the realm of the past. A shortened t(Jrm of the imperfect foJJows this particle in some verb sub-groups, but in many cases the full imperfect f<>rm is maintained. The waw is always followed by the vowel a (patah, with a dagesh in the next segment, or a kamats, if the next segment is a guttural), which helps distinguish it from the regular conjunction and he said ,J?I'b) = 1~N'+1 < ,nN Nm and they went t)?~l = "l::>'l' + 'I < 1::>~n on I went 1'l~l = 1'lN +"I < '!l::>'ln 'lN
-r
Illustrations:
And he rose up, and went unto the place of which God had told him. (Genesis, 22:3) He came to King Solomon, and executed all his work. (Kings I. 7:14)
i'l-,1;)~-,'U~ cip~D-'l~ l~~l Oif~l
(l::l) n'I!JHl). ) 0';:-I"';!~V -'l~-31~ ·YJ~!l n·~..,'?J J'l.~D-.,7::< Ni:l~)
(1•:r 'N D':>'71'l) iT-9N~9
Chapter 3: The verb .~ystem
43
Waw consecutive prefixed to perfect verb forms When the l'l-'aw is prefixed to the perfect verb form, it places it in a verb sequence, and sets its time reference to the realm of the fl.1ture. and it will come to be and they will go/turn and he will build and you (pl.) will guard
n~oJ == uo~
==
il~-?) =
nm
+'
+, i1).) + l ))!l
0~)~~~ = 0!11JJ~
+,
<
n~;;J?
Nm
<~)??on
The waw is followed by a shva. or is realized as ~ before a labial ':nnsonant ('!:! ,'t.:l ,., ,'::1.) or before a consonant cluster, e.g., shm in o:p-;.Y.l~~ ushmartem. Illustrations: Cursed of the Lord be the man who shall undertake to tortif)t (lit. who will rise and will build) this city of Jericho. (Joshua, 6:26) For your part, take of everything that is eaten and you shall gather it, and it shall be for food tor you and for them. (Genesis, 6:21)
il~-?)
mp? 1~~
nrn~ '~!?~ '.!m~Q
·mz;<
. in'J~-nz::t !lNliJ 1')!Q-nz::t (D:IlJ~Ii1')
~~~~ 1~~ ~?~~-7;JJJ 1~-np n~l::()
.n'?:;>t<'? OQ{) 1'? n~Q) 1''7.~ l;l!?'?z;<) (10:1 n•~NTl)
Since a very large number of verbs in the Bible are either constituents of a verb sequence, and/or arc part of a narrative. the forms with 'waw conseculive' prove to be prevalent. The simple imperfect and perfect without waw are generally used only in specific contexts: l. After certain short words Iike NJ 'not', ':;! 'because', 'Y,) 'who', nr.> 'what', lt< 'then',1'?'~ 'which/that', e.g., n~iJ 1;r:JiJ-!1~ n'"'.\' 'JJ 'who has done this thing?' 2. When the subject precedes the verb, usually for focusing (normally, the verb precedes the subjccl in Biblical Hebrew), e.g., N~ 1'1)~ '"'~) ii'~r.> 'and his brother Esau came back from his hunting'. 3. When the verb refers to the past-of-the-past (past pertect), i.e., when referring to an earlier '"pre-past" occurrence, e.g., 7·J~ O~Q:;u~c-m::~ lJJ.. 'ill 'and God had blessed Abraham with everything•.
44
Chapter 3: The verb system
4. As the first verb in a verb sequence; the next occurrencc(s) would be with a 'waw consecutive', as inn~~~ O'P! 'who will rise and will build' above.
3.5 Moods and verbal nouns There arc two moods other than the indicative/declarative mood (which refers to the basic regular mode of verbs in tense): imperative, and infinitive. The temporal aspect of the activity or state is not a feature of these moods. 3.5.1 The imperative mood •n•l! Only five of the binyanim have an imperative form. The two passive verb groups, pu 'a/ and hu .Yal, do not have such a form. The imperative mood conveys commands, directions, orders, and instructions. For a negative command, the special negative particle ~!::< is used, and the future tense forms arc added. Imperative mood: giving commands or directions
Command Negative
Sit quietly! Don't sit near the door!
!"P~J J'll
•n·~
!J'l~1n i ' ~)l J~:n ~N
n'1•'71!J
To moderate the force of a command, words like to the imperative. Come in, please!
n"'i?~~
can be added ! nvpJ::I
'Ul:J'n
In daily speech, the future forms are usually used in lieu of the imperative, but the same may apply in higher registers as well, as an alternative to adding i1'VP::I:;I when issuing a polite request or a directive, rather than a command. Come in and make yourself at home! !n'J::I ''V':nm~ 3.5.2 The infinitive mood 'll.ll!)i'l DIJU The infinitive ';1.).11!ln O'V is the form of a verb that has no inflection to indicate person, number, mood or tense~ it only contains information about the base of the verb and reflects the main idea or concept of the verb. It is caHed ''infinitive" because the verb is not made finite, or modified by inflection.
Chapter 3: The verb .\y.,·tem
Who wants to speak? You have to listen to us!
m
1:;/.1?
:J.'\!JPi17 D'J'1~ onN
:J.'~i?D?
?1:117 ! l.)J
45
n~,.,
Hebrew has two infinitives, the infinitive absolute \J~mm 1ljm and the infinitive construct 'lm "f.'r.:l. The infinitive construct is used much as an English infinitive, including being preceded by -7 'to', and with some other prepositions (see below); the infinitive absolute, which is restricted to the higher registers, is used to add emphasis or certainty to the verb, or as a verbal noun, or tor emphatic commands (see below). Like the imperative, only five of the binyanim have an infinitive form. The two passive hinyanim, pu 'al and huf'al, do not have an infinitive fonn. In literary Hebrew, however, absolute infinitive forms of these two hinyanim may occur, as in 'l'l=?-~~ J)~~ 'I have indeed been kidnapped', or {l")iJF'JliJI[l 'you have (unequivocally) been warned!' 3.5.3 Infinitive absolute o.,mn ,•iln The infinitive absolute is used either before a verb in tense, to intensify and increase the force of the statement, or on its own, to serve either as an abstract noun, or as an emphatic command. There is no equivalent to it in English, and therefore it is somewhat difficult to explain. It occurs mostly in Biblical Hebrew. It is not productive in Israeli Hebrew, but individual forms do occur, for example lilD)liJQ 'back and forth'. Emphasis
Emphatic Command Abstract Noun
We have indeed eaten You will say He shall indeed die Keep the Sabbath to honor it (Deut. 5:12) Eating too much honey is not good (Proverbs 25:27)
~)~q~ ':JiJ~
7i:ll~
~~~N.l'llir.:l~
1ir.:l~
mn~nin
nin
n~'l!?'iJ Di'-n~ 1ir.:l~
lir.:l~
(:J.':i1 D'I:J."T) i'i.I'Ji?? -N'J ni:l)D "lJ~7 ~iJ~
?iJt<
(D:i1) •"'ovr.~)
::li\J
3.5.4 Infinitive construct As mentioned earlier, when we refer to the infinitive mood, we are generally referring to its ordinary use, similar to its function in English. ?1:117 il~,., 'r.:l ~~n? Who wants to speak?
46
Chapter 3: The verb system
3.5.51nfinitive as gerund The infinitive mood is used mostly with the particle -7 •to', and as such it is more often referred to as ?Y1!lil mu and not ·np~. However, there arc other uses tor the infinitive, with one of the tour prepositional pretixes ·~. •'] ;::. ,•J.. In such cases it acts as a gerund rather than an infinitive. It is not used often in such a form, except in some written texts. Paraphrasing with a verb in tense is much more common. gloss
gerund
while being to the return of from going as (his) saying
+J. +']
-ni'D~
J).l)!lil O'tlf')\J)il 11j?Y.lil
-J.W']
Jl11!m D\!lt')\J)i111p~n
-n?~Y.l
7)11!li1 C\!11'1\Jm ·npnn +D
-1J?iN~
J),l)!)il 0\!JI')\:))i111j?~il +::>
'
Pronoun endings can he added, and they act as the subject of the gerund: gloss gerund while I was 'J:ll'l":l~ <Jll n~1'0 +Jl')!lil 0\!1 +l tor your return <)U l1m'O +7l11!lil O't! +., o;>:;n't'':;! from her going <)U n~1'0 +']Y1!li1 O't! +~ ilJ;l?~Y.l as he said <)1:1 n1J1>u + 7~n!ln O'll + ::> i1J?iN;t When I was a little girl, I lived abroad.
.7"mJ 'n1l ,m\Jp ni?' 'tli'D:;J.
We waited for his return from abroad. We avoided going to his home.
.J"1n1J il~'t!':? l:l'Jn . m'J.'] n~~Y.l
mmJ)
The infinitives in the sentences above can be paraphrased by sentences with finite verbs: 'lH + 11i7Y.l +J.
Infinitive+ suffix Paraphrase Infinitive+ suffix
while being abroad when I was abroad
We waited tor his return
']ll)f)J 'ni'i;l~
? 111n:J. '1l,'i11\!INJ Hli1 + ·u i7Y.l + '1 ':7"1n)J i:t~'t!':? 1l,::>n
from abroad. Paraphrases
We waited till he returned from abroad. We waited for him to return from abroad.
J.'ll Nm'll 1)1 'l'Jn
7"1nY.)
.J"1n1J ::n'll' N1il't! lJ'::>n
Chapter 3: The verb system
47
3.5.6 Verbal noun Verbal nouns are abstract nouns that can be related to verbal roots and are associated with various verbal groups and patterns. Each hinyan has one or more patterns of nouns that are derived from the roots and/or are associated with that binyan. reading, act ofreading agreement, discussion excursion, trip explaining; propaganda explanation development
il'71.1H> D~
'7~1~ DIU
l!nll!.l
N-1-p 1-:J-1
ntt'ii?
l•f1p~
!ln:;r:tD
1:;J'];:'I~
('t} ~~~\?
~~\J,
Cl) (l)
.. -
~-'-U
n:9VD Ct> 1:;JVQ
1':;1VD?
1-:J-tl
mn.J;l~J;"ID
IJD~J;liJ?
n-n-!:1
(l)
CJ)
;
3.6 Verb pattern groups
o•l .. l:l Traditionally Hebrew grammar classifies verbs into seven basic pattern groups, called binyanim, each of which has special inflectional characteristics. In contemporary grammatical descriptions five major pattern groups are recognized, with the two additional ones being "internal passives". The verb conjugations are the various sets of forms of actual verbs. Some of the categories that dictate the t(lrm of a conjugated verb are person, gender, and number features.
The third person singular in the past tense is not marked by a sutlix, and serves as the citation form t<>r each binyan. To capture the citation form, a prototypical root is used, most commonly J)l!:l. 3.6.1 Names of verb pattern groups D 1 J 11 J:J.il mn.a Each conjugation is named according to its citation form. Names of verb patterns
Citation forms
pa 'a!
~~~
lamad
1't.)?
nffal pi'el
~l!~~
nilmad
lt.)'?J
pu'al h(fil ht!fal hitpa 'e/
~~~
~~~
J').J!;lD ~~!;ltl ~~~J;'ID
gidel gudal
hiklit huklat hitkabel
JJ~ ~:r~.
'V'~i?D \)~iff.)
.,~Pl;liJ
4&
Chapter 3: The verb ·'}'stem
3.6.2 Root composition: regular and irregular There are two major root classifications: regular verbs and irregular verbs. They are also known as "strong" verbs, and "weak" verbs, respectively. In the same manner that each verb belongs to a particular )"):J, it also belongs to a particular group of verbs, known as n)p (plural niiH) that classify them by their root composition. 1. The regular verbs belong to a root composition group known as n')p o>r,J?.\?'D ('whole'), as all consonants are present.
2. Verbs that are not fully regular are labeled by the particular root letter, which causes some deviation !rom a fully regular conjugation. These classifications, the rrnu, provide a frame of ret'erence for addressing irregularities in the verb system. There are two ways of labeling them, either as -'1)~, which means that a root consonant, indicated by the label, undergoes some weakening, or as _,J~IJ. which means that one of the consonants, indicated by the label, is omitted in part of or in the entire verb conjugation. Root consonants undergo changes in some, but not necessarily all forms in the conjugation concerned. Root classification groups
C1==,
;
(~Y!:l) 11'~.1'~ W'J:l .))~~~
< l-'V-'
'"!:l '0~
C7'Y!ln) i'~in ; C7Y!ll) i~i) < 1-~-,
Cr='
CJ=J C2=Vl
C'll!l) nn~ j !1J ,1J~ < "T-i-'
')II!) '')01)
(~'Y!ln) "':;liJ~ ; "'~~ ·"'::;tD < u-:::1-1 (7y!)) mp~ ; Oi? , mr;>p < n-1-p
l''!:l 'iOn
"'liiV'Y
(~Y'!J) Ot;;lip~ ; Ot;;Jip ,'l))?t;;lip
('])l!l)
Cz == C1
C3=N C1=='
1''?'i i i~ ''))~'?' < i-">-'lJ < )-)-)
Q)'J)!l:;l
(?y!)) Nip~ ; nN')ijJ ,NJip < N-i-p
N"~ 'nl
C?ll!:lrm> 1).t:t~D?; v'~~J;lY.l ,'m~i:\~D
(']y!J} ni!t";~~ ; i1~"J ,'JJ'~'J < '-!t-i
c•n••'J)
,,~
'nl
*The root classification ,,';1 'nl is a]so referred to as n•·~ 'nl. The term '"~ 'nl assumes that the '' which surfaces when suffixes are added is the actual underlying consonant.
Chapter 3: The verb lystem
49
3.6.3 Verb roots with four consonants While most roots in Hebrew consist of three consonants, there are also roots with four consonants (on occasion even five). Traditionally, in order to accommodate such roots, all consonants fit into a three "consonant slot" structure. which is the norm set by the predominant tri-consonantal verb pattern. In the case of.,~~. for instance, the root consonant slots and the pa 'a/ stem vowels are divided as follows: Form .,~~
Slot 3
.,
Vowel a
Slot 2
Vowel a
:J
Slot1
Root
\!.1
"l-:J-'l.l
The tour consonant roots are accommodated by the three following hinyanim: pi 'el, pu 'al and hitpa 'e/. They are not found in other binyanim. Pi'el Conjugation Form Slot3 19.~
,
O~")f:l
0
Pu 'a! Conjugation Form Slot3 1~~
,
'J~p~
7
Vowel e e
Slot 2
Vowel a a
Slot 2
Vowel e e
Slot 2
!)
:n
\)
?:>
Vowel
I I
Slot1
Root
t)
1-!:l-t'
J'1
Y.)-)-1-11
Vowel u u
Slot1
Vowel
Slot1
Root
.!)
"l-1:1-!:l
\!.1
?-7-:>-'l.l
Hitea 'el Conjugation
Form
Slot 3
'l.I~~J:ID
'V
tlr;J~J;ID
0
J )1
I
a a
Root
.,
\!.1-:J-7
!)
t'-)-1-!:l
Note
The consonantal slots indicate how the extra consonants are accommodated into three slots that form the stem. They do not necessarily represent the syllabic division. For instance, the slot division of l-:::11-i is not the same as the syllabic division, which divides the word into two closed syllables: ):;J·-;J":f. There are different processes by which four consonantal roots or longer are created:
Chapter 3: The verh svstem
50
I. Some roots, which have a base of two consonants, repeat (reduplicate) their consonants. ':1·:1-':1-.J Slot 3 Slot 2 ';J :1':1 J:l?:;t '~'!) '}~~~
';J
J';J
';J
:1':1
':1~1!)
-nil
?~!lnn
The slot division is !:J-::J!:J-.2, while the syllabic division is !:J:J-(3. 2. One way of creating new four letter roots is by adding an initial consonant to basic three letter roots, thus fanning secondary derived roots having a related meaning. The three consonants used in this process are: •n ,''l' ,'M Gloss diagnose rewrite activate
Derivation lNz..t < J-n-.l +N .J:r:t;''?' < J-!1-, +'l' ?):I.!;):J:I < ?·))-!) +31
Gloss examine write act
Base
lN .J.Di'
'~~
3. Other four letter roots are derived from native nouns and adjectives Gloss Derivation Gloss Base oxidize oxygen 1~~1) < l-~-Y.l-n )~'?1:.' )-:1-'l'-n calculate calculation )i::l'?'l) ):l'?'D < "19.9}') < j-!)-t!-Y.l enumerate number i~VY.l 4. A large number are derived from foreign words Gloss Derivation Gloss phone )9.~\;) < l-!l-'J-\:l telephone catalogue .l'?.\?P < )-'J-o-p catalogue
Base )i!l~\?
liJ'?i?
3.6.4 Some shared meanings of roots Although the root docs not exist on its own, most words that share a common root tend to have a common meaning core. These form-andmeaning relationships are only tendencies, and often apply only in part. Some forms never followed the regularity to start with, and most departed from it with time, with varying degrees of deviation. Language is an ever-changing, living entity, and the relationship between fbrm and meaning is not maintained for long. Exceptions
Chapter 3: The verb system
51
consequently abound, and meaning develops independently by extension and by association. Here is a common root with some shared examination, test n~'N examiner ll)tl diagnosis W'9~ perception, discernment i1~1):ftl diagnostician 1Nz:t~
meanings: examine, test be examined diagnose notice, discern be noticed
lN ,0~~
lN~
W9D
1ND
3. 7 Verb categorization Verbs in Hebrew can he classified in a number of ways, by their meaning and function, and by structural characteristics. There arc transitive and intransitive verbs, active and passive verbs, verbs of action and verbs that describe state. Some verbs describe the process of change from one state to another. Verbs can also be classified in terms oftheir composition: There are verbs that have to be complemented by objects, and when these objects are not direct, they have obligatory prepositions, which link them with their objects. There arc compound verbs, which are constructed of two verbs, usually one conjugated in tense, and another realized in infinitive torm. These classifications will be described in the segments below. 3.7.1 Transitive verbs c•H:ll'l 1 c•'lll9 A transitive verb is an action verb requiring a direct or indirect object to complement its meaning in the sentence. The action of the verb, performed by the subject, is transferred to the object, the recipient of the action. It is not just a matter of meaning but also of form. The direct object, which directly tollows the verb, is either unmarked when the object is indefinite, or is preceded by the particle n~ when the object is definite. (ndirect objects require a preposition. However, it should be remembered that many indirect objects arc not complements of transitive verbs. Transitive verbs with direct objects: Indefinite direct object
The parents bought presents t<>r the children.
52
Chapter 3: The verh system
Definite direct object The parents hid the presents. Transitive verbs with indirect objects: Indefinite indirect object
The truck driver hit a streetlight and a power line post.
Jm1
~)OJ
}l:l!l rt'N'll~n lm
.'m'lln ''~)JJ'
Definite indirect object
I did not mean to hurt MichaeL A comparative note
Notice that while there is an indirect object tbllowing the verb -J ).l)!l •hurt/hit', in English an equivalent verb takes a direct object. In both cases, the fact that the action of the verb is transferred to the object makes the verbs transitive in meaning.
3. 7.2 Intransitive verbs An intransitive verb is one that does not transfer the action to a recipient. The subject is the person or things undergoing or experiencing the action of the verb. Typically, an adverb or prepositional phrase modifies an intransitive verb. or the verb ends the sentence. Nir and Ilana danced. Afterwards they strolled in the park. Nir's grandfather was born in 1930.
.np1 m':1'N' 1'l .JT1N!lJ )':1"\:1 on p 1nN .1930 rtJ'liJ 1~m 1') ':1'0 NJO
Some verbs can function as both transitive and intransitive verbs. Intransitive Nir and IIana studied. .ntJJ m':1'N' 1'l Transitive They learned new songs.
3.8 With and without linking verbs In the present tense in Hebrew, there are sentences without verbs. They usually have a subject and a noun or noun phrase predicate. or an adjectival one. These sentences are often referred to as nominal sentences:
53
Chapter 3: The verb 5yslem
Dan (is) a bank director. His wife (is) a lawyer. The twins (arc) high school students. The car (is) over there.
. Pl.J ~mo
11
.)'1 n::rm.1 mVJN .)1::>m.J D'1'o':m D'Y.l1Nnn
.O'l.l l1'l1JY.lil
3.8.1 Linking verb 'to be' Verbless sentences exist in the present tense, however. in the past and future tenses, the verb 'to be' is present and in addition to linking the two parts of the sentence, it marks the tense. Dan was the director. His wife will be a lawyer. Their twins will be university students.
.7mr.m il'il )1 .'1'1 nYnY il"nn
unm
D'Ull1\JU 1'iP on~'l.l omu
Note
nm may also serve as a full-fledged verb meaning 'exist', rather than as a mere linking verb, as in the beginning of the Book of Job: .J1'N , ~'l' ~1N.J il'il 'li'N There was a man in the land of Uz named Job. .mVJ 3.8.2 Other related linking verbs !O'J.l~ll 1=> ~J O'N1l onN no'] Why do you seem so sad'! They remained our good friends. .U~VJ D'J.1Uil 0'1J.r"lil nNVJl on This movie sounds melodramatic. .'tJY.l111'm lJY.lVJJ ;nn U1Uil For more in:.formation. see Chapter 14, pp. 320-323
3.9 Verbs with obligatory prepositions There are a number of verbs. which have a preposition as an integral part of their fonn. The preposition is. by definition, followed by an object, which is a noun, a noun phrase or a pronoun. The meaning cannot be conveyed by the verb alone; it must include the prescribed obligatory preposition that connects it to the following object. The citation form of the verb usually includes that preposition. Examples of verbs that cannot be used \Vithout a preposition and an object following it: The host hurt our feelings. . n~YJ m'l.l:l!1~ ).l:lt!:l nnmn -:::t Yl!>
54
Chapter 3: The verh sysll~m
When will you help us get ready for the party?
llN )':Jil~
nz 1it)m 'Jll:)
_., 1t))
rn:Ptmn
3.10 Action, stative and inchoative verbs Another way of dividing verbs is by semantic categories like the following: action verbs, stative verbs, and inchoative verbs. 3.1 0.1 Non-stative verbs There are many types of dynamic verbs, and most of them describe activities or events, which can have beginning and completion points.
Here are some examples: Activity Shira is playing tennis. Process The food is cooking. Action He passed the ball.
.tm\J npn'lm ili'VJ
.7'l1Jrll:) 7:J,Ni1
.;n:m nN J.2!2 Nm
3.1 0.2 Stative verbs Stative verbs usually refer to an ongoing state or condition. They can be divided into verbs of perception or cognition (which reter to things in the mind). or verbs of state (which describe an ongoing state).
Describing perception/feeling/attitude: Aydet hates science fiction movies. She loves adventure movies. Ayelet prefers tunny movies. Describing states: Everybody is asleep. Nobody is awake at such a time. He has been sick for a week.
.'l''1J )J1n '\J1tl
mmv ll~'N
.mNpn!lin '\J1tl nJmN Nm .O'pm~n Cl'\J"lO il!l'1)J 1:)
n7' N
.~o':n:~
.JlNl:l mJVJ.J .]l.N? 1nN ")N
.o'n' }11:1VJ "l:I:J n?m Nm
3.1 0.3 lnchoative verbs lnchoative verbs are verbs that convey a transformation and change of state, such as 'fall asleep'. which indicates the process of changing from being awake to being asleep. The change is usually an internal one, the process of becoming.
Chapter 3: 71w verb system
55
Describing changes of state:
Everybody fell asleep. Nobody woke up when we knocked. When he gets well, we 'II travel to Africa. The apples ripened (became ripe).
. UJiil
0,,:>
. ,lp!li'lJ:::l 11l}lnil N'J inN ')N .ilp'i!lN~ ).ltl'l ,N'i:J' N1il'lJ:::l
Chapter 4 Verb pattern groups In this chapter the seven major binyanim (verb pattern groups) will be discussed. They will be presented first in the regular root groups O')t;l~~ first, and then in the irregular verb categories. 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5
4.6 4.7
pa'al n((al pi'el pu'a/ hitpa 'ei hifil hufal
4.1 Pa 'al conjugation
(.,p) .,~~
l"ll
'~-?~ ,~~ ):::1
(']}!'!))
?)l!il 1'"ll
('})))!)) '~!:? )"):::1
?V.~J;ID
l''ll 7'l:'!?D )"Jl ('}))!)ln) 7~!?D l"ll
'l.V? 1•1:1
The pa 'a/ conjugation is traditionally considered the simplest or the most basic of the conjugations. It is an unmarked conjugation, since its verb forms do not contain any special identifying markers other than the root letters, usually tri-consonantal (i.e. composed of three consonants) and the tense/mood/person markers. The pa 'a/ conjugation is not identified with any particular semantic trait either and is broad enough to incorporate such categories as: (I) transitive verbs (e.g. [nl!)J1il nN] ?;>r::t 'eat') (2) intransitive ones (l~~ 'sit') (3) stative verbs (W!~ 'sleep') (4) inchoative 'change/become' verbs
4.1.1 Regular verbs Regular verbs are verbs in which all the root consonants are present in all the verb forms.
Present tense/participle '?~i9 "lll•:l./iulilJnr In most pa 'a/ conjugations, the stem of the present tense consists of the sequence C,oC2eC,~ (C = consonant) ?).119. The vowel o N?n o?m, between the first and the second consonant of the root, and the vowel e i11l~, between the second and third consonants, are the stem voweLs tor
C'hapter 4: Verb pattern groups
57
most of the present tense fonns. There are tour fom1s of present tense: masculine singular, feminint! singular, masculine plural and feminine plural.
to dance
.,.i'..,~
; r1Ji?.i1 (Nlil ,l1N ,'lN) ; lt;'il (Nm ,i!JlN ,'.3N)
:nnm'
J1iipi1 ()il , )JlN ,1lnlN) ; 0'"1i;'il (Oil , Ol1N , 1lnl N)
:J"lVO'~l
In the singular forms the stress is on the second vowel of the stem: roked and rokedet. In the plural form the stress shifts to the suffix vowel, which brings about the loss of the last stem vowel e: rokdim and rokdlk Variation -first stem vowel a In some verbs in the present tense of pa 'al the first stem vowel is a instead of the usual o. It characterizes mostly stative verbs.
; il~~~ (N'il ,JlN ,'lN} ; W'? (Nm ,ilTIN ,'JN)
, n;·pn'
:nil~~ ()il , )l1N , llnlN) ; 0'~\?~ (Oil , Ol1N , UnlN)
: J"ll!O':J.l
Note
In colloquial Hebrew native speakers tend to use the prevalent o-e sequence rather than the nommtive one tor such forms: ,31~\\'i'" ,)V,Ii'• l1il\l)i'• ,0'~~1'*· It is considered substandard. 'liJI9 'lll'::l Passive participle Many present tense forms in pa ·at have passive counterparts that describe a state, and generally fi.mction as adjectives, as 'broken', 'stolen', etc. do in Eng) ish. broken nil~:J.'?' ,O'"J~::t'?' ,n:n::t'?' ,ltl~
The passive participle stem is .,~)J~, but when the feminine and plural suffixes are added, the stress moves to the last syllable, and the steminitial vowel is omitted, resulting in a variation of the stem: -~~)lliJ, to which feminine and plural sutlixes arc added.
58
Chapter 4: Verb pattern groups
Compare:
I am open to any interesting proposal. The door is open; close it please.
.nl".:lliP illi.Sil .,:J2 nm!l mo~ .nYJpJJ. nmN 11lO ;I!!ill:!Q n71il
When the first consonant is 'Y ,'n ,•n ,•N, a hatqf'patan replaces the shva in the feminine singular and the plural: nil~J.~ ,O'j~J.~ ,il'J~J.~ ,l~J.~. The pa 'u/ form also provides a base tor many adjectives (all of which have four forms): important clear n?~.,~-';n7~ n~~YJttJ~YJO imperfect steep il~~7:~;~-.,~7J:J
Pasttense
~~»1nr
The sequence-':?~~ provides the stem tor the past tense (and the citation form, since .,~~ is also the third person singular form). A variation of this stem -7},1~ occurs when a final suffix vowel is added, and the stress shitts to it, again causing deletion of the preceding stem-vowel (gamra i1')9~. gamru ~~'?~). Stress remains on the last stem-vowel only in the first ami second person fonns (gamclrti '.D)Q~. gamarta t'')Y.l~. etc.).
to tinish
,.tl~~
,J;l)Y.l~ CnN) ,l))Q~ Cn1'1N) , '-D)Y.l~ (')N) il'JJ?~
N'il ,1Y.l~ Nm
, ·w')Y,)~ <11'1NJ , • ot:t?Y.l~ conN> , U)Y.l~ ~1J?~
cnmN)
: 1'1VO'JI
)il ,~1J?~ Oil
*There are two variants t()r the plural f(lfm of the second person: gmartem Ol))Y,l~ and gamcirtem O~)Y,l~. The variant gmar!(!m is considered nommtive, but it is rarely used, except in formal speech. The other variant gamartem (considered substandard by some) is commonly used, and is modeled atler all other first and second person forms in stem structure and in stress pattern. Ordinary speech
gamcirtem gamarten
Dt:":1~~ (01'1N)
)~)Y.l~ ()1'1N)
Normative
gmartbn gmarten
O~')Y.)~ (01'1N) W)Y.l~ C)nN)
Chap/a 4: Verb patlern groups
59
Future tense ,•n.u1nr When regular verbs O'Y.l~\;J are conjugated in the future, they can be divided into t\\'0 main groups: the major group of verbs that have an o stem vowel (such as 1n~l:;(), and a smaller group of verbs that have an a stem vowel (such as in liJ~~). The personal pronoun prefixes have an i vowel, with the exception of the first person prefix, which has an e vowel: 1n'?'~ ,1)::!\l)~. Verbs with o stem vowel , '"J'?P'I (l1N) , 1·n~l?l cnnN) 11n~~ C>lN)
Nm C1lnm> (nr;fY.l~J:l) nY,)~' 111 ,nY,)~? Oil ...,·n~J;~
~Cilr;fn~J:~) ~1>?~B
C)nN>
.~1tt1J:J
conN>
N'il 1
,in~?
1n~l
:l'lV01J1
Note
1. The o vowel of the future tense is represented by a Pwlam naser in normative orthography, but in common usc in writing the vowel 1 (liolam male) is inserted instead: l1Y.llJ ,l1Y.ll' 111Y.lll1 111Y.llN
2. There are two variants for the feminine plural form of the second person and third person: (i) the variant that is commonly used is the same for both the masculine plural and feminine plural. They have become the standard forms in ordinary speech and are considered normative. (ii) The Biblical Hebrew variant with distinctive feminine plural suffix nn·n~n is rarely used, except in formal speech, and is now considered somewhat archaic. Verbs with a stem vowel:
to learn, study
..,.-~~~
CilnN) 11>;>~~ (')N) lt,1~.J:l N'il,lt;l~~ Nm ,Cilr;t"r.>~.n> nt?~J:I C)nNJ ,nt;)~l;l conN) ,1r.>~~ rnmN> (ilrYY.l'.;m> nJ?~~ 111 ,nY;)~? oil 1
'J>?~l'l (l1N) , "TY.l~l:l
: n11m'
, nvo'J1
60
Chapter 4: Verb pattern groups
Which verbs have a stem vowel a?
I. There are a few verbs that simply have to be memorized as having a stem vowel a: the future of1Y:J? 'study'= 1Y:l?? 'will study', and J.~I{J 'lie (down)'= J.:;.J~' 'will lie down'. 2. When the second or third root letter is '!J ,rn ,'n ,•N: third root letter guttural second root letter guttural
Note 1. The future forms that end in a vowel (the forms of )!On ,)IOtlN ,nN)
lose the second vowel of the stem when vowel suffixes are added. Consequently, there are two sequential shva's: )1Y,l?D ,'"J'??D· Since such a sequence is ditlicult to pronounce, the second shva is pronounced e ralher than zero: tilmedi, ti/medu. 2. The vowel a is not reduced when the second or third root letter is a guttural. The vowel nn~-'1\Jn is used: )J~~' )IOil ,~J~~l'l ()!OtlN) ,'?~~l:l (llN)
The imperative mood 'll''ll Similar to the forms in the future tense, the imperative forms can be divided into two groups, according to the stem vowel. The division only affects the form of the masculine singular. Verbs with o stem vowel Verbs with a stem vowel The negative imperative
To form negative imperatives one uses the fulurc tense form with the imperative negative particle 7~ 'don't!': ! nml:l J~ ! ''JY,l~l:l 7~ ! (11Y.))tl) 1n~l:l J~
• Just like in the future, there arc two variants for the feminine plural form of the imperative: !~1'?~ and !nn·n~ The variant that is commonly used is the same for both the masculine plural and feminine plural. It is the standard form in ordinary speech and is considered normative.
Chapter 4: Verb pattern groups
61
The infinitive mood The 'default' stem with o in the future tense and in the imperative of the majority of pa 'al verbs also serves to derive the infinitive ~·lJ!;l~. including those verbs that belong to the group where the future vowel is a (except for isolated forms like :1~~~): 0":1'41~ .~·N~~ ,ltl{~. The verbal noun il'lU19il Dla In addition to the infinitive, there are also verbal nouns (il~~lJ!i' nm~). or nominalizations, that are more 'noun-like', but are still closely related to the verbal pa 'a/ form. The torm of verbal nouns of regular pa ·at verbs is generally of the form il~'l!~. e.g. il~'J:l~ ,ilJ'~V· Variants with '9 ,'J ,'::::L 1. The letters '9 .'D ,'::1 are realized as b. k, p i. when they occur as the first consonant of the present and past tenses and imperative: Otli9 ,:1tl)::> ,pJi::! : ~lJ,~ 'l,J':l om~ ,:1m~ ,,~,;t 7,~!) ml':J
,
ruJ~ ,:JlJ~
.;n;t , ;:w
!nlJ.!il ! :1"11? q:ii~ : ,,,,~ ii. when occurring as the second root letter in the future tense, or the infinitive: ti9J;l~ ,.J.~J~ ,1::~~? : 1mY ti9J;l~ ,J.'::>J~ ,1·::1~'-: ~~,!)il 0'\!.1
2. The letters·~,') ,':1 are realized as v, kh. f i. when they occur as the second root letter in the present, past and imperative: tl~il'l ,.J.~ii ,l~i'\!.1: ')U'.J. t1~B,J.~J,1~~
:1JY
! tl"!)l;l ! J~';l ! ,.:J \f' : '"'~
ii. when they occur as the first root letter in the future tense, or the infinitive: \!J·~? ,J.l'l?' ,p·l;t?, lm).l '\!}·~~~ ,::fl'l:;>':? p"1-?':? :.,}),!) O'tl iii. when they are in the final position in the word or root. I
O'!;>\?iP
.~::1';11 ,:J.l'l?~
Chapter 4: Verh pattern groups
62
Variants with guttural root letters C1 = 'K When the first root letter is 'N, the vowel e replaces the shva vowel in the future, imperative and infinitive. The prefix vowel in these verb forms is also affected: l1~? ,1l~? ,
0\!.1
t'1~? ,1·:u~? ,'10~~: ·pn)l
;
! f1~ !1·)~ ! r,.u~ '11'::::1
C1 = 'll When the first root letter is •)1, the vowel a replaces the shva vowel in the future, imperative and infinitive. The pretlx vowel in these verb forms is also affected: lt.Jl-1~ ,1-:Jl-!~ ,l:Jl!~ : ~Yl!:ln O\!J lo~~
,1 :J~~ ,1·:1~~ : l'n)J
! 1"!:::l~ n·:J.~ ! 1:1~ : '11'~
C1 = 'n When the tirst root letter is n the vowel a replaces the prefix vowel i. The first root letter can either be zero shva, or the shva may be replaced by a. Both forms are acceptable, but the pronunciation with the zero shva is more common in speech. (,.np~ ,:f:::~p~ <,·no~
,J.\!Jt)';?) 1:1'1~';? ,J·:::~~';? ,:J\!J~';? : ~)Jl!:ln o'll ,:J.·~o~ ,J.'llt)~) 1"r1~~ ,:J.·:::~I;\~ ,J.'LII;\~ : l'lW
C2 = '11 ,'n ,'n ,'K
When the consonant is a guttural a hatqj'patan replaces the shva: ~1~;t~ ,'PO~J:l,O'~Qi) ,n~~~
C3
='11 ,'n ,'n
At the end of the word, if one of these gutturals is preceded by a vowel other than a, a' furtive' patan is inserted: ~ir.l~':? ,Dl;;ltl ,t'~i\!J
4.1.2 Irregular verbs The group of irregular verbs is composed of verbs where one or more ofthe root consonants are either missing or altered.
Chapter 4: Verb pattern groups
63
Note
I. The classification O)itm stands for verbs \vhere one of the root consonants is absent, while o)m stands for the classification when a root consonant is present in spelling but it is not pronounced. 2. The three root consonant letters by which the irregularities arc marked arc: consonant I = '!:1, consonant 2 = ')J , and consonant 3 = ·~ When the first consonant is affected, the following label is given to it: )"!:J, meaning the first consonant yod undergoes a change, and so on. The category of roots classified by irregularity of root consonants 1s called n;u ·root classification group'.
The root classification: •"lJII"ll These are roots with a second root consonant '1, such as in t.:J-1-p, or '', such as in 1-'-\!J. The verb stems of the past and present tenses are hiconsonantal, i.e. have only two consonants, as the second root consonant is omitted, such as in 1'{.1 ,Oi?. In the future, imperative and infinitive, the second root consonants are realized as vo\vels: the vowel ~ u for 1''l' verbs, as in 01p-, or as the vowel •) i in )1')) verbs, as in ·v~-. Accordingly, this conjugation pattern is called )"))/1").1 rnp, since it is ')) ~)J1!li1 that undergoes changes and thus differs from the regular verb conjugations. 1"11 verbs
to get up Root classification 1'':1.1
Present Past 3n:l person Future 3rt1 person Imperative
a~p?
Verbal Noun
Infinitive
Root
ilt,;l)P
o~p~
Y.)-1-p
Oil
.N.'il
.N.Iil
0'J?i?
"Y:li?
Oj?
mi?
ilt,;li?
Oi(
~mp~
mpJ;J
l!OllN
l1N )t.:Jlp
mp? nnN
!lmp
OljJ
Note In "'Wl":Y verb forms, the stress usually stays on the (only) stem vowel,
even when a suffix vowel is added: kama ilt,;li(. kamu mi(, yaktJmu lr.lliJ?, kumi )1;11p, kumu 1mp. This is always the case in regular speech. In the higher registers, the present tense feminine singular fonn ilt,;li( is
Chapter 4: Verb pattern group.~
64
distinguished from its identical past tense tonn by the movement of its stress to the sutlix (the same as in the plural - kamim. kamot): 1/you/she gets up she got up
kama ilQi? kama i1Qi?
As is the case with any verb in the fonnal register, stress also moves to the suffix in kamtemln VDl)t;Ji?, but not so in regular speech (kamtemln). Variation of
,··v
verbs:
The stem vowel of the future, imperative and infinitive is o when the final root letter is 'N:
to come Root classification
2'<;:..~
Verbal Noun
Infinitive
Root
,,~
il~':;l
Ni:J~
N-,-J
!ill
liTI
llli1
Future
~NiJ~
NiJ.~
Ni:J~
l!OllN
nN
nnN
! ~Ni::l
!'~i!l
!Ni!l
Imperative
•".u verbs: The stem vowel is i when the medial root letter is'':
to sing Root classification
'")I Future Imperative
,,'Q~
Verbal noun il)''?'
Infinitive
Root
1''?'~
1-'-'ll
.QD.
!ffi
XIii
~1''?'~
1''?'~
1''P~
)10l1N
llN
illlN
!n''?'
!''J'W
!1'W
The root classification: M"9 •o! The conjugation is called N"!.l 'nl because 'N, its first root consonant, is 'silent' in some verbs. In verbs such as 'JJN, instead of the expected 'J~~r;~· or 'iJ~J)· (cf. ~"fO~?, above), the form is ~~Nn tokhtil, with 'N silent. The associated vowel becomes o. Only the future tense is affected. and the rest ofthe forms follow the regular verb rules.
Chapter 4: Verb palli~rn groups
~-,~?
to eat Root classification N"!l
65
Verbal Noun
Infinitive
Root
il~':;l~
~-::>~~
~-::>-N
Future
Dil
~
Mill
~~::>N'
~~~{)'!
~~l·(l
' vonN !~7:;>~
Imperative
TlN
nnN
!'~?N
!~)J~
Another common verb classified as N"!l ,m is the verb lQ)J 'to say': l~N·J'l ,.,~-N etc. Note the absence of the 'N of the root l-,-N in 1Y.l"N, ;.~·N and the even more unusual absence of 'N in 1Y:>i~. In all other cases, if the root includes 'N, the 'N always appears in writing, even if silent. That the silent •N is omitted after an 'N (J~N ,1Y."fN) is expected, but lQi? is a real exception, probably the only one. The alternative Biblical Hebrew 1mo(~ is used with a slightly different meaning, more like 'quote'.
The root classification:
···!> "J90
When the first consonant of the root ('Yl!lil '!l) is '' and that " is absent in the future tense, the imperative, and the infinitive, it is referred to as '"!I 'JY'tl mp (190 means 'missing', or 'absent').
to sit Root classification '"!:! '10n
.n:n.1~ \" ·:
.
Verbal Noun
Infinitive
il~''?'~
:n~\\1~
Oil
N'il
Future
Mlil
tl~~
~\\ltl
l\\1~
IIDnN
!lli
ilrlN
!l~~
P:;J.~
!l\\1
Imperative
When '"!:! '"lOn has a final •guttural' consonant 'Y ,•n, such as in Y1' 'know', the stem vowel e changes to a. Compare the two: Imperative Future Infinitive Root
The root classification: •""9
! ~\\I
~\\I~
:n:;fw~
:J-'lJ-'
! Y1"
YJ~
:n~J~
Y-1->
·o~
When the first consonant of the root is'~ y, and that'' is not deleted, but rather weakened to the corresponding vowel i in the future tense and in the infinitive, we refer to the conjugation as "'!l '0~ n)p.
66
Chapter 4: Verh patTern groups
Unlike '''!l '1t1n where the '' is omitted, notice that the letter '' is still included in the verb forms: :JW~ but w~~c
to sleep 111U'> Verbal Noun
Infinitive
Root
'"!> 'nl
n~w
Wo'~
)-Y.J-'
Q.U
~
li!D.
Future
~)'lJ'~
'~'1:1
1'Q'~
(/OnM
ill!
DD1!
m'll~
! '~'l''
!)'P~
Root classification
Imperative
'.
The root classification: l""g This classification includes verbs which have 'J nun as their first root letter. Such verbs can lose their initial 'l in the future and infinitive for a phonological reason: the consonant 'l is weakened at the end of syllables, i.e., when no vowel follows. As a result it tends to be totally assimilated into the next consonant (ct: English historical assimilation in in legal > illegal, inre1-;rular > irregular, etc.). The group of verbs whose 'l is assimilated in this manner is known as J''!l '1Un n:rr~-
to fall ';m> Root classification ~'1t1n
Future
Verbal noun
Infinitive
Root
n{'.!:l~
~i9?
']-!)-)
QD.
!t.Q
li!D.
~';I~~
';1'9J;I
~:i9~
In some l''::l '10n verbs, while the initial•) is lost in the future tbrms, the is kept in the imperative, such as in these verbs: 'fall down!' !~)!)) n~.!:lJ ! ''!ll or •take' ! 1?\JJ !''\J) ! ~nm
'l
Other verbs lose the initial•l in both: 'drive' !'.VU !.VU; wun ,'.VOn ,.von q.vu. or 'give' mn !'.m qn; )lnn .~mn ,)nn (see below). verbs that keep their initial "1 1. Verbs that keep the 'l in the future, imperative and infinitive are those that have a 'guttural' second root consonant: •.v ,•n ,'ii,'N, as they cannot assimilate any consonants adjacent to them. l"9
67
Chapter 4: Verb pattern groups
Gloss
Infinitive
lm~erative
Future
Root
o·N~~
Oz:.t~
o~q~
Y.l-N-l
!liJ~
)il))
l-n-l
'{~~~
!"(~~
'(l.!r
~-~-)
rfn~~
!lll)~
nl)~'
n-n-1
deliver speech drive tack land (plane)
:in~~
-
:.
2. There are other verbs that for no apparent a priori reason keep their initial 'J, and that today actually outnumber those in which the 'l is assimilated. Among them are: \JJ) ')lJ bark nJJ germinate rebuke tlpl ill bite Oll oppose took steps
Special verbs: There arc a number of special l"!l '1tm verbs that combine features of different irregular verb groups.
1. 'to give' n~~ : l'11'1/l"!> The verb m:t~ 'to give' is a unique one, since both first and third consonants are 'l, either of which assimilates into the next consonant when occurring at the end of the syllable. In addition, the intinitive torm not only reflects the loss of the t\VO n consonants, but also takes on a special infinitive form partly associated with W!'J verbs. )''!)
il"'lTl
il '11119 DIU
'7.1119 D 1U
IU1 IIU
,,on
)~Y.)mJ'm
m~'<
1-n-.)
I. In the present tense the verb J-n-.J is conjugated as a regular verb and does not lose any consonants: niJl;liJ ,D'~:J;lil ,ll?J)il ,WiJ. 2. In the past tense the third consonant 'l is lost, and is assimilated into the subject pronoun suffix: the expected 'ti+?D~* ends up as 'tllJ~. This occurs only in the first and second person. /\ Jage:Jh hazak in the suffix compensates for the loss of the first root consonant. (m~/DnH
llnJN
illlN
3. In the third person all consonants are maintained:
m;-t~ ,il~~~
'lN
.1m
4. All the future tense forms lose the first 'l, which is assimilated into the second consonant (a dagesh huzak in the second consonant
68
Chapter 4: Verb pattern groups
compensates for the loss of the first root consonant):
m~
instead of
,.m~·.
5. The imperative forms echo the first consonant loss of the future tense: Imperative 2. 'to touch' ~i.1~~/n~~~
The infinitive tonn has two variants: n~~( loses the first consonant n and takes on a special infinitive form associated with '"!I verbs, while ~'">-~':!has a regular verb infinitive and keeps all root consonants. ))-)-)
All the future tense forms lose the first n, which is assimilated into the second consonant. The stem vowel is a, as it is in any such tonns that end with a guttural consonant: ,Y~~
llnlN ~ll~ ~
Imperative
,l'~'
Nm
,lJ~f:l
,))~l;:(
ilnl'{
'lN.
von ,~Y~T:l vonx ,'~~T:l nx ~))~ ,'l.'~ ,)J~
3. 'to travel'~~~>
The infinitive fonn of this particular )''!) verb keeps all consonants, but the future and imperative lose then, like the verbs above: ,Y~~
UnlN ,l'W? Nm ,Y9l:l ilJlN ,Y9tt 'lN. "'Y'o/~
Imperative
)IOil ,·,)l'o/l:l )!Ol1N
,'.)J~J:I
wv
I
!lN
'l.'1? ,lJQ
4. 'to take' noLJ'1
The root of this verb is n-p-.,, and although it does not have a') or a '' consonant, it behaves like a l"!:l verb with a final guttural consonant. It is conjugated just like the verb))~~ 'to touch'. The infinitive form loses the tirst consonant I and takes on a special infinitive tonn associated with '"!:1 verbs. All the future tense forms lose the first ,.,, which is
69
Chapter 4: Verb pattern groups
assimilated into the second consonant. The stem vowel is a, as it is in any such forms that end with a guttural consonant ')I or •n: Future ,nw~ ))mN ,nw? Nlil ,npr~ nnN ,np~ '3N mp~ von ,mpn vonN ,'t:li?n nN Imperative
The root classification: H"'l •m In the N"':1 conjugation, in which the third root consonant is 'N, the 'N is kept in spelling, but is not pronounced at the end of the syllable. Joe"~~~ Verbal noun
to find Root cla:s:sirici::lliun
"~'~t?
N"''m Present Pa'ul Past Future Imperative
Infinitive
Root
N·~t;:l~
N-~-IJ
Dil
~
Mlil
nnx
0'~~i!J
.TIN~ir.l
N~ir.l
N~ir.l
0'~~~9
il~~~t?
)~~~
,~~!;!
n~~~
"~~~
N~l;l
l)N;II;l
~N~t;:l?
N~t;:l.J:l
N~Y;l?
N~t;ll;l
IIDnM
nx
ilnM
!~N~Y,l
!'~~Y,l
!N~'?
Note
Notice that in some N"':1 verbs, the ,, substitutes for the 'N in the >)1)>:J ':1w~. following thew' pattern, as shown in the table above. However, this is not true for all N"':1 verbs, as forms such as Ntq, ~m~ exist as well. At times there is even a 'mixed' case: n~~'tl~ ,'l·'tl~ 'married'. The root classification: •"~ •m When the third root consonant is'' y, it is realized as the vowel e or a in final position, where it is represented in the spelling as •n, whereas elsewhere, it is realized as the vowel " i, or is elided before another vowel. This conjugation is called '"' ">n). It is also commonly known as i1"':1 'm because of the final •n of the citation t(mn.
70
Chapter 4: Verb pattern groups
to buy Root classification
Verbal noun nm?
~·/?
QD.
Present Pa'u/ Past Future Imperative
n~,~~
@
Infinitive nilp':?
Root n-J-p
li!D
illlli il),ip
o~~ip
n~ip
n~ip
o~~~li?
n~~lp
')!))j(
~li?
il{l~i?
n~i?
l)'~i?
~li?~
n~pl;l
n~p~
i1?,i?l:'1
JIDnM
nN
!!!lp
P~i?
i1!lli !iQp
''li?
Note that in the third person feminine of the past tense, elision of the stem vowel would have mt:rged the fonn with the masculine counterpart, n~i?· To prevent that. the historical feminine 1n resurfaces, resulting in nmi?Marginal root class: 11"11 In some roots, the second and third root consonants are identical. In pa 'a!, most of them behave like regular verbs in current usage, e.g., 'l:'I~~Q 'I cclebratcc.r from the root )-l-n, but a few maintain a separate form in which the two identical consonants are merged, e.g., 'tli:"IIJ 'I pardoned' from l-l-n. For full conjugation see Appendix l. 4.1.3 Associated meanings As noted above, pa 'a/ verbs can be classified into two major groups, verbs of action and stative verbs, but it is hard to go into any further semantic classification, since pa 'a/ is the major default verb conjugation. and the meanings of other binyanim are often described in relation to the pa 'al pattern.
Chapler 4: Verb pattern groups
71
4.2 Nif'al conjugation The conjugation n!{al ~~!l) I")J is identified hy a prefix, n (realized as ni- to facilitate pronunciation), that is part of its past and present tense stem. Its name reflects the third person singular masculine past tense form, its 'citation form': ni+CCaC ~~.!;)+~. The ni- prefix is not maintained throughout the conjugation. Its n is totally assimilated into the first consonant of the stem in the future, the imperative, and in the infinitive, and the vowel pattern changes. It is assimilated because it occurs at the end of the syllable in these sub-conjugations (e.g., ti+n+gamer > liggamer > tigamer- cf. n assimilation in pa 'a! above). In the imperative and infinitive forms, there emerge::~ an initial 'il prefix. Stem of future
... i+shamer
11:;)~~
Stem of past and present
ni+shmur
11?'?'~111?\('~
Stem of the imperative and infinitive
hi+shamer
Thus, instead of niCCaC ~~!?~ of the past and present, the stem of the future, imperative and infinitive is (hi)-CaCeC ~V~-(i:J). The dugesh hazt.lk in the first root Jetter was intended to compensate for the loss of the prefix consonant 'ln. When the text has vowels, the dagesh hazak is visible. When the text has no vowels, the letter '' is inserted after the pronoun subject prefix to reflect the vowel i CThis, of course, excludes the first person singular personal pronoun, as the vowel of that prefix is e): o~~D~
o~~D
ti):J'n~
ti):Jlil
The "does not form part of the nifal pattern but is inserted for clarity, sometimes even in vowelled texts, to indicate the i vowel.
4.2.1 Regular V'erbs Regular verbs arc verbs in which the root consonants are present in all verb forms.
72
Chapter 4: Verb pattern groups
Present tense illlil enr The present tense forms have a ni- prefix, which identifies them as nf(al verbs. The stem vowel is ~op a with the exception of the feminine fi1rm.
to recall ~ ,;t.!t'l~ n:9!~ (Nm ,JlN ,~lN) ; 1~p (N1il ,i1JlN ,'.:lN) ni1~p ()n , )nN ,1mlN) ; O'"J~ p con , o.nN ,1mm>
: illi'l"1' :11110'~1
In the singular forms the stress of the word is maintained on the second vowel of the verb form: nizkar, and nizkeret. In the plural form the stress shifts to the last vowel of the word: nizkarim and nizkarot. The second vowel (or stem vowel) remains a, and doesn't change toe with the movement of the stress. ,~u,nr Pasttense The past tense forms also have a ni- prefix, which identifies them as njfal verbs. The stem vowel is n.n!l a, with the exception of the forms that end in a vowel.
,f;l)~p (TIN) ,l)";J~p CnnN) .~l.'l')~p ('JN)
:illi'n'
n:qp N'il ,1~p N1il .wrpp
,Dl;n~p
com-<>
,,JmN> , n11o'~, n:;m 1n .~1~p on .~n~n
The stem of the past tense shares the citation fonn niCCaC-. Jt has a variant niCCeC- (the second shva is pronounced e), resulting from reduction of a to e when the stress shifts to the last sylJable of an added vowel sutlix (feminine and plural markers ofthe third person). Future tense -,•nu 1nr In the future tense the ni- prefix is not present, and instead we tind the stem i(e) + CaCeC-. As noted above, then \Vas there historically, but as in other similar environments was assimilated into the subsequent consonant, resulting in a dagesh lia=ak \Vhen the letter is not guttural (guttural letters required that the previous vowel be lengthened instead). It has a variant -iCaCC- when the stress shifts to the last
Chapter 4: Verb pattern groups
73
syllable (feminine and plural markers of the third person), reflecting deletion of the 1ast stem vowel. ,l"J:;Jll;l (11N) ,enn~lm n;>p"~
,1~~J:'l
(i111N)
,1~W
(llN)
1;>~l;l N'n ,,~r Nm c1nNJ , ~,?"P'I conN> ,,~n mmN> cnrrnn> ~1?·!~ 1il.~,n~ on
: illilf"''
=
mto'J1
As noted above, the '' is usually present, as in 1~·Pn. Without the " a form like '1:ltn can be read as •you will remember' in pa 'a/, or 'you will recall' in nif'al. There is no wufusiuu if the pu 'u{ fonn is written '1~ln and the ntfal form is written '1::>r>n.
The imperative mood •u•l! The Imperative shares part of the stem with the future tense, and m addition is preceded by the prefix -;:1 hiCaCeC (hiCaCC-) Recall! Beware! Watch out! Be careful! Often a'' is inserted after the prefix:
CnnDFll ml)FI
!'"Jt)~D
!1iJFI
!1~Pn
The future forms are used with negative commands, and in daily speech often tor positive commands as well. Come in, immediately! ! 1"n ~u.J:;,'n Don't enter the room! !11n~ 'O.J:;,'n ~N Limited use
Directives can occur in njfal only when the verb has an active meaning: !O)::l'il Come in! Beware! ! l1Qt'D but not when it has a passive meaning:
Getbroliea! Be written!
~
!13f13'n
The infinitive mood ~JII9il ow The infinitive has the same stem as the future and imperative; in fact, in this case the stem is identical to the imperative stem: u~~D~ 'to enter'.
74
Chapter 4: Verb pattem groups
I don't like recalling that story. It is impossible to come in; the opening is too narrow. He needs to beware of them.
.11!:!'0 U11N:J 1:Jlli1J ::m1N NJ
mo{
•">">i}'J 1~ nll!)il , 0.):Jli1J 1'lJ!)N 'N
The infinitive form can also be translated by the gerund 'doing' (rather than by 'to do'), though not as commonly: Entering his house is like entering t)J::1'ilJ 1tJJ m illl'::tn P'JN Ol:J'ilJ a bank. .jJ):J'J Verbal noun Not all verbs can generate a related verbal noun. Most nfral v~rbal nouns usc the same stem as the infinitive, plus the abstract nominalization sutlix m-. It is always a feminine noun. In these verbal noun fonns, the e vowel of the stem (of the infinitive, future and imperative) is deleted: Verbal noun Infinitive Citation form running into m'Jpl)D :l Jj;?:J,li;:J? :l Jj;?l;l~ state of readiness 1H::1";'~iJ 'J lJ~D? 'J TJ~~ Some forms of the verbal noun arc based on the present tense stem: Verbal noun Stem form determination m~JD~ determined '<J':'~ willingness, readiness mli::1~ correct 1i::1~ Some verbal nouns whose base is nifa/ are realized in other patterns: Verbal noun Stem form entrance, entry enter, come in ilV'~=i' 0~~~ caution watch out 1H1'Dl 1DP Variants with '9 , ·~ ,':1. 1. The letters '9 .'J .'::::tare realized as b. k. p When occurring as the second root consonant in the past and present, or the first root consonant is in the future, imperative and infinitive 1~J;l) 1 1~p I 1;t~)
: l)))")J,
,~m ,,~P ,,~'?'~
,
, 1::aY
,,,y
,P1;tT:l , U~~D ,'li~~D ,PJ;tD: '1l>~ o~~D~ ,'l!~~D~ ,P1;tiJ~ ' 'JYl!m o'l! or~~ 'li~~T:I
Crwpter 4: Verb pattern gruups
2. The letters'!>,')
,'J.
75
are realized as v, kh, f
i. When it is the first root consonant in the present and past nl;l~~ ,up~ ,10;t~ : 1)1)1J nl;l~~ ,up~ ,K9~ : 1JY ii. When it is the second or third root consonant in the future. imperative. and infinitive \JP,~l;l ,l:;HB , l~~T:l : 1'll)l ~::)£;!~? '1!;r;f~l?l
'um :1'11)1
\J~~iJ~ ,l~:liJ~ ,1~~D?: ~)11!lil
O'll
Variations with guttural radicals 1. In the future, imperative and infinitive, the prefix vowel is always e and there is no dagesh liazak in the guttural consonants: :J'?.'QD?· 2. The prefix vowel of nffal ni- in the past and present tenses changes from ni- tone- when the first consonant of the verb is 'Y ,•n ,•n ,'K An ·echo' vowel replaces the zero vowel of the first consonant. with the exception (in non-fonnal usage) of first radical •n: :JWJ;~? Nm ; ,,~? Nm ; n~m Nm ; 'f~~? Nm
3. When the second letter is 'guttural', the expected zero vowel (shva) is replaced by a natql patan in the third person of the past tense (feminine singular, and plural); in the second person singular feminine and in the second and third person plural of the future tense; and in second person singular feminine and plural of the imperative: nQ!i:l ,'-:'IQ!D .~1Q!~ ,nmn ,~"1Q·Jl;l .~1qp ,nJQP
4.2.2 Irregular Verbs Irregular verbs are verbs in which one or more of the roots consonants arc missing, altered or remain silent.
The root classification: •"9 •m When the first consonant of the root is '\ it is never deleted; it is replaced by the vowel o in the present and in the past tenses. and 1s converted to the consonant '' in the rest of the conjugation.
76
Chapter 4: Verb pattern groups
to be born .,>.li:l~ Root classification
Present Past Future
~
Verbal noun nn'?)i:l
Infinitive i'?.);:l'?
1-'J-)
Root
Qi!
N'il
MID
illlN
0'-:T'?il
J'l'J~1)
1'?il
i~il
,i'{i)
n:r?i)
i'?~)
.1;11'2))
,,'?l?
i';?)l:'l
i'?.p
1'?.~:1:1
The root classification: K"~ "Ol The final consonant 'N is always silent in forms that end the word or syllable, or precede another consonant that ends the syllable: I. The past tense first and second stem, aud lhin.l person masculine singular: NJm ,(1T,liO~t~l!l1tJ;II'lJJ -NJm. Note: before a consonant, a> e. 2. The present tense singular: llNJi?~ ,NJi?~ 3. The future, imperative, and infinitive stem (except t(lr tonns that end in a sutlix vowel): N"JJ¥(D}
to be read/named Root classification N'•7ml Present Past Future Imperative
Verbal noun mN";lJ¥;:l
N'i?::'l~
infinitive
root N-1-p
Oil
~
o'~"Jm
llNJi?~
NJi?D'? !llil N')i?l
!IN-:"~m
il~")i?~
N"Jm
~N1m
~N";li?~
NJW3:'1
NJW~
N"Ji?l:'
1/om~
nx
ilTIM
!,N";Ij?i:l
!'~")i?D
!N"Ji?D
illlN
N)in
The root classification: ·"~ •m When the third root consonant is ''. it is realized as the vowel e or a in tinal position, where it is represented in the spelling as n. Elsewhere, it is realized as the vowel '·· e::,v, in the past tense: '1:''~';1~. or in the singular feminine present tense Tl'~f;ll N'n. The final stem vowel is elided before a final vowel when a suffix is added, such as in ,)i?" on ,~li?~ on, and a 'TI separates the feminine nJ;Jp~ form from il~:p.
77
Chapter 4: Verb pattern groups
to be built !'113""~ Root classification ,,~
Associated noun
Infinitive
Root
*n~p;nu~;:1
n~l~iJ~
')-)-:J
M'il
~
ilnM
o>p~
n''-:;J~
ilpl
np~
:tl;l~
ilnl:Jl + : : •
iiJ:;J~
1)'>.:;1~
!))~:
m::m
il~::}~
il~::J.B
)/DnM
m<
i'lnM
m;m
P~;tD
!il~~iJ
'nJ Di"'
Present Past Future Imperative
·,·1".
*The associated noun is often the verbal noun of the pa 'a/ conjugation. The n({al form of the verbal noun is mJ::}D. but it is rarely used in contemporary Hebrew.
Combined initial guttural and •"'7 verb: The verb l11JtJ';1 'to enjoy' combines the features of verbs with initial gutturals with those of '"'=' mJ verbs.
to enjoy Root classification
;n1li;lt1> Associated noun Infinitive
Root
*mon .... ,. -:
l1iltJ~
'-J-n
M'il
!lli!
ill1N
D'n;)~
l1'~D?.
n~m
il?,i,B
!))m
nl)~m
n~m
'"';I 'nJ en Present Past Future Imperative
fl1l;;t~
~lQ?.
mv-D
n>v?.
{l'nP n>.v.f:l
)/Dill'<
!lli
i"'l1H
! ~JDD
! '~vD
!mDD
*While the verbal noun torm mJiJD exists, the noun commonly used and associated with this verb is nN.m 'enjoyment'.
Marginal root classes: 1.1"1.1 ,1"1.1 ,J"!> •""'on In a fhv verbs, the first 'l of the stem is assimilated to the next consonant when it occurs in sy11able-final position, and its loss IS reflected in a dagesh nazak, e.g., from '-~-J. 'l:l~~~ < 'B~:~m 'I survived'. In the literary register, some 1"~ forms survived, e.g., from l-l-U, 'J:'li:HU~ 'I retreated', l1t7~ 'he retreated'. There are also some high register
7R
residues of turned'.
Chapler 4: Verb pattern groups
).J")l
verbs. e.g., from
:J-J-o, 'J:11:lQ~
'I turned'.
JQ~
'he
See Appendix I
4.2.3 Associated meanings ]n contemporary Hebrew n~(al generally refers to either one of two meanings- passive or inchoative (denoting a change of state). In a tew cases. it also carries a reciprocal meaning. The focus of most n[{al verbs is on the recipient of the action. a. Passive meaning There are several verbs in n!fal which arc counterparts of transitive verbs, usua1ly in pa 'a!. Active meaning ·''~nN
Dan sent the letter only yesterday.
p1 :m:mn nN n'\'J )1
Passive meaning
The letter was sent only yesterday. When a n[fal verb carries a passive meaning, the grammatical subject of the sentence is the recipient of the action, rather than the agent that perfonns the action. The minimal components of a sentence with a passive verb arc the subject of the verb, which is the recipient of the action, and the ni(al passive verb: Jl1~~il : N\!lll (J'JO) ').J!ll
.nJ\!Il
JJ1)~i1
)i: NY.m (J').J!!) ,)I!)
<
.Jn~~il
nN n'\!1 11
The presence or absence of an agent (the one performing the act) is dependent on the context. There are many instances where the agent is as important a focus as the recipient, and thus is included in the passive sentence as well, as an indirect object. Agent: subject
The police interrogated suspects.
.D'il\'Jn mpn m"\!IY.lil
Agent: Indirect object
The suspects were imerrogated by the police.
,,, ~)I ~1pn~
D'il\!lnn .n1"v~n
Chapter 4: Verb pattern groups
79
b. lnchoative (change of state) meaning Jnchoative verbs involve a change of state, e.g. going from wakefulness to a state of sleep, as expressed in a verb like 'fall asleep' OJ')~. A change of state may be "involuntary'; the process happens without an agent causing it, or without mentioning who caused it. Dan remembered that he forgot to .n~iil mo( 1uu~ n:;:,\!1 Nm\!1 1:m )l close the door. The patient weakened after the difficult treatment. Thus, in a sentence like il')~~~ n•~U~iJ 'the window pane broke', the breaking is assumed to have occurred on its own. In Hebrew you cannot make an agent out of an inanimate object. Even if someone may have been involved, their role is not the focus of the statement.
A comparative note In both Hebrew and English the recipient ofthe action may actually be the subject of the proposition, but in addition, in English, the verb can be realized as an active verb, whereas in Hebrew it is stated by a n!fal form with a passive meaning. .m1ltl.:l N~ OY.!l C'JN m,,mn The shops never close. The result of the action is stated in Hebrew not in n~f"al. but rather in the passive participle of pa 'a!: The shops are closed every 1nN 'Y-1'~\!1 01' )::> nnuu n1''Jnil Tuesday afternoon. .0''1ill~il The n[fal form describes the process, whereas the pa'al passive participle ':7W~ ~lU'J describes the state resulting from that process. The person who is causing the action may be at the same time the one undergoing it, in which case the verb is referred to as 'ret1exive' (d~ the meanings of hitpa 'el below). In the illustrations below, Dan can be said to register himself for school, and Joseph to lean himself on the wall. Dan is registering tor school today. Joseph leaned on the wall.
.01li1 O~i1t:l'~2 0\!11~ )i .1'Pil
'y
W\!ll CJUl~
80
Chapter 4: Verb pattern group.<:
c. Reciprocal meaning The nlfal hinyan shares another meaning with hitpa 'ei, that of reciprocity. There are a few reciprocal verbs in nifal, where the causer of the action and the recipient of it are not the same, but may shift roles (usually conveyed in English by 'each other'). Reciprocal meaning can only occur when the verbs are in plural form, since the meaning 'each other' involves more than one entity. Dan and Rina mel at work. Moshe and Hanna separated after many years.
m,,,
.ni'~~:J 1'l1l!lJ ,i O'l'V '1mc riJal mn' n'tln
.mJ.1
The sentences above can have reciprocal pronouns as their object. This use of these pronouns is optional since they are redundant. Dan and Rina met each other at work.
n Oll ;n )'l.'l!ll m,,, )i .nl)J.)l~
Moshe and Hanna separated from each other after many years.
nn m n1!:1J mn1 n'tln .n,~, O'J'tl '1nN
When the subject is singular these verbs must take an object, usually introduced by an obligatory preposition: Dan gets together with Rina every evening. Moshe separated from Hanna after many years. The feature of reciprocity is not a unique feature of n[fat.
.mJ.1
d. Other meanings Verbs in nifa/ arc nut necessarily passive, inchoative, or reciprocal. Many involve none of the above semantic features and can he considered to have an active meaning. We opened the door and entered the .1in2 nt;.JJJ) n'in m~ )lnn£1 room. We hurried to help them. Britain fought the Nazi regime. . >SNlil 1\:l'l1~1 nr.m;, l il'J\:1>1~ He wrestled with his conscience. .m!:l~~ OY jJl~~ N)il
Chapli'r 4: Verb pattem groups
4.3 Pi'el conjugation
81
.,)l•g
l11 ll.
The .,):!~ CiCeC sequence characterizes the stern of the third person masculine singular form in the past tense and gives it its name. The vowel sequence i-e (with its variants) provides the stem for the past tense. This includes a dagesh nazak in the second consonant, e.g. l'tlil 1i1-1'- In other tenses and moods the vowel sequence is a-e: 1~1-. The dagesh nazak, which is part of the pattern, exists in all forms of the various tenses and moods, with the exception of the •guttural' consonants ('l .·~ ,•n ,•n ,'N}, where a dagesh can never be present. A historical note
The presence of the dagesh nazak is a historical residue of the doubled (geminated) second radical, which originally marked the doubling of the length of a consonant. Today this feature is no longer in etlect phonetically, but the dagesh hazak is still part of the pattern of the verb, which also means that when the consonant concerned is ,!:1 ,'J, '3, it is always realized as a stop, b. p. k.
4.3.1 Regular verbs The group of regular verbs is composed of verbs in which all the root consonants are present in all the verb forms. Present tense illlil 1nr The present tense of this conjugation pattern has a -1;) me- prefix, which marks it tor present tense. l1'J~J~ (N'm ,l1N ,"lN) ;i~11;) (Nm ,nnN ,'lN)
nil~1'? {ln
,lllN ,lmlN) ; O''J~J'? con ,anN ,nmNJ
:nnm, : lll!O':ll
Note
The prefix nlfal.
-~
is typical to all verb pattern groups, except tor pa 'a/ and
The present tense forms of pi 'el not only act as verbs, but generate many adjectives and nouns. Here are some adjectives that have pi 'e/ present tense forms:
H2
Chapter 4: Verb palfern groups
Adjective
Root
Citation form fascinate Pm reinforce P11J drive mad ))~'?'
p-n-1 p-t-n
Speakers add new adjectives constantly, e.g.: Adjective Citation form astonishing shock D~D
Root
fascinating reint{Jrcing fantastic
P~'J~ pm~
~~~~
))-)-\!)
Here are some nouns that have pi 'e/ present tense forms: Citation form immigrate l~D train l~~ ,~~ tell. narrate gamble l~D
Noun
immigrant trainer/coach narrator gambler
l~D~
~~~tt l~'Q~ lt,;ID~
Root l-)-il l-0-N
l-0-0
1-.o-n
Past tense The past tense of pi 'el has three stem variants: Masculine singular 3rd person: I ' 1 and 2"<~ person forms: 3nJ person feminine singular and plural (stem vowel deleted when stress moves to sumx):
to speak; to talk ,~):;)1 !!'IN)
diber dihardibr-
l~:t'
-!~1
-l::;t':f
,~,?
,J)"P1 !nl1N} , 'l:l)~1 ('lN)
, illi'n'
n:q:r r·Pn ,l:;J.:Y Nm ,)tl)~'J'
()l1N) ,Otl)::i":f (Ol1N) ,~)";~~')' (1lnJN.): l1V0'll
,,:!;1:1' )n
.~1:!;1":1
on
The vowel stem i is indicated by the frequent addition of'' following the tirst consonant: lJ'l. It is added not only to indicate the stem vowel, but also to further clarify the difference between pi 'e/ verbs and pa 'a/ verbs, such as between l!l'O 'recounted/told' and lOU 'counted'. The '' is often inserted even in texts with vowels.
83
Chapter 4: Verb pattern groups
Future tense The future tense of pi 'el has two stem variants: I. In all first and second person singulars and first person plurals 2. In the second person feminine singular and second and third person plural (stem vowe] deleted when stress moves to sutlix)
-daher
1~J-
-dabr-
-1:!;11-
, ''":l~Jl;l (m'() ,1~1l;l cnnN) ,1~1~ (>)N)
N>n ,1~1~ Nm ,cnn~JJ;l) n~J:J;l C)nN) .~.,~JJ;l conN> ,1:;J7~ ClJmN)
: nrPn>
1~J:J;l
(ilr?:;JJ:J;l)
nn? )il
',1~1?
=
mto':J1
on •u•:~r
The imperative mood The imperative shares the same stem with the future tense. cnn:;J1)
!~1:;L'J
!l"J:;t'J !1:;J:Y
Future fonns used for negative and positive ones in speech: !1:;)13;1
-
! '1:Jil'l . : ~
- -
!1::1111 .. : JN P1:Jil'l . - JN ;
;
!~1~1J;l 'J~
The infinitive mood The pi'e/ infinitive uses the same stem as the present, future, and imperative: 1)~-~~ ,1~:1)? ,1~1~1 want to talk to him about what happened yesterday. Talking to him is like talking to the wall.
il1PV no J)) U1'N 1:;!.1~ il~i1 >)N .';1)}-Jl'lN
.1'Pil 'JN 1~J? m:> m 1mN 1:n?
Verbal noun il.,I.U9il ov The pi'el verbal noun uses a fonn similar to the 'citation torm\ but the second vowel is u rather than e: Gerund
Stem
Gerund
Stem
Chapter 4: Verb paff(~m groups
84
Variants with
,'l ,':1 1. The letters '9 ,') .·~ are realized as b, k, '!)
p
i. When it is the first root letter in the past and imperative: tl~:;! ,1~~ ,1{:;'~
: 1:1))
!tl~~ !1~~ !1{:;'~: '"'~
ii. When it is the second root letter in all tenses and moods: ,~~ , 0~~
i~Q'? ,o~Q'?
i~Q~ .o~~~ n~Q
,1:;).1 : j:J))
,1:;!.1'?: mm ,'"'I~J~ : 1my
! o~~ !
1*J
: ,,,,~
1!.11~? ,o~Q? ,i:;JJ~, JY,!lil 0\!.1
2. The letters '9 ,') ,':1 are realized as
v. kh. f
i. When it is the first root letter, preceded by a prefix: in the present, future, and infinitive. '"'~W~t;J,i~~'? .u~~t;l mm =
'"'I~~~ ,tl~~!:'!- ,1{:;':;!.~:
l'lW
1-~~~ , tiP? I iii?~? : .,)))!)il O'tl
ii. Whenever it is the last letter in the word or root:
Variations with 'guttural' consonants ''l ,'il ,'n ,'JI ,'M l. When the second root letter is •N or '1. the first vowel i is replaced by e in the past tense and in the verbal noun: ·nr-c:[:! ,1n:;1.; 11::<:[:1 ,1J:;J. 2. When the second root letter is a guttural, the expected zero vowel (shva) is replaced by a Pwtaf"patah: ~'tm ,0'~0~'? ,il~O'~ when the verb form ends in a stressed suffix vowel. 3. When the second root letter is •roc or,.,, the patan under the first one is replaced by a kamats, but the pronunciation remains the same: 11::? .~~'qf;> (note: fern. n~~"'t;l ,TIO~~Y,l).
Chapter 4: Verb pal/ern groups
4.3.2 Irregular Verbs
85
a•n:u a•,on nnu
The root classification: 11"11 Verbs that belong to this group have identical second and third root consonants. They are conjugated as regular verbs. Some of the).)"~ roots are derived from hi-consonantal adjectives; ll"ll Gloss Infinitive Future Present INin 01/.1 Past j-1-f"l sharpen < if"l 1JI) T]'O~ 1:10? i:!"O'? o-o-n warm up OJ;;) I)
The root classification: merger of •"11/1"11 with 11"11 In pi 'el, pu 'a/ and hitpa 'el '"W)"~ verbs behave as if they were ~~~~ ones, and undergo some additional changes. For both original Y"~ verbs and merged "'WV'Y ones, the final root consonant is duplicated, and the medial consonant') or'' is replaced by the vowel o. Gloss spin around incite
Infinitive J.:;no? DO.iP':(
Future
Present ::lJ..iOY,l
Past
li"JJ
D!.
::lJ..i~~
J.J..i~
Or,;Jip~
m;::~ip'?
oo.ip
J.-:::l-0 (n-n-p)
(:::1-)-tl) r.J-)-p
Note
Some '"W1"~ roots have two forms of pi 'e!: one is conjugated as a regular verb in pi 'el, and the medial semi-vowel '1 or '' is realized as a consonant. The other follows the merged '"W1"W~"~ pattern above. Examples
Gloss fulfill, realize incite, arouse
Infinitive O?.iJ.':? DP.iP':?
Citation form O?.P oo.ip
Pi"el root r.J-'-p Y.)-r.J-p
Source r.J-1-p Y.)-)-p
Gloss aim, direct found, establish
Infinitive
Citation form
Source )-1-:l )-)-::l
n~?
lP
Pi'el root J-)-:l
pi:l?
)~i:il
)-.)-)
The root classification: N"'l 'fJ~ When the third root consonant is 'N, it is not pronounced at the end of the syllable, although it is maintained in the spelling.
86
Chapter 4: Verb pattern groups
to fill up N>.~~ Root classification
Verbal noun
Infinitive
Root
N"''m
o.,~~~n~m~~
N~~~
N-'7-Y.l
Dil
lt'il
ltlil
ilmf
0'~\'Y.'lt? 'lN?J?
TINi?Y.lt?
N~t;l'?
N~t;l'?
n~~'?
N~Y,l
l)N~Y,l
~N';Jr,>~
N).r,>:J;~
N~Y,)~
Ni?Y.ll;l
1/DnN
mt
ilnlt
! ~N?r,)
!'~?r.>
!N'i'Y.'l
Present Past Future Imperative
The root classification: •"~ •nl When the third root consonant is '', it is realized as the vowel e or a in tina! position. where it is represented in the spelling as 'il. whereas elsewhere, it is realized as the vowel " i, or is elided before another vowel. to discover/reveal J'l1}~~ Root classification Infinitive Verbal noun
,,.,,m
Present Past Future Imperative
l!)~~
n''z:l~~
Dil
lt'il
I'Liil
ilJ'\N
tJl':J~'?
n~~'? il:J;l~~
n"?.~'?
il~~'?
'l'z:l~
n~~
D''i!~
"~~~
il~~l;l
n~~~
n'?~J;l
IIDnN
n~t
ilJ'\N
!"'z:l~
!'>'.;~~
!il~~
4.3.3 Derived and newly created verbs New verbal roots can be created for pi 'el, which is a very productive binyan. There are various ways of creating such new roots, most of which are listed below. Three-consonantal verbs derived from nouns: Several agentivc verbs (where the su~ject of the verb is the one carrying out the action) with tri-consonantal roots were and are continuing to be derived from existing nouns, as in: Citation form Noun Stem place place (l) DiP'? (DP'Y.l) OtJY,> em,,, nn report report Cl) on mechanize machine ()) n~i:J'? (P'Y.l) PI? file file (P"l1) P~!:' (l) P'!:'
87
Chapter 4: Verb pattern groups
Derived four~consonantal verbs Most Hebrew verbs can be traced to three-consonant roots. but even at earlier stages of the language, some four-letter roots can be attested, all in pi 'el: provide livelihood gnaw However, most four-consonant verbs were derived from pre-existing words or roots. The oldest historical method was to reduplicate the first stem syllable, as in 'J~':n 'roll (tr.)', ?~{:;~'confuse'. a. First stem syllable reduplication:
to roll '~?~> Root classification
':m{~
'~'?~?
Root 'J+'J-l
Oil
N'il
N.lil
ilmt
0'':?~~~'?
n{~{~'?
'~':?~>;>
?~{~'?
,,~?~
ilJ:l'J:I .. : .
?~{~
~~~~~
~'~'?~~
?~{~J;J
,~·:m
7~{~:1:1
1/omt
nN
ilnN.
!l'J~{~
! ''~?~
!J~{~
(0)J!):J1'l!Y.:ll Q))):J11Y.:l
Present Past Future Imperative
Verbal noun
Infinitive
~
b. Four-consonantal verbs derived from existing nouns Another way is to derive such verbs from existing nouns with (at least) four consonants: Verb meaning Citation form Root Base Noun J-)-)-)l matter interest )~?)l 1?~)1 J-::1-'V-n calculate calculation )l3~1) )~~I) )-l-l-'l! armor ensure, obtain )?,";1'?' W";J~ c. Verbs derived from foreign words: The consonants of the foreign words are adapted into root consonants that are realized in the pi 'e/ four or five consonantal pattern: Citation form New root telephone )~{\? /)P.?'Y +-)-!:1-J-\J 1)-)-!>-il +-hypnotize \JJ!;!D il!i)~'D l·\J·)-!) +-fantasize il~~\?~!;'1 ''?.~~ \J·\J-1- J-!) +-tlirt IJ\J)?~ \J')'~~
88
Chapter 4: Verb pattern groups
Note
Most recently many new technology terms have been adapted from English. While technical tenns are created by the Hebrew Language Academy based on Hebrew roots, these new terms come from the field, and are created by necessity. They often have a short life as the Academy creates the necessary new roots or new technology replaces the existent one, requiring new terms. refresh YJJ~'J compile Four-consonant roots expanded from three-consonant roots Some new roots are derived from existing tri"consonantal verbal roots. to which an initial -YJ, -!1, -N, or -Y.l are added as the first consonant, to create a new, but related meaning. a. Four-consonantal verbs: with -was first consonant
Adding an initial -YJ as the first consonant, creating a new, but related meaning can create new roots. Verb meaning Citation form convince ).lp\l.l rewrite :lt9W duplicate, photocopy ':1~?~
Root )I- )-::1-Y.I
J-!1-::1-YJ ':1-!:1-::1-YJ
Gloss surrender write multiply
b. Four-consonantal verbs: with initial letters n
,PC
Base YP~
).1·)-::1
ltql
J-!1-::1
~'~?;:'!
~-!)-::1
,n
The prefixes -J'J ,-N ,-!1 characterize some new roots, which are either derived directly from existing nouns, or from existing tri-consonantal verbal roots. New verbs are created, and they have a meaning related to their source words. Verb meaning drill, exercise function diagnose refer enumerate mortgage
Citation form
Root
~~';11:1
~-)-1-!1
iP~l'l
i-p-n-!1
)O:;tz:.t
l-n-J-N
1~~z:.t
"l-::1-l-N
"l~1fr,l
1-!:1-Q-Y.)
,~~r,l
)-:J-YJ-0
Noun exercise function check, test mention number mortgage
~'nJ;l i'i?!;l~
)O;a 1'~ln
1~91? nm~'?'~
Chapter 4: Verb pattern groups
R9
4.3.4 Associated meanings Pi'el may be either transitive, e.g. 1:1~ 'arrange', or intransitive, e.g. 'speak'. It is difficult to place all the verbs under one semantic rubric; the closest is 'agentive', i.e. the verb designates a voluntary activity, which is initiated and controlled by the 'actor/doer', who is the subject of the sentence. u? 11'0 N1m UJ\!J 1:m 'Nt.:!Jn The director is a friend of ours and he got us good tickets for the show.
1:;).':1'
The following subgroups have additional specitic features that characterize them. a. Causative: 'cause to be', or 'cause to become' The volunteer physicians cure O'J1n O'N!l1t.:l 0'J1)llt.:lil O'N!lnil patients in many distant villages. . O'iJ1n1 0'1!lJJ .nn!l\!Jt.:ln nN n1n'N mJun The danger unified the family. b. Repeated/intensive action Some pi 'e/ verbs that share roots with pa ·at add the feature of repeated action to the meaning of the verb. Thus, if '{!Ji( kafats is 'jump', ~~p kipets is 'jump again and again, or jump back and forth'. Sometimes the activity may be characterized as intensive, so while 1~~ shavar is 'break' 1~V! shiber is 'smash, shatter'. The intensive activity can also be accounted for by repetition, as 'smash' means 'break again and again'.
The clerks sorted all the files. We didn't read the book- we only leafed through it. One preserves fruit in this manner.
.O'P'nn 'JJ nN 1)"~ 0'1'iJ!ln 1)!11!11 P1 ,1!ltJil nN DN1jJ NJ .)J
.n n\J,\!JJ m1'!l 0'1t.:l\!Jt.:l
c. Removal A small group of verbs in pi 'el refer to removal ( otlen related to a base
noun). One should uproot violence from the schools. We'll remove all the thugs.
.1!ltJn mJt.:l mt.:l'JNn nN \!.11\!J? 1'1~
.O')P1Jil 'JJ nN p'JtJ)
90
Chap!er 4: Verb pattern groups
Pu 'a/ conjugation ~.1119 l11 l:l Pi 'eland pu ·at are related conjugations. All or almost all verbs in pu 'al
4.4
are passive counterparts of existing pi'el verbs, which in itself suggests that pu 'at is always pi 'el-based. However, not every pi 'el verb has a passive counterpart in pu 'a/. The pu 'a/ s1em is characterized by the discontinuous u-a vowel sequence 1hat internally marks it as being passive. The u-a vowel pattern simply replaces the parallel i-e one in the corresponding pi 'el form. As in pi 'el, the second root consonant is always marked with a dagesh liazak, which is not audible in current Hebrew, but which at least means that when that consonant is one of the letters '!:1 ,'=> ,':J, it is always realized as h, k, p- never v, kh,f. Pattern
Form
Root
CiCeC CuCaC
()p)nJ lii?l:l <1P1II) lWt'
l-p-n
I
Form
Root
(1!l'U) 1~~
1-!:1-U
(1!l~U) 1~P.
The dagesh hazak in the second root consonant of the verb is an integral part of the pu 'al pattern, just as it is an essential component of pi'el. The only exceptions are the 'guttural' consonants ('1 ,'Y ,•n ;n ,•N), which can never have a dagesh. As noted above, the presence of the dagesh is an historical residue of the doubling in length of the second root consonant. An important teature of the pu 'a/ conjugation is that it is limited to the tenses only: present, past and future. This verb conjugation docs not have the imperative or infinitive moods and does not have a verbal noun. The pi 'el infinitive and verbal nouns serve the pu 'a/ conjugation. Due to the passive nature of pu 'a/, most forms used in the past, present and future tenses arc in the third person only. There are only a few verbs that occur in the first and second person also.
4.4.1 Regular verbs The group of regular verbs includes verbs in which all the root consonants are present in all the verb forms. Present tense All present tense forms arc marked by a -J? me- prefix.
to be arran2ed/ncat ..,_'l~t;) J'll'tl~ !1';)!9.1? (Nm ,llN ,'lN) ;1JP.J? {Nm ,i11lN ,'lN) ni1JP.I? 11n ,1l1N , 'lmNJ ; o)nP.'? con ,om'( ,)ln)NJ
illli1lnT
:nti'n' :mto':J1
Chapter 4: Verb pattern groups
91
When tht! text is without vowels, the ~ vowel replaces the kubuts [...] u vowel mark. In ordinary writing, even when the texts have vowels, the, is inserted to make deciphering this f(lrm easier: m""'l~tm
,0'11n7Y.l ,n11m.o
,11~tm
Many present tense forms of pu 'a/ function as adjectives. This pattern is particularly productive in generating new adjectives. Adjective
obliged riveted connected signified/marked
(.J.'m.O) .J.!D.J? cpm1.o) i'.ti1J? (1~m.o) 1;1QJ? {)Y.l~OI:J) W~t?
Citation form be obliged :1~(1 be riveted i'.lJ1 -,~n be connected -..• be marked )t;l~
Pasttense The past tense ofp11'a/ has two variants of the past tense stem: In the first and second person: pularln the third person feminine singular and plural: putr-
.l;l')'i)~
Root .J.-'-n p-:n-1 1-:::1-n )-Y.l-0
,~»lnT
-
-"l\:>9 ·-. ~
CnN) ,.tJ')'i)l1! (ilnNJ ,'T:l')~!!! ('JNl : illl'n'
il'J\?P. Nm I 1\.'>!i! Nm , 1-t'l~'i)~ ()nN) , O.J;J')~P. conN) , 1J)l.}:i? C1mmJ : nvtl'.J.1 ~1\"l1!
lil
In\"~
on
In text without vowels: 11\J)!l 1 0l1l\J1!l 11l1m!l ,1m!l ,n1o1!l ,'l110l!l
Future tense -r•n» )nT The future tense uses the following stem: -CuCaC. The second stem vowel a is lost when the stress shifts to the last syllable. (TIN) ,lQ~J;1 Cnl1N) 1 1\;)~~ ('lN) : nllm' ""''i)P.J;l N'n , "ll.}~? Nm ,cnn\.'>P.J;ll n\i)el;l ():nN) ,,,\l'~J;l conN) I ,~m (UnJN) : nVO'.l1 ,''J\?~J.'l
cnn!,it~J;ll Y1'?~~ ,n I ~1\l'~? on
In text without vowels: 1101!l:n ,1\Jl!lJ ,'1\J!lll ,1\J1!lll ,l\J1!lN
92
Chapter 4: Verb pattern groups
Variants with '9 , ':> ,':1 1. The letters '9 ,'J ,'J. are realized as b. k, p i. When it is the first root letter in the past tense 0~~. 1\'"l~
:1:1).1
ii. When it is the second root letter in all tenses and moods:
:1~).1
1~?, ,0:;,1?, .1~9.
1~9.~ ,D~P.t? ,1~?.'? 1;"1?,~ , 0~?,~ , 1~?,~
=
mm
: i~J1)l
2. The letters·~,') ,':::1. are realized as v, kh. f i. When it is the first root letter in the present and future tenses ,~~t;l ,up~
,\!JW:.!l? =nnn
1\i>~~ .~~~? ,\!JW~?:
1my
ii. When it is the third letter of the root
Variations with root letters ., ,'»,'n ,'il,'l< In roots where the second consonant is a guttural one (except for •n). the u is replaced by o, in all tenses: 1~\!Jf? ,:l"J.P'? ,1~-!:IP ,;tf:JJ? With the same consonant (except for •n), a nataf patan replaces the expected shva: ,1~\!J? ,,.,tP~ ,n~·,.,~ ,,1~·r-1.
4.4.2 Irregular Verbs The group of irregular verbs parallels that of the pi'el conjugation and undergoes the same processes.
The root classification: merger of •"»I•"» with :u"» In pu 'a!, as in pi 'el and hitpa 'e/, wwv•y verbs behave as if they were Y").l ones: the final root consonant is duplicated. Their first vowel is o. Gloss be spun around be incited
The
H .. .,
Future
Present
Past
y".v
1"11
:J.JiO~
:J.~iOJ;:l
:JJiO OY,Jip
:J.-:J-0
(:J.-1-0)
(>J-~-p)
t.:l-1-p
Or,lip~
OY;)iPJ?
•m root classification
When the third root consonant is 'N, it is not pronounced at the end of the syllable, although it is maintained in the spelling. ln the first and
93
Chapter 4: Verb partern groups
second person of the past tense, the a vowel before the sutlix is replaced by e. In the third person singular the palan is replaced by kamats, which does not affect its pronunciation.
to be filled )(~~~ 1ll'~> Dil
N'il
Nm
N-7-Y.'I : \!.11)\!.1 ilnN
Ol~?~Y:J
nNi'~Y:J
N~~~
N\7~t,)
1N{~
m~?~
N~~
tJNi'~
1N{~~
N~~J;l
N~~'
N\7~:1:1
N"'Jlm Present Past Future
The •"'l•nJ root classification As in other binyanim, when the third root consonant is '\ it is realized as the vowel e or a in final position, where it is represented in the spelling as 'il: il~?Y:l .n~?Y:l· Elsewhere, it is realized as the vowcll.. ey as in 'l:1'~~9, or is elided before another vowel, as in m9.
to be experienced on Present Past Future
t1V~.~ J'!l'~>
l-U-) : \!.11)\!.1 nnN
Nm il?.?.Y:l
10).
N'il ilW.Y:l il{l?.?_
il~~
~'W)
1W.~
n~~l;l
iltJ)l ...
il~9l;l
O'~).Y:J
•.•
~
n~.~~
4.4.3 Derived and newly created verbs New verb torms can be created for pu 'al, mostly by virtue of its being the almost-automatic counterpart of the very productive pi"el. Generally, all new verb formation patterns allowed in pi'el can be found in pu 'a! as well. Thus, for instance, when a three-consonant new root can be formed in pi el, it will have generally a pu 'al counterpart as well: '7lJ•g Gloss '1.lH9 Gloss Base Gloss opt,) place place place cop~Y.l) ow~ oipY.J report report report (nH1) n);:~ JJn nr:r file file file (P'~n} P~{l P~l?l P'l?l
Chapter 4: Verb pattern groups
94
Reduplicated roots The same pi 'el-pu 'at relationship applies when the first syllable is reduplicated, to fonn new four-c.onsonant verbs. Alongside ~~~:;t 'confuse' (tr.) in pi 'el, we find.,~~~ 'being confused' in pu 'a/.
to be confused ~~~~~ n1'v> Root classification
Root
(Ql~!lJl'llr.:l) Ql)IJ ,,r.:l
Present
~-::1-~-J
on
N'il
N1i1
Ql~~~~t;l
l1?~'?~9 n~~?~
?i?~9
~.,:;1~~
1J~~~~
J~'?~l;l
~ZIJJl - : ..•
Past
Future
?:g.'?;;! ~
Expansion to four-letter roots The pu 'af stem can be expanded to f(lur letters:
to be famous; be advertised
av,~~ ,,,~>
Root classification
Root Y.l-0-,-!l
O'~=n,n
Present Past 3rd person Future 3rd person
.QU
!£ll
1lli1
O'Y.lt:'';IP.J?
CV)~'?
~017)@
mtV??.'? i1Q\???.
u:m,!l, '•. :
CQ)l;]{l
OQ)P.~
;
~
c~n~
Derived four-consonant verbs a. Derived from foreign words
The consonants of the foreign words are adapted into root consonants in the same manner as in the pi 'el conjugation. What distinguishes the two binyanim is the vowel sequence. pte/ New root Noun pu·a/form be hypnotized il!il~>;:l \:))!:)11 "~~Q ··:. be neutralized J~l\'~ .,J'?~ b. Four-consonantal verbs derived from existing native nouns pu'a/ form pi'el Root Base noun
be ensured
armor
95
Chapter 4: Verb pattern groups
c. Four-consonantal verbs: with ·1!1, -n, ·Hor-n as first consonant
The new roots are derived either directly from existing tri-consonantal verbal roots. Verb meaning pu'al pi'el Root ::J.·n-:J-'ll be rewritten ::n.:qW. lN'<-' be drilled '-l-1-n 'l1l'l - •., 'nJ:~ 1-::J.-)-l'l be reinforced 1itn_l 1~~:J:l )-1"1-l-N be diagnosed 1t9l:t 11:9~ 1-J-l-N be referred ,~il:t 1~i~ 1-!l-tl-r.l be enumerated ,~?Y.l 1~?~ ~
existing nouns. or from Source
write exerctse overcome check. test mention number
::m:J+'ll
''r;ltt 1~~ )I}~
.
"l'~lil . ~
1~?Y.l
4.4.4 Associated meanings Pu a/ verbs arc used most commonly in the third person. which can refer to objects as well as to persons. There are few pu 'a/ verbs that can be conjugated in the tirst and second person as well. The restrictions are semantic and depend on the specific meaning of the verb: Pu'al in all persons: We were hugged and (were) kissed. Pu'al in plural: The workers were organized tor the strike. The singular is not applicable:
I was ergaRi;zee
~er
t'He strike.
.1m10m 1lpJm .ill'l'l'llil nN1P' Ul1)N
O''lll!:ln
.nn)JYJn n~np!J 'n;~;nm
There arc many pu 'a/ verbs that cannot be used with a human grammatical subject. Their meaning excludes a person being the recipient of an action. The show was cancelled. .n'"':J m~nn .)J=l~\3)3 I was eaneelled. Active pi'el and passive pu"a/
Because of the passive nature of the conjugation, the grammatical subject of the sentence with a pu 'at verb is the recipient of the action rather than the initiator of the action. The subject of the active sentence, the agent, may surface in the passive counterpart as an indirect (or oblique) object, signaled by the preposition 'by' ''J~ '~· The recipient is often an object or an entity, which is not a person. A few verbs apply to human recipients of actions.
96
Chapler 4: Verb pal/ern groups
pi'el
The manager changed the daily schedule.
.mm 110m-< ill'\!! 7nmn
pu'al
The daily schedule was changed by the manager.
.7nmn ,,, ~)I m~v 01'i1110
We also find some pu 'a/ verbs used in passive sentences even when the correspondingpfel verb is not transitive, e.g., 1:~r:r •talk, speak' and 1il:! 'be talked about': It was not talked about in the last n~'l.IY.lt:ln n:P'l.I'.J p ~~ 1:::1~1 N7 meeting ofthe government. .mnnNn A comparative note
Active verbs in English have passive counterparts. This is not necessarily the case in Hebrew. Dan did not pay Ron the money l'JO:m llN , , , O~''l.l N7 11 '.V.'9 Ron was not paid the money. ...,9;)i'J:R~I e7n!.' ~t7 )'1 7.V.lll The money~ not paid (by Ron). .(111 '1' 'Y) o7~v N' l'JO:m ~.V.~ Other verbs act in a similar way in Hebrew and English: The doctors immunized the O'i~'>n llN tlom 0'N!ll1i'l ~).!'.!:! children against measles. .llt:liN i.U The children were immunized .llt:liN 1l) .lli21Q o>1~m ~.V.~ against measles. Common use
The use of pu 'al is most often restricted to a high register, which is used in news broadcasts, in formal documents or speeches and in literature. In practice, the use of sentences with third person subjects and the verb in pi 'el is more characteristic of everyday speech to express the passive sense. More formal This bill was paid. .o~~\!J nm )tlvnn '.V.?. Evervday Use
.mn l1:J'l.lnnnN lt:l:;,~'l.I1J.:>
:;,~p9
Pu'al participles as adjectives or nouns There are many participles (present tense forms) of the same verbs that function as adjectives, nouns, or adverbs.
97
Chapter 4: Verb pattern groups
Adjective Adverb Noun Adjective
The hour is already late. 1 arrived late to the meeting. All the dignitaries have arrived. Professor Schwartz is a highly regarded scholar.
.rnmNo "1:1::> nli\!Jn .., nu-to n\!J'l!l~ 'lWln .1ll'ln O'i::n:mn ~::>
1Pln Nlil 'il"\!1 ln,!lll!:l ·lm12
4.5 Hitpa 'el conjugation .,ll9nil 1•ll. The stem of hitpa 'el has two components: -it + pa 'el. The prefix -it is the unique marker of hitpa 'el, and it is always preceded by another marker: l. It can be initiatt:u by Lht: prt:st:nl Lt:nst: marker m: ~.V.~~02. Jt can be initiated by h in the past tense, imperative and infinitive: :.v.~.J;liJ.
3. In the future tense, the subject person prefixes combine with it, such as in the following forms: :.):I~.J;l~ ,:.v.~.J;ll;( . As in pi'el and in pu "a!, the second root consonant is always marked with a dagesh nazak. Although the dagesh is irrelevant in Israeli Hebrew, one consequence is that when that consonant is one of the letters '!:1 ,'::> ,':1, it is always realized as b, k, p, respectively.
4.5.1 Regular verbs
o•n-.er
Regular verbs arc composed of verbs in which a11 the root consonants are present in all the verb forms.
Present tense
illlil
1nr
All present tense forms have a mit- -J;lr,l prefix: the m indicates present tense, and the fo1lowing 1 indicates that it is a hitpa 'ef verb.
to e:et dressed
VJ;?J:11:'1~
J"''U~~J;lt;:l (N>n ,J"'N ,'lN) ; \!.'~~J;l~ (Nlil ,iU1N ,'lN}
: n11lnl
l"li\!J:!;i?J;JY.l (1n , )J"'N , llnlN) ; O'~:;tlJ;'Ir,l (Oil ,OJ"'N ,llnlN}
: J"'VO'J"l
Pasttense The stem of the past tense of hitpa 'el has three variants: 1. Masculine, singular third person hitlabesh 2. First and second person fonns hit/abash3. Third person feminine singular and plural hit/absh(deletion resulting from stress shift to the suffix)
,~u1nr
\!J:;).?J;liJ -"<J~'ll;liJ
-\!1-=il'll;lD
98
Chapta 4: Verh pattern groups
,J;l~~~J;m CnN) ,~~~:;_,J;'ID
: nnm'
i'l~~':?J;'ID N'i'l 1'liJ..'2J;1D Nm ,)3)'<1~'2J;ID
()TIN) 103)~~'2J;'ID (OTIN) .~l~~'2J;JD (llmN) w~?J;JD )il I ~w~?J;'ID on
: l1VO':J1
A historical note
In Mishnaic Hebrew a variant of hitpa 'el emerged in the perteci: nitpa 'el, with n replacing h in the hit- pretix: o~gm be discovered take place. exist This variant became the preferred realization in Mishnaic Hebrew. Few verbs maintained the hit- pretix in that period. It is very likely that the h > n shift resulted from analogy with then of n!(al. In modern Hebrew, hit- is dominant in everyday use; nit- is more typical of higher registers. Future tense The stem of the future tense of hitpa 'el has two varianls: l. In all first and second singular and first -tlabesh person plural: 2. In the second person feminine singular and -tlabshsecond and third person plural (deletion resulting from stress shitl):
-
'li!I~TI.. ;
,'~:;t:;_,J;'IJ:l (TIN) , VJJ..?J;ll:l (i1!1N) ,'li~'2J;l~ ('lN) \!.I:;J'2J;'IJ:l N'i'l I \!.IJ..'2:1;1~ Nm ,{i1~'?'~'2J;Jl';l} ~lli:;I?J;'IJ:l ()l1N) , ~\!.l:;t'2J;lt:l (Ol1N) , 'll;)'2m ()lnlN)
The imperative mood •u•3f The imperative, like the past and the infinitive, includes the prefix hiof the hilpa 'el pattern in its forms. (M~'?':;!.~J;l;:l) ! ~\!.1~'2J;liJ ! '~:;t'2J;'ID ! \!.l~'l.J;!D
Like in the rest ofthe conjugation, the stem vowel is reduced from e to a zero vowel before a stressed sutlix hif!ahcsh•-H * > hitlabshu. The negative imperative
The negative imperative also uses the future tense fonn with the negative particle ~~'don't!'
Chaplt>r 4: Verb pattern group.s
99
~)119i\ DW The infinitive mood The hitpa 'el infinitive mood is formed with the same stem as the imperative: .,~gll;ID ,'J:;JG'l;lD ,'ti:J.~J;ln, with the addition of the pretixed letter-~ 'to': 'J~~l;lD'? ,.,:J.G'J;ID'? ,'ti:J.~~D'?·
I need to get dressed before I leave home. He hopes to be admitted to the University.
nN!:!1' 'lN'tl 'l!)'] ~t~:J'Jnn., n::l'1!:1 ')N .!1l:Ji1~
.n\J'01:J'J1N., .,Jpnn., mlp~ Nm
As in other binyanim the infinitive form can also be translated as the English gerund equivalent of'doing' (rather than by 'to do'). .Dl' ']::~.,mmn'J :n'lln Exercising every day is very important.
The verbal noun The hitpa 'el verbal noun appends the sutlix m- to its citation form stem. The stem used is the variant hitiahsh-, because it is followed by a stressed vowel. Nouns with the suffix m-are always feminine nouns. Gerund Stem Gerund Stem
A verbal noun of a transitive verb is linked to an object by the same preposition as the finite verb: .m\J.,nn~ milmn 'J::> ' ::1 )'N I have no objection to the decisions. nJ1'lln mn mnn~ mz..t:mnnn Familiarity with this domain is very . i1i:l)I~J i'lilJ.)I'] ilN~ important tor the work in the lab.
Alternate stems with initial: r ,3f ,iO ,w ,o There arc certain alterations that occur in the stem of hitpa 'el verbs when the first consonant is a sibilant: itlto s, \V sh, ~ rs, i :::. (In Hebrew the sibilants are known as mp1l\!J nPmN or 'whistling letters' because of their articulation). The changes involve a different placement of the l1 of the prefix of hitpa 'el, which trades places with the first root consonant. It may involve other changes as well. The changes facilitate the articulation of the pretix together with the sibilants and prevent them from merging with then, so that they are all heard distinctly.
Chapter 4: Verb pattern groups
100
First root consonant: ·v,~,, s, ~ sh Tf the first consonant of the root is either "ll.lttJ or IV, then that consonant and the n at the end of the prefix change places: Is > st. Actual Form
histader hishtalem
11lJ~D
o';?lJ\?iJ
Expected Form
hit+sader hit+shalem
.. -
1~U-l"ln* :
.
o~~-3;lD*
First root consonant: t zayin When the first consonant of the root is zayin l z, the n of the hit- pretix becomes 1, as well as changing places with the first root letter: tz > zd. The reason for the change from the prefix consonant n to 1 is its proximity t() the first root consonant t, which is a voiced consuuanl. Instead of the expected voiceless ll, the prefix consonant becomes voiced 1. Actual Form
hizdamen hizdaken
V;;J1)i:'l
)ii."Jli:l
Expected Form
hit+zamen hit+zaken
1~!-3;ln*
lii?!-l;'D*
First root consonant:~ tsadi If the first consonant of the root is tsadi ~ ts, then that consonant and the prefix consonant change places. In addition the prefix consonant n changes to ": "~ < :m. Actual Form
hilsta'er hitstalem
1),1'\;)~i)
o']"~n .. .. . ~
Expected Form
hit+tsa'er hit+tsalem
1):1~-3;lD*
o~~-3;1n·
A historical note
The consonant ~ tsadi was historically an emphatic consonant, pronounced differently than today's pronunciation of t.<j (i.e. it was an s with the back of the tongue simultaneously raised towards the velum). Therefore the n of the hitpa 'el prdix which preceded it was turned into what was once an emphatic" let to fit with~- These qualities were lost in modern pronunciation, but the spelling still reflects the historical process.
Chapter 4: Verh pattern groups
101
Variants with 'g , 'J , '::1 1. The letters '9 .':> ,':l are realized as b. k, p i. When it is the first root letter in all the tenses and moods: N~!iJJ;'l~ : 1'lW ; N'i!;'IJ;lil : 1:1)1 ; N~~J;'lJ;l : mm N~~J;'lil~ : .,))1!lil 0\!1 ! N~~J;'Iil : '11':::1
ii. When it is the second root letter in all tenses and moods: \!I.;J~J;'I~ : i'rlY ; \!I.;J~l;'lil : 1:1Y ; YJ.;J~J;'IJ;l : mm ! \!.I.;J~J;lil : '11':::1 YJ:;J.~J;ln~ , .,Y,!lil o\!.1
2. The letters '9 ,') .':l are realized as v. kh, f When it is the last letter ofthe word or root:
Variations with radicals ., ,'i\ ,'n ,')1 ,'N. l. When the second root letter is 'N or '1, the first one has a kamats rather than a patan under it, but the pronunciation remains the same in all tenses and moods: PJ!i!J;l? ,1~~J;lY.l 2. When the third root letter is •n or •)) and no suffix is appended, the usual normative form is: nB~J;l~ ,)Jm'l}'n; however in common speech the second stem vowel changes toe and a 'furtive' patan is inserted, as in ~~l.:l\!-'il ,t'lf:l!i'J;l'. The fonn with a furtive patan is the only option in the present tense: ~~B~r,> ,1:\T:I~J;'IY,)
3. lf the second consonant is a guttural that is expected to be followed by a zero shva, we have a natafpatan instead:
,
''J~I:? ~l.'l ,~'o~J;l? o'~m.l;lY,l ,ilJN.~J;~il
4.5.2 Irregular Verbs The root classification: ll"ll Verbs that belong to this group have identical second and third root consonants. They are conjugated as regular verbs. Some of the))").! roots are derived from bi-consonantal adjectives: Gloss Infinitive Future Present Past v"v 11
Chapter 4: Verb pal/ern group8
102
The root classification: merger of •"JI/1"11 with 11 1111 As in pi 'el and pu 'a/, there is also a group of ~"W1"ll verbs in hitpa 'e/ which behave as if they were )1")1 verbs. Again the second consonant is duplicated, and the first stem vowel is u, for both ).)"Y and )"Y/V'l': Gloss spin around wake up
Past
v"ll
l"ll
:l:;).iT-1~?
Present ::t:;).il'l'9Y,l
::t:;).il'l?iJ
::1-:::t-U
(:::t-1-U)
"'''Jl).IJ;l?
11i).)l;)Y,l
l'Ji).IJ;ID
(1-"l-).1)
"l+)l
Infinitive
Future
:1~13'1'911?
l'Jll.IJ;'ID?
Note Some ~··w1••y roots have two fi.nms uf hitpa'e/: one is conjugated as a regular verb in pi 'el, and the medial semi-vowel '1 or ·~ is realized as a consonant. The other follows the merged W).)t1'W)I"l.l pattern above: Gloss Infinitive Citation form hitpa'e/ root Source take place, exit c~vl;"D? C~i?J;'ID ~+p IJ-l-p rise up Ct;liPJ;lll? Cr.;liPJ;liJ ~-o-p IJ+P
Gloss intend, mean get ready, plan
Citation form
hitQ.a'el root
Source
1~~J;'ID?
)~~J;'ID
H-:l
)-1-J
l~i::>J;liJ?
)~l;:)J;liJ
J-)-J
)-1-J
Infinitive
The root classification: N11 'J •nl As in other biuyanim, when the third root consonant is 'N, that 'N is not pronounced at the end ofthe syllable:
to be familiar with/oriented Root classification
Infinitive
Dil
l('il
Nlil
~
C'~~Y,lJ;'IY,l
.l1N~Y,lJ;lt;:l
N~Y,l3;JY,l
N~Y,lJ;'IY,)
~N~JJ.l1i1 ; ; .
ili':<~Y.ll;lD
N~Y,l~D
J;lN~Y,lJ;'IiJ
~N~Y,lJ;l~
N.ll~Y,l3;Jl:l
N~Y.lJ;l?
N~Y.ll;ll:l
1/DnN
nN
m:lli
!'N~Y,lJ;lll
!'~.!;CY.ll;liJ
!N~Y,ll;lD
N"~'n.l
Present Past Future Imperative
~ N~tlnn~ .. : . =
Verbal noun lllN¥Y,lJ;'IiJ
-
N~Y,ll:'li'J~
Root N-!1-Y.l
The root classification: •"'l •nJ When the third root consonant is '' y, it is realized as the vowel e or a in final position, where it is represented in the spelling as 'il, whereas
103
ChapTer 4: Verb pattern gruups
elsewhere, it is realized as the diphthong another vowel.
l __
ey, or is elided betore
to experience, be put to the test Root classification lll?
'1'1.)
on
Present Past future
0'~~J;'IY,l ~-e~~D
.n1t~~J;I::J~
Verbal noun
Infinitive
Root
m-eum -' .
niO~J;liJ~
'-tJ-) ;mN
~
@
ilWJ;lY.l ilTI'elTiil ... - : .
nwH,Y.l ilWJ;liJ
J)'l;?~J;liJ
i19JJ;'IJ:I J/DnN
n~m;l~
ilt;j'~l;\1:1
llli
i1llli
-
!'tnnn
!ilW~l;lil
~
~O~J;l>
Imperative
!~omn : .
. - = .
ilWl;'Y.l
4.5.3 Deriving new hitpa'el verbs The focus in hitpa 'e/ forms is not on the initiator of the action, but on its recipient, or on the entity undergoing a process, and generally it is intransitive. In many cases hitpa 'el verbs are verbs of becoming, turning into, or changing from one state to another. Many other verbs in hilpa 'el are either reflexive (action goes back to self) or reciprocal (mutual action: each other). As such, it is quite open to derivation from existing nouns as well as from verbs. To start with, many new pi'el verbs have hitpa 'el counterparts, similar to \Vhat happens in pu 'al: Gloss
settle (intr.) focus (intr.) realize (intr.) become subjugated become perfect
'7JJ~nn
'111·1~
'7JJ·~
Gloss
Base
DWY.ll;lD
OUJP.
ow~
o'PY;J
1jP.Y.l~D
1W~
1{¥~
YJ1.1JY.l~D
y)~~
'VY.l~
place toe us real(ly)
1-lJ~J:I~D
,~~~
1:;)~~
1:1Y+'l.l
~?.:;m~n
~~~'?.'
?2~~
~?J+'l.l
1j?iY.l 'V~Y.l
And parallel to reduplicated forms in pi'el like ?:;;~~ 'confuse', there exists the parallel hitpa 'el counterpart .,:;J~:;)J;lil •get confused':
Chapter 4: Verh pattern groups
104
to get confused Root classification (o''::l!l~1'tlr.l)
Infinitive
m'::I~?~J;'ID
';:I:;)~~J;lD
Oil
~
N.li'l
O'"J.'::I::um • = ; -
n'(~?~J:lY,)
'::I:;)?~J;IY,l
~'}~~~J;ID
n~~?~J;ln
1;/:;)~~J;lD
i'lnH '::IJ..,J.nt:l .. : - . n'JJ.'::Ilr1n
~'::1¥~~3;1~
.,J.I;I::mn = . 1/DnH
7~?~3;1~
'J:;)?~J;ll;l
me
ilnx
! ~1;/J..,J.nn : : .. ; .
!'~:;t?~J;Jn
!.,:;)~~J;lD
D'>':mn
Present Past Future
~~~~~tw?
Verbal noun
1
o
••
Imperative
!
..
;
9
:
•
;
-
I
•
Often, a hitpa 'el verb is related to a noun, an adjective, a pi 'el verb stem. or a pa 'a/ verb stem. It is based on the some root consonants and has a related meaning, as in: 1. Derived from adjectives
Citation Farm become strong become hot become c1ear get closer distance oneself straighten up
P~OJ;'ID
oannn .. .. . ~
"'tiJ~J;liJ
:l'Ji?J;lD Pr:r:tJ;ID ,~~J;ln
---+-
Source strong hot c1ear close far, distant straight
PR' 01) "'I'D~
::J.i"'ti(
p1nJ ,~~
2. Derived from nouns
Citation Form calcify ):;)i;J;lD become focused lW~J;ID become a citizen O'J11;J;ID take a shower o~vJ;~n acclimatize oneself O~i(~J;'ID take some air ,,,~J;Jn
--
---
Source stone toe us citizen shower climate air
H~
i{:?it:l nJl~ no~pt;)
O'~i?~ ,,,~
3. Many verbs are derived from transitive pi'el verbs
Citation Form improve (intr.) make a living get cold
"l;l~~D
-
tm~mn .
..
~
~
,~\?:jii)
---
Source improve (tr.) provide for cool (tr.)
1~'?'
t1n!ll 1~~
Chapter 4: Verb pattern groups
get spoiled take a risk advance oneself get trained
~i.t?i?DD Yi?tl~D
O'JDl;lD W~J;'ID
---
-
spoil (tr.) risk (tr.) advance (tr.) train (tr.)
105
~P~P p~
o:rp ,~~
4. Derived from transitive verbs in pa 'a/
Citation Form get washed get dressed get undressed
'<01DD ~t~~~DD \J'¢.1!;11;1;:'1
+-
Source wash clothe (tr.) take off clothes
'<0? 'tl~~ "'U~
5. A few verbs are derived from intransitive pa 'al verbs
Citation Form become enraged get angry become silent
otru;m ~nl;'ID
P:O~~D
+--
Source boil be angry be silent
ntlJ lr) j7.D~
6. Derived from other binyanim
Citation Form get ready hide oneself trade places
)~i::>J;lD ltltl~;:l
"li?Ol;lD
--
Source prepare hide replace
)':;liJ
l'3:11?D "l'~Qi)
4.5.4 Associated meanings Hitpa 'e/ is primarily associated with reflexive and reciprocal meanings. However, it sometimes has other meanings, including passive, repeated action, and feigning doing something. a. Reflexive meaning Reflexive verbs are ones for which the instigator of the action ('the agent'), and its recipient ('the patient'), refer to the same entity. Every morning I wake up at seven. .).l::l'tl::lllW'UJ 'JN 1p1:::1 ~:J
Many reflexive verbs in hitpa 'e/ can also have related verbs expressed by a different hinyan, where they refer to an action affecting someone or something other than the subject.
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Chapter 4: Verb put/ern groups
Reflexive - 'lJmnil In the morning David washes, shaves, gets dressed and combs his hair. "'J.le washes hiR~self, sha.,'e!i l:ti~self, dresses himself aRe een'lb!i his i:tair.
,n'JmtJ ,'(rnm.J i n 1j:m. ?:. .p1:nor.n 'tll'J:nn fl~t nli'~19 ,msy m{ '(nl1 i'nn· P19191 ,msy mt W'3li'19 ,msY .UJS)I fli-t
Transitive- with separate recipient - "lll'91 'lll9 He washed the car. .J'lll,:>r.m :nN '(n1 Nm He wore testive clothes. .m li)l 'tll'J Nm He combs his hair. A comparative note In English there arc verbs which have the same fonn regardless of whether they arc used as reflexive or as transitive verbs. 11 thus becomes a source of confusion for learners of Hebrew. It is important to keep in mind the distinction between the verbs where the recipient of the action is identical to the instigator of the action, and similar verbs which require a separate object. Reflexive
He trained (intr.) for the Olympic games.
Olpn'lltJJ ,nN:nD N1il
Transitive
lie trained many athletes. The verb )~~J;ID 'trained' implies that the person was the trainer as well as the one being trained. The use ofthe word self is part of the meaning of hitpa 'el. The English verb train can also be a transitive verb, which requires an object, such as 'trained many athletes'. In Hebrew, the pi'el verb is a transitive verb, as in O'NU1l!:IOn :nN )t::l'N Nln, while the hitpa 'el verb is reflexive and can have no separate direct object. The reflexive meaning is not obvious at all times. In some intransitive verbs, the action may not be transferred directly to the subject/patient, but it still indicates a process that affects it. For instance, OJPJ;lD 'advance' includes the meaning of 'advance oneself, ::l)i?l;liJ 'get closer' is equivalent to 'bring oneself close', and '(~~J;lD 'make an effort' is an extension of 'exert oneself.
Chapter 4: Verh pallern groups
107
b. Reciprocal Reciprocal verbs are ones for which the participants' roles arc either equivalent, or shift back and torth between them. When the subject is plural and includes more than one entity, it is not necessary tu add the reciprocal expression 'each other', sine~ it is implied. The built-in feature of 'reciprocity' requires a plural subject. For instance, in on ~n:;>JJ;liJ ;they argued', the reciprocal pronouns 'with eac.h other' arc implied. However, in order to shift the tocus to one of the participants, the distinction is made between the initiator of the action, and its recipient. The singular verb form accompanies the subject, and the verb is then perct:ivt:d as transitive. It will thus be t"b11owed by an object, which is usually linked by a preposition: .mmnn illi1 11
Dan and Dana got married. Transitive meaning- focus on the initiator of action
Dan married Dana. Dana married Dan.
.illl 0).1 1nnnn )i .1i 0)1 mnnnn illi
c. Passive There are several verbs in hitpu 'el which are counterparts or transitive verbs, usually in pi 'e/. Active meaning
Dan requested that I meet with him.
.mN \!.ll!:lm~ 'lnr.l
\!.IP'J )1
Passive meaning
I was asked to meet with Dan. ·Active meaning
The president appointed his spokesperson. Passive meaning
The spokesperson was appointed. d. Additional meanings I. Occasionally hitpa 'e/ verbs have a feature of a repeated action: run around '(~i1J;1D +--run '(l stroll nDDiJ +--walk 1~Q 2. A tew verbs carry the meaning teature of•pretend to. make believe': O):;ltliJ +--nai've D'r.>-tl feign naivety pretend to be sick n~oJ;ln +---sick n~in
108
Chapter 4: Verb pattern groups
~·i19il
4.6 Hif'il conjugation
111 1::1
The name of the verb pattern hlfil reflects the third person singular masculine, its citation form. I. The stem vowel'~ i of ~n~!:ln is part of its pattern. It is present in most of the forms of this conjugation, with the exception of the first and second person of the past tense, and the singular masculine form of the imperative. lt is not affected by any vowel reduction process. 2. The initial vowel of the past tense thal follows the prefix h is i. However, in other tenses that vowel changes to a: Infinitive Future Present Past Root to explain
4.6.1 Regular Verbs The group of regular verbs are composed of verbs in which all the root consonants are present in all the verb forms. Present tense
illl i'l 1» r
The present tense of this conjugation pattern has a ma- prefix that marks it for the present tense: J'}.l~r.>. Unlike other hinyanim, in which the typical feminine singular ending is unstressed -et, the feminine singular sutlix in hlfil is a stressed -an.-.
to explain
,,~'O'tl)
il)~:;l1fY.l
lli1~::;t1fr.>
(N'il ,llN ,mo(); 1~~~'? (Nm ,il!lN ,~)N) C1n ,)!lN , DmN) ; O,"J,:;J.~r.> Con ,onN ,DmNJ
,
n;,,n~
: !lVO,:ll
ln addition to functioning as present tense verbs, many of the present tense forms are used as adjectives or as nouns: Adjectives Citation form Root p-1-J shine brilliant P'"J:;lr.> P'":9D l-N-1 )ll:{"JJ;;l worrisome worry l~z:t7D p-.J-"T infect; glue infectious P~:;J.7J;;l P':;J.!D Nouns smuggler believer listener
O,"J:;lr.> )'t,)t<J;;l ),!~~
smuggle believe listen
Citation form
Root
0~11-D
n~1-:1
1,t,)~Q
HJ-N H-N
),~~v
Chapter 4: Verb pattern groups
109
Past tense The past tense of hifil has only two stem variants: 1. In the first and second person: -~~.!;lD 2. In the third person: ~'l.'.!;!D
,~
,J;l';l~~D (m'() ,t~'J~~D (ilnN) ,'J:l';l~~D ('lN) ilJ':;t~D
N'n
,1':J~D
: illi'>n'
N1i1
,)t'';l~~D ()nN) ,O:!;l'J~~D (OnN) ,ll';l~~D (1lnlN) n'~VD
IDT
:nVO':l1
)il/Oil
The stress of the past tense is aJways on the last vowel of the h((il stem, and not on the suffixes. Even though the second person plural form is realized as hisbartem and hisbarten in formal Hebrew, it follows the stress pattern of the other first and second persons in dai1y spoken Hebrew: hisbartem and hisbilrten.
Future tense "T•nu JDT The stem of future tense verbs is ~'l.'!f-. The prefix vowel is always a. The stress is always on the i of the stem. ,'')':;tV:t:1 CnN) ,1'::;11?:!:1 (ilnN) , 1'::;1~~ f~JN) 1':;1~))
Cnn~'?l,;l) ~1':;11(J.:l
N'n
,1'::;1~~
()nN) .~1'::;1"?:!:1 COnN) ,1'::;11(~ (UnlN) (iln~~.]J) ~1'::;11?!
: illl'n'
Nm : nl!O':ll
)il ,~1':;1~! Oil
The imperative mood 'll'll The imperative forms have an h- prefix (like the past tense). Its stem is -CCiC in the feminine singular and plural forms, and the stem vowel changes to e in the singular masculine fonn. cnn~'?iJ) ! ~l':;t ~iJ
! '":l':;t?D ! 1~'?iJ
The negative imperatives use the future tense form with the negative J~ 'don't!':
Chapter 4: Verb pattern group.~
110
The infinitive mood ~lll9i\ The hifil infinitive uses the stem haCCiC: 1':;1~0~ ,)Jl~";liJ~ ,1':;11?0~
DIU
.'nm:mn n~~ 1':J.Un~ n~n~ .p111 1N'I!I'ilJ ON "'~nn., 1~ il~i?
I'll try to explain what I meant. It is hard tor him to decide whether to stay single.
Verbal noun il'lU19i\ DIU There arc two main forms of verbal nouns in h!fil. Most frequently they have separate meanings, which arc sometimes related meanings. as they come from the same verb root and form. The ;,'?.\1!>0 form: Verbal noun 1
Gloss
invitation decision The '7~~;:;'1 form: Gloss
Stem
il~Y;l~D
l'Y.Wl
il\;'~1)0
"'~l;'Q
Verbal noun 2
Stem
~:T~t' 1:\Uil .. ...
?'"T~D
difterence quarantine
1'~1?iJ
~
Some roots can be realized in both torms of the gerund, and they thus form two different nouns with related but somewhat ditlercnt meanings: Verbal noun 2
explanation accord
1~t?v
Verbal noun 1
information
O:;;Jl?t' agreement
n~~1?D ilY.J?~D
explain agree
1'::lt?iJ O':;>t?D
Variants with '9 ,''3 ,':1 1. The letters '9 ,') .'.J. are realized as b. k. p
When it is the second root letter of all the tenses and moods (except when it follows first root letter •n ,•n ,'Y,'N): 1':;1~~
: 1'lW , 1'~l?Y.l : mm
,1'~t?D : 1:1)1
1':;it?D? : ~Yl!lil 0\!.1 !1~'?iJ : '"'~ 2. The letters 'g ,') .'::l are realized as v, kh. f
i. When it is the first root letter in all the tenses and moods: ~'P! : 1'l"IY .~'1':;tr.>
: mm ·''1':;tiJ , 1:IY
';llJ~D'? : J)ll!ln 0\!.1
!'':PO : '11'~
Chapter 4: Verb pattern group.~
Ill
ii. When it is the final root letter in all the tenses and moods: :PJi?! : ·pn~ ,O':;l''Ji?J;l : mm ,::l'':li?D , 1:1~ ::l''Ji?D? : ~l',!lil O'll ! JJi;'D : '11'~
iii. When the second root letter follows •n ,'il ,'Y ,'N:
Variations with '» ,'n ,'il •'H. I. When the first letter of the root is ·~ ,•n ,'N, the prefix vowel of the past tense changes from ito e. In addition an 'echo' vowel e replaces the shva vowel of the first root letter. In the case of •n as the first root letter, the 'echo' vowel is optional. Informal
Formal
2. In all other tenses and moods, the a vowel of the prefix is maintained, and an 'echo' vowel a replaces the shva of the first root letter: Informal Formal O'~J;ll;l
\'P?QJ;~
3. When the third root Jetter is ')I m ,•n and no sutlix is appended, an a vowel is inserted (since the previous vowel is not a, a 'furtive' palan is inserted) : ti':J~D ,IJ'\?~D .~'!il'qi:J.
4.6.2 Irregular Verbs The •"JJ/1"11 root classification The h~(il form of '")ll)"l' roots is characterized by the absence of the second root consonant. The vowel e is the prefix. vowel in the present and past tense and the vowel a is the prefix vowel in the future tense, imperative and infinitive:
112
Chapter 4: Verb pattern group.,
to raise, set up O'j?tJ~ Root classification
Verbal noun
Present Past Future
Infinitive
Root
il'?i?O
D'PO~
Y.l-l-p
Oil
N'il
lilil
D'r.l'P~
il'?'PY;)
O'Pt;;J
~Y.l'PD
nl;l'PD D'Ptl IIDnN !)Y.l'PO
O'PiJ O'i?? nN ! 'r.l'i?O
!l!lli O'Pt;;l J;IJ?PiJ O'Pl) nmt !Ot?O
'"))!l")J
lY.l'P~
Imperative
There are alternative forms tor the first and second person in the past tense. They are used in the higher register: l'l'Y.l'PQ ,:!;~i1J'PO ,'J:'Iir.l'i?D
The l"!:l ,,,n root classification for verbs belonging to this group, the tlrst root consonant 'l of ~Yl!:lil '!! is missing from the whole conjugation, since it always precedes a consonant, and as shown elsewhere, a 'l is often assimilated into the following consonant: hinpillli > hipalti Past 'l:l?~D<~ Future lfmpil > tapil 7'~33 <~ Present manpil > mapil ''!i~Y.l<~ lehc;mpil > lehapil Infinitive ~'!iliJ~<~
to drop, cause to fall Root classification
Imperative
Infinitive
Root
il~~iJ
'J'9D~
'J-!:1-)
Oil
N.'il
Nlil
ilnN
0'~'~Y.l
il~'~Y.l
''!i~Y.l
il~'!l'ID
''~Y.l
)'J'!l'ID )'J'!;l~
''!;l.lJ
l"!) '10n
Present Past Future
~'~l'~
Verbal noun
''!liD ''!;)~
lJ?~D ''!;l:S
1/DnN
!lli
~
!~'J'!lliJ
P':l'!lliJ
!'J~D
Note Because the J"i'l hifil pattern ends up being a hi-consonantal stem in practice - since the first root letter n is omitted - there is a tendency among speakers to use the present tense forms of l"Y verbs tor l"i'l ones. A J"!:l verb such as ,~:;>Y.'l, whose root is"!-::>-), is often pronounced mekir rather than makir.
Chapter 4: Verb pattern groups
113
Exceptions
There are exceptions to the rule of having the first root consonant 'l assimilated into the second root consonant: I. As in previous ) 11 !:1 cases we have looked at, if a guttural follows, there is no 'l assimilation, since gutturals cannot be geminated as required by the assimilation rule: D'Y.~D ,~'IJ?D
2. In fonns where there are two verbs with separate meanings derived from the same root, or from a different but homonymous one, one verb will omit the 1l according to the rules above, while the other one will keep it, as in regular verb forms, to maintain the distinction between them: Gloss look at. store genninate tell contrast
Citation form \J'::;m
Infinitive
Root
\J'::;ID~
\J-J-)
\JlJ.~D
\J'::,l~jJ~
\J-:J-)
jl~iJ
jl~jJ~
1-l-J
i'~~D
,,~~iJ~
1-)-)
I wanted to let you know that I am fine. He contrasted the two assumptions.
.11UJ l.)N'll OJ~ 1'lil';l '31'~1
.mmnn 'll\!.1 l'J 1'lm Nm
Note: The fol1owing verbs with 1) as a first root letter can be conjugated either as l"!:i or following the 1''Y pattern: Gloss Citation form Infinitive Root Form of assume O'm tt'~iJ~ n-1-J l"!:i put down O'm tt'~D~ n-1-J '")I Tt can be assumed that everything is alright. .11u:1 ~:Jil'lt l"l'lD'::I \'.1' Don't put the book down on the table. .)n~Wi1 ~Y 1!:1Un TIN l"l'll;l ~N
The "'!:» 'nl root classification When the first root consonant is ''· it is realized as the vowel o throughout the derivation, and the prefix vowel is elided.
Chapter 4: Verb pattern groups
114
to lower, bring down Root classification
Verbal noun
Infinitive
Root
i1J:I~i1
l'":lin~
1-")-1
~
~
0'7'"Ji~
n:p1i~
n'"Jin )l'"Jil
i11''"Jii1 i'"Jil'l
!ill! l'"JiO l'")iil
~
Present Past Future I mperati vc
,,,,,~
,,.,,,
ill:!l! i'"JiO J;l/"Jin l'"Jil'l
1/CnN
nN
;mN
!)ll"Jiil
!'J'')ii1
!l'Jii1
The N."'J •n1 root classification As in other binyanim, when the third root consonant is 'N, that 'N is not pronounced at the end of the syllable.
to invent Root classification 11
N
'
Associated noun
Infinitive
Root
n~~t;lD
N'~Y,lD{
N-~-)J
~
!.llil
i'lnN
O'~'~Y,)Y,)
ntt'~t;>r.>
N'~Y,)Y,)
N'~Y,lY.l
~N'~~n . :.
N'~I?D
:t'\N~t;lD
"'N' !!I'?~
ntt'::lt?D N'!!l'?l.:l
N'~t;l!
Nl~t;ll.:l
IIDmo(
nN
ill:!l!
!'N'~Y:JD
!N~Y;)D
mJ .Qi1
Present Past Future Imperative
M'¥'?tl~
!U"<'~'?D
In the tlrst and second person of the past tense, the stem vowel i is changed into /sere e: WN~t;lD Ot.lN~Y,)D nN~t;>n ttN~'?D
The ' 11 '1 •m root classification When the third root consonant is ''. it is realized as the vowel e or a in final position, where it is represented in the spelling as •n, and elsewhere, it is realized as the diphthong '·· ey, or is elided before another vowel.
Chapter 4: Verh pattern groups
115
to permit, let nfv'tt~ Root classification
Associated noun
Infinitive
Root
·n~~)D
nl\!f)D~
l-\!)-1
Oil
N'il
Nlil
ilnll(
D''?";lY.'I ·l\!.I")D
i1~'JY.'I
n~"!Y.'I
i1\}'";lr.1
i1J;l~"!D
n~")D
~\!))~
i1\}'";l-D
i1\}')!
J;l''?'";ID i1\}')33
!/CnN
llli
i"lnN
! '\!.l";liJ
!''?I)D
!n'?')D
'"~ 'nl
Present Past Future Imperative
* The
noun associated with this particular verb is m'tl) 'permi:ssion'. The h~/"il fonn is m:.<~)D or n~'\)")D, both of which are rarely used.
The
c•~!9l
root classification
l. When the two last consonants of the root are identical, they merge in h~fi/: the expected ~'~i?D~ is realized as ~V.O? (lehttki-H > lehakel). 2. The present and past tense vowel of the prefix changes from a to e: ~v.~ .~tJiJ.
3. The i vowel of the htfil stem changes to a tsere e and loses the , . 4. When a suffix beginning with a vowel is appended, a dagesh liazak is added to the last consonant; when in addition to that. the stress is moved to the sutlix, the vowel preceding the consonant with the dagesh is changed from e to i: ~~V.? ,n~piJ vs. D'~P'? ,i1~i?'?·
to ease, make easier Root classification ll"ll
Dil
Present Past Future
Imperative
D'~P'?
'~P.iJ )~tn
~'P.t1~
Verbal noun n{'pp m?i?O
Infinitive
Root
~P.D?
~-,-p
~
Nlil
ilnN
n?P'? n?PD ?v:l)
~P.'?
';:lp~
~P.iJ
D?Pi.l
';:lp~
1/DnN
nN
?v.t~ ilnN
l~P.O
'~vD
~P.D
116
Chapter 4: Verb pattern groups
4.6.3 Meanings associated with hif'il The commonest meaning associated with h!fil is causative, including 'cause to be(come)' and 'cause to do (something)'.
a. Cause to do something The term causative is used in the sense of causing somebody or something to do something. The actor by his action triggers another action. A good example is :lJ)~ 'write' > ~"'T:I?D 'dictate', i.e. 'cause to write', such as in 'The director dictated a letter to the staff' ~mr.m sm~'J J1"1:JY.l ~'l:!:;>D, i.e. the director caused someone else to write the letter to the staff by dictating it. When realization in hffil makes a basic verb causative, that basic verb may be a true action verb, as in: The bear danced. .1p1 Jnn '7.1.1~ The gypsy made the bear dance. .Jnn nN i'jJ1il 'J).I)~i1 '1'.1.19i1 The child ate the soup. The mother ted the soup to the child. The verb may also be stative, as in: We saw a beautiful winter coat. The salesman showed us the coat.
.jJ1Y.lil 1"1N ~:IN iJ"'il
'1119
1"1N 1J'i1 nN n'J':>Nn oNn
'1·11~m
. jJ1Y.li1
.i1!l' t)1,n ~;;.,~Y.l U'N1
'1119
.J').IY.lil nN ))., i1N1Q 1:1)Y.lil
'1•.1.1~11
b. Cause to become/cause to happen (on its own} Although one tends to think of causatives in the sense of causing to do something, the number of verbs referring to causing to happen, or causing to become, is much greater. 1. Verbs associated with pa 'a/ > causative hiril verbs
Some verbs share roots with pa 'a/; when they are conjugated in hifil, it adds the feature of causative onto the basic meaning of the verb. The light is on. .p,n 11Nil '1119 He turned on the light. .1lNil nN iJ"I;;Iin Nm '7•lJ9i1 We forgot everything. Time made us forget (obliterated) all of the details.
..,:m nN nn:~\!.1 I;;IJ nN n':l'l.ln 1mn .0'"1!li1
Chapter 4: Verb pattern groups
117
2. Verbs associated with nif"al >causative hif"il verbs
The children got scared. He scared the children. He failed the exams. The teacher failed everybody.
. ~~il.Jl 0'i~lil
'7ll~l
.O'l~lil !'IN ~m::m Nm
'7·.u~i1
.mlm::n ~\U:Jl Nm
'7ll~l
.O,l:J l1N ';n'l!.l:m il1,~il
'l·ll~il
3. nouns > causative hiril verbs
Some h~f"il verbs are derived from nouns. There is a limit/border to everything. He limited us in everything. The king ruled tor many years. Who crowned you (made you a king)?
.1.Ji ':J' ,,.Jl \(.ll
D\!J
.,:J.J llmN '':Jm Nm
'7 l.l9il 1
.rn::n D'l\U ~\UY.ll,Y.lil
0\!J
qmN l''~il 'Y.l
'l·ll~il
4. adjectives > causative hiril verbs
Some hifil verbs are derived from adjectives. .plnY.l P'!lUY.l N~ ill1il The tea is not sweet enough. We should sweeten the tea. .mm nN P'l10n' 1'1!:1 The skies are clear. He clarified a number of things that we did not understand.
.0'1m:J
O"~~m
0'1:J1 iln::> u? 1m:Jil Nm
. '3.Jil N~\U
c. Cause to become/acquire a new characteristic There is a significant number of instances in which hifil verbs refer to 'becoming' in the sense of 'acquiring quality of colors or some physical/bodily characteristics'. The verbs signifY a change of state, of bringing an animate or inanimate object to a new state, described by an adjective, as in 1i!l~ 'gray'> ,,~~D 'turn gray/become gray': He is very pale. He became pale when he heard the news.
."TlNO 1ll'n Nlil l.IY.l\U 1\UN:::> 1'lllli) Nlil .m\!.linil nN
118
C'hapter 4:
V~rh
The copper vessels are rusty. They b~eame rusty because we left them out all winter. The fruits are not yet ripe. The fruits have not yet ripened.
pattern groups
.O'l~~m n'lnnm '~~
lMm
1nN'l-'n '" ,,,~nv on .rpmn 'J~ ~1m omN
'7•.lJ9n
.o>'J\(JJ. N'J 1''1).1 n11'!lil
lN:rn
. ~'Jl'l.IJ.il N'J 11).1 n11 '!:lil
'1•1.19 il
Some hifil verbs of the same root can be both transitive and intransitive. The intransitive verbs can be paraphrased as nml "become + (quality)', whereas the transitive verbs can be paraphrased as 01::1 mm'J ;causing something to become'. Intransitive
get dark With the setting of the sun, the skies darkened.
D'~~'l-'n
.ontJ'l.ln
1~>\!.lnn
Wll = '~''l-'nn 'l.lr.l'l.ln n11 o).l
Transitive
cause it to become dark They darkened the room and the show began.
l'l-'m nm''l-'1~':1 D1l
= 1''l-'nQ
m~nm o~1Nn nN l=>''l.lni1 o;,
.n'J,nnn
Intransitive
become/get fat The more one gets fat. Lhe more one's quality of life goes down.
)I'J\!.1 il'i1.l = )'r.l'l-'il .O''mil Tn:::>'N n11l'
p
O'))>I'J\!.Ir.l\!.1 ']"
Transitive
cause someone to get fat It is not the jeans that make her fat, but rath~r the chocolate cake.
)r.l\!.1 il'il' )\!.l'r.l\!.1 p~ 01) = )'r.l\!.lil N'JN ilnlN )'r.IY.II'J\!.1 0l"li1 N'J ill . i~npwn n:ny
Intransitive
Became shiny His eyes shone in the dark.
nlj7l1J.r.l )'ill
= ~i''1:lil
. n::>'l.ln:J. 1P'1J. n l'l')'
Transitive
caused them to shine She shone/polished the silver.
P'1J.n'J on'J nr.11:1 .<"\O~n
=
nv'1J.il
''J::l nN np>1J.n Nm
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119
Relationship between verbs in pa'al, pfel and hiril Sometimes a pa 'a! verb can have two separate, though related, meanings, each of which is realized as a different causative verb. Consider the verb ~n. The first meaning, which denotes 'growing up'. has a causative counterpart in the pi'el conjugation 'raising (causing to grow up)'. pa 'a/: grow up (intransitive)
They grew up on a farm. pi"el: grow, raise (transitive) There they raised turkeys.
.nnm 1~~~ on
The second meaning, which denotes 'getting larger', has a causative counterpart in the h!fil conjugation, 'enlarging, increasing (causing to get bigger)'. pa 'al: grow in size/numbers (intransitive)
The business grew.
.~::m
j7tl).ln
Hif'il: to enlarge, increase size or number (transitive)
He increased the size of the business. He enlarged the picture.
4.7 Hufal conjugation
.po))n m~ ,.,im Nm .OlJ~~il nN ~'lln Nm
.,ll91it l11 l:l
The name of this pattern verb group ht~:fa/ reflects the third person singular masculine in the past tense, its citation fom1. The h~fil-hl!f'al relationship is similar to the pi 'el-pu 'a/ one: hufal is essentially the internal passive of h!f"il, and there are virtually no hufal verbs that do not have hi(il counterparts. The discontinuous vowel sequence u-a appears in all the tenses. Like pu'al, the hu[al conjugation is limited to the tenses only: present, past and future. Similarly, it does not have an imperative or an infinitive mood, and does not have a verbal noun. The h- of the pretix characteristic of the past tense is replaced by m- in the present tense, and by the personal pronoun prefixes of the future tense.
Chapter 4: Verb pattern group5·
120
The u stem vowel is represented by the vowel ~~!!p, such as in 1iJltJ, but in the contemporary spelling, especially in texts without vowels, the ~ represents the vowel u, such as in 1i]Jm. Note
The hufal conjugation is also referred to as the hofal conjugation. Both u oro vowel arc acceptable as the prefix vowels of this binyan.
4. 7.1 Regular Verbs Present tense illlil 1nr The present tense of this conjugation pattern has a mu- prefix tense marker. The teminine singular stem changes to -CCeCet. As is the case in all h~fal tenses, the vowel sequence u-a is part of the pattern that characterizes it as passive. Present tense forms function as verbs, as nouns and as adjectives. No vowel reduction takes place in the stem when stress moves to the sutlix in the present tense.
to be neglected
nll~ n1'1:'~
*TIJ:Q}~ (N'm ,TIN ,'lN) ; nn~ (N'il ,nnN ,'lN}
.Tiin~'tl;;;l
{1i1 1lTIN ,UnJN) ; O'D~tr:? (Oil ,OriN , 'JnlN)
, illl'n' :1'1VO':l1
*The usual vowel pattern for the feminine singular is .l1'n!~I.J., but the final •n, which is a guttural letter, causes the change of vowel from e to a, as in nm!I.J.· In texts without vowels: mnmY.l ,O'nll1Y.l,.l1nlnY.l,nmY.l Passive participles in huf al that function as adjectives: abstract \)'lf!lm defined ';JJlm recommended limited ""nm complex absolute Passive participles in huf'al that function as nouns: juror ll:l'll'lO candidate ';:1\):lm authorized person unemployed
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Chapter 4: Verb pattern groups
Past tense ,:l.UIDT The past tense of h~fal has two stem variants: Jn the first and second persons: -?~~D huCCaCJn the third person feminine singular and plural: -~~~f.) huCCeCThe reduction from a toe occurs when stress is moved to the suffix.
cnnN> I'~J:'l~F:! ('lN): nnm> no?m N'n~nm:J Nm ~Wt;'m) C1nN> ,OJ)r:'lm~ conN> ~~lf;ll!t.' omm>, nvo>:n ~J;lt:'m:'
CnNJ
~l;li;'~F:!
m~1t.J
)i1/0i1
Future tense ,..nJIIDT The stem of future tense verbs is -uCCaC-, becoming -uCCeC- when stress moves to the suffix. There are very few verbs in h~fa/ that are conjugated in all persons in the future tense. The forms that are most in use are the third person forms.
,'mt{l CnN)
.nm~
cnnN)
n~HJ
l(i1~J:'lm;:J>
Variants with
'9
mm':' ()l1N)
,nm~
N'i'l
1
C')lN)
n)'p_ N1i1
I nn.~ ,,lnlN) cn~m!{l> mm. )n ,mm on lm~m (OllN)
: nnm' : nVD':l1
,':> ,'J..
1. The letters '9 ,':> ,':l are realized as b, k. D
When it is the second root letter of all the tenses and moods (except when it fo11ows a first root letter 1Y ;n ;n ,'N) o~v.!. i')TJl! I o~v~ : mm I o~vD : 1:1Y 2. The letters '9 ,'J .':1 are realized as v, kh. f i. When it is the first root letter in all the tenses and moods 1W?~.: 1>:nY ,1\l:l?.!?., mm ,1'
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Chapter 4: Verh pallern !{raups
Variations with radicals '11 ,'H When the first letter of the root is 'Y ,•N, the initial vowel u becomes a kamats katan, which is realized as o. The ~np t'J\.1n in the first root letter echoes that initial vowel and is also pronounced o: mo "omad iJ?~'? mo 'ofal ~!;!~'? Whenever a zero shva is expected, we find a liatafpatan instead:
.~'J~?D
,~~~T:!-
4.7.2 Irregular verbs The •"lJ/I"lJ root classification The hl!fal torm of '"W1"Y roots is characterized by the absence of the second root consonant.
to be prepared
1~'~ n~'~>
)11)1!1")1
Present Past Future
)-1-J
Dil
l<'il
Mlil
0'~~·l1:l
ilJ?~Y.l
)~m
ll=?~il
n~~m
1~m
~l:;n'
)~m
pr~
The l"9 .,on root classification The l"!l '"ltm is the group of hZff"al verbs in which the tirst root consonant 'l is missing in the entire conjugation (since it is always followed by a consonant).
to be presented
'tl~~ n1'~> 10-)-)
l"!l '1t>n
Present Past Future
Dil
H'il
Nlil
O''?'~t;?
l1~~t?
IO~Q
~10:\il ..,
il'<J~f.l
IO~f.l
l'll~~
'll~tl
"'~?.
~
As in other binyanim, there is no assimilation if a guttural follows, e.g., in ?O?Q, and as in hifil, there are a few verbs with separate meanings derived from the same root, where one verb will assimilate the '), according to the rules, while the other one will keep it, as in regular verb forms, so as to maintain the distinction between them:
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Chapter 4: Verb pattern groups
Gloss
Citation form
be told be compared to
Root
~~D
1-l-l
c~) ,~m
1-l-)
The·"~
•m root classification When the first root consonant is ''. it is realized as the prefix vowel u throughout the derivation. The ·~ and the prefix vowel are contlated into the u vowel. S'11'1'1) to be taken down ..,,~, ,. :.
,_,_,
'"!l '1tm Present Past Future
llil
N.'il
N.lil
0''1'JU::l n;m
l'l'TJU::l nnm
l)U::l lJm
n')~'
i]U'l
iJ~~
The •"'1' •m root classification When the third root consonant is'' y, it is realized as the vowel ey, and the '' is present in the first and second persons of the past tense. In final position where it is represented in the spelling as •n. it is realized as a ore.
to be referred to ;
11~~'? n1'~~
il-l-!l Present Past Future
llil
M'il
N.lil
ilm~
0'>~!?~
l'l~~!?.!;?
i1~!;1.!;?
il~.!;l.!;?
~lQD
il-ti1!?D
il~!?D
-ti'~!?D
~l!?.~
il~!;)tJ
il},.!;l?
il~!;lt'
4. 7.3 Meaning associated with huf'al Because of the passive nature of the hufal conjugation. the grammatical subject of the sentence is the recipient of the action rather than its initiator. Typically. the agent (the one performing the action) in the active sentence is not retained in the passive version. Dan deposited the check in the bank. The check was deposited in the bank.
.pnJ
nNnnnnl'lN lm!li111 mp!lm m'(nnnn
. plJJ
The subject of the active sentence. the agent. may surface in the passive counterpart as an indirect (or oblique) object, signaled by the
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Chapter 4: Verb pattern groups
preposition '1~ J~ 'by'. In this example, there is an emphasis on the agent, on Dan, as being the one who deposited the check.
n .,,, J>J pJJ.J. mp!:nn mmt.:~nn
The check was deposited in the bank by Dan himself.
. lt.:I~)IJ.
The recipient is often an object or an entity CnNnt.:~n> and not a person. A few verbs apply to human recipients of actions, as in the following example: The new immigrants were discriminated against by the local residents.
~)! mn~ ~?!m1 0''"lln~n
.O"t.:I'Pt.:ln O'J.V. IUln
'1'
While hu.fal is the passive counterpart of hif"il, it is important to remember that not all h~fil verbs have hu.fa/ counterparts. However, the reverse is true: all huf'a/ verbs have an active counterpart in binyan hffil. Hi{ il verbs that are intransitive do not have hu.fal counterparts. Intransitive
They did not come early.
.NlJ.J 1t.:l'iPn NJ on
.119"TtJ'n ~~~ Hif"il verbs that are transitive are likely to have huf'al counterparts. Transitive: active> passive
The engineers activated all the computers. All the computers were activated.
.O'J.YJnt.:ln J:J nN lJ'>J!ln 0'U1lnt.:ln
Chapter 5 The noun system 5. 1 5.2
5.3 5.4 5.5 5.6
5.7 5.8 5.9
Jntroduction to the noun system Indefinite and detinite noun fonns Gender features Number features Noun patterns Nouns derived from verbs Noun patterns associated with semantic features Significant patterns with no semantic association Acronyms
5.1 Introduction to the noun system A noun is a major part-of-speech category that includes words that refer to people, places, things, ideas, or concepts. Nouns may act as any of the following: subject of the verb, object of the verb, indirect object of the verb, or object of a preposition (or postposition). All Hebrew nouns have a grammatical gender. 5.1.1 Noun categories 1. Common nouns Common nouns are nouns, such as 1~?. 'book' or J?.+,l 'dog', 1hat can he preceded by a definite article or other modifiers: the book 1~WiJ any book 1~?. '~ some books
Common nouns represent one or all of the members of a class. For example, singer represents all singers, as distinct from representing a particular singer, such as 1""\!I)"N P'lN 'Arik Einshtein', or o~pt;J 'place', which represents any place, as distinct from a proper noun, such as 0'''1!111' 'Jerusalem', which signifies a particular place.Common nouns can be animate or inanimate. An inanimate noun refers to things that are not alive. An animate noun refers to living things such as people and animals (but not to plants). They can be countable nouns or non-countable nouns:
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Chapter 5: The noun sy.slem
1. Countable nouns
Countable nouns are ones that have distinct units that can be counted and have a singular and a plural form: Gloss D':J."'l bottle(s) O';?~::li?~ p~:li?~ JJ::l dog(s) O':;t~~ ...... 2. Non-countable nouns
Non-countable nouns are usually mass nouns that cannot be counted. Most are singular, such as 711"1 'sand' or 1~m 'sugar'. A fe\\1 mass nouns are plural, such as o~" 'water', O'?O 'life'. Gloss D'J.1 -ron• flour nY:li? air 1')~ water (waters) sky (skies) Note
Non-countable mass nouns, such as 'Jin ,n,i?, .1~! can be made into countable nouns by adding units of measure, such as: Gloss Countable units Singular a glass of water o~t;l ot> O~t;l a bottle of olive oil n~~w~ 11~! W'l? P'::li?~ a teaspoon of sugar 1;>1?. !'1'!;1~ "'l;.P. Collective nouns: countable and non-countable
Collective nouns refer to a group of people, animals or objects as a group: o~ 'nation', ilQ~~r,:l 'family', etc. As such, these nouns have a singular as well as a plural 1brm: Gloss Singular political party(ics) troupe(s), band family nation(s) However, the singular form shares a feature of the non-countable nouns as well, since in order to specify single units of nouns, such as the ones above, unit nouns have to be used to count them:
Chapter 5: The noun system
Gloss party member(s) band member(s) family member(s) national(s)
Countable units
127
Singular
'"":t'=' -
n~~~)? n~~!?l;l 1~0 i1i?Q~ 'l:;tO - i1i?Q~ 1~t)
n~~~)?
'P ·.. m;.'~\11)? p o~ 'P · o~ ~~
no~~Y,)
no~~Y,)
ili?l)~ 0~
2. Proper nouns D"l.n9 mnll!l A proper noun is a noun that is the name of a specific individual, place, or object. Person's name Daniel J~'n Dina n~'! Place name Jerusalem o~~~m~ Israel J~f:~"~? Object's name The Knesset llVl~iJ Titles added to names
When titles are added to names (usually last names) the phrase can he definite or indefinite. 'JN1'll' l11J.:m 'JN.1\!.I' J11J.l Mrs./Ms. Yisraeli Doctor/Or. Levi '1J 1"1i1 '1J 1"1 lN,i;lll1J )10 Captain Barzilay 'N''l1J )1tm
3. Concrete and abstract nouns A division of nouns can also be made according to the distinction between concrete and abstract nouns. Concrete nouns refer to objects and substances that exist physically, while abstract nouns refer to states, events, concepts, feelings, qualities, etc., that have no physical existence, e.g. \!.l!'nn 'freedom', 1'li1N 'happiness', 11')11 'idea', np,om 'music'. Abstract nouns can be countable or non-countable. Most concrete nouns are countable. Some are non-countable. Abstract nouns - countable i1J.j7] Feminine
culturc/s art/s
l1l'~::J.)l3
,m:J)l3
nl'~)o~ ,m)o~
Masculine symbol/s holiday/s
1)T
o'~O'I?
,?t;;Jv
0'~D
,lD
l2R
Chapter 5: The noun system
Abstract nouns: non..c;ountable Feminine i1J.j1J JOY
ill)'?'l.l
physics
ill?'P~
Masculine
1lT
happiness wealth
Note
The noun nn.'?·~ is also used as a countable noun and as such it refers to 'a joyful occasion' and then it can have a plural fonn nimt~, 'joyful occasions')
4. Adjectives 1Nin n1n11U Adjectives may be used in noun phrases to modifY common nouns and can also serve as predicates. Adjectives are discussed separately in Chapter 8. Adjectival forms sometimes function as nouns, such as in the usc of 0'1'\!.lll ,1'\!1)', which stand for 'rich, wealthy', or for 'a wealthy person/the rich' as the head of the phrase or sentence. 5. Pronouns
'E'JI} mniiU
Pronouns are used to replace nouns with independent or affixed features of person, gender and number. Pronouns arc discussed separately in Chapter 6.
6. Numerals -,gon nll'liiU Numerals are used in noun phrases that have countable nouns as head nouns. They signify a specific quantity of objects. Numerals are discussed separately in Chapter 7. 5.1.2 Grammatical characteristics of nouns As a grammatical class, nouns have the following features: 1. All nouns have a gender assigned to them, either 1?! 'masculine' or n~v.~ 'feminine'. There is no neuter gender. house O'lJ::}- ,(l) n~~ apartment ni1'1 ,(l) il')'l 2. A noun with no article is always indefinite:
a house
Tl'~
an apartment
3. One of the markers of a definite noun is the definite article -n that is prefixed to the noun: the house the apartment
Chapter 5: The noun system
129
4. Another marker of a definite noun is a pronoun suffix of possession: ~l?W TJ?~iJ/~ltl':;J my apartment '~W ilJ'O::JiJI"~'J:lJ':t' our house 5. By definition, all proper nouns (names of people and any other entity) arc definite, which in itself already suggests that the presence of the definite article -n is not a necessary condition for determining that a noun is definite. 6. A noun can have an independent form, 1J~~ D'<J, or it can have a dependent form, WW ow, when it is the first component of a two-noun phrase or is a noun that has a suffix attached to it. Independent noun
house
,"l9l
garden
aw n~~
Dependent noun
a. The first component of a two-noun phrase: n!:!p TJ"~':;J a tlower garden a coffeehouse b. Has a suffix attached to it: my house
my garden
A noun's dependent form may undergo some internal vowel changes, and predictable changes at the end of the word:
Remember
Most learners tend to memorize a singular word, rather than the forms and features that are important for its use in a variety of contexts. To use the noun appropriately in context, the following features of the noun have to be memorized: I. 2. 3. 4. 5.
the form of the independent singular noun, the form of the plural, the form of the dependent singular noun, the form of the dependent plural noun, and its gender.
Chapter 5: The noun ~ptem
130
Illustration ofthe features of a masculine noun and a feminine noun: Masculine Singular a house
Feminine
i)T
i1:J.j1l
1•n•
n••n• an
Plural
apartment n1:::11
0':::11
houses
(-'t:l~)
apartments
0'1:9·
(-!li1'"1) !lii'"1
Dual endings
Dual endings
o~.-
-iryim can signal either 'two of' or 'a pair of.
I. Some nouns (mostly time units) have three forms: a singular form, a plural form, and a dual form. When the dual torm is used it means 'two of. Dual
two weeks two months
0'~~:1\p
O?W7Q
Singular
Plural
weeks months
ni~n:t~
0'\?f'JQ
week month
~tlXJ
'o!I'J'n
2. The concept of duality can designate 'a pair of, and the dual form points to that feature ofthe noun, and is considered also its plural form. Dual/plural Singular a pair of socks/socks stocking, sock .~ :::r)~ O?~J~ a pair of hands/hands hand .) ~~ 0?1~
The actual counting with such nouns is done by adding the noun :m 'a pair of before the singular noun, and using mm 'pairs of if more than one unit is being counted. I have two pairs of glasses: : C'~i?'?'~ ni:m ')'o!J '? 'tl' a pair of sunglasses and a pair of .il"Ni '!)P\!.'Y.l :nn 'l'Y.l\!1 '~P'OY.l :m vision glasses. In the singular O'?~i7\?Y.l :m 'a pair of glasses' the inclusion of the noun :m 'a pair of' is optional. The only way to form the plural is to add the plural ofm, mm. Note
When the singular form of the noun ends in n- in the dual form, the nbecomcs n- (as it is a dependent form). and the dual ending is added: Feminine two years O?tl~~ a year o~J~ ()) il~"' two hours O?tl~'l' an hour ni'-''U (J) il),l~
Chapter 5: The noun .~)!stem
131
5.2 Indefinite and definite noun forms In Hebrew there is no indefinite article, either in the singular or in the plural:
A young woman entered the store. Hats and sunglasses are an important accessory in the summer season.
ll':J.N on Y.nJ'll '!lp'llr.n
o))I:J.1~
.'<'Pn :rml':J. :J.1'lln
A definite noun usually occurs when the noun is made specific in the contexl uf the discourse, or is understood from the shared context of the speaker and listener outside the text, and it is formally marked in the fo11owing ways: I. The definite article comes in the form of a prefix to the noun: mlp~ omD:no lJnlN'tl ll':J.n The house we plan to buy is outside town. .1').1' '<1no Nm We bought books. The books are 'l!lO on D'l!lon .D'l.!:lO U'JP textbooks. .llO'~
2. In a construct phrase- that is, a phrase that has two, or at times more nouns in a morphological relationship expressing possession, origin, atliliation, etc.- the definite article is prefixed to the last noun: the bookstore the problems of school pupils
D'1!lt71J. mm '1'0~J1 J11l)):J.
i.!:lt'D. :11':::1
a bookstore problems of school pupils
0'1.!:lt7J11Jn 'i'O~Jl J11l)J:J.
l£lt7 Jll:l
3. Possessive noun phrases are considered definite. When the possessive pronoun is attached to the noun, no definite article precedes it. When possession is expressed by two separate words - a noun followed by ~'?' 'of' + pronoun - the noun is prefixed by a definite article: my books '~'?' O'>l£lt7n =~)~~ my book ~~~ l!lt'n =''J!;JQ
For internal changes of the vowel patterns in the forms to which pronoun suffixes are attached, see Appendix 2, Noun Tables.
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Chapter 5: The noun system
4. The definite artic-le is also used for abstract nouns, which embody a general concept, rather than an incident or occurrence (in English these nouns are usually capitalized and appear with no article): All that matters is Truth and Honor. Time heals all.
.1)J::>m n~Nn m J,\!.ln'll n~ .,:::>
..,:m nN N!no J~tn
5.3 Gender features As noted above, all nouns in Hebrew have a gender feature, either masculine 1~! or feminine n~tn· Some noun endings are associated with either the singular fonn of feminine nouns or with the plural fonn of both genders. Gender is indicated in most dictionaries. The gender notation is (l} for masculine and(.)} for feminine. Except for inherent biological gender features, there does not seem to be a particular reason why certain nouns are masculine, while others are feminine. Even in a class where nouns share a common meaning, nouns do not necessarily share gender features with one another, as shown in the i1lustrations below. Example 1: hotels
Gender: masculine
Gender: feminine
hotel residence/home inn inn/hostel
,i.,Q-fl'.;)l,i.,Q
1:Jl :
,,Y.l
11).11;1 PJ~~9 n?lQ?~
nJpl , )'Y.l
up';)Y:)';l~~ol'i!!";l~
1:Jl : 1'0
Example 2: stores
Gender: masculine
Gender: feminine
supermarket minimarket hypermarket boutique store bookstore grocery store
\Ji?';IY.l'~'Y:)
\Ji?)Y:)'J~'iJ P'\?~::1
rmo
nJpl , )'Y.l
O''J~~rmo
n~~?';J~In~·:;,Y:)
5.3.1 Gender: form and meaning The gender assigned to nouns is Language-specific, and does not necessarily share the same noun-specific gender with other languages that also have grammatically assigned gender (such as French, German, Arabic and others).
C.napter 5: The noun system
Concrete nouns Feminine nJ.j7l pool/s niJ'J;t (J) n;n~
city/ies
0'"J)J ())
133
·nr
Masculine
roornls rccord/s
.,,~
Abstract nouns i1J.j7] Feminine culture ni'tl)tl (J) l'H::l)tl art l'HlY.J~ Event nouns
stage show
O'TJQ (l)1]Q 0'\J')?i?tl (l) \J'?i?lJ ·ur
Masculine
symbol regime
'>tV '~'?!;)
stage play
Anatomical gender is reflected in the assignment of gender to most animate nouns. Examples- human beings Feminine
woman/women actress/cs girl/girls
;nj7J
?9
0' 1
(J) n~~
nil~i?r;'l~ (J) ll'~i?r;'l~
llii{? (J) n1?~ Examples- other living beings Feminine i1J.j7]
mare(s) female dog(s) she-donkey(s)
ll)O~O (l) i1V~U
ni:l~r;,llniJ{? (J) n~'{:;.>
lliJinl:;( (J) 1il1z;<
Masculine
man/men actor/actors boy/boys
''DT
0 ')':9·~ (t) I:J~ O'~i?J;l't.J
(l) 1i?J;1~
0'!'.? (l) i{~
Masculine
horse(s) dog(s) donkey/(s)
"DT o')~lO
(l)
u~u
0'~{? (l) .J~~
O'"Jinq Cl) 1ino
Some of the nouns that have biological gender features are often assigned a grammatical gender that does not reflect true gender distinctions. For instance, the gender of the noun lVI)~ 'snake' is masculine, regardless of whether the snake is male or female. The generic noun 11~~ 'bird', which stands for any bird, is feminine in contemporary Hebrew. Specific categories of birds are assigned either feminine or masculine gender. For instance, while ll'~~J? 'swallow' and i1'J'~O 'stork' are feminine, 1'r:n 'starling' and UN 'peacock' are masculine. Plants are also living things and in the natural world have gender teatures, but in their representation in Hebrew have an assigned gender and are treated in this respect as objects. While the general noun for the category n)~ 'flower' is masculine, specific flowers within this category such as ll'~?:;;l 'anemone' or n~;.n 'cyclamen' are feminine, while others like U'P)~ 'datfodil' and '~h9~ 'tulip' are masculine nouns.
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Chapter 5: The noun .\ystem
5.3.2 Gender markings Many nouns that end in n.- -a or in n- -t are feminine, but it does not apply to all of them. It is a safe assumption for a learner to consider that these nouns are feminine, unless otherwise indicated.
I. The general identification of the n.- suffix is the safest, because of the small number of exceptions involved: only a few isolated items, like (penultimately stressed) n~~~ 'night', n?~~'ll 'apprentice', arc masculine, as is evident from phrases like :J)\:J n~~~ 'good night'. 2. Many nouns that end in n- arc feminine, as long as that n- is part of a
suftix. !P--it m- -ut n.,- -et
n_- -at
mercury openness pipe delegation
Jll!;l~~
mnm!il nJ\?i?~
310~'<-'~
plan culture rabies flu
31'~~:1) m::J.":~:JJ
n:;)?~ n~~~
When that 31 is a root letter, the gender is unpredictable. It is often masculine: death olive radio play service but may be feminine as well: religion !l'J
pliers
Similarly sounding 1\:J is not part of a gender determination, since 1\:J is never part of the feminine suffix; it is always a root consonant, and words ending with it can be - unpredictably - either masculine or feminine (although in reality, feminine nouns ending with '"are rare). (t) "'~i?~ selection (l) "l?~ record needle (l) \:JOY.l item ("t) "''J.!il 3. When the final vowel is n. .- e, a noun is likely to be masculine, as in the following example: i1!QY.l 'stage play'. The ending n.- e is a regular feature in nouns derived from participles. npt;lJ;l~ lecturer intern field drink i1P'<-IY.l
Chapter 5: The nuun system
135
4. Historically. a few nouns were documented in either gender, sometimes masculine. sometimes feminine, such as: wedge ltl! way lTJ fire 0~);1 knife )':;>Q coin bone ~q·'?Y."l 0~1 sun 'li>";>'U skeleton l~'U wind However, in current Hebrew everyday usage, speakers use only one gender for these. Usually it is conceived of as strictly feminine. except tor 1?~ 'skeleton' that is always masculine today. Only ltJ~ 'wedge' can be heard being used as either masculine or feminine. Similar usage can be observed in the plural word lor 'lace'. 0'~~. which to this day maintains a masculine-feminine duality. 5. The dual ending o~.- can also serve to some extent as a gender cue. Most human (and animal) limbs that end with this suffix, even when not dual in the real world (e.g., o~~~ 'teeth'), arc feminine: 1~ knee TJ.;J ear )fN hand/arm thigh pi'll foot/leg eye 1?~
'n
On the other hand, o~.- forms that are not part of nature tend to be masculine: socks pants 0'QP)",l spectacles scissors O?~j?~Y,l But there are exceptions among these too: o~?~~ "shoes' is feminine. Because there arc significant occurrences in each group, many speakers are often unsure whether the 'non-human-limb' torms are masculine or feminine. and their individual choices in everyday speech are not consistent. 5.3.3 Deriving feminine and plural forms Nouns that refer to human beings often have four related forms retlecting number and gender features and sharing the same stem. The masculine form is considered to be the 'base' form that provides the basic stem from which the other forms are derived, with special gender or number suffixes added to them. c•:n n1:n i'll'n• -r•n•/o•o.:t young person ni1m~ 1m~ i1"J'I"l~ D'"Jm~ dancer l1i'ni?J D'rJi?J l1'Hi?J r1i?1
Chapter 5: The noun system
136
Many nouns and all adjectives that are feminine singular are marked by the gender suffix n.- (the final consonant n is silent), 3"1'.- or n.-, which is added to the unmarked form of the masculine. The stem of the base form may undergo some changes in vowel composition in the derived fonns, including that of the feminine form (either because the stress moves to the last syllable, or because the feminine singular has a slightly different vowel sequence). ~
painter
!"1")~~
Participle forms as nouns
Participle verb forms which serve as nouns or adjectives typically have an . .,- -e-et or an.- -a suffix tor the feminine form. agent volunteer secretary
ng}
QXl
~
•·n•/o•ol.
J"'il?iO
O'~?iO
npio
):;?iO
J"'i:J?~l;l~
0':;lnJ:lY,:l
J"'J.'f)J"'~ ... ':.'- ;
.
J.:rm~
J"'i1':;l!Y.l
0'1':::ll~ . ...
i1J':;l!~
1':;l}Y.l
.
~
5.3.4 Nouns with different masculine and feminine stems There is a group of nouns that have totally different words for masculine and feminine forms. Humans father mother 0~ J.~ husband wife ~l'~ n~r:< bridegroom bride n~:;) wo Animals
donkey goat bul1
1i~t')
'?1':1.:1 1i'?'
she-donkey she-goat cow
)in~
l)) n:t~
5.3.5 Feminine nouns with shared meanings Other nouns that are assigned feminine gender and have no distinct feminine endings can be grouped according to shared and common meanmgs. Nouns: cities
city, town
small town
Names of cities
Jerusalem London
O''l"'n~ )ii~i~
Tel Aviv New York
l~:;t~ '}.n
PJi~ ~'~
137
Chapter 5: The noun s;ptem
Nouns: countries
country
''("J~
state
homeland
Names of countries ~~':'·~,
Israel Spain China
USA Mexico Japan
ij~1?
)'1?
l1'T'tD l1i!i)~ ipl1;1~~
w~
Nouns for parts of the body
(ones that come in pairs and other body- related nouns with dual suffix) ear O?H~-)!"N leg O?~~J-'~"J hand O~J~·i? eye 0'~')!-·p~ knee o?n~-r:9 shoulder O?~~~-rm~ thigh D?:;>1~-1"J? cheek D?~t~?·'f)~ nail o?n~~-r;f9~ tooth o?~'?'-)'?.1
5.4 Number features The plural endings of nouns are not a clear indication of the gender of the noun. While in adjectival and present tense forms they indicate gender features, in the noun systems they merely indicate that the noun is a plural noun. Masculine plural A great number of masculine nouns share the plural suffix: 0'· ~
house(s) room(s)
l'n'
D'l;q.
0'"1'0
There are a number of masculine nouns related to verbal roots (mostly with a middle •1) or that begin with the prefix -n, and often denote a place or institution. These nouns are masculine, but their plural forms end with m-. place(s) donnitory(ies)
ninip!;J l1ili).Jt;:l
A smaller number of masculine nouns with the same singular shape and composition have the expected 0'- ending in the plural form.
138
airplanc(s) institute( s)
Chapter 5: The noun jystem
O'l;'i\JY,l D'~1:Jt;l
A number of masculine nouns without the prefix -o also share the characteristic of having their plural end with !'11- in the plural f'brm, as in nit:l1Pt? above. n•::n "T'n' !11)1~1) window(s) )1~D table !11lQ~'?.' )Q~'?.' cupboard, doset !li)i1~ )i1z:t street(s) ::Jin";J niJin-;~ Note
1. Notice that many nouns that end in 11- or in )-, such as ,)1~m ,)WO ))1!'1!:1 ,)n~1'1!', are masc-uline nouns, and usually have am- plural ending, while, of course, their gender remains masculine.
2. Plural forms do not necessarily have the same stem as the singular forms. There can be intemal changes: n•::n "T'n' market(s) O'i?J~ rabbi(s) Ql~~'J tax(es) D'~Y,l
Feminine plural
By the same token, a great number of feminine nouns, but not all, share the plural sutlix: Tli-. Feminine nouns with plural suffix: niniJ.1
apartment(s) exhibit(s)
i'I"T'n'
ni1'":f
il'J''J
nt:m~JJ
n~n~JJ
Feminine nouns with plural suffix: D'-
There are a number of feminine nouns that have a teminine ending in the singular fom1, and yet the plural form sutlix is D'-.
Chapter 5: The noun S}:stem
139
The first group includes some living beings: TIIJ.,
woman/women ant(s)
iYT•n•
0'~~
il'<"~
0'~t;l~
il~t;l~
The second group includes many plants: ncn il"T'n' pca(s) 0'~l!l~ il?·'!:l~ rose(s) O'~~i'll n~~i'tl Others consist of a variety of feminine nouns: niJ., il"T'n' year(s) word(s) Note
The plural 0'~~ has two possible dependent forms ·'\'!~ and -l1i'll~. These dependtmt forms are also the bases for adding pronoun sutlixes: Oi)'JJ1'll~ or Oi)'V!~The players and their wives were invited to the party. The directors' wives will be included in the list of invited guests.
.ilJ.'OIJ'J 1mtm on'm\!.lll O'Jvnitln )'J';7:>n O'Jil))Jil (l11'lll) ''lll Ol
.o'mnr.m l11J''li,:J
The plural noun 0'~~ has a dependent form -l1il\?, and it is the form to which pronoun suflixes are added. The (years of the) nineties were nn'IJ:::I 'J'll D'l'lll'n O'~'ll!1il l11l'll years of economic growth. .l1'J::I':7:::>
5.5 Noun patterns Many Hebrew nouns and adjectives are formed from specific consonantal roots plus skeletons of fixed vowels and variable consonantal slots with a possible prefix or suffix. We refer to these skeletal patterns as O'JP'liiJ mishkafim. The tenn mishkal means 'canonical pattern'. Included are some illustrations as to how nouns are fonned by combining particular roots with mishkalim. Notice that a root can provide the basis for several nouns, each distinguished by a specific pattern.
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Chapter 5: The noun system
Here are four roots, which combine with patterns to produce nouns: Gloss comb juicer syringe propeller
)J!~'-'
P'J~H~
\JI)9Y.l P'J~Y.l ~D7~
Gloss
scanning squeezing shot; injection push
i1t,?'D'7 ili?'':ll
Root p-1-\? \J-n-o p-1-t
il~'f:\7
!:l-n-i
i71"JI!!J i'li(''J~
Although the root does not exist on its own, most words sharing a common root tend to have a common meaning core, as one can see from horizontal scanning of the examples above. Thus, for instance, most items incorporating the root p-1-0 revolve around the notion of combing or scanning; entries with the root o-n-o contain a squeezing core; p-1-l forms have something to do with throwing, including the more restricted sense of injecting, which is a type of throwing of liquid, hence 'shot' can have two meanings ret1ecting both senses, of 'a throw' (as in basketball) or 'injection by syringe'; and the core of !l-n-i 'push' is extended to 'propelling'. Vertical reading of the tables reveals something else. The non-linear morphological pattern, of a fixed vowel configuration with a possible affix, also tends to demonstrate some regularity. For instance, words sharing the discontinuous pattern .7).1~-P often designate instruments, as in P'J!Y.> 'syringe', P'J'7~ 'a comb', ttOJY.l 'propeller', \JI)'7Y.l 'juicer'. These form-and-meaning relationships do not occur across the board, and at times may not hold at all, or apply only in part. Some forms never followed the regularity to start with, and most departed from it with time, with varying degrees of deviation. Language is an evolving entity, and the relationship between form and meaning is not maintained for long. 5.5.1 Discontinuous and linear derivations of nouns There are two main mechanical strategies for creating nouns: discontinuous formation of nouns, and linear derivation of nouns. Discontinuous derivation of nouns Discontinuous derivation of nouns is the combination of the root with a pattern to yield nouns. It is called discontinuous since the sequence of
Chapter 5: The noun system
141
the root consonants is intermittent and is 'interrupted' by the vowels of the pattern. The vowels combine with the root consonants and at times with prefixes and suffixes to form the actual words. Some common patterns are presented in the table below: (C is used to designate any root consonant and the fixed vowels and prefix consonants are presented specifically as required by the particular mishkal). CeCeC
CCiCa
writing opening examination
CaCaC ?.v~
?31~
dog king slave
J'?~
1{~ 1~~
n'?'~!,)
n:pJ:"q ilQ,l)~
ili?'":l~
maC CeCa il/.V,~Y,l
test tube plough camera
nm:;tY:~ n~:JDY:~
ilY.J?,~>;~
carpenter cook barber
CiCCtiC 1~~
n~\J
l.!ilt'
miCCaC 7~~Y,l
letter shelter test
::ltJ?Y,:! tJ{i(Y,:l
lQ:;tY,:l
CiCaCon li'7.V~
memory madness experience
)il~~ )i~~~
li'W
story speech visit
7·1!1~
l1!:1U 1l:ll'1 l~i:':;l
maCCeC 7.Y,~Y,l computer ::1\I'J;l>;l
receiver battery tiCC6Cet
outtit hairdo syndrome
"?.i?~ 1:;).~Y,l
n'(l.l~J'I
nv/J?n. ':
~
npl'?t:l n~">J'?t:l
Tn indicating the mishkalim, the C represents any root consonant, and the unchanging prefixes, suffixes and vowels (including the stressed vowel) are indicated in lower case. Linear derivation of nouns Linearly derived patterns are those in which a suffix is added to a base without affecting the stem or base of the noun. Some vowel changes may occur, such as the loss of the vowel a in 1'tPt' < ?'J~Q sandal> sandltir, and a change in spelling in halilan 1{'~0 'flutist', derived from nalil.,~?Q 'flute', where a 11atafpatan replaces the kamats vowel. These vowel changes are due to the shift in stress, not to any mishkal.
Chapter 5: The nmm ·'Y.~fem
142
Compounding: recent linear derivations Suffixes
Gloss
-ut
essence flutist carpenter's shop small horse journalist truck shoemaker
-an
-iya -on -ay -it -ar
Noun nm~
'1~'~0 il!"J~~
11om 'N~~rP).I
,,~·""Y.l 1{]~Q
Gloss
< < < < < < <
Source
what flute carpenter horse newspaper load sandal
il~
~'~Q 1~~
tlltl
lil'l').l N'""Y.l ~1~V
1. Word prefix compounding
The prefix words used in prefix compounding arc largely borrowed from Aramaic and Greek. and modeled on Greco-Latin forms. They generate some nouns but more commonly adjectives: :.1Q
~
one-way twotwo-way
'"J\?Q-il)
single parent
-li
'"J\?Q-n
bilingual
-1on inexperienced
l)i'lJ~-l"'' -~~::1
WI?~1VQ
experienced
)i'~) ~~il
'~~:;~-oJp
pre-historic
'"Ji~.JQ'iJ-O'Ji?
-oip
.Qf£:_
pre-military interinternational intraintra-group postpost-Biblical multicentipede subsubstandard supersupersonic nonno-rust
'"Jiil-11)
-)'11
'r,llN~~'~
interste II ar
':;l;>l:D-)':;1
-Ji11 '31~~::~
r-,;n
intracellular
'~J;J-lin
.:J.IQ '~)p~-1lJ~
post-congress
o~mip-1JJ~
Xl .,~";1-JJ
multi-faceted
0'~~-J.'J
:11!1 '~i?.D-113)
sub-human
'~i)~-l1J;I
~ '~lp-~~
supernatural
').1~1,)-,)J
-~N
lJ:l~l)Y.l-~~
immortality
11)~-~~
Chapter 5: The noun .~_vstem
143
2. Foreign suffixes
Foreign suffixes can be appended to native stems (mostly in colloquial Hebrew), as in: Source Noun Suffix army commander 1~ii~~ < 1(?,i)- army (e.g. 3•<1) ;rn~ one who disgraces disgrace )i'P 1~i'P kibbutz member "(~~1? < f.''~- kibbutz P'~-¥)lp Likkud party member Likkud party j~::J? P'PtJ~ nice young man < P''~young man 1m:g. P"~";J~n~ very small small 1\?i? P''~Ni7 3. Compounds: blends
Blends involve merging of two independent lexical items into a new word. Some such blends have been part of the lexicon for quite a while, as in: Blend Stem2 Stem 1 ~1p movie theater ~))~)jJ < movement ~il sound traffic light 1iN hint; signal 1iltJJ < light lY.l') lighthouse
1i~'HtJ
< light
liN
tower
':r~~
4. Compounds: clipped blends
Other blends are more recent. In some of them, part of one of the bases is lost in the process of compounding, which makes them less transparent, and speakers may lose the connection to the base after a while. Some illustrations: Stem 2 Stem 1 Blend pedestrian mall :JinT;TY.l < street ::1in";l sidewalk i1?')7Y.l cable car train cable Jl-?,?,1 ~~~J < ~~~ cellular phone )i.ON'(.~ < telephone )i!:l~'? wonder N~~
5.6 Nouns derived from verbs Some very large classes of nouns are derived from verbs. In some cases, the verb form itselt: in its passive or active participle form, may also function as a noun; so do certain forms of the infinitive. In other cases, certain specific patterns designating abstract nouns are directly related to verbs, and the relationship between a particular hinyan and its related abstract nominalization is fairly regular.
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Chapter 5: The noun system
5.6.1 Active participles functioning as agent nouns One of the most common sources for nouns is the active participle, which yields agent nouns (initiators of action) or instruments performing the action denoted by the verb.
''''':1 - !J,.,., 1''):1 Gloss
Noun
governor worker baker courier
~Wi>J
Citation form
Verb tvJ;!e
~~~
0'})~\!J
~l.'~
O'r.J']\!J
i1!;1~
'0
'"~ '").'
Citation form
Verb tvJ;!e
govern act bake run
~.Vi9
n;.iN '<':1
'n!l':l - ~)''!) l"l:l Gloss
immigrant designer conductor translator
Noun
immigrate design conduct translate
1~iJJ?
J..lti.VY,) 1)~~1? or;~m~
l~i)
Cl'~r.J']\!.1
J~Y,
0'r.J~YJ
nl;!~
Jl'l'1l ·~
C~)l'l
D'liJ.nn
Citation form
Verb ~12e
')U'!1- !J')I!)t'l ,,)!1
Gloss
guide voter life guard leader
Noun
guide vote save lead
l'"J7Y.l )J':;l~Y,)
~'ll'Y.l ''~ir.J
,,,!1 Gloss
trainee adolescent assimilator boxer
Noun l1:')~:J;lr,l
-
.
1;}331):) .. ~
~?,i::I:J;lr,l '11~~J;IY,l
~)l!)f1t'l
1''J7tl
0'r.J~\!J
~'~=liD
)1')))"'1l'~
''~D
)II!)
'':;tin
"'!>
l"l!1 Citation form
train mature assimilate box
lr.;l~J;ID
Verb t~12e 0'):)~\!1
,~~J;liJ
O'r.J']\!J
']~i::I:J;liJ
0'11!J::t
~)~~l;'D
D'liJ.nt:3
Chapter 5:
Tht~
noun system
145
5.6.2 Passive participles functioning as nouns Passive participial tbnns occasionally function as nouns. ,,~
Gloss tiance divorce prisoner
Noun
Gloss elected person absentee missing person
Noun
0~1~
\!1~1~
'~::I'<J
'll-'':1 -
~n,~t~•l"l:l
Verb t~12e
Citation form 0')1::( get engaged drive away 'll)~ capture n~'<J
0~ O~'ll ~V'!l
O'OJ'll J)ll!l ,,, ~)l!l
')U':I- !7)1£1) l"l:l 11)~ ii(~~
1']~~
'nl':l Gloss notable learned fossil close associate Gloss jury member unemployed axiom concept
Noun
1;t?.t? i~?.t? ,~~>;>
:J'iPt? Noun l9~~
J\?:ft? ,~.'<-'~ 1~m
Verb t~12e
Citation form be elected 11):;t~ be counted ip~~ be missing 11~~ ~!If!!
O't.:IJ'll Oli:JJ'll ll'll'U '!l
l"l:l Citation form
be respected be taught be fossilized be brought closer
l.p
D't.:l~'ll
1t;>?.
D't.J~'ll
p~
J'll))1l '.!)
:J')'p
ll'll1l'!l
Citation form be sworn be laid off (work) acquire knowledge be understood
Verb ty:ge
Verb
t~ge
)I~~Q
D't.J''ll
?u:Jn = ...
D't.JJ'll
~~·~Q
D't.J~'ll
,~m
1")1
-
5.6.3 Infinitive forms functioning as abstract nouns Each binyan is associated with particular forms of abstract nouns. These verbal nouns can have the shape of an infinitive absolute 1iP>;> "~l;'lm or be nouns with assigned form and gender, which combine the root and some pattern related to a specific binyan. In the higher registers, the infinitive form of the verb (without -~ 'to') occasionally serves as an abstract noun (sometimes referred to as a gerund). It is commonly prefixed by -:;t 'with, upon', but follows other particles as well.
146
L'hapfer 5: The nuun system
In context with the coming of night upon his coming to Israel upon his return from the front
il:PJil Ni:l
CJ~
VN Ni::l
Citation form come N;J.
:H\!J
return
JN1V'J iNi3 CJ))
!Plnil)Y.l
iJ.~V:;J.
:I'?J
5.6.4 Abstract verbal nouns associated with verbs 1. Derived from participles
As already shown, participial torms, either active or passive, may function as adjectives or as nouns. In some binyanim, abstract nouns may be derived from these participles by the addition of the common abstract nominalization suffix m- (which is always assigned a feminine gender). Base Abstract noun J))!l agent pio agency rm?iU J))!:J) ignorant ignorance nn~:;t~ I }.I~~ obstetrician obstetrics J)J~ !Hi~?~ 1??'? loyal loyalty nm1:1 '!l nm?t9 W~9 obligation obliged !H:l?Q'? J~?. J~D'? skill skilled nm~m W~'? secretariat secretary !H1':;>~1;l ''))!li1 1'~iY.l J))!llil being limited limited ?~q~ m?~~~ 2. 'Default' verbal nouns associated with binyanim Each hin_van has at least one default abstract nominalization associated
with it, unrelated to its participial torm(s). The relationship is fairly automatic, although in some cases the verbal noun may have acquired a meaning that is an 'offshoot' of the automatic basic one. If there is more than one nominalization associated with a binyan, it is usually much less frequent. The commonest associations between specific binyanim and patterns of abstract noun formation are: trip survival improvement behavior beginning
1
ilnlrT
\!J"li\!J
i1 71l.JD C\!J
n~'W
).1-0-)
n?'Y~
JY!l
m1·:i~D
i-1-·\!J
cm?))~m> m?~!JD
Jl.I!:J)
1~9~
1-!)-\!)
{JlY'!l) 7W9
mlmJ;~D
),-j'J-)
m7~~J;'ID
il?QJ;~D
7-n-n
il?Y.~D
Jl.l'!l JY!lnn J'))!ln
l"l::l
147
Chapter 5: The noun system
5. 7 Noun patterns associated with semantic features It is possible to associate meaning categories with formal features of some of the nouns. They may be associated with a particular ending that provides some association of meaning, such as the m- ending that characterizes many abstract nouns, or the -Y.l pretix which characterizes many nouns of location or instrument. Some of the most common pattern groups will be presented with a short discussion of their meaning and form associations. 5. 7.1 Abstract nouns The commonest abstract noun sutlix ism-. Such abstract nouns may be derived linearly from the base or con<:titute part of a discontinuous noun pattern. As mentioned earlier, this noun suffix signals that the noun is feminine. These derivations may involve bases consisting of one syllable, or ones consisting oftwo or more syllables. Monosyllabic stems
Derived abstract noun essence being easy, light being thin; finesse entity, being
mnY.') m~i?
mpJ m\!1?.
Base what easy, light thin there is
i1Y.)
citizen fool human being carpenter
nJi~
Jj;)
P1 \!!~
Polysyllabic stems
citizenship foolishness humanity carpentry
nm:n~
m7')~ nwil~ m1~~
J'l~ \!Ji)~ 1~~
Many of such abstract nouns are derived from adjectives, which end in i. For instance, the adjective '!11 'religious' provides the base for m)n1 'religiosity', and m~)n 'secular' provides the base for mm7'n 'secularism'. Note
In texts with vowels, a dagesh liazak is inserted into the'' of the ending of abstract nouns derived from '.- adjectives (it does not affect the pronunciation of the word). Base Derived noun pragmatic pragmatism m~·w~Y.l 'W~Y.l festive festiveness mw~o w~o
148
Chapter 5: The noun system
Abstract nouns derived from present participles were already discussed above. Note that they may have an alternate fonn of the stem when the -ut ending is present, as the stress shifts from the last syllable of the stem to the vowel1 that characterizes the abstract noun ending. When the first vowel of the stem is a, it is reduced to 0 when the -ut ending is added and the stress shifts to -ut: Derived noun
wholeness devotion
mn~~
shlemut dvekut
mp:;r;r
Base
shalem dawik
The same happens to an e vowel at the end of the stem: foolishness tipshut lWV.!;l\;1 tipesh
C~'U
p:;n
~~\;)
Form: m~'~• < ~'.»-9'~''-'0
There are many realizations of abstract nouns that have the form of m~'l.'.!i'- They arc usually derived from several base forms which have an a initial vowel: Derived noun
mission agility openness duality Pattern:
rnn'?~
shlilit4t zrizut ptinzlt
lm'"Ji mn>t~!]l
~filut
m~'!l:J
.'
Base
shalian
zariz patuali kafitl
0'?~
"'":13 om~
Jl!l:;t
m~).l~
There are many underlying bases for the m~);J~ pattern. Several base forms, including alternates of segolate nouns and some common adjectival fonns, provide the source from which these abstract nouns are derived:
childhood fitness in accordance with Jewish law greatness simplicity
Derived noun yaldut nn~~ kashrut nn~:;;l
gadlut pashhJt
l'H~7~ ,~"~~
Base
yeled
~~~
kasher
1W;:t
gad6/ pashrit
:;,ii~
"w~
Chapter 5: The noun .\J•stem
149
5.7.2 Patterns referring to agents Agents are performers of an action over which they exercise some controL The dominant patterns are the following: ,t +U'ti:J ,1?l:J~ .~~!ll 'N. +U'U:l. Some agent nouns with transparent relationship to the base: Gloss
soldier painter collector comedian wireless operator professional journalist electrician
Agent J~T)
Pattern
7)!!ll
).1~::!
wv~
1?~~
107:J wm~~
).+tPtiJ
Wi~i?~ 'N~il'll,!
'N._+ti'Ul
'N~~"<JT)
Gloss
army color, paint collection joke
Base .,?0 Y~¥
CJ~iN i10'7~
wireless profession
mn~~
newspaper electricity
,,n~
~isp~
70,~0
5.7.3 Patterns referring to instruments An instrument is an implement by means of which an action is carried out. Instruments tend to be realized as il~.V.~r,> ,.,)!.!;)r,>, 1?~~ and 7V.~9Gloss
receiver key camera lathe air conditioner dialer softener dryer
Instrument
Pattern
"~i?Y:> Ot:l-?Y.l
'V.!?Y.l
i1Y;l~-¥Y.l
il~)!~)?
il\jl')f;'\1?
mr.J
)~),1~
u~tt
1~11?
\!.I :;;I!'?
'])!~~
Gloss
Base
absorb open
"~i?
photograph engrave
0~,::1
moderate dial soften dry
nlJ~
'-''JT)
lm l~l:l
,~.,
\!.1~~
In common use the pattern of meCaCeC often replaces the normative maCCeC, such as megahets 'iron' for maghets '<m'? < '(iJ~1;1. or menashev 'computer' for manshev ~'WO'? < l\!?J;lr.J. Both are acceptable and widely used in speech.
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Chapter 5: The noun .\ystem
5.7.4 Patterns referring to locations The prevalent location patterns are n?Y,~Y,l.~).'!;lr.> and il~_+Q'Q.l. Gloss Location Pattern Gloss anny post \J~~l',l ~~!?O control, rule shelter \J~i?t:l absorb headquarters restaurant deli shoemaker's shop
il"Ji?!;lr.> il1).1VY,J
il~lJ!?t;l
il?H~~
il~_+O'O.l
...
-
i1~1~~)0 .,. : ~
Base \J~'U
\J';?i(
command dine delicacy shoemaker
1J~Y,l
1?7~~
Characterizing a pattern as denoting locations is not always easy, particularly since the location concept may partly overlap with other semantic features. A noun like il~l1~ 'step', for instance, may be regarded as either a location (where one's foot steps on), or an instrument (a means of getting oneself higher). Note
Several nouns denoting location in the il~~!)l:l pattern have two possible patterns. Pattern A il~~!;)r,l is considered by some to be the correct torm, while Pattern B il~~!?r.> is considered incorrect. However, in common use the two patterns exist side-by-side and are equally valid. Gloss Pattern B Pattern A laundromat nv;t:;m ilVi!-:;>r.> plant nursery il~l)~Y,l il?:!:l~~
5. 7.5 Patterns referring to collection/group/system Some nominal derivation patterns may also denote a group, a collection, or a system~ characteristic patterns arc linear il!.-, ~~~r.>. li+O'O::J and 1'1~)1~. Gloss Noun Pattern Source library book il?-:'1!;11;1 il~.1?9 song fest song M!"Jf;>~ 1'?l array. variety color, hue )Hr.> ~~!;)Y,l 1J~ ~i)·N encampment tent ~Q~r.> questionnaire ask li + Q'O:J li~~~ ~~'U price list price 1'1)1;) 1)1'1)'? air squadron fly U\? 1'1~~\? n?~~ card file card Q'\?";li> n~\JJ~
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151
5.7.6 Patterns denoting diminution (reduction) Diminution usually denotes a smaller noun than its base form, or an adjective with the denoted quality reduced. It is often associated with affection, such as in :J~~~? 'puppy' or in )i'l?~ 'little child'. However, it can also have a negative association, when the diminution is used to reduce the value of someone or something, for instance, as in )il'P!i' 'a small, insignificant clerk', which is derived from l'P~ 'clerk', probably because the base itself has some inherent negative feature to start with. There are a number of ways of forming diminutiws. Gloss kitchenette small roof little restaurant little girl Gloss doggie goatee bluish kitty piggy Gloss teaspoon wine glass Gloss hot dog cookie
Noun )in~\;)Y.l
Pattern
)i
+ tPO:J
)t~~ ]1~-,~~Y,l
nt + Ol\J:J
nt'l~!
Noun
Pattern
:J?=;i~=i'
~~?).l!il
1i?~i?~
~o?t9 '~l'l,l1n : - -;
.,,nm
Reduplic. of stem vowel
Noun
Pattern
n>.!;i:;,l
l1'-+0l0:J
l1'>1;1t:>
Noun il~P'~i?~ il!~W
Pattern il!.-
+O'>O:J
Gloss kitchen roof restaurant girl
Source n~~;JY,l ~~
ilJ~~Y,l
il'J?~
Gloss dog beard blue caL pig
Source
Gloss tablespoon glass
Source
Gloss sausage cake
Source
:!{.i;!
1i?! ':in~ ~mo
.,,!Q
~~
ob
P'~in il~W
In contemporary Hebrew the most productive diminutive pattern is -on and its feminine counterpart -(met. Essentially, every noun can be made diminutive by an -on suffix. This is a process that can even produce other diminutive nouns from diminutive bases, to render them even more diminutive, as in ~mQ 'cat' > ~m?tto 'kitty' > 1i~m~tt0 'little kitty'.
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Chapter 5: The noun system
5.7.7 Other noun formation patterns Some other small groups that belong to derivation patterns in the noun system can be characterized in a semantically coherent fashion.
I. The noun pattern n~~~ tends to designate sicknesses and other phenomena with negative associations. Gloss
Noun
Gloss
jaundice whooping cough rabies inflammation
rqo~
yellow cough dog burn (int.)
n?V.'U :n:l~::> ,. •:
Base :l·il~
'::1~~\l/
J.?~
v'n
Note
There are other nouns in that pattern, such as n.;rn 'train', n~~'\,;1 'promenade', l'1\?~i? 'cassette', J'l.!t\i'~ 'safe', that do not have any negative connotation . 2. Other nouns with negative connotation are t(lrmed in the pattern )i~).J$:
Gloss
madness drunkenness failure depression
Noun
Gloss
Base
)iY~W
mad drunk tail depress
)1~~1?
)11;'1\l/ )i':1~:;J )1N~ry"
11::>\l/ ':1'U~ N;,l'ry
Note
There are other nouns in that pattern, such as )1l~~ 'memory', )i'W~ 'cleanliness', )i''f~ 'experience', )11i?V 'principle' that have a positive connotation. A tairly common pattern, mostly in more recent Israeli Hebrew, is ''V~l::'. It often refers to a product of the action denoted by the base verb (often in h!f"il), as in: Gloss
budget summary incentive relief
al1ot
l':;li?:J.:l ~'11?:J.:l
"'~;t:J.:l
shorten encourage make prominent
J'::li?il l~P
YJ'?il "'~;tD
Chapter 5: The noun system
Another is
:n~·l'~J:I.
Gloss
memorandum correspondence orchestra hairdo
153
which refers to a system, or a set of conditions, as in: Noun :n:f::!J:J:l rq"rql:l nJ~~:J:l
l1i?.1t;':J:l
Gloss
remind correspond sing comb
Base 1'::!li1 . :.
:m:;,nn .. - : . ,~~
P1~
5.8 Significant patterns (with no semantic association) There are many common nouns that have a pattern that is not associated with any particular meaning.
5.8.1 The pattern pa'al One of the more prominent patterns not associated with any particular meaning is.,~~: river snake thing; act of speech dust
5.8.2 Segolate nouns One large class of nouns has traditionally been referred to as segolate nouns, because their two final consonants are split by a segol e, and in the largest sub-group, the preceding vowel is also e. That preceding vowel carries the word stress: ram geshem O'{J~ snow sheteg l?,"' Since the segolate stress always fal1s on the syllable before last (penultimate), it obviously follows that the final vowel is always unstressed. The segolate base vowel is generally a stressed e vowel, as in geshem, but can also be a stressed oor ci, such as in the following: summer kayits '<~i? winter nvref I'JJ'n morning baker lit~ gate sha 'ar 1~~ A historical note
Historica11y, the segol was inserted to split what used to be an impermissible consonant cluster at the end of the word. 1. A noun such as::>~~ malk 'king' became 1?9 m(Hekh. The feminine torm n~~~ maikO 'queen' and the abstract noun m:J~~ malkhut 'kingdom', where a suffix is added, preserve the original stem vowel a of the J~Y.l base, and stress fa1ls on the suffix, as it norma11y does.
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Chapter 5: The noun .,ystem
2. A noun such as 1!?1? s{fr 'book' became 1~9. sejer. The dependent form with possessive pronoun preserved the original stem vowel i when sumxes were added, e.g., '"J~'Q sifri 'my book', Jn1!;)'Q :J)j'rilt 'literature'. The plural of segolate nouns is a mishkal in itself, usually o,.?J.Ip (CCaCim); stress falls on the plural sutlix: Plural Singular Gloss Dependent form children (of) yaldey-'J?~ yeladim i'(.?, 0''1~? yeled gesher 1'll:\ bridges (of) gishrey- -''J\11~ gsharim O'"J'?'~ ·:·:
The mishkal oft.he plural ofsegolate nouns can also he ni!J.pp: Gloss Dependent form Plural Singular horns (of) karnot-ni)')i? kranot n1YJi7 keren ni.? doors (of) daltot-:ni.n~1 dlatot nin?7 delet .n'(.:y When the first stem vowel is o, that o remains. Sometimes the vowel o is maintained in the plural as well, particularly when the first segment is a guttural. Dependent form Gloss 1P,'J. mornings (ot) hokrey-''Ji?::t hkarim O''Jw:!;! months (of) 'liJ·n 0'\'-lin hodshey-''?.'10 hodashim •: 'onsheypenalties (of) onashim [)l~~v. 'O~Y roots (of) shorsheyshorashim [)l~J'?' "-''J'll
..
When the middle consonant of a segolate noun is "• the stem sequence ayi is reduced to ey in the dependent fonn: bayit > beyt: Gloss Dependent form Plural Singular synagogue bay it When the middle consonant of a segolate noun is •1, the stem sequence is reduced from ave too, in the dependent form, thus gaven > gon: the hue of the sky [)llO'llil )il O'm gaven )H hues of the rainbow l1\!JjJil '~i~ The last two syllables of some feminine nouns display a segolate pattern, with the characteristic final e and penultimate stress. In the plural fonn the stress shifts to the last vowel; the plural pattern often contains the a stem vowel characteristic of the .wgolate plural, but a basic o is maintained, and is not reduced in the dependent form.
Chapter 5: The noun system
Gloss pipe
pipes of skull skulls of orchestra
Base
Plural miktarot mikterotkarkafot karkl/ot· tizmort'>t(-)
155
.Tih\(i(Y,l
mikteret
Sl'J\?i?tJ
-.n 11\)i?Y,l .n'!li?JP -n1!li(")P
kark¢fet
n~n?~P
(-)n111r.rm
lizmoret
n·:;fnp:l
The dependent form of nouns of the n~)J~Y,l pattern, -.n{~-?Y.l, displays the segolatc pattern: Base Gloss Plural mis'ada restaurant mis 'edet -.n:r~VY.l n:r~VY.l police mishteret mi.shtara -.TI') '?. \f' Y,l il)\(~7,)
5.9 Acronyms Hebrew uses at least three types of acronyms: 1. Orthographic acronyms, such as WWII in English, that arc never pronounced as such, i.e., are read always in full, as in: Source Form afternoon :::l"nnN O~'JO~iJ ''JQ~ nmN God willing! o'tln .. - ns1' . . =. em. God forbid! n"ln n~('~Ql tiO negotiations 0' 1ltJ '\))r.n N~~ 2. Letter acronyms, such as MP in English, in which the full name of each letter is pronounced (essentially restricted to two-letter acronyms),
as in:
Source military police gate guard (lit. battalion policeman) under command (of) company commander
.TI'~~~ i1J\;)\f'Y,l
'1n:l1tli'll . : .. 1~P!l
.TIOl.:l
n~~J!)I 1ii?~Y,l
3. Pronounceable acronyms, like NATO, RADAR in English. Of those some deliberately seck to form sequences that correspond to existing catchy or relevant words (ct: English SALT), as in: Source Form fu}n women's corps 0''<-1~ ''I) per diem 'eshel nr~ il!).TI~ n~,~~ kibbutz army units Ol)i~ ':;!·l~O 1Y.i) nanal
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Chapter 5: The noun system
These particular catchy acronyms have an association with the following words: Gloss Associated word Acron~m fu!n grace, beauty l"n IIJ tamarisk 'eshel 'J'"ON 'Jnm river, stream nahal 'JI)~
'"'~
Other pronounceable acronyms involve vocalic components, such as: Acron~m Gloss Source ·um United Nations O"~N niiO~N'? ni>:J~ silverware sukum D"~:::JV :.~~~m ~~~'~v missile boat satil 0'~'\;) Tl~'!;l~ '"''-'9 However, the major, most productive, acronym-forming device is what some refer to as root acronyms, where word-initial consonants or consonant sequences are treated as root consonants (or slots), and realized as pronounceable acronyms in mishkalim, or in a mishkul-Iike pattern based solely on 'plugging in' of the vowel u (see below). Of the preferred existing mishkalim, there are the segolute patterns CeC..eC or CaCaC (when a guttural is involved), as in: Gloss Israel Defense Forces (IDF) training camp Israel's water authority
PX
Source 'J~')-'?'??
Acron:tm
nm) N_;l-¥ tsahal
'"i)~
n:;r:r;rD O'~~ bah ad
i"il:::J
'J~"J·~~? o~~D l~l~J;J o'~ill'? nil'\'~w
m1w
tahul shekem
'J"nn Cl"jJ\!.1
Most root acronyms, however, are realized in strings that contain the vowel a only- the vowel which is the commonest and most prominent in Israeli Hebrew (note that sometimes, more than one segment is pulled from each base word): Acron~m Gloss Source radar (lit. finder of oipt;) ~~,,!l n~~t;) makam O"JY.l direction and location) ,.,.,J .,mo mankal 'J"J)Y.l general staff chief of staff '"J mm 't'Ni ramatkal ""JOY.ll
Chapter 5: The noun systl~m
157
Note that acronyms are different from typical Hebrew words in one important respect: like borrowed words, they keep their stress pattern when inflectional sutlixes (like the feminine or plural suffixes) are added to them, whereas in native stems, the stress usually shifts to the inflectional suffix: friend friends naverim haver radar radars makamim makcim
Chapter 6 Pronouns 6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4
6.5 6.6 6.7
Forms of personal pronouns Independent subject pronouns Pronoun sutlixes and prefixes in verbs and in existential expressions Pronouns suffixed to nouns and prepositions Demonstrative pronouns Interrogative and relative pronouns Impersonal pronouns: something/nothing
Pronouns are a subclass of nouns. They are used to refer to nouns or noun phrases, whose identity is known or has already been established, either by the context of a conversation or by presence elsewhere in a text, or is implied by the situation: Noun phrase Pronoun
We have friends in Haifa. They work in a hotel.
. n!l'nJ O'i:m 1J., 'tl' . 11~'1):1 O'>i:J1~ Oil
Pronouns can occur in different positions in the sentence and have different syntactical functions. Subject Direct Object Indirect Object
Orner is our friend. He works in a bank. We saw him when he entered the bank. We don't have confidence in him.
Nm .1J'J'tl 1:1n 1r.nv .plJ:J i:lW ~JO:Jl'tl::l
m,N 'l'N1
.pl.!l'J . ,:J omtn:J NJ ,JnJN
6.1 Forms of personal pronouns In Hebrew personal pronouns can have the shape of 'stand alone' independent words that function as subjects of clauses and sentences, or they can be dependent elements prefixed to words or suffixed to words. They can have diiTerent functions in the sentence: they can be a subject or a direct or indirect object.
Chapter 6: Pronouns
159
Independent Pronoun
lam a student at the university. Pronoun suffixed to a preposition
My Dad works in a bank. Pronoun suffixed to a noun
My Dad works in a bank. Pronoun suffixed to a verb
I worked with my Dad. Pronoun prefixed to a verb
In the summer I'll work in the bank. Reference to personal pronouns
Personal pronouns do not necessarily refer to persons. In the third person they can refer to objects, events, abstract notions and any other noun or noun phrase that is not human. In English these pronouns arc expressed by the word it for the singular. However, in Hebrew there is no neuter pronoun, such as it, and since all nouns have a gender assigned to them, they arc referred to as 'he' or 'she' or 'they', depending on the gender of the noun. Person
Animal
Concept
David works at the bank in town. lie is a branch manager. These dogs are old. They lie on the rug all day long. My television doesn't work. 1! is being fixed. This is a great idea! !! can save us a lot of money.
Nlil .1'Y:J PJ:J:J l:JW 1)1 ·'1'lO~m~
on .O'lP' 1:::1::> n~Nn O':J~::m .n.,u-vn ~Y mm ~' O":J:>l'll .nn,y N~ '~YJ n"l'll7tJn -1~P'n::J
N"il
! 1"l::IO WY1 iH
n::11n ll'J 11tm'J 'Jl=>' Nm .')0:>
It is too bad you did not come to the Qill!y. !! was very successful.
. il:J'OO~ OnN:J N'JYJ 'JJn .ilNO nn'J~m
nn"'n Nm
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Chapter 6: Pronouns
6.21ndependent subject pronouns Subject pronouns, as implied by their name, occupy the position of subjects in clauses or sentences. Subject pronouns can be independent words, as they are in English, or they can be attached in some way to other words. Independent subject pronouns
Singular
Masc.(fem. Mas c. Fem.
Mas c. Fem
Plural
Masc/fem Masc. Fem.
Mas c. Fem.
'.l~
nJpJt 1,jr
you you he she
m;u~
7,jr
~~
n:JpJ
we you you they they
Nm
1,jt
N'D
i7::JpJ
UJ;I~~
n:JpJt 1,jr
OJ)!':{
1,jt
1J;l~
i7:JpJ
OiJ
Dr
1D
n:JpJ
illi'n'
nl:Ji/0':::11
6.2.1 Common bases for pronoun forms The common basis for the first person pronoun is ->(N) in ,mlN ,')N.
The common basis for the second person is the beginning of the word -n~. while the plural endings signify both plurality and gender: the tina) c- is a masculine plural marker and the final )- is the feminine plural marker. All third person forms )il ,on ,Nlil ,Nm begin with -n. Unlike in English, where the third person plural they refers to both feminine and masculine, in Hebrew the masculine plural pronoun ends with o- -m and the feminine plural pronoun ends with)- -n. Comparative notes
There are ten independent pronouns in Hebrew. In English, however, there are seven (six of them refer to human nouns, and one refers to other objects or abstract nouns). The gender features of the Hebrew pronouns are present in both the second and third person forms, but not in the first person forms. 'lN represents 'I' tor both masculine and
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Chapter 6: Pronouns
feminine, and 1JnlN represents both masculine and feminine 'we'. In English, gender features, i.e. masculine and feminine distinctions, are only present in 'he' and 'she', but not in other pronouns. Hebrew, like English, has personal pronouns that refer to persons. However, unlike English, there is no personal pronoun it that refers to non-human animate or inanimate objects, as well as abstract concepts. The third person pronouns ('he', 'she', 'they' = )n ,on ,N'n ,Nm) are used to refer to non-human nouns as well. Since all nouns have gender and number teatures, the choice of the appropriate pronoun for nonliving objects is clear. Note
The final n.- ending, which is usually associated with feminine singular nouns, marks the masculine singular form n~~. while the form :1;1~ without the ending n.- is used for the feminine singular.
6.2.2 First and second persons ln a conversation mode, the speaker and addressee (person being spoken to) use the first and second pronouns to refer to each other. Singular David, do you call home every day? No. I phone once a week.
"T'n' ! Dl' .,::> nn,:m
l't'pn~
nnN ,,,,
..)Ill 't'::l 0.).1!:1 )!l"'-'~ 'lN . N.,
Plural What are you doing? Don't you see that you are stepping on my flowers? We are sorry. We did not pay any attention.
D'J.l
O'Nll N., onN ?0''t'l.)l DnN nr.J ?'''t' o>n19n
.,Y 0'::>1n onN't'
.::1., .Y_r.J't' N., .0'1.).1\J:Jir.J l3nlN
A historical note ':JilK
= 1lK
There are variant forms to some pronouns. In biblical literature, the first person 'l2:;( also has the form of ,~.l~. This alternate fonn may appear in Modern Hebrew in formal speech or in literature. This is true particularly in poetry where it is used to create an artistic etlect.
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Example from biblical literature "lam a stranger and live amongst you". (Genesis 23, 4)
"Who am I to go to Pharaoh?" (Numbers 3, 11)
Example from poetry "That's how I am: quiet like the water in the lake". (Rachel, "I")
.o:~ol! ~ J\!J,m
iii
('i ;;\") n'\!INi:l} .i1)!i9 ?N 17N '1l ~ '.0 (11!~ 1 :l nlrl\!1)
't.J't.J::l n\Jp\!.1 , ~ nNt:::l .OlN
.("'lN" 'm"'l)
iJH = llnlH The first person plural pronoun um~ has a variant fonn of ~J~. While this variation does not appear in biblical texts, its use can be traced back to early Mishnaic Hebrew and it has continued to be used until today. This alternate form appears in formal speech, and in literary texts, particularly in poetry.
Example from Mishnaic literature ... that on all nights we eat leavened bread and mat<;£7 ... Example from a literary text We live in a ditlerent world and forget where we came from and where we are going. Example from a popular song We came to this land to build and be built.
V7:1)N UN m';J,';Jn J:I:J\!.1 ...
... il~n' 'l(nn
O'ri:11\!J .ii"IN O';J)~:J 0"11 ~ .0':1?m ~ )N7, UNJ )'N.O
niJJ'il';J, nU:JJ il~iN UNJ ill:! .i1J
As mentioned earlier, the third person is not used solely to refer to people, but also to refer to objects, concepts, and events that are included in sentences or larger discourse units (such as a paragraph, or an entire text). There is no neutral third person pronoun it, and the masculine and feminine pronouns are used to refer to non-human nouns, depending on the grammatical gender of the noun.
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Chapter 6: Pronouns
Objects
Events
Animals
The library opens at eight. It (she) closes at ten at night. These are interesting events! They can change the results of the elections. The lion is the king of the beasts. !! lives in Africa.
.mmVJJ nnn!ll n"l!lt:Jn .n?"J::llVJ}J::lnllt1l Nm ! O'l"lYO
0'}11l'N n?N
J"IU"{~lil llN 11UVJ? 0'J1:::1' on
.nnmJn
'n Nm .mmn 1?0 N1n n'lNn .iliJ'l!lNJ
6.2.3 Word order - independent pronouns Pronoun follows the noun to which it refers In most cases the noun phrase precedes the pronoun; the pronoun repeats it by a different word. The reference can be not just to a noun or a noun phrase, but also to a sentence or a content expressed by several sentences in a larger discourse unit. (This phenomenon is called anaphoric reference). The examples brought here arc from within the sentence domain.
Out of milk? No problem! It's always possible to go to our grocery store, since i! is open all night.
1mn ""''VJ!lN .n'Y::l1'N ?::t?nn lOll ?::> nm119 Nm ':l 1 u?VJ n?t:m? '(19p?
The students were not here in the summer, but they'll return at the beginning of the school year.
on ~UN 1'('f.'::l )N::> 1m N? o'm1mt1n .o,,m,?n mVJ n'::7mn::t 11m.,
.n'''il
Pronoun precedes the noun to which it refers
In some cases, the sequential order of the noun phrase and pronoun is reversed. The pronoun precedes the noun phrase that it refers to. We find out only later in the discourse to what the pronoun refers. (This phenomenon is called cataphoric referencing). Even though he said he would come early, David did not show up till midnight. While she conversed with friends, Dina's mother did not pay attention to the fact that Dina disappeared.
1
0ipm N1::l' N1iiVJ lON Nm ':I ON .m~n 1}1 }J'!lln N'::7 1n lnn:m oy nnmVJ N'nVJ )OtJ l:JJ .J'] noVJ NJ iJ)'1 JVJ NON .no7Yl m'1VJ
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Chapter 6: Pronouns
Ellipsis of subject pronouns
In conversations, or written passages, it is quite common that once the third person subject has been mentioned, the pronoun is omitted in subsequent sentences. Its presence is implied rather than being openly expressed. Example from a conversation So what was David doing there? (He) was just standing and waiting for her to come out. Example from a written passage Yitzhak Eliyahu put on his professional look anticipating the woman... twenty minutes later (he) stood by the apartment door... only then did (he) tum to ask her to come in.
!OYJ nYJY ,,, nn tN .N~ny,;
1Y n'J n::>'m 1Y.lY onu
0')!1 ,,Nn IZ.IJ'J m''JN
pn~'
0'1YJY ... i1YJ'Ni1 nN1P., 'Y,~pn
n.,, .,m 10l' mn 1nN., mp1 nmN )'nm'J nl!:l lN
P1 ... m''Tn .m:Jm'J
6.3 Pronoun suffixes and prefixes in verbs and in existential expressions When verbs appear in the past tense or in the future tense in the first and second persons, the subject pronouns are included in the verb form. For example, in Hebrew the past tense verb form 'J:17;J.~ 'I worked', combines both the subject and the verb stem in the past tense. In English the same notion is expressed by two separate words: one for the subject pronoun and one for the verb.
6.3.1 Past tense suffixes In the past tense the subject pronouns of the first and second person arc suffixed to the past verb stem. Since the verb form itself is marked for number, gender, and person, the independent pronoun becomes redundant, and thus optional. Here are the first and second person future tense forms with subject pronoun suffixes. The pronoun is the last component of the verb form. First and second person singular
I, you met
DYJl!l CnN)
First and second person plural
we, you met
)!!\!Jl!l ()l'lN)
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165
In the third person, however, the independent pronouns are obligatory. The verb fonn of the third person does not include person features. It includes the features of number (singular/plural) and gender (masculine/feminine) but not person. Third person singular
he, she met Third person plural
they (masc. and fern.) met
1\!Jln on
There are cases, however, when second person independent pronouns are used with the past tense verb: 1. In informal spoken Hebrew the independent first person subject pronoun is often included: m~n:::> 'lN. 2. Independent subject pronouns are used to emphasize the subject, so as to indicate a contrast between a particular subject and another:
! wrote this letter - not Dan. 6.3.2 Future tense prefixes In the future tense the first and second person subject pronouns come at the beginning of each verb form as prefixes to the future verb stem. Look at the following sentence: We shall meet Dan in a cate. .n!:lp n':J:J rr J1N 't'U!:ll
Notice that the verbal expression I!J1l!ll 'we shall meet' is rendered by three words in English, but it is one word in Hebrew. Here are the first and second person future tense forms ofthe verb with subject pronoun prefixes. The pronoun is the first component of the verb form. As in the past tense, the independent subject pronouns are redundant, and thus optional, but in daily speech the first person singular pronoun is often included, even though it is incorporated in the verb prefix. First and second person singular
I, you will meet
''t')!:lJ"l (nN)
First and second person plural
we, you will meet
1\!Jl!:ln ()J1N)
li!Jl!:ln (OTIN)
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Chapter 6: Pronouns
In the third person, as in the past tense, the independent pronouns are obligatory. The verb form of the third person does not include person features. It includes the features of number (singular/plural) and gender (masculine/feminine) but not person. Third person singular
he, she will meet Third person plural
they (masc. and fern.) will meet
1\\ll!l'
on
The affixes tor )n ,on ,)!lN ,D!lN ,!lN include a prefix and a suffix: the prefix indicates the person while the suffix indicates gender and number. 1+\\ll!l+' )non ,1+\\ll!l+!l (1fO!lN) ,'+lVl!l+!l C!lN) 6.3.3 Subject pronouns added to existential expressions In some registers of Hebrew, from biblical Hebrew to present day formal language, there is a restricted use of personal pronoun subjects that are added to some expressions. The subject suffix is most commonly added to the existential expressions Pl:':VlV!. It is also used in some fixed expressions, especially in legal or technical language. Pronoun suffixes for the negative particle I'N The most common use of this suffixed pronoun ts m the negation expression 'l'l::t, which is only used with present tense participles. Don't you hear me? Are you deaf? ?lVlO il!lN ?'!l)N YY.nll.l Jl'N
The suffixed pronoun is also used to negate an existential state. Once there used to be a theater here, 01'1"1 ?~N , )1"1\JN'!"l )N:l nm O!l'!l but today it is gone. Personal pronoun suffixes for I'K Paraphrase
Paraphrase
N!JNm
il'W~:l~'l::t
N;, N't7
npz::tm~~'l::t
N70i7 N7}t7
N1i1 N'T'I
on 'I~'~ )n
o~'z::t
N;, 'JN
'~'~! '~~'l::(
N;, t7J7N
l~'l::(
N7J7N
1~'l::(
N;, 1JnJN
l:l~'l::(
N7DJ7N
0?,~'~
N7 JnN
1?.~'~
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Chapter 6: Pronouns
Formal Daily speech
I do not know if he intends to come. I don't know if he is planning to come.
)n:mo Nm ON ~,, m'N .NiJ.~
Nli1 ON ~1)' N~ 'lN .N)J.~ )JlZIJ10
The third person fonns are also used in the negation of nominal sentences in the present tense. The suffixes retlect the subject gender and number features. The house is not new. . '1!11n U'N mJ.n .n?l1) nJ'N n\JltJlJ.))lNi1 The university is not big. The children are not at home. .J1'J.J. OPN 0'1~m .11n:1 ))'N m))n The girls are not in the room. Pronoun suffixes for the existential expression w•
The positive existential expression '1!1' 'there is/there arc' can carry third person subject pronoun suffixes. A noun may follow it, or it may be preceded by a subject pronoun. lt often serves as the link between subject and predicate, much as the verb 'to be' serves that function in English. 3rd person suffixes to the positive particle Gloss Paraphrase he is 0''PIN~tJJ N1i1 J10"jJIJ1N~0) N'i1 she is they (masc.) are O't.J"jJIO'N~O) On mo,p;mN~m )i1 they (tern.) are
\!1'
They say, "there is a land". There is a heightened risk for heart patients to suffer a stroke.
ilJ'f'' 0'101N
. '<1N mp?~ lJ.)lO 11=>'tJ
iJ~~ n~\}1~
Nm Nm
0~\}'~ Oi1 ,~~~
)i1
m:e J.~ ,~,n~
.mm ~'1'NJ.
6.3.4 Fixed expressions There are other fixed expressions to which this sutlix subject pronoun is used (mostly in the first person). These expressions are used extensively in post-biblical Hebrew. In Israeli Hebrew they are used in the formal registers of the language. In speech they can be found mostly in tl1e language used tor delivering formal addresses. In written form they are used in legal documents, and academic and technical
Chapter 6: Pronouns
168
discussions as well as official documents. They are used stylistically in official language. I hereby I believe/it seems to me I think, I am of the opinion
= '~~D
'lN mn '~
n)Ji)
1 1~VJY.l ~lN = '~J?i~
-,~:m '.lN = 'n~::1~''n~::19
Formal/legal is tic announcement I hereby notify ...
. .. nNl:J
From a formal correspondence It seems to me that you are confusing two things.
mn CnW~l1Y.l mn ))):J)j
.0'1Ji 'l'll I'~ JJ"''~r.J nnN'll .!mll
From a legal document In the light of the results of this appeal, I am of the opinion that each side should bear in the expenses of the appeal.
'l"llJO ~
,m .,,~.,~J mN~nnn .,,N~
lmlN!IImJ N'll' 1!11 ~::>'ll ')l::>l'll _.,,~.,~J
6.4 Pronouns suffixed to nouns and prepositions 6.4.1 Added to singular noun forms and some prepositions There are two sets of pronoun suffixes attached to the end of nouns or prepositions. One consists of a set of suffixes that are attached to singular nouns and to most prepositions. The other is a set of suffixes, which are attached to plural nouns and to a small number of prepositions. For a more complete discussion ~{prepositions and pronominal endings, see pp. 228-235.
When pronoun suffixes arc attached to nouns, they become possessive pronouns. Pronoun suffixes attached to singular nouns Plural
3rd
~
1st
c.-
[)~-
il-
1.-
~~-
Singular rd
2nd
i-
1-
rl.-
1 .. -
3
1st I
-
C'hapter 6: Pronouns
Ella, does your aunt live in Haifa? No. My aunt and mv uncle live not far from Tel Aviv. Maccabi Petah Tiqvah will not be able to host Maccabi Haifa on Sunday in its stadium.
169
m!lm:J i11lJlJ"J'i"1' ,il~n·-c -J310 f.,n1 NJ D'1l .!!l"Ji11 ,2i1 .NJ .:J':IN nN mN' ':>m N' impn nn!l ':J:>o ..IJ.)1'i\:I~'N:l 1WN1 OP:J. n!:lm '::1:>0
This set of suffixes is also used for many prepositions: J~N
,DY ,J1n ,nN ,11:JY ,J':J'ti:J ,-0 ,,VJ ,-7
He planted himself across from us. Give me mx...book back. It was not easy. Believe me. We wanted to bring him back to reality.
.n NJ1 u'm iOY) Nm .'Jill1!ltm nN 'J 1'nn .'J 1)'0Nn .7p nm N7 m .mN'~OJ 1311N 1'lf"'mJ ))'~1
6.4.2 Added to plural noun forms and some prepositions Pronoun suffixes attached to plural nouns Plural
Singular
3nl
7""
1sl
3n.l
2nd
Dy'_-
D:;)' .. -
il' -
1'.-
,.
IY' . -
1~' . -
v'.,-
1'.,
l sl I
-
__
Ella, do your parents live in Haifa? ?n!lm:J 0'1l r1in ,n,N The (its) owner of the soccer team "'\:I:Jn Jl,1i:::>n n::n:Jp J'lJ n'J>!:J promised that the club will not be N1n iW ':> 1:1\?" NJ 1n>!10nl!.l closed as long as he is alive. This set of suffixes is also used for some prepositions:
He came to us. We heard a lot about him.
.,l',N N:J. N1n .1'J~ n:J.,n 1)>!0'lJ
6.4.3 The use of possessive pronouns The use of pronouns as possessive suffixes is a feature of classical Hebrew, carried over to today's formal registers. In common use of Israeli Hebrew, however, this use is limited. Instead, in everyday language, the possessed noun is followed by the preposition of possession 7~ 'of, with pronouns attached to it.
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Chapter 6: Pronouns
Colloquial
Gloss
our neighbor their friends
Formal Register
~)~w p\!Jn
l)).~'?'
OQ~'\1' 0'1'1m
OQ'J'!~
Notable exceptions arc the various kinship terms that have managed to (optionally) maintain the noun + pronoun structure owing to the frequency of their use. The possessive relationship is indicated either with suffix pronouns or with a possession phrase. For instance, both ':::J.N and '~\!J N:IN are used in everyday speech. my father/my Dad ''?"' N:::J.N ':;ll!C her aunt i-ltJ'J1'1 Note that even in the formal registers, one cannot add pronoun suffixes to nouns that are loan words. .0'~\Bnr.l N~ U'\!J 1-,\!Jr.l::l
You can't fool around at our otlice. Doesn't your television work?
ml:::J.W N?
o;:,~,.v mPn~"n
6.5 Demonstrative pronouns The demonstrative pronoun is a pronoun or determiner that is used to indicate a referent's spatial, temporal or discourse location. It functions as a pronoun and as a modifier. The demonstrative pronoun, as its name suggests, is used in some cases at the head of a sentence, as the subject. It ordinarily precedes the noun to which it refers. It points to living things or objects. Gender and number agreement with the noun to which it refers is required. Demonstrative pronouns as an indicator of the referent's location in space and time or identity: Masc. Sing. Fern. Sing. Plural
this (is) this (is) these (are)
n~
ivnN·'t ~~~vn?l:;(
This is our house. This is not my problem. I1 is your problem. These are ditlicult days.
.,)?\!! n'11n m n'l!::lil nNl -
''\!! il'l!::ln N? nNl ·1~\!J
.0'\!!1' O'r.l' on no;,N
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Chapter 6: Pronouns
l'VJ:J>'l - m1>'' 0>'9 ~m ~~N m1:;, ! on7 mpVJ no 7:;,mm .07l!) TlN
These were once woods, and now look at what happened to them! They were all chopped down.
As a modifier, the demonstrative pronoun is part of a phrase: I live in this house. .nm n'l:J 1) 'lN .TlNm n'>'Jn TlN ,m!l., 11'1'l This problem can be solved. These pictures are not for sale. .n1':JY.J7 N7 n7Nn nmonn 6.5.1 Using ilf for general reference In spoken Hebrew the demonstrative pronoun n! 'this' can be used to refer to nouns or noun phrases, regardless of their gender and number. It is considered non-normative usage, but is used in daily informal speech. Normative
This can be a problem!
n'>':J m'n' n7l:::!' nN·~
Colloquial ! n'>'J.
mm? .,,::;,, n!
The demonstrative pronoun m is also used to serve as a link in a sentence that has no verb. It links the two parts of the sentence in the same way that the verb 'to be' in English links such parts, or actually separates the two parts of the sentence. The predicate that is introduced by the link m supplies a comment to the topic, supplied by the subject of the sentence. This structure is particularly useful to separate a lengthy subject or topic from its predicate or comment. What we are doing for him ~ a difficult thing.
,J., m ,.,,l\!J:J 0'\!Jl.VllnlN\!J nr.J .nVJp
In spoken Hebrew it can also be used in the past and future, just as the verb 'to be' is used to indicate the time aspect. What we did for him was a difficult 1l1 nm m l7':JV.I:J ll'VJ>'\!J nr.J thing. .nVJp What we did for him will be a 1:Ji n'il' m ,.,,:JVJ:J ll'V.I>'\!J nr.J ditlicult thing. .nVJp
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Chapter 6: Pronouns
6.5.2 Reference to contexts beyond the noun phrase The demonstrative pronoun singular masculine nj is also used to refer to an entire idea or situation, or a sequence of events. These references are either specifically expressed earlier in a sentence, or a larger discourse unit, or it is part of what is generally understood from the context external to the text. In this case rather than referring to a noun or noun phrase, the pronoun stands for a larger context. In English the pronoun it is used to refer to such a sequence, while in Hebrew the demonstrative pronoun i1! is used to perform the same function. i'nn ,O''tll!ln~ m1N ))'nlntt~:>
When I was invited to meetings, 1 always went, even though i! was not convenient, and i! disrupted work.
rm nm N? .Illtt~ m1n? ,m:>?n . n"TtJ.).I:J '~ :V'1!:li1 ill'
If it is not this, then it is something else. m can also be used to introduce an exclamatory sentence: That's not nice! That's not what is done here! I don't like this at all!
!i1!:l' N? i1} ! )N::J O''tl)).l'tl nn N~ nj
Pl':V.l1n N~)r.3 N~
i1!
6.5.3 Use of the feminine singular nKr for general reference There are occasions where the feminine demonstrative pronoun nN'l functions in the same manner. It is less common, and often indicates a more fonnal usc of language.
1 intend to say something to him each time that he does this.
N1i1'tl 0).1!:1 ~:> ,, 1':Vi1~ )11Jnr.:l ')N
There are certain fixed expressions where and cannot be changed to masculine m: What does i! mean? /What do you mean by this? And in any case, I don't think that there is no hope.
.nNl nNl
ntt~w
is part of the expression
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Chapter 6: Pronouns
6.6 Interrogative and relative pronouns 6.6.1 The interrogative pronoun: who and what? itna•n The interrogative pronoun is one that is used as a question word. As in English, there is one interrogative pronoun'~ that is equivalent to who, and another interrogative pronoun nn that is equivalent to what. These interrogative pronouns, as implied by their name, initiate questions, which elicit information about the subject of the sentence. Who told you that there is no class today? What happened to you? The interrogative pronouns can be used as question words with appropriate prepositions. The question is not about the subject of the sentence but about a prepositional complement. What do you want? Whose is this book? What did you talk about?
?n~,,
n2'o(
ill2
mm,!:ltm'~'w
?on,::t'i nn 7~
Use in speech:
In spoken Hebrew, it is much more common to omit the direct object particle n~ when the question word is i1Y.l 'what', even when the question is about the object of the transitive verb: What are you looking for? 6.6.2 'whoever' and 'whatever' Hebrew relative clauses modify nouns. They follow the nouns that they modify and are introduced by the subordinating particles -w or ,W~· The girls who play soccer will go to play in Haifa.
,~on
7l,li:J mpnvY.l~ nu.Jn .n!:lmJ. pnv7
When the identity of the noun is not known, the pronouns '):) 'who' or il~ 'what' fill the slot of the unknown noun. They are followed by the subordinating particle -w that is an obligatory particle required for introducing relative clauses.
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Chapter 6: Pronouns
Whoever Anyone/everyone who Whatever Anything/everything that
... \\' 'r,l
... \\' 'Y.l ';!~ ... ~nY,l ... ~ nr.;l 7~
The following illustrations introduce sentences where nouns fill the subject and object slots, and other sentences where pronouns take the nouns' place when their identity is not known or suggest an inclusive pronoun: 1. Subject: .. 1!1 •n 'Whoever' Subject: 'the people (who .. )'
The people who bought tickets in advance, can board the train now.
.. 1!1 0'\!JJNil
llJN10 0't1't'1:> Up~ O''liJNn .1'1l1:l).l n.::r:n'J m'J.11? O'J1::l'
Subject: 'whoever'
Whoever bought tickets in advance, can board the train now. 2. Subject: ..\!J iln 'What(ever)' Object rumors (which .. )
We heard about him all kinds of rumors, which were all true. Object: whatever
What( ever) we heard about him was lrue.
( .. 1!1) 'l'l J)J' llJNiO O'tl'\:liJ mp~ '0 .PilJJ).I m:>1? m'J).I'J
(.. w)
JlllllllW :NI!.IIll
)m'tl ,m).IU.JilJ 'l'Y.l ?:> P'J).I 1J,).IY.lllJ ..nm:>J
( .. 1!1)
ill'l :N\!Jm
.)1:>.l n'n ,1'7).1 U).IY.l\!J,Yl no
These structures can function as subjects, as direct and indirect objects, and in prepositional phrases. 1. In a subject position
Whoever wants to come - can do so. Whatever I told you is absolutely tme. 2. In direct object position
1 saw everybody I wanted to sec.
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Chapter 6: Pronouns
3. In indirect object position
We spoke about what happened and about everythin~ that we went through.
n~
?:::J ?~' mp~ nn ?~ lYlJ'i .l)lJ~ i::I~~
6.7 Impersonal pronouns: something/nothing Impersonal pronouns refer to entities that not are specitically idenLified. There are several ways to express an impersonal pronoun, including omitting them altogether. In a subject position
Someone told us that the show was cancelled. Everyone will tell you that there is no problem. Everybody ~) thinks that you left town. Nobody knows when he will return. In an object position
,,'l!
He gave your book to someone. .~mJ'~' i!ltm nN 1m Nm We still have not heard from .inN ?::m mn~'l! N' 1"i~ everyone. .il:::l'U~, 0,~::> nN U'Oli1 Oil They invited everybody to the party. Dan told nobody when he'd be .iHn' Nln 'n~ inN 'lN, i~N N, )1 coming back. 6.7.1 Omission of impersonal pronouns In English indefinite pronouns can be expressed by the noun one, or by the pronouns you or they and sometimes people when they refer to an indefinite, non-specific entity. In Hebrew the subject pronoun is omitted altogether in such cases, and only the verbal predicate is present. lt is a subjectless sentence that uses a third person masculine plural torm of the verb (in past, present or future).
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Chapter 6: Pronouns
Subject
Predicate
You
add a cup of sugar to the flour and butter mixture. come to visit here from all comers of the world. told me that there are plenty of things to do here. used to play soccer here, until the city closed the park .
People
They
One
Ni\!Jl
1<\!Jil
n:::tnYn7 -,:;:,m m:> O'!l'Ul~
0
.mmnm n~pn ?\!! l1W:Ip ):;:,~ 12'01p:::t? 0'N::!.
0
.o.,wn no n::~.1n \!!'\!! ' ' 11~N .1N:> m\!JYJ
0
i}.l ,.,:nn:;:, 1N::l O'pn'll~ 1m
0
.p1N!lill1N il1ltl il''1'Yil\!J
When the predicate is a transitive verb, the passive verb is often used in English. Subject + Predicate
The plant was closed three months ago. The stories of the first settlers were not documented. What a pity!
Nil!JJ
Nl!Jil
n\!!1?\!J 'J!l? .,}.l!l~n l1N n::~u
0
.0'\!Jin
.,'ll 0'1l!l'Uil l1N 1iY'l1 N., .O'Jl\!JN1n
0':1\!J"n~n
!7:::tn
0
Chapter 7 Numerals A numeral is a word, functioning most typically as an adjective, a quantifier or a pronoun that expresses a number, and a relation to the number, such as one of the following: quantity, sequence, frequency and fraction. The following kinds of numerals will be discussed: 7.1 7.2 7.3 7.4 7.5 7.6 7.7 7.8
Free counting Cardinal numbers Noun phrases with cardinal numbers Ordinal numbers Fractions Multiplication values Numeric value ofletters Phrases: days ofthe week, dates, telling time, age
Tn terms of form and syntactic role, the main distinction within the numeral category is between 'cardinal' numbers, which are used in counting and as quantifiers of nouns, and 'ordinal' numbers, which behave like adjectives. In terms of function, however, one should distinguish between cardinal numbers used to quantify the nouns they follow, and those used in "free counting', which refer to sequential counting. Note
In this chapter, •N and 'Y are represented in the transcription only in stressed final syllables, where['] is most likely to be heard (e.g., n~~).
7.1 Free counting Free counting involves a flow of numbers without reference to objects. Hebrew uses the feminine independent numbers in counting - see discussion of feminine and masculine numbers in the section on cardinal numbers below. Aside from being used in counting, counting numbers are also used in the following contexts:
Chapter 7: Numerals
17X
1. In naming and labeling objects Bus number 5 6 Hertz! Street
\!.Inn 1!ltm tn:m:mo< \!J\!J 1!:lOD ~~1il :Jln1
2. In conveying telephone numbers ,mm'tl 1:Y:l'tl- o~~n\!J , \!JlJ\!J , \!J\!J 051-632-7894
nnN I \!.Inn 1O!:lN )I:J1N ,).1\!Jn
3. In mathematics For various arithmetical functions, as in the following example: 1+ I = 2 D"n'tl •on nnN 1Wl nnN *In the arithmetic,
Di1
stands for 'is/are'.
Single numbers
aliat shtclyim shal6sh arlui fiamesh shesh sheva shm6ne tesha eser
no~
D?JJ~
2
\!Ji~"'
3
YJ';l~
4
\!J~I)
5
\!}~
6
Y;t'(J
7 8 9 10
min \!.I: .,. )I~~
1\?~
The zero value is conveyed by the masculine noun O.?,~ 4/es.
Teens The teen numbers ( 11-19) are a combination of the nouns for single digits (in dependent fonn) and m~.v.- '-teen': afiat esre il')~~ no~ 11 shteym esre m~)! Q')J)~ 12 shlosh esre ilJi?'~ \!Ji~~ 13 arbd esre i1'J~~ Y~';'~ 14 namesh esre mi?'~ \!J~Q 15 shesh esre il'J~~ IV\? 16 shwi esre ilJ~)! Y;l'?' 17 shmone esre n)~~ n?iD'?' 18 tsha esre n'J\p~ YI{JJ;l 19
Chapter 7: Numerals
179
Numbers 20-90 take a plural form. Except for the number 0'-:J·'{-1~ 'twenty', which is actually the plural form of'ten', the rest ofthe 'tens' are the plural fonn of the singular. From 'll1~'ll 'three' you get O'YJ1~'{-I 'thirty', and so on. esrim 20 0'-:J~.V shloshim 30 0'~i~'?' arba'im 40 0'~:;;1J~ liamishim 50 D'WY.lO shishim 60 0'W~ shiv'im 70 0'~;t~ shmunim 80 CP~iY.l'?' tish 'im 90 D')I~J:l Single digits are added to these numbers with the conjunction 'and' -1 to form the more complex numbers. Thus the number 'twenty-one' is expressed as 'twenty and one': nQ~) O'"J\;J~. 21 esrim ve-aliat nQ~) O''J~~ esrim u-shtayim 22 D?l3'?'~ 0'')\IJ~ esrim ve-sha/6sh 23 YJi'J"'' 0'')~~ esrim ve-arba 24 )l~')~) D''J\IJ~ esrim ve-liamesh 25 YJ~Q) 0'-:J~~ esrim va-shesh 26 YJ~) 0'-:J\;J.V, esrim va-sheva 27 )l~~) D'":I~.V esrim u-shmom? 28 n~it)~~ 0'":1~~ esrim va-tesha 29 )l'{JlJ) 0'":1\:J~ Note a. In normative Hebrew:
The conjunction -) becomes -~ before a consonant with a 'zero shva', e.g. D?t1'{-l~ O'"J·'{-1~ esrim u-shtayim (esrim ve-shtayim is a colloquial variant), n~iY.l'?'~ 0'":1~~ e.~rim u-shmone (esrim ve-shmone in the colloquial, or a 'midway' compromise: esrim u-shmime). The conjunction -) becomes -) before a stressed vowel, e.g., )l;J.~) 0'":1·'?'~ esrim va-sheva. b. In spoken Hebrew:
Speakers rarely follow the practice mentioned above of changing the conjunction -) to its variants -~ or -) in everyday Hebrew. Thus the
180
Chapter 7: Numerals
conjunction is usually pronounced ve-, regardless of the more formal rules.
Higher numbers The noun which denotes 'hundred' is the feminine noun il~>;;l me ·,1. The noun which denotes 'thousand' is the masculine noun C)~~ elef In combination with single digits, these nouns fonn the count nouns from 100 and beyond.
Hundreds The feminine noun il~>;;l me'a 'a hundred' provides the base for all the numbers from 100 to 999. The dual fonn expressing 'two hundred' is o~l)NY.l. From 300 to 900, the hundreds are a combination of the single digit feminine numbers followed by the plural form niNJ;;l, which follows it. Notice that the dependent fom1 of the digits is used. (In the numbers 'three', 'seven' and 'nine', the alternate form is noticeable, as the first vowel of the independent form of the number is omitted and replaced by :L:ero shva sign).
me'a matayim shlosh me 'ot arbci me 'at namesh me'ol shesh me'ot shva me'ot shmomi me'ot tsha me 'ot
il~>;;l O~l)NY.l
niNr,;l·\!Ji~~ niN>;;l-Y~')z::<
niNQ-\/J'-?Q niNt.;)-\!J'?.' niNY:l-Y~~
niN~-n~i~~
niNQ-YW{l
100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900
To form more complex numbers with 'tens' and 'om~s·, the phrase starts with the highest number, which is followed by the next number in order, and ends with the 'ones'. Notice that before the last number the conjunction 'and' -lis added, such as in the following examples: D"n\/Jl O'llO\/J ,mNO )JJ\!J 782 1!/0nl 0~1\/J).I ,mNO \/Jl?\!1 325
Thousands The masculine noun ~'?~ 'a thousand' provides the base for all the numbers from 1,000 to I 0,000. The dual torm to express 'two
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Chapter 7: Numerals
thousand' is o~~~~ alpciyim. From 3,000 to 10,000, the thousands are a combination of the single digit masculine numbers followed by the plural form 'thousands' O'!:l?~ alajim, which follows it. Notice that the dependent form of the digits is used. elef alpayim shloshet alafim arM 'at alajim hameshet alafim sheshet alafim shiv 'at alafim shmonat alafim tish 'at alafim aseret alqfim
'1~~ 0~~?~ 0'!;1?~-n~i?~ 0'!;1~~-n~~.-~~ o'!:;l?~-n~~;;~o O'!;l~~-n~\Y
D'~?~-n~~~ O'!;l'<~-mio~ o'~~~-n~~n
O'!;I?~-J11W~
1,000 2,000 3,000 4,000 5,000 6,000 7,000 8,000 9,000 10,000
Note If the number includes thousands and hundreds only, the conjunction 'and' is optional: 1,700 niNr.l-Y::l\1' '1JN or niNr.l-l'::l\1'~ "J?N. Beyond ten thousand To count thousands beyond 'ten thousand', the masculine form of the single numbers is combined with the singular fonn of '1?~ (the plural form can be used as well). ahad asar elef shneym asar elef shlosha asar elef arba 'a asar el!!l liamisha asar elef shisJui asar elef shiv ·a asar elef shmona asar elef tish 'a asar elef esrim elef
'1~t< ,~~ i1J~
'1~~ 1~~ O'~~ '1?~ 1~{1 n~i?~
'1~~ 1~~ n~:g.1~
'1~~ ,~~ n"'Y.lO '1~~ 1~}.' n~'?'
'1~t< ,~~ n~;t~ '1?~ 1~{1 n~ir.l'l' '1~~ 1~}.' n}.'~n '1~z:< O'")·~~
11,000 12,000 13,000 14,000 15,000 16,000 17,000 18,000 19,000 20,000
Chapter 7: Numerals
182
From 30,000 to 90,000 '1?~ b''?'l'JII!
shloshim elef arha 'im elef namishim ele.f shishim elef shiv 'im el~f shmonim elef fish 'im elef
30,000 40,000 50,000 60,000 70,000 80,000 90,000
'l?~:;t 0'.\9")~
'17.1:;( O''?I'Y,lQ '17~ 0'~'?1 '1~1:;( 0').9'?1
'l?z::< 0'~l)'J~ 'l~l::< 0').1'?'3;1
From 100,000 to 999,999.
me'aelef matayim elef shlcJsh me 'ot el~f mily6n shisJui milyon bilytmlmi~yard
'l'?l::< ill:<~ 'l~~ D?JJl'
,,, ll''?'Y.l 1i'~'Y,l il""'?l (~) i")N~{'Y,ll)i''?'+
100,000 200,000 300,000 1,000,000 6,000,000 1,000,000,000
The order of numbers in the phrase: To form more complex numbers with 'hundreds', 'tens' and 'ones', the phrase starts with the highest number, which is followed by the next number in order and ends with the 'ones', the same as in English. 7,324 2,256
Y:l1N) 0',\!!Y ,InNI'J \!!,'J\!1 ,0'!;1'?~ J1Y:J\!! \!!\!!) O''l!l't.Jn 0"11N~ ,o~~~~
7.2 Cardinal numbers
0 1liD D 1.,90D
There arc two sets of cardinal numbers: masculine and feminine. Each of these sets has two subsets of independent and dependent forms of the numbers: the independent set is used in indefinite phrases, while the dependent set is used in definite phrases. In the numbers 3-1 0, the masculine numbers have the n.- ending, otherwise associated with feminine nouns. Feminine
Masculine
iDz::<
I
no~
0~~~
0'tl'?'
il"" i'J'?'
2 3
ilY.;J-";1~
4
Y~)~
il""Y.lQ
5
\!JQQ
'l!li'J~
Chapter 7: Numerals
183
6
n~w
~¥.!
n{'~'?'
7
Y;i~
n~1Y.J\(J
8
n~1o~
n~'?'f:l
9 10
Y'?'D
n)·~~
l~)!
7.3 Noun phrases with cardinal numbers Cardinal numbers combine with count nouns for the purpose of indicating the quantity of items. Except for 'one', they precede the head noun, which puts them in the same class as other quantifiers (such as n:;).JiJ ,n})~ ,\)~'? ·'~) and distinguishes them from adjectives, which follow the noun they modify. 7.3.1 Use of number 'one' in numerical phrases There is a certain redundancy in the overt inclusion of the number 'one' in a number phrase, since a singular noun, by definition and by form, is a singular entity. It makes more sense, however, if it is regarded as an adjective meaning 'single', and indeed Hebrew 'one' does behave like an adjective: in a phrase, it always follows the noun that is being counted, and has the gender features of the noun that it modifies. The number 'one' also agrees with the count-noun in its status as indefinite or definite: in an indefinite noun phrase, both count-noun and number do not have an article, while in a definite phrase, both noun and number do have a definite article. Indefinite phrases Masculine
Feminine
one hat
one dress
Definite phrases Masculine
the one actor
l)T 1nNn)pn~t~n
Feminine
the one actress
iiJ.j7)
rmNn n'Jpnvn
7.3.2 Use of number 'two' and above in numerical phrases Numerical phrases with numbers above the number 'one' are formed in a similar shape to that of [noun +noun] phrases, m:>'Y.JO '!:Ill'~- In these phrases the components combine in the following way: the number always precedes the count nouns, which, with some exceptions (particularly, in higher numbers), are plural nouns. The numerals have
Chapter 7: Numerals
184
the same gender features as the count nouns. When the phrases are indefinite, the number nouns are the independent forms of the number (with the exception of number 'two', as can be seen below). When the number nouns are part of a definite phrase, they have the alternate shape typical of the first noun of a m~'OU phrase. When the number 'two' is part of an indefinite or definite phrase, it has the form -~).~ or -';r:l\f' : Indefinite phrases Masculine
two boys two fathers
]2!
0')::1
'~\('
m:JN ').~
Definite phrases Masculine the two boys O'):Ji1 '~'() the three nnNn !'1'1?17'<' fathers Masculine Dependent form Independent form
Feminine the two girls the three women
il:J.j1]
nu:J ':1.:1'<' O''t'J
';r:l~
il:J.j1)
J11):Ji1 'tl~ 0''tlli1 \!Ji.,~
Feminine Dependent form Independent form -';rJ\(' O?JJ\f' \!JiJ'{J -'tliJ'?I
-l~'<'
O~l'<'
-n'?,'i.,'<'
n"'i.,~
-n~:n~
i1{9';1~
-}.I~)~
l.ln~
-n"'~Q
il~Y,)Q
-\!JP.Q
\!J~Q
-n~~
i1~\!}
-\!}~
'll~
Indefinite: Definite:
Feminine two girls two women
-n~:;t\!J
n~~:;t\!J
-l,I:J~
Y:J"'
-n~iO'o(J
n~io'<'
-n~io~
n~io~
-n~'<'l;l
i1~'<'T:l
-Y~tl
Y~t:l
-n;~l!
n~·"'l!
-1~~
,w~
Five customers entered the store. The five customers came in together.
Note
In current Hebrew the !'1\!JlJ\!J type fonns are alive and well, while the 'til.,'<' dependent ones are obsolete. Often, the !'1\!JlJ'tl type is used tor definite feminine nouns as well.
185
Chapter 7: Numerals
7 .3.3 Definite numerical phrase beyond 10 Beyond the number 10, count nouns do not atlect the fonn of the numeral, regardless of whether the noun is detinite or indefinite. Masculine
Indefinite: Definite:
There are thirteen boys in class. All the thirteen boys are friends ofmine.
nn'::>J. D'JJ.n 1'l.'>' n'l-'17'lJ ' ' .'J'lJ 0'1J.n
Feminine
Indefinite: Detinite:
There are thirteen girls in class. All the thirteen girls are friends of mine.
mJJ. nl'l.'>' 'lJ1J'lJ 'l-'' n.n':>J. J1ll::I1J n1'lJ)! 'lJ)J'lJ , ,
·'''lJ m1:m
7.3.4 Teen numbers- masculine and feminine The masculine teen numbers differ in their form from feminine teen numbers (introduced in the counting section above): the tirst number of the compound noun is the masculine singular unit number, while the second number signifies 'teen', and its form in the masculine is 1~~· Masculine 11)~
Feminine
11
.no~
12
D'.tl~
i~)! O'~~
nJi?J~
1~.\' n~i?~
nJ'<J~
13
1~.\' mr~)~
n'J\?{1 14 15
,~~ nX~'?'
16
nJ~).J )!~~
18
n~in~
n)~.\'
i~.\' n.\'~n
l~)!
'l-''?,1
17
i~)! n~in~
'lJ)'JQ n')~).J
,~
n~9'?'
>'J!~
n')~{'
i~.\' nX~~Q
'lJi':J~
n'J\?)! 19
>'~T;I
n')~~
1X6
Chapter 7: Numerals
7.3.5 Agreement between numbers and the quantified nouns In a numerical noun phrase, the main noun determines the choice of the gender of the number of the numeral. Masculine 13 dogs 14 days
1JT
O'J?:l 1\!J)I i1\!J1?\!J 0'}J' 1\!J)I i1)1J.1N
Feminine 13 girls 14 cakes
n:li7l
nin il"l\!.1)1 \!.11?\!J Jlil1)1 i11\!J).I ).l::nN
Beyond 20, only the last digit of the number agrees in gender with the noun it quantifies: Feminine Masculine
23 companies 547 units 49 books 365 days
nn:m \!Jl?\!.11 0'1\!J}I mT'n' ))Jill) O').IJ1N mNn 'linn O'"l~tJ
nY'llm O'liJ'lN
o'n' n'll'nm O''ll'tl mNn 'li1?\!J
7 .3.6 Numbers + pronoun suffix The numbers 2-10 can have a plural possessive suffix added to them. By one word, which consists of a number and a pronoun suffix, one can express what takes a four-word phrase in English: 'The two of you' is rendered by the one word O?'J~- The fonn to which the suffixes are added is a dependent form of the number: -').~ or 'tl~ and not O?J~ or O?lJ~. When the reference is to masculine nouns, or a mixed group of masculine and feminine nouns, the set of masculine numbers becomes the basis for the word, but if the reference is to feminine nouns, then the feminine number is the basis tor the word. By definition, the concept is always a plural one. Numbers with plural suffixes the two of us the two of you the two of them the three of us the three of you the three of them
iUi7l
1JT
~)'lJ~
~)'J~
P'tl~
0~').~
)Q'tl~
Oi)'~~
Ut)~i?~
)~{l'?'i?'?'
O~{l'?'i?~
1~~i?~
o~~i?~
187
Chapter 7: Numerals
the four of us the four of you the four of them
1:?,T;I).'~';Il::(
the five ofus the tive of you the five of them
pr;r~mQ
m::w~':'~ Dit;l).':;t)~
~.m\?t.JQ
D:?,J;l'<1Y:lQ
7.4 Ordinal numbers Ordinal numbers ('first, second, third') are used to indicate the order in which individual items appear. They are usually singular concepts: the first day, the second day, the third day. ,)T )i\!.JN)
il:lj7l
l st
n~iVJN'J
)~'?'
2nd
i1?~~
''?"~'?'
3"1
J'P\?~~~
'~'.:n
4'h
J'l'~'.:;l";J
'\?)Y,lQ
5'h
31'\?~Y,lQ
'"?'"?
6'h
31'~\?
'~'.:;!'?'
7tll
31'~'.:;1~
gth
31'~'Y,l'?f
,~,Y,l~
'~''?'J;l
'-:t''?'l!
9th
lOth
31'Y.''?'l;l 31'1''?'~
Jn the ordinal numbers 'first' and 'second', the feminine ordinal numbers have the feminine suftix n.- while in the numbers 3-1 0, the feminine ordinal numbers have the feminine sutiix 31'-. Note the difference between i1?~'?' 'second, f.' and 31'~¥.' 'again'. 7 .4.1 Noun phrases with ordinal numbers Ordinal numbers have gender features and function as adjectives do, and as such they tollow the head nouns of the phrase. In phrases they have the same gender features as the nouns that they modify. They also reflect the indefinite or definite status of the phrac;e.
188
Chapter 7: Numerals
Indefinite phrases; Masculine
a third house
''t''''t' Jll:J
Feminine
a first show
nmJN""'nl!lln
Definite phrases; Masculine
the third house
'1!.1'7't'n J'l':Jn
Feminine
the first show
m11!.1N1n nl!llnn
7.4.2 Phrases with ordinals higher than 10th The ordinal numbers higher than lOth are formed using cardinal numbers. However, they combine with nouns as adjectives and therefore agree with the head noun in gender and in use of articles. Dan was the eleventh customer in .1m::1 1't')l-imm m1pn nm 11 line. This is the thirty-first year in which n:JY.J nnx, C'Y.I,7Y.Jn m'lm nl'n Hebrew is taught here. . )N:> m1:J)I D'iY.I?Y.I
Use of 'first' and 'last' The noun )11!.1N1 'first' is also paired with the noun )11nN 'last'. They are truly ordinal adjectives and as adjectives have four forms indicating both gender and number. niJl\!.IN') 0'~\\!.IN') n~WJN') )l\!.IN') first last niJi1Q~ 0'~110~ n~i1Q~ )i1Q~ The first day of the week is Sunday. Last but not least. a·-,~~
7.5 Fractions
Partitive numbers are stated by regular nouns, which specify their fractional quality: reva 1/2 The noun 'half' has two forms: one when it is used as an independent noun and is not combined with another noun, '!;II) lietsi, and another when it is combined with a noun as part of a phrase, -'~0 liatsi-. Give me a half of what you have. Give me a half loaf of bread.
lietsi natsi-
·1' 't'''t' noo '~r::'l '' )n .on? 1=>'J '~0 '' 1n
189
Chupter 7: Numeru/s
The words for 'half, 'third' and 'fourth/quarter' are masculine, while those for fractions 'fifth' through 'tenth' are feminine: a half tuitsi '~n 1/2 a third shlish ttn?\11 1/3 a fourth reva Y~:J I /4 Give me a third of what you have. The time is a quarter to seven. a fifth a sixth a seventh an eighth a ninth a tenth
namishit shishit shvi'it shminit t.~hi 'it asiril
-1;. \IJ'\!.1 mm 'll'?'ll '' 111 .)l:l\!.1;. YJ.1
m.1'lln
!l'~'I;JQ
1/5
!l''¢1\11
1/6 117 1/8
!l'~':;I'<J !l'~'Y,l~ !1')1'~{1
1/9
!l'"J'\11~
1110
7.6 Multiplication values Hebrew combines the fixed form of the noun '!1> 'times' with the number. The number form is masculine; however in everyday speech the use of the feminine number in these phrases is more common. tenfold/ ten times as much C1~~ '!))) n;·~~ '!1> fourfold/ four times as much. The value 'double' is expressed by the noun 'double', which has a dual ending: o~~~:;> 'twice as much'. Twice as much/double
D~'?~~
My book is expensive. It costs twice as much as your
book. It costs double. It will cost you five times as much. *The other number with a dual ending is It is a fixed idiomatic expression.
.1P' ';.'ll 1!ltm ·1;.\!.1 1!ltmY.l O"J'll '!l n;.w Nm
.o";.!l::> n;.w Nm .'l.IY.ln '!lli1'l.I'Y.ln '!l 1? n?Y' m
O~l:l~J:f\11,
meaning 'sevenfold'.
190
Chapter 7: Numerals
7.7 Numeric value of letters The letters of the alphabet have number value in Hebrew. They are used in Modem Hebrew to indicate dates, days of the week, status in co1legc ('N m~ is Freshman, 1:1 m~ is Sophomore, etc.), for numbering items in a list, and sometimes they are used where roman numbers are used in English to indicate page numbers. 100 200 300 400
p
80 90
1
!)
10
~
20 30 40 50 60 70
\!1 J1
,
, J
n
8 9
1 2
\:)
Y.l
N :l
3 4
i
)
)
5
il
t1
6
1
y
7
l
Beyond 400, letters are added up and create the higher numbers (similar to Roman numerals): 600=,"11
200
=, +
400=31
500-P"11
100 =P +
400-11
800~11 11 31
400 =31 +
400""31
700=~"11
300
+
400=31
=~
Note The following final letters served for higher numbers, but no longer do so in contemporary Hebrew: 900 = ~ 800 = ~ 700 = '1 600 = 0 500= 1
Teen numerals The teen numbers (ll-19) are expressed by combining the letters 1\J-'N with the letter yod '' for 10. 19 =\J''' 18 = nm 17 = l"' 14 =i"' 13 =l"' 1Z = )"' 11 =N"' The numbers 15, 16 are stated in terms of 9+6, and 9+7, since the combination of the letter '' plus either •n or 'l includes a sequence which is used in the sacred name of God. Thus, 16 = l"\J ,15 "'1"\J. Numbers 20·90 The numbers 20-90 are expressed hy combining the values of '\J·'N for the single unique numbers, and the letters ~-:> for 20 to 90. 58 = n"l 79 =\J"Y 43 =l"Y.l 36= l"? Zl =N":>
191
Chapter 7: Numerals
Other higher numbers represented by letters
Thousands are usually represented by the apostrophe', which is added to the letters. The apostrophe separates the thousand from the rest of the number. 5,000 = 'il
4,000= '1
3,000
~
'l
2,000=':1
l,OOO='N
Combining higher numbers
The principle of combining letters also works for higher numbers. If more than two letters are needed for the number, the double quotes mark " comes betore the last letter. 227 = l")l 508 = n"pn 749 = \:>"Y.lllJn 5, 764 = "T"UilJ.Jl'il
7.8 Numbers in common phrases 7.8.1 Days of the week There are two systems for the names of the days of the week: one uses the letters of the alphabet to signify the day, while the other uses the ordinal numbers following the word 'day' to signify the days of the week. ))llJN1 m~ Sunday 'N DP 1:1 01' Monday ')\!1 01' Tuesday 'l D1' 'llJ'?IlJ 0)' Wednesday '1 01' 'Y':l1 01' Thursday •n D1' 'llJlY.ln m' ,, 01' Friday '\!1'\!1 Ol' Saturday/Sabbath 31:1\!1 .Jl:l\!1 7.8.2 Dates Dates of the Jewish calendar are often given with the number values of the Hebrew alphabet. N"U\!111 'il 11:1\:>:l '' 'i 01' Wednesday, 7th of the month of Tevet, 5,761
The •n for 5,000 is often omitted in common usage: The Gregorian calendar is used extensively, and the marking of the date starts with the month, day and year (day and month are in reverse order from those in English): 2002 ,1:1Y.l:m:l i11\!1Y 10/11/2002 11/10/2002 November 10,2002
Chapter 7: Numerals
192
7.8.3 Referring to dates One refers to decades by using a construct phrase that combines -nil~ 'the years of with the various decades. nmv CJlOJ. mp '~'~::m ,J.'l'On The economic crisis took place in the late 20s. .D','l'>'il One refers to centuries by using a definite phrase (since it is regarded as a specific, known dale) that combines n~~ 'century' with an ordinal numeral. The 21st century started with dramatic events. 7.8.4 Numbers in telling time The nouns that refer to time units are feminine and therefore the counting oftime units is done using feminine numerals. hour 7 hours
ilY'l' mlJ'l' lJJ.'l'
I minute 5 minutes
np; mp'T 'l'Y.ln
The question is 'what hour is it? The answer starts with 'the hour is' The time is six fifteen The time is quarter past six. The time is six thirty. The time is half past six. The time is six torty-five. The time is quarter to seven. The time is seven exactly.
I second 2 seconds
!il!J'l' i1 ilO ... m-''l'il
.mp; il1'l'Y 'l'Onl 'l''l' N'il illJ'l'il .)JJ.,, 'l''l' illJ'l'il .nlp'T 0''l'l,'l'l 'l''l' N'il il>J'l'il . '~m 'l'\!.1 il>J\!Jn . Cmp1) \!./Om 0'lJJ."1N \!.I'll N'il il)J'l'il .l/::l\!)~ lJJ., il>J\!Jil . Pl'iJ. )JJ.\!.1 N'il il>J\!Jil
Note
The 'quarter past' and 'half past' have an a vowel in the conjunction-): 'a quarter past six' >'~Jl \(.1\!J, 'half past six' '~Dl \(I'll. For indicating five and ten minutes, one may alternatively use the masculine number as well, without mpi. 6: 10 nlpi ,\!JlJl \(.1\!J N'il ill/\!Jil il1\!J)J) \!J\!.1 N'il il).I\!Jil 8:55 >J'l'n'7 il\(J'On N'il ilY'l'il Y'l'n~ mp; 'lion wn n>JYJn In numbers greater than ten, the final digit is usually feminine. ,illlY.l'l' N'il il}IYJil D'YJ')')n1 illlO'l' N'il ilY'l'il 8:55 YJom D''li'On
mp; YJom
Chapter 7: Numerals
193
7.8.5 Telling age The nouns that refer to years O'~'?' (.:J) n~'?' are feminine, and therefore the counting of years is done with feminine numerals. The nouns that refer to months are masculine 0'~70 (. 1) 'li'J·n, and therefore the counting of months is done with masculine numerals.
The phrase of telling one's age is formed by using the noun p. in all four forms to head the age phrase. O~)YJ
111:11
Ol:J1
n1m'
1m'
(X) nil~
Ol)VJ (X) '~~
O'l'll (x) n:;J
Ol)VJ (X),:;}.
The questions of age and the responses are fixed expressions. They do not literally translate into the English 'how old are you'?' but the message is the same. The question is expressed in Hebrew by the following phrase '[benlbatlbney!hnot how many (years)) are you?' The initial head noun can be loosely translated as 'a person of'. The head noun agrees in gender and number with the person about whom such information is solicited. The noun o~~"" 'years' is often omitted in speech. Questions:
Danny, how old are you? Sarah, how old are you? How old are your parents? How old are the girls in your class?
mm-< m:D p. ,~n ?nN ?O::I~VJ
no:~
n;I , n1YJ
0'1mn nt.J:> ')~
m:>~VJ nn':>:l ml:~n no:~ niJ;J
Answers:
r am twenty-six. Sarah is thirty-five. Our parents are fifty years old. The girls in class are twelve or thirteen years old.
. 'll'lll
Ol1VJ}.I1~
lJN
. VJt.Jn1 0'1!!1~\!1 n:;J nl'll .O''ll't.Jn '~? UJ'll o~1mn 1N n1VJ}.I-O'nYJ nil~ nn'::l:l nu:~n 0
i11 YJ}.I-'lll'YJ
Fractions can be expressed by 'half or 'a quarter' or by numbers of months: ,~,..., 'lll~\!J i1)l~ Jonah is three and a half Leah is six and ten months. . O''ll1m Tn'li.Vl VJVJ nl nN'' 0
w
Chapter 8 Adjectives 8.1 8.2 8.3 R.4 8.5 8.6
Introduction: forming adjectives Comparative and superlative adjectives Forming adjectives by adding suffix -i Nouns and adjectives of affiliation Participles that function as adjectives Special patterns
8.1 Introduction: forming adjectives The adjective functions both as the modifier of a noun in a noun phrase and also functions as a non-verbal predicate. All Hebrew adjectives have four forms. The masculine singular is considered the base form ofthe adjective. n~::n D':l1 ili'n' :::I:..O.:. < ,,,~ big, large lli~ii~ n?ii~ 0'~1i~ private ni~\;>':1~ 0'~\;>')~ < '\;>'J!;) ll'\;>J~ While the masculine singular form has no particular ending, the feminine and the plural forms all have regular endings: feminine singular n- -a, n- -el or -it; masculine plural 0'- -im; and ternininc plural m- -ut. Adjectives, whether they are noun modifiers or predicates, always take on the gender and number features of the noun they modify. While nouns don't always have predictable plural endings, which reflect their gender, adjectives always do. n1:11
good friend(s)
m:nu lll'lJ.n big street 'n) J.,n1
big streets nice women
nice woman
ilir.lnJ il'li'N
There are two ways of forming adjectives: linearly, by adding a suftix without affecting the stem (except for predictable phonetic
195
Chapter 8: Aqjectives
modifications), and discontinuously, by a [root+ pattern] combination. The linear derivation paUern is manifest in one formation pattern, noun+i (see below). Of the discontinuous adjectival patterns, there are those identical to the participles ofthc various verb patterns (binyanim), and some that are not. Regardless of the nature of derivation, adding a feminine or plural marker may result in a shift of stress in the word, and certain vowel deletions and modifications. 8.1.1 Some of the most common adjectival form groups Certain adjective patterns keep the stem throughout all four forms. The masculine singular is considered the base form, and there are no changes in the stem itself in the other forms, but they do exhibit the suffixes that mark gender and number.
secret funny
-r•n•
m:n
D'.).,
ni~-:rio
Ol~JitJ
Jl')itJ
'7itJ
niP'f:l~I;J
O't''f:l~l;l
ni?'l:'~l?
P'f:l~r,J
In some patterns the feminine singular suffix is -eCet rather than -a: dangerous ni)~?'? 0'~~?'? n~f?'il 1~?9
perfect
nir.l?~t?
O'>;~?~t?
n'??~t?
n{~t?
Changes to the initial vowel of the base form mark other adjective patterns. The vowel a of the tirst consonant changes to a zero; in the case where the initial consonant is •n •n ')) 'N a liatafpatali accompanies it to facilitate pronunciation: black, dark ni,in'?' O'"Jin'?' n:tin'?' ,;nXJ strong
8.2 Comparative and superlative adjectives
'7'!1 o•,Hn •gn•lr 1nn•1 ;,Hnw;,
Adjectives may take comparative and superlative degree. The modifiers that indicate the degree are the following: 8.2.1 Comparative
The adverb ,m, 'more' is added to the adjectives to form comparative constructions. The default order is for the adverb 1m' to precede the adjective, although in speech it often follows it as well: 7nl ,JW, or 1m' 7nl for 'bigger'. The adverb mn.!l "less' is added to the adjective to form similar constructions. The default order is the same, with the
Chapter 8: Aqjectives
196
adverb mn!l preceding the adjective, although in speech it often can follow the adjective. Unlike the adjective, which in Hebrew has gender and number features, the modifier is an adverb and as such has one tixed form, which does not carry gender or number features. sweeter/more sweet
less sweet
;m~ Plnl'J I Plnl'J i:l'n' 1311' npml'J mpum ;m~ iJ'll' 0'P)J'll'J I 0'Plnl'J ,,., ,,.,, mpml'J 1 mpml'J ,,.,,
mn!l pml'J 1 f.'lJ'lt.) mn!l mn!l npmt.) 1 npml'J mn!l rnn!l O'Plnl'J 1 O'f.'lnl'J J'lln!l mn!l mpmt.) 1 mpml'J mn!l
,-•n• ill'n' D'J.i nl).i
••n• i1"'T'n' 0').1 nl).i
A comparative structure by its nature involves two entities, between which a comparison is being made. The first noun phrase introduces the structure while the second noun phrase completes the proposition. The comparative adjective Jinks the two entities by means of the particle 'than' -o. The new show is more entertaining than the previous one.
J111Jt.) 1nl' m.linn n~nn
These hills are less steep than the ones we climbed yesterday.
m~1~m
.nrYnpn~
mn!l n~Nn ml':lln )1l'JJ1N 1i1''l' l)tl!l'\:1\!J J1UJJli1!a
8.2.2 Superlative
Superlative constructions have two ditTerent forms: the adjective can be preceded by the adverb '=>i1 the most, or it can be followed by the adverbial expression 11ll~J, which also indicates mosl. comparative superlative
more dangerous than the most dangerous
em W9.'? 11ll' ;m'J W9.J?i1
W9.'? W9.'? '=>n
197
Chapter 8: Ac{jectives
comparative superlative comparative superlative
CtJJ ni?m ,n,
stronger than the strongest
ni?lO ni?lQ 'Jn
,m,:1 ni?!t;.n O'i?'l:'i!Y.l ,m,
funnier the funniest
,m,:1
O'i?'I:'~Qn
0'i?'l:'i!Y.l 'Jn
O'i?'I:'~Y.l
For more information on comparative and superlative, see pp. 257-260
8.3 Forming adjectives by adding suffix.; The most common way of forming new adjectives is by adding the suffix '-. -i, which stands for 'having the characteristic of, to existing words. It is a suffix that is commonly attached to nouns. Adding this suffix to a noun like J':;I~ 'spring' results in ':;1':;1~, which means 'of spring' or 'spring-like'. This is a transparent adjective with a clear relationship to the noun from which it is derived. This formation is very common, since it only requires adding a suffix to an t!xisting noun.
nm
92).
ilT'n'
ni~'?J!il
0'?\??!il
Tl'l.?)!)l
''?J~
ni~l1JNJ
0'!\IJN')
n'\IJN?
'~N)
Noun < \J')!)) < \!.IN."l
Til'~~~
O'!~?f
Tl'~'?~
'~'?~
< ''?~
Gloss
private mam gt!neral
·pn•
Note
Notice that the stem of all fom1s derived from 'l.IN.., r6sh 'head; main item' is -\!.IN') rash-. The base form -'l.INJ rash- changes to \!.IN.., rash when the vowel is stressed, but remains -\!.IN? rash- when it is not. Although normally these adjectives are derived from nouns, the process of creating such adjectives is so productive, that they are also formed from bases that consist of other adjectives. For instance, \!.1~\,? tipesh 'a fool; foolish' can function as either an adjective or a noun ('a foolish person'). In this form. however, it usually refers to people, while the derived adjective 'W!ill.? tipshi 'foolish' is used to characterize an idea or an event: Base: adjective
1!1~'1:>
'stupid' > 'I!J!l'll 'foolish'
David is so stupid - all of his decisions are always foolish.
m\J7nnn .,::1 - \!.l!:l'\J 1::1 7::~ Nm in .nl'\!J!:l'\:> 1'l'JTI ).,\!.1
198
Chapter 8: Adje£:tives
It was stupid to get up so early,
almost in the middle ofthe night. Only complete fools do such things.
,o1p1.tJ
p
7:::~ mp' ''lJ!l'\J nm m
D''lJ!P\J P1 .11J'J11 )J.SI'JN:l 'lJI'.)I'.) .m:::> 1:11 D''lJ')J D'11.tJ:\
When ordinal numbers are combined in phrases they are considered adjectives and can provide the base for derivation of other adjectives. For instance, the ordinal number )l'ON'J 'first' when used in its primary meaning becomes the base for a derived adjective '~1'lJN'J 'primary, principal or primeval'. Base: adjective
!1\~nn> 'lll!nn
The first problem is that the work conditions are the primary things that need to be changed.
'NmVJ Nm m1'lJN1n n')J:m D'1:tln on 1N=> nl1:l)Jn .'U'IVJ 0'P1Pl'lJ 0'')1'lJN1n
There are also a few adverbs that serve as the base for new adjectives, such as 'lJ~l? 'really' > '"?'~'? 'real', or i!Y,) 'immediately > 'l~Y,) 'immediate'. Base: adverb i"l'l >
'i"l'l
There arc immediate needs, for instance, it is necessary to find an apartment right away in a quiet neighborhood close to work.
1'1.S ,J'lJI'.)J ; O"I"P 0':::11-S 'lJ' n\Jp'lJ m1:>'ll:t ~ 111'1 N).So7 . 1111:t)J7 n:t11p1
8.4 Nouns and adjectives of affiliation There is a set of derived nouns of nationality or religion that are a source tor a similar set of derived adjectives. They indicate the affiliation of an individual with particular national, ethnic, or religious groups. It applies to their belonging or being identified as belonging to such a particular group. From these sets of nouns there derived adjectives. The source can be the name of a country, an ethnic or a tribal group, or a religious community. The derived nouns and the adjectives look alike, but their syntactic function is different.
Country: Derived noun: Derived adjective:
Chapter X: Adjectives
199
Many languages are spoken in China. The Chinese speak several languages. There arc several Chinese languages.
n:nn D'"l:Jio .}!2:J .m!l\!.1 "l!ltm D'"l:Jin D'l'tm .nm\!.1 m!:l\!.1 .m'.l'U m!:l\!.1 no:> \!.1'
The derived adjectives for the most part look the same as the derived noun. The one exception is that the masculine plural form has the extra ,, before the plural sumx, as can be seen in this example: Noun: Adjective:
the diligent Japanese the Japanese paintings
D'~'"lnn
D'.l!lm
Oll.l!:l'i1 D'1P::Ii1
8.4.1 Nationality: denominative noun and adjective
'nn¥J•n Nouns: Adjectives:
Israeli Israeli
n1'':?N11!1'
Ol':;'N"l\!.1'
n'7N"l'l.ll
l'/N"l\!.1'
ni'':?N"l'I!J'
on':;'N"l'I!J'
n'.,N"l\!.1'
''N"l'I!J'
Noun: Israelis Many Israelis go abroad during the holidays.
Adjective: Israeli There are many Tsraeli passengers
.D'ln:J
.,,ln.,
D'-,H."''¥.1' :D¥.1
D'.)IUU D'JN"l\!Jl i1J"ln
D11 -,H"U!I 1 :"''HIJI D¥.1
.unmJ D''JNi'I!J' D'YUll n:nn 'I!J'
on the plane.
8.4.2 Ethnic group: denominative noun and adjective From Georgia (in Central Asia) Nouns: Georgian ni~~'H1~ Jl'~'H1~ D'~'H"l~ Adjectives: Georgian ni~~'~n~ D'?l'n,~ n'~'~n~ Noun: Georgians The Georgians have been living in this neighborhood from the beginning of the 201h century.
il'TI"''AD ,~,~~,~
'Pl~"l~
D'J'TI"''l : D¥.1
nNm ml:>\!.I:J 0'1:1
D'l'~n:~n
.D'"l'I!Jlln nNon n.,mno
200
Chapter 8: Adjectives
Adjective: Georgian
D"l'TnA :,Min
There are many Georgian singers who preserve their traditional music.
a~
0'1Y.l'liY-I'll 0"l'l11l 0'1Y-Il jlJ.1il 'll' .on~'ll rPrrmmn ilP't:llY.lil nN
8.4.3 Religion: denominative noun and adjective
"nrTi'I'"D Nouns Adjectives
Jew Jewish
ni~-:rm~
o~·:nn~
il!Jm~
'Jm~
n1~Jm~
O'~Jm~
n'Jm?
'Jm~
Notice that in this example, both the feminine form and the masculine plural have slight differences that distinguish nouns from adjectives. Noun: Jewish woman/Jewess
il'"Tiil'
:a~U
In her passport it is written that she is Jewish. Adjective: Jewish
She belongs to the Jewish faith.
n•"Tiil 1 :1Min DIU
.!1'i1nm ni~ n:J"'ll Nm
8.4.4 Predictable changes of base: noun > adjective Some adjectives share the base of the noun with no change in vowels. If the base undergoes some changes in the process, it is because of phonologically predictable changes. When the sutlix -i is added, the adjective's main stress moves to the suffix, and some predictable changes consequently occur in the base form: a. Stems that do not undergo change: l. Vowels other than a are not public (N) >public
affected by reduction: 2. The vowel a in a monosyllabic word remains: 3. The vowel a is retained in an initial closed syllable:
(Adj.) religion> religious
,.,~~~ < 1n~
'l:l~
< n~
culture> cultural
b. Stems that undergo vowel reduction In.; adjective formation:
1. In an open syllable, two syllables away from the main stress, the vowel a is deleted:
cylinder> cylindrical security> security related
,~,~~ ,~in'?~<
< ~'~~ )in\'):;t
201
Chapter 8: Adjectives
2. When the word ends with a vowel with a final 1n, they are both deleted:
incident > unplanned contract > contractual negation > negative
However, when the word ends with a silent 'N, that 'N. remains and 'carries' the i:
Bible> biblical
3. The final vowel historically
criticism > critical
'1i?~
< TlJJ?t;l
'~'n <
nlin
'~'~'<' < n'.'~~
inserted to break up a cluster (in segolate nouns) is deleted: 4. When the cluster of consonants is difficult to pronounce two syllables away from the stressed suffix, a short e replaces the zero vowel: location > local i. When the first consonant in the cluster is one of the consonants,., •) 'r.J ·~ '':
ii. When that a is followed by a guttural ('~ ,'n ,'il ,'N):
genius (N) > genius (Adj.)
5. When the word begins with a guttural, a hatafvowel replaces the expected zero:
spring > springlike friend > friendly
< :Jl:;J.~
':;!.':;!.~
'"J:;JQ < 1:;JQ
c. Some common internal vowel changes
Some internal vowel changes occur (a historical vowel may resurface with stress shift):
bear > bearlike hawk> hawklike home >homey
':;l"J < :::1."1 '~~
< '(~
'l:l':J < 1l~~
d. Changes in the suffix
When the adjective is derived from feminine nouns with ann.- suffix, this suffix is replaced by -ati, i.e., a is preserved, final •n changes to 111, and -i is added.
society > social fashion > fashionable problem >problematic link> vertebrate
'l:'9~iN < n~~'N 'l:l~).l~
<
'!l'~n
< Tl'~n
• T: "•,
n?~9 , . : •-.
202
Chapter 8: Adjectives
e. The suffix -ni is added to some monosyllabic nouns
Some adjectives add an o vowel to the noun base before the suffix -ni.
city >urban
When the noun base has the vowel a, an extra a is added before the suffix -ni.
hand > manual
8.5 Participle forms that function as adjectives When the form is directly related to a particular verb, adjectives are likely to be realized in the participial forms, as can be seen in the discussion of the verb system.
8.5.1 Active participle forms functioning as adjectives The active participial t'onns of pa 'a/, pi 'el, hitpa 'el, hifil, can also function as adjectives, normally agentive (the ones who initiate or perform the action). Such adjectives describe an action or a state characteristic of the head noun. The English counterpart of the active participles is the ending -ing, as in ,l.:'~t;l 'distressing', 1~l!J'? 'refreshing'.lt can often be paraphrased by 'something that is causing a state or event', as in ,).!~'? 'distressing', i.e., 'causing distress', or V.~J'? 'refreshing', i.e., 'causing one to become refreshed'. '1v1~ 'lll'::t nm~ :'111~ l"l::t
just
n1p7i~
0'i?7l~
ni?Ji~
P'Ji~
'lll'::t nn•~ :'7~·~ l"l:l
representative
nil-¥!'?
Ql~~!t;l
nil:J1l?D~
D'l;J';fi;JJ;'Ir,J
n~~~'?
)~~'?
'lll'::t nn•~ :'1.!:!~ni'l l"l:l
progressive
n~::rt'D'?
O:J'tJJ;lY,)
'lll'::t nn1::1 :'7•JJ9i'l l"l::t
annoymg
nit'r;tY.l
D'P~))')
npn>;~
l'rn;l
Below are examples of adjectives from each ofthe categories above. The form 'lV,i9
prominent silent supportive
Adjective \:1~i::l
om1 v~tJ'I
Verb
stand out be silent support
"2~
OQ'J 1Y.ltl
Chapter R: Aqjectives
203
The form "l,V.?~
The form '~!;l>;l is the most productive of all the active participles, which means that many adjectives are patterned accordingly. lts relationship to corresponding verb forms is quite transparent. The related verb is usually in pi 'el. It also accommodates the many quadriliteral root verbal forms as the base tor adjectives. Adjective Verb fascinate fascinating Pt!J>;l Ptl'J refresh refreshing 1~~") mn'? boring bore Ol;l~~>;l O)'J~I?' The form "l,t~?J;"I~
Adjective
convergent progressive adolescent The form
U~;lJ;ll',)
OJi?J;lY,l ,~~J;"II',)
Verb converge progress mature
Adjective
'7•~?,_
scary limiting embarrassing
''D:;tY.l ,,~~!',)
1':;tl'J
u~~J;"ID
O'Ji?J;"ID ,~~J;"ID
Verb scare limit embarrass
''D:;tD '':;l~D
1':;tD
8.5.2 Passive participle forms functioning as adjectives Adjectives that are identical to the passive participle tend to be resultative adjectives, that is, a state which is a result of an action, like "lUO 'closed', ~m:~ 'written', etc. They describe tht: result of a process that the subject had undergone. Tht:re are four possible sources for resultative adjectives: pa 'a/ C.?IJIP ')1)':::1), n(fal, pu 'a!, and h1{{a/. '7tlJ~ 'lll':J. nru~ :'111~ l"l:J.
closed
l"li"l~)9
O'"J~)"
iiJU"
lUI(
'lll':J. nnt~ :'7lJ~l l"l:J.
separate
J"lii?~~
O'JJQ~
l"lTJQ~
i'J~~
'lll':J. nnt:ll :'7lJt~ l"l:J.
dangerous
J"li.l??>;l
0')i>P.'?
J"l~~P.'? W~t? 'ltl':J. nnt::i :'i'JJ~Iil l"l:::l.
recommended
l"li~~'?!?.
0'!:1~'?-P.
n~~'?!?.
~~'?!?.
Chapter 8: Adjeclive.f
204
Below are examples of adjectives trom each ofthe categories above. The form 'u»~
Adjective 1~::1~
broken open locked
Verb 1J.~
break open lock
Verb
Adjective
The form '7\1~~
hidden failed select(ed)
1t'W 7~?~
1Q:p
be hidden fail (intr.) be chosen
1:J::!~~
'~?~ 11J;l~
The form .,\'~t'> (which, like ?).!~!? for active participles above, is very
productive, owing to the relationship to pi 'e/ via pu 'al) Adjective
neat, tidy refurbished interested state-of-the-art
1J?.l? ~~~!? 1m~'?
???'!1!1?
arrange; be arranged refurbish; be refurbished interest (tr.) perfect; be perfected
The form '7\1~~ Adjective
exaggerated absolute emphatic
om;? '-'~!;'~ 'lin~
11?.; 11~ '<~~;'<~'II' 1!.~~
'~?'II'
Verb
exaggerate; be exaggerated decide; be decided emphasize; be emphasized
onD ;O'lF' "~QD ; "'':?J:lv
YJrm ; 'li'~7D
8.6 Special patterns There are other adjectival patterns, which are not as readily related to underlying verb forms as participles are. In some of them the relationship to the verb is more transparent than in others: one can readily identify the root and the verb form from which the adjective may have been derived. 8.6.1 The '7·)1~ pattern One salient adjectival pattern whose forms can more readily be related to verb bases is ''~~. Tn the feminine and plural forms of such adjectival forms the initial kamats is reduced to shva or to a natafvowel:
Chapter 8: Adjectives
Process a>0 a stays after guttural
205
m:n
o•:n
i1"1'n'
••n•
n;,,~~
0')':;1~
il'J':;l~
1':;1~
niPt,)~
0'~'t,)~
il~'t,)~
,,t,)~
Many recent .,,~~ forms are equivalent to -able adjectives in English, which mean 'that can be ... -en', e.g., 1':;1'(.1 'fragile, breakable', i.e., that can be broken. Even if the comparable English gloss does not contain an actual -ahle suffix, it can still be shown to contain it semantically, e.g., P':;l'J 'sticky' means 'adhesive', 'that can be glued'. -able type '7')1!a» adjectives:
Adjective countable accessible available
1'!;)~
YJ'~
l'Y.l!
Verb
count approach happen to be
1~9 YJ~
WJFl
Other, non -able type '7•lJ!) adjectives:
Adjective sensitive direct senior
YJ'~'J
1'W! 1':;l~
Base feel straight firstborn
YJ'~';ID
1"'~
1i~~
8.6.2 The 'l•J~~ pattern There is also a form that sounds identical to the .,,~~ form described above, which has a patan vowel as the first vowel, and in which the middle consonant has a dagesh nazak and is therefore geminated (lengthened) historically. However, since geminated consonants are no longer distinguishable from non-geminated ones, the two patterns are phonetically identical, except for two partial distinguishing markers: when the middle consonant is one of the following consonants: 'J ,':l ,'n it is realized as p, b. k. In the illustration below, the singular fonn is 1':;1:;) 'huge' and that stem serves the entire inflection of this group. The stem is kept in feminine and plural forms and is never reduced: m.J.l D'.J.l il"T'n' 1•n• Gloss huge !'lil':;ti' D''J':;t~ il')':;t~ 1':;1:;)
Most of the adjectives that belong to this pattern group do not have transparent bases, verbal or otherwise:
206
violent stable strong, firm
Chapter 8: Adjectives
mighty courageous ancient, antique
c>'.~ ~'~~
~'ii!lJ
"l'"Jl!< ~'~!!< P'T:I~
There are adjectives that have a hi-consonantal base, such as co 'hot'. Some of them often have ~'~~ counterparts (where 7;=J1), which converts them into diminutive or 'lighter' versions ofthe base: very thin P'ii!J thin PJ warm C'Y,l~ hot co bitterish, acrid "l'":l~ bitter "ll;l 8.6.3 The 1~11~ pattern The 1'?}.1~ form serves both as a noun pattern group and as an adjective pattern group. The four forms of this adjective pattern are: Gloss
diligent lying; liar
!!..G!J
D'J.1
lli'HP~
D'rJi?~
n>r]p~
C'rJi?'?'
11'rJi?'?'
Tli'rJi?'?'
When 1'?¥~ is interpreted as an adjective, it is likely to have a related transparent base, usually a verb. be shy W?~ \!)~~J;I~ shy be stubborn stubborn 1~i?~ I!!P~l;lf:l save, conserve "ll;l'(J conservative n'?~ Some prefer to disambiguate by using the '~~'},~ form for adjectives, such as in 'H:P 'irate, bad-tempered' alongside 1HJ, to distinguish the adjective from noun, but most speakers do not. 8.6.4 The 'l.l!~ pattern The ~V.~ pattern group includes adjectives that also stand for corresponding stative verbs, referring to the comparable state of being denoted by the adjective. The base form ~V.~ has an initial kamats vowel. In the feminine and plural forms of such adjectival forms this kamats is reduced. It becomes shva or a nat~fvowel: niJ.1
heavy guilty
nii~~
D'!.;J:P
nJ.;J~
i.;J~
nin\',1~
D'Y,l'?'~
n~\',1~
ow~
C'J.1
;n•n•
1•n•
Gloss
Chapter 8: Acfjectives
207
A variant of~~~ is the participial form of a "'~ verb: the masculine singular form ends in a sego/ vowel and a final •n and the feminine singular has a kamats vowel and a final •n, while the plural forms lose both the vowel and that •n: Gloss niJ.l D'J.l iYT'n' 1!!:1! hard, difficult ni\!Ji7 D'~i? n~i? n"'i? pretty, beautiful
8.6.5 The "J'iJ.I~ pattern It is possible to distinguish two ~iY~ sub-groups: the first one maintains the o vowel in all the forms, but the feminine and plural forms undergo reduction of the initial a. Sub-group with o throughout:
Gloss close, near big holy
D.QJ.
o•:n
il""T'n'
-pn•
!li:lill(
D'~ilp
n~ili?
J.ili?
ni,ii~
Ql~ii~
n?ii~
711~
ni\!Jiii?
D'~i--rp
i1~i1i(
'l.ll"Ti?
In the second group, the initial a also undergoes reduction, but the second vowel in all suffixed forms is u instead of o (O'~Q~). When the u is stressed, which happens only in the unmarked citation form, it becomes o (7il""9). Historically, the third root letter following u had to be geminated, and thus, when it is ·~ ,'!l ,'J., it is realized as h, p, k, respectively. Colors and other physical characteristics prevail, as in: o - u sub-group: blue long ni::>J~ D':;l1~ n~J~ green pil~ nil':!? D'i?1~ i1WJ? Note
In colors like lin"' 'black', 1i.!l~ 'gray', etc. there is no alternation with u, since '1 cannot be geminated. black m·,;n'P D'"Jin\1) n')in'P 1ino/
208
Chapter 8: Atfjectives
8.6.6 The "l)}~lJ~ pattern Some ~i).l~ adjectives, mostly those that denote color, may undergo a reduplication process, in which the last two consonants are reduplicated: ?).!~).!~. It results in a new adjective that has a diminutive effect, turning 'red' into 'reddish', 'blue' into 'bluish', etc. Base '1iJJ9
'1117119
pinkish bluish darkish
pink blue black
l'JTJ1 ?o{Oi' 11))0~
'Ti1J ?in~ 1in~
Note that the same reduplication applies if the color is realized in the ~~~pattern: 1~{ 'white'> 1~~'? 'whitish'. 8.6.7 Other common patterns Pattern
Gloss
CiCeC
blind deaf short new obligated mobile fresh clean light, easy soft good cheap
CaCaC
CaCaC CaCi CaC CoC
Adjective ll'i1~»
0'"J~»
l"l')~Y.
1~»
ni'l-1";10
0''1-'":10
l"IWJO
'l-110
ni1~i?
0'1~i?
llJ~i?
1~i?
ni'l-170
[J'\1-170
ll~70
'l-170
ni~!t:'l
0':;1~['1
n~~t:'l
:I~(\
nil~~
0'7!~
n~m
1!~
l1'i'"J'?
0'~"J'?
n~")'?
'J'?
ni'P~
O'~P~
i1!P~
'P~
ni~i?
0'~i?
n?g
?g
ni::>J .ntli\J ni?it
0\l) Ol:;li\J
n;>J
1J
n~i"
:Ji\J
Ol';:lil
n{it
~il
Chapter 9 Adverbs and adverbial expressions 9.1 9.2
9.3 9.4 9.5
Introduction Adverbs grouped according to form Adverbs grouped according to function Adverbs and 'degree' words Sentential adverbs
9.1 Introduction An adverb, broadly defined, is a word or a phrase that modifies a verb, an adjective, an adverb, whole clauses or sentences. Adverbs cannot modify nouns. Adverbial expressions can consist of a one-word adverb or of an adverbial phrase.
1. Modifying a verb 2. Modifying an adjective 3. Modifying an adverb 4. Modifying a sentence
He runs fast. Dan is very young. He runs ~fast. Regrettably, I cannot come.
.1nn.nNm
..1llil2 1 '>'~ 1l .~
1no '(1 Nm
~):ll N~ l)N , '1~~?
.N):l.,
9.2 Adverbs grouped according to form They can be a single word adverb, functioning only as adverbs: Single word adverbs perhaps first fast 0-:J'p 1Dl'J n·9/)N~ now there here 1'~9~ yesterday always thus 1'Y,l{l 1~
'?lN
0""
~inJ;ll:;(
Others have the same form as masculine singular adjectives, and can function as either adjectives or adverbs: early 1n~ good/well :li\:1 clear/clearly strongly hard i1\?i? nice/nicely n?~ Still others can function as either adverbial degree words or noun quantifiers: very 1iNJ? a bit \:1~'? much, many n:;nD
210
Chapter 9: Adverbs and adverbial expressions
Suffixes associated with some adverbs
Several sutlixes are associated with adverbs in Hebrew. (a) the sutlix n.- -a for some directional adverbs (note that stress does not shift to the suffix, e.g., pnim - pnima): Gloss to town homeward inward southward seaward Exam121es I went to town. Go (to} home! I went inside.
Adverb M'J'~D
MtJ?~tJ m~,~~
MY;Ji1'] n~~
Gloss town home the inside south sea, east, south
Base ,,~(i;l)
Tll~(iJ) Ql~~
Oi1'] :J~,DJif,D?
.i11l).!il 'TI).!Q) mmJ.n 1~
. iiY.P)!) 'TIQ):J)
The directional adverbs associated with the compass arc all marked by this -a ending: m,!l~ 'northward', mJl1"T 'southward', nr.rw~ 'eastward' and ii~'Jl/Y.) 'westward'. We went southward towards Eilat. .Jl,lN 1lll:J' .lJ!2li! l)).!t)) You shall spread out to the west and to n~l~) .ll&~J i1Y.)1Pl ~ D~'J~~ (,• n) n'I!Hn:l) the east, to the north and to the south (Genesis 28:14) A historical note
mYTP and m:u are literary biblical counterparts of iiJ.1).!0 'westward' etc., that designate a direction relative to its position with respect to the Land oflsrael, or to Jerusalem: the Negev region is in the south, the Mediterranean Sea in the west, and no"Tp refers either to an ancient region east of Canaan (kedem = ancient?), or to the direction one faces when praying towards Jerusalem (being before, in front). n~',
(b) the suffix -it for some manner adverbs (slightly formal usage): Adverb Gloss Gloss Base personal personally 11'~'~ '~'~ official officially TI'Y,l~":l 'Y.l'?'"J time temporarily m~~;~~ 1Y.)J
Chapter 9: Adverbs and adverbial expressions
Examples Tspoke to him personally. I spoke to him by phone. I am replacing him temporarily.
211
.n'"V'N ml;{ m1:J'1 .nm!I'V m~ m1:1'i .n'Jr.n 1n1N "l''nn 'lN
(c) the suffix -ot, also for some manner adverbs, but this one can only be attached to adjectives, and is used primarily in the higher registers: Gloss at length harshly
Adverb
Gloss long hard
ni:;,1~
niYJi?
Base li1~
nww
An adverb can be one word consisting of two constituents: a preposition prefixed to a noun (most commonly -~ 'in/with'): Composed of two constituents to-t-eternity n~m +';I in/with+care m1ml +J inlwith+quiet \JjJYJ +J inlwith+will )1~1 +:1 to+last(ly) m11nN+' in/with+purpose nm:::> +J
~
~ ~ ~
...
...
Gloss forever carefully quietly willingly lately intentionally
Adverb n~~~ nn'~np
Vi(~:;t
)i~'):;l
n~i1Q~~ nn~:;t
An adverbial expression can be composed of other particles, such as 'negative words', which by themselves are adverbials, followed by a noun: without will unintentionally )l~'J '?:;t n~~~ N7{ without logic without a doubt )i'~tl m'V '~:;t P~V N'J{ It can also consist of several constituents, such as a preposition prefixed to a noun followed by an adjective: with great care n~'J m1'DP with ill intention n~J n~~~:;t
Adverbials can also be phrases or words that introduce an entire sentence or a clause: first of all in the beginning n~QJ;lD~ '"' 1l''VNJ and finally and in summary "JiU~{~ 01JV{1 to our regret fortunately ))~~~? ))'J~~?
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Notice that in the following examples, there are actually two adverbs one initiates the entire sentence (and is underlined in the examples), while the second one modifies the verb. sentence modifier
verb modifier
Fortunately he does not speak so fast. sentence modifier
verb modifier
At the beginning he talked very tast.
~~l!) llNJl
1J!)IIJJ::l llNJl
.,nn p 7::::! ,~'Tn N7 Nm u7m7 'nr!!l llNJl l)!liiJO llNJl .1,No 1no '1:1.''1 Nm n7tmn~
9.2.1 Adverb or adjective? To clarify the role of the adverb, let's compare the use of the adverb with that of the adjective. We will find the following significant differences: 1. The adjective changes form according to its head noun. The agreement in gender and number with the head noun is one of the most important structural requirements of the adjective. On the other hand, the adverb keeps the same shape and does not change so as to agree with any other element in the sentence or phrase. Look at the following:
He did not talk fast, but she did N7 Nm Ol 7J.N 1J.ill2 ,::l'i N7 N,n not talk fast either- neither one of .'1i10 ~'1:J.'1 N7 On')YJ - '1i10 il"'l:!l'i them talked fast. While the subject changed, from 'he' to 'she' to 'they', and the verb form changed accordingly, the adverb did not change shape. 2. The adjective follows the noun it modifies, while the adverb follows the verb it modifies. Adjective Adverb
This is a clear chapter. These are clear directions. He speaks clearly. She speaks clearly.
.""'nJ p19 m .3111~'1:1. lliN'lln n?N
.1nJ '1:!lio Nm .~n,::t1nNm
A comparative note In English the distinction between adverb and adjective is usually clear since, for the most part, their forms are different, e.g., clearly vs. clear. In Hebrew, the form of the adjective masculine singular 1~1~ is the same as the form of the adverb 1~1~, but speakers can tell which is
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213
which by means of the two clues suggested above, agreement or its absence and position with respect to the head: 1. Observe phrases with a feminine head or a plural one. If agreement is observed (e.g., ni1~i:jl niN'Jiil 'clear directions'), the modifier is an adjective; if not (e.g., 1~1~ lli1:jl1r,l )n 'they (fem.) speak clearly), it's an adverb. 2. Examine the preceding head. If it is a noun, the modifier is an adjective; if a verb, it's an adverb. Single word adverbs
..J!!l2 1Yl!:l Nm
He walks fast. She eats fast. They work hard. They are learning a lot.
.1ilr;> ll~:JlN N)il
.n\!Jp m1J.UJ )n .~ D'iY.Il., on
Adverbial phrases
He hurt us unintentionally. She did everything without resistance. They work very diligently. They are studying without a teacher.
.nm:::> '~::1 llJ. l'l9 Nm
.rmnrm N7!:1.,:m nri\!J>? N'il m~'1nJ.
.nJ.i 0
D'1J.W on
i11lY.I '~J. l1liY.Il~ )il
9.3 Adverbs grouped according to function An adverb, narrowly defined, is a word belonging to a class of words that modify verbs for such categories as manner, time, place, or direction. 9.3.1 Adverbs of manner: Adverbs that answer the question 'How?/in what manner?' Modifying verbs
She spoke quietly. He walked slowly. Did you hear well?
~ni:P1N)il
."N'
1.,il N1n
Related interrogative adverbs
How did you find out what happened? How does one prepare a lentil stew?
m;p nn nYo\!J ~ !0'\!Ji)? 1'U D'l':JY.I
i~':J
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Chapter 9: Adverbs and adverbial expressions
9.3.2 Adverbs of time: Adverbs that answer the question: 'When? I At what time?'
First she spoke and only then (afterwards) he spoke. lt happened only yesterday. If not now, then when?
J::> 10~ p1l ni::l''T N'il OJiP .1::1'1 Nm .~mnN pimp
m
P1lY.l'N ,1'VJ::>)J N~ ON
Related interrogative adverbs:
When did you get here? Till when are you staying?
?)N=>~ on.v:~n ~
!O'iN'tll 01lN ~
9.3.3 Adverbs of place/location: Adverbs that answer the question: 'Where? At what place?' We'll meet YQ in his office. .l~VJ ·nvm::1 n~.vr;J~ \!Jl!!l'J
TI1ey live upstairs. They live across.
. n~).IY.lJ 0'1l on .'::lmo 0'1l on
Related Interrogative adverbs:
Where shall we meet? 9.3.4 Adverbs of direction: Adverbs that answer the question: 'Where to? To what place?'
We went westward in the direction of the sea. We'11 go to California we'll be going (!Q) there in Lhc spring. Because ofthe tornado threat, they went down to the cellar.
.O'il 1ll'::>'::l il::l1YY.lllYOJ
.vtm- n'nl!l'JPJ )!0') .::l'::lN::l O\!JJ on ,1i)1l\Jil m::>o '::l'::ll::l ."!1l1Y.lJ n"Y.lJ )11'
Related Interrogative adverbs:
Where are you coming from and_!Q where are you headed?
01lN .lli'2l 0'N::l 01lN )"NY.l ?O'=>Jm
9.4 Adverbs and 'degree' words Adverbs can also be classified according to their function: some are considered 'true' adverbs, i.e. they modifY verbs, while others are considered 'degree' adverbs. Degree words have a different distribution, since for the most part they modify adjectives, some adverbs and a tew select verbs. They mostly modifY the intensity or degree of certain qualities.
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adverbs
The adverb modifies the verb speak<;: He speaks fast and it is nllJpl 1n~ 1:11~ Nm difticult to understand him. .lmN 1'J.n:;,
'degree' words
The 'degree' adverb modifies the adverb .fast: Tie speaks so fast that it is '1i1~ JJ 7J '1:::11~ Nli1 difficult to understand him. .unN 1'J.i1J nllJpllJ
Adverbs of 'degree' and 'intensity' often modify adjectives. I.NJ? very so n~:q not at all NJ 7{:;>:;1 especially 11:1.~_1?:;1 An adverb of degree that precedes an adjective is '1 'quite': He is quite smart. He is talt:nted. He is~ talented. He is so talented. He is not talented at all. He is especially talented. He is quite talented.
.oJn ' I Nm
.'1\lJJl~
.llN~
Nli1
'1\lJJlP Nli1
. '1\lJ:Jlr.l ]2 JJ Nln .1\!JJm NJ JJJ:J. Nli1 :tnl'P:J. 1\lJJlr.:l Nli1 .1\!JJm 'I Nli1
The 'degree' and 'intensity' adverbs also modity verbs that express feelings, desire, and wish, such as nnpn ,n~l1 ,N.lW ,:JmN. He very much likes... ... llNP J.i11N Nli1 He wants very much ... .. . "TlN~ i1~l'1 Nln He hates so much .. . .. .]2 JJ N)lllJ Nln He especially likes .. . ... "TnPr.:lJ. J.i11N Nln He does not like at all... .. .J.mN N7 'J7J:J. Nm Adverbs of 'degree' can also modity other adverbs that describe the degree or intensity of a particular activity. He speaks a lot but says little. .\J)IP 1PlNl i1J.'1i1 1J."TP Nln He speaks slowly. .mQ '1:J1P Nlrl He speaks [~ siowlv]. .["TlNP + \JN7l1:Jlr.:l Nlil He speaks lliQ slowly]. .[\Jl'b + p .,J] 1:::11~ Nli1 He speaks [too slowly]. .(mQ + ''lP '1lW] 1:Jlb Nli1
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Chapter 9: Adverbs and adverhial expressions
He talks a lot. He talks [a great deal]. He talks .[§Q muchl. He talks [too much]. He says little. He says (.Yro!: little]. He says [too little].
.nJ.1n 111ir.l Nm .[i)Nr.l + n:nnJ 1!lir.l Nm .[n:;nn +1:> ':>] 111ir.l Nm .['ir.l 1m'] 1::t'Tr.l Nm .\JYr.l 1::tir.l Nm
. [ 'TlNr.l
+ \.?)lr.l] 1!1lr.l N)n
.['in \JYn] 1111r.1 Nm
Note
A source of contusion for many learners of Hebrew is the distinction between mnD 'a lot/much' and 1-Nl;l 'a lot/very much'. il~')D is a quantifier referring to the number of times an action has taken place (e.g., taking many trips), or to the general quantity/amount to which it applies (e.g., eating a lot), while the intensitier i"Nl;l refers to the intensity of the action (e.g., loving a lot). il:;l.)iJ is an adverb of degree. It is also used as a quantifier of nouns: .n:::11n lN1p on As adverb: They read a lot As They read many books. .D'"'I!l\7 n:rm ,N1P on quantifier: 'TiNY;) is an intensifier. It is used only with verbs that can be intensified. As adverb: We very much hope to hike in ilNr.l O'llPY.l llmN the mountains.
A quantifying adverb can be used only when the verb is quantifiable. How many times did they hike in the mountains? 'Once', 'twice', 'a lot'. As They traveled a lot abroad. -'"ln:::l i1J.1n )';m\.? on quantifier:
* They saw very.
*.1i~U\) l~n Oi"l
They saw a lot
.n:::11n ,N,
on
ln English the adverb 'a lot' can be used for both il~)iJ and 'TiNY;). In Hebrew they are mutually exclusive, except when one wants to further enhance il-Nf,l, and in colloquial use liNJ? n:;).JiJ, meaning 'an awful lot', is used for emphasis.
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As noted above, when quantifiers modify nouns, they are not considered adverbs: A lot of money. ."Jtl:> n:nn Some noise. .YJYl n!i!p Many people. 9.4.1 Adverbs that answer the question 'to what degree'? Degree word: modifying verb
She talks too much. She loved to read very much (a lot). He ate a bit and rested a bit.
.)'T!llnl' il)YJ' N'i1 .N1ljJJ'T1NY.'I n:mN N'i1 .n~p m1 n~p ~:>N
Nm
Degree word: modifying adjective
He is ~ bit quiet. They are quite smart. The food is too hot.
n!i!p Nm . D'liJ.l .!1 on
_\.JP\!1
.!l.Q QQ 7=>1Nn
Related interrogative adverb:
How much time did she sleep? How many people were there?
?iJ)v,l)
N~n
v:n.!:!@
mn D''l!lm !1!22
9.4.2 Positive and negative expressions Adverbial positive expressions
Yes. This is indeed a serious development. Certainly this needs mentioning. Adverbial negative expressions
Not here and not now. What? Are you without a coat?
.1'\!I:IY N~1 1N=> N'? !J)YY.l '~:::t nnN m1:1
Adverbial expressions of doubt
Not today- perhaps tomorrow. 1 am worried lest they not come on time.
.lnr.:l '71N - DPn N7 ))l)l' N7
on ~ '1!1\!lm ))N _,Y.'IlJ
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9.4.3 Adverb or prepositional phrase? After questions regarding place or time, the answer (an obligatory complement of the verb) can consist of either an adverb or a prepositional phrase that functions as an adverbial syntactically.
Place: Adverb Complement
! \!l)!l'l il!l'N
We'll meet upstairs. We' 11 meet at his office.
Time: Adverb Complement
. n~~o~ ( 't.'l9'l) .l~\!1 '1'1\!10::1
(\!I )g)))
1't.'l!l'l ·mQ
The meeting will be tomorrow. The meeting will be at four o'clock.
·~ ('t'l~l'l)
9.5 Sentential adverbs The term 'adverb' suggests that adverbs modify verbs only, but as noted above, the domain of some adverbs goes beyond the verb; it can apply to the whole sentence. The adverb 11NO 1i10 '(very) fast' in Nln llNO 1no )ilU 'He drives very fast' is clearly a modifier of mu 'drive'. But the domain of'J1Yi~ 'in my opinion' in "'TO 1nn :mu Nln ,my;~ 'In my opinion, he drives too fast' is not the verb, nor even the whole predicate, but rather the whole sentence. If we rewrite the sentence as "'TO 1ilY.l lnn Nm't.' N'il 'J1Y1 'My opinion is that he drives too fast', or 'It is my opinion lhat he drives too fast', we'll see that '11}11~ 'in my opinion' relates to the entire sentence. Most sentence adverbials express a point of view (that of the speaker, the writer, the subject of the sentence or another person referred to in the adverbial) regarding the sentence content, and since what they express does not form an integral part of the sentence they modify, they are often - though not necessarily - separated from it by comma intonation. The point of view can be a comment on the statement in the sentence, or it can place it in context. An adverbial such as il\!Jp:t:t 'please' in n't.'p:J:J ,)1'!:1'::1 0't1'\)1:J il\!117\!.1 '~ 'l11 'Give me three tickets in the balcony, please' characterizes the statement as a polite request. A sentence adverbial can also serve to refer to a previous statement, e.g. 1lON:J •as already noted'.
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Sentence adverbials may consist of a single word, a phrase, or a clause. What is common to all is that they can be paraphrased in a manner that would expand them into full clauses, which on the surface look like the main clause to which the original sentence is subordinate. Below are some illustrations drawn from a corpus, with accompanying comments. 9.5.1 Qualifying statements of opinion The following expressions, and others, may be used to qualify statements as constituting opinions (we will use the frrst person, tor simplicity, but other pronouns and full nouns may be used as well): In my opinion/according to my opinion 'J;IY,1 '~~ t'l:1~1? To the best of my understanding 'ti~~Q J\;)lQ '!J'? (To tell you) frankly nll~¥ CJ? "lQi?) To tell you the truth llJ?z:<~ lll:;( CJ?> iY.li~ Between us, confidentially ll'2'~ Personally ll''?''l:< The adverbial may be expanded al1 the way to containing a subordinate clause with -~, as in As far as I understand' p:;t~ )~~"' il~~ 'T~ As far as I know ~ji' '~~~ il~~ 1~ Expressions such as 'n:n~ can also be located within the sentence, and they are not usually separated by commas. I. The point of view can be that of the speaker, as in: He is not guilty, in my opinion, until m:tw 1~ m~'T~ OWN 1l'N Nm the court decides his guilt. .mnwN llN ~:lP' N~ \:)!J\!.lnil
2. The point of view being referred to can be that of the addressee, as in: Rachel, in your opinion, is this bestseller truly a good book? 3. The point of view can also be of an entity to which the pronoun in the sentence reters to: The Justice Department made it m~-r~ '~ 1m:m 0'\:)!l\!.Jr.m ii'tln clear that in its opinion cable should \:))j\:))lNJ 11'\!11 O'JJ~~ nn~ 1'N not be given a license for fast internet and television broadcasts.
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9.5.2 Evaluating a statement by expressions of regret and surprise There are adverbial expressions of emotions such as regret or surprise that modify the entire sentence, such as: unfortunately, regrettably surprisingly astonishingly disappointingly luckily what is surprising (about it) is that
,~~iJ n~J'J~f'~)Jt;t'!?ICJJD>
'll/::1?
'J:l~~!i'D?
'J:l9D7lJ? 'N·!~~? ~'T:l~Y.l~
'.:I!~D mn~?l'?~~? n~l-¥,.1 Nm 1:r1~ ~'T:l~~D -~Nm
Here are some illustrations of the uses ofthese expressions: 1=> ?::> N? O'j?U)In ,:nn U1)1~'] To our great regret, we are not doing such good business. .O':J)\J To my astonishment 1 heard my name called. Luckily for the driver, the car did not complete the fall.
0'N1)jJY.I
'n)l~'ll 'l'U~i11l1'.:1 ·'~'l'J
N?
nm::>~n
,:m.m '.:I'll ,?m? .n?'!:IJilllN n~'''lln
9.5.3 Is the statement true/untrue? Adverbial expressions can be used to ascertain the truth-value of a situation or statement. They include some of the following: of course, certainly, naturally undoubtedly il is obvious that as is well-known luckily as expected the truth of the matter is theoretically (speaking) formally perhaps, it could be seemingly
n\;'~
)~~l:.l~I'N:Tl;t
P~VN7? ,~,~
~~,~~
'~!:1~~
1:].1 ,~ il'lt,l~~
l'P\?)iN'tl i1pf:9t,l1l1'\?JiN'.Diil?~t)';?
''?'<J) )~iN~ll''?'<''J '';?~N ill:;(')~~
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Chapter 9: Adverbs and adverbial expressions
Here are some illustrations of the uses of these expressions: Surely this is not a beginner's program. Without a doubt, it's our children who will have to pay. Outside of Israel's territorial water, Israeli policemen of course have no enforcement power. The truth of the matter is that conditions now are quite different from what they were in the past.
on U'\!J 0'1'm ,p!lu N~~ .0~\!J~ lJ1\:l~'\!J
~\!.1 O"~N'1l\:l'1\:ln 0'0~ ~lnO 0'1\:ll\!J~ )J.10J )'N ~Nl\!J'
.n!l':JN l11JOO 0''N1\!J' l'\!JJY O'Nmn ,1::11 'J\!J m'nN~ .1:JY:J l'n\!J nm:;, O'Jl\!J
With or without a comma?
While there is a tendency to separate the sentential adverbs from the rest of the sentence by commas, in some cases there are no such commas. Although commas do not separate n\:l::l and ):Jlr.D in the first and third examples above, they still modify the whole sentence. 9.5.4 Introducing main propositions as subordinate clauses Expansion to variants containing clauses with -\!J is quite common: of course, certainly, naturally -~ 1)~\:l~ undoubtedly -'\!,' )~~~~/-'\!,' 'N:fl';l as is obvious that. .. -'\!,' 1~1~ it is a fact that. .. -'\!,'nn~ it is possible that. .. -¥,~ 1~{1~ it is true that... -'l! )iJ~
Many of the expressions above can be made negative by initiating them with the negative particle N'J or pN: it is not certain that .. . there is no doubt that .. . -w P~V 1'~ it is not clear that/if ow-\!,' 1n~ N? it is not possible that ... -w 1~l!1~ N? it is not true that ... -~ )1:>~ N? Here are some colloquial expressions: really (lit. 'by my life') it couldn't possibly be ...
-~ '!0~ 1'!0~
. .. NJ ... 0'~1):;)
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Cnapter 9: Adverbs and adverbial expressions
While structurally the adverbial expressions act as main clauses, they do not state the main propositions. The adverbial expressions function as modifiers of the main propositions, included in the subordinate clauses. Some illustrations of the uses of these expressions: There is no doubt that there is a .)n~nn~ ilY.l ~ll \!.''\!.' p!l~ W< lot to complain about. Naturally there is reason to be pleased. It is a fact that many people came, .11pi1 in spite of the cold. I swear/by my life I never thought of insulting you! 9.5.5 Placing the statement in a different or special context The writer or speaker may wish to place the statement in the sentence in a different or special context, introducing it as a general observation, a request, or a deviation from the main topic.
Here are some of the expressions used for such purposes: generally speaking ~?f 1TH''?'
With your permission, T' d like to go back to last year's report
mJnn m~'Y!l , '~~:> '\P1N3 .0'1'nY.lil m1p"nno Y!l\!.lm
0)\!.1 ,:llN 111 ,ll'11il ~":>lY.lil .D"U'\!.1~ il!l~Y.l N~ N1il ill'lJil
il"'lllil 11Y tpmn? m111 ':IN ,J)N
.m"p rv•11~ 1nn':J n~,, 'JN ,o:>m't.'"'lJ
.i11Jll\!.l il)\!.lil ~\!.'
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9.5.6 Referencing or connecting sentence adverbials Sentence adverbials may refer to a previous sentence or to some other context already noted, or known to the parties to the communication. Here are some of the expressions used for such purposes: as already noted as noted above n~~~~ Here are some illustrations: As noted, the prices may change. The CEO announced, as noted above, that he did not expect changes.
1UJ~~
m!"' '~~
.rmmm'::l o'~';Jl';J.lJ 0'1'nr.m ,"ll~N::> ,n.,.lJo';J ,,,~\!..1 '!l::l ,Y'"Tm '"::>mn .O''ll'\!..I';J n!:l.::m N';J Nm'l'
Sentence adverbials may also connect between sentences, not as conjunctions, but as adverbial expressions. The connections always assume a larger context, an intra-sentential one, which goes beyond the sentence. moreover in addition in regards to, concerning for instance that is, namely in other words in conclusion, to sum up so in this respect briefly, in short if so in any case in contrast indeed ... however ... on the one hand ... and on the other ...
~~ '~ ,~~ l?~ln·l~
"JVil:;t
'"J~~t-'? 1"'1$~
i19~J{h"'9'?
U?iJ7 1'li11)~
O'':?Y.l;t O~!l1;:''?
'~ il nrD~Y.l 1l~P;t
1:;?
OlVl~ 01::(
J"lN.l':q;t nN·l m~t?
... ':}t< ... 0~~~ . .. '~\\11~Y,)~ ... 1n.l:;t 1~Y,)
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Chapter 9: Adverbs and adverbial expressions
Here are some illustrations: We should not raise our prices; moreover, we must keep the quality of the product.
; D'1'non nN n1.,Yn., 1J., 11oN 110~b D':t"n unm ,p .,Y 1n' ..,~nnn ntJ'N
'Y
In regards to further research, it all depends on tederal grants.
.,:m ,D'!:ltl)) D'1pno., 1YJN:t
Dina began shopping for the trip, however Danny worked till the last minute.
,,l'\:1' m'JP mYJy' n'mnn m'i
It cannot be that the government, on the one hand, opens the market to competition, and on the other hand, competes with a private company.
n,YJOOi10 D'PJYO::l '1~m .n''1i!:li1
Yl1il iY nY 'll ,nNt now' .)nnNn 1:::10 , n.,YJoonYJ
pnn N., pwn nN nnm!) ,::!rlli mnno ,'JYJ 1::1m ,m1nn., .'t11!) D1U:::l
Chapter 10 Particles I0.1 10.2 I 0.3 10.4 10.5 I 0.6 10.7
Introduction The particle 'et' before definite direct objects Prepositions: prefixes, independent prepositions Prepositions or adverbs? Coordinating and correlative conjunctions Subordinators Exclamation particles and expressions
10.1 Introduction Particles include prepositions, conjunctions, and exclamations. While prepositions can have pronoun suffixes, conjunctions and exclamations do not. They do not change in form regardless of where they occur, and they typically have a grammatical function in the sentence. 10.2 The particle nM before D'9n'lf 'l9'7 "nx"' n•'7•r.m definite direct objects D'li"TI'rl D"lrl'!l In Hebrew the prepositional-like particle nN marks detinite direct objects. It precedes them and links them to transitive verbs. This particle presents problems for non-native speakers for the following reasons: a. There is no equivalent particle in English. b. It is not used when the direct object is indefinite.
The detinition used here for direct objects and for transitive verbs is strictly formal: a direct object is one that is not linked to its verb by a preposition (but when it is definite it is preceded by the particle nN). A transitive verb is likewise defined as a verb that is followed by a direct object. Examples of indefinite direct objects: I am reading an interesting book. The police caught two robbers. The children bought a gift for their teacher.
.)n)y~
1!ltl nN11P
~m
.o,::m ')Ill no!ln n1\J'll~n .on~\!J mHJ~ mn~ 1)j7 o~17'il
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Chapter 10: Particles
Notice that both the Hebrew and the English verbs are followed by direct objects. No prepositions can be inserted to link the verbs to their direct objects. The direct objects in the above examples are all indefinite. In English, the singular noun is preceded by 'an', while the plural noun has no article. In Hebrew there is no article for the singular or plural indefinite nouns: an interesting book )"l)IY.l 1!lt1 two robbers 0'))) 'l\!1 a gift nmY.l The differences between Hebrew and English are present when the direct objects are definite. In Hebrew the direct object particle nl:':( follows transitive verbs that are complemented by definite direc.t objects.
Examples of definite direct ob\ects: I am reading the interesting book. The police caught the robbers. The children bought the gift at the new mall.
.)nl>JY.lil 1!ltm nz~ TIN1,p 'lN .O':Jlln TIN
nt~!lTI
n1\J\!Jnn
,,,li':J nmnn TIN up
0'1?m .\!1-rnn
The user has to be aware of what constitutes a direct object and also has to remember that the particle TIN must be inserted before such an object. As this particle does not exist in English, it presents a problem, especially in conversational situations when there is no time to analyze the nature of the verb and its object. A comparative note Hebrew and English do not necessarily share all verbs that are considered transitive where the object is direct. Consider the following examples where in English the verb is transitive, while in Hebrew, a preposition must be used to link the verb to its object and thus it is not considered a direct object. English: - preposition The principal entered the classroom unannounced. David told everybody to leave. Everyone left the room.
Hebrew: + preposition
)l,,m, ,,:I nTI'J~ UlJl ?m"n .\!IN17.3 .TIN~' O?D~ ~ 1n :nnn~ ,N~, o~,J
English:+ preposition The police are searching for witnesses to the accident.
Hebrew: - preposition . nm'ln?
o~-.y
nVJ!lnn n1"VJnn
A definite object is not just a noun or a noun phrase with a definite article, but also includes other nouns that are considered inherently definite: names of persons; names of geographical entities, such as countries, cities, regions; nouns with possessive suffixes and more. An object is made definite by having ont! of lhe following features or by being one of the following entities: Definite article We'll see the movie -~1Y:J 1nn \:nun n!''( mnJ tomorrow night. Proper name Do you know Jonah nll' nN D'1'Jt.J onN Wallach? n?n ,nnu nN D'JYit.Jil The scientists Place name .10-n nJ~m lJlJ discovered Sedna, the I 01h planet. Nouns with They will put their on'~!ln nN ln'VJ' on .)unn~ things in storage. possessive suffix We'll ask our guide if he Possessive U7VJ r11t.Jil nN ?NVJ.) .\!Jin )Jilt.) l? 'lJl ON phrase has new information.
,,,:1
(For a description of 'internal direct objects', see note in chapter 12, p. 289.) When the direct object is a personal pronoun rather than a noun, the particle is merged with the pronoun sutlixes. It is a definite concept. Singular
i'l{liN
iniN
J{liN
JJ;JiN
'nlN
her
him
you
you
me
)DiN
O{liN
Pl;l~
O~J;l~
~l{liN
);>J;liN*
D~l;liN*
them
them
you
you
Plural
us
* Tn daily speech the -niN variant is also used in the plural second person suffixes.
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Note
Since many learners have problems identifYing a direct object and also identifying a definite direct object, it is useful to note that there are contexts where the direct object status is visible in English as well: some of the pronouns have forms that are used when they are objects, such as in him, her, us, them. We saw them and they saw us. She got her dressed. Did you see him in the play?
.1JmN ,N, om omN )J'N'l nnm . iUllN il'll'l~m N'il ?ill::lill )JnN On'N'l
10.3 Prepositions Prepositions indicate relationships between nouns and other components of the phrase or the sentence. Prepositions combine with other items, which function as the objects of the prepositions and form prepositional phrases. These phrases consist of a preposition and a noun, a noun phrase or a pronoun that serves to complete the phrase. Prepositions can never dangle in a sentence or a phrase - they have to be completed by nouns, noun phrases, or pronouns. Pronouns that follow prepositions are always attached to the prepositions, and do not appear as two separate items. Note A common mistake that English speakers make is to:
1. Literally translate a preposition and pronoun as two separate items: .1ln'N -rJJ!;I Nm He studies with us. .umN 1 e~ "TI9., ~nn 2. Omit a noun or pronoun complement after a preposition. Prepositions do not stand alone. The family you asked about left the city. '1'.Yi1 ."l'~n l'IN nal~ 2ll'l.,~t\!l\!l nn9WI9n 0
10.3.1 Prepositions: Form Prepositions can be followed by either a noun (rr D.Y 'with Dan') or be combined with a pronominal suffix (il'l~ 'with him'). Prepositions that consist of only one letter are always prefixed to nouns or pronouns and are never written as independent words.
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229
Prepositions are also formed by more complex entities, which combine pretix prepositions with certain nouns or other prepositions into single grammatical items, such as 11n+l 'inside' or J'lYJ+l 'for the sake or. 10.3.2 One-syllable prepositions directly prefixed to nouns The prepositions,-::> ,-'::1 ,-l which have the form of prefixes, have a shva that is realized as e. The preposition -Y,l has an i vowel. Prepositions np,,oN~ in America beamerika in, at beleruiyim to life! to le0"0~ -~ for everyone lekhulam OJ1;)~ for as a spokesman kedover ,llif as ke-f *-)',) from Tel Aviv mite/aviv from mi- *
*The fonn -)',) is an abbreviated version of the preposition word )Y,l (since a 1l at the end of a syllable is ofien assimilated to the next consonant), and has achieved the status of a prefix. In texts with full vowel representation, the tirst consonant of the noun that follows this preposition receives a dagesh liazak, to compensate for the loss of the final•l of the full form of the preposition. Prefixed to nouns that begin with a consonant cluster When the following prepositions are prefixed to a noun that starts with a consonant cluster, the prefix shva vowel in -7 ,-::> ,-l is replaced by i (a shva na' cannot be toll owed by a consonant cluster, or by another shva):
in handwriting for a reasonable price as one group
bikhtav yad limnir savir kikvutsa anat
l'lll:;J::;l l':::tt7l'r'IY;l~
nnN n::~1:1p:;>
The same happens when -? ,-:> ,-J precede a first consonant y with a shva, except that in addition, the '' y is weakened to i, and the following weak shva is elided: in Jericho be + yerino > birirw When one of-? ,-::> ,-:1 precedes a first consonant that is guttural with a natafvowel, it takes on the color of that vowel.
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in a dream like a nut by boat
b + lialom > balialom k + 'egoz > ke 'egoz b + 'oniya >bo 'on~ya
Ol~Q~ < Ol~Q
+~
l))~~ < ll:l~ +~ nm~q < n~~~
+~
Note
These rules arc often ignored in daily speech, unless the form is part of a fixed idiom. The shva e is maintained as the main vowel of the prepositions:
Normative
Colloquial
Normative
inl'Jl?
inl"J?~
1l:m:;>:;t
n~n~~
nz~t9
OlJQ~
Colloquial 1l :tn:?:;t oi7tp
When -Y.l precedes one of the guttural letters 'l ,'V ,•n ,tn ,'N, the vowel of the preposition changes from ito e, which is also the case before the definite article -n. mi + 'erets >me 'erets from a land 'Q~~ < '()~ + ~ > me 'igul mi+ 'igul ~~~Y.I;;l < 7~~).1 + ~ from a circle mi+ 'adam> me 'adam from a man O'J~t,;l < O'J~ + 1;1 from the house from the garden
mi+ habayit > mehabayit mi+ hagina> mehagina
n?:;.ttll';;l < n?~iJ + 1;1 n~~D~ < n~~D + ~
Note
This rule seems to be observed tor the most part in daily speech. However, one can also hear the vowel i maintained even before gutturals and definite articles. Normative Colloquial Colloquial Normative 'Qz::
·n~~
10.3.3 Prefixed to nouns with definite articles When the prepositions-~.-~ ,-:J combine with the definite article, the •n is omitted, but the a vowel that is part of the definite article remains: be+ha, le+ha, ke+ha- ba, Ia, ka, respectively. Following the preposition -1:), which as note above is an abbreviation of the independent word preposition w, the definite article remains in its entirety: mi+ha ---+ meha.
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Exam[!les
at home to the movies for the family as (the) usual from the sea
babayit lakolnoa lamishpana karagil mehayam
n~::J::J
~il1iP~
i1Q~~~~ ,~~'J? O~D~
in/at the to the for the as the from the
-:J!::J -{~
;>!:;) -m;~
10.3.4 One-word prepositions Many prepositions consist of independent words, and pronoun suffixes can be added to them.
Here is a list of some of these prepositions: from about w against after ~~ to, toward around -:1~:;19 ,~ until, up to at ,~ on, about direct object marker next to between, among 1~-?~ with 0)1 without ,~ of, belonging to before through below, under nolJ by
ni1iN (~)'JQ~ ,~
'-¥~
-nz:yru:':( 1~::).
~~;t
'~!;'~
1TJ n~Y.l
Exam12les
They were left without bread or water. Dan is confused between right and left. The movie is based on the book by Amos Oz. The book is Jn:: Amos Oz.
.om,
on?~
11N'Vl on .?N~IlJ, 1~~, ~ ?:l?:lnY.l)1 ']llJ
,.,!)tl
~ t;lt;I1J,)'j .n~
\J10i1 om}l
.ll}l om}l nNY.l Nm 1!lOi1
10.3.5 Complex prepositions Many prepositions consist of a combination of a prefix preposition (see above), which is combined with either nouns or other prepositions. They become one word and form a new entity. Pronoun suffixes can be added to them.
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Chapter 10: Particles
Here is a list of some of these prepositions: in contrast with n~w~ while, as long as as (+ noun) 1i1'1~ inside 1'11:\l;IY,l for below above ~~Y.l for opposite because of j~~Y,l behind in front of ''Jin~Y.'l facing ~~~Y,l instead of
il~it
li1'1:;t ~':;t"<J~ 1~J.W1~J.~~
~~p
'~~!;JY,l oip~:;l
Examples
Two well-known architects stood behind (supported) the project. Behind them was the support of two known banks. As opposed to some other cities, Rome is a progressive city. The safe is inside the room. Inside it are documents.
liJ'JY D'Yl1' O'"l'"':nN 'l'l.l ."pnn!:Jn '1lmm 'lYJ ~YJ n:>'tJ1'1 nnnn on'1nNJ'J
. Ol).Jli' Cl'jJ)J. 1'l' N'i1 NtJn ,m1nN D'1Y rltJl)J~ .nn1pn1'J .11nn J11'1J. n!lo:>n .Ol:IJ'JOJ'J 'l.l' il:ll1'1J.
Complex prepositions followed by prefixes Many prepositions consist of a combination of prepositions, nouns, or adverbs that are followed by the monosyllabic prepositional prefixes, usually -J'J .-~. Here is a list of some of these prepositions:
beneath, below before against, tacing excluding
-~ 1'11:\l;IY,l
-~
D'JiP
-~ 1W;J -}'J
'{m , -~ '<m>;l
aside from across around above, over
-n '{m -~ 1~V,Q -~ J.':;tV(J'J) -']']~~
Examples
The construction continued for over seven years. Aside from the soup, Dan ate everything. Across the road was a shopping center. Around the building there were tall trees and wide lawns.
O'illJ.l D'~Y Pn )ll)J.J J.'JOJ'J .mJ.n1l mN'l.I11'Jl
Chapter 10: Particles
233
10.3.6 Prepositions with pronoun suffixes Here are some of the prepositions with pronoun suffixes. Notice that most of them have an ending similar to the endings added to those suffixed to singular nouns (Set A), and some have the same endings as those suffixed to plural nouns (Set B). Not all prepositions are included in the tables below. SetA Pronoun suffixes attached to prepositions (Shape ofpossessive pronoun s~ffixes attached to singular nouns) -~
-~
~,
in
to
of
'::;t
'~
'':?~
'ttiN
'lN
1;t
'P.
1'?~
1~
1~
,~~
']J;llN J:l)iN
t7f'IN f'IN Nm
,~
Direct Object
i.!l
1~
i~~
i'9
i'l~
i'l~~
in iN i1tJiN
')~
~)~
~)~~
lltJiN
~JnJN
0~~
Df'IN JnN
"''"
0~~
0~~~
**O~J;l~
r;'~
H~
p~~
··p~~
OQ~
OQ~
Oi)~~
on
1i)~
1v?
1D~~
OJ;!iN WiN
'"
_,,,
)'~'41~
0).1
(11~) 0).1
)¥~
across from
from
for
with
with
Jtl
,~~):)
'~~~
'~':;1'?':;1
'J';l~
'l:l~
'~~~
v.~~
11?~
'J~':;t'?'::;t
'J'?~
l:J:'l~
']~~~
*l~m
*1~~
*TI'.+'?':;I
19~
1{11-(
.,~~~
i~lD
~'"
m~Y,)
i'J':;l\1':;1
lr,)~
i!l~
i'J~~
i'l?~~
i'l~9~
i'l~':;t'?':;t
i'l9~
i'll;l~
i'l~;;tt<
~l?.m
~)J!l~~
*U?.':;t'?':;l
ll~)l
lltJ~
·u?.~~
cu~m
0~~,~
0~~
O:JJ':JVJ::l '·': . :.
0~~)1
0~~~
o~~~t<
p~l~
1~~
1~~':;t'?':;l
1;>'iJ)I
PJ;~~
1~~~~
O?l~
OQ~
O~':;t'?':;l
0~~
0{11-(
o?~~
1?1~
1i)~
1?':;1'1':;1
1~}.1
){l~
1?¥~
Chapter 10: Particles
234
Note
* Notice change from a to e in the prepositions )t.J, ~:::IN and ~':::1\!.J:::t.
"'* The second person plural forms of the direct object pronoun change their stem from -niN ot- in the other forms to the -n~ et- of the independent tbnn. The preposition 'with' has two sets of inflected prepositions: one is derived from the biblical torm -nN, and the other from the alternate preposition O).l. The paradigm i'l~).l ,iO).I 1~).1 ,J~).I ,'~}.' is used in the higher registers of Hebrew. In everyday speech, the alternate paradigm r!l;l~ ,in~ ,ll;l~ ,JT;I~ ,'J:l~ is the one commonly used. The independent form of the preposition is always 0).1. Historically, there were two different prepositions with the meaning of 'from'. One was derived from the preposition n~~. and the other from the preposition V',). )!Dl;l~~ ,yO~J;I~t,;l 1 ~)l;l~~
VOQY,.l ,VO~I;l ,(U~I;l) Ul;l~~
i'll;l~~ ,in~:<~.1tl~~ ,JJ;l~~ ,'tl~l;;l
!!.1iQ
u~l;l ,;q~~;:~ .w~ ,J~l',) .'~~~;:~
.m.
In contemporary use, the stem of ))',) is used in most of the forms, and it has a couple of separate sub-stems, ,-)9Y,) and ~/l;l (in both cases, the 1) of 1Y.l is fully assimilated). The n~~ forms are rarely used, except tor ~)])~~' which is used more frequently than l~~Y,l, most likely because this form of first person plural is identical to the third person singular, masculine. SetB Pronoun suffixes attached to prepositions (Shape ofpossessive pronoun sujflxes attached to plural nouns) ,,~~
''P. ~~
~!I
~1!'
without
Qy
on/about
toward
'J~?:}.
'J~ J~
'~~
J'J).I?:;t
1'1? ~~
J''?~
'~l:':t J'~l:':t
1~J~'?:;t
')?1?~~
')'~~).'
j'?~l:':t
l'JY.'?:;t D'':P!':?:;t
''1? '~
l'?Y.
P{l:':t
D''J? ~~
D'?).J
D'~l:':t
~PJY.{:;t
~)''P. ~~
))'>'.:;!)!
U'';?~::t
o:rr~'?:;t
D?'J? ,~
0?''2~
0?''2~
1?'1~'?:;1
1?'1~ ~~
)?'~~
1?'7.~
o;:PJ~'?:;t
Di)''P, ~~ W'J? ~~
O~P'.:;!~
Di)'~~
'JN i117N J7N Nm N'i1 VnJN DJ7N ]f1N Di7
1i)'7.~
W''?.~
71i
W''J~'?:;~
Chapter 10: Particles
235
~~~
f'lt:lt'l~
f'll"MM
,,,n~"
above
below
about
behind
~~~'J
'JJl1iN
''Jin~tJ
·p~iiiN
1'Jin~r.;l
'J~'? 1'?~~
J?JJiiiN )'tliiii'C
l?Jin~p~
1?~!}~
'''Jin~t.;l
1'~.1}~
o:;p~~l?
'tlt;'ltiY,l 1't'n.lJY,l 1?3Jt;'I.DY,l '':J;lf;llJY,l iJ't;lt;\tiY,l U'r:tf;llJY,l D?'r:tn,tiY,l
P'':.?~Y.l
1~'r:tt;l.DY,l
Oi:J'':.?l!Y.l vr?~Y.l
DQ'r:tf;ll3Y,l
1'~~'J 1?~~1? P~)}'J
D'~)}Y.l
U'':.?Y.Y.l
)Q'~t;l~Y,l
'~~!? before
D'~i1iN
D'Jin~tJ
D'~!}'?
~)'tJiiiN
U'1it1Nt.)
~)'~~'?
D;]'Di'liN 1?'DliiN OQ')JliiN 1l)'tliiiN
O?''Jin~r,;l
D?').~~
P'Jin~Y.l
P'~~~
OQ'Jin~r:;l
D;:J'~~~
1Q''Jin~Y,l
1()'~!?~
00
-:
-
Note
Normally the prepos1t1on 'without' in its independent form is '~J., followed by a noun, as in m1pn '~J. 'without hope', but it uses the variant independent form -''TY?J. when a pronoun suffix is attached to it, as in J''TY~J. 'without you'. Look for vowel changes in the stem of many of the second and third person plural forms, which take place because of the shill of stress to the last syllable. David's parents did not hear about us, but we heard about them. We stood in line ahead of them, and ahead of us stood many others. Everything was made possible ]2y them, since they stood behind him and supported all his etlorts.
?J.N ,))'?Y wn'l! N~ ,,.., ?v 0'1mn .Oil'?~ ))).ln\!J ))f)) I'( )1~).1
))))!)?)
11nJ. ))it.))J .O''lJ)N i1J.1i11W
,Oil~l!)?
on '::l,Dil'i~ ?y 1'lJ!)Nnn ?::Jn .P~~I'Ct.) ?JJ. )Jt.)lll P11nN~ 1i~Y
10.3.7 Prepositions with nouns, adjectives, and verbs Prepositions are sometimes so tirmly wedded to other words that they have practically become idiomatic expressions. This occurs in three categories: nouns, adjectives, and verbs. Although the former two are usually verb-related, they will be introduced tirst, before we embark on a fuller discussion of verb-and-preposition collocations.
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236
Nouns and prepositions If a noun and a verb share the same root and semantic features, they often take the same preposition. For instance, the noun n~m~ 'belief shares the same root and base meaning with the verb -::J. )'Y.l~iJ~ 'to believe (in)'. The preposition follows the noun as well as the related verb and links the object to either one. Here is a list of nouns with prepositions that link the objects to them: Noun
belief in success in expertise in devotion to voting tor
-::1
n.m.JN " ~·:
-.=~ nn.~¥iJ -::1 -~
mnY.lJ;lD
m1,nnn - . :
~
i~:;t ii~9~D
Verb believe in succeed in specialize in devote self to vote for
-::1 )'Y,l~i)~
-.J tl'~¥iJ~
- ::~. l'1inY.lJ;11J~ -~ 1\?~~D? ,~~ ~':;1¥iJ?
Adjectives and participles with prepositions An adjective derived from a verb usually takes the same preposition as the verb. Here is a list of adjectives and participles with prepositions that link the objects to them: Adjective Verb be interested in interested in -::1 )?~UIJ;> -::1 1~~~J;liJ~ -~ ,~.'tl~ get married to married to -~ N'VJ~D~ proud of he proud of -::l n~~ -::J l'1iN~J;liJ~ similar to -~ i1Qi1 he similar to -~ l'1iY.l;TD? belonging to belong to -~ 1?~ -~ l~J::I~lJ~ confident in trust in -::11)'"~~ -::11)~"~ Ruth's daughter is so much like her mother. These books don't belong to us. He is so sure of himself.
NY.lN~ nnn p ............----
~' m1 'J'tl !1J.i1 .i1~'tl
.1)'J 0':::1"'1!.1 N? i1'::1Nil 0'1!),i1 . 'O~Y:J m":J
p
~::_, N1i1
Verbs and prepositions Some transitive verbs are followed directly by a direct object, and some are linked to their object by certain obligatory prepositions.
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Chapter 10: Particles
A comparative note There is no predictable equivalence between the combination of verbs and prepositions in Hebrew and their equivalents in English. This is a nearly arbitrary feature that must be learned. trust in be proud of fall in love with damage, hurt part from be impressed by retire from/ leave be excited by approach accompany intend, refer tum to, address
-:1 1'\\;)~
-::J. m~ql;)ry -:~ J.i)~:J;'ID
-:l
-t.J
Y~!)
i'J~~
-t.J ?V~.J;'ID -Y.l 'OJ~
-t.J
.,~,m
give up rely on think about overcome
~~l~V .,~ ::1~0 .,~ ,~~J;'ln
-'J ~'1~D
bother need yearn for become
_., PtrT!D -'J ppin~;:~ -~ l!;;IQ
'l'nJ;"~n
?l:;( J'Ji?:J;'ID ~~ il)~J;lD
~~ 1~~J;1;:l
~~ n~~
It is difficult to accept the situation. Don't bother us! We are busy. We are overcoming the difficulties. Dan married Dana. Don't come near us!
o~ D'~~n
accept confront argue with marry
OY. i'Jit.JJ;lD o~ tl~ll;!D 0).1
lf:l0l;1D
.:a!lon m1 D'~'lln'J n'llp .D'iJ10Y 1lnlN !1l., ).1'1.!m 'JN
.D'''lljJil 2l! D'1Jl110 1JnlN .m1 Ol' mnnn )i ! Ul'JN 1:11j7lll1 ~N
One verb with several prepositional phrases'It is possible for one verb to occur in a sentence with the several prepositions that link it to its different objects. Each of the objects has a different function in the sentence. We did not agree with David about D'1'non ~Y •n ~ ur.~:mn N~ ili):ll'il llY~il::l the prices in his work proposal. We demonstrated with the workers against the closing of the plant. The teacher spoke with the students about the material that will be on the test.
.,.,'ll
23S
Chapter /0:
Particle.~
Meaning - combined verbs and prepositions The meanings of some verbs arc determined by the combination of those verbs with different prepositions and o~jects. Here are some examples of how verbs' meanings can be determined by the preposition that follows them. In most cases the meanings arc related but not identical: l1~0i1 ~N ll~~~ go to the otlicc go to (visit) friends 0'1:Jn7 :n~l'J take tests il)>!)J.
turn right at the corner address someone tum to the mayor (for advice, help)
1il'V'0 JN :Tnl!lJ 1>Yi1 'VN1 JN J"nl!lJ
It all depends on your decision. The laundry is hanging on the line in the yard. contact the committee members get in touch by phone become attached to friends
bring the books to the library bring about good results point at someone vote for someone agree/concur with the expressed opinions consent/comply with the parents not to go out alone late at night
-l''V n\J~mn:a ''~n ~::m .1.sn::1 'J:Jnn 'JY i1'1J:n no>:J.::m
1Ym >1::1n 'JN 1\!lpnn'J n>J)!l'J\Jt)'!lJ\J:J.
1~pnn~
0'1:J.n'J 1'llp:nn7
visit/pay a visit to relatives visit in/go to see all the museums in town rely on experts' opinions support the falling wan
il)lY.)) J11)!)~
nn!lYJO ':J.11P 1pJ.'J
-,>y:J. o>J1N'nnn 'JJ:J 1jJJ.'J
cmmn 'J~ nw1 JV110tJ'J
.....
\J\J10ll0il 1'Pi1 llN lll:ltJ'J i1>1!ltJJ 0'1!l0i1 llN N>:Ji1J mJm mN.sm'J N>:Jn'J m'll>n 'JY Y'J.::m'J mvm 1:,.1:::1 Y'J~n'J
llN:::IJ NJ 0'11ilil 0:,.1 O>Jt)ilJ J.1Y::J. 1mNo n'J
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239
10.3.8 Prepositions in context As mentioned above, the choice of prepositions is determined by a number of factors, including the type of link being provided. the relationship between the items, and prescribed prepositions for time and location. As in English, certain verbs are followed by certain prepositions that give them their full meaning. Here arc examples of verbs followed by prepositions in Hebrew, while the English takes no preposition before the object. He approached us. Do the children bother you? It is necessary to accept the situation.
. ll'JN .l1f.'11il Nlil
!W D'Y'1!:1tJ 0'l'::l'i1 ..l~Y.lil 0)1 0''::1'lli1'::11'i~
The preposition of possession 'J"" The preposition ';I~ is used exclusively in expressions of possession. Singular n~~
i'zl~
1~~
her/s
his
your/s
1~~ your/s
'~~ my/mine
Plural Vi?~
Di)~'?,'
)~~'?,'
D?~~
~l~¥'
their/s
their/s
your/s
your/s
our/s
Locators of place and time Many prepositional phrases serve to specify space or time. Space
Time
In every place, in the sea, on land or in the air, there is a way to communicate. I am tree at any time, in the morning or the evening.
lN n'l.l.l':J ,D':l , mpY.l '::I:~:J
.1'l.IP 11~''::1111 'll' ,l',N:J )N lf.'1J:l ,illl'll .,:1:::1 '1)!) 'lN
.:J1)JJ.
Prepositions of Location: in, at, and on ·:J. The most common preposition that indicates location is the prefix -~. It can be translated as 'in' or 'at' and at times by 'on' or ;by '(a mode of transportation).
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Chapter 10: Particles
in/at/by
He sleeps in his bed. She is staying at home today. There is no smoking on the plane. Will you be traveling Qy_ train or Qy bus?
.1'::1\!.1 m.J'oa W'' Nm . OWl Tl':Ja 1"11N\!.Il N'il
. tm:m;! 1'0~'::1 11oN !01:11\JlN;! lN. Tll:J1_a WO'n
.,JI
Prepositions of location: on The preposition of location 'on' '::ll' indicates being on or on top of a specific surface. (Tt also functions as a preposition that indicates the content of some transmitted message: the story is about his childhood. Obviously, in this particular instance it docs not indicate location. Several prepositions have more than one function and meaning). on (a surlace)
The blanket is on the sofa. The clothes are on the floor. The coat is on the chair. The notebook is on the desk.
"ll.l . il!l0i1 ';I)I iJ:Jl~'lJil
.n!l::n n
~l' O'll:In
.Kti~:Jil
';:ly ';:ll)IOil
.)n';:l1\!.ln '::Ill n1Jnr.m
Prepositions of time: at, and on -~ As in prepositions of location, the most common preposition that indicates time is the prefix -:1. It can be translated into English as "in', "at', and at times by 'on', or is absent in Engl~h. at, on, by
He arrived at seven in the evening. He arrived on time. There were elections last year.
·:l.
.:11)1:1 )!J.\!)J, )Jl),iJ N.lil .)~~:!,
)ll)iJ N.lil
.i11:l)J\!) il)'lJ::l n11'il:l Pil
In some words the concept of time is inherent, and therefore there is no need for a preposition at all. Yesterday was Dan's birthday. Now is the time for many changes. This year there are interesting programs.
.~u.Jn N nm m1 '::l\!.1 n1'::1mn 01' . D''U''l.l n:11n'::l 1~m >Jlli11l'l-t~Y .nl)"))J.O l"ll' l:Jln
\!)l
i1J'l.li1
Preposition of direction -'11'11$. The preposition '::ll:;V-'::1 signifies an orientation toward a goal or a destination. It usually follows verbs of movement.
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241
Directional: to/into/toward
Dina went up to the third floor. The sand washed into the water. The group made progress toward the goal.
tPVP7\!m nmpn 7N nn7).J i1Y'1 .(n)\!.n?vm nmp.2, 1Nl .o)nn 7N ')nto 7mn
When the destination is a full noun, the preposition -7 may often be used as well: Goal: noun phrase
David returned to his house. However, if the destination is a pronoun, only Jl:;( is allowed: Goal: expressed by pronoun. David left his family last year, ?:IN ,iJ1:l).JYJ mYJ:l mn!l\!m nN Ji).J 1n but he returned to them this year. .mYJn on)7N 1tn Nm The preposition 1Y,> or its abbreviated version -n signifies movement or orientation from a goal or a destination. It usually follows verbs of movement, but can also follow nouns. ( Directional: from
Dina went out of the house. This is the road from Tel Aviv to Haifa.
.n':liiY.l
nN~)
m)-r
.n!l'n' J'JN-7n.Q. ll1n mn
The preposition of location/position: ~~~ The preposition 7~~ can be roughly translated as 'at (somebody's place)'. It implies that the object is a person, and the location- which is associated with the person- is understood and can be further specified. It is similar to the French preposition chez, which also signifies someone's place (of residence or work). For instance, the phrase 'at David's' is conveyed by 111 7~N, which can be further expanded by 1lYJY.)J. -rn J~N 'at David's office', or !1):1:1 111 7~N 'at David's home'.
Notice that the prepositions -)!:;( and -7-¥~ are complementary. While both convey a location or a destination associated with a person, they follow different types of verbs: 7~ follows directional verbs, whereas )~!::{ accompanies situational or stative verbs.
242
Chapler 10: Particles
Directional
We went to their place for a short visit. Locational
We were at their place for three days. Prepositions following verbs expressing stationary position Verbs of stationary position indicate a continuous position with no change in motion. .11~\J\!.Ii"! J)J :J.\!.11, ':11nnn The cat is sitting on the rug. .1'n1 i1\Vr.:l~ N~):)) N!:l11i1 The doctor is in his office. My relatives are at my parents'. .,7\!.1 o,1mn 7~N 'JV O':J.npn
Some verbs of motion indicate a continuous, almost always circular movement, within a specific location: The cat is running around in the yard. The children are roaming in our .il)):>IV:J. neighborhood. .1l)JJ. O,~m\Jn 'J\!.1 Dl:J. )1f.'i1 My relatives are walking around towh. However, most verbs of motion indicate a movement toward another location: The cat ran away to the neighbors. . pvn 7N 111:J. 7mnn The children went to the beach. . o~2. 1:>7n D'iJm My relatives drove to the new mall. Cause and effect ref ati o ns hip Prepositions, as well as verbs, convey either the completion of an action, or the point or the position of the subject as a result of that action. This distinction helps us understand how directional and locative prepositions are related: they stand in the relationship of cause and effect. Verbs of movement: cause He jumped into the pool. She fell into the water. They drove to the mall. Dan went to his relatives. They came to us.
.n:>'1:J.2. '
·l1')P2 1)Jt1l on .1':1v D'.Jnpn 7N J~m 11 . ))lJN 'N:J. on
Chapter 10: Particles
243
Position of subject: effect He is ~the pool. She is in the water. Dan was f!! his relatives. They were at our place.
.ilJ)1:1.;! Nlil .Om;! N)il .l?'l.l o)J.npil ?~l'C il)il )I .UJ~l'C Pil Oil
10.3.9 Prepositions expressing relational position In relation to object: inside (of) lin~. into lin~ He entered into (inside) the building. .1nnn JmJ O)J) Nlil He is sitting inside the Jacuzzi. .)l1P'lil]l!lJ. J.'l.IP Nlil .iliJ1lr.lil Jl!lJ. Q)JY.:l)).l Oil They are standing inside the fountain.
In relation to object: outside (of) "l ymn He is standing outside the building. He is silting beside the pool. They are standing outside the restaurant. ·~ In relation to object: in front (of)·~~~/ In front of me I sec mountains. ln front of the house there is a garden. The library is in front of the Physics Bldg. In relation to object: behind The pool is behind the house. We live behind the store. I am standing behind him.
.,nnz 'im~ -rm~ Nm .ilJ'1:17 xm~ J.'l.IP Nm . il1).10~J 'On~ 0)1Y.JW Oil
·~~~Y,I
.D'1il ilNn ')N ~
.m') 'l.l' n'::Jil ~
'1in~~
.!PJ.il
)1lnl'C~
il::l'1:lil
.nunil )1lf1NY.J 0'1) unm .1'1lnND 1DW 'JN
In relation to object: across from/facing -'l 'lmr,~/"lm Our office is exactly across from you. .o:J?mD ppn u?'l.l 11'l.IY.Jil Facing the house is a big park. .Jn) p1N!:J 'lJ) m::12. ?m~ It's not on this side- it is across the way. .7m~ m mil 1~:::1 N7 m In relation to object: next to "T~ 'llcl' Who lives next to you? The movie theater is next lo lhe bookstore. There is a restaurant next to the hotel.
?OJ1' 7~ . 0'1!:10il
1)
'~
mm 1' 7~ ~u?1pn
.11J~il 1)
J).t il1).10~ 'l.l'
244
Chapter I 0: Particles
10.4 Prepositional phrases or adverbs? By det1nition, prepositions link to nominal entities (nouns, noun phrases or pronouns), whereas adverbs, which modify verbs, adjectives, other adverbs, or sentences, do not. The difference can best be demonstrated by comparing forms that originated from the fusion of prepositions and nouns into derived 'atomic' adverbs of location, with prepositional phrases in which similar forms function as prepositions linking to a following noun or a noun phrase: Prep Phrase Adverb Prep Phrase Adverb Prep Phrase Adverb Prep Phrase Adverb
They are standing outside the house. They are standing outside. He is inside the building. He is inside. The office is under the residential floor. The office is downstairs. The store is exactly above the suQermarket. The store is upstairs, on the second tloor.
.n,:::~~
'1ln)J OlltJW on .'nn:::~
o,JOl).J on
.)"):ln 1m:::1 Nln .OlJ!l::l N~O) Nln l'l)Jlp':? nnmJ i1YJOn .Ol1UY.ln . mm~ N~m J1YJOn ':?>10 pl,i:l mmn . "P101~lt1~ nmp:1 , n7>~o~ mmn .nn)YJTl
Because the fonns in the left column are prepositions, they must be followed by a nominal entity, personal pronouns included (e.g. ,l:::>m::l PJ).JO). The borderline between prepositions and adverbs, however, is not always clear. Below are two particles, 1W'?=il and liY:;t, that are regarded as adverbs by some, but at the same time function as prepositions.
10.4.1 Prepositions of duration: for/during/while l~Q~ The preposition 1"'9;t 'during' is a preposition that refers to duration of time. for/during
During school, he also worked. For four years, the family lived in the South.
1~l';l~
.1:::1).1 0) Nln ,Oll)Ol';m JY.IO:J
m:l nn!lYJon Ol)YJ Y::l,N JYJO::l .Ol,i::l
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245
10.4.2 Preposition 'In + time unit' "Till~ The preposition 1il'~ 'in (a certain amount of time)', which is always followed by a time phrase, indicates an expectation of a period of time in the future. in + time unit ·~ 'Till~ He will meet us in an hour. . il)l\!.11))1::1 ll!nN \!.lll!::Jl Nlil School will end in a week. .)1)::1\!.1:> iW::l m"l'lt'' O'i1tl~~m An Iranian delegation will undertake a historical visit the United States in a few weeks.
iiJJ:> 11)!J. N~J'l J'l~)Ni'N nnJ\l.IJJ ~imt''i1 "P'::IJ m>!,::l\!J
.::111 iliN.J.
10.4.3 Combination of prepositions "Tll -l'l 'from-until/up to' These prepositions indicate an ongoing time period that started or is to start at a given time and wil11ast till a specific time. The preposition ~~ 'until' can be preceded by a conjunction 1~1 'and until'. When it introduces a clause it is linked to it by the relative particle -w. from - until/up to
"Tll-
n
We waited for you from seven till midnight. Where were you?
i1!l'N .m~n 1Y li.J.\!JQ , , lPJn
Dr. Wolfworks from 9 a.m. ti11 1 p.m. at his office, and from 4 p.m. till 10 p.m. he works at the hospital.
1>! 1P)J.J. >l\!Jl1.!2 iJW C)Jn 1 11 1
?J'l"il
,' \!!
11\!JJJ:l O""lm~.J. nnN l'll.J..J. 1.J.W N)il 1\!Jll 1)! liJiN)2) .o,?mn
Attorney Ayalon worked on this case from the beginning of this year and until she completed her obligation a week ago.
P'l1i1 ?ll i11.J.>l 1''"N 1'1il l'lJI))!
m nNm m\!Jn n?,nnQ mn
~l!l' il1'p!ln TIN i1JJ"t' N'il~
.)I)J.\!J
10.5 Coordinating conjunctions A coordinating conjunction links words, phrases, or clauses. Coordinating conjunctions join single words, or they may join groups of words, but they must always join similar elements: e.g., noun + noun, verb phrase + verb phrase, sentence + sentence.
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246
Coordinating conjunctions
_,
and or
if
'1
but, however; too, also however only except, but indeed, surely indeed, in truth and however because Notes on the conjunction
iN 01:<
-1
o~,C'J~
1~ .~::~ 1~ ,j7)
N?~ 1;>~
0~'?~
~'z:<J ':;>
and the vowels attached to it:
The conjunction -1 is pronounced ve- in most cases, and in everyday speech in virtually all cases, except for set expressions. ln normative Hebrew, however, the following rules apply: • -1 is pronounced ve- in most cases, but before the consonants !l/9 ,o ,, ,:::1/:J it is pronounced u. Example: hayit umishpakha nn!l\!Jm 1l':l • -1 is pronounced u also before a consonant cluster or before any shva vowel. Example: drom ut.~f(m tel aviv :l':!N-J1l11!l~~ oni Example: hi tavo utedaber itkhem o:mN 1:liJ;l~ N1:J1l Nm • -1 is pronounced vi- before the consonant '' with a shva (the shva and they are elided). O'J\!J11'' :l':JN-J1l Example: telaviv virushalayim • _,is pronounced with a vowel that echoes a following nataf Examples: limudim va 'avoda ni1:ll/J 0'i1~'' 'emet ve 'emuna • _, is pronounced va- before a stressed vowel. Examples: lm:ftor vqferan n1!l)111l!l:J bayitvagan 1l~ 1l'J The various coordinative conjunctions not only coordinate units in the sentence, but also set these units in a special relationship to one another.
Chapter 10: Particles
247
Noun+ noun Inclusion:
We have season tickets to the theater ·~ and the opera.
)l1t>N'J1J] mr.J-'U'\.J1:J lJ., ~n .(i11!llNJ}
Exclusion:
We have season tickets only to the theater but not to the opera.
2J.] 'l)r.J 'U't>1:J U? IV' .[n1!llN? NJl 111\:>N'J'l.,
Verb+ verb Inclusion:
Dan walks to work and runs after work.
'1nN ~11 nn::t~? ?:11::1 1?m ,, .ilil:IYi1
Exclusion:
Dan walks but docs not run. Sentence + sentence Neutral:
Dan wanted to sit in the balcony, and Dina wanted to sit in the orchestra.
nn~n n.l'i} .~'~'J. J1J.~V? n~1 ,,
.OJlNJ. 11::1 IVJ
Differing attitudes:
Dan wanted to go, but/however Dina wanted to stay home.
n.l'i ,.,,Nli?J.N ,n:J?? n~1 ,,
.31'::1::1 1NIV'i1J i1Tl::t1
Inclusion:
Dan wanted to sit in the balcony, and Dina also wanted to sit there.
i1Pi Oll ,).1':::1'::1 J1J.IVJ i1:::11 1i .o~V n:~~V? nn~1
£!Y!!.: Dan bought tickets for Dina, because she too wanted to go to the show.
'=> ,m,,
J'J.IVJ. 0'U'tJ1::>
mp ,,
. m::tn? n::>?? nn::t1 N'il o:~
10.5.1 Correlative conjunctions Correlative conjunctions are used in pairs. Like the coordinate conjunctions they join similar elements. When joining singular and plural subjects, the subject closest to the verb detennines whether the verb is singular or plural. Both:
Both my brother and my sister play the guitar.
Ol)l.lr.J ;mnN Oll 'nN 0)
.i111J'U
Chapter 10: Particles
248
Either/or:
You have a choice: either lo sit at home, or to go with us to visit Shlomit.
n'::I::t n::tVJ? lN- il1'1:J o:>~ VJ' .1l'):)l~VJ J"'N 1P:J7 UJ"''N N1:::17 lN
Not only but also:
Not only my brother, but also my father plays basketball.
pnVJ):) '.lN 0) NJN 'nN jJ1 NJ .~u1n:>
Two nouns in opposition:
Dan told Rina to buy tickets not in the orchestra but only in the balcony.
,O't:'''1:>1:l J"'Uj7J m'17 1):)N )l .)1'~':::1 NJN ,07lN:J NJ
Two verbs In opposition:
Dan does not drive but rather walks. Opposition:
Dina really wanted to take a taxi, however Dan wanted to walk.
,J"''llr.l:J )llt:'l? nmn m'l omlN .?l1::I n::>?? n~1
11 ?.lN
Condition + result:
lfyou really insist, then we'll all walk to the theater.
lN , p J)l O'lm)l OJ"'N pN ON ..VlJ?rp? 7n::t 17J u?t::>
10.6 Subordinators Subordinators (subordinating conjunctions) arc essential in introducing subordinating clauses. Some of them are adverbs that act like conjunctions, and all are placed at the front of the clause. The subordinate clause can come either before or after the main c1ause. Subordinators are usually single words, but there are also a number of multi-word subordinators that function like a single subordinating conjunction. They can be classified according to their use in regard to time, cause and effect, opposition, or condition. Subordinators
that/which that/which that + object complement clause after + clause since/because + clause
-w 1"(1~
-'I;' I':;> -'~;' ''JO~
-w '~~~~-w 1P~I;) -~ Ql\!,11;)/
while in spite of/that + clause
-~·';)/1'p,~il
-~ J"'i1~2
249
Chapter 10: Particles
'~ owe~ ~''~~ "ll::t ,~
even though
-~ '$ ,~ "Jl::t!-~
instead of+ clause while + clause as long as + clause before + clause in order that if (condition) it/if not (condition)
-~ oipyt~ -~ 1i~~ -~ iil' ,~
-VJ '>.~':? -~ ll~'? '~'-w 'J;> 0~
N~~~m';J
He said that they were not coming. It was reported that the thieves who
were caught were children. We'll eat after the concert is over. Since we are going out this evening, we can't meet.
N., 1 :J.1~i1 D'N::I1' umNv )))'::>n .'lll.!:l'i1? 7:m ))J:JN I ,,~:I U"11'li:J/1'liN:J
While we were in town, we ate at the Indian restaurant. Even though you think so, it's not true. In spite of the fact that we have already seen the movie, we are ready to see it again.
.l1'1mn NJ
nt ,p
n;~on.l
J1:J.'ll1n J1N ON lJ'.!:lN .)):J)
,\.no;, nN 1.l:> 1)'N1'll m1n., .:J.1'll 1n1N lllN1J D"Dln
)Jn)N
Instead of everyone coming at six, we'll ask some to come at eight.
\!Jp:n I \!J\!J.l lNl.l' o?l:J\!J D1PI'Jl
As long as he is not about to change his mind, we won't help him.
,m~; nN m\!Jn N? Nm\!J 1w 7:>
.nnnv:J. N1:J.'J ill'Dl'J
.17 1H~J NJ
250
Chapter 10: Particles
10.7 Exclamation particles
ilH.,jl
n•-,•n
Exclamation particles are special words that serve to emphasize a statement. They arc used as declamatory devices, to call attention to statements being made or to express surprise. There are two main exclamation particles: !i1Jn t'"'li1 They arc both used mostly in the more formal register, particularly when the pronoun suffixes arc added.
1. Behold! Here, here isl !il~~ This particle is used mostly to point at something that is in near proximity: !3'1l:m mn !<'J1t1 ,<')1t1 Finally! Here is the house! It can also be used to point at an object/person in a particular situation: )'N) - '1:liY.li1 Y~):)N:l - ))tl)N .1:lli!} And here we arc - in the middle of the desert with no living soul around.
2. Why (for emphasis); indeed!; you see 1'}l) This particle is used mostly for emphasis: .JWm\!J "'l:::J.i):) i'l:m Nm .!:lil Why, he always talks nonsense. But you have been told what to do.
.m\!JYJ
no o:J7 n'::JtJi1'1::I:J !.lU
Both these particles can have personal pronoun suftlx subjects added to them. They are usually used in the higher, more formal language registers and in classical literature. il~~ with personal pronouns Here Tam ')N nm = 'PD Here you are nnN mn = 'HD Here you are nN mn = 1~D Here he is Nli1 mn = i)D Here she is Nmmn = n~D Here we are umN mn = ~)~D Here you are onN nm = o~~D Here you are )nN mn = p~D Here they are on mn = O~D Here they are )n mn = ~D
Chapter 10: Particles
Example from Biblical Hebrew: And he said unto him, ''Abraham", and he said: "Here I am" (Genesis 22: 1). Examples from medical literature: The examination of blood pressure is a routine examination. Example from legal literature: Since I am over II 0 years of age, an Israeli citizen and since I am of sound mind ...
251
.~nn 'l~N-~l
OiJJ~~ , ,,?~ 1ltl'.f~l
(N
np''TJ.
::n n•\!INl::l.)
mn 01 ~n7 nj7'1:J .TI'TI'l:l\!1
nm:l\!1 ''ln n7Yn7 'J:'Im 7'Nm )lN)j"J) ':1N1\!J' n'llN ,O'JI!J i11\!JY • •• I
'1'1Y1J ''i'I!J .!W:!'
•Jl) with personal pronouns I am indeed 'JN ''ln = '~'Jt) You are indeed i1TIN ''ln = Jl'JL) You are indeed TIN ''ln = 'J'JQ He is indeed Nm '1n = ~n'JO She is indeed N'il '1n = 'i:'PJQ We are indeed ~JmN ''ln = ~)'JO You are indeed onN ''ln = O?'JQ You are indeed )TIN '1n = P'JQ They arc indeed on ''ln - OQ'JD They are indeed )n ''ln = 1Q''JO Examples from rabbinic literature: The emperor heard the lady of the house anxiously asking her husband: ''Nevertheless, he is indeed but a human being!"
31':Jn-317Y::t 31N 'lU'Pil }1):)\!J -':1::>J" : n7Y~ TIN \!1\!JnJ n7N1\!J 11 ! 01N
m'lil ,TINt
,1':1 TII!J1,pn ')'1i1 ,,, n1nN . j"J\!JlN7 1':1 '.lN
She said to him, "I am hereby consecrated to you, for I am hereby a wife to you". Example from a contract:
,,n
1 hereby promise to pay the full tuition for the summer course/s for which I have registered.
N1~m nN o?\!!':1 TIIJ"n31n ~
'IU11p 11J~ 11r.J'Ji1 'l::l\!1 .mb\!J'lJ on'7N ~'i'n 'l\:)U):)'U
Chapter 11 Noun phrases 11. 1 Introduction to noun phrases 11.2 Noun phrase: noun +adjective Comparative and superlative adjectives I 1.3 11.4 Apposition noun phrases 11.5 Construct phrases 11.6 Phrases of possession 11.7 Phrases with demonstrative pronouns I 1.8 Prepositional phrases 11 9 Numeral and quantitier phrases I I . I 0 Noun phrases with determiners 11.11 Gerunds and infinitives in noun phrases
11.1 Introduction to noun phrases
D11 lDIU D'91,'3r'l Ml:ln
A noun phrase consists of a single noun (indefinite or definite), which can have additional components modify it. A single noun can have an article added to it or a pronoun suffixed to it and remain a single word, or independent words can be added to it as modifiers. The noun itself is viewed as the head of the phrase. It is the central item in the phrase. The other added components expand the meaning of the head noun or particularize it. The additional components can be articles, adjectives, demonstrative pronouns, numerals, other modifying nouns, prepositions with pronouns, relative clauses, or gerunds and infinitives that function as nouns. The noun phrase can tunction as a subject, a nominal predicate, a direct or indirect object, or within larger constituents (e.g., within a prepositional phrase or a sentential adverb, etc.). Here arc some illustrations of the most basic positions:
Chapter 11: Noun phrases
Subject
These dogs are old.
Predicate
Shunra is a cute cat.
Direct object
Where did you buy this dog? They went for a walk with their dogs.
Indirect object
253
.1mn ?mn Nm N1Wv :::t'~n nN omJp n.!PN
mm D':::t?:m DY '"\)' 1N~'
on .on?\1.1
11.1.1 Indefinite noun phrases There is no indefinite article in Hebrew. Nouns that have no article are indefinite. ?m~n? 0'0'\)1::> 1? \!.1' ·'' 1'l1'1 Tell me, do you have (any) tickets for the show?
It is possible to add the number nnNnnN 'one' to a singular noun, to indicate a similar notion to 'one object/an object'. I only have one ticket. .1nN 0'\)1::> p1 '' 'l!' There is only one restaurant in ?1:JN? p,Y.l Nm\!.1 nnN il1)IOY.l p1 \!.1' which he is willing to eat. .n:::t 11.1.2 Definite noun phrases All nouns, with the exception of proper names, can become definite. In the example below both speaker and listener know what tickets are being referred to. The context as well as the formal addition of a detinite article makes the noun 'tickets' definite in the second sentence.
I bought tickets for the show. The tickets are in the box office.
.m~n? D'0'\)1:J '1'1'JP .i1!:l)p:J 0'0'\)1::li1
11.2 Noun phrase: [noun+ adjective] When a phrase consists of a linear combination of a noun and an adjective, the noun is the head of the phrase and thus is referred to as the head noun of the phrase. The gender and number features, and the definite/indefinite status of the head noun, are reflected in the form of the adjective that follows it. The matching of features is known as agreement.
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Gender agreement
Masc. Sing.
Fern. Sing.
You can see the new movie at the theater in the mall. The new show begins this evening.
'llini1 \,.10i1 .l1N mN1J 1\!.l!lN .,,,lp::l ~l)J1p::l .::11~n n7,nno n'l.l-rnn m~nn
Number agreement
Singular and plural
There is one new waiter and tive old waiters in our restaurant.
i1'l.l'r.Jm \!.lin inN ,~,J'.:l 'lJ' .,),\!.1 m~t~J'.:l::l O'P'm 0'1~Jn
Definite/indefinite agreement
When the head noun is indefinite, the entire phrase is indefinite. When the head noun is definite, the entire phrase is definite. The definite article is added to both the noun and the adjective: \!Jin!J. IJ1ti!J. 'the new movie'. ,,,\JN'.l'l:J i1\!Jin m~n \!.1' Indefinite There is !! new show at the Cameri Theater. -'1r.JNpi1 Definite I heard that the new m~nn nN mN1J 'NiJ\!.1 '.l'lllr.J\!.1 .i1\!.11nn show is worth seeing. Comparative Notes
I. The word order in the Hebrew phrase is the reverse of that in the English phrase, where the adjective is in first position and the noun is in second position. 'A big building' is literally building big J11~ )"1::1, and 'a new library' is literally library new i1\!.lin i1"1!:1tl.
2. In English the adjectives have only one form, and do not reflect any number and gender features. The same is not true for Hebrew, where four forms retlect all the above features. 3. In English the entire definite phrase is introduced by the definite article. In Hebrew the article is attached to several components of the phrase: the noun and the adjectives that follow it. The big building> the building+ the big Jii)Il )"l~Il The new municipal center > the center + the city + ,),1'~fllJ1r.JD. the new \!.11n.D.
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The [noun +adjective] phrase can also occupy the predicate position in a verbless sentence. Past and future tenses are indicated by the addition of the verb 'to be'. Present This is a sad storv. Past This was an interesting act. .1'1.)")).!0 n?W!) ~ tiNt Future These will be important events. .o,:mm O'>P1'N ''n' n~N Note
The predicate phrase is indefinite as a rule. There can be some contexts in which the predicate phrase is det1nite: Indefinite His story is.!! sad story. .::11~).! 11!:!'0 1~'ll ,,!),on Definite This is his sad story. ::I1~Yn ~ m
.' \!1
The adjective is an optional component of the noun phrase. The noun can always function without the adjective in a viable sentence; the adjective cannot constitute a viable phrase by itself. .n11::IY? l''N1nn~ nN:J Cn1r.lm) n'li'N A (nice) woman came tor the job interview. The same sentence is not viable without the head noun: *Niee shov;eEl up fer the iRtervie·N. .,n~·nnn~ nN3 n·TI9m * The exception to this rule is when adjectives function as predicates in verbless sentences such as in the tollowing example: .n1r.1ru nNm mm~n This woman is nice. The use of the adjective as a predicate is seen by some as an abbreviation of the use of a ful1 noun phrase: This woman is a nice woman.
11.2.1 Phrases with more than one adjective There are noun phrases with a string of two adjectives or more. When more than one adjective is involved, the relationship between them and the noun head can be of two kinds. In one, the conjunction -1 'and' is attached to the final adjective, and a comma is inserted after the first adjective and after subsequent ones, except for the last adjective, the one that is preceded by the conjunction. The two, three etc. adjectives are of equal status with respect to the head: a big house ?11l Tl'::l a new, big house 'll1nl ?1il Tl':::t a beautiful, new, big house il!:l'l 'li"Tn ,?11) Tl':l
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11.2.2 Agreement in gender and number with the head noun When an adjective accompanies a noun the gender is marked by the overt features, which are part of the adjective forms. Gender in adjectives is always marked transparently, which often is not the case in nouns. The suffixes of the adjectives are regular: the feminine singular is marked by n.- or n-, the masculine plural ending is D'- and the feminine plural ending is ni-. Note
Notice how in the following examples, the masculine plural noun ending is either -im or -ot, while the masculine plural adjective always ends in -im. Masculine plural noun suffix -ot
Masculine plural noun suffix -im
o•:n
••n•
o•::n
o~mJ.::~nm~n
nlJ.l )l7n
D'J.lV D'lj?n'tl
J.m )pn'tl
tall windows
a tall window
good players
a good player
I
Similarly, notice how in the following examples, the feminine plural noun ending is either -im or -ot, while the feminine plural adjective always ends in -ot. Feminine plural noun suffix -im
Feminine plural noun suffix -ot
!!.!.D
n1•n•
nl:ll
, , , ) 0'1)1
.1]~'lil1'l.l
mlop m=>''1J.
I!.l!.!l! r:pup n=>'1:l
big cities
a big city
small pools
a small pool
Note
One way in which a learner can find out the gender of a noun is when it is part of a noun phrase that includes an adjective. The form of the adjective overtly indicates the gender of the noun it modifies. In a phrase such as nl\Jp 1').1 'a small city', while 1'Y does not have an overt feminine feature, the adjective does, and thus identifies the noun as feminine.
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11.3 Comparative and superlative adjective phrases 11.3.1 Comparative phrases Jnn•/ilMII~il •!>n·~ A comparison can be made between two items of the same class. Adjectives can be used to compare two nouns in regard to some quality they possess. Suspense movies are more interesting than romantic movies. This movie is less intercsting than the one we saw yesterday.
D'\J1t)l2 D')"lllt.:l 1l1i' nnn '"1t) .onmm1 "1Uil.12 l"l>'t.:l mn!) mn \J10il .71):)l1N 1l'N1'll
11.3.2 Forming a comparative adjectival structure l. The adverbs 1lJl' 'more' or J"'in~ 'less' are the first items that are added to an adjective when two entities are compared. They usually precede the adjective: (less good)'.
::n" 1f.li' 'better (more good)' or :J.m J"'in~ 'worse
2. The two components being compared have to be linked to make the comparison. The link to the second noun/noun phrase follows the adjective, and the equivalent of the English adverb 'than' is represented in Hebrew either by -o or by 1~~r,;l. An example is presented here, for a comparison between the performance of Student A and that of Student B (in the right to left order of the Hebrew structure): Item 2
Than
Adjective
More/less
1\\)~r,)/Y,)
1\}'~r,;I/Y,)
Note
1. In common use the word order of the comparative adjective phrase can be changed: ~nil 1n1' or 1m' ''i:l 'larger'. It docs not change the meaning ofthe phrase. 2. The adverbs of comparison 1m' and mn!) can be intensified by adding adverbs of degree or intensification: 1J'n' J"'~i? ,1l11' il:;J.)iJ.
Chapter 11: Noun phrases
25K
Such phrases consist of the following parts (in the order of their appearance): 1. Adverb of degree, such as n~pm:rm 'a lot/a bit' 2. Adverb of comparison 1'lln!lt11'll" 3. Adjective 4. Providing the link 1\!JNJJ/JJ A lot more important than ... JJ ::n\!Jn 1m" n.J1n A bit more important than ... JJ 7l1l 11'll' Tl!ij? A lot less serious than A bit less scary than 11.3.3 Superlative phrases Meaning
Adjectives are not absolute values. Their quality or intensity can be evaluated by their status within a group of nouns they modify. A person can be the tallest in a certain group, or the tallest in the world. The superlative adjective is a form of an adjective used to express the highest or most intense degree of the quality being attributed. The label 'superlative' does not suggest a value judgment, but a position on the spectrum of a particular quality, e.g., between the least hot and hottest: on mn!:l ":;>t)
on ":;>t)
-<_______ on, _______>+ Form: most
There are two ways to form superlative adjectives: 1. One way to torm a superlative adjective is to add the adverb 1tli'~ 'most' to modify the adjective. The adjective is usually definite and 11'll'J. follows it: This is the most frightening movie 'N m'N1\!J ~ -pn!:lon "1on m I have ever seen. .O~!l 2. The second option is the preferred form in speech and it is the one in which the degree adverb ':;>Q is used to express the superlative. It also means 'the most'. It precedes the adjective. The adverb ":Jil is considered to include the feature of definiteness, and therefore the adjective does not have a definite article. This is the most frightening movie 'N 'n'N1\!J i'n!:lJJ ":Jil "10il m I have ever seen. .O~!)
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Since adverbs have a fixed form, the gender and number features of the adjective they modify do not influence them: the most serious 1n1'::J 'l'~1D. 1'l'l'~1 ':m 1m'~ n')'~1D ~)~~, ~:m
o~'J'~, n1')'~,
':m ':m
1n1'~ 0"l'~11J
1n1':J nPl'~1D
Form: 'least'
The adverb 'the least' is also a superlative of sorts. It describes an extreme at the other end of the spectrum. A person can be described not as the tallest but rather as the least tall. In Hebrew there is no term for 'least', and it is expressed by combining two adverbs nin~ '~0 to fonn a new adverbial phrase that precedes the adjective. the least serious
mn!l 'Jn n'l'~, mn!l 'Jn O"J'~, mn!l ':m nPl'~, mn!l 'Jn 'l'~,
As mentioned earlier, the positive or negative values are not determined by the adverbs, but rather semantically, by the adjective. The adverb nin~ '~0 refers only to the degree or intensity. Positive Negative Neutral
The least dangerous The least tasty The least known
pmn~'Jn
'Jn Y,'T, mn!l 'Jn
O'Y\J mn!:l
11.3.4 Too much or not enough? Adjectives can also be modified to indicate either excessive or too little intensity, degree or amount. To indicate excessiveness, the degree adverb ':!'!? is used. It too can be used for either end of the scale, 1m' ':!'!? 'too excessive', or '11? mn!:J 'too little'.
There are variant torms to express excess. The adverb ':!'!? by itself can follow the adjective without adding 1n1' ('1!:) mn!l cannot be abbreviated in such a manner). In informal speech the word order can be changed to an adjective followed by ':J'l?. 'Too hot' can be expressed by ':!'!? on or by on ':J'l?.
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The soup is too hot.
.on ''TO p11::m .'JO on p1))n .on ''f)) 1m' p1on .''~')) 1m' on P1))n
To express the notion of 'less than expected', or 'not enough', in addition to ':!'Y,) mn~, the adverbial expression P'!;I1?Y.l N; 'not enough' can modify the adjective. The soup is not hot enough. .on P'92Q N'? p1on .P'9t)!';) on N; p1))n Or by paraphrasing it: The soup is too cold. .'J)) 1p P1))n More illustrations: This book is too ditlicult
.nvm ''TO 1n1, mn 1!:lt)n . ''f)) nvm nm 1~tm .n>t~p '"TO nm 1!:lon
The photos are not clear enough.
.0'1l1:J P'9oo N; O'O'''~n .0'111:J 'J)) mn!:l O'YJl''~n
11.4 Apposition noun phrases An apposition is a construction consisting of two or more adjacent nouns or noun phrases that have identical referents, each of which could potentially be indcpt:ndent of the other. In the following example both '?>t~1:Jnn and 1nn' refer to the same person. My friend Jonathan decided to join us.
C)1V~n? V'?nn mm ''>t~ 1::1nn
.1l'?N
When the two nouns or noun phrases appear side by side, referring to the same entity, they are without a preposition or a conjunction to connect them. In phrases of apposition each of these nouns has to be able to function as an independent unit and if we omit one of the two, the syntactic structure will still be intact.
My friend decided to join us. Jonathan decided to join us.
.ll'?N cpv~n? V'?nn ' YJ 1:mn .1l'?N ')1V~n? V'?nn lnl1'
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Apposition phrases can fill the subject slot, the predicate slot, or the object slot, or follow prepositions. Noun + Name Apposition Phrase (both function as subject) The city (Qfl Haifa is in the North. -1'~"f1 nN~r.:n i1~m 1'Yi1 Noun + Noun Apposition Phrase (both function as predicate)
Israel
is~
member state in the UN.
.C"'NJ
m::m nJ'1Y.l N'i17N1'tl'
Noun + Name Apposition Phrase (both function as object) We received a letter from the ..J.1l.ll?illr.:li1Y.l :1n::>o ')J::l'P director, Dan Eden.
The slots in the apposition phrase can be filled by either single nouns or by noun phrases. Noun + Name Apposition Phrase
Prime Minister David Ben-Gurion declared the independence of the State ofT srael.
l'1::li1 ll'"nl-)J 111 i1?'t'Y.li:Ji1 't'N1 .JN1'tl' ]1)'10 J'tl il11lNY.l~Y J)J
First noun phrase as head of entire phrase
The Prime Minister declared the independence of the State of Israel.
J'tl nrnNY.l~Y?YP1::>i1 n?'lJY.lY.li1 't'N1
Name phrase as head of entire phrase:
David Ben-Gurion declared the independence ofthe State of Israel.
J'tl nrnz..to~v J)J l'1::li1 l1'1U-1J .,,,
11.5 Construct phrases (noun+ noun)
n·•::)·~Q •?-~,.~
There are noun phrases composed of two or three nouns in a dependent relationship. The relationship may be of possession, or of some other nature. The first noun is the head noun, or nucleus of the phrase, and the second noun functions as the attribute of the first noun:
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Gloss
a press conference a vegetable store party members
Literal translation a party ofjournalists a store.for vegeLab/es members ofa political party
Jll)'l'lO
O'N.lll''l'Y n::t'tm mp;,nnn m~!ln
'J::tn
Note
The relationship between these nouns is different from that of apposition. The nouns concerned are not (potentially) independent, but bound to one another in a formal way and also by meaning. The term rnJ'r.lU '~l·P~ 'construct phrases' is used to refer to such [noun+ noun] phrases. 11.5.1 Types of construct phrases Three types of phrases are considered to be in a expressed by three different structures:
nlJ'r.JU
relationship,
: rn:Pr.lU
I
Ordinary (bound) constmct 2 Separated construct 1 Double construct
(nJl::lQ!i1i(~::t7) n'?'~":l
'!ll1'~
mJ'>?t?
nJ~1!;ltnl(J.!ll;l mJ'>?~
n'?~!lf
m:l'l?t?
In many cases all three structures can be used to convey tht:: same meaning, but their formation is slightly different. Here is an example of three options of forming such construct phrases: Gloss
The emperor's clothes
Construct phrase 10'Pi1 '1:P 1U'f.'i1 ~'ll 0'JPD 10'Pi1 ,IV 1''1~~
Construct type il~'l1 nlJ'r.lO
.1
np11!l0 nl:I'OU .2 i1~1!lJ nlJ'Y.lU .3
Tn this section we will deal mostly with the ordinary construct phrase, and the double construct phrase. The separated construct phrase is dealt with in more detail in this chapter in the discussion of phrases of possession.
Since the meanings of these different construct phrast::s are identical, the choice of which of these structures to use is often a matter of style. In common use, speakers frequently opt for the separated construct, i.e. the possession prepositional phrase 1U'Pil ~IV 0'iUi1 'the clothes of the emperor'. In the written mode and in mid-higher registers of speech, language users commonly usc the double construct 10'Pn 71V 1'il::t
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(literally: 'his clothes of the emperor', where 'his' refers to the following noun: 'emperor'). Since in frequent kinship terms, speakers do usc forms with possessive suftixes in daily speech, e.g., ,,:;1~ 'his father', il'l\1)~ 'his wife', double construct expressions containing such terms are tound in everyday usage as well, e.g., O"n 'J'U il'l~~ 'Hayyim's wife', 'JN:::Pr.l 7~ P:;l~ 'Michael's father' (For a detailed description of possessive pronoun suffixes, see Chapter 6 - Pronouns). The ordinary construct 10'Pn '1P is more frequently found in higher registers of formal Hebrew, or in fixed expressions.
11.5.2 Construct phrases: form and meaning Forms and underlying structures of ordinary n1:;,•no
The two parts of the construct phrase are perceived in traditional grammar as having a dependency relationship. The head noun is considered dependent on the noun or nouns that follow it, and is known as 1~~~ o~, literally 'supported noun'. By the same token, the second noun, the moditier, is considered the supporter, and is known as Olf.' l~iu, literally 'a supporting noun'. Definite and indefinite construct phrases
In indefinite construct phrases, both 11;)~~ and WiU are indefinite: 2 noun phrase a bank director pJJ .,mo 3 noun phrase a bank workers' organization pn 'IJ1Y )U1N In definite construct phrases only the last noun of the m:::~mu has a definite article: 2 noun phrase the bank director j?):JD. 'Jnm 3 noun phrase the bank workers' organization PJJD. 'i:JW )U1N The head noun 1r.lUJi1 O\!m may be the same as the independent term, but in many cases has a variant form, which displays an overt indication of its syntactic position and function. Singular> Plural
To change a construct phrase to plural, the first noun, the head noun, undergoes a change in number. The second noun does not change. Gloss ni)'JJO Head noun a cotTeehouse n~i? 11';J (-11'~) (l) 11'~ coffeehouses n~i? 'lJ~ (-'t9l 0'3:'9
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Chapter 11: Noun phrases
a Sabbath meal Sabbath meals
n~'lJ 111'~).1~
(-1'1]~).11;') (.l) il'J~).!l?
Tl~ ~ 1'1ii~).!1;'
(-Tiii~).!'?) l1i1~).!1?
The dependent noun: changes in shape
In many noun classes there is a predictable change of shape of the first noun of the m::>'l;11;', resulting from its being assigned a lower degree of stress than the second noun. In the examples below, in one phrase the first noun stands alone, and has an independent form, and in the second phrase it is part of a [noun+ noun] phrase and undergoes some change. This is an immigrant problem. The literature classes are interesting. This is our study (=our work room).
. o~1li1~
mn
<
.Ol1ln~ ~YJ i1?~9 TINt
~')~).!'~
<
1n1!:l0{ 0'':1~).1~~0
n~~9
1n1!lOiJ
.Oll'l)).IO
•Ql_)))_)).!)') i1i~~).ln
110 m
<
~lnlN
-))JYJ
1J.YJ 1'JI)D
m
.0'1J.W
Some changes in form in the 1~0.) OYJ are predictable: 1. In feminine singular nouns ending in nT- -a, such as n?~~. the final ending changes in the following way: n- > 11-. The vowel sign changes from kamats to patan, but it is pronounced the same.
1)~1J. 111''ll
''ll~ 1'1~~-~
m'!;l < np!l ::nm m'!l
swan song
silk dress
street comer
-n')~~ < il-;J''ll
-n?~t-~
<
n~~-'ll
-m1~ < i1'J'7' m~n lllJ' dream girl
2. In masculine plural nouns that end in -im, such as D''JW'~, the final o- is omitted and the vowel is changed to -ey: D'"J~Y'~ > ·''JW'~· Some stem vowels are subject to change as well (Note changes in the plural of segolate nouns, Chapter 5). -l~i::l
0'~i.:::l
·'2!0 < O'~~IJ
Ol l~i.:::l
J'l.J. ''?.~D lead soldiers
<
sea scouts
-l'J~~
< 0'':1~1?
11n'J ''J~~ textbooks
1!)0 )1lJ. '1'~~
school kids
3. It is also predictable that feminine plural nouns ending in ni-, such as nil'Y,l~~. will not undergo any change at the end of the word, though vowels may change within the stem, as a result of stress shift.
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4. In general, vowel changes in the first noun of a m~'rJO phrase result from stress shift. The primary stress of the phrase falls on the stressed vowel of the last noun, and the stress of the first one is reduced to secondary stress. Consequently, unstressed vowels in the first noun are weakened or deleted altogether. Thus, in the noun nil~ 'girls', the first vowel a is omitted, and the noun is now -!lil:;t bnot-, such as in the phrase n:f~~ ~~ ni.l:;t 'sixteen years old': ban6t > bnot shesh esre. No change in form
o)m?J
J1ll~
lNI) 'ni?'J
'li~:;> nil~
jazz dancers
viol in players
Construct noun 1, 1no:~ Gloss ~q
language memory
Internal vowel change
DII!J
Ol~~
!lll~
'P
m·~.v. ~VI nil:;t
18 years old
16 years old
il'J·~.v. n~irJ~
undergoes internal changes: Plural
Singular
~m
~~
~n
~
-n;.o·~
ni!l""'
-n~·~
il~i"'
-!lili'l:;>l
nili'l~l
-1i'1:;>l
1l'1f~
Construct noun 1, lDOJ Gloss
DIU,
does not undergo internal changes: Plural Singular
hammer _,\\1,\i>~ o,~,'i'~ -~,\1>~ ~,'i'~ carpenter _,.:m 0'1~J -~~ ,~~ map -ni91? ni!!ltJ -n~~ i19t.) Note: although the tirst vowel here is also a, it is unaffected because of the following dagesh hazak, which 'protects' it from reduction. Types of construct phrase heads
The head of the construct phrase can be of a number of different calegorics: 1. The head can be a noun: (nnl,mn ;n•~t.~ '710) Oi7~ Phrase: a translated poetry anthology J"lt.)l'lmt.) [n'l'\!.1 "i271 2. The head can be a noun-quantifier:(o•,goil) :J.i""'l
Phrase:
most/the majority of his books
3. The head can be an adjective: (""'INin)
Phrase:
a good looking guy
1J\\I [O''l.OOil
:Ji'll
:-·u~~
['1Nm
ruu.J 11nJ.
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Chapter II: Noun phrases
4. The head can be a participle:
Phrase:
(1•~Jilil 'J~) 'l·l!~J;I:"I
the operator of this tool
mn [1,\!JJ.t::m ~,Y!IQ)
5. The head can be a prefix word:
Phrase:
When I was a kid, I loved to ride a tricycle.
m.JnN i7' m,mv::. [.1~iN-nLU] ~y J.)J1';1
Underlying propositions of construct phrases
Many construct phrases can be restated by means of a sentence or a prepositional phrase. These structures are perceived to be the underlying propositions of the phrase. 1. Paraphrase of a possessive relationship:
Sentence Prepositional phrase nD•no
The immigrants have a problem. a problem of immigrants an immigrants' problem
o,1lnn ?v n!~9 o,1lntJ n~).'::;t
2. Paraphrase of a purpose relationship:
Sentence Prepositional phrase ~
The beaches are for bathing. beaches for bathing bathing beaches
mm1? O'!lm n~n1
'.\;nn
11.5.3 Semi compounds bound phrases > compound nouns There are many fixed expressions of bound construct phrases, which have achieved an almost fused word or compound noun status. Most of them cannot be taken apart and cannot be paraphrased by the comparable split structures, as the parts do not mean the sum of the two nouns: Split structure Gloss non 7w n,3 synagogue nw~m~ school 1~~ ,,~ 190 J\Y J'll3 lawyer ,,'T J\Y 111!11 P!lJW mayor 7w \!JN1 1'l! \!JN.1 However, while they have become one semantic unit, they still maintain the two separate components in writing. They also maintain the syntactic characteristics of construct phrases: the head noun
,,)l
Chapter I I: Noun phrases
267
determines the gender and number of the phrase, and when the phrase is definite, the definite article precedes the second noun: ,mn::m TI'J .,,~m ~N1 ,)'iil11W. Some of these phrases are undergoing a change of status to becoming true compound nouns when they begin to be written as one word, and when the unit is treated grammatically as one word, such as having the definite article prefixed to the new compound word. It occurs informally at first in daily speech, when speakers begin to use such compounds, as in 1!:10-!'I':JD, or in 11WtJ-1'i. It eventually gets ret1ected in writing, when first, the two separate words 1?\? n':;J. are written as a hyphenated phrase, 1~Q-n':;).. In informal writing, o:rtt-H 'human being' is often represented as O'Ji:;:(~~. and occasionally even DJ~~. to reflect everyday pronunciation. The continuously changing status of these noun combinations can also be seen in the free variation choices of~)~~ )'iil111}) side by side with u~~ )'i-TllYil, with the latter becoming much more common in use, but still perceived by some as substandard. Tn all the above structures the plural form maintains the J"llJ'Y.lO two noun structure: D1N '~3 ,1'1 '~1W ,1!:10 ':f.IJ. Tn the tinal step of the process of becoming a single unit, the two components of this structure become one word. For instance, the combination of basketball began as two separate words ?Q 1n':;;l, but now they have become one word, ?Q";ln'~, like their English counterparts. The combination ~n'{' ')io 'week end' is well on its way to becoming one unit, ~~:I'{'!?iO, both in speech and in writing. For instance, the daily newspaper Maariv has a special weekend section called ~~:I'{'!;JiO. However, the plural form maintains the n,:~m~ the two noun structure Yl:J~ '~lO 'weekends'. 11.5.4 Meanings of construct phrases When the components of the construct phrase combine they often create a new concept. The meaning of the new unit depends partially on the kind of association there is between the nouns. The structure is not totally open, as there are semantic restrictions on what appropriate combinations there can be. To form a construct phrase from a noun such as (l) ')lf1 'shore/beach', it needs to be complemented by a noun that refers to a body of water, the purpose it serves, or the name of a particular beach. Eilat beach n~,~ ')in seashore D? ')in river bank swimming beaches
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Chapter 11: Noun phra~es
Some of the main groups, classified in terms of their semantic relationship between the nouns, are listed here: 1. Connection of possession: m:m:lo pubIic funds
Paraphrase
funds that belong to the public
m:mJo
the club members the members that belong to the club
Paraphrase
11:l'~il ';!?~
11:1'~? D'::l"'llllJ 0'~9~
1m.m:m '1;tO QljH\!J\!J
0'-:l~QD
l1i)I,)J'}
2. Connection of material - made from/of: m:m.m
Paraphrase
'YJO n2J;f~ l\!JOo n'WY n~'J)-'?'
a silk dress a dress made from silk a paper tiger a tiger made from paper
1ll)
1)',;)~
1H))J ?1\!))1
1);;)~
3. Connection of function - for the purpose of: m:m:m
Paraphrase
.m:m.:m Paraphrase
a cargo plane a plane for carrying cargo
n?:1m O'i\Jt;J n?:1m? iYPo oi'-''?
a bedroom a room for sleeping
nl'W1!0 nll\!J'} i)I1?)J 171)
4. Connection of location - comes from/is located at: rn:>'Otl
Paraphrase .tn::ll)JtJ
laboratory animals the animals in the laboratory
ill:Jl'O ni~o m:JYO:J
mN~m\!J ni~o
the city streets the streets of the city
1'Yn nl:Jin";J 1'l':J ni:Jin';ID
5. Connection of time: J'njl)JtJ the summer vacation
~,pn n~~m
Paraphrase
Paraphrase
the vacation during the summer
J'njl)JtJ
a ten o'clock snack a snack at ten o'clock
Paraphrase
~'Pn
lOt:J il'(J~~nn
11lJY nm1~ 1 \!Jl' ill'\!J:J n 1)~1 ~
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Chapter 11: Noun phrases
6. Cause and effect: 1n:J'JJt7
Paraphrase rn:J'~t:!
Paraphrase
battle/shell shock shock cause by battle altitude sickness sickness caused by high altitudes
:11p o~~
:11P '1' ~~ O"tl)'ll O~D om:nn~QY.l
'1' ~Y nJJllJ'll n{QY.l om::~l
7. Connection to actor: Tn:J'r.lt7
Paraphrase m::~mo
Paraphrase
howling of jackals the howling jackals make a court's decree a decree made by the court
o'm ni~1~ Ql)Il Ql~~''JJ'll1li.,{~ \.)!)'l/l:)i1 J"ll:l PO!! '-'!!'llr.li1
l~
1l':l'lll~D
8. Connection to object of action: J"n:Jll:)tJ
Paraphrase J"n:JlJJO
Paraphrase
respect for elders respect given to elders
D'1li1~ O'll"nl'll 1i:I~D
children's education education given to children
0'1?1? O'll""lll'll l~l'f:ID
0'11n
i~::J.l::J
0'1~" 1~:1'"
9. Connection of guantitv/measure. or of vessel containing matter: nt)'r.lO
Paraphrase J"n:JlJJO
Paraphrase
a milk bottle a bottle that contains milk a fruit basket a basket containing fruit
:1.,n p~::Il?::J J.,n J'JY.l'll p~::Ii?~
ni1'$.1'~ ni1'~ ''::lJJ'll .,~
Note
Some combinations are ambiguous and can be interpreted in two difterent ways, with two different underlying structures: m:>'JJO a wine glass Paraphrase I a glass that contains wine i" i1JlJ):)'ll til) Paraphrase 2 a glass for wine (a type of glass) P''tm Adjectival phrases can be created out of construct phrases. The nucleus of such a phrase is usually an adjective in a 11?V~ form, and thus may have a variant dependent form, followed by a noun, to which it directly
270
Chapter 11: Noun phrases
relates and to which it provides some kind of attribution. For instance, 'golden-haired' is in Hebrew literally 'golden as to hair' 1)!'~ :11nr. These are bound phrases that cannot be taken apart. 10. Connection of descriptive adjective: nl=>'Ot1
Pamphrase
m::>,ou Paraphrase
m::>'IJ" Paraphrase nl=>'Ot1
Paraphrase
:l~ :11"
good-hearted he has a good heart
:ll" :17 lJ ILl'
1l'tJ)) !1~~:;!.
experienced/with experience she has experience
1l't1'l n7 ILl'
unprecedented it has no precedence
D'lpn 1QQ O'iP.TI l~ 1'N
good-looking/handsome with good looks
1Nmn~? il~!
l)l:::lm i1N11J OY
11.5.5 Construct phrase modified by adjectives The construct phrase can be further modified by an adjective. It can be definite or indefinite. In the indefinite phrase, both nouns appear without an article. If the phrase is modified by an adjective, the adjective has no article either. (Adjectives in these phrases modify the head noun of the phrase).
an old school a veteran Knesset member splendid office buildings
lNl:rt.Z
m:>'OO ()l"'l':::l .1
1'll'
Ct) 1!)0 n>:I
npml Ol1Nl!)IJ
(l} nm:> ll):In
(.l.t) O'il.\!JO
>~>>):l
In definite phrases, only the second noun has the definite article attached to it. It makes the entire phrase definite. If there is an adjective that modifies the phrase, a det1nite article is also prefixed to it. the old school )'I!!'!J. l!)t1!J. 11':1:1 When the two nouns have the same gender and number, and the adjective reflects that gender and number, it is at times ambiguous which of the nouns is being modified.
Chapter 1 1: Noun phrases
Option 1 an important oflice manager a large state capital new students' dormitories Option z a manager of an important oftice a capital of a large state exams of new students parcels of blue shirts
271
1Nln.l
m:J,.ou
~11'.:::1
.1
2rW2
J.lVJn
11''1!1.0
n~nl
n)'1.0 1'11'::1
O''tlln
0'\:>Jll\:>O niliY.o
1Nln .3
0\!1 .2
Q:!~!..l
J.l'tln
~
~nm
n~n)
~
Il1'J.
O''tlln
Q)\:))j~\:)2
'~rn.o
rn.::~~1n
m~'J.n
m~m:J
11.5.6 Word order in phrases with nll•no Construct as part of possessive phrases
The construct phrase can be part of a possessive phrase. Tht: construct phrase can be viewed as constituting one unit that fills the slot of the head noun, and the possessive preposition with a noun or pronoun is added to it. The phrase is usually definite (see above rules of possessive noun phrases). The m:P.oo phrase functions as the head noun, and the preposition of possession ~'1!1 follows, complemented by a noun or a pronoun suffix. Ill:J'.OU .1
my school
1!:1un Il'J.
the capital city oflsrael
n1'J.n 1'>'
naJ•no with possessive prepositions and adjectives
The Jll:J'.OO phrase can have an adjective that modifies it. In this case the order of the three components is as follows: ~'tl .3
my old school the narrow alleys of Akko
.z
m:Jmu .1
1'tl'il
1!:1Un l"1'J.
m1.::1n
1'Yn mNu.oo
1Nln
A comparative note
Compare the word order in English and in Hebrew in the following: our beautiful capital city. ll~'tl n~m n"l':m 1'Y our +(beautiful + [city + capital]). ~l7'tl + ( n!)m + [n"l'J.n 1'lll) 1. The first and most notable difference is the word order. In English the order of the components is the reverse from that in Hebrew.
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Chapter 11: Noun phrases
2. There is no definite article in the entire English phrase. The possessive pronoun at the head of the phrase makes the entire phrase definite. 3. There are two definite articles in Hebrew: the first prefixed to the second noun of the m:m:JO phrase and the second prefixed to the adjective. 11.5. 7 Double construct phrase The double construct phrase is known as such because it consists of two possessive structures, one with a possessive pronoun, another with 7~, both referring to the same 'possessor'. The actor's election as state governor ?vno7 )pmm 7v jl11'nJ brought up many questions. .1'llJ1 m~n-
A pronoun suffix is added to the possessed noun mm:1, yielding ll11'nJ 'his election'. The sutftx shares the same number and gender as the possessor noun )pnvn 'the actor' and anticipates its occurrence. The possessor IPnll'n is then mentioned, following the preposition ?llJ. This structure is exclusive to third person suffixes only. The formal restriction is that it must have a pronoun suffixed to the noun, i.e., il11'nJ, and cannot be paraphrased by a prepositional phrase m'n:In i?llJ. The other restriction involves the use with the third person exclusively. A comparison between an ordinary construct and a double construct: I. Ordinary construct the king's clothes clothes of+ the king 1?r.m '!~~ 2. Double construct the king's clothes [his clothes]+ of (the king] 1?on JllJ 1'7~ The following tables display examples of the double construct phrases with singular and plural nouns and pronoun suffixes: Singular Noun + Prepositional Phrase
the director's house the (f) teacher's son our parents' house the girls' room
?nmn ?llJ
i11'~
?mon ?llJ n~~D
nJmil ?llJ
i'l~:;t
n:non ?llJ 1:;!.0
0'11ilil ?llJ
0~'*
D'11ilil ?llJ n~~D
Tll.lJil ?llJ
11'10
Tll.l:In ?llJ 17~iJ
Chapter 11: Noun phrases
273
Plural Noun + Prepositional Phrase
David's sons Ahuva's sons our friends' sons my relatives' sons
i'li ~~
,,~~
,YJ
i'rJ ,\!.1 O'~~D
y'~~
nJ.lnN ~YJ 0'~~0
u~~ 0'1J.nT1 ~v
Oi)'~:;t
0'1J.nn .,~ O'~~D
'~~ mJ.,1pn ~~
lD'~~
mJ.npn ~~ o'r~.tJ
ilJ.lnN
11.5.8 Semantic restrictions of the possessor noun The possessor noun, i.e. the second noun of such a phrase, has to be a noun with features that enable it to have a possessive or pseudopossessive relationship with another noun. It is most often a person, or a group or an institution that represents people, or an animal or a fictional character that is endowed with such qualities. Possessive:
the judge's wife Pseudo-possessive:
the nation's pride It cannot be an inanimate object, which has no such semantic features. In such an underlying relationship between the two nouns the double construct expression cannot be used. bedroom m,wn J\Y n11n m'~' 1'JQD m'~ + 1'JI:) golden earrings lmn 11\9 P7'l)l J.nm O'?'~~D J.m + 0'':?'~~ 11.5.9 Strings of three-nouns m:>•no There are construct phrases where the string of nouns consists of three nouns: the first noun is the head of the phrase and it is modified by another construct phrase. When the phrase is made definite, the definite article is attached to the last noun and it makes the entire phrase definite. the eve of [the World War].
A three-noun string of the m::m.)tl noun phrase can have an adjective added to it. The adjective follows all the nouns, regardless of which one it modifies. on the eve of World War I! (=the second) il"J~il O~Ulil nnn~n J.l~ elementarv school children
274
Chapter II: Noun phra~es
The adjective can modity the head noun, or it can modii)' the second or even the third noun. If the nouns have different gender and number features, the form of the adjective helps identify which noun component of the phrase is being moditied. Masculine singular adjective modifies the tirst noun The new member of the Labor party. .'lnnn nil:JYil n~~~~ i;J.Q • the new member of '/\!..1 \!.rmn 1:::1nn • the Labor party. i1il:JYi1 m'/!:lo Feminine singular adjective modities the second noun The member of the present Labor party nm:mn nil:Jllil m.,l:lo 1~n • the member of J\!.1 1:::1nn • the present Labor party nm:mn illl:J)In m.,!:lo A comparative note
In English, the three-noun string sequence is usually separated and rendered by a prepositional phrase, with the adjective preceding the specific noun it modifies: the new pilots of the El Al planes Tn Hebrew the three nouns appear contiguously whereas in English the phrase is broken up by the preposition 'of' and the adjective is next to the noun it modifies. The sequence the newEl AI plane pilots would be very awkward and considered ungrammaticaL When all the nouns of the lllJ'Y.l~ have the same number and gender, the adjective can modii)' all of them and it is not clear which one is being modified. This is the case in the following example, where the feminine singular adjective can modii)' any one of these three nouns, all of which are feminine singular: nn~m/ llilmn/ n\J'Oi:J'JlN the new university orchestra conductor
n\J,Oi:JmNn llilom
nn~Jo
n\!Jinn
Chapter 11: Noun phrases
275
There are three possible readings to the sentence above: 7\!J l1llr.nnn 7\!J il\!Jinn nn~m:m the new conductor of the university orchestra m:>'Ol~'llNil the conductor of the new orchestra of ?\!.! il\!Jinn l1llOU'lil 7\!J nn~mn m:m:n~mNn the university 7\!J mmmn ?ll! nn~mn the conductor of the orchestra of the new university il\!Jinil il\J'Ol~'llNil The three-noun sequence is normally broken in such cases, to clarify which noun is being modified by the adjective. Quantifiers in nf;)'rJO noun phrase
Quantifiers can modify one of the components ofthe construct phrase: a state of all its citizens il'n1lN ?::> nJ'iO the two labor organizations
11.6 Phrases of possession Phrases of possession have an underlying sentential structure. l1'l1Jr.:m '~~ 'my car', for instance, implies the underlying sentence nm::>o '~ \!.!~ 'I have a car', and reflects that relationship of possession. One noun refers to what is possessed, in this case 'the car', and the other noun reters to whoever possesses it, in this case 'I'. The possessed noun is the head noun (the noun being modified), and the possessor noun is the modifier. In the illustration below, the head noun is mmn 'the store' and the modifier answers the question '0 ?YJ ?mmn 'Whose store is it?' Possessor
O'lliln on
of
?1!.1 71!.1
Possessed
nunn mlnn
Gloss
the parents' store their store
Possession phrase
0'11iln ?1!.1 mlnn on?VJ mmn
A comparative note The word order is different in Hebrew and in English. In English the possessor precedes the possessed: 'my car', while in Hebrew the word order is reversed: '?1!.1 l1')l:Jnn. 11.6.1 Possessive noun phrases: options Possessive noun phrases can be formed in the following ways: 1. A noun that indicates what is being possessed, followed by the preposition 7~, which is followed by the possessor noun.
276
Chapter 11: Noun phrases
2 1 of Possessed n~,'t' ?VJ nNn Shula's brother
3 Possessor
3 Possessor JN1n't'
2 of
.,'ll
1 Possessed 0'11ni1
Shmuel's parents
2. A pronoun can substitute for the possessor noun, and it is suffixed to the preposition '¥J: i"¥-~ rmoo 'his store'. 3. A possessive personal pronoun can also be suffixed to the possessed noun. In such a case there is no need tor the preposition of possession: in in~ 'his sister'. There arc several categories of nouns, to which the possessive pronoun suffix cannot be added, such as most nouns of foreign origin, for instance U~'(.' nni\Jt('DD 'our history' rather than UTI~11\39m*, which is not permissible. Certain classes of words actually favor the noun + pronoun option, notably kinship terms. For a discussion D:lpossessive personal pronouns see pp. 169-170. Regular phrases of possession are usually definite in Hebrew. Definite status has to be either indicated by a definite article, by a noun with a pronoun suffix, or even by a proper name: Definite article Pronoun ending Proper name
Dan's friends his friends our Dan
n J't' O'i:::J.nn ,~·pn
U.,'ll1i
Possessive noun phrases can be also indefinite. The meaning of the indefinite phrase is different from that of the definite phrase of possession. Rather than the more general 'J'll il"J.:;JQn 'my friend', the meaning of the indefinite phrase '>JVJ il)lQ is 'a friend of mine/one of my friends'. Indefinite phrases
A friend ofminc lives in town. Some friends of mine live in town.
.1'Y:::J. n1l
''VJ il1:::J.n
.1'Y:::J. m1l 'J'll ni1:::J.n
Chapter 11: Noun phrases
277
11.6.2 Word order in possessive noun phrases When the possessed noun of the phrase is modified by an adjective, the constituents of the possessive noun phrases are organized in one of the following two ways: 1. The noun and adjectives come first and then are followed by the prepositional phrase ofpossession.
his oldest daughter Dan's old friends
~
mt:>::m
Ji 7YJ
D'P'mm
2. The possessive can precede the adjectives only if it is attached to the noun itself as a sutftx pronoun. his oldest daughter his old friends
n·n:;:,:m D't''mm
11.7 Phrases with demonstrative pronouns Demonstrative pronouns belong to the class of specific determiners. They are usually part of a definite phrase and follow a noun with which they agree in gender and number, as adjectives do (which is why some refer to them as demonstrative adjectives). There are two sets of demonstrative pronouns: one that indicates or points to an object of close proximity in place or time, and one that indicates a reference to another place or time or to a different set of events. Demonstrative Pronouns
a close time or place
This book is not mine. This library is new. These books belong to the library.
a distant time or place
That book is David's. That library was too small. Those books are too expensive.
.'7YJ N7 Nm mn 1!>tm . n\!nn nNm i1"1!)tm O':::>"YJ il.,Nil 0'1!>t7il .il"l!)tl';l
.in .,YJ Nm Nmn l!>tlil m"p nnnn Nmn il"l!>tlil ."1Y.l
."ir.l O'lP' onn D'l!)tlil
27R
Chapter II: Noun phrases
Demonstrative pronouns
a close time or place
this/these
n~~::
a distant time or place
that/those
1iJQ ,DDQ ,N';:liJ ,N~ni)
11.7.1 Demonstrative pronouns of close proximity When the demonstrative pronoun is used to modify a noun, it functions as a regular adjective does. It follows the rules of syntax, which apply to adjectives, in that it occupies the same position as that of an adjective, and follows the rules of word order, gender and definiteness agreement of the adjective in a noun phrase. Masculine singular
+Adjective + Demonstrative
The new book is not mine. This book is not mine.
N? Nm \/.linn 1!ltm .lJ\/J .'~'ll ~b Nm mn 1!ltm
Feminine singular
+Adjective +Demonstrative
The new library is excellent. This library is excellent.
n\/Jinn n''1!lon .JUl1!:1)'J .m'1!:1r.l .nN·m i1"1!ltm
Masculine 1;1lural
+Adjective + Demonstrative
The new buildings are very tall. These buildings are very tall.
D''ll1nn D'J".l:Jil .i1Nr.l D'n1J.l O'n1:Jl il~Nil 0'.l".l:ln .11Nr.l
Feminine (;!lural
+Adjective +Demonstrative
The new villas are very expensive. These villas are very expensive.
nnr." m'll1nn m?'m .i1Nr.l m1p' n~Nn m?'m .i)Nr.l
The phrases where nouns are accompanied by demonstrative pronouns are definite in form as well as in meaning. With few exceptions, the definite article is prefixed to both the noun and the demonstrative pronoun: n?~::
279
Chapter 11: Noun phrases
without the use of the definite article, i.e., il~l::l O''liJN ,nNl and still remain definite. The difference is stylistic only. With definite article .nnlt~JJ:l
il'li'N ,n~
ml,
Without definite article
'li,O''ll il'l!YJ mn 'li:l
'Frumcs arc being used in this page'. The variation of the phrase without a definite article can be found in formal speech and in written texts. A comparative note The use of the definite article with demonstrative pronouns (treating it as if it were an adjective) is not limited to Hebrew. It is a feature shared with Phoenician, Aramaic, and Classical Arabic. 11.7.2 Demonstrative pronouns of remote proximity The function of the remote demonstrative is to relate the noun to a place and time remote from the speaker's environment. The remote reference can also be to a particular segment or object in the context of a text (anaphora), which can be found in relative proximity.
There are two singular demonstrative pronouns of remote proximity and two plural ones. TI1ey are composed of the definite article and the third person pronoun. !l.Q1
0').1
;,-pn•
-r•n•
1DQ those ha-lu!n
OiJ;:J
N'DD that ha-hi
N~iliJ
those ha·hem
that ha-hu
The phrases where nouns are accompanied by demonstrative pronouns are definite in form as well as in meaning. Masculine singular
this that
This house is small. That house is big.
Feminine singular
this that
This library is near. That library is far.
.)Up
il·lD n':lil
.?,il Nmn m:m
280
Chapter 11: Noun phrases
Masculine plural
These buildings are near. Those buildings are far.
these those
il~Nil
.O'::J.11jJ
O'l''l::J.il
.C'f.'1nl onn D')")::J.il
Feminine plural
these those
.m::n,p n~Nn l11'1)nil .mp1m 1nn Jwunn
These stores are near. Those stores are far.
A historical note
The demonstrative pronoun had a number of historical variants, some of which survived in the higher registers of Modem Hebrew. All three variants of close proximity demonstratives can be found in Tsraeli Hebrew, but ~~l::(D belongs to a somewhat higher register, and ~?~D is somewhat higher than ~'l::(iJ. There are also variants among the remote prox1m1ty ones. Biblical Hebrew had a relatively rare n~~D 'that', as in N~ ill~D mo1~nn ~~::t mn 'Behold, here comes that master of dreams'. Sometimes both masculine and feminine singular forms may be shortened to t~D (which is the only variant Mishnaic Hebrew uses). Both are restricted to use in a highly literary register, and for all practical purposes arc considered obsolete. m:n-c•::n
il"T'n'
1!n!
~~~D
H~D
il!~Dit~iJ
hallalu
hal/ezY.
these/those
this/that
On the eve of the holy Sabbath this event occurred. Who is that man walking in the field? This land, once desolate, ha<; become like the garden of Eden. (Ezekiel, Chapter 36: 35)
hallazlhallaze this/that
,.,~ ,:~~
nnm
n~v.~m n~n (illl~
: ,~~~
'
Chapter II: Noun phrases
2R1
In biblical Hebrew, one only finds n?~ or ~~~~D 'these', or the shortened variant ?~o. Mishnaic Hebrew, while still maintaining n?~o. prefers the variant ~:;,z::)il J}ll wonders The most frequently used, in speech as well as in writing, is the demonstrative pronoun ~?~o. which, as mentioned, is used with the meaning of either 'these' or 'those'. It depends on the context as to which meaning is given to the deictic, close or remote proximity in time and place. The demonstratives ,?~D ,H~iJ , l~D can also function as stand-alone items. The most commonly used is l?D, which stands for 'that person' and not just 'that'. Who is that person who set himself up as the barometer for morality and justice? That person was also in Spain and worked on a topic of philosophy about Plato.
1"Y.ll1::t) lY.l.::IY llN 0~~ lJil
m 'Y.l
?pi.::lnl101Y.li1
o~ nYl 11!)0 ~1N~ nm Dl l?n
.1l"J!>N Tlli)N J}l '!>lUlJ'!> 1"J~:J
11.8 Prepositional phrases An extensive discussion of prepositional phrases can be found in Chapter I 0. A short summary is included here. Prepositional phrases consist of a preposition followed by a noun, a noun phrase or a pronoun. Prep + Noun David went walking with friends. .D'1~n Prep+ Noun phrase David went walking ~ '""' N.:::l' ili . ,,~ D'1:Jnn with his friends. Prep + pronoun suffix David went walking . Dl'IN J"'"' N~' ili with them.
11.9 Numerical and quantifier phrases Noun phrases with numerals or quantifiers are discussed extensively in chapter 7. A short summary is included here.
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Chapter 1 I: Noun phrases
11.9.1 Numerical + noun The number one, when it combines with another noun to form a phrase, always tollows the noun that is being counted, since it is conceived of as an adjective. Since it functions as an adjective, it has the gender features of the noun that it modifies. The number noun also agrees with the head noun in its status as indefinite or definite. Indefinite phrases: Masculine llr
one hat
1Ql:;(
Feminine
one dress
~):J
Indefinite phrases: Masculine lJr
lhc one actor
1Qz::!Q)pn\!ln
Feminine
the one actress
iD.i7J
nl)l::{ n7o\!l
il:l.i7J
lltll::{Q ll'Jpn\!ln
Numerical phrases with numbers above the number I are formed in a similar shape to that of [noun+ noun] phrases, m:J'rJU '!ln~~. In these phrases the components combine in the following way: the numerals always precede the count nouns, which, with some exceptions (particularly, in higher numbers), are plural nouns. The numerals have the same gender features as the count nouns. When the phrases arc indefinite, the number nouns are independent fonns of the number (with the exception of number two). When the number nouns are part of a definite phrase, they have the alternate shape typical of the tirst noun of a m:J'rJU phrase. When the number two is part of an indefinite or definite phrase, it has a variant form: o~~'?' - -'~'?' and -'D'?'- O~tl'?'· Indefinite phrases: Masculine llr
two boys
O'J:l '~~
Feminine
two girls
Definite phrases: Masculine lJT
the two boys
mn 'Do/
Feminine
the two girls
i1:l.i7l
ilJ.i71
m.lJ.n 'f:l'?
Numerals 2-10 that combine with nouns in phrases: Indefinite: They have three cute O'i7' 11Wi7'?' on? Ill' Definite:
children. Their three children all study here.
.O'irJnl on?lll O'iJ'n n~i?'?' ?:J .)N~ O'irJ)']
Chapter 11: Noun phra~es
283
11.9.2 Quantifier + noun Noun phrases can consist of a quantifier followed by the head noun. Since the modification is only of quantity, quantifiers are not considered adjectives, and - possibly to differentiate them from adjectives - they precl!de the head noun, as a rule. Numbers (numerals) may also be regarded as quantifiers, which is why they also preceded the (head) noun.
Most of the students came to class. Only some of the students arrived. Many students came to the demonstration. Only a few students came to the demonstration.
.1lY'I!1? 1Y'lfl D'1'P7nn J.i1 .W'lfl o>i>P?nno p?n p1
.ml!ln? W'lil D'\Jnmu m11n
11.10 Noun phrases with determiners Determiners consist of a small class of words, which accompany nouns and mark their status of being definite or indefinite or in some other way determine aspects of the identity of the noun. There arc several classes of determiners and most of them precede the noun and their presence is totally dependent on the noun. A few follow nouns. Detennincrs cannot occur in isolation. TI1e most common determiner is the definite article, discussed in the introductory section above. 11.10.1 Determiners that precede nouns There is another type of determiner, which in English is expressed by 'that same ... ' It is similar in meaning to the use of the demonstrative pronoun that is distant in time or place, NmD I!I'Nil 'that man'. The particle used for the direct object with third person pronoun ending is also used to express the pronoun modifier 'that same'. Unlike the phrase NmD 'lJ'Nil, where the pronoun fills the same slot as an adjective docs, in these phrases the determiner precedes the noun and agrees with it in gender and number. It is usually followed by a definite noun, but can also be followed by an indefinite noun, to form a noun phrase.
Chapter 11: Noun phrases
2H4
0'\!Jm )tliN
t:l'\!J)Nn OtliN
n'lJ'NTl FltliN
'lJ'Nn i!liN
0'\!Jl)tliN
O''lJlN OtliN
i1'lJ'N i'ltliN
'lJ'N i!liN
those same women
those same men
that same woman
that same man
The use of such phrases always implies the presence and a prior use of the noun to which the modifier 'that same' refers to. The phrase can be a subject slot or function as part of an object in the sentence. 1mNn .0'0pn 'lJ'N '!l'lJl~ ~m~1P:J
I met a charming man in the movies. Later I met the same man in the library. That same woman, about whom I told you, is our librarian.
*
In normative Hebrew, an mn-t speech it is commonly used.
!1N
'lJ'Nn i!liN (*!lN)
1nP
1
.n'1~U:J
Nm
1., '!11~'0 n'.,Y'lJ n'lJ'Nn FlniN
1
.,l.,\!J !l'n~on
sequence is not allowed, however in
m'<"p~np~
'some kind of,.,~
Some Qeonle
Some woman
Some man
O''lJ)/0'\!JlN ~.,,~
i1\!J'N il'l:'t
V'Nnpz:.t
O''lJJIO''lJlN npz:.t
n'lJ'N np~
'lJ'N npz:.t
nY."N 'D"'il'z:.t
'lJ'N mwp~
Other determiners that follow nouns are 'any, every', '~'t;:l ~:q 'all kinds of.
Normative use Common use
'!1\!J~
The bicycle was just left in some nlace.
m'N:J O''l~,Nn nN n'N\!Jn ono .o1p~
The stories are supposed to reflect reality in some kind of way.
)~1N ~ 0'11~N 0'1,~'0i1
One has to set some kind of system of rules.
n:n>Jn m\!11PN Y1:JP., O'm:m.:l
.mN,~nn nN I'JP\!J.,
.0'~':>
Note
The advcrbials H'N 1m'N have an additional function. They are used as interrogatives, meaning 'what (kind of)', or 'which one'?
Chapter 11: Noun phrases
Which book did you buy? To what show are you going? Phrases with adverbials
285
?n'li' 1.!:1\J ill'N ?O'J~nn onx m~n lt'N~
_.,11 'every/each' and (H ..,) D·IIIU/q~ 'none'
The adverb -7~ followed by an indefinite singular noun has the function of a determiner, and means 'each/every'. Each srudent has to tum in a paper at the end of the term. Every woman athlete trains here. Negation is stated by the detenniners ofthe sentence. No students turned in a paper on time. There were no incidents of violence on campus.
nl1J.lm nx ~'ln' J."n i'n~n ~J .1VOtJ'tm ")l\JJ. .1NJ Jl)l:)l'(Jll:) ll'NV11!10 JJ o~~/')1:<
with the negative as part
-V~l:l ililJ.Yn nx ~'ln N' 1'n7n"lN
l'lll:)'JN J~ 0'1PtJ m~ l'il NJ
.Ol!lnp:t
When the adverb -~i> precedes a plural definite noun it also functions as a determiner or a quantifier. All the students have to tum in a paper at the end of the term. All the athletes were chosen by a committee.
nx ~'ln7
D':l''n O'i'nJnn JJ
.1V\Jn'tm "ll\JJ. n1lJ.Yn .iliYl 'l' 7Y nnJ.l O'NV1l!IOi1 ~J
The combined expression 'PY,) J? means 'all kinds of', and it too precedes the noun and functions as a determiner. I did not come because I had all kinds of problems. 11.10.2 Determiners that follow nouns There is an additional set of determiners, which is expressed in English by ns;~ 'such a ... ' These determiners combine two components: the adverb -:!!til:)? 'like' and the pronoun 'this/these', resulting in their conflation into one word ng>. The structure of the noun phrase in which such a determiner is used consists of a definite article followed by the particle -:;,, contlated to ·i>, where the a vowel is the result of a reduced
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Chapter I 1: Noun phrases
definite article ~ < Q+:p. These are inherently indefinite phrases, even though the determiner includes the remnant of a definite article. Like the demonstrative pronouns this determiner has three forms: two singular and one plural, determined by the preceding noun. such a man such a woman such people such women such a crisis
Noun phrase
Paraphrase
nr~ 't"N
= mn 'I!J'Nil io:p
31N·l~
r:n~r.:~
il\!JlN
= 31Nln il\!!lNil ir.:l:p
i1?1::9 0'\!J)N
- n':n-
i1~1:9 0'\!J)
= ilJNil D'YJ)il ir.:l:p
mn 1:::1\!Jr.:ln lr.:l) 1JYJr.:l
.11NO p1ur.:1 m) 1.lYJO
.11Nr.:l
such problems
31PYJi1 1r.:l~ JWY:::l:::l J!:l\JJ 1'1~
. ilJN::> 31l~Y:J:::l J!:l\JJ 1'1~
.n~Nn
such a good worker
31i:Jl)) JJN ,mnw Nl~r.:l., ~P
il\!JP 31N l::> n::n\J 311:::11))
nNm 31i:J1Yn 1r.:1::1 n::J.l\J NmYJ
.Nl~r.:lJ
.Nl~r.:lJ ilYJp
Sometimes the determiner appears without the noun, but implies the presence of either an impersonal noun or something that has already been referred to earlier in the text. such ones
i1J.1i1 YJ' ilJNil 0'\!JlNil lr.:l~
l)J~N i1J.1i1 YJ' ilJN~
1!:1::>::1 Ql\!J)N
.1!DJ.
0
11.10.3 Noun + subordinate clause modifier Instead of modifying the head noun with an adjective, a whole clause may substitute for it, fulfilling more or less the same function. The clause must, of course, contain a reference to the head, either manifest or hidden: The invitation that you sent arrived. . ilY'::Iil onn7'l1YJ nmmn N';l 1::1).1\!J )!l:J'li:J '31'lJ).!:J'lJ i11lrt:::li1 The girl I met last week does not want to see me any more. .1m' 'mN mN17 n~11 The woman who entered the store did in'::>n NJ mln7 n~l::>l'll nYJ'Nil not recognize me. .'mN N'~lil ';llr.:l31N p';l).l ll1:J'i\!J 1!:ll~i1 The writer we talked about yesterday published a new book. .\!J1n 1!:lU
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Chapter 11: Noun phrases
11.11 Gerunds and infinitives in noun phrases Since some verbal expressions -in particular, the gerund Cn~W~D o~} and the infinitive (?~'9iJ o~) - can act as nouns, these also can form the nucleus of a noun phrase. And as verbal expressions are formed from verbs, they can also take direct objects and can be modified by adverbs. A gerund phrase or infinitive phrase, then, is a noun phrase consisting of a verbal noun, its modifiers (both adjectives and adverbs), and its objects: Gerund phrase Gerund phrase
Infinitive phrase Infinitive phrase
Swimming in the sea is our main pastime. David plans to arrive on time tor course registration. To hike in the mountains is all he wants to do. The love of his life is to travel and to travel endlessly.
plti')Ji"l N'il O'J. n,n·y; .u?y; '"lP')Jn )):)lJ. )J'li"17 )Jt:>n)'.) 1'1
.U"llp? i1)'.)\'J1i17 ill:)
?:> m 0'1i"IJ. .,,~7 .mi!.IY? mm ~nnl!.l
m l"n llJ.i"IN .cnu ''J. )lltiJ.,l
)llOJ.,
Chapter 12 Verb phrases 12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 12.5
12.6 12.7
Introduction to verb phrases Verb phrases: verbs and objects Compound verb phrases Grouping verbs by semantic considerations Modal verbs Habitual aspect phrases Subjunctive wish and possibility phrases
12.1 Introduction to verb phrases A variety of verb phrases are discussed in this chapter. A verb phrase consists of a verb, which functions as the main component of a phrase, and some additional components. As the main component of a phrase, we refer to that verb as the head verb of the phrase. The other components added to it expand the meaning of the head noun or particularize it. The additional components can be noun phrases or prepositional phrases that function as objects, or they can be other verbs that modifY the meaning of the head verb. The verb phrase functions as the predicate of a sentence. It is possible to classify verb phrases according to the structural
components. The primary distinction made below is between verbs with different complements, and compound verbs.
12.2 Verb phrases [verb + object] The central component of the predicate is most often a verb. Adjuncts can be appended to add information either to the predicate or to the entire sentence: The following are the main structures of such verb phrases: Verb phrase: verb form
.·mw O}l Q.i2 1!l.~m
The birdwatcher gQ1j!J2 at dawn. Verb phrase: verb + noun phrase (object)
.no~~Y,l
The birdwatcher brought binoculars.
l'•<':;tD 1!l~il
Verb phrase: verb + obligatory prepositional phrase (indirect object)
The birdwatcher joined (attached himself to) a group of hikers.
.o,~m"n
mmp'::l c·n\':;tD 1!l!:lil
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289
12.2.1 Verbs + direct objects The direct object follows a transitive verb with the particle 311:-< when the object is definite: An object is made definite by having or being one ofthe following: Definite article They have not yet met nN 1\!ll!l N7 ·ny Oi1 the neighbors. .e~J:>\!In Proper name They met Dina in the . mln::l i1Pi nN )\!ll!l en store. Place name . ))il17 nN )N1 en They saw London. With possessive suffix Possessive phrase
They met our parents. They met Rina's daughter.
The direct object links with the verb without any prepositions or particles when it is indefinite: Indefinite object
They met friends at the coffeehouse.
n~::1::1 ~
1\!.ll!l Oi1 ..i1!:1pn
In all of the above the object is obligatory, since the verb is not complete without it: .... )\!ll!l en 'they met ... ' is not complete without an object.. Note
In Hebrew there is an additional expansion of the verb by the verbal noun, which is sometimes referred to as )1.)))!) N\!.ll.O 'internal object': a verbal noun, which comes in object position as part of the expanded verb phrase, and is of the same root as the verb it modifies. ln form, it is like Englishfight a fight, but its meaning is ditiercnt. For the most part it is a stylistic device that is used for emphasis. In English this expanded phrase is translated by a verb, or by an appropriate phrase, such as 'make a decision', or 'make an investment'. Internal direct object They advanced the program in a meaningful way. . "1::1'l They made serious investments in this project.. You made a bold decision! ! .rmm nt~~mi1 cnt~7nn
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Chapter 12: Verb phrases
12.2.2 Verbs + obligatory prepositional phrases (indirect objects) There are a number of verbs that have an obligatory preposition. When the preposition is obligatory, it is followed by an object, a nominal entity, which is a noun, a noun phrase or a pronoun. The citation fom1 of the verb includes that preposition as a related part of the verb (see additional discussion in Chapter 10). Tn the examples below notice that where Hebrew requires an obligatory preposition to link a verb with an object, in English the verb often links to its o~ject without any preposition. Gloss Verbs and prepositions Dan bumped into the stone and .,!>ll pN:J 'prn 11 fell. ':n 1ll:J':? ,,:~, nnN l'N How can you betray all ofyour -J. T~~ principles? ?1'\!J mll1PYi1 The host hurt the feelings of .n1lNn '\!J m\!Jl1J Yl!l nmon the guest. When will you help us gel nN ,,::m' l1tYn mo ready for the party? m::~"oon Listen to what is being said to .o:~7 0'10lN\!J no., ~J'\!Jl'n you. Don't take away trom the 0'1Jii1 11YO Y1ln .,N . CJi1'7)1 llO:;)Oil\!J value of the things we agreed on.
u'
Some verbs have two meanings: one without an obligatory preposition, and one with an obligatory preposition. Non-Obligatory Complement
stand (on a chair)
(NO':li1 ?Y)
ir.l)J
Obligatory preposition with object
insist on, stand by The children stood on the stage. The parents insisted that he come home on time.
. noJn
.,Y noy CJ'i''il
NlJ' Nlil\!J 1:1 ~ liO)I 0'1lilil .)m:J. nn':J.il
A comparative note
Some English verbs have a similar requirement, but the preposition following an English verb is not necessarily identical to the Hebrew preposition following an equivalent verb.
Chapter 12: Verb phrases
Identical preposition
Different preposition No preposition
rely on trust in believe in bump into look at influence cause
291
~~ 1r.lV -::~. n'?~
-:J)'Y.l~D
-::1 ~I?~~
'~ '~tt~n
~~ ~'!)~D _,OJ~
12.3 Compound verb phrases Compound verb phrases are phrases of two (or at times more) verbs, which combine into single phrases with one verb finite, i.e., in tense, and the second a verb in the infinitive mood. However, when discussing these verb phrases, it is important to distinguish between two main groups. In the first one the two verbs constitute one unit, which functions as one predicate. The first verb is an auxiliary verb and the second one is the infinitive form of the main verb. They could not open the door. In the other category two verbs are joined in a similar manner: the first is a finite verb and the second is an infinitive. But unlike the expanded verb phrase, in this case each verb forms a sepamte predicate. Essentially, the two-verb combination is a 'shortcut' version of two separate statements. The verbs ofthis verb phrase can be discontinuous, i.e., some other item can come between the two: They convinced us to open the door. We shall refer to the first category as 'expanded verbs' and to the second one as 'two-kernel verb phrases'. Thus, although externally, the two types of phrases look alike, since they have one finite verb and one infinitive verb, their underlying structure is different. Following is a discussion of these two classes of verb phrases. 12.3.1 Expanded verb phrases. As described above, expanded verb phrases include two verbs: the first is a finite verb (verb in tense), while the second one is an infinitive. The first verb functions as an auxiliary to the second verb, and the combination of the two is considered one expanded verb. The second verb serves as the head of the verb phrase; the function of the first (auxiliary) verb is to indicate the tense, and in some way to modify the meanin of the head verb. The two verbs do not constitute se arate
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Chapter 12: Verb phrases
kernels of separate underlying predicates. These verbs can be divided into categories by the type of function they perform. Aspectual function: initiating, continuing and ending the process
The first of the two verbs in these types of verb phrases are, for the most part, verbs of initiating, continuing and finishing a process. The second verb is the main verb, while the first verb indicates the stage of the process. he spoke he started speaking he continued speaking he stopped speaking
1~'1Nln
1~1? ?m:nn Nm
1J.1J 1''l'On Nli1 1~1? P't7!ln Nm
The above phrases have words in sequence, that cannot be taken apart or be discontinuous. They function as one unit. Note
Most of these modifying verbs, which constitute the first verb of the expanded verb phrase, can also function in other contexts as main verbs. 1. Main Verb: mt i7'0f>il'z 'interrupt' .m~10 'lNVJ ~ P't7!111 ?N
Don't interrupt me while I am speaking. Compare with use in expanded verb phrase: ?lll!l ov + P'U!In? 'stop/cease' He stopped talking to me.
.'l'l'N 1::11? P'00i1 Nli1
2. Main Verb {Colloouial usel:oJJ '7•nni'l'7 'start with/get involved with'
I did not start with her- she started with me.
n''n:nn Nm ,nl'l'N m?nnn N? 'lN
Compare with use in expanded verb phrase: ?).ll!l ov + J'n:nn? 'begin/start' Dan started studying Hebrew when he was five.
3. Main verb: (nN)
11n~'z
1~ nm Nli1VJ !1'1~ll 1m?? ?m:nn 11
.von
'finish/complete'
He finished all the food that was in the refrigerator.
.11p~~ nmv ?JlNn ?J 11N 1~l Nli1
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Chapter 12: Verb phrases
Compare with use in expanded verb phrase: J~)!) ov
+ 1ml7 'complete/end' He finished eating an hour ago.
Truncated predicates
These verbs can sometimes be used without the second verb, when it is not specifically mentioned in the immediate phrase but is alluded to somewhere else in the immediate or shared context. In this case it is considered a truncated phrase, as the main verb is only implied. Context: conversation
Vl+V2
When did he start working for you? He started in September.
Missing V2
Context: a narrative passage
Verb 'tell' missing in sentence 2
He told us all about what happened to him. He went on and on, and did not stop till everyone fell asleep.
i1r.:J 7::1 TIN U7 1!>'\7 Nm 1'\!Jr.:Jm 1'\!Jr.:Jn N)il .' ' mp\!.1 . )r.:Ji1l o~:m\!.1 i~ P'U!>D N71
Verbs with quantifier adverbial notions
They often either quantify or qualify the action that the verb denotes: he spoke he spoke a lot he spoke a little
1:J'i Nm 1:li7 nnD Nm 1:liJ U'Y,J;)D Nm
Paraphrasing with adverbs: i1~/iJ 1:l'i Nm = 1:li7 i1::11i1 Nm
U~J;l 1:l'i Nm = 1:liJ U'>'Y.:Ii11UY'r.:J Nm
:l1\Jii1!:P 1:!'i Nm = 1:JiJ :::1'~'0 Nm
Verbs with time adverbial notion
he came he came early he came late
N:lNm !'0::17 O'Ji?iJ Nm N,:l,11)~ Nm
Paraphrasing with adverbs: O'Ji(~r.:J N:l Nm = N)JJ O'ipi1 Nm 1~~Nt;)
N:l Nm = N):JJ 1nN Nm
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Chapter 12: Verb phrases
Verbs with manner adverbial notions
he came he came fast he hurried to finish
N:l Nln N,:l, "''i1'r.J Nln O"O' l"liln Nlil
Paraphrasing with adverbs: N:J N17'1 = Nn, "''i1'Y.l N17'1 17'1r.J 0"0 ~'<'7'1 = 0"07 l"'11ln Nlil 1i1Y.l
12.3.2 Chain (catenative) verb phrases Support role: verbs that combine with a following non-finite verb arc often called catenative verbs (where the term 'catenative' means 'chaining'). This term includes verbs like 7'nnn7 'start', 1'Ymn7 'keep/continue', "''HY~ 'help'. The catenative verb can support not only one infinitive, but also a chain of infmitivcs. This chain of verbs forms a sequence of infinitives. Chain verb phrases:
He began to talk. He also began to laugh. He started disrupting.
."'1::117 ''nnn r<m .pm:::~7 ol 7mnn r<m .~'"'1!)7'17 7mnn r<m
Expanded verb phrases with a chain of non-finite verbs:
He began talking, laughing and disrupting. He kept talking, laughing and disrupting.
.~'"''!ln,, pm~'
,1::117 7mnn Nln
-~'"''!li17, pm~'
,"'':J"'T7 1''llr.Ji1 Nlil
Note that the catenation is not limited to a series of separate infinitives; it can also be hierarchical: He started learning (lit. lo learn) to write at the age of six. 'Learning to write' is one expanded verb, further expanded into 'beginning to learn to write'. 12.3.3 Verb phrase: finite verb+ finite verb A few expanded verb phrases consist of a combination of auxiliary verbs, such as 1''llr.Ji1 'continue/keep doing', "''ln/:J'll 'did again', that serve as modifying verbs to a main verb, which unlike all previous ones is in •
1
295
Chapter 12: Verb phrases
He retold the same story. She kept disrupting.
.11!l'tm um-t llN 1!l't, 1m Nm . m.1'1!:Jm n:J'IVr.m
Nm
These verb sequences can be paraphrased by adverbs of repetition and continuation: He told the same story lots of .O'Y.J).I!l n::nn l1!PUn times. She disrupted again and again.
The two verbs that make up the expanded verb phrase of repetition and continuity share the same tense. The auxiliary verb refers to aspects of the process, its continuity or repetition, while the second verb is the main verb, the action itself. Verb 1
repeated continued
Verb 2
and and
Verb 2
Verb 1
told disrupted
A comparative note The translation of the auxiliary verb into English is often rendered by an adverb (e.g., again and again), or by a verb in tense followed by an infinitive or gerund, or by a pretix (e.g. re-), rather than by an auxiliary verb, as in the following sentence: She re-emphasizes (comes back JYJ ntl'YJt1i1 nN i1YJ'lim mYJ Nm and emphasizes) the importance of .i1Y.J'YJ~i1 the task.
nm' NmYJ 1).1 Jlll)'' 1nn, Nm
He will rewrite again and again until he is satisfied with the results.
.mN~mn~ n~n~
0'~).1!l
1!lUY.J 'TW JU'l)'
=
Jlll:J'1 llln'
12.3.4 Two-kernel verb phrases So far, we have dealt with compound verbs that constitute true fusion of an auxiliary verb and a main verb into one expanded verb. But as noted above, there are cases in which the two component verbs may be regarded as two separate predicates of more-or-less equal weight. It was suggested that the formal criterion by which one distinguishes between auxiliary verbs and modifying ones described here is whether the underlying structure can be restated as two separate sentences, or is one single structure, even in the underlying structure. Consider the following:
296
Compound verb phrase:
Chapter 12: Verb phrases
Dan decided to become a professional tennis player.
1pnv mm~ \J~~nn ,..,. .~).l,~po 0')\J
It is clear that the underlying structure has two component sentences: Sl Dan decided [something]. .[ln't'OJ "'~nQ 11 Sl Dan will be a professional player. .').ll~po 1vnv n~n' ,..,. The sentence can also be paraphrased as a complex sentence with a main clause and a subordinate clause: Dan decided that he is going to be a 1vnv nm' l'On + 't' \J'~nn 11 -~ll,~P~ professional player. The subjects of the two propositions do not need to be identicaL When the object of the first verb is expressed and specified, it can function as the subject of the second verb. In such cases the verb phrase includes two verbs, which are not necessarily contiguous. Both the underlying base sentences and the paraphrase as a complex sentence suggest that each component verb can be viable on its own. .1''l't'OT'I TIN ~1lJ)'J ,,,:m~ 't'P~l Nm He asked his friends to lock up the office. Sl He asked [something] of his friends. .1''l:ln~ [1n't'~) 't'i''.:l N1n .i1't'l:ln :nN 1~ll)' ,,,:Jn S2 His friends wi111ock the office.
This sentence can also be paraphrase as a complex sentence with a main clause and a subordinate clause: on +'t' ,,,:Jnl:l 't'P'.:l Nm He asked of his friends that + they will lock the office. .1'l't'Oi1 TIN ~']~~~ The same cannot be shown with the typical expanded verb we discussed earlier. Observe the following: Expanded Verb The snow started falling :tn)!l~ :nn~ ~'n:nn :~~vn Phrase early in the morning. .1p1:J A sentence like this cannot be shown to have an underlying structure of two separate clauses, because doing do would not capture its meaning it does not say that the snow started and the snow fell; rather, it speaks of the time of its initiation. Nor can it be paraphrased by a main and subordinate clause, since there is no way of subordinating either verb in an embedded clause. There is but one predicate and one head verb, the infinitive. The verb ~'I:'J;'ID is just a modifier of the head verb and does not function here as a verb with an e ual status.
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Chapter 12: Verb phrases
12.4 Grouping verb phrases by semantic considerations There are many groups of verbs that can be part of a compound verb phrase. Some form one predicate unit, while others consist of a combination of two separate predicates (as discussed above). Here are some of the many semantic categories that can be observed in compound verbs: Initiation, continuity and cessation She started czying. He continued playing.
.m::>::l7 n~mnn Nm .)l)~ l'lllr.lil Nln
Modifying main verb -auxiliary verb has an adverbial function. .iltJ'IliY.lil TIN D~'t'' nii'Y.l Oil They hurried to finish the task. You came early. .N1:::17 m.:npn Trial. success and failure He tried to move the piano. He succeeded/managed to move the piano.
.1l'llt1!1n l'IN l'til, .1:!.2?..) N1il .1TI.lt1!li1J'IN 't'til' f'l'~:::m Nln
Attitude He hates working here. They prefer working here.
.)N::> '11:::1)1~ !'<)).Ill Nln
.)1'0 11:::1)1~ l'l1!l'1lltJ )il
Wish/desire We don't want to go home. Dana aspires to become president.
.ill'l'::lil n=>77 O':ll11 N~ umN .iiN'Ill) mm~ n!lNW? m1
Promise/enabling They promised to help us. They made it possible for us to move the furniture.
. U~ 1H)I~ 1~ Oil
.0'\J'il1il l'IN l'til~ U7 11\!.l!lN Oil
Planning/consideration We are considering skipping class. The city is getting ready to remove the snow. Skill/capability He does not know how to drive.
.11ll'll'7 Ntl~ N' 0'llll1n 1)f'I)N .l7lllilnN
mp.>., n::>1~) 1'l'il
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Chapter 12: Verb phrases
12.5 Modal verbs Modal verbs modifY main verbs by expressing such modalities as necessity, possibility, expectation, wish, desire and the like, reflecting the attitudes and belief.o; of the speaker. Many modal verbs function as auxiliary verbs and combine with main verbs to form verb phrases. Like the initial verbs in phrases described above, the modal verbs are finite, while the main verbs are in the infinitive mood. .UJ 1H'Y? ~ OJ"'N
You should be helping us. He is SUQQOsed to come today. He cannot get here on time. He is Iikely to stay here a couple more days. He might invite too many guests.
.Olm N1:1J 1l))N Nln .)Ol:l Y'li1? ';n::>' NJ Nln
. O"Ol' i1Y )NJ 1N\!J'i1J ,~·\!J)I Nln
For a discussion of modal verbs and their jimction, see Chapter 13.
12.6 Habitual aspect phrases The habitual aspect expresses the occurrence of an event or state as characteristic of a period of time. While in English it is conveyed by the auxiliary verb used to, in Hebrew it is expressed by the use of the past tense of ;w1, followed by the present tense form of the main verb. The boy used to play the piano every afternoon.
01'
?J 1mU!):l wn nm i?m .on1m~n1m'{
The verb to he is conjugated in all the forms of the past tense, and the main verb has the four forms of the present tense. The participle form reflects agreement in form with the subject of the verb phrase: Gloss 1 used to play you used to play be/she used to play Gloss we used to play you used to play they used to play
Feminine Singular nm~?mnn
n~~~l? rP~Q n~~Jl?
nnnn Nm
Masculine Singular 1~JI?
m'm
WI? {P~n W'il nm Nlil
Feminine Plural ni)~JI? U"n
Masculine Plural
J'ltl~t? )J'l''n
o'm'il on"n o'ml? 1m on
n1lW? 'm )n
D'm'? U"il
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Chapter 12: Verb phrases
12.7 Subjunctive: would have/could have In Hebrew, the subjunctive mood typically signals that the proposition with which it is associated is non-actual and nontactual. The meanings that are associated with this mood in Hebrew are wish or desire and possibility. The structure is identical to that described in the phrases of habitual action: the verb nm (conjugated in the appropriate person) with the present tense torm of the main verb. + n•n The boy would have liked to play the piano. 1 would have loved to play. You would have loved to sing. She would have loved to dance. Subjunctive: wish and desire
.,~.,
.1mu!l:J p)? mll1 mn 1?m
.'\:I)J n~n 'l:l"n .1'\!.IJ n~,1 nnn
.,,j:n? n.;p1 nTl''Tl N'n
Subjunctive: possibility 'Jil' + n•il
1 could have danced all night. My brother could have played. You could have sung. They could have danced.
.n?,?n ?:::! 11p1? n?t)' 'Tl"n .w? ?'J' nm 'nN .1'\!.IJ Tl1J1:l' )l'l''Tl .11p1? O'J'J' ,m on
For more discussion, seep. 311, and see similar stn1ctures in hypothetical conditions, pp. 360-362.
Chapter 13 Modal verbs and expressions 13.1 13.2 13.3 13.4 13.5
Introduction to modality Modal verb phrases Impersonal modal expressions Temporal aspects in modality Modality expressed by phrases with nm
13.1 Introduction to modality The expression of modality discloses the speaker's attitudes towards a variety of events and characters transmitted through an assortment of propositions. It involves the modification of propositions by the introduction of such notions as possibility, impossibility, expectation, permission, request, necessity, contingency, intention, willingness, wish, and desire. An example of a proposition: Every day David returns home at seven. This statement can be modified in the following ways with modal expressions: .)l:lY.I::J. nr'l':lil ;nn~ ~1J' 1'17 David can return home at seven. .)l::J.Y.I:l nrP:an ;nn'} ':nJ' N., .,.,, David cannot return home at seven. David has to return home at seven. David is supposed to return home at seven. 13.1.1 Types of modality There are two types of modals in Hebrew: 1. Modal verbs, which are 'auxiliary' verbs, and are used in conjunction with main verbs to modify their meaning. They combine in their finite form with the infinitive form of main verbs: .)l:JY.I:J nn,:m ;nn'} 1'1!1 ,,.,. David has to return home at seven.
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Chapter 13: Modal verbs and expressions
2. Modal impersonal expressions are used to modify the meaning of the main proposition by adverbial expressions that initiate the entire proposition. The modal expressions are followed with main verbs in the infinitive. It is necessary to return home on time.
13.2 Modal verb phrases Modal verbs are conjugated in the present tense, and as such have four participial forms grouped by gender and number. Some modal verbs have more than one meaning and function in a number of situations. The modal verbs can be classified according to the meanings they convey and the functions they perform: 13.2.1 Obligation The modal verbs :t"n ,tn:m:) ,1'1~ are used to express obligation. The choice of one of the modals over another is a matter of degree: the general expression of obligation is the modal verb 1'1~ 'has to', a stronger meaning of 'must' is carried by m:no, and :t"n is the strongest expressions, literally meaning 'obliged'.
have (to), ought have to, should be required/obliged (to)
niJ.1
D'J.1
i1i'n'
i'n'
Tli:::>''J~
0':;>'':1~
n:;t'':l~
l'"J~
11in:9!? 31i:J!IJ
D'D'J:;>!? D':J!IJ
no'J:;>!?
nJ:t!? J?IJ
Everyone has to come on time. We must go to the library. Everybody is required to hand in his or her work in a week.
3"l~!IJ
N1JJ b':J'1~ DJl:J 1'1:::>?;, D'n1::l10 umN n11:::1~n 31N ~'lTlJ D'J"n o;,1::> -1r.:ll:t
. n'1~~7
-~l:t~
11).1:::1
13.2.2 Possibility ~l'llJ/'IIOlJfill) 1 The notion of the possibility of things happening is conveyed by these three verbs: ?1?~ ,'llll)) ,?1::>'. While ?1::>' conveys possibility, '1V~ brings in the notion of likelihood, a positive assessment of possibility, while ?l?)) has a negative nuance, meaning that this is a possibility the speaker hopes does not come true. JlJ)) is therefore used almost exclusively with verbs which have negative connotations, or with negative statements.
302
may be able to may, could might, liable to
Chapter J3: Modal verbs and expressions
flg}
D'J."'l
~
ni~i:>~
O''.?~J~
n?i=>~
~iJ?
1li'~YJ~
0'!~\!J~
n?~\!J~
l~\!)~
ni~~.,~
Ql~~~l!
n?~~l!
~~.,~
Dana can be hired here, ifthere will be a job. Dana may/is likely to be hired here since she has suitable qualifications. Dana might not be hired here because she docs not have enough experience.
~
,)NJ mt1Y? 7:Jpnn~ n71J' m; .n'1)!:l n1'll):) nmn oN 'J )N:J ni1:JYJ ~:Jpnn? i1'1\!JY nn .0'):)'N11):) 0'11\!.I':J i1J \!.1' mny? ?:Jpnn? N? n?l7)) m; .)1'tm P'!:ltm n? )'N ' ' ,1N:J
'l;uon/'nl• 13.2.3 Ability/capability The modal verbs ~l:J' and JllO):) are used to express ability (in the sense of being able to physically or mentally do something, or knowing how to do something), as distinguished from possibility. can~
be capable of be able to
nl:l,
0':1,
ill'n'
••n•
1l~Ji:J~
Ql~iJ~
n?t>~
~iJ?
ll~~~P.~
O'~~P.t.J
n'?~P.l;)
~~P.'?
Dan is capable of driving, but he does not have a driver's license. You are very tired; are you sure that you are able to/can drive?
)l''ll1
l,
)'N J:JN l1nl~ '"' )i .nl'il)
nTIN\!.1 n1\J:J i1l1N /)")) i1N):) i111N mm? '"' nnN\!.1/mm? ?:not.)
13.2.4 Permission/request The modal verb J1::l' is used to express a request or asking tor permission, as well as possibility and capability. Request
Can I ride with you? May we ride with you? Do you have space?
OJ~ ~'
?OJ11N Nl:J' Jl:J' 'lN ?OJ11N YlOlJ O'?lJ' l)ll)N ?o1p):)
Permission
Of course you can come with us. May l go? You may go. rt is already after eight.
.UTI'N Nl:J7 0'~lJ' 011N\!J 1::1 )):)J ?n::>?7 .,,,, 'JN .mm\!.1 '1nN 1::1::>
.n::>?~
?lJ' nnN
Chapter 13: Modal verbs and expressions
303
13.2.5 Expectation/probability '193r/Yl3rhlnM The modal verbs 1'1::1 ,1UJN are used to express expectation. The primary meaning of the modal verb 1'1~ is that of obligation, but it can be used to express expectation. The modal verb '~!:!~, which also means 'expected to', is used less often. m:n C':J.l i'l'T'n' ..I!!!! supposed to 0'')lt.)~ ni1UJ~ "'llO~ n:mJ~ expected to 0'~~!)~ ni'~!:l~ n~l!l~ 'l!:l~ is about ni'T'J:l~ D''PJ:l~ 'T'J:l~ i1'J'J:l~ is about to it,;liY niiJtiY 0'!r,liY llWiY They are expected to get here in ten minutes. The bus should/is expected to get here exactly at eight. The bus is about to arrive any moment. A big surprise is expected for everyone: the bus will anive on time.
Pl'l:l )N::>~ Y'ln~ ,,~ "1:11\.11Nn .ml0\!.1:1 .}1:11 ~:::> Y'li1~ iOl>l "1:ll\.11Nn : n~li:l n>ln!ln o~:n::>~ n'1!l::~ . V'.Jl:J.
Expectations Our parents should come on time. Our parents are expected to come on time. Our parents are supposed to come on time.
>''"' m:1m1Nn
-ll'~t:l Y':ln? 0'::!'1::1 0''11ni1
.)m:l >'':In~ 0'110N 0'11nn D'llr.JN/0'::>'1::1 0'11ni1 -10l:l Y'.ln~
13.2.6 Action about to take place We are about to offer him to become a partner in the business. The plant is about/expected to bring large profits.
('19ll
Anticipated action
About 100 guests are likely/anticipated to come.
,,rllll ,,'nll) JWn~ 1~ Y'::ln~ D'iOW umN
-P">':l C')lll'tl .0':11 D'nm N':li1~ 'T'nY ?Y!lOn
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Chapter 13: Modal verbs and expressions
Note
The pa 'ul verb tbrm '~!:1!:1 'expected/predictable' can also be used as a predicative adjcclive. This was expected/predictable. .\!JNlY.l 'l!:l!:l nm m 13.2.7 Readiness and willingness The four present tense forms of the verb Pl>'J 'be ready' can be used as modal verbs. They combine the meaning of 'ready' and 'willing'. The verb 1llll can also be used as a modal verb, meaning 'ready' or 'set up for'. !lQJ.
be ready/willing be set/ready
D'J.1
n·ron•
ni.l~~>'J
D'~?~Y.l
n~~m
n;;:,n~
D'~~l~
n;n1~
The company is ready to return the money to you. The school is all set to receive all of the new pupils.
.C)o:m nN 1~ l'lnil~ m:Jlt:l ili:::J.nn ~:J nN
7:Jp? Jl1li1!:10il 11':::1 .D''lJ"Tnn D'"T'Y.l~:mn
Note
The pa'ul verb form 1~1)1 'set' and the hl!fal present tense form p~n have additional meanings. As main verbs they can be used as predicative adjectives: The table is set for the holiday meal. .:mn nn11N~ Jnll1n~l'l'il The meal is ready. 13.2.8 Planning and intentions Verbs of planning can be fully conjugated in all tenses. With the exception of ))l:mn? 'get ready', which is truly a modal verb, the others can serve as main verbs, as well as express modality when they are combined with an infinitive verb.
plan, get ready intend make plans/plan
niJ.l
Q!;D
ni•n•
~
J"lil~i!l~)?
O'~~i:lJ;l'?
J1))i!lT1Y.l ...... : .
1>-i:;)J;'l)?
ni.lr;?J;l'?
o'n~~'?
nn~J;l'?
1nll;V~
J"li)~~,rl~
D'P~:tiY,l
n~P:tl'?
1>-?:tl'?
Chapter 13: Modal verbs and expressions
Dan is getting ready to move. He does not intend to cause damage. Dan is planning to finish his dissertation in June.
305
.i11'i 11J.ll., m:mo )i
.pu onl., m:mo N., Nm n'~",t)'in TIN
o,o., u:mo)i .'l1'J. ,.,..,
Note
All three above-mentioned verbs can also function as main verbs: Dan is preparing for the test. .)n:IJ'.J., )l1::lnY.l)i .m~ m::~nn N.m He did not mean it. .1Y.lln nJ.'t)Y.l nN )J::!TIY.l)i Dan is planning the graduation party.
N.,
13.2.9 Expressing wish or desire To express wish or desire, the verb nm 'to be' in its past tense conjugations combines in a subjunctive-like way with verbs of wish or desire to indicate such meanings. .:nlln N.1:J7 mm 'lN Verb of wish/desire I want to come tonight. I would love to come N.lJ.., ilN.Y.l n~11 'n"n Subjunctive use tonight. sum ,J.1Yn NlJ., o,~,, ll"n We would have liked to come tonight, but we . 0'71::!' N.., lJnlN 7J.N. cannot. For more on the subjunctive see page 299.
Impossible wish
13.3 Impersonal modal expressions There are modal impersonal expressions, which also combine with the main verb in the infinitive to express modality: 13.3.1 Modal expression + infinitive 1. Obligation/necessity It is necessary to reach the beach by
car. It is not necessary to walk (there). 2. Possibility It is possible to reach the beach by bus. It is impossible to reach it by car.
.t)1J.l\:)lNJ rpn~ ll'li1., 1\!J!:lN .J.::l1J O'll7 Y"ln., 1\!J!:lN. 'N.
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Chapter 13: Modal verbs and expressions
3. Permission
It is alright to stay here till midnight. Jt is forbidden/not allowed to leave the computers on.
o,:Jvmr.m nN :JnY? ·noN .o,p,?i
13.3.2 Modal expression + subordinate clause Some of these expressions are combined with the linking particle introduce the main c1ause: 4. Possibility It could be that we'll make it on time. It might be that we won't make it ll'ln':l ?:m N?\!.1 pnn on time. .v~~:l 5. Plausibility It is plausible that we'll have enough time. It stands to reason that we'll have enough time to do everything.
ll? nm''tl nYin ?y ?:1pn~ .?:m m\!.IY? 1~'t P'!IO~
-w to
-\(11~{1~
?y ?:;J.pnr,l -\!.1 n:,rm
6. Desirability It is recommended/a good idea that
everyone he present. I1 is important that everyone be present.
13.4 Temporal aspects in modality Most modal expressions are in the present tense, however there arc contexts where past and future are also used. 13.4.1 Modal verbs: past and future Some of the modal verbs exist as participles only, while others can be fully conjugated. rn order to express the past and the future tenses in verbs that only have participial forms, the verb nm 'to be' in its appropriate tense, gender, number and person features combines with these modal verbs to indicate the temporal aspect.
Chapter /3: Modal verbs and expressions
They arc obliged to pack. They were obliged to pack. They wi11 be obliged to pack.
307
.n1~:>~? O':lnn on .n1N'J D':J"n l'il on . H1N'J D':l''n Pn' on
Other verbs have a full conjugation and the finite form of the modal verb is conjugated in the appropriate tense. I am planning to host them. I planned to host them. We'll plan to host them. Other verbs can have either structure: T need/have to host them. I needed/had .OnlN n1N'J 1'1~ 'll"n to host them. No combination with mn in the future: T' II have to host them.
.omN mN? m~nn 'lN .om~:>~ mN'J mm:mn
')))':1 1::1).1
.omN m~:>~? ))l~m
1'1"1).1
. OnlN n1N'J J'1~ 'lN
l)Ul:l
n1N'J m:>1\J~n
1:1).1
.OlllN
.DnlN n1N'J 11\J~N
'T'n.l.l
13.4.2 Verb or participle?
l. Modal verbs have the forms of present participles: 111~ ,pm ,J"n ,~,!:1~ ,?,?y ,','VY ,11r.nl( Past and future are indicated by the auxiliary verb n'n, which is part of the modal phrase and indicates the temporal aspect. 2. A tew modal verbs are conjugated in all tenses: 1)t:mn ,,,,, ,,,,~ The temporal aspect of the modal phrase is indicated by the modal verb. 3. There are modal verbs that can appear either in a participle form with the verb nm 'to be' as tense indicator, or in their full conjugation in the appropriate tenses, in addition to the present participles. The two main verbs are 1'1~ and ?tJ'. The present tense of 1'1~ and ?n' is irregular, and has parallels in adjectival patterns.
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Chapter 13: Modal verbs and expressions
:•ltl'::l.
:'lll':l
ni~i:J? ,o,~i:l? ,il~i:~~ ,?i:~~
l'li:l'"J¥ 1O':;l'"J¥ 1il?'"J¥ 1l'"J~
The verb l'J\"¥;:1~ is conjugated in its past and future tenses in the hitpa 'el conjugation. ,,::l, is in pa 'at, but note that its future forms follow the hlfil conjugation for roots with initial'' (or medial''!',). '7)' :1:W 11\:l~il :1:W D'J.1 "T'n' D'J.l "T'n' 'J:'!?.:J? ~)~?''? U:;>1\?i'D 'J:'1?1\?i!;:l {l~·:J? O{l:;>1\?¥D O{l??? {l?J\"i'D !;l~·:J? 1;1?1\?=i!D ltl?1\?=i!D W~?? ~i:J? Nm ~:J';J\(~D Oil ~'.:1?? Oil 11\)~D Nm il{:;>? N'il ~::>-;JI(¥D )il il~)\)=i!;:l N'i1 ~?:;>? lil 111:1~·
'i')l' :1''nl.l
0'::11
D':l1
.lD!
?:~m
';I~~N
lJ'?~~
~?:;m'l
?;mll
~:J)\(~J:'l
~'.:l;nn
~?:;>~'Oil
~'?~' lil
'~?m ?~P
Nm
?~mNm
:1''J1lJ
.lD! TJ\?¥1:$ 11\?=i!J:'l
~:J~\f¥J:'l
':;l~\f¥J:'l
Oil ~::l')l}~? )il
lJ\?=i!? Nm TW¥J:'l N'il
~:J~I(i'?
13.4.3 Are ,.,.lir il'il and 11U.liril identical in meaning? ln the past tense, in everyday speech speakers use the phrase that combines il'il and 1'1~ much more often than they use the conjugated form of 11"~m?, which is often reserved tor more tormal speech. They mean the same and are a matter of style, left to the speaker's choice.
We had to finish the project. We needed/had to stay in the library till ten.
."P"11!:1ill1N ono? 0'::l'1!il unn .11!.1.).1 i.).l i1'1!:JOJ. 1NIV'i1? U:J1"~il
ln the future tense, the conjugated verb is used most often, especially when followed by an infinitive. 1lnlN '::l ,.J.1.).1il i1.).1l11NJ 11\J~) We will have to pack this evening, .1p,J.J. Oip,O O'N~1' because we are leaving early in the morning. The verb 11\J~m? has an infinitive form and an imperative form, but the imperative is not used, since it has no practical application.
Chapter 13: Modal verbs and expressions
309
Note The verb 1'1~ is also a transitive main verb, and as such it means 'need', and is not a modal verb. It is followed by a direct object. .il"H)I 0'~,,~ 0'i~'T1 The children need help. The children needed help. .mlY O'~,,~ 1m O'i~'T1 The children will need help. .mlY o,~,,~ l'Tl' 0'~'T1
13.4.4 Are 'liJ' •n"i1 and •n'll:>' identical in meaning? In the past tense the verb ~'~' means 'could/was able to'. n'i1 N~ ~:IN ,T1'1\J!ljJJ ~tJN.~ m~tJ' I could have eaten in the cafeteria, but 1 did not feel like it. .p't'n '~ Do you think that he can come on time? 1 think that he is able to, but he does not want to.
N.~ N.1T1 ~:IN .~l~' N1T1'll :l'llln 'JN. .n~,,
When JlJ' is combined with the verb n'Tl it usually conveys the meaning of an unrealizable act, 'could have done something' (but this is no longer a possibility). We could have come, if we had p ~~ l:)"T1 N?l? ,Nl:l? 0'~1~' lJ''Tl not been so busy. .O'PmY In the future tense, the conjugated verb is used most often: m'J~ll"llJ~ 't'' '~ ,Nl:l? ?~u NJ We will not be able to come, since we have other plans. Comparative notes
The verb ~~, has no imperative or infinitive forms. There is no direct way to express 'to be able to'. It has to be expressed indirectly: l.After an expression of wish tor the future, 'to be able to' is translated as 'to have an opportunity to': You want to be able to do everything: ride a bike, swim, and sail. m1't'!lN o::>~ n'i1!1'll O'~ll OTIN *You want that you' 11 have an opportunity to do everything: ride mn't'? ,O"J!llN ?)I :::1~1? : ?~n m't')l~ a bike, swim, and sail. .ll'YJ1!lY.l:l \Jl'll?l
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Chapter 13: Modal verhs and expressions
2. If 'to be able to' is in a past tense context, it is translated by a hypothetical conditional, with the expression 'have an opportunity to': It would have been nice to be able to be there together. It would have been nice if it had rnm? nn~V.!:IN il!l"il ,? iY.lnl nm been possible to be there together. .in':l OIV
3. If 'to be able to' is part of a future projection, it is translated by a future conditional, with the expression 'have an opportunity to': It would be so great to be able to go on a trip to Australia. 'to be able to' is translated by a future conditional. It would be so great if we can go }J,Ul? ?:m ON ~':J ~Vnn il'n' m on a trip to Australia. .n'J1\JU,N:l J''OJ 4. There are times where 'to be able to' is omitted altogether: I'd like to be able to come- but I am not sure that I'll be free. 1'd like to come - but Tam not nm"::1 N? 'lN ?:lN ,Nn? n~n m"n sure that I'll be free. -V~l '' il'il'IV 13.4.5 Tense indication in modal expressions Modal expressions always require the verb il'il for past and future tense markings.
Impersonal modal expressions can also be transformed to past and future tenses: It is forbidden to sit here. -1N::l J'l::lllJJ 1,UN It was forbidden to sit there. . OIV J'l:lllJJ 1lON il'il It will be forbidden to sit there. .OIV J'l::lllJJ 1,UN il'i1' These expressions can be stated in the positive or negative in the past and in the future tenses: It was possible to get there positive O'lJJ Y':m? Tl'>il 11V!lN .U,::l,\J,N::l by bus. negative It was impossible to get Y'lil' nm 11V!IN 'N .U,::l,\J,NJ. OIVJ there by bus.
Chapter 13: Modal verbs and expressions
13.5 Modality expressed by phrases with
311
il 1 il
13.5.1 The subjunctive use with 'wish' and 'desire' To express wish or desire, verbs with that lexical meaning (want, wish, desire, hope) can be used with a finite verb in a verb phrase. Another possibility is the use of a combination with 'to be' in the past tense in its entire conjugation. Verbs of wish/desire
Verb of wish/desire Verb of hope
Twant to come tonight. 1 hope to come tonight.
Combination of il~n + il'il Subjunctive use Twould love to come
Impossible wish
tonight. We would have liked to come tonight, but we cannot.
.J1)Ji1 ~·OJJ n~n 'lN .J1)Jn NlJJ nnpn 'JN
NlJJ ilNO n~n
mnn .J1)Jn
,J1Yn Nl:J.J O'~l1 ll"n
.O'Jl:::>' NJ llnlN J:I.N
13.5.2 The modal phrase 'll:>' + il'il The addition of the verb nm in the past tense to the modal verb 71:::>' creates a number of additional nuances of meaning. The following sentences will consider the modal verb 7r:P as used with an infinitive in an assertion, and the various nuances when combined with the past tense of 71:::>' nm, from consideration of a real possibility to consideration of a possibility that is no longer valid. Assertion
1 can come to swim. Considering the possibility
I could come to swim. Any number of possibilities:
'I could have, but I did not' is expressed by this JlJ' + nm combination. The rest ofthe context of the situation is used to assign to this phrase its precise meaning, whether it should be read as an existing possibility, or whether it should be considered an unrealized one.
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Chapter 13: Modal verbs and expressions
Considering alternatives
l could be swimming in the pool now, but instead Tam stuck in the office.
.,:JN , i1:1'l:J:J mn~t~., .,,,, 'l'1"i1 .11\!JY.J:J. )11pl1 ')N m c:npt.J:J
Possibility no longer valid
I could have been swimming at the pool instead of working in the office. Tcould have swum at the pool but l did not have enough time.
mnv~ m~1=>'1.,1J' 'l1"i1
. il\!JO:J il:J)I~ 01pr.l:J i1J'l:J:J ,n:>'l:J:J mn\!J., ~lJ' 'l'l"n .)Y.Jl
P'!:ltm '~ i1'i1 N~ J:JN
Comparative notes I. In Hebrew the sentence i1J'l:J:J mnv., 'l1"i1 can have two possible readings: (I) the first reading is that of an option that is
.,,::>,
available for the speaker: 'I could be swimming in the pool (if only T wanted to/took the time to do it)'. The speaker is contemplating that option. (2) The second possible context in which this utterance could be used is in a situation in which something could have been realized but was not. 'I could have been swimming in the pool (butT did not)'. The full context of the utterance provides the reading of that sentence. ln English this is made clear to the reader/listener since there are various choices for expressing the past subjunctive: '1 could be swimming', 'I could have swum', 'I could have been swimming'; in Hebrew, however, all of those are indicated by the one expression 'l'1"n
mnv., ~1J'. 2. Unlike English, Hebrew does not have passive modal sentences. What is expressed by passive verbs in English is expressed by the modal verbs followed by a transitive main verb in Hebrew. Subjectless sentence: Expression of need
The room should be cleaned once a day. (Literally, 'it is necessary to clean the room once a day'). Subjectless sentence: Instruction
The room should be cleaned now!
.Dl':J 0)1!:1 linn l1N mpJ., l'l~
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Subjectless sentences: invalid or unfulfilled condition
The room should have been fixed yesterday. The room should have been fixed, but nobody was there to tix it. 13.5.3 Unfulfilled expectations They should have come two hours ago, but we have not heard from them yet. Our parents were supposed/expected to arrive at midnight, but they got here only at four in the morning.
1::1:::> 1inil nN 1it1., ,,~ il'il ..,11J1lN N., '~N ,1inn nN 110., nm 1'1~ . 11llN 1it1l\!l 'IJ il'il
')!:!., ~'lil., 0':J'1~ Wl Oil l))liJ\!1
N.,
1n;~ '~N ,onJl)l\!1
.OilY.l ,m~nJ )l'lil., D'=>'1~
w1 0'1mn
.1f.'1JJ )l:l1N:J P11)l'lil Oil 'JN
Chaoter 14 Clauses and sentences 14. I 14.2 14.3 14.4 14.5 14.6 14.7 14.8 14.9 14.10 14.11 14.12 14.13 14.14 14.15 14.16 14.17 14.18
Introduction Verbal sentences Nominal sentences Equational sentences Existential sentences Sentences of possession El1iptical sentences Classification of sentences by function Classification of sentences by structure Simple sentences Coordinate/compound sentences Complex sentences Complement clauses Attributive clauses Relative clauses Adverbial clauses Conditional sentences Integrated sentences
14.1 Introduction The sentence is the maximal unit of syntax, while the minimal units that compose it are individual words. The major constituents of sentences are the subject and predicate phrases that join to construct a sentence. These constituents combine not only in a linear order, but also in a hierarchical and layered manner. a. A linear arrangement:
The parents registered their kids tor gym classes.
'lU!''liJ D'TI~il llN l~'lll D~1l11i1 .m?~y,.,n
b. A hierarchical. layered structure:
The sentence is represented here by a simplified graphic tree illustration, reflecting the division into the two main parts of the sentence:
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m~mmn '1lY''ll~ 0'1~'i1 nN UJ\!11 0'1mn
---------
Predicate
Subject
m~n/\!1~ 0'1~~N ~ m!mynn '1lV''ll':1
0'1~'i1 m.c
ln\!11
In addition, it is useful to have a description of the syntactic units that constitute the sentence not only in the traditional terms of subject and predicate, but also in terms of the composition of its constituents: a noun phrase and a verb phrase. Each phrase has a head, also referred to as the nucleus that represents the entire phrase. It also can have dependent elements that provide additional information. Thus in the sentence above the core noun of the noun phrase O'"nnn 'the parents' constitutes the head, and the core verb of the verb phrase UJ\!11 'registered' constitutes the head. The 'dependent' components of the head noun are usually referred to as the attributes, while the 'dependent' components of the verb phrase that accompany the verb nucleus, are usually referred to as objects and adjuncts. Types of phrases
The major (phrasal) sentence constituents: Noun phrase (NP) Vcrb phrase (VP) Adjective phrase, functioning as an attribute (AdjP) Prepositional phrase, functioning as an adjunct (PP)
('ll"~) 'ln'll C)l1'~
(!:1":::1) '~Yl!l t-tl1'~ Cn"~) 1Nln t-tl1'~
''":::1) on' .,,,,:::~
The phrases can also be identified by their syntactic function: Subject phrase 'NV.m '111':::1 Predicate phrase 'NWl ')n'~ Types of sentences
There are two main categories of sentences identified by the content of their predicate: Verbal sentences on';l)ll!l 0'"!1\!ln Nominal sentences O"ln'll O'"!:l\!ln
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14.2 Verbal sentences Verbal sentences are defined by their predicate. Those with a predicate that consists of a verb as its nucleus are considered verbal sentences. The main verb can be in tense, or part of a verb phrase where it appears in an infinitive form, or part of a verb phrase with a subject suffix or prefix, or without a subject. David works at the electric company. David can work for his father. We worked for David's Dad. Work and don't waste time!
·'~~nn n1Jn~ i~W i)i
. ,,~ l'ON '~N il~).l' 'l:J' i1i .i)i
'~ NJN '~N ))13).1 ! ''"~nn ,N, 1iJ)J
14.2.1 Verbal sentences without subjects There are two main types of verbal sentences without subjects: 1. Imperative sentences
By the nature of their meaning, imperative sentences do not include subjects. They are used to give orders or directives to a second party, which is present. Their form, therefore, reflects the person being addressed. mn,:m 1., ,ili David, go home! Rina, get out of here! !)N:J~'N~,ilP1 David and Rina, close the door! !n,in nN l1lU ,m'11 ili 2. Impersonal sentences
D"nno D'O!>I!In
There are sentences where the subject is not expressed overtly, but rather is implied. There are others where the subject is impersonal. 1. Verbs in sentences without a subject are always in the third person masculine plural, and can be in the present, past or future. ln English such impersonal subjects are expressed by they, one, you, or by the verb being in the passive voice. A similar general impersonal subject is assumed and implied, though not expressed, in Hebrew. .0'1~i~ il'1!lti:J. (One) does not talk in the library. The danger to the environment was .Tl3'::10' m:::~on 'YlN Wi' N';:l not known then. lf(you) do what (you) should, the :l~tJn , 1'1~~ il~ l~)l' ON situation will improve. .1!ln~'
N'
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b. Another way of expressing a sentence without an overt subject is to have a passive verb in the third person, masculine singular. In English this type of subject is usually expressed by the pronoun it (sometimes called 'a dummy it', since it does not refer to any particular object or event). It was agreed on to fire the striking workers. .O'TI:lWn It was decided to hire new workers. .0'\!Jin O'l:lnJ 1tJ\!JJ \JJmn c. There are sentences that consist of fixed expressions that lack a grammatical subject. They usually describe a state of being or an emotional state, such as 'It is hot' on or 'It is sad' :ll::i)l. In Hebrew these expressions usually consist of adjectives in the third person masculine. In English such sentences start with an impersonal subject it.
It is not easy to study Hebrew. It is important to know what is new. It is cold outside.
.lll1:J}l il~J., 2.i2. ~b . \!.linn~
mn) :ll\!Jn -''<m:l J..i2
To include the logical subject in statements such as :ll::i}J 'it is sad', or 1p 'it is cold', and explain who is sad, or who is cold, these stative expressions are followed by a prepositional phrase with -? 'to', to which a noun or a pronoun suffix are attached. That noun or pronoun suffix can be said to be the logical subject of the sentence, but not its grammatical subject. m:>) on is it hot to you? -+ Are you hot? .m) :ll~Y it is sad for Ron-+ Ron is sad. it is known to me -+ I am aware. A comparative note As seen in the examples above, in English similar sentences are, tor the most part, not thought of as impersonal sentences. However, there are sentences where the 'dummy' pronoun it supplies an impersonal subject, both the logical and grammatical.
.!! is ditlicult for us to remember everything. I1 is important for everyone to come on time.
.?:m TIN 1l:n) ))';:~ n\!Jp . ,m:J Nl:JJ OJl:>? ::n\!Jn
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(Jzapler 14: Clauses and sentences
d. The subject in impersonal sentences can also be overtly expressed by an impersonal pronoun: Somebody told me this story. .mn ,,!:l,tm nN 'J l!l'U 1il't!l1:J Anybody could have known this. .m TIN mrr' ?1:l' nm 1nN ?:l
14.3 Nominal sentences
D"Jn\!1 c•09\!1Jl
Nominal sentences are sentences whose predicate does not have a verb. The predicate has as its nucleus a noun, an adjective, a prepositional phrase, or an adverbial expression. In the present tense there is no verb 'is' or 'are' and no tense indication. The future and past tenses are usually indicated by the verb nm 'be' in their appropriate conjugated form. At times the verb i1'i1 'be' is also presenl in the moods. Other verbs of being or becoming, such as nm), n'iJ).I) or? 1!li1, can be used as well. The major types of nominal sentences are: equational sentences, existential sentences and sentences of possession.
14.4 Equational sentences
'li'I'T 1 09\Yn
Equational sentences are defined by the composiLion of their predicate. The predicate consists of a noun phrase, an adjective, or a prepositional phrase, such as: This movie is an animated tilm. .1"1~tl \J1U mn \JIUn The audience's response is not . m.J'f1!lt~ N? ~mpi1 ?'iJ i1:n:mn surnrising. Women are from Venus and men arc from Mars. 14.4.1 The copula (link) "TliHil Equational sentences separate the subject and predicate by means of a copula (i~iN), which is the link between the two items. In the present tense it consists of third person personal pronouns. The copula usually agrees in gender and number with the head noun of the subject phrase. It may be regarded as equivalent to the English copula verb 'to be' in the presenllense. The new movie lli an animated tilm. . 1"1~tl \JIU N1n 'iJifln \J1Uil NJ JJJ:J ~'il JiliJil J'iJ nJ1lT1il The audience's response ~ not at all encouraging. .T1i11Yr.:J
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319
Women are from Venus and men are from Mars. The past and future 1lU'< is a finite verb form of 'to be' in the third person, and it usually agrees in gender and number with the subject of the sentence. The old movie was a Western. .)1l'WY.> iWl )\!J'il \Jltm The audience's response will be very positive. His family was very rich.
In the tirst and second person of equational sentences there is no copula in the present tense. 3'd person A vi Katz is a doctor. l st person I am also a doctor.
.N!ln N1il .N!:I1i
'P ~:tN ~)N
Ol
However, when the predicate is definite, in everyday speech even lirst or second person can have a third person copula that separates between the subject and the predicate:
3'11 person 1
l " person
Who is the doctor here? I am the doctor here.
!)N:J N!l1ii1 N1il 't::l N!l11i1 ))N/)N:J N!l1i.D. N1il ))N .)N:J
In sentences in the past and future tenses the verb 'be' serves all persons. 3'd person Rina Bar was a party member. 2nd person Were you also a party member? The negation of a nominal sentence consists of the negative particle NJ. In the present tense, the existential expression w~ can be used with a personal pronoun suffix. .v1n N~ rt,:ti1 The house is not new. . v1n N., Nm rt~:Jn
.v.rrn )),N rt,Jn The house was not new.
.~.rrn nm N., n,Jn
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14.4.2 Predicate: prepositional phrase or adverbs When the predicate of a nominal phrase is a prepositional phrase, the prepositional phrase has a fixed form and is not affected by any ofthe other constituents of the sentence. Predicate: prepositional phrase
Haifa is in northern Israel. The article was about the economic situation. The interview will be in your office.
.Jl'fl'lJ' )1!:!~:1
N'n
. 'JJ?::m :1~on ?~
nnnn
n:InJn
.1no
N'il
il\!.~'l!:lil
. D..,
nnnn
iliYUY.:Jil
.)NJ
il'n'
)PNril
Predicate: adverb
The meeting is tomorrow. The restaurant was there. The interview will be here.
When the prepositional phrase or adverb marks location, the copula can be changed to the verb N~m '(is/are) located'. The cafe is on the beach. The restaurant is downtown. The offices are located here.
.D'n n!:l.., ?~ .1').Jil
N~m
n!:lpn n':l
~:J1Y.:J::l
nN~Y.:J)
il1)JOY.lil
-lN::I
D'N~Y.:J)
D'11..,Y.lil
14.4.3 The demonstrative pronoun as copula A clause that begins with an infinitive or a question word or with a subordinating particle can constitute the subject of a sentence. The copula in this configuration is usually the demonstrative pronoun and not the subject pronoun. 1. Head of sentence: infinitive phrase
In this type of sentence the infinitive phrase, functioning as a gerund, replaces the noun phrase: :l':lnnn m D'lil .,)J O!:liJ., Climbing (to climb) mountains!§. Dan's main hobby. .)1 J'iJ 'ljJ')Jil Meeting (to meet) local people~ the purpose of the tourists.
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•n/10 ilrl This type of sentence is introduced by a question word followed by the particle-\?, which introduces the opening clause. N~ \J,\!.1!) m 0:::1~ 1!l'U Nm~ n~ What he told you ~just not true. 2. Head of sentence: whatever/whoever
Whoever did not do his job, were not the people who work here, i!; was the director.
IJU
)'il
N.,
.)):::1)
ill ,.,\!.1 !1N il\!.1)1 N'~ !Q
il'il ill ,)N:::I 0'1:1)})\!J O'\!.llNil .~mmn
3. Head of sentence: (the fact) that... ... ~e~ (;u) This type of sentence is introduced by the subordinating particle -\!.1 followed by an opening clause. This subordinating particle can be preceded by m, similar to the use of the phrase •the tact (that)' in English.
That tact that he has not been working for a year is a surprising thing. That he has not been working for a year is a tact.
ill ill\!.1 "'1:1~ iJW N~ N)i1~ .~l!1!)J:l
1::11
.lli::il, ill \!.I 1::1:::1 1:lU1 N'::t N m~ .i11::JW
As the subject of such sentences is a clause and not a nominal entity, it has no number or gender features. In such instances it is the predicate of the sentence that determines the type of the ll,N, which docs not consist of an independent subject pronoun but of the masculine or feminine form of the demonstrative pronoun. The past and future tenses are handled by the verb 'to be' conjugated in the appropriate form that agrees with the predicate. 14.4.4 Linking verbs a. Verbs of becoming
In addition to copulas like the verb nm •to be' and the pronouns (personal and demonstrative) that may work as alternatives to it, there exist copula-like auxiliary verbs whose main function is also to connect between the subject and predicate, but which add some 'verb-like' quality to the relationship between the two that goes beyond merely stating identity or quality. The most common involve a change-of-state, or 'becoming', as in the following:
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Clau.~es
The policeman Erez became a sergeant this week. Ephraim has become a good-looking boy. With (the passing of) time, he became the Governor's right hand man.
and sentences
.':7Y;I~2 )m~il J!lil nN 1\Jl't'il
.mo 1lnl nm.ll 'Jl) 0"1!lN ':7'lll)'1J' l'C'?) n'ltYJ Nm ,1Jm oy .':7vmn
b. Verbs describing state and change of state
The linking verbs can describe various stages of being, becoming, and remammg: They were our very good friends. They became our very good friends. They remained our very good friends.
.1)~\!.1 D'.Jmil D'1lnill'il Oil
.l)'J'l! o,:nun D'llnil l'ill Oil
D'J.)Uil 0'1J.nn llN'lJ) Oil .U'J\!.1
c. Verbs or perception
In addition to the verbs of 'becoming' or those describing a state, there are also verbs or perception that can be used to link a subject and its predicate. They have to be completed by adverbs, adjectives, or other nouns. Predicate of Clause 2: adverb
The main verbs of perception are ilNll 'seem' or ).11J\!.I) 'sounds'. They are often completed by the adverbs ll\J 'good', or ))1 'bad'. The adverb does not change its shape regardless of the gender or number of the subject. .Yl N':7 n'N1l ill'JY Aliza doesn't look bad. Jt does not sound good. ..Jl\J YO\!.Il N':7 m Predicate of Clause 2: adjective It is possible to consider the verb and its complement as consisting of
two separate propositions. ln this case the adjective or noun following the verb of perception agrees with the subject in gender and number. You seem - O'Nll onN Y()u are sad. .D'J.l~Y onN The two clauses arc fused into one by omitting the subject of the second clause, which is redundant, and combining the two clauses. Combined into a sentence Why do you seem so sad? !0':1,~)1 1::l ':7::> OlN1l onN il1J~
Chapter 14: Clauses
This drama soundsThis drama is very melodramatic. Combined into a sentence: This drama sounds very melodramatic.
andsentenc£~s
323
nr.n1n .l,N.t.J !'l'\.J.t.J1il~:m l1Nli1 nr.n1n - !'lll.t.J\!.Il nz..nn
l1'\..1.t.J11l~.t.J l1Y.t.J~l l1Nli1 il.t.J11il
.llN.t.J
There are other verbs of this type where the copulative element goes well beyond the mere subject-predicate relationship. .)'l~.t.J )''N1.t.J~ .J\!.InJ )1 Dan is considered/regarded as an excellent interviewer. Dl 1 i7 •09'eln
14.5 Existential sentences
The predicate of existential sentences is the existential expression \!.'~ 'there is/are' or its negation )'~ 'there is/are not'. It points to the existence or the state of the subject. There is a pool in the backyard. There is no big yard, but there is a nice garden.
.i1ll::>~::J.
i1=>'1J. \!.''
ilJ'l \!.'' 'nN ,n711l 1~n .1!.1:! .n1nm
In the present tense, the existential expressions do not have number and gender features. They are used for all subjects, be they masculine or feminine, singular or plural: .n::P.JO:J )l1lN.t.J Jl'\.J \!.'' There is an organized tour of the area. There is no matinee today. .CJ1'ill1'Y.ll' m~n )'N There are settlements in the south. .CJll1J. CJ'J.l\~.m \!.'' There is no news today. Past and future: 'to be'+ agreement features
When these sentences are in the past or future, the verb 'to be' is used in the third person. The verb fonns in the past and future, unlike the existential expression, have features of gender and number. If the subject is masculine singular, the verb torm is the third person singular nm, if the subject is feminine singular, the verb form is ill"l"il, and when the subject is plural, the verb torm is ,'il. There is a new nightclub in town. There were rumors in the air. There won't be another such chance.
.1'YJ. \!lin il~'~ 1l1Yl.t.J \!.1~ .,,l,N:J
llW,~\!.1 ,~il
.llNl::> nmnm il~
nmn N~
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14.6 Sentences of possession
and sentences
l11 ljl •og.un
Sentences of possession describe the relationship between two objects. The function of the objects can be described as 'possessor' and 'possessed'. The relationship between these objects is not necessarily that of actual ownership; it can be one of having certain qualities or characteristics. The actual process for creating sentences of possession can be described as the putting together of the following components: I. Starting with an existential expression: 'there is/there are' \'J~ (or its negative) 2. Adding the subject of the existential expression, such as 'interesting books' D'l''lYY.:l D'1!lU
We now have an existential sentence: There are interesting books. 3. What is needed is information about who has the interesting books. This information is added by means of a prepositional phrase, consisting of the preposition -~ and a noun/noun phrase or a pronoun suffix ofthe possessor. 4. We now have a sentence of possession: Dan has interesting books. We can identify the two main nominal entities as: Possessed item: 'interesting books' Possessor: 'Dan' The 'possessed' item is the grammatical subject of the sentence, and the 'possessor' is part of the prepositional phrase. This is counterintuitive tor English speakers, since the possessor of the object is not in the subject position. In English, one simply follows the rules of other verbal sentences: 'Dan (subject)+ has (verb)+ a book (direct object)'. Dan is the possessor, and he constitutes the logical and grammatical subject of the sentence. In Hebrew there is no verb that expresses the notion of 'to have'. The statement of possession is therefore conveyed by other means, as seen above. 'Dan has a book' is literally expressed by a statement of this nature: 'There is to Dan a book', or 'a book exists (belonging) to Dan '.
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A comparative note In English many inanimate objects can be the subjects of sentences of possession, but their Hebrew counterparts are usually locative complements of existential expressions in existential sentences. .i1=>'1l mnl1")JJ 'tl' This house has a pool. The town does not have many parks. .O'll i1l1i11'l'l )'N 14.6.1 Sentences of possession in present tense The present tense of a sentence of possession is indicated by the predicate existential expressions 't'?. 'there is/there arc' and its negative counterpart )'~ 'there isn't/there aren't'. These existential expressions do not have gender or number features. They arc used whether the noun is masculine or feminine, singular or plural. He has some friends in Tel Aviv. .:J':JN-~::m:J 0'1Jn ,;, 'tl' This (f) student has lots of work. .i111:Jl' i1:J1i1 TINtn Tl'm1100~ 'tl' Dan has no friends in Tel Aviv. 14.6.2 Past and future: 'to be'+ agreement features When these sentences are in the past or future, the verb 'to be' is used in the third person. The agreement in number and gender is with the head noun of the subject (the 'possessed' noun). He had some friends in Tel Aviv. .::l'JN-~TIJ 0'1:Jn 1~ l'il Dan had no opportunity to travel. -~""~ nm:nm )17 nmm N~ Will you have time to come and help ~'~ 1H~~ Nll~ .ml 1~ i1'i1' me? 1 won't have a problem helping you. 14.6.3 Possession is not necessarily ownership To indicate true ownership, it is also possible to use the adjective 1!'?1 and the preposition -~. This phrase is equivalent to the English 'belongs to'. This computer belongs to everyone it is not just yours. This car does not belong to me. These fields belong to the agricultural station. All the laboratories belong to the government.
Nm- 0~1:>~ J"'tl mn J\!Jnt:m -l~'tl p1 N~ .'~ n:>"'tl N~ nN m n')l:>nn mm~ ~ n7Nn mi'tln .ll'N~pnn
.il~'tlnY.l~ m:J"'tl mnyon ~::~
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The past and future of such sentences are indicated by adding the verb 'to be' in the appropriate tense. The coat used to belong to my big .?n:m "f""N? J"'ll i1'il J')lY.li1 brother. One day all of this will belong to you. There is a ditlerence in meaning between O')")YY.l 0'1!lt1 yr? \!.n 'Dan has interesting books', and 117 O':J"V ilJNil 0'1!lt1il 'These books belong to Dan'. While the first sentence indicates possession, it does not necessarily indicate ownership.
14.6.4 Word order When the 'possessor' is a pronoun, the word order is fixed: .J'JN-':mJ o~I.J.n 1? \!.1~ He has some friends in Tel Aviv. When the 'possessor' is a full noun or a noun phrase, there are two possible orderings. The word order can also follow the one above, with the existential statement initiating the sentence: .mPnJ O'Jllf.' ~?v nn!lVY.lJ v~ My family has relatives in Haifa. The other option · · when a full noun or a noun phrase is involved- is for the 'possessor' to initiate the same sentence as the topic, followed by the rest of the information in the sentence. My family has relatives in Haifa. .il!l'm o~JY1f.' V' ,,.., ilt1!l'iJY.lJ Less commonly, if one really wishes to focus attention on the possessor as the topic of the sentence, one can front it further: In the example below, the topic ofthe sentence is 'my family', and the comment about the family is that it has some relatives in Tel Aviv. O':lYlp ilJ V', 'J'tJ iln!lVY.lil My family, .it has relatives in Haifa. . il!l'nJ.
14.6.5 Sentences of possession with indefinite subjects Notice that all the examples and explanations above had indefinite subjects. . )~'l!:J)l I ))l'V ,, 'i!' I have a class right now. .il1):J)IJ !l)':,.IJ \!)~ 11? Dan has problems at work. Who does not have problems at work?
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The main point of a sentence with an indefinite subject is to transmit new information about the existence of a certain item and its relationship to its possessor. 14.6.6 Possessive sentences with definite subjects The situation is more complex when the subject is detinite. The normative rules governing sentences of possession with definite subjects are the same as the ones that govern sentences with indefinite subjects. Expected normative use (rarefy in practice): 1 have new books. Indefinite Subject: Definite Subject: I have the new books
.O''tnn 0'1!>0 '~ 'V' 0'\!rrnn 0'1!lt:m ,:;, 'V'
that you gave me. .':;, nm'V Common use In common use speakers avoid using definite subjects in possessive sentences. They tend to endow the existential expression of possession -~ 'V' with a verbal quality. As such it assumes the status of a transitive verb. Thus 'the possessed' item takes on a new role of a direct object, as is indicated by the introduction of the detinitc accusative marker nN, which only precedes a definite direct object. I have the book that you gave me. We don't have the money t(Jr the tickets.
. >7 nm'V 1!lt:m nN ,~ 'V'
J'::l'V:J ')O::m l1N l)~ )'N .0'0'01~il
Another strategy to avoid using >7 nm'V o>1!10i1 ,~ '0' is to paraphrase the sentence ''l~N on '' nm\!.1 D'l!!Oil 'the books that you gave me are at my place', i.e. 'I have them'. Those who insist that the use of nN is ungrammatical, still have to contend with the problem in such utterances as 'I have it', where a direct object pronoun takes the place of the subject noun. Such a sentence can be expressed only with the addition of the direct object marker nN with the appropriate pronoun suffix: 1l1lN/Ol11NiilmNt)l1lN Do you have the book that I gave you? Sorry, but I don't havel!;.
?1' lJ'll1J'V 1!lt1ill1N l'l 'V' .,mN ~~ )>N 7:JN ,i))\J~Y.l
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Chapter 14: Clauses and sentences
14.6.7 Sentences of possession in the past and future In the past and future tenses, the verb rnm;. is inserted to indicate tense, but unlike the existential expressions 1'NI'tl\ the verb forms do include gender and number features that reflect the features of the grammatical subject, and thus are subject to agreement with it The agreement is not that simple or obvious, as the subject that governs such rules follows the verbal expression. Note that all the verb forms are in the third person, regardless of who the 'possessor' is. Also, in the past and future tenses the negative particle N~ is used for negation of the expressions of possession. Past tense statements
Gender and Number of •possessed' objects Masc. Sing. We had a class today. . OPil 1UI''tl n~ iPil .::ny';t n'nm ,;. nnnn N'J Fem. Sing. He had no plan for this evening. He had many problems at work. Future tense statements
Gender and Number of •possessed' objects Masc. We won't have a class .O)'il 1W''tl ))';t n'm N':1 Sing. today. Fem. Sing. He'll have a plan t{lr this !:J1Y~ n'J;:)m ,'J nmn evening? lie WQn't have any problems at work.
The possessed noun, which is the grammatical subject of the sentence, detennines the gender and number features, and unlike English, the verb never reflects the person features of the possessor. This is a frequent source of errors for speakers of English, where the possessor is the grammatical as well as the logical subject of sentences of possession. A fairly common mistake made by non-native speakers is to work in a 'translation mode' and start the sentence with the possessor as the subject:
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329
Masculine. singular l had a class today .e1'n '=11~'\Y 2 ~ The correct verbal form is determined by the noun 'class' and not by a subject pronoun, such as 'I'. Masculine. singular I had a class today .m'n 11)!''lJ '' n'n The position of adverbs and subordinate clauses
Adverbs or subordinate clauses (such as time clauses) in sentences of possession can initiate a sentence of possession or come at the end of the sentence. When we studied we had many friends. We had many friends when we studied.
.D'"l::m nJ"ln 1l' 1m 1n~''lJ:J .~n~'J'lJ:> D'>1Jn m1n l:l'J ,,n
Cancellation of gender and number features in colloquial speech
Agreement features of gender and number are sometimes cancelled in colloquial spoken Hebrew. Sentences of possession include the verb il'm'mm with no gender or number features, even when the subject is feminine or plural. This variant is particularly common in casual or rapid speech, and only when the verb comes before the subject. It is important to emphasize that this is not an option in written Hebrew, nor in standard or more formal speech. Normative ! once had such a car. We'll have some new workers in the plant. Substandard but common colloquial use 1 once had such a car. We'll have some new workers in the plant.
.m-tl:l n'l1:t~ OV!l '' nnnn D''lJ1n D'1::m.J 11'J
,m,
.'J)!!l~J
.mn:;, n'l1:>o D)!~.,, il'il D''lJ1n 0'1J,Y 1l7 il'il' .~)1!10:1
14.6.8 No infinitive in sentences of possession Possessive expressions (\!J', -'J nm, etc.) do not have an infinitive mood. Appropriate paraphrases have to be found, and the message has to be stated in other ways. This is done often through the use of subordinate clauses in the future tense. At other times, the idea can be conveyed through an impersonal modal verb.
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I hope to have a dog. I hope that I \vill have a dog. Paraphrase: One needs to have a lot of money. Paraph rase: One needs a Iot of money, if one wants an apartment in town.
n:nn (mmYJ) J'"l~ i11~1 D~~n
DN ,t')U:> -1'}JJ
14.6.9 Sentences of possession with expanded subjects A clause that begins with an infinitive, or a question word, can also constitute the subject of a sentence of possession. As such it has no number or gender features, and the verb in the past and future has the form of the masculine singular. I have something to tell you. I have nothing more to say to you. Did you have somewhere to live'? David will not have anybody to talk to.
14.7 Elliptical sentences
-1? 1':m? m'lln 'J 'll' -1? l'ln? nn •m' 'J 1'N
nn? il~'N o:>? n1 n .1J1?
m OY i1'i1' N? 111?
c•,on
c•o9~n
An elliptical sentence is one in which some component ofthe sentence is lacking, but can be figured out from the context or from syntactic clues. The general assumption is that the speaker and the listener share a common background, or a context, and therefore can fill the gaps. There can be overt dues that point to the missing clement. In a sentence like 1)~ln 'we have arrived', for instance, the subject pronoun umN 'we' can easily be reconstructed from the pronominal residue at the end of the verb form itself,))-; We got there only after seven. In a sentence which has two verbal clauses, the subject need not be repeated in the second clause as it can be reconstructed from the earlier mention: Moshe had breakfast and went to work. The same is true of gaps in parallel structures: in the following example, it suffices tor the verb nm'tl to appear in the first sentence;
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331
repeating it in the following parallel structure would have been superfluous: Dan drinks coffee, and Dina cold tea. ."lp nn m'"T) ,il!lP nnw )"T In a conversational situation, the response to a question is often lacking part of the sentence: !On·nn il!l'N Where were you? In the library. .i1'1!l'O::a There are other cases, where the sentence consists of an interjection, warning or sending a message to someone who may be in the proximity of the speaker: Sit down, please!
Quiet!
Elliptical sentences can also consist of general statements that express the speaker's opinion/feeling regarding the world around him/her, or his/her experience: (It is) suffocating (It is) hard for me (It is) boring
P'mo ,~;~
n'l.lp
OO~'l.IO
All right, OK (It's a) pity Great!
::amJ")l'O:J ~Jn
11nl
In most cases, these sentences consist of predicates, or comments, providing the new information the speaker/writer wishes to impart. The hidden subject, usually an it-type one (e.g. 11m m 'It is great!') is self evident and redundant. While sentences, on the whole, include all minimally required syntactic components; there arc occasions in which one of the required syntactic components is missing. Some elliptical sentences lack the predicate. Such sentences tend to occur in such contexts as news headlines, greetings, or advertisements: News headline
A petition to the Supreme Court: Converting the beaches to paybeaches- a blight to the state Missing component in parentheses
A petition (was presented) to the Supreme Court.
un 'liJ. n1n1) : ~"lJ.~ i11'l1>' - m~'l!.'n::a o~!lm~ n~n1n
'!lm n:;,'!m m'iOn:m
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Chapter 14: Clauses and sentences
Converting the public beaches to pay-beaches (constitutes) a blight to the state.
cn~\!.ITIJ 0'~1n~ n~n1n '!l1n n:J'!)il
. ill'"Tn !l:Jn cmmo>
A birthday greeting
To darling Tamar Lots of joy Lots of love And most important: health Mom, Dad and your brothers
n"T'11il
m•'7 n:nJ
ili1nnn 1nr1., nnoYJ nJ1n
n:mN nJ1n mN'"l:J : :J,'lln ':Jil
OlnN.m N.J.N. ,NON
Missing component in parentheses
(we wish you) a lot of joy, lots of love, and most important health, (greeting is from) Mom, Dad and your brothers
,nnn'tl i1J1n ,,., O'~mNo ,lmN} ,NON(O) ,n1N.'"IJ J,\?n ':Jn1 ilJilN
O'nN.m NJN
Advertisement
NetAction. Fantastic sales! Group purchasing in wholesale prices.
n1li019
·1,\'-IPN.m ! '{,~.,!) n1"l':J0 .'Nl,"'t:l "\ 'ni'J:J l1' !1~,J p il":lj7
Missing component in parentheses
There (are) fantastic sales. Group purchasing (is available/possible) in wholesale prices.
. '(,~,!) 311"\">:JO (\!.''}
,,nnJ (!1'1'li!:IN) !l'mnJp il"lP ."Nll'-''0
14.8 Classification of sentences by function Sentences can also be classified according to their function and content. Some arc used for making statements, others pose questions, while others issue directives, and some include exclamations of surprise, or convey excitement. They have illocutionary functions, and describe ditlercnt aspects of language performance. The following is the traditional categorization of sentences by the function that they perform:
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Chapter 14: Clauses and sentences
Declarative sentences
(,.li'l) •n•n 'O!>IUD
Declarative sentences make factual statements or describe situations or impressions. Such sentences usually end with a period. We bought a small house outside town. Our house is surrounded by woods. Interrogative sentences
.1'Y" '(1n~
'"P l1')J l)'lP
.nw11n:::1 "'Pm 1J.,'lJ n':lil i'I'JHIU 'U!>~Un
Interrogative sentences pose questions. They are initiated by question words or ones that require a yes/no answer, and can end with rising intonation at the end of the sentence indicating a question. They usually end with a question mark. Where did you buy a house? Is it a new house?
?TP:J. OJl'lP ii!)'N
?'lJ1n Jl'J m
Imperative sentences
Imperative sentences issue directives (commands, instructions, requests, prohibitions etc.). They usually end with an exclamation mark. They can have imperative verb commands, or infinitive forms. Sit down, please! Be seated, please! Turn around! Smoking is not allowed! No smoking! Exclamatory sentences
!n~p:J:J. tl~
! Jl:::l\!1., Nl ! m!l i11 mN
!)'lJY.,110N ! )'lJY'::I
N.,
i'IM'1i' 'U!>~Un
Exclamatory sentences have an emotive or attitudinal meaning. They are usually subjectless sentences, often initiated by an adverbial expression, and at times consist of one word only. They usually end with an exclamation mark. How you have grown! Great! What a true catastrophe!
! '!:J)'
!"Jl'nN 1n:IN ill'N
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Chapter /4: Clauses and sentences
14.9 Classification of sentences by structure The three main groups of sentences are presented in a short summary, and each wi11 then be discussed separately. 1. Simple sentences
o•OIIIU9 D'0911Url
Simple sentences include one subject and one predicate. They are usually composed of a noun phrase and a verb phrase or a verbless predicate. Each sentence includes one proposition. Shakespeare is considered the most important playwright. Hanoch Levin and Nissim Alloni arc the important Israeli playwrights of the 20 111 century.
::n\!Jnn 'Ntnt::l':::l :l\!Jnl 1'!lt7p\!J .1m'J. on 'l1JN D't7l1 )>1':::1 11ln 0'l1VJnil 0''JN1'tJ'il O>Nlnr.Jil .0'1'tJ)Jil i1Nl'Ji1 J\!.1
2. Coordinate/compound sentences (o•1::unn) o•num o•0911Un Coordinate sentences include two or more separate and independent clauses that are usually linked by conjunctions.
The well-known author received many international awards, however he did not win the Nobel Prize tor Literature. We were exhausted, but we arrived in time for Dad's birthday party. 3. Complex sentences
O't71!!J n::n ).11i>n 1!l1t7n n::n NJ Nm OJ)N ,C"t::l1NJ)lJ. .m1!lt7':::1 Jl1l t71!lJ )t::llJ U)J~il J:J.N ,0'!:1").1 1l"il .NJN J\!.1 !1iJ1ilil 01' JU'lnJ D':l::nln D'0911Un
Complex sentences include one independent clause and at least one subordinate clause. You knew that they could not come. .N1:l':7 1JJ)' N':::l Oil'() 0!1).11' 'iil Some sentences are compound-complex, that is, they have more than one independent clause and at least one dependent clause: After the party was over, my grandfather claimed that he knew about the party, but we think that it was truly a surprise.
">';7'tJ N:J U , i11Y.m ilJ 'Ul'Jil\'-1 '1nN ';7:JN , i1J 'UY.lil J)J ).li' N)il'tJ l).I\J !1r.JNJ. ilTI"il !1Nl'tJ Ql:J'())n 1lnlN .i1~!1!lil
Chapter 14:
Clause.~
335
and sentences
14.10 Simple sentences A simple sentence consists of one independent clause. such as: l"11n!l:J n!l'n~ l':JN-'Jn.O 1).)10) We drove from Tel Aviv to Haifa in less than an hour. A simple sentence is composed minimaJly of the following components: a subject and a predicate. Each of the main components of the simple sentence can have variants. l. The subject can be a single noun, a pronoun or a noun phrase, and more rarely can also be a clause (in which case the sentence is no longer simple -see section on complement clauses below, p 340): The road from Tel Aviv to Haifa is in good condition. That I drive from Tel Aviv to Haifa is not surprising- I work there. Driving from Tel Aviv to Haifa is not something special.
:J:::I.Ol Nlil
il!l'nJ :PJN-'Jno 'll'l:Jil .J1\J
m ,n!l'n'J J':JN 'Jn.O m.ml 'lN'll .0\!1 J1ilW 'JN -Y'l"1!l.O N., lil\!1.0 N'J
m ,n!l'n'J J'JN .,,.0 )1nl'J .inl'.O
2. Verbs may have complements that are obligatory, and others that are optional. .'"T.O ,n_o O'lin) on They drive too fast. He will meet with the advisor tomorrow afternoon.
,nN ,n.O '().11'il
o.)) \!ll!l"
Nlil
.O"Im::m
3. There are also simple sentences that arc elliptical sentences, i.e. one of its main components may be omitted. .01'l 0''1:))-l!l m'nn J1N tl''J':>NY.l (They) feed the animals twice a day.
14.10.1 'Inclusive• sentences As noted above, the simple sentence basically states one proposition. It consists of one clause, in contrast to the coordinate and complex sentences that have more than one. 'J)I pm'p:J ili'"l up 1nm 'JN'1N Ariel and Tamar bought ice cream at a stand on the beach. .O'il "Jm
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Chapter /4: Clauses and sentences
However. because the statement above has two separate entities as its subject, it can be stated by two simple sentences: .ili''Jl mp 'JN'1N Ariel bought ice cream. Tamar bought ice cream. .ili'Jl ilmp 1Y.l!l Because some of the content of each proposition is identical to that of the other, the respective subjects can be combined into one, and the sentence can be expanded in this manner: Ariel and Tamar bought icc cream. .ili'JllJP 1Y.lm JN'1N The question that is posed is whether a sentence that includes coordinated phrases, such as two or more subjects, or two or more predicates, or several other items of the same syntactic category and level, should be still considered a simple sentence. The answer is often 'yes', since the sentence still constitutes one main proposition: llp Oil ill'~"· However, in traditional Hebrew grammar it is often viewed as a separate sub-category, and referred to as ~'::11::> ".!:l'tiY.l, an 'inclusive' sentence, with an underlying structure of two separate propositions. Here are more illustrations: Shmuel and Neta had coffee. Two subjects:
Shmuel drank coffee. Neta drank coffee.
. il.!:lP i11l'tl ~N'lO'tl . il.!:lP
nnntt~
))m
They drank coffee and ate cake at the cafe. Two verbs
They drank coffee. They ate cake.
. il.!:lp 111'tl
on
.mw 1'J::>N oil
Waiter, bring me cotlee and cake. Two direct objects
Bring me cotlee! Bring me cake! Waiter, bring (to) me and (to) my wite coffee and cake.
! il!lj:P'J N::J.il
!illl)) lJ N::J.il
Chapter 14: Clauses und sentences
Two indirect objects Bring (to) me coffee and cake. Bring (to) her coftee and cake.
337
!il:mn il!)p '7 NJil !itmn n.!:lp n7 NJil
The coordination is on the phrase level, but on the sentence level there is a good case to make that there is but one main proposition and therefore the sentences can be viewed as simple sentences, with expanded phrases.
14.11 Coordinate/compound sentences Coordinate sentences, also referred to as compound sentences, are sentences that include more than one independent clause. A conjunction often joins the two or more separate sentences. There can also be some relationship between the component sentences, which is indicated by the type of conjunction that joins them. What distinguishes the coordinate sentence is the tact that it comprises of two syntactic structures of the same level, two independent sentences that are joined into one longer sentence, while each one remains intact. David and Leah went to the movies, and their children stayed home.
/
O,l~m} )J)l~1p7 1:l?il ilNJ) 111
.Jl'JJ nN'lll OilJ'll
"
)J1l~1P7 1:l?il ilN~1 111
JVJJ 11N'lll 0'11m
Here are some of the conjunctions that link independent sentences and define their mutual relationship: Choice or either ... or
il""l'"U.
iN iN ... iN
Addition and also as well too
n~om
-)
0~
0~1---D~
'"ll!<
33g
Conclusion
therefore consequently as a result
Chapter I 4: Clause.t and sentences
iUj70T.l
P~VP~ T~'!;l':?
Ti? '~
Opposition
but however but nevertheless nonetheless
niT.l'.lJ
'~~
0~!\N
1~ '~0~
nN'l
~'?:;t
Illustrations:
More than 4000 students gave up their summer vacation this year, and they attend school every morning. Y oni returned late, but Dalia came
back early. He knew il would hurt us, bul he did it anyhow. There is a water shortage, and consequently everyone is asked to save waler belween 1-5 p.m. We are not tired at all, so therefore we plan to go out and have a good time this evening.
nn'1 O'im7n 4,000-t.:l 1m' O'J.~"nm ,'Jn)n VJ!nnn 7~ mVJn .1!ltm n'J.J. 1pn 'it.:l n~'lil n,~,.
?:tN ,ln1Nt.:llm ')P .OijJ)t.:l
N1n nNt 7J:J1 ,1):1 l'~., m\!.1 l'1., Nm .m nN nVJl' OJ1J ]Jl!:JJ1 ,O'Y-!::111tJnt.:l VJ' 5-1 )':!. Olt.:l:l 11un? Ol\!JpJ.nn -~"nnN
nmN p?1 , O'!l''Y N7 77J:J 1)mN .::11l'i1 m?:J'J nN~? om1Jnt.:l
14.12 Complex sentences Complex sentences contain one independent clause and at least one dependent clause (clauses that cannot stand alone as sentences). Unlike compound sentences, a complex sentence contains clauses that are not equal. Consider the following examples: n1 \!.19 nm:~.m Simple sentence NJ . ill~ilJ O'U'\J1J lJ ))11) I was given tickets for the show. I don't feel like going. .nJ7? ' ' p'llnnt.:~ (IJ.Jnn) ilnJNYl t:l9\!./Yl Compound sentence 1 was given tickets for the show, but 1 J:JN ,m~n? O'U'\J1J 'J 1)11) don't feel like going. .nJJ? ' ' p\!.lnnn NJ J.)11ll IJ9\!Jll Complex sentence Even though I was given tickets for the O'U'\J1J ' =' 1)m~ m1t.:~7 show, I don't feel like going. .n:>77 ' =' pVJnnt.:~ N? .m~n7
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In the first example. there are two separate simple sentences: .n:J~., .,., p\!lnl1tJ l'b .2 .m:m7 D"O'\J1:J ,., um .1 The second example joins them together into a single sentence with the coordinating conjunction, but both parts could still stand as independent sentences. Both sentences arc equal, and it is difficult to tell which is more important: .l1:J.,., ,., p\!lnl1Y.l N~ .2 .,JN m~n., D"O"\J1:J ,., lml .1
In the third example, the first clause is incomplete, or a dependent clause, and has to be completed: ,_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
,m~n~
D'O'\J"l:J ,., lll1l\!ll1nY.l:;, .1
When a subordinating conjunction. such as 'll l'mot;,, initiates the tirst clause, it becomes clear that the fact that you were given tickets is less important than, or is subordinate to, the fact that you do not want to go.
14.12.1 Subordinate clauses nn:un~m nl'iJI09 A subordinate clause is usually introduced by a subordinating clement such as a subordinating conjunction or relative pronoun. The subordinate clause depends on the rest of the sentence for its full meaning, and thus cannot stand alone. It must always be attached to a main clause that completes the meaning. The subordinate clauses include a wide range of clauses that will be discussed in the following segments. They can expand the noun phrases or the verb phrases to which they are joined with a variety of subordinating conjunctions. The following diagram is that of a subordinate clause that expands the noun phrase, which serves as a subject:
S1
/~NP /VP\
NP
f}Oil ""1)'!1
V
D''n.j77l
S2~~j~
J'Ulii!J i"'llll ~:ll "'U"ll' D'U.UI
1./J
D'i'j7~
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Chapter 14: Clauses and sentences
The diagram below is of a verb phrase that includes a subordinate clause that serves as the verb complement. S1
NP
I N
"TI"T
Note
The main clause is traditionally labeled '1P'l.l l:l!l\IJO (literally translated as 'main sentence'), and the subordinate clause is labeled either l:l!l\!ll:l ~!ll:l (secondary sentence) or 1:1}11\!l}'.l l:l!l't!}'.l (subordinate sentence). We shall reter to the clause as l1'PlO!l and to the full sentence as l:l!l\!ll:l.
14.13 Complement clauses
mn·~wn
m•j7I09
Some subordinate clauses function as noun phrase substitutes, expanding an object, a subject, or a predicate into clauses. They are called 'complement' clauses because they constitute noun phrase substitutes, expanded into clauses, which complement verbs or other predicates. Such subordinate clauses can be classified into three categories: Subject Subject clause
Noun phrase
Subject clause
Noun phrase
The person who toils on the eve of the Sabbath, will eat on the Sabbath. The 'toiler' on the Sabbath eve, will eat on the Sabbath. What you heard from Dan is not true. The rumors are not true.
,nJ.VJ J.1).1J. n11:l\IJ 'O . l1J. \!IJ. J::JN'
,n.J.'t! J.1Y.J. n1mil .l1:J't!:J ~JlN
m'N , rm nl.IOVJ\!1 no
. )1:::))
N'
.nmJl )l'N
ill/)l:J)
m>Jn:l\~m
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When the predicate is an adverbial expression, the subject clause usually follows the predicate. It is possible that he won't get here tomorrow. Here is the underlying structure: Subject clause That he won't be coming Predicate Is possible
Subject clause
)Ill'
N~
Nln'l.' pnn
2. Predicate clause NI"IUJ n 1jJIO!) A clause may also substitute tor the predicate, as in The question is what will happen .1no mp, no ,Nm n.,N'l.'il
tomorrow. The two component sentences are: Main clause The question is [something] Predicate claus~ What will hapren tomorrow The abstract [something] is replaced by the predicate clause. It is also possible to front the predicate clause by a simple change in the order of the components: Transformation: What will happen tomorrow is the .n'JN'l.'il nz.n ,1n~ il1P' no question. One may substitute the verb in tense by an infinitive, and similarly front the predicate clause: The question is, what to do with him. .mN mll.I)IJ n~ ,N'il n'Jrwn Transformation: What to do with him, that is the question. 3. Object clause
H.Uin n•j7I09
A subordinate object clause serves as the direct object in the sentence. Its function is lo expand verbs of saying/intention/lhinkingldesiring. It becomes clearer when one compares a complement clause as an object with a noun phrase serving in the same grammatical role:
342
Direct object Comp. clause Noun phrase
Chapter /4: Clauses and.s·entences
He heard that an accident occurred. He heard the news.
.m\!rTnn l1N YOVJ Nm
The complement object clause is initiated by the subordinating particle -VJ, while the noun phrase direct object is initiated by the accusative particle nK This is the underlying structure of the sentence with the object complement clause: Main clause He heard [something] [lnVJY.l] )IY.lVJ Nln Object clause An accident occurred [imNn nmpJ In order to form a complex sentence out of these two clauses, the abstract 'something' is replaced by the whole object clause, and the subordinate clause is preceded by the complemcntizer 'that', which is normally -VJ. In higher registers it can be replaced by'=>. The subjects of the two sentences are ditTerent m1N111Nln, and the object sentence is unchanged and is preceded by the conjoining particle. After verbs of 'wish' or 'desire', when the subjects of the two sentences are identical, the subject of the second clause is omitted, and the intinitivc form of the verb is used. I want to eat. The underlying structure reveals two separate clauses, while the surface structure has an expanded verb phrase 'want. .. to eat': Here is the underlying structure: I want [something] Main clause lmVJnJ mm >m Subordinate object clause I will eat (~:qN 'lNJ When the subjects are different the use of the infinitive is no longer an option. I want you to cat (lit. I want that you will eat).
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Note
Since in English the (different) subject of the second clause becomes an object, English speakers tend to make the following mistake: mm 'lN ~13~0 1!'nM, which is not an option in Hebrew. Expansion of direct objects
There are also complex sentences that consist of two clauses, where the second clause describes the state ot: or the activity of, the object of the first clause, in the same time frame of reference: Clause 1
I saw R(mit.
Clause 2
Ronit was dancing.
:.WJ !lN '!l'N1 .n1p1!1':)11
R(mit is the object in the tirst clause, and the subject in the second clause. The two occur simultaneously. The second clause can be used as the modifier of the direct object (or possibly as an adverbial adjunct ofthe main verb), in the following manner: Contlating the two clauses and omitting the redundant occurrence of Ron it. t saw Ronit. .!l'l11 !lN 'l1'N1 (Ronit) was dancing. .n1P"'\ (l1'l)"'\) Combining the two clauses with a time subordinator. I saw Ronit. .il'l,, !lN '!l'N1 While (Ronit) was dancing. .mp1 Cnm1)'li:J Changing the verb form to a participle and omitting the time subordinator. I saw Ronit dancing. Notice that the gender and number feature of the participle agree with the noun of the direct object: We heard them laughing. We caught them breaking into the car. He found the girl trembling with fear.
.mpm~ l!11N 1)~~\!J
.nm:::>n~ O':::t"'\1~ omN 1Jtl.!:ll1
.ln!ln !lll.l11 n;'m l1N N:::ti:J Nm
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Chapter J4: Clauses and .'ientences
14.14 Attributive clauses
•Hn., m•i7I09
An attributive clause is a subordinate clause that modifies any noun. It serves the same function as an adjective in that it adds information to the head noun. NP: noun+ adjective
The new books are very expensive. NP: noun+ attributive clause
The books I bought yesterday are very expensive.
"\Min
+ DIU
:\!.1"~
.11Nn 0'1P' o~t~1nn D'1!':1Qi1
'MII'7 n'j7109
+ DIIU
:\!.1"31
.lU"-Y.l 0'1P' ~UJllN 'n~lP'll 0'1!l0il
The underlying structure ofthe second sentence contains two basic clauses: a main clause and an attributive clause. The books are expensive. .l1Nn 0'1P' 0'1!lOil I bought books yesterday. .0'1!!0 ~10l1N 'l"l'lP Notice that there is a common element to both the main clause and the attributive clause, and that is the noun 0'1!!0 'books' that is referred to in both clauses. This feature characterizes all relative clauses (see below). However, not all attributive clauses arc relative clauses and some attributive clauses may not have a reference in the main clause. Consider the following: NP: noun+ adjective
The awful rumor troubled me. NP: noun+ attributive clause
"\Min
+ DIIU :\!1"31
. 'll1N i1"'T'1\Ji1 l1'N11lil i1YUJ'llil
'KII"l n'j7109
+ D\!J : \!.1"~
The rumor that thousands of O'"'T::JW '!l~N 11\J1!l''ll i1)l1Y.l'lli1 workers will be laid ofl'troubled :>mN i11'1\m me. The underlying structure of the second sentence contains two basic clauses: The rumor bothered me. .'ll1N ili'1\Ji1 il)lln\!.lil . 1l\J1!l~ 0~1J 1)1 '!l~N Thousands of workers will be laid off. Notice that unlike the D'l!lO 'books' example above, in this one the main and the subordinate clause do not share any common nominal entities. They arc two separate clauses. The attributive clause completes
Chapter 14:
Clause.~
345
and sentences
the noun by adding infonnation to it. As we can see, attributive clauses can be relative clauses when they have a co-referent in the main clause, or they can be a subordinate but not a relative clause when they do not have a co-referent in the main clause.
14.15 Relative clauses
iliJ'T nt'iJIOg
A relative clause is a subordinate clause that modifies any noun in the main clause, but also shares a co-referent with the main clause, or has a trace or 'echo' of that noun that is co-referential. As a noun modi tier, it is attributive, i.e., can be thought of as being equivalent to an adjective. When the verb in the relative clause is finite, the clause is generally introduced by -\!1, ,1'li.N or -n. The relative particle -n can only be used before present tense participles. 1. When the subjects of the two clauses are identical
The man who is standing by the door is my brother.
.'nN Nm n'nn ''~ 1Y.lWP. \!1'Nil N1n n~nn "T'~ "TY.l)).I"'IVN \!.l'tNn
.m.N
.'nN N1il
n',n ,,., 1tJW!l \!.nt-
Notice that each sentence has two clauses: a main clause, and a relative clause. Both share the subject, in this case, but the subject is not repeated in the relative clause, as it has already been introduced in the sentence earlier and therefore its presence is redundant. Main clause Relative clause
A man is standing by the door. That man is my brother.
1'J 1tJW \!.I'N
.r,.,in . >nN .N1il 'li'Nil
The noun preceding the relative clause, which is co-referential with the same noun within the relative clause, is called the antecedent. A comparative note
While English relative pronouns like who are used to link such clauses, in Hebrew the relative particle -\!I (or its variants) introduces the relative clause.
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2. When the object of the relative clause is a direct object
Main clause Relative clause
I have a commitment to the public. I represent the public.
There are a number of ways of linking the two clauses together, to form the complex sentence 'I have a commitment to the public that I represent':
a. Instead of repeating the object twice, the second object phrase is replaced by the direct object marker l1N with a pronoun suffix, which reflects the gender and number of the object. . l!:I"Y.l 'lN U'l1 N\!.1 1 1.J. >!:I';I m.J. >)I)Y.l l'] Y.l' . ]
b. There is another option, which is to initiate the relative clause with the relative particle -'0, keep the clause order intact, and place the object with the direct object pronoun at the end: .1n1M x~,, Y.l 'lN'll .,,,_ ,~b m.J.'mY.l ''J Y.l' .2 c. A third option, when the co-referential is a direct object, is to delete it when the two clauses are merged into one complex sentence: .l!:I"Y.l >.>N\!.1 11:1'~';:1 m::PlnY.l ' ' YJ' .3 3. When the object of the relative clause is an indirect object
When the noun in the subordinate clause is an indirect object, following a preposition, the pronominal residue is obligatory since the preposition cannot stand on its own: N1i1 1!)tm t1!)11n 1'.,~'0 1nm The paper on which (that on it) the book was printed is of a high quality. .ilil1Jl ntJ'NJ Main clause Relative clause
The paper is of a high quality. The book was printed on the paper.
m:PN.J. N1n [,"lrl] .ilil1.J.)
.['l'".:ltl] ';:1)1 U!l11n 1!lUn
Note that the preposition plus pronoun 1'7V 'on it' does not have to occur at the beginning of the clause: .ilil1Jl m::PNJ N1il P~)l U!l1)il 1!lUi1\!.l
The paper on which the book was printed is of the best quality.
,.,,Jil
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14.15.1 Relative suffix pronouns ::1onm •IJ')il Relative clauses whose objects are linked to their verbs by prepositions maintain the prepositions but replace the full nouns by pronoun suffixes, which agree in gender and number features with the nouns to which they refer. No preposition can be left 'dangling;' in Hebrew they are complemented by suffixes echoing the noun, while in English the preposition is followed by the relative pronouns, such as which, whom, or that.
Other examples .1l:J. \IJl 1l,)JVJ ~ti!:!Oi1 The bench on which we sat. The notebook in which we .11::m::l n:J'll l'11Jnon wrote. The friend to whom we phone. .1l!l.,\-' 1'~N\!.I .J.anD The !lliill with whom we met. .1)\!.l)!ll U'lN'll 'li'Ni1 The teacher about whom we i1'.,Y'll i1"'11r.:li1 .lJ1Jlj talked. O!nN'll OliJljJ The children whom we saw.
..,ooon
'v
lJ::lVJ'
.!'l"'IJ.nO:J 1lJ.l1J ."'IJnn JN 13!lJ'-' .'li'Nil 0}1 l)\!.1)!)) .ill1r.:li1 J}IU1J'i
.UlN"'I
14.15.2 Restrictive relative clauses mn3fn3fn iliJ'T m•iJ•og Before it is modified, any noun potentially reters to the whole class of nouns in the universe that it designates. Thus, on its own and without any modification, the noun 0'11l'liO 'poets', for instance, refers 1o the class of all poets. One result of modification is that it restricts the domain of the noun from the whole class to a sub-class. Thus the phrase 0'1').1~ 0'111'cm 'young poets', narrows down the scope from the class of all poets to the sub-class of those who are young. Simple adjectival modi tiers generally restrict the domain of the head noun in this manner. Restrictive relative clauses function in a similar manner as modifiers within the expanded noun phrase structure: We met students who came trom a m~m~}J 1N:J\!.I O'i'Y.)J!'l l)\!.l)!l variety of countries. .mlw
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The relative clause restricts the antecedent noun in the main clause from the whole class of students to those who came from a variety of countries. The contrast between restrictive and non-restrictive
It is not always clear whether the relative clause is restrictive or not, and inability to make the distinction may cause ambiguity. For instance:
Young poets who publish on the Internet are read by many readers.
o~Y.lU1!lt::l'l.' 0'1').1~
il:J1il
o,,,,..,n
'i' ~).1 0'N1j7) tl)1tll'N:J .0'N11P
Young poets, who publish on the Internet, arc read by many readers.
D'ntn!:lt::l'l.' ,D'1'Y~ 0'111'l'Y.l il:J1il '1' ']lJ 0'N1j7) ,tlY1tll'NJ. .0'N11P
The tirst example is restrictive. It states that many readers read young poets who publish on the Internet. The inserted relative clause restricts the domain from all young poets to those who publish on the Internet, implying that there are other young poets who do not. The second example is non-restrictive and it states that young poets in general are read by many, adding as an 'aside' that they generally publish on the Internet. The 'aside' is signaled by breaks in intonation, which are symbolized by commas separating the relative clause from the rest of the sentence. The comma intonation suggests that the relative clause is a non-restrictive 'afterthought'. i.e., that in general, young poets (i.e. essentially all of them, the whole class) publish on the Internet. There are three formal features that can clarify the distinction between the two types of clauses: I. The comma signs that distinguish between the two types of clauses. Only the non-restrictive relative clause is initiated and completed with comma signs and thus signals its special 'afterthought', non-restrictive meamng. 2. Added modifiers: 'only' for the restrictive clauses, and 'all' for the non-restrictive ones. 3. Adding something like 'by the way' or 'I want to add' to identify the non-restrictive clause.
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Chap/er 14: Clauses cmd sentences
Q)DtJi~D'O Q)1'Y!f 0''1i)'t'Y.l p'1
Only young poets who publish on the Internet are read by many readers.
ilJ'1il
'i' ']y 0'1'<'1i') \:ll"''"l'N:l .0'1'<'1)1'
'J:l
All young poets, who publish on the Internet, arc read by many readers.
D'DtJ'1!JD'O ,0)'1'}1jil 0'1'11't'Y.li1
Young poets, who, by the way, publish on the Internet, arc read by many readers.
O'DtJ1!:lD ,JlN 111't',0'1'll!f Ol111't'D
n:rm ,,., 'Jll 0'~'<1Pl ,Vli"l'NJ. . O' N"'' )j7
ilJiil ,,, 'JlJ O'N1pl ,"n"l'NJ .0'1'<111'
nt·~·:1111"TM nt•iJI09
14.16 Adverbial clauses
Adverbial clauses usually substitute for adverbs. There are a variety of such adverbial clauses, and most of them are preceded by a meaningt\.il particle and the subordinator -'0 that introduces the advt::rbial clause. Time adverb Time clause
We returned early. We returned before the sun set.
.Oii"Y.l 1l'nn .ilYP't' 't'D't'il'O 'l!l'J ))iln
14.16.1 Time clauses IDT nl'i]II09 There arc a variety of time subordinators, and the choice of a particular one for a particular meaning is usually detem1ined by register. These clauses usuaiJy answer the following questions: "when'? 'since when'? 'till when?' Meaning
when before after since until while as long as
~
Variant (higher register} -'t' nl,!~ ,-'1!1
il).''?'::t ,,~~~
-'t'
mo 1ll ?mnn ?mn Subordinator -'t' ~Y.1P ,-·~q
O''fP ,0)\;9
-'t' '~~':!
-'t' 10~~
-\!) '}Q~
-~~
-\!1)Y.1·iY.l ,(-\!1) lt'>;l
1'?.'~
iY.
-\!1 n),'"';l.1))1~
il}J ":J
Here are some examples for the use of time clauses:
-\!)
-'t' -\!)
1)}
1Y.1'pi
)Y,)~ ']~
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Chopter 14: Claust!S and sentences
I wasn't at home when she arrived. I wasn't at home. Main clause She arrived. Time clause Before he turned to politics, he was the National bank manager. Main clause Time clause
. il)l'li1 N'il\!.1:> IPJJ 'n"i1 N? .n'JJ 'n"n N?
.i1)l'li1 N'i1 nm N1n ,i1P'"'J1!l? m!l\!.1 ')!lJ . 'Y-nN?n
pnn ?nm
He was the bank's director. He turned to politics.
Some time clauses contain gerunds instead of tinite verbs, usually in the higher registers: nN m'\!.1 N1il ?Nl\!.I'J m1JV::l Upon immigrating to Israel, he changed his name. .lr.:l\!.1 This sentence can be paraphrased with the substitution of a tinite verb for the gerund and a change in order of the sentence components: n?)l N1i1\!JJ 1Y-l\!J nN m'\!.1 Nli1 He changed his name when he immigrated to Israel. .JN1\!J'J
14.16. 2 Location/place cia uses c 1jJn m 'iliO!J There arc a variety of location subordinators, and the choice of a particular one for a particular meaning is usually determined by register. These clauses usually answer the questions: 'where?' 'from where?' 'to where?' !1NJ ,il!l'NY-l 1il!l'N Register/context common use high register use of adverb high register colloquial, sub-standard standard colloquia I, sub-standard
Meaning
where
Subordinator
v:q ~/DQ~'Wi'l~ V,Jitl~ \!.1 Dip)?'f D~
where/wherever
1¥,J~:!J.
\!.1 n·!l'W
to where/ever
'lJ Dip)? \!)
7?':?
)~~·
Common use
I'll go with you wherever you wish (to gQ}
'~f1n'lJ JNJ ln'N NJJN ')N
(nJ??>
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Chapter 14: Clauses and sentences
Main clause Links Location Clause
I will come with you [to any place] Where[ever] You want to go [there]
'lJ [)NI;J)
[OYJJ) :n:,~~I;J
mm l1N
Higher register
Wherever (at the place where) repentants stand, even the most righteous arc not allowed to stand Main clause
Location
, O'ir.rtY
n::nv:n '~>'::J.YJ 0) j?O.J
0'~1:,ll Ol'N 0'1U::Il O'P'i~ .110))~
The most righteous are not allowed to stand (in the place) Repentants stand (in the place)
O'J1:,!' C)'N 0'110l O'P'1~ [olpr.JJ.J ·nnY'J
14.16.3 Manner clauses 191M nl•jnog There are a variety of manner subordinators, and the choice of a particular one tor a particular meaning is usually determined by specific meaning or by register. These clauses usually answer the questions: 'howT 'in what way'?' Register/context common use
Meaning like
higher register common use common use
thus/so that just like as if in a manner that
Subordinator YJ io~ YJ '!;l:;J
I spoke to him directly, as I spoke to everyone.
YJ 1~ YJ
ow:p
('0) ~~~q
YJ
1"J"J+''ll w·N~
Tn1''ll' mN 'l11l'1 .OJ1:> oy 'l11:l'iYJ '!:l:J/OJ):>
OY 'l11l'l'lJ 1r.J:>,
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Main clause Links Manner clause
1 spoke to him directly as/in the same manner as I spoke to everyone.
Here are other illustrations A painting has to be presented so that its hues wil1 be captured by the viewer. I felt as if someone else was speaking from within me.
m1'~'
Ull'-< 'nl::l'i
'll '!:l:l/'ll lP:l o';n~
o}J '1'11:::1'1
JV 1\J';:Ip, 1')1"1l'lll:l l'~ilJ 'll' 11'~ .'J:lm:n::m ,,, 1:::11~ 1nN ln'll'~'lllJ'N~ 'TI'lll"lil
Just as you found it difficult, I too had difficulties.
.l:lUl~
"Pil'J Ol , il'llj7 O.:>'J il'ilYJ CV::I .0"\!JP
14.16.4 Comparative clauses ilHIIWil m•iJI09 Sentences can include two statements between which a comparison is made. The statement in the main or primary clause is compared with a statement in a secondary or relative clause position. The main clause expresses the comparison by means of the adverbs 1:r.Ji' •more' or ,in~ 'less', and the two are linked by either the expression i~~~ •than' or by the expression 'll n~Y,l 'than what. .. ' (The use of 1~~~ is considered a bit more formal). David reads much better than he writes. Main clause Comparative link
t.::lm:l Nm lVNY.l ::J.l\J "Ull'
n:nn Nl"lp 111
.::lm:ll'-<m~ il~Y.l ::J.l\J 1m' nJ.1il N1lp 111
David reads well. much more than
J.m N1li' 1n tl'l1Nt:l ...1m> n:11n ... 'l1 nt:lP ...1m' n::11n
Subordinate clause
He writes.
..Jm~ N"lil
The comparison is always done in reference to the primary or main clause. The order of the clauses can be changed and the comparison stated in the negative rather than the positive, thus changing the point ofreference. However, the proposition essentially stays the same. David writes less well than he reads.
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The subject of the two sentences is identical in the first example, but it can be a comparison between two clauses whose subject is not identical. Since the two sentences share the predicate, it is possible to omit it in the subordinate clause. Dr. Levy contributed more than Dr. Cohen. Main clause Comparative link
/(0111) )ilJ 1'11 1't'NY.l 1111' 01n '1':J 1"1 . o1n )ilJ 1"1'tl noo il"ll' o1n
Dr. Levi contributed more than
' ':J ,,,
0111 'l':J 1 11 1 /1't'NY.l ... 1111' ••. \!J nr.m ... 1111'
Subordinate clause
Dr. Cohen (contributed)
.(0111) )il:l 1"1
The superlative is expressed either by one sentence where the adverb is preceded by ':;>Q 'the most' or through a comparative structure where the subordinate clause makes the comparison with everybody else, o~~l? 'than everybody/anyone else'. David ran the fastest. David runs faster than anybody. Dr. Levy contributed the most. Dr. Levy contributed more than anybody.
.iilr.l 'Ji1 '(1111 .O'JlJY.l1i1Y.l 1111' '(1 111 . i1Ylil 'Ji1 Oin 'l':J 1 1'1 .O':JlJY.l 1111' 0111 'l':J 1"1
A comparative note In English the expression 'more than' provides the link of comparison between two clauses. In Hebrew the equivalent expression is either 1\!JNY.l.. 1111' or .. 'tl ilr.lt:l 1111'. It is never just Y.l 1111'. Common mistakes of non-native speakers are sentences such as: ~nnl9
3''0 1JW H11f' 111 31n3 H1n\!>'191JW
~111f'
lll
/~
The Hebrew options are: .~111J
Nlil'tl iJY.lY.l Jm 1JW N1lp 111 /~111J Nli11\!JNY.l ~l\J 111l' N1lj7 111
14.16.5 Cause clauses il:J.•o JWjUO!) Cause clauses are ones that give the reason or cause for the proposition stated in the main clause. They are usually oriented to the present conditions or past events. There are a variety of cause subordinators, and the choice of a particular one for a particular meaning is usually
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Chapterl4: Clauses and sentences
determined by register. These clauses usually answer the following questions: 'why'? 'tor what reason"! 'because of what?' Register/context common use common use common use common use higher register higher register does not initiate a sentence, only a second clause used in colloquial
Meaning
because since
The shop did not have a security guard since it is relatively small. Main clause Links Cause clause
The shop did not have a security guard since it is relatively small.
Subordinator \!) ,~~Y,)
\!J O'l\!lt;l \!) 1l'~Y,) \!) 1l)~t;l
1 ~'~iil
ni'iJ
'V/1
':P
'.:l!:ID Tln":m-tr.:l nnnn N~ rmnn
.n'On' m"p Nm'V
't1
l)!)r.:l
.l1'0n' mup N'il
Notes on word order
Cause clauses often follow the main clause: We did not go to the concert ''il N'J!.ID!D u1~mp'J 1l:J'Jn N':7 because there were no tickets. .0'0'"1:J But they can also introduce the sentence: Since they have no car, they'll walk. lJ':7' on ,nm:m on':7 )'N\!.1 J11'::m .~)1::1
The particle ':;! can only introduce the relative clause following the main clause: The company spokeswoman claims 'J:J 01ll NJ\!J lllll1\:l i11::lnn n1::1n that no damage has been caused, nN O'J'Jr.:l 0'1'\!J::mn "l'V '=> ,pn since the two preparations contain the .O'~"ll!:l 0'1Dm omN same active ingredients.
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14.16.6 Consequence clauses ilN.:ll'ln JW~I09 While the main clause can describe a situation or an action, the result clause supplies information on the consequences of such situations or actions. Result clauses arc usually introduced by -IV 1~ 'so that'. These clauses usually answer such questions as:
'for what purpose?' 'so that what would happen?' Our company wants the legislation to pass so that it can own all the radio stations. Main clause Links Result clause
Our company wants the legislation to pass so that It can own all the radio stations.
,11J.)I' pmn\!.1 n~n 1l'IV n1:1nn .ll'J'tl l'il' 1'i1i1 :rmnn 'JJ\!.1
pmn>t~
p
m1n ll']IV m:Jrlil 11J)Jl
.., 1=> . 'l'='\!.1 l'il' 1'i1i1 nunn ']J
Another illustration
Not enough signatures were collected for the petition, so that it did not make it to the courthouse.
TllP'Tin P'!ltn~ ,.,J.pm N'J
il)Jl)il l'b i11'~llil'tl
p ,i11'J1)J'J
.\)!)IVY.)il J'llJ']
14.16.71ntent clauses n•.,Jn m•~1o9 Intent or purpose sentences combine two clauses- a main clause and a purpose relative clause. The main clause provides the information about the action, while the purpose clause adds intonnation about the purpose tor which such action is about to be taken. These clauses usually answer the questions:
•for what?' •tor what need?' Meaning Register/context common use so that higher register in order that Sarah called her friends, so that they'll all go to vote.
mo )'JVJJ ,111~ nl'N., ,nn o~~ Subordinator
..
\') lj::J ~
IV n~9 ~~ o~l:>'tl 'i:> , i1'1:Jn'J m!l:m n1\!.l .Y':J~n']
lJ.,,
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Chapter 14: Clauses anti sentence.~
Main clause Links Purpose Clause
Sarah called her friends so that/in order that they will all go to vote.
\1,1 ')j:;)
.)''::l~i1~ 1::>~' (Oil)
Some more examples:
The Tel Aviv city hall opened an investigation in order to clarify the situation. In order to enable the elderly to also participate in the voting, we supplied transportation for whoever wanted. For the draft bill to be approved in the Knesset plenum, they need the support of 80 members.
n1'vn:J. nn11!:1 :l':J.N-':m 11"1'l' .:J~Y.ln 11N 11J.~ 11m ~l'
)~J)' O''ti'\!Ji7i1 Ol~ 'iJ
))jJ!Pt> , ill'J~il:l ")!111\!.lil~ .n~,..,
'Y.l ~J~ n11::1n11
11N'~Y.l:J. 1\!J1N11 ilY~i1i1~ 11)Y.l ~))
80 J\!.1 il:J'Y.l11:l ,,,~ ..,, 'Tlt>l::lil .0'1J.n
14.16.8 Concession clauses ,1n•1 nl"iJIO~ Concession sentences combine two clauses a main clause and a concession relative clause. The main clause provides the information about a situation or action while the concession clause adds information that goes against expectations or even against logic. Register/context Meaning Subordinator common use in spite of \1,1 Tli1~~ higher register although '.!.'~~ "1~ higher register even though "-'"1~~~ higher register higher register colloquial use
Dan moved to work in Haifa, even though his family stayed in Tel Aviv.
':;1 "1~ \!} 'l~ \!} )~!;)~
1111Y.l~ ,il!l'n:J. 1ll))J 1:lllli
.:l':J.N-JTIJ. il1N\!Jl lJ\!.1 nn!I\!Jt.3il\!J
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Chapter 14: Clauses and sentences
Main clause Links Concession Clause
Dan moved to work in Haifa even though His family stayed in Tel Aviv.
'tl m1n~ -~n.J illN'tll 1~\!.1 nn!l'tlnn
.::J.':JN
Here are some examples using some of the other subordinators Although he was not born in Israel, he N1il 1'(1N:J i~m N~'l.l n11n7 speaks fluent Hebrew, including slang. .:>.J~t~771::> ,il'V1i11 n~l.J)I 1:11n The photography is good, even though the plot is boring. Although the suspects' identity is known, they were not detained. ln spite (of the fact) that I was offered a raise, I did not agree to stay.
i1~'7).1il'tl '!:I 7).1 'lN ,:J1\J 017~~il
•nr.:n:J~'l.ln
,mni' o~•wnn 7'l.l omm'tl "lN ~).1 . 11~~)
N7 Oil
ilN7))il ' ' 1).1'~il'tl 17'!lN
.1N'l.l'il~ 'l1Y.l:>Uil N~ ,n1 1::>'0Y.l.J.
14.17 Conditional sentences There are two types of conditional sentences: ones that express real conditions, and ones that express hypothetical conditions that could have been or that constitute imagined counterfactual conditions. Both types of conditional sentences have similar structures- they constitute sentences consisting oftwo clauses: l) The if-clause: a subordinate clause, initiated by such particles as o~ or'' 'ir, which states the condition. 2) The result clause: the main clause that specifies the consequences. 14.17.1 Real conditional sentence D"i' •Kln 09\!JD The real conditional sentence (also referred to as valid conditional sentence) is a structure used for stating possibilities in the present or in the future. The likelihood that the condition will be realized is as good as that it will not be. 1. Stating future possibilities
Uf 1 have enough money], 1'll buy a new car.
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358
The building blocks of such a sentence are: initiator If condition I' II have enough money I' II buy a new car result
ON
C)t7::> i''!ltm '~ ;,;,, i1\!.11n nm::>n
mpN
The main clause states what will happen if the condition stated in the subordinate clause is realized. If the condition refers to a possible future event, both main clause and subordinate clause have verbs in the future tense. A comparative note
While in the Hebrew conditional sentence the tense sequence is: (if) future + future, in English, such a sentence has the following tense sequence: (if) present+ future. 2. Stating general truths or scientific facts A real conditional sentence can be used for making general statements with no particular time reference. In such cases the present tense is used in both clauses of the conditional sentence. llfthere is not enough rain], the water ,[O't::l'lll jJ'!)Ot::l 0'111' N~ ON) level ofthe Sea of Galilee drops. .1·w n1l':m o~!)t.J The building blocks of such a sentence are the tl.lllowing: initiator If oN condition There is not enough rain P'!)"t::l 0'111' N~ O't:l\!.ll
The water level ofthe Sea of Galilee drops
111' J1'))l:Ji1 t7~!lt::l
Note
Conditional sentences stating general truths can also be initiated by the time subordinator -'li:J 'when' (this is true for both Hebrew and English). When there is not enough rain, the O't:l\!.ll j?'!lt:lt:l 0'111' ~b\!.1:> .,.,,, :n1)':::>n o~!ln water level of the Sea of Galilee drops. Some real conditional clauses may also be in the past tense. They involve speculation of what the result ofthe condition was.
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359
U.IO) 1J:::> on, v,::nJ n)l':m nD1n ON
If the train came on time, they already left for home.
.nn'Jn
Common real conditional clause subordinators Register/context common use all registers higher register higher register higher register common use common use common use high register
Meaning
Subordinator
if in case that as long as
0~ -¥,~ il')i(t;l~
.. .
-\!) ... il~)J::l:
-) ilJt;l:;t o~:;t
li)J ';J~
-~ 1);l} ';J~
-\\' l;t~~~
with exclusion unless
po~N~~
Further illustrations:
History will not forgive him if he does not exhaust the prospect for peace.· ln case the value of the dollar goes down, The Israel Bank will have to step in. We cannot help him, as long as he is not aware of his condition. They are willing to pay a lot s
il.Sr.3' N';J ON '';J
n';Jon N'l i1'1l\.Jt1'ilil
.Ol'l\!.1';1 'l:J'Oil nN
7N1\!)' PlJ ,11' 1':1'iil11)1\!.l il1PY.lJ .l1).1nn'J '<'lN"
1m ':1:::> ,17 1H)I';J O''ll:::>' N'l .lJ~Y.l';J
mm-~.
).11lr.3 N7 Nm~
1J7:n nJ1il o':1\!.l? 0')"r.3 on
. mn 1~tm m:::1':1 1?:::1pn' D'l'l'n\!.1
14.17.2 Counterfactual conditional sentence The counterfactual conditional sentence (also referred to as 'hypothetical' or 'contrary-to-fact') is a structure used for stating possibilities that are no longer realizable, or imaginary ones where there is no like1ihood that they will be realized. Usually, both the subordinate and the main clause have compound verb phrases which
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include i1'i1 in the past tense and a main verb in the present tense. (For the full conjugation of such verb phrases sec Chapter 12, page 289). 1. Stating possibilities that did not materialize
Here is an example of an unreal conditional sentence about an opportunity that no longer can be realized. [Had the architect planned properly], the workers would have finished the job long ago.
)l:>no i1'i1 \Ji'\J'Y'1Ni1 ON) l'lN 0'10lll'il 0'')1l!lil ,['lN1J .)mo n11J.)In
The building blocks of such a sentence are the following: initiator If ON condition the architect would have planned properly. ,'lN1J l'lN Q')10ll l'i1 O'~)ll!)il the workers would have . )OlO ililJ.)Iil finished the job long ago The logical conclusion is that since the architect had not planned properly, the workers have not finished the job yet. The counter situation is an established tact. The hypothetical sentence discusses a situation that had been possible in the past but the opportunity is no longer there and therefore is impossible to realize. 2. Stating imaginary conditions
The unreal conditional clause can also refer to the realm of the imaginary. There arc conditional clauses that involve speculations that are contrary to our known factual world. I fad the lee Age not put an end the dinosaurs. they might have existed today.
no'tl nnnn N' n1pn l'l!llpn ,, l'n on
,,,N
,0'1lN'tll'l' ~ . Ol'>n Ol O'O"P
Verbal and nominal clauses in hypothetical sentences 1. Verbal predicate in conditional clauses
When the unreal conditional clause has a main verb. then its verb phrase, as mentioned above. consists ofthe verb nm and a main verb in the present tense.
Chapter 14:
Clau.~es
Had you let us know about the ewnt earlier, we would have come.
and sentences
361
.,).1 U? 0~)1'1U:::l Ol1"i1 ON . tJlN::l
unn ,\!JNiY.l ).11i'Ni1
The main verbs are clearly evident in the conclusion. The fact is: You did not let us know and we did not .mo(:J N.,, 1J? on>11m N::. come. In the conditional clause (but not in the result clause) it is possible to use a verb in the (simple) past tense (rather than the compound verb phrase). The particles ~?and~~~ rather than ON, are used in such cases, as they contain the notion of unreal condition. Had you let us know about the event earlier, we would have come.
).11i'Nil J)J 1lJ OJ1}1i1i1 1J'N . tl'N::l
ll~m
, \!JNir.l
2. Non-verbal predicate in conditional clauses
When the unreal conditional clause is a nominal clause and its predicate does not have a verb, the linking verb il'il functions as the tense indicator, and is there when the tenses are past or future. Look at the tbllowing example: Two main clauses provide the propositions for real and unreal conditional clauses. Possession Equational
I have money The car is mine
']0:1 ,., ~n
'J't' n~)1:11.ln
Real conditional sentence
If£ have money, the car will be mine.
nml1l1'H:Ir.lil .~o:>
,., il'il' ON
.,.,\!)
Unreal conditional sentence
If l had had money, the car would have been mine.
l:l;:l nm:mn ,.:')OJ''=' il'il 1"J
.'?\!J nnnn
Here is a further example of an unreal conditional sentence with verbless clauses. It is an old popular proverb, used metaphorically to mean 'this could never happen/has no chance of happening'.
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!f my grandmother had wheels she
N'il , o~~n.,l
~.,..,
would have been a bus.
Nn:m.,
1m ,.,
,.,
.tJl:J.lOlN i1!'1"i1
initiator condition
If My grandmother had wheels
result
She would have been a bus.
O''l'='l '''ll Nl'lJ.tJ' Pil
.tnJ.mlN
nrrnn N'il
There arc also negative hypothetical conditions, in which the main dause could hypothetically apply only if the conditional clause were 'no, not': not true. Their subordinators all contain the sequence
N.,
Had Guttenberg not invented the printing press, the world would have looked completely difterent today.
mt:JY.) J1N l"lJ.l\Jll N'~r.m N.,l.,
01'il nN1l nm o~nyn ,tJl!:llil . '1Y.)l., n1nN
The negative hypothetical conditional particle N.,JJ.,N, can also state a condition with a noun phrase rather than an entire clause: Were it not tor Guttenberg and his printing press, the world would have looked completely different today.
, l.,'ll t1l!lii1 m1::>r.n )1J.)UU N.,Y.).,N 1'11nN Ol'il i1N1l i1'il O.,Wil
.'101.,
Common hypothetical conditional clause subordinators
These subordinators, other than ON, include as part of their meaning the hypothetical sense. Register/context all registers all registers all registers all registers higher register
Meaning
Subordinator
if if/had .. . if/had .. . had not .. . were it not (for)
A historical note
,., is a fonn from biblical Hebrew, whereas post-biblical Hebrew.
0~ ~.,
~~~ N';?~.,
N';?Y;'!?~
'''N is used more often in
14.181ntegrated sentence In actual texts, as well as in conversation, different types of clauses and sentences come together, to t'brm entities, which add sentences and clauses to each other, and/or embed them within each other.
Chapter 14: Clauses and sentences
It is hard to assume that anybody would discontinue medical treatment because s/he has read a newspaper report.
P'tl£!' m\!nn~
Object Complement Clause Reason Clause
It is ditlicult to assume (that) [Someone] will stop medical treatment [for a certain reason]. because he read a newspaper report.
n,m;, n'llp
N1p'll 01\'-1-'J lN,£!1 ;,1£!'0
·1Ul')'::J. n::J.n::.
This sentence has one main clause and two clauses complement clause and a reason clause: Main clause
363
~)!)lO
an object
P'00' [1nW'.~J]
.[31))'10)) i1:J'UD) 'N)£!1
n::J.l1:> Nlp N1n'll 01\'-IJJ .,ur>Y:J
Chapter 15 Language in context 15.1 15.2 15.3 15.4 I 5.5 I 5.6 15.7 15.8 15.9 15.1 0
Introduction Sentence or utterance? Topic and comment Focus and topic Dei xis - reference to person, time and place Reported speech - direct and indirect Language registers Genres of text Cohesion and coherence oftext Language in context: sample texts
15.1 Introduction Many grammars consider the sentence as the maximal linguistic unit for discussion. Thus sentences are oflen discussed and described as separate, independent entities ('context free'), rather than parts of larger units of text. Language in context has to be considered beyond the domain of the individual sentence. It is usually a sequence of sentences (or utterances), which combine into a coherent unit, organized around a particular topic of discussion. Language in context has its own rules. Ordinary word order and fully and well-constructed sentences give way to different language arrangements, dependent on a host of pragmatic considerations. Language utterances get their meaning not only from their formal stmctures, but also from the various communicative situations and contexts in which they are used, as well as from cultural conventions unique to each language. Communicative acts are conveyed in a variety of language registers by agreed upon language codes, prescribed by different communities of speakers in an array of communicative and social situations. It is important to view meaning not only through dictionary values and morphological or syntactic structures, but also as integral parts of larger texts and contexts.
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The terms 'text' and 'discourse' IJ''?I are otlen used interchangeably to refer to language beyond individual sentences. Although 'text' is more closely associated in our minds with written materials, and 'discourse' with naturally occurring language, emphasizing conversation and social interaction, the distinction is generally no longer drawn today. Similarly, the analysis of larger-than-sentence units may be referred to as either discourse or text analysis. In the context of this chapter we shall refer to all sequences of language by the general term 'text'. This chapter contains a discussion <Jf some of the uses of Hebrew tor communication purposes, both within and beyond the sentence structure, in a variety of communicative situations, and with various transfonnations affecting the shape of the message (such as direct and indirect speech).
15.2 Sentence or utterance? A sentence, in the more technical sense of the word, is a syntactic unit that is part of a text, but one that can also be discussed in isolation. An utterance is a unit of discourse, which is an actual performance of speech or writing. We will be using the general term 'sentence' to cover both sentences and utterances. The sentence n'1:JY 1':J>'J N~ Nli1 can be understood in the following ways: 1. as an item of information: He does not understand Hebrew. 2. as a question Doesn't he understand Hebrew? 3. as an expression of surprise or disbelief He (really) does not understand Hebrew? 4. as an expression of annoyance: Doesn't he understand Hebrew? (meaning: I stated it clearJy enough; how come he doesn't understand?)
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5. with emphasis on a particular component of the sentence, which will give it a tbcus (see section 15.4), such as: Focusing on Hm: .J"I'1.JV 1':J~ N~ Nm
He does not understand Hebrew (but I do). Focusing on t•:m: He does not understand Hebrew (but he likes the sound of it).
.ll"'1:J.V l':J..O N~ N1il
Focusing on n•,:::L.u: .n'1.J).I )'.J~ N~ Nm
He does not understand Hebrew (but he docs understand Arabic). Some sentences consist of one-word exclamations: Really!? So what now'!? We'll see!
?!J"J.ONJ !n''ll:l).l il.O lN
!iiN"ll
15.3 Topic and comment A topic is the component of the sentence that states what the sentence is about. The rest of the sentence is considered to be the comment on that topic. The topic and comment arc concerned with the content of the sentence, its meaning and not necessarily its structure. It is another way of looking at the sentence, other than its syntactic structure. Syntactic considerations: Subject
The subject is the noun phrase which the predicate comments on or tells something new about, but its identity is established by a formal syntactic criterion: agreement with the predicate, regardless of whether it is a verb, a noun, or an adjective. Here are some illustrations of grammatical subjects that determine the gender and number features of the predicate. The City built two new schools. The mayor i§ a businessman. Many mayors today are very young.
.D''ll1n 1!:1U 'Til 'J'll nm:1 il"1'llil
. D'PUll 'li'N N1il !'))li1 'l'N1 D'1'V~
mm D'1l'
For agreement rules, see pp. 253-256.
')~N.,
i1:J.1il .1)NY.l
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Content (semantic} considerations: Topic
Consider a sentence where the speaker supplies new intormation regarding an entity whose identity has already been established by the context: This movie has already been seen by many Israelis./ Many Israelis have already seen this movie.
ill1i1 UIC1 1:::1::> mil \Ylt'il l1N .0'~N1\!.I'
The topic of the sentence is mil "1tm l1N 'this movie', since this is what is being talked about and its identity is already known. The speaker wants to convey the new information that many have already seen the movie and that is what is regarded as the comment. While the grammatical subject is 'many Israelis', the topic is 'this movie', and 'N1 1:::1::> "have already seen' is the comment on the topic. In English the passive voice conveys this message best, and thus 'this movie' is moved to the front of the sentence and serves as both topic and subject. Such usc of the passive t'br the purpose of topicalization is not acceptable in Hebrew. The underlying topic-comment structure
Normally, the topic of the sentence is present at the beginning of a sentence and is identical to its subject. Many Israelis saw this movie. .ilm \)10il l1N 1N1 0'~N1\!.I' ilJ.1i1 One way to draw attention to the object of the sentence is to move it to the front of the sentence, and change the word order. ·'l'N1 1J:> mil "10il l1N We have already seen this movie. Another way, involving stronger emphasis, is not only to move the topic to the front, but also leave a 'trace' of it (a pronoun) in the comment, so that on its own, the comment constitutes a full whole clause. The topic is then separated from its comment by a comma: This movie, we've already seen it. .lmN ll'N1 1:::1:1,mil \J10n A sentence in which a constituent has been topicalized is called "!l\!.ll:l 1ln". The term is usually used to refer to cases of topicalization m which a pronoun trace is left in the comment component.
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Note
1. A topic that has been fronted, particularly when separated by a comma, may be paraphrased in English by 'as for', as in: 'As for this movie, we have already seen it'. A comma is most likely to occur when a pronominal trace is left behind in the comment.
2. When a definite direct object is fronted, the accusative marker l1N is moved along with it: We have already heard your story. (lit. .1lli>J't' 1:::1::> J'J't' l1!llUi1 nN Your story, we have already heard it before.) The same is true when a preposition is present: 1)'tr>) 1l'J il'il nNm i11J.ni1 DY We have a good experience with this company. (lit. With this company, we .1J.)ll J.'IU have had good experience in the past.) Categories other than nouns can be topicalizcd. Thus, an adverb can be a topic. In the second sentence of the following example, the adverb is topical ized: Not a single tourist remained here .1>\ei::>Y il!l 1N'Vl N~ 1:::1::> 1"n 'lN by this time. A fronting of the adverbial expression: By this time not a single tourist remained here. Once 'I~W:'I)l is fn.mted, it is clearly marked as the topic, and the rest of the sentence is the new information, the comment. An infinitive (functioning here as a gerund) can serve as a topic as well: -~"J p1>iJ. N'J m i1:JY'J Working is not exactly fun. Consider another illustration: This man, who is he? A sentence such as ?Nm >>J ,mn 't'>Nil 'This man, who is he?' can be conceived as being uttered in the context of attending a large social gathering, pointing to a particu)ar person, and asking for new
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infonnation: 'who is he?' In other words, mn 'l''Nn 'this man' is the topic, Nm 'n 'who is he' is the comment. Fronting mn 'l''Nn clarities its topic role.
15.4 Focus and topic Moving an element to the front of the sentence to clearly mark it as a topic is one kind of focusing, but its purpose is to identify the topic, not to contrast it. A more general type of focusing, discussed earlier in sectiun 15.2 above, refers to the emphasis placed on one constituent or another in the sentence, usually for the purpose of distinguishing it from possible others. It is also typically characterized by stronger-thanusual stress. As shown above, any component of the sentence can be contrastively focused. One should remember that it can also be found at the beginning of the sentence, in which case it is identified not only by mere fronting (i.e., topicalization), but also by emphatic stress, intended to contrast. Here are some illustrations: To Italy we are willing to go in the summer, but not to Jnclia.
,'<'PJ )lltn~ O'JJm umN n'~U'N~ .nm~ N~~J.N
I spoke to him, not to you. ·l'~N N~ ,'111J'l l'~N The focus may also be signaled by words such as p-, 'only', l''!lN "even': Only with the supervisor am I willing to speak. Even at his best friends' place he does not feel at home.
'~'l' O'Jl\J ~:m 0'1~nn ~~N l~'!:IN
.!l'JJ 'l''l1n N~ N1il
15.5 Deixis: reference to person, time and location Another manner of viewing the text from a particu]ar vantage point is that of deixis (i.e. reference by means of an expression relative to the situation). It is the function of a deictic word or expression within the sentence to specify its reference to a given situation. It helps anchor the text and clarify it in terms of the vantage point. Deictic words such as 'here· and 'now' are interpreted in relationship to the situation that is being referred to. A speaker is typically the deictic center of his or her own references.
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Illustration of the use of deictic words in a conversation:
The situation: someone knocking at the door. Speaker A tries to establish the references and speaker B adds information. Person Who is this? !m '~ , N
lt'sl. Location Time
What arc you doing here? I came to visit. Now? If not now, then when?
!')N:J. !)N:J ilYJW illlN nn : N .1jJJ.":7 'llNJ. : J. ?1'YJ:J~:
N
Pll~'N ,1'YJ:J}I NJ ON : J.
The conversation rendition assumes the present tense of the speakers (but not of the reader of this text). When the context being established is not in a conversational setting but in a text being heard or read, the references are not always as clear. Here is an excerpt from a short story, where the vantage point is a little girl who is lost and the deictic references arc both to the space around her at this point in the story and also to her regular space: her home.
home location
The little girl looked around her with desperation.
ilJ.'J.O n?:Jnon nmpn n1?m
"If you tell me where you live, I can help you go home". ';I live at Dad and Mom's home''. ''And do you know the name of your street?"
'JN il1) llN il!l'N 'J 'l')ll ON"
.llllN~::l
."n!l'J.n 1nn?1? 1mh n?1:J' ."NnN1 NJ.N JYJ !l'J.J. n1l ')N'' J.1n1il 0\\1 n~ llYlP nN1''
"?17YJ
The segments from the story assume that the events happened in the past, as the story's expository segments arc told in the past, but it also builds a conversation between two speakers that takes place in that situation and uses a rendition of a present tense in the story. The discussion centers on the attempts to locate the girl's home, in contrast to her being lost in another location.
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15.5.1 The person deixis I. The person deixis is a reference to the participant's role as a referent. Person dcixis is commonly expressed by pronouns. In the conversation above, the first and second persons are both present, so the reference is clear. Speaker 1 If you tell me where you ~lN il1l1'1N il!llN '~ '1'l11 CN live, ! can help you go .il1'1~::lil 1nn~ 1~ 1HY~ il~"'' back home. Speaker2
! live at my Dad and Mom's home.
The third person is assumed not to be present, and theret(>re the pronoun has to have a reference either in the text itself, or has to be known to others from another context. Third The little girl looked around ill'JO il~:lllOil ill\Jpil il1~'il her in desperation. For many mYVJ w:m 11on 1:::1::>. VJ~N~J person hours she had been standing in the street. Pronouns do not have to be subject pronouns; they can be attached to other words and function in other capacities (e.g., possessive). 2nd And do you know the name ::Jlniil D'P. ilr.:llW1l'l1NV' of your street? person
15.5.2 Time deixis Time deixis is reference to time relative to a temporal reference point. Typically, this point is the moment of utterance, or it can be a point of time to which the speaker refers (usually a time adverbial expression). Temporal adverbs: • now I then "Mother! You don't know what happened! I thought I got lost and then this tairy found me and ..."
'l1::J'iln ! il'"lp ilO l1Y1l' N~ l1N ! NY.lN" nxm n;~n lNl itJ'N~ ~l1=>.,n'il " ... l '1llN
nN~r.l
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I was with my Mom but then she il~l!l N'i1 lN ~JN '~~ Nr.lN 0)1 'l1"i1 met a friend of hers and started mm il!'l'N 1:11~ n7ml1m n.,\!1 n1:1n .Or.J).I'llr.l N11J Nll) .,~ talking to her and I was terribly bored. • yesterday I today I tomorrow/other time adverbs The audacious robbers emptied )11~~il tJnn lJj7l1 O'Umn O':::l1l!:li1 the safes' room last weekend in l:>1r.l" 'J\!1 m.!le::m 11n llN the 'Diamond Center' in the heart .O'Jr.Jl'Jnm )l~l1 J'JJ "O'r.ltmm ofthe diamond dealers' quarter. Change of tense (is not fully retlected in the English translation)
You don't know how long I have been looking for you! I have been looking for you for half an hour in every store on this street!
1J:J qmN 'll'll.9'n m:D l1lJ1l' mm ~:J.J
1mN n~.!llnY.l
N'J nN
'lN i1ll\!l .,~n !Jln1J lllJnl
15.5.3 Place deixis The place reference localizes both the speech participants and narrated participants in space. It is a reference to a location relative to the position of a participant in the speech event, typically the speaker. • here /there in relation to the participant
Yaeli' s mother turned to the chair where the woman had been sitting, but the woman was no longer there.
Nt7'!>i1 'm i1:JJU"lt7i1''JY' ~VJ NY.lN 1.JJ i1~'Ni1 ~JN ,il'lnNn n:l~' l'~)J'll
• to the right/left of the participant
To my left sat a man who did not seem familiar to me.
' ' i1N1J N'J\!1 1nN. 01N .J\!Il '~Nr.l\!lr.J .1:Jl)J
• above/below the participant
From up above the voices of the celebrators were heard. • from there/to here, i.e. to the participants
The letter reached us only yesterday.
.'J1Y.ll1N p1 u,~N )l'li1 J.nJr.li1
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15.6 Direct and indirect speech 15.6.1 Direct speech Hebrew, like English, can convey quotes directly or indirectly. Direct speech is very simple: the exact words of the original speaker are quoted, and are usually delimited with double quotes, as in: The manager said, "I need the report this evening".
ll)J
nnnn !lN 1'1!:1 'lN" : 11JN Jillt:lil ."~1llil
Lisa replied, "'No problem!" However, in literary texts, direct speech is often conveyed without any quote marks, and is understood as such from the context. A comma often separates the quote from the rest of the text. The director opened the door for me and said with a smile, Good morning, Maika, come in. She mumbled in her sleep, why are we going so slowly?
'J n!l!:l 'Nr.l::lil .'t)l:>m ,n::>7o :::1," 1pr1 ,l,'nl 1r.lN, !l'iil !lN
O'lJtm no7 ,m'\!.1 11110 n7o?r.l N'il !\JNJ 1:1 .,::>
Verbs which report/declare speech
say, speak, utter tell, relate, recount add, supplement (saying) announce, make known declare, state publicly answer, rejoin reply, respond claim, assert, proclaim proclaim, state Verbs which convey attitude to speech
rebuke, reproach scold, admonish encourage Verbs of manner of speech
shout, yell whisper mumble
J 11JN 1!)'t) '1't)1il ll'11il "t'1:Jil
my ~"\!Jil
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Here is an inustration of the use of such verbs in a joke: : n1'0N '~Y!l OY nn'l::J
Dan came to class half an hour after the belL The teacher scolded him: ''Why were you so late"? Dan answered her: "You yourself said to us that it is never too late to study".
'1nN nY\!.1 '!m 11Y''tl~ Y':m
11
.~l::t~~n
'::;, rnn'N YliO" : tJ mm n11on !"l:J ll~ l110N 1Y.l::tY::J l1N 11
:
11 n~ nl)!
."iUJ~'::I1nlNY.l NJ O~lY':1'll
15.6.2 Indirect speech Indirect speech is reported speech that is presented with some grammatical modifications, and not as it was uttered by the original speaker. When we tum direct speech into indirect speech, we link the two clauses by -'tl, or in more formal speech, particularly in writing, by the particle ':>. Like 'that' in English, this subordinating conjunction introduces reported speech. The tirst and second person pronouns are replaced by third person pronouns and the discourse is removed from the immediate proximity to a more distant one. Hebrew differs from English in that in Hebrew there are no changes in the tenses of the speech being reported and no special forms tor 'future-in-the-past' (such as 1-vili into would). In most cases the reporting verb is in the past tense. introducing what someone has already said. Examples of no change in tenses (compare with the English rendition): Indirect speech . l~lp1'tl .;m.lli Nln't11Y.lN 'lli
Direct Speech +-
Roni said that he loves chocolate. l11N1~ J~ln iPn Nln'tl iON '))1'1
+-
mN17 J71n 'l1"n" : 1Y-!N 'l1l
.~)::J 'l! ~::;, 0~\:>1U
."YtJ'll ~~ O'U1U
Roni said that he used to go to see movies every week.
."ntn
Roni said that he had already seen the movie.
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Chapter 15: Language in context
nN 13\!.J, NI;IY.J YmN nm:m '"'J.n
fiN~ N., '': !lOl:Jil '1Jn
+-
mn1ll 17::J.Pl1' N7 il).l ?:::> on).IJ~n
nnJW l'JJ.pl1' N., iW ?:::> lllllJJ.::In
.mY.Jin
.''lll\!Jin
The Knessct members said that they would not change their vote as long as no new Htcts were submitted. Examples of change in person (same as in English): Direct Speech
Indirect speech ?:::> nN n::J.mN WY.J mnN J1'll1
?:::> l1N l1J.i11N 'lN : il1J:IN J1>ln
+-
. ., >!lopv 'JY.J n nnnn
.l'!lUPY.J ?Ill nnnr.m n:::>77 7t:>' Nm\!J )i'J mnN n>l11
l1:J'J'J .,1:::>> ilJ1N" : )i7 il1Y.)N 31>)11
+-
.")l1VN'!l'J ~
.)11VN'l17 OJ'l'N
15.6.3 Indirect speech: interrogatives There are two types of questions: one is about the entire proposition of the sentence, and the other is about a particular component in the sentence. A question can also be part of reported speech, either direct or indirect. It is usually introduced by the verb CnN) .,N\!J 'asked', as in the following sentence: p10N':n7 ~ Nll7 mm Nli1 oN rr :nN n'm'll !1'))1. Question about the entire statement
A question about the entire statement demands a yes/no answer, as it is about its truth-value. In Hebrew no question word is necessary to initiate this type of question. What indicates that this is a question rather than a statement is a question mark at the end of the sentence, or raising of the tone at the end of the sentence. The question word O~tJ can be used optionally to indicate the question status of the sentence. Unlike English, there is no auxiliary verb (such as 'do' or 'be') that accompanies the main verb to indicate a question. Notice that in reporting a question there is no change in tense, only in person. il.:.:lll Nm ON )1 l1N il.,N\!J J1)))1 ·l,1VN>rl~ OJ1'N N1:1.,
Ronit asked Dan ifhe wanted/would like to come with them to the theater.
+-
i1J1N (0Ni1)" : li l1N il~N'll J'l'll"' "!))l'1>N N,:l~ il.:.:l11
Ronit asked Dan: ''Do you want to come with us?"
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Question about a component in the statement
The second type of question is initiated by a question word and is about one particular component of the sentence. In indirect speech that question word is maintained and changes involve person (as already discussed above). on mn nm1 mot ?NV.J ,,
D11N '!lY.l" : 11')11 !lN JNV.J
4-
.)11\JNm? 11J?? o'mJ11Y.l N'J nn? umN 1'JNV.J u?IV 0'1:mn
11
"1111\JNm? nJ'J? D'JJ1J11n NJ ilY.lJ" : lJnlN JNIV UJV.J 0'1Jrli1
4-
.?mnN UNJ.
"lJln!lN D!lNJ.
15.6.4 Place and time: changes from close to remote references In addition to changes in persons in indirect speech, references to time and place also change. The changes are in proximity - from a close to a more remote reference: 'here' often changes to 'there', 'in this place' to 'in that place', 'now' to 'then' and 'today' to 'on that day', etc. Examples of change in time and place: OV.J V.J' DN !l})iJ i111::n 11')11
4-
0'1!lU 11PUn l!:Q V.J'" : ilJNIV 1l'Jl1
.11nm 11Pun nm1'J p~Vn11Y.l oN 11})-r'J mn
.,).J::n
11
"1111:11\J
.....
V.!'Nil 11N 1JH NliliV 1Y.lN JilJY.lil .on Y.l)J!l 1J.J DIV il'il N 1i11Vl Nlilil
17 pV.Jn11Y.l'': 11m1 nN ?NIV ,, "lPIVJ>' nnp mn~V'J 11JJ'J
mlN:::t n!lp m111VJ n=>J'J
.....
IV'Nil 11N 1JH 'JN" : 1Y.lN 'Jmnn . ''D"Y.l)J!l 1J.J 1!:Q mn Nm .mn
There are several reporting verbs that can be used to introduce indirect speech: Dan said that he does/did not .Jl\J IV'l1Y.l N'J Nm~ 1Y.lN 11 1m( feel well. Dan told that he had been to the doctor and had tests. He added that the doctor did not know why he did not feel well.
J~N il'il Nlil~ 1!l'U
11
.nljJ'1::1 lJ lV.J})l N!ll1il ).111' NJ N!l11i11V rpum Nlil .::11\J IV'l1Y.l NJ Nlil ilY.lJ
<)'Oii1
Chapter 15: Language in confl'Xt
Dan announced that he was cancelling the party. Dan notified his landlord that he was planning to move. He declared that there wouldn't be any changes in the government's economic policy.
377
31N .,I.JJY.l N1i1~ Y'l1il )i
. )l:m'V nJ'OY.ln ).,'tl Il'Jil .,.).IJ~ )l'i)i} )l
.,~ 1'i1' N.,2.2 ll1::>n Nlil
T'1Jil
n,.,:::1.,:m m'l'lr.lJ D"1l'llJ .n.,llJ nnn .,llJ Nlil OlN)Ull)lil 'J'll m.,NYb
He answered that ifhe would have something new to say, he would let everyone know.
lrJ'liY.l ,., il'il' ON~ !ill! Nlil
.')'tnn'7 nr.l ,., 1'N '~
.o~,~~ ll'll'
~
i1]).1
Nm ,1Y.l)';) llJln
He insisted that he would not change his mind.
l'lN nl'll' N.,~ ~ ir.lY Nlil
He maintained that there was no reason to go on with the press conference.
l''lll:li1., Olpr.> l'N~ ~ Nm
15.7 Language registers
.II'"Tii1
.i11'1 11JY., (ll~l'lY.l N1i1~
He responded to the questions of the journalists that he had nothing to add.
He declared publicly that his decisions were made after a great deal of consideration.
.II''Tii1
.U"Illi l.llll
.O'NlUl'))il flJlUY.lJ
':::1 'JY.ll!lJ 1m!:rn Nm
1•mm
'1nN l'tllll l'm~.J~mn .0'J1 O'.,lP''tl
D'::t.~'!ID
A particular level of usage is referred to as a register. What characterizes a register is either a community of speakers, or the circumstances in which language is spoken. Each person has more than one language register he/she resorts to. One may usc a formal, elevated style of language to deliver a speech, or talk in an informal style to acquaintances and relatives, and speak in a particular colloquial style when getting together with a sports team they belong to.
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The nonnative usage that most Hebrew speakers conceive of as correct is the formal register, used in a variety of formal contexts (lectures, radio news delivery, written texts etc). Here are some examples of choices made in formal and informal registers of Hebrew: Choice of negative in present tense
He is notlhinking of coming.
Informal
Formal
:::l\!J1n NJ N1il
.N1JJ J\!J1n U'N Nln
.N1J.J
Choice of vocabulary
Tell him to wait.
Informal
Formal
,,m
.n1::lf1J lJ 11Y.lN
.m:m'J 1':1
Choice of tense/verb form
Formal 1:m
Informal Tell him to wait.
.m::ln'J 1':1
,,m
.m::ln'J 1':1
A sample of a longer text, is a letter to the editor of the newspaper Maariv about an incident at work that led to dismissal from work. The writer uses fonnallanguagc to discuss his situation, as he perceives that both the public platform and the gravity of the situation demand more formality. For comparison, we have rephrased it as it might be spoken in an informal context. Two possible renditions of a letter to the editor
Informal
Formal
J.::l)J jJU mY.lll\!J iHJ m1N 1Y.l?\!JNi1
'Jv :::1:n'J pn nY.l'llJ. mY.l't!Nln
'J noNl n1Jnn 'J\!J
i''J.'ilJ 'n1N 1:::l"nl n1:::1nn
,NJ DN1 1 '11l'Jl!l:::l 'n1N 1jJ1J.?\!J
'11l'J1!li1 . 1\J1!lN\!J lN I ')ll'J1!:JJ
J."n ')N'tl
NJ ?)N\!J N~Y.l '11l'~:11!li1 .'n1N 11\J!l' nno'J .'mN 11\J'!ll noNn nN m1Y.lN in 0Ni1 .jJt) t:n\!J 'nY.ll) NJ ?)N\!J
I
m1\J1!ll noN lJ. n ')'N\!J
oNn
N~Y.l
.pu 'J::l moll NJ\!J nnY.l'J 1'iJ1n
m
PjJ1n
15.7 .1 Making choices: the literary register Until recently, literature tended to usc a higher-than-average formal register, but nowadays many authors often incorporate or deliberately
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Chapter 15: Language in context
choose to use a variety of language registers, including less formal language. Literary register choice: colloquial informal language ~:J!b .w1n ('P~1!:1 ,.,
'l.mv
,mlN D'p!ln ,,r.:ln\!1 ,1'~)!l 'JN\!1 nJ\!Iln '~\!1 n1Jn
'mN 1J)~'l/ l11Y.llN N'nl ilj7'1r.:lNJ .,P\:1~ lJl'Ol ,NJ~ilY.l U11nl1YiilVJ l'N ,Yiiln ,l11r.:l1N N'il
,iH., 1\!ljJJ NjJ11i ~JN .'iY.l m1 'JN\!1 l1J\!Jln Ol N'n .0'0'\:11:JJ .m\:I'.,VJJ N., m ,:J ,
.,.,)1 Q>O)I:J il~ )'N
(Opening segment from "/low To Make A Good Script Great" by Etgar Keret) Literary register choices: mixing registers
Here is the last stanza of a poem written for children, that mixes both children's and colloquial registers as one of its poetic devices: ;J.ili.N: 'l.N:
0) NJN TINl NY.l'N l1N Jn1N l)N D'1r.:l ililin nNl nmn n.,w nNl '!llnN l1N J.il1N 'JN Nl1J.O l1Nl NJO l1N J.il1N l)N .'mN J.il1N 'JN i1J.1il ':Jil 'Jil
.,:IN
Cl!:ll )nlHl' ~\'.1 l''liP)
There are several colloquial registers. When talking to family members speakers make some different choices than the ones they use when speaking either to neighbors and friends, or to colleagues or to total strangers. There are speech norms at work and at play. Adults may speak differently to children. Teenagers often have their own language codes and tend to address their contemporaries differently from the way they address their parents, teachers or other figures of authority. All of the above and many more situations determine choice of vocabulary, style, tone of voice, choice of language strategy, degree of directness and formality. Here are some illustrations: Direct Sit here! Polite Please. sit down. Sit down, if you please. Formal polite (but insistent)
!1NJ tJVJ
! ilVJjJJJ. l:l'lll1 !l1J.VJ~ Nl
380
Polite suggestion Indirect suggestion
Chapter 15: Language in context
You may sit. You don't have to stand.
.n:J.'ll~ 0'~':>' onN . 11oy~ O':J'1!! ~b onN
15. 7.2 Register and metaphor One should not take it for granted that the use of metaphors automatically identities a text as belonging to the literary register; slang makes extensive use of metaphors as well, and speakers whose speech typically belongs to one register may cross over to the other: when it is done in jest, or to impress with familiarity with the opposite register, or to achieve a special effect. Here are some metaphor groups that are used to the same semantic end in the t\vo diametrically opposed registers, the literary register ami slang. Meaning of both
beat someone up
Slang metaphor ; \)~"P ; :J.':J\!m; ~,",., ,m
Literary Metaphor ; ·p m:rm n'mn
n1~~n TIN ,., O~"ltp!l1 ; 1)~'~
; ('Jy) YP <'J'li11il':J.:m ; llJl1l nm CnN) mN1n
1'm:m TIN lJ N'~!lil
nN n31'l' ; o,.,,,~ YJ'll nom 1Y n~Yll"li1 ol:J
sutler greatly be in love (with)
; ('Jy) p~1ltP1.,1 ; ('Jy) Yl wo ; (.,Y) Jlllt:J.m ; ('::1).1) ).11iJll).ll1P ~).1111::)
; ('::1).1) <'J1\)) i ('Jy) 01lil
i1\)) i il'll!l)J ill1'l'jJ
1\!)!))
1\!l!l) npJi ; ... '1nN 1J., ... :I
\)'l!l'll i ('::1).1) ~1).1) i ('Jy)
Note that slang is not a corruption of language; 1t 1s a separate legitimate register within the colloquial range, usually restricted to particular social classes or age groups. making a conscious effort to distinguish themselves from the 'conventional' broader society.
15.7.3 Borrowing of expressions There are many popular metaphorical expressions and idioms that were borrowed from other languages and have entered the Hebrew vocabulary:
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Chapter 15: Lunguage in context
afraid of one's own shadow tail between the legs eat like a horse the ball is in your court break the ice cut corners get on someone's nerves keep a low profile from the horse's mouth give me a ring (ca11 me)
10~~ ~\U ~!ililO
in!lo
O"~l1i1 )'J. :mn
oy
UlU1n::>~::>U-c
17'1!1 \U1lr.lJ ·m:m
mpn:nN 1n\U7 nll'!l ~l}l~ O'J~Yn ';7}1
lu::ll
']l!))1!]
m7Y7
']y 1U::l\!1':7
UlUn '!l~ ~l~~~ ,, 1:11
15.8 Genres of text The variety of existent texts that are delivered in various channels of communication differ from one another in their structure and organization. It is therefore helpful to attempt to classify them according to their organization, their characteristics and their overall purpose. Texts that are more formal, professional, ceremonial and cultural, or intended for mass consumption, tend to have a more structured and formulated organization. Among such texts are legal contracts, scholarly articles, media news, prayers and blessings, recipes and others. The more individual texts, such as personal letters, informal conversations, op-ed articles, fictional works, are less formulated. Texts can be classified into genres on the basis of the intent of the communicator. Each of these genres can be described as having an overall purpose of (I) information, (2) entertainment, (3) persuasion and influence, and (4) aesthetics. The following text genres can be considered in the context of the overall purposes described listed above: Text genre
Communicator's intent is to
Narrative
Tell about a sequence of events (historical, contemporary, fictional tale, folk tale, drama etc.) Give instructions on how to do something (technical infonnation on how to operate a new gadget, directions on what to do on a test, stage directions etc.)
Procedural
382
Expository
Descriptive
Chapter I 5: Language in contexl
Explain something (such as a scholarly article, a science textbook, political address, religious sermon etc.) List the characteristics of something (description of a medical or sc.ientific procedure, technical description, descriptions of fictional or real characters, descriptions of landscape, poetic descriptions etc.)
The list above is by no means an exhaustive one, or the only way to classifY genres of texts, but covers some common categories.
15.9 Cohesion and coherence of text The texture of any given discourse unit is reflected by a number of external devices as well as internal organization and logic that give the text its cohesion and coherence. Text coherence (consistency and logic of the text)
The logical and rhetorical relationships between propositions constitute the coherence of a text. There can be two propositions that have no common elements that unite them, except for the fact they appear in sequence. In this case, a temporal relationship may exist between them or a cause and effect relationship. For instance, the tollowing sentences suggest such a way of putting two propositions together: I. Hurricane Isabel reached the state of North Carolina in the United States in the past hours. 2. More than 300 thousand people in North Carolina and Virginia left their homes for fear of the damage caused by the hurricane.
i1)1'li1 11'7::1 ''N" 1P'imil 11!l)Q . I 11'l'!l:::li1 nl''':1liP nl'lO '!lm':1 .nminNn l11V'1!1:J :J"i11N:l
mn';:l)ipl 'I!J'N C"J~l'C 300-o 1111' .2 oml1J 11N )l'!l n')''li')):J) l1'll!!!:li1 -1P'1mn l'l)lll!)Y.J '1!1\!Jnr.J
We can say that there is both a temporal and a causal relationship between these two sentences. The first states the fact that the hurricane arrived, and the second describes the consequences that occurred once
Chapter 15: Language in context
383
the storm arrived. Coherence, then, is the content connecting these sentences to each other. Text cohesion (unity and structural organization)
In addition to the coherence of a text content-wise, there are external signals in the superstructure of the text that provide the connectivity or the cohesion of the text. Most of them are grammatical (although the notion of cohesion may also be extended to the lexicon), and are generally manitest in the use of referencing devices and of connectives, such as o~~N) 'however' below: I. The hurricane winds are likely to get Y'ln~ Jn'WlJ 1i7'11nil mm1 . I to the speed of 105 kilometers per .YJ 11 np I 05 ~Ill nnmr.:l~ hour. 2. However, the main worry concerns the damage that will be caused by the flooding brought about by the storm that is expected to create waves, 12 teet high.
N'il !1'1j7'Yil illN1il o;'lN1 .2 Jn.31!)\)''llr.l CJ1l"'ll j7Uilr.l D'~ll1~'~ illlr.lN'll,il!l1t:m
.~)1 12 ~'ll n:m:~
Referencing and co-referencing contribute to text cohesion by building a system of participants, places, objects, time, and other features within the larger text unit. Reference may be to an entity that is not mentioned anywhere in the text proper, but which is understood in the broader context; e.g., in the context of a discussion of a particular company one may tind the following sentence: The President has no idea what is going .illlj7 nr.ll'lllr.ll'N N'\!.ll~ on. The reference is clearly to the president of the company, even though this tact is not mentioned overtly. In most cases, however, the reference is established by co-referenc-ing one occurrence of an entity with another one; often it is in the torm of a pronoun. Danny will not come tonight. He is very busy. Danny: "Hello Ruth. lam not coming tonight".
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Chapter 15: Language in context
Ruth: "but you said that you would come". When a reference points back to an occurrence of a referent earlier in the text, the linkage/relationship is called anaphora. There are a few cases, particularly in literary texts, when the reference occurs hefore the referent is specifically identified. Such subsequent appearance of the referent is called cataphora. Examples of cataphora Sentence 1: general reference to 'a suspect'
The Tel Aviv police detained a suspect in the deadly running over of a 17year-old young woman on the Tel Aviv promenade two weeks ago.
1l'Vf1 m~)l J~Jl'< ?n
m
i11').1~n
mm!m
?IV nm:l? nnu~1n ?m. n?~~\JJ 17-n
')!:IJ :l':lN
.o"~1J'V
Sentence 2: specific mention of the suspect's name, age, place, and history
The suspect, Avi Yaakobi, a 33year-old ex-con from Petah Tikva, is suspected of having driven without a license and trying to hide facts connected to the accident.
)J l:l).I'VJ l'UN ,'):l)jJ)!' 'JN I 1l'Vf1i1
N?? mJ'V 11'Vn ,m1pn-nn!)Y.l
33
15.10 Language in context: sample texts Language in use is not organized in the same way as a sequence of independent sentences, all of which are formally correct, hut may or may not have any meaningful clear relationship between them. Language in use always has a context, a style and other features which give it the cohesion, coherence and style, demonstrated by its organization and structure, which follow many of the language behavioral rules described earlier in the chapter. The two main styles of larger units of discourse are the conversation and the narrative, or 'story' type of discourse. 15.10.1 Conversations One of the most difficult tasks for a learner of Hebrew or any other foreign language, is trying to participate in a conversation, understand the intent of speakers, the rules of taking turns in a conversation
Chapter 15: Language in con/ext
385
(sometimes totally ignored), how to address strangers and how to address family and close friends, and what conventions are required by different social situations. In listening and comprehension, it is important to consider and determine the following factors: • How the participants take turns • How they construct their utterances across turns • How participants identify and repair communication problems • How conversation works in different conventional settings Sample 1: Rendition of a conversation
(From a simulation of a conversation in a written text. The setting is home, and the conversation takes place in intimate circumstances, between a mother and a daughter): ..Tikva'le, come, I warmed up jJlY.l n~p 'TIOY.r>n ,'Ntl ,n'::l•m1PTI" some vegetable soup tor you, ."'Y.lll\:131 'N1J. ,mpl' come and taste". .m';l NJ. NJ ,NY.lN ,NJ" "No, Mom, I don't feel like it". "Come on, just a tiny drop of m ,p1n ilJ'il!l''-' p1 ,'Nl:l,'Nl:l" soup, ifs hot". !'on "Mom, I ate at the university". . ~~ il'-''~l:J. mNJ. 'Tl~:JN , NY.lN" m ,jJlY.l n~p pi J::JN ,::Jl\:> ,::Jl\)" "OK, OK, but only a little bit of soup, it's nothing, it's all water". .''O'Y.l ~n:m m ,OlJ:l "J don't want to". . "il:::ill N':7 lJN" Sample 2: from a newspaper interview
(From an interview with the then Labor Party Minister of Education, Yossi Sarid. The style is quasi-formal and utterances are full sentences. Response is directed at the question posed.) "In the Labor Party they say that you are still considering running for Prime Minister". "No, 1 don't believe that I can be elected, not in the present situation. I don't see such a
ilTIN\!.1 C')lnlN ill):l)}il nlJ!:IY.l.l" m't'Nl';:l i1~'1 ';:1)1 J.V.Iln 1n1)1 ."n~wnnn
, ln::Jm';J 'J1:l' 'lN't' ::J't'ln N~ 'lN ,N'J" nN11 N';:l 'lN .n,n:mn il':::!Nl'-''O::J N'::l 7VJ ill:J.Y.lil TIN l':lY.l l)N . H:l TJ)lVJ!:JN
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Chapter 15: Language in context
possibility. 1 know the structure of Israel, and cannot sec how enough opposition support me to be PM".
O'~'ltPl P'!:lt:lt:ll'N i1N11 N'Jl ,'JN1\!.n
'liN1'J n'ilN'll ,,~ '::1 O'~t:lln .nn'J'llt:lt:l
15.10.2 Narratives A narrative discourse is an account of events, usually in the past, that employs verbs of speech, motion, and action to describe a series of events that are contingent one on another, and that typically focuses on one or more performers of actions.
Some ofthe features of narratives arc: 1. Events are organized chronologically. 2. First or third person pronoun forms are used. 3. The text is oriented around a specific agent or agents. Here are some common categories of narratives: Folk tales
Stories about real or imagined events, often containing supernatural elements. Historical events
Stories or accounts about the social and political history of the world and its contacts with the rest of the world. Mythology
Stories explaining origins, natural phenomena, or social and religious customs, often involving the supernatural. Personal experience
Accounts of significant events in the life of the narrator or the community. Sample text 3: Rendition of a folk tale: nlJII(il
'n"i"l" : ::l')~iJ? 0:;:!\pi) ln'liN'J it:llN il'il .n~~m nN 1'Jil'J i1~1'll OlN O~!;;l i1'il '' ... O'l!l 'JN O'l9 nmN 1'Jn'J ,nn'N ooi\!.I'J ,nmm nN 'liU!l'J nnN OlJ!l m111
'tl!i!('ln 1~ ,''J!;!Y.l mm·m nN 1'Jn'J mm nnN .oion nN ' ' 'J:;J'J~n nnN i1Y.l" "Plr.lt:l n!ln nnN nn .nnN 1:;JJ ,nmN 0'1n n'J)J .noNn nN ~!:ln., N~' .O'l'J~ ,n'li'N- .,:m :J.tY .11i'J N!l' nmt:J. Nlm 0'1.!:1~J nmN \!19m .m1~m ':;?:J.:!J ,O'.!:Iinn 11iN'J nmm nN ~!Pn ,nlY::ll ,,,,
,N'J 1N U't:~~n ,10 7'll i\!.11{1
.,)1 ,inN 01'1 ,m'Jnl O'i)J::J nmN 'li!'Pn ,0')\:>jJ
Chapter 15: Langutlge in context
3S7
n1ll\!! I 1~ l'l!Jl!:l:;l I mpl n\!nN nn»n nr.JNil .nt:l Nil nN N~ o Nm , n:wn l~l'l:J
,0'0=>
l!l '::1~'::1~ n~ip illil ;n::J.li\!.1 ii)J'tll lN .I'J~P!I Jiil.:::l1 1~!:!~ nJi.)ll n~'W
il'il\!.1 iiO ~:;,TIN Q'!;lr.J .)lr.J'tll ,rl.tJ~'I:'lr.J.:;t iii)~ Ol'l ill'tJ .Tir.JNil J'lNl\!.1 ~~' Nlill . )~ 1r.Ji':1 iJ'!;l:J 'l11'll" , n':1 1oN mnr.J i1!:ll't! '~!:!'::1 . in':;J~ J~'tl~ 'ti'Nil liiYJr.J YJl ,~~N . lJ'll:;J~ 1l1n P\!.1:>.).1 'lN . il:J1il
1=> '::1:>
J'li.)ll1l i1r.J~1l ))~.:::!~ ilr.J'1iJ ,~11'::1 n:J\!.In J'lr.JNil
t1'':1nn
mYJ 1il~;~
'TilN Tllt:ll';l J'lN 1 l'lr.JNil
"?l~~Y,)~ Tll\!.1.).1';1 ':1lJl l)N\!.1
1in~ .n~;~.~ mm 'lN\!.11Y.n<·n '::1~ .'~~ 19Um o~':IJ~YJn 1YJN::J
.p",
,~ ;nnNl
" ... i11'.)1.:::1~ jJ!)l 'lN lJ Oi1':1
Partial analysis
This short simple tale incorporates various language and discourse devices mentioned in this chapter. They give it the shape of a text, rather than being a sequence of sentences. The choice of vocabulary, the choice not to repeat the subject within the paragraph, as it is obvious, the word order and more, all characterize this as a coherent and cohesive text. Included are a few comments to highlight the reading of the text, and to accentuate the fact that sentences within a larger text take on a different shape to help contour the text and give it its flow. The character Truth is referred to as noNn, as generic abstract nouns use the definite article to get the same effect as English does with capital letters. Title of the story "Truth" Comments
Conventional beginning of a folk tale: verb and adverb precede subject. Once upon a time there »'as a man who wanted to get to know the truth! Truth. Subject not repeated and use of habitual aspect: (He) used to say to his w~fe morning and night:
nnH.i'l
Text
TIN 1'::m':1 n.:::11'C OiN o~~ nm .J'l'?~il
3R8
Chapter I5: Language in conte"Ct
Use of direct speech, and modality - expressions of wish: "1 would love to meet Truth, if only once. and speak with her and get to know herface to face ... " The addressee is the wife, and there is no need to mention this, as the context is clear. Her response starts with a comment and a question: "Why are you driving me crazy'! You want to get to know Truth?" It continues with a suggestion and a direction addressing his wish: "As far as 1 am concerned, go ahead and look for her, talk to her. What do you want.from me?"
A narrative sequence: the subject is not repeated after the first sentence in this sequence and a verb starts each new sentence. And indeed he went on his way. Left everything- wife, children. Went out to seek the truth along shores, in the heart afforests. Searchedjor her in small villages, lookedfor her in big cities, A break in the sequence includes addressing the reader: And one day. at the top ~la mountain, believe it or not, inside a cave, hefound Truth. Descriptive passage: Truth was an old woman, bent, her hair gray and her skin as wrinkled
TlN \!IU!)~ :nnN 0)1.!:! il~11 'rtllil 11 nmN ,,.::m~ ,nl1'N
oo1w:;, ,:noNn
" ... O'l~ 'N 0')9
n:nN .oion :nN ,~ ~.;J~.:;1o n:nN no" !l10Nil llN 1':1i1' il~11
.nnN 1~1 ,nmN ~~on 1~ ,'J~t:l "?'lOJ:l
n~n
nnN no
- ':li1 Jl)l ·11i~ N!:P l1J:lNJ. Nlil1 .l101"n 1l1UIJ.l 11'1 0'1il il.,.).l '~J.~J. ,0'.!lini1 11iN., l1J:lNil
0'1.!:l.:>J. i1ll'lN \!J.9'>n . Tll1,V'i1 ,m.,nl O''W.J nmN v.!:lm , 0'3'-'P
1l'Y.l~:n I 1~ ~\!1 i\!IN.,
.,v inN Ol'l I
TlN N~O Nm ,i1'),VJ:llim. ,N:;, 1N .Tl>:lNi1
ll!,n.!:l:. ,nJP,l ilV'N illl"i1 llJ:lNil .Jiil:::ll i!l.!l~ i'l')iVl il;J.'YJ il1)1\!J , 1~
Chapler 15: Language in context
and as yellow as parchment. But when she spoke her voice was clear and pure like water, and he knew that she was Truth. Expository passage- tbcus on time and omission of subject: A year and a day he stayed in her company, and heardfrom her what she had to say to him. Time adverb begins the sentence, and word order changes to verb in tense + subject: + infinitive of expanded verb: After a :vear the man decided to return to his home.
Concluding dialogue (use of direct speech). Subject A (the protagonist) is not mentioned, as his identity, is known from the earlier part of the text. Before he parted from her. he said to her: "Lady Truth, you taught me so much. 1 am now returning to my home. l~ there something I could do for you?''
389
i'l~ip nm n1:J'i'll il~'ll:l1N ·"'~P::> l1Nl'li.)Jl~ N1ill ,O'Y.l::J
l!l ~n~~ .l1Y.lNil
~Y.l'l'1 ,i'IJ;l~'r:'IY.l:;l n~'U
01'1
m'll
t"~J. il'il'll nY.l ~!I nN D~~Y.l .1~:nr.li~
:J.l'll~ 'li'Nil "'~nn
m'll 1i:ll!~ .il1'~~
: n, 1Y.lN i1)Y.lr.l l1~l'll '~!l~ 'l'nN l1iY.l''] TIN ,l1Y.lNi1 'n1':J.l" 1l1n 1''li:::IY 'JN .ill1i1
p
~::.l
'],;::,, 'lN ~ m~Y.l Ill' '~~N . '1'1'~' 1/ ?1>-l/Y.l~
The second speaker, Truth, takes her turn. The choice of words is from a high language register: Truth thought for a moment, !{fred a thin and shaking finger and said to him: "Ye.~. When you get back there and tell about me, don 't tell them that I am an old, worn out woman. Tell them that Tam beaut!ful and young ... "
l'n'li)J']
.).l~~z::t i1t.l'1D ,lll1, il:l'lln l1t.JNil
.P" :
1~ n1t.JN1 nl)J1,, nY.lnl
~~ ,'~)} 1~on~ o~' :J~~n ,~N:!I 1io~ . n~+~ mpt 'lN'l' 1Y.>N·n
" ... i11'.).1~~
n!l' 'lN ,, on']
Appendix 1: verb tables Note: In most conjugations other than regular o•m~ will be listed.
,,,,~
10~
'":I'?'?'
ni';J'?' nt;J'?' cn~1oVJ}
.,,,)'
1!1)1
.,.O~t<
'3:1';1~~
'JN
101('3;1
.1;1';1~~
t717N
'":1'?'?'3:1
l;l';IY.l"'
J7N
C'Y.I~~.
only deviations from the
~~~; l"l:J
10~~
1Y.l"'
Nm
")"0\f'l')
n:ll?~
N'i"l
10\f')
~l")r,l~
VnJN
r'l'?\~1]')
D.J)";IY.l~
OJ7N
~1'?\('T;I
l.J)';IY.l\f'
]17N
nt;J'f'? cnn·o'?'n>
nt;>"'
]/Oi7
~':a'!?t< '0'0~\') ' jl") u
1-0-VJ : VJ1W 10'f'~ : ~)l)!l
O'll 10'?' ,1ir.ll(' : 1)j.1)'.)
,.,,,,., 11,;liVJ l"()t;;liVJ
JJflJN
(]t7/}nN)
,.,~~
017N
1r,l~l;1
nnN
m',l~T;I
]J1N
'1''?~3:1
17N
0'Y1
m:n
~}.,1!;1 : )"l:J
~~!?t:t ,o,o~v
'JN
m',l~T;I
i77'n'
O'"Jt;>iVJ 1li1r,li¥J
.,,,, lti?~
7'n'
: mn
1-0-~ : \')"))'l./ ,,,~
~11?'?'
]/Oi7
lr.l??
Nm
'"19:;.
nN
1r,l~
i7J1N
cnr:rY.J~T:I)
(]t7/]J7N)
lr.l?n
N'i7
cnnm>
].J7N
no~
onN
.,,,,
•N 1l'l)1) '!l , ~~~ : 1"l:l !l-0-N : VJ")W
C'fO~{
1JnJN
C)Ot1t<
'JN
~!)~~J.:l
o.nN
C)O~.J)
nnN
,!lV~.tl
}17N
·~v~u
nN
,!lV~!
}/Di"l
C)·o~~
Nm
C)·o~
i7J1N
o"~Q~
onN
cn~~·o~n>
fli7/1J1N)
C)·o~JJ
N'i7
(il~!lON)
}J1N
11-1!lQ~
}!1N
C)·o~'?. , ~Yl!l C\'J 1!!.JI
"11'!11
391
Appendix 1: verb tables
.,,n,.
c•n)
')I
•n l1'Jnl '!l , ~3.1~ : 1"lJ.
•fJ.~~
11/llN
tJ~~
'lN
j-J.-).1 : ~ll~
~,~~tl
OJ1N
1J.~.tl
i1J1N
1.l~~ : ~)I)~ 0~
n~~tl
]J1N
''J:;ul.tl
nN
~i:;a).!~
}/Oi1
·jJ.~~
Nm
(il~lJ~tl)
(],7/]J1N)
"TJ.~tl
Nm
~-!It;'~
11nJN
~-.JI;)~
'JN
'~~')])
OJ7N
~.JI;)l)
nnN
~~~f)tl
}J1N
)~~!;)])
J7N
"T'ft)l
,,,:!!
1:1ll
tJ.~
i1J1N
om:;tv,
DJ7N
(ilpJ~)
]J1N
1:f:l1:;t~
]J1N
(some) •n l1'Jlll '!:I , ':13.1!;1 : 1''l:l ~-:1-n
~f!ln~
: ~lWJ
: ':1Y1!:l o~
'"':!I
,:1)1
~'ti~J;'I~
}/DI7
~-!It;)!
Nm
w·J()
Cil~~::~ntl)
(},7/}J7N)
\!.1"!11):!;;1
N>n
(il~~-J,tJ)
>:;!l'•f)
11/llN
~~)N
'JN
~-,-N :~ll'tl
'~?N.T-1
DJ7N
~~1'·(3'1
nnN
']"'tl~ : ']l,ll!:l O'tl
''?N·n l>:;>l'of'
]J1N
''?1•(3'1
J1N
von
>~N·'
Nm
.,-,~
l7f1N
O{l~~~
OJ1N
(il~.,~N-1-l)
(Jl7/]J7N)
'~N·n
N>,7
(il~~i'~'
}J1H
lT:I';)~
]J1N
rmN
op~:;tO
DJ1N
}TIN
m~:;ttJ
}J1N
--·-· ···-
nm •N nmll ·~
'f'ftJI
nnn
'''':!I
I
~).!~ : 1"lJ
1!1ll
l1'llll 'Y 1 ']).!!ll : 1nl.l
''ft)l
O''~i'tl
11/llN
,,~~l;l
J1N
.,-N-'tl : ~ll~
ni>~i'lJ
DTIN
,,~~3'1
CJJ1N
~·Nv? , ']).!)~ o\!.1
,~~~'
]i1/0l7
1!1)1
,,,~
'?~"'
''lj"'
]1/'(
n~~~
N'i1
'f/DJ1H
1':1!.'(~
}i1/0i1
•n l1'llll !:l"il' , .,l!!il : 1"lJ n-']-\!.1 :\!Ill~
D7'tl? : 'Yl!:l 0\!.1
392
Appendix I: verb tables
l"'1'1''1
n'lnl 1:.J I ~l/~ : 1''ll
T'tlll
tlil~
7'n'
M~),z::l
'JN
n-l-l : 'l.I1WJ
il;;Jil~
iJ7m'
M~~l;l
i7JJN
;;ill~ : ~)ll!) 01!!
O';:lil~
o>:n
i'l:m
N1i7
nini.l~
m::n
i'l~~n
N'i7
n.;q
n:;m
1JnJN
m.l~
"''l~lll
1:1)1
i7JJN
Fl~~
Nm
OJJN
il;;J:;l~
N>i7
'"!:! '1tln
T'tl»
I
~~~ : l"l.l
J~~
1JnJN
:I~~
'JN
J-'l)-); \!.11l\!! :n.:;Jw~ : ~'!:) cl!!
,J~.f:l
OJJN
J~t:l
iJJJN
·lJ~.f:l
]J7N
':;l~:r:l
JJN
ll~!
}/017
J~~
Nm
':;1~
J7N
:I\')
i7JJN
(il~l~.f:l)
(}iJ/}JJN)
J~.f:l
N't7
Cnp~J
]JJN
lJ\!)
OJ'IN
\!.I"J'J
1JnJN
W'?l'l
OJJN
l'l.l';l'l'l
]J7N
'l!!")'l:l
J7N
''ll?'~
von
'l.l)'~
Nm
'1!!';1~
J7N
'l.l)~
i1J'IN
(il~IQJ'J:I)
(Ji1/}J'IN)
Y.I'J'.l;l
N'i1
(il~\!.1)~)
}.TTN
l'l.l1~
OJ'IN
''l'l'lll
T'n»
)II!)
ln)
1
.,~~
;
l"JJ
'l.I"J'II<
>JN
\!)-1-) : \\111\\1
'l.I)'J:'l
i1J'IN
:nw1~ : ~v1!:l o'l.l
''l'l'lil
l"!l '10n 1 ?~~
T'tlll
: l''lJ
~-9~
1JnJN
.,.9z::l
>JN
J-!)-) : YJ1l'l.l
,.,~3;1
OJJN
7"93;1
i7J7N
~is~ : ~)11!:1 O\!!
,~!ill;! ,.,~,
(il~~i!!ID}
,,,,~
c~p
'Y.l'i'
]JJN
'~.!ill;!
JW
yon
~-9~
Nm
(Jl7/}J7N)
7"93;1
N'i7
,,,..,
1:1»
C~i't<
O,P-':1 'Y.l'P-tl OlP? O'P-tl
~'l'l'lll
'~.!?)
.TTN
.,-!)~
t7J7N
Cnt;f!lJ)
}J7N
,.,!;)~
OJ'IN
?~!JI : P'JJ
'l;lf?P
'JN
1")1 'nl: i11U
l;l'?P l;l'?P
i7JJN
0-l-p: 'LI11\!! :JVl!l O'l! olp ,o1p, 1lf.'r.J
J7N
Oj?
N1i1
il'?i?
N'iJ
Olp~
393
Appendix 1: verb tables
,,:"!
c~p~
m~v
1JnJN
)~~p
l~)PJ;l
Ol)'ti?
0!7N
op
7m'
u:np
)~)Pl;l
1l)t;:li?
}!7N
i1Y,li?
n7'n'
)~)p~
,~i?
von
O'l;li?
0'.:1"1
(}l7/}!7N)
ni~i?
!71::1"'1
(i1~Y,l'p)
(illbPt1>
,,,:.
'ftJ\)1
'1:1)1
Of'~:'~
'l:lt;:l'"'
'JN
'")I 'nJ ' i11 u
of~
0'~t1
l;ll;l~
l7!7N
o->-·YJ , YJ1l'll
>r,p·~
>Y,l>'~l;l
l;ll;l'~U
!7N
o>·~?
o·"'
N1t1
~~,.~ )~,.'<'
cn~r.>''l!l
'~~: )"JJ
o>-~'. , ~Yl.O
o'tl
of~ ,Oi'lll :1lPO
o>'!Ql;l
i1Y,i'?'
N'l7
o>'~)
m;f'l:'
1JnJN
~0>''1:'3.;1
O~r,J·~
OJ7N
0~
7'n'
·~'~:1.:1
lt1r,J~
mN
i1Y,l''Q
n7'n'
)~'·llJ~
)b'?'
]/Oi7
o>r,i'?'
O'::J"''
(Jl7/}!7N)
nto·'?'
m.:z-1
Cm~·'l!l.;l)
:mn
In modem Hebrew the so-called •doubled roots', which have identical second and last root consonants, are conjugated as regular verbs, however, historically there was a separate special conjugation, which has some residues in current Hebrew: .,~ :lnJ::l
,,,~
"''J\)1
,:tV
;n~
>l)i31)
'JN
OI"V) o>,l!l:::> : i11U
,-n
,.nt1
l;1im
i7J7N
J-J-n, 'tl1l'll
,~·n
'~"l;l
ntm
!7N
,.n? , ~).11!:1 OYJ
Nm
,-n ,)iJO , 11p~
1n?
))I)
tnJ;~
n~~o
Nm
,-n~
nim
1JnJN
~3-n
~3-nl;)
OJ;Ii3t'l
0!7N
pin
7'n'
~)·n
)lnt1
):t1ilt'l
}!7N
n~~in
l77'n'
)3·n~
~J~I)
]/Oi7
o>~~in
0'::1'7
{]l7/}J7N)
:nil~in
J71::J7
(n~·n)
lnin!-1)
nnn
394
Appendix I: verh tables
,,~~
1'.tl)t
,!!)t
N'Jp~
N'Ji?
N'Ji(l'l 'N';Ii?l:1 N':Jp? N'Ji(l'l
':!JN'Ji? -tJN'Ji? 1lNJi? N'Ji?
'~';li?
~ll~
; l"JJ. N"~ ml , n1u N-1-p :'tl11~ N.11?~ : ~).11!:1 O'll Ni1i? ,Ni1i?, -npo
'JN /1!1/1( J7N N1i1
m;f;Ji?
N''7
N?i?~
~lNJi?
1JilJN
U'{")i?
~N")i?l'l
OUN")i?
OJ1N
~N';Ii?
~N")pl:l
lt!NJP
1J1N
NJ1P :nNJip
~N")i(?
~N")i?
]/Oi7
O'~")iP
D'j1
(}iVJ!1N)
niN"JiP
J7U1
nnn
T'n' t71'n'
(n~N1i(}
(n~NJP.:!;1}
'"'llf
1"'.tl)l
,:a)l
n~pl;(
'tl'~i?
'JN
(il"~) '"' ml , mn
mp
nJ,pn
-tl'~i?
i7J1N
cn-J-i') t-J-P , ..,.,,..,
'~i?
'~i?tl
1l'~i?
J1N
il~i??
il~i?
Nm
:nili(~ : .,~no O'll :nilp 'iili? : llpiJ
il?i?l'l
ilD~i?
Nm
n~p~
U'~i?
1JnJN
~Jp
~li?l'l
O:!;l'~i?
DJ1N
n~ip
1'1l'
~Ji?
Up :!'I
lD'~i?
J17N
n~ip
i77'n'
~Ji?'
~li?
(n~'~i?)
,,,llf
(il~'l.i?:l'l)
1'.tl)l
,::1)1
PJ~l;(
'~~; l"l:J
nnn
von
Ot~ip
0'j1
{1t1/]J1N}
:nbip
J71J7
~~J?~: )H)J
O'O"'tl : ill ll
PJ~iJ
PJ~l'l
'l'li?J:P :J;Ii?J:P
i1!1N
'i?7~D
'P7~l'l
~i?'J-?~
J1N
PJ~?
P1:P
Nm
PH :!'I
ni?n~
N'i1
PH~
~li?J:P
1JflJN
~P7~i:!
~P7:;ll'l
opp:r:;u
OJ7N
P'7.:;a~
1'1l'
~PHD
~P7~3:1
ltli?J_:;l~
]J1N
1ll?.:)"_:;l~
i7T'n'
~P7~?
,P7:P
]/0,7
O'i?'1:;t)
O>j1
(Ji7/]J7N}
nip']:p
m.:n
Cn~PH;:ll
Cn~pJ~:!;1}
'JN
p-1-J : ..,.,,~ P1~D~ P1~D
:.,l/1!:1 o~ ,pi-:r:;u : 11po
nnn
395
Appendix 1: verb tables
.,,,, c:rn u::rr:m
JJnJN
CJ)~
'JN
onN
~~-?~ : )"l.l ~-1-1
C'T)iJ~
Ol')l)
nnN
~~T~tl
}nN
'Y,l'J)tl
nN
~r.rrJ~
von
CJJ~
Nm
'r.J7JD
Cn~l;l':rJr:l)
(m)
O'JJ.!:l
Nm
(n~~1)Dl
'"'lll
,,,,
,!1)1
no~
'm'Jm
: .,Yl!l C'tl ,,,~
nN
OTJD
nnN
JnN
~r.:l'J)iJ
onN
.,~~ : 1"l.l
'JN
•y 'n 'N l'l'll1l '!l,O'r.l"'tl, n1n
rmN
l-1-il : 'tl1l'tl
l'JDtl
n.nm
l'JQD
'~';lOti
m:n:n
11N
'~?tiD
l'Ji;l?.
)1j))
N1i'7
l10tl
n~-;~v~
Nm
.. 'io·;·;
:Wn'tl
l)i;Ji)~
: .,)11!) ov
l10D ,li11]), : 11pn
l'JQ~
~)~'Jtn
VnJN
~l",li;ID
~)')i).tl
om!rP
DnN
lJtH
11""' 7•n•
U';Ji;JiJ
~l?iJtl
1t1nm
JnN
nnm
i77'n'
~1)0?.
u~m
]/Oi7
c'nm
D':n
(il~l')OiJ)
cn~l'Jnt:~J
(]i7/}17N)
ni)'Jm
17U7
(some
verbs)~~-?~ : 1"l.l
,,,~
.,,,,
,:a,
1PI)~
'D?PJ;'l~
'JN
1D.I)D
1D.I)tl
J;l)i?f;l~
l717N
''Ji?OD
'1i?Otl
J;I';1QI)~
nN
1t?O?.
1pt;l~
Nm
If)
J'Pll1). 1!:1 'C'l:l"\') : i11U 1-p-n :VJ1l'tl 1PI)D~
: .,)ll!l OVJ
1POD ,1iPf;l~ : 1li'r.l
"'~POD
il'Ji?f;l~
N'li
1P0l
~l')i)f;l~
7JnJN
ni?OD
~1i(l):tl
C:t;!",1Pf;l~
DnN
1i?f;l~
7'n'
ni(I)D
l"li?Otl
1:t;l';li?f;l~
}17N
nJi?f;l?
i77>n'
~11?1)?.
~"li?l)~
]/Di7
0'":1171;1~
O'::J"'t
{}li/}17N)
ni"li?N
m:n
(i1)")j;ll)iJ)
cnnvon.J
:mn
396
Appendix 1: verb fables
nnn
nm""'l')l ,~l'~~ : )"l:J
'T'J1)1
,~~~
7'n'
''J~~J:I
.nN
"l-N-11.1 : 11.11l'll
n;~~~
n1m'
~1~'¢-':J:I
onN
1~~;:17 : 7).11!:1 D'll
~""'t1'¢1'
}i'J/Ol7
nnn
'"':.!
,!ljl
''J~~D
.nN
i1':1ti-~~
N'il
~1Z,""D
)/t:J.nN
n~'.:l~
}i7/0i7
nm""'l'J .~l'~~: )"l:J
'T'J1ll
)I~~~
7'n'
)l~~
'JN
).1-l-!l : 11.11l'll
3111~~
n7'n'
)l~J:I
n.nN
li~D~ : ~)11!:1 D'll
'"':ll
)l~!;l?
Nm
)l~!iJJ:I
N'i7
).1~!;1~
1JnJN
'"':ll li~~D
nnN
1:tll 'J:~Y.~Q~
'J/'{
ll~!;ll
Nm
J).l~~: 1"ll
'T'J1)1
,!1)1
,·n~
'J:17~il
>JN
,'?.,D
1?.~J:!
J;l']'?.il
rmN
'!'?~D
''J~~J:I i'?,p
f:IPil
.nN
1'?~iJ'? : ~)11!) O'll
Nm
i'?,)i:l I "Ti~il : 11PO
1''?.)3:'1
1'?.il il'J'?il
,~m
~l7';m
1lnJN
~1'?l:J:I
0~7?il
o.nN
1~il
1>n'
~1'?l:J:I
)~7?il
}.nN
!1'J~il
i71>n'
~,·:m
~l?iJ
)/Di'J
0''1?il
o>:n
(}i7/].nN)
:ni"T'?il
fl1j1
n?iiJ n?iiJ (ill':f~lDl
cnrr?~J:~l
)II!) :
i11tl
1'-J-l : W""'l'll
N'i'J
n1,t1
.,,,,
·u»
J::t~~~
'T:l'?~~
'lN
l"!:l '1tm: n1n
.,~~D
.,~~J:I
tl~~~
i'Jftl'{
7-!1-) : 'll1l'll
'~:,I~D
''?.~~T;l
T;l'?~~
nN
'J::t~~D? : 7lll!l D'll
N1i7
~.::!~D ,'Jill!~ : 11po
,,,~
.,~-?)
7::~~~
J~~
~~~T;l
il'?ll)
N'i7
~:~m
~)?~)
11n1N
:1"ll
rmr~
~.,-¥~iJ
~J~~T;l
C:J;1?~)
onN
.,~)
~7~~D
~.,~~J:I
ltl'?-l.t~
]ftN
n?~~
~.,~~~
~.,!;!~
)/Oi7
0'~~)
o>:n
(117/]ftNJ
ni7~~
J71.J"'J
(n~'J~.ml
Cn~'?.::t~~T:ll
m> rn>n>
397
Appendix 1: verb tubles
,,,~
''n»
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.,)!!?~
: '"ll
lit:!~
'J:'I1l~o~
'JN
l"ll : i11U
lit~D
lit::ll;l
l;!'il~O~
n17N
1-l-0 :'li1WJ
')it~D
>~'it:!l'J
nt~~o~
17N
lit~D? : ~Yl.!) O'll
l)t\1~
1i0~
Nli"'l
1'it1D .~io~ : '11PY.l
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n~io~
N'i7
lit\!~
nil~O~
1JfiJN
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~litll;l
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017N
UiOD
Uit::ll;l
wmo~
Uit::l'
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{Jt1/}J7N)
(i1~liOD)
,,,~
(illlit::ll'J)
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7'n'
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n~io~
n1'n'
yon
o>~io~
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nilio~
m:n
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:
.,~!?~ ,,):::1
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'JN t'117N
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N::t!f?z:!
N~'!l~
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N~f?l'l
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N"J mJ , i11ll N-~-t:l
: 't/11\!1
N~~D? : ?y~!) O'll N::t!~D
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cn~N~1?n>
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'~!?~ ; (il"'' ,., mJ
m~D
n~~n
l;!'~:t~
i111N
(n-l-J) )-)-:::1 : 'llil'll
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n>p)
17N
!l)l~i:l? : .,Yl!l O'll
Nm
Tlil~D ,n).~D : ili'Y.l
'"l:J
n~~'
nm
n~~n
ill;!P,)
N'i7
n~~l
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1JfiJN
U~D
u~n
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]J7N
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ll:;Q
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O'):;Q
0'.J7
(Jti/]17N}
!li).J)
m:n
(n~,~~D)
(il~'l,~l;l)
1'n11'1
398
AppendLT I: l!erb tables
,,,.!11 liJ! '':l:E;I!
,,nll
~l:'~:
,:Ill
l"l:l
O'IJ~\!1 : i11ll
i~J~
'l;I")~'J
'lN
l:;)Jl;l
l;I")~'J
i7J7N
1-::1-1 : ~11'll
'J:t'1l;l
n':l:JJ
J7N
13.-1? : ~)11.!) O'll
1:;)1~
"1:;)':1
Nm
ll.'! : 11p%l
13.-Jn
il'J:f':l
N'i7
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1JnJN
n;r:r
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03;1)~1'
OJ7N
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n~::r
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}J7N
11')~1'~
n:;a1~
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von
O'"J'1JY,)
D':J'1
cnnn>
(ilDl.J:M)
{]i1/]J7N)
niil'Jl;)
111:1'1
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tm' nt'n'
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1:1)1
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1;91:;!.
J7N
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1'J~?
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1JnJN
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o~;l'J:;J.
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t'n' ,71m'
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ni::>l~l;)
111:11
(i1~~'J;)
CnpJ~n)
j'l,,
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0'j7
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m~m'?
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l~mT;I
DJ7N
l~tm
]i7/DI7
11~:
llpr.l
1"1,,j'l
l'l'))il
•)I ,O'IJ~V:
;,-,u
~v.~: )"JJ
~-n-l
J1N
,,,.!11
, 'l/11\U
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,2,
'':7D~
J7N
n?m
N'i7
~~m
VDJ7N
~~m
}17/Di7
399
Appendix 1: verb tables
,,JUJ
:"'n~
D~~'?
7'1'1'
n~~~
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no~~'?
ntm'
mQJ;~
i7J7N
n~~~
Nln
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n~~T;I
N'l7
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1JnJN
•y •n 11'l,1l •7 ,o,n7\!.l: n1n 7):1!11: l"lJ n-s-J: \!.lll\!.1
:
IJ~~> 7Yl!l 0\!.1
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n~~
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(Y"Y) 0'7l!lJ ,'"lY: illU
opipf;l
{IY;ll;lip
i7J7N
CY.l-Y.l-p=) Y.l-1-P : 'l!ll'l!
'Y,lJ?iPT;I
J7N
Or,;l1i' : lljJil
Or,;lip~
f;IJ?Y,l1p O);,lip
N7i7
Ol;lii'J;I
ilt;lr,liP
N'l7
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1JnJN
7):1~: )"JJ
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7'1'1'
lr.lt;liP
lr.lt;liPJ;I
Of;IY,lr.liP
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ll;l'?Y.lii'
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1ll;l~ii'tjl
.7tm'
lr.lt;liP?
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von
O'Y,I'?iPY.l nit.JY,Iip7;l
0'~"'1
(i1~Y,lr,;lip)
Ci1~1;ll;lipnJ
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(}i7/}J7N)
m:n
,,,,.
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N'?.Y.l
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l)N'?,Y,l
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N-7-ll : 'l!"'\WJ
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NiJY.l? : 7Yl!l 0\!.1 N'?,r,l : l,i'll
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7)1!11: l'')J
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N';?r.l
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m:c~Y,I
N'•7
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m'('?,Y,l
1JnJN
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OJ)N'?,Y,l
DJ7N
lN?r.>
lN~Y,lf;l
1J)N';?Y,l
lN~I;l~
n-t?r,:~
(Jt7/]J7N)
(il~Ni?r.>>
(il~N~Y,lJ:I)
nl'ln N'?.Y.lt;l
7'n'
]J7N
nN'?.r.>'?
i77>n'
von
O'~~l;ltjl
O':n
niN':\'r.>'?
m:n
400
Appendix I: verb tables
.,,,,
,:1)1
i'l~!Jt1
'l:l':;>O
'JN
.,)!!!! : 1'')::1 (n"'' ,., 'I"''J , inn
ii~IJ
n:;m3;1
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cn-:>-1"'1) l-::J-n : YJ1)\!I
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l.;l':;ll! 31':;>1;'1
fJN
:ni::>IJ~ : .,~,!) 0\!1
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n~n
N1l7
:ni::>r:t : 1)PO
il~l)l;l
N'tl
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1JnJN
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ClJ':;ll!
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ll;:l':;!IJ
1:liJ~
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,,,,lll
nnn il?IJ9
1'n'
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il~IJ9
,71'n'
yo,7
C':;!IJI;l Tli!ll)l;l
CJ1:J7
cn~'~N
(il)l!JIJT-1)
,,,,lll
.,,,,
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O'IJ'YJ ,0'll:ll1tJ : i11tl .,_)_.,_, : YJ11'll
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(},7/].riN)
j/}ji
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tl?~?~
n.nN
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,.,~,~l;l
fJN
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C'J{\i>~
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l'l~\?;;t'?
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C'.,~;;t'?
CJ1j1
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fJ}j1
(i'l~.,\i)~T-1)
401
Appendix I: verb tahles
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'l;lt;!~':Fl
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: l''l:l nm"ll 'Y,O'I:l"VJ , n1n
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l:l-N-:n : VJl)VJ
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(il~l:l!cfl13'1)
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7J7N
m;)l:;t'm~
i77'n'
von
0'1,)l!(l11,)
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J'/1Y1
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nN
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Nm
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ww :illU
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(l:l-l:l-p ~) l:l-,-p : VJ"l)VJ
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m.:n
(il~Y.IY.lip:n)
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; l"l:l Nl'" ml , n1n.
N~J{I
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N-:J-1 : VJ11VJ
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nN
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ill:!'~!
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OJ7N
N~JY.l
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]J7N
nN~J.'?
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o'lltno
o'.:n
{Ji7/]J7N}
niN~11:l
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(il~N!Ijl'l)
.,~~
i"m1'1
402
Appendix I: verb tables
'T'N'
121
~l,l~ :llllJ
'3:1'i.l.!
'JN
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17I1N
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von
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I101
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1JnJN
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Appendix I: verb
7}.!~J;m ' ,~')::1
"ftft)l
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'l;lii''i?JJ~i:1
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403
tab/(~.Y
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: 7Yl!l ov P'i?:J.:l'I(D = 1)f.'Y.l :"In:"I
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(il~Y.l';?\;l~D)
(il~r,l?.Q!:Il'l)
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von
O'PP.'Hr,l
cmptn m>
(il~i?i?.'JP'I)
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niPP'Jl~
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404
Appentkr: 1: verb tabh's
J'I1UI
1'tl)t
o')mJ;J>?
0'~1
'~r.m;m
nilmJ;J>?
111~1
nmJ;ll:l
DJ1N
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406
Appendix I: verb tables
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407
Appendix I: verb fables
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408
Appendi"t I: verb tables
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409
Appendix J: verb tables
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Appendir: I: verb tables
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H$i?l?
1m•
U-l!iJi?t:l
)T,IN!lli?t)
J17N
1lN9.f?l?
n"Tm•
\N~i?-'.
lN~i?D
von
O'~i?l?
o•.:n
(]t7/]17N)
:niN.9PI?
177~"7
cn~N~vm
411
Appendix I: verb tables
1'n»
,:1»
il~!?~
'J:l')!?Q
'JN
t'I')!?Q
i7nN
~~!;ltl: 1Hll
il?.!?:r:J ').!?:r:)
Jl').!?Q
.nN
nm
il~!;lt)
Nm
il~!;l:r:)
ilt'I~.!?D
Nm
(il"~)
)II';>
(il-l-!:1)
'nl : ilill
l-)-!:1 ; 'll11'll
il).!?f) : 11pP
:"Inn
il~.!?~.
~)').!?(1
7JnJN
U.!?:f:.l
Of.l'~.!?f)
nm~
7'n'
U!?:f:.l
1tl').!?Q
onx JnN
11'~.!?~
li7'n'
U.!?~.
U.!?Q
}/017
O').!?~
0'Y1
:nil!;) I?
m:n
(iU'l!l{l)
(Ji7/}J7N}
Summary Tables of Irregularities in Verbs Abbreviations/or root consonants: C1=!J"i7!), C1 =!J1'i7J!, C,1=!J"i77 Group 1: Irregularities within the D•n'7.u.
A.
'!> ,') ''l. DJJ D•D'JIU
i. '9 .'J ,'::1 realized as '9 ,'l ,':l blk/p. l. When they are the first segment in the word: JJ1~ 1 'Jt1i!3 1 i'l~
'1PS I i111il I 1:::1).1
"TP.!;l •1P.:;I
,,,s ,"'1:::1.)1
Oil:? ,nt~:)l .~~;,t
1lY
O:;J~
I
';>~~ ?.v.~ ';>~~
2. When they follow a zero vowel in the middle of the verb form: l;tlp? •l91?~ 'l::llp?
"T'TlY
?~9
O).:;I.J;l? ,N';!!;l.J;l)',l ,'liP,.;J.J;li:J
entire conjugation entire conjugation entire conjugation
';>).l!lnil
i''~9D~ ,i>:;i'?'! ,1':;19i:l .,~-~~ ,).I~~'? '1~'1;1!1
3. When the pattern of the verb demands it: ';>).11!:1 O'll 03.~;:1? ,"T'J9iJ .PH? 1:;!'Q? '1'-'Qt;l '1:;)'J ~P~'QJ;l,i~'q'iJ ,m:;t~
o~~n? ,N';!~nr,l,'liP.il!liJ
';>>).l!)il
?~!lf.l
'"'S I 'T'TlY -!l"il!l
';>y!))
entire conjugation - !:l"il).l entire conjugation -!:l"il).l entire conjugation - !l"i1Y
';>~~
I
';>~~ ?Y!>Jlil
412
Appendix 1: verb !obles
ii. 'g 'l ,'::1 realized as 'g ,'l ,'::1 vlkhlf. I. When they follow a vowel: '!:;>"~ ~,~;o ~'~9 0~~'? 1 "fl)~~ 1 YJil'~'?
llll~
,nllil '1'!1).1
'7l:'!) "'!ll
"T'nY,nnn
I!Ji?~'?
1'!1)} 1 nlln
7),1gl
:J'l;l:t~ ,f.''o~", VNi1
entire conjugation
"')J!:lil
entire conjugation
.,~~[1
lP'? ,nl.:l~?
1
o~::>! ,.,~!:lr,l
,n'JlD
2. When they tollow a zero vowel derived from an underlying one (e.g.,~!>~~ below), and/or when they are the last consonant in the root: ~"fo~~ ,'::lP' ,11']' ,~!:l'?l:.:t ,J.W entire conjugation 7~~ J.WD~ .~:r;rp /19~~ ,n:m'~
entire conjugation
.,)}!))
p'{J7 ,:ni!:l~t-1'? ,'~'r'{JT;l /I~PY,l~:l~V
entire conjugaLion entire conjugation
.,~!:;)
entire conjugation entire conjugation entire conjugation
.,)J!:)Jlil
u~.?.~ ,r::>~~~ /l~i?.'? ,J.~)J. ':;1~3.:1~1;1 , 1~Jl;l' ~O'::>~iJl;ll;l ,:J.~~l;lil
1'T7~ 'cp~7" ,J. ,~~v
':JJP ,C)~lr,l ,n~:;nv ,J~,D
B.
JU'JI,l
'"'~
'')J!:lil .,~~tt
c.u c•n'Jw -with 'guttural' root consonants.
Insertion of a 'helping' vowel (where a zero vowel is hard to pronounce). :ni1~l~
1
D'"JQ"i:l 1llhQlJ ,D'~~iY.I
nnt~ 1.,·,~ ,ilr)lQ
!:l"ilY
nnn
il~~l"O~ /)0~
'N !:l"il!:l
,,l'~
ln~~-,1:;1 ,l."1t)
')} •n •n !:l"i1!:1
l"))!~ ! ~)t)~ I)~~~
!:l"ilY !:l"il)l
,1llQ
n~~~ ~~i'Q~J:~.~.,o~~ ,'"J~~n ~7t)iJ.iJ 1l")~~il
ilJl/~ , ~pr:,l~ ~~.,Q~ ,i19~t:l
,.,,)1 ,,p~
!:l"il)J
1J.)J
:ni,~'{J'? I 0'Po '{..!'? ,:nl7m'? , D'Q~.U'?
mm
,,.,wJ{I ,'Y.l~.Ul;l
"T'l'l)J
~,~~~,,Po·~~
~f.'Q'{J I'?Q~ il"J~fl ~~r.lQ~. ,n~QJ .m~fn
'"'~ !:l"il)l
nlfl? .~nt)l!;l."~Q)l;J~·lr.l~·:n~ n?~~J;~n .~.,O~l;ln~~lml;ln ,nJ~~J;ln :ni7~~nr,~~c''<'ml;lt;l ,niln~l;ll;l,o''J~!i':nY.l
1J.)I
1'!1).1
!)"ill'
1::1)1
m1n
413
Appendix 1: verh tables
Similar insertion of a vowel and 'echo' in the prefix (optional for •n). 'P!I):l) l1~.V.n
,P!!].f:J,'.!;IQ~.U /fO~.f:l
"PJl).l
.,~~
1::1).1
.,).!!))
,1;?1;1~
•n •N !:l"il!l •n !l·"il!l
.mrn:n .~~~~
'Y 'il 'N !l 11 i1!l
nnn
1i(J;1~
•n !l''il!l
.J;~~Y.l!$iJ
!l"i1!l
O':;Jf;'IQ ,"'~f;'lv
•n !l"il!l
,, . :JV,D •.,.~~;~~;1·1o~ ,•rmt~,f10~ )~.;IJ;1tl
I
il?i;'f;'IJ, Jl)l;'l)), 'l'li?'i?~i)
O'i?'~~Y.l
,:l'"Jf;'li)l:l'"JOi)
,n;a'1J)r.>m;a•1QY.l
(•n) •n !l'n!l
').1
•n !l"il!l
'llt:ll;'ll.:l
m~~~ ,:JJr:'IF::l1Q? ,O"J!,)~ ~~~~~
o'~~~~ ,n~Jr:'l?-111~?~
C•n} 'N !:l"il!:l ').1
1
,,,~~Y.l
!l"il!l
0'r,l':;1f;'Y.l '"'~f;'IY.l
•n !l"il!l
P'~~l.:I,:J'1f;l~l:l'1Q! .~l'Y.l~~
!l"il!l
O':;lr:'l! "'~1;1~
•n !l"n!l
,J"JJ;1tl!:lJQiJ , 1Q~iJ
!l"il!l
I
lP'~V.iJ
"~r:'liJ
•n !l"n!l
npg~i),OJI)QIO"JQi),O~~i)
!l"il!l
0';?1)!:)
•n !l"il!l
.m;r:JJ)'?Ini?":JQJ;) , O'Y,l~~J;)
!l"il!l
o?~;~Q
•n !:l"i1!l
lPt;'{J~ , 'Y.l1n{li'Y,l';l~l;l ,o~tt~
!l"il!l
l11P9~J;)
1::1)1
'').l!lil
nnn 1'11)1
,,,,~
1:::1).1
?~!?D
mm 1'l1)1
Furtive pata1J insertion. ~'1i) 1 ('t';1)'ll 'tJr,;l:J;I
nnn
.,~~
,T:'t~Wn.!J!~~ ,T:'t~~t;'l,O~~m:~u
entire conjugation entire conjugation entire conjugation
J)l!;l
O~k'l;liJ':/ ,O~Pl;liJin~PN
T:'t'\?:::1!
,1)'\):::IY.)
,IJ'\,).liJ
J)J!ll1i1 7'Y!lil
Avoidance of vowel deletion in the environment of gutturals (alternatively, may also be regarded as insertion of a 'helping' vowel where a zero vowel is hard to pronounce- see above)
~'~'<')
i:l)J
.,).!!))
n~·'ll? .~?t;i)l;l .~,~·n
i'l1.V,1J.V
?).!~
l?t!~? , il~N'?'tl
1'Jl:.J , 1.lY
.,)./!li,l
Stem vowel in future and imperative of pa 'at (when C2, C3 is guttural).
lO~l'l ,.,1'!(~!'1
1'!1)1
N.Jp ,n~~
'H'~
.,~~
I .
414
Appendix I: verb tables
The feminine singular in the present tense (when C31s guttural). l1~1;li~ ,TIIJ'?l~
.,~-?
~.i'~
n~~'?''? ,niJ~~'?
.,)!~
.,~!;1[1
n~~tl~IJ ,rmtt~nn
.,y~nn
n~~'q~ .no"?~~
.,)I!))
!1-l!~¥:'~ I TIIJ~.~'?
Tl.iJJ!;l!;l ,TIIJ:?~!;I
'Compensatory lengthening' before gutturals.
Group 2: c•'lon ·one of the root consonants is absent 1. •"9 ,,on - '• is omitted:
N~D
,l'Jt:J ,1~D ,JWD : 'J~~
2. l"!> ,,on- '1 is fully assimilated.
,.,.9,
'l1'~ 11'!1).1
.,~!JI
,.,~~ 1.,~)
il)1i1,1:J.)I
.,).1~)
entire conjugation entire conjugation
"'Y!:li1
.)I'Q
.,,~iJ~ )~iJ ,.,,~~ ~·:n!)l;l
,'J'$D
~!il? ,'J9p ~'~n
3.
':1
.,~!)f.l
and 'n assimilated to a stem beginning with the same letter ~~J?t)
,Ul;I1D ,UW'!1iJ ,H:;!¥! ,Ul;l1;' ,,~~'q) ,U'?
J
+ )-
'J:'liJ~Q ,'J:'lO~n ,'n\:o'~J;~n ,'n:tli~ ,'J:'l~l't ,'n~"'
n +n-
11":'1JiJ
, + n-
4. »''»-two identical root consonants sometimes merge .J.l.l no merger .,~$ 1~,,~ ~'~~1~ ,u~il~ ,1ill~ ,nil~iliJ ,Ph~t ,mi:l. ,l)il ,'J:'l~~;;, no merger .,).l!:l:nn 1J.ilJ;~D'? ,'m~l;ln ,)).tll;P IrriJ?lll;liJ Ipill;l~J ,)).ill;ID ,'J:'l~~ill;ID 1~8? .~~l.D ,1).0 .~)~~ ,1l.! ,:nil~'? ,npQ .w;l .n~l.D .1m ,'J:'l?~D "').l!lil ,~,n ,o,~~,o .,~,n ,n~)m ~um ,'m~m
.,.i'~f.l
Group 3: c•m -a root consonant is weakened or silent 1. N"9 •m- stem-initial 'N muted; 11Jl·fn ,J.iJNl'l ,.,~N·n _.,.i'!il 2. N"-, •m- syllable-final 'N muted ,N)i( ,N"Ji;'? 1TINJip ,N')lp ,'TIN")i? ,NJQ
.,~-?
N1WD'. ,N1i?D ,NJi;'' ,JlN')i;'~ ,'1:1N1i?~ ,N)i(l N'?,l;l? ,N?.Y.l ,N7.1;1' ,JlN'?.Y.l'? ,N'?.r.lQ ,TIN)'Y,l ,'l:'IN'?.IJ,N~r,l
.,).I!))
Nili(~
~.V.!)
N~P,? ,nN'?,~t;l ,N~~'? ,nz.ot'i?q ,'1:JN7.1:;> ,N~I:;) N7.Y.IJ;li)?, 1 N'?.Y.ll;l? ,TIN'i?Y.ll;lY,l 1 N'?,Ql;lY,l ,N'?.r.lJ;1iJ ,'1:JN~i.ll;IJ;1iJ N'~'?iJ? ,N~'?D IN'~'?! ,N,~Ql;l ,TIN~Y,)D ,)1:JN~t;!D ,N,!;II;)i:l
':ly~:nn
N~Y,l? ,TIN~Y,l!'~ ,N~Y,l!J ,TIN~Of.l, ,J:1N~Y,l!,l ,N~Y,liJ
.,~!)f.l
'='~?.
,,).l!lil
415
Appendix 1: verb tahle.
3. •"g •nl - stem-initial'• weakened to a vowel. ''llJ)'? ,llJ)'D
,~J~'., )'{J'.T-1
i>:n).l
.,.\''il
"T~i.) ! 'l;li~il
nnn ,,:t.v enlirc conjugation entire conjugation
,).1!:1)
:::P~i.T-1 ,:!'~in .• J.'~in J.~m
,J."'m ,J.'?'ln
'').l!:lil .,~!;lt'J
4. ,.•., •n:.- stem-final '• muted .,~!JI
:ni)i?':? .n~p .'~i?f:l 1 il~i?D ,o,Jip ~n~ip ,il:J;l?i? 1 i1~i? ,'tl'li? :niJjp;-:1'? 1ilJ.i?iJ 1 l)'i?f:l 1il?.i?J:'I l:n)~m 1 ill,i?) oil.J;1?i?) 1 l!l'J.i?)
7)1!))
:ni~~? ,'':?~ ,ni;'~ .~~~J;l ~n?~n~n?~t? ,n~~t? ,n.J;l~:;J~n~:;a .'t~'':;!.:,t
7)1!)
,.,~l;l,n~.l.l;l ,o>?).>? ~n?~~ .n~~Yrl .~~~ 1 ill)~~ ~n?~ ,'l:P?.~
'~P.
:n1'::1~J;liJ~ I n~~J;li:l .~~~~? ,n~~J;l~ ,n?~l;1Y.I .n?~J;lY.I ,il.J;1';1)J;liJ I 'l:P~~l;liJ
.,)l!)l1il
:ni.,~o?, n~~iJ I''~.tl In?!?~ ,n~.!?Y.l I n?.!?Y.l ,~7.!?D I ill;l'?!?i:l ,'r'~'~.!?i:l
'')l!li1
~.,!ll'l
.n'7.!;1.' •o>';?!l~ •n~!;l~ ,n~!l~ •~.,!;In I nl).,!ID I n?!;ln ,'tl''?!;li1
;.~!ID
5. •"JJII"II'n::l- medial '1 and '• are deleted or muted.
·~~--------------~
Olp? ,>r,Hp ,Olp ,lY.llj7l.;1 ,o~p~ ,O'Y.li? ,ilr,li? 1 0i? 1 Di? 1'f:lt?i? lit~iJ'? ,'~it~n llit~n .~)it~f:l~liO? ,n~iO? .n~io~ 1liO~ I'nillO? opip'? .'l;l'?iv ,lor,liP? lopip? ,oQiv'? ,nr,l'?iP ,ol;:lip ,'f:lt;lr.>iP Or,;liP:l;li:l'? ,m'?iPtl' IOr,lii'J;l? ,Or,lii'l;ll',l,ilr,lt;liPJ;liJ ~'T:lr,lY.liPl;liJ 0'PQ'? ,opry ~~O'P.tJ~O'PJ;J ,:niY.l'i?'? ,D'PY.l ,lr.:l'PO ,D'PD ,'f:l'?PO mpl' ,Oj?~> ,Oi?lO ,ilr,lpm 10j?ln ,'f:lY.Ii?lil
.,~!JI
.,)l!))
.,V.!)
.,Y!ll1il '').l!lil
7l'!;ID
Appendix 2: noun tables The nouns in this table are rcprcsentatin of many of the patterns of Hebrew nouns. They provide one illustration of each of the patterns represented. They are presented in their singular and plural forms, in their independent and dependent forms, and with pronoun suffixes of the first person singular and second person masculine plural. There are two sets of pronoun suffixes: one set is attached to singular nouns. and the other set is attached to plural nouns. Pronoun suffixes attached to singular nouns Singular ending
Plural ending
3 rd
2 nd
1st
c.-
D~-
n-
I.-
1:;.-
3
2 nd 1-
rd
i;:,.
-
1st I
•
l..-
Pronoun suffixes attached to plural nouns Plural ending
Singular ending
2 nd
1st
DiJ' ..-
D:;!' .. -
U' .. -
liJ' .. -
-
3
rd
~~· ..
3rd
2 nd
1st
1'.-
1'..
'
iJ' . .-
1~--
-
Below arc full paradigms of the various li.mns of nouns and nouns with their pronoun suffixes. The asteriskcd lorms represent the four 'default' forms of the construct state: the sing. masc. and fern. pl. fonns are unchanged; the fern. sing. n.-becomes n_-, and the pl. masc. 0'.- becomes'..-. In some of the tables following the paradigms, the construct form may not be represented if it is realized in the default form. Masculine Paradigm uncle
(t) "Ti'T
n:ri'T
1'Ti'T
"Ji'T
O"Jl'T
T11'T P7i"
pi'T
''J'i'T
O~"]"i'T
~J'Ji"T
-1i'T*
0'Ji'T Q'J"i'f
P"Jl'T
1'1i'T
)o':I''Ji'T
OiJ'"Ji'T
1:;1'1i"T
1''Ji1' o;pJi"T
''1i1'
'J'']"i''T
->ji'T ..
Appendix 2: noun
Feminine Paradigm aunt in']'i'T i'ltl'J~'I Dtlji'T 'J;I']i"T ~'.t.Ji1'i'1
liJ':ttiii'T
Ptl'iii'l on,tli-ri'l
table.~
417
mn:rw l.t'l']i'T
ll;J'Ji'l
);?l;11'i'l
o~1;rm
'Ptli-ri1
l'Di"Ti'l o:;p]Ji-ri'T
P'Di1i1
'l:'17i'T llDJi'l ,m-r;,
-:n']i"f• ni'li'T -ni-ri1*
U'f.li'li'T
A. Noun patterns not subject to vowel reduction Vowel reduction occurs when stress shifts to an added suffix, or to the second noun in a construct phrase. In general, it docs not apply in the following cases: (i) Vowels other than kamats or /sere are not reduced. (ii) Reduction of a kamats tends to occur only two syllables away from the syllable with the main stressed syllable. (iii) Deletion does not occur if a three-consonant cluster would have resulted (a consonant with a da!{esh nazak counts as two). This also explains why a pataft, which usually occurs in a syllable closed by a consonant or by a dagesh hazak, is not affected, while a kam£~ts is). Some illustrations: I. No reduction in vowels other than kamats or lsere· Gloss C':l1 "T'n• ,;p )~ip ni,ip sound 'tli,ip D?'tll~ip D??ip
song
0?'1'~
,,,~
0'1''?1
0~")''?1
'1'\?'
1''?1
stamp
0).'~~3
'~ll
Q?~,;;t
0~,~3
)~~3
,~3
2. No reduction of kamats immediately bel(lre the slrcss, but it does occur two syllables before the stress (O:l'i' .. ... etc.): o•:n Gloss
i•n•
fi.s·h
O?.'~')"
'H
o'n
o?.rJ
WJ
hand
o;;.'1'
'1'
D'"J~
O:J'T?.
'7~
l1 "T!
-J. No reduction if a three-consonant cluster would have resulted· o•:n
Gloss
.fight student candy bride reason
"T'n'
O?,';rltl':li?
?)J'i:J?i(
n'J.?i?
O?,:;aJi?
':J')i?
:l'Ji?
0~'!'1?~]]
'1'1?~J:l
0'7'Y,)~J;l
0?'J''Y,l~l:1
'1'1)~1.:1
"T'r,l~l.:l
O?,'P.lJ'?r.l O?'JJ,J:;?
'il'l:l'?Y.l 'JJiJ:>
0'Wl:1'?Y.l
O?i]'JJY,JY.l
'WJJY,JQ
PJ;19Y.l
ni':7~
D?,l;J~~
'3:'1~~
il~~
Q:;l?tli:J.~
'lJiJ.~
ni:l~
D:ll;l:;JQ
'l;l~Q
n::~~
418
Appendix 2: noun tah/es
4. Relative immunity to reduction of kamats and tsere in nouns ending in :rnor Tl'-, even in open syllables (note that their plurall()mls replace m- with Tli'land Tl'- with ni>-, respectively): n1J."1 Gloss n••n• ]1~1.).1 testimony '3;1~1)! Tli'rTl! C:tJ;lrT).I 'tli'l1l! o~'ni'n~ t'xile '3;1~,~ O~J;H'~ O?.'f.li'l'~ ni'~'~ n~'~ 'tli'~'~ angle ni>)l 0:;?3;1')! O:>'tJl')l Tl'J! 'tli'H ':J:"I'H B. Noun patterns undergoing changes other than vowel reduction I. A putah sometimes reverts to an underlying i when a suffix is appended:
2. When the noun is derived li"om a root with identical second and third consonants {e.g., )~ < ).).~). the original i from which the tsere developed resurfaces: Gloss tooth
3. There is a similar relationship between o and u in forms derived from a root with identical second and third consonants , and a few other items· Gloss D'J.1 ••n• C)"l'l drum '!,;)~ O'!i)~ 0?,'~-tl O?~~ '!il~
ankle
'~'!?1i?
O:;?'>P"Jk'
o~~'!??i?
O:).~'!?"Ji?
'~'!?1i?
,.O';li?
C. Noun patterns that generally undergo vowel reduction Generally, only komals and tsere are subject to reduction, which occurs when the stress shifts fom·ard (with the addition of suflixcs, or with the formation of the construct state). Some iII ustrations: I. A kamats in the plural of monosyllabic words that do not have that vowel in the singular. The forms with a hyphen are the dependent forms of the noun.
2. A basic kamals in some inflected forms of monosyllabic words (cf. Section A.2 above)
••n•
[]'J.1
h·h
o:;.~~'J
'~']
->)"J
o~rr
O~l1
'~"!
l'J
Appendix 2: noun
tab/(~S
3. A kamats in word-initial position in hi-syllabic nouns: clerk -1'P!ll ''Y'P!ll 0~7'P~ O;J'J'f?9
'!'P!;l
419
1'P~
••n•
·'1'P.!il
0'7'P9
o•:n
Y.l'\i'!;l
•·n•
C''<J''i'~
c•:n
but no reduction of a alan vowel hammer
D;>"<J'\i)!)
'~'\,')!;)
- YJ'\i'!i'
0~'\:1'\i':il
'~'\;)!)
_,~,"'~
thin~.
c~~:J':J
,.,~1
-'1~1
'1:rJ
••n•
word
C:J''1J'T
''J~'J
"'1 ']
D'':l~'T
D':l"l
0~';1~
,.,~~
-i~
••n•
C;,l''J))
'1~~
-'-:m
·~~
0'')~
D'J."l
0~~~~
'm"<'
-m~
"~'<-'
n1•n•
o~>JJilV-1
':[liJ~
-nilYJ
o>~YJ
nD."l
but no reduction of a urah vowel COI]Jenter
year
but no reducrion of a patun vowel map
.field
D?~!)~
'lJ~Y.l
-1l~Y.l
n~Y.l
ill'n'
O:;l>n.i9t;l
>:[li9Y.l
-Jli9)?
1li9Y.l
n!J."l
o;r:r·~
'1''?'
-n:r~
n·t'?'
1•n•
C?'tli1"VJ
'Dii·~
-1lii"Y.I
l'li1'?'
o•:n
-n~;,~~
il\j)Q
,-•n•
-J1i\:1Q
ni\:lr.J
D':l"l
but no reduction of a atali vowel staff,' rod 0~\jlY.l O:;l'l)i"'r,)
'"'~
'Dl\:1Y.l
4. A kamats in word-medial osition: memory
o~~ii;>!
'm;n
-)ii~~
)ii~l
••n•
0:;l'n.ili'1::t~
':[liJii:J~
-nilii~l
:niJii~l
D':l"l
but hatqfpatali vowel re laces zero shva when a guttural is involved: interview ,~;'~') -1i'~'J o;m'~'J 1i'~l O:J>:[lili't{'J
~~ft
'DiJNn
-:niJi'l::-!1
l'n'
:niJi'~J
0 1::11
O:;lJ;I~l;lr,)
'J:l~J;ll?
-:nl{'Y.l
n~l)r,)
il"T'n'
0 'l'lilnr.l
'Dil:nQ
-nimr,)
l'lill;IY.l
TID."'
i1\l'i?~
ill'n'
niYJil':;!
nl:l"l
but no reduction when a dagesh liazak closes the s liable: request -ni{Jj?;;l O::JJ;'"'i7l 'rt'?'W~ O:J'.niYJW~
'l)iY.Ii?il
-l'li\!.lij:':;!
Appendix 2: noun tables
420
5. A kamat.~ in word-linal position: institution sentence! trial
0~7Q10
~1'9l0
-iQiO
i9it.:l
••n• o•:n
O~':r,ll"Tl;;'iO
'.tli1~ir.l
-n'i"T~io
J'lii9'it.:l
0~\f~'?'t;l
~\;1!JI'?IY,l
-"~'o;lt;l
"!JI'(Jt;l
"T•n•
>l,?~~t.:l
->Q!;)YJt.:J
0'\')$~t.:l
0')."')
C?'Q!;l~r,l
6. If the consonant preceding a deletable kamats is ,., ,'l ,•o ,·~ ,'~, or the following consonant is a guttural, the kamats is not deleted. Instead, it is reduced toe (the vowel sign is still a shva):
o:;pilt;l
'm>?
-1itt;l
1ilt;l
"T'n'
O;>>l)i)l~t.:l
'.tlbi~Y,l
-niJitt;l
J'liJilt;l
D'J.""l
D),")iJ~
'li)~
-ljJ~
li)~
••n•
D?'n,.,m
>D)l[))
-ni1t)~
nili)~
o•:n
C:tJ;ll.l\?
'l:W'?
-n~~
il)}~
il"T'n'
O:>'{llVYJ
'.DWY-1
-nw~
:nW'q
nl).l
7. A t.~ere in monosyllabic words: name D?Y,l~ 'Y.llf'
-o~
0~
>}JiOYJ
-:niY.lYJ
:nir.l~
filod
river hour
C;)'tliOYJ
-ron• o•:n
8. A tsere in hi-syllabic words or longer; some cases involve both a kamats and a tsere: elder "T'n' -11?1 C:t~i?~ li?! '~V.~ fence yurd
hair brick
D?'~Pf
'~m
o~n"J~
')1~
C?'Uil7~ O~';l~t')
-'~m
c~~v.~
0')."\
1'n
-,•n•
>}Ji1J~
_,.H -n-tm
J'lilJ~
0').""1
'':l~t')
-l~O
l~l)
-,•n•
O~':t1'il!;ll)
'tli"l~l)
-nil~O
nil~O
D').""l
O?J.\:i\\1
''J.~ilfJ
_,~-~
1.\f~
••n•
O?'Ui1l{'l!
'tlill{'l!
-nil)!·w
ni1.\f~
o•:n
'l:lP? 'P·?
-:n~:t?
np.?
n"T•n•
->~:;~?
o>~:;l.,
nn""l
D?:J;1P? o~>~:;a?
9. A tsere is also reduced immediately before the stressed vowel, mostly in nouns that are identical to active participles of verbs. 0')."\
421
Appendix 2: noun tables
hatafpalafr replaces shva when the medial consonant is a uttural
caretaker liat~lpatah
replaces shva when the medial consonant is a guttural ''
O;t~O~'?
volunteer
_.,mt?
.,mt?
0::J''7.~~Y,)
''7.il~
_,~rm:l
O''
o;t:;ml;ll?
'::;t';r~J;lP
-J"!'~J;ll?
.JJ~J;lr.>
_,~.,mr.> O'::;t'J)l:ll? o::J'~:tmr.> '~'l'mr.> atah replaces shva when medial letter is 'i1 ,'n ,')1 ,'N
O?~J:I~l;!J?
'':?ml;ll?
o;~,·m~J:~J?
''<m'w
- .,IJ~l;l1J -''7.ml:1J?
.,ml;'IJ? o''
I' n' o•~1
10. Similarly, a tsere is reduced in pre-stress position when the second consonant has a dagesh hazak: _.,ll'l;l ;.pl;l ••n• stick o:;m?Y.l ' :?i?Y.l -:ni.,f:!l;l o•::n ':!Ji.,i;ll;l ni.,i?Y.l O?'tli'PY.l II. When a final 1n originated fhnn a root with final consonant 'il from historical•', that 'il is elided when a suffix is appended
Gloss teacher patient occurrence .~tn1cture
i'n'
0'~1
O?''JiO
'1i0
C?'~in
'':?in
o:P1i?Y.l
'Ji?P
O:>>~:;IY,l
'~:JI;l
-min -n';?in
il')ir.l
O?~in
'1lr.l '':?in
o:;nvY.l
'':li71J
il~i;'Y,l
O?):;JJ?
'~::;tt;)
·il'Ji?Y.> -n).::;tJ?
O'':liO o>':?in
O?Jir.l
tl'1i?P 0')lY,l
il~in
n).::;tY,l
D. Segolate nouns (i). Masculine Segolates: I. When the base is _.,~ king
O???Y.l o;p:;;J.,Y.l
When consonant I is a guttural slave tJ?P~ O~'P~
':;!~I;!
-1~9
1~Q
i•n•
'~?Y.l
·':;J'
C'~{'r.l
0'~1
'1:t~
-"T~~
1~},'
i•n•
0'7~~
D'~"l
'1ll!
-'1::;1~
Appendix 2: noun tables
422
When consonant 2 is a guttural
gate
'')~~
0~";1~~
O~''J)!~
''J)/\\1
_.,~~
-lJ~~
••n•
.,~~
0'')
c•::n
When consonant 3 is a guttural
rock
O:;}~~Q
'),I{Q
-~~v
)1~9
•·n·
n:;p).J~Q
')1~0
-').!'Q
0'Y.~9
C'.J.1
o;rp:;l
'll,:;l
-1~'1-
1).'1-
••n•
O~'J~
'1~:;1
-'Jn
0'J~::)
0'J.1
2. When the base is
clothing When the base is
book
_.,Y~
_.,~
and the independent form is
O:;}}!?Q D~'J!;)Q
.,).!~
')~Q
-1!?Q
'J;'ll?
->J!:Io
"T'n'
.,~"' o>-:t~
D'.J.,
When the last consonant is a guttural >)l.:p quarter o?.~:;n
-Y:;aJ
Y:;l)
••n•
'~:;a"J
-l).J:J."J
0'~:;a"J
o•:.:n
O?,>V,:;J-':1
3. When the base is
month
_.,Y.~
(kamats katan=o) and the independent fonn is .,l/9
0?'4'71)
'~11)
-I!J'J'n
v1n
o::;P¥,.111)
'~10
-'¥..~71)
O''?'ln
With a guttural as second root consonant
width
o:;_;l:;u;r~
':;ln.?
-:10"1
:J.D.,
1•n•
0~':;!.0';1
'~tn
-'J..OJ
0':;11).,
O'.J.1
With a guttural as third root consonant
manner
D?Q")l;t
'l:l)l;t
-n-:,.N
n'JN
••n•
o~>.nin1~;t
'tlin';l~;t
-nin';ltt
nin-;>~
ll'J."'I
'111?~ 'tlil.,!
-m:r~
i!"J{! nil.,,
il"T'n'
-nil.,~
ii. Feminine segofates: I . When the pattern is
young girl
n?Y.~
O:;_;l:J;1'J?~ C:;>'l)il~!
nt.J.1
When the first consonant is a guttural
maiden
O?J;lY.l?~
':J:1Y;l{~
-nY.l?~
nQ?~
;n•n•
OJ>t]U~{l!
>lJ11::l?~
-nio{l!
nil::l'?ll
ni.J."'I
-m~)
il")~J
il"T'n'
-l1i1~~
ni1);1~
ni.J.1
When the second consonant is a guttural girl O?.l;l'J~~ 'J:l"J~) o:;p:ml~~
>]Jl1~)
423
Appendix 2: noun tables
2. When the pattern is n7Y.!;I dress C~J;12J?·~ o~'.n.i7o·~
I
'n~r;f'?'
-11~>;1·'?'
il~l;f'?'
ill'n'
'lJi7>;~·~
-1117Y;f'?'
ni7Y;f'?'
m::n n1•n•
With a_g_uttural as a first consonant C?l;l1'?~
'D'!'?.V
-mt?)!
D:;l'tlii):l).l
'lJi'T):l).l
-ni'TI:2~-
il!J?)! ni'TY;'JP.
3. When the pattern is n~Y.'i' (kamats katan=o) wisdom -11Y.l?Cl o~nY.l~Cl 'DY.l?Cl o:;pn.;o:;>J;' -11ii'J:;ll) 'lJii'J:;lQ
i'lQ?J:'
•n•n•
nitJ:;>I)
m:n
position
J'UJ.l
4. When the pattern is n:?V.!! lady
O~J;I')::;l~
'3:1';1:;1~
- l'l')~~
11')~~
iii'O'
o:Pn.il':;l~
'lJ1l':;tl
-nil':;t~
ni-,;t~
J'UJ.l
O?T;l';lli>~
'l;l';l~~
-l'l'J~;;I
l'l')l?::!
ili'O'
0:;)'tli'11'J::!
'3)111:>~
- n11~;:~~
1111~~
.111J.1
'J:'l';IJiY 'ni...,mJ
11JliY niltW
;n•n•
-11illl)l -11?);.119
11~,V.i9
n••n•
-n17l.li9
n17}!i9
.JliJ.l
5. When the pattern is n'?.~ (tree) top
6. When the pattern is 11~i!!1 assislantl O?T;l')!iY maid C=>'tli1tW
-n-:nw
nJ.J.")
With a guttural as the second root consonant worker
O~J;i?.Vi9
'3:1?~19
C:;)':Oi7~19 ':[li7Y.i9 With a guttural as the third root consonant
passenger
O?l;l~1;Jil
'l:'l~Qil
-!l).lQil
Jl).lQil
ill'n'
C?'tllY9il
't'liY il
-11iY1;'il
.1liY1;'h
niJ.l
-n-;Jv~'?
rr:)i\':;19
;n•n•
-ni"lfl':JO
ni1p:;~o
.JliJ.")
-n~Q~~
n~v~9
i\1'0'
-ni~mr.J
m7mr.J
m::n
7. When the pattern is n:?).l~r.> visitor/ •r:r;t!P:;l'? C?l;l';li?:;lt;l comptroller c:;Pn.ilfl':;lr.J 'JJi"lp:;!r,J With a guttural as the second consonant worker
o~l;l~tm;J 0 'tli~mY.l
'l:l~m'? 'tJf;!tJ2):l
With a guttural as the third consonant surgeon
O?I;ll;\~~1;)
'l;ll;ll:l~'?
-no~~'?
l'll)l;I)Q
i\1'0'
C?'.n.inT;Im
']Ji03;1!r,J
-11inl;I~IJ
nin:mo
rw:n
Appendix 2: noun lab/(•s
424
8. When the attern is n~v.~nl?
volun/('er
O-?{l::;l1~l;)Y,l
~D:;aJ~l;ll?
-n~'J~J;11?
Jl~1'JJ;1t,'l
0:J':f.1i~'QJlr,l
'tli~Jml?
-niJJml?
:ni:J'TJnr,J
9. When the attem is n~)1.9 (note: kamall' katan=o)
address
O?.J;~:;a.tJ~
'l:1:;al,;l?
-n~:n~
:n:;fn::>
O:J1.tJiJ.i:n::>
'tli~in:;>
-niJ.in;,
niJin~
10. When the paucm is
:n~·lJ~l'l
(note:
kama/~·
niJ."l
katun=o) l1i;il'l;l nipil'l:'l
II. When the pattern is mf9lJ~ (note: kamats katon=o)
skull
D?.{l~~~.~
'l:l?~?.~
-n?.'~?~
n~·il~~
O:J'-Di'~'~
'tli,~':?~
-ni'~').
.Tli'JI'~
iYT'n'
12. When the attern is n';?)I!)Y,l (note: kamats katan=o) n?.·P~Y.l
ni"p r.>
niJ."l
13. When the attem is n~·}.I!)Q
14. When the pattern is
criticism
n';?~
O),{l';li?~
OJ'tli1ip:;a
-n:f~:I\I)Y.l
n-,'V"
-ni1i::>.\!1Y.l
ni1i::l\!1Q
niJ."l
(note: kamat.\· katan=o) '3;1';1i?::;l 'tli"lif;l::l
-.Tl')'i:':;i
l"l')'ii'.J
-Jliiii:'::;l
:ni1ip::;1
o/ates derived from '"W1"lJ roots or other hi-consonantal bases:
m
1•n•
O),~i~
>~il
-)i~
O?'~ill
>~U
-'~i~
0'~)'
O':l"l
house/
D?.~'l.
'1:1'~
-n>:;:~
Jl!~
i'n'
home
O:J'tl::l
'J.:l~
-'D~
0'J;I~
D'J."l
O?~?:?;l
'~?:;~
-'':??
,,~
1•n•
o:;p~:;>
''zi.l
-'~:;!
o>';??,
O'J."'l
tool instrument
Appendix 3: particle tables The paradigms for the particles below follow either the singular or the plural pattern for (possessive) pronoun sut1ixes (see pp. 168-170, pp. 233-235). 1. Following the Paradigm for Singular (Possessive) Pronoun Suffixes
l';
~)~~
-~
.n~
O).l=.n~
between
becauxe of
in/at
direct h" uyect
with
'~'i!-
'?~p.
someone s
'.;I
'f) iN
'DI'ol
'"¥~:;<
1~'~
1~~~:;1
p
"J:J;liN
!l;ll'ol
J?:jjz;<
1~'~
l~?p
1~
1.1;1~
1':?¥1::<
iJ':;}
i.,~t:=;l
1::1
ll;liN ,mN
i'l~'~
i"'~~p
i"'~
i"'l;liN
i'IJ;II'(
~J'~':;J
~)?.~~:;!
·J~
Ul;liN
~)~!'(
U~¥1:;(
110:?,'~':;!.
1fO?.~~p
)10:?,-'J
110?.~~
110_;;!1;11~
l/0?.~=!11::1
vo;:.'~'~
l/0~'?~:;1
,)IOQ~
)!OJ;liN
yo~~
vo~=;~~
il'lN
'"¥~
i'l~~"t}.
)/0;1
.,~~
-~
.,~
.nl~~
i.Q:,
by.1·el{
to/lor
all of
like
like
'':'~~
'~
'~~
>J)iO~
'~in~
,~,~~l
n~~
l?
"JiO~
l?'l'tp.;l
11~~
1'?
1~~ 1'?;> i';:l;:>
l~in~ 1lJiO~
liY.l~
1'?'l~l
inio~
~iliO~
i';:l':)'tp~
i":r~?
;.,
i'l~l~ )):J;)?
n?
M~?,
i-1:1;1)0~
J;!iO~
M'?'l'o/:;;1
~)~
u~~
WJiO~
UiY.li!
~)';n:;t'tp~
VO?."';T~~
)ttl?.'?
)IO::l'll!l
VO-?J;l'iY.l~
1fO?.iO~
vo~?>:;.~p:;a
)lOp.,
)/Oil~
110?;,>
)!OlJiO::;>
1/0_;:JiO::l
vo~>:;l'~':;;~
Vl'•,
Appendix 3: particle
426
tabh~s
,~
.nM1P~
,~,~
./rom
toward
jhr the sake of
,~~1;3
'~u:l
'JJN'Ji?~
':tl1?~?
'~l!Y.l?
'l~r.>
'J?~o
'JJ;1N':li(~
13;1~~?
1~~1;1?
li;;IY,)
l?~o
l:!:l~~?
"P)!Y.l{ il)!Y.l?
~~~Y,)
i?~o
ltlNJi?? il1N)p'?
il~~Y,)
n?~o
il:J;IN':'i??
i'l:tJ~~?
il~l?Y.l?
·~):!;1~1;)/U~Y,)
~),.~0
~lDN":~i??
~m>;;~~?
u~~Y.l?
VO~r,l
vo~?m
VO?J;!N"Ji?~
VO'J,JJ~~{
)IO?~~Y.l?
vo?lo
VOlJN"JP'?
VClJ~)l'?
vo~~Y.l?
/i>l"
around
• ~l:J;l~t,:l
)/Oi)l;l is colloquial.
of'
with
next to
in~~?
opposite
'~
'lil»
'1!·?~
'"JlJ)?
'J'::l~
'1~
l~W
l'?.lJ
n~-~~
'J";Il:J.~
H'~V
rr~~
l?VJ
l~Y.
n~-'~
l"J~J~
1:;J'~~
n~~
i~VJ
it.!l.V
;;~-?~
i1l:ll1
i:J'~1?
,,~~
i'I~VJ
il~Y.
i'l"J~-7~
l)~~
ll~Y.
l)j~-7~
i'l"Jl:ll1 ·lJ1lJl1
vo~?~
)10~~}.1
vc;rn-7~
ycry?w
,)!CtJ~Y.
vo·n-?~
i'l~':;tl;'
i'I'J"~~ ~l:T~~
VO?~lJl1
ll:P:;tt( )IO'J,:;I':;lt(
)/O?,:;r~~
)/C"Jl:l)!
)IC~'J~
)to:r~~
)IO~Y.
•
• •
Note that in the case of )'11 'between', the singular forms follow the singular possessive pronoun paradigm, '~'~ etc., whereas the plural ones follow the plural possessive pronoun paradigm, ll'~'~ etc. Note the variant forms of cowono).l. Existential particles, such as 'exists' Y.n, 'does not exist' )'N and 'still exists' "Tl).l also take singular type suffixes: ''~?.·~
·~·~
*The suffixed forms of'll' are used only in the lirst and third persons.
Appendix 3: particle fables
427
2. Following the Paradigm for Plural (Possessive) Pronoun Suffixes l1i1iN
on/about ~~.\1
abo11t
without
to/toward
afler
'tli1iN
~J)!~l
'~~
1'~~
l'~l1lN
'l'J.\1~:;1
'J'~I::l
'J')Qtt
,~~)!
1mi1iN
1~1)!?~
1~~z::t
l''Jt)tt
'''?)!
l':l)'i1'iN
''7)!~~
' '?z::t
'~';'Qz::t
0'~.\'
O'l;li1iN
0'1Y.?l
v'~~
O'?Ott
~)l';l)!
~)'tli1iN
~l'1)!?:!1
~)'~l::l
~)lJQI::l
yc:;p?~
VC~'tJi11N
l!C~'J.\'?:,'1
vc~,>.~
1/C~''JQz::t
)/Oi)l';l~
)IOiJ't1'i1iN
l!OiJ'J).'';):;l
YOiJ''?~
VOiJ'10z::t
behind
in front
h~·
abo~·e
''JQ~
below
''Jin~Q
,~~~
'J~-'-).1
''z)!1;)
':ri~J.:l
'J'J'in~~
·p~~?
1'-n-~~
1'~).1~
1''f;l~.J:I
1?)in~~
1'~.0~
l~J~-~~
1~'{)./r)
l'J.:l~.tl
l')in~Y.l
,~~?
llJ?-7~
ll'{)!r,;l
P{ll;ltl
O'Jintp~
O'?~?
0'7~-7~
O''?Y.Q
O'l;IJ;Itl
~J'Jin~Q
U'~~?
~)'1!-~~
ll'~.\1~
U':tl~tl
vo~'Jin~Q
VC;>'~-??
vo;r-:r~-7~
VC~'';IP,Q
VD:;t'.tlf;ltl
YOi)')ln~~
1/Ct:J'~~';)
lfCQ'J?-7~
VCi;J'~~~
.vov't:~l;ltl
VO:tlf:ll.:l
Note The particle ')!1':1 means 'betore (ahead of me)' and consists of the preposition -7 and the dependent noun form of O'l!l. lt has two variations, where the prepositional prefixes are altered to give it another meaning: pretix 'l!l:J. 'in front of me (lacing me)' and ~J!IO 'from me, because of me'. These two particles are conjugated in the same manner as 'l!l? in the above table. The same is true for the particle '1mNo, which means 'behind'. It has an alternate '·nnN7 where the preposition -o is replaced by -7, changing the direction. Instead of positional 'behind', '1mN~ means 'to/toward the hack'. It is conjugated in the same manner as '11nNo.
Appendix 4: Punctuation rules Most punctuation marks are used in a manner similar to their usc in English. The rules listed below follow those set by the Hebrew Language Academy (in abbreviated and simplified form).
1. Period
il"TiiJl
A period is used at the end of a sentence that makes a statement. There is no space between the last Jetter and the period . . O'lnil '1m< l'r.> '~'nnn 0'1UJ'~il
A period is also used at the end of an indirect question . . 0'1UJ l'll'l':::J~ il>i1l1 ON l'l).li~ 1~1 0'11ilil
2. Comma
iJ•og
The comma indicates a pause in the sentence, and this is why it is often placed in the sentence where a change in structure has occurred. It is the most commonly used punctuation mark and has several functions. 1. With a list of items (coordinated) A comma separates the coordinated parts when there is no conjunction. O'l)\!JN1n 0'1!nun l':::Jr.> 'm ilr.> )nnN'I on~ 1m ,)HlU'II:l ~Nl" ,1'0'0 il\!Jr.> .il)'il:lil
,'0
2. Parenthetical expressions a•,.:aom D"'IU'J. A qualified expression is separated from the main sentence by commas, one that comes before it and one that concludes it. ,l1t:l"l1Un 'J N~'J ,10'1' D'J1J' 1mm We can say, without any reservation, that the proposal is a .m~m ny=::~n N'i'l nY~ilil\!J daring one. In very short parenthetical expressions it is possible to omit the comma. My Dad for instance always .i"l'lllil ::J.\!!1n l'l:ll'l '\!J>J' N::J.N thinks about the future.
').1
''\!!
Appendix 4: punctuation rules
3. Apposition
429
;n~nn
Commas separate items in apposition: Dr. Michael Schwartz. the leader mmnn ::~>mr-~,·rnw ~NJ'Y-3 1"1 ofthe Reform movement, will . il.l''l''J 0 Nl> ,ll'Y.31l!>1il make a speech in the session. However, when apposition is very short, it can come without commas: The philosopher Mendelssohn was ~\!J lJtl il'il ')lOl~'!:lil )lO~lll:l the grandfather of the composer .)m~Y.3il )10~1m Mendelssohn. 4. Topic and comment
,ln .. 'U!>IUn
In topicalized sentences it is possible, but not obligatory, to separate the topic from the comment by a comma: The next elections, there will be o>p::lNO O\!J l'il' ,mNJn m·pnJn serious struggles there among the .llll~!>Oil )'J O"l'~1 parties. It is not common to insert commas into shorter expressions or fixed conventional expressions: Such a mother, there is only one. .nnN p1 \!J' llNtJ NY.3N 'ln'N 'll9'!Jr.J 'liU D',.3.'N J':l In a coordinate sentence, a comma separates the individual sentences. l'l'~nn mnnn , lPtl!>" O>r-1\!J)il The rains will stop, the winds will gradually lessen, and the mmJll'il' nnm1!:1Y.3\:Im ,illTTill temperatures will be higher. .1lW
5. Clauses of coordinate sentence
lfthe two sentences are short, there is no need for a comma. Rain fell and the wind was blowing. .il::l\!Jl rmm O\!Jl. ,.,, 6. The coordinator N'JN
In a sentence where the conjunction N~N separates and contrasts the two parts, a comma is often inserted before the conjunction. He did not want go to the movies. but ,l.llJ~'P~ llJ~~ il~i N~ Nli1 rather to the theater. .)11\:IN~n~ N~N However, when it is used for emphasis, in an expression such as N?N. .. l'N 'nothing ... but'. no comma is inserted. There is nothing here but trivial things. .0'~"~ 0'1:l1 N~N )N:J )'N
430
Appendix 4: puncluutiun rules
7. After a subordinate clause
A comma is inserted after a subordinate clause, provided that it is long. After al1 the guests arrived and sat W'ln D'ni)Nn 'J~\!J 'inN themselves in the scats reserved for l~pm\!J mmpn::1 )::1\!Jl')]")m them, the show began. .m~nn n'J,nnn ,on'J 8. Separating non-restrictive relative clauses
A non-restrictive relative clause is usua1ly separated from the main sentence by commas. (A restrictive relative clause does not have a comma). Non-restrictive clause mui!:ll1n\!J ,)'J'Jn m~)):)\!Jn Those rumors, that the tabloids published, were not true. .nm:'ll l>n N'J ,n.J.m.::m l11.l1l1'Y:J Restrictive clause l don't trust rumors that are spread by tabloids.
l11Y.lt1i!:ll1Y.l\!J l1lY)Y.l\!)J 1'Y.lN):) NJ >)N .(om:nn~>
nJ.lmli1 mlm,~J
l.Dash A dash is a line that separates parts of a sentence. It replaces a comma, serving as a ·super-comma', especially when a comma is perceived to be not quite strong enough. It is a line that has a space betore and after the part that is being separated from the rest of the sentence. It is used more frequently in Hebrew than in English. Sometimes two hyphens arc used instead of a dash. 1. It can be used after a topic, before a part of the sentence that includes a special comment, especially if several items are listed in it that themselves are separated by commas: All of their children- Danny, Ro'ic. 'tm ,'Vr'l ,')i - on'J\!J O'l~'n 'JJ .nilJYl ln,'J:~m o~,JYossi and Dina- all of them have good careers.
m,,,
All of his manuscripts and the many letters sent to him - were all lost.
O'Jlil D'ln:'lom 1J\!J 1m ':Jl1J ~~ .1)JlN~ 1:1~71 OJ)J - )lJN ln~'l.ll'l.l
2. When ellipsis has occurred in the sentence: One man wants learning, and the other- goods.
l))):)JN) ,n1m mfl1')1J!:I
.nilnt:l
Appendix 4: punctuation rules
431
3. Before words or phrases detailing an explanation that preceded them. The train is very tast -about I00 J"Y.l nNY.lJ - m~nY.l ilNY.l n:t:nn miles per hour. .n~'tl7 4. It sometimes separates a subject and a predicate in a verbless
sentence that has nn1Jlll or>::J. >niY.l'J- ptm 1'.).1~ during the day and worked at night. .n7,7:t 6. To separate lengthy apposition phrases from the main part of the sentence. All the holy things -the Land of ,'JN1'tl' '(1N - m'tlnpn 7J Israel. Jerusalem, Temple Mount, the ,\!.11jJY.li1 ,l1'::J.i1 1i1 ,D'7'tll1' Tablets --they have no holiness of )Y.l.:::I~J. n'tl'lP )i1:l )'N - mnl'Jn themselves and only became .nll.:::IY.li1 i1'ti)IOJ. NJN l''lJ1jJnl N"Jl sanctified by the doing of good deeds.
4. Parentheses The following rules govern material within parentheses: I. When a period or comma comes at the end of a parenthetical segment. it is placed outside of the parentheses. nnl~ll nl1'i1Y.l:J mn\!.IY.l ll'Jon Slang changes very rapidly (especially in Israeli Hebrew). .(l1'7N1'1!.1' n'1Jl'J ln)'Y.lJ.) 2. When a complete sentence is followed by a loosely related one that is bounded by parentheses, a period tollows the last segment in each. Driver: I am a driver. It is my N'Jil., '''tl i'P!:Inn ,lm ')N :1m responsibility to deliver the llYY.l\!.ll) .OlJ't'J O'}IOlli1 :nN passengers safely. (A dreadful shout C.'(lnJY.l i1Y.ll'N np}ll is heard from outside.)
432
Appendix 4: punctuation rules
3. When a question mark, an exclamation mark or three dots is part of the sentence in parentheses, it stays within the parentheses. A period still follows (outside of the parentheses). And you know what else? It is not just that the principal did not react to what 1 told him; he even refused to listen (who ever heard such a thing?).
~mr.m\!.1 p1 N~ m mr.J Tl).l11' J'INl
N1n ; l'J 'J'I1Y.JN\!.I m~'J :l'lil NJ ).10\!.ll n!l'N) l'\!.lpn'J ::110 1'7'!:1N .(!m::>1::J.l
5.Hyphen
(-) lli'rl
It is important to distinguish between I'JPY.J 'hyphen', which is inserted to join items, and the 1'1!lO 1p 'dash' inserted to separate items.
I. A hyphen can be used to join two nouns that are closely bound, sometimes constituting a fixed expression and considered to be a single semantic unit. attorney landlord human being school courtroom backpack
2. Hyphens can be used to join nouns or adjectives into compound structures. French-Canadian ethno-religious
lj)jJ-')J'I!)1~
'3'11-'~)J'IN
Ashkenazi-Jew socio-economic
'U::>\!.IN-l11n' '~::>'J::>-'J'I1::J.n
3. They can be used (not obligatory) in noun phrases where the noun repeats itself to create an adverbial phrase, which in English can be translated in the tbllowing way: one by one OO'N-'t''N step by step one by one 1nN-1nN day by day on a daily basis 4. They can be used with prefix words. '.l.'O\!.IY.J-ln international unambiguous no confidence 110N-'N bi-lingual
'Y.J1N'J-1'J l)l't''J-11
433
Appendix 4: punctuation rules
6. Quotation marks nntl,•n Quotation marks are used to set off material that represents quoted or spoken language. A colon usually marks the beginning of quoted speech (although in newspaper articles a comma can introduce a direct quote), and quotation marks are present in the beginning and at the end ofthe quoted speech. There are two ways of inserting a punctuation mark at tht! end of the quoted sentence: One way, following the American system of punctuation. puts the punctuation marks of the quoted speech within the quotation marks. 11 .~1))i1
N.J N7 'lN ,m1 l~::ln" : 11lN
".NlJ.n\!.1 n1oN nnN ?JN"
: m1
Another way. following the European system of punctuation and used in most media publications, is to put the quotation mark before the final punctuation mark of the sentence (the following is from Maariv). 1n1''ll' 1r.lN'il" il:>'1~ N'il 1!'11lp'l ~n ON" : O))l 1Y'li1 n?\!.llJY.lil \!.IN1 n:>\!.l.,l • 11 il.,\!.llJY.lil
\!.IN1J
When the quote precedes the rest of the sentence, a comma follows the quotation mark.
However if the quote has a question mark, an exclamation mark or three dots at the end of the quote, the appropriate punctuation mark will be present inside the quotation mark, and there will be no comma separating the two.
Quotation marks can also set off the titles of things that do not normally stand by themselves: short stories, movies, poems, and articles. nN'in" , .,,,,\:)pUN1J"Ni1 Y!lmn The interactive show, 'Medea X', was staged in Akko. .l:>}l )11UN'!'l:ll::l1il,"UPN Quotation marks are also used to set off the titles of institutions: Sht! is a physician in the 'Ha'emek' "i't.:lYil" O'.,lnil n'.J:l nN!ll1 N'il hospital in Afula. .n?l!l}I.J
434
Appendix 4: punctuation rules
Quotation marks can also be put around concepts that the writer wants to highlight: Are there real possibilities for choice? Will 'Sacrifice' always follow 'Love'? These are the question that the audience is being asked.
mm~Y.lN
l11'l1YJ!)N mY.l"P ONil
"iiJ.1jJil" oNn !il1'n:l ~YJ 1'N ?" iJJ.ilN" ~1nN NlJ.!l 1'Y.l!1 . n!:ll~n ~N YJJYJ m~NYJn
Note In English single quotation marks are used in the above cases, rather than double quotations marks, which are used in Hebrew. 7. Exclamation mark (!) i1K',iJ 1n•o An exclamation mark is used at the end of an emphatic declaration, interjection, or command. Do it, now!
An exclamation mark may be used to close questions that are meant to convey extreme emotion, as in: In God's name, what are you doing! 8. Question mark The question mark is used at the end of a direction question. What do you plan on doing? !l1lYJ~~ omtmY.l onN ilY.l
A tag question is a device used to turn a statement into a question. [t nearly always consists of a pronoun, a helping verb, and sometimes the word nut. A question mark is used at the end of such a sentence. ?),:::>) ,1nt.J D'NJ. onN You are coming tomorrow, right? 9. Semicolon (;) jl' 109 i1"Tijl'l The rules for the use of a semicolon are not always clear. It is used to separate large lists or long clauses, without ending the sentence. I. A semicolon can help out sort a very large list: : OlJ'::>J. O'!).Til"'YJY.l n:11n ''il There were many participants in the conference: representatives from the -1N:Jn 0'1m; ~'~).iJY.l D'l'~) Galilee; teachers from Beer Sheva; social O'~N':::!)O D'iJ.,~; ).l:lYJ workers from Haifa; and journalists from ~:m O'NlUl'~, ; il!)'nY.l all parts ofthe country. -"11Nil m,~P
Appendix 4: punctuation rules
435
2. A semicolon is used to separate closely related independent clauses: And you know what else? It is not just p1 N~ m mn .m.I'"T1' :nN1 that the principal did not react to what I 'l11nN.'ll nn1 ~~m N1 7nmn'll told him; he even refused to listen. . ::t''llvn7 ::t1U '''!>N Nm ; 17 The semicolon allows the writer to imply a relationship between ideas without actually stating that relationship. (:) Dnn"Tiil'l 10. Col on A colon is used before a list or an explanation that is preceded by a clause that can stand by itself. The following people were eJected to the committee: ,~~n 'liN1 the mayor the deputy mayor ,,~m 'liNl 1"tJ representatives of the firemen O'N::t::m ,1l1N 'l'~J A colon is used to separate an independent clause from a quotation that the clause introduces: Ofir continued speaking: ..The nurse mnNn" , 1!>'0' l''llnn l'!11N understood all of a sudden how much pm~n nn::> ~~ C1N:n!> n:l'::tn laughter actually helps health." 11. Inverted commas/apostrophe (") D 11 V"lll (') V'll The single inverted comma, or apostrophe, is used in abbreviation of words. It is inserted after the last letter of the abbreviated word. no. (number) (1!>Un=) •on etc. (etcetera) (1mll=) •m Mr. (mister) ()1iNil =)'Nil pg. (page) (ilOY =) •ny The double inverted commas are used in the following: I. In acronyms: Bible 1"ll1 silverware O'J.m::> ,O'N':ll ,n1m
0"1:::!0 11u:n ~"P ,)'::>o
2. In spelling out names ofletters of the alphabet: Double inverted commas are inserted between the last two letters of the name.
Appendix 5: plene writing Plene writing rules (according to the Hebrew Language Academy, simplified and abbreviated) L. Any vowel represented by an nN,ljJ ON mater lectionis '' ,'l ,•n ,'N in nikud naser maintains its i'lN'ljJ ON: i'l::J.'n:> ,O~pn ,Nil' ,i1JYJ 1\!JN1
2. Any u vowel is represented by '· or by 1 if the symbol ' is not available: 11~0 ,O:'!'ll ,nm::ln ,1n~'\!J 3. The vowel o is generally represented by i, or by 1 if the symbol ' is not available. It is always inserted when the o is a no/am naser in ktiv naser: Ni:::!Y.l~ ,:J.i1l::l' ,nb ,ljJi:l When it is a kamats katan or nat~l kamats in ktiv liaser, no i is inserted if the kamats katan or liut~l kamuts is found in all realizations of the word (the assumption being that it is easy to reconstruct this way): i'l''lN ,n1no~ ,on1n:::~ ; l1'l::ln ,no:Jn ,Cl.ON When the kamats katan or nataf kamats alternates with no/am liaser in some of its realizations, ; is inserted: ,(1Y.lin) 'lOin ,(\!.ni\!.1) ''llliYJ 0''ll1in ,O"lli!l'~ ,O'li!l':::!
4. The vowel i is represented by ' in an open syllable, or in words whose base has an open syllable: ,n';:l'm ,1lllj7':J ,1l1:J'l ,n:Po ,1::J.'1 mNO':J ,O'nP'!l , i11Y.l'~ , 1ll'1 ; i'l"l'll , nnm ,1n Pn
It is not inserted in:
*
a closed syllable that is closed in all realizations (again, the assumption being that it is easy to reconstruct this way): ,l'.J.On 1U1N ,1i'Y.l1 ,l1l::lt:l ,n'JY.l'll ,'li:J';:Inn
* some words whose base is not i: O'll' ,'::J.J * h(fi/ forms where an initial•) was assimilated: '1l';:l!ln ,';:l'!ln * before ~' or i': ni'l\J ,ni'\Jl ,O~'P ,1~'1 * after the prefix -Y.l: '(mr.l ,O'liY.l * in frequent (and thus easy to recognize) function words: 10 ,Oll ,oN
437
Appendix 5: plene writing
5. Generally, the vowel e is represented by '' when it comes from a tsere, and provided that the following conditions are met * the tsere replaces a basic i betore a guttural: ,il'l'l"n JJNm ,11':::1 1
)1:JN m ,D''l'1'n ,'l'1'n ,m1''l' , D''l'11'l
* when the tsere is maintained
in all realizations of the word: ,mm
ill'P 1ill'J
The vowel e from segol is represented by '' only in one pattern, heCeC: 1nm ,l'l''i1 6. The consonant v from 1 is represented by just one l at the beginning of the word and at its end: 1''l'JY 1~ 1p ; P'nl ill'Yl ll!l I
1
1
I
In the middle of the word it is represented by ll, even after a pretix word: i111pn mw , 'Nl":J ll!llil 1
I
No more than two 1 symbols can come in sequence: )":>
,ml~IJ ,mlpY.l
7. The consonant y from'' is represented by just one'' at the beginning of the word, regardless of whether or not it is preceded by a prefix word: Oi':l ,1J'i1 ; ::I'll' ,il!l' 1"TJ' In the middle of the word and at its end it is represented by n, provided that it is not adjacent to an ilN'1P ON: ,iiTI'liJ ,)"lll ~)"l:J "l:J , n';:lyl ,,~ ; O"Jl1 ,mJ'ti"Tiil
But: 'N11 ,'il
,'U''ti,O'~t!IJ ,)'~~IJ ,il'il' ,il'il,n'n ,Di'N ,D1'P
8. Ktiv male rules do not apply to native proper nouns: ,'tYJ 10'l!:IN ,nvm ':1111:J 1' ,JPY' )n:>t ,OYllJ' IT11l:l ~O'J'l-111' ,m 1';:1',;, In foreign words, any u, o or i is represented with ilN'lP ON: )i'J'1:J 1il'1iOOliJ ,iJj7lO!liN
,)~OliY.l
Index of grammatical topics hufa/-related adjectives, 121
Abstroct nouns abstract vs.
CQncr~te,
I 27
in nominal sentences, 318
countable or non-countable, 127
in subjeetlcss sentences. 3 17
derived from participles, 146
noun +adjective phrases. 253
derived from verbs, general, 47,
ordinal numbers as adjectives, 187 passive paniciples as adjectives, 57
143 ending with
-m, 147-148
pi"e/-related adjectives. 1:\ I
gender and number, 7
preceded by degree adverbs, 215
infinitives as abstract nouns, 145
present participles as adjectives,
with the definite article, 132, 387 Acronyms, 155-157 stress in acronyms. 29 Action
verb~.
54
Acth•e participle, 143 as adjective, 202-203
gen~ral,
superlative, 258
the numher one m• adjl"eliVl\ 110 with preposiLions, 236
Adjunct, 3, 4, 315, 343
as agent noun, 144
Ad~·erbial
in habitual aspect phrases, 298
Adverbs, 209
in object clauses, 343 vowel reduction in active participles. 420
Adjectives, 194
2
pu 'a(-rclatcd adjectives, 91, 96
clauses, general, 349
adverbs and similar prepositional phrases, 244 adverbs as determiners like
-~~.
285
agreement with the head noun, 256
adverbs as predicates, 32()
c.omparative, 257
adverbs as topics, 368
construct phrase modi tied by
adverbs that act like conjunctions,
adjectives, 270 distinguishing between adjectives and adverbs, 212 expanded into a relative clause. 345 expanded into an attributive clause,
344 head of a construct phra!;e. 2(,5 h{/'il verbs derived from adjectives,
117
248 adverbs used for time and place dcixis. 371 expanded into adverbial clauses, 349 in comparative and superlative conslrucLions, 195
Ad,·erbs of degree, 209,214.257 Adverbs ofdiredion, 214
h!fil-rdatcd adjectives, 108
Ad\·erbs of manner, 213
hitpa 'el verbs derived from
Ad,·erbs of place, 214
adjectives, 104
Adverbs of time, 214
Index C?f grammatical topics
Agent nouns no focus on agent noun in some
binyanim, 78, 95, 124
Borrowed words, 9, 20, 24, 29 Round construct, 266
Cl==n dropped. 4S
participles as agent nouns, 36, 144
in hifil, 112
patterns of agent nouns, 149
in hufal. 122-123
Agentive verb!~, 86
in njf'al, 77
Anaphora, 279,383
inpu'al. 66
Apposition phrases, 260-262,425, 428 Articles, 128 followed by dagesh lwzak. 25
summary of irregularities, 414
CJ:,y dropped, 4S summary of irregularities, 414
CJ:,y mute
in construct phrases, 13 I, 266
in llifil, 113-114
in noun phrases, 270
in ht!f'al, 123
in sentences of possession, 327
in n({al. 76
with dcmonstrdtive pronouns, 278
in pa 'a/, 66
with ordinal numbers, 18& with other determiners, 2S5 with prefixed prepositions. 230 Ashkenazi dialect, 31 Aspect, 38
CJ:,M mute, 64 inpa'a/, 64
summary uf irregularities, 414 Cl:,C3, 48 in hi(il. I I 5
habitual, 298. 387
in hitpu'el, 101
in Hiblicall-lebrew, 40
in n{/1.11, 77
initiating, continuing, ending, 292
in pa 'al, 70
temporal aspect in mmlality, .106 Attribute, 3, 4, 261, 315 Attributive clauses, 314, 344
B kp, 25,411-412
inpi'el, S5 in pu'al, 92 summary of irregularities, 414
Cl=w/y, 48
in h!fil, II 0-111
in h!(il, I 12
in hitpa 'e/, 10 I
in hitpa 'el, I 02
in huf'al, 122
in h~(al, 122
in nij'al, 74-75
in nifa/, 77
in pa(~l. 61
inpi'el, tl5
inpi'e/, 84
in pu 'a/, 92
summary of variations, 411
Binyan, 4, 56 default verbal nouns associated with binyanim, 146 related abstract nominalizations, 143-146
summary of irregularities, 415
CJ=y mute, 48 in h!(il, 115 in hitpa'e/, 103 in huj'al, 123, 365 in nifa/, 77
439
Index of grammatical topics
440
in pa ·at. 70
Consonants, 16-20
in pi"el. 86
in Mizrahi pronunciation, 31
inp11"ul. 93
Construct phrases, 131, 192, 252,
summary of irregularitit:s, 415 C3"'H mute, 48
261-275 Coordinate sentences, 334, 337, 426
in hifil, 114 in hitpa "el, 102
Coordinatin2 conjunctions, 245-246, 339
in nif'a/, 76
Coordinators, I 0
inpa"al, 69,414
Copula, 318-321, 428
inpi'e/. 86
Countable nouns. 126
inpu'al. 93
Dogesh haZJik, 25
summary of irregularities, 415
distinguishing two ~'))9 patterns,
Cardinal numhen, I 77. I82- I83, 188
205 for an assimilated 'l, 66-6 7, 7 1-77,
(~ataphora,
384
229 O'~l!lJ,
(:au!>ative verbs, 89, 115-119
in
Cau~e
marking hitpa'el, 97
clauses, 353-354
115.414
Chain (catcnative) \o'erh phrases, 294
marking pi'el, 81
Citation form, 34,47
marking pu 'al, 90
Closed word cl&!l!'ies, I, 7-9
Dage.\h kul, 25
Coherence,382-384
Days ofthe week, 177, 190-191
Cohe~tion,
382-384
Comment, 171, 218, 326, 331. 366369, 426-427
Declarative sentences, 333 Definite article, 15. 125. 128 fi.>llowed by da~e.fh liazak, 25
Common noun!i, 128, !53
in construct phrases, 131, 266. 270
Comparative clauses. 352
in sentences of possession, 327 with ab~tract nouns, 132
Comparative phrases, 257 Complement elau!le!l, 3 14, 340-341 Complex sentences, 334, 338 Compound nouns, 185,266-267 Compound sentences. 314,334,337338 Compound ''erb phrases, 288, 291, 296-297, 359, 361 Compounding, 142-143 Conces!lion clauses. 356 Concrete nouns. 127 (:onditiomd sentences, 314, 357-362 Consequence clauses, 355
with demonstrative pronouns, 278 with ordinal numbers, 188 with other determiners, 285 with prefixed prepositions, 230 Demonstrath·e pronouns, 3, I 58, 170-171, 277-279 Demonstrative pronouns of close proximity, 271! Demonstrative pronouns of remote proximity, 279 Dependent noun in construct, 129, 264
Index of grammatical topics
Desire, 215. 297-300, 305, 31 I, 342
hii/ICI 'e/, 9K
Determiners, 10, 252, 277, 2153-286
huful, 121
Dialectal variations, 16, 31
in conditi<mal sentences, 357
Dirett object, 51, 2!<9 as a relative pronoun, 174
n[/'al, 72 pa'al, 59
expanded to object clause, .341
pi'e/, H3
in sentences of possession, 327
pu'al, 91
object of a relative clause, 346
sentences of possession in the
lopicalized, 368 Direct speech. 373-374, 3!17, 389 Discourse
future. 328 (;ender, 7, 128, 132, 253 agreement. 14, 254,256
conversation and narrative, 384
tonn and meaning, 132
discourse and text, 365
in adjectives, 194
Double con!itruct, 262, 272-273
in construct phrases, 270
Elliptical sentences, 314, 330-.H I,
in demonstrative pronouns, 277
335
in C:-listential sentences, 323
Equatiunal !ientcnces, 318-319
in C:-lpandcd direct objects, 343
ct ""· 5 I , 225 in possessive sentences with
in long construct phrases, 274
definite subjects, 327 when direct object is topicalizcd. 361! with pronoun suflixes, 227, 233
in numerals, 11!4, 282 in numerical and quanti tier phrases,
282 in relative clauses, 346 in sentences of possession, 325
Exclamatory sentences, 333
markings, 134
Existential expressions, 166, 323.
no agreement in adverhs, 212
325,328 Existential sentences, 314. 318, 323, 325 Expanded verb phrases, 291, 294
of copula, 318 of linking verbs, 322 Genres
ur text, 3!!2
Gerund
Expectation, 245, 298, 300, 303
in noun phrases, 287
Focus,43.326,366,369
intinitive as gerund, 46
Foreign suffilles, 29, 143
441
Guttural
Foreign words, 18-20, 50, 87, 94
a stem vowel in pa 'ul, 60
Fractions, 177, 188-1 S9, 193
gutturals and hataj; 22
Free counting, 177
in hifil, Ill
Furtive patali, 23, 29, 413
in hitpa 'el, 10 I
Future tense, 38
in hufal, I 22
future of modal verbs, 306
in nifal, 75
hifil, 109
inpa'ul, 62
Index uf grammatical topics
442
Impersonal pronouns, 176
inpi'el, 84 inpu'al, 92 no dagesh hazak, 26
I mpcrsonal !lentences, 3 16 lnchoative \'erbs, 33. 54, 5(,, 78-80
summary of irregularities, 412
Independent subject pronouns, 158,
Habitual aspect phrases, 288, 298 Ht~taj\·ovt·el~.
21-23, 58, 62, 75, !!4,
92,101.122,141,195,201,204, 206,229,246,419-421,433
Head, 315 agreement with (general), 13 and the copula, 31 X in adjective phrases and adjectival predicates. 194, 212 in construct phrases, 261,263, 265,
27(), 272-273 in numeral and quantifier phrases, 282
160, 16.5
Indirect object as agents in passive sentence~>, 7& as heads of relative clauses, 346 as pronouns after prepositions, 158,
175 following verhs with obligatory prepositions, 290 with transitive verb, 52
Indirect speec:h, 365, 373-376 lntinitive, 44 after modal verb. 29R, 300 as abstract noun, 145
in numeral phrases, I !13
as head of sentence. 320
in phrases of possession, 275
as lopic, 36H
in sentences of possession, 325
in a noun phrase, 287
of clause modifiers, 286
in catcnativc verb phrases, 294
of expanded verb phrases, 291, 296
in compound verb phrases, general,
of prepositional phrase, I 0 nf relative clauses. 345
1/ij"il, 5, 34, 40. 47, 56, W8-119, 202,
308,433 Hitpa'el, 5, 47, 49, 56, 79, 80, 85. 92,
97-107,202, 30X Hufal, 5, 45, 47, 56, 119-124, 203,
304
Hypothetical conditional clause!!, 362
Imperative mood, 44 in h(/'11, 109-110 in hitpa 'e/, 98, I 0 I
291
in expanded verb phrases. 291 in hifil, II 0
in hilpa 'e/, 99 in imperative sentence, 333 in impersonal sentences, 31 7 in nifal, 74
in object clauses, 342 in pa·ul, 61
inpi'el, 83 in two-kernel verb phrases, 295 no infinitive in sentences of possession, 329-330
in nifal, 73
Infinitive absolute, 45, 145
in pa 'al, 60
Instrumental nouns, 140, 144, 147,
in pi ·et. 83
Imperative sentences, 316, 333
149-150,424
Integrated sentences, 314
Index uf grammatical topics
Intent clauses, 355
443
phrases of possession, 275-277
Interjections. 3, 12, 331. 431
prepositional phrases. 2!! I
lnterrogatin pronouns, 3, II, 173
with demonstrative pronouns, 277-
lnterrogatin sentences, 333 Intransitive \'crbs, 51-52, 118 Irregular "·erhs, 4R, 62. 75, !!5, 92, 101, Ill, 122
281 with determiners, 283-286
:'\lumber, 7, 137 agreemenl, 14, 254, 256
Jussive, 40-41
agreement in C(llllpound nouns, 267
Ktiv liaser, 24
agreement in construct phrase, 129,
Ktiv male. 24, 433-434 linear derivation, 140-142, 150. 195,253, 314 linking verbs, 33, 52-53,321-322, 361
264 agreement in copula, 318
agreement in object clause. 343 agreement in sentences of possession, 325. 328
Location clauses, 350 Locationllocation nouns, II, 12, 147.
agreement with lhe predicate, 366
marking in verb systl!m, 33
150. 156, 170-171, 201, 214. 239-
Numerals, 177-193
244,268.320,350,369-370,372
Numerical phrases, 183,282
Manner clauses, 351
~ umcrical
Mapik, 25-27
Obj cct clauses, 341-343
Mutre.~
Object complement, 4, 24g, 342, 363
le£'1irmi,·, 23-24
Mi~hka~4,
139,141, 154, 156
Mizrahi dialect, 31 Modal \'erbs, 288, 298 • .100-312
value oflctters, 190-191
Obligation, 146, 245, 301. 303 Obligatory prepositions, I 0, 33, 51, 53.236,290
Modality. 300, 304-306. 311, 387
Open word classes, 7- 8. 13
Nifal, 5, 47, 56. 71-81, 98, 116, 203
Ordinal numbers, 177, 187-188. 191,
l'iominal predicate, 4. 252 l'iominal !lentences, 52, 167,314, 31 X l'ion-countable nouns, 126-127 ~'ion-restrictive
relative clauses, 341.(
427
Noun phrase, 252-287 apposition noun phrases, 260-261 comparative and superlative phrases, 257-260
19R
Pu'al, 5. 47, 49,56-70,202-203, 308, 413
Particles, 225-25 I conjunctilms, 245-248
exclamation particles, 250-251 prepositions. 228-245 subordinators, 248
Partitive numerals, 188
construct phrases, 262-275
J•arts of speech, 1-3, 7
gerum1s and infinitives in noun
Pas!live participle
phrases, 287 noun+ adjective, 253-256
as adjectives, 203 as modal verbs. 307
444
Index of grammatical topics
as nouns, 145 in h~fal, 121
inpa'u/, 57 inpu'a/, 91,96 Past tense, 37, 40
compund verbs - one or two predicates?. 295 existential expressions as predicates, 167 in nominal sentences, 318
htfil. 109
in simple sentences, 334
hitpa 'e/, 97
prepositional phrase as predicate,
hr!fal, 121
320
in habitual aspect phrases. 29R
the verb plmm: as a predicate, 28!:1
in indirect speech, 374
predicate whose subject is a
in modal expression, 310
demonstrative pronoun. 171
in modal verhs, 307
with linking verbs, 321
in nominal sentences. 320
without linking verb, 53
in sentences l)fpllssession, 32M
Predh:ate clauses. 341
n(fal, 72
Prefixed pronouns, 158, 164
pa'al, 58
)•reposition. I 0, 225
pi'et. 82
a closed class, 9
pu'al. 91
associated with nouns, 236
suffixes, l 64
associated with verbs, 236-23 7
Pataft gnuvu, 23, 29, 41 3
complex prepositions, 23 l
Permission, I 15, 222, 300, 302
in context, 239
Person deixis, 371
in dictionary entries, 34
Pi'el, 5, 34, 47, 49. 56, 81-89, 202-
in indirect object relative clauses,
204 Place deids, 372
Possessed noun, 170, 272, 275-276, 328
J•ossession sentences, 314, 31 8, 323330 Posses!iive pronouns, 26, 131, 154, 169-170,234,263,272,276
346 in question!;. 12 in sentences of possession. 324 in topicalization, 368 of direction -]hN, 241 of duration, 244 of local ion -.J, ])l. 240 of location/position ~:liN, 242
Pos!iessor noun, 272-273, 275-276
of time
Possibility, 288, 298-302, 309, 311,
one-word prepositions, 231
385 Predicate, 4, 3 15 agreement, 14 and definiteness, 255 apposition phrase as predicate, 261
-.J,
240
prefixed to nouns, 229 preposition of possession '~· 239 verbs with obligatory prepositions.
53,290 with indirect lJhjects, 51 with interrogative pronouns, 173
Index of gmmmalical topic:;
with pronoun sutlixes, 233-235
interrogative and relative pronouns. 173
with reciprocal verbs. KO ~\\1
in possessive phrases, 271
Preposition phrase, I 0, 228, 2M I,
noun
sutllxed to nouns and prepositions, 168,233,416 using nN1 for general reference,
in sentences (>f possession, 324 one verb with several prepositional phrases. 23 7 Present tense, 35
173 using m tor general reference, I 71 with ,,n, 251 word order in posse10sive sentences with pronouns, 326
h!fil. 108 hirpa 'e/, 97
huj'al. 120 nif'al, 12
demonstrative pronoun, 277
166
218,244.320 in impersonal sentences, 317
I·
subjt:et pronouns added to \!I' ,l'N.
288,315 adverbs or prepositional phrase?,
Proper noun!~, 125, 117. 129.434 Pu'a/, 5, 44, 45, 47, 49, 56, !!5, 90-!J6. 201,204
in ex istcntial sentences, 323
Purpose clauses, 355
in nominal sentences. 318
Quantiliers. to
in sentences of possession, 325-326
degree adverb or quantitier'?, 209, 216
negating existential state with l'N. 166
445
in construct phrast!s, 275
pa'al, 56
in expanded verbs. 293
pi'el, 81
numerical and quanti tier phrases,
pu'al, 90
sutlixes. 36
283 '~
as determiner or quantifier, 2M5
with modal verbs. 300
Rapid speech, 30, 329
without linking verbs, 53
Readiness, 74
Probabilit)', 302
Real conditional clauses, 35M
Pronouns, 158-176
Reciprocal verbs, 7H. SO, I03, I OS,
agreement, IS
107
as copula, 3 18
Reterent, 13, 170-171, 345, 3 71, 383
demonstrative pronouns, I 70
Reflexive \'erbs, 79. I 03. I 05-1 06
demonstrative pronouns as copula,
Register, 31, 364, 377
320 forms, 36, 37, 38, 15!l
hitpa 'el vs. nitpa 'el, 98
in adverbial clauses, 349
in construct phrases, 272
inlinitive absolute. 145
in relative clauses. 346-347
literary, general, 378
in topical ized sentences, 36 7
mixing registers, 379 stress placement in ill:lp etc., 63
Index qj' grammatical topic.~
446
the demonstrative pronouns il!~iJil~IJ.
280
the suffix -m in adverbs, 21 I
subject pronouns, 160 verbal sentences wi lhout subjects. 316
use ofjussive and cohortativc, 40
Subject clauses, 340-341
use of possessi vc pronouns, 170
Subject less sentences. 176, 3 13. 333
use
Subjunctive, 288,299,305, 311-312
>nn etc., 168.250-251
Subordinate clau!lc, 334, 339
verbs in which C2=C3, 7M
comma after, 426
verbs in which C2=w/y, 112
main propositions as subordinate
~-
and ':I, 342
Regular verbs, general, 48 Relative clause, I I and relative pronouns. 174. 347 punclualion, 427 Request. 41, 44, 21 8, 222, 300, 302, 419 Restrictive relative clauses, 347, 427 Root. 4. 17, 33, 4!! in discontinuous derivation, 140 shared meanings, 50 with four consonants, 49 Segolate nouns, 28. 148. 153-154, 20 I , 264, 42 I
clauses, 220-221 modal expression
I
subordinate
clause, 306 noun + subordinate clause modifier, 286 Subordinators. 3, 9. II. 225. 248, 339, 349-35 I, 353, 357-359. 362, 374 Suffixed pronouns, 166 Superlative adjectives, 194-195, 252, 258 Superlative phrases, 258 Tellin~~;
time, 177, 192
Time claues, 329, 349-350
Semivoweb, 23
Time deixis, 371
Sentences of possession, 32K
Topic, 367
Sentential adverbs, 208-224
comma after. 426
Separated construct, 262
the possessor as topic, 326
Shva, 21-22, 43, 58, 60. 62, 72, 75, 84, 92, 101, Ill, 122, 179-180.
204. 206. 229, 230, 246, 41 9-421
Topicalization, 367,369 Transith·e verbs, 51-52, 56. 78, I 05107. 118, 225-226, 236
Simple sentence, 314. 334-339
Truncated predicates. 293
Stative verbs. 54, 56-51, 70, 206,241
Two-kernel verb phrases, 291, 295
Stress, 28-31
Utterance, 3, 312, 364-365. 371
vowel reduction in verbs caused by stress shift, 74, 82, 418 Subject, 314,366 in existential sentences. 323
Verb phrase chain (calenalive). 294 compound verb phrases, 291-296 tinitc verb+ finite verb, 294-295
in relative clauses, 345
habitual aspect phrases, 298
in simple sentences, 335
modal verbs, 29M
Index l~l grammatical topics
semantic grouping, 297
n{f"a/-rdated, 74
two-kernel verb phrases, 295-296
pa 'al-rclated, 61
verbs+ obligatmy prepositional
pi'e/-rclated, !!J
phrases, 290-291 Verbal nouns. 47 abstract verbal nouns associated with verbs, 146 as 'internal objects', 289
gerunds and infinitives in noun phrases, 287
Verbal sentence!>, 314-316. 324 Vowels, 21 reduction in verbs caused by stress shift, 74, 82 with or without vowel signs, 23
Waw consecuth'e. 40-44 \Vhatever, 174-175, 320
hij'i/-related, I I0
Whoever, 174,275,320,356
hitpa 'ef-rclated. 99
WillinKness, 74, 300, 304
infinitives as verbal nouns, 45, 145-
\\'ish, 41, 215, 288, 297-300, 305.
146
447
309. 311. 342, 3!!7- 388
