American rococo, 1750-1775: elegance in ornament

American Rococo, 1750-1775

Arnerican Rococo, 1750-1775: Elegance in Ornament

American Rococo, 1750-1775: Elegance in Ornament

MO R R ISO N

LESL IE

TH E

LOS

H.

H E CK S CH ER

G REE NE

M ETROPOLITAN

ANGELES

COUNTY

B O WM A N

MUSEUM

MUSEUM

OF

OF

Di stributed by H arry N. Abrams, Inc., N ew York

ART

ART

This book is presented as a benefit of your museum membership. The exhibitions and programs of the Los Angeles County Museum of Art would not be possible without your generous support.

This book has been publish ed in co nju nc tion wi th the ex hibitio n Am ericall Rococo, '750- 1775' Elegance ill O rt/amellt, held at The M etrop ol itan Mu seum of Art, N ew York, fro m 26 J anu ar y to 17 M ay, and at th e Los An geles County Mu seum of A rt from 5 Jul y to 27 Septem ber 1992. Th e ex hib itio n is m ad e po ssibl e b y The H enr y Luce Fo unda tio n, Inc. , and th e N ati on al Endo wment fo r the Arts. T he exhibitio n was o rga n ized by T he M et ropolit an M useum of Art and th e Los An geles Coun ty Museum of A rt. Addit ion al su ppo rt for th e ex hibitio n in N ew Yor k has been provide d by T he Real Estate Counc il of T he M etropolitan M useum of Art. Additio nal su ppo rt for th e ex hib itio n in Los An geles has been pr o vided by the Rob ert and N an cy Daly Fo undatio n . The exhibitio n is also suppo rte d at th e M etrop ol itan Mu seum by grants fro m An nett e d e la R ent a , H . R ich ar d Die t rich, J r. , M r. an d M rs. Antho ny L. Ge ller, M r. and M rs. Rob ert G . Go ele t, Grace Foundati on In c. , M r. an d Mr s . R obert A. Hut , J oulli an & Co ., M r. and Mr s . Geo rge M . K aufman , M rs. Al exand er O . Vi et or, and M r. and Mrs . Erving Wo lf. The book th at acco m pan ies th e ex hibi tio n is ma de possible in part b y a generous gra n t fro m th e Lu ce Fund fo r Scho larsh ip in Am eri can Art , a prog ram of T he H enry Lu ce Found ati on, In c. Additio nal fund in g was received fro m The W ill iam C u llen Br yant Fell o w s o f Th e Am eri can W ing a t th e M etrop olit an Mu seu m , The Ch ips to ne Found ati on, Sothe by's, J ohn L. M ari on , and th e Am eri can Decor at ive Arts Dep artm ent of C hristie's, N ew Yor k .

Cove r-jacke t: Sla b tab le, P h ilad elp h ia, ca. 1770 . Th e M etr op olitan Mu seum of Art , J ohn Stewar t Kenn ed y Fund, 1918 (18.[10.27) Fr onti spie ce : Co ffee po t, ca . 1753, Ph ilip Sy ng , j r,; Phil ad elph ia. Phil adelph ia M useu m of Art , Purchased : J ohn D . Mcilhenn y Fund (6620-1)

Co py rig h t © [992 by The M etr opol it an Mu seum o f Art , N ew Yo rk . All ri ghts reserved . N o part of th is publi cati on m ay be reproduced or transmitt ed in any form o r b y any m ean s, elec tro n ic or mechanical, in clud in g ph o to cop yin g , recordin g . o r any in form ati o n storage and retriev al sys tem , w itho ut w ritt en perm ission fro m the pub lisher. J ohn P. O' Ne ill, Editor ill C hief and Genera! Manager of Publications M ar y-Al ice Rogers, Editor, Th e William C I/llell Bryalll Fellol/'s Publications, Th e A mericall Willg Elizabeth Finger . Designer Helga Lose, Production T yp eset by C raftsma n Type ln c., D ayt on , O hio Colo r reproduction by Rep ro co lor Int ern ation al s. r.l.. M ilan, Italy Pr int ed and bound b y Arti G rafiche M otta, S.p.A ., M ilan, Italy

Libr ar y of Congress Ca talogi ng - in- Publication Da ta Heckscher, M orrison H . Am eri can ro co co , 17 50- [77 5: elega nce in o rna me n t / M o r riso n H . Heckscher, Leslie Greene Bowm an. p. em. Includes bibliographical refere nces and index . ISBN 0-87099-630- 4. - ISBN 0-87099-63 I - 2 (pbk.). - ISBN 0-810964[2-0 (Ab rams) l. De cor at ion an d o rna ment, Roco co-Unit ed States-Exh ibiti ons. 2. D ecor at ion and o rna me nt - Unit ed Sta tes - H isto ry - r Sth centuryExhibition s. I. Bo wm an, Leslie G reene. II. Ti tle . NKI403· 5·H4 199 2 745. 4' 4974'09033074747[ - dc20 9 1- 29595 C IP

CONTENTS

F O HE W O H D

PH E FA C E

AC KNO W LE DG MEN TS

LENDE HS TO TH E E X H I B IT ION

VII

V II I

XI

XV

The Am erican Ro co co A rchi tcctu re

17

En gravin gs

37

Silver

71

Furn iture

133

Cas t Iron, G lass, and Porcelain

2 19

N OT E S

BIB LI O GH APHY

257

E X H I B IT ION C HEC K L IS T

I N D EX

PH O T O GHAPI I C HE D ITS

288

FOREWORD

th e ex h ib itio n h as been provi ded by th e N at ion al End o wm ent fo r th e Art s . At a c r ucia l mome n t , members of t he Vi sitin g Co m mi ttee o f the D ep artm ent of A m erican D eco rativ e Arts at th e M etrop olitan too k u p the cause o f th e proj ect with hand som e indi v idu al g ifts . We are also obliged to th e Wi lliam C u lle n Br yant Fell o w s of T he A m e rican Wing of th e M etr op ol it an Mu seum , w hose ed ito r , M a r y- A lice Ro gers, saw th e book th rou gh to publicat ion . Th e presentati on o f th e ex h ibition in N e w Yo r k is m ad e possibl e in part b y th e fin an cial assistan ce provided by The Heal Est ate Co u nci l o f T he M et rop olitan M useu m of Art . Additi on al su p po rt for th e ex hib itio n in N ew Yo rk has been pro vided b y Ann ette de la Rcn ta, H . Rich ard Diet ric h , J r. , Mr. an d Mrs. Anth on y L. Ge lle r, M r. and M rs. Hobert G . Go ele t , G race Found ati on In c. , M r. an d M rs . Ho b ert A . Hut, J oulli an & Co .; Mr. an d Mrs. Geo rge M . Kaufm an , Mrs. Alexande r O . Vi et o r, an d Mr. and Mrs. Ervi ng Wolf. W e a re furth er o b liga te d to th e Ho b e rt a n d N ancy Da ly Foundati on for its co nt ributio n towa rd th e produ cti on o f the ex hibitio n in Los An geles. W e a re ind ebt ed t o th e Lu cc Fu nd fo r Sc ho la rs hip in Am eri can Art, a pr o g ram o f Th e H enr y Lu ce Foun da tio n , Inc. , for pro vidin g a ge ne ro us gra nt to w ar d the pu bli cati o n o f th e b o ok . Addit ion al fu nd ing was r e ce iv ed fr om Th e C h ips to ne Found ati on, So t he b y ' s, J ohn L. M a r ion , a nd th e Am eri can D e co rati ve Art s D ep artm ent of C h ris t ie's, N ew Yo rk.

T he ro co co sty le was amo ng th e pr im ar y a rtis tic co nt ributio ns o f th e eig hteen t h ce n tu ry . It s m anifest ati on s throu gho u t E u rope h ave been co m p re he n siv ely ac k now ledged and chro n icled , but its in flue nce in Am erica, w he re it was pr obabl y th e ce nt ury's crow ni ng desi gn ac hieveme nt (co m m o nly referred to as th e C h ip pe n da le sty le), has n ever been th oro ug h ly exa m ine d . It w as a la vi sh tast e that found sur p risin gl y fertile g ro u nd in th e co lo nies , w he re affluent m ember s o f society , rejoi cin g in th eir har d- w on pr osper it y, stro ve to adop t Lond on fashi on s. T he ir su ccess in so doin g is ri ch ly de mo ns t ra ted in t he pag es that foll ow and in th e ex hibi tio n that thi s bo o k acco rn pan ies . We are es pecia lly pl eased th at American R O((l ((l, '750- 1775: E lc<s:a llcc ill O n/a IllCII! sho uld be jointl y o rga niz ed by o ur two in stitution s. The u nd ertakin g beg an w it h the d esire of th e Los An geles Co unty Mu seum of Art to m ount an ex hibitio n of Am er ic an C h i p pe n d a le furn itur e in a c ity w he re s uc h o bjects ha ve always b een in sho rt su p ply. Wi t h th e real ization th at th er e had ne ver been a co m pre he ns ive exa m ina tio n o f th e ro co co sty le as it was pr acti ced in th e Am eri can co lo nies , and th at su ch an ex hibi tio n mi ght be of int er est o n th e eas t coas t as well as on th e wes t, th e M etropol itan Museum joine d fo rces wi th Los An geles. This bi co ast al ve n ture results fro m th e effo rts of M orrison H . H eck sch er , C u ra to r, Am eri can Decorati ve Arts, at The M etropolitan Mu seum o f Art, and L esli e G ree ne Bo wm an , C ura to r o f D e cor at iv e Art s a t th e Lo s An gel es Co u n ty Mu seum o f Art. S uc h a pa r rrrcrxh ip ack now le dge s th e cc n -

Mu s eum s h a v e a lways d epc nded for th e ir ver y exi s te nce

t u r y of co m mi t me n t t o Am eri c an d e cor ati v e a r ts a t Th e M etropolitan Mu seum o f Art and the ex trao rd ina ry g ro w t h o f th e Los An gele s Co unty Mu seum o f Art since it s found-

o n th e s po nso rs h ip o f th eir frie n ds a nd bene factors . T hat tan gibl e o u tpo u ring o f ca re and in te res t has never been m ore vital th an it is in th e wo rl d of to day, n o r ha ve we eve r had m ore reason to che rish it.

ing in 1913 . We take pl easure in ex te n d ing o u r g ra tit ude to a number of in stitution s an d individu als for th e ge ne ros ity th at m ad e A merica n R O((l CO p o ssible , p arti cul a rl y Th e H enr y Lu ce Fo u n da ti on, In c . , wh o se gi ft t o w a rd th e boo k in 198 5 launc he d th e undertakin g an d w hose furth er co nt ribut io n in 19 91 m at eriall y ai de d t he en deavor. Additi on al su p po r t fo r

Philippe de M onteb ello , D irector T he M etropolitan Mu seum o f Art Earl A . Po w ell III, D irector Los An geles County Mu seum of Art

V II

PREFACE

Alll cricall R ococo, 1750-1775; E lcoaucc ill O rname nt is a bo ok abo u t a s ty le . In plannin g it an d th e e x h ib itio n it acc o m panies, th e aut ho rs decided o n t w o arbitrary restricti on s: that th e definition o f ro co co b e limited to th e o rna me n tal as pec t o f th e eig htee nt h-century sty le and th at th e w or ks chose n for inclu sion be limited to th o se o f Am eri can m anu facture . O b vio us ly , however , th er e had to be so me flexibi lit y in th e ran g e o f d at es defin ed in t h e titl e . l n additi on, th ou gh a hand ful o f En gli sh-m ad e pi eces are present to illu strat e the esse n tial En gli sh qualit y o f th e sty le as w ell as th e m ann er o f its tr an sm ission to Am er ica, we chose to co nce nt ra te not o n th e ad mix ture of imported an d nativ e-m ad e o bjects th at was th e rea lity o f th e fu rnis h ings of th e co lo nial elite but o n the best exa m ples o f d om esti c crea tivi ty, whi ch w e sel ecte d for th eir ex ception al w orkm an ship an d aes t he tic m erit . A s is always th e case with a lo an ex h ibi tio n, becau se o f co n servation concerns, fin an cial ex ige nc ies, and o the r pr acti cal limitatio ns, we had to for go certa in o bjects we wo u ld o the rw ise hav e chosen. Th e b o ok d o es n ot pu rp o rt to be a survey o f th e arts in Am eri ca in th e third quarter of th e eig htee n th century. Silv er and furniture-in thi s co u n try the t w o categ o ries m ost co ngenial to rococo o rna men ta tio n - form the prin cip al sec tio ns and are th er efore di scu ssed a t grea tes t len gth . Am on g the ave n ues of a rt is t ic e n deavo r we excl u de d a rc Am eri can p ain tin gs (s uc h as mid-centur y portraits b y Blackburn an d th e yo u ng Co p ley) n o w genera lly co ns ide re d t o be o f a ro co co sensi bi lity but h avin g littl e, if any th ing, to do wi th rococo o rn a mc ntat io n. T he incl usio n of ce rtain d o m esti c neo classical p ortraits is j us tifie d b y th eir b ein g en closed in th eir o rig ina l, lu xuriou sly ro co co fram es. Un rep resented are so m e of th e era's m ajor regi on al schoo ls. eithe r becau se their o u t p ut is n ot in th e ro co co m od e (t he fa mo us b ar o qu e bl o ck- and- sh ell fu rn i t u re o f N e wp ort. fo r i ns tance) o r

becau se their in vo cati on of th e sty le is so far removed from th e Englis h so urce as to co ns tit u te a to ta lly differe n t image (furn it ure b y Eliph alct C ha p in of Windsor , Connecticu t-an idi o syn cr ati c o ffs hoo t o f Ph ila delph ia design - im m edi ately co mes to mind). Prim aril y , th e bo ok and th e ex h ib itio n were co nce ived to add ress the fundam ental q ues tio n: Did th e rococo sty le exist in colo n ial Am er ica? The relevan ce o f th at q ues tion became in cr easin gl y a ppa re n t th rou gh o ur lo n g p repara tion by the o m n ip rese n t specter o f J oh n H en ry Belt er . w hose fos te ring o f th e r o co co-r e vi v al s ty le in mid -nin et ee nth- ce n t u r y Am eri ca is so widel y recog nized as to o bfuscate the original ro co co ' s flouri shin g o n th ese sho res. Baroque & R (l( (l( O ; A rch itecture & Decoration, ed ite d b y Anth on y I3lunt (Lo ndon . 1978), a m ajor int ern ati onal survey of th e do m in an t styles of the seve nteen th and eig h tee n t h ce n t uries , never even m entions Eng land's co lo n ies in th e N ew World . A s au t hors. we o w e a debt of in spirati on to R ococo: Art and D esiy n ill H oo arth '5 E nyla nd, an ex h ib itio n at th e V ictoria and Al be rt Mu seum, an d it s acco m pa ny ing ca ta log ue (Lo ndon. 1984 ). w h ich pro vid ed a co rn uco pic view of th e sty le 's pr esen ce in En gland ; it is o ur aim to ac h ieve so me thi ng co mpa rab le for its pr esen ce in Amer ica. The fir st cha pter of th e book, a su m ma ry of th e Euro pean o rig ins and th e Am eri can m anifest ati on s of the rococo. conclu de s with a br ief discuss io n o f fir earm s, w hose ornament co ns ists eq ua lly o f e ng raved m et al an d carve d wood . and textil es, whi ch arc to o few in number to wa rra n t a separa te s t u dy . Th e seco n d c ha p ter is d e v o t ed t o arc hitec ture . Th ou gh littl e o f it survives an d o n ly o ne exa m ple is contain ed in th e ex hib itio n, it pr o vided th e setting for th e style's usc in th e o ther m edium s and in it sel f served as a show p lace fo r th e carve r 's art. Th e res t o f th e boo k is arranged in chapter s acco rd ing to m ed ium (pa pe r; silve r; wood; iron . glass .

V III

g ive n. it is th e g rea test; wher e th er e ar e t w o o r three. unl ess o t he rw ise n oted. th e y a re in o rde r o f hei ght . width . an d depth . For wo rks o n pap er , th e m easurem ent s a re of th e pl ate mark . if it ex is t s. o r of th e im ag e. if it d o es n ot. For o bjects o f w o od . th e se m ico lo n afte r th e prim ar y w o od denotes that th os e that foll o w a re seco n da ry. Th e bibli o graph y (pp. 257-( 3) co nta ins not o nly all refer en ces em ployed in sho rt form in th e text and in th e end no tes but also so urces o f gene ra l importan ce to any in ve sti g ati on o f th e Am erican ro co co .

and cera m ics) . with th e fo cu s o f the text on th e st yle o f an objec t an d w it h m att e rs o f co nst ruc t io n . co n d itio n . an d pr o ven an ce tou ch ed o n o nly insofar as was deemed relevant. O bjects w hose illu strati on s are identified by a number and a b rief ca p tio n are part o f th e ex hi b itio n and are recorded in full in it s chec k lis t (p p. 2 04-75). Th e numb er ap pea rs in bo ldface typ e at th at point in the text w he re th e o bject is di scussed at le ng t h. in a sec tio n se t o ff b y sp ace s. sugges ting w ha t w ould be an en t ry in a sta nda rd ex hibitio n cata log ue . Illu strati ons ide nt ified b y a fig ur e nu mber are o f object s that co u ld n ot b e included in th e ex h ib it io n o r o f im ages th at we re adde d to th e text for co m pa rative purpos es. Dim en sion s are g ive n in inche s. to th e near est eighth o f an in ch. an d i n ce n t i me te rs. Wh er e o n ly o ne dim en s ion is

M orrison H . H eck sch er Leslie G ree ne Bo w m an

IX

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

We ow e s p ec ial thank s to th e int ern s an d vo lu n tee rs w ho d evoted th eir ene rg ies to v ar iou s as pec ts o f thi s pr oj ect : Gord on Frey, Eli zab eth J. Kalm an, Floren ce Klein , Andrew J. Kron enberg, J ordan a P om er o y, Lesli e Sy m ing to n , an d Ca rla Yanni. At Los Angel es, we particul arl y app rec iate th e forb ear an ce and su p po rt o f memb ers o f th e decorati ve arts d ep artment : M artin G. Chapm an, J ean ett e H an isce , R o g er E . J on es , M arth a D . Lynn , Jud y And er son, and form er d ep artm ent h ead Timoth y Schr od er , as we ll as d ep artm ent int ern s D eidre Cron cnb ol d , Kath y Go d dard , an d Wend y Wasson . Resear ch assistan ce wa s also pr o vid ed by Eleano r H artm an, Anne Diederick , an d o the r members o f th e librar y staff. Fo r help with g ra n ts, co n t rac ts, an d fu n d - raisi ng, we th ank Ron ald B. Br atton, deput y dir ector; Elizab eth H. Al germissen, assistant director; Julie A. J ohnston , director o f dev elopm ent , and her ass ista n t, T om J acobson; and M ark Mitch ell , bud get man ager. For th eir in valu abl e ass is ta nce with th e ex hibition in Los An geles we acknowledge ass ista nt di rect or Arthur Owens and hi s sta ff m emb er s M ar y Lou ghlin an d Willi am Stahl ; h ead o f ex h ib it io n pr o gram s J ohn P assi , exhibition de sign er Bern ar d Kest er , spec ial eve nts pl ann in g director J anis Dinwiddi e and her sta ff; we also cre dit St even N. Oliver for hi s photo graph y. For ex h ib itio n in st all ati on we are o b liged to R oma Alli son , Lou M assad , Willi e Willi am s, and th ei r sta ffs; fo r regis trarial ass ista nce, Ren ee Mont gomer y an d C ha n d ra Kin g; for co nse r va tio n co n s u lta tio n , Pierer M eyer s, Ste ve Cristin-P ouch er , an d D on Men ve g; for tr avel arra nge me n ts , Jani ce Elli s and Fer oza Vimadalal. We a re indebt ed to o u r co lleag ues at in num er abl e mu seums , librari es, an d historical so cieties for m aki n g th eir co llec tio ns access ib le (a n d in m an y cas es al so fa cilitatin g loan s), for assistin g with resear ch , and for pr ovidin g illu strati on s. In parti cul ar , we sa lu te th e foll owin g in d iv id ua ls and th eir in stituti on s : Alb an y In stitute o f H ist or y an d Art :

An ex h ib itio n of th e sco pe and co m plex ity of Am eri can R O([1CO is po ssible o n ly with the co m b ine d efforts of co un tless pe ople o f div er se talents. We ac k now ledge th e almo st uni ver sal en th us ias m and coo pe ra tio n w ith whi ch w e were gree te d durin g o u r yea rs o f travel and resear ch . Our fir st debt is to Phil ipp e de M onteb ell o and Ea rl A . Powell III, direct or s o f Th e M et rop olitan Mu seum o f Art and th e Los An g eles Co u n ty Museum o f Art, resp ectivel y, for their stea dfas t su p port, w hich m ad e po ssible thi s join t venture of the tw o institution s. At th e M etropolit an, sco res o f indi vidu al s w orked to ma ke Am eri call R O([1 ([1 happen . In th e director's o ffice we ar e pa r t ic u la rly in deb te d t o M ahrukh T ar apor and Marth a D eese; in th e d ev el opm ent o ffice, Em ily Kern an Raffert y, N in a M cN . Di efenbach , and Carol Ehler; for all regi strari al det ails. J ohn Bu chan an an d Nin a S. Maru ca; for ex hibitio n design. David Harvey, for g ra phic design , Jill Hamrncrbcr g. an d for li ghtin g, Z ach Z an oll i; for th e co nse r v atio n o f o bjects, J ohn C ano n ico , Rud olf C o lb an , Sh err y D o y al, Kathr yn J. G ill, H erm es Kn auer, Willi am Lou che, D o roth y Mah o n , Mark Min or, M arj o rie N . Shell ey , Ca t h er ine Turton, Antoin e M . Wilm er in g ; fo r ph oto graph y, Barbara Bri d g e rs, Al ex ander Mikh ail o vi ch , Karin L. Willi s, an d Ca rmel W ilson . Assist an ce was also gracio usly pr ovided by Co lta Iv es , D a vid W . Ki ehl , an d T om R ass icu r of the D ep artm ent of P rints and Ph oto graph s, an d b y C la re LcC o r be ill er , J essi e M cNab , an d Willi am R ied er of th e De partme nt o f Euro pea n Sculpture and Decorative Arts. We are gra te fu l to all o ur co lleag ues in th e Ameri can Win g : J ohn K. Howat , The Lawren ce A . Fleischm an C ha irm an o f th e D epartments of Am eri can Art ; cu rato rs Ali ce Coo ney Frelin ghu y sen, Pet er M . Kenn y , Ameli a P eck , Fr an ces G ru be r Safford , an d es pecia lly Ca the rin e Ho over Voorsan ger; ad m in istra tive assist ants Ellin Ro sen zweig and Sera p h ine Wu ; d ep artm ental te chni ci an s G ary Burn ett, Edwa rd D i Farn ecio. Sea n Farrell , and D on E. T empleton .

XI

Ta m m is K . Groft , C h ri s ti ne Ro bin son ; Am eri can Antiq ua ria n So cie ty : Georgia B. B arnhi ll; The A rt In stitute o f C h icago : And ora M org in son , M il o M . N aev e; Th e Baltim ore Mu se um of Art : We n dy A . Coo pe r , Will iam Vo ss Elder III, D eb or ah A . Fcd er h cn : B o st on M arin e So ci et y : Har old F. Lyn ch ; Bost on Pu bli c Libr ar y: Sinclair Hitchin gs; T he Br o o kl yn Mu seum : Ke vin Stay to n ; Th e J ohn Ca rte r Br o wn Libr ar y : Sus an L. D anfor th, N o rm an Ficr ing ; Burl in gto n Co u n ty Hi st ori cal Socie ty : Rh ett Per n ot: Th e Ca rnegie Museum o f Art : Ph illip M . J ohnston ; The C ha rlesto n Mu seum : C h ris to p he r T. Lo cb lc in: Th e C h ips to ne Fo un da tio n: Luk e Bcck erd ire: St erl in g an d Fr an cin e C la r k A rt In st itute: Beth Ca rve r Wees; Co lo n ia l Willi am sburg : Wallace 13 . G us ler , G ra ha m H ood, Ron ald Hurst , M ar gar et Prit ch ard ; Co lu m bia U nive rsi ty : H oll ce H as w ell, H erbert M it ch ell ; Co n nec t ic u t Hi st or ical Soc ie ty : C h ris to p he r P. B ickfo rd ; Th e Co rn ing Mu seum o f G lass : D wi ght P. Lanm on, J an e S. Sp ill ma n ; D ep art m ent of Sta te : C le me n t Conger, M ar y Itscll , Ga il Serfari: Di ckinson College Lib rary : M ar ie B o oth Ferre, Geo rge Hin g ; The Di etri ch Am eri can Fo u n da tio n : D eb orah M cCrack en Rebu ck ; Essex Institute: Rob ert Weis; Fir st Troop Phil ad elphia Ci ty Cava lry : J ohn C. D ev er eu x ; Fogg Art Mu seum : Loui se T odd Amb ler , M arj orie 13 . Coh n, J an e M ontgom er y; Henry Ford Museum & G ree n field Vi llage: M ich ael J. Ettcma: Ge nea log ica l Soc iet y of Penn syl vani a: Anto inette J. Seg raves; Gi bbes Mu seum of Ar t : An g el a D . M ack ; H e rsh e y M useum : Lesli e A . Bcllais. J am es M cM ah on ; Hi gh Mu seum o f Art : Don ald C. Peirce; Hi stor ic C h arlest on Foundation : J o nath an H . Poston , J. Th om as Savage, Jr . ; H is to r ic C her ry Hill : An n e W. Acker son ; Hi st ori c D eerfield , Inc. : A m and a M crull o , Bru ce M osel y, J anin e Ske rry, Ph ilip Zea: T he H ist o rical Socie ty o f Pen n s yl van ia : Dav id Cassedy ; H o pew ell Fu rn ace Natio na l Hi st o ri c Site: Lee Bo y le, D ian e C ram; In d ep end en ce Na tio nal H istor ic P ar k : Karie Di crh orn , D ori s D . Fanell i;

Librar y Co m pa ny o f Phil ad elphi a : J ohn C. Van H orn e; M arbleh ead Hi stori cal So ciet y : Bette Hunt, M ary Parrish; M ar yl and Hi st ori cal So ci et y: J ennifer F. Go ldsbo ro ug h, G regory Weidm an ; M oravi an H ist ori cal So ciet y : Susa n M . Dr eyd opp el; M ount Vern on Ladi es' Asso ciat ion o f th e Uni on : C h ris t ine M ead ow s; Mu seum o f th e C ity of N ew York : D eborah Dependahl Wat er s, J an S. Ramirez; Mu seu m o f Earl y So u the rn D ecorative Arts: J ohn Bi vin s, J r. , Fra nk L. H orton, M ad el yn M oeller , Br adford L. Rau schen berg , M ar g ar et Vin cent ; Mu seum of Fin e Arts, Bo st on : Elle no r Alc orn, Edwa rd S. C ooke, Jr., J on athan Fairbank s, J eanni ne Falin o , Rach ael M onfred o , J effrey Mun ger , J anice So rkow, Lind a Thom as, J ohn Wool f; Mu seum o f Fine Arts, Hou ston : Mi ch ael K. Br own; N ati on al Trust for Hi stor ic Preservation: J ennifer Esler , Elizab eth M . Laurent , Frank E. Sanchis; T he N ew J er sey Hi stori cal So ciet y : Ro salind Libbey , Wilson E. O 'D onn el l; N ew J er sey Sta te Mu seum : Su zann e Co rlc tte C ri lley, Su san Fink el ; Th e New-York H istorical Socie ty: Tim oth y An glin Burg ard, Nin a R . Gr ay, H oll y H ot ch ner , Wend y Sh ad w ell; Th e N ew York Publi c Librar y: Ro b er ta Waddell ; Phil ad elphia Museum o f Art : Beat rice B. Ga rvan, J ack L. Lind sey, N an cy Qu ailc; Portland Mu seum o f Art : M arth a R . Scv cr ens: Rh od e lslan d Sch o o l of Desig n : Thom as S. Mi chi e, C hristo phe r P. M onkhou se, Frankl in W. Robinson ; The Soc iety for the Preservation of N ew Eng land Antiquiti es: Br o ck J ob e, Ri ch ard N yl ander ; Sta te Mu seum o f Penn s yl v ani a: J am es Mit ch ell; Van Cort la n d t H ou se : Elizabe th 13 . Lecki e; Vir ginia Mu seum o f Fine Arts: William M . S. R asruu sscn : Wad sw orth Athen eum : Wi llia m H osley, Elizabe th Kornhau ser ; W interthur Mu seum: Kenneth Ames, Burt D enk er, N an cy G . Eva ns , D on ald L. Fe n n imo re , E. M cSh er r y Fo wble, Th o m as A . G raves , Paul B. H en sl ey , C har les F. Humm el , Ani zi a K ar m az y n , J ohn Kri ll , Greg Landrcy, Rich ard M cK in str y, Kath arin e M artinez, M ich ael S. Podm ani czk y , Ian M . G . Quimb y , C he ry l Ro b ert so n ,

XII

Willm an Spawn, Laura F. Sprag ue, Pat ricia A . Teter, Gi lbert T. Vin cent, Barb ar a and Gera ld W. R. Ward . At th e M etropolitan Mu seu m , w e ex p ress o u r ap p rec iation to m ember s of th e ed ito rial dep art m ent for th e prod ucti on o f th e b o o k : J ohn P . O'N ei ll, Ed itor in C hief an d Ge nera l M an ager o f Publi cati on s; Barb ara Bu rn , Exe cu tive Editor ; T e resa Ega n, M an ag in g Edito r ; Ken d ra H o , pro ofre ad er ; Su san Br adfo rd , ind exer ; Steffie Kapl an , m echa nica ls art ist; Pet er Anton y an d es pec ia lly H elg a Lo se, produ ction assoc iates. O ur g rea tes t debts, ho w eve r, are to Elizabeth Finger, fo r th e tim el ess beaut y of he r b ook design ; D av id Al liso n , for th e fin e an d se ns itive n e w p ho to g rap h y fo r th e b o ok ; an d Fra nces Br crt cr , fo r her de di cated and m eti culo us assistan ce in all ph ases o f the e xhibitio n. M ar y-Al ice Ro ger s, m aste r wo rds m it h , lab ored un stintin gl y to ach ieve w ha tev er clari t y and elega nce are found in th is vo lu me . Our fin al ac kn o w ledg m e n t is to o u r famili es a nd fri e nd s fo r t he ir ste ad fas t forbearan ce and encou rage m ent .

K ar ol A . Schmi eg el , Su san Sw an , N e vill e Th omp son , R ob ert F. Trent, Philip D. Zimm erm an ; W or cest er Art Mu seum : Sall y R. Fr eitag, Su san E. Stri ckl er ; Yale Uni versit y Art Ga llery: D avid L. Barqu ist, Di ane Hart, Patri cia E. Kan e, Jul es D . Pr own . M any indi vid ua ls also deserve m ention and th ank s: Rob ert Bark er, H enry L. P. Beck with , jr. , Philip H. Br adle y, Ali ce Br aun feld , C h r is to p her Burr , Ma rg ar et B . Ca ldwe ll an d Ca r lo M . Flo re nt ino , M ari an S. Carso n , M r. a n d Mr s . Robert A . D aly , Will iam K. du Pont, Mr. and Mrs. Ca rly le C. Euba nk II , Marth a Ga ndy Fales, J oAnn and Julian Ga nz , Wen dell D . Gar re t t, Robert Geo rge, William H . Guthm an, Mi ch ael H all , Kenn eth H a wkin s, Grego ry A . Hi g gin son, Jam es P. J enkins, Mr. and Mrs. Will iam S. Kilro y , J oe Kindig III , Mr. a n d Mrs . B ern ad ott e P. Lest er, Jr., Bern ard Levy , S. D ean Le v y , Arthu r Li v cr anr , Isr ael Li ver ant , Jo se p h H . M cG ee , Pet e r M an ig ault, Al an Mill er , Ruth M ill er , M r. an d M rs. J am es L. Nu gent , Jr. , M ax P alcv sk y, Arl en e P alm er, Ll o yd A. P ear son , Ad ol ph a n d Bev erle y Pl aczek , D. J. Puffert, R ich ard H . Rand all, Jr. , Mi ch ael Rebi c, Barb ar a Roberts, Alexandra W. Rollins, Al bert Sack , H ar old Sac k , Rob e rt Sack, J eann e Sloa ne, Mi ch ael Sn odin ,

M o rrison H . H cck sch er Leslie G reen e Bo w m an

X I II

LENDERS

TO

THE

Alban y Insrirur c o f Hi sto ry and Art Am erican Antiqu ari an So ciet y Aver y Ar chitectural and Fine Arts Libr ar y, Columbia Uni ver sit y Mrs. Gra ham J ohn Barbcy, Courtesy of th e M ar yland H istorical Socie ty Birdsboro Commu ni ty M em ori al Ce nte r Boston M arine Society M rs. M ur ray Br aun feld Da vid M . , N elson F. , Pet er R., and Ro bert W. Brinckcrhoff, and th eir fami lies T he Brookl yn Museum The J oh n Carte r Br o wn Librar y at Brown Univer sit y Burl in gto n Cou nty H istorical Societ y The Ca rnegie Museum o f Art The C har lesto n Museum Th e C hipsro nc Foundati on C livcdc n, a co-s tew ardship propcrty of th e N ationa l T rust for Hi stori c Pr eservation Th e Colo nial Willi am sburg Fo undation Connec ticut H isto rical Societ y The Co rn ing Museum o f G lass The Rich ard Henry D an a fam ily Dic ki nso n College The Die trich Am eri can Foundation H . Richard D ietrich, J r. D iplo m at ic Recept ion Ro oms, Dep artm ent o f State Wi lliam K. du Pont Geo rge G. M eade Easb y Essex Institute First Sco ts Pr esb yter ian Church, C ha rlesto n Gib bes M useum o f Art Harvard Univer sit y Art Museums Henry Ford Museum & Gr eenfield Vill age Hersh ey Museum Hi gh Museum o f Art

EXHIBITION

Hist ori c C herry Hill Hi storic Deerfi eld, Inc. The Hi stori cal Soc iety o f Penn syl vani a Mr. and Mrs. Geor ge M . Kau fm an Joe Kindig III Rob ert E. Lee M em ori al Association, Inc. , Str atford Hall Plant ation Bern ar d and S. D ean Levy. Inc. The Libr ar y Com pany of Ph iladelph ia Los An geles County M useum of A rt M arbl ehead Hi storical Socie ty Mr. and Mrs. Frank A. M aur i The M etrop olitan Museum of Art M or avian Hi stori cal Soc iety Mu seum o f Art, Rh od e Island School o f Design Museum o f th e C ity o f N ew York M useum of Earl y Southern Decor ati ve Arts M usc um of Fine A rts, Boston T he Na tio na l Societ y o f Colonial Dam es in the St ate o f New York; Van Cortland t H ou se The New Jersey Hi storical Societ y N ew J ersey State Museum The N ew-York Hi storical Socie ty The N ew York Public Lib rar y Eri c N oah Mr. and Mrs. Edwa rd J. Nusr ala Ph iladelphia M useum o f Art The Sta te Museum o f Penn sylvania Philip Van Rensselaer Van Wyck Wad sworth Ath eneum The Winterthur Libr ar y Winterthur Museum Ervin g and J oyce Wolf Wor ccster Art Museum Yale University Art Ga llery Private co llecto rs (six)

xv

THE

A ME R I C A N

R O C O C O

T he wo rd " rococo" was ev ide n tly fir st coi ne d in 179 6 o r 1797 by M auri ce Qu ai" , a pupil ofJ acqu es-L ouis D avid ' s, w ho used it as a pej orative descr ipt ion of th e sty le associated w ith Louis X V . ' Q ua i" was almos t ce rtai nly co rru p ting th e term "rocaille," one o f th e rococo 's cha rac te ristic m oti fs. " Roca il le" was origi na lly u sed t o r efer to th e tortuous ro ck wo r k fabricat ed for arti fic ia l caves o r gro ttoes , th emselves evoca tive of aq ua tic fant asi es, in th e seve n tee n t hce n tury pl easu re garde ns o f th e aristocracy . "Ro co co " lo st its negative co nno ta tio n by the 1840S, and sin ce th at time has bee n u se d t o n am e a sty le that d u r ing th e fi rs t h alf o f the eig h tee n t h cen tu ry p e rm eat ed all br anch es o f ar t is t ic endeavo r in E u ro pe, fro m th e fin e arts to th e d ecorati ve, expressing a n ew, u n con vention al , an d hi ghl y o rna me n ta l sp iri t of fan tasy, elega nce, an d m o vem ent. In it s dep arture from classica l o rde r an d sym met ry, th e ro co co sco rned th e ru le and th e co m pass in favo r of em bellish me nt th at required s k il lfu l free ha nd ren deri ng an d an imagi na tio n th at transcended the bo un ds of acade mic co nve nt ion. Traci ng its o rigins to so urces in Italian bar oque design s, the ro co co was nu rtu red to m at urit y in Fran ce in the [730S, largely at th e h and of the g ifted design er just e-Aurele M eissonn ier (1695 -1750), arc h i tec t, p aint er , sc u lp to r, and silversmi t h, w ho fro m 1726 u nt il h is d eath wa s th e o ffic ia l co u rt des ig ner to Lo ui s XV. 2 Am on g th e ea rl ies t Fr en ch rococo manifesta tio ns arc M eisson ni cr 's des ig ns o f 172 8 for a

scu lp tu ra l ca nd lestick o n w h ich froli ckin g putti intertwine wi th sp ira li ng sc ro ll wo r k ;" h e wen t o n to p rodu ce awide ra nge o f ot her design s for arc hi tec tu re, sculpture , furni ture, and silve r in the r o co co m od e . H is or na me n ta l print s o f arc hi tec tura l ca p rices ami d sur rea l land scap es o f fountain s,

Side chair (No. 147) after Ch ippendale desigll (No. r)

FIGURE I . Ornam ental design , Oel/v re de[us te-A urele M cissonn icr (Paris, ca. '7 50), Plate D22. Engraving on paper , 4V2 x 8 in . ( 11. 4 x 20.3 em .). T he M et rop olitan Museum of Art, Rogers Fund, 1918 ( 18.62·5)

shells . and ro caill e (nc . I ), at tra ct ing co nsi de ra ble atte ntion and wi del y imitat ed . ca me to cha rac te rize th e ~(!CIIl'C pittoresque (the Fre nc h ro co co). As o ne o f hi s co nte m pora ries observed , " Meisso nnie r began to dest ro y all th e stra ig ht lines th at we re o f the o ld u sag e . . . he inv ented co n t ras ts, th at is to say he ban ish ed sy m me try ."4 In Eng la nd , t rad itio n all y dep endent o n Fren ch examp le in matter s o f tast e, th e ado p tio n of th e ~(! e ll /'c pittoresquc wa s fo st ered by a su bs ta n tia l co m m u n ity of Fr en ch Hu gu en ot cra fts me n w ho h ad co me to live in Lond on . T hey in cl uded m an y o f th e best m etalsm ith s. eng ravers, an d woodworke rs who fled th eir co un t ry afte r 1085, w he n Louis X IV revok ed t he Ed ic t o f N ant es. w h ic h h ad pr ote ct ed th e r ight s of Fren ch Protest ants. Co llec tiv ely. w he ther recently arrived or o f a succee d ing ge ne ra t io n, th o se e m igres not o n ly tr an sformed En g li sh d esi gn but also eleva te d sta n dards of cr aft sm an ship to new heights. Amon g th e first ex po ne nts of th e ro co co style an d the ar tisa n w ho subseq ue n tl y exercised g rea t infl ue nce o n En gl ish silve r was Paul de Lam crie ( 168817 Sf). a silve rs m ith born in London o f Hu gu en ot ex traction, wh o se oe uv re d em on stra ted ro co co tend en cies as earl y as 1731 . S E ng lis h e ng rav ing was s imi la rly a ffected by t he Fren ch drafts.man and eng rave r Hubert Gravclo r ( 1099- 1773), wh o a r r i ve d in Lond on in 1732 a nd w hose in fl uen ce ex te nde d well beyond hi s spe cialty. A s a teach er at the Saint M artin 's Lan e A cad em y . th en th e chief sc hool for Englis h ar tists and o ne th at becam e th e ne xu s o f t rainin g in rococo design. G ravelo r intro d uced the ro co co into all bran ch es of Eng lis h art. T he aca de my an d th e o the r schoo ls o f d raw ing th at took up the st yle we re vita l to its develop m ent , for the y ed uc ate d th e draft sm en and th e m odelers w ho su pplied pattern s for carvers. en gr avers, silve rs m iths. and o the r artisa ns. Two d esi gn er s fi gur ed pr omin entl y in th e d ist in ctl y Eng lis h interpret ati on of ro co co o rna me n t th at emerged in t h e 1740s: M atthi as Lo c k a n d Henr y Co plan d . (, Lo c k (d . 17( 5) was a wood-carver w ho be twee n 1744 and 1746 etched seve ra l su ites of d esi gn s for ca rve d furnitu re (fra m es an d tab les). H e also pub lish ed bo okl et s o f o rna me ntal shields, or carrou c hcs, and . abo u t 1746, issu ed T he Principles (~r O runIIl C/II. (l /, the Youtli's G uide 10 Dral Fillg of Foliage. an instru ctio n man ual in drawin g ragged- ed ged aca n th us leaves, know n in ro coco parl an ce as ra ffl es (HG. 2). Co pla nd (d. (753) wa s an acco m p lis he d engraver w ho a lso p u blis he d sui tes of orn am ental p rints . Hi s s ha r p sty le o f eng rav ing and hi s as ym m et r ical a n d fanta sti c sc he mes , co m b iui ng scro lls and roca illc w it h naturalisri c flo w er s and g rasses ( 1'( (;. 3). set t he ton e fo r succee d ing E ng lis h e ng raved o rna me n t. In 175 2. Lo ck and Co p la nd issu ed join tly A Ne ll! B ook 40malllCIIIS w ith T w el ve L eaves. T he ir de sign s. w h ich we re often m ore in vc n tivc, e nerge t ic, a nd b iza rre than Fr en ch prece dents.

?.!,

r I ,.,,,/,.,, Ihill",II;~rR~f. . "

r .

) (1'1'0 '

n,.."r " ,,:,,~.,nll. 1 I II " /''/' 'r /

. ~·o·, ·,,1'

2. Title page. M. Lock. The Principles (~r 0 ,.,,<1 III cnt (London. ca. 1746; reissue. ca. 17( 8). Engraving on paper. 3% x 6 in. (<). 2 x 15.2 cm.). T he Metropolitan Mu seum of Art. Harris Brisbane Dick Fund. 1<)34 (34.<)0. 2)

F IGURE

2

had a lastin g in fl ue nce o n eng ravers an d woo d-ca r ve rs in Eng land and in her co lo nies. Lo ck a n d Co p la n d represent th e t wo c ra fts for whi ch th e rococo was parti cul arl y w ell suited : ca rv ing and eng ravin g (t ho ug h th e t w o we re almos t never em ployed to gether). T he sty le 's o rname nta l n atu re m ad e it imm ed iatel y popular wi th th e craftsme n w ho stood chie fly to gai n fro m its ado ption . E ngrave rs we re u n iquely posi tio ne d to p romo te th e rococo, n ot only in ornamenta l p rints bu t also in p att ern books and print ed ep hemera. T he interpre ta tio n of eng ra ve d designs re q ui red th e sk illed mini strati on s of wood-carve rs, meta l e ngrave rs, and sil ve r chase rs . In ad di tio n to o bj ec ts of silver , eng rave rs e m be llis he d si lve re d brass faces on tall clocks , brass an d silve r m o unts o n fire arm s, and eve n, occa siona lly , pewter. C hase rs ham m ered roco co design s into th e surface of silver; carve rs executed th ree-dim ension al design s in archi tectura l woodwo rk, furni tu re, and pattern s for cas ting or mold ing such dive rge nt ma teria ls as silve r, ir on, and porcelain . The ro co co , mo re th an any p re viou s style, reli ed o n specialized crafts me n to inte r pret co rrectly its dem anding art istic voca b ula ry . T he publicati o ns o f Lock an d Copland we re follo w ed in th e m id-r vy o s b y a spa te of o t her pattern bo ok s in corporating ro co co o rna me nt. O ne Hundr ed and F({t}' Ne ill D esions (175X; (7 6 1) b y Th om as J ohn son , a we ll-k n o w n ca r ver , ca r ried o n Lo ck 's champion ing o f ca rved furniture. In 1762, he too published A Nell' Book of Ornaments. tho ugh hi s was a suite of but six des ig ns (see FIG. ~ X , p . 20 2) . O the r pub licatio ns made t he sty le ava ilable to cabinet- and chair rn ak ers. Thomas C h ip pe nda le's Ge ntleman and Cabinet-Ma ker's Di rertor (1754 ; 1755; 17(2) an d Wi llia m ln ce an d Jo h n M ayh ew' s Unive rse! Sv st cnt o] H oushold Furnit ure ( 1762) we re opul ent fo lios aimed at nobl e clients. C cntcel Housliold Furniture ill the Present Taste (1760; 17 ( 2 ) , by a "Socie ty o f Uph ol st erer s, " and R o b ert M an w ar in g ' s Cabinet an d C hair -Maker's R ea! Friend and Conip anion (1765) we re pocket -sized vo lu mes intended fo r craftsmen, but th eir use soo n ex tended beyond urban centers to the provinces and thence to the co lo nies . C h ip penda le's D irector re q u ires specia l m enti on . Th e larges t, mos t lu xu ri o us, an d IllOSt fa mous of eig h tee n t h ce ntury fu rn it u re pattern book s, Th e Dir ector was probabl y t he m o st b roadl y di ssemin ated . (It wa s wid el y a va ila b le in Ameri ca , th ou gh it s s ty lis tic influ en ce was st ro ng o n ly in P hi lndc lphia .) With it C h ip pe n dale brilliantl y prom oted hi s cabi net sho p in Sai nt M artin's Lan e; wi th it he ina dve rte ntly, bu t inde lib ly , link ed hi s na me to E ng lis h fu rn itu re in the rococo sty le. In th e m id- ni ne teent h ce nt ury, rococo eng ravings by Lo ck and ot he rs w er e in di scr im in atel y att ri bu ted to him. ? and, to th is day , En gli sh and Am eri can rococo furni ture is popula rly called "Ch ippe nda le."

FIGUHE 3. Design for a carrouche, H. Coplan d, A NCII' Book of Omlll/lCllts (London , 1 7~ 6 : znd ed. ca. 1750) . Engraving on paper, 6% x -l'Y. in. ( 16.X x 12./ cm .). The Metropoli tan Mu seum of Art. Harris Brisbane Dick Fund. 19 25 (25. 20)

Design s for chairs, Th omas Chippendale Til e Gentleman and Cab inet-Mateer's Divcctoi

(London, 17 54), Plate XII Engraving on paper, 13Y2 x X·% in. The Metropolitan Museum of Art

Th e Director offered the m o st co m p lete co d ifica tio n o f th e En gli sh ro co co tast e in furn iture. On th e titl e page o f th e 1754 editio n (see N o . 6), th e aut hor pr esented th ree prin cip al m od es o f de si gn: G othi c, C h inese , a n d M od ern . Th e Go t h ic, a w ho lly British co n t rib u tio n e m p loy ing po inted arc hes , trefoil s, quatrefoil s, and ap plied and clu st er co lu m ns (see N o s . 82 , ISO), w as g ive n imp etu s b y H ora ce Walpole ( 17 17- 1797), who between 1747 and 1776 rebuilt in th e G othi c sty le hi s famou s villa , nam ed Str awb err y Hill, at T wi ckcnharn , Middlesex. The C h inese, w ith its pa godalikc roofs, oriental figures, latticework, an d pi er ced frets , was a ro co co expression of ch ino iserie , the O ccident 's long-runnin g fascin ati on w it h the my st eri ou s E ast (see N os . 51, 102) . Thc third m ode, the M odern, was C h ip pe n da le' s de signation for th e Fren ch ro co co , with it s sc ro lls, she lls, and roc aille, int erpret ed b oth in silve r a n d fu rn itu re w it h s in uo us ca b riol e legs, serpen tine ski rts, and elabora te foli at e carv ing (see N os. 88 , (30). After the b o o k ' s pub lication C h ip pe n da le found h im self th e tar g et o f c ritic ism fr om o t her cra fts me n , wh o cla imed that hi s pl at es. "es pec ia lly t hose after th e Go thic k and C hinese M anner , " we re "so m an y specious Draw in gs, imp o ssi b le to be wo rked. " In his preface to th e edit io n of '762, he hotl y deni ed th at charge. The in t ro d u ct io n o f t he ro co co in En gl and in th e 1730S and 1740S co inc ide d w it h th e unp reced ented ex pa ns io n o f a pr o sp er ou s middle class and it s co nco mi ta nt n eed for fas hion abl e p o ssession s to pro claim an d secu re a n c w , w orth y po siti on in society . Ther e we re n o w t w o di stin ct st ra ta o f ro coco patron s. The fir st wa s th e nobility and land ed ge ntry ,

w ho fav ored th e s t yl e fro m it s in cept ion u n t il the 176 0s, w he n it s n o v elt y was u p stag cd b y th e n e w ly fashionable neo classicism int rodu ced by Robert Ad am . The second wa s th e success fu l m er ch ant s an d tr ad esm en o f Lon do n and the lar ger pr ovin cial cities o f Britain , w ho, o nce th e rococo had b ecom e co d ified, c m b race d it until th e lat e 178 0s, w hen Gcor ge Hep pl cwh ir c a n d Thom as Sh er at on to ok u p th e Adam sty le an d , throu gh p attcrn book s, m ad e it accessible to the newl y rich and respe ctable. It is to that secon d g ro up that one mu st lo ok for par allcl s in the Am eri can e xperi en ce . A New En gl and hi st orian ca m c to rh e sa m e co n cl us io n as ea rly as 1725, w he n h e wrote : " [A ] G entl eman from London w o u ld almos t think him self at horn e at Bost on wh en he ob serves th e numbers of pe ople , th eir H ou se s , th eir Furn itu re , th eir T abl es. th eir Dres s an d Co n ve rsa tio n , w h ic h perhap s, is as sple ndid and sho wy, as th at o f th e m o st co ns ide ra b le Trad esm en in Lon don ." x At th at level o f patron age, th er e was no perceptib le lag bet w een th c rim e a sty le becam e fashi o nable in London and in Bost on (o r Philad el phia). The Am er ican ado ptio n of th e rococo fo cu scd almos t cxcl usively on th e style 's o rna me n ta l m oti fs - sh cll s and rocai llc. sc ro llwo rk. aca n th us lea ves (" ra ffles" ), an d o the r flo ra and faun a . o fte n in as y m rn c t r i ca l co m posi t io ns . Th ese wcr e ent hus ias tica lly applied by m an y leadin g ur ban cra ftsmen to th e arc h itect u ra l int crio rs , eng ra vings , silve r , fu rn ishi ng s. and access ories o f cas t ir on. glass. and po rcelain th at are th e su bjec ts o f thi s s t u dy . Th e ca rl ies t indi cati on s of th e style

pi e , a Lo ck an d Co p la n d d es ig n for an el ab or at e c h irn ne ypiece (N O. 2) co n ta ins a robed o rien ta l figure wi thi n an a rc h ite c t u ra l co m pos itio n su r mo un ted by a canop y o f undul atin g ro caill e . O n th e sid e pl at e of a ca st- iro n s to v e fro m Virginia (No . (62 ), th e sam e figurc is th e cen t ra l elem en t, now st an d ing b ehind a p a rap et o f s im ila r rocai lle . M an y o f th e Lond on pattern books we re reissu ed in 1768 in editions th at h ad imm ed iat el y vi si b le effects in Am e rica; a spandrel desi gn from Lock and Copland 's N CJII B ook of O rnaIIIClltS, for ins ta nce , is found in it s en ti re ty in a h ou se built th at same yea r (see FIG . 10 , p. 24).

oc curred in silve r and cng raving in th e 1740S and in furniture and architec t u re in th e 17 50S. Thou gh lar gely su p plan te d b y neoclassicism b y 179 0 , isol at ed exa m ples of hi gh rococ o date fro m t ha t de cade and even la ter, p arti cul arl y in e ng rave d g lass (s ec N o . (6 8) and K cntu ck y rifl es (see N o s . 7, 9 ) . Amcric an ve rs io ns we rc pattern ed almost exclus ively afte r British exa m ples. A co m mo n culture, st rong tics o f kin ship, an d m er ca nt ile reg u la tio ns th at proh ibit cd th e Am cri can co lo nics fro m tr adin g inde pen dc n tly w i t h o t her n ati on s ma de t h a t a rtis t ic d ep end en ce inev itab le . A b out th e on Iy nota b le o bjects fas hio ne d after Contine n ta l protot ypes were fi rca r m s and g las s wares m adc by G c rm an immi gr ant s, p ri m a ril y in Penn s yl v ani a. Co lo n ia l int crprctati on o f th e s ty le , w h ile a lm o s t a lw ays r ca dil y r eco gni zabl e as suc h, rarc ly strays far fr om th e design s o f th e En gli sh m odel. The diffcre nces arc in m at eri als (seco nd ary woo ds in furnitur e, fo r cxa m pl c) . in so m c ti m cs improvi sat ion al co ns t ruc t io n t cc h n i qu es , an d i n th e indi vidu al h an dlin g o f o rn a rn c n t . Ex ce pt io n s, w he re th e bas ic d esi gn h as bee n tr an sform ed in to a un iqu cl y Am cri can ex press io n , include th e fam ou s Ph il ad elph ia hi gh c h es t (see N o s. 136 - 138 ) an d cas t- iro n stoves (sec Nos . 160 , 16 3) . On cc it leav es th e co lo nia l cities, ro co co o rna me n t tak es o n an cngaging, if untutored, inform alit y (see Nos . 19, 4 5, 57). Th c rococo cro sse d th c Atl ant ic by three prin cip al m ean s: e ng ra ved d csign s in prinrcd ep he m e ra a n d p attern b o ok s. impo rt ed objects , and imm ig rant artisa ns. Becau se th e Sai n t M artin' s Lan e A cad em y in Lond on had no Am crican co unte rpa rt to fost er th e sty le, co lonial int erpreters w er e largely reliant o n im po rt ed design so u rces . Probabl y th e first h a r b in g er s of th e n e w tast e were e p hc me ra in th e form o f bookp lates , bill head s, t rad e ca rds, an d co m m e rc ial paper s. A n Eng lish b o okpl at e wa s lik el y th e o rigin o f th e a rm oria l eng ravin g th at is th e o nly ro co co o rna me nt o n a teap ot dated 174 5 (see FI G . 2 8 , p. 84) -th e ea rl ie s t d o cum ented a p pca ran ce o f th e st y le in Am eri can silver. So me yea rs lat er, Paul Revere m o d eled at least o ne of his t rade cards dir ectl y from a Lond o n pro tot yp e (see Nos. 12 , (3). T he in flue nce of pa tter n boo ks is relat ively easy to tra ce. Bo o k sell er s ' ad vcr risc m cn rs. listin g s of p r i vatc a nd pu bli c lib ra rics , a n d in v c n t o r ies o f es ta tes d ivul g e th e n am es o f vo lum es a va ila b le in Am cr ica. Th e vi su al link is cl earl y demo nstra te d in th e Am eri can o bj ects th at repli cat e o r ada pt des ig n s fro m th o se so urces. Th at sai d , exac t co pyi ng w as not pa rt icularly co m mo n . Th e Di rector w as w ide ly ava ilable, ye t eve n in Phil ad elph ia, site of it s g rca tcs t influen ce, o n ly o ne desig n w as d u plicated in toto : a scroll- foo te d cha ir (No. '4 7) b ased o n Pl a rc x II (N o . I ) o f th e 17 54 ed itio n . Wh en d esi gn s we re faithfull y foll ow cd , thc y we re m ore lik cl y to be sing le mo tifs a rrang ed in fres h co m po sitio ns. Fo r exa m -

2

Design for a chim ney piece (detail) M. Lock and H . Co pland A N CII' Book oj O rnaments (London, 17 52) Engraving on paper, 9 % x 7 in. The Metropolitan Museum of Art

5

O n 5 Decembe r [774. J oh n No rman (ca . 1748- [SI7). an engrave r recen tly arr ive d fro m London , adve rtised "Proposals for P rintin g b y s u bscr ip t io n , th e A m eri can edit io n of Swa n's Br it ish Ar chit ect. " 'J Th e vo lume, w it h sixty folio co pper plat es, was ava ilable th e foll o wing June, published by Rob ert Bell , th en Phil ad elphi a' s lead in g pr inter and bookse ller. The firs t arc hitec t ura l b oo k eve r pr inted in A m eri ca. it was a faith fu l co py o f Ab rah am Swan 's British Architect: Or, the Bui lder's Tr easury (~r S tair-Cases, o rig ina lly pu bl ished in Lond on in [74 5 (w he n Lo ck an d Co p lan d we re in th ei r in venti ve pri m e) an d rei ssu ed three tim es. It s popu lar it y in th e co lo nies (see pp . [8- 21) , w he re it was m or e influentia l on Am eri can arc h itec t ure th an C h ip pe nda le was o n Am er ican fu rn itur e, und oubtedl y in spired N orm an 's co py. T he A merican ed itio n w as m ark et ed to su bsc ribe rs in adva nce, as such publi cati on s w er e in London. N orm an 's illu st ration s, w hic h h e tr aced o n to h is cop per pl at es directl y f rom pages in a Lond on ed it io n (N o . 3), are ske tc h ily ren d e red in reve rse (N o . 4) and printed o n t h in ne r pap er ; in execu ting them , he used an etc he r's needl e rather th an an engrave r's bu rin . At th e o u t b rea k of th e R e v oluti on, N o r m an was at wo rk o n a t least t w o ot he r vo lu mes of t he sa me size a nd w ith th e same number o f illu strati on s as T he British Architect, The fir st was Swan 's Co llection <1 Designs in Archi tcaurc, o nly ten pl at es o f w h ic h we re p r odu ced. Th e seco nd was Th e Gc ntlcnian awl Cab inet-Ma ker's Assistant. Of th e latter, on ly the " P ro posa ls " fo r it s publ icati on we re ever pri n ted (N o . 5), b ound into so me co pies o f th e N orm an-B ell edi tion of Th e British A rchitect. The text o f th e pr op osals, da ted 2 0 J une 1775, bear s m ore th an a passin g resemblan ce to th e titl e page o f th e fir st ed itio n o f C hi p pen da le's D irector (N o . 6). W hat was p roposed was evi de n tly a co m plete Am erican C hippendal e. Bell was to hav e been th e publish er an d th e ingenious Phil ad elphi a ca b inet ma ke r J ohn Fol w el l (d . 17 86) was to hav e pr o vided th e designs. When th e publica tion was interrupted b y wa r, Fol w ell turn ed hi s hand to othe r ve h icles of artistic ex press io n , suc h as militar y flags (see n c . 4, p. 14). T he rococo also arrived in th e N e w Worl d in th e form o f imported goods , w he ther specifica lly ordered by co lonists fo r th eir own use or for resa le . Eng lish wa res, highl y prized sy m bo ls of soc ia l po s it ion , pl a yed a m aj o r ro le in g ui di ng Am er ican tast e. Imp o rt ed fu rn it ure an d si lver , along wi th t ablcwa rcs , tex tiles , and pa pe r han g in gs (wa llpa pe rs), were not at all u ncomm on in afflue n t hou seh olds. The A m erican. m ad e objects t ha t are th e subjects of this bo o k ex isted harm oni ou sl y w ith Eng lish co unter pa rts in co lo nia l ho m es and we re u n do u b ted ly ju d g ed on t heir s im ila ri ty to Lon d o n exa m p les . T he d eci sion w he t he r to pur ch ase Eng lish or Am eri can goods was based not o n ly on fash io n but also o n pr acti cal co nsi de ra tio ns. An ythin g o rdered fro m England

""u l .1

3

Desig n for a chim ncy piecc. Abraham Swan The British Architect (London. [745). Plate I.l Engraving on paper. [3% x HI/, in. The Metro politan Museum of Art

6

took from ten m onth s to a yea r to arrive , an d co st w as an ad ded fac tor. Benj amin Fra nk lin, w ho pri or to th e Revolutio n spe n t muc h of his tim e in Lond on as re p rese nta tive o f t he Penn syl v an ia A sse mbl y an d as spo kes ma n for co lo n ia l rig ht s , recei v ed a lett er from h is so n Willi am in Oc to be r 177 2 tha t illus tra tes ho w suc h choices we re m ad e: C a prn . Wi llia m s b ro ught over wi t h him from Engla nd so m e Ma ho gany C hairs w ith H air Bottom s, w hic h cos t him abo ut 22S . St erli ng a Piece , and 3 S . Sterl ing a Piece for M atts , pack in g an d Frieg h t to Ph ilada. I wa n ted th e Wo rkm en here to make me a Dozen li ke them , b ut th o ' Mahog any is considerab ly cheape r her e tha n in Engla nd, I co u ld not ge t any o ne to un de rtake to m ake th em und er 55-'. Cur rency a Piece, and th e y would p ro bably no t be so well finished . I sha ll th e refo re be ob lige d to yo u if yo u wo uld sen d me a Dozen o f suc h kind of C hairs , m ad e in a fash ionable Tas te. . . . P.S . Since W ritin g th e above, I have agreed w ith a Wo rkman for th e C hairs, so yo u need no t send rhem .!"

D es pit e a co ns idera b le t rad e in Eng lis h furni shin g s an d accessories, few E ng lis h pieces survive wi th th eir Am eri can his to ries. T ho ug h that h amp er s direct lin ka ge with Am er ica n objects, a few id entifi abl e rel at ion ship s ex is t. Am on g th em are Paul Rev er e's co ffee pot fo r a Salem client, unmistaka b ly in fl ue nced b y a n En gli s h pot o f sim ila r d esi gn alre ady ow ne d th e re (see Nos . 4 6 , 4 7 ) ; a n E ng lis h c ha i r , dem on st rabl y the p ro to ty pe for a Boston ex am ple (see N os. 10 0, IOI); and im ported pi cture fram es th at inspired sim ilarly ca rved A m e rican frames wi thi n th e sa me set o f famil y port rai ts (see Nos . 103, 104 ) . While no spec ific Eng lis h o bjects can be singl ed o u t as m od els, essays in Am eri can porcelain were un argu abl y pat te rned o n imported wa res w ith w h ich th ey strugg led to co m pe te (see N os. 169, 170) . The th ird mea ns b y w hich th e roco co was introduced to Am erica, and by far th e m o st important, was th e spec ialized imm igra n t a rtisans re q uire d to execu te th e o rna me n ta l int ricacies of th e sty le . Th e Eng lis h g u ild sys te m, with it s rigo rou s ap pren tices hip, provide d th e ne cessar y schooling in eng ravi ng a n d ca rvi ng a nd in the chas ing an d pier cin g o f si lver, b u t ins t r uctio n in th o se specia lties w as n ot re adil y co m e by in t he co lo n ies . In th e 175 05 a n d 17 (,0 5, a ve ri ta b le

wave of highl y ski lled and ambitio us yo ung cra ftsme n, m ost of t hem Lond on tra ined, e m igra ted to Am e rica, drawn b y t he de ma nd for th eir ab ilities an d b y o p po rt u nities for per so na l and social ad vance me nt. T he ir effec t o n th e co lo nial arts w as analogo us to th at o f the Hu gu en ot s' arr iving in Eng land nearl y a cent u ry before: a d rama tic i m p rove me n t in sty lis t ic co nsc io us ness a n d craftsm ansh ip. T he fin est Am eri can rococo eng rav ings came from th e han d s o f Englis h - t ra ined engravers (see No s. 2 1, 32), an d the superio r qu alit y of Phil adelph ia rococo furni t ure

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Proposals fo r Printino hy S ubscription Th e Ge ntleman and C al,illct-!Vlakcr's A ssistallt (Philadelphia, 1775) Printed pap er , 16 '12 x 9 '12 in . Aver y Libr ar y. Columbia Uni versit y

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don as to each o t he r. Th eir adop ti ng t he rococo style was th er efo re a res u lt m ore o f th eir ties to Eng land t h an to one

is attributa b le to th e num er ou s forei gn ca b ine t ma ke rs an d carvers worki ng in t h at city (see pp. 182-84) . Th e id entit y and co ntri b u tions of im mig ra n t silvers mi t hs are h ard e r to t race, since m o st of th em wo rked under an American m ast er smit h's m a r k , b ut t heir in fl ue nce is a pparen t n ot o n ly in hig h- rococo o bjects th at would have dema nde d th eir participatio n b ut also in th e v ar iou s n e w s p ap er re fe re nces to fo reign- trained assis ta n ts wo rki ng in th e grea t urban centers (see pp . 74-78). M o reo ver, to launc h ind us trial pr oduction o f fine tabl e g lass and p o rcel ain , en t re p re ne u rs h ad to brin g ex pe rienced wo rkmen over from abroad (see pp. 229 - 34). Craftsmen re lied on t he pa tronage of wea lthy city dwellers w ho made it th eir b usi ness to kee p cur re n t w it h London fashion. T hey included m an y of th e mos t pr ominent fam ilies of each r egi on : in N e w E ng la n d, th e Apth orp s, Derb ys, Fane ui ls, H an co ck s, an d Lees; in N ew York , th e Beekm an s, Co rnells, Sc huy lers, Van Ren ssclacr s, an d Verp lan ck s: in Ph il ad elph ia and ne ig h bori ng M a r yland , th e Cad wa ladcr s , C hews, Dicki nso ns, and Ga lloways. A s a class, they we re well ed uca ted and widely t raveled, and th ey took g rea t p rid e in th e furni shin g of th eir hou ses. In 1764 , Benjamin Fr ankl in began to build a new hou se in Philadelp h ia . T he n e xt year, fr o m Lo nd on , t he bu sy dipl om at atte nde d to every detail of the interiors him sel f. In letter s to h is wi fe, De bo ra h , h e bom barded h e r wi th qu est ion s an d inst r uctions: "Let m e h a v e th e B readth of th e P ier , th at I may ge t a ha n d so m e G lass fo r t h e Pa rlo ur."" A n d agai n, "T he bl ue M oh air S t uff is for th e C u rta ins o f th e Blu e C ha mbe r. The Fas hio n is to m ake o ne C ur ta in o n ly for eac h Wi ndow."12 In the abse nce of b an k s and stock ma rke ts , rea l es ta te and ho u seh o ld possessio ns (es pecia lly silver) were favo re d inves tmen ts, represent in g a far lar g er per centag e o f tot al asse ts than wo u ld be custo ma ry t od a y. W he n wea lt hy P hi ladelp hian J ohn Cadwala de r we n t o ff to fight with th e Revolutio nar y fo rces, he took care to sec ure th e m agnifi cent furn is h ings (see N o s. 153- (56) of hi s Seco n d St ree t hou se. Cadwa lader ac te d th rou gh o ne of h is frie nds, J asp er Yeat es, of Lancaste r, w ho was in Phil ad elphi a at th e tim e an d w ho sen t ins truc tio ns to his wife by p ost : " C ol. J ohn Ca dwalade r has req uested Leave of m e to sto re a part of hi s m ost valu ab le Fu rni ture in o ur H ou se. If it sho uld co me up to yo u in m y Ab sen ce, yo u w ill please to h ave it pu t up in th e Ga rre t & have th e Room lock ed up . "' 3 Only in an d aro un d th e m aj or cities we re th e necessar y ingredie n ts in pl ace to cu lt iva te th e develo pme n t of a n American ro co co sty le: design s, patrons, artisans, and m at erials. T he m ost fert ile areas o f Am erican rococo des ig n w er e Bo st on , N ew Yo rk , Phil adel ph ia, and C ha rles to n, all sea ports and all lin ked as clos ely (pe rha ps m ore close ly) to Lon-

ano ther. B y th e ro co co e ra Bo st o n was en te ri ng th e tw iligh t of her co lo nia l dom in an ce. Economic reversa ls and competitio n with N e w York an d Ph ilad el ph ia combined to a r res t h er grow th, and th ou gh wea lthy Bost on m er chan ts certainly did indul g e in ro coc o excesses, th e city's ex pression of t he tas te was as a w ho le th e m ost co nserva tive of the four u r ban cen te rs . N ew York was th e seco n d lar g est co lo n ia l ci ty and a Lo yalist stro ng ho ld durin g the Revol ut ion ; w he n th e British re lin q uis hed th e ci ty in 17 83 , a th ird of t he popu la tion evacua t ed w i t h th em . A lar g e pe rcentage of New Yo rk ' s ro co co crea t io ns we re d o u btl ess re m o v ed by depa rting Lo y ali st s o r d est ro y ed in th e di sast ro u s fires t ha t accompani ed th e occu pa tio n o f th e ci ty . No netheless, surviving exa m p les d em on st r at e a highl y cos mo po li tan rococo co nscious ness. Co nc u rre ntly, Ph iladelphi a was just reac hing th e apogee o f her ascenda ncy and wea lth . The largest city in the co lo n ies, h er pr o sp erit y and cu lture a ttrac ted immigran t cr aft sm en uniquel y qu alifi ed to provide rococo ornament to her rich est citizens. P redi ct abl y, th e city becam e th e Athens of Am eri ca an d th e ar bi ter of th e new sty le . C ha rlesto n, b y virtu e of her agricu lt ura l t rad e w ith G rea t Britain , was also th riv in g . T he inte rio rs of her hou ses exemplified the rococo fas hio n as mu ch as th o se in Phil ad el ph ia , t h o u gh C ha rlestonian s we re far m ore reli ant o n im po rte d goo ds. The few surviv ing exa m p les o f lo call y mad e ro co co furni ture and silver nev erthel ess sugges t th at th e city cultivated sop his ticate d domesti c interp ret ati o ns o f th e sty le. Th e Am eri can rococo develop ed in de pend entl y in eac h o f th e four citi es, so me t imes wi t h a disti ncti ve regiona l c ha rac ter. In e ng ra vi ngs an d si lver, impo rted examples, m o stl y o f sta nda rd form s, w er e w ide ly ava ilab le and h ighl y in fl ue n t ia l o n d om esti c d esi gn s; lo cal in t e rp ret at ion s are lim it ed . Far less fu rn iture, ho w ever, came into th e co un try, an d what d id vari ed fr om city to city . In Bo ston, fo r exa m ple , wh er e im m ig ra n t craftsmen were n ot welco me d, a n isol at ed o bject was m ore lik ely to set a lo cal style (see N os. 100, 10 1) . By con t ras t, Philad elphia, whe re Lo n do n pa tte rn b o oks an d foreig n- t ra ine d artisa ns held swa v. was fa r less impressed by Eng lish- ma de furnishings. Th e d e velopm ent of th e ro co co sty le in Am er ica m u st be exa m ined in th e co ntex t of th e pol iti cal clim at e, since th e fashion for th e new tast e co inc ide d w ith a dram ati c cha nge in rel ati on s b etween Eng la n d an d h er Am e rica n co lo n ies. The gove rn me n t 's laissez-faire attit ude throu gh out the fir st half o f t he eig h tee n th cen tury , when suc h inco nveniences as restri cti v e tr adin g regul ati on s we re d is cr eetl y ign ored , co n trib uted to co lo nia l p ro sp erity and a sense o f autono my.

9

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Flintlocl: rijtc, [ 8 12 - 2 0 J acob Kuntz, Phi ladel phia Maple, iron. br ass. and silver , L.: 591/4 in. Th e Met ro politan Mu seu m of Art

Th e Fr en ch an d Indi an Wa r ( [754- ° 3), durin g w hich British fo rce s we re e m p loye d in co lo nia l d efen se at cons iderable ex pe nse t o th e E ng lis h gove rn me nt, i rrevo cab ly alte red th o se co n ditio ns . Wh en th e w ar en d ed, cab ine t m inis ter s in Lond o n so ug h t to rees ta b lis h th eir au tho rit y a nd, by th e im pos itio n o f tariffs, to ex trac t revenu e fo r pay me nt of war debts. q Wh at foll o w ed w as a se ries of eve nts th at inexor ably led th e co lo nists to revolution . Th ey ran ged from t he Sugar A ct of [7°4 , w h ic h br ou ght in tr ain e n la rged custom s restricti on s, to th e Sta m p A ct of 17° 5, in st ituted to payoff wa r debts by taxin g th e co m me rc ial do cum ents and publication s of m er ch ants an d lawye rs w ho voc ifero us ly opposed th e act and forced it s rep eal, to th e Townshe nd Acts, whi ch in [70 7 impo sed duties o n im po rted glass, lead, pain t, paper, an d tea, all, e xce pt for th e last, British m ad e. T hose events se rved to stim ulate d om esti c m anu factures but also brought abo ut th e fir st reg io na l non importati on ag ree ment, w hereby a Bo st o n to wn m eet in g d etermined n ot to purch ase certain im po rte d w ar es, in cludin g " Ho use ho ld Furn iture, W rou g ht Plat e of all So rts, C h ina War e. "1 5 A g ro u ndswe ll of p ubl ic su ppo rt for t he b o y cott o f British goo ds pe rsuaded an ev er inc reas ing circle o f ur ban m erch ants into bindin g non impo rta tio n ag ree me n ts: in Bost on an d Ne w York , in [70 8-70 ; in Phil adelphia, in [709-70 ; and in C ha rlesto n, in [7° 9-71.

[0

from London o r elsewhe re, o the rw ise w ill requi re no pay. "'7 Th o se effo rts a t factor y pr odu ct ion o f lu x ur y goo ds o n whi ch ro co co decorati on co uld be em p loyed m et w ith stagge ring rev erses when th e nonim portati on ag ree me n ts w er e rep ealed foll owin g th e w ithdrawa l of th e duties impo sed b y th e Town sh end A ct s- all exce p t the dut y o n rc a . Th e co lo nists reacted to that fin al o ut rage by stagi ng th e Bo ston Tea Part y, and revolution w as in evitabl e.

T he ag ree me n ts . w h ic h we re a na t he ma to m er ch ant s w ho reli ed o n tr ad e fo r their liveliho od but a boon to lo cal crafts men co m pe ting wi th British imports, ignited efforts to estab lish a fu ll pan opl y o f d om est ic ind us tries - w hat mi ght be ca lle d a "Bu y Co lo n ial" ca m pa ig n. In 1769, uph ol st erer Pl unk er Flc cson an no u nce d hi s " Am er ican Pap er H an gin gs, M anu factured in Phil adelphia, o f all kinds and co lo urs, not inferio r to th o se ge ne ra lly imported; an d as lo w in pr ice. " 1(, T ha t same yea r, in M anheim, Penn sylvania, Henry Will iam Stiegel fo u n de d hi s Am eri can Flint Gl ass M anufa ctory (see p. 229) ; a year late r, in Phil ad elphia, th e partner s Bonnin and M orris es ta b lishe d th eir C hi na M anufactory (see p. 234) . In 1774, J ohn H ewson o f th at city o pe ne d a "Calicoe Printing M anu fact or y, " promi sin g that "his wo rk sha ll be eq u al in co lo u r, and w i ll s ta n d was h ing, as w ell as a ny import ed

The w ar, with it s sac rifices and pri vati on s, effect ively a rres te d furth er d evel opm ent o f th e Am e ri can r o co co , th ou gh it did n ot sig na l th e introdu cti on o f a repl acem ent style. As securel y dated exa m ples impl y, w ha tever o rna me ntal goods were m ade in Am eri ca du rin g th e wa r years m us t h a ve b een ro co co (see N o s . 60 , 93, 9 4) . Whil e th er e we re s p o r ad ic e x p ress io ns o f roco co de si gn afte r in de pendence

8

Pair ,1j1illtlock pistols,

181 2 - 2 0

J acob Kuntz, Phil ad elphia M apl e, iro n, brass, an d silve r, L. : 14 Y4 in. Pri vat e co llec tion

II

w as achieve d. th e sty le had lost ten yea rs to th e Revol ut io n ; in th e 1780s, w ith th e es ta b lis h me n t o f a ne w co un try. th e rococ o ga ve w ay to neocl assicism . Durin g the glo rio us years o f its reign. the rococo sty le. w ith it s ornamental n ature. was firmly alig ne d with th e decorati ve a rt s. It s principal Am eri can expression s- ar chit ectu ral carving . eng raving s, silve r, and furniture- ar e full y ex plo red in the cha pte rs th at foll o w , as a re dom esti c effo rts to m anufactur e cast ir on. g lass , and porcelain . Oth er m anifest ation s, while out of the m ainstream (fire arms . for exa m ple . or the now e xtremely rare e xamp les of te xtil es) , mu st not be overlooked , sinc e th e y illu strate the ro co co' s per vasi ve nature. Fir earms repr esent b oth the a r t s o f th e e ng rave r a nd carver , th e onl y obj ect s th at do . The Am eri can flintl o ck , o r lon g. rifle, better kn own today as th e Kentu ck y rifl e. was a distinctive form o f wea po n b ased on Europ ean hunt in g pi ece s. Ex ampl es w er e bein g m anufactured in Am eri ca b y mid-centur y . but o n ly afte r th e Revolution wa s an y attention g ive n to th eir ca rve d an d en graved o rna me nt at io n . T he m ajority of Kentu ck ys havin g rococo decorati on we re made in Penn sylv ania b etw een 1780 and 1820 b y g u n s mi ths o f G erm an or Swiss descent . but o t he rs w er e produ ced in Virginia and th e C aro linas . I X On e of the Penn s ylv ani a m aster g u ns mi t hs was J aco b Kunt z ( 1780- 1870) . 13 0rn in Lehi gh Co u n ty, he pro b abl y served his apprenticeship in Phil adelphia. Between 1799 and 1811 he practiced hi s c raft in hi s n ative co u n ty; in 1812 he lo cated in Phil ad elphi a . A rifl e repres ent ati ve o f hi s b est work (N o . 7), signed "J. Kuntz" on top of th e br eech , ha s a cu rly maple stock orn amented with self-contained rococo motifs . The c he e k , or left, sid e (see d et ail ) h as t w o ca rtou ch es flankin g an e ngra v ed silver eig h t- po in te d s tar. Th ough ca rv ed in low relief, ba sicall y sy m me t rica l in d esi gn . an d wrou ght fr om a hard , un yi eld in g w oo d . th e y have a liv el y and ex p ress ive v igo r. The lo ck . or rig h t, sid e (see det ail) is cut o u t with a pat ch bo x, used fo r storing w addin g a n d other p a raph ern ali a for lo adin g th e wea po n . Its hin ged br ass cover wi th pier ced and eng ra ved side plates is a feature uniqu e to Am eri can rifle s. but th e p la te s' scroll s. inh abit ed b y eag les . lion s. a nd hum an allus ion s, a re an en ch antin g pro vin cial echo o f the Eu ropean rococo . Am eri can g u ns m it hs m ad e pi stol s as we ll as ri fles . th ou gh far le ss fr equ entl y . A p air of p ist ol s (N o . 8) b y Kunt z ar e in scribed "Ph ilad a. " and "J. Ko on s " (th e lat ter . t wi ce). a spe lling th at m ay hav e been An gli cized to su it th e Phil adelphia mark et. Th e o rig ina l own er. howeve r . w as a Ge rma n- A m er ican fr om Lehi gh Town ship. N orth amp ton

9

Flintlock rijle, ca. ' 790 Simon Lauck. Winchester. Virginia Maple. iron. brass. and silver. L.: 60 '/2 in. Private collection

12

10

A rms of the Flowcrjamilv, 1765 Elizabeth Flower, Philadelphia Embroide ry on silk, mahogany frame, 111/2 x 1231. in. Collection of Mr. and Mrs. Edwa rd J. Nusrala

a re n ot e w orth y for th eir ro co co orna me n t. Need lework form ed an imp ortant part of a yo ung gi rl's ed uca tio n . M a rria geabl e dau ghter s in well-to-do fami lies we re ex pe cte d to exce l in fan c y sti tc h ing as a mea ns o f imp ressi ng eligib le su ito rs. Eli zab eth Flower ( 174 2- 178 I ) co m p leted an ex quisitel y em broide red silk needl ew o rk pic ture (N o . 10) in 176 5, at the age o f twent y-th ree; I~ her sister, An n , made a sim ilar pi cture in 17 6 3 . 20 Eliza beth and A nn we re t he d au ghter s of th e Phil ad elphi a j oin er Enoc h Flowe r ( 170 5- 177 3) a n d hi s w ife, Ann (b. ' 17(1). Both siste rs ' pi ctures di spl ay th e ar ms o f th e Flower fa mi ly of Phil ad elphi a in a la v ish rococo surround p robabl y co pied directl y from an ar morial eng raving, a n d bo t h were wo r ke d in th e m o st elega n t n eed le w o rk m ateri al s : s il k thread, as we ll as go ld and silve r me ta llic thread s, o n crea m silk m oire. The cip he r o f Eliza be th 's in iti als at th e base of th e desig n wa s cop ied fro m A Ne ll' B ook ofC yphers, a boo k commonly referred to in th e co lo nies . 21

Co u n ty, w hose na me, Geo rge N agle , is eng rave d o n eac h p ist ol. The p ai r m us t h a v e been m ad e in Phil adelphi a not lon g afte r th e g uns m it h m o ved th ere in 1812. The barrels are brass, t he stoc ks a re cu rly m apl e, an d ro co co o rna me n t is limit ed to eng raved brass an d silve r co rn uco p ias above the trigger s and eng raved and chased silve r m ounts o n th e butts. A rifle (N o . 9) marke d a ll th e breech by Simo n Lau ck , o f W in ch est e r , V ir gini a , ex hi b its th e sa me voca b u la ry of desig n m otifs used b y Kuntz, but in a lighter and m or e delica te an d un ifi ed co m pos it io n . On th e c hee k s ide o f the stock, carve d scro lls, sha llow and sinuo us, flo w unimped ed into elega nt silve r-wi re inl ays en circlin g a silver star. O n th e lock side, th e pat ch-bo x co ver is eng raved wi th eq ua lly delicate rococo patt erns. Wh ile no fin e wea v ing indu stry exis te d in America for th e productio n o f rococo-patterned silks, a few domest ic textiles

13

FIGUHE 4 . S tandard of the Philadelphia L i.~ht Horse, 1775. Jo hn Fol w ell and J am es C lay poole. Philadelphia. Paint ing o n silk. 33 x 4 0 in. (83.8 x 10 1.(i cm .). First T ro op Ph iladelphi a Ci ty Cavalry

An o th er isol at ed su rv iva l o f a supe rb Am e ri can ro co co textile is th e lar ge an d impressive sta n dard o f th e Phil ad elphia Light H orse t ro op (FIG. 4), datin g fro m 1775, th e fin est A mer ica n Re v ol ut ion ar y flag in exis te nce. A s tan da rd, o r "colors," se rved to id ent ify a part icul ar m ilita ry unit . " The Revo lu tio na ry s ta n da rds we re ge ne ra lly of s ilk, w h ic h u nfu rle d eas ily in a br eeze , of a so lid co lo r p ainted or embroidere d wi t h ap pro p ria te sy m bols and emble ms. Th e rococo part of th e Light H o rse stan da rd is its central her aldi c carto uchc, strongly asy m me trical and co m posed o f adjoining C-scro lls, w h ich encloses a cen t ra l go lde n kn ot ti ed of thirteen radi atin g ribbon s, sy mbolizing th e united co lo nies. The allegorica l figures of Fame and Am erica (the latter. an Indi an wit h a lib ert y ca p o n a pol e; see also Nos. 34 , 55) flan k th e shield, wi th its cres t of a horse's head over w hich th e tr oop 's initials are in te rt win ed in ro co co st yl e . A sc ro ll ing m orr o ri bbo n b el o w t he ce n tra l e mb le m is em blazo ne d w it h the phrase FOR T IIESE WE STR IVE. The sta ndard survives fro m a pair co m m issio ned in 1775 for th e m ounted tr o op b y its first co m ma nding o ffice r, Ca pta in Ab rah am M arko e. T he o rig ina l bill s for th e t w o do cume n t Ph il ad elph ia desig ne r j ohn Fol w ell as th e cra fts ma n w ho was p aid I: 1-15 fo r "Dra w in g & D es ign in g th e Cou lo urs fo r th e Ligh t H orse" and j am es C lay poo le, o f th e same city , as th e artisa n w ho ea rned 1:8 fo r " pa int ing, gildin g & silve r ing a Device , Union & M otto on 2 C o lo urs for the Troop of Light H orse. " ' 3 Besides bein g a rare inst an ce o f th e rococo in Am er ican text iles, th e sta nda rd . in it s painted decoration, rep resents a typ e o f rococo o rna me nt, o nce co m m on , th at has bee n almos t e n ti re ly lo st. Sim ila r rococo ca rto uc hes decora ted sh ips , sho p sig ns , ca r riages, and fir e buckets . The acco un ts o f j ohn Ca dwala de r in clude an en try for a d o zen fi re bu ck et s C lay poo le p ainted in 1771, w hic h were doubtless rococo in dcsign .:':' Bet w een 17 50 an d 177 5, th e rococo was th e d omin ant sty le in A merica. It is disce rni b le as ea rly as th e m id -1740S an d t races of it rem ain lon g afte r 1775. Pattern ed re.solutely afte r Eng lis h exa m ples, th e Am eri can ro co co was virtu all y re s tricte d to u r b an areas w here p atr on ag e, cra fts ma ns hip. a nd p rosper ity pe r m it te d it s fl o w erin g . A s o ne wo u ld ex pec t. Britain's m aj or wes te rn co lo nies atte m p ted to em ulate London fashio n as fully as possibl e. In thi s, th ey"d iffered littl e fro m suc h o t he r pr o vin cial satellites as Du blin o r Edinburg h . Fo reig n cra ftsme n , Eng lish eng ra vings, and imported fu rnis h ings fost er ed th e sty le in th e co lo n ies. N onimport ation ag reeme n ts brie fly enco uraged the m anu facture o f local pro d uc ts. but the s ty le wo u ld un d ou bt edl y ha v e enjoyed fulle r m at ur it y th ro ug ho ut Am eri ca if th e im per ial-colo nia l con flicts had been resol ved peaceabl y. L GB, MIIII

15

ARCHITECTURE

Not all arc hitec t ura l de corati on in th e rococo style was o f ca rv ed woo d . St ucco is ts co u ld g ive a sim ilar effec t in plast er , and uphol ster er s. w hose activi ties ran ged beyond th e mere covering o f furniture, co uld pr o vid e inex pe ns ive imi tati ons m ad e o f papi er-rn ach e (p ape r pulp p ressed in m old s). Few exa m p les o f ro co co - st yl e wa ll decora tio n s u r viv e in stucco (p las te r), but a numb er o f plas te r- or pa pie r- rnacheo rna me n te d cei lings rem ain in tac t -on ly a sugges tio n of w ha t w as an acce p te d feature o f th e p arl ors an d e n tra nce h all s o f th e m o st fashi on abl e h ou ses o f th e Re v oluti on ar y era. Least well represented in tw entieth-century surviva ls is th e o nc e- u b iq u ito us painted interi or woodwor k, usua lly gra ine d and marbl eized , th ou gh rococo o rna me nt painted o n pan elin g o r plast erwork, kn o wn tod ay in o n ly o ne V irgi nia exa m ple, w as probabl y not un comm on . Another pr o vin ce o f the uphol st er er- on e closely link ed w ith papicr-machc decorati on- w as th e selling and ins ta lling o f paper han gings (as wa llpa pe r was the n called) o fte n fo un d in fine co lo nial interi ors. M ost of th em had printed desig ns with a co n t in u o us ly rep eated p att ern . an d m o st of th e m we re imported . Ther e we re fled glin g effo rts to m anu facture paper h an gin gs in N ew York in 1750 an d 17° 5, an d in 1709. Plunket Fleeson offere d " Am erican Pap er H an gin gs ... M anufactured in Ph ilad elph ia. " so met hing th e lo cal firm o f Ryves and Flet ch er t ried aga in six years later. I No do mes tic exa m p les fr om th e peri od a re k now n . T he p ap e r of ch o ice for th e g ra n des t hou ses o f th e ro co co era and th e ep ito me of th e ro coc o tast e ca me in sets o f lar ge- scale land scap e paintin gs with tr ompe l'o eil carve d fram es. eac h set design ed an d hand painted in En gl and to fit a particul ar ro om . In Am eri can a rc h itect u re, th e fu ll flo w erin g o f th e ro co co sty le oc cur red in th e 1760s an d ea rly 1770s. D at abl e h ou ses ha vin g ro co co o rna me n t are found in Ca m b ridge, M assachu setts. from 1759; in N ew York C ity. from 1763; in Phil ad elphi a, fro m 1764 ; an d in C ha r les to n, fr om 1767. Ex cept for Ca m b ri dge, exa mples m ad e well in to th e ea rly

Th o u gh limited m ainl y to o rna m en ta l hi ghli ghts within plai n . class ica lly co nce ive d spaces . the ro co co sty le in American arc h itec t ure was a sy m bo l o f th e affl ue nce o f the m er canti le elite . Lo yalist and patri ot alike . durin g th e prosperou s d ecad e an d a h alf pri or to th e Re voluti on . T od a y , su ch arc h itec tura l exa m p les th at rem ain are n o less important . Beca use th e y are firml y roo te d in tim e and place, th ey serve as be nc hma rks both for identifyin g regi on al ro coco m anifestati on s an d in d ividu al art isa ns an d for sugges ting the effec t of th e sty le in its to tality . Ar chitectural rococo, m ostl y th e work o f wood-ca rve rs. was em ployed prim ar ily o n th e fir epl ace-the so le so urce o f heat in co lo n ial days and a natural ga the ring place-to establish it as th e vis ua l fo cu s of a roo m . Th ere. ca rv ing was o fte n exec u ted o n w ha t we re ca lle d tru sse s- either sc ro lls buttressing th e sides o f th e fir epl ace o r scr olled co nso les supportin g th e m antel she lf. In th e m o st o rn ate interi ors. o ve rdoor ped im ents ec hoed th e over ma n tel. Th e u se o f ca rved b rack et s at th e o pe n en d o f each tread o f a sta ircase was equa lly co mmo n . R o co co-car ved o rna me n t ap peared in th e spa nd rels o f arc hways . especia lly in th o se sepa rating entran ce h all s fr om stai r h all s, an d in room s w he re arc h ed openin gs flank ed firepl aces or wi ndows. In ch u rc hes, co l u m ns a n d pil ast e rs we re fr equentl y em be llis h ed wi t h ca r ve d ca p itals th at foll owed th e tim ehon o red design s o f th e class ica l o rders (princ ip ally th e Corint hian and th e Co m posi te). with ro co co ca rv ing reserved for im pa rt ing vi su al inter est to th e altar piece and th e pu lpit, th e ecclesiastica l eleme nts to which th e co ng re ga tio n's att ention would naturall y be dr awn .

C hituncv bvcast frO III the [ aIII es Bcelenian house (N o.

II)

17

1770S ca n b e foun d in each o f th o se urban cen te rs . In th e 1780s, afte r th e R ev oluti on , th ere w as a lat e flur ry of ro co co arc hi tec tura l orname n t n ort h o f B o ston , n ot abl y in P ortsmo u th, N ew H am pshire, an d N ewburyport, M assachusetts.

New England

In th e mi d- ei g hteenth cen tury, a vas t p rol ife r ati on o f pu bl icati ons s prea d the doc tri ne o f arc h itec ture based o n the classica l orde rs th r ou gh out th e E ng lis h -s pea k ing wo r ld . Wheth er elega nt engra vcd folio s ad d ressed to n obl e Eng lis h co u ntry-house buil d ers o r crudely printed handb o ok s car ried b y carpe nters , th e publi cati on s fu rn ishe d adv ice o n co ns truction m eth od s a nd o n th e m a k eu p and prop ortionin g o f th e class ica l e le me nts; so me e ve n p r ovided illu strat ion s o f arc hi tec t u ra l o rna m en t. M an y of th e boo ks we re ava ilab le in th e Am e ri can co lon ies. " w he re o ne in p arti cul ar h ad a pron ou n ced in flue nce : T he British A rchitect: O r, the Builder's

A m er e d o zen ex am p les o f r o co co ar chi tec tural car vin g

Treasury of Stair-Cases, b y Ab rah am Swan . Firs t pu bl ish ed in

remain in all N ew Engla nd . That non e are from Bo ston , the regio n's p r eem in ent ci ty, mu st r efl ect in pa r t o n t h e cit y 's

Lon d on in 1745, th e book was rei ssu ed in 17 50 , in 1758, and in t he m id-1 760s . (A me ri ca n e di t io ns o f Swa n 's t r eati se appea re d in Phil ad elphia in 1775 and in B o sto n in 17<)4 .) It

co ns ta n t rebuildin g , for a number o f th e lar g est hou se s surv ive fro m mid-centu r y in Ca m b r idge, across th e Cha rles

was fo r sale b y b o o k sell er s in Phil adelphia an d N ew York in

Ri v er. T he J ohn Vassa ll h ou se , bu ilt on Bratr le Street in

1760 an d in B o st on in 176 3; it was also ava ilab le in subscri pti on lib raries in Phi lad el ph ia . Two arc h itec ts- Pe te r H arri-

17 5<), co n ta ins th e ea rl ies t k nown ro co co-st yl e ornament in New Engla n d arc h itec ture: lighthearted sc ro lle d an d leafage-

so n in N ew E ng la n d an d W illi am Bu ckl and in Virg ini a an d

ca rve d s pa n d re l p an el s in t h e so u t hwest pa rlor. The Vassall h ou se was qu ickl y foll o w ed over th e nex t t w o yea rs by tha t

M ar yl and- ar e k now n to h av e ow ned co p ie s . .l It was th e first arch itec tu ra l to me to fea ture lar g e-scal e illu strat ion s o f r o co co em be ll is hme nt , includin g "St air-C ases .. . W it h a

o f th e Rever en d East Aptho rp, w hose parl o r ret ains its o rig in al carv ed ch im ney p iece (FI(;. 5) w it h des ign elements faith full y b orro w ed fro m Swa n's Brit ish A rchitect: th e tru sses

g rea t Variet y o f cur io us O rna me nts" an d " A grea t Variet y of N ew an d C ur io us C h im ney- P ieces, in th e m o st elega n t and mode rn T ast e, " 4 t he t w o a reas in wh ich th e n e w style

s u p porti ng th e m antel shelf fro m Pl at e XLV I II, t he flankin g o ver ma n t el tru sses fr om Pl at e LlII. s Th e t w o h o u ses, b o th

was m o st o fte n em p loye d by America n b u ilders. Swa n 's

clea rly th e wor k o f th e sa me cra fts me n, s po rt fro n t -do or

pa t terns ex p ressed t h e qu intessential En gli sh ap p licatio n o f

surro u n ds based o n Pl at e

ro co co o rna m en t on to a fir ml y classical fr am ew o rk ; florid in

4 Desions (p u b lished

d eco ration thou gh they we re, th ey n ev er allowed th e o rna -

in B o st on ) , (, b u t w it h swags ca rve d in th e rococo s t y le

me n t to tr an scend th e s u p po r t to w h ic h it was at t ac he d .

repl acin g th e b aroqu e o nes o f th e eng ravi ng.

Des p ite th eir cl assi cism , th e des ig ns in T he British A rchitect have a di stin cti v e characte r of th eir own . Fo r exa m p le , th e

East A pth orp ( 1737- (816) was a d ev o tee of fas hio nab le En gli sh a r chi tect ura l d esi g n . A so n of th e imme n sel y rich

X XX II

in Bat t y Lan gl ey 's Treasury

in Londo n in 17 56 and re adily availab le

chir n ne y p icccs d o n ot in co rp orat e flankin g pi la st er s o r co l-

merchant an d ar m y co n t racto r Cha rles A pr horp ( 10<) 8- '75 8)

umn s o r th e corn ice of a ro om b ut are inde pe nde nt d esi gn s.

o f B o st on , Eas t was a d istin gui sh ed stude n t of rel igi on

T h e ma n te l and ovcrrna n te l are co m posed of larg e- scale eleme n ts in th e h eav y , b a r oqu e t reatm ent associa te d wi t h th e

an d th e classics a t J esu s Co llege , Ca m b ridge Universit y, b etween 17 51 and 17 58. O n th e d eath o f h is fat her , he came

Eng lish arc hi tec t W illi am Kent an d ca rve d de corati on in th e

h om e t o M assa chu sett s , hi s r eturn co inc id ing w it h plans

full, flori d rococo m anner of Lo ck an d Coplan d .

for es ta b lis h ing a n An gli can c h urc h in Ca m br idge, in th e s ha do w of Co ngrega t ion a l H a cT a r d C o llege . Young

Apth orp , w ho was ap po in te d C h r is t C h urc h's fir st re ctor, also sa t o n th e c h u r c h b uil d in g commi t tee t hat c ho se as arc hi tect th e Eng lis h-t rai ned des ig ner Pet er H ar ri son ( 1710177 5) . It h as b e en s ugge s te d th at H arri son , w ho o wned co p ies o f th e Sw an a n d Lan g le y books, h ad a hand in the des ig n of Apr h o r ps o w n h o u se (w h ic h was of a ma g nificence re ma r ked on by J ohn Ad am s), " wi th roco co orn am ent

18

FIGUHE). Parlor cilillll/cypiecc. 17 0 0-01 . the East Apthorp house. Cam bridge. Pho togr aph . ca. I X') O •

Parlor chimncvpiccc, ca. Marbl ehead . Photogr aph . I X')I

FI G UH E 0.

I')

17 0 S.

the Jer emiah Lee hou se.

th at m ay h av e be en e x ecut ed b y Edw ard Burb eck ( [7 15178 5) an d W. Au stin, carve rs for th e chu rch. x Th er e are a few exa m pl es o f ro co co arc hitec tu ra l o rna m ent b y o t he r artisa ns in th e imm ediate env iro ns o f Bo sron ," but th e Apth orp hou se ca rve r mu st also have wo rke d in N ewbu r yp ort, n ear th e present M assachu setts-N e w H ampsh ir e border. Two chim ney pieces fro m 8 Wat er Street , b egun in 17 83 fo r Willi am Coo m bs ( 1736- [8 14), Newburyp ort 's leading im po rt er, have an unusu al and distin cti ve feature also found in th e ch im ney p iece o f th e Apthorp hou se p arl or : b en eath th e ove r ma nte l, a ca r ve d ca ve t to moldin g ex te n d ing at ei t h e r e n d o n w h ic h r est d ecorati v e side tru sses.!"

F[GUR E 7 .

Ph oto gr aph,

S taircase, ca.

17 6 8 ,

For the ultim ate ex press io n o f th e arc hitec tura l rococo in M assachu setts, h owev er , o ne mu st turn to th e Lee hou se in M arbl eh ead , abo u t fifteen miles n ortheast of Bo st o n . With it s seven bays an d three sto ries, it was pr obabl y th e lar gest New Eng land dwelling of it s ge ne ra tion, and was com pleted in [768 by th e patri ot merchant Jer emiah Lee ( [72[ -1775), suppo sedl y to th e desi gn s o f hi s b roth er Sa m ue l." T he ho use. remark abl y w ell pr eserv ed in side and o u t , o ffers th e tw entieth- centur y vi sit or p erh ap s th e m o st au t he n tic p o ssib le ex pe rie nce o f Am eri can ro co co in te riors. Th e arc hi tec tu ral fitt in g s are undi sturb ed . The w all s on b oth fl o or s of the m ain s ta i r h all an d in th e t wo fr o n t cha m be rs h av e their o rigi na l p ap er han gin gs, painted to o rde r in Eng land, with

the Jerem iah Lee hou se, M arblehead .

18 91

20

land scap es in tr ompe l' oeil fram es . Even the ro co co cast-iron fir eba ck s rem ain (see N o . 157). A s is th e case throughout N ew En gl and, the interiors owe a ver y clear debt to Swan's British Architect. In the fully paneled ground-floor parlor ( FIG. 6), th e m oldin g s o f th e entablature ar e carved aft er Plate Xl (the C o rin t h ia n o rd er); the ch im ney piece , with a full compl ement o f trus ses and swags, is an a m a lga m of Plates LI (No.3 ) and LIIl , and , in the hall , the stair bra ckets ( FI G . 7) reprodu ce Pl ate XXXIII. The chimney breast, th ough its projectio n is t o o s lig h t to se t it off effectively from th e surro un ding wall , demon strates unusu ally fine carv ed work. Po rtsm outh, N ew Hampshire, at th e m outh o f th e Pi scata q u a, was th e maj or urb an cen te r north of Boston. It s arc h ite cture s ho ws a ce r ta in indep enden ce within the New En gland idi om. 1 2 Anum ber of g rea t houses remaining from th e peri od demon strat e that th e ro coco flouri shed in Portsmo u t h so m ew ha t later th an in Bo ston . The fir st of them is th e m assive fram e d wellin g built between '7 60 and 1764 for th e shi p cap ta in turned shipo w ner John Moffatt (1692- 1786) . Th e jo ine r was Mi ch ael Whidd en III and the carver wa s E be nezer D earin g ( '7 30 - 1791) o f ne arby Kittery, Maine . In 1761, D ear in g bill ed Moffatt for va rio u s ornam ental carvings , includin g t w o chim ne y pieces (o ne possibl y th at of the dr awing ro om , with it s leaf-carved trusses and central panel) an d th e " 17 Sta re Brak ets " th at st ill g race the main st aircase . ' 3 Th e aca n t h us - scro lle d de si gns were almost certainl y ins p ired b y Swan, but la ck the effe r ves cence of his mature ro co co sty le. The well- k no w n Wentworth-Gardner house, bu ilt abo u t 1760 , is also handsom el y fitted up and looks to be b y th e sa me cra ftsm en . Th e M offatt an d th e Wentworth-Gardner houses are exact co n te m porari es of th e Vass all and A pthorp houses in Ca m bridge an d, though th eir o rna m en tal d et ail s gen er ally lack th at ro coco spi rit, ar e eq ua lly grand. The st yle in its full m aturit y did arrive in Portsmouth, but not until much later, w it h th e John Langdon hous e, whi ch wa s b egun in 1783. Lan gd on ( 1746 - 1819), a merchant and politici an, began to purch ase th e land for hi s hou se in 1775 and married in 1777. Th en w a r int er v ened. Onl y in 178 3 did the actu al work b egin, p erform ed b y the sa me c ra fts m e n Moffatt had e m p loy e d t w ent y yea r s ea r lie r. On 14 De cember 1785, E be neze r D earing a n d his so n W illi am were paid £ 169 for ca rvi ng that must h av e includ ed the m agnificent ch i m neypieces in th e north an d the so ut h parlors (F IG. 8) and the n orth p arlor' s spandrels an d keyston cs.!' B y that tim e, the D earin g s ' st yl e h ad ev o lv ed into a distin ctive rendition of chi m ne y piec e de si gns from Swan : lar ge in scale, with bold carv in g in hi gh reli ef, but with the tru ss es flatten ed out to crea te a vi gorous abstract patt ern ex clus ive to Portsmouth. 15

t:.."""~,, ,:"""""" "

.. ,

, """""

FIGU RE 8. Parlor chimnevpiece, 1783-85, the John Langdon house, Portsmouth

21

New York

In th e va lley of th e Hudson , up to Alba ny, th er e rem ains but a h andful o f exa m p les of rococo a rc h itec t u ra l o rn a me n t , on ly thr ee of wh ich a re int act in th eir orig ina l st r uc t ures. T he 17oos, th e he yd a y o f t he style , saw th e co ns t ructio n o f m an y a g ra nd h o u se , inclu d in g th at of C ha rles Ward Apth orp (bro t he r to Eas t) in upp er M anh attan ( 1704) , th e M or ri s-Jum el hou se, also in M anh a tt an ( 170))' a nd th e Schu yler M an sion , in Alb an y ( 17° 1- ° 4); th e first de molished, th e o the rs rem odele d an d any ro co co woodwo rk dest ro yed. Th ou ghJ am es B eckm an' s M anh attan co u n t ry h ou se a n d Ste p he n Van Ren sse laer ' s Alb an y m an or h ou se are also go ne, frag me n ts o f th em that su rv ive a rc amo ng th e m o st splendi d reminder s o f N ew York 's ro co co heritage. On ly in th e Ph il i p sc M an or h ou se , in Yonk er s; Van Co rt la n d t H ou se, in the Bron x (t he t w o m an o rial es ta tes imm edi at ely n orth o f M anh att a n Isl and ) ; a nd Sa in t Paul ' s C h a p el , o n Bro adway , in lowe r M anh attan , ca n th e ro co co be se en in sit u. The ap o gee o f the N ew Yo rk ro co co can be pinpointed to th e m id-r vo o s b y Saint P aul' s, built b etw een 17°3 an d 17° 7; th e Beekm an hou se, b et w een 17° 3 an d 17°4 ; an d th e Van Ren sselaer m an or hou se, bet w een 170) and 17o H. From w ha t survives at th o se sites so me sen se o f th e ver y hi gh-st yle an d high-qu alit y ro co co interi o rs of co lo n ial N ew York can still be gleaned. The house at Phil ip se M an or , in t he eigh teenth century so me fift een mi les above t he city pr oper , has prob abl y th e ea rl ies t exa m p les of th e arc h itec t ura l ro co co in N ew York. Th e o rigi na l s to ne h ou se w as built b y th e firs t Fred eri ck Phil ip se ( 1626- 1702) in th e 16 Hos. T he t w o-st or y add i t ion , whi ch co n ta ins th e " rococo " ro om s, mu st h ave been built b y Fr ed eri ck Phil ip se I II ( 1720- 17Ho) some time a fter 17)' . w h en h e inh erited t he p rope rt y . and p rob abl y abo ut 17) 0, w he n he m arried Eliza be th (W illia ms) . w ido w of Anth on y Rut ger s. I f , (T he we ig h tiness o f th e ca rv ing sugges ts a tim e well before th e m ature rococo of t he m id-1 700s.) T he t\N O parl o rs hav e el ab orat e fi repl ace wa lls . eac h w ith a full clas-

F IGURE <). Parlor cliimncvp iccc, ca. 1750, Ph ilip se M ano r ho use, Yonkers. Photogra ph. ca. 1<)10

22

sica l o rder (engaged Ioni c co lu m ns 'on that o f th e fir st floor , D o ric pil ast er s o n th at of th e second). The m antel s ar e go ne, b ut th e o vc r m antcl s ha ve m old ed fr am es flanked b y nearl y id enti cal t ru sses from w h ic h eme rge lu xuri ant ga rlan ds o f fruit and flo w er s. "? T he o ve r ma n tel o f th e fir st-fl o or room ( FI G . 9) h as a h e a v y b rok en- scr oll pediment a n d a tablet d ispl ayin g a head of Di an a th e huntress; th at o f th e secondfloo r room has an o pe n pedim ent w ith a fini al o f three clustered fea t he rs and a ro caill e-car vcd fri eze belo w . The three fea t he rs, th e sy m bo l o f th e Prin ce o f Wale s, m ay refer her e to Frede rick ( 1707- 1751), h eir ap pa re n t to Geo rge Il , wh o was an av id patr on o f art and design in th e 1730S and 1740S.IX T he fir st-fl o or room still has its ro coco-enri ch ed ceiling, o ne of th e m o st e la bo ra te fr om co lo nia l Am eri ca and th e on ly o ne le ft i n N e w York . Th e deco ra t io n -sc ro ll wo r k inh abit ed b y bird s, ani ma ls, an d profil e portrait bu st s, all co n ta ine d w it h in a br o ad d e corati v e o u te r b and-h as the charac te ris tic d isj ointed lo ok o f pap ier-m ichc orn am ent: th e puttin g to g eth e r o f a lot o f indi vidu all y mold ed ele me n ts . Sty lis tica lly freer an d m ore pl ayful th an th e firepl ace-wall woo dwo r k, it lo ok s to ha v e b een in st all ed in the 176 0 s. Ph ilip se' s likel y su pplier was Roper D aw son , w ho ad ve rtised " Pa pe r H an gin gs and in Figures, Bass Reli ev e [bas-relief] for Ceili ngs, sec" in th e New- York Gazelle or the Weekly Post-B oy of 3 June 1762. IV J am es Beek m an b uilt M ount Pleasant as a co un t ry est ate at w ha t is no w th e co rne r o f Fift y-first Street and First Av enu e in M anh attan, o n prop erty he acq uire d earl y in 1763 (se e p . ISS). The m ajo r su r viv ing elem ent of th e house is the chim n e y breast g iven b y Be ekman' s de scend ants to The N ewYork Hist orical So ciet y in 1874 (N o . II ; see also ill. opp. p . 17). Lik e thos e at th e Phil ips e M an or house, it is domin ated b y a mo n u men tal an d ri chl y carved sc ro ll- pe d irncn tc d overma n te l flank ed by representati on s o f a class ical o rde r, in this case flut ed D o ri c pil ast er s r estin g di rectl y o n th e mant el shelf. The ca rved rococo ca r tou ch e fram in g th e famil y arm s t ha t o nce hun g w it h in th e pedim ent , w h ile prob abl y co ntem poraneo us wi th t h e ch im ney p iece, was n ot an int eg ral pa r t o f th e d esi gn . In s t r ik ing co n t ras t to th ese h ea v y arc h itec tu ra l features is th e th orou ghl y ro coco ca rved o rnamen t o f th e tru sses and m antel friezc. : " It co ns ists o f rocaille wo rk , pi er ced an d with parall el- gou ged surfaces, and , at th e m id dle o f th e fri e ze, a p addlin g d o g fl ank ed b y s tr ide n t swa ns -a tou ch o f ro co co w h imsy in th e m ann er of th e eng raved design s o f th e London carve r Thomas J ohnson . 21

II

Parlor cliimncv breast, N ew Yor k, 1763-64 From M ount Pleasant , th e J ames Beekman hou se White pine . paint ed. H .: 115 in . Installat ion photogra ph, 1')64 T he New-Yo rk Hi sto rical Society

T he bui ld ing o f th e Van Ren ssel aer m an or hou se, th e g rea test of th e river va lley hou ses of th at tim e, was begun in 176 5

23

E ntrance hall , 1765-68 , Van Rensselaer man o r house, Alban y, as inst alled at T he M et ropolitan Museum o f Art

F IGURE 10 .

24

III terior, Saint Paul's Chapel, New York , 1764-66. Photograph, ca. 1900

FIGURE I I .

d on , 23 exem plify N ew York rococo ca rv ing at it s g ra ndes t . O n ly th e ceilin g is wi tho u t orna men t, an d th at was not th e o rig ina l intent. In 176 8, Phil ip Living st on , Van Ren sselaer 's fa the r- in- la w, w ro te to h im : " I a m told You Intend to gett Stu cco wo rk o n th e Ceiling of Y ou r H all w hic h [ wou ld no t advise Y ou to do , a Pl ain Ceiling is now Esteem ed th e mos t Ge ntee l. "24

an d co m ple ted three yea rs later by St ephen II ( 1742 - 1769; th e eig h t h Van R en s sel aer p at ro on ), w ho m arri ed Ca t he rine Li vi n g st o n in 176 4. Th ou gh th e h ou se was d estr o y ed in 1893, th e architect ura l woodwork and th e pap er han gings of the en trance h all were sa lvaged and ultim atel y reassembled at the Met ropoli ta n Museum, w here they represent th e N ew Yo rk rococo architecrura J inte rior at its mos t comp lete (FIG. 10). T he wa lls are lai d o u t acco rdi ng to t he Ion ic o rde r, as the pi lasters on eit her side of t he archway to th e stai r h all demons trate. T he pl ast er su rfaces be tween dado and co rnice, lik e those of the Lee h ou se in M ar b leh ead , are hun g w it h hand -pa in ted wa ll pa pe rs m ad e in Lo n d o n in 1768 , wh ich fea ture g risai lle land scap es d epi ct in g th e Four Season s an d scenes of class ica l ruin s w it h in tr om pe l'oei l carved ro co co frames .":' T he spa nd rels o f th e arc hway , th ei r scro lled foli age copie d d irec tly fr om a pl at e in Lo ck a n d Co p la n d's Ne u: 8M" (~r O rn anie nt s, w h ic h h ad ju s t b een re iss ue d in Lon-

The o n ly su rv iv ing pub lic str uc tu re bu ilt wi t h rococo o r na men ta tio n is Saint Paul' s C ha pe l. The co r ne rs tone was laid o n 14 M ay 1764 ; th e first service in th e cha pel was held o n 30 Oct ob er 1766 . Th e h e x a g on al pulpit a n d so u n di ng b o ard, to th e left o f th e a ltar (F IG. II), h av e ela bo ra tely ca rved m oldin gs th at in clude an o penwo rk ro co co bol ecti on, b ow s a n d s wags, an d v ines g row in g a ro u n d th e sq ua re balu st er s o f th e pulpit sta ir. Even m ore loosel y handl ed and m o re fully ro co co in man n er is th e m agnificent ca r to uc he abo ve the Palladian w indow behind th e alta r.

25

Pennsylvania

In th e eighteenth cen tury, arch itec tura l carv ing was probabl y m ore co m mo n in Phil ad el ph ia th an in any o t he r Am erican city except po ssibl y C harlesto n. The fair number of ex isting ro co co exa m p les sho w a p eri od of g rea t ac tivi ty b et w een abo u t 1764 an d 177 2. 25 Th e lo cal treatm ent o f ch im neypieces- a heav y tab ern acl e fram e m ounted on the wa ll several in ch es abo ve a m antel she lf o n tru sses- can be found in Swa n (Pla tes XLII-I.) but is n o wher e pr ecisel y co pied. M o st o f th at car ving has been att ributed to Lond on art isa ns: Bcr n ard an d Ju g ie z, in Phil ad el phi a b y 1762, an d H er cules Cour tenay, in Ph ilad elphia b y 1765. 2(' Th e ro co co st y le m a y h av e bee n intro du ced at M ount Pleasant, a m agn ificent stone co un try hou se overloo king the Sc h uylki ll R iv er j us t no rth o f th e city. Ca p ta in John M acPh er son , a Scot m ad e rich throu gh pr iv at ccrin g in th e late 17 50 S, b ou ght th e land an d b eg an th e co ns t r uc tio n o f th e hou se in 1761 . Th e accou n t bo o k of m ast er build er Thoma s N c vell d o cum ent s t h e wo r k o ver th e n ext four yca r s. :'? Ro co co ca rvi ng , co n fine d to th e ch im ney piece in th e fir st flo or parlor and to th e chim ney piece and flankin g cupboards o f t he upst airs d raw in g ro om (F IG. 12) , is in th e m anner o f Bern ard and Ju gi ez . B oth ch i m ney p iec es a re o f an o d d ly in complete de sign . Th e o verm antel fr am e has been so elon gated t hat it rest s n ot o n a m antel she lf but d ir ectl y on the sc ro lle d tru ss es. In th e up st airs ro om , h owever , th e o ve rm antel frame br eak s O llt at th e top into a br ok en-scro ll pedim ent in which is ce n te red a vibrant , flo win g pier ced she ll, perhap s th e ea rlies t ex am p le of the full rococo in Phi ladel phi a architec tu re .:" At C li ve d en , in G erm ant o wn , six mile s n orth of th e city , th e ca rve rs o f Mount Pleasant we re em p loyed to emb ellish t h e s to ne h ou se b egun in 17 6 3 o n th e co u n try esta te of Benj amin C hew ( 1722- 1S10), a not ed jurist and later ch ief justi ce of Penn sylvani a. (T he hou se rem ain s int act and h as mu ch o f it s o rig ina l furnitu re . ) In 17 6 6, Bcrna rd an d

.f

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FIGURE 12 . Chinincvpiccc, 176 1-65, up stairs d rawing roOI11. M ount Pleasant . th e J ohn M acPh erson hou se. Phil adelph ia

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Parlor chimncvpiccc, ca. 17 (, 5. from the StampcrBlackwell hous e. Phil adelphi a. as installed at Winterthur Mu seu m

FIGU R E 13 .

27

14. Firep lace wall of ballroom, 1709- 70. the Samuel Powel house. Philadelphia, as installed at the Philadelphia Museum of Art

FIGU RE

J ugi ez recei ved p ay m ent for tw o roca ille-ca rve d tru sses for th e parl or ch im neypiece and ten sma lle r, leaf- carv ed trusses fo r th e o ve rdoo r p ed im ents o f th e p arl or and th e en t ra nce hall. 2y Th e ch im ney p iece design , th e co nsoles su p po rt ing a mantel shelf, is now full y developed .3° Th e genera l d esi gn o f th e C livede nc h im ney p iece an d ove rdoo rs is re pea te d, but g rea tly enr ic he d , in th e parl or (no w at Winterthur) fr om th e Pin e Stree t hou se th ought to h ave b een bu ilt in th e ea rly 1760 s b y th e m er ch ant and mayo r o f Phil ad elphia J ohn St amper and lat er owne d by th e Rever end Robert Bl ack w ell. Th e ro om is th e m ost elaborate of ex ta n t Phil ad elphia int er ior s ( H G . 13). On th e chi rn n eypi ece (its o rna me n t pr obabl y b y H er cul es Co u rte na y), th e ove r ma n tel fr am e is su r ro u n de d b y ca rved frond s an d ga rla n ds; bet w een th e tru sses th at su p po rt th e mantel she lf are three panels carved in landscap e vig ne ttes , th e cente r one afte r a Thom as J ohnson eng rav ing o f 1762. 31 T he fin al s u rv iv i ng m onum ent t o t he r o c o c o in Ph ilad elph ia arc hi tec ture is a brick to wn house at 244 South Thir d Street. Th e o rig ina l buildin g was ere cte d in 1765- 66 by C ha rles Sted ma n ( 1713- 1784), a Sco ts sh ipmas te r turned m er ch ant , an d was pu rchased b y Sam uel r o wel ( 173 S- 17'.!3) , h eir to a g rea t m er cantile fo rt u ne an d la te r a m a yo r o f Phil ad elphi a, afte r return in g fro m hi s gra n d to ur an d fi ve days b efore hi s ma r riage to Eliza be t h W illin g , in A u gu st 1769. Po w el m ad e mass ive altera tio ns to th e interio r in th e n e xt t w o ycar s. v' H e em p loye d th e city's bes t ca rve rs Bern ard and Ju gi ez, H er cul es Co u rtenay , an d J am es Reyn olds (see p. 184,) - for arc h itec tura l wor k th at in clu ded

the o rna me n t o f th e up st airs b ack p arl o r (n o w at t he M etropolitan Museum ) and that o f th e up stairs ballroom (now at th e Ph ilad elphi a Museum of Art; H G . 14), th e latter not abl e fo r th e leaf- and-scr oll ca rvi ng in th e fr ieze after a p la te in S wa n 's D esiyn « i ll A rchitccturc (Lo n d o n , (757) and for th e su pe rb o rna me n ta l pl ast er ce iling b y J am es C low. In M ay 1770, Po we i paid th e Scottish-trained C low, w ho had arr ived in Phil adelphia in 1763, £3 1 fo r "Stu ccoin g a ceiling ." 33 Po w ei was not th e on ly owne r to up gr ade th e int erio r of h is town hou se in th e ea rly I770s, but th e o ther st ru ctures are now all go ne . J ohn Ca dwa lade r, w ho bou ght a hou se on Second Street in 1769 and pr o ceeded to gu t an d re fit it (see p. 185), paid £362 -9 -iI2 for arc h itec tura l carving alo ne- a b ravado di spl ay o f co lo n ial g ra n de u r. T od ay, his fu rn iture, th e m o st ela bo ra te eve r m ad e in Phil ad elphi a , h as b een pla ced in Po wel 's gra nd ballroom (see ill. o pp . p. 133 ) at the Phil adelphia Museum o f Art. On occas io n, th e Phil ad elphi a s ty le of arc h itec ture sp rea d so u t h to De lawa re an d th e East ern Sho re of M ar yland . S wa n 's eng rave d d esi gn s we re u sed at th e Co r b it hou se, be gun in O dessa, D elawar e, in 1772, but witho ut th e ro co co ca rv ing. H Ju st th e o p posite occu rred in tw o hou ses in Qu een Ann es Co u n ty, M ar yland . At C lover field s. built for Willi am H en sley, th ere is a ch im ney piece w ith simi lariti es to th o se at M acPh er son' s Mount Pl easant ; at Ches terto wn. Thomas Rin ggol d, a m er chant w ith close Phil adelph ia ties , h ad a p arl or (no w at th e Balt im ore M use um of Art) wi t h e la bora te o ve r m an te ls and overdoo rs exec u ted in a m ann er not unlike J ohn Sta m per's (see HG. (3).3'

28

The South

T he co lon ial capital o f M aryland , Annapoli s, on th e banks o f the Chesapeake, eme rged as a ve ry pr o sp erou s cit y in th e 1760s an d l77os . M an y o f th e m aj or h ou ses from th at tim e survive. O f so me fourteen erec ted in th e deca de fro m '765 to 177 5, the firs t to p ar ad e ro co co o rn ame n t was th e reside nce J am es B ri ce built o n a lot he inher it ed in 1766. Co nstructio n o f th e sta tely bri ck building was begun in 1767 and too k five yea rs to co m plete. The inte rio rs arc rem ark ab le for their size , the ir m assi ve, ca rved full en tab larures. an d th eir rococo chi m neyp ieces. Thou gh m ore th an one carver 's hand is appa re n t, the prin cip al artisan was clearl y th e o th erw ise unk nown William Bampton, whom Bri ce, in his journal for M ar ch 1770 , credit ed with £40 -0- 1 for " fi n is hi n g large st R o om in m y H ou se th e C ar p en ters and Join ers work & carvi ng C h im ney Pie ce . " 3° H e w as sure ly referrin g to the fi rst-fl o o r n orth w est roo m an d it s ch im ney piece (F IG. 15), w hose somewha t naively carve d tru sses co py Swan's Plate Ll. The lar ge st o f the Annap oli s houses, a three-st ory brick cube , was b egun b y Samu el C hase in 1769 an d pur ch ased unfini sh ed b y th e p atri ot and publi c o fficia l Edward Llo yd I V ( 1744- 1796) in 1771. 37 Willi am Bu ck land ( 173 5- 1774) , a joi n er an d d esi gn er fro m Ri chm ond Co u n ty, Vir gini a, m o v ed to Ann apol is in th at yea r , a p pa re n tly to wo rk for Llo yd , brin gin g w it h him th e Lond on-trained car ve r Thom as H all. Hall is att ributed w ith th e carv ing o f th e m ost ela bo ra te ro om in th e h ou se, n ow the d inin g room, fo r w h ich Llo yd paid Bu ckland £62-0 -6 in '772 and 1773 Y The ap p li q ues o n the fri eze of the ov erdoors (F IG . (6 ), though large in scale and b roadl y co nceived , were probab ly insp ired b y sta ir- b rac ket de si gns in Swan , a bo ok Buckl and owned . Rawling s and Barn es, a pair o f En g lish stu cco ists late from Lond on , did more than £200 w orth o f w ork in th e house, m o stl y neoclassica l in style but includin g the de coration of th e hall cei ling -a ce n t ra l rosette with del icat e roco co sur round s. In M ar ch 1774, the land dire ctl y opp o site Llo yd' s h ou se was pur ch ased b y M atthi as H ammond, for w hom

15. Chimnevpiece, 1767-72, first-floor north west room, the James Brice house, Annapolis. Photograph, ca. 1900 FIG UH E

16. Doorframe, '772-73, dining roo m, the Chase-Lloyd house, Annapolis. Photo graph, ca. 1900

FIGU HE

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Plan and elevations, ca. 1 7 (,~ • for ent rance hall. Whiteh all. the Hor atio Sharpe hou se. near Annapolis. 17 (Q-(, Y . Pen cil on paper. 15 x Iy in. US . I x ~ S . J cm. ). Co llectio n of Mr. and Mrs. C ha rles Scarlett. J r.

FI G U R E 17 . 4

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Whiteh all.

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Bu ckl and desi gned an eleg an t bri ck house with symm etrical w ings . Th e ri chl y carve d ch im ney p ieces an d the door an d w indow fram es o f th e fir st-floor int eri or s. much in th e m anne r o f th e Llo yd h ou se dinin g ro om . ha ve also be en attribut ed to Th om as Hall. 3~ A fe w m ile s o u t side Ann ap olis , o n th e b ank s of the Se v ern, is Whiteh all , a villa built b y Mar yland' s co lo n ia l go ve rno r, H orati o Sh arpe ( 1718- 1790). The cen t ra l block of th e hou se , w hic h wa s be gun in 1764 and co m p lete d prior to 176 9 , co n ta ins a g rea t en t ra nce hall, o r sa lo o n. The room's de corati ve pro gram is sho w n in an un sign ed drawin g ( FIG . 17) , a uniqu e Am e rican co u n te r p art o f a co m m o n En gli sh arc h itec t u ra l rend erin g, w h ich includ es a refle cted ceiling plan and th e four wall s. The sq ua re ch amber , nearly a cube, has a coved ceiling w hose co rn ers contain hu ge carv ed- w ood ro co co ca rto uc h es that fr am e ma sk s representin g th e Four W inds. Cen te re d in eac h wa ll is a door; o n the front and rear wa lls are lar ge wind ows w ith arc hit raves termin atin g at the d ad o in ca rve d sc ro lls ; affix ed to th e side w all s are mirrors ; and th e em pt y spaces o n all four w alls ar e filled w ith ro co co ga rla nds ( FIG . (8) . There is n othin g els e of quite thi s grand eur fr om co lo n ia l Americ a. Bu ckl an d h as been c re d it ed w ith Whitehall' s ornamental trim .'!" Wh il e th e re is pr ob abl y a g rea te r numb er of fin e preR e vol uti on a r y h ou ses in Vir gini a th an in any oth er state , there is a pa uc ity o f a rc h itec tu ra l ornam ent in the rococo style. N on e ex ists eve n in Willi am sburg, th e co lo nial capital, th ou gh carve rs th er e ar e kn o wn to h ave fabri cated ro co co furnit ur e (see N o . (23 ) . E x cept for papicr-mach e ornaments ad de d abo u t 176 2 to th e front-hall and drawing-room ce ilin g s a t W est o v er , built a bo u t 1731- 3 5 b y William B yrd ( 1674- 174 4) o n the J am es River not far from Willi amsburg,';' there was no co m pe lling fashi on for th e style in th e Tidewater re gi on . For the m o st part, o ne mu st look to the Northe rn N eck o f Vir gini a , on th e bank s o f the Potom ac, for arc hitec tural ro coco . Geo rge W ashin gt on , w ho h ad ac q u ire d hi s es t at e a t M ount V e rn on in 17 54, ove rsaw it s fir st enl arg em ent in 1757- 59, yea rs w he n he rem odel ed th e West Parlor, probabl y

de sign has been faithfully co pied fro m Swa n's Pl at e L, but in a modest scale an d by a heavy and so mew ha t labored han d . As Lund Washin gton , a co usin w ho was supe ri n tending th e work at M ount Vern on for th e ge ne ra l, ca n d id ly w ro te to him : " I think yo u never intended suc h a o ne and m us t h ave b een mi st ak en in th e lo ok o f th e d r au ght o f th e ch im ney pie ce. " '; 2

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in stalli n g th e exis ti ng h a nd som e chi mney p iece, for w h ic h in

17 57 he o rde re d the land scap e p aintin g that fit s within the overm an tel fr ame . The m antel and overm anrel have ca rved friezes an d flankin g trusses - sirn plifications o f Plates L and LIll in Swan - an d Washin gton ' s famil y a rm s are di spla ycd w it hin a carved roco co car touch e. Year s lat er , in 177 5, durin g hi s second ex pa ns io n o f the h ou se, he hired Willi am Bern ard Sear s, who had worked previ ousl y in Virginia for Bu ckl and , to carve a ne w m antel for hi s sma ll dinin g room (FIG. (9) . In stead of th e u su al whit e pin e , th e mantel is fashi on ed o f walnu t; th e overm an tel , o f pla st er. The whole

FIGURE 1<). Chimneypiece. M ount Vern on

3I

177 5 .

small din ing room,

Between 17 5 5 an d I 759, Washin gton ' s neig h bor th e pl anter an d , later , Revolutionar y sta tes man Ge o rge M ason ( 1725- T792) w as buildin g Gunston H all, a sm all but exquisite Ge orgian hou se . In the ent ra nce h all , th e spa n d re ls of th e arc h way hav e C -sc ro lls w it h p ierced ro caille m antel s, and th e drawin g roo m an d th e dining ro om hav e elabo ra te ca rved moldin g s b ased o n Swan 's D esign s ill A rchitecture. The woodwo rk in the house wa s the resp on sibility of Bu ckland , whom Mason brou ght o ver from London fo r th e occasion; th e carvin g wa s b y Sear s, who is also th ou ght to hav e co me fro m En gland at M ason's requesr .r':' In th is and in subsequent co m m iss io ns, it w as th e efforts o f th o se tw o m en th at acco un t for much of th e roco co in southern archi tec ture. Bu ckl and 's next important co m m issio n, in T76I -64, was for John T aylo e ( 1721- 1779), who w as buildin g M ount Ai ry, a g rea t ston e hou se overl o ok in g th e Rappah annock Riv er , a few mil es so u th o f th e Potom ac. The interiors burned in the nineteenth ce n t u ry, but m an y o f th e pictures an d so me of th e fu rn itu re we re sa ve d. The mo st extraordin ar y of th ese pieces is an elab orate pier table ( FIG. 20) , w hich m ay be co nside re d an ext en si on o f th e int eri or ar chit ectu re of th e house . H Screws are used to secu re th e fram e, and m oldin gs ar e att ached w i t h ex pose d n ail s - te chnique s m or e co m m onl y used b y j oin er s th an b y cab ine tma kers . The carvin g , it s su rface textured with sha llow parallel lin es, h as th e di stin cti ve sty le of Scar s's w ork at Gunston H all. It is thus fair to co n cl ud e that Buckl and an d Sear s d esign ed and bu ilt th e t abl e as a pie ce of w all furnitur e, an int egr al pa rt o f th e M ount Air y interi or. Th e o v e ra ll d esi gn is tak en fr om a "Sideb oard T able" in T he Director (Plate LTx ), a patt ern havin g a pier ced ski rt an d legs o f su ch delic acy th at C hippendale recomm end ed using a woode n top. To support th e we ig hty sto ne , th e leg s of th e Mount Air y ex am p le we re reinforced in th e b ack, effecti vely blockin g th e pierced wo rk , an d th e sk irt w as m ade so lid and o rna me n te d w ith th e sa me g uil loche p attern o f o ve rla p p in g circles found o n window sur rounds in th e dr awing room at G uns to n H all. Midway bet w een th e Potom ac an d the Rapp ah ann o ck rivers , n ot far fr om Fr ederick sburg, lies M armi on , a Fit zhu gh famil y hou se built so metime ar ound th e middl e of th e eig h tee n th cen tury. Th e w alls of it s best parl o r (n ow at th e M etr op olit an Mu seum ) are sh ea the d in pan el in g th at wa s covere d a bo u t 1770, pro ba b ly w h en n ew, w it h the m o s t ex t rav aga n t p aint ed d ecor ative sc he me o f any co lo ni al Am eri can room. The en ta b la tu re, Ionic pil ast er s, and dado paneling are marbleized , and the lar ge w all panels are embellish ed in an alm os t Co nt ine nta l m anner w ith scrolls, swags, and ima gin ative ro coco stands o f fru it ( FIG . 21). In th e wo rld of Am eri can painted deco rati on, it is without peer. 4 5

M ahogallY pier table, ca. 1765, made for M ount Air y, th e J ohn Tayloe hou se, Warsaw . M ahogan y, 33 x .P'/2 x 25 in. (83. 8 x 108 x 63.5 em .)

FIGURE 2 0 .

32

FIGURE 21. Wall ofpar/or, ca . 177 0 , fro m M armion, th e J oh n Fit zhu gh hou se, near Fred eri ck sburg, as ins talled at T he M et ropolitan Museum o f Art

33

Parlor chininevpiece, 17 (j9- 7 0 , the Humphrey Som me rs hous e, C harleston. Photogr aph , ca. 1890

F IGU HE 22 .

34

Ornaments for cielin gs, &, to im ita te Sroco Work . " 5° By far th e su preme instance o f roc o co stucco wo rk in C ha rles to n is th e de cor ati on on th e wa lls of a roo m in w ha t is n o w th e Co lo ne l William Rh ett h ou se , 54 H asell St ree t. 5 1 T he re, ad de d t o th e ove r ma n tel an d ove r do o rs is lar g e, b ol d scro llw ork, rendered in a m ann er th at can be co m pa red with En glish o r Irish w ork .

In C harles ton, So u t h Ca ro li n a, arc h itec tu ra l ca rv ing was pa rtic u larly fas hio na b le. The Eng lish artisa n H enry Burnett su pe rvised th e executio n o f £ I ,0 00 wo rth o f suc h decorative wo r k at Saint Mi ch ael' s C h u rc h b etw een 1757 an d 1760 . W h ile n o recor d exis ts o f w ha t it lo ok ed lik e, so m e dozen exa m p les o f h ous eh old int eriors with o rna me n te d w oodwo rk do su rvive, th e grea tes t co nce n tra tio n in any co lo n ial A me rican city. The vas t m aj orit y o f buildings having rococo arc h itectu ra l d eco rati on w er e bu ilt bet w een 1767 an d 1772. Muc h o f th at wo r k h as b een at t r ib u t ed t o th e ca r v ers T ho mas W o odin , w h o arrived fr om Lo nd on in 1764 an d died in 1774 , an d J ohn Lord, who came from London in 1766 and sta yed in C harleston fo r nin e yea rs. { 6 Am on g th e g ra n des t o f th o se h ou ses is th at o f Mil es Brew to n , 27 K in g St ree t, w hic h was compl eted in 1769. It has a tw o-st ory en tra nce p orti co , a vas t secon d-floo r b allroom wi th a cove d ce iling , an d ya rd up on ya rd o f ela borat el y car v ed m old in g s. O ne of th e prim ary cra fts me n o n th e j o b , an d th e o n ly one n o w kn o wn b y nam e, was Ez ra Wa ite, w ho adve rtise d o n 22 Au gu st 17 69 as a "C iv il Archi tec t, H o use-builder in ge ne ral, and Ca rve r, from London [w ho has] fini sh ed th e arc hi tec ture . . . and carved all the [tabe rnacle fram es] in th e four prin cip al room s .. . o f Mil es Br ew ton , Esquire's H ouse. " { 7 The w ork is stro ng on carved m ol din gs and geometr ic fre two rk, cha racte ristics o f C ha rlest on arc hi tec tu ra l o rna me n t. O f all th e C ha r les to n ch irrineyp ieces in th is sty le, th at fro m th e parl or of th e Humphrey So m me rs h ou se, about 1769- 70, is th e full est ex p ress io n o f the woo d-ca rver's art (F IG . 22 ) . A co ntin uo us co rn ice unites the overma ntel fr am e and flan kin g pil ast ers in a co m pos itio n remini scent o f d esi gn s in R ob ert Morr is ' s Arch itec tura l Remem brancer (Lo n d o n , (7 51) . { 8 O n th e m antel frie ze an d w it h in th e arc h itrav e o f th e ove r ma n te l o f ano t he r ch im ney piece - this one at th e Daniel H eyw ard house-is figureeig h t- pa t te rne d fre two r k n ot unlik e th at found o n mu ch C ha rles to n case fu rn itu re. { Y The cabine tma ke r Thomas Elfe sup plied builders wi th fre two rk by th e foot (fo rty -six feet in Nove mbe r 1772) an d eve n th e occasio na l " fre t t ch im n ey piece .

MHH

.•.

_.-

,.' . ....

l:.1

t.

Newspaper ann ouncement s o f th e p e ri od s how th at

pa pe r hangin g s fro m Lond on we re w ide ly used in C ha rles t o n , th ou gh n o ex ampl es r emain in pl ace. P api er-rn ac he o rna me nt, ho w ever, su rv ives in th e ceiling o f th e down stairs parlo r o f th e Mil es Brewt on h ou se (F IG. 23) . The va rio us mo lde d m otifs- scr oll work , swa gs, an d b order s- ar e delicate in scale an d ar ra n ge d w ith mu ch m ore orde r an d taste tha n are o the r Am erican ex am p les (those at Ph ilip se M anor, for ins ta nce ). T he o rna me n t m ay be th e w ork ofJ ohn Blott, an uphol st er er who arr ive d fro m London in 1764 and advertised in th e So uth Caro li na G aeeue o f II M ay 176 5, " Machec

Parlor ceiling, ca. 1769. th e Mil es Br ew ton hou se, Charleston

FIGU RE 23 .

35

' ~ ~. '

'- . ':J-~

i

.... :r

•

ENGRAVINGS

A s qui ckl y as p r int ed de si gn s a rrive d from England , Am eri can eng rave rs felt free to co py th em, d uplicating them virtua lly lin e for lin e o n occasion, cha nging o nly th e text or, in the case o f b o okpl at es, t h e a rmo ria l. For exam p le, t h e eleg an t trad e ca rd (t he da te 1765 writte n on the reverse) of th e London brass w ir ema ker J osep h Welch (N o . 12) was th e pr ecise m od el for a card m ad e by Paul Revere for th e Boston hard w are m er ch ant W illiam Breck (his co py m arked 1770 on the rev erse) . It was also used fo r an a ll b ut ide ntica l ca rd

In eig htee nt h-cen tury Ameri ca, printed eng ra vings provided t he mo s t wi des p read m anifestati on o f ro co co o r n ame n t. Boo kp lates, tr ad e ca rds o f all sorts , m em ber ship ce rtificates and notificati ons, even th e titl e cartouc hes of m ap s - all we re in fl u en tial in o pe ni ng co lo nia l eyes to th e London fashion . They have ri ghtl y been called th e am bassado rs o f th e rococo style.' Eco nomic co nsi de ratio ns pla yed no s ma ll p art in th at phe no meno n . D ep endin g o n its size, a co ppe r pl at e co uld be ela bora te ly eng raved fo r an inves t men t o f as littl e as t wel ve sh illin gs, w ith th e cos t o f printing a hundred co pies far less. M an y A m erican artisa ns an d sho pkeepe rs (w ho never co u ld have afforded rococo-s ty le silver or furnitur e for th eir own use ) we re th er efo re able to indul ge in the fashionable En gli sh prac tice of owni ng elabo rate bu sin ess ca rds. " Suc h prints, o r ep he me ra, are ex t rao rd ina rily rar e today , o nly occas io na lly p rese rve d a ft e r h a vin g se rve d th eir o r ig ina l, sho rt - lived func tions , pe rh ap s as a bill head, a cra fts ma n's label , o r an invi tation to a lon g-ago eve nt . Bo t h in Eng la n d an d h er co lo nies, desi gn s for ephe m e ra - m o stl y asy m me t r ica l ca r t o u ch cs an d v ari ation s on rec tangu la r fram es - we re b ased o n a rel ati v el y sm all n u m be r o f prototyp es. R ampant co pyi ng w as th e practice. T he ea rl ies t d at ed En gli sh ro co co trad e ca rd was made b y H enr y Co p la n d in 1738. In 1746, he issu ed A Ne w B ook oj Orna m cnrs and M a tt hi as Lo ck eng raved A B ook of S h ields, t w o sui tes o f fu lly ro co co d e corati on , m o stl y ca r to u ch es , w hi ch initiat ed th e develo p me n t o f th e sty le . 3 In 17 52, th e two d esi gn er s co lla bo ra te d o n ano t he r publi cat ion , titl ed A New B ook oj O rnaments wi th T w elve L cavcs, w hic h w as th e vo lume th at fir st m ad e popular a light an d airy n atu rali sm and a tast e for fantasy and whim sy ."

(N o . 13) at tr ibu te d to Revere, m ad e for Wi lliam J ack so n , a B o ston dr y- g o od s m er ch an t and p rominent Tory, who pasted a co py on th e back of a loo king g lass he imported and so ld in 1770. 5 Th e im pr ession illu strat ed h ere was used as a bill for a t rans act ion of 28 Au gust 1773, as insc ribed on the rever se. For printin g o n p ap e r , th e engraver cu t t he d esig n in rev er se o n a co p pe r pl at e . For eac h impress io n , o r co py , required, he inked th e plate, covered it wi th a sheet of paper, an d ran it throu gh a pr ess.(, Fo r eng rav ing on various scientifi c o r m easurin g devi ces-cl o ck dia ls of silve red brass , for exa m p le -a n d th e o rna menta l mo un ts o f fir ea rm s o r o t her w eapons , th e design w as not reversed but eng raved as it was to b e se en, as o n o bjec ts of sil v e r. It was th e refor e n ot uncomm on for eng rave rs t o p ro v id e t heir se rv ices to si lve rs m it hs; a lte rna tively , so me silve rsm it h s, most not abl y Paul Rev er e, we re also ex pe rt engravers . Th e ma in ce n te rs of eng rav ing we re Bos ton an d Philadelphia. N ew York 's p ractitioner s, th ou gh less ac tive, had clo se ti es w ith th eir Ph il ad el phi a peer s, an d, lat e in the ce n t u ry, wh at mi ght b e co ns ide re d a d istin ct i v e regi on al sc hoo l of e ng rave rs flouri sh ed in ce n t ra l Co n nec tic u t. In B o st on , the eng ra ve rs w hose wor k inclu d e d fine rococo o rna men t were Thom as J ohn st on (h is birthp lace unkn o wn) and N athaniel Hurd an d Paul Rever e, both nati ve b o rn. Their wo rk was decorative but o rde rly, havin g sy m me trical ca rto uc hes ma de u p of scrolls, foliage, and o the r m oti fs

H+itillg ccrtijicate, attributed to Abel Buel! (N o . 36 )

37

12

13

Trade card ofJ oseph Welch London, 1760-6 5 Engraving on paper, 6% x 5-% in. The Metropolitan Museum of Art

Trade card of Willialll J acksoll Attributed to Paul Revere. Boston, 176 5-70 Engraving on paper, 7% x 6 1/4 in. American Antiquarian Society

o f th e ro coco rep ert oire . J ohnst on ( 1708- 1767) w as ac tive in B ost on b y 1726 an d adve rt ise d hi s own sho p in 173 2. 7 In his tr ad e ca rd o f th at yea r, he d escrib ed him self as a "jap an er " w ho did j apannin g , varn ishi ng, drawin g , gild ing, paintin g , and eng rav ing . H e was also a h ou sep ainter, a sig n painter, an d an o rga n build er. His success ca n b e m easured by th e subs ta n tial esta te h e had am assed at his death . ~ O f th e m ore th an thirt y kn own eng ravings of hi s, four m ap s, t w o tr ad e ca rds, an d o ne b o o kpl at e in clu de clem ents o f ro co co o rnam ent. Hi s fir st essa y in th e sty le see ms to have been th e titl e car tou ch e o n a m ap h e m ad e in 17 5 3 . T h e p aint e r J ohn Greenwoo d , w ho was ap p re n ticed to J ohn ston fro m abo ut 1742 to 1745, lat er recall ed th at o ne of h is task s durin g th at period was to eng ra ve bo o kplates. ~

Nath an iel Hurd ( 1730- 1777 ) was b orn in Bo s ton and tr ained in silve rs m it hi ng b y h is fathe r, th e highl y regard ed cra fts ma n J acob Hurd (sec p . 84) . The yo u nge r Hurd never di stin gu ish ed him self as a s ilve rs mi t h b u t exce lled in eng raving o n b oth co p pe r an d silver. H e is best kn o wn for hi s heraldi c b ookpl at es, fort y o f w h ic h arc sig ne d by h im and fifteen m o re arc att ri bu ted to h im. W The so u rce for th e her aldic illu str at ion s o n at leas t t w ent y- eight of th e fifty- five pl at es wa s J ohn Guill irns Displ ay 4 H eraldry, th e six th edi tion (Lo nd o n, 1724) " imp ro ved wi th lar ge ad di tio ns of m an y hundred coa ts o f arms." II Wh en Hurd's po rt rait was painted by J ohn Sin gleton Cop ley abo ut 1765 , th e subje ct was seat ed be hi nd a tabl e o n w hic h lay a co p y of th e herald ic ma nual. " B o st on-b orn P aul Re ve re ( 173 5- 18 18) was t rained as a

silve rs m ith by his Fren ch im m ig rant fathe r, Apollos Riv oire, an d t o ok o ve r h is sho p in 17 54-, afte r R i vo i res de ath . Rever e 's career in eng ravi ng g rew ou t o f his silve rs m ithing and re mai ned secon da ry to it. Hi s tw o vo lu mes o f D ay Books . o r led g er s (the fir st coveri ng th e years 1761 - 83; the seco nd, 17 84 - 9 7), d o cum ent h is bu sin ess in b oth sk ills. 13 T h ou gh th e b o ok s record o n ly o u ts ta n d ing ac co u n ts and co nta in no m ention o f w o rks paid for in cas h on delivery o r o f pr oj ect s he initiat ed him self, th ey do cument his produ cti o n o f th e full ran g e of printed ep heme ra , including Massachuse tts cu rre ncy an d me tal- cut illu strations for magazines an d new sp aper s, m any of whi ch h av e b een identified and show ro co co influ en ce . All to ld, Revere is asso ciated wi th ele v en bookpl at es an d a lik e number o f trade ca rds . q Th ou gh as an eng ra ve r h e is best known for patriotic propaga n da print s, es pecia lly hi s representati on o f the Boston M assacr e, a number o f hi s b ookp lat es, tr ad e cards , and certificates are acco m plishe d exa m ples of th e roco co sty le. In 1757, R ev ere m ar ri ed Sar ah O rne ( 1736 - 1773) an d afte r her dea th he m arried Rachel Walk er ( 1745-18 13); eleve n childre n s urvive d fro m th e tw o m arr iag es. A s a p atri ot, Revere, w ho served b rie fly as a lieu te na nt in th e French and In dia n Wa r (1754--63), is fa mous fo r h is Rev o lut ion ar y ac tiv i ties, especia lly th e o ne im m o rt al ized in 1861 b y Lo ng fe llow in The lv[idllig h t R ide oj Paul R ev ere. Re vere em ba rked o n th at rid e on 18 April 1775 as m essen ger for the M assachusetts Com mi ttee o f Correspo nde nce . He w as also a mem be r o f th e Son s o f Lib ert y an d, fr om 1776 to 177 9, lieutenan t co lo ne l o f the M assachu setts Sta te 's Train of Artillery. A p rominent Freem ason, he belon ged to three different lo dges be twee n '760 an d 1810 and w as Grand M ast er of the G rand Lodge o f M assachusetts from 179 5 to 179 7. 15 In Philad elphi a, th e mo st fam ou s en gra vers to work in the ro co co sty le w ere James Turn er , Henry D awkins , and J am es Smith er. All w er e En gli sh immi gr ants who h ad t rai ne d in th e s pecia lty. Th ei r o rna me n ta l w ork, in the Englis h m ann er see n in eng ravings b y Lo ck , Co plan d, and Jo h nso n, has a g rea te r se nse o f m ovem ent , o f asy m met ry, tha n does th at of th e Bo st on engrave rs . Turner (active 1743-

m ap o f the middle Br iti sh colon ies in 1755, J o shu a Fisher's cha rt o f Delaw ar e Bay (No. 38) in 1756, and Nicholas Scull's m ap o f th e Pr ovince o f Penn sylvania in 1758. T u rne r died of sma llpox th e ne xt year. Henry D awkin s (d. (786) worked in New Yo rk as well as in Phil adelphi a . I X T he son ofJ oh n Dawki ns, a Lo n d o n bri ckl ay er , h e w as a p pre n ticed in 1749, after h is fa ther's death, to th e Lond on engrave r J am es Wigley. I') By 1754, he w as in N ew York, w here he eng raved a b ookplat e (No. (8 ) for J ohn Burnet. In 1755, D aw kin s adve rt ised th at he had set up hi s o w n sh o p , "where h e eng raves in all so rts of m etta ls." 2O Short ly afte r ward , he m o v ed to Phi lad elphi a an d th er e, in 1757, m arried Pri scill a Wo od . H e wo r ke d bri efl y for Turn er before an no u nc ing in J anu ar y 17 58 th at h e h ad opened his ow n bu sine ss in neigh bo rin g pr em ises:

d . (7 59) lo cat e d fi rst in t h a t ci ty, where hi s ea rl ies t kn o wn

o r name n ts G u ns a nd P ist o ls , both engraving and in laying

effo rt, a view of Bo ston H arbor, ap pea re d in Th e A merican M ag azin e of 1743, an d ano the r o f th e same su bjec t w as published th e foll owin g yea r. 16 T w o yea rs lat er, he advert ised as a silve rs mi t h an d eng rave r. Hi s views of Bo st on Harb or p roba b ly attra cted th e attention o f th e m ag azin e's Philadelp h ia di stribut or , B enj amin Fr ankl in . Fr ankl in ar ran ge d fu rt he r co m m iss io ns for Turn er and m ay h av e b een th e cause o f his movin g to Phil adelphia, wher e he had settled by 17 54 . 17 Fr anklin ' s influen ce provided Turn er with his th ree m aj or eng ra v ing co m m iss io ns in the city- Lew is Evan s 's

Silver, at th e m o st Reason abl e Rat es. "'4 H e is known bes t fo r t he spectac u la r ro co co advertise men ts of th e Ph ilad elphian s Benj am in Ran d ol p h an d Rob ert Ken ned y (Nos. 32, 3 3) . In 1769, Smith er adver tised " P ro posa ls for o pe ning A Drawin g Sch o ol, Bein g a n ew in st ituti on in th is ci ty ... where yo u ng ge n tle me n an d ladi es sha ll b e ca re fu lly in structed in th at useful art. "' 5 H e m o ved to N ew York in 1777 , sho rt ly b efo re th e S u p re me E x ecuti v e Co u nc il of Penn s yl va n ia accu sed him of th e cri me also co m mi tte d by Dawkins - co unterfeiting currency .

H en r y D awkin s . Engraver from London. W ho lately w ro ug h t wi t h M r. J am es T u rner; hav ing now. ente red in to b us iness for himself. . . engraves all so rts of maps. Shopkeepe rs bills. bills of parcels . coa ts of Arms for gen tlern ens books, coa ts of Arms. cyphers and other devices on Plat e likew ise seals and mourning rings cut after th e neatest manner and at the most reasonable rates.' 1

D awk in s return ed to New Yo rk in 1774, on t he eve of the Revoluti on . Thou gh he was impriso ned for coun terfeiting co lo n ia l b ank n ot es in 1776, two yea rs la te r foun d him engravi ng th e fir st coa t of ar ms for New York State and , in 1780, th e new co u n try's officia l currency. The las t me nt ion o f him is in an adve rt isement o f 3 M ay 1786 in Ph iladelphia's Freeman' s j ournal for th e sa le of "Eig h t el eg antl y eng raved co pper- plates, by D awkin s. " " J am es Smither ( 1741-1797) is th ou ght to h ave tr ain ed in En gland as a maker and orna mcn ter o f fir carrn s. f' Th e fir st notice o f him in Am eri ca was in th e Pennsylvania C hronicle o f 18 Apri l 176 8, where h e an no u nce d th at h e perform ed " All M anner of Engravin g in Go ld, Silve r, Coppe r, Stee l, and all o the r M et als- C oat s of A rm s, and Seals, done in th e neatest M ann er. Lik ewise cu ts St am ps, Br and s, an d m et al C u ts for P rint ers, an d o rna me n ta l Tools fo r B o o k b ind e rs. H e also

39

co lo n is ts , suc h as J am es Lo g an, w hose fu lly ro co co boo kplat e m u st d at e we ll b efor e hi s d e ath , in 17 5 1, h a d t h e ir bookplat es engra ve d in En gl and . 2 ( '

Bookplates

N athani el Hurd s pecia lize d in th e re n deri ng of bookp lates, three-qu arter s o f th em ro co co in sty le , for Bo ston 's elite. 2 7 Th e ea rl ie s t d at ed Am eri can r o co co b o o kp la te (N o . 14) , eng ra ve d w it h th e n am e o f Thom as D erin g ( 1720 - 178 S) an d th e dat e 1749, was m ad e b y Hurd w he n he w as o nly nineteen years o ld . Th e m antlin g , whi ch h e w as to e mp lo y on a numb er of later b o okp lat es, s ig na led th e int ro du ct io n o f ro co co-st yl e eng raved o rna men t to N ew England . T he D er in g famil y is ge ne ra lly ass o cia t e d w it h N e w York , but Th om as w as bo rn in B o ston an d m o ved to Shelter Isl an d , o ff th e eas te rn end of Lon g Isl and , N ew Yo rk, on ly in 17 S0 . Th e a r ms (t h ree s tags ' head s) are lik e th o se of th e D eerin g famil y g iven in G u illi ms D ispl ay oj H eraldry. 2H T he asym m etrical m antl e o f th e b o okplate is co m pose d of C - scr oll s w it h rocaille wo r k fra m ing th e sh ield and sp iky g rasses and flower s proje ctin g fro m e it he r side ; at th e bo t to m, w ater pours fro m an o pening in a she ll.

The dim inu tive b u t e labora te ly e ngraved bo okp la te (w ha t Dawki ns ca lled "coa ts o f A rms fo r ge n tle m en s bo o ks " ) is perh ap s th e best in di cat io n of th e p restige of bo ok s an d th e va lue g iven to t heir o w nershi p in co lo n ial Am er ica. P ast ed o n th e in sid e co ve r of a b ound vo l ume (see N o . 2 1), a b o o kpl at e pr oudl y id enti fi e d its ow ner an d issu e d a t acit warn ing t o th e wo u ld -be b o rr o w e r. Alth ou gh a fe w eig hteen th-cent u ry librari es survi ve m o re or less intact, su ch as th at ofJ am es Lo g an at th e Librar y Compa ny of Ph ilad elphia an d th at o f Isaac N orris at D ick inso n College, Ca rlisle, Pennsylvani a, an d though th ere are listi ngs o f th e co ntents o f o t h e rs in e ig h t e e n t h - ce n tu r y inv ento ri es, o n ly thr ou gh book pla tes can th e lar ge number o f o nce -existing pri vate and publi c lib rar ies b e ide n ti fied . At th e en d of th e nin et eenth ce n tury, w hen it w as fas hio na b le to co llect bo okplat es, th e majori ty of Am eri can exa m p les we re rem oved fr om th eir ho us ings an d m ount ed in a lb u m s . Th ou gh d isemb odi ed , th ey still pr eser ve th e na mes of th o se Am eri can s po ssessin g eno ug h vo lu mes to wa rra nt th e co m m issio ning of a per son al lab el. Of b o o kpl at es ass ig na b le to th e third q uarter of th e eig h tee n t h ce n t u ry, th e grea t p r ep ond er an ce are in th e ro co co sty le . Unlik e any o t her form of printed ephe mera o f th e tim e, m ost survive in multipl e impressions . Bo okplates w er e always per son ali zed w it h th e owne r's n am e o r a r ms . Wh ethe r h e w as en title d to b ear t he latter, acco rd ing to th e Co llege o f H erald s in London , m att er ed not. G u ill i rns D ispl ay o] H eraldry was th e m o st p opul ar so u rce for th e a r rno ria ls. The deco rat ive carto uches or m andi n gs chosen t o su rr o u n d th e armo ria l sh ield we re co pied fr om s tock En gli s h prot ot yp es in spir ed in turn b y th e eng ravi ngs Lo ck a n d Co p la n d publi sh ed in th e 1740 S a nd 1750S. In N ew En gl and , N athani el Hurd , rel yin g heavil y o n G u ill i m, p la y ed th e lea di ng rol e in b o okpl at e d esi gn an d p roduction ; in N ew York and Phil ad elphia, D awkins prob abl y ca me as close as anyo ne to fillin g that po sit ion . Before tr ained eng rave rs w ere ava ila ble in Am er ica, so me bo okish

The ro co co-m antl e d esi gn Hurd u sed fo r T ho m as D erin g was e m p loye d w it h o n ly min o r va ria tions b y T h om as J ohn ston o n a bo okpl at e w ith th e arms of th e O liver family, featu rin g an o uts t re tc he d ar m g ras ping a gro tesquely seve red h and (N o . IS ) . The d es ign is pl a ced lo w o n t he co p p e r , leavin g no ro om fo r th e owner 's n am e. The plate is sa id to have b e en u sed b y And rew O liv er ( 170 6 - 1774) , lieut ena n t gove rno r of th e Pr ovin ce o f M as sa chu sett s Ba y .r'" Th at, h ow ever , is unlikel y ; a no t he r b o o kpl at e wi t h th e O liv er arm s, a t t r ib u te d to P aul R e v ere , promin entl y di s pl a y s O live r's n a m e. v" Th e J ohn st on b o okpl at e, o ne of four he sig ned, is hi s o n ly o ne in th e n e w s ty le . Th e a w k wa rd at tac h me n t of th e ribb on sc ro ll o n th e d esign m a y be e vi den ce that J ohnst on to ok Hurd 's basic pattern and adapted it to acco m moda te th e O live r famil y m otto. P aul R ev ere 's essays in ro co co b o okpl at e des ig n co nsist of three sig ne d plates and four o the rs th at have bee n attributed to him . .11 All hav e th e same m antl in g an d m otto ribbo n and are a slig h tly sq ua tte r, m ore sy m m et rical, and m o re co heren t versi on o f th e Hu rd a nd J o hn s ton m o de l. v'" The b ookpl at e ofE pes Sarge n t ( 172 1- 1779) , th e ar ms a chevron between three dolphin s (N o . 16), ca n be da ted precisel y . In an en t ry o f 27 Septemb er 176 4 in Rever e 's ledg ers, Sargent is c ha rged " To En gra vin g your Arm s o n a Co p pe r Pl at e 0 - 12-0 " and "To ISO P rints at 4S pr Hund . 0 - 6 -0 . " 3 .1 Th at p ro v es h o w in e xp en siv e b o okpl at es were a fte r t he ini ti al inves tm en t in th e engravi ng.

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Bookplate of T homas Dering N ath ani el H ur d , Boston , 1749 En gr avin g o n pap er , 2 7/ 8 x 2 Y2 in . Th e M et ro po lit an Museum o f Art

Bookplate w ith Olil'erfami/}' arms Thomas J ohns ton , Bost on , 1755-65 En g ravin g o n pap er, 37/8 x 31/8 in . Ameri can Antiquari an Soc iety

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Bookplate of Epcs

Bookplate of Gardiner C handler

S OI:,?Cll t

Paul Rev ere, Bo ston , ca. 176 5 En gr avin g o n pap er, 3-Y8 x 2'Y, in . Am eri can Antiqu ar ian So ciet y

Paul Revere, Bo st on , 1764 Engraving o n pap er, 3Y4 x 2Y2 in . Am eri can Antiqu arian So ciet y

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Th e b o okpl at e for Ga rd ine r C ha n dler ( [723 - 17S2), a Bost on m erch ant and Lo yalist (N o . 17), has man tlin g identical to th at o f Ep es Sa rge nt's. It d iffe rs so mew hat, ho w ev er, fro m the m antle th at surro unds th e identical C handl er famil y arm s (t h ree lion s o n a chec ke re d g ro u nd ) on a silve r sa lve r Re ver e su p p lie d to Ga rd iner's sis te r Lu cr eti a (see No. 7[). Reve re see ms ne ver to h av e u sed th e bo o k pl ate m an tl e for any o the r purpose. Th e ea r lie s t kn o wn Am eri can e ngr avi ng b y t h e prolific H enr y Daw k ins is a b o okpl at e (N o . 18) he ma de in 175-+, durin g h is bri ef stay in Ne w York C ity, for J oh n B urn et , a lo cal at to rney . Th e desig n is co m posed ofa prin cipa l cartou ch e e n clos ing th e Bu rn et a r ms (t h ree holl y leaves and a huntin g horn ) and a seco nd , horizontal ca rtouche containin g Burnet 's nam e, th e w hole flan ked by pairs of figures appea rin g in ca re free mu s ical pur suit s . Thi s is on e of th o se rare occas io ns in Am eri can u sag e of th e h um an all usion s comm on in E u ro pea n ro c o co desig n. T he d ou b le- ca rt o u c h e a r ra nge me n t was a we ll- k now n Eng lis h o rnam ental design th at D awk in s re pea te d in a numb er of o ther bookp lates, but ne vc r aga 1l1 w it h th e t e chni cal acco m p li s hment o f thi s exa m ple.

'" ".\ '. 1\.

v~:~

Th e d oubl c-cartou ch c desig n m ad e it s way u p th e H ud so n an d was th e m odel fo r a co pper pl at e (N o . 19) engraved b y th e nati ve-born Andrew Billin gs ( [743- [SoS), of Pou gh keepsie, N e w York. But h o w diffe rent fr o m Dawkins's! While possessed o f a naiv e cha rm, th is is rende ring by a hand unt uto re d in th e ni ceti es of Eng lis h co ppe r- p late eng ra ving . T he book plate, illu strat ed in a twenti eth-century imp ression, w as m ad e fo r Philip Van Ren ssel aer ( [747 - 17CJ S), pr o babl y somet im e bet w een hi s m a rri ag e to M ari a Sa nde rs , in [7(iS, and th e buildin g o f C he r ry Hill , hi s co un t ry hou se on the outski rts o f Alb an y , in [7S(i. Th e copper pl at e, still at C herr y H ill, bears testim o n y to t he rapid t ran sform ati o n from the elega nt and form al rococo of th e ci ty's spe cially trained artisans to th e eng ag ing lin ear pattern s of th e co untry co p yist. O n e o f th e fe w d at ed Am er ican boo k p la te s in t h e ro coco m od e is th at for IEIl, V N, RENSSELAEH (N o . 20), engraved by Elisha G allaudet in [7(il . Th e ab b revia tio ns prob ably refer to J er emi as ( I73 S- 1704) , of th at bra n ch of rhe Van Ren sselae r fa mi ly th e n o cc u py in g th e Lo w er M an o r, on t he east ba nk o f th e Hudson . The boo kp late is of th e standard as ym mc rrical-ca rto u che t y pe , wi th th e fami ly 's qua rtered ar m s (cros s, ba t tle me n t a n d s ta rs, c r o w ns , c hev ro n s) in a de si gn n ot unlike th at Hurd used in N e w Eng la nd (see N o . q ) . Ga lla u dc t , b orn o f Hu gu en ot s to ck in Ne w R o ch ell e , New York, abo u t 1730, w as lo call y tr a in ed . H e m a r ried J ean ne

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Bookplate of) 01111 Burnet Henry Dawki ns, New York, 1754 Engravi ng on paper, 37/ , x 3 in. The Metrop olitan Museum of A rt

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Platejar Philip Vall Rensselaer bookplate Andrew Billin gs. Pou ghk eep sie. 17(jS-S6 En gr aving on co pper. 3% x 2 7/ H in. Toge ther with recent impression (abo ve) H isto ric Cherr y H ill

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IE:V: REN.sSELAER.:.-

Bookplate (~fJcrel/lias Val/ Rensselaer Elisha Gall aud ct , N ew Yor k . 17(,1 En gra vin g on paper , 31/2 x 2% in. H istor ic C he rry Hill

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Bookplate oj Isaac N orris J am es Turner. Philadelphia. ca. 17 57 En gr avin g on pap er, 3 'I" x 2-% in. O n inside cove r o f book Dickin son C olle ge

ab roa d as a yo u ng m an led h im to increase m an yfol d th e library he inherit ed fr om hi s farhe r .:'" In Novem be r 1757, he be g an a ca t a log ue o f th e b o ok s ; th at is lik el y th e t im e h e order ed hi s bo okpl ate fr om Turn er. Th e librar y desce n de d to hi s d au ghter M ar y, w ho m arried J ohn Dickinson in 1770. In 178 5, Di ckin son ga ve so me six tee n hun dr ed o f the vo lum es to wh at w as to be nam ed Dick in son College, at C~ r­ li sl e, where th e y st ill rem ain . Som e four hundred o f them have the Turner bookpl at e, ofte n past ed o n to co lo rful m arbled board s, an evoca tive reminder of a learn ed Am erican 's librar y . J"

Dubo is in 17 5 5 and b y 17 59 was in N ew York C ity , when he was li st ed as a su bscr iber, alo ng wi t h " M r. Furer [Fu et er]' Silvers m it h in Fre nc h C h urch Street," to a series o f eng ra ve d port raits . H In I n l , Ga lla u de r m oved fr om Smith Street t o th e " B roa d - Way near th e B o wling Green ," wher e he carr ied on hi s eng rav ing busin css. v' H is Van Ren ssel aer boo k p la te ill us t ra tes a conside ra b le co m pe te nce , thou gh n o ge n ius, in th e technique o f English eng rave d rococo ornament. A sma ll nu m b er of b o okpl ates eng raved in Phil ad elphi a b y T u rner or Dawk ins exh ib it th e writhin g an d ene rge tic qu ality, th e pi ayfu l irrat ion alit y , o f th e eng raved ro co co d esi gns Loc k and Co p la n d pub li sh ed in Lond on . Turn er , wh o as ea rly as 18 10 was d e s crib ed as "th e b est eng r a ve r w h ic h ap pea re d in t he co lo n ies b efore th e revoluti on , " 3 6 reach ed t he a pogee o f h is t al ent durin g hi s Ph il ad elphia soj ourn o f five or six yea rs be fore hi s d eath , in 17 59. Among hi s fine st wo rk is a bo okplate (N o . 21 ) , m ad e for th e bibliophile Isaac N o r ri s , o f th e do u b le-cartou ch e t yp e: th e upp er part surroun d ing th e N o rr is a r ms (ch ev r o n bet w een three r a vens ' heads) is in Co p la n d's spiky style (see FI G . 3, p . 3); th e vase at t he m iddl e r ig h t w as a m otif mu ch favored b y Phil ad elp hia ca rvers (see N o . 160). N orris ( 1701- 1766) to ok over th e fami ly mercantile business at hi s father 's d eath, in 173 5, and in 17 50 was elec te d to t he firs t o f seve ra l t erm s as Sp e ak er o f th e P enn s yl van ia A ssembl y . A so li d class ica l ed uc at io n an d ex te ns ive trav el

Amon g D awkin s ' s b e st ro co co book p lates is th e o ne h e made for Francis H opkin son (N o . 22 ) . Th e asy m me trica l ca r tou ch e is enliv en ed by a fanta st ic hi s sin g d rago n se t again st a clo udy sky, th e so rt of ca p rice th at is cha rac teris tic of Co p la n d's w ork . H opkin s on ( 17 3 7 - 17 9 1) was b orn in Philad elphia and st u d ied law u n de r Benj am in C hew, at torne y g en er al of th e Pro vin ce o f Pennsyl vania. An au t ho r an d accompli sh ed mu si ci an , H opki n son presum ably ga t hered a siz abl e librar y . The bo okplat e, w ith th e fami ly arms (a chevron an d three sta rs), w as probabl y o rde red so metime arou nd hi s seco n d marri ag e, to Ann Bord en, in 1768 . Ab out 1773 , h e m ov ed t o B ord ent o wn (na me d fo r hi s fa t he r- in - law), N ew Jersey, wher e he rapidl y ac hieved pol iti cal pr ominen ce. He w as a sig ne r o f th e D e clar at ion of Indep end en ce fro m New J ers ey .

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Bookplate of Francis Hopkinson Henr y D awkins, Phil adelph ia, ca. 1768 Eng ravi ng on pape r, 3 '!~ x 3 in. Am erican Anti qua rian Socie ty

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Books, M etal Cuts, and

A co mplete A.ss o R T M E NT at th~ UNI VERSAL STORE, or

Bookbindings

Bo ok s o f shee t musi c reprodu ced b y m ean s o f co p pe r- p late eng ravi ngs and w ith eng raved titl e pages are amo ng th e few Am er ican imprints to have fashi on abl e ro coco o rna m en t. A good exa m p le is J am es Lyon 's Urania, or A C hoice Collection (~r Psalm- TIIIlCS, A nt hems, and H YIllIl S (N o . 23). The vo lu me was exec u te d in Philad elphi a in 17°1 b y th e ind e fati gabl e Daw kin s. A h and some ca rto uc he, occas io n ally in vaded b y the lett erin g, fill s t he n arr o w h ori zont al space o f th e title page. Urania w as one o f so me two do zen publicati on s issu ed be t w een 1760 a n d [705 b y Willi am Br adford ( 1722 - 1791), wh o had learn ed th e printin g tr ad e fro m Andrew Br adford , hi s un cle an d th e founder o f th e first newsp ap er in Penn sylva n ia. Mu si c b o ok s lik e th ese we re ex t re mely popul ar. In Boston , between 17 55 and 176o , T ho mas J ohnst on eng ra ve d e it he r thr ee or fou r se ts o f s uc h p la t es . ?" In 17°4 , Rev ere co pie d D awkin s's titl e page alm o st exactly for A Collection (~r T he best Psalm TIIIlCS, ill tw o, three, andfo ur Parts,"? co m piled b y J o si ah Flag g, an almos t unp reced ented case o f Phil ad elphi a en gr avin g having influen ce in Bost on . Illu st rat ion s fo r eig h tee nt h-century new sp ap ers, br o ad sid es, alma na cs, an d pam phl ets we re almos t always m et al cu ts th at is, eng ra v ings o n t ype-m et al (a lead alloy) suitab le for in corporati on in pages o f n ewsprint. The b est do cumented of s uch. wo r k is a g r o u p o f some twe n ty- two b y P aul R e vere , wh o in hi s led ge r referred to th e pro ce ss as " E n g ra vi ng a Leadin g p la te for n e w sp ap er. "4 ' Re vere ' s met al cu ts neve r ev ince th e as pi ra tio n to orn am ent of hi s eng ra vings. Of all th e met al- cut illu strati on s in th e co lo n ial press, o n ly o ne can be 5a id t o aim fo r h igh rococo fas hio n : th e adve rt ise me n t ( FIG. 24) of th e N e w York dr awin g ma st er and m er ch ant Ge ra r d us Du y cki n ck (1723 - 1797), w h ic h ap pea re d in Th e N ew - York Ga zette and the Week ly M ercury from 170 7 to 1769. O n D uycki nc k 's notice, do zen s of rococo raffl es and sc ro lls are link ed to g et he r to crea te a m ir rorlik e fr am e- lo n g a n d na r row t o fit th e sha pe of a n e w sp ap er co lu m n - in w hich to pr ocl aim Du yckinck 's wa res.

FIG UR E 2 4.

Ad vertisem ent of Gera rd us D uy ckinck ,

1767-6'), The New- York Ga zette awl the Weekl y M crcurv, M etal cut o n paper , ')% x 3 in . (23. ') x 7.6 cm. )

------- -_ .- - - --'- =

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23 Title page of Urania H enr y Da wkins , Philadelphia , 1701 En g ravin g on paper , 4 x 81/2 in. American Antiq uar ian Soc iety

Deco ra te d boards o n American bookbindin gs from th e latter part of th e e ig h t ee n t h ce n t u ry a re v e ry r ar e , prim aril y beca use o f a tr end th at began in the 1760s, with th e in creased ava ilabi li ty o f b o o k s , t o s h e lve them upright , with their spines visib le, rather than horizontall y, w ith th e ed ges of the p ag es ex po se d . (Isaac N orris m ad e that shelving sw itc h in 1764.)42 Stored in th e ne w way, the co ve rs we re not vi sibl e an d th er e was n o pu rp o se in de co ratin g th em . The onl y exce p tio ns we re p resentati on volum es, o fte n k ept out o n a table . P erh ap s th e so le Ameri can binder w ho se w ork ever really ac hieved a roco co sensibility was Rob ert Aitken ( 1735(80 2). T rain ed in hi s n ati ve Scotl and, he m ad e a re connaissa nc e v is it to Phi lad el phi a ill th e s u m m e r o f 1769 . In M a y 1771, he se ttle d th er e perm anentl y wi t h hi s famil y; a m onth later he se t up hi s printin g and bindery sho p o n Front Street . Th e was te boo k , o r lo g , o f th at busin ess, whi ch dates fr om th e shop 's incepti on until 180 2, d et ail s it s su ccess. In 1782, Ait ken was described as " ha ving th e m ost tast e o f a printer of an y m an in [Philadelphia]. "4.1 Aitken 's g rea t ro co co ac hieve men t wa s th e spec ial bindin g of a n u m b er o f co pies o f a popul ar Scotti sh w ork , L eet ures 0 11 Rhetoric and B elles L cu res, b y Hu gh l3lai r. Aitk en pu b li shed th e fir st Am eri can ed itio n o f th e b o ok in 1784,

co u n tin g on g oo d sa les to m ak e up fo r th e m on e y h e h ad lost on the so-called Ait ken l3ibl e, an ed ition he had brou ght out in 1782 . Of L ectures 011 Rh etoric, he sa id , " If th e Lit er ati are not blind to th eir own inter est , [th ey] mu st purch ase th is wo rk with g rea t avidity. " ?" O f th e few existing co pies of the thick paper ed iti o n , wi t h its elabo ra te ly to ol ed leat her bindin gs, on e has a hist ory o f havin g bee n pr esented b y an o the rwi s e unid entifi ed G era r d us C la rkso n to hi s so n in 1788, wh en the yo u t h g ra d ua ted fro m N assau H all. That p roven an ce co r res po nds to a bindin g e n t ry in th e was t e b o ok, sec u ring the bind in g 's at t ributi o n .t'" On ano t he r co py (N o . 24 ) , sa id to h av e b el on g ed t o o ne C ha r les Th omp son (C ha rles Th om son , fi r st se cretar y o f the Co n t ine n t a l Co n -

g res s?), th e bindin g is o f smoo t h red m oro cco, ela bo ra te ly tooled in go ld .'!" The spi ne has six pan els, o ne w it h th e title, BLAIR' S / LE CTU RES , eac h o f th e others w it h a cen t ra l o v al and a ribbon . Th e fr ont a n d b a ck cove rs h a v e el abor at e foli at e bord er s d e co rat ed w it h a b ask et an d co lu m ns an d inh abited b y pa r rots, pho eni xes, an d in sect s. Wer e th e d ies for th ese st amp s amo ng th e o r na me n ta l t o ol s for b o okbinders Smither adve rt ise d in 176S? London bindin gs o f th e ea rly 1770S di spl a y a lmos t id enti cal w ild life but a rc more pr ecise!y det ailed . 17

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24 Back cover o f Lectures Oil Rhetoric and Belles Lcttrcs Rob ert Aitken , Phi ladelphi a, 178-l Red mor occo, go ld tooled , 10% x 8% in. Ameri can Antiquarian Socie ty

Trade Cards and Other Epheme ra

In E ng lan d an d in h er Ameri can co lo n ies, e ng rave rs w er e ca lle d o n to provi de o rna me n ta l prints to be distributed in fu rt hera nce o f ind iv id ua l bu sin esses an d th e activiti es of vario us o rga n iza tio ns . What had bee n an occasio na l ve nt u re in advertising in th e 1730S and 1740S became a co m mo n pr acti ce b y th e [760 s, w he n a n umb er o f lar ge an d h and som e rococo shee ts eng raved in th e fu ll Lon don m anner we re produced in America. T he tr ad e ca rd (sho rt for tr ad esm an 's card) usu all y co nsis te d of an o rname nta l carro uc he deck ed o ut w it h illu str ation s of th e wa res of th e m er ch an t o r th e sho p kee pe r and con tai n ing hi s n am e , add re ss, a n d a de scripti on of hi s inte res ts . Th e y r an g e in s ize fr om little lar g er than a boo k pla teto a fu ll p ag e. In 1774, t w o recentl y a rriv ed London engravers - Jo h n Hutt in N ew Yo rk an d J ohn Norm an in Philad elph ia -u sed almos t pr ecisely th e same lan gu age to adve rtise t he va rie ty o f th eir co m me rc ial ep he me ra , whi ch in cluded shop b ills, b ills of excha nge, bill s o f ladin g , bill s of parcels.! " Th o se distin cti on s no lon ger ha ve mu ch m eaning, tho ug h some of th e few exa m p les th at rem ain, m o stl y in uniqu e im p ress ion s, h a ve ac t ua l acco unts w ritte n on th em . O ther popul ar uses of o rna men ta lly eng raved shee ts we re as cer tifica tes o f m ember ship o r achieveme nt in an o rga niza tio n and as invi ta tio ns to , o r n otifi cati on s o f, an org ani zati on ' s even t. R e v ere ' s led g e r s include num e rou s ch a rges for cng rav ing s ingle pl ates , usuall y a t a cos t o f b et w een t w o an d

t hree pou nds, an d fo r print in g b et w een o ne hundred a n d t w o h u n d red im p ress io ns , at a cos t o f four to six sh illings pe r hundred. O ne o f th e ea rl ies t Am eri can ro co co trad e ca r ds w as engraved in [757 b y Thom as J ohnst on for Bost on hardwar e me rcha n t Lew is D ebl oi s (N o. 25) . The phrase " Bot o f Lewis Deb lois" eng ra ve d b y J ohn st on belo w th e o rna me n t sho ws the exa mp le to have ac tua lly been a bill head, th e lower part of the sheet n o w re moved. Wh at is kn o wn abo ut D eb lo is is

25

T radc card of Lewis D cblois T homas j ohnston, Bost o n , 1757 Eng rav ing on paper, (,.% x 7% in. W in tert h ur Library

49

g lea ne d from hi s adve rtise me n ts in Bo sto n newspapers. In [7 5[ , h e was in p artn e r ship w it h h is b ro ther Gilbert, an importer o f brass an d pe wter; in Septem ber 1757. he was in partn er ship w ith a m an nam ed Wi ckh am at the sign of the Golden E agl e . Before th e en d o f the year, acco rd ing to the tr ad e ca rd, D ebl o is was o n hi s own at the Golden Eagle, in D o ck Squ ar e; in April 17 58, he adve rt ised fro m t her e again . In J anu ar y 1761, "l ately re tu rne d from Lon don ," he o pened a n ew s to re o n Kin g S t ree t , w h e re h e so ld p ap e r h a n g in g s (wa llpa pe r) and fab rics , as w ell as hardwar e. ~ y W hen he und erto ok to mak e D ebl oi s' s card, J ohnston 's on ly previous essays in th e ro co co had been una ssum ing title ca r t o u c he s for fo ur map s h e en gr av ed bet w een 17 5 3 an d 1756. 50 T he card s ho ws him tec hnicall y profi cient but not fu lly comfortab le with th e s ty le . Thou gh th e o rna me n ta l frame work is p erfectl y sy m me t ric al, exce p t a t th e lo w e r middle, th ere is an almos t di scon certing imbalan ce abo ut th e design th at results from th e o ff-cen te r placem ent o f the text. which o ccas io n ally excee ds its b ound s. The ru led line that forms an in effective boun d ar y aro und th e design is contrary to th e se nse o f free do m th at is a n essen tial ele ment of the ro co co . N ath ani el Hurd, b est kn o wn for hi s bookpla tes . also en g ra ve d a var iet y o f bu siness ephe me ra, incl udi ng a furniture label for Benj amin Fr othin gh am (FIG. 32 , p. [30 ) and th e highl y o rna me n ta l orde r bl ank o f th e N ich ol as B ro w n co m pan y o f Providen ce, m ak er s of sp erm acet i cand les (N o . 26 ) . Scro llwork with e mergent folia ge an d ro caill e appears to be g ro w ing ou t o f, and perhaps consumin g, th e st raig h t, mold ed fram e ; wit hi n th e s m all ca rt o uc he o n to p is a vig n ett e of a w h alin g sce ne . T h e leg en d within th e fr am e is given in En glish at t he top and in Fren ch at th e bottom. In t he m idd le, fla nkin g a rep resenta tion of th e mi ght y sper m wh ale , a re s paces , ap p a re n tly for d enotin g th e numb er o f cand les of va rio us sizes to th e pound . The Nich ol as Bro wn co m pa ny w as es ta blis hed in 1762 in Providen ce, Rh od e Is lan d . On e o f th e specia lties of t he firm' s internation al tr ad e was sp erm -w hale o il. A s ea rly as 1748 , ca nd les m ad e from th at o il had been described lo call y as " e x ceed in g all o t he rs for B eaut y , Sw eetn ess of Scent w he n ex tin g u ishe d ; Durati on, bein g m ore th an do uble Tallow Ca nd les o f equal size ; D imens io ns o f Flam e, nearly four Times m ore . " 51 The co m pa ny tr an sform ed th e spe rma ce ti candle bu siness from a hou seh old activ ity to a facto ry setting an d we n t o n to m on op oli ze th e Am eri can m a rk e t. Littl e wonder that the y w ould go to Boston for a bu sin ess card in th e latest internation al sty le. Ab out '7 53, Hurd had eng raved a comparable o rde r b lank for ano th er ca n d lcm aker , J o seph P al me r, of G erman town, ne ar Boston . On th e P alm er

26

T rade card oj Nic holas Brown & CO li/pail}' Nathaniel Hurd, Boston, ca. 1702 Engraving on paper, 6 1/ 4 x 7 7/ 8 in. The John Carter Brown Library, Brown University

So

27

28

Trade card ofJ oseph Webb Paul Revere, Boston , 1765 Engraving on paper, 71/2 x 6 in. American Ant iquarian Society

No tification of meeting Saint Peter's Lodge, Newburyport Paul Revere, Boston, 1772 Engraving on paper, 7% x 61/2 in. American Antiqu arian Society

exa m ple, the o rna menta l m antel had a rectilinear interior and was of a heavier and m ore sta tic design .52

Webb ( 1734- 1787), a m er ch ant and ship cha n d le r, was, lik e Revere, prominent as both a patriot and a Fr eem ason . N ote th e u se o f Mas on ic e m b le ms (a sq ua re , a co m pass ) at th e card 's bottom.

Pa u l Re vere ' s led g ers re cord th e eng rav ing o f so m e dozen shopkeeper's ca rds, o r adve rt ise me n ts . Th e fi v e th at a re k nown to day clea rl y show t ha t Rever e' s ro co co o rna m ental style wa s fu lly matured by th e mid- 1760s . Th e m o st elabora te of th em, th at o f j o seph W ebb (N o . 27 ), is re corded u nde r th e d at e 28 Se p te m be r 176 5: " Mr j o seph Webb Dr se t tled I T o En gravin g a Co p per Pl at e for Ad v erti sem ents 3- 0- 0 I To I S O Ad v erti sem ent s Pr intin g a t 4-1 p er Hdd 0-7-0 . " 53 The ro co co car ro uc he is bestrewed with pots an d ke t tles an d o t he r ite ms o f hardwar e th at Webb purveyed at his sto re near Ol iver's Dock, Bost on . Thou gh m ost of what he so ld was utilit ar ian and pl ain , so me o f th e o rn am en tal ir o n ch imn e yb a ck s for j eremi ah Lee ' s g ra n d Marblehead ho use ca me from him and be ar hi s nam e (see p. 220) . joseph

R e v ere , wh o w as prob abl y t he leadi ng Fr e e m aso n in all N e w En gl and, m ad e eigh t different engravings fo r various Ma son ic g ro u ps, t w o o f w hic h h a v e th e sa me mantl ing d es ign as found o n th e W e b b card . 54 Th e fir st , a p rin ted n otifi cation for Saint Pet er 's Lo d g e in N ew buryp ort (N o . 28), is list ed in hi s led g er en t ry o f I S Se p te m ber 1772:"M r. Sim on Greenleaf N ewbur y-p ort Dr I T o En grav in g a p la te for N otifi cati on 2-8 -0 I To 300 P rints 0-18 -0. " 55 Greenl ea f w as a cha rt er member o f th e Lodg e, which was formed th at yea r. The copy sh o w n w as m ade o u t to an En o ch Pik e in the Masonic yea r 5777 (1777). Th e secon d was d one for o ne of two Saint Andrew's Lod ges in Bost on in 1784. 56

The real eye-catcher amo ng Re vere 's rococo ep heme ra is the ce rt ificate issu ed to th o se wh o at te n ded th e ana to m ica l lectures and surgica l dem on strat ions (fo r th e latt er. read dissection s, not at fir st publicl y co ndo ne d) o f D r. J ohn Wa rre n of Bo ston . In 1780 , Warren so ug h t t o laun ch "a n in ci p ie n t medical sch ool in stituti on, " 57 an am bition th at result ed three yea rs lat er in the foundin g o f the H arvard m edi cal sc hool. where Warren w as professor o f ana to m y an d surge ry. T he ce r tificate, the cos t o f it s eng ra ving und er written b y a subsc riptio n in 1780 , was g ive n to st ude n ts in Warren 's pr ivate co u r ses ( 1780-8 2) o r, la t e r , h is univ er sit y cl asses. Le vi Ba rtle t t ( 1763- 1828), t he re cipient of t hi s exa m ple (N o. 29 ) o n 8 Jun e 178 5, be came a dis ting u is hed ph ysi ci an . O n th e cert ificate, Rever e 's sc ro lled fram e is bo lder and sim pler th an th o s e of the 176 0 s, a nd hi s use of four lar ge im ag es - th e he ad of the se cond - centur y Gr eek ph ysi c ian Ga le n, t w o han gin g sk eleton s, a n d a di ss ecti on in pro gress - h as a gho ulish effe ct. It was not for th e faint of heart. 5 X N ot mu ch r o co co e p he me ra r em ain s from cw Yo r k. Samue l Prin ce ' s furnitur e la bel , pr ob ab l y th e work of a locall y tr ain ed art isa n who 'd id not sig n his name (FI G. 37. p. 1 5~ ) , h as a n in g enu ou s c ha r m. Th e bill head engraved by J o h n H u rt in 1771 for th e uph ol st er er Ri ch ar d Ki p ( FIG. 25) uses the o u tl ine o f a bed st ead (its ca no py co pied from The Dirc{(or) in pl ace o f an o rna men ta l cartouc he. That made for th e Ne w York m athem ati cal in strum entm ak er A nth o n y Lam b (N o . 30), o ne o f th e gra ndest of Am eri can advertising she e ts , is t he work o f H e n r y Dawkin s . Sin ce n o ot her rococo man tling b y D awki ns has quite the o ve rall co he rence and co m petenc e demonst rated b y this ex am ple, it must have bee n co p ied dir e c tl y from on e of man y sim ilar Eng lis h car d s. (T h a t fa cilit y o f Dawk in s ' s wa s t o le ad him int o tem ptation : as alrea dy no ted , he w as imprison ed in 1776 fo r co unte rfeiting. ) Lamb, born about 1703. was m ad e a freem an of th e Ci ty o f N ew York in 17 31 a n d a d ve rt ise d as a ma t he matical in strum entm ak er in 1 7~ 9 and aga in in 1753. T w o years later, o n 25 O ctob er 1755, it was anno unced in The New- York Merwry th at " Henry D awkin s, eng rave r , w ho latel y lived with Mr. Anthon y Lam b. has now se t up hi s [ow n] b us iness . " 5') D awkin s had co me to N ew York abou t 17H and was to m o ve to Phil adelphi a by '757: pr esum ab ly , he executed the Lamb card whil e residin g w ith Lamb and in his em ploy. 29 Certijicate of attendance

Dr. 11~1'TCIl'S anat om ical lectures Paul Revere, Boston . 1780 En gr avin g o n paper. 9 1/4 x 7% in. Am eri can Antiqu aria n Societ y

A noth er N e w York exa m pie o f th e full rococo sty le is the ca rd o f no tificatio n , o r in vit ati on , for m eetin gs of th e H andin- Ha nd Fire Co m pan y (N o . 3 I ). Th e eng ra ving h as bee n at t rib u te d to D awkin s. (. 0 whi ch would m ean th at it too was exec u ted p ri o r to hi s d ep arture for Ph ilad clp h ia . Lik e th e

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30

Trade card ofRichard Kip, 17 71 . J ohn H urt, N ew Yo rk . Eng rav ing o n paper. I) x 57/ " in. (22. <) x 14.<) cm .). Rare Books and M anu scripts Di vision, The New York Pub lic Libr ar y, Astor, Len ox , and Tilden Foundati on s

Trade card of Anthonv La mb H enry D awkins, N ew York, ca. 17 5 5 En gr avin g on pap er, II x 7 Jh in . Th e N ew-York H isto rical Soci et y

FIGU RE 25.

53

de sign o f the bill head m ade for Lam b . thi s tripl e car ro uche must have had its origi ns in an En glish prototyp e. T he cit ysc ape vi gn ette. whi ch ca n no t be id entified w ith any site in New York, m a y a lso h ave b e e n copi ed from a n E ng lis h prin t. T he recipi ent o f thi s partic ula r invitation , dated 3 M ar ch 170 2, to a meetin g at th e C ity Arms tavern in th e Br oad w ay.

w as th e se lf-s tyled ca rl of Sterlin g , b orn Wi lliam Ale xand er ( 1720- 1783) in N ew York, wh o wa s ed uca te d in th e cit y and mad e an ad va n tageo us m arriag e w ith th e go ve rno r's sis ter. Dur in g a so jo u rn in En g land b etween 17 50 a n d 170 1, he attempted un success full y to as sert hi s claim to the ear ldo m o f Stirlin g, a titl e he nevertheless ass u med w he n he re turn ed to Ne w York . Am on g a number o f lar ge Lo ndo n- st yle tr ade cards ma de in Ph iladelphia pr ior to th e Re vo lution , tw o by J am es Sm it he r s ta n d o u t as s pec tac u la r repres en tati on s o f th e Am erican ro co co . Hi s ad ve rt ise me n t fo r Benj amin Randolph (N o . 32) w as eng ra ve d in 176 9 to co inc ide w it h t h e ca b ine t ma ke r' s buildin g o f a new hou se an d a sho p nam ed th e Golde n Eag le in C hes tn ut Street , bet w eenThird and Fourth str eets (see p. 18l ) - th e ve ry blo ck w he re Smither had settled o n his arrival fr om Lond on t he pr e viou s year. (" Th is celebra te d im age h as an ar res ti ng ly asy m me t rica l ca r tou ch e lib er all y em bellishcd w ith de si gn s for furnitur e co pied fro m va rio us patt ern book s, includin g Th e Director and H oushold FI/ n1 i tllre . ('~ Wh at di st in gui sh es th is fr om all o t he r tr ad e cards. bot h E ng lish and American. is it s bi zarre juxtap ositi on s: an oversize eag le o n a b ed st e ad t est er , a cloc k on a co lo n na de. an d w ha t is probably a clapboard wa ll w it h plain sq ua re w indows over a m as on r y w al l wh o se a rc he d G othi c o pe n ing is ma rked "B . Rs War e Roo m ." Such irrati on alities are an as pec t of the En glish rococo seldo m ex plo re d in Amer ica.

31

Invitation for the Hand-in-Hand Fire C Oli/pail }' Possibly by Henr y Dawk ins. N ew York . ca. 1755 Engraving on paper. 7 7/ " x ()l/2 in. T he N ew York Public Library

The ad ve rt ise me n t Sm ithe r m ad e fo r th e printer an d pr intse lle r Robert Kenned y (N o . 33 ) is imp ressive fo r its g rand eur of sc a le a n d lo o sen ess a n d inform alit y o f execu tio n . The de sign owes a d ebt to th e ti tl e pa ge o f J ohn so n ' s One H undred and FUry Ne ll' D esig ns ( 1701) , w it h w hic h it shares the di stin ct ive m otif o f a clu st er o f five balu ster s. ('.I Kenn ed y o pe n e d a co p p e r- p la te printin g s ho p in Phil ad elph ia o n Third Street in 170 1; in 176 7. w hile still a t th e same address, he b ran ch ed o u t into se lling prints. In D ecem ber 170 S (t he yea r Smith er ar rive d in the city ), Kenn ed y was in partn e rship w it h his br oth er Thom as. havin g just o pe ned a sepa ra te "Print Sho p. in Seco nd-s t ree t near C hes t n ut-s treet. " (Ll Since th e Smi ther adve r tise me n t gives an add ress at Secon d Street belo w Walnut and m ak es no m ention o f Th om as Kenn ed y. th e b ro t he rs ' pa r tn er ship m us t have been di ssol ved and th e

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32 T rade card "j Benjamin Randolph James Smither. Phil adelphia. 17 0 <) Eng raving on pap er , <) x 7 in. Th e Libr ar y C ompan y of Philadelphia

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33

T rade card of Robert Kennedy J am es Smi ther. Phi ladelphia. ca. J70 y Eng rav ing o n pape r. 10 x 7'14 in . Wint crt hur Museum

34

Certificate of membership New York Mechanick Society Abraham Godwin, N ew York , [786 Engraving on paper, 81/2 x [[ 1/H in. Winterthur Museum

shop m o ve d b y th e time th e eng rav ing w as ord er ed. Thi s exa m ple was o rig ina lly mounted o n th e back o f a print afte r Van D yck 's Co nt inence (~r Scipio, engrave d in Lo ndo n in n oo and fra med in Philadelphia b y Rob ert Kenn ed y.I"

w as in corporated in [792 as th e G en eral So ci et y of M echanics and Tradesm en. At a meetin g o n 2 Au gu st [780, " A co m mi t te e wa s ap po in te d to wa it o n Mr. God win , and to engage him to en gr av e a plate for a ce rt ifica te o f m embersh ip, th e d esi gn an d pri ce h a vin g b een previou sl y ag reed up on ." r. 7 Abrah am G od win ( J703- IX3S), born in Pat er son , N ew j er se y, apprent iced w it h Andrew Billin g s in Pou ghkeep sie, Ne w York . Hi s bill ca me to a total of £23 - [4-8. At th e top, ab o ve a raised arm co n taine d w ith in a circle, is th e m otto " By H amm er & H and , a ll Arts d o sta n d ." Around the ce n t r a l ca r t o uc he, w i t h it s in s cripti on , a re vi gn ett es depicting w orkshops and allegorical landscap es (at the upper left, for exa m p le , Am eri ca, in th e g u ise o f a n Indi an princes s, welc o mes representati on s of Libert y and Indu str y to her sh o res) . This ce rtifica te , th e socie ty 's sea l affi xed to it at th e bottom, w as made out to Seabury C ha m plin , th e organizat io n' s 190th m emb er , b y j on ath an Po st, cha ir m an, o n 3 june 1791.

T o w a rd th e end o f th e eig h tee nt h ce n t ury , m ore and m ore fratern al o rga n iza t io ns we re es ta b lis hed b y th e im po rta n t t rades. T he purp o ses we re social (to in still a se nse o f co m m on id ent it y ) a n d b en e v ol ent (to h elp th e w idows and im p o v eri sh ed fa m il ies o f th e br ethren ) . Lar g e a n d h andso mely eng ra ved ce rt ifica tes of m em ber ship-what mi ght be called" co rpo ra te t rade cards " - rein force d th e importan ce o f be lo n g in g . Us ua lly d iv id ed int o a se ries o f co m part me n ts an d in a lar ge form at su ita ble for fra m ing , the y a re amo ng th e gra nde r Am eri can m anifest ati on s o f th e ro coco sty le and amo ng th e last. O ne of th e ea r lies t of th e o rga n iza tio ns was th e Ne w Yo rk Marin e So ci ety, es ta b lis he d in [700 . It s ce rt i fica te , p rinted in Lond on , h as a series o f v ig ne t tes in th e s p aces su rrou n di ng the ce n t ra l car tou ch e?" a n d mu st b e th e pr otot yp e fo r th e fir st o f it s kind in Am eri ca, th at o f th e N ew York M ech ani ck So ciet y (N o . 34). Founded in [7XS b y represe n ta tives of th irt y-on e di fferen t tr ad es, t he orga niza tio n

Th e ce rt i fi ca te o f th e Bo st on M arin e So ci et y (N o . 35 ), eng raved in [7X9 b y joseph Ca lle n de r, wa s clearly mod eled aft er God win' s d esi gn . r.x Thi s co py was presented o n I N ovemb er [79 2 to Pet er C ha rdo n Bro ok s, lat er a wea lt hy

57

35 Certificate of membership Bosto/l Marine Society Joseph Ca llende r, Bosto n , 17119 En graving on paper , 9V" x 15 in. Boston Marin e Society

Bo ston ban kcr an d po lit ician . Ca ll en de r ( 17 5 I - I X2 1) wa s a native Bo st oni an: o t h er th an th is pie ce, m o st o f th e ep he m era he pr odu ced w ere neocl assical in sty le. A se pa ra te M arine So ci et y w as es ta b lishe d in P ortl and, M a in e, in 179 0. ( ''.j In IX07, it go t its o w n engraved ce rt ifica te. fashi on ed cl o sel y a fte r Ca lle n der 's. So did th e ro co co-st yle d esi gn ca r ryo n in to th e nin et eenth cen tu ry . W ha t mi ght a lmos t be ca lle d a n ati ve sc hool o f engra v ing , w hich em p has ized ro co co o rna men ta t io n, eme rged in cent ral Con nec t icut d ur ing t he 170os. O ne o f it s fir st ex po ne n ts was A be l Buell ( ' 74 2- 1X31 ), b orn in Killin g w orth , wh o, before m ovin g to N ew H aven in 1770, tr ained under his b rother-inlaw , th e go lds m ith Ebe neze r C h itte nde n o f M ad ison. 7° Bu ell eng ra ve d a dipl oma sur ro u n de d b y a m od est rococo m antle for Yale Co llege abo u t 1774. P rob abl y abo u t th e sa me tim e, in associatio n w ith J am es Ri vingr on, a N ew Yo rk pr inter, he pr odu ced this sp le ndi d ce rt ifica te (N o . 36 ; sec also ill. opp. p . 37 ) w it h it s recondite titl e. "Th e Se q uel o f Art s and Sciences . " 7 ' The shee t is bord er ed wi th ro co co ca rto uc hes co ntaining elabo ra tely eng ra ve d vi gn ettes o f va rio us endea vo rs : limn in g an d e ng ra v ing, " mec ha n ic ks, " g lass g ri n d i ng, b ot an y . hu s b an d r y . h at maki ng. a n d p ri n t ing , a lte rna t ing

with callig ra p hic titl es. Wh ile ski llfully execu ted, th e d esign s a re all t aken fro m illu strat ion s in Englis h publi cati on s.?" In thi s co py, its vig ne ttes tinted in wa te rco lo r, th e lar g e ce n t ral space is fil led wi t h "s elect se n te nces" penn ed by Susa n na D arlin g, aged eig h t, o f N ew H aven . O n ly two o ther co p ies a re kn own , bo t h d a t e d 1793 an d th e w ork o f M a tth e w T alc ott znd o f Norwic h . 73

Writillg certificate Attri but ed to Ab el Bu ell N ew H aven, ca. 1775 Eng rav ing on paper , 15-% x 12V2 in. T he N ew-York Hi stor ical Soc iety

Br it ish t ro ops landin g at Bo ston in '7()~. reduced the o rnam ent of th e titl e ' s ca r to uc he to a pa lm tr ee, an image of an Indian , an d o ne o r t w o raffl es. 7' In 1784, a simi larly dras tic tr an sform ati on of ro co co m antlin g , visib le on B ue ll's e ng rav ing o f th e fi rs t map of th e n e wl y fo rmed Un ite d Sta tes (No. 42), impl ies conscious rejection of a decora tive sty le then see n as den oting fealty to Eng land .

Maps

In th e Ge rma nic co mm unities o f Pennsyl van ia, rococo ornam ent was se ldo m employed, an d th en usu all y on ly on special co m m issio n. The d raw ings of th e surveyor an d bui lde r Andr eas H o e g er are a n exce p tion. H o e g er was bo r n in Nuremberg in 17'4 , j oin ed th e M o ravian Church (the United Br ethren , o r Unitas Fr atrum ) in H er rn h ut in '742, and came with a g ro u p of sing le br ethr en to Penn s yl v ani a in 1754. U nt il he left th er e ten yea rs later , H oeger was busy with the ph ysical needs of t he ex pa nd ing eva ngelical sec t, especially at it s three Pen ns yl vani a se t tlemen ts, Be t hle hem, N aza re th , and Lititz.?" Severa l h ighl y finis hed pla ns and a rchitect ura l

The la rg es t and mos t im p ressiv e o f eig h tee nt h -ce n t u ry American engravi ngs are ci ty views , pl an s, an d m ap s, o n w h ic h th e rococo plays o n ly a subsi d iary ro le , if any at all. Becau se th ey wo uld co m pe te wi th th e sce ne de pic te d, lar ge or namen ta l ti tle c a r to u ch es se ldo m occur o n vie ws. O n maps. ho w ever, th ey p ro vide a focal po int and mu ch-need ed vis ua l interest; when th e re is e no ug h space, rococo cartouc hes, sim ilar in size and arra nge men t to t he o rna ment of tra de cards , often enclose ti tles, dedica tio ns, even su bscriptio n lists. Since maps were essen tia l too ls in both com merce and war, t h e decade o f th e 1750S, w h ich ush er ed in th e Fre nch and In d ia n War . was o ne of g rea t cartog ra p hic ac t iv ity in America. Pl a n s of interior lan d s , w here th ere were riva l claims between colo nies as we ll as w it h th e Fr en ch , we re urgently needed, as were reliable cha rts of th e coast, for eve n the major ship pi ng lanes were largely unpl o tt ed . W h ile maps a n d pl an s h ad to be ' prepared in A m erica, t he ir ac tual engravi ng an d pri nti ng were m o re o ften th an not done in E ng la nd. "E ngraved from th e Or ig ina l D ra win g sent over from Ph ilad el ph ia, in th e possess io n of Ca ring ton Bo wl es" is how o ne Lon d on publ ish er inscri be d hi s view o f t h a t city . 74 Whe n a major to p o gr aphi cal s u rvey was engraved and printed o n this si de of t he Atl ant ic, ho w ever , it was sure to be pira ted and co pie d nu m er o us tim es in London and on the Continen t. T ho ugh eac h o f th e four m a p s T ho mas J oh n st on engraved in Bo ston in the 1750S h as a m odestl y de corati ve ro co co titl e ca r to uc he, o n ly in Ph ilad el ph ia, ove r th e ne xt deca de, we re surveys la vi sh ed wi t h elega nt rococo devi ces. T hree of t he m o st imp ort ant o f th es e we re exec u te d b y Turner (sec N o . 3~); o t he r elab orat e exa mp les (see N os. 40, .p ) were pub lis he d by th e tr ad esm an M atthew C lar kso n . ln t he 17()os, w he n resentm ent was m ountin g aga ins t th e m oth er co u ntry's do m ina tio n, t he Eng lis h-s ty le carto uc he bega n to show co lo nia l modi ficat ions. Revere. in a view o f

drawin gs w ith o rna me n ta l titl e ca rto uches h ave been attribu ted to him . 77 Th e " Be t h le he m Tract w it h all the adjacen t Land . '755" (N o . 37) is th e larges t and, th o ugh its paper has da r ke ne d w ith t im e, th e most d ccor ative. ?" T he layout of th e d rawin g as wel l as t he ca re w ith wh ich it was re ndered sugges ts th at it was int en ded to be engraved. Bethleh em, fo rt y-fi v e mi les no rth of Phi ladelp hia, o n th e banks of th e Lehi gh River (o n the map inscribed "Lchey o r th e Wes t Br an ch o f De laware" ), was founded in 1740. H o e g er ' s pl an co n ta ins t hree d iffe rent re p rese ntatio ns: an overa ll pl an o f th e Bethl eh em tr act (top mid dl e) , a p lan of design ated lands (bo tto m ), and a birds- cyc view of th e to w n cen te r with each bu ilding dep ict ed in perspective (to p right). This las t vig ne t te is se t apa rt b y a wo nderfully rococo frame w hose top and b ottom part s lo o k to h ave been inspi red by Eng lis h p attern bo o k s. In a rococo varia t io n o n th e cartog ra p hic co nve n tio n of usi ng t romp e l' o eil sc ro lls to fra me titl es an d o t he r te xt s (see No. 38), H oeg e r h as represented the sides o f hi s frame as havin g dissolve d, leaving th e unp ro tected edges o f th e pap er to appear to cu rl u p . D el a w ar e Ba y, t he wa te r r out e to Phil ad el ph ia, is fu ll o f tr each erous shoa ls and navigati on al hazard s. Until th e publica tio n o f Fis he r 's su rvey in 175(), t he re was no co m p re he nsive, acc u ra te cha rt o f th ose busy wa te rs . The cha rt , almos t four feet wide (N o . 38 ), was in te n de d fo r u se as a n a vi g ation al aid . J oshu a Fish er ( 1707- 1783) began th e survey w h ile a h att er an d fu r tr ad er in h is n ati ve D el a w ar e . In ' 746 , h e m o ved to Phil ad elphi a, w he re h e d evel op ed a flouri sh in g m er cantil e bu siness. Te n years later. enco u raged by Thom as Penn , so n o f th e fi rst proprieto r, and hi s age n t , Ri ch ar d

59

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60

Pet er s. Fish er fin all y publi shed hi s char r. ?" It w as executed by J am es Turner. the m ost acco m plishe d Am erican engraver o f th e tim e. w ho m a y re ason abl y be cred ited with th e actua l des ig n o f th e three sp len di d ca r ro uc hes ac ross t he bottom o f th e cha rt. Th at a t th e r ight. und er th e Penn famil y a r ms . co ntai ns th e titl e. th e au tho r 's nam e. and th e dedi cati on " To

C hart of Delaware Bay James Turn er . afte r J o shu a Fisher Phil ad elphia. J750 En gr aving on pa per. 23% x 4 51/. in . The J ohn C arter Bro w n Libra ry. Bro wn University

th e M e r ch ants and In surers of t he C ity o f Philadelphia " ; th at

th e left. a list o f su bsc ribe rs (pilo ts and shipmas rers) to the pu bl icat ion ; th at at th e cen te r. a tid e table . The plan is dat ed 2R Februar y 17 y i. an in au spi ciou s timin g . as it happened. for On ~ M ar ch. Provin c ial G o vern or Ro b ert Hunter M orri s o rde re d it s publi cati on p o stp on ed . A s he wrote to Fish er. "We are in daily ex pec ta tio n o f a Fren ch War .. . if yo ur map of th e Ba y sho u ld be publi sh ed. so me Co pys o f it m ay fall int o ye E nc m ys H and s . " ' 0 Fish er had a lread y delivered a few o f th e charts . but the st rict u re mu st have been gen era lly effective: o nly thi s co py and on e o ther are kn own . to

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Fish er 's m onum ental char t of 17 56 was not reissued until th e Revolution and th en o n ly in a redu ced form at and showing a lar g er area , all th e way up th e rive r to Phil ad elphi a. While und at ed, it p robabl y was eng raved in 177 5, in an ticipat io n o f arme d co n flict an d in tim e to serve as th e m odel for a spa te of pira te d Lon d on ed itio ns, all d at ed 1776 an d all ac k no w ledg ing th at th e y we r e t ak en fr om th e cha rt pu bl ish ed b y Fi sh e r in Phil ad elph ia . In thi s war , unlik e th at w ith the Fren ch , bo th sides we re to have cha rts! A w ater col or vers io n o f th e seco nd editio n (N o . 39 ) differ s littl e fro m th e eng ra vin g excep t th at th e three ca rto uc hes have been co nso lida te d in to o ne, and the dedicati on , the author's na me , and th e list o f su bscri be rs are o m it te d. In p lace o f th e Penn ar ms are a chev ro n an d thr ee fi sh es, p erh ap s a p u n o n th e a u t ho r's n am e, w hic h h as led to th e specu la tio n t ha t thi s m ay h a ve been Fish er 's own co py .s, The expert ly d raw n carto uc he, in g risa ille exce p t fo r green spiky leaves an d red flo w ers, is a ta me r, m ore sta te ly ve rs io n of th e ro co co th an t ha t T u rner had used tw o decad es befor e.

39 C hart oj D elawavc Bav and R iv er Prob ably by J oshu a Fisher Ph iladelp hia, ca. 177 5 Ink and wa te rcolor on pape r. 17'/" x 27 1/~ in. The H isto rical Soc iety of Pennsylvania

Ni cholas Scull ( 10 87- 170 () was surveyo r ge neral o f the Pr ovince of Penn sylv an ia from 1748 almos t until his death . In th at po sitio n, he was occ u pie d in m ak in g th e m o st im po rta n t m ap s of Phil ad elphi a: in 17 5 2 , o ne o f th e cit y an d " Pa rts A dj acent "; in 17 54 , an " East P ro sp ect " ; in 17 59, o ne of th e w ho le pr ov in ce, eng raved b y Turn er and h avin g a ro co co carto uche. Scu ll di ed in 17°1 , before co m ple ting a det ail ed m ap of Ph iladelph ia based on his surveys o f th e city's streets and lot s, but his dau ghter and exe cu tor , M ary Biddle, saw it to co m ple tio n th e foll o win g yea r. Dedi cat ed to the elec te d o ffi cia ls and free m en of Phil ad elphi a, " T his Pl an of th e improved part o f th e C it y surveyed an d laid d o wn b y th e lat e N icho las Sc u ll Esq r. " (N o . 40 ) was publi sh ed o n 1 N o vem ber 170 2 and so ld by " the Edit ors, " M ar y Biddl e and M atthew Cla rkso n . Cla rkso n was first heard o f in an adve rtisem ent of 17°1, w hich pr oclaim ed: "Copper- Plate Printin g/ B y a wo rk ma n fro m Lond on, / Is pe rfo rm ed , in all it s B r an ches , for M atth ew C la r kso n . s s xz Whil e C la r kso n, a tr ad esm an, ne ver d iv ulged th e nam e o f th e eng ra ve r , th e sk illfu l re n dering of th e t itl e ca rto uc he has th e qu al it y o f Lon d on wo rk . (W ith Turn er dea d, Dawkin s is a likel y cand i d atc . ) Th e ma p is th e fir st th at acc ura te ly record ed th e placement of individua l buildings in Phil adelphia.

40

Plan oj Philadelphia Possibly by Henr y Dawkins, after N icholas Scull, Philadelp hia, 1762 En gravin g on paper, 20 1/H x 26·% in. T he N ew York Pub lic Libr ar y

63

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C la rkso n was also ed ito r and pu bl ish cr o f a " Ge nera l C ha rt o fa l! th e Co as t o f th e Prov in ce o f Loui sian a" (N o . 41 ) includin g w ha t is now w est Fl o rid a, Ala b am a, an d Mi ssissip pi - fo r w hich he e m p loyed H enry D awkin s as eng raver. A ro co co ca rt o uc he is sq ueeze d int o t h e a va ila b le space at eit he r e n d o f th e long . n a rr o w print. Th at a t th e ri ght encloses th e ti tle; th at at the left, ex ecuted in a m ore sp irite d sty le and with mi lit a ry sta nda rds and drum s pr oj ectin g from behind , co n ta ins a dedi cati on to H enr y Bouq uet, " C ol on el in H is M aj est y ' s Serv ice a n d Lieut. Co lo n el o f th e R o y al Am eri can Re gim ent . " The Swiss- bo rn Bou qu et (1719- '705) receiv ed th e latter ra nk in ' 754, at th e o ut b rea k o f t he Fren ch a n d Indi an Wa r. In ' 7 50 , h e sa ile d for Am eri ca, w he re h e di stin g uish ed h im sel f mi lit ar ily; in 175 R, he was prom ot ed to full co lo ne l. In ' 70 5, then a bri g adi er ge ne ra l. Bouqu et was g ive n co m ma n d of th e enti re so u t he rn d istr ict o f Br iti sh N ort h Am eri ca, includin g th e area of t his chart, w hich was prob ab ly exec u te d n ot lon g b e fore Bouqu et' s la st p rom otion . Str icke n in a fever ep id e m ic, h e d ied at Pen sacol a th at same yea r. After t h e rest o rati on o f peace, In '7R3, th e fir st m ap o f t he n ew Unit ed St at es (N o . 42 ) was th e wor k n ot o f a ski lled London-trai ned eng ra ve r but of a na tiv e o ppo rt u nis t - A bc:! Buell. of N ew H a ven . A s he adve rtise d in th e Co n nec tic u t [o urna! o f 3 ' M ar ch '78 4:" Bucl 's Map O f the Uni ted States

. . ........

41

C hart oj the coast oj L ouisiana

Henr y Dawkins. Philadelphia. ' 700-oS Eng raving on paper. I4 '/~ x -l 0 1/ 2 in. Th e New York Public Library

of Am erica, Laid do w n from th e latest o bserva tio ns and best aut ho rities , agreeable to th e peace o f ' 783, is now publi shed . and read y for subsc ribe rs . [T hi s 1 M ap is .. . th e first ever co m piled, eng ra ved, and fin ish ed b y o ne ma n, and an A m erican . " S J Printed o n fo u r shee ts and m easurin g no t m uch un der four fee t sq ua re, it was inte n de d as a wa ll m ap. While th e ca rtogra p hic features arc all tak en fro m o t her surveys . th e titl e carto uc he in t he lo w e r rig h t corne r is Bu ell 's ow n crea tive effor t. H e has aba ndo ne d his precise engraving style an d slavis h im it at ion of Eng lis h o rigina ls (sec No . 30 ) in favo r of an infor ma l etch ed techniqu e an d Am e ri can sym bol s: th e Am e rican flag; a fri nged ova l co nta ini ng th e arms (t hree gra pevi nes) of Co n nec tic ut; and th e sea te d figure of Li berty h ol din g a staff crow ne d w it h a li b e rt y cap . T he ro co co titl e ca rtouc he - a sy m b o l of Eng land - was do ne away w it h, excep t fo r t w o lar ge raffl es rem aini n g at th e bottom .

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C lock Dials

C loc k dials m ade o f shee t brass engraved wi th rococo ornam ent , w h ile n ot in te n de d for p rinti n g , n ev ert h el ess merit di scu ssion as an adj u nc t to th e mo re com mo n t y pes of eng raving . In tr adition al eig h tee n t h-cen tury tall clocks, the di al , o r face , fro nte d th e clock m o vem ent, w hic h was m ounted in th e bonn et o f th e w ooden case . M ade of brass, wi t h applie d cha pte r rin g (a large circ u lar ban d marked with th e hours and m inutes), s~co n ds rin g , and nam eplate, all silver ed to en ha nce leg ibilit y , it u su all y m easured twelve in ch es to a side . It h ad spa n d re ls fill ed w ith cas t o rnaments and, o ften , an arc hed top co nta ini ng a m oon ph ase. T he dia l, ca lib ra te d for tellin g tim e, h ad to pro claim th e name of the clock m ak er an d th e town w he re h e wor ked. T ha t type of dial was supe rse de d in th e mid-r'rBos by th ose m ade of sheet iron painted w h ite an d h a vin g bl ack num e rals and colo red decorati on . M an y of th e b rass dials, and m ost of th e paint ed , w er e imported, but a nati ve alte rna tive eme rge d abo ut 1770 : a di al co nsis ting o f a sing le fiat bras s sheet o n w hich represe n ta t io ns of ap p lie d cha p te r rin g, n am epl at e, and o t her ele me nts we re eng ra ve d. When silve re d, it was not un like a painted d ial in ap pea ra nce-a d om est ic al terna tive to the " en amell ed di al-plat es" Ph ilad elphi a cloc kmaker J ohn Wood had imported as early as 1773."4 Th e eng raved fac e is n ot o fte n fo u n d o n fine urban clo ck s, th ou gh th er e a re brilliant exce ptio ns (see No . .1-3 ). T he g rea tes t flow erin g of th is bela te d A m e rican rococo ex p ressio n to ok pl ace in Co n nec tic u t (see Nos . 44 , 45), far from th e m ajor sty le cente rs, an d, th ou gh w ith less orig inality, in M ar yland and Virgi nia. "5 T he Am erican engraved clo ck di al m ost closely approx imating t he style o f th e Lond on ro co co (N o . 43 )"6 is sig ned " Burrows Do wdn ey / Phil ad elphia, " a maker abo ut whom n othin g is kn o wn exce p t t ha t du rin g th e yea rs 1768-71 he adve rtised in th e Pcnnsvl vania C hronicle as a wa tc h- and cloc k m aker in Front Stree t. "? O n th e di al of his cloc k, w hich

66

43 D ial of clock Ii)' HII IT OI /l S D ow dnev Phil adel ph ia. ca. ' 770 Br ass. silve red . 16 Y H x 12 in. The D ietrich Ame rican Fo undatio n

has ne ver been resil vere d (in p laces, t he brass sh ows t h ro ug h), t he eng raving, ha vin g th e refi ned precision of the best En gli sh cop pe r-p la te wo rk, is ce rtain ly the work of some m ast e r of th e tec h n iq ue, perh a ps Dawkins . It com b in es pi ctorial re presen ta tio n an d ro co co ornament : in the co rners, raffl es fill t he s pa n d rels ; in th e arc hed to p, hissing ser pe n ts w it h t wi stin g tails flan k th e moo n p hase; in th e ce nte r, Fath er Tim e, holdin g hi s scyt he in hi s left hand and rest in g his right hand o n an hourgl ass, is sea ted on an asy m m etri cal ro co co fr am e; at th e left are ano the r ho urgl ass and scy the; an eag le tries to g ras p th e clo ck-hands' sha nk; raffles ap pea r to g ro w o rga n ica lly o u t o f th e w in d ing ho les and from th e bottom co rne rs of the nam epl at e. The co m bina tio n o f o r na me n t and th e im ages o f eag les , se r pen ts, and Father T im e sugges ts a famili arit y w it h Th om as J ohn so n 's aile Hund red and F[ft y Ne lli D csions. xx In 1774, J ohn N or m a n adve r tise d th at he su p plied "C lock an d Wa tc h Gravin g. " XV but th e style he revea le d in hi s ill us t ratio ns (see NO .4) for th e Phil ad el phi a edi tio n of Swa n's British Architect ( 1775) is so mewha t loo ser th an th at of D o wdneys clock dial. En graved clo ck dials ultim at ely ac hieved grea ter popul arit y in N ew E n g land th an in Penn syl vania. In ' 773, the Engli sh clockma ke r Th om as H arl and se t tle d in No rwich . Connecticut, an d adve rtised " Cl o ck faces eng raved and fini shed for th e tr ad e. " ') 0 H a rl and had a num ber o f ap pr enti ce s. The m o st illu stri ou s o f th em was D aniel Bu rn ap ( 1759- 1838) . wh o, afte r co m ple ti ng hi s indenture, co n ti n ued to wo rk for H arland as a j ourn e ym an until ' 779. It w as fro m H arl and th at Burn ap le arn ed to eng ra ve clo ck faces and to make "chim e" clo ck s-that is, clo ck s th at pl ayed musical tun es.?' In 1780, he es ta b lis he d hi s o wn shop in Eas t Windso r, a few miles north o f Hartford , w he re he ca r ried o n w ha t becam e th e lar g est suc h bu sin ess in th e Co nnec tic u t Vall ey . Of th e d o zen kn own chi me clocks th at we re h is special ty, six arc reco rded in h is surviv ing acco u n t b o ok s. fi ve of t he m bet w een the yea rs 1790 an d 179 5. A d ial (N o . 44 ) with rococo ra ffles in th e spa nd re ls and inte rtwi ned vines looping a ro un d th e insc ri ptions in th e arc h ed top and t he center illu strat es a lat e flo w e rin g of rococo ornamen t in rur al Am eri ca. ')2 A h and in th e a rc h Can be poi nt ed to sel ect an y of th e six tu nes th at th e move me nt is programmed to pla y fo ur times a day . The sou nds produced b y t hese clo cks. incl ud ing suc h favor ites as "A ir b y H an dl e, " can be said to be t he o n ly aut he ntic m us ic th at can be sum mo ned from th e eig h tee n th century .

44

Dial of musical clock Daniel Burnap, maker and engraver East Windsor , Co nnecticut , 17 <)0 - <)4 Brass, silvered, 16 % x 12 in. Historic Deerfield, Inc.

68

An oth er o uts tan d in g en gr av ed d ial fr om Co n nec tic u t (N o . 45) is th at fo r a clo ck m ad e b y Reub en In g rah a m o f Pl ainfield, on th e eastern bo rd er o f the sta te , a few mil es north o f Norwi ch . In perhap s th e on ly in stan ce of an eng rave r 's sig nin g an Am cri can clo ck d ial, J oh n A ver v's n am e ap pea rs in tin y letter s w ithin th e seco nds rin g . Aver y ( 1732- 1794) was a silve rsm ith an d clock m aker in Prest on , near N orw ich . Hi s arr ange me n t of th e na mes of th e m aker and th e town in th e arc he d top, th e sem icircu lar op eni ng for the date rin g, even th e Four Sea so ns as m otifs to fill th e fo ur spa n d re ls, o w e a debt to th e design o f H arland' s di als."! T he ca rto uc hc in th e ar che d top, th e spa n d re l mo tifs, an d 'the v a riou s lay ered co m part me n ts into whi ch t he cen t ra l area is bro k en up are all sur ro u n ded wi t h bo rder s o f sm all-scale sc ro lle d leafage, an eng ag ing , if so mew ha t fu ssy, interpretation o f th e roc o co at th e end o f th e centur y . L GB , M H H

45 Dial of clock by Reuben l no raham Eng raved b y J oh n Aver y Plainfield, Con necticu t , 1785-94 Brass, silve red , \(, x 12 in , Co llec tion o f M r. and M rs . Fr ank A . M aur i

SILVER

Am eri can silver beg an to refl ect th e ro co co sty le in th e late 1740S, in fl ue nced b y printed ep he me ra and silve r imported fro m t he m o th er co u nt ry. D om esti c silve rs m it hs wh o h ad t rai n ed in t he co lo n ies co u ld in teg ra te aspec ts o f th e n e w tast e in to th e ir rep ert oire , but m o st lack ed th e s pecia lize d sc hoo ling req ui red t o crea te th e h ighl y o rna te su rfaces o f full -fledged rococo silve r. Much of th at deco ra tio n was co nt rib ut ed by im m ig ra n t jo u rney me n, o urworke rs , or inde nt u red serva n ts , I w ho h a d b en e fit ed from tr ainin g ab roa d (usua lly in Lon d on) and we re already fami liar wi th th e new style. Silve r was a n urb an lu xur y, pr o du ced in Am eri ca in th e eig h teen t h cen t u ry pr im aril y in Bo st o n , N e w York, Ph ilad e lph ia , an d C ha rles to n. Th e fin est do mes tic ro co co silve r tr aces to a fe w wo r ks ho ps in th o se ci ties, whose ea rliest exa m pi es postd ate the int rodu cti on o f th e style in Lond on b y a t le ast ten yea rs , a ph en om en on a tt r ib u ta b le to soc ia l an d eco no m ic co n d itio ns. In En gland , ro co co tast e en te re d th rou gh a r is t oc ra t ic cir cles an d g ra d u a ll y c a m e w it h in th e re ach o f th e upp e r-middl e class; in Am eri ca, it beca me ava ila b le to pr osperou s m er ch ants as it had to their Lond on co un te r pa rts . Th e fashi on abl e En gli sh imp ort s ap pearing in th e hom es of co lo n ia l m er ch ant prin ce s n aturall y influ en ced lo c al t ast e . E xp ort a nd impo rt reco rds. pe rio d adver t isemen ts , an d surv iv ing exam p les o f British

o w ne d in Sal em in [76 0 (N o . 46 ) . Upl i ft e d o n thre e C sc ro ll-a n d-s he ll fe et, it is a d e p artu re from th e sta n da r d E ng lis h ve rs io n e leva ted o n a pedes ta l foot. Th e trip o d desi gn was a Fr en ch inn o vat io n adop ted on ly selec tively by London silve rs m iths. The pot , crafted in Lo ndo n in th e shop o f Arthur Ann esl e y and marked wit h t he da te letter for 17 59- 60 , was g ive n to M a r y Vial (1737-1802 ) of Bosto n by h er uncl e J on ath an Simpson ( 17 11/ 12- 17 9 5) . probably in hon or o f her m ar riage in 1759 to Edwa rd A . H o lyo ke (1728 (829), a Salem d o cto r. It can be no coincidence that t he on ly tw o t ri pod co ffee pot s k now n in American rococo silver w ere b oth m ade for Sa lem pat ro ns who h ad u ndoub tedly ad m ire d M ar y H ol yok e 's fashio nable Lo ndo n gift. 2 T he t w o Am er ican versi on s s pawne d by th e Ann es lc y po t we re crea te d for se pa ra te m ern bers of th e prom ine nt Derby fami ly o f Salem (see p . 136 ) . An unm ark ed exa m p le was ma de fo r Eli zab eth C ro w n ins h icl d w he n she m ar ri ed Elias H ask e t Derb y , in 1761 ; elev en yea rs la t er . P aul Rev er e s u p p l ie d Eli as 's fath er, Richard, with th e m ost no tewo rt hy Am erican rendition o f th e design (N o . 47 ). 3 N ot e ve ryo ne in th e co lo n ies co u ld a ffo r d to bu y ex pen si v e i m po rte d s ilve r. :' a n d some of th o s e w ho co u ld und oubtedl y preferred n ot t o wait al most a year fo r t he deliv er y o f th ei r goods . T hose co ns ide ra tio ns, toge ther wi th th e nonimp o rt ati on agreements t hat p receded the Re v o lu-

silver wi th provenanccs in eighteen th -ce n t ury Am eri c a le a v e

ti on , c nco u raged th e development of domestically produced

no doub t th at im po rted silver was hi ghl y prize d b y wea lthy colonia ls, who cou ld have th eir o rde rs to London filled an d returned wi thi n ten mont hs to a year. A gra p h ic d e m on strati on o f th e influ en ce o f for ei gn si l ver is p rovided b y an unu su al Lon d on rococo co ffee pot

ro co co silve r. A m eri can patro ns -an eli te and affluen t class - we re n ot rem ot el y inte res ted in e nco u raging loca l silve rs mi t hs to de velo p a un iq ue ly A m er ican inter pretation but co nt in ue d to co m m issio n silve r refl ectin g th e lates t Lo ndon fashio ns. Silve r h as always b ee n assoc ia ted w it h wea lt h. In th e eig htee n t h ce n t ury , o bjects fashi on ed of it we re co llec tively kn own as plat e and se rved as an owner's savings acco unt. an ass e t that co u ld b e liqu id ated a lmost im med ia te ly fo r t he valu e of th e m et al. Becau se th er e were se ve ra l less ex pensive

T caucttlc Oil stand, J oseph R ichardson (No. HH)

71

med iums av ailab le, the usc o f silv er was not a case o f necessity but o f ch oi ce. Silver had no utilitari an relati on to any of th e form s int o w h ic h it was m ad e; th e m crit o f th e fo rm s rest ed in th eir intrin sic wo rth an d th e so cial sta tus they proclaimed o n an o wne r's tabl e. Their value as currc ncy did no t includ e th e cos t o f th e w ork in fashi onin g th em . t he refo re the amo un t o f decoration app lied to th em was purely a matter o f taste an d affo rda b ility . Thou gh th e ro co co did in flu enc e shapes in silve r . th e sty le wa s prim aril y an o rna me nta l co nside ratio n that required co stly addition al lab or for elaborate en gravin g, reli ef chas ing , piercin g, or castings. The d ecor ation on the majority of Ameri can ro co co silver is limited to cngraving and casting on form s th at m ay not themselves ex hib it ro coco influence. Drinkin g and servin g form s cha nged little throughout the period o f th e sty le's d omin ation. but m an y tea a n d co ffee vessel s ado p te d th e double-bellied sha pe th at is a ro co co sig nature . Engraved or cas t de corati on. th e least lab oriou s m ean s of o rna me ntation. entail ed minim al ex t ra cos t to patron s, m o st of whom were pr agm ati c m er ch ant s . E v en if fin an ci al rcv e rscs d id no t demand the co n ve rs io n o f th eir plate to cash, cha ng ing sty les mi ght d ict at e its refashi o nin g . Patron s o rde ring ne w silver o fte n su b m itte d th eir o ld, w h ich w as cr ed ited acco rd ing to its w eight , m elt ed d o wn. and used in th e fabr icatio n of new design s. En gravin g is th e pr o cess o f cu tt ing fin e lin es in to an o bject, th ereb y rem o vin g minute qu antiti es o f m et al. The k ind o f ro co co eng rav ing found m ost fr equ entl y in A m erican silver is an asymmet ri cal ca rro uc he th at o ften encloses the owner ' s a r ms o r initi al s . 5 Engr avin g als o se r ved as a means of identifi cation . If an object w as sto len , it s decoration of initial s or family arm s assi sted imm ea surabl y in it s recovery. as is att ested b y eig h tee n t h-cen t u ry n ew sp ap er ad ve rt isem ents co nta in ing notifications o f mi ssin g silve r and descriptions o f its eng ra ving. This explains w hy silve r was a sa fer means of sto ring sur plus cas h than the coi nage itself A thi ef w ishing to profit from silv er he had sto len had to sell it to a silve rsm ith, w ho was lik el y to recognize it. Cas t ing - t he p ourin g o f m olt en si lve r in to m o ld s of sa n d int o whi ch a p att ern h ad b een imp ressed - w as t he usu al process used to crea te spouts, handles. and finials. Fo r m o st ro co co d esi gn s, s uc h as s po u ts decora te d wi t h shells a n d aca n th us . ca r vcd wooden p atte rn s we re probabl y s u p p lie d b y a lo cal a r tis an " an d co u ld b e u sed re peat edl y , crea ti ng s im ila r a p pe ndages for num er o u s vesse ls . Sil ver smith s we re ex pecte d to have a su p p ly o f pattern s from whi ch th eir patron s co u ld choose w ith out ad di tio na l cost. 7 Onl y wh en th e p att ern s we re p articul arl y o r na te (a nd th e cas t ing co m me ns u ra tely h eav y ) did a p atr on inc ur ex t ra ex pense for th e w eight of th e m etal.

46

Coffee pot, [7 59-60 Arthur Annesley, London Silver. H.: [] '/ 1 in. Essex Institute

72

C has in g and pier cin g. thou gh m ore a p p ro p ria te to ro co co exces ses, w ere als o more extr av agant o rna m en ta tion s. On ela bo ra te exa m p les , th e cos t o f suc h e m b ellis hm ent co uld ap p roach th e cos t of th e m et al. an in co nceivab le ex pe nse exce p t for th e very ri ch . C has ing is t he pro ce ss o f m anipulatin g the metal into bolder . m or e scu lp tura l designs by m ean s of h amm er s a n d b lunt to ol s, wi th n o c u t t ing d e vi ces e m p loye d . In m od ern p ar lan ce, t h e te chniqu e o f deco ra ting th e m et al from th e ex te rio r is still known as chasin g , o r flat chasi ng , but w he n th e m et al is also worked from w it hi n, resultin g in a d esi gn both co n vex an d co nc ave, it is kn o wn as rcp ou sse. Be cau se o f its scu lp t ura l reli ef qual it y , rc po ussc d ecora ti on cha rac ter ize d fu lly d evel oped ro co co silver in b oth Britain and Ameri ca. In th e peri od , ho we ver, it was kn o wn as chas ing; the artisa n w ho accomp lish ed it, a chase r. The spec ialty was descr ib ed in T he Loudon T radesman ( 174 7) as pr actic ed b y o ne of th e "D ep end an ts [of t he ] Go lds m it h . o r , as so me ca ll him. Sil ver smith, " alo ng wit h je w elers . refin er s. burn ish er s, and g ilde rs . amo ng others. " C hased d ecor ati on appe ar s o n pl at e fr om th e three m aj or cen ters o f Am eri can silver prod u ct io n- Bo sto n, N ew Yo rk, and Ph iladelphia- as we ll as o n w o rk from C harlesto n , Baltimo re , Ann ap o li s, Rh od e Isla n d , A lb an y, and La n cas ter. P ie rc ing is j us t as ex u be ra n t as chas ing but mu ch rar er in Am eri can silve r. The techniqu e co ns ists o f layin g o u t a patte rn o n th e s il ver, then drillin g h o les in th e a reas t o b e remo ve d, ex pa n d ing the holes b y m ean s of a sma ll fret saw, and, fin all y, filin g th e ro ug h edges smoo th . Th e ro co co , m or e than a ny precedin g srylc, requ ired spec ia lize d sk ills t h at exceede d th e abiliti es o f t he avera ge Am er ican silvers m it h. R ecent resea rc h in London silve r has d is pe lle d th e m yt h that th e so -ca lle d m ak e r' s mark o n a silve r o bj ec t co uld be int erpreted as the arti st's sig nature and has re vealed th e co m pl c x n et w ork of rcr ail cr s. retai le r- silver smith s, specia lis t-s ilvers m it hs, an d silve r artisans w h o w ere resp on sibl e for th e produ cti on o f any g ive n sho p. 'J T he London Trad esm an , " b e ing a co m pe n d io us vi ew o f all t he tra des" practi ced in London, descr ib ed th e co m plem en t of a silve rs m ith's sho p:

T he Goldsmith em ploys severa l d istinc t Wo rkm en , alm o st as ma ny as th ere are d iffe re n t Art icl es in h is Sh op : fo r in th is g rea t C ity th er e arc H ands th at excel in every B ran ch , and are co n sta n tly em ployed b ur in th at o ne of w hic h th ey are M ast er s . T h is g ives li S an Ad v an t a g e over m an y For ei gn Na tions in thi s Arti cl e, as th e y are o b lige d to employ t h e same H and s in ever y Br an ch of th e Tr ad e . and it is i mposs ib le t o ex pec t th at a M an e m p loye d in suc h an infin ite Va riety can fin is h h is Work to an y Per fecti o n. at leas t , not s o mu ch as h e w ho is cons ta n t ly em plo yed in one Th in g . 10

47 CoIJi'(, pot, 1772 Paul Rever e, Bost on Silver. H . : 12 in . Pri vat e collection

73

On a sma lle r, more pro vin cial sca le, Am eri can silve rs m iths o pe ra te d in th e sam e fash ion , o bta ining o bj ects and services from o ne ano t her. Paul Rev er e's led gers rev eal a net w ork of suc h rel ati on ship s with thirteen o the r siIve rs m iths p rio r to th e R e v oluti on ." Fin e a r mo ria l e ng ra v ing was a t al ent beyond th e rud im cutar y t rain in g of th e ave rage silve rs m ith, and Rever e, an acco m p lis he d eng rave r, su pp lied th at ser vice to a num ber o f his co lleag ues. U

c ra fts m an co u ld ch ea t his clients b y chea pe n ing th e alloy. usin g less s ilve r th an th e s ta n da rd e xp ect ed . ' 3 A m er ican s th er efore tended to pat ronize silvers mi ths of proven re p utati on , a cau tio na ry pract ice th at furth er hinder ed jou rney me n st rugg ling to esta blis h th eir own sho ps, since th ey co uld not re ly o n a gove rn ment hallm ark to g ua ra ntee th e integrit y of th eir m ateri als. In the abs ence o f go ve rn me n ta l regul at ion. a sys te m of tru st de v el op ed b etwe en p atron s a n d th eir sup p liers th a t ser ve d to pr ote ct d om esti c s ilv e rs m iths fr om th eir mos t threat en in g co m pe titio n - foreign crafts me n w ho w ere th oro ug hly ac q ua in te d w ith cur re n t European fas hio n and o ften m or e techn icall y profi ci ent than th e Am eri can s. Th ou g h m an y Briti sh a n d Eur op ean s ilv e rs m iths mi g rat ed to th e co lo n ies . m o st o f th em wo rke d for Am er ican m ast e rs as j ourn eym en , o u t w o rk e r s, o r ind entured se rvan ts. O n ly a few su cce eded in o pe n ing th eir ow n ret ail sho ps, thu s pe rmittin g th em to m ark th eir w ar es an d id entify th ei r con tribution s for posterity . Without mark s or do cum ent ation for m o st of th o se ano ny m o us men, th ey co n stit ute a lar ge. overloo ked g ro up who se experti se und olibt edl y mad e p o ssibl e so me o f th e finest Am eri can silve r o f th e period. Fortunat ely, co nte mporar y n ewsp aper ad ve rt ise me n ts d o cument the ex is te nce of so me o f th em . Thou gh ce rta in ly not co m pr eh en sive. period refer en ces do provid e su ffic ien t eviden ce to sugges t th at th e ado ptio n an d developm ent o f th e ro co co sty le in th e co lonies were directly linked to immigrant art isans w ho had firsth an d kn owl ed g e of th e s ty le as well as th e s pecia lized abi li ty need ed to create its att ribu tes . Their co n tribut io ns hav e been routinel y ass igne d to sho p m ast er s. In the s t u dy o f Am e ri can silve r, th e init ial a nd n a m e m arks sta m ped o n an obj ect have tr aditi on ally been regarded as th e m ean s o f identifyin g th e m ake r. A g ive n silvers m ith's ab ility w as e valua te d on the ba si s o f o bjec ts sta m pe d w ith his m ark. Som e Am eric an silve rs m it hs m a y d eser ve th e reputati on th ey have g arne red as a result o f th at mi sint crpreration , but othe rs w er e almos t ce rta in ly ret ailer-silv ersm iths wh o su pe rv ise d thriving businesse s. Until furth e r resea rc h can untan gl e the we b of the Ameri can silver tr ad e or u nless specific ev idence sugges ts o t he rw ise , th e so -ca lle d m ake r's m ark o n hi gh - st yl e ro coco s ilve r s ho u ld be re g ard ed as a sho p mark onl y- an indi cati on o f w hen: the piece may have been asse m b led and w he re it w as so ld . but no pr oof at all of th e aut ho rship o f th e o rna me n t.

C has ing w as a hi ghl y dem and in g skill, more cha lleng ing th an eng ra ving and o ne th at Am er ican silvers m iths w ere not likely to hav e pr acti ced in th e preceding Qu een Ann e peri od . In v iew o f th e pau cit y o f h oll o w w ar e co m m iss io ns in m o st si lve rs m it hs' produ cti on (re pa irs and s ma ll w o rk mad e up m o st o f th eir tr ad e) an d th e still sma lle r per centage o f co mm ission s ca ll ing fo r suc h ex p ens ive o rna me n t , it is hi ghl y unlik el y th at d om esti c c r a ft s m e n co u ld h av e d e vel op ed chasi ng abilit y o f a qu alit y co m me ns ura te with th e m o st acco m plishe d essays in th e Am eri can ro co co . N ot o n ly did A me r ica n si lve rs m it hs co n t rac t am o ng th em selves fo r spec ialize d se rvices, th ey also em ployed full y tr ain ed silve rs m iths , som e o f w ho m w er e undoubtedl y practi ced in th e techniques. One o f th e least und er st ood area s of Am eri can s ilve r is th e id entit y a n d co n t ri b u tio n of those m en , m o st o f whom w e re jo u rncy mcn -c-silve rs m irhs w orkin g for a m ast er sm ith and under hi s m ark . The term " m aster silvers m it h," d esi gnatin g th e o w ne r o f a silve r wo rk s ho p, h as led t o th e co m mo n mi s con cepti on th at h e was always th e m ost skilled and ex pe rience d cra fts ma n. A m aster to ok o n ap p re n tices when th e y we re thirt een o r fourteen . Th e y were th en b ound to h im fo r a per iod o f abou t se ve n ye a rs until , h av in g se rve d th eir term , th e y b ecam e w ageearni ng jou rney men. The next tr an siti on , from j ourne ym an to m ast er, had less to d o w ith excepti on al abilit y th an w ith access to ca p ita l an d p atr on age a n d was b y n o me an s a foreg on e co n cl us io n . Th e eas ies t way to becom e a m ast er was to be born a m ast er's so n o r to m arr y a m ast er's dau ghter and so inherit tools, sho p, and clien te le. The journ eyma n w ish in g to e m ba rk o n hi s ow n and lackin g famil y co nnect ion s h ad to acc u m u la te s u bs ta n t ia l ca p it al, n ot o n ly to ac q u i re t he fund a m ent al s of h is tr ad e but also to ex te n d cred it to hi s patro n s. In ad d it io n, h e h ad to ea rn th e tru st and respect o f pot ential clients. In t he eigh teen th century, Am e r ic an si lve rs m i t hs fun ct io ned as broker s, tran sformin g t heir clients' asse ts into a di ffer ent k ind of co m mod ity . In Eng la n d , patron s w er e pr otect ed b y st rict go ve rn me n ta l regul ati on s requiri ng th at v irt ua lly eve ry p iece ret ail ed b e test ed a t an assay o ffice . Th o se o f sa tisfac tory alloy we re hallmark ed an d co ul d th en b e o ffe re d for sale . Be cau se n o s uc h o ffic ia l pr o cedur e d e vel op ed in t he No rt h Am eri can co lo nies, a di sh on est

O f th e three silver smithin g cen te rs (Bos to n, N ew York , and Phil adelphi a), Bost on was th e m o st co nse rva tive in rococo interpret ati on . Alth o u gh th e city h ad as mu ch access to th e st yle as did N ew York and Phil adelphia. a flaggin g eco nomy

74

and a shortage of fore ig n- tra ine d specia lists rn ay ex p lain her m o derate res ponse . En g lish rococo silve r can be d o cumented in New E ng land by t he lat e 1740s, q but Bo st onian s seem to ha ve o rdered fa r few er do mes t ic interpret ati on s o f th e n ew ch ased sty le . Eng lis h reco rds reveal th at th e t o t al w ei ght o f s il v e r a rt icles s hip pe d to N e w E ng la nd excee de d th at ex po rte d to Penn syl vani a b etween 1740 and 1758, yea rs o f th e ad o p t io n of t he r o co co in t he co lo n ie s .' .' On e o f th e fir st t r ad es t o be affected b y B o ston' s d eclin e in pr o sp erit y and popul ati on (m ain tain in g at o n ly fift een th ousand thr ou ghout th e ro co co pe r iod) was silve rs m it h ing . Th ou gh in it s prim e durin g th e fir st deca de o f th e 1700S, it h ad lo st mu ch o f it s prom ise by t he 1730S an d , co n seq u en tl y, at t rac te d far fewer ap p ren tices an d immigrant cra fts men . ,(, Forei g n silver worke rs brin gin g new st yles into America we re m o re lik el y t o se t tle in N ew York o r Philadelphia, w he re th e cha nces o f em p loy me n t w er e g rea te r. In co n t r ast w it h Ne w Yo rk, Phil adelph ia , a n d C har les to n ad v e r t isem ents, th o se in N ew Eng lan d new sp ap er s are co ns p icu o us ly la c ki n g in m enti on o f c ra fts me n lat el y fro m London o r tr ain ed in Eu ro pe.'? T he m ajority o f th e city 's silve rs m ith ing s ho p s w e re r u n by Am eric an-b orn m en, as m ight b e ex pec ted . Th e la g g in g eco no m y n otw ith st andin g , Boston s t il l h ad a numb er of a ffl ue n t cit ize ns , la rg ely m erchants. So me o f t he m p atroni zed th e ro co co , an d ch ie f a mo ng th e lo cal si lve rs m it h s w ho s u p p lied th em w it h o bjec ts in th e fu lly d evel oped mode w ere Benj amin Burt , N athaniel Hurd,

FIG URE 2(;. CO .ffCI' pot, 17(;2-(;3. Benjamin Brewood II , l ondon . Silver, H.: 12 in. (30. 5 cm .). Th e Metrop olitan Mu seum of Art , Gift of James Delancey Verplanck and John Bayard Rogers Verplanck, 1942 (42.88)

Sam uel Edwards, Th om as Ed w ard s, and Paul Revere . St yli sticall y, th e rococo work fro m Rever e's sho p surpasses that of th e o thers . P aul Re v ere ( 173 5- 18 18) was tr a in ed b y hi s father, A po llos Ri voire ( 1702- 1754) , a Fren ch Hu gu en ot brou ght to Bo st o n at the ag e of fourteen and ap p ren ticed to J ohn Coney ( 105 5150- 1722) . Re vere, th ou gh st ill a min or in 17 54, w h en he ass u med respo ns ibi lity for hi s fathe r's sho p aft er Ri voirc 's de a t h, h ad beco me a m ast e r g o ld sm it h in B o st on by 17 57 . Re ve re 's ca ree r as a silvers mi t h s pa n s three sty le periods-

17 57 , wh en a n adve rt iseme n t for sto le n s ilver d es crib e s a " chaced Salver , " as w ell as a " ch aced Coffee - Po t ," a mo ng

Q ueen Ann e, ro co co, an d n eocl assical - but hi s m o st impor-

several other pi eces, all o f w hic h were " Ste rl ing Pl at e, h av e a

ta n t wor ks a re fr om th e last t w o . Th e fortuitous surv iva l o f h is Da y B o ok s from 17 (,1 to ' 7Y 7 fac ilita tes a m ore acc u ra te assess ment of th e expense an d in cid en ce o f ro co co wo rk . An acco m p lis he d eng rave r as w ell (see pp . 39 , 40 , 51 for more in form ati on o n R ever e a n d o n th at as pec t of his w ork ) , Rev er e added suc h o rna men t to silve r o f hi s o w n an d o t hers' m akin g. I X New Yo rk' s co m m e r cia l ti es t o E ng la nd , so vit al t o h er g ro vvth , pr odu ced a co sm o p o litan cit y o f wealthy merch ants anxio us an d well able to affo rd to foll o w Lond on fashions.

Lion Sta m pt o n th e B ottom. " I ') Jud ith C ro m mcli n ( 1739 (803 ) an d Samu el ( 1737- 1820) Verp lan ck , who we re ma rr ied in 170 1, o w ne d so me h and som e ro co co pl at e fro m Lond on , includin g a la v ishl y chas ed teak ettl e o n sta n d en su ite w it h a co ffee pot (!'IG. 26), and a pair o f tea cad d ies, all d ate-m arked 1702-0 3. 20 The qu antit y o f Brit ish silve r ex po rte d to New York between 1747 an d 1703 was ge ne ra lly hi gh , av e rag ing 1,0(,8 o u nces a yea r b et w een 1747 a n d 17 58 a n d re achin g a n ave rage o f 3 , 4 87 o u nc es a ye a r betwe en 1759 a n d 17(,2. 2 1 N ew York silv er sm iths see m to h ave b een produ cin g ro co co sil v e r b y th e lat e 1750 S: th e M yers silv e r m ad e for

E ng li sh ro co co s ilve r can b e do cum ented in N ew Yo rk b y

Samuel and Su sann ah Co rne ll (see N o. 82;

75

FI G .

30, p . 123)

m o st likel y d at es fr om t h eir m ar ria g e in 17 56 ; in 17 5X. on e j o seph Pinto advertise d chased silve r milk pots. r' "

bran che s, t h a t co u ld b e h ad in a ny p art o f En gl and . "

0 ')

Be ca use N ew Yo r k was e njoying a p eri od of pro sp e r it y in

The city's n ewsp ap er s d o cum ent t he ex iste nce of forei gn

th e 17 50S an d 17oos, it fo llows t h at th e city was at t rac t ing a

silve rs m ith s throu ghout the period . Th e earliest refer en ce to

larg e nu rn bc r o f for ei gn silversmith s (in cl u d in g at leas t o ne deserter fr om t he B ri ti sh ar my ). 30 wh o . in th eir own shops

o ne o f them . in 17 54. p rob abl y id entifies th e m an responsib le for brin gin g th e sty le to N ew York. D ani el C h rist ian Fueter ( 1720- 17X5) w as b orn an d train ed in Switzerl and an d w o rke d

o r w orkin g for other s , su bs ta n t ially co n tr ib u te d to th e lo cal ro co co sty le.

in Bern before fleein g to Lond on as a politi cal refu g ee. After

N ew York's fin est r o co co silv er is m ark ed n ot o n ly by

at least tw o yea rs in th e Eng lish ca pita l. he emigrat ed in 1754

Fu ctcr but also by Ep hraim Bra sher, Pict cr d e Ri em er. j oh n

to N ew York. re m ai nin g t h er e unti l '769 . when h e ret urned

H eath . M ye r M ye rs . Ni cho la s Roo sev elt . and Ri ch ard Va n D y ck . Of th o se , th e sho p of M y e r M y e r s see ms t o h a ve

to Europ e an d. eve nt ua lly. to B ern . 0 3 Hi s E uropean ba ckg ro u n d probabl y acc o u n ts for h is flu en cy in ro co co interpre-

retailed the larg est pe rcentag e of o u ts ta n d ing exa mples . Bo rn

tation . I n 17 54 , h e a d ve rt is ed hi s a r r iva l in th e

S II OI /I IrCII C

in N ew Yo r k in 17 2 3 t o Dut ch immi gr an t p a rent s , M yer s

fr om Lond on. ad d ing th at he co u ld m ak e "a ll sorts o f Go ld an d Silver w ork . afte r th e ne w est an d n e at est Fashi o n . " 04

was p robab ly ed u ca te d at a sc h oo l m aintain ed b y th e fam ily

Becau se Fuerer su cce ed ed in o pe n ing hi s o w n sho p. h is m ark

sy n a gog ue, t h e C o ng rega t io n S h ea rit h Is rael. Th ou gh h is a p p re n t ices h ip is u nd o cum ent ed, h e is kn o wn t o h a ve

ide n ti fies so m e hi g hl y so p his tica te d ro coc o object s (see Nos.

be com e a fr eem an o f t h e city in 1746 , at t h e age o f t w en t y-

74. XI. X5).' 5 In t he 17 50 S. th e ro co co w as fu ll y m ature an d

three. and th erefo re en titl ed not o n ly to o pen a shop but also

flouri shin g in co n t inenta l Europe . th ou g h it wa s still a relati ve new com er to Am eri can sho res. Fu eter, w ho wo u ld have

to vot e . Hi s fir st m arri age. to Elka lah Co he n ( 1735- 1705),

b een we ll v er sed in th e sty le w he n h e ca me to th e co lo n ies.

d eat h. w as to j o yce Mea rs . in 1707 . Nine chi ld re n sur v ive d

mu st h av e b een in strum ent al in fo st er in g it s p op u lar it y in N ew York .

as a co m m u n it y lead er. h ol d in g o ffices in th e sy nagog ue as

Other forei gn er s pr ofi ci ent in r o co co d e cor at io n a re d o cumented in N e w York in th e 1760 S. In 1703, Ot'to Pari sie n adve rt ise d h im sel f as fr om B erlin a n d procl aim ed hi s

t o ok pl a ce e a rly in th e 175 0 S; h is seco n d . a fte r E lk ala hs from th e tw o marriag es . M yers pro spe red in h is ca reer an d wel l as in the lo cal M aso ni c lod g e . B y 17 55, he was t radin g w it h j ew ish m er chants in Ph iladelp h ia; in 17Xo. h e was cha irm an o f New York' s Go ld an d Silver Smi th 's Socie r y.:" H is

pr ow ess in " all So rts o f Pl at e Work. both p lain a nd chas'd . "0 0 Fu et er in form ed th e p ubli c in 1709 that "Mr. j o h n

sh o p e nj oye d th e p at ron ag e o f so me o f N ew York 's fin est

Anth on y Beau. C ha ise r, fr om Ge ne va, wo r k s w it h him. "

nells, an d th e Phi lip ses. Ex cept durin g th e British occ u pa tion o f the city, w h ic h h e s pen t in Co n nec t ic u t an d in Phil ad el-

07

Beau 's presen ce in N ew York m a y well h ave predated Fu ere r 's an no u nce men t. I f so . Beau m ay h ave been w orkin g for othe r silve rs m iths. possibl y for th at j o seph Pinto . w ho , after

famili es, incl udin g th e Livin g st ons, th e Schu y lc rs, th e Cor-

ph ia. M yer s rem ai ned in N ew York u n til hi s d eath , in 179 5. A n ad ve rt isemen t o f 1701. in w h ich M yer s in fo rmed th e publi c th at hi s E n glish inden tured serva n t, Lewis M ear s. "a

adve r t is ing th e mi lk p ot in 17 58 . we n t o n to o ffer in 170 [ a tureen , ca n d les t ic k s. coffee p ot s an d teap ots . sugar di sh es . w aste b o w ls, sa uce boa ts , all chased. as well as "C hass 'd and

j e w ell er b y Tr ade, an d ca n e ng rave," h ad run away. p ro ves

Pl ain" s ta n ds . mu g s, sa lv e rs , m ilk pot s , a n d w h is t l cs .:"

It ap pea rs t h at M ye rs w as s u pe r v is ing a j ewelry b us iness in

t ha t M yers w as usin g the sk ills o f immi grant silvc rs ru irhs. V

R egret tabl y. n o n e o f t hos e wo r ks a re kn own tod ay. A co n-

add iti on to hi s silver firm . and p o ssibly acce p ting eng ra vi ng

necti on amo ng Pinto , Beau. an d Fu ct cr see ms po ssibl e. Fue -

j ob s as we ll. Som e o f th e fine st e ng r a v ing of th e p eri od

rer, in hi s adve rt ise me n t o f 1769 . also an no u nced th at he h ad m o ved in to the hou se o f Mrs. Pinto, w h ich sugges ts tha t he

g races silve r from hi s sho p (se e N o s . 00 . 72 . 87 ). The large amo u n t o f pi e rced wo rk ascr ibe d to him o n th e b asis of hi s

h ad t ak en o ver h er hu sb and 's silve rs m it h ing sho p. I f Be au

m ark m a y a lso p oint t o th e se r v ices o f a cr afts ma n in hi s

h ad b een wo rk ing fo r Pin to , t h at m a y ex p la in ho w Fuctcr came to hire h im, on . The ap pea l o f fo re ig n- tra ined s p ec ia lis ts is m ad e ap pa ren t in an adve rt ise ment of 1771. in w h ich Bennett an d D ixo n. a p artnership produ cin g jewel ry an d s ma ll silver an d go ld w ork, n ot o n ly iden t ifie d th em sel ves as "from London " but also, foll owin g a list o f th eir wa res , added: " Likew ise for th e better ca r ry ing o n t he j ewell e r y. [sil ver smith] an d lap idar y bu siness. h a ve engaged so me o f th e b est w orkm en in th o se

e m p loy o r a v ai lable to h im . P ie r cin g wa s suc h a hi ghl y acco m p l is he d s p ec ia lty tha t ce rtai n Lond on s ilve rs mit hs su p p lied th e m ajorit y o f En g lish pi erced wa res in th e ro co co p er io d . A n im mig r an t jo u rn eyma n fr om on e of th eir sho ps m ay hav e wo rke d for M yer s. w h ich wo uld ex p lain the pier cin g on so me M ye r s silvcr an d also the ap pea ra nce o f for m s n ot co m mo n ly fo und in th e co lo n ies but routin el y p rodu ced in Lo nd on's s pecialized sho ps : coaste rs . a ba sk et. a di sh rin g . an d a fish slice.

a tea se r vice ( 1744 - 45 ) m ark ed b y Paul de Lam eri e ( FIG . 27), prob abl y a weddin g gi ft fr o m Lond o n rel at ives. H Am o n g Phil ad elphia silvers m it hs im po rti ng pla te were Rich a rd so n , john D avid , Philip Hulb e a rt , R ich a rd Humph re y s , j ohn Lea co ck , an d Edmund M iln e. Sta tis tics of th e per io d reveal th at th e qu antit y o f En gli sh silve r ex po rt ed to Ph ilad elphi a ave raged 581 o u nc es a year be tween 1747 an d 175 8 an d ro se to an ave rag e o f 2,832 o unces a yea r bet w een 1759 and 176 2, re a chin g a hi gh of 5,221 o u nc es in 176 0 . .1 .1 Th e sa me phenomen on alrea dy noted in N ew York points to th e p ro sper it y o f th e tw o cities , a res ult of th e m e rch ants ' lu crati ve

FIGURE

27.

co nt rac ts to su pply goods to th e British army, th en fig htin g the Fren ch and Ind ian War. Ex po rt s to both New York and Philad elphi a d eclin ed afte r 176 2 beca use o f po stwar re ce ssio ns and increasin g tr ad e ten sion s. Phil ad elphi a's dom est ic p rodu cti on o f ro co co si lv er can be dated from th e 1750S (see N os. 62 , 65, 75 , 88). N oti ces o f immi gr ant c ra fts me n ap pea r in cit y new sp aper adve r ti se ments throu ghout the 1760s and 1770s , but o nly tw o m en are mention ed as chase rs, and th ey d o not appea r until 1772 an d 1774 Y ' Th ou gh it is as ye t impos si b le to ide n t ify s pecific forei gn a r tisa ns w ho m a y h a ve be en resp o n sible for s u ch o rna me n t o n Ph il ad elphi a ro c o co s il ve r in th e 17 50 S an d 1760S, th at d o es not bel ie th eir ex is te nce . Am eri can m ast er sm it hs, unle ss th e y we re tr yi n g t o recover an in d entured se rva n t , rar el y publish ed notices of immig ra n t silve rs m it hs in th eir s ho ps . Th e m aj or it y of re fe re nce s to fo rei gn cra fts me n w er e b y th e fo rei g ne rs th em sel ves, adve rt isi ng eit he r th eir se rv ices o r th e se r v ices o f im m igran t a rt isa ns wo rking for th em . In ad d itio n to th o se m ent ion ed above , T hom as Shi eld s an d Phili p S yn g, J r. , are a mo n g P h il adel ph ia s ilvc rsrn i th s tr adition all y ac k now ledge d for t h ei r wo rk in t he r oco co style ; th e t w o wh o ca n b e re gard ed as t he most promi n en t retail er s o f silve r in th e ro co co tast e a re R ich a rd so n a n d Syng. J o seph R ich a rd son ( 1711- 1784) wa s a seco n d- ge ne ra ti on Ameri can a n d sil ve rs mi t h w ho se work s p anned th e Qu een Ann e and th e ro co co peri od s. Born in Ph ilad el ph ia, he was tr ain ed b y his fathe r, Fran cis Ri ch ard son ( 168 1- 1729), w hose tool s and bu sin ess he inherited at the age o f eig hte en . Ri ch ard son b e c am e a p r omin ent Qu a k er silve rs m it h and ci vic le ader, as well as a pr o sp er ou s land o wn er. In 1741, he m arri ed H ann ah Worril , w ho di ed fi ve yea rs lat e r, le avin g him w ith a dau ghter. In 1748, Rich ardson m arried agai n. Hi s seco n d wife , M ar y All en , bo re him three m ore da ug h ters and two so ns, J o seph junio r and N athani el, w ho learn ed th e trad e fr om th eir fath er and ass u me d resp on sibil it y fo r h is busin ess w he n h e retired in 1777 . As a phil anthropi st , Ri ch ardson su ppo rted th e Penn syl van ia H osp ital th rou gh ou t hi s ca reer. H e was a ls o a m em b e r a n d s h a re ho lder of t h e

Tcakcttte 01/ stand, 1744-4 5.

Paul de Lam erie, London . Silve r, H . (handle ex tended ): 14'% in . (37· 5 cm.). The M et ropol itan Mu seum of Art, Gift of George D . W idener and Eleanor W. Di xon (M rs. Wid ener Dixon), 1958 (58.7. 17)

P hi ladel p h ia was t h e f ore m o s t city in th e co lo n ies b y t he beg in ni ng of th e ro co co period . N ot a few a ffl ue n t Ph iladelphian s m aintain ed both city and co untry hou ses, and m o st of th em m ad e a n e ffor t to k eep up w it h th e cu rren t Lond on tast es. Wh ereas Rev ere 's p ro d u c tio n o f te ap ots in Bo st on ave rage d o n e a year bet w een 1761 an d 1767, joseph Rich ard son 's orde rs to Lond on bet w een 1759 an d 1767 ave raged o ut to an an n ua l six , in add itio n to th o se produ ced in his Ph iladelphia sh op . .J.J En gli sh roco co silve r was bein g ex po rte d to Philadelphia by th e la te 1740s, w he n David an d M ar garet Franks received

77

Lib rar y C o m pan y o f Phil ad el ph ia and a resp ect ed lead er in hi s Q ua ker co ng rega t io n . .1 7 Hi s lette r bo ok d o cum ents hi s co ns ide rable imp orti n g bu sin ess w it h Eng lis h si lvers mi t hs an d m erch ant s b et w e en 17 5 11 an d 177 3 , in t e r rupt e d b y peri od s o f eco no m ic declin e and by th e co lo nial nonimportati on ag ree me n ts, w h ic h R ich a rd son su p po rted . .1X Th e su bs ta n tia l q ua n tity of im port o rde rs reco rd ed b y Rich ard son sugges ts th e po ssibi lit y th at he br ou ght in un ma rked Eng lish s il ve r, t o w h ic h h e adde d h is ow n s tamp. Th at th e or y is cas ily re fut ed . E ng lis h si lve r wi t ho u t h allm ark s co uld n o t h a ve bee n ex po rted le g all y, a n d th e s ma ll a mou n t of fees saved by silvers m it hs e vad ing th e assay law s wou ld not have justifi ed th e ris k th ey ran . .1 ') Furth er. peri o d adve rtise me n ts in co lo nia l n e w sp a p ers le a ve n o do u b t th at Lo n do n s ilver identifiabl e by its hallm ar ks had g rea t cac he t. Irish -born Philip Syn g , J r. ( 1703-17119), was also tra ined b y his father, an Eng lis h si lversm it h w ho wo rke d in B ristol. br ou ght h is fa m ily t o Ann ap ol is in 1714 , a nd m o ved to Ph ilad elphi a b y th e en d of th e yea r. Wh en he went back to Ann ap oli s, abo ut 17 24, yo u ng Sy ng ass u me d t he Ph iladel phi a bu sin ess. 4° In 1725, he sai led fo r Lon d on and re t u rned th e next yea r, presum abl y w it h p attern s and tool s. In 173 0, he m arried Eli zabeth Warn er . Lik e Rich ardson , Sy ng too k an act i ve ro le in th e affai rs of th e c ity. H e was a m e mb er o f se ve ra l resp ect ed o rga n iza tio ns, in cludin g the Junto '(Benj am in Fr ankl in' s in te llect ua l circle) an d th e Am e ri can Phil o soph ical So cie t y. H e w as also a direct or o f the Librar y Co m pa ny o f Phil a d elph ia a nd a trus tee of th e Co llege o f Phil ad elphi a . Sy ng h ad ac q ui red th e se r vices of a Lond on eng rave r by 17411, t h e year La wren ce Hu bert adver tised as suc h . 41 In 176 3 , alo n g wi th Rich ard son . he was ap po inte d to se t tle the es ta te o f fell o w si lve rsm ith Phili p Hulbcarr . Wh en h e ret ir ed , in 177 2 . Sy ng rent ed hi s wo r ks ho p to twe n ty t w o - year-ol d Ri ch ard Humphre y s an d reco m me nded h is successo r to his clients in a new sp aper adve rtiseme nt.":' Ri ch ardson was bo rn in Am eri ca and Sy ng imm ig rated at th e age of eleven: both we re tr ain ed in th e co lo nies . Silver bearing th eir m ark s has so me o f th e m o st acco m plished chas ing o f any fro m th e Am eri c an ro co co pe r io d. Th a t eit her Ri ch a rd so n o r Syng, w ho we re schooled durin g th e Qu een Ann e era in a style not kn o wn fo r chased deco ra tio n. co uld h a ve ac q u ire d t he s k ills to execu te th e ir ow n c hasi ng is unlik el y. Be fo re the 17505. when t heir fi nes t wo rks we re cr eat ed, th ei r co mm iss io ns for suc h ex pe ns ive pi eces wo uld h ave been infrequ ent ind eed . Ri ch ard son' s coffee po t (No. (5) an d a m at chin g suga r d is h for t he Pen in g ton s date from aro u n d 1754; hi s teak ett le o n sta nd fo r th e Pl um stc ds (No . XII) was co mple te d b e fore 17 5 5. Syngs coffee po t for th e Ga lloways (No . ()2) p roba b ly dates fro m t heir marriage, in 17 53 ; hi s sa lve r fo r t he Penin gt on s (No. 75) . from aro u nd

17 54 . T ha t impressi ve g ro up co ns ti tutes some of t he earl iest d at a b le Am er ican rococo silver; th at it is a lso among t he m ost hi ghl y develo pe d in sty le arg ues fo r the participation of foreig n chasers. N othin g is kn o w n of j o urn eym an chasers in e it he r man's s hop, but if n eith e r p o ssessed such abi lity amo ng h is e m p loyees, it see ms cer ta in th at he would have contrac te d for it. Eve n if g hos t c hasers for P h ilad elp hia's

finest rococo silver ca n no t ye t be identified . the like lihood of th eir ex iste nce is un de niable . Phi ladelphia's size and prosperit y wo u ld ha ve at t rac te d immi gran t crafts me n and dictated th at he r silver ind us t ry fo llo w closely th e Lo ndon model.

T he fo u rt h major co lo nia l city was C ha rleston. but too little silve r surv ives fro m th e re to d o cum ent it as an eighteenthccn ru r y sitver sm ithi n g ce nter. Wealth y southerners were not m erch ant s wi t h cas h but planters w ith credit in Engla nd; as a co nseq ue nce. th e y imp o rt e d a su bs ta n tial amou nt of their silver d irec tly fro m Lond on . Bet w een 17 SO and 17()9 , exports of Br it ish silver into th e Ca ro linas exceeded th e combined total expo rted into New Eng lan d, N e w Yo r k , and Pen nsylva nia fo r th e sa me pe riod . 4 .\ C ha rles to n 's stro ng economic t ies wi t h Lond on wo u ld h a ve le ssen ed t he demand for lo ca lly p ro du ce d si lver. No ne t heless, Lon d o n- t raine d J o h n PaLlI Gri m ke advertised in 17()0 th at he ha d acqu ired the services of a j ourn eym an chaser and, a yea r lat er. Jo hn Winckler p ro cl aim ed him self a "S ilver-s mi t h and Chaser from Lon d o n . " H M ore o ver, pe riod adve rt iseme nts revea l severa l foreig n si lversmi t hs worki ng in C ha rles to n and five local silversm it h- reta ile rs se lling im po rted silver be tween 176 1 and 177 2 ,4) Th e sole su rv iving exa m ple of ma ture rococo silver fro m C ha rles ton (No. ()4) must represe nt a larger group of hi gh- st yl e domes t ic s ilver th at was converted to cash or dest ro yed in the Civil War.

T he ro co co style was ne ver th e last word in fas hion for all Am eri can pat ro ns . Even in imp o rt ed si lver, orders for o bjects in th e ro co co m od e we re acco m panied by orders for pl ain, un ch ascd p ieces. Th e ro co co was, after all, a sty list ic cho ice, almos t always mo re ex pe nsive tha n the plain er forms o f th e Q uee n Ann e peri od . Th e sty le flo ur ished during the 17 50S and 17()OS, o ne o f th e m o st prosp erou s periods in coloni al hi s tor y , b ut it s prog ress was inte rrupted by one of the m o st tur b ule nt. Re cessio n s in th e wa ke of th e Fr en ch and In di an War. fo llowe d b y co n flicts wi th Eng land over taxes levi ed o n imp ort ed goo ds. cu lm inating in the Re volu tio n. ce rta in ly limi te d and dis rup ted t he n atur al co urse of t he ro co co sty le. By t he resolu tion of th e Wa r of Ind ep en den ce, in 17113, t he n e o cl ass ic al was th e n e w s ty le of c hoice for fashio na ble silver pat rons.

In eig h tee n t h-ce n t u ry A merica, " the te a ce remony, som etim es sim p le, so me times elabo ra te, was th e ve ry co re o f famil y life. " 52 Th e b ever ag e was served by a lady of t he hou seh old sea te d at a tea tabl e, aro und whic h guests mi n-

Tea and Coffee Forms

gled, sit ting o r sta ndi ng. A fully eq uipped tab le hel d a teapot, w ast e bo wl , cream po t, tea canis ter, sugar dis h, suga r ton g s, cu ps an d sa ucers, and teas poons . H ig h society p re ferr ed c u ps-w it ho u t h an d le s fo r te a , wi th hand les for choco la te or coffee -a nd saucers to be of porcelain, bu t th e rem ainder of th e equ ipage was most desirable in silver. The rep ast mi ght have co nsis ted of cakes, pastries, n u ts, sweet mea ts, frui t - de pe ndi ng o n th e ho st 's m ean s. Teatime w as th e m o st socia l time of th e day; besi des fami ly m e mber s, p arti cip ants inclu d ed friends w ho ca lled, vis ito rs in to wn, and ge n tl e me n co u rti ng m ar riag eab le yo ung lad ies. Th e co u r ti ng as pec t co ul d ex te n d th e even t we ll int o th e e ve n i ng, w he n a va r iety of e n te rtai n me n ts we re offe re d. T w o suc h occa sio ns we re record ed b y Nancy S hippe n of Philad elphia in a jou rna l she kept fro m 1783 to 1786:

T he majority of Am erican rococo silve r is rep res en ted by th e for ms cra fted in the co lo n ies beginni ng in th e lat e 174 0 S for a domestic ri tua l th e n rece n tl y im po rt ed from En gl and : th e servi ng o f tea and coffee. Th o se exo tic bev erages, th e fir st intro du ce d t o E urope fro m th e Orie n t; th e seco n d, fr om t he M id e ast (wi t h a th ir d, choco la te, im po r te d fr om th e A mericas), exerc ise d a social influen ce that was palp abl e in Londo n b y th e last qu arter of th e seven tee n t h ce n t ury. In 1660, Sa m ue l Pep y s reco rde d hi s fi rs t tea-tast in g . In 16 5 2 , Lo nd on 's fir st coffee ho use o pe ne d, foll o w ed in 16 7 0 b y th e fi rs t in Bo sr ou .! " Specia lized form s m ad e fo r th e se rv ice o f eac h beve rage a re we ll d o cum en t ed b y 17 0 0 . T ea was beli e v ed t o h a v e m ed ic in al prop e rt ies , w h ile co ffee was ex to lled in a Lond on ad ver tise men t of 1660 as "w ho leso me, preservi ng health until ex t re me o ld age, good fo r clea ri ng th e sig h t [a nd a b le to] m ak e the b od y active an d lu st y . "4 7 Both co nta ine d caffeine, a stim ulus to th e ner vou s sys te m , as did t he less p opu la r choco la te. P rior to th eir int ro d uc tio n, th e gentry had ac hieved th e sa me effec t b y co ns umi ng lar ge a mo u nts of s ugar a t m e al s , a prac t ice th e y aba n do ne d in favor of th e new drin ks.:" B y 17 0 0 , t he m o re pri vil eged Am er ican s we re enjoying tea, coffee, an d choco la te. Th e pa r ta king o f tea, assoc ia te d

Mr s Allen & the Miss C hews drank Tea with me & spent th e eve n'g. T here was half a dozen agreable & sensible men that was of the part y. T he conversation was carried on in th e mos t spr ig htly. agrea ble manner . . . till nine w he n ca rds was proposed, & abo ut ten, refres hments were intro duced which concluded the Evening.. . . Saturd ay night at II o'clock . I had a very large com pany at Tea this Evening . . . . I don't know when I spent a more merry Eveng. We had music, Cards, &c &c. N ot all tea p arti es we re so jocu lar. A s a E uropean vis ito r co m p la in ed: "Th e o n ly th in g you h ear . . . is t he whis tli ng so u n d m ad e b y th e lip s o n edges of th e cu ps . T his mu si c is v ar ied b y th e requ est m ad e to you to h a ve anot he r cu p." For ei gn e r s we re di str ess ed w hen they found themse lves ig no ra n t o f th e pr op e r w ay to p reve nt th ei r hos tess from refillin g th ei r cu ps . A Fr en ch n o bl e m an descri bed h is dilemm a as a g ues t at tea in th e P h il ad e lph ia h om e of t he Signer Rob ert M orris: I part ook of mos t excellent tea and I shou ld be even now still drinking it. I believe. if the [French ] Ambassador had not charitab ly no tified me at the twelfth cup, that I must put my spoo n across it when I wished to finish with this sort of war m water. ... It is almost as ill-bred to refuse a cup of tea when it is offered to you, as it wo uld [bel indiscreet for the mistress of the house to pro pose a fresh one. when the ceremony of the spoon has notified her tha t we no longer wish to partake of it.

w it h a ceremon ial cus to m o rig ina ting in J ap an , w as ado pte d in th e co lo nies, as it had bee n in Eng land, as a hi ghl y important socia l ritu al fre q ue n tly ad m inis te re d b y wo me n.'!" The mos t p opul ar o f th e thre e b e v er ag es , i t was b e comin g in cr easin gl y affor da ble b y th e midd le of th e eig htee n t h century ; in th e yea r 17 59 , m ore th an six tee n th ou sand po unds of tea we re co ns u me d in B o st on alone. 50 In En gl and, w he n Pc p ys fi rs t tast ed it, a p ound o f fin e tea cos t three pound s ten shillings; by 17 0 0, it cos t o nly a pound; b y 17 6 0 , its pri ce had dro p pe d to ten shillings. Thou gh th at was still not in expe nsive w he n co m pared with th e pri ce o f m eat (three pe nce a pound ), it was a m ore affordab le luxury. ·\1

So me tim e lat er, ano t he r Fre nc h vis itor ad mired a clever b u t uniniti at ed fo reign er , w ho. hav in g cons umed repea te d cu ps o f te a, " dec ide d afte r e m p ty ing it to p ut it into h is pocke t until the repl en ishm ents had been co ncluded ."

79

TEA

SETS

Tea se ts-co ns isting va rio us ly of a teap o t, coffee pot. sug ar d ish , crea m pot , an d addi tio na l acco ut rements , all m ade en su ite -were new in the rococo period . Tw o existing English se ts are d o cum ent ed in Ph il ad elphi a. O ne , m ark ed by th e Lond on firm o f Whipham and Wri ght, dat in g from 1763 and eng rave d w it h th e Ll o y d coa t of a r ms, was part of the dow ry o f Elizabeth Llo yd, w ho ma rried J ohn (later General ) Ca dwa lader (see p . (85) in 176 8; th e o the r is known in sur vivi ng pi eces fro m th e Fra n ks fa mi ly silver (see FIG. 2 7, p. 77) . w hic h show th at th ey were part o f a se t marked by Paul de Lam erie in 1744-4 5. 53 Am eri can exa m p les d at in g b e fore th e 179 0 S are rare. J oseph Richard son 's acco unts record th at he supplied a set to Samu el Blun st on in 1737. H A s ea rly as 17 59, Ri ch ard so n o rde red fro m England a list of objects th at inclu ded " 3 Doub le Belli ed Sil ver tea Potts w ith St ands or we ighte rs Neatly C has t " and " 3 D ou bl e Bell ied Sh uga r Dis hes with Covers N eatl y C has t to Sui t th e tea Potts. " A year lat er, his book co n ta ins th e same so rt of o rder, but th at o ne requ est ed two teap ots w ith acco m pa ny ing suga r dish es eng raved instead of chase d an d w ith th e ad d itio n of "2 C ream Pott s or Ewers to Su it th e Ab o ve. " " H o w lit er all y th e Lon don rec ip ien ts of th ose or ders int erpret ed " to sui t" canno t be dete rmi ned . Did th e y s u p p ly se ts w it h ide n t ica l d ecor at io n or pieces with sim ila r deco rati on ? In v iew of Rich ar d son 's repeated ho pe th at his or de rs wo uld be "Shi p t Per firs t O pperrunity, ,,-, 6 it is not illogi cal to ass u me th at m an y o f th e " set s" we re assembled from stoc k o n h an d to sa tisfy Ri ch ar d so n 's continual pl eas for h ast e . Th e ea rl ies t se t reco rd ed in Pau l Revere' s led g er s was made in 1764 fo r Ca p tai n J o seph Goodwin and co nsisted o f a teap ot , suga r dish, and crea m pot. 57 Wh at is t ra di tio na ll y co ns ide red o ne of the ea rliest ex isti ng Am eri can rococo tea sets 5 ~ is marke d b y Pi et er d e Riem er (N o. 48). Its ind iv id ua l elem ents, not ide ntical in decora tion b ut si m ilar in sty le, m ay h ave been entirely co nsistent w ith En gli sh prototyp es of the ki nd im po rte d by Richardson . T he se t's pi eces, if n o t m ad e en s u ite , were ce rtai n ly commissio ne d wi thi n a sho rt per iod of tim e, po ssib ly for a patron w hose ab ra de d, partl y illegi bl e initials, eng raved in Ro m an ca pita ls. are visi b le on the foot riIII of eac h . If they ar c correctl y inte rpre ted as L / PC , the initi al s may be t h o se of Philip Sc h uyler Van Renss elae r's g ra nd paren ts Ph ilip ( 1710(778 ) an d C h ristina (Ten B ro eck ) Livin gsto n ( 1718- r80 1). ,'J (Eac h piece has later engraving of th e initials PS VR and crest o f th e g ra n dso n, born in 1700 .) [f so , th e se t wou ld mo st likel y date be twee n abo ut 1703, w hen Riem er became active. and 1778, th e yea r Livingston d ied .

Ho

T ea set, ca. 17('5- 75 Pict er de Riem er , New York Silver. H .: teap ot . (jY. ill .. suga r bowl. -l'y. ill. • crea m pot, 5 '!~ ill . Mu seum of th e C ity of N ew Yo rk

81

elem ent, though the additi on to t he foo t of a sp ira l flut ed band sugges ts a ro co co co nsc io usness. A s di scu ssed b el o w, the teapot (see p. 85) is a su perb interp retati on o f th e sty le . It is appropriat e that th e coffee pot (see p. 9 7) ranks as th e fin est ro co co exa m p le fr om B o st on , s ince it was cl earl y intended as th e cen te rpiece of th e service . The sauce boa rs, o r butter boats, displa y th e scro lling han dl es and fee t, sca llo ped rim s, and shell kn ee s typi cal of both Eng lis h an d Am er ican exampl es, au g m en te d b y th e eng raved arms . The tea ton gs hav e shell g rips, pi erced fret w ork de rived fr om ch inoise rie desi gn s, and peak ed raffl es eng raved at th e top o f th e ar ms . On the arm s, th e pi e rced fre two rk re la tes to d esi gn s published in Chippend ale' s D irector and also fo un d o n ro co co furnitur e (see N o . [ 21 ) . Sim ilar tea to n g s are referred to in J o seph Ri ch ard son' s lett er b o o k as "Pei rce d Spring tea tongs. ,,63

Pi eter d e R iem er ( 1738- [8 [4) , an A m e rican of Dutch d escent , w as b orn to Cath arine and Steenw yck de Ri emer an d w as b apti zed in th e Reformed Dutch C h urc h in New York in 1739. App renticed to N ew York silversm ith Nicholas Roosevelt, wh o se ex pe rtise in th e ro coc o sty le is discu ssed els ew h e re (se e N o. 77) , he m arried in Alb an y in [763 , the yea r he becam e an active silversmith in N ew York City.6o T he so le doc u me nted Am eri can tea set to su rv ive fr om the ro co co p eri od was p art o f a se rv ice o rd e red from Paul Re vere b y Dr. Will iam Pain e for his bride, Lois Orne (a distant co us in o f Rev er e 's fir st w ife), in 177 3 (N o . 49 ). Paine ( 1750- [833) g ra d ua te d fr om H arvard in 1768 an d es tablis hed a m edi cal practice in Worcester sho rtly thereaft er. A Loyalist, he was fo rced to leave Wo rcest er in 1774 after sig n in g a protes t agains t a resolut ion p assed b y th e to wn meetin g. He we n t to Boston an d joine d th e British army, and the following yea r w ent to Sco tl a n d to co n ti n ue m edi cal st u d ies. In 1778, he returned to Am eri ca as an apo theca ry to the British forces in Rh od e Island and N ew York . (.1 P aine' s co m miss io n o f fort y-fiv e pi eces w as recorded in Re v er e' s led g er s o n 2 Sept emb er 1773 . Not a set but a se rvice, it co ns isted o f a teapot , a co ffee pot; a cream pot, a tan ka rd , a p air of ca n ns, a pair o f butter boat s, a pair o f porr ing e rs, a p air of tea ton g s, t wel ve lar g e sp oo n s , eig h te en teas p oo ns , four sa lt sp oo ns , an d a w o od en case to contain t he se rv ice. Every piece w as en g raved with th e Orne arms, cres t, o r initi al s, so me w ith all three. Rev er e charg ed Paine £74 for th e silve r and £H for his lab or . The service is lar gely intact but for tw el ve spoons (including th e four salt spo o ns), the porringer s, th e crea m pot , and th e w oo de n case .?:' Except for th e spoons, nearl y all the form s in th e service are in th e rococo m ode. Least rococo are the tan kard and th e ca n ns: o n th e t an k a rd , o n ly th e finial and e ng ra ve d a rm s bes pea k th e style; o n th e ca n ns, th e arm s are the sig n atu re

It h as b een noted th at t he teapot ma de fo r Dr. Pain e in 1773 w as o ne o f o n ly t w o re corded in Re v er e' s boo ks between 176 9 an d 177 5, a pau cit y reflecting th e p olitical climate. ('4 Rever e custo marily recorded from o ne to t w o teapots a yea r, but esca lati ng ten sions over t he Town shen d duties impo sed in 1767 and th e Tea A ct of 1773 wo u ld see m to ha ve influen ced not o nly the am o u n t of tea cons u med in Boston but also th e p ro d u ct io n of th e vessels for se rv ing it. As a Loy ali st , Pain e wou ld not have h esi ta ted to o rde r a te ap ot, but hi s ord er sho uld n ot be considered an ex t ravagant procl amat ion of his po litical sympathies, a "mon umental tea service," as has bee n sugges ted .I" T he com m iss io n as a wh ole w as a ge nera l si lver serv ice , co n sis tin g of ea ting, drinkin g , and se rv ing forms , as w ell as t he ac tua l tea an d co ffee vess els. It s com ponen ts suggest not a political sta te m ent but a brideg roo m's des ire to deli gh t his w ife w ith an impressive g ift. It was th e la rgest sin g le o rder reco rde d in Re ver e's led ger s, an d it wo uld have been o nly natural for th e silversmith to tr eat it as th e mas terpiece o f his car eer.

49

Selectionsfro m a Illcddil/g service, 1773 Pa ul Rever e. Bo ston Silve r. H .: co ffee po t, 1 3 Y~ in., tea po t, 6% in., can n, 5 in ., bu tte r boat, 4-% in. , L. : dessert spoon, X·v. in., teasp oon. 5'% in. , tea to ngs, 5'% in . Worcest er Art Museum

83

TEAPOTS Wh eth er p rodu ced in sets or ind ividuall y, holl o w w are form s for th e serv in g o f te a and co ffee were tran sformed in to so m e o f th e most rep resentati ve and m o st lav ish d em on st rati ons of th e sty le in Am e ri can s ilve r. N ot onl y wer e th e y o rna me n te d with ro coco engravin g, chas ing . and casting, but their shape s becam e ro co co as we ll. Th e fo cal p oint of th e te a se r v ice , th e tea pot , beg an as a s ma ll, squ at for m of g lo b ula r or pear shape b ut . as th e ro co co period pro g ressed , evolve d into an apple sha pe rising fr om a stepp ed fo ot. B y th e full m aturit y of the sty le . rococo te apot s h ad b e com e m ore dr am ati c in d esi g n : t all a n d to phea v y, w ith s wo lle n sh o u ld e rs ab o ve s ma ller, roun d ed be llies and w ith d om ed lid s th at p ro vid ed a vi su al co unter pa rt to tho se ful som e elem ents. The m e re reve rs in g of th e simp le pear sha pe re sulted in a su rpr isi ng ly e le ga nt fo r m, w h ich si lv ers mit h s FIG UH E 28. T eapot, 1745. Jacob Hurd , Boston . Silver , H .: 5 in. (13.3 cm .). H ood Mu seum of Art , Dartmouth College; Gift of Lou ise C. and Frank L. H arr in gt on , C lass of 1')24 (M. '}67. 42) 1/ .

d es cr ib ed as " d o u b le belli ed . " Wh en co rr ectly in terpret ed, th e m ass o f th e pot w as elevated w ell above th e sur face o f th e tabl e. g iving th e imp ression of a vess el in graceful defian ce o f gra v ity, an implied ins tab ility th at was cha ra cteristic o f th e ro co co sty le 's pen ch ant fo r floutin g co n ven tio n. Suc h a sha pe co nceded pr actica li t y to aes t he t ics, s in ce th e b est-t a st in g te a req uired a pot expansi ve eno ug h at th e bottom to permit a ma xim um q uantit y o f boilin g wa te r to suffuse th e tea leaves. Engravi ng w as th e aven ue of en try for ro co co design in the co lo n ie s . B y 1745, En gli sh pr int e d e p he m er a, in cludin g b ill heads , tr ad e card s, and boo k pla te s , had begu n to ma ke po pul ar the asy m me tri ca l ca rto u che th at was a s ig n at u re m oti f o f the new sty le . It is therefo re to be exp ect ed th at th e earli est instan ce o f th e ro co co in s ilve r w o uld be th e en grave d a ppli ca ti on o f a read ily ava ilable printed d esign. The first d o cum ented ro co co de coratio n to ap pear in Am erican silve r o cc u r s o n a Bo st on te ap ot (r rc . 28) da ted 1745 and m ark ed b y J acob Hurd ( 1703- 1758).6fo Q uee n An ne in sty le. the co nve n tio na l pot , g lo b u lar and with a flat lid , is ne vert hel ess enli ghten ed wi t h e ngr av in g of as y m me t rical carto uches co mpo sed o f raffl es, C - scro lls, and fo liage th at ap pear o n eithe r side o f the vessel , o n o ne side fra m in g the arm s o f the Payer w earh er famil y o f Bo st on , o n th e o the r enclosi ng the in scrip ti on " T he Gi ft /O F /Edwd Tyn g Esqr / to / H . Fayer w carh er z Decr 1) / 1745 ." (Ha n n ah Fa ye r w e a rh c r was m arri ed o n

10

D e ce m be r 1745 to

Farr Tolm an , a Bo st on bo okb indcr .)"? D espite that roc o co decora tio n . th e engravin g aro u nd the li d of the po t rem ain s baroque. a d ic hoto my th at s u g g es ts th at th e e ng rav e r, po ss ibl y J a m es Turner (see p . 31) )," x co p ie d th e a rmoria l ca rto u ches from an 50 T eapot, ca. 1753 John Cob urn , Boston Silve r, H. : 6 Y2 in. Histor ic Deerfi eld , Inc.

Eng lis h b o okpl at e o r o t h er ro co co e ng rav i ng b u t w as le ss assured in ad ap tin g th e new sty le to th e lid deco ration . A teap ot (N o . 50 ) m ark ed b y J ohn Co b u rn w as co m m iss io ne d b y T ho ma s Welles ( 1692- 17(>7) of Glasto nbury, Co n necticu t. fo r

hi s d a u gh ter M a r y ( 1735- 1814), alon g w ith a silve r c rea m pot an d a sug ar caste r, p robabl y o n the o ccas io n of her m ar riage, in 1753 . " ~ Th e p ot , m o re th an a n inc h in he ig h t ove r th e o ne

Br it ish rococo teap ots; hi s m ean s w o u ld h a ve e na b le d hi m to ord er a p ot simi la r to th e m an d m ore ela b o r a te th an m ost Am eri can ex am ples of th e tim e.?'

m ark ed b y Hu rd , ha s an a p p le- s h a p ed body e leva te d o n a

Th e Ro ss t eap ot illu st r at es th e fu lly d e vel o p ed r o co co

s te p ped , circ u la r fo o t. It s t all e r pro fi le, th ou gh n ot d oubl e bellied , is still inde bted to th e infl uence o f ro coco design, as are th e spo ut wi th its cast scro lled design s, th e d om ed lid , and th e

inte rp ret ati on o f th e fo rm , a do ubl e-belli ed sha pe w ith chased

flam e fin ial. T h e m os t m a tur e sty list ic as pe ct o f th e pot is th e eng raving: ro coco C- scro lls and diapered panels enc ircle th e lid , and the Welles fam ily arms appear o n the bod y in an asy m m etrical carto uchc o f raffle s, scrolls, and fo liag e. T he po t is typi cal o f

de corati on . Th e formula, deri ved from im po rted Briti sh ex am pl es. was co m mo n in En g land but relatively ra re in A m eri can silver. Sin ce th e co m bina tio n was th e m ost ex pensive o f available de si gn s, th at was prob abl y as mu ch a m att er o f cos t as of taste .

num er o us N ew En g land co u nte r p art s, fled glin g in form an d limi ted to su btle en g rav ed decoratio n for th eir fullest ex pressio n o f th e sty le. J o h n Co b u rn ( 170 3- 175 8), a Bo s ton silve rs m it h b orn in Yo rk , M aine, w ho probab ly app rent iced w ith T ho m as Edward s o f Bo ston, is best kn o w n fo r h is tea and ch urch silver. C o bu rn occas io n ally o rde re d silve r o bjects fro m Paul Re ver e an d also co n trac te d for h is ser v ices as a n e n g ra ve r. 7° Thu s, th e Well es tea po t m ay have been eng rav ed b y Revere. Th e best e x am p le o f a New Eng lan d rococo t ea p ot w it h engraved de cora tio n is th e o ne sup plied b y Revere as part o f th e Pai ne service (No. 49). T he pot (see de tail) is doubl e bellied in sh a pe; th e circ u la r fo ot is ele va ted an d ad o rn ed w ith a flut ed ba nd; th e fini al is in the for m of a lar ge, crisp ly det ailed pin eapple. The asy m me t ry o f th e en g rave d car to uc h e, which is m ore flo rid an d ex pa nsi ve th an th at o f the Welles po t , is ac centu ated by a tr ailin g ri b bon , o r m o t to sc ro ll, her e le ft bl ank . Re ver e, w ho is k nown to h ave co pied Eng lish engra vi n gs lin e for lin e (see N o s. 12, 13) , m a y h a ve b o r rowed th e ca r tou che fr om an Eng lis h a rmo rial de vi ce w ith m ot to in tact. In ad ditio n, roco co flourish es, di aper ing , an d C- sc ro lls are engraved o n th e lid an d aro un d th e han d le an d spo u t j un ctur es , w hile th e spo ut is cas t w ith rococo C -scrolls and acanthus leaves. Th e fin est surv iv ing ro co co teap ot fro m Boston is also m ark ed b y Re ver e (N o . 51 ) . Like th e Pain e se t co u n te rpa rt , it is full y r o co co in form an d h as the sa m e cast s po ut d esig n . In ste ad of th e e ngrav ing th at a p pea rs o n th e m aj orit y o f Bo ston ro co co teap ots, ch asing m antl es th e sho ulders an d forms the ca rto uche o n thi s exa m p le. T he icon og raph y of th e pot's deco rat ion is the m o st exo tic o f any o bse rve d o n Boston teap ots. As we ll as th e u su al fl o w e r s , r affles , an d C -sc ro lls, it fea tu res a bird an d a chino ise rie pavilio n (see det ail). The Ro ss fami ly arms eng ra ved o n th e ca r ro uc he are proba bly fo r th e patri ot J ohn Ross ( [720 1800) , a shi p p ing merc han t w ho em igrate d fro m Perth, Scotland . to Ph il ad elph ia in [7 ° 3 a n d lat e r se r ved as p u rc ha sing age n t for th e Co n t in e nt al Co ng re ss . Hi s re ce n t arriv al in Am eri ca wo u ld h ave ens u re d hi s fam ilia rity w it h m ore o rna te

N o. 49 (detail)

51

Teap ) ot . ca . 176 5- 70 I aul Revere . Bo ston S'I 1 ver, H .: 5% in Mu seu m of Fme .Arts, Bo sto n

,-

S6

As wi th B o sto n work, mos t N ew Yo rk rococo teap ots are eng raved, bu t examples w it h chased decorati on su rv ive in numbers co mparab le to t hose k now n fr om N ew En gl and . The fines t of t hese is t h e o ne m ark ed by Pi ct er de Ri em er (No. 48) , wi t h its accompa nying crea m pot an d suga r di sh . Like th e Ro ss fami ly pot su pplied by Revere, it has a ste pped foot. do me d lid , a n d pin e ap pl e fi n ia l; w h ile it la ck s th e othe r's cen tra l ca r to uc he, it h as a m o re ela bora te aca n t h us and-s hell -cast spo u t. The sho ulde rs are o rn ately de corat ed wi t h a fluid, si n uo us d es ign o f fl o w e rs an d raffl e-dr ap ed C -sc ro lls carefu lly proportion ed to t he curve of th e pot. Wi th few exce p tio ns, Ph il ad el p h ia 's exc rn pl ar y rococo teapo ts fa ll s ho rt of th e d oubl e-b elli ed and chased formula observed in Bo ston and N ew York . One o f th e fin est chased Ph iladelph ia teapots (N o . 52) is ap ple-s ha pe d, akin in form to the o ne Co bu rn su pplied fo r th e We lles fam ily . C ra fted in th e shop o f J o seph Ri ch ard son , it s sha pe, ste ppe d fo ot , an d do med lid are co ns ide re d tr ait s o f ea rly rococo teap ots. Full y ma ture . ho w ev er, is its ex u be rant deco rati on o f chased flo w ers , raffles, and C -scro lls, w h ic h ex te n ds n e arl y h alfw a y down th e p ot' s p ro fil e a n d a do rns the s po u t, h andl e j unc ture . and lid. Eq ua lly rococo is th e cas t pinea p ple fini al embe llis hed w it h C-scro lls ben eath furling leaves. En su ite wi t h th e teap ot is a suga r di sh havin g an ide n tica l fini al an d simila r chased dccora tio n. ?" Mos t of the su rv iving doubl e-bell ied teap ots from Ph iladel p hia a re not chased bu t eng raved. Am on g th e fine st is one (N o . 53 ) mar ke d by Ph ili p Sy ng , Jr., w h ic h is e ng rave d w it h t he arms o f th e Bayar d fami ly, possibly fo r' M ar ylandborn but la te r Phil ad elph ian J ohn Bu benheim Bayard ( 17381807 ), me rc ha nt, sta tes ma n, and m ember of th e Co ntine nta l Cong ress from Pennsyl van ia. T he slig htly exaggera te d form of t he pot resu lts fro m t he ex pa nsive swe lli ng-o u t o f th e sho u lders ove r a proport io na te ly sma ll b ell y . Lackin g th e ve rtica l ba lance of th e usual domed lid (t h is lid is lo w an d gen tly curved), th e po t, poise d on its sma ll, tuc ked -i n base, has a horizon tal em p hasis th at accen t ua tes its rococo d efi an ce o f rules .

T he quintesse ntia l Am er ican ro coco teap ot was produ ced in Ba lti mo re (a sa te ll ite o f Ph ilad el phi a p rio r to nati onh o od ) and so m ust be co ns idered a re la tive of P h ilade lphia exa m ples . T he tea po t (N o . 54 ), m ark ed b y Ga b riel Lcw y n , is a su pe r b co mpos itio n of form , prop orti on, and deco ra ti o n . The sumptuous. in teg ra l chased d esi gn, it s fold ed tend ril s traili ng onto the lo w er body in im ita tio n o f nature, ca re fu lly co nforms to t he do ub le -be llie d shape of th e vesse l. A s a res u lt of its spoo l-s haped pe desta l. t he foo t is hi gh er th an

52

T eapot, ca. 1755- 60 Joseph Richardson , Phil adelphia Silver , H .: 6 in. T he Hi stor ical Soc iety of Pennsy lvania

53 T eapot, 1760-70 Ph ilip Syng, J r. , Phil adelphi a Silver , H .: 5If2 in. Department of State

th o se o f it s contemp or ari es . Flutin g o n th e foot r un I S repeated a ro u n d th e lid, w h ic h is cr o wn ed b y a ca st threedimen sion al flo wer- a sc ulpt u ra l elem ent rare in Am eri can ro co co silve r. Am on g the handful o f related fini al s kn o wn a re a flower o n th e Ri ch ard son co ffee p ot (No. 0S) a n d accompan yin g sugar di sh , an d b ird fini als found o n Alban y suga r di sh es, includin g o ne attrib ute d to J acob Gerritse Lansi ng (No . 57) . Al so richl y cas t ar e the she lls , sc ro lls , and foli ag e o f th e s po u t, whi ch is a mo ng th e m o st o rna te of its kind . Littl e is kn o w n a bo u t th e s il ve rs m it h Lcw y n . His wher eab outs are a mys tery befo re [770. w he n he appea red in Ann ap olis a n d in the s a H1C year m o v ed t o B al tim ore. T he

masterl y d esi gn and executio n o f his teap ot sugges t th at he was eit he r tr ain ed abro ad o r h ad access to th e serv ices of a su perb chase r. En gli sh ro co co s ilve r ow ne d in Baltim ore co uld have influen ced th e design ."! Barrist er C ha rles Ca rro ll ( [723 - [8 [7) o f th at city h ad so me ve ry fin e London exa m pl es: a se t o f tea canis te rs d ated [70 3- 04 and a double-bell ied ch ased co ffee pot dated [70 5. 74

S4

Teapot. [700 - 70 Gabriel Lew yn, Baltimore Silver. H .: 0 in . Ph illips Collection. Yale Un iversity

SUGAR

D ISHES

AND

C REA M

POTS

A di scu ssion of tea form s in Am eri can roco co silve r necessa r ily includes th e an cill ar y vesse ls for s uga r a n d c rea m . Perhaps because th ey co ns titu ted less o f an in vestment, suga r di she s a n d cre am pots (as th e y we re ca lle d in p eri od accounts ) o ccurred as se ts th at su rv ive in g rea te r num b er s t han tho se t hat include a te apot, po ssibl y bec au se th ey we re ordered to ac co m pa ny a ch ina t eapot w it h m at chin g cu ps and saucers. Most often, ho w ever, th e y we re m ad e as individ ual forms, as is attest ed b y Pau l Rev er e 's led g ers .I" The de signation "cream pot" or " crea m ewer" is used apart from "milk Potts or Ew er s " in J os eph Ri chard son ' s o r de rs t o Lo ndo n, bu t t he t erms w ere pro b a bl y in ter ch an g e a b le : R ich a r d so n ' s specific ation for th e milk vesse ls , " to wei gh from 3 to 4 oz . , " mat ch es exactly the r an ge o f w ei ght he specifies for cream pots . (In hi s led g er s, Rever e recorded th e sa me r a n g e of we ight for th e sa me form s. ) Doubtless be cause c re a m pots w er e sm a lle r an d le ss ex pe n s ive th an sugar d ishes and th e sugar it self m ore co st ly th an th e more easi ly obtained cream , o rde rs for sing le cre a m pots g rea tly o utn um be r order s for individu al suga r di sh es in Rev ere' s led g ers. Ric hardson routin ely o rd ere d do zen s of crea m pots bu t ordered s u ga r di shes onl y t o acco m pa ny tea o r co ffee po ts . ?" H is ord ers for both fr equ entl y specifie d doub le- o r sing le- be ll ie d shap es , plain, en gr av ed, o r chase d; as w it h t e ap o t s , the most ro coc o an d mo st cos tly o f th em we re double bellied and chased. T he sup erlative Phi ladelphia c rea m p ot is o ne m ark ed b y Philip Hulbearr (N o . 55 ) so m et im e before 17() 3 , the yea r o f his d eath . Despite it s tradi tion al sing le- be llie d form, th e pot is di stinctl y rococo, as seen in th e chased d ecorati on added all over the bod y and in the modifi cati on o f ce r ta in elem en ts of the vessel : the rim more d eepl y sca llo pe d , th e spou t m ore elongated than on ea rlie r exa m ples, and , in pla ce of th e typical cast scro llin g h andle, o ne cre ate d b y th e u se o f a special mold of more intri cat e d esi gn . Furth er sc ro lls an d leafag e adorn t he lower return of th e h andl e , a n d , a t its upp er j u n c t u r c w it h t h e rim , a to p th e u su al C - s c ro ll, th e re a re raffles and sc ro lls th at su p po rt a ves tig ial ca ry at id rel at ed to tho se found on th e handles of late- sev enteenth-century cu ps in En gland an d Am eri ca."? Hulbearr also red esigned th e feet of the pot ; in p la ce o f th e usu a l cab r iol e or scro ll feet, he substitut ed cast In d ian figures , an allegor y for th e Am erican con tinent co m m o n in pe riod iconography (se e FIG. 4, p . 14; No . 34 ) and found in br oad sid e s an d Europe an w ork s in severa l m cdiurn s .?" Su ch human figural references we re part of the s t an da r d vo cabul ar y in E u ro pea n ro co co sil ver but are se ldo m found in Am eri can w ork . The y cha rac te rize th e

55 Crealll pot. ca . 1760 Phili p H ulbcar r. Philadelphia Silver. H .: 4V. in . Phi ladelphi a Mu seum of Art

90

56 S ligar dish and cream pot. 1760-7 5

Myer Myers. New Yor k Silver. H.: sugar dish. 6¥. in.. cream pot. 6¥. in. Collection of the Brinckerhoff family

m ost ebullient Eng lish ro coco form s: for exa m ple, on a ewer o f [74- 2 fro m th e s ho p o f Paul d e Lam cr ie, a fem al e figure form s th e h andl e . 7') On the b od y o f th e Hulbcart pot , the ch as ing is lo o se an d all- enc o m pass ing -a floral design that relates to pattern s o n th e palarnporcs m ade o f co tt o n chintz that we re th en bein g imported from India, xo but with added raffl es and scrolls. Ph ili p Hulb ca rt (d . [7( 3) , so n o f Willi am Hulbeart, o f Bri st ol , Engla nd, w as briefl y a resid ent o f Philadelphia. The ea rl ies t re ference to him in t ha t city is in th e yea r 1701, when h e advertised in th e Pcnn s vl v an ia Gaze tte . X I N othin g is known of his apprentices hi p o r im m ig ra tio n to Ame rica, but he likely came t o join a n u ncle wh o a lrea dy resided in Ph ilad elph ia . Lik e J o seph Ri ch a rd son. H ulb carr e vide n tly impo rted Eng lis h silver. fo r he adve rt ise d it alo ng with th e wo rk of hi s own sho p . When he di ed , in [70 3, Rich ardson and fell ow Phi lad elphi a silve rs mi t h Philip Sy ng , J r. , we re ap po in te d to se t tle h is es ta te . Am on g th e o bjec ts sold , pri ma rily to o the r Phil ad elphia silve rs m iths, we re sho e bu ckles . " a nea t g ilt silver w hi stle and co rc l with eig ht bells , " " a nea t chase d Slo p Bowl ," "a Su g ar Di sh. " " a Cas te r. " and thirteen crea m pots. xz

Tw o s u r v Iv ing N ew York silve r s uga r-a n d -c rea m se ts, marked b y two differ ent silve rs m iths, di spla y va riatio ns in treatment and in de sign. Both se ts illustr at e th e d o ub lcbellied and chased interpret ation of th e form s. The fir st is part of the tea set made b y Pierer de Riem er (No. 4- 1\ ), w hich als o includes a teapot. S l C en te re d o n b oth c re a m p ot an d sugar dish is an asymm etri cal ca rro uc he en velo ped b y flower s and C-scroll s. Each o f th e vessels ha s t ypical New York cha rac te ristic s: th e suga r di sh has th e reel lid ret ain ed fro m th e ea rl ie r Qu een Ann e fashi on an d th e c rea m pot h as th e ped est al foot and twist ed-scroll handl e associa te d w ith N ew York r o c o c o milk p ot s . It is iut c re s t iug to no te t h at th e cr e am pot is end owe d w ith one o f th e r ar e in cid e n ces o f anima l decoration in Am eri can ro co co silver, a lar ge chased bird per ched to the left o f th e ca rto uc he. The seco n d suga r-a nd-crea m set (N o . 56 ) survives w ith an En gli sh co ffee p ot assaye d in 17 01- 02 b y th e Lond on partner ship o f Willi am and Rob ert Pcast on. The suga r dish is m ark ed b y M yer M yers; th e crea m pot, though unm arked, is at t rib uted to his sho p o n th e b asi s of it s sim ila rity to th e sug a r di sh. Assembled as a se t so me time in th e eig h te en th century, all three pie ces are hi ghl y ro co co, are eng raved with

<)[

th e initials DR fo r th eir o rig ina l owne r, Doro thea Rem sen, and descended in her fami ly. T he M yer s pieces are unu sual in th eir display of imb ri cated sca les arra nged in ver tical panels, an Eng lish ro coco m otif associa te d wi t h th e sho p of Paul de Lam eri e in th e 1730sX4 an d v irtua lly abse n t fro m t he America n ro co co voca b u la ry . (T he Peast on coffee po t, lack in g suc h o rn ame n t , do es n ot ap pea r to have been the model for th e Am eri can vessc ls.) Lo gi c p o ints to an Eng lis h-trai ned chase r, fam iliar wi t h th e style in Lon d on . Th e cream po t is of t yp ical rococo s ha pe a n d d eco rati on ; it s ha n d le h as t he cha rac teris tic N ew York t w ist see n On th e Ri em e r version. Th e suga r di sh, h o w e ver. is aty p ica l; it s slim me r and more atte nua te d p roporti on s sugges t t he infl uen ce of an Englis h do ub le- b ellied tea ca d dy, a n eleg an t, elo nga ted form often m ad e in p air s e n s u it e w ith a s ugar di sh o f co nventio na l g lo b u lar form . N o suc h se ts are kn o wn in Am e rican silve r, but at least o ne fro m Lond on was owne d in M ar ylan d by M ar g ar ett a (Tilg h ma n) Ca rro ll (1742- 1783), th e gift of her b rid eg ro om , B ar r ist er C ha rles Car ro ll, to w hom she was m ar~ied in Jun e 1703. Xs Simi lar se ts we re po ssibl y owned in N ew York . Dorothea Rem sen ( 1750- 1834) was ma rried to Abra ham Brin ck er hoff ( 1745- 1823) in 1772. The co u ple resided in New York Ci ty. in a fash ion abl e h o u se o n Br o ad w a y, and h ad th ei r po rtra its painted-h er s by J ohn Trum b ull ; hi s by Gilbert Stua rt. Hr, Abrah am w as th e so n o f th e m erch ant George B rin ck erh off and h is seco n d w ife, th e for m e r M a r ia Van D eu sen . Do ro t hea 's fa ther was Pet e r Rem sen, also of New Yo rk C ity. W h ile th e design o f th e Peaston coffee po t has littl e in comm on w ith any eleme nt of th e M yers suga r-a nd -c ream ensembl e, its bi rd fini al is sim ilar to th at found o n a double -bellied sugar dish (N o . 57 ) attributed to th e shop ofJ aco b Gerri tse Lan sing , of Alb an y. At least three o the r bird fini als ap pea r On surv iv ing sugar d ish es - al so d oubl e b elli ed , t w o of t h e m chased - from Al ban y. X7 Bird fini als arc su ffic iently u ncomm on in Am erican ro co co silve r th at o ne can ass u me that th e Alb an y g ro u p was in flue nce d b y an impo rt ed exa m ple o r by an im m igra n t crafts ma n. T h e Van Ren ssel aer co llec tio ns at th eir fa mi ly es ta te , C he r r y Hill (t he n o u tsi de Al b an y) , in clude d a do ubl e-belli ed and chased Lon don tea po t of 1702 havin g a cast bird finial. xx N ew York C ity sugar di shes often have th e ree l top of th e t yp e see n o n th e sugar d is h of t h e Riem er set (No . 48). T his Alban y sugar di sh is adorned with re lie f chas ing o f C-sc ro lls, flo w ers, an d leafage. Alth o u gh unm ar k ed . it h as lo n g bee n attri b u te d t o Lan s in g on t h e bas is of its p rovena nce . It has th e eng ra ved ini tials F / I L for th e silve rs m ith 's seco nd w ife and co usin, Fem rn etj e Lansing . and for him self, as we ll as the in itials 1'v1/ I L for he r paren ts

57 Sligar dish. Albany. 1760- 75 Attributed to Jacob Gerritse Lansing Silver. H.: 4% in. Albany Institut e of History and Art

1)2

an d Lan sin g 's aunt an d uncl e, M ar ytj e an d Co lo ne l J acob J . Lan sin g . The sim ila rity o f th e bo w l' s chas ing to th at o f two exa m ples h av in g m ark s associa te d w ith Abrah am Schu yler h as s ugg es ted rea ttr ib u t io n o f th e p ie ce to th at Alb an y silve rsmi th. An alter na te ex plana tio n w ould be the existence in Al b an y of a chase r who decorat ed all three di sh es, as w ell as o the r exa m ples o f chased ro co co silve r from Alban y. J acob Ge rr itse Lan sing ( 1736- 180 3) was bo rn in Alban y, so n o f Ger ritse Lan sin g and g ran dso n o f silv ers m it h J a cob G errit se Lan s in g ( 16 8 1- 176 7), p o s sibl y th e b oy' s m aster. Lan sin g m arri ed hi s fir st wife, N celtj c Ro seb oom , in 176 7; hi s secon d , Fcm m ctj c, in 1774. Lan sin g w as evidently highl y regarded b y Alb an y town offi cials, for in 1784 th ey co m m issio ne d him to c ra ft a gold box for pr esentation to General

sio ne d b y silversm ith Benj amin G ree ne ( 174 7- 180 7) for hi s sis te r-i n- law Lucretia C ha nd le r ( 1728 - 17( 8) in h on or of h er m arriag e, in 1761, to J ohn Murra y (d. 1794 ) . Lu cret ia k ept hou se for Greene afte r th e death of his w ife, M ary, Lucret ia's eld est sis ter. The su gar di sh , recorded in Rev ere 's led ger s o n II M ar ch 1762, is invo iced at £4- 17- 8 for th e silve r co ntent of nearl y fourteen o u n ces. Rever e cha rged £ 1 - 12- 0 to m ak e it , bringin g the tot al cos t o f th e dis h to .£6-9-8 . x" (C urio u sly, th ere is no mention o f th e cream p ot in Rev ere 's led g ers.) The cr eam pot illustrates th e doubl e-bellied sha pe ele vated on three feet in pla ce of th e pedest al fo ot co m mo n in N ew York . On the su g ar dish , th e pineappl e finial is o f th e sa me casting found on several o f Revere 's rococo form s. ,,0 Both

Washington .

double-bellied p iece s are orn at ely chase d with ro caill e-cdgcd C- sc ro lls , raffles, acanth us , and flower s, Revere, an en gr av er

The m o st notable cream - and-s uga r ense m ble survivin g from B o ston (N o . 58 ) , m ark ed b y Paul Rev ere, w as co m m is-

him self, probabl y h ad a sk il le d chase r in hi s e m p loy : hi s ledgers record his suppl yin g o t he r silve rs mi t hs with chased silver ,",

58 S ligar dish and cream pot , 17 61 - 6 2 Pau l Rever e, Bo st on Silver, H . : suga r dish, 6 1/ 2 in . , crea m pot , 4-% in . M useum o f Fin e Arts, Bo st on

93

Newport, Rhode Island, though not on e of th e three colo nial silve rs m ith ing ce n te rs , w as a thrivin g urban seaport in th e eighteenth ce n tury, with a pro sp er ou s merch ant class. Silversmith Samuel Casey (ca. 1 72~- ca . 1780) mu st have dr awn so me of his clients from N ewport, though he lived in nearby South Kingstown . A crea m pot with Cas ey 's m ark (N o . 59) ha s becom e a fav orit e a mo ng hi st o rian s of th e America n decor ative art s be cau se o f its cast claw -and-b all feet and their similarit y to tho se found o n contemp orar y Rh o d e Islan d furniture. C law- an d- ba ll feet also occur o n roco co salvers o f t he per iod (se e No s . 01, 73) , but the y are un comm on o n vessel forms . ~o T he elon ga ted talon s and oval ball do ind eed correspo nd to th e regi o nal ch aracteri sti cs of feet on N ewport furniture, and with good reason . Silv er smiths frequ entl y acq uired th eir castin g po sitive s (o r ig ina l mod els from w h ic h th ey made their molds) from ca rvers; the sam e cr aft sm an w ho su pp lied these to C asey was pr ob abl y also ca rv ing full-sized feet for chairs, table s, and case pieces. (T he renderin g o f th e talons is in the mann er o f th e g rea t N ewport cabine tmaker Joh n Goddard .) The sing le- be llied sha pe o f th e Casey cream pot is not unlike th e form o f th e H ulb cart exa m ple (N o . 55), but the hei ght an d n ature o f th e feet g ive it an altoge ther diffe rent aspe ct-less elega n t but m ore liv el y. T he chaser used pun ches to crea te th e effe ct o f ruffled edges tha t contai n a br o ad b and of foli at e sc ro ll s flankin g , und er th e spou t, a ce n t ra l ciph er (I e ) o f a d esi gn d erived fro m a book of ciphers published by Sam ue l Sympson (Londo n, 1720). ~ 3 Casey, pre sumedl y b orn in Newp ort , a ppren t ice d in Boston with Ja cob Hurd (see FI G. 28, p . 8 ~) . In 1 7~ 5 , he was made a freeman in E xeter, Rhode Isl an d , wh er e he firs t es tab lis hed a sil vers m ith in g business . He m oved to So uth Kingstown b y 1750 and within a few year s m arried M artha M ar tin . Despite th e skill and quality manifested in th e cream pot, Case y was a sa d co nt ras t to the man y co lo nia l silve rsm iths who pro spered and becam e civi c lead ers. A se ries of misfortunes led to h is decl ar ation of in solvenc y in 1770 and his subs eque n t imprisonm ent for cou nt erfeiting. In 1779 . his wife su ccess fu lly petiti on ed th e G en er al Assem bl y fo r h is pardon, de scribing him as "forl orn an d forsaken and des titute o f every m ean s o f su p po rt to m ak e hi s life even desi rable, sep ar ated from his wife and o ffspring. " ~-l

59 C ream pot. 1755- 70 Sam uel Casey. Rh od e Island Silver. H .: 4 in. Museum of Fine Arts. Boston

<J4

COFFEE

POTS

Opp o siti on t o th e To wn sh en d A ct s , w h ic h h a d i m pose d duti es o n sever al im p orted co m mod it ies in 1767, res u lte d in bo y cotts o f th e t ax ed items. (T h ree yea rs lat er, th e t ax was re p ea led o n all but tea.) The co n troversy in te nsified w ith th e p assa g e o f th e Tea A ct of 1773, w hic h gave th e E a st Indi a Co m pa ny a v irt ua l m o n op ol y on ex porta t io n o f th e co mm odit y t o the co lo nies. Th e fam ou s B o s t on Tea P art y follo w ed, a n d th e a bs te nt io n fro m te a d rew m ore s u p po rt in Am eri ca. A hum o rou s renun ciation , titled "A Lad y 's Adieu to h e r Tea-Tabl e," a p pea re d in se vera l co lo nial n e w sp ap ers o n th e eve o f th e Re vo lution :

FAREWELL the Tea-boa rd with your gaudy attire, Ye cups and ye saucers that I did admire; To my cream pot and tongs I now bid adieu; T hat pleasure's all fled that l an ce found in you .

Farewe ll prett y chest that so lately did shine , With hyson and congo and best do ub le fine; Many a sweet mo men t by you I have sat, Hearin g girls and old maids to tattle and chat; And the spruce coxco m b laugh at nothing at all, O nly some silly wo rd that mig ht happen to fall. No more shall my teapot so generous be In filling the cups with this pern icious tea, For I'll fill it wi th wa ter and drink out the same, Before I'll lose LI Il EHT Y that dearest name, Because I am taught (and believe it is fact) T hat our ruin is aimed at in the late act, O f im posing a dut y on all foreign Teas, Which detestable stuff we can quit when we please. I.IImn y's the God dess that I do ado re, And I'll maint ain her righ t until my last hour, Before she shall part I will die in the cause, Fo r I'll never be govcrri'd by tyranny's law s.":

There see ms n o d oubt th at th e im b r o glio served to ele va te th e socia l sta tus of coffee as an accep ta b le alter na tive t o th e tr aditional b e verag e in m an y afte rnoo n socia l ga th e rings . A v isi to r to Nomini Hall , th e Virgini a plant ati on o f Colo ne l Robert Ca rt er, noted in hi s j ournal o n a Sunda y in M a y 1774: " After d in ne r w e h a d a G ra n d & ag reea b le Walk in & throu gh th e Ga rde ns - There is g reat pl enty o f Strawberries, so me C he r r ies, Goose berries & c. - Dr ank C o ffee at four, the y a re no w to o patriotic to u se tea. " <)(, Before th e c r is is, co ffee p ot s we re rare e n t r ies in P aul R evere 's led g ers: o n ly t w o were recorded be twee n 1761 a n d 1767 . In 176<) , h owev er , w he n t he Bri ti sh m ilita ry's atte m p t

95

to en fo rce th e duties en raged Bo ston citize ns, six m ore w ere en tered , and an addi tio na l fou r a p pea red in 177 2 an d 177 3 . Th at to ta l o f ten o rde re d bet w een 17 6 9 an d 177 5 is in sha r p co ntras t w ith th e listin g of on ly t w o teap ots in th e sa me sixyear peri od , th ou gh th ey h ad form erl y been p rodu ced at th e rat e of o ne to tw o a year. 'J 7

o unces ; th e teap ot, a t eig h tee n o unces eleven pe nnyweig ht, was less th an half th a t. 101

Coffee, w h ile co ns u me d in the h om e , w as a lso associa te d wi t h th e m a le dom ain o f publi c co ffee ho uses, th o se "cente rs o f political, social an d lit er ar y influen ce as we ll as of co m me rc ia l life , " 'J 'J w here th e b e ver a g e was d isp en sed in ser vi ceabl e tin pots, as it was in mos t co lo n ial hom es; o nly th e m o st a ffl ue nt co u ld a ffo rd silver. Avail abl e at breakfast alo ng wi t h tea , coffee co u ld also be tak en in th e lat e afte rnoo n wi th its orien ta l co us in. Dinner was cus to ma rily se rve d at t w o o'clock. A s C lau de Bl an ch ard , a vis ito r from Fra nce, n ot ed , " [A me rica ns ] d o n o t ta ke co ffee imm edi at el y a fte r d inn er, but it is se rved three o r fo ur h ours afte rwa rds w it h tea; thi s co ffee is wea k and fo ur or five cu ps are not eq ua l to o ne o f o u rs; so th at th ey tak e m an y o f th em. The tea, o n th e co nt ra ry, is ve ry st ro ng . T h is usc of tea and coffee is uni versal in Am eri ca. " ' 00

The Pain e exa m p le (No. 49 , sec det ail), ma de in 1773, is the fin est sur vivi ng doubl e- belli ed rococo co ffee pot from Boston , di stin gui sh ed from its lo c al co u n te r pa rts (including o the rs m ar ked b y Re ver e) by the broa d ba nd of spi ral fluting o n it s fo ot, th e she ll cas ting at its u pper han dl e juncture, its size . an d it s we ig ht. (T he latt er exceeds t h at of mos t of Rev ere' s co ffee pots, w hich are no t m ore th an fo rty ou nces .) Eig ht years lat er, o n a po t (N o . 60) he su ppl ied to Paul D udley Sargent ( 1745- 1828), an officer in th e Revoluti on and later a promin ent M ain e j uris t, Re ver e rep eat ed th e same design w ith o n ly slig h t m odifi cati on s. H e used a di fferent mold for th e pin eapple fini al, di sp en sed wi th the cast she ll at the uppe r h andl e jun cture, an d, o n th e foo t, su bs ti t u ted a gadroo ned rim fo r th e spiral fluted band . A ne w n eo cl assi cal tast e, t races o f w h ic h arc visible in 1774 in Phil ad elph ia silvc r.!":' had begun to influ en ce design in th e decorative arts b y 17 81. T ho ug h Revere started to alter his style in holl o w w ar e as ea rly as 1782,10.1 harbin gers of the new m od e can be see n in th e ca rto uc he o n the Sargen t pot of th e previous yea r. The Sa rgen t arms are g lorio usly engraved in ro co co fas hio n, b ut a closer exa mi na tion reveals that neoclassical m otifs a re intermin gl ed wi t h th e ra ffles, C -scrolls, and fo liage. Th e lo w er half o f th e ca rro uc he is ado rned with asy m me t r ica lly pl a ced p end ent swags of drapery and a bellfl o wer ga rla n d. Th e car to uc he it sel f, w hen compared with o ne Rev ere devi sed in 1764 to surro und the fami ly arms o n a Sa rge n t b o okpl at e ( No. 16 ) , s hows a s imp lified and ti ghten ed co m positio n . W hi le still roco co in sty le, the later int erp ret at ion has less fro th and foli age, th e leaves are trea ted as tw o dis ti nc t b ran ch es, and th e ri ght one is contained in the sugges tio n o f a classical urn .

Coffee p ot s, evo lv ing fr om a cy li n d r ica l, lighth ou se sha pe in to a cu r vi ng bal u st er , m atured in th e rococo peri od into a do u ble- be llied fo rm wi th a ste p pe d dom ed lid b alan cin g the curving lo w e r profi le. Ro co co decorati on , lik e th at of te ap ot s, was ac hieved th rou gh cas t e le me n ts , with th e ad di tio n of chas ing or eng ra ving o r both . O n th e co ffee pot , a fo r m m ore sta tuesq ue th an th e teap ot , th e do u b le-bellie d sha pe was even m o re ar res ting; a fu lly rococo co ffee pot w as an i m p o s i n o, and expensive objec t. A p er fe ct co m pariso n bet w een th e teap ot and th e coffee po t is do cum ented in Paul Revere 's led ger entry fo r th e Paine se rv ice, w hic h incl udes both. Th e t w o pots h ave si mi lar decorati on , as be fits a se t, yet in lab o r alo ne th e cos t fo r "m ak in g an d eng rav ing" t he co ffee po t was .1:7-9-4; fo r t he tea po t , it was on ly 1: 4-12-0. T he real di sp a rit y, h o w ever, was in the si lver co nte nt: t he w eight o f th e coffee pot was record ed as j us t o ver fo rt y- five

Simil ar to th e Pain e an d Sargent po ts is a pat rician exa mple th at prob abl y da tes from th e 1770S. M ad e in Philadelph ia and m a rk ed b y Ri ch a rd Humph re y s, th e p ot (N o . 61 ) differs from th e t w o Rever e m od el s ch ie fly in th e sha pe and placem en t o f th e s po u t, h ere m ount ed lo w on the bel ly and ri sin g a lmos t ve rtica lly be fore c urving o ut a t t h e lip. All three pots have ro co co ar mo rial engraving. but the ar ms on th e Humphre y s po t, con ta ined in a ca rr o uch c, are uniden tifi ed . T hey m a y h ave been th e wo rk o f J am es Sm ith er (see Nos. 32, 33 ), who engra ved a sim ilar ca rro uc he on a tea urn sup plie d b y Humph reys in 1774 for C ha rles Thomson, first secretary o f th e Contine nta l Cong ress . 104 l3e c au s e th e d ou b le - b elli ed coffee p o t wit h eng raved deco rat io n was co m mo n in Eng lis h silve r and was p robab ly im ported int o all th e co lo nial urb an centers , th e simi lari ty of

In ea rly-eig h te en t h-cen t ury Am eri ca, if o bs ervatio ns o f fo re ig ne rs are to be tru st ed, o n ly th e p ri vile ged few had th e tim e to ind u lge in th e lei surel y ritua l of afte rnoo n tea, wi th its porcel ain cu ps an d sa ucers and its silve r se rv ing vessels. B y m id-centur y, h o w e ver , tea. coffee . a n d choco late were co m mo n s ta p les in m o st co lo nia l lard e rs. Naturali st Pet er Kal m , visiting Pen ns yl vani a in 1748, o bse rved th at all three beve rages " at p resent co ns tit u te eve n th e co u n t ry peo p le's dai ly br eak fast , " a rem a rk borne o u t b y th at o f th e hist o rian and aut ho r Isr ael A creliu s a few years late r: " Tea, co ffee, and choco la te are so g e ne ra l as to b e fo u nd in t he m o st rem ote cabins, if not for daily usc, ye t for visito rs , mi xed w ith Muscovado , o r raw suga r. ''')S

0 .49 (detail)

60

Coffee p OI.

1781

Paul Rever e. Boston Silver , H . : 12.7/" in . M useum of Fin e Arts. Bo sto n

61

Coffee p al 01/ stand , 1770- S 0 Richard Humphrey s. Philadelphi a Silver. H . . pot: 13% in .: Di am . . stand: r;% in. Mu seum of Fine Art s. Boston

th e Revere and Humphreys co ffee pots, as well as of certain N ew York ex am p les revealin g the sa me formul a, su p po rts th e co n cl us io n th at th e form' s de si gn h ad it s so u rc e in imported British models. ID S The elon gated shape of all three pots imitates th e increasin gl y atte n ua te d British interpretati on of th e form , whi ch evo lve d in London in th e [760S (see FI G . 26, p. 75). A demon stration of th e influ enc e of foreign silve r is provid ed b y th e trio of tripod coffee pots from Salem (see p. 7[) . An En gli sh model imported into th at cit y (see N o . 46) wa s an unusual design th at spa w ned two American co p ies for another Sal em family (see NO .47), but th e tripod form occ urs no where else in the colonies. Th e Humphre y s p ot is p arti cul arl y unu su al in th at it surv ives w ith it s o r ig in al m at chin g sta n d (see detail ), o f a sca llo pe d ro co co sha pe w ith shell and leaf castings punctuatin g th e ga d roo ne d b order an d with central armorial engravin g th at is n earl y id ent ical t o that o n the pot. j o seph Rich ard son 's import records leave no doubt th at he routinel y o rde red teap ots an d co ffee p ots with sta n ds. (Pe rh a ps th at w as a practi ce ce nte red in Philad elphi a, for it is not on e refl ected in Revere 's led g er s .) Between 175 8 an d 1773, Richard son o rde red thirty teapots, tw ent y-four o f th em with sta n ds, an d twent y-four co ffee pots, tw enty-on e of them sim ilarly acco m pa nied. 10 6 An inventory taken in 1771 o f john Ca dwalade r's silver closet list ed a chocolate pot, a coffee pot, and a teap ot, eac h with a sta nd . 107 Ri ch ard Humph reys (1750- 1832) w as one o f th e leadin g si lve rs m it hs o f Phil ad elphi a. Born in to a di stingui shed Qu aker family in Tort ol a, in th e West Indi es, Humphre ys was o r p ha ne d as a b o y an d pla ced with rel ati ves in Wilmin gton , D el awar e. H e was a pp re n ticed to Quaker silversm ith Ban cr oft Wood co ck (1732- 1817), as noted in part in the minut es o f the Wilmington Monthl y M eetin g from 176 5: " T h is m eetin g recei ved so me lines fr om a few Fri end s in Tortol a d at ed roth yth M onth 1765 sig n ify ing th at Ri chard Humphreys an a p p re n t ice to Ban cr oft Wood co ck , is a Friends so n. " lOX Humphreys ev idently co m pleted his apprenti ceship by 1769, returned to Tortol a for a yea r, an d came b ack t o Wilmin gt on in 1770 . In [771, h e m arried Hannah E llio t t o f Ph il ad elphi a , an d th e foll o win g yea r th e co u p le

m o ved to Phil ad elphia , wh er e Humphrey s rented a hou se an d wo r ks ho p fr om retirin g sil ve rs m it h Philip S yn g , jr. Syn g recomm end ed Humphrey s to hi s clients as a "person qu alified to serve them o n th e best term s, and w hos e fidelit y in th e above bu siness will en gag e their future co n fidence and reg ard . "' O ~ H ann ah Humphre ys died in 1773 an d the n ext yea r the silv ersmith m arried Ann M orris , who bore him five ch ild re n . In [774, wh en h e was tw ent y-four, Humphrey's ca ree r and reputati on as a fin e silvers m ith we re undoubtedl y aid ed b y hi s im po rta n t co m m iss io n from th e Co n tine n tal

99

62

C offee pot, ca. 1753 Phi lip Syng, jr. . Phi lad elph ia Silver, H . : 11 7/ " in. Philadelphia Mu seum of Art

10 0

Cong ress for th e C ha rles Thom son tea urn , an interpret ati on in th e lat est Lond o n tast e. It w as an ex t rao rd ina ry o p port unit y for th e yo ung silve rsm ith, not just becau se of the pat ron bu t beca use of th e gift itself, for th e tea urn is the largest and ra res t h oll o w w ar e form in Am eri can silve r. In 1776 , despite h is Qu ak er reli gi on , Humphreys joine d th e militar y, w he reupon hi s M e etin g di sown ed him . (H e was rein st at ed in 17 8 3.) W he t her hi s prosp erity d eri ved fr om hi s success as a silvers mit h o r fro m th e Tortol a es ta tes he inherited from hi s fam il y, h e d ie d a wea l t hy m an, w it ha fortune v alu ed a t $108,998. 50 . "

0

Ro co co ch asin g is far rare r th an en g rav in g o n b oth co ffee po t s a nd teap ot s. C hasi ng o n co ffee p ot s was pra cti ced almo st e x cl usiv ely in Phil ad elphi a an d it s enviro ns , m ostl y o n po ts of an ea rlie r, sing le- be llied balu ster sha pe . N o co ffee pot havin g suc h relief o rna ment survives fro m N ew York or N ew England, w ith o ne exceptio n .'" A s ea rl y as 176 0 , R ich ard son ' s Lond on im port o rd ers specified " 2 C has t Silver Co ffe Potts to hold 3 w ine Pints, " accom panied b y " 2 C has t Sta nds o r w eig h te rs for D o . with C has t She lls o n th e Bo rder. " Four m onths lat er, he o rde re d fo u r mo re suc h co ffee pots an d sta nds . " 2 Sinc e he w as ca reful to specify "d oubl e bellied " w hen orde ring teap ots, it is lik el y th at th e coffee p ots h e req ue sted we re sing le b elli ed a n d h ad cu rvi n g b alu st er profi le s . Th e fi n est k now n Phi lad elp h ia essay o f thi s t yp e is a pot , m ark ed b y Philip Syng , J r. , made fo r J oseph and Grace (G ro w den) Ga lloway. The Ga lloway pot (N o . 62), virtua lly identical to Briti sh e x a m p les, " 3 is p rob abl y of th e k in d th at Ri ch ard son was im po rt ing. Th ou gh it s s in g le- be llie d form pred at es th e rococo peri od , th e pot is un ar gu abl y rococo b y virtue o f it s lavis h o rna me n t : chas ed C - scr o lls, fo liage , and flo w er s th at en circ le t he upper an d lo w er parts o f th e pot, th e two st ep s of th e dom ed lid , and th e spo u t. Furth er , th e spo ut is di sting u ished by ca st d eco rat ion- sh ell, ca rto uc he , an d aca n th us leaves - as is th e u pp er j unctio n o f th e handl e, w he re th er e is a sculptural shel l. Sim ilar deco rat ion ado rns a salve r (N o . 75) Syn g s u p p lie d in 17 54 to Edwa rd P enin gt on an d Sara h Shoem ak er as par t o f their w eddin g si lver. The co ffee pot is tr ad itiona ll y da ted 17 53, th e yea r o f J o seph Ga llo way's m arria ge to G ra ce G row de n , a su p po s it io n s u p p o r t ed b y th e pot 's affi n ity to th e Pen in gt on salve r of 1754 . Since th e G allo w ay pot an d th e Penin gton sa lve r a re th e o n ly su r viv ing ex am ple s o f suc h ch ased w o r k in Sy ngs oeuv re (and th eir chas ing is am o ng th e m ost refin ed o f th e peri od ), it is lik el y th at th e o rn ame nt was added b y a Lond on-train ed art isan . G rac e G rowd e n (c a . 17 3 2 -1 7 8 2) was th e d au ght er o f Lauren ce G row de n, o f Phil ad elph ia, ow ner o f Trev o se, a five-thou sand- acr e es ta te in Bu cks Count y , and o ne o f o n ly

FIG U R E 29 . Coffee pot , 1755-0 0. John Inch, Annapolis. Silver, H.: II V4 in. (28. 6 cm.). Virginia Museum of Fine Arts, Mu seum Purchase: The Adolph D . and Wilkins C. Williams Fund (5 2 . 20. 1)

e ig h t Ph il adelphi an s to p o ssess a fo ur-w hee led coa c h in 176 0 . ' 14 Th e p oliti call y pr omin ent J o seph Ga lloway ( 1730 180 3), so n o f Pete r Ga lloway, of W h itc 's H all pl antat ion , Ann e Arund el Co u n ty, M ar yl and , w as a w ea lt hy Qu ak er law yer. A lon gtim e m ember o f th e P ro vin cial Assembl y , he was am o ng th e m ore co n t rove rsia l figu re s of th e Am e rican R e v oluti on. A fr i en d of Is a a c N or r is' s a n d B enj a m i n Fr anklirr' s, h e se rved o n the Whi g del egation to th e Co ntinental Co ngress . H e resi gn ed in 177 5 and j oin ed t he Ro yal Arm y in N ew York in th e fo llowi ng yea r, w he reu po n Fr anklin and his o t her Whig friends den ounced him . In 1777, h e wa s se n t to Phil ad elphi a under th e co m ma n d o f G ene ra l Sir Willi am H owe. Wh en th e B ri tish eva cu ated t h e c ity in 1778 , G all o w a y fled to En gland wi t h hi s d au ghter , leaving Grace behind to t r y vainl y to reco ver th ei r es ta te , m u ch of it her dowry . Three o t he r co ffee pots sim ila r in sha pe an d de co rat ion to th e Ga lloway p ot su r v iv e fro m Ann ap oli s a nd Lancast er (b o t h w it h in Ph il adc lp h ias s p he re o f influ en ce) an d fr om C ha rles to n . N othin g is kn own o f th e p r o v cn an ce o f th e Ann ap ol is vessel (rIG. 29) an d littl e is kn o wn o f John In ch , wh o marked it , but it seems lik el y th at he wa s familiar wi th

101

63

Coffee pot, 1760- 7 5 C ha rles H all. Lan caster Silver. H .: 10'1. in . Henr y Ford Mu seum & G reen field Villa ge

10 2

C offee pot. 17 55-(,5

Alexander Petrie. Charleston Silver, H.: 10 '% in. Museum of Early Southern Decorative Arts

ser ving as a lieuten ant in th e lo cal mil iti a, an age n t for co nfiscatin g Br iti sh p roperty, and , in 1778 an d 177'), a Burg ess. H is famil iar it y w it h hi gh- st yl e ro co co m a y h a v e resulted from t he tim e he spe nt in Ph ilad elph ia at his b ro the r's sho p, an d th e chas ing o n hi s pot co u ld be th e wo rk o f a Philad elphi a art isan. C o n ve rsely, chas ing skills m ay have been ava ilab le lo call y , as implied b y th e existence of ano t he r chas ed ro co co silve r form - a tureen- fr om th e wor ks ho p o f a fello w Lan caster silve rsm ith. " ?

Eng lis h exampl es o r po ssib ly w ith th e pot Sy ng sup plied to Ga lloway; th e Ga lloways we re, afte r all, a M ar yland fam ily . T he In ch p ot is h ea vil y ch as ed with ro co co motifs t h at nearl y cover t he surface. Lik e th e Syn g exa m ple, it has a cast s h ell- d eco r a ted s po u t m ount ed hi gh o n t h e b ody an d a stepp ed d om e lid w it h ad ditio na l chas ing sur mo u n te d by a pin eapp le fini al. N o in fo rma tio n sur vives o n th e Lan caster pot (N o . 63) m ark ed by C har les H all. T he In ch pot ap pea rs to co py the Sy ng m odel, but th e H all ver sion ex hib its a su btle variation in sha pe, as illu strat ed by an exa m ina tio n o f the pr ofi les of all three. T ha t o f th e Inch pot is th e m o st co nse rvative, co nfo r m in g to th o se of ea rl ier tr ad iti on al exa m p ies of near ly cy lind rica l form an d w it h a ro u n ded base; th at o f t he Sy ng po t mo re cl o sel y a p p rox ima tes a b alu st er , w it h t h e b ell y pro po rtiona te ly br o ad er th an th e di am eter o f th e neck . (Bo t h po ts flar e o utward from rim to belly and both have roo ts in k now n Eng lis h p r o ro r y p cs. ) Th e profile o f the H al l pot , ev en m ore curvaceo us, is the onl y o ne o f th e three to spo rt a wa is t , vi sible w he re th e bod y n arro w s bet w een th e flarin g rim and the ex pa ns ive be lly . II .' C ha rles H all ( 1742-178 3) is we ll docum ented as a Lan caste r silve rs m it h. " {' Hi s o lder brother D avid wa s a silve rs m ith in Phil ad elphi a a n d in Burlin gt on , N ew J e rse y . C ha r les wo rke d w ith him fo r severa l yea rs but was recor de d in Lancas te r b y 170 3. H e to ok a n ac t ive role in th e Re v o luti on .

A C harlesto n co ffee pot (N o . 64) is th e so le su rvivi ng exa m ple of mature ro co co d om est ic silve r fro m th at city, a p aucity resulti n g partl y fr om th e C ha rles to n ia n preferen ce for Eng lish silve r an d partl y from th e destru cti on o f prop ert y durin g the C ivil War. T he pot, mar ke d b y Al exander Petrie (ac t . 1744 to 170 5-d . [70 S). is conse rva tive in sha pe a n d in profi le clo sely resembles t he Inch exa m ple , tho ug h it lacks t he h igh e r . s te p pe d - lid d es ign found o n all t hre e r el at ed exa m p les from t he Phil adelphi a a rea ( FIG . 2') , p . 101 ; Nos . 0 2, (3 ) . T h u s ,. it is e n t ire ly Qu een Ann e in s ha pe, as a re th ree ot her Petrie co ffee pots. " X all four h avin g spou ts, foot rim s. an d ha nd le so ck et s cas t fr om th e sa me m old s. T h is exa m p le is th e o n ly s u rv iva l o f chased silve r from Petrie ' s s ho p, but the s m it h's pr ob at e inv ent or y incl ud ed chase d te ap ots and coffee pots. w ith s ta n ds, an d" I la rg e C h ase d Co ffee pott 32 1/2 ozs.. " as we ll as imported silve r. I ,,)

10

3

At least o ne an d p o ssibl y t wo chasers are record ed in C ha rlesto n new sp ap er s o f th e pe rio d. j ohn Winc kle r, from Lond on , w ho ma de suc h m enti on in a no tice of 17(,1 , m a y h a ve b een th e jo u rney ma n chase r adve rt ised by j oh n Pau l G rim ke in 17(,0. 120 Petri e hims elf m ay have bee n qu alified in th e s k ill if h e e mig ra te d fro m B rit ain , as is b el ieved . First recorded in C ha rles to n in 1744, he m arr ied Elizabeth H oll and in 1748 an d o ffe re d im po rte d pl at e in 175(, an d 176 1.121 H is prob at e invento ry also in clud ed a slav e silversmi t h n am ed Abrah am , va lue d a t £400, wh o was su bs eq ue n tly so ld to ano t he r C ha rlesto n silve rs m ith. 122 Doubl e-belli ed coffee pots havin g chase d deco ra tio n are even ra rer th an teapots . j o seph Ri ch ard son 's letter book record s seve ra l o rde rs of " ch ast " London co ffee pot s, but non e wi th d oubl e belli es . Phil ad elphi a s ilve rs m it h Ed m u n d M il n e, how ev er , ad ve rt ise d in 1763 th at h e h ad "j us t impo rted in the last ves se ls fr om Lond on , a n elega n t A sso rt m ent of G o lds m it hs and j e w ell r y wa re, co n sis tin g of C hased a nd pl ain doubl e an d sing le be ll v 'd co ffee- po ts. " 123 At leas t one d ou bl e-b elli ed an d c hase d En gl is h exam p ie sur v i ves from Phil ad elphi a , p art of a se t m ad e fo r th e Ll o yd famil y by Whiph am an d Wri ght in 1763 an d ow ne d after 17(,8 by t he C adwaladers (see p . 80). Barrist er C ha rles C arroll of M aryland h ad a s im ilar Lond on-m ad e p ot , m ark ed b y t he d at e lett er for 176 5-(,6 , as did judith an d Sa m u el Verp la nck of N ew York , th eirs dat ed 1762- 63 (see I'IG. 26, p. 75). 12 4 T he sing le Am eri can exam ple o f thi s co m mon Eng lish design is a coffee pot (N o . 65 ) su p p lie d b y j o seph Rich a rd so n as weddin g si lve r fo r E dward P enin gt on an d Sa ra h S hoemak er, wh o we re m arried in 175 4 (see also N o . 75). Th e pot's profile is sim ila r to th at o f th e ea r lier d ou bl e-b ell ied B ri ti sh co ffee pot o f th e lat e 1740S and 1750S, w hich is lo w er and less sta tues q ue th an th e versio n o f t he 1760s. Its unu su al floral finial and she ll-a nd-C-scro ll foot rim relat e to the same models . I 2 .1 A sim ilar fini al occu rs o n a ric h ly chased suga r bo w l m ark ed b y Ri ch ard s on th at is also p art of t he Pe n in g to n silve r. ':" The relie f deco rati on of t he Pen in gton po t, ring in g th e lid , neck , an d spo ut but co ns p ic uo us ly absen t from th e lo w e r body, is m o re lim it ed in a p p lica tion t han t hat found o n th e Sy ng, In ch , H all. and Petrie po ts (N o . (,2; FIG . 29, p. 101; N os. 63, ( 4), as we ll as o n th e En gli sh exam ples. Edward Peni ng to n ( 1726- 17')7) w as th e so n of Isaac and Ann Pe nin gt o n of Ph il ad elphi a . A Qu ak e r m e rc ha nt , h e m arri ed Sa ra h Sho e mak er ( 1729- 1797) o f near b y G e rm an tow n in 1754 . Pen in gt on was a m emb e r of t he Colon ia l A ssembl y in 1761, a j us t ic e in th e co u n t y cour t , a n d a mcm bcr of the Pr o vin cial C o unc il in 1774. A pacifist, he w as amo ng t w ent y Ph ilad elphi a Q ua ke rs exi led to Vir g ini a in 1778 for sus pec ted co llabora tio n w ith th e Bri tish; ': "

65 CoIfee pot, ca. 17 54 Joseph Richardson, Philadelphia Silver, H.: II in. The Historical Society of Pennsylvania

104

Drinking and Serving Forms

TANKARDS T he tan kard , a la rge, circular drink in g vesse l having a hinged li d an d a cas t h andl e, is a ve n era b le form in th e hi stor y o f An gl o-Am e ri c an si lver. Re c ord ed in fourt eenth-cent ury acco u nts in Eng land , where actua l exampl es date from as far back as 15S6, 12 X tankards are also am o ng the earliest holl o w wares m ade in Am eri can silve r, known from -th e last q uarter o f th e se ven tee nt h ce n t ury. In the col onial period, alco holic beverages we re routinel y co ns u m ed in muc h g reater q uantities th an the y a re tod a y . Potabl e w at er wa s far less ea si ly procura ble and spirituo u s drinks were associated with soc ial ga t he r ings, h o sp it alit y, a n d co nv iv ia lity. T a nkard s and canns - the latter a mu g id entical to the tankard but without th e hin ged lid -wer e used for the co nsu m p tio n of ale, beer, and cider. In bot h Eng lan d and Am eri ca, vessels for alco ho licbeve rages were less influ en ced b y th e roco co s ty le t h an o t her fo rm s. In co n t ras t w it h th e eno r mo us effect th e sty le had o n th e mo re status- laden tea and co ffee eq uipage , it m ad e virtua lly n o impr ession o n th e o u tl ines of t anka rd s or can n s . Rather, th e tr adition al cy lind rical shape rem ain ed popular for tankards in New York , as it did in Bost on . The ad vent o f the sty le m a y h a v e e nco u rage d th e ado p t io n of th e cu r v in g ba lus ter sha pe see n o n so me tank ard s and m ore canns fr om the ro co co era. T ha t shape, ho w ever. w as not a ro co co i 11l10 va rio n but o ne introdu ced in th e ea rlier Queen A nne period . T ho ug h th e balu st er had th e st ro nges t influen ce in Phi ladelp hia and ca n also be found in New York, in Boston it was rar el y e m p loye d for tank ard s but reserved primaril y for ca n ns . (" C a n n , " th e p eriod term for the drinking ves se l w he t he r of b alu st er o r cy lin d rica l sha pe , is u sed toda y for th o se o f b alu st er s h a pe ; " m ug , " for tho se cy lin d r ic a l, o r straig ht-s ide d .) The o n ly co ncess io n to the new ta ste in t hese dri nk ing vessels is in their applied eng raving and th e modifi ca tio n of

66 Tankard , ca.

1770

M yer M yer s, N ew York Silve r, H .: 6-Y.. in. Wad sworth Atheneum

l OS

th eir cas t handl es fro m a sing le scro ll to a do u ble, wi th th e chas ing see n o n tea an d co ffee form s n oti ceabl y abse n t. 12 \1 Mu gs and canns outnu m be r tan kards, but all survive in lar ge numbers . (T he P aine se r v ice ca n n [see N o . 49], wit h th e Orn e ar ms eng ra ve d in a ca r to uc he , represen ts th e fulles t ro co co expression o f th e fo rm .) The three tan kards chosen for inclu si on in thi s di scu ssion illus t ra te so me of th e fin est exa m ples of rococo eng rav ing o n th ese o bjec ts.

Ta nkard , New York, 17S0 - SH Attributed to Will iam I3radford, Pew ter, H . : 7'/8 in. Winterth ur M useum

The pr odu cti on o f flat -topped tankard s co n tinued in New York long aft er it w as di scontinued in Bo st on and Phil ad elphi a . An exa m p le m ark ed b y M y er M yer s (N o . 66) h as m ast erl y en gravin g co ns is t ing o f a lar g e ca rtouc he t ha t en closes th e arms of its owne r, Robert Livin gston . Though not ide n tica l in co m po siti on, th e design of th e car ro uc he is sim ilar to th at found o n a M yer s ale j u g (N o . 87 ). M yer s, pr ob abl y not himself th e au tho r of th e de co rat ion , may have em ployed th e sa me eng raver fo r both pieces, possibly Lewis M ear s, th e in de n tu re d se rva n t w it h eng rav ing sk ill for whom Myer s ad v er t ise d in 1761 (see p. 76) . W hoever t he en graver, he eithe r co pied a pr ototyp e faithfully o r was himse lf fa m ilia r wi t h En gl ish h er aldr y, for, usin g standa rd m eth ods, he co rrec tly in di cat ed co lor, here th e vert ical and hori zontal lin es den otin g sable, o r bl ack , in th e back gro un d of th e low er left , o r third , qu art er. 13 0 Suc h specific ity is rare in A me rican ar moria l engravi ng . T he Livings to n arms are un usu al amo ng Am er ican ar moria l d ev ices beca use of th e m ott o scroll an d th e leg en d appea ring o n it. W he n Robert Livin gsto n ([654- [728), th e fir st Livin gsto n to emigrate to Am e rica, survived a s h ipwreck in 1694, th e family was insp ired to alte r th eir cres t to a shi p. '3' T he t ank ard m a y d ate from Li v in g st on 's m arr iag e to M ar y S teve ns , in 1770, as i t bea rs t he cou p le's init ials in triangul ar fo rm at on th e base. Robert Livin gsto n ( 1746- 1813) was a n ati ve of N e w York Ci ty , so n of J udge Ro b e rt R . Liv ingsto n and h is wife , M arg ar et Beek man. H e practic ed law, as d id his fathe r and g ra nd fathe r, and from 177 3 to 177 5 se rve d the Crown as recorde r of th e Ci ty of N ew Yo rk . Di smisse d beca use of h is p at ri ot sym pa t hie s, he was subseq ue n tly elected to t he Co nti nen ta l Cong ress, w here he se rved from 1775 to 1776, from 1779 to [78 1, and from 1784 t o 17 H S . (In 179 0, as ch an cellor o f th e State o f New York , a position h e held from 1777 to 1801, he ad m in iste red the oath o f office t o P resid ent Wash in g ton .) Whe n J effe rso n , who describ ed him as "one of the ables t of A merican law yers, " b ecam e presi de nt o f th e Repub lic in [80 [, he appointed Livings ton m in ist er to France, in w hic h pos t he was inst rume nta l in nego tia tions fo r th e Loui sian a Pu rchase in 1803 . He left publi c service in 1804 and returned to New York .

Jr.

100

Similar in sha p e to the M yer s tankard is an exa m p le (N o . 67) att rib u te d to N e w York pewter er William Bradford , J r., because of its m ark , WB wi th a fleur-de-li s. 'J2 Pewter, mu ch less expens iv e th an silv er, wa s not usu all y used to interpret th e cos tly ro co co sty le. Th e lav ish eng raved ca r to uc he o n th is tank a rd th ere fore m ak es th e vessel a rar e, p o ssibl y uniqu e, su rv iva l o f Am eri can rococo pewter. Since th e pewterer 's trad e d id n ot ca ll fo r an e ng rave r 's sk ill , Bradford m ay have su bcon t rac te d th e ca rto uc he , but it is m ore pr obabl e t ha t th e p atron c o m m iss io n e d it him self later in th e rococo perio d . En g ravin g o n p ewter was eas ily co m e b y : m an y ar tisa ns o r m ast ers wo r king o n silve r also w orked o n pewter. (Fo r exampl e, J oseph Richard son recorded eng ravin g o n the m et al in 1738 and Philip Sy ng , Jr. 's eng rave r-a ssistant, Lawren ce Hubert, advert ised "Engraving on Gold , Silver, o r Pewt e r " in [748 . )' JJ Th e unkn o wn e n g ra ve r o f thi s ca rtou ch e , w h ic h is lar g er an d m ore co m p le x th an m o st ex ,a m p l es kn o w n on s ilv e r, wa s a hi ghl y co m pe te n t m an . Unfortun at el y, th e ide n tity o f th e pat ron, whose initials, C S, form a ce n t ra l o r na me n ta l cip he r in th e en g ra v in g , is also un kn o wn. William Bradford , Jr. ( [688- 1759), w as born in Philad elphi a, th e so n o f a printe r. The fami ly m o ved to N ew York, w here in [7 25 th e se n io r Br adfo rd p u b lis h ed N ew York's firs t ne w sp ap e r. Youn g Br adford learn ed th e p rintin g tr ad e an d th en t r ied th e sa ilo r's li fe. H e se t tled int o m atrim on y wi t h Sy t ie San tvoo r t in 1716 in N e w York . In 1719, he w as ma de a fre e m an o f th e city and was recorded as a pewter er. Hi s so n Co rnelius co ntin ue d in th e tr ad e, sha ring his fath er's sh o p in H an o ve r Sq ua re before lo catin g in Phil ad elphi a b y 1753· A Phil ad elphi a t ank a rd m ar k ed b y J ohn B a yl y (N o . 68 ) demo nst ra tes th e balu st er form with glo rio us en gravin g o f a co m pos itio n w e ll su ite d to its curv ing pr ofil e . Th ou gh the ela bo ra te ar m s elude id entifi cati on, th ey arc notabl e for the a rc h itec t ur a l plin th o n w h ic h th e bird cres t is p erch ed, as well as for th e su g ges tio n o f w at er dripp in g from th e lo w er C -scro lls and r oca illc of th e ca r ro u ch e . J ohn B a yl y adve rt ise d int ermitt entl y in Philadelph ia n e w sp ap er s between [754 and 1783. Th e so n o f a Philad elph ia co rdwa iner (shoem aker) , Bayl y is first recorded in 1750, w hen he m arri ed J an e Watkin . Hi s ea rlies t kn o wn adve rtiseme n t , in th e Pcnn s v l van ia Ga ze tte of 5 Septemb er 17 54 , an no u nce d hi s go lds m it h ing bu sin ess a t th e s ig n o f the teapo t in C he r ry All ey. Lik e m an y o f hi s co lleag ues, Bayl y had o t he r bu sin ess int er est s; in hi s case , a h otel in th e en viro ns o f th e ci t y, in w ha t is n o w C hes te r Spr in g s, th at h e o w ned from 1752 until at least 1773. ,·14

68 T ankard, 1700 - 7 5 J o hn Bayl y. Ph iladelph ia Silve r, H . : 8 in . Wadswo rth Ath eneum

10 7

B OWL S As wi th tan kard s, there is no disc ernible chan ge in the shape of b ow ls in th e rococo p er io d . ' .l 5 Ro co co de co rati on is all th at dis ting uis hes th em fro m earlier counterparts. That de corati o n is usua lly eng raved, as seen on a bowl w ith the arm s of th e Lardn er fami ly (N o . 69 ) m ar ked b y Ph ilip Syn g, Jr. T he elab o rate armo rial ca rro uc he m ight have been don e b y Sy ng or, possibl y, by o ne of Phil adelphia's expert en gr avers. T he arms- t hose of th e Lardn er famil y im pa ling th o se o f th e Bran so ns- ar e fort h e o r igi na l ow ners, Lyn ford and Elizabeth (B ranso n) Lardner, o f Phil adelphia. Lynford Lar dn er ( 1715- 1774) , an Eng lish woo l merchant, em igra ted to Phil ad elphi a in 1740 . Hi s b usines s partn er and b roth er-i n-l aw Ri ch ard Penn , p ro p ri et o r of Penn syl van ia, m ad e him re ce iver ge ne ra l o f th e co lo ny an d a member of th e Governo r' s Pro vin ci al Co u nc il. H is es t ate, Som er set , wa s o n th e D elaw ar e Ri ver near pr esent-day Taco ny, a sub ur b of Ph iladelphia. Lard ne r was well acq ua inte d w ith Phi lip Sy n g , Jr. , as b oth m en we re di rectors of the Lib rary Co m -

69 B OIl'/. 17 50-70

Philip Syn g. j r. . Phi ladelphia Silver, Di am . : <) in . Ph ilad elph ia M useu m of Art

lOX

(see p. 155 ) record ed purch asin g a " Silver cha is d B o wl " from Simon Cooll ey,"!" prob abl y th e si lve rsm ith Simeo n C ool ey, who, spelling his nam e " C ol ey, " adve rt ised him self "from London " in 1767. 140 Wha teve r th e design so urce, Van D y ck w as, or h ad access to, a chase r acco m pl ish ed in this s t y le ; th e same t yp e of d ecor ati on occ urs on two o f Va n D y ck 's tankard s , 14 1 th ou gh suc h d ecor at ion is co mmo n on neither bowl s nor tankards fro m the period. Ver y littl e silv er survives by t he m ak er Ri ch ard Van D yck ( 1717- 1770), so n of th e m or e fam ou s silversmith Pet er Van D yck. Ri ch ard , also kn own as an eng rave r and importer, h ad a sho p in H an o ver Sq ua re. In 1746 , he was comm issio ne d to eng ra ve th e bi lls of credi t used to help fin an ce an ex peditio n int o Canad a duri ng Kin g George's War (1744- 48). Van D y ck ad verti sed im ports in 17 5 3 , in c!udin g wrough t pl at e, lo okin g g lasses , sco nces, pi ctures, and best "Fre nc h oy l. "142 H e m arri ed Eliza be t h St rang, of R ye ; th eir so n Henry w as a g radua te o f Kin g 's Co llege and o ne of th e firs t Epis copal ministers o rda ined after the Revolution . 14 3

pan y o f Phil adelphi a, m embers o f th e Am eri can Philosophical Socie ty , an d tru st ees of th e Co llege o f Philad elphi a. In 1749, Lardner m arri ed Eli zabeth Br an son ( 1732 - 1761), daughter of th e Ph iladelphia Qu aker m er chant Willi am Branson . A pair o f can ns , also m ark ed b y Sy ng, has armo rial eng ra ving si m ilar to th at o f th e b owl, sug ges ting th at all three pi eces were ma de fo r th e co u ple's m arria ge ."!" U ni q u e o n Am eri can b owl s fr om th e ro co co period is th e chas ing foun d o n a N ew York exa m ple m ark ed b y Ri ch ard Van D yck (N o . 70 ). T he bo wl is virtu all y co ver ed b y a flat chase d design co nsis ting o f flowers and ro caillc enha nced b y fin e eng rav ing an d tw o car tou ch es. o ne ce n te red o n eac h side, th e w ho le co n ta ine d w ithin a sha pe d lo w er b order o f C-scrolls and curves . The in iti als C P eng raved in one o f the carto uc hes for th e orig ina l owne r are unidentified . The decorati on h as b een co m pa re d to d el icat e ch as ing found o n an Ir ish silver b owl. 13 7 The protot yp e for th e bo wl , however , m ight h ave b een m ad e in E ng la n d, since the sa me d esi gn occ urs in En gli sh ro co co silve r."!" In 1768 , J ames Beckm an

70 B OIllI. '755- 70

Richar d Van Dyck , New Yo rk Silver, D iarn .: 7% in. Garva n Collection, Yale U ni versit y

109

SALV ERS Eng rav ing also e mbe llis hes th e fi nes t ro co co salvers. "Sa lve r" is th e pe rio d te rm fo r a flat servi ng form , di sting uishe d from a rr a y becau se it is eleva te d either on a base or o n multipl e fee t. A sa lve r (N o . 71) m ad e in the shop of Paul Re ver e for Lu cr eti a C ha n d le r is o f t ypi cal Eng lis h border pat tern an d sha pe an d is en ha nced by th e Chand ler coa t o f ar ms eng ra ved w ith in a ro co co ca rro uc he . The salver, alo ng w it h a suga r di sh an d a crea m p ot m a rked by Reve re (N o . 5g) , was m ad e for Lu cr etia in honor of her we dd ing, in 1761, to J ohn Murray. Althou gh Re ve re also eng raved t he C handl e r ar ms fo r th e b o okp lat e (see N o . 17 ) o f Gardiner Chan dler, b roth e r to Lu c reti a , it is wo r t h n oti n g t h a t th e re he altered slig htly the design o f th e carto uche, Three sa lvers fro m New York , amo ng th e m ost ou tsta nd ing exa m p les of th e for m , illu st rat e three va ria tio ns in bord er d es ign . T he m o st t yp ical is th at o n o ne m ar k ed b y M yer M yers (N o . 72) - a sha ped hexagon al design w ith gadroon ed rim , co m mo n p r io r to th e adve n t of rococo de sign . Wh at se ts th e salve r apa rt is it s ex t rao rd ina ry eng ravi ng. A dep arture fr om th e u su al ca rt o u ch e enclo si ng arm s, it co ve rs almos t th e en tire su r face in an illu st rati o n of an allegorica l s ce n e w i th in a s ha ped s u rro un d over a co mme morative inscri p tion, th e d esign bordered above and bel o w b y Latin phr ase s. !":' Th e sce n e co nsis ts of a n a nge l crownin g a n allego rical fem ale figure sy m bo lizin g justi ce (righteo usness), w h ile a not he r a nge l s howe rs h er w it h go ld from a co rnu copi a, th e w ho le ill u m ina te d b y th e rad ian ce of th e sun (re p rese n t ing th e pr esen ce of Go d ), o n w hic h is engraved " Ps : 34 : 15, Ve, " a re fere nce to th e Psalm depict ed : "The eyes o f th e Lord are up on th e ri ght eou s, an d hi s ears are open unto th eir cry." Th e size, qu al it y, and rococo de sign of the eng rav ing m ak e it th e m o st a rres ting o f a ny o n A m e rican silve r o f thi s peri od . Mi ght th e eng rave r h ave been M yers's ru naway in de n tu red se rva n t of 176 1, Le wi s M ea rs (see p. 76)? Th e salve r was es pec ia lly co m m iss io ned as a g ift to Th co d o ru s Van Wy ck ( 17Ig - 1776), as confirm ed b y it s Eng lish in scription: " In test im on y of exem plary j us tice and as a sma ll ac k nowledg men t for k indn ess rece ive d , th is plate is hu mbl y pr esented to [Theodo rus] Van Wyck b y his friends [Sa m uel ] Sch uyle r, [Willi am] Lupt on an d [C o rn el iu s] Swi ts." T he don ors reco rde d we re all rela ted to Van Wyck , the last t w o b y m arri age to his ni eces J oh ann a and Ca therine Schuyler. In 17 5 2, on t he deat h o f Bran dt Sch uy ler, father o f Sa m ue l, J oh ann a, an d C a t h e rin e , Th eo d o ru s as sis ted hi s sis te r, M agretta Van Wyck Schu yler, in rearin g her children. The salve r was an expression o f th e child ren 's gra titude.

71

ca. 1701 Paul Revere, Boston Silver, Diam .: I] VH in. Museum of Fine Arcs, Boston Sa/Fer ,

11 0

72

Sa /per, ca. 17(,X M yc r M yer s, N ew York Silver , Di arn . : rz in. Collect ion o f Philip Van Ren sselaer Van W yck

II I

73

74

Sa lvcr, 17(,5- 70 J oh n H eath , N ew Yor k Silver, D iam . : 15 '18 in . Winte rt hu r Museum

Sa lva, '7 54-(,') Dan iel C hristian Fuete r. N ew York Silver , Dia m . : 15% in . T he M et ro politan Mu seu m of Art

112

A seco nd New Yor k sa lve r, thi s o ne m ark ed b y J ohn H eath (N o . 73), is di rec tly rela ted to an Eng lish m od el. The bo rde r desig n , not common ly fo u nd in Am er ican silve r, is id entical to t ha t o f a Lon d on sa lve r from t he 170 0S, ma de for th e De Pe yst er famil y of N e w York . It co ns is ts of sta nda rd lob ed gad ro o n in g b u t is em be llis hed by an in ne r bo rde r o f she lllike ru ffl es punctua ted by ro settes alte rna ti ng w ith aca nt hus leaves. Two o th er New Yo rk salve rs also have this unu su al border design . 1.;5 Comple ti ng the salver's ro coco prese nt a ti on arc th e Sch uy le r fa mi ly a r ms, e ngraved in t he ce n te r wit h in a cartou che of C -scro lls , fo liage , and rocai lle . T he salver, lik e th e Eng lish mode l, rest s on fo ur claw-and -ba ll feet. The Schuyler fami ly, fo unde d in t he co lo nies in 10 51, is closely associ ated with Al bany. A mo ng its mos t famo us eig htee n thcen tury members was Major General Phil ip Schuy ler ( 1733IS 04 ), ve tera n of t he revo lu tionary war, mem be r o f th e Continen tal Cong ress, and later a U nited States sena tor. J o hn H ea t h marrie d Edi t h Pell in 1700 and b ecam e a freeman of New Yo rk in 170 1. In 170 3 , H eath adver t ise d a house fo r sa le at " Van Ge lder's alley in th e Broadway," notin g t ha t his s hop was in Wall Stree t. q f> In ad di tio n to thi s salver, a pu nch bo w l survives from his hand , also beauti full y engraved w it h a ro coco ar mo ria l fo r Pi err e Va n Co rtlan d t. Heath's bi ll for t he pu n ch b o wl cha rged Van Cortla nd t one pound ste rling for engraving "A Cot Arm es & a C ris t. " 1.;7 T he th ir d sa lver in th is im p ress ive N e w York gro u p was ma rked by Daniel C h ristian Fuerer (N o . 74) and m ad e for a me mber of t he p rom ine n t P ro vo st fam ily of Fre nc h Hug ue not ex t rac tio n. Of th e three salvers, th is has th e m ost vigo rous borde r, d e fin ed b y bo ld pe a k s an d curves an d rimmed with ga d roo ni ng . T he Pr o vo st fam ily ar ms g race the elabora te cen tra l carto uche. C h ased deco ra tion is ex tre mely rar e o n A m eri can sa lve rs. No t sur pris ing ly, th e o n ly ins ta nces known occur o n t w o examp les from Phil ad elph ia. q K Th e fin e r of th e t w o (N o . 75 ) , dating to T754 a n d m arked by Ph ilip Sy ng, J r. , was , like the R ic hardson coffee po t (No. 05) , p a rt of th e we d d ing si lve r of Edwa rd and Sa ra h Penin gt on (see p . 104 ). Th e sa lver, se t o n th ree cas t sc ro ll feet , is rimmed w it h a hi ghl y in t rica te cas t b o rd e r o f asy m me t rica l raffl es, scro lls , a nd fo liage . Th e interi or sur face is ex q u is ite ly chased wi th raffles, fl o w e r s, lea fag e , C -sc ro lls , a n d di ap er ed pa nels in a broad ban d encircli ng a cent ra l eng raved cipher. So simi lar is t he chase d d ecorat ion to th at of th e Sy ng coffee pot m ad e for th e Ga lloway fam ily (N o . (2) that o ne m ay pres ume th ey were deco ra ted by th e same unidentified chaser.

75

Salver, ca. 1754 Philip Syn g , Jr., Philadelphia Silver, Di am . : 8 1;S in. The H istor ical Societ y of Penns ylvani a

I I]

SAU CEBOATS M ost of th e per iod 's sa uce boa rs resem ble the pair m ade b y Revere fo r the Paine service (see N o . 49), a form est ab lished by Eng lish exa m ples in th e pr ero co co peri od and accommod at ed to th e new style b y th e add ition of she ll and sc ro ll cas t ings at handl e and feet. Th e o u tstanding Ameri can sa uce boa ts are a pair (N o . 76 ) sup plie d b y Richard H u m ph reys to George Em len ( 1741- 18 12) , a wea lt hy Quaker me rcha nt w ho m arried Sara h Fish bo urne (1756-1823 ) in 1775. In st ead of the t ypi cal th ree-fo oted base, each o f th e Humphreys pair is elega n tly upl ift ed on a ped esta l foot hav in g flut ed , curving bo rders. The shaped design of the foot is re pea te d in t he rim of th e vesse l, w here it is edg ed with ga droo ning t o co rres po nd t o th e fl u tin g be low. T he rim resolves into a g rac eful, sc ulp tu ra l scro lled term inal at th e handl e j u nct ure, an d a cas t sc ro lle d han dl e comp lete s th e co m posit io n an d b al an ces th e m ass o f the pour in g s po u t. Su p crbl y pr op orti on ed an d g racefu lIy d esig ned, the tw o sauceboa rs arc furth er enlive ne d b y th e add itio n of engraved ca rtouc hes enclos ing th e sc ri p t in iti als CE, for th e ori gin al owner.

011e oj a pair oj sal/ceboats, 1770 - S 0 Richard Hu mp hreys, Philadelphia Silver . H. : (d 4 in . Pr ivat e collec tion

Iq

Rare Forms

So me o f th e fin est ac hie ve me n ts in A m e rican ro co co si lvc r are ex t re me ly r ar e fo r ms. Thoug h a nu m ber of th e m are relat ed to t he ri tual o f tea and the serving o f mea ls, the y are st ill so sca rce as to wa rrant inclusion he re. Silver dish ri n gs, cake bas ke ts, an d teak ettl es, and gold shoe b uck les and snuff boxes we re lu xuries, even amo ng tho se w ho mig h t regard a silve r teap ot as a social necessity. The very selection of such for ms was an act of conspicuous consumption o n the part of th e owners ; th at the rococo style was chosen for their interpre ta tio n fo llowed in natural progression . It is therefo re " no t su r p ris ing th at e ng rav ing , the most modest kind of ro coco o rna me n t, is, when present , overshadowed by more p re te n tio us, an d m o re expensive, chased, p ie rced, or cas t deco ra tio n. M oreover, it is a mo ng th ese precious, singu la r fo r m s th at th e rar e in cid en ce of go ld is fou n d. In the eig h teent h cent ur y, th e terms "golds mi th" and "s ilvers mi th," referrin g to an a rt isa n wh o wo rke d in p reci ou s m et al s, we re intercha ngea b le. Even in E ng la n d , w here th e titl e o f th e silve rs m iths ' g uild w as th e " Wo rshipful Co m pa ny of Go ld smi ths," m embers se ldo m had t he o p po rt u ni ty to wo rk in so lid gold, more fre q ue n tly using it only in measured q ua ntiti es fo r gi ld ing obje cts of silve r (a tec h niqu e prac ticed infreq ue n tly in th e co lonies). Wi thout exceptio n, eig h teenthce n t ury Am eri can go ld objects a re sma ll, pe rsona l accessor ies, suc h as b u tto n s , shoe buckles, or snuff boxes, attribu tes reser ved fo r th e very wea lthy. On e o f th e m o st engagi ng forms in Am e rican gold is th e w his tle a n d b ell s , an ornament p opul ar in Eur op e in t he seve n tee nt h a n d eig h teen t h ce n turies. M ad e fo r a c hi ld 's am use me nt and co m p lete wi t h a b ran ch o f co ra l (co ns ide red as h a vin g prote cti ve po w e rs) fo r teethin g, it is d epi ct ed in paintin gs han ging fro m th e sma ll owne r's wa ist. 14\) G old and si lve r exa m pi es im ported from Lo nd o n are d o cum ented in co lo n ia l n e w sp ap e r advertisements. I S O J o seph Rich ard so n

I 15

77 WI/istle and bells.

17 55-(j H

N icho las Roosevelt . N ew York Go ld; co ral, H . : (NH in . The Metrop olit an Museum of Art

ll (j

o rd e red both pl ain an d c h ased "Correll & Bells, " usuall y w it h the specifica tio n " 8 Bell s to E ach. " Between 1758 and 1773, he sen t fo r se ven ty -s ix plain and fift y-four "chas e": on 27 Jun e 17 59 , he o rd ere d "2 C hast Co rre ls w it h 8 Bell s G ilt w ith Gold," th e o nly two so speci fied . O ccasion all y, he also req ueste d "Co rrell Pie ces for Whisels & Bell s," evidentl y for to ys m ad e in hi s own sho p. 151 Paul Revere recorded a " Silve r child s Wi sel" in 1762 (t ho ug h th e fo rm is o the rwise virtua lly ab se n t fro m h is led g ers) , an d, o n 18 Au gu st 177 0, Ph il ip Sy ng , Jr. , received fort y sh illi ngs nin epence from J oh n Ca dwalade r for a w histle and bells. P" Onl y fo u r e xa m p les in g o ld b y Am eri can a rtisa ns a re k nown. P:' A g old w histle marked by Ni chol as Roosevelt has sur v ived w itho u t proven an ce, but the luck y recip ien t got an ex t ravaga n t pla ythin g (N o . 77 ) . Su ch trinkets , whether in go ld o r silver, we re u su all y the gift o f a dotin g re lat iv e; '>' often a t th e c h il d 's ch riste n ing . Th e form lend s it self to a style th at se eks to cha r m and am u se. The Ro o sevelt exa m pl e, w h ich retain s six o f it s o rig in al ei ght b ells , is meti cu lou sly decorat ed with ro coco flowers , leafage, ro caille, and a fo u n ta in, o n a s t i p p le d g ro u n d , all framed in p anels an d reserves o f she lls an d C -sc ro lls . A ch ild's pl easure in th ese preci ou s t o y s is re flec te d in Th e Rambl er, w he re Samu el J ohn son rem arked : " Of all th e to ys with which child ren are de lig hte d , I va lued o nly m y co ral. " 155 Ni ch ol as Ro o sevelt ( 1715- 1769) w as b orn in Ne w York an d prob abl y ap p ren ticed to Co rneliu s Wynkoop (b . 1701 ). H e was m ar ried tw ice; fir st to C athe rine Con foort, in 1737, t he n to Eli zab eth Thurm an, in 1754. H e was ac tiv e as a silvers m ith from 173 7 th rou gh 1768 . In J anu ar y 1769, he ad verti sed for let p ro perty o n th e wharf th at in cluded a "ro om y an d co n ve n ient h ou se, w ith seven fir e-pl aces, " as we ll as a silve rs m ith's sho p , to ol s of th e tr ad e, an d "a par cel o f read y m ade silve r . .. w hic h h e w ill sell ve ry reason abl e , as h e intend s d eclinin g bu sin ess, an d to m o ve in th e Co u n t ry in th e spring . " 15(' Nichol as, th e grands o n o f th e fir st Ro os evelt to settle in N ew Am st erd am , w as related to th e pr esid ential Roosevelt s, w ho descended from his brother. A gold shoe bu ckle m ark ed by M yer M yers (N o . 78) furth er ill us t ra tes th e ro co co sty le's suita b ility for ac cen t uatin g th e impor ta nce o f s ma ll, v alu a b le o bjects . Its cas t an d chase d deco ra tio n , fo rm ed vari ou sly o f in te rw o ven leafag e, flower s, and scrolls, w ould have glit tered in th e lig ht, drawin g atte ntion to thi s o rna te , gro und- level accesso ry. Wh ile Am er ican go ld exa m ples are extr emel y rar e, lar ge q uan tities o f silve r bu ckl es we re m ade o n both sid es o f th e Atlan tic for Ameri can bu yer s. A sing le London o rde r placed in 17 59 b y J o seph R ich ard son includ ed 11 0 p air s , but th e p ro d uctio n o f hi s own sho p wo u ld ap pea r to have b een far

Shoe huck lc, 17 5 5-7 5

Myer Myers, New York Gold; steel. L.: 2-% in. Garvan Co llection, Yale Un iversity

I 17

79

Sill/if box. 1755- 75 M ycr M yer s. Ne \~ York Go ld D iarn . : 2 '% 111 . , etr op o I'iran M useum of Art T he M

I I

X

in excess o f that figure. In [7 61, he ord ered seven te en gro ss (2 , 448) o f stee l chapes and tongues in varyin g sizes for m ak-

in g bo t h sho e an d kn ee bu ckl es . 157 The personal qualit y o f th e bu ckle form m ad e it particul arl y suita b le as a gift. The M yer s exa m p le, it s s tee l cha p e and ton gue probably imp ort ed fr om Lond on, is e ng ra ve d "The Gift o f Robt . A rcd eckne Esqr. to D anl. M cCormi ck." M cC ormick (1742[834) was an ill us t rio us New York bank er who later became an alde rma n o f th e East Ward . 15 K An oth er lu xur y was the sn u ff box, a rar e form em plo yed in th e a r is t oc r a t ic pr a cti ce o f inh alin g th e co s tly tob a c coder i ved s u bs ta nce. Am eri c an sn u ff boxes o f go ld ar e ex t re rne ly sca rce, sin ce th eir size required more o f the precio us m etal than sma lle r fo rm s su ch as button s o r bu ckles . Th e e la bo ra te ly chase d exa m p le marked b y Myer M yers (N o . 79 ) was prob abl y cr eat ed as a spec ia l g ift ; its bibli cal icon o gr aph y and M yer s's J ewish heritage sugges t that it may have b een co m m iss io ne d for u se in a sy nagogue with snuff o r p e rh ap s with s p ice, as o n the D ay o f At on e m enr. P ? It s p ri ma ry de cor ati on, a d epi ction o f D avid b efore Saul, reco un te d in I Sa m ue l [6: [7-22 , fill s th e box 's co ve r, unimpe ded b y tr aditi on al p an el s or d ecorat iv e d evi ces ."?" The sce n e i ts e lf is n arr ativ e , but its h igh-relief ch as in g an d a rococo diap ered p anel contain ed within an S-scroll a t th e edge o f t he b ox (abo u t four o 'clock ) sig na ls its st ylistic debt . O n th e b ott om is an unusu al ro co co ca rt o uc h e , in d esi gn vigo ro us a n d ana rc h ic in co m pariso n with typi cal En gli sh exa m ples an d , lik e the unfetter ed co ve r scene , evo ca tive o f Contine nta l int erpret at ion s. M ore En gli sh in stylis tic derivat ion is a silv er sn uff box (N o . So) w it h th e m ark o f J oseph Rich ard son . The pr eciou s vessel fea t u res th e asy m m et rica l ar ra ng em ent ch aracteri stic o f the ma ture rococo style, as illus t ra te d by a ca rto uc he co m po sed of C -sc ro lls en closing a b ask et o f fruit an d surround ed b y more C -sc ro ll s, ra g ged s he lls, an d festo on s, all co n ta in ed w ithi n th e box' s se rpent ine -s ha pe d lid. H ere dem onstrated in m ic rocos m are th e sa me ass u re d h andlin g , fluid compo sitio n, and so ph is tica te d voc abul ary used m ore ex te nsive ly o n a to ur d e fo rce f ro m th e Ri chard son s ho p , th e Plum sted tea ke ttle o n sta nd (No. 88) . In shape and decoration, th e bo x is sim ila r to o ne d o cum ented fr om 17 57, which al so bears Ri ch ard son 's m ark . In [7 59, th e s ilve rs m it h o rde re d fr om Lo n do n three " Ch ast Silver Snuf Bo xes G ilt in sid e with Gold."'61

80 T ho ug h chasi ng cha rac te rizes th e full est ex p ress io n o f th e sty le, pier cin g was an eq ua lly su ita b le form of rococo de cora tio n o n a p p ro p ria te form s. M ore fun ction al than decorative o n ea rlier eig h te ent h -cen t u ry Am eri can siIver - cast er

SIl llJJ box , 1755- 70

J oseph Richard son, Phil ad elphia Silve r. L.: 3 in . Private collect ion

1 1<)

81

Basket,

17 54-6<)

D aniel C hristian Fucter , N ew Yor k Silve r, L.: 14% in. Mu seum of Fine Arts, Boston

12 0

lids, braziers, and strainer (slo tted) spoons-it came into its own w it h th e adve n t of th e rococo . T he gro up of hi ghl y acco mplis he d lu xur y form s th at ens ued have elaborate pier cing t ha t far exceeds any u tilitari an co nce rn. Bask et s, d ish rings, and fish slices, in add itio n to coas te rs and salts, manifest not o n ly th e co n fl ue nce o f sty le an d socia l co nve n tio n bu t also th e inc reas ing pr o sp erit y in t he co lon ies, whi ch enab led pat ron s to co m missio n suc h indul g en ces. Th e tast e fo r lacy han d-pier cin g , ad m ira bly suited to th e intricacie s o f t he ro co co m od e, was ado p ted fir st in E ng la n d, th en ce in Ame rica. Th at m o st Am eri can pi er ced silver was m ad e in New York sugges ts th e ex is te nce of a spec ialis t in suc h w ork th er e: all t he piercin g represented in these pages co mes fro m th at city. T ho ug h th e m aj o rit y is from o ne sho p - t h a t o f M yer M yer s-th e m o st so p h is tica ted pi ece is a b asket (N o . 81 ) ma rked by D an iel C h ris tian Fu ct cr an d m ad e for Ri ch ard H arison , a delegat e to th e Cons titut io nal Con ventio n in 1788 an d a p romin ent N e w Yo rk a tto rney w ho m Wa shin gton ap poi n te d th e fir st United Sta tes di stri ct atto rney for Ne w Yo rk in 1789 . Both in d esi gn and qu al it y o f execu tio n, th e bas ke t - its heav y cas t bord er an d light o pen wo rk bod y serv ing as foil s fo r eac h o t he r; th e move me n t ex p ressed in it s shaped rim rep eat ed in th e fee t and handl es- could easily be mis taken as Lo n don m ad e. Eve ry ele me nt fro m it s cu rv ing feet to its co n to u red ha ndle ex p resses a th em e o f th e ro co co repe rtoi re . The bod y is p ierced wi th a delica te foli at e- and-Csc ro ll des ig n, and c u twork o n th e r im , ha n d le, an d leg ju nc tures is co mplemented w it h intricat e cas tings . The inner sur face of t he bottom is eng raved w ith an elabo ra te ro co co carto uc he co n ta in ing th e H ar ison ar ms (see de ta il). The cas t border deco ra tio n of ro caill c, C-scro lls, and fru it-a nd- flower festoo ns, pe rha ps t he bes t exa m ple o f it s kind in Am er ican ro co co si lver, is r iva le d in achieve me n t on ly b y th e raffl efr am ed fem al e m ask s th at ado rn t he b ask et's h andl e . Th is incidence of figural relief deco rat io n is co m m o n in Europ ean ro co co si lver b u t ra re in Am eri can int erp ret ati on s. Of th e m ore th an fi ft y exam p les of Am eri can s ilve r illu strat ed in th ese pages , on ly r wo di splay hu m an allusio ns: t his b ask et an d the c ream p ot m a rk ed b y Phili p Hulb eart (N o. 55 ). A m o n g th ese a nd o t he r kn o wn d epi cti o n s, in cludin g a che rub o n a w histle and bells also m ark ed b y Fucrer, th e tw o Fuc tc r pi eces illu strat e th e m ost m ast erl y co m ma nd of integra l hum an referen ces in Ameri can rococo silver.! " T ho ug h bas ke ts a p pea re d in Eng lis h s ilve r late in th e 1500s, th e y d id n ot beco me a we ll-k now n table access o ry until th e rococo period, w hen th eir co m binatio n of pi er cin g and cas ting m ad e them an ide al ex po ne nt o f the fro t hy sty le. T he Fuct cr exa m ple is not d issimilar to those m ark ed by th e

Lond on silve rs m ith Paul d e Lam e ri e, th e Fren ch H u g uen ot w hose s ho p is ren o wn ed fo r wo r ks th at c harac ter ize th e fin est E ng lis h ro co co. A t lca sr one La m e r i e bas k et was o wn ed in th e co lo n ies . It was o rde red in 1743 , alo ng w it h o the r we d di ng si lve r, for th e Phil adelphi a m e rch an t D avid Fr ank s an d hi s brid e . 10 3 O t he r Lo n do n - ma de b ask et s w e re o w ned in th e co lo nies b y the H an co ck fami ly o f Bo st on , th e B yrd famil y o f Vir gini a, an d th e Ll o yd fam il y of M ar yland . , 0 4 Fu et er, Europ ean tr ain ed an d arrivi ng fr om London at an au s p ic io us m om ent , p rob abl y in t ro d uced ro co co-st yl e silve r to N ew York. H e m ay also have bee n responsi ble for setting th e fash io n for pier ced decoration in th e city 's silver.

r2 I

82

Basket, ca. 1756 Myer M yers. New York Silver, L.: 14 1/2 in. T he Metropolitan Museum of Art

Th e o n ly o t he r Am eri can ro co co b ask et kn own (N o . 82 ) was su pp lied b y M yer M yer s to Su sannah and Sam uel Co rne ll o f New York , w hose ini tia ls, sse, are eng raved on it s interi or. M yc rs 's co m mi ssion for th e Co rnc lls in clud ed a pier ced d ish rin g, a co ffec pot, a ca n n, an d a pair o f pier ced wi ne coas te rs .": " Th ou gh m ember s o f N ew York 's aris tocracy w ere m ore lik el y t o h ave im p orted si lver suc h as th e bask et and th e di sh ring , th e va rie ty of form s from th c sam c m aker sugges ts th at , like th e Pain e ser vic e (No. 49) from th e sho p of Paul Revere, th ey we re o rde red b y a brid eg room as a gift to hi s bride .'f>(, The theo ry is s u p po rte d b y lat er eng ravi ng o n th e coffcc p ot , w h ic h indi cat es th at Co rnel l gave it to Susa nna h in th e yea r of th eir m ar riage. The knowlcdge th at a thi rd o f th e Ameri can pi er ced wor k su rviv ing fr om th e ro co co period belon ged to th e Co rne lls is a cogen t ill us t ra tio n o f j us t h o w vi ta l th e p atron ag e o f a very few afflue n t fam ilies wa s to th e developm ent of Am er ican rococo silve r. ,67

Samu el Co rnell ( [73 [ - [78r) m arri ed Su sann ah M abso n ( [73 1/32 - [778) in [756 . Co rnell , a wea lthy N ew York me r-

ch ant o f Lo y ali st sy m pa t h ics, m o vcd h is fam il y to N ew Bern , N orth Carolina, ea rly in th e [77 0 S. He was a m em ber o f Hi s M aj est ys Co u nc il o f th at st ate in 177 5 , w hcn he st ro ng ly advi sed th e govc rno r to o u tlaw W h ig m eet in g s. Co rne ll wa s in Eng la nd du rin g th e o u tbrea k of th e Rev olu tion , but he return ed to N ew York and set sail for N ew Bern und er a flag of tru ce . On hi s arri va l, he was deni ed ree ntry an d re u n io n with hi s famil y unl ess h e to ok an oath of alleg ia nce to th e s ta te, the n un d er Whig ru le . H e refused and, w hi le st ill in th e h a rb o r, m ad e an effo r t to save h is p ro pe rty b y d cedin g it to hi s ch ild rc n . H e th cn ob taincd p crrn i ss iont o rem o ve hi s fa mi ly t o N cw York . H is conveya nces of p rop ert y we re n ot h on ored , an d hi s h old in g s were co n fiscated b y th e sta re and so ld.'{,H Unlik e th c Fuet er b ask et, w he re the ma ke r h as used cvc ry m eans o f ro co co d ecorati on at h is co mma nd . t h e

12 2

M yer s bask et relie s so lely on pier cin g for o rna me nta l dram a. It s elabo ra te fil igree b od y is co n ta ine d visu all y betwe en a si m pl e arc h ing handl e an d a circula r foot th at are ro co co in deco ra t io n but n ot in sha pe, an d th e ca st ings a t th e rim, foot , and handle junctures are co m posed of ro utine gadroonin g . The bask et w as crea ted at a tim e w he n suc h exp an ses of o penwork we re v i rt ua lly unkn o wn ; Fu et er, perhap s more acc us to me d to th e technique, tr eated pi er cin g as on e elem ent in a di alo gu e. Wher eas th e M yers exa m ple is an exe m plificat io n o f pi er cin g in Am eri can silver , the Fu ct cr b asket is a trium ph o f ro co co design th at utili zes piercin g. In its cu to u t d ecorat ion , th e M yers b ask et includes th e th ree sty listic va riat ion s o f Eng lish ro co co ex plaine d in Chippe nda le's Dir ector-Fren ch, o r M od ern, C hinese, and Gothic. Reserves o f Fren ch scrollwo rk alte rn ate w ith diapered pan els o f C hinese latti cew ork, a n d the b aseb and is pi erced with a design o f Go t hic qu atrefoil s and di am onds. (T he pier cin g o n t he Fu et er b ask et , less intri cat e , is limited t o the Fren ch tas te.) D ish rin g s, used und e r hot se rv ing d ish es, require piercin g to ventilat e th e heat away fro m th e tabl e. The o nly ex ample know n in Am eri can silve r is o ne M yer s su pplied to th e Co rne lls (F IG . 30), th ou gh w ick er an d p ewt er ex a m p les ar e rccord ed .'?" Th e form , w hic h occu rre d in Eng land ea rly in th e eig h teen t h ce n t ury but was repl aced by th e d ish cross '7° in th e 1740S, remai ned espec ially popul ar in Ireland . On Iri sh rococo exa m p les , th e d esi gn is u su all y n atur ali st ic, w it h chas ing to a rticu la te leaves an d flo w e rs an d with th e occasio na l applica tio n of cas t decorati on . Imported Dublin exa mpl es m ay ha ve co me to th e atte n tio n o f eithe r M ye rs or th e Co rnells, but it is mo re likel y th at M yers co n t rac ted with a fo re ig n p ic rce r w ho may also h ave suggested th e form . A d ish ring was m o re ada p table to th e sizes o f se rv ing di sh es w he n it was co m posed of t w o silv e r circl es o f v ar yin g d ia m et er s, as is th e M y er s exa m p le . Com p le me n ting it s sha pe is a med ial b and o f scro llwork fram ed w it hin G oth ic d ia mo n d-a nd- Io ze nge decora tion . Th e in itia ls for th e

FIGURE 30 .

Dish ring . ca. 17 56. Myer Myers. New York. Silver.

Di arn . : iWx in. (22. 5 cm.): H. : 4'% in. ( 11.1 cm.). Yale Univ ersity Art Gallery. The Mabel Brady Garvan Collection ( 19 36 . 136)

sse

Co rnc lls a re e ng rave d o n an ap p lie d h eart-sh aped sh ie ld; bot h rim and foo t are undecorated. A s does the M yer s ba ske t , th e d ish rin g reli es so le ly o n pi er cin g for it s aes the tic effect. T ho ug h th e M yer s b ask et a nd di sh rin g , b oth excee d ing ly o rna te in th e co ntex t o f Am eri can silve r, are co nse rv ative in co m pa riso n w ith British m odels, th e fish slice w ith M yer s' s mar k (N o . 83) is virt ua lly identica l to exa m ples popul ar in Engla n d in t he 1760s. It s pi er ced d esi gn, co m posed o f di apering and fo liate scrolls enha nce d w ith engraving , is sim ilar to th at foun d o n E ng lish proto types, as is th e splayed she ll

12 3

w it h o pe n w o r k ribs th at ado rn s th e handl e junctu re. In its vi g or an d flar e, th e s he ll represent s a m ark ed pr o gressi on fr om the ti ght , rest rain ed she ll cas tings at th e j unct ures of th e M yer s ba sket. H is sho p pr odu ced at least o ne o ther simi lar slice.'?' but no o the r Am er ican exa m ples are kn own from th e roco co peri od . The form it self, ho w ev er. is docume nted in th e co lo n ies: the re cord s o f Willi am B yrd , of West o ver , Virgini a, m ention a fish slice in 1769, with no in dica tion of its o rig in , and th e Tayl oe s of Virginia had o ne m ad e in Lo ndon in 1767 th at w as eng raved with th e fam ily arms.'72 Am eri can silv er smiths rarel y foll owed th e English prac tice of app ly ing weig h ty , ex pe nsive cas tings purel y for deco ra tio n, but in st ead us ed th e pr o cess where necessar y for ap pe ndages suc h as handles, h andl e j u nc t u res an d te rmin als, rim s, and feet, w hic h required so lid ity and reinforcem ent. A ladl e (N o . 84 ) mark ed b y Pi et er d e Riem er d em on strat es th at u sag e whil e at the sam e time ex plo iting th e ca paci ty for o rna me ntati on inh erent in th e techniqu e. Th e Ri em er ladle , unique in Am eri can si lver an d elaborat e e ven b y English sta n da rds, was probabl y in spi red b y a Co n ti nen ta l exam ple ex h ibi ting th e m ore florid cha rac ter o f th e Fren ch or north ern European ro coco . The flut ed chas ing o f th e bowl is co nve n tio na l, but th e handl e term in al , cas t as a lar g e, imp o sin g carto uc he , is ex t rao rdi na ry. T ho ug h ca rtou ch es decorat e th e handles o f m ost Eng lish flat w are fo rm s, here th e m ak er h as e m p loye d th e d evi ce as a se parate sc u lpt ura l ele me nt b y co m pos ing it of flo w er-str ewn raffles fra mi ng a ce n t r a l rese r v e th at t e rmin at es in a str ik ing ly asy m me t rica l sc ro ll. Pend ent flowers and ro caill e ado rn t he back of th e ca r to uc he (see d etail ), w he re t he initi als R o ver R S are eng raved fo r th e orig ina l o w ne rs, Rich ard ( 17'7/ 1817( 3) and Sar ah (Boga rt) Ray ( 1728- 1781). The sc rip t m on og ra m C R o n the front , in sid e th e carro uc hc, was ad de d for Co rne lius Ray ( 1755-1827) , w ho inherited th e ladl e fro m his paren ts. Its su bseq ue n t descent in th e famil y is recorde d o n th e b ack of the b owl in engra ving adde d abo ut 19 12. '73 T he Ra y fam il y, pr omin ent in N ew York bu sin ess and socie ty. was found ed in Am erica in th e seven tee n t h ce ntury by J ohn Ray. o f Exeter, En gland . A m ore co m p lex u s e o f cas t i ng is to be found on rococo cruet sta nds , as exe m plified by o ne, m ad e for the Van Voo rhi s famil y in t h e s hop o f D ani el C h r is t ia n Fu et er, t h at is decorat ed w it h cast scrolls , she lls, an d ca rto uc hes (N o . 85). Severa l Am er ican rococo c r ue t s ta n ds, m ad e b y b oth Ph ilad elphi a an d N ew Yo rk m aker s, are kn o wn . 174 All have the sa me ge ne ra l desi gn , pattern ed afte r Englis h p rototy pes well d o cum ented in th e co lo nies - pri m ar y d ecorati o n co nsisting of a cas t ce nt ra l car touchc , a sc ro lled ha nd le and legs,

Fish slice. 1755-75 Myer M yers, N ew York Silver. L. : 14 VH in.

Wadsworth Atheneum

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Ladle, ca. 1703 Piet er de Riem er, N ew York Silver , L.: 13% in . Pri vate co llectio n

12

5

an d cas t shell feet. In 175 7, Georg e Washin gton acq uired an exa m p le m ad e by j ab ez D ani el o f Lond on ; ot he r Lon d on m ad e stands w er e ow ne d b y B enj amin Fan eui! and by t he Apth orp s in Bo st on, b y th e Br o wn es in Sa lem, an d by th e C hases in M ar yl and . 17 5 Th e sta n da rd design (k now n as the War wi ck t yp e, p o ssibl y b ecau se o ne m ad e fo r th e ea r l. of Warwi ck in 1715- 16 was o nce thou ght to be th e ea rliest) 17 (' calle d for two g lass crue ts , for vin eg ar and oil, and th ree sil ve r cas te rs, for su g ar , mu st ard , an d p epp er. Th e sta nd therefore co ns isted o f a fram ew ork w ith five adj o ining rings to co n tain th o se vessel s an d tw o sma lle r rin gs at either end to h old th e cr u et cove rs w he n the cru ets were in use . Alth ou gh severa l Am eri can exa m ples of th e for m survive, non e are kn own with dom esti c fittin g s; th o se tha t remai n intact , includin g thi s o ne, h ave Eng lis h cas te rs an d cruets ordered fr om London. A s requ est ed b y th e Ph il ad elp h ia silver smith J o seph Ri ch ard son , th ese we re some times " plain" and so me times " Doub le Bell yed " ; in a lett er of 1760, Ri ch ardson eve n o rd ered a "Silver Cas ter fra me w ith a Sert o f D oubl e Bell ycd Cas ters Neatl y C has t w ith G ro un d Glas s C ru its tipt w ith Silv er. " ' 77 The ea rlies t referen ce to stand s in Rev ere ' s led g er s wa s in 17 81, w he n h e reco rde d a "Si lv er Fram e for Ca srers '" '?" but m ad e n o m ention o f acco mpa nyin g cas te r s. Th e d oubl e-b ellied an d chased cas te rs o n th e Fuet er stand are marked b y Samuel Wood of London and are d at e-mark ed 17 52- 5 3. Th e car to uc hes o n b oth cas ters and stand are engraved with th e Van Voorhis fami ly crest. Onl y two Am eri can sn uffer sta n ds are kn own , one of w hich w as m arked b y Ph ilip Syn g , Jr. (N o . 86); th e o the r, by M yer M y er s . Th e co m p lete form co n sis te d o f a s ta nd, or t ray, holding a pair o f snu ffers, a scisso rslike device used fo r trimmin g th e burn t wick s o n ca n d les." ?" A special ized form of thi s n ature wa s not n ec essa ril y o f si lver; m o st American snu ffers and sta nds were m ad e o f a base m et al. Paul Revere recorded mak in g a "Pr. of Snuffer s & Snu ff Dis h" in 1762; John Ca d w alade r o f Phil ad elphi a, according to an in vento ry o f th e cont ents o f h is silve r cl o set tak en in 1771, owned at least two snu ffers an d sta n d s, one w ith "snu ffers part silver part steel," the o ther " all silvcr. " I S O

Cru et stand, 17 54- 09 Daniel Christian Fue te r, New York

Silver, H.: 10 in. Historic Deerfield, Inc.

Syng's ex am ple, no w without it s snuffers, has a par ticularl y cap ricious air, th e result of th e plenitude of cast decorat ion a p p lie d aro u n d it s hand- wrou ght surface : th e sh aped pr ofile is rimm ed b y C-scrolls an d leafage em be llishe d w ith four rag ged, asymm etri cal she lls, o ne cen tered on each side. Uplifted o n fo u r sc ro lle d pad feet , th e sta nd is me morab le for th e unu su al raffl ed C -scro ll th at sur mo u nts it s sc ro lli ng handle . Th e cas t bord er d ecorati on is si milar to th at foun d o n th e m o st famou s wor k fro m Syn g 's sh o p , an ink stan d co m m issi on ed b y th e Pcnn s yl van ia Assem b ly in 17 52 and

later used by th e sig ne rs o f th e D ecl ar ati on of Indep end en ce and of t he Co n s ritur io n.J'" Th ou gh it is e ng ra ve d in th e ce nter w ith t he cres t of th e H am ilt on fam ily, an d m ay hav e bee n ow ne d by Andre w H amilton , its pr oven an ce is n ot recorded . M o st o f t he rare fo rm s di scu ssed in th ese pages h ave falle n into gro u pings by o rna men t. With th e po ssibl e exc eptio n of the Fue te r bas ke t (No . 8 1), eac h exa m ple h as ex p ress ed th e rococo style prim arily th rou gh o ne of three te chniques: chas ing, piercin g , or cas ting. H oll o w w are form s allowed ro co co silve rs m it hs grea te r latitud e to in teg ra te vario us t yp es o f decora tio n. A s demon strat ed b y th e ba sk et , w he re cas t an d pierced decora t io n a re co m b ine d to s t u n n ing e ffec t , th e res u lts ca n b e eve n g rea te r ex p ress io ns of m ature ro co co des ig n. A n ale j ug m ark ed by M ye r M yer s (N o . 87 ) is a sp lendi d exa m ple of rococo holl o w w are, th ou gh th e fo rm itself is no t a ro co co inno v ati on . H er e, th e co m ma nd ing eleven- inc h he ig h t en ha nces th e effec t o f th e su pe rb eng ra ving and cas tings. T ho ug h j ugs, t ank ard s, an d ca n ns did n ot e cho the do u b lc-be llie d p ro fil es found o n tea and co ffee form s, th e ba lus ter sha pe in tro d uced in th e p revi ou s peri od lent it self grace fu lly to th e ad ditio n o f ro co co o rna me n t. Thi s ju g is engrave d w it h th e a r ms o f D a vid C la r kso n ( 1726- 178.2) o f New York , prob abl y th e " j ug wi t h cove r" refer red to in his will as th e "S ha re" o f hi s d au ghter Ann M ar g ar et C la r k so n .v'" The a r ms a re co n ta ine d w i t h in a lu xuri ant asy m me tr ica l ca rto uc h e sur mo u n te d b y a w inge d-g ri ffi n cres t. The sweep ing curve of th e body is balan ced b y a vi goro us do u b le C -scro ll h andl e m arked b y rococo cas tings at th e u p p er an d lo w e r jun ctures. A th ree-d im en sion al raffl e cocked on th e lid 's hin ge se rves as a thumbpicce and adds to the vis ua l success o f th e vessel. Both the thumbpicce and th e u p pe r h a n dl e j u nc t u re are e la bo ra te ro co co cas ti ngs th at co m pleme nt th e ex pa nsive eng rav ing . An other jug from th e M ye r s s ho p, o f s imi lar size a n d sha pe an d w it h identi c al han dl e and upper juncture, is at th e H enry Fo rd Museum . In its lack o f rococo thumbpicce and ar mo rial eng rav ing, however, it falls sho rt of th e C lar kson exa m ple. , X3 T he mos t m onum ental form produ ced in Am eri can ro coco silve r w as th e te ak e ttl e, o r tea urn, t w o va r ia tio ns o n the sa me th em e. It is su ita b le th at th e o n ly rococo exa m p les k now n are fr om N e w York an d Phil ad elphia, th e t w o ce nters of hi gh-st yl e co lo n ia l sil ver in th e ro co co tast e. , X4 T he ke t tle, design ed to hold h ot wa te r for replenishin g teap ots, was int ro du ced into th e tea eq ui page in En gl and lat e in th e seve ntee nth cen tu ry. M o re co mmo n in base meta ls, th e form tra di tionally incl ude d a sta nd fu rn ishe d w ith a spirit lamp for

86 S l/lIffcr stand , 17 50 - 70

Philip Syng. Jr. . Philadelphia Silver. L.: 7% in. The Metropolitan Museum of Art

127

A lejuo , 17 55-7 5 M ycr M yer s. N ew York Silver. H .: 11 -% in . Pri vat e co llection

12 8

heatin g the wa te r. Int end ed t o b e lift ed for p ourin g , th e vesse l was p r o vid ed w i t h a spo u t an d a swi ng ing h andl e eithe r m ade of wood o r w ra pped wi th w icke r for in sul ati on . In t h e mi d -eig h teen t h ce n t ury, th e teak ettl e b eg an to b e re p lace d b y th e t ea urn in E ng la n d, th ou gh th e transition occ ur red so mewha t lat er in th e co lo nies. (Ja mes Beekman of New York record ed pu rch asin g a " N ew Kettle & Stand " in Ap ril 1766 ; in M ay 177 3, he acq uired a " Tea Urn . " ) I H5 Both ve rs io ns fu lfill ed th e sa me fun cti on , but th e urn differed from th e k ettl e in t ha t it was design ed to rem ain sta tio na ry o n th e tabl e, th e h o t wa ter di sp en sed through on e o r m ore s pigo ts , thu s re lievi ng th e h o st o r ho st ess f ro m lifting a heavy vesse l and directin g its co ntents int o small teapots . A tea urn ma rke d b y E p hra im Br ash er ( FIG. 3 I ) is th e ea rl ies t example o f its k in d in Am eri can silver an d the o n ly rococo o ne kn o wn . T ho ug h suc h three-l eg g ed vesse ls are Fre nc h in o rig in, th ey we re co pied in co n tem po ra ry En glish silver (see N o . 46). T he Brash er urn was pr ob abl y patterned after an Eng lish co ffee pot , und oubtedl y as a co m m issio n for an uni d entifi ed pat ron who se initials, JDW, are fr am ed in a gra nd ca rro uc he eng raved o n th e sid e. The design sug gests th at th e m ak er was neither we ll ve rse d in th e production of suc h urn s n or in p o ssession o f castin g m olds exactl y suited to th em . I SO H e evidentl y b orrowed m olds from m ore co m mo n form s to crea te thi s un iq ue pi ece, its feet co m posed of she lls and scro lls th at were part of the per iod 's casting vo cabular y, its h andl es o f th e t yp e occur ring o n jugs , ewe rs , and tw o-h an dl ed cu ps, and it s fi n ia l t ypi cal o f that found o n co ffee pots, in cluding o ne wi th Br asher 's m ark . ,S 7 T he urn is technicall y co m petent , but becau se it w as not design ed an d crea ted as an integr al pi ece, it betrays an in consiste ncy of sca le and deco rati on , parti cul arl y at the feet an d th e handles. W hen plotted co rrectly, th e lar ge upper cur ve of suc h S-c u rved h andl es swu ng o u t well b eyond the sma ller lower rever se cur ve, th e scroll tip o f the lo w er juncture kept we ll in sid e a ve rtical lin e d ropped from the o u te rmost point of th e upp er cur ve. H e re, h o w eve r, t he sc ro lling terminal s ab u t suc h a lin e . T h e feet a re equ all y di sprop ortionate to suc h a m assi ve vessel. Th e m ak er 's prob abl e unfamiliarit y w it h th e fo rm may ex p lain th e pl acin g of the handles and th e eng ra ving w it ho u t reg ard for th e tripartite a rra nge me n t o f th e feet a n d th e s p igo ts b elo w. I S H Th e urn' s n ai vet e notw it hs ta n d ing, th e cas t ings a n d th e e ng ra v ing are a b ove reproach . The urn its elf is im b ue d with ro co co spirit, m o vem ent , and sp rig h tl iness, and rem ain s o ne o f th e m ost am bitiou s efforts in Am eri can silve r. Ep h ra im Br ash er ( 174 4 - 18 10), a silve rs mi t h o f Dut ch d es cent, was b orn in N e w Yor k a n d wo rke d in th e city thr ou gh out his ca ree r. H e m a rri ed Ann e Gi lbe rt, siste r of New York silvers mi t h Willi am Gi lbe rt , in 1766 , an d w as

FIG U RE 3 1. Tea IInl , 176 5- 7 5 . Ephraim Brasher, New York. Silver, H.: 17 1/4 in. (43.H cm.). The Art Institute of Chicago , Gift of the Antiqu arian Society ( 1959.5H)

12 9

88

Teakettle 0 11 stand, 1745- 55 J oseph Rich ard so n . Ph iladelphi a Silver. H . : q -y. in. Ca rva n Collect ion . Yale U nive rsity

13 0

recorded as a m ember o f th e Gold and Silve r Sm ith's Society in 1786; hi s n am e a ppea re d in th e city direct ories from 1786 t o 180 7 . In 17 9 2, h e was an assaye r fo r th e Unit ed St at es M int .

ment th at is unique in Am eri can rococo silve r, where t he in cide nce o f chased fauna, w hi le mo re common t han th at of hum an refer en ce s, rem ain s a ra ri ty in comparison wi th its frequen cy in En gli sh w ork . O the r occ ur rences repr esent ed in thi s b o ok a re birds o n th e Rie m er cream pot , on a Re v ere teap ot, and o n th e Lan sin g suga r d ish (Nos. 48, 51, 57). The m ak er ma y have o bta ined m olds fo r his ke ttle-on-s tand cast in gs fr om a car ver w ho also exercised hi s o rna men tal talents o n Phil adelph ia ro co co fu rn itu re . It is un lik el y th a t Ri chard son would h ave h ad occas io n to u se m o st o f th o se m old s for another client , w h ic h wo u ld h av e furt her in creased the kettle's ex pe nse.

M ore accom plishe d th an t he Br ash er essay in th e form is th e unp ar alleled teak ettl e o n sta nd m ark ed by J oseph Richardson (N o . 88 ; see also ill. o p p . p . 7 1). Uniqu e in the o e u v re from Ri ch ardson 's sho p, it ranks as th e grea tes t acco m plishm ent in Am eri can rococo silve r. Ever y bit th e eq u al o f outsta n d ing London exa m p les, Ri chard son's teak ettl e on stand is a unifi ed co m pos it io n of form an d o r na me n t , in ever y det ail full y ex p res sive o f the highl y elabo rate sty le. The Ri ch ard son masterpi ece (w h ich is abs ent from his acco un ts an d hi s o rde rs from Lond on ) wa s made for Clemen t Plum st ed ( 1680 - 1745) , form er m ayor o f Philadelphia, or for h is third wife a n d w ido w, M ar y (C ur ry) Plumst ed (d. 1755 ), w ho b equ e ath ed it in h er wi ll to her hu sband 's gra nd da ug hte r Eliza be th Plum sted. Rich ard son had long had bus iness rel at ion s w ith Plum st ed , from wh om he acquired prope rty and for w ho m in 17 37 h e wi t nesse d a bu sin es s tra nsactio n .l"?

A co m m iss io n o f th at kind was a o nce- in -a -ca ree r opportunity for an Am eri can s ilvers m it h. Th e qu alit y of de si gn and chasin g o n th e Plum sted ke t tle m ak es it th e su prem e ex a m pie of A m e r ican rococo si lve r. T h o u gh Ri ch ardson ma y hav e wro ug ht the form , th e chasi ng, w hic h besp eak s European tr ainin g and experie nce, was p robably th e acco m plish ment o f an im m ig rant silve rsmi th wo rking in Phil adelphia. LGB

T he pr obabl e ins pira tio n for th e flu ent handling o f su ch a rare design is th e Fr anks famil y teak ettl e o n sta nd (F IG. 27, p . 77 ), ma r ked in 1744-4 5 b y th at m ast er o t En glish ro co co

si lver, Pa ul de Lam eri e, to r U a vIO an a M ar g ar et (E va ns) Frank s of P h ilad el phia. The kettle was part o f a te a service, fro m w hic h also su rv ive a bask et an d a was te b owl, all d isp layin g th e sa me ar ms - those o f Fr ank s im palin g those of Eva ns . D avid Fr ank s h ad tw o broth er s wh o li ved in London, o ne o r b oth o f w ho m probabl y co m m issio ne d Lamerie to su p p ly the se r v ice in honor of the co u ple 's marriage , in 1743. 1<)0 The Ri ch ardson kettle is id entical in form an d composition to th e Larn eri e exa m p le. The two, differing in height by less th an h alf an in ch , are be autifull y proportioned doublebe llied vessels u plifte d o n sc ro ll- foo te d sta nds , di spl ay ch asing, cas ting, an d engraving in th e same places, and var y only in o rname n ta tion. Th e icono graph y o n th e Larncric kettl e, true to the silve rsmit h's s ty le , is more an ima lis tic an d fantas-

tic- lion 's mas ks an d paw s, demich erubs an d che ru b m ask s, h uma n mas ks, sna ils, an d eagles w it h o u ts t re tc he d w in g s. T he less exo tic voca bu la ry o n th e Ri ch ard son kettle is co m po sed pr im a ril y of C -scro lls, she lls, flo w ers, leafa g e, an d ro ca ill e . It d o es , h owever, po s sess a few exce p t io n a l elem ents, perh ap s th e chas er 's response to th e Larn erie anim al re fe re nces: a birds h ead formin g the spo u t, wing ed masks o n th e s ta n d , a n d a demilion drap ed o v e r the c a r t o u c he. Tu ck ed a mo ng th e foliage, pe erin g o u t fr om behind C sc ro lls , th ey co n tr ib u te a fer al dram a of su rp rise an d move-

13 I

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FURNITURE

a sec o n d ary - w o o d carca ss, as in En gl and. That m ann er o f cons tru ctio n saved on labor and also w iths to od th e dram ati c shifts in temperature and hum idity o f th e n ati ve climat e. In N ew Engl and, the favorite seconda ry w ood w as north eastern white pine; in th e m iddl e co lo nies , tulip popl ar and ye llow pin e; in the South, cy p ress. Wh er ever wood was to b e carve d and gilded or painted (as wi th fram es for pictures and lookin g glass es), th e uni ver sal Am er ican pr efer en ce was fo r n orth eastern white p in e b ecause of its lightn ess, st re ng th, and carv ability, M o st furn iture w as asse m bl ed usi ng tw o basic joine ry techniques, the m orti se an d ten on an d th e d o vet ail. St ructural elem en ts suc h as stiles and rails we re united b y cu tting awa y part of the end o f o ne m emb er to form a ton gu e , or tenon, which was th en inse rte d in to a slo t, or m orti se, cu t into th e other mem b er. Bo ard s w er e j o in ed at ri ght ang les by fashioning their en d s in to interl o ckin g w edge-s ha pe d keys, called dovetails. In Am erican furniture, the ro co co is manifested in th e art of th e carver. The sig n atu re o f th e s ty le is th e real ist ic portra y al of ele men ts fr om nature: leafage and raffl es, flowers and frui t, shells and ro caille wo rk . All th o se m otifs we re co m bine d with C - and S-s ha pe d sc ro lls, occasio na lly form in g a tr efoil o r qu atrefoil sha pe sugges ti ng th e G oth ic. To th at rep ert oire mu st b e ad ded th e use o f pi erced wo r k o r blind fre two rk, which dist inguish ed th e C hinese mode ma de popul ar in C h ip pe n da le 's Director. Ro co co sla b tabl es and lookin g- gl ass and picture fram es we re ex clus ive ly th e wo rk o f ca rve rs . Ca rv ing , w hic h co uld eithe r be cut from th e so lid o r ap plied, d efined th e sha pe , o r o u tli ne, o f forms it em bel li sh ed (see N o . 131) . C ha irs w it h rect an gul ar b ack s we re g ive n pr oj ectin g co rne rs an d pi er ced sp la rs: orn am ent w as adde d to other estab lished forms to bring them up to d ate. A Phil adelphia furni turem ak er 's Price B ook prin ted in 177 2, at the height of the ro coco (see p. IS4 ), describes th e full ran ge of available furn iture. It list s m an y form s introduced first in

Furniturem akin g was o ne of th e m o st un iversal of co lonial en te rp rises. N ot an industry suscep tible to su pe rvision from En gland , it w as carried on domesti cally in sma ll shops by no mo re th an a h andful o f cra fts me n at anyo ne tim e. End less su p p lies o f sui ta b le w o od s w er e read il y at hand, a factor th at , w he n co m bine d with th e cos t o f shi p ping , meant th at im po rts we re se ldo m co m p eti tive w ith lo cal pr oducts. In urba n ce n ters, ca b ine t ma ke rs lab ored yea r round at th eir craft, em p loying j ourneym en an d ap p re n tices and sub cont ract in g suc h s pecia lis t ac tiv ities as ca rv ing . In rural areas, cab ine tma ki ng tended to be a w in te r occ u pa tio n undertaken by fa rme rs h avin g littl e o ppo rt u n ity to develo p specia lized sk ills. Furni ture is m ad e o f primar y and seco nda ry woods: th e p rima ry, th at w h ic h is v is ib le an d fini sh ed ; th e seco n d ary, th at w hic h is u sed fo r the un seen inn er p arts . M ahog an y, sh ippe d in hu g e lo g s from H onduras and th e islands of the Ca ribbea n, w as th e preferred primar y wood in bo th England an d Am eri ca durin g the second half o f the eig h teen th centur y. A s we ll as for it s b eaut y an d th e ease with which it co uld be wo rke d , it was chose n for its streng th and impervio us ness to rot an d in sect infe st ati on . M o st o f the oth er woo ds, b oth prim ar y an d seco n da ry , used in th e co lo n ies were native to N o rth America; it is th eir pr esen ce that helps to iden ti fy th e pl ace o f origi n of in divi d ua l pieces. In Pcnnsylvan ia and Virginia , rhc local prim ar y wood was wa lnut , w hi ch was n ot so ve ry d ifferent fr om m ah o g an y; in New Eng land, it was m aple o r che rry, bo th almos t too hard to carve . In Am er ica, furniture was m o stl y fabricat ed o ut o f so lid pieces of prim ar y w ood rath er than o ut of veneers over

Cadwalader[umiture 1101 /1 ill the P Oll' elllOlI s e uallroon: at the Philadelphia MIISCII IIl of A rt (Nos . 124 , 12 5 , 154. 15 5)

133

th e 1740S an d 17 50 S an d s pe lls o u t ju st h ow mu ch more a piece of m ah o gan y furniture w ith roco co carving cos t th an a pi ece of wa ln u t le ft pl ain . Th e book cl earl y d em on strates th at th e s ty le wa s a lu xuri ou s o p t io n , th e pur vi ew o f th e well-t o-do . The carve rs of th e m o st sty lis h and acco m plished American ro co co furn i tur e w ere m o stl y immi gr ants fr om En g la n d, Scotl and , and Ir eland w ho h ad se rve d th eir full ap p re n tices h ips , us u all y in Lond on , b efore co m ing to th e N ew World . Th ere w ere s po ra dic ar ri va ls in N ew York , Ph iladelphia, Will iam sburg , and C ha rles to n in th e 1750S, but th e g re at cra fts m an mi grati on b eg an in th e m id-r yoos an d cres te d with th e in cid en ce o f t he n onimp ort ati on ag re em ents, aro un d th e en d o f th e decad e. Thos e d at es co inc ide preci sel y w ith th e introdu cti on an d h ei ght o f th e ro co co sty le. It is no happenstan ce th at Bo st on , o f th e g reat co lo nial port s th e least welco m ing to immi grant cra fts m en, ha s so few pieces o f ide n ti fia ble rococo furniture and that Ph iladelphi a, th e m ost ho spitabl e, has so m an y. In the m aj or cities of colon ial Am erica, th e cabine tma kers nurtured lo cal fu rn iture styles so di stin ctive, so different fro m o ne ano ther, tha t th ey form th e natural un its b y w hic h Am er ican furn iture can be exa m ine d. The regi on al sty les are th e result o f a co m b ina tio n o f fac to rs u niqu e to each pla ce: t h e t ast e o f th e lo cal gen t ry; th e mi x o f n ative-b orn and immigra n t cr aftsme n; an d th e av ai la b ility of i mp ort ed English patt ern book s and fu rn iture as des ig n so urces. In th e pages th at fo llow, the fu rni ture o f Bo st o n , N ew Yo rk, William sburg , C ha rlesto n , an d Ph iladelphia is tr eated sep ar atel y and in th at o rde r. P h ilad el p h ia , w ith m o re furniture in th e rococo sty le th an all th e o ther ci ties put to g eth er, is tak en out o f geogra phic order to becom e th e gra nd finale, showing how close A mericans co uld ge t to th e London rococo.

Boston

Bo st on w as th e domin ant co lo n ia l city in th e seve n tee nt h an d early eig htee n th ce n tu ries , but th e eco no m ic recession s she s u ffere d afte r Qu een Ann e' s War ( 1702 - 13) an d Kin g G eorge' s War ( 174 4 - 48) , alo n g w i th th e in cr easin g pr o m inen ce of New Yo rk and Philad elphia , imped ed her abili ty to ex pand and to cont inue her developm ent as a cen ter of urba n crea t iv ity. B y th e 17 50 S, h er h e yd ay was over. T he city's ga llan t, ince ndiary role pri or to th e Revolution and her occ up ati on b y th e Briti sh , 'w h ich bega n in 17 0 8 and did not end until 1770 , o n ly co n t r ib u te d to h er woes. H er stand agai ns t i m po rt duti es I beg an a d ecad e o f wa rtime sacri fices from wh ich sh e n ever fu lly recov ered . N on ethel ess, Bosto n ro coco furniture, while limited in qu antit y, compa res favo rably in qualit y with th at o f o the r co lo nial urb an centers. In th e g rea t m aj orit y o f fu rni t ure m ade in th e city bet w een 170 0 and 1790 , the o ld sty les we re m aintain ed wi th o n ly slig h t , an d u su all y b el ated, acco m moda tio n to the em erg ing ro co co sensi b ility for lighter form s and orna me nta l ca r v ing. Th e few pi e ces o f wo n der fu l rococo fu rni t ure fas hio ne d b y Bo ston w o odwork er s arc th e excep tio n rather th an th e rule. The reason is sim p le. Th e arr iva l of the rococo sty le in Bo ston coi nc id ed w ith th e per iod o f d ecl in e in th e ci ty's p opul at ion and eco no my, an d th er e were n ot m an y n e wl y rich m er ch ant prin ces pr ep ar ed to flau n t t h e fres h m odes. Moreov er, Bo st on ca b ine tma ke rs we re under st andab ly co nse rvative . So me had particip ated in th e crea tio n of a uniqu el y N ew E ng la n d s ty le in th e vi b ra n t yea rs of t he 17 30 S; o t he rs we re th eir d escend ant s . ln eithe r case , the native-born art isans w er e unwillin g to ad mi t o utside rs, eve n if (or, perh ap s, es pecia lly if ) th ey we re Lond on trained and schooled in the new rococo fashi on. Th e m anufacture o f furniture was a w ides p rea d enterp ris e in co lo nial Bo st o n . As th e Eng lis h tr aveler J am es Birkct o bse rved o f th e city in 17 51: " T he Artificer s in th is Place Excee d An y up on yc Co n tine n t And are h er e also M o s t Num er ou s as Ca bine t M akers. " 2 O f so me 502 furni turernakcrs kn o wn to h ave b een wo rki ng in th e ci ty be fo re 180 0 , 3

134

abo u t 160 were practicing th eir tr ade between th e yea rs 1750 and 1790. To b e su re, m uch of th ei r lab or was fo cused o n shi pbuilding. The wood-ca rve rs , o n ly abo ut fift een of them active bet w een 1750 an d 1800, we re si tua te d m ostl y around the wha rves and m us t have bee n em ployed primaril y in car ving ships' figureh eads an d o the r fitt in gs, such as o rna m enta l scrolls and brack et s. Furniture m akin g was also an important industry in th e o the r majo r cities o f coas ta l N e w En gl and . To th e n orth, N ewbur yp ort , M arblehead, an d Salem all pr odu ced furniture in th e Bo st on m ann er, but eac h adde d a tou ch o f local co lo r. Th er e a re h ou se s in N ewburyp ort an d Marbl ehead w it h ro co co arc h itec t ur al o rna me n t th at is clearly the work o f B o st on a r t is a ns, but the loc ally mad e furniture is unc ar v ed , a n d n o o ne then act ive as a ca rve r has b een record ed in tho se areas ." The infer en ce to b e drawn is that w he n a gra ndee suc h as J erem iah Lee of M arbl eh ead w ante d the lates t fas hio n (t he ro co co), he sent to Boston fo r carvers to embe llish his h o u se and fo r ca rve d furn it u re to ad d to examples he had do ubtl ess im po rted . In Salem, t h ere is a recogn iza ble varia tio n in un carved block-front and bornbe B o sto n fo r ms ; t h er e a r e also a number of ornate rococo-s tyle case pieces t hou ght to b e of Salem man ufacture bu t wi th ca rv ing t h at lo ok s t o b e Bos ton . T heir au thors hi p h as yet to be so rted ou t. Further no rth, in Po rtsmo uth (in w ha t is now New H ampshire), ties with Boston were m uc h wea ker. Thou gh Ebe nezer D earing of nearby K itte r y did a rc hi tec tural carving, Po rtsm outhmade furniture in th e rococo sty le is unkn o wn , except :for a famo us g ro up of c hi na t abl es (see N o . 10 2) th at h av e n o apparent sty listic de b t to th e city. So u t h of B o ston , in N ewp ort, Rh ode Island , member s o f th e Town send an d G odd ard famil ies m ad e so m e o f th e fines t of all Am e rican fu rn it ure. Th o se lo call y train ed a rtisans, w hose prim ar y stylistic ins pi ra tio n came from Bo ston (w he re it p red ated th e ro co co an d rem ain ed in fashi on until the m id - 1790s), combined th e tr ad ition al Boston bl o ck-front wi th magnifice n t lo b ed she lls of th eir own devisi ng . What resul ted was a co mpact, se lf-co nta ined, b loc k-a n d -s he ll de sign that wa s essen tiaJly ba roque . Even on cabrio le - Ieg tables, the ca rving, no t the wo rk of specia lized cra fts men bu t of the cabine tmake rs th e m sel ves, is so sty lized and controlled as to defy any sugges tio n of rococo . Contem po rary in fo rma tio n abo ut Boston cab ine tmake rs is spotty at best. Lo cal news pa pers freq ue n tly carried advertisements fo r sales o f furn iture and hou seh old effects, usually by auct ion, but furnitur em ak er s almos t n e ver adve rtise d th ei r wares or their sk ills. Well kn o wn in th e co m m u n ity , ofte n th e th ird o r fourth ge ne ra tio n in th e pr o fession , th ey saw no need for suc h promotion .

T he sho p acco unts th at survive are only margina lly he lpful in th e qu est fo r the B o sto n rococo . N at h an iel H o l m es was p rob abl y the m o st fina ncially successful of t he Boston ca b ine tma ke rs at mid-cen tu ry. H is m iscellaneous bills and receipts, d atin g fro m 1728 t o 1759, are of g rea tes t use for th eir im p lici t reco rd in g of t he in t rod uction of t he Quee n Ann e s ty le in th e 1730S and for th eir desc ription of shop pr acti ces, which included work me n em ployed in such o utly in g to w ns as M arblehead. 5 There are also th e acco un t books of th e prominent uph ol st er er Sam ue l G ra n t ( 170 5- 1784) for th e yea rs from 1728 to his dea th .(, U pho lste ry m ethods we re n ot mu ch affected b y th e introdu cti on of t he rococo style, but Grant's petty led gers estab lish th at tw o o f Bo st on 's leadin g carve rs , John Welch ('7Il- 1789) and Simeo n Skillin ('7 16(778), were in hi s em p loy. H e paid Welc h £11- 19-0 in 1756 an d 1758 an d Skillin £ 35 in 1762 and 1763 fo r, amo ng o t her thin g s, ca rv ing co rn ices, head boa rds , a n d branches fo r b ed st ead s . Th e "Ca rvg a Set open cornis hes " for which Skillin received £3 o n I October 1763 is a sure description of pierced wo rk in th e rococo style." T he wo rd ing of Skillin's receipt is one of the ea rlies t pieces of evidence tha t manufacturing in the rococo taste w as bei ng practiced in colonial Boston . The receipt, followin g on the heels of the innovative architect ur al carving for the Vassa il ( 1759) an d A pt ho rp ( 1760 - 61) houses in Cambridge (see p. 18), is con te mpo ra neous w ith the appearance of t he first Bo st on-m ad e carved-and-gilded pic ture frames, p robab ly by Welc h, o n po rtrai ts painted by John Si ngleto n Copley. C ha ir ma ke rs m a y have been a little slower to adopt th e " mo de rn" sty le . A d ve rt ise m e nt s in the Boston Gaz ette fo r auc tio ns o f "Carv'd Fra me M eh o g an y Chairs" (20 N ov ember (753) an d "a n exceeding good Sett o f M eh o g an y ca rv 'd C ha irs , new Fas hio n" ( 17 N o vem ber (755) Hd escrib e pi er ced an d ca rv ed sp la t pa tterns, a total break fro m tr aditi on al N e w En gl an d se ati ng furni t ure . A lth ou gh th e y s ugges t th e n ew m od e , t hey mos t probably refe r to im ported pi eces. D o m estic rococo production (see No. 96 ) see ms to have been triggered by a particula r ·design (FI G. 36, p. 148) in Ro b ert M an w ar in g 's Cab in et an d Ch air-Maker 's Real Friend and Compan ion (Lo nd o n , 170S), a book av ail abl e in Bo st on b y 1767. A set of chairs ordered in 1769 by J o siah Q ui ncy, J r. , s hows its influence, as d o es one made for J on ath a n Bo w m an t h e following yea r by Geo rge B rig ht , "esteemed th e neatest workman in town. " Y Cabi ne twork di d not show such a drasti c cha nge. H ig h ches ts and d ressin g tables in the traditional Queen An ne sty le w ere sti ll bein g ma de . T he b lock-fro n t t reat m ent of chests and desk s introdu ced in t he late 1730S an d th e b ombe- fro nt tr eatm ent int rodu ced in the ea rly ' 750 S contin ued u nabated in th e 1770S and 1780s. T he scroll pedimen ts, m oldin g s, and

' 35

feet of those heav y baroque pieces (see No. 93 ) were embellish ed with rococo leafa ge b y car vers em plo yed to satisfy the demands of a handful of w ealthy, fashio n- co nscious clients. The form of some Bo st on case furniture, however, wa s ultimately altered to accommodate th e new sty le. A graceful, ·con tin uo usly curved front- called " serpe nt ine" if th e center projects and the side s are recessed and "oxbow" if th e cen ter is rece ssed an d the sid es proj ec t- supplanted the bl o ck and the bornbe. It might b e assumed th at th e new shapes were introduced in the earl y 1770S, but the earliest documented instance of the oxbow is a chest-orr-chest made in 1780 b y Nathan Bowen and Ebenezer M artin of Marbleh ead ; just three years later, a magnificently carve d serpen tine chest was made by Thomas Needh am of Salem (FIG . 3 5, p . 144 ). On rare occasions, tes ting the cabinetmaker's skill to the limit , the bornbe and the serpentine were united in Bo ston 's most rococo form (see N o. 9 5). The nam es o f Welch an d Skillin, who worked on bed st eads for the uphol sterer Samu el Grant, are mo st frequently asso ciated with car ving o n Bo ston furniture. 10 Welch, so n of a B o ston carver, rented a sh o p on the town wharf fr om 173 3 until 1758 , when he sold man y of his possessi o ns preparat or y to go ing to London . He return ed to Boston ab o u t 17 6 0. H e had d ealings with Cople y in the 1770S an d undoubt edl y m ade m an y of the painter's pi cture frame s . Sk illin , wh o se earl ies t re cord ed commiss ion w as ca r v in g for the ship King Geo rge in 175 8, wa s a friend of Bright 's . I I Both m en h ad so ns w ho w er e also ca r ve rs. In 179 1, two o f Skillin 's heirs, J ohn and Simeon junior, carved an ex trao rdin ary ches t-en-c hes t, part roc oc o , part ne ocl assical in st yle, m ade b y Stephen B adl am o f D orch ester Lower Mills , now a part o f Bo st on , for th e m ost fam ou s member of the Derby famil y o f Salem . 12 Elias H asket D erby ( 1739-1799), so n of Rich ard Derby, a su ccessfu l Salem merchant , m ade a fortune in shippin g during the Revolution and is ren owned as the first and greatest of the Chin a trade rs and a munifi cent p atron of th e Sal em neocl assical architect Samuel Mcintire. 13 The name o f Derb y, who was apparentl y an av id bu yer o f Boston roco co furniture , has been asso ciate d w it h o w n ers h ip of several of the m ajor monuments of the s ty le: John Cogs well 's che s t-e nch est, 1782 (N o . 9 3) , Thom as N eedh am's se rpe n tine ch est, 1783 , and a fin e se x o f cha irs (see N o . 100) . Presum abl y, the furnishing s were all intended fo r his D erb y Street residen ce, by the wharf, th e fir st o f four g re at h ous es h e w as to acquire in Salem. B egun b y McIntire in 17 80, it was left uncompleted som etim e afte r 17 82, w he n D erb y bou ght the even grand er hou se o f Benj amin Pi ckm an , o n Washin gton Street. The ro coc o must have represented th e nouveau-riche sty le until at lea st 179 0, for it w as n ot until th e foll o win g

FIGU RE]2.

Label of Benjamin Prothing liam, 1760-70 ,

N ath aniel Hurd, Boston . En gr avin g on paper , 2% x 4 in. (7.3 x 10. 2 cm .), on desk . H istori c Deerfield , Inc. (62 .181)

13 6

yea r that Badl am m ade th e g re at double chest , the fi rst of De rby's co m m issions in a predominantl y neoclassical mode. O t he r illu stri ou s Ne w En gland patron s of the rococo included J erem iah Lee, w hos e mansion remains wonderfully intact arc hitec tu ra lly (see p . 20) , and Nichola s Boylston, of w hose ho use J ohn Ad am s said in 1766, "[The furniture] cost a th ou san d Pound s ste rli ng. A Seat it is for a noble Man , a P ri n ce. "14 T he co n ten ts o f th o se and o f all other high-styl e int eri or s have been disp ersed . 15 T he o n ly B o ston- ar ea cabinetmaker habituall y to identify his own work w as Benjamin Frothingh am (1734- 1809), so n o f a B o st on j o in er o f the sa me nam e, who set up shop across th e riv er in C ha rlestown in the early 1750S and , except fo r a h ia t us durin g th e w ar yea r s, ca rried on the furniture bu sin ess u ntil h is d eath .!" Hi s printed p aper label with its ro coco-st yle bo rde r (FIG. J2), th e w ork of th e loc al engraver Na than ie l Hu rd (see N o s . 14, 26) , is preserved on a b o u t fiftee n of hi s pi eces. The o rna te lab el n ot withst anding , Fro thing ham 's ca b ine two rk is n otabl e for it s lack of orname n ta l carving."? Fortun at el y, three of the g reatest carved case pi eces fro m th e reg ion are sig ne d b y their m akers or have m ar ks th at ide n tify th em : Cogswell's ches t- e n- chest of 1782; N eedh am 's ser pe n tin e ch es t o f 1783; and a desk an d bookcase made by George B right abo ut 1775- 85. 18 A few furni tu re pa tte rn b o ok s co n ta in ing engraved rococo illustra tio ns we re ava ilab le in N ew En gl and , but all promoted a style for w hic h th er e was littl e m arket, a lack of inte rest once again attri bu ta b le to th e co nse rva tive predilectio n of mos t Yank ee m ak ers an d their cli ents. Though C hippenda le's Directo r, th e lar g est and m o st fa m o us of the pa ttern books, is d o cu m ented in eig h teen th-cen tury New England four t im es (a co py in scrib ed "B o st on 1768 " ; th e ti tle's p resence in t he 1772 ca talogue o f the bo ok sellers C ox and Berry; a copy in th e 1782 in ventory o f th e Salem gentleman -cabinetmaker Na tha niel Go uld; an d a co py ow n ed b y the Newpor t m ak er J ohn Go d da rd},"? n ot o ne identifi abl e mo tif was culled fo r use by a N ew En gl and crafts ma n. 20 The only other furni ture bo oks reco rd ed are a handful of modest vo lumes b y C ru n de n, B ar etti, an d M anwarin g , which had

FRAMES John Sin gleton C o pley wa s th e towerin g figu re amo ng preRevolutionary New En gland painters. It wa s to co m plem ent his prolifi c o u tpo u ring of portraits th at a di st in cti v e B o st on type of car ve d -a n d-g ilde d ro co co-st yle pi cture fr am e wa s developed . It is am on g th e m asterpieces o f th e N ew En gl and rococo . An inventory of the fr am es o f Co pley's oe uv re h as not b een co m p let ed , but so me two do zen lo call y m ade ro co co examples, which survive with th e pictures for w hich the y were o rigin all y intended , are alrea dy kn own. 2 3 Co nversel y, no single n ative ro co co fr ame o n any o the r N ew England painter's work has yet been identified, not eve n o n that of Joseph Bla ckburn , an art is t who cam e t o B o st on from London in 1755 an d who exe rted a m ark ed influence on C opl ey's st yle .: " Cople y w as born in Boston in 173 8. Shortl y afte r hi s father 's death, in 1748, his mother m arried Peter P elham, a London-trained engraver and portrait painter who during the three years prior to hi s death in 1751 introdu ced yo un g Cople y to the world of art an d art ists . B y 17 53, C o p le y' s career w as under w ay ; by 1760 , hi s s ty le w as se t an d his supremacy am ong American painters apparen t.r'' In 1763 , at a charge Of£ 2- 13 - 4, en grav er and ja ck-of-alltrades Thoma s Johnston (see N os . 15, 25) m ad e "a h andsome Half length Pi cture Fram e in side edge Ca rv d & G ilt" for hi s friend Samuel P . Sav age , pr esum ably for Co p ley 's p ain ting of Mrs . Sa vag e.r" Su ch rel ati vel y in ex pens ive fr am es-plain m olded and black painted exc ept for th e in side edge-were then stan da rd for colonial portrait s. Cop ley ma y not hav e con cerned him self with th e en clos u r es for hi s lik en ess es until abo u t th at ye ar, when he fir st chose a Bo ston-made rococo fr ame with a gilded sur face. 2 7 The ens uing examples are virtua lly all of one basic m odel. The design has three parts : n ext t o the p ai ntin g a n arrow m oldin g, ei the r leaf carved or gad roo ne d; then a lar ge, de ep cove pie rced in pl ace s, it s bed em be llis he d with leaf st rea me rs an d ro settes; fin ally , th e outer edge , a cur ve d o r sca llo pe d ap plied pi ece that extends over the cove' s cutaway spa ces.

been bro ugh t t o Bos to n and advertised for sa le b y C ox an d

Differen c e s in th e f ashi onin g of th e kn o wn Co p ley

Berry on th e firs t day of 176 7, s ho r tly afte r th e p artn ers' arrival fro m Lond on. 2 1 Amon g th e book s, o n ly M anwaring's, a co py o f w h ic h was o w ne d b y th e Bo ston mason and archi tec t T hor n as D aw es (173 I - I 80 9), 22 ex erci sed any real influ en ce. A s rel at ed above , mo st Boston cha ir spl at patterns we re mode led to o ne degree o r ano the r aft er o ne of its designs (FIG . 36, p. 148).

fr ames suggest th at at least two artisa ns we re em p loyed in their manufacture, but the onl y one who can be documented is John Welch , probabl y Bo ston's pr eeminent carve r. In 1771 , while Co p ley was bri efl y in N ew York to p aint the local gen try , he wrote to his half brother, Henry Pelham , "I have parted with the two sma ll fram es, but cannot yet give o rders for m ore . .. y o u mu st let m e know th e price of th e sma ll o n es . . . let m e kn ow w ha t yo u paid Welch for Ca rv ing and Whitin g for Gildin g. "28 Ste p he n Wh it in g (1728 - 1789), a japanner , ad vertise d in 1757 " Pictures an d Maps fr amed and

137

v arni sb ' d " an d, ten ye ars later. "An y so rt of Fr ames tha t w ill suit th e Bu yer. " 2 ~ (N o Ameri can fra me has been found o n an y o f C o p ley ' s N ew York p ort rait s.) In 177 3. H arvard Co llege paid Co pley £56 for a full-l en gth repli ca o f his por tr ait o f Ni ch ola s Bo yl st o n ( 1767); su b seq u en t ent ries in the H ar v ard acco u n ts re fe r t o p a ym ent for th e frame an d for carving by Welch . 30

Picturefra me, Boston . ca. 1705 White pin e. gilde d. 29 1/ " x 24 1/:> in. W ith po rtrait of M rs. Ed w ard Green by J oh n Sing leton C o pley The M et ro politan M useum of Art

Sever al o f Co pley 's paintin gs o f th e m id-rzoos have a readi ly di stin gui sh abl e k ind of fr ame , th e wo rk o f a sing le ca rve r. Th at o f th e p ast el p ortr ait ( 176 5) o f M rs . Ed w ard Gr een (N o . 8g ) is characteristic: a leaf- carved in ner ed ge. an o ute r edge form ed into a ge n tle cen t ral point. Simi lar fr am es sur ro u n d th e hu g e. full-len gth po rtrait s o f H a r v ard Co llege b en efact or s Thom as H an co ck , p aint ed in 1704-0 6 . an d T ho m as H olli s, painted in 1766 (FIG. 33). for th e librar y o f H ar vard H all , a building that repl aced on e dest ro yed by fir e in 1704 . 3' Their white pi ne fr am es. each sur m o un te d by the sitte r's coat of arm s. were unquesti on abl y lo cally m ad e. O n 9 Jul y [766 . Ed w ard H ol yo ke. pr esident o f H arvard Co llege . w ro te H olli s' s n eph e w. th en in E n gland : " T he Ca rve r w ho hath m ad e a' fr am e fo r yr excellen t Uncle' s Picture (w h ich we h ave g o t drawn at Lar ge B y a Pain ter w ho tak es a fin e Li k en ess) h ath co ns t ruc ted it so , as to h av e an Es ch u cheo n fo r his A rm s on th e T op o f it w herefo re if yo u w ill please to send us th e Bl azo nr y They sha ll be added. " 32 Am on g Co p ley 's m o st p erceptive po rtrait s are th o se o f me m be rs o f t h e Bo yl s ton fam il y of Bos ton . Their excepti on all y w ell prese rv ed fram es a re of t w o t ypes. Th e first . exe m p lifie d b y t ha t o n th e li k en ess of Mr s . Th om as Boy lsto n ( 169 6- 1774), paint ed in 1766 (FIG. 34). is m ark ed by the sha llo w n ess of it s cove an d b y th e mo ld ed and fin ish ed tr eatm ent of it s side s. 33 Fashi on ed of th e red pi ne pr eferred b y Eng lish m ak e rs. it mu st be of En g lis h man ufacture an d w as prob abl y co p ied fo r th e fra m es of t h e seco n d t y p e (a lo call y m ad e ve rs ion h avin g a d eep co ve an d unfini sh ed sid es), represent ed b y th e o ne th at surro und s th e o rig ina l portrait ( 1767) o f Ni ch ol as Bo ylston (N o . go). H Of th e same m od el and probabl y b y the same carve r are the fr am es o n th e pair of fift y-b y- forty- in ch sea te d portrait s of Eze kie l Go ld t hw ait ( 1710- 17R2) an d M r s. Gold th w ait ( 1714- 179 4) . In a bi ll o f 177 1. Cop le y ch a rge d G ol drh w air £19- 12- 0 for eac h po rt ra it a n d li st ed " t w o ca r ve d Go ld Frames" for £9 each , 35 leavin g little qu est ion th at the painter cho se th e de sign and th e ca rv e r to execu te it . (T h e bill also docu me n ts th e eig h teen th-cent ury carvers' freq uen t pr actice of d o in g th ei r ow n g ild ing .) Th e Go ld t h wa it fr am es co m p ar e w i t h th e o ne ca r v ed by Welch for H ar v ar d ' s repli ca ( 1773) o f the N ich ol as Bo ylst on po rt ra it. On th at basis, th e entire gro up m ay be assig nable to Welch.

33. Picture[eame, Boston. 1766. White pin e. gilded. 108 x 70 in. (274.3 x 177.8 cm.). With port rait o f T ho mas H olli s by J ohn Singleton Copley. T he Harvard U niversit y Portrait Co llection. Co m m issioned by the President and Fellows of Har vard Co llege. 1765 (H25) FIGU HE

FIGUHE 34. P icture jramc, Engla nd. ca. 1766. Red pin e. gilded. 57% x 47'/ 4 in. ( 145.7 x 120 cm.) . With portrait o f Mr s. T ho ma s Bo ylston by J oh n Sing leto n Cop ley . T he Harv ard U niversity Po rt rait Collection. Bequ est of Ward Ni cholas Boylston, 1828 (H 16)

139

90 Picturejra III e. Boston . ca. 176 7 White pine. gilded. 66 ·% x .p-% in. With po rtra it of Nicholas Bo ylston by J oh n Singleton Copley T he H ar vard Unive rsity Portrait Collectio n

q o

91

Picturefra III e. Boston. ca. 177 0 White pine . gilded. 65 -% x 60 1/ 2 in . With portrait of Richard Dana by John Sing leton Copley Collection of the Richard Henr y Dana fami ly

92

Frail/C. Boston, ca. 1767 White pine. gilded, 24 x 24 in. With the Williams family arm s Collection of Mr. and Mrs. George M . Kaufman

A b out 177 0 , Co p ley p aint ed a h alf-l en gth p ortr ai t in th e fift y-b y-fort y-in ch fo rm at of Ri ch a rd D an a ( 170 0 - 177 2) , law ye r and Ju sti ce of th e Co m mo nwea lt h o f M assachu sett s (N o. 91 ) . Th e o ve r powe ring figure of th e j uris t and Co pley ' s su bd ue d palet te-bl ack fo r th e coa t, d ark b lue fo r th e cur tai n . and o n ly spo radic tou ch es o f light- ar e o ffse t by a ca rved-a nd-gilde d ro co co fram e th at represents th e struc tu rally m o st d arin g of th e Co pley ty pes. It s co rne rs a re c u t away so dr am at ic all y th at w ro ug h t- i ro n bra ck et s we re needed fro m th e sta rt to h old th e join ts toge t her. T he ir on ex te n ds in to th e vo ids, w he re it h as b een paint ed oche r to

exceptio na l paintin gs to be encased in any t hing less th an the fin est and m ost fashio na ble fra mes wo uld be uni m agi nabl e. A fr am e pr obabl y execu te d b y th e same han d as those of the D an a an d Smith p ortraits but th e so le ins ta nce k now n of a ca rve d-a n d-g ilde d B o st on ro co c o fra me not o n a Cop ley portrait encloses a Will iam s fa m ily coa t of ar ms (N o . 92 ). 37 Lo zen ge-sh ap ed pan el s d ispl a yin g coa ts o f arm s and cre sts, in sp ired by fun er ar y hat chm ents, we re popul ar in New England b y th e 17 50 S. Their fun cti on w as pri m ar ily deco rati ve. Of th e we ll over fift y embroidered exa m ples (us ua lly in satin stitc h o n a bl ack sa tin g ro und ) no w kn o wn, th e g rea t majorit y are from th e Boston area, wh ere bet w een 1755 and 1769 a number of Bo stonian s advertised dr awin g coa ts of arms for e m broid er y. 3 X Whil e the a r ms an d cre sts vary, th e ric h and leafy m antl es, in spired b y painted exa m p les from th e ea rly eig hteen th cent ury, are all o f o ne o r two stock patt ern s. Th e ri ght to a coa t of ar ms was n o t gra n ted many Am eri can co lo n is ts, but w he n J ohn W illi am s ( 1727- 1782) of Bost on was in Lond on in 176 7 for hi s indu ctio n as Inspecto r G en er al of th e Am erican Bo ard of Custom Commiss ioners, he received j us t suc h a gra n t. The Letters Pat ent descri be his a r ms as h a vin g a li on ramp ant an d t w o d o ves. T h ese are vis ib le in th e n eed le w o rk qu artered b y three be lls , a re fer ence to th e a llia nce by m a r r iag e of th e W ill ia m s an d Be ll fami lies . Th e needl e w o rk p rob abl y dat es sho r tly after 176 7 , w he n W illiam s o rde red Lo nd on silve r engraved w ith his new an ns . I"

m ak e it s t ra nsg ress io n less o b vio us . Almo st id entical fra mes surro und the p air o f half-l en gth portrait s o f Isaac Smith and his wi fe (a dau ghter o f th e Eb enezer Sto re rs), painted in 1769 at a cos t o f £20-10 each , pI u s £9 p er e n clos u re. 36 Co p ley 's lar ger fr am es o ften have rem o vabl e ce n t ra l o r na ments at th e top. Tho se of the Sm ith s a re sur mo u n te d b y pierced-sh ell ce n t ra l fini als, but D an a's h as hi s fam il y coa t o f ar ms: three stags se p a rate d b y a c he vro n, w it h a fox for it s cres t an d Cavendo tutus (" By ca utio n sec ure") for its m otto. For sit te rs w ith arm ige ra l p re te nsio ns, t hat was th e perfect per son alization fo r a pi cture fram e. Co p ley, n ev er k now n t o h a ve n e gle cted th e fin an c ial sid e o f hi s professio n , was routinel y in vol ved wi t h o rde ring an d se ll ing fr am es fo r h is p ictu res, but t ha t was sure ly as much for art istic reasons as a m atter of bu siness. T he somber pal ette o f hi s m atu rin g sty le was effect ively se t off by hi s carved-a nd -gilde d fra mes. For Co pley to h av e allowed h is

14 2

C A S E FURNITURE Pe r ha ps th e b est k now n o f th e few bo m b e- o r se r p en tin eshaped Bo st on case pi eces o n w hich ro coco ca rv ing ap pea rs is t he c hes t-o n -ches t J ohn Cogs we ll m ad e a t h is Middle St ree t sho p an d sig ne d w it h hi s n am e an d ad d ress and the da te o f m anu facture (N o . 93 ). 40 Th e combination o f form s in a d ouble ches t- t he lo w er unit w it h a sha pe d front, the upper un it flat w ith flanking pil aster s- w as a Bost on favorite from mid-cen tu r y. Cogswell's m asterpiece represents a ver y t rad iti on al an d co nse rva tiv e form o nto w h ic h ro co co o rn am ent was applied but not always full y integr ated . T he p ro fi le of th e bo m be-s ha ped lo w er sec tio n, which , w it h its t w o st ra ig h t top d ra w e rs an d it s two bulgin g bottom draw e rs, lac ks th e co nti n uo us cu rve o f th e ro co co , is of a t yp e genera lly ac k nowledged to have bee n inspired in Bo sto n b y a d ou bl e c hes t be lieved to h a ve b een imported b y C ha rles Aptho rp pri o r to his death , in 17 58.41 Bands o f blind fre two r k, a sta nda rd feature in Director de si gn s but rar e in New E ngla n d , acce n t th e jun ctures o f th e pedim ent and the upp e r case a nd th e upper case and the lo w er. Th e v is ua l foc us of th e piece is th e lu xuriant hi gh -rel ief car ving co nce nt rat ed in th e sc ro ll pedim ent an d su pe rim pos ed o n th e t ypically plain sca llo p-e dged Bost on brack et s o f the claw feet . In the pediment, th e applied roca ille scro lls th at co n fo rm to th e sq uas hed openi ngs arc th e closest th e carver co m es to ca ptu ring th e spi rit o f th e sty le. Cogswell w as born in Ipswi ch in 17 3 8, m arried in B oston in 1762, an d d ied in ea rly ISIS. H e was selling furniture to Bos to n 's m erch ant a ris toc racy b y 176 9 , and his ca b inetmak ing ac tivities co n tin ue d for at least two de cades. :" Hi s ches t-o n- ch e st , w h ic h d escend ed in t he D e rb y famil y of Salem , was appa rently o rde red by Elias H asket Derby for hi s D erb y Street h ou se, o n wh ich wo r k was b egun in 17 80 . 4 3 Can any sig nifica nce be attac he d to its centra l finial, an eag le o n a sp he re? Is it pe r ha ps em ble ma tic of th e glo ba l ve nt ur es of th e insa tiably am bitio us D erb y? T he se r pe n tine fro n t b ecam e fashi onable o n N ew En gland ches ts and d esk s s ho r tly aft er it s int rodu cti on abo u t 17 S0. Its gracefu l cu rves en dow it w ith a ce rta in ro co co feelin g , but t he fo rm was rarely hi ghlighted with ca rving. Tw o ches ts o f d rawe rs are not o nly exceptio ns to th e rule but extraordinary statem en ts in th e N ew En gland ro co co sty le. The first (HG. 35 ) is u n us ua l fo r its co m ma n d ing sca le (its fort y-four-in ch w id t h g rea tly excee ds th e n orm ) , for it s ca refu lly chos en woods - its four draw er fr onts ven eer ed fro m a sing le bo ard w hose surface is covered wi th g ra phlike patt erns- and for its fine ca rv ing lavi sh ed o n th e ca n te d co r ners, th e sk i r t pendant, and th e claw feet. H T he o ve rs ize brackets o f th e feet,

93

Chest-oil-chest,

' 7X2

Jo hn Cogswell, Bos ton M ahogany; wh ite pine, H . : S9'1! in . M useu m of Fine Arts, Boston

FIGUR E 35 . C hest of drawers, 178 3. Probably by Thomas Needham, Jr. , Salem. Mahogany; white pine, cedar, 36 1/2 x H 1/. X 24 1/2 in. (92 .7 x 112.4 x 6 2.2 em.). Private collection

unlike th e br acket s on th e Cogswell ches t, are of a shape th at co n fo rms to th e C-s cro lls an d ro caill e m antl es w ith w hic h th ey are ca rve d . Exc ept for th e ski rt pendant , all th e car ved areas are in low relief an d h ave a star- pu nc h backg rou nd th at un ifies th em an d ca uses th em to spark le with light, an attribut e also co nfe rred b y th e fi gu re o f th e ve ne e re d d rawe r fro nts. Th e ches t, thou gh m assiv e in fo r m an d endo wed w ith hu g e, h eav y brass draw er pulls, has an air o f elegance th at demonstrat es a rem ar k abl e adva nce in th e ro co co sty le ove r th e Cogswell ches t it succeeds b y a yea r. Inscribed on th e b ottom o f th e ches t are th e initials T N (probab ly th ose o f T ho mas N eedham , Jr.) and th e date 17 8 3. N eedh am , so n o f a B o st on ca b ine tma ke r w ho m o ved to Sa le m in 177 6 an d w hose fam il y m emb ers ca r rie d o n the bu sin ess until th ey retu rn ed to B ost on in 1796 , is recorded as maki ng fu rn i tu re for E lias H ask et D er by o f Sa le m in th e yea r 17 8 3 . 4S Di d th e m ast er m er ch ant of Sale m o rder thi s ches t, to o ? In th e evo lu t io n of th e for m , it is th e lin k between Cogswell's d ouble ches t o f 1782 and th e one m ad e by Stephen Badl am in 179 1. The secon d ch es t o f dr aw er s (N o . 94), wi th its de lica te air, ex h ibi ts an altoge the r d iffer en t aes the tic , p ar ti cul arl y in th e sca le an d th e h andlin g o f th e ca rve d o rna me n t an d th e

br asses . N o wh er e is th ere to be fou nd a piece o f N ew En glan d rococo furnit ur e th at lo ok s m o re London. The plasti cit y o f th e skir t sc rolls , th e m ann er in w hich th e carvin g in teg ra tes th e ski rt an d th e brack et feet , th e freedom with w hich th e foli age rest s on the flat surfaces of th e can ted co rner s, th e n ut-brown patina, even the veneered top , the slide wi th it s h in g ed mi rr or f ra me, an d th e once-fitted upp er draw er - all s peak wi th an Engl ish acce nt. Yet there can b e n o d oubt th at th e ch est has b een lo call y produ ced, for th e interi o r is m ad e en tire ly of n at ive woods (w h ite pine and cedar) wo rked in th e N ew England m ann er and th e carving is fl at and ske tc hy in co m pa rison wi t h th at of En gli sh prototyp es. It is temptin g to imagi ne th e ches t to be the work of a British crafts ma n rig h t o ff th e bo at, but it is so clearl y N ew E ng la n d made th at it m us t be rh e creation o f a lo cal m an em u la ting an im ported exam p le . H e em plo yed the d esign o n l yo nce m ore, on th e lowe r h al f of a double che st n ow assoc iated w ith Sam uel M cIntire. 4 6

T ho ug h lackin g th e minist rat ions of a wood-carver, another ches t of dr aw er s , thi s o ne exhi b iting extraordinar y g ilt

94

Chest of drawers, Salem, ca. 1780 Mahogany; white pine, L.: 451/4 in. Co llection of Erving and Joyce Wolf

bronze m ounts (N o . 95), m ay also be adj udged roc o co . The ches t , w hic h is insc ri be d in sid e wi t h the n am e G ree n , h as bee n tr aced b ack t o it s o r ig ina l ow ne r, Gard iner G ree n e (1753- 1832), of Bo st on . Presumabl y, it was m ad e aro u nd th e tim e of Greene's firs t m arri ag e , in 1785, o r hi s se co n d , in 1788, as p art o f the fu rnis h ings o f hi s Tr em ont St ree t town hou se, o nce kn o wn as "the m o st splendid priv ate re sid en ce in the city. "4 7 Th e b omb e-and-serpentin e profile s o f the dr a w er fr onts- th e ultim at e in co m p lexity o f B o st on ca b in e t w o r k - cau se th e grai n o f t he woo d to ap p ear in u n dul atin g cu rves an d reinforce it s inn at e sense o f moveme n t . The top an d sides , for med res pe ctive ly of figured and c ro tc h m a hog a ny, d is p lay all almos t ele me n ta l, an d v er y Am eri can , sense o f th e ro coco . The m ounts, elabo rately cas t an d chased w ith chino iserie m otifs o f tr ellis and pagod a roof as we ll as w ith th e m ore sta nda rd roc oc o scr olls an d foli age, take the pla ce o f ca rve d w oodwo rk. The cabinetmaker m ay we ll h a ve co n side re d that hi s prim ar y ro le in crea ti ng this diminu ti ve ches t w as to provide a ba ckdrop fo r th e m agnificen t m ounts, o n e of onl y t w o s uc h se ts ev e r seen in B o st on. r'" Th e draw er pull s, of a si ze probabl y int end ed for a m uc h lar ger piece of furniture, we re certainly im po rted from Eng land , and at great ex pe nse .

145

CHAIRS AND TABLES Like New England case furniture, elaborately carved ro co co chairs and tables from th e regi on are rar e. The few th at are known are associated with Bost on or, tan gentiall y, Salem. ~<) All h ave tall cabriol e legs endin g in cla w-a n d- b all feet with raked-back side talons or , mor e exc e p tio na lly, tal on s delineated with tufts of h air. On th e b asis of th eir kn ee tr eatment, the chairs and tables can be separated int o two gro ups , presumabl y the work of two carvers. On the first group , the knees have a sq ua re co rne r edge overlaid with th e cen t ra l st em o f an aca n t h us leaf w hose flatly carved leafag e em erg es o n ei th er side fr om th e sea t rails . This tight, sch ematic ornam ent has no kn o wn En gl ish prototype , nor, oddly, is sim ilar carv ing to be found o n any Boston case piec e. Chairs of th e g ro up have back s th at seem to have been heavily influen ced b y M an warin g 's Cabinet and Chair-Maker's Friend o f 1765. For exa m p le, Pl at e 9 (FIG. 36 ) was copied exactly for th e back of one o f a set o f chairs (N o . 96) made for Cl ark G ayt on Pi ckm an ( 174 6- 17 81) o f Salem , who married in 1770 . A number o f o t he r se ts ar e b ased o n the same engraving, thou gh the y usu all y h av e less ca rv ing on the splat. A felicitou s va ria tio n on th e ba si c o u tl ine is employed on a ch air (N o . 97 ) fr om th e D e Wol f famil y o f Bristol, Rhode Island . Though th ese exa m ples represent tw o of the most ornamental of M assachus etts rococo chai rs, th eir design rel ates to a m odest p attern in a ve ry m od est b o ok. The engraving show s a stra ig h t- legged (rea d in expen sive) chair, but, as frequently happened, th e col oni al interpret ati on has been upgraded with carved cabriole suppo rts . On the second group, th e legs have altogethe r different, an d much more rococo, carv ing : the kne e is wrapped round with mantling com posed of a sing le lar g e C -sc ro ll an d an aca nthus leaf. The a~ymmetry and m ovem ent in th e kn ee design as well as th e much greater three-dimensionality in th e carving place this group with the b est o f the N ew En gl and rococo. A card tabl e (N o . 98 ) that is also exce p t io na l for being constructed with hinged side r ail s (t he so -ca lle d accordion action) rather th an th e st andard hinged-back leg is the onl y table known fr om the g ro u p . First own ed b y C aptain Thomas Fraz ar ( 1735- 1782) of Du xbury, 5° w ho m arried in 176 0, it was certainl y m ade to s p ec ia l o rd e r, with no expense spared. The same C-scro lled leg s ap pear o n a settee (N o . 99) that is one of a pair. With its ple asing combin at ion of the co n ical arm su p p o rts t ypi cal o f N ew En gl and easy chairs and an indent ed serpentin e crest in place o f th e socalled camel ba ck that w as the famili ar co lo n ia l sha pe , the sett ee is a high point in Am eri can ro co co-st yl e uphol st er ed furniture. 5 1

147

D esign for a " Pa rlour" chair. Rob ert M an w aring. Th e C abinet and C hair-Maker's R eal Friend and COlllpalliOfl (Londo n. 1765). Plate 9 (de tail). Eng raving o n pap er. 51/;, x 8 1/ " in . (14 x 20. 6 cm .). T he M etropolitan Museu m of Art . H arris Bri sb an e Di ck Fund . 19 32 (]2 .9 . 6)

F[GURE 36.

Si de chair. Boston. [765- 85 M ah o gan y; ma ple. H .: 38-% in . T he M etrop olitan Museum of Art

14 8

97 S ide chair, Boston , 1765- 85 M ahogan y; m apl e, H .: 38 in . The M etr op olit an Museum of Art

C ard table, Boston, 1765- 85 M ahogan y; m ap le, L. : 35'/ 2 in. Collectio n of Er vin g and J oyce Wolf

..- ....

99

Se ttee, Bost o n. 170 5- X5 Mahogany: maple. L. : 57V2 in. The M etropo lit an M useum o f Art

15 0

T h e sam e k ne e ca rv ing is spo rted o n M assachu setts ch air s o f va rio us patterns, in cludin g tw o sets h avin g a splat des ig n of in te rl aced figure eig h ts , one of w hich (N o . 1 0 0 ) is sa id to h av e be en ow ne d b y- wh o else? - E lias H aske t D cr b y. >' T h e en t i re d esign, in cl u d ing s p la t an d knee , is co p ied fr om an En gl ish ch air (N o . 10 1 ) o w ne d III eig hteenth-c ent ur y Bost on b y one Willi am Phillips. 53

100

10 1

Side (hair. Bo ston . 1765-H5 M aho gan y; m aple. H .: 37 '12 in .

S ide (hair. Engla nd. ca . 1750 M ah og an y; be ech, H.: 37 '14 in . Mu seum o f Fine A rt s. Bo ston

T he C h ips to ue Fo unda tion

Ap art fro m th o se pieces m ad e in Bo st on and in Salem , abo ut th e o n ly N ew En gl and furnitur e th at ca n b e sa id t o h av e se r io us ro co co asp ir at ion s is a g ro u p of chi na tabl es fro m Portsm outh. Of th e four o f th e g ro u p t ha t have histories o f descent in th at ci ty, o ne ca n be identified w ith th e " raild Tea Tabl e " va lue d at fort y-eight s h illi ngs in m er ch ant W illi am Whippl e 's inve n tory of 1788. 54 The fr am e o f ano t he r (N o . 1 02 ) , w hic h o nce b el on g ed to th e m er ch ant Ste p he n C hase (d. 180 5), is b y far th e m o st e la bora te : th e tab le is covered w it h blind fr et w ork in a C hi nese p attern of int erl aced d iam onds on th e skirts, a Gothic pa tter n of repeat ed arc hes o n the legs. The fu ndamen ta l design - a rim med rectan gul ar top an d fou r le g s j o in e d b y c rosse d arc he d s t re tc hers- has a fam il y resem bl an ce to a Di rector p att ern fo r a china tabl e (P la te t.r), b u t th e o rna m e n t o n th e s kirt is tak en d ire ctl y from a dressin g tabl e (Plate XL) in [n ee and M ayh ew 's Uuiversal Sys tem, a boo k not reco rded as havin g been in co lo nia l Bosron .r"

102

C hina table. Portsmouth, 170Z-S0 Mahogany; white pine, L.: 30 V" in. The Carnegie Museum of Art

the ce n t ury. A Ro y al C ol on y, ce n t ra lly lo cat ed , wit h abou t twent y- tw o hundred hou ses an d a popul ati on of th irt een thousand an d fort y soul s, th e cit y was chose n in 1755 as th e western termin us for th e newl y instituted British m ail packet service and as the sea t of Britain 's ad m itted ly m od est general admini stra tive a u t ho rity in Am eri ca. Lo cal m erch ant s d ev eloped t h riv in g bu sin esses throu gh th e pro vi sionin g o f

New York

th e Britis h forces e ngage d in th e Fr en ch a n d Indi an War ( 1754- 63). As hi storian and New York jurist W illi am Smith o bse rved in '759: In th e city of N ew -Yor k, th rou gh our inte rco u rse w ith the

Europeans, we foll ow the Lond on fashio ns ; thou gh by the time w e ad opt th em , th ey becom e d isused in En gl and . Our affluence durin g th e late wa r introduced a degr ee of lu xury in tabl es. dr ess, and furniture w ith which we we re befor e una cqu ainted . But still we are not so gay a people, as o u r nei gh bor s in Bo ston and severa l o f th e So u the rn colonies. "?

New York Ci ty d e vel op ed i ts o w n int erpret ati on of th e rococo in fu rn it u re d esign durin g the third quarter of t h e eig h tee n th ce ntury. M ajor exa m ples of th e local rococo style, lon g o ve rs ha dowed b y the g lo rio us Phil ad elphi a Chippenda le of n earb y Penn syl v ani a, lon g overloo ke d beca use th ey we re n ot always di stin gui sh ab le fr om En gli sh protot ypes an d be cau se so me o f th e be st pi ec es mu st h av e be en taken abroad b y th eir Lo y ali st ow ne rs at th e tim e o f the Revolu-

Wi th t h e pe ace , London in stituted su ch rev enue-produ cin g taxes as a sugar act in 1764 and th e Stam p Act o f 1765, which New Yorkers were quick to denoun ce. The city's m er ch ants form ed a society to enc o urage local m an ufacturer s and in st it ut ed the fir st nonimportation ag ree m en t, which held until

tio n, are o nly no w bein g ide nt ified. Furniturem ak in g w as a bi g bu sin ess in co lo n ia l N ew York . Some hundred an d forty- eight cra fts men, th eir sho ps s p rea d thr ou gh out th e c ity, are reco rde d as h avin g b een engaged in th e trad e prior to 1775. O f th at num bcr, six tyt h ree ca bi ne t makers, th irt y-four cha ir ma ke rs and turners, fo u r tee n u p ho ls te rers , an d six ca rve rs b egan w ork a fte r '750. 56 What littl e is kn o wn abo ut th ose men, m an y o f them Englis h tr ain ed , co mes in good part from th e ad vertisements wi th w hic h th e y beg an to pepper th e Ne w York pr ess in the m id- 1750s. 57

t h e re p e al o f t h e Stamp A ct in 1766 . B y 177 0 , th e port o f N ew York w as fo urth in o rde r o f tonn a g e s h ip pe d in an d out of Am erica , com in g a fte r Phil ad elphi a , B o st on, an d C ha rle sto n . E x actl y when th e ro co co st y le o f o rna me n t in w o odw ork w as introdu ced into N e w York ca n no t b e pinn ed down, bu t it could not have been before th e lat e '750S. There is no men tio n of o rn ame nt in any o f D elapl ain e' s acco u n ts. The prize for a lotter y ad vertised in th e New -York Gazette or th e Weekly Post-Bo y for 31 De cemb er 17 53 w as "a goo d M ahogan y Ch est o f Dr awer s, with E a gl e' s C law Fee t , a Sh ell on eac h kn ee, a n d flut ed Co rne rs , with goo d Brass Wor k and Lo ck s." The unu suall y co m plete description o f th e stylistic features of the chest m ak es it pat ently clear that none

Few of th e era's hou seh o ld inventories or o ther forms o f doc u men ta tion ex is t. Th e o n ly N e w York cabin etm aker's acco u n ts surv iv i ng fr om th e p eriod a re tho se o f jos hu a De la plai ne , a Qu ak e r. T ypi cal amo ng th em is hi s d aybook fo r th e yea rs 1753 to 17 55, which records th e manufacture o f la rge numb er s o f b ed s a n d tabl es. 5s Unfortun a te ly, little

of t hem could yet be co ns ide re d ro co co . N ot until th e late 1750S ca n the fir st tra ce abl e g lim me r o f the rococo s ty le b e see n in N ew York work, vi sible in th e leaf-car ved o rna ment on the knees o f a sett ee th at b ear s the lab el of joseph C o x , up ho lsterer, at t he Do ck Street address he m aintain ed from 175 7 to 1760.(" T he first of the six kn o wn ca rvers active before 1775 wa s H enry Hardcastle, who wa s list ed in '75 1 as a freeman carver in New York , where h e remained active until abo u t 175 5, wh e n h e moved t o C ha rles to n. 62 He h as been associa te d with wh at are ce rta inly th e ea rl iest su rv iv ing in stances of th e ro co co in New York arc h itec t u re, th e so u t heas t parlor an d

furni ture ca n b e ascri bed to a n indi vidu al a rt isa n, but m an y

pieces ca n be id entified as o f local o rig in b y their hi stories in p ro m ine n t eig h tee n t h-cent ury famili es. Th e large bod y of wo rk represented mu st ha ve be en wh at Go ve rn o r Willi am T ryo n w as referr in g to wh en h e rep ort ed t o t h e Briti sh Bo ard o f T rad e in 1774 th at m o st h ou seh old go o ds w ere o f En gli sh m anufa cture "except C a b ine t an d j oin er's Work, w hic h is Ge nera lly made here. " 5') The 1750S, a pro sperou s tim e for N ew Yo rk er s, for ged th e unusu all y close ti es w ith the m other countr y th at wo uld affec t all as pects o f social life and style for th e rema inder of

153

Lab el ofSamuel Prince, New York, 1760- 75. Engraving on paper, 41/ 2 x 5Y2 in. (11.4 x 14 cm.), all chest of drawers. Museum of the Cit y of New York, Gift of Mr. and Mrs. Eric M. Wunsch (70.4) FI GUR E.\7.

cham be r in t he m an o r h ou se b u ilt in Yonk er s b y Fred e ri ck Phi lip se (see p. 22, w he re see also FIG . <)) . The carv ing , ind isputabl y N e w Yo r k in origin if of u nce r tai n d at e , is th e R o se t t a s to ne for dec ip he ri ng th e fi rst ph ase of th e N e w York rococo sty le. In 1755, St ephen D wi ght , " late an app rentice to H enry H ard castl e, carve r," annou nce d th at he had set up as a carver of "all so rts o f ship an d hou se wo rk .. . and all ki n ds of wo rk for ca bine t ma kers . " 6 3 T he Am e rican-b orn Dwig h t was soo n engu lfed in com pe titio n fro m ab roa d ; th e 1760s and ea rly 1770S saw a vi rtual inv asion of N ew York by British crafts me n . Cabi ne tma ke r s ca me fro m Irel and , fro m th e wes t of England, an d es pecia lly fr om Lon d o n . In [762, "Jo hn Brinn e r, Ca bi ne t a n d C ha i r- Ma ke r, " adve r t ised th at h e h ad "bro ug ht over from London six A rt ificers, we ll skill' d in th e above Bran ch es. "64 H e was fo llowed b y J am es St rac ha n in 176 5 an d a Mr. Min shull in 176<) , bo t h o f th em ca rve rs and gi lde rs fr om Lond on . All three m en are k n o wn tod ay p rim ar ily fr om the no tices t h ey put in th e N ew York newspap er s to p ro mo te th eir trad e. A n oth e r ca rve r, J ohn G ibbons, is kn o wn o nly fro m a n e w sp ap e r m ention in 1771, w hic h dcscr ioes him as a twcn ty -scvcn-yea r-o ld d eserter fro m th e Br iti sh ar rn y. "> T he last o f th e six m en w ho co uld h ave execu te d ro co co o rna me n t in p rew ar N e w Yo rk w as Ri ch ard Davis , in pa rt ne rs h ip w ith Ste p he n Dw ight in th e early 1770s. 66 Wh ile th e nam es of ma ny of th e crafts me n a re kn o wn , little of w ha t th ey ma de can be ide nt ified, for o nly two N ew Yor k cabi ne tma kers consistently labeled th eir wo rk. T he first

was Sa m uel Prince (d. 1785), w ho w as active by abo ut 1760 and who afte r hi s death w as praised b y a form er app ren tice as "a co ns picuo us cha rac te r in hi s w ay, an d es tee med one of th e fir st wo rk m en in thi s city. ,,6 7 Prin ce' s o rna te rococo labe l 37), whi ch has been found o n severa l pieces, m ust have bee n eng ra ve d b efore 1775, w he n th e nam e of th e st ree t of hi s sho p ad d ress w as cha nged fr om H o rse and Cart to Willi am . Th e secon d was Th om as Burlin g, w ho had been app re n ticed to Prin ce, was m ad e a free ma n in 176<), and ad ve rt ise d as an indep endent cab ine tma ker bet w een 1773 and 17<)6. 6 X Burling 's engraved lab el, th ough neocl assical in sty le and prob abl y d at in g from the lat e 178 0s, is ado rned wit h a ro coco ches t, cha ir, and tabl e. The pieces o f furn iture lab eled b y Prin ce an d Burlin g , w h ile o f fin e qu alit y, arc ge ne rally pl ain . Ca rv ing pl ays ve ry littl e part o n th em , and they cannot be seen as rococo . En gl ish furnitur e p att ern b o ok s co n ta ini ng engraved ro co co illu strati on s b ecam e ava ila b le in N e w York fo r th e fir st tim e in th e 1760s. The m o st eas ily pro curabl e wa s GCIIteel H oushold Furniture in the Present Taste. 6 Y Issu ed in four parts between 1760 and [762 and republ ish ed about 1765 wi th a va rian t titl e, it re ceived tim el y m ention in [760 in th e fir st adve rtise me n t ofJ am es Rivin gton , a bo ok sell er newly arrived from London .?" Two yea rs lat er, it was list ed in th e ca ta log ue s of th e city 's lea d ing b o ok sell e rs, R ivin gton & Brown , an d Garett N oel. 7 1 T he h and y littl e boo k was an in e xpen si ve ve rs io n of C hip pe nda le 's Director, no copy of w h ic h is kn o wn to have exis te d in N ew York . N o t surprising ly, th e cha ir and th e ches t illu strat ed o n Sam ue l Pr in ce's ( FIG .

154

a phaet on ; an d in 1771, an imported coach. (H e lo st no tim e in having hi s arms em b lazo ne d o n th e doors of th e coach .) From th at lu xuriou s d om est ic habitude th ere rem ain at The N ew-York Hi stori cal Soc iety, alo ng w ith th e coach , a ch im n e y breast (No . I I ) , th e fram es o n tw o se ts o f famil y p ortr ait s (see Nos. 103, 105), an d a pair o f card tabl es, w hic h in all co ns tit u te th e lar gest bo d y o f rococo-ca rve d wo rk th at can be do cum ented to a sing le N ew York fam ily. Be ekman's hou sehold furniture acco unts record his purch ases between 1761 and 1790.7HIn 1701 and 1762, bu sy doing up his green drawing room , he w as patron izin g N ew York 's be st crafts m en . From Samu el Prince he got eig ht m ah o gan y ch airs, a so fa , a set te e cha ir, and a fir e- scr een sta n d; from upholster er G eorge Ri ch ey h e bou ght thirt y ya rds o f g ree n dama sk and thirt y- si x ya rds o f g ree n bindin g ; an d fr om carver Stephen D wi ght he go t th e gilde d fram es for th e po rtraits of his wife, J an e, an d him self th at had be en painted by Jam es Kilburn, a Dani sh art ist w ho had co me to N ew York in 1754. Only the pi ctures an d th eir fr am es h av e be en identifi ed, and the y represent but a tentative essay in ro co co ornament. Between 1766 and 1768, Beekm an see ms to have en ga ge d in outfittin g ano the r ro om . In 1767, th e ca rve r J am es Str a ch an , wh o in th e pr e vi ou s yea r h ad m ad e Beekm an two pairs of lookin g- gl ass fram es, provid ed carved and g ilded enclosures for portrait s of th e Beekm an children , then numberin g six (M rs. Beekm an was to bea r fou r m ore). Her hu sb and p aid cabine tma ker M arinu s W illett £ 15 for tw o a rmc ha irs and ten side cha irs, as we ll as £3 - 12-0 fo r w ha t w ere de scrib ed in th e acco u n t bo ok as six " op en w in dow co rn ishes." The "o pe n" refer s to pi er ced wo rk lik e th at o n Strach an ' s ro co co pi cture fr am es, a d em on st rat ion th at b y then Beekm an h ad ac q ui re d a tast e for th e full y m atu red ro coco st yle. Beekm an 's furniture acco un ts also illu strat e th e popul arit y in New York o f "vend ue, " o r auc tio n, sales co ndu ct ed b y merch ants seeking to pr om ote co m me rce . There, in ev e ry y ear from 170 1 until 1771, he bou ght a qu anti t y o f furniture and silve r, new o r used. Between 1773 an d 1783-a peri od that in clu de d th e yea rs o f th e British occu pa tio n, when Beekm an m oved his fam ily to Kin gst on , N ew Yorkhe m ad e n o pu rch ases. Ther eaft e r , the tast e for thin gs ro coco h avin g run it s co u rse , hi s bu yin g co ns is te d o n ly o f Windsor chairs and o ther painted furniture. Be ekm an's ac q u is itio n o f a town h ous e an d hi s co nstruction of a co u nt ry esta te co inc ide d w ith hi s best yea rs as an importer an d seller o f dr y go ods. Beginning in 1765, w ith the mother co u n t ry's imp o siti on o f va rio us restrictive mercan tile poli ci es, trad e b ecame un settl ed , an d Beekman ap p ea rs to ha ve react ed b y su b se q u e n tly acquirin g hi s dom estic lu xuries at a prudent, m o re m easured pace.?"

eng rave d trad e ca rd we re co pied dircctl y from th e widel y dis semin ated H oushold Fu rniture, In 1771, th e ca talo g u e of book sell er s Noel an d H azard listed the pattern book again and at th e same tim e o ffered o ne o f the earlies t pamphlets of ro co co ca rv ing d esi gn s, Co plan d 's New Bo ok of Ornam ellts, whi ch h ad b een fir st publi sh ed in Lond on in 1740. 72 Copland, w it h coa u t ho r M atth ias Lo ck, h ad pr odu ced ano th e r volume in 1752, th at o ne titl ed A N ew Book of Ornam ents with T welve L eaves. It wa s reissued by Robert Sayer in London on I J anu ar y 1708, j u st in tim e for its Pl at e 10 to be us ed as the pr ecise pattern for th e ca rve d sp andrels ( FIG . 10, p. 24) in the arch w ay o f St eph en Van Ren sselae r' s manor hous e, then bein g fin ish ed in Alban y. r" Su ch direct co py ing , ho wever, was not the rul e but th e excep tio n in N ew York . Onl y o ne de sign in all The Director (P I. 12, 1702 cd. , a s pla t p attern for a cha ir) was widel y ado p te d in N e w York w o rk , but th at use was probabl y in sp ir ed n ot b y th e eng ra v ing but b y an En glish ex p o rt . T ho ug h in 1774 Thom as Burlin g ad ve rtised his cabinet shop w it h a woo dc u t illu strati on o f a ribb on-ba ck ch air derived fr om Pl at e xv in T he D irector; " n o N ew York-made example o f any suc h cha ir is kn own . Imported furnitur e pr ob abl y exe rc ised more influ ence o n lo cal d esi gn than did p attern book s. In 1772, Londonm ad e furniture des tin ed fo r N ew Yo rk wa s va lued at £2, 415, far m o re th an for any o t he r co lo ny.75 In o ne case , an En glish easy chair th at descend ed fr om Pet er To wnsend , of Alb an y (h e w ho fo rged th e ir on cha in th at was stre tc he d ac ro ss the Hud son to sto p British sh ip s durin g th e Revolution ), ha s eag le's-claw feet an d leaf-car ved kn ees th at are nearl y indistin guish abl e fro m N ew York wo rk. 70 Wh en newl ywed Lad y Susan O 'Brien (nee Stran gways) arrived in the city in 1704 as th e b ride o f an aspirin g th espian, she brou ght to her new life hou seh old furni sh in g s m ad e for her in London in C hippend ale 's shop a t a cos t o f £247. 77 Oh, to know what th ey look ed lik e! J am es Beekm an ( 1732- 1807) is probabl y representative of th e ge ne ra tio n of N ew York merch ants w ho cam e to prominen ce in th e 1700S and 1770S and furnished th eir houses in the fashio na b le rococo style. A m ember o f a Dutch fam ily est ab lish ed in N ew York in th e se ve n tee n t h ce n t u ry, Beekman we n t in to th e dr y- g o ods bu sin ess in 17 50, m arried in 175 2, and b y 1700 was ab le to bu y a su bs ta n tia l house on Queen (no w Pearl ) Street , to whi ch he m ad e major alteration s and ad d itio ns durin g th e succeed ing four yea rs. At the sa m e tim e, in 1763 and 1704 , he built M ount Ple asant, hi s co unt ry hou se ove rloo k ing the East River at w ha t is n o w Fifty-first Street. Perhap s th e m ost tellin g sta te m en ts o f hi s promin ent posi tio n in N ew York society are th e carriages he bou ght for go ing abo ut th e city: in 1705, a chaise; in 1707, a cha riot and

155

FRAME S Th er e is no q ues tio n that fr am es for pi ctures and lo okin g g lasses we re made in New York C ity; m o st of th e ca rve rs ' ad ve rtise me n ts in new sp ap er s o f th e [760s and 1770S m ention th em speci fica lly. T ho ug h n o lo okin g-gl ass fr am e h as ye t been at tr ib uted to a lo cal so u rce, p icture fr am es that still pr ot ect and en ha nc e im ag es o f m em ber s o f th e J am es Beek m an fami ly h av e be en id ent ifi ed as the w ork of th e N e w York carvers Step he n D wi ght and J am es Strachan . So D wi ght, th e fi rst N ew York er to adve rtise the m ak in g of fram es, prob abl y produ ced th e ci ty's fi rst ca rved exa m ples. O n 21 Jul y 1755, he an no u nced th at he had " set up hi s bu siness, betw een the Ferr y St airs an d Burl in gton Slip , w he re he carves all so rts o f sh ip and hou se work: also tabl es, cha irs , pi cture an d lo okin g g lass fr am es , a nd all k ind s o f wo rk for ca b ine t m ak er s. " X I O n " M ar ch 1762, th e d a y J am es Beekm an paid K ilburn 1:20 for his and hi s wife' s portr aits, h e also p aid Dw ight " fo r ca rv ing 4 flo w er s for m y N e w Ro om e" in the Qu een Street hou se an d " fo r th e tw o Fr am es for [m yn e & m y W ife P ictures] . . . @ f5 . 15 [a total o f ] £ I I .10. " X2 Th at D wi ght received p aym ent for arc hitec tural o rna me n t an d picture fram es at exactly th e sa me tim e st ro ng ly sugges ts th at b oth form s o f ca rvi ng we re co ns idere d an integral part o f th e decorati on of a roo m. The bas ic de sig n o f D wi ght's carved-a nd-gilde d fram es (N o . 103), co nse rvati ve in th e ea rly 1760S, has all th e eleme n ts of Eng lis h co u nter parts from th e 1740S and [750s: ne xt to th e pictu re a na rro w ca rve d ogee m old in g ; th en a flat , sa n dfin ished fascia, o r b and ; fin all y, a bro ad , sti pp led ovo lo m olding w hose ca rv ing o f ro settes and C - and S-scro ll leafage is th e o nly co ncess io n to th e playful new rococo style. Th e o rig in of Dwig h t 's fra mes is n ot h ard to tr ace. H e borro w ed both th e decorat iv e m oti fs an d th eir arra nge me n t fr om th e imp orted Englis h fra me o n a po rtrait Kilburn had pa in te d of Abrah am Bee km an, J am es' s o lde r broth er (N o . 104). Abrah am' s pi cture, w hile u nd at ed, can be adj udged to pr ecede th at o f J am es o n th e b asis o f th e sitter's approx ima te age. Th e fr am e , m or e e la borate th an D w ight ' s a n d o f heavier stoc k, is ma de of Euro pean red pin e, an d its miter ed co rne rs are reinfor ced w it h tap er ed d ov et ail sp lines, b oth cha rac te ristics of Englis h man ufac t ure . In m ak ing h is versions o f n ative whi te p in e, D w ight pro babl y lack ed th e mea ns to d u p lica te the Brit ish mo de l: a circu la r pun ch b y w h ic h to produ ce t h e te xtured bac kg ro u n d o n th e o vo lo m ol din g , fin e- grai ned sa n d fo r th e g ra nu la te d surface o f th e fascia, an d th e techn ical ski ll to artic u la te precisel y th e scro lle d leafag e. Fo r thi s last, he co mpe nsa te d wi th flou rish es of h is o wn, n otab ly b y p ie rcin g th e sc ro lls th at

proj ect at the corn er s and at th e midd le o n all fo ur sides . A sim p lifica tio n co nso na n t w it h hi s co lo nial limita tions, and not bad for a nat ive talent. Mu ch m o re fu lly ro co co exampl es h ad b een ca rved a decad e ea rl ier for th e po rtrai ts of N ew York wo rt h ies p ainted b y J oh n Wo llas to n, an Eng lish ma n wh o pr acti ced in N ew York from 1749 un til 17 52. Th e ty p ic al W oll ast on frame, m ad e of European re d pin e an d so surely im po rted, is exe m plifie d b y th o se on Philip se famil y p ortrait s: a ca rved ogee inn e r mo lding , a sing le lar g e ca ve tto m oldin g with ro co co m antlin g , an d a pier ced -and-scrolled o ute r edg e. H3 In 1767, wh en it ca me tim e to co m m iss io n p ort raits of h is childre n, Beekm an ch ose a differ ent art is t an d a d ifferent fr am em ak er. O n 12 N ove m ber 1767, he paid J ohn Durand I: 19 for " d ra w ing m y Si x C h ild re ns Pi ctures, " and on 3[ De cemb er , he paid J am es Strac ha n " for 6 G ilt Fra mes @ 1:3 . '4 [fo r a tot al of] f22. 4. " X4 Durand , po ssibl y of French ex t rac tio n, w as a painter w ho m ad e a specialty o f st ud ies of ch ild re n; hi s o il-o n-ca nvas " d raw ings" (almos t wi t hout modelin g) of th e Bc ekrn an s' th ree so ns and th ree da ughters h ave a ce rta in nai v e f res h ness an d directn ess. St rach an' s fra mes pr ovide th e p erfect vi su al foil (N o . 105). Th ey consist o f a ga d roone d inner edge sur ro unde d by a broad ly co nce ived , b oldl y p ier ced leaf-and- scr oll - car ved m antl e. T he ca rv ing , th ou gh sy m me t rica l, is fu lly ro co co in style. Wr ou ght o f nati ve w hi te pin e and gilde d, th ey rep resent o ne of th e t w o ch o ices of fini sh Strac ha n adve rtised in [765 : " C arved and gilt in Oil o r burnish 'd go ld. " HS Strac ha n, wh o died in N e w York in 1769, had but a four - year ca ree r in Am e rica. In 176 5, he ad vertised h im sel f as "Ca rve r an d Gilder, fr om Lond on, in th e B road w ay nea r the o ld En gli sh C h urc h , in Ne w York ; M ak es and se lls all So rt s o f Pictu re an d G lass Fra mes . " Hr, Som etim e afte rwa rd, he mu st hav e ca rve d th e fra mes (v irt ua lly ide n tica l to t hose h e m ad e for Beekm an ) th at e n close Durand ' s portrait s of m ember s o f th e Ri ch ard Ray famil y . X7 Their desig n can now be seen as a characteris tic N ew Yo rk pa ttern . Other th an Woll ast on , Kilburn, an d D ura nd , t he few painter s then at wo rk in N e w York in clude T homas M cIIw o rth , ac tive in the e n v irons between 175 7 and [767, and J ohn Sin gl et on Co p ley , o f Bo st on, w ho p ainted doze ns of ex cepti onal p o rtraits d uri ng a hect ic vis it to th e city in t he secon d half o f 1771. No ne of th eir kn o wn N ew York works are en close d by a locally m ad e fram e.

103

104

Pic/lireFai lle,

Picture FaIII C. En gland. ca. 176 0

17 ( ,1-6 2

Red pine, gilded. 50l '!~ x ol 5·Y. in. With portrait of Abr ah am Beekman attributed to Lawren ce Kilburn T he Ne w- York Hi sto rical Soc iety

Ste phen D wi ght: cw Yo rk Whi tc pine, gi lded, 52 '% x ol0 in . With portrait of j am es Beekman by Lawren ce Kilb urn T he N ew -Yo rk H isto rical Soc iety

15 7

105

Picture frame, 176 7 j am es Str achan. N ew York White pin e. gilded. 43'/2 x 35'/2 in . With portrait ofj am es Beekman. J r. . by J ohn Durand The Ne w- York Hi sto rical Soc iety

T A B LE S In so so as

p re- Revolut ionary N ew York, th e co ns um ption o f tea was grea t , th e ri t ua l su r ro u n di ng th e takin g o f a fte r noo n tea fixe d, th at as ea rly as 17 3 1 excessive tea drink in g was see n a pu blic health p ro blem . HH

Tea tabl es we re t he alta rs o n w hic h th e afte rnoo n tea ceremo ny was celebra te d. Thou gh both ro und and rect an gu lar m o dels were made in N ew York , exa m ples o f the fo rme r -wha t was ca lled a "ro u n d M ah o g an y P ill ar and C la w Table" in an adve rtise me n t of 1763 -su rv ive in g rea te r numbers and p robab ly represe n t th e m ore popul ar o f th e t w o t y pes. T he y we re a sta ple product in th e D elapl ain e shop in the m id - j-z yos , and a numb er o f th em exis ting to d a y are label ed b y T homas B u rl in g, ac tive fro m 176 9 to 180 0 . Th e Burling tables are lar gel y pl ain , but do illus t ra te di stin ct ive reg ion al fea t u res: ri ml ess ro u n d top s; ce n t ra l p ill ar s in th e sh ape of a cup-a nd- fla red-s ha ft or a ba lus te r ; co lo ne tt es repeating th ose sha pes in th e box, o r so -ca lled bird cage; and claw feet with pinc hed- in side ta lo ns . Of rou n d tea t abl es id entifi abl e as N e w Yo rk, o n ly a han d fu l h a v ing th e piecrust tops an d the carve d p ill ar s an d k nees m ore co m mo n ly associa te d w it h Phil ad elphi a wo r k are wo rt hy of the name roco co . In 1751, in o ne o f the ea rlies t refere nces to t hese N ew Yo r k tabl es, a ca bine t m ake r nam ed Jo h n Tre m ain adve rtised th at he m ad e "Din in g and TeaTables, pl ain or sco llo p t," th e "sco llo p t" o bvio us ly a re fe rence to th e piecrus t to p . H9 Of the tw o here illus t ra ted , o ne is un u su all y sma ll, th e o t he r unusu all y lar ge. Since b oth hav e t he sa me servi ng hei ght , th e propo rti ons of their ped est als diffe r d ram at icall y. T he firs t (N o . 106) sta nds tall , trim , and p ro ud. Its to p, w hic h is but tw enty-nine in ch es in di am et er, has a raised rim co nsis ting o f an o u te r bead and a ga d roo nlike ruffl e divi ded in to six repea ts, o r d iv isio ns, eac h cut o u t in a pair of se r pe n ti ne curves . Equ all y typ ical of N ew York desig n are th e co lo ne t tes of th e b ox, w it h th eir cu p-a n dfla red-s h aft p rofi le. Th e aca n th us -leaf de corati on o n th e ba lus ter-s haped pill ar closely rese m bles th at o n a N ew York b e ds t e a d ( HG. 3 8, p . 165 ), while t he c a b o c h o n s carved in hig h rel ie f o n th e k n ees an d th e p aw feet par all el features fo und o n th e leg s o f an easy cha ir from C ha rles to n (No. 12 2 ) . T he si mi la r m oti fs e m bel lis h ing fu rni t ure fr om both New York an d C ha rles to n m ay pe rh ap s b e associa te d wi t h the carver H enry H ardcastl e. T he seco n d tabl e (N o . 107 ), sa id to h ave d escend ed from t he Van Vechtcn fam ily of N ew J ersey, 9 0 is m assive and sq ua t. Its im mense top is abou t a fo ot lar ger th an a tea table of regu lar size . Was it besp ok e for a pl ace of publ ic asse m bly or for a gra nd dom est ic es ta blis hmen t? To kee p it at se rv ing

106

Tea table, New Yo rk , 1760-7 5 M ah o g an y. Di am . : 29 in. The C h ipstone Foundati on

107

T ea tab/c. New York, 1760- 7 5 Mah ogan y, Di am .: 45-Y" in . Van Co rtla nd t H ou se. Br o n x. N ew York

15 9

108

Ca rd table, C\\' York , 17(,5-75 Mah o gan y: tulip popla r, L. : 34 'I, in , Collectio n o f M rs. Mu rr ay Braun feld

16 0

109

Card table, New York. 1705- 70 Mahogany: tulip poplar, L.: 35 in. Th e Metropolitan Mu seum of Art

hei ght , th e leg s a re perforce almos t aw kwa rd ly lo w slun g, th e an k les hug gin g th e flo o r. Th e rim is divid ed into ten rep eat s , th e p attern o f each id enti cal to th o se o f the fir st exa m ple . Th e Ne w York features o f th e tabl e a re the cu pand-s ha ft pattern o f th e pill ar, th e balu st er-shaped co lo ne ttes of th e b o x , an d th e pin ch ed-in cla w feet. Th e ca r ving , cha rac te ristic o f a siza b le numbe r o f N e w York ro coco pieces, in cl u des a q ua t re fo il rose t te ce n te re d in th e she ll o n th e k nees an d, o n th e kn ees and th e pill ar, leafa ge articulate d in sim pie , incised lin es, all ca rved ele me nts se t o ff aga inst a tex tu red bac kgro und .

an d di sh ed-out areas fo r ga mi ng counters. M ost of t he tabl es have a fifth, sw ing leg th at p ro vid es a mo re stab le an d symm etri cal form th an that of t he four- legged t y p e fa vored in N ew En gl and and Pennsyl van ia. On th e basis o f consistent d ifferences in p roport io n and d ecorati on as well as of me t hods of cons tructio n, m an y of th e best o f th ese surviv ing five - legged serpentine tab les fall into t w o distin ct g ro ups, de monstra bly th e work of two sepa ra te, unidentified shops . ~ 4 The first group includes a pair o f tabl es from th e Beek m an fami ly, one o f th em marked on th e undersid e with th e chalk in itia ls I WB, for J am es Wi lliam Beekman ( 1815 - 1877). T houg h they are no t men tioned in th e househ old furniture acco unts ofJ am es W illiam 's gra n dfa the r, the y m ay we ll have been m ad e fo r hi m in the late 1760s. The tabl es, rem ark abl e for th e sha llowness of th eir skirts , t he d eli ca cy o f th eir ga d roo ne d edges, t he se nse of m o ve m ent co nve yed b y the p airs o f in w a rd-facin g C-scro lls on th eir kn ees, an d the att en ua ted elegance of their legs, have a lightn ess, a n airiness of sta nce, th at captures t he essence of th e rococo . Identical in desig n and clea rly fro m t he same shop is a tabl e, it s pr oven an ce unkno w n (N o . 108), th at di ffer s fro m th e Beekm an exa m ple on ly in certain aspects of th e carving. The tabl es o f th e seco nd g ro u p a re represented by one (N o . 109 ) th at d escend ed in t he Van Ren ssel aer famil y. It w as quite lik el y m ad e fo r Ste p he n " for u se in th e m an o r hou se he built o n th e Hud son Ri ver, near Alb an y, b et w een 1765 an d 1768. The tabl e 's dee p sk irts , bold ga droo ning, an d heav y leg s an d fee t res u lt in an effec t o f m assive so lid ity. That sta tic qu alit y is reinforced b y sta rk, sty lize d kn ee ca rv in g , w hic h co ns is ts o f sy m me t rica l, o u twa rd- fac ing pai rs o f C -sc ro lls surround ed b y m antl es artic ula te d w it h v igo ro us par allel furr o w s and d isplaying a mini m um o f m odelin g .

New York-m ad e tabl es ha vin g hin ged tops that ena ble th em to b e pu t agai ns t th e wa ll w he n n ot in use w er e d esign ed es pec ially fo r ca rd pl a yin g an d su rv ive in lar g e numb ers fro m th e co lo nial peri o d . Th eir ubiquit y is not une xp ected, since ga m ing -ca rd pl ayin g in parti cul ar- w as a fashi onable, o ften passi on at e , p astim e in co lo nia l N ew York. ?' Thou gh t he ca rd table s we re ce rta in ly in use ea rl ie r, o ne of th e first specific refe re nces to th em ap peared in a new sp ap er ad ve rtise men t o f 17ooY2 It was no t until th e ea rly 1770s, ho wever, tha t N ew Yo rk 's lea d ing crafts me n - Jose p h C ox , Samu el P r in c e , a n d M ar inu s Will ett - prom ot e d th e sa le o f ma hogany ca rd tabl es o f th e b est qu al it y. ~ 3 The y were und oubtcdl y refer rin g to th e se rpen tine t yp e, o fte n m ade in pai rs and kn o wn tod ay in a lar ge number o f fin e ex am ples. T he di stin guishing features o f thi s kind of tabl e are: a boldly serpe n ti ne fr ont, se m ise r pc n tinc side rail s, and lar ge, sq ua re fron t co rners su p po rted o n ca b rio le leg s th at en d in clawand- ba ll feet. T he bottom ed g e of th e rail s has ga d roo ning, th e kn ees h ave C -sc ro ll an d le af ca rv ing , an d th e bai zecovere d play ing su rface h as recessed co rners for cand les ticks

101

CASE FURNITURE T he m o st co m mo n case -furn itu re forms in New York were ches ts, ch ests-on-c hes ts, lin en presses (chests of drawers surm ounted b y a cab inet hav in g drawe rs or trays), desks, and, m o re rar el y, desk s an d b o ok cases. Missin g from the list are th e hi gh ches t (h ig hboy) an d th e d ress ing tabl e (lowboy) so popul ar in N ew E ng lan d an d Penn syl v an ia. Since those uniqu ely Am eri can fo rms, w ith th eir scroll tops and cabriole legs , we re th e m ost susce ptible of all case fu rn iture to rococo o rna me n t, th eir abse nce is perhap s th e m ost cogent evidence th at b y the third qu arter o f th e ce n tury fas h ionable New Yo rk er s wa n ted p rop er "English" fu rn it ure an d rejected all co lo nia l var iati on s. It was su re ly no acc ident th at Samuel Prin ce, undisputed lead er amo ng N ew Yo rk cabi netmakers, decid ed to call hi s sho p At th e Sign of th e Chest of D rawers an d th at h e chose to p icture o n hi s engraved lab el a chesto n-c hes t ( FIG. ]7, p . 15 4). Thou gh chests and linen presses lab el ed b y P rince o r Burlin g a re kn o wn , t hey are all solid and four-square and do not m er it th e acco lade rococo . O n ly on th e occasio na l ches t or desk and bookcase is rich carving in a lo cal interpret at ion of th e style to be fo und. A desk an d bo ok case (N o . IIO) featurin g a scroll pediment an d mirrored d o ors w it h sca llo pe d to p rails is th e most ela bora te o f th o se kn o w n fr o m th e 1750s. A ll th e major moldin g s a re ca rve d , an d th e p ed im ent board , or tympanum , h as ap p lie d sc ro lls an d leafage and a cent ral asymmetri cal cabocho n . The decorati o n loo ks to be the wo rk of th e ca rver o f th e fir st-fl o or ch im ney piece at Philipse Manor (F IG . 9, p . 22): g ra pe leaves w it h sim ilar ve ining and fruit with sim ilar m od elin g, even sim ilar tril o bat e rose ttes in the scro ll pediment. The flat-carved m ol dings and feet o n th e desk and bookcase co m pa re clos el y w it h tho se o n the mos t elaborate of all N ew York ches ts o f dr aw er s (N o. III ) . Th e name Van Ran slaer ins crib ed o n th e reve rse o f th e wri ting slide documents it s pro ven an ce in th at fa mi ly. C haracteristical ly dim inutive, sq ua t an d solid, it n onetheless commands respect for it s co m b ina t io n o f se r pen tine facad e, pr oj ectin g can ted co rne rs, carve d o rna me n t, and pierced b rasses.

110

Desk and bookcase, New York, 175 5-00 M ah o gan y; tu lip po plar, H .: <)<)V" in. The Chipstone Foundation

162

,

III

C hest ofd rawers, N ew York. 1755-(, 5 M ah o gan y; tulip poplar. L. : 35'/1 in . W int crthur M us eum

112

113

Side chair. N ew Yor k, 176 5- 75 M ah o gan y; sweet gum, H . : 3lF/ H in . The Metropolitan Museum o f Art

A nncliair. N ew York . ca. 1775 M ah og an y: red oa k, H .: 3<)'/ 2 in . The Metrop olitan Mu seum of Art

SE A T I N G FURNITURE A wel l- k now n t y pe of New York chai r - its spla t o f th e tassel-a n d- ru ffle des ign and so k now n as th e tassel-b ackseems to h a ve bee n o ne pa r tic u la r ly fa vored b y th e Van Rensselaers; at least fo u r differ ent se ts of tassel-back cha irs have associa tio ns wit h b ran ch es o f t ha t fa m ily. Th e tasselback h as a be t te r cla im tha n m o st N ew York cha irs to b e cal led rococo, as is d e m on strat ed b y o ne o f t he Van Ren ssel ae r examples (N o . 112). H er e, a C -scro ll with rocai lle m antl e on t he cres t rail an d a tassel over a ruffled band o n th e spla t are b oth flan ked by pair s of carved leaf fro nds . The mantle, embellis he d wi th ca rve d peanuts and pin wheels, is simila r to tha t found o n th e kn ees of so me N ew York card tabl es (see No. 108). In ot her resp ect s, th e Van Ren ssel aer chair ex hibi ts a p urel y New Yo r k se ns ib ility : bro ad , unrelieved flat surfaces o n st ile and sea t rail, sha ped rear legs, and four-sq uare claw feet . The mos t fully rococo of New York seating fu rn iture, illu strated here in th e armchair (N o . 113) from a se t m ad e abo u t 1775 for Sam ue l Verplanck (1737 -1820), has w ha t appea rs o n firs t g lance to be a Go thic-s ty le sp lat, the res ult o f pair ed lancet openings w it hi n a poi nted arc h in t he lower sec tio n. The spla t, while a va ria tio n o n a M an w ar in g pa tte rn (F IG . 36, p. 14 8 ) especia lly pop u la r in M assa chu sett s , was a s ta n da rd design on examples imported from Eng land. The chair itsel f has carved motifs characte ris tic of N ew York : a ruffl ed m antle be low a centra l C-scroll on the cres t, ruffl ed bands forming th e outer edges and t he bo ttom edges of the tw o circ ular openings o n the spla t's u p pe r sectio n, rose ttes in th e la nce tlike openings o n t he splat's lo w er sec tio n, eag le's- hea d ar m termina ls. and ruffled bands for mi ng th e legs' to p edges. A ma hoga ny bedstead with elaborately carved foo tpos ts and rai ls (FIG. 38) , lon g t houg ht to be Englis h, ca n be plausibl y attributed to N ew York because of affini ties betw een its carv ing and that of chimneypieces in Phil ip se M an o r. For exa m plc, the bedstead's overs ize ca pita ls in th e form of bask et s o f fruit and grai n reveal th e same co mbi na tio n o f g ra pes, gra pe leaves , an d plums as t he ga rla nds o n th e side sc ro lls o f th e Phi lip se seco nd- floor overm antel: bo t h ele me nts , havin g a verisi m ilitu de unu su al in N e w Yo rk carvi ng, a re prob abl y the work of the same hand . The bed st ead 's k nees have paired C-scrolls and de pe nden t g ra pevines, a co m bina tio n of mo tifs that also appears o n a C ha rles to n ceremo n ial cha ir (HG. 40 , p. 169). Perh ap s th e ca rver H enr y H ard castl e, act ive in N ew Yo rk from 1751 to 1755 and in C ha rleston in 17 5 5 to 17 56 , can be credited with all this work ."s

FIGURE ]8. Bedstead, probab ly N ew Yo rk , ca. 17 55. M ahogan y, H .: 89'/8 in . (226. 4 cm .). Soc iety for th e Pr eser vation of N ew England Ant iqu ities. a beq uest of J anet M. Agn ew (1975. 152)

th at is, o n thos e occasio ns wh en th e y d id n ot o rde r th ei r goods directl y from En gland . y S The city w as clear! y th e cen te r o f furn itu re m anu factu re in co lo nial V ir ginia .?" Thou gh no co m p re he ns ive list of th e regi on 's furniture cra fts m en h as been publish ed , full y thirt ythree o f fift y- se ven furniturcmakers' ad ve rtise me nts ap pearin g in t he Virgilli a G az ette w er e th o se o f Wi llia msb urg m en ; se co n d- p lac e Frcd erick sburg wa s represented b y o n ly four. Becau se th e n cwspaper notices w ere m ostl y appea ls by shop masters fo r journe yman ca b in etma ke rs rath er th an o f cab ine two rk fo r sa le, it is app are nt th at durin g th e b o om yea rs before independen ce Will iamsburg had o nly a handful of es tab lishe d cab ine t sho ps an d t hat th e sk illed woodwo rkers need ed to man th em w ere in sho rt supply. None of the furnitur e attributed to th e ci ty's sho ps is labeled , bu t a Ma sonic m aster 's chair (No . (23 ) is sig ne d b y its maker, Benj amin Bu cktrout (d . IHI 3), who in 1700 ad vcrtiscd as a " Ca b ine t M ak er, from Lond on, [wh o ] m ak es all so rts o f ca b ine two rk, eit he r plain o r o rna me n ta l, in th e neat est an d newest fashi on s." 10 0 Bu cktro u t 's cx t raord ina ry ch air, surel y hi s m ast erp iece. rank s amo ng W illi am sburg's g rea te s t co n trib u tio ns to the Am eri can ro co co. The cha ir's front legs ar c directl y co p ied from Pl at e X XI of Th e Director, a b ook th at Bu cktro u t m a y well h ave b rou ght with him fr om En gla nd an d po ssibl y the one record ed as bein g a fixture in a sho p where he wa s em ploy ed, Robert Ca rte r, o f N omini H all, on e of Vir gini a's leadi ng pl anter s, lived in Willi amsburg from 1701 to 177 2 and kep t acc o u n ts th at are the m o st d et ail ed ev ide nce of Virgini an s' bu yin g of Wi lli am sburg-m ad e furniture . 10 1 Duri n g his sojo u rn in the cit y, C a rte r b ou ght almos t all hi s fu rni t ure from lo cal m ak er s, m ainl y from th e two leadin g sho ps. The fir st w as th e es ta b lis h me n t of Peter Sc ott ( 169 4- 1775). w ho had co m e to W illiamsburg b y 172 2 and set up in bu sin ess b y 1733 . 10 2 A half-d o zen nc w sp ap er n oti ces are abo ut th e o n ly record w e have o f Scott , but he is kn o wn to hav e been a m an of lo cal prominen ce. He w as a m emb er o f th e Com m on C o u nc il for fort y ye a rs, an d the site where he toil ed eve n lo n ge r was a well-known landm ark . (O ne o f h is patrons wa s T hom as J effer son , who purch ased much of his furniture in Willi am sburg b efore th e Revolution .) Scott rem ained active until his de ath, in 177 5. A co nsi de ra ble bod y o f lo call y m ad e furnitur e has n ow been attri bu te d to hi s sho p, a few o f th e pieces, mostly chairs, decorat ed w ith passages o f carv ing th at m ay be read as rococo . Th e Ni ch o lson St reet co nce rn o f Anthon y H ay, beg u n abou t 1751 and carried o n by H ay's suc cessors for m orc th an a qu arter-century. bl o ssom ed into th e seco n d o f Will iam sburg's lea d ing w o r ks ho ps .I'" Em p loy ing Lond on- tr ain ed ca b ine t ma ke rs an d ca rve rs . an d even p o ssessin g a co py of

Williamsburg and Charleston

U nti l rece n tly, th e So u t h h as b een d isp ro po rtio nately neglec te d in th e hi st ory of eightee nth-cen tury Am eri can furn iture. T he regio n's plan ta tio n economy was th ou ght to have pr ecluded develo p me nt of th e urban cente rs necessary to th e cabine tmaking busin ess, an d dis tinc tive regi on al sty les were not reco gnized , in th e b eli ef th at m o st furn iture, especially any of sty list ic co nse q ue nce, must have been im po rte d. T he re is so me truth to th o se o ld asse rtio ns . A co m p reh en si ve st u dy o f th e fu rn iture t rad e in coas ta l N orth Ca ro lina has revealed but o ne m odest ins ta nce of th e rococo, a p air of chai rs , based o n a design in C hi ppen da le 's Director, th at have been att ribu ted to N ew Bern , th e capita l city in th e co lo nial era. y6 The uniquen ess of the ir disco very is co ns istent w it h th e absence o f a ny me n tio n o f a carve r in N orth Ca ro lina rec ord s pri or to 1790. Th e st u dy did , h owever, reveal a w ides p re ad pro du ct ion o f furnitur e in the rural areas -o fte n th e p art-tim e wo rk o f farm er s, o fte n of reco gnizabl e lo cal sty le . Th at pa tte rn p ro b abl y typifi es mu ch of the South , wi th important exce p tio ns, prin cipall y Williamsburg , Virginia, an d C ha rles to n, South Ca ro lina."? two cities su ffic ie n tly es ta b lis he d a t mi d-centur y t o ri se to th e cha llenge of th e eme rg ing rococo sty le. W illi am sburg, si tu at ed in th e Ti d e w at er o n th e peninsula be t wee n th e J am es an d th e York river s, w as th e capi ta l o f th e Vir ginia co lo ny fr om 10 9 9 unt il it was su ppla nted b y Ri chm ond in 1779 . With a p opul ation o f abo u t three th ousand p erm an ent resid ents throu ghout th e quarter-centur y prior to the R ev olutio n , it was also th e lar gest city. To it s citize n ry mu st be ad de d the seasona l influ x o f dele g at es fr om Vir gini a' s fift y-n in e co u n ties for th e m eet in g s o f th e H ou se o f Burg esses and fo r sessions of th e Ge ne ra l Co ur t . The propriet ors of innum er able Virgin ia pl antat ion s, m an y fro m families grown ri ch in th e tob acco tr ade, were also frequ ent v isito rs. Wi th th ei r sp len d id plantati on hou ses, th e y co ns tit uted a po ol of cl ie n ts read y for th e lat est fas hio ns-

160

T he D irector, it was su rely the par am ount so u rce of ro co costyle furniture in th e city. With nearl y a dozen m en identified wi th its o pe ra tio n d uri ng th e 1760s 'O-l (and prob abl y twi ce that number associated w ith it durin g its exis te nce) , one can reason abl y ass ume th at in time a certa in co nt inuity -a hou se style - develo pe d in it s wo rk. H ay, w ho fir st advertised for jou rney ma n help in 1751, had within a few yea rs engaged th e se rvices of J am es Wi lso n , a ca r ver fr om L ond on, to ass ist in th e n ew fas h io n for o rna me n t. In 1755, Wil son him self adve rt ise d th at h e wor ke d in pl ast er an d w ood " and is to be spo ke w ith at Mr. Anthon y H ay 's, Ca bine t- Ma ker. "'05 Wi lso n has b een cre d ite d w ith an o fficial armcha ir (F IG . 39) w hose el ab orat el y carve d C -scro lls an d aca n th us leav es are no t unl ik e mo tifs found o n th e kn ees o f ce rt ain M assach use tts an d N ew York wo rk (see Nos . 98, 108). The chair, ma de fo r use in th e ca pito l so me ti m e afte r it was rebuilt followin g a fi re in 1747, '0(, th er efore ex h ib its what is possibl y th e earlies t in st an ce o f th e ro co co in Will iam sburg. It is proba ble th at Wil son 's arriva l co incide d w ith th e city 's introduc tio n to the new sty le, and it m ay be his hand th at is seen in th e nascent ro co co carvi ng o f table s and cha irs ass oc iated wi th H ay' s sho p. In 1765, B u cktrout was wo rki ng fo r H ay. Tw o ye ars lat er, pr obabl y becau se of failing health , H ay an no un ced hi s retirem ent , co n fide n t th at " t he Ge n tleme n w ho have bespoke Work of th e su bscribe r m ay d ep end upon ha vin g it made in th e bes t m ann er by Mr. Benj amin Bu cktrout. " '07 T ho ug h H ay co n tin ue d to own th e propert y, Bu cktrout served as master in th e sho p until December 1770, when Ha y d ied and Bu cktrout was rep laced by Edmund Di ckin son (d . (77 8) , w ho h ad also wo rke d b riefl y for H ay in the mid1760s. Bu cktrout then se t up sho p o n Fran cis St reet an d flourish ed during th e 1770s. D ickin son , lik e H ay, form ed an associa tio n with an Eng lis h- tra ine d ca rver. Geo rge H amilton , a "Ca r ve r and G ilde r, j us t fr om Britain , " adve rtise d hi s se rv ic es at Dickinson 's sho p o n 28 Jul y 1774.' OHHamil ton mu st have worked o n th e fu rn is h ings fo r th e Governo r's Pal ace, for whi ch D ickin so n was p aid £92 in 1776. Di ckinson prosp er ed in his new position until '77/;, w hen, as a m aj or in th e I st Vir gini a Reg im ent , he was k ill ed in b attl e. Th e in ventory o f hi s lib rar y list ed "Ch ip pc n da les De sign s" (i. e., Th e Dir cctorv.'?' th e o nly refer en ce to a furniture pattern book in eighteenthcent ury Willi am sburg and likel y th e co py Bu cktrout presumably br ou ght to th e Ha y sho p. Am on g V ir gini an s, even the w ea lth ies t, there seems to have been a pr efer en ce in lo call y m ad e pie ces n ot for th e ric h ly o rna me n te d but for what w as calle d the "neat and plain . " Excep t fo r so m e m odest tabl es an d cha irs associated w it h th e Sco t t sho p an d a few elabo ra te chi na tabl es and a

;'

FIGUR E 39 . Capito l chair, Wi lliamsb urg, '750 - 55. M ahogan y; beech , H .: -l9 in. ( 12-l. 5 cm.) . T he Colonial Williamsburg Foundation (30 - 215)

series o f gra nd M asoni c cha irs associated wi th th e H ay sho p, examp les o f Wi lliams bu rg ro co co carvi ng are as yet too rar e to establish a dis tinctive W illiamsburg sty le. 11 0

dire cted . " 117 Ab rah am Pear ce, a carve r recentl y arrive d from Lond on , boa st ed an ev en w ide r in flue nce in [76 8: "O rders fr om th e co unt ry, o r an y o f th e northern provinces, wi ll be pun ctu al]y co m plied w ith. " Thou gh n o sig ned o r lab eled o r othe rw ise do cu m ented C ha rles to n fu rn iture in th e ro co co tast e has been discovered, th e n am e of o ne m ak er , Thom as E lfe (ca. 17[9-1795), has lon g been sy no ny mo us w ith eig htee nth-cen tury C harles ton cabine two rk . lIS Hi s celebr ity ste ms from the chance surviva l o f his acco un t bo ok for th e years [768-7 5, th e apogee of the fas h io n for th e ro co co . Th e b o ok record s th at d u ring that time , w ith th e ass ista nce o f hand icr aft slaves (sawye rs , joiners, ca b ine tma ke rs) an d specialis t co n tra ct em ployees, such as carve rs, his sho p m ad e so me fifte en hundr ed pieces of fu rniture both p lain an d o rna men te d an d was pa tronized by m o st o f th e city's leadin g fam ilies. Th e bo ok fu rther sh?ws that ove r th ose yea rs Elfe ran a su ccess ful bu sin ess, inves ted in real es ta te, an d ac h ie ve d a m easure of lo cal promi ne nce. Th ou gh m o st C ha rles ton case furnitur e is ro utinely attribut ed to Elfe's sho p, parti cul arl y those pieces h av in g fig u reeig ht- pa tte rne d frets, we can on ly guess w ha t his wo rk from the [760S an d 1770S look ed lik e. Elfe, w hose o rig ins are o bscure, was p ro ba bly Eng lish born and Lon d on t rain ed , as we re so m an y of C ha rleston's cra fts me n . By 1747 , h e had an es ta b lishe d sho p; in 1751, he adve rtised h avin g "a ve ry good uphol st erer fro m Lo ndo n " to do work in " the best an d ne wes t m an ner. ""\1 In 1756 , he we n t in to p artnersh ip wi th ano ther cab inet maker, Tho m as Hutchi nson , and to gether the y w er e em ployed on the lavish new Sta te H ou se (built 1753- 56; burned 1788). O n 13 March 1756, the Co m mo ns H ou se of Assembl y resol ved to o rder fu rn itu re fo r th e N ew Co u n cil C ha m be r, an d o n 14 M ar ch 1758, Elfe an d Hutchinson su b m itted a bill fo r £728-2-6 for fu rni tu re fo r th e room . W ha t ap pea rs to be o ne piece from th at g ro u p surviv es (tho ug h n o w m issin g its orna me n ta l cres t) - th e South Carolina royal gove rnor's chai r (FIG. 40).120 It s eag le 's- hea d arm res ts, kn ees w it h C -sc ro lls and dependent g ra pe vi nes, an d hair y-paw feet qu alify th e chair to be th e ea rl ies t doc u men te d ca rv ing in C ha rles to n in any way su ggest ing th e rococo sty le. T ho ug h m ost of the o rna men t is exec uted in a less ad vance d m ann er th an th at o f th e co ntemporan eou s capito l cha ir at Will iam sburg (F IG . 39, p. 167), th e tr eatm ent of th e kn ees and arms is m arkedl y sim ilar to N ew York work of th e sa me decad e. Ag ain, is th er e a co nnec tion w ith th e carver H enr y H ard castl e, w ho m o ved fr o m New York to C ha rles ton so me time bet w een 1755 and [756? At th e b eg innin g of the n ext d ecad e, C ha rles to nia ns ex hibi te d a pr ed ilect ion for th e C h inese tast e (an as pect of th e rococo ge nero usly rep resented in C hippenda le's D irector). In [76 1, Pet er H all , cab inetma ke r fr om Lond on , offe red to

C ha rles ton , founded in 16 80 and incorpora te d in 1783, w as the capi ta l o f SOUlh Caro lina unti l [790 , w he n th e go ve rn me n t rem o ved to Colu m bia. T he oldes t city in th e colo ny, as we ll as th e lar g est an d mos t pros pe ro us, C ha rles to n is situated at th e tip o f a lon g , narrow peni nsu la flank ed b y th e As hley and Coope r rive rs. Whe re th e rivers m eet , th ey form th e larg e and we ll-pro tec ted h arb or, th e fin est in th e so utheast , that ena bled th e city to become the regi on 's leading seapo rt and th e eco nomic center of the Carolina Low Country. In 1770 , Lie ute na n t Gove rno r Willi am Bull co u n te d [ , 29 2 h o uses in th e col on y, fro m w h ic h h e ex t ra polated a po pu latio n of 10,900. III In th e decade be fo re th e Revolution, C harles to n 's expor ts to Great B rit ain- prim aril y rice an d indigo -were wort h almos t thr ee tim es as m uc h as ex po rts s hipped f ro m seco n d- p lace New E ng land; ' !" T he city 's res ulting wea lth was acknowledged to be eq ual to o r g rea ter th an that o f anyw he re else in th e Am erican co lo nies. In L OI/don Maga zi ne of Ju n e 1762, t h e city was d escrib ed as " the po litest , as i t is one of t he richest in A me rica. " " 3 J o si ah Quin cy, Jr. , visiting th e capital in 1773, wro te ho m e to Bo ston that "in gra ndeur, splendour of buil din gs, decor at ion s .. . and indeed in almost eve ry t h ing, it fa r sur passes all I ever saw, or ex pec ted to see, in Am erica. ""~ Even in the co lo n ial period, C ha rlesto n had a co ns iderab le fu rni ture in dus t r y and emp loyed g rea t numb er s of artisans, severa l h u n dred of who m are kn o wn b y nam e. 115 A mo ng th e mo re p rom ine nt are those w ho advert ised in th e lo cal pr ess be tween [7 50 and 178 5: so me tw en ty- six cab inetmakers, ten carvers and g ilders, fo u r t ee n uph ol st erers , and thr ee lo o k in g-gl ass m ak ers, 116 w hose shops we re interspersed among th e ho uses of the ir wea lthy m erchant clientel e on th e p rin cip al tho ro ughfa res o f the city - Tr add , M eetin g , Broad, King , and Q uee n stree ts. T he ir notices, unlike th ose for j ourneym an he lp pu bl ish ed by th eir W illiams b urg peers, soug h t to se ll cabine two rk in a hi ghl y com pe titive bu yer 's market. The ten o r of th ei r en treaties was ex presse d by J ohn Fish er, a ca binetmaker from Lo n don, in the So uth Caro lina Gazette & Cou ntrv [ournat o f 5 M ay 176 7: " T hose Ge n tleme n an d Ladies w ho please to favour h im wi th th ei r co m ma nds, may depe nd on h avin g their orders we ll exec u te d, and o n th e sho rtes t n o tice . " T he adver tisemen ts also illu st rat e th at C ha rles to n was the center for th e ma nufacture of fashio na ble fu rni tu re throu gh o u t South Caro lina . As o ne art isa n pr oclai med in 1754: "All Let ters and Orde rs fo r th e Co u n try sha ll be pu nc tua lly answered ; an d th e Goods pu t up in a safe M an n er fo r Carriage, and se nt by w ha teve r Co nveya nce

[68

su pp ly "C hinese tabl es of all sorts , she lves t ra ys, chimney p ieces, bracket s, e tc, bein g at prese n t th e m o st elegant an d ad m ire d fashi on in Lo nd on. " A "C h inese Tea Tab le" is m enti on ed a t t he beg i nn i ng ( 176 8) of E l fes s u rvivi ng acco u n ts. D u rin g th e yea rs from 1771 to 1774, Elfe was an en thusias tic pr op on ent of the fashion fo r chinoiserie, cr afting m an y suc h tea tabl es havi ng applied rim s and to ps and desks an d b ook cases h avin g glazed "Chincas do res ." Elfe's led ger shows that in th e 1770S he also spe cialized in a va riety of fo r ms e m be llis he d w it h o t her r o co co o rname n t. Th e y inclu ded double chests w it h fretwo rk and pi erced scro ll tops , bed st ead s w ith eagle's-c law feet, chairs w it h carved or scroll bac ks, and m ah ogan y pi cture fram es. 12 ' T he h eight o f th e vog ue fo r th e ro co co sty le m us t have co inc ide d with th e in cr eased im mi grat ion to C ha rles to n in th e lat e 1760s o f hi ghl y skille d Br it ish ca binetmakers, carvers , an d o t he r cra fts me n. Severa l of t hem we re associated w ith E lfe: Lond on cabi ne tma ker J ohn Fis he r (a rrived (767) was in partnersh ip w ith him bet w een about 1768 and 1771,122 ca rve rs Th om as Woodi n (a rr ived by 1764 ) , to w ho m h e owed m oney in 1768, '2J and A b rah am Pear ce (arrived 17( 8),

Royal gOl'cm or's chair, Charleston , 17 56- 5S. Mahogany; sweet gum, H. : 53% in. ( 135 .6 cm.). McKissick Museum , Th e Uni versity of South Carolina

FIGU RE 40 .

w ho worke d stea d ily in hi s shop from 1769 un ti l 1774 . J ohn Lo rd (arri ved 1766) advert ised in 1767 th at he pro vided "gilding an d all bran ch es of h ou se an d fu rn itu re ca rv ing , in th e C hi nese, Fr en ch , an d Go thic tas tes . "'24 Lord , who appears in E lfes acco u n ts j us t once , in 1774, tr ain ed a numbe r of app ren tices , includin g H enry H ainsdorff and J o sep h Pa rki nso n (p ro ba b ly C ha rles ton's fi rst native carvers ), before retu rni ng to Eng land in 1775.'25 London fas hio n, th e sta n dard by which Charles to nia ns meas ure d th eir furni shin g s , was avai lab le in th e work of im migra n t cra fts men and in t h e i m p o rt ed fu rni t ure t h at se rve d as m od el s for lo call y made co u n te rpa r ts. R ic ha rd M agrath , for exam p le, offered in 1772 " carved Chairs o f the new est fashi on , splat Backs, w ith holl o w slats an d commode fro nts , o f th e sa me Pattern as th ose im p o rt ed by Pet er Man iga u lt, E sq . " ' 26 In ad di tion, th e craftsme n of C ha rleston had access to pattern b oo ks showi ng engraved ro co co o rnam ent , p rin cipall y C hip pendale's D irector. 127 T he lo cal bookse ller Rob e rt Well s advert ise d it in 1766 an d aga in in 1772, along w ith th e o the r del uxe foli o pattern boo k of th e perio d, In ce an d M ayh ew ' s Universa l Sv stem. Co p ies of C h ippenda le's b o ok we re recorde d in the in ven tories of th e bu ild er a n d ca rve r Ez ra Wait e (d . 1771) an d of Wa lte r Ru ssell (d . 1776), an uphol st erer fro m London who h ad room s in Elfc's h ou se in 1773.' 2HWh ol e desi gn s o r in d iv id ua l m oti fs fro m the b o ok , however, we re ra re ly co p ied . Th e excep tio n is a we ll- kno w n library boo kcase (FIG. 43 , p . 179) on ly slig h tly ame nde d from Pl ate X C lIl in Th e D irector.

FRAMES The Swi ss-born painter J er emiah Theu s ( 1716- 1774) arrived in South Ca r o li na in 17 3 5 an d se t tled in Cha rleston by 1740. wh ere h e domin at cd th e p ortrait-p aintin g bu sin ess durin g th e third qu art er of th e ce n t u ry. At hi s dea t h , h e was suecce dc d b y H enr y B cnbrid g e ( 174 3- 1812) , o f Ph ilad elphi a . Ce rta in o t her art ists v isite d th e city for brief perio ds, in clu din g J ohn Wollaston in 1766- 67 . A fa ir number of th e res u ltin g portraits of C ha r lcs to u ia ns h ave th ei r o rig ina l r o co co fr am es. Which of th em a rc o f lo cal m anu facture is just n o w bein g d et ermin ed . Fr om Elfc's acc o u n ts , for ex am ple, it is kn o wn th at Th eu s purch ased st re tc h ing fr am es for h is ca n vase s an d , after late 1772, m ah o g an y pi cture fram es. ':" O n 18 November 1774, the brother s J ohn and H am ilt on Steve n so n. paint ers wh o h ad re ccntl y s ta r re d a dr aw in g and p ai nti n g academ y, a d ve rt ise d: " T h e b ett er t o acco m moda te th eir Employer s, an d to lesson th e g rea t ex pe nce o f Fram in g . th ey h av e co nt rac te d with , an d brou ght o u t a Ca rver & Gi ld er , and Fr ame Pi ctures, Prints & c, at th e London Pri ces. " 13 0 Po ssibly Theu s's ea r lies t d at ed pi cture having an Ame rican fram e is th at o f Mrs . Al g ernon W ilson , painted in 1756 (rrc. 41). Of white pin e, car ved an d g ilde d , th e fr am e ten d s t o o ve r powe r the s ma ll (so m e 16 1h -b Y-14-in ch) pi cturc . Th ou gh the fram e 's imm edi ate protot ypc is un kn o w n , its pi er ced ro caill e m antl in g w it h in a lar gc cavetro m ol d in g is a p attern frequ ently found o n imported fr am es, suc h as th o se of Woll a st on 's larg e-form at N ew York po rt r ai t s of a few yca rs earlier (see p. 156).

A b out 1750, Theu s p ainted seven sma ll- fo r ma t portraits o f the pl anter B arnard Elliott , hi s w ife, an d h is chi ld re n , all h avin g sim p le mah o g an y fr am es . About 1766 , h e pa inted full , fift y-b y-forty-in ch ima g es of the p atr iot C o lo n el B arnard Elliott, Jr. ( 1740 - 1778) (N o . 114 ), an d h is b r id e . M ar y Eli zabeth ( Bc llinge r) . The y a re a mo ng th e a rti s t 's mo st spl endid efforts : th e decorati ve s ty lis h ness of th e su bjects' att ire m ore th an co m pe n sates for th e figures ' lack of an ato m ica l acc u racy. T he fr am es , o f N ew En gland pin e, are s pccracul ar e xa m p les o f the full r o co co t a st e . Compos ed o f a bro ad , flat , bl ack-painted area bet w een an inner m oldin g and sc ro lle d out er edgcs th at a re bo t h carved an d gi lded, the y h ave an e x pa ns i vc g ra n de u r r emin isccnt o f th e p ie r ced fra mes o f th e sa m e d ar e car ved b y J am cs S t rac ha n of New Yo rk (see p . 156). Woll aston's C ha rles to n portrait s, all realized in a p alet te

FIGURE 41.

Picturefr ame, C harles ton. ca. 1756. Whi te pine. gilde d . 22 '12 x 20'/ " in . (57. 2 x 5I. 1 cm .). Wi th portrait of Mrs. Algernon Wils o n by Jer emi ah Theu s. Mus eum of Ea rly So uthern Deco rati ve Ar ts (20 24. 52)

o f d elicat e ro co co p ast els. present an ass urance an d a softness of m od elin g not foun d in hi s ea rl ie r wo rk . 13 ' P r ime exam pl es of th e seventeen kn o wn painti ngs of th is p h ase of th e artis t's o eu v re are th e p ortrait s o f J ohn Beale and Mrs. Beale (N o . 115 ). The fr am e m ay lack th e co herence of d esi gn and

114

PiCIlI ,.c [ nunc, C ha rleston . ca. 17M; Wh ite pin e. gilded and paint ed . (i l -YH x 51% in . With portrait o f Barn ard Ellio tt. Jr.. b y Jer emi ah Theus G ibbes Museum of Art

17 1

th e conv ic tion o f execution possessed by t hat of Theus's Co lonel Elliott, but thou gh it is heavy in scale and the pierced roca ille ma n tles attac he d to th e outer scrolls look like afterth ou ghts, it noneth eless h as an endea ring rococo cha rm. The Bea les we re To ries w ho fled to E ng land in 1775, doubtl ess taki n g w i th th em th e p ortr ait s, w h ic h were fo und there so me ye a rs ago . T he fra me o f Mrs . Beal e' s picture is of native C aro lina cy press, but th at of her hu sband 's is of European red pine, from w hic h o ne may co n clu de th at th e original frame was lo st and a replace me nt ma de abroad . T he m onum ent t o Lad y A nn e Murray (N o . 116), now in First Sco ts P resb yt er ian C h u rc h , erected in 1814 at 57 Meetin g St ree t, but o rig ina lly p art o f an ea r lier b ui lding o n th e sa m e si te , is ca rved of New En gl an d w hi te pine and m arbl ei zed r ath er than ch iseled from m arbl e itsel f int he E nglis h m ann er. A ra re an d m agnifi cent examp le o f preRevolution ar y churc h furni shing , it is unusual for its size and use o f ro coc o o rna men t ' V an d rem ark abl e for being, appa ren tly, the o n ly exa m p le of ear ly C ha rles to n arc h itec tura l carvi ng th at has never been rep ainted . Th e m at eri al of w h ich th e me mo ria l is made is kn own to h av e b een shipped to C ha rles to n from N ew England . In 176 8, t h e lo cal A ssembl y aut ho r ize d p a ym ent "for New England Pi ne plan k for th e Ca rver £55 :17: 19. "' 33 The carver, Th om as Woo di n, h ad in th e p revi ou s year ful filled a co m m ission for th e Sta te House. One of two prominent English art isa ns th en in th e cit y,'34 h e is a likel y ca ndidate for th e au tho rship of th e m em or ial to Lad y Anne. The m onum ent, w hic h was completed by 1772, consists of a h eav y crosse rte d an d m arbl ei zed frame wit h ro co co sc ro lls an d leafag e carved in hi gh rel ief at the sid es and o n th e top , w he re th ey fo r m an over si ze ca rto uc he fr amin g a coat of arms, th ose of Lad y Anne's hu sb and 's fami ly qua rterin g th ose o f her s. The sto ne -colo red m oldings and th e carving are hi ghl ighted agains t a d ark g ro u nd . The inscri ption , paint ed in go ld on a rect an gul ar bla ck field , reads in part: " In thi s Cemetery lie th e Rem ain s / of/ T he Right H on o ur able / Lad y Ann e Mur ray, /Th ir d Da ug h te r /of Geo rge Earl of C roma rty / A yo ung N oblewom an as / cons picuo us fo r Piety & Virtu e / as she was for / Hi gh Birth & illus trio us des cent / She died th e rzth ofJ an uar y 1768 / much lam en ted ." Lad y Ann e 's fi rs t m arri ag e was t o th e H o n o ra bl e Edmond At kin s, pr esid en t of th e Council of Sou th Ca roli na; her seco nd w as to J ohn Murray, a Sco ts ph ysician w ho had co me to th e Ca ro linas durin g th e 1740s . H er inscription does not fill th e tabl et, b ut th e space reserved fo r th at o f her husb and , w ho di ed in 1774, was preempted to co m memorate one of hi s relatives, "Geo Murray Es q r. deputy Secretar y of So . Ca ro lina , " w ho died 24 Septe m be r 1772.

115

Picture frame, Charleston, ca. [767 Cypress, gilded, 37 x J2 in. With portrait of Mrs. John Beale by John Wollaston Museum of Early Southern Decorative Arts

17 2

116

"'1('11/ 0r iaI to L ad )' A I/I/I' Murra », C harlesto n. 17(,S-72 White pin e. m arb leized . H. : 7 3'!~ in. First Sco ts Pr esb yt eri an C hurc h. C ha rlesto n

173

TABLES To id entify the origin of ro u nd tea tabl es- a standard form havin g n o secon dary woo ds- is no t always easy, but the so urce of some southe rn exam ples has been postulated. One suc h tabl e (N o . II7) has recentl y been established as of Virginia m anu facture. It d escend ed in th e Lee family of Stratford and rem ain s part of th e fu rn is h ings of Stra tford H all , th e ances t ra l Lee m an sion, o n w h ic h build ing was begun abo u t 173 8 . O n th e basis of th e ca rving, in parti cular the characteristic th ree-part bellfl ow er on th e knees, the tab le has been attributed to th e W illiam sburg shop of Peter Scott. ' .l 5 The pattern o f carving o n the table's piecru st edge may be t he m o st elabo ra te o f any o n an Am erican exampl e; it s co m bina tio n o f she lls and C - an d S-sc ro lls rep eats almo st exact! y th e ap p lied cas t bo rde r deco ra tio n of m id-centu ry si lver salve rs -ci rc ular t rays th at we re par t of th e tea eq uipag e . Th ou gh a few Am eri can sa lve rs are kn o w n with the sa me border d esig n , suc h as o ne m ad e in th e shop of Paul Rev er e abo u t 1761 fo r th e C ha nd le r fam ily (N o . 71), the y w ere pr odu ced in fa r g rea te r numbers in Lo nd o n . (Pe yto n Rand olph , spea ker o f th e H ou se of Bu rg esses in Wil liam sburg in 1766- 67, ow ne d a pa ir of such salve rs, his m ade b y th e Lond o n si lvers m it h W ill ia m Peast o n be twee n [7 53 and 17 55. ) ' )6 It mu st be to o ne o f th o se En gli sh m odels th at th e t abl et op d esig n is ind ebted . Th e ela borate car vin g ext end s to th e pill ar an d leg s, w ith th e leafage o n th e vasiform part of th e pillar-asymm et rical, flam elikc, and lapp ing at th e base o f th e co lum n -the tabl e's most rococo aspect. An other round tea tabl e (N o . 118 ) descended in the Gibbes and H olm es fam ilies of C ha rles to n, w he re it is thou gh t to have been ma de. The piecru st top edge has an unexceptional sca llo p pattern but th e o u te r m olding is gadroon-ca rved in a m an ner aga in sugges ti ng wo r k in silve r (see No . 74) . T he ped est al is ve ry lik e th at of the Lee famil y table. T hough th e car ving of th e Vir ginia exam ple is m ore lively, th e tw o share th e same program of o rna me nt, eve n to th e acant hus leafage on th e kn ees with th e pend ent three-part be llflowe r th at has been assoc iated wi th th e Scott shop . ' ) 7 In Virgin ia fu rni tu re, m ature ro co co o rname nt is most evi d ent in a h a n d ful of rec tangular tables h a v ing s t r aig h t le g s

and pierced galleries an d believed to have bee n ma de in William sb ur g bet ween abo u t 1765 and 1775 in th e shop of Anth on y H a y. Lik e th eir co u nte r pa r ts fro m Po rt sm outh , New H amp sh ire (see N o. 10 2 ), th ey are som etimes called "C hi na Tabl es, " after th e two ill us tra te d in T h e D irector (Plate i.r) . A ccordin g to C hi p pe nda le, th ey we re inten ded " fo r hol din g eac h a Se t o f C h ina, and m ay be used as Tea-

117

Tea table, Wi lliam sburg. '7 55-70 Mahogan y, Diam. : )27/ 8 in . Robert E. Lee Memorial Asso ciation

174

Tab les." Th e o rna me n t o f th e Vir gini a exa m p les is eith er pier ced (saw ed o u t) o r a co m bina tio n o f pierced an d carved. T hus a rococo effect co uld be achieved w itho ut the parti cipation of a pr ofessional carve r. O ne of th e pi er ced - w o rk t abl es (N o . 119 ), es pecially disting u ishe d fo r it s d esign and co nditio n, has a tr adition of owne rs hi p in th e Lewi s an d B yrd famil ies of Vir ginia. Ther e has lon g been s pec u latio n th at th e pr ofile of a bird centered wi thi n its pi er ced side rails is an allus io n to th e nam e of the latt er famil y. An engag ing h yp oth esi s is th at th e tabl e w as comm issioned aro un d 1762-63, w hen the interi ors o f Westove r, th e J am es Ri ver pl antati on o f Willi am Byrd III ( 17281777), we re bein g updat ed w ith stucco ceilings in th e rococo sty le. Th e tabl e is m ad e en ti re ly o f mah o g an y, now h avin g d evel o p ed a lus tro us d eep red p ar in a . P " The le gs an d the ga lle ry are cu t from th e so lid , a pr acti ce unu su al in En glish wo rk b u t n ot in Am eri can . E xcept for th e top , all elements of th e ta b le are ex tens ive ly pierced: th e ga lle ry saw ed o u t in a gui lloc he patt ern form ed b y pair s o f undulatin g cur ves ; th e legs , w ith a rep eat ed pattern of figure eig hts , diam onds, and rose ttes . The effec t o f th e o pe n wo rk, even w ith in a ri gidl y four-s qua re form, is unmist akabl y rococo . It is also, literall y, C hi nese C hi p pe n da le . Th e Director co n t ain s a number of illus tra tio ns o f "C h inese C ha irs," "C hines e Ca bine ts , " and " china Cases" o f noti ceabl y sim ila r tre atm ent. In an other design, C h ip pe n da le says, "The Fee t an d Rail s .. . are cu t th ro ug h; w h ic h g ives it an airy Lo ok . "I JY El sewhere (P late C X X IIJ) , he n otes, " T he Fram e is pi er ced th rou gh, but m ay be so lid, an d th e Fr et g lu ed o n," th e latt er an o p tio n em ployed on th e next tabl e.

book case ( FIG . 4 3, p . 179) sec u re ly asc r ibe d to C ha rles ton. The tabl e wo u ld also see m to co n fo r m n ice ly t o th e "co m m o de fr et C h in a tabl e " for w hic h Elfe charge d £45 in Febru ar y 1774 . Wh at is th e co n nec t io n b et w een th ese Willi am sburg and C ha rlesto n tabl es? Was th ere a carve r w ho moved bet w een th e two cities?

T he m ost fu lly dev elop ed o f th e carved so uthern china tabl es (N o . 120) h as se r pe nt ine rail s and tapered legs ca rve d w ith u nd u lat ing vi nes and en ding in g u ttae feet (so call ed afte r a t riang ula r ele me n t o f th e D o ri c orde r). 140 A clos el y rel ated co u n te rpa r t , but w i th st raight si des , h as a hi st or y o f Washing ton owners hip at M ount Vern on. Sin ce on thi s scrp ent in c- rail ed exa m p le th e d elica te tap erin g o f the legs heralds th e emcrgi ng neo classical sty le, th e tabl e w ould dat e from the m id-1770S, w hen th e Scot s carve r George Hamilton joined th e sho p of Anth on y H ay,':" o r lat er. On th at bas is, an d b ecau se of sim ila rities w ith Ha y sho p co ns t ruc tion and carving, it has now be en cred ited to Willi am sburg . I"' A case ca n b e m ad e for associa t ing t abl es o f this so rt wi th C ha rles to n. Elfc' s acco u n ts dem on strate th at china, or C h inese, t ea tabl es w ere a favored lo cal furnitur e form . H ere, th e blind fr etw ork o f int erl aced h c xag on s with sc ro lle d ce n t ra l t abl et th at is carve d int o th e tabl e r ail s almost matc hes t he fret above th e cu p boa rds of a librar y

lIS

T ea table, C ha rleston, 17 55- 70 M ahogan y, Diam . : JI ll . in . Mu seum of Ea rly Sou thern De cor ative Art s

17 5

120

C hina table, Williamsburg, ca. 1775 Mahogany, L.: 36 in. Collection of Mr. and Mrs. George M. Kaufman

Am ong th e most dist inctive form s in so ut hern rococo fu rni ture is the C ha rlesto n version of th e pem b roke, or b reak fast , tabl e: a serpentine top , st ra ig h t legs, en d rail s ca rve d w it h elaborate scrollwork fr amin g pierced C hi n ese latticework, and flat stretchers with exaggeratedl y br o ad balu st er profiles. The two known exampl es are almos t ide n tical. O ne (N o . 121 ) was found in Charlest on in 1954; th e o ther descended in th e Middleton famil y and is still at M iddlet on Pl ace, ou tside Charleston. The seco n d t abl e was m o st lik el y ma de fo r Arthur Middleton ( 1742- 1787), a signe r of th e D eclar ation o f Independence , after he and hi s w ife, M ar y (Iza rd), returned in 1771 from three ye ar s ab road an d settl ed perm an entl y at their plantation . To attribu te th ese tabl es to Thom as Elfe is not farfetched, for in J anu ar y 1772 he desc ri be d j ust suc h a piece : "Breakfast tabl e th e Ends Ca rved -e-Ez S; "

121

Pembroke table, Charleston, 1770- 75 Mahogany; ash, L.: 42 in. The Charleston Museum

177

CASE FURNITURE Thou gh no ro co co-styl e case furniture has been identified from William sburg ca bin et sho ps, it has lon g been considered a sta ple in Charl eston wo rk. A chest-on-c hes t (FIG. 42) th at descended in th e D eas family o f Charlest on , pr esu m ably m ade for J ohn De as ( 1735 - 1790) , h as seco ndary woodsnative cypress and yellow pin e-that reinforce a local attrib uti on . The drawer fr onts h av e th e fi gured ven eer s, bead ed edge s, an d hardw ar e with simpl e, circu la r esc u tcheons suggesti ng th e impendin g neoclassical taste an d a date in the 177 0S or lat er. Th e onl y ro co co features o n th e piece are a fr etw ork of a fi gure-ei ght pattern su r mo u n ted b y a scroll pediment and it s pi erced tymp anum. Cen te red in th e tympanum-here a thin and lacy scree n o f scro llwo rk-is a platform me ant for a cer amic bu st o r o the r o rn ame nt . Pieces of thi s ge ner al d esign are o fte n ass o ciated with th e nam e of Thom as Elfe, who se accounts for th e years 1771- 74 include refer ences to doubl e chests w ith frets and pier ced pedimen t head's. Hi s des cription s of a " Dou ble C hest o f D raw 's w rh, a ped im ent head, cut throu gh e-Exz" and "a Lar ge C lose press with a pediment head C u lo p in [cut o pen]" adm irably suit this double chest . A librar y bo ok case (FIG. 43) straig ht out of C hippendale is o ne o f C ha rles to n's most fam ou s pi eces o f furn it ur e. Cypr ess seco nda ry w oods and a figure- eight fret j us t und er the pediment ass o cia te it w ith th e city and po ssibl y even with Elfes sho p . In N o vemb er 177 2 , Elfe bill ed o ne J ohn Dart £ 100 for a " Lib rary Bo ok Case w th C hi neas doo rs & D raws und er them " (here th ere are o n ly d o o rs) . Th e d esig n is altered onl y slightly from Plate X CIII in Th e Director. Faith ful to th e en gr avin g are th e g laze d, mull ion ed doors, incl udi ng th e carve d frond s in th e arche d tops of th e end un its, but the ches t's proportion s are ve rtica lly o r ien ted in keep ing wi th th e h igh ce ilings o f so u t he rn in te rio rs and a fre t has been add ed abo ve th e cu pbo ards . 143

FIGURE 42. Chest-oil-chest, C ha rleston, ca. 1775.. M ah ogan y; cy press, yellow pin e, H .: 87 in . (22 1 cm .) , T he Colonial William sburg Foundati on (1974-166)

,

43. Library bookcase, C ha rles to n, 176 5-75. M ah o gan y; cyp ress, H . : 106 in . (269.2 CI11 .) . Museum o f Earl y Southern D eco rati ve Arts (949)

FIGURE

17 9

SEATING

FURNITURE

An eas y cha i r (N o . 122 ) is o ne of the few exa m p les o f uph ol st er ed r o co co fu rn itu re fr om th e South. Th e li vel y, sma ll-sca le leg carving -a naturalisti call y rend ered cabocho n and leafage on th e kn ees and hairy paw s fo r feet-is so m uch in th e Phil ad elphi a idi om (see N o . (49) th at th e chair was lon g th ou ght to be from th at city. N evertheless, it is one of a handful wi th co n ica l arm su pp o rts an d sha ped rear legs o f a des ig n th at ca n n o w be asc r i b ed to C ha rles ton . All h ave fr am es w it h so u t he rn woo ds (a ll wi t h cy p ress, some also w ith red bay), as well as eit he r ye llo w pin e o r popl ar; tw o ha ve C ha rles to n hist ories of owne rship. q4 Elfc's acco unts list o n ly t w o eas y cha irs: in N o vemb er 177 2, " I Eas ie cha ir Eagle claw s" for £30 ; in N ovember 177 3, "a n Easy cha ir & Cas te rs Ca r ve d feet" fo r £32, th e latter a d escripti on th at co uld ap ply to thi s cha ir. The m o st m agnifi cent pi ece o f eig h tee n th-c en tury Virgin ia furnitur e is a g rea t ce re mo n ia l chai r (N o . 123 ), q 5 its back sta m pe d w it h th e si gn ature o f B enj am in Bu ck t ro u t , w ho arr ive d in Willi am sburg abo ut 176 5 and was initi ated int o the W illi am sburg M ason ic o rde r in Febru ar y 1774. q(, T he high b ack co ns is ts o f a co m pe n di u m o f M asoni c em b le ms, its arc h-a nd- keys to ne cres t attes ting th at th e cha ir was m ad e as a m ast er' s cha ir. E ach o f th e M as oni c m otifs is of sym bo lic import ; th e trowel at upper left, for exa m ple, re presen ts th e

122

Easy chair, Charleston, [765-75 M ah o gan y; cypress, H.: 48 1/2 ill. W int ert hur Museum

sp rea d ing of fr at ern al love. Th e sig nifica nc e of the bu st o f M atth ew Pri or ( 166 4- 1721), aft er hi s sta tue in the Poet's Co rne r in Westmin st er Abbey, is now lo st. Whi ch Virgini a lod ge o rigina lly co m m issione d the chair is no lon ger kn own, but in 177 8 it w as tak en to Ed enton , N orth Ca ro lina, to pre serve it from w artime destruction . Ap art from its M asoni c iconogr aph y and exce pt for th e heig h t o f th e sea t , Bu cktrour 's m ast erpiece is read ily recogn iza b le as an o vers ize ro co co armch air fash ioned from the de nses t m ah o g an y. T he d olphin legs-twi sted tail on the kn ee, fish scales on th e ankle, and o pen- mo uthed head forming the fo ot- ar e tak en from Pl at e XXI o f Th e Director, the on ly direct cri b bi ng from C hippe nda le in William sburg furni tur e. Bu cktrout, d espite hi s o b vio us fami lia rity with the design of En glish ceremo nial cha irs, may have been bett er at exec u tio n th an at d esign , for it mu st be ad m itte d th at hi s grea t effo rt lack s total co he rence. The front skirt is not w ith o u t g race, but th e carving o n th e side skirts fai ls to accomm od at e the arm su p po rts; th e arc h an d the pil asters from w h ic h it sp rings are undul y heav y; and th e m edl ey o f art isa ns ' to ols cl in g t o t he sides o f th e o pe n w o rk b ack as if to ssed int o a m agn eti zed box . D esp ite an y aes t he tic sho rtco m ings thi s cha ir an d at le ast tw o o the r ri ch ly o rna me n te d W illiam sburg-m ad e M asoni c exa m ples ma y p o ssess.t" ? th ey all bear witness to th e im po rta nce in Vir ginia of a fra terna l o rde r to w hich suc h luminaries as Washington and J effer son belonged .

123

Masonic master's chair, 1767- 7 5 Benj amin Buc krro ur, Willi am sburg Mahogany: waln ut, H . : li51;2 in . The Colonial Williamsbu rg Founda tion

1 8\

N ewspaper advertis emen ts were mostl y an no un cemen ts of th e opening or clo sing o f shops or cha nges o f add ress ; few were det ailed de scripti ons o f obj ect s for sa le . O f a bou t twenty carvers active between 1750 and 179 3, nin e are know n to have b een immi g rant s a n d thos e nin e co ns ti t u ted th e source o f alm os t all th e currently kn own o r a t t ri b u ted Phil adelphia carving of their era. A survey of all the m aker s of documented pie ces demonstrates th at as a rul e nati ve-born cr aft smen p roduced p lain , uncarved furnitur e an d th e immi grants turned out pi ec es enriched w ith car ved o rnam ent . 15 2 That finding is hardl y su r p rising : ca rv ing wa s a high ly specializ ed craft for which scant training would have exi sted in the city. Intima tions of the roco co s ty le b eg an t o a p pea r in Phi ladelphi a furnitur e in the earl y 1750S. A scro ll- to p hi gh chest (FIG. 47, p. 199 ), signed b y th e cabin etm ak er H enr y Clifton an d d at ed 17 53 , is the ea r lies t do cum ented u se o f naturalistic carving . The knees of th e cabriole legs have leafy ornament , the large central drawers have recessed and frill yed ged rocaille she lls fl anked b y stream er s o f foli age, an d a pierced and asymm etri cal s h ie ld, o r ca r to uc he , for m s th e central fini al. All th at stylish em bellishm en t is ap plied to th e so m ew ha t old-fas hion ed an d uniquely Am eri can hi gh ches t with scroll pedim ent, which had devel oped in N ew En gl and durin g th e 1730 S and was to remain popul ar th er e for four de cades . Philadelphi a, with h er clo se co m me rcia l ti es to Bost on , took up the form an d ad d ed up-to-dat e o rna me nt . Simi lar shells and leafag e were u sed o n sea t ing furniture . Pre sumabl y, th at w as th e sty le o f decoration o n th e eig h t walnut chairs with " C arved Claw and Kn ee o pe n back " and the eas y-chair fram e with "Carved Claw and Kn ee" so ld to Judge Edward Shippen by John Elliott in 1754. 153

Philadelphia

The m o st fer ti le g ro u n d for the cu ltiva tio n o f th e rococo tast e in Am eri can fu rn itu re w as Phil adelphia, fr om w h ic h m o re r o co co-st yl e pi eces survi ve than fro m all th e o t h e r Am erican ca bi ne t ma ki ng ce n ters combin ed . So me s ho w rococo o rna m en t g ra fte d o nto lo cal form s and so me are full ex p ress io ns o f th e fas h io na b le London idi om, but nearl y all are readil y reco gn izabl e as w ha t h as come to b e kno wn as Phil adelphia C hip pen da le. The rococo m ode th at evo lved in that ci ty, en t h usias tic ally ado p te d b y cl ient an d crafts ma n alike , had a p o werful in fl ue nce throu ghout eas te rn Pennsylva nia an d wes te rn N e w J erse y an d, to th e so u t h, in D el aw are and Maryl and . Phil adelphi a w as es ta b lis hed b y Willi am P enn in 16 82 an d in corp orat ed in 1701. Fr om 170 1 until 17 51, dur in g th e tenure o f J am es Lo g an as propriet ar y age nt , th e city grew an d pro sp er ed . Her go ld en ag e ca me in th e se co n d half o f th e cen tury, when she reigned su p reme amo ng th e Am erican co lo nies: th e nation 's fir st capital, from 1789 to 1800, as w ell as the sta te capit al, until 1799 . Durin g the 1750S, while th e popul ation o f Bo ston remain ed static at abo ut 15, 000, th at o f Phil adelphia fir st excee d ed N ew York 's an d th en co nt inu ed to g row, reachin g so me 19, 000 in 1760 and 28 , 500 in 1774 . 14M Sit uate d so m e hundred m iles fro m th e sea o n th e D elawar e Ri ver (see N o . 39) and stret ching w est to the Schu ylk ill , the ci ty h ad unparall el ed access to th e v ast hinterland s o f the middl e col onies. C omm er ce an d tr ade in the regi on 's abu ndant natural produ ce m ad e Phil adelphia ri ch at precisel y th e tim e th at th e fashi on for the ro co co in En gl and w as at it s height. Th e cit y had a la rg e co n tinge nt o f w o odwork er s. Th e n am es o f 172 ac ti ve bet w een abo u t 17 30 and 1760 a re known . r' " as are do cum ented pi eces b y m ore th an 30 w orking b et w een 17 50 an d 178 5; at least 37 o the rs ad ve rtised in th e lo cal press b et w een 17 31 an d 17 8 5,' 50 an d ove r 100 are record ed in th e t a x li st o f 17 83 . 151 M an y o f th e c ra fts me n we re n at ive born, but th er e we re also numer ou s immigr ants.

The En gli sh -born Elli ott ( 1713- 1791) arrived in Phil ad elphi a in 1753 and imm ediatel y set abo ut m aking furniture for fellow Quakers, Shippen am ong th em. H e still called himself a ca b ine tm ake r in 17 56, but the foll owing year spo ke of his looking-gl ass sto re. Hi s printed labels, found o n m an y look ing g lass es, th e great majority of them im p orted , are ev id en ce th at the pi ece s w ere in Philadelphia in th e eig h tee nt h century. Other types o f furniture were also imported int o th e city at th at time but lack lab els or o ther documentati o n th at would lo cate t hem there . In 1772, furn iture va lued at £ 1,08 5 w as shipped to Phil ad elphi a (£ 860 wo rt h fro m Lond on alo n e) . Th at th e total repres ented onl y a bo u t a third th e value of furni ture imp orted into the n ei ghb oring co lo n ies of N ew York or M ar yland and Virgini a gives so me indicati on o f the rel ative importan ce o f the ci ty's o w n furniture bu sinesses.'>' The publication in 1762 of the third , enlarged ed itio n of C hip pe n da le's Director can n ow be see n as h avin g heralded

18 2

the era of t he Phi lad elphi a C hi p pe nda le , the m o st th oro ughly rococo of all A m erican interpret ati on s o f hi gh - st yl e London cabinetwo rk. In th e decade th at follo we d, in a politi cal clima te th at dis couraged the buyi ng o f En gli sh g oo ds, the city w itnessed a co n flue nce of talented yo ung Londont rained ar tisa ns and wo rl d ly and wea lthy yo u ng Phil ad elphia ns eager to assert th eir sta ndi ng in co lonial society. The time was ri pe for Chippendale-s ty le furniture to be pr oduced locally. T he Director was readily avai lable in th e co lony.J55 So me tim e bet w een 1764 an d 1769, a copy o f th e third editio n w as acq uired by th e Librar y Com pa ny of Phi ladelphia (the first subscriptio n library in Am eri ca), w hich in 1769 counted nine furni turema ke rs amo ng its read er s. Two of th em , Thomas Affleck an d Benj am in Randolph , are kn own to have ow ned copies .J56 In additio n, Ro bert Bell, a Phil ad elphia bookse ller, advertised th e book in 1776, an d bo o kb ind er J am es Muir charged a clien t for cove ring a copy a,decade later. In 1775, Bell pub lish ed th e fir st book o n architec ture to be printed in A m e r ica , a Ph il ad elphi a edition of Sw an 's British Arc hitect (see p . 6). Th e ill us tra t io ns w ere b y J ohn Norman, an Eng lish engrave r new ly ar rive d in Am er ica. Bound into some copies, op posi te th e ti t le pag e, was a broadside p rop o sal for prin ting by subscriptio n a bo ok of furnitu re d esig n s to b e t itl ed T he G entleman and Cabi net Mak er's A ssistant (No .5). In typ o g raph y an d p hraseo logy, the broadside ap es the titl e page of th e first ed itio n of T he Dir ector (N o . 6) . [f plans for th e boo k had not been cance led because of the outbreak of wa r, t he illus tra tio ns wo u ld alm o st certain ly have been modeled afte r th e same so urce . T he re cou ld be no m o re tellin g evi de nce of C hip pe nda le's ap peal to Philadelp hians . The furn iture desig ns we re to hav e been the work ofJ ohn Fol w ell , a cabinetma ke r best kn own for the massive ma hogany case fo r D av id Rittenh ou se ' s or rery (1771) at th e University of Pennsyl vani a and for th e Speaker's Chair (1779) in the H ou se of Represent atives, both pieces ha ving stra ig h t, fre t-carved fro nt legs of a typ e much favored by C hippen dale.157 The ac tua l use of desig ns o r m otifs from T he D irector, w hil e practiced to a grea ter degree in Philadel phia th an any w here else in th e colonies, was lim it ed to a handful of plates illust rating a few chai rs an d a co u ple of wri ting tabl es and desks and bo ok cases . O nly o nce is a d esi g n co pied in toto (see N o . 147) . U su all y, ele me n ts from one o r m ore design s are com bine d in new ways (see N o . (38); occasio na lly, C hip penda le's desig ns are so assi m ila te d as to b e almos t undetectable (see No . 130).15H T he on ly other furnitu re pattern book reco rde d in co lonial Phi lade lphia was H oushold Furniture (1760- 62), ad vertised in 1762 by Rivi ng ton and Brown, booksellers in N ew York

(s ee p . 154) an d Ph il ad elph ia. No fewer than seven of its d esi gn s we re illu strat ed o n cabine tma ker Benjamin Rand olph 's tr ad e card, in compa ny w ith o ne from T he Director an d o ne fr om ca rve r Th o m as J oh nson ' s a ile Hu ndred and Fifty Ne w Designs (Lo ndon, 1758; 1761 ).' 59 Rand olph ( 1721-1791 ), bo rn in M on m outh Co u n ty, N ew J er sey , an d se t tled in P hi ladelp hia by 1762, became prob abl y th e mo st pr o min ent of all the n at iv e furn it urem ak er s. Hi s survivi ng led gers re fer to a variety of b usiness ve n tu res .,60 B y 1766, he was em ploying ski lled carvers; the foll owin g yea r, he purch ased pr opert y o n C hes tn u t Stree t, bet w een Third and Fourth st ree ts, w here in 1769 he bu ilt a su bs tan tia l hou se an d a sho p, Th e Go lden Eagle . To celebr at e , he had Jam es Sm it he r eng rave his grand , Londonsty le ad ve r t ise men t (No . 32), w h ic h offered "all Sorts of Ca b ine t & C ha irwo rk Li kew ise Carving Gi lding &c Perfo r m' d in th e C h inese an d M o d e rn Tas tes." In 1769 and 1770 , R and olph was exten sive ly occupied in p ro vid in g arc h itect ura l ca rvi ng and furni ture for J oh n Cadwa laders incom pa ra ble hou se on Second Street ."?' In early 1770, he advertised th at he m ade wooden buttons, a pointed remi nder t o Phil ad elphi an s n ot to b u y th e im po r ted ones made of brass o r si lver. An ou tspoken patrio t, Rand ol ph joined the Fir st C ity T roo p in 1774 . H is pocke t alma nac fo r 177 5 reco rd s his associa tion wi th both Washington and Jefferson, w ho we re in th e city fo r the Second Continental Congress. M ore th an any thi ng else, th e influx in to Philadelphia in th e 1760s o f train ed woodworkers, mos t notab ly carvers from London , must be the explana tion for th e ex trao rdi nary qu alit y o f th e Ph iladelph ia rococo. T he men came individu ally, th ou gh so me of th em might have been en t ice d w ith speci fic pr omises of employ ment . One of the firs t and most success ful o f th o se ar tisa ns was the Abe rdeen-born cabinetm ak er Thom as Affl eck (1740-1795), w ho had app renticed in Sco tla n d b efore m o vin g to Lon d on in 1760. 162 Doubtless w ith high hop es, he sailed for Philadelphia in 1763, a copy of Th e Director under his arm . Tho ug h J oh n Pe nn (1729- 1795), gra n dson of th e fo u nde r and the co lo n y ' s new lieu te nan t governo r, arr ive d at th e same time, ap paren tl y on the same ship, th e claim th at he was Affleck 's principal patron has no t been co nfi r med .V" In 1768, A ffl eck m o ved from his firs t sho p, o n Un ion Stree t, to his pe rma ne nt hab it at io n o n Seco nd Street, an no u nci ng in the Pennsylvania C hronicle of 12 De cember th at he carried on "the cabine t-making bu siness in all its vari ou s br an ch es. " T he reafter, he was engulfed in th e buildin g bo om , fro m w h ic h he eme rged th e wea lthies t of Phil adelphia craftsmen. , 64 O n 25 Nove mber 1762, an an no u ncemen t ap peared in th e Pennsvl uania Ga zette: "Jus t impo rted . . . {rom Londo n , and to be So ld b y Bernard and Ju giez Carvers an d Gi lders,

at their Lo okin g- Gl ass Sto re , in Walnut-Street .. . A C o m pleat assor tme n t o f Lo okin g-Gl asses, " th e propri et ors also o ffering " All So rt of Ca rvi ng in Wo od o r Sto ne and Gilding d on e in th e n eat es t M an n e r. "1 (, 5 Th at n oti ce b y t w o men pr esum abl y recentl y ar ri ve d from Lond on is th e fir st eviden ce o f a partnership th at was to loom lar ge in th e Philadelphi a ro co co. Ni ch ol as Bern ard pr om oted th e bu si n ess b y setting up sho p bri ef y in o the r co lo nial cities - in C ha rlesto n durin g th e fa ll and wi n ter o f 176 5/ 66; in N ew York in the su m me r of 1769. ,M> H e and M artin Ju gi ez specialized in carving coa ts o f ar ms, suc h as th at o f Kin g Geo rge III, for th e Cou ncil C ha m ber o f C ha rles to n's new Sta te Hou se, an d , for T ho mas , Lo rd Fair fax , pr opriet o r of five m illion acres in the N orthern N eck o f Virgin ia, th at of hi s famil y, featured in a patt ern to be cas t int o chi m ney back s. !"? In 1766, Benj amin C he w paid th e m en for arc hitec tural carv ing at C live den, his co u n t ry h ou se (see p . 26 ) . A ft er th eir ad v er tise m en t s in Ph iladelphia papers in 1767 and 1769, th eir bu sin ess took off. W he n Bern ard an d Ju gi ez sig ne d th e fir st Phil adelphi a n oni mp o rt ati on agreeme n t , o n 25 Octo be r 176 5, th ey w er e j o in ed b y ano t her rece ntly ar rived ca rvc r.I'" one Hercul es Courtenay, a m an w ho had bee n tr ain ed in the hotbed o f th e London rococo . O n 13 M ay 1756, he had begun a seve n-year ap p re n tices h ip w ith " T ho: J ohnson o f St G iles in th e fields Carver" ; dut y o r tax o f £30 o n th e ind enture wa s not paid unti l 14 Februa ry 1760 . ' (,'.1 In th e yea rs immedi ately foll owin g th e fir st edi tio n o f Th e Director ( 1754), Thoma s J ohnson (b. 1714) was th e m o st ac tive pro mo te r o f car vin g in th e ro coco sty le. The fift y-th ree engraved pl at es h e issu ed in 1756 and 1757, w hile Courtenay was in his sho p, and reissu ed in book form in 1758 and 1761 , had g rea t in fluen ce. '7° Co ur te nay en tered the em p loy o f Benj amin Randolph by lat e 1766 . Bet w een 1766 an d 1769, there are num erou s referen ces to him in R and olph 's acco un ts, th e m o st ins tructi ve o f w h ic h is a tail or' s cha rge fo r " ma k ing yo ur Ca rve r Co u rte ney a . .. C oa t. "'71 H e fin all y we n t o u t o n hi s own in 1769. O n 14 Au gu st, h e ad ve r tised in th e Penn svl vania C hronicle as "Ca rve r an d G ilder, fro m Lond on, " wh o "undert ak es all Ma n ne r o f Carv ing an d Gi ld ing , in th e n ew est T ast e , at hi s H o u se in Fr ont-Str eet, b et ween C hest n u t and Wa ln u t Street s. " B y th e su m me r o f 1770 , he was bu sy w ith th e fines t co m missio ns in town . The last of th e im m ig ran t carvers abo ut w ho m any thing mu ch is kn o wn is J am es Reyn ol d s (d. 1794) .1 72 Hi s arriva l wi th hi s wi fe was ann o u nced in th e Pennsvlvania Gazette o f 21 Au gu st 1766 . An adve r t ise me n t a p pea red in th e sa me newspap er wi th in two wee ks: "J am es Reyn olds, carve r and gi lde r, Ju s t arrived fro m Lon d o n . . . at hi s H ou se in D o ckStree t . .. und ertak es to execute all th e va rio us B ran ch es o f Carving an d G ild ing in th e new est , neat est , an d g cn tcc les t

Taste . " 173 Th e next ye ar, Reyn olds m o ved to Fr ont Street, between C hestn u t and Walnut (j us t where Courte nay was to settle in 1769). He ad vertised he avil y in th e fall o f 1767 and in 176 8, o fferin g imp orted lo okin g g lass es as we ll as "All th e seve ra l Br an ches o f Ca rving and Gildin g. " By 1770, he too w as in volv ed in m an y o f th e city 's major p roj ects. Whil e those m en were to b e th e key pl ayer s in th e Philadelphia ro coc o up to th e Rev olution , th er e we re o the rs ac tive in th e sty le , th ou gh gene ra lly at a less brilli ant level. N ative-b orn Jame s Gillingh am ( 1736- 1781), a p artn e r of H enry C lifto n 's between 1761 and 1768, lab eled cha irs based o n Pl at e x in Th e D irector and at least o n ce em ployed Bern ard an d J ug iez to em be llis h hi s work. Thom as Tufft (d . (788), who se label (FIG. 44) is affi xed to som e co m pe te n tly carve d piece s, took o ver Gillin gham 's sho p in 1773. By th e end o f the 1760s, there had been a sea cha nge in Phil ad elphi a hi gh fashion . Whereas at the be ginnin g of th e de cade carving had be en limited in scope and heavy in execution , now, in th e hands o f th e London-train ed talent , it was exhibitin g a sp irit o f da zzlin g excess, just w ha t th e rococo did best. What happened n ext viv id ly dem onstrates th e factor s th at nouri shed the s t y le in Phil ad elph ia : J ohn Cad wa lade r an d Samu el Pow el , two ri ch an d influ enti al yo u ng men , b oth recentl y m arri ed, bou ght fin e, nearl y new town hou ses and se t abo u t having the interiors totall y rem o dele d in th e m o st ela bora te ro coc o m anner. T he wo rk o n t h e h ouse s an d th eir furni shin g s , pr o ceedin g co nc u r re n tly, required th e co m b ine d effo rts o f th e b est woo dwo rke rs in th e city. Affl eck an d Randolph (the two lead in g cabine tmakers) an d Bern ard andJu gi ez, Cour te nay, an d Reyn olds (the four leadin g ca r ve rs) w er e all engage d . Th e result was ar chitecture an d furniture in the full est roco co sty le Am erica was to achi ev e . There after, until w a r br ok e o u t, anyone aspiring to th e height of fashi on-including Benj amin C hew, w ho purchased J ohn Penn 's town hou se in 1771 ; Penn himse lf, w ho built Lan sd own e, the m o st m agnifi cent of th e regi on 's co untry seats, in 1773; and Ca d wa lade r's co usin Joh n Di ckin son, wh o redid th e g rea t hou se ofJ ohn Ross (see p. 85) in 1774 (all buildin gs now go ne w itho ut a tr ace) - wo uld hav e look ed to th e Cad wa lade r an d the Powel hou ses as th e sty listic benchmark . A b o ok o f Prices of Cab inet & C hair JVtJrk , publish ed in Phil adelphia in [772, 17< is a uniq ue docu mcllt of ro co co furniture; th er e is noth in g co m pa ra b le in the o ther co lo n ies or in En gland . Com piled in an effo rt to reg ulate w hat cab ine tmakers sho uld pa y journeym en for speci fic task s and w ha t th ey sho u ld cha rge th eir cl ie n ts for co mple te d pieces , the b o ok gives a rem ark abl y det ailed pi cture o f th e furn iture obtainable in Phil ad elphia durin g the hei ght o f th e ro co co. (Trad iti on al form s from th e Qu een Ann e p eri od , w h ic h h ad

Label of Thomas T ufft, Philadelphia, ca. 1770. Engraving on paper, I'VB x 2% in. (3.5 x 6.7 em .). Private collection

F[GURE 4 4 .

bee n th e fashion in th e 17Sos, we re also in cluded .) Listed in th e Price Book we re th e vari ous o ptio na l em be llish m ents for eve ry ty pe of cha ir, tabl e, an d ches t, and th e g oing rat e for eac h , according to th e pat ron 's cho ice o f wood, w hich could be either Pennsyl vania wa ln ut o r th e m o re cos tly Ca ribbea n ma hoga ny. Thus, a Philad elphia hi gh ches t, m ad e o f w alnut, having a flat top an d n o ca rvi ng, was pri ced at £ 13 (inc lu ding th e jo u rney ma n 's p a y o f £3 -10 -0); a no t her ch es t, o f ma hoga ny, h aving a scro ll pedim ent and carved w ork ; cos t £21 (t he jo urney man receivin g £S-IO-0) . Th e full ro co co style- imp lici t in th e list ed chairs an d tabl es w it h croo k ed (ca brio le) legs an d leaves o n th e kn ees o r M arlborou gh feet (straig ht legs) wi th bases, brackets, and fret s; an d ches ts w ith scroll or pitc h pedim ents w it h de n ti ls, fret s, an d shieldswas by far th e mos t ex pe ns ive . Philad elphi a chai rs o r tabl es w ith straig h t, sq ua re leg s, us ua lly eit her m ol ded o r pl ain an d en ding in app lie d cu ffs, are descr ib ed by th e so briq ue t M arl bor o ugh . O n exce ptio na l pieces, th e sides of th e legs are cut away to form o rna me n tal pa n els of n aturali stic fol iag e an d blind fr et w ork in Go th ic and C hi nese p atterns, and are linked to th e cha ir o r th e table ski rt b y pi er ced brack et s. These are the ro co co features of the M arlbo rou gh style . The M arlborou gh leg an d th e alte rna te cabrio le t yp e w er e prob abl y b oth o ffe red si m u lta ne o us ly fro m t he 17s os , though the ea rl ies t kn o wn u se of th e eponymo us term is in 1766, o n Philadelphi a ca b ine t ma ke r Sam uel Mi ckl e's drawing o f a st raig h t- leg cha ir.'?" The Price Book , in d ev o tin g sepa ra te sec tio ns to "C hai rs M arlbrou gh

fe et," " Soffas M arlb orou gh fee t," and "Ca rd tabl es w it h M arlbrough feet, " shows ho w important th e straigh t leg had b ecome . The sa me o p t ion ap pears in all editions o f The Director, but th e term " Ma rl bo ro ug h " see ms n ot to h a ve been used in Eng land . Its o rig in and any co nnec tion wi th th e du cal hou se have yet to be determined . J ohn C ad wa lader m ay be co nsi de red th e exe mplar of th e grea t Phil adelphi a patro ns of th e rococo .'?" Born to th e w ife o f an eminent ph ysician , Ca dwalade r atte nde d th e College of Phil ad elphia befo re co m pleting his ed uca tio n in Eng land and d oin g th e g ra n d tour in Fra nc e an d It al y. Hi s m arri ag e in 1768 to M ar yland heir ess Elizabe th Llo yd p rovide d him w ith trem end ou s resources . B et w een 1769 and 1772, h e s pe n t so me £3, SOO o n rem od elin g his hou se and ano ther £ I, SOO o n it s furni shin gs (Nos. [24 , 12S; IS3 -Is6 )-a n al toge t he r prin cel y su m. H e alo ne sha re d wi t h Gove rnor P enn th e di stin cti on o f ownin g "a ll so rts" of carriages . 17 7 On 3 Jun e 1774, Sil as D eane , a m emb er o f th e Co n ti ne n ta l Cong ress from Co n nec t ic u t, wro te: " I din ed yesterday wi t h M r. C adw alla de r, wh o se furn iture and ho u se exceeds any th ing I hav e seen in th is city or else w he re ." 17 X Wash in gt o n , w hose ad m i r atio n o f h is " mi li tary ge n ius " led to Ca d wa la d e rs ap po in tm en t to the rank of bri g adi er gene ra l in [776 , was a not infrequent visitor. Thou gh Ca dwalade r 's hou se was torn do w n abo ut 1820, th e volumin ou s s u rv iv ing record s of i ts remo deli ng an d furni shin g give a detail ed po rtrait of th e crea tio n of a co lo ni al ro co co setting . M o reo ver, m uc h of th e furnit ur e, all of w hich Ca d wa lade r had ma de locally (mos t o f it by cra ftsmen fre sh fr om Lond on ) , ca n n o w b e id entifi ed. The up stai rs pi eces, o f w alnut and un ca rv ed , we re made by the n ati veborn joiner W illi am Sa very (1722-1787) . Th e pa rlo r su ites we re the wor k of Affl eck , wi t h B ern ard an d Ju gi ez a n d Re yn old s . Of th e sea t ing furn itu re, th ree sofas we re uphol st ered by th e n ati ve cra fts man Plunket Fleeson, bu t th e blu e an d ye llo w silk d a m ask cove rs we re fi tted b y J ohn Web ster, uphol st erer from Londo n, w ho in th e Pennsvl uania j ot/m al o f 20 Au gu st 1767 adve rt ise d th at h e h ad " had the honour o f w orking w ith app lause , for several of t he nobility an d ge nt ry in En gland and Sco tla nd . " 179 Cadwalader lim ited th e ord er s h e m ad e throu gh h is Lond on age n t , M atthi as Ga le, to wh at co u ld n ot b e m ad e in Ph il adelphi a : th e silk d am ask s an d Wil ton ca r pe ts fo r h is p arl ors; d am ask tabl ecloths an d n apkin s, kni fe cases, an d flat w ar e fo r hi s dinin g t abl e ; an d a four- in -h and ca rriage for hi s p eregrin at ion s abou t town . Andirons, in cluding "one Par e o f th e Best Rote [wrou ght] fier D o g s wi th C rin the n [C orinthian] Co loms ," we re m ad e b y Daniel Kin g , b rass founder, at a cos t o f £2S; an d a d o zen leather fir e bu ck et s were p ro vi d ed an d p ainted by th e artist J ames C lav poo lc. Y"

FRAMES Th e o n ly k n o w n P h ilad e lp h ia- m ad e rococo picture frames are a m at ch in g g ro u p o f five enclosi ng th e portraits of members o f J ohn Ca dwa la ders fa m ily, w hic h h e commissioned o f C ha rl es Willson Peale ( [747- (827) and inte nded as part of th e furn iture in th e parl ors o f his hou se. The frames for the lik en esses o f h is parents, Dr. and Mrs. Thom as Cadwalader, an d of his brother, Lambert (N o . 124), all paint ed duri ng the su m m e r o f [770 , we re ma d e b y J ame s Re y n o ld s. On IS M arch [77[ , th e ca rver bill ed C ad walader " To 3 [h alf-l en gth ] Picture frame s in Burnish 'd Gold @ £[8 ," fo r a t ot al of £S 4. 1 8 1 Sin ce P eal e h ad cha rge d £ 12- [2 -0 p er canvas, th e fr ames cos t a th ird agai n as mu ch as the pi ctures. T he o t her portraits foll owed : th at o f J ohn 's siste r, M artha, is da ted 177[, as is a famil y g ro u p (N o . 125 ) -J ohn , h is wife, Elizabeth, and th eir dau ghter, Anne - begun at th at tim e but com pleted th e foll owin g su m me r a t a cos t o f £2S - 4-0 . Though the ca rve r's bill s for th e frames of th e las t t w o pictures are lost, th e fra mes a re iden tical to t h o se of t he first t hree portraits and are pres umably by the same hand .f" Unfortu n at el y, the scro lle d p roj e ct io ns at ea ch corner and at th e m iddl e of each si de of all th e fra mes were sawed o ff so m e yea rs ago, w hic h dest ro yed much of the open qualit y o f th e wo r k . T h e B o st o n-m ad e fr a m es used by John Sin gl et on Copley (see N o s. 89-9[), ho w ever, are of the same ge ne ra l m odel-n ar ro w ca r ve d m oldin g next to the picture, de ep co ve w ith le af-and-fl ower fr ond s, an d projecting pi er ced C -s cro lls flankin g ce n t ra l shells - an d suggest how the Philadelphia co unte rparts were intended to loo k. Peale, who m oved to the city in '7 7S , w as th e first artist of real sta ture in Phil adelphia.!"! Born in M ar yl an d , he was se n t to London in [766 to st u dy painting an d re tu rned th ree yea rs lat er , se t tli ng in Ann ap oli s. In [770, h e was commissio ne d to paint the law yer J ohn D ick in so n , recen tl y made famo us b y h is L etters frail! a Farmer ill Pennsylvania ('768) , w ho in turn introdu ced Peale to his cousin John Cadwalader. The o rigina l bl ack and gold m o ld ed neo classical frame of the D ick in son picture (H isto rical Socie ty of Pennsylvania) is of a t y pe described exactly by ca rver G ab riel Valois in an ad vertise me nt in th e Pennsylvania J Oll m al of 30 M ar ch [774: "Family Pi ctures, Neatly framed in the newest tas te , varnished in b lack, w it h th re e me mbe rs ca rved a nd gilt in burnished go ld. " 18 4 Consiste nt with Peale 's neo class ical-s t yle portraitu re, it was to be h is favo rite ty pe o f frame, w hich helps to ex p lain th e d earth of Phil ad elphia-m ad e rococo enclosures. The Cadwa lade r fr am es, in th e fu ll roco co tas te, must have been th e choice not of th e ar tis t but of th e client, pa rt of the o rna me n tal pro gr am for a particul arl y lu xurio us room .

124

Pictureframe, 1770-7[ James Reynolds, Philadelphia White pine, gilded, 60 x 50 in. With portrait of Lambert Cadw alader by Charles Willson Peale Philadelphia Museum of Art

[8 6

T he man ufac tu re and sa le o f lo okin g g lasses wa s a sp ecial bra nc h o f th e furniture t rad e. Mirror glass , whi ch required techniqu es o f g ri nding and poli shing un av ailable in co lon ial America, was always imp orted , but th e su ppo rt ing fram es co uld be lo call y m ad e. So me Phil ad elphia artisa ns w ent into the bu si ness of im po rting fram ed lo ok in g g lasses : in [757, cabi ne tma ker J ohn Ell io tt w as th e fir st to adve rtise a lo oking-g lass store in Ph il ad elphi a. H e w as followed into th e trad e b y th e ca rve rs B ern ard and Ju gi ez in T762 and J am es Rey no lds in [768. N o lo oking glasses m ad e o r so ld b y Bernard and Ju g iez have been id entified (thoug h in M ar ch [773 J u gi ez offe red "fra mes o f any kind , to co me as n earl y as cheap as ca n be im por te d"), I Hs but w e have a numb er of im po rtant do cum ented exa m ples from Reyn old s. Ellio tt, best kn own from th e nu m be rs of lookin g glass es he la be led, fi rst an no u nced in th e Penn svl vania Gazette of 30 Decem be r [756 th at he imp orted and had fo r sa le " A N eat asso rtmen t o f lo o kin g g lasses"; also " Looki ng g lasses new quick si lver'd , o r frame d, in th e ne atest ma nner." The next Sep tember, he me ntioned " his Lo o kin g- gl ass sto re in " and, by Ap ril [758, at " the Sign o f th e C hes tn ut -s tree t, ",N Be ll and Lo okin g- gl ass. "' H7 Four years lat er , he m o ved th e business to Walnut Stree t, w here it was to remai n until afte r the wa r. M o re th an a hundred lo o kin g g lasses are k now n w ith Ellio tt's pri nted pa pe r lab el affixed to th e backb oard . r' " Those wi th the C hestn ut Str eet add ress can be dated bet ween '758 and [762; those w ith the Wa ln ut Street ad d ress , fr om '762 or later. A few, having a varia tio n on th e Waln ut Stree t label , I N\} m ay d at e fro m th e lat e 1760s or th e ea r ly [ 77 0 S. O nly in th e exam ples of the later period, suc h as th at of the looking glass he sup plied to Richard Ed w ard s (N o . 126), is Elliott fo und selling frames made in Phil adelphia of northeas tern w hi te pin e. !"" Edwa rds ([744 - [799), a m er ch ant in nea r by B url in g ton Co u nty, New J er sey, comm iss io ne d in [77 5 severa l sty lis h rococo pieces o f fu rni ture from T ho mas Tu fft , incl ud ing a d imi nut ive, pier ced-sk irted pi er t abl e, above w hich h is lo ok in g g lass lon g hun g . '\} ' The acco u n t book that recorde d those pieces a lso co n tai ne d a t r an saction

with Ellio tt . I\}2 The Tum co m m ission came at th e end o f th e interva l from [769 to 1775 w he n Elliott did not advert isenonim portatio n o r th e spirit of nonimportation cram ping his norma l tr ade. Edwards's lo okin g g lass , th e o nly fully carved rococosty le exa m p le havin g an Elli ott lab el , re tai ns it s o rigi na l whi te- painte d surface, a tr eatm ent th en pop ul ar fo r look ingg lass fr am es int end ed t o be se t aga ins t a co lo red w al l. 1\} 3 Ellio tt eithe r ret ailed it o r repaired it, but he did not m ake it. T he frame consis ts of p arall el- g o ug ed she ll wo rk w ith an

125 Pictureframe, 1772 Probably by J ames Reynolds, Philadelphia White pine , gilded , 60 x 50 in. With portrait of the J oh n Ca dwalader family by Ch arles Willson Peale Phil adelphia Museum of Art

1 26

L ooki ng-gla ss fra me Phil ad elphia, ca. [775 White pine, painted; ceda r, 48 x 26 in . T he Metropo litan Museu m o f Art

[ 88

o u te r m antl e o f pierced sc ro llw o rk. At th e top is a vibrantl y asy m me t r ica l aca n t h us leaf, a t th e sides are pendent le aves an d flo w ers, an d at th e b ottom is a se re ne l y flo atin g sw an . T he w ork, ve ry m uch in th e m anner o f Reynolds, be sp eaks th e hand o f an art isa n d edi cat ed to carv ing . In th e Penn syl van ia C hronicle o f 14 N ovember 1768, Reynolds offere d im p orted lo okin g g lasses " in ca rve d and white , or ca rved an d g ilt fr am es. "I Y4 During the early 1770s , he made elabo ra te fr am es fo r a number o f leading fam ili es, including t h e Ca d wa lad er s , th e C hews , th e Pemb ert on s , a n d th e Pe n ns. H e b ille d Ca d wa la de r for four larg e car ve d lookin g g lasses o n 5 D e cem b cr 1770 an d fo r ano t he r large o ne the next O ct ob er. They mu st h av e ca p t u re d th e imagin ation o f

Philade lphians.'?'

127

Looleino-olass frame, 1772 Probably by Jam es Reynolds. Ph iladelph ia White pine. paint ed. 7H x 4 2 in. C liveden of the Na tional Trus t

Two pairs of Chew famil y lo okin g g lasses at C livedcn are lik el y th e work for w h ic h Reyn old s rece iv ed £51- 10 o n 20 April 1772 .ly6 One pair, amo ng th e g ra ndes t and lar gest o f all American examples , ha v e mirr o rs c o m p o se d of t w o pieces of g lass with an overa ll size of five feet b y t w o (N o . 12 7 ) . Here, Re ynold s u sed remn ant s of tall a nd n ar r o w Queen Ann e lookin g g lasses , h on orin g h is adve r tise me n t in th e P enn svl vania C h ron icle o f 14 N o v e mb e r 176 8: " O ld Glasses new fram ed an d qui ck sil vered . "I Y7 T he fra mes , o n the low er p an e s fl ank ed by co lone t tes; o n th e upp er , b y r ocaille w ork, are not a per fectl y u n ifi ed des ig n , b u t th e y g ive th e effect o f a n ex t rao r di na ry co n fec tio n o f r o co c o motifs . I'" The o t he r C hew pair , o f th e g ira n do le t ype ( FIG. 45 ), have the m o st irregul arl y sha pe d o f all Am erican mirrors, a cen t ral g lass ar ea o f ro co co vasiform sha pe .

FIGU RE 4 5 . Lookillg-gll1ssfi'clllJ c. Pro bably by Jam es Reynold s, Philadelph ia, 1772. White pine. paint ed , 381f2 x 23 1f. in . (\17. 8 x 59 . 1 cm .). C livcde n, a co-s tewa rds hip prope rt y of the Na tional T rust for Histo ric Preservation (N T 73-55 .2 4 [2 ])

T ogether with looking-glass and picture fram es, wall bra cket s are a kind of furniture th at w as the ex clusive dom ain of the wood-carver. The book of Prices of Cabinet & Chair Work published in Phila delphia in 177 2 therefore contains no mention of tho se form s. Th e o n ly kn own carved ro coco wall br ack et of local o rig in is an exa m p le (N o . 128 ) wh o se design -a bird in a ne st of C -s cro lls , it s o uts tretc hed wings suppo rting th e shelf - w as inspired by an engraving (FIG. 46) in Johnson's book o f designs. In thi s instance, however, th e carv er deleted the spiky gr asses and sim plified the scheme to

suit hi s sta nda rd rep ertoire o f scroll s, leafage, and feath ers. The bracket is carved from a sing le piece of wh ite pin e, plus a top board wh ose elega ntly scallo ped bottom edge is visible when th e bra cket is m ounted high on th e wall. The translucen t golden brown surface is th e result of a thin pigm ent ed coa ting ov er layer s of white g ro und . 1<) <) The mast erl y wo rk ha s been ascrib ed to J ames Reynold s;"?" an attr ib ution st re ng t hene d b y the re semblance of the bir ds sta nce and feathers to those of a bird finial (No . 14 3) to whi ch th ere are documentar y link s with Reynolds.

FIGURE 4 6 . D esign for a w all b rack et , T ho mas J oh nso n, O IlC Hundred and Fifty New D esign s (Lond on , 17 58; reissue , 176 1), Plate 42. En g ravin g 0 11 pa pe r, 9 7/ 8 x 7 in. (25. 1 x 17. 8 em .).

128

Wall bracket, Ph ilad elphia, 1765 - 7 5 Wh it e pin e, paint ed , H . : 16 1/ 4 in . W int erthur Museum

T he M etropolitan Museum of Art, H arri s Brisb an e D ick Fund , 19 32 (32. 61)

19 0

, TA BLES T he largest an d som e of th e m o st rococo o f Phil ad elphi a tabl es we re made to have m arbl e tops. Th e Price B ook classified them as "frames for Marbl e St and s" o r " fra m es for Marble Slab, " four or five feet in len gth an d h av in g either M arl bo rou gh or claw feet. They w er e usu all y found in par lo rs, but they could be positioned aga ins t a wall w he reve r a larg e serving table was ne ed ed. Their m arbl e tops m ad e an ind es tructib le surfac e on which h ot food s an d b ev erag es could be p lac ed. An ad ver t ise me n t in th e Penn svl vania Gazette of 1 December 1768 offered "To be sold twelve m arb le slabs, well pollished , four feet six inch es lon g an d tw o feet six inc hes wide. "20 1 Those advertised pie ces of marbl e wo u ld have been just th e righ t len gt h for a masterpi ece o f th e t yp e (N o . 129), w hich, sadly, has no known history. The legs, ho w ev er , are so simi lar to those on a high chest fr om th e Van Pelt famil y (No . 137) that the two pieces m ay have been m ad e en su ite. M assive in sca le and wi th a serpentine- sha ped skirt and conforming to p of great movem ent, th e tabl e is o ne o f th e m ost imposing ex am p les of Phil adelphi a ro co co furnitur e . T ho ug h it has .been suggested that th e ab ru pt termination of carvi ng at th e junction of le g and s k i rt result ed fr om th e se para te workings of a cab in etma ke r an d a ca rver . :"" thi s r hythmic divi sion of p lain and orn ament ed su r fac es is characteristic of much Engl ish an d Am eri can rococo furniture . The tabl e disp lay s such a unit y of de si gn th at it must have be en the inspired creatio n of a sin gle art isan . The totality of it s swirling, figured m arbl e (in sh ades of purple, gr ay, w hite, and ye llow) , its sh im me ring p attern o f m ah o g an y skirt veneers, an d it s n ervou s kn ee car v in g m akes it an un par alleled example of American ro coco. Th e Cadwal ader sl ab table (N o . 130), so ca lle d b ecaus e it desce nded in th at famil y an d wa s presum abl y part of th e furnish ings of the general's ma gnificent Second Street house, does not match the parlor furniture su pplied to C adwalade r b y Affleck in 1770- 7 2. It m ay h ave be en o ne o f "2 m arble Slabs etc [C adw al ad er] had o f C . Coxe ," h is n ei ghbor, in 1769.2 0 3 Whatever its source, the table is th e su pre m e exa m pl e in Amer ican furniture of the fu ll y d ev elop ed Fren ch ro co co . T ho ugh it proclaims it s American origin in its se condary woo d s (y ell o w pine b ackb o ard an d walnut co rn er b races ), there is no separation between leg and skirt; in direct opposition to st and ard Am erican design (see No . (29 ), th e curving planes an d th e ca rving of one are co n tinued unbrok en into the other. Unique am o n g ide ntifi ed Phil adelphi a tab les, it is en tirely a ca rve r's w ork, rathe r th an a cabin et maker 's work em be ll is he d b y a ca r ve r. E xample s o f the

191

Fren ch tast e so full y rea liz ed we re r ar e, eve n in En gl and. C hippe nda le illu strat ed a few suc h design s (sec Plate C LX XV), but he did n ot m ak e th em . Th at he left in th e real m o f th e carver. The tabl e see ms to in corpo rate elemen ts of pattern-book design s co m pletely in tegra ted into a new whol e. The co n figur ati on o f scrolls th at m ak e up th e legs co m pares wi th th at sho w n in Pl at e CLX X o f T he D irector, but eve n m o re with th at in Plate LXXIII o f In ce an d M ayh ew 's Unive rsal S ystem. There is no printed in spirat ion for th e plump-check ed yo ung gi rl, ind efin abl y orien ta l in cha rac te r, w ho reclin es in th e m iddl e o f th e sk irt, a bird in h er uprai sed left h and an d a faithful hound bet w een her feet. O r ig ina lly, th e tabl e was a de ep red m ah o g an y surm ount ed b y a bl ack , go ld-vei ned mar b le top . N o w th e wood has a dark , matte fin ish . O nly w he re th e carved part s ha ve been rubbed- as on th e gi rl's bell y -does th e lum inou s d ark red o f th e woo d sh ine thro u gh . M o st of th e p ie rced scro llwo rk dependin g fr om the bottom of th e sk ir ts is go ne, but th e stu m ps of eig h t ex te nsio ns rem ain . Desp ite th e loss, th e carvi ng is of such br oadness of concept, suc h gran de ur of sca le, th at it was su re ly th e result of m et icul o us Lond o n tr aining; it is found nowhere else in colo nial furn iture .

12 9

Slab table, Philadelphia, 176 5- 75 Mahogany, marble; pine, L.: 54 in. Museum of Art. Rhode Island School of Design

,

130

Slab table, Philadelphia, ca. 1770 M ahogan y . ma rble; yellow pin e. L.: 4 S Y4 in. T he M etr op olitan Museu m of Art

1<) 3

131

Ca rd table, Philadelphia, 1765- 75 Ma hogany; northern white cedar, L.: H in. Winterth u r Museum

Ca rd tabl es we re made in Philadelph ia in lar ge number s. The Price Book li st ed three ca tego ries : w it h Marlb o rou gh (straig ht) feet , w ith croo ke d (cab rio le) legs, and with roun d co rners . The crooked- legged o nes usu all y have o nly m odest amou n ts of o rname n t. The pr ice of suc h a tabl e as o ne (N o . 13 I ) h avin g cl aw feet an d carve d knees an d m oldin g s was £5 . The skirt deco rati o n m ay h ave m ad e this exa m p le a bit m o re cos tly, but t h e resu lt is an unde rst at ed , p arti cul arl y lovely visio n o f rococo beaut y. Light an d airy leafage defin es t he sca llo pe d o utl ine of th e fr ont s k i rt , an int eg r ati on o f fo rm an d o rna me nt ac hie ved b y cu tting awa y th e surface o f th e skirt board to th e b asic scrollwork pattern and th en piecin g it o u t as n ee d ed w i t h ad d it io n al ca rved wood. T he ca rv-

ing is crisp an d th e woo d h as th e burn ish ed qu alit y o f th e best Lon don wo rk. The scalloped, foli ate bottom edge of th e ski rt blends harm on iously wi th th e g race fu l carved leg s, and th e straig h t sk irt so m eho w pr esents th e per fect foil fo r th e se rpe n tine -s ha pe d top . The o ri gi n al co lo r of th e den se red dis h m ah o gan y is still appa ren t on th e ski rt rails, bu t th e top has faded to a m ellow nut brown.

194

Th ou gh its skirts and legs are also unifi ed in design, ano ther ca rd table (N o . 132 ) is an altoge the r d iffe rent aes the tic ex perienc e. Ca rd tabl es w ith round co rne rs we re a Phil ad elphi a favorite. W he n th e t abl es w ere o pe n, the proj ectin g cy lind rica l co rne rs pr o vid ed places for th e cand les ticks th at illumin at ed th e pl ayin g surface . Pl ain , suc h card tabl es co st £5; w ith leaves o n th e kn ees and carve d moldin gs, £8; w ith carved rails, as here, £ 10. Add th e carv ing on th e legs, w hich co ntinues up th e round co rn ers in a diap ered shie ld, and th e ta ble co nstit utes o ne o f th e m o st lavish o f all Ph iladelphi a rococo sta te me n ts . Ther e is but a handful of th ese tabl es, all ap pa re n tl y m ad e in pair s, and all wi th m ore o r less simil ar carved dcsign s. r?' O n thi s exa m ple, w hich has descended in th e fam ily of Corne lius Stev en son, o f Phil adelphia, th e carving has a parti cul arl y stro ng sense o f fluidit y. 2° 5

132

Card table, Ph iladelph ia, 1765- 75 Mahogan y; yellow popl ar, L. ; 34 Y2 in. Co llection o f Geo rge G. M eade Easb y

195

133

T ea table, Philadelphia, 1765- 75 Mahogan y, Diam . : 35-% in . The D ietrich Ameri can Fo undation

Wit h ve ry fe w e xcep t ions , Ph ila de lp hia tea ta bl es h ad a rou nd t op on a trip od sta n d. In th e Price Book, a tea tabl e w as round unl ess o therw ise specified . In 1769, J am es Gillingham charged £5 for m aking a rococo-carved exa m ple: "To 1 M ah o g y. Tea T abl e Top sco llo p ed C law fee t & lea v s o n Kn ees. " 2 06 The Price B ook o ffere d an ad di tio na l e m bell ish m ent- a ca rve d pillar-for a total cha rge o f £5 -15-0 . Writin g in 1828, histo rian J. F. Wat son recalled Ph ilad elphian s' havin g h ad " m ah o g an y t ea b o ard s a n d ro u n d tea tabl es , w h ic h b ein g turn ed o n a n ax le undern eath th e ce n t re, s to o d upright , lik e an ex pa nded fan o r palm leaf in th e co rner. "2° 7 G reat numbers o f P hilad elphia rococo-ca rve d tea tab les ex ist, di ffe r ing prin cip all y in th e design of t he pill ar an d in th e carv ing . Th e tw o d is cu ssed nex t rep resen t t h e t w o b as ic carved pill ar design s and are th e work of tw o sepa rate hand s. An exa m ple o f th e vase -a nd-co lumn- pillar-type tea table (N o . 133 ) is n otabl e fo r its pe rfec t sense of ba lance and re pose . Th e leg s ha ve an u p right sta nce, th e layo u t of th e ca rvi ng is sy m me trica l and tig h tly co n tro lled, an d th e top , o f st raig ht and ev en-g rai ne d wood, has ten sca llo pe d units. T he a t trib u t io n o f t h e tabl e' s carv ing to Be rn a rd an d

134

Tea table, Philadelphia, 1765-75 Mahogany, Diam. : 33:% in. The Metropolitan Museum of Art

j ug iez ' ?" is based o n t he pi lla r's leaf- car ved u rn, clos ely si mi lar in treat m c nt to th at o f th e Ca dwa la der fir e sc reens th e p artn er s e m be llis he d in I n l at the beh est o f Tho in as A fflec k (see N o. 156) . Th e tabl e is o ne of a m at chin g p air tha t desce n ded in th e sa me fam il y as th e prc vi ou s ca rd table . 20<) In contras t, a table o f th e second typ e (N o . 134)- o fth e flat ball -a nd-column p attern- exhib it s movemen t an d tension . T he co m pressed b all , o r rin g , on th e pillar is a co n fig ura tion uniqu e to Phil ad elph ia crafts me n. T he leg s ca n t down at th eir j u nc tio n w ith th e pill ar an d sp lay o ut at th e fee t, att rib u tes th at co n vey the effect of eleme n ts squ as hed b y a wei ght fr om a bo ve . Th e t op , a bo ard with a livel y allover figure, h as an edg e form ed o f eig ht boldl y scallo ped uni ts . The carv ing -assu red, asy m metrica l, and naturalisti c, the fo liage pl a yfull y lapping over th e kn ees an d fo rmi ng a ga rland aro u n d th e ba ll - sugges ts th e Lond on ro co co o f Thomas J oh n son an d h as b een at t rib u te d to h is e rs tw h ile app ren tice H er cul es Cou rte nay. Th e top h as b een poli sh ed , showing th e wood 's figure to adva ntage , but the pedestal has an attractive buildup o f old fini sh es.

197

135 T ea table, Philadelphia. ca. 1775 Mahogany, painted iron; tulip poplar. L.: 301/4 in. Private collection

A Phil adelph ia tea tabl e (N o . 135) is rar e for being rectan gu lar (t he " square tea tabl es" o f th e Price Book) and uniqu e in h avin g a shee t- iro n top. it s rai sed rim a nd edges foldin g d o wn ove r the sk irts an d en d ing in sca llo ped edges.": " Ret ainin g as it do es mu ch o f it s o rig in al white p aint (no w with a g o lde n patin a) and gi lde d border. th e top must hav e been co lo re d to m at ch th e w h ite o r go ld fram es o f Philadelphi a-m ade lookin g g lasses . It w ould ha ve g lis te ned in th e d ark o f an eig hteen t h-ce n t ury interior. its undu lating edges giv ing an impressi on o f lightn ess that beli ed th e w ei ght o f th e iron . The legs are atte n ua te d an d deli cat e, almos t co ltlik e. The carving is crisp and , just below the top, ske tc hy . In o ver all handlin g (fo r example, th e knee bra ckets' fo rmin g a co n tin u o us cu rve w it h t h e leg s), th e woodwork is in th e m anner of Thom as Tufft, w ho to ok o ve r th e sho p ofJ am es G illing ha m in 177 3. One of th e few referen ces to shee t iron in th e p eri od a p p ea red in an adve rtise me n t in th e Peuusyl vania E veni ng Post o f 23 April 177 6 b y Thom as M ayb err y , iro n m aster o f M o un t H oll y , N e w J er se y . for "S he et an d Rod Iron o f different sizes . "211

C A S E FURNITURE T ha t particul arl y A m eri can fo rm , th e high ches t o f dr aw er s, has lon g been th e sy m bo l of th e rococo sty le in Phil adelphia. O f all case pi eces, it is th e m ost susceptible to ro co co o rna me n t. Li k e the ches t-o rr-ch es t , the desk and bo o k case, and the tall clock, it h as a pe d imen te d top th at can be richl y o rname n te d , bu t it is alo ne amo ng lar g e, two- pa rt case pieces in havi n g high leg s an d sca llo ped ski rts th at cr y o u t for elaborate carving. Wi thi n the ge nera l ca tegory of high ches ts o f dr aw ers , the P hi la de lphia Price Book includes the ches t-o rr- fra me (to day 's highboy) an d th e ches t-o n-ches t, Both we re list ed, alo n g w it h an o p tio na l m at chin g " Ta b le to Suit Ditto " (to d ay ' s lo wb o y , o r dr essin g tabl e). Th e Price Book, in des crib ing the d eco rat iv e choices o pe n to a Phil ad elphi an s h o p p i n g fo r o ne of th ese mon u me n ta l sto rag e ches ts, demons tra tes th at by th e ea rly 1770 S the ches t-en- fra m e was ava ilable in w ha t can be called th ree successive m odels. C arved Phi la del p hia h igh ches ts are sti ll nume rou s today, b u t no ne of the best exa m ples in th e fu lly de vel oped ro coco style is doc u mente d to m ak er or origina l client. The sol e insta nce of a hig h ches t in scr ib ed an d d at ed b y th e cabi ne tmaker is th e one ma de by Henry Cl ifto n in 1753 (F IG . 47), wh ic h also exem plifies th e firs t mo de l in th e evolu tio n o f the P h ila de lph ia t y pe . T he top ex te nds up w ard in an exaggera te d sc roll pedi men t, wh ich h ou ses a lar ge, cen t ra l shell drawer in th e scro ll b o ar d , o r tympan u m; a simi la r shell d rawe r is cen tered above th e sca lloped fro n t ski rt. C ar vin g is lim ited to the leafage on th e k nees, th e she ll drawers , an d the fin ials . In th e terminol o g y of th e Price Book, C lifto n ha d m ad e a ches t on a fra me, w ith claw feet , leaves on th e k nees , she ll d rawe rs in th e frame , sc ro ll ped iment hea d , shield, roses, and b iases . (T he " shield " is th e centra l carto u ch e; t he "roses" are th e rose ttes term in at in g the ped imen t scrolls; and the " biases " [b lazes] are th e flam e finia ls at ei ther side. The car ved wor k was no t to exceed £3- 10 - 0. ) With the ad dition of quart er-columns, th is desc ription fits all the hig h ches ts discussed below . Some time d u ring t he mi d-rvoos , the fo rm evolve d in to a second stage, lighter and mo re grace ful. There is perhap s no more bea u tifu lly pro po rt ioned o r m o re sa tisfying exa m ple than a high ches t (N o . 136 ) an d its m at chin g d ressin g rable. r''" T he scroll pedi m ent , no lon ger hou sin g a boxy centra l d r awe r , h as a serpe n tine -cu r ve d pr ofil e and is o pe n in back. T he scro ll b o ard , now an uninterrupted sur face , is suited to all so rts of carved rococo o rna ment: here, a floatin g shel l and its flan kin g strea me rs fill th e ent ire t ymp anu m . T he wood is wa ln u t with a mellow nu t-b rown 'patina. The

4 7 . Hig!l chest, Signed and da ted b y H enry Clifton, Ph iladelphia, 17 53. M ah ogan y; tuli p pop lar, wh ite cedar. 951/ 2 x 4 4 V4 X 22 V2 in. (24 2. 6 x 112 .4 x 57. 2 CI11 .). The Colonial Williamsb urg Foundation ( ll)75- 154) F IGURE

19 9

136

H igh chest, Philadelphia. 1705- 75 Walnut ; yellow popl ar, H .: 90'% in . Ga rvan Collection , Yale Uni versit y

20 0

137

High chest, Phil adelphi a, 1705- 75 M ah ogan y; tulip popl ar . H . : 90 1/4 in. Winterthur Museum

2 01

qu arter co lu m ns at th e fr ont edges an d ele me n ts o f the m ol din g s an d ca rvi ng s are hi ghl ighted w ith th e o rig ina l g lossy black paint an d, o n a fillet of th e sc ro ll co rn ice , gildin g . Whil e a rare surviva l tod ay, th at so rt o f pick in g o u t o f d ecor ati ve el em en ts, g ivi ng ad de d em p has is to th e o rna me nt, was once com mo nplace. Th e ca rv ing h as a di st in ctive an d p arti cul arl y ro co co cha rac te r. The she lls in th e pedim ent an d sk irt areas h ave frill y o utli nes w ith in w h ich taut , m embran ou s sur faces have been m an ip ul at ed as if to sim u la te th e irregul ar sur face o f she lls . O n all th e ca rv ing, delicat e in cised lin es w ith tap er ed en ds pr ovid e texture and a se nse o f sha d ing. Th e unid entifi ed art isan has be en dubbed th e "Garvan Ca rver " after thi s high ches t and it s m at chin g d ressi ng table , amo ng the be st kno w n pieces in th e M ab el Brad y Ga rvan C oll ecti on at Yale Universit y.2IJ

tinuou s h orizontal co rnice su r mo u nted b y a p o rt rait b us t w ithin a pedim ent fr om w hose tympanum leafage springs co p ies ano t h er of C h ip pe n da le's d esi gn s for a des k and book case, th ough th er e is no C hi ppe n da le proto ty pe for th e pier ced scroll bo ard o f th e ped im ent . Th e D irector' s influ en ce resulted in a new ap proach to th e d esign o f Philad elphia pedim ented case furnit ur e. The h ori zontal co rn ice, w h ic h effec tively se pa ra tes th e ca r ved sc ro ll pediment fr om th e flat, un ad orn ed faca de of d rawer fronts, resolved th e aw kwa rdness inh erent in a field of ornam ental carving on th e sa me pl an e as th e dr aw er fro nts . T he re sultin g de sign m ay legitim at el y b e ca lle d Phil ad el ph ia C h ip pen da le . That su ch pedim ent tr eatm ent was pr obably em p loyed fir st o n th e Pompadour hi gh ches t is im p lied in th e m anner of it s co n s t ru ct io n. Y'" Th ou gh th is, th e sol e in st an ce of a bu st o n a hi gh ches t , pr ob abl y se t th e p reced ent , m ale portr ait bu st s o n d esk s an d b o ok cases soon becam e th e standard . For all it s imp ort an ce, n othin g is k n o wn abou t the Pomp adour' s ea rly hi st or y . Th e ca rv ing, o f an ex cep tio na l r eali sm an d imm edi acy , mu st b e th e wo r k o f a Londontrain ed m ast er. Pi ct ori al. n arrati v e ca rv ing like that on the cen te r drawer is found o n ly r arel y o n Ph il ad elph ia ch irn ne ypi eces and furn iture. 217 Th e cho ice of a tabl et design by Lond on ca rve r J ohn son enco urages the spec u lat io n that his app ren tice Hercules Courte nay (w ho arrived in Ph iladelphia by 1765) w as th e art isan .

A hi gh ches t p art icul arl y n ot ew orth y am on g Phil adelphia exa m p les for th e ca rvi ng o n it s sc ro ll bo ard (N o . 137 ) is a rare in st an ce wh ere th e lo cal prefer en ce fo r a ce n t ra l she ll an d st rea mers was aba n do ne d in fav or o f co lo ne t tes an d sc ro lls d ri p pi ng w ith w hat resembles s ta lac tites -a ge n tle essay into th e w hi msica l w orld of eng raved d esi gn s b y C hippen da le an d T hom as J ohnson. The carv ing has decisive an d ang u lar chise l marks th at b rea k up and refl ect th e light, jus t as th e wood o f th e draw er fronts has a fig ure th at sugges ts rippling wa te r. The co m binatio n of th e carv ing , th e fig ured wood , and the pier ced br asses gives a light and everchang ing lo ok-the esse ntia l ro co co qu alit y-to what wo uld o therwise be a bul k y mass. The same aesthe tic is fou nd on a slab tabl e (No . (29) w ith carving by th e same hand . According to famil y tr adi tio n, th e ch es t was o rig in ally o w ne d b y Wi llia m T urner an d h is w ife, M ar y Kin g Turn er , and desce nded by m arriage in th e Van Pelt farn ily ."" An exa m ple of th e third an d fin al mo de l is a fam ou s hi gh ches t (N o . 138), po pu larly called th e " Po m pado ur highbo y" because of th e sup po sed Fren ch characte r of th e portrait bu st in it s pedim ent. N ot o n ly is it amo ng th e b est kn o wn of Am eri can fu rn iture but it also provid es a g raphic illu stration of the crea tive m anner in wh ich p attern bo ok s in flue nc ed that sty le. Th e P omp ad ou r embod ies mo re p assages, b orrowed from m ore different engrav ings , th an any o the r Am erican piece. 215 The picto rial ta b leau (a spo u ting serpen t an d tw o swa ns) o n th e lar ge bo tt om draw er is a faith fu l rend iti on of a 176 2 ch im ney piece tabl et design b y Th om as J ohn son (FIG . 48 ). Th e precise co n fig ura tio n of co rn ice m old in g s an d d en t ils comes fro m a d esk an d b o ok case in T he D irector (P late c v n) , an d th e drap ed urn s are fr o m th e cen tral fini al o f th at piece. The ge nera l arra nge me nt -a co n-

FIGURE 48 . Design for a ehimneypieee tablet, Thomas Johnson, A N ell' Book of Orna ments (London, 1762 ) , Plate 5. Engraving on paper, 8 x 133/ 4 in. (20 . 3 x .14.9 em.). The Metropolitan Museum of Art, Gift of Harvey Smith

( 19 85. 1099)

20 2

138 H(~ h

chest, Phil adelph ia. 1762- 75 M ahogan y; tulip popla r. H .: <)1-Y4 in. T he Met rop olit an Mu seum of Art

20 3

FINIALS T he! scroll o r pitch ped ime n t th at capped mos t tall Philadelphi a case furnitur e offe re d ex pans ive opportun ities for the carver. The tympanum bo ard was ofte n enric hed with carving o r pi er cin g o r a co mb ina tio n o f b oth . Ri sin g ou t of it , th rou gh th e ce n te r o f th e p edim ent , was a carved finial. A number o f design s w er e used for th e fin ials: shield -shaped or ro co co-scr olled carto uc hes, b ask et s or vases of flow er s, or birds. Eve n ind ep endent of th e struc tures th ey w ere in tended to g race th ey are among the mos t engagi ng m anifestat ion s of th e Am eri can rococo . T he ea rlies t typ e of Phil ad elphi a fin ial is an asym m etrica l kidn ey-sh ap ed s h ie ld -ca lle d b y ea rly co llector s th e " P h ila de lp h ia pea n u t" - wi th a su r ro u ndi n g m antl e of scr ollwork . T he d esign was curren t in th e ea rl y 1750S, witn ess th e exa m p le o n th e H enr y C lifto n h igh chest of 17 53 (see FIG. 4 7 , P . ,I Y9 ) , w he re it is th e m o st ro co co part of the en t ire pi ece . T he i m me d ia te so u rce is unkn o wn , but the ult im at e inspirati on for th ese m oti fs must be som ethin g like M atthi as Lo ck's Book oj S hields (Lo ndon , 1746) . Am on g the largest and best-preser ved shield fini als is one (N o . 139) th at co mes fr o m a hi gh chest of th e Ga rva n ty pe (see N o . (36 ) pr ob abl y datin g fro m 1760-65 . 2IXT he sh ie ld is la rger than u su al, m or e sym me t rica l th an m o st, an d n o t in the least u ps taged b y its m antl e . T he curling-over of the to p frond an d th e inc ise d wo rk so lik e eng ra ving are characteristics of th e Ga rva n carve r. T he shield carto uc hc wa ned in impo rt an ce as the rococo sty le adva nce d . A n alte rna tive design (N o . 140), consistin g o f a delica te asymmetrica l fr am ew ork of C -scrolls enclo sing a ce n tra l ro sette, is fo u n d o n hi gh ches ts and , o ccasi onall y, on d esk s an d b o ok cases. T his exa m p le of a qui ntessenti al rococo m otif co mes from a large and stately secretary probably m ade soon afte r th e m arriage of Cas par Wistar and M ary Franklin , in 1765. 21'.) T he use of baskets o r vases o f leafage and flo wers, co mm on o n Eng lish fu rni ture , o ffered the carve r an opportunity for fini al tr eatm ent o f a more pict o rial typ e. O ne of th e most lu xuri ant ve rs io ns o f th e bas ke t m o del (N o . 141) has a high b ack ground sc ree n of br an ch es and berries and a lo w fore g ro u n d o f o pe n fl o w er s an d bl o ssom s . A n iden tica l finia l appears o n a h igh chest , o ne ora pa i r (o r w hic h Rich ard Edwa rds paid T ho mas Tufft £22 in 177 5. 2 2 0 A fin ial in the for m of an urn (N o . 142 ) , fr om a Ph il ad elph ia d es k an d book case, is a version of th e vase m od el. Birds, ano the r popul ar fin ial pattern , us ually appear on doubl e ches ts and tall clo cks . An ou tsta nd ing exa mp le (N o . 143 ), usu all y d escr ib ed as a ph o en ix , is o ne on th e do ubl e ches t th ou ght to have been ordered by Will iam Logan at the

139

Shield[i nia], Philadelphia, 1760 -6 5 Mahogany. H. : 11 -% in. From a high chest Philadelphia Museum of Art 140

Scroll [i nial, Philadelphia, 1760-70 Mahogany. H. : 14')1. in. From a desk and bookcase Philadelphia Museum of Art

2 0+

time of h is dau ghter Sar ah 's m arriag e to Thomas Fisher, in 1772. Z Z I It m ay h av e be en incl uded in th e wo r k for w hic h Logan pa id Th om as Affl eck £7 2-15 -0 th at yea r . £ 50 o f it owed to th e carver J am es R eyn old s . An eag le o r ano the r bir d was a sta nda rd o rna ment on look ing glasses (Rey nolds's special ty). T he asy m me trica l tr eat m ent of thi s o ne , p oi sed for flight , o ne leg lo w er th an th e other, reca lls th e handlin g of bi rds in elabora te ro coco design s from Johnson 's book . A n altoge t he r differ ent fo rm o f o rna me nta l fini al w as th e carved port rai t bus t , HZ amo ng th e few in st an ces o f figural sc ulpture made in co lo nia l Am er ica. With th e excep tio n o f the fem ale po rt rait o n th e Pompad our hi gh ches t (No. 138), the b usts are fo u n d o n ly o n des ks an d b o o k cases h avin g co ntin uo us co rn ices be nea th th eir pedim ents. The m ost frequen tly used su bject was J ohn Locke, foll ow ed by J ohn M ilto n . Suc h im ages of ren owned liter ar y figu res co me ou t o f a tradi tio n for library bu st s w ith root s in antiquity. w h ich saw a r ev i v al in mid-eig h tee n th -ce n tu ry En gl and. In g r ea t Eng lis h hou ses, busts were placed on large br eakfront bookcases. H3 Perhap s the clo sest th e co lo n ists ca m e to th at co ncei t was th e m assi v e ca b ine t su rmo u n te d b y so me o f " the bes t enric hme nts of scu lpture . " four bu st s (no w go ne) m ade by J ohn Fol w ell fo r D avid Rittenhou se's orre ry for the Colleg e of Ph ilad elphi a. ZZ4 T he s ta nda rd pl ac e fo r busts in Ph ilad el ph ia fu rni ture (o n e recomm end ed in Plate CV III o f T he D irecto r) was in th e ped im ent of the desk-and-book case for m th at served th e city 's cog noscenti as a m ovabl e lib rar y. Portrait bu st s were readil y avai lab le in Phil ad elphia b y 1765, w he n th e ca rvers B ern ard an d Ju gi ez adve r tise d "a g rea t variety of figures. lar g e and sma ll bu st s in plaisrcr o f Pari s, and b rack et s fo r d itto. " H 5 Four yea rs lat er. Edmund Ph ysi ck, atto rney to J ohn Penn , bou ght fro m a lo cal sho pkee per "th ree Ca rve d M ah o g an y Brack et s. two Bu st s & a Fig ur e of M ilt on . "zz(, The lar g est was so me fift een in ches hi gh ; th e sma lles t. some seven. Fro m abo ut 1750. th e prin cipal m an u facturer o f suc h pl ast er sta tua ry was J ohn C heere (1709-1 787 ). of Lon don . zZ 7 As ye t unl o cat ed exa m ples of his s ma ll versio ns were lik el y t he m od el s for th e m ah o g an y b usts m ad e by Ph ilad elphi a ca rvers . C hcc rc's b us ts all fo llow 14 1

th e same b asi c co m p osi tio n an d all s ta n d up on pan el ed p lin ths . T ho ug h th o se m ass-produ ced pl ast er s, co lo re d to lo o k li k e ancie n t b ron ze . we re o f sa t isfac to ry a p pea r ance w he n view ed from a di stan ce, th ey we re so ftly m od eled and lackin g in d etail. Th e m ark et d em anded so meth ing better. Be tween 17° 5 an d 177 5, the Phil ad elphia w o od- car ver brea the d n ew life into th o se visages. On ly in th e mid-1770S, too l at e t o i n fl ue nce Am eri can a r tisa ns , did J o si ah Wedgwood , th e Staffo rd shire potter and ge nius of indust rial mass-productio n , begi n to ma n ufacture beauti full y w ork ed

Basket finia l, Phi ladelphia, 176 5-7 5 Mahogany. H .: 13-% in . From a chest-en-chest Phil adelphi a Mu seum of Art 142 U rn fi nia l, Phi ladelphia. 176 5- 7 5 Mahogan y, H.: l) '/4 in. From a desk and bookcase Wintcrth ur M useum

20 5

143

Birdjinial,

1770-75

Prob abl y b y J am es Reyn old s. Philadelphia M aho gany, H . : 12 1/1 in. From a ches t-en- ches t The Metrop o litan Mu seum o f Art

2 0(,

144

145

Finia! bust of) 01111 Lo cke Phil adelphia. 171i 5- 75 Mahogan y, H . : 10 '12 in. Fro m a desk and book case Berna rd and S. D ean Levy. Inc.

Finial bust of) 01111 Mil ton Ph iladelph ia, 1765- 75 M ahogan y. H . : I2 '14 in . Fro m a desk and book case Pr ivate collection

20

7

bu st s in wh at he called bl ack " basa lte. " oz X Th o u gh sometim es m ore refin ed, th e y we re n ev er m ore livel y an d com pellin g th an th e best o f th e Phil adelphia vers io ns in wood . Of all th e carve d bu st s of the phil o soph er J o hn Lo cke, one (N o . 144 ) th at co mes fr om a d esk and boo kcase h av in g a pit ch p edim ent a n d a pi er ced and leaf- car v ed t y m p an u m b o a rd ?" is n ot e w orth y for th e a na to mica lly co nv inc in g artic u la tio n o f th e face an d fo r it s refl ecti ve m o del in g . On th e eve of th e Re volution, Lock e ( ,632-1704) was a particular fav orite o f th e co lo n is ts; hi s two Treatises 011 COllCfII III Cllt pr o vid ed th e intel lec t ua l underp innin gs o f th eir claim to the ri ght t o r eb el. In th e Librar y Co m pa ny o f Ph ila d elp hia' s cata log ue o f 174' , Lo ck e 's E ssay Co ncerning HUll/ali Understalldillg was held to b e th e b est boo k o f lo g ic in th e wo rl d.r ! " Underst andabl y , he was th e mos t popul ar subj ect for th ese bu st s. Th ou gh d em on strabl y execu te d by thr ee d iffer ent ca rvers , all five kn o wn exa m ples are based o n th e sa me m odel , dressed in form all y in an o pen-nec k shirt. 2 3 1 The pl ast er bu st s th at in spi red the Am eri can carv ers rest o n pl inth s h a vin g tap er ed sides an d a p an el ed fron t in scribed wi t h th e s u bjec t 's n am e . Th e woo d v er si o n s cop y th at favor ed t yp e, but wi tho u tt he in scription. Th e b us t o f J ohn Milt on ( 160 8- 1674) crow ne d at least t w o Philad elphi a de sk s an d b o ok cas es . 232 T he p o et m a y h a ve bee n chose n b ecau se o f hi s polemi c w ri ti ngs in ti rele ss defen se o f reli gi ou s, civ il, an d domest ic lib erties. This exam pl e (N o . 145 ) d em on strat es th e h ei ght s to w hic h Ph iladelphi a art isa ns co u ld ri se. Th e features o f th e head - narro w face, re ceding for eh ead, pointed j aw -appear to be an almost ge ne ric pr escripti on for an intell ectual (no te the resem blan ce to Lo ck e) ; o n ly th e bl ank eyes (a co nve n t io n in cla ssi cal scu lptu re and appro p riate here becau se o f M ilton's blin dn ess) an d th e sc ho la r 's co lla r tab s id entify th e sitte r. 2 33 Bu t ho w beautifull y reali zed! The ca rve r h as ch ise led th e faceted sur faces of th e face an d th e co lla r tabs m or e in th e m an ner of a sc u lp to r in m arbl e th an in woo d , cr eatin g a tau t ness and a pla y of light th at is the heart of th e rococo . An oth er bu st fini al from Ph ilad cl phia, th at o f a yo ung m an (N o . 146 ) , is o f a thor ou ghl y ro co co sen sib il it y . 2 3-1 With hi s lon g n eck, up right an d ar is toc ra tic b ea ri n g , and clas s ica l d r ap er y p ulle d as ide

to

dis pla y ele g a n tly em b ro i-

der ed fin er y, h e is far m ore sty lis h th an o ur liter ar y fig ur es. He cries o ut fo r id entificati on .

Finial bust of a youllg mall Philadelphia, 1765-75 Mahogany, H.: 8Y2 in. From a desk and bookcase Private collection

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SEATING

FURNIT UR E

A su perb ly ca rved cha ir (N o . 147), of a co m ma nd ing p res enc e, is th e only piece o f Ph iladelphi a fu rniture tha t at te m pts t o exec u te a d esi gn fr om T he D irector in its en ti rety. T he splat patt ern and th e o rnament of th e back and legs faithfull y foll o w Pl at e X II (No . I) an d we re clea rly a cli ent' s spec ia l o rder. Oth er wi se, th e cha ir maker chose to foll o w sta nda rd Ph ilad elphi a pr acti ce, employing a slip (re movable) sca t and sim ple, rounded back legs. T he bold and asse rtive fro nt legs, w it h sc ro ll feet an d high-reli ef carvi ng th at h as been attribut ed to Bernard and Ju giez, 235 m ay ha ve caused th e maker to ad d th e gad roo n ing t o th e scat rai l, a crea t ive to uc h th at co m pletes th e int egrit y of th e design. A co ns ide ra ble va riety o f splat patt ern s we re popu lar in Phil ad elph ia, a numb er o f th em based o n C hippe n da le design s, a number of others havin g pointed arches or various arrange me nts of int erl aced stra pwo rk. N one co m bine co heren t d esi gn an d fin e ca rv ing b etter t ha n d o cs thi s exam p le (N o . 148 ) . Th e figure- ei ght st ra pwork in th e sp la t me rges effortl essl y int o th e cres t r ail , an eve n m or e fl o w in g inte rpre tatio n th an th at of th e previo us cha ir.

147

Side chair, Phil adelph ia, 1760- 70 M ahogan y; ceda r, H.: 39-% in. The D ietri ch Am eri can Fou ndat ion

148

Side chair, Ph ilad elphia, 1765-75 M ahogany; cedar, H . : 3R in . T he M etr op olit an M useum of A rt

209

Onl y v er y oc cas io na lly w ere eas y chairs in P hi ladelphia made with carved seat rail s and arm supports, tru e essays in th e ro co co sty le. The u ltimat e in spiration for th e d esign of those cle me n ts ap pea rs to be th e ca b rio le- leg ver sion o f the "French C ha irs " in Th e Director (Plates XX-X XIII ) . A chair of th at t yp e (N o . 149 ) h as ca rv ing that is the work o f an . altogether su pe rio r an d excep tio na l ta lent. All four legs end in naturalisti c hair y-p aw feet, and th e skirts are carve d with s p rig h tly foliag e ag ain s t a diap er ed pattern an d with a human m ask (a gr eat rarit y iIi Am eri can furnitur e, as in Am erican silv e r) at the ce n te r fr ont. Tip s of th e leafage ext end artfull y o ve r the upp er-ed g e m o lding of th e sk irts. Her e is one of th e g rea ter mom ents in Philadelp hi a carvin g . It ca n be att ribu ted, with reasonable assu rance , to Hercules Cou rrena y.r "' who between 1766 and 1769 w orked for Benj amin Randolph . The cha ir is sa id to h av e de scend ed fr om Mary W. (Fennim o re) Randolph , Benj amin 's second wife. r ' ?

149

Easv chair. Phil adelphi a. 176 5-70 M ahogan y; w hite oak, H . : -lSi!, in. Phil adelphia Museum o f Art

2 10

A so fa (N o . 150 ), a fixture a t Benj amin C he w 's Cli veden (see p . 26) since th e lat e eig h tee n t h ce n t ury , is th e most ela bora te o f Phil ad elphi a M arlb orou gh exa m p les , th e onl y o ne to co n fo r m to th e Price Book 's de scripti on o f "Soffas Ma rlboroug h Feet " w it h all th e ex tras : "a fret o n feet & rails and carved m ouldin gs . .. £ 10 - 10 -0. " Its sca llo pe d serpe n tine back - t h e so -ca lled ca me l b ack with p oints-is a cl ass ic Ph ilad elph ia d esi g n , as are t he three front leg s, sq ua re an d wi t h cu ffs, and th e st raig h t stre tc hers. Th e arm rests , which form nearl y horizontal roll s ex tending far forward, howe ver, a re m ore i n th e Eng lis h m ann er. On th e s ki rt, ab o ve the ap plied ga droo n, is a blind fret o f o verl appin g ogival arc hes; on th e fro n t leg s is fre two rk in th e form o f a r ches and latti ces.

150

Sofa, Philadelphia, 1763-71 Mahogany; tu lip po plar. L.: 90 % in. Cliveden of the Na tional Trus t

Th e sofa is th e m o st sta te ly pi ece o f coloni al Am erican uphol st er ed furniture. T he pr esent covering , a bright ye llo w sil k da mas k, reprodu ce s th e co lo r the C h ew famil y traditio na lly h ad o n th eir drawing-room furniture. It is th e de ep m ah o g an y sk ir t th at g ives this piece it s air o f monum ental arc hi tec t ura l m ajest y. The lon gstanding associa tio n of th e sofa w it h G overn or J ohn P enn is circ u ms ta ntia l. C he w , in pur ch as in g Penn's Third Street h ous e, p aid £5 ,000 for a bu ild in g th at in 17 7 0 had b een va lued at £ 2 , 0 0 0, which co u ld im ply th at h e bo ug h t it full y furni shed. Th at id ea is reinforce d b y th e lack of bill s for furnitur e a t th e tim e in th e m ultit udino us C hew pap ers.

2 1I

M o re closely assoc iated with the Penn famil y are two sets of ela bo ra te ch ai rs , m ad e in two variation s o f the "French C ha irs" in Th e Director (Plate XIX ) . The type is listed in the Price Book as " Chair fra me for Stuffin g o ver back and Feet w ith M arlborou gh Feet," in m ahogan y for f [-5-0, and with ar ms , bracket s, b ases, an d car ved m oldin g s avail able as ex tras. A sta nda rd form in England, th e grea t open-arm ed, upho lste red- bac k cha ir was ex ceptional in Philadelphia. Th e cha irs o f th e first set (see No . 151 ) hav e acan th us leafag e o n the arm su p po rts , ga d ro one d molding under the seat rails, and , on th e legs, carved fretwork that m atches that o f the C hew so fa. Nine cha irs from th e set are known . Two, listed as " 2 Lar g e Arm ch airs form erl y ownd b y Governor Penn, " w er e give n to the Friends Hospital o f Phil adelphi a in 1817.23S The se t m ay h av e been en suite with th e sofa m ade fo r th e Third Street h ouse J ohn Penn acquired sho rt!y after his m arriage to Ann All en , in [768.239 The fam ous Speaker 's C ha ir with th e M asonic em blem of th e risin g sun in its crest rail , co m m issio ne d o n [7 December 177 9 from J ohn Folwell and no w o n view in Ind ep endence Hall, 240 has arm s and legs ide n tica l in de sign to th o se o f the Penn cha irs. Though th e inspirati on for th e carv ing is evide nt, its exec u tion is flat and . . . . un con v1l1 c1l1g 111 co m pa nso n. The cha i rs o f th e seco n d se t hav e pl ain arm su p po rts, bea d-a n d - ree l moldin g und er th e sea t rail s , and ca r v ed be llfl ower s a bove h ollo w- corn er ed in set p an el s o n th e leg s. 241 This exa m p le (N o . 152 ) w as lon g ca lled the " William Penn " cha ir, certainly a mi staken refer ence to John .

152 Annchair. Phi ladelphi a, [7(,5- 75 M ah o gan y; w hi te oak , H . : 43 in . The M etropolitan Mu seu m of Art

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3

CADWALADE R

PARLOR

SUITE

B y shee r g oo d fortun e , th e m o st agg ressive ly ro co co of all g ro u ps of Phil adelphia furn iture is also th e best documented . It is the furn iture (see ill. op p . p. 133) m ade for th e front and back parl ors o f J ohn Ca dwa lade r 's hou se on Second Street . During th e autu m n o f 1770, Rand o lph, Co urte nay, and Bern ard an d Ju gie z su b m itted b ills for th e arc hitec tura l carvin g th ey had co m plete d. The r0 0111 S w er e desig ned an d exe cu ted as an ense m ble, th ough th e front parl or wa s lar ger and m o re lav ishl y o rna me n te d . In v o ices for th e fu rn it u re ar r ived sho rtly a fte rwa rd. The p rin cipal do cum ent is Affl eck 's bill , for th e su m o f £ I 19-8 -0 , m eti culou sl y rendered in a copperplate hand, for w ork co m plete d bet w een 13 October 1770 and 14 J anu ar y 1771. 2 4 2 (A t th e bottom , Affl eck added sepa r ate cha rges for hi s ca rve rs, Re yn old s an d B ern a rd an d Jugiez, totalin g £6 1- 4-0 .) 'A m o ng th e furniture listed are some pieces clearl y intende d for the front room: Mahogany Co mmo de Sophias for the Recesses @ £8 one Large ditto an Easy Chair to Sure ditto 2 Co mmode Card Tables @ £5 2

153 Easy chair, 1770 Thomas Affleck, Philadelphia Mahogany; yellow pine. H.: 4 5 in. Co llection of H. Richard Dietrich . Jr.

£ 10-00

ro-oo 4- 10

JO-oo

Becau se all are describ ed as "com mode" (ha ving a se rpentine fro nt ), t hey mu st h av e been more o r less en suite. Thou gh th e three so fas a re n o w lo st, s u rv iv ing a re t he eas y ch air (N o . 153 ) an d th e ca rd tabl es (see No . 154), of an ide ntical pattern . Th eir ski rts are serpe n tine and h ave a sm all asym m etri cal shie ld in th e m id d le ; th eir legs end in paw fce t. Of th e sa me di stin cti v e g ro u p is a lar g e set o f sid e cha irs (sec N o. 155 )24 .1 th at ca n b e id cntificd with uph ol st er er Pl unk et Fleesori's cha rge , " To covering over Rail fin ish 'd in Ca n vis 32 C hairs ." Sinc e the en t ry o n th e bill was dated 18 October 1770, th e cha ir fram es w ould have been liste d o n th e Affleck in v oi ce (no w mi ssin g ) that pred at ed th e o ne qu oted above . The foll o win g J anu ar y, Fleeson uph ol st er ed the easy cha ir, fini sh in g it in ca n vas. f':' an d bill ed for cases, o r slipco vers , o f "fine Sax on blu e Fr. C h k. [Fren ch chec k ]" fo r th e t h ree sofas and for se ve n ty - six cha irs. 2 4 5 That August, " Rich Blue Si lk D am ask ," to g eth er w i t h deep an d narrow b lue sil k frin g es a n d lar g e a n d s ma ll blu e si lk tassel s, was o rd cr cd from London . 2 . ( ' Up ho ls terer Jo hn Webster, lat e of th at city, m ad e th e cur ta ins and co vered th e three sofas and tw ent y o f th e chairs fo r th e fro nt parl or. 247 T he o n ly o t her fur n itur e o n Affl c c k ' s invo ice t h at is n o w idc n ti fia b lc w ith t h a t roo m is th e " 4 Ma hoga ny fir c sc ree ns @ 2-10 [a total of] £10 - 0 " (see No. IS6) . 24 x T heir paw feet help to id entify them as a part of th e suite . Of eq ua l im po rta nce to th e m ah o g an y cha irs and tabl es of th e fr o n t

154

0 //1' ofa pair o] card tables, 177' Th omas Affl eck, Phi lad elphia M ah ogany; yello w pine, L. : .1')'% in . The Di etri ch A m eri can Fou nd ation

21

5

155

S ide chair. ca. 1770 T ho m as Affleck . Philadelphia M aho gan y; w hite ceda r. H. : .17 in . The M etropolitan Museum of Art

par lor we re th e ca rve d-a n d-g ilde d frames o n th e wa lis enclosing a loo kin g glass and five famil y po rt raits (Nos . 124 , 12 5) - all by Reyn ol d s an d co nta ine d in an in ventory of th e ro om ta ke n in 177H, after th e Br iti sh occ upa tio n of Philadelp h ia h ad ende d. Also list ed were fiftee n cha irs an d four tables-two of m ah o g an y and t w o m arbl e sla bs, one of whic h may hav e b een N o . 13 0 . Th e in ventor y tak en at th e time of the gc ncrals d eath , in 17H6, in clude d o ne large an d one sma ll settee and tw o (fire) screens . 2 -l~ T he b ack pa rlor had its own m at chin g se t o f furn iture. w h ic h , in keep ing w ith it s s ubsidiary ro le, is o f so me w ha t sim pler des ig n. T he legs of th e card tables and th e chairs end in paw feet , almos t a sig na ture fo r Ca dwalade r furn iture, but their skirts are straig h t and un car v cd. f ?" Cad w aladc rs la rge fro n t p arl or w as a s p le n d id an d exceptionally purc ins tance of the rococo taste in Am eri ca. It was ru sh ed to co mp letio n by the co nce rted effo rt o f m an y o f the lead in g art isa ns in th e city . Wh ile so me of th eir n am es are k now n an d so me of the ir work can be ide ntified , differcn ccs in the commode card tabl es- even diffe rences bet w een the carvi n g of th e bac ks an d leg s of th e cha irs 2 5 1 -s ig nify th at the commiss ion was th e work of m yr iad h ands, all o f rhein skilled in the rococo mode. MIIII

Fire screen, 1771 Thomas Affle ck , Phi lade lphia Carving probably by Bern ard and J ugiez M ahogan y, H .: 627/ " in. T he Metr opoli tan Mu seum of Art

2 17

CAST I RON

G LA S S

AND PORCELAIN

U n lik e the produ ction of eng ravings , silve r, and furniture, w hich was accompli sh ed in workshops by small numbers of art isa ns, the m anufacture of ca st ir on , g lass, an d por cel ain had differ ent requirem ents: lar ge numbers o f workers, m assive m asonry st ruc t ures to h ou se the furna ces o r kilns , an d th ou sand s o f ac res o f w oo dl and to pro vid e fuel for them . T he laun chin g o f th o se indu stri es therefore represented an ex te nsive ca pita l in vestm ent . En gl and co untenanced domestic ma nu fac tu re o f so m e iron, as we ll as utilitarian g lass and pottery, but d iscouraged th e developm ent o f table glass and porcela in. Becau se th e m oth er co un t ry co ns ide re d th e co lo nies n ot o n ly a so urce of raw m aterial but also a m arket for h er ow n ex po rts , th e m o re s ty lis h d ome sti c g o o ds represe n ted dir ec t ri v alr y with En gli sh co u n te r pa rts. In the 1760s, th e grow ing Am eri can se n ti m e n t for b oy cottin g im po rts fos tere d d om esti c pr odu cti on o f suc h lu xuri es, t ho ug h ultim at el y th e yo u ng fact ori es co u ld not co m p ete w it h Eng land 's es ta b lish ed indu stries. Wh en the brief tr ad e em ba rgo was ove r , fas h io na b le co lo n is ts rev erted to purchas ing th e less expensive w ares from a b roa d. A fe w o bj ec ts th at s u rv ive fro m th e p e r iod attes t to th e e ffo rts of lo cal ent re p rene u rs to b reak into th at lu cr at ive m ark et. In vi ew o f th e need for both subs ta n tial capital and prosp er ou s co ns um ers , it is n ot su r p r is ing th at th e three fled glin g Am eri can ind us tries - iron , tabl e g lass, an d porcelain - we re con centr ated aro und Ph iladelphia.

C ast Iron

Co lo n ial Am eri ca, ab un da n tly su p p lie d w it h t he req u isit e ir on ore, wo o d, lim est on e, an d wa te r p o w er , was we ll sui te d to the success fu l m anufacture o f cas t ir on : wood, for the cha rc oa l with which to fu el th e blast fu rnace; lim estone, to provide th e necessar y flu x for th e heat ed o re; an d wa ter , to power th e bell ows th at fann ed th e fu rnace's fir e. Wea lthy urban investors w ere esse ntial. Thou gh th er e we re foundries in N ew En gland and N ew Yor k, b y far th e g rea tes t co nce ntr ation of iron m anufactories was aro und Phi ladelphia: to th e eas t in N ew Jersey ; to th e wes t in th e Schu ylkill Vall e y of Pennsyl vani a; and to th e so u th in th e She na n doa h Vall ey of Virgin ia. En gland genera lly en co uraged th e co lo nial m an u facture of cas t iron , but o n ly in th e form o f " pigs" (ingo ts) , w h ich could b e s h ip p ed ac ross th e Atl anti c for fabri cat in g int o fini shed pr odu ct s. N e v erthel es s, a l o c al rna rke t for A m er-

ican -made iron goo d s, h avin g m o stl y to d o w it h coo k ing and heatin g, had eme rge d by the beginning o f th e eig h tee n th century. T he Br itish Board of Trad e appa rently left th e stove in d u st r y pretty w ell alon e, since w ha t it produ ced was n ot suit ed to th e h om e co u n t ry's n eed s . Wh er eas in En gl and mos t pe opl e heated th eir hou ses b y burnin g coa l in fir epl ace gra tes , I in Am eri ca wood was to rem ain th e prim ary fuel fo r heating and coo king until th e nineteenth cent ury. The car bo n- rich iron turn ed o ut by Am erican foundries was admirabl y suited to o bjects requ ired to w iths ta nd heat .

Pickle stand (No. 172)

21

9

These in clud ed. no tabl y. ch im n ey bac ks (to day called "fireback s" ) - iron plat es attac he d to th e back s o f firepl aces - and stoves . freest anding fireb o xes m ad e up o f seve ral iron plates. T he plat es th em selves were sand cast: m ad e o f m olt en metal poured in to a m ol d o f d amp sa n d th at had been impressed w it h a p att ern . Th e p att ern s we re m ad e of so lid pi eces of m ahogan y m ortised and tenoned to gether. that wood cho sen fo r it s d ura b ility and " because it wa rps least. " 2 If there w as to be de corati on o n the pl at e. th e pattern was carved co rrespo nding ly. In th e lat e '7605. pr ecisely coi nci de n t w ith heav y investm ent in th e iro n indu stry b y a number o f we althy Phil adelp h ia ns. r o co co o r na me n t. cas t fr om pattern s cr eated b y acco m p lis h ed art isa ns . s u d d en ly b eg an to a p pe a r o n th e chim neybac ks and stove plat es o f th e area. J In J anuar y 176 R. a N ew York n ew sp ap er ca r rie d an ad ve rt ise me n t o n behalf o f C ha rles Read' s Etna Furn ace. in so ut h wes t N ew Jerse y. for "a ny Workman w ho we ll und er st and s th e m akin g of suc h M oul ds as are m ad e o f Wood .. . an d can pr odu ce good C haracters. m ay m eet w ith ex trao rd ina ry En couragement. It is ex pec ted th at th e M ould s ho u ld be fini sh ed with g reat Skill and Accuracy .":' In D ecember 1770. th e carvers Bern ard and Ju gi ez we re paid £8 " fo r th e car vi ng th e A rm s o f Earl of Fairfax for a Pattern for th e Back o f C him ney ."5 later cast at M arlb oro Fu rnace , V ir gini a ; in N o v ember 177-1- . the m ultit alenr ed j obn Fo lwell w as p aid ,\:) for carv ing stove m olds fo r At sion Ir on w o rk s , anoth er of Read' s N ew J er sey ve ntu res.(, T ha t th o se thr ee m en we re amo ng th e leadin g propone n ts o f th e rococo in Phil ad elphi a d o es mu ch to ex p lain w hy so m e o f th e local triumphs in th e sty le are cast in iron .

CHIMNEYBACKS Th e o n ly eviden ce o f th e ro co co sty le in N ew En gl and cas t ir on w ork is found in the pr an cin g-st ag ch im ney bac ks ret ailed b y J o seph Webb an d o t he rs. Th ey are a m od est effo rt sty listica lly and the furn ace th at m anufactured th em is not kn own . Webb ( 173-1- - 17 R7) was a Bo st on m er ch ant wh o se advertisem ent , eng rave d b y Rever e in 176) (see No . 27). o ffer ed " A ll so rts o f Cas t Iron wo r k. d on e in ye bes t M anner. on sho rt N otice. " including " Chimn ey Backs of all sizes. " Four pr an cin g-stag ch im ney bac ks rem ain in place in th e Jer emi ah Lee hou se. co m p le te d in 176 R in M arb leh ead (see p . 20 ) . all four with an arc he d top co n tai ni ng an image o f th e su n -a round hum an face enc ircled b y six tee n rays .' On three o f th em . a ri bb on at th e b ase is em b lazoned w ith th e legend " SOLD BY J O SEI'll W EBB BO ST O N.'" eac h is let in to it s firepl ace bri ckw ork . an d eac h is crac ke d . Th e fourth, an unbrok en c h irn nc y ba ck (N o . 157 ) lo o se in th e fire place of th e sta te drawin g ro om. ') is slig h tly narro wer th an the others (the arc he d top en comp assin g th e im age o f the sun appears cra m ped ) an d the m odelin g of it s stag and sc ro lled edges is less finely worked . It s trailin g ribbon is m ark ed "SOLD BY JAMES \l USELES . " an as ye t unidentified retail er, bu t th e cas tin g appea rs to be fr om a m old m ad e fr om a We b b o rigina l. Did Webb , p erh ap s wi t h not en ou gh cas tings in stock to su p p ly all Lee ' s firepl aces, h av e t o go to R usel es for h is kn ockoff of the same design ? Th e devi ce of th e su n is co pied pr ecisel y from th at cas t o n th e fr ont pl at e of th e " Pe n nsy lv an ia n Fir e-pl ace" (t he Fr anklin sto ve), in vented b y Benj amin Franklin in Ph ilad elphia in 17-1- 2 an d publi ci zed in hi s pamphl et o f 17-1--1- . w h ich sta te d th at th e s toves w er e a va ila b le in B o st on fro m t he inventor 's br other J ames. Sin ce Lee had built what m ay have been the m ost sty lish o f all ro co co N ew Englan d hou ses. his choice o f th e pr an cin g-st ag chi m ney ba ck s sugges ts th at they w er e th e m ost fashi onable on es available. An other chim ney b ack with th e sa me m otif, thi s one m arked (N o . 158 ), is clearly th e in spirati on for th e vers io n retailed in Boston b y Webb and mu st ra nk amo ng th e most irrepressibly ro coco o f all Am eri can ir on w ork . The cas ting , AETN A

larg e in sca le an d with rob us t hi gh- rdicf ca rv ing an d a wcll-

m od eled s tag 's b od y , is unpitt ed b y ru s t. Th ou gh it is crac ke d at o ne side an d w orn b y fir e at the bott om , it is o the rwise wo nderfully pr eserved . 10 In both co m pos itio n and carving, th e ornam ent al design bears a stro ng resembl ance to th e t ymp anum bo ard s o f so me Phil ad elphi a case fu rni ture (see N o . 136) . On e o t he r rococo -s ty le ch i m ney bac k o n w h ich th e nam e Aetn a loom s lar ge in it s arc h is su rro unded

22 0

157

Fircbacle , M assachusetts, ca . 176 8 Jam es Ru scles. re taile r C ast iron. 29 x 26 in . Marblehead Hi st ori cal So ciet y

158

Firchack, ca. 1774 Aet n a Furnace. N ew J er sey Cas t iron , 31'/ 2 x 30 in. Wint erthur Mu seum

22 1

w ith sc ro llwo rk and has an im ag e o f a crowing cock p erch ed o n a cent ra l water-dripping led ge . II A etna (in it ia lly s pelle d Etria) was o ne o f four furn aces C ha r le s Re ad es ta b lis hed in th e m id-j -zcos in Burl in gt on Co u n ty, New J e r s e y, j us t eas t of Phila d el phi a. R ead (ca . 1713-( 774), w h o Came fr om a promin ent Philadelphi a merc ha n t fami l y , w a s o ne o f t h e most influ ent ial m en in th e

co lo ny . H e w as also widel y travel ed , h avin g vi sit ed Lond on before se t tl ing in Burlin gton in '73 9 . H e built th e foun dr y o n a t ributar y o f R an co cas C ree k in 1766- 67 and began o pe ration s the n ext ycar . !" On 23 Januar y 1769 (h is seco n d year o f produ cti on), a noti ce in a N ew York n ewsp ap er declar ed : " A t Etna Furn ace , Burlinyton C o u n ty, w hich w ill begin to be in Bl ast th e Midd le of April , a re w anted, a goo d K eep er , two M ast er-Co lliers, Moulder s an d St o ck -tak er s. "

13

Lat e in

1770 , Re ad offered his h oldin g s for sa le, n otin g th at th e y

incl uded " a va r ie ty of ni ce p attern s an d flask s for cas t in g w are. " q H e found n o bu y ers, h ow ev er, and in 1773, in fin an ci al an d ph y si cal ill he alth, h e co n veyed hi s in te re st in th e furn ace to hi s so n an d namesake . The junior Read ( 1739(783) h ad been it s mana ger sin ce at least 1769; it was he who

c h ange d the s pe lling o f the n ame t o " Ae t na . " Thu s , th e p attern for this ch irn ney back w as prob abl y ca rve d b et w een 1773 an d 1774·

In 1706 , C ha rl es R ead, Sr. , obtain ed p ermi ssi on to d am up th e B at sto River near it s jun ct ion w ith th e At sion an d M ulli ca r i v er s , so m e mile s s o u t h and e as t of A etn a Furn a ce . Sh ort ly afterward , o n that si te , h e an d hi s fellow inves to rs es ta b lish ed B atsto Furn ace . Wh en Re ad h ad to st ep asid e, in 1773 , he w as bou ght o u t b y J ohn Cox ( 173 1- 179 3), a Philadelph ia m er chant. In co m mo n w i t h t h e Aetn a e x ampl e , a c h im ne y back from th e B ats to Furn a ce (N o . 159 ) h as a ca ve t to- rn o ld e d edg e and t he n am e o f the fu rnace prominent in th e arch, but the use of a b ead-and-reel m oldin g to cr ea t e a b ord er for flankin g p endent lea ves and flo w er s m akes for a m o re for m al, o r de re d d e sign. T h e lar g e and hand som e va se th at holds a sty lize d b ouquet is not unlike fin ials o n Ph ilad elp hia Case furni tur e (see No. (42); th e p attern for th e m ol d mu st h av e be en carv ed b y a Phil adelphia art isa n . Whil e th e casti ng is now pockm ark ed b y ru st , mu ch o f th e de t ail, in clu d in g th e p roje cting pe g s secu rin g th e mortise-and-tenoned bo ards of th e woo de n p attern, is st ill visibl e . Two B at sto furn ace sto v e pl at es in th e r o co co ta ste are kn o wn , o n e o f w hich is sig ne d an d dated 1770 o n th e rib b o n scro ll. T he lettering o f the factor y n am e mat ch es th at o f th e p resent ex am p le an d sugg ests for it a sim ilar dat e.

159

Fircback , ca.

1770

I,

Bat sto Furn ace, N ew J er sey Cas t iro n, 2 6 Y. x 22'1. in. N ew J ersey Sta te Museum

2 22

STOVES AND S TO VE PLAT E S For m ost of th e co lo nia l period , the standard American heatin g device o the r th an th e fire place was the jamb stove, made up o f five pl at es: a front , tw o sides , a top , an d a bo tto m. Its o pe n b a ck was let into an int eri or wa ll , w i t h t he fi re fed fr om th e a djacen t room. Its stove pl a tes , t he s pec ia lty o f Penn s yl v ani a- G erm an iro n found er s, we re deco ra ted w it h b ibli cal sce nes a n d s ty lized o rna me nt. O n ly in t he [ 7 6 0 S, afte r th e intr odu cti on o f n ew an d mo re efficie nt ty pes of h e atin g a p p lia nces, was th e roco co sty le em p loyed o n o rna me n te d stove pl at es . T he s ix-p la te mo de l (a fro n t , a back, t w o sides , a top , and a bo tto m ), int rodu ced about [760 and based o n Contine ntal pr ototy pes;" re mai ned cu rre n t for littl e m ore than a deca de. It was th en superseded b y a tenpl ate m od el , th e fo ur ad di tio na l pl at es crea ting an in te rna l b akin g oven access ible th ro ugh a la rge d o o r cu t in eac h side plate . Both typ es were su ppo rte d o n an iron trestl e base. The new ve rs io n, w hich o rigi na ted abo ut [765 an d no w co m bine d cooking wi th th e heatin g fun cti o n , was to rem ain the sta nda rd typ e until well into th e ni net eenth cen tury .' ? Of th e inn u m erable ir on m anu fact ories locat ed in th e Sch uylki ll Vall e y, w h ic h run s n orth and w es t o f Ph ilad elphi a, o ne o f th e lar g est an d b est preser ved is H o pe w ell Furn a ce , so me fort y mil es fr om th e city in th e Fr en ch C reek area o f Ber ks Cou nty, Penn syl vani a. It was esta blished b y M ar k Bird , Jr., abo u t 1770- 71. 18 The foll o win g yea r, Bird co m m iss io ned th e ca rv ing of th e woo de n pattern s fo r t w o of th e fin est o f all ro coco-decorat ed Ameri can stoves, o ne of the six-pla te t yp e, o ne o f th e Fr anklin typ e. Th e six - p la te stove (N o . 160), w hi le m issin g it s o r ig ina l tr estl e b ase, is m o re co m p le te ly embell is he d w it h rococo decorati o n th an any o the r Am erican stove . (Fo r an exa m ple havin g it s o rig ina l base, see No . [63 .) The sto ve bo x is held to geth er w it h a rod th at run s in fro n t of eac h of the decorat ed si d e pl at es a n d fit s throu gh h ol es in t ab s ex te n d ing fr om th e top an d b ottom . Centere d in eac h side pl at e is a m agnifi cent fo oted vase w it h asy m m e trica l h andl es; fr om th e vase fl o w b r an che s wi t h fl o w e r s a n d berrie s , fill in g t he

middl e g ro u n d ; at th e bo t to m co rners are livel y raffl es. At th e top , o n a ribbon sc ro ll, is th e m ott o "MARK B IRD H OP EW ELL EU RNACE [sic]" an d th e dat e [772 . The fro nt p an el h as intertwi n ed , fruit-l ad en g ra pevines flank ed b y engaged half co lu m ns decorated w ith runnin g vines ; o n th e back plat e is d epi ct ed a m an , arms ak im bo an d wea ri ng a high-do m ed h at (a n ir on w ork er ?), s u rro u n ded b y rococo sc ro llwo r k. D espit e the r a v a g es o f ru st , th e carvi ng ha s a cla ri ty o f d esi gn an d an ass ured exec u tion t hat p ro claim s th e ha nd of o ne o f Phil ad elphia's m aster carvers .

223

160

Si x -plate stWf. 177 2M ark Bird . H o pew ell Fu rn ace. Penn syl van ia C ast iron , 35 x .p x IX in . Bir dsbo ro Comm un ity M em o rial Ce nte r

224

T he o the r g rea t rococo design from H op ew ell Furnace wa s a Fra n k lin sto ve , from w h ic h su rv ives o n ly the arc he d front plate (N o . 161) ,IY o rna men ted wi th a pastoral vignette-two go ats flank ed by lea fy b ra nc hes . Ab o ve, in a ribbon, is th e leg end " MAR K, Il lHD H O P EW EL L: FU IlNA CE ." Flankin g the legend are numerals o f th e dat e, 1772. There is an ex ceptio nal rea lism in th e carve d o rna me n t. Ap art fr om th e ri ght side, w hic h is pitt ed wi th ru st , the cast ing is crisp and fresh, o bv ious ly derived from a ca rved pattern in exc ellent co nd itio n . Be nja min Fra nk lin was inter est ed in suc h m atters. Writin g fro m abroad to a Phil adelphia m er chant in 1765, he said: " A Fr iend in Paris h as re q ues ted m e to pr o cure him two o f o ur Pen silvani a Fire Places. [ w ish yo u co uld ge t m e a Couple of th o se th at were cast b y o ur Fri end G race , w he n the M oulds we re good . ,, ~o A number of stove plates wi th rococo decorati on hav e b een fou nd in Virg in ia an d are n o w attrib ute d to M arlboro Furnace, si tua te d in th e upp er She na n doa h Vall ey a few mil es so u t h of W inc hcstc r .:" In 1767, Isaac Z an e (1743 - 179 5), a we ll-bo rn Phil ad el phi an recentl y return ed from London and the gra nd tou r , p u rch ased sha res in th e furn ace and soo n afterward b o u ght o ut th e o the r in vest ors. It was he who in 1770 co m missio ned Bern ard an d Jug iez to ca rve th e p attern fo r th e m assive Fairfax chi m ney bac k (see p. (84). In view of h is Ph il ad elph ia an d Lond on co n nec tio ns, it is n ot u nreasonab le to asso ciat e Z an e w ith th e produ cti on o f a se ries of stove p lates fo u n d lo call y, all w ith fin el y ca rved rococo o r n ame nt de rive d fro m th e eng rave d d esi gn s of T ho mas J ohn so n o r Lo ck and Co p lan d . Z2 On o ne o f th em (N o . 162) , th e Buddh a-lik e fig ure is tak en fro m th e design for a chi m ney piece in Lo ck an d Co p la n d's Ne w B ook of Orna ments (N o . 2) , w h ic h h ad bee n rei ssu ed in London in 1768. It is o nly fitting th at H enr y Will iam Stiegel, o ne o f the most fl am b o y ant of eig h tee n t h-ce n tu ry Am e ri can in d us t r ia l en tre pre ne urs, s h o u ld h a ve pr odu ced th e m ast erpie ce o f A m erican ro co co stoves at hi s Lan cast er Co unty furn ace. ~J In 17 5 0, St icgcl ( 172 9 - 17 8 5) , w ho was b orn in Co log ne ,

161

em ig rated to Pennsyl van ia, w he re he was soo n em ployed by th e iro n ma ke r J ohn J acob Huber at Eli zab eth Furn ace, near Brickerville. In 1752, Stiegel m arried his em plo ver's dau ghter, Elizabe th, and b y 1757, in partn ership w ith Phil adelphia merc ha n ts C ha r les an d Al exand e r Ste d ma n , h e ass u med control of the iron w ork s. At first , Sricgc l used Huber 's sto ve- plate patt ern s, decora ted w ith sta t ic ar ra nge me n ts of h earts an d tulip s. He alte red on ly the inscri ptions, 'whi ch we re biblica l qu otations in German, inse rti ng in the ir place his nam e and th e nam e o f

Front plate[ron: a Franklin stove, 1772 M ark Bird, H op ewell Furnace, Pennsylvani a Cas t iron , 15 x 31'I. in . The Hi sto rical Soc iety of Penn sylvani a

162

Side plate [ro m a six -plate stove, ca. 1770 Attributed to M arlb o ro Furnace, Virgini a Cas t iro n, 22 x 27 '1. in . Private collectio n

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16 3 T en-plate stOI'I" 1769

H enry Willi am Stiegel Elizabeth Fu rn ace. Penn sylvania Cast iro n . 63 1/ .. x H 1/.. x 15 in . H ersh ey Museum

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his fu rnace. Stove pl at es bearing dates bet w een 175 8 and '766 tes tify t o th at in itia l pr a-etice. 2 4 In 1769, Sti egel m ad e a d rama tic switc h to th e m o st florid rococo sty le . C lea rly , h e did so in an effo rt to at trac t th e Phi lad elphi a gent ry (w hose pu rch ases abroa d h ad been cut o ff b y th at yea r's nonimportat ion ag ree me nt) to a t yp e of stove previ ou sly intended for Pen nsyl vani an s of Ge rm an o rig in . H e co m m iss io ned carved woo de n p att ern s for three different stoves . On e, with his name an d th e d at e, is kn o wn on ly b y individual side plat es havi ng a cent ra l vase sur rou nde d by scro lls and leafage, none of it p a rti cul arl y we ll execu te d . 2 5 Th e o the r t w o ex is t in com pl et e stoves - a six- p la te an d a ten-pl at e m od el,.- and have decora tio n o f o uts ta nd ing qu alit y. The o rna me nt is cast from p att ern s carve d b y th e be st of Phil ad elphi a a rtisa n s; th at of th e six - p la te sto ve h as m o stl y to d o w it h M asoni c cmblerns .:" Stiegel's ten-p late stove (N o . 163 ) w as hi s atte m pt to prod uce a ve rs io n so s ty lis h th at it wo u ld fit int o th e fin est Ph iladelphi a inr cr iors. "? Fo r th e decoration at ei the r en d of th e side pl at es, w hic h h ad t o fit a ro u n d th e o v en d oor, Stiegel chose sp len di d ro co co raffl es, mirror imag es o f eac h o t he r, an d th en pro u dl y id entifi ed th e m anufacturer in ribbo n scro lls: at t he to p, "H . w . STlEGEL" ; a t th e b ottom , " ELI ZA B ETH FURNACE." The num er als o f th e d at e, 1769 , ar e fitt ed into ava ilable space under th e door. The back plate has a n ot p art icul arl y rococo huntin g troph y; th e fr ont pl ate h as w it h in a rococo-sc ro lle d an d asy m me t rica l su rro u n d a vigne t te of a b u il d ing in th e bac kg ro un d an d , in th e foreg rou n d , th e d o g of A esop ' s fabl e co n te m p la ting h is reflection in the wa ter. The wa te rw heel next to th e building sign ifies th at it is p art o f an ind us t ria l co m p lex, doubtl ess Elizabe t h Furn ace . Th e sa me im ag e was em p loyed for th e ta bl et o f th e ch im neypiece of th e ba ll room in Samu el P o w el 's to wn h ou se, pro bab ly ca rved b y H er cule s Co u rt enay abo u t 1770. 2x In 1769, th e yea r th e s tove pl at e was carved, Po w el h ad purchased th e hou se fr om C ha rle s Stedma n, o ne of Stiegel's pa rtne rs in th e iron bu sin ess. Was th at a mere co inci de nce? Or does it su ppo rt th e th eory th at C o ur tenay was the carve r o f Sti egel's stove- plate patt erns? R eadin g (a lso spe lle d R eddin g) Furn ace wa s in th e Fren ch C reek reg io n of th e Schu ylkill Vall e y , in th e sa me a rea as M ark Bird 's H op ew ell Furn ace. 2~ E st abli sh ed in th e 1730S, it was tak en ove r in 1772 b y J am es Old , w ho o pe ra te d it for six years. Su rvi ving rococo ir on w ork fro m Readin g Furnace is limited to three stove pl at es, all w it h sc ro llwork and th e inscri ptio ns " lAMES. OL D" an d " REA D ING. FU R N A C E " in upper and lo w e r ribbo ns. O ne, wi th a ce nt ra l b ask et o f flo w er s rem ini scent o f fini als o n Phil adelphia case furniture, is dat ed

Si de plate[or a ten-plate slove, ca. 1772 J am es O ld , Read in g Fu rnace, Pennsyl van ia Cas t iron , 23 x 30 in . Penn sylvan ia Hi sto rical and M use um Co mmission

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1772, th e year o f O ld 's succession. 3° T he side pan el to a tenpl at e stove (N o. 164 ) was h is mos t am b itio us effo rt in th e rococo. T he d esi g n , co pie d almos t exactly fr om th at o f th e p recedi ng stove, is o ne ste p rem o ved from its precision an d vi ta lity . In thi s cas ting, t he oven ape rt ure was fill ed in fo r u se as a six - plate stove w itho ut th e oven. The in sert appea rs to h ave been m akesh ift ; disp ar at e carved mo tifs-a shea f o f w hea t, th e sca les o f j us tice, a sai ling ship- have been co m bined wi t h a fragm ent of a lar ger scrollwo rk patt ern .

165 Si de-p late patt ernjor a ten-pl ate sl ol' e, [785-95 Batst o Furnace, New J ersey M ahogan y, 26 x 33 in. Burlingto n County Hi stor ical Society

T he t yp e of woo den p atte rn fro m w hic h th e side o f a tenplat e stove was cas t is ex h ibi te d b y a fin ely pr eser ved exa m ple signed in its u pp er ribbo n "BATSTO FURNACE ," for th e New J ersey ironwo rks (N o . 165). T ho ug h as early as any o f the know n stove patterns, it is o rnamen te d in a lat e renditi on of the rococo. V ig o r ou s, la r g e-s cal e mo tifs h a ve b een re placed b y refined lo w-reli ef ca rvi ng. Th e t riang u la r co lonettes and scrollwo rk of th e style have no w been tam ed to coexis t wi t h elegan t neo classical u rn s and vases . The pattern was p rob abl y m ad e duri n g t he tenure of Wi llia m R ich a rd , w ho owne d Bat st o from [7 86 to 1807. 31 O f so lid m ah ogan y, it is m ortised an d teno ned and peg ged toget her to fo rm a frame aro u n d the oven-doo r o pe ning . Th e se pa ra te b o ard that fills th e opening is held in place w ith rem o vab le clea ts. MHH

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Con tem pora ry English tabl e glass was finely blown of a spa rk ling, co lorless lead -oxide composition. Colorless glass, called "whi te glass" in the period, w as the most difficult to p rod uce, req ui r in g refining to rid it of the chemical imp uri ties th at wo u ld otherwise have shaded it green, am bc r , or brown . Co loring glas s intentionall y was easier th an rem o v in g offendi ng impurities; the addi tion of such che m ica l oxi des as coba lt or ma nganese produced more ple asin g ton es o f blu e o r purple, respectively. The in trod uction o f lead into co lo rless glass, a dis covery ma de in England lat e in th e seventee n th century, en ha nced its clarity and b rillian ce. This lead g lass , called " flint glass" in th e pe riod, was co m mo nly em ployed for fin e Eng lish tabl ew ares throu gh out th e eig h tee n t h cen t ury . Afflu ent co lonia ls co u ld p urc hase flint g lass in all m ann er of dri nking an d dessert vessels, pun ch b o wl s, an d se rvi ng for ms, th e most lav ish of which had cu t o r eng raved deco ration . Englis h glass respon d ed to th e rococo sty le no t on ly with natur alist ic foliate and arrnoria l engraving but also wi th lighter shapes. The heavy, Germa n ic, k no p-s te rn m ed ba luster of earl y-eigh teent h-century E ng lis h gob lets was supplanted by a more delicate, at te nua ted, kno pless stemmed form . Often, a spi ral twist, ac hieved w it h a clear air bubble or with an opaque white cane of glass , was embedded in the stem, ca tching the light and inves ting th e form with rococo delicacy and movement. Sticgel m ad e drama tic changes in his Ge rman-style pro d uc tio n in 1769 , w hen P hiladelphia me rc ha n ts voted to uph ol d th e lo cal nonimportatio n agreement. H o ping to take over urban m arket s pr evi ou sl y su pp lied by impo rted tabl ewa res, he hired En gli sh glassblowers, nam ed hi s factory the Am eri can Flint G lass M anu fact o ry , a n d b eca m e th e firs t Am eri can m anufa cturer to prod uce fine lead-glass tabl ewares in th e En gli sh style. Th e sec re t of th e techn ol o g y , brou ght to Am eri ca that yea r b y J ohn All m an , was first p ut to usc at Sticgcl's glasswork s. r " Stiegc l contin ued to produce bottles, wi n dow pa nes, an d vernacular tablcwares, b ut added to tha t re pe rtoi re a ran ge of lu xur y items in flint g lass as well as in co lored g lass : sce nt bottles, sugar dishes, cream po ts, tu m bl e r s, mu g s , salts, cruets, decante rs, and g lasses for wi ne , beer, wa ter, and dessert. After 1769, cr cam pots were sometimes desc ribed in t h e records as "three-feeted, " 3 {, in d icati n g an En gli sh fo rm well k nown in silver (see Nos . 55, 5R, 59). Stiegel advertised his new line actively, engaged th e s up po r t of importa nt g lass merc han ts , and sought in d ep endent endo rsements. One of t hese last, sig ne d by an ano ny mo us " Pe nnsylvania Plant er," appeared in th e Pennsylvallia Gazette o f 1 Au gu st 1771:

Glass

During the period of rococo in fl ue nce, th e m an u facture o f domestic glass was li m it ed to a ve ry few fac tories w hose ou tput consisted almost enti rely of bot tles and w in dowpanes. 3 2 T he making of fine tab le g lass was a ttem pte d by only t w o manufacturers -first, H enry Wi lliam Stiegel, sub sequen tly, J o h n Frede rick A m elu n g- b o t h of w hom ultima te ly failed to compete with fashionab le Bri tish goods . However, rococo influence is certain ly percep tible among the few surviving tablewares from their two efforts, ch iefly in the engraved ornament. H enr y William Stiegel, mentioned earlier in this cha pter as prop rietor of Elizabeth Fu rnace, La ncas ter Co u nty, expanded his co mme rcial in terests in 1764 w hen he founded a glassworks at Manhe im, also in Lancast er Cou nty . Sti egel hired Germa n- trai ne d g lassblowers to prod uce bottles, w indow panes, a n d sma ll a mo u n ts o f tabl ew are in th e Ge rma n style fo r th e lo cal P enn syl v ani a- G er m an co m m u n ity . Hi s pro d uc tio n , rea lize d lat e in th e yea r, was ad ve rtise d th e follo w in g Febru ar y : "N oti ce, th at th e G lass ho use , w h ic h he h as erec ted in th e T o wn o f M anh eim, is n o w co m p lea tly fin ishe d , and t he B usi ness o f Glass maki ng in it ca rried o n; whe re all P e rson s may b e sui te d in th e b est M ann er, w it h any Sort of Glass, according to th eir Order. " 3 3 T he small amou n t of Ge rma n-s ty le table g lass he ma de fo r do mestic markets consisted primarily of tu mblers, m ugs, salts . cream pots, sugar dishes , and p lates. of t hick , u nrefined green glass . When Lond on trade commissioners asked Governor J o h n Pen n a bou t A m er ican industries un d er h is jurisdiction tha t mig h t threat en th e E ng lis h expo rts, he called Sticgcls g lasswa re "o f ve ry ordinary Qua lity, bu t to supply t he sma ll dem an ds o f th e Vi llages and Farme rs in th e adjacent inl an d Cou ntry"; Benj amin Fr an klin described it as "coarse wear [sic] for th e co un try ne ig hbo rs . " .14 Th ou gh Penn and Franklin u n do u b te d ly d o wnpl a ycd Stiegel's pr od uctio n, hi s g lass was ce rta in ly n o t co mpa rab le to th at im po rte d fro m th e m other co un try .

Eve ry Pers o n seems pleased with the la te Success of M r. S t icgc l , w ho h as e rec ted t he first H ou se in A lIleri ca for

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makin g w h ite Flint Gl ass . W e h av e alrea dy see n th at Work br ou ght t o Perfecti on ; D ecant er s, Win e Gl ass es , etc. etc. n o w ma n u fac t u red in thi s Pro vin ce, eq ua l in Whit ene ss, Tran sp ar enc y an d Figure, to th ose whi ch arc imported from Ellrope; th at m an y Thou sand s o f Pounds mu st be saved to Penn syl vani a by thi s M anufacture alon e, w ill readi ly be g rante d ." ?

By 1773 , Sti egel w as ab le t o e m be llis h hi s ware s with eng ra ve d de cora tion . In th at year , h e hired the earliest known glass en gra vcr ac tive in Ameri ca, Laz aru s Isaac, an English immigrant who h ad be en working in Philadelphia . Earlier in the ye ar , Isa ac had announ ced in an ind ependent ad ver t isem en t th at he undert o ok "to cu t an d en grave on glass of every kin d , in an y figure whatsoever, either coats o f .ar m s, flowers, n ames , o r figure s. " 3 S Sti cgel sig n cd a oneyear contract with Isaac in June o f ' 773, payin g him fS-I o- o a month (the sa me w ages he paid his m aster bl owers ) and pr oviding him with a house and land for a ga rden . In glass ma k ing , en g ra ving is co ns id ered a form of co ld dec orati on-that is, adornment added to a full y fashi on ed art icl e after it has been rem oved fr om th e an nea ling oven an d co o le d - in contra st with th at acco m p lis hed while the m ateri al is still hot an d mall eable. Thu s, as in silve r, eng raving can be added b y an indep endent arti san . Th e g lassen gra vin g process , however, differs co n sid erably from that employed on silver. By mean s of a lapidary-lik e procedure, the engraver m anipul ates copper wh eel s lined with an abrasive to cu t awa y g lass in specific are as , leaving them fr ost y in appear ance . Th e rotating technique lends itself to flowing, curvaceo us ro coc o designs. Th e earliest exa m p le of Am eri can tabl e g lass with ro co co decoration is a go blet (N o . r66 ) that descended in th e Sricgel famil y and is therefore attributed to Sti cgel' s fact ory, 3<) The only known exam p le of his En gli sh-st yle pr oduction , it is of lead gl ass an d h as an op aqu e white-twist stem. It s bowl is eng rave d in th e ro coco st yle : on o ne side , with a naturalisti c, asy m me t r ica l ros e ; on th e oth er, with a foliate cartouchc en cl os ing th e en grav ed in scription "w & E O L D , " for Eli zab eth and Wil liam Old, Stieg el' s d au gh ter an d so n- inlaw . Old w as pro babl y a so n o f ir on m anufacturer J am es Old , o f Readin g Furn ace (sec p. 227). The co u ple we re m arrie d in 177 3, shortly before Isaac was officially em p loy ed at M anheim; Sti eg el und oubtedl y had him cn gravc th e go blet to co m m emo rate th eir w eddin g . In co m pos itio n and deco ration , th e go b le t for th e Ol d s is sim ila r to co n te m po ra ry En gli sh pr otot y p es also h avin g naturali sti c eng raving an d ste ms th at encase tw ists o f o pa q ue glass ca nes -a typ e th at co r rcs po n ds to Sti eg cl' s adve rt ise me n ts for "c u am clcd " glass. .ro

r66

Goblet. 177 3-74 Att ributed to H enry William Stiege l Am eri can Flint Glass M anu factory Manheim , Penn syl vani a Eng rav ing attri bute d to Lazaru s Isaac Glass, H . : (j.y. in . Th e Co rn ing Museu m o f Glass

23 °

En gr avin g supe rio r to th at displ ayed on Stiegcl's goblet for th e Old s ap pea rs o n Am clu ngs fin est pr o d u cts. A co ns iste n tly deli cate , so ph istica te d sty le arg ucs fo r a sing le hand , prob abl y a Germ an-trained eng rave r w ho executed th e ro co co flo w er s, birds, sc ro lls , an d arrno ria ls, as we ll as letterin g in a st y le an alo gou s to th at o n Ge rma n ro co co g lass but n on eth el ess retard at air e by 1790 , as we re th e b aro qu e sha pes o f th e g lasses. An Am elun g adve r t ise me n t of 179[ sugges ts th e ava ilab ility o f cus to m eng raving an d m entio ns th e flower s typi cal o f th e ro co co sty le: " G lass m ay be h ad , cu t with letters, cvphcrs, crests, Jloll'ers , or devices, ag reea b le to th e fan cy of th e pur ch aser s, from 4d . .. . to 40s . a pi ece, besides th e price o f th e glass. "4 3

Fr om [769 until th e fact or y's cl o sin g in [774, Sti eg el pr odu ced b oth Ge r ma n- an d En gli sh- st y le g las s , but hi s foray in to new m ark et s was frus t ra ted in 1770 b y the rep eal o f Phil adelphi a' s n onimportati on ag ree me n t. That se tbac k, co m bin ed with th e la rge ex pe nse en ta iled in co n ve rting hi s fac to ry to th e pr odu cti on o f lead glass , b ankrupted Sti eg el (w ho was alrea dy o verex ten ded in o the r bu siness ventures), and his glass produc tio n cease d in 1774.

Th e fin est ro co co eng raving o n Am eri can g lass dat es fr om the twil ight of th e sty le, aro un d '790, an d w as pr odu ced at J ohn Fr ed eri ck Arn clun gs N ew Br em en Gl assm anufactory, in Fred eri ck Co u n ty , M ar yland . The G erm an-born J ohann Fr iedrich Amclun g ( 1741- 1798) be g an hi s w ork as techni cal di recto r at his br other 's m irr o r factory at G runc nplan. south o f H an o ver , in 177 3. In 1784 , afte r co nv inc ing a g ro u p of Br emen m erch ants to in vest in a glass fact ory he planned to estab lis h in Am erica , Am elun g bou ght eq u ip me n t, hired Germa n w ork er s, an d arri ve d in M arylan d . He acq uired an ex isti ng glassworks in Frederi ck Cou nty, abo ut fort y mil es wes t o f B altim or e , an d se t up pr oducti on. Within a few mo n t hs, h e adve rtise d w in dow g lass an d hollowware (th e latter, pr esum abl y, o n ly bottl es). In th e foll owin g yea r, he p u b lis he d hi s int enti on to build a co m p le te g lass fac to ry, to "consis t in m akin g all kinds of glass- Wares , viz. WindowG lass , from t he lo w est to the fin est so rt s, w h ite and g ree n Bottl es, Win es an d o the r Drink in g-Gla sses, as also Opti cal Glasses, and Lookin g-Gl asses, fini shed co m pleat. " 4' There is n o ev idence to pr o ve th at Am elun g ev er suc cee de d with o ptica l o r mirror glass ; th e m ajority o f hi s pr od uct io n was co m pos ed o f util it ari an g lass for b ottl es an d w indow pa nes . Like Stie gcl before him , Amclun g atte m p ted to break into th e lu xur y m arket with colorless, en graved tabl e g lass o f hi gh qu al it y . A s an adve rt ise m en t of 1789 rep ort ed : "H e m ak es . .. all Kind s o f Flint- Gl ass, su ch as D ecanter s, an d Wine G lasses, Tumblers o f all Sizes, an d any o the r Sort o f Tabl e G lass . - H e also cu ts D ev ices, C ypher s, Coats of Arms, o r any other Fan cy Figures on Gla ss. "42 The

T o prom ote his w ares, Am elung , like Stiegel, adve rt ised an d en lis te d th e ret ailin g se rvices o f key glass m er ch ant s in n ei ghb orin g Baltim or e an d Fre de r ic k tow n , as we ll as in N ew York and Phil adelphia. Am elung also pr odu ced a series o f outstandin g pr esentati on glasses for prominent pol it ician s and merch ant s in th e hop e o f attracting po litica l and me rca ntil e su p po rt for hi s embr yoni c Am eri can endeavor. All th e g lasses h ad ela bo ra te engrav ing th at pr omi n entl y fea tured th e n am e o f Am elun g ' s fact or y; all see m t o d at e betwee n [788 and [792. Alth ou gh gob le ts Am elun g gave to Geo rge Wa shin gt on d o n ot s u rv ive , a publi sh ed accou n t of th eir presentation rev eals much abo ut th e patri oti c att. tude to w ard th e yo ung co untry's fled glin g do m est ic industry:

I am ju st retu rn ed fro m M ount-Vern on , whe re I was p rese n t at a scene whic h m ad e eve ry patr io tic p ulse vi bra te w ith th e m ost pleasurable sensa tion. T h is, Sir, w as a tribute of a new ci tizen of the Un ited States , to their illustriou s President.

Mr . J ohn F. Am elung, a nati ve o f Ger ma ny and an artist o f co ns idera b le em ine nce ... thro ug h h is vas t exerti on s he is no w ena b led to sup ply the U nit ed Sta tes, w ith eve ry species of Gl.ASS, th e q ua li ty of w h ic h is equ al if not superior to that imported .. . .

" F li n t-G lass" m ust h av e b e en co lo r less g lass; th er e is

To th e test im on y of th e ablest co nno isseu rs and cha racter s of tr ade and respect abilit y, it only rem ained for M r. Am eluu g , to co urt th e pa t ro nage of th e g rea t Patri ot , an d I had th e good for tune to h ave bee n pr esen t at an offe ring to hi s Excellency of t w o ca pacio us go blets of doubl e flint glass, ex hibiting the General's coat of arms, &c. H

no t h ing to d o cum ent th at Am elun g e ve r pr odu ced le ad g lass. I f su rv iv ing exa m p les are any in d ica t io n, his table g lass differed fro m Sti eg el' s wares m ainl y in their form s : w hile Sti egel ado p ted hi s from th e En gl ish , Am elun g co ntinu ed to pr odu ce the heavy, baroque kind o f vessels he had kn own in hi s n ative co u n t r y: kn op-st emm ed g o b le ts, o r Po k al s , fitt ed w ith co v ers crow ne d b y fat, robu st fini al s; ela b o ra tely to oled suga r di sh es with pin cered handles and ani ma l fin ials; an d lar ge tum bi ers, o fte n fitt ed with finialed covers .

Th e p oliti cal ramifi cati on s of th e g ift w er e p alp ab le ; Washin gton ap pro ved a du ty on im po rte d glass four m onths later.

23 1

A covered tumbl er and a go blet represent Arn cl u n gs splendid pr esentat ion pieces, co llect ively th e most elabo rate decorat ed g lass m ade in ei g h teen t h - centu r y Am eri ca . Th e tumbler (N o . 167 ), A rn elun gs g ift to h is w ife, Ca ro lina Lu cia (M ag d alena C aro lin a Lu ci a vo n Leseb ur g), is d at ed 17 8 8. Th e in script ion , " Ha p p y is h e w h o is bl essed wi t h Virtu ou s C h ildre n Ca ro lin a Lu ci a A m el un g 17 8 8 , " is eng raved as an arch ove r a ce n t ra l scen e fram ed in ro co co scr olls an d foli age . Th e v ig ne tte d epi ct s an an g el lead in g Tobi as , so n o f T obit, o n hi s j ourn e y to cu re h is fath er 's blindness. (T uc ked under T ob ias's arm is a fish he w ill use in the cu r e . ) Th e Iid o f th e tum bl er is also en g r av cd wi th a rococo design of C-s'cro lls and foli age. Th e fine st ro co co co m p ositi on o n Amcl un gs kn ow n g lass o ccurs on th e go b let (N o . 168 ) m ad e fo r t h e glass ma ke r him self aro u nd 179 2. The bo wl is eng raved with hi s nam e an d a G erm an in scr iption (said to be the fam ily 's m otto) th at read s in tr an slati on: " Seek Virtue and wh en yo u find Her leave eve ry thi ng else to Pr o vid ence. " 4 5 The ro coco ca r t ouch e s u r ro u n d in g th e "J Arn clu n g" co ns is ts o f C scrolls , flower s, foli age, droo ping ears o f wheat, a di ap er ed panel , an d a rib bed she ll di rec tly be nea th Arn clun gs nam e; th e sma ll, burstin g ro se emerging fro m th e scro lling ) o f his initi al is a v irt uo so t ou ch (see d et ail) . T h rou gh out th e design , th e eng rave r has co n tro lled th e cuts o f th e w heel so as to shade cert ain areas lightl y, crea ting an impressive sense o f three-dimension alit y. B y 179 0 , Am elun g w as th e head of a thrivi ng facto ry with a d ep endent v illage o f fort y-fiv e hun d r ed pers on s. During th at d ecad e , how ev er , a di sast rou s fir e at th e g las sw o r k s an d ens u ing finan ci al diffi culti es rev er sed hi s fortunes . In 179 5, Am elun g , in ill health, de eded th e factor y to his son; in 1798, it w as su bd ivided and so ld fo r debt s. L GB

Covered tumbler,

17~~

J oh n Freder ick Amel ung N ew Brem en Glassm auufacror y Freder ick C ounty, M ar yland Glass, H . : 11 7/ 8 in. The Corning Mu seum of G lass

23 2

168

Co b/ct. ca. 179 2 John Frederi ck Am elun g N ew Brem en Glassman ufacto ry Frederi ck County, M ar yland Glass, H.: (i ¥4 in . Co llection of Mr s. G raha m John Bar bcy Co urtesy of the Mar yland Histor ical Societ y

233

him self w ith th e iden tificatio n o f dom esti c clays sui tab le fo r porcelain pr odu cti on an d so ug h t Am eri can- m ad e ena m els w it h w h ic h to de corat e it. W r it in g from Par is to a co r re spo nde nt in Penn syl v ani a, h e recounted a Fre nch chem ist 's favorabl e assess me nt o f w hite clays sen t from Am erica and ad d ed , " If w e en co u r ag e n eces sar y M anufactur es am on g o u rse lves, an d re fr ain bu yin g th e Supe rfluit ies of oth er Count ries , a few Years wi ll m ake a sur prizing C hange in ou r favo ur. " 4 X Frank lin 's hopes were sha red by th e noted ph ysician Benj amin Ru sh, wh o in a letter from Edinburgh in 1768 spo k e o f h is d esire to see a ch ina m anufacto r y fo u n ded in

Porcelain

Philade lphia .'!"

In s uc h an o p t im is tic clim at e, it is n ot surpri sin g th at ex pe r ime n ts in th e m anufacture o f Am eri can porcel ain sh o u ld b egin in Phil ad e lphi a . In J anu ar y of 1770 , Go usse Bonnin ( 174 I ?- 178o ?) an d Geo rge M or r is ( 1742/ 5- 1773), partners in a n ew Ph il ad elph ia ch in a- pro d u ci ng venture, ann oun ced th eir success in a local newspaper:

Po rcelain, the fin est of th e ceram ic bodies and, beca use o f its hig h fir in g temper ature, th e m ost difficult to p rodu cc. !" was a h ighl y pri zed o rie n tal co m m o d it y un t il t he secret o f it s ma nufac tu re was d isco vered in Ge rma ny ea rl y in th e 1700s. Once revealed, th e for mu la sp rea d throu gh out Euro pe ; b y th e m id - ei ght een t h cc n ru r y . C h inese im po rts we re b ein g riva led by porcelain rabl cw arc s and figu res of bo th o rie nta l and Weste rn design fr om a number o f Euro pean and En glish fa ct o ri es . Yet p or cel ain, w he t he r C hi nese or Europea n, rem aine d a ch e r is he d p o ssessio n, affo r da b le o n ly t o th e wea lthy . Am eri can m er ch ants, lim it ed to tr ad e w ith Britain , i m po rte d E n g lis h ce ra m ic s almos t ex cl us ive ly , t ho ug h C hi nese p or cel ai n s we re also o b ta ina b le from Lond on su p p lie rs. M o st A me rica n t abl es we re furn ish ed w it h in cr easin gl y fin e Eng lis h potter y th at served as less ex pe nsive alte rna tives to porcelain -del ft w ar es, salt-glaze d sto newares, an d cream - co lo red ea r t henwa res-w h ile th e m o st affl uen t co lo n ia ls co u ld indul g e in Eng lis h por celain pr oduce d at Bow , D er b y, Liverpo ol , Pl ym outh, and Worcester. T he only Ameri can porcelain m ade dur ing th e rococo period im it at ed w are s fro m th o se En gli sh cen ter s and reflected th eir versio n of ro coco taste. The first do cum ented atte m pt at Amer ican-m ade porcelain w as m ad e b y A nd rew Du ch e, a Phil adelphia sto newa re p otter who found th e k aolin esse n t ia l to it s pr odu cti on in Sava n na h , G eor gi a. In 173 8, seve ra l year s before porcelain was fir st pr odu ced in En gland , he recorded a successful kiln firin g . T he veracit y o f hi s cla im h as ye t to be pr o ved, an d littl e is kn own o f h i.s su bs eq u en t ca reer, n bu t he und oubted ly did find kao lin in Geo rg ia (it was also ava ilable in South Ca ro lina and D elaw are ). Thou gh sca ttered rep orts of furth er Ameri can porcelain m anufacture in th e 1760s canno t be substa n tia te d , th e desire for dom esti c p rodu ction is m ad e parti cul arl y ev ide nt in th e w ritings of Benj amin Frankl in, w ho, o n hi s travels in En gland and France, sent his w ife exam ples o f p orcelain fr om Bo w an d Worcest er. H e also conce rn ed

New C h in a War e. N ot with stan di n g the vario us d ifficulties an d disad vant ages. w hic h usu all y atte nd th e in tr odu ct ion o f an y impor ta n t ma nufact u re int o a n e w co u nt ry . th e p ro pr iet o rs o f th e C h ina Wo rk s . no w e rec t ing in South w ark [Philadelp hia], have th e pleas ur e to acq ua int th e publi c. they have p roved to a certainty. th at the clays of Am er ica are pr od ucti ve of as go od Po rcelain as an y heretofore m anufa ctured at the famous factory in Bow , near Lond on .r' "

Bonnin w as a we alth y En g li shm an w h o ha d b ro u g h t hi s w ife an d child ren to Penn ' s co lo ny in 1768; M orris was th e so n o f a pr ominent Phil ad elphia famil y. T he first ind ication o f th eir partner ship w as a land ag ree m ent in lat e 176<) (it can be no co inc ide nce th at Philadelphia m er chants had enac ted a nonimportati on agreement the pr evious April). Despi te th eir an no u nc em en t of J an u ar y 1770, the "prop riet ors" di d not actua ll y pr odu ce porcelain unti l lat e in th e ye ar, afte r n in e ma s ter w ork er s the y had hired from En gl an d arrive d in Philadelphia th at O ctober. 5 1 Th e partn er s, who ca lle d th eir bu sin ess th e Am eri can C hina M anufactory, m ad e so ft- paste porcelain 52 in sty le and sha pes ana logo us to En gli sh w ares . In th eir adve rtise me nts the y offered " comple at set s fo r th e d in in g an d tea ta bl e to g et her , or dinin g sing ly ," includin g pi ck le sta nd s, frui t ba sk et s, sa uce b o at s. b owl s, an d p lat es. Lat er , th ey ad ded cu ps , teap ot s, s uga r di sh es, cream p ot s, an d to ilet se ts to th eir lin e. 5 3 T echn icall y, th e su rv iv ing Borin in an d M orri s interpretations arc su rprising ly profi cient, undoubtedl y due to th e s k ill ed En gli sh immi grants in th eir em p loy . T h e w ork er s' vario us back gr ounds probabl y explain th e distilled En gl ish sty le of th e m anu fact ory' s wa res , co py in g n ot o ne factory' s production but displ ayin g moti fs and cha rac ter istics r el at ed to m an y. For exa m p le , a g ive n p iece m ig h t hav e

2 ]4

~ '.

"1" '.

Sallccboat. 1770-7 2 Gou sse Bon nin and Geo rge M orris Am erican C hina M anu factor y. Ph iladelphi a Por celain. H .: 4 in, Th e Brookl yn Mu seum

170

Sallccboat. ca.

177 0

Probably Plym outh Facto ry. En gland Porcelain. H .: 4 V. in , H igh M useu m of Art

23 5

bo rd er decorati on co m mon to o ne fac to ry , a shape derived from ano the r, a han dl e from a thi rd . Like th eir En gl ish co un terpar ts , Bon nin an d M orri s decor at ed th eir wa res p rim aril y in u nderglaze blue, 54 a tr adi tion origina ting wi th th e blu e- and-whit e oriental porcelains im porte d to E u ro pe in th e six tee n th an d seven te en th centu r ies . Th o se im p ort s h ad led t o i m it at io n s in lo w- fi red Eng lish sto newa res an d in Englis h and Dutch dc lftwar cs. as we ll as in Eng lis h p o r cel ain s , to th e ex te nt t h at b lu e an d w h ite was a w ide ly fav ored co lor sc heme in ta b lew ar es. Surv ivi ng exa m p les fro m th e B onnin an d Morris fa ctor y (fewe r th an tw o d ozen) are sty list ica lly co nsis tent with conte m po ra ry E ng lis h bl u e- an d- white po rce la ins decora ted in th e rococo sty le w ith naturalisti c flo w ers 'and insects or with chino iscrie scene s. A com pariso n of a Bonnin and M orris sau ceboa r (N o . 169) wi th an E ng lis h exa m p le of th e sa me pe riod is illustrative n ot on l y o f th e fact or y ' s impli ci t mi ssion to copy and to co m pe te w ith Eng lish wares bu t also of its ability to produce alte rnatives o f hi gh qu alit y. The sauce boa t has been likened to Liverpo ol exa m p les, 55 a rese mblance tha t warrants m ention , for th e ch inoise rie vig ne tte that decorates it is cert ainl y sim ilar in co mpos itio n to tha t of sce nes o n Live rpoo l protot yp es. .I" N evertheless, it also closel y relates to one assigned to Pl ym outh (N o . 170): bo th are m olded in the ro coco sty le w it h scro lls an d she lls o n th e b o d y , shaped rims , doubl escro lled h andl es, and lobed-and-ru ffled ped estal feet. That sig na tu re rococo sha pe in ce ra m ic sa uce boa rs meri ts co m parison w ith th e pr emi er exa m p le of th e fo rm in Ameri can rococo silve r, a p air m ark ed b y R ich ar d H u m p h reys (see N o . 76) . Lik e th e Pl ym outh sa uce boat, th e Bon n in an d M or ris exa m ple is decorated w ith a land scape scene and w ith int erm itt ent ro co co fl o ral s p rigs in u n d ergl aze blu e . T h e Am eri can interpret at ion diffe rs fro m th e Plym outh version in its orie n ta l latti cew ork b ord er , th e co m pos ition of the landscap e sce ne in it s ca rro uc he, an d th e placem en t o f floral sprigs o n its inn er border , handle, and foot rim . The fash io n fo r pier ced se rv ing di sh es in th e rococo peri od, alrea dy ex p lore d in si lver (see pp . " 9- 24 ), can also be d o cumented in p o rcel ain . B ecau se th e ce ramic medium is le ss m all eab le th an si lver , the resul ts are m ore s ta id , but rococo non etheless. A Bonnin and M orris bas ke t (N o . 171) , fashio ned after Eng lis h p ro tot yp es from Wo rces ter, Lowestoft, an d Bo w , h as o pe nwo rk sides of int e rl aced ci rcles joined b y h orizont al cross bars, p un ctu at ed o n the ex terior wi th app lied flo w ers pi cked ou t in blue, and surmounted b y a ser pe n ti ne rim . Lik e it s En gli sh mo de ls, the b ask et ha s und er glaze blue pain tin g o n th e in terior of a ro co co still life,

171

Basket, 1770- 72 Cousse Bonnin and George Morris American China Manufactory , Philadelphia Porcelain, Diam.: 57/8 in. Collection of Eric No ah

2 3°

17 2

Pickle stand, 1770- 72 Go usse Bonnin and G eo rge M orris Am eri can C hina M anu factor y, Ph iladelphia Por celain , H . : SYH in . T he M etropolitan Museum of Art

23 7

173

Pickle stand,

177 0 - 72

Gousse Bonnin and Geo rge M orris Am eri can C hina M an ufactory. Phila delphi a Por celain. H .: 51/8 in . Co llection of Mr. and Mrs. Geor ge M . Kaufm an

23 8

bowl s. 6 4 Ca d wa lade r, one of th e richest an d mos t influ ential t ast em ak er s in Phil adelphi a, o rde red hi s p orcel ain lat e in 1770, at th e sa me tim e he was payin g for arc h itec tu ra l ca rv ing in the fr on t an d b ack p arl or s o f hi s ro co co show p lace (see pp. 21.+- (7). He had pr esum abl y received it b y J anuar y 1771 , wh en h e paid M cElr o y ' s bill , th e sa me m onth hi s lav ish furniture suite h ad b een co m p le te d by Affl eck (see N os. 153-156). The di sproportion at ely lar ge number s of surviv ing lu xur y form s, p arti cul arl y b ask et s an d pi ckl e sta n ds, lead s to spec ulation that Bonn in an d M orris em phas ized top-of-theline luxuri es in th e sa me way th at Am elu n g p rodu ced hi s s pec ia l presentation g lass es. D espite th e n um erou s form s do cumented , the o n ly exa m ples kn own to survive from th e Bonnin and M orri s factor y ar e sa uce boa rs , pi ckl e sta n ds , swee t m ea t di sh es (o f sing le -s he ll sha pe ) , b ask et s, and co v er ed openw ork d ish es. J" Less la vi sh form s, p o ssibl y unmarked, m ay have been mi st aken fo r En glish goods . The patron age o f suc h prom inent Ph ilad elphi an s as th e C ad w alad ers, the Penns, th e Fr anklin s, th e Shi p pe ns, an d the Wharton s66 notwithst anding , th e Am erican C hi na M anufactor y enco u n tered m an y diffi culti es. In th e face o f se tbacks inevitabl e to th e laun ching o f an am b itio us new industry , and hamper ed further b y Am erica' s resumption o f tr ade with England in 1770, B onn in an d M orris clo sed their factor y in Nov ember of 1772. P or cel ain was n ot success fu lly produ ced aga in in th e Unit ed St at es unt il we ll int o th e nin ete enth cent u ry.

t ypi call y co ns is t ing o f a lu sh , asy m me t r ica l, n aturali sti c bo uq uet o f d ifferent va rieties o f flowers, usu ally with ins ects (he re, a butterfl y) ho vering nearb y. The technical difficulties o f pr odu cin g p orcelain are g ra phica lly d em onstrated b y the border decorati on o n th e Ameri can bask et, o rig inally a concise d esi gn o f shells, flow er s, an d foli ag e, but re du ced to a blur in th e high-temper ature firin g . 57 The form undoubtedl y corres po nds to th e " fru it ba skets" billed to John C adwa lade r at ten shillings apiece in 1771 . 5 H Th e Bonnin and Morris firm evi de n tly o ffe re d at lea st tw o sizes o f fruit bask et s, in diam et er s o f app roxi m ate ly six in ch es, seen h er e, an d eight inche s. 5<) Th e mos t ela bo r ate s ha p e produ ced at th e Phil adelphi a p or cel ain facto ry w as th e d oubl e-ti ered s wee t m ea t di sh, re ferr ed to as " pic k le s ta n ds " in period acco u n ts an d the m o st exp en si v e form doc u m cn rcd .?" Four o f th es e s plen didl y rococo serving dish es are kno wn to survive , three with subs ta nt ial blue decorati on ; the fourth, a less exp en siv e versio n, em be llis he d o n ly w ith feathered blue bor d ers . ?' All fo ur a re co m pose d of three sh ell- sha pe d di she s cluster ed aro u nd a pill ar o f sim u la te d co ra l enc rus ted with sm all er she lls o n w h ic h is eleva te d a ce n tra l she ll- lik e bowl. The m odel, produ ced in En gland at both Bo w and Pl ymouth, is re la te d to v ari ou s ro co co form s in silve r an d ceramics th at d raw up on n atur ali stic rend erin g s o f she lls and sea crea tur es, ":' Th e d ecor ated ex ampl e sho w n here (N o . 172; see also ill. o p p . p. 219) has rich ro coc o flor al painting ak in to th at found o n th e pr ecedin g bask et, w ith a burterfl y flutterin g in th e upp erm o st b owl; all four di shes are painted in und er gla ze blu e w ith d eli catel y rendered flower s. C h arac teri sti cally, th e enc rus ting shells are pick ed out in blu e, as are th e feath ered rim s o f th e di sh . Without th e add itiona l flower decorat ion (N o . 173 ) , th e stan d has th e tr ompe l' oeil effec t o f bein g ac t ua lly enc rus ted w ith sea life- a ro coco whimsy unu su al in Am eri can inte rpretati on an d m or e typi cal of Eng lish and Fren ch ex press ions. At least two promin ent Phil adelphian s m ay h av e used d is hes lik e th ese at d essert . J ohn Cadwal ader an d Thom as

L GB

W harton each o rdered pi ckl e s ta n ds fr om B onnin an d M or-

ris fo r w hic h th ey w er e charged fifteen sh illin gs - fiv e shillin gs m or e th an th e pri ce o f a fruit bask et. (' 3 130th men made th eir purchases in 1771 from Archibald M cElroy, Bonnin and M o rri s ' s Phil adelphi a ret ail er. C adw al ad er o r de re d tw o ; Wha rto n , o n ly o ne . Al so included o n Wharton's bill, under t h e h eadin g " Am eri can China ," w er e a d ozen "handled C ups , " a tot al o f three suga r dish es, two cream ewe rs, three tea po ts, four bo wl s, o ne fruit bask et , thirteen plates, a set of " quitte d" (qu ilted) cu ps, as we ll as a set of plain cups , a pair o f sauce boa ts in add itio n to a sma ller saucebo ar, and six pint

239

19· The picture su rv ives in its o rig inal mah ogany fram e. w hich has a gilt, sand -finished fascia and ori gin al g lazing. On th e back, an ink inscription in an eighteenth- centur y hand reads "El izabeth Flo wer N ovember 1765 ."

Notes

20 . Ann's pi cture is in th e co llec tio ns of Winterthur Museum (58 .2226) . 21. S. Sym pson, A Ne ll' Book

4 Cypher s (London,

1736). 31.

22 . A nati onal standa rd for the Continental fo rces w as not defined until late in the re vo luti on ar y wa r; th e flag , w ith its thirte en star s and thirteen stripes, was fir st int end ed for mar ine use. Land force s w ere not au tho riz ed to ca r ry th e Star s and Stripes w ith th eir regim ental co lo rs until 1834. For in fo rma tio n o n th e use o f military flags in the colo nial era . see Edward W. Richard son. St andards and Co lors of the Al/l ericall R evolution (Ph iladel ph ia : Uni ver sit y of Penn sylvania Press, 19 82).

T HE

AM ERI CAN

RO CO CO

pp. I-IS ·

23. As qu oted in ibid. , 309 . 24 . Wainwright 1964. 20.

I . Kimball 1943 , 4 ; for a su m ma ry treatment o f th e C ont ine n ta l origins of the rococo. see Snodin 19 84 , 27 -3 1. 2 . For M eissonnier, see O elll'res de [uste-Aurilc Mci ssonnicr (Pa ris, ca. 17 50), reprint, with an introduction by Dorothea N yb erg (N ew York : Benjamin Blom , 1969 ).

3. Illustr ated in ibid ., folios 6-8.

AR CHI T E C T UR E pp. 17-35 · I . Pr im e 1929 . 276 - 77 . For ~ review o f eigh tee nt h-ce nt ury Am erican w allpap er. see Lynn 19 80 , 10 8-1 9 .

4. As quoted in ibid .. 19 . 2 . Park 19 7 3 d o cum ents 11 9 differ ent titles in pr e-R evolution ar y 5. Snodin 1990 , 16.

Am erica.

6. For th e co m plete en g rav ed works o f Lock and Co pland, see Heckscher 1979.

3· Ibid.. 7 1 -7 2 .

7. See ibid ., 8, for a reference to C hippendale's Ornaments and Interior Decoration (Lo nd o n: Jo hn Weal e , ca . 184 0 ) . whi ch co nta ins o ne design by Lock and no ne by Chippendale. 8. As quoted in MFA 19 7 5, 13. 9 . Prime 1929, 20 . 10. Willi am B. Willc o x, ed ., Th e Papers 4 Benjamin Frankl !n, vo ls. 15- 26 (N ew H aven: Yale University Press, 19 72- 87), 19 : 336- 37.

Ibid . , 12: 25 0 , letter o f August 1765 from Franklin, in London, to Deborah, in Philadelphia.

4 . Tr an scrib ed from th e titl e page of Sw an' s British Arch itect (London. 1758) .

5. For th e Vass all hou se , see Bainbridg e Bunt in g and Rob ert H. N yl and er . R eport Four: O ld C ambridge (Ca m bridge. M ass. : Ca mbridge H isto rical C om m ission, (973). 80-8 1; for the Apth orp hou se. see Ga rrett 1960 , 62. w ith a ph ot ograph of th e Great Cham ber taken abo ut 1870- 80 tha t shows th e o rig inal scenic wallpaper w ith rococo fram es. 6. See Park 1973. 6 1.

I!.

12. Ibid. , 62, letter o f 14 February 176 5, from Franklin . in London. to Deborah, in Philadelphia. 13. Wainwright 1964. 65 . 14. The standa rd book on th e subject is Arthur M eier Schlesin ger . Til e C olonial Merchants and the Al/l ericall R evolution , 1763-1 776 (N ew York: Facsim ile Libr ary, 1')3')) . 15· Ibid . , 107, qu oting Th e Boston Post-Boy, 26 October 1767. 16. Prime 192 9. 176. 17. Quot ed in Ho rnor 1935, 168. 18. For a general tre atm ent of the Kentuck y rifle. see M . L. Brown . Firearms ill C oloni al Al/l erica (Wash ing to n . D . C . : Smit hso nian Institut ion Pr ess, ' 9 80), 263 -74.

7. The attributi on o f Apthorp ' s ho use to H arr iso n was m ade b y Fiske Kimb all , qu ot ed in G arr ett 19 6 0 , 29-30; see also ibid . . 17. w he re J ohn Ad am s d eclar ed the hous e "a splend id edi fice ... intend ed for an Episcop al pala ce." 8. John Perkin s Brown , "Ch rist C h urc h, Ca m b ridge ," Cambridge Historical S ociety Proceedings 23 ( 1937) : 21. '). A pair of carv ed chim ney piece trus ses from th e Russell hou se. in nearb y C harles to wn, in the collections of the Societ y for the Preservation o f N ew En gland Antiqui ties, are a variant of th e Sw an- based Apth orp t yp e and loo k to be b y the sa me hand as th o se at El m wood (no w th e Ca m b ridge residen ce o f H ar vard Un iversit y pr esi dents). o ne illu strat ed in Pencil Point s 23 (Sep tem ber 19 3 7): Fig. 56. 10 . Illust rated in Howells 194 1. Figs. 23 . 24 . I!.

C ha mberlain 19 77.

12. For Portsmou th archi tec ture, see Ga rv in 1983; for illust ration s, see Ho wells 193 7. 13 . For the Dearing bill, see Ga rvin 1983, 190; for an illust ration of the chimneypieces and staircase, see H ow ells 1937, Figs. 39, 40. 14. Ga rvin 1983, 269-70. 15. Other ex am ples of this Portsm outh type of carving are in th e Jacob Wendell house (1789) and in the po st-Revo lu tiona ry rem od elings of the We ntwo rth-Ga rdne r ho use. Fo r an illust ra tion of th e latte r, see H ow ells 193 7, Fig. 91. 16. For the h istory of Ph ili pse Manor, see Stefan Biel ins ki, A n American Loyalist: The Ordeal of Frederick Phi/ipse III (Albany: N ew York State Museum, (976), 8-1 I. 17. C ompa re wi th the parlor of H am pton Court, built at Elizabeth, New Jer sey, abou t 1761 (no w at Winterthur), w hose firepl ace wa ll, ob viously from the same hand, is nearly ident ical to th at at Philipse Mano r, but has a m an tel shelf and frieze modeled on th e treat m ent of the adjacent overdoor. 18. T he subjec t is fully ex plore d in Kimerly Ror schach, " Frede rick, P rinc e of Wales ( 1707- 1751), as a Pa tro n o f th e Visual Art s, " Ph . D. diss ., Yale Univers ity, 1985. 19. Gottesman 1938, 123 . 20. T he only o ther New Yo rk chimneypiece display ing such o rnamen t is in Van Cortlandt H ou se, co nstructed in 1748-4 9 by Jacobus Van C ortlandt and inheri ted by his so n Fre derick in th e yea r o f its co m pletion . T he style o f the mantel in the east parlor sugges ts th at it was added sometime in th e mid - 1760S. 21. See, fo r exam ple, Plate 9, in J ohn son 's book of designs. 22. For painted landscape papers, see Lynn 198o, 54-55. 23 . First p u b lish ed in 1752, the bo ok w as reissued on 1 J anu ar y 1768, just in time to be regarded as representing the latest fashio n. 24. The let ter, da ted 12 October 1768, is in the files of the Am erican Wing, Metropolitan Museu m. 25. For illust rations of Philadelp hia arc hitec tura l ca rv ing, see Wallace 1931 . 26. For discussions of those carvers, see Beckerdite 1985 and 1987b. 27. Ma nuscript in Ra re Book Collection , Library, Universi ty of Penns ylvania . 28. A sim ilar chim neypiece design, but w ith elaborate frieze carvin g , is in the parlor (n o w at Detroit Institut e of Ar ts) of near b y Whitb y H all, a house acq uired in 174 / and enlarged in /754 by Jam es Cou ltas, H igh Sheriff of Ph iladelph ia between th e yea rs 1755 an d 1758. 29. Bcckcrdite 1985, 500.

See also Fi g . 50 fo r illu str atio ns of the parlor frieze an d rel at ed eng ravi ngs in Swa n's Designs in Architecture. Fo r C low in Sco tlan d, see Geo ffrey Beard , Decorative Plasterwore ill Great Britain (Oxfo rd: Ph aid on , 1975), 88. The only o ther surviv ing rococo plast er w ork fro m th e Phil ad elphia area is a ceiling and frieze (now pr eser ved at Winterthur) of abo u t 1762 fro m Por t Royal H ou se, Fr an kford , on th e ou tskirts of th e city. )4. Joh n A. H . Sweeney, Grandeur 011 the Appoquinimink: Th e House of William Corbit at Odessa, Delaware (New ark, Del.: U n iver sit y o f Delaware Pr ess. 1959), 50-56 .

35. Beckerdit e 1987b, 1052-56. 36. Beckerdit e 1982b, 67. 37. For th e C hase hou se, see ibid., 43-52. 38. Ibid., 48-50. 39. Fo r the H ammond hou se, see ibid. , 53-62. 40. C ha rles Scarlett, J r., "Governor H or ati o Sha r pe 's Wh itehall," Maryland Historical Magazine 46 (March 1951): 16, 18. 41 . Reiff 1986, 241- 44. 42. Beckerdite 1982a, 29-30. 43· Ibid ., 7-9· 44. For a full discussion of the table, see ibid., 21-26 . 45. For M arm ion, see Waterma n 1945, 76-8 1. M enti on must also be made of Kenm o re, Fielding Lew is's ho use at Fredericksburg , wh ere splendid chi m ney pieces an d plas te r ceilings we re ins ta lled in 1775. Exce p t fo r th e carve d m antel friezes, ho w ever , th e sty le was m or e neoclassical th an rococo. 46. For a th o rou gh inves tiga tio n of carvi ng and carvers in C harleston , see Bivin s 1986. 47. Quot ed in ibid., 36. 48. Ibid., 15. 49. Ibid . , 96-99. 50 . See Pr im e 1929, 275. T he on ly ot her o rna men te d ce iling in C ha rles to n is th at o f th e seco nd -s tory drawing room of th e D aniel Hu ger hou se (ca. 1760-65) at )4 Meeti ng Str eet , w hic h has pl ast er w rea ths o f leafage encircling mu sical trophies. Fo r an illus tra tio n, see W. H . Johnston Thomas, "Seven great C ha rleston houses, " T he Magaz ille A ntiques 97 (April 1970): 559. 51. Illustr ated in ibid. , 558.

ENGRAVINGS pp . 37- 69 .

30. Bernard and Ju gi ez are also th ou ght to have carved th e pul pit and the organ case at Sain t Peter's C hurch in Philadelphi a (1758-63).

I.

31. See Beckerdite 1987b, 1054, 1056, 1058; for the Johnson desig n, see ibid ., Figs. /I, 12.

2. For a study o f Engli sh trade cards, see Amb ro se H eal, Th e London Furniture Makers (Londo n: B. T. Batsford, 1953).

32. For the Powel hou se, see Ta tum 1976.

3. See Heckscher 1979·

33. For workm en engaged on Po w eI's parlor, see ibid ., 52, 54,90.

4. Snodin 1986, 86,93 ·

Sno din 1986, 103 .

5· See J ob e and Kaye 19 84, N o . 147 .

6. O n rar e occas ions, Am eri can engravers e m ployed e tc h ing to ac h ieve a fr eer , loose r effec t. For a good exa m ple o f th at p rac t ice, see th e Kenned y adve rt ise ment b y Sm ithe r (No. 33).

sig ne d , is po ssibly of English w orkman ship and may have been the pr ot ot yp e for his favored bookplat e m antlin g. 33 · Bri gh am 1969, 162. 34 · For C allander. see Sta uffe r 190 7,

I :

95 -')6 .

7· For a co m p le te su rvey ofJ ohn st on as engrave r , see Hit chings 19 73·

35 · Go ttes ma n 19 38, 12 .

8. See ibid. , 126- 28, for th e in ventory ofJ ohnst on's esta te.

36. As quoted in PMA 1976 , 64.

9 · Ibid ., 95·

37 · For N orris 's librar y , see M ari e Elena Ko rey, Th e Books of lsaac No rris ( 1701- 1766) ,If Dickinson Co lI(~e (C arlisle, Pa. : D ick inson College, 1')76) .

10 . Fren ch 193 9, 90. II.

Fales 197 3, 212.

12 . The p ortrait (a t t he C leve land Mu seum of Art ) is pi ctured in Ward and Ward 19 79 , 76 . 13 . The Day Bo oks, o r led g er s, are at th e M assachusetts Hi storical Socie ty. For a dis cu ssion o f th em , see Brigh am 1969 , 10-1 2. 14· Ibi d. , 158- 7 5. 15 . For fu ll- le ng th st u d ies o f Re ver e. see Le ch c y 19 88 ; for hi s eng ra vings, see Bri gh am 19 69 ; fo r hi s silver, see Buhler 1') 56; for a d iscussion of h is M ason ic activities , see Ste blecki 1')88.

38. T he vo lu me in w hic h th e bookplate illu strat ed is pasted is Exa-

men Coucilii T ridcntini, published in D orr rccht, th e N etherl and s, in 167 8 .

B OOKS, M E TAL

CU TS, A N D

BOO K B IN D INGS

pp . 46-48. 3,)· See Hitchings 1') 73,

III ,

11 2, 1'4 , 11 5.

40. See Bri gh am 19 69 , 16-/ 8; PI. 3. 41. Ibid ., 1')8- 212; see 199 for qu oted passage.

16. P M A 1976 , 64 . For a co mple te b iogra p hy of T u rner. see ibi d . , 64- 65.

42. Sp awn 19 83, 3 5.

17. For Franklin 's infl uen ce, see Fales 19 73, 196- 97 , 206-7.

43. Quot ed in Sp awn 1')6 3, 432.

18. For D awkin s, see Cole 1966 .

44 . Aitk en to J er em y Belknap , au tho r of History of Nc w-Hampsturc, whi ch Aitken was th en printin g , 22 D ecember 17 83. This in form a-

19 . Wig ley, w ho h ad b een a m em ber of th e C lo thwo rke r 's Co m pan y , was wo r k ing as an eng rave r on Fleet St ree t in 1749 . W e are gr at efu l to D . E. W ickh am , arc hivis t o f th e C lo th wo rke r's Co m pan y, Lo ndo n, and to th e English scholar an d au tho r Rob ert Bark er , w hos e research pro vid ed us w ith th is new info rm ation on Dawk ins. 20 . Quot ed in PMA 19 76 , 77 . 21. Prim e 19 29 , 18. 22. Cole 1')66, 22 . 23 · Sta uffe r 190 7, I : 2 54-55 .

tion was kindl y pro vid ed b y Willm an Spa w n. 4 5 . Sp a wn 19 6 3 , 4 24- 2 5 . The C la rkso n co py is n o w in th e Free

Librar y o f Phil adelphia. 46 . For th e Th ompson provena nce , see Early A mericall Bookbil1dil1gs [r on: the Collection of M ichael Papantonio (Wo rces te r , M ass. : A m erican Anti qu ari an So ciet y, 19 72) , N o . 13 . 4 7 . For an illu strati on of th at type o f En gl ish bindin g, see Doro thy Min er , T he H istory of Bookbil1dillg , 525 - 1950 (Balti mo re , M d . : Walter s Art Ga llery, 1957). N o . 50 1.

24 . Prime 1')29 , 28. 25. Ibid.

B O OKPL AT E S

pp . 40-4 5·

TR AD E

CA R DS

AN D

O T HE R

E P HE ME R A

pp . 4')- 5 8. 4 8 . For Hurt 's adve rt ise me nt, see Go ttes ma n 1') 3 8, 12-1 3 ; for N orman 's, see Prime 1')29, 20 .

26. Lo gan 's bo okplat e is illu st rat ed in H orn o r 19 3 5, PI. 86 .

49 . For D eb loi s' s new sp ap er advert ise ments, see D o w 1927, 76 -78, 151, 181.

27 . Fo r a full di s cus sion of Hur d ' s boo k p la tes, see Fr en ch 19 39 , 82- 137.

50. Hitching s 1973, Figs. 42 , 4 3, 4 5, 46 .

28 . Ibi d . , 103. 29 · Hitchi n g s 197 3, 132. 30. Illu strated in Bri g ham 1969, PI. 52. 31. For Rever e's bo o kpl ates, see ibid ., 158-66. 32. T he eng ravi ng of the Oliver bookpla te at t rib u te d to Re ver e,

w hic h seems to be more fi nis hed in q ual ity th an a re t ho se he

52. Illu str ated in ibid., o pp . p. 258 . 53 . As q uoted in Bri gh am 196'), 174 . 54 . For Rever e's M asoni c eng ravi ngs, see ibid ., 180- ') 7. 55 . As quo ted in ibid. , 18 5, 187. 56. Illustrated in ib id., PI. 6 3.

Ar t s , Mu seum of Art, Rhod e Islan d School of Design, for th is reference.

57. As quo ted in ibid., 140. 58. For Revere's anatomical certificates. see ibid.. 140-51.

7<). For the full histo ry of the Fisher map , see Wroth 1<)50.

5<) . Go ttesman 1<)38. 8.

80 . Ibid ., 96.

oI

Manhattan 00. Fir st by I. N. Ph elp s St ok es. in Th e l conooraph» island, 1-198-1909 (New Yor k: Richard H . Dod d, 1<) 20), 0 : 20.

81. PMA 1970, N o. 99 . 82 . Quot ed in Sny de r 1<)7 5. 62 .

01 . Ran dol ph 's Accou nt Bo ok , at th e N ew York Publi c Librar y, list s a de b t o f I: 10- 1<)- 1'/. to Smi ther in 1709 (quo ted in PMA 1<) 76 ,

83 . Quot ed in Wr oth 1920. 73-74.

I I I ) , a part of w hich mu st have been for engr avin g and printing the trade ca rd . A faint pencil in scr iption in w ha t ap pea rs to be an eig h tee n th-cen tu ry hand at th e bottom of Rand o lph 's tr ad e ca rd reads " Engraved / abo ut th e year 1770 . "

C LOC K DIAl. S

pp. 66-o<) .

02. Kimball 19 27, 5-8 .

84. Prime 19 29 , 270.

03. For an illustration of th e titl e page, see Hayw ard 1<)04 , Fig. 130.

85 . Excep tiona l among engraved clock dials from Virgin ia are th ose of Thomas Walker o f Fredericksburg , one of wh ich is at the Mu seum of Fine Art s, Boston (see Hipkiss 1941, No. 120).

64· Prim e 1<) 2<), 33. 05. Fo w ble 19 87, N os. 129 , 358.

86. T he cloc k is sa id to ha ve had a hi story of ownership by the silve rsm ith T homas Shields, who had a sho p on Front Str eet, Philad elph ia, bet w een about 170 5 and 1771 . See Ale xandra W. Rol lins, " Fu rni ture in the colle ction o f the Dietrich Am er ican Fo un dat ion , " Th e M ayae inc A ntiques 125 (May 1984): 11 10.

00 . T he ce rt ifica te was dr awn b y J . L. Wi n n and eng rave d b y " Mo rriso n Sculpte," o f M oorfields, London . An impression in th e collec tio ns of th e M et ro pol it an Mu seum was pr esent ed to Ca ptain William T u rne r on I I M ay 1773. 07. Tho mas Earle an d C ha rles T. Co ng do n , cds., A nn als oj tli c ,~f Nc iv- York,

87 . Pr im e 1929 , 23 7-3 8; Br o ok s Palmer. Th e Book of AII/cr; (al/ Clocles (New York: Macmill an, 19 28). 182.

08. Th e ide n tica l cer tificate of ano the r m em ber , Ca p ta in J am es

88 . For J ohnson 's im ages o f Fath er Time, see H ayw ard 1904, Figs . 120 , 170 .

Ge neral Society (~f M eclianics and T radesmen oj tlic C ity FOil/ 1785 to 1880 (New York, 1882), 11- 12.

M agee. was re plica te d o n a Ch inese ex po rt por celain pun ch bo wl and a cide r j ug no w at th e Bo ston M arin e So ciet y; see MFA 1<) 7 5, N o. 243.

89 . Quot ed in Pr ime 192<). 20. 90. Quot ed in Hoopes 1958. 41. Th e book cont ains a full acco unt of

09 . For th e Po rtl and M ar in e Soc iety, see Laura Fecych Spragu e,

Burnap as clock maker.

ed. , Ag rccablc S it uat ions , Societ y , COII/ II/c ree, and A rt ;1/ South ern M aine, 1780-1 8J O (Kenne b unk . M ain e: T he Br ick Sto re Mu seum,

<) 1. See ibid . , 118- 20. for Dani el Burnap's instru ctions on how

to

make chime clocks .

1<) 87). 48-4 <) .

92 . For an illu st rat ion of the clo ck in it s case, see Dean A . Fales, J r. , T he Furniture ofHistoric Deerfield (N ew York : E . P. D u tton, 1<) 76), N o . 510.

70 . For Buell as eng rave r, see Wroth 1920. 7 1. See ibi d . , 6 4-00 , fo r th e attrib utio n of th e ce rtifica te to Bu ell and Rivin gt on .

93. A chi me cloc k with a four-seasons dial b y H arland , da ted 1770 , is at the Depart m ent of State (6 3.10).

72 . Ibid ., 05. 73 . Bo th cop ies are now at t he Con nectic ut H isto rical Soc ie ty,

Hart fo rd .

SILVER PP· 7 1 -

M AP S

pp .

131.

I . Journeym en having served th eir app renticesh ips w ere em plo yed by silve rsmi ths and were paid by the day . O urworkers (silversm iths w ho lacked th e resources to establish their own shops) contracte d th eir se rv ices t o o ther silversmi ths and we re paid by the piece . Ind entured serva nts we re immigran t crafts me n who were bound in serv ice to m aster smi ths fo r the period of time requi red to work off th e cos t of th eir passage to th e co lonies, w hic h th eir masters had paid.

Y J-6j .

74 · Q uo ted in Hit chings 1979, 13. 75 . For an illustration, see Bri gh am 1909 , PI. 24· 76. For H o eg e r , see Albert F. J ord an , "S om e Ea rly Moravi an Builders In Am eri ca," Pennsvlvania Foiklifc (Aut um n 19 74): 2- 17. 77. lbid ., 14, 10 (ills.).

I am g rateful to Rob ert K. Weis , C ura to r of th e Essex Instit ut e, for pr oviding research on the Ann esley pot and its owne rship .

2.

78 . T he Bethl ehem m ap , not m enti on ed b y J ord an , was published

in J am es H . Lam bert , Penns vl van ia at th e J all/Cstollil/ Exposi tion, H ampton Roads, Va. 1907 (Philadelph ia, 190 8) . 248. T he au tho rs are ind ebt ed to C hr isto p he r P. M o nkh ou se, C ura to r of De cor ati ve

3. For a th or ou gh discus sion o f the three pots and an illustration of th e Crowninshield example. see Fales 1903.

243

4. Eng lish silve r wo uld have been co nside rably m or e cos tly th an d om e sti c goods , a co n se q uence of m er ch ant co m missions an d ship ping and ins u rance rat es. I am g ra teful to th e Englis h silve r scho lar and au tho r Ro be rt Bark er fo r hi s ge ne ro us information on this subjec t.

wo rk. A typi cal coffee pot , for exa m ple, weig hed from 30 to 40 o unces . I am ex tre me ly g ra te ful to Robert Ba rker for assis ting me w ith th e referen ces to this su bjec t tha t appear th ro ugh out the introductio n to the silve r chapter. 16. T he rat io o f sil ve rs miths to Bo stonians declined from I to 290 in th e 1720S to I to 430 tw o decades later; see Ward 1984, 137.

5. An engraved coa t o f arms seldo m cos t m or e th an twi ce th e price of an o un ce of silver, whi ch , acco rdi ng to th e led ger s of Bo st on silversm ith Paul Re ver e, was seve n shillings or so between 1761 and 1780. During th at period, Rever e gen er all y cha rg ed fro m nin e to thirteen shill ings to eng ra ve arm s o n vessels fo r w h ich the lab or co uld be three to eig h t tim es th at mu ch . Fo r exa m ple, th e ex pense o f en gr aving ar ms o n th e Pain e coffee pot (No . 49, det ail , p . 97) w as six teen shillings, on ly about 3.5% of th e pot 's to tal price.

17. Do w 1927, 41- 72. 18. Fo r full- leng th stud ies of thi s important silversmith, see Leehey 1988 and Buhl er 1956. 19. Go ttesma n 19 38, 51. The " Lion" re fe r red to is an English hallm ark.

7. Re vere, for in st an ce , used th e same spo ut pattern for bo th th e Ross and Paine teapot s (Nos . 5 I ; 49, detail, p. 85), and ano ther one for both th e Pain e an d Sar g ent coffee pot s (Nos. 49, det ail, p . 97; N o. 60), altho ugh the last tw o exa m ples date eight years apart.

20. With th e exce ption of one tea cad dy still priva tely owned , all are in th e collectio ns of th e M et rop olit an Mu seu m . The teakettle on stand (40. 160a-c) and the coffee pot (42.88) da te from 1762- 63 and are m ar ked by Benjami n Brew ood II. T he simi larly da ted candlesticks (41.130.I a, b) are marked b y Sam uel Siervent. The tea caddy (59.30a, b), also dat ing fro m 1762- 63, is ma rked by Emick Romer and surv ives w ith its orig inal chest (40.104).

8. R. C am p b ell , T he L ondon Trad esman ( 1747; reprint , N ewton Abb ot, De von: David & C harles, 1969), 41-47.

21. Resear ch figures p ro vided b y Rob ert Bar ker from the series of the Publ ic Record Office, Lon don.

9. See Cl ifford 1990, 24-28 .

22. Go ttesma n 1938, 57. Pint o may have been advertising imported silver, but it w ould have been odd for him not to ind icate so .

6. Philadelphia silversm ith J oseph Richard son record ed paym ent s to immigr ant carver H ercules C our tenay in 1769; Fales 1974, 87.

10. Ca m pbell, Th e London T radesman, I I.

142 .

C U ST

3

23. I am gra teful to Ian Q uim by, Di rec tor, Publicat ion s Division, Wint erthur Mu seum , fo r allo w ing m e access to h is resea rc h on Fuet er , w hic h wi ll be pu blish ed in a forth comi n g catalog ue to be titled Am ericall Silv er at Willterthur.

Federhen 1988, 73.

12. In o n e ex ampl e o f th e co m mo n practice of su bco n t rac ting eng ra ving, Pr oviden ce mer chant M os es Br own, placin g th e o rde r for hi s wedd in g silve r with Bo ston silve rsm ith Benj amin Burt in 1763 , noted th at he would o rde r " ma rks [initials] & Arm s" in du e co urse, whereupon Burt replied : "You 'l Please to send D irect ion s fo r th e Engraver so on as is Co nve n ie n t." T he engraver w as Nathaniel Hurd , me nti on ed in Brown 's subse q ue n t letter gi vin g eng rav ing in structi on s an d confirmed in turn b y Bu rt : " I have Finish 'd Your Pl ate . Mr Hurd h as o ne piece to En gr a ve. " See Emlen 1984, 41, 43.

24· Go ttes ma n 1938,41 . 25. A recentl y auc tio ne d pit cher attribu ted to Fueter ap pears to be th e m ost full y develo ped exa m ple of th e for m in Am eri can rococo silver. For an illu strat ion , see lmportant A meric
13. By th e ro coc o period, the st erl in g sta nda rd was th e m in im u m required in Engl and , an alloy of92.5% silv er and 7.5% co pper. T ests o f Ameri can silv e r h ave sho w n th at m o st Am er ican silversm iths tried to abi de b y that standa rd despit e the lack of reg ulation .

27. Ibid. , 42-4 3. 28. Ibid ., 57. 29. Ibid ., 67-68.

14. The ar ray o f Lo ndon ro co co pl ate p resented to Sir Will ia m P ep perrell in ap p reci a tio n fo r hi s v ic to ry at Lou isburg in 1745 incl ude d tw o cove re d cu ps, a la rge sa lver, and a pair of sma lle r salve rs , all now at th e Portland Museum of Art. For illustrations of some o f th e pl at e, see Burton W. F. T ra fton, Jr., " Lo uisb urg and th e Pepperrell silver, " Th e Magazin e A lltiques 89 (Ma rch 1966): 364, 366-67 . In Boston, th e Faneuils o wned a London rococo cruet stand from 1745 and the Ap th orps o rde red a similar sta nd tw o yea rs later : see MFA 1975, N o . 59. In Sale m , a Lo ndon ro co co cove re d cu p fro m 1747-4 8 was o w ned b y J ohn and M arth a (De rby) Prin ce; see Fales 1983, N o . 13.

30. In 1760, T he New - York M crcurv advertise d for Scots -born John M'Intosh , wh o " Deserted fro m H is M aj est y' s rr rh Regiment ... by Tr ade a Silve r Smi th"; ibid., 52. 31. Rosenbaum 195 4, 47-4 8. 32. Go ttesman 1938, 53. T he serva n t's na me , given as "Mea res," was pr ob abl y mi ssp elled in the advertise me nt . The Mearses were a p rom in en t New Yo rk J ew ish family wi th English and Ame rican bra nches . M yers's serva nt may have been related to Mye rs's second wi fe, Joyce M ears, wh ose fathe r was Eng lish born. I am grateful to Debora h De pendahl Waters, C urator of Decorative Arts, M useum of th e Ci ty of New York , for gracio usly sharing her research on the Mears fam ily.

15. Resear ch fig u re s pro vi d ed b y Ro bert Bark er fro m th e CUST 3 series o f the Publi c Record O ffice, Lond on . These fig ures mu st be carefully int erpret ed . The records we re ke p t in we ight in ounces, and th e highes t amo unts ex po rte d to N ew En gland never exceeded 2,000 o u nc es, a lar g e part of w hic h pr ob abl y consis ted of sma ll

33. Paul Revere's ledgers; Joseph Richardson 's lett er book. 34. For th e Frank s fami ly silver, see Dennis 1968.

244

35. Resear ch fig u res p ro vid ed b y Rob ert Bar ker fr om th e series of th e Public Recor d Office, Lond on .

CUST

56. Ibid ., 225.

3

57. The order , dated 15 D ecemb er 1764 , also included pairs of cann s, caster s, and salts.

36. J ohn Anth on y Beau , th e chase r reco rded earlie r in New York, announce d his services in Phil adelphia in 1772, describin g him self as "lately ar rived in this ci ty fro m Ge neva," and Th om as Be ck , of un k no wn ex trac t ion , adve rt ise d chasi ng se rv ices in 1774; Prime 1929, 47·

58. Although not full y rococo , the earli est surviving Ameri can tea sets would seem to be tw o m arked by John Coburn o f a purported four thought to have been w eddin g silve r for th e dau ghters o f Thom as Welles . The sets, con sistin g o f a te ap ot (se e N o . 50), a cream pot, and a suga r caster, dat e abo ut 1753. See Flynt and Fales 1968, No . 11 8 (ill.) ; Wadsw orth Atheneum 1985, 288-89.

37. Fo r a com plete biog raphy of Richardson and an assessm en t of his silver, see Fales 1974, 33- 149.

59 . I am g ra teful t o Deb orah Depend ahl Waters, C u ra to r o f De cor ati ve Arts, Mu seum o f the Ci ty of New York, for thi s theory and interpretation .

38. Ibid .; see 210 fo r refer en ce to Richard son 's su ppo rt of th e nonimp ortation ag reeme nts. 39. I am gra teful to Rob ert Bark er for his assistance in refuting this theory.

60. For mor e information on Riemer, see Mill er 1937, 9. 61. For a biograph y of P aine, see Sab in e 1864 , s.v. "P ain e, William ."

40. For a biog raphy of Syng . see PMA 1976, 30. 41. See ibid. Hubert 's Lond on app re n ticesh ip with th e en g ra ve r Pa ul Ga ron was record ed in 1735. I am gra teful to Rob ert Barker fo r sharing thi s infor ma tion , ga ined from the Public Record Office, London, Inland Revenu e De part me nt, Apprenti ceship Book s.

62. The surviving piece s are in the collections of th e Wor cest er Art Mus eum. For a com plete description and history o f th e serv ice, see Buhl er 1979, 42-4 7.

42 · Prime 19 29, 73·

63· Fales 1974, 244.

43. Whereas silver in th e amo unt o f60 ,723 ounces was ex po rted to th e Carolinas, the to tal to the other thr ee regio ns was 59,170 oun ces. Figures p rovided by Ro bert Bar ker fro m th e CUST 3 se ries o f the Pub lic Record Office, London .

64. Fede rhen 1988, 67-68 . 65. Ibid ., 68. 66. An earlier, two -h andled co ver ed cu p b y th e sa me m ak er is eng raved o n th e seldo m illu strat ed rever se side with a ca rto uc he that di spl ays na scent ro coc o tendencies. I am g ra te ful to Michael Brown for calling m y att ent ion to thi s featur e on w hat is kn own as th e Co me t- Bo m b cu p , discu ssed in Warren , H o w e, an d Brown 1987, N o. 57.

45. Ibid., 63-65, 68, 85, 88.

67. For a detailed discussion of the teapot, see Buhler 1965, 57-60. TEA

AN D

C O FFEE

68. Turner did a lot o f w ork for Boston silversm iths . I am grateful to Martha Gand y Fal es for thi s in fo rma tion an d fo r sugg esting Turner as the possible engraver of the Hurd pot.

FORMS

pp . 79- 88. 46. Schroder 1988b, 136; Dav is 1976, N o. 81; C layton 1971 , 96.

69 . Caste rs ar e cy lind rica l vessels with pierced lid s for " castin g " (s prin k ling) spi ce s an d co nd ime nts, suc h as sugar, mu stard , o r pepper. For a co m plere di scu ssion of the Welles se t and it s pr ovenanc e, see Fl ynt an d Fal es 196 8, N o . 11 8. For a di scu ssi on o fa related se t and inform at io n o n Welles, see Wad sworth Athen eum 1985, 288-89·

47. Q uoted in C hristo phe r H ar rop. "The ' Infusio n o f th at Fragr ant Leaf' : Tea D rink ing in Eng land ," A llctioll NCII' s fr om C hristie 's 12 (Septem ber (990): 3. 48. Ibid. 49 . Fo r a d isc uss ion of tea rit uals and equip me n t in Am eri ca, see Roth 1961 .

70. Flynt and Fales 1968, 185- 86. 71. The motto over th e eng raved cres t appea rs to have been added lat er ; Buhl er 1972, 2: 396. The pr o venance o f the pot , as recorded b y th e last ow ner / descenda n t in 19 3 5 , t races it to a John Ro ss of Phil adelphi a, wh o m arri ed C le me nt ina P lum s ted ; letter from Ph oebe Hoffman Bi ckerton to Pauline Rev er e Thayer , files o f the Mu seum o f Fin e Art s , Bo st on . A stu dy o f famil y genealo gi es sug g es ts th at Bi ck ert on co n fuse d Ro ss 's wife, Clem entina C r uiks han k , whom he m arried in 176 8, with hi s g rand da ug h ter C lernentina Ross Plumsted (1798- 1884), but w as correct in ascribing o riginal ownership to Ross.

50. Federh en 1988, 67· 51. Schro der 1988b, 136. 52. Roth 1961, 68 . Th e period qu ot es th at follow a re from this ex tremely valuab le tr eatise, as is th e information on social custo m s. 53. T he Llo yd- C adw al ad er set consists o f a te a urn , a teap ot, a choco late pot (all pri vat ely owned ), and a co ffee pot (Philade lphia Mu seum of Art , 1988- 35-1 ). A teak ettle o n sta nd, a basket , and a waste bo wl fro m th e Fr ank s se rv ice are at th e Metrop olitan Museum and are describ ed in Denni s 1968. 54. Fales 1974, 78; see also 292,

11.

72. Fales 1974, Fig. 55.

6.

73· See Go ldsboroug h 1984, 164. 74. See ibid ., 191, 231.

55· Ibid. , 225, 230.

24 5

SU G AR

D IS H ES

AN D

C REAM

PO T S

pp . H<)-<)4· 75. Between 1761 an d 17 H5. Re v ere r ecor d ed fi v e s ing le suga r dish es. one o f wh ich is kn o wn to h ave a crea m po t en su ite (No . 58). and twent y-five single crea m pot s. 76. Fales 1<) 74. 221- 60. 77· For A me rican exa m p les. see H ood 1<)71. Figs. 6. 7. II . and .n ; for En g lish exa m ples. see We n ha m 1<) 3I. frontisp iece. Pi s. vna - b , VIII . and IX. 7H. See J o an D . D ol rn et sch . R ebelli on and R econciliati on: S ati rical Prints 0 11 the Revoluti on el t Wi lliel llls/H /Jg (W illiams burg: The Colo nial Williamsb ur g Found at ion. 1<) 76). <). and illu strati on s th rou gho ut ; see also H o nour 1<)75.4; N os. 111-123. 147.

90. See Buhler 1<)72. 2: Nos. 33<). 341. 91. A "Chased Sugar Di sh" for Sam uel M inott o n 5 O ctob er 1762; tw o " C hased Cream Po ts" for J oh n Coburn in N ov ember 1762. <)2. I k now o f on ly four o th er ro co co cre am pot s wi th claw-a ndball feet . all unchased : o ne . m ar ked by Ban cro ft Woo d cock. in the G ar van Collec t io n of the Yale Un iversit y Art Gall er y (Buhle r and H ood 1<) 70. 2: 242); one. m ark ed by Geo rge C hristo pher D owig. in th e co llec t io n s o f Gira rd C o lle ge. Ph ilad elp hi a; o ne . m ark ed b y Sam uel Ti ngley. unl o cat ed (the last two are reco rded in the De cor ative Arts Pho to g raphi c C o llectio n at Wi nterth ur ); and o ne. m ark ed by T ho m as Spa rrow, in a pr ivate collection . <) 3. See Buhler 1<) 72. 2: N o . 4<)2 . <)4. As quoted in Flynt and Fales 1968. 178.

7<). Schroder 1<)88b. 250 (ill.) . CO F I' E E

POTS

so. See A lice Baldwi n Beer . Trade Goods: A S tudv of l ndiau C hintz (Was hing to n. ·D . c.: Smi thsonian In st itution Press. 1<) 70). 11 6- 1<) . I am g ra tefu l to A m elia Peck . Assis ta n t C u rato r . D e pa rt me nt o f Am eri can D ecorati ve Arts. T he M etro politan Museum o f A rt . for her assistance wi th th is idea.

<)6. As quo ted in ibid . . 67.

81. For a complete biog raph y of H ul bearr, see PM A 1<) 76. 7H-79.

97. Federh en 1<)88. 67-68 .

82. Fales 1974. 203-4.

98. As quo ted in Roth 1<)61. 66.

83. Two o ther N ew York se ts are simi lar to th e Riem er exa m ples . One. m ar ked b y Wi lliam Gilbert . is in th e co llectio ns of the C ur rier Ga ller y o f Art ( 1974.37a. b ); th e o t he r. m ark ed b y M yer M yers. w as recentl y sold at a uc t io n (I lIIportel m A,ll ericelllel . So the by' s. sale no . 6132. 30 j an uar y- c February 1<)91. lot 11 5).

99. Ibid .. 64·

84. Schroder 1<) 88a . 197. For exa mp les. see 198- 9<) . 21<) ; see also Gr imwa de 1974. N o . 6. H5. G old sb or ou gh I<) H4 . N o. 161 . For o t he r exa m p ies o f th ese En glis h sets. see Wenham 1931 . Pl. I.X XVIII ; C layto n 19H 5. 157. N o . 13. For info rm atio n o n C ha rles Ca rro ll, Esq. (always refe rre d to as " Ba rr ister" ). see M ichael F. T ros te l, M ount C lare: Bcino ' II I A ccollllt ofthe Seat bl/ilt by Charles Carroll, Barrister, "PO" his Lands at Patapsco (Baltim o re: N atio nal So ciet y of Colo nial D ames o f Am er ica in th e State of M ar ylan d. 1981). 86 . Fo r ill us tr ati o n s an d a di scu ssion o f t h e po rtra its . see J ohn D ever eu x Kern an . J r. . and Remsen Brinckerh o ff, " Fam ily T reas ure: So m e Br inckerh o ff Silver and Portraits ." Th e M aooz inc A ntiques 54 (Octo ber 1948): 248.

pp . <) 5- 104. <) 5. Roth 1<)61. 68.

100. As q uo ted in ibid . . 72. 101. Rever e's led ger ent ry of 2 Septem ber 1773. 102. Th e earl iest d o cum ent ed exa m ple o f Am erican ne o classical silver is a tea urn m ar ked b y Ri ch ar d Humph reys. Fo r illustrat io ns and furth er discussion . see PMA 1<) 76. N o . 102; Warre n. H o we, and Br o wn 1<)87. 60-6 1. 10 3. A drum- sh aped teap ot fro m 1782. m ar k ed b y Reve re . is co nsidered o ne of hi s sho p's ea rl ies t essays in neoclassical ho llo wware. See Ske rry 1988. 52. 104. T he carro uche is th e on ly ro co co cleme nt o n th e neoclassical urn ; sec PMA 1<) 76. N o . 102. 105. For ex am ples m ad e in N ew York in th e sho p of M yer M yers. see Rosenb aum 1<) 54. Pis. 12. 14 . 106. Fales 1<) 74. 219- 60. 107. Wainwright 1<)64, 52.

87 . For an ill us t ra ti o n of th e Peast o n p ot . se e ibi d .. 249. Four Alb an y suga r bo w ls w ith bird fini als are known . In addition to N o . 57. m arked b y Lan sin g. ano the r. un ch as ed , is b y th e sa m e m ak er (R ice 1964 , 27); t w o ch ase d ex am p les h av e ma rk s ass ig ne d t o Abr ah am Sch u yler , o ne at th e M use um o f th e C ity o f N ew York (42 . 4(,').2 Ia. b) , th e o t her at th e Alb an y In stitut e ( ,')S3 .22a. b). A fift h . a t th e M et r opo lit an Mu se u m . fo r merly as sig n ed to J aco b Boelen II (Saffo rd 1<) 83 . 52; Fig . 6<) ). h as recentl y be en re assig ned b y Safford to J ohn Bayly o f Philadelp hia. 88 . I am gra te fu l t o D eb o r ah Depend ah l Wa ter s. C ur ator of D ecorati ve Arts, M useu m o f th e C ity o f New Yo rk . for thi s in fo rm ati on. Fo r an illust ration . see Blackburn 1<) 76. 101. 89. Revere ledgers. II M ar ch 1762.

lOS. Warr en 1<) 76. unpaged [p . 21. 109· Prim e 1<)29, 73. 110. For a co m plete biogr aph y of Humphreys. see PMA 1<) 76. 12S29·

I II . Th e ex ce ptio n is th e C row n ins h ield pot (see p. 71). illus tra ted in Flynt and Fales 1<)6S. Fig . lOS. 11 2. Fales 1<)74. 231. 233. 11 3· See C layto n 1<)85. 149. Fig . 7; 150. Fig .

I.

114 . T he G rowde n famil y ow ne d a London co ffee pot o f 1753- 54. of sim ila r shape to th e o ne Syng supplied th e Ga lloways bu t w ith-

o ut rococo o rnamen t; see Fales 1974, Fig . 34. Fo r biogr aphi es o f th e G row de n an d th e Ga lloway fa m ilies, see PMA 1976, SS : see also Wo lfe 1966, 44. lI S. See C layto n 1985, 149, Fig . 7, for a British exa m ple sim ilar to the Syng pot ; see ibid . , Fig . II , for one sim ilar to th e Hall pot : see ibid. , ISO, Fig . I , for o ne simi lar in profil e to th e Inch pot. 11 6. For a bi og raph y o f H all, see Gerstell 1972, 37- 44. 11 7. For th e tur een , m ark ed by Peter Ge tz an d n o w at th e Wadsworth Ath eneum , see H ammer slou gh 1960, 14-15. 118 . The th ree othe r pot s, whi ch are w itho ut chase d o rna m en t, are at th e Mu seum o f Earl y So u t he rn D eco r ati v e Art s (2507), th e C ha rlesto n Museum ( 1971. 34. 1), an d th e Minn eap oli s Institute o f Arts (75.6). 119. As qu ot ed in an en try o n th e Petr ie co ffee pot to be included in J ohn Bivins, j r .. an d Forsyth Ale xand er, Th e R egi ollal A rls of tlu: Early So uth : A Sampliuo jro m the Co llection oj tlic I\II/sel/III of Early So ut hern Decora tive Arls (W inston - Sa le m , N o . Ca r.: Mu seum of Ea rly So uthe rn D ecor ative Arts, forthco m ing). I am grateful to Mr. Bi vin s fo r sha ring wi t h me his inform ati on o n the pot and o n th e Pet rie inventor y. 120. Pr im e 1929, 64, 97-98.

133. Fales 1974, 59: Prim e 1929. 19 (w here Hu bert 's na me is spe lled " H erbe rt") . 134. Do na ld L. Fenn im ore, " A J oh n Bayly Tankard & Ca nn," S ilver 19 (May-J une 1986): 18- 19. 1] 5. An exce ptio n, a do ub le-bellied bowl marked by M yel' M yer s, is in th e co llec tions of th e Detroit Inst it ute of Arts; see H o od 1971, Fig. 159. 1] 6. I am g ra te ful to Kari e Die tho rn, Asso ciat e C ura tor , In dep endeu ce N ati on al Hi st orical Park, for supp ly ing m e w ith informat ion o n th e families and on th e can ns, one of wh ich is in the co llec tio ns of her in stitution ( INDE 996S ); the o ther, currently o n lo an to t he Ph iladelphia Museum of A rt. 1] 7. Buhler and H o o d 1970, 2: No. 648 , ma de th is d isco ver y and d o cum ent th e Ir ish exa mple refe r red to as one in C ha rles J am es J ackson , A ll Illustrated Hi story of Englisl: Plate (Lo nd o n , 19" ), 288, Fig. ]10 . 1] 8. D avis 1976, N o. 36. 139. J am es Beekman' s Acco unt Book, 19 Februa ry 1768. 140. Go ttes man 19] 8, 37. 141. For illu strati on s, see Buhler and H ood 1970, 2: N o . 647; Flynt and Fales 1968, Fig . ]9.

121. Ibi d ., 85. 122. E. M ilb y Burt on , So uth C arolina S il vcrsmitli s , 1690-1 860 (C ha rleston, So. Ca r.: C ha rles to n Mu seum , 1942), 146-49. 12]. Prime 1929, 80. 124 . Go lds bo ro ug h 19 84, 2] 1. Th e p ot , o w ne d b y Judith an d Sa m ue l Verpl an ck an d m a rk ed b y Benj amin Br ew o od II , o f Londo n , is in th e collec tions o f the M et rop olit an Museum (42.88).

'4 2. Mrs . Rus sel H astin g s, " Peter Van Dyc k of New Yor k , G old smith , 1684 -1 7 S0 , P art II , " T he lvl agazille Antiques 31 (j une 19] 7): 302-5 , reprinted in Kolter 1979, IIS- 18; see 117. '4 3. Mrs. Ru ssel H astin gs, " T w o Chafing Dishes by Pet e r Van D yck, " The fll ,lgaz ;lIc Allliql/es 30 (October 1936): 152-55 , reprinted in Kolt er 1979, II 1-14; see 11 2.

125. For En gl ish exa m ples, see Schr od er 1988a, N os. 78, 79.

'44. For a co m p le te d escr ip t ion of t he Van W y ck sa lve r, see Warren, Howe, and Bro wn 1987, No. 724.

126. For an illus tra tio n, see Fales 1974, Fig . 54.

14 5. See Fales 1963, 83.

127. I am gra te ful to David Ca sse dy , Associat e C ura to r, Hi storical Socie ty o f Penn syl va n ia, for pro vidin g m e w ith inform ati on o n Pening to n.

146. Gottesm an 1938, 50.

DRINKIN G

pp .

10 5-

A ND

SE R V I NG

FO R MS

14 7· For mor e informat ion on th e bowl and a tr anscri pt ion o f th e acco unt, see Buhl er and H ood 1970, 2: No. 724. 148. The t w o salvers are th e Syng salver di scu ssed and o ne m ark ed by Thomas Shield s. Fo r the latte r, see PMAB 1956, N o. 469.

14·

128. C lay to n 1971,

S. v .

" Ta nka rd." RAR E

129. Exceptions are tw o tankards w ith flat chas ing by Richard Van D yck , o ne in th e Car van Collec tio n at Yale Uni ver sit y Art Ga llery (Buhle r an d H ood 1970, 2: No . (4 7); th e o the r in the Wat son C ollection at H istoric D eerfield (Fly nt and Fales 1968, 6]-64 ; ill., (4). 1] 0. See Skerry 1984, Fig . 14. 1]1 . I am g ra te fu l to Janin e Sk erry , Assi st ant Curator , Histori c D eerfield, for pr o vidin g m e with this informati on . 1]2 . C ha rles F. M ontgomer y, A History of Alll cricall Pewter, rev. ed. (New York : E. P. Dutton, 1')78), 46; see also Ledli e Irwin Laughlin , P CIPler i ll Alll er;ca: lts Mak ers and Th eir Ma rks, ] vo ls. , reprint (Ba r re , M ass. : Barre Publishers, 1969- 71) , 3: 8- 9; PI. LX I X , Fig s. 581- 84.

F ORMS

pp. " 5- 31. 149. For a dis cussion and depi cti on s of th e form , see Ber eni ce Ball , "Whistles with co ra l an d b ell s," Th e M aga zinc A ntiq ues 80 (Decem be r 19(1 ): 552-55; for a w h istle and bells dep icted in an Am erican painting, see Warr en , H o w e, and Br o wn 1987, N o . 73. 150. See Ball , "Whistles, " 554; see also Boh an 1963,

II.

151. See Fales 1974, 219-60; in parti cular, see 221,223,226-27 , and 244· 152. For Re ver e, see hi s led g er en try of 18 Jul y 1762 (in 1764 an d 177] , he re cord ed m endin g w h is tles); fo r Syn g. see Wain w ri ght 19 64 , S3·

153. Boh an 1963, N os. 22- 25.

169. Rosenb aum 1954,

154. For exa m ple, a go ld w histle from th e shop of Daniel C h ristian Fueter is inscr ibed "The gift of Mrs M ar y Livin gst on to her g rand d au ghter M ar y Du ane" ; ibid ., N o . 24; see also Buhl er and H o od 1970, 2: N o. 716.

170. The fo rm consisted of a spirit lamp supp orted by tw o cent rally hin ged telescop in g ar ms th at , w he n fully o pen, se rve d as a crossshaped stand.

III.

171. Rosenbaum 1954, 112.

155. As quo ted inJ. M .P ., " M ary Du ane's C oral and Bells, " Bulletin of the A ssociates ill Fine Arts at Yale University 12 (February (943): 3.

172. Dav is 1976, 190.

156. Gottesman 1938, 59-6 0.

173. See Singleton 1902, 137; 138 (ill.) .

157· Fales 1974, 237. 158. Buhler and H ood 1970, N o . 657. 159. Boh an 1963, 8. 160. Ibid ., where see also N o . 15. 161 . See Fales 1974, 132-33 ; 223. 162. The Fueter w histle and bells is in the Gar van Collection, Yale Uni ver sit y Art G all er y ( 1942.9 1) and is illustrated in Bu hler and Ho od 1970, 2: N o . 716. Other exam ples include a crea m pot at th e Mu seum o f Fin e Arts, Bo st on , m ark ed b y M assachusett s silvers m ith Dani el Park er (54. 658); tw o pairs of sauceboats fro m Paul Revere 's sho p, o ne pa ir at th e Museum o f Fine A rts, Bo sto n (J 5.1771- 1772), the o the r pair, separated , one sauce bo at at the Addiso n Gallery (1946. 88), th e o the r in a pri vate collection ; and a cream pot marked b y Sam uel Tingl ey , reco rded in th e De cora ti ve Arts Phot ograph ic Collection, Winterthur. Tanka rds having m ask handle terminals, th ough m ade durin g th e ro co co period , rep resent a continu ation of baroque pr acti ce and are exclud ed fro m th is list . 163. See Dennis 1968. 164. For th e H anco ck basket , see MFA 1975, 99; fo r the Byrd family basket, see D avis 1976, 117. I am g rateful to Willi am Voss Elder III , Co ns ulta n t C u ra to r, D ecorati ve A rt s, Ba ltimo re Museu m of Art, and to Gregory Weid m an, C ur ato r, M ar yland Hi stori cal Soc iety, for bringin g to my att ention th e Llo yd fam ily basket , ordered by Ed w ard Llo yd III about 1753 and still in th e famil y's poss ession . 165. The dish rin g is at Yale U n iver sity Art Ga llery (1936.136); th e co ffee pot is at th e M useum o f the Ci ty o f N ew York (80. 137); th e cann is at th e Wadsw orth Atheneum ( 1983.155); and th e coas ters are in a private collection. 166. For ano the r exam ple of th at so rt o f co m m iss io n, see Em len 1984. 167. In add itio n to th e Fueter basket (N o. 81), th e rem ainin g tw othirds o f Amer ican pier ced ro co co silv er co nsists o f tw o pairs o f My ers coasters, one m ad e for th e Sch uy ler fam ily and now at T he N ew-York Hi st orical So cie ty (1915.18a, b), th e o ther m ade fo r th e Pierpont famil y and no w o n lo an to th e Museum of th e C ity of N ew York; a pair of pierced salts m arked b y John H eath, m ade for th e Van Alst yne famil y an d no w at th e Wads w or th Ath ene u m (1983.191- 192); a H eat h mu stard pot at H isto ric Deerfield (64-23 1); all th e for egoin g m ad e in N ew Yor k . T he bal an ce, ma de in Phil adelphia, cons ists o f a pair of salts m ar ked by T homas Shields now in a pri vate collection (illustrated in Royal Province Nell' J ersey: 1738-1776 [Trent on : New J er sey State Museu m , 1973J, 109) and a pair of coasters by William Ball, also pri vately owned. 168. Sabine 1864, s. v. " C o rne ll, Samu el. "

174. A cru et stand by M yer M yers is at the M etro politan Museu m ( 19 87. 143); tw o b y J ohn David are at Wintert h ur (59.3362) an d at th e Museum o f Fin e Art s, H o uston (B.82 . 1), resp ecti vely; one b y William Hollingsh ead is at th e Ph iladelph ia Mu seu m o f Art (56-8424, 25, 26); one by Je remia h Elfr eth (D56.59; sto len in 1983, doc u mented in th e Deco rative Art s Photo gr aph C ollection, Win terthur) and o ne b y Ban croft Woo d co ck (60.62) are in th e collections o f the Delaw are State Museum ; on e by William H oll ingshead , in a p ri vat e co llectio n, is d o cum ented in the D ecor ati ve Art s Pho to graphic Collection, Winterth ur. 175. Da v is 1976, 154; MFA 1975, N o . 59; Fales 1983, N o . 15 (ill.) ; Bo les 1976, N o. 28. 176. Da vis 1976, 154. 177. For menti on of th e cruet frame, see Fales 1974, 229. 178. Entry of 24 M ay 1781. 179. T he seco nd, m ark ed b y M ye r M yers and now in th e co llections of the Yale U ni versity Art Ga llery, survives wi th its snuffers. See Buhl er and Hood 1970, 2: N o. 656. 180. Rever e 's led ger en t ry o f 25 December 1762 (the patr on was Z achariah Joh on ot ); for th e Cad wa lader in ventor y, see Wainw right 196 4, 53· 181. Fo r an illustr ation, see PM AB 1956, Fig. 514. 182. See lm portant A llJ ericall Furnitu re and Related Decorative Arts . Sorheby's, sale no. 4478Y, 19-22 N ovember 1980, lot 179. 183. Fo r an illustra tion, see H ood 1971 , 143, Fig. 147. 184. In ad d itio n to th e tw o di scussed , ano the r surv ivi ng ro co co exa m ple is a N ew Yo rk teak ettle o n sta nd assig ne d to Ni ch ol as Roosevelt, now u nl ocat ed bu t do cu m en ted in th e Decor ative Arts Ph ot ogr aph ic Collection, Winterthur. An earlier, Q ueen Ann e- st yle kettl e on stand m ar ked b y Jacob Hurd survives from Bosto n and is no w at the M useum o f Fine Arts, Boston (1971.347a, b). 185. J am es Beek m an' s Account Boo k, en tries o f 4 Apr il 1766 and 6 May 1773. 186. For an En glish exa m ple o f th e form , see Murdo ch 1986, 68; Fig. 4. 187. Th e pot is at T he N ew-Yo rk H istorical Societ y (1964.9) . 188. T he cock handle s of the spigo ts are replacem ent s. 189. Fales 1974, 34. 190. Fo r an ex te ns ive d iscus sion of th e Fr ank s fami ly silve r, see Dennis 1968. An ot her Eng lish kettle on stand (1750-5 1), by Geor ge Wick es o f Lo nd on , was ow ned in Philad elph ia by th e Sto ck er fam ily; see Fales 1974, 293, n . 14. Ano th er ( 1749-50), m ark ed by

18. For the Bri ght desk and bookcase, see Randall 1965, No. 64.

William Grund y, London, of rococo form but without chased ornament, is believed to have belonged originally to th e Ca rter famil y of Vir gini a; see D avis 1976, 94. A third (1762- 63), m arked b y Benjamin Brewood II and havin g cha sed decorati on , belonged to Judith and Samuel Verplan ck o f New York, wh o w ere m arried in 176 1; it is now at the M etrop olit an Mu seum (40.160a-c) .

19. He ckscher 1985b, 283. 20. With th e possibl e exc eption o f a splat design (P late X II, r st ed ition, 1754), co pied once for a side cha ir. For an illus tra tio n o f th e chair , see jobe and Kaye 1984, Fig. 1-20. 21. John C runden, Th e[oyn er and Cabinet-maieer's Darling, or Pocket Director (1760 and 1765); Th e Carpenter's Compallioll ... D esignsfor all Sorts of C hinese Railings and C ates (1765); and P. Baretri's Nelli Book of O m amellls f or the Yeur 1766. Thos e boo ks and M an w ar in g ' s Cabinet and C hair-Maker's Friend were all published in Lon d on . For Co x and Berry's adve rt iseme n ts, see D ow 1927, 222-23 .

FURNITURE pp. 133- 217.

22. Dawes's cop y is now at the Bost on Ath enaeum .

B OST O N

23. Eleven are list ed at Beck erdite 1987a, 161-62, n. 29. I have det ermined the others by wood analysis.

pp. 134- 52· I. For a th or ou gh dis cu ssi on on th e subj ect o f tariffs, see pp . 9-1 0 of thi s publi cation .

24. A number of Blackburn 's portraits have roco co fram es. T hose I hav e ex amined are o f red pine and so are pr ob abl y of Eng lish manufa cture.

2. C ha rles M . Andrew s, ed., Some C ursory Remarks Made by jam es Birkel in H is Voyage to No rth Am erica '750-1 75' (New H aven, 1916), 24·

25. The standard wo rk on C opley is Pro wn 1966. 26. Hitchin gs 1973, 11 6. (O n 8 Septembe r 1764, J ohnston billed for an id enti cal fr am e for C o pley's recentl y co m plete d portrait of Savage.)

3· j ob e and Kaye 1984, 7. 4. M ab el M . Swan, in "Newburyport Furnituremakers, " Th e M aoaz in c Antiqu es 47 (Ap ril 1945), 225, lists none before 1800; Henr y Wyck off Belknap, Art ists and Crajtsmen of Essex County, Massachusetts (Salem: Essex Institute, 1927). 19, 20, lists only Skillin and , later, Mcintire.

27. Co pley's portrait o f John Spoon er ( 1763; Reyn olda H ou se) has wh at look s to be it s o rig ina l ca rve d ro co co fra me; see Beck erdite 1987, Figs. )2 -3 5, but there dated 1769.

5· Job e and Kaye 1984, 15·

2S. Quoted in Ward and Ward 1976, 18.

6. Ibid .,

29· For th e Whiting adve rtise me nt, see Boston Nellis-Letter, 24 Februar y 1757 and 12 N ovember 1767, qu ot ed in Do w 1927, 23, 129.

II.

7. Sam ue l G rant , Pett y Led gers, book one, 26, 42; bo ok two, 37; Bost on Public Librar y. I am ind ebted to Br ock J ob e for providing me w ith the se refer en ces. (Fo r th e only kno wn exampl e of a N ew En gland bedstead havin g pi er ced co rn ices , see He ck scher 1985a, N o. 90.)

30. Fr om a list o f o m issio ns in " T he late T reas u rer H anco ck 's Acct." about '780 , H arvard Un iversity Ar chi ves: O ccasion al Expenses, viz. Bo ylston 's Fram e J . Copley Do picture J. Welch carvg . Do.

8. Dow 1927, 11 3, " 5.

10 . For Bo st on ca rve rs , see Swa n 1948; Yehi a 1974; Beckerdite 19 8 7a . II .

8.0

~ 76. 14.0

I am gr ateful to Loui se To dd Ambler, C ura to r, H arv ard Uni versit y Portrait C ollection, for thi s and other references at H arv ard .

Sw an 1948, 199, 281.

31. Bunting 1985, 30, n. 31.

12. Ward 1988, N o . 82.

)2 . Letterbook o f Presid ent Edwa rd H ol yok e, 1766-67, H ar var d Uni versit y Ar chive s.

13. See Kimball 1940, 8, 11-12. 14. D iary and AUlobiograpl1Y ofj olm Adams, 1974, 77·

II.

56 . 18.0

I :

33. Co pley's portraits of Reb ecca Bo ylston ( 1767; Museum o f Fin e Arts, Bo st on ) and J ohn Winthrop (ca . 1773; H ar vard Uni ver sit y) have matchin g frame s.

294, quoted in Lov ell

15. Surviving from the period is the basically un carv ed middle-class fu rn itu re commission ed by Jonath an Sayward abo ut 1760-70, half of it made in Bost on , half made locall y, which rem ain s in th e Saywa rd House, York, M aine . For exa m ples, see Job e and Kaye 19S4, N os. 4, 62.

34 . Co pley's portrait of Samu el Winthrop (ca. 1773; H ar vard Universit y) has a matchin g fram e.

16. For a full discussion o f Frothingham, see Rand all 1974.

35. The bill (quo ted in Beckerdite 1987a, 162, n. 30), m arked paid on I Jul y 1771, is in th e files o f the Museum o f Fin e Arts, Boston, where th e portraits (41.S4; 41 .85) now han g.

17. See ibid ., Fig. I , for the onl y exception, a ches t-en-c hest having pierced and carved finials and a superb shell dr aw er.

36. Beckerdire 1987a, 151 . T he Sm ith portrait s are at Yale Uni versity Art Gallery (1941.73; 1941.74)·

249

37· Accordin g to a t ra d itio n in the William s famil y (Bo lto n 1927. l SI ) . th e ne edl ework was m ad e by a d au ght er o f H enr y H owell Willi am s o f N oodles Island (Eas t Boston). The coa t o f ar ms o f the G ree ne fam ily of Bost on . dat ed 1745. has a carv ed-a nd-g ilde d fram e th at lo oks lik e N ew York w ork . For an ill us t ra t io n. see H ipkiss 1941. N o. 208. 38. Wadsw orth Ath eneum 1985. N os. 267, 271. 272. 39. Wood cock and Robinson 1988. 101- 62.

59. Quot ed in Johnson 1964. 21, n.

I.

60. As qu ot ed in Price 1977. 9. 61. H eckscher 1985a, No. 81. 62. Pri ce 1977. 157. O ne o f H ar d castl e' s app re nt ices in N ew Yo rk ran away in J une 1755 (Go ttes ma n 1938, 127). H ar dcastl e's dea th is re cor d ed in th e Re gi st er of Sa in t Ph il ip ' s C hurch. Cha rl es to n. 20 Oc to be r 17 56 (i nfo r ma t io n kindl y s u p p lie d by B r ad for d L. Rauschenb er g).

40. T he che st's brasses are repl acements ; th e ca rved st rea me rs depending fro m th e pediment ros ett es are no w truncated.

63. New- York M ercury , 21Ju ly 1755.

41. Vin cent 1974. 150; Fig . 102.

64· Ibid. . 31 M ay 1762.

42. D o wn s 1952b.

65· Ne w- York Gazette and the W eekl y M ercury, 30 Septem ber 1771.

43· Ibid .. 324; Kimball 1940. 50. 44· For a ches t of alm o st identical design. see Hipkiss 1941. N o . 34 (inco rrectly ascribe d to Phil adelphia). 45. Coope r 198o, 3 I ; see Fig . 30 for illu str ation of th e ins cript ion . 40. See Randall 1965. N o . 42. 47. As qu ot ed in Sack 1981-86: 6. 1466-67.

66. R iviugt on' s New- York Gazetteer, 10 M ar ch 1774.

67. Nc ui- York Packet, 24 January 1785. 68. Go ttes ma n 1938. 110-11; Gottes ma n 1954, 11 1-12. 69 . For th e b o ok's publish in g hi stor y , see Introd u cti o n , reprint, Houshold Furniture, 70. Ne w- York M ercury , 6 O ctober 176o, quoted in Lo ck w ood 1913 , I:

48. The o ther se t is o n a simil arl y sh ap ed ches t at th e D ep artment of Stat e (69.103) th at descended in th e fam ily o f Ebenezer Storer. Jr. (173°- 18°7)· 49. For th e most co m p lete dis cu ssion o f this g ro up. see H ayward Yehi a 1974. 50 . See Th e Am eri can Heritag e Socie ty Allct ioll oj A m ericalla . Sotheb y's, sale no. 4048, 17 No vember 1977. lot 11 87. 51. Durin g a re cent re-cove r in g o f th e settee. fr agm ents of a brilliant yello w w orsted were found. in acco rdance with which the new co ver of yellow sta mped m oreen was chosen . Br ass nail s follow the placem ent o f th e o rig ina ls. See Kathr yn Gill . "Minimall y Intrusive Uphol st er y Tr eat m ents-A C ase Hist or y Co nce rn ing an Eigh teenth-Cen tury American Settee. " in Ann Fren ch . ed . , Co uservati on oj Furnishing T extiles (G lasgo w : The Burrell C ollec tion, 1990). 7- 13. 52. Rodriguez Roque 1984. N o. 58. 53. See MFA 1975. N o . 53 . For an ana lys is of th e two chairs. sec Beckerdir e 1987a. 123-33 . 54. Rhoads 1972. 41. 55· O edel 1974. 9·

19.

R ivin oton and Brolllll, Booksellers and S tationers fro m L on do n (N ew York an d Phil ad elph ia, 17( 2). 67; Ga rett Noel. A C ataloo ue oj Books (N ew York. 17( 2). 27.

7 1. A C ataloglle oj Books, sold by

72. A Ca tal ogll e oJ boo k s so ld by Noe l & Ha zard , p ublish crs (N ew Yor k. 1771 ), S I.

73· Hc cks cher 1979: 17-1 8; PI. 30. 74. R ivinoton' s Nc iu- York G azettee r, 2 September 1774. Fo r an illu str ati on . see Rit a Susswein, "Pre-Revoluti on ar y Furniture M akers of Ne w York C ity ." Th e M aga zill e Antiques 25 (Ja nuary 1934): 10. 75· J o y 1960. 7 2. 76. " No tes : N ew York Furn iture , " Bulletin of th c M etropolitan Museum oj A rt (Jun e 1934): 110.

77· Gilb ert 1978,

I:

165.

78. InJ am es Beekm an' s A ccount Book . Per son al Affair s, 17611796, Beekman Famil y Pap er s, New-York Hi stor ical Socie ty . 79. For a thorou gh acc o u n t o f Jam es Be ekm an . see Whit e 1956. 335-530. 80. He ckscher 1990. 81. Nc iu- York M ercury , 21 Jul y 1755.

N EW

YORK

82. See " Acc o unts of Rep airs o f my Dwelling H ou se" and " Ho usehold Furniture Accounts. " both in Beckman's Account Book .

PI'· 153- 05· 83. See " Po rtra its of th e Phil ip se Famil y in the Mu seum , " Bulletin 56. Co unt based o n Pri ce 1977. 146-56. the m ost co m plete listin g of N ew York craftsmen of th e peri od .

oj the Mus eum oj the C ity oj N ell' York 1 (M arch 1938): 45.

84. Beekman's Ac count Book.

57. Unl ess oth erwise n ot ed. all N ew York newspap er ad vertisements qu oted in thi s sectio n are to be found in Gottesm an 1938 and G o ttesm an 1954.

85. Prime 1929. 225.

58. Del apl aine Pape rs, M anuscript Librar y. New-York Hist ori cal Societ y.

87. See "The Gifts and Bequests of Gherardi D avis . " Bulletin oj the Museum oj the C ity oj Ne ll' York 5 (J anu ar y 194 2): 27-28.

86 . N cur- York G azette or the Weekl y Post-Boy. 24 O ctober 1765.

88. Sin gleton 1902, 378 . For a th oro ugh dis cussion of the subje ct, see p. 79 o f thi s publicati on .

I l l. Fr om Bull' s " Representat ion o f th e Colo ny, " 1770, q uo ted in Bivin s 1986, 3.

89 . N CII'- York C az cttc Revi ved ill the Weckl y Post-Bo y, 26 A ug us t 1751.

112. Bur to n 1955,4 . 5.

90. The table was presum abl y part o f th e furni shin gs of Dirck Van Vech rcns h ou se , sit u ated on the Rar it an , near Findern e , New J er sey . w h ich w as used durin g th e Re vo luti on for the hea dq uart ers o f Ge ne ra l N ath ani el Gr een e . See J am es Bro wn Van Ve c h ren , co m p . , Th e Vall Vccliten G ellealog y (D et r o it: Privatel y printed . (954), 360- 61. 91. Pla yin g cards we re imported int o N ew York in vast q uantities. See Sing leto n 1902, 265. 92. See "Furniture o f J o se p h H a yn es ." Ne ll" York M crcurv . M ar ch 1766.

10

93. For referen ce t o Cox, see Ri v inot on ?: Ne w- Yo rk G aze tteer, 7 Oc to ber 177 3: t o Prin ce , see N ew- York Ga e ctt c and th e Week ly M crc ur», 6 Februar y 1775: to Willett , then a partn er in the fir m o f Wi llett & Pcarsee, see Ril'illgtoll's N ew- York G aze tteer. 22 Ap ril 1773.

113. Q uot ed in ibid .. 5. I q . "Jo urna l ofJ osiah Quin cy. Juni or, 1773. " as qu oted in Bi vins 1986, 2. li S . Bu rt o n 1955, 6, refers to up w ard o f 250 ca bine t ma ke rs alo ne between 1700 and 1825. B radford Rau sch enber g , se n io r resear ch fellow at the M useu m o f Earl y South ern D ecorati ve Arts . w ho is pr epa ring a co m p rehe n sive stu d y of th e arts and cra fts in C ha rleston , ha s co m piled biographies of m or e th an five hund red furnitur e craftsm en who wo rk ed in the city pri or to 1825.

11 6. P rime 1929. 158- 226. U nl ess o the rw ise n oted, Prime 1929 is the so ur ce o f all newspaper adv ertiseme nt s qu ot ed in thi s sec tio n. 11 7. T homas Lini n g , ca binetm aker from London , in South Carolina Gaecttc , 4 Jul y 1754. quo ted in Burton 1955, 101.

94. H eckscher 1973·

118. See ibid., 84-8 9, for a sum ma ry treatment of Elfe .

95. I am inde bted to Luke Beckerdite for thi s obse rva tion .

119· Ibid . . 84, 85. 120. Rau schen berg 1980.

W I L L IA M S BU R G

AND

C HARLESTON

pp . 166-81. 96 . Fo r th e ca rve d cha i rs , se e J o h n Bi vin s, jr . ; Th e Furniture (~r Co astal N orth C arol ina , 170 0- t8.w (W in s t o n- Sale m , No . Ca r. : Museum of Earl y Southern De cor at ive Arts, (988), 396- 97.

121. For all references to Elfe 's led ger s, see M ab el L. Webber , ed ., "The T ho mas Elfe Ac co unt Book, 1768-1 775. " Th e So uth C arolina H istorical and C enealogical Maga zill e 35- 42 (Ja nu ary 1934-J anu ar y (941), w he re th e acco unt bo ok is rep rodu ced in its entire ty . 12 2 .

Bur to n 1955, 91.

123. Bivin s 1986, 53. 97. After furth er study. Annapolis and Baltimore in M aryland and N orfolk in Vir gini a m ay also deser ve inclusion . 98. British g ove rn me n t record s list £2 ,9 66 w ort h o f ex po rts in fu rnis hi n gs , in cludin g uphol ster y, to M ar yl an d an d V irgi nia in 1772, a value grea ter even than to Ne w Yo rk . Ci ted in J o y 196o, 72. 99 . For an ad m irable reconstruction of the histo ry of Wi lliamsburg as a furn iture ma king cente r. see Gusler 1979. 100. Ibid ., 63. 101. Ibid .. 2- 3. 102. See ibid ., 25-5 7, for a dis cussion of the Sco tt shop. 103. See ibid ., 61- 113, for an extensi ve acco unt of the H ay shop. 104· Ibid .. 5<) .

124. Q uo ted in ibid ., 56. 125. Ibid . , 57. 126. Pr im e 1929, 176. 127. For T he D irector in C harleston . see Heckscher 1985b, 284. 128. Fo r Waite, w ho also o w ned A N ell' Book (if Orn aments .. .f or the Year 176 2 . P. Ba retris booklet o f designs fo r ro co co ca r ve rs, see Bivin s 1986, 36- 40. 129. Fo r w ha t m ay be an Elfe m ah o gan y fram e, see Theus's M rs. William Lee (ca. 1770: M useu m of Earl y Sou thern De cora tive Arts). For an illu str ati on , see Ad air 1983. 17. 130. Prim e 1929, 10.

106. Ibid . , 13.

131. Fo r Woll ast o n in C ha rlesto n , see Ca ro lyn J. Week ley, "Jo hn Woll ast on , P ortrait Pai nt er : H is C aree r in Virgini a 1754-1 758, " m aster 's th esis, U niversity of Del awa re, 1976, 20- 21.

107. Ibid . , 63. quo ting Virgillia Gaz ette, 6 J anuary 1767.

13 2. For a di scussio n of the m on ument, see Bivins 1986, 106- 11.

108. Ibid . , 66.

133· Rau schen ber g 198o, 12.

109. Ibid . , 182.

IH · Bivins 1986, 106, 121 - 22. T he seco nd carver was J ohn Lo rd .

110 . A p air o f car ved ca n d les ta n ds a t M ou n t Vernon, h av in g a tr adi tion o f Was hing to n ow nership (and co pied exac tly fro m Plat e 72 o f H Ollshole! FllnJitllre). h as also b een at trib ute d to the H ay sho p: ib id ., 125- 26.

135. Fo r thi s attr ib ution , see G usler 1989, 1246-49 .

105. Ibid ., 61.

136. D avis 1976, N o . 136. 13 7. Gus ler 1979, Figs . 18- 22.

138. There ma y originall y ha ve be en turn ed co lo net tes behind the pier ced wo rk of th e legs; see Gusler 1989. 1240.

165. Quot ed in Beckerdite 1985 (the sta nda rd refer enc e for Bern ard and Ju gie z), 498- 99.

13 9. Pis.

for qu ot ed text. see

166 . Fo r Bernard in C ha rl esto n, see ibid .. 510; in N ew Yo r k. see Gottesm an 1938. 126-27.

140 . Th e ga lle ry is a repl acem ent m odel ed o n th at of th e LewisByrd table (No. 11 9).

167. Paym ent o f £73 - 10-0 for "th e Kin g 's Arm s in th e Co unci l C ha m be r" was app roved in Februar y 1768; see Rauschenber g 1980, 12. P aym ent of £8 fo r th e fir eb ack p att ern was rece ived 20 Dece m ber 1770; see Bivins 1985, 43-4 5.

PI.

X XV I - X X VlIl . C X X lIl. CXXX II-C X X X VIl;

Ll X .

141 . Gusler 1979. 66. 142. Gu sler 1989, 1241-4 2. 14 3. The pediment has been resto red based on th e engra ving.

168. Go yn e 1963, 43-44; for Co urte nay, see Becker dit e 1987b.

14 5. For a discussion of th e cha ir, see G us ler 1979. 75-79.

169. Public Record Office. Lo n do n. Inl an d Revenue De par tment. Apprenti ceship Book s. 1710-62, 22: 88. J ohnson owed th e prem iu m rat e be cau se of hi s dil at o r y p a ymen t. I am ind e b ted to Ro b ert Bar ker for co nfi rmi ng thi s reco rd.

146. Rauschenb er g 1976, 20.

170. H aywar d 1964, 16, 23, }2.

147· See Gu sler 1979. Figs. 47. 59.

I71. As qu ot ed in PMA 1976. 11 2.

144· He ckscher 1985a, N o . 79.

172. For Reynold s. see Beckerdite 1984. 173· Ibid .. 23.

}2 .

PHILAD ELPHIA

pp . 182- 217. 148. Ga ry B . N ash an d B ill y G. Smith . " T h e P opul ati on o f Eighteenth-Centur y Phil ad elphia. " Pennsylvania Maoaz inc of History and B ioL~raplly 99 (J uly 1975): 367. 149. Leibundguth 1964. 1}2-36. 150. See Prime 1929. 158-226. 151. As tr an scrib ed in H ornor 1935, 317-21. 152· H ecks cher 1989. 94-96.

174. N o printed co py is kn o wn . A m anu script ve rsion of the 1772 b o oklet is r eprodu ced in Weil 19 79 (un less o therw ise no ted . the so urce of th e qu otati on s fro m th e bo ok in th is cha pter). Another m anu script co py , dat ed 1786, m ad e b y lu mber me rchan t Benjamin Lehman. Ge rma n town. Penns yl vani a, is tr an scri bed in Gillingham 1930. 175. T he drawing is at the Phil adelphia Museum of Art; for M ickle, see PMA 1976, 87. 176. For a co m prehensive stu dy of Ca dwalader as patro n. see Wainw right 1964.

154· Jo y 19 60 , 7 2.

177. Rob ert F. Oaks, " Big Wheels in Philade lp hia: D u Simirieres List o f Car r iage Owne rs, " Pennsyl vania Magazinc of H istory and Biography 95 (J uly (971): 359, 361.

155. For Tile Director in Phil ad elphia. see H eckscher 1985b, 284-85 .

178. Quot ed in Wainw rig ht 1964.

156 . Affl eck h as lon g b een kn own to have ow ne d a co py of Til e Di rector. but a co py o f the secon d ed it io n w ith th e sig na ture of

179. Prime 1929, 215.

153. H ayw ard 1971. 21.

Benj am in Rand olph on th e titl e pag e has o n ly recentl y b een d iscove red . The book is no w in a private co llection. 157. Illustr at ed in H o rn or 1935. 189, and Pis. 95, 97. 158. H ecksch er 1985b. 285-87. 159. Kimball 1927. 160. Fo r a bi ogr aph ical sketc h of Randolph. see PMA 1976. 110-11. H is led ger s co ns ist of a receipt bo ok (1763-77). Wi nt erthur Libr ar y, and his acco unt book (1768-86), N ew York Pu blic Librar y. 161 . For th e arc hi tectural ca rv ing. see Wain w right 1964. 20-2 1; fo r th e furniture, see ibid ., 38-39. 162. For a biogr aphi cal ske tch of Affl eck, see PMA 1976, 98-99. 163. For Affleck 's possibl e connec tion to Pen n , see H orn or 1935, 184.

I.

180. Wainwright 1964. 38. 20. 181. For an illu str ation of th e receipt ed bi ll, see ibid.. 46. 182. See ibid .. 4 5. w he re Co u rten ay is cre d ite d w ith the last two fram es o n th e basis of a paym ent to him on 22 March 1774 by Cadw alade r 's age nt " for 2 Picture Fra mes @ .1:14 - £28 ." But see Beck erd it e 19 84 . 11 32, n . 9. w he re th at a rg ume n t is rej ect ed o n t he g ro u n ds th at all five fra mes a re id enti cal an d th at th e b ill was altogethe r to o lat e in date to be releva n t. 183. W illiam Willi am s, M atthew Pr att . and H enry Benbri dgc were active portrait painter s in Phi lad el phi a at di ffer ent tim es d uring th e height of th e ro co co . bu t non e had th e talent to rise to a co m rnis sio n suc h as Ca dwa lader's . Thei r w o rk s have yet to be surveyed for o rigi nal fra mes in th e rococo sty le. 184. Prim e 1929. 226. 185. As qu ot ed in H ayward 1971. 113 .

164 . In th e Occ u pa t ional Tax list for 1783. Affl eck w as assessed £250. £50 m ore th an any o ther woodwo rke r in th e city. See ibid .•

186. Ibid ., 29.

3 17.

187. Pr im e 1929. 195.

188. Fo r a co mprehensive exa mi na tion ofJohn Ellio tt and nin et yone of his standard-type labeled loo king glasses, see Hayw ard 1971 .

210. Und er th e iro n is a wooden subto p, visib le in Sack 1986, 8: 231 I.

IX9 . See ibid., 40-41, for an explanation of w hy th e va rian t lab el must be later.

211. Q uo ted in Boyer 1931 , 134. T he adve rtise me nt gives the name as Maybery.

190. Of ninety -one looking glasses studied, on ly tw o , both havin g the variant Waln ut Street label, are identified as being of w hite pine; ibid ., 150.

212. For a pair o f ches ts of related design at Winterthur said to have been m ade for Mi chael G ratz of Ph iladelphia in 1769, at the tim e of his marr iage to Miriam Simon, see Downs 1952a, Nos. 198, 333. 213 . T he h igh ches t and th e table are fully catalogued in Ward 1988, N os. 147, 11 6.

191. See C arl M . Williams, "Thomas T ufft and Hi s Fu rni ture fo r Richard Edwa rd s." Th e Magaz inc A ntiques 54 (O ctober 194X): 24647, where the commission is given as 1779; bu t see also id em , "Richard Edwards," Important Philadelphia Chippendale Furnitu re [rom T h e Edwards-Harrison Familv , Christie's, sale no . 6400A, 28 May 1987, 12 (lot 201), w here the com miss ion is redated to 1775- 76. For the Edwards pie r tab le and look in g glass, see H ighl y Important Alllcri can Furniture , C hristie 's, sale no . 7000 , 19Jan uary 1990, lot s 689, 690.

214 . Downs 1952a, N o. 195; Hu m mel 1976, Fig. 83. T he cartouche, o f a type also foun d on No . 140, is a recent replacem ent . 215 . See Heckscher 1985b, 286. 216. For a fu ll d escript io n of the constr uction of th e ches t, see Heckscher 1985a, N o. 168. 217. For examples, see PM A 1976, No . 104a, b: H ipkiss 1941, N o . 55·

192. T he acco u n t book, now missing, is referred to in William s, "Thomas T ufft," 247.

218. Except fo r its upp ermo st leaf frond, th e finia l is in tac t and has never been refin ish ed . The high chest for w hich it is the crowni ng o rna me n t is inscribed "Sam ue l A ppl eto n J oi n er , " an o the rw ise unr ecorded m aker.

193. G reen ish b ronze ove rpain t was re moved in 199° -9 1; see co nservation report by M ark Min or , M et rop oli tan Mu seum , 1991. Carving losses , particula rly noti ceabl e at th e bot to m , had not been restored at the time the pho tograph wa s taken (No . 126).

219. See PMA 1976, No. 84.

194. Prime 1929, 225·

220. See Important Philadelphi a Ch ippendale Furniture, C h ris tie's, 28 Ma y 1987, lot 201.

195. Fo r illustr ati o ns of bi lls, see Wainwrig h t 1964,46, 124; fo r an illu stra tio n o f one of th e looking g lasses (no w at Win te rt h ur) , see ibid ., 125 . 196. For the looking glasses, see Shep herd 1976,

221. For th e Loga n double chest, see Heckscher 1985a, No . 147. 222 . Fo r a th or ou gh examina tio n of Phi lade lp hia finia l b usts , see Sm ith 1971.

I I.

197. Prime 1929, 225·

223. See, for exam ple, Gilbe rt 1978, 2: Figs . 66-71, ·73.

198. T he fr am es' original white-pain ted surfaces we re res to red b y Jo hn M el o d y in 1975. H is report , on file at C liveden, not es th at so me of the flo ral designs are not of carved wood b ut of co m posi tion mate rial.

224· Hornor 1935, 119, 189. 225. Pennsylvania Gaeette, 10Janu ary 1765 and 3 Sep tember 1767, as qu ot ed in Wain wr ight 1964, 35.

199. Overpaint has recen tl y been re moved fro m th e bracket . See conservatio n repo rt b y M. S. Podm ani czk y, Winterthur Museum, 15 Ma y 19X9.

226. Goyne 1963, 62. 227. See Te rry Friedm an and T imo thy C liffor d, T he Mall at H ydc Park Co rner: Sc ulp ture by )o hn Checre 17° 9-1 787 (Leeds: Te m ple N ew sarn Hou se, 1974).

200. Beckcrdi re 19X4, 1125. 201. Q uoted in Wainwrigh t 1964, 122.

228. Robin Reilly, Wcdgll'ood: Voll/lllc I (London: M acm illan, 1989), 448- 56.

202. See Monkho use and M ich ie 1986, No. 49, w he re the table is fully described.

229 . For an illu st rat ion of th e desk -a nd -bookcase pediment , see Hornor 1935, PI. 94.

203. Wainwright 1964, 122.

230. For th e Libr ary Com pany, see Edwin Wol f zud, " A Pa rcel of Book s fo r th e P ro vi nce in 1700, " Pennsyl vania lvlagaz inc of Hi story and Biography 189 (Oc tober 1965): 428-4 6.

204. See Ho rn or 1935, PI. 235; Hu m m el 1976, Fig. 103. 205. T he carved m oti fs mat ch those of a marb le slab table (H ipkiss 1941 . No . 53), bu t look to be b y a different carver.

23 I. Sm ith 1971, Figs. 8, II, 13, q , illus tra tes fo u r of th e Lo cke bu st s; th e fift h is at Stra tfo rd H all , Vi rg inia . In 177 5, Wedgwood d ep ended o n th e sa me, as ye t uni d entified , design sou rce fo r h is "basalte " bu st of Locke.

206. Gilling ham 1936, Fig. 2. 207. J. F. Watson , Annals of Philadelphia and Pennsylvania (Philadelphia . 1870), 203-4 .

2}2. For ano the r bu st of M ilton , on th e Sa m ue l N ich ol as famil y des k and b o o kcase, see Th e Magazine An t iques 126 (Novembe r 1984): 103I.

208. Beckerdite 1985, 505-6 . 209. For the m ate to this table, see PMA 1976, No. 57.

253

233 . The bu st is aft er a pl ast er cas t, whi ch Wed gwood was also to co py. For suc h a cas t, se e T lic Co ntents 4 Littl ccote, H Illig ci]oI'd, Wiushivc, Sotheb y 's (Lo n do n). 20-22 No vember 1985. lot 333; for Wed gwo od 's copy , see Estate ofJ tH/lcs R . H erbert B OOIl C, So rhc by 's, 16-17 September 1988. lot 709.

Ro yal Go vern or o f th e colo ny of Vir gini a; th e o the r, known only in its end plate. dated 1765; see Snodi n 1984. 151 (K5). 4· Go tt esma n 1938, 208. 5· Bivin s 19 8 5. 43.

234. The bu st is lack ing a plinth.

6. G o yne 1963. 71.

235. Beckerdire 1985. Fig . 17.

7. All four chim ney bac ks are shown in situ in photographs of the Lee hou se interi o r co n ta ine d in a lat e-n in et eenth-cent ur y album ; Ameri can Win g files, M etrop olit an Museum .

236. See Bcckerdire 1987b , 1052 and Fig . 2. 237· Woodhou se 1927, 369. 238. The o rig ina l list o f " Do na tio ns to the Asylum " is at H aver ford College, Penns ylvani a.

8. A lat er casting of th e Webb chim neybac k (now at Winterthur) is id entical except for th e add itio n o f th e date 1781 under the arc h; for an illustration . see Schi ffer 1979. 155.

239· pMA 1976, N o . 79.

9. For an illus tratio n in situ . see C ha m be rlain 1977. 1167. PI.

240. The cha ir w as co m m iss io n ed b y William H ollin gshead an d C ha rl es Will son Peal e . m embers o f th e Penns yl vani a As sembl y Co m m it tee for Fitti n g up th e Assembl y Ro om . See Goyne 1963. 161, n . 48. .

10. T he o ther kn o w n cas ting (now at th e Bu ck s Co unty H isto rical Societ y) was m ade earlie r. Thou gh m o re pitt ed by rust. it preserves int act th e p art o f th e sc ro llwo r k mi ssin g fro m th e up per right co rne r of N o . 158. For an illus tra tio n . see M er cer 1961 . PI. 382.

241. Two pairs of th e sam e m odel, differing o nly in the hand ling o f th e carv ing, are kn o wn . See H eck scher 1985a. N o . 69.

II . See ibid .. PI. 383 . for an illustration o f th e ch imneyback. in the collect ions of th e M etr opolitan M useum C~6 . 32).

242. For an illustration of the bill, see Wainwri ght 1964, 44.

12.

243. For o ne o f th e seven kn o wn . see H eck scher 1985a, N o. 59·

13. Ibid .. 164.

244. For Fleeson's bi ll, see Wainwright 1964, 40.

14 · Ibid . . 165.

245. Ibid ., 41.

15. For illustr ation s of th e tw o. see M er cer 1961 . Pis. 291. 293.

246. Ibid ., 69.

16. Ibid . , Pis. 8. 9.

247· Ibid . , 51.

17. Ibid ., 86-87.

248. For th e fire screen s, see H eckscher 1985a, N o . 132.

18. Walter Hu gin s. "The Sto ry o fa 19th-C entur y Ir o nm ak in g Co m m u n ity, " H op c/NII Furna ce, A G uide to H opcwcil Villagc N ational H istoric S ite, Pcnusvlv ania (Was h ington. D .C.: Nat ional Park Ser vice. 1983). 29.

249 . For th e in ventori es o f 177 8 an d 1786, see Wainwri ght 19('4 , 66-67, 72-73. 250. For th e tabl es , see D owns 1952a, N o . 345; for the ch airs, see Hummel 1976, Fig . 53.

IV.

For Aetn a Furnace. see Bo yer 1931. 164- 67.

251. Beck erd ite 1984, 1126-28.

19. The o rig ina l Fr an kl in stove had an arc hed and deco ra ted front pl at e at th e top and a proj ect in g h earth at th e bo ttom . It was insert ed int o a fireplace and ven ted throu gh its flue.

CAST IR ON , GLAS S, AND P OR C E LAIN

20. Quoted in Leon ard W. Lab ar ee , ed., The Papers of Bcnjaniin Franklin , 1-14 (New H aven : Yal e Uni ver sit y P ress. 19 59-70). 12: 236. " O u r Fr iend G race" was Rob ert Gr ace (17°9-1766). m an ager of Warwi ck Furnace, not far from H o pew ell, and th e m an to whom Franklin pr esented th e m od el o f his Penn sylvani a stove; see Mercer 1961. 109·

pp. 219- 39

21. For M arlb or o Furnace. see Bivin s 1985.

C AST IRON

22. Ibid ., 45- 54; see also Figs . 14-18.

pp . 219 - 28.

23. For Elizabeth Furn ace. see M er cer 1961.

1. Fort y such coal-b urn ing firepl ace insert s are illustr ated in W. & J. Welld on , Th e Smith 's Right H and, or A Complete G uide to tlic Varioll s Brallchcs of all S orts of Iron Work (Londo n, 17( 5).

24· See ibid .. PIs. 173. 174: 193- 99; 222-25·

2. A ccording to Dr. Sh ocp , a Ge r ma n tr aveler. qu ot ed in M er cer 1961,34 · 3. In En gl an d , ca st-i ro n ro co co o rna m en t is found o n ly o n t w o sur viva ls of th e closed stoves pa tent ed in 1765 b y Abrah am Bu zaglo ( 1716- 1788): o ne sen t to William sburg in 1770 to Lord Botet ourt.

Ill.

25. Ibid. , Pis. 300. 301. 26. For an illu str ation . see ibid .. PI. 297. 27· See ibid .. Pi s. 313. 31.l . for the Th om as M aybur y (Mayberry) stove o f 1767 (now a t th e H enr y Ford Mu seum ). t he only ot her version of a rococo- dccora ted ten-pi are stove fro m the 1760s. 28. Tatum 1976. Figs. 46. .p .

fro m tw elve hundred to fift een hundr ed d egr ees Ce ls ius (2 , 1<)2 2,732 degrees Fahrenheit ), por celain vit rifies, beco m ing ex t re me ly hard and translucent.

2<) . For Readin g Furnace. see Mercer 1<)61 , 106-8. 30. Illu strated in Beatri ce B . G ar v an , Til e Pennsyl vania Ge n l/.lII Co llection (Ph ila de lph ia: Phil ad elphia Mu seum o f Art , 1<) 82), 107. No. 24.

47. For th e histor y of Am eri can porcelain in ge ne ra l, see Frelin ghu ysen 1<) 8<); for Duche, see ibi d . , 0; for a hi stor y o f eig h tee n thcent ury porcelain . see ibid . , 6- 11 and N os. 1- 3.

3I. A number of sim ilarl y decorated stove plat es from the Red wcll wo rks in t he Sh en and o ah Vall ey are d ated between [787 and 180 5. See H . E. Co ms toc k . " T he Red w ell Ir onwork s, " [ournal 4 Earl y Southern D ecorative Arts 7 (May 1<) 81 ): 41- 80.

48. A s qu ot ed in ibid . , 8, w h e re ad d it io n al in fo rm ati on o n Franklin 's int erest in Am eri can por celain is recorded . 4<) . See ibid . for more o n Rush and for qu ot ation s from his lette rs.

G LAS S

50. As qu ot ed in ibid.

PI'· 22<)-33·

51. Ho od 1<)72,1 3.

32. Fo r a co nc ise su m ma ry o f th e h istor y of early Am eri can glass, see Palm er 1<)84.

52. En gli sh so ft- pas te por celain m anu facturer s subs tituted bo ne ash for petuntse. as did Bonnin and M orris.

33. As qu ot ed in Palm er 1<)8<) , 204. The info rm ation o n Sti egcl and his produ cti o n is en tire ly deri ved from this thorou gh and informative treati se.

53. As quoted an d d escrib ed in H o od 1<) 72 (the m o st co m ple te stu dy o f Bonnin an d M o rr is). 15, 17. The dat a used in th e p rep ar ati on o f th e di scus si on s of th e p artn er sh ip 's exa m p les were drawn from Hood 1<)72 and Frelin ghu ysen 1<)8<).

H· As quoted in ibid., 208- <).

54. Ad vertisem ents for ena mel painter s and surv iv ing sha rds w ith ir on red und er gl aze d ecorati on sugges t th at th e facto ry atte m p te d pol ychrome decorati on , at least in th e blu e- an d-red Irnar i sty le. For more information , see Frclin ghu ysen 1<)8<). <).

35· Palm er 1<)84. 102. 30. Palm er 1<)8<), 210. 37· As qu ot ed in ibid., 212.

55. Hood 1<)72, 30-31.

38. As qu ot ed in Palm er 1<)84, 183.

56. See ibid . . Fig . 24, for an illustration o f a simi lar scene. 3<). Arl en e P alm er Sc hw in d is cre d ite d w it h th e r esear ch an d att ributio n o f this pi votal exa m ple o f Stiegel' s En glish-st yle produ ction.

57. A sim ila r border decor ati on , w itho ut th e blurr ing, is illu strated in Frelin ghu ysen 1<)8<), N o . I.

40. Palm er 1<) 8<), 212- 13, 210, 21<).

58. Ibid ., 72, and H ood 1<)72, 55.

41. As quo te d in D wi ght P. Lanm on and Arl ene M . Palmer , "Jo hn Fr ed er ick Am elun g an d th e N e w Brem en Gl assmanufactor y, " [ ourn al 4 G lass S tudies 18 ( 1<)70): 26 . Th is issue of the j ournal , the so urce of informati on for th e Am elung en tr ies, co nt ains a thorough stu dy of Amelung and his m anu factor y, as we ll as a catalog ue of his signe d and att ributed glass.

5<). Other six -i nc h exa m ples are illus t ra te d in H oo d 1<) 72, Figs. I , 30, and 33; for th e eight- inch var iety, see ibid. , Fig . 5, and Frelin ghu ysen 1<)8<), No . I .

00. Frelinghu ysen 1<)8<), 77. 6 1. The other two wi th blue flor al decor ati on in the bowls are in th e co llectio ns of th e N ati on al Mu seum o f Am eri can Art, Smithso nian Institution (70.5<)7) , and th e Brookl yn Museum (45. 174).

42. As q uo ted in ibid. , 32. 43. As qu ot ed in ib id. , 44. H . As quo ted in ibid. . 33.

62. For exa m ples , see Sn odin 1<) 84, 114 (GI7), 11 5 (G I<)) , 245 (06, 0 7). and 247 (012).

45. Ibid . . 76.

63. Frelin ghu ysen 1<)8<), 77. 64. For a tran scription of both bill s w ith pri ces, see H ood 1972, 55.

P OR C ELAI N

65. I am g ra te fu l to A li ce Coo ney Fr elin ghu y sen, A sso ci at e Curato r, D epartment of Ameri can Decor ati ve Arts, The M etropolitan Mus eum of Art, for sha ring thi s th eor y.

PI'· 234-3 <)· 46. Porcelain is co m posed of a fine w h ite cla y calle d kaolin and a feld spath ic stone known as petuntse. Wh en fired at a temperature o f

255

Bi vin s 1985 J ohn Bi vin s , J r. " Isaac Z an e an d th e P rodu ct s of M arlb o ro Fu rnace." [ouvna! of Early Southern Decorative A rts II (May 1985): 14-65.

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Shepherd 1976 Raym ond V. Sheph erd , jr. "Clive den and Its Phil adelph ia-Chippendale Furniture: A D ocument ed Histor y." Th e A mericall Art [o« rt/aI 8 (Novem ber 1976): 2- 16.

Paul Revere's ledgers Two Day Books . T he firs t, for the years 1761- 83; the second, 178497. Massac husetts H isto rical Socie ty , Bos ton . Rhoads 1972 Elizabeth Adams Rho ads. "Household Furnishings in Portsmouth, New Ham pshire, 1750-1 775." M ast er 's thesis, Universit y o f Delaware, 1972. Rice 1964 Norman S. Rice. A ibanv Silver: 1652-1825. Alb an y, N .Y .: Alb an y Institute of H isto ry and Art, 1964. j oseph Richardson 's letter book The Letter Book o f joseph Rich ards on , Sr. , w hich cove rs the yea rs 1758- 74, is in the D owns Manu scr ipt and Microfilm Co llec tion , Winterthur Museum , and is transcribed in full in Fales 1974, 219-59 . Rod riguez Roque 19S4 O swaldo Rodrigu ez Roq ue. Americall Furniture at C hipstone , M adison, Wisc.: University of Wisconsin Press, 1984. Rosenbaum 1954 jeanette W . Ros e nbaum . M v er M y ers, Go ldsm it h , 17 2 ]- 179 5 . Phil adelphia: jewish Publication Society of Am erica , 1954. Roth 1961 Rodris Ro th . " Tea Drinking in t Sth-Century America: Its Etiqu ett e and Eq uipage ." Co ntributions fr om th e Museum o f Histor y and T echnolog y, Paper q . United S tates N ational Mus eum Bull etin 225 (1961): 61- 91. Sabine 1864 Lorenzo Sabine . Biographical Sketches of Loyalists 4 the Americ(lIl Revelution. znd ed ., 1864. Reprint . Baltim or e, Md .: Genealogical Publishing, 1979. Sack 1981- 86 Am ericall Antiqu es fr om Israel Sa ck Co llection, 8 vo ls. Washington , D.C. : H ighland House Publishers, 19S1-86. Safford 1983 Frances Gruber Safford . "Colonial Silver in T he Am er ican Wing." The Metropolitan Mu seum of Art Bull etin 41 (Sum m er 19S3): 3-56 . Schiffer 1979 Her bert, Peter , and N ancy Schi ffer. A lltiql/c Iron: S I/,.,Jcy of Amcr;Call and Engli sh' Forms , Fifteenth throuoh N ineteenth Ce nturies. Exto n. Pa.: Schiffer Publishing, 1979. Schroder 1988a Timo thy Schroder. Th e Gilb ert Co llection of Gol d and Silver. Lo s Ange les: Los Angel es County Mu seum o f Art , 1988. Schroder 1988b Timoth y Schroder. Th e N ationnl Tru st Book of E llglish D omestic

Singleton 1902 Esth er Sin gleton . Social Nell' York under the Georges: 1714-1776. New York: D. App leton , 1902. Skerr y 1984 janine E. Ske r ry . "The Philip H . H amm er slou gh Collec tio n of Am er ican silve r at th e Wad sworth Atheneum , H art ford , Con necticut. " Th e M agaeine Antiques 126 (October (984): 852- 59. Skerr y 1988 j anin e E. Sk err y. "The Re volutionar y Re ver e: A C ri tica l Assessment of th e Silve r o f Paul Revere. " In Patri ck M . Leehey er a!' Paul Revere-s-Artisan , Busin essman, and Patriot: Th e Man Behind the Myth . Bost on : The Paul Revere Mem o rial Association , 1988,41-63. Smi th 1971 Robert C. Sm ith . " Finia l bu st s on eig h teen th-ce ntury Ph iladelphia furniture." Th e Magaz ille Antiques 100 (Dece mber (971): 900-9 05. Smith 1973 Robert C. Sm ith . " A Phil adelphia D esk-and -B ook case from C hippendale's D irector." Th e iHagaz ille Antiqu es !O3 (January 1973): 128-3 5. Snodin 1984 Mi ch ael Sn odin , ed. R ococo: A rt and D esig n ill H ogarth 's England, Lond on : Victoria and Alb ert Mu seum, 19S4. Sno din 1986 Mi ch ael Sno d in . "Tra de Ca rds and En gli sh Ro co co . " In C harles Hind , cd . T he R ococo ill England: A Symposillm. Lon don : Victoria and Albert Mu seum, 1986. 82-103 . Snodin 1990 Mi chael Snodin . " Paul de Larnerie's Rococo." In Susan Hare, ed. Paul de Lamerie: At the S igll of T he Gol den Ball. London : Go lds m iths' Compan y, 1990, 16-23. Snyder 1975 M arti n P. Sn yd er. Ci ty of Independence: Viell's of Philadelphia Befo re 18 00 . N ew York : Pr aeger Publishers, 1975. Spaw n 1963 Willman and Ca ro l Spawn . "The Ait ken Sho p: Ident ification of an Eig h teen th -ce nt u ry Bind er y and Its T ool s." Papers of the Bibliographical Society of America 57 (1963): 422- 37. Spawn 1983 Willman Spawn . "The Evolution of Am erican Bin ding Styles in the Eighteenth C entury." In Bookbinding ill America, 168 0-1910 : From the Collection of Frederick E. M aser. Br yn M awr, Pa.: Br yn M aw r College Libr ary. 1983, 29-36 . Stauffer 1907 David M cN eely Stau ffer, corn p. Americall Ellgravers "POII Copp er and Steel. 2 vo ls. N ew York: Gro lier C lub, 1907.

Steblecki 1988 Edith J. Steblecki . " Fra te rni ty, Phil anth rop y, and Revolution : Paul Re ver e a n d Fr e em a s onr y . " In P atri ck M . Le ehe y e t a!' Paul Revere-s- Artisan, BusilleSSI1JaII , and Patriot: T he Man Behind the AIyt11. Boston : T he Paul Revere Mem ori al Association , 1988, 117-4 7. Swan Abrah am Sw an . Th e British A rchitect: O r, the Build er's Tr easury of S tair-Cas es. 1745. Reprint , 1758 ed . N ew York : D a Ca po Pr ess, 1967. Swa n 1948 Ma bel M. Swa n. " Boston C arve rs and J oin er s. Part I. Pre-Revolution ary." Th e Magaz ine A ntiques 53 (M arch 1948): 198- 201. "Part II. Post-R evolution ary." (A pril 1948): 281-85 . Ta tum 1976 Ge o rg e B. Ta tum . Philadelph ia Georgian: T he Ci ty H ouse of Samuel Powe! and S ome of Its Eigh teenth-Century Neig hbors. Middletown , Co nn. : Wesleyan Universit y Press, 1976. Universal S ystem [Wil liam] In ce an d [j o h n ] M a yh e w . Th e U ni oersal S ys te m of Houshold Furniture. 1762. Reprint. Londo n: Alec Tiranti , 1960.

Van Rensselaer 1949 Flo renc e Van Ren ssel aer, co m p o Th e Livingston Fami ly ill A merica and Its Scottish Origins. Rich mond , Va.: William Byrd Press, 1949. Vincent 1974 Gilbe rt T. V incent . "The Bo rnbe Furniture of Bost on." In Walt er Mu ir Wh it eh ill , Br o ck J ob e, and J on ath an Fairb an ks, eds . Boston Furniture of the Eighteenth C entury , Boston : The Colon ial Societ y of Massachu sett s, 1974, 137- 96. Wadswo rt h Ath eneum 1985 T he G reat R iver: Art & So ciety of the Co nn ecticut Valley , 1635-1 820. Hart for d, C onn .: Wadswo rt h Ath eneu m, 1985. Wainwright 1964 Ni cho las B. Wain wr ight. C olonial G randeur: Th e H ouse and Furniture of Ge ne ral J ohn Ca duraladcr. Phi lad elphi a: Hi st ori cal So ci et y o f Pennsylvania, 1964. Wallace 1931 Ph ilip B. Wallac e. C olonial H ouses, Philadelphia, Pre-R evolutionary Period. Ne w York : Ar chit ectural Book Pu blishin g, 193I. Ward 1984 Barbara M cLean Ward. " Bosto n Go lds miths, 1690-1730." In Ian M . G . Q ui m b y, ed. T he C raftsman in Early A merica, Ne w York : W. W. N orton for th e H enr y Fran cis du Pont Wint erthur Mu seum, 1984, 126- 57· Ward 1988 Ge rald W. R. Ward. /.l. merican C ase Furniture in tile Mabel Brady GarV,lli and O ther Co llections at Yale Unive rsity . N ew H aven : Yale University Art Gallery , 1988. Ward and Ward 1976 Bar b ar a M . Ward an d Ge rald W . R . Ward . " T he M ak ers of Co p-

ley's Picture Frames : A C lue ." Old-Tim e Nell' England 67 (Sum m erFall 1976): 16-2 0. Ward and Ward 1979 Barbara M . Ward and Gerald W. R. Ward , eds . Silver in American Life: Selection s from the Mabel Brady G arvan and Other C ollections at Yale University. New York: American Federation of Art s, 1979. Warren 1976 Da vid B. Warren . Bancroft Woodcock: S ilversmith. Wilmington : Histori cal Society of Delaware, 1976. Warren, H owe, and Brown 1987 D avid B. Warren, Katherine S. Howe, and Michael K . Brown. Mark s of A chievement: Four C enturies of American Presentation Silver. Houston: Museum of Fine Arts, Houston, 1987. Waterman 1945 Th omas Tileston Waterman . Th e Man sions of Virg inia, 1706-1776 . C hapel Hill : Universit y of North C aro lina Press, 1945. Weil1 979 Martin Eli Wei!. "A C abinetma ker 's Price Book ." In Ian M. G. Quimby, ed . American Furniture and Its Mak ers. Winterthur Portfolio 13 . Chicago : University of Chicago Pre ss for The Henry Franci s du Pont Wint erthur Mu seum, 1979, 175- 79. Wenham 1931 Edward Wenham. D omestic Silv er of G reat Britain and Ireland. Lon don: Oxford University Pres s, 1931. White 1956 Philip L. White. The Beekmans of New York in Politics and Commerce: 1647-1877. New York : The New-York Historical Society, 1956. Wolfe 1966 Beatrice Ban croft Wolfe . "A Coffee Pot M ade by Philip Syn g, Junior." Philadelphia Mu seum of Art Bulletin 41 (Spring 1966): 40-44 . Wood cock and Robinson 1988 Thomas Woodcock and John M artin Robinson. Th e Oxfo rd Guid e to Heraldry , Oxford: Oxford Universit y Pr ess, 1988. Woodhouse 1927 S. W. Woodhouse, Jr. " Benja m in Randolph o f Phil adelphia . " Th e Magazin e Antiqu es II (May 1927): 366- 71. Wroth 1926 Lawren ce C . Wroth . Abel Bu ell of C onnecticut: S ilve rsmith, Typ e Founder, & Engrav er. 1926. Reprint. Middletown, Conn.: Wesleyan Uni versity Pr ess, 1958. Wroth 1950 Lawrence C. Wroth . "Joshua Fish er 's 'C hart o f Del aware Bay and River.'" Pennsyl van ia Maga zin e of Hi story & Bi ography 74 (June (950): 90- 109· Zimmerman 1979 Philip D . Zimmerman . " A Methodological Study in the Identification of Some Imp ortant Phil adelphia Chippendale Furniture." In Ian M . G . Quinb y, ed . Am erican Furniture and Its Makers. Winterthur Portfolio 13. C h icago: Universit y o f Chicago P ress for The Henry Francis du Pont Winterthur Museum, 1979, 193-205.

7

Exhibition Checklist

Flintlock rifle, 181 2- 2 0 J acob Kuntz, Phil ad elphi a Maple, iron, br ass, silve r, bon e, and horn L. : 591/. in . (150.5 cm .) T he Metropolit an Mu seu m of Art, Gift of Wilfrid Wood, 1956 (42.22)

8 T he Metr op ol itan Museum of Art, 26 J anu ar Y-17 May 1992 Los An geles Co unty Museum of Art , 5 Jul Y-27 Septembe r 1992

Pair ofjlilltlock pistols, 18 12- 2 0 J acob Kuntz, Phil adelph ia M aple, iro n, brass, silver, and pea rl L.: 14 1/. in. (]6 .2 cm.) Pri vate collection

9

T ho mas C hippenda le, T ile Ge ntleman and Cabinet-Maker's Director (Londo n, 1754), o pen to Plate XII, cha ir designs Engr aving on pap er, 131/2 x 83/. in . (34.3 x 22.2 cm .) T he Met rop olit an M useu m of Art , Ro gers Fun d, 1952 (52.5 19.94)

Flintlock rijle. ca. 1790 Sim on Lauck, Winchester, Vi rginia Maple, iro n, b rass, and silve r L.: 601/2 in. (153.7 cm .) Pri vate collectio n 10

2

M . Lock and H. Co pland , A Ne ll' Book oj Orn anients u-ith Twe lve L eaves (Londo n, 1752), o pen to a chimney piece design En gr avin g on paper, 97/8 x 7 in. (25.1 x '7 .8 cm.) The M et ropol itan Museum of Art, H ar ris Bri sbane Dick Fund, 1928 (28.88.7)

oftile Flowcrfamilv, 17 6 5 Elizabe th Flo wer, Ph iladelph ia Em bro ide ry on silk, mahogany frame 11 1/ 2 x 12'% in. (29.2 x ]2.4 cm .) Co llection of Mr. and Mrs . Edwa rd J. N usra la Art/IS

II

3 Abr aham Sw an , T ile British A rch itect (Lon don, 1745), open to Plate L1, a chim ney piece design Eng raving on paper, 133/. x 81/2 in . (]4.9 x 21.6 cm .) T he M etropolit an M useum o f Art, Gift of W. Ged ney Beatty, 1941 (41.100.30)

Parlor chimney breast, N ew York. 1763- 64 From M ou nt Pleasant , the J am es Beekma n house White pin e, paint ed , 115 x 101 x 25 in . (292.1 x 256.5 x 63.5 cm .) T he Ne w-York Hi stor ical Soc iety, New Yor k; Gift ofJ ames W. Beekm an ( 1874.8)

4

12

J ohn N orman , after Ab raha m Sw an , T ile British Architect (Philadelphia , 1775), o pen to Plat e L1, a chim ney piece design Engr avin g on paper , 137/8 x 81/8 in. (35.2 x 20.6 cm .) The Metr op olitan Museum of Art, H arri s Bri sbane Dic k Fund. 1943 (43.26. I)

Trade card ofj osepll Welch, Lon don, 1760-65 Eng rav ing on paper , 6% x 5'% in. (16.8 x 13.7 cm .) The Met ropolitan Museum of Art, Gift of Mrs. Mo rris H awkes, 1927 (27.100 [3]) 13

5 Proposals[o r Printino by Subscription T ile Cent leman and Cabinct-Malecr's A ssistant (Philade lphia, 1775) Bound into J ohn N orman 's ed itio n of T ile British A rchitect Printed paper , 161/2 x 91/2 in. ( ~I.9 x 2~ . 1 cm .) Aver y Ar chit ectural and Fine Arts Library, Co lum bia U nive rsity

Trade card of William [ai k son, 17 6 5- 7 0 Attributed to Paul Revere, Bosto n Eng rav ing on paper iYH x 61/. in . (19.4 x 15 .9 cm .) Ame rican Anti qu arian Soc iety 14

6 Thomas C hippenda le, Til e Gentleman and Cabinet-Maker's Director (Londo n, 1754), open to the titl e page Printed pap er, 171/. x 11 1/8 in. (43.8 x 28.3 cm.) The Thomas J. Watson Libr ar y. The Met rop ol itan Mu seum of Art

Bookplate of Tllomas Devino Na thaniel H urd , Boston , 1749 Engraving on paper 27/8 x 2'/2 in . (7.3 x 6. 4 crn .) T he Metr op olitan M useu m of Art, Gift of William E. Baillie. 1920

IS

23

Bookplate unth O/iverfalllily anlls Thomas J oh nston, Bos to n, 1755- 65 Engraving on paper 3 7/~ x 3 '1~ in. (9. 8 x 7.9 cm. ) American Ant iquarian Society

J ames Lyon . Urania (Philadelphia. 17(1 ) Open to titl e page. by H enr y Dawkins Eng raving on paper . 4 x 8'12 in. (10.2 x 21.6 cm .) Amer ican Anti qu arian Society 24

16 Bookplate of Epcs SclIgCllt Paul Revere, Boston, 1764 Engraving on paper 3'1. x 2'12 in. (8.3 x 6. 4 cm.) American Antiquarian Socie ty

Hu gh Blair. Lectures 011 Rhetoric and Belles Lettres (Philadel phia, 1784), showing back cover Rober t Ait kin. bin der and publisher Red m or oc co . go ld tooled 10% x 8% x 1% in. (27 x 22 x 4.8 cm .) Am eri can Ant iquarian Society

I7

25

Bookplate of Ca rdincr C handler Paul Rever e, Boston, ca. 1765 Eng ravi ng on paper 3'% x 2'% in. (8.6 x 7 cm.) America n Ant iqu arian Socie ty

T rade card of L ewis D eblois Thom as J ohn ston, Boston. 1757 Eng raving on paper 6% x 7% in. (16.2 x 19.4 em .) T he Winterth ur Libr ar y: J oseph Downs Collectio n of Manu script s & Printed Ephemera (66x l52)

18

Bookplate ofjohn Burnet H enr y Dawkins. New York. 1754 En gr aving on paper 3% x 3 in . (9. 8 x 7.6 cm. ) The Metropolitan Museum of Are, Gift o f William E. Baillie, 1920

26 Trade cardof Nicholas Browll & COlllpallY Na thaniel Hu rd , Boston. ca. 1762 Engraving on paper, 6'1. x 7% in. (15.9 x 20 cm .) T he J oh n Ca reer Bro w n Library at Brown University (08643) 27

19

Platefor Philip V'1I1 Rensselaer bookplate Andrew Billings, Poughkeepsie, New York, 1768-86 Engraving on cop per , 3% x 27/8 in . (9.8 x 7.3 cm .) Hi stor ic C herry Hi ll ( 12976.1) With recent imp ression o f Philip Vall Rensselaer bookplate Engraving on paper , 3'% x 2'% in. (9.5 x 7 cm.) H istori c C he rry Hill (12978) 20 Bookplate ofJerelllias V.1II Rensselaer Elisha Ca llaude t, New Yo rk, 1761 Engravi ng on pape r. 3'/2 x 2% in. (8.9 x 6.7 cm .) Histo ric C herry H ill ( 12977) 21

Bookplate of Isaac Norris James Turner. Philadelp hia, ca. 1757 Engraving on paper. 3 '1~ x 2 J/~ in. (7.9 x 6 cm. ) On inside cov er of Examen Concilii Tridentini (D orrrech t. 1( 78) Dickinson College Specia l Collectio ns (N o rrisI270 / G338/ C. 2) 22

Bookplate of Frail cis H opkinson Henr y Dawkins , Phi ladelphi a, ca. 1768 Engraving on paper. 3'12 x 3 in . (8.') x 7.6 cm. ) American Anti qu arian Societ y

Trade card
anatoniical leaures Paul Revere, Bosto n, 1780 Engra ving on paper. <) '/ ; x 7% in . ( 23·) x 19 .4 em .) Am er ican Ant iqu ar ian Society 30 Trade cardof Alit/lOllY Lamb Henr y Dawkins. New York. ca. 1755 Eng rav ing on paper I I x 7'12 in. (27.9 x 19.1 cm. ) T he N ew-York Hi stori cal Society. New York

31 lnvitation fill' the Hand-in-Ha nd Fire COIIIPIl IlY Possibl y b y Henry D awkins. N ew York. ca . 1755 En g ravin g o n pap er . 77/ " x 6 Y2 in . (20 x 16. 5 cm .) I. N. Ph elp s Stokes C oll ecti on. Miriam and Ira D. Wallach Division o f Art. Prints and Ph ot o gr aph s. The N ew York Public Libr ar y. Astor. Len o x and Tilden Foundati on s (c. 1750- C-1 6)

Cha rt 4 D elaware Bay D rawn by J oshua Fish er ; eng raved b y J am es Turner Phil adelphi a. 1756 En gr avin g o n pap er . 23% x 45 Y" in . (60 x 114 .6 cm .) The John C arter Brown Library at Brown Uni versit y 39

32

T rade card of Ben j amin Randolph Jam es Smither. Philadelphia. 1'769 En gr avin g on paper. 9 x 7 in . (22 .9 x 17. 8 cm .) The Library Co m pany of Philadelphi a (P.9178.6)

4 Delaware B
33

40

Trade card [~( Robert Kcuncdy Jam es Smither. Philadelphia. ca. 1769 Eng rav ing o n pap er. 10 x 7Y. in . (25. 4 x 18.4 cm .) Wi nte rt hur Museum (60. 729)

Pl.III

Chan

34

Certificate ofmembership, N ell' York M cchanicl: S ociety Abrah am Go d w in . N ew York . 1786 Engrav ing on paper. 8 Y2 x II Y" in . (21.6 x 28.3 cm .) W int erth ur Museum (58. 1797) 35

Ccrtificate oj mcmbcrship, Boston M arine Society Jo seph Ca llende r. Bost on . 1789 En gr avin g o n pap er . 9Y. x 15 in . (23. 5 x 38. 1 cm .) Bo ston M arin e So ciet y

4 the Improved Part 4 the C ity After N icho las Scull. po ssibl y b y H enr y Dawkins. Phil adelphia. 1762 En gr avin g on paper. 20 Y" x 26 ·Y. in . (51.1 x 68 cm .) I. N . Phelps Stokes Collec tio n . Miriam and Ira D . Wallach Di visi on o f Art. Prints and Ph otogr aphs. The N ew Yo rk Pu blic Librar y. Astor. Len o x and Tilden Foundat ion s (P. 1761-B-57)

41

A General C hart 4 all the Coast ojthc Province of L ouisiana Henr y D awk ins. Phi lad elphia. 1760-6 5 En gr avin g o n pap er. q 'l2 x 401/2 in . (36. 8 x 102.9 cm .) M ap Di vision . The N ew York Public Library. Astor. Len o x and Tilden Foundati ons

42 Xlap 4 the United States of Alll crica Abel Buell. N ew H aven. 1784 En gr av ing on paper . 4 2-Y. x 48 in . ( 108.6 x 121 .9 cm. ) The N ew J ersey Hi stori cal So ciet y. N ewark. N ew Jerse y

rvritillg ccnifiouc Att ributed to Abel Buell . in associ ati on with Jam es Rivingto n, New H aven . ca . 1775 En gr avin g on pap er. 15-Y. x 12 '/ 2 in. (40 x 31.8 cm .) With lines penned b y Susan na D arlin g. aged eig h t The N ew-York Histor ical So ciet y. N e w York (Show n only in N ew Yo rk)

Dial ojc lock by BI/I.,-ol/'S Dowdu cv; Ph iladel phi a. ca. 1770 Brass. silvered . 16-% x 12 in . (41.6 x 30.5 cm .) The Dietrich Ameri can Foundati on

36a

44

ll'rit illc~

D ial 4 < 1musical clock Daniel Burnap . m ak er and en g rave r East Windsor. Conne cticu t. 1790-94 Br ass. silv ered . 16 5/ " x 12 in . (42.2 x 30.5 cm .) Hi sto ric Deerfi eld. In c.. D eerfi eld. M assachu sett s (# 78- 144)

certificate Attri buted to A bel Bu ell. in associatio n w ith J am es Rivin gr on , N ew H aven . ca. 1775 Engr aving on paper. 15-Y. x 12 Y2 in. (40 x 31.8 cm.) With lines pen ned b y M atth ew T alcott znd . 1793 Cou ucc ric u t H isto r ical So ci e t y . H art fo rd

43

( I ~ H 2- I I O- I )

(Sho w n o nl y in Lo s An geles) 37

PI.lIl [~( Bethlehem Tract tuitlt all the adjacent LlIId Attributed to Andreas H o eger . Bethl eh em . Penns yl vani a. 1755 In k and was h on pap er . 24 Y2 x 31-Y. in . (62.2 x 80.7 cm. ) M ora vian H istorical So ciet y

45

Dial 4 clock by Reuben III.~ r< l/w lII Eng rav ed b y J oh n Aver y. Plainfi eld . Connec ticut. 1785- 94 Br ass. silve red . 16 x 12 in . (40 .6 x 30.5 cm .) Collec tion o f Mr. and Mrs. Frank A . M auri

53 CoIfcc pot, 1759- 60 Art hur An nesley. London Silver. H .: 11 1/2 in . (29.2 cm.) Essex lnstitu rc, Salem . M assachu sett s (# 137.3( 0) 47 Coffcc pot, 1772 Paul Rever e, Boston Silver. H .: 12 in. (3° .5 cm .) Private co llection

T ea set, ca. 1765- 75 Pietcr de Riem er. N ew Yor k Silver. H .: teap ot, 6-% in . (17.2 cm.), suga r bowl, 4-% in. (12.1 cm .), cream pot , 51/2 in . (14 cm.) Mu seum of th e C ity of N ew Yo rk , Gift of Mr s. Francis P. Ga rva n (51.304A- D) 49 Selectionsfro m II "'cddill.~ service, 1773 Paul Rever e, Boston Silver. H .: coffee pot, 131/2 in. (34. 3 cm. ), teapot , 6% in. (16.S cm .). can n, 5 in . ( 12.7 cm .), butter boa t, 4'% in . (11.1 cm .): L.: desse rt spoon, S3/. in. (22.2 cm .), teaspoon, 5-% in. ( 13. 7 cm .) , tea to ngs , 5-% in. (13 .7 cm.) Wo rcesre r Art Mu seum , Wo rcester , M assachusett s, dessert spoon ( 1937. 56), co ffee pot ( 1937.5S). cann (1937. 59), Gift o f Fran ces T ho mas and Eliza Stur gis Paine in mem o ry of Frederi ck William Paine; but ter boat (1965.335). tea ton gs (1965. 336). teasp oon (1965.337), Gift of the Paine C haritable Trust; teap ot ( 1967.57). Gi ft o f Richard K. Th orndi ke 50 T eapot. ca. 1753 J ohn Cobu rn, Bo ston Silver, H .: 61/2 in. (16.5 cm.) H isto ric Deerfi eld, In c., Deer field . Massachu setts (#75-494)

5' Teapot, ca. 1765- 70 Paul Revere, Boston Silver, H. : 57/ " in. (14.9 cm .) Mu seum of Fine Art s, Boston, Pauline Revere Thayer C ollecti on (,15 .1775)

52 Teapot, ca. 1755- 60 J oseph Richardson , Phi ladel phi a Silver , H .: 6 in. (15 .2 cm .) Th e H isto rical Society of Penn sylvania, Gift o f Ed wa rd C. Gardine r, 1945 (S-S- 179)

T eapot, 1760-70 Phi lip Syn g, J r. , Philadelphia Silver, H .: 51/2 in. ( 4 cm .) Diplo ma tic Recept ion Room s, Department of State. Gift of Alice Harr ison Warwi ck , Virgini a Henley Am eche, and J ohn Edwa rd Warwi ck in mem or y of their m other, M rs. Alice Harrison-Sm ith Warwick (66.97 .1)

54 T eapot, 1760-70 Ga briel Lew yn, Baltim or e Silver, H .: 6 in . (15 .2 cm.) Yale Uni versit y Art Gallery, John M arshall Phillips C ollection (1955.10.4)

55 C ream pot, ca. 1760 Phili p Hul beart, Ph iladelph ia Silver, H .: 4 1/ . in. (10.8 cm .) Ph iladelph ia Mu seum of Art , Giv en by Walter M . Jefford s ('5S- 115- 1)

S lIgm' dish and crcallJ pM, 1760-75 M yer Myers, New York Silver, H .: sug ar dish , 63/. in. (17. 2 crn.), cream pot, 63/. in. (17.2 crn.) Collection of Da vid M . Br inckerho ff, Nel son F. Brin ckerh off, Peter R. Brin ckerh off and Rob er t W. Br inckerh off, and their famili es 57 S ligar dish, 1760-75 Attributed to Jacob Ge rritse Lansing, Alban y, N ew Yo rk Silve r, H .: 4% in. (11.8 cm .) Alb an y Institute of Hi stor y and Art (1949.34.3 a, b)

58 SIIJ?ar dish and (realll pM, 1761-62 Paul Revere, Boston Silver . H .: sugar dish , 6'/2 in. (16.5 cm .), cream pot , 4 3/~i n . (11.1 cm .) M useum of Fine Arts, Boston , Pauline Revere T hayer Co llection (3S.17S I; 3S.17R2)

59 C realll pot, 1755- 70 Samu el Case y, Rhode Island Silve r, H .: 4 in . (10. 2 cm.) Mu seum of Fine Art s, Boston, Gift of Mrs. C ha rles Gas to n Smi th' s Group (,1 9. 765)

60

68

Coffeepot, 1781 Paul Revere, Boston Silver, H. : 127/8 in. (32. 7 cm .) Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, Gift of Mrs. Nathaniel Thayer (J 1.139)

Tankard, 1760-75 John Bayly, Philadelphia Silver, H .: 8 in . (20. 3 cm .) Wadsworth Atheneum , Hartford, Connecticut, Philip H . H am m erslough Collection (1983.497)

61

Coffee pot 011 stand, 1770-80 Richard Humphreys, Philadelphia Silver, H .: pot , 13 % in . (J4 .6 cm .); Diam .: stand, 63/. in . (17.2 cm .) M useum of Fine Arts, Boston, Gift in Memory of Dr. George Clymer by his wife, Mrs . Clymer (56. 589; 56.5(0)

BOII'I, 1750- 70

Philip Syng, j r. . Philadelphia Silver, Diam .: 9 in . (22.9 cm .) Philadelphia M useum of Art , Given by Mr. and Mrs . Walter M . J effords ('59-2-16) 70

62

Bowl, 1755 -70 Richard Van Dy ck, New York Silver , Diam .: 7Ys in . (18.7 cm .) Yale University Art Gall ery , The Mabel Brady Garvan Collectio n (1930.1068)

Coffee pot, ca. 1753 Philip Syng, Jr., Phila delphia Silver, H .: 11 7fs in . (30.2 cm .) Phil adelphia Museum of Art, Purchased : J ohn D . McIlhenny Fund (66- 20- 1)

71

63

Coffee pot, 1760-75 Charles Hall, Lancaster, Penns ylv ani a Silver , H .: 103/. in. (27. 3 cm .) From the Collections of Henry Ford Museum & Gre enfield Village (58. 81.2)

S alve r, ca. 1761 Paul Revere, Boston Silver , Di am .: 13 '18 in . (33. 3 cm .) Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, Gift of Henry Davis Sleep er in memor y o f his mother, M aria Westcote Sleeper (25. 592)

64

72

Coffee pot, 1755 -65 Alex ander Petrie, Charleston Silver , H .: IOYs in . (26.4 cm .) Museum of Early Southern Decorative Arts (3996)

Salver, ca. 1768 M yel' Myers, New York Silver, Diam .: 12 in . (30. 5 cm. ) Collection of Philip Van Rensselaer Van Wyck

65

73

Co.Oee pot, ca. 1754 Joseph Richardson, Ph iladelphia Silver, H .: II in . (27.9 cm. ) The Historical Society of Pennsyl vania, Gift o f Edward C. Gardiner, 1945 (S-6- 22)

Salver, 1765- 70 J oh n H eat h, New York Silver, Diam .: 15'18 in. (38.4 cm .) Winterthur Museum (59.2301)

74 66

Salver, 1754-69 Daniel Chris tian Fueter, New York Silver , Diam .: 155/8 in. (39.7 cm .) The Metropolitan Museum of Art, Bequest of Charles Allen Munn, 1924 (24. 109.37)

Tankard, ca. 1770 M yel' M yers, New York Silver , H .: 63/ . in. (17.2 cm .) Wadsworth Atheneum , H art fo rd , C onnecticut, Philip H . Hamruerslou gr, Collection ( 1\1 l!3.154)

75 67

Salver, ca. 1754 Philip Syng, J r. , Philadelphia Silver, Diam .: 81/ 2 in. (21.6 cm .) T he Hi storical Society of Pennsyl vania, Gift of Edwa rd C. Gard iner, 1945 (S- 6- 21)

Tankard, 1750 -58 Attrib uted to William Bradford, jr., New York Pewter, H. : 7'1" in . (18.1 cm. ) Winterthur Muse um (59. 34)

268

84 Pair of sauceboats, 1770- 80 Richar d Humphreys, Philad elph ia Silve r, H . : 6% in . ( 17.2 cm.) Pr ivat e coll ect ion , co urtesy of th e Ph iladelphia Museum of Art

Ladle, ca. 176 3 Piet er de Riemer, N ew York Silver , L. : 135/s in. (34.6 cm.) Pri vate co llection 85

77 Whistle and bells, 17 55-68 N icho las Roosevelt , N ew Yor k Gold; co ral, H .: 6 1/8 in. ( 15. 6 cm .) T he Metrop olit an Museum of Art, Roger s Fund , 194 7 (47.70)

C ruet stand, 1754- 69 Daniel C hristian Fuerer, N ew York Silver , H . : 10 in . (25. 4 cm.) With silve r casters ma rke d b y Sam uel Wood , London, 17 52-53, and Englis h glass crue ts Historic D eerfield, Inc., D eerfield, Ma ssachu sett s (#6 1-273)

78 Shoe buckle, 1755- 75 M yel' M yers, N ew Yo rk Go ld; stee l, L.: 2% in . (6 cm.); W. : 13/ . in. (4.5 cm.) Yale University Art G aller y, T he M abel Br ad y Ga rva n Collectio n (1936. 166)

86 S nuffc« stand, 17 50- 70 Philip Syng, Jr. , Phil adelphia Silver, L.: 7% in. ( 18.7 cm .) The Metropolitan Museum of Art, Bequ est of C ha rles Allen Munn, 19 24 (24. 109 . 39)

79

Snllff box, 1755- 75

87

Myel' Myers, New York Gold, Diam . : 2318 in . (6 cm.) The Metropolitan Museum of Art, Purchase, Mr. and Mrs. Marshall P. Blankarn Gift , 1966 (66.10 2)

Ale j llg, 1755-75 M yel' M yer s, New York Silver , H .: 113/ . in . (29 .9 cm.) Pri vate collection

80

88

Snuffbo x, 1755-70 Joseph Richardson, Ph iladelphia Silver , L. : 3 in. (7.6 cm.); W.: 2% in. (6 cm .) Pri vate colle ction, co urtesy o f th e Sterling and Francine C lark Art Institute (T R 314/85)

Teak ettle on stand, 1745- 55 J oseph Rich ardson , Philadelphia Silver , H . : 143f. in . (37.5 cm .) Yale Uni versity Art Ga llery , The M abel Brady Garv an Collectio n ( 19 32. 9 3)

81

Basket, 1754- 69 Da niel C hris tian Fueter, N ew York Silver , L. : 147/s in . (37.8 cm .) Museum of Fine Arts, Bost on , Deco rative Arts Special Fund (54 .857)

Picture[rame, Boston, ca. 1765 White pin e, gilded, 29 1/2 x 241/2 in. (74.9 x 62 .2 cm.) With portrait o f Mrs. Ed ward Gr een by J ohn Sing leton Copley The M etropolitan Museum of Art, Purchase, C urtis Fund, 190 8 (08 .1) (Shown o nly in N ew York)

82 Basket, ca. 17 56 M yel' M yer s, N ew Yor k Silver. L. : 141/2 in . (36.8 cm .) T he M et rop olitan Museum of Art, M orris K. J esup Fund, 19 54 (54 . 167)

Fish slice, 1755- 75 M yel' M yers, N ew York Silve r, L. : 141/8 in . (35.9 cm .) Wadsworth Athen eum , Hartford, C o nnec ticut , Ph ilip H . H ammer slou gh Collec tion ( 1983. 181)

90 PictureF aille, Boston, ca. 1767 Wh ite pin e, gilded, 66-% x 47-% in. ( 169.6 X 120. 3 cm .) With portrait of Ni chola s Bo ylston by John Sin glet on Copley The H arvard Univer sit y Portrait Collection, H ar vard Universit y, Ca m b ridge, M assachu sett s, Bequ est o f Ward Ni cholas Bo ylston , 1828 (H 90) 91

Pictureframe , Boston , ca. 1770 White pin e. gilded, 6531. x 60'/ 2 in . (167 X 153.7 cm.) Wi th portrait of Richard Da na by J ohn Sing leton Copley Collection of th e Richard H enr y Da na fam ily

92

100

Frail/ c. Boston. ca. f76 7 White pine. gilded. :q x 24 in . (fif x fil cm.) With th e Williams fami! y arm s embroid ered o n satin Collection o f Mr. and Mrs. Ge or ge M . Kaufm an

Side chair. Boston. 17fi5- 85 Mah o gan y; m aple . w hite pine 37 1/2 x 2 5'1. x 24 in . (9 5.3 x 64.1 x 6 1 cm .) T he C hipsrone Fo undation ( 197 6 .4)

93

101

Chest-an-chest. 17 82

Side chair. England. ca. 17 50

Sign ed and dated b y J ohn Cogswell. Bost on Mahogan y; white pin e. 89'/ 2 x H -% X 23 112 in . (227.3 x 11 3. 7 x 59.7 cm.) Mu seum of Fine Arts . Bo ston . William Fran cis Warden Fund ( 1973 .289)

Mahogan y; beech . 37 '1. x 23 'I. x 19'1. in . (94 .fi x 59. 1 x 48.9 cm.) M useum of Fine Arts. Bo ston. Gift of M rs. J oshu a C rane Sr. in m em or y of her h usband (30 .7 2fi) 102

94

Chest ofdrawers , Salem . ca. 1780 Mah o gan y; white pin e. ceda r 35 x 4 5'1. x 21 in . (88 .9 x "4 .9 x 53 .3 cm. ) Collection of Er ving an d J o yce Wolf (Shown o nly in N ew Yo rk)

Chi,1<1 table, Portsm outh. New H am pshire. 17fi2- 80 M ahog an y; wh ite pine. 28 '1. x 3fi 'l2 x 22-% in . (7 1.8 x <)2 .7 x 5fi.8 cm.) The C arn eg ie Museum of Art . Pittsburgh. Gift o f Richard Kin g Mell on Foundation . 19 72 (7 2.55 .2) 103

95

C hest (~r drawers , Bosto n . 177 5-8 5 M ah o gan y; white pin e. 31'12 x 35 '% (80 x 90.8 x 51.4 cm .) The Di etrich Ameri can Foundation

X

20 '1. in .

Side chair. Bost on. 17fi 5- 8 5 M ah og an y; m ap le. wh ite pin e 38-% x 23% x 21 in . (98. 4 x oo x 53.3 cm. ) The Metrop olit an Museum o f Art . Gi ft of Mrs. Paul Moo re. 1939 (J 9 .88 . I) 97

Side chair. Boston . 17fi S- 85 M ah ogan y; m apl e. 38 x 23-Y. x 22 in . (9fi. 5 x oo. j x 55.9 cm .) The M etropo litan Museum o f Art. Roger s Fund. 1944 (H . 55)

Card table, Boston. '7fi5- 8 5 M ah o gan y; m apl e. 28 x 35 '12 x 18 in . (7 1.1 x 90.2 x 4 5. 7 cm. ) Co llection of Er vin g and Jo yce Wol f (Sho w n o nly in New York )

99 SC IICC . Bost on . 17fi5- 8 5 M ah o gan y; m apl e. ceda r. birch. white pine 3fi-% x 57 '12 x 2fi in. (<) 2 .4 x q fi.1 x (,(j cm .) The M etrop olitan Museum of Art. T he Sy lmaris Collec tio n. G ift o f Geo rge Coe G raves . 19 30 (.1 0 . 120.5<))

Picture[mnic, 17fil -ri z Steph en Dwight. N ew York Wh ite pine . gilded . SZY. x 40 in . ( 134 x 101.6 cm.) With portrait ofJ am es Beekman by Lawrence Kilburn The N ew -York H isto rical Society. N ew Yor k; Gift of the Beekman Family Association ( 1962. 64) 103 a Pictuvcframc, 17fil-fi2 Step hen D wi ght . New York White pine. gilded. 52'% x 3<)7/" in . ( 134 x 101.3 cm .) With portra it o f Jan e Beek m an by Law rence Kilburn The New-Yo rk His torical Society. New York; Gift of the Beekman Famil y Association ( 19fi2. fi5) 104

Picturciramc, En gland. ca. 17fiO Red pine . g ilded . 54 '1. x 4 5-% in . ( 137.8 x uo .z cm.) With portrait of Abr aham Beekman att ributed to Lawren ce Ki lburn The N ew - York Hi sto rical Society. New York; Gift of the Beekman Family Asso ciati on ( 19fi2 .6fi) 1°5

PictureFall/C. 17fi7 J ames Strachan. N ew York White pin e. gilde d. 4 3'/ 2 x 35 Y2 ill . ( 110. 5 X 90 .2 cm .) With portrait of J am es Beekman . jr., by John Durand The N ew-York Hi storical Soc iety. New York; G ift of the Beekman Fami ly Asso ciat ion ( 19fi2 71)

106

113

T e,1table. N ew York . 1700-75 M ah o g an y. H. : 2'.1 in. (73. 7 cm .) : Di am . : 2'.1 in . (73.7 cm .) The C hips ro ne Foundati on ( lljOS.3)

Anncliair, N ew York . ca. 1775

M ah o gan y; red oa k. sweet gu m .19'/~ x 30 x 23'/2 in. (100·3 x 70.2 x 5'J.7 cm .) T he M er ropoliran Museum o f Art. Bequ est of Barba ra Br adle y Mani ce, IljS4 ( lljS4. 2S7)

107

T e<1 table. N cw York. 1700-75 M ah og an y. H. : 2'.1 in. (73·7 crn .): Diam .: 45'% in . ( 115.3 cm.) Th e N ati on al Societ y o f Colo n ial Dam es in the Stat e of N ew York; Van C or tla nd t H ou se (VC IljSS.O) lO S

II4

Pictuvcfrainc. Char leston . ca. 1700 White pine, gilded and pain ted ol Y, x 51% in. ( 155.'.1 x 131.1 cm .) With portrai t of Barnard Elliott. jr.. b y j er emiah Th eu s Gibbes Museum o f Art (j o. I. 7)

C /rd table, Ne w York . 1705-75

M ah o gan y; tulip poplar. pin e 20 % x H V, x .13V~ in. (oS x SO.7 x S4.5 cm.) Collectio n o f Mrs. Murray Br aunfeld, Co u rtesy o f th e Los An g eles Cou n ry Museum of Art (Sho w n o nly in Los An geles)

liS

Picturc jnunc . C harle sto n. ca. 1707 Cy p ress , gild ed. 37 x 32 in . ('.14 x SI.3 cm .) With portrait of Mrs. j ohn Beale b y j ohn Wolla ston Museum o f Earl y Southern D ecor ati ve Arts. Gift of Mrs . jan M end all (3050)

10 Sa

ClI'd table, N ew York . 1705- 75 M ah o gan y; tulip poplar. pine 26Y. x H x 33% in . (oS x SO.4 x S4.S cm.) The N ew-York Hi st ori cal So ciet y. N ew Yor k: Gift o f th e Beekman Famil y Asso ciati on ( lljo2.ol a) (Sho w n o nly in N ew York )

116

Xlcinoriat to LId)' Allllc 1\ 1111'1'(1)'. C ha rlesto n. 17oS- 72 Whi tc pin e. m arbleized 7 3 V~ x 51V. in . ( ISo.7 x 130.2 cm .) First Scots Presb yterian C h urc h . C ha rles ton II7

10 9

Card table, N ew York. 170 5- 70 M ah o gan y; tulip poplar . white oa k. w hite pin e 27% x 35 x 17Y. in . (70 .S x SS.lj x 45.1 cm .) The M etropolitan Museum o f Art. Purch ase. J os eph Pulitzer Bequest. 1'.14 7 (47· 35) 110

Desk <111.1 booucasc, Ne w York. 1755- 00 M ah o g an y; tul ip popl ar . ljlj l/~ x 4 5 '/~ x 25 in . (252.7 x " 5.0 x 03 .5 cm .) The C h ips to nc Foundati on ( 1'.1'.1 1. 5) III

Citcst cfdrau-cvs . New York. 1755-0 5 M ah o g an y; tulip popla r. 33 x 35 '/~ x 20'% in . (S3. S x '.10.2 x 52. 7 cm. ) Winterthur Museum (54.So) 112

Side chair, N ew York. 1705- 75 M ah o g an y; sweet g u m . 3S% x 2 4 V~ x 2 2 V~ in . (ljS·7 x M.I x 50.5 cm .) The Metropolitan M useum of Art. Purch ase. Th e Sylmaris Collectio n . G ift o f Geo rg e C Ol' Gr aves. b y exc hange. 1'.1 57 (57. 15S. I)

Tea tabic. Williamsburg. 1755- 70 M ah o gany. H . : 2S,% in . (73 cm .): Di arn . : .127/ , in . (S3.5 cm .) Ro bert E. Lee M em orial Association. lnc., Str atford H all Plantat ion (G. llj5lj.l) liS

Tea tabic, Charleston. 1755- 70 Mah o gany. H . : 2S in . (71.1 cm .) : Di arn . : 3 1 V~ in . (7'.1 .4 cm. ) Mu seum of Early Southern Decorati ve Arts (2ISI) 119

C h ina table, Willi am sburg. 1700-75 M ahog an y. 30'/, x 30'% x 23 V~ in . (70. 5 x '.12.4 x 5'.1. 1 cm .) T he Colonial Williamsburg Foundati on (G I<)SO-<) 5) 120

C h ina tabi«, Williamsburg . ca. 1775 M aho gan y. 31V~ x 30 x 221/~ in . (So x <) 1.4 x 50.5 cm .) Collection of Mr. and Mrs. George M . Kaufm an 121

Pcnilwol:« table, Charl eston. 1770- 75 Mah o g an y: ash. 2'.1 x . (2 x 20 in . (73.7 x 100.7 x 00 cm. ) The C ha rlesto n Museum. C ha rles ton . South Ca ro lina ( 1<) 52.27)

122

Easy chair, C harleston, 176 5- 75 Mahogany; cypress, 48 1/2 x 37 X (123.2 x 94 x 81.9 cm .) Win terthur Mu seum (60.1058)

129

)2'/"

Slab table, Phil adelphia, 1765- 75 Mahogan y, m arbl e; pin e ]2 x 54 x 27 in. (81.3 x 137.2 x 68.6 cm.) Mus eum of Art , Rh ode Island School of Design , Bequ est of Charles L. Pendl eton (04.008)

in.

123

130

Masonic master's chair, Williams burg, 1767- 75 Stamped w ith the signature of Benj am in Bu cktrout Mahogan y; waln ut, 65'/2 x 31'I.. X 29 '12 in. (166.4 x 79·4 x 74.9 cm .) T he Co lonia l William sburg Foundation (1983- 317)

Slab table, Phil adelphia, ca. 1770 Mahogan y, m arbl e; yello w pine, wa ln ut )23/ 8 x 48'1.. x 23'1.. in . (82.2 x 122.6 X 59.1 cm .) The Met rop olit an Mus eum of Art , John Stew art Kennedy Fund, 191 8 ( 18.110.27)

124

131

Picture frame, 1770-71 Jam es Reynolds, Phi ladelphia White pine, gilded, 60 x 50 in . ( 152.4 x 127 cm .) With portrait of Lam bert Cadwalader b y C harles Willson Peale Philadelphi a Mu seum o f Art, Ca d wa lader Collection, Pur chased wi th funds co nt ributed b y The Pew Mem ori al Trust and gift of an ano ny mo us don or (1983- 90- 4)

Card table, Phil adelphi a, 1765- 75 Mahogan y; northern w hite cedar, w hite oa k 27% x 34 x]2% in . (69. 5 x 86.4 x 83.2 cm .) Winterthur Mus eum (60.1°59)

132 Card table, Philadelphia, 1765- 75 Mahogan y; yello w popl ar 29 '12 x 34 '12 x 17 in. (74.9 x 87.6 x 43.2 cm.) Co llection of Geo rge G. Me ade Easby, On loan to Dipl omatic Reception Rooms, Depart ment of State (Sho wn only in New York)

125

Picture frame, 177 2 Prob ably b y Jam es Reynolds, Phil adelphia White pine , gilded, 60 x 50 in. (152.4 x 127 cm.) With po rtrait of th e John Ca dwa lade r fam ily by C harles Willson Peale Phil adelphia Mus eum o f Art, C adwa lader Collection, Pur chased with fund s cont ributed by T he Pew Mem or ial Trust and gift of an anonymous do no r (1983-90-3)

133 T ea table, Phil adelphia, 1765- 75 Mahogan y, H .: 28 '1.. in . (71.8 cm.) Diam .: 353/8 in . (89.9 cm.) The Dietri ch Am erican Foundation

126

Looking-glassframe, Philadel phia, ca. 1775 With the printed label of John Elliott White pine, paint ed; northern w hite ceda r 48 x 26 in . (121.9 x 66 cm .) T he Metrop olit an Mu seum of Art , Purchase, Friend s of the Am erican Wing Fun d and M ax H . Gluck Foundation Gift, 1990 (1990.18)

134

T ea table, Phil adelphia, 1765- 75 M ahogan y, H .: 27 '12 in . (69.9 cm .) Diam.: 33% in. (84.8 cm .) The Metr op olitan Mu seum o f Art , Rogers Fund , 1925 (25.II5. 31)

12 7

135

Lookillg-glassframe, 1772 Prob ably by Jam es Reyn olds, Phil adelphia Whit e pine, paint ed, 78 x 42 in. ( 198. 1 x 106.7 cm .) Co llection of Cl iveden , a co-s tewa rdship pr op ert y o f the N ational Trust for Hi stori c Pre servation (NT 73.55 .22 [I]) (Sho wn only in N ew York)

Tea table, Phil adelph ia, ca. 1775 Mahogany, painted iron ; tulip popl ar 273/.. x 30'1.. x 20'1.. in . (70.5 x 76.8 x 51.4 cm .) Priv ate collection 13 6

High chest, Phil adelph ia, 1765- 75 Am erican black wa lnut; yellow popl ar , Atl anti c white ceda r, sout hern yellow pine, 96% x 45'12 x 23% in . (245.8 x II5.6 x 60 cm .) Yale Uni versit y Art Gallery, The M abel Brad y Garvan Collectio n (1930.2000)

128

Wall bracket, Ph iladelphia, 1765- 75 White pine, paint ed, 16'1.. x 127/ 8 x 5'12 in. (41.3 x ]2.7 x 14 cm .) Winterthur Museum (58.2242)

272

137

14S

High chest, Philadelphia , [765-75 Ma hogany; tulip po plar , whi te cedar, yellow pin e 901/-1 x 45% X 251/2 in . (229.2 x [[5.9 x 64.8 cm .) Wi nte rt hur M useum (58. 592)

Finial bust ofj ohn Milt on Phil adelphia, 1765- 75 M aho gan y, H . : I21/-I in . (JI.I cm .) From a desk and book case Pri vat e collection (Sho w n o nly in N ew Yo rk)

138 High chest, Philade lphia, [762- 75 M ahogan y; tuli p po plar , w hite cedar . yellow pin e 91-% x 44% x 24% in. (233. [ x 11 3.4 x 62.6 cm .) T he M et ro pol itan Museum of Art, J ohn Stewa rt Ken nedy Fund, [918 ([8. [10.4)

Finial bust of a YOl/ng mal/ Philadelphia , 1765- 75 M ahogan y, H. : 8'/2 in . (21.6 cm .) From a desk and book case Pri vate collectio n

139 Shietd finia', Phil adelp hia, [760-65 M ahogan y, H .: [[ -% in . (28.9 cm .) Fro m a high chest Phi ladelphia Museum of Ar t, M embersh ip Fund from C. H art m an Kuhn ('23 -58- 1)

147 Side chair, Phil adelph ia, 1760-70 M ahogan y; ceda r, 39% x 251/2 x 201/2 in . (101 x 64.8 X 52.1 cm. ) The Di etri ch Am eri can Foundation

140

148

Scroll [ inial, Phil adelph ia, 1760-70 M ah ogan y, H . : 14-% in . (37. 5 cm .) From a des k and book case Phil adelphia Museum of Art, Given by Geo rge Lorimer (' 29- [78- [)

S ide chair, Phil adelphia, 1765-75 M aho gan y; Atlantic w hi te cedar, yellow pine 38 x 217/8 x 211/2 in . (96.5 x 55.6 x 54.6 cm .) The M etropolitan Museum of Art, Bequest of W. Gedney Beatty and Rogers Fund , b y exchan ge, 1951 (51.140)

141 149

Basket[inia i, Ph iladelphia, [765- 75 Mahogan y, H .: [ ]'% in . (J 4.9 cm .) From a ches t-on-c hes r Phi ladelphia Museum of Art, Purchased: The Elizabeth S. Shippen Fund (' 26- [9- [)

Easy chair, Ph iladelph ia, 1765- 70 M ahogan y; w hite oak , 45'/-1 x 243/8 x 28 in . ( JL~ .9 x 61.9 x 71.1 cm .) Phil adelphia Museu m of Art, Purchased, Museum Fund (' 29-8 1- 2)

142 ISO

Um [inial , Philadelphia, 1765-75 M ah ogan y, H . : 91/-1 in . (23.5 cm .) From a desk and book case Wint erthur Museum (G. 56. 103.2)

Sofa, Phil adelphia, 1763-71 M ahogan y; tulip pop lar, oak 397/8 x 90-% x 311/2 in . (101.3 x 229.6 x 80 cm.) Collection o f C live de n, a co-s tewardship property of the N ation al Trust for Hi stor ic Preservati on (N T 83.17)

143 B ird fi nial, 1770- 7 5

lSI

Probabl y b y J am es Reyn old s, Ph iladelphia M ahogan y, H .: 121/2 in . (31.8 cm.) Fro m a ches t-o n-c hest The M et ropolitan Museum of Art, Purchase, Friends of th e American W ing and Roger s Funds; Vir gini a G roome s Gift, in m emory of M ar y W. Groomes; and Mr. and Mrs. Frederick M . D anziger , Herman M er kin , and Anon ym ou s Gift s, 1975 (1975.9 1)

A rmchair, Phi ladelphia, 1765- 75 M ahog any ; w hite oa k , 403/-1 x 293/-1 X 291/2 in . (103.5 x 75.6 x 74.9 cm .) Collectio n of Mrs. Murray Braunfeld, Promised Gift to th e Los Angeles County M useum of Art IS2

Arm chair, Phil adelphia, 1765-75 M ahogan y; w hite oak, 43 x 28'/-1 x 30 in. (109.2 x 71.8 X 76.2 cm. ) T he Metrop ol itan Museum of Art, Purchase, Mrs . Ru ssell Sage and Rob ert G. Goelet Gifts; T he Sylmar is Collection , Gift of Geor ge Coe Gra ves; and fund s from var ious donor s, 1959 (59. [54)

144 Finial bust of j otn: Locke Ph iladel phi a, 1765- 75 M ahogan y, H . : 101/2 in. (26.7 cm. ) From a des k and boo kcase Bern ard and S. D ean Levy, Inc.

273

153

159

Easy chair, 1770 T ho mas Affl eck, Philad elphia M aho gan y; ye llo w pi ne, Atl antic w hi te ceda r, black w alnut , tu lip po plar , 45 x 36 Vz x 34 in. (114.3 x 92.7 x 86. 4 cm.) Collect io n of H. Ri chard Di etrich , Jr.

Fireback, ca. 1770 Batst o Furnace, Burlin g ton Cou nty. N ew Jersey Cas t iron , 26 3/4 x 22 V4 in . (68 x 56.5 cm. ) N ew Jer sey State M useum (75 .99 . 1)

154

Six-plate stol'e, 1772 M ark Bir d , H opewell Furnace, Ber ks County , Penn sylvania Ca st iron , 35 x 41 x 18 in . (88.9 x 104.1 x 45.7 cm .) Birdsb o ro Co m m un ity M emorial C en ter, Bir dsbo ro , Pen nsyl van ia, on loan to Hopewell Furnace N ati on al Hi stori c Site

160 Pair of card tables, 1771 T homas Affl eck, Philad elph ia M ah o gan y; yello w pine, white oa k, popl ar 283f4 x 39% x 19% in . (73 x 101 x 50.2 cm.) Th e Di etri ch Am eri can Foundati on (8.3.2778); T he Ph iladelphia Museum o f Art , T he Ca d w alader C ollectio n, Purch ased w ith funds contributed b y The Pew Memorial Trust ( 1984-6- 1)

161 Front plate Irom a Franklin stoFe, 1772 M ark Bird, H opewell Furnace, Berks Co unty , Penn sylvania Cast iron, 15 x31 V4in . (J8 . 1 x79. 4cm.) T he Hi storical Socie ty o f Penns yl van ia (X - I37)

ISS Side chair, ca . 1770 T ho mas A ffleck , Philad elphia M aho gan y; northern w h ite ceda r 37 x 24Vz x 23 in. (94 x 62 .2 x 58.4 cm .) T he M et ropol it an M useum of A rt, P ur ch ase, Sans b u ry- M ills and Ro ger s Fu nd s; Emil y C. C ha dbou rne G ift; Virginia Groomes Gi ft , in m em ory of M ar y W. Groomes; M r. and Mrs. M ar shall P. Blankarn ; J o hn Bier with and Robert G . Goelet Gi fts; T he Syl maris Collec tio n, Gift of George Coe G raves, by exc hange; Mrs. Ru ssell Sage , by exc hange; and funds from va rious do nors, 1974 ( 1974.325)

162 Side platefrom a six- plate stoFe, ca . 1770 Attributed to M arl bo ro Furnace, W inc hes ter. Virginia Cast iron , 22 x 27V. in . (55.9 x 69.2 cm .) Pri vate co llec tio n

Tell-plate stoFe, 1769 H enry W illiam Stiege l, Eliza be th Furnace Lan cast er Cou nty, Pen nsyl van ia Cas t iron, 63 V4 x 44 V4 x 15 in . ( 160.7 x li L t x 38. 1 cm .) H er sh ey Museum (757. 12)

Fire screen, 1771 Thomas Affl eck , Ph iladelphia Ca rv ing p robabl y b y Bernard and Ju g iez M ah o gan y; cros s-s titch needl ew ork 62 7/ 8 x 21 in. ( 159.7 x 53.3 cm.) The Metropolitan Museum of Art , Gi fts and funds from va rio us d on ors, b y excha nge, 1949 (49 .5 1); En glish em b ro ide red pan el, Ro gers Fu nd, 19 52 (52. 167)

164 S ide platefor a ten-plate StO FC , ca. 1772 Jam es Old , Readin g Furnace, Berks Coun ty, Pennsylvani a C ast iron , 23 x 30 in . (58 .4 x 76.2 cm .) T he State Museum o f Pennsylv an ia, Penns yl vania Hi st ori cal and Museum Com m ission (09.2.3 13 )

157

165

Fireback, M assachuset ts, ca. 1768 Jam es Ruseles, retaile r Cas t iron, 29 x 26 in . (73. 7 x 66 cm .) M ar blehead H istorical Society; J erem iah Lee M an sion

Side-plate pauernfor t1 ten-plate stoFe, 1785- 95 Bat sto Fu rn ace, Bu rlin g ton Co unty, N ew J er sey M aho gan y, 26 x 33 in . (66 x 83.8 cm .) Burlin gt on County H ist orical So ciet y (34.6)

166

Fire/Jack. ca. 1774 Aetna Furnace, Burlington County, New Jersey Cas t iron, 31Vz x 30 in . (80 x 76.2 cm .) Winterthur M use um (58. 2750)

Goblet, 1773-74 Attributed to H enry W illiam Stiege l Ameri can Flint Glass M anu factory, M anh eim , Penn sylvan ia Eng rav ing att rib u ted to Lazaru s Isaac Glass, H . : 6% in. ( 17.2 cm .) The Corn ing Museum o f Gl ass, Part g ift o f Rol and C. and Sara h Kath er yn Luther, Rol and C. Luther III, Edwin C. Luther III, and Ann Luther D exter (87 .4.55)

27 4

Covered tu mbler, 17XX Joh n Frederi ck Amelung. N ew Brem en Glassma nufac to ry Frederi ck County. M ar yland Glass . H .: 11 7/ M in . (JO.2 cm .) T he Co rn ing Museum of Glass (5S.4·37) 168

Goble t, ca. 17'.) 2

John Fred eri ck Amelun g. Ne w Bremen Glassm anufa ctory Fred eri ck County. M ar yland Glass . H . : (,-Y. in. (17. 2 cm .) Collection o f Mr s. Graham John Barbey , C our tesy of the Mar yland H isto rical Societ y (D EP. 337)

Sa llccbotlt. 1770-72

Go usse Bon nin an d G eor ge Morris Am eri can C hina M anu factor y. Philadelphia Por celain. H . : 4 in . ( 10.2 cm. ) T he Bro ok lyn Mu seum. Di ck S. Ram say Fund (42.412)

170 Sall ccboat. ca. 1770

Pro babl y Plym outh Factory. Plym outh. Engl and Po rcelain. H . : 4V. in . ( 10.8 cm. ) Collectio n Hi gh M useum of Art. Atl ant a; Fran ces and Em or y Cocke Collec tion ( I'.)X S.I(,4)

Baslect, 1770 - 72 Go usse Bonnin and Ge or ge M orris Am eri can C hina M anufactory , Phil adelphia Por celain. Di am . : 5% in . ( 14. ') crn .) Collection o f Eri c N oah

172 Pickle stand. 1770- 72 Go usse Bonnin and Geo rge M orris Am eri can C hina M anu factor y. Phi ladelphia Po rcelain. H . : S% in . (14.3 cm .) The M et rop olitan Museum of Art. Friend s o f th e Am er ican Win g Fund. 1')'.)0 (1'.)'.)0.1'.))

173 Pickle stand, 1770-72 Go usse Bonnin and Geo rge M orris Am er ican C hi na M anu fact or y. Phil adelphia Po rcelain. H .: SVMin . (13 cm. ) Co llection of Mr. and Mrs . Ge or ge M . Kau fm an

275

Index Italic numerals refer to supplementary illustrat ions . Quest ion m ark s after m aker 's nam es den ot e att ribut io ns .

A Ad am . Rob ert , 4 Ad am s, J oh n, 18. 137 adve rtisements : as documentat io n fo r fu rnirurema kers, 153, 154 , 159, 161. 166 , 168, 182, 183, 184 , 185; as docu m entatio n for silversm iths , 9 , 74 , 76 , 77. 7 8, 91, 104 , 107: (D uyckinck), 46 ; Fig. 24; (Sm ither), 39 , 183; N os. 32, 33 ; see also broadsi des; tr ade car ds Aet na Fu rn ace, Burlingt o n County, N ew Jersey, 220, 222; chi m neybacks pro duced by, 220 , 22 2; N o . 158 Affleck , Tho m as, 183 , 184 , 20 5, 214: card tables by, 214; N o . 154 ; easy chai r by, 214; N o . 153; fire scree ns b y, 197, 217; N o . 156; parl or suite b y, 184 , 191, 214, 217, 239; Nos. 153- 156; sid e cha irs by, 214: N o . 155; sofas by. 2 4 Aitken , Rob ert, 4 7; Lectures 0 / 1 Rh etoric and Belles Lettres: back co ver of, N o. 24; bookbinding of, 47 Aitken Bibl e, 4 7 Alb any: archi tec tural de corati on fro m , 22, 23, 25; silve r produ ced in , 7 3, 88 , 92 -93 ale j ug (M yers), 76, 106, 127 ; N o . 87 Alexand er , William (earl of Ste rling), 54 Am elung, Carolina Lucia, 232 Am elung, J ohn Fred eri ck , 229, 23 I. 232, 239 ; see also N ew Brem en Glassmanufactor y Am erican China M anufactory, Philadel phia. 2]4 . 236 . 239 : basket produced by, 236, 239; N o. 171: pickle stands pr oduced by, 239; .218; Nos . 172 , 173: sauceboa t produced by , 7. 236; No. 169 Am eri can Flint Glass M anu fact o ry. Phil adelphia, II, 229-3 0 , 23 I : goble t pr oduced by, 230, 23 I ; N o . 166 ; table glass produ ced b y, 229-3 I : No. 166 Am eri can Re volutio n , 62, 103; Boston 's role in , 134 ; effect o n Am eri can rococo

of. 11-1 2, 78; events leading to , 10, II , 208 ; New York 's ro le in , 9 ; nonimportat ion ag ree me nts pr ecedin g, 10- I I, 71; Paul Rever e and , 39 andiro ns (King), 185 Ann apolis. M ar yland . 29 ; architectura l decor ation from , 29, 31; silver prod uce d in. 7 3, 101, 10 3 Annesley, Arthur, coffee pot by, 7 , 71, 99 , 129 ; N o . 46 Apthorp, C ha rles, 18. 143 Apthorp, C harles Ward , 22; house of, New York C ity . 22 Apthorp, East, 18, 22 ; house of, Cambridge. 18,20,21, 135; Fig . 5 architectura l carving, de cor ation , and o rna me nt, 12, 17-1 8. 20 ,3 5, 135, 153-54, 156 , 214: archways, 17; Fig . 10: ceiling s. 17, 23, 28. 29, 35 , 175; Fig . 23 ; chim ney bre ast. 23: N o . II: chim neyp ieces. 18, 20 , 21, 22-23. 26, 28, 29 , 31.35 : Figs. 5. 6 . 8.9, 12, 13. 15. 19 , 22; in churc hes, 17, 20. 22, 25, 3 5, 172 ; N o. 11 6; Fig . I I ; do orfram es, 29 , 3 I ; Fig . 16: Eng lish application of, 18; fireplaces, 17; firepl ace w all, 28; Fig . 14; parl or wall, 32; Fig . 21; staircases, 17, 18, 21; Fig. 7 ; in stuc co, 17, 28, 29, 35, 17 5

Architectural Remembrancer (M o rris), 35 archi tecture , 5, 6, 17- 35 archways, 17 arm cha irs, 16 5. 167, 213: Nos . 113, 151 , 152: Fig . 39; (Willett). 155 arm s of the Flower family, em broide ry (Flo w er. E.). 13; N o . 10 Atsion Ironworks. N ew Jers ey, 220 Austin , W., 20 Av er y, J ohn, 69 ; clock dial eng raved by, 69: N o . 4 5

B Badl am , Stephen , 136 ; chest-an-c hest by, 136 , 137, 144

Baltimor e, silve r produ ced in , 73, 87 Barnpron , William , 29 Barett i, 137 Bartl ett . Levi . 52 basket finial. 204; N o . 141 basket s. po rcelain , 236 ; (Am erican C hina M anu factor y), 236 . 239: N o . 171 basket s. silver. 11 5. 121; (Fueter). 76, 121. 122, 123. 127: 121 : N o . 81; (Larn erie), 121 ; (M yers). 4 . 75. 122-2 3, 124; N o. 82 Batst o Furn ace. N ew Jer sey. 222, 228; chim ney bac k prod uced by, 222; No. 159 ; stove plates produ ced by. 222;

w ooden pattern, used for stove-pla te casting by. 228; N o . 16 5 Bayard, J ohn Bubcnheim . 87 Bayl y, John , 107; tan kard m arked by. 10 7: N o . 68 Beale , John , 172; portrait of (Wollasto n) . 170 . 172

Beale. Mrs. John , 172: portrait of (Wo llasto n). 170, 172; N o . 115 Beau. John Anthony. 76 beds teads, 159 , 165; Fig . 38: (Elfe), 169 Beekman, Abraham. 156; portrait of (Kilbu rn) . 7 . 156 ; No. 104 Beekman, J am es, 23, 155, 156; carriages owned by, 155; furniture o w ned by. 155, 161: Nos . 10 3, 105; hou ses of, N ew York City. 22. 23, 155, 156; N o. II : portrait of (Kilburn) . 155. 156; N o . 10 3: portraits of th e chi ld ren of (D urand). 156; sil ver owned by. 109. 129. 155 Beckman , J ames, Jr., portrait of (D ura nd), 156; N o . 105 Beekman . J ames William , 161 Beekman , J ane , 155; portrait o f (Kilburn) . 155, 156

Beekman famil y, 9 ; portraits of, 155. 156 Bell. Robert, 6. 183 Bennett and Dixon . N ew York C ity. 76 Bernard, Nichola s, 184 ; see also Bern ar d and Jugiez Bern ard and Jugiez, Phi ladelphia. 26-28, 183- 84 , 185. 220; architec tural carv ing by. 214; chimneyb ack patt ern by. 220 . 22 5; fire screens by, 197; N o. 156 ; loo king- glass frames by. 187; portrait bu sts by. 205; side chair by (?). 209 ; N o . 147; tea table by (?), 196-97; No . 133 Bethlehem , Penns ylvani a. 59; plan for th e tra ct of (H oeger?), 59; N o . 37 Biddle, Mary, 63 bill heads, 5, 37, 49 , 52, 84; Fig. 25 Billings, Andrew, 42, 57; co pper plate for bookplate b y, 5, 4 2; N o . 19 Bird, M ark, jr'., 22 3. 22 7; see also Hopewell Furnace bird finials, 190 , 204- 5; N o. 143 Blackburn. Joseph. 137 Blackwell . Rob ert , 28; hou se of, Phi ladelphia, 28 ; Fig. 13 Blair . Hu gh . book by : Le ctures 011 Rhetoric and Belles Lettres, .p Blatt, J ohn, 35 blu e- and -white ori ental por celain , 236 Bonnin, Gousse, 234 . 236. 239 : see also Am eri can China Manufactory Bonnin and Morris, Phil ad elphia. 1I , 234 . 236, 239; see also American C hina M anufactory bookbindings, 47: N o . 24

boo kca ses, 183; (B rig h t), 137; (E lfe), 169 Book of Shicids (Lock), 37, 204 boo kp lates, 5, 37, 40, 42, 45, 84, 96, 110; (Bi llings), co p pe r pl at e for, 5, 42; N o . 19; (Dawkins) , 39 , 40 , 42, 45; N os . 18, 22; (Ga llau de t), 42, 4 5; N o. 20; (H ur d, N .), 3 g , 40 , 42, 50; N o . 14; (Joh ns to n), 38, 40; No . 15; (Revere), 39, 40; N os. 16, 17; (T u rner), 7, 40, 45; N o. 21 Bos ton , 9, 18, 153; case furniture from , 136, 137, 143-4 5, 147; cha irs from, 133, 135, 147, 15I ; co m merc ial ties to Ph ilad elphia o f, 182; declinin g prosperity of, 74-75, 134; d ominan ce of, 134; eng raving in , 37-39, 40 , 42, 46 , 49-5 2, 59; furnitur e ca rvers immigratin g to , 134; furniture imp orted to, 135; furniture p rodu ced in, 9, 134- 52; n onimportat ion agreemen ts p assed in, 10- 1I , 134; pi cture fr am es produ ced in , 135, 13738, 142; populati on o f, 182; rol e in Am eri can Revolution of, 134; silver produ ced in , 71, 73 , 74-75, 77, 84- 85, 87, 96, 105, 106 Boston M arine So ciety , 57; ce rt ifica te o f m embership in (Ca llen d er) , 57-58; N o. 35 Boston Tea P arty , 11, 9 5 Bouquet , H enry , 64 Bo w , En gl and, po rcel ain produ ced at , 234, 23 6 , 239 Bowen , Nathan , 136 bowls, 108-9; (Sy ng), 108; N o. 69; (Van D yck ), 109; No . 70 Bowm an , j on athan , 135 Bo yl ston, Mrs. T ho mas , portrait of (C o pley), 138; Fig . 34 Bo yl ston , Ni ch ol as, 137; portrait o f (Co pley), 138; N o . 90 Bradford, Andrew , 46 Br adford, William, 46 Br adford , Will iam , jr. , 107; tankard attributed to , 107; N o . 67 Br ash er, Ephraim, 76, 129, 131; te a urn m arked b y , 129; Fig . 31 breakfast tables, see pembrok e tables Br eck , Willi am . .17; tr ad e ca rd of (R eve re) , 37 Br ewood, Benjamin, II , co ffee pot m arked b y, 75, 99, 104; Fig . 20 Br ewton, Miles, house o f, Charleston , 35; Fig . 23 Bri ce, james, 29; h ous e of, Annapolis , 29; Fig. 15 Bri ght, G eorge, 136; chairs by, 135 Brinck erh off, Abraham , 92; portrait of (Stua rt), 91 Brinck erh off, D orothea Remsen , 92 ; portrait of (T ru m b u ll) , 92

Brinner, john, 154

British Architect: Or, the Builder's T reasury of S tair-C ases, Th e (Swan), 6, 18, 21, 29,3 1, 32, 183; eng rav ing fr om, N O. 3; co py afte r (No rma n), 6, 68; N O.4 broadsides , 6, 46, 89, 183; N O. 5 Brooks, Peter C hardon, 57-58 Bro wn, Ni ch ol as, & Co m pa ny, P ro vidence, 50; order bl ank o f (H urd, N .), 50; N o . 26 Bu ckl and, William, 18, 29, 31, 32 Bu cktrout, Benjamin , 106, 107, 180; M ason ic m ast er's cha ir b y , 31, 166, 180-81; No. 123 Bu ell , Abel , 58, 64; map o f U nited Sta tes eng raved b y, 59, 64; N o . 42; writing ce rtifica te en graved b y , 58, 64; 36; N o . 36 Burbeck , Edward, 20 Burlin g , Thomas, 154, 155; ches ts b y , 162; lin en presses by , 162; tea tabl es b y , 159 Burnap , D an iel , 68; di al o f chime clo ck b y , 66 , 68; N o. 44 Burnet, j ohn, 42; b ookpl ate o f (Dawkins), 39, 42; N o. 18 Burnett, H enry , 35 butter boats (Revere) , 83; N o. 49 buttons, II 5, 119 B yrd, William, 31, 124; pl antation of, Westo ver, near Willi amsburg, 31, 175 Byrd, William , III , 17 5; tabl e o f, N o. II9 B yrd famil y, 121, 175

c Cabinet and C hair-M aker '.I R eal Friend and Companion, Th e (M anwa ring), 3, 135, 137, 147, 105; desi gn for a " Parlo ur" cha ir from, Fig . 36 cab in etm ak ing , see furniture (furn itu re ma ki ng) C ad w alader , Ann e, portrait of (Peale), 186; N o. 125 C ad walade r, Eliz ab eth Lloyd, 80, 185; portrait of (Peale), 186; No . 125 C ad wa lad er, john : account books o f, 15; furniture of, 28 , 183, 184, 185 , 189, 19192 , 197, 214, 217; 132; Nos . 124, 125, 130, 153-1 56; furniture of, sec ur ed, during the Re volution , 9; house of, Philadelphia, 214, 217 (arc h itec tural car ving for , 183, 214, 239 ; renovations to, 28, 184, 185); in ven tory taken after the death of, 217; marriage of, 80; orders from London plac ed b y, 185; parlor suite o rdered by, 184, 185, 191 , 214, 217, 239; Nos. 15 3-1 56; as patron , 185; porcelain owned b y, 239 ; portrait

277

of (Peale), 186, 217; No. 125; portrai ts of fami ly commissioned by (Peale), 186, 217; Nos. 124, 125; silver owned by, 80, 99, 104, 117, 126 Cadwalader, Lambert, 186; portrait of (Pea le), 186; No . 124 Ca dwalader, Ma rtha, 186; portrait of (Pea le), 186 Cadwalader, M rs. Thomas, 186; p ort rait of (Peale), 186 Cadwa lader, Thomas , 186; portrait of (Pea le), 186 cake bas kets, see baskets, silve r Ca llender, joseph, 58; cer tifica te engraved b y, 57-58; NO·3 5 Ca mbridge, Massachusetts, architectu ra l decora tion from, 17, 18, 20 calms, 105, 106, 127; (Myers) , 122 ; (Revere), 83, 106; No. 49; (Syng), 109 capitol chair (Wilson?), 167, 168; Fig. 39 card tables, 147, 155, 161, 165, 194- 9 5, 217; Nos. 98, 108, 109, 131, 132; (Affleck), 214; No . 154; (Cox) , 161; (Pr ince), 161; (Wi llett), 16 1 Ca rroll, C harles, Barrister, 88, 92 , 104 Carter, Robe rt, 95, 166 cartouches: on bookplates, 40, 42, 45; on book title page, 47; in clock dial, 69; design for (Copland), 2, 45; Fig . 3; on finials, 204; o n firearms, 12, 13; o n gold, 119; o n maps, 37, 38, 50, 59, 61, 62, 63, 64; on pewter , 107; on printed ep hemera, 37, 54; as sig na ture m oti f o f rococo style in A m eri ca , 84; o n silve r o bjects , 72 , 84, 85 , 91, 96 , 101, 106, 108, 109, IIO, II 3, II4 , 119 , 121, 124 , 126, 127, 129; on trad e ca rds, 37, 49, 54; on wooden fra mes, 172; see also fu rn iture (furn ituremaking) case fu rn it ure, 136, 137, 143 - 45, 147, 162, 178, 199, 202, 204, 220, 222; N o s. 94, 95, 110, III , 136-138; Fig s. 42, 43, 47; (Cogswell) , II , 136, 137, 143, 144; N o. 93; (E lfe), 168; (Need ham), 143-44; Fig. 35 Casey, Samu el, 94; crea m pot m arked b y , 94; N o . 59 cas t iron, 12, 219-28; ch im neybacks, 220, 222, 225, 227; N o s. 157-1 59; stove plat es, 220, 222, 223 , 225, 227- 28; N o s. 101, 162, 164; stoves, 5, 22 3, 225, 227; N o s. 160 , 163; st o ves, w o oden pattern for side pl ate o f, 228; N o . 16 5 ce rt ifica tes, 37, 49, 57-58 ; (B uell?), 58 , 64; 36; N o . 36; (Callen d er) , 57-58 ; No . 35; (Godwin) , 57, 89; N o . 34; (Revere), 39, 52; N o . 29 cha irs, 7, 9, 133, 135, 130, 147, 151, 16 5, 100 , 107, 108, 180- 81, 182, 183, 185,

209-10, 217; N os . 96, 97, 100, 101, 112, 11 3, 122, 123, 147-14 9, 151, 152; Fig s. 39, 40; (C h ip pe n dale) , d esigns fo r,s ; N o . I ; Fig. 36; (E lfe), 169; (E llio tt), 182; (Fo lwell), 183; (Mag ra th) , 169; (P rince) , 155; (Sco tt) , 167 C ha n dle r, G ard ine r , 42, 110; b o okpl at e of (Revere), 42, 110; No. 17 C handler, Lu creti a, 42; scc also Murray , Lu cr eti a C ha n dler C ha rles to n, South Carol ina, 9, 153, 168; arch itec tural decorat ion from , 17- 18. 26, 35, 172; eco no m ic ties o f, w ith Lon don, 78; expor ts fro m, 78, 168; fu rn itu re ca rve rs immi grat in g to , 134; furniture produ ced in , 134 , 159, 166, 168-69 , 170, 172, 174, 175, 177, 178, 180; nonimportati on agreemen ts p assed in , 10- II; picture fr ames p ro duced in, 170, 172; pr o sperit y o f, 168; silver produced in , 71, 73, 75, 78, 101, 103- 4 C hase, Samuel, 29 C hase, Stephe n, 152 C hase- Lloyd house, An na po lis, 29 , 31; Fig . 16 C hee re, J ohn, 205; portrait bust s by, 205 C her ry Hill, Alban y , 42, 92 che sts, 135. 162; (B u rling), 162; (P rince), 162 ches ts- o n-c hes ts, 162, 199 , 204; (Bad lam), 136, 137, 144; (B owen an d M arti n), 136; (C og swell) , II , 136, 137, 143; No. 93; (Elfe), 169; (Elfe"), 178; Fig . 42; (Skillin , j. , an d 5., Jr. ), 136 ch ests o f draw ers, II, 136. 143-4 5. 153. 162; N o s. 94, 95, III ; (N ee d ha m) , 136, 137, 143-44; Fig . 35 C hew, Benj am in, 26, 4 5, 189; h ouse o f, G ermantown , 26 , 28, 184 , 189 , 21I chime (m usical) clo cks . 68; d ial of. 68 ; N o. 44 chi rn ney bac ks , 21, 220, 222, 225; N o. 157; (Ae tna Furnace), 220 , 22 2; No. 158; (Ba tsto Furna ce), 222; N o . 159; (Courten ay ), 227 ch im ne y breast , 23 ; No . I I chim neyp ieces, 18, 20, 21, 22-23, 26, 28 , 29,31 , 35, 155, 162, 165, 202; Figs . 5, 6, 8, 9, 12, 13, I S, 19, 22 ; designs for: (Loc k and Copland), 5; N o. 2; (N o r ma n , af te r Sw an) , NO . 4; (Swan), NO · 3 ch im n ey piec e tablet, design for (johnson), 202; Fig . 48 chin a tabl es, 4, 135, 152, 167, 174- 75; Nos. 102, 119, 120 Chippendal e, Th om as, 3, 4, ]2 ; descr iptions of furnitur e b y. 174- 75; designs favored b y, 183; eng rav ings b y , 4, 5, 6,

183; N os. I , 6; furniture m ade in the sho p o f, 155; illu strati on s b y. 192; influen ce o f, 0, 153, 183. 202, 209; see also Th e G entleman and Ca binet-Ma ker's

D irector city views an d plans, 59, 63; N os. 37, 40 C lar kson, D avid , 127 C larkson , G erardus, 47 C la rkson, M atth ew , 59, 63 , 64 C laypoole , J am es, 15; fir e buck et s painted by, IS , 185; painted standa rd on silk b y . 6, 15, 89; Fig . 4 Cl ifton, Henry . 184; high ches t b y , 182, 199, 204; Fig . 47 C live dc n. G erm anto wn. 26, 28, 184, 189, 211 clo ck di als, eng raving on, 3, 37, 66, 6809; N o . 43; (Ave ry), 69 ; No . 45; (Bur nap ), 66, 68; N o . 44 ; (Da w k ins?), 68; (Ha rla n d) , 68 clo ck s, 66 , 68, 69; (Do w d ney), 66 , 68; N o . 43 C love rficlds. Qu een Annes C o un ty, M aryl and, 28 C low, J am es. 28 co as te rs , 121; (Mye rs), 122 coa ts o f ar ms : carv ed (Berna rd and Ju gi ez), 184; em b ro ide red, 142; No . 92 C oburn, John, 85 ; cre am pot m ark ed b y. 85; suga r caster m ark ed b y. 85; teapot m ark ed b y, 84-85; No. 50 co ffee pots, 72, 80, 91-9 2, 96, 104, 129; (A n nesley) , 7, 71, 99 , 129; N o . 46; (B rewoo d II ), 75, 99, 104; Fig . 26 ; (Ha ll, C.), 103, 104; No . 63 ; (H u m phreys ), 94 , 96 , 99 ; 99; No . 61; (Inc h) , 103. 104; Fig . 29; (M ye rs), 122; (Petrie) . 78 , 1°3 , 104; N o. 64; (Revere), 7, II , 71,83 , 96, 99; 97; Nos . 47, 49 , 60; (R ichards o n), 78 , 88, 104. 113 ; No. 65; (Sy ng) , 78, 101, 1° 3, 1°4, "3; No. 62 C ogs w ell, J ohn, 143; ches t- on-c hest b y , II , 136, 137, 143. 144; No. 93 C ollection 4 Designs ill A rc!litWIII'C (Sw an), 6, 2H

C ollection of TI,c best Psalm Til II es, ill tll'O, three, andfouv parts, A (Flagg), 46 C o ney, J ohn , 75 C o n ne ct icut, en g rav ing in , 37, 58, 66 . 68, 69 C o ntinen tal C o ng ress, 47, ro r , 100 ; sil ver tea urn co m m issione d b y. 90 , 99 Coolley, Simon , 109 C o o m b s. William. 20 C o p land . H enr y, 2- 3. 0, 18. 40, 45; eng rav ings b y, 2, 5, 39. 4 5, 225 ; NO . 2; Fig . 3; pattern books b y: A Ne ll' Book ojOmamcnts, 2, 37. 155; Fig . 3; A N ell' Book (~r Onuuncnts urith Twelve

Lea ves (w ith Lo ck ), 2-3, 5. 25, 37, 155, 225; N o . 2; tr ad e ca rds b y, 37 Co p ley , J ohn Sin gleton, 137; frames fo r portraits by, 130, 137, 138, ' 142, 186; (johnston), 137; (Welc h), 130. 137, 138; portrait s b y , 39, 135, 137, 138, 142, 150; Nos. 89-9 1; Fig s. 33 , 34 Co rb it house, Odessa, D elaw ar e. 28 Co rnell, Samuel, 75-70, 122, 123 Co rnell, Su sannah M abson, 75-76, 122, 12 3

Co u rtenay, H ercul es, 20, 28, 184, 202; arc hitec t ura l ca rv ing b y. 214; ch im n eyb ack carved b y. 227; easy cha ir by, 18o, 210; N o . 149; tea tabl e b y (?), 197 ; N o . 134 covere d tumbler (New Br em en Glas sm anu fact ory), 232; N o . 167 Cox, J o seph , 153; ca rd tabl es by , 161; settee uph olster ed by, 153 Cox and Berry b ookseller s, Bosto n , 137 crea m pot s, 80, 89, 229 ; (Casey) , 94: No . 59; (C o b u rn), 85; (Hu lbea rt). is . 89. 9 i. 94 ,121; N o . 55; (Myers), 91-92; No . 56; (Revere) . 80, 83, 93 , 110: No. 58; (R ieme r), 87 , 91, 92, 131 : No. 48 cr uet stan d s, 124 , 126 : (Da n iel), 126; (Fue ter ). 76, 124, 126; N o . 85

o D an a, Richard, 142; portrait o f (Co pley) . 142; N o . 91 D ani el , j abez. i26; crue t stan d b y, 120 Dart, John, 178 Da vi s, Ri chard, 154 Dawes, Thom as, i37 Dawkins, Henry , 39, 40, 42. 52; boo kplates en graved b y , 39, 40, 42, 45; Nos. 18, 22 ; ch art o f th e co ast o f Louisiana eng raved b y , 59, 64; N o . 4i; clock d ial eng rav ed b y (P), 68; in vit ati on engraved b y (?), 52, 54; NO · 3 I ; mu sic bo ok : eng raved b y, 46 ; titl e page of, N o . 23; plan of Philadelphia eng rave d by (?) (afte r Scull ), 59, 03 : N o . 40; trade card eng raved b y, 52, 54; N o. 30 Dawson , Roper , 23 D earin g , Eb ene zer, 21; architec tura l ca rvin g by , 135 D earin g, William, 21 D eas, John, i78 D eblois, Lewi s, 49- 50; trade card o f (johnston), 49-50; N o . 25 D elapl aine, Joshua, 153, 159 Del aware Bay. cha rt of, eng raving (T u rne r. after Fish er ), 59. 01, 02 ; No . 38

D ela w are Bay an d River, cha rt o f, wa te rco lor (Fishe r) , 62: N o . 39 delftwa re, 234, 236 D erb y, En gl and , porcelain p rodu ced at, 234 D er b y, Elias H ask et, 71, 136, '4 3: furniture owne d b y, 136- 37 , '4 3, '44, 151 : Nos . 93, 100: Fig . 35: h ou ses o f, Salem , 136, '4 3 D erb y , Eliz abeth Crown ins hield . 71 D erb y, Rich ar d, 71, 136 D erb y fam ily , '), 71, 136, '4 3 D er in g , T hom as, 40; b ookplate of (H ur d , N .), 40, 42: N o . 14 D csions ill Architecture (Swa n) , see Collertion 4 D csicns ill Architecture des k s, 135, 162, Ig3; (B rig h t), 137; (Elfe). 169 desks an d b ook cases, 162, 199, 202, 204, 205 , 20g; No . 110 D ickin son , Edm und, 167 Di ckinson , J oh n , 4 5, Ig4, Ig6; port rait of (Pea le) , Ig6 Di cki n son, M ary N orris, 45 Di ckinson C o lleg e, Ca rlis le, Pennsylva n ia, 40 , 4 5 Di rector, Th e (C h ip pen d ale), see Th e Ccn tlcnian and C abinet-M ak er's Dire ctor dish rin g s, 11 5, 121, 123; (Myers) , 75, 122, 123; Fig . 30 Display 4 H craldrv (G u illim) , 3 g , 40 do o rframes. 2'), 31; Fig . 16 do ub le chests, scc ches ts-on-c hests D owdne y , Bur ro w s, 66 ; clo ck b y , 66, 68: N o . 43 d re ssin g tab les (lo wbo ys), 135, 162, I')') D uch e. Andrew , 234 D ur and , J oh n , 156; po rtraits b y , 156; No . 10 5 D u yckin ck , G er ard us , 46 ; newspa pe r ad vert isem en t b y , 46: Fig . 24 Dwi gh t, Ste phe n , 154, 156; pi ctu re fr am es b y, 7, ISS, 156; No. 103

E eart he nware , 234 easy ch airs, 210; (A fflec k), 214; N o . 153: (Cou rte nay) , 180, 210; N o . '4 '); (Elfe?), IS'), 180: N o . 122; (Ellio tt ), Ig2 Edwards, Rich ard , 187, 204 Edwards, Th omas, 75 , 85 Elfe , Th omas, 35, 168, 16') , 180; case furni tur e b y , 16g; che st-on-c hes t b y (P) , 17 g; Fig. 42; chi na tab les b y , 175; easy cha ir by (P) , IS'), 180; No . 122; librar y b ook case b y (P) , 169, 175, 178: Fig . 43: pem broke tab les b y (P), 83, 177; N o .

121 : pic tur e fram es b y, 16'), 170; ro ya l g overn o r' s chair b y , 165, 168; Fig . 40; tea tab les b y , 16'), 175 Elizabeth Fu rn ace, Lan caster C ou nty , Pennsyl vania , 225, 227, 22'); stove pl at es produ ced b y , 22 5, 227; sto ves p ro du ced b y,S , 223, 22 5, 227: N o . 163 Ellio tt, Barnard , 170; portrait of (T he us), 170 Ellio tt, Barnard, J r. , 170; po rtra its of (T he u s), 170, 172; No. 114 Ellio tt, J oh n , 182, 187: cha irs b y, 182: easy cha ir fram e b y, 182; furniture lab el of, 187: lo okin g g lasses su pplied b y , 182, 187, 18'); N o . 126 Ell iott, M ary Elizabe th Bell ing er, 170 : port rait of (T h eus) , 170 em broide ry, of coa ts of arms, '4 2; No. ')2 Em len , George, 1'4 Em len , Sar ah Fishbourne, 114 eng rav ings , 12, 37-6'), 21'): adv ert isem ents, 3'), 183; N os. ]2, 33; alma na cs, 46; armo rial, 106, 108, 109; bill h eads, 5, 37, 49, 52, 84; Fig . 25: book bin din gs, 47; N o . 24; boo kpl ates , 37, 38 , 3'), 4° , 42, 45,8 4, 110; Nos. '4 - 18,2022: British protot yp es for , 37, 85; broad sid es, 6, 46, 89, 183; N O. 5; ce rtifi cat es, 37, 39, 49, 52, 57-58 ; N os. 29, 34-36; city views and plans, 59, 63 ; N o . 40: o n clo ck di als, 3, 37, 66, 68-69; N os. 43-4 5; co pper plate fo r b ook pl at e, N o . 19; ea rl iest rococo indicati on s in, S; eco no m ic co nside ra tio n s in th e development o f, 37; English , 2; Figs. 2, 3: b y English-trained craftsm en, 7, 9: o n fire arm s, 3, 12-1 3, 37: furniture label s, So, 52, 137, 154-55, 162, 182, 184, 187: Fig s. ]2, 37, 44; on g lass, 230, 231, 2]2; N os. 166-168: in vit ati ons, 37, 49, 52, 54; N o . 31: m agazin e illu stration s, 3'): m aps , 37, 38, 39, So, 59, 6164; N os . 38- 42; music bo oks, 46; N o . 23: ne w sp ap er illustrati ons , 46; o rder bl anks , S° -5 1: N o . 26: o rna menta l prints, 3; pamphlets, 46; on pewter, 3, 107: printed ep hemera, 3, 5, 37, 3'), 4')52, 54, 84; o n silve r , 3, 37, 72, 74, 76, 84, 85, 87 , ')6 , ')'), 101, 10 5, 106, 107, 108, 110, 11 3, 115 , 123, 127, 129, 131, 230; su ita bility for roco co sty le o f, 3; techniques o f, 37; tr ad e ca rds v y, 37 , 38, 3'), 4')- 51, 52, 54, 57, 84, 220; Nos. 12, 13, 25-27, 30, ]2, 33: Fig . 25; urb an cen te rs for, 37; as w ides p re ad m anifestati on of ro co co o rn am ent, 37: see also pattern b oo k s ephe mera , scc printed ep he mera Etna Furnace, N ew J er sey , scc Aetna Fu rn ace

279

Evan s, Lewi s, 39: eng raving o f m ap b y (T u rne r), 3') ewer (Lame rie), 91

F Fair fax ch im neyb ack (Be rna rd an d J ug iez), 220, 225 Fan eui l, Benj amin, 126 finials, 1')0, 204-5 , 208; Nos. 139- 146 fir earms, 3, 5, 12- 13, 37; N os. 7-9 fireb acks , sec ch im neybac ks fir e bu ck ets, painted (C lay poole) , IS, 185 fir epl aces, 17 fireplace w all , 28; Fig . '4 fire sc reens : (A ffleck), 197, 217; No. 156; (Be rna rd an d Jugi ez), 197; N o . 156; (P rince), ISS Fish er , J oh n , 168, 169 Fisher, J o shu a, 3'), 59, 61; cha rt o f D elaw are Bay b y , engravi ng afte r first editio n (T u rner), 39 , 59, 61-62; N o . 38; cha rt o f D elaw ar e Bay an d Ri ver b y, wa tercolor of secon d ed itio n, 62 ; N o . 39 fish slices, 121; (Mye rs), 123-24; No. 83 Fitzhu gh , J o hn , h ou se of, ne ar Fredericksb ur g , 32; Fig. 21 Flceso n , Plunket, II, 17, 185; upho lste ry by , 185, 2'4 flintl o ck pistols, 12- 13; N o . 8 flin tlo ck rifl es, S, 12, 13: N os. 7, 9 Flo wer, Elizab eth , 13: em b ro ide re d silk n eedle w ork picture b y, 13: N o . 10 Fol w ell, J ohn , 6, IS, 183, 220; pa in ted standard designed by , 6, IS, 8'); Fig . 4; portr ait bu sts b y , 205; Speaker's C h air by , 183, 213; sto ve patterns ca rved b y , 220 frame for m emorial pl aq ue (Woo din ?), 172; N o. 116 fr am es, see lo okin g-gl ass fra mes; pi cture fra mes Fr an kl in , Benjamin, 7, 39, 101, 225, 229 : co rres po nde nce of, 9, 225 , 234 ; in stru ction s for th e buildin g an d furn ish in g o f his ho use gi ven by, '); interest in porcelain of, 234, 239 : as ma ga zine dis tribu tor, 39; stove in v ented by, 220 Fran klin, J am es, 220 Franklin stoves, 220, 223 ; (H o pew ell Furnace): 225: fron t pl at e fro m , No . 161 Franks, Da vid , 77,80, 121, 131 Frazar , Tho m as, 147 Frederick (P rinc e of Wales), 23 Fren ch an d Ind ian War ( 1754- 63), 10, 38, 59, 62, 64 , 77, 78, 153

"French Chairs." 210. 213 Frothingham. Benjamin. j r . , 137; furniture label engraved for (H u rd. N .). 50. 137: Fig. 32 Fuerer, Daniel Chris tian. 4 5. 70. 121; basket marked b y. 70 . 121. 122. 123. 12 7: 121; No. 81; cruet st and m arked b y. 70. 124. 126: No. 85 ; sal ver m arked b y. 76. 113 ; No . 74; whistle and bells ma rked by. 121 furni ture (fu rn itur emak in g) . 3. 12. S3. 133-217. 219; adve rtisements. as docu me nta tion for the makers of. 153. 154. 159. 101. 166. 108. 182. IS3. IS4. ISS; ar mchairs. 155. lOS. 107. 213; N os . 11 3. 151 . 152; Fig . 39; bedsteads. 159. lOS. 109; Fig . 38; block-fron t trea tment of. 135. 130; born b e- front t reatm ent of. 135. 130 . 143. 145; bookcases. 137. 109. 183; cab riole legs. 135. 147. 101. IS2. ISS. 194. 210; capi to l chair. 107. lOS; Fig . 39; card tab les. 147. 155. 101 . lOS. 194-95. 214. 217; N os . 98 . lOS. 109. 131 . 132. 154; carving of. 3. 133. IH. 135. 136. 137. 153 -54. 182. 183. 191-92.202. 204; case furni ture. 136. 137. 143-4 5. 147. 102. 108. 178. 199. 202 . 204. 220. 222: Nos. 93-95. 110. II I. 130-13 S; Figs . 35. 42. 43. 47: chairs. 7. 9. 133. 135. 136. 147. 151, 155. 165. 100. 107. 16S. 109. 180- 81. 182. 183. 185.209 - 10. 217: Nos. 90. 97 . 100 . 101. 11 2. 113. 122. 12 3. 147- 149. 151. 15 2. 153. 15 5; Figs . 39. 40; ches ts. 135. 162; chests of drawers. II . 136. 137. 143-H . 153. 102: Nos . 94.95 . III ; Fig . 35; chests-on-chests. 130• 137. 143. IH. 102. 10 9. 17 8. 199. 204; N o . 93; Fig . 4 2: china tabl es. 4. 135. 152. 107. 174- 75; N o s. 102. III). 120; des ks. 135. 137. 162. 1( 1). 183; desks an d bo o kcases. 102. 19 1). 2 02 . 204. 205. 208 ; No. 110; double chests. sec ches ts-on-ches ts ; dressing tabl es (lo w bo ys). 135. 102. 11)9: ea rliest indications of ro co co style in. 5: easy chairs. 159. 180. 182. 210. 214; N o s. 122. 149. 153; Eng lish . 4. 7. I) . 151. 150.213: Nos. 101. 104; Engl ish pro tot y pes for. IH. 153. 155. 156. 165. 174. 204; by Englisho r fo reign- tra ine d craftsmen. 7. I). 153. 154. 100-(ll. 108. 109 . 182. 183. 184. ISS. 11)2. 202; finials, (1)0. 204-5. 20S: N os. 139-146; fire screen s. 155. 11)7. 217: N o . ISO; fra me for memorial plaq ue. 172; N o . 11 6; g ild ing and . 133. 13S. ISO; height of ro co co style in. 133; h ig h ches ts (h ig h boys). 5. 135. 1('2. 11)1. (1)1). 202.204.205; N o s. 130-1 3S; Fig . 47: imported from En gl and . 135. 143. 145. 151 . 15 5. ISO. lOS. 160. 109. 170. IS2.

ISS. 187: joine ry techniques used fo r. 133; lib rar y boo kcase. 109. 175. 178; Fig . 43: linen p resses. 102: looki ng -glass frames. 133. 155. ISO. 187. 189. 19 8; Nos. 120. 127: Fig . 45: lowboys. sec dressing tables: M arlbo ro u gh legs . 185. 191. 194: M ason ic chairs. 31. 166. 168. 180-81: No. 123: me thod of cons tructio n for. in Am erica. 133: na tura lis tic carving of. 133. IS2: n eo classical eleme nts of. 137. 175. 17S: non im porta tion agreements. effec t o n . IH . 153. IS4. 187; painting o f. 133; parl or suite . IS4. ISS. 191. 214. 217. 231) ; N os. 153 - 150; pat rons of. IH . 130-37. 143; pattern bo ok s. as d esign so urces for. IH. 135. 137. 147. 152. 154- 55. 160. 107. 108. 169. 182-83. 11)0. 11) 2. 202 . 204. 205. 209. 210: pemb roke tabl es. S3. 177: N o . 121: pi cture fr am es. 7. 133. 135. 137-38. 142. 155. ISO. 1(1). 170. 172. 180; N o s. 89-92. 103- 105. " 4. 11 5. 124. 125: Figs. 33. H. 41; p ier ced work o n. 133. 135. 175. 204: pi er tabl e. 187: Queen Anne style of. 135. 184-8 5: regi on al sty les of. IH. 135. 151). 101. 102. lOS. 100. 182. 183. 185.202.2 11: royal governo r's cha ir. lOS. 108; Fig . 40; in rural areas. 133. 160: se rpe nt ine fro n ts of. 136. 137. 143. 145. 101. 102. 11)1 . 11)4 . 214; se tt ees. 147. 153. 155. 217; No. 91); side cha irs. 5.7. I). 135. 130. 147. 151 . 155. lOS. 18 3. 201); N os. 1)0. 1)7. 100. 101. 11 2. 147. 148: sla b tables. 4. 133. 183. 191-92. 202 . 217; N os. 121). 130; sofas. 4. 155. 185. 211. 214; N o. ISO: Speak er 's C ha ir. 18 3. 213; tables. 4. 135. 147. 152. 155. 15 1). 101. 10 7. 174- 75. 177. 18 5. 187. 11)11)2. 11)4-1)8. 217: N os. I)S. 102. 100-101). 117-1 21.1 21)-1 35; tall clock s. 11)1).204 ; tassel-back cha irs. lOS; N o . 112 ; tea tabl es. 159. 101. 1(1). 174. 175. 11)0- 1)8; N o s. 100. 107. 117. 118. 133-1 35; uphol stered . 14 7. 153. 108. 180. 185. 211.2 13.2 14; N os. 1)1). 122. 149-1 53. 155; in urban cen ters. 133. 100; w all brack et s. 11)0; N o . 128: Fig . 40: wi n do w co rn ices. 155; w o od used for. 5. 133. ISO. 180; writin g tabl es. 183 fu rni ture lab els. 52. 154- 55. 182. 184. 187: Figs. 37. 44: (H u rd. N .). 50. 137; Fig . 32

G Ga llaudct, Elish a. 42. 45: bookplates eng rave d b y. 42. 4 5: N o . 20 G alloway. G race Growden. 101 G all o w ay. J oseph. 101. 103 Gall oway fam ily . I). 7S. 11 3

2S0

"Ga rvan Ca rver." 202; high chest b y. 202. 204; N o . 136 Ge nera l Society of M echan ics and Tradesm en. New York . 57 Genteel H oushold Furniture ill the Present Tas te ("Society of Uphols terers"). 3. 154-55 Gentleman and Cabi net-Maker's A ssistant, T he. 6. 183; proposals for the printing by subsc riptio n of. 6. 183; NO.5 Gentlema n and Cabi net-Ma ker's Dire ctor. Th e (C h ippen da le) . 3- 4. 5. 143. 15 2; C h inese as pec t o f rococo re p resen ted in. lOS. 175; co pies of. in A me rican colo n ies. 137. 167. 1( 1). 182- 83; designs in . rel at ed to silve r wo rk. 83: eng ravi ngs from . 5; N os. 1. 0: "Frenc h C ha irs" illu strat ed in . 210. 213; furniture design s. ba sed o n or cop ied fro m eng ravi ngs in. 32. 54. 155 . 160. 1( 1). 174- 75. 178. 181. 183. IS4. 11)2.202. 205 . 209. 210. 213: inexpensive version of. 154: influen ce of. 182- 83. 202: m o des of d esign covered by . 4. 123. 133: third. en larged edi tion of. 182- 83; title page of. 4. O. 183: No . 0: secalso C h ip pe ndale. Thomas G illingham. J am es. 184. II)S: tea tables by. 11)0 glass. 5. I). 12. 219. 221)-32: Nos . 100-IOS goblets. 23 1: (A m erican Flint Glass M anu fact ory). 230. 23 1: No. 100: (N ew Br em en G lassm anu fact ory). 5. 232: N o . 108 God da rd. J ohn. 94. 137 God w in. A b rah am . 57; ce rt ifica te of m ember ship eng raved b y. 15. 57. SI); N o. H go ld . 11 5; buttons. 11 5. III); shoe bu ckl es. 115 . 117. 119; N o. 78; snuffboxes. 11 5. III); No. 79; whistl e and bells. 11 5. 117; N o . 77 Gold an d Silver Smith's Soc iety . New York C ity. 76. 131 Go ldthwa it, Ezeki el. portrait of (C o p ley). 138 Gold rhwa ir, Mrs. Ezek iel. po rtra it of (C o p ley). 138 Goul d . N ath ani el. 137 G ra nt. Sa m u el. 135. 130 Gravclot, Hu bert. 2 G ree n. Mrs. Ed wa rd. portrait of (Co pley ). 138; N o. 89 Greene. Benj amin . 1)3 G reene. Ga rd ine r. 14 5 Greenwood . J ohn . 38 Grimkc, J ohn Paul . 78. 104 C ui llim, J ohn . bo ok b y: Display 4 H craldrv; 3S. 40 G u ns to n Hall . Vir gini a. 32

H H ainsd orff. H enry , 109 H all , C ha rles , 103; coffee po t m ark ed by , 103, 104 ; No. 03 H all , Pet er , 108-09 H all , T homas , 29: 31 H am ilt on, Geo rge, 107, 175 H am m ond, M atthi as, 29, 31; h ouse o f, An n ap oli s, 3I H an co ck , Tho mas, 138; portrait o f (C o ple y), 138 H and-in-H an d Fi re Co m pa ny, N ew York, invita tion fo r meetin g s o f (D aw k ins) , 52, 54; N O. 3I H ar d castl e. H enr y , 153, 154, 159, 105, 108; ar chi tect ura l carv in g by, 153- 54 H ariso n, Ri ch ard, 121 H arl an d , T ho mas, 08, 09 H arriso n , Pet er. 18 H arvard College, Cam b ridge . 138 H ay , Anthon y , 100-07; ch ina tab les by, 174-75: N o s. 119, 120; M asoni c cha irs by , 10 8 H eath , J ohn, 70, 11 3; pun ch bo wl m arked by , " 3; salver m ar ked b y , 94, " 3: N o . 73 H en sley. W illiam, 28; house o f. Queen Ann es Co un ty, M ar yl an d , 28 H ew son , J ohn , I I H ey w ard , D ani el , h ouse of, C ha rleston, 35 hi gh ches ts (h ig h bo ys) , 5, 135, 102, 182, 191. 199. 202, 204 , 20 5; N os . 130-1 38: (C lifto n) , 182, 199, 204; Fig . 47; (Ga rvan typ e), 202 , 204: N o . 130; (T uffr), 204 H o eger, An dreas. 59; pl an o f Bethleh em Tract b y (?). 59; N o . 37 H olli s, Th om as, 138: portrait of (Copley), 138; Fig . 33 H o lm es, N ath ani el, 135 H ol yok e, Edwa rd, 138 H ol yok e, Edwa rd A ., 71 H ol yok e, M ar y Vi al, 71 H opew ell Fu rn ace , Berk s Cou nty, Pennsyl vani a, 223 , 227; Fr anklin stove pr odu ced b y, 225; front plate from , N o. 1(>1; sto ves pr odu ced b y, 5, 45, 223: No . 100 H opk in son. Fr an cis. 4 5: bo okplate of (D aw k ins), 45; N o . 21 H ousliold Furniture. see 'T he Universal S ystem ,~r Houshold Furniture (Ince and Mayh ew) Huber , John Ja cob, 225 Hubert, Lawren ce. 78 , 107 Hu lb eart, Philip, 77, 78. 89. 91; cream pot m arked b y, 15, 89, 94. UI: No . 55 Humphreys. Ri ch ard , 77. 78. 99. 101: coffee po t o n sta nd m arked b y, 94. 96 , 99; 99: N o . (, l: sa uce boa ts m arked b y . 114 . 13('; N o . 76

Hurd, J acob , 38, 94; teap ot m arked by, 84, 85; Fig . 28 Hurd , N athaniel, 37-38 , 40; b ookplates eng raved b y, 38, 40. 41, 50; N o . 14: furniture label eng raved b y , 50, 137; Fig . 32: o rde r blanks engrave d b y , 5051; N o . 20; portrait o f (C o p ley) , 38: printed ephe mera en gr aved b y , 50; as silvers mi th, 75: trade ca rds eng raved b y , 38, 50-5 1; N o . 20 Hut chinson, Th omas, 108; ro yal go ve rno r's cha ir b y. 105, 108; Fig . 40 Hutt , J ohn, 49 ; tr ad e ca rd eng raved b y , 52: Fig . 25

I Ince, William, 3: pattern b ook b y: Th e

Universal Sv stem
J Jackson, William , 37; tr ad e ca rd o f (Revere), 37: No. 13 Jeffers on , Th omas. 100, 160, 181, 183 J ohnson, Thomas, 3, 23. 197: co pies aft er eng rav in gs of, 28; eng ra vin gs by, 39, 184, 190. 202 , 125: Fig s. 46, 48; influence of the desi gn s of. 202, 205; pattern books by: A N ell' Book ,~r 01'1I11IlI elllS, 3, 202; Fig . 48 ; Olle Hundred I1l1d Fifty N ell' De signs, 3. 54, 08. 183. 190: Fig. 46 J ohnston , Thom as, 37-38; bookplates b y. 38, 40 ; No. 15; map carto uches engraved b y , 50, 59; music books eng raved b y , 40 ; pi cture fr am e b y . 1.17: trade cards en graved by, 38, 49- 50 : No. 25 Jugiez, Martin, 184; sec also Bernard and Ju giez jugs , 117; (Mye rs) , U 7: No . 87

K Kenned y. Robert. 54, 57; ad vertisem ent done for (Sm ithe r) . .19: No . 33: trade card o f (Sm ither). 54, 57; N O·3 3

K ent uck y rifles, see flin tlock rifl es Kilburn , J am es, 155; port raits by, 155. 150; Nos . 10 3. 104 Kin g , Da n iel, 185: and irons by, 185 Ki n g Geo rge 's War (1744 - 48) , 109. 134 K ip , Rich ard. 52: tr ad e car d of (H u tt), yz: Fig . 25 Ku nt z, J aco b , 12-1 3; flint lo ck pisto ls by, 12-1 3; No. 8; flintlock rifle b y, 5, 12; N O. 7

L ladle (Riem er) . 124: No . 84 Lamb. Antho n y . 52; trade ca rd of (Dawkins), p, 54; No. 30 Larn eri e, Pau l de, 2, 92 : basket ma rked b y , 121; ewer m ar ked by, 91; tea se rvice m arked by, 77, 80, 131: Fig . 27 Lan cast er, Pen n syl vani a, silve r p ro du ced in , 73, 101. 103 Lan gdon, J ohn , 21; house of. Portsm outh, 21: Fig. 8 Lan sin g. J aco b Ge r ritse ( 1730- 180 3), 93; suga r d ish by (?), 5, 88 , 92 -93, 131: No. 57 Lardner. El izabeth Br an son , 108-9 Lar dner , Lynford, 108-9: h ouse o f, n ear Tacony , Pen n syl van ia. 10 8 Lau ck . Simon. 13: fli n tlock rifle by, 13; N O. 9

Lectures Oil Rh etoric I1l1d Belles Lcttrcs (Bl air). 47; b ack cover of, No. 24: bindin g o f (A itke n), 47 Lee. J er emiah , 20, 135, 137; h ouse o f. M arblehead , 20-2 1, 25 , 51, 137, 220; Figs. O. 7 Lewyn , Gab riel, 88; teapot m ark ed b y. 87-88; N o . 54 library bo ok case (El fe?) , 109, 175, 178: Fig. 43 Librar y Co m pany o f Phil ad elphi a, 40, 78. 108-9, 183. .!O8 linen pr esses. 102; (B u rlin g), 102: (P rince) , 102 Liverpool . Eng lan d, porcelain pr o du ced at. 2]4 . 236 Livin gston . C h ristina T en Brock. 80 Livin g ston. Mary Ste ven s, 106 Livin gst on, Philip , 25, 80 Livin gst on. Robert. 106 Llo yd , Ed wa rd, IV . 19; house o f, Ann ap oli s. 29. 31: Fig . 10 Lo ck , M atthia s, 2-3, 0, 18. 40. 4 5, 22 5: eng rav ing s b y , 2, 5, 39: N O.2; Fig . 2: pattern b ooks b y: Book
204: A N ell' Book of O l'llI1 I11CIIIS uiitlt Twelve L eaves (w ith Co pland) . 2-3. 5. 25. 37, 155, 215 ; NO .2; Th e Principles
O malllem, or the Youth's Cu idc to Drainillg oj Foliage, 2; Fig. 2 Lock e. John. 20 5, 20 8; fini al b usts o f, 205 . 208; N o . 144 Lo gan . J am es, 40, 182 Lo gan , Will iam, 204- 5 lookin g-gl ass fram es. 133. 156, 187, 18<), 1<) 8; No . 126; (Bern ard an d Ju gi ez). 187; (Ellio tt) . 182 , 187. 18<); No. 126; (Reyno ld s). 187, 18<). 217; No . 127; Fig. 45; (Strach an) , 155 Lord,John. 35, 169 Lou isian a, cha rt o f the co ast of, eng ra vi ng (D aw kin s), 59, 64: No . 41 lowbo ys , see dressing tabl es Lowcsroft , Eng lan d , porcelain pr oduced at, 236 Lyon , J am es, music b o ok b y: Urallia, 46

M M cC orm ick , D ani el , 119 M cElr o y, Ar chibald, 23<) McIl w orth, Thom as, 156 M clntire. Samuel. 136. 144 M acPh er son , J ohn , 26; h ouse o f. near Philadelphia, 26, 28: Fig . 12 Magrath , Richard , 16<) Mani gault. Pet er , 16<) M anwarin g , Rob ert. 3, 1.17; Th e Cabinet

and C hair-Maker's Real Friend and COIII pallioll, 3, 135, 137, 147, 165: en gravin g fr om, Fig . 36 m aps , 39, 5<) , 61-64; (Buell) , 5<), 64; N o . 42; (D aw k in s) , 59, 64; N o . 41; (D aw k in s?, after Scull ), 5<), 63; N o . 40 ; (Fisher), 62; No. 39; (T u rn er. after Fish er ), 3<), 61, 62 , 63: N o . 38 M arblehead , M assachusetts: arch itec tura l decorati on from , 20 . 135; furniture produ ced in , 135 M arlboro Furnace, Vi rginia, 220 , 225: sto ve plat e produced b y. 5, 225; N o. 162 M arlborough sty le, 185, 211 M armion. ne ar Frederi cksburg . 32; Fig . 21 M artin, Ebenezer , 136 M ar yland: arc h ite ctur al decorati on from , 28; en g raved clo ck di als from . 66 M ason , G eorge, 32; h ouse o f. Virginia, 32 M asonic ch airs : (B uck t rout). 3\, \(\(\. \8081; N o . 123; (H ay) , 168 M ayberry, Thomas. 1<) 8 M ayhew. J ohn, 3; Th e Universal S ystem of H oushold Furniture (w ith Ince). 3. 54, 152. 169, 183, 192 M ear s, Lewi s, 76 , 106, 11 0 M eissonn ier , juste-A ur elc. 1- 2; orn am ental de sign eng raved b y , 2; Fig . I

Mi ckl e, Sam uel. 185 Middl eto n , Arthur , 177 Middleto n , M ar y Izard , 177 Mid dl et on Place. o u tsid e C ha rles to n. 177 militar y flags , 6. 15; (Fo lwell an d Cl ayp o ol e). 6. 15. 8<) ; Fig . 4 m ilk p o ts , 76 M iln e. Ed m un d . 77. 104 Milton , J ohn . 20 5. 208; finia l bu st s o f. 205. 208; No. 145 Minshull , M r.. 154 M offatt . J ohn . 21: hou se o f. Portsm o uth . 21 M orris. Ge o rge. 234. 236. 2.W; see also Am er ican C h ina M anu fact o ry M orris. Ro bert Hunter. 6 1 M o rri s-Jum el hou se. N ew York C ity . 22 M ount Airy. Wa rsaw. V irg in ia. 32 M ount Pleasant . near Phil adelph ia. 26, 28: Fig . 12 M ou nt Pleasant. N ew Yo rk C ity. 23. 155; ar chi tec tural de co rati on in. 23. 155; N o . II M ou nt Vernon. V irgi nia. 31. 175: Fig . 1<) m ugs . 106 Murray , J ohn. <) 3,1 10 Murray , Lad y An ne, m emorial to. 172: N o . 116 Murray. Lu cr etia C han dle r , <) 3, 110 mu sic b o ok s. title pa ges of. 46; (D aw kins), 46: N o . 23 M yer s. M ycr, 76. 11 <). 121: ale j ugs m ark ed by , 76, 106. 127: N o. 87 ; ba ske t m ark ed by, 4, 75, 122- 23. 124: N o . 82; can n m ark ed b y, 122: co asters marked b y. 122: co ffee pot ma rke d b y. 122; cream pot fro m th e sho p o f, <) 1-<)2: N o . 56: d ish rin g m ark ed b y. 75. 122. 123; Fig . 30; fish slices m ark ed b y. 123- 24; N o . 83; go ld o bjects m ark ed b y. 117. 11 <): N os. 78. 7<): salve r m ark ed b y. 76. 110; N o . 72; shoe bu ckl e m ark ed b y. 117. 11 <); N o . 78; sn uff bo x m ark ed b y. 11 <): N o . 7<); sn u ffer sta nd m ark ed b y , 126: su gar di sh m ar ked by. <) 1-<)2: N o. 56: tankard m ark ed b y. 76. 106. 107; N o . 66

N N agl e. George. 13 N eedh am , T ho m as, J r., I Jr.. '44 : chest o f d raw er s by (?), 136, 1.17. 143-44; Fig. 35 needl ew ork , 13; N o. 10 neocl assicism . 4. 5. 12. 78. 136: in en g ravin g . 154: fu rn iture m ad e in th e sty le o f. 137, 175, 178: in portrait ur e. 186: in silve r wo rk. <)6 N evell , Th om as, 26

N ew Book ojCyphl'rs. A. 13

N I' I/ I Book < if Orn anicnts. A (C op land). 2. 37, ISS: Fig. 3 NI'I/I Book <~f O n llll/l I'I/ts. A (John so n). 3; en g rav ing fro m . 202: Fig . 48 NI'II' Book
N ewpo rt . Rh od e Island . <)4: fu rn iture p ro d uced in . <)4. 135: silver produ ced in . <)4 new sp ap ers: adv ert ise m ent s fo r. 46; (D u yc k inc k) . 46: Fig. 24: eng raved illustratio ns for, 46 N ew Yo rk. <), 153: arc hitec tur al d eco ratio n from. 17-1 8. 22. 23. 25. 153- 54. 156; case fur n iture prod uced in . 162; co m me rc ial ties to En gl and o f. 75. 153: earliest ap pea rance of ro co co sty le in. 153: en gravin g in. 37. 4 2. 45. 52. 54: fu rn iture carvers imm ig rat ing to . 134: fu rn iture pr odu ced in. 134, 153- 65. 168: nonimportati on ag ree ments passed in . 10-11 . 153: pap er han gin g s fr om . 17: population of. 182: pr o mi nen ce of. 134: pr osp er ou s peri od of. 76, 77. 153; silve r ex po rte d to. 75. 122: silve r p ro du ced in . 71. 73. 74. 75-76. 87 . <) 1-92 . <)<). 10 5. 106. 10<) ,110.11 3. 121. 122. 124. 127 1\'1'11'- Yorl: Gaz ette awl the Wcckly ;\lermry.

Th e, ad ve rtise m ent in (D uyc kinck) . 4('; Fig . 24 New York M arin e So ciety. 57: cert ifica te of m ember ship o f. 57 N ew York M echani ck So ciety. 57; ce rt ificate of m ember ship o f (G od w in), 15. 57, 8<); N o . 34 New Yo rk Sta te: cast iron w o rk pr odu ced in. 21<); engraving in , 42 N oel , G are tt. 154 N oel and H azar d . N ew York . I ) ) N omin i H all. Vir gin ia, <) 5. 166 non importati on agreemen ts, 10- 1' . 15. 71. 134. 153, 184. 187, 21<). 227 , 22<). 234 No rm an . J ohn , 6, 4<). 68. 183: engrav ing b y (after Swa n). 6. 68: N O. 4

orris. Issac. 40. 45. 47. 101; bookplate of (T u rne r) . 7. 40. 45; No. 21 N orth Ca ro lina. furniture prod uced in. 160

o Oell l' l"(' dejllSte-AllrNe

Mcissonnicr, o rna me nt al de sign from . 2: Fig. I Old. Elizabeth Sti cgcl. 230 Old. James. 227. 228. 230; sec also Readin g (Red d ing) Furnace Old . Will iam. 230 Oli ver. Andrew. 40; bookplate of (Reve re). 40 Ol iver famil y. 40; bo okplate with famil y arms o f (J o hn ston). 40: No. 15 ail e Hundred and Fifty N ell' D esigns (J ohnson ). 3. 54. 01'. 11'3 . 1<)0; en graving from. Fig . 40 order blanks (H ur d . N .). 50-5 1; N o . 20

p Paine. Lois Orne. 1'3 Pa ine. William. 1'3 : tea service orde red b y (Re ve re). 83. 85. <)0. 100. 114 . 122; 97; No. 49 Pa lmer. Jo seph . 50: order bla nk of (H ur d . N .). 50- 51 pap er hangings (wa llpape r). 17. 20-2 1. 25. 35; Fig . 10 papi er-ma che. 17. 23. 3I. 35 Par isie n . O tto . 70 Parkinson. J o seph . 16<) parlor sui te. for Cadwaladcr (Affleck. Bernard and jug iez. Reyno ld s), 184. 185. 191. 214. 217. 239; Nos . 153-1 50 pattern books. 5<); (Cop land ). 2, 37. ISS: Fig. 3; (Ince and Ma yhew), 3, 54. 152. 10<). 183. 1<)2: (Johnson), 3, 54. 68. 183, 1<)0. 202; Figs. 40. 41'; (Lo ck) . 2, 37. 204: Fig. 2; (Lo ck and Copland), 2- 3. 5. 25. 37. 45. 15 5, 22 5; NO .2: (M anwarin g ). 3. 13 5. 137. 14 7. 16 5; Fig . 36: (Meisso nn ier) , I-2 ; Fig . I; (Sw an). 6. 11'. 21. 21'. 183; NO .3: see also The GCllt1e1l1l111
Penn , Ann Allen. 213 Pen n. J oh n. 183. 185, 18<).205.2 11,213 , 229. 23<); ho use of, near Philadel ph ia. 184, 213 Pen nsyl van ia: arc hitectura l decoration fro m, 26. 28; cast iron wo rk prod uced in. 219. 223. 225. 227; firearms from. 12-13; Nos . 7. 1'; furni ture p ro d uced in, 133. 162 Pennsylvani a- Germ an co m rn u n it v v y, 5<). 223. 227, 229 Petr ie. Alexander. 104; coffee pots m arked by , 78. 103. 104; No . 64 pew ter , 3, 107: tanka rd. 107: No. 07 Phi lad elphi a. <), 153 . 182; arc hitect ural deco ra tio n from, 17-1 1'. 20. 21'; Figs. 12-14; case furni ture pro du ced in, 182, 1<)9. 202, 204, 220, 222; cast iron work prod uced in or near, 21<), 220. 223: co mme rcial ties to Bos ton of, 182; earl y his tory of, 11'2 ; eng rav ing in , 37. 39, 45. 40, 59, 02-03; furn iture carve rs imm ig ratin g to , 1)4 , 182. 183. 202 ; furniture produced in. 7, 9, 133, 1)4, 153. 182- 217; g lass p rodu ced in. 21<), 22<)-3 I; high ches t, as sy m bol o f ro co co in,S, 182, 19<); infl ue nce of furni ture prod uced in. 182; m ap s and plan s of, 63; (D aw kins?, afte r Scull) , 59. 63: No. 40; (T u rn er). 03; no nimportati on ag reeme nts passed in. 10-11 , 227, 229, 2)4; pattern books recorded in . 182- 83, 202; popu lati on of, 182; porcelain pro d uced in , 21<), 2)4, 230 , 239: pro m inence of, 77. 134. 219; pr osp erou s per iod of, 77, 182. 219; silve r exported to . 77, 80, 91, <)<), 101, 104; silver produ ced in , 71. 73. 74, 75, 77-78. 87, 8<) . 9 1. 96. 99, 101, 103-8, 11 3, 124. 127, 131 Ph ilad elphia C h ip pe nda le style, 182, 183, 202 Philipse, Fred erick , 22; m an or hou se of, Yonkers. 22- 23, 35, 154, 162. 165; Fig . 9 Ph ilipse fam ily , 76; po rtrai ts o f (Wo llas ton) , 15 6 Philipse M an o r, Yon ker s, 22: arc hi tec tu ral decorat ion in. 22-23. 35. 154, 102, 16 5; Fig. 9 pickle stands , 239; (A m erican C h ina M anufactory), 239; 218; N o s. 172. 173 Pickman . C lark Gayto n, 147 pic ture fra m es, 133, 137- 38, 142. 155, 156. 170, 172: N o s. 89-92. 103-105 . "4 , " 5; Figs. 33, )4, 41; for Copley's portraits . 135, 137, 138, 142, 186: (D wigh t). 7. 155. 156; N o . 103; (Elfe), 109. 170: impo rted from Eng land. 131'. 150; No. 104: (Joh ns ton). 137; (Reyno lds). 11'6. 217: N os. 124, 125; (Strachan) . 155. 150. 170; N o . lOS: (Welch) . 135. 130. 137. 138

pier tab les. )2 : Fig . 20: (T u fft), 187 Pinto. J oseph, 76 Plurnsted, C lem ent, 131: teakettle on stand o w ne d b y (Richa rds o n) . 78. 119. 131; No . 88 Plu m stcd , Mary C ur ry , 131 Plymouth. Engl and , porcelain pr od uced at, 7. 2)4, 236, 23<): N o . 170 Pompad o ur highbo y, 202, 20 5; N o . 138 porcelain, 9. 12, 2)4 , 230 , 23<); N o s. 169-173 portrait-bust finials, 205 , 208 : N o s. IH- 140 portrait bu sts, 205. 20 8; (Berna rd and jugiez), 20 5; (Chee re), 205: (Fo lw ell) . 20 5; (Wedg wood). 20 5, 208 portraits : (C o pley), 39, 135. 137, 138, 14 2. 156: Nos. 89- <) 1: Figs . 33, )4 ; (D ur and) . 156: N o. 105; (Kilb u rn) . 7, 15 5, 156; Nos. 103. 104: (Mcllwo rth) , 156; (Peale). 180. 217; N os . 124, 125; (Stuart) , 92; (T heus), 170, 172: N o . 114; Fig . 41 ; (T ru m b ull). 92; (Wo llasto n) , 156, 170, 172; No. 115 Po rt sm o ut h, New H am pshire, 21: ar chitectural decora tion from, 18, 21; furniture produ ced in, 135, 152, 174 Po w el, Elizabe th Willin g. 28 Po wcl, Samuel , 28; hou se of, Ph ilad elphia, 28. 184, 227; Fig . 14 Prices of Cabinet & C hair Work (Price Book). 13 3-)4 , 184-85. 190, 191, 194 . 196. 1<)8. 199, 21I . 213 Prince, Samuel. 154. 155; card tables by , 101; ches ts by, 102: furn itu re label of, 52, 154-55. 162; Fig . 37; linen presses by. 162 Principles of Oru amcut , or the Youth '5 Gil ide to Drawing ofFoliage, Th e (Loc k) , 2; titl e page of, Fig . 2 pr in ted ephemera, 3. 5, 37, 39. 4<)-52. 54. 84; see <1150 bill he ads ; bookplates ; certifica tes; furniture label s; invitations; order blanks; trade cards Prior. M atth ew . 181 punch bo wl (H eath). 113

Q Q uai'. M aur ice, I Q uee n Anne style, 189; in furnitu re , 135, 184-85: in silver work, 77. 78, 84. 9 1, 103. 10 5 Queen Anne's War ( 1702- 13). 1)4 Q uinc y. J osiah, jr.. 13 5. 168

R Ran d o lph , Benj am in , 54, 183, 184, 210; advertiseme n t d on e for (Sm ither), 3<), 183: No. )2 ; ar chitectural carving b y.

214: led ger s o f, 183; tr ade ca rd o f

(Smi th er), 7, 54, 183; N o . 32 Rand olph, M ar y W. Fen n imo re . 210 Randolph, Peyt on , 174 Ra y , Co rne lius, 124 Ray, Rich ard , 124 ; p ortrait s o f th e fam ily of (D urand) , 156 Ray , Sara h Bo gart, 124 Read , C ha rles, 220, 22 2 Read. C ha rles, J r., 222 Reading (Re d ding) Furnace, Sch uy lki ll Valle y , Penns yl van ia, 227. 230; stove pl at es pr oduced b y. 227-28: N o. 104 Rem sen, D orothea, 92 Remsen, Pet er, 9 2 Revere , P aul , 38; acco un t b o oks (Day Books) o f, 39 , 40 , 40, 49 , 51, 74, 75, 80 , 83 , 89 . 9 3, 95, 99 , " 7, 120 :

bo okplat es eng raved b y , 39, 40 , 42 , 96, 110 ; N o s. 10, 17 ; butter b o at s, 83 : N o . 49: canns, 83, 106; N o. 49 ; ce rtifica tes eng rav ed b y, 39, 52 ; N o . 29; coffee pot s m ar ked b y , 7. II, 71, 83 , 95 -90, 99: 97; N o s. 47 ,49, rio; co p ies of eng ravings b y, 46, 85; crea m pots m arked b y. 80, 83 . 93. 11 0 ; N o . 58: as eng rav er, 37 -38 , 39 , 49, 51, 74, 75,85, 93; as Fr eemason , 39, 51; as golds m ith , 75 ; m ap ca rto uc he s eng ra ve d b y. 59 ; maturity in th e ro co co sty le of, 51; music book en g raved b y, 40; n ew spaper illustration s b y . 46 ; n otificati ons o f m eetin gs eng raved b y, 51; N o . 28 ; porringer s, 83; printed ep he mera eng ra ved b y, 51-52; N o s. 27 -29; Revolution ar y acti vities of, 39 ; salver m arked b y, 42, 11 0 , 174: N o . 71; sauc eb oars marked by , 114; N o . 49 ; as silvers m ith, 37, 39, 74 , 75, 85; sn u ffers m ark ed b y, 126 ; sn u ffer " d ish" m ark ed by, 120; spo on s m arked b y , 83 ; N o . 49 ; su gar di sh es mark ed b y , 80,93, 110; N o . 58: tankard m arked b y, 83; teapot en graved b y (?), 85; No. 50; te ap ots m ark ed b y. 4. 77. 80, 83, 85 , 87,96, 131; Nos. 49, 51: tea se rv ice m arked b y. 83 . 85, 96 , 114. 122: 97; No. 49; tea ton gs m ark ed b y, 83; N o . 49 ; tr ad e card s engraved b y. 5, 37, 39, 51, 220; N os. 13, 27; trainin g o f, 39. 75; whistl e recorded b y , \ \7 Re yn olds, J am es, 28 , 184, 18 5, 20 5: look-

.in g- gla ss fr ames by, 187, 189 , 217; N o. 127; Fig . 45 ; pi cture fr am es b y , 180, 217; N os. 124, 12 5; wa ll bracket b y (?), 190; N o. 128 Rhett, William, h ou se o f, C ha rleston , 35 Rhode Island , sil ver pr odu ced in , 73 Richard, William , 228

Rich ardson , J oseph , 77-7':1. , 10 7, 131 ; accou nt books of, 80, 104: coffee p ot m arked by. 78 , 88. 104 , 113: No. 05 : as execu to r o f Hulbearr 's esta te, 9 1: shoe buc kles m ad e in th e sho p of. 117, " 9 ; silve r imported fro m En gl an d b y , 80, 89, 91, 99 . 101, 104, 11 5, 117, 11 9 , 120:

sn uff bo xes m arked by, 11 9: No . 80 ; suga r dish m ark ed by, 87, 88, 104; teak ettle on sta n d ma rked by, 4. 78. 11 9, 131: 70; N o . 88; teap ot ma rked by, 87: N o . 52 Ri ch ey. Geo rge , 155 Riem er. Piet er d e. 76. 83; crea m po t m ar ked b y , 87, 91, 92 . 131; N o . 4 8; lad le m ark ed b y, 124 ; No. 84; sugar di sh m ar ked b y , 87, 9 1; No. 48; teap ot ma rked b y , 87. 9 1: N o. 4 8: tea se t m ar ked b y , 80 . 9 1, 92: N o . 48 rifle s, sec fir earms Rin g go ld . T ho mas, 28 ; hou se of, C hestertown, Mar yland , 28 Rittenh ou se, D avid, 183, 205 Ri vingt on, J am es, 58, 154 Riv in g to n & B ro wn, N ew Yo rk an d Philadelphi a, 154, 183 Ri voi re, Ap oll os, 39, 75 rococo sty le: ch ar acteristi cs of, I , 37; C hi nese mode of, 4 , 123. 13.1. 10 8- 09. 175: in Englan d, 2-4, 7, 54, 7 1; fantasy and w h imsy o f, 37, 239 : in France, 1-2; Fren ch , or Modern. m ode of, 4, 123 ; Go thic mode of, 4 , 123, 133: in Ireland , 123; m aturit y of. in Europe, 70: n aturalism an d , 37: ori gin s o f, I ; o rna m en tal nature o f. 3. 4 , 12. 72 : pat ron s o f, 4 ; pen ch ant for floutin g co nvention of, 84: su pplan ted b y neocl assicism , 5, 17 S. 17 8

ro co co sty le. in Ame rica, 4-7, 9- 13, IS: an ima l allus io ns , as m otif in , 91, 131; as ap p rox ima tion o f London rococo . 00; ca rto uc hes. as signa ture m otif o f, 84; co lo n ial modifi cati on s o f, as reacti on aga ins t En gland 's d om in ati on , S9, 0 4; econ omic co ns ide ra tio ns in th e de velopm ent o f. 37, 7 1. 78 : effec t o f Rev olution o n, 11-1 2, IS, 78 ; E ng lish prototypes as influen ce o n, S. 7, 9 , IS, 18, 37, 38, 40, 42, 47, 49, S2, 54, 234, 230 , 239 ; E ur o pea n influ en ce on, 12: hum an allu sio ns, as m otif in. 42, 89 -9 1. 121. 131 ,202. 20S , 210; im po rta nce of immigrant ar tisa ns to, 5, 7, 9 . 20, 39, 49, 71, 229 ; imported goods. in flue nce o n. 0-7, 9, 71, 219: int ro d uc tio n o f, fro m En gland. 5-7: late flo w erin g o f, in rural areas . 68 ; nonimportati on ag ree me n ts, effect o n . 10- 11. 15. 71,

134 , 153, 184 , 187, 219. 227, 229. 234;

pat ro nage fo r, 9, 17, 71. 78 . 23 4: pol itical clima te . as co ntex t for develop me nt of, 9- 12,83, 183; post-Revolu tionary m ot ifs in , 04; reg ional character of. 9; su p p lanted by neoclassicism, 12. 78, 90; urb an environ me n t necessary to the development of, 9. IS, 4 2, 71: sec also arc hi tec tural carving . d eco ration. and o rna ment: cas t iron ; eng ravi ngs; furniture (fu rni tu re rna king): glass: porcela in: silver Ro o sevelt, N icholas. 70. 83. 117: w histle an d bell s m ark ed by. 117; No. 77 Ross, J oh n , 85, 184 : tea po t of (Revere), 85 , 87: N o . 51 royal governo r 's chair (Elfe and Hu tchinso n). 10 5. 108; Fig . 40 Ru scles. J ames, 220 Ru sh , Benj amin , 234 Ru ssell. Walter. 109 R y ves an d Fle tche r, Ph iladelp h ia. 17

s Saint And rew 's Lod ges. Bos to n. 51: notifica tio n of m eeting for (Revere) . SI Saint M artin 's Lan e Acad em y, Lond on . 2. 5 Saint Mi ch ael' s C hurch. Cha rles ton. 3S Saint Paul's C ha pe l, N ew Yo rk C ity. 22, 2 S; in terior o f. Fig . 11 Saint Pet er's Lod ge, N ew b ur yp o rt . SI; notificati on o f m eetin g fo r (Reve re), SI: N o . 28 Sale m : furniture p ro du ced in . 135, 147. IS2; silve r produ ced in , 7 1 , 99 salve rs, 94, 110, 113. 174; (Fue ter) , 76. 11 3: N o . 74 ; (Hea th) , 94. 113; No. 73: (Myers), 70 , 110 : N o. 72: (Peas ron) , 174; (Reve re), 42. 110. 174; N o . 71; (Sy ng) , 78 , 101 , 11 3; No. 75 Sar g ent . Epes, 40 : boo k plat e of (Reve re) . 40 . 4 2; N o . 16 Sar gent, Paul Dudley , 96 sau ccb oars, porcelain: (A me rica n C hina M anufact ory), 7, 230; N o . 169: (Live rpool, Engl and), 236: (Ply mo uth Factory. En gl and), 7. 230 : N o . 170 sa uceboa rs, silve r, 114: (H u m ph reys). 114 , 2 30 ; N o . 70; (Re vere), 114; N o . 49 Savage. Mrs . Samuel P. , portrait of (Co pley), 137 Savage, Sam uel P., 137 Save ry , Willi am. 18 S Sch uy ler . Philip, 11 3 Sch uy ler famil y. 9 . 76, 110. 11 3 Schu yler M ansion, Alban y. 22

Sco tt. Pet er . 166. 167: cha irs b y. 167: tab les b y. 167: tea tab le fro m the sho p of. 174: No. 117 scroll fin ials. 204: N o . 140 Scu ll. N ich ol as. 63: m ap s o f Pen n sylv ani a by . 3') . 63: pla n o f Phi lad elphia. eng rav ing afte r (Dawkins"), 59. 63: N o . 40 Sears. Will iam Bern ard . 31. 32 se ttees. 14 7. 153: (P rince). ISS: 217: N o . 99 Sha r pe . H o ratio . 3 1: h ouse o f. near Ann ap o lis. 3 1: Figs. 17. 18 shiel d fini als. 204: No . 139 shi pb uilding. 135. 136 shoe b uc kles . 11 5. 117. 119: (Mye rs). 117. 11 9: N o . 78 side cha irs. 5. 7. 9. 135. 130 . 147. 151. 105. 183. 209: Nos. 90. 97. 100 . 101. 112. 148: (A fflec k). 214: N o . 155: (Be rna rd and Ju g iez?). 209; N o. 147: (W illett). 155 silve r. 12. 71-131 . 210. 219: absence of govern ment regulation in th e p ro d uc tio n of. 74: advert ise men ts . as do cum entati on for th e m aker s o f. 9. 74. 76. 77. 78. 9 1. 104. 107: app re nt ices hip. jou rney ma n sys te m an d. 74: b alu ste r sha pe u sed in . 10 5. 107. 127: b ask et s. 11 5. 121- 23. 127: N o s. 81. 82: bird fini als used in . 92: bow ls. 108-9: N o s. 69. 70: butter b o at s. 83; N o . 49: canns, 83. 105. 106. 109. 127: N o . 49: cartou ch es on. 72. 84. 85. 91. 96. 101. 100. 108. 109. 110. 11 3. 114. 11 9 . 121. 124. 126. 127. 129: cas ting o n. 72. 84. 92• 93. 96. 101. 103. 106. 11 3. 114 . lI S. 117. 121. 123. 124. 120. 127. 129. 131: chas ing o n . 72.73.74.70.77.78.8 4.85.87.89.91. 92.93.94.96. 101. 103. 104. 109. 11 3. lIS. 117. II 9. 127. 131: coasters. 121: co ffee po ts . 71. 72. 75. 78. 80. 83. 88. 9192.95-90.99. 101. 103- 4. 113. 129; 97. 99: N o s. 40. 47. 49. 00 -05: Figs. 20. 29: crea m pots. 80 . 83. 85. 87. 89.9 1-92. 93 .94. 110. 121. 131. 229: N o s. 4 8 • 55. 56. 58. 59: crue t sta n ds. 124 . 126: N o . 85: di sh rin gs. 115. 121. 123: Fig. 30: double-bellied sha pe used in . 72 . 84. 89 .91.93.96. 104. 127. 131: ea rliest ind ica tio ns o f rococo style in . 5. 71. 75 . 78. 121: eco nom ic fac to rs in pr odu cti on of. 121: En gl ish . 2. 7 1. 73. 74. 77. 99. 11 5. 121. 127. 129. 131: N o . 46; Fig s. 26. 27: eng rav ing o n. 3. 37. 7 2• 74. 76 • 84. 85.87.96.99. 101. 105-8 . 110. 113. 11 5. 123. 127. 129. 131.2 30: ewer . 91: fish slices. 121. 123-24; N o . 83 : foreigntr ain ed spec ialis ts. importan ce in th e pr odu cti on of. 9. 71. 74-78. 92. 10 1. 104 . 123. 131: im porte d fro m Englan d .

75 . 77. 78. 80 . 88 . 92 . 99. 101. 103. 10 4. 115 , II 7 , 119 , Il l. 12 2 , 12 6 , 142 :

im-

ported from Ireland. 123: influen ced b y English prototyp es. 85. 88. 99. 101. 103-0. 109. " 3. 114 . 119. 121. 123 . 124, 131: jug s. 76. 100 , 127: N o. 87: ladl e. 124: N o . 84: m ak er s' marks on. 73. 74. 76: mu gs. 100; n eocl assi cal clements o f, 96: nonimpo rt ati on ag ree men ts. effec t o n produ cti on o f. 71, 78; pat ronag e for. 71-72.75-78.85. 115. 121. 122: pier cin g o n, 72, 73. 76. 115. 119, 121- 23. 127. 236: p in eapple fini als used in, 93 . 96. 103: political climate. effe ct o n pr odu cti on of. 83. 95-90 : porringer s. 83; proced ures and m eth ods o f produ cing . 7374: punch bowl. 11 3: Qu een Anne sty le o f. 77, 78• 84, 91. 103, lOS: rep ousse decoration o n. scc chasi ng o n: salts, 121: sa lve rs, 94 , 110, 11 3, 174: N os . 71-75: sauce bo ats, 114 : N o . 70; sha pe s of. in rococo st yle, 72. 84, 85. 87, 89. 91, 93, 90 . 99 . 101. 103-5. 108. 127: shoe bu ckles. " 5. 117. " 9 : sn uff bo xes . " 5. 119: N o . 80: sn uffer sta nds. 120: N o . 86 : spoons, 83. 121: N o . 49: su gar cas te r, 85: suga r di sh es, 80. 87, 88. 89, 91- 93, 110. 131: N os . 56- 58: tank ards. 83, 105-7. 108. 109. 127: N os . 66-68: teak ettl es, 75. 11 5, 127, 129: teak ettl es o n sta n ds. 77. 78. 80, " 9. 129, 131: 70: N o . 88: Figs. 20. 27: teap ots, 72 . 77. 80 . 83, 84-85, 87-88 . 91. 92, 99. 101. 103. 104, 127. 131 : N o s. 49- 54: Fig . 28: tea se ts an d se rv ices . 77. 80. 83, 85,91, 92,96, 114 , 122. 131: 97: N o s. 48. 49; Fig . 27; tea ton gs, 83; N o . 49 ; tea urns. 101, 127. 129: Fig . 31: as urban lu xury, 71. 99; w his tle. 117; whistl es an d bell s. 11 5.117 six- plate stoves: (E liza be th Furnace), 227: (Ho pewell Furnace). 5, 4 5. 223; N o . 160 Sk illin , John. 136: chest-en-c hes t b y , 136 Ski llin, Simeon, 135. 130 Skillin, Simeon, jr. , 130; chest-on-c hest b y. 136 slab tabl es, 4. 133. 183. 191-92. 202. 217; N o s. 129. 130 Smith , Isaac. portrait of (Copley). 142 Smith . Mrs. Isaac. portrait o f (C o pley). 142 Smither. J am es. 39. 54. 90: adve rtisem ents b y. 39. 47. 183: N os . 32. 33: tr ade ca rds eng rave d b y , 7. 54, 57. 183: N o s. 32. 33 sn u ff b o xes. 11 5. 119; (M ye rs). 11 9: N o . 79: (Ric ha rdson) . 119: N o . 80 sn u ffe rs. 126 sn uffer sta n ds , 126: (Mye rs). 120: (Reve re). 126: (Sy ng). 126: N o . 86

so fas. 211: N o . ISO: (A fflec k), 214: (Fleeson), 185: (Pr ince) . 155 Somm er s. Humphrey . house of. C ha rles ton . 35: Fig . 22 Spea ke r's Cha ir (Fo lwell), 183, 213 spoons (Reve re), 83; N o . 49 sta ircases , 17. 18, 21; Fig. 7 St amp Act ( 1765), 10, 153 St amper , J ohn. 28; ho u se of. Phi lad elphia. 28; Fig. 13 stan da rd o f th e Philadelphia Light H orse tr oo p (Fo lwell an d C lay poole). 0. 15. 89: Fig . 4 Ste d man, C harles. 28, 225 . 227: house o f. Ph ilad elphi a, 28 Stevenson . Co rneli us, 19 5 St evens on . H amil ton , 170 St even son. J ohn . 170 Stiege l, H enr y Will iam , II . 225 . 227. 230 . 231: tab le glass b y, 229 -3 1; sa also Am eri can Flint Glass M anu fact ory ; Elizab eth Furnace sto newa re. 2]4. 236 stove pl at es. 220 . 223, 225, 227; (Ba tsto Furnace). 222 ; (Eliza be th Fu rnace), 225, 227: (Ho pewel l Furnace). 225 ; N o . 101: (Ma rlbo ro Furn ace). 5, 225: N o . 102 ; (Rea d ing Furnace), 227 -28; N o. 104 stoves, 5. 223, 225: (Ba tsto Fu rnace), wooden pattern fo r cas ting side pl at e of. 228: N o . 16 5: (E lizabeth Furnace). 5, 223. 225, 227; N o . 163; (Hopewell Furn ace), 5. 45, 223. 225: N o . 160 : front pl at e from . N o . 161: (Ma rl boro Furn ace). plat e from. 5, 225; N o. 162 St rac han. J am es. 154. 156; lo o k in g-gl ass frames b y. 155; picture fra mes b y, 155, 150. 170: No. 10 5 Stratford H all . St ra tford , Vi rgi ni a. 174 Stua rt , Gil bert, 92 stucco wo rk, 17. 28, 29, 35, 175 Suga r Act ( 1704). 10. 153 sugar-a nd-c ream se ts: (Mye rs), 91-9 2; N o. 56; (Revere). 93 . 110; N o . 58 suga r cas te r (Cobu rn) . 85 suga r d ish es, 80. 89; (Lansing). 5, 88. 92-93. 131; No. 57; (Myers). 91-<)2; N o . 50: (Revere) . 80, 93, 11 0: N o . 58: (Richa rdson). 78, 87, 88. 104; (R iem er). 87. 91: N o . 48 Swan . Abrah am. 6, 18, 21, 26, 28; pattern books b y: Th e British A rchitect: O r, the Bu ilder's T reasury 4 S tair-Cases, 6. 18, 21.29.3 1.32 . 183; co py afte r (No rm an ). 6. 68; N O.4: engraving fro m . N O. 3: Co llection of D csiy ns ill A rchitcc-

turc, 0, 28 Sympso n. Sa muel. 94 Syng. P hilip. J r .. 77. 78. 99. 107. 108-9:

bowl m ark ed b y. lOS: N o . 09: can ns m arked b y. 109; co ffee p ot m ar ked by, 7S. 101. 103. 10-1. " 3: N o. 02: as executo r of Hulbcarts est ate. 91; ink st and marked b y . 120-2 7; sa lve r m arked b y. 7S. 101. 11 3: N O· 75: sn u ffer sta n d m arked b y. 120: N o. So: teap ot m arked b y. 87 : N o . 53; w h istle and b ells so ld b y, 117

T tabl e glass , 229-30, 23I: (A m erica n Flint G lass Manufactory), 229-3°: N o . 1M : (N ew Br emen G lass ma n ufacto ry), 23 1-32; N o s. 107, lOX tables, -I. 32 , 135, 1-1 7, 152, 155, 159, 101. 107. 17-1-75, 177. IX5. 217: N o s . 9X. 102, 106- 109, " 7-121 : Fig . 20 tabl eware, 23-\, 230 tall clo ck s, 66. 199, 20-1 tan kards, 105, 106, lOS. 127: (B ay ly). 107; N o. 68 : (B rad fo rd , W .. Jr. ). 107; N o. 67; (Myers). 70, 100-7: N o . 00; (Reve re), X3; (Van D yck ). 109 tassel-back chairs, 105; No. 112 T aylo e. John , 31: ho u se o f, War saw. Virgin ia, 32; tabl e fro m, 32 ; Fig . 20 T ea A ct (1773). X3. 95 teak ettles, 75 , 11 5, 127. 129 teak ettles on sta nds, 129 : (La merie) , 77, 80, 131: Fig. 27; (R icha rdson), -I. 7X. " 9, 13 I; 70; N o . 88 teap ot s, 5, 72 , 80. 8-1-85. 87- 88, 92. 99, 101. 103- -1 . 127: (Cob u rn) , 8-1 -x5 . X7; N o . 50; (H ur d . j. ), 5, 8-1, x5 ; Fig. 2X; (Lewyn), 87-88; No. 5-1; (Reve re) , -I, 77,80, X3 , 85. 87,90. 131; 85: N os . -19, 51; (Richa rdson), X7; No. 52; (R ieme r). X7, 91; N o. -18; (Syng), 87; N o . 53 tea se ts an d se rv ices . xo , 83 ; (La m erie), 77. So, 131; Fig . 27: (Revere). X3. S5, 90. 11-1, 122; 97; N o . -19; (R iemer) . 80. 91. 92 : N o . -IS tea tabl es, 159. 101 . 17-1 . I90-9S; N o s. 100, 1° 7, 11 8, 135; (Be rna rd and jugiez') . 190-97; N o . 133: (B u rling) . 159; (C o urten ay ?). 197; N o . 13-\; (E lfe), 109. 175; (G illing ha m) . 190; (Sco tt). 17-1; N o. 117: (T re ma in) . 159 te a ton gs (Reve re), 83: N o . -19 tea urns. 90 . 101. 127, 129: (B ras her). 129; Fig. 31 ten-pl at e stove. 5. 223 . 227: N o . 103: (Ba ts to Furn ace). w oode n pattern for casting side pl at e o f, 22X; N o . 165: (Rea d ing Furn ace). stove plat e for. 227-28; N o . 10-1

te xtiles, 12. 13. 15: N o . 10: Fig . -I T he us, J er emiah. 170: portrait s b y, 170. 172; N o . 11-1; Fig. -II Th omson . C ha rles, -1 7. 90 . 99 -10 1 T olm an, Farr, X-I T olm an, H ann ah Fayer w earher. X-I T ownsend. Peter. 155 T ownshend A ct s ( 1707). 10. II. S3, 9 5 tr ad e ca rds . 5. 37. -1 9-51. 5-1, S-I: No. 12; (Co plan d), .n; (Da w kins). 52. 5-1: N o. 30: (H ur d. N .). 3X. 50-5 1: N o . 20; (H urt). 52: Fig . 25; (Jo hn ston) . 3S. -19-50; N o . 25: (Reve re) , 5, 37. 39. 51. 220 : N o s. 13, 27: (Sm ithe r) , 7, 5-1, 57, IX3; N o s. 32. 33 T rcasurv of Dcsiyns (Lang ley) . IX Trem ain . John. 159: tea tables b y , 159 Trumbull, J ohn , 92 Tufft. Th omas. IS-I. I9X; furn iture label o f. IX-I: Fig . -1-1 ; hi gh ches t b y. 20-1; pier tab le b y. 187 T u rner. Jam es, 39, -1 5. (1I : bo okpl at es eng raved b y . 7. -10. -1 5: N o . 21: m ap s engraved b y. 39, 59. 01, 02, 03 ; No . 3X; teap ot eng rav ed b y (') . X-I: Fig. 2X Turner , M ar y Kin g. 202 Turn er . William . 202

U United States o f Am erica, eng rave d m ap o f (Bue ll) , 59, 6-1; N o. -12

Universal S vstcm (~r H owlwld Furniture, Th e (ln ce and M ayhew). 3, 5-1. ' 52, 109. IS3. 192 uphol st er y (u pho lstered furniture), 17, 135, 1-17, 153. lOS, IXO. 211. 213, 21-1; N o s. 99. 122. 1-19-1 53. 155; (Fleeso n). IX5. 2 1-1 : (We bs te r). IX5. 21-1

Urania, or A C hoice Collection ofPsalmTIIII CS, Anthems, lind Hymn s (Lyon) . -1 0: engrav ing s in (Da w k ins) , -10; titl e pag e o f, -1 0; No. 23 urn fini als (v ase fini als). 20-1: N o. 1-12

v Valoi s. G ab riel. IXO Van C ortl andt . Pierre, 11 3 Van Co rtlan d t H ou se. B ron x . 22 Van D yck , Ri ch ard, 70, 109; b o wl m ark ed b y. 109: N o . 70: tan kards marked by . 109 Van Pelt fam ily. 191 . 202 Van Rens selaer, Ca ther ine Livin gst on, 25 Van Rens sela er, J erem ias, -1 2: bo ok p lat e of (Ga llaude t), -1 2. -1 5; N o . 20

Van Ren ssela er . Phil ip . -1 2: bookpla te of (Bill ings) . 5. -1 2; co pper plate for . No. 19; house o f. n ear Al ban y. -1 2 Van Ren ssela er . Philip Sc huyler. So Van Ren ssel aer . Ste phe n . II, 23. 25. 101; m an or hou se of, Alban y: 22. 23, 25. 155. 101: ent rance hall. 5. 25: Fig . 10 Van Ren ssel aer fam ily. 9. -12, 92, 101. 102. I( Van Vechten fami ly. 159 Van Vo orhis fa m ily. 12-1, 120 Vassall , J ohn. house of. Cambridge. IX, 21. 135 Verplan ck, Judith Cro m mclin, 75. 10-1 Verplan ck , Sa m uel. 75, 10-1 , 1(' 5 V irginia: arch itec ture in. 31-32: cas t iro n wor k p rodu ced in , 219. 225: engraved clo ck di als from . 60: firear m s from. 12. 13: N O· 9: furniture pr o du ced in , 133

w W ait e. Ezr a, 35. 109 wa ll br ack et s. 190: (Rey nolds"). 190: No. 12X; d esi gn for (J ohnson ). 190: Fig . -1 0 'wa llp ape r, scc pap er han gin gs (wallpaper) Warren. J ohn . 52; ce rtifica te of atte nda nce at lec tures by (Revere). 52; No . 29 Washin gton. G eor ge . 32. 100. 121 . 183: en graved g lass goblets give n to , 23 1: as Fr eem ason, IXI : fur ni ture owned by. 175: go ld box pr esented to, 93: h o use o f. M ount Vern on . 3I; Fig . 19: silver cr ue t sta nd acq u ired by, 120; visit to J ohn Ca d v:'a lade r by, IX5 Webb. J o seph. 5I. 220: tr ad e card of (Revere). 51. 220 ; No . 27 We bs te r. J ohn . IX5: uphol st er y covers by. IX5. 21-1 W ed g w o od. J o siah . "basalrc" bus ts by. 205. 208 Welch, John . 135, 130; pi cture frames by. 135. 13 0, 137. I3 X Welch . J os eph , 37; tr ade card of. 5..n; N o . 12 Well es. Thom as. 8-1 -x5: teap ot of (Co b u rn), X5, 87; N o . 50 Went w orth-G ardner hou se, Portsm outh . 21 West o ver . near William sbur g . 3I. 175 WI13rt on . Th om as. 239 Whidd en, Mi ch ael. Ill, 21 Whiph am and Wright. Lo ndon, So, 10-1 Whipple. W illi am . 152 w h istle (Reve re). 117 w histles an d bell s. 11 5. 117: (Fue rer). 121 ; (Roosevel t). 117: No. 77; (Sy ng) . 117 W h ite h" ll. near An n ap oli s, 31; ent rance hall o f, 31: Fig . 1x: pl an and elevations of, 31: Fig . 17

Wh itin g . Stephen, 1.17 -3S Willen, M arinu s, 1(, 1; armc hairs by . 15 5; card tables b y. 1(,1; side cha irs by. 155; wi nd ow co rnic es by . 155 William s. J ohn. I.p Williamsbur g. Virg ini a. 3 1. 1(,(,; furn itur e carve rs immigra tin g to . 13+ ; furni ture pr odu ced in. 13+ . IM - (,S. 17+- 7 5. ISO- SI

Will iam s farnily. fra m e fo r th e co at of arms o f. I.p ; o . 9 2 Wilso n. j am es. 1(,7 ; capito l chair artrib ut cd to. 1('7 . I(,S; Fig . 39 W ilso n . Mrs. Algerno n. portrait of (T heus). ' 70 ; Fig . +' Winckler. J o hn . 7 S. 10 -1 w indow co rnices (W illett). 155 Wistar . C aspar. 20 + Wis rar . M ar y Frankl in . 20 + Woll aston . Jo hn. 15(,. 170 ; portrait s b y. 15(,. 170. 17 2 ;

N o. 115

Wood . J o hn . (,(, Wood. Samuel. 12(, Wood cock . Bancroft. 99 Woodin . T ho ma s. 35 . 1(,9 . 172; fram e ca rve d by (?). 17 2 ; o . 11(, Worcest er, En g land . po rcelain p ro du ced at. 23+ . 23(,

y Yale Collcgc . N ew H av en , 5S Yeates, j asp er . 9

z Z ane, Isaac. 2 25

Photograph A ck n o wledgmenrs The following pho togra p hs are repro d uced thro ugh th e cour tesy of th ese in st itution s: Fig . 5. M assachu set ts Ins titu te of Tec h no logy. Retch Lib ra ry Visu al Collec tio ns; Fig . S. So ciet y for th e Pr eser vation of N ew Eng la nd Anti qu it ies; Fig . 9. Yonke rs Hi sto rical So ciety; Fig s. 12. q . Ph iladelphi a Mu seum of Art; Fig . 19 , Th e M oun t Ve rn o n Lad ies' A sso ciati on ; Fi g . 20, Mu seum of Early South ern D eco rati ve Art s; Fig . 24. A m e ri ca n A nt iqu ari an Socie ty; Fi gs . 25. 44 , T he Win terthur Libr a ry . Fig . 23 o rig inal ly ap pea red in Ed wa rd A . C ra ne an d E . E . So de rh o ltz , Exa m ples of Co lon ial A rcuitcctu rc in So uth Caro li na an d Gcorgill (New York : Bru n o H ess lin g. n.d .). Pla te 12.

Photograph Credits All ph ot o gr aph s are b y D av id Alli son. excep t for tho se ac know ledge d above and th e fo llowing : N o s . 13, 15- /7. 22-2 4. 27 -29 , Am eri can Ant iq uari an Society; Fig . S. D ou g las Arrn sd cn : N o s. 100, 106 , Gav in A sh w o rt h ; N O. 5. Ave r y Lib rar y ; Nos. 92. 110. Luk e Beck erd ite: N o s. 26, 3S. T he J o h n Ca rte r Br o wn Librar y; N o . 1.12 . Will B ro w n ; N o. 10 2. T he Ca rn eg ie M useu m o f Art ; N o s. 130. 138. 150. 155. Fig . 38 . R ichard C heek; N o s. " 7, 11 9. 123. Figs. 39, 4 2. 47. Colo n ia l Willi am sbur g ; Nos . 166. 167 , Th e Co rn ing Mu seum of G lass; Fig s. 6. 7. Fr ank Co usins ; N o . 159, J o sep h C rilley ; Fig . 4. Fi rs t Tro op Ph ilad elph ia C ity Cava lry ; N O. 9. Geo rge Fistro vi ch : No . 90 , Figs. 33. .14, H ar vard Uni ver sit y Art M useum s; Nos. 80. 129, H el g a Ph o to Stu d io; N o . 170, H ig h Mu seum of Art; N o . 39 , T he H is to r ical Soc ie ty of Penn s ylvani a; Fi g . 28 , H o o d Mu seum of Art ; Nos . 169 , 173. Sc hec te r Lee; N o . ]2 , Lib ra r y Co mpany of Ph ilad el phia; No. 45, N ath an Liv er an t and So n; N o s. 120, 162, H ans E . Lo ren z; N o . 108. Lo s An g eles Co unty M useum of A rt ; Fig . 40, M cK issick Mu seu m ; No . 168, M ar yland H istorical Soc ie ty; N o s. 44, 50, 85 , Am an d a M eru llo : N o s. 1- 4. 6, 12, q , IS21,35 ,37, 41, 157, 16 5, 172, Figs. 1- 3, 10. 21, 23. 26, 27, 36, 46, 48, Ph ot o Stud io , T he M etr opolitan Mu seum of Art; Fig . 37, M useum o f the C ity of N ew York ; N o s. 64, 11 5, 11 8, Figs. 41, 43, M useum o f Early So uth ern Deco ra tive Art s; N o s. 47, 51 , 58- 61, 71, SI, 93, !OI , M useum o f Fin e Art s, Bo s to n ; No. 72 , T he Mu seum of Fin e Art s, H ou sto n ; No . 42, Na tiona l Geog ra p h ic So ciety; N o s. I I , 30. 36, T he N ew-York H istorical Soc ie ty ; N os. 31, 40 , T he N ew York Pu bli c Librar y ; N o . 48 , J ohn P arn el l; N o s. 4 3, 124 . 125. Fig . 45. Ph ilad el ph ia Mu seu m o f A rt ; Fig. 15. 16 , Pi cke rin g Stud io; Nos . 116. 121, Ter ry Ri ch a rd son ; Fig . 35. Israel Sack, Inc. , N .Y .C. ; Fig . 31 , Te r ry Sc ha n k; No . 46, M ar k Sex ton; No. 16 4 , T h e Sr a t c Mu seum of P ennsyl vani a; Fig . .12 , Tay lo r an d Dull ; Fig . 22 , Te bbs and Kn ell, In c. ; Fig. 29. Vir gin ia Mu seu m of Fine A rt s; Figs. 17. ;S, M. E . Warr en ; N o . 25, T he Winte rthur Libr ar y ; N o s. 33 , .14. II I , 128, 137, Fig . 13, Winterth ur Mu seum ; Fig . II , W urts Br o s. ; N o . 136. Fig . 30, Yale Univer sity Art Ga lle ry . Frontispieces: eng rav ings , The New- York H isto ri cal Soc ie ty; fu rni ture. Phi ladelp h ia Museu m of A rt.