Archaeological Survey of the Knossos Area (British School of Archaeology , Athens, Publications)

ARCHAEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF THE KNOSSOS AREA (second edition,revisedand expanded)

SINCLAIR HOOD and DAVID SMYTH of theKnossos Area by Neil Roberts witha sectionon the PhysicalEnvironment The text largelycompiledby SinclairHood, the SurveyMap draftedby David Smythand traced by PatriciaClarke,the Map of the Knossos region(FIG. 1) plannedby Neil Robertsand tracedby PatriciaClarke,the PeriodMaps (FIGS. 2-6) devisedby SinclairHood on the basis of the SurveyMap and tracedby PatriciaClarke.

SUPPLEMENTARY VOLUME No. 14

Publishedby THE BRITISH SCHOOL AT ATHENS THAMES AND HUDSON 1981

1981 © The BritishSchool at Athens

ISBN 0 500 690 151

Printedin GreatBritainat the Alden Press OxfordLondon and Northampton

To theMemory of Vasilakis Spiro 1907-1980

CONTENTS ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

vii

ABBREVIATIONS

ix

INTRODUCTION (SinclairHood and David Smyth)

1

THE PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT OF THE KNOSSOS AREA (Neil Roberts)

5

HISTORY OF THE KNOSSOS AREA (SinclairHood)

6

Neolithicand BronzeAge (Minoan)Knossos (c. 6000-1000 B.C.) NeolithicKnossos (c. 6000-3000 B.C.) MinoanKnossos from(c. 3000-1450 B.C.) MinoanKnossos from(c. 1450-1000 B.C.) Shrinesand sanctuaries Roads Quarries

6 6 6 11 14 14 15

GreekKnossos fromthebeginningof the earlyIronAge untilthe Roman conquest(c. 1000-67 B.C.) EarlyIronAge Knossos (c. 1000-500 B.C.) Classicaland HellenisticKnossos (c. 500-67 B.C.) Defences Temples,shrinesand sanctuaries

16 16 18 19 20

Romanand laterKnossos (from67 B.C. onwards) RomanKnossos (67 B.C.-c. 400 A.D.) Roman aqueduct Roman tombsand cemeteries EarlyByzantineKnossos (c. 400-827 A.D.) ArabKnossos (c. 827-960 A.D.) Greco-Romanquarries

22 22 23 24 26 26 26

CONCLUSION (SinclairHood and Neil Roberts)

27

NOTES

30

CATALOGUE

34

CONCORDANCE OF MINOAN TOMBS WITH PINI (1968)

62

INDEXES

63

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This second edition of the Knossos Surveylike the firstowes much to the long and retentivememoryand active help of the doyen of Cretanexcavators,Spiro Vasilakis.We are deeplygratefulto him,and to all thoseotherswho have assistedwiththetaskof providing and checkinginformation:especially to the School's foremenat Knossos, Antoni Zidianakisand thelate ManoliMarkoyiannakis: to themembersof the GreekArchaeological Nicolas Service,and notablyto the two formerDirectorsof AntiquitiesforCrete,Professors Platonand StylianosAlexiou,whohavekindlyansweredrepeatedenquirieswithinformation, referencesand advice: to Dr Manolis Borboudhakis,to Dr AngelikiLebesis, and to Mrs Alexandra Karetsou who togetherwith ProfessorAlexiou looked throughthe text and added valuableinformation to theCatalogue. The guardresponsibleforthe supervisionof the Knossos area, DemetriosVavouranakis, has givenmuchusefulinformation about happeningsin thepast tenyears. We are indebtedfordetailsof excavationswithwhichtheyhave been associatedto the presentDirectorof the School, Dr HectorCatling,and to the Knossos Fellows,Mr Roger Howell and Dr JillCaringtonSmith;also to ProfessorGeraldCadogan,MrPeterCallaghan, ProfessorMark Cameron, ProfessorNicolas Coldstream,the Hon. Mrs VronwyHankey, ProfessorGeorge Huxley, Dr A. H. S. Megaw, Miss Sara Paton, Mr MervynPopham,the Hon. Mrs CressidaRidley, and ProfessorPeterWarren.The late Dr Ian Sanderswas most helpfulabout Roman Knossos, and had undertakento check the sectionson it; but his untimelydeath preventedthis.We have been able to consultand referto his unpublished thesison Roman Crete,however,and are gratefulto his widow,MrsJanetSanders,forher assistance.Dr LilianJeffery and Dr Ingo Pini have been good enoughto answerquestions about Greekinscriptions and Minoanseal-stones,Professors Nicolas Coldstreamand Ronald F. Willettsones about problemsof EarlyIron Age and ClassicalKnossos.Mr PeterCallaghan has added importantinformation about the Classical and Hellenisticperiodsat Knossos.Dr Reynold Higginshas answeredenquiriesabout the gold Victoryearringfroma tomb near the Tomb of Caiaphas at Teke. Dr MartinPricehas kindlyallowedus to see and referto an unpublishedpaper on the date of the earliestcoinage in Crete.Mrs Diana Wardleprovided a xerox of an account of St Myronbearingupon the situationof the RiverTriton.Miss Lesley Fittoncheckedthe Catalogueand the referencesin it at an earlystagein the preparationof thetext;but errorsmayhave creptintothereferences sincethen. Mr Neil Roberts,who spentsome timeat Knossos helpingwiththe Survey,has contributed the section on the Physical Environmentof the Knossos Area. He has also read throughthe draftof the Historyof the Knossos Area and made a numberof valuable suggestionsin connectionwith it. Mr AndrewGraingespent a day withMr Neil Roberts examiningthe geology of the region. In the autumnof 1976 Dr Susan Walkerand Dr RichardJonesinvestigated the remainsof Roman aqueducts,and Dr Jonesbegana magnetometersurveyof the area of the Classical or Hellenisticfort(37 and 38). Dr Susan Walker and Professor JohnWilkeskindlyglancedat the Roman sectionof the text. We are most gratefulto the WhittleseyFoundationand to ProfessorJ. WilsonMyersfor a fineseriesof balloon photosof thePalace and the area roundit takeninJune,1976.

vii

ABBREVIATIONS AA

ArchäologischerAnzeiger in Jahrbuch des deutschen ArchäologischenInstituts

AAA

AthensAnnals of Archaeology

ADelt .. Chron.

AeXrfov.. Xpovuiá 'hpx&ioXoryuibv

AM

Mitteilungendes deutschenarchäologischenInstituts,AthenischeAbteilung

AntJ

An tiquariesJournal

AR ..

ArchaeologicalReportsfor ..

AS

Anatolian Studies

BCH

Bulletinde CorrespondanceHellénique

Brock,Fortetsa

J. K. Brock,Fortetsa: Early Greek Tombs near Knossos (Cambridge,1957)

BSA

Annual of the BritishSchool at A thens

CMS

Corpus der minoischenund mykenischenSiegel, ed. by F. Matz and H. Biesantz (Berlin, 1964)

CODE

Abbreviationsfor test pits and excavations made since the publication of S trat Mus and DP StratMus

DP StratMus

J. D. S. Pendlebury and others, Dating of the Pottery in the Stratigraphical

Ergon ..

"Epyov tt'ç ApxoaoXojuifiç'Eratpeíaç Kara tó ..

Museumi-iii (1933-35)

HM Cat of Chance Finds Catalogue of Chance Finds kept by HerakleionMuseum (unpublished) IC

M. Guarducci,InscriptionesCreticaei- iv (Rome, 1935-50)

ILN

IllustratedLondon News

JHS

Journalof Hellenic Studies

JRIBA

Journalof the Royal Instituteof BritishArchitects

KCh

à Xpovuiá KpriTiK

KS

M. S. F. Hood, ArchaeologicalSurveyof the Knossos Area (firstedition) (London, 1958)

Knossos Logbook

Logbook (Villa Logbook in KS1) for miscellaneous archaeological findsmade in the Knossos area since the Second WorldWar (unpublished)

KSD

J. N. Coldstream,Knossos: the Sanctuaryof Demeter (London, 1973)

MA

Monumentiantichi

OKT

L. R. Palmer and J. Boardman, On the Knossos Tablets: i The Find-Placesof the Knossos Tablets, by L. R. Palmer; ii The Date of the Knossos Tablets, by J. Boardman;index

PAE

UpocKTLKàTfi<: 'ApxaioXoyucfiç 'Ermpeíaç R. Pashley,Travelsin Crete (London, 1837)

Pashley Pendlebury,AC Pini

J. D. S. Pendlebury,The Archaeologyof Crete (London, 1939) I. Pini,Beiträgezur minoischenGräberkunde(Wiesbaden,1958)

PK Her M

ProvisionalCatalogue of HerakleionMuseum (unpublished)

PM

A. J. Evans, The Palace of Minos at Knossos i- iv withindex (London, 1921-36) Proceedingsof the PrehistoricSociety

PPS

ix

Renfrew,Emergence

C. Renfrew,The Emergence of Civilisation:the Cyclades and the Aegean in the ThirdMillenniumB. C. (London, 1972)

RWH Diary

Diary (unpublished) of archaeological findsin the Knossos area from 1938-40, kept by R. W. Hutchinson

RWH Notebook (1935)

Notebook (unpublished) kept by R. W. Hutchinson,witha list at the back of test pits in the Knossos area between 1935-49 (Library of the BritishSchool at Athens,Knossos no. 292)

Sanders,Roman Crete

Ian F. Sanders,Roman Crete to the Arab Conquest (unpublishedOxfordD. Phil. Thesis,submitted1977)

SM i

A. J. Evans, ScriptaMinoa i (Oxford, 1909)

Spratt

T. A. B. Spratt,Travelsand Researchesin Crete (London, 1865)

StratMus

J. D. S. Pendlebury,A Guide to the StratigraphicalMuseum in the Palace at Knossos (1931)

Test Pit Plan

Copy of Fyfe's plan in BSA vi (1899-1900) pl. xii, showingposition of various testpits made between 1903 and 1947 (unpublished)

TPH Book

Telegraph Pole Hole Book (unpublished) with reports on various trials and excavationsbetween 1968 and 1976

Warren,Minoan Stone Vases

PeterWarren,Minoan Stone Vases (Cambridge,1969)

x

INTRODUCTION SinclairHood and David Smyth

The archaeological areaof Knossosis just under5 kilometres longfromnorthto south anda maximum of 3 kilometres inwidthfromwestto east.It stretches fromtheroad-bridge overthestreambed northofAyiosIoannisin thenorthto Spiliain thesouth,andfromthe summit ofAilias(AyiosElias)on theeastto Fortetsa inthewest.In thisarea,whichincludes the siteof Knossositselfand mostof the outlyingcemeteries of all periods,theBritish School at Athensenjoysa priority of interest as regards workaccording to archaeological theagreement madewiththeGreekgovernment Evanswhenhe handedover by SirArthur hisproperty andconcessions at Knossosto theSchoolin 1924. inGreecehasbeenso thoroughly Perhapsno otherregionof ancientsettlement explored as thisareaofsome10squarekilometres. Thisislargely dueto thespateofchancediscoveries, in thelast25 yearsas a resultofthedevelopment ofmechanised with especially agriculture andbulldozing ofslopes,andoftheintensive whichhastransformed deep-ploughing building thenorthern partof theareabetweenAmbelokipi (Teke) and AyiosIoannisintoa suburb of the cityof Herakleion. The timeand resources of theGreekarchaeological authorities and of theBritish Schoolat Athenshavebeentaxedto theuttermost to keeppacewiththe rescueworkinvolved. Muchthathas cometo lightremains virtually unexplored, including a numberof BronzeAgetombsand cemeteries. Littlesystematic effort has beenmadeto lookforremains oftheClassicalandHellenistic periods,whenformuchofthetimeKnossos was theleadingcityof Crete;and therehas beenno seriousattemptto exploreanyofthe oftheRomancolony. publicbuildings The destruction of thesiteof Knossositselfbeganlongago. TheBronzeAgepalaceand theareaof theGreekandRomancitieswereheavilyquarried forstonebytheTurksandby theVenetiansbeforethem.1The buildings and moreespeciallythegreatdefencewallsof VenetianCândia(themodernHerakleion) were'formedin largepartof stonestakenfrom theruins'of Knossosaccording to Halbherr. He visitedthesitein 1885 anddescribed how theRomanCivilBasilica112 was 'oflateyears'usedas a quarryfortheconstruction ofthe newlargeTurkish inHerakleion.2 barracks Knossoshas attracted the noticeof travellers sincethe MiddleAges.The maintourist attraction thenand as late as the 18thcentury was thesupposedTombof Caiaphas57, a largebuilttomboftheRomanperiodwestoftheVenizeleion hospitalinthemainnorthern area of the Greekand Romancities.This was shownto the Florentine cemetery priest, whenhe visitedthesiteearlyin the 15thcentury, buthe wasunawarethat Buondelmonti, the ruinshe saw werethoseof ancientKnossoswhichhe locatedat Gortyna.Laterand betterinformed knewthatancientKnossoswas here;3but theBronze travellers, however, untilMinosKalokairinos made soundings in it duringthe Age palace was not identified winterof 1878-9, only a fewyearsafterSchliemann's excavations in 1876 at pioneer andMycenae.4 Tiryns The firstseriousarchaeological surveyof the Knossosarea was in a shortarticleby Halbherr publishedin 1893.5 Halbherrstudiedthe visibleGreekand Romaninscriptions, and in November, in theregionof theRomanCivilBasilica112 in 1885,madea sounding an attempt to findmoreof an earlyGreekwall-inscription ofwhichhe hadseena fragment builtintoa housein Makritikhos tombat Spilia village.He also cleareda Romanrock-cut (361). In 1893,theyearbeforeEvansmadehis first journeyin Cretewhenhe acquiredan interest inthesiteoftheBronzeAgepalaceat Knossos,MarianivisitedtheKnossosareaand twoyearslaterpublished a sketchmapofitwithsomehighly fanciful suggestions.6 Evanscompleted hisacquisition of theBronzeAgepalacesiteearlyin 1900 andstarted excavationsthereon March23rd. Ten days earlierthe Directorof the BritishSchool, 1

D. G. Hogarth,had beguna three-month-long campaignof soundingsin the area aroundthe the of with aim of Evansby thelocationof the BronzeAge the work palace complementing But in the eventonly two Bronze Age tombswere discovered,a Late Minoan cemeteries.7 chambertomb at 39 and a small tholos tomb at 27. A numberof Hogarth'ssoundings proved to be inside the limitsof the Bronze Age settlement,and he cleareda couple of importanthouses at 297 on its southernedge. A map preparedby the architectD. T. Fyfe, who drewthe firstplans of the Bronze Age palace forEvans,indicatesthepositionof 235 of Hogarth'ssoundingsand test pits,but the total numbermay have been well over 300. Thus Hogarthsays he made 25 pits in the area of Knossos (Metochi)village,whereonly 13 are markedon Fyfe'smap, and he mentionssome 60 roundthe Acropolishill whereFyfe onlyshows17. In the yearswhichfollowedEvans made a numberof furthertestsas well as excavating variousimportantbuildingsand tombsin the Knossos area. Over 35 testsare listedby the year witha serialnumberfollowingit in Pendlebury'sStratMus and DP StratMus, and the roughpositionsof 32 of theseare indicatedon a sketchmap (DP StratMus iii fig.20). A list of testsmade between 1935 and 1949 (also recordedby the year witha serialnumber followingit) was kept by R. W. Hutchinson(RWH Notebook (1935) list at end). This list has 33 entries(7 for 1935, 9 for 1936, 6 for1937, 3 for1938, 3 for1939, 2 for1940, and one each forthe years 1945, 1947, and 1949); but severalof these in factdevelopedinto excavations.The approximatepositionsof many of these later tests were recordedon a copy of Fyfe'smap of 1900 kept at theVilla Ariadne(Test Pit Plan). This also had marked on it the positionsof a numberof the earliertestsincorporatedby Pendleburyin StratMus and DP StratMus. In some cases the positionsof theseon the Test Pit Plan do not correspond withthoseindicatedon the sketchmap in DP StratMus iii fig.20. Since 1950 the various soundingsand excavationsundertakenby the BritishSchool at Athensin the Knossos area have been designatedby a groupof letters(usuallyan abbreviationof the descriptionor nameof the site) sometimesfollowedby theyear. Fyfe's map of 1900 coveredthe whole extentof the Bronze Age and laterGreekand Roman citiesfromthe site of the Temple Tomb 323 on the south to the bank withEarly Iron Age tombs (39) on the north,and fromthe Acropolishill on the west to the slopes of Ailias beyond the Kairatos on the east. This excellentmap servedits purposewell for over 50 years. The plan publishedby Evans in PM ii opp. 547 was essentiallya re-issue of it withsome additions. There have been greatchangesin the Knossos area, however,since 1900. Old buildings have disappearedand manynew ones have been constructed.The course of the mainroad has been alteredat the crossingof the Vlikhia south of Knossos village,and the present is some 75 metresto the west of whereit was in Fyfe'stime.The positionsof road-bridge the old road and of the new are shown togetheron the plan in PM ii 140 fig.71. More radical than this is the diversionof the stream,which apparentlyformedthe northern south boundaryof the Roman city,to run in an artificialcuttingsome 100 metresfurther at the time the hospital (Venizeleion) was built in the early 1950s. MoreoverFyfe'smap only covereda fractionof the area whichEvans exploredround Knossos, and only a part of the archaeologicalzone of Knossos as thiswas definedin the agreementmade withthe in 1924. Greekgovernment An up-to-datemap coveringthis largerarea was clearlydesirable,and the scheme for makingone was initiatedbyJohnCook whenDirectorof the School. The map was surveyed on a scale of 1:2500 by David Smollettwith the assistanceof Basil Wilsonduringthe autumnof 1952. The elegantfinaltracingof it was the workof Piet de Jong.It was publishedin 1958 to a scale of 1:5000 witha text and catalogueby SinclairHood. No information after 1957 was incorporatedin this firsteditionof the Knossos Survey.In the 20 2

1. The Palace from the Ailias cemetery (257) in 1953, looking west with the Acropolis hill and Mt. Ida behind

2. The southernpart of the Knossos area withMt. Juktasin the distance,looking south-westfromthe first tomb excavated in the Ailias cemetery(257) in 1951. GrigoriKritzalakisand Spiro Vasilakis behind him

3. The Palace and its surroundingsfromthe air in October, 1971 (courtesyof the GreekMinistryof Public Works)

4. The Knossos area from the air, taken duringthe Second World War about 1945 (courtesyof the Pitt RiversMuseum,Oxford)

5. Emergency southof theVenizeleion at Knossosin 1951. PietdeJongwatching thestreambed diversion in theareaof 88. LookingnorthwithHogarth's tombs(39) belowtheolivesin theleftdistance

fort(37) in 1951, lookingnorthwiththe Isopataridgein the 6. Excavationsof the Classical/Hellenistic leftdistance

FIG. 1. The Knossosregion

havebeenmadeor reported yearswhichhaveelapsedsincethenmanychancediscoveries in theKnossosarea,and therehavebeena numberof excavations on newsites.Wherethe first editionoftheSurvey included165entries fortheKnossosarea,theneweditionhas370. The new map was madeby David Smythto a scale of 1:2500 on the basisof David Smollett's1:2500 mapas tracedby PietdeJongandofthe1:5000 mapsoftheGeographical ServiceoftheGreekArmy, issuedin1968.It wasbeguninApril,1977,andsubstantially The ofitwasundertaken Clarke.No 1977. finaltracing completed by May, byMrsPatricia discoveries aftertheendofAugust,1978,havebeenincorporated on themaporinthetext. The mapof theKnossosregion(FIG. 1) was prepared theperiodmaps by NeilRoberts, Sinclair Hood: all were Mrs traced Patricia Clarke. (FIGS. 2-6) by by

4

THEPHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT OFTHE KNOSSOSAREA NeilRoberts

AroundHerakleion is an area of lowlandmadeup of smallrivervalleysrunning from southto north.In one of these,thatof theKairatos,8 liesthesiteof Knossos.The river runsjust to theeastof thePalaceofMinos,whileitstributary theVlikhia9 boundsitto the fromthesitetheKairatosvalleyis narrow south.Upstream andgorge-like, butdownstream it widensout slightly, thesea 5 kilometres to thenorth.Knossosis infacthidden reaching fromthe sea by low hillsaroundZaferPapouraand Ambelokipi(Teke), and it is also constricted limestone by higher groundon botheastand westsides.The imposing ridgeof Ailiaslies acrosstheriverto theeast,whileto thewestis theratherlowerAcropolisHill Kefali). (Monastiriako The Knossosareathuslacksextensive alluvialdepositssuchas theYoungerFillidentified on Bintliff the Greek mainland.10 landtypeis non-alluvial arable Rather,thedominant by landwhichis goodqualitybutdifficult to irrigate. On theotherhand,thesuitability ofthis forvineand olivecultivation is reinforced contentof therendzina by thehighpotassium soilswhichlargely derivefromkouskouras bedrock. Historical fromsoilerosionandsediment changesin landavailability resulting deposition arewellevidenced intheKnossosarea.Gullieshavedevelopedon manyofthesteeperslopes suchas on Ailias,and thiserodedmaterial has beendepositedas alluviumto a depthofat least5 metresin thelowerreachesof theKairatosvalley.Thisfillappearsto datefromthe lateRomanperiod,andithassubsequently beenincisedbytheriver. Areassuchas Ailiasareagriculturally poordueto thesteepslopesandthethinterrarossa but this has soils, ridge longprovidedgood buildingstoneas themanyquarriesalongits thisconsistsof Cretaceouslimestone, and it contrasts withthe lengthtestify. Geologically Pliocenemarlswhichunderliemostof thearea,including thesiteof Knossositself.These softwhitemarls,knownlocallyas kouskouras, are easilyerodedand wereconvenient in for the excavation of of tombs. South on Knossos the low of the antiquity spur Gipsadhes Pliocenedepositsincludecrystalline usedin theconstruction ofthePalace. gypsum, The Knossosareais wellwateredin comparison withtherestofCrete.The Kairatosriver risesfromspringsand is therefore under naturalconditions. perennial Alongwithlocal and a water table to allow the of it would haveprovided springs highenough sinking wells, a year-round of water in ancient times. of This is becauseof supply particular importance the summerdroughtassociatedwiththe typically Mediterranean climaticregimewhich at Herakleion is 477 mm,78% of whichfalls prevailson Crete.Mean annualprecipitation in the monthsof Octoberto March;and meanmonthly temperatures rangefrom12°C in to 26°C inJuly. January The naturalclimaxvegetation aroundKnossoswouldhavebeena typically Mediterranean oak andjuniper.A recentpollendiagramfromAyia evergreen maquisincluding pistachio, Galinisuggests the possibility thatwildolivewas absentfromthe floraof Cretebefore 6000B.C.11VegetationclearancearoundKnossosmayhavebeen well underwayby the timeof theFirstPalace,withcontinuous foreststandslimitedto higherand moredistant buttimberwas doubtlessmoreeasilyaccessibleinMinoanandClassicaltimesthan ground, today.12 5

HISTORY OF THE KNOSSOS AREA SinclairHood

NEOLITHIC AND BRONZE AGE (MINOAN) KNOSSOS (c. 6000-1000 B.C.) NeolithicKnossos(c. 6000-3000 B.C.) The site of the Bronze Age palace at Knossos formeda hill knownin recenttimesas at Knossos Kefala or tou Tselevii Kefala (tov ToeXeßi)r¡ Ke0aXa).13 The earliestsettlement on a low natural rise at to of the was an Aceramic Neolithic assignable (Prepottery)phase this point just north of where the Vlikhia streamjoins the Kairatos. Duringthe three thousandyearsor more coveredby the Neolithicperiod in Cretethe settlement expanded, and by the end of the Early Neolithicit had alreadyspreadbeyond the area of the later palace to the northand west.14But it does not look as ifit was muchmoreextensivein its later (Middle and Late Neolithic)stages,althoughat some point occupationseemsto have extendeddown the southernslopes of the hill as faras the Vlikhiain the area of thelater 15 did not reach BridgeEnds 282. On the west Hogarthnoted thatthe Neolithicsettlement as far as his Point 12, whichappearsto have been somewhereto the south-eastof 209,16 and the areas coveredby the more recentsoundingson the northand south sides of the Royal Road (214, 215) wereevidentlyoutsideit. As in later times,however,theremay have been individualhouses or small groupsof houses separated fromthe main settlementbut close to it. Hogarthfound an isolated Neolithicsherdnear the Bronze Age houses (297) whichhe excavated,but regardedit as a fromthe Neolithicvillageon Kephala'.17There are two Neolithicsherdswiththe 'straggler potteryfromthe Koutoulakis field(292) northof here,and a stone axe whichmay have been Neolithicwas foundby E. Akoumianossomewherein theregionof LowerGipsadhes.18 It seems doubtful,however,whetherthe Neolithicsherdslabelled as comingfroma test 110 werereallyfoundthere(see under110). pit (1908/3) east of the RomanAmphitheatre But therewas evidentlyanotherNeolithicsettlementin the area of the laterBronze Age harbourtown east of Herakleion.EvansreportedthatNeolithicremainsaboundedalongthe sea frontof the harbourtown,19and a house of the Middle Neolithicphasehas been excavatedby Alexiou some distanceinlandfromthe shorehere.20 at Knossosno tombs Apartfromsome childburialsin the earliestlevelsof the settlement or burialsof theNeolithicperiodhaveyetbeen identifiedin the area. MinoanKnossosc. 3000-1450 B.C. The settlementat Knossos at thebeginningof theBronzeAge in EarlyMinoanI maynot have been much if at all largerthan it was in the finalstagesof the Neolithicto judge from the scantyevidenceavailable.EarlyMinoan occupationof some kind seemsto be attested on the northbank of the Vlikhiain the area of 282.21But the earliesttracesof occupation in the soundingson thenorthand southsidesof the Royal Road (214, 215) wereassignable to the beginningof Early Minoan II. During Early Minoan II, however,the settlement appearsto have spreadwestwardsbeyondthe edgesof the hillto whichit had been confined in Neolithictimes.Importantevidenceof occupationdatingfromthe earliestphase of Early MinoanII was foundby Warrenin his excavationson the south side of the Royal Road at 216 west of 214. There are a few Early Minoan sherdswiththe Neolithicin the suspect 110. box allegedlyfroma testpit (1908/3) east of theRoman Amphitheatre An imposingEarly Minoan II buildingof whicha parthas been uncoveredbeneaththe West Court of the later palace mighthave been a ruler'shouse of the time,22but it was evidentlyon a different alignmentfromthelaterBronzeAge palaces. The firstmonumental buildingon this later palace alignmentseems to date fromthe end of the EarlyMinoan 6

FIG. 2. Neolithicand Bronze Age (Minoan) Knossos untilthe end of Late Minoan I c. 1450 B.C.

periodin EarlyMinoanIII.23Thisappearsto havebeenlargeenoughto qualifyas a palace, theforerunner of thelaterBronzeAgepalaceson thesamesite.Butunlikethelaterpalaces it was constructed withrelatively smallstones.Theuse oflargeblocksofstoneforbuilding Middle in a 'megalithic' inCreteuntilthesucceeding mannerdoes notappearto be attested Minoanperiod. of theMiddleMinoanperiodseemsto havebeena timeofrapidexpansion The beginning at Knossos.The areaof concentrated hadevidently settlement spreadbytheendofMiddle MinoanI ifnotearlier northwards the confines of Makritikhos beyond villageas faras 232. On thewesttracesofoccupation to the Middle MinoanI (M.M.I A) of assignable beginning havebeenfoundin thenewexcavations behindtheStratigraphie Museum(188), at 190 in Knossosvillage,and southof it in theregionof 202. Southof theVlikhiaMiddleMinoan I A sherdshavebeen recovered fromthe Koutoulakisfield(292), fromtheCaveShelter 295 eastof theHouseof theHighPriest(296), and froma spoteastoftheTempleTomb 324; whileevidenceof occupationin thesamephaseofMiddleMinoanI hasbeennotedto thewestandnorthofHogarth's Houses297 (299, 300). It seemsverypossiblethatbytheendoftheMiddleMinoanI periodtheareaofintensive settlement at Knossoshad expandedto a sizethatwashardlysurpassed at anylaterstageof theBronzeAge.The so-calledFirstPalace,whichsucceededtheonebuiltin EarlyMinoan III on the same alignment, datesfromthistime:Evansnotedthatsherdsassignable to MiddleMinoanI A wereeverywhere foundbelowits foundations and floors.Monumental in a 'megalithic' of theFirstPalaceweisnotconbuilding styleas usedin theconstruction finedto thepalacearea.The massivecomplexsouthof thepalaceinterpreted by Evansas ends with and a from them dates bridge roadways steppedporticoleading (282) evidently fromthisperiod,as do thegreatwall(240) exposedon theeastsideoftheKairatosandthe Monumental Structures 241 to thenorthofit. The areaof concentrated in theBronzeAgemayneverhaveextended settlement to the eastbankof theKairatos,althoughsomehousescertainly existedthere(e.g. intheareaof 239 and abovetheMonumental Structures on theslopesaround246, 241, as wellas higher and at the On south the BronzeAgesettlement does notappearto havespread 247, 263). muchbeyondthe HighPriest'sHouse 296 and Hogarth'sHouses 297. Hogarthcertainly of thesettlethoughtthatthe houseswhichhe excavatedat 297 'stoodat one extremity mentof theirperiod'.24Evidencefromthe areaslaid bare in recenthouse-building and on theEfraimoglou of whichtheexcavations at estate,withintheboundaries road-cutting 297 havebeenincorporated, seemsto confirm this. The potteryand frescofragment from292 and the wellsat 289 and 290 suggest that thisarea lay withinthe BronzeAge settlement of the time.But Hogarthwas convinced fromthe testshe made alongthe southbankof theVlikhiathatBronzeAgeoccupation did not extendfurther west thanhis Point 13 (289).25The buildings, fromwhichthe blocksnotedat 313 and 314 came,mayhavebeentombstojudgefromthelackofpottery or otherdebrisof settlement in theareawheretheywerefound.Butthereappearsto have been a house at 315 assignableto the end of the MiddleMinoanperiod.This,and the successive at 174 whichwerecertainly buildings houses,mayhavebeensituatedoutsidethe limitsof concentrated like the buildingor buildings at the southend of the settlement, Acropolis(150) and thatnearAyia Paraskevion Ailias(263). On the westtowardsthe thanthe Acropolisthe area of continuoussettlement maynot havespreadmuchfurther north-south existing pathwhichfollowsthelineoftheVenetianaqueduct. The regionnorthof thepalacewas occupiedby theRomancityandpresumably bythe Greekone beforeit. This is also likelyto havebeen the mainarea of settlement in the BronzeAge,althoughintensive occupationmaynothaveextendedas farnorththenas it did in Greekand Romantimes.Evansrecordsthatin pursuitof thesearchforBronzeAge 8

tombsin 1903 'a largeareawas methodically overa quarterof a mile explored,extending to theNorthof thePalace,but,thougha goodmanygraveswerefound,theyhadall been rifledin antiquity, and noneof themcouldeverhavebeenofgreatimportance. Oneresult of theseexplorations was that a largenumberof houses,goingback to EarlyMinoan whatwas latercalledMiddleMinoanI A) times,weretracedoverthewholeof (embracing thisareaandto theEastas faras therockysteepthatthereoverhangs thestream', bywhich theregionof232 wasno doubtmeant.26 HogarthnotedMiddleMinoandepositsbelowa Late Minoanfloorin his soundingat Point15 (121). The areaof 113 mayhavebeenwithinthelimitsof settlement as earlyas theMiddleMinoanperiod.The testpits1908/2and 1905/1intheregionof 110 produced DP StratMus; but in M. M. Ill- L. M. II and L.M.I- III sherdsaccordingto Pendlebury, factthe boxes of 1908/2containmuchMiddleMinoanI- II pottery, and Evans,PM iii thefootofa largehollowclayfigurine, whichmusthavestoodat 452 f. fig.315, illustrates least0.40 metreshigh,as froma M. M. II A depositin a testpit near110. The figurine, if, as seemsprobable,it was of MiddleMinoanand notGreco-Roman the date,mightreflect fromhereby presenceof a BronzeAge shrinein theregionwhereit was found.Eastwards the Kairatosthe area of 231 and 232 appearsto havebeen settledby the beginning of MiddleMinoantimes.The pottery publishedby MackenzieinJHSxxvi(1906) 248 f.pl. x, whichmaycomefromthisarea,is assignedto MiddleMinoanI A butmight passforEarly MinoanIII. The testpit 1903/4near232 producedMiddleMinoanI as wellas laterMinoan of 232 a depositof MiddleMinoanII pottery sherds.At 368 about 150 metresnorth-east wasuncovered in 1936. Here,westof theKairatos,theareaof intensive occupationmayhavespreadbytheend of the MiddleMinoanperiodas faras 82 to judge frompotteryassignableto M. M. Ill collectedthereafterdeepploughing in 1958. But thismustbe verynearthenorthern limit of BronzeAgesettlement: thereareno signsofintensive BronzeAgeoccupation inthearea of Topana,and none are visibleon the hillocknorthof theMakritikhos 86. No Bronze havebeenreported fromthenorthern oftheRomancityinthecourse borders Ageremains of the deep ploughing and sporadicbuildingwhichhavetakenplace in thatregionin the past fiftyyears.The cuttingof thenewstreambed southof theVenizeleionin theearly 1950sforexampledidnotrevealanysignsofintensive BronzeAgeoccupation. The boundariesof the area of continuoussettlement maynot havebeen veryclearly defined.Thereis no evidencethatthe BronzeAge townwas at anytimesurrounded by defencewalls,althoughan innersectorof it roundthepalacemayhavebeenfortified at somestageor other.27 The areaof intensive occupationprobablyshadedintothecountryside withthe houseson the outskirts separatedfromeach otherby gardensor cultivated of themainsettlement ground.The countryside beyondtheconfines appearsto havebeen dottedwithfarmsand villas,and withsmallgroupsof perhapstwoor threehouses,inthe mannersuggested of townson the TheraShip Frescoassignable to by the surroundings LateMinoanI A. Hogarthimpliesthathe notedtracesof isolatedfarmsdownthevalleyof theKairatos - 'hereand therelowerdownthestreamare signsof farmbuildings',28 bywhichfromthe contexthe appearstomeanBronzeAgeones.Thebuildings identified at 150 on thesouthern end of the Acropolisand at 263 nearAyiaParaskevi on theslopesof Ailiasseemto have beenfarmsor villasof thiskind;thatat 18 just to theeastoftheKefalatholostomb(17) couldhavebeen another.The fragments of paintedwall plasterand sherdsranging from MiddleMinoanI A to Late MinoanI recovered fromthearea of thelaterGreektowerat 37 suggestthe former presenceof a BronzeAge buildingon thisconvenient height.The sherdsand stonesnotedat 356 on UpperGipsadhes mayhavecomefromoneortwohouses in thatarea.The buildings at 174 and 315 mighthavebeenfarms orvillas,butlayso close 9

on to theareaof themainsettlement as to be countedpartof it. The scatterof buildings of of later the with its in the west concentration region quarry(266) top Ailias,however, distinctfromthatat Knossos,althoughno appearsto be in the natureof a settlement on it. doubtdependent of to allphasesoftheMiddleMinoanperiodandto thebeginDeposits pottery assignable of the Minoan Late ning (L. M. I) havebeenobservedin variouspartsof theKnossosarea wellbeyondthelimitsoftheBronzeAgesettlement (e.g.22, 139,337). Whilein somecases of orgroupsofhouses,theycouldin the isolated farms thesedepositsmayreflect presence in intheopenairoutsidetombs. of vases theremains offerings othersrepresent placed clay for of instance the 161 area The MiddleMinoanpotteryin mightbe explainedin this for fromthesherddepositat the has beensuggested A similar manner. pottery explanation of onescloseto end theAcropolishill.But somedeposits,especially 139 on thenorthern seemstheclue wereprobablyrubbishdumps,andrubbish theareaof themainsettlement, at 317 andintheareaof320. to thedepositsofLateMinoanI pottery The natureof BronzeAge occupationin the Knossosregionmakesany estimateof extent thatthe BronzeAge townat itsmaximum Evansconsidered populationdifficult. the populationat 82,000;30but and estimated coveredsome 1,125,000squaremetres,29 that Attheotherextreme is thesuggestion estimates as highas 100,000havebeennoted.31 less the settledarea at Knossosprobablydidnot exceed30,000to 50,000 squaremetres, thanonetwentieth whatEvanscalculated.32 in theflourishing The approximate areaof intensive settlement periodofMiddleMinoan whichis larger III - Late MinoanI as shownon FIG. 2 coversabout750,000squaremetres, smaller thanMediaevalCândia(modern thanUr intheEarlyDynasticperiod,butsomewhat behinddefence Sincethe towndoes not appearto havebeenconcentrated Herakleion).33 of thisarea wereno doubtscattered, and the thehouseson the fringes walls,however, denselyoccupiedzone maynothavecoveredmuchmorethanhalfof it,orsome400,000 liketheWestCourtandthe features, squaremetresat themost.Thepalacewithitsoutlying ofthis,andallowing a further Théâtral Area,wouldaccountfornearly40,000squaremetres in theareaof 210 to 60,000 squaremetresforroadsand openspaces,likethatidentified the westof the palace,about 300,000 squaremetresareleftforhouses.Thisgivessome 1,200 houses,if the averagehouseis takenas beingabout 250 squaremetresin extent, whichis roughlythe size of the SouthHouse by the palace.The SouthHouseis in fact rathersmaller, but something mustbe allowedforspacesbetweenhouses:sincethehouses at Knossoswerenormally in blockswith it seemsfree-standing not organised structures, sharedor abutting outerwallsin thewaythathousesat siteslikeGourniaand Palaikastro appearto havebeen.34An allowanceof 10 occupantsforeach of the 1,200housesgives a totalof 12,000people. forestiThis is a highlyartificial calculation.But theprinciple by Frankfort suggested city(400 peopleperhectare)achievesthesamefigure matingthepopulationof a Sumerian forthe'well-to-do foran area of 300,000 squaremetres.35 Evansreacheda similarfigure ThepopuregionofKnossos.36 burgher population'of whathe conceivedto be thecentral in extentand lationof Knossosand its immediate some20 squarekilometres hinterland, theharbour as 15-20,000. be estimated town,maytherefore including forthepopulationofMediaeval to comparethesefigures It is interesting withestimates whichreplacedKnossosas thechiefcentreinCrete.AroundA.D. 1300 Candia/Herakleion, of Cândiamayhavenumbered some8,000 to it has been calculatedthatthe inhabitants under 10,000at themost,risingby aboutA.D. 1440,whenCretewasrelatively prosperous Venetianrule,to between12,000and 15,000,withouttakingintoaccountthepopulation of outlying But in A.D. 1834 the populationof Megalo-Kastron (as villagesand farms.37 wasthencalled)wasstill,it seems,only12,000.38 Candia/Herakleion 10

in theKnossos No burialsassignable to theEarlyMinoanperiodhaveyetbeenidentified to thewestandprobably area.Buttombsinuse inMiddleMinoanI existedon theAcropolis on theslopesof Ailiasto theeast.The earliestburialsin theMiddleMinoantomb140 on the Acropoliswereassignedto MiddleMinoanI A, and someof thetombsin theMavro inuseinMiddleMinoanII, whilethe Spilioand Ailiascemeteries (251, 257) werecertainly tholostomb308 on LowerGipsadheswas probablybuiltbeforetheend of thatperiod. Theremayhavebeen otherMiddleMinoanbuilttombsin thisregionof Gipsadhes(e.g. on UpperGipsadhes 309, 313, 314, and perhaps332). A chambertombin thecemetery had burials to the of Middle Minoan III. The latestuse oftomb assignable beginning (331) 140 on theAcropolishas beendatedto MiddleMinoanIII B;but someoftheAiliastombs to receiveburialsin LateMinoanI. No (257) and theGipsadhestholostomb308 continued or of the of in theKnossos tomb earlier the royal princely periodhas beenidentified part but the III or Late Tomb in Middle Minoan was almost built 323 area; Temple certainly MinoanI, andthesamemaybe trueoftheIsopataRoyalTomb2. MinoanKnossosfromc. 1450-1000 B.C. Thereis a good deal of evidencewhichindicatesa majorbreakinthehistory ofKnossos at theendof theLate MinoanI periodc. 1450 B.C. Thisbreakappearsto coincideintime withan horizonof fire-destruction at sitesthroughout ascribedto a final Crete,variously of the Bronze of on of the volcano the island Thera,to internal paroxysm Age eruption or to from Greek invaders the mainland. At Knossos, warfare, conquestby (Mycenaeans) there no was wholesale of the or destruction settlement however, palace,althoughsome ones the Road and buildings, including along Royal perhapsthe SouthHouse by (215) the palace,39suffered at this taken in conjunction withsigns time. This evidence, damage of dislocation, markedin particular in burial withthe seemsconsistent customs, bychanges idea thattheplacewas capturedby invaders whoestablished it as theirchiefpower-base in the island.New fashionsin potterywhichappearat Knossosat thistimesuggest thatthe invaders camefromtheGreekmainland. Tracesof occupationand settlement debrisassignable to Late MinoanII and III appear to be less widespread in the Knossosregionthanthosedatingfromthe MiddleMinoan thattheareaofsettleperiodand Late MinoanI. The evidencesuchas it is rathersuggests mentmayhavebeensomewhat reducedin size afterc. 1450B.C. A LateMinoanI building revealedin the new excavationswest of the Stratigraphie Museum(188) was evidently associatedwithan industrial areawithtwokilns.Thismightsuggest thatitwason theedge of the settlement of the time,as thelaterClassicaland Hellenistic kilnsat 178 appearto havebeen.The buildingherewas destroyed by firebeforetheend of Late MinoanII like the neighbouring Mansion186. Late MinoanII sherdsarereported fromthe Unexplored regionof 202 and fromthetestpit 1908/2eastof 110. But iftheLate MinoanII sherds notedaround232 weredumpedrubbish, itmight implythatthispartofthesitewasoutside theareaof intensive occupation bythen.On theotherhandthereis a gooddealofevidence foroccupation southoftheVlikhiastream wellintoLateMinoanIII (e.g.292, 301). The totalpopulation oftheKnossosregion, smaller however, mayhavebeenconsiderably afterc. 1450B.C. No evidencehas yetcometo lightfortheexistence ofoutlying or farms villasroundKnossosduring LateMinoanII- III. Noneoftheabundant notedon the pottery surfaceof the plateauof AiliasaboveKnossoson theeastis assignable to thoseperiods, whichstrongly thatoccupationthereceasedaftertheendofLateMinoanI. suggests Whatever thesituation mayhavebeenin LateMinoanII andtheearlypartofLateMinoan there are hints theareaof intensive that III, occupationroundthepalaceat Knossoshad shrunk in size beforetheend of theBronzeAge.Mostof thequarteron Lower drastically Gipsadhessouthof the Vlikhiaseemsto havebeen abandonedtowardsthe end of Late 11

MinoanIII B, and thereis a suggestion thatby thenifnot earlierburialswerebeingmade as closeto thepalaceon thenorthas 229. in size.Tracesof stillfurther DuringSubminoantimesthesettlement mayhaveshrunk ofthepalace, of west Subminoan have been at a number noted,however, places occupation in the area of 210 and alongtheRoyalRoad,as wellas in theregionof theUnexplored Mansion a complete Museum(188). Subminoan including pottery (186) andtheStratigraphie Museumitself,and pitsof Late pyxiswas recoveredfromthe site of the Stratigraphie behindit on thewest. in new excavations MinoanIII C/Subminoan date arereported the havebeen outsidethe well But the SpringChamber285 withits Subminoancultmight of Demeter area of the contemporary liketheSanctuary settlement 286 whichmayhave succeededit. to LateMinoanII- III, appear At thesametimeburials, tombsandcemeteries, assignable to be spreadovera muchwiderareathanarethoseof earlierperiods.One reasonforthis tombscontaining manytensor maybe the changein customfromtheuse of communal of evenhundreds of burialsconcentrated in one place to that singlegravesand together tombs one of with or a small number burialsineach.If therewasa Mycenaean family only and couldhaveled conquestit musthave involvedradicalchangesin land ownership, to a relaxation ofprevious taboosorregulations againstusingcertainareasforburials. Evanshad the impression thatthe IsopataRoyalTomb 2 and thescatterof largeand stand intheareato thenorthofit might chamber tombs(1) whichhe excavated important of and Poros in the in town less connection withKnossosthanwithits harbour region III of Late Minoan nature the thatthe scattered It has evenbeen suggested Katsamba.40 of the of thepopulationafterthefinaldestruction cemeteries reflects a dispersal palace.41 of thepalacetookplaceat theverybeginning But thisassumesthatthefinaldestruction of Late MinoanIII, whichis by no meansuniversally agreed.In anycaseburialsassignable to the Late MinoanII periodappearto be almostas scatteredas the verymuchmore numerous ones attributable to Late MinoanIII. Moreovertheavailableevidencestrongly thatthe maincentreof occupationin the Knossosarea continuedto be in the suggests of thepalacesitethroughout theBronzeAgeuntilitsend.Atthesametime neighbourhood it is alwayspossiblethattherewas a smallsettlement on thehillofAyiosIoannisto which no concreteevidenceforit has the Late MinoanII- HI tombstherebelonged,42 although havebeenexpectedfromtheintenthatmight yetbeenobservedin spiteof therevelations sivebuilding inthatregionsincetheSecondWorldWar. activity at A hundredtombsand graveswereexcavatedby Evansin a Late MinoanIII cemetery ZaferPapoura(36) westof theKairatos.Therewerealso Late MinoanII and III tombsin fromKnossosto the thebank flanking the eastsideof themainroadleadingnorthwards HarbourTown (39, 40). Some of the mostimportant tombsof the earlierpartof the of Late to Late MinoanII and thebeginning period,notablythewarrior gravesassignable This in cemeteries. MinoanIII, appearto have been scattered ratherthanconcentrated seemsto be trueof therichtombson thesiteof theVenizeleion(71), and also,although less certainly, of thosediscovered by chancefromtimeto timein the regionof Ayios of Late Ioannis(4, 8 and perhaps5). An earlywarrior graveassignableto thebeginning to date MinoanII on thesouthsideof theAcropolishill(149) is theonlycertainevidence forLateMinoanII- III burialsinthisarea. in Thereappearsto havebeena Late MinoanIII cemetery, as yetunexplored, however, theregionof 339, 340. Another ofthatperiodhasbeenexcavatedon thenorthern cemetery to thesame slopesof UpperGipsadhes(331), and moreLate MinoanIII tombsbelonging northat 330, or to a separatecemetery or cemeteries cometo lightfurther haverecently and at 329 on the southern slopesof LowerGipsadhesfacing331. It is alwayspossible thatthe pairof tombs(328) on the slopeabove329, allegedlyfoundduringtheSecond 12

FIG. 3. BronzeAge (Late MinoanII- III) Knossos frome. 1450 B.C. untilthe end of Subminoan c. 1000 B.C.

WorldWarand saidto havebeenof EarlyIronAge date,werereallyLateMinoanIII ones. theimportant 324,inthe Finallythereis a scatterof Late MinoanII- III tombs,including area of the TempleTomb 323, whichwas itselfused fora lastoccasionof burialat the of Late MinoanIII (322-4, and perhaps325). A shaftgrave(277) and a small beginning of tombs group (278) whichhavebeenexcavatedon theeastsideoftheKairatosopposite in thisarea. ofanotherLateMinoanII- III cemetery theexistence Tomb theTemple suggest IIIII Minoan date in the of Late or burials tombs for is no evidence There neighbourhood of theAiliasCemetery 257. But manytombsoftheMavroSpilioCemetery 251 were in use then,and tombsapparently of thesamegeneralperiodarerecordedon theslopes further north(34, 35), whilean important Late MinoanIII cemetery mayhaveexistedin theregion ofSellopoulo, wherea smalltholostomb(27), fourlargechamber tombs(28, 29), and a shaftgrave(30) havebeenexcavated, and thepositionof othertombsis knownor suspected (31). Some Late Minoantombsin the Knossosareawerere-usedforburialsduringtheLate MinoanIII C and Subminoan of disuse(e.g.2, 17, 19). Thisre-use periodsafteran interval of earliertombsand the mannerof it seemto implysomedislocation a lackof involving times,and mightevenreflectan influxof newpeoplewho respectforthedead of former took no accountof the previousinhabitants and theirtraditions. A similar phenomenon hasbeennotedduring theLateHelladicIII C periodon theGreekmainland.43 andsanctuaries Shrines Fromone pointof viewthepalaceitselfwasin thenatureofa sanctuary, andlargeparts of it wereevidently reserved forcult.Isolatedcultfeatures arealso foundin manyof the houses(e.g. the HighPriest'sHouse 296), and in someof themat anyratespecialrooms wereset aside forcultactivities. Such 'houseshrines' havebeenrecognised in settlements Crete,and theyappearto be attestedfromeveryperiodof theBronzeAge: throughout the Late MinoanIII A shrineuncoveredon theeasternsideof theStratigraphie Museum to theLate MinoanI periodfromthearea (188) seemsto be one: cultfurniture assignable of Hogarth's Houses297 maycomefromanother.44 Pillarcryptsinthepalaceandin some of the moreimportant houses(e.g. theLittlePalace 185, theNorthPillarCrypt222, and Hogarth'sHouse B at 297) appearto havebeencultrooms,45 althoughthishas beendisputed.46 In additionto 'houseshrines' whichwerein thenatureofprivate chapels,it seemslikely thatpublicshrinesand sanctuaries also existedat Knossosin theBronzeAgeas theydid elsewhere in Crete.47 The largedepositof Late MinoanI B vasesfromtheexcavations on the northsideof theRoyalRoad (215) mayhavecomefroma publicratherthanfroma The cultat theSpringChamber in Subminoan privateshrine.48 285,whichflourished times, but is alreadyattestedin Late MinoanI or earlier,49 could havebeen in thenatureof a publicone. No evidencefortheexistenceof a previousBronzeAgeshrinewas recovered the during excavations intheSanctuary ofDemeter213. At thesametimefragments offinestoneritual vasesfromtheregionof LowerGipsadhes(e.g. 299) suggest thepossibility thatan importantBronzeAge sanctuary have the later Greek one inthearea. somewhere might preceded Roads The mainroadleadingsouthwards fromKnossos,theGreatSouthRoad as Evanscalled it, probablyfollowedthe gorgeof the Kairatospast Spilialike the moderncar-roadto Arkhanes. Tracesof thisroadwerenotedby Evansbeyondthesouthern edgeoftheBronze close by the entranceof the TempleTomb323. Justbeforethispointit Age settlement was apparently joinedby a branchroad,theMinoanPavedWaywhichranbelowtheHigh 14

Priest'sHouse296 on theeast.The GreatSouthRoad appearsto havecrossedtheVlikhia on a bridge(282) north-west oftheCaravanserai 284. Theremayhavebeen ¿mother road leadingdirectfromKnossosto thepeak sanctuary on thesummit of Mt.Juktas. withtheBronzeAgeroadterraces Thiswouldhaveconnected ofthemountain.50 whichcanstillbe tracedzigzagging northern Sucha road the shoulder up couldhavecrossedtheVlikhiaon thebridgeat 282 andafterwards followedthelineofthe modernpathwestof theSanctuary of Demeter286: it wouldthenhaverunalongtheeast havetakenthetop sideof UpperGipsadhesbelowtheGipsadhes 331,orit might Cemetery of the ridgeto the westof 331 past 332. Alternatively a roadto thebase of Mt.Juktas could havefollowedthe westbank of the Vlikhiathrough the area of the Late Minoan to which have in the of existed 339 and 340. cemetery appears region One mainroad leadingnorthwards fromKnossosevidently followedthewestflankof theKefalaand Isopataridges,wherethelineof it appearsto be markedby thebankwith tombsat 39 continuing at 16 and 10. Mostofthesetombswhichhavebeenexcavated have beenfoundto containEarlyIronAgeburials,but somein theareaof39 heldBronzeAge ones,and otherswereof BronzeAgedateclearedand re-usedin theEarlyIronAge.This roadwouldhaveled directly to theBronzeAgeharbourtownin theregionofthemodern suburbsof Porosand Katsambaeastof Herakleion. Buttheremayhavebeenanother north roadmoreor lesson thelineof themoderncar-road to Herakleion. Evansclaimedto have notedtracesof thisat 69 just beyondthepointwhereit crossedthestream whichformed theboundary ofthecityin Romantimes. The BronzeAgesettlement alsoappearsto have bythesea at AmnisoseastofHerakleion servedKnossosas a harbourtown.As thecrowfliesit is no further fromKnossosthanthe harbourtownin theareaof theeasternsuburbsof Herakleion, PorosandKatsamba.Some of themassiveterracewallseastof theKairatosand on theslopesofAilias(e.g.242, 256) a roadorroadsleadingto Amnisos. mayhavesupported Quarries

The relatively someof gypsum, usedbythebuilders small,thinslabsof stone,including of thesurviving wallsof theEarlyMinoanIII palacemayhavebeencollectedfromsources closeat hand.Thusmuchof thelimestone couldhavecomefromexposureson theslopes of theAcropolis hilloverlooking thepalacefromthewest.Butthemassive blocks limestone employedforbuildingin all laterperiodsof theBronzeAgeat Knossosprobablyderived fromfurther afield.One possiblesourceis thescarpabout75 metres abovethelaterGrecoRomanquarryat 364 northof Spilia.Here,abouta kilometre southofthepalace,thehard limestone is exposedon thelowerslopesofAilias,andowingto theformation ofthestrata breaksintoblocksof convenient forBronzeAgebuilding, thickness as can stillbe seenon the spot.Thereis evidenceof extensive Greco-Roman quarrying operationsup thegully to thesouthin theareaof 363, and a largequarrywas beingoperatedhigher on theslope abovehereinrecenttimes. Thegypsum usedinBronzeAgeKnossosforwalls,andforfloorsanddadoslabs,probably came fromsourcesnearerto the settlement area. Evansrecordsancientgypsumquarries in theregionof 303; butthedateoftheworkings thereandofthosestillvisibleimmediately northoftheRomanKiln304 is uncertain.

15

GREEK KNOSSOS FROM THE BEGINNING OF THE EARLY IRON AGE UNTIL THE ROMAN CONQUEST (c.1000-67 B.C.)

EarlyIronAgeKnossos(c. 1000-500 B.C.) of thepalaceat Knossos Thereis a gooddeal of evidenceforoccupationin thevicinity in all phasesof the EarlyIronAge fromProtogeometric timesonwards.The siteof the at anyrateappears beforetheendof theBronzeAge,and eventually palace was deserted to havebecomea sanctuary in the EarlyIronAge mayhaveextended area. Settlement roundto the southside of the former of palace. Karo forinstancereportsthediscovery no doubt Geometric sherdsand housesat thesouth-west end of theWestCourt,referring to the testpits,StratMus,V. 1931/9and 10.51But themaincentreof occupationin the towards thewestandnorthofthepalacesite.52 EarlyIronAgewasapparently Some Geometric fromthe north-west and Orientalizing potterywas recovered partof thepalaceareaitself:a littleis recordedin DP StratMus fromtheThéâtralAreaandfrom the North-West TreasureHouse.53A Geometricwell was discovered in the NorthPillar and Geometric sherdsfromdepositswest Crypt222.54M. HartleynotedProtogeometric of theThéâtralAreaand theWestCourt.55 Further westofthepalacetracesofoccupation fromthebeginning of theEarlyIronAgeonwardswereclear¿longtheRoyalRoad 211, and to thenorthand southof it,in theregionoftheHouseoftheFrescoes212 andinthe Royal Road Excavations214, 215. EvidenceforEarlyIron Age occupationwas also foundin the 'Archaic'Excavation207, and at 208 and 206 to thenorthand southof it, whileGeometricwellshavebeen excavatedat 179 and 201. Protogeometric sherdsand Geometric houseshaveevenbeen reportedat 180 some400 metreswestof the palace. The siteof theStratigraphie Museum(188) wasapparently and occupiedinProtogeometric Geometric times:whatappearsto havebeen a Protogeometric burialat 182 just to the south-west ofitwasnotnecessarily area. beyondthelimitsofthesettlement It is not clearhow farnorthof thepalacetheEarlyIronAgesettlement extended.But Late Geometric forthestream in making thediversion south potteryfromwellsdiscovered of the Venizeleion(88) and Geometric sherdsat 99 suggestthatit mayhaveeventually reachedas faras this.In thatcase the settlement by theend of theEarlyIronAgemay havebeennearlyas largeandpopulousas itwasinlaterGreekandRomantimes. Manytombsthatwerein use in theEarlyIronAgehavebeenfoundintheKnossosarea. On thebasisof thewidedistribution of EarlyIronAgecemeteries it has beenarguedthat in the the earlier of the was different in character occupation regionduring part period fromwhatit had beenin theBronzeAgeand fromwhatit was to be later:thatin place ofa singlemaincentre therewasa scatter ofseparate andhamlets.56 Buttheevidence villages main that a centre of habitation was established as as strongly suggests early Protogeometric timesin the neighbourhood of the former palace,nearthe sitesof whatwereto be the sanctuaries of Demeteron LowerGipsadhes,of Rhea (?) on the palace site,and,more of Zeus and Hera on theAcropolishill.Whether, speculatively, however,the settlement fromtheverybeginning includedthepalaceof a local ruleror an agoraof somekindas a focusofcivicactivity is unknown. Tombsin use in theEarlyIronAgedo notin factappearto be morescattered thanones of the preceding BronzeAgeor onesof theRomanperiod.No EarlyIronAgetombsfor instancehaveyet come to lightsouthof the area of the TempleTomb 323, and in the absenceof anyevidenceexcepthearsayit is notquitecertainthatthefewallegedly Early 16

FIG. 4. Early Iron Age (Protogeometric,Geometricand Archaic) Knossos fromc. 1000-500 B.C.

Iron Age tombshere (e.g. 325, 328) were not Late Bronze Age ones. Moreoverthe recent excavationsnorthof the Venizeleion (47, 62) have confirmed,what had alreadyseemed highlyprobable,thatby farthe heaviestconcentrationof Early Iron Age tombsincluding themostimportantones was in the regionof Ambelokipi(Teke). The distribution of Early Iron Age tombsand cemeteriesmay havebeen to some extent conditionedby the distributionof Bronze Age ones. In the earlierpart of the EarlyIron Age at any rate some Bronze Age chambertombsappear to havebeen clearedand re-used. theline of whatappears This could have been the case withthe tombsin thebank flanking to the north Knossos to have been the main road fromBronze Age (16 and 39): Payneat re-usedBronze Age were in this bank least had no doubt that the Early Iron Age tombs of BronzeAge have also been ones.57Some of the tombsin the FortetsaCemetry151 may date re-usedin thismanner.No certaintracesof use in the BronzeAge,however,werenoted in the tombsof the importantEarly Iron Age cemeteryon the Medical Facultyhillsoutheast of Ambelokipi(62). Even if the re-useof BronzeAge tombswas on an extensivescale, it is on the faceof it unlikelythatno new chambertombsweredug in the EarlyIronAge.58 betweenthose A studyof the tombsthemselves may one day makeit possibleto distinguish dugin the EarlyIronAge and re-usedBronzeAge ones. Tombs beyond the northernborders of the Knossos area in the modernsuburbsof Atsalenio and Mastaba no doubt belongedto an EarlyIron Age settlementat Herakleion, which may have been an independentstate as late as the 3rd centuryB.C.59Fragmentsof a cineraryurnand a Geometricamphorafoundnearthechapel of AyiosNikolaosat Isopata appear to have come froma tomb,60whichcould also have belongedto Herakleionor to a smallersetttlementon the hill of Ayios Ioannis wheresome Geometricsherdshave been noted (7). The Protogeometric cemeteryat the westernfootof the hillat 6 mightsimilarly have belongedto a settlementclose at hand. There was evidentlyoccupationof some kind tombs in the EarlyIron Age on thehill (32) southof Kallithea(Babali), and Protogeometric of the have been notedin the area north-west settlement withtracesof contemporary village (see under 32). Possiblytherewas a scatterof farmhouseslike those attestedduringthe earlierpart at any rate of the Bronze Age in the Knossos region.The Geometricwell by Hogarth'sHouses 297 mighthave servedsucha farm. One other area where Early Iron Age sherdshave been noted fromtimeto timeis the Acropolishill overlookingthe siteof the BronzeAge palace fromthe west(e.g. 150).61This flat-toppedhill mightwell in facthave servedas the acropolisof Early Iron Age Knossos. But no remainsof defencewalls or buildingsof the periodhave been identifiedthere,and EarlyIron Age sherdsare not abundantoverall.A good many,however,wererecentlynoted of an earlyDoric capital(105) in the regionof 146 not farfromthe spot wherea fragment once lay highon the east slope of the hill. This suggeststhe possibilitythattheGeometric potteryon the Acropoliswas associated with a shrineor shrinessuch as appear to have existedtherein laterGreektimes. Classicaland HellenisticKnossos(c. 500-67 B.C.) Knossos appears to have remainedan importantcentrethroughoutthe EarlyIron Age. The Geometricstylewhichhad been developedat Knossos eventuallyprevailedovermost of Crete.62But thereis a curiousdearthof burialsassignableto the sixthor fifthcenturies B.C., and relativelylittleis known about occupationof the settlementat Knossos during thatperiod,apartfromevidenceforthe existenceof shrinesand sanctuaries.A reason for lack of knowledgeabout the settlementmightbe that the focus of thishad shiftednorthwardsat the end of the EarlyIron Age,so thatremainsof ClassicalKnossos are coveredby those of the Roman citywhichoccupiedthe same area. But thiswillnot explainthe dearth of evidenceforburials,whichled Dunbabin to suggestthat Knossos mighthavebeen over18

and whelmedby somecatastrophe, the citybeing'destroyed' by someof herneighbours thecentreof powerbeingtransferred Thismightaccountfor'thecessationof elsewhere.63 therichgravedepositsand theabandonment of thechamber-tombs whichhadbeeninuse forso manygenerations.' to a timewhenKnossosaftera longperiodofdominance in Crete Strabo(X. 4, 7) refers was broughtlow and lost manyof hertraditional The was prerogatives. hegemony then herformer to Gortynaand Lyttos,butKnossoslaterretrieved transferred positionas the of a warbetween to an tradition refers Pausanias(II. 21, 3) Argive leadingcity(mitropolis). If ever this war Knossosand Spartain whichtheSpartans reallytook Epimenides. captured of her to the to assistance it is colony,Lyttos,in a place, possible imagineSpartacoming of Knossos described The decisivestruggle Knossos.64 by Strabohas been eclipse against the of the the fourth middle second to a later between and B.C.;65 century assigned period, that but thereseemsno reasonwhyit shouldnot havebeenearlier.Dunbabinsuggested the factthatGortynaand Phaistos(and evenperhapsLyttos)beganto strikecoinsin the secondquarterof the fifthcentury,66 somewhatbeforeKnossosdid, mightreflecttheir relativepredominance and the inferior positionof Knossos.But thisdoes notnecessarily follow:Spartaforinstance didnotbeginto strikecoinsuntilthefourth B.C. century Thereare indications thatthe publiccentreof ClassicalKnossosmayhavebeenin the of an ArchaicGreekinscription was regionof the RomanCivilBasilica112. A fragment foundat 118, and the earlyGreekinscription whichHalbherrwas told came fromthe ofthe areaof 112 had apparently withlawsafterthemanner belongedto a wallinscribed of Gortyna.67 of anotherinscription The fragments whichHalbherr greatlegalinscription foundre-usedin the construction of the Romanbasilica112 weresimilarly froma law whichinthiscasehadbeenpaintedon a wallinredletters.68 Thereseemsto havebeena finehouseof theHellenistic periodto thewestof thelater Villa Dionysos114. One of the potterykilnsat 178 mighthavebeenin use in Classical Hellenistic. Thisareamayhavebeenthepotters'quarter, times,whiletheotherwascertainly and P. Callaghanhas suggested thatthesouth-western induspartofthecitywasingeneral trialduring theHellenistic period. The regionof Ambelokipi to be themaincemetery area, (Teke) seemsto havecontinued as Halbherr Some funerary whichhe saw collectedin thecourtyard suspected. inscriptions of the 'monastery of Chani-Ali'therewerecertainly pre-Roman,and in hisopinionwent backintothefourth B.C.69A finegoldVictoryearring to thelatefourth century assignable or thirdcentury B.C. wasrecovered froma tombneartheTombof Caiaphas57 southof at Knossos,but Ambelokipl. Hardlyanygravesof theClassicalperiodhavebeenidentified one of the fifthcenturyB.C. was notedby Paynein theareaof 51, and thereappearto havebeen othersof comparabledate in the regionof theVenizeleion(72). Some of the in thisand otherpartsof theKnossosareadescribed as poorerearthgravesand tue-graves orHellenistic, Roman,Greco-Roman mayhavebeenearlier. Hellenistic havebeennotedfromtimeto timein many gravesand funerary inscriptions intheregionofAmbelokipi placesroundthesiteof theGreekcityofKnossos:northwards in theFortetsacemetery on theslopesofAilias 151, eastwards (Teke) (e.g. 62), westwards (238), and in theareaof 334 and at 366 southof Spilia.Someat leastofthegravesinthe notedby Hogarthon Lower Gipsadhes(see under305) appearto havebeen cemetery Hellenistic withvasesof the3rd-2nd centuries B.C. according to P. Callaghan.Knossosis indeedknownto havebeena strong andprosperous stateduring thelaterHellenistic period, whensheextended herterritory at theexpenseofneighbours on all sides. Defences Thereis no evidencethatthe Greekcityof Knossoswas everdefendedby a circuitof 19

of thecityappearsto havebelongedto walls.The tower(37) on theKefalahillnorth-east a fort,whichmaydate fromthethirdcentury B.C. ratherthanearlier.Bursianmentions of defencewalls witha circuitof 30 stades,but thisis based upon a misunderstanding who 30 of the as theformer circumference city.70 Strabo, gives stades(overblhkilometres) to StraboGortyna wasunwalledandtheinhabited areatherehada circumference According of 50 stades.71 If Gortynawas unwalledthereis no reasonwhyKnossos,its greatrival Greektimes,shouldnot also have remainedwithoutthe benefitof walls. throughout and captureof Knossosby Metellusin 67 B.C. Nothingin theaccountsof theinvestment thatitmusthavehaddefencewallsat thetime. suggests shrines andsanctuaries Temples, one of Demeter(286) on Lower The sitesof two Greektempleshavebeenidentified: Bronze the of in south-west quarterof theformer Gipsadhes,the other,probably Rhea, in have of Demeter 286 may begun Protogeometric Age palace.72Cult in the Sanctuary Chamber cultat theSpring of theSubminoan thetradition and continuing times,replacing that a cultof are indications There blocked. of there the water became 285 after supply of later the in the area date a existed at somekindalready templein the early similarly of the former south-west palace.73 quarter are evidenceforthe existenceof other Votive depositsand architectural fragments in at Knossos Classicaland Hellenistictimes.The earlyDoric templesand sanctuaries recovered capital145 musthavebelongedto a temple.Theupperpartofa Daedalicfigurine The this stood. in which from the down in theregionof 178 couldhavewandered sanctuary as from this notedto thesouthof 146 mightalso havecome Geometric sanctuary pottery of the connectedthe Doric capital145 with above. Evanstentatively temple suggested some Schoolmight thehopethattheBritish ApolloDelphinios(Delphidios),and expressed itssite.74 Thistempleis knownto havebeenusedas an archive day succeedin discovering of publicacts suchas treatieswerekept.The Acropolishillcertainly whereinscriptions eastof theKairatosas indicatedby seemsa moreappropriate placeforit thana situation ofa decreefromtheAcropolis ofa fragment The recovery Marianifollowing Khatzidakis.75 hillmightseemto fitwiththeideathatsuchan archive templestoodthere,buttheinscriphas A.D.76P. Callaghan tionis datedto thetimeof theRomancolonyin thefirstcentury thatan archivetempleof thiskindis morelikelyto havebeensituatednearthe suggested oftheagoralikethetempleofthePythian centreof thecity,perhapsintheneighbourhood in theregionof Greek of was probablysomewhere at The Knossos agora Apollo Gortyna. thelaterCivilBasilica112. end of the Acropolishillhintat the The findsfromthe area of 136 at the northern of Zeus and Hera in thisdominating existenceof a sanctuary positionwitha wideview northofthespotwhere northwards to Herakleion andthesea.Theareais nearly200 metres on theDoriccapital145 usedto lie. It is therefore possiblethatthereweretwosanctuaries end. theAcropolis theotherat itssouthern hill,oneat itsnorthern, The Eurystheus as a Romandraincoverin theregionof relief(metope)foundserving in 1910 Evansreported 132 musthavecome froma temple.At thetimeof itsdiscovery of a smallDorictemple the existence remains and other architectural indicating capitals of architectural reliefsfrom209 westof thepalacecould in the vicinity. The fragments as probably havebelongedto the templeon thesiteof theBronzeAgepalace,identified whichPendlebury thatof Rhea,or to someothertemplenearerat hand.Hellenistic pottery in 1930 froma spotjust was recovered as partlyvotive,partlyshrinefurniture, regarded to theeastoftheHouseoftheFrescoes212. statuetteof Nikefoundat 287 by theVlikhia It has been suggested thata Hellenistic known ofAthenaTritogeneia, withthesanctuary havecomefroma templeconnected might 20

FIG. 5. Classical and HellenisticKnossos fromc. 500 B.C. untilthe Roman conquest in 67 B.C.

to have existedsomewhere in theregionof Knossos;whichwouldimplythattheVlikhia was theancientTritonbythesprings orsourcesofwhichthesanctuary is saidto havebeen. But thisis difficult to reconcilewiththestoryof howSt Myronwas obligedto quellthe watersof theTritonwhenon hiswayto Knossos,theVlikhiabeinga smallstream, nearto the Romancity,and probablycrossedby bridgesin Romantimes(203, 204).77Rival fortheTritonhavebeenidentified candidates to thewestof Knossos,and alsoto theeast withthe suggestion thatthe shrineof AthenaTritogeneia was in theregionof Astritsi.78 Foundationsexposed some yearsago at 24 in comparatively flatgroundnorthof Ambelokipi (Teke) mighthavebelongedto a templeof theClassicalperiod.The various findsdescribed under24 as foundin theregionof Ambelokipi andAyiosIoannisalsohint in theareanorthof Knossos.In 1975 at the existenceof one or moreGreeksanctuaries of Artemiscame to lightwhenmunicipalflatswerebeingconevidencefora sanctuary area. at Pedeviin theregionof AyiosIoannisbutjustnorthoftheKnossosSurvey structed ofsquaredporosmasonry A substantial Romanbuilding mayhavebelongedto this.A Latin of a roadto the of thefirstcentury A.D. fromheredealswiththerestoration inscription Romancolonyat Knossos.79 The MavroSpilioCave 252 withitsspring mayhavebeenthesceneofcultinearlyGreek in 1976 in thevillageofKnossos(197) timesandlater.A smallshrine(heroon)discovered and in use fromthe sixthcenturyB.C. untilthe timeof the Romanconquesthas been to theeast identified as thatofGlaukos.Tracesofanother possibleheroshrine byCallaghan of theLittlePalace 185 wereassigned suggests period.Callaghan byEvansto theHellenistic also ofLowerGipsadhes thattheheroon(312) whichHogarthnotedon thesummit might in theregionof305. havebeenHellenistic ratherthanRoman,associatedwitha cemetery ROMANAND LATERKNOSSOS (from67 B.C. onwards) RomanKnossos(67 B.C.-c. 400 A.D.) At some pointafterthe conquestby Metellusin 67 B.C. Knossosbecamea Roman colony,theonlyone in Crete,withthetitleColoniaJuliaNobilisCnossus.Sandersbelieved wereCampanians nota military thatit was a civilian, colony,andthatsomeofthecolonists 's who mighthave includedCapuans,expelledperhapsfromtheirholdingsby Octavian of defeat the after a few Octavian foundedby The colonywas apparently veterans.80 years Antonyand Cleopatraat Actiumin 31 B.C.81Bronzecoinswhichappearto be thefouna titlefirstassumedby himin dationissuesof the colonydescribeOctavianas Augustus, of the 27 B.C.82At thesametimeperhapsas thefoundation colonysomeof theterritory thathad belongedto Knossoswas handedoverto the Italiancityof Capua,whichwas Thislandwas notsettledby Capuans,butwas merelyheldby alreadya Romancolony.83 the cityof Capua as a farmfromwhichan incomewas derived:it appearsto havebeen periodfromneighduringtheHellenistic partof whatKnossoshad acquiredby aggression boursto thesouthandwest.84 Ruinsof theRomanperiodarestillvisibleabovegroundinmanyplacesat Knossos.The betweenthesite Romancityseemsto havecoveredan areaof lessthana squarekilometre of the BronzeAge palace and the originalstreambed in the gullyjust southof the Venizeleionon the north.It was boundedby the Kairatosto the east,and on thewest extendedoverthelowerslopesof theAcropolishill.Thetotalareaofintensive occupation were The houseson theoutskirts maynot havebeen muchmorethan50 or 60 hectares. roundthem. incharacter withgardens suburban probably 22

theRomancitywas everdefended It is doubtful whether bywalls.No tracesofdefence wallsappearto havebeen visibleby thetimethatHalbherr and EvansvisitedKnossosat the end of the last century.But Pocockenoted'somelittleremains'of defencewalls, Whathe saw, especiallyto the north,showingthe extentof the cityin thatdirection.85 Evans have been the of the was laterto stretch Makritikhos which 86, however, may long call 'theremains oftheRomancitywall.'86Strabo'sfigure of30 stades(over5V& kilometres) forthecircumference of Knossosappearsto referto theGreekcity.87 Theestimate forthe circuitof the ancientcitygivenby Sprattis stillmoregenerous:fullysixmiles,whichis buthe evidently thatit extendedas faras Fortetsaon the nearlyten kilometres; thought west.88In factthe circuitof the Romancityappearsto havebeenin theregionof three kilometres at themost. RomanKnossoswas certainly the a muchsmallerplace thancontemporary Gortyna, of the of Crete and the in the Greek and richest islands.89 But capital province Libya city it was evidently withlargepublicbuildings and manyfinehouses.A number of prosperous mosaicpavements havecometo light.The fifteenth traveller Buondelmonti records century one withmanyfigures visiblein histime.90 Sanderscallsthemosaicsin theVillaDionysos 114 thefinestinCreteandequalto contemporary workanywhere intheEmpire.91 Knossos becamefamousas a sourceof statues,of whichnumbers weresentto Veniceduringthe in thearea periodof Venetianrule.92Statuesare stillfoundin relatively largequantities (e.g.129, 197). The RomanCivilBasilica112 mayhavebeennearthecentreof thecity.To thenorthwestof it was a theatreor amphitheatre at 115 (110). Publicbathshavebeenconjectured or 121. The shrineof Glaukos(197) does not seemto havesurvived theRomanconquest; but the Sanctuaryof Demeter286 on LowerGipsadhescontinued in use intothesecond A.D. Hogarthindicatedthatthebuildingat 121 south-east oftheCivilBasilicawas century a smalltemple,andvariousoutlying likethatat 76 where buildings mayhavebeentemples, the fragment of a Latininscription of a dedicationto Isis was recovered. The suggestive Makritikhos 86 on thenorthern of thecitycouldhavebeenthefrontof a large outskirts Romanstoa.In thatcase perhapsitandthebuilding to theeast (85) on thesamealignment of it mighthavebeenconnectedwitha sanctuary of Aesculapius whichis knownto have existedat Knossosin Romantimesifnotearlier.93 Hogarthclearedwhathe tookto be a smallRomanheroonon thesummit ofLowerGipsadhes hassuggested (312); butCallaghan the possibility thatthismighthavebeenHellenistic in connection withHellenistic burials inthearea(305). Analtarassigned to theRomanperiodwasfoundintheneighbourhood of theMavroSpilioCave252. Romanaqueduct Considerable tracesof thisimpressive of Romanengineering monument have cometo lightin thelastfewyears.The aqueducthasnotyetbeendated,anditmayhavebeenconin a relatively structed latephaseof thelifeoftheRomancolony,perhapsinthecourseof thesecondcentury A.D.94The numerous wellsof theRomanperiodsuggest thattheaqueductwas not the only,and perhapswas nottheoriginal, sourceof waterforthecolony. Somestretches of theaqueductmayrepresent laterrepairs oralterations. The sourcesfrom whichthewaterwasbrought havenotyetbeenidentified: Evanssuggested thesamespring risingfroman easternspurof Mt.Juktasas theVenetiansand Turkslaterusedfortheir aqueducts.95 A substantial sectionof theRomanaqueductis exposedat Spilia(353) inthesteepbank just belowtheEgyptian aqueductbuiltby MehemetAli (1830-40 A.D.). It has also been notedat 351 and352 on thenorthern ofSpilia.Here lipofthedeepgullyto thenorth-west it followsmuchthesamelineas theVenetianaqueductwhichrana littlewestof it,with 23

to thewest.The Romanaqueductcan theEgyptian aqueductat a higherlevelstillfurther be tracedalongtheeasternflankof UpperGipsadhes(348-350) withtheVenetianaqueductbelowit on the east.The Egyptianaqueductfollowstheexisting pathjust aboveit theshoulder level to ran a cross on the westhere.The Egyptian at highenough aqueduct an which is still betweenUpperandLowerGipsadhes. A deepopencutting, sight, impressive theshoulderto receivethechanneloftheVenetianaqueduct.The Roman was dugthrough althoughit ranat a higherlevelthantheVenetianone,wasmadeto aqueduct,however, LowerGipsadhesas shownby the tracesof it at 347, 346 and 318. It circumnavigate crossedthe Vlikhiajust northof thebridgewhichcarriedthe Venetianand eventually Egyptian aqueducts(160). The only possibletraceof the Romanaqueductwhichhas been notedbeyondthis of one of therock-cut pointis at 168, wherea bitof concretewallingabovetheentrance tombsmightbe partof it. If it is, and ifas seemsveryprobablethetombwas Roman,it late stagein thehistory wouldsupporttheidea thattheaqueductwas builtat a relatively oftheRomancolonyofKnossos. Wherever thechannelof theaqueducthas beenexposedto viewthebottomedgesof it havebeen foundto be bevelled,unlikethe bottomedgesof the Venetianand Egyptian in thearea.At 351 the aqueducts,butlikethoseof thevariousRomantanksand cisterns channelwas 1.25 metreshighand 0.52 metreswide,linedwithpinkplasterand setin a was packedwith in thesoftkouskouras rockc. 1.35/40metresacross:thecutting cutting stonesheld together withyellowish cement.At 347 wherethechannelwas againexposed forstudyitswidthhad beenreducedto 0.45 metres, andat 318 on thesouth-west slopeof LowerGipsadhes widewitha heightofc. 0.70 metres. itwasonly0.41 metres WhenHogarthsanktrialsin theareaof Knossosvillagein 1900he cameupona number withbevellededgeslikethe Partof a largecistern of ancientwaterconduitsand cisterns.96 oftheRomanperiodhave rock-cut tanks and is still in the at 191, exposed village aqueduct been notedto the north-west of it (190). Plasteredwaterchannelsof theRomanperiod Museum(188). westof theStratigraphie havealso come to lightin the new excavations musthavebeenconnectedwith Hogarththoughtthathis systemof conduitsand cisterns on thenorth-east 'underthesummit a largecistern whichheobserved slope'oftheAcropolis butit appearsto hill(144). Thereis no traceofthisnow,anditsexactpositionis uncertain; havebeenat toohigha levelto havebeenfedbytheRomanaqueduct. withbevellededgesliketheaqueductare319 on LowerGipsadhes OtherRomancisterns if northof theThéâtral AreaoftheBronzeAgepalace.Thesecisterns and 217 immediately from are since connected withtheaqueductmusthavebeenfedbybranches it, they leading somedistanceawayfromthe line of it and at a muchlowerlevel.A sectionof bevelled of 217 is stillvisiblecutting thetop of a Bronze channelleadingin thedirection through of of the at the north end the Court house wall West palace. Age Romantombsandcemeteries to theRomanperiodhavebeenidentified of gravesand tombsassignable Largenumbers builttombs, to monumental in the arearoundKnossos.Theserangefrompoortile-graves aboveitlikethenow vaultsbelowground(e.g. 62, 72, 78) and onesconstructed including at 202 and on thesitesof theDemeter vanishedTomb of Caiaphas(57). The structures sanctuary (286) and of Hogarth'sHouses(297) mayhavebeentombsof thislatterkind. The standardtypeof Romantomb,however,appearsto have been a squarerock-cut tombsare oftheserock-cut forthreeburials.Extensive cemeteries withside-niches chamber to oftheRomancity(154-158 withoutliers to thesouth-west stillvisibleon thehillBafria the northand east) and at Spiliato thesouth(361). Sometombsof thistypehavebeen and nearPrinias: in Crete,in the regionof AyiosThomas,forinstance, foundelsewhere 24

FIG. 6. Roman, Early Byzantineand Arab Knossos

two near Priniaswere assignedby Taramellito the Hellenisticperiod,but withoutanyclear evidence.97None of the considerablenumberof theserock-cuttombsexcavatedat Knossos in the courseof the past hundredyearsappearsto have producedany tracesof use before Romantimes.Possiblythetypewas introducedfromItalyby the Roman colonists. EarlyByzantineKnossos (c. 400-827 A.D.) There is evidencefor destructionwithinthe Roman city duringthe reignof Septimius Severus,and this may have been followedby a period of abandonmentof some partsof it in the earlythirdcenturyA.D.98But Knossos seemsto havecontinuedto be an important centreintoEarlyChristiantimes.Two basilicachurcheshavebeen excavatedin the cemetery area to the north(64, 74). The largestof these (64) appearsto date fromthe fifthcentury built A.D. and may have been a mortuarychurch.The other(74) was evidentlya martyrion church basilica overChristiangravesin the earlysixthcenturyA.D. A thirdEarlyChristian appears to have existedon the site of Ayia Sofia in Makritikhosvillage(235). The church hereseemsto havebeen largerin size than74 but smallerthan64. Early Byzantinecoins are found at Knossos.99But Sanders has reportedthat pottery In the following laterthan c. 400 A.D. is not in evidenceon the site of the Roman city.100 centuriesCretewas exposed to raidsby Slavs and Arabs.ManyEarlyByzantinesettlements on the islandwere fortified. The area of the Roman cityat Knossoswould havebeen difficult to defendwith walls and thereis no evidencethatit was. Perhapsthe administrative whichwas apparently centreof the regionwas transferred fromKnossos to Herakleion,101 of of walls time the before the the Arab Many publicbuildingsprobably given conquest.102 went out of use duringthisperiod,and the occupiedarea mayhave shrunkin size,concentratingperhapsin the regionof Makritikhos villagewiththepossibleEarlyChristianchurch (235). Two late gravesat 183 in the environsof Knossosvillagemightreflectthisshrinkage of the occupied area. But other tombs assignableto a late period have been identified beyond the limitsof the Roman city (e.g. 59, and perhaps75, 108); and some verylate pottery,assignableto the 8th and 9th centuriesA.D., was recoveredfroma smallpit or wellin thedivertedstreambed southof theVenizeleion(88). Arab Knossos(c. 827-960 A.D.) Afterthe Arab conquestof Cretec. 827 A.D. Herakleionwithits defencewalls became the capital of the island,and the Knossos area seems to have been sparselyoccupied by of Arab coins suggestsa scatterof thesealong the banks of peasant huts: the distribution the Kairatos, and one has been excavatedbelow Makritikhosvillageon the east (236). Squatters appear to have occupied the ground floor of the bell-towerof the ruined in the cemeterynorthof the Roman city(74) duringthisperiod. martyrion Greco-Romanquarries A numberof ancientlimestonequarrieshave been identifiedon the slopes and summit of Ailias (363-365, and 264, 266, 267). None of the visibleindicationsassociatedwith these appear to date frombeforeGreek or Roman times.In all these areas of quarrying blocks are visiblecut to shapein readinessforremoval. except the largest(267) rectangular blocks of thiskindhavebeen assignedto theBronze Some Cretanquarrieswithrectangular Age.103But at Knossos at any rate the blocks used for buildingin the Bronze Age were normallymore or less triangularin shape, and rectangularones were exceptional.The rectangularblocks left in the quarriesof the Knossos area thereforeseem to be relicsof Greek or Roman exploitation.The quarrieswith similarrectangularblocks by the shore east of Herakleionmayalso be of thisperiodratherthanearlier.104 The tracesof quarryingoperationsat 363-365 on thelowerslopesof Ailiassuggestthat 26

onlya limitedamountof stonewas removedfromthoseareas:thequarries mayhavebeen that for is to sayin connection withspecific Greekor Romanbuildings a restricted opened on top of Ailias(264, 266, 267) was on a muchmore periodof time.But the quarrying ambitious scale. The impressive cavequarries at AyiaIrmisouthofSpiliawerealreadybeing underground described as thoseof ancientKnossosbeforetheend of thelastcentury.105 Evansassigned themto theBronzeAge;buttheyappearto be Romanifnotlaterin date.106 Gypsumwas evidently beingquarriedat Knossosin Greekand Romantimes.Evans recordsextensive tracesof gypsumquarrying in the regionof 303, and sometracesof it are stillvisibleimmediately northof the Romankiln 304. Signsof possiblequarrying operationsforgypsumin Romantimeswerenotedin the regionof the MiddleMinoan tholostomb308. The Romankiln304, and the one whichmaybe pre-Roman at 354, to have been for used to appear burning gypsum makelime.

CONCLUSION

SinclairHood and Neil Roberts

foran exceptionally Knossoswas the site of an important settlement longperiodof of c. 6000 B.C.107 some 7000 from the the Cretan Neolithic time;covering years beginning to theArabconquestc. A.D. 827. Therewereat leastthreemajorbreaksordislocations in the courseof thislongpoliticalhistory:one at theend of Late MinoanIB c. 1450 B.C., a fromtheGreekmainland; coinciding perhapswitha conquestof Creteby Mycenaeans secondtowards theendofLateMinoanIII inthe12thcentury B.C. whentherewasevidently an influxof newpeopleintoCrete;anda thirdat thetimeofthefoundation oftheRoman c. 27 B.C. colonybyAugustus The settlement at Knossosseemsto havebeenat itsmostextensive inthematureperiod of theBronzeAge(MiddleMinoanIII - LateMinoanI, c. 1700-1450 B.C.),during thelate Hellenistic oftheRomancolony period,andagaininearlyRomantimesafterthefoundation there.It appearsto havegonethrough a phaseof drasticshrinkage at theend of theLate BronzeAgein the 12thand 11thcenturies B.C.,andit mayhavebeenreplacedas themain centreof theregionduring timessomecenturies beforetheAraboccupation EarlyChristian ofCretec. A.D. 827.ThereasonwhyKnossosceasedto be a maincentrein theArabperiod, or duringthestormy centuries whichimmediately precededit,mayhavebeenthedifficulty of defending it owingto the lie of theground.Significantly, thereis no evidenceforthe ofdefencewallsroundthesettlement existence in anyperiodofitslonghistory. The firstrecognisably 'urban'KnossosmaydatefromtheendoftheEarlyMinoanperiod of MiddleMinoantimes(MiddleMinoanI A) in the (EarlyMinoanIII) or the beginning centuriesbeforec. 2000 B.C. By the end of MiddleMinoanI the settlement possessed monumental and clearcentralplace functions associatedwithan urbanfocus architecture, in the shapeof the palace.Apartfromthepalacearea,separateresidential and cemetery zonescan be identified, as wellas possiblesubsidiary on Ailias(268, 269, 274, settlements The 275) and at theharbourtownin theregionofPorosandKatsambaeastofHerakleion. MiddleMinoansettlement at Knossoswasalready, itseems,comparable in sizewiththecity of the Hellenistic and Romanperiods,and Knossosevidently continued to be thelargest centreinCretethroughout thewholeoftheBronzeAge. In thethreemillennia or moreof itshistory, theNeolithicsettlement had formed a tell withdepositsover sevenmetresthick.Duringthe earlierpartof the BronzeAge there whichtookto appearsto havebeenan important changein thehabitsof thepopulation, 27

theregular disposalof rubbishleadingto thecreationof rubbishdumpsbeyondthelimits of themainsettlement area.Thismeantthatthroughout mostof theBronzeAgeafterthe earliestphases(EarlyMinoanI- II) relatively littleoccupationdebriswas depositedwithin the settlement. Afterdisasterssuch as earthquakes, ruinedbuildings however, mightbe levelledandnewfloorslaidon topofthedebrisfromthem. A majorearthquake, whichaffectedthe palaceas wellas partsof thetownandled to of widespread levelling theruinsin thismanner, appearsto haveoccurredin Late Minoan I A c. 1500 B.C. about the timeof thegreatBronzeAgeeruption of thevolcanoon the of island Thera.108 does not seemto have But the destruction causedby thisearthquake howled to anyrealdislocation in thehistory ofthesite.Suchdislocation canbe detected, ever,somefifty yearslatertowardstheend of Late MinoanI B c. 1450 B.C. The signsof inthesettlement destruction at thistime,unlikethoseoftheearlierearthquake destruction, are accompanied by tracesof fire.Thereare also veryclearchangesbothin thelocation and in thecharacter of cemeteries in theKnossosregionduringtheperiodwhichfollows. This destruction and dislocationaround1450 B.C. may have coincidedwiththe occuThe settlement at Knossosin fromtheGreekmainland. pationof Knossosby Mycenaeans the 'Mycenaean'period(Late MinoanII- III) afterc. 1450 B.C. appearsto have been rathersmallerin extent.But continuity is morein evidenceat Knossosthanit is at most othermaincentresin Crete,someof whichwerevirtually abandonedafterdestruction by firec. 1450B.C. At somepointbeforetheend of theBronzeAgethepalaceat Knossoswasdestroyed by is fireand was neveroccupiedas such again.The date of thisfinalpalace destruction less with estimated soon after around 1300 as 1400 B.C., or, B.C., variously probability, a century or so later.The evidencesuggests thattowardstheendof theBronzeAgethe Thisperiodofapparent settlement dwindled. at Knossosshrank insizewhilethepopulation inCrete. declinemayhaveculminated ofoneormoregroupsofnewsettlers withthearrival in a real Thereis no evidence, there was at time to that however, suggest gap occupation any at Knossos. Different burialtraditions beginto appearat Knossosat theveryendoftheLateBronze there and at firstsome re-useof earliertombs,certainBronzeAge was Age, although ofEarlyIron on 331 areas like Largenumbers cemetery UpperGipsadheswereabandoned. to from tombs have been with burials excavated Age ProtogeometricOrientalising; ranging mostoftheClassical evidence butthereis an almostcompletegapinthecemetery covering This of the fourth centuries B.C. from the the sixthto gapmaycoincide earlypart period handsof her the at suffered withthe perioddescribedby StrabowhenKnossos eclipse andLyttos. rivals, Gortyna inthearea The centreof thecitybytheClassicalperiodappearsto havebeenestablished later built. was of thepalacein theregionwheretheRomancivilbasilica(112) north-west on the south-west Therewereevidently whichincludeda potters'quarter industrial districts, of the settlement. whichseemsto havebeenunwalled, Outsidethe settlement, lay fringe sanctuaries and shrines (e.g. 286, andperhaps136 and 145); and at somepointa fortwas builton a hillto thenorth(37, 38). In Hellenistic timesKnossosonceagainacquireda positionofdominance amongthecity of the city,which statesof Crete.Strabo'sestimateof 30 stadesforthe circumference refersto thisperiod,wouldgiveit an area of 2.4km2,makingit largerthan apparently The archaeological eitherthe BronzeAge or the Romansettlements. evidence,however, in Knossoswasperhapssimilar and Hellenistic does not appearto supportthisestimate, ofBronzeAgeandRomantimes. extentto thesettlements which Afterthe conquestof Creteby Metellusin 67 B.C. theRomansmadeGortyna, established had sidedwiththem,thecapitalof theisland.Some fortyyearslaterAugustus 28

a Romancolonyat Knossos.A newtypeofrock-cut tomb(e.g.154-9, 361) mayhavebeen introduced to KnossosfromItaly at thistime.Knossosevidently flourished duringthe of the Roman Inside the were the usual baths, period colony. city publicbuildings, including a civilbasilica(112), and a theatreor amphitheatre (110). Outsidethecitylimitslayvillas, cemeteries and quarries. An aqueductbringing waterfromthesouthwasbuiltin thesecond if A.D. not earlier. century Thereis someevidencefordestruction and dislocationat Knossosduringthereignof Severus around A.D. 200. Knossos wasstillprosperous, at thebeginning Septimius however, of EarlyChristian times.Eventually thelargebasilicachurch64 anda martyrion (74) were builtin thenorthern area. But the of invasions which cemetery during period beganinthe fifthcentury A.D. Knossosmayhavesuffered of themore with the establishment eclipse defensible Herakleion as the This centre. was with theArab confirmed easily regional eclipse c. In A.D. the Arab of 827. the area wasapparently reducedto conquest periodoccupation or level even to a of scatter huts the of the Kairatos. village along valley Laterin theMiddleAgesaftertherestoration of Byzantine rulein Cretethevillageof Makritikhos clustered roundwhatappearsto havebeenthesiteofan EarlyChristian basilica church(235) dedicatedperhapsliketheexisting churchthereto AyiaSofia.Latera hamlet themodern grewup at BougadhaMetokhi, villageofKnossos,westofthemainroad.

29

NOTES xiii(1901) 305. 1. Spratti 60. Xanthoudides,^4í/*enu xxviii(1893) 110. 2. TheAntiquary 3. E. g.Pashleyi 202 ff.Spratti 58 ff.IC i 55 forotherreferences. KCh 1960, andhiswork,see S. G. Spanakis, ofMinosKalokairinos 4. Foran appreciation 295 ff. xxviii(1893) 110-2. 5. TheAntiquary 6. MA vi (1895) 221 fig.46. 7. BSA vi (1899-1900) 70 ff. 8. Kairatosis the ancientname,whichhas now been revived.Laternamesinclude Katsambas (IC i 46. PM ii 140 fig.71). (Razábanos,Kassabanos)andSpiliopotamos 9. PM ii 104 note1 fortheoriginofthename. Greece:a case-study' Prehistoric to humangeography. 'Newapproaches 10.J. L. Bintliff, Balkans the in F. W.Carter(ed.),^4nhistorical of (AcademicPress:London, geography 1977)59-114. 11. S. Bottema, (forthcoming). discussionof thisand otheraspectssee N. Roberts,'The locationand 12. For further ofKnossos',5S,4lxxiv(1979) 231-41. environment of 13. The namesUidápuxor rá uirápia are thoughtto havearisenafterthediscovery Minos of excavations the the Palace of west in the with during wing magazines pithoi in 1878-79. Kalokairinos 14.PPS xxxvii(1971) pl. viopp. 110. 15.PM ii 146 note3, and 153. 16.BSA vi (1899-1900) 79 f. 17. Ibid.72. 18. RWHDiaryp. 87. 19.PATii 566. 20. PAE 1953,305 ff.;1954,369 ff. 21.PMÜ 146 note3. 22.J. Evans,'The EarlyMinoanoccupationof Knossos:a noteon somenewevidence, ,4S xxii(1972) 115-28. 23. AR 1973-74,34. 24. BSA vi (1899-1900 77 f. 25. Ibid.78. 26. BSA ix (1902-03) 3. 27. AR 1960-61, 27 f.fig.31. 28. BSA vi (1899-1900) 81. 29.PM ii 559. 30. Ibid.564. Keview lhe lown Manning m Crete7, Town Planning 'Prehistoric 31. R. W. Hutchinson, xxino. 3(1950) 206. ot areaol settlement 32. Renfrew, 238,and237 Table 14. V, fortheestimated Emergence sites. otherAegeanprehistoric au moyenage (fans, 33. Renfrew, Emergence240. F. Thinet,La Romanievénitienne 268. 1959) 34. PM ii 560 f. 238. 35. Quotedby Renfrew, Emergence 30

36. PM ii 562. 37. F. Thiriet, op. cit.note33, 268. KCh 1961-62 vol.ii 343. 38. Pashleyii202,325. lxii(1967) 341 note14. 39. M. R. Popham,£S,4 40.PMÜ230. 41. Pini56. 42. KCh 1950,297 note2. 43. W. Cavanaghand C. Mee,'The Re-useof EarlierTombsin theLH III C Period',BSA lxxiii(1978) 31-44. U.AR 1957,22 f.fig.7. 45. E.g.N. Platon,KCh 1954,428-83. CultPlacesm theAegeanWorld(Warsaw,1972) 73-120. 46. Notablyby B. Rutkowski, in Ancient Greeceand theEasternMediterranean 47. S. Hood, 'MinoanTown-Shrines?', K. Fritz to Presented Studies and Schachermeyr (ed. H. Kinzl) Prehistory. History B. de 158-72. York: Walter New & Rutkowski, 'Templeand Gruyter, 1977) (Berlin Rethimno CultStatuein theAegeanWorld',Actsof theThirdCretological Congress, 18-23 Sept.,1971 i (Athens,1973) 290-4. 48. ,4a 1961-62, 25 ff. 49. PM iil 34 f.fig.68. 50. PM ii 66 ff. 51. ,4,41931,292. £S,4lv (1960) 143 note8. 52. Cf.Boardman, 53. BSA ix (1902-03) 106; x (1903-04) 51; xxix(1927-28) 231 note1. DP StratMus, AI&II. 54.PMiiil71note2. 55. BSA xxxi (1930-31) 77-89, 94 f., 95-7, whichreferto StratMus,A I 2, and V. 1930T. P. 1 and4. 56. Alexiou,KCh 1950,296 f.DiscussedbyBrock,Fortetsa1 note2, and4 f.Cf.Davaras, Geometric Greece(London,1977) 50. BSA lxiii(1968) 142 f.J.N. Coldstream, note cit. 57. BSA xxix(1927-28) 225 f.Coldstream, 56, 99. op. BSA lv (1960) 58. For a discussionof thisproblemsee Brock,Fortetsa4 f. Boardman, AR 1978-79, 45, 47. 142 f.Catling, betweenKnossosand 59. Rigsby,op. cit. note 81, 314. IC i 60 f. no. 6, an agreement Herakleiots Miletusdatablebetween260-240 B.C., mentions alongwithcitizensof The CretanKoinon otherstatesthenalliedwithKnossos(M. van derMijnsbrugge, (New York, 1931) 59). SherdsfromHerakleionsuggestthat therewas alreadya settlement thereinProtogeometric times(ADeltxxiii(1968) Chron.429). 60. KCh 1965,290,supplemented bv information fromS. Alexiou. 61. BSA xxix(1927-28) 231. KnossosLogbookp. 11, 1stMarch,1950.Cf.ibidp. 16. GreekGeometric 62.J.N. Coldstream, Pottery(London,1968) 234. 63. Gnomonxxiv(1952) 196 f. ofthiswar.Professor 64. See G. L. Huxley,EarlySparta(London,1962)67,fora discussion thisideato us,andkindlygaveus thereferences. NicolasColdstream suggested 65. H. vanEffenterre, La Crèteet le mondeerec(Paris,1948) 237 f. 66. G. le Rider, Monnaies Cretoisesdu Ve au 1er siècle av. J.-C. [Etudes Cretoisesxv)

coinage (Paris,1966) 174 and note4, arguesfora dateafter450 B.C. fortheearliest struckin Crete.ButDr. MartinPricein an unpublished at theFourth paperdelivered Cretological Congressheld in Herakleionin September,1976, to whichhe kindly allowsus to refer,has shownstronggroundsforbelieving thata date earlyin the secondquarterof the 5th centuryB.C. (nearthe traditional dateof c. 480 B.C.) is correct. 31

xxviii The Antiquary Museo Italianoii (1886) 75 ff.Cf. Halbherr, 67. D. Comparetti, isIC i 56 no. 2. (1893) 111.Theinscription 68. IC i 59 f.nos.5 and5 bis. 69. IC i 74 no. 26; 76 no. 33; 77 no. 34. ii (Leipzig:Teubner,1868-72) 559. Cf. Bürchner, 70. Geographievon Griechenland RE xi 926. Strabox. 4, 7. 71.Strabox.4, 11. BSA lxxiii(1978) 185-7. 72.PM ii 5 ff.M. PophamandP. Callaghan, andpossibly Protoxxxi 73. M. Hartley, BSA (1930-31) 92 f., 108 no. 3, forGeometric from the of the If the which area duck-vase geometrie belongedto temple. pottery MinosKalokairinos from of it have been came thewestwing thepalace may connected withthiscult (E. Hallager,TheMycenaean Palaceat Knossos(Stockholm, 1977) 85 xcix(1979) 202). fig.59: a. Cf.M. R. Popham,///S 74.PMÜ844. 75.AL4vi(1895)221fig.46. 76. ,4,41936,161. 77. Guarducci, xxxviAug.h (8 August) op. cit.note78, 629,andIC i 46. ActaSanctorum 342 345. PAE 1938, 78. West:M. Guarducci,Historiaviii (1934) 627-30. East: S. Marinatos, 137 f. P. Faure,BCH lxxxii(1958) 501-7. Cf. C. Davaras,Die Statueaus Astritsi (seenote77) does (1972) 29-32. Faurenotesthattheaccountin theActaSanctorum not say fromwhichdirectionSt. Myronwas approaching Knossos;but it certainly whichappearsto impliesthathe was comingfromhome,thatis, fromhisbishopric, have been at Gortyna,and in effecttherefore fromthe southor west(see T. E. Detorakis, Oí äytOLrff; irpojrr]<; ßvCavnpfiqnepLÓSovTf¡qKprçrrjç(Athens, 1970)

132 ff.,forthetruedateofMyronandtheseatofhisbishopric). 79. Ergon1975,199-201. Cf.AR 1975-76, 29. 80. Sanders, RomanCrete25. Associ81. K.J. Rigsby,'CnossusandCapua',Transactions Philological of theAmerican ation106 (1976) 313-30. Cf.G. Perl,Klio lii (1970) 319-54 esp.344 f.,forreasons afterActium. whythecolonyat Knossosmusthavebeenfounded RomanCrete24. 82. Sanders, 83. Sanders,RomanCrete9, setsthisearlierin 36 B.C. But theaccountin Dio xlix.14, 4-6, makesitclearthatitis inhisviewat leastlater. 84. Rigsby, op. cit.note81. 85. A Description oftheEastii Part1 (London,1745) Bk ivCh.v, 256. 86. BSAx (1903-04) 4. 87. Strabox. 4, 7. 88. Spratti 59. 89. Rigsby, op. cit.note81, 328. CretaSacra(Venice,1755) i 10,96 f. 90. F. Cornelius, RomanCrete98. 91. Sanders, and otherRemainsm Crete Theatres A Description 92. E. Falkener, of some important 24. (London,1854) 93. See IC i 80 no. 49. ofthisdatefortheaqueductwassuggested 94. Thepossibility byDr. SusanWalker. 95. BSA x (1903-04) 53. For the Venetianand Turkishaqueductssee o. oeroia, Mnimeia Venetidell' isoladi Cretaiv (Venice,1932) 14 ff.S. G. Spanakis, Monumenti Istoriasii (Herakleion, tisKritikis 1950) 26 ff. 96. BSA vi (1899-1900) 80 f. 32

RomanCrete83 forothersat 97. MA vi (1895) 184 fig.88; ix (1899) 331 ff.Cf.Sanders, MátalaandGortyna. 98. KSD 186 f.AR 1968-69, 21 f. 99. KSD 107. RomanCrete40, 61, 181,314 ff.,236. 100. Sanders, RomanCrete40, 182. 101. Cf.Sanders, KCh 1961-62, 47-58 esp. 53 f.Sanders, RornanCrete312, 102.,SosoLogiadou-Platonos, butwithcaution. acceptstheevidence, Materialsand Techniques(Annuarioxlix, N.S. 103.J.W. Shaw, MinoanArchitecture: xxxiii(1971)) (Rome,1973) 30 ff. 104.ADeltxxiii(1968) Chron.403 pl. 364 a. Ci.PMH 232 andfig.131 A opp. 230: 'Traces ofAncient Quarries'. AM xi (1886) 138 note2. 105.E. Fabricius, aboutthe 106.PM i 532 f.; il 62. Shaw,op. cit.note 103, 38 t.,has seriousreservations whichcameto light BronzeAgedate.Whatsoundslikea similarunderground quarry, to theRomanperiod(KCh 1973,464). nearSpiliain 1972,hasbeenassigned 107.PPS xxxvii(1971) 117 withlistof 14Cdates. at theSecondInter108.C. Doumas(ed.), Theraand theAegeanWorldi Paperspresented nationalScientific Greece,August1978 (London,1978). Santorini, Congress,

33

CATALOGUE The numbers in brackets aftertheCataloguenumbers as theywerein givethenumbers thefirst edition(KS1). In thespelling of modernGreeknamestherulesthatapplyfortheAnnualoftheBritish Schoolat Athens(BSAxliv(1949) 331 f.)havebeenfollowed, butwithsomeinconsistencies, wherenamesarebetterknownin otherforms, Herakleion. e.g.Hellenika, to reportsin AA and the'Chronique References des Fouilles'in BCH havebeenadded whentheygiveinformation orwhentheiromission notfoundin English andGreeksources, lead to confusion. might The varioustestpitsthathavebeenmadesinceEvansbeganexcavations in theKnossos area are listedunderthe appropriate numberin theCatalogue,apartfrommostof those sunkbyHogarth in 1900,andthoseintheimmediate ofthePalace219. environs The termGreco-Roman is usedof monuments whichmaybe eitherGreekor Romanin origin. 1 (166). ISOPATA LATE MINOAN TOMBS (Archaeologia lxv (1914) 1 ff.Cf. Times, Sept. 16, 1910 p. 4. JHS xxix (1909) 360 f.;xxx (1910) 362. AA 1909, 93 f.; 1910, 148 f. PM index 74 f. Pini 84: XXI. Strat Mus, T. I. BSA lxxiii (1978) 183 f. for another vase from the 'Tomb of the Double Axes'). Six chamber tombs and a rectangular built tomb like the ROYAL TOMB 2. The tombs are described as being 'quarter of a mile north' of 2, and on the plan, PM ii fig. 131 A opp. 230, theyare shownrunningin a roughline fora distance of about 400 metresnorth-westof it. Only the built tomb can now be identified in the south-west corner of a field 150 m. north of the northern borderof the map. D1 2(1). ISOPATA ROYAL TOMB (Archaeologia lix (1905) 526 ff. Cf. BSA x (1903-4) 4 ff.PM iv 771 ff. and index 75. Pini 82). Destroyed during the Second World War (Works of Art in Greece: Losses and Survivalsin the War,published by H.M. Stationery Office, London (1946), 26. Cf. KCh 1947, 628). The constructionof the tomb was at firstdated by Evans to M. M. Ill on the basis of the signs (masons' marks)carvedon the blocks of which it was built, but later (PM iv 774) to L. M. II to which period the earliesttraces of burialsrecovered are assignable. The tomb was re-used for burials in L. M. Ill C like the KEFALA THOLOS TOMB 17. A few Geometric sherds were recovered 'ratherin the upper levels' of the tomb (Archaeologia lix (1905) 140). A rock-cut CHAMBER TOMB with remains of Palace Stylevases was foundsomewhereimmediately to the south (Archaeologia lix (1905) 171. Cf. BSA x (1903-4) 6). D 1/2 3. LATE MINOAN or EARLY IRON AGE CHAMBER TOMB (?) noted by Hood and Smythin April, 1977. What seemed to be the hollow of a collapsed tomb was visible in the steep bank east of the road some 3 metres north of the field division. Stones 34

that mighthave formedthe lower part of a blocking wall were restingon the kouskouras on the road D2 edge here. 4 (2). LATE MINOAN SHAFT GRAVE (BSA xlvii (1952) 245 f., 261 f. Cf. KCh 1950, 534. JHS lxxi C2 (1951) 251 f.). 5. Part of a LATE MINOAN SHAFT GRAVE (?) cut in the rock, exposed on the south side of the road to the east of the Pankretion School and examined by R. Ho well in 1968. It was found B2 emptyexcept forremainsof a burial. PROTOGEOMETRIC CEMETERY. Six 6(3). tombs, one opened by Hutchinson, four by Dunbabin, and one apparently previouslyby Ch. Petros, in the north bank of the road from A. Ioannis to Mesambelies (Ambelakia) (JHS lix (1939) 204 f. AA 1940, 299. CODE: 1939/1). A pit dug for militarypurposes during the Second World War in the angle of this road with the main Knossos-Herakleionroad removed the largerparts of two more tombs and disturbed another (KCh 1947, 633. Cf. JHS lxiv (1944) 86). In 1953 Boardman excavated what was left of these and published the whole group, which may have formed part of a larger cemetery (BSA Iv (1960) 128 ff. Cf. KCh 1953, 487. JHS lxxiv (1954) 167). Traces of ROMAN BUILDINGS and abundant pottery were noted by Platon (1957) where the paths meet near the stream bed to the west of here, but no sign of these could be discovered in 1976. Roman objects recovered from the area of Ayios Ioannis include two lamps (KCh 1965, 290). B3 7 (4). FOUNDATION TRENCHES fora buildingof uncertain date, but containingisolated Geometric, Late Roman, and more recent sherds,examined by Boardman in 1953 (Knossos Logbook p. 17, 14/15 Sept., 1953). Two large EARLY BYZANTINE (LATE ROMAN) SILOS excavated by Platon in 1957

appear to have been immediatelyto the north of here (KCh 1957, 336, supplementedby information B3 fromN. Platon, 1957). 8 (5). LATE MINOAN II CHAMBER TOMB with burial of a warrior accompanied by a gold cup, exposed in the northside of the road and excavated by Hood in 1953 (BSA li (1956) 81-99. Cf. KCh C3 1953, 477./i/5 1xxiv(1954) 167). 9 (6). MINOAN STONE VASE, suggesting the presence of a tomb in the area, according to inforC 2/3 mationfromN. Platon (1957). 10. PROTOGEOMETRIC CHAMBER TOMB with a singleMiddle PG burial, excavated by Coldstream in 1958 (BSA lviii (1963) 38 ff.Cf. AR 1958, 21. KCh 1958, 477. Pini 84: XXII. CODE: IS 1958). The tomb was almost certainlya Late Minoan III D3 one re-used. 11 (151). LATE MINOAN TOMB (?) high on the slopes on the east side of the Kefala ridge. Fragments of an ostrich egg and parts of an alabaster vase were found here in 1939. Trials by Hutchinson led to the recoveryof a gold eaisring(BSA li (1956) E3 79 No. 1) and potteryassignedto L. M. I A. 12(9). SMALL MINOAN (?) CHAMBER TOMB, found plundered and empty when cleared by Hood E3 in 1951. 13. ANCIENT (?) WELL, lined with stones and about 0.75 metresin diameter,exposed in an olive E3 groveon the Isopata ridge. 14 (7). PAVED AREA of unknown date examined by N. Piaton in 1955 in the vineyardbelow the path to the west. D3 15. SQUARED LIMESTONE BLOCKS and a large stone with a CIRCULAR OLIVE-PRESS cut in it, lying out of position under a tree about 15 metres west of the path in 1976. These evidently came from some well constructed Greco-Roman building, perhaps a house, and may be the 'slabs of dressed masonry found in digging a vineyard' reported by N. Platon and described in KS1 under 7 as likely to indicate a tomb, although the position suggested for these was furtherto the north opposite the EARLY IRON AGE TOMBS 16. D 3/4 16 (7). EARLY IRON AGE TOMBS in the high bank continuing the line of that with 15 HOGARTH'S TOMBS. Two tombs were dug here by Evans in 1907, and two more by Payne in 1927, with pottery ranging from Protogeometrie to Orientalizing(Times, July 15, 1907 p. 8. BSA xiii (1906-07) 443 f.; xxviii (1926-27) 310; xxix (1927-28) 224 ff. Cf. AA 1908, 122. JHS xlvii (1927) 245. BCH li (1927) 495. AA 1928, 605). D3 17(8). KEFALA THOLOS TOMB (BSA li (1956) 74 ff. Cf. JHS lix (1939) 203 f. Pini 83. CODE: 1938/3, Tholos Tomb; 1939/2, tests round tomb). Blocks apparently from the tomb examined by Evans in 1907 led to the discovery of the two Early Iron Age tombs at 16 (Times, July 15, 1907 p. 8). The earliest evidence for burials dates from 35

L. M. II after the Mycenaean conquest of Knossos c. 1450 B.C., and a date of constructionthen may be preferableto one in L. M. I or M. M. Ill (cf. M. Popham, JHS lxxxiv (1964) 210). The tomb was reused for burials in L. M. Ill C like the ISOPATA ROYAL TOMB 2 (BSA lxii (1967) 257 ff.; lxxiii (1978) 185). A few possible Protogeometricsherds are in boxes from here (information from M. E3 Popham). 18. Traces of a MINOAN BUILDING and sherds of fine vases assigned to M. M. Ill - L. M. I A, together with fragmentsof painted plaster, revealed in soundings in 1939 on top of the hill to the east of the THOLOS TOMB 17 (V. M. Fisher,Notebook 1938 & 1939: Knossos no. 66 in Archive of the BSA in Athens). A Late Minoan II cup fromthese soundings was published by M. Popham, BSA lxxi (1977) 186 ff.fig. 1 (C) pl. 26 (e), (d). E3 19. LATE MINOAN II CHAMBER TOMB re-used for a pair of SUB-MINOAN BURIALS, excavated by N. Hawkes in 1959 (BSA lxiii (1968) 205-18. Cf. AR 1959, 25. KCh 1959, 380 (F). Pini 85: XXIV). The chamberlies underthe boundaryfence C3 of the hospital since erectedto the east. 20. ARCHAIC INSCRIPTION with 5 lettersAKIAI, built into a terrace wall at what had once been a corner,and visiblein 1960 but since removed. C 3 21. Many fragments of ANCIENT MASONRY, some of white marble,includingpart of a ROMAN (?) GRAVE RELIEF, built into the terrace wall flankingthe road on the east. The fragmentswere probably brought as building material from someC3 whereelse, not foundin the area. 22. Abundant MINOAN SHERDS, dominantly Middle Minoan (?) includingM. M. Ill, exposed in the path for a distance of about 70 metresup the slope east of the road in 1976. The sherdsmay be dumped rubbish, as no traces of house walls or C3 stones fromthemwere noted in the area. 23 (12). CYCLADIC STONE IDOLS and SILVER DAGGERS, said to have been found on the land of N. Nisiotis in 1933 (S. Marinatos, AA 1933, 298-304. C. Zervos, L'art de la Crète (1956) 137 ff. figs 110-4; 226, figs. 290, 292-3). The 2 daggers on cleaning proved to be of silver,not bronze (S. Alexiou, AAA viii (1975) 138 f.). Search of the area at the time of the discoveryrevealedno traces of any structure,and no sign of potteryor bones. The position of the find was indicated in 1957 as being near a solitaryfig tree in the middle of a largevineyard. C4 24. CLASSICAL (?) BUILDING, perhaps a TEMPLE, constructed of well-dressed masonry; exposed some ten years ago at a depth of 2 metres in digginga cellar at the south-westcorner of the Kouroupis building plot about 30 metres west of the main road and 15 metresnorthof the side road. Fine Classical pottery was noted by M. Popham in the earthfromthe excavationsat the time. The ARCHAIC BRONZE BOWL (KOTHON) found in clearingthe ditch somewhereon the west

side of the main road in 1936 may have come from this area ratherthan fromfurthernorthas suggested in KSl 10 no. 10. Trials by Hutchinsonat the spot where the bowl was found produced fragmentsof fine Attic black figurevases. The bowl is said to have lain directly on a Minoan stratum(BSA lvii (1962) 28 ff. Cf. JHS Ivi (1936) 150. BCH lx (1936) 489. CODE: 1936/7). A silver bracelet, pin with wide disc-shaped head, spiral ornament, fragmentsof earrings,and clay figurines,recovered in 1961 in the region of Ayios Ioannis, sound as if they mighthave come from a sanctuaryratherthan a tomb; but thereis nothing to suggest that they were from this area (KCh 1963, 387. Cf. ADelt xvii (1961-62) Chron. C4 289). 25. MIDDLE MINOAN SHERDS exposed above the rock at a depth of a metre below the surface in a test by Jill CaringtonSmith south-eastof the Villa Afro (Knossos Logbook p. 72, 26th May, 1977. CODE: T.V.A.). C4 26. VENETIAN or TURKISH CISTERN (?) exposed for a lengthof about 5 metreson the south E4 side of the path west of Sellopoulo. 27 (19). LATE MINOAN III THOLOS TOMB(S) in low ground east of the Kairatos. Hogarth describes a single 'Mycenaean . . . tholusbuilt of small stones' withthreelarnakes(BSA vi (1899-1900) 81 pl. xii). But the plan in PM ii opp. 547 has 'L. M. 3a Tholos Tombs' markedby fourred circles. E/F 4 28. LATE MINOAN III CHAMBER TOMBS (SELLOPOULO TOMBS 1 AND 2) with burials assigned to L. M. Ill A 2 - III B, excavated by N. Platon and G. L. Huxley in 1957 (AR 1957, 24 f. BCH lxxxii (1958) 786 f. KCh 1956, 418; 1957, F4 332 ff.Pini 85: XXVI (1)). 29. LATE MINOAN III CHAMBER TOMBS (SELLOPOULO TOMBS 3 AND 4) about 100 metres east of 28, with burials assigned to early L. M. Ill A, excavated by M. Popham in 1968 (BSA lxix (1974) 195-257; lxxi (1976) 21-3. Cf. AR 1968-69, 33. ADelt xxiv (1969) Chron. 422. KCh 1969, 537. Knossos Logbook p. 33, 25th Aug., F4 1969). 30. LATE MINOAN III SHAFT GRAVE with traces of wooden coffin and burial assignable to L. M. Ill A, excavated by Hood in 1958 (AR 1958, 21. BCH lxxxiii (1959) 738. KCh 1958, F4 476 f. Pini 85: XXVI (2)). 31. LATE MINOAN CHAMBER TOMBS (?) in a high bank south of 28 and 29 and doubtless forming part of the same extensivecemetery.One tomb had long been exposed and was convertedby the owner of the land, Stavros Binikakis of Kallithea, into a house during the Second World War. The hollows left by the collapse of at least three other tombs were visible after the heavy rains of the winter of 1975-76. Other tomb chambers are said to have collapsed in the past in the fieldbelow the bank on the west (Knossos Logbook p. 49 f., 14th April,1976). 36

The entranceof an unfinished(?) tomb cut in a low cliff at the southern end of the bank was identifiedby Hood in 1957 (KS1 no. 20). In 1950 Hood noted fragmentsof a larnaxat the foot of the F4 bank about 75 metresnorthof this. 32. Traces of EARLY IRON AGE and LATER SETTLEMENT in the shape of a thin scatter of sherds ranging from Geometric to Classical and Hellenistic,noted by Hood and Smythin 1976 on a flat terracebelow the top of the ridgesouth-west of Kallithea (Babali) and on the slopes below it as far as the road. There were no indicationsof houses in this area, but the flat-toppedknoll formingthe end of the ridge furtherwest had stones which mighthave come from house walls and a very few sherds. In 1959 Platon excavated two rather poor Protogeometricchamber tombs about a kilometre to the north-westof the village,and noted tracesof other tombs and buildings of the same period in the area (KCh 1959, 367, supplementedby inforF4 mation fromN. Platon, 1979). 33 (59). RUBBLE WALLING, apparentlyMINOAN to judge from sherds in the area, visible in a steep G5 slope south of Kallithea (Babali) in 1957. 34 (58). LATE MINOAN (?) CHAMBER TOMB, exposed near the top of the ridge and said in the 1950s to have been cleared by Forsdyke but found plundered and empty. A fragmentof a Minoan larnax and a block of dressed stone were noted by Hood in 1953 some metres along the slope to the south. There was a rumour at that time about a previous find of LATE MINOAN III GOLD JEWELLERY in a tomb said to have been opposite the Zafer Papoura cemetery some 300 metres south of Kallithea (Babali) village. This might have been the tomb in question, althoughit is over 500 metressouth of Kallithea.F 5 35 (56). LATE MINOAN TOMBS east of the Kairatos and northof the MAVRO SPILIO CEMETERY 251 (Plan, PM ii opp. 547: 'Late Minoan Tombs', marked with four red circlesin a row from F5 northto south in thisarea). 36 (49). ZAFER PAPOURA CEMETERY of Late Minoan III tombs (Archaeologia lix (1905) 391 ff. Cf. BSA x (1903-04) 4 f. PM ii 550 f.; index 221. E5 Pini 83). 37 (18). CLASSICAL or HELLENISTIC TOWER and STRETCHES OF CURTAIN WALL excavated by Hood in 1951 (BSA In (1957) 224 ff.Cf. KCh 1951, 447. JHS lxxii (1952) 108). Probablypart of a fort,forwhichthisflat-toppedhill withcommanding views over Knossos to the south and northwards to the sea offersa fine situation.In October, 1976, R. Jones usinga magnetometertracedwhat appeared to be the line of curtainwalls fora distanceof some 40 metres west and 50 metressouth of the tower. Signs of Bronze Age occupation noted herein 1951 included fragmentsof wall plasterpainted red and blue and sherds,mostlyMiddle Minoan with much M. M. I A and some M. M. II, but some Late Minoan

E 4 May,1977. CODE: T.S.P. I ScII). I in character C4 (BSA lii (1957) 228). 38. ANCIENT TRENCH (?) apparentlyrunning 45. Two GRECO-ROMAN TILE-GRAVES (?) south-eastto north-west, and cut for a depthof notedby Hood and Smythin April,1976, in the about one metreinto the kouskouras,exposedin sidesof cuttingsforthefoundations of a housein the sidesof a modernagricultural west of the pit southof the the angle of the roads immediately path in 1976. Possiblya robbertrenchindicating moderncemetery.Three or moreTILE-GRAVES the site of a stretchof curtainwall or a tower werefoundon theNeopoulosbuildingplotopposite in thisareainJanuary,1979 belongingto thefort(?) 37. Sherds,mostof them theVillaPolikhronakis fromMrs.AlexandraKaretsou). C 4 evidentlythrownfrom the pit, included some (information Hellenisticand some which might be Roman 46(11). THOLOS TOMB, apparentlyMINOAN, (Knossos Logbook pp. 53 f., 22nd April,1976). but re-usedforburialsin theEARLY IRON AGE, B to D/E4 with potteryrangingfromProtogeometric 39 (15). HOGARTH'S TOMBS, MINOAN and Early Orientalizing and gold jewellery.Excavated EARLY IRON AGE,in highbankfacingwest(Plan, by Hutchinsonin 1939-40 togetherwith two PM ii, opp. 547: 'Minoanchambertombsre-usedin adjacentCHAMBERTOMBS containing burialsof Geometricaltimes'). In 1900 Hogarthdug eight the same period(BSA xlix (1954) 215 ff.Cf. AA tombs,sevenof themrifled:mostwithEarlyIron 1940, 298 f.; 1942, 195. JHS lxiv (1944) 84 ff. but one Late Minoan(BSA vi (1899- CODES: 1939/3, 1940/1). The jewellery and Ageremains, 1900) 82 ff.,91 f. pl. xii: Point18). Payneappears other findsreconsidered by Boardman(BSA lxii to have dug two more tombshere in 1929: one (1967) 57 ff.). C4 witha circular andArchaic 47 (13). EARLY IRON AGE CEMETERY with chamberwithGeometric sherds,the otherat thesouthend ofthebankwith thirteenor moretombsand evidenceof use from a rectangular chamberbeingLate Minoanand con- Protogeometric times.One tomb to Orientalizing threeflatalabastraanda pairofgoldearrings foundby Germansoldiersin 1943 and examined taining like R. Higgins,Greek and Roman Jewellery(1961) by Platon (KCh 1947, 633. Cf. JHS lxiv (1944) 72 pl. 11: C, fromtheMavroSpiliocemetery (95). 86), the othersrevealedin buildingoperationson Karo,AA 1930, 156, describesboth tombs,while the Niotakisand Koiladhiplots in 1975-76 and Payne,BSA xxix(1927-8) 226 n. 3, onlymentions excavatedby H. Sackett,M. Popham,and R. Howell theLate Minoanone. M. Hartley, BSA xxxi(1930- (BSA lxxi (1976) 117-29. AR 1976-77, 11-7 31) 98-102, publishedEarlyIronAgepotteryfrom no. 1. Knossos Logbook p. 44, July 1975. TPH both tombs,notingthatBSA xxix (1927-28) pl. Book pp. 24-9, 35-120. CODE: TEK(E)/75 and xxiii:3 andp. 243 fig.11 camefromthem. C4 76). In 1957 a disturbedtombwithpotteryranging 48 (13). Large ROMAN BUILT TOMB with an fromProtogeome trie to Orientalizing was cleared INSCRIPTION, found amongthe housesof Teke in the southernpart of the area; while another westof themainroad(information fromN. Platon, tombin the olivegroveabove thebankto the east 1957). C4 was foundemptybut withthe blockingwall still 49. BRONZE SPEAR-HEAD and SUBMINOAN in place in its entrance(BSA lviii(1963) 42 f. and STIRRUP JAR,apparently froma destroyedtomb D 4 in the area of the vaultedTurkishbuildingin note13. Cf.,4a 1957, 24). 40 (16). LATE MINOANSHAFT GRAVE by path Ambelokipi(Teke) (Ergon1974, 114 f. PAE 1974, at south end of bank withHOGARTH'S TOMBS 246). C4 15, excavatedby Hood in 1955 (BSA liii-liv 50. PROTOGfcOMETRICCHAMBER TOMB with D 4 EarlyPG burialsin gardenof houseof T. Bilmezis, (1958-59) 283 f.). 41 (14). EARLY IRON AGE TOMBS on westside excavatedby Coldstream in 1959 (BSA lviii(1963) of streamoppositeHOGARTH'S TOMBS 15 (Plan, 34-8. Cf. AR 1959, 26. KCh 1959, 381 (G). Pini PM ii, opp. 547: 'GeometricalTombs', three 84: XXIII). C5 D 4 51 (21). EARLY IRON AGE TOMBS on the edge marked). 42. ROMAN(?) CIST GRAVE,exposedin theroad of Fortetsavillage looking towards Ambelokipi ofthehospitalin 1958. north-east D 4 (Teke). In 1957 theinhabitants showedtheposition 43. Two GRECO-ROMANTILE-GRAVES,exposed of two tombs,one in theyardof a house,theother inJune,1976,intheKalaitzakisbuildingplotnorth- in a vineyardabout 15 metresto the south-east. westof44 (information fromSaraPaton). C 4 Fragments of Geometric potterywerefoundin the 44. PlunderedROMAN TOMB with remainsof a vineyardby Hood in 1953. These musthavebeen glass tear-bottleexamined by Mrs. Alexandra the two Early Iron Age tombsdug by Payne'at Karetsouon thebuilding plotofMariaM. Khronakis Fortezza'in 1927 (JHS xlvii(1927) 245. Cf.BCH in May,1976. In Juneof thesameyearSaraPaton H (1927) 495. BSA xxviii(1926-27) 310; xxix noteda HELLENISTIC CIST GRAVE in thisarea. (1927-28) 228; xxxi (1930-31) 56 ff. Brock, Two other graves,one of them a ROMAN (?) Fortetsa 1 n. 2). The position agreeswith the in BSA xxxi(1930-31) 56 n. 2 as being TILE-GRAVE, were cleared by Jill Carington description Smithin May, 1977, immediately to the southof south-westof 'Old Teke' and 'Geometricaland 44 and westof 45 (KnossosLogbookp. 71 f.,26th Protocorinthian tombs'on the plan in PM ii opp. 37

547. A tombof thefifthcenturyB.C. nearbyyielded some fragmentsof Attic pottery and a limestone palmette from a stele (JHS xlvii (1927) 245. BSA xxviii (1926-27) 310. BCH li (1927) 495. AA C5 1928,605). 52 (26, 27). EARLY IRON AGE TOMBS excavated by Payne and Blakeway in 1933 (JHS lin (1933) 292. BSA xxxiii (1932-33) 218. Brock, Fortetsa 1 f., 31 ff.,60 ff.,84 ff.).There were threeof these (Tombs L, TFT, and Pi), and local tradition in 1957 pointed to the existence of three excavated tombs in the bank west of the path above the Venetian aqueduct here. Tomb L, named after Louka's Taverna which appears on the plan in PM ii opp. 547, was certainlyin a bank near the road in this area. But Tomb TFT standsforThreshingFloor Tomb, and Tomb Pi was at rightanglesto it according to Brock, Fortetsa 2. This suggeststhat these two tombs were in flat ground west of the bank, where local tradition in 1957 also indicated that Payne had opened tombs. Tomb Pi is presumably the large Late Geometric tomb mentionedin BCH lvii (1933) 291 aftera reportfromMarinatos. A ROMAN TILE-GRAVE containing one clay vase was exposed on the west side of the road about 50 metres north of the bridgein 1950 and cleared by P. de Jong (Knossos Logbook p. 9, 20th Jan., C5 1950). 53 (22). EARLY IRON AGE TOMBS north-west of the fork between the Fortetsa and Knossos roads (Plan, PM ii opp. 547: Geometrical and "Protocorinthian" Tombs'). Payne seems to refer to these tombs as if they had already been excavated before his time (BSA xxix (1927-28) 231 and 225 fig.1). C5 54 (30). EARLY IRON AGE TOMBS (Plan, PM ii opp. 547: 'Geometrical Tombs', and ibid. 154. Cf. BSA xxix (1927-28) 225 fig. 1: 'Early Greek Tombs', and ibid. 231, which implies thattheyhad been excavatedbeforePayne's timelike thoseat 53). A fragmentof a ROMAN COLUMN of green marble (marmor thessalicum, verde antico) was noted by Hood in the olive grove here in April, 1977). A test pit, 1925/1, is markedin this area on the Test Pit Plan; but it is not listed in StratMus, which, however, places V. 1905/1 just to the north-west of 62. C/D5 55. EARLY IRON AGE TOMBS and a ROMAN TILE-GRAVE exposed in 1963 in a trench dug from east to west for a new water pipe. In 1967 nine tombs were excavated here by N. Coldstream and G. Huxley (AR 1967-68, 22. BCH xcii (1968) 986 f. ADelt xxiii (1968) Chron. 412. Knossos Logbook pp. 23-6, 28th March, 1963). All had been plundered, some as early as Roman times, but there was evidence for burials rangingfrom Subminoan onwards. Two Subminoan vases appeared to be slightlyearlier than the earliestvases hitherto recorded from the cemeteries in this C5 area. 38

56 (25). Three EARLY IRON AGE TOMBS excavated by Hood in 1953 on a small rise west of the main road (BSA Ivi (1961) 68-80. Cf. JHS lxxiv (1954) 166). These evidently formed part of the same cemeteryas the tombs describedunder 52 and 55. One held cremation burials with Geometric vases, another contained inhumationswith bronze C5 pins but no vases, while the thirdwas empty. 57 (23). TOMB OF CAIAPHAS, evidentlya great Roman concrete-builttomb. Like 202 it may have been a free-standingmausoleum (a rype which appears to be peculiar to Knossos in Crete) assignable to the 4th or 5th century A.D. (Sanders, Roman Crete 84, 317). The tomb is described by early travellers(e.g. Buondelmontiin F. Cornelius, Creta Sacra (Venice, 1755) i 10, 58 f., 97. R. Pococke, A Description of the East ii part 1 (London, 1745) Bk. iv, Ch. v, 256. Pashleyi 206 f.), but was destroyed for making the road from Herakleion to Arkhanesabout 1880. Xanthoudides collected referencesto the traditionand the tomb (Athena xiii (1901) 305-16). He said that it was on a low ridge on the rightof anyone comingfrom Herakleionbehind the inn of Kharkhalidhis.Modern local opinion places it in the space between 56 and 58. Halbherr, The Antiquary xxviii (1893) 112, describesthe recoveryfroma tomb near here of the fine gold Victory earring(N. Platon,A Guide to the Archaeological Museum of Heraclion (Herakleion, 1959) 145. I. Hatzidakis, 'loTopia too KpriTiKOV Movoeiov /cat tCûv &pxaioXo7iKCJï>epevvuv kv C5 KprjTXi (Athens,1931) 19). Poor GRECO-ROMAN GRAVES, and 58(24). BLOCKS including one with an INSCRIPTION from a ROMAN BUILT TOMB, brought to light in 1953 in makinga waste pit for an oil factoryin the fork of the Fortetsa and Knossos roads (JHS lxxiv (1954) 166. Cf. Knossos Logbook p. 18 f., August-October,1953). Roman graves were found in this region when the TOMB OF CAIAPHAS 57 C5 was destroyed(Athena xiii (1901) 315). 59. EARLY CHRISTIAN OSSUARY (OSTEOTHEKE) containing the remains of between 35 and 50 individuals and dating perhaps from the 7th or 8th centuryA.D. (BSA lxxi (1976) 25-47. Cf. AR 1973-74, 35 f.; 1976-77, 23. Knossos Logbook p. 40, 17th Feb., 1974. CODE: KFF/74). A cobbled court to the east appeared to be of the same date or a bit later. Scattered remains of ROMAN (?) TILE-GRAVES were noted to the west, and part of an architecturalblock from a built tomb (?) with an inscriptionin Greek assignable to the 2nd centuryA.D. was recoveredhere. C 5 60. ANCIENT WALL noted by N. Piaton in 1955 runninginto the high bank on the east side of the C5 main road opposite the Fortetsaturn. 61. GRECO-ROMAN TILE-GRAVE, withtwo vases and a bronze mirror,exposed in a cuttingon the east side of the main road and examined by K. KcFadzean in 1970 (Knossos Logbook p. 38,

C5 27th Aug., 1970. CODE: FJ/70). 62. SUBMINO AN, EARLY IRON AGE, HELLENISTIC and ROMAN CEMETERY AREA west and south of 64 on the Medical Faculty site, explored in 1978 (AR 1978-79, 43 ff. CODE: KMF/78. Cf. Knossos Logbook pp. 47 f. for traces of graves rangingfromEarly Iron Age to Roman exposed by deep ploughingthroughoutthe olive grove here in April, 1976). No Minoan burials were identified; but fragments of a fineL. M. Ill painted larnax were recovered from a tomb which had been plundered, and small undecorated larnakes of uncertaindate Were found in other tombs. Some 10 Subminoan tombswereexcavated,and largenumbersof chamber tombs with Early Iron Age burials accompanied by vases rangingfromProtogeometricto Orientalizing. There appears to have been a gap in the use of the cemeteryfromthe early 5th and throughoutmuch of the 4th centuryB.C., but fragmentsof pottery of this period includingAttic black and red figure were noted. Over 180 inhumation graves were cleared, mostly Hellenistic,but some on the west side of the area Roman. Two Roman graves had well-built walls, and one was surrounded by an enclosure wall. One or two vaulted Roman tombs recall those exposed on the site of the Venizeleion furthersouth (72). C5 63. EARLY IRON AGE (?) CHAMBER TOMB, exposed by a trench for a water pipe along the path northof the Venizeleion fence, and examined by Vronwy Hankey in July, 1976 (AR 1976-77, 22. CODE: VNP/76 II). The chamberhad collapsed after being plundered, probably in Roman times; Geometric and Roman sherdswere recoveredfrom the collapsed fill. A ROMAN TILE-GRAVE may have been placed above the tomb, and another was identified2.80 metresto the south. C5 64. EARLY CHRISTIAN BASILICA CHURCH, excavated in the summer of 1978 on the Medical Faculty site, and dating perhaps from the 5th century A.D. (AR 1978-79, 43, 57 f. CODE: KMF/78). Several Early Christiantombs and over 20 ossuaries were found in the area round the church, and there was a large cistern below the courtyardon the west side of it. The whole complex was surrounded by an enclosure wall. The church, which was at firstthought to have been attached to a monastery,may have been a mortuary one. C5 65. LARGE SQUARED LIMESTONE BLOCKS, evidently GRECO-ROMAN, lying out of position on the western side of the football ground in April,1977. C4/5 66. Part of a LARGE ROMAN BUILDING revealed in digginga trenchfor a water pipe along the path north of the Venizeleion fence, and examined in a small sounding by Sara Paton in July, 1976 (AR 1976-77, 21 f. no. 2. CODE: VNP/76 I). A wall and a cornerof a solid platformincorporatingused architecturalfragmentshad been built over a limestone slab paving and the foundationsof an earlier 39

wall. Pieces of marble veneer scatteredin the olive grove to the west, and tile, pottery and marble veneer inside the Venizeleion propertysouth of the fence, may have belonged to this or to the EARLY CHRISTIAN CHURCH 64. A fragmentof a marble moulding was formerlyvisible embedded in the earth at the cornerof the football ground c. 10 m. to the north-east.H. W. Catling,A R 1978-79, 45, 58, suggests that architectural fragmentsincorporated in two of the ossuaries connected with 64 may have come from a monumental building, probably of Hadrianic date, somewherein the area between the Medical Faculty site and the Venizeleion. C5 67 (32). Fragments of ROMAN SARCOPHAGUS with reliefs,probably of a huntingscene, found on land of Iosif Khatzidhakis in 1935 (PK Her M. CODE: 1935/2). C5 68. DRESSED RECTANGULAR BLOCKS, apparently from a structurejust downhill to the east, noted by Jill CaringtonSmith along with ROMAN SHERDS and some fragmentsof human bone on the Mavromanolakis and Stratakis building plots (Knossos Logbook p. 83 f., 18th Nov., 1977. CODES: T-MP, T-SSP). In April, 1978, a ROMAN TILE-GRAVE was found in digginga bothros at the south-eastcornerof the Mavromanolakishouse (informationfromMrs.AlexandraKaretsou). C/D 4 69 (28). MINOAN ROAD (?) (PM ii 154 and plan opp. 547: 'Traces of Minoan road' south-westof Louka's Taverna). A destroyed ROMAN ROCKCUT TOMB was found in wideningthe agricultural road here in June, 1976 (informationfrom Mrs. AlexandraKaretsou). C5 70. MINOAN HOUSES (?) on either side of the original stream bed south of the Venizeleion. Traces of Minoan houses' are indicatedhere on the D5 plan, PM ii opp. 547. 71 (34). LATE MINOAN II WARRIOR GRAVES, one SHAFT-GRAVE and threeCHAMBER TOMBS, exposed on the Venizeleion hospital site and excavated by P. de Jong and S. Hood in 1951 (BSA xlvii (1952) 243 ff. Cf. KCh 1951, 446. JHS lxxii D5 (1952) 107 f. ILN Jan. 12th, 1952, 58-60). 72 (35). GRECO-ROMAN CEMETERY, stretching across the site of the Venizeleion hospital from58 on the west to 75 on the east, and exposed in levellingthe area for its constructionin 1951 (JHS lxii (1952) 107). ROMAN TILE-GRAVES and JAR BURIALS, togetherwith six TOMBS built of ashlar masonry- two of them with vaults intact and unplundered- were revealedin 1952 in digging foundationtrenchesfor the main buildingand were examined by P. de Jong (KCh 1952, 477 f. JHS lxxiii (1953) 126. BCH 'xxvii (1953) 233 ff.) Two ROMAN TILE-GRAVES of the 2nd-3rd century A.D. and a length of walling were exposed in a drainage trench on the south side of the main building in 1972 (Knossos Logbook p. 39, 7th Sept., 1972. TPH Book pp. 15-18). The ROMAN TILE-GRAVE reported in KCh 1973, 464, was in

the area of the Venizeleion towardsthe road according to informationfromS. Alexiou (1977). There is evidence forthe existenceof graveshere from Archaic or Classical times onwards. Finds in the 1950s included a fragmentary reliefof a sphinx, probably late Archaic (BSA lvii (1962) 30). For some small vases, apparently from a pre-Roman tomb near the hospital, see ADelt xvii (1961-62) Chron. 289. C/D 5 73 (33). ROMAN (?) KILN revealed in levellingthe C5 hospitalsite in 195 1. 74 (36). EARLY CHRISTIAN BASILICA CHURCH over ROMAN GRAVES in the CEMETERY 72, excavated between 1953 and 1960 (W. H. C. Frend, BSA lvii (1962) 186-238. Cf. JHS lxxiv (1954) 166. AR 1955, 35; 1957, 24; 1958, 22; 1960-61, 29; 1962-63, 29). Built in the early 6th century and destroyedat the beginningof the 7th according to Sanders, Roman Crete 18, 175 ff. Possible traces of occupation duringthe period of Arab rule (BSA lvii (1962) 202, 212, 222 ff.). A CHAMBER TOMB cut in the soft kouskouras on the north side of the court north-eastof the church was left to be excavated in 1961 as it appeared to be Late Minoan or Early Iron Age, but the burials of which traces were found in it were all Roman (AR 1961-62, 29. ADelt xvii (196162) Chron. 296. KCh 1963, 388). A group of LATE ROMAN TOMBS immediately to the east of the church was examined by J. M. Cook in 1953 (KCh 1953, 487 f. JHS lxxiv (1954) 166. Cf. Knossos Logbook pp. 14 f., 12th-17th D5 June, 1953. CODE: 1953/S/l). 75 (43). EARLY CHRISTIAN TOMB WITH GRILL FLOOR, exposed in east side of streamdiversionin 1951 (KCh 1951, 447. JHS lxxii (1952) 108). D 5 76 (17). ROMAN CONCRETE BUILDING, perhaps a temple. The loose stones piled here suggestthat this may be the site of the 'cairn' markedon Fyfe's map (BSA vi (1899-1900) pl. xii). A marble Ionic capital was removed fromhere to the Stratigraphie Museum in April, 1977. A fragmentof a Latin inscriptionwith the lettersISID, suggestiveof the name of Isis, noted by V. Watrousin 1975 built into a field wall about 25 metresto the north-east,was also removed to the StratigraphieMuseum: it had evidentlybeen re-used in some concrete structure, since remains of pink cement with fine red grit coveredpartsof the inscribedface. A headless female marble statue of the Roman period was recovered from this area in 1967 (AR 1967-68, 22. BCH xcii (1968) 999, 1001 fig. 10. KCh 1969, 534. ADelt xxiii (1968) Chron. 404 pl. 364. PAE 1967, 214 pl. 203. Supplementedby information from the owner of the land, I. E4 Yiakanikis,in 1976). 77 (51). ROMAN ROCK-CUT TOMBS immediately south of the ZAFER PAPOURA CEMETERY 36 (BSA vi (1899-1900) pl. xii: Point 17, and p. 82: 'Roman rock-tombsshown by coins to be of the second and third centuries A.D.' Cf. Plan, PM ii 40

E5 opp. 547: 'Roman Rock Tombs'). 78. ROMAN VAULTED TOMB with the entrance on the north,excavated in 1961 (AR 1961-62, 29. ADelt xvii (1961-62) Chron. 296. KCh 1963, 388. CODE: MK/61). Two HELLENISTIC (?) ROCKCUT GRAVES about 6 metres north-westof the tomb entrancewere investigatedby CressidaRidley and M. Cameron in 1968. The graves had been disturbedin buildinga Roman wall which ran over them fromwest to east (AR 1968-69, 34. Knossos E5 Logbook p. 32, 26th Nov., 1968). 79. Stretch of MINOAN (?) WALLING about 35 metres south-east of 78. The walling,which may have belonged to a Minoan house, was cleared in E5 1961, but was no longervisiblein 19 76 . 80 (57). MARBLE COLUMN DRUM, apparently Roman, and a large slab of dressedlimestonenoted in an olive grovehere in 1953. F5 81 (55). ROMAN BRIDGE over the Kairatos (PM ii 280 note 2, 552 and plan opp. 547: 'Remains of Roman Bridge'). But what is so marked is in fact a recent aqueduct to bring water to a mill wheel; concrete masses on each side of the stream about 70 metres farthernorth are clearly the remainsof the bridgedescribed,and are shown in thisposition on Fyfe's plan (BSA vi (1899-1900) pl. xii: immediatelyto the left of 'Ruined Bridges').Part of a second mill aqueduct is visiblea metreor so northof the Roman bridgeon the west side of the stream.E 5 82. Traces of ROMAN (?) GRAVES exposed by deep ploughing on land belonging to Evangelis Toutoundakis in 1958. Abundant fragmentsof Minoan potteryassignableto M. M. Ill and perhaps L.M.I werecollectedhereby Manoli Markoyiannakis at the time. E5 83 (53). ROMAN BUILT TOMB (?) at the east end of 86. The tomb was about 10 metres west of a house, and was destroyedwhen the house was built about 1935, according to informationfrom Spiro Vasilakis (1957, 1978). It is said to have been of the same type as 78. E5 E5 84 (54). ROMAN CONCRETE RUINS. 85 (52). ROMAN BUILDING, possibly a small temple, at east end of the MAKRITIKHOS (86) and on the same alignment as it. A large marble architecturalfragmentwas apparently found here many years ago; a section of a white marble entablature with dentations was lying by the southwest cornerof the visible ruins in 1977, and scraps of other marble architecturalpieces were visible in E5 the neighbouringstone pile. 86 (50). MAKRITIKHOS, a long stretchof ROMAN CONCRETE WALL after which the village to the south is named (Pashley i 204). Possibly the retaining wall of a large stoa, since crop-marksindicating a row of square pillarbases witha wall beyond them have been noted on the northside of it. R. Radford and R. W. Hutchinsonmade trialson the south side of it in 1937 (CODE: 1937/5 H. Cf. R. Radford, Report(unpublished)on Roman Remains at Knossos (6)). A fragmentof an IONIC MARBLE FRIEZE,

probablyof earlyimperialdate,witha lion'shead appears to have been an importantresidential D5 A.D. of 'unkemptand comicappearance',was recovered quarterin the1stand 2ndcenturies froma fieldto the south (RWH Diaryp. 7, Jan., 97 (45). The feet and other fragmentsof a E 5 COLOSSAL MARBLE STATUE recoveredin 1935 1938). 87. Fragment of GRECO-ROMAN TRIGLYPH on land of G. Rozakisabout 100 metressouth-east D5 BLOCK noted by V. Watrousin 1975 on top of of 98 (PKHerM). a fieldwallon thewestsideof theroad 100 metres 98 (45). ROMAN CONCRETE RUINS on the south-eastof the crossroads(TPH Book p. 22). south side of the house of KonstantinosFroudD/E5 harakis.Cf. Plan, BSA vi (1899-1900) pl. xii: 88 (39). GREEK and ROMANWELLS, numbering 'Rubble Masonry',shownas muchmoreextensive D5 15 in all, revealedin north-south arm of stream then. diversion cut whenthe hospitalwas builtin 1951 99 (44). ROMAN STATUE FRAGMENTS etc. Froud(JHS lxxii (1952) 108). Late Geometricpottery fromthearea of thehouseof Konstantinos fromWells1 and 6, and Orientalizing and Archaic harakis.The legs of a whitemarblestatueof an BSA lxvii Emperor(Hadrian),recoveredin 1940 just northpottery,publishedby J. N. Coldstream, (1972) 63 ff.,81 ff.;lxviii(1973) 44 f., 62; Early east of the house, fitteda torso in Herakleion Roman and Byzantine(8th-9th centuriesA.D.) Museum (informationfrom R. W. Hutchinson, materialfromWells 13 and 12 by J. W. Hayes, 1957). Excavationsabout 20 metresnorthof this Geometric D 5 revealeda fragmentary BSA lxvi(1971) 249 ff.,263 ff.,274 f. pithoscontaining skyphoswithcarbon89(37). ROMAN (?) COLUMN DRUMS noted sherdsand a Protocorinthian D 5 ised olive stones (RWH Diary p. 185, 9th Oct., in 1957 ina vineyard a fewmetres northof91. D 5 1940). Some days later, architectural 90 (38). ROMANCONCRETE RUINS. fragments, 91 (40). ROMAN HOUSE with MOSAIC PAVE- togetherwitha marblestatuelackinga head, and MENT signed by APOLLINARIS, discoveredin a marble head resemblingthat of Sabina, were makingstreamdiversionin 1951 (KCh 1951, 447. recoveredwest of the pointwheretheexcavations JHS lxxii(1952) 108). Sanders,RomanCrete100, had been made (RWH Diary,p. 187, 24th Oct., A.D. D 5 1940). A statue,probablyof a goddess,and a head datesthemosaicto theearly2ndcentury werefoundin 1932 and 1933 some92. EARLY ROMANHOUSE or SMALL PUBLIC of Aphrodite, ADelt xv BUILDING exposedin diggingfoundations on the wherejust south of here (S. Marinatos, Paterakisbuildingplot about 50 metressouth-east (1933-35 pub. 1938) Par.60 ff.,64 fig.23, suppleof 91, and examinedby Sara Paton and Vronwy mentedbyPK Her M). Morerecentfindsfromthe land includevariousRomanvasesand Hankeyin June, 1975. In one place a limestone Froudharakis slab floor with Hellenisticsherdsbelow it was a many-spouted lamp (KCh 1960, 524. ADelt xvi succeededby a plain mosaicpavement;the latest (1960) Chron.260); also thelowerhalfof a Roman sherdsunderneath thisappearedto date fromthe marble female statue and an altar inscribed late 1st centuryA.D. {AR 1976-77, 21 no. 20. C] AESARI AUGUSTO(KCh 1970,518,supplemenCODE: PRB/75). Fragmentsof two Hellenistic tedbyinformation fromS. Alexiou). D5 femaleterracottas werefoundin digging a bothros 100 (41). ROMAN MOSAIC PAVEMENT exposed here in 1978 (information fromMrs. Alexandra here about 1936 accordingto information from D 5 SpiroVasilakis(1957). Two fineMinoansealstones, Karetsou). 93 (40). ROMAN (?) STATUE OF PAN, two one engravedwitha griffin, are said to havebeen POROS ALTARS, and an INSCRIPTION TO foundin thisareaand mighthavecomefromtombs D5 APOLLO LYKIOS, indicating thepossibleexistence liketheWARRIORGRAVES 71. of a SHRINE, recoveredfrom the land of E. 101 (42). ROMANCONCRETE RUINS. D5 Paterakisin 1929 (PK Her M). The inscription D5 is 102 (160). ROMANCONCRETE RUINS. IC i 71 no. 15. D 5 103. ROMAN WELL, noted by Evans somewhere presumably bedsouthof 69(PM ii 154 note 1) . C 5 94(46). ROMAN CONCRETE RUINS, mostly inthestream of dislodgedor fallenlumpsof masonry. 104 (29). ROMAN (?) MARBLE COLUMN BASE consisting Cf. Plan, BSA vi (1899-1900) pl. xii: 'Rubble (?) showingin path, noted by Hood in 1957, Masonry'.Many small blue and whiteglasscubes togetherwith a MARBLE COLUMN SHAFT in thatmighthavecomefromwallmosaicswerenoted the vineyardeast of the path and a MARBLE in thisareain 1953-55. D 5 IONIC CAPITALon thevineyard's C5 edge. 95 (47). ROMAN CONCRETE RUINS northof 105 (31). ROMAN (?) MARBLE DORIC CAPITAL the ROMANCIVIL BASILICA 112. Cf. Plan,BSA visiblein 1957 in vineyardimmediately west of vi (1899-1900) pl. xii,forming partof samegroup road. Some MARBLE MOULDINGS werefoundin of 'RubbleMasonry'as 94. D 5 this area in 1952; a brokenmouldingof white 96 (48). ROMANVILLA on northedgeofa vineyard marblewas stillvisibleon thewestside of thepath of the ROMAN CIVIL BASILICA 112. in April, 1977. The existenceof a ROMAN (?) north-east An inscriptionwith the name VESPASI[ANUS] BUILDING with Doric capitalsand plain column was found in an adjoiningfield (JHS lv (1935) shafts was noted on land belonging to S. 165 f.; Ivi (1936) 150. Cf. AA 1936, 161). This Khazimanolisa littlesouth of here in 1931 (PK 41

Her M). C 5/6 106 (60). INSCRIBED STELE recovered below and to the south-west of Ano Fortetsa shortly before the Second World War (N. Platon, KCh 1948, 93-108. Cf. AA 1942, 193 f.JHS lxx (1950) 9). The inscription,assignable to the 2nd century B.C., deals with the exclusion of outsiders froma SANCTUARY, presumably that of ARTEMIS SKOPELITIS, which may have been situated on the rocky height now occupied by the village. Marinatos had noticed traces of CLASSICAL or HELLENISTIC BUILDINGS constructed of squared stone near Fortetsain the 1930s (G. Karo, ,4,4 1932,175). B6 107 (61). EARLY IRON AGE TOMBS (?), to judge from fragmentsof Geometric tripod pithoi, etc., noted by Platon, who suggested(1957) that Payne C6 mighthave dug trialsherein 1933. 108. Two ROMAN or BYZANTINE GRAVES, one with 9 skeletons, south-west of the cemetery church of Ayios Mikhaili, discovered in 1958 in a field where deep ploughing had produced several complete clay lamps (AR 1958, 21. BCH lxxxiii (1959) 738. KCh 1958, 477 (8) and (10), which both seem to be reportsof this). C6 109 (62). Small ROMAN HEAD of a girlin Pentelic marble, apparently a copy of a Hellenistic work, found in 1933 on land of Kh. Arapinisabout 100 metreswest of 110 (S. Marinatos,ADelt xv (193335 pub. 1938) Par. 60 ff.,65 fig.24, supplemented D6 by PK Her M). ROMAN THEATRE or AMPHI110(62). THEATRE cut by the Knossos-Herakleion road (Plan, PM ii opp. 547: 'Amphitheatre').E. Falkener, A Description of some important Theatres and other Remains in Crete, from a MS History of Cândia by Onorio Belli in 1586 (London, 1854) 24, mentions 'the foundations of a theatre, or other building, of great size', while a footnote adds: 'It is impossible to say what the buildingis, but it resembles a circus more than a theatre.' L. Mariani on his sketch plan of Knossos (MA vi (1895) 221 fig. 46) calls the building a theatre, but shows it straddlingthe road with the cavea facing south. P. Wolters,AA 1900, 141, also refers to it as a theatre, as does Sanders, Roman Crete 122. But on his plan, ibid. fig. 56, Sandershas it as and he notes (ibid. 109) 'Amphitheatre/Theatre', that the mention of ludi in IC i 81 no. 51 might suggestthe existence of some kind of amphitheatre at Knossos. The trenchdug fora telephonecable in the summerof 1977 ran throughthis area on the east side of the road and parallel to it (Knossos Logbook p. 74. CODE: OTE- P to T and A to C). The test pits, Strat Mus, V. 1908/2 and 1905/1, were apparentlyjust to the east and to the northwest of here. The pottery of 1905/1 ranged from L. M. I- III, that of 1908/2 fromM. M. Ill - L. M. II, with only one Geometric,one Hellenistic,and one Roman sherd,accordingto DP Strat Mus ii 19. The box 1905/1 appears to be missing from the 42

Stratigraphie Museum now and those labelled 1908/2 have much M. M. I- II pottery in them, suggestingthe possibilityof some confusion since Pendleburyexamined the material. But Evans, PM iii 452 f. fig. 315, illustratesthe foot of a large hollow clay figurineas froma M. M. lia deposit in a test-pitnear the Amphitheatre. One box of those grouped under 1908/3 in the StratigraphieMuseum is described as: 'NW Wagers. Area of bean field E of Roman Amphitheatredown slope'; but the contentsappear to belie this,witha good many Neolithic and one or two Early Minoan sherds,besidessome M. M. II, L. M. I A, and L. M. II includingfragmentsof largejars. Substantial remains of Roman tombs were destroyed by deep ploughing in a field immediately north of here in 1953 according to information D6 fromN. Platon (1957). 111 (63). ROMAN CONCRETE BUILDING with an apse, on west side of the ROMAN CIVIL BASILICA 112. Massive walls, apparently of an earlier building with a differentorientation,were noted by Jill CaringtonSmith in the trench for a new telephone cable runningthroughthis area in the summerof 1977 (AR 1977-78, 60 f. Knossos D6 Logbook p. 75. CODE: OTE - F, H to K). 112 (64). ROMAN CIVIL BASILICA (R. Pococke, A Description of the East ii, part 1 (London, 1745), Bk. IV, Ch. V, 256. Falkener, Theatresand other Remains in Crete opp. 24, givesa plan froma drawing made by O. Belli between 1582-96). The building probably dates from the 2nd or 3rd century A.D. accordingto R. Radford,Report(unpublished) on Roman Remains at Knossos (3). But Sanders, Roman Crete 122 ff., 233, suggeststhe possibility that it was given by Nerva in A.D. 97 if IC i 80 f. no. 50 refersto it. Radford and R. W. Hutchinson made tests in 1937 at the northend and west side of the main central hall (CODE: 1937/5 E, Z). Architecturalfragmentsthat had belonged to the building were seen by L. Mariani in Cândia (Herakleion) and Teke (Ambelokipi) (MA vi (1895) 227). F. Halbherr, The Antiquary xxviii (1893) 111, describedhow the buildingwas used as a quarryfor the new Turkish barracksin Herakleion. He noted that it incorporatedpre-Romanmaterial,including two fragmentswith parts of a law which had been painted in red letters,not inscribed,apparentlyon a wall (IC i 59 f. nos. 5 and 5 bis, assignedto about the 3rd centuryB.C.). The early inscription,IC i 56 no. 2, with part of a law, also apparentlyfroma wall, came to light somewherein the area of 112. In November,1885, Halbherrmade trialsin an attemptto recovermore of it, but found Roman buildings, and a mosaic pavement with a head in the centre and four ornamental figures in the angles. A much damaged colossal female statue, which might have been imperial, was left in place (D. Comparetti,Museo D6 Italiano ii (1886) 175-8).

113 (66). ROMAN STATUES from land of Kharilambos Arapinis immediatelynorth of the VILLA DIONYSOS 114 (KCh 1948, 586, 588 fig. 16, for these, and ibid. 588 f. fig. 17 for another found in 1940 in the Knossos area). Trials by P. de Jong and S. Hood in 1948 revealed Roman buildingsand a well, togetherwith a thin Minoan stratumabove the natural yellow sand containing a wall and pottery of M. M. - L. M. I date (Knossos Logbook p. 4, Aug., 1948. Cf. KCh 1948, 586. JHS lxvii D6 (1947)41). 114(67). VILLA DIONYSOS and STATUE OF HADRIAN (JHS lv (1935) 164 f.; Ivi (1936) 150. AA 1935, 241 f. CODE: 1935/6). Tests by R. Radford and R. W. Hutchinson in 1937 (CODE: 1937/5 A, B, C, D. Cf. R. Radford, Report (unpublished) on Roman Remains at Knossos (1) and (2)). Excavations resumed by M. Gough and completed in 1971 (AR 1957, 24; 1958, 22; 1960-61, 29 f.; 1971-72, 21 f. ADelt xvi (1960) Chron. 262; xxvii (1972) 627). The Villa was built in the Hadrianic period and destroyed while pottery datable between 160-180 A.D. was in use according to Sanders, Roman Crete 98 ff., 124. The fine mosaics and other evidence suggestits possible use as a religious centre in which Dionysiac ritual played an importantpart. A Hellenistic house to the south-westwas quarried for ashlar masonryfor the constructionof the Villa. Classical and Archaic sherds were recovered from the lower levels of a D6 passage whichseparatedthe Villa fromit. 115 (68). ROMAN MOSAIC of semicircularshape (BSA vi (1899-1900) pl. xii: 'Roman Mosaic'. Cf. Plan, PM ii opp. 547: 'Roman mosaic, perhaps baths'). A stretchof concrete wall runningparallel with the road immediatelysouth of 114 may go with this mosaic, which seems to be that mentioned by Xanthoudides,Athena xiii (1901) 310 note 2. Xanthoudides suggested that it might have been the one seen by Buondelmonti (Cornelius, Creta Sacra i 96 f.) in the early 15th centuryA.D., and reported that Halbherruncovered it again to save it fromdestructionand observed that it was beautiful and wonderfullypreserved. But note that the mosaic which Halbherrfound in 1885 in the region of 1 12 was rectangularto judge fromits description D6 (see under 112). 116. GRECO-ROMAN PAVED ROAD (?) running fromwest to east witha laterRoman wall apparently built on top of it, exposed in the summerof 1977 in the trenchfor a new telephone cable (AR 197778, 61. Knossos Logbookp. 75. CODE: OTE-V). D 6 117 (71). ROMAN MOSAIC exposed in 1938 and probably dating from the 2nd centuryA.D. (JHS lviii (1938) 232 f. CODE: 1938/1). Trials to the west revealed fallen column drums, ones to the northand east Hellenisticdebris (RWH Diary pp. 19 D6 ff.,17th Feb. seq., 1938). 118 (70). ARCHAIC INSCRIPTION found by J. M. Cook in 1953 south-eastof 112 (JHS lxxiii (1953) 126 f.). D6 119 (69). ROMAN MOSAIC PAVEMENT found in 43

making a vineyardon land of DhimitriosAndriotis and explored by P. de Jong in 1950 (Knossos Logbook p. 10, 21st Jan., 1950. Sanders,Ro man Crete D6 110 f.). D6 120 (72). ROMAN CONCRETE RUINS. 121 (73). ROMAN BUILDING, perhaps a baths or temple (BSA vi (1899-1900) 81 pl. xii (15). Cf. Plan, PM ii opp. 547: 'Small Temple'). The ruins may have been those of a baths, located here rather than in the area of 115, according to R. Radford, Report (unpublished) on Roman Remains at Knossos (5). Hogarth's test of 1900 evidently revealed Late Minoan walls and a pavement with Middle Minoan sherds below it (BSA vi (1899D/E6 1900)81). E6 122 (87, 88). ROMAN CONCRETE RUINS. 123 (162). ROMAN (?) SEMICIRCULAR BUILDING west of the path north of Makritikhosvillage (Plan, PM ii opp. 547: 'Traces of Semicircular E6 Building'). E6 124 (155). ROMAN CONCRETE RUINS. 125. PIT FILLED WITH FINE EARLY ORIENTALIZING SHERDS found in excavatinga hole for a telegraph pole by the main road opposite the Taverna in 1968 (J. N. Coldstream, BSA lxxiii (1978) 45 ff. Cf. AR 1968-69, 34. TPH Book E6 pp. 1-4). 126. MINOAN HOUSE-WALL in a cess-pit dug for the house of N. Savakis on the east side of the road a few metres north of the gate of the Villa Ariadne (M. Cameron, BSA lxxi (1976) 1-13. Cf. AR 1968-69, 34. Knossos Logbook p. 30, 26th Oct., 1968. CODE: SB). Pottery fromM. M. I - L. M. Ill A; little certainlylater, except for a few sherds of L. M. Ill B and Geometric.Possible evidence for a destructionby fire early in L. M. 111A. A fragmentof MINIATURE FRESCO with crocusesassignableto L. M. I A. D6 127(81). ROMAN WELL by Villa gate, partly cleared by Hutchinsonin 1936 (CODE: 1936/8).D6 128 (82). ROMAN BUILDINGS immediatelybelow the surfacein the area of the Taverna and Annexe. A ROMAN MOSAIC PAVEMENT was found under the steps leading to the roof, and fine M. M. II pottery in diggingfoundations of the Taverna in 1933 (Strat Mus, V. 1933/1). The test pit, Strat Mus, V. 1904/3, with M. M. I and a good deal of M. M. II - L. M. I material,was also in this area. A cement-bondedROMAN WALL, and a WELLSHAFT below it containingsherdsof all periods and in particularsome fine Geometric fragments,were exposed by the cess-pit dug in 1970 in the space between the Taverna, Annexe and Caretaker's House. A numberof MINOAN BLOCKS of worked limestone,some with mason's marks,and quantities of decorated L. M. I A pottery,were recoveredfrom the lowest level reached at a depth of over 3 metres (K. A. Wardle, BSA lxvii (1972) 283 f. Cf. KCh D6 1971,494). 129. Cache of fragmentaryROMAN SCULPTURE exposed on line of new water main to Venizeleion hospitalin 1958 (AR 1958, 21. KCh 1958, 479).D 6

130. ROMAN remains, including MOSAIC PAVEMENTS above earlier FLOORS of pink cement, exposed in a trench dug for the constructionof a new drainage system and cess-pit for the Villa Ariadne in 1971 and recorded by J. W. Hayes (Knossos Logbook p. 39, Aug., 1971. TPH Book pp. 10-4). A portraitbust of Trajanic date from below the level of the mosaic pavement has been published by G. B. Waywell, BSA lxviii (1973) D6 295 f. 131 (83). ROMAN MOSAIC PAVEMENT of semicircular shape in north-westcorner of garden of Villa Ariadne, according to information from D6 Spiro Vasilakis (1957). 132 (84). HELLENIKA, a fieldwest of the LITTLE PALACE 185 and the Villa Ariadne (PM ii 546 and plan opp. 547: 'Hellenika'). But Evans elsewhere implies that the Acropolis hill came within its bounds, referringto the Iiill of Hellenika to the West' of the palace (PM i 404), and placing the LATE MINO AN II WARRIOR GRAVE 149 within Hellenika (PM index 88). According to local usage the name covers the whole of the Greek and Roman city area between the Acropolis on the west, the Palace on the south, and the Venizeleion on the north. A reliefof Herakles and Eurystheus,evidentlya TEMPLE METOPE of the 5th century B.C., was found in 1910 coveringa Roman drainjust west of the formertennis court which existed on the site of the StratigraphieMuseum (S. Benton, JHS lvii (1937) 38-43. Times, Sept. 16, 1910 p. 4, for the date of the discovery.Cf. AA 1910, 150, wrongly suggestingthat the reliefwas servingas the lid of a later pithos. PM ii 546 and note 1). Evans, Times, Sept. 16, 1910 p. 4, reports capitals and other architecturalfragmentsindicatingthe existence of a small Doric temple in the vicinity,and an early Roman marble statue of a long-robed Dionysos recovered in 1909 near the spot where the Eurystheusreliefwas found. The test pit, Strat Mus, V. 1931/11, was somewhere south-westof the Villa Ariadne in this area. D6 133 (80). MINOAN WELL immediatelynorth-west of Villa Ariadne (PM ii 546 f.: M. M. I A well, and D6 plan opp. 547: *MinoanWell'. Cf. PM iii 254). 134. ARCHAIC WELL about 100 metres northof the Villa Ariadne, revealed on the line of the new water main to the hospital in 1958 and excavated in 1958-59 (AR 1958, 21; 1959, 26. KCh 1959, 381 (I). BCH lxxxix (1960) 839). Orientalizingand Archaic pottery published by J. N. Coldstream, D6 BSA lxviii(1973) 33 ff.,37 ff.,62. 135 (79). ROMAN CONCRETE RUINS and MOSAIC PAVEMENTS in field north of Villa Ariadne. There is one mosaic about 10 metres south of this spot and another about 20 metres west of it (information from Spiro Vasilakis, D6 1957). LATIN INSCRIPTION mentioning a 136(74). 44

library (?) and the Lindians, and a GIGANTIC MARBLE FOOT from a statue about 6 metres high. Bits of these were also found in a stone pile to the south immediately above 137. Trials by Hutchinson some 15 metres west of 137 are said of the inscription to have producedanotherfragment together with terracottas and lamps dating from c. 600-200 B.C. (JHS lv (1935) 168. AA 1936, 161. CODE: 1935/4; 1935/7). The box of 1935/7 in the StratigraphieMuseum contains lamps and pottery of the 4th and 3rd centuries B.C. with a few possible 2nd century types according to P. Callaghan, who identified fragmentsof a lifesized clay head of a bearded god and a terracotta plaque witha Hera-likefigure,indicatingthe possible existence of a sanctuary of Zeus and Hera in this area at the northernend of the Acropolishill. D 6 137(75). CAVE or ROCK-CUT TOMB (?) examined, but not fullyexcavated, by Hutchinsonin 1935. A Roman column was standing uprightin the entrance as if placed there to support the roof D6 (informationfromR. W. Hutchinson,1957). 138 (76). BRONZE SPEAR-HEAD found in 1932 on land of V. Boura about 100 metreswest of 139 and some 25 metresbelow the steep bank marking the edge of theAcropolishill,suggestingthe possible C6 existenceof Minoan tombs there(PK Her M). 139 (76). MIDDLE MINOAN III SHERD DEPOSIT with a thin layer assigned to the beginningof Late Minoan I, on the north edge of the Acropolis hill, examined by Hutchinson in 1935 (JHS lv (1935) 168. AA 1935, 240. CODE: 1935/2). Finds are said to have included a series of small complete vases, together with two marble sword pommels, and a few fragmentsof fresco. Evans seems to have been aware of this deposit, noting that Minoan sherds were plentifulon the 'fartherslope' of the Acropolis, 'especially at a point to the NorthWest' (PM ii 147). A slighthollow with abundant Minoan sherds still visible in September, 1978, at the foot of a steep rocky incline about 65 metres northof 140 seems to mark the site of the deposit. Karo, AA 1935, 240 thoughtthat the materialmust derive fromsome importantbuildingon top of the hill to the south-east; but the situation of the deposit suggests the possible existence of another largeMiddle Minoan tomb like thatat 140. According to the list at the back of RWH Notebook (1935) the soundingsin the deposit should be 1935/2 of which there are four small boxes of materialin the StratigraphieMuseum. But the eight boxes of 1935/4 are labelled as if from here and the potteryfromthemis similar.One box of 1935/3 described as from 'Dump on N. Slope' may also come from here. The pottery of these boxes is dominantly M. M. Ill - L. M. I A in character,with nothing obviously later, apart froma few L. M. Ill sherds and some Hellenistic cups in one box of 1935/4. There is also some M. M. II in the boxes, and in those of 1935/4 a few scraps of M. M. I A. Pottery collected from the apparent site of the

deposit by Hood in 1953 included a littleM. M. I A and M. M. II in addition to M. M. Ill B - L. M. I A. D6 140(77). MIDDLE MINOAN TOMB in a large wholly or partly artificialcave on the east edge of the Acropolisabout 10 metresnorthof the concrete surveypost, explored by Hutchinsonin 1935 (JHS lv (1935) 168: Tour M. M. Ill pithos burials and below them M. M. I a graves.' Fuller account by G. Karo, AA 1935, 240 f. CODE: 1935/3). Karo assigns the upper burials to M. M. Ill B and says that the limestone head, R. W. Hutchinson, PrehistoricCrete (1962) pl. 14: a, came fromthislevel. Accordingto Karo the tomb was immediatelysouth of the spot where R. J. H.Jenkins had cleared some MIDDLE MINOAN BURIALS in 1933. These burials are described by Marinatos,AA 1934, 249, as in clay sarcophagi and under invertedpithoi of which three taken to Herakleion Museum had white painted rosettesand other decoration assignable to the end of Middle Minoan (M. M. Ill B according to Karo). It sounds as if these burials may have been in the upper level of the same tomb. The pottery associated with them is T II in DP Start Mus ii 18, and iii plan 20: 'Pithos Burials on Acropolis. (5 boxes). M. M. III.' But thispottery is in fact dominantly M. M. II in character,with little that need be later, although a small amount may be assigned to M. M. Ill B/L. M. I A. The potteryof 1935/3 on the otherhand includes much M. M. I A, withM. M. I B/II A, evolvedM. M. II and M. M. III. The tomb thereforeappears to have been in continuous use throughoutmost of the Middle Minoanperiodand perhapsinto Late MinoanI A. D 6 141. ROMAN SHERDS and rubbish, including crushed shells (some Murex trunculus),revealed in a trial by Jill CaringtonSmith (1977) on land of I. Anetakis. This was above a poor Roman wall and clay floor with a Hellenistic deposit below it. A layer with Middle and Late Minoan sherdscovered the rock at a depth of 2.30 to 2.60 metresbelow the surface (AR 1977-78, 60. Knossos Logbook D6 p. 57, March,1977. CODE: K-AOG). 142 (65). ROMAN CEMETERY on the north-east slopes of the Acropolis (BSA vi (1899-1900) 81 and pl. xii: 'Roman Cemetery'. Cf. Plan, PM ii opp. 547: 'Greco-Roman Rock Tombs'). See also under 143. D6 143 (78). ROMAN GRAVE excavated by Hutchinson in 1936 about 30 metressouth of the concrete surveypost. Perhaps part of the same cemeteryas 142. D6 144. ROMAN CISTERN (?) noted by Hogarth on the Acropolis just south of the ROMAN CEMETERY 142 (BSA vi (1899-1900) pl. xii, and p. 81: 'Under the summiton the north-eastslope has been a large Roman cisternor reservoirfor the supply of waterto the town below'). D6 145 (103). Part of an EARLY DORIC CAPITAL high on the east slope of the Acropolis hill (PM ii 844 note 4, and plan opp. 547, whereit is described 45

as 'Doric column base'). Evans suggested that it might have come from the temple of Apollo Delphinios (PM ii 844) . It was mentionedby Payne as still visible in the 1920s (BSA xxix (1927-28) 231) ; and was probably the 'part of a Doric column' destroyed in 1934 according to S. Benton, who thoughtit mighthave belonged to the same temple as the EURYSTHEUS METOPE (132) and the ARCHITECTURAL RELIEFS found west of the palace (209) (JHS lvii(1937)41 f.). Some fragments of very massive clay tiles that mighthave roofed a Greek public building like a temple were noted in D7 thisarea in August,1978. 146. ROMAN (?) CISTERN visible in 1976 in a recent cuttinga few metresnorthof the north-west corner of the modern house. Another cutting to level the ground south of the house had revealed ancient walls and sherds, apparently post-Minoan D7 and includinga good deal of Geometric. 147 (104). MINOAN (?) TOMBS, three or more, found on the south-eastslopes of the Acropolis in the years just before the war according to local tradition. In 1957 the area was under vineyards, and tombs could have come to lightwhen theywere planted. But this may be just a conflationof memD 6/7 ories of 140 and 148. 148 (102). MIDDLE MINOAN TOMB with pithos burials, excavated by Piaton in 1940 (information from N. Platon, 1957). This appears to be the site to which referencesare made in RHW Diary p. 175, 3rd Aug. and p. 183, 28th Sept., 1940, althoughit is there described as being 'on west crest of Monasteriako Kephali where a collapse and cut stones D7 seem to implya tomb (tholos or cave) '. 149 (100). LATE MINOAN II WARRIOR GRAVE ('ACROPOLIS TOMB') (PM ii 547 and plan opp. 547: 'Rock Tomb L. M. I'. Cf. PM iv 849 f. fig.832 for the finds now in the Ashmolean Museum, Oxford. N. K. Sandars, AJA lxvii (1963) 146, for the date and descriptionof the weapons). D7 150 (98). LATE MINOAN I BUILDING(S) at south end of the Acropolis hill.The only 'tracesof Minoan houses' on the Acropolis on the plan, PM ii opp. 547, are marked a bit to the north-eastof thisspot. Trials here by Hutchinsonbefore the Second World War produced Late Minoan I A sherds.The material appears to be in the StratigraphieMuseum under CODE: 1937/6: 'Test Pit on Roussaki's vineyard on Monasteraki Kephali 0-1.80 m. deep', with an apparently pure L. M. I A deposit. Other boxes fromRoussaki's fielddated 1935-37 may represent surface collections from the southern end of the Acropolis hill and include a good many Geometric and later sherds. In 1959 the Minoan buildingswere largelydestroyedby keep ploughingin the course of which a stone lamp was recovered.Subsequent trials confirmed the Late Minoan I date of occupation (AR 1959,25). A DEPOSIT OF MIDDLE MINOAN III - LATE MINOAN I SHERDS with a fragment of a stone vase decorated with spirals in relief,found in 1943 in

the workson thesouthern partof the 161.MINOAN CHAMBER TOMB underneath diggingmilitary of theVenetianaqueduct,revealedin Acropolishill,may have been in thisarea rather continuation inKS1 (KCh 1947, the trenchforthenew watermainto Fortetsaand thannear145 (103) as suggested C7 excavatedby G. Cadoganin 1976. The tombwas 633). 151 (97). FORETSA CEMETERY withseventeen foundempty,and mayneverhavebeen completed EARLY IRON AGE TOMBS dugby Platon,Blake- or used. On the southside of it was an artificial way,Payne,and Brockin 1933 and 1935 (Brock, cuttingfilledwithMiddleMinoansherds.Another of MiddleMinoan(apparently Fortetsa.Cf.BSA xxxiii(1932-33) 217 f.JHS lui heavyconcentration (1933) 288 ff.;lv (1935) 166 ff.BCH lvii(1933) M. M. Ill A) potteryanda possiblewallstumpwere 292; lviii(1934) 268 ff.AA 1933, 304 ff.;1936, exposed in a highbank on the southside of the 160). Therewerealso HELLENISTIC and ROMAN watermain trencha few metresdown the slope GRAVESin thearea. C8 C 7 fromthetomb. 152 (108). ROCK-CUTTOMB in knollimmediately 162. MINOANSHERDS, including partof a tripod aboveandto theeastof 151. MiddleMinoanexcept C7 cookingpot, all apparently 153 (99). ROMAN HOUSE (?) on northedge of for some whichmightbe L. M. I, froma hollow vineyardabout 70 metreseast of pathto Fortetsa. about 0.60 metreswide and 0.30 metresdeep exof pithos posed in the westside of the trenchforthe new Squared blocks of stone and fragments andtilewerenotedhereby Hood in 1953. C8 C 7 watermainto Fortetsain 1976. 154. CEMETERY OF GRECO-ROMAN ROCK 163. MINOAN SHERDS, all apparentlyMiddle CUT TOMBS in flat-topped outcropsof hardrock Minoanapartfromsome whichmightbe L. M. I, oftheBairiahilleastofthepath.Thelargernorthern seen in a newlyplantedolive grovein 1976. Two 10 are or threelargestones,roughlydressedand probably outcrophas over40 tombs,whilea further visiblein the smallersouthernone. A tombwith fromsome Minoanstructure, had been collected relicsof Romanburialson theeasternedgeof the into a heap near the north-west cornerof the maingroup(E on map)wasclearedbyJillCarington field. C8 Smith in September,1977 (AR 1977-78, 61. 164. ROMAN(?) GRAVE withchildburialcleared KnossosLogbookp. 80, 17thNov., 1977. CODE: by R. Howell in the Springof 1976 in the road of the driveleadinginto the Dhretakis K-AT). C7/8 north-east 155 (134). ROCK-CUTTOMBS, six in all visible, property. In April,1977,AntoniZidianakis reported westof themaingroupat 156. A seventhtombon a possible Late Minoan III chambertomb here, the northernedge of the groupwithremainsof and said thatmanytombs,apparently Minoan,had Roman burials(E on map) was examinedby Jill been openedin thepaston theslopesabove to the CarringtonSmith in the autumnof 1977 (AR west. A stretchof MINOAN (?) WALLING was ex1977-78, 61. KnossosLogbookp. 81 f.,17thNov., 1977. CODE: K-BT). C8 aminedby Jill CaringtonSmithin the drivejust 156 (135). ROCK-CUTTOMBS on theslopeswest outside the gate. Fragmentsof Middle Minoan of the Vlikhia.Two (E on map) excavatedby R. potterywere recoveredfromhollowsand a wash Howell in Apriland September,1976. The first, runningbelow the wall, and similarpotterywas on the northernedge of the group,was exposed notedin thearea (AR 1977-78, 60. KnossosLogby the trenchcut forthe watermainto Fortetsa. bookp. 56, 7/8thApril,1977. CODE: K-DD). D 7 It had beenrobbed,but a lampandvaseof the2nd 165. Remainsof disturbedROMAN (?) BURIALS fromit (AR 1976-77, notedby R. Howellin 1976 southand westof the centuryA.D. wererecovered of ancienttileandbonehad siteof thehousebuiltby Dr. E. Dhretakis. 22 no. 14). Fragments C7 been thrownfromthewatermaintrenchat a spot 166. ROMANGRAVE withburialof a childabout about 25 metresto the east. The second tomb 100 metreswestof thesiteof Ayios Kirillos,excaabout 100 metressouth-eastof the firstwas ex- vated by Hood in 1966 (KCh 1966, 325. CODE: C/D7 posed by a collapseof theroadway;it also proved AC/66/TI). of 168. to be Roman. C 8 167 (106). ROCK-CUTTOMBS south-west 157. FOUR ROCK-CUTTOMBS, recentlypillaged D7 but withremainsof Romanburials,excavatedby 168 (106). ROCK-CUTTOMBS,fivein all,exposed M. Pophamand R. Howellin 1968 (AR 1968-69, on westside of path.A stretchof concrete(?) wall 33. CODE: MTK/68). C8 runningabove the entranceof thefirsttombfrom 158. ROCK-CUT TOMBS west of the Vlikhiain thenorthmaybe partof theROMANAQUEDUCT theregionof theROMANAQUEDUCT 160. C 8 (cf. 318, 346-353). Concrete(?) wallsenclosinga 159 (137). ROCK-CUT TOMBS in side of gorge space about 2.70 metresacrossvisiblein thebank northofVenetianaqueduct. D 8 southof thistombmighthavebelongedto a cistern 160(136). Concrete stumps of supports for like 319 connectedwiththeaqueduct.About 1.40 ROMAN AQUEDUCT crossingthe Vlikhiastream metresto the north of the cistern(?) a Greek bed northof the Venetianaqueduct.Largeblocks inscription of the Romanperiodwas notedby P. of dressedlimestonelyingin the streambed here Callaghanin 1978 at a heightof some 1.80 metres C/D8 abovethepath.Whenthiswas clearedtheentrance mayhavebelongedto it. 46

of another tomb was revealed below it. This was excavated in November, 1978 (informationfrom D7 Mrs.AlexandraKaretsou). 169. Dressed limestone blocks, evidentlyGRECOROMAN and perhaps from a TOMB, exposed by deep ploughing in March, 1977, in an olive grove about 50 metres south of the ROMAN ROCKCUT TOMBS 170 (Knossos Logbook p. 62, 26th April 1977). Trials by Jill CaringtonSmithrevealed wherethe blocks had been restingon the kouskouras about 0.35 metres below the surface; no signs of D7 any burialswere detected. 170(110). ROMAN ROCK-CUT TOMBS, four in all, at 'MarathianouLakkos' below site of destroyed churchof Ayios Kirillos. Two adjacent tombs,with finds suggestiveof use fromc. 50-150 A.D., were cleared by K. A. Wardlein 1970 (BSA lxvii (1972) 271 ff. Cf. KCh 1971, 494). A gold bead from 'Marathianou Lakkos' was handed to Herakleion Museum by Hippocrates Mesaritakisin 1965 (HM D7 Cat of Chance Finds p. 28 no. 247). 171. Group of ROMAN TILE-GRAVES with some burialsapparentlydatingfromthe 1st centuryA.D., explored by H. W. Catlingin 1975 about 10 metres D7 south-westof 172 (AR 1976-77, 10). 172 (101). GRECO-ROMAN GRAVE cut in fallen mass of rock on south slope of the Acropolis. D 7 173. GRECO-ROMAN ROCK-CUT TOMBS. The inhabitantsof Knossos are said to have cleared a long row of such tombs near the edge of the Acropolis hill for use as refugesand dwellingsduring the Battle of Crete in 1941 (KCh 1947, 632. D7 Cf.///Slxiv(1944)86). 174. Remains of MINO AN BUILDINGS with deposits assignable to various phases of M. M. Ill and L. M. I, revealed in trials by H. W. Catling in the Stafilakis field in 1975 (BSA lxxiv (1979) 1-80. Cf. AR 1976-77, 5-8, 10. CODE: KSP/ D7 75). 175. MIDDLE MINOAN POTTERY DUMP, exposed by deep ploughing in the Stafilakis field some 20 metres west of 176 and examined by H. W. Catling,1975 (AR 1976-77, 4 fig.2. CODE: D7 KSP/75). 176. HELLENISTIC POTTERY DUMP, exposed by deep ploughing in the Stafilakis field and examined by H. W. Catling,1975 (AR 1976-77, 10 f. CODE: KSP/75). D7 177. ROMAN HOUSE immediately south-westof 174, examined by H. W. Catling, 1975 (AR 1976D7 77, 8-10. CODE: KSP/75). POTTERY KILNS, one evidently 178(105). CLASSICAL, the other HELLENISTIC, and a CISTERN (JHS lvii (1937) 138. BSA xlv (1950) 165 ff. CODE: 1937/4). One kiln was filled with pottery of the fourth century B.C.; the floor of the other overlapped it and the cistern,fromwhich Hellenistic sherds were recovered. This area may have been the potters' quarterin Hellenistictimes: test pieces and a clay mould for a Megarian bowl were found at 176 in 1975 (AR 1976-77, 11). 47

RWH Diary p. 105, 13thJan., 1939, recordsthe upper part of a Daedalic figurinefromthe vineyard belonging to the father (Kostas) of Andreas D7 Akoumianos near here. 179(109). GEOMETRIC WELL exposed in wartime dug-out in high bank, and examined by J. M. Cook in 1949 (Knossos Logbook pp. 6 f., Feb., D7 1949. CODE: 1949/1). GEOMETRIC HOUSES revealed in 180(107). soundingsmade by J. M. Cook in 1953 immediately east of the path (Knossos Logbook pp. 15 f., 17/ 18th June, 1953. Cf. BSA lxvii (1972) 87 for a Late Geometricamphora fromone of these). Many Protogeometric sherds were recovered from the lowerof two strata(BSA lviii(1963) 39 note 11). D 7 181. ROMAN (MANOLI'S) WELL with early Roman pottery, below the path south-west of Knossos village, excavated in 1958 (J. W. Hayes, BSA lxvi (1971) 249 ff.,257 ff.Cf. AR 1958, 21. CODES: MW/58, M/58, M/59. KCh 1958, 477 (9) D7 evidentlyrefersto thiswell). 182. Group of PROTOGEOMETRIC VASES assignable to Late PG, recoveredby Manoli Markoyiannakis in 1958 (BSA lviii (1963) 38-41. Cf. KCh 1959, 381 (H). Pini 85: XXXIII). The vases are suggestive of a gravegroup, but trialsby J. W. Hayes in 1959 (CODE: MT/59) failed to identifyany traces of a burial. If therewas a burial here, it may have been within the limitsof the Early Iron Age settlement. D 6/7 183. Two LATE ROMAN or EARLY BYZANTINE GRAVES cleared by Hood in September, 1966, on the building plot of N. Froudharakis east of the house of E. Vlakhakis. The graveshad an east-west orientation, and the best preserved was covered with massiveblocks of squared limestone: the burial had been accompanied by a singleplain jug, assignable perhaps to the 5th or 6th centuryA.D. (KCh D7 1966, 325. CODE: MB). 184. Corner of a MINOAN BUILDING founded on the natural reddish earth, exposed at a depth of 2.50 metres at the bottom of a cess-pit (bothros) on the east side of the house of Mikhail Zidianakis in 1971 (Knossos Logbook p. 36, 15th April,1971. D7 TPHBookp. 9). 185 (86). LITTLE PALACE and 186. UNEXPLORED MANSION. The LITTLE PALACE (185) was cleared by Evans in 1905 with furtherwork in 1908 and 1910 (BSA xi (1904-05) 2 ff.JHS xxviii (1908) 325; xxix (1909) 361; xxx (1910) 362. SM i 55. Times, Aug. 27, 1908 p. 6; June 29, 1909 p. 5; Sept. 16, 1910 p. 4; July 27, 1931 p. 9: seal with bearded head from below staircase. Archaeologia lxv (1914) 59 ff. PM ii 513 ff.; iv 215 ff.; index 83. OKT index: Knossos, Little Palace. Strat Mus, P. I). For sealings from the LITTLE PALACE see M. A. V. Gill,BSA lx (1965) 85 ff.J. H. Betts, BSA lxii (1967) 32 no. 12, 34 no. 20. The UNEXPLORED MANSION 186 was identified by Evans (PM ii 542 ff.). A war-timeshelter

excavated along the outside of its north wall in November, 1940, revealed L. M. II and L. M. Ill sherds and an interestingterracotta head (RWH Diary p. 191, 9th Nov., 1940). Part of a Roman House above the north end of the building was cleared by German excavators in November, 1941 (Works of Art in Greece: Losses and Survivalsin the War, published by H. M. Stationery Office, London (1946), 25. JHS lxiv (1944) 86. KCh 1947, 630). The site was finally excavated by M. Popham and H. Sackett from 1967-73 and in 1977 (PreliminaryReport in AR 1972-73, 50 ff. Cf. AR 1967-68, 21 f.; 1968-69, 31 ff.;1971-72, 21; 1973-74, 35; 1977-78, 61. ADelt xxiii (1968) Chron. 410; xxiv (1969) Chron. 422; xxvii (1972) Chron. 625 f.; xxviii (1973) Chron. 576 ff. Archaeology xxxii (1979) 18-27. M. R. Popham, The Destruction of the Palace at Knossos (SIMA xii) (Göteborg,1970) 93 f. CODES: UM, MUM). The UNEXPLORED MANSION was joined by a bridge to the LITTLE PALACE and may have servedas an annexe to it (PM ii 545). J. W. Graham, AJA lxxix (1975) 141-4, has suggestedthatit was added to the LITTLE PALACE as a banquet hall complex. It was destroyedby firein L. M. II, but had traces of later occupation. For 'Marine Style' vases assignable to early L. M. II fromthe area of the UNEXPLORED MANSION see Popham, BSA lxxiii (1978) 181 f.; Kadmos xv (1976) 102-7, for a pithoid jar with an incised Linear A inscription; Kadmos viii (1969) 43-5, for a large stirrup jar witha Linear B inscriptionpainted on it. Pottery fromthe LITTLE PALACE assignableto the horizon of the early L. M. Ill A 2 destructionin the palace published by Popham, The Destruction of the Palace at Knossos (SIMA xii) (Göteborg,1970) 62 f. Cf. Antiquity xl (1966) 24 ff. pl. üi (d). See BSA lxiv (1969) 302 f.; lxv (1970) 195 ff.,for pottery assignedto L. M. III B fromthe LITTLE PALACE and UNEXPLORED MANSION. Parts of the LITTLE PALACE were covered by later remains including Roman buildings (Archaeologialxv (1914) 74). EarlyIron Age pottery from here was published by Hartley, BSA xxxi (1930-31) 89-92, 106 f., 108. To the east traces of a ROMAN (?) ROAD were identified (PM ii 517 note 1. Ibid. fig. 318 opp. 517 marksan 'Early Paved Way' here, but on the plan in Archaeologia lxv (1914) opp. 70 this is called 'Later Roadway'. Wheel-rutsin the pavementslabs (Times, Sept. 16, 1910 p. 4) suggest this is correct). In the space between this road and the northend of the LITTLE PALACE traces of a possible HELLENISTIC SHRINE (HEROON) were noted with votive terracottas of equestrian and other figuresand a small limestonereliefof a ridingyouth (Times, Sept. 16, 1910 p. 4. PM ii 517 and note 1). GRECO-ROMAN WELLS. Evans noted that 'in the Little Palace especially the Minoan foundations were honeycombed in places by later wells, several of them going back to the Greek Geometrical 48

Period' (PM i 404). A well dug by Hutchinson in 1938 immediately west of the façade of the UNEXPLORED MANSION produced Hellenistic pottery with Archaic pithos sherds at water level (JHS lviii (1938) 233. RWH Diary pp. 13 ff., 10th Feb. seq., 1938. CODE: 1938/2). Five Roman wells sunkthroughtheruinsof theLITTLE PALACE were cleared by Platon in 1956 (AR 1956, 21. KCh 1956, 418). A well filled duringthe Archaicperiod c. 600 B.C. was among those examined in the UNEXPLORED MANSION in 1973 (L. H. Sackett, BSA lxxiii (1978) 44, 49 ff). Before the discovery of the LITTLE PALACE Evans appears to have made extensivesoundingsin the area to the south and south-eastof it, where 'two wells, one of Roman date, the other at any rate post-Minoan, were brought to light' (BSA xi (1904-05) 3). A test pit about 35 metres southwest of the southernend of the east façade of the UNEXPLORED MANSION 'revealed an angle of D6 anothersubstantialhouse' (PM ii 546). 187 (85). LATE MINOAN I A ROAD, and earlier RUBBISH PIT withMIDDLE MINOAN III SHERDS at the bottom, explored by Hutchinson in 1935 south-westof the Villa Ariadne and immediately north of the former tennis court (Stratigraphie Museum site) (G. Karo, AA 1935, 240, supplemented by informationfrom R. W. Hutchinson. CODE: 1935/1). D6 188. STRATIGRAPHIC MUSEUM SOUNDINGS, supervisedby G. Cadogan during the construction of the original museum in 1962 (CODE: SM/62). Finds from the foundation pits sunk round the edges of the building were principallyof the Late Minoan period. On the east side part of a substantial house was revealed with stratifiedM. M. Ill, L. M. I A, L. M. I B (BSA lxii (1967) 343 pl. 82 (d), and L. M. II deposits. Some L. M. Ill materialincluding L. M. Ill C was recoveredtogetherwith a fineSubminoan pyxis. Traces of occupation in Protogeometric, Geometric, Archaic, Classical, Hellenistic and Roman times were also noted. There was a Hellenisticinscription. The STRATIGRAPHIC MUSEUM EXTENSION (WORKROOMS) added to the east side of the originalmuseumin 1969 exposed a LATE MINOAN III A SHRINE and deposits of potteryof L. M. Ill A and L. M. Ill B as well as Hellenisticdate (BSA lxv (1970) 191-4, 195 ff. Cf. AAA iii (1970) 93 f. ADelt xxvii (1972) Chron. 621. KCh 1972, 492. CODE: SMXT). An ivory hand from this area assignable to M. M. Ill - L. M. I was published by M. Popham, BSA lxxii (1977) 190 pl. 26 (/). A fine Daedalic clay figurinewas recovered in opening a bothrosin frontof the StratigraphieMuseum (ADelt xxvii (1972) Chron. 625 pl. 585. Ci. AR 1977-78, 61 fig.107). Excavations begun by P. Warrenin 1978 behind the StratigraphieMuseum on the west have revealed remains of Roman houses with plastered water channels above Hellenistic,Classical and Geometric

pits, and part of a Geometric house; L. M. Ill C/ Subminoan pits, and traces of occupation including part of an aspidal buildingassigned to Late Minoan III B/C; L. M. Ill A levels, and a L. M. I building destroyedby fire and associated with an industrial area with two kilns; a Middle Minoan buildingand debrisback to M. M. I A (AR 1978-79, 36 f.). D 6 189. ROMAN BUILDINGS and a column revealed on the buildingplot of ThrasivilosVasilakis east of 190 some ten years ago about 1970 (information D6 fromMitsosVavouranakis,1976). 190. Pair of ROMAN TANKS cut in the rock, exposed on the site of the Vlakhakis Hotel south of the StratigraphieMuseum in 1975 and examined by G. Cadogan with Sara Paton. Traces of Middle Minoan I A occupation were noted in the area (AR 1976-77, 22 n. 4. TPH Book pp. 20 f. CODES: KV/1975 and MM (R) I 8cII). Roman buildings and columns were found on the original Vlakhakis building plot immediately to the south about 1970 (informationfromMitsos D 6/7 Vavouranakis,1976). 191. ROMAN CISTERN, about 8 metreslong from northto south and 1.35 metreswide. It had bevelled edges like the ROMAN CISTERN 319 and the channels of the Roman aqueduct (318, 346-353). The original lining of cement with red tile chips was about 0.15 metres thick; a later lining of cement with finer red chips about 0.05 metres thickwas superimposedon this. The test pits made by Hogarthin the village of Knossos (Metochi), which was then much smaller, 'revealed considerable remains of houses, waterconduits and cisterns. . . associated with GraecoRoman sherds'(BSA vi (1899-1900) 80 f.). D7 192. LATE MINOAN III B, SUBMINOAN, AND PROTOGEOMETRIC POTTERY from a cess-pit dug for the house of Antoni Vlakhakis in 1969 (informationfromM. Popham, 1976). D/E 6/7 193. ROMAN WELL found in 1968 at the northwest corner of the Mesaritakisbuilding plot. The well was stone-lined,and had been blocked across the top with a large monolithiccolumn. AR 196869, 34 seems to referto this well. For other finds from the Mesaritakisbuilding plot see ADelt xx (1965) Chron. 554. These include a fragmentof an Archaic inscription(ADelt xxviii (1973) Chron. 572 pl. 541. Cf. KCh 1973, 463, supplementedby informationfromS. Alexiou). E7 194. ROMAN (?) WELL at the south-east corner of the Mesaritakisbuilding plot about 10 metres west of the main road, apparentlyfound in 1968 like 193. E7 195. Part of a ROMAN HOUSE withsmall MOSAIC PAVEMENT exposed in opening a cess-pit on the west side of the house of Maria Kostoveli, and examinedby A. Lebesisin 1971 (ADelt xxvii (1972) Chron. 621, 624 f. pl. 584. Cf. KCh 1972, 492. Supplementedby informationfromMitsos VavourD7 anakis, 1976). 196. MIDDLE MINOAN BUILDING on a slope 49

facingeast at 'Sokhora' on land of MikhailisFroudharakis,excavated by M. Popham in 1969 (BSA lxix (1974) 181-94. Cf. KCh 1970, 517. Knossos Logbook pp. 33 f., 25th Aug., 1969. CODE: KV/69). Potteryfromthe destructionlevel was assignableto M. M. II B. Vases of LATE MINOAN I A typeswere recovered from above a later floor. There was also a later well and a pit with a fill of late Classical D7 date. 197. CLASSICAL AND HELLENISTIC SHRINE and GRECO-ROMAN MARBLE SCULPTURE on the buildingplot of ConstantineVlakhakisnear the south-west edge of Knossos village. Fragmentary sculpture assignable to the end of the Hellenistic or early part of the Roman period was recovered from the south-west corner of the plot in 1974. More sculpture came to light here in subsequent trials by H. W. Catling (BSA lxxii (1977) 85-106. Cf. AR 1974-75, 26 figs. 48-9; 1976-77, 18 f. CODE: KRS/74). Previousfindsof Roman sculpture from the village include the head of a girlassigned by S. Marinatosto the 3rd centuryA.D. (ADelt xv (1933-35 pub. 1938) Par. 60 ff.fig.21). In 1976 a cess-pitdug just to the north of the spot wherethe sculpturewas foundexposed a shrine (heroon) in use fromthe 6th centuryB.C. untilthe time of the Roman conquest in 67 B.C.; this was examined by P. Callaghan, who identifiedit as that of Glaukos (BSA lxxiii (1978) 1-30. Cf. AR 197677, 19-21. CODE: KRS/76). A Subminoan deposit was reached in a small area immediatelynorth of D7 the shrine(BSA lxxiii (1978) 1). 198. ROMAN CONCRETE WALLING exposed to D7 the south-westof Knossos village. 199. ROMAN HOUSE WALLS exposed in digging foundations on the Plaitis building plot and examined by R. Ho well and D. Smyth in 1975 (AR D 7 1976-77,19). 200. Part of a LATE HELLENISTIC HOUSE with WINE-PRESS and WELL exposed in 1977 on land of Maria Kalathaki and examined by Jill Carington Smith. An earlierHellenisticbuildingwas identified below it togetherwith Archaic and Late Geometric levels (AR 1977-78, 61. Knossos Logbook p. 79, D7 25th Nov., 1977. CODE: K-WW). 201. GEOMETRIC WELL a few metreswest of 202, excavated by R. Stopford in 1957 (BSA lv (1960) 159-71. Cf. AR 1957, 24. BCH lxxxii (1958) 785). D7 202 (115). LARGE ROMAN TOMB (?) represented by a concrete mass about 70 metresnorth-westof the road bridge. Tests by Hood in 1953 revealedan ossuary grave built against its south side. Abundant M. M. pottery and fragmentsof monochrome painted plaster were exposed in diggingfor a vineyard down the slope immediately to the south (Knossos Logbook pp. 19 f., August-October,1953. CODE: K(81)). A box of potteryin the Stratigraphie Museum with the date 8.7.55 is said to be from this same field, which is described as that of Athanasios. The sherds range from M. M. I A on-

wards, and include some L. M. I A and L. M. I B, togetherwith a good deal of L. M. II, much L. M. Ill, and a littleGeometricand Classical. D/E 7 LIMESTONE CORNER 203. MONUMENTAL BLOCK, apparentlypart of the pier of a GRECOROMAN BRIDGE, which may have been a predecessor of 204. Exposed in the Summerof 1977 in digginga trench for a telephone cable and examined by Jill CaringtonSmith (AR 1977-78, 61. E7 Knossos Logbook p. 76 f. CODE: OTE-Y). 204. ROMAN BRIDGE (?) over the Vlikhia, in the shape of a stump of concrete walling some 4-5 metres wide exposed at the top of the northbank of the stream bed about 20 metres east of the E7 existingbridgeforthe road. 205. Fragmentof MINOAN 'TRIGLYPH' RELIEF of purplish limestone found by Manoli Markoyiannakis about 200 metres west of the Palace in 1956. A similarbut not identicalrelieffragmenthad been recovered from somewhere in this area a few years earlier (AR 1956, 21 figs. 18, 19. Cf. KCh 1955,565). D/E 7 206. ROAD TRIALS, made in 1959-60 on the west side of the main road in view of a proposal to widen it (AR 1960-61, 27. ADelt xvi (1960) Chron. 266. KCh 1960, 519 (6). CODE: RT). Protogeometric, Geometric, Orientalizing and Archaic pottery published by J. N. Coldstream,BSA lxvii (1972) 63 f., 74 ff.,85 ff.;lxviii (1973) 44 f., 62; Early Roman material by J.W. Hayes, BSA lxvi (1971) 249 ff.,270 ff.; Post-Minoanterracottasby R. A. Higgins,ibid. 277 ff.(RT). The test pit, S trat Mus, V. 1929/1, was apparently on the east side of the road somewhere E7 opposite here and south of 210. 207 (112). 'ARCHAIC EXCAVATION, opened by T. J. Dunbabin and R. W. Hutchinson in 1936-7 with a view to obtaining informationabout Early Iron Age Knossos (JHS Ivi (1936) 150; lvii (1937) 137 f. Plan in Knossos Logbook p. 1 for position. CODES: 1936/9, 1937/2). Late Minoan, Protogeometric,Geometricand later walls, togetherwith a Hellenisticstreet,wererevealedin the excavations. A Late Minoan complex with well-builtwalls was noted near the surface to the north-west.The test pit, Strat Mus, V. 1904/2, appears to have been somewherenorth-westof here. E7 208 (114). MATHIOUDHAKIS'S PLOT west of the main road opposite the entrance to the Palace. A small area was levelled with a view to making a car-park here in 1947. Three test pits sunk by Hutchinson revealed an early Roman stratum, probably a road, overlying Protogeometrie and L. M. Ill walls. A wall of small stones standingto a height of 1.80 metres was dated by pottery to Pre-palatial M. M. I A (Knossos Logbook p. 3, March-April, 1947. JHS lxvi (1946) 117 f. CODE: E7 1947/1). 209 (113). ARCHAIC INSCRIPTION and fragments of two ARCHITECTURAL RELIEFS from the vineyardnorth-westof the Palace (JHS Ivi (1936) 50

150; lvii (1937) 41 f.; lxix (1949) 36 f. AA 1936, 160 f. CODE: 1936/2). Trials at the time of the discovery failed to reveal any traces of an early Greek sanctuary; a ROMAN stratumwith a CIST GRAVE containingthree skeletons (cf. 212, 215) overlaya LATE MINOAN level. A sinkingexamined by R. Howell in 1976 some 4 metres into the vineyard north of the ticket officehere may have marked the site of an ancient well (TPHBookp. 129). Hogarth's test at Point 12 with Roman and Late Geometric over Mycenaean (Late Minoan) and Kamares (Middle Minoan) deposits appears to have been somewhere to the south-eastof 209 (BSA vi (1899-1900) 79 f. JHS xxi (1901) 79 f., 91 fig. E7 24). 210 (163). THREE MINOAN ROADS CROSSING PAVED AREA on the site of the existingcar park west of the Palace, revealed in trials made by Hutchinsonin 1937. The roads and the pavingwere assignableto M. M. I, and therewere tracesof L. M. Ill, Subminoan, Protogeometric,Geometric, and Hellenistic occupation, together with a Roman cistern (JHS lvii (1937) 137. BCH lxi (1937) 475. 'E7rer7?p¿c 'Eraxpeíaç KprinucòvH-nooòuvi (1938) 611 supplemented by information from R. W. Hutchinson, 1956. CODE: 1937/1). Plans of the trials, showing the Roman cistern and the Minoan roads, were made by P. de Jong in 1949 and 1951 E7 (Knossos Logbook p. 8). 211. MINOAN ROYAL ROAD, leading westwards from the Théâtral Area at the north-westcorner of the Palace, and excavated in 1904 as far as the modern main road (BSA x (1903-04) 45 ff.PM ii 572 ff.;iv 60). A testpit sunk at a distanceof about 60 metres beyond this point broughtto lightwhat seemed to be the continuation of the Royal Road making a bee-line up the slope to the west. From the western end of the exposed section of the Road a branch forked northwards towards the LITTLE PALACE 185. Another branch forming a T-junction with the Royal Road and leading southwards from it was exposed by P. Warrenat the west end of 216; both this and the original paved Royal Road appear to date fromM. M. I (AR 1971-72,21). At one point a GEOMETRIC WELL had been cut throughthe Road (BSA x (1903-04) 52. Cf. PM ii 576). A survivingportion of the ROMAN ROAD noted here by Evans seems to be assignable to the 1st centuryA.D. (AR 1972-73, 28 f.). A CIST GRAVE with several burials revealed in widening the cut for the Royal Road in 1959 was tentativelyassigned by Platon to late Hellenistic times, but may have been one of the series of ROMAN CIST GRAVES recorded from this area (cf. 209, 212) (KCh 1959, 385). For a poor tile-graveby the Palace assigned to the Roman period see KCh 1973,464. RWH Notebook (1935) lists test-pitsmade by E6 the Royal Road in 1937 (CODE: 1937/3).

212 (123). HOUSE OF THE FRESCOES, with MIDDLE MINOAN HOUSES and EARLY TOWN DRAIN, excavated in 1923 and 1926 (PM ii 366 ff., 431 ff.; index 83. Cf. Times, Aug. 29, 1923. JHS xliv (1924) 262; xlvi (1926) 236 f. BCH xlvii (1923) 531; 1 (1926) 572. Strat Mus, P. II, III). New details of the plan of the HOUSE OF THE FRESCOES and more fresco fragmentswere recovered by Platon in the course of repair work in 1959 (KCh 1959, 364, 385). The frescoes have been re-publishedwith additions by M. Cameron, BSA lxiii (1968) 1-31. Cf. Kadmos iv (1965) 170 f.; vü (1968) 45-64. W. C. Brice (ed.), Europa: Festschrift fürErnst Grumach(1967) 45-65. A ROMAN BURIAL CIST (cf. 209, 215) and several GRECO-ROMAN WELLS came to light in the original excavations here (PM ii 432 f.; iv 18). A Greco-Roman well exposed in 1928 had a lining of clay cylinders (PM iii 255 ff. Cf. BSA xxix (1927-28) 308. JHS xlviii (1928) 186. BCH Hi (1928)498). Pendlebury,AC 358, reports Hellenistic votive pottery and furnitureof a shrinefroma field near here. This is evidentlyStrat Mus, V. 1930/6, placed in DP Strat Mus iii fig. 20 just to the east of the E7 House of the Frescoes. 213(122). THE ARMOURY (ARSENAL), excavated in 1904, with furtherwork in 1922 (PM iv 668 f. BSA x (1903-04) 3, 54 ff.; xi (1904-05) 1 ff. SM i 44. Times, July 14, 1922 p. 11. Ant] ii (1922) 322. OKT index: Knossos, Arsenal, and plan ibid, i pl. xxv. L. R. Palmer,Mycenaeans and Minoans (1st ed. London, 1961) 203 ff.; (2nd ed. London, 1965) 277 ff. Strat Mus, P. IV). J. H. Betts, BSA lxii (1967) 37 no. 33: sealing possibly fromhere. The test pits, StratMus, V. 1903/2 and 1930/1, were to the east of here.The well withthe sculptured slabs, described as about 21 metres west of the north-westcorner of the Théâtral Area, appears to have been that in test pit 1930/1 (PM iv 256 ff.). The small limestonealtar,PM iv 200 f. fig. 154, was found about 12 metres south of this well (ibid. E6 256). 214 and 215. ROYAL ROAD EXCAVATIONS, made by Hood on the northand south sides of the Minoan road between 1957-61 (AR 1957, 21 f.; 1958, 18 ff.; 1959, 22 ff.; 1960-61, 26 f.; 196162, 25 ff. ILN, 22nd Feb., 1958, pp. 299-301; 17th Feb., 1962, pp. 259-61. ADelt xvii (196162) Chron. 294-5. CODE: RR). A Middle Minoan building and fine decorated pottery assignable to M. M. II had been found by Piaton in opening a drainage pit on the south side of the road here in 1955 (KCh 1955, 566). The excavations revealed Roman houses above earlier deposits, together with evidence of a burnt destructionin L. M. I B and debris of an ivory carver's workshop of that period. L. M. II potterywithsignsof burningnoted by Popham, AJA lxxix (1975) 374. For Minoan frescoessee M. Cameron, Kadmos vii (1968) 97 ff.;

London Mycenaean Seminar,3rdJune 1970, p. 363 f.; BSA lxxii (1977) 162 f. B. Kaiser,Untersuchungen zum minoischen Relief (Bonn, 1976) 286, 290 (relief frescoes). For Linear B tablets see J. Chadwick, BSA lvii (1962) 51 ff.;lviii(1963) 68 ff. Protogeometric, Geometric, Orientalizing and Archaicpotterypublishedby J. N. Coldstream,BSA lxvii (1972) 63 ff.,87 ff.;lxviii(1973) 33 ff.,42 ff., 45 ff.; Early Roman materialfroma well in Royal Road: North by J. W. Hayes, BSA lxvi (1971) 249, 252 ff.; Post-Minoan terracottasby R. A. Higgins, ibid. 277-81. The test pit 1933/3 may have been somewhere to the north or west of the northernexcavation to judge fromDP Strat Mus iii fig. 20 and the Test Pit E6 Plan. 216. STRATIGRAPHICAL EXCAVATION by P. Warrenon the southside of the ROYAL ROAD west of 214 from 1971-73 (AR 1971-72, 20 f.; 197273, 26 ff.; 1973-74, 34 f. KCh 1972, 490; 1973, 458; 1974, 469. ADelt xxvii (1972) Chron. 627-9; xxviii (1973) Chron. 574-6). The test pit, Strat Mus, V. 1930/2, was on the south side of the Royal Road in the area of the most westernof Warren'sexcavation trenches.E 6/7 217. ROMAN CISTERN in the region of the Théâtral Area of the Palace. Evans, BSA ix (190203) 106, describes*ahugeflooringof Roman cement ... 65 centimetresin thickness and intrudingon the area to be excavated to the extentof some sixty square metres' (cf. PM iv 18). Part of this is still exposed immediately north of the Théâtral Area. A section of ROMAN AQUEDUCT runningin this direction cuts througha Middle Minoan house-wall at the north end of the West Court. This may be part of the 'Roman conduit' investigatedby Evans E6 in thisarea in 1930 (PM iv 49). 218. EGYPTIAN SCARAB inscribedwiththe name of Horemheb, last Pharaoh of Dynasty XVIII, from the land of Antoni Zidianakis immediately north of the Palace (AR 1974-75, 27 and 26 fig. E6 50). 219 (121). PALACE OF MINOS, and SURROUNDING HOUSES including those under the West Court, the North-westTreasureHouse, Basementof the MonolithicPillars,East House, South-eastHouse, House of the Chancel Screen, Houses of the Fallen Blocks and Sacrificed Oxen, the South House and E7 the houses immediatelynorth-westof it. 220. NORTH-EAST HOUSE (PM ii 415 ff.; index 83. Ant] ii (1922) 321. Strat Mus, Q. H). M. A. V. Gill, BSA lx (1965) 91, for a sealing from here. Neolithic sounding by J. D. Evans, PPS xxxvii E 6/7 (1971) 106, 96 fig.1. 221. NORTH-WEST HOUSE (NORTH HOUSE) west of the NORTH PILLAR HALL 222 (PM ii 415, 627 ff.,140 fig.71: 'NorthHouse'). The test pit, StratMus, V. 1908/1, was evidently just north-westof here, with 1903/1 furtherto the north-westbeyond it. For an octopus-decorated goblet of L. M. II fromV. 1903/1 see Popham, BSA

51

E6 lxxiii(1978) 183. 222. NORTH PILLAR CRYPT (HALL) (PM i 400 ff.; ii 414 f. Cf. BSA viii (1901-02) 6-8. Strat Mus, Q. I). Built in M. M. Ill with some evidence of use into L. M. III. Neolithic sounding by J. D. Evans,PPS xxxvii (1971) 107, 96 fig.1. Traces of Early Iron Age occupation in the area included a 'GEOMETRICAL' WELL (PM i 404; iii 171 note 2; iv 18. Cf. BSA vin (1901-02) 8; x (1903-04) 51. Strat Mus, V. 1902). The Geometricand Orientalizingsherdsnoted by M. Hartley, BSA xxxi (1930-31) 76, from 'K 03. Wellhouse of Four Gypsum Pillars;North of North Entrance' were presumablyfromhere. E6 223. EARLY IRON AGE TOMB (?) found 'a little East' of the 'GEOMETRICAL' WELL of 222 (BSA viii (1901-02) 8). E6 224(124). ROYAL VILLA, excavated in 1903 (BSA ix (1902-03) 130 ff.PM ii 396 ff.;index 83. N. Heaton, JRIBA 1911, 702 ff. OKT index: Knossos, Royal Villa. M. R. Popham, The Destruction of the Palace at Knossos (SIMA xii) (Göteborg, 1970) 16 ff.; Antiquity xl (1966) 24 f. Strat Mus, Q.III). Evans, PM ii 552, mentions traces of other MINO AN HOUSES to the northand south. E6 225. MIDDLE MINO AN I DEPOSITS north-westof the ROYAL VILLA 224 (PM ii 140 fig.71). E6 226. MIDDLE MINOAN I DEPOSIT in a pit, exposed on the buildingplot of Manolis Triandalidhis in 1971. Much typical pottery was collected together with a clay 'sheep bell' (Ergon 1971, 256 fig. 307. PAE 1971, 284 pl. 363. Cf. ADelt xxvii (1972) Chron. 621. KCh 1972, 491. Supplemented by informationfromMitsosVavouranakis,1976). The material from the test pit, Strat Mus, V. 1904/4, which DP StratMus iii fig.20 shows on the west side of Makritikhosvillage, is assigned by E6 Pendleburyto M. M. II. 227. MINOAN WALLS and MIDDLE MINOAN I A SHERDS revealed in diggingfoundationpits on the buildingplot of Ioannis Triandafillouon the eastern edge of Makritikhosvillage south of the road, examined by G. Cadogan in 1972 (TPH Book p. 19). E6 228. MINOAN WALL exposed on the buildingplot of Anestis Akoumianakis about ten years ago (informationfromMitsosVavouranakis,1976). E 6 229. Parts of a LATE MINOAN BOX-SHAPED LARNAX AND LID, with severalcomplete LATE MINOAN III VASES includingan Octopus Stirrup Jar,suggestiveof a tomb, exposed in deep ploughing for a vineyardon land of HeraklesAkoumianakisin 1968 (BSA lxxii (1977) 189). Tests revealed traces of Late Minoan and Roman occupation in the metre or so of soil overlyinggypsumbed-rock(AR 196869, 33 f., supplemented by informationfrom M. Popham, 1976. CODE: KPA/68). L. M. Ill sherds werevisibleon the surfacehere in April,1977. E 6 230. MINOAN BLOCKS of squared limestone,one with a boldly carved tridentsign,visiblein 1961 on 52

the western edge of a field by the path north of Makritikhosvillage. The field which lay east of the path had recentlybeen dug for plantinga vineyard. E6 231. MINOAN COLUMN BASES seen by M. Popham in 1975 after deep ploughingjust southwest of the modern house, and thick MINOAN PAVING SLABS that might have come from an upper floor immediately north of it. Abundant stones,includingfinelysquaredblocks,all apparently from Minoan buildings,were visible in the area in E6 1976. 232 (89). MINOAN HOUSES on cliffwest of the Kairatos (PM ii 552 and plan opp. 547: 'M. M. I etc. houses on cliff). According to the Test Pit Plan, this is the site of StratMus, V. 1903/4, which is wronglyplaced just east of the Kairatos in DP Strat Mus iii Plan 20. The potteryfromthisincludes some M. M. I A and a good deal of M. M. Ill B L. M. I A. The M. M. I A (or E. M. III?) pottery published by D. Mackenzie from a house floor in the north quarter of the town may come fromhere (JHS xxvi (1906) 248 ff.,253, pl. x. Cf. PM i 175). The area west of the cliffwas subjected to deep ploughing in 1953. Numbers of stones were removed, includingmany large blocks of limestone and some large squared blocks of gypsum.Pottery noted thenwas dominantlyMiddle Minoan. Further deep ploughing in this region in 1975 exposed abundant Late Minoan sherds,notably of the L. M. II period, apparently dumped rubbish E6 (informationfromM. Popham, 1976). 233 (90). LATE MINOAN III HOUSE ('KITCHEN') explored by P. de Jongin 1951 (BSA liii-liv (1958E6 59) 182-93. CÎ.JHS lxxii (1952) 108). 234 (91). ROMAN MOSAIC PAVEMENT, noted in 1957 at bottom of modern water channelabout 50 E6 metressouth of 233. EARLY CHRISTIAN BASILICA 235 (92). CHURCH on the site of Ayia Sofia in Makritikhos village. In 1957 the foundationsof a largeapse were visible adjoining that of the existingchurchon the south, but subsequent enlargementof the church has concealed this. A short section of ancient wall noted in 1976 runningnorth-southon the east side of the road west of the church,about opposite the newer (southern) part of it, may have belonged to the same building as the large apse. The wall as preserved consists of two courses of stone with a course of bricks (each about 0.25 metres square) between them.A marblethresholdused to be visible in this wall accordingto Spiro Vasilakis (1978). The distance fromthe wall to the base of the earlierapse is about 26 metres. Graves, apparently later rather than earlier Byzantine,have been foundin the past immediately adjacent to the existingchurch on the north. Later Byzantineor Mediaeval graveswith orientationfrom west to east and covered with large well-cut slabs were revealedin diggingfoundationson the Kostakis building plot immediatelysouth and south-westof

the church in 1971. One of these was opened by H. Sackett (Knossos Logbook p. 36, 12th April, 1971. TPH Book p. 7 f.). In 1973 Mrs. Alexandra Karetsou examined other graves on the site of the house of Antonios Vasilakis across the road from the churchto the north-west. The 'TemphimvetustumsecundumGhristianorum ritum aedificatum,in quo Titi disciplina adoratur', visited by Buondelmonti in the early 15th century A.D., may have been here (Cornelius,Crete Sacra i E6 10 cf. ibid. 97). 236. ARAB BUILDING in low ground near the Kairatos, examined by P. Warren in 1971 (BSA lxvii (1972) 285-96. Cf. AR 1971-72, 22. ADelt xxvii (1972) Chron. 627). The building,which was small and tent-like,had been occupied in the 9th centuryand was abandoned due to floodingby the Kairatos soon after A.D. 900. Minoan pottery, mostly of L. M. I date, was noted, but therewere no signsof Minoan occupation in the area. Walls of an EARLY ROMAN BUILDING were identified E6 immediatelyto the north. 237. ROMAN (?) CONCRETE STRUCTURE, perhaps a large tomb, on a knoll overlookinga deep F6 gullyto the south. 238. SIX HELLENISTIC GRAVES with burials of the late 4th centuryB.C. in a steep bank east of the Kairatos, excavated by J. N. Coldstream in 1957 F6 {AR 1957, 24. KCh 1957, 342). 239 (93). MINOAN HOUSES east of the Kairatos (PM ii 554 and plan opp. 547: *Blocks of good Minoan houses'). Hogarth,BSA vi (1899-1900) 81, noted that Traces of an earlysettlementexist in the slope immediatelyfacingthehamletof Makryteichos, but its structureshave been carried away to their foundations'. F6 240 (126). MINOAN WALL built of dressedblocks, exposed in the cliffon the east side of the Kairatos (BSA vi (1899-1900) pl. xii: 'Ancient Wall in Cliff Face', showing a couple of tests made by Hogarth behind it. PM ii 552 and plan opp. 547: 'Wall in Cliff). The wall looks earlyin construction and may date fromthe timeof the FirstPalace. F 7 241 (127). MONUMENTAL STRUCTURES, with remainsof a MIDDLE MINOAN III BUILDING at a higher level, explored in 1926 (PM ii 553 f. and plan opp. 547: 'Monumental Structures'.Cf. JHS xlvi (1926) 238). Evans suggestedthat the structures might have been connected with some Minoan reservoir(PM ii 554. But PM index 81 cites this referenceunder 'Fortification'!). Test pits were made in this neighbourhoodby Hutchinsonin 1936 (CODE: 1936/3). F7 242 (127). MINOAN WALL, runningsouthwards from 241 and roughlyparallel with 240 below and 243 on the slope above. This is the 'lower line of walling',which 'seems to have supportedthe course of a Minoan roadway', according to Evans (PM ii 553 and plan opp. 547: 'Minoan Road?'). Stretches of wall which may have been a continuationof this were examined by Hood in the gullyto the south in 53

F7 1955. 243. MINOAN WALL, runningparallel to 240 and 242, and south of the latter.This is the 'upper . . . line of similar construction' noted by Evans (PM ii 553 and plan opp. 547, marked above 'Minoan F7 Road?'). 244. MINOAN TERRACE WALLING (?) exposed for a distance of about 5 metresin the bank on the easternside of a field north of 245, noted by Hood in April, 1977. The wall, standingto a height of c. 1.50 m., was builtof undressedbut roughlysquare F7 blocks, witha packingof rubble behind. 245. A few MINOAN (?) DRESSED BLOCKS seen by Hood in April, 1977, by the sides of the road to which they had evidently been removed from F7 neighbouringfields. 246 (129). MINOAN WALL FOUNDATIONS, visible on the slopes above 247 in 1957. One block had a large double-axe signcarved on it. There were traces of formerexcavations round this and along the line of a much-destroyedwall runningforabout 15 metresto the south of it. These had disappeared by April, 1977, but squared Minoan blocks had been incorporated into a modern terrace wall in the olive grovehere some 70 metreseast of 241. F 7 247(128). MINOAN WALL FOUNDATIONS exposed in 1957 on the slopes just above the MONUMENTAL STRUCTURES 241. These had disappeared by April, 1977, but a fragmentof a large dressed block was lyingin the olive grove at about thisspot some 40 metreseast of 241. F7 248 (94). MIDDLE MINOAN III PITHOS GRAVE ('TOMB OF THE COW') (PM ii 554 and plan opp. 547: 'Tomb of the Cow'. Cf. BSA viii (1901-02) F6 88 f.). 249. MIDDLE MINOAN PITHOS BURIAL, discovered in 1961 at the foot of a bank on the eastern F6 edge of an olive grovenot farfrom248. 250. MIDDLE MINOAN BURIAL in oval larnax just below the surfacein a field immediatelyabove the path leading to the AILIAS CEMETERY 257, cleared by G. Cadogan in 1961. A complete Middle Minoan bridge-spoutedjar and fragmentsof pithos had already been recovered in deep ploughingin F6 the field. 251 (95). MAVRO SPILIO CEMETERY ofMIDDLE and LATE MINOAN TOMBS, withsome Early Iron Age burials, excavated by Evans and Forsdyke in 1926-27 (BSA xxviii (1926-27) 243 ff., 309 f.; xxxi (1930-31) 97 f. Cf. PM ii 337, 555 ff.;iv 246. JHS xlvi (1926) 237; xlvii (1927) 244 f. BCH 1 (1926) 572; li (1927) 495. AA 1927, 401; 1928, 604 f.; 1930, 156. Pini 84.Strat Mus, T. III. Kadmos xi (1972) 113 ff., for a silverpin with Linear A F6 inscription). 252. MAVRO SPILIO CAVE (E.J. Forsdyke,BSA xxviii (1926-27) 248 ff., 310). Evidently once a springchamber,artificiallyshaped in ancienttimes. The shaping as preserved may be Greco-Roman ratherthan earlier.Forsdykerecoveredpost-Minoan pottery and a fragmentof an Archaic terracotta

goddess here. A small stone altar assigned to the Roman period was foundin thisarea in 1963 (ADelt F6 xix (1964) Chron.443. Cf. KCh 1963, 406). 253. MINO AN ROCK-CRYSTAL EYE found by Hood in April, 1976, lying on the surface of the F6 rock about 40 metresnorth-eastof 254. 254. ENTRANCE OF MIDDLE MINOAN (?) TOMB noted by Hood and Smyth in 1976 in a low rock shelffacingwest, immediatelysouth-west of the Mavro Spilio cave and at a slightlyhigher level. The sites of at least two otherpossible tombs were visible at the base of the cliffrunningeastwest at rightangles to the rock shelfa few metres F6 away to the south. 255. MINOAN (?) PATH some 0.65-70 metres wide, worn by the passage of feet rather than deliberately cut in the rock, traced by Hood and Smyth in 1976 for a distance of about 20 metres running down the side of Ailias from south to north to disappear about 10 metres south of 254. F6 256. MINOAN ROAD TERRACE (?) built over the collapsed chamber of one of the Middle Minoan tombs in the AILIAS CEMETERY 257 and traceable for some distance to the north(AR 1955, 33). F6 AILIAS CEMETERY of MIDDLE 257(96). MINOAN TOMBS, one excavated by Alexiou and Hood in 1950, five others by Hood from 195155 (JHS lxxi (1951) 252; lxxii (1952) 108; lxxiv (1954) 166. AR 1955, 32 f. KCh 1950, 533; 1951, 447; 1952, 478; 1953, 486 f.). The main group of tombswas approached by a rock-cutstairway.F 6/7 258. CAVE some 5 metres deep with an opening about 2 metreswide, in a low cliffabove the main group of MIDDLE MINOAN TOMBS 257. Possibly natural, or one chamberof anotherMiddle Minoan tomb, althoughfound emptywhen cleared by Hood in the 1950s. Badger holes in the northand south sides of the opening suggestthe possible existence of otherchambers. F7 259. Two MIDDLE MINOAN TOMBS (?) in the shape of cave-like hollows exposed at the base of a low cliffsome 200 metresabove the main group of the AILIAS CEMETERY 257 to the south (Knossos Logbook p. 61, 26th April, 1977). A terracewall runningparallel to the cliffface about F7 10 metresto the west may be ancient. 260. MIDDLE MINOAN TOMB (?) revealed in 1976 by a collapse of thekouskourasover a distance of about 8 metres from north to south in the top of the northwardcontinuation of the high bank above the terrace to which the MINOAN BUILT STAIRWAY 262 leads. F7 261 (131). LARGE MINOAN BLOCKS of dressed limestone noted by Hood in 1955, and coming perhaps from a wall continuingthe line of 256. There were traces of earlier soundings here, and further ones were made by Hood, but without F7 result. 262 (130). MINOAN BUILT STAIRWAY in steep 54

bank south of 261, cleared by Hood in 1955 (AR 1955, 33). Part of a wheel-made eggcup-shaped goblet of M. M. I B - II A type was recoveredfrom the terraceimmediatelyabove the top of the stairs in 1976. A wall built with large stones exposed in the high bank above the terrace about 10 metres north-eastof the top of the stairsmay be a continuation of 256 like 261 (Knossos Logbook p. 34, 4th F7 March,1969). 263(132). MINOAN BUILDING or HOUSE on slopes north of the chapel of Ayia Paraskevi, evidentlythe same as 'Remains of Minoan Building' in top rightcornerof plan, PM ii opp. 547. Traces of earlier soundings were visible in 1957. A seal stone was recoveredhereaccordingto Spiro Vasilakis (1976) citing information from Emmanuelis Akoumianos. Potterynoted in 1976 all appeared to be Middle Minoan, including some assignable to M. M. I B - II. There was a thin scatterof Minoan F7 sherdsalong the terraceas faras 262. 264. ANCIENT QUARRIES, apparently GRECOROMAN, on the limestone plateau above the Kairatos,markedby hollowsand piles of stone chips coveringan area of about 200 metresfromsouthwest to north-east.A rectangularblock (0.84 metres wide and over 1.10 metreslong) in process of extraction is visible on the south-westernedge of the area, and a deep circularboringin the surfaceof the rock at the extreme north-easternend of it near 265. F/G7 265. ROCK-CUT BASIN on the north-easternedge of the Quarry Area 264 with which it may have been connected. The basin measured about 1.00 x 0.60 metres across the inside. Its rim was about 0.20 metres above the surroundingrock, and an open spout at the east end took the overflowinto another rock-cutbasin at a lower level. The whole complex had been severely damaged by recent militaryexercises when seen by Hood and Smyth in April, 1976, and was virtually destroyed by agriculturaloperations duringthe winterof 1976G7 77. 266. GRECO-ROMAN (?) QUARRY area measuring about 250 metresacross fromnorth-westto southeast. Deep circularboringsvisible in the southern bay of thequarrysuggestthatit was Greek or Roman (cf. 264, 363-4). One very well dressed block was noted in the region of the main northernbay in April, 1976. Pottery gathered here was mostly Minoan, but included some that might be later, G7 Greek or Roman. 267. GRECO-ROMAN (?) QUARRY withvertically cut rock-facesand rectangularblocks marked out ready for removal as in other quarries assigned to G6 the Greek or Roman periods (264, 363-5). 268 (165). Traces of MINOAN SETTLEMENT over a wide area on theplateau (Isopata) above the slopes of Ailias, north, south, and east of the concrete surveypost. Scattered sherdsappear to range from M. M. I to L. M. I, with nothing obviously later. House walls standingto a heightof 0.50 metresor

more were exposed in April, 1976, in a group of in April, 1978, in the olive grove west of the road small holes recently dug by the militaryin the about 15 metresnorthof the surveypost. G8 southernpart of the area some 300 metressouth- 277 (152). MINOAN SHAFT GRAVE on the slopes east of the concrete surveypost. Part of a Minoan opposite the TEMPLE TOMB 323, cleared by mason's mark was visible on a fragmentof a finely Hood in 1953 (BSA liii-liv (1958-59) 281 f. Cf. dressedblock fromone of these. F8 JHS lxxiv (1954) 166. CODE: KSP/53). Two small pits cut in the rock to the south of 278. Group of four LATE MINOAN TOMBS with the survey post are evidently fox-holes from the burials of Late Minoan II- III about 50 metres G 6 north of 277, excavated in 1960 (AR 1960-61, timeof the Second WorldWar. 269. MINOAN HOUSES, withevidenceof habitation 27. ADelt xvi (1960) Chron. 266. KCh 1960, 519 fromthe beginningof M. M. until L. M. I times,ex- (5). Pini 85: XXVIII. CODE: KSP/60). H. Georgiou, posed by deep ploughingin the winterof 1976-77. Kretologia iv (1977) 133 ff.,forremainsof Quercus This cluster of houses occupied a natural hollow in a clay brazierfromone tomb. F8 immediately south-west of the large GRECO- 279 (150). LATER BYZANTINE (?) TOMB under ROMAN (?) QUARRY 266. The sites of some the floorof what seems to have been a small church, 6-8 buildingswere identifiedby Hood and Smyth opened and rifled by local inhabitantssome years in April, 1977, from concentrations of stones, before 1957. The tomb was rectangular,with a some of them dressed, togetherwith paving slabs place for the head at the east end, and niches for and pottery(Knossos Logbook pp. 67-9, 2nd May, lamps in the sides. E 7/8 G 7 280. MINOAN HOUSE (?) on the east bank of the 1977). 270. MINOAN HOUSE, destroyedby deep plough- Kairatos. Considerable remains of the walls' of a ing in the winter of 1976-77. Finely dressed Minoan house were noted by Evans in the 'decliblocks, and Minoan sherds includingfragmentsof vitous rightbank' of the Kairatos 'a little South of pithoi, were noted by Hood and Smyth in April, the point where it is joined by the Vlikhia' (PM ii E7 1977, over an area of c. 40 x 40 metres (Knossos 552). G 7 281. MINOAN HOUSES immediatelysouth-eastof Logbook pp. 67 ff.,2nd May, 1977). 271. MINOAN HOUSE at the north-easternend the Palace (PM ii 140 fig. 71). The 'pits to the S.E. of 264. The house is earlier than the quarrying of the Palace', fromwhich came fragmentsof M. M. operations which have cut into it. One block (out I B barbotine ware now in the AshmoleanMuseum, of position) has a well-cutface witha square dowel Oxford, may have been in thisarea (PM iv 106 note hole. G 7 2, fig. 73). E7 272. MINOAN BLOCKS from one or more build- 282. MINOAN BRIDGE ENDS, with foundations ings, visible after deep ploughing in April, 1976. of STEPPED PORTICO leading to the south-west One finelydressedblock had a lightlyincised double angle of thePalace, and tracesof ROADWAYS headaxe sign. A few Minoan sherds, including some ing north (PM ii 140 ff. fig. 71. Cf. Times,July 15, L. M. I, were noted in the area. G 7 1907 p. 8; June 11, and Oct. 17, 1924. JHS xliv 273. MINOAN HOUSE, destroyedby deep plough- (1924) 262 f. BCH xlviii(1925) 488). Whatsurvives ing in the winterof 1976-77. Fragmentsof well is assignable to the period of the First Palace. A dressed blocks and other large stones with a thin MINOAN WELL with M. M. I A sherdsin the upper scatterof Minoan sherdsover an area of c. 25 x 25 part of the fill underlaythe ramp of the STEPPED metresnoted by Hood and Smyth in April, 1977. PORTICO (PM ii 146; iii 254). The position of the G7 BRIDGE ENDS suggeststhat in the Bronze Age the 274. MINOAN HOUSE immediately north-eastof course of the Vlikhia was a good deal furthernorth the GRECO-ROMAN (?) QUARRY 266, exposed than it is now. A hoard of bronzes assignable to M. M. Ill by deep ploughingin the winter of 1976-77 and noted byJillCaringtonSmithin May, 1977 (Knossos L. M. I was recovered froma basementcell immediLogbook p. 70, 13th May, 1977). The potteryfrom ately northof the east-westsection of the STEPPED this appears to be Middle Minoan, with scraps of PORTICO about 20 metres south-west of the E7 possible M. M. I, and nothingthatneed be later than South House (PM ii 161, 631 ff.). M. M. II or the beginningof M. M. III. G 7 283 (125). MINOAN VIADUCT carrying the 275. MINOAN HOUSE (?) exposed by deep plough- MINOAN ROAD from the south to a bridge over ingin the winterof 1976-77. A fewlargeunworked the Vlikhia (PM ii 61 f., 93 ff., 140 fig. 71. Cf. blocks and a scatter of Minoan sherds of M. M. I Times,June 11 and Oct. 17, 1924. JHS xliv (1924) date were noted here by Hood in April, 1977 and 262 f.). Built in its survivingformin Late Minoan 1978. Some worn sherds, evidentlyancient, were I A. E7 visible on the uncultivated slopes below to the 284(125). CARAVANSERAI and 285. SPRING north. G 7/8 CHAMBER, excavated in 1924 (PM ii 103 ff.; 276. Thin scatterof MINOAN SHERDS, dominantly index 83. Cf. Times, June 11 and Oct. 17, 1924. Middle Minoan in character,noted over a wide area JHS xliv (1924) 263 f. Strat Mus, S. III). In the north and south of the concrete surveypost in the course of restorationwork in 1957 Platon noted Springof 1976. A dressed Minoan block was visible what may have been a fireplace in the Room of 55

Clay Bath-tubsin the CARAVANSERAI (cf. PM ii 120 ff.), and traces of L. M. Ill B occupation north of the SPRING CHAMBER (AR 1957, 21). The SPRING CHAMBER was used in L. M. I and again in Subminoan times for cult which may have been ancestral to that in the SANCTUARY OF DEMETER 286 on the slope above to the southwest (Coldstream,KSD 181). The testpit,StratMus,V. 1931/1, was apparently on the south side of the modern road somewhere E7 opposite here. 286. SANCTUARY OF DEMETER, excavated between 1957-60 (Coldstream, KSD. Cf. AR 1957, 23 f.; 1958, 18, 20 f.; 1959, 24 f.; 1960-61, 25 f. ADelt xvi (1960) Chron. 265. CODE: T/C). Cult is attested from the second half of the 8th centuryB.C. onwards,and may have begun in Protogeometric times, succeeding that at the SPRING CHAMBER 285 after the flow of water to this from the Vlikhia spring was blocked. The cult appears to have ceased before the 3rd centuryA.D. Foundations of a TEMPLE of the late 5th century B.C. survived (cf. 302). Part of a LATE ROMAN BUILDING, apparentlya farm-house,was exposed to the north-westof it, and a LATE ROMAN CONCRETE-BUILT TOMB (?) to the south-east. The test pit, DP Strat Mus, 1933/2, appears to have been in thisarea (cf. KSD 1 note 4). E7 287. Small HELLENISTIC STATUE OF NIKE, headless but withwings,foundby N. Plaftisin 1959 in digginghis field in the Vlikhia streambed about 110 metres north of the Mavrokolivo Spring. Perhapsan akroterionof a small temple,whichG. B. Waywell has suggestedmighthave been connected withthesanctuaryof Athena Tritogeneia(KSD 97 f. pl. 78 a- d). The statue came from the edge of a vineyardat the foot of the high bank on the northwest side of the stream. A fragmentof a dressed limestone block was noted in the streambed near the spot at the timeof its discovery. D7 288(111). MINO AN AQUEDUCT described by Evans as running along the western edge of the Vlikhia ravine (PM ii 462 f. and plan, opp. 547; 111252. CLJHS xlvi (1926) 237). D7 289 (116). MINOAN WELL (BSA vi (1899-1900) 80 and pl. xii at point 13. Note that the main road and the bridge were considerablyfurtherto the east at thistime). The well was 44 feetdeep, and 'yielded afterthe first10 feetonly Kamares stuff. For vases from it see JHS xxi (1901) 80, 88 f. fig. 16 pl. vi: b (PM iv 121 fig. 88 (assigned to M. M. II a); ibid, i E7 264 fig.196 (assignedto M. M. II b)). 290. MIDDLE MINOAN WELL or PIT withpottery assignableto M. M. I B, revealed on the line of the new water main to the hospital and excavated by Coldstream in 1958 (AR 1958, 21. BCH lxxxiii E7 (1959) 738. KCh 1958, 477 (11)). 291 (119). MINOAN WELL excavated in 1913 (PM i 595 f.; ii 140 fig. 71: Sveli'; ii 549 f. and plan, opp. 547: 'Minoan Well'. M. Popham, BSA lxii (1967) 339 pl. 76, for L. M. I A vases fromit). 56

The position appears to be correctlygivenin PM ii plan opp. 547. Spoil from the well was identified overlyingthe greatvotive pit of the SANCTUARY OF DEMETER 213 (KSD 2 note 1, 3 fig.2: 'Dump fromHogarth'swell'). Another MINOAN WELL besides 289 and 291 was found many years ago according to Spiro Vasilakis( 19 5 7) in a vineyardofhisin thisarea. E 7 292. MINOAN POTTERY in the Stratigraphie Museum collected fromthe Koutoulakis field after deep ploughing in June, 1955. M. A. S. Cameron reports a fragmentof FRESCO with a lotus flower assignableto Middle Minoan III B/LateMinoan I A. The potteryis dominantlyof this period withlarge numbersof plain conical cups and saucers;but there is some L. M. II and L. M. Ill, togetherwithM. M. II and M. M. I A, as well as a couple of Neolithic sherds. E7 293. MINOAN HOUSES revealed in the west side of the car road northof HOGARTH'S HOUSES 297 E7 (PM ii 547, 140 fig.71; iv 204). 294. MINOAN HOUSES in the area south of the House of the TurkishBey (PM ii 140 fig.71). E7 295 (147). CAVE SHELTER below rock ledge about 15 metreseast of the HIGH PRIEST'S HOUSE 296, with potteryrangingfromM. M. I A to L. M. I A, explored by Hutchinson in 1935 (AA 1935, 241. CODE: 1935/5). A DOUBLE-AXE STAND of poros stone was found on land belonging to Kh. Nivas here in 1954 (PKHerM). The test pit, Strat Mus, V. 1931/6, was somewhere to the south-east.Accordingto DP StratMus i 10 the potteryfromthis was M. M. Ill - L. M. I. But the box now labelled 1931/6 contains Minoan sherdswitha rangefromM. M. I to L. M. Ill, as well as many Classical and Hellenisticones, suggestiveof some confusion. E8 296 (133). HIGH PRIEST'S HOUSE, withMINOAN PAVED WAY runningalong the slope below it on the east, excavated in 1931 (PM iv 202 ff.;index 83. Cf. Times,July 27, 1931 p. 9. BSA xxxi (1930-31) 192. JHS li (1931) 208 f. AA 1931, 295 f. M. R. Popham, The Destructionof the Palace at Knossos (SIMA xii) (Göteborg, 1970) 63 f.; Antiquity xl (1966) 24, 26. StratMus, S. IV. 1-8). Note that the House of the High Priest mentioned in AR 1957, 21, is reallythe South House by the Palace. The test pits, Strat Mus, V. 1931/2 and 3, were on the east side of the modernroad to the northof 296, while 1931/4 and the three tests lumped togetheras 1931/13 were on the same side of the road to the south, with 1931/5 to the south-eastof them furtheraway from the road. Strat Mus, V. 1931/7 and 8, were on the west side of the road just to the south of 296. E8 297 (120). HOGARTH'S HOUSES nearthesouthern limits of the Minoan city, excavated by Hogarthin 1900 (BSA vi (1899-1900) 70 ff.pl. xii, points 6 and 7. JHS xxi (1901) 78 f.PM ii 547 ff.StratMus, S. IV. A). In the adjoining field on the west more ancient

buildings were disturbedin diggingfor a vineyard soon after the Second WorldWar. A fragmentof a bath or larnax witha column in reliefwas recovered here by Hood in 1953 (JHS lxxiv (1954) 166 f. fig. 15. Cf. Knossos Logbook p. 20). Excavations from 1956-58 immediatelywest of the area cleared by Hogarth revealed remains of houses and traces of occupation from M. M. I L. M. Ill togetherwitha Geometricwell witha little Late Geometric and Early Orientalizingpotteryin the fill (AR 1956, 21; 1957, 22; 1958, 18 f. KCh 1956,418). The very thick walls of the 'poor two-roomed house of Roman date' above Hogarth's southern house A, and its contentsdescribed as 'A lamp and some glass', suggestthat it mighthave been a tomb like the concrete structureon the site of the SANCTUARY OF DEMETER 286 (BSA vi (1899-1900) E7 72, pl. iiiopp. 71). 298. MINO AN WALLS together with LATE MINO AN SHERDS and a marble dagger pommel, revealed in a trial by P. de Jong in 1949 about 20 metres north-eastof HOGARTH'S HOUSES 297 (JHS lxx (1950) 9. KCh 1949, 594. Knossos LogE7 book p. 5, 6th Aug., 1949). 299. Piece of MINO AN STONE RELIEF VASE (conical rhyton)composed of two joining fragments, one recovered from General Ringel in 1941, the other found in 1960 in the vineyard of Mikhaili Akoumianosabout 30 metresnorthof HOGARTH'S HOUSES 297 (KCh 1959, 346 ff.; 1951, 154 ff. Warren,Minoan Stone Vases 85, HM 2397). Trials by Hood in this area met the rock close below the surface;the only undisturbeddepositwas apparently of M. M. I date (AR 1961-62, 27 ff. ADelt xvii (1961-62) Chron. 296. KCh 1963, 388. CODE: HHS). The Ringel fragmentwas actually found in 1938 by Antoni Zidianakis in his field,which was in this region of Lower Gipsadhes. RWH Diary p. 55, 11th June, 1938, records the discovery,but givesthe provenienceas 'east slopes of Monasteriako Kephali'; this,however,was afterwardscrossed out. The false proveniencehas been retained in the note in JHS lviii (1938) 233 (cf. BCH lxii (1938) 483). A thirdfragmentof a stone conical rhytonwith reliefswas recoveredin 1903 in road makingsouth of the Vlikhia and therefore somewhere in this region (BSA ix (1902-03) 129 f. fig. 85. Warren, Minoan Stone Vases 85, HM 426). This has been assigned to the same vase by W. Stevenson Smith, Interconnectionsin the Ancient Near East (1965) 71 fig. 93; but his conjunction of the pieces to formone scene appears to be wrong,as noted by S. E7 Alexiou, AAA ii (1969) 84 f. and note 1. 300. MIDDLE MINOAN I DEPOSITS west of HOGARTH'S HOUSES 297 (PM ii 140 fig.71). E 7 301. LATE MINOAN BUILDING destroyedby fire, with remainsof largeL. M. Ill stirrupjars above the E7 floor,exposed in trialsby Hood in 1958. 302 (117). DORIC CAPITAL of grey poros (lime57

stone) visible on the edge of a fieldeast of the path in 1953. Probably Greek of the late 5th century B.C. from the Temple in the SANCTUARY OF DEMETER 286 (Coldstream, KSD 14 fig. 11 b pl. E7 5/). 303 (118). GYPSUM QUARRIES on north slopes of Lower Gipsadhes (PM iii 192. Plan, PM ii opp. 547: 'Old Gypsum Quarries'). There are traces of severalancientworkingsscatteredin thisarea. E 7 304. ROMAN KILN in terrace wall immediately south of ancient gypsum quarries, excavated in 1959 (AR 1959-60, 26. CODE: LG III/59). The kiln may have been used for burning gypsum to E8 make lime,like 354. 305 (142). ROMAN (?) GRAVE cut in rock, visible in 1957 in vineyard a few metres northwest of 306. Presumably part of the ROMAN CEMETERY with poor graves of the 1st century A.D. noted by Hogarthin this area (BSA vi 18991900) 70 and plan, pl. xii: 'Late Roman Cemetery'). But P. Callaghan reports that some at least of the gravesin this cemeteryappear to have been HellenE8 istic withvases of the 3rd- 2nd centuriesB.C. 306 (143). MINOAN BLOCKS, one engravedwith cross signs, seen in 1957 built into a terracewall, and apparentlyremoved from the vineyardon the slope below to the east. A hole dug for gypsumup the slope a few metresto the west produced many Minoan sherds and a complete vase, according to E8 Spiro Vasilakis (1957). 307. MIDDLE MINOAN SHAFT GRAVE (?) of the Mycenae Grave Circle type in a bank a few metres south-westof 305, excavated by Hood in 1957 (AR 1957, 23.£CZ/lxxxii (1958) 786. CODE: LG II/57). E8 308. MIDDLE MINOAN THOLOS TOMB of the Mesara type, in use duringM. M. Ill and L. M. I, excavated by Hood in 1957 (AR 1957, 22 f. CODE: LG I/57). E8 309. MINOAN BUILT TOMB (?) representedby a group of fairlylarge stones, some roughlysquared, seen in a fieldafterdeep ploughingin 1976 at a spot where there is a slightrise in the ground about 75 metres west of the MIDDLE MINOAN THOLOS TOMB 308. There were more stones below a high bank on the southernedge of the fielda few metres to the south. E8 310 (139). LARGE DRESSED LIMESTONE BLOCKS, apparentlyMINOAN, near the top of a high bank facing west across a vineyard,examined by Hood in 1953 without results. In 1935 the authoritiesof HerakleionMuseumcleareda MINOAN TOMB in the vineyard,but subsequent trials by Hutchinson failed to reveal others, according to informationfromSpiro Vasilakis (1957, 1978). E8 311. MINOAN POTTERY, mostlyM. M. Ill - L. M. I, noted in 1976 heavily concentratedin an area of a few square metresjust north-eastof the summitof Lower Gipsadhes and immediately north of a depression marking the position of a German emplacementof the Second World War.There were

no signs of a building,and in view of its location Callaghan (AR 1976-77, 22 no. 11. Knossos Lognear the summit of a hill away from the area of book pp. 41 ff.,June/July,1975). The cisternmay settlement the deposit seemed unlikely to be a have been connected by a branchwiththe ROMAN rubbish dump, although it included fragmentsof AQUEDUCT 318, 346-353. E8 E 8 320. EARLY IRON AGE TOMB with vases ranging tripodcookingpots. 312 (140). ROMAN HEROON (?) on summit of from Early Geometric to Late Orientalizing,a pair Gipsadhes. Hogarth,BSA vi (1899-1900) 70, notes of silverpins, and a faiencescarab, foundin cutting that 'Foundations of a small heroon of the same a road on the Efraimoglouestate and examined by H. Sackett and P. Callaghanin 1975 (AR 1976-77, period' (as the gravesin the ROMAN CEMETERY 305) were cleared on the hill top, presumablywhere 17 f. Knossos Logbook pp. 42 ff.,June/July,1975. 'Rocks at Summit' are marked on the plan, ibid, TPH Book pp. 31-4. CODE: LG/75). A deposit of MINOAN POTTERY includingfine pl. xii. P. Callaghan has suggestedthat the heroon might have been Hellenistic rather than Roman. decorated L. M. I A sherdswas exposed in the west E8 side of the road cuttingabout 5 metresto the south 313. MIDDLE MINOAN BUILDING, perhaps a of the tomb. The test pit, Strat Mus, V. 1931/12, describedas tomb, noted by P. Warrenin 1964 on the south side of a steep slope of whichthe upper part had recently 200 metresnorthof the TEMPLE TOMB 323, may been cleared for planting olives. Large blocks of have been somewherein thisarea. E8 unworked or roughlyworked stone, includingone 321. LATE MINOAN TOMB (?) with rectangular with a small deep-cut star sign of a type character- chamber,examined and partlyclearedby C. B. Mee istic of the Early Palace, were visible in 1976 in in November, 1976, about 9 metres south-eastof the south-eastcornerof a vineyardand in the wide 320. It was found empty; but abundant fragments field boundary runningsouthwards from it for a of Minoan pottery, with nothing later than the distance of about 40 metres. These could have beginningof L. M. Ill A, were recoveredfromthe belonged to the building in question, but one fill(AR 1976-77, 11 no. 12. TPH Book pp. 122-8. E8 relativelywell dressed block about 30 metressouth CODE: LG/76 - EPH 2). of the vineyard corner might have come from a 322. LATE MINOAN III CHAMBER TOMB, exLate Minoan buildingor tomb. D/E 8 posed on the line of the new water main to the 314. LARGE WELL-CUT MINOAN BLOCKS of hospital and excavated by Coldstreamin 1958 (BSA limestone, three in all, each over a metre long, in lviii (1963) 30 ff. Cf. AR 1958, 21. KCh 1958, 477 the middle of a vineyardabout 30 metreswest of (12). Pini 85: XXIX). E8 thewide fieldboundarydescribedin 313. The blocks 323 (148). TEMPLE TOMB and fourLATE MINOAN evidentlycome fromsome monumentalstructureof CHAMBER TOMBS to the south (and north?) of relativelylate, perhapsM. M. Ill - L. M. I date. The it, excavated in 1931 (PM iv 962 ff.;index 88. Cf. lack of pottery in the field is suggestiveof a tomb Times,July 13, 1931 p. 13 f. BSA xxxi (1930-31) ratherthan a house. D 7/8 191 f.///Sii (1931) 205-8. BCHlv (1931) 508-11. 315. MIDDLE MINOAN III (?) BUILDING, perhaps AA 1931, 293-5; 1932, 174. Pini 84. Strat Mus, a house, exposed in a vineyardnorth-westof 308 in T. IV, V. J. Raison, Kadmos ii (1963) 136 f., for 1959. D/E 8 pieces of large stirrupjars with painted signsfrom 316. Stretchof MINOAN (?) WALLING of massive T. V. 9). A late 'Marine Style' bridge-spoutedjug roughlyshaped limestoneblocks,traceableforabout assignable to the end of L. M. I B or beginningof 6 metresin the top of the bank some 8 metresabove L. M. II was recovered from Tomb 4, which Strat the streambed when seen by Hood in 1959. It was Mus 29, T. IV. 4, suggestswas to the north (PM iv said that Evans had made trials here, and in 1959 281, 279 fig. 214. BSA lxix (1974) 179; lxxiii signs of these were still visible. Only two blocks (1978) 182 note 14). were apparent in May, 1977 (Knossos Logbook p. A GEOMETRIC GRAVE was apparentlyfound D 8 just beyond the north-westcorner of the Temple 65, 2nd May, 1977). 317. FINE LATE MINOAN I A SHERDS, apparently Tomb (PM iv 1018; 'Late Geometricalgravepit confrom a rubbish dump, noted by M. Popham in taining vessels of characteristictypes'. Cf. Times, 1968 in the fieldbelow 318 to the north-west. D 8 July 13, 1931 p. 14). 318. Section of the ROMAN AQUEDUCT (as 346A seal stone in the shape of a recumbentlion 353), consistingof a largestone-builtwaterchannel was subsequentlyrecoveredfromtheneighbourhood with bevelled edges (0.41 metres wide and 0.70 of the Tomb (JHS lüi (1933) 292. PM iv 486 fig. metres deep) lined with grittypink plaster and 415 a-d. CMS ii 2, 287 no. 210, withthe suggestion covered with slabs, examined by M. Popham and thatit may have been an import). R. Ho well in 1968 on land of Kostas Karkalouzos The 'Great South Road' fromKnossos ran close about 50 metreswest of the road. The tops of the by the entranceto the tomb accordingto Evans (PM coverslabswerec. 1.10 metresbelow thesurface. D 8 iv 204: where 'North-West'must be an errorfor 319. ROMAN CISTERN, revealed in cuttinga road 'North-Eastcorner'. Cf. ibid. 60 note 1. Times,July on the Efraimoglouestate about 30 metresnorth- 27, 1931 p. 9). west of 320, and examined by H. Sacke« and P. RWH Notebook (1935) lists a test pit 1936/5 as 58

Late Minoan tombs south-eastof the Temple Tomb. This test appears to be placed on the west side of the main road about 200 metresnorthof the Tomb opposite the HIGH PRIEST'S HOUSE 296 on the Test Pit Plan. The test, Strat Mus, V. 1931/12 is described as 'in vineyard 200 m. N. of Temple-Tomb', but is markedon the plan, DP StratMus iii fig.20, as only about 100 metres north of the Tomb and some E8 70 metreswest of the road. LATE MINOAN II (SILVER-AND324(149). GOLD CUP) TOMB, dug by Hutchinson in 1940 (BSA li (1956) 68 ff. Cf. JHS lxiv (1944) 83 f. CODE: 1940/2). Two boxes of Hutchinson's materialin the Stratigraphic Museum are described as from 'East of Temple Tomb*. One of these, dated 27.4.36, adds: 'South Pit in ditch by road'; the other has: 'In Ditch above Wall'. Pottery from them includes a little M. M. I A, with a good deal assignable to E8 L. M. I A, and scrapsof Geometric. 325 (146). EARLY IRON AGE TOMB (?) in vineyard above high bank borderingwest side of main road, plundered by local inhabitants before the Second WorldWar(informationfromSpiroVasilakis, E8 1957). 326 (145). ROMAN BUILT TOMB (?) on north edge of road about 25 metres west of house, plundered by local inhabitantsbefore the Second World War (information from Spiro Vasilakis, E8 1957). 327 (144). ROMAN BUILT TOMB (?) plunderedby local inhabitants before the Second World War E8 (informationfromSpiro Vasilakis, 1957). 328 (141). EARLY IRON AGE (?) TOMBS, one found during the Second World War in a cutting made by German soldierson the line of the terrace wall above the olive grove near the summitof the hill, the other exposed beforethe Warin excavating a water channel about 20 metresdown the slope to the south-west of it (information from Spiro E8 Vasilakis, 1957). 329. MINOAN CEMETERY on the southernslopes of Lower Gipsadhes. A small LATE MINOAN III CHAMBER TOMB, with the dromos of another, and two or three shaftgraves,were exposed in the trenchfor the new water main to Fortetsa in 1976 and examinedby R. Howell (AR 1976-77, 11). A LATE MINOAN JUG (KS1 under 141) was found on land belonging to G. Gounalakis a little west of 328 in 1933 (PK Her M); it may have come froma tomb. Evans was aware of the existenceof Late Minoan tombs with larnax burials in this generalarea (PM ii 549 and plan, opp. 547: 'Late Minoan Rock E8 Tombs'). 330. LATE MINOAN III (?) TOMBS noted by R. Howell in 1976 in the trench for the new water main to Fortetsa west of 'tou Foundoulaki i vrisi'. Two possible shaft graves and the dromoi of three chamber tombs were identifiedbut not excavated. 59

At one point (Tomb G) a level 0.10 metresthickof burnt bones at a depth of 1.20 metres below the surface overlay Early Minoan sherds; some Middle Minoan sherds were noted above it (AR 1976-77, D8 11). 331 (156). GIPSADHES CEMETERY, with one Middle Minoan and between 18 and 20 Late Minoan III tombs, excavated in 1955 (BSA liii-liv (1958D/E 9 59) 194 ff.Cf. AR 1955, 33 f. Pini 84). BLOCKS of limestone with 332. MINOAN 'MASON'S MARKS' firstobserved by Hood and Smythin the Springof 1976. (1) A block with a finely cut star on its welldressed face built into the south-eastcorner of a ruinous modern hut about a metre above ground level may come from a Late Minoan I structure. Another block noted by J. Clarke in April, 1978, just to the south of the hut preservedtraces of a 'mason's mark' of similarstyleand date. A fragment of a well-dressedMinoan block was visible in April, 1978, in the ploughed field about 35 metressouth of the hut. (2) A small block lyingtogetherwith othersmall well-cut Minoan blocks on the edge of a disused threshingfloor about 60 metres south of the hut was engravedwitha bold H signwhich may be earlier (Middle Minoan). Part of another boldly cut sign was noted in April,19 78, on a brokenblock here. D 9 333 (138). ANCIENT TOMB (?) in formof a cutting in the rock, measuringabout 5 x 2.50 metres, exposed in the south-westcorner of the vineyard some 35 metreswest of the path in 1957. This had once been cleared to a depth of 2 metres,but not fullyexcavated,accordingto Spiro Vasilakis (1957). A vase, apparently a THREE-HANDLED AMPHORA of L. M. Ill date is said to have been found in this area in 1961. It may have come from an outlyingtomb of the GIPSADHES CEMETERY 331. D8 334 (138). HELLENISTIC and ROMAN (?) TOMBS and TOMB INSCRIPTIONS. A limestone block inscribed EN0AI2IOZ is visible upside-down in the bottom of the wall flankingthe path on the west. Another tomb inscriptionon a block lyingin the south-eastcornerof the vineyardjust above this is assignedto theHellenisticperiod (JHS lxix (1949) 37 fig.16). Spiro Vasilakis (1957) said thata former owner of the vineyard claimed he had found a 'temple', whichmighthave been a built tomb. D 8 335. MINOAN (?) SEAL STONE, said to have been recovered in the past some 35 metres west of the house. D8 336. MINOAN (?) SHERDS recoveredin a sounding made before the Second World War by R. W. Hutchinson (informationfrom Antoni Zidianakis, 1976). A wide deep pit in the highbank just northwest of the modern house appears to be the site of this,but no sherdswere visible here in April, 1976. D 8/9 337. MINOAN SHERDS, mostlyM. M. II - III, but withsome M. M. I and a few which mightbe L. M. I,

thrownfromthe trenchfor the new water main to Fortetsa in 1976. The trenchin this area was cut through a thick deposit of hill wash with many D8 Minoan sherdsin it. 338. MIDDLE MINOAN SHERDS noted by Jill CaringtonSmith on the south side of the path in D8 April,1977. 339. LATE MINOAN III (?) CHAMBER TOMB exposed in the road about 25 metresnorthof the bend, according to Antoni Zidianakis (1976). A LATE MINOAN III STIRRUP JAR was found by Hood in the cutting on the west side of the road about 7 metres south of this spot. The vase was lying in fragmentson its side on the surface of the kouskouras about 0.60 metres above the level of the road. There was no sign of a tomb here, but three hollows which mightindicate the position of tombs were noted at intervalsof about 6 metreson the west side of the road to the south. C8 340. LATE MINOAN III (?) CHAMBER TOMB in steep bank below the road to the east, opened many yearsago by the local inhabitants(informationfrom C9 AntoniZidianakis,1976). 341. ROCK-CUT TOMB exposed in a steep bank D8 facingeast. 342 (153). ROCK-CUT TOMB in bank facingwest at a spot known from it as 'FortetsianiKamara'. C/D9 343 (154). ROMAN (?) BUILDING in bank facing northabout 200 metressouth of 342. Placed about 100 metrestoo farnorthon the map in KS . A wall coated with pink cement and a patch of pebbled floor were noted hereby D. Smollettin 1953. Their existence was confirmedby the owner of the land, AntoniZidianakis (1976). C/D 9 344. MINOAN POTTERY in the area of house no. 13. A thin scatterof sherdswhich looked Minoan, including a tripod foot of thin oval section, were seen by Hood in 1976 in an olive grovebelow an eastward facing bank some 50 metres south-east of the house. A couple of fig trees in the bank might indicate the position of collapsed chamber tombs. In the field immediatelynorth of the house a pithosrimof Middle Minoan type was noted. D 9 345. ANCIENT QUARRY (?) in the shape of a small cuttingwith two vertical faces meeting at a right angle in one of the gypsum outcrops here, D9 noted by D. Smythin April,1977. 346. ROMAN AQUEDUCT continuingthe line of 347. visible at the north end of an emplacement dug in the Second WorldWarabout 10 metresnorth of the road. The aqueduct at thispoint was evidently built in a cutting which ran along the side of a steep bank, as at 352. A section of the channelwas exposed in April, 1977, in the steep cuttingon the northedge of the road about 40 metresto the west. E8 347. Section of ROMAN AQUEDUCT (cf. 318, 346, 348-353) cuttingacross the line of the trench forthe new waterpipe to Fortetsa,studiedby Hood 60

E8 and Smythin 1976. 348. Stretch of ROMAN AQUEDUCT (cf. 318, 346-7, 349-353) exposed as a terrace wall some 20 metres long and standingto a maximumheight of about 3 metres just below the path. Other shorterstretchesare visible some 35 metresto the E9 northand south. 349. Stretch of ROMAN AQUEDUCT with part of the water channel intact,visibleforsome 10 metres in the side of a steep bank below the path and immediately above the cutting for the original Venetian aqueduct, about 100 metres north of 350. The western edge of the channel has survived in places with a bevel some 0.05 metreswide at the E9 bottom. 350 (157). Stretchesof ROMAN AQUEDUCT (cf. 318, 346-9, 351-3), comparativelywell preserved where it was transportedacross a gully. A mass of concrete some 20 metres west of the line of the aqueduct here may be the remains of a ROMAN E9 TOMB like 202 or that on the site of 286. 351. Section of ROMAN AQUEDUCT (cf. 318, 346-50, 352-3) exposed in 1976 in the steep side of the gorgewest of Spilia (Knossos Logbook pp. 51 f., 21st April, 1976). The aqueduct was built in a cuttingin the kouskouras and ran along the side of the gorge with the bottom of the channel about 5 metres below the top of the bank. The channel at this point was 1.25 metreshigh and 0.52 metres wide. A scrap of Classical or Hellenisticblack glaze was found on the bank some metres to the west. E 10 352 (161). Section of ROMAN AQUEDUCT with cover slabs in place set in pink cement, noted by Hood in 1953 in the side of the gorge west of E 10 Spilia, and wronglyinterpretedas a tomb. 353. ROMAN AQUEDUCT (cf. 318, 346-352) exposed fora stretchof some 40 metresin the steep bank immediatelynorth of the westernend of the E 10 Egyptianaqueduct at Spilia. 354. GRECO-ROMAN KILN cut in the kouskouras, and apparentlyused for burninggypsum to make lime; exposed in the south side of the trenchforthe new watermain to Fortetsa,and examinedby Hood in April, 1976. A calibrated radiocarbon date of 430 ±170 B.C. (Radiocarbon xx (1978) 212: P-2512) suggeststhat the kiln may be pre-Roman, E 8/9 unlike 304. 355. Collapsed MINOAN TOMB CHAMBER (?), to judge froma sinkingvisiblein 19 76 in an olive grove E9 belongingto Spiro Vasilakis. 356. MINOAN SHERDS on the eastern spur of Upper Gipsadhes, noted by Hood and Smyth in 1976. A concentrationof sherds,nondescriptbut with nothingobviously later than L. M. I, near the northernend of the flat summit of the spur and just north of small outcrops of gypsum might reflect the existence of one or two isolated huts or farms as today. A few stones that could have come from ancient house walls were piled in the area. Occasional sherds of M. M. and L. M. I type

were observed on the slopes below here to the E9 northand east. 357. A few ANCIENT SHERDS noted in 1976 in the olive grove at the mouth of the gully west of Spilia, includingthe ribbedneck of a largeM. M. Ill A jug with polychrome decoration, one scrap of Geometric (?), and one of Classical or Hellenistic. The sherds may have been introduced from elsewherealong withmanureor earthin recenttimes. E9 358. MINO AN (?) BLOCKS of dressedlimestoneon the south side of the path below a vineyardfrom which theymighthave been removed,seen by Hood E 10 and Smythin 1976. 359 (159). MINOAN WALLING on the west side of the firsthouse beyond the bridge at Spilia, examinedby R. W. Hutchinsonin the 1940s. F 9/10 360. EARLY (?) AND MIDDLE MINOAN SHERDS noted by Hood in April, 1977, in the road created by the trenchfor the new water main a fewmetres south of the old Turkish bridge. The sherds were concentrated in the area between two rocky outcrops, but were confined to the road; none were exposed in the bank on the east side of the road, and none were visible on the surface to east or west. E/F 9 361 (158). SPILIA CEMETERY OF ROCK-CUT TOMBS, some 25 visible,scatteredover a wide area east of the Kairatos. The tombs have so far only produced evidence for Roman burials. One in the group facingsouth just to the east of 360 is exceptionally well preserved (Knossos Logbook p. 60, April,1977). The Vastnumberof catacombs' seen by Cockerell when he passed throughKnossos on his way to visit the labyrinth' at Gortynawere evidentlyhere (R. Walpole, Travels in Various Countries of the East (London, 1820) 403). Spratt i i 65 f. suggeststhat what Cockerell saw was the entranceto a Knossian labyrinthakin to that at Gortyna. He describes *a cavernousexcavation' . . . 'that is said by the natives to be the entrance to extensivecatacombs, which, however,have become choked up by the fallingin of its sides, and cannot be explored. The sides . . . have, indeed, several votive niches and tombs . . .' Spratt, however, may have been thinkingof the undergroundquarries at Ayia Irini south of Spilia, as Evans assumed (PM i 533 note 1). The cemetery at Spilia had alreadybeen noted by Pashley i 203 f., and was describedby Halbherr,who excavated one of the tombs (The Antiquary xxviii (1893) 111 f. Cf. Mariani,M,4vi (1895) 227 f.). A plundered tomb with remains of gravegoods includingcoins assignableto the second half of the 1st century A.D. was excavated by Miss Angeliki Lebesis on land of Mikhail Mathioudhakis here in 1975 (PAE 1975, 518-20. Ergon 1975, 199). In 1976 Mrs. Alexandra Karetsou and R. Howell examined eight more tombs on the same property wreckedin diggingthe trenchforthe watermain to Fortetsa; burials in these appeared to date from 61

the 1st centuryA.D. onwards (AR 1976-77, 22 f.). F9 362. DRESSED GYPSUM BLOCK lyingon the west side of the old Turkishroad in April,1977. Possibly from the doorway of one of the GRECO-ROMAN ROCK-CUT TOMBS disturbedby diggingthe trench for the new water main here in 1976 (see under 361). R. Howell reported gypsumjambs in one of the Roman tombs which he examined in this area. A fragmentof a possible LATE MINOAN LARNAX LID and some MINOAN SHERDS were noted here F9 by Hood in April,1977. 363. GRECO-ROMAN (?) QUARRIES in the gully formingthe northernedge of the Spilia cemetery of GRECO-ROMAN ROCK-CUT TOMBS. Traces of quarryingoperations are visible for a distanceof about 150 metres up the gully. Vertical rock-faces with tool-marks, rectangular blocks waiting for removal,and a circulardrill-holecan be seen at the western end of the area north-eastof the rock-cut tombs. These may be the traces of quarryingoperations noted by J. Shaw, Minoan Architecture: Materialsand Techniques (Rome, 1973) 35. Antoni Zidianakis heard of metal (bronze or iron) tools being found some 28 years ago in the recent quarryjust above here to the east. These are said to have been in a natural cave exposed by quarryingoperations towards the northernend of the workings (Knossos Logbook p. 62, 1st May, F9 1977). 364. GRECO-ROMAN (?) QUARRY immediately east of the Kairatos. Verticallycut rock-facesmeet at a rightangle,and rectangularblocks in process of removal are visible. A low scarp of rock some 25 metresto the south-eastalso shows signsof quarrying,and a largeverticaldrill-holecan be seen here. About 100 metresfurtherto the south-eastand higheron the slope is a cliffsome 10 metreshigh with large hunksof rock,roughlythe size and shape of Minoan buildingblocks, fallen fromit. Some of the limestoneused fordressedblocks in Bronze Age buildings at Knossos may have come from this F8 generalarea. 365. GRECO-ROMAN (?) QUARRY high in the gully across the Kairatos fromthe TEMPLE TOMB 323. A vertically cut rock-face is visible on the south side of the gully, and rectangularblocks in process of removal are exposed on the flat expanse of rock above it on the east. F8 366. Two HELLENISTIC ROCK-CUT GRAVES in a vineyard at 'Serayia' immediately south of Spilia, excavated by S. Alexiou in 1966 (AR 196667, 20. ADelt xxii (1967) Chron. 486. PAE 1966, 192. KCh 1966, 323. BCH xci (1967) 796). A wall faced with large rectangulardressed blocks, traced for a distance of over 15 metres from south to north on the west side of the graves, may have belonged to an enclosure surroundingthe cemetery of which theywere part. The greatMIDDLE MINOAN BUILDING noted by Evans in 1923 at Sta Seraia (Mégalo Palati) was

evidentlysome distance from here on the western outskirtsof Skalani village(PM ii 62 f., 78; the map, ibid. opp. 7 1, places it south-westof thevillage).FIO 367. GEOMETRIC SHERDS includingfragmentsof polychrome vases found on the 'Eleven Cypresses site on the west edge of Zafer Papoura according to RWH Diary p. 61, 23rdJune, 1938. The approximate position of thiswas suggestedby SpiroVasilakis E5 (1978). 368. MIDDLE MINO AN II POTTERY froma sounding by R. W. Hutchinsonin 1936 on Mathioudhakis's land in theregionof Palaiomilos (CODE: 1936/4). In August, 1978, Spiro Vasilakis indicated the spot at the foot of a bank running north-southon the westernedge of a vineyardabout 60 metreswest of the Kairatos. Potteryin the StratigraphieMuseum is dominantly M. M. II with nothing that must be earlieror later. E5 369. SOUNDING by R. W. Hutchinson in 1936

about 60 metressouth of 83 (CODE: 1936/6: 'Test near MathioudakisWindpump'). Traces of thiswere still visible in August, 1978, a few metresnorthof the foot of a high bank (informationfrom Spiro E5 Vasilakis). 370. ARCHAIC PITHOS FRAGMENTS noted by Hood in August, 1978, on a stone pile about 100 metressouth of the concretesurveypost. D7 371. LATE MINOAN (?) CHAMBER TOMB, cleared and re-usedas the back part of a ROMAN HOUSE, excavated by Hood in 1963 (KCh 1964, 408). D6 372. Part of MINOAN BUILDING, constructed perhaps in L. M. I and destroyedby firein L. M. Ill A, revealed in soundingon house-plotof Panayiotis Kritzalakis in July, 1978. Two ROMAN WELLS were also identified;the fill of one had much kiln waste in it (informationfromJill CaringtonSmith. CODE: KPK). D 6/7

CONCORDANCEOF MINOANTOMBS with I. Pini, Beitrage zur minoischenGräberkunde(1968) 82 ff. Pini KS I 2 II 4 HI 6 IV 8 V 16 VI 17 VII 12 Vili 46 IX 39 X 40 XI 27 XII 71 XIII 36 XIV 35 XV 251 XVI 151 XVII 323

Pini KS XVIII 324 XIX 277 XX 331 XXI 1 XXII 10 XXIII 50 XXIV 19 XXV at Ambelakia XXVI. 1 28 XXVI. 2 30 XXVII 32 XXVIII 278 XXIX 322 XXX 56 XXXI 39 XXXII 182 XXXIII 149

62

INDEX (A) GENERAL P. refersto the page of the text (pages 1-33). No. is followed by the Catalogue numberforreferencesfrom page 34 onwards. Acropolis hill P. 2, 5,8,9, 11, 12, 15, 16, 18,20,22,24 AcropolisTomb No. 149 ActiumP. 22 AesculapiusP. 23 agora P. 20 Ailias P. 1, 5, 10, 11, 14, 15, 19, 26 f. Akoumianakis,AnestisNo. 228 Akoumianakis,HeraklesNo. 229 Akoumianos,AndreasNo. 178 Akoumianos,Emmanuelis(Manoli) P. 6. No. 263, 299 alabastervase No. 11 altar (Minoan) No. 213 altar (Greco-Roman) P. 23. No. 93, 99, 252 Ambelakia (Mesambelies) No. 6 AmbelokipiP. 18, 19,22 AmnisosP. 15 amphitheatreP. 23, 29. No. 110 Andriotis,D. No. 119 Anetakis,I. No. 141 AphroditeNo. 99 ApollinarisNo. 91 Apollo Delphinios P. 20. No. 145 Apollos Lykios No. 93 apsidal buildingNo. 188 aqueduct (Minoan) No. 288 aqueduct (Roman) P. 23 f., 29. No. 160, 168, 188, 191, 217, 318, 319, 346-353 aqueduct (Venetian) P. 8, 23 f. aqueduct (Egyptian) P. 23 f. Arapinis,KharilambosNos. 109, 113 'Archaic' Excavation P. 16. No. 207 Arsenal(Armoury)No. 213 ArtemisP. 22. No. 106 AstritsiP. 22 AthanasiosNo. 202 Athena TritogeneiaP. 20, 22. No. 287 AtsalenioP. 18 Attic importsNo. 24, 51, 62 AugustusP. 22, 27, 28. No. 99 axe (stone) P. 6 Ayia Galini P. 5 Ayia IriniquarriesP. 27. No. 361 Ayia ParaskeviP. 8, 9. No. 263 Ayia Sofia churchP. 26, 29. No. 235 Ayios Elias, see Ailias Ayios Ioannis P. 12, 18, 22 Ayios Nikolaos (Isopata ridge) P. 18 Ayios Thomas P. 24 Babali, see Kallithea BaïriahillP. 24, No. 154 63

basilica churchesP. 26, 29. No. 64, 74, 235 baths (Roman) P. 23, 29. No. 115, 121 Bilmezis,T. No. 50 Binikakis,Stavros,No. 31 Bougada Metokhi,see Knossos village Boura, V. No. 138 brazier(Minoan) No. 278 bridge(Minoan) P. 8, 15. No. 282 bridges(Greco-Roman) P. 22. No. 81, 203, 204 bronze hoard (Minoan) No. 282 BuondelmontiP. 1, 23. No. 57, 115, 235 BursianP. 20 Caiaphas, Tomb of P. 1, 19, 24. No. 57 Cândia, see Herakleion Capua P. 22 CaravanseraiNo. 284 caves No. 137, 140, 251, 258, 295 cisternsP. 24. No. 26, 64, 144, 146, 168, 178, 190, 191, 210, 217, 265, 319, 343 Civil Basilica (Roman) P. 1, 20, 23, 28, 29. No. 112 climateP. 5 CockerellNo. 361 coins P. 19, 22, 26, 31 note 66. No. 77, 361 Cycladic idols No. 23 Daedalic figurineP. 20. No. 178 daggers(Minoan) No. 23 defencesP. 9, 18, 19 f., 23, 26, 27, 28. No. 37, 38, 241 DemeterP. 12, 14, 16, 20, 23, 24. No. 284, 286, 302 Dhretakis,E. No. 164, 165 Dionysos No. 114, 132 Doric capital P. 20. No. 145, 302 double-axe stand No. 295 drain(Minoan) No. 212 drain(Roman) P. 20. No. 132 duck-vaseP. 32 note 73 earthquakesP. 28 EfraimoglouP. 8. No. 319, 320 Eleven Cypressessite No. 367 EpimenidesP. 19 EurystheusP. 20. No. 132 farmhouses P. 9, 10, 11, 18 figurine,see terracottas FirstPalace P. 8 fortP. 20, 28. No. 37,38 FortetsaCemeteryP. 18, 19. No. 151 FortetsianiKamara No. 342 see defences fortifications, fresco(Minoan) P. 8, 9, No. 18, 37, 126, 139, 202, 212, 214, 215, 292 Froudharakis,K. No. 98, 99 Froudharakis,M. No. 196 Froudharakis,N. No. 183 GipsadhesCemeteryNo. 331 GlaukosP. 22, 23, No. 197 GortynaP. 1, 19, 20, 23, 28, 32 note 78, 33 note 97. No. 361 Gounalakis,G. No. 329 GourniaP. 10 64

Great South Road P. 14 f. No. 323 gypsumP. 5, 15, 27. No. 303, 304, 345, 354, 356 HadrianNo. 99, 114 HalbherrP. 1, 19, 23. No. 57, 112, 115, 361 HarbourTown P. 6, 12, 15, 27 HellenikaNo. 132 Hera P. 16, 20. No. 136 HerakleionP. 1, 10, 18, 26, 29, 31 note 59 HeraklesNo. 132 heroon P. 22, 23. No. 185, 197, 312 High Priest'sHouse P. 14. No. 296 Hogarth'sHouses P. 8, 14, 18, 24. No. 297 HoremhebNo. 218 House of the Frescoes P. 16. No. 212 house shrinesP. 14 inscriptions(Minoan) No. 186, 214, 251 inscriptions(Greco-Roman) P. 1, 91, 20, 22, 23. No. 20, 48, 58, 59, 76, 93, 96, 99, 106, 112, 118, 136, 168,188, 193,209,334 Isis P. 23. No. 76 Isopata ridgeP. 18 Isopata Royal Tomb P. 11, 12, 15. No. 2 ivoryNo. 188,214,215 jewellery(Minoan) No. 11, 34, 39, 251 jewellery(Greco-Roman) P. 19. No. 24, 46, 57, 170, 320 Juktas,Mount P. 15, 23 Kairatos P. 5 Kalai'tzakisNo. 43 Kalathaki,Maria No. 200 Kallithea (Babali) P. 18. No. 32 Kalokairinos,Minos P. 1, 30 notes 4 and 13, 32 note 73 Karkalouzos, K. No. 318 Kassabanos (Razábanos), see Kairatos KatsambaP. 12,15,27 Kefala, see Tou Tselevi i Kefala Kefala ridgeP. 15, 20. No. 11 KharkhalidhisNo. 57 Khatzidhakis,I. P. 20. No. 67 Khazimanolis,S. No. 105 KhronakisNo. 44 kilns(Minoan) P. 11. No. 188 kilns(Greco-Roman) P. 19, 27. No. 73, 178, 304, 354, 372 Knossos village(Metokhi,Bougada Metokhi) P. 1, 2, 8, 26, 29 Koiladhi No. 47 Kostakis No. 235 Kostoveli,Maria No. 195

kothonNo. 24

Kouroupis No. 24 kouskourasP. 5 Koutoulakis P. 6, 8. No. 292 Kritzalakis,P. No. 372 LabyrinthNo. 361 lamp (Minoan) No. 150 lamps (Greco-Roman) No. 6, 99, 108, 136, 156 larnakesNo. 27, 30, 31, 34, 62, 140, 157, 250, 297, 329, 362 Lindians No. 136 Linear A and B, see inscriptions(Minoan) Little Palace P. 14. No. 185 65

Louká's Taverna No. 52, 69 LyttosP. 19, 28 Makritikhos(Long Wall) P. 23. No. 86 MakritikhosvillageP. 26 Manoli's Well No. 181 MarathianouLakkos No. 170 MarianiP. 1,20. No. 110, 112,361 Markoyiannakis,Manoli No. 82, 182, 205 martyrionP. 26, 29. No. 74 mason's marks(Minoan) No. 2, 128, 230, 246, 268, 272, 306, 313, 332 Mastaba P. 18 MatallaP. 33 note 97 MathioudhakisNo. 368, 369 Mathioudhakis,MikhailNo. 361 Mathioudhakis'sPlot No. 208 MavromanolakisNo. 68 Mavro Spilio P. 11, 14, 22, 23. No. 251, 252 Medical Faculty site P. 18. No. 62, 64 'megalithic'constructionP. 8 MehemetAli P. 23 MesambeliesNo. 6 MesaritakisNo. 193, 194 Mesaritakis,HippocratesNo. 170 MetellusP. 20, 22, 28 Metokhi,see Knossos village metopesP. 20. No. 132, 209 MiletusP. 31 note 59 MonastiriakoKefali,see Acropolis hill MonumentalStructuresP. 8. No. 241 mosaics (Roman) P. 23. No. 91, 92, 94, 100, 112, 114, 115, 117, 119, 128, 130, 131, 135, 195, 234 Murex trunculusNo. 141 MycenaeansP. 11, 27, 28 Myron,St. P. 22, 32 note 78 Neopoulos No. 45 NervaNo. 112 Nike (see also Victory)P. 20. No. 287 NiotakisNo. 47 Nisiotis,N.No. 23 Nivas,Kh. No. 295 North-EastHouse No. 220 House NorthHouse, see North-West NorthPillarCrypt(Hall) P. 14, 16. No. 222 House No. 221 North-West TreasureHouse P. 16. No. 219 North-West Octavian P. 22 olive P. 5 olive-pressNo. 15 olive stonesNo. 99 ostricheggNo. 1 1 PalaikastroP. 10 Palaiomilos No. 368 Pan No. 93 PashleyNo. 57, 361 Paterakis,E. No. 92, 93 Pausanias P. 19 peak sanctuaryP. 15 Pedevi P. 22 PhaistosP. 19

66

pillarcryptsP. 14 pithosburialsNo. 140, 148, 249, 257 PlaïtisNo. 199 Plaïtis,N. No. 287 plate (Minoan) No. 8, 324 PocockeP. 23. No. 57, 112 PolikhronakisNo. 45 pommels (Minoan) No. 139, 298 population P. 10, 16 Poros P. 12,15,27 potter'squarterNo. 178 PriniasP. 24, 26 quarriesP. 5, 15, 26 f., 29. No. 264, 266, 267, 303, 304, 345, 361, 362, 363, 365 reliefs(Greco-Roman) No. 32, 72, 132, 185, 209 rendzinasoils P. 5 RheaP. 16,20 rhytonNo. 299 road (Minoan) P. 14 f., 18. No. 69, 187, 210, 211, 242, 243, 256, 282, 283, 296, 323 road (Roman) P. 22. No. 116, 185, 207, 208, 211 Road Trials No. 206 RoussakiNo. 150 Royal Road Excavations No. 214, 215, 216 Royal Villa No. 224 Rozakis, G. No. 97 rubbishdumps (Minoan) P. 10, 11, 28, No. 22, 37, 317, 337 Sabina No. 99 sanctuary(see also heroon,shrine,temple) P. 12, 14, 16, 20, 22, 23, 28. No. 24, 106, 136, 286 sarcophagus(Roman) No. 67 Savakis,N. No. 126 scarab No. 218,320 SchliemannP. 1 sculpture(Minoan) No. 140, 253 sculpture(Greco-Roman) (see also reliefs)P. 23. No. 76, 93, 97, 99, 109, 112, 113, 114, 129, 130, 136, 197,287 seal stones (Minoan) No. 100, 263, 323, 335 Sellopoulo Tombs P. 14, No. 28, 29 SeptimiusSeverusP. 26, 29 SerayiaNo. 366 shaftgraves(Minoan) P. 14. No. 4, 5, 30, 36, 40, 71, 277, 307, 329, 330, 331 'sheep-bell'No. 226 shrine(see also heroon,sanctuary,temple) P. 9, 14, 18. No. 93, 185, 188, 197 silos No. 7 Skalani No. 366 SokhoraNo. 196 South House P. 10, 11. No. 219 Sparta P. 19 spear-headNo. 49, 138 Spilia CemeteryP. 1, 24. No. 361 SprattP. 23. No. 361 springchambersP. 12, 14, 20. No. 252, 285 springsP. 5, 22. No. 252, 286, 287 StafilakisNo. 174, 175 stairways(Minoan) No. 257, 262 statues(see sculpture) Stepped Portico No. 282 stoa P. 23. No. 86 stone vases (Minoan) No. 9, 11, 150, 299 StraboP. 19,20,23,28 67

Stratakis No. 68 MuseumP. 8, 11, 12, 14, 16, 24. No. 188 Stratigraphie TaramelliP. 26 Teke (see Ambelokipi) shrine)P. 20, 22, 23, No. 24, 76, 85, 121, 132, 136, 145, 286, 287, 334 temple(see also heroon,sanctuary, TempleTombP. 11, 14. No. 323 terracottas (Minoan)P. 9. No. 110 No. 24, 92, 136, 178, 186, 206, 252 terracottas (Greco-Roman) terrarossa P. 5

testpitsP. 1, 2, 6, 8, 9, 11, 16, 34. No. 54, 110, 112, 121, 128, 132, 185, 191, 206, 207, 209, 211, 213, 214, 216, 221, 226, 232, 241, 284, 286, 295, 296, 320, 323 ThéâtralAreaP. 16, 24 theatre(Roman)P. 23, 29. No. 110 P. 11, 28 Theraeruption TheraShipFrescoP. 9 tholostombsP. 2, 11, 14. No. 17, 27, 46, 308 P. 19, 24. No. 43, 44, 45, 52, 55, 61, 63, 72, 156, 171, 211 tile-graves TopanaP. 9 Tou Foundoulakii VrisiNo. 330 E. No. 82 Toutoundakis, Tou Tselevii KefalaP. 6 I. No. 227 Triandafillou, M. No. 226 Triandalidhis, reliefs(Minoan)No. 205 'triglyph' 87 triglyphNo. Triton,riverP. 22 MansionP. 11, 12. No. 186 Unexplored UrP. 10 Vasilakis,SpiroNo. 291, 355 No. 189 Thrasivilos Vasilakis, VenizeleionP. 12. No. 71 verdeanticoNo. 54 VespasianNo. 96 viaduct(Minoan)No. 283 Victory(see alsoNike)P. 19. No. 57 VillaAfroNo. 25 VillaDionysosP. 19, 23. No. 114 AntoniNo. 192 Vlakhakis, No. 197 Constantine Vlakhakis, VlakhakishotelNo. 190 VlikhiaP.5, 15,22 warrior gravesP. 12. No. 8, 71, 100, 149 wellsP. 5. No. 13,209 wells(Minoan)P. 8. No. 133, 268, 282, 289, 290, 291 wells(Greek)P. 16, 18. No. 88, 134, 179, 185, 200, 201, 211, 222, 297 P. 23. No. 113, 128, 185-6, 196, 212, 213 wells(Greco-Roman) wells(Roman)No. 88, 103, 127, 181, 185, 193, 194, 214, 372 No. 200 wine-press No. 57, 115 Xanthoudides I. No. 76 Yiakanikis, Fill Younger P. 5 ZaferPapouraP. 12. No. 36 Zeus P. 16, 20. No. 136 AntoniNo. 218, 299, 343 Zidianakis, MikhailNo. 184 Zidianakis,

68

(B) INDEX BY PERIODS The numbers referto thoseof theCatalogue Neolithic110, 220, 222, 292 Minoan Generalincluding settlement traces18,22, 24,25, 33,37, 70, 79, 82, 110, 113,121, 126, 128, 133, 139, 141, 150, 161,162,164,174,184,185-6, 187,188, 190,192, 196,197, 202,205, 207,208, 209, 210, 212, 213, 214-5, 219, 220, 221, 222, 224, 225, 226, 227, 228, 229, 230, 231, 232, 233, 236, 239, 240, 241, 242, 243, 244, 245, 246, 247, 261, 262, 263, 266, 268, 269, 270, 271, 272, 273, 274, 275, 276, 280, 281, 282, 283, 284, 292, 293, 294, 295, 296, 298, 299, 300, 301, 306, 310, 311, 315, 316, 317, 320, 330, 336, 337, 338, 356, 357, 358, 359, 360, 362, 366, 372 Tombs,gravesand burials(untilc. 1450 B.C.) 2, 11, 17, 139, 140, 148, 161, 248, 249, 250, 251, 254, 257, 258, 259, 260, 307, 308, 309, 313, 314, 323, 331, 332 Tombs,gravesand burials(fromc. 1450 B.C. onwards)1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 8, 9, 10, 12, 17, 19, 28, 29, 30, 31, 34, 35, 36, 39, 40, 71, 138, 147, 149, 164, 229, 251, 277, 278, 310, 321, 322, 323, 324, 329, 330, 331, 333,339,340,344,355,371 Tombs,gravesandburials(Subminoan)19,49, 55, 62 EarlyIronAge Generalincluding settlement traces7, 32, 88, 99, 201, 222 Tombs,gravesand burials2, 3, 6, 10, 16, 32, 39, 41, 46, 47, 50, 51, 52, 53, 54, 55, 56, 62, 63, 107, 151, 182, 223, 251, 320, 323, 325, 328, 367 6, 10, 16, 39, 46, 47, 50, 62, 180, 182, 188, 192, 206, 207, 208, 210, 214-5, 286 Protogeometric Geometric2, 7, 32, 39, 51, 56, 63, 88, 99, 107, 110, 125, 126, 128, 146, 150, 179, 180, 185, 188, 200, 201, 202, 206, 207, 209, 210, 211, 214-5, 222, 297, 324, 357, 367 16, 39, 46, 47, 62, 88, 134, 206, 214-5, 222, 297, 320 Orientalizing Archaic20, 24, 39, 72, 88, 112, 114, 118, 134, 136, 186, 188, 193, 200, 206, 209, 214-5, 252, 369 Classical Generalincludingsettlement traces24, 32, 37, 106, 114, 132, 136, 178, 188, 196, 197,202, 295, 302, 351,357 Tombs,gravesandburials51, 72 Hellenistic Generalincluding settlement traces32, 37,38, 92, 106, 110,112, 114,117, 136, 139, 141,176, 178,185, 188, 200, 207, 210, 295, 351, 357 Tombs,gravesandburials44, 62, 78, 151, 211, 238, 305, 334, 366 Greco-Roman Generalincluding settlement traces15, 65, 87, 266 Tombs,gravesand burials43, 45, 58, 61, 72, 142, 152, 154, 155, 156, 158, 159, 167, 168, 169, 172, 173,333,341,342,361 Roman Generalincluding settlement traces6, 38, 54, 66, 68, 76, 80, 81, 84, 85, 86, 89, 90, 91, 92, 94, 95, 96, 98,99, 100,101, 102,103, 104,105, 110,111, 112,113, 114,115, 116,117, 119, 120,121, 122, 123, 124, 127, 128, 129, 130, 131, 132, 135, 141, 153, 177, 185-6, 188, 189, 190, 195, 198, 199, 204, 206, 208, 210, 214-5, 229, 234, 286, 319, 343, 371 Tombs,gravesand burials42, 44, 48, 52, 55, 57, 58, 59, 62, 67, 68, 69, 72, 74, 77, 78, 82, 83, 110, 137, 142, 143, 151, 154, 155, 156, 157, 164, 165, 166, 170, 171, 202, 209, 211, 212, 237, 286, 297, 305, 326, 327, 334, 350, 361, 362 Byzantine Generalincluding settlement traces7, 88 Tombs,gravesandburials59, 64, 74, 75, 108, 183, 235, 279 Arab74, 236 69

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