Australian Seeds: A Guide to Their Collection, Identification and Biology

Jerry and Carol C. Baskin University of Kentucky, Lexington. USA.

H

ere for the first time is a complete guide to the collection, processing and storage of seeds collected in the wild. Written by some of the world’s leading practitioners in the field of seed biology and conservation, this book describes procedures and protocols that are of international standard and apply to users throughout the world.

Australian Seeds provides an invaluable guide for those involved in flora conservation work. It will enable users to collect, process and store seed more efficiently, thus reducing loss of seed viability during the storage process, with potentially huge savings in time, effort and expense in the rehabilitation and restoration industries. Editors Luke Sweedman is Curator for the Western Australian Seed Technology Centre at Kings Park, Perth. He is an expert in the storage of species for both local and international threatened flora programs and provides material for display for the Kings Park Botanic Gardens. David Merritt is a Research Scientist at the Botanic Gardens and Parks Authority and The University of Western Australia. He has worked with native seeds since 1997 and his research interests include seed storage and dormancy, and the use of seeds in restoration.

Editors: L. Sweedman and D. Merritt

Australian Seeds also includes the most comprehensive pictorial guide to Australian seeds available. It features photographs of 1260 Australian species, showing clearly their size and shape. This allows collectors to determine if their collections are of good, well-shaped seed – important to prevent unnecessary time being wasted in cleaning, storing and sowing of poor quality seed.

Australian Seeds

Australian Seeds is an excellent contribution to plant conservation and restoration in Australia, and the editors and all the contributors are to be congratulated for making the information available in a single volume … it will be greatly appreciated and enjoyed by people who are fascinated by the beauty and diversity of seeds.

Australian Seeds A Guide to their Collection, Identification and Biology

Editors: Luke Sweedman and David Merritt

AUSTRALIAN

SEEDS

A GUIDE TO THEIR COLLECTION, IDENTIFICATION AND BIOLOGY

This book is dedicated to my favourite person in the world, my beautiful daughter Koromiko who has been with me throughout this entire project and who will be relieved not to hear about it again. Luke Sweedman

AUSTRALIAN

SEEDS

A GUIDE TO THEIR COLLECTION, IDENTIFICATION AND BIOLOGY

Editors: Luke Sweedman and David Merritt

© 2006 Botanic Gardens and Parks Authority of Western Australia All rights reserved. Except under the conditions described in the Australian Copyright Act 1968 and subsequent amendments, no part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, duplicating or otherwise, without the prior permission of the copyright owner. Contact CSIRO PUBLISHING for all permission requests. National Library of Australia Cataloguing-in-Publication entry Australian seeds : a guide to their collection, identification and biology. Bibliography. Includes index. ISBN 0 643 09132 7 (hbk.). ISBN 0 643 09298 6 (pbk.). 1. Seeds – Australia – Identification. 2. Seeds – Collection and preservation - Australia. 3. Seeds – Processing – Australia. 4. Seeds – Storage – Australia. I. Sweedman, Luke, 1958–. II. Merritt, David J., 1975–. 631.5230994 Available from CSIRO PUBLISHING 150 Oxford Street (PO Box 1139) Collingwood VIC 3066 Australia Telephone: Local call: Fax: Email: Web site:

+61 3 9662 7666 1300 788 000 (Australia only) +61 3 9662 7555 [email protected] www.publish.csiro.au

Front cover Seeds of Podolepsis gracilis, Slender Podolepsis, by Luke Sweedman. Set in 10.5/13.5 Minion Cover and text design by James Kelly Typeset by James Kelly Index by Russell Brooks Printed by Bookbuilders

Foreword At a time when the world’s plant biodiversity and ecosystems are being destroyed at alarming rates, it is most appropriate – and highly desirable – that plant biologists in Australia are devoting time and resources to preserving through seedbanking the species richness of that part of Gondwana. While seedbanking will not conserve ecosystems, it will at least conserve biodiversity, and thus genetic diversity, ex situ. This book is about the biology, collection, storage and use in conservation and restoration of seeds of native Australian species, with emphasis on those that occur in Western Australia. The authors represent a wide range of expertise on the various basic and applied aspects of seed biology it covers. The core of Australian Seeds contains much useful advice about seed collecting tools, equipment and procedures; how to determine the right time to collect seeds; sampling strategies; collecting seeds of rare species; and how to keep good records about seed collections. It also contains much well thought-out, and thus very good, advice on handling of seeds in the field prior to return to the storage facility and on drying and cleaning seeds after returning from the field, including an overview of equipment needed in processing of seeds; seed-cleaning tips for the ‘unusual’ genera Banksia and Dryandra (Proteaceae); and how to assess and prevent or minimise damage to seeds by pests and diseases. There is also a lucid presentation about laboratory storage of seeds and of testing them for purity, moisture content, viability and germination. There are many photographs that complement nicely the subject matter discussed in the text. Guidelines for collecting seeds of species of the common Australian families Amaranthaceae, Asteraceae, Fabaceae, Mimosaceae and Myrtaceae, and of more than 260 selected genera in these and other families are covered in a separate chapter. In chapter 9, the excellent photographs of seeds of more than 1200 native Australian species illustrate the diversity and beauty of Australian seeds. These photographs also can be used as a ‘visual guide’ for identifying the species that produced the seeds. This chapter in itself

is a major photographic contribution to the diversity and beauty of seeds. In contrast to the detailed advice on how to collect, process and store seeds of Australian plants, Australian Seeds contains very little information on how to germinate them. Although studies have been done on dormancy and germination of seeds of many Australian species, no attempt has yet been made to organise the data and fit them into a dormancy classification scheme to infer, either from taxonomic relationships or from results of studies on dormancy and germination of a taxonomic group, what kind of dormancy may be present in seeds of species for which information is not available. Thus, we suggest that the next step in enhancing knowledge about the biology and technology of seeds of Australian plants should be an attempt to classify them with respect to kind of dormancy. This may not be as difficult as it at first might seem to be. For example, seeds of most species of Asteraceae, Myrtaceae and Poaceae are likely to have (non-deep) physiological dormancy (and some perhaps no dormancy at all) and those of Fabaceae and Mimosaceae physical dormancy (i.e. water-impermeable seed or fruit coat). Australian Seeds is an excellent contribution to plant conservation and restoration in Australia, and the editors and all the contributors are to be congratulated for making the information available in a single volume. Although the book is about seeds of Australian species, it will be of considerable interest and use to people involved in seedbanking and/or plant conservation and restoration worldwide. Also, it will be greatly appreciated and enjoyed by people who are fascinated by the beauty and diversity of seeds. Jerry M. Baskin Department of Biology, University of Kentucky, Lexington, USA. Carol C. Baskin Department of Biology and Department of Plant and Soil Science, University of Kentucky, Lexington, USA. v

Commendation Seeds are vital elements for a sustainable global future. Knowing how to identify, collect, store and germinate seeds is essential to make optimum use of this important resource, especially the poorly known seeds of a large range of dryland species. We are delighted to see this book, focused on seeds of the unique Australian flora, published in such an accessible and beautiful format. The book represents the outcome of years of hard work and collaboration by many individuals and organisations. All are to be congratulated for setting such a high international standard – a model for other countries to emulate. Our organisations take special pride in playing significant roles in seeing Australian Seeds through to publication over a 10-year gestation period. We know the book will prove immensely useful, and wish it the long shelf life it so richly deserves. Roger Smith Head of Seed Conservation Department Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew Director, Millennium Seed Bank Project, 1998–2005. Stephen Hopper Professor, Plant Conservation Biology School of Plant Biology, The University of Western Australia CEO Botanic Gardens and Parks Authority, Kings Park and Botanic Garden, 1992–2004.

The development of this book was generously funded by the Millennium Seed Bank Project.

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Contents Foreword

v

Commendation

vii

Acknowledgements

xi

Preface

xiii

Contributors

xv

1

Introduction

1

Clare Tenner, Stephen Hopper, David Merritt, Anne Cochrane and Luke Sweedman

2

Australian seeds through time

5

Stephen Hopper, Kingsley Dixon and Robert Hill

3

Seed and fruit structure

11

Paul Wilson and Margaret Wilson

4

Seed biology and ecology

19

David Merritt and Deanna Rokich

5

Seed collection in the field

25

Luke Sweedman and Grady Brand

6

Drying and cleaning seeds after collection

41

Luke Sweedman

7

Seed storage and testing

53

David Merritt

8

Seedbanks and the conservation of threatened species

61

Anne Cochrane and Leonie Monks

9

Australian seeds: a photographic guide

67

Luke Sweedman

10 Collection guidelines for common Australian families and genera

173

Luke Sweedman and Grady Brand

Appendix 1: Seed germination records

199

Appendix 2: Specimen vouchers for the seed photographs

220

Appendix 3: List of common names

229

Appendix 4: List of botanical names

241

Glossary

253

References

255

Index

256

ix

Acknowledgements Thanks to Chris Damon and Chris Chaperone who worked hard on the photography; Peter Maloney from the Western Australian Department of Agriculture who demonstrated the use of the glass plate system; Mark Saxon for support and edits; Nathan McQuoid, Guy Groenewegen, Stephen Ashworth and Digby Grounds for their friendship and encouragement; Pauline Fairall for her support; and Peter Luscombe for providing access to photographs. Thanks to the original editorial committee: Steve Hopper, Kingsley Dixon, Stephen Forbes and Roger Fryer for their patience and enthusiasm. Special thanks to Grady Brand for sharing his knowledge, vision and passion for the Australian flora. Thanks also to Trevor Hein for his exceptional editing of the photographs, Russell Barrett and Eng Pin Tay for reviewing and updating the botanical names; Mark Webb for his support; Mike Lloyd for providing seeds from the eastern states of Australia; and Tim Pearce from the Millennium Seed Bank Project, who has become an integral part of the Kings Park Seed Centre’s future direction and was able to help with funding the final publication. Thanks to Carol and Jerry Baskin for providing comments on the manuscript, kindly writing the foreword and showing such excitement when viewing the photographs. Special thanks to Stephen Scourfield for sharing many great times together travelling in the bush and for his

unstinting professional help in putting the book back on track when it was threatening to unravel. Thanks also for allowing the use of many of his brilliant photographs in the book. We gratefully acknowledge the contribution of Willie Kullmann for compiling the initial set of seed germination data in Appendix 1, and the nursery staff of Kings Park and Botanic Garden who collected the data over 40 years. The authors of Chapter 4 thank Annemarie Menadue for kindly providing the illustrations; the authors of Chapter 8 thank the staff and volunteers of the Department of Conservation and Land Management, particularly Sarah Barrett and Gina Broun, for assistance with seed collection and translocation planting and monitoring. Luke Sweedman Curator Western Australian Seed Technology Centre Botanic Gardens and Parks Authority Kings Park and Botanic Garden Perth, Western Australia David Merritt Research Scientist Botanic Gardens and Parks Authority and the University of Western Australia Perth, Western Australia

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Preface This book began more than 10 years ago with an idea by Dr Stephen Hopper, then Chief Executive of the Western Australian Botanic Gardens and Parks Authority. He suggested we compile the years of accumulated knowledge and experience of the Botanic Gardens staff working with seeds and publish it in a form suitable for the general reader. Over the years, the work evolved and progressed with the help of many people and the book now contains input from several organisations across Australia and overseas. The completion of this book is due mostly to the staff at the Botanic Gardens and Parks Authority, many of whom helped directly, and all of whom share a great vision and passion for the Australian flora and for Kings Park itself, which is such a special place in Western Australia. Australian Seeds covers important aspects of the biology, collection, storage and use of seeds in conservation and restoration. It encapsulates much of what is currently known about collecting and storing seeds, with information collated over the last 10 years in which time the science of seeds has been moving at a rapid rate. The book can be used to identify seeds of more than 1200 Australian species and many genera, with photographs showing their diversity, beauty and significant variations. The practical and scientific information relates to seeds across Australia – in fact, seeds anywhere. Many of the major genera, such as Eucalyptus, Acacia and Grevillea, are common throughout Australia. However, since half of Australia’s species occur in Western Australia, it is appropriate that many of the species examples in this guidebook are from this part of the continent. The book fully exploits the authors’ deep knowledge and experience of this vast region, stretching some 3000 km south to north, from a granite coast buffeted by the raw weather patterns of the Southern Ocean, to the tropical, tidal mangroves of the Kimberley, and the deserts between. Chapter 2 explores the evolution of seeds of Australian plants through time, tracing the fossil and geomorphologic records of the Australian continent

since the Devonian, when land plants evolved. An appreciation of the role that seeds play in ensuring the continuation of a species in the face of changing environments (periods of glaciation, global warming, global aridity) provides an insight into the reason behind the remarkable diversity of seed sizes, shapes and germinationtiming cues we see today. The reader is introduced to the morphology of Australian seeds and their fruits in Chapter 3. It shows the array of shapes and sizes of seeds and fruits and explains and illustrates many of the botanical terms relating to the description of seed and fruit morphology. Chapter 4 discusses aspects of seed ecology, describing some of the adaptations Australian species have developed in order to time seed release and germination to the time of year which will maximise seedling establishment in habitats which are often subjected to a high degree of environmental stress, including periodic drought, temperature extremes and fire. Chapters 5 to 7 form the core of the practical guide. Chapter 5 covers in detail the planning required prior to a field trip, the equipment and tools necessary, the sampling strategies for collecting seeds and the documentation essential for a successful collecting trip. This is followed by Chapter 6 which covers the actions required after seed collection, both in the field and upon return to the seedbank. It discusses in detail techniques of seed handling, cleaning and processing, as well as the procedures for drying large quantities of seeds. It also reviews the tools and equipment available for seed processing. Chapter 7 provides an introduction to the steps undertaken in the laboratory to correctly dry, store and test seeds. It outlines drying and storage techniques that will maximise seed longevity and describes current international, best-practice standards. It also outlines the methods employed for seed moisture, viability and germination testing, and includes tips for assessing data and determining the success of a particular storage regime.

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Australian Seeds

The role that seedbanks play in conservation, restoration, horticulture and education, is illustrated in Chapter 8, which highlights the range of uses of native seeds. Several case studies illustrate how seedbanks can contribute to the protection and recovery of species that are perilously close to extinction, unfortunately an increasingly common scenario in the modern world. The beauty of Australian seeds is showcased in Chapter 9, which contains photographs of 1260 Australian seeds. This chapter can be used as a visual guide for identifying species and to appreciate the incredible diversity of Australian flora, reflected in the diversity of the seeds. Chapter 10 describes specific collecting techniques for some of the main plant families, giving details for more than 260 genera of Australian plants. The genus Corymbia is recognised in this book as a separate genus to Eucalyptus. The book largely follows the family classification of the Angiosperm Phylogeny

xiv

Group.* Notable changes in this system compared to recent books such as the Flora of Australia series include a significant reclassification of the lilioid monocotyledons (Liliaceae and Anthericaceae), and a broad definition of the legume family (Fabaceae). The cotton family (Malvaceae) and relatives Sterculiaceae are included in the broad concept of Malvaceae. At the end of the book is a list of germination times for Western Australian species. These provide useful information for seed propagation planning. This is followed by a reference guide to the seed photographs, linking them to the herbarium records at the Botanic Gardens Park Authority Herbarium, Perth, Western Australia. There is also a full glossary of terms. All photographs are by chapter authors unless otherwise noted. * Angiosperm Phylogeny Group (2003). An update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group classification for the orders and families of flowering plants: APG II. Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society 141, 399–436.

Contributors EDITORS Luke Sweedman

Luke joined the Botanic Gardens and Parks Authority in 1990, initially working as the seed collector. He now holds the position of Curator for the Western Australian Seed Technology Centre at Kings Park. His role has continued to evolve with an increasing focus on the storage of species for both local and international threatened flora programs as well as providing material for display for the Botanic Gardens at Kings Park. Dr David Merritt

David is a Research Scientist at the Botanic Gardens and Parks Authority and The University of Western Australia. He has worked with native seeds since 1997 and his research interests include seed storage and dormancy, and the use of seeds in restoration.

OTHER CONTRIBUTORS Grady Brand

Grady is the Curator of the Western Australian Botanic Gardens. Over the last 27 years, while employed by the Botanic Gardens and Parks Authority, Grady has played an active role in assisting and overseeing the collection, propagation, cultivation and display of the Western Australian flora, including four floral displays held at International Horticultural Exhibitions (UK and Japan). Anne Cochrane

Since 1993 Anne has been the Manager of the Department of Conservation and Land Management’s Threatened Flora Seed Centre, a seed conservation facility for rare, threatened and poorly known Western Australian taxa. She is a Senior Research Scientist with many years of seed-based field and laboratory experience. Professor Kingsley Dixon

Kingsley is the Director of Science at the Botanic Gardens and Parks Authority. He has more than 20 years’ experience in researching the ecology and physiology of Australian native plants and ecosystems and leads a multi-disciplinary science group comprising botanical and restoration sciences. Roger Fryer

Roger is currently Manager, Horticulture and Assets at Kings Park and Botanic Garden and was previously Curator, Living Collections, and Nursery Manager. In these positions Roger has been involved in propagation and seed germination records and in overseeing the work of the Western Australian Seed Technology Centre.

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Australian Seeds

Professor Robert Hill

Robert is Head of the School of Earth and Environmental Sciences at the University of Adelaide and Head of Science at the South Australian Museum. For the past 25 years he has been researching the fossil evidence for the evolution of the modern southern Australian vegetation based on the plant macrofossil record. He has concentrated on the major families Nothofagaceae, Proteaceae and Podocarpaceae, including research on fossilised reproductive structures. Professor Stephen Hopper

Stephen was Director and CEO of Kings Park and Botanic Garden from 1992 to 2004, and is now Foundation Professor of Plant Conservation Biology at The University of Western Australia. He has expertise in plant evolutionary biology, systematics, biodiversity conservation and granite outcrop floras. Leonie Monks

As a Research Scientist with the Department of Conservation and Land Management, Leonie has been developing effective translocation techniques for threatened Western Australian plant species since 1998. The promotion of successful seed germination is an integral part of this research. Dr Deanna Rokich

Deanna is the Senior Restoration Ecologist at the Botanic Gardens and Parks Authority. Her research career has focused on regenerative techniques and seed ecology of biodiverse ecosystems throughout Western Australia, particularly for restoration of mined sites and urban bushland. Clare Tenner

Clare is the International Programme Officer for the Millennium Seed Bank Project. She oversees and coordinates the activities of the MSBP International Programme, including monitoring and reporting on progress towards the Project goals and developing links to other appropriate biodiversity initiatives. Margaret Wilson

For three decades Margaret has produced thousands of illustrated botanical descriptions for research publications in which Australian native fruits and seeds feature as key elements for plant identification. A dedicated conservationist, Margaret propagates native seeds for use in nature reserves and believes a greater cultural appreciation of the vital role of seeds in conservation is essential. Paul Wilson

For more than 50 years Paul has been involved with plant taxonomy. Initially at the Kew Herbarium, England, he worked on the plants of Mexico. After moving to Australia in 1958 he focused his research on the families Asteraceae, Chenopodiaceae and Rutaceae, seeds and fruits being particularly significant in their classification.

xvi

CHAPTER 1

Introduction Clare Tenner, Stephen Hopper, David Merritt, Anne Cochrane and Luke Sweedman

Some 25 000 species of vascular plants – 10% of the world’s total – are found in Australia. At least 85% of these species are endemic, an outcome of 42 million years of isolation. Two-thirds of the Australian continent is arid, with less than 300 mm of rain a year. This area stretches from the Pilbara region of the north-west to the southern Nullarbor, where the desert meets the coast. Surrounding the arid zone on three sides are broad semiarid belts in which woodlands, mallee, and sclerophyll shrublands are prevalent. Salt lakes with uncoordinated drainage are common in broad valley floors, particularly in the west and south of the semi-arid zone, but the east is occupied by the bulk of Australia’s largest river system, the Murray-Darling. The wetter parts of Australia occupy less than a fifth of the continent, south and eastwards of the eastern highlands, across the tropical north and in a small isolated region of the south-west. Vegetation is complex, matching the topography and geology of these areas. The wettest places, often with deep fertile soils in eastern and northern Australia, are occupied by rainforests, while shallow soils in the highest rainfall areas have stunted woodlands and heaths. Wet sclerophyll forests occupy fire-prone sites and contain immense hardwoods such as mountain ash (Eucalyptus regnans) in the southeast and karri (Eucalyptus diversicolor) in the south-west. The highest mountains support alpine vegetation and stunted sclerophyll communities. Less fertile

soils on rock outcrops throughout the wetter parts of Australia also have sclerophyll shrublands and stunted woodlands. Freshwater lakes and streams are strongly seasonal, as are coastal estuaries and bays into which the latter discharge. Coastal floras include mangroves and the usual cosmopolitan plants of dunes and strand, while adjacent Australian marine environments are noteworthy in the north for their coral communities of the Great Barrier Reef on the east coast and such places as Ningaloo Reef on the west coast. Across Australia, there are three key floristic elements: woody evergreens, rainforests and the cosmopolitan plants. The bulk of the 25 000 species are endemic evergreen sclerophyllous plants of forests, woodlands, mallee, shrublands, sedgelands and grasslands. Particularly noteworthy is the dominance of three woody, evergreen genera: Eucalyptus/Corymbia (more than 900 species) and Acacia (more than 1100 species). Spinifex hummock grasses of the genus Triodia are prominent over vast desert areas. Species-rich families in Australia include the Proteaceae (banksias, grevilleas, etc.), Myrtaceae (eucalypts, melaleucas, etc.), Ericaceae (Epacridaceae – southern heaths), and Restionaceae (southern rushes). Occupying about 5% of the continent, the south-west of Western Australia is especially rich in the Gondwanan element of the Australian flora, with an estimated 8000 species, 50% of which are endemic to the region. 1

Australian Seeds

The cosmopolitan element of up to 3000 species occupies coastal habitats, saltlands, wetlands and alpine or mountainous areas. Typically, endemism is lower in this component of the flora. The Australian flora is, indeed, extraordinary. And never has an appreciation of its seeds, and the need to conserve them, been greater. SEEDBANKING IN CONSERVATION: THE INTERNATIONAL CONTEXT

Tasmanian rainforest, a living Gondwanan museum.

In contrast, the extensive central Australian desert region, occupying one-third of the continent, has only 2000 species. The ancient rainforest element covered only 1% of the Australian landmass at European colonisation. Rainforests occur in scattered sites from Tasmania to north Queensland and westwards across the tropical Northern Territory to the Kimberley region of Western Australia, and contain upwards of 2000 species, many endemic to Australia. The rainforests are living Gondwanan museums – fragmented and depleted relicts of vegetation that covered parts of the continent before the onset of Tertiary aridity after Australia drifted north from Antarctica, beginning 42 million years ago. These rainforest patches differ significantly in composition, with three major floristic groups recognised. There are cool-wet temperate rainforests of Tasmania, Victoria and New South Wales, hot-wet subtropical-tropical rainforests from near Sydney north to Queensland and the wettest parts of the Northern Territory, and hot-dry semi-deciduous or deciduous rainforests and vine thickets extending from the Kimberley across to north Queensland and south into semi-arid New South Wales. 2

An understanding of the role of seeds in conservation of the world’s biological diversity is necessary to appreciate the resources now dedicated to working with seeds. It is well recognised by the global community that biodiversity is being destroyed irreversibly by human activities and that a major effort is needed to better understand and conserve biodiversity. In January 2005, the Paris Declaration on Biodiversity noted that humans were altering the environment at unprecedented speed, with species being lost at a rate about 100 times faster than the average natural rate. The large-scale loss is irreversible, but the declaration calls for a major effort to discover, understand, conserve and use biodiversity sustainably. In 2002 the Parties to the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) adopted a strategic plan with a mission to achieve by 2010 a significant reduction of the current rate of biodiversity loss. This was later endorsed by the World Summit on Sustainable Development. The CBD recognises that ex situ (off-site) measures – collecting seeds and then keeping them in seedbanks, for example – have an important role to play in the conservation of biodiversity. The CBD definition of biodiversity recognises diversity within species, between species and at the ecosystem level. Many studies have shown the threats that face biodiversity occur at all three levels. For example, at the ecosystem level, models suggest that by the year 2032 up to 48% of ecosystems could be converted to agricultural land, plantations or urban areas, compared to 22% today. At the species level it is thought that as many as two-thirds of the world’s plant species are in danger of extinction in nature during the course of the twenty-first century. With regards to genetic diversity, it is estimated that 16 million populations are lost annually. In Australia alone, 2891 individual ecosystems have been identified as at risk, and 1595 native animal and plant species. The biggest direct cause of species loss is habitat loss and degradation – this affects 91% of all threatened plant species described in the 2000 IUCN red list. Habitat can

Chapter 1 – Introduction

be lost through conversion for, or intensification of, agriculture, urbanisation and infrastructure development, amongst other things. Protected areas can help safeguard habitat, but there are limits to the area of land that can be covered. It takes time to establish protected areas and it can be difficult to situate them for the optimal protection of plant species. Even in well-protected areas plants are subject to further threats including climate change, invasive alien species, over-exploitation by humans and manmade and natural disasters. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change predicts that the synergy between the stresses of climate change, habitat loss and fragmentation, and alien species will lead to extinctions. In Australia additional threats to biodiversity include dieback/disease, salinity, overgrazing, feral pests, and inappropriate fire regimes. The root causes of biodiversity loss are, of course, more complicated to unravel, but include elements such as demographic changes, poverty and inequality, macroeconomic policies and trade practices and patterns of consumption. These will take time and political will to tackle. In the meantime seedbanks can play a significant role by conserving inter-species and intra-species diversity. The collection and storage of seeds is not new. Many peoples have done this for millennia. Certainly, since the beginning of agriculture, most of the world’s food supply has relied on seeds that can be harvested and stored for a period of time. However, the establishment of native seedbanks for biodiversity conservation is a relatively recent occurrence, as is the use of stored seed in flora recovery projects. In some cases, ex situ conservation represents the only option available if the remaining natural populations are to be conserved in the face of destruction of their habitat. Actions to conserve individual species contribute in a fundamental way to broader conservation objectives, even if the species themselves are not highly threatened. Seedbanking cannot directly protect biological diversity of ecosystems, but it can ensure the protection of genetic diversity. Material can be provided for species and ecosystem recovery, and it has proved a cost-effective source of material for research. Investigations into seed germination and storage behaviour maximise the value of the material, and seedbanks have made an important contribution to education and public awareness. Ex situ conservation is a critical component of an integrated global conservation programme, and seedbanking is one of the most valid and widespread

methods used at present owing to its simplicity and economy in terms of technology, infrastructure, manpower and operating costs. It is possible to maintain large samples with wide genetic representation at an economically viable cost. Of the 9000 plant species whose storage characteristics are known, 92% have desiccation-tolerant seeds and are expected to remain viable in storage for at least 200 years. Today there are around 150 seedbanks found within the world’s botanic gardens. In addition, many national crop and tree seedbanks are increasingly moving into conservation of wild plant species. In any case, seed collections are a readily accessible and cost-effective source of material for research. Material is quickly and easily accessible to researchers, without the need to carry out expeditions or to over-exploit wild populations. Terms and conditions can be attached to the supply of this material which ensure the fair and equitable sharing of any subsequent benefits. The CBD provides the international framework for activities on biodiversity. The overall objectives of the CBD are conservation of biological diversity, sustainable use of components of biological diversity, and fair and equitable sharing of the benefits arising from the use of genetic resources. As has been discussed above, seedbanks have a role to play in meeting all three of these objectives. The CBD emphasises that the fundamental requirement for the conservation of biodiversity is in situ (on-site) conservation, but that ex situ measures have an important role to play.

The Millennium Seed Bank, Wakehurst Place, UK, is an example of a modern, well-equipped seedbank.

3

Australian Seeds

The Biodiversity Conservation Centre, Kings Park and Botanic Garden, Perth, Western Australia.

The CBD has been ratified by the governments of 187 countries, including Australia. It provides international political endorsement of the work of ex situ programmes, such as the Millennium Seed Bank Project, an international collaborative plant conservation initiative based in the United Kingdom. This worldwide effort aims to safeguard 24 000 plant species globally against extinction and has already successfully collected and stored seeds of virtually all the United Kingdom’s native flowering plants. This project is evidence of the resources now being directed into seedbanking for conservation. Even if species are lost in the wild, the work of seed collectors will ensure that plants will be available for use in future conservation and restoration efforts. Botanists have been at the forefront of conservation developments, and led by example with the development of the Global Strategy for Plant Conservation (GSPC). The Strategy originates from a resolution at the 16th International Botanical Congress, held in St. Louis, USA, in 1999. It was developed by a globally representative group of botanical institutes, non-governmental organisations and inter-governmental organisations, and was adopted by the Parties of the CBD in 2002. The Global Strategy for Plant Conservation provides a framework for actions at global, national and local levels to under-

4

stand and document plant diversity, conserve plant diversity, use plant diversity sustainably, promote education and awareness about plant diversity and build capacity for the conservation of plant diversity. The Global Strategy for Plant Conservation includes 16 targets to be reached by 2010. One calls for ‘60% of threatened plant species in accessible ex situ collections, preferably in the country of origin, and 10% of them included in recovery and restoration programmes.’ At a global level the lead organisations for this target are Botanic Gardens Conservation International (BGCI) and the International Plant Genetic Resources Institute (IPGRI). Meeting this target is no simple task. At present we do not even know how many species there are, let alone which are threatened. The GSPC currently states that 10 000 threatened plant species are maintained in living collections (botanic gardens, seedbanks and tissue culture collections), representing 30% of known threatened species. This leaves another 10 000 to be collected and conserved by 2010. However, more recent figures suggest that the number of threatened species may be around three times those used in the GSPC. The most important thing for seedbanks is to make information available on the species they hold, and to work together to avoid a duplication of effort. Some coordinated networks are already established. For example, the Millennium Seed Bank Project is working with partners from 17 countries worldwide to collect and conserve 24 200 species by 2010. Regional networks include the European Native Seed Conservation Network and the African Botanic Garden Network. There are also challenges regarding the quality of the collections. This will affect the usefulness of the collections for recovery and restoration programmes. There is little information at the moment on whether existing collections are genetically representative and attention also needs to be paid to the quality of storage. Finally, there is a challenge in ensuring that collections are held in their country of origin. This requires long-term commitment from the home governments but will also require technical support and assistance from established seedbanks. Australian seedbanks have a clear role to play here.

CHAPTER 2

Australian seeds through time Stephen Hopper, Kingsley Dixon and Robert Hill

The evolution of seeds was a major step in enabling plants to colonise land beyond wetland habitats or their margins. Seeds provided an escape from the requirement for free water to ensure sexual reproduction. This requirement still applies to present-day mosses, liverworts, ferns and fern-allies, and explains why these plants are confined to habitats where water is prevalent when they reproduce. The other advantages of seeds are the protection from desiccation, predators and pathogens they afford to the embryo, and the nutrients they provide for germination and early growth. With this revolutionary reproductive strategy, seed plants have been able to occupy most terrestrial landscapes. The essential precursor to seeds was the transition from plants producing spores of the same size (homospory) to producing two sizes: megaspores and microspores (heterospory). This occurred around 400 million years ago in groups such as the horsetails, tassel ferns, spike mosses, quillworts, ferns and other groups now extinct. Megaspores were precursors to ovules and microspores were precursors to pollen. By 370–354 mya (million years ago), fossil megaspores had developed an outer protective coating, and had become the first ovules or unfertilised seeds. At the same time, pollen was evolving from microspores. The microspores release flagellated structures that swim through water to fertilise immobile female gametes,

whereas pollen produces a tube through which male gametes are transferred directly into the ovule. The ovules also evolved pollen reception mechanisms, such as hairs, funnels and lobes to trap wind-dispersed pollen, and sticky pollination droplets borne on tentaclelike projections. The latter characterise cycads, conifers and their relatives to this day, whereas flowering plants have an enclosed protective coating with a single pore (the micropyle) to provide access for the pollen tube. This has the advantage of extra protection from desiccation, predators and pathogens, and enables evolution of elaborate seedcoats to facilitate dispersal away from the mother plant. At the same time as these revolutionary reproductive innovations were evolving, terrestrial plants had also increased their size and stature, attaining heights to 35 m. This was a time of remarkably high atmospheric CO2 concentrations and therefore high global temperatures. As plants evolved ovules and seeds, and increased their biomass as trees, they were able to survive and reproduce over many landscapes, mesic and arid, extensively colonising the land. This global greening of the land caused atmospheric CO2 to plummet, resulting in global climatic cooling in the ensuing period. Thus, the massive glaciation of the Australian part of the global supercontinent Pangea from 320 to 270 mya may be directly attributable to the effects of the evolution 5

Australian Seeds

of the seed. For this reason, our flat, deeply weathered continent, the product of unimaginable ancient glacial forces, owes its essential character to the humble seed. The earliest seed plants were pteridosperms (seed ferns) and cordaites. Seed ferns had fern-like foliage (but were not closely related to ferns) produced on plants ranging from vines to trees. They survived for more than 200 million years, overlapping in time with the earliest flowering plants. Cordaites were trees with strap-like leaves similar to today’s araucarian conifers. Although prominent in Australian periglacial forests together with seed ferns and giant horsetails, cordaites were extinct by 240 mya. Other groups of seed plants, including gymnosperms such as the cycads, ginkgoes and conifers, first appeared as fossils about 280 mya, but did not achieve dominance of global vegetation for 80 million years until the world became a hothouse at 200 mya (Figure 2.1). This global warming that melted the glaciers is attributed to widespread aridity and increased continentality owing to the formation of Pangea, which was centred on equatorial latitudes. Massive mountain ranges that were pushed up owing to the collision of Gondwana with its northern hemisphere counterpart Laurasia are also likely to have increased continentality, blocking moisture-laden oceanic winds from penetrating inland, and increasing aridity, even at the equator. The earth was inherited by plants capable of surviving and reproducing in arid environments. The age of seed plants had arrived. Interestingly, today seed dormancy predominates in

arid to semi-arid and temperate environments but is not so prevalent in tropical rainforest.2,3 The move into arid environments thus undoubtedly was facilitated by the evolution of dormancy mechanisms among early seed plants. Physiological dormancy, where the embryo has low growth potential and cannot overcome the mechanical constraint of the seed or fruit coat, occurs widely among extant seed plants.4,5 Less common but equally widespread phylogenetically (except for rosids) are morphological dormancy and morphophysiological dormancy. Physical dormancy, involving the presence of water-impermeable palisade-like layers of cells in seed or fruit, has evolved only in select angiosperms, especially Malvales. SEED PLANTS RULE

By the Jurassic (208–144 mya), the Australian flora was dominated by seed plants such as araucarian and podocarp conifers, bennettitaleans, and cycads, as well as ferns (Figure 2.1). Dinosaurs diversified, as did the first birds, with likely significant impacts on the disturbance regime experienced by plants. Such disturbance continued into the Cretaceous (144–65 mya), which was a period of climatic change in Gondwana to warm conditions. Conifer-dominated vegetation was progressively replaced by rapidly radiating angiosperms, especially in the latter half of this period. An excellent example of an angiosperm genus with seeds adapted for a disturbance-based ecology is Nothofagus.6 This genus has one of the longest fossil

Fig. 2.1. The number of species recorded through time of major land plant groups from 450 mya to the present. 1 6

Chapter 2 – Australian seeds through time

A

B

D

E

C F

G

5 mm

Fig. 2.2. Cupules of fossil and extant species of Nothofagus. In the subgenus Brassospora (A, B, C), the cupules have two woody valves that enclose one or three fruits. In the subgenera Lophozonia (D, E) and Nothofagus (F, G), the cupules usually have four cupule valves enclosing three fruits. A = N. peduncularis (Early Oligocene c. 30 mya, Little Rapid River, Tasmania), B = N. cooksoniae (Early Oligocene c. 30 mya, Little Rapid River, Tasmania), C = N. smithtonensis (Early Oligocene c. 30 mya, Little Rapid River, Tasmania), D = N. glandularis (Late Oligocene–Early Miocene c. 24 mya, Balfour, Tasmania), E = N. glandularis (Early Oligocene c. 30 mya, Little Rapid River, Tasmania), F, G = N. bulbosa (Early Oligocene c. 30 mya, Little Rapid River, Tasmania).

records among flowering plants, reaching back approximately 80 million years to its first appearance somewhere around the Antarctic Peninsula and southern South America (at a time when this was continuous land). The early fossil record of Nothofagus is provided by the very distinctive pollen and later by leaves. However, in southeast Australia there is a very good record of fossil cupules that bear the very simple fruits (Figure 2.2). The fossil record of Nothofagus in Australia demonstrates that the genus was very diverse here especially around 25–40 mya. This included all four of the extant subgenera (Figure 2.2), and probably some extinct subgenera as well. Today Australia has just three Nothofagus species, in two subgenera. This decline in

diversity underestimates the true decline in the genus over this time period, since at its height Nothofagus must have dominated large tracts of vegetation, with its pollen dominating both spatially and temporally over much of Australia for tens of millions of years. The disturbance-based regeneration ecology of fossil Australian Nothofagus is supported by two lines of evidence. First, large-scale land disturbances may have been much more common in Australia when Nothofagus was dominant in the vegetation. Apart from the impact of large dinosaurs, geological processes were also active. This was the time when Australia was separating from Antarctica and the extensive rift valley across southern Australia would have been a highly disturbed region. 7

Australian Seeds

A

B

C

E

F

G

1 mm D

Fig. 2.3. Fossil seeds from the Early Oligocene (c. 30 mya) Little Rapid River sediments in north-west Tasmania. None of these have been identified with certainty, and they are representatives of a very diverse seed flora at this locality. All scale bars = 1 mm. A = LRR1-302, B,C = LRR1-2216, D = LRR1-306, E = LRR1-356, F = LRR1-308.

Furthermore, Australia had a much more active volcanic history during much of the past 65 million years compared with today and some of these volcanoes were very large. Second, the cupule and fruit morphology of many of the fossil Nothofagus in southern Australia were almost identical with those produced by species that live today in very disturbance-prone areas. It is likely, therefore, that Nothofagus evolved in an area with a high rate of natural disturbance and throughout its history this has continued to be an important factor in its distribution. The relatively recent shift away from high natural disturbances in Australian wet forests (excluding fire) has led to a decline in Nothofagus diversity and dominance. There are many Australian fossil seeds whose relationships with living species are not as clear as for the Nothofagus fossils (Figure 2.3). This signals great oppor8

tunities for further research on the evolution of Australian seeds. It is clear that seeds have provided a mechanism of fundamental importance to plants during major periods of global aridity. The earliest seed plants colonised arid lands about 400 mya and their sheer abundance reduced atmospheric CO2 levels so much as to precipitate global cooling and the greatest and longest glaciation seen on earth (320–270 mya). Then conifers, cycads and ginkgoes came to dominate the subsequent hothouse world. Angiosperms likewise rose to ascendancy over conifers during the warming Cretaceous. Most recently in Australia, the onset of aridity around 30 mya and its intensification since 15 mya has similarly seen the proliferation of arid-adapted angiosperms at the expense of rainforest taxa.

Chapter 2 – Australian seeds through time

SELECTION PRESSURES ON AUSTRALIAN SEEDS

Seeds are produced as part of the reproductive system of plants. A familiar experience of many Australian seed collectors is the relatively low numbers of seeds produced by some genera such as Banksia, Macropidia, Verticordia and Lechenaultia. Often this is owing to complex genetic systems associated with inbreeding in small populations,7 especially on the ancient landscapes of south-west Australia.8 Careful experimentation and observation is needed to resolve the precise causes. The tremendous variation in seed size, shape and structure is the product of evolution through a complex and varied environmental history. Seed attributes represent a compromise between selection pressures for seed development, for seed dispersal and for germination and establishment of seedlings.9 Seed development may be so reduced as to be rudimentary, as in orchids, or elaborately complex, to ensure against desiccation, predation or disease infection. Dispersal by wind, water or animals selects for diverse seed architecture and biochemistry. Germination requirements do likewise, be they heat, smoke, scarification, cold treatment, aging or other factors. Seedling establishment brings to bear selection for sufficient resources and hormonal systems to ensure growth.

ular soil bacteria thought to produce growth factors for promotion of germination. The biological costs for this level of specialisation is indeed high. Orchids produce the smallest seed in the flowering plants (some less than a microgram in weight) to enable production of seeds per pollination event in the thousands and even millions. These seeds fall into crevices and spaces in the soil profile and await infection by a beneficial fungus. With such a small size and little or no embryonic differentiation, seed of Australian terrestrial orchids are particularly shortlived in nature – lasting just months or weeks following soil wetting with the opening rains. Without a fungal partner these terrestrial orchid seeds rapidly decay and lose viability. The degree of habitat specialisation between seed and biological agents has been taken to the extreme in the Western Australian underground orchid (Rhizanthella gardneri), where not only is a fungus of a precise type required but that germination will only occur if the fungus is in association with the root system of a specific shrub, the broom honey myrtle (Melaleuca uncinata).10 With this level of ‘habitat matching’ by the orchid, it is no wonder that the underground orchid is also one of Australia’s most endangered orchids! SEED SIZE AND ITS EVOLUTIONARY IMPLICATIONS

ARRIVING ON CUE!

The seeds of early Australian land plants enabled them to disperse an embryo and attendant food stores into habitats depleted of nutrients and experiencing sometimes extremes of seasonality in temperature and moisture availability. Overcoming nutrient deficiency in the soils was accommodated by ensuring the seed possessed sufficient on-board nutrient resources to sustain the seedling until the young plant could resort to de novo uptake and synthesis. In some cases this has been taken to the extreme with Australian Proteaceae capable of surviving on maternally derived nutrients for the first year and half of seedling growth. But coping with aridity and high temperatures presented particular problems for the seed – ingeniously solved by the adoption of a complex array of dormancy release cues in Australian species including temperature and external agents such as heat, nitrate and smoke. The seeds of terrestrial orchids are unique among plants in linking dormancy release to the intervention of a biological agent – in their case a specific mycorrhizal fungus and for some species in a partnership with partic-

Seed mass is one of the most important aspects of ecological variation among coexisting species. Sizes range from the dust-like seeds of orchids weighing a millionth of a gram to the double coconut whose seeds can attain 20 kg. There are fundamental trade-offs between producing many small seeds each with a low probability of establishment or fewer larger seeds better provisioned and able to withstand greater environmental stress once germinated.11 Seed mass tends to increase in shaded environments such as forests, whereas no clear trend applies to nutrient-poor versus nutrient-rich environments. Aridity and seed mass similarly exhibit little correlation. Indeed, apart from differences owing to shade, the major arena of variation in seed mass is usually within habitats. Predation is another consideration pertinent to seed size variation. Intuitively, large seeds would be expected to endure higher predation risks, but data acquired for 170 Australian species from arid, subalpine and temperate east-coast environments has indicated no significant relationship between seed mass and survivorship after exposure for 24 hours to seed predators. Causes of variation in seed size must lie elsewhere, unless the 9

Australian Seeds

Southern Beech (Nothofagus cunninghamii), Tasmania.

extinction of consumers of large seeds such as giant Australian mihirungs (goose-like birds) explains this surprising result. Other explanations might relate to available sunlight. Under low light conditions, for example, small-seeded species etiolate rapidly at the expense of root mass, exposing the plant to mechanical breakage and fungal attack to maximise the search for light, whereas largeseeded species do not grow as fast, and invest more in root systems. Should low light persist, large-seeded species have a clear advantage at this early stage of the life cycle. Unravelling the selective regimes and evolutionary

10

complexity of such patterns remains a challenging task for seed biologists. Australian seeds have an exciting and as yet poorly explored evolutionary history. Seeds represent a revolutionary innovation for global plant life in enhancing abilities to survive and reproduce in arid environments. Australia, as the most arid vegetated continent, presents significant opportunities to discover new and surprising things about seeds. In particular, most of the western two-thirds of the continent has experienced 270 million years of uninterrupted terrestrial life on predominantly old, flat, weathered, nutrient-deficient landscapes. This has provided conditions for the evolution of seed attributes that are globally unusual, especially in the south-west where a pocket of oceanically buffered mesic climate has persisted despite the onset of aridity 30 mya. Such unusual evolutionary conditions have been matched perhaps only by those seen in South Africa. As a result, deep dormancy syndromes in Western Australian species are among the most complex known with more major families with intractable dormancy than other similar areas of species richness. Mechanisms for dormancy release are equally complex and involve single and combinational dormancy cues that are environmental, climatic and/or biological with discoveries of new combinations being a regular occurrence. Such discoveries are not only of intrinsic interest. They will be of enormous applied value as well in horticulture, landcare and restoration of disturbed sites. The discovery of smoke as a stimulant for germination of large numbers of previously intractable Australian species is a telling example.12 Its application to Australian plants is barely a decade old, yet smoke has rapidly become an essential part of routine operations in Australian nurseries, landcare and mine-site restoration. The range of Australian seeds illustrated in this book undoubtedly have other stories to tell.

CHAPTER 3

Seed and fruit structure Paul Wilson and Margaret Wilson

GIVEN that virtually all animal (and human) life on Earth is dependent on the plant world, the seeds that give rise to the greater terrestrial portion of this green kingdom deserve our respect. Yet the attention given to seeds is often superficial. A knowledge of the structure of seeds and fruits is of great importance to botany, seedbanks, and for those needing to establish the identity of particular fruits and seeds either during the prosaic, routine examination of seedlots, or for the more specialised study of their presence in soil, in archaeological sites, as contaminants, or even as the subject of forensic or quarantine enquiries. An understanding of seeds and fruits is also required for the study of the medicinal and nutritional values of native plants and their traditional uses. The visual and cultural appreciation of seed and fruit structure and function is similarly important. Fruits with their appealing shapes are a timeless source of inspiration and enchantment. Australia possesses some fascinating forms, and their place in the world of art, flower arrangement and floriculture has still to be fully explored. Both in art and science, the rich variety of colour, scent and taste sensations of fruits and seeds, so important for their dispersal, have a significant role. From the scientific or biomechanical points of view, Australian seeds and fruits are masterpieces of design, superbly adapted to often extreme climatic conditions, impoverished soils, methods of dispersal, and critical

levels of competition and predation; their morphology reflects these factors. It should be borne in mind that the simple classification that follows, detailing the principal types of seeds and fruits found in Australia, has little bearing on the genetic relationships of the different species. Similar looking seeds or fruits can be found in plant families that are not closely related, while vastly different looking ones can occur in the same family. SEED FORMATION

A seed is generally formed from a fertilised ovule. How does this transformation occur? A typical flower is made up of sepals, petals, stamens (the male component), and an ovary (the female component), (Figure 3.1). The ovary consists of a chamber containing one or more compartments and usually bears at its apex a stigma, which is often supported on a style, an extension of the ovary. The ovary is considered to have arisen from a megasporophyll, a leaf that acquired a female function and bore ovules at its margin. The leaf folded around these ovules to form a closed seed-chamber. An indication of this ancient origin may still be seen in the ovaries of some modern-day plants. Each of the one or more ovules contained in the ovary is attached by a stalk or funicle (Latin for ‘string’) to a portion of the ovary called the placenta. 11

Australian Seeds

The ovule (Figure 3.2) at first appears as a domeshaped structure called the nucellus (originally named the ‘nucleus’). From this arises one or more layers of cells, the integuments (Latin for ‘coverings’) which enclose the nucellus, except at the tip where there is a tiny opening, the micropyle (Greek pyla: ‘a gate’). Within the nucellus, through a process of nuclear division or meiosis, several nuclei are formed that have only half the number (the haploid number) of chromosomes found in the flowering plant (which has the diploid number). One of these nuclei becomes the megagamete or egg. Pollination occurs when a pollen grain lands on the stigma of the flower. The grain develops a pollen tube which grows down the style into the ovary. The nuclei in the pollen are also haploid and make up the male gametes which pass through the micropyle of the ovule into the nucellus. One of these gamete fuses with the egg nucleus to become a zygote having the diploid number of chromosomes. The other male gamete fuses with two of the other haploid nuclei in the nucellus to produce an endosperm nucleus which is triploid, because it contains three times the haploid number of chromosomes. This process constitutes double fertilisation. SEED STRUCTURE

At maturity, a seed consists of an embryo, storage tissue and a protective seedcoat. The embryo develops from the fertilised egg-nucleus in the ovule. In dicotyledonous plants it is typically made up of a pair of cotyledons (the seed leaves), an epicotyl (i.e. ‘above the cotyledons’, the embryonic shoot apex), and a hypocotyl (i.e. ‘below the cotyledons’, the embryonic stem and root).

While the fertilised egg-nucleus or zygote develops into the embryo, the endosperm nucleus usually divides repeatedly to form a rich store of food that surrounds the developing embryo, providing it with nourishment (Figure 3.3). This endosperm may be entirely absorbed by the developing embryo, as happens in legumes and crucifers, or it may persist as a food supply for the young plant, as occurs in Boronia and many other members of the Rutaceae family. In many plants such storage tissue in the form of either endosperm or embryo is attractive as a food source to insects, birds, or mammals, as well as to humans. With the growth of the embryo and storage tissue, there is an increase in the size of the ovule and a change in its associated tissues, such as in the funicle and the integuments, as it progressively develops into a seed. The one or two integuments are of particular significance since from them the seedcoat or testa is formed (Figure 3.3), which is usually hard and provides mechanical protection for the seed. The seedcoat in some plants may also secrete chemical inhibitors to ward off competitors. In some instances the seedcoat exudes mucilage when wetted which allows it to adhere to the soil surface. When mature, the funicle usually breaks away from the seed at a point called the hilum, Latin for ‘a very little thing’ (Figure 3.3). The hilum forms a distinctive scar on the seed and becomes covered by a corky tissue. This hilum may be insignificant, as in orchid seeds, or it may occupy a considerable part of the seed surface, as in some legumes. A portion of the funicle that becomes fused to the seed is called the raphe (Greek for ‘a seam’).

stigma micropyle nucellus

integuments egg

petal style

funicle

stamen sepal ovary placenta

Fig. 3.1. Stylised section through flower 12

Fig. 3.2. The ovule

Chapter 3 – Seed and fruit structure

micropyle

testa embryo hilum

hilum raphe

endosperm raphe

endosperm

raphe

Fig. 3.3. Boronia seeds

aril aril

Fig. 3.4. Castor-oil seed

Fig. 3.5. Orchid seed

This organ transmits nutrients from the funicle through the testa into the nucellus. The raphe is usually too small a structure in the mature seed to be easily seen, but in some species of Boronia it is prominent and becomes covered by a glossy, black brittle layer (Figure 3.3). An additional character of the seedcoat that is found in some legume seeds, such as those of Acacia and Senna, is a fine line that is either u-shaped (as in Acacia) or circular (as in Senna) on either side of the seed. This is termed the pleurogram (Greek for ‘writing on the side’). Associated with the seeds of many species are outgrowths from around the micropyle or enlargements of the funicle; these are known as arils. In some Acacia species the funicle encircles the seed and enlarges to form a yellow or red swelling that remains with the seed when it is shed. In the castor-oil seed an oily outgrowth forms around the micropyle in the form of a wart and is techni-

Fig. 3.6. Legume seed

Fig. 3.7. Hakea seed

cally known as the caruncle (Figure 3.4). In the nutmeg family (Myristicaceae) the seed may be entirely covered by a coloured aril which forms the mace of commerce. These arils, or aril-like outgrowths, are generally edible and are therefore important for seed dispersal by insects, birds or mammals. SEED TYPES

The form taken by seeds is legion, but the following are examples of some of the more common forms that are found in Australian plants: Orchidaceae

The seeds of native orchids are minute (Figure 3.5), some weighing no more than 0.004 g. They consist of a thin, transparent and papery testa made up of air-filled cells. Within the testa is a tiny mass of undifferentiated cells (sometimes no more than 10) which form the embryo. 13

Australian Seeds

Orchid seeds are produced in abundance and are so light that they are readily scattered by the wind. Since the seed contains no storage tissue it will only germinate if it lands in the presence of a soil fungus with which it can form a symbiotic relationship.

The following classification is based on the structure of the fruit. However, it should be understood that fruits of similar appearance may be found in families that are not closely related. Simple fruits Dehiscent fruits Acacia, Eucalyptus Indehiscent fruits, dry Asteraceae, Petrophile Indehiscent fruits, fleshy Citrus, Olea, Santalum, Vitis Aggregate fruits Hibbertia, Ranunculus Multiple fruits Ficus, Morinda

Leguminosae

Genera such as Acacia, Hardenbergia and Chorizema have seeds (Figure 3.6) that are usually almost circular or broadly elliptical and bilaterally asymmetrical; the prominent hilum is positioned along their margins, and may be small or may extend along its whole length. The embryo consists primarily of a pair of cotyledons that may so fill the seed that the endosperm is scant or absent. The seedcoat is usually leathery or brittle. Sometimes the funicle is enlarged at the hilum to produce an aril which remains attached to the seed when it is shed. Rutaceae

The seeds of Boronia show considerable variation (Figure 3.3) but a common form is found in B. crenulata. In this species the seed is sub-circular with a deep hilum groove along one of the lateral faces. The raphe, a fleshy tissue, passes to the base of the seed and is often covered by a brittle layer derived from the outer testa. The inner testa is hard and thick, but a circular hole at its base allows the vascular tissue of the raphe to pass into the nucellus. The embryo is small and the bulk of the interior of the seed is occupied by endosperm.

Simple fruits

These are fruits that develop from a single ovary. If the ovary has more than one carpel then these are fused together. Simple dehiscent fruits

The fruits in this category develop from one ovary and the seeds are released by the splitting of the ovary wall, often along the lines of fusion of the carpels, or by the formation of pores in the wall. Common examples are:

•

Legume or pod (Figure 3.8). These terms are used for the fruits of members of the pea family, Leguminosae, such as Acacia, Senna and Hardenbergia. The legume consists of two valves connected along sutures that separate at maturity to release the seeds that formed a row in the pod. In some genera, such as Hardenbergia, the two valves of the ripe legume are elastic and separate explosively, flinging the seeds some distance from the plant.

•

Follicle (Latin for ‘little sack’). A follicle (Figure 3.9) is similar to a legume but usually only splits along one suture. It is sometimes woody. Examples are found in several Proteaceae genera such as Xylomelum, Grevillea and Hakea. The fruit of macadamia is technically a follicle, but is referred to as a nut.

•

Capsule. A capsule (Figure 3.10) is formed from an ovary that consists of two or more carpels. Examples are fruits of Eucalyptus and many other members of the Myrtaceae, of Drosera in the Droseraceae, and of

Proteaceae

The seeds of Grevillea and Hakea (Figure 3.7), and of others in the same family that bear follicles, are relatively large and flattened. The dry, brittle testa is extended on one side or all around the seed to form a membranous wing. The embryo is usually large and the endosperm absent. Such seeds are obviously adapted to dispersal by wind. FRUIT FORMATION

While the seeds are forming, changes are also taking place in the rest of the ovary. The ovary wall swells and undergoes various modifications to form the pericarp or fruit wall. The pericarp may fuse with surrounding organs, or a number of ovaries may fuse together to form a complex structure. The mass of different tissues that forms around the developing seeds is called the fruit. It may consist simply of seeds and the ovary wall, or it may include the perianth and the peduncle of one or of many flowers. 14

Chapter 3 – Seed and fruit structure

Fig. 3.8. Legume (Fabaceae)

Fig. 3.9. Follicle (Hakea)

Fig. 3.11. Siliqua (Brassicaceae)

Calandrinia in the Portulaceae. A special form of capsule is the siliqua, Latin for ‘a pod’ (Figure 3.11), which is the fruit of the cabbage family, the Brassicaceae. Typical Australian examples are Blennodia and Cardamine. The siliqua is made up of two valves. It is similar in appearance to the legume but is divided into two compartments or locules by a septum that runs its length, bearing one or more seeds in each locule. The two valves break away at the base and curl upwards to release the seeds. A siliqua is usually long and slender, but when it is short and broad it is called a silicula. Another common type of capsule is the pyxidium, from the Greek pyxis: ‘a casket’ (Figure 3.12). In this the fruit is often spherical and forms a horizontal ring of weak cells around

Fig. 3.10. Capsule (Calothamnus)

Fig. 3.12. Pyxidium (Trianthema)

the pericarp and eventually the upper portion falls away like a lid. This type of dehiscence is referred to as circumscissile and is found in many families such as the Portulacaceae (Portulaca), Amaranthaceae (some Amaranthus species) and Aizoaceae (Trianthema, Zaleya and Sesuvium). Simple indehiscent fruits, dry

These are fruits that are dry when mature, are formed from one ovary, and do not break open when ripe. Common examples are:

•

Caryopsis. A common type of indehiscent fruit is the caryopsis, a Greek word meaning that it resembles ‘a nut’ or ‘grain’ (Figure 3.13), found only in grasses. 15

Australian Seeds

Fig. 3.13. Caryopsis (a grass)

Fig. 3.14. Achene (Ranunculus)

Fig. 3.15. Achene (Rhodanthe)

(Casuarinaceae) are in fact fruitlets clustered into what is referred to as a cone (in this case a form of multiple fruit). Each female flower is surrounded by a pair of bracteoles; the naked ovary develops a hard pericarp to form a winged nut. This winged nut (or nutlet) is called a samara, a Latin name for ‘the fruit of the elm’ (Figure 3.17).

It is one-seeded and the testa is fused to the pericarp, but the principal distinguishing character is its complex type of embryo.

•

•

16

Achene. Another common type of indehiscent fruit is the achene, a Greek work meaning ‘not gaping’ (Figure 3.14). This is a small one-seeded fruit with a thin or crust-like pericarp. Examples are fruits of Ranunculus and Clematis (Ranunculaceae), Polygonum and Rumex (Polygonaceae) and the daisy family (Asteraceae). Because achenes are usually small, indehiscent and one-seeded, they are commonly referred to as seeds, though in fact they are fruits. The fruits of the Asteraceae are sometimes referred to as cypselas, Greek for ‘a hollow vessel’, a special type of achene (Figure 3.15). In this, the ovary is surrounded by both the fused pericarp and the floral tube. While normally dry, the outer coat may be succulent as in Chrysanthemoides monilifera, in which state it is known as a drupe (see below). It may become modified to bear spines or wings as occurs in some species of Cotula and Brachyscome. Nut. The term nut is used broadly to include the peanut, Arachis hypogaea (Fabaceae), which is a legume, the Brazil nut, Bertholletia excelsa (Lecythidaceae), which is a seed, and the macadamia nut, Macadamia species (Proteaceae), which is a follicle. In the botanical sense a nut is a dry, indehiscent fruit with one seed and a hard, often woody, pericarp. Nuts are found in a number of genera in the Proteaceae, e.g. Stirlingia, Conospermum (Figure 3.16), and Adenanthos. The ‘seeds’ of the she-oaks

Fig. 3.16. Nut (Conospermum)

•

Schizocarp. In the Apiaceae (Xanthosia family) and the Malvaceae (Hisbiscus family) are found a particular type of fruit called a schizocarp, Greek for ‘splitfruit’ (Figure 3.18). It has two or more dry and single-seeded carpels that split away from each other when ripe. The resultant portions are called mericarps, Greek for ‘part-fruits’. Examples are found in Xanthosia, Platysace, and Trachymene (Apiaceae) in which the fruit splits into two mericarps, and in Pavonia and Sida (Malvaceae) in which the fruit splits into many one-seeded mericarps.

Fig. 3.17. Samara (Casuarina)

Fig. 3.18. Schizocarp (Xanthosia)

Chapter 3 – Seed and fruit structure

Fig. 3.19. Drupe (Santalum)

Fig. 3.20. Berry (Solanum)

Fig. 3.21. Syconium (Ficus)

Simple indehiscent fruits, fleshy

Aggregate fruits

In these fruits the outer portion of the pericarp is fleshy or leathery; if formed from an inferior ovary the united pericarp and floral tube are fleshy. Common examples are:

Some flowers have two or more ovaries free from each other. However, the appearance of fruits formed from flowers with free ovaries is little different to the appearance of fruits formed from flowers with free carpels but united by a simple style. These ovaries can form many individual fruits in the one flower. An example is Hibbertia (Dilleniaceae) in which the carpels, when dry, form achenes, and when fleshy, form drupes.

•

•

Drupes (Latin for ‘an over-ripe olive’). These are commonly referred to as stone fruits since they have a woody endocarp (the inner layer of the pericarp) and a fleshy mesocarp (the middle layer of the pericarp). Examples are the fruits of Santalum (sandalwood and quandong) in the Santalaceae (Figure 3.19). Berries. In these fruits the whole pericarp is fleshy or succulent, except for the outer skin, and they can contain one or more seeds. The fruits of Vitis (Vitaceae), the grape, and Solanum (Solanaceae), the tomato (Figure 3.20), are typical. In the Cucurbitaceae are many different forms of berries, technically referred to as pepos (Latin for ‘pumpkin’), that have a hard rind partly formed from the floral tube; examples occur in Cucumis (cucumber), Mukia, and Luffa (vegetable sponge). The Australian Rutaceae also have specialised examples of berries, such as those in the tropical genera Glycosmis and Micromelum where the fruit resembles a very small orange.

Multiple fruits

These fruits are common in commerce but are not prominent in the Australian flora. They are formed from an inflorescence (a cluster of flowers), not a single flower, and therefore combine tissues derived from the ovary and perianth along with tissues derived from the peduncle or receptacle. Well-known examples of multiple fruits are the pineapple, Ananas comosus (Bromeliaceae), and the fig (Figure 3.21), the fruit of Ficus species (Moraceae). In the Australian fig species, numerous small flowers cover the inside of a hollow flask-shaped peduncle that has an opening at the top. It is technically known as a syconium (from the Greek sycon: ‘a fig’). The edible portion is principally the fleshy peduncle while the pips are individual fruitlets or achenes. Another Australian native plant with a multiple fruit is the cheesefruit tree, Morinda citrifolia (Rubiaceae), a native of the Kimberley region. In this fruit the numerous flowers produce one- to four-seeded drupes joined to form a succulent globular mass, the cheesefruit.

17

Australian Seeds

Some Australian fruit types

Simple dehiscent fruits. An Acacia pod (left), a Eucalyptus capsule (centre) and a Xylomelum follicle (right).

Simple indehiscent fruits, dry. A Triodia caryopsis (left), a Leucochrysum cypsela (centre), and a Conospermum nut (right).

Simple indehiscent fruits, fleshy. A Santalum drupe (left), a Solanum berry (centre) and a Myoporum drupe (right).

Multiple fruits. A simple cone of Callitris (left), a Cycas strobilis (centre) and a Ficus synconium (right). 18

CHAPTER 4

Seed biology and ecology David Merritt and Deanna Rokich

SEED ECOLOGY AND GERMINATION

Australian species can be grouped into those that store seeds in the plant canopy and those that release seeds into the soil seedbank. Species that retain their annual production of seeds on the plant in woody, protective fruits in the plant canopy, only releasing them after considerable time, are known as serotinous (or bradysporous) species. Species of the Proteaceae, Myrtaceae and Casuarinaceae are examples of serotinous species. Seed release of serotinous species may occur with the death of the plant or branches supporting the fruits, or following a fire. The serotinous seed component in drier regions of Australia (e.g. the Western Australian kwongan) may contribute 1100 seeds/m2 of soil surface.1 Conversely, in the jarrah (Eucalyptus marginata) forest there is only a limited number of serotinous species (7 seeds/m2). Plants that annually release seeds into the soil seedbank are known as geosporous. Species of the Mimosaceae, Apiaceae, Stylidiaceae and Ericaceae are geosporous. For a plant community to regenerate from seed, the topsoil and canopy seedbanks need to be in a suitable physiological state to germinate and take advantage of narrow windows of opportunity for successful seedling establishment. Seedbanks within the topsoil or canopy may persist for varying periods of time and germinate either simultaneously in response to favourable germination cues such as fire, or intermittently with germination

events spaced over a period of time. Seeds of serotinous species are generally only shed when conditions are favourable for germination and seedling establishment. Therefore, these seeds are usually non-dormant and able to germinate immediately upon release. Seeds of geosporous species are released each year into the soil seedbank and the risks associated with this simultaneous release into an unreliable environment are minimised through accumulation of several seasons worth of dormant seeds. Dormant seeds are those that do not readily germinate when provided with adequate moisture, appropriate temperatures, light and oxygen (for most species). Dormancy is a state which delays seed germination until conditions are more likely to ensure seedling survival and continued reproduction of the species. Disparities between seed viability and germination percentages observed in research studies indicate that seed dormancy is pre-dominant in our flora, but largely confined to geosporous species as the seeds must be able to sense the environmental conditions to time germination for those periods when seedling establishment is likely. Incorporation of dormant seeds into the soil seedbank can be viewed as a ‘bet-hedging’ response to uncertain environmental conditions, such as moisture availability or variability in the frequency, intensity or duration of fire. Delaying seed germination until 19

Australian Seeds

environmental conditions are favourable for establishment ensures seedling survival and continued reproduction of the species in the environment. Seeds must simultaneously sense a number of environmental conditions and time germination and emergence to particular times and habitat locations for successful establishment and survival. Temperature is one of the major drivers of dormancy loss and seed germination. For many Australian species in temperate and Mediterranean climates germination tends to be best at temperatures associated with the winter rainfall period (approximately 15–20°C) and seeds remain dormant at lower or higher temperatures. Maintenance of seed dormancy under high temperatures is particularly important for species of south-western Australia as summer thunder showers can

occur that may stimulate germination of non-dormant seeds but not produce sufficient soil moisture to carry developing seedlings into the winter period of regular rainfall. At present, the understanding of seed dormancy mechanisms and germination requirements of many Australian plants is limited. The inability to germinate seeds of species from many of the dominant plant families (e.g. Cyperaceae, Laxmanniaceae, Dilleniaceae, Ericaceae, Restionaceae and Rutaceae) is a major impediment to conservation, restoration and horticulture. However, it is well established that dormancy blocks or interrupts the germination process by various physical and/or physiological means along the sequence of events from seed imbibition of water to radicle emergence.

A selection of Australian genera reported to have smoke-responsive seeds Acacia*

Calytrix

Hybanthus

Pimelea

Acanthocarpus

Centrolepis

Hydrocotyle*

Pityrodia

Acrotriche

Chieranthera

Hypocalymma

Ptilotus

Actinostrobus

Clematis

Isopogon

Ricinocarpus

Adenanthos*

Codonocarpus

Johnsonia

Rulingia

Agonis

Comesperma

Kennedia*

Scaevola

Agrostocrinum

Conospermum

Lasiopetalum

Sowerbaea*

Allocasuarina*

Conostephium*

Laxmannia

Sphenotoma

Alyxia

Conostylis

Lechenaultia

Stackhousia

Amphipogon

Crassula

Leptomeria

Stirlingia

Andersonia

Cyathochaeta*

Leptospermum

Stylidium

Angianthus

Dianella

Leucopogon

Tersonia

Anigozanthos

Diplolaena

Levenhookia*

Tetrarrhena

Athropodium

Epacris

Lobelia

Tetratheca

Astartea

Exocarpus

Lomandra

Thysanotus

Astroloma

Ghania

Loxocarya

Trachymene*

Austrostipa

Geleznowia

Lysinema

Tripterococcus

Baeckea

Georgeantha

Macropidia

Velleia

Banksia*

Gompholobium*

Myriocephalus

Verticordia

Billardiera

Gonocarpus

Neurachne

Waitzia*

Blancoa

Grevillea

Opercularia*

Xanthorrhoea*

Boronia

Gyrostemon

Orthrosanthus

Xanthosia

Borya

Haemodorum

Patersonia

Bossiaea*

Hakea*

Persoonia

Brunonia

Hibbertia

Petrophile

Burchardia*

Hovea*

Philotheca

Caesia

Hyalosperma*

Phyllanthus*

Note: The smoke response can vary with seed age and dormancy status. * Species that have been found to be smoke-responsive under field conditions, but not in the laboratory. 20

Chapter 4 – Seed biology and ecology

Banksias are typical of serotinous species in Australia.Their seeds are commonly released from the cones following a disturbance event, usually fire.

Seed dormancy is either imposed by the embryo or by the seedcoat or outer coverings, with two basic states of dormancy recognised: primary and secondary dormancy. Primary dormancy is imposed whilst seeds are maturing on the parent plant. Secondary dormancy refers to seeds which are released from primary dormancy after being shed from the parent plant, but then re-enter dormancy owing to unfavourable environmental conditions. Seed dormancy is complex as there are many ways in which the dormancy may be imposed. An understanding of dormancy is necessary to develop reliable germination methods and is the subject of much study around the world. A recent classification system proposes five main ‘classes’ of dormancy based on readily observable seed and embryo characteristics.2 This system has not been applied to many Australian species to date, but it is nevertheless useful for narrowing down the types of treatments which may be successful in alleviating dormancy. One of these classes of dormancy, which has been long recognised in Acacia species (and other Australian legumes) is physical dormancy. Seeds with this form of dormancy possess coverings (seed/fruit coat) that are impermeable to water. A hot water (near-boiling) or dryheat treatment is often applied to allow imbibition and germination of physically dormant species. Alternatively, removing a small section of the seedcoat (using a scalpel or mechanised scarifier) also overcomes this type of dormancy. In nature, the seedcoats are thought to become permeable by repeated daily heating and cooling over many years in the soil seedbank, or owing to the passage of a fire. Once the physical barrier to water

uptake is removed, seeds of physically dormant species germinate rapidly (often within 2–3 days) at appropriate temperatures. Physical dormancy is known to occur within at least 15 plant families, including many families with Australian representatives, such as Anacardiaceae, Bombacaceae, Convolvulaceae, Geraniaceae, Malvaceae, Mimosaceae and Rhamnaceae.3 Another type of dormancy that appears prevalent in Australian seeds is physiological dormancy. This type of dormancy is recognised as the most commonly encountered form of dormancy worldwide, accounting for nearly 65% of all species in which the dormancy type has been documented.4 In seeds with this type of dormancy the embryo must be physiologically ‘cued’ to induce sufficient growth potential to overcome the mechanical resistance to radicle emergence imposed by the surrounding structures (e.g. endosperm, seed or fruit coat). Physiological dormancy has been shown to be overcome by stratification (moist incubation) in warm (> 15°C) or cool temperatures (1–10°C), or a period of dry afterripening prior to incubation. The commonly used plant growth regulator gibberellic acid often promotes germination of physiologically dormant seeds, as does smoke. Seeds of the difficult-to-germinate, woody-fruited Astroloma, Leucopogon, Myoporum and Scaevola have physiological dormancy. Fire is an important control of natural germination events, whether through direct effects of heat in destruction of seed at the soil surface, breaking of physical dormancy in hard-seeded species, or the opening of fruits to release seeds from the canopy seed reserves. 21

Australian Seeds

Some of the most spectacular of Australia’s plants produce seeds that are very difficult to germinate. Clockwise from top left: Astroloma xerophyllum, Boronia fastigiata, Hibbertia subvaginata, Calactasia narragara.

Recurrent fires within Australian ecosystems provide a periodic situation of an open environment with enhanced conditions of moisture, light and nutrients, normally ensuring the survival of germinated seeds, particularly if the fire has occurred immediately prior to winter. Of particular interest is the stimulatory effect of smoke on seed germination. Smoke and aqueous extracts of smoke have been found to enhance seed germination in over 100 genera of Australian plants. The diverse range of smoke responsive species includes representatives of all plant forms, fire responses and seed germination strategies. The use of smoke as a germination tool has increased the total recruitment and species diversity in mine-site restoration, opened up opportunities for horticultural development of species previously found to be difficult to propagate from seed, and assisted in evaluat22

ing soil seedbank dynamics in fire-prone environments. At present it is uncertain how smoke promotes seed germination, but there is evidence that smoke influences the dynamics of plant growth hormones important to germination.5 In Australia, germination responses to light are less well documented. However, light conditions have been shown to influence the germination of arid zone annuals and jarrah forest species. The ability to sense light is well developed in understorey jarrah forest species, where dark conditions are preferred and light inhibition is particularly apparent at higher temperatures. Increased germination percentages in darkness compared to light appears related to the ability of seeds to sense the buried soil environment. Seed burial generally ensures consistent moisture availability and

Chapter 4 – Seed biology and ecology

improved chances of seedling survival, particularly in the Mediterranean-type climate experienced in the jarrah forest and Banksia woodland where rainfall can be light and intermittent. Surface germination would be disadvantageous for subsequent seedling survival in this climate of periodic rainfall, especially under the warmer conditions of the first rains of late Autumn. The ability to sense the buried environment would also be an adaptive advantage in desert or seasonally arid regions where the soil surface is more likely to be moisture deficient. Some species can emerge from quite significant depths. Legume species, for example, have demonstrated an ability to emerge from depths of at least 10 cm, probably an adaptation to collection and burial by ants. Most of the legume species have eliasomes attached to their seeds which are associated with collection, dispersal and burial by ants. Legume seeds are generally relatively large and contain sufficient reserves of energy to allow them to emerge from depth. In contrast, seed burial can negatively affect the ability of seedlings to emerge and establish. Most small-seeded species germinate within the top 1 cm of the soil surface as they do not have sufficient energy reserves to emerge from greater depths. Many of these species are light requiring. Most species of Asteraceae, for example, require light to germinate, despite many of them occurring in arid or semi-arid regions. Moreover, maintenance of dormancy for some species under vegetation canopies that limit light penetration to ground level avoids competition between

emerging seedlings and already established mature plants. When soil disturbance or vegetation clearing increases exposure to light, seed germination is stimulated. The requirement for multiple cues (two or more cues in combination, or applied sequentially) to break seed dormancy is little appreciated in the Australian flora. In certain species, the role of smoke as a germination cue may be ancillary to other mechanisms. Some species, for example, require scarification of the seedcoat and incubation at alternating temperatures in addition to smoke treatment before maximum germination occurs.6 Many Australian species respond more positively to smoke after a period of aging in the soil, or following a number of months dry storage (after ripening), and without both treatments there is no germination. This suggests that physical and/or physiological changes induced by fluctuations in soil temperature and moisture render seeds non-dormant, and that smoke is the final ingredient required to elicit germination. In this regard there is a question over whether smoke is a dormancy breaking agent per se, or more of a germination-stimulating agent that promotes germination after dormancy is lost via another process. Interestingly, when some species are stored in soil, there is a decline in viability by more than 50% in less than one year, but for the remaining viable seed, germination improves in the second year, indicating that a substantial trade-off takes place between viability decline and dormancy release.

A typical scene following a fire in Western Australian kwongan heathland. In this small patch of soil, many of the most difficult to germinate species can be seen emerging, including species of Hibbertia and Ericaceae.

Another post-fire landscape. Many fire-stimulated species are evident, including Anigozanthos, Stirlingia and Tersonia.

23

Australian Seeds

SEED ECOLOGY AND RESTORATION

An understanding of seed ecology is important for effective restoration of degraded landscapes. For some restoration purposes, the topsoil seedbank is an important source of seeds, and for some plant species it may be the only source for establishment in disturbed areas such as post-mined sites. For example, in rehabilitation of post-mined jarrah (Eucalyptus marginata) forest, 72–77% of species which re-establish are derived from the topsoil seedbank,7 which is removed from forest sites prior to mining and subsequently replaced within the same sites during the restoration process. Thus, handled correctly, the topsoil seedbank can be used to successfully revegetate these types of disturbed areas. However, a thorough knowledge of the species composition, abundance and distribution in the topsoil seedbank is first required for setting restoration targets. A unique feature of the kwongan vegetation, north of Perth in Western Australia, is that a large number of species are serotinous. In this plant community, where the majority of species do not store their seeds in the topsoil seedbank, replacement of species to sites requiring restoration is achieved through use of the canopystored seedbank. In these instances, a mulch of the canopy material (containing the serotinous species) is the most important source of seeds in post-disturbed sites within kwongan vegetation, containing 85% of the total germinable seeds, whereas the topsoil seedbank contributes only 13% of the germinable seed.8

Optimising the germination of seeds and the restoration of the full range of species present before disturbance also requires an understanding of seed viability, longevity and dormancy. For germination to be initiated, three conditions must be fulfilled. First, the seed must be viable; that is, the embryo must be alive and capable of germination. Second, any dormancy condition present within the seed must be overcome. Third, the seed must be subjected to appropriate environmental conditions of available water, correct temperature regimes, supply of oxygen and sometimes light. Seeds are at their physiological peak when they reach maturity. Following this point a decline in seed viability occurs, owing to the aging process, and is assumed to continue until death of the seed. The potential longevity of any particular species is determined genetically and some species may live for many decades in the soil or canopy seedbank, whilst others may lose viability within a year of reaching maturity. The importance of seed longevity in the ecological sense can be viewed when observing the survival of a single generation of seeds through many episodes of uncertain environmental conditions. Where a species produces and disperses seeds with minimal longevity (and/or no dormancy mechanisms) into an environment unfavourable for establishment, the new generation of seedlings would be unlikely to survive. However, a species producing seeds with maximum longevity and/or the ability to remain protected in a dormant state, will contribute to the seedbank until favourable cues for dormancy release and germination are experienced, and the likelihood of seedling survival is greatest.

Two examples of the use of smoke in restoration. Smoke can be applied directly to topsoil returned post-mining, or applied to seeds prior to broadcasting in a restoration site. 24

CHAPTER 5

Seed collection in the field Luke Sweedman and Grady Brand

This chapter outlines the main issues that need to be addressed in order to collect seeds in a comprehensive and sustainable manner. The photographs are drawn from a wide range of collection trips in Western Australia and in Africa. The principles associated with seed collecting are applicable to most situations and although some issues, such as the terrain and the climate, will differ, collecting protocols are the same. The primary reasons for collecting seeds, especially the end use of the material, must be clearly understood by the collector as they will influence the degree and rigour of sampling. The storage conditions and the sampling strategies used for collecting seed of rare species are different from those applied to more common species. Collectors may be collecting material needed for restoring degraded lands, or for conserving genetic diversity of species and populations considered endangered or threatened. Equally, they might be harvesting seed from cultivated and wild sources for commercial uses, including forestry, horticulture and sale to the general public, or seeking material for display or study purposes in botanic gardens or other research institutions. Collecting seeds from appropriate plants can ensure the selection of notable forms, and those with inherently desirable characteristics – selecting for salt tolerance, for example. In the majority of cases, seeds provide a good representation of a population and the inherent strengths

and subtleties of a species. However, propagation via seed in a nursery may not exert the same natural selection pressures on a seed batch as in the wild and it must be remembered that not all characteristics are passed on by seeds. Some species of variable flower colour will not produce true to type from seeds. Some forms, such as a prostrate habit, can be of an environmental origin, rather than an inheritable characteristic. And low seed viability or deep, intractable dormancy may limit propagation and storage potential. GENERAL PRINCIPLES FOR COLLECTING SEEDS

Some principles are common to all types of collecting, regardless of the sampling strategies. Correct horticultural technique is essential when collecting seeds to ensure the ongoing health and vigour of the source population. If the resource is well managed and plants are present in reasonable numbers, seeds may be harvested without adverse impacts on the sustainability of the population. Plants should be assessed as to the availability of material and whether collecting is likely to place the population under stress. If the population is wilted, diseased or unhealthy in appearance, it should be left alone. Collectors should try to leave the population in as good a condition as it was when they arrived. Shrubs should be pruned rather than disfigured or lopped. 25

Australian Seeds

A well-organised collecting vehicle with clearly labelled seed bags.

Collecting spinifex seeds, Great Sandy Desert, Western Australia.

Photo: Stephen Scourfield.

Collecting mature Ptilotus fruits. Photo: Stephen Scourfield.

Collecting Combretum collinum seeds in Tanzania.

There are licensing requirements for seed collecting in most Australian States. These may recommend the collection of only 20% of the available seeds from a population at any one time. This is intended as a general guide to help ensure that collecting does not make an undue impact on the long-term survival of the population. Plants should be cut with sharp tools to ensure that wounds are kept to a minimum and to limit the possibilities for fungal damage and facilitating its spread. It is a good practice to disinfect tools between populations in known disease risk areas. Collection of seeds should be done randomly and be representative with respect to ecological variations within 26

Using a pole pruner to collect Euphorbia in Kenya.

the site. For example, if part of a population is growing in a swamp, it may be better to make a separate, representative collection. Unusual forms within a population should be treated as individual collections if this feature is considered noteworthy. Seeds can be gathered from beneath many plants if the seed has matured and dehisced. However, care should be taken since predation can rapidly take place when mature seeds are available to predators. Cut plant material should be placed in calico, hessian or paper bags and tied securely. Avoid the use of plastic bags as they can lead to uneven drying and condensation

Chapter 5 – Seed collection in the field

Collecting Hakea fruits. Plants should be cut with sharp tools.

Using the vehicle as a platform.

Photo: Stephen Scourfield.

Using sheets to collect Acacia seeds, Wheatbelt, Western Australia.

Pouch and bags secured on a belt. Photo: Stephen Scourfield.

problems. Large plastic bins are perfect to place cut material in as the collection is made. These are easily moved around the population and the contents can then be tipped into bags to be processed. Plastic bins are also useful to tap seed into as you collect through a population, especially where the seeds are balanced on the terminal branchlets, for example Olearia and Cratysylis in the Asteraceae family. Drop sheets are also useful for placing around the base of shrubs to collect seeds. The best of these are light canvas sheets used by painters. These are essential for collecting seeds from many acacias. All collections should be labelled with (at the very

Acacia seeds collected on drop cloths in calico bags.

least) a unique field number and preferably a field number, date and the name of the species. Material that is damp should be packed more loosely and placed in a drying environment as soon as possible. Wear appropriate protective clothing and eye protection. Some groups, such as grevilleas, can produce allergic reactions. Use a pouch for secateurs to keep the hands free. Bags can be tucked into a belt around the waist as a temporary storage. Collectors should be careful not to mix species when making a collection. A dense, pure stand is ideal to keep the seedlot free of other species. It is important to focus 27

Australian Seeds

on the targeted species and to ensure you know what it looks like when seeding. Be aware of collecting in areas where there are weed species which may be inadvertently collected as well. A stable platform on the top of a vehicle is ideal for collecting from most trees. Other options for tall species include rope climbing (only to be attempted by those qualified to do so), or pruning of selected branches using saws or pole-pruners.

•

Are the seeds well formed and turgid? If they contain moisture and appear plump, rather than dry and shrivelled, then they are probably good quality. Simply cutting the seed in half is an easy way of making this judgement. Use a sharp blade to cut the seed.

•

Are the persistent fruits from genera such as Allocasuarina, Melaleuca, Calothamnus and other Myrtaceae shrubs older than the last flowering time? For many of these shrubs it is preferable to select material matured from previous seasons. These fruits are usually located towards the centre of the shrub. The capsules can be cut with secateurs to check for the presence of seeds.

•

Is there any evidence of insect damage, such as webbing, frass or holes in the fruits or seeds? If so, it may be necessary to cut the seeds to determine the quality of the material.

•

Are the seeds dehiscing naturally? Seeds should be dry in appearance and in many cases easily displaced by hand. For example, Thryptomene and Verticordia seeds should be easily dislodged when fully ripe. Alternatively, seeds may be fluffy and fall easily from the plant or be blown off by the wind. Wind dispersed species include Gomphrena spp. and many of the Asteraceae, including the common everlastings (Rhodanthe spp.)

•

Finally, is the timing right? For example, trying to collect Acacia, Grevillea and many other genera out of season may provide you with a small amount of seed, but only that which is left over from the main

MAKING THE ASSESSMENT OF THE RIGHT MATERIAL TO COLLECT

A field assessment is critical for making good collections. To determine whether seeds should be collected, the following must be considered:

Chorizema pods ready for collection.

Senna fruits ready for collection. 28

Billardiera fruits dehiscing seeds.

Chapter 5 – Seed collection in the field

Calandrinia flowering in the Gascoyne region,Western Australia.

Calandrinia plants will continue to mature and produce seeds after harvest.

seeding event some time ago. In temperate Australia, many Grevillea species flower in late winter, through to summer. Knowing when the plants flowered means you can estimate when the seed is likely to be ready. Some annual plants will continue to produce seeds even though the plant has been removed from the ground. This is true of many succulent annuals, such as Calandrinia spp. and Portulaca spp. This is also true of the short-lived Lobelia species.

Some specific points for seed collectors to consider:

•

Stay focused on the aims and intentions of the collecting trip.

•

Is the timing right for the species to be collected and do you have accurate locations of good populations?

•

Do you have good knowledge of the target species and what it looks like?

•

Do you have the right vehicle and is it fitted out to provide safe, comfortable travel?

•

Do you have the correct licenses for collecting and for passing through designated lands, for example, Aboriginal lands?

•

Consider your equipment needs: bags, secateurs, pole-pruners, collection books, plant reference books, tags and safety gear.

•

Set goals about how much material you need so as not to waste time collecting too much or too little.

•

Make clear judgements about the material. If it is not mature, then leave it for a later time.

PLANNING A COLLECTION TRIP

Thorough research and planning before leaving on a trip is crucial. Field-based collecting can be an expensive undertaking and it is important to get the maximum benefit from fieldwork. A well-organised programme with realistic targets is the best way of using time effectively. With clear lists of target species, knowledge of their locations, and an awareness of seeding times, the collector stands a good chance of a successful outcome. Collecting may require specialist equipment, such as pole-pruners or a GPS (Global Positioning System), that most seed collectors now find mandatory. If travelling into remote areas you may need a satellite phone to ensure that you are prepared in the case of an accident. If travelling onto certain land you may need a special permit. Locations may require accurate maps and collectors may require meteorological information to check weather forecasts. Field books and all collecting gear needs to be checked before leaving to ensure everything is in good working order.

THE RIGHT VEHICLE

A reliable, well-organised vehicle is a great asset for seed collecting and the better the vehicle is organised, the longer a collector will be able to work comfortably and safely in the field. A small conventional vehicle can be used of course, but the process is made easier if you have

29

Australian Seeds

Seed collecting vehicle, Geita, Tanzania.

Planning what to target, Geita, Tanzania.

The Western Australian Seed Technology Centre collecting vehicle.

Clearly labelled calico bags.

a purpose-designed and accessible work vehicle. A fourwheel-drive vehicle may be essential in rough terrain and remote areas. A good quality four-wheel-drive, with a large opening rear door and a purpose-built roof rack, is ideal. Equipment is easier to get in and out of this type of vehicle and the roof rack can be used as a platform to reach small trees. A large wire box mounted on the roof of the vehicle is ideal for storing seed bags during a collecting trip. This should have a timber cover over it to ensure bags are protected from the direct sunlight and a canvas cover to protect seeds from the rain and dew. This is handy when you are collecting a lot of material and can also be used to dry material that is damp when collected. On trips of several weeks, bags of material may be freighted back when space becomes restricted. Make sure you know

what conditions material will be subjected to while travelling. If the material is travelling overnight inside a truck, this may be fine. However, transport on the back of an open vehicle in the weather for several days would not be suitable. Whether bags are stored outside or inside a vehicle will depend on the size of the collections. If only small amounts of seed are being collected, storing them inside the vehicle is ideal. Collected material should be arranged so it dries evenly.

30

COLLECTION BAGS

Bags made of calico or hessian can be kept rolled in bundles until needed. They need to be kept clean, without remnants of a previous collection, and should be cleaned by brushing off any old seed. If remnant seed cannot be removed the bags should be discarded. They

Chapter 5 – Seed collection in the field

A pure stand of pink everlastings marked for collection.

Pressing specimens or vouchers.

should have two ties on one side to secure the bags. The bags can then be rolled into bundles for storage. Calico is an ideal material for drying as it ‘breathes’ well. Hessian bags are better for larger, woody species such as Banksia and Hakea. Wool bale bags are a useful size for collecting large amounts, and they are easily moved from plant to plant without tearing. These are available from agricultural suppliers. They may be secured by tying at the top using twine. It is important to secure the bags well as seeds can leak out, and be lost over the course of a long trip. Paper bags can be used for smaller quantities and seeds dry well in these. Small bags can be placed in larger hessian bags to keep the collections organised. It is also good practice to check bags periodically to ensure that the tags remain attached and they are tied correctly. Losing a tag will render the contents useless for determining the exact species. Some collectors advocate labelling of bags inside and out. If the tags are lost from the outside then a separate cardboard tag inside can save the collection.

LEGAL CONSIDERATIONS

All States and Territories of Australia have different licensing requirements for collecting seeds. Contact your relevant state conservation authority for guidelines and ensure all appropriate approvals and licences are in place prior to collection. DISEASE CONTROLS

Collecting in a known disease risk area, or where there is a possibility of transmission by water or infected soil, requires care. Vehicles should be washed well, before and after visiting disease risk areas. Collecting in wet areas or during wet weather where pathogens such as dieback are active is not recommended. Where there is evidence of other pathogens (e.g. aerial canker), sterilise secateurs between collections with bleach or methylated spirits. Collectors should check with local authorities wherever they have not previously collected to ensure they are fully aware of the issues that are relevant to an area. 31

Australian Seeds

SAMPLING STRATEGIES

COLLECTING SEEDS OF RARE OR THREATENED FLORA

The following guidelines for sampling seeds will provide material for a range of uses, including restoration of mine sites or of degraded lands, revegetation programs, collecting for propagation and commercial collecting. In all cases correct horticultural techniques should be followed:

Collection from threatened and endangered plant populations is usually only possible by suitably qualified people who have relevant permission and licences. Collecting is generally done to secure small quantities of material for propagation and storage for conservation outcomes. In some instances the population may only contain a handful of individuals and this places the greatest demands on the collector who must be clear about what material to remove and the aims of the collection. Where the population is fewer than 15 individuals, material should be collected from each individual and treated as a separate collection. The location of each individual needs to be mapped and numbered. Where there are more than 15 individuals in a population, material should be collected from at least 10 individuals, up to a maximum of 50. Selection should be random if possible, but material should be collected from various habitats at the population site. Where there are numerous populations, material should be collected from each of them. Five populations should be the total targeted.

•

A good sampling number is 10 individuals out of a population of at least 50 individuals. Where possible, this would be a minimum population size from which to collect. Collecting from at least 10 plants should provide a good range of genetic diversity. If there are interesting forms within populations, such as flower colour, collect from these separately. If collecting large amounts of material, choose large populations where many plants can be targeted to reduce the stress on the overall population. Collecting from a large number of plants improves the genetic representation of a sample and is better than collecting a large number of seeds from a small number of plants.

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Accurate records using field books or a field database should be kept to provide details of all collections. When collecting the same species from different areas label separately. If in doubt as to the species identification, take a specimen with the field number and habitat details for identification by a botanist.

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For revegetation programs, collect local provenance wherever possible. This means that material should, ideally, be collected from areas as close to the site being revegetated as possible. If seeds are collected away from the area then the areas should be as close as possible in habitat type to the intended revegetation site. Only use the same species from different areas if there is no alternative. Modern genetic testing is the only precise way of determining exactly the geographic range over which a species may be collected. However, good outcomes are possible by at least following the principle of localised collection. For large revegetation programs, a botanical survey is the best way of determining the key components of the local flora and ensuring a degree of habitat matching between sites. An accurate list of all species, as well as specimens of each should be made. This can also serve as long-term reference material. A collection number ties the voucher, the seed and the records together.

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Chapter 5 – Seed collection in the field

A good specimen for the herbarium.

Attaching numbered tags to specimens. Photo: Stephen Scourfield.

In some cases the individuals in a population should be tested genetically to ensure adequate sampling of the available genetic pool. Precise recording of all details should be entered in an appropriate field book or on computer. Information recorded should include the number of plants in the population, the precise location (a GPS is useful), soil type, rock type, aspect, condition of plants, associated vegetation, threats to the population and collector identification. A herbarium specimen should be taken for species verification.

includes foliage, flowers and fruits where possible. Identification of plant specimens usually relies on flower parts and without these it is considerably more difficult. A field press can be as simple as a telephone book, or two boards, sheets of newspaper and a rope to bind the press. Adjustable nylon luggage ties are ideal. The plant specimen should always have the field number attached. Small jeweller’s tags are most often used to attach the field number to the specimen. It is standard practice for regular collectors to collect a number of vouchers so that duplicate specimens can be lodged with relevant state herbaria. A field record sheet or book with the field number and other details describing the location, latitude and longitude, a description of the colour form and any other information relevant to the collector is important.

RECORDING SEED COLLECTIONS

Records serve the function of being able to tie the collection to a field number, herbarium voucher, and a range of information on that collection. Records are particularly important for unknown specimens and for locating the plants in the future. Each collection should have a field number assigned to the collection with the collector’s initials or other means of identification. For example, LSWE 3456, where LSWE is the collector’s name (in this case Luke Sweedman), and the number is a rolling number of separate collections made. This number is attached to all material collected including seed bags and herbarium specimens, and is noted in field books. Until a species is known reliably in the field it is very important to take a herbarium voucher for species identification. This consists of a piece of plant material best displaying the characteristics of the plant. Ideally this

A collection record on the Botanic Gardens and Parks Authority, Kings Park, database. 33

Australian Seeds

Secateurs. Photo: Stephen Scourfield.

Drop sheets.

Wool bale sacks. 34

Collection bags (calico or hessian). Photo: Stephen Scourfield.

Long-handled parrot-beaked pruners.

Power pole-pruner.

Acacia pods at the stage of dehiscence.

Chapter 5 – Seed collection in the field

Checklist of equipment for collecting Essential equipment:

• • • • • • • • • • • • • •

Secateurs with secure leather pouch Parrot-beaked pruners Small hand-pruning saw A range of calico and hessian bags Tags for specimens and bags Large and small marking pens Record books or collection sheets Target lists, licences and field guides Plant press Hand lens Drop sheets Plastic bins for picking into Gloves Protective sunglasses

Other equipment that may be necessary:

• • • • • •

Power pole-pruners Small chain saw Global Positioning System Wool bale bags Microscope Small dissecting kit for seeds

Seeds collected from the ground must be checked for predation.

Information such as the amount of seeds collected, notes on the size of the population and numbers of plants sampled are also worthwhile. Increasingly, this information is being entered on portable computer systems in the field. EQUIPMENT FOR COLLECTING SEEDS

It is always good practice to purchase the best quality tools. Having the best quality gear will mean that unexpected failures in the field are kept to a minimum. Different tools may be needed depending upon the level of sophistication and the quantity of seeds required. The checklist above is intended as a general guide to those items that are useful and those that are essential for the collector. TIMING OF THE COLLECTION TRIP

Seeds should be collected when mature and at the point of natural dehiscence. At this point, the fruits and seeds are usually becoming dark in colour, material is dry and becoming woody and in many cases seeds are falling from the plant or becoming airborne. However, collection at

this point is not always possible. In many cases some of the material is mature and other material is still developing. When considerable expense has been allotted to a collection programme, material that is less than ideal may need to be collected. Where possible, a majority of the seeds should be mature and often the best time to collect is when, on average, most of the seeds have begun to naturally dehisce, with only a few being marginally ripe and others still green. Seeds of the majority of plant species will not ripen if collected prematurely. In addition, these seeds may be less vigorous. However, seeds of some species will ripen if picked green. Acacias, for example, that are collected green, but with well-developed pods and seeds, will ripen to produce viable seeds. If seeds are very green, and there is no possibility of returning to the population at a later time, then collecting sections of branches with the fruits can improve the chance of getting mature seeds. Ideally, an early visit to the site should be made to gauge the progress of ripening to ensure seeds are mature when they are collected. 35

Australian Seeds

Green Acacia pods.

Collect Allocasuarina fruits by rolling them away from the stems. Photo: Stephen Scourfield.

A field assessment of seeds is critical for ensuring good collections. Seeds should be studied under a field microscope or hand lens. They should be well formed and all appear similar in form and development. A quick cut test on the seeds will ensure there is a well-formed endosperm. This test in the field involves using a sharp blade (such as a scalpel) to cut a sample of seed in half. The contents are checked for a healthy appearance. Check also for the presence of insects in the material. Consider the condition of the population and whether or not making a collection will place the plants under stress. Considering all these factors will not mean spending a lot of time, but it can improve the quality of the collections. Successful collection of seeds is largely based on a good general knowledge of the species accrued over a number of years. Some seeds are easy to collect and are available for collection at any time of the year, for example many Eucalyptus species, particularly in the southern parts of Australia. Conversely, other species are annuals or ephemerals. These plants generally germinate, develop, flower and seed over a period of less than 12 months. For example, some everlasting daisies such as the pink everlasting (Rhodanthe chlorocephala ssp. rosea) can complete their life cycle in as little as four months. For many of these species there is only a small window in which to make a good collection. The timing can be so precise that collectors must know to the day when the seeds will be ready. Perennial shrubs and trees generally have more reliable periods over which seed is available and it is easier to set guidelines for collecting times. Many plants have seeds

36

retained on the plant and therefore seeds can be collected over extended periods, for example many shrubs of the Myrtaceae such as Melaleuca. Some plants, such as Acacia or Kennedia, dehisce over a number of weeks, meaning collecting times can be staggered to suit a programme. Many species will not produce healthy seeds if the rainfall throughout the growing season has been inadequate. Woody shrubs such as Acacia may abort their seeds if conditions are bad. Thus, although general collecting times can be set for a species, given the vagaries and seasonal variation throughout Australia these must be fairly flexible. Maintaining long-term observations of plant populations and variations in seed set from year to year will improve decision-making on when seeds are best collected. The collecting season is often based upon a number of issues, such as what species are required, when they are flowering, the areas in which these species grow and the local climatic conditions (particularly rainfall and temperature). Visiting an area a number of times throughout the collecting season allows fine-tuning of collection times. On the first visit, when the plants are in flower, herbarium specimens can be taken for species identification. The next site visit may be to collect seeds from those species that set seeds. Finally, a third visit may be made in summer to collect seeds from late fruiting species. Each time you visit an area you continue to build a picture of what different species are doing at different times of the year. This develops skills in observation and timing and increases the chances of making a successful collection.

Chapter 5 – Seed collection in the field

The Canning Stock Route after a fire event has stimulated growth.

Ideal rains trigger mass flowering in the everlasting country, Yalgoo, Western Australia.

Road verge disturbance often stimulates germination.

Balaustion pulcherrimum germinating after disturbance.

CUES FOR UNUSUAL SEEDING EPISODES

Fires

Disturbance opportunists

Fires can have a major effect on the flowering of many Australian plant species. Fire provides the cue for stimulating germination and growth, often resulting in spectacular flowering events, and also triggers the germination of disturbance opportunists. These species can produce masses of seeds as early colonisers of the burnt site. Since fires can be very irregular events, many of these species use post-fire growth to build seed reserves in the soil seedbank. Some of Australia’s rarest plants rely on fire events to germinate. For example, Eremophila racemosa germinates in large numbers following fires the previous year, and then it declines and returns to the soil seedbank to await another fire. Another example is the rare, small

Disturbance opportunists are those species that are only found in numbers following a major disturbance event. This may be fire, land clearing, or, as may have occurred in the past, disturbance by large numbers of ground digging marsupials. Once disturbed, these plants often grow rapidly and are prolific seeders under ideal conditions. Disturbance opportunists are early colonisers linked to nutrient regimes following disturbance events and may be absent from the flora for long periods of time. However, the seeds remain in the soil seedbank, often for long periods.

37

Australian Seeds

Bushland can tolerate fires and smoke stimulates the germination of seeds, Black Point, Western Australia.

Glishrocaryon and Dampiera species flower prolifically in response to fire, Hyden, Western Australia.

Precipitation events (annuals and ephemerals)

Eucalyptus sepulcralis in the Fitzgerald River National Park, Western Australia.

herb Sowerbaea multicaulis. It was collected in 1931, and again in 1964, but it was then not seen again until road grading in the Southern Cross area of Western Australia in the early 1990s and following large fires in 1993. Resprouting species, such as many of the eucalypts, may take many years following a fire to begin seed production. In particular, if fire is followed by poor rainfall in semi-arid country, seeds can be rendered unavailable to the collector for a decade or longer. For example, populations of Eucalyptus sepulcralis, an endemic species from Western Australia, were burnt completely in 1989 and did not sufficiently recover to produce fruits and seeds for collection until 2000.

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From many seasons of observation, it is clear that many species have their own window or ideal conditions which, when met, results in remarkable flowering displays. This most often follows rainfall episodes, given that much of the arid interior of Australia is linked to a pattern of cyclonic events. Rain is often infrequent, intense and occasionally flooding. As a result, large tracts of the semi-arid parts of Australia have seasonal events dominated by groups of annuals such as Rhodanthe spp. and Ptilotus spp. Good years in the Pilbara can see Ptilotus helipteroides dominant at the expense of other species. In especially good seasons Ptilotus exaltatus and Swainsona formosa can dominate together. In the tropical Kimberley region, Gomphrena spp. are often prevalent. These short-lived species will dominate the perennial shrublands in good rainfall seasons; at other times they do not appear. It is apparent that different species are triggered by unique seasonal conditions. For example, Rhodanthe chlorocephala subsp. splendida requires substantial and consistent amounts of rainfall to reach peak flowering. Schoenia macivorii, a beautiful everlasting, also requires large amounts of rainfall to emerge in abundance. In particular years Rhodanthe sterilescens can completely dominate in regions such as Carnegie in Western Australia, and other species are not seen. Some species are very site-specific and do not range over large areas and may never occur in large numbers. Such species include Rhodanthe oppositifiolia subsp. ornata in Shark Bay in Western Australia, Haptotrichion colwillii from the

Chapter 5 – Seed collection in the field

Rhodanthe sterilescens growing at the exclusion of all other annuals, Carnegie, Western Australia.

upper Murchison region in Western Australia, and Rhodanthe rubella from the Western Australian Goldfields. In an ideal season, some of the more obscure species may be scattered within larger populations and are difficult to detect. For example, Rhodanthe chlorocephala subsp. cremea was only collected from Shark Bay when it was noticed that within large populations of Rhodanthe chlorocephala subsp. splendida, there was a different group of plants, fewer in number, but nonetheless distinct. Therefore, the seed collector may need to be astute in looking beyond the obvious characters and seeing the unusual and less abundant species. Other ephemerals are less reliant on consistent, seasonal rainfall, but more reliant on unusual seasonal conditions. For example, Velleia spp. and annual Goodenia spp. appear to tolerate drier conditions and intermittent rainfall more successfully than Rhodanthe spp. DEFINING A GOOD SEASON FOR FLOWERING AND SEEDING

Moist, autumn conditions followed by good winter rains produce ideal conditions for annual displays in temperate Australia. Major flower displays can be seen in the semi-arid mulga country of Western Australia. These ideal conditions are created in April when mid-level disturbances merge with strong winter frontal systems. When these conditions are followed by regular, soaking rains throughout the growing season, a good season is assured. Peak flowering occurs in August or early September. Huge quantities of seeds and vegetative material can be produced in these displays.

Brunonia australis grows commonly with Waitzia species, Wiluna, Western Australia.

Goodenia dominating around Mt Augustus, Western Australia.

Intermittent rains from inconsistent, weak frontal systems, or late rains in early winter result in small ephemeral plants with few flowers and seeds. Good, oneoff seasons that produce large displays of ephemerals are not necessarily ideal conditions for flowering and seeding in trees and shrubs. This will not translate into good seed production unless there are consecutive years with good rainfall. SEED PREDATION IN WILD STANDS

In some populations, insects may heavily predate certain species, with the type and level of predation contingent on a number of habitat variables. Predation is often more common in isolated or fragmented bushland areas where 39

Australian Seeds

A great everlasting season.

A bumper year for shrubs and annuals on the Canning Stock Route.

populations have already significantly declined. The collector may need to evaluate different populations in different areas before determining if good quality seeds have been secured. Some of the most highly predated genera are Acacia, Banksia and Patersonia.

acuminatum and Anigozanthos manglesii can be genetically distinct at distances of a few kilometres. Therefore, several collections across the range of a species will better represent the changes at a species level overall. Keep these collections separate and use those that are closest to the site being restored. Careful observations and visits over a number of seasons, particularly in spring and summer, to potential collection sites is a good strategy and will mean that collections can be made across a full range of species. Six to eight weeks after flowering Acacia species are likely to have ripening seeds, but it may be up to three months before they reach full maturity. For other plants, such as the everlastings, seeds will be available in the last two weeks of September, in a good season, in Western Australia. Precise seeding times are difficult to provide for those species that drop seed and frequently visiting sites is the best tactic for getting it right.

IMPLICATIONS FOR THE COLLECTOR

The collector needs to consider all of the above factors to successfully collect a complete range of species. It may not be necessary to gauge all the issues if the object is to collect only a few species, but with knowledge of these interactions a collector can make better judgements about strategies for collecting. This will in turn lead to improved cost efficiencies. When a species occurs across a wide habitat range, then the issue of provenance is worth considering. It has been shown genetically that some species differ significantly across a small range. For example, Santalum

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CHAPTER 6

Drying and cleaning seeds after collection Luke Sweedman

The handling of seeds following collection involves several steps: the treatment and storage of collected material while still in the field, drying the material before cleaning, and cleaning itself. Collection and storage practices in the field can influence seed viability and longevity in the store, and it is counter-productive if successful collecting practices are followed by poor post-harvest management. This chapter details appropriate methods for drying seeds in the field after collection, prior to cleaning back at the seed storage facility. It also provides an overview of common seed cleaning methods and the equipment used. DRYING

Seeds collected in the field will naturally be at a range of stages of maturity since fruits tend to ripen and mature over the plant at slightly different times. When making a collection, the aim is for an average maturity, whereby the majority of the material collected is mature. By drying correctly, all the seeds are subjected to similar conditions. Careless handling at this early, critical stage, can impact on the overall quality of the collection. In general, mature material (that is, material at the time of natural dehiscence), should be dried evenly and slowly from the point of collection onwards. A cool, mild, even temperature and a dry environment with good ventilation are the best conditions for drying seeds of the

majority of species. These conditions will ensure the immature seeds continue to reach full maturity and the balance of the collection begins to dry evenly for storage and maximum longevity. Cool and dry conditions are not common in an Australian summer, but the humidity is often low, and by drying in the shade, avoiding direct sun, good results are obtained. Where the humidity tends to be high during the day, in tropical areas, for example, it is important to get seeds to an air-conditioned environment as quickly as possible. This is especially important for seeds destined for long-term storage, and slow reduction of moisture content may need to be achieved by using a purpose-built drying room. Removal of moisture using a desiccant in a controlled environment is also a good option if humidity is high. In some instances, seeds that are very immature can be held at higher moisture levels until mature. This may be in a loosely tied plastic bag or an enclosed container, opened daily to ensure air circulation. If the seeds are too damp and there is evidence of rotting, they should be dried and then returned to the container. These practices may be necessary when a species is harvested early to coincide with a window of opportunity for collecting the species. Many seed collections are not being made for longterm storage, so drying and subsequent storage do not need to be rigorous or complex. Much can be done to 41

Australian Seeds

Material transported from the field, Great Sandy Desert, Western Australia.

Seeds being dried in a well-aerated covered area, Geita, Tanzania.

achieve good outcomes without expensive facilities, by simply following good practices in managing a seed collection. It is important to be aware of the conditions in which material is harvested. In many parts of Australia, collection takes place in hot and dry conditions. Under these conditions seeds should be kept as cool as possible, well ventilated, and not exposed to strong, direct sun or stored in overheated conditions within a vehicle. If the weather is cold and wet, it is important to place the seeds in a dry, perhaps air-conditioned, environment. If the seeds are very damp, they can be laid out thinly on newspaper and dried in the shade or in a well-ventilated room. If the conditions are humid and damp, material may need to be stored inside a well-protected environment out of 42

Seeds frozen in glass jars, Cordoba, Spain.

the weather such as an air-conditioned room. Where seeds are being collected in high humidity environments, it may be possible to use boxes containing desiccants such as silica gel or even rice to help remove moisture from the seeds. If the sun is being used to dry seeds during the day it is advisable to store them inside or in sealed containers at night to maximise the drying potential during the day. Humidity rises at night and by protecting the seeds you will reduce moisture fluctuations in the seeds. If a collecting trip is long, arrangements may need to be made to get material back to the base earlier than planned so it can be spread out and dried correctly. When seeds are being collected, ensure the bags are not packed too densely with seed and other plant material. Bags should be stored in a protected place, such as a vehicle, with good aeration and air movement, if possible. A wire basket on top of the collecting vehicle can be very useful for drying when collecting large amounts of seeds. Protecting the bags from the direct sun can be achieved by placing layers of hessian bags or shade cloth over them. If conditions are very hot (40°C), keeping bags inside the vehicle may be best. When an opportunity arises to dry material outside, place all bags in a shady place on a tarpaulin or similar. Placing the bags under a vehicle may also be an option if conditions are hot and sunny. Remember that as the temperature falls the humidity rises so it is important to keep bags inside the vehicle overnight, or at least place them on a canvas tarpaulin and cover them to minimise moisture absorption. The moisture content of high value seeds should be regularly monitored where possible. The reason we do

Chapter 6 – Drying and cleaning seeds after collection

Seeds loosely stored in wool bale sacks.

Bags should ‘breathe’ and the seeds monitored to ensure they are not overheating.

this is to ensure that they are drying evenly. Because seeds are permeable, they respond to changes in relative humidity from day to day. Humid weather means more moisture is in the air, and seeds will absorb some of this moisture. For precise measurement of relative humidity moisture in the field there are accurate hygrometers available. However, these are expensive and probably only necessary for long-term conservation collections. FIELD TIPS Do

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• • •

Collect at the natural dispersal time, in spite of the issues concerning relative humidity and temperature after collection. The quality of the seed when it is collected is paramount.

Acacia seeds at the ideal stage for collection.

Collect seeds when mature and keep in a cool, protected and well-ventilated environment.

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Rotate bags on the top of the vehicle, or wherever they are stored, to ensure even field drying.

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Knead the bags to ensure the material is not stuck together, or open and redistribute.

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Regularly check material by opening bags to monitor moisture and drying.

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Try to transfer collections back to the storage facility as soon as is possible given the time of the collection trip.

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Dry material of succulents separately. This material should be placed in drying trays as soon as you return from the field.

Use air-conditioning where available. Take steps to protect the seeds from fluctuating climatic conditions by storing in a protected environment, for example during the night or in the morning when dew is prevalent.

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Protect from direct sun by covering during the day and storing inside at night.

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Ensure damp or wet material is not placed with other bags where it can encourage mould or rotting. Place material thinly on newspaper and dry as soon as possible.

43

Australian Seeds

•

Tie labels securely (possibly inside and out) and check for torn bags.

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Tie coloured tape or some other form of marking on bags that contain spiky or sharp fruits such as Dryandra or Solanum to warn the collector when handling bags.

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Manage high value conservation collections with extra care. This may mean monitoring the relative humidity in the field before delivering to a purposebuilt drying room.

Don’t

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Fill bags with excessive amounts of vegetative material while collecting.

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Expose seeds to extremes of temperature or wildly fluctuating humidity regimes.

• •

Subject seeds to physical damage.

Markhamia seeds dropping from pods in an igloo, Geita, Tanzania.

Subject seeds to insect predation after collection.

Through simple good practices, the chances of keeping seeds viable until needed are considerably improved. If seed is to be used as soon as it is collected, it is still very important not to waste the resource by mismanaging collections, which are expensive to make. Conversely, if the seed is to be stored as part of a longer term conservation strategy, the chances of fulfilling these requirements may be dramatically reduced if collections are not managed correctly. DRYING ON YOUR RETURN

All bags should be placed in a drying area as soon as possible on return from the field. The ideal drying room is considered by many to be a room with a relative humidity of 15–20%, and a temperature of 15–20°C. Most seeds collected at the right stage of maturity can be placed in a room such as this immediately. If seeds are not intended for long-term storage, then many facilities with a simpler structure will still suffice. If seeds are collected when damp they should be dried in a wellventilated area prior to being placed in the drying room. Seeds should be placed in thin layers and turned regularly to ensure even drying. It is important that material is not left in hot, poorly ventilated areas with high or greatly varying humidity as this can reduce seed viability. Some species are particularly susceptible to rotting. Many Asteraceae, for exam44

Seeds from around the world in a drying room at the Millennium Seed Bank Project, Wakehurst Place, UK.

ple, rot easily if left moist in bags. Very hot summer conditions can also compost some seeds (Rhodanthe species, for example). If seeds are collected in calico bags, they can be dried in these, or alternatively spread out in trays or on a concrete floor. Ensure the material is aerated by turning regularly and evenly, and monitor the drying. Succulent plants should be placed in cool, dry conditions for the seeds to continue to mature and some species, such as Calandrinia and Lobelia, can take four to six weeks to dry. To avoid confusion, be careful not to dry two similar seedlots, for example two species of Melaleuca, next to each other. Ensure the appropriate label remains with the

Chapter 6 – Drying and cleaning seeds after collection

Allocasuarina seeds falling from fruits.

Seed drying on racks in a well-ventilated position, Kings Park and Botanic Garden, Perth, Western Australia.

Seeds being sun-dried, Geita, Tanzania.

A well-ventilated polythene igloo, Geita, Tanzania.

seedlot during drying. Begin cleaning the seed as soon as possible, as this aids the drying process. If the seed was collected at an appropriate time, much of it may be ready to clean immediately. Some species, particularly those of the Myrtaceae, may require a few days or a few weeks for the valves to fully open and release the seeds.

would be better placed in air-conditioned conditions. Drying sheds are a good means of protecting seeds from rain and condensation. Seeds dry well when laid out thinly on trays.

DRYING SYSTEMS Sheds with drying racks

These are often made of timber or wire and rely on the airflow through the shed and the ambient conditions to dry seeds. Well-aerated, semi-open sheds are ideal. These work well in dry climates. Collections in tropical regions

Polythene igloos

These need to be very well aerated as heat build-up can be a problem, especially during summer months. Aeration can be achieved using efficient extractor fans. The igloos should have concrete floors to reduce the build-up of moisture from condensation. Igloos are often used for large collections, as material can be spread out and a fork used to turn and aerate the collections. Material is kept in 45

Australian Seeds

these houses until the seeds have fallen from the fruits. Once this has occurred the seeds should be removed and placed in a storage room, or packaged and stored. Material left in igloos at night will almost certainly be affected by condensation. This should be avoided. In general, igloo drying is not recommended where material is exposed to hot conditions. However, igloos are a relatively cheap and fast method of processing large amounts of seeds and for this reason they are commonly used. With more thoughtful design, especially in the extraction of hot air, they could become more efficient. Air-conditioned rooms

Air-conditioned rooms can be an effective way of drying and storing seeds. They are generally low in humidity and provide a controlled, cool temperature. They are a relatively low cost means for storage if no other facilities are available, and are most suitable for storing material that is required for short-term use. Purpose-built low humidity drying rooms

With this type of room, seeds are dried to low moisture levels under tightly controlled conditions, usually for long-term storage. These offer the best method of reducing moisture within the seed in a controlled and measurable way and are employed by larger seedbanks dealing with long-term conservation. CLEANING SEEDS

Seed is cleaned to reduce the bulk of the collection and to aid in uniform drying. Ideally, seeds should be made free

Air-conditioned storage room, Geita, Tanzania. 46

Seed drying room at the Millennium Seed Bank Project, Wakehurst Place, UK.

of impurities such as stems, sticks and leaves. Most collecting involves harvesting seeds from the fruits and fruits often contain frass or chaff, which can be either a result of aborted seeds, or merely packing around the seeds. Fruits vary in their timing and ease of releasing the seeds. Many seeds can be extracted easily and simply by merely sieving the fruits. Other seeds need tedious and time-consuming techniques to extract seeds successfully. The key to successful cleaning is to consider what type of fruit the seed comes from and what the actual seed looks like. Sometimes this can be confusing, as some frass looks similar to seed. However, a quick cut test will establish the true seed. From this point, the aim is to develop as easily as possible a method to remove the seed without all the frass or chaff. It may not always be possible to clean material to pure seed. Some species have chaff or packaging that is difficult to separate and it may not be cost effective to do so. In some cases it may be appropriate to clean the bulk of the material from the seed and then store or sow the seed with a percentage of chaff. Species of Asteraceae, for example, are cleaned to pure seed for commercial sale but this standard may not be required for many purposes. Therefore, always consider how clean you really need the material and what labour input you are prepared to make to achieve the outcome. Seeds can be contract cleaned if the correct machinery is not available. This is also a very practical option if you have large amounts of material that is difficult to clean, or when material is allergenic, such as kangaroo paws (Anigozanthos spp.).

Chapter 6 – Drying and cleaning seeds after collection

Some seed is ready to clean as it is collected.

Large pods cleaned in the field.

GENERAL CLEANING TIPS

Checklist of equipment for cleaning

•

Essential equipment:

Examine the seeds under a hand lens or microscope to determine what they look like and check their condition at all stages of the cleaning process. This will ensure that seeds are not being damaged unduly. When you are sure what the seeds look like, plan how to clean them without losing too much seed and without damaging the seeds.

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Ensure that the valves of persistent fruits have opened and dropped all seed.

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Small quantities of seeds can be separated by hand using sieves and winnowing.

•

It may be counter-productive to persist in cleaning seed if there are only very small particles remaining. For species such as Melaleuca (where seed can be only 0.5 mm in diameter) some frass may be stored with the seed.

• • • •

• • • • • •

Secateurs Sets of various sized sieves Trays (e.g. galvanised trays that can be used to lay out material) Large plastic bins and other smaller plastic containers (used to separate parts of the collection as it goes through the cleaning process) Gloves, safety masks and glasses Marking pens and labels Cleaning equipment, including vacuum cleaners and brooms Set of funnels Microscope and dissection kit Bailing fork

Other equipment that may be necessary:

• • •

Compressed air for cleaning machinery Aspirated blower Threshing machine

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Operating purpose-built machines requires training to ensure they are used to their full potential.

•

Keep the work area clean by using vacuum cleaners or compressed air. Clean the machinery and sieves after each different species.

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When using threshers and blowers, it is imperative that the plant material associated with the seeds is dry and brittle, as the machines will work more effectively.

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Keep all stages of the processed material until you have finished. In this way you are less likely to inadvertently throw away seed.

•

Be careful to clean individual species separately if possible to reduce the opportunity of mixing collec-

•

The least damage to the seeds will be done by the gentlest means of cleaning. Threshers can damage a

tions. For example, if using machinery, don’t clean one Melaleuca species together with another Melaleuca species.

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Australian Seeds

percentage of seeds and this is a consideration with long-term conservation collections. For small, highvalue seedlots it may be preferable to clean using simple equipment. Gloves and sieves, or wooden blocks and a non-slip surface may suffice in cleaning a collection at a more controllable level.

•

Good collecting can make the cleaning task much easier, so avoid gathering too much foliage when the collection is made.

THE CLEANING AREA

An ideal cleaning area consists of the following features:

•

It should be a large space, well ventilated and airconditioned.

•

It should be close to drying and storage areas, but not share the same space. This makes it easier to control rodents as well as facilitate a flow through system.

•

It should have plenty of power outlets and very good lighting.

•

The floor should be concrete, ideally with no skirting boards or areas that are difficult to clean.

•

Health and safety approved extraction equipment should be fitted for dust removal.

•

Machinery should be installed correctly with consideration as to ergonomic and safety issues.

•

Safety masks, glasses and hearing protection should be available as required.

The cleaning area at the mine site, Geita, Tanzania. 48

CLEANING MACHINERY

There is a large range of equipment available and many types of machinery can be adapted to seed cleaning. Some traditional farming implements have been adapted for cleaning seed. For example, the multi-crop harvester is useful for separating large amounts of trash from seed and is useful for large collections of everlastings. This type of machine provides a threshing action that breaks the stems and heads apart, as well as a rough screen that separates the seeds and petals. Homemade threshers and cement mixers have also been used for seed cleaning. However, the sophistication of the facility should match the needs of the operator and in many cases machinery is not required. Sieves can be used to do the majority of cleaning for smaller amounts of material. Some genera are more complicated to clean and can require a combination of methods. This may be sieving and winnowing (either windblown or using mechanical air-blowers), or threshing and then sieving. Sieves

The most useful item in the seed cleaning shed is a set of hand sieves of various sizes. It is best to have two sets, a small set with very fine screens for removing small particles, and a large set of approximately 300 mm diameter to quickly separate stems and large fruits. In many cases, using hand sieves, as well as utilising the wind in a winnowing action to blow off the lighter fragments, can clean seed. In these cases cleaning is simply a matter of separating the seeds from the chaff or frass. A large range of genera can be cleaned to varying degrees this way, including Acacia, Agonis, Angophora, Beaufortia, Bossiaea,

Seed cleaning area, Nindethana Seeds, Albany,Western Australia.

Chapter 6 – Drying and cleaning seeds after collection

Callistemon, Calothamnus, Corymbia, Daviesia, Eremaea, Eucalyptus, Grevillea, Hakeas, Helichrysum, Kunzea, Lasiopetalum, Leptospermum, Melaleuca, Regelia, Rhodanthe, Thomasia and Xylomelum. Threshing machines

Threshing machines are commonly used to break up plant material, and often provide a precursor to the action of air screen cleaners. They are especially useful for material where the seed is enclosed at the base of the flower and the seeds are held tightly within the dead or dying heads, for example, Anigozanthos, Dodonaea, Gomphrena, Ptilotus and Rhodanthe. Some other species that can be sieved but are easier to clean using a thresher include Acacia, Bossiaea, Daviesia and Senna. In general, pods and pea fruits are much easier to clean with a thresher. Threshing material in machines must be done with care. Ensure that all the foliage to be separated is completely dry. It is very easy to damage or even destroy soft-coated species. An entire seedlot can be destroyed in seconds without diligence in assessing the seedlot throughout the process. Aspirated blower

The aspirated blower is an essential piece of machinery

for most cleaning sheds. It works better when some precleaning has been done using hand sieves or a rotary screen to reduce the bulk of the material. The machine is excellent for winnowing insect-damaged or empty seeds from a collection, and can be used for separating lighter chaff or other materials (such as petals) from the seed. The seed is passed over various screens and sorted based

Cleaning area, Millennium Seed Bank Project, Wakehurst Place, UK. Note the large range of small sieves.

Cleaning area with dust extraction equipment, Kings Park and Botanic Garden, Perth,Western Australia.

on size, and a blower propels the lighter material away from the seed. The screens are available in different sizes. This machine is ideal for a large range of material. Everlastings and other daisies that have petals are cleaned very effectively using this machine. The groups of seeds initially cleaned by the thresher are often run through this machine for final cleaning. Species which may be cleaned include Anigozanthos, Gomphrena, Ptilotus, Trachymene, Velleia and most Asteraceae. It can also be used for species that have good-sized seeds with bulk material to be removed, such as Acacia, Swainsona and Hibiscus.

A large set of sieves is essential for cleaning, Geita, Tanzania.

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Australian Seeds

Thresher in cleaning area, Geita, Tanzania.

A small aspirated blower, Nindethana Seeds, Albany, Western Australia.

Gravity table/gravity separator

Conical or spiral/centrifugal separator

The gravity table separates small fragments of stems, stalks and leaves from the pure seeds. It is a rectangular, reciprocating inclined deck, covered in cloth or steel mesh, through which air is passed. Seed material is dropped into one corner and the reciprocating motion of the deck causes the material to become fluid, spreading across the suspended airflow. By adjusting the frequency, pitch and airflow, material of a higher density or specific gravity falls to the low side of the deck, whereas the lower density material travels to the top. The seed marches up the table as the chaff drops down the table. This is very effective for light seeds and overcomes the problem of extracting trash the same size as the seed. This machine is ideal for cleaning all the impurities from seedlots of everlastings.

These machines consist of a tall, steeply curving track on which material is dropped. Spheroid material or particles of a higher specific gravity move to the outside of the spiral and lighter fractions move to the inside. A series of gates or ducts at the bottom of the spiral allows material to be separated. The seed rolls down on the same trajectory while rubbish moves at a different rate. The result is that the different weights are separated. They are very useful for Acacia, Senna and Boronia. Zig-zag aspirator

Seeds are dropped in a hopper at the side and a variable speed control vibrates seeds into a chute. A variable suction from the top of the chute extracts lighter fragments from the collection. This machine is ideal for separating out lighter weights of material from seeds. Rotary screen or trommel

This machine is used for roughly separating seed from dried foliage. The seed and foliage are rolled in a long, circular wire cage containing different sized meshes. As the material rolls forward, the seed portion drops through the metal screens while the rubbish slides forward and out. CLEANING TIPS FOR UNUSUAL GENERA Banksia

Gravity table, Nindethana Seeds, Albany, Western Australia. 50

Banksia fruits have persistent cones with valves (follicles) which remain closed, even after being picked and dried. The methods that may be used to extract the seeds are as follows:

Chapter 6 – Drying and cleaning seeds after collection

Centrifugal separator, Nindethana Seeds, Albany, Western Australia.

Zig-zag separator, Millennium Seed Bank Project, Wakehurst Place, UK.

Method 1 – burning

•

Using a cement mixer, place all cones in and begin revolving.

• •

•

Introduce heat via a gas-driven hand piece or torch and set alight combustible material.

Dryandra

•

Keep the heat up for several minutes, then stop and examine the valves.

•

As valves begin opening, tip the contents of the mixer into a water container. Ensure the valves are actually opening as they can begin to open and then stall unless continuous heat is applied.

•

Drain quickly and place in fine wire trays. Keep warm in the sun, an igloo or oven at 35°C.

•

Knock out the seeds from the cones and sieve to clean off the wings.

Temperatures up to 35°C are ideal. Cones can take several weeks to fully open.

Use gloves to remove seed follicles from the foliage. The follicles will open under warm conditions in a drying oven. Lightly frying the follicles in a hot pan will also release the seed. Sieve to remove dust. Alternate wetting and drying will also release seeds (as for banksias).

Method 2 – non-burning

•

Alternate wetting and drying in a warm hothouse will slowly release seeds.

• • •

Wet fruits sparingly. Lay out on wire racks to support cones. Collect seeds as they fall onto shadecloth below.

Rotary screen, Nindethana Seeds, Albany, Western Australia. 51

Australian Seeds

Seeds with fleshy coatings

Some berries and drupes that have a fleshy covering need to be soaked and mashed to remove this outer coating. In many cases, this outer fleshy coat can be rubbed off using a sieve. PEST AND DISEASES

Most pest problems will be in the bags you bring back, rather than occurring after returning to the store, and it is important to check all seedlots thoroughly as they are being cleaned. Some fruits are particularly prone to insect damage (e.g. banksias). Where natural populations are heavily disturbed, for example, on the Western Australian Swan Coastal Plain with species such as Hardenbergia, Hovea and Patersonia, pest attack seems to be at its worst. Many grubs eat hard-seeded species and acacias can be badly affected. If the seeds are treated correctly then they can be kept after the infestation. To check for pest damage, lay uncleaned seeds out in trays or on a concrete floor and carefully examine for insects, holes or other signs of predation. If large numbers of seeds have holes through them they should be discarded. If the infection is minor a spray with an aerosol Pyrethrum should solve the problem. In the past, seeds were often treated with chemicals, regardless of whether they were infected or not. The current thinking is that unless a seedlot has visible signs of damage, then it is better to leave it untreated. All seeds at the Western Australian Seed Technology Centre at Kings Park and Botanic Garden were, in the past, treated with chemicals. Seeds were placed in glass jars with Dryacide, a siliceous clay that dries out insects. These techniques are no longer used as most seeds are frozen. Any seedlot that has been treated should carry a warning, especially with Dryacide, as it can be unsafe if inhaled. Carbon dioxide has been used effectively to fumigate seeds in plastic, impermeable bags, and also used to be a standard practice for collections before freezing temperatures were used to store seeds. Carbon dioxide is a relatively non-toxic way of killing insects, working by excluding oxygen from the bags. However, its action is not immediate and it can take

52

Banksia fruits with valves fully open after burning.

a fortnight to kill all insects, so that if there is active insect attack, the damage may continue for some time. Freezing is a very effective way of preventing insect damage, and can also be used for killing insects from plant specimens entering herbaria. Rats and other rodents can be a serious problem wherever there is plant material, especially seeds. Rats will eat through calico bags and are particularly active after the summer, as they look for places to breed. Bait regularly. SAFETY CONSIDERATIONS

There are inherent dangers when you are operating machinery or using insecticides. Secateurs, saws and other collecting tools need to be handled with care at all times. A significant problem associated with cleaning seed is dust. The cleaning area needs to be well ventilated with proper extraction equipment fitted. Respirators and dust masks should be used, as the fine particles from some species of plants are highly irritating. For example, kangaroo paws (Anigozanthos spp.) are irritating and wearing overalls as well as a respirator is recommended. It is important to use gloves when handling plants with spiky or sticky foliage. Safety glasses and earplugs should also be used when appropriate.

CHAPTER 7

Seed storage and testing David Merritt

SEED STORAGE CHARACTERISTICS

A basic understanding of the factors influencing seed longevity, the storage requirements of different species, and the methods used to test seed viability is fundamental to successful seedbanking. Although long-term storage is not always the role of a seedbank, it remains important to develop facilities and expertise worthy of the time and resources expended in collecting seeds. Seeds of different species have different storage characteristics. Research on more than 9000 plant species has demonstrated that seeds can be grouped according to their storage behaviour into three broad categories – orthodox, recalcitrant and intermediate. Orthodox seeds are the most common and most agricultural crops produce orthodox seeds, as do plants growing in mediterranean, temperate and arid regions. Orthodox seeds undergo a drying phase as they mature on the plant and usually contain around 20–30% water when mature and ready to collect. After collection, orthodox seeds survive further drying to at least 5% water content. This enables them to be stored at freezing temperatures without harm, since there is insufficient water for lethal ice-crystals to form. Most orthodox seeds live for many years, even under less than ideal storage conditions. There are several verifiable reports of museum samples of seeds living for over 100 years, and a few reports of germinable seeds greater than 1000 years

old, based on carbon dating of archaeological samples of seeds buried in soil.1,2,3 Although there are as yet few long-term studies (greater than 10 years) providing data on longevity of seeds stored under genebank conditions, mathematical models that have been developed to predict seed longevity suggest that under ideal storage conditions, seeds of some orthodox species may live for many hundreds of years. Recalcitrant seeds are short-lived, commonly surviving for only a few days or weeks after reaching maturity. These seeds are generally produced by trees growing in tropical or temperate regions and, unlike orthodox seeds, do not undergo a drying phase during maturation, but continue to develop towards germination throughout their short life. Recalcitrant seeds are characterised by high water contents at maturity (greater than 40%) and an inability to survive drying below around 20–30% water content. As a result, recalcitrant seeds cannot be stored at freezing temperatures, and are very difficult to store for any length of time. Many large-seeded hardwoods, such as Acer pseudoplatanus (sycamore), Castanea sativa (chestnut) and numerous species of Quercus (oak) and Araucaria produce recalcitrant seeds. Relatively little is known of recalcitrant storage behaviour in Australian seeds. Intermediate seeds have properties somewhat in between those of orthodox and recalcitrant seeds. These seeds survive drying to around 10–15% water content, 53

Australian Seeds

The seedbank at Kings Park and Botanic Garden, Perth, Western Australia c. 1990. All seeds were once placed in glass jars and stored in an air-conditioned room. Photo: Luke Sweedman.

but suffer desiccation injury if dried further. Some intermediate seeds may be stored at sub-zero temperatures. Others (usually those of tropical origin) do not store well below 10°C. Seeds of Coffea and Citrus species have intermediate storage characteristics. STORAGE OF SEEDS

The primary goal of any long-term conservation collection of seeds is to maintain the initial seed viability and vigour for as long as possible. To conserve the genetic diversity contained within a carefully sampled seed accession, it is recommended that the seed viability remain at or above 85% of the original value.4 Any greater loss of viability requires re-collection of seeds from the original population, or regeneration of the stored seeds to produce new accessions for storage. Seed longevity varies greatly between species and is governed by many factors, including genotype, the initial seed quality, seed maturity at collection, postharvest handling and the storage temperature and seed water content. Genetic factors governing seed longevity and storage behaviour are characteristic of a particular species and cannot be controlled in wild collected species. Many aspects of initial seed quality are also beyond the collector’s influence, as they depend largely upon the environmental conditions experienced by the parent plant during seed maturation, and the individual species. For example, many species of Restionaceae and Cyperaceae produce few high quality, viable seed. 54

Currently, most seeds at Kings Park and Botanic Garden are stored in chest freezers held at –20°C for greater longevity, Perth, Western Australia.

However, the temperature at which seeds are stored, and the drying regime imposed prior to storage can be controlled, and it is these factors that are most crucial to successful seedbanking. For orthodox seeds, reducing the temperature and/or water content at which they are stored increases their longevity, principally by slowing metabolism and minimising deleterious ageing reactions. Generally, reducing the storage temperature by 5°C, or lowering the seed water content by 1%, doubles the storage life. Although these rules of thumb do not apply over all storage conditions, they demonstrate the relative effects of temperature and seed water content on longevity and, principally, that seed water content is the more influential factor governing seed longevity. Nevertheless, there are some interrelationships between temperature and seed water content, and reducing both will provide greater longevity than reducing one alone. Current international guidelines recommend storing orthodox seeds at −18°C and 3–7% water content.5

Chapter 7 – Seed storage and testing

The main vault at the Millennium Seed Bank Project, Wakehurst Place, UK. Seeds are stored in glass jars inside the vault, which is held at −18°C. Photo: Luke Sweedman.

SEED DRYING PRIOR TO STORAGE

The fact that a relatively small change in seed water content can have such a large impact on longevity emphasises the importance of correctly drying seeds before storage, particularly for long-term conservation collections. Even if seeds cannot be stored at a low temperature (in the absence of power, for instance), reducing the water content will be of great benefit to longevity. Drying seeds provides additional benefits by reducing the risks of attack by micro-organisms and protecting seeds from freeze injury (caused by ice-crystal formation) if they are stored at sub-zero temperatures. Seed drying is based on the principle that most seeds readily adsorb water from, or lose water to, the surrounding atmosphere until they reach an equilibrium. Therefore, seed water content may be manipulated by placing the seeds in sealed containers (or rooms) of controlled relative humidity. Freshly collected seeds are often dried in two stages. They should be initially dried as soon as possible after collection, before cleaning and sorting, ideally by placing the collected material in porous bags or laying them out on trays and storing them in a cool room at low humidity for a few weeks. Note, however, that collections containing a high proportion of immature seeds should be dried slowly at first to encourage ripening, as seeds must be mature before they are able to tolerate rapid drying. Ambient humidity is sometimes suitable for initial drying of freshly collected seeds, although in tropical areas or during the wet season this may not be the case. It

is important to remember that seeds should always be dried at a cool temperature and low relative humidity, rather than by exposure to high temperatures. Following cleaning, seeds should then undergo a second, tightly controlled drying process to reduce the water content to an optimum level for storage. Both temperature and relative humidity affect seed water content, and the optimum combination for drying is still a matter of considerable research. However, for routine storage, advanced seedbanks such as the Millennium Seed Bank Project (Wakehurst Place, UK) dry seeds at 18°C and 15% relative humidity. Similarly, the Botanic Gardens of Adelaide and the Western Australian Seed Technology Centre maintain drying rooms at 15°C and 15% relative humidity. Drying seeds within this range of conditions (15–20°C and 10–15% RH) is currently considered best practice for orthodox seeds.6 For smaller operators without access to controlled drying facilities, alternative methods of drying are available. One easily applied and inexpensive method of drying is to place the seeds inside a sealed vessel containing silica gel. A ratio of 3 kg of silica gel per 1 kg of seeds should be used to avoid risks of over-drying, as well as the need to regenerate the silica gel too frequently. (Freshly regenerated silica gel provides an atmosphere of around 5% relative humidity at room temperature.) Silica gel is regenerated by placing in an oven at 130°C for several hours, and this should be done at the first sign of a colour change (usually from a dark blue to a lighter blue or pink). Greater control over seed water content can be

A dehumidifying cabinet used to reduce seed water content prior to freezing.The plastic boxes contain silica gel. Cordoba, Spain. Photo: Luke Sweedman.

55

Australian Seeds

Hygrometers are a useful, non-destructive measure of seed water status.The equilibrium relative humidity of seeds placed in the chamber is determined.

gained by equilibrating seeds over saturated salt solutions such as lithium chloride, which will provide an atmosphere of around 11–13% relative humidity at room temperature. Virtually any relative humidity can be achieved using different salt solutions, although this method requires greater technical knowledge and is more expensive than silica gel. Once seeds have been dried, they need to be placed in air-tight containers to prevent re-absorption of water from a humid ambient environment. Commonly used containers include screw-top glass jars or vials, metal cans and laminated heat-sealable foil bags. The choice of container depends largely on the resources and space available, but it is vital that the container seal is airtight. A good heat seal is essential for foil bags to remain airtight and it is recommended that a seal at least 10 mm wide be applied. Laminated foil bags are the most space-efficient containers, and probably the most practical for storing in a domestic freezer. Glass jars with a rubber seal and clamped lid also produce a good seal. Although they require much more space, glass jars have the advantage of allowing visual inspection of how much seed is available. Small packets of silica gel indicator may also be placed in glass jars, enabling confirmation of an airtight seal. CALCULATION OF SEED WATER CONTENT

Seed water content should be tested following the final drying, just before storage, and then again at occasional intervals to ensure the storage containers have remained airtight. Seed water content can be calculated easily by 56

weight. The standard method requires fresh seed samples to be weighed, placed in an oven at 103°C for 17 hours (low temperature method for oily seeds) or 130°C for three hours (high temperature method for non-oily seeds), and then weighed again.7 Seed water content can then be calculated as a percentage: Seed water fresh weight of seed – dry weight of seed × 100 content = dry weight of seed

Note that seeds of different species will have different water contents when dried under the same conditions because of variations in oil content. Measuring seed water content gravimetrically is an accurate and reliable method; however, the seeds are killed in the process. Alternative, non-destructive methods of determining seed water content are now available, and the use of these techniques is becoming more common. Electronic hygrometers measure the water status of seeds by measuring equilibrium relative humidity following the placement of seeds in a small chamber attached to the instrument. Hygrometers provide a rapid determination of whether seeds have reached an equilibrium with the drying environment. (Seeds dried in a room held at 15% relative humidity should display an equilibrium relative humidity of 15%.) STORAGE TEMPERATURE

Correctly dried and packaged seeds should be transferred immediately into storage. The choice of temperature

Chapter 7 – Seed storage and testing

depends largely on the purpose of the collection and the available resources. For some operations, this may be storage at ambient temperatures or in an air-conditioned room. These conditions may be ample for seeds that are to be stored only for short periods, and indeed may be beneficial with regard to overcoming physiological dormancy in some seeds by allowing after-ripening to occur. However, if seeds are to be stored for more than a couple of years, a lower temperature is preferable. Household refrigerators are capable of maintaining a constant temperature of around 0–5°C and are an inexpensive method of storing seeds. For commercial operations or landcare and community groups storing seeds for up to five years, refrigerated storage is ideal. For longterm conservation collections (greater than 5–10 years storage), commercial freezers that operate at temperatures of around −18°C may be used to prolong viability. When storing seeds at sub-zero temperatures, it is important to make sure that correct drying procedures have been followed, as a combination of sub-zero temperatures and high seed water contents may result in lethal ice-crystals forming within the seeds. Some seedbanks and laboratories store seeds in liquid nitrogen (cryostorage). The temperature of liquid nitrogen is −196°C and seeds stored at this temperature may live for many hundreds (or possibly thousands) of years. Such a secure method of storage is invaluable for conservation of rare and endangered species as there is often very little seed available for collection, and reintroduction of a species may require long-term planning. Cryostorage has traditionally been used for storage of economically important species. However, it is increasingly being adapted to wild species of conservation value.

The benefits of cryostorage must be weighed against the high set-up costs and reduced storage capacity of liquid nitrogen dewars, as well as the greater technical expertise required. SEED TESTING

The main considerations when determining the quality of a new batch of seeds are purity, viability and germination. The purity of the seed batch relates to the proportion of seed to non-seed material. Many seed batches contain non-seed material such as chaff, seed decoys and floral parts. Careful cleaning should ensure a high purity, which is important as it aids in uniform seed drying and reduces the weight and volume of a seedlot and the space required for storage. A viability test provides an estimate of whether a seed is alive or dead, and therefore the proportion of seeds which has the potential to germinate. A germination test subsequently determines the proportion of viable seeds that is able to germinate. A reliable germination test is the most accurate method of assessing the health of a seed accession. VIABILITY TESTING

A viable seed is one which is alive, and the term refers to both readily germinable seeds, and seeds that are dormant. Viability is often taken to be synonymous with germination, but they are two separate concepts. A seed may be viable, but this does not imply that it is germinable; the seed may be dormant and will remain so until it is exposed to dormancy-breaking conditions and favourable germination conditions arise. Many methods are available to determine seed viability. All of them require a sample of seeds to be taken from

A simple viability test is the cut test.This involves removing the seedcoat and visually inspecting the seed for the presence of healthy embryonic tissues.These should appear plump, turgid and generally a healthy white or pale yellow colour. Cracking of the endocarp of Emblingia calceoliflora seeds (left) reveals the seed within (centre), and careful removal of the seedcoat allows inspection of the turgid, white endosperm and healthy coiled embryo (right).

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Australian Seeds

A seed of Dioscorea hastifolia with extracted embryo (left), and a close-up of the healthy embryo following staining with tetrazolium chloride (right).

An extracted embryo of Opercularia vaginata following tetrazolium chloride staining.The variable staining pattern of this embryo suggests it may not be viable.

each seed batch to enable estimation of the proportion of viable seeds in the whole population. The sample of seed removed for viability testing should be divided into replicates of equal number and the results averaged. It is important to perform the test on each batch of seed collected from different sites or in different years, as environmental conditions experienced by the parent plant during seed development play a major part in seed viability. One method of viability testing is embryo excision. This involves carefully removing the embryo of the seed from the surrounding tissues and culturing it in vitro in water or on growth media. If the embryo grows, the seed it came from is deemed viable. This method is particularly 58

useful for difficult to germinate, dormant seeds. However, embryo excision is labour intensive and requires skilled staff and usually some experimentation to determine a suitable composition of growth medium. Embryo excision is therefore not practical for non-laboratorybased operators. A more simple viability test is the cut test. This involves removing the seedcoat and visually inspecting the seed for the presence of healthy embryonic tissues. These should appear plump, turgid and generally a healthy white or pale yellow colour. Seeds containing dry, shrivelled and/or brown tissues are usually non-viable (as, of course, are empty seeds). Seeds of many Australian species are very small, and visual inspection of the embryo may require the aid of a hand lens or dissecting microscope. An even quicker (but less reliable) viability test is the float test. This involves placing a sample of seeds in a jar of water and recording the number which float versus the number which sink. Viable seeds sink to the bottom, while non-viable seeds float. However, this test is not infallible as some species produce seed which all float (or all sink) regardless of the viability. It is advisable to calibrate the float test by first doing a cut test and comparing the results to the float test. Other methods of viability testing that may be used are based on staining the embryonic tissues of seeds to test for the presence (or absence) of biochemical activity. Tetrazolium chloride (TTC), Fluorescein diacetate (FDA) and Evans Blue are examples of stains that may be used to estimate seed viability. Tetrazolium chloride is probably

Chapter 7 – Seed storage and testing

the most commonly used stain. This chemical reacts with dehydrogenase enzymes that are involved in respiration. A positive test, which results in the tetrazolium solution changing from colourless to pink or red, indicates respiration and, therefore, a live seed. To use tetrazolium, seeds are usually first imbibed in water and the seedcoat nicked or removed, or the seed cut in half to expose the embryonic tissue. The seeds are then placed in a 1% solution of tetrazolium and incubated for several hours at 20–30°C. Seed viability is interpreted according to the staining pattern of the embryo and the intensity of the colour. With all stains, scoring viability is often somewhat subjective. The embryonic tissues may be partly alive and partly dead, meaning different areas of the embryo may colour to different degrees. Interpreting the staining patterns can be difficult and may provide erroneous results without calibrating the staining pattern using other methods. However, the advantages of using stains include the speed of the tests and their usefulness in estimating the viability of dormant seeds that have unknown germination requirements. GERMINATION TESTING

Regular germination testing is the only sure method of determining whether the selected storage conditions are maintaining seed quality over time. International genebank standards recommend that the first germination testing be conducted after 10 years’ storage for seeds stored under ideal conditions or after five years for seeds with poor initial quality or longevity.8 However,

for seeds with unknown storage behaviour (i.e. the majority of Australian species), it is advisable to take a more cautious approach and test germination more frequently, perhaps following one, two and five years’ storage. If no reduction in germination is noted during this time, then seeds may be tested less frequently, perhaps again after 10 years’ storage. When deciding on the frequency of testing, staff and resource availability needs to be considered, as does the number of seeds initially collected. Similar to the viability test, a germination test requires a sample of seeds from each batch to be removed to allow a calculation of the percentage germination. Ideally, the total sample size should be at least 50 to 100 seeds, and it is recommended that the initial germination test be performed using 200 seeds.9 In many cases wild seeds are in short supply and it is impossible to use such a large number of seeds for testing. However, wherever possible, replicate tests should be made, and each batch of seed from a different location or collected at a different time needs to be tested. In order to germinate, non-dormant seeds require water, oxygen and incubation at the correct temperature. Some species also have special light requirements. A common technique for germinating seeds in the laboratory is to incubate them in Petri dishes at the required temperature. Generally, an equal number of seeds per replicate is placed on filter paper, germination test paper, sand or vermiculite in a Petri dish and moistened with water. Alternatively, water agar (at around 0.7–1.0% weight/volume) can be used as a germination medium.

Two different methods of seed germination testing. Seeds of Regelia ciliata incubated in a Petri dish on 0.7% water agar (left), and seeds of Corymbia calophylla sown in nursery soil and placed in a glasshouse (right). 59

Australian Seeds

Seeds of many Australian species require sterilisation prior to incubation in Petri dishes to reduce the growth of endogenous fungi and bacteria which may occasionally reduce germination. Seeds may be sterilised in a weak solution (1–2%) of sodium hypochlorite (bleach) for 10 to 15 minutes (sometimes up to 45–60 minutes) and then washed in sterile water. The need for sterilisation can be negated if a commercial fungicide is added. It is important to note that the sterilisation procedure itself may sometimes damage sensitive seeds. Thus, care is needed not to expose seeds for lengthy periods or to high concentrations of the sterilant. Temperature is critical to successful germination and if it is too cold or too hot a poor germination result may give the false impression of an aged seed batch and an inappropriate storage regime. Thus, seeds removed from storage for germination testing must always be incubated at the same temperature. In the absence of detailed information, the optimum germination temperature often can be estimated from a knowledge of the parent plant’s habitat. An incubation temperature corresponding to the average air temperature during the wet season (or in the months at which seeds of the species are known to germinate) is usually suitable. For example, species from the southwest of Western Australia usually have optimal incubation temperatures of between 15–20°C, while species growing further north in semi-arid regions germinate best at temperatures between 25–35°C. If no temperature control is available, it is preferable to test seeds at the time of year at which they naturally germinate in the wild. IMBIBITION INJURY

An additional consideration when removing seeds from storage for germination testing is the possibility of imbibition injury. If seeds have been stored at very low water contents, the sudden and rapid influx of water may damage cells and kill the seeds. When germinating seeds which have been stored for many years, or at very low water contents (less than around 5%) it may be necessary

60

to place them above (not directly in) water in a sealed container for 24 hours before placing them in a germination medium. This provides an atmosphere of 100% relative humidity, allows the seeds to take up water gradually and prevents imbibition damage. SCORING RESULTS

Records such as the time to initial and maximum germination, the number of seeds germinated and the rate of seedling growth provide information on the health and vigour of a seed batch, which can then be related to the storage conditions. Ideally, seeds should be checked and scored every two to three days for germination to allow an accurate calculation of the rate of germination. An additional consideration when determining the percentage germination is the viability of the seed batch. It is more accurate to express germination results based on the number of viable seeds (i.e. the number of seeds capable of germinating, not the total number of seeds tested). If a seed batch has only 50% viability, 100% of the sown seeds should not be expected to germinate. Germination results can be corrected for viability using the concept of Viability Adjusted Germination (VAG). This is calculated using the following formula: VAG =

% germination × 100 % viability

For example, if a germination test records 60% germination, and the seed batch was assessed to have 75% viability, then the VAG is 80%. This concept is useful not only for low-viability seed batches, but when dealing with seeds with unknown dormancy mechanisms. If a new dormancy-breaking treatment is applied to a low-viability seed batch, without taking into account the small proportion of those seeds capable of germinating, it may be erroneously concluded that a low percentage germination means the treatment is ineffective when, in fact, it resulted in all of the viable seeds germinating.

CHAPTER 8

Seedbanks and the conservation of threatened species Anne Cochrane and Leonie Monks

Loss of biodiversity is one of the major environmental threats facing the world today. Natural resource management strategies that aim to integrate in situ (on-site) and ex situ (off-site) approaches to conservation merit considerable attention. Seedbanking for conservation purposes offers an opportunity to reduce the impact of species extinction and loss of biodiversity. It ensures that even if species are lost in the wild, plants will be available for future conservation actions and utilisation. It is one of many complementary conservation management strategies that are available to counter the impact of biodiversity loss. Seedbanking is considered the safest, most inexpensive and most convenient method of ex situ conservation for flowering plants. Seedbanking has been used for many decades to conserve seed of agricultural species, with the primary objective to conserve plant genetic resources for use in plant improvement programs. Wild species diversity has largely been ignored, with the establishment of native seedbanks for biodiversity conservation a relatively recent occurrence, particularly in Australia. The extension of the operation of ex situ facilities to involvement in recovery projects, such as the reintroduction of threatened species and the restoration of degraded plant communities, is an even more recent phenomenon, and one that has received international sanction through the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD).

In some cases, ex situ conservation represents the only option available if the remaining natural populations are to be conserved in the face of destruction of their habitat. Actions to conserve individual species contribute in a fundamental way to broader conservation objectives, even if the species themselves are not highly threatened. Seedbanking cannot directly protect biological diversity of ecosystems, but it can ensure the protection of genetic diversity. Off-site flora conservation can:

• •

provide material for species and ecosystem recovery;

•

maximise the value of the material for sustainable use in research and recovery, through investigations into seed germination and storage behaviour;

• •

contribute to education and public awareness; and

provide a readily accessible and cost-effective source of material for research;

provide critical biophysical information for writing and implementing management and recovery actions.

In the first instance, seedbanks should establish priorities for collection and storage, with the most urgent candidates for ex situ conservation being plant species under severe threat in the wild. Priorities for collection should include:

61

Australian Seeds

•

Species with low plant numbers, few populations, or limited geographic range;

• •

endemics; those highly threatened by human and other influences (for example disease, salinity, exotic weed invasion and grazing);

•

those experiencing rapid decline in status or health; and

•

those thought to be genetically or taxonomically different from a more common species.

The feasibility of taking a species into cultivation and its potential for recovery may also influence the collection priorities. Conservation collections are only as good as the diversity they contain and correct sampling is one of the fundamental pillars of good conservation policy. Collecting quality seed stock on a provenance basis, prior to a reduction in genetic diversity and/or inbreeding depression, should ensure that material for long-term storage and research contains maximum genetic diversity. Genetic diversity is the basis for an organism to adapt to its existing environment and for its potential to adapt to future environmental changes. Thus, loss of genetic variability can diminish the adaptive ability of a species. Understanding genetic differences (i.e. the structure of genetic variation within and between populations) permits more accurate and successful collection strategies for material to be used in reintroduction projects and careful genetic planning to maintain the fitness of the population. This can be achieved by directing collection activities over a number of known populations of the species and by collecting from a wide range of individual plants covering ecotypic and genotypic variation within each population. Ensuring that material collected from different populations and/or individuals is not mixed is vitally important in maintaining genetic integrity in a recovery programme, for determining the genetic blueprint of a species, and for assessing possible differences in tolerance to threats and to varying germination conditions. This type of collection will be more useful for research and recovery than a sample of seed collected without regard to genetic variation. In contrast, collecting for horticultural or display purposes may warrant selecting material

62

for a desirable trait, such as colour, shape or form, rather than for a representation of the genetic diversity of the species. UTILISATION OF SEED

Ex situ conservation provides protective custody of threatened plant species and is justifiable only as part of an overall conservation strategy that ensures species survival in the wild. An ex situ strategy for biodiversity conservation of threatened plant species should always be complementary to in situ conservation. An ex situ collection allows access to material for research at any time of the year without impacting further on wild populations. Ex situ material can be used for genetic studies, seed research, and disease and salinity susceptibility and tolerance investigations. Material is available for a range of recovery actions, particularly reintroduction of single species and restoration of threatened ecological communities should the need arise. In addition, material is also on hand for education and display. Research

Ex situ conservation programs can make important contributions to understanding the reproductive biology of threatened species. Research into the germination requirements of native plants can contribute to the successful recovery and restoration of species and communities. Understanding seed germination characteristics also provides benefits to the horticultural industry. Seedbanks can provide material to identify susceptibility of species to introduced pathogens, and material from ex situ collections may be used in the future to identify salinity and waterlogging tolerance in threatened species. Material from ex situ collections can be made available for research into conservation genetics, providing the basis for sound sampling strategies to be formulated for critically threatened native species. Insights gained from scientific studies can help set conservation priorities, provide help for on-ground management and conservation of the species, and assist in the development of management plans that include species reintroductions. Species recovery

An essential part of the recovery process involves the scientific management of ex situ collections and their reintroduction into managed environments. Recovery

Chapter 8 – Seedbanks and the conservation of threatened species

plans often recommend ex situ conservation precede a reintroduction programme, thereby allowing sufficient time for important biological characteristics of the species to be assessed. Reintroduction, or translocation, is the deliberate transfer of material from one place to another for the purpose of conservation. Reintroduction of plant material to the wild is one of the management strategies ensuring that extinctions of threatened flora are minimised, and it provides support for survival of existing populations in the natural environment. Species reintroduction programs aim to retain the genetic diversity expressed by that species. The selection of plant material to be used in such recovery projects is critical to the long-term goal of creating self-sustaining populations. Seed collection should therefore be linked to a recovery plan to allow for the selection of the most appropriate method of collection and storage. Seeds or vegetative material can be used in recovery programs, and the type of material chosen will reflect the most successful method of propagation for the species concerned. Seeds are generally considered the cheapest and easiest form of propagules to store. In addition, the likelihood of obtaining broader genetic variation in material produced through sexual reproduction is higher than expected for vegetative material. This variability is essential if the population is to be able to respond adaptively to environmental changes. Sampling from a broad range of plants means that the collection has the potential to represent the species. If individual propagule survival during storage or cultivation diminishes, then the ability of the stored material to represent the genetic diversity of the sampled population is compromised. Education and display

Educating the public about threatened plants helps increase the likelihood that additional populations will be discovered and reduces the risk that rare plants will be accidentally damaged or destroyed. A relatively simple way of increasing public awareness about threatened plant species is the display of such species in rare flora gardens and at wildflower shows. Seedlings from viability tests undertaken as part of the long-term ex situ storage protocol are often used for this purpose.

CASE STUDY: GREVILLEA CALLIANTHA (PROTEACEAE)

Foote’s grevillea (Grevillea calliantha) was first discovered in 1981, near Cataby, approximately 150 km north of Perth, Western Australia. The species forms a spectacular, compact shrub that grows to around one metre in height and produces masses of red and black flowers in spring. The species name refers to these spectacular displays of flower – calliantha is derived from the Greek meaning ‘beautiful flower’. The pods ripen in November and contain two seeds that are surrounded by a fatty appendage attractive to ants. These seeds are dormant on dispersal. Grevillea calliantha was declared as Rare Flora in 1989. In September 1995 it was listed as Critically Endangered as only six populations, totalling 137 plants, were known. Four of the populations occur on narrow road verges where they are vulnerable to being damaged or destroyed through road maintenance activities. The remaining two populations occur on private property and shire reserve, where grazing by stock and native animals and inappropriate fire regimes are of concern. An Interim Recovery Plan that made recommendations on the actions needed to recover the species was prepared. One of the actions recommended was collection and storage of seeds in a long-term germplasm storage facility. In November 1995 seeds of this species were collected for ex situ conservation. Three visits were necessary to ensure seed was collected at peak maturity. Seeds were collected from a wide range of plants throughout four of the six populations, to ensure capture of a broad genetic base. A small sample of the seeds collected were tested for germinability prior to long-term storage. Seed moisture content was reduced to equilibrium under low temperature and low moisture conditions (15°C and 15% relative humidity) prior to storage at −20°C in laminated aluminium foil bags. In addition to seed collection, the Interim Recovery Plan also recommended initiating the translocation process. In November 1997 one hundred seeds were removed from storage for germination. The resulting 79 seedlings were sent to an accredited nursery for cultivation. In addition to these seedlings specifically germinated for the translocation programme, any germinants of G. calliantha that resulted from routine germination testing as part of the seed storage process were also included in the translocation process. Under an approved translocation proposal these seedlings (totalling 106 individuals) were planted at a new site in a reserve in August 1998.

63

Australian Seeds

The spectacular inflorescences of Grevillea calliantha are produced en masse in spring.

Despite Grevillea calliantha producing 15–30 flowers per inflorescence, the flower-to-fruit ratio is very low. Immature fruits are viscid and often striped red.

After four years, 45 plants (42%) survived at the translocation site. All have flowered and set seed. Fresh seeds were again collected in November 1998 for augmenting the translocation site. Of the 245 seeds collected, a total of 115 seedlings resulted. After three years, 76% of these seedlings survived at the translocation site. A further 220 plants derived from cutting material were planted at the site over the next two years. As a consequence of these four successive years of planting, there are now well over 300 plants at the translocation site. Many of these have flowered and set seed. Although naturally recruited seedlings have not been observed to date, it is still early days. Seed collection and storage, followed by translocation to a new site, has resulted in a positive outlook for the long-term survival of this species in the wild. CASE STUDY: DAVIESIA BURSARIOIDES (FABACEAE)

Three Springs Daviesia (Daviesia bursarioides) is a straggling shrub that grows to 2 m in height and produces delicate yellow and maroon, pea-shaped flowers from July to September. The fruit is a pod that dehisces seeds explosively on ripening in November. The small hardcoated seeds are dormant in the absence of heat shock or seedcoat scarification, and hence the species is able to form a persistent soil seed reserve. The species was first collected in 1932 near the small country town of Three Springs, 300 km north of Perth, but by 1978 only one surviving population, with three adult plants, was 64

Translocated plants of Grevillea calliantha are protected from herbivore grazing by strong wire cages. Photo: David Coates.

known. Consequently the species was listed as Declared Rare Flora in 1987. Since 1990, five new populations within a 30 km geographic radius of the original plants have been found, bringing the total number of populations to six. However, there were only 123 plants in total within these six populations. Four of the populations occur on narrow road verges where they are vulnerable to damage or destruction during road maintenance. As a result the species was ranked as Critically Endangered in September 1995. An Interim Recovery Plan was written to identify the actions needed to recover the species. The Plan recommended seed collection and storage as well as restocking one of the known populations or translocation to another site. Between 1995 and 1997, seeds were collected from four of the known populations from at least 30 individuals. The majority of seeds were dried to equilibrium at 15°C and 15% relative humidity and sealed in laminated aluminium foil bags (seed from individual plants was kept separate) and stored at −20°C. A small sample of seed from each collection was germinated after pre-treatment but the germination percentage was generally low. After one year in storage, 374 seeds from a 1996 collection were removed. These seeds were pre-treated in the same manner as seeds germinated prior to storage. Germination was slightly higher (55%) than that recorded for fresh seed (48%). Germinants were sent to a nursery and six months later a total of 192 seedlings were

Chapter 8 – Seedbanks and the conservation of threatened species

Striking yellow and maroon, pea-shaped flowers of Daviesia bursarioides.

These immature fruits of Daviesia bursarioides will open explosively when ripe.

available for planting. Augmentation planting took place in September 1999. After four years, 39 of these seedlings (20%) had survived at the translocation site. Almost all of these plants (31) have flowered and set seed. Subsequent seed collections were made in November 1998 with the aim of introducing more seedlings to the translocation site. From this collection 201 seeds were used for germination testing and propagation. After six months, 144 seedlings were available for translocation. These were planted in August 1999. After three dry years and grazing pressure from kangaroos only 19 of these plants survived. A further 450 seeds were removed from storage, germinated and sent to the nursery. The resulting 262 seedlings were planted at the translocation site in July 2000. Again the dry years resulted in just 10 plants surviving by 2002. The three-year translocation programme resulted in 68 extra plants being established at the augmentation site. Before translocation just 12 individuals occurred at this site. Translocation has therefore increased the population size five-fold. Many of the translocated plants have flowered and set seed. It is probable that natural recruitment will not occur in the absence of disturbance, owing to the restriction of the hard seedcoat that prevents germination. Despite lack of recruitment, it is likely that a soil seed reserve is being created at the translocation site that will be viable for many years. In the event of a disturbance such as fire, this species should be able to regenerate from this seed reserve. Whilst the species is still critically

Volunteers augmenting a natural population of Daviesia bursarioides.

endangered, seed collection, long-term seed storage and translocation will help ensure species survival in the wild in the long term. CASE STUDY: LAMBERTIA ORBIFOLIA SUBSP. ORBIFOLIA (PROTEACEAE)

Lambertia orbifolia subsp. orbifolia is an attractive upright shrub or small tree (up to 4 m tall) that grows near Narrikup, 50 km north of Albany on the south coast of Western Australia. The name of the species refers to the rounded or orb-shaped leaves. The common name, Round-Leaf Honeysuckle, refers to the honeysuckle-like orange-red flowers that occur in clusters of four to six from May to July and then again from December to January. There is no defined fruiting period in this species and the weakly serotinous pods can be collected throughout the year. Each pod contains two flat, round to triangular, black seeds that are non-dormant on dispersal. Plants are killed by fire, regenerate readily from seed and are highly susceptible to root-rot disease caused by Phytophthora cinnamomi. In 1999, two populations occurred at Narrikup that consisted of just 169 plants. The populations occurred on degraded road verges and were in relatively poor condition, being affected by disease (aerial canker and dieback) and exotic weed invasion. As a consequence this subspecies was listed as critically endangered in September 1999. An Interim Recovery Plan was written for the subspecies, which recommended further survey, 65

Australian Seeds

The honeysuckle-like orange-red flowers of Lambertia orbifolia subsp. orbifolia are attractive to birds who are major pollinators of this subspecies. Photo: Kate Brown.

Fruits of Lambertia orbifolia subsp. orbifolia are clasped within the orbicular-shaped leaves of the plant. On ripening, seeds are released and germinate readily.

ex situ germplasm storage and translocation. Surveys undertaken in 1999 and 2000 located one new population, which substantially increased the number of known individuals to 944. A small amount of seeds was collected over a number of years from more than 50 plants. These seeds were collected between 1992 and 1996 for ex situ storage. Viability of seeds was high (up to 100%) with only one early collection showing a decrease in viability in storage over five years. In 1998 seedlings of L. orbifolia subsp. orbifolia were translocated to a conservation reserve less than 4 km from the known Narrikup populations. Stored seeds from both populations were germinated in 1997–98. Low genetic diversity between the two original populations enabled mixing of the populations, thereby guaranteeing a greater number of source plants for the translocated

population. Seedlings were transferred to the nursery for cultivation and in winter 1998, 216 six-month-old seedlings were planted at the translocation site. In 1999 a further 330 plants were translocated into the site. These were a mixture of cutting and seedling derived plants. After four years, 163 plants (75%) from the 1998 planting survived. All have flowered and produced viable seeds and second generation seedlings recruited for the first time in 2002. After three years, 246 (74%) of the 1999 planting survived. Another 69 seedlings were translocated into the same site in 2000. Heavy grazing from kangaroos resulted in just six (9%) of these surviving. To date there are 490 plants at the translocation site making it the second largest population of this subspecies. Natural seedling recruitment observed in 2002 should ensure a high probability of survival for this subspecies in the wild in the long term.

66

CHAPTER 9

Australian seeds: a photographic guide Luke Sweedman

This chapter contains photographs of seeds of more than 1200 species that are held in the seedbank at the Seed Technology Centre, Kings Park and Botanic Garden, Perth, Western Australia. Rather than showing every species in a genus we have attempted to show the great range of diversity of seeds found within different genera. In many cases there is considerable variety in either shape or colour between species, and the seeds can be used as a significant tool for diagnostic identification.

The seeds of some species such as Eremophila are stored while still in the fruit.

Most of the species photographed are referenced to the herbarium specimens and a list of collection numbers is given in Appendix 2 of this book. This provides a direct link from the photograph to the naming and collection record for that species. The seeds are measured as accurately as possible and the size shown beside the photographs is generally the length. Seeds are not uniform in size and therefore this is a guide only. The very small seeds, those below about 1 mm in size, are not easily distinguished and groups such as Melaleuca are particularly obscure in shape and form. Those seeds too difficult to view with the naked eye or with a field hand lens have therefore been photographed under a microscope. Although the seeds were originally photographed for their affinity with the genus they belong to, they have immense natural beauty that shines as you look through the photographs. They are interesting enough in themselves to enjoy the shapes, forms and textures. Their range of colours and their sheer variety is startling. In some cases, the photographs are of fruits rather than seeds, for example Leucopogon, Eremophila and Scaevola. For these species the seeds are stored while still in the fruits and cannot be removed easily.

67

Australian Seeds

Abildgaardia schoenoides

Abutilon cunninghamii

3 mm CYPERACEAE

Abrus precatorius

7 mm FABACEAE

Abutilon cryptopetalum

2 mm MALVACEAE

2 mm MALVACEAE

Acacia acuminata

5 mm FABACEAE

Acacia aestivalis

10 mm FABACEAE

Acacia alata

4 mm FABACEAE

Acacia amblyophylla

8 mm FABACEAE

Acacia anaticeps

13 mm FABACEAE

Acacia aneura

6 mm FABACEAE

Acacia anfractuosa

4 mm FABACEAE

Acacia aphylla

5 mm FABACEAE

68

Australian Seeds

Acacia argyraea

5 mm FABACEAE

Acacia arida

4 mm FABACEAE

Acacia armata

4 mm FABACEAE

Acacia atkinsiana

5 mm FABACEAE

Acacia bivenosa

7 mm FABACEAE

Acacia burkittii

4 mm FABACEAE

Acacia celastrifolia

4 mm FABACEAE

Acacia citrinoviridis

8 mm FABACEAE

Acacia cochlearis

3 mm FABACEAE

Acacia colei var. colei

4 mm FABACEAE

Acacia coolgardiensis

3 mm FABACEAE

Acacia coriacea

10 mm FABACEAE 69

Australian Seeds

Acacia cowleana

4 mm FABACEAE

Acacia cyclops seed variation 1

7 mm FABACEAE

Acacia cyclops seed variation 2

7 mm FABACEAE

Acacia demissa

9 mm FABACEAE

Acacia denticulosa

4 mm FABACEAE

Acacia drepanocarpa

7 mm FABACEAE

Acacia drummondii subsp. drummondii

4 mm FABACEAE

Acacia dunnii

12 mm FABACEAE

Acacia filifolia

3 mm FABACEAE

Acacia galeata

6 mm FABACEAE

Acacia gilesiana

7 mm FABACEAE

Acacia gonoclada

4 mm FABACEAE

70

Australian Seeds

Acacia grasbyi

7 mm FABACEAE

Acacia harveyi

5 mm FABACEAE

Acacia hemignosta

6 mm FABACEAE

Acacia hemiteles

3 mm FABACEAE

Acacia heteroneura var. prolixa

4 mm FABACEAE

Acacia hilliana

5 mm FABACEAE

Acacia holosericea

4 mm FABACEAE

Acacia horridula

5 mm FABACEAE

Acacia inaequilatera

5 mm FABACEAE

Acacia jibberdingensis

5 mm FABACEAE

Acacia lasiocalyx

8 mm FABACEAE

Acacia longispinea

3 mm FABACEAE 71

Australian Seeds

Acacia lysiphloia

3 mm FABACEAE

Acacia merrallii

4 mm FABACEAE

Acacia merrickiae

5 mm FABACEAE

Acacia myrtifolia

4 mm FABACEAE

Acacia neurophylla

3 mm FABACEAE

Acacia oldfieldii

3.5 mm FABACEAE

Acacia pharangites

3 mm FABACEAE

Acacia plectocarpa

4 mm FABACEAE

Acacia prainii

6 mm FABACEAE

Acacia pruinocarpa

6 mm FABACEAE

Acacia pulchella

3 mm FABACEAE

Acacia pygmaea

4 mm FABACEAE

72

Australian Seeds

Acacia resinimarginea

3 mm FABACEAE

Acacia retivenea

5 mm FABACEAE

Acacia rhodophloia

7 mm FABACEAE

Acacia rossei

5 mm FABACEAE

Acacia rostellifera

5 mm FABACEAE

Acacia saligna

4 mm FABACEAE

Acacia sclerosperma

9 mm FABACEAE

Acacia semicircinalis

5 mm FABACEAE

Acacia sessilispica

2 mm FABACEAE

Acacia sibina

4 mm FABACEAE

Acacia splendens

7 mm FABACEAE

Acacia subflexuosa

2 mm FABACEAE 73

Australian Seeds

Acacia sulcata var. planoconvexa 3 mm FABACEAE

Acacia tetragonophylla

4 mm FABACEAE

Acacia translucens

7 mm FABACEAE

Acacia tumida

5 mm FABACEAE

Acacia validinervia

5 mm FABACEAE

Acacia vassalii

5 mm FABACEAE

Acacia victoriae

4 mm FABACEAE

Acacia wiseana

7 mm FABACEAE

Acacia xiphophylla

8 mm FABACEAE

Acanthocarpus preissii

74

5 mm LAXMANNIACEAE

Acidonia microcarpa

10 mm PROTEACEAE

Actinostrobus acuminatus

10 mm CUPRESSACEAE

Australian Seeds

Actinostrobus pyramidalis

Adriana quadripartita

Albizia lebbeck

Allocasuarina acutivalvis

5 mm CUPRESSACEAE

8 mm EUPHORBIACEAE

8 mm FABACEAE

13 mm CASUARINACEAE

Actinotus leucocephalus

Agonis baxteri

Alectryon diversifolius

5 mm APIACEAE

2 mm MYRTACEAE

7 mm SAPINDACEAE

Allocasuarina decaisneana 15 mm CASUARINACEAE

Adansonia gregorii

Agonis flexuosa

Alectryon oleifolius

Allocasuarina fibrosa

13 mm BOMBACACEAE

0.75 mm MYRTACEAE

6 mm SAPINDACEAE

6 mm CASUARINACEAE 75

Australian Seeds

Allocasuarina fraseriana

Alphitonia incana

Amaranthus mitchellii

Andersonia involucrata

76

8 mm CASUARINACEAE

6 mm RHAMNACEAE

1 mm AMARANTHACEAE

1 mm ERICACEAE

Allocasuarina microstachya 5 mm CASUARINACEAE

Allocasuarina pinaster

Aluta maisonneuvei

2 mm MYRTACEAE

Alyogyne hakeifolia

4 mm MALVACEAE

3 mm POACEAE

Amyema fitzgeraldii

7 mm LORANTHACEAE

Amphipogon strictus

Angophora costata

4 mm MYRTACEAE

Anigozanthos bicolor

10 mm CASUARINACEAE

2 mm HAEMODORACEAE

Australian Seeds

Anigozanthos flavidus

2 mm HAEMODORACEAE

Anigozanthos gabrielae 1.5 mm HAEMODORACEAE

Anigozanthos humilis

1.5 mm HAEMODORACEAE

Anigozanthos manglesii 2 mm HAEMODORACEAE

Anigozanthos preissii

Anigozanthos viridis

1.5 mm HAEMODORACEAE

Anisomeles malabarica

Anthocercis genistoides

2 mm LAMIACEAE

Aphanopetalum clematideum 3 mm CUNONIACEAE

2.5 mm HAEMODORACEAE

2 mm SOLANACEAE

Apium prostratum subsp. phillipii 2 mm APIACEAE

Aotus tietkensii

Argyroglottis turbinata

3 mm FABACEAE

10 mm ASTERACEAE 77

Australian Seeds

Aristida inaequiglumis

Asterolasia squamuligera

20 mm POACEAE

Arytera divaricata

6 mm SAPINDACEAE

Asteridea asteroides

7 mm ASTERACEAE

4 mm RUTACEAE

Astrebla lappacea

5 mm POACEAE

Astroloma foliosum

6 mm ERICACEAE

Atalaya hemiglauca

5 mm SAPINDACEAE

Atriplex semilunaris

4 mm CHENOPODIACEAE

78

Atriplex lindleyi subsp. inflata 2 mm CHENOPODIACEAE

Atriplex nummularia

3 mm CHENOPODIACEAE

Atriplex spongiosa

Atriplex vesicaria

4 mm CHENOPODIACEAE

2 mm CHENOPODIACEAE

Australian Seeds

Austrodantharia caespitosa

2 mm POACEAE

Austrostipa scabra

3 mm POACEAE

Baeckea behrii

5 mm MYRTACEAE

Banksia attenuata

14 mm PROTEACEAE

Banksia audax

12 mm PROTEACEAE

Banksia baxteri

10 mm PROTEACEAE

Banksia blechnifolia

15 mm PROTEACEAE

Banksia brownii

11 mm PROTEACEAE

Banksia burdettii

10 mm PROTEACEAE

Banksia caleyi

14 mm PROTEACEAE

Banksia coccinea

5 mm PROTEACEAE

Banksia cuneata

5 mm PROTEACEAE 79

Australian Seeds

Banksia dryandroides

13 mm PROTEACEAE

Banksia elderiana

11 mm PROTEACEAE

Banksia elegans

5 mm PROTEACEAE

Banksia gardneri

15 mm PROTEACEAE

Banksia goodii

16 mm PROTEACEAE

Banksia grandis

15 mm PROTEACEAE

Banksia hookeriana

12 mm PROTEACEAE

Banksia laevigata subsp. fuscolutea

9 mm PROTEACEAE

Banksia laevigata subsp. laevigata

15 mm PROTEACEAE

Banksia laricina

12 mm PROTEACEAE

Banksia lemanniana

14 mm PROTEACEAE

Banksia leptophylla

18 mm PROTEACEAE

80

Australian Seeds

Banksia lindleyana

10 mm PROTEACEAE

Banksia lullfitzii

7 mm PROTEACEAE

Banksia menziesii

12 mm PROTEACEAE

Banksia nutans

13 mm PROTEACEAE

Banksia occidentalis subsp. occidentalis

7 mm PROTEACEAE

Banksia occidentalis subsp. formosa

11 mm PROTEACEAE

Banksia oreophila

12 mm PROTEACEAE

Banksia praemorsa

10 mm PROTEACEAE

Banksia prionotes

6 mm PROTEACEAE

Banksia pulchella

10 mm PROTEACEAE

Banksia quercifolia

9 mm PROTEACEAE

Banksia sceptrum

13 mm PROTEACEAE 81

Australian Seeds

Banksia solandri

14 mm PROTEACEAE

Banksia sphaerocarpa var. sphaerocarpa

10 mm PROTEACEAE

Banksia sphaerocarpa var. dolichostyla

8 mm PROTEACEAE

Banksia tricuspis

15 mm PROTEACEAE

Banksia verticillata

12 mm PROTEACEAE

Banksia victoriae

10 mm PROTEACEAE

Banksia violacea

14 mm PROTEACEAE

Bauhinia cunninghamii

Beaufortia eriocephala

82

1 mm MYRTACEAE

Beaufortia interstans

15 mm FABACEAE

Beaufortia elegans

1 mm MYRTACEAE

1 mm MYRTACEAE

Beaufortia orbifolia

1.5 mm MYRTACEAE

Australian Seeds

Billardiera floribunda

Bonamia pannosa

2 mm PITTOSPORACEAE

2.5 mm CONVOLVULACEAE

Billardiera fraseri

Bonamia rosea

Boronia alata

3 mm RUTACEAE

Boronia crenulata

Boronia revoluta

3.5 mm RUTACEAE

Borya nitida

4 mm PITTOSPORACEAE

2.5 mm CONVOLVULACEAE

2 mm RUTACEAE

0.5 mm BORYACEAE

Billardiera heterophylla

2 mm PITTOSPORACEAE

Boronia adamsiana

2 mm RUTACEAE

Boronia exilis

1.5 mm RUTACEAE

Bossiaea aquifolium

4 mm FABACEAE 83

Australian Seeds

Bossiaea bossiaeoides

4 mm FABACEAE

Bossiaea linophylla

Bossiaea spinescens

3 mm FABACEAE

Brachychiton diversifolius

Brachyscome cheilocarpa

Brunonia australis

84

1.5 mm ASTERACEAE

2 mm GOODENIACEAE

Brachyscome ciliaris

Buchnera ramosissima

2 mm FABACEAE

3 mm FABACEAE

Bossiaea ornata

10 mm MALVACEAE

Brachyscome bellidioides

1 mm ASTERACEAE

2 mm ASTERACEAE

Brachyscome lineariloba

2.5 mm ASTERACEAE

0.5 mm OROBANCHACEAE

Bulbine semibarbata

2 mm ASPHODELACEAE

Australian Seeds

Burchardia conjesta

2 mm COLCHICACEAE

Caladenia arenicola

<.1 mm ORCHIDACEAE

Calandrinia eremaea

Callistachys lanceolata

0.3 mm PORTULACACEAE

3 mm FABACEAE

Bursaria occidentalis

6 mm PITTOSPORACEAE

Calamphoreus inflatus 4 mm SCROPHULARIACEAE

Calandrinia polyandra

Callistemon glaucus

0.3 mm PORTULACACEAE

0.3 mm MYRTACEAE

Cajanus cinereus

6 mm FABACEAE

Calandrinia creethae

0.3 mm PORTULACACEAE

Calandrinia pumila

0.3 mm PORTULACACEAE

Callistemon phoeniceus

0.3 mm MYRTACEAE 85

Australian Seeds

Callitris drummondii

7 mm CUPRESSACEAE

Calocephalus francisii

0.2 mm ASTERACEAE

Callitris glaucophylla

7 mm CUPRESSACEAE

Calocephalus platycephalus

0.2 mm ASTERACEAE

Callitris preissii

Calothamnus blepharospermus 4 mm MYRTACEAE

Calothamnus chrysantherus

4 mm MYRTACEAE

Calothamnus gibbosus

0.2 mm MYRTACEAE

Calothamnus oldfieldii

Calothamnus rupestris

3 mm MYRTACEAE

Calothamnus validus

5 mm MYRTACEAE

Calotis breviradiata

86

7 mm CUPRESSACEAE

2 mm MYRTACEAE

3 mm ASTERACEAE

Australian Seeds

Calotis multicaulis

2.5 mm ASTERACEAE

Calotis plumulifera

3 mm ASTERACEAE

Calycopeplus paucifolius

4 mm EUPHORBIACEAE

Calytrix aurea

10 mm MYRTACEAE

Calytrix carinata

10 mm MYRTACEAE

Calytrix depressa

6 mm MYRTACEAE

Calytrix desolata

10 mm MYRTACEAE

Calytrix exstipulata

6 mm MYRTACEAE

Calytrix flavescens

13 mm MYRTACEAE

Calytrix leschenaultii

10 mm MYRTACEAE

Calytrix tetragona

8 mm MYRTACEAE

Canavalia rosea

15 mm FABACEAE 87

Australian Seeds

3 mm CAPPARACEAE

Capparis spinosa

Cartonema philydroides

3 mm COMMELINACEAE

Cassinia aculeata var. laevis

Cassytha pomiformis

88

1 mm ASTERACEAE

5 mm LAURACEAE

Capparis umbonata

Cassia brewsteri

Cassytha aurea var. hirta

Casuarina cristata

12 mm CAPPARACEAE

7 mm FABACEAE

8 mm LAURACEAE

5 mm CASUARINACEAE

Carpentaria acuminata

Cassine melanocarpa

Cassytha melantha

Casuarina obesa

10 mm ARECACEAE

10 mm CELASTRACEAE

8 mm LAURACEAE

5 mm CASUARINACEAE

Australian Seeds

Casuarina pauper

7 mm CASUARINACEAE

Chamaescilla corymbosa 1 mm LAXMANNIACEAE

Choretrum glomeratum

Chorizema cordatum

4 mm SANTALACEAE

1.5 mm FABACEAE

Centipeda minima

Chamelaucium uncinatum

1 mm ASTERACEAE

10 mm MYRTACEAE

Cephalipterum drummondii

2 mm ASTERACEAE

Chenopodium gaudichaudianum 3 mm CHENOPODIACEAE

Chorilaena quercifolia

2 mm RUTACEAE

Chorizandra enodis

Chorizema dicksonii

3 mm FABACEAE

Chorizema ilicifolium

2 mm CYPERACEAE

2 mm FABACEAE 89

Australian Seeds

2 mm FABACEAE

Chorizema varium

Clematis linearifolia

6 mm RANUNCULACEAE

Chrysocephalum apiculatum

Clematis pubescens

0.5 mm ASTERACEAE

5 mm RANUNCULACEAE

Clerodendrum tomentosum

7 mm LAMIACEAE

Cochlospermum fraseri 6 mm COCHLOSPERMACEAE

Commersonia gaudichaudii

1.5 mm MALVACEAE

Conospermum leianthum

90

4 mm PROTEACEAE

Cissus adnata

Cleome viscosa

6 mm VITACEAE

1 mm CAPPARACEAE

Codonocarpus cotinifolius 2 mm GYROSTEMONACEAE

Conospermum teretifolium

2.5 mm PROTEACEAE

Australian Seeds

Conospermum toddii

2 mm PROTEACEAE

Conospermum undulatum

3 mm PROTEACEAE

Conostylis aculeata subsp. aculeata

2 mm HAEMODORACEAE

Conostylis aculeata subsp. preissii

1.5 mm HAEMODORACEAE

Conostylis candicans

2 mm HAEMODORACEAE

Conostylis dielsii subsp. teres 1.5 mm HAEMODORACEAE

Conostylis drummondii

2 mm HAEMODORACEAE

Conostylis micrantha

2 mm HAEMODORACEAE

Conostylis seorsiflora 1.5 mm subsp. trichophylla HAEMODORACEAE

Conostylis teretiuscula

2 mm HAEMODORACEAE

Convolvulus angustissimus 3 mm CONVOLVULACEAE

Coopernookia polygalacea 3 mm GOODENIACEAE 91

Australian Seeds

Corchorus walcottii

3 mm MALVACEAE

Corymbia cadophora subsp. cadophora

10 mm MYRTACEAE

Corymbia calophylla

13 mm MYRTACEAE

Corymbia cliftoniana

10 mm MYRTACEAE

Corymbia collina

12 mm MYRTACEAE

Corymbia dichromophloia

7 mm MYRTACEAE

Corymbia ficifolia

12 mm MYRTACEAE

Corymbia haematoxylon

6 mm MYRTACEAE

Corymbia latifolia

8 mm MYRTACEAE

Corymbia opaca

10 mm MYRTACEAE

Corymbia polycarpa

7 mm MYRTACEAE

Corymbia setosa

10 mm MYRTACEAE

92

Australian Seeds

12 mm MYRTACEAE

Corymbia zygophylla

Cryptandra arbutiflora

Cullen lachnostachys

5 mm ASTERACEAE

Crotalaria cunninghamii

7 mm FABACEAE

Crotalaria retusa

6 mm FABACEAE

Crotalaria verrucosa

6 mm FABACEAE

1 mm RHAMNACEAE

Cullen badocanum

4 mm FABACEAE

Cullen cinereum

2.5 mm FABACEAE

4 mm FABACEAE

Cullen leucanthum

10 mm FABACEAE

Cullen martinii

4 mm FABACEAE

Crotalaria novae-hollandiae

5 mm FABACEAE

Cratystylis subspinescens

93

Australian Seeds

Cullen plumosum

Cyanostegia angustifolia

Cyperus aff. vaginatus

Dampiera dentata

94

4 mm FABACEAE

3 mm LAMIACEAE

2 mm CYPERACEAE

3 mm GOODENIACEAE

Cullen pustulatum

Cyanostegia cyanocalyx

Cyperus polystachyos

Dampiera incana

5 mm FABACEAE

6 mm LAMIACEAE

1 mm CYPERACEAE

3 mm GOODENIACEAE

Cuphonotus andraeanus

1 mm BRASSICACEAE

Cymbopogon obtectus

3 mm POACEAE

Dactyloctenium radulans

1 mm POACEAE

Darwinia acerosa

4 mm MYRTACEAE

Australian Seeds

Darwinia citriodora

6 mm MYRTACEAE

Darwinia diosmoides

2 mm MYRTACEAE

Darwinia meeboldii

8 mm MYRTACEAE

Darwinia virescens

6 mm MYRTACEAE

Dasypogon bromeliifolius 7 mm DASYPOGONACEAE

Daucus glochidiatus

4 mm APIACEAE

Daviesia benthamii

3 mm FABACEAE

Daviesia bursarioides

5 mm FABACEAE

Daviesia cordata

4 mm FABACEAE

Daviesia euphorbioides

4 mm FABACEAE

Daviesia flexuosa

5 mm FABACEAE

Daviesia megacalyx

5 mm FABACEAE 95

Australian Seeds

Daviesia oppositifolia

4 mm FABACEAE

Dianella revoluta var. divaricata 3.5 mm HEMEROCALLIDACEAE

Dillwynia retorta

2.5 mm FABACEAE

Diospyros ferrea

8 mm EBENACEAE

96

4 mm FABACEAE

Daviesia spiralis

Dicrastylis cordifolia var. cordifolia 2.5 mm LAMIACEAE

Diocirea violacea

2.5 mm SCROPHULARIACEAE

Diplolaena angustifolia

6 mm RUTACEAE

5 mm FABACEAE

Daviesia teretifolia

Didymanthus roei

7 mm CHENOPODIACEAE

Dioscorea hastifolia

Diplolaena microcephala

12 mm DIOSCOREACEAE

4 mm RUTACEAE

Australian Seeds

Diplopeltis eriocarpa

2.5 mm SAPINDACEAE

Diplopeltis stuartii var. stuartii 3 mm SAPINDACEAE

Diuris magnifica

<.1 mm ORCHIDACEAE

Dodonaea aptera

2 mm SAPINDACEAE

Dodonaea divaricata

2 mm SAPINDACEAE

Dodonaea hackettiana

2.5 mm SAPINDACEAE

Dodonaea lobulata

3 mm SAPINDACEAE

Dodonaea pinifolia

2 mm SAPINDACEAE

Dodonaea stenozyga

2 mm SAPINDACEAE

Drosera indica

0.5 mm DROSERACEAE

Drummondita ericoides

4 mm RUTACEAE

Drummondita hassellii

5 mm RUTACEAE 97

Australian Seeds

Drummondita longifolia

4 mm RUTACEAE

Dryandra arborea

5 mm PROTEACEAE

Dryandra armata

5 mm PROTEACEAE

Dryandra carlinoides

5 mm PROTEACEAE

Dryandra cirsioides

7 mm PROTEACEAE

Dryandra formosa

5 mm PROTEACEAE

Dryandra praemorsa

8 mm PROTEACEAE

Dryandra pulchella

5 mm PROTEACEAE

Dryandra quercifolia

5 mm PROTEACEAE

Dryandra serratuloides subsp. perissa

4 mm PROTEACEAE

Dryandra sessilis

6 mm PROTEACEAE

Dryandra speciosa

5 mm PROTEACEAE

98

Australian Seeds

Duboisia hopwoodii

Ehretia saligna

2 mm SOLANACEAE

3 mm BORAGINACEAE

Dysphania rhadinostachya 0.25 mm subsp. rhadinostachya CHENOPODIACEAE

Elaeocarpus reticulatus

Enneapogon avenaceus

5 mm POACEAE

Enneapogon cylindricus

Enneapogon polyphyllus

3 mm POACEAE

Epilobium hirtigerum

Dysphania rhadinostachya 0.2 mm subsp. inflata CHENOPODIACEAE

10 mm ELAEOCARPACEAE

Enchylaena tomentosa

4 mm CHENOPODIACEAE

3 mm POACEAE

Enneapogon oblongus

1 mm POACEAE

Eragrostis dielsii

0.5 mm POACEAE

1 mm ONAGRACEAE

99

Australian Seeds

Eragrostis setifolia

1 mm POACEAE

Eremaea violacea

3 mm MYRTACEAE

Eremophila bignoniiflora 8 mm SCROPHULARIACEAE

Eremophila calorhabdos 8 mm SCROPHULARIACEAE

Eremophila chamaephila 2.5 mm SCROPHULARIACEAE

Eremophila denticulata 12 mm SCROPHULARIACEAE

Eremophila glabra

Eremophila granitica

100

5 mm SCROPHULARIACEAE

Eremaea asterocarpa subsp. brachyclada

Eremophila ionantha

3 mm MYRTACEAE

5 mm SCROPHULARIACEAE

Eremaea ebracteata

2.5 mm MYRTACEAE

6 mm SCROPHULARIACEAE

Eremophila longifolia 10 mm SCROPHULARIACEAE

Australian Seeds

Eremophila maculata 12 mm SCROPHULARIACEAE

Eremophila nivea

Eremophila platycalyx 5 mm SCROPHULARIACEAE

Eremophila racemosa 10 mm SCROPHULARIACEAE

Eremophila undulata

7 mm SCROPHULARIACEAE

4 mm POACEAE

Eriocaulon cinereum

1 mm ERIOCAULACEAE

Eriachne flaccida

Erymophyllum ramosum

3.5 mm POACEAE

4 mm ASTERACEAE

5 mm SCROPHULARIACEAE

Eriachne sulcata

Erymophyllum tenellum

4 mm ASTERACEAE

Eremophila oldfieldii 5 mm subsp. angustifolia SCROPHULARIACEAE

Eryngium pinnatifidum

3 mm APIACEAE 101

Australian Seeds

Erythrina vespertilio

14 mm FABACEAE

Erythrophleum chlorostachys

8 mm FABACEAE

Eucalyptus abdita

1.5 mm MYRTACEAE

Eucalyptus aff. argyphea

2 mm MYRTACEAE

Eucalyptus angulosa

2 mm MYRTACEAE

Eucalyptus arachnaea

1.5 mm MYRTACEAE

Eucalyptus astringens

1 mm MYRTACEAE

Eucalyptus beardiana

2 mm MYRTACEAE

Eucalyptus bennettiae

2 mm MYRTACEAE

Eucalyptus bigalerita

2 mm MYRTACEAE

Eucalyptus brevifolia

1 mm MYRTACEAE

Eucalyptus buprestium

8 mm MYRTACEAE

102

Australian Seeds

Eucalyptus burracoppinensis

1 mm MYRTACEAE

Eucalyptus caesia subsp. caesia 2 mm MYRTACEAE

Eucalyptus calcicola

3 mm MYRTACEAE

Eucalyptus camaldulensis

1 mm MYRTACEAE

Eucalyptus campaspe

1.5 mm MYRTACEAE

Eucalyptus celastroides

1 mm MYRTACEAE

Eucalyptus conglobata

1.5 mm MYRTACEAE

Eucalyptus coronata

3 mm MYRTACEAE

Eucalyptus desmondensis

1 mm MYRTACEAE

Eucalyptus diptera

2 mm MYRTACEAE

Eucalyptus crucis subsp. crusis 2 mm MYRTACEAE

Eucalyptus caesia subsp. magna 2.5 mm MYRTACEAE

103

Australian Seeds

Eucalyptus diversicolor

3 mm MYRTACEAE

Eucalyptus ebbanoensis

2 mm MYRTACEAE

Eucalyptus erythrocorys

5 mm MYRTACEAE

Eucalyptus erythronema

1.5 mm MYRTACEAE

Eucalyptus eudesmioides

4 mm MYRTACEAE

Eucalyptus foecunda

3 mm MYRTACEAE

Eucalyptus forrestiana

4 mm MYRTACEAE

Eucalyptus gamophylla

4 mm MYRTACEAE

Eucalyptus gardneri

1 mm MYRTACEAE

Eucalyptus gongylocarpa

4 mm MYRTACEAE

Eucalyptus griffithsii

2 mm MYRTACEAE

Eucalyptus guilfoylei

3 mm MYRTACEAE

104

Australian Seeds

Eucalyptus impensa

4 mm MYRTACEAE

Eucalyptus incerata

1.5 mm MYRTACEAE

Eucalyptus insularis

2 mm MYRTACEAE

Eucalyptus jensenii

2 mm MYRTACEAE

Eucalyptus jucunda

4 mm MYRTACEAE

Eucalyptus kessellii

2.5 mm MYRTACEAE

Eucalyptus kingsmillii subsp. kingsmillii

3 mm MYRTACEAE

Eucalyptus lane-poolei

2 mm MYRTACEAE

Eucalyptus lehmannii

2 mm MYRTACEAE

Eucalyptus leprophloia

1 mm MYRTACEAE

Eucalyptus leptopoda

1.5 mm MYRTACEAE

Eucalyptus loxophleba subsp. gratiae

2 mm MYRTACEAE 105

Australian Seeds

Eucalyptus macrocarpa

3 mm MYRTACEAE

Eucalyptus marginata

5 mm MYRTACEAE

Eucalyptus mcquoidii

3 mm MYRTACEAE

Eucalyptus megacarpa

3 mm MYRTACEAE

Eucalyptus microtheca

2 mm MYRTACEAE

Eucalyptus mooreana

2 mm MYRTACEAE

Eucalyptus newbeyi

3.5 mm MYRTACEAE

Eucalyptus obtusiflora

4 mm MYRTACEAE

Eucalyptus obtusiflora subsp. dongarraensis

3 mm MYRTACEAE

Eucalyptus odontocarpa

4 mm MYRTACEAE

Eucalyptus oldfieldii

2.5 mm MYRTACEAE

Eucalyptus oleosa

2 mm MYRTACEAE

106

Australian Seeds

Eucalyptus oraria

1 mm MYRTACEAE

Eucalyptus oxymitra

5 mm MYRTACEAE

Eucalyptus patellaris

2.5 mm MYRTACEAE

Eucalyptus pendens

5 mm MYRTACEAE

Eucalyptus petraea

3 mm MYRTACEAE

Eucalyptus phaenophylla subsp. interjacens

1 mm MYRTACEAE

Eucalyptus phenax

2 mm MYRTACEAE

Eucalyptus phoenicea

3 mm MYRTACEAE

Eucalyptus pileata

2 mm MYRTACEAE

Eucalyptus platypus var. utilis

1 mm MYRTACEAE

Eucalyptus pluricaulis

1.5 mm MYRTACEAE

Eucalyptus polita

1.5 mm MYRTACEAE 107

Australian Seeds

Eucalyptus preissiana

3 mm MYRTACEAE

Eucalyptus pyriformis

5 mm MYRTACEAE

Eucalyptus rameliana

3 mm MYRTACEAE

Eucalyptus rhodantha var. rhodantha

4 mm MYRTACEAE

Eucalyptus roycei

4 mm MYRTACEAE

Eucalyptus rudis

1.5 mm MYRTACEAE

Eucalyptus salmonophloia

1 mm MYRTACEAE

Eucalyptus salubris

2 mm MYRTACEAE

Eucalyptus sheathiana

3.5 mm MYRTACEAE

Eucalyptus spathulata

1 mm MYRTACEAE

Eucalyptus staeri

4 mm MYRTACEAE

Eucalyptus stoatei

4 mm MYRTACEAE

108

Australian Seeds

Eucalyptus stowardii

1.5 mm MYRTACEAE

Eucalyptus talyuberlup

2.5 mm MYRTACEAE

Eucalyptus tetraptera

5 mm MYRTACEAE

Eucalyptus torquata

2 mm MYRTACEAE

Eucalyptus transcontinentalis

1.5 mm MYRTACEAE

Eucalyptus uncinata

1.5 mm MYRTACEAE

Eucalyptus wandoo

2 mm MYRTACEAE

Eucalyptus youngiana

3.5 mm MYRTACEAE

Eulalia aurea

Euphorbia australis

0.5 mm EUPHORBIACEAE

Exocarpos aphyllus

6 mm SANTALACEAE

Exocarpos sparteus

4 mm POACEAE

5 mm SANTALACEAE 109

Australian Seeds

Feldstonia nitens

3 mm ASTERACEAE

Fimbristylis cephalophora

0.5 mm CYPERACEAE

Flaveria australasica

1 mm ASTERACEAE

2 mm CYPERACEAE

Gardenia pyriformis subsp. keartlandii

5 mm RUBIACEAE

Flindersia australis

10 mm RUTACEAE

Gahnia decomposita

Gastrolobium nervosum

4 mm FABACEAE

Gastrolobium bilobum

4 mm FABACEAE

Gastrolobium bracteolosum

4 mm FABACEAE

Gastrolobium calycinum

5 mm FABACEAE

Gastrolobium capitatum

2 mm FABACEAE

Gastrolobium celsianum

3 mm FABACEAE

110

Australian Seeds

Gastrolobium coriaceum

3 mm FABACEAE

Gastrolobium crassifolium

3 mm FABACEAE

Gastrolobium dilatatum

3 mm FABACEAE

Gastrolobium glaucum

3.5 mm FABACEAE

Gastrolobium ilicifolium

3 mm FABACEAE

Gastrolobium laytonii

4 mm FABACEAE

Gastrolobium leakeanum

3.5 mm FABACEAE

Gastrolobium parviflorum

4 mm FABACEAE

Gastrolobium racemosum

4 mm FABACEAE

Gastrolobium spinosum

4 mm FABACEAE

Gastrolobium stenophyllum

3.5 mm FABACEAE

Geijera parviflora

5 mm RUTACEAE 111

Australian Seeds

1.5 mm ASTERACEAE

Gilbertia tenuifolia

1 mm HALORAGACEAE

Glischrocaryon roei

Glycyrrhiza acanthocarpa

5 mm FABACEAE

Gnephosis macrocephala

Gompholobium confertum

3 mm FABACEAE

Gompholobium polyzygum

Gomphrena affinis subsp. pilbarensis 112

2 mm AMARANTHACEAE

Gomphrena canescens

1 mm ASTERACEAE

2.5 mm FABACEAE

2 mm AMARANTHACEAE

Glycine canescens

3 mm FABACEAE

Gompholobium capitatum

2 mm FABACEAE

Gompholobium scabrum

3 mm FABACEAE

Gomphrena cucullata

1 mm AMARANTHACEAE

Australian Seeds

Gomphrena cunninghamii 2 mm AMARANTHACEAE

Gomphrena flaccida

2 mm AMARANTHACEAE

Gomphrena leptoclada 1 mm subsp. leptoclada AMARANTHACEAE

Goodenia affinis

4 mm GOODENIACEAE

Goodenia berardiana

5 mm GOODENIACEAE

Goodenia coronopifolia

3 mm GOODENIACEAE

Goodenia corynocarpa

3.5 mm GOODENIACEAE

Goodenia fasciculata

2 mm GOODENIACEAE

Goodenia forrestii

4.5 mm GOODENIACEAE

Goodenia hassallii

2 mm GOODENIACEAE

Goodenia helmsii

1 mm GOODENIACEAE

Goodenia lamprosperma

0.4 mm GOODENIACEAE 113

Australian Seeds

Goodenia micrantha

3 mm GOODENIACEAE

Goodenia pinifolia

Goodenia scapigera

1.5 mm GOODENIACEAE

Goodia medaciginea

3 mm FABACEAE

6 mm MALVACEAE

Gossypium robinsonii

4 mm MALVACEAE

5 mm PROTEACEAE

Grevillea acrobotrya

6 mm PROTEACEAE

Gossypium populifolium

Grevillea acacioides

114

1 mm GOODENIACEAE

Goodenia pinnatifida

3 mm GOODENIACEAE

Gossypium australe

5 mm MALVACEAE

Gossypium sturtianum

5 mm MALVACEAE

Grevillea agrifolia

10 mm PROTEACEAE

Australian Seeds

Grevillea annulifera

18 mm PROTEACEAE

Grevillea argyrophylla

7 mm PROTEACEAE

Grevillea armigera

8 mm PROTEACEAE

Grevillea asteriscosa

8 mm PROTEACEAE

Grevillea bipinnatifida

12 mm PROTEACEAE

Grevillea candelabroides

10 mm PROTEACEAE

Grevillea candicans

23 mm PROTEACEAE

Grevillea christineae

7 mm PROTEACEAE

Grevillea commutata

8 mm PROTEACEAE

Grevillea costata

10 mm PROTEACEAE

Grevillea didymobotrya

5 mm PROTEACEAE

Grevillea dielsiana

11 mm PROTEACEAE 115

Australian Seeds

Grevillea dimidiata

12 mm PROTEACEAE

Grevillea drummondii subsp. pimeleoides

8 mm PROTEACEAE

Grevillea eriostachya

9 mm PROTEACEAE

Grevillea eryngioides

7 mm PROTEACEAE

Grevillea excelsior

12 mm PROTEACEAE

Grevillea fulgens

7 mm PROTEACEAE

Grevillea georgeana

7 mm PROTEACEAE

Grevillea gordoniana

7 mm PROTEACEAE

Grevillea hookeriana subsp. apiciloba

8 mm PROTEACEAE

Grevillea inconspicua

8 mm PROTEACEAE

Grevillea intricata

7 mm PROTEACEAE

Grevillea leptopoda

7 mm PROTEACEAE

116

Australian Seeds

Grevillea leucopteris

14 mm PROTEACEAE

Grevillea manglesii subsp. manglesii 6 mm PROTEACEAE

Grevillea nana

12 mm PROTEACEAE

Grevillea nudiflora

7 mm PROTEACEAE

Grevillea obliquistigma subsp. obliquistigma

6 mm PROTEACEAE

Grevillea paniculata

6 mm PROTEACEAE

Grevillea paradoxa

5 mm PROTEACEAE

Grevillea petrophiloides

4 mm PROTEACEAE

Grevillea plurijuga subsp. superba 8 mm PROTEACEAE

Grevillea polybotrya

10 mm PROTEACEAE

Grevillea pterosperma

8 mm PROTEACEAE

Grevillea pyramidalis

10 mm PROTEACEAE 117

Australian Seeds

Grevillea refracta

13 mm PROTEACEAE

Grevillea scapigera

8 mm PROTEACEAE

Grevillea secunda

7 mm PROTEACEAE

Grevillea stenobotrya

11 mm PROTEACEAE

Grevillea synapheae

7 mm PROTEACEAE

Grevillea teretifolia

7 mm PROTEACEAE

Grevillea tripartita subsp. macrostylis

11 mm PROTEACEAE

Grevillea wickhamii

8 mm PROTEACEAE

Grevillea wilsonii

8 mm PROTEACEAE

Guichenotia ledifolia

118

2 mm MALVACEAE

Guichenotia macrantha

2.5 mm MALVACEAE

Gunniopsis propinqua

0.25 mm AIZOACEAE

Australian Seeds

Gunniopsis quadrifida

Gyrostemon tepperi

1.5 mm AIZOACEAE

1.5 mm GYROSTEMONACEAE

17 mm HERNANDIACEAE

Gyrostemon ramulosus 5 mm GYROSTEMONACEAE

Haemodorum simulans 8 mm HAEMODORACEAE

Haemodorum spicatum 7 mm HAEMODORACEAE

Gyrocarpus americanus

Hakea aculeata

7 mm PROTEACEAE

Hakea adnata

10 mm PROTEACEAE

Hakea ambigua

6 mm PROTEACEAE

Hakea arborescens

12 mm PROTEACEAE

Hakea auriculata

5 mm PROTEACEAE

Hakea baxteri

20 mm PROTEACEAE 119

Australian Seeds

Hakea brachyptera

15 mm PROTEACEAE

Hakea candolleana

15 mm PROTEACEAE

Hakea ceratophylla

8 mm PROTEACEAE

Hakea cinerea

5 mm PROTEACEAE

Hakea circumalata

6 mm PROTEACEAE

Hakea commutata

5 mm PROTEACEAE

Hakea conchifolia

10 mm PROTEACEAE

Hakea costata

5 mm PROTEACEAE

Hakea cucullata

8 mm PROTEACEAE

Hakea cyclocarpa

10 mm PROTEACEAE

Hakea elliptica

8 mm PROTEACEAE

Hakea erinacea

7 mm PROTEACEAE

120

Australian Seeds

Hakea falcata

4 mm PROTEACEAE

Hakea ferruginea

5 mm PROTEACEAE

Hakea florida

10 mm PROTEACEAE

Hakea francisiana

10 mm PROTEACEAE

Hakea gilbertii

5 mm PROTEACEAE

Hakea hookeriana

10 mm PROTEACEAE

Hakea incrassata

12 mm PROTEACEAE

Hakea invaginata

5 mm PROTEACEAE

Hakea lasiantha

7 mm PROTEACEAE

Hakea laurina

10 mm PROTEACEAE

Hakea leucoptera

7 mm PROTEACEAE

Hakea lorea subsp. lorea

13 mm PROTEACEAE 121

Australian Seeds

Hakea macrocarpa

10 mm PROTEACEAE

Hakea marginata

5 mm PROTEACEAE

Hakea megalosperma

20 mm PROTEACEAE

Hakea meisneriana

3 mm PROTEACEAE

Hakea minyma

8 mm PROTEACEAE

Hakea multilineata

7 mm PROTEACEAE

Hakea nitida

7 mm PROTEACEAE

Hakea obliqua

10 mm PROTEACEAE

Hakea oldfieldii

5 mm PROTEACEAE

Hakea pandanicarpa subsp. pandanicarpa

12 mm PROTEACEAE

Hakea pandanicarpa subsp. crassifolia

10 mm PROTEACEAE

Hakea petiolaris

7 mm PROTEACEAE

122

Australian Seeds

Hakea platysperma

30 mm PROTEACEAE

Hakea preissii

6 mm PROTEACEAE

Hakea prostrata

5 mm PROTEACEAE

Hakea pycnoneura

3 mm PROTEACEAE

Hakea recurva subsp. recurva 8 mm PROTEACEAE

Hakea recurva subsp. arida

10 mm PROTEACEAE

Hakea scoparia

4 mm PROTEACEAE

Hakea stenophylla

10 mm PROTEACEAE

Hakea trifurcata

10 mm PROTEACEAE

Hakea undulata

6 mm PROTEACEAE

Hakea varia

4 mm PROTEACEAE

Hakea victoria

8 mm PROTEACEAE 123

Australian Seeds

Halgania andromedifolia

2 mm BORAGINACEAE

Halgania cyanea

5 mm BORAGINACEAE

Halgania solanacea

7 mm BORAGINACEAE

Haloragis gossei

6 mm HALORAGACEAE

Haloragis odontocarpa

5 mm HALORAGACEAE

Haloragis trigonocarpa

5 mm HALORAGACEAE

Halosarcia halocnemoides 0.5 mm CHENOPODIACEAE

Haptotrichion colwillii

124

2 mm ASTERACEAE

Hannafordia bissillii

Hardenbergia comptoniana

3 mm MALVACEAE

6 mm FABACEAE

Hannafordia quadrivalvis

4 mm MALVACEAE

Heliotropium cunninghamii 1 mm BORAGINACEAE

Australian Seeds

Heliotropium curassavicum 1.5 mm BORAGINACEAE

Hemigenia barbata

1 mm LAMIACEAE

Hibbertia hibbertioides

2 mm DILLENIACEAE

Hibiscus panduriformis

3.5 mm MALVACEAE

Heliotropium ramosissimum 2 mm BORAGINACEAE

Hemiandra pungens

4 mm LAMIACEAE

2.5 mm LAMIACEAE

Hibbertia conspicua

2.5 mm DILLENIACEAE

Hemigenia sericea

Hibbertia montana

Hibiscus sturtii var. campylochlamys

2 mm DILLENIACEAE

3 mm MALVACEAE

Hibiscus meraukensis

4.5 mm MALVACEAE

Homalospermum firmum

3 mm MYRTACEAE 125

Australian Seeds

Hovea elliptica

Hyalosperma glutinosum subsp. venustum

Hybanthus floribundus

Hypocalymma angustifolium

126

3 mm FABACEAE

2.5 mm ASTERACEAE

3 mm VIOLACEAE

1.5 mm MYRTACEAE

Hovea pungens

Hyalosperma zacchaeus

Hybanthus volubilis

Hypocalymma ericifolium

5 mm FABACEAE

1.5 mm ASTERACEAE

Hyalosperma cotula

2.5 mm ASTERACEAE

Hybanthus aurantiacus

3 mm VIOLACEAE

2 mm VIOLACEAE

Hymenosporum flavum

5 mm PITTOSPORACEAE

1.5 mm MYRTACEAE

Hypocalymma robustum

2.5 mm MYRTACEAE

Australian Seeds

Indigofera australis

2 mm FABACEAE

Indigofera boviperda

1.5 mm FABACEAE

Indigofera brevidens

1.5 mm FABACEAE

Indigofera colutea

1 mm FABACEAE

Indigofera hirsuta

2 mm FABACEAE

Indigofera monophylla

2 mm FABACEAE

Ipomoea costata

6 mm CONVOLVULACEAE

Isopogon axillaris

3 mm PROTEACEAE

Ipomoea macrantha

Isopogon cuneatus

10 mm CONVOLVULACEAE

2.5 mm PROTEACEAE

Ipomoea muelleri

Isopogon polycephalus

6.5 mm CONVOLVULACEAE

2.5 mm PROTEACEAE 127

Australian Seeds

Isopogon scabriusculus

1.5 mm PROTEACEAE

Isopogon sphaerocephalus

4 mm PROTEACEAE

Isopogon tridens

Isopogon trilobus

3 mm PROTEACEAE

Isotoma petraea

0.5 mm LOBELIACEAE

Isotropis atropurpurea

4 mm FABACEAE

Ixiochlamys cuneifolia

3 mm ASTERACEAE

Ixiochlamys filicifolia

2 mm ASTERACEAE

Jacksonia angulata

2 mm FABACEAE

Jacksonia lehmannii

4 mm FABACEAE

Jacksonia floribunda

128

4 mm FABACEAE

Jacksonia furcellata

4 mm FABACEAE

2 mm PROTEACEAE

Australian Seeds

2 mm FABACEAE

Jacksonia sericea

Johnsonia lupulina

4 mm HEMEROCALLIDACEAE

Jacksonia sternbergiana

Josephinia eugeniae

5 mm FABACEAE

7 mm PEDALIACEAE

Jacquemontia paniculata 2 mm CONVOLVULACEAE

Juncus holoschoenus

0.2 mm JUNCACEAE

Kennedia beckxiana

4 mm FABACEAE

Kennedia glabrata

2 mm FABACEAE

Kennedia macrophylla

3 mm FABACEAE

Kennedia nigricans

4 mm FABACEAE

Kennedia prorepens

4 mm FABACEAE

Kennedia prostrata

4 mm FABACEAE 129

Australian Seeds

Kennedia stirlingii

Kingia australis

Kunzea ericifolia

Labichea lanceolata

130

5 mm FABACEAE

15 mm DASYPOGONACEAE

Keraudrenia hermanniifolia

Kippistia suaedifolia

2 mm MALVACEAE

0.25 mm ASTERACEAE

Keraudrenia integrifolia

2 mm MALVACEAE

Kunzea baxteri

2 mm MYRTACEAE

1 mm MYRTACEAE

Kunzea micrantha

0.5 mm MYRTACEAE

Labichea cassioides

5 mm FABACEAE

6 mm FABACEAE

Labichea punctata

5 mm FABACEAE

Labichea teretifolia

4 mm FABACEAE

Australian Seeds

Lachnostachys coolgardiensis

2.5 mm LAMIACEAE

Lachnostachys eriobotrya

3 mm LAMIACEAE

Lachnostachys verbascifolia

4 mm MALVACEAE

Lambertia echinata

7 mm PROTEACEAE

7 mm PROTEACEAE

Lambertia multiflora

7 mm PROTEACEAE

Lawrencella davenportii

10 mm ASTERACEAE

Lagenophora huegelii

3 mm ASTERACEAE

Lagunaria patersonia

Lambertia fairallii

5 mm PROTEACEAE

Lambertia ilicifolia

Lambertia rariflora

8 mm PROTEACEAE

Lasiopetalum quinquenervium 2 mm MALVACEAE

7 mm LAMIACEAE

131

Australian Seeds

Lawrencia densiflora

1 mm MALVACEAE

Lawrencia helmsii

4 mm MALVACEAE

Lawrencia repens

Lawrencia spicata

0.75 mm MALVACEAE

Lawrencia viridigrisea

2.5 mm MALVACEAE

Laxmannia squarrosa

Lechenaultia biloba

2.5 mm GOODENIACEAE

Lechenaultia expansa

1.5 mm GOODENIACEAE

Lechenaultia floribunda

1 mm GOODENIACEAE

Lechenaultia linarioides

2 mm GOODENIACEAE

Lechenaultia macrantha

1.5 mm GOODENIACEAE

Lechenaultia stenosepala

1 mm GOODENIACEAE

132

1.2 mm MALVACEAE

1 mm LAXMANNIACEAE

Australian Seeds

2 mm ASTERACEAE

Lepidium linifolium

3 mm BRASSICACEAE

Lepidium oxytrichum

2 mm BRASSICACEAE

Lepidium phlebopetalum

3 mm BRASSICACEAE

Lepidium rotundum

4 mm BRASSICACEAE

Lepidobolus deserti

1.5 mm RESTIONACEAE

Lepidosperma gladiatum

3.5 mm CYPERACEAE

Leptomeria cunninghamii

3 mm SANTALACEAE

Leptorhynchos scaber

2 mm ASTERACEAE

3.5 mm FABACEAE

Leptosema chambersii

2.5 mm FABACEAE

Leiocarpa websteri

Leptosema anomalum

3 mm FABACEAE

Leptosema aphyllum

133

Australian Seeds

Leptospermum confertum

3 mm MYRTACEAE

Leptospermum erubescens

1 mm MYRTACEAE

Leucochrysum fitzgibbonii

1 mm ASTERACEAE

Leucochrysum stipitatum

3 mm ASTERACEAE

Leucopogon propinquus

Livistona alfredii

134

6 mm ERICACEAE

15 mm ARECACEAE

Levenhookia pusilla

Livistona eastonii

0.2 mm STYLIDIACEAE

16 mm ARECACEAE

Leptospermum spinescens

Leucopogon obovatus

Linum marginale

Lobelia heterophylla

4 mm MYRTACEAE

3.5 mm ERICACEAE

2.5 mm LINACEAE

0.5 mm LOBELIACEAE

Australian Seeds

Lobelia tenuior

Lomandra hastilis

Lotus cruentus

Luffa graveolens

0.25 mm LOBELIACEAE

3.5 mm LAXMANNIACEAE

1.5 mm FABACEAE

8 mm CUCURBITACEAE

Lobelia winfridae

Lophostemon confertis

0.5 mm LOBELIACEAE

3 mm MYRTACEAE

Logania vaginalis

Lotus australis

1 mm LOGANIACEAE

1.5 mm FABACEAE

Ludwigia octovalvis

0.25 mm ONAGRACEAE

Ludwigia perennis

0.2 mm ONAGRACEAE

Lycium australe

2.5 mm SOLANACEAE

Lysinema ciliatum

2 mm ERICACEAE 135

Australian Seeds

Macropidia fuliginosa

4 mm HAEMODORACEAE

Macrozamia fraserii

6 mm CHENOPODIACEAE

Maireana carnosa

3 mm CHENOPODIACEAE

Maireana convexa

15 mm CHENOPODIACEAE

Maireana enchylaenoides 8 mm CHENOPODIACEAE

Maireana georgei

8 mm CHENOPODIACEAE

Maireana glomerifolia

7 mm CHENOPODIACEAE

Maireana pentatropis

4 mm CHENOPODIACEAE

Maireana pyramidata

5 mm CHENOPODIACEAE

Lysiosepalum involucratum

Maireana appressa

Maireana lobiflora

136

2 mm MALVACEAE

4 mm CHENOPODIACEAE

45 mm ZAMIACEAE

Australian Seeds

Maireana tomentosa

Mallophora globiflora

Marianthus erubescens

Melaleuca blaeriifolia

2 mm CHENOPODIACEAE

4 mm LAMIACEAE

2 mm PITTOSPORACEAE

1 mm MYRTACEAE

Maireana triptera

6 mm CHENOPODIACEAE

Malvastrum americanum

Marsdenia australis

Melaleuca citrina

2 mm MALVACEAE

8 mm APOCYNACEAE

2 mm MYRTACEAE

Malleostemon roseus

Marianthus bicolor

1 mm MYRTACEAE

4 mm PITTOSPORACEAE

Melaleuca alsophila

0.5 mm MYRTACEAE

Melaleuca coccinea

1 mm MYRTACEAE 137

Australian Seeds

Melaleuca concreta

1 mm MYRTACEAE

Melaleuca conothamnoides

0.75 mm MYRTACEAE

Melaleuca cordata

0.5 mm MYRTACEAE

Melaleuca cucullata

1 mm MYRTACEAE

Melaleuca cuticularis

1 mm MYRTACEAE

Melaleuca diosmifolia

1.5 mm MYRTACEAE

Melaleuca eleuterostachya

1 mm MYRTACEAE

Melaleuca fulgens subsp. fulgens

1 mm MYRTACEAE

Melaleuca fulgens subsp. steedmanii

1 mm MYRTACEAE

Melaleuca globifera

1 mm MYRTACEAE

Melaleuca holosericea

1 mm MYRTACEAE

Melaleuca huegelii

1 mm MYRTACEAE

138

Australian Seeds

Melaleuca incana

1 mm MYRTACEAE

Melaleuca lateriflora subsp. acutifolia

1 mm MYRTACEAE

Melaleuca lateritia

1 mm MYRTACEAE

Melaleuca leiopyxis

1 mm MYRTACEAE

Melaleuca leptospermoides

1 mm MYRTACEAE

Melaleuca macronychia

0.75 mm MYRTACEAE

Melaleuca megacephala

1 mm MYRTACEAE

Melaleuca nematophylla

0.75 mm MYRTACEAE

Melaleuca nervosa

0.5 mm MYRTACEAE

Melaleuca nesophila

2 mm MYRTACEAE

Melaleuca oldfieldii

0.75 mm MYRTACEAE

Melaleuca pentagona

1 mm MYRTACEAE 139

Australian Seeds

Melaleuca platycalyx

1 mm MYRTACEAE

Melaleuca pulchella

1 mm MYRTACEAE

Melaleuca pungens

1 mm MYRTACEAE

Melaleuca radula

1 mm MYRTACEAE

Melaleuca scabra

1 mm MYRTACEAE

Melaleuca sciotostyla

0.75 mm MYRTACEAE

Melaleuca sclerophylla

1 mm MYRTACEAE

Melaleuca seriata

1 mm MYRTACEAE

Melaleuca sheathiana

1 mm MYRTACEAE

Melaleuca spathulata

1 mm MYRTACEAE

Melaleuca striata

1.5 mm MYRTACEAE

Melaleuca subfalcata

1.5 mm MYRTACEAE

140

Australian Seeds

Melaleuca systena

1 mm MYRTACEAE

Melaleuca thyoides

1 mm MYRTACEAE

Melaleuca uncinata

0.75 mm MYRTACEAE

Melaleuca urceolaris

1 mm MYRTACEAE

Melaleuca violacea

1 mm MYRTACEAE

Melaleuca viridiflora

0.5 mm MYRTACEAE

3 mm MYRTACEAE

Melia azedarach

Millotia myosotidifolia

15 mm MELIACEAE

4 mm ASTERACEAE

Mesomelaena tetragona

5 mm CYPERACEAE

Micromyrtus flaviflora

Mimusops elengi

7 mm SAPOTACEAE

Minuria leptophylla

3 mm ASTERACEAE 141

Australian Seeds

Mirbelia ramulosa

Muehlenbeckia adpressa

2.5 mm FABACEAE

2 mm POLYGONACEAE

Myoporum oppositifolium 3 mm SCROPHULARIACEAE

Myriocephalus rudallii

142

0.5 mm ASTERACEAE

2.5 mm FABACEAE

Mollugo molluginis

1 mm MOLLUGINACEAE

Myoporum acuminatum 5 mm SCROPHULARIACEAE

Myoporum insulare

5 mm SCROPHULARIACEAE

Mirbelia spinosa

Myriocephalus guerinae

3 mm ASTERACEAE

Myriocephalus helichrysoides

Myriocephalus suffruticosus

1.5 mm ASTERACEAE

Nauclea orientalis

2 mm ASTERACEAE

1 mm RUBIACEAE

Australian Seeds

Neobassia astrocarpa

1.5 mm CHENOPODIACEAE

Newcastelia cephalantha

Nicotiana occidentalis subsp. obliqua

Nuytsia floribunda

2 mm LAMIACEAE

1 mm SOLANACEAE

10 mm LORANTHACEAE

Neptunia major

Newcastelia cladotricha

5 mm FABACEAE

2 mm LAMIACEAE

Nicotiana rosulata subsp. ingulba 1 mm SOLANACEAE

Olax benthamiana

4 mm OLACACEAE

Neurachne alopecuroidea

Nicotiana occidentalis

Nitraria billardierei

Olearia arida

4 mm POACEAE

0.5 mm SOLANACEAE

8 mm ZYGOPHYLLACEAE

3 mm ASTERACEAE 143

Australian Seeds

Olearia axillaris

2 mm ASTERACEAE

Olearia cassiniae

2 mm ASTERACEAE

Olearia decurrens

2 mm ASTERACEAE

Olearia muelleri

2 mm ASTERACEAE

Olearia muricata

2 mm ASTERACEAE

Olearia paucidentata

1.5 mm ASTERACEAE

Olearia pimeleoides

5 mm ASTERACEAE

Olearia rudis

3 mm ASTERACEAE

Opercularia echinocephala

2 mm RUBIACEAE

Operculina brownii

6 mm CONVOLVULACEAE

Owenia reticulata

20 mm MELIACEAE

144

Orthrosanthus laxus

2 mm IRIDACEAE

Australian Seeds

Owenia vernicosa

Pandorea pandorana

Parietaria debilis

Pelargonium australe

15 mm MELIACEAE

8 mm BIGNONIACEAE

1 mm URTICACEAE

2.5 mm GERANIACEAE

Ozothamnus cordatus

Panicum decompositum

Patersonia limbata

Pennisetum basedowii

0.5 mm ASTERACEAE

Ozothamnus occidentalis

1 mm ASTERACEAE

1.5 mm POACEAE

Paraserianthes lophantha

6 mm FABACEAE

Patersonia occidentalis

3 mm IRIDACEAE

3 mm IRIDACEAE

2 mm POACEAE

Pentaptilon careyi

1.5 mm GOODENIACEAE 145

Australian Seeds

Peplidium muelleri

0.5 mm SCROPHULARIACEAE

Persoonia saundersiana

12 mm PROTEACEAE

Petalostigma quadriloculare 6 mm PICRODENDRACEAE

Petrophile conifera

146

3 mm PROTEACEAE

Pericalymma ellipticum

Persoonia striata

Petalostylis labicheoides

Petrophile divaricata

1.5 mm MYRTACEAE

Persoonia longifolia

10 mm PROTEACEAE

10 mm PROTEACEAE

Persoonia teretifolia

17 mm PROTEACEAE

Petrophile biloba

5 mm PROTEACEAE

Petrophile diversifolia

5 mm PROTEACEAE

4 mm FABACEAE

5 mm PROTEACEAE

Australian Seeds

Petrophile drummondii

4 mm PROTEACEAE

Petrophile ericifolia

2 mm PROTEACEAE

Petrophile heterophylla

4 mm PROTEACEAE

Petrophile linearis

2.5 mm PROTEACEAE

Petrophile longifolia

4 mm PROTEACEAE

Petrophile macrostachya

5 mm PROTEACEAE

Petrophile media

4 mm PROTEACEAE

Petrophile seminuda

4 mm PROTEACEAE

Petrophile squamata

4 mm PROTEACEAE

Petrophile teretifolia

3 mm PROTEACEAE

Philotheca spicata

2 mm RUTACEAE

Philydrella pygmaea

0.25 mm PHILYDRACEAE 147

Australian Seeds

Phyllanthus calycinus

2.5 mm PHYLLANTHACEAE

Pileanthus peduncularis

5 mm MYRTACEAE

Phymatocarpus porphyrocephalus 1 mm MYRTACEAE

Pileanthus filifolius

4 mm MYRTACEAE

Pimelea argentea

3 mm THYMELAEACEAE

Pimelea ferruginea

3 mm THYMELAEACEAE

Pimelea imbricata

3 mm THYMELAEACEAE

Pimelea leucantha

4 mm THYMELAEACEAE

Pimelea microcephala

3.5 mm THYMELAEACEAE

Pimelea physodes

2 mm THYMELAEACEAE

Pimelea rosea

4 mm THYMELAEACEAE

Pimelea spectabilis

3 mm THYMELAEACEAE

148

Australian Seeds

Pimelea sylvestris

8 mm THYMELAEACEAE

Pityrodia cuneata

3 mm LAMIACEAE

Pityrodia paniculata

Pityrodia verbascina

2 mm LAMIACEAE

Plantago drummondii

Platysace juncea

2 mm APIACEAE

Pittosporum phylliraeoides 4 mm PITTOSPORACEAE

Pluchea dentex

3 mm LAMIACEAE

3 mm PLANTAGINACEAE

0.5 mm ASTERACEAE

Pityrodia axillaris

3 mm LAMIACEAE

Pityrodia terminalis

3 mm LAMIACEAE

Platysace compressa

Pluchea tetranthera

2 mm APIACEAE

0.75 mm ASTERACEAE 149

Australian Seeds

Podocarpus elatus

23 mm PODOCARPACEAE

Podolepis auriculata

1.5 mm ASTERACEAE

Podolepis canescens

1.5 mm ASTERACEAE

Podolepis capillaris

0.75 mm ASTERACEAE

Podolepis gardneri

0.75 mm ASTERACEAE

Podolepis gracilis

1 mm ASTERACEAE

Podolepis kendallii

2 mm ASTERACEAE

Podolepis rugata

2 mm ASTERACEAE

Podotheca angustifolia

1.5 mm ASTERACEAE

Podotheca chrysantha

2.5 mm ASTERACEAE

Podotheca gnaphalioides

3 mm ASTERACEAE

Podotheca wilsonii

1.5 mm ASTERACEAE

150

Australian Seeds

Pogonolepis stricta

1 mm ASTERACEAE

Polycarpaea holtzei

Polyscias elegans

4 mm ARALIACEAE

Porana sericea

Prostanthera wilkieana

3 mm LAMIACEAE

Pterochaeta paniculata

1.5 mm ASTERACEAE

0.5 mm CARYOPHYLLACEAE

Pterocaulon serulatum

Pterostylis sanguinea

5 mm CONVOLVULACEAE

0.5 mm ASTERACEAE

<.1 mm ORCHIDACEAE

Polycarpaea longiflora 0.75 mm CARYOPHYLLACEAE

Portulaca oleracea

1 mm PORTULACACEAE

Pterocaulon sphacelatum

Ptilotus aervoides

0.75 mm ASTERACEAE

1 mm AMARANTHACEAE 151

Australian Seeds

Ptilotus albidus

2.5 mm AMARANTHACEAE

Ptilotus arthrolasius

1.5 mm AMARANTHACEAE

Ptilotus astrolasius

1.25 mm AMARANTHACEAE

Ptilotus auriculifolius

1.25 mm AMARANTHACEAE

Ptilotus axillaris

1 mm AMARANTHACEAE

Ptilotus calostachyus

1 mm AMARANTHACEAE

Ptilotus clementii

3 mm AMARANTHACEAE

Ptilotus conicus

1.2 mm AMARANTHACEAE

Ptilotus corymbosus

1 mm AMARANTHACEAE

Ptilotus gaudichaudii

1.25 mm AMARANTHACEAE

Ptilotus helichrysoides

1.5 mm AMARANTHACEAE

Ptilotus incanus

1 mm AMARANTHACEAE

152

Australian Seeds

Ptilotus lanatus

1 mm AMARANTHACEAE

Ptilotus polystachyus

Ptilotus trichocephalus

3 mm AMARANTHACEAE

Pultenaea retusa

2 mm AMARANTHACEAE

Regelia ciliata

3 mm MYRTACEAE

Regelia inops

Regelia velutina

3 mm MYRTACEAE

Rhadinothamnus anceps

2 mm FABACEAE

3.5 mm MYRTACEAE

2 mm RUTACEAE

Ptilotus schwartzii

1 mm AMARANTHACEAE

Radyera farragei

3 mm MALVACEAE

Regelia megacephala

3 mm MYRTACEAE

Rhagodia baccata

2 mm CHENOPODIACEAE 153

Australian Seeds

Rhagodia preissii

1 mm CHENOPODIACEAE

Rhodanthe charsleyae

2 mm ASTERACEAE

Rhodanthe chlorocephala subsp. rosea

4 mm ASTERACEAE

Rhodanthe citrina

1.5 mm ASTERACEAE

Rhodanthe collina

2 mm ASTERACEAE

Rhodanthe condensata

2 mm ASTERACEAE

Rhodanthe humboldtiana

3 mm ASTERACEAE

Rhodanthe manglesii

2 mm ASTERACEAE

Rhodanthe margarethae

1 mm ASTERACEAE

Rhodanthe propinqua

2 mm ASTERACEAE

Rhodanthe rubella

3.5 mm ASTERACEAE

Rhodanthe stricta

3 mm ASTERACEAE

154

Australian Seeds

Rhodanthe tietkensii

1.5 mm ASTERACEAE

Rhynchospora affinis

Rutidosis helichrysoides

1 mm ASTERACEAE

Salsola tragus

Santalum acuminatum

15 mm SANTALACEAE

Scaevola acacioides

5 mm GOODENIACEAE

Santalum lanceolatum

Scaevola crassifolia

3 mm CYPERACEAE

5 mm CHENOPODIACEAE

9 mm SANTALACEAE

2.5 mm GOODENIACEAE

Ricinocarpos tuberculatus 8 mm EUPHORBIACEAE

Samolus junceus

Santalum spicatum

Scaevola glandulifera

0.5 mm THEOPHRASTACEAE

15 mm SANTALACEAE

3 mm GOODENIACEAE 155

Australian Seeds

Scaevola globulifera

2 mm GOODENIACEAE

Scaevola parvifolia subsp. parvifolia 7 mm GOODENIACEAE

Scaevola sericophylla

4 mm GOODENIACEAE

Scaevola spinescens

7 mm GOODENIACEAE

3 mm ASTERACEAE

Schoenia cassiniana

5 mm ASTERACEAE

2 mm MYRTACEAE

Scholtzia involucrata

2 mm MYRTACEAE

Schoenia ayersii

Scholtzia capitata

156

Scaevola pulchella

5 mm GOODENIACEAE

Scaevola thesioides

4 mm GOODENIACEAE

Schoenia filifolia subsp. subulifolia 3 mm ASTERACEAE

Sclerolaena bicornis

5 mm CHENOPODIACEAE

Australian Seeds

Sclerolaena cuneata

3 mm CHENOPODIACEAE

Sclerolaena densiflora

3 mm CHENOPODIACEAE

Sclerolaena hostilis

8 mm CHENOPODIACEAE

Sclerolaena microcarpa 1.5 mm CHENOPODIACEAE

Senecio gregorii

6 mm ASTERACEAE

Senecio pinnatifolius

2.5 mm ASTERACEAE

Senecio quadridentatus

3 mm ASTERACEAE

Senna artemisioides subsp. artemisioides

5 mm FABACEAE

Sclerolaena eriacantha

4 mm CHENOPODIACEAE

Sclerolaena pannatifolius 1 mm CHENOPODIACEAE

Senecio magnificus

Senna artemisioides subsp. helmsii

5 mm ASTERACEAE

5 mm FABACEAE 157

Australian Seeds

Senna costata

4 mm FABACEAE

Senna glutinosa subsp. chatelainiana

5 mm FABACEAE

Senna notabilis

5 mm FABACEAE

Senna planitiicola

5 mm FABACEAE

Senna pleurocarpa

5 mm FABACEAE

Senna venusta

6 mm FABACEAE

Sesbania cannabina

4 mm FABACEAE

Sesbania erubescens

3 mm FABACEAE

Sesbania formosa

6 mm FABACEAE

Sesbania simpliciuscula

4 mm FABACEAE

Sida calyxhymenia

158

2 mm MALVACEAE

Sida clementii

4 mm MALVACEAE

Australian Seeds

Sida echinocarpa

3.5 mm MALVACEAE

Sida kingii

3 mm MALVACEAE

Sida rohlenae

3 mm MALVACEAE

Siloxerus humifusus

0.5 mm ASTERACEAE

Siloxerus pygmaeus

1 mm ASTERACEAE

Solanum coactiliferum

3 mm SOLANACEAE

Solanum cunninghamii

2 mm SOLANACEAE

Solanum diversiflorum

3 mm SOLANACEAE

Solanum hystrix

3 mm SOLANACEAE

Solanum phlomoides

4 mm SOLANACEAE

Solanum sturtianum

5 mm SOLANACEAE

Sondottia connata

3 mm ASTERACEAE 159

Australian Seeds

Sorghum intrans

4 mm POACEAE

Sphaerolobium scabriusculum

4 mm FABACEAE

Spyridium globulosum

2 mm RHAMNACEAE

Stackhousia monogyna

1.5 mm CELASTRACEAE

Stemodia grossa

Stenopetalum lineare

1 mm BRASSICACEAE

Stenopetalum sphaerocarpum 1 mm BRASSICACEAE

160

Stachystemon axillaris

4 mm EUPHORBIACEAE

0.75 mm SCROPHULARIACEAE

Spinifex longifolius

4 mm POACEAE

Stackhousia megaloptera

7 mm CELASTRACEAE

Stenopetalum filifolium

1 mm BRASSICACEAE

Stirlingia latifolia

6 mm PROTEACEAE

Australian Seeds

Stirlingia simplex

3 mm PROTEACEAE

Strangea cynanchocarpa

Streptoglossa decurrens

3 mm ASTERACEAE

Stylidium adnatum

0.5 mm STYLIDIACEAE

Stylidium bulbiferum

0.5 mm STYLIDIACEAE

Stylobasium australe

5 mm SURIANACEAE

Stylobasium spathulatum

8 mm SURIANACEAE

Stylidium scandens

Stypandra glauca

2.5 mm STYLIDIACEAE

2 mm HEMEROCALLIDACEAE

Styphelia tenuiflora

17 mm PROTEACEAE

7 mm ERICACEAE

Streptoglossa cylindriceps

Swainsona canescens

3 mm ASTERACEAE

2 mm FABACEAE 161

Australian Seeds

Swainsona decurrens

3 mm FABACEAE

Swainsona formosa

3 mm FABACEAE

Swainsona kingii

1.5 mm FABACEAE

Swainsona maccullochiana

4 mm FABACEAE

Swainsona phacoides

2 mm FABACEAE

Swainsona pterostylis

8 mm FABACEAE

Swainsona stenodonta

5 mm FABACEAE

Synaphea favosa

4 mm PROTEACEAE

Syncarpia glomulifera

3 mm MYRTACEAE

Tecticornia verrucosa

162

1 mm CHENOPODIACEAE

Templetonia retusa

6 mm FABACEAE

Templetonia sulcata

11 mm FABACEAE

Australian Seeds

Tephrosia coriacea

4 mm FABACEAE

Tephrosia flammea

3 mm FABACEAE

Terminalia arostrata

17 mm COMBRETACEAE

Terminalia canescens

18 mm COMBRETACEAE

Terminalia latipes

Terminalia petiolaris

18 mm COMBRETACEAE

Terminalia volucris

15 mm COMBRETACEAE

Tersonia cyathiflora

8 mm AIZOACEAE

Tetragonia diptera

5 mm AIZOACEAE

Tetragonia cristata

3.5 mm FABACEAE

Tephrosia rosea

20 mm COMBRETACEAE

13 mm GYROSTEMONACEAE

Tetragonia implexicoma

4 mm AIZOACEAE 163

Australian Seeds

7 mm POACEAE

Tetratheca virgata

3 mm ELABOCARPACEAE

Thespesia populneoides

8 mm MALVACEAE

Thomasia macrocarpa

3.5 mm MALVACEAE

Threlkeldia diffusa

3 mm CHENOPODIACEAE

Thryptomene australis

2 mm MYRTACEAE

Thryptomene hyporhytis

2 mm MYRTACEAE

Thryptomene strongylophylla

Thryptomene urceolaris

3 mm MYRTACEAE

Thysanotus dichotomus

1.5 mm LAXMANNIACEAE

Trachymene ceratocarpa

4 mm ARALIACEAE

Tetrarrhena laevis

164

Thysanotus patersonii

2 mm MYRTACEAE

2 mm LAXMANNIACEAE

Australian Seeds

Trachymene coerulea

5 mm ARALIACEAE

Trachymene cyanopetala

3.5 mm ARALIACEAE

Trachymene dendrothrix

4 mm ARALIACEAE

Trachymene didiscoides

4 mm ARALIACEAE

Trachymene glaucifolia

5 mm ARALIACEAE

Trachymene oleracea

5 mm ARALIACEAE

Trachymene ornata

4 mm ARALIACEAE

Trianthema oxycalyptra

2 mm AIZOACEAE

Trianthema patellitecta

Trianthema triquetra

1 mm AIZOACEAE

Trianthema turgidifolia

0.5 mm AIZOACEAE

Tribulus astrocarpus

1 mm AIZOACEAE

7 mm ZYGOPHYLLACEAE 165

Australian Seeds

Tribulus cistoides

13 mm ZYGOPHYLLACEAE

Tribulus hirsutus

10 mm ZYGOPHYLLACEAE

Tribulus hystrix

Tribulus macrocarpus

15 mm ZYGOPHYLLACEAE

Tribulus platypterus

7 mm ZYGOPHYLLACEAE

Trichanthodium skirrophorum 1 mm ASTERACEAE

Trichodesma zeylanicum

Triodia bitextura

166

6 mm BORAGINACEAE

3 mm POACEAE

Tricoryne elatior

3 mm HAEMEROCALLIDACEAE

Triodia danthonioides

4 mm POACEAE

10 mm ZYGOPHYLLACEAE

Triodia basedowii

3 mm POACEAE

Triodia pungens

2 mm POACEAE

Australian Seeds

Tripterococcus brunonis

7 mm CELASTRACEAE

Triumfetta chaetocarpa

15 mm MALVACEAE

Trymalium floribundum

3 mm RHAMNACEAE

Velleia connata

4 mm GOODENIACEAE

Tristaniopsis laurina

4 mm MYRTACEAE

Triumfetta appendiculata

8 mm MALVACEAE

Triumfetta leptacantha

4 mm MALVACEAE

Triumfetta plumigera

4 mm MALVACEAE

Trymalium ledifolium

Velleia cycnopotamica

3 mm RHAMNACEAE

3 mm GOODENIACEAE

Trymalium spathulatum

Velleia daviesii

2 mm RHAMNACEAE

2 mm GOODENIACEAE 167

Australian Seeds

Velleia discophora

3 mm GOODENIACEAE

Velleia hispida

3.5 mm GOODENIACEAE

Velleia panduriformis

Velleia rosea

5 mm GOODENIACEAE

Velleia trinervis

3 mm GOODENIACEAE

Ventilago viminalis

4 mm RHAMNACEAE

Verreauxia reinwardtii

4 mm GOODENIACEAE

Verticordia brachypoda

3 mm MYRTACEAE

Verticordia brownii

1 mm MYRTACEAE

Verticordia chrysantha

2 mm MYRTACEAE

Verticordia cooloomia

5 mm MYRTACEAE

Verticordia densiflora

1.5 mm MYRTACEAE

168

5 mm GOODENIACEAE

Australian Seeds

Verticordia eriocephala

1.5 mm MYRTACEAE

Verticordia etheliana var. formosa 3 mm MYRTACEAE

Verticordia forrestii

4 mm MYRTACEAE

Verticordia grandis

Verticordia lindleyi subsp. purpurea 2 mm MYRTACEAE

Verticordia penicillaris

3.5 mm MYRTACEAE

Verticordia fimbrilepis subsp. fimbrilepis

2 mm MYRTACEAE

5 mm MYRTACEAE

Verticordia lindleyi

2 mm MYRTACEAE

Verticordia monadelpha

3 mm MYRTACEAE

Verticordia nitens

2 mm MYRTACEAE

Verticordia polytricha

1 mm MYRTACEAE

Verticordia roei

2 mm MYRTACEAE 169

Australian Seeds

Verticordia x eurardyensis

3 mm MYRTACEAE

Villarsia calthifolia

1.5 mm MENYANTHACEAE

Vittadinia dissecta

3 mm ASTERACEAE

Wahlenbergia gracilenta 0.25 mm CAMPANULACEAE 170

Vigna lanceolata

Villarsia parnassifolia

Vittadinia gracilis

Wahlenbergia preissii

5 mm FABACEAE

Villarsia albiflora

1 mm MENYANTHACEAE

1 mm MENYANTHACEAE

Viminaria juncea

4 mm FABACEAE

4 mm ASTERACEAE

0.2 mm CAMPANULACEAE

Vittadinia humerata

5 mm ASTERACEAE

Wahlenbergia tumidifructa 0.2 mm CAMPANULACEAE

Australian Seeds

Waitzia acuminata

Waltheria virgata

1 mm ASTERACEAE

2 mm MALVACEAE

Xanthorrhoea gracilis 8 mm XANTHORRHOEACEAE

Xanthosia atkinsoniana

3 mm APIACEAE

Waitzia nitida

Westringia cephalantha

Xanthorrhoea nana

1.5 mm ASTERACEAE

Waitzia suaveolens

1 mm ASTERACEAE

2 mm LAMIACEAE

Wurmbea calcicola

1.5 mm COLCHICACEAE

12 mm XANTHORRHOEACEAE

Xanthosia rotundifolia

4 mm APIACEAE

Xanthorrhoea preissii 15 mm XANTHORRHOEACEAE

Xanthosia tomentosa

5 mm APIACEAE 171

Australian Seeds

Xenostegia tridentata

3.5 mm CONVOLVULACEAE

Xerochloa laniflora

Xylomelum angustifolium

20 mm PROTEACEAE

Xylomelum occidentale

Xyris lanata

1 mm XYRIDACEAE

Zaleya galericulata

Zygophyllum eremaeum 5 mm ZYGOPHYLLACEAE 172

3 mm POACEAE

10 mm PROTEACEAE

1 mm AIZOACEAE

Zygophyllum iodocarpum 4 mm ZYGOPHYLLACEAE

Xerochrysum bracteatum

3 mm ASTERACEAE

Xyris lacera

5 mm XYRIDACEAE

Zygophyllum aurantiacum 5 mm ZYGOPHYLLACEAE

Zygophyllum retivalve

4 mm ZYGOPHYLLACEAE

CHAPTER 10

Collection guidelines for common Australian families and genera Luke Sweedman and Grady Brand

This chapter is intended as a general guide with observations on some of the major Australian families: Amaranthaceae, Asteraceae, Myrtaceae, and Fabaceae. These family groups contain many genera that share common features and collection strategies, which have been determined from practical, field-based experience. Following this section is a more specific guide to common genera. The comments and the collection information are all based on many years of hands-on experience collecting in Western Australia. Although some of the genera may not be Australia-wide, many are. The techniques and the timing for many areas are similar throughout Australia. To make recommendations for the collecting of species from every area across Australia would be difficult and this is not the intention of this book. The recommendations are intended as a guide to collecting and collection timing. While seasonal events are shared in many regions throughout Australia, seasonal variations affect different plant species differently and recommendations on timing for collection can vary considerably. It is up to the collector to assess the information, observe seasonal variations and make the judgement on when the material is ready to collect.

The regions of Western Australia covered in this chapter include:

•

Kimberley – a dry, tropical area in the north of the state, with a dominant vegetation of grasslands and eucalypt woodlands. Some small rainforest areas, known as thickets, also occur.

•

Pilbara – a large arid area, south of the Kimberley, dominated by spinifex and low woodland. It is separated from the Kimberley by the Great Sandy Desert.

•

Goldfields – situated to the east of the south-west land division and to the north and east of the central wheatbelt and dominated by arid shrublands and woodlands. It is bordered to the north by the Gascoyne and Murchison regions and to the east by the Great Victoria Desert.

•

Perth – the most populated area of Western Australia. It consists of coastal vegetation, some forests and cleared wheatbelt areas to the east.

•

South-west and southern coastal – a region of tall forests, coastal heathlands, low mallee woodlands and sandplain areas known as Kwongan. This area contains the major areas of biodiversity.

173

Australian Seeds

AMARANTHACEAE

This family contains a large number of species that are generally regarded as annual or ephemeral but live and flower over a more extended period than other ephemerals, such as everlasting daisies. The length of flowering and the production of seeds in some species depends on the continuation of moist conditions. Given sufficient soil moisture, some species (e.g. Ptilotus exaltatus) will continue to flower into a second year and behave much like herbaceous perennials. Mulla mulla or Ptilotus spp. are common and widespread. Some species are perennials, including Ptilotus rotundifolius, a spectacular flowering shrub, and Ptilotus obovatus, one of the most common shrubs throughout the drier mulga and spinifex country. Gomphrena spp., from the northern areas of Australia, are widespread in the Kimberley region of Western Australia (currently 33 species). In good seasons flowering displays of both genera can occur over large areas. Seed collection in this family often requires good timing to ensure the seeds are viable. In the southern areas of Western Australia seeds germinate in response to good autumn rains, whereas in the tropics germination occurs during the wet season, usually January to March. Seeds are generally ready to collect when the plants are 2–3 months old, although it can take longer if the weather has not warmed sufficiently for them to mature. In the Kimberley, collection is best from May to July. Further south, good rains in February to March, or cyclones at any time with follow up rains, will promote germination of Ptilotus. The best months to collect are June to July (later at more southerly latitudes). Under moist condi-

Gomphrena canescens.

174

tions Ptilotus exaltatus can remain in flower whilst simultaneously seeding and seeds can be collected over a longer period. It is very important when collecting either Gomphrena or Ptilotus to ensure the flower colour is fading and the plants have set good seeds (which are small and rounded). These genera can be poor seed producers, compared to the abundance of flowers. The best material is from heads, which have faded completely and fall apart when touched. Seeds can still be collected as the heads fade, often over a period of perhaps six weeks. The perennial shrubs (e.g. Ptilotus obovatus and P. rotundifolius) will begin dehiscing their seeds as they mature so knocking the heads should indicate their state of readiness. To collect, hold the heads and clip the stems or just pull from the plant. Gomphrena seeds are difficult to locate in the seed heads. It is only when they are processed in a seed cleaning thresher that the round, brown seeds can be seen clearly. The flower colour of Gomphrena spp. varies from a deep purple to a maroon that fades when seeds are ripe. Careful, on-the-spot analysis of the seeding rate in the target populations is essential to ensure adequate seed collections are made.

Ptilotus rotundifolius maturing from the base of the inflorescence.

Chapter 10 – Collection guidelines for common Australian families and genera

ASTERACEAE

This family includes all the common daisy-type flowers such as Angianthus, Brachyscome, Calotis, Olearia, Podolepis, Podotheca and Rhodanthe. Species vary from short-lived ephemerals, which live for a few months, to long-lived perennials. Within the family there are a number of groups that are collected in different ways. Everlasting daisies

Examples are Cephalipterum, Hyalosperma, Lawrencella, Leucochrysum, Podolepis, Rhodanthe, Schoenia and Waitzia. Many of these are commonly called everlasting or paper daisies. Everlasting daisies are perhaps the best known and can flower synchronously over large areas following good rainfall. They have papery bracts that when picked early and dried retain colour and form for many months. Seeds are ready to collect when the central disc florets have loosened and the seed is beginning to fall from the plant. The seeds are readily identifiable, attached to a ring of hairs (pappus). Seeds are dispersed by the wind as they ripen and dehisce. For all the Asteraceae it is ideal to collect on a warm sunny day, to ensure seeds are completely dry and ripe. Pure seeds can be collected using a plastic bin by knocking the ripe heads into the bin. In this way large amounts can be readily collected. Alternatively a calico bag tucked into a belt at the waist with hands free is a good way of moving through a population and collecting the heads. Seed collecting times can vary from mid September to late October, depending upon seasonal conditions. Perennial species

Examples are Chrysocephalum, Cratystylis, Olearia, Othonna, some Brachyscome species and some Senecio species. These groups are perennial shrubs that produce similar seeds to other groups of the Asteraceae. Seeds are easily collected from the top of the spent flowers. Seeds are collected in summer. Herbaceous annual species

Examples are Angianthus, Brachyscome and Calotis. These are a large group of herbs or annual shrubs. They tend to form compact bushes with masses of usually purple, white or yellow flowers. They flower in spring and can persist into summer with sufficient moisture. Seed is ready for collection when the plants are drying off or dying. The seeds are not windblown, but drop to the ground. Seeds in this group are ready later than the ever-

Everlastings en masse, Sandstone, Western Australia.

lasting groups. To check for seed set, break open the heads to look for seeds in the chambers. To collect the seeds, cut the heads and allow them to dry. Generally, pruning the top off the plant should yield plenty of seeds. Brachyscome generally have a slower and more extended ripening period and should be allowed to mature as long as possible before collection. Angianthus are the latest flowering and will set seed over summer. MYRTACEAE

Common genera in this family include Agonis, Astartea, Baeckea, Beaufortia, Callistemon, Calothamnus, Calytrix, Chamelaucium, Corymbia, Eremaea, Eucalyptus, Kunzea, Leptospermum, Melaleuca and Regelia. This group covers many of the woody, perennial trees and shrubs. Most of these have persistent fruits that are retained on the plant for varying times, depending on the conditions. Species in the family Myrtaceae are amenable to seed collection as timing is not as critical as in many other groups. Seeds can be collected at any time, including flowering time, thus enabling a good identification to be made, as well as ensuring the seeds collected are at least one year old. Fruits are usually located in capsules below the current flowering. Seeds are usually only released in response to a disturbance such as fire, stress or physical damage. In most genera the best seeds are the oldest and these can be found some way down the stems on the older wood. To collect, ensure the fruiting capsules are still intact and that the valves are closed. Cut either whole sections of the capsules from the plant or alternatively peel off individual fruits. Remove the flowers and foliage. 175

Australian Seeds

In most cases the seeds are available when the capsules open, a few days after removal. Eremaea, Regelia and some Melaleuca species have seed capsules that are small and difficult to locate on the plant. Persistence and close observation are the best tools in these cases. The valves on the fruits of all species are obvious when they are open and this is a good indicator as to seed availability. For further tips, see Eucalyptus. FABACEAE

Acacia is the largest genus of vascular plants in Australia with around 1100 species currently recognised. Acacia dominates over two-thirds of the continent, and is conspicuous in arid and semi-arid zones. The largest concentration of species occurs in the wheatbelt region of Western Australia. Within 100 km of the wheatbelt town of Dallwalinu there are about 185 species of Acacia. Acacias flower in temperate regions throughout the year, but as a general rule the major flowering time is late winter and spring. In most cases pods are produced six to eight weeks after flowering. December through to January is the best time for collecting, with early December optimum for temperate regions and later for more southerly latitudes. In general, Acacia seeds are easily collected. However, there are exceptions. Some small plants, such as Acacia depressa, hold the seeds within prostrate and spiky foliage (often only 5 cm high). Also, Acacia anomala, a rare wattle from Western Australia, has two known forms, one of which appears to be clonal and rarely sets seeds, and the other is poor in the production of good seeds. Seeds of Acacia species are often large, usually black (sometimes brown) and hard when ready. They will often persist on the plant for a few days to a few weeks (depending on temperature and wind speed), and the best time to collect is often the time when most pods are mature and dehiscing. Seeds of most species are held in pods, which split as they dry, dispersing the seeds. However, some species hold the seeds within the pods and the seeds need to be extracted after collection. Acacia seeds picked green, just before they mature, will generally ripen after collection. However, to maximise viability, seeds should be collected when dark and hard. Most Acacia seeds can be harvested by standing at the shrubs and pulling the seeds and pods into bags. Alternatively, holding clumps of foliage over plastic bins and shaking the plant can also achieve good results. Some of the very thorny wattles, such as Acacia tetragonophylla, 176

Acacia pods when mature.

Seed trap.

are best collected by placing a drop cloth around the plant on the ground and then lightly striking the shrub with a stick. This is also a useful method with species that tend to shed by spontaneous fracturing of the seed pods. Most of the large, shrubby acacias can be handled this way. This is a good technique to use on Acacia victoriae, A. microbotrya, A. anthochaera and A. acuminata. Traps for seeds may be used on species where the seeds are unavailable at the time of visiting. Traps can take the form of cheesecloth or muslin bags with drawstrings that are tied around the branches so the seeds are trapped for later collection. These have been successfully used on some of the rare wattles where seed is scarce. Acacia seeds can be heavily predated while still on the plant. Also, once released to the ground, ants are attracted to the edible arils. The Fabaceae also includes all the true pea flowers. Some of the genera include Bossiaea, Daviesia, Chorizema, Crotolaria, Gastrolobium and Gompholobium. Seeds are typically dark, round, relatively large and occur in pods, which often dehisce violently with the onset of warm, dry conditions. They are often referred to as rattle pods owing to the sound of seeds in the dry pods. Seeding times vary but seeds are often shed at the onset of hot weather in early summer. They can be collected readily at this time by removing the pods. They are also collected by bagging, or placing seed traps over branches with muslin or cheesecloth bags, or similar. Collection of darkening pods should be delayed as long as possible and good seeds are usually indicated by the dryness and splitting of the pods. The species may also possess arils and are often actively harvested by ants.

Chapter 10 – Collection guidelines for common Australian families and genera

SEED COLLECTION STRATEGIES FOR SELECTED GENERA

Adenanthos

A climber from the Kimberley region. Seeds are bright red in colour and tend to remain on the vine as they fully ripen. They are very poisonous. Seeds are harvested from the vines when dry and the capsules split open. Seeds are collected in the Kimberley region in May.

This genus contains shrubs and groundcover plants noted for their inability to produce abundant seeds. The seeds are difficult to locate and require the use of seed traps placed around the plants for a lengthy period. Flowering and fruiting occurs throughout the year and this makes timing of seed collection difficult. Adenanthos species are often propagated by cuttings.

Abutilon

Agonis

Shrubs from the arid zones and tropics. Seeds are ripe when the capsules begin to change colour or split from the top, and they shed quickly. Depending on environmental conditions, seeds are collected from May to October.

Seeds are in capsules. Collect the capsules when they are unopened and have changed to a dark colour. Seeds are small, usually less than 1 mm. Seeds can be collected throughout the year. (See also Myrtaceae.)

Abrus

Albizia Acanthocarpus

Small shrubs from the west and south coasts of Western Australia. Seeds are large, round and yellow and occur in threes in capsules. They are collected by picking capsules from the shrub in October through to December. Actinodium

The swamp daisies are small shrubs from the southern coastal areas of the south-west. Seeds are collected in December when old flower heads begin to fall apart.

Trees that produce pods containing seeds. Collect seeds when they rattle within the pods and are a brown colour, from October to January. Allocasuarina

Fruits are mature when grey to brown in colour and the valves are unopened. Cut the fruits from the trees and the seeds will drop from the drying cones in a few days. Seeds are available throughout the year. Alternanthera

Actinostrobus

Collect cones that are mature and dark in colour after losing their glossy look. Older, unopened cones are the best and should be cut from the plant. Seeds will fall from the harvested cones over a number of days. They can be collected throughout the year.

These are often short-lived, prostrate shrubs found mainly in the arid zones of Australia. To collect seeds, cut stems from the senescing plants. Shrubs will respond to seasonal conditions and rainfall events. Seeds are available from May to October. Aluta

Actinotus

The flannel flowers can be perennial or annual shrubs or occasionally climbers. Seeds are small, fluffy and grey when mature, and they are generally collected from November to December.

Aluta maisonneuvii grows throughout the desert areas of western and central Australia. Although it flowers for most of the year, seeds are not common. Collect seeds opportunistically at any time of the year. (See also Thryptomene.)

Adansonia

Alyogyne

Collect the large, pendulous fruits that are brown. Crack open the fruit and extract the often multicoloured seeds from the edible pith inside. Fruits are held on the trees for a number of years and can be collected as required. Seeds are available all year round.

Perennial shrubs that are closely related to Hibiscus. Seeds are black or brown and are collected as they fall from the schizocarp (fruits) in summer, after flowering. Similar to Abutilon and other Malvaceae. Seeds are collected in November and December in southern areas, and in May in northern areas. (See also Hibiscus.)

177

Australian Seeds

Amaranthus

Seeds from these annuals are available soon after flowering and can be collected until the plant is dry and dead. The small, black, round seeds are abundant and are best harvested by threshing the dried flower heads of the plants and sieving the remains. Seeds are available from northern areas of Australia from April to May, and from more southern areas until November. Amyema

Large, sticky, round seeds that are grey in colour when mature. Easily collected by picking from the plant, unless located high on the host shrub. Seeds can be collected about 12 weeks after flowering. Angianthus

Angianthus species generally flower later than most other annuals, such as Rhodanthe spp., and hold their seeds for longer periods. Fruits are small, bullet-like heads that fall apart when ready and contain small seeds. Seeds are collected from November to December. (See also Asteraceae.)

ning to turn to brown will ensure a good seed harvest. Seed maturation varies from October to January for most species. (See also Myrtaceae.) Atalaya

Distinctive winged, helicopter-like seeds, that hang from the small trees and should be allowed to brown off before collecting (e.g. A. hemiglauca). Seeds are collected from the Pilbara and Kimberley regions in October to December. Atriplex

A key genus for arid-zone revegetation and an abundant producer of seeds. Widespread and often short-lived, saltbush is an early coloniser responding rapidly to favourable conditions. The distinctive fruit can be fleshy and spongy, with the seeds contained within this protective covering. Seeds can be collected from below the bush or removed as they are drying. They can be collected from October to December, or later depending upon seasonal conditions. Avicennia

Anigozanthos

Seeds vary in size between species (1–3 mm) and are grey. They form in the base of the flowers, and are ready to collect when the flowers on the scapes have begun to dry. Seeds should be collected only when the first fruits begin to split, from November through to January, depending upon the species. Anigozanthos manglesii seeds are collected in Kings Park, Perth, in November. The green (or swamp) kangaroo paw, Anigozanthos viridis (from the southern parts of Western Australia) flowers in late spring and the seeds are not available until early January. Some of the northern forms, such as A. pulcherimus and A.manglesii subsp. quadrans can also be found with seeds in early January as far north as Kalbarri in Western Australia. The majority of the kangaroo paws are disturbance-related and fire appears to be the major catalyst for a flowering event. Some of the rare paws only appear for two or three years after a fire event. Collect old flower heads by cutting from the plant. Wear gloves when handling as kangaroo paws are highly irritating to some people. Astartea

These shrubs have fruits that fall from the plant when mature. Tip pruning when the fruits are intact and begin-

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Seeds are long and germinate in situ, with the highly elongated root protruding in a candle-like fashion. The seeds cannot be stored and must be sown fresh. Baeckea

Spring to summer flowering shrubs that produce terminal capsules. Flowers develop into hard fruits that contain several seeds. Capsules are ripe when dark in colour and woody. Baeckea capsules split when ripe and may be cut from the bush as they darken. Collect seeds November to December. (See also Myrtaceae.) Balaustion

The beautiful native pomegranate can be a groundcover or low shrub. Fruits are orange and highly decorative. They should be allowed to dry to a brown colour on the bush before picking from October through to December. Banksia

Banksias occur throughout temperate and tropical Australia, with Banksia elderiana extending to the desert regions of Western Australia. Banksias produce various sized cones that should be dry and woody before attempting to remove them from the plant for seeds. Some species retain cones for many years before the seeds are

Chapter 10 – Collection guidelines for common Australian families and genera

released in response to drought, fire or physical damage. Many species dehisce seeds once mature, including species from swampy, higher rainfall areas. Generally cones are easily collected at any time of the year to collect seed. For all species, collect the largest and oldest cones by cutting from the plant. Check the readiness of the valves by scratching with a fingernail and testing for a woody sound and a good, dark-brown colour. Check for damage to the cones, as insect predation is common, particularly in urbanised bushland. Inspect the fruits for signs of holes or frass material before collection.

Boerhavia

Prickly fruits that become attached to clothing. Plants appear to have viable seeds available at any time. Prime seed collection times vary from May in the arid tropics, to October in the temperate arid zone. Bonamia

Collect seeds from fruits as they begin to split with the onset of warm weather. They are collected in the arid tropics in May, and in the temperate arid zone in October. Boronia

Fruits are removed from the woody stems. Seeds fall from the fruits as the valves open. This genus appears unique in the Myrtaceae since the seeds are persistent in the capsules and can take three months or longer to drop free of their capsules once collected. Take care that seeds are not inadvertently judged as being immature and discarded. Seeds can be collected throughout the year, but preferably in summer when plants are flowering, to aid in positive identification. (See also Myrtaceae.)

Generally black seeds from a capsule of four carpels. Boronias appear to have two distinct flowering types. The first, in species such as Boronia exilis, have a short flowering period and synchronised seed dehiscence. Other species, such as B. gracilipes and B. crenulata, have extended flowering periods and their seeds may be found sporadically throughout much of the year. Species vary in their fruiting times. Seeds are generally collected from November to January, or later for arid tropical and tropical species.

Bellida

Borya

Unusual monotypic genus of annuals found in profusion following good autumn and winter rains. Seeds shed quickly and are rapidly dispersed by wind. They are collected in September and October. (See also Asteraceae.)

Widespread genus found growing commonly on granite outcrops. Known as resurrection plants for their ability to survive extreme desiccation during dry periods, and then revive when moisture becomes available. They produce abundant black seeds when rainfall is adequate. As the weather dries, the plants produce seeds and continue to do so throughout the onset of the dry summer. Seeds can be collected in May in the arid tropics, or November in temperate Australia.

Beaufortia

Billardiera

Scandent shrubs or climbers producing small, black seeds in pods. Seeds dehisce violently from the capsule, especially in B. bicolor. At the start of summer, hot days accelerate shedding of seeds. Seeds can be collected from December to February, throughout the mid-west of Western Australia. Large quantities of seed can be collected by placing plastic bins over parts of the plant and shaking the plant. Blancoa

Low, clumping sub-shrubs in the Haemodoraceae. Seeds are available in early summer, although they are often predated. They should not be picked early since they mature slowly after flowering. Ensure that the fruits have begun to split before collecting seeds. Collect seeds in December. (See also Anigozanthos.)

Bossiaea

Pea flowers that produce rattle pods. Seeds are available in early summer. (See also Fabaceae.) Brachychiton

Small to large trees found throughout the arid and tropical zones. Production of seeds is often unreliable. Seeds are large and found in hand-sized pods that contain irritant hairs. Although these pods split, the seeds remain attached. Seed maturation is slow, and pod-splitting and seed release occur over an extended period. Seeds are available from October to November, and in July in central desert areas. Clean seeds carefully using gloves to handle seeds.

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Australian Seeds

Brachyscome

Callistemon

See Asteraceae.

See Fabaceae.

Cut the mature capsules from well below the current flowers. Capsules open in a few days to release fine seeds. They are available throughout the year. (See also Myrtaceae.)

Brunonia

Callitris

The native cornflower is common and very widespread across the continent. Plants are usually found growing in small clumps, although it may appear in large stands. The plants produce abundant seeds in a good season and are often found associated with Waitzia spp. Seeds to be collected should be plump, fluffy and fall from the heads after the petals have fallen. Poor seasons with irregular rains result in small plants with low seed viability. Seeds are available for collection in October to November in temperate regions, but availability may vary depending on rainfall events. (See also Asteraceae.)

Cones may be collected at any time of the year, preferably when they are grey and woody. Ensure the valves are still closed when collecting older fruits. Fruits open over a period of several days after they have been collected.

Burchardia

Calotis

These tuberous perennial herbs produce abundant seeds that are collected when the fruits begin to rattle when shaken, before they split in early summer. Collect seeds from November to January.

Seeds of the longer-lived annual shrubs of Calotis and Brachyscome are contained in the flower head and are released as the plant dies. The seeds are not windblown, but drop to the ground. They are collected from August through to November. (See also Asteraceae.)

Brachysema

Calothamnus

Seeds are collected by either removing sections of stem with unopened fruits, or simply removing the fruits. Capsules will release seeds in a matter of days when removed. Collect seeds at any time of the year. (See also Myrtaceae.)

Bursaria

Capsules ripen in late summer when seeds are available. They are collected from February to March. Byblis

Carnivorous plants producing many small, black seeds within a capsule. In the arid tropics and northern parts of the arid zone, B. liniflora grows in seasonally wet areas, with seeds collected in May. However, flowering and seeding can persist until August. The perennial species Byblis gigantea, from the south-west of Western Australia, has seeds available for collection from December to March. Calandrinia

Small, succulent groundcover plants which often occur in large numbers. They are commonly seen in areas that are seasonally inundated in depressions or claypans. Plants live for about three to six months and dry out, producing seeds as they age. Mature plants can be removed and dried to collect seeds. Alternatively, seeds are dropped from the ripening heads as the plants age.

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Calytrix

Produces good quantities of seeds, but only a small percentage of these are viable. Large quantities of seed may need to be collected. The long, thin, umbrella-like fruits should be dark in colour and collected when falling from the shrub. Seeds are collected from October to January for temperate species, and May to June for arid tropical species. Carpobrotus

A succulent groundcover plant that develops fleshy, terminal fruits. Seeds are small and black and are contained in the old flowering heads. They are collected from December to January. Cassytha

These semi-parasitic plants produce large, round, dark seeds. They are easily found on leafless stems that cover the host shrub. Seeds may exhibit a level of recalcitrance. They are produced at different times throughout the year, with a peak from November to December.

Chapter 10 – Collection guidelines for common Australian families and genera

Casuarina

Cochlospermum

See Allocasuarina.

Deciduous trees from the tropics that produce many seeds inside a kapok-like substance. Seeds are collected in October in the Kimberley region.

Cephalipterum

Paper daisy that occurs over large areas of arid and semiarid Western Australia. Cephalipterum drummondii is the only species in this genus, although it comes in a variety of sizes and colours, from cream to yellow. Compact pom-pom heads stay on the plants for three to four weeks. Seeds are located inside barrel-shaped fruits that make up the terminal heads. Pick the heads that are breaking up from September to October. (See also Asteraceae.)

Codonocarpus

A small tree that is common after fire and produces abundant seeds. Seeds are often best collected by using a drop cloth and shaking the tree. They are produced from November to January. Conospermum

An unusual insectivorous plant genus, endemic to the south-west of Western Australia. Plants occur in low swampy areas on the margins of the large forests. Seeds are produced on terminal fruiting heads. They are creamy and fluffy with a short-term viability and they should be sown as soon as possible after collection. They are collected in March or April.

The smoke bushes are attractive plants, with 74 species currently recognised. Flowering is generally spring to summer. Conospermum grows predominantly on the sandplain areas north of Perth and along the southern coast, with one species in the Great Victoria Desert. Seeds are abundant, but viability is highly variable. Seeds are usually hard and cone-shaped, with a ring of silver-grey hairs around the widest part. They are easily collected from along the old flowering stems from late November to January.

Chamelaucium

Conostylis

Widespread compact shrubs from the south-west of Western Australia. Seed capsules should be brown and woody before collection from December to January. (See also Myrtaceae.)

Related to the kangaroo paws. Seeds are borne in terminal heads and should be picked as the heads open. Seeding begins in early summer. The seeds can be orange to cream and yellow. A large, pure stand of one species allows for much easier collecting, as seeding is often erratic. Seeds are collected from October to December in the south-west. (See also Anigozanthos.)

Cephalotus

Chorizema

Common shrubs with pea-like flowers. Pods are produced in late spring to summer, and they tend to rattle when seeds are mature. Seeds are collected from November to December. (See also Fabaceae.)

Corymbia

See Eucalyptus.

Clematis

Cotula

Seeds of this genus have a feathery pappus. They are ready when brown in colour and the fruits have split. Seeds are collected from November to February.

Annuals with button flowers that should be picked as heads begin to disintegrate. Collect seeds from September to December. (See also Asteraceae.)

Cleome

Cratystylis

Widespread annuals of the arid tropics. The fruits are elongated capsules that dry and split in a twisting action to release the seeds. Collect from May to July, although seeding times are dependent on rainfall duration.

Unusual shrubs that often grow in dense, pure stands within woodlands. They favour clay and calcareous conditions and are common in the eastern Goldfields of Western Australia. Seeds are collected in December and through to January. They are easily collected by placing plastic bins over sections of shrubs and shaking the foliage. (See also Asteraceae.)

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Australian Seeds

Crotolaria

Attractive plants of the arid and tropical zones that produce large seeds in pods. Some species, such as the widespread Crotolaria cunninghamii, can flower for most of the year. Seeds are ripe when the pods are dark and begin to rattle when shaken. They are collected from May to October, depending upon seasonal conditions. Cullen

See Fabaceae; formerly known as Psoralea. Cyanostegia

Papery seeds that are best picked as they begin to dry out and change colour from cyanose blue to light brown. Seeds fall from the plant when ripe and are quite viscid or sticky. They are collected in December. Cycas

Four species occur in Western Australia in the Kimberley region. They produce large fruiting structures consisting of large, individual seeds. Seeds are mature when the cones begin to break apart and the seeds darken in colour. They are collected in the Kimberley from May to September. Cymbopogon

Native lemon grass is common and widespread through the arid and tropical zones. Seeds are fluffy and appear after flowering on spikes. Seeds may be produced over an extended period in arid areas. They can be collected at various times, depending upon the region, from October to February.

time. Several collections during various stages of flowering may be necessary. Seeds are collected from October to January, depending upon the species and other seeding events, such as fires. Darwinia

Seeds are relatively large, long and brown in colour. Allow flower head to dry and collect when seeds have darkened in colour. Seeds can be collected from the soil below the plant, but these may be predated. Generally, seeds are collected in summer. Seeds from species in the Stirling Ranges of Western Australia vary in time of maturation from December through to February. Dasypogon

Ripe heads are well formed by the end of summer. By cutting across these terminal heads the large brown seeds can be seen inside the heads. Seed development is sometimes patchy but thick, viable seeds are found in many heads. They are collected from December to January. Daviesia

These plants include the true ‘rattle pods’ since pods of some species produce a rattling noise when seeds are mature and the pods are shaken or blow in the wind. Daviesia seeds are usually elongated to round, black or brown. Fully mature seeds can dehisce quickly and it is a good idea to collect with seed traps in order to get the timing right. Collection of seeds in the south-west of Western Australia is generally done in early summer. (See also Fabaceae.) Dianella

Cynanchum

A twining plant from mainly northern arid tropical regions. Produces seeds with a fluffy attachment when ripe. Seeds are collected in the Kimberley region and associated arid tropical regions in May and June and further south in November to December.

The widespread species Dianella revoluta produces purple fruits with black seeds in summer. These should be picked when the fruits start to change to a darker purple. Fruits are held on terminal stems and are large and easily collected from December to January. Dichondra

Dampiera

A large genus of plants that is a challenge for the seed collector. Some species (e.g. Dampiera eriocephala and Dampiera wellsiana) produce seeds prolifically, especially after a disturbance such as a fire. These species release seeds in a protective fluffy coating. Other species, such as Dampiera luteiflora, produce more standard seeds, but may flower over a long period without a peak seeding

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This is a flat prostrate herb known as kidney weed. The round seeds are produced after flowering in spring. Dicliptera

Small herbs with triangular-shaped, persistent fruits that can be collected over a long period. Abundant seeds are available at the end of the wet season in the arid tropics from May to July.

Chapter 10 – Collection guidelines for common Australian families and genera

Dicrastylis

Dryandra

A compact and tomentose group of shrubs, they produce medium-sized, round seeds. Seed development is often noted only by the hardness in the flowering heads as they develop. Seeding heads should be removed as the first seeds begin to fall. Widespread in desert areas where seeds can be collected from July to November. However, flowering may be dependent upon rainfall events.

This is a group that is closely related to Banksia, but poses some unique problems for the seed collector. The seeds are produced in woody fruits that are attached close to the stems of the plant. Because of the spiky nature of the foliage of many dryandras, the task of removing the fruits can be difficult. The fruits are quite persistent and need to be twisted forcibly to remove them from the plant. Care must be taken since some damage can occur to the plant if collecting is overzealous. The fruits are often hairy with a swollen base that may contain up to a dozen seeds. In some cases, where the foliage is particularly dense, the fruits are only detectable by feeling along the stems. Once removed, the fruits of some species may require heating to pop the outside layer and reveal the seed inside. The fruits of other species can be split with a fingernail to expose the seeds. Insects heavily predate the fruits and finding good seeds is often problematic. Many species retain their seeds in the persistent fruits and collection can be done over a long period, in many cases throughout the year. Seeds are often collected when the plant is in flower to ensure correct identification of the species. Fruits available at this time will be mature as they will be at least one year old.

Diplolaena

Shrubs that produce large seeds on terminal flower heads. Seeds are clumped together in the heads after flowering. Seeds should change from green-red to brown with woodiness evident when ripe. They are collected from September to November in coastal areas of Western Australia. Disphyma

See Carpobrotus. Dodonaea

Widespread group found throughout arid temperate Australia. All have hop-like fruits containing small, black seeds. Collect when old flowers begin to fall and have become straw-like in colour. Ideally, collect seeds using drop sheets underneath the shrubs. Use a stick to knock the seeds from the branches. Seeds are collected throughout the summer months, depending upon the species. Drosera

Delicate insectivorous herbs that are prolific seeders that produce fine, mustard-like seeds. Place heads in paper bags after cutting from the small plants. Plants can still be in flower when viable seeds are available. Seeds are collected in November and December for southern species, and April to August for species from northern Australia.

Duboisia

This shrub occurs widely in the arid shrublands as well as desert areas. It grows to three metres in height and is often seen after disturbance. The seeds are held within the fruits that shrivel as they ripen. Seeds can be opportunistically collected, from November to March. Dysphania

Often occurring along roadsides, this unusual plant produces vertical stems that almost always have seeds available. There is a distinctive unpleasant odour as the stems are crushed to reveal small, black seeds. Seeds are collected in October to December.

Drummondita

Seeds are produced at different times, depending upon the species. Drummondita longifolia from Peak Charles National Park in Western Australia has an extended flowering and fruiting period and produces seeds in early December. Seeds of Drummondita ericoides are collected in early September from near Geraldton in Western Australia.

Emblingia

A monotypic genus found sporadically following disturbances such as fire, but tends to be short-lived. Plants are prostrate, lush green with yellow-brown flowers. Seeds are large and surrounded by fleshy fruit material that is dry when seeds are ready to collect. They are collected in early summer.

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Australian Seeds

Enchylaena

Common shrubs throughout the south-west of Western Australia. Seeds are ready for picking when the outer layer of the fruit is ruby red. They can be found on the plant throughout the year.

Gascoyne, where it grows as an attractive tree to 10 m in height. Produces abundant bean-like seeds, which are collected from the plant in pods. The large seeds are very ornamental and used by aboriginal people to make necklaces. They can also be collected from the ground. Seeds are collected from May to August.

Eragrostis

Easily collected when the fruiting heads are mature. Seeds collected from July in northern areas to December in southern areas. Eremaea

Woody shrubs that are common throughout the northern sandplain region of Western Australia, especially in Kalbarri National Park. Remove fruits below current flowering stems from previous year’s flowering and allow to open. (See also Myrtaceae.) Eremophila

A large group of woody shrubs with over 200 species in Western Australia. The genus is also common in other states of Australia. Plants are common on stony rises in very arid areas, including most of the major desert regions, wherever rocky outcrops occur (hence the common name, poverty bush). Fruits of Eremophila species often appear green, hard and woody after flowering. To ensure viable seed is collected they must be allowed to turn brown before picking. Fruits can be collected beneath the plants, as well as on the plants. Collecting is usually done in late summer but seeds are often persistent at other times. The fruits vary, but most are large and have a number of locules in which the seeds are formed, although many of the locules are empty. Seeds are collected throughout summer. Eriachne

These easily collected seeds dehisce from the plant when ready. Collect from October to November in southern areas and in June in the arid tropics. Eryngium

Seeds from these unusual, prickly headed herbs are collected in early summer when the blue heads begin to disintegrate. Erythrina

A small to medium tree most often found along watercourses in the arid tropics. Common along some of the major river systems of Western Australia, including the

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Eucalyptus

The eucalypts are the second largest group of plants in Australia, after the acacias, and there are over 700 recorded species and sub-species listed for Western Australia alone, with new species still being discovered. Eucalypts dominate in the woodlands and forests of southern temperate regions and the arid tropics. They grow in many habitats, from arid tropical savannas to some of the driest areas of Australia, such as the Great Victoria Desert where Eucalyptus gongylocarpa (the marble gum) predominates. Most eucalypts flower in summer and often set abundant fruits and seed. They are easy to collect (except for forest giants such as E. diversicolor and E. regnans) and fruit can usually be collected all year round (the exceptions being the tropical species). Seeds are generally retained on the tree for a number of years in most species, unless released owing to some disturbance or stress, such as drought, fire or physical damage. Because they retain their seeds, collections can be made when trees are in flower, thus providing the ideal herbarium specimen for positive identification, as well as ensuring the seeds are at least 12 months old and fully mature. Before collecting, check the fruits and see if the valves have opened to release the seeds. If you are unsure whether the seeds are ready, cut a mature fruit in half. You should see a white endosperm indicating the seeds have developed. Although the majority of eucalypts flower in the summer and autumn months, there are notable exceptions. Perhaps the most colourful is Eucalyptus caesia, known as the silver princess, which flowers on granite outcrops during the winter months of June to August (and can also be found in flower at other times). Seed collection times also vary in arid tropical species. These tend to flower, set fruit and disperse seeds in a continuous cycle, unlike the southern species, which flower, set fruit and retain the seed in the capsules for long periods of time if undisturbed. Northern Australian species can begin flowering in the tropical wet season, from January to March and continue until May. Examples include Eucalyptus jensenii

Chapter 10 – Collection guidelines for common Australian families and genera

and Eucalyptus polycarpa. Seeds from these are available in the dry winter months of June and July. Others, such as Eucalyptus phoenicea (scarlet gum) and Eucalyptus miniata (Darwin woollybutt), flower later, after the wet season in March to July. Seeds from these should be collected in September. Different again, Eucalyptus lirata (Kimberley yellow jacket) and Eucalyptus ptychocarpa (swamp bloodwood) flower in September to March. Therefore, with the arid tropical eucalypts, it is best to inspect the trees regularly to determine the precise time to collect. If the trees are in flower they can then be monitored as seeds develop. Some eucalypts, such as Eucalyptus graniticola and Eucalyptus phylacis from Western Australia, set very few seeds as a result of hybridity, or because some species are clonal and need to be cross-pollinated. Collecting seeds from the largest forest trees is most often accomplished opportunistically during timber felling operations or following storm damage. (See also Myrtaceae.) Eutaxia

See Fabaceae. Exocarpos

Large shrubs that are often leafless and weeping in habit. Seeds are round in shape and readily available. Mature seeds tend to be a yellow colour when ripe, often with an attached red, fleshy and edible fruit. Seed set can be sporadic when there is insufficient rainfall. Plants are widespread in Western Australia. Seeds are collected in the arid zones in July, and further south in October. Collect seeds throughout summer months on the southern coast of Western Australia. Ficus

Collect fruits when ripe, soft and dark in colour. Abundant seeds are contained within the fruits. Seeds can be collected throughout the year when mature in dry inland areas, or following the wet season in the tropics. Flaveria

A rapidly growing annual that produces fruits quickly and may have mature seeds even when in flower. Plants can flower for most of the year given good seasonal rains. If large numbers of seeds are required, collection should be delayed until the plants are senescing.

Gastrolobium

This has hard pods that split when ripe and dehisce quickly. Make sure that seeds are well formed and hard before collecting. Seeds are collected from southern areas in August to November. (See also Fabaceae.) Geleznowia

Seeds mature in the centre of the flowers and these are best picked as the heads begin to dehisce. They can be explosively released when the fruits are fully matured. Collect seeds from October to December. Glishrocaryon

A spectacular, common and widespread genus often seen in Western Australia flowering on disturbed roadsides, or following fires. Seeds need to develop within the papery bladders until they begin to fall from the plants. When seeds are mature, large numbers can be gathered easily by carefully gathering them from the old flower heads. Seeds are also available from around the base of the plants. To ensure seeds are mature the centre of the soft, papery fruits should be hard and the fruits falling from the plant. Collect from November to December. Gompholobium

See Gastrolobium and Fabaceae. Gomphrena

See Amaranthaceae. Goodenia

Many different species of perennials and annuals. The annuals depend on cycles of good seasonal rains, and will flower and set seeds prolifically. Fruits form a capsule from which the seeds are shed. Seeds are flat or compressed with a wing attached, mostly black and usually very abundant. Collect seed when flowering is finishing and the plants are dying. Seeds are collected from spring in northern areas of Western Australia to summer in more southern areas. Some perennial species, such as Goodenia watsonii, flower and seed over a long period. Collect seeds in November and December. Gossypium

Seeds are collected when fruits split and open. They are fluffy or covered in a cotton-like coating and are windblown. They ripen slowly during and after flowering and are readily collected. Collect seeds in the tropics in May and in the Pilbara in October. (See also Hibiscus.)

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Australian Seeds

Grevillea

Guichenotia

More than 300 species occur in Australia. Most are smallto medium-sized perennial shrubs, although some form large trees, for example, Grevillea robusta from Northern New South Wales. Seed collection varies from relatively easy to difficult, although seeds are generally large. Flowering for many species is late winter to spring. Seeds are collected from the follicles, which generally contain two seeds. The follicles split and open to release the seeds when ready. For best results, hand-pick over the plant to get the mature seeds, cutting the follicles off when most have opened. Some species, such as Grevillea leucopteris, develop a large candelabra-like fruiting head, often with abundant seeds. Using drop sheets and shaking the shrub to release seeds is a good method for many of these tall flowered shrubs. This is also true of many of the large Western Australian Kimberley species, such as Grevillea refracta. Some seeds are unusual in their size and shape. For example, Grevillea candicans has round fruit, but most seeds are disc-shaped. Grevillea wickhamii is unusual in that it grows throughout the deserts in Western Australia, where it is a dominant shrub and flowers for most of the year. Unfortunately, it is very difficult to collect good quantities of seeds and it is unusual to see plants fruiting. Persistence is the best tool for these types of species and careful examination of as many plants as possible at different times will provide a sample of good quality seeds. Some fruits are caustic and need to be handled with care. Grevillea petrophiloides is an example. The caustic shrubs have a black, resin-like substance on them, which can cause irritation. Care should also be taken that the majority of follicles are open as seed can be mistakenly collected when green. Grevilleas may produce small amounts of seeds while still flowering and this makes the seed difficult to collect. Many species need to be thoroughly searched to find good seeds. For example, Grevillea dielsiana flowers over a long period of time yet only releases small amounts of seeds. Seeds that are still green, but well formed, can be collected from some species by including the vegetative material in the collection and holding the material in a cool area until mature. This should be a last resort and only undertaken if the collector is not returning to a site. Collect seeds in southern areas from September to January, depending upon species and rainfall events. Collect arid tropical and summer rainfall species from March to July.

Seeds are easily collected from the fruits (capsules) after flowering in spring. Seeds are hard, brown or black. Collect in October and November.

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Gunniopsis

Succulent herbs, often associated with wet or saline depressions. Collect heads when woody and as dry as possible. Cut the fruits to check if seeds are plump and dark. Seeds are collected in October and November. Gyrocarpus

Trees from the arid tropics of Western Australia. The helicopter-like seeds are collected when changing from green to straw in colour and beginning to fall from the tree. They can be collected around Broome in June and July. Gyrostemon

Geographically widespread small tree or shrubs. Commonly found after fire. Seeds are collected by the drop sheet method as they fall out of the heads in November or December. Haemodorum

Widespread and common across Australia, these plants are known as bloodroots, and Aboriginal people used their bulbs as food. Seeds are produced on long flower spikes, from a clumping, basal growth. They are dark and easy to collect, but correct timing is important since they drop quickly. Seeds can be collected at various times from December through to February, and later for tropical and arid tropical species. Hakea

These woody shrubs are easy to collect because of the size and accessibility of the fruit. Seeds are collected by removing the fruits from the shrub or tree with secateurs and allowing them to open. The fruits often require up to a year to mature after flowering, so make sure they have darkened in colour and appear woody before collection. Green fruits should be avoided. Fruits should open within days of being removed from the plant and generally two seeds will be released. Gaining enough seeds can be a problem, but this is balanced by the ease of collection and the high quality of the seeds. Collect fruits at any time of the year, but preferably when the plants are in flower to allow identification of the species.

Chapter 10 – Collection guidelines for common Australian families and genera

Halosarcia

Plants of this genus are known as samphires. They are widespread and common salt-tolerant plants that grow across the whole of Australia in salt lake systems. Flowering is cryptic since it is hard to detect when plants are in flower. Seeds develop inside the succulent sections of stem (called articles). They are detected by crushing the fleshy stems and examining them for small, dark or clear disc-shaped seeds. They are collected from December to March. However, seeds can be present in some species at any time of the year, depending upon rainfall events. Many species yield large quantities of seeds.

seeds are easily collected from the small fruits. The fruit is a capsule with seeds light-coloured and round. Being prickly, seeds are best collected with gloves and by trimming sections from the plant to collect fruits. Seed harvest occurs over a long period since seeds ripen gradually over the plant. Bagging fruits may be useful. Seeds are collected from November to January. Hemigenia

Similar to Hemiandra. Seeds are easily collected and readily available after flowering. Seeds are collected in October, November and December.

Haptotrichion

Hemiphora

An unusual and attractive genus of everlasting daisies from Shark Bay in Western Australia. Flowering occurs in September and seeds can be collected from late September to early October. Seeds are dark with an attached pappus and are dispersed by wind. (See also Asteraceae.)

Endemic to Western Australia, this monotypic genus is known as red velvet and is difficult to bring in to cultivation. It flowers after disturbance and then grows for a number of years before dying. Seeds are available, but viability is variable. They are round and appear well formed, as in other genera in Lamiaceae. Seed availability depends largely upon fire and rainfall events. Seeds have been collected in November from the Goldfields region.

Hardenbergia

Fruits from these common and widespread climbers can be explosive, especially on hot days in mature pods. The seeds are large, easily collected and generally mature in early summer. Seeds are collected from November to January throughout the southern areas of Australia. (See also Fabaceae.) Helichrysum

See Asteraceae.

Hibbertia

Widespread and common genus of mostly small shrubs. Many species occur in the temperate areas of the southwest of Western Australia. Flowering can be variable and timing of collection is from winter through to early summer. Seed is round in shape and of good size. Some species are difficult to harvest as insects often heavily predate the seeds. Bagging plants to collect seeds is a possible strategy.

Heliotropium

A widespread genus found in arid and tropical areas of Western Australia. The fruit is a schizocarp, a dried fruit that splits into carpels that contain one seed. Seeds are easily collected as the fruit begins to split. They are collected at various times, depending on location and rainfall. They have been collected from June to July in temperate areas, and in October to December further south.

Seeds are collected when fruits split and open. They are dark or fluffy and similar to Gossypium. Seeds ripen slowly when flowering so collection tends to be rather piecemeal. As the weather heats up in summer, most plants will shed seeds. Seeds are collected in the tropics in May and June, and from the arid inland areas in October.

Helipterum

Hovea

See Rhodanthe.

Highly attractive winter flowering peas from the southwest of Western Australia that are prolific seeders in some areas but often plants are found growing only as individuals rather than in populations. Collect seeds in November to December. (See also Fabaceae.)

Hemiandra

Commonly known as snake bushes, these groundcover and low shrubs flower prolifically in early summer and

Hibiscus

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Australian Seeds

Hoya

Attractive climbers from the tropics. Plants produce a large fruiting pod that splits, releasing the distinctive, hairy, windblown seeds. Flowering occurs from January to February and seeds are usually available until May. Flowering can also occur from June to August, with seeds available in September and October. Hyalosperma

Ephemeral daisies that produce abundant seeds after flowering in early spring. Best collected after the petals have fallen and the seeds are beginning to brown. They are collected from September to December. (See also Asteraceae.)

collected from November through to January in the south-west of Western Australia when the plants are flowering, or at other times when plants have finished flowering but cones are still obvious. Isotoma

Widespread genus of annuals or herbs which flower from early to late summer. Seeds are slow to mature, but can be collected in capsules as they become papery and begin to split. They are collected from December to February in Western Australia, but timing is highly variable. All parts of the plant exude a highly toxic white sap so exercise extreme caution when you are collecting. Jacksonia

Hypocalymma

Attractive, often sweetly scented, small shrubs endemic to the south-west of Western Australia. Flowering occurs in early spring and seed is ready to collect in summer. The fruit is a capsule that is enclosed by the dried flowers. Cutting sections of foliage with the fruits as they ripen will secure the seed. Seeds are collected in November to December.

Widespread shrubs or groundcovers from temperate to tropical areas of Western Australia. Collect just before they dehisce in late spring to early summer for temperate species, and from May to July for tropical species. Pods begin opening when the seeds are mature, but this can take a number of weeks. As a general rule, collect seeds six to eight weeks after flowering. (See also Fabaceae.) Juncus

Indigofera

A widespread genus of mostly small shrubs that produce thin pods containing many seeds. Seeds are available when the pods darken, split and begin to dehisce and are collected from May to June in the Pilbara and in December from areas further south. (See also Fabaceae.) Ipomoea

Widespread and common climbers and groundcovers that produce large seeds that are easily collected. Seeds are usually dark brown or black. Collect capsules as they dry and become papery. Seeds are collected in May to July in tropical areas and August to October in arid areas of Western Australia.

Perennial wetland plants. Cut heads from the plants when they are dry, from January to March. Kennedia

These plants are predominantly groundcovers and climbers. Several of them are rare, including the Western Australian species K. beckxiana from Cape Arid and K. macrophylla from Augusta. The majority have reddish flowers, although K. nigricans has yellow and black flowers. They are easily collected since they produce large pods with large seeds. Seeds are most commonly available in hot summer weather. Collect from December to January. (See also Fabaceae.) Keraudrenia

Isopogon

Fruits or cones are easily collected since they tend to persist on the plants. The cones should be dark grey, dry and well formed before collection. They are persistent for a few years before breaking down and releasing the seeds. The seeds are fluffy, brown and windblown. Be sure to perform a cut test on the seeds to check for quality as the plants tend to produce many unfilled seeds. A thresher is effective for releasing seeds from the cones. Seeds can be

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The ubiquitous perennial shrubs Keraudrenia integrifolia and Keraudrenia hermaniifolia are two of the most widespread species in Western Australia. Seeds are collected from on or beneath the shrubs. Flowering occurs over a long period and there always appears to be some flowers on the shrubs. Seeds are generally available in summer (although in the north, much earlier) as the flowers are fading on the shrubs. However, some shrubs are much more prolific seeders than others. Visiting a range of

Chapter 10 – Collection guidelines for common Australian families and genera

plants should provide access to good seeds. Seeds are black and are contained inside a papery capsule. They have been collected in November and December.

Lasiopetalum

Kingia

Lawrencella

A monotypic genus that is widespread in the south-west of Western Australia. It produces round, drumstick-like fruiting structures that can be collected in early summer as the follicles open to drop seeds. Seeds can easily be lost if the fruits are handled roughly, thus they should be carefully cut from the plants. Seeds have been collected in December, but the timing may vary.

Everlasting ephemerals or annuals. It is one of the earliest flowering annuals and it disperses its seed rapidly. The presence of a fine, hairy pappus makes wind dispersal very easy and seeds will not hang on the plant for long. Collect seeds in September. (See also Asteraceae.)

Kunzea

The seeds are in small capsules that are difficult to locate. The valves on the fruits of all species are obvious when they are open and this is a good indicator of seed availability. A cross-section of the fruit will show the brown seeds within. Seeds are available throughout the year. (See also Myrtaceae.)

Fruits are capsules that split when mature. Seeds are brown or black. Collect in November and December.

Lawrencia

Unusual plants in the Malvaceae. Lawrencia helmsii (dunna dunna) produces a leafless, hard-stemmed shrub up to two metres, with flowers along the stems. Small stem sections are removed to collect seeds. Collect from October to January. Laxmannia

See Borya.

Labichea

Lechenaultia

Shrubs with very spiky foliage from which seeds are difficult to collect without gloves. They produce pods with a significant number of seeds, although they are often predated. The pods dehisce readily. Seeds are collected in December in coastal areas of Western Australia. (See also Acacia.)

These plants vary greatly in their times of flowering. In Perth, L. linarioides and L. biloba seeds are ready to collect in late summer. Seeds are block-shaped and occur in rows along the inside of the fruits. Remove the fruits by hand as they start to split. Other species are collected from November to February.

Lachnostachys

Lepidium

The lambstails produce plenty of seed, but many of them are not viable. Seeds are round, well formed and are located inside the woolly heads. Pull or cut the dying heads from the shrubs after checking for seeds. Seeds are collected from August through to November depending on the location and species. (See also Dicrastylis.)

Perennial and annual herbs that are prolific seeders. Collect when seeds are dry and papery. Times for collection vary from mid-year in the northern parts of Western Australia, to summer in the south.

Lamarchea

See Myrtaceae. Lambertia

Seeds are located in woody fruits or follicles along the stems. They should be hard, dark and well formed before collecting. Follicles produce one or two triangular seeds. Seeds are collected from September to December, though small amounts of seeds can be collected at other times.

Lepidosperma

Seeds are available in the old flower heads over a long period. They are hard, large and well formed. Cut the old flower heads from the plants and use a thresher to separate them. Collect seeds in October through to December in Western Australia. Leptosema

See Fabaceae. Leptospermum

See Myrtaceae.

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Australian Seeds

Leucochrysum

A common annual in desert areas, these plants produce seeds in spring that fall from the heads when ripe. Collect seeds from August to October, depending on locations. (See also Asteraceae.)

in association with spinifex and occasionally are found in large numbers. Flowering can be from April to September and the seeds can be collected during this period. The plants are short-lived and survive for only a few weeks after rains. Cut dying heads from the plants, one to three weeks after flowering.

Leucophyta

Plants in this genus produce button-like heads that should be left on the plant to mature before collection. Seeds are collected late summer before the heads disintegrate. (See also Asteraceae.)

Macropidia

Leucopogon

Macrozamia

Fruits are small, succulent, fleshy drupes that usually change from green to yellow as they mature. Shrubs often flower profusely and set plenty of seeds. Seeds are difficult to germinate, in spite of their high viability. Collect seeds in October and November from the south coast of Western Australia.

Cycad-like plants that produce large, reddish fruits or cones which are quite spectacular. They are made up of many large, individual seeds. There are separate male and female plants (dioecious). Female plants may produce up to a hundred seeds. Cones containing the seeds are ready to collect in February and March when they begin to break apart.

Collect the fruiting heads in early summer. Seeds are much larger than those of kangaroo paws and are creamcoloured, with darker edges. (See also Anigozanthos.)

Livistona

Palms that produce medium to large, hard seeds. Currently, seven species occur in Western Australia, in the tropical north. L. alfredii from Millstream in the Pilbara has unusual seeds that are large and round. L. eastonii from the Mitchell Plateau has much smaller black drupes. Seeds are best collected as they mature and begin falling from the trees. Cut the fruiting stems from the tree. Seeds have been collected from May through to November. Seeds may be recalcitrant, although research is still underway into the storage behaviour.

Maireana

This large genus is a common feature of the semi-arid parts of Australia, and is often found in salty and clayey areas. There are many types of seeds, from papery discs to the cottony fruits of the common Maireana carnosa with the seeds tightly bound inside. Seeds are easily collected as the fruits darken and become dry and papery. Pull from the shrub or gather recently fallen seeds from the ground. In the case of Maireana carnosa, collect cottonlike seeds as they fall. Seeds are collected from September through summer. (See also Atriplex.)

Lobelia

These attractive, spring-flowering annuals are collected as the heads dry. The capsules contain many fine, small, brown or black seeds. Heads are often ripe while the plant is still flowering. Seeds will ripen on whole plants if collected, though it is preferable to collect the ripening heads from the plants as they dry. Collect seeds from September through November.

Mallophora

Attractive, small shrubs that produce fluffy white fruits with seeds enclosed. Seeds are collected in December. Marsilea

Logania

A genus of aquatic ferns that occur in a variety of water sources in Australia. They have fruiting structures that produce minute spores. Cut these from the plant when dark and woody.

Small shrubs that produce small, black seeds in capsules. Collect seeds in November and December.

Melaleuca

Macgregoria

These attractive plants from desert areas appear like white hyacinth flowers after heavy rain. They often flower

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A dominant genus in Western Australia and one of the easiest to collect. Seeds are available at any time of the year. Species identification is difficult with many species, so collecting seeds when the shrubs are in flower is a good

Chapter 10 – Collection guidelines for common Australian families and genera

tactic for determining the species. Seeds of most Melaleuca species are retained on the plants for several years. Be cautious in pruning plants below the foliage level in lignotuberous or epicormic species. Tip pruning can cause death in some species, such as Melaleuca uncinata. Pruning low at the base or taking individual branches is preferable. If in doubt it is better to remove sections of the shrub rather than prune the whole shrub. (See also Myrtaceae.)

Nicotiana

The native tobacco is usually found growing in shady areas, often with some moisture. Seeds are black and numerous. Collect seeds in August when the plant begins to die and the capsules dry out. Nitraria

Microcorys

Coastal plants that form grape-like seeds. Seeds in fruits are best picked as they begin to turn yellow and begin to fall from the plant. Seeds are collected in February on the south coast.

Seeds are usually brown and thin. Collect in early summer.

Nuytsia

Annuals or ephemerals that flower in late spring with seeds that mature in early summer. The small heads contain large numbers of minute seeds. The heads fall apart as they ripen. Collect seeds in November and December. (See also Asteraceae.)

The Western Australian Christmas tree is one of the largest parasitic plants. As the name implies, the plant flowers in December and the seeds mature during summer. The fruits are large, brown and woody structures that encase the seeds. Seeds retain viability for about 12 months and are best sown fresh. Collect seeds in late February.

Mirbelia

Olearia

These unusual, spiky shrubs have pods that produce good seed in early summer. Pods dehisce violently with the onset of hot weather. Collect seeds in November and December. (See also Fabaceae.)

Common perennial shrubs that have terminal flowers producing seeds with a pappus that is windblown when mature. Seeds are collected in November and December. (See also Asteraceae.)

Myoporum

Orthrosanthus

Large, round fruits with seeds similar to Eremophila seeds. Best picked from the shrubs as the seeds are gaining colour and the outside of the fruit becomes soft. Seeds are collected from September through December.

The native iris produces fruits on the terminal ends of leafless spikes. Seeds are ready for collection when the fruits become papery and almost transparent. They are collected in the Perth region in November.

Myriophyllum

Owenia

Aquatic plants with fine, dust-like seeds. Seeds are available during flowering from July through to November while the plants have sufficient seasonal moisture.

The native walnut is a tropical tree from the north of Australia. It produces very large, round fruits that are easy to collect. They are best collected soon after falling to the ground. Collect from May to October.

Millotia

Nauclea

Large-leafed tree found along creeks and rivers of the Kimberley. Produces large seeds that are available for collection late spring to early summer. Collect seeds from May to November.

Ozothamnus

This unusual Asteraceae species is collected later than other genera in this family. Seeds ripen through the summer and the fine seeds attached to a small pappus are ready to collect in February. (See also Asteraceae.)

Newcastelia

See Dicrastylis and Lachnostachys.

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Australian Seeds

Pandanus

Petrophile

Tropical plants from rivers and watercourses of northern Australia. Produces very large seeds that are grouped together in a huge fruit. Fruits are green, ripening to reddish-orange. Seeds are easily collected and germinate readily. They can be collected from the ground as well as from the plant. Seeds are collected in the Kimberley region from December to May.

A southern coastal herb that produces fine seeds. Seeds are ready to collect in October.

A large group of woody shrubs, similar to Isopogon, but with a more disc-like seed that is often lodged deep within the cones. Seeds are released over time when mature or when the fruits are removed from the shrub with secateurs. The cones should be well formed, darkgrey, and seeds should still be held within the scales. Fruits should be left to dry out after collection, allowing the seeds to be released. Fruits can be difficult to open. Seeds are generally collected from September through December when the different species are in flower. (See also Isopogon.)

Patersonia

Phebalium

An attractive clumping perennial with predominantly purple flowers. The seeds are produced on long flowering stems and are often predated by insects. Populations vary in their seed production, some of them producing very good seeds, others virtually none. When mature, seeds are large and can be black or brown. Seeds can be collected on the south coast of Western Australia in early January. Cut fruiting heads from the plants.

Small shrubs that produce relatively large seeds. Collect in November and December.

Parietaria

Pelargonium

The native geraniums are far less common than the introduced ones. Introduced species are widespread, especially along the coastal areas of Western Australia. The native plants are small shrubs or herbs. Seeds are collected in October in the south-west of Western Australia. Peplidium

Prostrate mat-forming herb or aquatic annual. Best collected as the seasonal water supply subsides and the plants begin to die. Small, round fruits contain many fine, black seeds and are best collected by cutting the heads from the drying plants. Seeds are collected from October through December, depending upon the region.

Phymatocarpus

See Myrtaceae. Physopsis

These plants produce plenty of seeds, but most of them appear to be non-viable. Seeds are round, well formed and are located inside the woolly heads. Pull or cut the dying heads from the shrubs. (See also Dicrastylis.) Pileanthus

Commonly known as ‘coppercups’, they produce coneshaped fruits that turn yellow as they ripen. Species in the Murchison area of Western Australia flower in early summer and seeds are collected in December to January. Pimelea

Terminal flowering shrubs that produce many fruiting heads. Cut flower heads from the plant when they have lost all colour and begin to fall apart. Seeds are collected mainly in November and December.

Persoonia

Pittosporum

Often has large-seeded drupes. Seeds are readily available on and under the plants. Seeds are difficult to germinate. They can be collected throughout the summer months.

Seeds are held within the fruit and when dried are brown or black. The seeds are encased in sticky mucilage within the fruits. Dry the collected seeds evenly to avoid rotting. Seeds have been collected in the Kimberley region of Western Australia in September. Pittosporum occurs over the entire arid and southern areas of Western Australia and seeds have been collected almost every month of the year.

Petalostylis

See Labichea.

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Chapter 10 – Collection guidelines for common Australian families and genera

Pityrodia

Polymeria

Seeds are small, round and can be collected in early summer. (See also Lachnostachys.)

Trailing herbs in the Convolvulaceae. Splitting the fruit reveals triangular-shaped seeds that are best collected by pulling them from the shrubs. Seeds are collected in the Kimberley region in May and June.

Platyzoma

A fern found in the Kimberley region. Collect fronds with obvious sori. Cut fronds from plants and place in paper bags or between newspaper sheets. Collect in May or June.

Porana

Climbers with delicate blue flowers. The fruit is best collected when the bracts surrounding the fruits are papery. Seeds are collected in October.

Plectrachne

Widespread arid zone genus, commonly called spinifex. Seeds are produced in response to rain events and can be highly spasmodic. Collect days to a few weeks after good rains. Pluchea

An aromatic herb that produces terminal flowers similar to the common thistle. These are best cut from the dying plants as the seeds begin to blow. Seeds are collected in the Kimberley region in May and the Pilbara in October. Poa

Examine heads for seeds after the plant has flowered. Cut heads from the plant if seeds are present.

Portulaca

See Calandrinia. Prostanthera

Collect seeds as the bracts become papery and ripen fully. Pull fruits from the plants. Seeds are collected in November. Pterocaulon

An aromatic perennial herb. Collect seeds when heads become spongy and begin to fall apart. Seeds are collected in the Kimberley region of Western Australia in May and further south in the Pilbara in October. Ptilotus

Podocarpus

The fruits are purple when ripe. Pull from the plant as they begin to fall. Keep seeds in a dry environment to avoid rotting. Podolepis

A large genus in Western Australia. Small, round seeds are produced, but in most cases in very small numbers. Collect plants when fruits are fading and falling apart. Seeds are available from June to October in the northern parts of Western Australia and throughout summer in the southern areas of the state. (See also Amaranthaceae.)

Produces fine seeds in terminal heads. Heads are dry and begin to fall apart when mature. Seeds are collected from September through November. (See also Asteraceae.)

Pultenaea

Podotheca

Radyera

Large thistle-like heads that produce fine windblown seed. Collect when the first seeds begin to be dispersed from the plants. Seeds are collected from October to December depending upon species. (See also Asteraceae.)

See Gossypium.

Polycarpaea

Rhagodia

These attractive tropical herbs are annuals. They often appear in large numbers after the wet season. Seeds are available for collection as the silver or red flowers fade. Cut the seed heads from the plants after the wet season. Collect in May through to July in the Kimberley region.

Mature fruits are fleshy and red when mature. Care must be taken to dry fruits thoroughly after collecting, as they are prone to rotting. Collect seeds throughout the year.

See Bossiaea.

Regelia

See Melaleuca.

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Australian Seeds

Rhodanthe

Salsola

A large genus with most species of the everlasting type found in this group, including Rhodanthe chlorocephala subsp. rosea. This species is most commonly seen en masse in Kings Park in Perth. Rhodanthe chlorocephala subsp. splendida is the largest-flowered everlasting in Western Australia and has superb creamy-white flowers. It thrives in wetter conditions and is often the first everlasting in flower and the first to seed. For the Rhodanthe group, collection begins in early September. The timing for ephemerals is critical and strongly dictated by prevailing weather patterns. If the weather heats up, with dry winds, seed maturity can be accelerated by days. Conversely, wet and still conditions can delay the maturity process. Seeds will begin to be dispersed in the wind as they mature. This is the perfect time to collect. A good field test is to hit the heads and if the seeds drop off, they are ready. To secure the seeds, hold the head and cut the stem off a few centimetres below, or just pull the fruiting heads from the plants. Seeds are collected in September. (See also Asteraceae.)

A widespread plant in semi-arid areas of Western Australia. It is a prickly shrub that produces thorny fruits and is best collected when completely dry. The bushes are windblown when dead, spreading the seeds as they roll. Seeds may be collected at any time depending upon rainfall events. Seeds will be available four to six weeks after the shrubs reach maturity and begin to die. Santalum

There are four species in Western Australia and they all produce large fruits that are easily collected. This genus is widespread from coastal Perth through the wheatbelt and the semi-arid areas. Santalum acuminatum (or quandong) fruits are bright red when ready to collect in early December. Fruits of the true sandalwood, Santalum spicatum, are green when ready and are smaller, without the fleshy cover. Santalum lanceolatum has black drupes. Seeds can be collected under the small trees during the ripening season in December and January. Scaevola

A climber or shrub from the Kimberley and Pilbara regions of Western Australia. Produces pods containing large seeds. They are collected in May and June in the Kimberley.

Fruits are best collected as they begin to mature and fall from the bush. Some of the larger-fruited species such as Scaevola anchusifolia can be collected from under the plant. Seeds are collected in the Pilbara in October and further south from November through to February.

Ricinocarpos

Schoenia

Seeds are easily collected in December to January on the southern coast of Western Australia.

Annuals or ephemerals of the everlasting type. Seeds can be collected as the plants fade and the flowering heads begin to break up. Schoenia seeds are large and, in most species, black with a pappus attachment. Collect in September and October. (See also Asteraceae.)

Rhynchosia

Rinzia

Small myrtaceous shrubs that are prolific seeders. Best collected by lightly pruning the upper foliage from the shrub. (See also Myrtaceae.) Roycea

Obscure, mat-forming plants from salt lake areas. Flowers are red and upright and seeds can be collected in mid-summer.

Scholtzia

Profusely flowering shrubs that drop seeds as they mature. Fruits are small and cone-shaped. This group of shrubs, which are in the Myrtaceae family, does not retain seeds, unlike many other Myrtaceae such as Calothamnus, Kunzea and Melaleuca. Seeds are collected in early summer. (See also Myrtaceae.)

Rulingia

Seeds are formed inside tomentose fruits. Pick fruits from the plant by hand as they begin to split. Collect in May in the Kimberley and in November in the south-west of Western Australia.

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Sclerolaena

A large group of small, hardy shrubs that are inconspicuous when in flower. They are commonly found throughout much of the arid shrublands of Western Australia. There are many varying species and they commonly

Chapter 10 – Collection guidelines for common Australian families and genera

possess unusual, spiky and thorny fruits. Fruits should be hard and woody before being collected. Generally, collect seeds in August through to November, but seeds can be available at other times following unseasonal rainfall events. Senecio

Common Asteraceae that produce long seeds attached to a white pappus. Collect seeds in October through to December. (See also Asteraceae.)

gauged by hardness. Collect from November through to January. Spinifex

A spreading tussock-forming coastal grass that produces large fruiting heads that can break from the main plant. Seeds are found within these and must be allowed to dry fully before threshing them to extract seeds. Collect in December and January. Spyridium

Sesbania

Trees from the tropical north of Australia. They produce long pods that should be hard and dry before collecting. Seeds should change from green to brown before picking. The pods disperse their seeds when ready. Collect from May to October. Sida

Common shrubs of the Pilbara, Kimberley and desert regions of Western Australia. Seeds are shed from capsules when mature. Care must be taken when collecting since disturbance encourages seed dispersal. Seeds are collected in a range of times from May to December, depending upon rainfall events. Solanum

Large shrubs that are widespread in coastal areas of Western Australia. The seeds are a reddish-orange and available for collection in early summer. Collect the terminal heads from the plants in December and January. Stackhousia

Perennial herbs that can produce large quantities of seeds. Seeds are small, round and dark. They are collected around Broome in Western Australia in May and June, and December in southern areas. Stemodia

Aromatic herbs that are easily collected by cutting terminal flower spikes. The spikes are viscid and the seeds are easily dislodged if the fruits have opened. Seeds are collected in the Pilbara in October and in the Gascoyne in December.

A group of mostly small shrubs known as bush tomatoes, Solanum is a widespread genus throughout Australia. Some species have thorns and require gloves to collect safely. Many species are found in arid areas and some are eaten by Aboriginal people. Fruits are round, like tomatoes, and become lighter in colour as they mature and start to shrivel. Collect whole fruits and process these to extract seeds. These are small and disc-shaped and produced in abundance. Seeds are collected from May in the Kimberley region to December in the southern areas.

This enigmatic genus produces large, well-formed coneshaped seeds that are very difficult to germinate. Seeds look similar to those of Conospermum species. They are tomentose, hard and produced in abundance. Stirlingia is a disturbance opportunist after fire and can be collected at a range of times, depending upon conditions. Seeds have been collected from October through to January.

Sowerbaea

Strangea

Small chive-like plants that produce abundant seeds on terminal flowering heads. Seeds are small, black and easily cut from the plant. Collect in November and December.

A lignotuberous shrub that produces unusual, large fruits that are similar to legume pods. Seeds are collected in August.

Stirlingia

Streptoglossa Sphaerolobium

See Pluchea.

Often leafless shrubs with pea-like flowers, they produce typical pea fruits that split and dehisce when mature. Seeds should be hard when collected, with ripeness

195

Australian Seeds

Stylidium

A very widespread genus of small herbs that readily produces abundant seeds. Many of the seeds are very small and heads should be allowed to dry before being picked. Collect in paper bags to ensure that the small seeds are not lost. Seeds are collected at various times, from June and July in the Kimberley region, and November and December in the south-west. Stylobasium

Produces round, hard fruits that are collected in summer. Often collected by sweeping off the ground or using a drop cloth under the plants.

these pods. Seeds are collected in the Perth region in November to December. Tephrosia

Generally small shrubs that grow throughout the desert areas of the Pilbara and Kimberley regions. They are members of the pea family and seed is readily available and easily collected. The widji, or Tephrosia rosea, is one of the most common. It flowers most of the year and seeds are available at varying times and are collected by removing pods from the shrubs. In the north seeds are collected in May and June. Terminalia

Swainsona

A large group of pea-flowered plants consisting of annual herbs and perennial shrubs that are generally short-lived. The best known is Swainsona formosa, the desert pea, the floral emblem of South Australia. They are regularly found in semi-arid areas of Australia and flower in winter through to spring. Swainsona germinates and flowers in response to cyclonic rains in the Pilbara and Gascoyne regions. Many of the species are ground-covering and produce flowers and seeds on long stems. These can be cut from the plant as it dries. The fruits are pods with seeds enclosed. Some of these shrubs are particularly impressive, such as Swainsona maccullochiana, the Ashburton pea, that can reach 1.5 m in height and has large red, blue, pink or purple flowers. Collection timing is often difficult with these peas as they will stay in a vegetative growth phase if moisture is available and temperatures are moderate. Be selective when collecting seeds from different plants as they are often of differing maturity. Check that the seeds you are collecting are ripe; they should be brown or grey and well formed. Collected from September through December, depending upon seasonal events. (See also Fabaceae.) Tecticornia

See Halosarcia.

Shrubs and trees from the tropical north of Western Australia, and is widespread in Africa. The fruit is a large drupe that is winged and usually contains only one seed. The seeds should not be removed from the protective covering of the fruit, but stored as they are collected. Seeds are collected in May and June in the Kimberley region. Tetratheca

Attractive, small shrubs mostly with purple flowers. In Western Australia many species are listed as rare. They often occur on isolated hills and mountains amongst rock crevices. Plants flower from late winter to spring and seeds are available in early summer. Seeds are not common, but with perseverance they can be found after flowering and picked from the shrubs. Flowering occurs over a long period and some seed can be produced when the shrubs are still in flower. Seeds are collected from most species in November, but some of the more unusual arid species will flower in summer and seeds may be collected in January to February. Themeda

Kangaroo grass is widespread. Seeds are collected from the dying heads by cutting them from the plant after it has flowered. Seeds are collected from the Pilbara region in October, but collection timing will vary since the plant is found all over Australia.

Templetonia

Common coastal shrubs in Perth, Templetonia retusa, or cockies tongues, is probably the first shrub to flower at the end of winter. However, seeds are not ready until early summer. The large, flat, black pods are easily gathered and the seeds, although often predated, are enclosed in

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Thespesia

Small shrubs and trees from the Kimberley region of Western Australia with poplar-like leaves. Allow fruits to brown completely before picking them. Seeds are collected in May in the Kimberley.

Chapter 10 – Collection guidelines for common Australian families and genera

Thinicola

See Templetonia. Thomasia

produced as the plants are dying. These can be collected by cutting sections of fruiting stems from the plant and then drying thoroughly. Seeds are collected in the Kimberley region in May and in the Pilbara in October.

See Lasiopetalum. Tribonanthes Thryptomene

These spring-flowering shrubs are a common feature of the flora in Western Australia. They produce masses of cone-shaped fruits that fall from the shrubs in early summer. Fruits are easily collected when ripe. Pruning of the terminal lengths of foliage should yield plenty of seeds. Alternatively, a cloth can be placed below and the foliage knocked with a stick to collect the seeds. Collect from November through to January.

Mainly grows in seasonally damp habitats. Seed capsules will split as they ripen and the seeds can be collected. Collect in November and December in the Perth region. Tribulus

The fruits are woody and dry when ready to collect. Seeds are large and easily collected. They are collected in the Kimberley region in May, in the Goldfields region in September, and in the Pilbara in October.

Thysanotus

Trichodesma

Clumping perennial herbs that flower terminally. Flowers are violet to purple and occasionally white. Thysanotus multiflorus ripens in the Perth hills in October to November. Seeds should be allowed to darken and ripening fruits will split and expose the dark seeds beneath. They are often heavily predated. Picking the heads should be done over a two or three week period to gather the best and ripest seeds. Seeds can be periodically collected through late spring to January.

Medium or tall shrubs with large seeds that are held on the plants for several weeks after they ripen and are easily collected. Check plants and remove seeds by hand. Collect seeds in the Kimberley region in May and June, and in the Pilbara in October. Tricoryne

Annual and perennial herbs. Collect seeds in the Pilbara and Kimberley regions in May, and around Perth and the south coast in November and December.

Trachymene

Predominantly annuals with seeds available in large quantities after the plant begins to die. Trachymene caerulea, the Rottnest Island daisy, naturally germinates in May and flowers in November and December, with seeds ready to collect in December and January. Some species reach huge numbers after a disturbance such as a fire and these are ideal times to collect large quantities of seeds. Seeds are usually brown, thin and round and should be left to begin falling from the plant before collecting. Pull seedheads from the plant. Collect seeds in December through January in southern areas of Western Australia and in the Kimberley in May and June. Trianthema

Succulent annual or perennial herbs generally found from the Pilbara to the Kimberley region in Western Australia. Plants that have flowered and are beginning to produce dry seeds can be collected by cutting sections from the plants. The largest quantities of viable seeds are

Triodia

Spinifex is a species to collect opportunistically with seed production dependent upon rainfall. Plants set flowers then seed in response to good rainfall at any time. This may be after a cyclonic event in the deserts and seeds may be produced in only three weeks. They are usually attached to a pappus and are pointed and brown. Collect all year round after good rains. Triumfetta

Shrubs from the Kimberley and Pilbara areas. They produce large fruits that are sea urchin-like and will cling to any material they contact. Seeds are collected in May in the Kimberley, through to October further south. Velleia

These very attractive, mainly short-lived and ephemeral herbs are often seen in large numbers following good autumn and follow-up winter rains. In Western Australia

197

Australian Seeds

they can be almost as common as everlastings in good years. They often grow in the same areas but flower for a longer period than the everlastings. A good time to collect them in the southern areas is October when the weather begins to warm up and the ephemerals, which flower in September, have died. They can also be seen in large numbers after a fire as far north as the Kimberley. They produce good seed, which is disc-shaped and falls from the small capsules as the plants die. Seeds are collected in the Kimberley in May, the Pilbara in August, and in southern areas from September to October. Verticordia

These widespread shrubs, generally from the south-west of Western Australia, flower in summer. Although they appear to produce large amounts of seeds, it is very difficult to collect good, viable seeds and often less than 10% of a collection can prove to be viable. Seeds are ready when they start to fall from the shrubs after flowering has finished. Brushing the shrub with your hand is a good way of seeing if seeds are ready to fall. Collect from November through January, depending upon the species. Villarsia

Unusual, herbaceous perennials from moist areas. Collect seeds from heads after flowering, in November and December.

Xanthorrhoea

Examine long flower spikes to check for the large seeds held within valves. Spikes can be removed and the seeds tapped out onto a drop sheet. Widespread species, such as X. thorntonii from the desert regions, may be collected from May to July, depending upon the age of the plants and the rainfall. Seeds are generally collected from southern areas in November to January. Xanthosia

The unusual Southern Cross is widespread in the southwest of Western Australia and flowers in spring to early summer. Seeds are collected in December and January along the south coast. Xerochrysum

A genus that is widespread throughout the states of Australia. Plants are tall, robust and up to 1.5 m high. The flowers are stiff, large and everlasting. The plants grow in a variety of habitats from mountain areas to drier inland areas. The plants flower from spring to early summer with seeds available at the onset of hot weather. The seeds are large and easily collected. Plants tend to produce ripe seeds over a lengthy period thus seeds can be collected for four to six weeks. The ideal time to collect is when the flower centre is breaking apart. Seeds can be collected in the southern areas as late as December but are generally collected in October to December.

Waitzia

These everlasting annuals or ephemerals flower much later than the more common Rhodanthe species and can often be seen at their best in October. Waitzia and Brunonia (native cornflowers) species are often found flowering at the same time in good seasons. The seeds are small, but numerous, and consist of a small pappus attached to a minute seed. Collect in December and January. (See also Asteraceae.)

Xylomelum

Wurmbea

The woody pears resemble hakeas as their seeds are large and enclosed in similar large, woody capsules. Collect older fruits that are grey, rather than the greenish immature fruits. Each fruit contains only two seeds. Cut the fruits from the trees. They take a considerable time to open and may need to be in a hot environment after collecting to ensure they open. Fruits may also be prised open to collect the seeds. Collect at any time of the year, even when flowering in January.

Small herbs that produce reasonable numbers of seeds after flowering in spring.

Zygophyllum

These common shrubs of the Goldfields, Pilbara and Gascoyne regions are often scandent in habit. Many seeds are produced in large, light-coloured fruits. Collect from October to November.

198

Appendix 1: Seed germination records Roger Fryer

Records of seed germination times have been kept at Kings Park and Botanic Garden since 1962 after the Gardens initiated a programme to propagate native species required for living collections. The first two decades of germination records were published in booklet form in 1980 and proved to be a very popular source of information for nurseries and enthusiasts alike. The booklet provided practical information about the expected germination time for more than 2000 species of Australian native plants. The records is this appendix have been compiled from more than 40 years of data collection. This information should enable growers and enthusiasts to plan their propagation and nursery operations and not waste time and space waiting for seeds that will not germinate. The data provided in this appendix relate to the length of time for shortest, longest and mean time to germinate for over 2200 species of Australian native plants, together with the number of samples for which germination was recorded. If there was no germination then the sample has been excluded. As many of the pre-treatments, especially the smoke applications, are fairly recent, the germination times reflect a mixture of germination with and without the pre-treatment. No indication of success or otherwise of the germination has been provided as there are too many variable factors relating to germination success in the seed quality, collection, treatment and nursery environment, to provide any reliable indicator. For each species, the data is arranged in columns as follows: M Mean time to germinate. This column records the mean number of days from sowing to first emergence of the seedling. Q Quickest time to germinate. The minimum period in days from sowing to first emergence of the seedling. L Longest time to germinate. The maximum period in days from sowing to first emergence of the seedling. T Times sown. The number of samples for a particular species for which germination was recorded. Samples

for which there was no germination at all have been excluded. R Recommended pre-treatment. Details of the recommended pre-treatment are provided below. If there is no pre-treatment code, then a reliable treatment is currently unknown. Botanical names

During the 40 years that this information has been collected, the names of many Australian plants have been changed as botanists have studied and refined the classification of many of the genera. Wherever possible, and when name changes have been clear and direct, old names have been updated to the more modern ones, but in some cases this has not been possible. In these cases, if the records were considered still relevant, then the original name has been included in this appendix. For this reason, the list of botanical names includes some names that are no longer recognised. Reliability of the data

These records have been compiled from data collected over many years from seed sown in a wide variety of conditions and times of year, and using mainly seed collected in the wild. They are intended as a guide to germination times only and are not definitive, as there are too many variables in the factors that impact on the germination. In particular, for many years the only pretreatment with a recognised, reliable effect was hot water and it was not possible to artificially break the dormancy of many seeds. Thus, the longer germination times of many species may be due to the time required for a natural break in dormancy. At one time it was normal procedure to leave some seeds for over 18 months after sowing so that exposure to summer temperatures and then winter rains and cooler temperatures would assist with dormancy breaking. The use of the recommended pre-treatments has helped to break seed dormancy and provide more reliable germination times and simultaneous germination.

199

Australian Seeds

Key to columns

Key to pre-treatments – R column

M Mean time to germinate.

HW

Soak in very hot water (c. 95°C) for about 2 minutes.

Q Quickest time to germinate.

GA

Soak in 0.1% solution of Gibberellic acid for 24 hours.

L Longest time to germinate.

NCK

Nick seed coat.

T Times sown.

SMK

R Recommended pre-treatment. (See R Column)

Soak in smoke water at 1:10, 1:100 or 1:1000 dilution for 24 hours.

100°C/10m

Heated in oven at 100°C for 10 minutes.

100°C/3h

Heated in oven at 100°C for 3 hours.

80°C/3h + SMK

Heated in oven at 80°C for 3 hours and then given smoke treatment.

Light

Sow on surface. Seed need light to germinate.

RB

Remove the bracts from around the seed before sowing.

SMK + GA

Treated with smoke water and then Gibberellic acid.

R

Abelmoschus ficulneus Abutilon fraseri Abutilon geranioides Abutilon hannii Abutilon indicum var. australiense var. indicum Abutilon leucopetalum Abutilon oxycarpum Acacia acuminata Acacia aestivalis Acacia aff. sclerosperma Acacia alata Acacia anaticeps Acacia ancistrocarpa Acacia aneura Acacia anfractuosa Acacia anthochaera Acacia aphanoclada Acacia aphylla Acacia aprica Acacia arida Acacia ashbyae Acacia ayersiana Acacia biflora Acacia bivenosa Acacia blakelyi Acacia brachystachya Acacia browniana Acacia burkittii Acacia cedroides Acacia celastrifolia Acacia citrinoviridis Acacia cochlocarpa subsp. cochlocarpa Acacia colei var. colei Acacia congesta subsp. congesta Acacia coolgardiensis 200

M

Q

L

T

50 17 20 15

0 7 0 7

0 40 0 28

1 9 1 4

8 22 19 43 9 20 13 21 6 11 10 8 9 7 13 9 12 36 10 19 11 9 13 22 11 24 25 9

5 9 5 12 6 18 12 16 12 7 4 8 5 7 10 6 12 30 7 18 7 6 9 20 8 19 11 7

12 50 37 64 13 22 14 32 21 13 38 8 14 7 16 11 13 42 14 21 17 13 20 30 13 29 30 7

3 6 5 4 9 2 2 13 4 3 29 1 3 1 5 2 2 2 4 4 6 7 7 6 5 6 11 2

HW HW HW HW HW HW HW HW HW HW HW HW HW HW HW HW HW HW HW HW HW HW HW HW

10 8 17 13 20

8 7 0 0 14

11 8 0 0 28

2 3 1 1 4

HW HW HW HW HW

Acacia coriacea Acacia cowleana Acacia craspedocarpa Acacia crassiuscula Acacia cupularis Acacia cyclops Acacia cyperophylla var. omearana Acacia daviesioides Acacia delibrata Acacia dempsteri Acacia denticulosa Acacia dentifera Acacia dictyophleba Acacia divergens Acacia drewiana Acacia drummondii subsp. candolleana subsp. elegans subsp. revoluta Acacia dunnii Acacia ephedroides Acacia eremaea Acacia ericifolia Acacia erinacea Acacia exocarpoides Acacia extensa Acacia farnesiana Acacia fauntleroyi Acacia filifolia Acacia fragilis Acacia gilbertii Acacia glaucoptera Acacia glutinosissima Acacia gonophylla Acacia gracillima Acacia grasbyi Acacia gregorii Acacia guinetii

M

Q

L

T

R

13 8 11 45 16 19

8 8 3 0 11 13

36 8 33 0 20 42

6 1 11 1 4 8

HW HW HW HW HW HW

5 20 16 13 10 16 14 19 25 43 26 20 20 17 12 11 16 56 8 14 14 10 14 17 43 26 20 12 19 9 11 32

5 15 11 0 2 14 10 0 21 16 12 18 15 7 9 7 11 56 0 12 7 8 10 11 43 12 13 10 19 3 7 32

5 26 21 0 11 19 19 0 33 91 60 22 30 28 15 16 19 56 0 18 21 11 36 27 43 44 36 19 19 33 15 32

2 2 2 1 8 7 3 2 3 20 16 5 8 12 4 6 5 1 1 4 7 4 12 8 1 12 4 8 1 10 3 1

HW HW HW HW HW HW HW HW HW HW HW HW HW HW HW HW HW HW HW HW HW HW HW HW HW HW HW HW HW HW HW HW

Appendix 1: Seed germination records

M Acacia harveyi Acacia hemiteles Acacia heteroclita Acacia hilliana Acacia holosericea Acacia horridula Acacia huegelii Acacia idiomorpha Acacia incurva Acacia inophloia Acacia insolita Acacia jibberdingensis Acacia kempeana Acacia lanuginophylla Acacia lasiocalyx Acacia lasiocarpa Acacia lateriticola Acacia latipes Acacia leioderma Acacia leptocarpa Acacia leptoneura Acacia leptopetala Acacia leptospermoides Acacia ligustrina Acacia linophylla Acacia littorea Acacia lobulata Acacia longiphyllodinea Acacia longispinea Acacia loxophylla Acacia lycopodiifolia Acacia maitlandii Acacia marramamba Acacia meisneri Acacia merinthophora Acacia merrallii Acacia merrickiae Acacia microbotrya Acacia monticola Acacia mooreana Acacia multispicata Acacia murrayana Acacia myrtifolia Acacia nervosa Acacia neurophylla Acacia nigricans Acacia nitidula Acacia oncinophylla Acacia orthocarpa Acacia oswaldii Acacia oxyclada Acacia papyrocarpa Acacia paradoxa Acacia pentadenia Acacia plectocarpa Acacia plicata Acacia prainii Acacia pruinocarpa Acacia pulchella Acacia pyrifolia

20 20 15 12 12 21 24 16 13 15 24 12 11 25 12 16 11 11 192 9 12 15 19 15 20 24 11 53 14 13 15 7 4 17 10 20 13 18 12 33 15 12 21 27 20 14 16 9 17 15 16 7 11 30 34 20 7 6 25 9

Q

L

T

R

13 27 19 22 19 19 7 16 7 18 15 28 21 27 8 19 0 0 11 23 13 32 9 22 8 13 10 42 6 25 8 27 0 0 7 19 27 357 8 10 10 14 8 26 10 27 8 20 0 0 15 39 11 11 7 343 11 17 0 0 9 23 5 8 3 5 10 25 4 13 15 24 13 13 13 38 8 14 28 38 7 26 0 0 12 28 0 0 10 27 0 0 12 21 8 11 0 0 10 25 23 23 7 7 10 13 22 47 0 0 19 22 5 8 5 7 9 47 5 16

3 2 2 3 11 10 2 8 2 12 4 10 2 18 9 8 1 6 2 3 5 7 5 9 2 6 1 7 2 1 5 3 3 8 8 5 1 13 3 2 15 1 13 1 8 1 3 4 1 4 2 1 5 8 1 2 3 4 13 9

HW HW HW HW HW HW HW HW HW HW HW HW HW HW HW HW HW HW HW HW HW HW HW HW HW HW HW HW HW HW HW HW HW HW HW HW HW HW HW HW HW HW HW HW HW HW HW HW HW HW HW HW HW HW HW HW HW HW HW HW

Acacia quadrimarginea Acacia quadrisulcata Acacia ramulosa Acacia redolens Acacia resinimarginea Acacia restiacea Acacia rhodophloia Acacia rossei Acacia rostellifera Acacia salicina Acacia saligna Acacia sciophanes Acacia scirpifolia Acacia sclerosperma Acacia sedifolia Acacia sessilispica Acacia shuttleworthii Acacia sibina Acacia signata Acacia spathulifolia Acacia splendens Acacia steedmanii Acacia stenoptera Acacia subcaerulea Acacia subflexuosa Acacia subtessarogona Acacia sulcata Acacia tenuissima Acacia teretifolia Acacia tetragonophylla Acacia trachycarpa Acacia truncata Acacia tumida Acacia umbellata Acacia urophylla Acacia validinervia Acacia verricula Acacia vincentii Acacia wanyu Acacia willdenowiana Acacia xanthina Acacia xiphophylla Acanthocarpus preissii Actinobole uliginosum Actinodium cunninghamii Actinostrobus acuminatus Actinostrobus arenarius Actinostrobus pyramidalis Actinotus leucocephalus Adansonia gregorii Adriana quadripartita Agonis baxteri Agonis flexuosa Agonis theiformis Agrostocrinum scabrum Albizia lebbeck Alectryon oleifolius Allocasuarina acuaria Allocasuarina acutivalvis var. prinsepiana

M

Q

L

T

R

8 17 16 19 11 11 12 12 11 16 11 7 29 10 29 16 12 13 13 12 28 20 21 12 9 7 14 13 38 14 7 23 12 9 19 7 12 12 10 25 19 6 30 15 73 31 21 21 25 24 55 31 22 32 47 13 35 33 18 14

5 10 8 13 7 7 8 7 7 10 6 7 6 7 28 7 7 13 10 6 10 14 14 10 0 0 10 8 28 6 7 11 7 9 13 6 11 12 5 0 19 5 10 12 49 18 19 17 15 13 0 19 15 27 20 7 30 18 13 13

12 23 23 25 15 22 16 29 13 26 18 7 83 18 31 28 14 13 17 22 60 26 26 16 0 0 17 19 47 26 7 31 16 10 31 8 13 12 14 0 19 7 76 38 93 56 28 28 51 51 0 49 35 44 72 31 42 48 25 14

3 6 2 2 4 8 2 23 12 6 11 1 4 5 3 4 6 1 6 15 3 4 6 8 2 1 4 2 3 4 3 13 4 2 11 4 2 1 3 1 1 2 6 6 7 12 9 9 21 5 1 10 9 11 7 6 3 6 5 2

HW HW HW HW HW HW HW HW HW HW HW HW HW HW HW HW HW HW HW HW HW HW HW HW HW HW HW HW HW HW HW HW HW HW HW HW HW HW HW HW HW HW

SMK SMK SMK SMK SMK SMK SMK SMK HW None None None 201

Australian Seeds

M

Q

L

T

R

Allocasuarina campestris 14 Allocasuarina corniculata 19 Allocasuarina decaisneana 20 Allocasuarina decussata 37 Allocasuarina dielsiana 13 Allocasuarina drummondiana 22 Allocasuarina fraseriana 23 Allocasuarina grevilleoides 26 Allocasuarina helmsii 17 Allocasuarina huegeliana 17 Allocasuarina humilis 18 Allocasuarina lehmanniana 16 Allocasuarina microstachya 22 Allocasuarina pinaster 28 Allocasuarina ramosissima 23 Allocasuarina scleroclada 20 Allocasuarina spinosissima 19 Allocasuarina tessellata 17 Allocasuarina thuyoides 24 Allocasuarina trichodon 19 Alternanthera nodiflora 22 Aluta maisonneuvei 42 Alyogyne cuneiformis 14 Alyogyne hakeifolia 19 Alyogyne huegelii 20 Alyogyne pinoniana 17 Alyxia buxifolia 67 Amaranthus mitchellii 7 Andersonia aristata 87 Andersonia axilliflora 37 Andersonia caerulea 73 Andersonia lehmanniana 117 Andersonia sprengelioides 62 Angianthus acrohyalinus 13 Angianthus drummondii 14 Angianthus tomentosus 13 Anigozanthos bicolor 32 Anigozanthos flavidus 30 Anigozanthos gabrielae 44 Anigozanthos humilis 28 Anigozanthos manglesii 24 dark green 35 variant 32 Anigozanthos preissii 37 Anigozanthos pulcherrimus 32 Anigozanthos rufus 37 Anigozanthos viridis 27 Anisomeles malabarica 28 Anthobolus foveolatus 46 Anthobolus leptomerioides 65 Anthocercis littorea 21 Anthocercis viscosa 30 Anthotium rubriflorum 28 Anthotroche pannosa 37 Anthotroche walcottii 30 Aotus ericoides 20 Aotus passerinoides 24 Aotus phylicoides 14 Aotus tietkensii 19

11 14 8 20 11

26 25 40 63 15

9 1 12 10 2

None None None None None

18 28 20 27 24 28 13 25 11 23 12 40 14 18 20 26 20 42 20 26 18 23 19 19 17 18 14 42 11 25 13 50 16 72 10 22 7 39 7 30 8 42 51 90 7 7 61 112 17 56 34 111 0 0 35 93 7 19 8 20 10 16 11 47 15 48 35 53 12 50 8 36 35 35 27 44 20 60 20 48 20 81 11 55 9 42 0 0 0 0 18 38 20 60 25 32 0 0 29 49 14 25 24 25 0 0 10 27

3 9 3 5 5 12 2 6 14 3 3 1 2 12 4 11 9 7 17 21 16 4 1 3 2 3 1 7 7 4 6 21 25 5 28 61 1 6 15 29 26 32 7 1 1 6 8 3 1 5 9 2 1 7

None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None

202

SMK SMK SMK SMK SMK SMK

SMK Light Light Light SMK SMK SMK SMK 100°C/3h 100°C/3h 100°C/3h SMK SMK SMK SMK

SMK SMK

Aphanopetalum clematideum Argentipallium niveum Arnocrinum preissii Astartea ambigua Astartea fascicularis Asteridea athrixioides Asteridea chaetopoda Asteridea nivea Asteridea pulverulenta Astroloma baxteri Astroloma ciliatum Astroloma epacridis Astroloma macrocalyx Astroloma microcalyx Astroloma microdonta Astroloma serratifolium Astroloma xerophyllum Atriplex bunburyana Atriplex cinerea Atriplex crassipes Atriplex isatidea Atriplex lindleyi subsp. inflata Atriplex nummularia Atriplex paludosa Atriplex pumilio Atriplex semilunaris Atriplex spongiosa Austrostipa elegantissima Austrostipa flavescens Baeckea behrii Baeckea camphorosmae Baeckea crispiflora Baeckea elderiana Baeckea grandiflora Baeckea latens Baeckea pachyphylla Baeckea robusta Baeckea staminosa Baeckea stowardii Baeckea subcuneata Baeckea tenuifolia Baeckea tenuiramea Baeckea uncinella Balaustion microphyllum Balaustion pulcherrimum Banksia ashbyi Banksia attenuata Banksia audax Banksia baueri Banksia baxteri Banksia benthamiana Banksia blechnifolia Banksia brownii Banksia burdettii Banksia caleyi Banksia candolleana Banksia chamaephyton

M

Q

L

T

28 25 63 34 42 15 20 17 16 65 60 90 69 69 69 69 80 16 15 21 33

21 11 43 17 26 6 14 16 12 51 36 0 0 0 0 0 0 16 11 0 9

31 49 84 62 91 20 37 19 20 78 95 0 0 0 0 0 0 16 26 0 47

5 6 2 6 6 3 5 2 5 2 9 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 1 8

10 15 9 9 13 6 8 18

5 6 5 9 7 3 8 18

16 35 15 12 19 15 8 18

9 7 6 2 2 9 1 1

59 57 27 71 54 24 56 55 45 47 31 69 50 57 53 70 37 33 34 31 25 31 32 27 31 38 30 25

0 52 20 0 0 17 45 34 0 39 18 68 45 0 45 0 16 16 19 20 21 19 14 20 20 23 22 25

0 62 34 0 0 30 66 73 0 57 48 71 56 0 61 0 61 49 46 49 42 42 49 50 42 50 35 25

1 2 2 1 1 2 2 5 1 23 9 3 3 1 2 1 19 17 21 18 18 22 6 16 22 18 11 2

R

SMK SMK

SMK SMK SMK SMK SMK SMK SMK SMK RB RB RB RB RB RB RB RB RB RB 100°C/10m SMK SMK SMK SMK SMK SMK SMK SMK SMK SMK SMK SMK SMK SMK None None None None None None None None None None None None

Appendix 1: Seed germination records

M Banksia coccinea Banksia cuneata Banksia dentata Banksia dryandroides Banksia elderiana Banksia elegans Banksia epica Banksia gardneri var. hiemalis Banksia goodii Banksia grandis Banksia grossa Banksia hookeriana Banksia ilicifolia Banksia incana Banksia integrifolia Banksia laevigata Banksia laricina Banksia lemanniana Banksia lindleyana Banksia littoralis Banksia lullfitzii Banksia media Banksia meisneri Banksia menziesii bronze Banksia micrantha Banksia nutans var. cernuella Banksia occidentalis Banksia oligantha Banksia oreophila Banksia petiolaris Banksia pilostylis Banksia praemorsa Banksia prionotes x hookeriana Banksia pulchella Banksia quercifolia Banksia repens Banksia scabrella Banksia sceptrum Banksia solandri Banksia speciosa Banksia sphaerocarpa fine leaf var. dolichostyla Banksia telmatiaea Banksia tricuspis Banksia verticillata Banksia victoriae Banksia violacea Bauhinia cunninghamii Beaufortia bracteosa Beaufortia cyrtodonta Beaufortia decussata Beaufortia elegans Beaufortia empetrifolia Beaufortia eriocephala Beaufortia incana

Q

L

T

R

35 12 48 23 23 23 35 32 40 55 31 83 36 31 42 32 19 48 30 14 49 40 21 64 19 19 19 30 19 56 28 22 42 14 13 14 32 23 49 33 22 41 14 14 14 36 35 42 46 39 92 34 19 51 39 27 43 26 23 39 28 20 36 26 26 26 30 20 46 32 28 39 32 26 40 31 26 36 20 19 21 34 19 54 17 17 17 31 21 47 39 37 40 25 23 27 35 18 49 29 18 49 44 30 49 27 21 35 384 384 384 33 17 48 32 25 40 45 29 56 15 14 16 34 26 47 51 36 71 30 27 41 32 20 48 47 47 47 33 33 33 14 14 14 32 18 57 32 19 49 28 19 43 34 19 50 38 18 88 28 16 50 33 15 49 41 30 48 18 13 36 62 62 62 28 19 50 25 16 45

22 2 4 18 16 3 4 15 1 7 16 2 24 11 1 4 11 20 13 13 7 1 18 15 8 2 2 19 1 16 2 2 15 16 9 16 1 19 15 17 2 13 19 16 20 1 1 1 16 11 17 21 4 6 8 6 19 1 9 11

None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None

Beaufortia interstans Beaufortia macrostemon Beaufortia micrantha Beaufortia orbifolia Beaufortia purpurea Beaufortia schaueri Beaufortia sparsa Beaufortia squarrosa Bellida graminea Beyeria lechenaultii Beyeria viscosa Billardiera bicolor var. lineata Billardiera floribunda Billardiera latifolia Billardiera variifolia Blancoa canescens Bonamia oblongifolia Bonamia pannosa Bonamia rosea Boronia alata Boronia crenulata Boronia cymosa Boronia defoliata Boronia denticulata Boronia fastigiata Boronia gracilipes Boronia heterophylla Boronia lanuginosa Boronia megastigma Boronia molloyae Boronia pulchella Boronia purdieana Boronia ramosa Boronia scabra Boronia spathulata Borya nitida Borya subulata Bossiaea aquifolium Bossiaea biloba Bossiaea bossiaeoides Bossiaea dentata Bossiaea disticha Bossiaea eriocarpa Bossiaea linophylla Bossiaea ornata Bossiaea pulchella Bossiaea walkeri Bossiaea webbii Brachychiton australe Brachychiton gregorii Brachychiton viscidulum Brachyscome bellidioides Brachyscome cheilocarpa Brachyscome ciliaris Brachyscome ciliocarpa Brachyscome iberidifolia dark blue form Brachyscome latisquamea Brachysola coerulea

M

Q

L

T

24 28 37 23 23 23 32 21 13 33 50

16 15 22 18 15 14 7 10 5 26 28

51 45 57 48 35 48 64 53 33 40 90

15 12 8 14 11 13 18 17 14 2 5

46 82 90 64 56 27 13 11 56 43 47 95 40 55 32 38 46 48 41 83 46 78 40 56 39 40 34 26 13 48 21 18 23 27 29 23 50 16 19 35 9 8 10 20 7 5 14 78

37 58 0 44 37 27 8 5 49 26 28 0 27 33 0 29 0 26 26 0 31 0 30 35 26 40 23 16 8 44 14 8 14 16 24 15 50 0 5 0 5 20 4 8 3 5 6 0

54 97 0 90 70 27 18 28 67 91 81 0 93 78 0 46 0 95 62 0 93 0 50 92 63 40 46 58 17 53 41 56 40 39 33 41 50 0 51 0 20 20 16 45 14 5 56 0

3 3 1 5 6 1 2 10 6 10 4 1 11 3 1 6 1 13 6 1 13 1 4 4 5 1 13 11 2 4 13 19 14 14 10 10 1 2 9 1 6 7 8 8 32 1 13 1

R

SMK SMK SMK SMK SMK

SMK SMK HW HW HW HW HW HW HW HW HW HW HW

203

Australian Seeds

Brunonia australis Buchanania obovata Bulbine semibarbata Burchardia conjesta Burchardia multiflora Bursaria occidentalis Byblis gigantea Byblis liniflora

M

Q

L

T

R

M

18 32 24 43 48 31 35 18

5 118 0 0 14 30 24 71 36 61 27 37 25 45 5 5

29 1 5 8 3 4 6 2

SMK

44 8 25 0 8 12 21 4 16 5 46 14 14 16 25 23 19 21 20 28 6 6 8 15 11

56 25 35 0 28 33 21 48 16 5 49 27 34 34 44 96 35 35 70 34 40 16 31 15 33

2 6 2 1 5 5 1 21 1 1 2 24 9 17 2 6 8 12 13 3 5 4 5 2 7

12 35 11 49 11 19

27 35 42 49 25 50

12 1 12 1 7 7

None None None None None None

10 12 0 11 11

35 22 0 15 33

8 7 1 3 8

None None None None None

13 14 13 0 9 11 11 16 13 13 11 7

23 39 35 0 22 36 22 16 26 31 14 9

7 8 10 1 15 9 12 1 8 7 3 3

None None None None None None None None None None None

Calotis multicaulis 11 Calycopeplus paucifolius 32 Calytrix acutifolia 37 Calytrix angulata 39 Calytrix asperula 67 Calytrix aurea 55 Calytrix brevifolia 30 subsp. stipulosa 41 Calytrix depressa 59 Calytrix exstipulata 57 Calytrix flavescens 66 Calytrix fraseri 51 Calytrix glutinosa 46 Calytrix gracilis 49 Calytrix leschenaultii 35 Calytrix longiflora 79 Calytrix sapphirina 40 Calytrix strigosa 39 Calytrix tetragona 40 Canavalia ensiformis 25 Canavalia rosea 11 Capparis spinosa 40 Capparis umbonata 33 Cardiospermum halicacabum 15 Cartonema philydroides 29 Casuarina cristata 18 Casuarina obesa 20 Centipeda minima 23 Cephalipterum drummondii 10 large cream 8 large yellow 6 small white 9 small yellow 11 Cephalotus follicularis 81 Chamaescilla corymbosa 67 Chamaescilla spiralis 62 Chamelaucium axillare 70 Chamelaucium ciliatum 61 Chamelaucium megalopetalum 111 Chamelaucium uncinatum 39 Cheiranthera filifolia 41 Chenopodium gaudichaudianum 13 Choretrum glomeratum 54 Chorilaena quercifolia 73 Chorizema aciculare 23 Chorizema cordatum 25 Chorizema dicksonii 20 Chorizema diversifolium 22 Chorizema glycinifolium 31 Chorizema ilicifolium 23 Chorizema racemosum 15 Chorizema rhombeum 23 Chorizema varium 29 x ilicifolium 10 Chrysocephalum apiculatum 19

Caesia micrantha 50 Cajanus cinereus 15 Calandrinia balonensis 30 Calandrinia creethae 35 Calandrinia lehmannii 17 Calandrinia liniflora 22 Calandrinia papillata 21 Calandrinia polyandra 15 Calandrinia quadrivalvis 16 Calandrinia sp. Kenwick 5 Calectasia narragara 48 Callistachys lanceolata 21 Callistemon glaucus 22 Callistemon phoeniceus 22 Callitris canescens 35 Callitris drummondii 40 Callitris glaucophylla 24 Callitris preissii 27 Callitris roei 41 Callitris tuberculata 31 Calocephalus francisii 19 Calocephalus knappii 14 Calocephalus multiflorus 14 Calothamnus affinis 37 Calothamnus asper 19 Calothamnus blepharospermus 17 Calothamnus borealis 35 Calothamnus chrysantherus 22 Calothamnus gibbosus 49 Calothamnus gilesii 21 Calothamnus gracilis 40 Calothamnus homalophyllus 18 Calothamnus lateralis 16 Calothamnus lehmannii 13 Calothamnus longissimus 14 Calothamnus oldfieldii 19 Calothamnus pachystachyus 16 Calothamnus pinifolius 25 Calothamnus planifolius 24 Calothamnus preissii 18 Calothamnus quadrifidus 14 Calothamnus rupestris 26 Calothamnus sanguineus 16 Calothamnus schaueri 16 Calothamnus torulosus 16 Calothamnus validus 20 Calothamnus villosus 12 Calotis hispidula 8 204

None None

None None

None None

Q

L

T

8 13 16 46 28 46 29 59 0 0 32 74 26 35 41 42 35 78 0 0 44 96 34 73 35 57 44 53 17 73 54 105 33 51 27 56 28 73 8 74 10 12 0 0 0 0

2 10 6 9 1 9 6 2 6 1 7 9 2 2 9 2 3 5 12 4 2 1 1

8 14 11 17 8

33 46 22 23 37

10 6 6 4 5

6 26 5 14 3 10 7 11 7 17 73 90 29 106 0 0 0 0 50 78

15 8 5 2 3 2 2 1 1 3

0 34 32

0 51 49

1 4 4

10 19 0 0 54 103 0 0 18 40 12 27 16 58 0 0 16 48 14 15 0 0 25 32 10 10

3 1 4 1 20 16 15 1 19 2 1 2 1

13

33

5

R

SMK SMK SMK SMK SMK SMK SMK SMK SMK SMK SMK SMK SMK SMK SMK SMK HW HW

None None Light Light Light Light Light Light None

SMK SMK HW HW HW HW HW HW HW HW HW HW

Appendix 1: Seed germination records

M Chrysocephalum pterochaetum 25 Chrysocephalum puteale 22 Clematicissus angustissima 38 Clematis linearifolia 35 Clematis pubescens 44 Cleome tetrandra 48 Cleome uncifera 11 Cleome viscosa 26 Clerodendrum floribundum 44 Clerodendrum lanceolatum 46 Clerodendrum tomentosum 29 Cochlospermum fraseri 30 Codonocarpus cotinifolius 58 Comesperma confertum 40 Comesperma virgatum 53 Comesperma volubile 57 Commersonia gaudichaudii 23 Commicarpus australis 15 Conospermum acerosum 40 Conospermum amoenum 30 Conospermum bracteosum 68 Conospermum brownii 64 Conospermum caeruleum 39 Conospermum densiflorum 61 Conospermum distichum 29 Conospermum flexuosum 32 Conospermum glumaceum 40 Conospermum huegelii 50 Conospermum incurvum 31 Conospermum leianthum 47 Conospermum nervosum 73 Conospermum polycephalum 36 Conospermum rassinervium 37 Conospermum stoechadis 26 Conospermum teretifolium 53 Conospermum triplinervium 21 Conospermum undulatum 75 Conostylis aculeata 29 subsp. bromelioides 34 subsp. preissii 30 Conostylis bracteata 26 Conostylis candicans 26 x aculeata 37 Conostylis dielsii subsp. teres 14 Conostylis micrantha 48 Conostylis pauciflora 34 Conostylis prolifera 51 Conostylis serrulata 45 Conostylis setigera 31 Conostylis setosa 45 Conostylis stylidioides 26 Conothamnus trinervis 23 Convolvulus erubescens 8

Q

L

T

R

21 17

28 27

2 3

30 21 28 0 0 15 0 35 0 12 31 31 0 0

46 80 61 0 0 49 0 63 0 62 84 49 0 0

3 9 9 1 1 11 1 2 1 3 4 2 1 1

20 25 9 35 35 44 21 42 0 0 34 110 38 40 0 0 19 66 28 35 31 56 9 73 19 58 47 47 0 0

4 8 2 6 1 4 2 1 9 2 8 3 10 1 1

SMK SMK SMK SMK SMK SMK SMK SMK SMK SMK SMK SMK SMK

SMK SMK SMK SMK

0

0

1

SMK

23 17 0

53 41 0

9 19 1

SMK SMK SMK

17 75 11 34 23 23 9 34

28 75 57 34 51 29 36 39

18 1 20 1 12 4 14 2

SMK SMK SMK SMK SMK SMK SMK SMK

14 48 34 48 0 22 28 20 16 5

14 48 34 54 0 56 70 32 30 18

1 1 1 2 1 6 11 7 9 10

SMK SMK SMK SMK SMK SMK SMK SMK

Coopernookia polygalacea Coopernookia strophiolata Corchorus walcottii Corymbia calophylla red form Corymbia chippendalei Corymbia dichromophloia Corymbia ficifolia Corymbia haematoxylon Corymbia ptychocarpa Corymbia zygophylla Cosmelia rubra Cotula bipinnata Cotula coronopifolia Cotula cotuloides Craspedia variabilis Crassula colorata Cratystylis subspinescens Croninia kingiana Crotalaria crispata Crotalaria cunninghamii Crotalaria dissitiflora Crotalaria laburnifolia Crotalaria medicaginea Crotalaria novaehollandiae Crotalaria retusa Crotalaria verrucosa Crowea angustifolia Cryptandra arbutiflora Cucumis trigonis Cullen badocanum Cullen cinereum Cullen lachnostachys Cullen leucanthum Cullen martinii Cullen plumosum Cullen pustulatum Cyanostegia angustifolia Cyanostegia lanceolata Cymbopogon ambiguus Cymbopogon obtectus Cymbopogon procerus Cynanchum floribundum Dampiera eriocephala Dampiera incana Dampiera spicigera Dampiera wellsiana Darwinia carnea Darwinia citriodora Darwinia diosmoides Darwinia helichrysoides Darwinia macrostegia Darwinia neildiana Darwinia oldfieldii Darwinia pinifolia Darwinia purpurea Darwinia thymoides Darwinia virescens

M

Q

L

T

68 62 32 13 14 17 16 18 18 19 18 35 11 9 17 13 14 18 74 11 9 7 4 4

46 36 14 6 8 17 11 6 12 18 15 21 8 4 4 11 0 0 0 7 6 0 4 4

90 90 49 25 17 17 21 24 28 19 21 44 14 11 25 19 0 0 0 15 20 0 4 4

2 2 6 23 3 1 2 11 7 3 2 4 6 6 8 4 1 1 1 2 19 1 1 1

10 8 13 77 22 57 7 9 11 13 9 9 11 64 58 3 4 7 31

5 36 4 14 7 18 57 90 18 26 50 63 7 7 0 0 3 35 6 18 4 14 0 0 6 13 13 122 0 0 3 3 4 4 3 21 19 42

26 17 10 6 2 2 1 1 13 16 10 1 13 3 1 1 1 8 7

65 49 103 46 77 43 39 43 8 63 41 53 37 44 47

42 111 49 49 82 123 16 73 0 0 21 67 27 50 0 0 0 0 35 96 34 48 22 89 24 50 34 53 0 0

3 1 2 9 1 6 4 1 1 7 7 4 2 2 1

R

None None None None None None None

SMK HW HW HW HW HW HW HW HW HW

205

Australian Seeds

Dasypogon bromeliifolius Datura leichhardtii Daucus glochidiatus Daviesia alternifolia Daviesia brevifolia Daviesia bursarioides Daviesia cordata Daviesia daphnoides Daviesia decurrens Daviesia divaricata Daviesia epiphyllum Daviesia flexuosa Daviesia horrida Daviesia longifolia Daviesia megacalyx Daviesia nudiflora Daviesia oppositifolia Daviesia pachyphylla Daviesia pectinata Daviesia polyphylla Daviesia preissii Daviesia quadrilatera Daviesia spiralis Daviesia striata Decazesia hecatocephala Dianella caerulea Dianella revoluta Dichopogon capillipes Dichopogon preissii Dicliptera armata Dicrastylis fulva Dicrastylis parvifolia Dillwynia dillwynioides Dillwynia uncinata Dioscorea hastifolia Diplolaena angustifolia Diplolaena dampieri Diplolaena grandiflora Diplolaena microcephala Diplopeltis eriocarpa Diplopeltis huegelii Diplopeltis petiolaris Diplopeltis stuartii Dipteracanthus australasicus subsp. australasicus Disphyma crassifolium subsp. clavellatum Dodonaea adenophora Dodonaea aptera Dodonaea ceratocarpa Dodonaea concinna Dodonaea divaricata Dodonaea hackettiana Dodonaea inaequifolia Dodonaea lanceolata Dodonaea lobulata Dodonaea microzyga 206

M

Q

L

T

88 37 19 96 26 28 28 50 21 15 23 21 21 19 28 24 20 28 25 27 23 16 25 35

0 15 0 0 22 28 16 48 15 7 19 15 14 15 28 16 20 25 0 26 14 0 25 0

0 55 0 0 29 28 85 53 26 35 28 15 25 24 28 35 20 30 0 29 34 0 25 0

1 4 1 1 2 1 25 3 3 4 6 2 8 4 1 6 1 3 1 3 9 1 1 1

20 82 79 26 29 11 64 28 18 40 35 36 33 28 37 20 16 13 28

18 21 0 0 38 188 13 76 23 35 11 11 53 85 0 0 12 22 0 0 14 48 28 50 0 0 20 38 29 50 8 25 6 31 1 14 13 64

3 1 4 9 5 1 4 1 6 1 6 13 1 9 5 11 17 3 5

14 9 11 19 22 32 40 13 13 14 28 13 28

0 9 8 12 14 18 0 0 11 11 0 8 9

1 1 7 8 6 6 1 1 3 13 1 8 3

0 9 15 44 37 59 0 0 17 22 0 42 40

R

HW HW HW HW HW HW HW HW HW HW HW HW None HW HW HW HW HW HW HW HW SMK + GA SMK + GA SMK SMK

GA SMK SMK SMK SMK SMK HW HW HW

HW HW HW HW HW HW HW HW HW HW

Dodonaea oxyptera Dodonaea pachyneura Dodonaea peduncularis Dodonaea petiolaris Dodonaea physocarpa Dodonaea pinifolia Dodonaea ptarmicaefolia Dodonaea rigida Dodonaea stenozyga Dodonaea viscosa Drosera gigantea Drosera heterophylla Drosera macrantha Drosera menziesii Drosera stolonifera Dryandra arborea Dryandra arctotidis Dryandra armata Dryandra baxteri Dryandra bipinnatifida Dryandra calophylla Dryandra carlinoides Dryandra cirsioides Dryandra conferta Dryandra cuneata Dryandra cynaroides Dryandra erythrocephala Dryandra falcata Dryandra ferruginea Dryandra foliosissima Dryandra formosa Dryandra fraseri Dryandra hewardiana Dryandra ionthocarpa Dryandra mucronulata Dryandra nana Dryandra nivea Dryandra nobilis Dryandra obtusa Dryandra plumosa Dryandra polycephala Dryandra praemorsa Dryandra preissii Dryandra proteoides Dryandra pteridifolia Dryandra quercifolia Dryandra seneciifolia Dryandra serra Dryandra serratuloides Dryandra sessilis Dryandra shuttleworthiana Dryandra speciosa Dryandra squarrosa subsp. argillacea subsp. squarrosa Dryandra stuposa Dryandra subpinnatifida Dryandra subulata Dryandra tenuifolia Dryandra vestita

M

Q

L

T

R

16 18 20 21 22 32 17 19 23 16 57 47 62 45 62 26 32 36 32 43 39 40 49 44 43 41 43 37 42 52 35 31 35 94 37 32 41 26 43 35 30 37 54 43 40 37 44 63 32 36 37 55

13 19 13 22 15 26 11 29 10 40 19 39 13 22 0 0 14 40 8 28 52 62 47 48 51 78 35 56 0 0 22 28 19 45 30 41 21 39 29 56 32 62 25 54 32 70 0 0 28 56 0 0 38 49 31 45 31 52 42 63 24 59 22 47 23 117 59 129 30 47 30 34 28 56 19 70 27 52 27 42 18 71 28 47 49 58 32 59 31 66 30 47 32 52 54 75 31 33 30 42 27 47 28 79

5 2 3 11 3 6 7 1 4 10 3 2 3 2 1 8 3 3 5 2 18 9 8 1 9 1 7 10 2 11 21 12 16 2 13 2 5 24 11 12 18 16 2 12 17 17 3 4 2 2 7 9

HW HW HW HW HW HW HW HW HW HW SMK SMK SMK SMK SMK None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None

27 37 42 36 45 39 47

27 24 32 0 0 35 41

1 10 3 1 1 4 2

None None None None None None None

27 75 55 0 0 46 53

Appendix 1: Seed germination records

M

Q

L

T

Duboisia hopwoodii 73 Dyaphania rhadinostachya 24 Dysphania plantaginella 8 Dysphania rhadinostachya subsp. inflata 23

0

0

1

14 8

39 8

6 1

20

27

2

22 32 3 7 2 27 23 6 19

0 11 3 7 2 0 8 6 0

0 53 3 7 2 0 55 6 0

1 2 1 1 1 1 6 1 1

62 57 20 26 21 21 20 18 37 30 59 31 43 44 22 26 30 32 44 17 27 27 36 44 28 23 37 36 33 27 15 25 40 45 11 8 21 36

62 57 14 12 10 13 0 10 36 18 0 18 38 39 0 18 22 0 38 0 0 18 22 38 18 19 0 25 27 14 0 16 0 42 8 8 17 0

62 57 53 35 46 50 0 27 38 38 0 50 50 48 0 34 35 0 50 0 0 44 50 50 38 25 0 46 39 52 0 38 0 48 13 8 25 0

1 1 15 17 22 20 1 23 2 5 1 7 3 3 1 2 3 1 2 1 1 12 3 2 11 4 1 2 4 6 1 4 1 3 2 1 2 1

6 10 23 12

6 7 19 7

6 15 28 15

1 8 7 5

Emblingia calceoliflora Enchylaena tomentosa Enneapogon avenaceus Enneapogon oblongus Enneapogon polyphyllus Eragrostis clarkeyi Eragrostis dielsii Eragrostis setifolia Eremaea acutifolia Eremaea asterocarpa subsp. asterocarpa subsp. histoclada Eremaea beaufortioides Eremaea ebracteata Eremaea fimbriata Eremaea pauciflora Eremaea purpurea Eremaea violacea Eremophila alternifolia Eremophila bignoniiflora Eremophila clarkei Eremophila cuneifolia Eremophila decipiens Eremophila denticulata Eremophila duttonii Eremophila exilifolia Eremophila freelingii Eremophila georgei Eremophila glabra Eremophila hughesii Eremophila latrobei Eremophila leucophylla Eremophila macmillaniana Eremophila maculata Eremophila maitlandii Eremophila margarethae Eremophila miniata Eremophila oldfieldii Eremophila pantonii Eremophila punicea Eremophila scoparia Eremophila serrulata Eremophila spectabilis Eremophila viscida Eriachne flaccida Eriachne sulcata Erichsenia uncinata Erodiophyllum elderi Erymophyllum ramosum subsp. involucratum Erymophyllum tenellum Eryngium pinnatifidum Erythrina vespertilio

R

Light

Erythrophleum chlorostachys Eucalyptus aff. patellaris Eucalyptus albida Eucalyptus angulosa Eucalyptus angustissima Eucalyptus annulata Eucalyptus argillacea Eucalyptus astringens Eucalyptus beardiana Eucalyptus bennettiae Eucalyptus bigalerita Eucalyptus blaxellii Eucalyptus brachycalyx Eucalyptus brachycorys Eucalyptus brevifolia Eucalyptus brevistylis Eucalyptus brockwayi Eucalyptus buprestium Eucalyptus burdettiana Eucalyptus burracoppinensis Eucalyptus caesia subsp. caesia dwarf form subsp. magna Eucalyptus calycogona Eucalyptus camaldulensis Eucalyptus campaspe Eucalyptus carnei Eucalyptus celastroides Eucalyptus ceracea Eucalyptus clelandii Eucalyptus concinna Eucalyptus conglobata Eucalyptus coolabah Eucalyptus cooperiana Eucalyptus cornuta Eucalyptus coronata Eucalyptus corrugata Eucalyptus crucis subsp. praecipua Eucalyptus cuprea Eucalyptus cylindriflora Eucalyptus cylindrocarpa Eucalyptus decipiens Eucalyptus decurva Eucalyptus desmondensis Eucalyptus diptera Eucalyptus diversicolor Eucalyptus diversifolia Eucalyptus dolichorhyncha Eucalyptus doratoxylon Eucalyptus drummondii Eucalyptus dumosa Eucalyptus dundasii Eucalyptus ebbanoensis Eucalyptus educta Eucalyptus elongata Eucalyptus eremophila

M

Q

L

T

R

21 13 10 19 18 12 11 19 22 24 17 25 6 12 16 10 18 21 15

10 13 0 11 12 12 0 15 12 21 17 25 6 12 12 8 12 18 12

26 13 0 23 25 13 0 23 32 27 17 25 6 12 18 13 23 27 22

6 1 1 6 4 2 2 3 5 2 1 1 1 1 3 3 6 3 10

None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None

16 17 9 12 7 25 13 20 20 15 12 13 12 18 9 14 12 22 18 24 9 21 15 15 13 19 16 26 11 19 18 15 15 25 22 17 14 16 12

10 8 7 12 7 0 6 12 17 12 12 0 0 9 9 5 12 16 11 12 9 21 0 0 8 15 10 12 4 17 18 11 8 0 13 8 14 14 6

23 21 11 12 8 0 20 29 22 17 12 0 0 25 9 20 12 29 25 47 9 21 0 0 22 22 22 46 22 21 18 19 21 0 29 25 14 18 24

6 21 9 1 11 1 8 4 2 2 1 1 1 4 1 9 2 5 7 7 1 1 1 2 5 3 11 5 9 2 1 5 10 1 5 3 1 2 11

None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None 207

Australian Seeds

Eucalyptus erythrocorys Eucalyptus erythronema Eucalyptus eudesmioides Eucalyptus ewartiana Eucalyptus eyreana Eucalyptus falcata Eucalyptus famelica Eucalyptus flocktoniae Eucalyptus foecunda Eucalyptus formanii Eucalyptus forrestiana Eucalyptus gamophylla Eucalyptus gardneri Eucalyptus georgei Eucalyptus gomphocephala Eucalyptus gongylocarpa Eucalyptus goniantha Eucalyptus gracilis Eucalyptus gratiae Eucalyptus griffithsii Eucalyptus grossa Eucalyptus guilfoylei Eucalyptus houseana Eucalyptus impensa Eucalyptus incerata Eucalyptus incrassata Eucalyptus insularis Eucalyptus jacksonii Eucalyptus jucunda Eucalyptus jutsonii Eucalyptus kingsmillii Eucalyptus kochii Eucalyptus kondininensis Eucalyptus kruseana Eucalyptus laeliae Eucalyptus lane-poolei Eucalyptus lata Eucalyptus latens Eucalyptus lateritica Eucalyptus lehmannii Eucalyptus leptophylla Eucalyptus leptopoda Eucalyptus longicornis Eucalyptus loxophleba Eucalyptus lucasii Eucalyptus macrandra Eucalyptus macrocarpa x pyriformis x pyriformis x macrocarpa Eucalyptus marginata Eucalyptus megacarpa Eucalyptus megacornuta Eucalyptus melanoxylon Eucalyptus merrickiae Eucalyptus micranthera Eucalyptus microtheca Eucalyptus miniata Eucalyptus myriadena Eucalyptus obtusiflora 208

M

Q

L

T

R

15 20 18 20 8 16 10 26 18 18 21 13 16 17 13 12 15 20 17 22 17 13 20 10 8 11 12 13 17 21 12 25 22 14 16 15 11 8 12 18 22 16 22 18 11 15 12 8

4 13 12 12 7 11 8 25 12 12 14 7 9 17 5 14 10 12 0 0 12 3 16 6 7 0 12 8 16 0 5 22 0 10 9 9 11 8 12 12 0 11 0 11 7 12 8 8

41 31 25 27 8 20 12 27 26 28 31 21 28 17 21 14 20 25 0 0 27 20 27 16 10 0 13 21 17 0 25 29 0 25 9 20 11 8 12 29 0 21 0 29 7 21 21 8

19 9 3 5 3 2 2 3 3 11 13 4 12 1 23 2 2 3 1 1 7 6 3 3 3 1 3 4 2 1 13 2 1 13 2 9 1 1 1 8 1 5 1 3 2 9 18 1

None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None

16 19 14 18 6 12 17 16 19 9 19

16 7 7 16 0 10 0 9 12 9 15

16 44 19 20 0 15 0 21 24 9 21

1 20 5 6 1 3 1 5 3 1 4

None None None None None None None None None None None

Eucalyptus occidentalis Eucalyptus oldfieldii Eucalyptus oleosa Eucalyptus oraria Eucalyptus orbifolia Eucalyptus pachyloma Eucalyptus pantoleuca Eucalyptus patellaris Eucalyptus patens Eucalyptus pendens Eucalyptus perangusta Eucalyptus petila Eucalyptus phaenophylla subsp. interjacens Eucalyptus phoenicea Eucalyptus pileata Eucalyptus pimpiniana Eucalyptus platypus Eucalyptus preissiana Eucalyptus prominens Eucalyptus pyriformis Eucalyptus rameliana Eucalyptus ravida Eucalyptus redunca Eucalyptus rhodantha Eucalyptus rigidula Eucalyptus roycei Eucalyptus rudis Eucalyptus salmonophloia Eucalyptus salubris Eucalyptus sargentii Eucalyptus scyphocalyx Eucalyptus sepulcralis Eucalyptus sessilis Eucalyptus setosa Eucalyptus socialis Eucalyptus spathulata Eucalyptus staeri Eucalyptus steedmanii Eucalyptus stoatei Eucalyptus stowardii Eucalyptus stricklandii Eucalyptus subangusta subsp. subangusta Eucalyptus surgens Eucalyptus synandra Eucalyptus terminalis Eucalyptus tetragona Eucalyptus tetraptera Eucalyptus todtiana Eucalyptus torquata Eucalyptus transcontinentalis Eucalyptus victrix Eucalyptus virginae Eucalyptus wandoo Eucalyptus websteriana Eucalyptus woodwardii Eucalyptus x carnabyi Eucalyptus x erythrandra

M

Q

L

T

R

15 21 22 20 18 19 7 17 16 26 14 12

0 19 15 10 12 14 7 17 10 12 14 12

0 22 29 31 27 25 7 17 23 50 14 12

1 2 2 4 6 4 1 1 6 9 1 1

None None None None None None None None None None None None

10 10 22 11 19 17 16 15 12 15 13 18 11 13 10 18 21 14 22 20 10 19 15 18 18 24 23 15 23

10 6 0 11 11 10 13 8 8 14 0 13 0 7 9 14 19 9 18 14 8 14 0 14 17 16 21 8 19

10 13 0 11 31 28 19 25 17 15 0 27 0 20 11 25 24 17 25 30 13 21 0 23 18 31 24 20 27

1 2 1 1 19 7 2 19 4 2 1 6 1 10 2 5 3 5 2 14 4 4 1 4 2 5 3 7 3

None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None

8 12 19 12 13 16 18 13

8 12 6 0 7 13 12 11

8 12 32 0 24 24 29 20

1 1 5 1 15 11 11 10

None None None None None None None None

20 7 9 24 20 19 13 19

16 7 9 14 17 14 8 13

23 7 9 27 32 24 21 31

2 3 1 4 7 5 5 3

None None None None None None None None

Appendix 1: Seed germination records

M

Q

L

T

R

Eucalyptus youngiana Euchilopsis linearis Eulalia aurea Euphorbia australis Euphorbia boophthona Euphrasia scabra Euromyrtus leptospermoides Exocarpos sparteus

19 29 5 36 20 33

15 17 5 14 14 25

23 56 5 55 37 44

5 4 1 4 6 5

None

60 95

0 0 63 149

1 6

SMK SMK

Ficus platypoda Flaveria australasica Frankenia pauciflora

66 8 17

0 6 0

0 14 0

1 7 1

Gastrolobium bilobum 23 Gastrolobium bracteolosum 17 Gastrolobium callistachys 15 Gastrolobium calycinum 19 Gastrolobium capitatum 19 Gastrolobium celsianum 31 Gastrolobium coriaceum 35 Gastrolobium crassifolium 26 Gastrolobium cuneata 24 Gastrolobium dilatatum 35 Gastrolobium epacridoides 18 Gastrolobium latifolium 26 Gastrolobium laytonii 21 Gastrolobium microcarpum 18 Gastrolobium oxylobioides 20 Gastrolobium parviflorum 21 Gastrolobium polystachyum 12 Gastrolobium praemorsum 28 Gastrolobium racemosum 19 Gastrolobium sericeum 27 Gastrolobium spathulatum 15 Gastrolobium spinosum 23 Gastrolobium stenophyllum 17 Gastrolobium villosum 22 Geleznowia verrucosa 41 Gilberta tenuifolia 10 Gilruthia osbornei 19 Glischrocaryon aureum 35 Glischrocaryon roei 67 Glycine canescens 5 Glycine clandestina 16 Glycine tabacina 9 Glycyrrhiza acanthocarpa 15 Gnephosis angianthoides 9 Gnephosis macrocephala 8 Gnephosis tenuissima 19 Gompholobium aff. aristatum 9 Gompholobium aristatum 17 Gompholobium baxteri 72 Gompholobium confertum 34 Gompholobium gompholobioides 30 Gompholobium knightianum 19

19 0 11 12 9 10 0 0 0 23 16 26 12 13 0 13 13 14 16 26 12 13 13 15 24 7 14 26 36 5 7 6 0 4 5 10

30 0 24 33 31 75 0 0 0 53 20 27 38 24 0 30 28 14 22 27 20 31 21 33 61 12 27 99 99 5 38 12 0 16 11 28

3 1 13 7 8 14 1 1 1 6 3 3 7 4 1 12 8 2 7 2 6 14 8 14 18 5 4 12 2 1 9 5 1 4 3 5

9 0 0 22

9 0 0 55

1 1 1 3

0

0

1

19

27

8

HW HW HW HW HW HW HW HW HW HW HW HW HW HW HW HW HW HW HW SMK

Light Light HW HW HW

HW

Gompholobium marginatum Gompholobium ovatum Gompholobium polymorphum Gompholobium polyzygum Gompholobium preissii Gompholobium scabrum Gompholobium shuttleworthii Gompholobium tomentosum Gompholobium venustum Gompholobium villosum Gomphrena affinis Gomphrena brachystylis Gomphrena canescens Gomphrena cucullata Gomphrena cunninghamii Gomphrena diffusa Gomphrena flaccida Gomphrena leptoclada Gomphrena ‘Meda’ Gomphrena tenella Gonocarpus trichostachyus Goodenia armitiana Goodenia azurea Goodenia berardiana Goodenia caerulea Goodenia concinna Goodenia coronopifolia Goodenia corynocarpa Goodenia eatoniana Goodenia filiformis Goodenia forrestii Goodenia hassallii Goodenia havilandii Goodenia microptera Goodenia pinifolia Goodenia pinnatifida Goodenia redacta Goodenia scapigera Goodenia sericostachya Goodenia stobbsiana Goodenia tenuiloba Goodenia trichophylla Goodenia vilmoriniae Goodenia viscida Goodenia watsonii Goodia medicaginea Gossypium australe Gossypium robinsonii Gossypium sturtianum Grevillea acacioides Grevillea acrobotrya Grevillea amplexans Grevillea annulifera Grevillea apiciloba Grevillea argyrophylla Grevillea armigera

M

Q

L

T

R

16 13

10 0

38 0

18 1

HW HW

30 15 34 28

25 8 0 14

38 25 0 55

3 6 1 17

HW

29

19

49

4

HW

15 29 20 10 29 12 8 9 7 11 9 5 15 15 36 47 12 43 63 17 13 30 14 32 73 16 21 48 15 17 42 34 33 54 13 20 20 65 27 19 14 14 23 34 27 29 35 21 34

7 53 12 42 18 22 2 25 0 0 2 49 3 12 7 10 7 7 4 16 9 9 2 7 5 25 0 0 18 55 0 0 7 21 19 73 0 0 17 17 9 16 25 35 7 17 20 55 25 129 15 19 15 27 26 73 9 18 17 17 19 67 21 48 23 45 51 56 0 0 19 20 17 23 32 85 17 69 10 51 6 52 5 28 23 23 26 47 17 47 20 58 25 46 17 47 20 59

14 3 4 13 1 35 8 2 1 10 1 4 2 1 6 1 12 13 1 1 2 3 11 5 4 3 6 7 6 1 12 4 8 2 1 2 4 6 11 16 15 12 1 5 9 18 5 9 10

HW HW

HW

SMK

SMK SMK SMK SMK SMK SMK SMK 209

Australian Seeds

M Grevillea asparagoides 32 Grevillea banksii 44 Grevillea berryana 13 Grevillea biformis 37 Grevillea bipinnatifida 34 Grevillea biternata 30 Grevillea brachystachya 16 Grevillea bracteosa 39 Grevillea calliantha 30 Grevillea candelabroides 27 Grevillea candicans 28 Grevillea commutata 200 Grevillea concinna 57 Grevillea costata 27 Grevillea crithmifolia 23 Grevillea deflexa 30 Grevillea didymobotrya 39 Grevillea dielsiana 28 Grevillea diversifolia 32 Grevillea drummondii 48 Grevillea dryandroides 33 Grevillea endlicheriana 30 Grevillea erectiloba 25 Grevillea eriobotrya 27 Grevillea eriostachya 28 Grevillea eryngioides 34 Grevillea excelsior 56 Grevillea fasciculata 44 Grevillea globosa 47 Grevillea gordoniana 25 Grevillea hakeoides subsp. stenophylla 29 Grevillea hookeriana 45 Grevillea inconspicua 15 Grevillea incrassata 40 Grevillea insignis 74 Grevillea intricata 32 Grevillea juncifolia 34 Grevillea leptobotrys 69 Grevillea leucopteris 24 Grevillea maccutcheonii 20 Grevillea macrostylis 47 Grevillea manglesii subsp. manglesii 35 Grevillea manglesioides 52 Grevillea microcarpa 36 Grevillea monticola 49 Grevillea myosodes 38 Grevillea nana 44 Grevillea nematophylla 44 Grevillea nudiflora 43 Grevillea obliquistigma 26 Grevillea obtusifolia 19 Grevillea occidentalis 42 Grevillea paniculata 36 Grevillea paradoxa 41 Grevillea patentiloba 47 Grevillea petrophiloides 44 Grevillea phanerophlebia 15 Grevillea pilulifera 34 210

Q

L

T

R

22 67 0 0 13 13 26 49 18 56 2 72 0 0 27 61 28 31 17 55 17 69 18 373 0 0 18 47 13 46 20 47 28 74 20 73 0 0 41 59 0 0 25 50 0 0 24 29 20 72 24 78 18 73 32 51 40 54 12 51

8 1 1 3 15 8 1 9 2 12 12 5 1 4 11 6 7 14 1 7 1 12 1 2 19 14 23 4 3 10

SMK SMK SMK SMK SMK SMK SMK SMK SMK SMK SMK SMK SMK SMK SMK SMK SMK SMK SMK SMK SMK SMK SMK SMK SMK SMK SMK SMK SMK SMK

0 0 19 71 15 15 0 0 40 152 18 50 25 60 0 0 14 56 20 20 25 69

1 8 1 1 6 4 8 1 15 1 7

SMK SMK SMK SMK SMK SMK SMK SMK SMK SMK SMK

23 46 0 0 0 0 40 57 38 38 29 104 28 71 0 0 18 64 0 0 0 0 28 47 18 57 36 57 26 60 15 15 21 51

5 1 1 4 1 17 7 1 13 1 1 4 10 2 22 1 10

SMK SMK SMK SMK SMK SMK SMK SMK SMK SMK SMK SMK SMK SMK SMK SMK SMK

M

Q

L

T

R

Grevillea pityophylla Grevillea plurijuga Grevillea polybotrya Grevillea pterosperma Grevillea pulchella Grevillea pyramidalis Grevillea quercifolia Grevillea refracta Grevillea robusta Grevillea rogersoniana Grevillea rudis Grevillea sarissa subsp. sarissa Grevillea shuttleworthiana Grevillea spinosa Grevillea stenobotrya Grevillea superba Grevillea synapheae Grevillea tenuiflora Grevillea tenuiloba Grevillea teretifolia Grevillea thelemanniana Grevillea thyrsoides Grevillea trachytheca Grevillea tridentifera Grevillea triloba Grevillea tripartita Grevillea variifolia Grevillea vestita Grevillea wickhamii Grevillea wilsonii Guichenotia ledifolia Guichenotia macrantha Gunniopsis glabra Gunniopsis quadrifida Gyrocarpus americanus Gyrostemon ramulosus

40 38 43 27 77 38 39 31 27 28 29

34 3 21 16 62 16 30 21 17 24 21

45 43 76 40 93 50 53 37 37 33 40

2 4 10 13 2 7 4 4 4 3 8

SMK SMK SMK SMK SMK SMK SMK SMK SMK SMK SMK

30 32 17 22 20 33 34 44 24 23 62 21 32 23 35 26 26 29 59 27 36 15 30 34 28

0 0 27 38 17 17 10 31 18 21 21 39 26 51 39 49 11 38 19 26 18 106 16 29 28 39 16 30 31 56 0 0 22 31 18 60 21 94 11 50 13 47 9 33 13 49 0 0 15 50

1 5 1 11 2 14 7 2 11 2 2 6 5 2 4 1 6 15 6 6 10 12 6 1 13

SMK SMK SMK SMK SMK SMK SMK SMK SMK SMK SMK SMK SMK SMK SMK SMK SMK SMK SMK

Haemodorum laxum Haemodorum paniculatum Haemodorum simplex Haemodorum simulans Haemodorum spicatum Hakea aculeata Hakea adnata Hakea ambigua Hakea amplexicaulis Hakea arborescens Hakea auriculata Hakea baxteri Hakea brachyptera Hakea bucculenta Hakea candolleana Hakea ceratophylla Hakea cinerea Hakea circumalata Hakea clavata Hakea commutata Hakea conchifolia Hakea corymbosa

19 32 37 38 45 16 23 31 36 21 22 27 27 19 23 28 27 22 44 23 28 28

19 11 11 29 26 15 16 24 28 0 17 18 15 15 21 21 17 17 62 19 23 21

3 10 8 8 11 2 9 4 5 1 7 9 6 26 5 5 10 8 2 4 14 7

SMK SMK SMK SMK SMK None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None

19 95 55 57 77 16 30 50 43 0 30 41 36 37 30 30 35 34 62 28 40 40

SMK

Appendix 1: Seed germination records

M

Q

L

T

R

M

Hakea costata 26 Hakea cristata 22 Hakea cucullata 33 Hakea cyclocarpa 25 Hakea drupacea 30 Hakea elliptica 33 Hakea erinaceae 27 Hakea falcata 28 Hakea ferruginea 32 Hakea flabellifolia 30 Hakea florida 35 Hakea francisiana 22 Hakea gilbertii 27 Hakea hookeriana 30 Hakea incrassata 27 Hakea invaginata 22 Hakea kippistiana 29 Hakea lasiantha 32 Hakea laurina 26 Hakea lehmanniana 37 Hakea lissocarpha 39 Hakea longiflora 40 Hakea lorea 16 subsp. lorea 19 Hakea marginata 30 Hakea megalosperma 28 Hakea meisneriana 31 Hakea minyma 18 Hakea multilineata 26 Hakea myrtoides 26 Hakea neurophylla 37 Hakea nitida 28 Hakea obliqua 25 subsp. obliqua 25 Hakea obtusa 39 Hakea oldfieldii 19 Hakea oleifolia 28 Hakea orthorrhyncha 23 Hakea pandanicarpa 24 Hakea petiolaris 25 Hakea platysperma 22 Hakea preissii 25 Hakea prostrata 20 Hakea pycnoneura 21 Hakea recurva subsp. arida 27 Hakea rhombales 17 Hakea roei 29 Hakea ruscifolia 25 Hakea scoparia 25 Hakea smilacifolia 27 Hakea stenocarpa 21 Hakea stenophylla 19 Hakea strumosa 37 Hakea subsulcata 24 Hakea sulcata 31 Hakea trifurcata 22 Hakea undulata 28 Hakea varia 35 Hakea verrucosa 32 Hakea victoria 37

21 20 21 21 26 21 19 20 26 23 34 18 23 23 19 16 0 30 17 25 16 40 15 15 26 15 27 14 16 20 22 21 16 22 28 0 23 15 20 16 16 0 13 14 0 16 18 19 20 21 8 0 20 17 18 20 20 28 24 25

34 24 41 39 40 46 31 33 57 33 38 33 33 37 31 33 0 33 36 51 83 40 16 21 40 97 35 28 33 38 61 34 47 30 47 0 36 48 29 36 30 0 37 36 0 20 50 32 29 33 26 0 45 35 45 25 40 41 38 86

12 2 11 12 10 6 3 11 11 9 5 4 7 5 8 7 1 3 19 14 9 1 3 3 7 12 3 16 28 12 4 8 7 3 6 1 10 14 6 14 14 1 9 12 1 4 8 10 10 6 4 2 5 8 12 4 9 5 6 20

None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None

Halgania gustafsenii 12 Halgania lavandulacea 50 Haloragis gossei 25 Haloragis trigonocarpa 17 Halosarcia halocnemoides 55 Hannafordia bissillii 30 Hannafordia quadrivalvis 43 Haptotrichion colwillii 13 Haptotrichion conicum 9 Hardenbergia comptoniana 13 Heliotropium curassavicum 29 Heliotropium undulatum 26 Helipterum craspedioides 15 Hemiandra gardneri 22 Hemiandra pungens 23 Hemiandra rubriflora 23 Hemigenia curvifolia 23 Hemigenia incana 30 Hemigenia macrantha 153 Hemigenia westringioides 59 Hibbertia aurea 63 Hibbertia cuneiformis 62 Hibbertia cunninghamii 47 Hibbertia glomerosa 76 Hibbertia huegelii 56 Hibbertia hypericoides 64 Hibbertia miniata 63 Hibbertia montana 62 Hibbertia ovata 48 Hibbertia perfoliata 47 Hibbertia racemosa 29 Hibbertia rupicola 37 Hibbertia spicata 37 Hibbertia stellaris 46 Hibbertia subvaginata 51 Hibbertia vaginata 76 Hibiscus brachychlaenus 8 Hibiscus coatesii 26 Hibiscus divaricatus 17 Hibiscus drummondii 9 Hibiscus goldsworthii 36 Hibiscus leptocladus 19 Hibiscus meraukensis 40 Hibiscus panduriformis 17 Hibiscus sturtii 19 Hibiscus trionum 8 Hibiscus zonatus 7 Homalanthus novoguineensis 37 Homalospermum firmum 44 Hovea chorizemifolia 41 Hovea elliptica 46 Hovea pungens 19 Hovea stricta 34 Hovea trisperma 20 var. crispa 23 Hyalosperma cotula 16 Hyalosperma glutinosum 10 Hybanthus aurantiacus 28 Hybanthus enneaspermus 16

Q

L

T

7 23 0 0 17 36 14 21 0 0 0 0 23 92 5 23 9 9 8 37 0 0 19 37 5 58 0 0 14 34 16 48 19 25 29 31 0 0 34 85 55 71 52 76 34 60 0 0 38 74 50 74 36 135 54 70 44 55 0 0 29 29 0 0 25 60 33 55 31 85 0 0 0 0 8 64 6 40 8 10 9 88 13 28 21 64 6 44 18 20 7 9 6 7

3 1 5 3 1 1 6 4 1 22 1 5 8 1 18 6 4 2 1 4 3 3 3 1 2 4 13 5 3 1 1 1 3 5 7 1 1 10 8 2 10 5 3 19 2 2 2

23 30 17 31 9 27 9 13 7 5 26 12

3 8 15 16 10 6 29 5 9 5 2 5

50 76 85 90 40 46 90 32 28 14 30 26

R

HW

SMK + GA SMK + GA SMK + GA SMK + GA SMK + GA SMK + GA SMK + GA SMK + GA SMK + GA SMK + GA SMK + GA SMK + GA SMK + GA SMK + GA SMK + GA SMK + GA

SMK HW HW HW HW HW HW SMK SMK 211

Australian Seeds

M

Q

L

T

R

52

32

56

4

SMK

42 45 52 25 44

18 76 0 0 2 121 0 0 32 76

7 1 21 1 7

SMK SMK SMK SMK SMK

49

31

62

4

SMK

Indigofera australis Indigofera boviperda Indigofera brevidens Indigofera colutea Indigofera georgei Indigofera hirsuta Indigofera linifolia Indigofera monophylla Indigofera rugosa Ipomoea costata Ipomoea muelleri Ipomoea pes-caprae subsp. brasiliensis Ipomoea turpethum Isopogon adenanthoides Isopogon alcicornis Isopogon asper Isopogon attenuatus Isopogon axillaris Isopogon baxteri Isopogon buxifolius Isopogon cuneatus Isopogon divergens Isopogon dubius Isopogon formosus Isopogon latifolius Isopogon linearis Isopogon polycephalus Isopogon scabriusculus Isopogon sphaerocephalus Isopogon teretifolius Isopogon tridens Isopogon trilobus Isopogon villosus Isotoma hypocrateriformis Isotoma petraea Isotoma scapigera Isotropis atropurpurea Isotropis canescens Ixiochlamys cuneifolia Ixiolaena viscosa

15 9 22 4 16 12 10 11 15 25 14

6 0 9 4 9 4 10 6 0 6 6

35 0 50 4 36 23 10 19 0 60 50

14 1 7 1 8 3 1 13 1 6 18

HW HW HW HW HW HW HW HW HW

13 36 31 48 33 37 31 34 31 37 25 34 24 45 42 30 37 39 39 37 30 40 28 26 27 13 13 8 20

13 3 21 0 25 33 23 26 20 23 20 22 21 20 24 20 27 28 27 28 18 26 5 15 21 9 12 8 12

13 64 53 0 47 41 37 48 76 50 41 40 41 90 94 57 56 50 57 48 58 62 55 41 37 21 14 8 30

1 9 6 1 6 3 5 3 11 18 19 15 16 7 5 6 17 13 11 10 18 4 15 6 5 14 3 1 5

Jacksonia angulata Jacksonia capitata Jacksonia carduacea Jacksonia compressa Jacksonia cupulifera Jacksonia eremodendron Jacksonia floribunda Jacksonia furcellata

13 25 14 18 15 20 14 12

0 0 0 13 14 18 8 7

0 0 0 24 18 23 19 19

1 2 1 3 3 2 9 13

Hybanthus floribundus Hypocalymma angustifolium Hypocalymma myrtifolium Hypocalymma robustum Hypocalymma strictum Hypocalymma tetrapterum Hypocalymma xanthopetalum

212

HW HW HW HW HW HW HW HW

M

Q

L

T

R

14 20 13 12 10 18 12 31 19 43 42 49 45

11 14 9 0 5 13 9 16 19 0 29 21 19

16 25 19 0 20 27 17 56 19 0 54 88 75

5 8 7 1 17 11 3 4 1 1 2 5 4

HW HW HW HW HW HW HW HW HW

Kennedia beckxiana 20 Kennedia carinata 16 Kennedia coccinea 19 Kennedia eximia 19 Kennedia glabrata 22 Kennedia macrophylla 43 Kennedia microphylla 27 Kennedia nigricans 20 Kennedia prorepens 17 Kennedia prostrata 15 Kennedia stirlingii 16 Keraudrenia hermanniifolia 18 Keraudrenia integrifolia 30 Kingia australis 77 Kunzea baxteri 23 Kunzea ericifolia 18 Kunzea jucunda 56 Kunzea micrantha 21 Kunzea micromera 21 Kunzea pauciflora 44 Kunzea preissiana 24 Kunzea pulchella 21 Kunzea recurva 26

12 25 0 0 9 27 9 59 14 28 6 62 0 0 9 49 9 49 11 29 11 27 11 27 16 59 54 105 8 46 11 23 32 126 15 33 15 32 23 126 0 0 14 33 13 36

9 1 15 13 6 13 1 12 19 23 10 11 12 5 16 7 5 7 4 9 1 10 9

Labichea cassioides Labichea lanceolata Labichea punctata Labichea teretifolia Lachnostachys albicans Lachnostachys eriobotrya Lachnostachys verbascifolia Lamarchea hakeifolia Lambertia echinata Lambertia ericifolia Lambertia ilicifolia Lambertia inermis Lambertia multiflora Lasiopetalum dielsii Lasiopetalum discolor Lawrencella davenportii Lawrencella rosea Lawrencia densiflora Lawrencia helmsii Lawrencia spicata Lawrencia squamata Laxmannia squarrosa

9 20 12 37 8 45 15 25 0 0 24 63 0 0 16 19 15 33 0 0 19 35 21 47 16 45 0 0 41 69 2 17 6 21 6 13 7 40 7 46 8 30 20 158

4 9 14 6 1 2 2 3 6 1 10 5 16 1 7 13 15 7 12 7 7 10

Jacksonia hakeoides Jacksonia horrida Jacksonia lehmannii Jacksonia racemosa Jacksonia sericea Jacksonia spinosa Jacksonia sternbergiana Jacksonia velutina Jacksonia velveta Jasminum didymum Johnsonia lupulina Johnsonia pubescens Juncus holoschoenus

15 20 22 20 32 46 54 17 28 35 26 27 34 46 55 9 8 9 18 23 15 66

Light HW HW HW HW HW HW HW HW HW HW HW

SMK

Appendix 1: Seed germination records

M

Q

L

T

R

Lechenaultia biloba 46 Lechenaultia expansa 38 Lechenaultia floribunda 45 Lechenaultia heteromera 79 Lechenaultia linarioides 49 Lechenaultia macrantha 47 Lechenaultia stenosepala 38 Lechenaultia tubiflora 70 Leiocarpa tomentosa 12 Lemooria burkittii 21 Lepidium pedicellosum 22 Lepidium platypetalum 17 Lepidium rotundum 26 Lepidium strongylophyllum 26 Lepidosperma angustatum 15 Lepidosperma gladiatum 63 Leptomeria pauciflora 62 Leptomeria preissiana 99 Leptorhynchos scaber 27 Leptosema aphyllum 33 Leptosema chambersii 16 Leptosema daviesioides 79 Leptospermum erubescens 40 Leptospermum oligandrum 33 Leptospermum roei 57 Leptospermum sericeum 36 Leptospermum spinescens 32 Leucochrysum fitzgibbonii 20 Leucochrysum stipitatum 12 Leucopogon conostephioides 66 Leucopogon parviflorus 98 Leucopogon polymorphus 81 Leucopogon verticillatus 93 Lobelia alata 26 Lobelia heterophylla 16 Lobelia rhombifolia 54 Lobelia tenuior 21 Logania buxifolia 72 Logania nuda 64 Logania serpyllifolia 10 Logania vaginalis 33 Lomandra hastilis 107 Lotus australis 5 Lotus cruentus 11 Luffa graveolens 18 Lycium australe 24 Lysinema ciliatum 92

25 24 30 0 29 24 24 0 8 0 0 12 12 19 15 53 0 0 14 9 9 26 28 29 27 10 20 6 3 64 26 64 88 21 6 0 13 71 0 0 24 84 4 8 18 21 49

90 69 76 0 64 75 65 0 15 0 0 23 42 33 15 72 0 0 50 51 20 132 76 38 114 78 56 46 26 68 170 92 99 39 71 0 48 72 0 0 60 144 6 17 18 28 140

12 8 3 1 5 10 4 1 2 1 1 6 6 2 1 2 1 1 3 16 8 2 9 3 9 6 14 5 10 2 2 5 2 6 22 1 21 2 1 1 9 3 3 7 1 2 4

SMK SMK SMK SMK SMK SMK SMK SMK

Macgregoria racemigera Macropidia fuliginosa Maireana appressa Maireana atkinsiana Maireana carnosa Maireana convexa Maireana enchylaenoides Maireana georgei Maireana glomerifolia Maireana integra Maireana lanosa Maireana melanocoma

6 33 7 7 8 6 7 7 0 0 0 10

74 67 13 17 90 17 18 26 0 0 0 43

5 12 2 4 11 2 6 8 1 3 1 7

24 46 10 11 21 12 11 16 18 14 17 19

HW HW HW SMK SMK SMK SMK SMK SMK SMK SMK SMK SMK SMK SMK SMK

SMK SMK

Maireana pentatropis Maireana pyramidata Maireana stipitata Maireana tomentosa Maireana triptera Maireana villosa Malleostamen roseus Malleostemon peltiger Mallophora globiflora Malva australiana Marianthus coeruleopunctatus Marianthus erubescens Marianthus ringens Marsdenia australis Meeboldina scariosa Melaleuca acuminata Melaleuca adnata Melaleuca alsophila Melaleuca blaeriifolia Melaleuca bracteata Melaleuca brevifolia Melaleuca calothamnoides Melaleuca calycina Melaleuca campanae Melaleuca cardiophylla Melaleuca ciliosa Melaleuca citrina Melaleuca cliffortioides Melaleuca coccinea Melaleuca conothamnoides Melaleuca cordata Melaleuca coronicarpa Melaleuca cucullata Melaleuca cuticularis Melaleuca densa Melaleuca depressa Melaleuca diosmifolia Melaleuca eleuterostachya Melaleuca elliptica Melaleuca filifolia Melaleuca fulgens subsp. steedmanii Melaleuca glaberrima Melaleuca globifera Melaleuca glomerata Melaleuca halmaturorum Melaleuca hamulosa Melaleuca huegelii subsp. pristicensis Melaleuca incana subsp. incana Melaleuca lanceolata Melaleuca lasiandra Melaleuca lateralis Melaleuca lateriflora Melaleuca lateritia Melaleuca laxiflora Melaleuca leiocarpa Melaleuca leiopyxis

M

Q

L

T

17 13 12 6 20 10 29 62 36 12

11 5 9 0 0 9 0 39 0 6

25 20 15 0 0 13 0 89 0 22

8 2 4 1 1 3 1 5 1 12

36 25 29 24 59 19 17 21 13 20 15 29 22 13 21 20 9 13 18 24 19 10 13 36 13 13 17 16 17 32 13 12 23 20 20 18 16 19 11 13 18 32 27 10 23 26 12 16 15

28 19 24 12 46 13 13 0 12 20 15 15 15 13 11 12 9 13 9 12 13 10 13 28 9 13 9 8 8 32 8 7 9 18 19 15 12 13 11 8 7 15 0 10 15 10 8 13 8

45 28 36 74 72 34 34 0 13 20 15 64 29 13 34 34 9 13 33 59 33 10 13 58 21 13 25 28 49 32 26 33 64 23 20 22 34 49 11 28 38 64 0 10 36 62 21 19 34

4 3 3 12 2 6 6 1 2 1 1 8 2 1 10 4 1 1 7 8 13 1 1 3 3 1 2 11 8 1 12 15 5 4 2 6 6 12 1 9 5 11 1 1 3 12 4 5 7

R

SMK SMK SMK None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None 213

Australian Seeds

Melaleuca leptospermoides Melaleuca leucadendra Melaleuca linophylla Melaleuca macronychia Melaleuca megacephala Melaleuca micromera Melaleuca microphylla Melaleuca minutifolia Melaleuca nematophylla Melaleuca nervosa Melaleuca nesophila Melaleuca oldfieldii Melaleuca pauperiflora Melaleuca pentagona var. pentagona Melaleuca platycalyx Melaleuca preissiana Melaleuca pulchella Melaleuca pungens Melaleuca quadrifaria Melaleuca radula Melaleuca rhaphiophylla Melaleuca scabra Melaleuca sciotostyla Melaleuca sclerophylla Melaleuca seriata Melaleuca sheathiana Melaleuca sparsiflora Melaleuca spathulata Melaleuca striata Melaleuca suberosa Melaleuca subfalcata Melaleuca subtrigona Melaleuca systena Melaleuca teretifolia Melaleuca thymoides Melaleuca thyoides Melaleuca trichophylla Melaleuca uncinata Melaleuca urceolaris Melaleuca viminea Melaleuca violacea Melaleuca viridiflora Menkea australis Microcorys exserta Microcybe albiflora Micromyrtus imbricata Microseris scapigera Millotia myosotidifolia Millotia perpusilla Millotia tenuifolia Minuria cunninghamii Minuria leptophylla Minuria suaedifolia Mirbelia dilatata Mirbelia floribunda Mirbelia ramulosa Mirbelia spinosa Mirbelia subcordata Mirbelia viminalis 214

M

Q

L

T

R

14 31 15 22 14 21 34 24 19 31 24 21 20 26 28 16 71 21 20 21 21 39 20 7 19 18 21 32 33 21 20 22 34 15 21 19 18 22 17 14 17 18 15 30 59 34 22 11 8 9 18 9 11 8 19 23 14 9 33 14

8 21 18 50 10 10 15 42 8 21 18 25 0 0 14 20 13 48 25 37 16 36 15 34 19 21 13 40 19 42 10 31 14 114 12 49 13 36 12 29 7 54 15 79 11 36 7 7 7 31 8 54 12 29 0 0 13 53 13 50 10 44 12 45 0 0 8 31 16 36 13 32 13 34 12 39 14 23 10 22 12 31 13 40 10 20 0 0 0 0 18 49 0 0 5 14 3 14 5 10 15 21 6 13 8 15 0 0 13 48 0 0 11 18 13 26 0 0 0 0

6 4 2 10 11 3 1 3 11 2 7 6 3 11 4 5 7 6 10 2 11 6 15 1 5 7 2 1 5 11 13 15 1 8 5 7 8 11 4 4 5 10 2 1 1 2 1 6 14 5 3 5 2 1 21 2 7 6 1 1

None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None None

M

Q

L

T

24 69 51 45 12 23 53 49 28 7

9 0 0 40 8 19 53 0 0 4

50 0 0 54 15 33 53 0 0 14

4 1 1 4 6 4 1 1 1 10

R

Mollugo molluginis Monotaxis grandiflora Monotoca oligarrhenoides Morgania pubescens Muelleranthus trifoliolatus Mukia maderaspatana Myoporum acuminatum Myoporum montanum Myoporum tetrandrum Myriocephalus guerinae Myriocephalus helichrysoides Myriocephalus nudus Myriocephalus rudallii Myriocephalus suffruticosus

5 12 20

5 8 9

5 18 40

1 3 7

42

21

49

3

Neptunia major Neptunia monosperma Newcastelia cephalantha Newcastelia hexarrhena Nicotiana goodspeedii Nicotiana occidentalis Nicotiana rotundifolia Nitraria billardierei Nuytsia floribunda

5 4 33 66 13 14 20 38 33

5 4 0 0 9 11 10 22 22

5 4 0 0 16 15 50 50 81

1 1 1 1 6 7 6 4 24

Olax benthamiana Olearia adenolasia Olearia axillaris Olearia ciliata Olearia elaeophila Olearia muelleri Olearia muricata Olearia paucidentata Olearia pimeleoides Olearia rudis Olearia stuartii Operculina brownii Orthrosanthus laxus Orthrosanthus multiflorus Othonna gregorii Owenia reticulata Ozothamnus cordatus

36 20 15 11 23 23 30 25 22 21 34 5 35 40 10 19 22

0 0 8 0 19 12 22 17 0 12 0 5 26 0 5 0 14

0 0 24 0 26 42 37 39 0 44 0 5 44 0 26 0 36

1 1 7 1 2 13 2 8 1 12 1 1 11 1 9 2 11

Paragonis grandiflora 32 20 53 Paraserianthes lophantha 14 11 22 Patersonia inaequalis 55 49 61 Patersonia juncea 113 106 120 Patersonia occidentalis 53 28 89 Patersonia pygmaea 60 0 0 Patersonia rudis 60 0 0 Patersonia umbrosa 53 47 61 Pelargonium australe subsp. drummondii 15 0 0 Pentalepis trichodesmoides 15 10 33 Peplidium muelleri 23 17 31 Pericalymma ellipticum 16 13 24 Petalostigma quadriloculare 77 14 139

8 5 4 2 19 1 1 6

SMK SMK SMK SMK SMK SMK

1 6 5 8

SMK

2

Appendix 1: Seed germination records

Petalostylis cassioides Petalostylis labicheoides Petrophile biloba Petrophile biternata Petrophile carduacea Petrophile circinata Petrophile conifera Petrophile divaricata Petrophile diversifolia Petrophile drummondii Petrophile ericifolia Petrophile fastigiata Petrophile helicophylla Petrophile heterophylla Petrophile linearis Petrophile longifolia Petrophile macrostachya Petrophile media Petrophile megalostegia Petrophile phylicoides Petrophile rigida Petrophile seminuda Petrophile serruriae Petrophile squamata Petrophile striata Petrophile teretifolia Philotheca brucei Philotheca glabra Philotheca nodiflora Philotheca sericea Philotheca spicata Philotheca thryptomenoides Philydrella pygmaea Philydrum lanuginosum Phyllanthus calycinus Phymatocarpus porphyrocephalus Physalis minima Physopsis chrysophylla Physopsis spicata Pileanthus filifolius Pileanthus limacis Pileanthus peduncularis Pimelea ammocharis Pimelea argentea Pimelea brevifolia Pimelea ferruginea Pimelea hispida Pimelea holroydii Pimelea imbricata Pimelea lehmanniana Pimelea leucantha Pimelea microcephala Pimelea physodes Pimelea preissii Pimelea rosea Pimelea spectabilis Pimelea suaveolens Pimelea sulphurea

M

Q

L

T

R

10 15 30 45 40 42 37 43 53 30 35 43 43 35 28 35 44 35 29 35 28 47 36 37 42 47 39 57 51 32 37

4 7 26 0 28 26 24 30 41 20 24 33 43 20 15 20 18 26 0 30 0 39 24 19 25 26 0 35 35 0 27

29 20 39 0 59 57 53 74 69 64 57 60 43 60 67 54 84 61 0 42 0 51 71 56 61 70 0 74 63 0 56

17 14 14 1 19 5 13 6 7 15 20 8 1 14 14 3 17 8 1 9 1 5 16 14 17 9 1 4 4 1 9

34 46 61 27

0 37 0 17

0 57 0 35

1 4 1 3

GA

37 35 29 37 44 33 38 28 36 28 37 60 18 31 39 41 31 62 64 55 43 81 48

32 42 0 0 0 0 0 0 17 67 25 43 24 76 24 32 21 68 21 42 14 64 0 0 14 28 20 48 34 52 26 60 10 58 49 78 0 0 37 74 15 57 52 101 0 0

2 1 1 1 13 10 26 2 5 6 4 1 8 3 4 5 6 8 1 10 13 3 1

SMK SMK SMK SMK SMK SMK SMK SMK SMK SMK SMK SMK SMK SMK SMK SMK

SMK SMK SMK SMK SMK SMK SMK SMK SMK SMK SMK SMK SMK SMK SMK SMK SMK SMK SMK SMK SMK SMK SMK SMK

Pimelea sylvestris Pithocarpa corymbulosa Pittosporum phylliraeoides Pityrodia atriplicina Pityrodia axillaris Pityrodia cuneata Pityrodia loxocarpa Pityrodia oldfieldii Pityrodia paniculata Pityrodia teckiana Pityrodia terminalis Pityrodia uncinata Pityrodia verbascina Plantago varia Platytheca galioides Plectronia latifolia Pluchea dentex Pluchea rubelliflora Pluchea tetranthera Podocarpus drouynianus Podocoma cuneifolia Podolepis canescens Podolepis capillaris Podolepis gardneri Podolepis gracilis Podolepis kendallii Podolepis lessonii Podolepis rugata Podotheca angustifolia Podotheca chrysantha Podotheca gnaphalioides Podotheca wilsonii Pogonolepis stricta Polycarpaea longiflora Polymeria ambigua Pomaderris forrestiana Pomaderris grandis Porana sericea Portulaca cyclophylla Portulaca pilosa Prostanthera baxteri Prostanthera eckersleyana Prostanthera magnifica Prostanthera scutata Pseudognaphalium luteoalbum Pterocaulon serrulatum Ptilotus aervoides Ptilotus albidus Ptilotus appendiculatus Ptilotus astrolasius Ptilotus auriculifolius Ptilotus axillaris Ptilotus calostachyus Ptilotus carinatus Ptilotus carlsonii Ptilotus chamaecladus Ptilotus clementii Ptilotus corymbosus Ptilotus divaricatus

M

Q

L

T

R

56 49 38 26 39 24 38 39 32 35 70 54 61 8 45 7 19 12 18 78 25 9 15 13 8 7 8 13 8 12 9 13 14 14 18 31 68 20 23 29 47 53 26 74

27 92 0 0 27 74 20 32 0 0 0 0 0 0 36 42 24 40 29 49 60 80 48 65 27 115 5 14 39 49 6 10 9 33 10 13 7 38 0 0 21 29 4 29 5 41 13 13 4 19 4 19 4 22 9 15 7 14 7 14 4 19 5 21 6 21 8 36 15 20 23 40 0 0 8 50 0 0 11 47 0 0 49 57 14 49 0 0

11 1 8 4 2 1 1 2 2 4 2 3 4 8 5 4 5 2 7 1 2 22 5 1 20 11 15 3 9 8 12 2 10 8 2 3 1 12 1 2 1 2 4 1

SMK

15 28 23 5 34 13 17 13 23 23 24 12 12 29 14

11 28 6 2 0 13 5 5 9 19 15 2 11 0 10

7 1 5 5 1 1 10 6 20 2 3 10 2 1 3

19 28 48 7 0 13 31 19 56 26 38 21 11 0 16

Light Light Light Light Light Light Light

HW HW

SMK SMK SMK SMK SMK SMK SMK SMK SMK SMK SMK SMK SMK 215

Australian Seeds

Ptilotus drummondii Ptilotus exaltatus Ptilotus fusiformis Ptilotus gaudichaudii Ptilotus gomphrenoides Ptilotus grandiflorus Ptilotus helichrysoides Ptilotus helipteroides Ptilotus holosericeus Ptilotus incanus Ptilotus lanatus Ptilotus latifolius Ptilotus macrocephalus Ptilotus manglesii Ptilotus marduguru Ptilotus obovatus Ptilotus parvifolius Ptilotus polakii Ptilotus polystachyus Ptilotus rotundifolius Ptilotus schwartzii Ptilotus sericostachyus Ptilotus spathulatus Ptilotus spicatus Ptilotus trichocephalus Ptilotus villosiflorus Pultenaea brachytropis Pultenaea ochreata Pultenaea reticulata

M

Q

L

T

R

16 13 9 11 28 12 32 20 19 17 15 21 21 30 11 11 7 14 14 18 25 24 12 26 7 17 25 23 39

10 30 2 38 6 13 7 23 5 49 9 19 25 38 6 52 0 0 13 21 15 15 11 38 5 49 16 38 11 11 3 29 7 7 10 19 7 34 9 50 13 13 18 28 6 28 0 0 6 8 9 29 24 26 17 32 16 107

7 33 6 9 5 7 2 9 1 4 1 6 22 6 1 14 1 4 9 7 2 4 9 1 2 5 3 7 9

SMK SMK SMK SMK SMK SMK SMK SMK SMK SMK SMK SMK SMK SMK SMK SMK SMK SMK SMK SMK SMK SMK SMK SMK SMK SMK

10 0 14 17 17 19 17 18 15 0 0 5 5 4

44 0 22 36 45 46 25 46 36 0 0 12 17 10

14 1 8 6 11 2 8 8 7 1 1 3 9 4

3 2 9 12 21 6 0 4 2 3 3 13 5 4 8

17 18 45 12 21 48 0 16 41 6 15 31 8 6 16

3 27 6 10 1 14 1 13 27 2 4 5 3 3 4

Radyera farragei 33 Reedia spathacea 80 Regelia ciliata 19 Regelia cymbifolia 23 Regelia inops 22 Regelia megacephala 33 Regelia velutina 23 Rhagodia baccata 29 Rhagodia crassifolia 23 Rhagodia preissii 29 Rhagodia spinescens 15 Rhodanthe battii 9 Rhodanthe charsleyae 10 Rhodanthe chlorocephala 6 subsp. rosea small white 12 subsp. splendida 9 Rhodanthe citrina 19 Rhodanthe condensata 11 Rhodanthe cremea 21 Rhodanthe floribunda 18 Rhodanthe heterantha 6 Rhodanthe humboldtiana 5 Rhodanthe manglesii 9 album 5 variant 10 Rhodanthe margarethae 19 Rhodanthe maryonii 7 Rhodanthe oppositifolia 5 Rhodanthe pollackii 12 216

SMK SMK SMK SMK Light Light Light Light Light Light Light Light Light Light Light

M

Q

L

T

R

8 56 9 10 9 12 19 14 34 41 43 41 35 35 40 37

7 0 2 4 5 4 19 13 0 23 0 0 18 21 16 8

11 0 17 19 11 28 19 15 0 64 0 0 56 64 85 64

6 1 5 7 9 13 1 3 1 7 1 1 3 7 3 8

Light

19 17

18 10

19 29

2 5

Salsola kali Samolus junceus Santalum acuminatum Santalum lanceolatum Santalum murrayanum Santalum spicatum Sarcostemma viminale subsp. australe Scaevola anchusifolia Scaevola collaris Scaevola crassifolia

8 46 34 47 60 34

5 0 26 31 45 25

20 0 44 69 74 70

5 1 4 5 2 13

10 40 32 37

0 23 20 24

0 57 42 65

1 2 6 12

Scaevola globulifera Scaevola lanceolata Scaevola nitida Scaevola spinescens Scaevola thesioides Schoenia ayersii Schoenia cassiniana Schoenia filifolia subsp. filifolia subsp. subulifolia Schoenia macivorii Schoenus grandiflorus Scholtzia capitata Scholtzia involucrata Scholtzia parviflora Scholtzia teretifolia Scholtzia uberiflora Sclerolaena bicornis Sclerolaena gardneri Sclerolaena hostilis Sclerolaena microcarpa Sclerolaena uniflora Senecio hispidulus Senecio lautus Senecio magnificus Senecio quadridentatus Senna artemisioides Senna charlesiana

34 33 23 108 33 8 6

15 60 24 39 23 23 50 165 16 45 6 12 3 11

5 3 1 2 4 5 21

6 7 10 37 59 79 30 56 22 39 13 62 47 24 11 16 9 8 13 16

2 14 3 14 1 24 37 37 32 117 44 139 22 56 0 0 0 0 28 51 0 0 0 0 21 73 0 0 9 12 5 30 6 17 7 7 6 46 4 50

10 14 4 1 6 10 9 1 1 2 2 1 2 1 2 11 7 2 16 20

Rhodanthe propinqua Rhodanthe pygmaea Rhodanthe rubella Rhodanthe spicata Rhodanthe sterilescens Rhodanthe stricta Rhodanthe tietkensii Rhynchosia minima Ricinocarpos cyanescens Ricinocarpos glaucus Ricinocarpos stylosus Ricinocarpus tuberculatus Rulingia corylifolia Rulingia craurophylla Rulingia densiflora Rulingia kempeana Rulingia sp. Trigwell Bridge Rutidosis helichrysoides

Light

Light SMK SMK SMK SMK

GA GA GA GA SMK SMK 80°C/ 3h + SMK SMK SMK SMK SMK SMK

HW HW

Appendix 1: Seed germination records

Senna costata Senna glutinosa subsp. x luerssenii Senna hamersleyensis Senna notabilis Senna occidentalis Senna oligoclada Senna planitiicola Senna pleurocarpa Senna stricta Senna surattensis Senna timoriensis Senna venusta Sesbania aculeata Sesbania cannabina Sesbania erubescens Sesbania formosa Sesbania simpliciuscula Sida brownii Sida calyxhymenia Sida cardiophylla Sida echinocarpa Sida kingii Sida platycalyx Sida rhombifolia Sida spinosa Sida spodochroma Sida virgata var. phaetricha Siegfriedia darwinioides Siloxerus humifusus Solanum cleistogamum Solanum cunninghamii Solanum dioicum Solanum echinatum Solanum esuriale Solanum lasiophyllum Solanum oldfieldii Solanum orbiculatum Solanum phlomoides Solanum quadriloculatum Solanum simile Solanum sturtianum Solanum symonii Solenostemon scutellarioides Sollya fusiformis Sondottia connata Sowerbaea laxiflora Spartochloa scirpoidea Sphaerolobium fornicatum Sphaerolobium grandiflorum Sphaerolobium macranthum Sphaerolobium scabriusculum Sphenotoma gracile Spinifex hirsutus Spinifex longifolius

M

Q

L

T

R

23 16 11 13 10 16 19 13 5 6 27 12 7 12 9 4 10 4 30 20 12 30 25 19 17 15 27

8 0 4 7 6 0 16 5 5 6 0 0 4 9 5 4 4 4 9 9 4 15 0 10 0 0 15

39 0 20 32 20 0 21 19 5 6 0 0 16 14 19 4 31 4 56 54 20 54 0 48 0 0 42

3 2 10 5 9 1 3 4 1 2 1 1 7 2 15 1 14 1 8 6 2 8 1 9 1 1 4

HW HW HW HW HW HW HW HW HW HW HW HW HW

28 38 16 26 11 19 20 42 21 32 40 16 40 25 32 32

12 24 11 23 11 19 23 28 6 20 34 11 28 18 23 28

50 48 21 31 11 19 23 57 99 50 48 20 64 39 39 40

9 3 8 3 1 1 2 4 17 7 2 3 7 5 6 3

12 42 10 35 24 32

8 29 5 20 22 20

15 57 14 70 25 48

2 10 3 10 2 9

25

17

32

4

26

19

47

9

45 60 32 31

0 0 32 121 0 0 20 42

1 5 1 2

HW SMK SMK SMK SMK SMK SMK SMK SMK SMK SMK SMK SMK SMK SMK SMK

SMK

M

Q

L

T

R

47 42 24 50 16

29 20 12 50 13

54 76 50 50 19

7 11 7 1 4

HW

Spyridium globulosum Stackhousia monogyna Stemodia grossa Stemodia lythrifolia Stenopetalum pedicellare Stenopetalum sphaerocarpum Stirlingia latifolia Stirlingia simplex Stirlingia tenuifolia Strangea cynanchocarpa Strangea stenocarpoides Streptoglossa cylindriceps Streptoglossa decurrens Streptoglossa liatroides Streptoglossa macrocephala Stylidium affine Stylidium amoenum Stylidium brunonianum Stylidium bulbiferum Stylidium caricifolium Stylidium ciliatum Stylidium crassifolium Stylidium crossocephalum Stylidium diuroides Stylidium divaricatum Stylidium diversifolium Stylidium junceum Stylidium leptocalyx Stylidium scandens Stylobasium australe Stylobasium spathulatum Stypandra glauca Swainsona canescens Swainsona colutoides Swainsona cyclocarpa Swainsona decurrens Swainsona formosa Swainsona forrestii Swainsona kingii Swainsona maccullochiana Swainsona microphylla Swainsona oroboides Swainsona pterostylis Swainsona stenodonta Swainsona stipularis Swainsona unifoliolata Swainsona villosa Synaphea favosa Synaphea petiolaris

7 29 37 62 35 28 11 15 17

4 9 7 63 35 39 40 104 22 59 22 34 8 13 11 19 5 48

7 3 2 3 15 2 4 2 9

22 45 55 54 47 49 56 57 48 47 64 37 53 82 44 40 43 44 11 10 10 9 8 9 11 7 10 12 9 12 15 15 14 77 56

10 29 15 75 21 74 21 75 15 74 43 55 32 123 0 0 21 82 0 0 15 112 0 0 20 91 0 0 19 56 8 72 21 79 21 59 4 31 4 21 7 13 4 18 1 27 6 15 8 17 3 18 7 12 8 15 3 18 4 31 6 31 7 31 6 31 0 0 34 77

6 2 7 7 8 2 5 1 3 1 2 1 10 1 5 6 6 5 13 15 2 9 32 6 6 13 2 2 10 6 7 4 5 1 2

Taxandria floribunda Taxandria juniperina Taxandria linearifolia Taxandria marginata Taxandria spathulata Templetonia battii Templetonia retusa Tephrosia bidwillii

13 38 19 23 34 15 17 50

12 14 15 114 11 45 13 35 20 49 0 0 6 47 8 153

4 13 8 7 7 1 24 6

SMK SMK SMK SMK SMK SMK SMK SMK SMK SMK SMK SMK SMK SMK

HW HW HW HW HW HW HW HW HW HW HW HW HW HW HW

SMK HW HW

217

Australian Seeds

M Tephrosia coriacea 20 Tephrosia eriocarpa 17 Tephrosia flammea 11 Tephrosia rosea 11 Tephrosia stipuligera 8 Tephrosia uniovulata 14 Terminalia canescens 26 Terminalia grandiflora 35 Terminalia platyphylla 17 Tetragonia tetragonoides 19 Tetratheca efoliata 60 Tetratheca hirsuta 34 Tetratheca setigera 46 Themeda triandra 3 Thomasia angustifolia 43 Thomasia foliosa 38 Thomasia glutinosa 60 Thomasia macrocarpa 32 Thomasia quercifolia 23 Thomasia solanacea 69 Thomasia tenuivestita 20 Thomasia triphylla 34 Threlkeldia diffusa 19 Thryptomene australis 57 Thryptomene baeckeacea 104 Thryptomene denticulata 50 Thryptomene elliottii 46 Thryptomene hyporhytis 74 Thryptomene johnsonii 42 Thryptomene mucronulata 48 Thryptomene racemulosa 208 Thryptomene saxicola 63 Thryptomene strongylophylla 56 Thryptomene urceolaris 52 Thysanotus arenarius 16 Thysanotus asper 59 Thysanotus dichotomus 36 Thysanotus manglesianus 18 Thysanotus multiflorus 30 Thysanotus patersonii 31 Thysanotus sparteus 34 Thysanotus spiniger 29 Thysanotus tenellus 62 Thysanotus triandrus 34 Toona ciliata 32 Trachymene ceratocarpa 19 Trachymene coerulea 18 Trachymene cyanopetala 16 Trachymene didiscoides 25 Trachymene glaucifolia 19 Trachymene ornata 16 Trachymene pilosa 25 Trianthema pilosa 46 Trianthema triquetra 14 Tribonanthes australis 65 Tribulus astrocarpus 27 Tribulus hirsutus 19 Tribulus hystrix 12 Tribulus occidentalis 18 218

Q

L

T

20 20 0 0 6 31 5 50 0 0 0 0 16 35 0 0 0 0 15 22 0 0 31 35 39 56 3 3 23 101 0 0 0 0 22 69 23 23 0 0 20 20 28 43 6 39 36 72 0 0 26 96 22 93 38 176 25 58 31 72 0 0 35 168

1 1 13 24 1 1 4 1 1 2 1 3 4 1 6 1 1 14 1 1 1 6 11 9 1 14 8 7 2 5 1 8

45 76 40 72 14 18 35 108 28 45 17 19 20 40 15 46 15 63 26 31 0 0 30 47 32 32 0 0 7 39 12 20 0 0 8 8 13 20 4 4 0 0 14 14 55 103 0 0 11 29 10 14 14 31

4 6 2 4 9 2 17 14 8 4 1 5 1 1 17 9 1 2 7 2 1 1 5 1 4 2 5

R

SMK SMK SMK

SMK SMK SMK SMK SMK SMK SMK SMK SMK SMK SMK SMK SMK SMK SMK SMK SMK SMK SMK SMK SMK SMK SMK SMK SMK SMK SMK

M

Q

L

T

R

Tribulus platypterus Trichanthodium skirrophorum Trichocline spathulata Trichodesma zeylanicum Tricoryne elatior Triglochin centrocarpum Triglochin minutissimum Triglochin striatum Triodia basedowii Triodia bynoei Triodia danthonioides Triodia irritans Triodia lanigera Triodia pungens Triodia rigidissima Triodia schinzii Tripterococcus brunonis Triumfetta appendiculata Triumfetta chaetocarpa Triumfetta plumigera Trymalium ledifolium Trymalium spatulatum Typha domingensis

23

15

30

4

7 32 12 23 7 7 26 8 5 6 8 24 17 5 29 57 19 23 21 38 37 12

4 19 8 0 0 0 0 5 5 5 8 18 3 5 28 0 18 8 17 0 32 0

9 43 19 0 0 0 0 22 5 7 8 28 36 5 29 0 19 40 30 0 46 0

3 7 16 1 1 1 1 7 1 2 1 3 6 1 2 1 2 8 3 1 3 1

Urodon capitatus Urodon dasyphyllus

18 14

9 9

41 19

9 6

Velleia discophora Velleia panduriformis Velleia paradoxa Velleia rosea Velleia trinervis Verreauxia reinwardtii Verticordia brachypoda Verticordia brownii Verticordia chrysantha Verticordia chrysostachys Verticordia densiflora Verticordia drummondii Verticordia etheliana Verticordia fimbrilepis subsp. fimbrilepis Verticordia forrestii Verticordia grandiflora Verticordia grandis Verticordia helmsii Verticordia huegelii Verticordia insignis Verticordia lepidophylla Verticordia mitchelliana Verticordia monadelpha Verticordia muelleriana Verticordia multiflora Verticordia nitens Verticordia oculata Verticordia penicillaris Verticordia pennigera Verticordia pholidophylla Verticordia picta

30 20 39 13 15 61 70 66 42 30 63 55 55

21 20 15 7 10 42 0 45 24 0 32 37 37

38 20 77 53 19 80 0 98 74 0 98 73 73

2 1 5 12 11 2 1 10 20 1 11 4 6

SMK SMK SMK SMK SMK

68 46 94 30 74 62 12 72 64 61 57 61 89 62 74 59 58 53

68 68 30 61 0 0 24 36 0 0 44 72 0 0 0 0 0 0 44 86 43 72 50 71 42 146 39 89 0 0 45 73 30 73 41 70

1 2 1 2 1 3 1 1 1 13 6 2 15 5 1 2 9 5

SMK SMK SMK SMK SMK SMK SMK SMK SMK SMK SMK SMK SMK SMK SMK SMK SMK SMK

Light

HW HW

SMK SMK SMK SMK SMK SMK SMK

Appendix 1: Seed germination records

M Verticordia plumosa Verticordia roei Verticordia serrata Verticordia spicata Villarsia albiflora Villarsia calthifolia Villarsia latifolia Viminaria juncea Vittadinia triloba Wahlenbergia gracilenta Wahlenbergia preissii Waitzia acuminata Waitzia nitida Waitzia podolepis Waitzia suaveolens Wedelia asperrima Westringia rigida

103 52 124 56 38 41 40 22 13 19 17 10 8 7 10 8 31

Q

L

T

R

30 151 0 0 67 180 38 74 0 0 40 41 32 54 11 34 9 17

3 1 2 5 1 4 4 12 2

SMK SMK SMK SMK GA GA GA

11 13 3 4 5 5 0 27

8 6 16 18 3 12 1 3

40 20 59 15 10 13 0 34

M

Q

L

T

R

Xanthorrhoea brevistyla Xanthorrhoea gracilis Xanthorrhoea nana Xanthorrhoea preissii Xanthorrhoea thorntonii Xanthosia atkinsoniana Xanthosia rotundifolia Xerochrysum bracteatum Xylomelum angustifolium Xylomelum occidentale

37 49 42 33 31 87 91 8 30 44

26 42 26 165 22 57 22 49 20 57 0 0 53 145 3 21 15 45 32 71

3 8 5 8 4 1 3 22 9 12

SMK SMK SMK SMK SMK SMK SMK

Zygophyllum aurantiacum Zygophyllum fruticulosum Zygophyllum glaucum Zygophyllum iodocarpum Zygophyllum ovatum

21 20 27 31 24

14 10 13 14 16

7 11 6 5 3

49 59 40 38 30

219

Appendix 2: Specimen vouchers for the seed photographs

Collections of seeds made by Botanic Gardens and Parks Authority (Perth, Western Australia) seed collectors are supported by herbarium specimens taken at the time of collection. These herbarium specimens are identified by the Herbarium Botanist and are linked to the seed collections by the collection number. This number links all the records of the collection and ties the naming of the spec-

imen to the seed collection and living plants derived from the collection. This appendix lists the names of the seeds in the photographic section with the collection number to provide a direct link to the naming and collection records. Specimens are lodged at the Western Australian Herbarium (Perth) and Kings Park and Botanic Garden Herbarium (KPBG).

Name

Collector number

Name

Collector number

Abildgaardia schoenoides Abrus precatorius Abutilon cryptopetalum Abuliton indicum var. indicum Acacia aestivalis Acacia alata Acacia amblyophylla Acacia anaticeps Acacia aneura Acacia anfractuosa Acacia arida Acacia armata Acacia atkinsiana Acacia bivenosa Acacia celastrifolia Acacia citrinoviridis Acacia cochlearis Acacia coolgardiensis Acacia coriacea Acacia cyclops Acacia drummondii subsp. drummondii Acacia dunnii Acacia filifolia Acacia grasbyi Acacia harveyi Acacia hemiteles Acacia heteroneura var. prolixa Acacia hilliana Acacia holosericea Acacia horridula Acacia inaequilatera Acacia jibberdingensis Acacia lasiocalyx Acacia longispinea Acacia merrallii Acacia merrickiae Acacia myrtifolia Acacia neurophylla Acacia oldfieldii Acacia pruinocarpa

LSWE 835 HDEM 10932 LSWE 256 HDEM 11044 FLUL 158 HDEM 11221 HDEM 8584 HDEM 10875 HDEM 7003 BRM 7776 HDEM 7728 RBLA SN HDEM 5755 LSWE 1474 HDEM 6289 HDEM 12264 HDEM 10506 HDEM d5895 LSWE 1424 HDEM 11696

Acacia pulchella Acacia pygmaea Acacia rhodophloia Acacia rossei Acacia rostellifera Acacia saligna Acacia sclerosperma Acacia semicircinalis Acacia sibina Acacia subflexuosa Acacia sulcata var. planoconvexa Acacia tetragonophylla Acacia translucens Acacia tumida Acacia victoriae Acacia wiseana Acacia xiphophylla Acanthocarpus preissii Acidonia microcarpa Actinostrobus acuminatus Actinostrobus pyramidalis Actinotus leucocephalus Adansonia gregorii Adriana quadripartita Agonis flexuosa Alectryon oleifolius Allocasuarina acutivalvis Allocasuarina decaisneana Allocasuarina fibrosa Allocasuarina fraseriana Allocasuarina microstachya Allocasuarina pinaster Alphitonia incana Alyogyne hakeifolia Amaranthus mitchellii Amyema fitzgeraldii Anigozanthos bicolor Anigozanthos flavidus Anigozanthos manglesii Anigozanthos viridis Anisomeles malabarica

HDEM 7871 LSWE 3157 HDEM 12286 LSWE 3701 HDEM 12028 HDEM 11609 LSWE 3731 LSWE 3161 LSWE 2488 HDEM 6412 KNEW 1268 LSWE 3730 HDEM 7650 HDEM 10897 LSWE 3724 HDEM 9899 HDEM 10279 HDEM 9885 LSWE 3708 HDEM 12151 HDEM 11405 LSWE 1814 HDEM 8936 HDEM d12350 HDEM 7340 HDEM 9520 LSWE 2288 LSWE 2034 LSWE S2638 HDEM 10049 HDEM 9500 HDEM 10417 HDEM 10940 HDEM 9565 LSWE 1455 LSWE 2174 HDEM 3576 HDEM 8032 HDEM 12012A HDEM 8004 HDEM 12591

220

LSWE 3638 HDEM 10956 LSWE 3152 HDEM 9661 HDEM 11945 HDEM 1977 LSWE 2504 HDEM 10874 LSWE 1434 HDEM 1825 HDEM 10866 HDEM 10505 FLUL 3035 HDEM 5525 HDEM 7980 LSWE 641 HDEM 11205 FLUL 3101 BRM 7792 LSWE 3726

Appendix 2: Specimen vouchers for the seed photographs

Name

Collector number

Name

Collector number

Anthocercis genistoides Aotus tietkinsii Aphanopetalum clematideum Argyroglottis turbinata Aristida inaequiglumis Asteridea asteroides Asterolasia squamuligera Atriplex inflata Atriplex nummularia Atriplex semilunaris Atriplex spongiosa Atriplex vesicaria Austrostipa scabra

LSWE 3125 LSWE 3135 HDEM 8583 HDEM D12477 GBRA 12541 LSWE 1700 MCUS SN HDEM 10855 HDEM 10807 HDEM 10127 HDEM 5397 HDEM 0699 LSWE 2262

LSWE 516 HDEM 11698 HDEM d12316 RMCK 91 MTUT SN HDEM 9989 LSWE 3566 LSWE 1707 LSWE 402 LSWE 2154 LSWE 2913 HDEM 11798 HDEM 10842

Baeckea behrii Banksia elegans Banksia lullfitzii Bauhinia cunninghamii Bonamia rosea Boronia adamsiana Boronia exilis Brachychiton diversifolius Brachyscome bellidioides Brachyscome cheilocarpa Brachyscome ciliaris Brachyscome lineariloba Brunonia australis Buchnera ramosissima Burchardia conjesta Bursaria occidentalis

HDEM 11991 LSWE 5130 LSWE 5104 LSWE 777 HDEM 11025 LSWE 4739 LSWE 5101 HDEM 10901 S129/90/5 LSWE 1261 HDEM 12224 LSWE 2422 LSWE 2333 LSWE 858 HDEM 12036 HDEM 9249

Cajanus cinereus Calandrinia creethae Calandrinia eremaea Calandrinia polyandra Calandrinia pumila Callistachys lanceolata Callistemon glaucus Callistemon phoeniceus Callitris drummondii Callitris glaucophylla Callitris preissii Calocephalus francisii Calocephalus platycephalus Calothamnus blepharospermus Calothamnus chrysantherus Calothamnus gibbosus Calothamnus oldfieldii Calothamnus rupestris Calothamnus validus Calotis breviradiata Calotis multicaulis Calotis plumulifera Calycopeplus paucifolius Calytrix aurea Calytrix carinata Calytrix depressa Calytrix desolata Calytrix exstipulata Calytrix flavescens

HDEM 7066 HDEM 4704 LSWE 2385 LSWE 2284 LSWE 1249 HDEM 6791 HDEM 11542 HDEM 11527 HDEM 9786 HDEM 11860 LSWE 2281 HDEM 12289 HDEM 8341 LSWE 1835 HDEM 9354 LSWE 2847 HDEM 5193 HDEM 8123 HDEM 11561 LSWE 1418 HDEM d12205 LSWE 2245 HDEM D5408 HDEM 10564 LSWE 1404 HDEM 11598 LSWE 232 HDEM 10989 LSWE 736

Calytrix leschenaultii Calytrix tetragona Canavalia maritima Capparis spinosa Capparis umbonata Cartonema philydroides Cassytha aurea var. hirta Cassytha melantha Cassytha pomiformis Casuarina cristata Casuarina cristata subsp. pauper Casuarina obesa Centipeda minima Cephalipterum drummondii Small White Chamelaucium uncinatum Chenopodium gaudichaudianum Choretrum glomeratum Chorizema cordatum Chorizema dicksonii Chorizema ilicifolium Chorizema varium Cissus adnata Clematis microphylla Clematis pubescens Cleome viscosa Cochlospermum fraseri Codonocarpus cotinifolius Commersonia gaudichaudii Conospermum leianthum Conospermum teretifolium Conospermum toddii Conospermum undulatum Conostylis aculeata subsp. preissii Conostylis seorsiflora subsp. trichophylla Coopernookia polygalacea Corchorus walcottii Corymbia cliftoniana Corymbia dichromophloia Corymbia ficifolia Corymbia haematoxylon Corymbia polycarpa Corymbia setosa Corymbia zygophylla Cullen badocanum Cullen cinereum Cullen lachnostachys Cullen leucanthum Cullen martinii Cullen plumosum Cullen pustulatum Cymbopogon obtectus Dampiera dentata Dampiera incana Darwinia citriodora Darwinia diosmoides Darwinia meeboldii Darwinia virescens

LSWE 2188 HDEM 12026 LSWE 1523 HDEM d12403 HDEM 5951 HDEM 5556 LSWE 3614 LSWE 3030 HDEM 10894 HDEM 12003 HDEM 11196 LSWE 776 HDEM 10912 LSWE 2440 LSWE 2455 LSWE 3130 LSWE 3294 LSWE 2282 LSWE 381 HDEM 9857 LSWE 3187 LSWE 3527 HDEM 4045 HDEM 8455 HDEM 8454 HDEM 9330 HDEM 10584 HDEM 10919 HDEM 9919 HDEM 11772 LSWE 1431 HDEM 7132 HDEM 11024 HDEM 5724 HDEM 11007 HDEM 12321 HDEM 11003 HDEM 12542 LSWE 2976 LSWE 1262 HDEM 12040 HDEM 8500 LSWE 3272 HDEM 9944 221

Australian Seeds

Name

Collector number

Name

Collector number

Dasypogon bromeliifolius Daucus glochidiatus Daviesia bursarioides Daviesia cordata Daviesia flexuosa Daviesia megacalyx Daviesia oppositifolia Daviesia spiralis Daviesia teretifolia Dianella revoluta Dicrastylis cordifolia var. cordifolia Didymanthus roei Diocirea violacea Dioscorea hastifolia Diospyros ferrea Diplolaena angustifolia Diplolaena microcephala Diplopeltis eriocarpa Diplopeltis stuartii var. stuartii Dodonaea aptera Dodonaea divaricata Dodonaea hackettiana Dodonaea lobulata Dodonaea pinifolia Dodonaea stenozyga Drosera indica Drummondita ericoides Drummondita hassellii Drummondita longifolia Dryandra arborea Dryandra armata Dryandra carlinoides Dryandra cirsioides Dryandra formosa Dryandra praemorsa Dryandra pulchella Dryandra quercifolia Dryandra serratuloides subsp. perissa Dryandra sessilis Dryandra speciosa Duboisia hopwoodii Dysphania rhadinostachya Dysphania rhadinostachya subsp. Inflata

LSWE 3668 LSWE 3119 LSWE Pop3 HDEM 11217 NS 1089 LSWE 3072 NS 11195 LSWE 3155 NS 167-817 HDEM 11596 LSWE 2956 HDEM 11432 LSWE 3711 HDEM 9853 HDEM 10893 HDEM 8648 HDEM 10333 HDEM 10285 LSWE 3871 HDEM 7641 HDEM 5219 HDEM 7286 LSWE 2900 HDEM 7996 HDEM 11107 LSWE 989 LSWE 3371 HDEM 11572 LSWE 4770 LSWE 1581 LSWE 427 LSWE 3335 LSWE 1610 HDEM 11533 HDEM 8060 LSWE 3178 HDEM 11957 LSWE 2706 HDEM 4247 HDEM 9288 LSWE 3122 LSWE 1037

HDEM 11682 LSWE 2470 LSWE 3709 LSWE 2140 HDEM 2481

Ehretia saligna Enchylaena tomentosa Enneapogon avenaceus Enneapogon cylindricus Enneapogon oblongus Enneapogon polyphyllus Epilobium hirtigerum Eragrostis dielsii Eragrostis setifolia Eremaea asterocarpa subsp. brachyclada Eremaea ebracteata Eremaea violacea Eremophila bignoniiflora Eremophila calorhabdos

HDEM 10928 HDEM 9642 LSWE 2930 LSWE 2927 LSWE 2929 LSWE 2026 HDEM 10017 HDEM 10538 LSWE 2147

Eremophila chamaephila Eremophila granitica Eremophila ionantha Eremophila longifolia Eremophila maculata Eremophila oldfieldii subsp. angustifolia Eremophila platycalyx Eremophila racemosa Eremophila undulata Eriachne flaccida Eriachne sulcata Eriocaulon cinereum Erymophyllum ramosum Erymophyllum tenellum Erythrina vespertilio Erythrophleum chlorostachys Eucalyptus abdita Eucalyptus aff. argyphea Eucalyptus angulosa Eucalyptus arachnaea subsp. arachnaea Eucalyptus brevifolia Eucalyptus buprestium Eucalyptus burracoppinensis Eucalyptus caesia Eucalyptus caesia subsp. magna Eucalyptus calcicola Eucalyptus camaldulensis Eucalyptus campaspe Eucalyptus celastroides Eucalyptus conglobata Eucalyptus coronata Eucalyptus desmondensis Eucalyptus diptera Eucalyptus diversicolor Eucalyptus ebbanoensis Eucalyptus erythrocorys Eucalyptus erythronema Eucalyptus eudesmioides Eucalyptus foecunda Eucalyptus forrestiana Eucalyptus gamophylla Eucalyptus gardneri Eucalyptus gongylocarpa Eucalyptus griffithsii Eucalyptus guilfoylei Eucalyptus impensa Eucalyptus incerata Eucalyptus insularis Eucalyptus jucunda Eucalyptus kessellii Eucalyptus kingsmillii subsp. kingsmillii Eucalyptus lane-poolei Eucalyptus lehmannii Eucalyptus leprophloia Eucalyptus leptopoda Eucalyptus loxophleba subsp. gratiae

222

HDEM 6989

RHNA 8317541 LSWE 691 LSWE 3349 HDEM 10094 HDEM 12091

LSWE 2313 LSWE 1333 GBRA GB142 LSWE 2952 LSWE 2429 LSWE 993 HDEM 11011 HDEM 11996 HDEM 11883 HDEM 11769 HDEM 10906 LSWE 1792 LSWE 3068 HDEM 9754 LSWE 726 HDEM 4398 HDEM D12394 LSWE 3584 HDEM 6869 LSWE 2619 LSWE 593 HDEM 11332 HDEM 9105 HDEM 7177 HDEM 4956 HDEM 11560 HDEM 4951 HDEM 6274 ANON 4269 HDEM 11356 LSWE 1222 HDEM 10532 HDEM 10518 HDEM 11756 HDEM 12416 LSWE 2020 HDEM 7941 HDEM 10644 HDEM 7185 HDEM 6661 LSWE 3363 LSWE 4444 LSWE 507 HDEM 11294 LSWE 1710 LSWE 3720 HDEM 11802 LSWE 1663 LSWE 3345 LSWE 698 HDEM 7928

Appendix 2: Specimen vouchers for the seed photographs

Name

Collector number

Name

Collector number

Eucalyptus macrocarpa Eucalyptus marginata Eucalyptus megacarpa Eucalyptus microtheca Eucalyptus newbeyi Eucalyptus obtusiflora Eucalyptus oldfieldii Eucalyptus oleosa Eucalyptus oraria Eucalyptus oxymitra Eucalyptus patellaris Eucalyptus petraea Eucalyptus phaenophylla subsp. interjacens Eucalyptus phenax Eucalyptus phoenicea Eucalyptus pileata Eucalyptus pluricaulis Eucalyptus polita Eucalyptus preissiana Eucalyptus pyriformis Eucalyptus rhodantha var. rhodantha Eucalyptus rudis Eucalyptus salmonophloia Eucalyptus salubris Eucalyptus sheathiana Eucalyptus spathulata Eucalyptus staeri Eucalyptus stoatei Eucalyptus stowardii Eucalyptus talyuberlup Eucalyptus tetraptera Eucalyptus torquata Eucalyptus transcontinentalis Eucalyptus uncinata Eucalyptus wandoo Eucalyptus youngiana Eulalia aurea Euphorbia australis Exocarpos aphyllus Exocarpos sparteus

LSWE 428 HDEM 10062 HDEM 11939 HDEM 7560 GKEI SN HDEM 368 HDEM 10633 HDEM 9753 HDEM 11319 HDEM 7235 S 749 LSWE 2717

HDEM 10820 HDEM 12068 HDEM 10813 LSWE 3236 LSWE 1405 HDEM 6225 LSWE 4646 LSWE 4641

Feldstonia nitens Fimbristylis cephalophora Flaveria australasica

LSWE 2405 LSWE 1040 S 535/92

Gahnia decomposita Gardenia keartlandii Gastrolobium bilobum Gastrolobium bracteolosum Gastrolobium calycinum Gastrolobium celsianum Gastrolobium crassifolium Gastrolobium glaucum Gastrolobium laytonii Gastrolobium parviflorum Gastrolobium spinosum Gastrolobium stenophyllum Glischrocaryon roei

HDEM 12060 HDEM 12499 HDEM 6790 HDEM 10398 HDEM 9170 LSWE 3686 HDEM 7938 LSWE 4389 HDEM 2920 HDEM 11062 HDEM d5950 HDEM 3162 HDEM 11069

Glycine canescens Glycyrrhiza acanthocarpa Gnephosis macrocephala Gompholobium confertum Gompholobium polyzygum Gompholobium scabrum Gomphrena canescens Gomphrena cunninghamii Gomphrena leptoclada subsp. leptoclada Goodenia affinis Goodenia berardiana Goodenia coronopifolia Goodenia corynocarpa Goodenia fasciculata Goodenia forrestii Goodenia hassallii Goodenia helmsii Goodenia lamprosperma Goodenia micrantha Goodenia pinifolia Goodenia pinnatifida Goodenia scapigera Goodia medicaginea Gossypium australe Gossypium populifolium Gossypium robinsonii Gossypium sturtianum Grevillea acacioides Grevillea acrobotrya Grevillea agrifolia Grevillea annulifera Grevillea argyrophylla Grevillea armigera Grevillea asteriscosa Grevillea bipinnatifida Grevillea candelabroides Grevillea candicans Grevillea christineae Grevillea commutata Grevillea costata Grevillea didymobotrya Grevillea dielsiana Grevillea dimidiata Grevillea drummondii subsp. pimeleoides Grevillea eryngioides Grevillea excelsior Grevillea fulgens Grevillea georgeana Grevillea gordoniana Grevillea inconspicua Grevillea intricata Grevillea leptopoda Grevillea leucopteris Grevillea manglesii subsp. manglesii Grevillea nudiflora Grevillea obliquistigma subsp. obliquistigma

LSWE 3523 HDEM 11571 ANON SN HDEM 11355 LSWE 2797 LSWE 3545 HDEM 11711 HDEM 10110 JS 272 HDEM 11846 LSWE 1576 LSWE 4170 LSWE 1858 HDEM 10552 LSWE 3263 HDEM 10408 HDEM 11380 GKEI 2320 HDEM 10409 LSWE 2897 HDEM 7984 HDEM 9057 HDEM 8088 HDEM 3798 LSWE 2116 HDEM 10998 LSWE 1903 LSWE 1708

LSWE 4496 HDEM 11998 LSWE 3937 LSWE 802 ANON BEDS40 HDEM 11626 HDEM 4809 HDEM 8573 HDEM 7918 LSWE 1491 LSWE 2354 HDEM D12452 LSWE 267 HDEM 12409 LSWE 1635 HDEM 12328 LSWE 898 HDEM 12322 RBLA SN LSWE 5027 LSWE 5414 HDEM 10921 HDEM 10488 LSWE 5449 LSWE 5322 LSWE 5495 HDEM 10002 HDEM 9243 LSWE 693 LSWE 4347 LSWE 5299 HDEM 11438 ANON SN LSWE 5297 HDEM 10945 KPBG SN LSWE 5490 LSWE 5105 LSWE 5365 LSWE 1583 HDEM 8609 LSWE 3991 LSWE 5453 LSWE 5455 LSWE 5445 HDEM 12039 LSWE 5384 LSWE 4121 223

Australian Seeds

Name

Collector number

Name

Collector number

Grevillea paniculata Grevillea paradoxa Grevillea polybotrya Grevillea pterosperma Grevillea pyramidalis Grevillea refracta Grevillea secunda Grevillea stenobotrya Grevillea synapheae Grevillea teretifolia Grevillea wickhamii Grevillea wilsonii Guichenotia ledifolia Guichenotia macrantha Gunniopsis propinqua Gyrocarpus americanus Gyrostemon ramulosus Gyrostemon tepperi

HDEM 10519 HDEM d5877 LSWE 5513 LSWE 5465 LSWE 1513 LSWE 1062 LSWE 4063 JKIT SN HDEM 9498 HDEM 5481 LSWE 1467 LSWE 5456 LSWE 3541 HDEM 10520 LSWE 2411 HDEM 10910 HDEM d12352 LSWE 3121

Haemodorum simulans Haemodorum spicatum Hakea aculeata Hakea adnata Hakea ambigua Hakea arborescens Hakea auriculata Hakea baxteri Hakea brachyptera Hakea brookeana Hakea candolleana Hakea ceratophylla Hakea cinerea Hakea circumalata Hakea commutata Hakea conchifolia Hakea costata Hakea cucullata Hakea cyclocarpa Hakea elliptica Hakea erinacea Hakea falcata Hakea ferruginea Hakea florida Hakea francisiana Hakea gilbertii Hakea hookeriana Hakea incrassata Hakea invaginata Hakea lasiantha Hakea laurina Hakea macrocarpa Hakea marginata Hakea meisneriana Hakea multilineata Hakea nitida Hakea obliqua Hakea oldfieldii Hakea pandanicarpa Hakea pandanicarpa subsp. crassifolia

HDEM 10473 HDEM 8027 LSWE 4449 LSWE 528 HDEM 9842 HDEM 11318 HDEM 11287 HDEM 9722 HDEM 10551 RBLA SN HDEM 9371 HDEM 7813 HDEM 9072 HDEM 10113 HDEM 10550 HDEM 5062 HDEM 12050 HDEM d12401 HDEM 8065 HDEM d12380 HDEM 6146 HDEM 11839 HDEM 10374 LSWE 305 LSWE 146 RBLA SN HDEM 6838 HDEM 10609 LSWE 2407 HDEM d12372 HDEM 12097 LSWE 3439 HDEM 9808 HDEM 1564 HDEM 9809 HDEM 9820 RBLA SN HDEM 2096 LSWE 519

Hakea petiolaris Hakea platysperma Hakea preissii Hakea prostrata Hakea pycnoneura Hakea recurva Hakea recurva subsp. arida Hakea scoparia Hakea stenophylla Hakea trifurcata Hakea undulata Hakea varia Hakea victoria Halgania andromedifolia Halgania cyanea Halgania solanacea Haloragis gossei Haloragis odontocarpa Haloragis trigonocarpa Halosarcia halocnemoides Hannafordia bissillii Hannafordia quadrivalvis Hardenbergia comptoniana Heliotropium cunninghamii Heliotropium curassavicum Hemiandra pungens Hemigenia barbata Hibbertia conspicua Hibbertia montana Hibiscus meraukensis Hibiscus panduriformis Hibiscus sturtii var. campylochlamys Homalospermum firmum Hovea elliptica Hovea pungens Hyalosperma cotula Hyalosperma glutinosum subsp. venustum Hyalosperma zacchaeus Hybanthus aurantiacus Hybanthus floribundus Hybanthus volubilis Hypocalymma angustifolium Hypocalymma robustum

HDEM 10376 HDEM 12437 HDEM 10415 HDEM 10413 HDEM 11427 HDEM 10509 LSWE 2241 HDEM 10330 HDEM 11299 HDEM 3721 HDEM 11255 HDEM 4652 LSWE 1638 LSWE 3118 HDEM d12268 LSWE 1060 HDEM 10231 HDEM 12226 LSWE 2176 HDEM 9526 ANON C202/88 HDEM 5780 HDEM 9994 HDEM 8406 HDEM 7565 HDEM 12366 HDEM 10437 LSWE 1838 HDEM 11586 LSWE 914 HDEM 8428

Indigofera australis Indigofera boviperda Indigofera brevidens Indigofera colutea Indigofera hirsuta Indigofera monophylla Ipomoea costata Ipomoea muelleri Isopogon axillaris Isopogon cuneatus Isopogon polycephalus Isopogon scabriusculus Isopogon sphaerocephalus Isopogon trilobus

LSWE 3124 HDEM 8813 HDEM 7197 HDEM 10303 HDEM 12582 HDEM 10232 LSWE 872 HDEM 12312 HDEM 11240 HDEM 11943 HDEM 9770 LSWE 3562 HDEM 10616 HDEM 11239

224

LSWE 459

LSWE 1063 HDEM 7808 LSWE 3241 HDEM 10452 LSWE 3662 HDEM 11383 LSWE 2323 HDEM 12603 LSWE 2291 LSWE 599 HDEM 5382 HDEM 12370

Appendix 2: Specimen vouchers for the seed photographs

Name

Collector number

Name

Collector number

Isotoma petraea Isotropis atropurpurea Ixiochlamys cuneifolia Ixiochlamys filicifolia

HDEM 8324 HDEM 11020 LSWE 2172 S1002/92/

Jacksonia angulata Jacksonia floribunda Jacksonia furcellata Jacksonia lehmannii Jacksonia sericea Jacquemontia paniculata Johnsonia lupulina Josephinia eugeniae Juncus holoschoenus

HDEM 8566 HDEM 9606 HDEM 2222 HDEM 10502 HDEM 9596 HDEM 12522 HDEM 9838 LSWE 871 HDEM 8033

Kennedia macrophylla Kennedia prorepens Kennedia stirlingii Keraudrenia hermanniifolia Keraudrenia integrifolia Kingia australis Kippistia suaedifolia Kunzea baxteri Kunzea ericifolia Kunzea micrantha

LSWE 3628 HDEM 7005 HDEM 10446 HDEM 5491 LSWE 1359 LSWE 1813 HDEM 10201 HDEM 11969 HDEM 11735 HDEM 3739

Leucochrysum stipitatum Leucopogon obovatus Leucopogon propinquus Livistona alfredii Lobelia heterophylla Lobelia tenuior Lobelia winfridae Logania vaginalis Lomandra hastilis Lotus australis Lotus cruentus Ludwigia octovalvis Ludwigia perennis Luffa graveolens Lycium australe Lysinema ciliatum Lysiosepalum involucratum

LSWE 2234 LSWE 2870 HDEM 11815 LSWE 3780 HDEM 11168 HDEM 9490 LSWE 2987 HDEM 6748 HDEM 12444 HDEM 7714 HDEM 9019 LSWE 964 HDEM 12584 HDEM 12610 HDEM 6938 HDEM 9470 HDEM 11087

Labichea cassioides Labichea lanceolata Labichea punctata Labichea teretifolia Lachnostachys eriobotrya Lachnostachys verbascifolia Lambertia fairallii Lambertia ilicifolia Lambertia multiflora Lambertia rariflora Lasiopetalum quinquenervium Lawrencia densiflora Lawrencia helmsii Lawrencia repens Lawrencia spicata Lawrencia viridigrisea Lechenaultia biloba Lechenaultia expansa Lechenaultia floribunda Lechenaultia linarioides Lechenaultia macrantha Lechenaultia stenosepala Lepidium linifolium Lepidium oxytrichum Lepidium phlebopetalum Lepidobolus deserti Lepidosperma gladiatum Leptorhynchos scaber Leptosema anomalum Leptosema aphyllum Leptosema chambersii Leptospermum erubescens Leptospermum spinescens Leucochrysum fitzgibbonii

HDEM 8594 HDEM 11236 HDEM 11700 HDEM 10483 HDEM 9508 LSWE 2419 LSWE 2833 LSWE 3208 HDEM 9380 KBRO SN LSWE 1684 HDEM 7140 LSWE 3718 HDEM 4894 HDEM 10007 LSWE 1832 HDEM 6757 HDEM 8667 HDEM 11177 HDEM 11190 HDEM 9956 HDEM 9228 HDEM 7131 LSWE 2055 HDEM 10822 LSWE 2280 HDEM 10042 ANON 19880265 HDEM 10993 HDEM 11137 LSWE 2981 LSWE 3190 HDEM 10459 LSWE 2263

Maireana appressa Maireana carnosa Maireana convexa Maireana enchylaenoides Maireana georgei Maireana glomerifolia Maireana pentatropis Maireana pyramidata Maireana tomentosa Maireana triptera Malleostemon roseus Mallophora globiflora Malvastrum americanum Marsdenia australis Melaleuca acerosa Melaleuca blaeriifolia Melaleuca citrina Melaleuca coccinea Melaleuca conothamnoides Melaleuca cordata Melaleuca cuticularis Melaleuca eleuterostachya Melaleuca fulgens subsp. steedmanii Melaleuca globifera Melaleuca holosericea Melaleuca huegelii Melaleuca incana Melaleuca lateriflora subsp. acutifolia Melaleuca lateritia Melaleuca leiopyxis Melaleuca leptospermoides Melaleuca megacephala Melaleuca nematophylla Melaleuca nervosa Melaleuca nesophila Melaleuca oldfieldii Melaleuca pentagona Melaleuca platycalyx Melaleuca pulchella Melaleuca pungens

LSWE 2911 LSWE 2979 HDEM 6935 HDEM 4602 LSWE 200 HDEM 6955 LSWE 2950 HDEM 6937 HDEM 10809 HDEM 12242 HDEM 8623 HDEM 10535 LSWE 2922 HDEM 7251A HDEM 5477 LSWE 312 HDEM 12103 HDEM 6548 LSWE 287 HDEM 11913 HDEM 9046 HDEM 12334 HDEM 10364 LSWE 508 HDEM 11795 HDEM 12022 HDEM 11203 LSWE 2743 HDEM 8118 HDEM 12173 HDEM 9041 HDEM 12191 HDEM 8183 JBEA 5567 RBLA SN HDEM 5411 LSWE 2862 HDEM 9051 HDEM 11712 HDEM 9060 225

Australian Seeds

Name

Collector number

Name

Collector number

Melaleuca radula Melaleuca scabra Melaleuca sciotostyla Melaleuca sclerophylla Melaleuca seriata Melaleuca sheathiana Melaleuca spathulata Melaleuca steedmanii Melaleuca striata Melaleuca thyoides Melaleuca uncinata Melaleuca urceolaris Melaleuca viridiflora Micromyrtus flaviflora Millotia myosotidifolia Mimusops elengi Minuria leptophylla Mirbelia ramulosa Mirbelia spinosa Mollugo molluginis Muehlenbeckia adpressa Myoporum acuminatum Myoporum insulare Myoporum oppositifolium Myriocephalus guerinae Myriocephalus helichrysoides Myriocephalus rudallii

HDEM 10730 HDEM 11244 LSWE 4465 HDEM 11421 HDEM 11375 LSWE 1735 HDEM 9050 HDEM 10168 HDEM 11955 HDEM 11243 LSWE 566 HDEM 7550 HDEM 10922 LSWE 2973 ANON SN HDEM 12625 LSWE 2945 HDEM 5800 HDEM 10287 LSWE 1057 HDEM d12408 HDEM 11040 HDEM 11714 LSWE 598 LSWE 208 H 161/88 HDEM 12357

Nauclea orientalis Neobassia astrocarpa Newcastelia cephalantha var. tephropepla Newcastelia cladotricha Nicotiana occidentalis Nicotiana occidentalis subsp. obliqua Nicotiana rosulata subsp. ingulba Nitraria billardierei

HDEM 10930 HDEM 10856

HDEM 8243 LSWE 2186 HDEM 120100

Olearia arida Olearia axillaris Olearia cassiniae Olearia decurrens Olearia muelleri Olearia muricata Olearia paucidentata Olearia pimeleoides Olearia rudis Operculina brownii Owenia reticulata Owenia vernicosa Ozothamnus occidentalis

LSWE 2972 HDEM 11750 HDEM 11900 LSWE 2357 HDEM 10337 HDEM 12110 HDEM 10617 HDEM D12460 LSWE 590 LSWE 849 LSWE 1511 LSWE 994 HDEM 11672

Paraserianthes lophantha Parietaria debilis Patersonia limbata Patersonia occidentalis Pennisetum basedowii Pentaptilon careyi Peplidium muelleri

HDEM 12061 LSWE 2360 LSWE 1847 LSWE 3687 LSWE 882 HDEM 11047 HDEM 5221

Pericalymma ellipticum Persoonia longifolia Persoonia saudersiana Persoonia striata Petalostigma quadriloculare Petalostylis labicheoides Petrophile biloba Petrophile conifera Petrophile divaricata Petrophile diversifolia Petrophile drummondii Petrophile ericifolia Petrophile heterophylla Petrophile linearis Petrophile longifolia Petrophile macrostachya Petrophile media Petrophile seminuda Petrophile squamata Petrophile teretifolia Philotheca spicata Philydrella pygmaea Phyllanthus calycinus Phymatocarpus porphyrocephalus Pileanthus filifolius Pileanthus peduncularis Pimelea argentea Pimelea imbricata Pimelea leucantha Pimelea microcephala Pimelea physodes Pimelea rosea Pimelea spectabilis Pimelea sylvestris Pittosporum phylliraeoides Pityrodia axillaris Pityrodia cuneata Pityrodia paniculata Pityrodia terminalis Pityrodia verbascina Plantago drummondii Platysace compressa Platysace juncea Pluchea tetranthera Podolepis auriculata Podolepis canescens Podolepis capillaris Podolepis gardneri Podolepis gracilis Podolepis kendallii Podolepis rugata Podotheca angustifolia Podotheca chrysantha Podotheca gnaphalioides Podotheca wilsonii Pogonolepis stricta Polycarpaea holtzei Polycarpaea longiflora Porana sericea Portulaca oleracea

LSWE 3234 GBRA gb90 LSWE 569 LSWE 2653 LSWE 938 LSWE 1450 HDEM 6563 HDEM 10786 HDEM 9779 HDEM 9434 HDEM 10722 HDEM 9739 HDEM 10611 HDEM 11095 HDEM 7864 HDEM 6886 HDEM 1797 HDEM 4962 LSWE 432 LSWE 482 HDEM 9851 HDEM 6629 HDEM 9164 HDEM 6441 HDEM 11646 HDEM 11058 HDEM 9578 HDEM 11622 HDEM 9411 HDEM 10319 LSWE 3056 HDEM 11585 HDEM d12367 HDEM 11980 HDEM 10061 HDEM 11118 HDEM 12349 HDEM 11031 LSWE 1596 HDEM 11189 HDEM 10195 LSWE 742 HDEM 11657 HDEM 8387 HDEM 10814 LSWE 2320 LSWE 2331 LSWE 2177 HDEM 12055 LSWE 214 LSWE 3077 LSWE 81/87/5/ HDEM 11501 HDEM 12031 LSWE 2380 LSWE 2425 HDEM 12318 HDEM 6063 HDEM d12280 LSWE 3445

226

HDEM 12267 HDEM 10873 LSWE 2169

Appendix 2: Specimen vouchers for the seed photographs

Name

Collector number

Name

Collector number

Prostanthera wilkieana Pterocaulon sphacelatum Ptilotus aervoides Ptilotus albidus Ptilotus arthrolasius Ptilotus astrolasius Ptilotus auriculifolius Ptilotus calostachyus Ptilotus clementii Ptilotus conicus Ptilotus corymbosus Ptilotus gaudichaudii Ptilotus helichrysoides Ptilotus incanus Ptilotus polystachyus Ptilotus schwartzii Ptilotus trichocephalus

LSWE 1574 HDEM 10835 LSWE 1346 LSWE 3996 HDEM 10830 LSWE 3774 LSWE 3767 LSWE 3819 LSWE 1035 HDEM 12594 HDEM 12546 LSWE 3790 LSWE 1580 LSWE 3775 PMOO 4467 LSWE 3826 LSWE 4564

HDEM 10355 LSWE 3534 HDEM 9975 LSWE 827

Radyera farragei Regelia ciliata Regelia inops Regelia megacephala Rhadinothamnus anceps Rhagodia baccata Rhagodia preissii Rhodante condensata Rhodanthe charsleyae Rhodanthe citrina Rhodanthe condensata Rhodanthe humboldtiana Rhodanthe propinqua Rhodanthe rubella Rhodanthe stricta Rhodanthe tietkensii Rhynchospora affinis Ricinocarpos tuberculatus

HDEM 10493 RBLA SN HDEM 11526 LSWE 4328 HDEM 12011 HDEM 10071 HDEM 10356 HDEM SN LSWE 2222 HDEM 11849 HDEM 12343 LSWE 2424 LSWE 271 S 1226/92/ LSWE 257 LSWE 2122 LSWE 831 HDEM 11972

Salsola tragus Samolus junceus Santalum acuminatum Santalum lanceolatum Santalum spicatum Scaevola acacioides Scaevola crassifolia Scaevola glandulifera Scaevola globulifera Scaevola parvifolia subsp. parvifolia Scaevola pulchella Scaevola sericophylla Scaevola spinescens Scaevola thesioides Schoenia ayersii Schoenia cassiniana Scholtzia capitata Scholtzia involucrata Sclerolaena bicornis Sclerolaena densiflora Sclerolaena eriacantha Sclerolaena hostilis

LSWE 1036 HDEM 8580 HDEM 12651 HDEM 12311 LSWE 413 LSWE 1457 LSWE 2460 HDEM 9436 HDEM 8647

Senecio pinnatifolius Senecio quadridentatus Senna artemisioides Senna costata Senna glutinosa subsp. chatelainiana Senna helmsii Senna notabilis Senna planitiicola Senna pleurocarpa Sesbania cannabina Sesbania erubescens Sesbania formosa Sesbania simpliciuscula Sida clementii Sida echinocarpa Sida kingii Sida rohlenae Siloxerus humifusus Siloxerus pygmaeus Solanum coactiliferum Solanum cunninghamii Solanum diversiflorum Solanum hystrix Solanum sturtianum Sondottia connata Sorghum intrans Spinifex longifolius Spyridium globulosum Stachystemon axillaris Stackhousia megaloptera Stackhousia monogyna Stemodia grossa Stenopetalum filifolium Stenopetalum lineare Stenopetalum sphaerocarpum Stirlingia latifolia Stirlingia simplex Strangea cynanchocarpa Streptoglossa cylindriceps Streptoglossa decurrens Stylidium adnatum Stylidium bulbiferum Stylidium scandens Stylobasium australe Stylobasium spathulatum Styphelia tenuiflora Swainsona canescens Swainsona formosa Swainsona maccullochiana Swainsona phacoides Swainsona pterostylis Swainsona stenodonta Synaphea favosa Templetonia retusa Templetonia sulcata Tephrosia coriacea Tephrosia flammea Tephrosia rosea

LSWE 594 HDEM 11127 HDEM 10828 HDEM 10305 HDEM 7036

LSWE 1363 LSWE 1505 HDEM 10286 HDEM 9636 LSWE 1520 LSWE 2156 LSWE 2306 HDEM 11173 HDEM 12488 HDEM 10846 LSWE 1347 HDEM 8229 HDEM 10217

LSWE 647 HDEM 8390 HDEM 10223 HDEM 12540 HDEM 12081 HDEM 12288 LSWE 878 HDEM d12292 HDEM 12571 HDEM 10142 HDEM 9912 LSWE 1519 LSWE 905 HDEM 12037 HDEM 8175 LSWE 2035 LSWE 866 LSWE 1485 LSWE 2482 LSWE 1453 LSWE 1269 HDEM 8755 HDEM 11191 HDEM 12004 ANON T55/87 LSWE 2985 HDEM 11075 HDEM 9931 LSWE 1861 HDEM 8232 HDEM 8239 LSWE 731 LSWE 3580 HDEM 12150 HDEM 11906 HDEM 10840 HDEM 11697 HDEM 11627 HDEM 12370 HDEM 11608 HDEM 12353 HDEM 9612 HDEM 11128 LSWE 1465 HDEM 12284 LSWE 2499 LSWE 2227 HDEM 12335 HDEM 12384

227

Australian Seeds

Name

Collector number

Name

Collector number

Terminalia arostrata Terminalia canescens Terminalia latipes Terminalia petiolaris Terminalia volucris Tetragonia cristata Tetragonia diptera Tetragonia implexicoma Thespesia populneoides Threlkeldia diffusa Thryptomene australis Thryptomene hyporhytis Thryptomene strongylophylla Thryptomene urceolaris Trachymene cyanopetala Trachymene dendrothrix Trachymene didiscoides Trachymene glaucifolia Trachymene oleracea Trachymene ornata Trianthema oxycalyptra Trianthema patellitecta Trianthema triquetra Trianthema turgidifolia Tribulus astrocarpus Tribulus cistoides Tribulus hirsutus Tribulus hystrix Tribulus macrocarpus Tribulus platypterus Trichanthodium skirrophorum Trichodesma zeylanicum Triodia pungens Tripterococcus brunonis Triumfetta appendiculata Triumfetta chaetocarpa Triumfetta leptacantha Triumfetta plumigera Troida bitextura Troida danthonioides Trymalium floribundum Trymalium ledifolium Trymalium spathulatum

LSWE 774 HDEM 10958 LSWE 929 HDEM 12626 LSWE 968 HDEM 12154 HDEM 9639 HDEM 9009 HDEM 10974 HDEM 12181 HDEM 12418 HDEM 7684 LSWE 2448 LSWE 3001 LSWE 235 HDEM 10965 LSWE 940 HDEM 10219 LSWE 1475 HDEM 12225 HDEM 12552 LSWE 1479 LSWE 912 LSWE 1493 HDEM 7111 LSWE 773 HDEM 10247 HDEM 10887 HDEM 10265 HDEM 10245 HDEM SN HDEM 9535 HDEM 12496 HDEM 12033 HDEM 10861 HDEM 10860 HDEM 12516 HDEM 12637 GBRA 12498 LSWE 2433 LSWE 2604 HDEM 11518 HDEM 10447

Velleia panduriformis Velleia rosea Velleia trinervis Verticordia brachypoda Verticordia brownii Verticordia chrysantha Verticordia cooloomia Verticordia densiflora Verticordia eriocephala Verticordia forrestii Verticordia grandis Verticordia lindleyi Verticordia lindleyi subsp. purpurea Verticordia monadelpha Verticordia nitens Verticordia penicillaris Verticordia polytricha Verticordia roei Villarsia albiflora Villarsia parnassifolia Viminaria juncea Vittadinia dissecta Vittadinia gracilis Vittadinia humerata

HDEM 10890 LSWE 2315 HDEM 11227 LSWE 1760 HDEM 10541 HDEM 11074 LSWE 2458 LSWE 3267 LSWE 3705 LSWE 1509 NS 271 HDEM 12487

Wahlenbergia preissii Wahlenbergia tumidifructa Waitzia acuminata Waitzia suaveolens Waltheria virgata Westringia cephalantha

HDEM SN HDEM 10823 LSWE 406 HDEM 10472 HDEM 8397 HDEM 11721

Xanthorrhoea gracilis Xanthorrhoea nana Xanthorrhoea preissii Xanthosia atkinsoniana Xanthosia rotundifolia Xanthosia tomentosa Xenostegia tridentata Xerochloa laniflora Xylomelum angustifolium Xylomelum occidentale

HDEM 12047 LSWE 3551 HDEM 11175 LSWE 732 LSWE 3262 LSWE 1801 LSWE 926 LSWE 862 LSWE 573 HDEM 10578

Velleia connata Velleia cycnopotamica Velleia daviesii Velleia discophora Velleia hispida

LSWE 1462 LSWE 253 LSWE 2491 HDEM 10510 LSWE 2224

Zygophyllum aurantiacum Zygophyllum eremaeum Zygophyllum iodocarpum Zygophyllum retivalve

HDEM 10307 LSWE 2899 HDEM 4589 HDEM 10748

228

HDEM 11726 LSWE 3151 HDEM 12493 HDEM 11052 HDEM 9240 LSWE 3136 HDEM 10427 LSWE 3636 HDEM 12030 HDEM d12662 LSWE 1671 LSWE 2309

Appendix 3: List of common names

Common name

Botanical name

Common name

Botanical name

Acorn Banksia Afghan Thistle Albany Banksia Albany Blackbutt Albany Bottlebrush Albany Catspaw Albany Daisy Albany Pitcher Plant Albizia Alexander River Mallee Angled Lobelia Aniseed Boronia Annual Bluebell Annual Saltbush Annual Verbine Apple Bush Apple Mallee Appressed-leaf Sunray Arsenic Bush Ashburton Pea Ashby’s Banksia Ashy Hakea Augusta Kennedia Austral Trefoil Australian Bindweed Australian Bindweed Australian Bluebell Australian Boxthorn Australian Carrot Australian Ebony Australian Indigo Australian Sage Australian Senna Autumn Scrub Daisy Awled Honeypot

Banksia prionotes Solanum hystrix Banksia verticillata Eucalyptus staeri Callistemon speciosus Anigozanthos preissii Actinodium cunninghamii Cephalotus follicularis Paraserianthes lophantha Eucalyptus micranthera Lobelia alata Boronia crenulata Wahlenbergia gracilenta Atriplex semilunaris Cullen cinereum Pterocaulon sphacelatum Eucalyptus buprestium Chrysocephalum puteale Senna planitiicola Swainsona maccullochiana Banksia ashbyi Hakea cinerea Kennedia macrophylla Lotus australis Convolvulus angustissimus Convolvulus erubescens Billardiera fusiformis Lycium australe Daucus glochidiatus Diospyros ferrea Indigofera australis Cratystylis subspinescens Senna costata Olearia paucidentata Dryandra subulata

Baxter’s Banksia Beach Spinifex Bead Hopbush Bearded Dryandra Beard’s Mallee Beaufort Inlet Mallee Beautiful Grevillea Bell-fruited Mallee Bennett’s Mallee Berrigan Berry Saltbush Billybuttons Bindy Eye Bird Hakea Bitter Bush Bitter Quandong Black Eyed Susan Black Kangaroo Paw Black Kennedia Black Marlock Black Morrel Black Oak Black Oak Black Toothbrushes Black Toothbrushes

Bacon and Eggs Baderi Badgingarra Mallee Ball Leaf Bluebush Balloon Vine Banbar Barbalin Boronia Barlee Box Barrel Coneflower Barrens Clawflower Barrens Regelia Barrier Saltbush Basket Bush Batchelors Buttons Bauhinia

Gastrolobium capitatum Acacia inaequilatera Eucalyptus pendens Maireana glomerifolia Cardiospermum halicacabum Melaleuca teretifolia Boronia adamsiana Eucalyptus lucasii Isopogon trilobus Calothamnus validus Regelia velutina Enchylaena tomentosa Spyridium globulosum Gomphrena canescens Bauhinia cunninghamii

Banksia baxteri Spinifex longifolius Dodonaea lobulata Dryandra shuttleworthiana Eucalyptus beardiana Eucalyptus newbeyi Grevillea pulchella Eucalyptus preissiana Eucalyptus bennettiae Eremophila longifolia Rhagodia baccata Calocephalus platycephalus Calotis hispidula Hakea orthorrhyncha Adriana quadripartita Santalum murrayanum Tetratheca hirsuta Macropidia fuliginosa Kennedia nigricans Eucalyptus redunca Eucalyptus melanoxylon Casuarina cristata Casuarina pauper Grevillea apiciloba Grevillea hookeriana subsp. apiciloba Buchnera ramosissima Hibiscus trionum Atriplex vesicaria Swainsona colutoides Rhadinothamnus anceps Conospermum caeruleum Halgania lavandulacea Eryngium pinnatifidum Agrostocrinum scabrum Grevillea agrifolia Hakea lehmanniana Trachymene coerulea Lechenaultia biloba Eucalyptus gardneri Conospermum amoenum Chamaescilla corymbosa Calectasia narragara Dianella revoluta var. divaricata Myoporum insulare Stirlingia latifolia Conospermum brownii Crotalaria verrucosa Adansonia gregorii Amaranthus mitchellii Myoporum tetrandrum

Blackrod Bladder Ketmia Bladder Saltbush Bladder Vetch Blister Bush Blue Brother Blue Bush Blue Devils Blue Grass Lily Blue Grevillea Blue Hakea Blue Lace Flower Blue Leschenaultia Blue Mallet Blue Smokebush Blue Squill Blue Tinsel Lily Blueberry Lily Blueberry Tree Blueboy Blue-eyed Smokebush Blueflower Rattlepod Boab Boggabri Weed Boobialla

229

Australian Seeds

Common name

Botanical name

Common name

Botanical name

Bookleaf Bookleaf Mallee Boree Boree Boronia Bossiaea Bottle Washers Bottlebrush Grevillea Bovine Indigo Bower Spinach Bowgada Bush Box Poison Bracted Grevillea Bramble Wattle Branching Fringe Lily Breelya Bridal Rainbow Bright Podolepis Bristly Cottonhead Bristly Pimelea Bristly Scaevola Brittle Leaved Rulingia Broad Leaved Brown Pea Broadleaf Paperbark Broad-leaved Brachysema Bronze Bluebush Broom Bush Broom Bush Broom Heath Myrtle Broom Spurge Broome Bloodwood Brown Mallet Brush Starflower Bull Banksia Bullich Bullock Bush Bulrush Bunchy Sedge Bunjong Bunu Bunu Burdett Gum Burdett’s Banksia Burma Road Banksia Burracoppin Mallee Bush Flame Pea Bush Minuria Bush Pomegranate Bushy Boronia Bushy Kennedia Bushy Yate Butterfly Flowers Button Creeper

Daviesia cordata Eucalyptus kruseana Melaleuca pauperiflora Melaleuca sheathiana Boronia spathulata Bossiaea bossiaeoides Enneapogon avenaceus Grevillea paradoxa Indigofera georgei Tetragonia implexicoma Acacia linophylla Gastrolobium parviflorum Grevillea bracteosa Acacia victoriae Thysanotus dichotomus Gastrolobium laytonii Drosera macrantha Podolepis canescens Conostylis setigera Pimelea hispida Goodenia fasciculata Rulingia craurophylla Bossiaea ornata Melaleuca viridiflora Gastrolobium latifolium Maireana atkinsiana Eremophila scoparia Melaleuca uncinata Baeckea behrii Calycopeplus paucifolius Corymbia zygophylla Eucalyptus astringens Calytrix asperula Banksia grandis Eucalyptus megacarpa Alectryon oleifolius Typha domingensis Cyperus polystachyos Pimelea spectabilis Stemodia lythrifolia Eucalyptus burdettiana Banksia burdettii Banksia scabrella Eucalyptus burracoppinensis Chorizema varium Minuria cunninghamii Balaustion microphyllum Boronia fastigiata Kennedia stirlingii Eucalyptus lehmannii Philydrella pygmaea Tersonia cyathiflora

Candelbra Wattle Candle Cranberry Candle Hakea Cape Arid Kennedia Cape Range Grevillea Capped Mallee Carnaby’s Mallee Carne’s Blackbutt Cassia Catkin Grevillea Catspaw Cauliflower Hakea Caustic Bush Caustic Bush Caustic Bush

Cabbage Poison Cabbage Poison Caesia Caesia Camel Bush Camel-grass Camphor Myrtle

Velleia discophora Velleia panduriformis Eucalyptus caesia Eucalyptus caesia subsp. caesia Trichodesma zeylanicum Angianthus tomentosus Baeckea camphorosmae

Acacia holosericea Astroloma ciliatum Hakea ruscifolia Kennedia beckxiana Grevillea variifolia Eucalyptus pileata Eucalyptus x carnabyi Eucalyptus carnei Senna venusta Grevillea synapheae Anigozanthos humilis Hakea corymbosa Grevillea dimidiata Grevillea pyramidalis Sarcostemma viminale subsp. australe Banksia caleyi Templetonia sulcata Gastrolobium oxylobioides Marianthus ringens Melaleuca huegelii Lambertia inermis Chorilaena quercifolia Nuytsia floribunda Brachyscome ciliocarpa Stylidium bulbiferum Verticordia grandiflora Calothamnus chrysantherus Melaleuca pulchella Lechenaultia heteromera Eriachne flaccida Brachyscome latisquamea Muehlenbeckia adpressa Ptilotus divaricatus Stylidium scandens Goodia medaciginea Acacia hemignosta Isopogon polycephalus Eucalyptus grossa Leucopogon parviflorus Threlkeldia diffusa Dodonaea aptera Atriplex isatidea Lepidosperma gladiatum Eucalyptus todtiana Pileanthus limacis Olearia axillaris Hakea clavata Alyogyne cuneiformis Melaleuca systena Eucalyptus platypus var. utilis Acacia cyclops Templetonia retusa Senna notabilis Senna occidentalis Marsdenia australis Hakea aculeata

230

Cayley’s Banksia Centipede Bush Champion Bay Poison Chapman Creeper Chenille Honeymyrtle Chittick Chorilaena Christmas Tree Ciliate-fruited Daisy Circus Triggerplant Claw Featherflower Claw Flower Claw Flower Claw Leschenaultia Claypan Grass Climbing Daisy Climbing Lignum Climbing Mulla Mulla Climbing Triggerplant Clover-leaved Poison Clubleaf Wattle Clustered Coneflower Coarse-leaved Mallee Coast Beard-heath Coast Bonefruit Coast Hop-bush Coast Saltbush Coast Sword-sedge Coastal Blackbutt Coastal Coppercups Coastal Daisybush Coastal Hakea Coastal Hibiscus Coastal Honeymyrtle Coastal Moort Coastal Wattle Cockies Tongues Cockroach Bush Coffee Senna Cogola Bush Column Hakea Common Beaked Triggerplant Common Brown Pea

Stylidium adnatum Bossiaea eriocarpa

Appendix 3: List of common names

Common name

Botanical name

Common name

Common Cauliflower Common Clematis Common Firebush Common Fringe-myrtle Common Hakea Common Hovea Common Joyweed Common Pinheath Common Smokebush Common Sour Bush Common Verreauxia Compacted Featherflower Compass Bush Coneflower Coolibah Coolibah Coolibah Coppercups Coral Gum Coral Vine Cork Hopbush Cork Tree Corky Honeymyrtle Corkybark Corymbose Pithocarpa Cotton Bush Cotton Fireweed Cottony Bluebush Cottony Saltbush Couch Honeypot Cowcowing Mallee Crabs Eyes Cranbrook Bell Creeping Banksia Creeping Cassia Cricket Ball Hakea Crimson Eremophila Crinkled Cassia

Dense Clawflower Dense Stonecrop Desert Cassia

Crinkle-leaved Poison Crinkly Mintbush Crocodile Tree Crowea Crown Smokebush Crowned Mallee Cue Grevillea Cup Velleia Curly Grevillea Curly Spinifex Currant Bush Curry Flower Cut-leaf Banksia Cutleaf Goodenia Cutleaf Hibbertia

Verticordia brownii Clematis pubescens Keraudrenia integrifolia Calytrix tetragona Hakea arborescens Hovea trisperma Alternanthera nodiflora Styphelia tenuiflora Conospermum stoechadis Choretrum glomeratum Verreauxia reinwardtii Verticordia densiflora Allocasuarina pinaster Isopogon cuneatus Eucalyptus coolabah Eucalyptus microtheca Eucalyptus victrix Pileanthus peduncularis Eucalyptus torquata Kennedia coccinea Tribulus platypterus Hakea lorea subsp. lorea Melaleuca suberosa Gyrostemon ramulosus Pithocarpa corymbulosa Ptilotus obovatus Senecio quadridentatus Maireana carnosa Chenopodium gaudichaudianum Dryandra nivea Eucalyptus brachycorys Abrus precatorius Darwinia meeboldii Banksia repens Senna hamersleyensis Hakea platysperma Eremophila punicea Senna artemisioides subsp. helmsii Gastrolobium villosum Prostanthera eckersleyana Terminalia arostrata Crowea angustifolia Conospermum densiflorum Eucalyptus coronata Grevillea inconspicua Velleia connata Grevillea eryngioides Triodia bitextura Scaevola spinescens Lysinema ciliatum Banksia praemorsa Goodenia pinnatifida Hibbertia cuneiformis

Daddy-long-legs Dark Pea-bush Darling Range Ghost Gum Darwin Canegrass Dawesville Conostylis

Stylidium divaricatum Gastrolobium celsianum Eucalyptus laeliae Sorghum intrans Conostylis pauciflora

Botanical name

Calothamnus pinifolius Crassula colorata Senna artemisioides subsp. x coriacea Desert Chinese Lantern Abutilon leucopetalum Desert Jasmine Jasminum didymum Desert Kurrajong Brachychiton gregorii Desert Oak Allocasuarina decaisneana Desert Pepperflower Diplopeltis stuartii var. stuartii Desmond Mallee Eucalyptus desmondensis Devil’s Pins Hovea pungens Diamond of the Desert Monotaxis grandiflora Diels Grevillea Grevillea dielsiana Djanggara Portulaca pilosa Djarnokmurd Hakea recurva Dodder Laurel Cassytha pomiformis Dongara Mallee Eucalyptus obtusiflora Dongara Mallee Eucalyptus obtusiflora subsp. dongarraensis Donkey Triggerplant Stylidium diuroides Drummond’s Conostylis Conostylis drummondii Drummond’s Cypress Pine Callitris drummondii Drummond’s Featherflower Verticordia drummondii Drummond’s Grevillea Grevillea drummondii Drummond’s Gum Eucalyptus drummondii Drummond’s Hibiscus Hibiscus drummondii Drummond’s Wattle Acacia drummondii Drumstick Isopogon Isopogon sphaerocephalus Dryandra-leaved Banksia Banksia dryandroides Dumara Bush Cynanchum floribundum Dundas Blackbutt Eucalyptus dundasii Dundas Mahogany Eucalyptus brockwayi Dune Sheoak Allocasuarina lehmanniana Dungyn Hakea oleifolia Dunna-dunna Lawrencia helmsii Dwarf Burchardia Burchardia multiflora Dwarf Cypress Actinostrobus acuminatus Dwarf Dryandra Dryandra nana Dwarf Grasstree Xanthorrhoea nana Dwarf Grevillea Grevillea nana Dwarf Kangaroo Paw Anigozanthos gabrielae Dwarf Sheoak Allocasuarina humilis Dwarf Sida Sida spodochroma Dwarf Swainsona Swainsona phacoides Dwarf Twinleaf Zygophyllum ovatum Dyaridany Hakea macrocarpa Dysentery Bush Alyxia buxifolia Elegant Banksia Elegant Goodenia Elephant Ear Wattle Elkhorn Coneflower Emu Apple Esperance Waxflower Ewart’s Mallee

Banksia elegans Goodenia concinna Acacia dunnii Isopogon alcicornis Owenia vernicosa Chamelaucium axillare Eucalyptus ewartiana

Fairall’s Honeysuckle Fairy Spectacles False Boronia False Cedar

Lambertia fairallii Menkea australis Phyllanthus calycinus Ehretia saligna 231

Australian Seeds

Common name

Botanical name

Common name

Botanical name

Fan Hakea Fan Palm Fan-leaved Hakea Feather Speargrass Featherheads Feather-leaved Banksia Feathertop Threeawn Felty Bellflower Felty Bluebush Ferny Cotula Fibrebark Fine-leaf Beauty-heads Fine-leaved Darwinia Firewood Banksia Fishbone Banksia Fitzroy Wattle Flame Grevillea Flame Grevillea Flannel Bush Flannel Flower Flannel Weed Flat Wattle Flat-topped Yate Flax Lily Fleshy Groundsel Fleshy Saltbush Flooded Gum Fluted Horn Mallee Forrest’s Featherflower Four-winged Mallee Foxtails Fragrant Waitzia Free-flowering Leschenaultia Fringed Bell Fringed Daisy Bush Fringed Lily Frog Hakea Frogsmouth Fuchsia Grevillea Fuchsia Gum Furrowed Hakea Fuzzweed

Hakea baxteri Livistona eastonii Hakea flabellifolia Austrostipa elegantissima Ptilotus macrocephalus Banksia brownii Aristida inaequiglumis Bonamia rosea Maireana tomentosa Cotula bipinnata Melaleuca nervosa Calocephalus francisii Darwinia acerosa Banksia menziesii Banksia chamaephyton Acacia ancistrocarpa Grevillea eriostachya Grevillea excelsior Solanum lasiophyllum Actinotus leucocephalus Abutilon oxycarpum Acacia glaucoptera Eucalyptus occidentalis Dianella revoluta Senecio gregorii Rhagodia crassifolia Eucalyptus rudis Eucalyptus stowardii Verticordia forrestii Eucalyptus tetraptera Andersonia caerulea Waitzia suaveolens Lechenaultia floribunda Darwinia neildiana Olearia ciliata Thysanotus manglesianus Hakea nitida Philydrum lanuginosum Grevillea bipinnatifida Eucalyptus forrestiana Hakea sulcata Vittadinia triloba

Gascoyne Mulla Mulla Gascoyne Spurge Gawar Geraldton Wax Giant Andersonia Giant Mallee Giant Sundew Gibbous-fruited Scaevola Gidgee Gile’s Wattle Gilja Gilu Gimlet Glabrous Sunray Glandular Sunray Glowing Wattle Glycine Pea

Ptilotus polakii Euphorbia boophthona Acacia monticola Chamelaucium uncinatum Andersonia axilliflora Eucalyptus oleosa Drosera gigantea Scaevola thesioides Acacia pruinocarpa Acacia gilesiana Eucalyptus brachycalyx Solanum dioicum Eucalyptus salubris Rhodanthe stricta Leucochrysum fitzgibbonii Acacia celastrifolia Glycine tabacina

Goathead Burr Goblet Mallee Goblet Mallee Golden Bush Golden Dryandra Golden Everlasting Golden Long-heads Golden Sunray Golden Triggerplant Golden Waitzia Goldfields Bottlebrush Goldfields Daisy Gomphrena Weed Good’s Banksia Gooseberry Mallee Gorada Graceful Grass Tree Graceful Honeymyrtle Granite Boronia Granite Bottlebrush Granite Kunzea Granite Petrophile Granite Poverty Bush Granite Rock Box Grass Leaf Hakea Grass Tree Grass Tree Grass Wattle Gravel Bottlebrush Green Birdflower Green Cassia Green Honeysuckle Green Kangaroo Paw Gregory’s Wattle Grey Cassia Grey Cottonhead Grey Honeymyrtle Grey Parrot-pea Grey Rattlepod Grey Saltbush Grey Stinkwood Grey Swainsona Grey Turpentine Bush Grey Wrinklewort Griffith’s Grey Gum Guinea-flower Guinet’s Wattle

Sclerolaena bicornis Eucalyptus merrickiae Eucalyptus scyphocalyx Pityrodia verbascina Dryandra nobilis Xerochrysum bracteatum Podotheca gnaphalioides Hyalosperma glutinosum Stylidium ciliatum Waitzia nitida Melaleuca coccinea Olearia muelleri Gomphrena flaccida Banksia goodii Eucalyptus calycogona Melaleuca lateriflora Xanthorrhoea gracilis Melaleuca radula Boronia cymosa Melaleuca elliptica Kunzea pulchella Petrophile biloba Eremophila platycalyx Eucalyptus petraea Hakea multilineata Xanthorrhoea preissii Xanthorrhoea thorntonii Acacia willdenowiana Beaufortia decussata Crotalaria cunninghamii Senna charlesiana Lambertia rariflora Anigozanthos viridis Acacia gregorii Senna artemisioides subsp. sturtii Conostylis candicans Melaleuca incana Dillwynia uncinata Crotalaria dissitiflora Atriplex cinerea Jacksonia furcellata Swainsona canescens Eremophila macmillaniana Rutidosis helichrysoides Eucalyptus griffithsii Hibbertia glomerosa Acacia guinetii

Hackett’s Hopbush Hairy Flag Hairy Fringe Lily Hairy Indigo Hairy Mat Conostylis

Dodonaea hackettiana Patersonia rudis Thysanotus asper Indigofera hirsuta Conostylis seorsiflora subsp. trichophylla Ptilotus helipteroides Diplopeltis eriocarpa Spinifex hirsutus Velleia daviesii Epilobium hirtigerum Gompholobium tomentosum

232

Hairy Mulla Mulla Hairy Pepperflower Hairy Spinifex Hairy Velleia Hairy Willow Herb Hairy Yellow Pea

Appendix 3: List of common names

Common name

Botanical name

Common name

Botanical name

Halls Creek Wattle Hamelin Bay Mallee Handsome Wedge-pea Harsh Hakea Hazel-leaved Rulingia Heart Leaf Poison Heath Leschenaultia Heath Strangea Heath-leaved Honeysuckle Hedge-hog Hakea Helicopter Tree Hill River Lambstail Hispid Fireweed Hispid Velleia Hoary Dampiera Hogweed Holly Flame Pea Holly Pea Holly-leaved Banksia Holly-leaved Honeysuckle Holly-leaved Hovea Holly-leaved Mirbelia Honey Bush Honey-suckle Grevillea Hood Leaved Hakea Hooded Lily Hooded Smokebush Hooker’s Banksia Hook-leaf Angianthus Hook-leaf Thryptomene Hook-leaved Mallee Hop Bush Hop Mulga Horned Leaf Hakea Horned Poison Horned Sheoak Horse Mulga Hyden Blue Gum

Acacia cowleana Eucalyptus calcicola Gompholobium venustum Hakea prostrata Rulingia corylifolia Gastrolobium bilobum Lechenaultia tubiflora Strangea cynanchocarpa Lambertia ericifolia Hakea erinacea Gyrocarpus americanus Physopsis spicata Senecio hispidulus Velleia hispida Dampiera incana Zaleya galericulata Chorizema ilicifolium Jacksonia floribunda Banksia ilicifolia Lambertia ilicifolia Hovea chorizemifolia Mirbelia dilatata Hakea lissocarpha Grevillea juncifolia Hakea cucullata Johnsonia lupulina Conospermum glumaceum Banksia hookeriana Angianthus acrohyalinus Thryptomene australis Eucalyptus uncinata Dodonaea oxyptera Acacia craspedocarpa Hakea ceratophylla Gastrolobium polystachyum Allocasuarina thuyoides Acacia ramulosa Eucalyptus georgei

Kangaroo Grass Kangaroo Island Mallee Kangaroo Thorn Kapok Bush Karri Karri Boronia Karri Hazel Karri Wattle Kimberley Horse Poison Kimberley White Gum King Dryandra Kingia Kingsmill’s Mallee Knobby Hibiscus Kondinin Blackbutt Kondrung Kopi Poverty Bush Kurara

Themeda triandra Eucalyptus phenax Acacia paradoxa Cochlospermum fraseri Eucalyptus diversicolor Boronia gracilipes Trymalium spathulatum Acacia pentadenia Crotalaria crispata Eucalyptus houseana Dryandra proteoides Kingia australis Eucalyptus kingsmillii Radyera farragei Eucalyptus kondininensis Astroloma serratifolium Eremophila miniata Acacia tetragonophylla

Illyarrie Indian Lantern Flower Indian Sundew Infertile Sunray Inland Bloodwood Inland Bloodwood Ironwood

Eucalyptus erythrocorys Abutilon indicum Drosera indica Rhodanthe sterilescens Corymbia opaca Eucalyptus terminalis Erythrophleum chlorostachys

Jack Bean Jam Jarrah Jerdacuttup Mallee Jingymia Mallee Jointed Nineawn Jointleaf Rush Joolal Josephinia Burr Jutson’s Mallee

Canavalia ensiformis Acacia acuminata Eucalyptus marginata Eucalyptus goniantha Eucalyptus synandra Enneapogon cylindricus Juncus holoschoenus Terminalia canescens Josephinia eugeniae Eucalyptus jutsonii

Kalgan Boronia Kalgan Plains Mallee

Boronia heterophylla Eucalyptus pachyloma

Laba Lake Grace Gum

Thespesia populneoides Eucalyptus loxophleba subsp. gratiae Lambs’ Tails Newcastelia cladotricha Lambs’ Tails Lachnostachys verbascifolia Lambs’ Tails Newcastelia hexarrhena Lambswool Lachnostachys eriobotrya Lance-leaved Cassia Labichea punctata Lantern Bush Abutilon fraseri Large Dodder-laurel Cassytha melantha Large Flowered Bogrush Schoenus grandiflorus Large Fruited Thomasia Thomasia macrocarpa Large Pomaderris Pomaderris grandis Large Waxflower Chamelaucium megalopetalum Large-flowered Baeckea Baeckea grandiflora Large-flowered Guichenotia Guichenotia macrantha Large-fruited Mallee Eucalyptus youngiana Laterite Mallee Eucalyptus lateritica Leafless Ballart Exocarpos aphyllus Leafless Hibbertia Hibbertia conspicua Leafless Rock Wattle Acacia aphylla Leafy Nineawn Enneapogon polyphyllus Leafy Stachystemon Stachystemon axillaris Leafy Sundew Drosera stolonifera Leichardt Pine Nauclea orientalis Lemann’s Banksia Banksia lemanniana Lemon Grass Cymbopogon procerus Lemon-flowered Gum Eucalyptus woodwardii Lemon-scented Darwinia Darwinia citriodora Lerp Mallee Eucalyptus incrassata Lesser Bottlebrush Callistemon phoeniceus Lesser Diplolaena Diplolaena microcephala Lesueur Hakea Hakea megalosperma Lesueur Southern Cross Xanthosia tomentosa Lifesaver Burr Sida platycalyx Lilac Hibiscus Alyogyne huegelii Limestone Wattle Acacia sclerosperma Little Bottlebrush Beaufortia micrantha Little Kangaroo Paw Anigozanthos bicolor Little Lobelia Lobelia winfridae Lobed Spinifex Triodia basedowii 233

Australian Seeds

Common name

Botanical name

Common name

Botanical name

Long Leaved Cone Bush Long-flowered Marlock Long-fruited Bloodwood Long-leaved Scaevola Long-leaved Wattle Long-scaped Isotoma Long-spiked Scaevola Love Creeper Lovely Triggerplant

Petrophile longifolia Eucalyptus macrandra Corymbia polycarpa Scaevola lanceolata Acacia longiphyllodinea Isotoma scapigera Goodenia helmsii Comesperma volubile Stylidium amoenum

Magnificent Prostanthera Maitland’s Wattle Malallie Mallee Box Mallee Lovegrass Maloga Vigna Mangada Mangarr Mangal Mangles Kangaroo Paw Manna Wattle Many-flowered Fringe Lily Many-flowered Honeysuckle Many-flowered Mallee Many-headed Dryandra Many-stemmed Burr-daisy Marble Gum Marble Hakea Mardja Mardja Marno Marri Marsh Saltbush Marsh Stemodia Masroorl Mat Cottonheads Mat Mulla Mulla Mayweed Sunray Meisner’s Banksia Merauke Hibiscus Merrit Miljee Milkmaids Milkmaids Milkwort Millstream Fan-palm Mimosa Bush Mindiyed Miniritchie Minni Ritchi Minnie Daisy Mirret Mogumber Bell Mohan Mondurup Bell Moonah Moresby Range Drummondita Morning Glory Morning Iris Morning Iris

Prostanthera magnifica Acacia maitlandii Eucalyptus eudesmioides Eucalyptus cuprea Eragrostis dielsii Vigna lanceolata Calytrix exstipulata Acacia leptocarpa Anigozanthos manglesii Acacia microbotrya Thysanotus multiflorus Lambertia multiflora Eucalyptus cooperiana Dryandra polycephala Calotis multicaulis Eucalyptus gongylocarpa Hakea incrassata Haemodorum paniculatum Haemodorum spicatum Daviesia divaricata Corymbia calophylla Atriplex paludosa Stemodia grossa Terminalia petiolaris Conostylis prolifera Ptilotus axillaris Hyalosperma cotula Banksia meisneri Hibiscus meraukensis Eucalyptus flocktoniae Acacia oswaldii Burchardia conjesta Stylidium caricifolium Comesperma virgatum Livistona alfredii Acacia farnesiana Melaleuca nesophila Acacia grasbyi Acacia trachycarpa Minuria leptophylla Eucalyptus celastroides Darwinia carnea Melaleuca viminea Darwinia macrostegia Melaleuca preissiana

Morrison Featherflower Mottlecah Mount Day Mallee Mount House Box Mountain Banksia Mountain Marri Mountain Pea Mountain Villarsia Mountain White Gum Mouse Ears Mt Barren Grevillea

Verticordia nitens Eucalyptus macrocarpa Eucalyptus incerata Eucalyptus argillacea Banksia oreophila Corymbia haematoxylon Gastrolobium leakeanum Villarsia calthifolia Eucalyptus mooreana Calothamnus rupestris Grevillea tripartita subsp. macrostylis Acacia aneura Maireana convexa Haloragis odontocarpa Calothamnus homalophyllus Darwinia virescens Hakea myrtoides

234

Drummondita ericoides Polymeria ambigua Orthrosanthus laxus Orthrosanthus multiflorus

Mulga Mulga Bluebush Mulga Nettle Murchison Clawflower Murchison Darwinia Myrtle Hakea Namana Narrow Leaved Thomasia Narrow Thread Petal Narrow Winged Wattle Narrow-fruited Hakea Narrowleaf Mulla Mulla Narrow-leaved Mallee Narrow-leaved Poison Narrow-leaved Red Mallee Narrow-leaved Red Mallee Narrow-leaved Red Mallee Narrow-sepaled Leschenaultia Native Bleeding Heart Native Cornflower Native Cotton Native Cranberry Native Fig Native Foxglove Native Foxglove Native Fuchsia Native Fuchsia Native Gerbera Native Liquorice Native Myrtle Native Parsnip Native Pomegranate Native Poplar Native Rosella Native Senna Native Thornapple Native Tobacco Native Walnut Native Willow Native Wisteria Needle Tree Needleleaf Wattle Needle-leaved Chorizema Needle-leaved Smokebush Needles and Corks

Euphorbia australis Thomasia angustifolia Stenopetalum lineare Acacia stenoptera Hakea stenocarpa Ptilotus drummondii Eucalyptus angustissima Gastrolobium stenophyllum Eucalyptus foecunda Eucalyptus latens Eucalyptus leptophylla Lechenaultia stenosepala Homalanthus novo-guineensis Brunonia australis Gossypium australe Astroloma microcalyx Ficus platypoda Pityrodia axillaris Pityrodia terminalis Eremophila maculata Grevillea wilsonii Trichocline spathulata Glycyrrhiza acanthocarpa Myoporum acuminatum Trachymene pilosa Balaustion pulcherrimum Codonocarpus cotinifolius Abelmoschus ficulneus Senna pleurocarpa var. pleurocarpa Datura leichhardtii Nicotiana occidentalis Owenia reticulata Callistachys lanceolata Hardenbergia comptoniana Hakea preissii Acacia orthocarpa Chorizema aciculare Conospermum acerosum Hakea obliqua

Appendix 3: List of common names

Common name

Botanical name

Common name

Botanical name

Needlewood Netleaf Poison Neverfail Grass New Holland Rattlepod New Zealand Spinach Ninghan Grevillea Nitre Bush Nodding Banksia Nodding Coneflower Noolburra Northcliffe Kennedia Northern Byblis Northern Cauliflower Northern Kurrajong Northern Salmon Gum Northern Sandalwood

Hakea leucoptera Gastrolobium racemosum Eragrostis setifolia Crotalaria novae-hollandiae Tetragonia tetragonoides Grevillea deflexa Nitraria billardierei Banksia nutans Isopogon teretifolius Philotheca brucei Kennedia glabrata Byblis liniflora Verticordia polytricha Brachychiton diversifolius Eucalyptus bigalerita Santalum lanceolatum

Pine Banksia Pineapple Bush Pine-leaved Goodenia Pingle

Oak Leaved Thomasia Oak-leaf Grevillea Oak-leaved Banksia Oak-leaved Dryandra Obtuse Leaved Grevillea Oil Mallee Old Man Saltbush Oldfields Foxglove Oldfield’s Mallee One-sided Bottlebrush Oondoroo Ooragmandee Open Hemigenia Open-fruited Mallee Orange Hibbertia Orange Immortelle Orange Stars Orange Wattle Ouch Bush Oval-leaf Hakea

Thomasia quercifolia Grevillea quercifolia Banksia quercifolia Dryandra quercifolia Grevillea obtusifolia Eucalyptus kochii Atriplex nummularia Pityrodia oldfieldii Eucalyptus oldfieldii Calothamnus quadrifidus Solanum simile Eucalyptus oraria Hemigenia westringioides Eucalyptus annulata Hibbertia miniata Waitzia acuminata Hibbertia stellaris Acacia saligna Daviesia pachyphylla Hakea elliptica

Paddy’s Lucerne Painted Featherflower Painted Lady Pale Grass Lily Pale Twinleaf Panjang Parakeelya Parrot Bush Peak Charles Drummondita Pear-fruited Mallee Pebble Bush Pellitory Pepper and Salt Peppermint Perennial Caltrop Phalanx Grevillea Pimelea Daisybush Pincushion Coneflower Pincushion Hakea Pincushion Mistletoe Pincushions Pindan Wattle

Sida rhombifolia Verticordia picta Gompholobium scabrum Caesia micrantha Zygophyllum glaucum Acacia lasiocarpa Calandrinia polyandra Dryandra sessilis Drummondita hassellii Eucalyptus pyriformis Stylobasium spathulatum Parietaria debilis Philotheca spicata Agonis flexuosa Tribulus occidentalis Grevillea dryandroides Olearia pimeleoides Isopogon dubius Hakea laurina Amyema fitzgeraldii Borya nitida Acacia tumida

Banksia tricuspis Dasypogon bromeliifolius Goodenia pinifolia Dryandra squarrosa subsp. squarrosa Boronia pulchella Beaufortia schaueri Dryandra carlinoides Rhodanthe chlorocephala subsp. rosea Stylidium brunonianum Grevillea petrophiloides Drosera menziesii Hakea francisiana Calytrix fraseri Rhodanthe manglesii Velleia rosea Verticordia monadelpha Beyeria viscosa Eremophila cuneifolia Johnsonia pubescens Dodonaea lanceolata Duboisia hopwoodii Eremophila oldfieldii Petrophile linearis Platytheca galioides Podolepis rugata Leiocarpa websteri Conospermum incurvum Verticordia plumosa Gastrolobium spathulatum Ipomoea muelleri Isotropis atropurpurea Ptilotus manglesii Cephalipterum drummondii Atriplex spongiosa Banksia lindleyana Triodia irritans Eucalyptus conglobata Operculina brownii Acacia translucens Eremophila alternifolia Acacia prainii Daviesia pectinata Daviesia decurrens Daviesia horrida Conostylis aculeata Dryandra armata Dryandra falcata Grevillea microcarpa Hakea amplexicaulis Lambertia echinata Acacia pulchella Grevillea annulifera Gastrolobium spinosum Salsola kali Salsola tragus Grevillea armigera Ptilotus polystachyus Siloxerus humifusus

Pink Boronia Pink Bottlebrush Pink Dryandra Pink Everlasting Pink Fountain Triggerplant Pink Pokers Pink Rainbow Pink Spike Hakea Pink Summer Calythrix Pink Sunray Pink Velleia Pink Woolly Featherflower Pinkwood Pinyuru Pipe Lily Pirrungu Pituri Pixie Bush Pixie Mops Platytheca Pleated Podolepis Plover Daisy Plume Smokebush Plumed Featherflower Poison Bush Poison Morning Glory Poison Sage Pom Poms Pompom Head Pop Saltbush Porcupine Banksia Porcupine Grass Port Lincoln Mallee Potato Vine Poverty Bush Poverty Bush Prain’s Wattle Prickly Bitterpea Prickly Bitter-pea Prickly Bitter-pea Prickly Conostylis Prickly Dryandra Prickly Dryandra Prickly Grevillea Prickly Hakea Prickly Honeysuckle Prickly Moses Prickly Plume Grevillea Prickly Poison Prickly Saltwort Prickly Saltwort Prickly Toothbrushes Prince of Wales Feather Procumbent Siloxerus

235

Australian Seeds

Common name

Botanical name

Common name

Botanical name

Prominent Vein Grevillea Propeller Banksia Prostrate Banksia Purple Flag Purple Mirbelia Purple Tassels Purple-head Nineawn Purslane Pussy Bluebush Pygmy Patersonia Pygmy Sunray

Grevillea phanerophlebia Banksia candolleana Banksia gardneri Patersonia occidentalis Mirbelia floribunda Sowerbaea laxiflora Enneapogon oblongus Portulaca oleracea Maireana melanocoma Patersonia pygmaea Rhodanthe pygmaea

Quairading Banksia Qualup Bell Quandong Queen Trigger Plant Quena Quinine Tree

Banksia cuneata Pimelea physodes Santalum acuminatum Stylidium affine Solanum esuriale Petalostigma quadriloculare

River Teatree Roadside Tea-tree Robin Redbreast Bush Rock Isotome Rock Morning Glory Rock Poison Rock Sheoak Rock Thryptomene Roe’s Cypress Pine Roe’s Featherflower Rogersons’ Grevillea Rose Banjine Rose Banksia Rose Coneflower Rose Darwinia Rose Mallee Rose Pelargonium Rosewood

Rainbow Plant Ramel’s Mallee Ramshorn Ranji Bush Rapier Featherflower Rates Tingle Rattle-pea Ravensthorpe Bottlebrush Red Anthotium Red Ash Red Billardiera Red Boronia Red Combs Red Kangaroo Paw Red Mallee Red Morrel Red Pokers Red Rod Red Snakebush Red Spinach Red Swamp Banksia Red Tingle Reddish Sunray Redflower Lotus Red-flowered Mallee Red-flowered Moort Red-flowering Gum Redheart Redwood Reed Triggerplant Rhynchosia Rib Wattle Ribbed Hakea Ribbon Pea Ribbon-barked Gum Rice Flower Rice Grass Ridge-fruited Mallee Rigid Wattle River Gum River Mallee

Byblis gigantea Eucalyptus rameliana Hakea cyclocarpa Acacia pyrifolia Verticordia mitchelliana Eucalyptus brevistylis Daviesia oppositifolia Beaufortia orbifolia Anthotium rubriflorum Alphitonia incana Marianthus erubescens Boronia lanuginosa Grevillea concinna Anigozanthos rufus Eucalyptus socialis Eucalyptus longicornis Hakea bucculenta Eremophila calorhabdos Hemiandra gardneri Trianthema triquetra Banksia occidentalis Eucalyptus jacksonii Rhodanthe rubella Lotus cruentus Eucalyptus erythronema Eucalyptus platypus Corymbia ficifolia Eucalyptus decipiens Eucalyptus transcontinentalis Stylidium junceum Rhynchosia minima Acacia nervosa Hakea costata Leptosema aphyllum Eucalyptus sheathiana Andersonia aristata Xerochloa laniflora Eucalyptus angulosa Acacia cochlearis Eucalyptus camaldulensis Eucalyptus sessilis

Rosy Bellida Rottnest Island Pine Rottnest Teatree Rough Boronia Rough Daisybush Rough Halgania Rough Honeymyrtle Rough Speargrass Rough-fruit Grevillea Rough-fruited Mallee Rough-leaved Bloodwood Rough-leaved Daisy Bush Rough-leaved Everlasting Round Leaf Grevillea Round-fruit Banksia Round-leaf Bloodwood Round-leaved Mallee Round-leaved Pigface Round-leaved Tobacco Royal Hakea Royal Mulla Mulla Rush Leaved Patersonia Rusty Eremaea

Melaleuca bracteata Leptospermum erubescens Melaleuca lateritia Isotoma petraea Ipomoea costata Gastrolobium callistachys Allocasuarina huegeliana Thryptomene saxicola Callitris roei Verticordia roei Grevillea rogersoniana Pimelea rosea Banksia laricina Isopogon formosus Darwinia purpurea Eucalyptus rhodantha Pelargonium capitatum Terminalia oblongata subsp. volucris Bellida graminea Callitris preissii Melaleuca lanceolata Boronia scabra Olearia rudis Halgania cyanea Melaleuca scabra Austrostipa scabra Grevillea trachytheca Eucalyptus corrugata Corymbia setosa Olearia muricata Ozothamnus occidentalis Grevillea teretifolia Banksia sphaerocarpa Corymbia latifolia Eucalyptus orbifolia Disphyma crassifolium Nicotiana rotundifolia Hakea victoria Ptilotus rotundifolius Patersonia juncea Eremaea acutifolia

Sago Bush Sago Weed Salmon Gum Salmon White Gum Salt River Gum Saltwater Paperbark Sand Bottlebrush Sand Hibiscus Sandalwood Sandbank Poverty Bush Sand-dune Bloodwood Sandhill Wattle Sandhill Wattle Sandpaper Wattle Sandplain Cranberry Sandplain Cypress Sandplain Mallee

Maireana pyramidata Plantago drummondii Eucalyptus salmonophloia Eucalyptus lane-poolei Eucalyptus sargentii Melaleuca cuticularis Beaufortia squarrosa Alyogyne pinoniana Santalum spicatum Eremophila margarethae Corymbia chippendalei Acacia burkittii Acacia dictyophleba Acacia denticulosa Astroloma microdonta Actinostrobus arenarius Eucalyptus ebbanoensis

236

Appendix 3: List of common names

Common name

Botanical name

Common name

Botanical name

Sandplain Poison Sandplain Wattle Sandplain Woody Pear Satiny Bluebush Scaly Butt Mallee Scarlet Banksia Scarlet Featherflower Scarlet Gum Scarlet Honeymyrtle Scarlet Pear Gum Scarlet Runner Scented Banjine Scented Boronia Scentgrass Sceptre Banksia Schoenia Sea Urchin Hakea Seaheath Seppelt Range Gum Serrate-leaved Dryandra Serrate-leaved Eremophila Sesbania Pea Shaggy Dryandra Shark Bay Mallee Shark Bay Poverty Bush Sharp-capped Mallee Shell-leaved Hakea Sheoak Shining Fanflower Shining Honeypot Short-spiked Grevillea Short-winged Hakea Showy Banksia Showy Dryandra Showy Eremophila Showy Groundsel Showy Poverty Bush Shrubby Myriocephalus Shrubby Riceflower Shrubby Samphire Shrubby Twinleaf Shrubby Twinleaf Silky Browntop Silky Eremophila Silky Glycine Silky Hemigenia Silky Scaevola Silkyheads Silky-leaved Blood flower Silky-spiked Goodenia Silver Cassia Silver Goodenia Silver Mallee Silver Mallet Silver Princess Silver Saltbush Silver Teatree Silver Wattle Silver-leaf Grevillea Silver-topped Gimlet

Gastrolobium microcarpum Acacia murrayana Xylomelum angustifolium Maireana georgei Eucalyptus leprophloia Banksia coccinea Verticordia grandis Eucalyptus phoenicea Melaleuca fulgens Eucalyptus stoatei Kennedia prostrata Pimelea suaveolens Boronia megastigma Cymbopogon ambiguus Banksia sceptrum Schoenia cassiniana Hakea petiolaris Frankenia pauciflora Eucalyptus ceracea Dryandra serra Eremophila serrulata Sesbania cannabina Dryandra speciosa Eucalyptus roycei Eremophila maitlandii Eucalyptus oxymitra Hakea conchifolia Allocasuarina fraseriana Scaevola nitida Dryandra obtusa Grevillea brachystachya Hakea brachyptera Banksia speciosa Dryandra formosa Eremophila racemosa Senecio magnificus Eremophila spectabilis Myriocephalus suffruticosus Pimelea microcephala Halosarcia halocnemoides Zygophyllum aurantiacum Zygophyllum fruticulosum Eulalia aurea Eremophila nivea Glycine canescens Hemigenia incana Scaevola anchusifolia Cymbopogon obtectus Calothamnus sanguineus Goodenia sericostachya Senna artemisioides Goodenia affinis Eucalyptus crucis Eucalyptus falcata Eucalyptus caesia subsp. magna Atriplex bunburyana Leptospermum sericeum Acacia lasiocalyx Grevillea refracta Eucalyptus campaspe

Silvery Leaved Pimelea Pimelea argentea Silvery-leaved Grevillea Grevillea argyrophylla Slender Banksia Banksia attenuata Slender Clematis Clematis linearifolia Slender Fuchsia Eremophila decipiens Slender Lobelia Lobelia tenuior Slender Mallee Eucalyptus decurva Slender Myriocephalus Gilberta tenuifolia Slender Peppercress Lepidium platypetalum Slender Petalostylis Petalostylis labicheoides Slender Podolepis Podolepis gracilis Slender Smokebush Conospermum huegelii Slender Sunray Erymophyllum tenellum Slender-calyxed Trigger Plant Stylidium leptocalyx Small-flowered Conostylis Conostylis micrantha Small-leaf Swainsona Swainsona microphylla Smooth Cotula Cotula cotuloides Smooth Heliotrope Heliotropium curassavicum Smooth Laceflower Trachymene didiscoides Snail Hakea Hakea cristata Snakebush Hemiandra pungens Snappy Gum Eucalyptus brevifolia Snottygobble Persoonia longifolia Snow Flower Macgregoria racemigera Schoenia filifolia subsp. subulifolia Snowy Everlasting Soap Mallee Eucalyptus diversifolia Soft Millotia Millotia tenuifolia Soft Spinifex Triodia pungens Soft Spinifex Triodia schinzii Southern Cross Xanthosia rotundifolia Southern Diplolaena Diplolaena dampieri Southern Plains Banksia Banksia media Spear-fruit Saltbush Sclerolaena pannatifolius Spearwood Kunzea ericifolia Spearwood Mallee Eucalyptus doratoxylon Speedy Weed Flaveria australasica Spider Coneflower Isopogon adenanthoides Spider Net Grevillea Grevillea thelemanniana Spider Smokebush Conospermum teretifolium Spike Poison Gastrolobium glaucum Spiked Dampiera Dampiera spicigera Spiked Featherflower Verticordia spicata Spiked Malvastrum Malvastrum americanum Spiked Scholtzia Scholtzia involucrata Spike-headed Sunray Rhodanthe spicata Spindle Heath Cosmelia rubra Spinifex Wattle Acacia coolgardiensis Spiny Currant Bush Leptomeria pauciflora Spiny Saltbush Rhagodia spinescens Spiny Sida Sida spinosa Spiral-leaved Daviesia Daviesia spiralis Splendid Everlasting Rhodanthe chlorocephala subsp. splendida Spongefruit Trachymene ornata Spotter’s Grass Pennisetum basedowii Spreading Coneflower Isopogon divergens Spreading Sneezewood Centipeda minima Spring Bloodwood Corymbia ptychocarpa Squarrose-bracted Pluchea Pluchea dentex Stalked Guinea Flower Hibbertia racemosa 237

Australian Seeds

Common name

Botanical name

Common name

Botanical name

Star Pigweed Star-leaf Grevillea Steedman’s Gum Stemless Daisy Sticky Cassia Sticky Everlasting Sticky Hopbush Sticky Indigo Sticky Ixiolaena Sticky Longheads Sticky Tailflower Sticky Thomasia Stiff Westringia Stiff-leaved Mallee Stinkwood Stirling Range Banksia Stirling Range Bottlebrush Stirling Range Coneflower Stony Poverty Bush Strickland’s Gum Sturt Creek Mallee Sturt’s Desert Pea Sturt’s Desert Rose Sturt’s Hibiscus Sturts Pigface Summer Coppercups Summer Dryandra Summer Smokebush Summer Starflower Summer-scented Wattle Swamp Banksia Swamp Bottlebrush Swamp Cypress Swamp Fox Banksia Swamp Mallet Swamp Paperbark Swamp Paper-heath Swamp Pea Swamp Rainbow Swamp Sheoak Swamp Teatree Swan Berry Swan River Blackbutt Swan River Daisy Swan River Myrtle Swishbush Swollen-flowered Eremophila Swordfish Dryandra Synaphea

Trianthema oxycalyptra Grevillea asteriscosa Eucalyptus steedmanii Brachyscome lineariloba Senna glutinosa Lawrencella davenportii Dodonaea viscosa Indigofera colutea Ixiolaena viscosa Podotheca angustifolia Anthocercis viscosa Thomasia glutinosa Westringia rigida Eucalyptus rigidula Jacksonia sternbergiana Banksia solandri Beaufortia cyrtodonta Isopogon baxteri Eremophila freelingii Eucalyptus stricklandii Eucalyptus odontocarpa Swainsona formosa Gossypium sturtianum Hibiscus sturtii Gunniopsis quadrifida Pileanthus filifolius Dryandra vestita Conospermum crassinervium Calytrix flavescens Acacia rostellifera Banksia littoralis Beaufortia sparsa Actinostrobus pyramidalis Banksia telmatiaea Eucalyptus spathulata Melaleuca rhaphiophylla Sphenotoma gracile Euchilopsis linearis Drosera heterophylla Casuarina obesa Pericalymma ellipticum Astroloma macrocalyx Eucalyptus patens Brachyscome iberidifolia Hypocalymma robustum Viminaria juncea Calamphoreus inflatus Dryandra mucronulata Synaphea petiolaris

Tangled Honeypot Tangled Mulla Mulla Tangled Smokebush Tangling Melaleuca Tapeworm Plant Tar Bush Tassel Flower Tassel Grevillea Tassel Top Tea Tree Teasel Banksia Tennis Ball Banksia Thargomindah Nightshade Thick Leaved Hakea Thickleaf Poison Thick-leaved Fan-flower Thick-leaved Triggerplant Thin-leaved Poverty Bush Thread Leaf Hop Bush Thread-leaved Goodenia Three-toothed Coneflower Threewinged Bluebush Tickweed Tinsel Flower Tinsel-flower Tjarin Tomato Bush Toothed Eremophila Touch-me-not Tree Hovea Tree Smokebush Tropical Banksia Tuart Tufted Lobelia Turpentine Bush Turpentine Mulga Turpentine Wattle Twin Peak Island Mallee Twining Glycine Twining Purslane Twin-leaf Mallee Twin-leaf Myoporum Two-leaf Hakea Two-winged Gimlet

Dryandra pteridifolia Ptilotus latifolius Conospermum flexuosum Melaleuca cardiophylla Platysace compressa Eremophila glabra Leucopogon verticillatus Grevillea tenuiflora Ptilotus clementii Melaleuca minutifolia Banksia pulchella Banksia laevigata Solanum sturtianum Hakea pandanicarpa subsp. crassifolia Gastrolobium crassifolium Scaevola crassifolia Stylidium crassifolium Eremophila granitica Dodonaea rigida Goodenia filiformis Isopogon tridens Maireana triptera Cleome viscosa Cyanostegia lanceolata Cyanostegia angustifolia Swainsona pterostylis Solanum quadriloculatum Eremophila denticulata Stylidium diversifolium Hovea elliptica Conospermum triplinervium Banksia dentata Eucalyptus gomphocephala Lobelia rhombifolia Eremophila clarkei Acacia brachystachya Acacia lysiphloia Eucalyptus insularis Glycine clandestina Calandrinia creethae Eucalyptus gamophylla Myoporum oppositifolium Hakea trifurcata Eucalyptus diptera

Unequal Bract Patersonia Upside-down Pea-bush Urchin Dryandra Urchins

Patersonia inaequalis Leptosema daviesioides Dryandra praemorsa Triumfetta chaetocarpa

Tall Bindii Tall Boronia Tall Kangaroo Paw Tall Labichea Tall Mulla Mulla Tall Sand Mallee Tall Sida Tallerack Tammin Mallee Tangle Daisy

Sclerolaena eriacantha Boronia molloyae Anigozanthos flavidus Labichea lanceolata Ptilotus exaltatus Eucalyptus eremophila Sida calyxhymenia Eucalyptus tetragona Eucalyptus leptopoda Ozothamnus cordatus

Variable Barked Bloodwood Variable Daisy Variable Groundsel Variable Plantain Variable Swainsona Variable-leaved Cone Bush Variable-leaved Grevillea Variable-leaved Hakea Variegated Featherflower

Corymbia dichromophloia Brachyscome ciliaris Senecio pinnatifolius Plantago varia Swainsona oroboides Petrophile heterophylla Grevillea diversifolia Hakea varia Verticordia huegelii

238

Appendix 3: List of common names

Common name

Botanical name

Common name

Varnish Bush Veined Peppercress Veined Peppercress Victoria Desert Mallee Victoria Desert Smokebush Violet Banksia Violet Eremaea Violet Twinleaf Violet-flowered Eremophila Viscid Goodenia Viscid Hand-flower

Eremophila viscida Lepidium phlebopetalum Lepidium rotundum Eucalyptus concinna Conospermum toddii Banksia violacea Eremaea violacea Zygophyllum iodocarpum Eremophila ionantha Goodenia viscida Scaevola glandulifera

Wagin Banksia Walara Waldjumi Wandi Ironbark Wandoo Warrine Warted Yate Warty Fuchsia Bush Water Bush Water Bush Waterbuttons Wavy-leaved Hakea Wax Grevillea Waxy Cryptandra Wedgeleaf Rattlepod Wedge-leaved Dryandra Wedge-leaved Oxylobium Weeping Box Weeping Gum Weeping Mulla Mulla Weeping Pittosporum Wells’ Dampiera Western Myall Western Nightshade White Cassia White Cassia

Banksia oligantha Mimusops elengi Jacksonia sericea Eucalyptus jensenii Eucalyptus wandoo Dioscorea hastifolia Eucalyptus megacornuta Eremophila latrobei Bossiaea aquifolium Bossiaea webbii Cotula coronopifolia Hakea undulata Grevillea insignis Cryptandra arbutiflora Crotalaria retusa Dryandra cuneata Gastrolobium dilatatum Eucalyptus patellaris Eucalyptus sepulcralis Ptilotus calostachyus Pittosporum phylliraeoides Dampiera wellsiana Acacia papyrocarpa Solanum coactiliferum Senna charlesiana Senna glutinosa subsp. x luerssenii Conostylis setosa Callitris glaucophylla Sesbania formosa Rhodanthe floribunda Goodenia scapigera Eucalyptus cylindriflora Eucalyptus dumosa Hypocalymma angustifolium Grevillea leucopteris Cullen leucanthum Logania vaginalis Billardiera floribunda Eucalyptus albida Acacia xanthina Grevillea wickhamii Indigofera brevidens Tephrosia rosea Eremophila leucophylla Trachymene glaucifolia Gossypium robinsonii Physalis minima

Wild Jack Bean Canavalia rosea Wild Orange Capparis umbonata Wild Plum Terminalia platyphylla Wild Rose Diplolaena grandiflora Wild Tomato Solanum orbiculatum Willow Primrose Ludwigia octovalvis Winged Boronia Boronia alata Winged Stackhousia Tripterococcus brunonis Winged Wattle Acacia alata Wing-seeded Lobelia Lobelia heterophylla Winter Bell Blancoa canescens Winter Boronia Boronia purdieana Wirewood Acacia coriacea Wiry Honeymyrtle Melaleuca filifolia Wiry Honey-myrtle Melaleuca nematophylla Wiry Podolepis Podolepis capillaris Wiry Wattle Acacia extensa Witchetty Bush Acacia kempeana Witinti Hakea lorea Wongan Cactus Daviesia euphorbioides Wongan Dryandra Dryandra pulchella Wongan Melaleuca Melaleuca sciotostyla Wongan Wattle Acacia semicircinalis Woodbridge Poison Isotoma hypocrateriformis Woodline Mallee Eucalyptus cylindrocarpa Woody Pear Xylomelum occidentale Woolly Banksia Banksia baueri Woolly Bluebush Maireana lanosa Woolly Bottlebrush Beaufortia eriocephala Woolly Cluster Grevillea Grevillea eriobotrya Woolly Corchorus Corchorus walcottii Woolly Flowered Hakea Hakea lasiantha Woolly Gnephosis Trichanthodium skirrophorum Woolly Ixiolaena Ixiolaena tomentosa Woolly Orange Banksia Banksia victoriae Woolly Sheoak Allocasuarina fibrosa Woolly Sunray Leucochrysum stipitatum Woollybutt Eucalyptus miniata Woolly-flowered Grevillea Grevillea pilulifera Woolly-glandular Daisy Bush Olearia adenolasia Woolly-headed Dampiera Dampiera eriocephala Wreath Leschenaultia Lechenaultia macrantha Wrinkled Podolepis Podolepis auriculata

White Cottonhead White Cypress Pine White Dragon Tree White Everlasting White Goodenia White Mallee White Mallee White Myrtle White Plume Grevillea White Scurf-pea White Spray White-flowered Billardiera White-leaved Mallee White-stemmed Wattle Wickham’s Grevillea Widji Widji Wilcox Bush Wild Carrot Wild Cotton Wild Gooseberry

Yam Yanchep Rose Yate Yellow Autumn Lily Yellow Banjine Yellow Billy Buttons Yellow Bindii Yellow Buttercups Yellow Buttons Yellow Daisy Yellow Eye-bright Yellow Flags Yellow Hibiscus Yellow Kangaroo Paw Yellow Leschenaultia Yellow Pea

Botanical name

Microseris scapigera Diplolaena angustifolia Eucalyptus cornuta Tricoryne elatior Pimelea sulphurea Helipterum craspedioides Sclerolaena cuneata Hibbertia hypericoides Chrysocephalum apiculatum Wedelia asperrima Euphrasia scabra Patersonia umbrosa Hibiscus panduriformis Anigozanthos pulcherrimus Lechenaultia linarioides Gompholobium capitatum 239

Australian Seeds

Common name

Botanical name

Common name

Botanical name

Yellow Podotheca Yellow Starflower Yellow Tailflower Yellow Tingle Yellow-eyed Flame Pea Yellow-top

Podotheca chrysantha Calytrix angulata Anthocercis littorea Eucalyptus guilfoylei Chorizema dicksonii Calocephalus multiflorus

Yilgarn Dryandra York Gum York Road Poison Yorrell Yulbah Yuna Mallee

Dryandra arborea Eucalyptus loxophleba Gastrolobium calycinum Eucalyptus gracilis Erythrina vespertilio Eucalyptus jucunda

240

Appendix 4: List of botanical names

Botanical name

Common name

Botanical name

Common name

Abelmoschus ficulneus Abrus precatorius Abutilon fraseri Abutilon indicum Abutilon leucopetalum Abutilon oxycarpum Acacia acuminata Acacia alata Acacia ancistrocarpa Acacia aneura Acacia aphylla Acacia brachystachya Acacia burkittii Acacia celastrifolia Acacia cochlearis Acacia coolgardiensis Acacia coriacea Acacia cowleana Acacia craspedocarpa Acacia cyclops Acacia denticulosa Acacia dictyophleba Acacia drummondii Acacia dunnii Acacia extensa Acacia farnesiana Acacia gilesiana Acacia glaucoptera Acacia grasbyi Acacia gregorii Acacia guinetii Acacia hemignosta Acacia holosericea Acacia inaequilatera Acacia kempeana Acacia lasiocalyx Acacia lasiocarpa Acacia leptocarpa Acacia linophylla Acacia longiphyllodinea Acacia lysiphloia Acacia maitlandii Acacia microbotrya Acacia monticola Acacia murrayana Acacia nervosa Acacia orthocarpa Acacia oswaldii Acacia papyrocarpa Acacia paradoxa Acacia pentadenia

Native Rosella Crabs Eyes Lantern Bush Indian Lantern Flower Desert Chinese Lantern Flannel Weed Jam Winged Wattle Fitzroy Wattle Mulga Leafless Rock Wattle Turpentine Mulga Sandhill Wattle Glowing Wattle Rigid Wattle Spinifex Wattle Wirewood Halls Creek Wattle Hop Mulga Coastal Wattle Sandpaper Wattle Sandhill Wattle Drummond’s Wattle Elephant Ear Wattle Wiry Wattle Mimosa Bush Gile’s Wattle Flat Wattle Miniritchie Gregory’s Wattle Guinet’s Wattle Clubleaf Wattle Candelbra Wattle Baderi Witchetty Bush Silver Wattle Panjang Mangarr Mangal Bowgada Bush Long-leaved Wattle Turpentine Wattle Maitland’s Wattle Manna Wattle Gawar Sandplain Wattle Rib Wattle Needleleaf Wattle Miljee Western Myall Kangaroo Thorn Karri Wattle

Acacia prainii Acacia pruinocarpa Acacia pulchella Acacia pyrifolia Acacia ramulosa Acacia rostellifera Acacia saligna Acacia sclerosperma Acacia semicircinalis Acacia stenoptera Acacia tetragonophylla Acacia trachycarpa Acacia translucens Acacia tumida Acacia victoriae Acacia willdenowiana Acacia xanthina Actinodium cunninghamii Actinostrobus acuminatus Actinostrobus arenarius Actinostrobus pyramidalis Actinotus leucocephalus Adansonia gregorii Adriana quadripartita Agonis flexuosa Agrostocrinum scabrum Alectryon oleifolius Allocasuarina decaisneana Allocasuarina fibrosa Allocasuarina fraseriana Allocasuarina huegeliana Allocasuarina humilis Allocasuarina lehmanniana Allocasuarina pinaster Allocasuarina thuyoides Alphitonia incana Alternanthera nodiflora Alyogyne cuneiformis Alyogyne huegelii Alyogyne pinoniana Alyxia buxifolia Amaranthus mitchellii Amyema fitzgeraldii Andersonia aristata Andersonia axilliflora Andersonia caerulea Angianthus acrohyalinus Angianthus tomentosus Anigozanthos bicolor Anigozanthos flavidus Anigozanthos gabrielae

Prain’s Wattle Gidgee Prickly Moses Ranji Bush Horse Mulga Summer-scented Wattle Orange Wattle Limestone Wattle Wongan Wattle Narrow Winged Wattle Kurara Minni Ritchi Poverty Bush Pindan Wattle Bramble Wattle Grass Wattle White-stemmed Wattle Albany Daisy Dwarf Cypress Sandplain Cypress Swamp Cypress Flannel Flower Boab Bitter Bush Peppermint Blue Grass Lily Bullock Bush Desert Oak Woolly Sheoak Sheoak Rock Sheoak Dwarf Sheoak Dune Sheoak Compass Bush Horned Sheoak Red Ash Common Joyweed Coastal Hibiscus Lilac Hibiscus Sand Hibiscus Dysentery Bush Boggabri Weed Pincushion Mistletoe Rice Flower Giant Andersonia Foxtails Hook-leaf Angianthus Camel-grass Little Kangaroo Paw Tall Kangaroo Paw Dwarf Kangaroo Paw 241

Australian Seeds

Botanical name

Common name

Botanical name

Common name

Anigozanthos humilis Anigozanthos manglesii Anigozanthos preissii Anigozanthos pulcherrimus Anigozanthos rufus Anigozanthos viridis Anthocercis littorea Anthocercis viscosa Anthotium rubriflorum Aristida inaequiglumis Astroloma ciliatum Astroloma macrocalyx Astroloma microcalyx Astroloma microdonta Astroloma serratifolium Atriplex bunburyana Atriplex cinerea Atriplex isatidea Atriplex nummularia Atriplex paludosa Atriplex semilunaris Atriplex spongiosa Atriplex vesicaria Austrostipa elegantissima Austrostipa scabra

Catspaw Mangles Kangaroo Paw Albany Catspaw Yellow Kangaroo Paw Red Kangaroo Paw Green Kangaroo Paw Yellow Tailflower Sticky Tailflower Red Anthotium Feathertop Threeawn Candle Cranberry Swan Berry Native Cranberry Sandplain Cranberry Kondrung Silver Saltbush Grey Saltbush Coast Saltbush Old Man Saltbush Marsh Saltbush Annual Saltbush Pop Saltbush Bladder Saltbush Feather Speargrass Rough Speargrass

Baeckea behrii Baeckea camphorosmae Baeckea grandiflora Balaustion microphyllum Balaustion pulcherrimum Banksia ashbyi Banksia attenuata Banksia baueri Banksia baxteri Banksia brownii Banksia burdettii Banksia caleyi Banksia candolleana Banksia chamaephyton Banksia coccinea Banksia cuneata Banksia dentata Banksia dryandroides Banksia elegans Banksia gardneri Banksia goodii Banksia grandis Banksia hookeriana Banksia ilicifolia Banksia laevigata Banksia laricina Banksia lemanniana Banksia lindleyana Banksia littoralis Banksia media Banksia meisneri Banksia menziesii Banksia nutans Banksia occidentalis

Broom Heath Myrtle Camphor Myrtle Large-flowered Baeckea Bush Pomegranate Native Pomegranate Ashby’s Banksia Slender Banksia Woolly Banksia Baxter’s Banksia Feather-leaved Banksia Burdett’s Banksia Cayley’s Banksia Propeller Banksia Fishbone Banksia Scarlet Banksia Quairading Banksia Tropical Banksia Dryandra-leaved Banksia Elegant Banksia Prostrate Banksia Good’s Banksia Bull Banksia Hooker’s Banksia Holly-leaved Banksia Tennis Ball Banksia Rose Banksia Lemann’s Banksia Porcupine Banksia Swamp Banksia Southern Plains Banksia Meisner’s Banksia Firewood Banksia Nodding Banksia Red Swamp Banksia

Banksia oligantha Banksia oreophila Banksia praemorsa Banksia prionotes Banksia pulchella Banksia quercifolia Banksia repens Banksia scabrella Banksia sceptrum Banksia solandri Banksia speciosa Banksia sphaerocarpa Banksia telmatiaea Banksia tricuspis Banksia verticillata Banksia victoriae Banksia violacea Bauhinia cunninghamii Beaufortia cyrtodonta Beaufortia decussata Beaufortia eriocephala Beaufortia micrantha Beaufortia orbifolia Beaufortia schaueri Beaufortia sparsa Beaufortia squarrosa Bellida graminea Beyeria viscosa Billardiera floribunda Billardiera fusiformis Blancoa canescens Bonamia rosea Boronia adamsiana Boronia alata Boronia crenulata Boronia cymosa Boronia fastigiata Boronia gracilipes Boronia heterophylla Boronia lanuginosa Boronia megastigma Boronia molloyae Boronia pulchella Boronia purdieana Boronia scabra Boronia spathulata Borya nitida Bossiaea aquifolium Bossiaea bossiaeoides Bossiaea eriocarpa Bossiaea ornata Bossiaea webbii Brachychiton diversifolius Brachychiton gregorii Brachyscome ciliaris Brachyscome ciliocarpa Brachyscome iberidifolia Brachyscome latisquamea Brachyscome lineariloba Brunonia australis

Wagin Banksia Mountain Banksia Cut-leaf Banksia Acorn Banksia Teasel Banksia Oak-leaved Banksia Creeping Banksia Burma Road Banksia Sceptre Banksia Stirling Range Banksia Showy Banksia Round-fruit Banksia Swamp Fox Banksia Pine Banksia Albany Banksia Woolly Orange Banksia Violet Banksia Bauhinia Stirling Range Bottlebrush Gravel Bottlebrush Woolly Bottlebrush Little Bottlebrush Ravensthorpe Bottlebrush Pink Bottlebrush Swamp Bottlebrush Sand Bottlebrush Rosy Bellida Pinkwood White-flowered Billardiera Australian Bluebell Winter Bell Felty Bellflower Barbalin Boronia Winged Boronia Aniseed Boronia Granite Boronia Bushy Boronia Karri Boronia Kalgan Boronia Red Boronia Scented Boronia Tall Boronia Pink Boronia Winter Boronia Rough Boronia Boronia Pincushions Water Bush Bossiaea Common Brown Pea Broad Leaved Brown Pea Water Bush Northern Kurrajong Desert Kurrajong Variable Daisy Ciliate-fruited Daisy Swan River Daisy Climbing Daisy Stemless Daisy Native Cornflower

242

Appendix 4: List of botanical names

Botanical name

Common name

Botanical name

Common name

Buchnera ramosissima Burchardia multiflora Burchardia conjesta Byblis gigantea Byblis liniflora

Blackrod Dwarf Burchardia Milkmaids Rainbow Plant Northern Byblis

Chorizema varium Chrysocephalum apiculatum Chrysocephalum puteale Clematis linearifolia Clematis pubescens Cleome viscosa Cochlospermum fraseri Codonocarpus cotinifolius Comesperma virgatum Comesperma volubile Conospermum acerosum Conospermum amoenum Conospermum brownii Conospermum caeruleum Conospermum crassinervium Conospermum densiflorum Conospermum flexuosum Conospermum glumaceum Conospermum huegelii Conospermum incurvum Conospermum stoechadis Conospermum teretifolium Conospermum toddii Conospermum triplinervium Conostylis aculeata Conostylis candicans Conostylis drummondii Conostylis micrantha Conostylis pauciflora Conostylis prolifera Conostylis seorsiflora subsp. trichophylla Conostylis setigera Conostylis setosa Convolvulus angustissimus Convolvulus erubescens Corchorus walcottii Corymbia calophylla Corymbia chippendalei Corymbia dichromophloia Corymbia ficifolia Corymbia haematoxylon Corymbia latifolia Corymbia opaca Corymbia polycarpa Corymbia ptychocarpa Corymbia setosa Corymbia zygophylla Cosmelia rubra Cotula bipinnata Cotula coronopifolia Cotula cotuloides Crassula colorata Cratystylis subspinescens Crotalaria crispata Crotalaria cunninghamii Crotalaria dissitiflora Crotalaria novae-hollandiae Crotalaria retusa Crotalaria verrucosa

Bush Flame Pea Yellow Buttons Appressed-leaf Sunray Slender Clematis Common Clematis Tickweed Kapok Bush Native Poplar Milkwort Love Creeper Needle-leaved Smokebush Blue Smokebush Blue-eyed Smokebush Blue Brother Summer Smokebush Crown Smokebush Tangled Smokebush Hooded Smokebush Slender Smokebush Plume Smokebush Common Smokebush Spider Smokebush Victoria Desert Smokebush Tree Smokebush Prickly Conostylis Grey Cottonhead Drummond’s Conostylis Small-flowered Conostylis Dawesville Conostylis Mat Cottonheads

Caesia micrantha Calamphoreus inflatus

Pale Grass Lily Swollen-flowered Eremophila Calandrinia creethae Twining Purslane Calandrinia polyandra Parakeelya Calectasia narragara Blue Tinsel Lily Callistachys lanceolata Native Willow Callistemon phoeniceus Lesser Bottlebrush Callistemon speciosus Albany Bottlebrush Callitris drummondii Drummond’s Cypress Pine Callitris glaucophylla White Cypress Pine Callitris preissii Rottnest Island Pine Callitris roei Roe’s Cypress Pine Calocephalus francisii Fine-leaf Beauty-heads Calocephalus multiflorus Yellow-top Calocephalus platycephalus Billybuttons Calothamnus chrysantherus Claw Flower Calothamnus homalophyllus Murchison Clawflower Calothamnus pinifolius Dense Clawflower Calothamnus quadrifidus One-sided Bottlebrush Calothamnus rupestris Mouse Ears Calothamnus sanguineus Silky-leaved Blood flower Calothamnus validus Barrens Clawflower Calotis hispidula Bindy Eye Calotis multicaulis Many-stemmed Burr-daisy Calycopeplus paucifolius Broom Spurge Calytrix angulata Yellow Starflower Calytrix asperula Brush Starflower Calytrix exstipulata Mangada Calytrix flavescens Summer Starflower Calytrix fraseri Pink Summer Calythrix Calytrix tetragona Common Fringe-myrtle Canavalia ensiformis Jack Bean Canavalia rosea Wild Jack Bean Capparis umbonata Wild Orange Cardiospermum halicacabum Balloon Vine Cassytha melantha Large Dodder-laurel Cassytha pomiformis Dodder Laurel Casuarina cristata Black Oak Casuarina obesa Swamp Sheoak Casuarina pauper Black Oak Centipeda minima Spreading Sneezewood Cephalipterum drummondii Pompom Head Cephalotus follicularis Albany Pitcher Plant Chamaescilla corymbosa Blue Squill Chamelaucium axillare Esperance Waxflower Chamelaucium megalopetalum Large Waxflower Chamelaucium uncinatum Geraldton Wax Chenopodium gaudichaudianum Cottony Saltbush Choretrum glomeratum Common Sour Bush Chorilaena quercifolia Chorilaena Chorizema aciculare Needle-leaved Chorizema Chorizema dicksonii Yellow-eyed Flame Pea Chorizema ilicifolium Holly Flame Pea

Hairy Mat Conostylis Bristly Cottonhead White Cottonhead Australian Bindweed Australian Bindweed Woolly Corchorus Marri Sand-dune Bloodwood Variable Barked Bloodwood Red-flowering Gum Mountain Marri Round-leaf Bloodwood Inland Bloodwood Long-fruited Bloodwood Spring Bloodwood Rough-leaved Bloodwood Broome Bloodwood Spindle Heath Ferny Cotula Waterbuttons Smooth Cotula Dense Stonecrop Australian Sage Kimberley Horse Poison Green Birdflower Grey Rattlepod New Holland Rattlepod Wedgeleaf Rattlepod Blueflower Rattlepod 243

Australian Seeds

Botanical name

Common name

Botanical name

Common name

Crowea angustifolia Cryptandra arbutiflora Cullen cinereum Cullen leucanthum Cyanostegia angustifolia Cyanostegia lanceolata Cymbopogon ambiguus Cymbopogon obtectus Cymbopogon procerus Cynanchum floribundum Cyperus polystachyos

Crowea Waxy Cryptandra Annual Verbine White Scurf-pea Tinsel-flower Tinsel Flower Scentgrass Silkyheads Lemon Grass Dumara Bush Bunchy Sedge

Drosera stolonifera Drummondita ericoides

Dampiera eriocephala Dampiera incana Dampiera spicigera Dampiera wellsiana Darwinia acerosa Darwinia carnea Darwinia citriodora Darwinia macrostegia Darwinia meeboldii Darwinia neildiana Darwinia purpurea Darwinia virescens Dasypogon bromeliifolius Datura leichhardtii Daucus glochidiatus Daviesia cordata Daviesia decurrens Daviesia divaricata Daviesia euphorbioides Daviesia horrida Daviesia oppositifolia Daviesia pachyphylla Daviesia pectinata Daviesia spiralis Dianella revoluta Dianella revoluta var. divaricata Dillwynia uncinata Dioscorea hastifolia Diospyros ferrea Diplolaena angustifolia Diplolaena dampieri Diplolaena grandiflora Diplolaena microcephala Diplopeltis eriocarpa Diplopeltis stuartii var. stuartii Disphyma crassifolium Dodonaea aptera Dodonaea hackettiana Dodonaea lanceolata Dodonaea lobulata Dodonaea oxyptera Dodonaea rigida Dodonaea viscosa Drosera gigantea Drosera heterophylla Drosera indica Drosera macrantha Drosera menziesii

Woolly-headed Dampiera Hoary Dampiera Spiked Dampiera Wells’ Dampiera Fine-leaved Darwinia Mogumber Bell Lemon-scented Darwinia Mondurup Bell Cranbrook Bell Fringed Bell Rose Darwinia Murchison Darwinia Pineapple Bush Native Thornapple Australian Carrot Bookleaf Prickly Bitter-pea Marno Wongan Cactus Prickly Bitter-pea Rattle-pea Ouch Bush Prickly Bitterpea Spiral-leaved Daviesia Flax Lily Blueberry Lily Grey Parrot-pea Warrine Australian Ebony Yanchep Rose Southern Diplolaena Wild Rose Lesser Diplolaena Hairy Pepperflower Desert Pepperflower Round-leaved Pigface Coast Hop-bush Hackett’s Hopbush Pirrungu Bead Hopbush Hop Bush Thread Leaf Hop Bush Sticky Hopbush Giant Sundew Swamp Rainbow Indian Sundew Bridal Rainbow Pink Rainbow

Leafy Sundew Moresby Range Drummondita Peak Charles Drummondita Yilgarn Dryandra Prickly Dryandra Pink Dryandra Wedge-leaved Dryandra Prickly Dryandra Showy Dryandra Swordfish Dryandra Dwarf Dryandra Couch Honeypot Golden Dryandra Shining Honeypot Many-headed Dryandra Urchin Dryandra King Dryandra Tangled Honeypot Wongan Dryandra Oak-leaved Dryandra Serrate-leaved Dryandra Parrot Bush Bearded Dryandra Shaggy Dryandra

244

Drummondita hassellii Dryandra arborea Dryandra armata Dryandra carlinoides Dryandra cuneata Dryandra falcata Dryandra formosa Dryandra mucronulata Dryandra nana Dryandra nivea Dryandra nobilis Dryandra obtusa Dryandra polycephala Dryandra praemorsa Dryandra proteoides Dryandra pteridifolia Dryandra pulchella Dryandra quercifolia Dryandra serra Dryandra sessilis Dryandra shuttleworthiana Dryandra speciosa Dryandra squarrosa subsp. squarrosa Dryandra subulata Dryandra vestita Duboisia hopwoodii

Pingle Awled Honeypot Summer Dryandra Pituri

Ehretia saligna Enchylaena tomentosa Enneapogon avenaceus Enneapogon cylindricus Enneapogon oblongus Enneapogon polyphyllus Epilobium hirtigerum Eragrostis dielsii Eragrostis setifolia Eremaea acutifolia Eremaea violacea Eremophila alternifolia Eremophila calorhabdos Eremophila clarkei Eremophila cuneifolia Eremophila decipiens Eremophila denticulata Eremophila freelingii Eremophila glabra Eremophila granitica Eremophila ionantha Eremophila latrobei Eremophila leucophylla Eremophila longifolia Eremophila macmillaniana Eremophila maculata Eremophila maitlandii Eremophila margarethae Eremophila miniata

False Cedar Barrier Saltbush Bottle Washers Jointed Nineawn Purple-head Nineawn Leafy Nineawn Hairy Willow Herb Mallee Lovegrass Neverfail Grass Rusty Eremaea Violet Eremaea Poverty Bush Red Rod Turpentine Bush Pinyuru Slender Fuchsia Toothed Eremophila Stony Poverty Bush Tar Bush Thin-leaved Poverty Bush Violet-flowered Eremophila Warty Fuchsia Bush Wilcox Bush Berrigan Grey Turpentine Bush Native Fuchsia Shark Bay Poverty Bush Sandbank Poverty Bush Kopi Poverty Bush

Appendix 4: List of botanical names

Botanical name

Common name

Botanical name

Common name

Eremophila nivea Eremophila oldfieldii Eremophila platycalyx Eremophila punicea Eremophila racemosa Eremophila scoparia Eremophila serrulata Eremophila spectabilis Eremophila viscida Eriachne flaccida Erymophyllum tenellum Eryngium pinnatifidum Erythrina vespertilio Erythrophleum chlorostachys Eucalyptus albida Eucalyptus angulosa Eucalyptus angustissima Eucalyptus annulata Eucalyptus argillacea Eucalyptus astringens Eucalyptus beardiana Eucalyptus bennettiae Eucalyptus bigalerita Eucalyptus brachycalyx Eucalyptus brachycorys Eucalyptus brevifolia Eucalyptus brevistylis Eucalyptus brockwayi Eucalyptus buprestium Eucalyptus burdettiana Eucalyptus burracoppinensis Eucalyptus caesia Eucalyptus caesia subsp. caesia Eucalyptus caesia subsp. magna Eucalyptus calcicola Eucalyptus calycogona Eucalyptus camaldulensis Eucalyptus campaspe Eucalyptus carnei Eucalyptus celastroides Eucalyptus ceracea Eucalyptus concinna Eucalyptus conglobata Eucalyptus coolabah Eucalyptus cooperiana Eucalyptus cornuta Eucalyptus coronata Eucalyptus corrugata Eucalyptus crucis Eucalyptus cuprea Eucalyptus cylindriflora Eucalyptus cylindrocarpa Eucalyptus decipiens Eucalyptus decurva Eucalyptus desmondensis Eucalyptus diptera Eucalyptus diversicolor Eucalyptus diversifolia Eucalyptus doratoxylon Eucalyptus drummondii

Silky Eremophila Pixie Bush Granite Poverty Bush Crimson Eremophila Showy Eremophila Broom Bush Serrate-leaved Eremophila Showy Poverty Bush Varnish Bush Claypan Grass Slender Sunray Blue Devils Yulbah Ironwood White-leaved Mallee Ridge-fruited Mallee Narrow-leaved Mallee Open-fruited Mallee Mount House Box Brown Mallet Beard’s Mallee Bennett’s Mallee Northern Salmon Gum Gilja Cowcowing Mallee Snappy Gum Rates Tingle Dundas Mahogany Apple Mallee Burdett Gum Burracoppin Mallee Caesia Caesia Silver Princess Hamelin Bay Mallee Gooseberry Mallee River Gum Silver-topped Gimlet Carne’s Blackbutt Mirret Seppelt Range Gum Victoria Desert Mallee Port Lincoln Mallee Coolibah Many-flowered Mallee Yate Crowned Mallee Rough-fruited Mallee Silver Mallee Mallee Box White Mallee Woodline Mallee Redheart Slender Mallee Desmond Mallee Two-winged Gimlet Karri Soap Mallee Spearwood Mallee Drummond’s Gum

Eucalyptus dumosa Eucalyptus dundasii Eucalyptus ebbanoensis Eucalyptus eremophila Eucalyptus erythrocorys Eucalyptus erythronema Eucalyptus eudesmioides Eucalyptus ewartiana Eucalyptus falcata Eucalyptus flocktoniae Eucalyptus foecunda Eucalyptus forrestiana Eucalyptus gamophylla Eucalyptus gardneri Eucalyptus georgei Eucalyptus gomphocephala Eucalyptus gongylocarpa Eucalyptus goniantha Eucalyptus gracilis Eucalyptus griffithsii Eucalyptus grossa Eucalyptus guilfoylei Eucalyptus houseana Eucalyptus incerata Eucalyptus incrassata Eucalyptus insularis Eucalyptus jacksonii Eucalyptus jensenii Eucalyptus jucunda Eucalyptus jutsonii Eucalyptus kingsmillii Eucalyptus kochii Eucalyptus kondininensis Eucalyptus kruseana Eucalyptus laeliae Eucalyptus lane-poolei Eucalyptus latens Eucalyptus lateritica Eucalyptus lehmannii Eucalyptus leprophloia Eucalyptus leptophylla Eucalyptus leptopoda Eucalyptus longicornis Eucalyptus loxophleba Eucalyptus loxophleba subsp. gratiae Eucalyptus lucasii Eucalyptus macrandra Eucalyptus macrocarpa Eucalyptus marginata Eucalyptus megacarpa Eucalyptus megacornuta Eucalyptus melanoxylon Eucalyptus merrickiae Eucalyptus micranthera Eucalyptus microtheca Eucalyptus miniata Eucalyptus mooreana Eucalyptus newbeyi Eucalyptus obtusiflora

White Mallee Dundas Blackbutt Sandplain Mallee Tall Sand Mallee Illyarrie Red-flowered Mallee Malallie Ewart’s Mallee Silver Mallet Merrit Narrow-leaved Red Mallee Fuchsia Gum Twin-leaf Mallee Blue Mallet Hyden Blue Gum Tuart Marble Gum Jerdacuttup Mallee Yorrell Griffith’s Grey Gum Coarse-leaved Mallee Yellow Tingle Kimberley White Gum Mount Day Mallee Lerp Mallee Twin Peak Island Mallee Red Tingle Wandi Ironbark Yuna Mallee Jutson’s Mallee Kingsmill’s Mallee Oil Mallee Kondinin Blackbutt Bookleaf Mallee Darling Range Ghost Gum Salmon White Gum Narrow-leaved Red Mallee Laterite Mallee Bushy Yate Scaly Butt Mallee Narrow-leaved Red Mallee Tammin Mallee Red Morrel York Gum Lake Grace Gum Barlee Box Long-flowered Marlock Mottlecah Jarrah Bullich Warted Yate Black Morrel Goblet Mallee Alexander River Mallee Coolibah Woollybutt Mountain White Gum Beaufort Inlet Mallee Dongara Mallee 245

Australian Seeds

Botanical name

Common name

Botanical name

Common name

Eucalyptus obtusiflora subsp. dongarraensis Eucalyptus occidentalis Eucalyptus odontocarpa Eucalyptus oldfieldii Eucalyptus oleosa Eucalyptus oraria Eucalyptus orbifolia Eucalyptus oxymitra Eucalyptus pachyloma Eucalyptus patellaris Eucalyptus patens Eucalyptus pendens Eucalyptus petraea Eucalyptus phenax Eucalyptus phoenicea Eucalyptus pileata Eucalyptus platypus Eucalyptus platypus var. utilis Eucalyptus preissiana Eucalyptus pyriformis Eucalyptus rameliana Eucalyptus redunca Eucalyptus rhodantha Eucalyptus rigidula Eucalyptus roycei Eucalyptus rudis Eucalyptus salmonophloia Eucalyptus salubris Eucalyptus sargentii Eucalyptus scyphocalyx Eucalyptus sepulcralis Eucalyptus sessilis Eucalyptus sheathiana Eucalyptus socialis Eucalyptus spathulata Eucalyptus staeri Eucalyptus steedmanii Eucalyptus stoatei Eucalyptus stowardii Eucalyptus stricklandii Eucalyptus synandra Eucalyptus terminalis Eucalyptus tetragona Eucalyptus tetraptera Eucalyptus todtiana Eucalyptus torquata Eucalyptus transcontinentalis Eucalyptus uncinata Eucalyptus victrix Eucalyptus wandoo Eucalyptus woodwardii Eucalyptus x carnabyi Eucalyptus youngiana Euchilopsis linearis Eulalia aurea Euphorbia australis Euphorbia boophthona Euphrasia scabra Exocarpos aphyllus

Dongara Mallee Flat-topped Yate Sturt Creek Mallee Oldfield’s Mallee Giant Mallee Ooragmandee Round-leaved Mallee Sharp-capped Mallee Kalgan Plains Mallee Weeping Box Swan River Blackbutt Badgingarra Mallee Granite Rock Box Kangaroo Island Mallee Scarlet Gum Capped Mallee Red-flowered Moort Coastal Moort Bell-fruited Mallee Pear-fruited Mallee Ramel’s Mallee Black Marlock Rose Mallee Stiff-leaved Mallee Shark Bay Mallee Flooded Gum Salmon Gum Gimlet Salt River Gum Goblet Mallee Weeping Gum River Mallee Ribbon-barked Gum Red Mallee Swamp Mallet Albany Blackbutt Steedman’s Gum Scarlet Pear Gum Fluted Horn Mallee Strickland’s Gum Jingymia Mallee Inland Bloodwood Tallerack Four-winged Mallee Coastal Blackbutt Coral Gum Redwood Hook-leaved Mallee Coolibah Wandoo Lemon-flowered Gum Carnaby’s Mallee Large-fruited Mallee Swamp Pea Silky Browntop Namana Gascoyne Spurge Yellow Eye-bright Leafless Ballart

Ficus platypoda Flaveria australasica Frankenia pauciflora

Native Fig Speedy Weed Seaheath

Gastrolobium bilobum Gastrolobium callistachys Gastrolobium calycinum Gastrolobium capitatum Gastrolobium celsianum Gastrolobium crassifolium Gastrolobium dilatatum Gastrolobium glaucum Gastrolobium latifolium Gastrolobium laytonii Gastrolobium leakeanum Gastrolobium microcarpum Gastrolobium oxylobioides Gastrolobium parviflorum Gastrolobium polystachyum Gastrolobium racemosum Gastrolobium spathulatum Gastrolobium spinosum Gastrolobium stenophyllum Gastrolobium villosum Gilberta tenuifolia Glycine canescens Glycine clandestina Glycine tabacina Glycyrrhiza acanthocarpa Gompholobium capitatum Gompholobium scabrum Gompholobium tomentosum Gompholobium venustum Gomphrena canescens Gomphrena flaccida Goodenia affinis Goodenia concinna Goodenia fasciculata Goodenia filiformis Goodenia helmsii Goodenia pinifolia Goodenia pinnatifida Goodenia scapigera Goodenia sericostachya Goodenia viscida Goodia medaciginea Gossypium australe Gossypium robinsonii Gossypium sturtianum Grevillea agrifolia Grevillea annulifera Grevillea apiciloba Grevillea argyrophylla Grevillea armigera Grevillea asteriscosa Grevillea bipinnatifida Grevillea brachystachya Grevillea bracteosa Grevillea concinna

Heart Leaf Poison Rock Poison York Road Poison Bacon and Eggs Dark Pea-bush Thickleaf Poison Wedge-leaved Oxylobium Spike Poison Broad-leaved Brachysema Breelya Mountain Pea Sandplain Poison Champion Bay Poison Box Poison Horned Poison Netleaf Poison Poison Bush Prickly Poison Narrow-leaved Poison Crinkle-leaved Poison Slender Myriocephalus Silky Glycine Twining Glycine Glycine Pea Native Liquorice Yellow Pea Painted Lady Hairy Yellow Pea Handsome Wedge-pea Batchelors Buttons Gomphrena Weed Silver Goodenia Elegant Goodenia Bristly Scaevola Thread-leaved Goodenia Long-spiked Scaevola Pine-leaved Goodenia Cutleaf Goodenia White Goodenia Silky-spiked Goodenia Viscid Goodenia Clover-leaved Poison Native Cotton Wild Cotton Sturt’s Desert Rose Blue Grevillea Prickly Plume Grevillea Black Toothbrushes Silvery-leaved Grevillea Prickly Toothbrushes Star-leaf Grevillea Fuchsia Grevillea Short-spiked Grevillea Bracted Grevillea Red Combs

246

Appendix 4: List of botanical names

Botanical name

Common name

Botanical name

Common name

Grevillea deflexa Grevillea dielsiana Grevillea dimidiata Grevillea diversifolia Grevillea drummondii Grevillea dryandroides Grevillea eriobotrya Grevillea eriostachya Grevillea eryngioides Grevillea excelsior Grevillea hookeriana subsp. apiciloba Grevillea inconspicua Grevillea insignis Grevillea juncifolia Grevillea leucopteris Grevillea microcarpa Grevillea nana Grevillea obtusifolia Grevillea paradoxa Grevillea petrophiloides Grevillea phanerophlebia Grevillea pilulifera Grevillea pulchella Grevillea pyramidalis Grevillea quercifolia Grevillea refracta Grevillea rogersoniana Grevillea synapheae Grevillea tenuiflora Grevillea teretifolia Grevillea thelemanniana Grevillea trachytheca Grevillea tripartita subsp. macrostylis Grevillea variifolia Grevillea wickhamii Grevillea wilsonii Guichenotia macrantha Gunniopsis quadrifida Gyrocarpus americanus Gyrostemon ramulosus

Ninghan Grevillea Diels Grevillea Caustic Bush Variable-leaved Grevillea Drummond’s Grevillea Phalanx Grevillea Woolly Cluster Grevillea Flame Grevillea Curly Grevillea Flame Grevillea

Oval-leaf Hakea Hedge-hog Hakea Fan-leaved Hakea Pink Spike Hakea Marble Hakea Woolly Flowered Hakea Pincushion Hakea Blue Hakea Needlewood Honey Bush Witinti Cork Tree Dyaridany Lesueur Hakea Grass Leaf Hakea Myrtle Hakea Frog Hakea Needles and Corks Dungyn Bird Hakea

Haemodorum paniculatum Haemodorum spicatum Hakea aculeata Hakea amplexicaulis Hakea arborescens Hakea baxteri Hakea brachyptera Hakea bucculenta Hakea ceratophylla Hakea cinerea Hakea clavata Hakea conchifolia Hakea corymbosa Hakea costata Hakea cristata Hakea cucullata Hakea cyclocarpa

Mardja Mardja Column Hakea Prickly Hakea Common Hakea Fan Hakea Short-winged Hakea Red Pokers Horned Leaf Hakea Ashy Hakea Coastal Hakea Shell-leaved Hakea Cauliflower Hakea Ribbed Hakea Snail Hakea Hood Leaved Hakea Ramshorn

Hakea elliptica Hakea erinacea Hakea flabellifolia Hakea francisiana Hakea incrassata Hakea lasiantha Hakea laurina Hakea lehmanniana Hakea leucoptera Hakea lissocarpha Hakea lorea Hakea lorea subsp. lorea Hakea macrocarpa Hakea megalosperma Hakea multilineata Hakea myrtoides Hakea nitida Hakea obliqua Hakea oleifolia Hakea orthorrhyncha Hakea pandanicarpa subsp. crassifolia Hakea petiolaris Hakea platysperma Hakea preissii Hakea prostrata Hakea recurva Hakea ruscifolia Hakea stenocarpa Hakea sulcata Hakea trifurcata Hakea undulata Hakea varia Hakea victoria Halgania cyanea Halgania lavandulacea Haloragis odontocarpa Halosarcia halocnemoides Hardenbergia comptoniana Heliotropium curassavicum Helipterum craspedioides Hemiandra gardneri Hemiandra pungens Hemigenia incana Hemigenia westringioides Hibbertia conspicua Hibbertia cuneiformis Hibbertia glomerosa Hibbertia hypericoides Hibbertia miniata Hibbertia racemosa Hibbertia stellaris Hibiscus drummondii Hibiscus meraukensis Hibiscus panduriformis Hibiscus sturtii Hibiscus trionum Homalanthus novo-guineensis Hovea chorizemifolia Hovea elliptica

Black Toothbrushes Cue Grevillea Wax Grevillea Honey-suckle Grevillea White Plume Grevillea Prickly Grevillea Dwarf Grevillea Obtuse Leaved Grevillea Bottlebrush Grevillea Pink Pokers Prominent Vein Grevillea Woolly-flowered Grevillea Beautiful Grevillea Caustic Bush Oak-leaf Grevillea Silver-leaf Grevillea Rogersons’ Grevillea Catkin Grevillea Tassel Grevillea Round Leaf Grevillea Spider Net Grevillea Rough-fruit Grevillea Mt Barren Grevillea Cape Range Grevillea Wickham’s Grevillea Native Fuchsia Large-flowered Guichenotia Sturts Pigface Helicopter Tree Corkybark

Thick Leaved Hakea Sea Urchin Hakea Cricket Ball Hakea Needle Tree Harsh Hakea Djarnokmurd Candle Hakea Narrow-fruited Hakea Furrowed Hakea Two-leaf Hakea Wavy-leaved Hakea Variable-leaved Hakea Royal Hakea Rough Halgania Blue Bush Mulga Nettle Shrubby Samphire Native Wisteria Smooth Heliotrope Yellow Billy Buttons Red Snakebush Snakebush Silky Hemigenia Open Hemigenia Leafless Hibbertia Cutleaf Hibbertia Guinea-flower Yellow Buttercups Orange Hibbertia Stalked Guinea Flower Orange Stars Drummond’s Hibiscus Merauke Hibiscus Yellow Hibiscus Sturt’s Hibiscus Bladder Ketmia Native Bleeding Heart Holly-leaved Hovea Tree Hovea 247

Australian Seeds

Botanical name

Common name

Botanical name

Common name

Hovea pungens Hovea trisperma Hyalosperma cotula Hyalosperma glutinosum Hypocalymma angustifolium Hypocalymma robustum

Devil’s Pins Common Hovea Mayweed Sunray Golden Sunray White Myrtle Swan River Myrtle

Indigofera australis Indigofera brevidens Indigofera colutea Indigofera georgei Indigofera hirsuta Ipomoea costata Ipomoea muelleri Isopogon adenanthoides Isopogon alcicornis Isopogon baxteri Isopogon cuneatus Isopogon divergens Isopogon dubius Isopogon formosus Isopogon polycephalus Isopogon sphaerocephalus Isopogon teretifolius Isopogon tridens Isopogon trilobus Isotoma hypocrateriformis Isotoma petraea Isotoma scapigera Isotropis atropurpurea Ixiolaena tomentosa Ixiolaena viscosa

Australian Indigo Widji Sticky Indigo Bovine Indigo Hairy Indigo Rock Morning Glory Poison Morning Glory Spider Coneflower Elkhorn Coneflower Stirling Range Coneflower Coneflower Spreading Coneflower Pincushion Coneflower Rose Coneflower Clustered Coneflower Drumstick Isopogon Nodding Coneflower Three-toothed Coneflower Barrel Coneflower Woodbridge Poison Rock Isotome Long-scaped Isotoma Poison Sage Woolly Ixiolaena Sticky Ixiolaena

Lambertia ericifolia Lambertia fairallii Lambertia ilicifolia Lambertia inermis Lambertia multiflora Lambertia rariflora Lawrencella davenportii Lawrencia helmsii Lechenaultia biloba Lechenaultia floribunda Lechenaultia heteromera Lechenaultia linarioides Lechenaultia macrantha Lechenaultia stenosepala

Jacksonia floribunda Jacksonia furcellata Jacksonia sericea Jacksonia sternbergiana Jasminum didymum Johnsonia lupulina Johnsonia pubescens Josephinia eugeniae Juncus holoschoenus

Holly Pea Grey Stinkwood Waldjumi Stinkwood Desert Jasmine Hooded Lily Pipe Lily Josephinia Burr Jointleaf Rush

Lechenaultia tubiflora Leiocarpa websteri Lepidium phlebopetalum Lepidium platypetalum Lepidium rotundum Lepidosperma gladiatum Leptomeria pauciflora Leptosema aphyllum Leptosema daviesioides Leptospermum erubescens Leptospermum sericeum Leucochrysum fitzgibbonii Leucochrysum stipitatum Leucopogon parviflorus Leucopogon verticillatus Livistona alfredii Livistona eastonii Lobelia alata Lobelia heterophylla Lobelia rhombifolia Lobelia tenuior Lobelia winfridae Logania vaginalis Lotus australis Lotus cruentus Ludwigia octovalvis Lycium australe Lysinema ciliatum

Heath-leaved Honeysuckle Fairall’s Honeysuckle Holly-leaved Honeysuckle Chittick Many-flowered Honeysuckle Green Honeysuckle Sticky Everlasting Dunna-dunna Blue Leschenaultia Free-flowering Leschenaultia Claw Leschenaultia Yellow Leschenaultia Wreath Leschenaultia Narrow-sepaled Leschenaultia Heath Leschenaultia Plover Daisy Veined Peppercress Slender Peppercress Veined Peppercress Coast Sword-sedge Spiny Currant Bush Ribbon Pea Upside-down Pea-bush Roadside Tea-tree Silver Teatree Glandular Sunray Woolly Sunray Coast Beard-heath Tassel Flower Millstream Fan-palm Fan Palm Angled Lobelia Wing-seeded Lobelia Tufted Lobelia Slender Lobelia Little Lobelia White Spray Austral Trefoil Redflower Lotus Willow Primrose Australian Boxthorn Curry Flower

Kennedia beckxiana Kennedia coccinea Kennedia glabrata Kennedia macrophylla Kennedia nigricans Kennedia prostrata Kennedia stirlingii Keraudrenia integrifolia Kingia australis Kunzea ericifolia Kunzea pulchella

Cape Arid Kennedia Coral Vine Northcliffe Kennedia Augusta Kennedia Black Kennedia Scarlet Runner Bushy Kennedia Common Firebush Kingia Spearwood Granite Kunzea

Labichea lanceolata Labichea punctata Lachnostachys eriobotrya Lachnostachys verbascifolia Lambertia echinata

Tall Labichea Lance-leaved Cassia Lambswool Lambs’ Tails Prickly Honeysuckle

Macgregoria racemigera Macropidia fuliginosa Maireana atkinsiana Maireana carnosa Maireana convexa Maireana georgei Maireana glomerifolia Maireana lanosa Maireana melanocoma Maireana pyramidata Maireana tomentosa Maireana triptera Malvastrum americanum Marianthus erubescens Marianthus ringens Marsdenia australis

Snow Flower Black Kangaroo Paw Bronze Bluebush Cottony Bluebush Mulga Bluebush Satiny Bluebush Ball Leaf Bluebush Woolly Bluebush Pussy Bluebush Sago Bush Felty Bluebush Threewinged Bluebush Spiked Malvastrum Red Billardiera Chapman Creeper Cogola Bush

248

Appendix 4: List of botanical names

Botanical name

Common name

Botanical name

Common name

Melaleuca bracteata Melaleuca cardiophylla Melaleuca coccinea Melaleuca cuticularis Melaleuca elliptica Melaleuca filifolia Melaleuca fulgens Melaleuca huegelii Melaleuca incana Melaleuca lanceolata Melaleuca lateriflora Melaleuca lateritia Melaleuca minutifolia Melaleuca nematophylla Melaleuca nervosa Melaleuca nesophila Melaleuca pauperiflora Melaleuca preissiana Melaleuca pulchella Melaleuca radula Melaleuca rhaphiophylla Melaleuca scabra Melaleuca sciotostyla Melaleuca sheathiana Melaleuca suberosa Melaleuca systena Melaleuca teretifolia Melaleuca uncinata Melaleuca viminea Melaleuca viridiflora Menkea australis Microseris scapigera Millotia tenuifolia Mimusops elengi Minuria cunninghamii Minuria leptophylla Mirbelia dilatata Mirbelia floribunda Monotaxis grandiflora Muehlenbeckia adpressa Myoporum acuminatum Myoporum insulare Myoporum oppositifolium Myoporum tetrandrum Myriocephalus suffruticosus

River Teatree Tangling Melaleuca Goldfields Bottlebrush Saltwater Paperbark Granite Bottlebrush Wiry Honeymyrtle Scarlet Honeymyrtle Chenille Honeymyrtle Grey Honeymyrtle Rottnest Teatree Gorada Robin Redbreast Bush Tea Tree Wiry Honey-myrtle Fibrebark Mindiyed Boree Moonah Claw Flower Graceful Honeymyrtle Swamp Paperbark Rough Honeymyrtle Wongan Melaleuca Boree Corky Honeymyrtle Coastal Honeymyrtle Banbar Broom Bush Mohan Broadleaf Paperbark Fairy Spectacles Yam Soft Millotia Walara Bush Minuria Minnie Daisy Holly-leaved Mirbelia Purple Mirbelia Diamond of the Desert Climbing Lignum Native Myrtle Blueberry Tree Twin-leaf Myoporum Boobialla Shrubby Myriocephalus

Olearia pimeleoides Olearia rudis Operculina brownii Orthrosanthus laxus Orthrosanthus multiflorus Owenia reticulata Owenia vernicosa Ozothamnus cordatus Ozothamnus occidentalis

Pimelea Daisybush Rough Daisybush Potato Vine Morning Iris Morning Iris Native Walnut Emu Apple Tangle Daisy Rough-leaved Everlasting

Nauclea orientalis Newcastelia cladotricha Newcastelia hexarrhena Nicotiana occidentalis Nicotiana rotundifolia Nitraria billardierei Nuytsia floribunda

Leichardt Pine Lambs Tail Lambs’ Tails Native Tobacco Round-leaved Tobacco Nitre Bush Christmas Tree

Olearia adenolasia Olearia axillaris Olearia ciliata Olearia muelleri Olearia muricata Olearia paucidentata

Woolly-glandular Daisy Bush Coastal Daisybush Fringed Daisy Bush Goldfields Daisy Rough-leaved Daisy Bush Autumn Scrub Daisy

Paraserianthes lophantha Parietaria debilis Patersonia inaequalis Patersonia juncea Patersonia occidentalis Patersonia pygmaea Patersonia rudis Patersonia umbrosa Pelargonium capitatum Pennisetum basedowii Pericalymma ellipticum Persoonia longifolia Petalostigma quadriloculare Petalostylis labicheoides Petrophile biloba Petrophile heterophylla Petrophile linearis Petrophile longifolia Philotheca brucei Philotheca spicata Philydrella pygmaea Philydrum lanuginosum Phyllanthus calycinus Physalis minima Physopsis spicata Pileanthus filifolius Pileanthus limacis Pileanthus peduncularis Pimelea argentea Pimelea hispida Pimelea microcephala Pimelea physodes Pimelea rosea Pimelea spectabilis Pimelea suaveolens Pimelea sulphurea Pithocarpa corymbulosa Pittosporum phylliraeoides Pityrodia axillaris Pityrodia oldfieldii Pityrodia terminalis Pityrodia verbascina Plantago drummondii Plantago varia Platysace compressa Platytheca galioides Pluchea dentex Podolepis auriculata Podolepis canescens Podolepis capillaris

Albizia Pellitory Unequal Bract Patersonia Rush Leaved Patersonia Purple Flag Pygmy Patersonia Hairy Flag Yellow Flags Rose Pelargonium Spotter’s Grass Swamp Teatree Snottygobble Quinine Tree Slender Petalostylis Granite Petrophile Variable-leaved Cone Bush Pixie Mops Long Leaved Cone Bush Noolburra Pepper and Salt Butterfly Flowers Frogsmouth False Boronia Wild Gooseberry Hill River Lambstail Summer Coppercups Coastal Coppercups Coppercups Silvery Leaved Pimelea Bristly Pimelea Shrubby Riceflower Qualup Bell Rose Banjine Bunjong Scented Banjine Yellow Banjine Corymbose Pithocarpa Weeping Pittosporum Native Foxglove Oldfields Foxglove Native Foxglove Golden Bush Sago Weed Variable Plantain Tapeworm Plant Platytheca Squarrose-bracted Pluchea Wrinkled Podolepis Bright Podolepis Wiry Podolepis 249

Australian Seeds

Botanical name

Common name

Botanical name

Common name

Podolepis gracilis Podolepis rugata Podotheca angustifolia Podotheca chrysantha Podotheca gnaphalioides Polymeria ambigua Pomaderris grandis Portulaca oleracea Portulaca pilosa Prostanthera eckersleyana Prostanthera magnifica Pterocaulon sphacelatum Ptilotus axillaris Ptilotus calostachyus Ptilotus clementii Ptilotus divaricatus Ptilotus drummondii Ptilotus exaltatus Ptilotus helipteroides Ptilotus latifolius Ptilotus macrocephalus Ptilotus manglesii Ptilotus obovatus Ptilotus polakii Ptilotus polystachyus Ptilotus rotundifolius

Slender Podolepis Pleated Podolepis Sticky Longheads Yellow Podotheca Golden Long-heads Morning Glory Large Pomaderris Purslane Djanggara Crinkly Mintbush Magnificent Prostanthera Apple Bush Mat Mulla Mulla Weeping Mulla Mulla Tassel Top Climbing Mulla Mulla Narrowleaf Mulla Mulla Tall Mulla Mulla Hairy Mulla Mulla Tangled Mulla Mulla Featherheads Pom Poms Cotton Bush Gascoyne Mulla Mulla Prince of Wales Feather Royal Mulla Mulla

Long-leaved Scaevola Shining Fanflower Currant Bush Gibbous-fruited Scaevola Schoenia

Radyera farragei Regelia velutina Rhadinothamnus anceps Rhagodia baccata Rhagodia crassifolia Rhagodia spinescens Rhodanthe chlorocephala subsp. rosea Rhodanthe chlorocephala subsp. splendida Rhodanthe floribunda Rhodanthe manglesii Rhodanthe pygmaea Rhodanthe rubella Rhodanthe spicata Rhodanthe sterilescens Rhodanthe stricta Rhynchosia minima Rulingia corylifolia Rulingia craurophylla Rutidosis helichrysoides

Knobby Hibiscus Barrens Regelia Blister Bush Berry Saltbush Fleshy Saltbush Spiny Saltbush

Salsola kali Salsola tragus Santalum acuminatum Santalum lanceolatum Santalum murrayanum Santalum spicatum Sarcostemma viminale subsp. australe Scaevola anchusifolia Scaevola crassifolia Scaevola glandulifera

Prickly Saltwort Prickly Saltwort Quandong Northern Sandalwood Bitter Quandong Sandalwood

Scaevola lanceolata Scaevola nitida Scaevola spinescens Scaevola thesioides Schoenia cassiniana Schoenia filifolia subsp. subulifolia Schoenus grandiflorus Scholtzia involucrata Sclerolaena bicornis Sclerolaena cuneata Sclerolaena eriacantha Sclerolaena pannatifolius Senecio gregorii Senecio hispidulus Senecio magnificus Senecio pinnatifolius Senecio quadridentatus Senna artemisioides Senna artemisioides subsp. helmsii Senna artemisioides subsp. sturtii Senna artemisioides subsp. x coriacea Senna charlesiana Senna charlesiana Senna costata Senna glutinosa Senna glutinosa subsp. x luerssenii Senna hamersleyensis Senna notabilis Senna occidentalis Senna planitiicola Senna pleurocarpa var. pleurocarpa Senna venusta Sesbania cannabina Sesbania formosa Sida calyxhymenia Sida platycalyx Sida rhombifolia Sida spinosa Sida spodochroma Siloxerus humifusus Solanum coactiliferum Solanum dioicum Solanum esuriale Solanum hystrix Solanum lasiophyllum Solanum orbiculatum Solanum quadriloculatum Solanum simile Solanum sturtianum Sorghum intrans Sowerbaea laxiflora Sphenotoma gracile Spinifex hirsutus Spinifex longifolius

250

Pink Everlasting Splendid Everlasting White Everlasting Pink Sunray Pygmy Sunray Reddish Sunray Spike-headed Sunray Infertile Sunray Glabrous Sunray Rhynchosia Hazel-leaved Rulingia Brittle Leaved Rulingia Grey Wrinklewort

Caustic Bush Silky Scaevola Thick-leaved Fan-flower Viscid Hand-flower

Snowy Everlasting Large Flowered Bogrush Spiked Scholtzia Goathead Burr Yellow Bindii Tall Bindii Spear-fruit Saltbush Fleshy Groundsel Hispid Fireweed Showy Groundsel Variable Groundsel Cotton Fireweed Silver Cassia Crinkled Cassia Grey Cassia Desert Cassia White Cassia Green Cassia Australian Senna Sticky Cassia White Cassia Creeping Cassia Cockroach Bush Coffee Senna Arsenic Bush Native Senna Cassia Sesbania Pea White Dragon Tree Tall Sida Lifesaver Burr Paddy’s Lucerne Spiny Sida Dwarf Sida Procumbent Siloxerus Western Nightshade Gilu Quena Afghan Thistle Flannel Bush Wild Tomato Tomato Bush Oondoroo Thargomindah Nightshade Darwin Canegrass Purple Tassels Swamp Paper-heath Hairy Spinifex Beach Spinifex

Appendix 4: List of botanical names

Botanical name

Common name

Botanical name

Common name

Spyridium globulosum Stachystemon axillaris Stemodia grossa Stemodia lythrifolia Stenopetalum lineare Stirlingia latifolia Strangea cynanchocarpa Stylidium adnatum

Basket Bush Leafy Stachystemon Marsh Stemodia Bunu Bunu Narrow Thread Petal Blueboy Heath Strangea Common Beaked Triggerplant Queen Trigger Plant Lovely Triggerplant Pink Fountain Triggerplant Circus Triggerplant Milkmaids Golden Triggerplant Thick-leaved Triggerplant Donkey Triggerplant Daddy-long-legs Touch-me-not Reed Triggerplant Slender-calyxed Trigger Plant Climbing Triggerplant Pebble Bush Common Pinheath Grey Swainsona Bladder Vetch Sturt’s Desert Pea Ashburton Pea Small-leaf Swainsona Variable Swainsona Dwarf Swainsona Tjarin Synaphea

Trachymene coerulea Trachymene didiscoides Trachymene glaucifolia Trachymene ornata Trachymene pilosa Trianthema oxycalyptra Trianthema triquetra Tribulus occidentalis Tribulus platypterus Trichanthodium skirrophorum Trichocline spathulata Trichodesma zeylanicum Tricoryne elatior Triodia basedowii Triodia bitextura Triodia irritans Triodia pungens Triodia schinzii Tripterococcus brunonis Triumfetta chaetocarpa Trymalium spathulatum Typha domingensis

Blue Lace Flower Smooth Laceflower Wild Carrot Spongefruit Native Parsnip Star Pigweed Red Spinach Perennial Caltrop Cork Hopbush Woolly Gnephosis Native Gerbera Camel Bush Yellow Autumn Lily Lobed Spinifex Curly Spinifex Porcupine Grass Soft Spinifex Soft Spinifex Winged Stackhousia Urchins Karri Hazel Bulrush

Velleia connata Velleia daviesii Velleia discophora Velleia hispida Velleia panduriformis Velleia rosea Verreauxia reinwardtii Verticordia brownii Verticordia densiflora Verticordia drummondii Verticordia forrestii Verticordia grandiflora Verticordia grandis Verticordia huegelii Verticordia mitchelliana Verticordia monadelpha Verticordia nitens Verticordia picta Verticordia plumosa Verticordia polytricha Verticordia roei Verticordia spicata Vigna lanceolata Villarsia calthifolia Viminaria juncea Vittadinia triloba

Cup Velleia Hairy Velleia Cabbage Poison Hispid Velleia Cabbage Poison Pink Velleia Common Verreauxia Common Cauliflower Compacted Featherflower Drummond’s Featherflower Forrest’s Featherflower Claw Featherflower Scarlet Featherflower Variegated Featherflower Rapier Featherflower Pink Woolly Featherflower Morrison Featherflower Painted Featherflower Plumed Featherflower Northern Cauliflower Roe’s Featherflower Spiked Featherflower Maloga Vigna Mountain Villarsia Swishbush Fuzzweed

Wahlenbergia gracilenta Waitzia acuminata Waitzia nitida Waitzia suaveolens Wedelia asperrima Westringia rigida

Annual Bluebell Orange Immortelle Golden Waitzia Fragrant Waitzia Yellow Daisy Stiff Westringia

Xanthorrhoea gracilis Xanthorrhoea nana Xanthorrhoea preissii

Graceful Grass Tree Dwarf Grasstree Grass Tree

Stylidium affine Stylidium amoenum Stylidium brunonianum Stylidium bulbiferum Stylidium caricifolium Stylidium ciliatum Stylidium crassifolium Stylidium diuroides Stylidium divaricatum Stylidium diversifolium Stylidium junceum Stylidium leptocalyx Stylidium scandens Stylobasium spathulatum Styphelia tenuiflora Swainsona canescens Swainsona colutoides Swainsona formosa Swainsona maccullochiana Swainsona microphylla Swainsona oroboides Swainsona phacoides Swainsona pterostylis Synaphea petiolaris Templetonia retusa Templetonia sulcata Tephrosia rosea Terminalia arostrata Terminalia canescens Terminalia oblongata subsp. volucris Terminalia petiolaris Terminalia platyphylla Tersonia cyathiflora Tetragonia implexicoma Tetragonia tetragonoides Tetratheca hirsuta Themeda triandra Thespesia populneoides Thomasia angustifolia Thomasia glutinosa Thomasia macrocarpa Thomasia quercifolia Threlkeldia diffusa Thryptomene australis Thryptomene saxicola Thysanotus asper Thysanotus dichotomus Thysanotus manglesianus Thysanotus multiflorus

Cockies Tongues Centipede Bush Widji Crocodile Tree Joolal Rosewood Masroorl Wild Plum Button Creeper Bower Spinach New Zealand Spinach Black Eyed Susan Kangaroo Grass Laba Narrow Leaved Thomasia Sticky Thomasia Large Fruited Thomasia Oak Leaved Thomasia Coast Bonefruit Hook-leaf Thryptomene Rock Thryptomene Hairy Fringe Lily Branching Fringe Lily Fringed Lily Many-flowered Fringe Lily

251

Australian Seeds

Botanical name

Common name

Botanical name

Common name

Xanthorrhoea thorntonii Xanthosia rotundifolia Xanthosia tomentosa Xerochloa laniflora Xerochrysum bracteatum Xylomelum angustifolium Xylomelum occidentale

Grass Tree Southern Cross Lesueur Southern Cross Rice Grass Golden Everlasting Sandplain Woody Pear Woody Pear

Zaleya galericulata Zygophyllum aurantiacum Zygophyllum fruticulosum Zygophyllum glaucum Zygophyllum iodocarpum Zygophyllum ovatum

Hogweed Shrubby Twinleaf Shrubby Twinleaf Pale Twinleaf Violet Twinleaf Dwarf Twinleaf

252

Glossary

Angiosperm a flowering, fruit bearing plant. The seeds are enclosed in an ovary. Anther part of the stamen of a flower that produces the male gametes. Located at the end of the filament. Aril a fleshy appendage or covering that partly or completely surrounds some seeds. Biodiversity the diversity of plant and animal life. Can refer to all levels of diversity, from genes to species to ecosystems. Bradysporous see ‘serotinous’. Carpel the female reproductive part of the flower, composed of the ovary, style and stigma. Combinational dormancy a type of dormancy in which seeds possess both physical and physiological dormancy. Cotyledon a seed leaf, the first (monocotyledon) or first pair (dicotyledon). A specialised part of the embryo that acts as a food storage organ. Cryostorage the storage of material at ultra-low temperatures, usually in liquid nitrogen at −196°C. Cupule a fruit type, a cup-like structure made up of hardened, fused bracts. Dehiscent any fruit in which the fruit wall splits open at maturity to release the seeds. Dicotyledon a flowering plant with two cotyledons. Diploid a full set of genetic material consisting of pairs of chromosomes, one from each parent. Dormancy refers to viable seeds that do not germinate despite being provided with appropriate temperature, moisture and light conditions. Double fertilisation where a male nucleus combines with the egg nucleus and another male nucleus combines with the primary endosperm to form an endosperm nucleus. Drupe an indehiscent fleshy fruit having the seed(s) enclosed within a woody endocarp. Ecotypic the smallest subdivision of a species, refers to a localised population of plants adapted to a specific set of environmental conditions. Eliasome see ‘aril’. Embryo the sporophyte, protected within the seed, which develops from the egg cell after fertilisation. The embryo generally consists of a hypocotyl root axis, a radicle, one or two cotyledons and a shoot apex. Endosperm nutritive tissue in developing and mature seeds which serves as a food source for the embryo. Etiloate a seedling or plant that develops without chlorophyll, due to a lack of exposure to sunlight.

Ex situ conservation the storage of living plant material (e.g. pollen, seeds, whole plants) off-site in a genebank. Fertilisation the fusion of male and female gametes, resulting in a zygote which subsequently develops into a new organism. Filament the stalk of the stamen bearing the anther. Follicle a dry fruit formed by a single carpel dehiscing along one suture to liberate the seeds. Fruit the seed-bearing structure in angiosperms. The product of a flower or gynoecium, a structure consisting of one or more ripened ovaries, together with any flower parts which may be associated with the ovaries. Funicle the stalk of an ovule which attaches it to the ovary wall. Gamete specialised haploid male and female germ cells that fuse to form a diploid zygote. The male gamete is found within the pollen grain, the female gamete is the egg cell found within the embryo sac. Gene the unit of heredity, consisting of specific sequences of DNA that code for a specific trait, that transmits information from one cell to another. Genetic diversity the variability in the genetic makeup of individuals within or among species. Genotype the genetic makeup of an individual. Geosporous plants that release their annual production of seed into the soil seedbank. Germplasm the genetic material that bears the hereditary characteristics of an organism. Gymnosperm the conifers and allies. Gynoecium the female part of a flower formed by the carpel(s). Haploid a single set of chromosomes (half of the full set of genetic material) found in the gamete. Hilum a scar down one side of a seed showing the point of attachment of the ovule to the ovary. In situ conservation the maintenance of biodiversity in wild populations, often through national parks and reserves. In vitro biological processes made to occur in an artificial environment (vitro = glass). Integument the covering of the central tissue of the ovule that contains the embryo sac. Most angiosperms contain an inner and outer integument, which harden to form the seed testa. Intermediate seed a seed that tolerates desiccation to 10–15% water content, but deteriorates in sub-zero storage. Locule a compartment (or compartments) of a multicarpellate ovary containing the ovule(s). Meiosis nuclear division associated with sexual reproduction, producing four haploid cells from a single diploid cell.

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Mesic refers to a moist habitat. Monocotyledon a flowering plant with one cotyledon. Morphological dormancy a type of dormancy in which seeds are dispersed with an underdeveloped embryo which needs time to mature and grow before germination is possible. Morphophysiological dormancy a type of dormancy in which seeds possess a physiologically dormant embryo which is also underdeveloped at the time of dispersal. Nucellus the tissue within the ovule of a plant containing the embryo sac and surrounded by the integuments. Nuclei the germ cell of an ovule which becomes the seed following fertilisation. Orthodox seed a seed that tolerates desiccation to low water contents (< 5%) and survives storage in sub-zero temperatures. Ovary the organ that produces the female gametes, occurs at the base of the carpel and contains one or more ovules. Ovule contains the egg cell and develops into a seed following fertilisation. The ovule consists of an inner embryo sac containing the egg cell surrounded by the nucellus, and is enclosed by one or two integuments. Pappus a modified calyx, generally composed of bristles or feather-like hairs found, for instance, in members of the Asteraceae family. Peduncle the main stem of a flower or inflorescence. Perianth the organs of a flower outside of the sex organs, the floral envelope divided into a calyx and corolla. Pericarp the wall of a fruit, developed from the ovary wall after fertilisation. Physical dormancy a type of dormancy in which seeds possess a water impermeable seed or fruit coat. Physiological dormancy a type of dormancy in which the embryo has insufficient growth potential to overcome the resistance to growth imposed by the covering structures. Primary dormancy refers to seeds that are dormant upon maturation and shedding from the parent plant. Propagule a structure of a plant, such as a seed, spore, bud or other offshoot, from which a new individual may develop.

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Raphe the longitudinal slit or ridge marking the position of the funicle. Recalcitrant seed a seed that does not survive desiccation and, therefore, cannot be stored at sub-zero temperatures. Rehabilitation the process of improving specific ecosystem factors in a degraded habitat. Restoration the return of a degraded habitat to its original species composition, structure and function. Scandent refers to plants with a climbing habit. Scape a leafless, stem-like flower stalk that grows directly from the ground. Schizocarp a dry fruit that splits once mature into two or more parts, each containing a single seed. Secondary dormancy refers to seeds that are non-dormant upon dispersal, but become dormant upon entering the soil seedbank and experiencing conditions unsuitable for germination. Sepal a modified floral leaf forming part of the calyx. Serotinous plants in which the annual production of seeds is retained within fruits held in the plant canopy. Also termed ‘bradysporous’ in Australia. Sori the cluster of sporangia (in which spores are produced) found on the underside of a fern frond. Stamen the male reproductive organ of the flower, made up of the filament and an anther which bears the pollen. Stigma the upper part of the carpel, designed to receive pollen grains. Usually connected to the ovary by a style. Style the stalk connecting the stigma to the ovary. Symbiotic a relationship between dissimilar organisms which benefits both. Testa the seed coat, formed from the integuments. Tomemtose covered with hairs. Triploid having three sets of chromosomes. Viable refers to a seed that is alive and has the potential to germinate. Viscid covered with a sticky coating or fluid. Zygote the diploid cell formed by the union of the nuclei of the male and female gamete upon fertilisation.

References

Chapter 2 1 Willis, K.J. and McElwain, J.C. (2002). The Evolution of Plants. Oxford University Press, Oxford. 2 Baskin, C.C. and Baskin, J.M. (1998). Seeds: Ecology, Biogeography and Evolution of Dormancy and Germination. Academic Press, San Diego. 3 Baskin, J.M. and Baskin, C.C. (2003). Classification, biogeography and phylogenetic relationships of seed dormancy. In Seed Conservation: Turning Science Into Practice. (Eds R.D. Smith, J.B. Dickie, S.H. Linington, H.W. Pritchard and R.J. Probert) pp. 517–544. Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, UK. 4 Baskin, C.C. and Baskin, J.M. (1998). Seeds: Ecology, Biogeography and Evolution of Dormancy and Germination. 5 Baskin, J.M. and Baskin, C.C. (2003). Classification, biogeography and phylogenetic relationships of seed dormancy. 6 Hill, R.S. (2001). Biogeography, evolution and palaeoecology of Nothofagus (Nothofagaceae): the contribution to the fossil record. Australian Journal of Botany 49, 321–332. 7 James, S.H. (1978). Some causes of seed sterility in certain native Australian plants. International Plant Propagators Society Combined Proceedings 28, 389–398. 8 Hopper, S.D. and Gioia, P. (2004). The south-west Australian Floristic Region: evolution and conservation of a global hotspot of biodiversity. Annual Review of Ecology, Evolution and Systematics 35, 623–650. 9 Stebbins, G.L. (1974). Flowering Plants: Evolution Above the Species Level. Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts. 10 Dixon, K.W. (2003). Rhizanthella gardneri. Orchidaceae. Curtis’s Botanical Magazine 20, 94–100. 11 Moles, A.T. and Westoby, M. (2004). What do seedlings die from and what are the implications for evolution of seed size? Oikos 106, 193–199. 12 Dixon, K.W., Roche, S. and Pate, J. (1995). The promotive effect of smoke derived from burnt native vegetation on seed germination of West Australian plants. Oecologia 101, 185–192. Chapter 4 1 Bellairs, S.M. and Bell, D.T. (1990). Temperature effects on the seed germination of ten kwongan species from Eneabba, Western Australia. Australian Journal of Botany 38, 451–458. 2 Baskin, J.M. and Baskin, C.C. (2004). A classification system for seed dormancy. Seed Science Research 14, 1–16.

3 Baskin, C.C. and Baskin, J.M. (1998). Seeds Ecology, Biogeography, and Evolution of Dormancy and Germination. Academic Press, San Diego. 4 Baskin, J.M. and Baskin, C.C. (2004). A classification system for seed dormancy. 5 Schwachtje, J. and Baldwin, I.T. (2004). Smoke exposure alters endogenous gibberellin and abscisic acid pools and gibberellin sensitivity while eliciting germination in the post-fire annual, Nicotiana attenuata. Seed Science Research 14, 51–60. 6 Pierce, S.M., Esler, K. and Cowling, R.M. (1995). Smokeinduced germination of succulents (Mesembryanthemaceae) from fire-prone and fire-free habitats in South Africa. Oecologia 102, 520–522. 7 Koch, J.M. and Ward, S.C. (1994). Establishment of understorey vegetation for rehabilitation of bauxite mined areas in the jarrah forest of Western Australia. Journal of Environmental Management 41, 1–15. 8 Bellairs, S.M. and Bell, D.T. (1993). Seed stores for restoration of species-rich shrubland vegetation following mining in Western Australia. Restoration Ecology 1, 231–240. Chapter 7 1 Roos, E.E. (1986). Precepts of successful seed storage. In Physiology of Seed Deterioration. (Eds M.B. McDonald and C.J. Nelson) pp. 1–26. Crop Science Society of America, Madison. 2 Bewley, J.D. and Black, M. (1994). Seeds Physiology of Development and Germination. 2nd edn. Plenum Press, New York. 3 Shen-Miller, J., Mudgett, M.B., Schopf, J.W., Clarke, S. and Berger, R. (1995). Exceptional seed longevity and robust growth: Ancient Sacred Lotus from China. American Journal of Botany 82, 1367–1380. 4 FAO (1994). Genebank Standards. Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations and International Plant Genetic Resources Institute, Rome. 5 FAO (1994). 6 FAO (1994). 7 International Seed Testing Association (ISTA) (1999). International rules for seed testing. Seed Science and Technology 27, 1–335. 8 FAO (1994). 9 FAO (1994).

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Index

Acacia 1, 13, 21, 27, 28, 35, 36, 40, 48, 49, 50, 52, 68–74, 176 achene 16 air-conditioned rooms 46 Amaranthaceae 15, 173, 174 Anigozanthos 20, 23, 40, 46, 49, 52, 178 Asteraceae 16, 23, 27, 28, 44, 46, 49, 173, 175 Banksia 9, 20, 23, 31, 40, 50–1, 52, 178–9 berries 17 biodiversity, loss of 61 Boronia 12, 13, 14, 20, 22, 50, 179 Botanic Gardens Conservation International (BGIC) 4 botanical names 199 list of 241–52 see also common names, list of capsule 14–15 caryopsis 15–16 cleaning seeds 46–51 aspirated blowers 49 centrifugal separator 50 cleaning area 48 equipment 47 with fleshy coatings 52 general tips 47–8 gravity table/separator 50 machinery 48–50 pests and diseases 52 quality testing 57 rotary screen 50 safety considerations 52 sieves 48–9 threshing machines 49 unusual genera 50–2 viability testing 57–9 zig-zag aspirator 50 climate change 3 collection see seed collection common names, list of 229–40 conservation education and display 3, 61, 62, 63 flora 61 and seedbanking 2–4, 61–6 and species recovery 62–3 utilisation of seed 62–3 Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) 2, 3–4, 61 cosmopolitan plants 1 Daviesia bursarioides (Fabaceae) 64–5 disease control 31 diseases and cleaning seeds 52 disturbance opportunists 37

dormancy 19–21 release cues 9 drupes 17 Dryandra 44, 51–2, 183 drying seeds after field trips 44–5 air-conditioned rooms 46 during field trips 41–3 polythene igloos 45–6 prior to storage 55–6 purpose-built humidity rooms 46 sheds with drying racks 45 systems 45–6 equipment, seed collection 35 Eucalyptus 1, 14, 18, 36, 38, 175, 184–5 everlasting daisies 36, 174, 175, 187 Fabaceae 16, 64–5, 173, 176 field trips planning 29 and seed drying 43–4 timing 35–7 fires 37–8 flora Australian 6 and conservation 61 rare 32–3, 63–6 flowering, defining a good season 39 follicle 14 fruit formation 14–18 fruits aggregate 14, 17 multiple 14, 17, 18 simple 14–17 simple dehiscent 14–15, 18 simple indehiscent, dry 15–16, 18 simple indehiscent, fleshy 17, 18 types 18 genera guidelines for common 173–6 collection strategies for selected 177–98 genetic diversity 2–3, 62 germination and seed ecology 19–23 germination records 199–219 germination testing 59–60 Grevillea 1, 14, 20, 27, 28–9, 49, 63–4, 186 Grevillea calliantha (Proteaceae) 63–4 habitat matching 9 Hakea 13, 14, 15, 20, 27, 31, 49, 186

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harvesting 25, 46 Hibiscus 49, 187 humidity rooms 46 imbibition injury 60 Interim Recovery Plan 63, 64, 65 Lambertia orbifolia subsp. orbifolia (Proteaceae) 65–6 legume or pod 14 leguminosae 14 longevity of seeds 53, 54 Malvaceae 6, 16, 21 Melaleuca 28, 36, 44, 47, 67, 190–1 Millennium Seed Bank Project 4, 44, 49, 51, 55 Mimosaceae 19, 21 Myrtaceae 14, 19, 28, 36, 45, 173, 175–6 Nothofagus 6–8 nut 16 orchids, native 9, 13–14 Paris Declaration on Biodiversity 2 pests and cleaning seeds 52 photographic guide to Australian seeds 67–172 photographs, specimen vouchers for the seed 220–8 pollination 12 polythene igloos 45–6 precipitation events (annuals and ephemerals) 38–9 Proteaceae 1, 9, 14, 16, 19, 63–4, 65–6 rainforests 1, 2 rare flora 32–3, 63–6 recording seed collections 33–5 research 62 restoration and seed ecology 24 revegetation programs 32 Rhodanthe 28, 36, 38–9, 44, 175, 194 Rutaceae 12, 13, 17, 20 safety considerations and cleaning seeds 52 sampling strategies 32 schizocarp 16 seed collection bags 30–1 defining a good season 39 disease controls 31 equipment 35 field assessment 28–9, 36 general principles 25–8 guidelines for common Australian families and genera 173–98 handling 41 implications for the collector 40 legal considerations 31 predation in wild stands 39–40 primary reasons 25 rare or threatened flora 32–3 recording 33–5

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sampling strategies 32 strategies for selected genera 177–98 vehicles 29–30 see also field trips seed ecology and germination 19–23 and restoration 24 seed ferns 6 seed germination records 199–219 and seed ecology 19–23 testing 59–60 seed plants 6–8 seed predation in wild stands 39–40 seed storage 53–60 characteristics 53–4 and drying 55–6 germination testing 59–60 imbibition injury 60 quality testing 57 scoring results 60 temperature 56–7 viability testing 57–9 water content 56 seedbanking in conservation 2–4, 61–6 see also Millennium Seed Bank Project seeding, defining a good season 39 seeding episodes, cues for unusual episodes 37–9 seeds botanical names, list of 241–52 common names, list of 229–40 dormancy 19–21 dormancy release cues 9 formation 11–12 longevity 53, 54 photographic guide to Australian 67–172 pollination 12 quality testing 57 research 62 selection pressures on Australian 9 size and evolution 9–10 smoke-responsive 9, 10, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 38, 199 structure 12–13 types 13–14 utilisation for conversation 62–3 see also cleaning seeds; drying seeds smoke-responsive seeds 9, 10, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 38, 199 species recovery 62–3 storage see seed storage Swainsona 38, 49, 196 temperature, storage 56–7 terrestrial orchids 9 threatened flora 32–3 viability testing 57–9 water content, calculation of 56 woody evergreens 1