1 Drug Product Development in the Pharmaceutical Industry G u r vi n d e r S i n gh R ek h i L e o n Sh a r ge l
I. INT...
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1 Drug Product Development in the Pharmaceutical Industry G u r vi n d e r S i n gh R ek h i L e o n Sh a r ge l
I. INTRODUCTION A. Ac t i ve p h a r ma c eu t i ca l i ng r e d ie n t ( AP I ) 1 . A d ru g su b s ta n ce i s th e A P I o r c om po n en t th at p r od uc es ph a rm ac o lo gic a l a c ti vi t y. 2 . Th e A P I m a y b e p r o du c e d b y c h e m i ca l s y n t he s is , r e co v e r y f r om a na tu r a l p r o du c t, en z y m a t ic re ac ti o n , r ec om b in an t D N A tec h no l og y , fe r m e n ta t io n , o r a c om b in a ti o n o f t he s e p roc es s es . F u rt h e r p u ri fi c at io n of t he A P I m a y b e n ee d e d b e f o re it c a n b e u s e d i n a d r ug pr o du c t. 3 . A new c he m ic a l e n ti ty ( N C E ) i s a d ru g s ub s tan c e wi t h u nk no wn c li ni c al , t o xi c o l og ic , p h y s i c al , a nd c h em ic a l p r op e r ti es . I n a d di t io n , t he U . S . F oo d a n d D ru g A d m in is t ra t io n (F D A ) c on s id e rs an N C E a s a n AP I t ha t ha s n ot be e n a ppr o ve d fo r m a rk e ti n g i n t he U ni t ed S t a t es . 4 . Th e id e n ti t y, s t r e n g th , q ua l i t y, a n d p u r i t y o f a d ru g s ub s ta nc e d e pe nd o n p r o pe r c o n tr o l o f t h e m an u f ac tu r i ng an d s y n th e tic p ro ce s s . B . D r u g p r od u c t 1 . A d r u g p r od uc t i s t h e f i n i s he d d o sa g e f o r m (e . g . , ca ps u le , ta bl e t, in j ec t ab l e ) t h a t c on t ai ns th e A PI , gen e r al l y in as s o c i a ti on wi t h o th e r e xc i p i en ts , or in er t i n g re d ie n ts . 2 . Th e e xc i pi en t s i n t he d r u g p r od uc t m a y af f ec t t h e fu nc t io na l it y a nd pe r fo r m an ce o f t he dr u g p r od uc t , i nc lu d in g m o di fi ca t io n o f th e r a t e o f d r ug s u bs t an c e re l ea s e, i m p ro vi ng d ru g s t ab il i t y , a n d m as k i ng t he dr u g t as t e . 3 . D i ff e re n t a p p r oa c he s a r e ge ne r a ll y us e d t o p ro d uc e d r ug p ro d uc ts th a t c on t ai n N C E s , p ro du c t l in e e xt e n s i on s , ge n e ri c d r ug pr o du c ts , a n d s p ec i al t y d ru g p r o du c ts . C . N ew d r u g p r o du c t d eve l o p m en t D r u g p ro du c ts c on t ai n ing N C E a re de ve l op e d s eq u e nt i a l l y i n th e f o ll o wi ng p ha s e s . 1 . P r ec l i ni c al . A ni m a l ph a r m a c o lo g y a nd to xi c o lo g y d at a a r e o b ta i n e d t o d e te r m i n e t h e s a fe t y an d e f f ic ac y of t h e d ru g . Be c a us e l i tt l e i s k no wn a b ou t t h e h um a n an d t h e t h e r ap eu t ic / to xi c o l og ic po t e nt i al , m an y d r ug p ro du c ts wi l l n o t r ea c h t he m a r k et p la c e . N o a t te m p t i s m ad e t o de v e l o p a f i na l f o rm ul a ti on d u ri ng t he pr ec l in ic a l st a g e. N o n c l in i ca l st u d ie s a r e n o nh um a n s tu di es t ha t m a y co n ti nu e at an y s tag e of r e s ea r ch to ob t ai n a d di tio n al in f o rm a ti on c o nc e rni n g t h e p ha r m a c o lo g y a nd t o xi c o l og y o f t h e d r ug . 2 . P ha s e I a . A n I n ve s t ig a t io n al New D r ug ( I N D ) a pp l ic at io n fo r hu m a n t e st i ng i s su b m i t te d to t h e F D A. C li n ic al te s t i ng t a k e s p la c e af t e r t he I ND a p pl ic a ti o n is s u bm it t ed . P.2
b . H e al t h y v ol u nt e e rs a re us e d i n p ha se I c li ni c a l s t ud ie s t o d e te r m i n e d rug t o l er a nc e a nd t o xi c it y . c . Fo r or a l d r ug ad m i ni s tr a t io n , a s im p le ha r d g ela t i n ca ps u le fo r m u l at i on c o nt a in in g t h e A PI is us ua ll y u s e d fo r I N D s t ud i es . d . To xi c o l o gi c s t u di es — in c lu di n g a cu t e, c h r on ic , s u bc h ro ni c , a nd m u ta g en i c i t y — a nd o t h e r su c h s t u di es in v a ri o us an im al s p ec i es a r e p l an n ed du r in g th is ph as e . 3 . P ha s e I I a . A l im i te d n um b e r o f pa t i en ts wi t h th e d is e as e o r c o n di t io n f o r wh ic h t he d r ug wa s d e ve l op ed a re t re a te d un d e r c lo s e s u pe r v i s i on . b . D os e - re s p o ns e s tu d ies , bi oa va i la bi l it y , a nd pha r m a c ok in e ti cs a r e p e r for m e d t o d e t e rm in e t h e o pt im um do s ag e re gi m e n fo r t re a tin g th e d is e as e. c . S af e t y i s m ea s u r ed b y a t t em pt i ng to de t e rm in e t h e t h e r ap e u ti c i n d ex (r a t io o f t o xi c d os e t o e f f ec ti v e do s e ). d . A dr u g f o rm ul a ti o n h av i n g go o d p h ys ic o -c h em ic a l s ta bi l it y i s d e vel op e d. e . C h ro n ic to xi c i t y s t u di es a re s t a r te d i n t wo s pe c i e s ; su c h s t ud i es n o rm a lly l a s t m o r e t ha n 2 y e a rs ' du r a ti o n . 4 . P ha s e I I I a . La r g e- s c a le , m u l ti c ent e r c l in i ca l s t u d ie s a r e p e r f or m e d wi t h t h e f in a l d o s a g e f o r m d e vel o pe d i n p ha s e I I . Th es e s tu d ie s a r e d on e to de t e rm in e t h e s af et y a n d e f f ic ac y o f t h e d ru g p r o du c t i n a l a r ge pa t ie n t p op u la t io n wh o ha v e th e d is e as e o r c o nd i ti on f o r wh i c h t he dr u g wa s d e v e lo p ed . b . S id e e f f ec ts ar e m on i to r e d . I n a l a r ge po pu l at io n , n e w t o xi c e f fe c t s m ay o c cu r t h a t we r e n o t e v i de n t i n p r e v i ou s c li ni c a l tr i al s. 5 . S ub m i s s io n o f a N ew D r u g Ap p l i c a ti o n ( N D A) . A n N D A i s s ub m i t te d t o t h e F D A f o r r e vie w a n d a p pr o v a l a f t e r t he c o m p le t io n o f c li n ic al t ri a ls th a t s h o w t o t h e s a ti s fa c t i on of t he m e di c a l c om m u n it y t h at t he dru g p ro du c t is e ff ec t i v e by a l l p a r am e te r s a nd is re as on a bl y s af e a s d em o ns t rat e d b y a ni m a l a n d h um an s tu di es . 6 . P ha s e I V a . A f te r th e N D A i s s u bm i t t ed , a n d b e fo r e a pp r o va l to m a rk e t t h e p r od uc t i s o b ta i ne d f r o m t he F D A , m an u fa c t ur i n g s ca l e -u p ac ti v i t ie s o c c u r . S c al e -u p i s t he inc r e as e i n t h e b a tc h s i z e f r om th e c l i ni c a l b a tc h , s u bm is s i o n b a tc h , o r b o th to t he fu ll- s c a l e p r o du c ti on ba t c h s i z e , us i ng th e fi ni sh e d, m a r k e te d p ro du c t. b . Th e d ru g p r od uc t m a y b e i m p r o v e d as a r es u lt o f eq u ip m e n t, r eg u la t or y , s up pl y , o r m a r ke t d em a nd s . c . A dd it i on a l c l i ni c a l s tud i es m a y be p er f o rm ed in s p ec i al po p ul a ti on s , s uc h a s t h e e l de r l y, pe di a t ri c , an d ren a l -i m p a ir e d, t o o bt a in i n f o rm a ti o n o n t he ef f ic ac y o f t he d r u g i n t h es e s u b je c t s . d . A dd i ti o na l c li ni c a l s t ud i es m a y be p er f o rm ed to d e t e rm i ne if th e d r u g c a n be us ed f o r a n e w o r a d di t io n al l ab e li n g i nd ic a ti o ns . 7 . P ha s e V a . A f te r th e F D A g ra n ts m a rk e t a pp r o v a l o f t he dr u g , p r od u ct de ve l op m e nt m a y c o nt i nu e . b . Th e d r ug f o rm u l at i o n m a y be m o di f ie d s li gh t l y a s a re s ul t o f d a ta ob t ain e d d u r in g th e m an u fa c t u ri n g s c a le - u p a nd v a li da t io n p r o c e ss es .
c . C ha n ge s i n d ru g f o rm u l a ti o n s ho ul d al wa y s b e wi t h in th e s ca le - u p an d po st a p p ro va l c ha n ge ( S U P AC ) g u id el i ne s . D . P r o d uc t l in e e x t en s io n s a r e d os a ge fo r m s in wh i c h th e p h ys i ca l f o rm o r s t r en g th , b u t n o t t he us e o r in di c at io n , o f th e p r od u ct ch a ng es . P ro du c t l in e e xt e n s i on is u s ua ll y p e rfo r m ed du r in g p h as e I I I, IV , o r V. 1 . D e vel o pi n g a t r a ns de rm a l p at ch wh e n on l y ta b le t s h a ve b e en a v ai la b le , f o r e xa m p l e :
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P r o g es t er o ne
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N i c ot i ne
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E s t r ad io l
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N i t r o gl y c e ri n
2 . Ad d i t i o na l s t r e ng t h s— a s l o ng as th es e s t re ng t hs a re wi t h in t he to t al d a il y d os e , f o r e xa m pl e :
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I b u p ro f en
P.3
3 . C o n t ro l l ed - r e le a se or m o d i fi e d - re l ea s e d os ag e fo r m s wh e n o nl y a n im m e d ia t e r e l ea se do s a g e f o rm is av a i l ab l e. Th i s is an on g oi n g p r oj ec t fo r al l b r an d c om p an i es ; a lm os t e v e r y N C E h as o r wi l l e ven t ual l y h a ve a m od i fi e d -r e le as e d os a ge f o r m o f t h e im m e d ia t e- r el e as e p r od uc t . E . B i o l og i c p r o du c t s 1 . A b i ol o gi c p ro d uc t i s an y v i r u s , se r um , to xi n , an t i to xi n , va c c i ne , b l oo d , b l oo d c om p on e nt o r d e ri v a t i v e, a l le r ge n ic p r o du c t , o r an a lo g ou s p r od uc t ap pl ic a b le t o t he p r e ve n ti on , t re a tm en t , o r c u re of di s e a s e s o r i nj u ri e s . 2 . B io l og ic pr o du c t s a r e a s ub s e t o f d r ug p ro d uc ts , di s t i ng ui sh e d b y t he i r m a nu f ac tu r i ng p ro c e s s es ( b io l og ic v s . c h e m i c a l ). I n ge n e ra l , t he te r m d r ugs in cl u de s b i ol o gi c p r od uc ts . 3 . B i ol o g ic l ic e ns e a p pli c a t io n ( B L A) . B io lo g ic p r o du c ts a r e a p pr o v e d fo r m a rk e ti n g u nd e r t h e p rov i s i on s o f t h e P u bl ic H eal t h Se r vi ce ( P H S ) A c t. F . G e n e ri c d r u g p ro d uct s 1 . A f te r pa t e nt ex p i r a ti on o f t h e A P I a n d / o r b r and d r ug pr o du c t, a g en e ric d ru g p r o du c t m a y b e m ar k et ed . A g e ne r ic d ru g p r od uc t i s t he r ap e ut ic a ll y e qu i va l en t to t h e b r a nd na m e d ru g p r od u c t an d c o nt ai n s t he s am e a m o u nt o f t he d ru g in t he s a m e t yp e o f d os ag e f o rm ( e. g. , t ab le t , l i qu id , i n je c ta ble ) . 2 . A g e ne r ic d ru g p r od uc t m us t b e b i oe q u i va le n t ( i . e. , ha v e th e s am e r a te a nd e xt e n t o f d r u g a bs or p ti on ) t o t he b ra n d d r ug pr od u c t . Th e re f o re , a g en e ric d ru g p r o du c t is e xp e c te d t o g iv e t h e s am e c l i ni c a l r e s po n s e ( C ha p te r 7 ). Th es e s t ud ie s a r e no rm a ll y p e rf o rm e d wi t h h e al t h y h u m a n v ol un t e e rs . 3 . S om e g en e r ic p r od u c ts a re no t a b so r be d ; f o r so m e o th e rs bi o eq ui va l enc e i s n o t a g o o d m a r k e r . Un d e r t ho s e c o n di t io ns , c o m pa r a t ive c l i n ic a l t r i a ls or s t u di e s wi t h
p h a r ma c o d yn a m i c e nd p o i n ts a re c o ns id e r ed to m ea su r e th e e qu i v a le nce o f t wo p r o du c ts . I n ha la t io n p r od u c t s a n d n on ab s o r b ed d r u g p r od uc t s f al l i n to thi s c a te go r y. 4 . Th e ge ne r ic d ru g p r odu c t m a y d i ff e r fr om t he br a n d p r od uc t i n ph ys i c a l a p p ea r a nc e (i . e. , s i z e , c o l o r, s h a pe ) o r in th e am o u n t a nd t y pe o f e xc i p ien t s u s e d i n t h e fo rm u la t io n . 5 . A g e ne r ic d ru g p r od uc t m a y n o t d if f e r i n b ot h th e qu al i ta t i ve a n d t he qua n t it a ti v e c om p os it i on s f o r l iq u id s , i n je c t a bl es , s em is ol i ds , t r a ns d er m al p a tc h es , i nha l a ti on p r o du c ts , a nd op h th a lm ic p ro d uc ts , u n le ss a d equ a t e s a f e t y s t ud ie s h a v e b e en p e r f or m e d . 6 . B ef o r e a g e ne r ic dr u g p r o du c t is m a rk e te d , t h e m a nu f ac tu r e r m us t s ub m i t an Ab b r e vi a t e d N ew D r u g Ap p l i c a t i on ( AN D A) t o t h e F D A f o r a pp r o v a l. B ec a us e p r e cl in ic a l s a f e t y a n d e f fi c ac y s t u di es ha v e al r ead y b e en pe r f o rm ed fo r the N D A a p p ro ve d b r a nd p ro du c t, h um a n b io e qu i v al e nc e st u d ie s, in s te ad o f cl i ni c al t r ia ls , a r e ge ne r a ll y r eq u i re d f or t h e A N D A . Th e c he m i s tr y, m an u f ac tu r in g , a nd co n t r ol s r e q ui r em e nt s f o r t h e g ene r i c d ru g p r o du c t a re s im i l a r to th os e fo r th e b r an d na m e d r u g p r od uc t . G . S p e ci a l t y d r u g p r o d u c t s a r e e xi s t i ng pr o du ct s de v e lo p ed as a n e w de l i ve r y s ys t em o r fo r a n e w t h e ra p e ut ic in di c at io n . Th e sa f e t y an d e f fi c a c y of t he d r u g p r o du c t we r e es t ab l is hed i n t he in i ti al N D A - ap p ro v e d do sa g e f o rm . F o r exa m p l e , th e n i t ro g l yc e r in t ra ns d e rm al d e li v e r y s y s t em ( pa tc h ) wa s d e v e lo p ed af t e r e xp e r i en c e wi t h n i t ro g l yc e ri n s u bl in gu a l t a bl e ts .
II. PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT. F o r ea ch d ru g , v a r i ou s s t u d ie s a r e r eq u i re d t o d ev e l o p a s a fe , ef f ec t i v e, an d s t ab l e d o sa g e f o rm . A. N e w c he m ic a l e n ti t i es 1 . P r e fo r m u la t i on is th e c ha r ac t e ri z a t io n o f th e p h ys ic al an d c he m i c a l p ro p e r ti es of t h e a c ti v e dr u g s ub s t a nc e a nd do sa g e f o rm . Th e t h e r ap eu t ic in di c a t io n o f t h e d r u g a n d t h e r o ut e o f ad m i ni s tr a t io n di ct a te th e t y pe of d r u g p ro d uc t o r dr u g d eli v e r y s ys t em (e . g. , im m e di a te r e l ea s e , c o nt r ol l ed r el eas e , s up p os it o r y , p a r en t era l , t r a ns d er m al ) th a t n ee ds t o be de v e l op e d. a . P r ef o rm u la ti o n a c t i v i tie s a r e u su a ll y p e rf o rm ed d u ri n g t h e p re cl i ni c a l s ta g e . H o we ve r , t h es e a c ti v i ti es m a y c o n ti n ue in t o p ha se s I a nd II . b . Th e fo l lo wi n g i n fo r m a ti o n i s o bt a in ed d ur i ng p re f o rm u la ti o n . P.4
( 1 ) P h ys i c a l , i nc lu di n g pa r t ic le si ze an d s ha p e, cr y s t a ll in i t y, p o l ym o r ph is m , de ns i t y, s u r fa ce a re a , h y g r os c o pic i t y (a b il i t y to ta k e up and r e ta i n m o is t u re ) , a n d po wd e r flow ( 2 ) S o lu b i li t y, i n c lu di n g i n t ri ns ic di s s o lu ti o n , p H s o lu bi l it y p r o f i le , a n d g en e r al s o lu bi l it y c ha r ac t er is t ic s i n v a ri o us s o l v en ts ( 3 ) C h em i ca l , i nc lu d in g s u r fa c e en e r g y , p H s t ab il i t y p ro f il e , p K a, te m p e r at u r e s t ab i li t y ( d r y o r un d er v ar i o us hu m i di t y c o n di t io ns ) , a nd e xc i pi e nt in t e ra c t io n s
( 4 ) An a l yt i c a l m e t ho d s d e v e l op m e n t, in cl u di ng de ve l o pm en t o f a s t a bi li t y i n di ca t in g m e th o d ( m e as u r es b o th th e A P I a nd th e re l at e d su b s t a nc es ) , a nd c l ea n ing m e t ho ds 2 . F o rm u la t i o n d e ve lo pm e n t i s a c on t in u in g p r oc es s . I ni t ia l d r ug f o rm ul at i o ns a r e d e ve l op ed f or ea r l y c l in ic a l s tu di es . W he n t he s ub m iss i on of an N D A is co n s i d er e d, t h e m an u fa c tu r e r a t te m pt s to de v e l op th e fi na l (m a r k et e d) d os ag e f o rm . Th e do se of t h e d r u g a nd th e ro u te of a dm i ni s t r a ti o n a re im po rt a n t i n d e te rm i ni ng t he m o di f ic at i on s n ee d ed . a . I nj e c ta b le ( 1 ) A fi na l i n je c t a bl e d r ug p r od uc t i s u s u al l y de vel o p e d i n th e p r ec li n ic al ph a s e . ( 2 ) Ma j o r c o nc e rn s i nc lud e th e s t ab il i t y of th e d ru g in s o lu t io n a n d t he s te r i li t y o f t he p r o du c t. ( 3 ) B ec au s e f e w e xc i p ien t s a r e a ll o we d in in je c ta b le p ro d uc ts , th e f o rm ula t o r m us t c h oo se a f in a l p r od uc t ea r l y in t he de v e l op m e n t p r o c e ss . ( 4 ) I f t he f o rm ul at i on is c h a n ge d , b io a vai l ab il i t y s tu d ie s a r e n o t r eq u i re d f or i n t ra ve n ou s s ol u ti on in j ec t io ns be c au se th e p r o du c t i s i nj ec t ed di r ec tl y i nt o t he b o d y. ( 5 ) F or m u l at i on c h an g es m a y re q ui r e a cu t e t o xi c it y s t ud i es . b . T op i ca l ( fo r l oc a l a pp l i c at i o n ). In c l u de s a n tib a c t e r ia ls , a n ti f un g al s, c o r ti co s te r oi ds , a n d l oc al a ne s t h et ic s . ( 1 ) Th e fi n al d o s a ge f orm f or a t o pi c a l d r ug p ro du c t i s us u al l y de v e lo p ed d u r in g p h as e I s t u di es be c a us e a n y m a j o r f o rm ul a ti on c ha n g es m a y re q ui r e f u r the r c l in ic a l t r i al s . ( 2 ) Th e re l ea s e of t he d ru g f ro m t he m a t ri x i s m ea s u re d i n v it r o wi t h va r i ou s d i f fu si o n c e l l m o d el s . ( 3 ) S ig n if ic a nt p ro bl em s e n c o u nt e re d wi t h l oc a ll y a c ti n g t op ic a l d r ug pr o duc t s i n cl ud e l oc a l i r ri t a ti on , s k i n s e n is ti z a t io n a n d s y s t e m i c d r ug ab s o r p ti o n. c . To p i ca l (f o r s ys t e m i c d r u g a b s o rp t i o n) . In c l ud e s d r ug de li ve r y t h ro u gh t he s k in ( t r a ns de r m a l ) , m u c o u s m e m b ra ne s (i nt r a na s a l ) , an d r ec ta l m uc os a . ( 1 ) A pr o to t y p e f o rm u la tio n is d e ve lo p ed fo r ph ase I . ( 2 ) A fi na l to pi c a l d r u g pr o d uc t i s d e v el o pe d d u rin g p h as e I I I a f t er t he a va i la b le t e ch n ol o g y a n d d es i re d s y s t em ic l e ve ls a r e c on s i d e re d . d. Oral ( 1 ) P r ot o t y pe do s ag e f o rm s a r e o f te n d e v e lo pe d d u r in g th e p r e cl i n ic a l ph a s e t o e n su r e t h at t he dr u g is op t im a ll y a v a il ab l e a nd tha t t he pr o du c t di s s o l ves i n th e g a st r o in t es ti n al t ra c t . ( 2 ) I n t he ea r l y s t ag es o f p r o du ct de ve l op m e n t, ha r d g el a t in ca p su l e d os a g e f o rm s a r e of t en de v e l op ed f o r p h a se I c li ni c a l tr i al s. I f t h e d r u g sh o ws e ff ic ac y , t h e s am e d r u g f o rm ul a ti o n m a y b e u s ed in ph as e I I s t ud i es . ( 3 ) Fi n al p ro d uc t d e v el op m en t b e gi ns wh e n th e dr u g pr o c e ed s d u ri n g p has e II an d b e f o re in it i at i ng ph as e III c li ni c a l s t ud ie s . 3 . M a r k et e d P ro d uc t . Co n s i d er a ti o ns i n th e d e ve l op m en t o f a f in al do s ag e fo r m i n cl ud e th e f o ll o wi n g : a . C ol o r , s ha pe , s i z e , t as t e , v i s c os i t y , s en si ti vi t y , sk i n f ee l , a nd ph y s ic al a p p ea r an c e o f t he do s a ge f o rm b . S i ze a nd s h a pe of th e p ac k a g e o r c on t ai n e r
c . P ro d uc ti o n e qu i pm en t d . P r od uc t io n s i te e . C ou n t r y of o ri gi n i n wh i c h th e d r u g is to b e m an u f ac tu r e d f . C o un t r y in wh i c h t he dr u g wi l l b e m ar ke t e d B . P r o d uc t l in e e x t en s io n s a r e g e ne r al l y de f in ed as d ru g p r o du ct s c on t ai n in g a n N D A - a p p ro v e d d r u g i n a d i f fe r e nt do s a g e s tr e ng th o r i n a di f fe r e nt do s a ge f o rm ( e . g ., m o di f ie d re l ea s e , o r a l l iq ui d ) . 1 . O r a l p r o d uc t li n e e x te n s io n s a . Th e s im p le s t do s a g e fo r m t o d e v e lo p i s a di f fer e n t d os a ge s t r en g th of a d r ug in a t a b le t o r c a ps ul e . O n l y bi o eq u i v al e nc e s tu di es a re n ee d ed . P.5
b . A mo d i fi e d - re l ea s e do s ag e f o rm is m o re di f f ic u l t t o d e ve lo p wh e n o nl y a n i m m e di a te - r el e as e d os ag e fo r m e xi s t s . C li n ic al tr i a ls a r e n o rm a ll y r eq u i re d . c . C on si d er a ti o ns i n d e ve l op i ng th e s e do sa ge f o rm s a r e s i m i l a r t o t ho s e fo r t he fi n al d r u g p r od uc t (s ee I I. A . 3 ). d . M a r k e ti n g h as a r ol e i n th e c ho ic e o f th e d os ag e fo r m . e . B ec au s e t he o ri gi n al b r a nd d ru g p r o du c t in f o rm a ti o n co n t ri b ut es t o t he b o d y o f k n o wl e dg e a b ou t t h e d r ug , no p re f o rm ul a ti on is ne e d ed . Al l o t he r fa c t o rs c o ns id e re d f o r th e o r i gi na l p r o du c t ar e s i m i la r . If t he re l at i on b e t we e n in vi t r o di ss ol ut i o n a nd i n vi vo b i oa v a il a bi li t y is k n o wn , th e i n no v a t or c an p r og r e s s t o a fi ni s h e d d o s a g e f o r m r e la t i v el y q ui c k l y . f . R e g ul a t o r y a p p r o va l is ba s e d on th e f o ll o wi n g: ( 1 ) A na l y t ic al an d m an u fa c tu r i ng c o nt r ol s ( 2 ) S t ab il i t y i n fo r m a t io n ( 3 ) B io a v a il ab i li t y an d b io e q ui v a le nc e s t ud ie s ( 4 ) C li n ic al t ri al s (i n t h e c as e o f m o di f ie d - re le a se d os a ge fo r m s ) g . A ne w t h e r ap eu t ic in dic a ti o n f o r a d r u g r e qu i res ne w e f f i c ac y s t u d i e s a n d a ne w N D A. 2 . L iq u i d p r o du c t l i n e ex t e n si o ns a . I f t he c u r r en t m a rk e ted p r od uc t i s a l i qu i d p re pa r a ti o n , t he n t h e s am e fa c to r s a s f o r th e s ol i d o r al do s a ge f o rm s a r e c on s i de r e d ( s e e I I. B . 1. a , b , c , d , e , f an d g ). b . I f t h e m a r k e t ed p ro duc t is a s o li d o r al do s a g e f o r m a nd th e p r o du ct li ne e xt e n si o n i s a li q ui d , p ro d uc t d e v e lo p m e n t m u s t p r oc ee d wi th c a u ti o n b ec au se t he rat e an d e xt e n t o f a bs o r pt i on fo r li q ui d a n d s ol id do s a g e fo r m s m a y n ot be th e s am e . c . R eg u l at o r y a p p r o va l r e q ui r es ( 1 ) A na l y t ic al an d m an u fa c tu r i ng c o nt r ol s ( 2 ) S t ab il i t y i n fo r m a t io n ( 3 ) B io a v a il ab i li t y an d b io e q ui v a le nc e s t ud ie s ( 4 ) S a fe t y s t u di es (e . g ., d e p en di n g o n t he d ru g s u b st a nc e , lo c al i r r i ta t io n) ( 5 ) C li n ic al t ri al s , i f t h e ra t e a n d e xt e n t of d ru g ab s o rp t io n a r e d r as ti ca l l y a l t er e d f r o m t he o ri g in al do s a g e f o r m C . C o m b in a t io n p r o d uct s a re m a de u p o f t wo o r m o re r eg ul a te d c om p one n ts ( e. g . , d r u g /d e v ic e , b io lo g ic /d e vi c e, d ru g /b i ol og ic , or d ru g / d e vic e/ b io l og ic ) th a t a re
p h ys ic al l y , c h em i c al l y , or o t he r wi s e c om bi n ed o r m i xe d a nd p ro du c ed as a si n gl e e n t it y. 1 . Th e se m a y be t wo o r m o r e s e p a ra t e p ro d uc ts p a ck ag e d t og e th e r i n a s i n gl e p a ck ag e o r as a un i t a nd m a y be c om p os ed o f d ru g an d d e vic e p r o du c t s , d e v i c e an d b i ol o gi c p r od uc ts , or bi o lo g ic an d d r ug p ro d uc ts . 2 . A n e xa m pl e i s a n i nha l a ti on s t e r oi d ( e .g . , b ec l o m e t ha so n e i nh al a ti o n a e r os ol ) in wh i c h th e de v i c e c om p on e n t is im po r t an t fo r d e liv e r y o f t he s t e ro i d.
III. PREAPPROVAL INSPECTIONS (PAIs) A. Th e m a n uf ac t u ri n g f ac i li t y is i ns p ec t ed b y th e F D A a f te r an N D A , a bb r evi a t e d a n t ib io t ic dr u g a pp l ic at i on ( A A D A ) , o r A N D A i s s ub m it t ed an d b e fo r e t h e ap p li c a t io n i s a p p ro v e d . B . A P A I m a y al s o be in it i a te d i f a m a jo r ch an g e is r ep o r te d i n a s u pp l em en t a l a p pl ic a ti o n t o a n N D A, AA D A , o r A N D A . C . D u r in g th e PA I , t h e FD A i n v es t ig a to r : 1 . P e r fo r m s a ge ne r a l c u r r e nt go o d m an u fa c t u rin g p ra c t ic e (c G MP ) i n s pe c ti o n r e l at i ng s p ec i fi c a ll y t o t he d r ug pr o du c t in t e nd ed f o r th e m a rk e t 2 . R e vi ew s t h e d e v el opm e nt r ep o r t t o v er i f y th a t t h e d r ug p ro du c t h as e no u g h s u pp o r ti ng do c um en t at i on t o e ns u re a v al id a te d pr o d uc t a n d a ra t io n al e f or t h e m a nu f ac tu r i ng di r ec ti o ns 3 . C o ns u l ts th e c h em is tr y , m an u f ac tu r in g , a nd c o n t r ol ( C MC ) s ec t io n o f th e N D A , A A D A , o r A N D A a nd de te r m in es th e c ap a bi li t y o f t h e m an u fa c t u r er t o p rod u c e th e d r u g p r od uc t as d es c ri b ed P.6
4 . V e r if i es t he t ra c e a bi lit y o f th e i n fo r m a t io n s ubm i tt e d i n t he C MC s e c ti on t o t h e o r i gi n al l a bo r a to r y n ot e bo o k s , e le c t ro ni c i n fo rm a ti o n , a nd ba tc h re c o r ds 5 . V e r if i es a nd en s u r es t h a t al l th e q u al it y s y s tem s a r e i n p la ce to m a n ufa c tu r e t h e p r o du c t s o it r e ta in s t h e i d en t i t y , s t re ng t h , q ua li t y, a nd pu r i t y o f th e d r u g pr o d uc t t h a t we r e a pp r o v e d b y t he c e n te r . 6 . R ec o mm e n ds ap p ro v a l fo r th e m an u fa c tu r e o f t h e d r ug p ro du c t b as ed o n th e s t a tu s o f t h e i ns pe c t i on
IV. SCALE-UP AND POSTAPPROVAL CHANGES (SUPACs) A. P u r p o s e . Th es e g ui de l in es a re in t en d ed to r ed u c e th e n u m b e r o f m anu f ac t u ri n g c h an g es th a t r eq u i re pr e- a p p ro va l b y t h e F D A . Th e gu id e li n es a r e p u bl ish e d b y t he F D A o n t h e I nt e r ne t (h t tp: / / ww w. f d a . g o v / c de r /g u ida n c e / in d e x. h t m ) . B . F u nc t i o n. Th es e g u ide l in es p ro v i d e r ec om m e nd a t io ns to s p on s o r s o f ND A s , A A D A s , a n d A N D A s d u rin g th e p os t ap p r o v al pe r io d wh e n 1 . Ma k i ng s l ig h t c ha ng e s i n t h e a m o un t of th e e xc i p i en t to ai d i n t h e p r oce s s i ng of t h e p r o du c t du r in g s c a l e-u p 2 . C ha n gi n g t he s it e o f m a nu f ac tu r e
3 . S ca l i ng u p ( in c re as i ng ) o r s ca l i ng d ow n ( d ec r e a s i ng ) th e b a tc h s i ze of t h e f o r m u l at io n 4 . C ha n gi n g t he m a nu f ac t u r in g p ro c es s o r eq u i pm e n t C . Th e F D A m us t b e n o tif i e d a bo u t a p r o po se d c ha n g e t o a d r u g p r od uc t th r o ug h d i f fe r e nt r eg u l a to r y d o c u m e n ta t i on , d e pe n di ng o n th e t y pe of c h an g e p ro p os e d. 1 . An n u a l re p o r t . C h an ge s th a t a re u nl ik el y t o h av e a n y d et ec t ab l e e ff ec t o n f o r m u l at io n qu al i t y a n d pe r f o rm an c e ca n b e i ns t itu t e d wi t h o ut ap p r o v al b y t h e F D A a n d re po r t ed an n ua ll y . Exa m p l e s o f t h es e c h a ng es in c l u de : a . C o mp l ia n ce wi t h an of f i c i al c o m p en d iu m b . L ab e l d es c r i p ti o n o f t h e d r u g p ro d uc t o r ho w i t is s u pp li e d ( n ot in v o l vin g do s a g e s t r en g th o r d os ag e f o rm ) c . D el e ti on o f a n i n g re d ie n t th a t a f fe c t s o n l y t h e c o lo r of th e p r o du c t d . E xt e n s io n o f th e e x pi ra t i o n d a te ba s e d o n fu ll s h el f -l i fe da t a o b ta in e d fr o m a p r o t oc ol ap p ro v e d i n th e a p pl ic a ti on e . C o n ta i ne r an d c l o su re s ys t e m f o r t he d ru g p ro d uc t (e xc e p t a ch a ng e in c o nt a in e r s i z e f o r n on s o li d do s a g e f o rm s ) ba se d o n eq ui v a l en c y to t he app r o ve d s ys t em u n de r a p r ot oc o l a p p ro v e d i n th e a pp l ic at io n o r p ub li s h e d i n a n o f fic i al c om p en d iu m f . A d di t io n o r d e le t io n o f a n a l t e r na t e a na l yt i c a l m e t h od 2 . C h an g es be i n g e f fe ct e d ( C B E ) s u p pl e me n t . C h a n ge s t ha t pr o ba b l y wo u ld no t h a ve an y d e te c t a bl e e f fec t bu t re qu i r e so m e v a li da t i on ef f o rt s r e qu i re s p ec i fi c d o cu m e n ta t io n , d ep e nd in g on th e c ha n ge . A s upp l em e n t is s ub m i t t ed , a nd t he c h an g e c a n b e i m p l em ent e d wi t ho u t p r e v io us ap pr o v a l ( C B E -0 ) b y th e F DA o r , i n s om e c as es , th e F D A has 30 da y s to r e v ie w t h e c h a n ge ( C B E -3 0 ) . F D A m a y r e j ec t t h is su pp l em en t . E xa m ple s o f re a s o ns fo r s u bm it ti n g a s u pp l em en t i nc l ud e a . Ad d i t i o n o f a new s pe c i f ic a t io n o r te s t m e t ho d o r c h a ng es in m e th o ds , fa ci li t ie s , o r co n t ro ls b . L ab e l c ha n g e t o a dd o r s t r e ng t he n a c o nt r a ind i c a t io n , wa r n i ng , pr e c au t i on , o r a d ve r s e r ea c t i on c . Us e o f a d i f fe r e n t f a ci l i t y t o m an u fa c tu r e t he d r u g s ub s t a nc e a nd d ru g p r o du c t ( t h e m an u fa c tu r in g p r oc e s s in t he ne w f a c i l it y d oe s n o t d i ff e r m at e ri a ll y f ro m th a t i n t h e fo rm e r f a c i li t y , an d th e ne w f a c il it y h as r ec eiv e d a s a ti s f ac t o r y c G MP i ns p ec ti o n wi t h i n th e p r e v i ou s 2 y ear s c o v e r in g t h at m a nu f act u r in g pr oc e s s ) 3 . P r e -a p p r o va l s u pp l em e n t . C h an g es th a t c o u ld h a v e a s ig n if ic a nt e ff ec t on f o r m u l at io n qu al i t y a n d pe r f o rm an c e r eq u i re s p ec if i c d oc um en t a ti on . Th is s u pp l em en t m us t b e a p pr o v e d be f o re th e p r op o se d c h a n g e is in i ti a te d . Ap p r op r i at e e xa m p l es fo r p re - ap p r o va l s u pp le m en t a r e : a . A dd i ti o n o r d el e ti o n o f a n in g r ed i e nt b . R e la xa t i o n o f t h e l im its f or a s p ec i f ic a t io n P.7
c . Es t ab li s hm en t o f a n ew r eg u l a to r y a n a l yt i c a l m e t h od d . D e le t io n o f a sp e ci f i ca t i o n o r re g ul a to r y a na l yt i c a l m e th od
e . C ha n ge in th e m e th o d o f ma n u fa c tu r e of th e dr u g pr o du c t, in cl ud i ng cha n gi n g o r r e l a xi n g a n i n - pr oc e s s c o n t r ol f . E xt e n s io n o f th e e x pi r a t i o n d a te o f t he d ru g p ro d uc t b a s e d o n d a ta ob ta i ne d u n d er a n e w o r re v i s ed s t a b il i t y t e s t in g p r o to c o l th a t wa s b e en ap p ro ve d in t he a p pl ic a ti o n D . W hen an y c h a ng e t o a d r ug pr o du c t is p ro po s e d , th e m an u fa ct u r er m us t s h o w t h a t t h e r es ul t an t d ru g p ro d uc t i s b i oe q u i va le n t an d t he r a pe u t ic a l l y e q u i va l e n t to t h e o r i gi na l a p pr o v e d d ru g p ro du c t ( s ee C ha p te r 7 ) . 1 . A m i n o r c h an g e is a c h an g e t ha t h a s m i ni m al p o te n ti a l t o h a v e a n a d ve r s e e ff e c t o n th e i d en t it y , s t r e ng t h, q u al i t y, p u ri t y , or po t enc y o f t h e p r od uc t a s t h e y m a y r e l at e to th e s a fe t y o r e f fe c ti v e n es s o f t he p ro d uc t . I f t h e p ro p os ed ch an ge is c o ns id e re d m in o r b y t h e F D A , bi o eq u i val en c e m ay b e de m o n s t r a te d b y com p a ra t i v e d i ss ol u ti on p ro f il es f or t he o ri g in a l a nd ne w f o r m u l a t io ns . 2 . A m a j o r c ha n g e is one t ha t ha s s u bs t an t ia l p ot e n ti a l t o h a v e a n a d v e rs e e f fe c t o n th e i d en t it y , s t r e ng t h, q u al i t y , p u ri t y, or po t enc y o f a p ro d uc t a s t he y m a y r el a te t o t he s a fe t y o r e f fe c ti v en e s s o f th e p r o du ct . If t he p r op os ed c h a ng e i s c on s id e re d m a jo r b y t h e F D A , b i oe qu i v a le n c e m us t be de m on s t ra t ed b y an in vi v o b i oe q ui v a l en c e s t ud y c om p a ri ng t he or i gi n al a n d n e w f o r m u l at i on s.
V. GOOD MANUFACTURING PRACTICES (GMPs) a r e re g ul a ti o ns d e v e lo ped b y t he F D A. G MP s a r e m i ni m u m r e qu i re m e n ts th a t th e i n du s t r y m us t m ee t wh e n m an u fa c tu r in g , p r oc es sin g , p ac k i n g, o r h ol d in g hu m an an d ve t e r i na r y d ru gs . Th es e r e g ul a ti o ns , a ls o k no wn a s c G M P s, es t ab li s h c ri te r i a f o r p e r so nn e l, f ac il i ti es , a n d m an u fa c tu r in g p r oc es s es t o e ns u re th a t t he f in is h e d d r ug p r o du c t h as th e c o rr ec t id e n ti t y , s t r en g th , q u al i t y, a nd pu r i t y c h ar ac t e ri st ic s . A. G o o d Ma n u f a c t u ri n g P r a c ti c e s a r e d esc r i be d in t he C o de of Fe d e ra l Re g ul a ti o ns ( C F R ) , t it l e 2 1, s e c t io n s 2 1 0 a n d 2 11 . B . Q u a l i t y c o n t r o l ( Q C ) i s th e g r ou p wi t hi n t h e m a n u fa ct u r e r t ha t i s r es p on s ib le f o r e s ta b li sh in g pr oc e s s a n d p r o du ct sp ec i fi c a t io ns . 1 . S pe c i fi c a ti o n s a re t he c ri t e ri a t o wh ic h a d ru g p r o du c t s h ou l d c o n fo r m t o be c o ns id e re d h a v i ng ac c e pt a b le qu al i t y fo r it s i nt e nd e d u s e . 2 . Th e Q C un i t t e st s th e p r o du c t an d ve ri f ie s t hat t h e s p ec i fi ca t io ns a re m e t . Q C t e s ti ng in c l u de s t he ac ce p t a nc e o r r ej e c ti o n o f t h e i nc om i ng r a w m a t e ria l s, p a ck ag i ng c om p on e nt s , d r u g p r od uc t s , wa t e r s ys t e m , a nd en vi r on m e n ta l c o nd i ti on s ( e . g ., he a ti n g, v e n ti la t ion , ai r - c o nd i ti o ni ng , ai r qu a li t y , m i cr o bi al lo a d ) t ha t e xi s t d u r in g th e m an u fa c t u ri n g p r oc es s . C . Q u a l i t y a s s u r a n ce (Q A) i s t h e g r ou p wi t hi n th e m a nu f ac t ur e r t h at de te r m in es t h a t t h e s y s t em s a nd f ac i l it i es ar e a d eq u at e a n d th a t th e wr i t te n p r oc ed u re s a r e f o l lo we d t o e ns u re th a t th e fi n is he d d r ug p ro d uc t m ee t s t he ap p li c a bl e s pe c if ic a ti o ns f o r qu a li t y . P.8
STUDY QUESTIONS
D i r e c t i on s : E a c h s t a te m e n t i n t h is s ec t io n c an be c o r r ec t l y c om pl e te d b y o n e o r m o r e o f th e s ug g es t ed ph r a s e s . C ho o s e th e c o r re c t an s we r , A - E: 1 . H ea l t h y h u m a n vo l u nt e e r s a r e us e d i n d r u g d e ve l o pm e n t f o r I . p ha s e I te s t in g af t e r th e su b m is s io n of a n i nve s t i g a t io n al n ew d r u g ( I N D ) a p p l ic a t io n . I I . ge n e r ic d r ug de ve l op m e n t f o r a n ab b r e vi a te d new d r u g a p pl i ca t i on ( AN D A) s u b mi s si o n . I I I . ph a se II I te s t in g ju st b e f o re t he s ub m is s ion o f a n ew d r u g a p p li c at i o n ( N D A) . A i f I o nl y is c o r r ec t B i f II I on l y is c o r re c t C i f I a nd I I a r e c o r r ec t D i f II an d II I ar e c o r re c t E i f I, I I, an d I I I a r e c o r re c t V i e w A n s we r 1 . T h e a n sw e r i s C [ se e] . 2 . T h e r eq u i r e d i n f o rm a t io n c o n t ai n ed i n a new d r ug a p pl i ca t i on ( N D A) t h at i s no t in c l ud e d i n th e a b b r e vi a te d new d r u g ap p l i ca t i on ( AN D A) c o n s i s t s o f I . p r ec l i ni c al a ni m al t oxi c i t y s t u d i e s . I I . cl i n ic a l e f f ic a c y s t u d i e s . I I I . hu ma n sa f e t y a n d t o l e r a nc e s t u di e s. A i f I o nl y is c o r r ec t B i f II I on l y is c o r re c t C i f I a nd I I a r e c o r r ec t D i f II an d II I ar e c o r re c t E i f I, I I, an d I I I a r e c o r re c t V i e w A n s we r 2 . T h e a n sw e r i s E [s e e] . 3 . A p r o d u c t l in e e x te n s io n c o n ta i n s t h e new d r u g a p pl i ca t i on ( N D A) a p p r o ve d d r ug i n a n ew I . d os a ge f o rm . I I . do s ag e st r e n gt h . I I I . th e r a pe u t ic in d i ca t io n . A i f I o nl y is c o r r ec t B i f II I on l y is c o r re c t C i f I a nd I I a r e c o r r ec t D i f II an d II I ar e c o r re c t E i f I, I I, an d I I I a r e c o r re c t V i e w A n s we r 3 . T h e a n sw e r i s C [ se e] . D i r e c ti o ns : E a c h s ta t em e nt in th is s ec t io n c a n b e c o r r ec t l y c om p le t ed b y on e o f th e s u gg es t ed ph r as es . C hoo s e t he b e s t a ns we r . 4 . T he r eg u l at i o ns de ve l o p e d b y t h e U . S . F o o d a n d D r u g Ad m i n i st r a t i on ( F D A) f o r t h e p h a rm a ce u t ic a l i n d u st r y f o r m e e t i ng t he m in i m um r eq u i r em e n ts i n th e m a n u fa c tu r i n g , p r o ce ss i n g , p ac k in g , o r h o ld in g o f h u ma n a n d ve te r in a r y d r u g s a r e kn ow n as ( A ) g oo d m an u fa c tu r in g p r a c t ic es ( G MP s ) . ( B ) q ua l it y a s s ur a nc e ( Q A ) . ( C ) q u al it y c on t r ol ( Q C ) .
( D ) p r e -a p pr o v a l i ns pe c tio n ( P A I) . ( E ) sc a le - up an d p os t - app r o v a l c ha ng e s ( S U P A Cs ) . V i e w A n s we r 4 . T h e a n sw e r i s A [ se e] . 5 . T h e u ni t w i t h i n t h e p h a r ma c eu t i ca l m a n uf ac t u r e r th a t e n su r e s th at t h e fi n is h e d d os a ge fo r m h as m e t al l th e s p ec i f ic a t ion s f o r i t s i n t en d ed u se i s t he ( A ) a na l y t ic al m e t ho ds un i t . ( B ) m ar k e t in g a n d s al es u n i t. ( C ) p r e -a p pr o v a l i ns pe c tio n ( P A I) un i t . ( D ) q u al it y a s s u ra nc e ( QA ) u ni t . ( E ) q ua l it y c on t ro l ( Q C ) u n i t. V i e w A n s we r 5 . T h e a n sw e r i s E [s e e] . 6 . M a n u fac t u r e r s m a y m a k e a c ha n g e i n t h e f o r mu l a ti o n a f t e r m a r ke t ap p r o va l . I f t he c h an g e i n th e fo r m u la ti o n is c o n si d e r ed a m i no r c han g e , th e m a nu f ac t u r e r n e e ds t o re p o r t t h e c han g e to t he FDA only in the ( A ) a nn u al r ep o rt . ( B ) p r e -a pp r o v a l s u p pl em e nt . ( C ) i n v es t ig a ti o na l n e w dr u g ( I N D ) s u bm is s i o n. ( D ) c ha n ge s b ei ng e ff ec te d s u pp l em en t , 3 0 d a y s ( C B E - 3 0 ) . ( E ) n o r e po r t i s r e qu i re d f o r a m i n o r ch a ng e . V i e w A n s we r 6 . T h e a n sw e r i s A [ se e] . P . 9
ANSWERS AND EXPLANATIONS 1 . T he an sw e r is C (I , II) [ s e e I. C . 2 .b ; I . F .2 ] . P h a se I t es t in g i s t he f irs t s e t o f h um a n st u di es p e r f or m e d d u r in g n e w d ru g d e ve l op m e n t. P ha s e I s tu d ie s e s t a bl is h t h e t ol e ra n c e an d t o xi c i t y of t he d r u g i n h u m a ns . Bi o eq ui v a l en c e s t ud i es fo r g e ne r ic d ru g d e v e l op m e n t a re m o st o ft e n p e r f or m e d i n h e al t h y h um a n v o l un t ee r s . Th e se st u d ie s es t ab l is h t he bi o eq u i v al e nc e o f t he ge ne r ic d ru g p r odu c t a ga i ns t t h e b r an d d ru g p ro du c t. P ha se I II t es t i n g e nt a il s l a r ge - sc al e , m u l ti c e n te r c l in ic al st u di es pe r f or m ed i n p at i en ts wi t h th e d is e a s e o r c o nd i ti on t o b e t r ea t ed . P h a s e I II s t ud i es d e t er m in e th e s a fe t y an d e f f ic ac y o f t he d r u g i n a l a r ge pa t ie n t po p ul a ti o n. 2 . T he an sw e r is E ( I , II, a nd I II ) [s e e I . C .5 ; I. F .6 ] . Th e d e v e lo pm e nt of a n ew d r u g r e qu i re s e xt e n s i ve t o xi c i t y a n d e f fi c a c y t es t in g i n a n im al s a n d h um an s . Th e N D A d oc um en ts al l s t ud i es pe r f or m e d on th e d ru g . Th e A N D A i s u s e d f o r g e ne r ic d ru g p r o du c t s u bm is sio n s . Th e ge ne r ic d ru g p ro d uc t i s s im i la r to th e o r ig i na l b ra n d d r ug p ro d uc t t h at has al r e ad y b ee n m a rk et e d. B e c a us e t h e e f fi c ac y , s a fe t y , an d t o xi c i t y o f t hi s d r ug p ro du c t h a ve b e en s t ud i ed an d d o cu m e n te d , f u r th e r s tud i es of t hi s n at u re a re un n ec es s a r y . 3 . T he an sw e r is C (I , II) [ s e e I. D ] . P r o d uc t l in e e xt e n s i on s a r e de v e lo p ed af t e r f u r the r s t u di es wi t h th e o r ig i na l N D A a p p ro ve d d r u g p r od uc t . F r o m t he s e s t u di es , th e m a nu f ac tu r e r m a y d e v e lo p a n e w d o sa g e f o rm (e . g. , c o nt ro l le d - re l ea se p ro d uc t ) o r a ne w d o s ag e s t re n gt h . A n e w t h e r ap eu t ic in di c a t io n req u i re s a n N D A.
4 . T he an sw e r is A [ s ee V ] . Q u a l it y c on t r ol an d q ua l it y a s s u r an c e fo l lo w G MP r e g ul a ti on s t o e ns u r e t ha t t he f i n is he d p r od uc t m e et s al l ap pl ic a bl e s pe ci f ic at i on s fo r q u al i t y . Th e F D A m a y i n sp ec t a m a n uf ac t u ri ng s i te ( P A I ) b ef o r e t he d rug a pp li c a t io n i s a p pr o ved . I n a d di t io n , t h e F D A m us t be n ot i fi e d a bo u t a n y p r op o s e d c ha n ge s t o a n a pp r o v e d d r ug p r o du c t. 5 . T he an sw e r is E [ s e e V . B ] . Th e Q C u n it pe r f o rm s t he a pp r op r i at e t es t s o n t he d os ag e f o rm . P A I is per f o r m e d b y F D A c om pl ia nc e i ns p ec to r s , wh o e xa m i ne t he pha r m ac e u t ic al m a nu f ac tu re r a nd r e v i e w t h e p r oc e du r es an d r ec or d s f o r m a n uf ac tu r i ng t he fi ni s he d d os age f o rm b e f o re th e a dm i ni s t r a ti on g r a nt s m ar k e t ap p ro v a l . Th e a na l y t ic al de ve l op m e n t u n it d e ve l op s t he an a l y ti c a l m e th o ds u s ed in te s t i ng t h e d r u g p ro d uc t . 6 . T he an sw e r is A [ s ee I V . C . 1] . A l l c h an ge s i n t h e f o rm ula t i on m us t be re p o rt e d to t he F D A . A m i no r c h ang e is a c h an g e t ha t h a s m i ni m al p o te n ti a l t o h a v e a n a d ve r s e e ff e c t on th e i d en t ity , s t r en g th , q u al i t y , p u ri t y , o r p ot e nc y o f t he p ro du c t a s t he y m a y re la t e t o th e p r o du c t 's s a fe t y o r e f fe c ti v e n es s. C h an ge s t h at a re u nl ik el y t o h a v e a n y de t ec t ab l e e f f ec t o n f o rm u la t io n q ual i t y an d p e r fo r m a nc e c an b e i ns t it u t ed wi t h ou t a pp r o v a l b y t h e F D A a nd ne ed on l y to b e r e po r te d i n th e a n nu a l r e po r t .
2 Pharmaceutical Calculations and Statistics R i c c a r do L . B o n i
I. FUNDAMENTALS OF MEASUREMENT AND CALCULATION. Th e p h a rm ac is t i s o ft e n re q ui r e d t o p e rf o rm o r e va l ua t e a v a r ie t y of c a lc ul a ti on s i n h is o r h er p r ac t ic e. Ma n y o f t he s e c a lc ul a ti on s i n v o l ve t he u s e o f d i re c t o r i n v e rs e p r o po r t io ns . D im e ns i o na l ( o r u n it ) an a l ys i s a n d a p p r o xi m at i o n c a n be us e fu l i n s ol v i n g t he se p ro b le m s . In di m e ns io n al a n al ys is , d im e ns io ns ( o r u n i ts ) a r e i nc lu d ed wi t h e a ch nu m b e r u se d i n t h e c a lc ul a ti on . U ni ts c o m m o n to t he nu m e r a to r a n d d e n om in a to r m a y be c a nc el e d a nd th e re m a i ni n g u ni t s p r o vid e t h e u ni ts f or t he fi n al an s we r . I n a p p ro xi m a t io n , e ac h n um b e r us e d i n t he c a lc ul at i o n is r ou n de d t o a s i ng le s i gn i fi ca n t d ig i t. Fa c to r s c om m o n to th e n um e r at or a n d d en om in a to r m a y be c a nc el e d a nd th e a ns we r t o th is ap p ro xi m a t io n s ho u l d be r ea so n ab l y c l os e t o t he fi n al e xa c t a ns we r . A. R a t i o a n d p r o po r t i o n 1 . R a t io . Th e r e la t i v e m a g ni t ud e of t wo li k e qu an t i ti es is a r a ti o , wh i c h is e xp r e s s ed as a f r ac ti o n. C e r t a in ba si c p r in c i pl es a p pl y t o th e r a ti o , a s t hey d o to al l f r ac t io ns . a . W he n t h e t wo t e rm s of a ra t io a re m u lt i pl ie d o r d i v i de d b y t he s a m e n u m b e r , t he v a lu e o f th e r a t io is u nc h an g ed .
b . Two r a t i os wi t h th e s am e v al u e a r e e qu i v al e nt . E q u i val en t ra t io s h a ve e q u al c r os s p r od uc ts and e qu al r ec ip r oc a ls . F o r e xa m p l e :
and 1 × 6 = 3 × 2 = 6 I f t wo r a ti os a re eq u al , th e n t h ei r re c i p r oc al s a r e e q ua l :
2 . P r o po r t i o n. Th e e xp re s s i on of t he eq u al it y o f t wo r a t i os i s a p ro po r t io n. Th e p r o du c t of t he e xt r em es is eq ua l to th e p r o du c t o f t h e m ea ns fo r an y p r o po r t io n . F u rt h e rm o re , t h e n um e ra t o r o f t h e o ne f r ac ti o n e qu a ls t h e p r o du c t o f i ts de n om in a to r a nd th e o t he r f ra c t i on ( i . e ., on e m is s i ng t er m c a n a l wa ys b e f o un d g i v en t he o th e r t h r ee te r m s ) . Mo s t ph a rm ac eu t ic al c a lc ul a ti on s c an be pe r fo r m ed b y u s e o f p ro p o rt io n . a . P r o pe r r a t io s . S om e p h a rm ac is ts us e p r op e r ra t i os (i n wh ic h s im il a r u n i ts a r e u s e d i n t h e n um e r at o r a nd d en om in a tor o f e ac h ra t io ) in th e ir p r o po r t io n c al c u l at i on s . S e v e r a l e xa m p le s f o ll o w. ( 1 ) I f 2 40 m L of a c o u gh s y r u p c on t ai ns 48 0 m g of d e xt r o m et h or p ha n h yd r o b ro m i d e, t he n wh a t m as s o f d r ug is c o nt ai ne d i n a c h i ld ' s d os e , 1 t e as p oo n fu l (5 m L ) o f s y r u p ?
P.11
( 2 ) I f a c hi l d 's do s e ( 5 m L ) o f a c ou g h s yr u p c o n ta i ns 10 m g o f d e xt r o m e th o r ph an h y d rob r o m i de , wh a t m as s o f dr u g i s c on t ai n ed in 24 0 mL?
( 3 ) I f t he am o un t o f d e xt r o m et h or p ha n h y d r o br o m i d e i n 2 40 m L of c o ug h s yr u p i s 4 80 m g , wh a t wo u ld be t he vo lu m e r eq uir e d fo r a c h i ld ' s d os e o f 1 0 mg?
( 4 ) H o w m an y m il li g ra m s o f de xt r o m e th o rp h an bas e (m ol e c u la r we i gh t = 2 7 1 .4 ) ar e e q ui v a l en t t o 1 0 m g o f de xt r o m e th o rp ha n h y d ro b ro m i d e ( m o le cu la r we i g ht = 3 52 .3 ) ?
b . M i x ed r a t io s . S om e ph a r m a c i st s u s e m i xe d r at i os ( in wh i c h di ss im il a r u n i ts a r e u s e d i n t h e n um e r at o r a nd d en om in a tor o f e ac h ra t io ) in th e ir p r o po r t io n c al c u l at i on s . S u c h c o m p u ta t io n s g en er a l l y g i v e c o r re c t a ns we r s , p r o vi di n g t he c o nd i ti o ns i n wh i c h m i xe d r a ti os c an n o t b e us e d a r e kn o wn . A l a t er e xa m p le s h o ws m i xe d r at i os l e ad in g to fa il ur e in t he c as e of di lu t io n, wh e n i n v e rs e p r op o r ti o ns a re r eq ui r e d. Fo r i n ve rs e p r op o r t i on s , s i m i l a r u n i ts m us t b e u s e d i n the n um e ra t or a nd de no m in a t o r o f e ac h r a ti o . F o l lo wi n g i s a n e xa m p l e o f a m i xe d ra t io c a lc ul a tio n us in g t h e p r e v io us p r o bl em .
Th e s a me an sw e r i s o b ta i ne d i n th is e xa m pl e whe t h e r we u s e p ro p e r r a tio s , wi t h s im il a r u ni t s i n n um e r a t or an d d e no m i n at o r , o r m i xe d r a t io s . Th is is no t t h e c as e wh e n d ea li n g w i t h i n v e rs e p r op o r ti o ns . 3 . I n ve r se p r op o r t i on . Th e m os t c om m o n e xa m p l e o f t h e n ee d fo r i n ve rs e p r o po r t io n f o r t h e p ha r m a c is t i s t he ca s e of d il u ti o n . W he re as in th e p r e vi ou s e xa m p l es o f p ro p o r ti on t he re l at i on s h i ps i n vo l ve d d i re c t p r o po r t io n , t he c a s e of di l u ti on c a ll s f o r a n i n v e rs e p r op o rt i on ( i. e ., as vo l u m e in c re as es , c o nc en t r a ti o n d ec re a s e s) . Th e n ec es s i t y o f u si ng in ve rs e p r o po r t io ns fo r di l ut i on pr o b le m s is s ho wn i n th is e xa m p l e . I f 1 20 m L of a 1 0 % s t o c k s o lu t i on i s d i lu t ed t o 2 4 0 m L, w h a t i s th e fi na l c o n ce n t r a ti o n ? U s i n g i nv e r s e p r o po r ti o n,
A s e xp e c te d , t he fi n al c on c en t r at i on is o n e h al f t he o ri g in a l co nc e nt r a ti o n b e ca us e th e v ol um e i s do u bl e d. H o we v e r , if t he p h a rm ac is t a t t em pt s t o us e d i r ec t p r op o r ti o n a nd neg l ec ts t o es t im a te an app r o p ri a te an s we r , th e
r e s ul ti n g c al c u la t io n wo ul d pr o v i de an an s we r o f 2 0 % , wh i c h is t wi c e t he a c tu a l co n c e n tr a ti o n.
P.12
L i ke wi s e , t h e p ha rm a c i s t u s i n g m i xe d r a t io s f ai ls i n th is c a se .
and
B . Al i q u o t . A p ha r m a c i s t r e q ui r es th e a li q uo t m e th o d o f m ea s ur em e nt wh e n t h e s e ns i t i vi t y ( t h e s m all e s t qu a nt i t y th a t c an be m e as u re d wi t h t he r e q ui r e d ac c u r ac y a nd p re c is io n ) o f t h e m e a s u r ing d e v ic e is no t g re a t e n o ug h f o r t h e r e qu i re d m e as u re m e n t. A li q uo t c al c ul a ti on s c an be us ed fo r m e as u re m e n t o f s ol id s or l iq u id s, al l o wi n g t he pha r m ac is t t o re al i z e th e r e q ui r e d p re c i s i o n t h ro ug h a p r oc ess o f m e as u r in g a m u l ti p le of th e de si re d a m ou n t f ol l o we d b y d il u tio n an d f i na ll y s el ec t io n a n d m ea s u r em e nt of an a l iq u ot pa r t th a t c o n ta i ns t h e d es i re d a m o u nt o f m a t e ri a l. Th i s e xa m p le p r o bl em in v o l v es we i g hin g b y th e a li q uo t m e th od, u s i ng a p r es cr i pt i on b a la n ce . A p r es c ri p ti on ba l an c e ha s a s e ns i ti v i t y r eq u ir em e n t o f 6 m g . H o w wo u l d yo u we i g h 1 0 m g o f d r ug wi t h a n a cc u ra c y o f ± 5% , us in g a s u i ta bl e d i lu en t ? 1 . Fi r s t, c a lc ul a te th e l ea s t we ig h ab l e q ua n ti t y fo r t he ba l an c e wi t h a s e ns it i v i t y re q ui r em e nt of 6 m g , as s um in g ± 5 % ac c u r ac y i s r e qu i re d .
2 . N o w i t i s o b v io us t ha t a n al iq u ot ca lc ul a ti o n is r e q ui r e d b ec au s e 10 m g o f d r u g i s r eq u i re d , wh e r e as t he le as t we i gh a bl e q ua n t it y i s 1 20 m g t o a c hi eve t h e re q ui r ed pe r c e n ta g e o f e r ro r . Us in g t h e l ea s t we i g h a bl e q u an t it y m et ho d o f al i qu o t m e as u r em en t , u s e t he s m al le s t q ua n ti t y we i g h a bl e o n t h e b al an ce a t ea ch s t e p t o p r es e r v e m a te r i al s . a . W ei gh 12 × 1 0 m g = 12 0 m g o f dr u g. b . D il u t e t he 12 0 m g o f dr u g ( fr om s t e p a ) wi t h a s u it a bl e d il u en t b y g e om e t ri c a l d il u ti o n t o ac h ie v e a m i xt u r e t h at wi l l p r o v i de 10 m g o f dr u g in e a ch 12 0 -m g a li q uo t . The am o un t o f di lu e nt t o be us e d c an be de t er m i n ed t h r o ug h p r o p o r ti o n .
c . W eig h 12 0 m g ( 1 /1 2 ) o f t he to t al m i xt u r e , wh i ch wi l l c o nt a in th e re q ui r ed 1 0 m g o f dr u g.
II. SYSTEMS OF MEASURE. Th e p h a rm ac is t m us t b e f a m i l ia r wi t h th r e e s ys t e m s of m e as u re : th e m e t ri c s ys t e m a n d t wo c om m o n s y s te m s of m e as u re ( the a vo i r d up o i s a nd a p o t he c a ri e s' s y s t em s ). Th e p r im a r y s ys te m o f m e as u re in ph a rm ac y a nd m e di ci n e is th e m e tr ic s ys t em . Mo s t s tu d en t s f in d i t e a s i es t t o c o n v er t m e as u re m e n ts i n th e c om m o n s ys te m s to m e t ri c u n i ts . A t ab le o f c o n ve rs io n e q ui va l en t s is p ro v i de d an d s h ou l d b e m e m o r i ze d b y t h e p ha r m a c i s t (s e e A p p en d i x A ) . Th e m e t ri c s y s t em , b ec a us e o f i ts un i v e r s a l a cc ep t an c e an d b r o ad us e , wi l l no t b e rev i e we d h e r e. A. Ap o t h e c a r ie s ' s ys t e m o f fl u i d m ea s u re . Th e a p ot h ec a ri es ' s ys t em of f l u id m e as u re is s um m a ri z e d in A pp en d i x A . B . Ap o t h e c a r ie s ' s ys t e m f o r m e as u r i ng w e i gh t. Th e a po t he c a r ie s ' s ys te m f o r m e as u ri ng we i g h t i nc l u de s u ni t s o f g r ai ns , s c ru p le s , d r am s , ou nc es , an d p o u nd s ( s e e Ap p en di x A ) . C . Avo i r d u p o i s s ys t e m o f m ea s u ri n g w ei g h t. Th e a voi r du p oi s ( A V ) s ys t em o f m e as u ri ng we ig h t i nc l ud es th e g r a in , ou n c e , a n d p ou n d. Th e g r a in is a u ni t c om m o n w i t h t h e a po t he c a r i es ' s ys t e m a nd al l o ws fo r ea s y c o n ve rs io n b e t we e n t he s y s t em s . Th e a v o i r du po is po u nd , h o we v e r , P.13
i s 1 6 A V o un c e s i n c on t ra s t t o t h e a po t he ca r i es ' p o u nd , wh ic h i s 1 2 a p o th ec a ri es ' o un c e s (s ee A p pe nd i x A ) . D . C o n ve r s i on eq u i va l en t s . Se e Ap p en di x A .
III. REDUCING AND ENLARGING FORMULAS. Th e p h a rm ac is t i s o ft e n re q ui r e d t o r e du c e o r e nla r g e a re c i p e. P r ob l em s o f t h is t yp e a re s o l v e d t h rou g h p r op o r ti o n, o r b y m ul t i pl ic a ti on o r d i v is io n b y t h e a p p ro p ri a te fa c to r to o b t ai n t h e r e qu i re d a m ou n t o f ea ch in g re d ie n t t ha t wi l l g i ve t h e d es i re d t o tal m a s s or v o l um e o f t he fo r m ul a . F o rm ul as c a n b e p r o vi de d i n a m o u nt s o r in p a rt s . A. F o r m u l a s t h at i nd i cat e p a r ts . W hen de a li ng wi t h f o rm u la s t h at s p ec ify p a r ts , p a r ts b y we i gh t wil l re q ui r e t h e d et e rm in a ti o n of we i g ht s o f i n g re d ie n ts , wh e re as pa rt s b y v ol um e wa r r a nt th e c al cu l at i on of v o lu m e s of i n g re d ie n ts . A l wa y s f in d t h e to t al nu m b e r o f p a r ts i n di c a t ed in th e fo rm u la , a n d e q ua t e t ha t to t al wi th t he t ot a l m a ss or vo lum e o f th e d es i re d fo r m u la i n o r d e r t o s et up a p r op o r ti o n . S uc h a p ro p or t io n wil l al lo w c a lc ul a ti o n o f t h e
m as s o r v o lu m e of ea c h i n g re d ie n t i n u ni ts c o m m o n to t he to t al m as s o r vo l u m e . W h a t q u a nt i t ie s sh o ul d b e us e d t o p r e p a re 10 0 g o f c am p h o ra t e d p a r a ch l o r o ph e no l ?
Rx
parachlorophenol
7 parts
camphor
13 parts
7 parts + 13 parts = 20 parts total
B . F o r m ul a s t h at i nd i cat e q ua n t i ti e s. Th e pr e vio u s p r esc r i pt i on fo r c o ld c r e am p r o v i de s a 1 0 0 g q u a nt i t y. W h a t m a ss o f e ac h in g re d i en t i s r e qu i r e d t o p ro vi d e 1 p o u nd ( AV ) o f c r e a m?
Rx
white wax
12.5 g
mineral oil
60.0 g
lanolin
2.5 g
sodium borate
1.0 g
rose water 1 lb = 454 g
24.0 g
12.5 g × 4.54
=
56.8 g of white wax
60.0 g × 4.54
=
272 g of mineral oil
2.5 g × 4.54
=
11.4 g of lanolin
1.0 g × 4.54
=
4.54 of sodium borate
24.0 g × 4.54
=
109 g of rose water
IV. CALCULATING DOSES. C a l cu l at i on of do s e s g ene r a ll y c an be pe r fo r m e d wi t h d im e ns io n al an al ys is . P r o b l e ms en c o un t e re d in t he ph a rm ac y i nc lu d e c a lc ul a ti on o f t he nu m b er o f d o se s, q ua n ti ti es in a d os e o r to t al m a ss / vol um e , a m o u nt o f ac t i v e o r i n ac t i ve i ng r ed i en ts , an d s i z e o f d os e . Ca lc ul a ti on o f c h il d r e n' s d o se s i s c om m o n l y p e r fo r m e d b y t h e p h a rm ac is t . D os a ge is op t im al l y c a lc ul a te d b y u s in g t h e c h i ld ' s b o d y we i gh t o r m a s s an d t h e a pp r o p ri a te do se in m i ll ig r am s p e r k i l og r am (m g /k g ). W ith ou t t h es e da t a , t h e f ol lo wi n g f or m u la s b a se d o n a n a d ul t d os e c a n b e u s e d . A. F r i e d ' s r ul e fo r i n fa nt s
P.14
B . C l a r k 's r u le
C . C h i l d' s do s ag e b a sed o n b o d y s u r f a c e a r ea ( B S A )
D . Y o u ng ' s ru l e f o r ch i ld r e n ≥ 2 ye a r s o l d
E . C o n s ta n t ra t e i n t r a ve n o us i n fu s io n s . S om e d r u gs ar e ad m i ni s te r ed i n t ra ve n ou s l y a t a c o ns ta n t ( z e ro - o rd e r ) r a te b y u s in g a c o nt i nu o us - dr i p i n f us io n s et o r a c o ns ta nt - r a t e i nf us i on pu m p . The f lo w r a t e ( v ol um e p e r u n i t t im e ) r e qu i re d c an be c a lc u la t ed f ro m t h e v o lu m e t o b e a dm in is t e re d a n d t h e d u ra t io n o f t h e in f us i on . Th e r a te o f d r ug a dm i ni st r a ti o n c a n b e c a lc ul a te d f r om th e c o nc e n t r at i on of d ru g i n t h e in f us e d s ol ut i on an d t h e f l o w r a t e o f t h e i nf us i on s e t o r p u m p . Co n v e rs i on f a c t o rs m a y be r eq u i re d t o o b t ai n t h e f in a l a ns we r in t he c o r r ec t u ni t s ( d ro ps pe r m i nu t e o r m il li l it e rs p e r ho u r ). A va n co m y c i n s ol u ti o n c o n t ai ni n g 1 00 0 m g o f v an c om y c in h y dr o c h lo r id e d i lu t ed t o 2 50 m L wi t h D5W is to be in f us ed at a c o ns ta n t ra t e wi t h a c o nt i nu o us -d r i p i nt r a v e no u s i nf us i on s e t t h at de l iv e r s 25 d ro ps / m L . W h a t f l ow r a t e ( d r o ps / mi n ) sh o u l d b e u s ed t o i n f use a l l 2 50 m L o f t he va n c o m yc i n h yd r o c h l o ri d e so l u ti o n i n 2 h r ?
V. PERCENTAGE, RATIO STRENGTH, AND OTHER CONCENTRATION EXPRESSIONS A. P e r c e n t a ge w e ig h t in vo l u m e (w / v) 1 . D e f in i t io n . Pe r c e n ta ge , in d ic at i ng pa r ts pe r hu n d re d , i s a n im p or t an t m e an s o f e xp r e s s i n g c o nc e nt r a ti o n i n p ha rm a c y pr a c ti ce . Pe r c e n ta g e w/ v i n di ca t es th e n um b e r o f g r a m s o f a c o ns t it u en t pe r 1 00 m L o f s ol u ti o n o r l i qu i d f o rm ul a ti o n. Th e ph a r m a c i st m a y b e r eq u i re d to pe r f o rm th r e e t yp e s o f ca lc ul a ti o ns : d e te r m i ne t he w e i gh t of ac ti v e ing r e di e nt in a c er t ai n vo l u m e wh e n g i v e n t he pe r c en t ag e s t re n gt h , d et er m i ne th e p e r ce n t ag e w /v wh e n t h e we ig h t o f s ub s ta n c e an d vol um e o f l i qu id f o rm ul a ti o n a re k n o wn , a n d d e te r m i ne t he vo l um e of li q ui d m i xt u r e wh en t he pe r ce n ta g e s tr e ng th a n d a m o u nt of s u bs t an c e a r e k n o wn . 2 . T ol u ba l sa m s yr u p . T o l u b al s a m t i nc tu r e c on ta i ns 20 % w/ v t o lu ba ls am . W h a t i s th e pe r c en t a ge c o nc e n t ra t i o n o f to l u ba l s am i n t h e s yr u p ?
tolu balsam tincture
50 mL
magnesium carbonate
10 g
sucrose
820 g
purified water, qs ad
1000 mL
a . Fi r s t, de t e rm in e wh a t t h e a m o u nt o f t ol u b a ls am is i n th e 5 0 m L q ua n ti ty o f ti n ct u re us e d f o r t he s y r u p . Th e n, b y p ro po r t ion , c a lc ul a te t he c o nc en t r at i on of t ol u b als am in t he s yr u p .
I n an s we r i ng th is on e q ue s ti o n, t he fi r s t t wo t y p es o f p ro b le m s l is t ed a bov e h a ve be e n s o l v e d, wh i l e e xh i b i t in g t wo m e th o ds of s ol v i ng pe r c e n ta g e p r o bl em s —n am e l y , b y d im e n si o na l an a l ys i s a n d p r o p o r t io n . b . F o r a n e xa m p le of th e t h i r d t yp e o f p e rc en t age w/ v p r o b le m , d et e rm ine wh a t v o l u m e of s y r u p c ou l d b e p r ep a r ed if we h ad o nl y 8 g o f m a g ne si um c a r bo na t e . U s e p ro p o rt i on t o f in d th e t o ta l v ol um e o f s y r u p t h at ca n b e m a de us in g o n l y 8 g o f m a gn es i um P.15
c a r bo na t e . I f we ha v e 8 g o f m ag ne si um ca r bo n at e in 10 0 0 m L o f s o l ut i on, t h e n, ac c o r di n g t o t h e r ec i pe , 8 0 0 m L o f s o l ut i on c a n b e p r ep a re d u si n g a ll 8 g o f th e d r ug .
B . P e r c en t a ge vo l um e in vo l u m e ( v/ v) . P e r ce n ta g e v/ v in di ca t es th e n u m b e r o f m il li l it e rs of a c on s ti t ue n t i n 1 00 m L o f l i qu id f or m u l at i on . Th e p e r ce n ta ge s t r e ng t h o f m i xt u r e s o f l iq u id s i n l iqu i ds is i n di c a t ed b y p e rc e n t v/ v, wh i c h in d ic at es t he p a r ts b y v o lu m e of a s ubs t an c e in 10 0 p a r ts of the l i qu i d p r ep a ra t io n . Th e th r e e t yp e s o f p ro b le m s th a t a r e e nc o un t e re d i n vo l ve c al c u l at i ng pe r ce n t a ge s t re n g th , c a lc ula t i ng vo l um e of i ng r e d ie n t ,
a n d c al c u l at i ng vo l um e o f t h e l i qu i d p r e pa r a t i on . U si n g t he sa m e to l u b a ls am s y r u p fo rm u la f rom ea r li e r , we ' l l n o w wo r k a pe r c e n t v / v p r o bl em . W h a t i s th e pe r c en t a ge s t r e ng t h v/ v o f t he t olu b a ls am t i nc t u r e i n the s yr u p p r e p a r a t i on ? B y p r o po r t io n , we c a n so l ve t h e p r ob l em i n o n e s t e p.
C . P e r c en t a ge w e ig h t in w e i g ht (w /w ) . Pe r c e n ta g e w/ w i n d ic a te s t he n u m b e r o f g r am s o f a c on s ti t ue n t p e r 1 00 g o f f o rm u la t io n ( s ol id o r l iq ui d ). S o l u ti on o f p ro b le m s i n vo l v i ng pe r ce n ta g e w/ w i s s t ra i gh t fo r wa r d wh e n the t o t al m a s s o f th e m i xt u r e i s a v a il a bl e o r wh e n t h e t o t al m as s c an be d e t e rm in ed f ro m t h e a v a il a bl e d a ta . In c a lc ul a ti o ns si m i la r to t ho s e fo r p e r ce n ta ge w/ v a n d v / v , t h e p h a rm ac is t m ig h t n ee d to s o l v e s e v e ra l t yp es o f p r o bl em s , i nc lu di n g d et er m i na ti o n o f t h e we i g h t of a c o ns ti t ue n t , t he to t al we i g h t of a m i xt u r e , o r th e pe r c e n ta g e w/ w. 1 . H ow ma n y g r a m s o f d r u g su b s ta n ce sh o u ld b e us e d to p re p a r e 2 40 g o f a 5 % w /w s o l u ti o n i n w a te r ? a . Th e fi r s t s t ep in an y pe r c en t ag e w/ w p r o b le m is t o a tt em p t i de n ti f ic a ti on o f t he to t al m as s o f th e m i xt u r e . In th is p ro bl e m , t h e t o ta l m as s is , o b vi o us l y , p r o v id e d ( 24 0 g ) . b . Th e p ro bl em c a n b e ea s il y s o l v e d t h ro u gh d ime n s io n a l a na l ys i s .
2 . W he n t h e t ot a l m a s s of t h e m i xt u r e is un a v a il ab l e o r c a nn o t b e d e t e rm in ed , an ex t r a s t ep is r eq u i re d i n t h e c a lc ul a t io ns . Be c a us e i t i s u s ua ll y i m p os s i b le to k no w h o w m u c h v o l um e is d i s p l a c ed b y a s o li d m a te r i al , t h e p ha r m a c i s t i s u n ab le t o p r ep a re a sp e c i f ie d v ol um e o f a s o lu t io n g i v e n t he pe r c en t a ge w/ w. H ow m u c h d r u g s ho u l d b e ad d e d t o 3 0 m L o f w a t e r t o m ak e a 10 % w /w s o l u t io n ? Th e v o lu m e o f wa t e r t h at is d is p la c e d b y t h e d r ug is un kn o wn , s o t h e fi na l v ol um e i s u nk nown . L i ke wi s e , e v e n th oug h th e m as s o f s ol ve n t is k n o wn ( 30 m L × 1 g /m L = 3 0 g ) , i t i s n ot k n o wn ho w m u c h d ru g i s n e ed ed , s o th e t o ta l m as s is un k no wn . Th e wa t e r r e pr es e nt s 10 0% - 1 0 % = 90 % o f t h e to t al m i xt u r e . Th en , b y p r o po r ti o n, t he m as s o f d ru g t o b e u s ed c a n be i d en t i fi ed .
Th e c o mm o n e r r o r th a t m a n y s t ud e nt s m a k e i n so l vi ng p ro b le m s o f th is t yp e is to as s u m e th a t 30 g i s t h e t ot a l m a ss of th e m i xt u r e . So l v i ng th e p r o bl em wi t h th a t a s s um p t i on gi ve s t he f ol lo wi n g i n c o r r ec t a ns we r .
D . R a t i o s t r en g t h . S ol i d o r li qu i d f o rm ul a ti o ns t ha t co n ta in lo w c o nc en t r at i on s o f a c t i v e i n g re d ie n ts wi l l o f te n h av e c on c en t ra t io n e xp r e s s e d i n r a ti o s t r e n gt h . Ra t io s t r en g th , a s t h e n am e im p l ie s , is t he e xp r e s s io n o f c o nc en t r at i on b y m ea n s o f a r a ti o . Th e n um er a to r a n d d en om i na t or o f t he r a t io in d ic at e gr am s ( g ) o r m i ll i li t er s (m L) o f a s ol i d o r l i qu id c o ns t it u en t in t h e to t al m as s ( g ) o r v o lu m e ( m L ) of a s ol id o r l iq u id p re p a ra t io n . B ec a us e p e r c en t a ge s t re n g th is P.16
e ss e nt i al l y a r a ti o o f p a rt s pe r h u nd r e d, c o n ve rs io n be t we e n ra t io s t r en g th a n d p e rc en t a ge s t r en g th i s e as il y a cc om pl is h ed b y p r o po r ti o n. 1 . E xp r e ss 0 .1 % w / v as a r a t i o s t r en g t h. a . R a ti o s t re n gt hs a re b y c on v e n ti o n e xp r e s s e d i n r e d uc ed fo r m , s o in s e t ti ng up ou r p ro p or t io n t o s o l v e f o r r a ti o s t re n gth , us e t h e n um e ra l 1 i n t h e n um e r at o r o f th e r i ght h a nd r at i o as sh o wn :
b . Li k e wi s e , c on v e r s i o n fr o m ra t io s t r en g th to pe rc e nt a ge s t r en g th b y p r o po r t io n i s e as y , as s ee n in th e fo ll o wi n g e xa m p l e . K e ep in m i nd th e d e f in i ti on o f p er c en t ag e s t r en g th ( pa r ts pe r hu n dre d ) wh e n s et t in g u p th e p r o po r t io n . 2 . E xp r e ss 1 :2 5 00 as a p e r c en t a ge s t re n g th .
E . O t h e r c o n ce n t r at i o n e x p r es s io n s 1 . M o l a r it y ( M) i s t h e e xp r e s s io n o f t h e n um be r of m ol es of s o lu t e d is s o l ve d p e r l i te r o f s o l ut io n . I t i s c a lc ul a te d b y d i vid i ng the m o l es o f s o lu t e b y t he vo l u m e of s o lu t io n i n l i ter s .
2 . N o r ma l i t y. A c o n v e n ie n t wa y o f d e al in g wi t h ac i ds , b as es , a n d e l ec t r ol y t es in v o l v es t he u s e o f e qu i v a le n ts . O ne e q ui v a l en t of an ac id is +
t h e q u an t it y o f t h at ac i d t h a t s up pl i es o r do n at es 1 m o l e o f H i on s . O n e -
e q ui va l en t of a b as e is th e qu a nt i t y th a t f u rn is h es 1 m ol e o f O H i on s. O ne e q ui va l en t of ac id r ea c t s wi t h 1 eq ui va l en t o f ba se . E qu i v a le n t we i g h t c a n b e c a lc ul a te d f o r a t om s o r m o l ec ul es .
Th e n o r m al i t y ( N ) o f a s o l u ti on is th e n um b e r o f g r a m - e qu i va le n t we i g h ts ( e q ui va l en ts ) of s o lu t e pe r li t e r o f s ol u ti on . N o rm a l i t y i s a na l og ou s t o m o la r it y ; h o we v e r , i t is de f i ne d i n t e rm s o f e qu i v al e n ts ra t he r th a n m o l es .
3 . M o l al i t y ( m ) i s t he m ol e s o f s ol u te di ss ol v e d pe r k i lo g r am o f s o l v en t . Mo l a l i t y is c a lc ul a te d b y d i v i di n g t he nu m be r o f m o l es of s o lu t e b y t he n u m b e r o f k il o gr am s o f s o l v e n t. Mo l a l it y o f fe r s a n a d v a nt a ge o v e r m o l a ri t y b e ca us e i t i s b as e d o n s o l v e n t we i g h t a nd a voi ds p r o bl em s as so c i a te d wi th vo l u m e e xp a ns i on o r c o nt r a c t i on o wi n g t o t h e a ddi t i on of s o lu t es .
4 . M o l e f r a c ti o n ( X) i s th e r at i o o f t he nu m b e r o f m ol es o f o ne c om p on e nt t o t he to t al m o le s o f a m ixt u r e o r s o l ut i on .
VI. DILUTION AND CONCENTRATION. I f t he am ou n t o f d r ug r em a in s c o n s t a nt in a d il u ti o n o r c o nc en t r at io n , t h en a n y ch a ng e i n t h e m as s o r v o l um e o f a m i xt u r e is i n v e rs e l y p r o po r ti o na l t o t h e c on c en t ra t io n . A. D i l u t i o n a n d c o nc e n tr a t i o n p r o b le m s c an be s o l ve d b y: 1 . I n ver s e p ro p o rt i on (a s m en t io n ed ea r li e r ) 2 . Th e eq ua t io n q u an t it y 1 × c o nc en t r at i on 1 = qu an t i t y 2 × c o nc en t r a ti on 2 3 . D e te r m i ni n g t he am oun t o f ac t i v e i ng r ed i en t p re s en t i n th e i ni t ia l m i xt u re a n d , wi t h t he as s um p ti o n t h a t t he in i ti al qu a nt i t y d o es no t c h an ge , c a lc ul a ti ng o f t he f in al c o n c e n t ra t io n o f t h e n e w to t a l m a s s o r v o l um e P.17
4 . Al l i g a t io n m e di a l . A m e th o d f o r c al c u la t in g t he a v e r ag e c on c e n t ra t io n o f a m i xt u r e o f t wo o r m o r e s ub s ta nc es 5 . Al l i g a t io n a l t e rn a t e. A m et h od f or ca lc ul a ti n g t h e n um b e r o f p a rt s o f two o r m o r e c om po n en ts o f k n o wn c on ce n t ra t io n t o be m i xe d wh e n t h e f in al d e si r ed c o nc e nt r a ti on is k n o wn B . D i l u t io n of a lc o ho l s a n d a c i ds
1 . D i lu t i o n o f a l co h o ls . W hen a lc oh ol an d wa t e r a r e m i xe d , a c on t ra c ti on o f vo lu m e oc c u r s . As a re s ul t , t h e f in al vo l um e o f s ol u ti o n ca n no t b e d e t e rm in ed ac c u r a te l y . N o r c a n th e v ol um e o f wa t e r n e ed ed t o d il u te to a c e r ta i n p er c en t ag e v / v be i de n ti f ie d . A c c o rd in g l y , p e rc e nt a ge w/ w i s o f te n u s ed fo r s o lu t io ns o f a lc o h ol . 2 . Th e pe r c en t a ge s t re ng t h o f co nc e nt r a te d a c i ds is e xp r e ss ed as p e r ce n ta ge w/ w. Th e c o nc e nt r a ti o n o f d il u te d a c i ds is e xp r e ss ed as p e r ce n ta ge w/ v . D e t e rm in i ng t he vo lu m e of co nc e n t r at e d ac i d t o b e u s e d i n p r e pa r i ng a d il ut e d a c i d r e q ui r es th e s p ec if ic g rav i t y o f th e c o nc en t ra t e d a c id . C . D i l u t io n a n d c o nc e n tr a t i o n o f l iq u id s a n d s ol i d s . D i lu t io n a n d c o nc en t r at i on p ro bl em s a r e of t en ea si l y s o l v ed by i d e nt i f y in g th e a m o un t o f d r u g i n v ol v e d fo ll o we d by u s e o f a n a p p ro p ri a te p r o po r t io n . 1 . H ow ma n y m i l l i l i t e r s o f a 1 :5 0 s t oc k s o lu t i on o f ep h ed r i n e s ul f a te s h o u ld be u se d i n co mp o u n di n g th e fo l l ow in g p r e sc r i p t io n ?
Rx
ephedrine sulfate
0.25%
rose water, ad
30 mL
2 . H ow ma n y m i l l i l i t e r s o f a 1 5 % w / v c o n ce n t r at e o f b e nz a lk o ni u m c h l o r id e s h o ul d be us ed i n p r e p a ri n g 3 0 0 m L of a s to c k s ol u t i on su c h t h a t 15 m L d i l u te d to 1 L w i l l yi e l d a 1 : 5 00 0 sol u t i o n? a . Fi r s t, de t e rm in e t h e am o un t o f dr u g i n 1 L o f a 1 : 50 0 0 s o l ut i on .
b . N o w, b ec a us e 1 5 m L o f t he s t oc k s o l ut i on is be i ng di l ut e d t o 1 L, a s toc k s o lu t io n i s n ee d ed in wh ic h 1 5 m L c on t ai n 0 . 2 g of d r ug . Th e a m o un t of d r u g r e qu i re d to m ak e 30 0 m L o f th e s t oc k s o lu t io n is fo un d b y p r op o r ti on .
c . Fi n al l y , t o d e te r m i n e th e am ou n t o f 1 5% c o nc en t r a te r eq ui r e d,
3 . W he n t h e r el a ti v e am o u n t o f c om po n en ts m u st b e d e te rm i ne d f o r p r e pa r a ti o n o f a m i xt u r e o f a d es i re d c on c e n t ra t ion , t he pr o bl em is m os t e a si l y s o l v ed us in g a l li ga t i on al t er n a te . H ow m a n y g r a m s o f 2. 5% h yd r o c o r t i s o ne c re am s ho u l d b e m i xe d w i th 3 6 0 g o f 0 .2 5 % c r e a m to m ak e a 1 % h yd r o c o r t i s o n e c r ea m ?
Th e r e la t i v e a m o u nt s o f th e 2. 5 % a nd 1% c r e am s a r e 1 t o 2 , r e sp ec t i v el y. B y p r o p or t io n , t h e m a s s o f 2 .5 % c re a m t o us e c an b e d et e rm i ne d . I f 2 par t s o f 0 .2 5 % c r e a m is r ep r es e n t ed b y 3 6 0 g , t he n th e t o ta l m a ss ( 3 p a r ts ) i s r e p r e se n t ed b y w h a t ma s s ?
P.18
W ith t he t ot a l m a s s k n own , t h e am ou n t o f 2 . 5% c r e am c an be id e nt i fi e d. I f 3 p a r ts r ep r es en t th e t o t al m as s o f 5 4 0 g , t h en 1 p ar t r e pr e s e n ts t h e m as s of 2 . 5 % c re am (x g = 18 0 g) .
VII. ELECTROLYTE SOLUTIONS. E l e ct r ol y t e s o lu t io ns c o nt a i n s p ec i es (e l ec t ro l yt es ) th a t d is so c i a te in t o i on s . Th e m i l li e qu i va l e n t ( m Eq ) is th e u n it us ed t o e xp r e s s t he c o nc en t r at i on of
e l ec t r ol y t es in s o lu t io n . Ta b l e 2- 1 e xh i bi t s so m e p h ys io l og ic al l y im po r t an t i o ns an d t h ei r pr o pe r t ie s . A. M i l l i eq u i va l en t s . Th e m il li e qu i v a le n t is t he am o u n t, in m i ll ig r am s , o f a s o lu t e e qu a l t o 1 /1 0 00 of i t s g ra m -e q ui va le n t we ig h t . Co n v e rs io n o f c o nc en t r at i on s i n t he f orm o f m i ll i eq ui va l en t to co n c e n t ra t io ns in pe r c e n ta g e s t r en g th , m il l ig r am s p er m i ll il i te r s ( m g /m L ) o r an y o t he r te r m s , b e gi ns wi t h c a lc ul a ti on o f t he nu m b er o f m il l ie qu i va le n ts o f dru g . Th e f ol l o wi n g e xa m p l es de m o ns t r at e th e c om p ut a ti o n o f m il li eq u i v a l e nt s a n d m a n ip ul a ti o n o f da t a f r om Ta b le 2- 1 to p e r fo r m t he r eq ui r e d ca lc u la t io ns fo r p re pa r i ng e l ec t r ol y t e s ol u ti o ns . W h a t i s th e co n ce n t r a tio n , in p e rc e n t w / v, o f a s o l u ti o n c o nt a i ni n g 2 m E q o f p ot a ss i um c hl o ri d e pe r mi l l il i t e r ? C a l cu l at i on s i n v ol v i ng m il l ie q ui va le n ts a re ea s i l y s o l ved if t he pr a c t i ti on e r f o l lo ws a p r e de f in ed p roc e du r e t o d e te r m i n e t he m i l l ie q ui v a le n t we i gh t . Th i s i n vo l ves th r e e s te ps . 1 . Fi n d t he m o le c ul a r we i g h t ( m o l wt ) .
Atomic wt K
=
39
Atomic wt Cl
=
35.5
39 + 35.5 = 74.5 g
=
mol wt of KCl
2 . C al cu l at e th e e q ui v a len t we i g ht ( E q wt ) o f K C l.
3 . D e te r m i ne t he m il l ie qu i v a le n t we i gh t , wh i c h i s o f th e e q ui va le n t we ig h t. m E q wt = 7 4 .5 g / 10 0 0 = 0 . 7 4 5 g o r 74 . 5 m g
Table 2-1. Valences, Atomic Weights, and Milliequivalent Weights of Selected Ions
Formula
Valence
Atomic/Formula Weight
Milliequivalent Weight (mg)
Aluminum
A+++
3
27
9
Ammonium
NH4+
1
18
18
Calcium
Ca++
2
40
20
Ferric
Fe+++
3
56
18.7
Ferrous
Fe++
2
56
28
Lithium
Li+
1
7
7
Magnesium
Mg++
2
24
12
Bicarbonate
HCO3-
1
61
61
Carbonate
CO3-
1
60
30
Chloride
Cl-
1
35.5
35.5
Citrate
C6H5O7---
3
189
63
Gluconate
C6H11O7-
1
195
195
Lactate
C3H5O3-
1
89
89
Phosphate
H2PO4-
1
97
97
Sulfate
SO4--
2
96
48
Potassium
K+
1
29
39
Ion
Sodium
Na+
1
23
23
Acetate
C2H3O2-
1
59
59
P.19
N o w t h a t we k no w t h e m il l ie q ui va le n t we i gh t , we c a n ca lc u la t e b y d i m e ns i on al an a l ys is and p r op o rt i on th e c o nc en tr a t i o n i n p e rc e nt a ge in a f o u r th s t ep . 4 . 0 .0 74 5 g / m Eq × 2 m Eq = 0 . 1 49 g o f d r ug
+
H ow m a n y m i l l i e q u i va len t s o f N a w o ul d be con t a i ne d in a 1 5 -m L vo l u m e of t he f o ll ow i n g b u f f e r?
Na2HPO4·7H2O
180 g
NaH2PO4·H2O
480 g
Purified water
ad
1000 mL
F o r ea ch s a lt , th e m as s (a n d m il li e qu i val e nt s ) m us t be fo u nd in a 1 5 -m L d o se .
B . M i ll i os m ol e s ( m O s mo l ) . O s m ot ic p re s s u re is d i r ec tl y p r op o r ti o na l t o th e t o t al nu m b e r o f p a r ti c l es i n s ol u ti o n. Th e m il l io sm o le is th e u ni t of m e as u r e f o r osm o ti c c on c e n t ra t ion . F or no n el ec t r ol y t es , 1 m il li m ol e r e p re s e n ts 1 m i ll io sm ol e . Ho we v e r , f or e le c t ro l yt es , t h e t ot a l nu m be r of pa r t ic le s i n s o lu t io n i s d et e rm i ne d by t h e nu m b e r o f p a r ti c l es p r o du ce d i n s ol u ti on and i n f lu en ce d b y t h e d eg r e e o f di s s oc ia t io n . A s s um ing c o m p l et e d is s oc ia ti o n, 1 m i ll im ol e o f K Cl r ep r es en t s 2 m i ll io s m ol es o f t ota l pa r ti c l e s , 1 m i l li m o le o f C a C l 2 re p r es en ts 3 m il li os m o l es o f to t al pa r t ic le s , e t c . Th e i d ea l o s m ol a r c o nc en t r at i on c a n b e c alc u la t ed wi t h th e f o ll o wi ng e qu a ti o n.
Th e p h a rm ac is t s ho ul d re c og n i z e t he di f fe r e nc e b e t we e n id e al os m o la r c o nc en t r at i on an d a c t ual o s m ol a ri t y. As th e c o nce n t r at i on of s o lu t e i n c re as es , i n te r ac t io n b et we e n d is so l ved pa r t ic les in c re as es , re s ul ti n g i n a r e d uc t io n o f t h e a c t u al os m o l a r va l ue s . C . I s o to n ic s ol u t io n s . An i s ot o n ic s o lu t io n i s o ne t ha t ha s t he s a m e o sm o ti c p r es s u r e a s b ody f l u id s . I so s mo t i c f lu i ds a re fl u id s wi t h t he s am e o sm o ti c p r es s u r e . S ol u tio n s t o b e a dm in is t e re d to p at i en ts s h ou l d b e
i s os m o ti c wi t h b od y f lu i ds . A h yp o t o n i c s o lu t io n is on e wi t h a lo we r o s m oti c p r e ss u re th a n b od y f lu i ds , wh e r ea s a h yp e r t o n i c s ol u ti o n h as a n o s m o ti c p r e ss u re th a t is g re a te r th a n b o d y f l ui ds . 1 . P r e pa r a t io n of i so t on i c so l u ti o ns . C ol li g at i ve p r op e rt i es , i nc lu d in g f r e e zi ng po in t de p re s s ion , a re r ep r es en t a ti v e of th e nu m b e r o f p a r ti c l es in s o lu t io n a n d c o ns i de r ed i n pr e pa r a ti o n o f is o to n ic s ol u ti o ns . a . W he n 1 g m o l wt o f a ny n o n el ec t r ol y t e i s d is s o lve d i n 1 00 0 g of wa t e r , t h e fr e e z in g p o in t o f th e s o lu t io n i s d ep r es s e d b y 1 . 8 6 ° C. B y p ro p o rt i on , t he we i g h t of an y n o ne le c tr ol y t e ne e de d t o m ak e t h e s o l u t io n i so t on ic wi t h b od y f l u id c a n b e c a lc u la t ed . P.20
b . B o ri c a c i d ( H 3 B O 3 ) h as a m ol wt o f 6 1 .8 g. Th us 61 . 8 g of H 3 B O 3 i n 1 000 g o f wa t e r s h o ul d p r od uc e a fr e e zin g p o in t o f 1 . 86 ° C . Th e r ef o r e, k n o wi n g t h a t t h e f r ee z i ng p oi nt de p r es s i on o f b od y f lu i ds i s -0 . 52 ° C ,
a n d 1 7 .3 g o f H 3 B O 3 in 10 0 0 g of wa t e r pr o v i de s a s o l ut i on th a t i s i so t o n ic . c . Th e d e gr e e o f d is s o c ia t i on of el ec t r ol yt es m u s t b e t ak e n i nt o a c c ou n t in s uc h c al c ul a ti on s . F o r e xa m pl e , N a C l i s a pp r o xi m a t e l y 8 0 % d is s o c i at e d i n we a k s ol u ti on s , y i e ld in g 1 8 0 p a r ti cl es in s o lu t io n f o r ea ch 10 0 m ol ec u le s o f N a C l . Th e re f o re ,
i n di ca t in g th a t 9 .0 9 g o f N a C l in 10 0 0 g o f wa t e r ( 0 . 9 % w/ v ) s h o ul d m a k e a s o lu t io n i s o t on ic . L ac k i ng a n y i n fo r m a t io n o n t h e d e g re e o f di s s oc ia t io n o f a n el ec t r ol y t e , t he f ol lo w i n g d i ss o ci a t io n va l ue s ( i ) m a y be us ed . ( 1 ) S ub s ta nc es th a t d is s o c ia t e i nt o t wo io ns : 1 . 8 ( 2 ) S ub s ta nc es th a t d is s o c ia t e i nt o th r ee io ns : 2 .6 ( 3 ) S ub s ta nc es th a t d is s o c ia t e i nt o fo u r i on s : 3 .4 ( 4 ) S ub s ta nc es th a t d is s o c ia t e i nt o fi ve i o ns : 4 . 2 2 . S o di u m c h lo r i de e qui va l e n t s. Th e ph a rm ac is t wi l l of t e n b e r eq u i re d to p r e pa r e a n i s o t on ic s o lu ti o n b y a dd i ng an ap p ro p ri a t e am o un t o f an o th e r s u bs ta n c e (d r u g o r i ne r t e l ec t r ol y t e o r no ne l ec t ro l y t e ) . C o ns id e ri n g t ha t i s ot o ni c f lu i ds c on t ai n the e qu i v al e n t o f 0 .9 % N aC l , t he qu es t io n a r is es , H o w m u c h o f t h e a dd ed in g r ed i en t i s r e qu i re d to m ak e th e s ol u ti on is o to nic ? A c o mm o n m e th o d f o r c o m pu t in g t h e am o un t o f a d d ed i n g re di e n t t o us e f o r r e a ch in g i s o t on ic i t y in v o lv e s t he us e o f s o di u m ch l o r i de e qu i va l en t s . a . D e f in i t io n . Th e s o d ium c h lo r i de eq ui va l en t rep r e s e n ts th e a m o u n t of N a C l t ha t i s e qu i v a le n t to t he am ou n t o f p a r ti cu lar d r ug in qu es t io n . F o r
e ve r y s ub s ta nc e , t he r e is on e q u an t it y t h at s h ou ld h a ve a c o ns ta n t t on ic e f f ec t wh e n d is s o l v ed in 1 0 0 0 g o f wa t e r . Th i s is 1 g m ol wt o f th e s u bs ta n c e di v i de d b y i ts d i s s oc ia t io n val u e ( i ). b . E xa m p le s ( 1 ) C o ns id e ri n g H 3 B O 3 , fr o m t h e l as t s ec ti o n, 17 .3 g o f H 3 B O 3 is eq u i val en t t o 0 .5 2 g of N a Cl in t on ic i t y . Th e re f or e , t h e r e la tive q u an t it y o f Na C l th a t is e q ui va l en t to H 3 B O 3 i n to n ic i t y e f f ec ts i s d e te r m in e d a s f ol l o ws :
A p p l yin g th is m e th o d t o a t r o pi ne s u l fa t e, r ec al l th a t th e m ol ec ul a r we i gh t o f N a C l an d th e m ol ec ul a r we i g h t of a tr o pi n e s u l fa te a r e 5 8. 5 a n d 6 95 g, r e s pe c t i v e l y , a nd t he i r i v a l u es a re 1. 8 a n d 2 .6 , re s pe c t i ve l y. Ca lc u la t e t he m as s o f Na C l re p r es en t ed b y 1 g of a tr o pi n e s u l fa t e ( Ta bl e 2 - 2 ).
Table 2-2. Sodium Chloride (NaCl) Equivalents Substance
NaCl Equivalent
Atropine sulfate (H2O)
0.12
Boric acid
0.52
Chlorobutanol
0.24
Dextrose (anhydrous)
0.18
Ephedrine hydrochloride
0.29
Phenacaine hydrochloride
0.20
Potassium chloride
0.78
P.21
( 2 ) A n e xa m p le o f t he p ra c ti c a l u s e o f s o d iu m ch lo r i de eq u i v al en t s is se en i n th e f o ll o wi n g p r ob l em .
H ow m a n y g r a m s o f b o ri c ac i d s h ou l d b e us e d i n c om p ou n d in g th e f o l l ow i ng p r es c r ip t i o n?
Rx
phenacaine hydrochloride
1%
chlorobutanol
0.5%
boric acid
qs
purified water, ad
60.0 mL
make isotonic solution Th e p r es c ri p ti on c a ll s f o r 0 . 3 g of c h lo r ob u t an ol an d 0. 6 g o f p he na c ai ne . H o w m u c h b o ri c ac i d is re q ui r e d t o p r ep a re t hi s pr e s c r ip t io n ? Th e qu e st ion i s b es t an s we r e d in f ou r s t ep s . ( a ) Fi n d t h e m a s s of s o diu m c hl o r id e r e p re se n te d b y a l l i ng r ed i en ts .
0.20 × 0.6
=
0.120 g
of sodium chloride represented by phenacaine hydrochloride
0.24 × 0.3
=
0.072 g
of sodium chloride represented by chlorobutanol
0.192 g
of sodium chloride represented by the two active ingredients
( b ) F in d t h e m a s s of s o di u m c h l o ri de r eq ui r e d t o p r e pa r e a n e q ua l v ol um e o f is o to ni c s ol u ti on .
( c ) C al c ul at e , b y s u b t ra c t i o n, th e am ou n t o f N a C l r e q ui r ed to m a k e th e s o lu t io n i s o t on ic .
0.540 g NaCl required for isotonicity 0.192 g NaCl represented by ingredients 0.348 g NaCl required to make isotonic solution
( d ) B ec a us e t he p re s c r ipt i o n c a l ls fo r b o r ic a c i d to b e us e d, on e l a s t s t ep i s r e q ui r e d.
VIII. STATISTICS A. I n t r o d u c t io n . S t a ti s t ic s c an be us ed t o d es c r ib e an d c om pa r e d a ta d i st r ib u ti o ns . Su c h f r eq ue n c y d i s t r i b u t i o ns a re c o ns t ru c te d b y cl as si f yi ng i n di vi d ua l o bs e r v a ti o ns in t o c a te go r i es c o r re sp o nd i ng t o f i xe d nu m e r ic i n t er va l s a nd pl o tt i ng th e n um b e r o f o bs e r vat i on s i n ea ch s u ch c a te g or y ( i . e ., i n te r va l f r eq u en c y) v e r s us th e c at e go r y d es c ri p to r ( e. g ., t he in t er v al m e an o r r an g e ). B ec au s e o f r a nd om e r ro rs , r ep ea t e d o bs e r vat i on s o r m e as u re m e n ts (o f th e s am e v al u e ) a re n ot id en t ic a l . Th es e o bs e r v a ti on s h a ve a n o r ma l di s t r ib u ti o n . No r m a l l y d is t r ib u te d d a ta a re de sc r ib e d b y a b e l l -s h a pe d ( Ga u ss i a n) c u r ve wi t h a m a xi m u m , µ ( p o p ul a t io n me a n) , c o r re s po nd i ng to t he c e nt r a l t e nd e nc y o f t he po pu l a ti on an d a s p r ea d c h a ra ct e ri z e d b y t h e p op u l a t io n s t a nd a r d d e via t i o n ( σ ) . S ta t is ti cs de r ive d f r o m a s a mp l e o r s u bs et o f a p op ul a ti o n c a n b e us e d as es t im at es o f t he p o p ul at i on pa r am e te r s . B . F r e q ue n c y d i s t r i b u t io n 1 . E s ti m a te s o f po p u la ti o n me a n. Th e p o pu l at i on m e a n, µ , i s t h e b es t e s ti m a t e o f t h e t r ue v a lue . a . T he sa m pl e m e an . For a fi n it e n um b e r o f o bs er v a t i o ns , t he a ri t hm e ti c a ve r a ge o r m ea n ( [ X w ith b a r a bo ve ] ) i s t he be s t e s ti m a t e o f t he t r ue v a lu e , µ.
wh e r e Σ x i i s th e s um o f a l l ( n ) o bs e r v a ti o ns .
P.22
( 1 ) Ac c u r a c y i s t h e d eg re e to wh i c h a m ea s u r e d v a l u e (X o r [ X w it h b a r a b ov e ] ) a g re es wi t h th e “t r u e ” v al ue ( µ ) . ( 2 ) E r r o r (o r bi as ) is th e d i ff e r en ce be t we e n a m e a su r ed v a lu e ( X o r [X wi t h b a r ab ov e ] ) a nd th e “t r ue” v a l u e ( µ ) . b . M e d ia n . Th e m e d ia n is t he m i dm os t v al ue o f a d a ta di s tr i bu t io n . W hen a l l t h e val u es a r e a r r an g ed i n in c r e as in g (o r de c re asi n g ) o r de r , t h e m e d ia n i s t h e m id d le v a lu e f o r a n od d nu m be r o f ob se r va t ion s . F o r a n e ve n nu m b e r o f o b se r va t io ns , th e m ed ian is t he ar i th m e t ic m e an o f t he t wo m i dd l e va l ue s . F o r a n o r ma l d i s t r ib u t ion , t h e m ed i an eq u a ls t he m ea n . Th e m e di a n i s l e ss a f f ec te d b y “ o ut l ie r s ” o r b y a s k e we d d is t r ib ut i o n. c . M o de . Th e m od e i s t he m o s t f r eq u en tl y o cc u r rin g v a lu e (o r v al u es ) i n a f r e q ue nc y d is t ri b ut io n . Th e m o de is u s ef ul f o r n on - n o rm al di s t r i bu t io ns , e s pe ci a ll y t ho s e th a t a r e b i m od a l. 2 . E s ti m a te s o f va r i ab i li t y. F o r a n in f i ni t e n um be r o f o bs e r vat i on s , t he 2
p o p u la t i on va r i a nc e ( σ ) c an be us ed t o d es c r i be t he v a r ia b il it y o r “ s p re a d ” o f o bs e r v a ti on s i n a da t a d is t ri b ut i on . Fo r a fi n i te nu m b e r o f 2
o b se r v a t io ns , th e s am p le va r i a n ce (s ) c an be us e d t o d es c ri be t he va r i a bi l it y o r s p re a d o f ob s e r v at i on s i n a d a ta di s t r i bu t io n . 2
a . S am p le va r i a nc e (s ) i s e s ti m a t ed b y
wh e r e [ X w i th ba r a b ov e ] i s t h e m e a n a nd ( n - 1) is t he nu m b e r o f d e gr e es o f f re e do m ( d f ). b . R a ng e . F o r a v e r y s m a l l n um be r o f o bs er va t ion s , t h e r a n ge ( w ) c an be u s ed to de s c r ib e th e v a ria b il i t y in th e d a ta se t : w = | Xlar gest - Xsmal l est| c . Th e s t a nd a r d d e vi a t io n ( s o r S D) , on e o f th e m os t c om m o n l y e n co u nt e re d es ti m a t es of v a r i ab il i t y, i s e qu a l t o th e s q ua r e ro o t o f t he va r i a nc e .
or
d . P r e ci s io n ( re p r od uc ibi l it y ) i s t he de g r ee to wh ic h re p li ca t e m e as u re m e n ts “m ad e i n e xa c t l y t h e sa m e wa y” a g r e e wi t h e ac h o th e r . P r e c i si o n i s o f te n e xp r e s s e d a s t h e r e l at i ve s tan d a r d d e vi a t io n ( R S D or %RSD):
3 . Th e st a n da r d d e vi a t io n o f th e m ea n (s m ) , o r s t an d a rd e rr o r o f th e m ea n ( S E M) , i s a n es t im a te of t h e va r i ab i l it y o r e r r o r in t h e m ea n o b t ai ne d fr om n o bs e r v at i on s . I t is o ft en us e d t o e s t a bl is h c on f id e nc e i n te r va ls fo r d e sc r ib in g th e m ea n o f a d a ta s e t o r wh e n c om par i n g t h e m e a ns o f t wo dat a s e ts .
P.23
STUDY QUESTIONS D i r e c t i on s fo r q ue s t io ns 1 - 30 : E a c h qu e st io n , st a t em en t , o r in co m p le t e s t a te m e n t i n t hi s s ec ti o n c an be co r r ec tl y a ns we r e d o r c o m p l et e d b y o ne o f t h e s ug g es t ed an s we r s or p h ra s e s . C h oo s e t he be s t an s we r . 1 . I f a vi t am i n s o l ut i o n c o n t ai n s 0 . 5 m g o f f l u or i d e io n in ea c h m i ll i l i te r , t h e n h ow ma n y m i l l i g r am s o f f l uo r i d e i o n w o u ld b e p r o vi d e d b y a d r o p p e r t h a t d e li ve r s 0.6 m L ? (A) 0.3 mg (B) 0.1 mg (C) 1 mg ( D ) 0 . 83 m g V i e w A n s we r 1 . T h e a n sw e r i s A [ se e] . 2 . How ma n y c h l o r am p he n ic o l c a ps ul e s , e ac h co n t ai n i ng 250 m g , a re ne e de d t o p r o vi d e 25 m g pe r kg pe r d a y f o r 7 d a ys f o r a p e r s o n w e i gh i n g 2 00 l b? ( A ) 9 0 c ap s u le s ( B ) 6 4 c ap s u le s ( C ) 1 3 c ap s u l es ( D ) 2 5 c ap s u l es
V i e w A n s we r 2 . T h e a n sw e r i s B [ se e] . 3 . I f 3. 1 7 k g o f a d ru g is u s e d t o m a ke 50 , 00 0 tab l e t s, h ow m a n y m i l l i g ra m s w il l 30 ta b l et s c o n t ai n ? (A) 1.9 mg ( B ) 1 90 0 m g ( C ) 0 . 00 1 9 m g (D) 3.2 mg V i e w A n s we r 3 . T h e a n sw e r i s B [ se e] . 4 . A c ap su l e co n t ai n s 1 /8 g r o f e ph e d r in e s u l fa t e , ¼ g r o f t h eo p h yl l i n e , a n d g r o f p h en o ba r b i ta l . W h a t i s th e t ot a l m as s o f t h e a c ti ve i n g re d ie n ts i n m i l li g r am s ? (A) 20 mg (B) 8 mg (C) 28 mg (D) 4 mg V i e w A n s we r 4 . T h e a n sw e r i s C [ se e] . 5 . I f 1 f l uid o u nc e o f a c o ug h s yr u p c o n t a i ns 10 g r o f s o d iu m c i t r a te , h ow ma n y m i l l i g r am s a r e c o n t ai n ed i n 1 0 m L? ( A ) 6 50 m g (B) 65 mg (C) 217 mg (D) 20 mg V i e w A n s we r 5 . T h e a n sw e r i s C [ se e] . 6 . How ma n y c a p s u l es , e a ch c o n t ai n i ng ¼ g r o f ph en o b a r bi t a l, ca n be ma nu f a c t u re d if a b o t t le c o n t ai n i ng 2 a vo i r d u poi s o un c es o f p he n o ba r bi t a l is a va il a bl e ? ( A ) 7 71 c a ps ul e s ( B ) 3 50 c a ps ul e s ( C ) 3 5 00 c a ps ul es ( D ) 1 2 50 c a ps ul es V i e w A n s we r 6 . T h e a n sw e r i s C [ se e] . 7 . Us i n g th e f o rm u l a f o r c a l am i ne l o ti o n, d e te r mi n e t he am o un t o f c al am i n e ( i n g r a ms ) n e c es s a r y t o p r e p a r e 24 0 m L of l o ti o n .
Calamine
80 g
Zinc oxide
80 g
Glycerin
20 mL
Bentonite magma
250 mL
Calcium hydroxide topical solution
sufficient quantity to make 1000 mL
( A ) 1 9 .2 g ( B ) 1 40 g (C) 100 g (D) 24 g V i e w A n s we r 7 . T h e a n sw e r i s A [ se e] . 8 . F r o m th e f o ll ow i ng f o r m u la , ca l cu l a te t he a m o un t o f w h i t e w ax r eq u i r e d t o m a ke 1 l b o f c o l d c r e am . De t e r mi n e t h e ma s s i n g r a ms .
Cetyl esters wax
12.5 parts
White wax
12.0 parts
Mineral oil
56.0 parts
Sodium borate
0.5 parts
Purified water
19.0 parts
( A ) 5 6 .7 5 g ( B ) 2 54 . 24 g ( C ) 5 4 .4 8 g ( D ) 8 6 .2 6 g V i e w A n s we r 8 . T h e a n sw e r i s C [ se e] . 9 . How ma n y g r a m s o f a s pi r i n s h o u ld be u se d to p r epa r e 1 .2 55 k g o f th e p ow d e r ?
ASA
6 parts
Phenacetin
3 parts
Caffeine
1 part
( A ) 1 25 g ( B ) 7 50 g (C) 175 g (D) 360 g V i e w A n s we r 9 . T h e a n sw e r i s B [ se e] . P . 24
1 0 . A s o lu t i o n c on t a in s 1 . 25 m g o f a d r u g pe r m i l l il i t e r . At w h a t r a t e s h o u ld t he s o l u t io n b e in f u se d (d ro p s /m i n ) i f t he d r ug is t o b e a dm i n is t e r ed a t a r a t e of 80 m g / h r? ( 1 m L = 3 0 d r o ps ) ( A ) 6 4 d r op s / m i n ( B ) 1 . 06 dr o ps /m in ( C ) 3 2 d r op s /m in ( D ) 2 0 d r op s /m in V i e w A n s we r 1 0 . T he a nsw e r i s C [ se e] . 1 1. T he re c o mm e nd e d m ai n t en an c e d o s e o f am i no p h yl l i n e f o r c h il d r e n i s 1 . 0 m g / k g/ h r b y i n j e c t i o n . I f 10 m L o f a 25 m g /m L s o lu t i o n o f a m ino p h yl l i n e i s a dd e d t o a 1 0 0 -m L b o t t le f o r d ex t ro s e , w ha t s h o u ld be t he r a te o f de l i ve r y i n m L / h r f o r a 40 - l b c h i ld ? ( A ) 2 . 30 m L /h r ( B ) 8 . 00 m L /h r ( C ) 1 8 .9 m L /h r ( D ) 1 8 .2 m L /h r V i e w A n s we r 1 1 . T he a nsw e r i s B [ se e] . 1 2. F o r ch i l d r en , st r e p t om yc i n i s t o b e ad m i ni s te r e d a t a d os e o f 3 0 m g / k g o f b o d y w e ig h t d a i l y i n d i vi d e d d o s es e ve r y 6 - 1 2 h r . Th e d r y p ow d e r is d is s ol ve d b y a d d in g w a te r f o r i n je c ti o n , U S P i n a n a mo u n t t o yi e l d t h e de s i r ed co n ce n t r a tio n as i nd i ca t e d i n th e fo l l ow i ng t a b l e ( f o r a 1 -g vi a l ) .
Approximate Concentration (mg/mL)
Volume (mL)
200
4.2
250
3.2
400
1.8
R e c o ns t i t u ti n g a t t he low e st p os s ib l e c o nc e n t ra t i o n , w h a t vo lu m e ( i n m L ) w ou l d b e w i t hd r aw n t o o b ta i n o n e da y' s d o s e f o r a 5 0- l b c hi l d? (A) 3.4 mL ( B ) 2 2 .7 3 m L ( C ) 2 . 50 m L ( D ) 2 . 27 m L V i e w A n s we r 1 2 . T he a nsw e r i s A [ se e] . 1 3. T he a tr o p i n e s u lf a t e i s a va i l a b le on l y i n t h e for m o f 1 / 1 50 gr t ab l e ts . H ow m a n y a t r o p i n e s ul fa t e ta b l et s w o ul d yo u u s e t o co m po u n d th e fo l l ow in g p res c r i p t io n ?
Atropine sulfate
1/200 gr
Codeine phosphate
1/4 gr
Aspirin
5 gr
d.t.d.
#24 capsules
Sig:
1 capsule p.r.n.
( A ) 3 ta bl e ts ( B ) 6 ta bl e ts ( C ) 1 2 t a bl e ts ( D ) 1 8 t a bl e ts V i e w A n s we r 1 3 . T he a nsw e r i s D [ se e] . 1 4. I n 2 5.0 m L o f a so l u ti o n fo r i n j e ct i o n, t he r e a re 4. 00 m g o f t h e d r u g . I f th e d o s e t o be ad m in i s te r ed t o a p a t i en t is 20 0 µ g, w h a t q u a n ti t y ( i n m L ) o f t hi s s o l u t io n s h o ul d be us ed ? ( A ) 1 . 25 m L
( B ) 1 25 m L ( C ) 1 2 .0 m L ( D ) N o n e o f t h e a bo v e V i e w A n s we r 1 4 . T he a nsw e r i s A [ se e] . 1 5. H ow m a n y m i l l i g r a m s o f p a p a ve r i ne w i l l t h e p a tie n t r ec e i ve e a ch d a y?
Rx
papaverine
1.0 g
hydrochloride aqua
30.0 mL
syrup tolu, qs ad
90.0 mL
Sig:
1 teaspoon t.i.d.
(A) 56 mg (B) 5.6 mg (C) 166 mg (D) 2.5 mg V i e w A n s we r 1 5 . T he a nsw e r i s C [ se e] . 1 6. C o ns id e r i n g t h e f o l low i n g f o r m u la , how m an y g r a m s o f s od i u m b r o mi d e s h o u ld be u se d i n f il l i ng t h i s p r e s c r ip t i on ?
Rx
sodium bromide
1.2 g
syrup tolu
2.0 mL
syrup wild cherry, qs ad
5.0 mL
d.t.d.
#24
(A) 1.2 g ( B ) 1 20 0 g ( C ) 2 8 .8 g (D) 220 g
V i e w A n s we r 1 6 . T he a nsw e r i s C [ se e] . 1 7. H ow m a n y m i l l i l i t e r s o f a 7 .5% s t o c k s ol u t i on o f K M n O 4 s h ou l d b e u s ed t o o b ta i n t he KM n O ne e de d ? KMnO4, qs D i s t i l le d w a te r , a d 1 0 00 S i g : 2 t e as p oo n s d i l ut ed t o 50 0 m L yi e l d a 1 :50 0 0 s o l ut i o n ( A ) 2 67 m L ( B ) 1 33 m L ( C ) 2 6 .7 m L ( D ) 1 3 .3 m L V i e w A n s we r 1 7 . T he a nsw e r i s B [ se e] . 1 8. T he fo r m u l a f o r R in g e r 's s o l u t io n fo l l ow s. H ow m u c h s o di u m c h lo r i de is n ee d ed t o m ak e 12 0 m L ?
Rx
sodium chloride
8.60 g
potassium chloride
0.30 g
calcium chloride
0.33 g
water for injection, qs ad
1000 mL
( A ) 1 20 g ( B ) 1 . 03 g ( C ) 0 . 12 g (D) 103 g V i e w A n s we r 1 8 . T he a nsw e r i s B [ se e] . P . 25
1 9 . H ow m a n y g r a m s o f t a l c s h ou l d b e a d de d to 1 lb o f a pow d e r c o n ta i n i ng 20 g o f z i nc u nd e c yl e n a t e p e r 10 0 g t o re d uc e t he c o nc e n t ra t i o n o f z i nc u n d ec yl e n a t e t o 3 %? ( A ) 3 02 6 .7 g ( B ) 2 57 2 .7 g (C) 17 g (D) 257 g V i e w A n s we r 1 9 . T he a nsw e r i s B [ se e] . 2 0. H ow m a n y m i l l i l i t e r s o f a 0 .9% a q u eo u s s o lu t i o n c an be m ad e f ro m 2 0 .0 g o f so d i u m c hl o r i de ? ( A ) 2 22 2 m L ( B ) 1 00 m L (C) 222 mL (D) 122 mL
V i e w A n s we r 2 0 . T he a nsw e r i s A [ se e] . 2 1. T he b lo o d o f a re c kl e ss d r i ver c o n t ai n s 0 . 1 % a l c o h o l . E x p r e ss t he co n ce n t r a ti o n o f a lc o h ol i n p a r ts p e r m i l l io n . ( A ) 1 00 pp m ( B ) 1 00 0 p pm ( C ) 1 pp m ( D ) 2 5 0 p pm V i e w A n s we r 2 1 . T he a nsw e r i s B [ se e] . 2 2. S yr u p i s an 85 % w / v so l u t io n o f s u c r os e in w a t e r. I t h a s a d en s i t y o f 1 . 3 1 3 g /m L . H ow ma n y m i l l i l i t e r s o f w a t e r s h o u ld be u se d to ma ke 1 25 m L of s yr u p ? ( A ) 1 06 . 25 m L ( B ) 1 64 . 1 m L ( C ) 5 7 .9 m L ( D ) 2 5 .0 m L V i e w A n s we r 2 2 . T he a nsw e r i s C [ se e] . 2 3. H ow m a n y g r a m s o f b e n ze t h on i um ch l o r i de s h o u ld be u se d i n p re pa r i n g 5 ga l . o f a 0 .0 2 5 % w / v s o l u t io n ? ( A ) 1 89 . 25 g ( B ) 1 8 .9 g ( C ) 4 . 73 g (D) 35 g V i e w A n s we r 2 3 . T he a nsw e r i s C [ se e] . 2 4. H ow m a n y g r a m s o f me n t h ol s h o u ld be u se d to p r epa r e t h is p re s c ri p t i on ?
Rx
menthol
0.8%
alcohol, qs ad
60.0 mL
( A ) 0 . 48 g (B) 0.8 g (C) 4.8 g ( D ) 1 . 48 g V i e w A n s we r 2 4 . T he a nsw e r i s A [ se e] . 2 5. H ow m a n y m i l l i l i t e r s o f a 1 :1 5 0 0 s o l u t io n c a n b e m a de by d i s s o l vi n g 4 .8 g o f c et yl p yr i d i n i u m c h lo r i d e in w a t e r ? ( A ) 7 20 0 m L (B) 7.2 mL
(C) 48 mL (D) 4.8 mL V i e w A n s we r 2 5 . T he a nsw e r i s A [ se e] . 2 6. T he ma n u f ac t u r e r s pe c i f ie s th a t o n e D om e bo r o t ab l e t d is s o l ve d i n 1 p in t o f w a te r m ak e s a m o d if i e d B ur ow 's s o l u t io n a p p r ox i ma t e l y e q u i va le n t to a 1 :4 0 di lu t i o n . H ow ma n y t a b l e ts s ho u l d b e us e d i n p re p a r in g ½ g a l o f a 1 :1 0 di l u t io n ? ( A ) 1 6 t a bl et s ( B ) 1 89 t ab le t s ( C ) 1 2 t a bl e ts ( D ) 4 5 t a bl e ts V i e w A n s we r 2 6 . T he a nsw e r i s A [ se e] . 2 7. H ow m a n y m i l l i o s m ol e s o f c a l ci u m c h lo r i d e ( C a C l 2 · 2 H 2 O - m o l w t = 14 7 ) ar e r e p r es e n te d i n 14 7 m L o f a 1 0 % w / v ca l ci u m c h lo r id e so l u t io n ? ( A ) 1 00 m Os m o l ( B ) 2 00 m Os m o l ( C ) 3 0 0 m Os m o l (D) 3 mOsmol V i e w A n s we r 2 7 . T he a nsw e r i s C [ se e] . 2 8. H ow m a n y g r a m s o f b o r ic aci d s h o u ld be u se d i n co mp o u n di n g th e fo l l ow in g p r e sc r i p t io n ? P h e n ac a in e H C l 1 . 0 % ( N a C l e q = 0. 1 7) C h l o r o b u ta n ol 0 .5 % ( N a C l e q = 0 .1 8 ) B o r i c ac i d , q s ( N a C l e q = 0 .5 2 ) P u r i f i e d H 2 O , ad 30 m L M a ke is o t o ni c s o l ut i o n S i g : 1 d r o p i n e a ch e ye ( A ) 0 . 37 g ( B ) 0 . 74 g ( C ) 0 . 27 g ( D ) 0 . 47 g V i e w A n s we r 2 8 . T he a nsw e r i s A [ se e] . 2 9. A p h ar m a c is t p re p a r es 1 g al o f K C l s o l ut i o n b y m i x i n g 5 6 5 g o f K C l ( va l en c e = 1 ) i n a n a p p ro p r i at e veh i c l e. +
H ow m a n y m i l l i e q u i va len t s o f K a r e i n 1 5 m L of t h i s s o lu t i on ? (a t o mi c w ei g h ts : K = 30 ; C l = 35 . 5 ) ( A ) 7 . 5 m Eq ( B ) 1 0 m Eq (C) 20 mEq (D) 30 mEq ( E ) 4 0 m Eq V i e w A n s we r 2 9 . T he a nsw e r i s D [ se e] . P . 26
3 0 . A va n c o m yc i n s o l u ti o n co n t ai n i ng 10 0 0 m g o f va n c om yc i n h yd r o c h l o r i de d i l u t ed t o 2 50 m L w i th D 5W i s t o b e in f u se d a t a c on s ta n t r at e w i th an i n f us i on p u m p i n 2 h r. W ha t is th e r a te o f d r u g a d mi n ist r a t i o n? ( A ) 2 . 08 m g /m in
( B ) 8 . 33 m g /m in ( C ) 4 . 17 m g /m in ( D ) 1 6 .7 m g /m in ( E ) 5 . 21 m g /m in V i e w A n s we r 3 0 . T he a nsw e r i s B [ se e] . F o r q u es ti o n s 3 1 -3 4 : F i v e i b up r o fe n t a b le ts we r e as s a y e d f o r d r u g c o n te n t , a nd th e f ol l o wi n g r es u lt s we r e o b tai n ed b y h i gh - p r es s u r e li q ui d c h rom a to g r ap h y ( H P L C ) a na lys i s : 1 98 . 2 m g , 19 9 .7 m g , 20 2 .5 m g , 2 01 . 3 m g, 19 6 .4 m g . 3 1 . W h a t i s th e m e an i bu p r o f e n c on t e n t? ( A ) 1 96 . 9 m g ( B ) 2 00 . 2 m g ( C ) 1 9 9. 6 m g ( D ) 2 4 9. 5 m g ( E ) 2 02 . 5 m g V i e w A n s we r 3 1 . T he a nsw e r i s C [ se e] . 3 2. W ha t i s t he s ta n da r d de vi a t io n o f i b up r o f en c on t e nt i n t h e a n a l yz e d t a b le t s ? ( A ) 2 . 17 m g ( B ) 3 . 35 m g ( C ) 2 . 42 m g ( D ) 3 . 00 m g ( E ) - 2 .1 7 m g V i e w A n s we r 3 2 . T he a nsw e r i s C [ se e] . 3 3. W ha t i s t he p e rc e n t r e la t i ve s t a n da r d de vi a t i on ( %R S D ) f o r t h is ib u p r o fe n ta b l e t a na l ys i s ? ( A ) 1 . 69 % ( B ) 1 . 21 % ( C ) 8 . 25 % ( D ) 3 . 35 % ( E ) 1 . 50 % V i e w A n s we r 3 3 . T he a nsw e r i s B [ se e V I I I. B . 4] .34 . W ha t is t he s ta n da r d d e vi a t i o n o f th e m e an dr u g c on t e n t o f th i s s amp l e ? ( A ) 0 . 48 0 m g ( B ) 0 . 60 5 m g ( C ) 1 . 21 m g ( D ) 1 . 08 m g ( E ) 0 . 82 5 m g V i e w A n s we r 3 4 . T he a nsw e r i s D [ se e V I I I. C] . P . 27
ANSWERS AND EXPLANATIONS 1 . T he an sw e r is A [ s ee I . A . 2] . 2 . T he an sw e r is B [ s ee I I ] . 3 . T he an sw e r is B [ s ee I I ] . 4 . T he an sw e r is C [ s ee I I ] . 5 . T he an sw e r is C [ s ee I . A . 2] .
6 . T he an sw e r is C [ s ee I I ] . 7 . T he an sw e r is A [ s ee I I I ] . 8 . T he an sw e r is C [ s ee I I ; II I . A ]. Th e f o rm u la te l ls th e p har m ac is t th a t wh i t e wa x ( W .W .) r e p re s e n ts 12 pa rt s ou t o f t h e to t al 10 0 p a rt s i n t h e p r es c ri p ti on . W ha t we w i s h t o d e te rm i ne is th e m a s s o f wh i t e wa x r e q u i re d t o p re p a re 45 4 g ( 1 l b ) o f t h e r e c i p e. Th is ca n b e e as il y s ol v e d b y p r o po r ti o n:
9 . T he an sw e r is B [ s ee I I I . A] . 1 0 . Th e a n sw e r i s C [ s ee I V . E ]. 1 1 . Th e a n sw e r i s B [ s ee I I ; I V ] . 1 2 . Th e a n sw e r i s A [ s ee I V ] . 1 3 . Th e a n sw e r i s D [ s ee I I ; I I I. B ] . 1 4 . Th e a n sw e r i s A [ s ee I . A .2 ; I I ] . D i m en si o na l a na l y s i s i s o f t en us e fu l f o r c al c u l at in g do s e s . C o ns id e ri n g t ha t 4 m g o f t h e d r u g is p re s e n t i n e ac h 2 5 m L o f s ol u ti o n, we c an ea si l y c a lc ul a te t he n u m b e r o f m i ll il i te r s t o b e u s e d t o gi v e a d os e o f 0. 2 00 m g (2 0 0 µg ) . Al wa y s i nc l ud e u n i ts i n yo u r ca lc u la t io ns .
1 5 . Th e a n sw e r i s C [ s ee I I I. B ] . 1 6 . Th e a n sw e r i s C [ s ee I I I. B ] . 1 7 . Th e a n sw e r i s B [ s ee V . A ; V I ] . F i r st , de t er m i n e t he m a s s o f d ru g i n th e f i na l d il ut e d s ol u ti o n.
N o w, i f 0 .1 g o f d r ug is pr e s en t i n 5 0 0 m L o f 1 :5 00 0 s o lu t io n , 2 te as po o n fu l s ( 1 0 m L ) o f th e p r es c r i pt i on c o n t ai ns th e s am e a m o u nt o f d r ug ( 0. 1 g) be f o re di l u ti on . F r o m t hi s , t he am ou n t o f d r u g i n 1 00 0 m L ( t he to ta l v o lu m e ) of th e p r es c rip t i on c a n b e de t e rm in ed :
F i n al l y , t o o b ta i n t he c o rr e c t am o un t of d ru g t o f or m u la t e t he p re s c r ip ti o n ( 1 0 g) , we a r e to us e a 7. 5 % s t oc k s o lu t io n . R e c a ll i ng th e de f i ni t io n o f p e rc e nt a ge s tr e n g th w/ v:
P.28
1 8 . Th e a n sw e r i s B [ s ee I I I. B ] . 1 9 . Th e a n sw e r i s B [ s ee V . C ; VI . C ] . 2 0 . Th e a n sw e r i s A [ s ee I . A .2 ; V. A ] . U s i ng di m e ns i on al an a l ys is
2 1 . Th e a n sw e r i s B [ s ee V . D . 1] . 2 2 . Th e a n sw e r i s C [ s ee I . A ; V . A .1 ] . U s i ng th e de ns i t y , t he we i gh t of 12 5 m L o f s yr u p c a n b e c al cu la t ed : 1 2 5 m L × 1. 3 13 g /m L = 16 4 . 12 5 g U s i ng p ro p or t io n a n d t he s uc r os e c on ce n t ra t io n in w/ v, t h e we i gh t of su c ro s e i n 1 25 m L o f s y r u p c an be c a lc u l a te d :
F i n al l y , t h e we i g h t o f wat e r in 12 5 m L o f s yr u p c an b e ca lc u la t ed : 1 6 4 .1 2 5 g - 1 06 . 25 g = 57 . 8 75 g wh i c h ha s a v o lu m e of 57 . 9 m L . 2 3 . Th e a n sw e r i s C [ s ee I ; I I ; V] . 2 4 . Th e a n sw e r i s A [ s ee I ; V] . 2 5 . Th e a n sw e r i s A [ s ee I ; V] . Th e p r o bl em i s e as i l y s olv e d b y p ro p o rt i on . Th e qu e st i on to be an s we r e d is , If 1 g of d r u g i s p re s en t i n 1 5 00 m L o f s o lu t io n , wh a t vo lum e c an be m a d e wi t h 4. 8 g o f d r u g?
2 6 . Th e a n sw e r i s A [ s ee I ; V] . 2 7 . Th e a n sw e r i s C [ s ee V I I . B] . R e c al l in g t h e e xp r e s s i on f o r i d ea l o sm ol a r c on c en t r a ti o n:
2 8 . Th e a n sw e r i s A [ s ee V I I . C] . 2 9 . Th e a n sw e r i s D [ s ee V I I . A] . 3 0 . Th e a n sw e r i s B [ s ee I V . E ]. U s i ng di m e ns i on al an a y ls is :
3 1 . Th e a n sw e r i s C [ s ee V I I I. B . 1] . Th e m ea n i s c al c u la t ed d i r ec tl y f r om th e eq ua t ion :
P.29
3 2 . Th e a n sw e r i s C [ s ee V I I I. B . 3] . Th e s t an da r d d e v i at i on c a n be c a lc ul a te d wi t h t he m o s t co m m on l y us e d eq u a ti on :
3 3 . Th e a n sw e r i s B [ s ee V I I I. B . 4] .
3 4 . Th e a n sw e r i s D [ s ee V I I I. C ] .
3 Pharmaceutical Principles and Drug Dosage Forms L aw re n ce H . B lo c k
I. INTRODUCTION. P h a r m a c e u ti c a l p r in c i pl es a re th e u n de r l y in g ph y s ic oc h em ic al p ri nc ip l es t h a t a ll o w a d ru g t o be i nc o r po r at e d i nt o a p ha rm a c eu t ic al d os a ge f o rm ( e . g ., so lu t io n , c ap s u l e) . Th e s e p r in ci p le s a pp l y wh e t h e r th e d r u g is e xt e m p o r an e ou s l y c o m po u n de d b y t he ph a rm ac is t or m a n uf ac t u re d f o r c om m e r c i a l d is t ri bu t io n a s a d r u g p r o du c t . A. Th e f i n is h ed do s ag e f o r m c o n ta in s t h e ac t i ve d r u g i ng r ed i en t i n a ss o ci at i on wi t h no nd r u g ( u s u a ll y i ne r t ) i ng r ed i ent s (e x ci p i en t s ) t h at m ak e u p th e ve h ic l e, o r f o r mul a t i o n m at r i x . B . Th e d r u g d e li ve r y s ys t e m c on c e p t, wh i c h h as e vo l ve d si n ce th e 1 9 60 s , i s a m o r e h ol is t ic c on c ept . I t e m b r ac es no t o n l y th e d ru g ( o r p r o dr u g ) a nd i t s f o rm ul a ti o n m a t r i x, b ut a ls o t h e d y n am ic i n te r ac t io ns am on g th e d r ug , its f o r m u l at io n m a t ri x, i t s c on t a in e r , a nd th e p h y si o log i c m i l ie u x o f th e pa ti e n t. Th e s e d y n a m i c in t e ra c tio n s a r e t he s u bj ec t of b io p h a r ma ce u t ic s (s ee C h a p te r 4 ).
II. INTERMOLECULAR FORCES OF ATTRACTION A. I n t r o d u c t io n . Th e a pp l ic a ti on o f p ha r m a c e u tic a l p ri n c i pl es t o d ru g d o sa g e f o rm s is il lu s t r a te d wh e n d r u g d os ag e f o rm s a r e c a te g o r iz ed a cc o r di ng t o t he i r p h ys i c a l s t a te , de g r ee o f h e te r o g e ne i t y, a n d c h em i ca l c o m po s i ti o n . Th e us u al r e l e v an t s t at e s o f m a t t e r a r e g a se s , l i qu i d s, an d s o l i ds . In t er m o l ec ul a r f or c es o f a tt r ac t io n a r e wea k es t i n g as es an d s t r on g es t i n s ol id s . C o n ve r s io ns f ro m o ne ph y s ic a l s t a te to an o th e r c an i n vo l ve s im pl y o v e rc om in g in t e rm ol ec ul a r f o rc es o f a tt r ac t io n b y a dd i ng e n e rg y ( h ea t ) . Ch em ic a l c om p os it i on c a n h a ve a d r a m a t ic e f fe c t o n p h ys ic oc he m i c a l p r o pe r tie s a n d b eh a vi o r. Fo r th is r e as o n, it is ne ce s s a r y to d i st i ng ui s h b et we e n po lym e r s , o r m ac r o mo l ec ul e s , a nd m o r e c on ve n ti on a l ( i . e ., sm al le r ) m o le c u le s , o r mi c r om o l ec u le s . B . I n t e rm o le c u la r f o rc es o f a t t r a ct i o n. B ec au s e a t om s v a r y i n t he i r e l ec t r on eg a ti v i t y , el ec t r on s h a r in g b e t we e n d if f e re n t a t om s is li ke l y to be u n e qu al . Th is as y m m e t ric el ec t r on di s t r i bu t io n c au s es a s h i ft in t he o v er a ll e l ec t r on c l ou d i n t h e m o le c ul e . A s a re s u l t , t he m o l ec ul e te n ds t o b e ha ve a s a d i po l e ( i .e . , a s i f i t h ad a p os i ti v e an d a ne g a tive p o le ) . Th e d ip ol e a ss o ci at e d wi t h e ac h c ov a l e n t b on d h as a c or r es p o n d i ng d ip o le m om e nt ( µ ) d e fi n ed as t h e p r od uc t of th e d is t a nc e o f c ha rg e s e pa r a ti on ( d ) a nd the c h a rg e ( q ) : µ = q × d Th e m ol ec u la r di po l e m om e nt m a y b e vi e we d as th e vec t o r s um o f th e i n di vi d ua l b o nd m om e nt s .
1 . N o np o l a r m o l ec ul es th a t h a v e pe r f ec t s ym m e t r y ( e . g . , c a rb on t e t r ac hl o ri d e ) h a v e d ip ole m o m e n ts of z e r o ( F ig ur e 3 -1 ) . 2 . P o la r m o le c u l es a r e as ym m e t r i c a nd ha v e non z e r o di po l e m o m e n ts . 3 . W he n d i po l a r m ol ec u le s a p p ro ac h o n e a no t he r c lo s e en o ug h — “p os i ti v e t o po si t i v e ” o r “n e ga ti v e t o ne g at i v e ” —s o t h at t hei r el ec t r on c l ou ds i n t er p en e t ra t e, i n te r m ole c u la r r e pu l s i ve fo r c es a r is e . W hen th es e d ip o la r m o le cu l es a p pr o ac h o ne a n o th e r s o t ha t th e p os i ti v e P.31 p o le o f o ne is c lo s e t o t he n eg a ti v e po l e o f t he o th e r , m ol ec u la r a t t r a c ti on o cc u rs ( d ip o le d i po l e i n te r a c t io n ) . W hen th e i d en t ic a ll y ch a r ge d p ol es o f t h e t wo m o le c u l es a r e c lo s e r, r e pu l si o n o c c u rs .
Figure 3-1. The carbon tetrachloride molecule.
C . T yp e s o f i nt e r m ol e cu l a r f o rc e s o f a t t r a ct i on i nc lu d e t he f ol lo wi n g : 1 . N on p ol a r m ol ec ul e s do n ot ha v e pe r m a n en t d ip o le s . H o we v e r , t he i n st a nt a ne o us e l ec t ro n di s t ri bu t io n i n a m o le c u l e c a n b e a s ym m e t r ic . Th e r e s ul t an t t r a ns ie n t d ip ol e m om en t c a n i nd uc e a dip o le in an ad j ac en t m o le cu l e. Th is i nd u ce d d i p o le - i nd u ce d di p o le in t e r a c ti o n ( L o nd o n d i s pe r s i on f o r ce ) , wi t h a f o rc e o f 0 . 5 -1 k ca l /m ol, i s s u f fi ci e nt t o f ac il i ta t e o r d e r i n a m ol ec u la r ar r ay . Th e s e re la t i v el y we a k e l ec t r os ta t ic fo r c e s a r e r e s po ns ib l e f o r t he li q ue fa c ti o n o f n on p ol a r g as es . 2 . Th e t ra ns ie n t d ip o le in d uc e d b y a p e rm an e nt d i po l e , o r d i po l e -i n d uc ed d i p o le i nt e r ac t i o n ( D e bye i n d u c t i o n f o r ce ) , i s a s tr o ng e r i n te r ac t io n , wi t h a f o rc e o f 1 - 3 k c a l/ m o l . 3 . P e rm a ne n t di p o le in te r a c t io n s ( K e es o m o r i en t a t i on f o rc e s ), wi t h a f o r ce of 1 -7 k c al /m o l, tog e t he r wi t h De b y e an d Lo n d on fo r ce s , c o ns t it u te va n d e r Wa a ls f o rc e s. C o l l ec ti v e l y , th e y a re re s p o ns i bl e f o r t h e m o r e s u bs ta n ti v e s t r uc t u re and m o l ec ul a r o r de r in g fo un d in li qu i ds . 4 . H yd r o g e n b on d s . B ec a us e t h e y a r e sm a ll and h a ve a l a r ge el ec t r os tat i c f i e ld , h y d r o ge n a t om s c an a pp r oa ch hi g hl y e le c t ro n e ga ti ve a to m s (e . g ., f l u or i ne , o xy g e n , n i t ro gen , c h lo r i ne , s ul f u r) an d i n t e r ac t e le c t r os t a ti c a ll y to f o r m a h y d r o ge n b o nd . De p e nd in g o n th e e le c tr o ne g a ti v i t y o f t he se c o nd
a t om an d th e m ol ec ul a r e n v i r on m e n t i n wh ic h h y d r o ge n b o nd i ng oc c u rs , h yd r o ge n b o nd en e r g y va r i es f ro m a pp r o xi m a te l y 1 t o 8 k c a l/ m ol . 5 . I on - i on , io n - d ip o le , an d i on - i n du c ed d ip o le fo r c e s. P o si t i ve - ne g a t i ve i o n in t e r ac t i on s i n th e s o l id s t a te in vo l v e fo rc e s o f 10 0 - 20 0 kc a l/ m o l . I o nic i n t er a ct i on s a re r ed uc e d c o ns id e ra b l y i n l i qu id s ys t em s i n t he p re se nc e o f o t h e r e le c t r ol y t e s . I on - d ip o l e i n te r ac ti o n , o r d i p ol e i nd u c ti o n b y a n i o n , c a n a ls o a f fe c t m o le c u l ar a g gr e ga t io n , o r o r d er i ng , in a s y s te m .
III. STATES OF MATTER A. G a s e s . Mo l e c u le s i n th e ga s e o us s t at e c an be p ic t u re d a s m o v in g a lo ng s t r ai g ht pa t hs , i n a ll di r ec t io ns an d a t hi gh ve lo c it i es ( e. g . , m e a n ve l oc it y f o r H 2 O v a po r : 5 87 m / s ec ; fo r O 2 : 4 40 m / s e c ), unt i l t h e y c o ll id e wi t h o t he r m o le cu l es . A s a re s ul t o f t h es e r a nd om c o ll is i on s, m ol ec u la r ve lo ci t ie s a nd p a t hs c h an ge , an d t h e m o l ec ul e s c o n ti n ue to c o ll id e wi t h o t he r m o le c u l es a n d wi t h t he bo u nd a ri e s o f t he s y s t em (e . g. , th e wa l l s of a c on t ai ne r ho l di n g t h e g as ) . Th is p ro c e s s , re p e at e d i nc es s a nt l y , is re s po ns i bl e f o r t h e p r e s su r e e xh i bi t ed wi t h in t he c o n fi ne s o f th e s y s t e m . 1 . Th e i n te r r el a ti o n a m on g vo l um e ( V ), p r es s u re ( P ) , a n d t he ab s o lu t e t e m p e ra t u r e ( T ) i s g i v en b y t h e i de a l g a s l aw , wh i ch is th e e qu a ti o n o f s t a te fo r an id ea l g a s : PV = nRT P V = ( g/ M) R T wh e r e n is th e n um be r o f m ol es o f g as — eq ui v a l en t t o t he nu m b e r o f g r am s ( g ) o f g as d i v i de d b y t he m ol ec u la r we i gh t of t he g a s ( M) — a n d R is th e m o l a r g a s c on s t an t ( 0. 08 2 0 5 L a tm / m o le de g ) . 2 . P ha r m a c e u ti c a l g as es i nc l ud e t h e a ne s t he t i c g a s es ( e. g ., ni t r ou s o xi d e , h a lo t ha n e ). C o mp r e ss ed g as e s i nc lu d e o xy g e n ( f o r th e ra p y ) , ni t ro g en , an d c a r bo n d io xi d e . L iq u e fi ab l e ga s es , i nc lu d in g c e rta i n h a lo h yd r o c a r b o n s a n d h yd r o c a r b o n s , a re u s ed as pr o pe ll a nt s i n ae r o s o l p r o du c t s ( p r e s su r i z e d p a ck a g in g) , as a re co m p r es se d g as es , s uc h a s n i t ro us o xi de , n i t ro g en , an d c ar b on di oxi d e . E t h yl en e o xi d e is a g as us e d t o s te r il i z e o r d i si n fe ct he a t -l a bi le ob j ec t s . 3 . I n g en e ra l , as t he te m p e r a tu r e o f a s u bs ta n ce in c r ea se s , i ts h e a t c o n t en t , o r en t h al p y, i n c r e as es a s we ll . a . S ub s ta nc es c a n u nd e rg o a c h a ng e o f s t at e , o r p h as e c ha n ge , fr om t he s o li d t o t h e l iq u id s t at e (m e l t in g ) o r f ro m t h e li q ui d to th e ga se ou s s ta t e ( va p o r i z at i o n ). b . V o la t i le l iq u i ds (e . g ., e t he r , h a lo t ha n e, m e th ox y f l u r a n e) a re us ed as i n ha l at i on an es t he t ic s . Am y l ni t r it e i s a vo la ti l e l iq u id t ha t i s i nh a le d f o r i ts va s o di l at in g ef f ec t i n a c u t e a n gi n a. c . S ub l im a t io n oc c u rs wh e n a s o li d i s h ea t ed di re c tl y t o t h e g as eo us , o r va p o r , s t at e wi t ho u t p as s i ng th r o ug h t h e l iq ui d s ta t e (e . g. , c am p ho r , i o di n e ). Ic e s ub l im es a t p r e s s u re s b el o w P.32
3 t o r r. Th e p r oc es s o f f re e z e - d r yi n g , o r l yo p h i l i z a t io n , i s a fo r m o f v a c uu m d r y i n g i n wh ic h wa t e r is r e m o v ed b y s ub l im at i on f r o m t he f ro z e n pr o du c t. I t i s a n e sp e c i al l y us ef u l p ro c es s f o r d r y in g a q ue o us s o lu t io ns o r d is pe r s i o ns o f he a t - o r o xy g e n - s e ns iti v e d r ug s a nd bi ol o gi c a ls ( e . g. , pr o te i ns , p e pt id e s ) . d . Th e r e v er s e p ro c e s s (i . e ., di r ec t t ra ns i ti on f rom t he va po r s t at e to th e s o li d s ta t e ) is al s o r e fe r re d to as s u bl im a ti on , bu t t h e p r ef e r re d te r m is d e p os i t i on . So m e f or m s o f s u lf u r a nd c o ll o id al sil i c o n d io xi d e a r e p r ep a red i n th is wa y . 4 . Th e i n te r m o l ec ul a r f o rc es o f a t tr ac t io n i n g as es a re vi r tu a ll y n on e xi s t en t a t r oo m t em p er a tu r e . G as es di s p l a y l i t tl e o r n o o rd e r in g . B . L i q ui d s. Th e in t er m o le c ul a r f o rc es of a tt r ac t ion i n l iq ui ds ( va n de r W a a ls f o rc e s ) a r e s u f fi c i e n t t o im p os e s om e o r de r i ng , or r eg u la r a r r a ng em e nt , am on g t h e m ol ec u le s. H yd r o g e n bo n d i ng in c re as es t he l i ke li h oo d o f c oh e s i on in l i qu i ds a n d f u r th e r a f fe c ts t he i r p h y si co c h em ic al b e h a vio r . Ho we v e r , t he s e f o rc es ar e m uc h we ak er t h an co va l e n t o r i o n ic f o r ce s . Th e r e fo r e, li q ui ds t en d t o d is p la y sh o r t -ra n g e r a th e r t ha n l o ng - r an g e o r d e r. H y p o th e ti c a l l y , a lth o u gh m o le cu le s o f a li qu i d wo u ld te n d t o a g g re g at e i n l oc a li z e d c lu s te r s , n o d ef i ne d s t ru c tu r i ng wo u l d b e e v i de n t. 1 . S u r fa c e a n d i n te r f a cia l t en s i on a . Mo l e c u l es i n th e b ul k p h as e o f a li q ui d a r e s urr o u nd e d b y o th e r m o le cu l es o f th e s am e k in d ( Fi gu r e 3 - 2 A ) . Mo l e c ul e s a t t h e s u r f ac e o f a l i qu i d a r e n ot c o m p le t el y s u r ro un d ed b y li k e m o lec u le s ( F ig u re 3 -2 B ) . As a r e s ul t , m o l ec ul es at o r ne a r th e s u rf ac e o f a l iq uid e xp e r i en c e a n e t i n wa rd p u ll f ro m m ol ec ul e s i n t he i nt e ri o r o f th e l iq u id . Be c au s e o f t hi s n et in wa r d i n t er m ol ec ul a r a t t ra c t i on, t h e li q ui d s u rf ac e te nd s t o s p on t an eo u s l y c o nt r ac t . Th us l i qu id s t en d to as su m e a sp h e ri cal s h a pe ( i. e ., a v ol um e wi t h t h e m in im um s u r fa c e a rea ) . Th is c o n fi gu r a ti o n h as t he le as t f r e e e ne r g y . b . A n y e xp a ns i on of th e s u r fa c e in c re as es t he f ree e ne r g y of t he s y s t em . Th u s s u r fa ce f r ee e ne r gy c a n b e d e fi n ed b y th e wo r k r e q ui r ed to in c re as e t h e s u rf a c e ar e a A o f t he l i qu id b y 1 a r ea un it . Thi s v al u e is e xp r e s s ed as t h e n um b e r o f m i l li - N e wt o n s ( m N ) n ee d ed to e xp a n d a 1 -m 2 s u r f ac e b y 1 u n i t: wo r k = γ × ∆ A wh e r e ∆ A is th e i n c r e as e i n s u rf ac e a r e a a nd γ is t h e s u r f ac e te n si o n , o r -1
s u r f a ce f r ee en e r g y, i n m N m —e q ui va l en t t o ce n t im et e r -g r am - s e co n d -1
( C G S ) u n it s o f d y n es c m . A t 2 0° C . wa t e r h as a s u r fa ce t en si on o f 7 2 m N -1
-1
m , wh e r e as n- oc t an o l ha s a s u r f ac e t en si o n o f 27 m N m . Th us m o r e wo r k m us t be e xp e n de d t o e x p a n d t he s u r fa c e o f wa t er t h an to e xp a n d t h e s u r fa ce o f n -o c ta n ol (i . e., t o p r oc ee d f ro m a g i ven vo l um e o f b ul k l iq u id to t h e c o r re s p o nd in g v ol um e o f s m a ll dr o pl e ts ) . c . A t t he b ou n da r y, o r i n t e r f a ce , b e t we e n t wo im m i sc ib l e l iq ui ds t ha t a re i n c o nt ac t wi t h o n e a no t he r, t h e c o r r es po n di n g i n te rf a c i al t en s io n (i . e ., f re e e n e rg y, o r wo r k r e qu i re d t o e xp a nd t he in t e rf ac i al a r e a) r ef l ec ts th e e xt e n t o f t he i n t er m o l ec ul a r f o rc es o f a t tr ac t io n a n d r e pu l s i on a t t he in t e rf ac e .
W hen t he in t e rf ac e i s b et we e n t wo l i qu id s , su bs ta n t ia l m ol ec ul a r i n te r ac t io n o cc u rs ac r os s t he in t e rf ac e b e t we e n t h e t wo p ha s e s . Th is i n te r ac t io n P.33
r e d uc es th e i m b a la nc e in f o rc es of at t r ac ti o n wi t h i n e ac h p h as e. Th e i n t er f ac i al te ns i on be t we e n n -o c t a no l a nd wa t e r is r ed uc e d t o 8 . 5 m N m from 72 mN m
-1
-1
(γ ai r / wa t e r ) . Th is re d uc ti o n i nd ica t es , in pa r t , t he
i n t er f ac i al i n te r ac t io n b et we e n n - oc ta n ol an d wa te r .
Figure 3-2. A. Molecules in the bulk phase. B. Molecules at the surface of a liquid.
Figure 3-3. Liquid flow.
2 . Th e fl o w o f a li q ui d a c r o s s a s ol id s u r fa ce c a n b e e xa m in e d i n t e rm s o f t h e ve l oc i t y, o r r a t e of m o v em e nt , of t he li qu i d re l a ti v e to t he s u r fa c e a c r oss wh i c h i t f lo ws . M o r e i n s i gh t c a n b e g ai ned b y vi s u al i zi ng th e fl o w o f l i qu i d as in v o l v i ng th e m o v e m en t o f nu m e r ou s p ar a l l e l l a ye rs of li q ui d b e t we e n a n u p pe r , m o v ab l e p la t e a nd a l o we r , fi x e d pl a te ( Fi gu r e 3 - 3 ) . Th e a p pl ic a ti o n o f a c o ns ta n t f o rc e (F ) t o t he up p er pla t e c au s es b o th th is pl a te a n d t h e u pp e rm os t l a y e r o f li q ui d i n c on t ac t wi t h i t t o m o v e wi t h a v el oc i t y ∆ y / ∆ x . Th e i n te r ac t io n be t we e n t he fi xe d b o tt om p l a te an d t h e l iq ui d l a y e r c l os es t t o i t p r e v e nt s t h e m o v em en t of t he bo t to m l a y e r o f l i qu id . Th e
ve l o c i t y ( v ) o f t h e r em ain i ng la ye r s o f l i qu id be twe e n t h e t wo p l at es is p r o po r t io n al to th e i r di s ta n c e f ro m t h e im m o va b le p la t e ( i .e . , ∆y / ∆x ) . Th e ve l o c i t y g r a d i e n t l ea ds t o de f o rm at i on of t he li qu i d wi t h t im e . Th i s d e f o rm at i on is t h e r a t e of s h ea r , dv /d x , o r D. N ew t o n d ef i ne d f l o w i n t e rm s o f t he ra t io o f t he fo r c e F a pp l ie d t o a pl a te of a re a A — sh e a r s t r es s (τ ) — d i vi de d b y t h e v e l oc it y gr a d ie n t ( D ) in d uc ed b y τ :
or
Th e p r o po r ti o na li t y c o ns ta n t η is th e c oe f fi ci e nt o f vi s c o s it y. I t i n di c a t es t h e re si s t a nc e t o f l o w o f a d ja c en t l a y e rs of fl u id . Th e r e c i p ro c a l o f η is -2
-1
f l u i d i t y. U n i t s of v is c os ity i n t he C G S s ys t em a r e d y n es c m s , o r p o is e . -2
-1
I n t he S I s y s t em , th e u n it s ar e N e wt o ns m s , wh i ch c o r re s po nd s t o 1 0 p o is e . Th e v i s c os it y o f wa t e r a t 2 0 ° C i s a pp r o xi m a t e l y 0 . 01 po is e , o r 1 -2
-1
c e nt i po is e (c ps ) , wh i c h c o r r es p on ds t o 1 m N m s . a . S ub s ta nc es th a t f l o w in ac c o r d an ce wi t h th e eq u a ti on in I II . B . 2 ( N e wt on ' s l a w) a r e k n o wn as N ew to n i a n s ub s t an c es . L i qu id s th a t c o ns is t of s im p le m o le cu l es a n d d il u te di s p e r s i on s t e nd to be N ew t o n i an . Fo r a N e wt o n ia n f l u id , a pl o t o f s he a r s t res s a s a fu nc t io n o f s he a r r a t e ( a fl ow cu r ve o r r h e o g r am ) y i el ds a s tr a ig h t l i ne wi t h a sl op e o f η ( F i gu r e 3 - 4, C u rv e 1 ) . b . N o n - New to n ia n su b st a n c es do no t o b e y Ne w t o n ' s e qu a ti o n o f f lo w. Th e s e s ub s ta nc es t en d to e xh i b i t s he a r - de p en d en t o r ti m e- d e pe n de n t vi s c o s i t y. I n e i t he r c as e, v i s c os i t y i s m o re ap t l y t e r m e d a p pa r e n t vi s c o s i t y b e c a us e N e wto n ' s l a w i s n o t s t r ic t l y o be ye d . H et e ro g en e ou s l i qu i ds a n d s ol id s a r e m os t li k e l y no n - Ne wt o n i an . ( 1 ) S he a r - de p e nd e n t vi s c o si t y i n v o l v e s e i th e r an i nc r ea s e in ap pa r e nt vi s co si t y ( i .e . , s h ea r t hic k e ni n g , o r d i l at a nc y) ( F i g ur e 3 - 4 , Cu r ve 3) o r a d e c re as e i n a p pa r en t v is c os i t y (i . e ., sh e a r t h i nn in g , o r p se u do - p la s t ic i ty) ( F i gu r e 3 - 4 , C u rv e 2 ) wi t h a n i nc r ea se in th e ra t e o f s h ea r . Sh ea r th ic k en in g i s d is p la y e d b y s us pe ns io n s t ha t ha v e a h ig h s ol id s c on t e nt of s m al l , d e f lo cc ul a te d p a r ti c l es . S h e a r t hi n ni n g is di sp l a ye d b y p o l ym e r P.34 o r m a c ro m o le c ul e s ol u tio n s . P l as t ic , or B i n gh am b o d y, b e h a vi o r ( F ig u re 3 4 , C u rv e 4 ) i s e xe m p li f ied b y f lo cc ul a te d p a r ti cl es in c o nc e n t r a te d s us p en s i o ns th a t s h o w no a pp a re n t r e sp on s e t o lo w- l e v e l s t r es s . F lo w b e gi n s o nl y a ft e r a li m i t in g y i el d s t re s s ( yi e l d va l u e ) i s e xc e e d ed .
Figure 3-4. Non-Newtonian flow curves.
( 2 ) T im e - de p en d en t vi sc o s i t y ( a ) Th e y i el d v al ue o f p la s t i c s ys t em s m a y b e tim e d e pe n de n t ( i .e . , m a y d e p en d o n t h e t im e s c a le i n v ol v e d i n t h e a pp li c at i o n o f f o rc e ). T hi x o t r opi c s ys t em s di s p l a y s h ea r - thi n ni n g b eh a v i or b ut do no t im m e di a te l y r ec o v e r t h e ir hi g he r ap p ar e nt v i s c os i t y wh e n t h e r a te o f sh e a r i s l o we r ed . In a t h i xo t r o p ic s y s te m , s t r uc t u r al r ec o ve r y is re la t i v ely s l o w c om pa r e d wi t h s t r uc t ur a l b r ea k d o wn . ( b ) T h ix o t r op y o c c u rs wi t h h e te r o ge ne o us s y s t em s t h at in v o l v e a t hr e e d i m e ns i on al s t r uc t u re or n e t wo r k . W hen s uc h a s ys t em is a t re s t, it ap p ea rs t o ha ve a r e la t i v el y r i gi d c o ns is te n c y . U n de r s h ear , t he s t r uc t u re br e ak s d o wn a n d f lu i di t y in c re as e s (i . e. , ge l - so l tr a ns f orm a ti o n ). ( c ) R h eo p ex y ( n e g a t i ve t h i x ot r o p y, o r a n t i t h i xo t r o p y) o c c ur s wh e n t he a p p ar e nt v i s c os it y o f t h e s y s te m c on t in ue s t o i nc re a s e wi t h c o nt i nu ed a p pl ic a ti o n o f s he a r u p to s o m e eq u il ib r i um val u e a t a gi v e n s h ea r ra t e . Th e s e s y s te m s di s p la y a s o l - ge l t r a ns fo r m a t io n . O n e e xp l a na t io n fo r a n t it h i xo t r o pi c b eh a v io r is t ha t c on t in u ed s h ea r inc r e as es th e f r eq u en c y of p a r ti c l e or m a c ro m o le c u le i nt e r ac ti o ns a n d l ea ds t o in c re as e d s tr uc t u re in t h e s ys te m . C . S o l i ds . I n te r m o l ec ul ar f o rc es o f a tt r ac t io n a r e s t ro n ge r in s o li ds th a n in l i qu i ds o r ga s e s . Mo l e c ula r a r ra n ge m e n ts i n s ol i ds m a y b e ch a r ac te r i ze d a s e i t he r c r y s ta l li ne o r am or p h ou s . 1 . C r ys t a l l i n e s o li d s h av e t h e f o ll o wi n g a t tr i bu t es : a . Fi xe d m o l ec u la r o r der ( i . e. , m o le cu le s o c c up y s e t p os it i on s i n a s pe c i fi c array) b . A di st i nc t m el ti n g p oi nt c . An i s o t r op i ci t y ( i . e . , th e i r p r op e r ti es ar e n o t t he sa m e in al l d i re c ti on s ) , wi t h t h e e xc e p t io n o f c ubi c c r y s ta ls 2 . Am o r p h o us so l i ds hav e t h e f o ll o wi n g a t tr i bu t es : a . R an d om l y ar r a ng ed m o l ec ul e s wi t h th e s h or t - ra n g e o rd e r t y p i c a l o f l i qu i ds b . N o m el t in g p o in ts
c . Is o t r o pi c i t y ( i . e . , p rop e r ti e s a re t he s am e i n al l di r ec ti o ns ) P.35
d . L ess th e rm o d y na m i c s t a b il i t y t h an th e c o r re sp on d in g c r y s ta l li ne so li d a nd t h e r ef o re m o r e a p t t o e xh i bi t c h em ic al an d p h y sic a l i ns ta b il i t y, i nc r ea s e d d i ss ol u ti on r a te , e tc . 3 . P o l ym o r p h i s m i s t h e c o nd i ti on wh e r e in s u bs t an c es c a n e xi s t i n m o re t h a n o ne c r y s t al li n e f o rm . Th e s e p o l ym o r p h s h a ve d if f e re n t m o l ec ul a r a r r a ng em e nt s o r c r y s ta l la t t ic e s t ru ct u r es . A s a r es u lt , th e d i ff e r en t p o l ym o r ph s o f a d ru g s oli d c a n h a v e d if f e re n t p r op e r ti e s. Fo r e xa m pl e , t he m e lt i ng po in t , s ol u bi li t y , d i s s ol u ti on r a te , d e ns it y , a n d s ta bi l it y c an di f fe r c o ns id e ra b l y a m on g t h e p o l y m o r ph ic f or m s of a dr u g . Ma n y d r ug s e xh i b i t p o l ym o r ph ic be h a v io r . Fa t t y ( t ri g l yc e r id e ) e xc i p ien t s ( e .g . , th eo b r om a o il , c oc o a b u tt e r ) a r e r ec o gni z e d fo r th e i r p ol ym or p hic be h a vio r . 4 . Th e i n c o r po r a ti on o f s o l v e n t m o l ec ul es in t o t he c r ys ta l l a tt ic e o f a so li d r e s ul ts in a m o l ec ul a r a dd u c t k n o wn as a s o l va te o r h yd r a t e ( t h e l a t te r t e r m is us e d wh e n wa t e r i s t h e s o l v e nt ) . In ge ne ra l , s ol va t es or h y d ra t es e xh i b i t di f fe r e nt s o lu bi l it ie s a n d d is s o lu t io n ra t e s t h a n t he i r u n so l va te d /a n h y d ro us c ou n t e rp a rt s . 5 . M e l t in g po i n t a n d h ea t o f fu s io n . Th e m e l ti ng p oi n t o f a s o li d i s t he t e m p e r at u re a t wh i c h t h e s ol i d is t ra ns f o rm ed t o a l i qu id . W he n 1 g of a s o li d i s h ea t ed an d m el ts , t h e h ea t a bs o r be d i n t he p r oc es s is re f e r re d t o a s t h e la t en t he a t o f f us i on . D . P h a se di a g r am s a n d p h a se eq u i li b r i a. A ph as e d ia g r am r ep r es en t s th e s t a te s o f m at t e r ( i .e . , s oli d , l i qu id , an d g as ) th a t e xi s t a s t em pe r a tu r e a n d p r e ss u re ar e v a ri e d ( F igu r e 3- 5 ) . Th e da t a P.36
a r r a y s s ep a ra t in g th e p ha s es i n Fi gu r e 3 - 5 d el i nea t e th e t em p er a t ur es and p r e ss u re s a t wh i c h t h e ph a s e s c an c o e xi s t . Th u s g a s ( o r vap o r ) a nd li q ui d c o e xi s t a lo n g “ c u r v e ” B C, s ol id an d l i qu id c o e xi s t a l on g “c ur v e ” A B , a nd s o li d a nd g as (o r v a po r ) c o e xi s t a lo n g “ c u r v e ” D B. D e pe n di n g o n t he ch ang e i n te m p e r at u re an d p r es s u r e, e va po r a t i on o r c on d e ns a t io n oc c u r a l on g c u r ve B C , f u si o n o r m e lt i n g al on g c u r v e A B , and s ub l i ma t i on o r d e p os i t i on al o ng c u r v e D B . Th e t h re e “ c ur v e s ” in t e rs ec t at po i nt B . O n l y a t t h is un i qu e t em p e ra t ur e a n d p r es s u r e , k n o wn a s t h e t r ip l e p o in t , d o a l l t h r e e p ha s e s e xi s t in equ i li b ri u m . ( Th e t r i pl e p oin t f or wa t e r is 0 . 01 ° C and 6 . 0 4 × 10
-3
a tm . ) C o nt i nu i ng al o ng cu r v e B C , t o h i gh e r te m p e ra t u re s a nd
p r e ss u re s , on e u l ti m a t ely r e a c h es po i nt C , k no w n as t he c ri t i ca l po i n t, a b o ve wh ic h th e re is n o d i s t i nc ti o n b et we e n t he l iq u id an d th e g as ph as es. S u b st a nc es th a t e xi s t abo v e t hi s c ri t ic al po i nt a re k no wn a s s u pe r c r i t ic a l f l u i d s. S up e rc r it ic a l f lu id s s uc h a s c ar b on di o xi d e ( c ri t i c al po in t , 3 0 .9 8 ° C a n d 7 3 .8 at m ) o f te n e xh i b i t m a rk ed l y al t e re d p h ys ic oc h em ic al p ro p er t ie s ( e . g ., de ns i t y , d i ff u s i v i t y , o r s o lu b il it y c ha r ac t e ri s ti cs ) th a t r e nd e r t h em
u s ef u l as s o l v e nt s a nd pr o c es s i ng ai ds in th e p r od u c t i on of ph a rm ac e ut ic a l s a n d d r ug de l i v e r y s y s tem s .
Figure 3-5. Phase diagram for CO2 showing the variation of the state of matter as pressure and temperature are varied. The solid state exists in the region ABD; the liquid state, in the region ABC; and the gas state, in the region to the right of curve CD. B corresponds to the triple point, the pressure and temperature at which all three phases coexist. C corresponds to the critical point, the pressure and temperature above which the liquid and gas phases are indistinguishable.
IV. PHYSICOCHEMICAL BEHAVIOR A. H o m o g e ne o u s s ys t e m s 1 . A s o l u ti o n i s a h om og e n eo us s y s t em i n wh ic h a s ol u t e is m o le c u l ar l y d i sp e rs ed , o r di s s o l v ed , i n a s ol ve n t . Th e s ol v e nt i s t he p re do m i n an t s p ec ie s . S a tu r a t ed s ol ut i o n s a r e s o l ut i on s t ha t , a t a g i ven t em pe r a tu r e a n d p r es s u r e , c o n ta i n t he m a xi m u m a m o u nt of s ol u t e t ha t c a n b e a cc o m m od a te d b y t he s ol v e n t . I f th e s at u r at i on , or s ol u bi li t y, li m i t i s e xc e e d e d, a f r ac t io n o f th e s o lu t e ca n s e pa r at e fro m th e s ol u ti on an d e xi s t i n eq ui l ib r iu m wi t h i t. a . S o lu t es c a n b e g as es , l iq u id s, o r s o l id s , an d no n el e c t r ol y t e s o r e l ec t r ol y t es . ( 1 ) N o ne l ec t r o l yt e s a r e s u bs ta n c e s t ha t do n ot fo r m i on s wh e n d is s o l v ed i n wa t e r . E xa m p l es ar e es t r ad i ol , g l yc e r in , ur e a, a n d s uc r os e. Th e i r a q u eo us s o lu t io ns do not c on du c t e le c t r ic c u r r en t. ( 2 ) E l ec t r o l yt e s a r e s u bs t an c e s t h at d o f o r m i on s in so lu t io n . E xa m p l es a r e s o di um c h lo r id e , h y dr o c hl o ri c ac i d, an d a t r op in e . As a r es ul t , t h ei r a q u eo us s o lu t io ns c o nd uc t el ec t ri c c u rr e nt . El e ct ro l y t es a re c h a ra c t e r i z ed a s s t r o n g o r w ea k . S t r on g el ec t r ol y t es ( e. g . , s o di u m c h l o ri de , h y dr o c h lo r ic a c id ) ar e c o m pl e te l y i o n i z ed in wa t e r a t al l co nc e nt r a ti o ns . W eak e l ec t r ol y t es ( e. g . , as p ir in , a tr o pi n e) a re pa r t i a ll y i o n iz e d in wa t e r . b . Th e co l l ig a t i ve p r o pe r t i e s o f a s ol u t io n de pe n d o n t h e t o ta l n u mb e r o f i o n i c a nd n on i o ni c s o l ut e m ol e cu l es i n t h e s o lu t i o n . Th e se p ro p er t ie s d e p en d o n i on i z a ti o n b ut a r e i n d ep e nd e n t o f o t he r c he m ic a l p r o p e r ti e s o f t h e so l u te . 2 . C o ll i g at i ve p r o pe r t i es i nc lu de t he fo l lo wi n g : a . L ow e ri n g o f va p o r p re s s u re . Th e p a r t ia l va po r p r e ss u r e o f e ac h vo l a t il e c om po n en t i n a s o l u ti on is eq ua l to th e p ro d uc t o f th e m ol f ra c ti on
o f t he c om p on e nt in th e s o lu t io n a n d t he va po r pr e s s u r e o f t he pu r e c om p on e nt . Th is is Ra o ul t ' s law :
wh e r e p A is th e p a r ti a l v a p o r p r es s u r e a bo ve a so l u ti on in wh i c h t he m o l f r a ct i on of t he s o lu t e A is x A a n d is th e va p o r p re s s u re o f t he pu r e c om p on e nt A . Th e v a p o r p r es s u r e i s t he p re s s u re a t wh i c h an eq ui l ib r iu m i s e s ta b li sh e d b et we e n th e m o le c u l es o f A i n t h e li qu i d s ta t e a nd t he m o le cu l es o f A i n t h e g as e ou s ( va p o r) st a te in a c l os ed , e v a c ua t ed c o nt a in e r . Th e v a po r p res s u r e i s t em p er a tu r e d e pe n d en t , b ut in d ep e nd en t o f t he am ou n t o f l iq u id an d v a po r . Ra o ul t ' s l a w ho l ds fo r id e al s o lu ti o ns of n o n el ec t ro l y t es . F o r a b in a r y s o l u t i o n ( i .e . , a s o lu t i on of co m p on e nt B in c om p on e nt A )
Th e l o we r i ng o f t he v a por p r es s u r e o f t h e s ol ut i on r el a ti v e t o t he va p or p r e ss u re of th e p u r e s o l ve n t i s p r op o r ti on a l t o t h e n um b e r o f m ol ec ul es o f s o lu t e i n t he s o lu t io n . The ac t ua l l o we r i ng o f t he va p o r pr e s s ur e b y t h e s o lu t e, ∆ p A , i s g i v en b y
b . E l e va ti o n o f t he b oi l in g p oi n t . Th e b o il i n g po i n t i s t h e t em pe r a tu r e at wh i c h th e v a po r P.37
p r e ss u re of a l iq ui d e q ual s a n e xt e r n a l p r es s u r e of 7 60 m m Hg . A s ol u ti o n o f a n on v o l at i le s o lu t e ha s a hi g he r bo il i ng po in t t h a n a p u r e s o l v e nt b e ca us e th e s ol u te lo we r s t he v a po r pr es s ur e o f th e s o l ven t . Th e am o un t o f e l e va ti on o f t he bo i li ng po i n t ( ∆ T b ) d ep e nd s o n t he co nc e n tr a ti o n o f t h e s o lu t e:
wh e r e K b is th e m ol al bo il i ng po i nt el e v a ti o n c o n s t a n t , R is th e m ol a r g as c o ns ta n t , T i s a bs o lu t e te m pe r a tu r e ( d eg r ee s K) , M 1 i s t he m o le c u l a r we i g h t o f t he s o lu t e, m is th e m o l al i t y of th e s ol u ti o n, and ∆ H v a p i s t he m o la l e n t ha lp y o f v ap o r i z at i on o f t he s o l v en t . c . D ep r e ss i o n o f th e f ree z i ng po i n t . Th e f r ee z ing p o in t , o r m e lt i ng po i nt, o f a p u re c o m p ou n d is t he t em pe r a tu r e a t wh ic h th e s o li d a n d t he li qu i d p h as es a re in eq ui l ib r ium un d e r a p r es s u r e o f 1 a t m o sp h e re ( at m ). Th e f r e e zi ng po in t of a s ol ut io n is th e t em p er a t ur e a t wh i c h th e s o li d p ha s e o f t h e p u r e s o l v e nt an d th e l i qu id ph as e o f th e s ol u ti o n a r e i n e qu i li b ri um u n d er a p r es s u r e o f 1 atm . Th e a m o u nt of d ep r es s i on of t he f re e zin g po in t ( ∆ T f ) de p en ds on th e m ol a li t y o f t he s o lu t io n :
wh e r e K f is th e m ol al f r ee z i n g p oi n t c on s t a n t a nd ∆ H f u s i o n i s t he m o la l h e at o f f us io n . d . O s mo t i c p r e ss u r e. Os m o si s i s t h e p ro c e s s by wh i c h s o l v e nt m o le cu l es p a ss th r ou g h a s em ip e rm e ab l e m e m b r an e (a ba rr i e r th r ou g h wh i c h o nl y s o l ven t m ol ec u le s m a y pa s s ) f ro m a re g io n o f d i lu t e s ol u ti o n t o o ne o f m or e c o nc en t r at e d s o l ut i on . So l v e n t m o l ec ul es t ra ns f er b ec a us e o f t h e i ne qu a lit y i n c h em ic al po t en t ia l o n t h e t wo s i de s o f t h e m em b r an e . S ol v e n t m ol ec u le s i n a co nc e nt r a te d s ol u ti on h a v e a l o we r ch e m i ca l p o t en t ia l t h an s o l ven t m o le cu l es i n a m o r e d il ut e s o lu t io n . ( 1 ) O s mo t i c p r e ss u r e is t h e p r e ss u r e t h at m us t b e ap pl i ed to t he s o lu t ion t o p re ve n t t h e f lo w o f pur e s o l v e nt in t o t he c o nc en t r a te d s ol u ti o n. ( 2 ) S ol ve n t m ol ec ul es m o v e f r om a r eg i on wh e r e t h e ir e sc a pi n g t e nd e ncy i s h ig h to on e wh e r e t hei r es c ap i n g t e nd e nc y i s l ow . Th e p r es e nc e o f d i ss ol ve d s ol u te lo we r s th e es c a pi n g t en d en c y o f t h e s ol v e n t i n p ro p o rt i on t o t he s o lu t e c o nc e nt r a tio n . ( 3 ) Th e va n ' t H o f f e q ua ti o n de f in es th e o s m o ti c p r e ss u re π as a f u nc ti o n o f t h e n um b e r o f m ol es of s o l u te n 2 in th e s ol u ti o n of v o l um e V: πV = n2RT 3 . E le c t r o l yt e s o l u t i on s a n d i o n ic eq u i li b r i a a . Ac i d - b as e e q ui l i b r ia ( 1 ) A cc or d in g t o th e Ar r h e n i us di s so c ia t i o n t h eo r y, a n a c i d i s a +
s u bs ta n c e th a t l ib e ra t es H i n aq ue o us s o lu ti o n . A b a se is a su bs t an c e t ha t -
l i be r a te s h y d r o xy l i o ns (O H ) i n a qu e ou s s ol u ti on. Th i s d e fi ni t io n a p pl ie s o n l y un d er aq u eo us c o nd i t io ns . ( 2 ) Th e Low r y- B r ø n s t e d t h e o r y i s a m o r e p o we r fu l c o nc ep t th a t a pp li es to a q u eo us an d n o na qu e ous s ys t em s . I t is m o st com m o n l y u se d fo r p h a rm ac e ut ic al an d bi olo g ic s y s t em s b ec au s e the s e s ys t em s a r e p r im a ri ly a q u eo us . ( a ) A cc or d in g t o th is de f in i t io n , a n a ci d i s a s u bs ta n ce (c h a rg ed o r u n ch a rg e d ) t ha t i s c ap a bl e of do n at i ng a p r ot o n. A b a se is a su bs t an c e ( c h ar g ed o r u nc ha r g ed ) th a t i s c ap ab l e o f a c c ep t in g a p r ot o n f r om a n a c i d. -
Th e d is s o c i a ti o n o f a n ac i d ( H A ) al wa y s p r od uc es a b as e (A ) a c c o rd i ng to t h e fo ll o wi n g f o rm u la : +
HA ↔ H + A
-
( b ) H A an d A a re a c on ju g a t e a ci d - ba s e p a i r ( an ac i d a nd a b as e t h at e xi s t i n e qu i li b ri um an d d i f fe r in s t r uc tu r e b y a pro t o n ). Th e p r o to n o f an a c id do es no t e xi s t f r ee in s o l ut i on , b u t c om bi ne s wi t h t h e s o l v e nt . In wa t e r , +
t h is h yd r a t e d p r o t o n i s a h yd r o n i u m io n ( H 3 O ). ( c ) Th e re l at i v e s t r e n gt hs o f a c i ds an d b as es a re d e te r m i n ed b y t h ei r a b il i t y to do n at e o r ac c ep t p ro t on s . F o r e xa m p le , i n wa t e r, H C l d o na t es a p r o t on m o re r ea d il y t ha n d o es a c et ic ac id . Th us H C l i s a s t ro n ge r ac id . Ac i d s t r en g th is a ls o de t er m i ne d b y th e a f fi n it y o f t h e s o l v en t fo r p r o to ns . Fo r
e xa m p l e , H C l m a y di s s oc i at e c om pl e te l y in li q ui d a m m on i a, bu t on l y v e r y s l ig h tl y i n g la c i al ac e ti c a c id . Th us H C l is a s t ro ng ac i d i n l iq ui d a m m on i a a n d a we a k a c i d i n g la c ia l ac et ic ac id . P.38
( 3 ) Th e Lew i s th e o r y e x t e n ds th e a c i d -b as e c o nc e pt t o r ea c ti o ns t h at do n o t i n vo l v e p r ot o ns . I t d ef i n es a n a c i d as a m ol ecu l e o r i o n t h at acc e p ts an e l ec t r on pa i r f r om a n o the r a to m a nd a b as e as a s ub s ta nc e t h at do n at e s a n e l ec t r on pa i r t o b e s ha r ed wi t h an o th e r a t om . +
b . H c on c en t r a t io n v alu e s a r e v e r y s m a ll . Th ere f o r e, th e y a re e xp r e ss ed i n ex p on e n ti a l n o t at i o n a s p H . Th e p H i s t he lo ga r i th m o f th e r e ci p ro ca l o f +
t h e H c on c e n t ra t io n
+
+
wh e r e [ H ] is th e m ol a r c o n c e n t ra t io n o f H . B ec au s e t he lo g a ri t hm o f a r e c ip r oc al eq u al s t he neg a t i ve l og a r i th m o f th e n u m b e r , t hi s e qu a ti o n m a y b e r e wr i t te n a s : +
p H = -l o g [ H ] or +
[ H ] = 10
-pH +
Th u s t he p H v a l ue m a y be d ef i ne d a s t he ne g a ti v e l og a ri t hm of th e [ H ] +
-6
va l u e . F o r e xa m p le , i f the H c o nc e nt r a ti o n o f a s o l u ti on is 5 × 1 0 , th e pH va l u e m a y b e c a lc ul a te d a s fo ll o ws :
pH
=
-log (5 × 10-6)
log 5
=
0.699
log 10-6
=
-6.0
pH
=
-(-6 + 0.699)
=
-(-5.301)
=
5.301 +
c . As p H d ec r ea s e s , H c o n ce n t r a ti o n i n c re a ses e xp o ne n t ia l l y. W he n th e +
p H d ec r ea s e s f r om 6 t o 5 , t he H c o nc en t r at io n in c r ea s e s f r om 10
-6
-5
to 10 ,
o r 1 0 t im es i t s o ri g in a l v a l ue . W he n t he p H f a ll s fr o m 5 to 4 .7 , t h e H c o nc en t r at i on in c re as es f r o m 1 × 1 0
-5
+
-5
t o 2 × 1 0 , o r do u bl e i ts in i ti al va lue .
d . D i ss o ci a t io n co n s tan t s . Io n iz a ti o n i s t he com p le t e s e p a ra t io n o f t h e i o ns in a c r y s t al la t t ic e wh e n t h e sa l t i s d is s o l v ed . D i s s oc i a ti o n is t he s e pa r a ti on o f i on s i n s o lu t i on wh e n t h e i on s a r e a s s o c i at e d b y i nt e ri o ni c a t t r ac ti o n. ( 1 ) F or w e ak el e c t ro l yt e s , di s s oc ia t io n i s a re v e rs i bl e p r oc es s. Th e e q ui l ib r iu m o f t h is p r oc es s c an be e xp r e s s ed b y th e la w o f m a ss a c ti on . Th i s la w s t a te s t h at th e ra t e o f th e c he m i c a l re ac ti o n i s p r op o rt i on al t o t he p r o du c t o f t h e c o nc e nt r at i o n o f t h e r ea c ti ng su bs ta n c e s, e ac h r ai s e d to a p o we r o f th e n um be r o f m o le s o f t h e s u bs t an c e in s o l ut i on . ( 2 ) F or w e ak ac i ds , di s s o c ia t io n i n wa t e r is e xp r e ss e d a s: +
HA ↔ H + A
-
Th e d yn am ic eq u il ib r i um b e t we e n t h e s i m u l ta n eou s fo r wa r d an d re v e r se r e a ct i on s is in d ic at e d b y t h e a r r o ws . B y t h e l a w of m as s ac t io n , r a t e o f fo r wa r d r ea c t i on = K 1 [ H A ] +
-
r a t e o f re v e r s e r ea c t i on = K 2 [ H ] [ A ] A t e qu i li b ri um , t h e f o r wa r d a nd re v e r se r at e s a re e q u al . Th e re f or e , +
-
K1[HA] = K2[H ][A ] Th u s t he e qu i l ib r i um e xp r e s si o n fo r t he d is s oci a t i o n o f a w e ak ac i d is wr i t t e n as :
wh e r e K a r ep r es e nt s t h e a c id di s s oc ia t io n c on s tan t . Fo r a we a k a c i d , t h e a c i d d i ss o ci a t io n co n s ta n t is c on v e n ti o na l l y e xp r e s s e d as p K a , wh i c h is -5
l o g K a . Fo r e xa m p l e, t he K a o f a c e t ic a c i d a t 25 ° C i s 1 . 75 × 1 0 . Th e p K a is c a lc ul a te d a s f ol l o ws : P.39
pKa
=
-log (1.75 × 10-5)
log 1.75
=
0.243
log 10-5
=
-5
pH
=
-(-5 + 0.243)
=
-(-4.757)
=
4.76
( 3 ) F or w e ak ba s es , di s s oc i at i on m a y al s o b e e xp r e ss ed wi t h th e K a e xp r e s s io n f o r t h e c o nj ug a t e a c id o f t h e b a se . Th i s ac i d is f or m e d wh e n a p r o t on re a c t s wi t h t he bas e . F o r a ba se th a t d oe s n o t c on t ai n a h yd ro xy l g r o up , +
+
BH ↔ H + B Th e d i s so c ia t i on co n s ta n t fo r th is r ea c ti on is exp r e s s e d as :
H o we ve r , a b as e d i ss o ci a t i o n c on s t an t i s t r a di tio n al l y de f in e d f o r a we ak b a se wi t h th is e xp r e s s ion : -
B + H2O ↔ OH + BH
+
wh e r e K b r ep r es en t s t he d i s s oc ia t io n c on s ta n t o f a we a k ba s e . Th is d i s so c i at i o n c on s t an t c a n be e xp r e s s ed as p K b , a s f o ll o ws : p K b = - l og K b ( 4 ) C e r t ai n c o mp o u nd s ( a c id s o r b as es ) c a n ac ce p t o r do n at e m o re th a n o n e p r o to n . C o ns eq u en t ly , t h e y ha ve m o re t ha n o n e di s so c ia t i on c o n s ta n t . e . H e nd e r so n - H as s el b al c h eq u a ti o ns de s c r ib e th e r el a ti on be t we e n th e i o ni ze d a n d t h e u ni on i z ed s p ec i es of a we a k el ec t r o l y t e. ( 1 ) F or w e ak ac i ds , th e H e n d e rs on - H as s e lb a lc h e q u at io n i s o b ta i ne d f r o m t h e e q ui li b r iu m r el a ti o n de s c r i be d i n I V . A .3 d . (2 ) :
( 2 ) S im il a rl y , t he H en d e rs o n - Ha s s el b al c h eq u at ion f o r w e a k b as e s is as f o l lo ws :
+
wh e r e B is th e u n io n i z ed we a k b as e a nd B H i s th e p ro t on a te d b as e . f . Th e d eg r e e o f io n iz a ti o n ( α ) , t he f ra c ti on o f a we a k e le c tr o l yte t ha t i s i o ni ze d i n s ol u ti o n, is c a lc u la t ed f ro m t he f ol lo wi n g e qu a ti o n:
wh e r e [ I ] a n d [ U ] re p re s en t t he c o nc en t r at i on s o f t h e i o ni z e d a n d u ni on i zed s p ec ie s , r es pe c ti v e l y . The d eg r ee o f i on i za ti on dep e n ds s ol e l y o n t h e p H of t h e s ol u ti o n a nd th e p K a o f t he we a k e le c t r o l yte . W h e n p H = p K a , t h e H e n d e rs on - H as s e lb a lc h e q u at io n s a re , fo r a we a k ac i d an d a we a k b as e , r e s pe c t i v e l y :
t h us
P.40
t h us
I n e ff ec t , wh e n t he p H o f t h e s ol u ti on is nu m e r ic al l y e qu i val e nt t o t he p K a o f t h e we a k e le c t r ol y t e , whe t h e r a we ak ba s e o r a we a k a c i d , [ I ] = [ U] an d th e d e g re e o f io ni z a t io n α = 0 . 5 (i . e. , 50 % o f t h e s ol ut e is i o ni ze d ) . g . S o lu b i li t y o f a w e a k e l e c t ro l yt e v a r i e s as a fu n ct i on of p H . ( 1 ) F or a w ea k a c id , th e t o t al s ol u bi l it y C s is gi v e n b y th e e xp r e s si on : -
Cs = [HA] + [A ] wh e r e [ H A ] is t h e i nt r i ns ic s o lu b il i t y o f th e u n io niz e d we a k ac id an d i s -
-
d e n ot e d as C 0 , wh e r e as [ A ] i s t h e c o nc e nt r a ti o n o f it s a ni o n . B ec a us e [ A ] c a n b e e xp r e s s e d i n t e rm s o f C 0 a nd th e d is s o c ia t i on c o ns ta n t K a ,
Th u s t he so l u bi l i t y o f a w e ak ac i d i n c re a se s w it h i n c re a si n g p H ( i. e ., wi t h a n i nc r e as in g d e gr ee o f i on i z a ti o n, as th e a ni o n i s m o r e p o la r a n d t h e r ef o re m o r e wa t e r s o lu b le t ha n t h e u ni o ni z e d we a k a ci d ). ( 2 ) S im il a rl y , f o r w e ak ba s e s,
Th u s t he so l u bi l i t y d e c r e a s es w i t h i nc r e as i n g p H b ec a us e m o r e o f th e we a k b as e i s i n t he un p ro t o na t ed fo r m . Th i s f o rm i s l es s p ol a r a nd th e r ef or e l e ss wa t e r s ol ub l e. h . B u f fe r s an d b u f f e r ca p a ci t y ( 1 ) A bu f f e r i s a m i xt u r e o f s a lt wi t h a c i d or ba s e t h a t r es is ts ch an g es i n p H wh e n s m a ll qu a nt i ti es of a c id o r b as e a r e a dd ed . A b u ff e r c an be a c o m bi n a ti o n o f a we a k a c id an d i ts c o nj u ga t e ba s e ( s a l t ) o r a c om b in a tio n o f a we ak ba s e an d i t s c o n ju g at e ac id (s al t ) . Ho we v e r , bu f fe r so lu t io ns a re m o r e c om m on l y p r e p a re d f ro m we ak ac id s a nd t h e ir sa l ts . Th e y a r e n o t o r d in a ri l y p re p a re d f r om we a k b as es an d t h ei r s a lt s be c a us e we ak ba s es a r e of t en un s ta bl e a n d v o l a ti le . ( a ) F or a w ea k a c id an d i t s s a l t, t he fo l lo wi n g bu f f e r e qu a ti o n is s a ti s fa c t o r y fo r c a lc ul a tio n s wi t h a p H of 4 -1 0 . I t i s i m p o r ta n t i n t he p r e pa r a ti o n o f b uf f e re d ph a r m a ce u ti c a l s ol u ti on s :
( b ) F o r a w ea k b a se and i t s s a lt , th e b u f fe r e q ua t i on is s im il a r b u t a ls o d e p en ds on th e d is s o c i a ti o n c on st a nt o f wa t e r ( pK w ) . Th e e q u at i on b e co m e s :
( 2 ) B u f fe r a ct i o n is t he r e s is ta nc e to a ch a ng e in p H . ( 3 ) B u f fe r c ap a ci t y i s t he a bi li t y o f a b u f fe r s o lu ti o n t o re s i st c h a ng es in p H . Th e sm a ll e r th e p H c h a ng e c a us ed b y a d di t io n of a g i ven am ou n t o f a c id o r b as e, t he g re a t er t h e bu f f e r c a pa c i t y o f t h e s ol u ti o n. ( a ) B u ff e r c ap ac i t y i s t h e n um b e r o f g r am e q ui v a le n ts o f a n ac i d o r b as e t h a t c ha ng e s t he p H o f 1 L o f b uf f e r s o l ut i on b y 1 u n it . ( b ) B u ff e r c ap ac i t y i s a f fe c te d b y t h e c o n c e n tr a tio n of t he bu f fe r c o ns ti t ue n ts . A h ig h er c on c en t r at i on pr o v i de s a gre a t e r ac i d o r b as e r e s er ve . B uf f e r c a p ac it y ( β ) i s r el a te d to to t al c o nc e nt r a ti o n ( C ) as fo ll o ws : P.41
wh e r e C r e p re s e n ts th e m o la r c o nc en t r at i on s o f th e ac id an d t h e s al t .
( c ) Th u s b uf f e r c a p ac it y d e p en ds on th e val u e o f t h e ra t io of t he s a lt to t he a c id fo r m . I t i nc r ea s e s as t he ra t io ap p r oa c h es un i t y . Ma xi m u m bu f f er c a pa ci t y oc c u r s wh e n p H = p K a , an d i s r e p re s e n te d b y β = 0 .5 76 C . B . H e t e r og e ne o u s ( d is pe r s e ) s ys t e m s 1 . I n t ro d uc t i o n a . A s u s pe n si o n i s a t w o - p ha s e s ys t em th a t i s co m po s e d o f a s o li d m a ter i a l d i sp e rs ed in an oi l y o r aq u e ou s li q ui d . Th e pa r t icl e s i ze o f th e d is p er s ed s o li d i s us u al l y > 0 . 5 µ m . b . A n e m ul s io n i s a he te r o ge n eo us s ys t em th a t c o ns is ts of a t l ea s t on e i m m is ci b le li qu i d t ha t i s in t im a te l y di s p e rs e d i n a n o t he r in th e f o rm of d r o pl e ts . Th e d r op le t di am e te r us ua l l y e xc e e d s 0 .1 µ m . E m u ls i on s a r e i n h e r en t l y u n s t a b l e b e c a u s e th e d r o pl e ts o f th e d i s p e rs ed li q ui d t e nd to c o al es ce t o f o rm l a rg e d ro p le t s u nt i l a ll of th e d isp e r s e d d r op l et s h a v e c o al es ce d . Th e t hi r d c om p on e nt of t he s y s t em is an em u l si f yi n g a g e nt . Th i s ag e nt p re v e n ts c o ale s c e nc e a nd m a in t ai ns th e i n t eg r it y o f th e i n di vi d ua l d r op l et s . 2 . D i sp e r si o n s t a bi l i t y. I n an i de a l d i sp e r si o n , th e di s p e rs ed p ar t ic le s do n o t i n te r ac t . Th e p ar t ic les a re un i fo r m i n s i z e an d u n de r go no ch a ng e i n p o si t io n o t he r th a n t he ra n d om m o v em en t th a t r es u lt s f r om B ro wn i a n m o ti o n. I n c o n t ra s t , in a r e a l di s pe r s i on , th e p a rt i c l es a re no t u n if o rm l y s i z e d ( i .e . , t h e y a r e n o t m o n o di s pe r s e ). Th e p a rt i c l es a re s u bj ec t to p a r ti c ul a te ag g re g at i on , o r c l um p in g , a nd th e d is p e r s i on be co m es m o re h e t e ro ge n eo us wi t h ti m e. Th e r a t e o f s e t tl i n g ( se p a r a ti n g , o r c re a mi n g ) o f t h e d is p e rs ed ph as e i n th e di s p e rs io n m ed i um i s a f un c ti on o f t he pa r t ic le s i z e , d is pe r s i o n p ha s e v is c o s i t y , an d d i f fe r en c e in d en s i t y be t we e n th e d i sp e rs ed ph a s e an d t h e d is p e rs io n m ed iu m , i n ac co r d an c e wi t h S to k es ' s l aw :
wh e r e d is th e p a rt ic l e d ia m et e r , g i s t h e ac c e l e rat i o n o wi n g t o g r a v i t y , η is t h e vis c o s i t y o f t he di s p er s i on m e di um , a n d ( ρ 1 - ρ 2 ) is t h e d if f e re nc e b e t we e n th e d en s i t y o f th e pa r t ic le s ( ρ 1 ) an d th e d e ns i t y o f th e d is p e rs io n m e di um ( ρ 2 ) . Al t ho ug h St o k e s ' s la w wa s d e r i v e d t o de t e rm in e t h e s et t li ng, o r se d im en t at i on , o f n o nin t e r ac ti n g s p h e ri c a l p a rt i c l es , i t a ls o p r o v id e s g u id a nc e f o r d e te r m i ni n g t h e s ta b il i za ti on o f di s pe r s io n : a . P a r ti c le s iz e s h o ul d be as sm a l l as po ss ib l e. S m a ll e r p a rt ic l es y ie l d s l o we r s e di m e n ta t io n , o r f l ot a ti o n, r a te s . b . H i g h p a r ti c u la t e ( d isp e r s ed p ha s e) c on c en t ra t i o ns in c re as e t h e r a te o f p a r ti c l e - pa r t ic le c o ll is io ns an d i n te r ac t io n . A s a re s ul t , p a rt ic l e a gg r eg a ti on o cc u rs , an d i ns t ab il i t y i nc r e as es a s t h e a gg r eg a te s b e ha v e as la r ge r p a r ti c l e s . In t he c as e o f li q ui d - li qu i d d is pe r s i on s , p a r ti c l e - pa r t ic le c o ll is io ns c a n l ea d t o c oa l es c e nc e ( i . e ., la r g er pa r t ic le s ) a nd d ec r ea s e di sp e rs io n s t ab i li t y. c . Avo i d a n ce o f p a r t ic le - p a r t ic l e i n te r a c ti o n s
( 1 ) A gg r e ga t io n c an be pr e v e n t ed if th e p a r ti c l es h a v e a s i m i l a r e le c t r ic al c h a rg e . P a r ti c l es in an aq u e ou s s y s t em al wa ys ha ve so m e el e ct r ic al c h a rg e b e ca us e o f io n iz a t io n o f c he m i ca l g r o up s o n t he p a r ti c l e s u r fa ce o r a d s o r pt i o n o f c ha r ge d m o le c u l es o r io ns at t he i n t er f ac e . I f t h e a ds o rb ed s p ec ie s is a n i on i c s u r fa c t a nt ( e. g . , s o d iu m l au ry l s ul f a te ) , t h e c h a r ge a ss o ci at e d wi t h t he s u r fac t an t io n ( e .g . , l a ur y l su lf a t e a ni o n ) wi l l a cc u m u la t e a t t h e i nt e r fac e . Ho we ve r , i f a re l at i ve l y n on - s u r f ac e- a c t i v e e l ec t r ol y t e i s a ds o rb e d, th e s i gn of t he c h a rg e o f t h e a ds o r be d i on is le s s r e a di l y p re di c te d . ( 2 ) Th e ma g ni t u de o f t he c ha r g e i s t he di f fe r e nce i n e le ct r ic al p ot e nt ia l b e t we e n th e c ha r ge d s u rf a c e o f t he pa r t ic le an d th e bu lk of t he di s p e rs io n m e di um . Th is m a gn i tu de i s a pp r o xi m a te d b y t h e e l e c t ro k i ne t ic , or z e t a , p o t e n ti a l ( ζ ) . Th e z e ta po t e nt i al is m ea s u r e d f r om t he fi xe d , a vi dl y b ou nd l a ye r s o f i on s a nd s o l v ent m ol ec ul es on t he pa r ti cl e s u r fa c e . W hen ζ is h i gh ( e . g ., ≥ 25 m V ) , i n te r p ar ti c ul a te r ep u l si ve f o r ce s e xc e e d th e a t t ra ct i v e f o r ce s . A s a re s u l t, t he di s pe r s i on is de f l oc c ul a te d an d re l at i v el y s ta b le to c o ll is io n a n d s ub s e qu e nt a g g re ga t io n ( fl o cc u la t io n ) . W hen ζ is s o l o w t ha t i n t er p a rt ic u la t e a t t r ac t i ve f o r ce s p r e do m i na t e , l oo s e p a rt ic l e a gg r eg a te s , o r f l oc s , f o rm (i . e. , f lo cc u l a ti o n o c c u rs ) . d . D e ns i t y c a n b e m an i pu l a te d t o d ec r e as e t he ra t e o f di s p e rs io n i n st a bi li t y . Th e s e tt l in g P.42
r a t e d ec r e as es a s ( ρ 1 - ρ 2 ) a pp r oa ch e s z e r o . H o we ve r , th e d e ns i t y o f th e d i sp e rs io n m ed i um u s ua ll y c an n ot be al t e re d s u ff ic i en t l y to ha l t t he s e t tl ing ( o r f lo t at i on ) p r oc es s . I n t h e d is p e rs ed ph as e , t he d e ns it y o f s ol i d p ar t ic les i s n o t r e ad il y a l te r ed ; al te r i ng t he de ns i t y o f l i qu id p a rt ic l es wo u ld r eq ui r e t h e a d di t io n o f a m i s c ib le l iq ui d o f hi gh e r (o r l o we r ) de ns i t y . Al t e ri ng t he c om p os it i on of s u s p e ns io n s is al so p ro b le m a t ic be c a u se m o st s o li d p a r ti c l e s a re de n s e r th an t h e d is pe r s i o n m e d iu m . A d d i ti v e s o f h ig h er ( o r l o we r ) d en s i t y m i g ht al t er t h e b io p ha rm a ce u ti c a l c h a ra c t e ri s ti c s o f th e f o r m u l at io n (e . g ., r at e o f d r u g r el e as e, r es id e nc e t i m e a t t he s i te o f a d m i ni s t ra ti o n , o r a bs o rpt i o n) . e . Th e se d im e n ta t i on , or f l o t at i o n, r a te is in v e rs e l y p r o po r ti o na l t o th e vi s c o s i t y. A n i n c r e as e in t he vi s c os i t y o f t h e d is p e r si o n m e di u m d e c re as es th e ra t e o f s ett l i ng , o r fl o ta t io n . H o we v e r , al t ho u gh th e ra t e o f d e st a bi li z a t io n c a n b e s lo we d b y a n i nc r ea se in v i s c os i t y , i t c a nn o t b e h a l te d . 3 . E mu l s io n s t a bi l i t y. C o a l es c en c e oc c ur s i n em u ls io n s ys te m s wh e n t he l i qu i d p a rt ic l es o f th e d is p e r s e d p ha s e m e r ge t o fo r m l a rg e r p a r ti cl es . C o a l esc e nc e is la r g el y pr e v e n t ed b y th e i n t e r fa ci a l f il m o f s u r fa ct a nt a r o un d th e d r op l et s . Th is f ilm p re v e n ts di r ec t c on t ac t of th e l i qu i d p ha se o f t h e d r o pl e ts . C o al es c e n c e o f d r op l et s i n o il in wa te r ( o / w) em u ls io ns is a ls o i n hi b it e d b y t he el e c t ro st a t i c re p u ls i on o f s i m i lar l y c ha r ge d pa r ti c l es . C r e a m i ng is th e re ve r s ib l e s e pa r at i on of a l a y e r o f em ul s i fi e d p a rt ic l es .
B e c au se m i xi n g o r s h ak in g m a y be s u f fi ci e nt t o re c on s t i tu t e t h e em u ls io n s ys t em , c r ea m i ng is no t n e c e s s a ri l y un ac c e p ta b le . H o we v e r , c ra c ki n g , or i r r e ve r s i b le p ha s e s ep ar a t i o n , is ne v e r ac c e p tab l e . P h as e i n ve r s i on , or e m ul si o n- t y p e r e v e rs a l, in v o l v e s t h e r e ve rs io n o f a n em ul si o n f r om a n o / w t o a wa t e r in oi l ( w/ o ) fo rm , or v i ce v e rs a . P h as e in ve r s io n c an c h an g e t he c o ns is te n c y o r te xt u r e o f t h e e m u ls io n o r c a us e fu r t h er de t e ri o ra t io n i n i t s s t ab i li t y .
V. CHEMICAL KINETICS AND DRUG STABILITY A. I n t r o d u c t io n . Th e s tab i l i t y o f t h e ac t i ve co mp o n e nt o f a d r u g is a m a jo r c r i te r io n i n t h e r a tio n al de s i g n a nd e val u at i o n of d ru g d os a ge fo r m s. P r o b le m s wi t h s t a bi l i t y c a n d et e rm i ne wh e t he r a g i v e n f o rm ul a ti o n is a cc e pt e d o r re j ec te d . 1 . E xt e n s i v e c h em ic a l d eg r a da t io n o f th e a c ti v e i ng r e di e nt ca n c au s e s u b s ta n t ia l lo s s o f ac t i ve i ng r ed i en t fr om t he dos a ge fo r m . 2 . C he m i c al d e g ra d at i on c an p ro d uc e a to x ic p ro d u c t t h at ha s u nd es i r ab l e s i de ef f ec ts . 3 . I ns ta b il it y o f th e d r ug p r o du c t c a n c au s e d ec r ea s e d b i oa va i l ab i l i t y. A s a r e s ul t , t he t he r ap e ut ic e ff i c a c y of t he do sa ge f o rm m a y b e su bs t an t ia l l y r e d uc ed . B . R a t es a nd o r de r s of r e a c t io n s 1 . Th e r a te o f a re a c ti on , o r d eg r a da t io n r a te , is t h e v el oc i t y wi t h wh ic h th e r e a ct i on oc c u rs . Th is r ate is e xp r e ss ed as d C/ d t ( t h e c ha n ge in c o nc en t r at i on , o r C , wi t hi n a g i v en ti m e in t e r val , o r d t ). a . R ea c ti o n r a te s d ep e nd o n c e r t ai n c on d it i on s (e . g . , r e ac t a nt c o n ce n t r a ti o n , t em p e r at u r e , p H, p r es e nc e o f so l ve n t s o r a dd i t i ve s ). R a d i at i on an d c at a l y ti c ag e n ts (e . g. , po l y va l en t ca t i on s ) a ls o h a ve a n e f f ec t . b . Th e ef f ec t i v e s tu d y of r e ac t io n ra t es i n th e b od y r e q ui r es ap pl ic a ti o n of p h a r ma c ok i n et i c p r i n cip l e s ( s e e C ha p te r 6 ) . 2 . Th e o rd e r o f a re a c tio n is th e wa y i n wh ic h t he co nc e n tr a ti o n o f t h e d ru g o r r ea c ta n t i n a c he m i c a l r e ac t io n a f fe c ts th e r a t e. Th e r a te of a r e ac ti o n, d C / d t , is p ro p or t io n al to t h e c on c en t ra t io n to th e n t h p o we r , wh e r e n is the o r d e r o f t h e r e ac ti o n— t ha t is ,
Th e s t ud y o f r e ac ti o n o rd e r s is a c ru c i a l as p ec t o f ph a rm ac ok i ne t ic s ( s ee C h a p te r 6 ). U s u al l y , ph ar m a c eu t i ca l de g r ad a t ion c an be t re a te d a s a z e r o - o rd e r , fi r s t - o rd e r , o r h i gh e r - o rd e r r ea c t ion . Th e fi r s t t wo a r e s um m a r i z e d as f ol lo ws . a . I n a z e r o- o r d e r re a ct io n , th e ra t e is in d e pe nd e n t o f t he c on c en t r a t io n o f t h e r e ac t a n ts (i . e ., dC / d t
0
C ) (s e e C h ap t e r 6 ) . O th e r f a ct o rs , s uc h a s
a b so r p ti on o f l ig h t in c e rt a i n p ho t oc he m i c a l re ac ti o ns , d e te r m i n e t he r at e . P.43
Figure 3-6. Concentration (C) versus time (t) for a zero-order reaction. The slope of the line equals -k0. The slope of the line is not equal to the rate constant because it includes the minus sign.
( 1 ) A z e r o -o r d e r re a c ti on c an be e xp r e s s ed as : C = -k0t + C0 wh e r e C is t he d ru g c on c e n t r at i on , k 0 i s t he ze r o -o r d e r r a te co ns t an t i n u n i ts o f c o nc en t r at i on / tim e , t is th e t im e , a nd C 0 i s t h e in i ti a l c o nc e n tr a tio n . ( 2 ) W hen t h is e q ua t io n is pl o t te d wi t h C on t he ve r t ic al a xi s ( or d in a te ) a g ai n st t o n t h e h o ri z o n ta l a xi s (a bs ci ss a ), t he slo p e of t he l in e is eq u a l t o - k 0 ( F ig u re 3 -6 ) . Th e n e g at i v e s ig n i n di c a t es th a t th e s lo pe is d e c re as in g . b . I n a fi r s t - o r de r r ea c t io n , th e ra t e de p en d s o n t h e fi r s t pow e r o f t h e c o n ce n t r a ti o n o f a s in gl e r e ac t an t ( i. e ., d C /d t
1
C ).
( 1 ) I n a f i rs t - o rd e r r e ac tio n , d ru g c o n ce n t r at i o n d e c r ea s es ex p on e n ti a l ly w i t h t i me , i n a c c o rd a nc e wi t h t he eq ua t io n C = C0e
-k t 1
wh e r e C is t he c o nc en t r at i o n o f t h e r ea c ti ng m a t er i a l, C 0 i s t h e i ni ti a l c o nc en t r at i on , k 1 i s t he fi r s t -o r de r r at e c on s ta n t in u ni ts o f r ec ip r oc a l t im e, a n d t is ti m e . A p lo t o f the l og a ri t hm of c o nc en t r ati o n a ga i ns t t im e p r o du ces a s tr a ig h t l in e wi t h a s lop e of -k / 2 .3 0 3 ( Fi g u re 3 -7 ) . ( 2 ) Th e ha l f - li f e (t 1 / 2 ) o f a r e ac ti o n is th e ti m e req u i re d fo r th e c o nc en t r at i on of a d r ug to d ec r ea s e b y o n e h al f . F o r a f i rs t -o r de r r ea ct i on, h a l f- l if e i s e xp r e s s e d b y :
( 3 ) Th e t im e re q u i re d for a d r u g t o d e g r ad e t o 90 % of it s o r ig i na l c o nc en t r at i on ( t 9 0 % ) is als o i m p o r ta n t. Th i s t im e re p r es en t s a re as o na bl e l i m i t o f d e g ra da t io n fo r th e ac ti ve in g r ed ie n ts . The t 9 0 % c an be ca lc ul a te d as:
( a ) B ec au s e k 1 = 0 .6 9 3 / t ½ ( b ) Th e n
P.44
Figure 3-7. Logarithm of concentration (log C) versus time (t) for a first-order reaction. The slope of the line equals -k/2.303.
( 4 ) B o th t ½ an d t 9 0 % a re c o n ce n t r a ti o n i n de p e nd e n t . Th us , f o r t ½ , i t t ak e s t h e s am e a m o u nt of t im e t o re d uc e t h e c o nc e nt r at i o n o f t h e d ru g fr om 1 00 m M t o 5 0 m M a s it do es f r o m 5 0 m M t o 25 m M. C . F a ct o r s th a t a f f ec t re a c t io n r at e s. F ac to r s ot h e r t h an c o nc en t r at i on c a n a f f ec t t h e r e ac ti o n r a te an d s t ab i li t y o f a d r ug . The s e f ac t o rs i nc l ud e t e m p e r at u re , th e p r es e nc e o f a so l v e nt , p H, an d t h e p r es e nc e o f a dd i ti ves . 1 . T em pe r a t u r e. A n i n c re a s e i n t e mp e r a tu r e c au s es a n i n c r e as e i n r e a ct i on ra t e , as e xp r e s s e d in th e e q ua t io n f i rs t s u g g es te d b y A r r h en iu s : k = Ae
-Ea/RT
or
wh e r e k i s t h e s p ec i fi c re a c t i on r at e c on s ta n t, A i s a c o ns t an t k no wn a s th e f r e q ue nc y f ac t or , E a is th e en e rg y o f a c ti v a t io n , R i s t h e m o l a r g as c on s ta n t ( 1 . 9 87 c a l/ d eg r ee × m ol e) , a nd T i s t he ab so l ut e te m pe r a tu r e. a . Th e co n s ta n ts A an d E a a re o bt ai n ed b y de t erm i ni ng k a t s e ve ra l t e m p e r at u re s a n d t he n pl o t ti n g l og k ag a in st 1 /T . Th e s lo pe o f t he r es ul t in g l i ne eq u al s - E a / (2 . 30 3 × R ) . Th e in t e rc ep t on th e v e r t i c a l a xi s e qu a ls l o g A . b . Th e ac ti v a t io n e n e rg y ( E a ) is th e a m o u nt of ene r g y r eq u i re d t o p u t t h e m o le cu l es i n a n a c t i va ted s t a te . Mo l ec u le s m u s t b e ac ti v a t ed t o r e ac t. A s
t e m p e ra t u r e i nc r e as e s , m o re m o le c u l es a r e a c t iv a t e d , a nd t he r ea c t io n r a t e i nc r e as es . 2 . P r es e nc e of s ol ve n t . Ma n y d o s a ge fo r m s re qu i r e t h e in c or p o ra t io n o f a wa t e r - m is c i b le s o l v en t —f o r e xa m pl e , l o w m ol ec ula r we i g h t a lc oh ol s , su c h a s th e p ol y e t h y le n e g l y c o l s ( P E G s ) —t o s t ab il i ze t h e d r u g. a . A c h an ge in t he s o l ven t s ys t em al t e r s t he t ra ns i ti o n s ta t e a nd th e a c t i vi t y c o e f f i c ie n ts o f t h e re ac t an t m ol e cu le s . It c an al so c a us e s im u lt a ne o us c ha n ge s i n p h y s i c o c he m i c a l p a ra m e t e rs , s uc h a s p K a , su r f ac e t e ns i on , a n d v i s c os i t y . Th e s e c h an g es in d i r ec t l y a f f ec t t he r ea c t io n r a te. b . I n so m e c a s e s , a dd i t io n a l re a c ti o n p a thw a ys a r e g e ne r at e d. F o r e xa m p l e , wi t h a n in c re as i n g c on ce n t ra t io n o f e t han o l i n a n a qu e ou s s o lu t io n , as p i ri n d eg r a des b y an e xt r a r ou t e a nd fo r m s th e et h y l e st e r o f a c et yl sa l ic y l ic a c i d . Ho we v e r , a c ha n g e i n s o l ven t c an a ls o s t a bi l iz e the drug. P.45
3 . C h an g e i n p H . Th e m a g ni t ud e of th e ra t e o f a h y d r o l yt ic re ac t io n +
-
c a ta l yze d b y H a n d O H c an v a r y co ns i de r ab l y wi t h p H . +
-
a . H ca t a l ys i s p r e do m in a t es a t low e r p H , wh e re a s O H ca t a l ys i s o p e rat e s a t h ig h e r p H . A t i n te r me d i a te p H , t he r at e m a y b e p H i n de p e nd e n t o r m a y +
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b e c a ta l y z e d b y b o t h H a n d O H . R a te c o ns t an ts i n t h e i nt e rm e di a te p H r a n ge a re t y pi c al l y l es s th a n t h os e a t h ig h e r o r l owe r p H . b . To d et e rm i ne th e e f f ec t o f p H o n d e g ra d a ti on k i ne t i cs , d ec om p os it i on +
i s m ea s u r e d a t s e v e ra l H c o nc en t r at io n s. Th e p H o f o p ti m um st a b il i t y c a n b e de t e rm in ed b y pl o tt i ng t he lo g a ri t hm o f th e r a te c o ns t a nt (k ) as a f u nc t io n o f p H ( F ig u re 3 -8 ) . Th e po i n t o f in f l ec t io n o f t he pl o t is t he p H o f o p t im um s t ab il i t y . Th is va l ue is us ef u l i n t he de v e l op m en t o f a s t a bl e d r ug f o r m u l at io n . 4 . P r es e nc e of a dd i t i ves a . B u f fe r s al t s m us t b e a d d ed to m a n y dr u g so l ut i o ns to m a in t ai n t h e f o r m u l at io n at op t im um pH . Th e s e sa l ts ca n a f f ect t h e ra t e o f de g r a da t i on , p r i m a r il y as a r e s u lt o f s a l t i nc r e as in g t h e i on ic st r e n gt h . ( 1 ) I nc r ea s i ng s a l t c o nc en t r a ti o ns , p a rt ic u la r l y f rom po l y e le c t r o l y te s ( e .g . , c i t ra t e, ph os p ha t e ), c a n s u b s ta n t ia l l y a f f e c t t h e m a gn i t u de o f p K a . I n t hi s wa y, t h e y c h an ge t he ra te c o ns t a nt . ( 2 ) B u ff e r s al ts c a n a ls o p r o m o te d r u g d eg r a da t io n t h ro ug h g e ne r al ac id o r b as e c a t al y s is . b . Th e ad d i t io n o f su r f ac t a n ts m a y ac c e l e ra t e or d ec e le r at e d r u g d e g ra d at i on . ( 1 ) Ac c e l e ra t i on o f d e gr a d a t io n is c om m o n a nd i s c au s e d b y m i ce l la r c a ta l ysi s . ( 2 ) S t ab i l iz a ti o n o f a d ru g t h ro ug h th e a dd i ti o n o f a s ur f ac t an t i s l es s c om m o n .
c . C om p le x i ng ag e n ts c a n im p ro v e dr u g s ta b il it y. A r om a ti c e s t e rs ( e. g ., b e n zoc a in e , p r oc ai ne , tet r a c a i ne ) in c r ea s e i n h al f - l i f e i n t he p re s e nc e o f c a f fe in e . Thi s i nc r ea s ed s t ab i li t y ap p ea r s t o r es u l t f r om th e f o rm a ti o n o f a l e ss re ac t i v e c om pl e x b et we e n t h e a ro m a t ic es te r a n d t he c a f fe i ne . D . M od e s o f ph a r ma c eut i c a l d e g ra d a ti o n. Th e d e c o m p os i ti o n o f a c t i v e i n g re d ie n ts i n a do s a g e fo r m o c c u rs th r ou g h s e v e r a l p a t h wa ys (e . g. , h yd r o l ys i s , o xi d a ti o n, pho t o l ys is ; s e e C h ap t e r 1 2, I I . A ) . 1 . H yd r o l ys i s i s t he m o s t c om m o n t yp e o f d e g ra da t i on be c a us e m an y m e di ci n al c om p ou nd s a re es t e rs , a m i d es , o r l ac ta m s . +
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a . H an d O H a r e t h e m o s t c om m o n c a t al y s ts o f h yd r o l y t ic d e g ra da t io n i n s o lu t io n . b . E s te r s u s ua ll y u nd e r go h y d r ol y t ic r ea c t i on s t ha t c a us e d r ug in s ta bi l it y . B e c au se es t er s a r e r a pid l y d eg r ad e d i n a qu e ou s s ol u ti o n, f or m u l at o rs a re r e l uc t an t t o i nc o r po r a te d r u gs th a t h a v e e s t e r f un c ti o na l g r ou ps in t o l iq u id d o sa g e f o rm s .
Figure 3-8. Semilogarithmic plot of the rate constant (k) versus pH. This plot is used to determine the pH of optimum stability.
P.46
2 . O x i da t i on is u s u a ll y m e di a te d t h r ou gh r ea c ti on wi t h a tm os ph e ri c o xyg e n u n d er am bi e nt c o n di ti o ns ( au t o -o xi d a t io n ) . a . Me d i c i n al c om p ou n ds t h a t u nd e r go au t o -o xi d a ti o n a t ro om te m p e r at u r e a r e af f ec te d b y o x yg e n d i s so l ve d in t he s ol ve nt a n d i n t he he a d sp ac e o f t h e ir p ac k a ge s . Th e s e c o m po u nd s sh o ul d b e p ack e d i n a n i n e r t a t m o sp h e re ( e. g . , ni t r oge n ) to e xc l ud e a i r f r om th e i r c on t ai ne r s. b . Mo s t o xi d a ti o n r e ac ti on s i n v o l ve a f re e r ad i ca l m e ch a ni s m a nd a c h ain r e a c t io n . F r e e r ad ic a ls te n d t o ta k e el ec t r on s f r om o th e r c om po un ds . ( 1 ) An t i o x id a n ts in t he fo r m ul a ti on r ea ct wi t h th e f r e e r a di ca ls b y p r o vi di ng e l ec t r on s a nd ea s i l y a v ail a bl e h yd r o ge n a t om s . In t h is wa y , t h e y p r e v e nt th e p r o pa g at i on of c h ai n re ac t io ns .
( 2 ) C o mm o nl y u s e d a n ti o x i da n t s in cl u de as co rb i c ac i d, bu t y l a te d h yd r o xya n i s o le ( B H A ), bu t y l a te d h y d r o xy t o l u e ne ( B H T) , p r o p y l g al l at e , s o di um bi s u l fi t e, s o di um s u lf i te , a n d t h e t oc op h e ro l s . 3 . P h ot o l ys i s i s th e de gr a d a ti on o f d ru g m ol ec u le s b y n o rm al su nl i gh t o r r o o m li g ht . a . Mo l e c u l es m a y ab s o r b t h e p r op e r wa v e l en g th of l ig h t a nd ac q u i re s u f f i ci e n t e ne r g y t o u nd e r g o re a c ti o n . U su a ll y, p h ot o l y ti c d eg r a da t io n o cc u rs on e xp o s ur e to lig h t o f wa v e l e ng t hs < 400 nm . b . A n a m be r g la ss b o tt le o r a n o p a qu e c o n ta i ne r a c t s a s a b a r ri e r t o t hi s l i gh t , t h e re b y p re v e n ti ng o r r et a rd i ng ph o to l ys i s . F o r e xa m pl e , s od iu m n i t ro p r us s i de in aq u eo us s ol u ti o n h as a s h el f li f e o f on l y 4 h r i f e xp o s e d t o n o r m a l r o om l i gh t . W hen p r o te c t e d f r om li gh t , t h e s ol u ti o n is st a bl e f o r a t l e as t 1 y e a r. E . D e t e rm i n at i o n o f s h el f l i fe . Th e s he l f l if e o f a d r u g p re p a ra t io n i s t he a m ou n t o f t im e t h at t he p r o du c t ca n b e s t o re d b ef o r e i t b ec om e s u nf i t f o r u s e, t hr o ug h e i th e r c he m i c al de co m p os i ti o n o r p hy s i ca l d e te r i or a ti o n. 1 . S t o ra g e t e mp e r a tu r e a f f ec ts s h el f l i fe . It is gen e r al l y un d e rs to o d t o b e a m bi e nt te m p e r at u r e u nle s s s p ec i al s t o ra ge c o n di t i o n s a r e s p ec i fi e d. 2 . I n g en e r a l, a p r e pa r at i o n is co n s id e r ed f i t f or u s e i f i t va r i e s f r o m th e n o m i na l c o nc e n t ra t i o n o r d o se b y n o m o r e t h an 1 0 %, p r o vi d e d t h at t he d e co m p os i ti o n p ro d uc ts a r e no t m o re to xi c o r h a rm f ul t ha n t h e o ri g in al m a te r i al . 3 . S he l f - l if e te s t in g a i ds in de t e rm in i ng th e s ta nd a r d s he l f li f e o f a f o r m u l at io n . a . Sa m p l es a r e s t o re d a t 3 - 5 ° C a n d a t r oo m t em p er a tu r e (2 02 5 ° C ) . Th e s a m p l es ar e t h e n a na l yz e d a t v a ri o us i n te r va ls to de t e rm in e th e r a t e o f d ec o mp o s it i o n. S h e l f li f e i s c a lc u la t ed f ro m th is ra t e . b . B ec a us e s t o r ag e t im e a t th es e t e m p e ra t u re s ca n r es ul t i n a n e xt e n d e d t e s ti ng ti m e, ac c el e r a ted t e s ti n g i s c o n du ct e d as we l l , wi t h a ra n ge of h i gh e r te m p e ra t u re s . Th e r a t e c o ns t an t s o b ta i ne d f ro m t he s e s a m p l es ar e u s ed to p re d ic t s he l f li f e a t am bi e nt o r r e f ri ge r a ti on t em pe r a tu r es . T e m pe r a t u re - a cc e le r a t ed s t ab i l i t y t e s t i n g is n o t u se f ul if t em pe r a tu r e c h an g es a r e a c c om pa n ied b y c h a ng es in th e re act i o n m e c h a ni s m o r b y p h ys ic al c h an g es i n th e s y s t em (e . g. , c h an g e f r om t he s o li d t o t h e l iq ui d p h as e ) . c . S ta b i li t y a t r o o m te mp e r a t u re c a n b e p r ed ic te d f ro m a cc el e ra t ed te s tin g d a t a b y t he A r rh e ni us equ a t io n :
wh e r e k T 2 an d k T 1 a re the r a te c o ns t an ts at t he ab s ol u te te m p e r at u r es T 2 a n d T 1 , re s p ec t i v el y ; R is t he m o la r g a s co ns t an t; a nd E a is t he en e rg y o f a c ti va t io n . d . A l te r na t i v el y , an e xp r e s s i on of co nc e nt r a ti on c a n b e p lo t te d a s a li ne ar f u nc t io n o f ti m e . R at e c on s ta n ts (k ) fo r de g ra d at io n at se v e r al t em pe r at u re s a r e ob t ai ne d . Th e l og a ri th m o f th e ra t e co ns t an t (l o g k ) i s p lo t te d a g ai ns t
t h e re ci p ro c al o f ab s o l ute t em pe r a tu r e (1 / T ) t o ob t a in , b y e xt r a p o la t io n , th e r a t e c on s ta n t f o r d eg r ada t i on at r oo m t em pe r a tu re ( F ig u re 3 -9 ) . e . Th e le n g th o f t i me t ha t t h e d r u g w i l l m a in t a in i t s re q ui r e d p o t en c y c a n a ls o b e p r ed ic t ed b y c al c u l at i on of t he t 9 0 % ( se e V . B. 2 .b . ( 3 ) ). Th is m e th o d a pp li e s t o c h e m ic a l r e ac ti o ns wi t h a c t i v a ti o n e ne r g ie s o f 1 0 -3 0 k ca l /m ol , th e m ag n it u de o f t he ac ti v a t io n e n e rg y fo r m a n y ph a rm ac e ut ic a l d e g ra d at i on s t ha t oc c u r in s o l ut i on . P.47
Figure 3-9. Semilogarithmic plot of the rate constant (k) versus the reciprocal of absolute temperature (1/T), showing the temperature dependency of degradation rates.
VI. DRUG DOSAGE FORMS AND DELIVERY SYSTEMS A. O r a l s o l u t io n s. Th e U n i t e d St a t es P ha r m aco p e ia ( U S P ) 3 1 / Na t i o nal F o r m u la r y ( N F) 26 c a t eg o r i z es o ra l so l u ti o n s as “ li qu i d p r ep a ra t io ns , i n t en de d fo r or a l a dm in is t r a t io n , t ha t c o nt a in on e o r m o r e s ub s t a nc es wi t h o r wi t h o ut fl a v o r in g , s we e t e ni ng , o r co l or i ng ag en t s d is so l ve d in wa t e r o r c os o l ven t - wa t e r m i xt u r e s . ” O r a l s ol u ti on s c an c o nt a i n c e r t ai n p o l yol s ( e .g ., s o r bi t ol , g l y c e r in ) to in h ib i t c r y s ta ll i za ti o n a nd to m o di f y so lu b il i t y, t as t e, m o ut h fe el , an d o t he r v eh i c l e p r op e r ti es . Th e y c an b e “ f o rm ul a te d f o r d i rec t o r a l a dm in is t r at i on to t he p at i en t o r th e y m a y b e d i s p e ns ed in a m o r e c o nc en t r at e d f o rm th a t m us t be di lu t ed p ri o r t o a d m i ni s t ra ti o n .” D r u gs in s o l u t io n a r e m o re ho m og e n eo us an d e as i er t o s wa l l o w t h a n d r u gs i n s ol id f o r m . F or d ru gs t ha t h a ve a s lo w d i s s o lu ti o n r a te, o ns e t o f a c t i on an d b i oa va i la b il it y a r e a ls o im p r o v ed . Ho we ve r , d r ugs i n s o lu t io n a r e b u lk ie r d o sa g e f o rm s , de g ra d e m o r e r ap i dl y , an d a r e m o r e l i k e l y to in t e ra c t wi t h c o ns ti t ue n ts th a n t ho s e in s o l id fo r m . 1 . Wa t e r i s t h e m os t com m o nl y u s e d ve h i cl e for d r ug s o lu t io ns . Th e U SP r e c og ni z e s s e v en t y p es o f wa t e r fo r th e p r ep a r at io n of do s a g e f o rm s :
a . P u r i fi e d w a t e r U S P is wa t e r o b ta in e d b y di s ti lla t i on , i o n e xc h a ng e , r e v e r s e os m o s i s , o r o t her s ui t ab l e t r ea tm e nt . It c a n n ot c o nt a in m o r e t ha n 1 0 pa r ts pe r m i ll io n (p pm ) o f to t al s o li d a nd s h ou l d h a ve a p H b et we e n 5 a n d 7 . Pu r i fi ed wa t e r is u s ed in p re s c r ip ti o ns and f in is h ed m a nu f ac tu r e d p r o du c ts e xc e p t pa r en t e ra l an d o p ht h al m i c p ro d uc t s . b . W at e r f o r i n je c t io n US P i s wa t e r ob t ai n ed b y d i st i ll a ti on o r b y r e ve rs e o sm o si s . I t c o n fo r m s to th e s t an d a rd s o f p u ri f ie d wa t e r b u t i s al s o f r ee of p yr o g en . W at e r f o r i nj ec ti o n i s us e d as a s ol v e n t f o r th e p r e pa r a ti on o f p a r en t e ra l s ol u ti o ns . c . S te r i l e w a t e r fo r i nj ec t i o n U SP is wa t e r fo r i nj e ct i on th a t i s s t e r il i z ed a n d p ac k a g ed in s i ng le -d o s e c o n ta in e rs of t y p e I a n d I I g l as s . Th es e c o nt a in e rs do no t e xc e e d a c ap a c i t y of 1 L . Th e li m it a ti o ns f o r to t al s o li ds d e p en d o n t h e s i z e o f t he c o n ta i ne r . d . B a ct e r i os t a t ic w a te r f o r i n je c t io n U S P i s s te ri l e wa t e r f o r i nj ec t io n t h at c o nt a in s o ne o r m o r e s uit a b le an t im ic r ob ia l a g en ts . It is al s o pa c k ag e d i n s i ng le - o r m u l ti p le - do s e c o nt a in e rs of t y p e I o r I I g l as s . Th e s e c o nt a in e rs d o n o t e xc e e d th e c ap ac i t y o f 30 m L . e . S t e ri l e w at e r f o r i n hal a t i o n U S P is wa t e r t h at i s p u ri f ie d b y d is t il la t io n o r b y r e v e rs e os m o s i s (i .e . , wa t e r f o r i nj e c t i on ) an d r en de r e d s te r il e . I t c o nt a in s n o a nt im ic r o bi al a g en ts , e xc e pt wh e n us e d in hu m i di f ie r s o r s im ila r d e vi ce s. Th i s t y p e o f wa te r s h o ul d n o t b e us e d f or p a re n te r a l a dm in is t ra t io n o r f o r o th e r s te r il e do s a ge f o rm s . f . S t e r il e w a te r f o r i r r i ga t i o n U SP is wa t e r fo r i nj e c t i on th a t i s s t e r il i zed a n d s ui t ab l y pa c k ag e d. It c on t ai ns no an t im ic r ob ia l ag en t s o r o t he r ad d ed s u bs ta n c e . P.48
g . S t e r il e p u r i f ie d w a ter U S P i s p u ri fi e d wa t e r st e r il i ze d a nd s u i ta bl y p a ck ag e d. I t c o n ta i ns n o a n ti m i c ro bi a l a ge n t. I t i s n o t i nt e nd e d f o r u s e i n p a r en t e ra ls . 2 . O r a l d r u g s o l ut i o ns in c lu d e s yr u p s a nd e li x i rs as we l l a s o t he r le s s wi d e l y p r es c ri be d c la s s ic ( g a le n i ca l ) f o rm ul a ti o ns, s uc h as a r om a t ic w a te r s , ti n c tu r e s, f l ui de x t r a ct s , a nd s pi r i t s. a . S yr u p s a r e t r a di ti o na ll y p e r or a l so l ut i on s t ha t c o nt a in hi g h c o nc en t r at i on s o f s uc r os e o r o t he r s u ga r s . Th r o ug h c om m o n us ag e , t he t e r m s y r up ha s a ls o c om e t o i nc lu d e a n y o t he r li qu i d d os a ge fo r m p r ep a red i n a s we e t , v i s c ou s v eh ic l e , i nc l ud in g p e r or a l s us p e ns i on s. ( 1 ) S yr u p N F ( s i mp l e s yr u p ) is a co nc e nt r a te d o r n e a rl y s a t u ra t ed aq u eo us s o lu t io n o f s ug a r (8 5% ; 6 5 % w/ w) . ( 2 ) S yr u ps ha v e a l ow so l ve n t ca p ac i t y f o r w a te r - s o lu b l e d r u gs be c a us e t h e h yd r o ge n b o nd in g b et we e n s uc ro s e a nd wa t e r i s v er y s t ro n g. Fo r t hi s r e a so n , i t c a n be di f fi c u l t o r im po s s ib l e t o d iss o l ve a d r u g i n a s yr u p. O f t en , t h e d r u g is be s t di s s o l v ed i n a s m a ll qu a nt i t y of wa t e r , a nd t he fl a v o ri n g s yr u p i s a dd e d.
( 3 ) Th e su c r os e c o n ce nt r a t i o n o f s yr u p p la y s a c r uc i al ro l e i n t he co n tr ol o f m i cr o bi al g ro wt h . D i lut e s u c ro s e s o lu t io ns a re e xc e l l e nt m e di a f o r m ic r o or g an is m s . As th e c o nc en t r at i on of s u c ro s e a p p ro ac he s s at u r at i on , th e s yr u p b ec om e s s e l f -p r es e r v i n g ( i .e . , re qu i r es n o a d di t io n al p re s e r v a t i v e) . H o we ve r , a s a t u ra t ed s o lu t i on is u n de s i r ab l e b ec a u s e te m p e r at u r e f l uc t ua t io ns m a y c a us e c r y s t a ll i za ti o n. S yr u p N F i s a s e l fp r es e r ved s o lu t io n wi t h a m i ni m a l te nd e nc y t o un d e rg o c r y st a ll i z a ti on . b . E l ix i r s a r e t r ad i ti o na lly p e r o ra l s ol u ti o ns th a t c o n t ai n a lc o ho l a s a c os o l ven t . Ma n y p e ro r al s o lu t io ns a re no t d es c ri be d as e l i xi r s b u t c on t ai n a l co h ol . ( 1 ) To b e c o ns i de r ed an e l i xi r , t he s o lu t io n m u st c o n t ai n al c oh o l . Tr a d i t io n al l y , th e a lc oh o l c on t en t of el i xi r s ha s v ar i e d f r om 5% to 40 % . Mo s t e l i xi r s b e c o m e tu r bi d wh e n m o de r a te l y di lu t ed b y a q ue o us l i qu id s . E li xi r s a r e no t t h e p r ef e r re d v ehi c le fo r s a lt s b ec a us e a lc o h ol ac c e n tu a te s s al in e t a s te . Sa l ts a ls o h a v e l im i te d s ol u bi li t y i n a lc oh ol . Th e r ef o r e, th e a lc o ho l ic c o nt e nt o f s a l t -c on t ai n ing e li xi r s m u s t be lo w. ( 2 ) Ar o m a t i c e l ix i r N F, p r e pa r e d i n p ar t f ro m s y ru p , c on t ai ns ap p r o xi m ate l y 2 2 % a lc o ho l. Th e li m i t ed u s e f ul n es s o f t hi s e li xi r a s a s o l v e nt fo r d ru gs wa s o f f se t b y t h e d e v el op m en t o f i so - a lc o h ol i c e l ix ir . I t i s a c om b in a ti o n o f l ow -a l co h o li c e l i xi r , an e l i xi r wi t h lo w a l c oh ol ic c o nt e nt ( 8% - 1 0% al c o h o l) , a n d h i g h -a l co h ol i c e l ix ir , a n e li xi r wi t h h i gh al c oh o li c c on t en t (7 3 %- 7 8% a l co h ol ) . Mi xi n g a pp r o pr ia t e v ol um es o f t he t wo el i xi r s p ro v i d es a n a lc o ho li c c o nt e nt s u f fi c i e nt t o di s s o l v e th e d r u gs . B . M is c el l a ne o us so l u t io n s 1 . Ar o m a t i c w a t e rs a re c l ea r , s a t u ra t e d a qu e o us s o lu t i on s o f vo l a t il e o i l s o r ot h er a ro m a t ic or v o l a ti l e s u bs t an ce s . A r om a ti c wa t e rs m a y be us ed a s p l ea s a n tl y f la v o r e d v eh i c l es fo r a wa t e r - s o l ub le d r ug or as an aq u eo us p h as e i n a n e m u ls i on or s us p en s i o n. I f a l a r ge am o u n t o f wa t e r -s ol u bl e dr u g i s a d de d t o a n a r om a ti c wa t e r , t h en an in s o lu b le l a y e r m a y f or m a t t h e t op . Th i s “s a lt i n g o u t” is a c o m pe t it i v e p r oc es s . Th e m o le cu l es o f wa t e r -s ol u bl e d r u gs ha v e m o r e a tt r ac t io n fo r th e s ol ve n t m ol ec u l es of wa t e r th a n t he “ oi l ” m o le cu l es . Th e as s o c i a te d wa t e r m ol ec u le s a r e p u ll e d a wa y f r o m t he oi l m o le cu l es , wh i c h a r e n o l o ng e r h e ld in s o lu t io n . A r o m at ic wa t e rs s h ou l d b e s t o re d i n t i gh t , l ig h t - re s is t an t bo t tl es t o r ed uc e vo l a ti li z a t io n a n d d e g ra d at i on f ro m s un li g ht . A r om a ti c wa t e r s a r e us u al l y p re pa r e d b y on e of t h e fo ll o wi n g m et h od s : a . D i s ti l la t i o n is a u ni v er s a l m e t ho d b u t is n ot p ra c ti ca l o r ec on om ic a l f o r m os t pr o du c ts . I t i s t h e on l y m e t ho d , h o we v e r , fo r p r e pa r in g s t ro n g r os e wa t e r a n d o r an ge f lo we r wa t e r . b . W ith t h e s o lu t i on me th o d , t h e v o l a ti le , o r a rom a ti c , su bs t an c e is a d m i xe d wi t h wa t e r , wi t h o r wi t h ou t th e u s e of a d i s p e rs an t ( e. g ., t al c) . 2 . S p i ri t s , o r e s se n ce s , a r e al c o ho l ic o r h yd ro al c o h ol ic s o lu t io n s o f vo l at i le s u bs ta n c e s , th a t c on t ai n 5 0 % -9 0% al c o h ol . Th is h i g h a l co h o li c c o n te n t m a in t ai ns th e wa t e r -i ns ol u bl e v ol a ti l e o il s i n so l u t i o n. I f wa t e r is ad de d to a s p i ri t , t he oi ls s e pa r a te . S o m e sp i ri t s a r e m ed i cin a l (e . g ., a ro m a t ic
a m m o ni a s pi r i t) . Ma n y s p i r it s (e . g. , c om p ou nd o ra n g e s p i ri t , c om po u nd c a r da m o m s p i ri t ) ar e u s ed as f la v o r in g a g en ts . Spi r i ts s h ou l d b e st o r ed in t i g ht co n ta in e rs to r ed uc e l os s b y e v ap o ra t io n . 3 . T in c t u re s a r e a lc o ho lic o r h y d r oa lc o ho li c s ol u ti o ns of ch em i c al s o r s o lu bl e c o ns ti t ue n ts of ve g e ta bl e dr u gs . Al t ho ugh t in c tu r es v a r y in dr u g c o nc en t r at i on ( ≤ 5 0 % ), th o s e p re pa r e d f r om p o ten t d ru gs a re us ua ll y 1 0 % i n s t r en g th ( i. e ., 1 00 m L o f t h e ti nc t ur e h a s t he ac ti vi t y o f 1 0 g of t he d ru g ). Ti n c t u re s a r e us u al l y c on s id e re d s t ab le . Th e a lc o h o l c o n te n t o f t h e o f fi cia l t i nc t u re s v a r i es fr om 1 7% t o 2 1% f or op i um ti nc tu r e U S P a n d f r om 7 4 % to 8 0 % f o r c om po u nd be n zo i n t i nc tu r e U S P. Mo s t tin c tu r es a re p re pa r e d b y a n e x t r a ct i o n p r o ce ss o f P.49 m ac e r at i on or p er c o l at i on . Th e s e le c t i on of a s o lve n t , o r m en s tr u um , i s b a se d o n t h e s ol ub i li t y of t h e ac t i v e a nd in e r t c o ns t i tu en t s o f t h e c ru de d r u gs . Ag i ng c a n c a us e p r e c i pi t a ti on o f t he in ac t iv e c on s ti t ue n ts o f t i nc t u re s . G l y c er i n m a y be a dd e d t o t he h yd ro a lc oh o li c s ol v e n t t o i nc r ea se t h e s ol u bi li t y o f t h e ac t i ve c o ns t i tu en t an d re du ce p r ec i pi t at io n on s t o ra ge. Ti n c t u re s m u s t b e t ig h tl y s t op pe r e d a nd k e pt f rom e xc e s s i ve t em p er a tu r es . B e c au se m a n y of th e i r c o n s t i tu e nt s u nd e r go a p ho t oc h em ic al c h an g e wh e n e xp o s e d to l i gh t , t i nc tu r es m u s t be s t o re d i n l i gh t -r e s is ta n t c on t ai ne r s . 4 . F lu i de x t r ac t s a r e l iq ui d e xt r a ct s o f v eg e ta b le d r u gs th a t c on t ai n a lc oho l a s a so l v e nt , p r es e r v a ti v e , o r b ot h . F l ui de xt r a c t s a r e pr e pa r ed b y p e r co la t io n s o t h at ea c h m i ll il i te r c o nt a in s t he t her a p eu t ic c o ns ti t ue n ts of 1 g o f t h e s t a nd a r d d ru g . B e c au s e of t he i r h ig h d ru g c o nt e nt , fl u id e xt r a c ts a r e s om e ti m e s re f er r e d t o a s “ 1 0 0% ti nc t u re s . ” Fl u id ext r a c t s of po t en t d ru gs ar e u s ua ll y 1 0 t im es as c o nc e n t r at e d, o r p ot e nt , as t he co r r es p on di n g t in c tu r e. F o r e xa m pl e , t he us u al do s e o f t i nc tu r e b el l ad o nna is 0 .6 m L ; t he e q ui va l en t do s e of th e m o r e po t en t f l ui d e xt r a ct is 0 . 06 m L . Ma n y f l u id e xt r a c ts a r e c on s i d er e d to o p o te n t f o r s el f -a dm i ni s t r a ti on b y pa t ie n ts , s o th e y a re al m o s t ne v e r p r es c ri be d . I n a d di t io n , m a n y fl ui d e xt r a c ts a r e s im p l y to o b i tt e r . To d a y , m os t fl u id e xt r a c ts a r e m o d i fi ed b y ei t he r fl a v o ri ng o r s we e te n in g a g en ts . 5 . N as a l , o p ht h a lm i c, ot i c , a n d p a r en t e r al so l ut i o n s a r e c l as si f ie d s e pa r a te l y be c a us e o f the i r s p ec if ic us e a nd m e th o d o f p r e pa r at i on . 6 . M o u t hw as h es ar e s olu t i on s t ha t ar e u s ed to c le a ns e t h e m ou t h o r t r ea t d i se as es o f t he o ra l m uc o u s m e m b r a ne . Th e y of te n c o nt a in al co h ol or g l yc e ri n t o a i d i n di s s o l v in g th e v ol a ti l e i ng r ed i e n ts . Mo u t h wa s he s a r e m o re o f t en us ed c o s m et ic a ll y th a n t h e ra pe u ti c a l l y. 7 . As t r i n g en t s a r e l oc al ly a p p li ed so l ut io n s t ha t p r e ci pi t a te pr o te i n. Th e y r e d uc e c el l p e rm ea b il i t y wi t h o u t c a us in g i nj u r y . As t r in g en ts c a us e c o n s t ri c t i on , wi t h wr i nk li n g a nd bl a nc hi n g o f t h e s k i n . Be ca us e a s t r i ng en ts r e d u ce se c r e t io n s, t he y c an be us e d as an t ip e rs p i r an t s .
a . Al u m i n um ac e ta t e a nd a l um i nu m s u ba c e ta t e s o l u ti o ns a re us ed as we t d r e ss in gs in c o nt ac t de rm a ti t is . Th e p r ec ip i ta ti o n i s m i n im i z ed b y th e a d di t io n o f bo r ic ac id . b . C a lc i um h yd r o x i d e so l u t i on is a m i ld s t r in g en t t ha t i s us e d i n l ot i on s a s a r e ac ta n t a nd an al k a l i ze r . 8 . An t i b a c te r i al t o pi c al s o l u t io n s ( e .g . , b en za lko n iu m c hl o ri d e, st r on g i o di n e, po v i d on e io di n e ) k i ll ba c t e ri a wh e n a pp l ied t o t h e s k in o r m u co u s m em b r an e i n t h e p r op e r s t r en g th an d u n de r ap p ro p r ia t e c on di t io ns . C . S u s pe n si o ns 1 . L o ti o ns , m a gm a s ( i .e. , s u s p e ns io ns of f in el y d i v i de d m a te r ia l i n a s m a l l a m ou n t o f wa t e r) , an d mi x t u r es a re al l s us pe ns io n s t ha t ha v e ha d o f fi c i al f o r m u l as f o r s om e t im e (e . g . , c a l am in e l o ti on U SP , k ao li n m i xt u r e wi t h p e ct i n N F ) . O ff ic i al fo r m u l as a re gi v e n i n t h e U SP / N F . a . A c o m pl e te f o r mu l a a n d a de t a il e d m e th o d o f p r e pa r a t io n a r e a va i la b le fo r s o m e of f ic ia l s us p en s i o ns . F o r o t her s , o n l y th e c o nc e n t ra t io n o f t he ac ti v e in g re d ie n ts i s g i v e n, an d th e m an u fac t u re r ha s c o n si de r a bl e l a t it u de in th e f o rm u la t ion . b . S om e d r ug s a r e p ac k a g e d in a d r y f o r m t o c i rc um ve n t t h e i ns ta b il i t y of a q u eo us di s p e rs io ns . W a t e r i s a dd e d a t t h e t im e o f di s p en s i n g t o r e c on s t i tu t e t h e s u s p e ns i o n . 2 . P u r po s es o f s us p e nsi o n a . S us t a in i n g e f fe c t . F or a s u s t ai n ed - r el e as e p re p a ra t io n , a s us p en si o n n e ce ss it a t es d r ug di s s olu t i on be f o re ab s o r p ti on . b . S t ab i l i t y. D r u g d e g rad a t io n i n s us pe ns i on or s o li d d os a ge fo r m s o cc ur s m uc h m o re s l o wl y t h an de g r ad a ti o n i n s o l ut i on for m . c . Ta s te . A d r ug wi t h an u n pl e as an t ta st e c a n b e c o n v e rt e d i nt o a n i n so lu b le fo r m a nd t he n p r e pa r e d as a s us pe ns i on . d . B a si c s o l ub i l it y. W he n s u it a bl e s ol ve n ts ar e n o t a va i la bl e , t h e s us p en s i o n p r o v id es an a l t er n a ti ve . F o r e xa m p l e, o n l y wa t e r c an be us ed a s a so l ve nt f or o ph t ha lm ic p r e pa r a ti o ns b ec a us e o f t h e p os si b il i t y o f c o rn e al d a m a g e. O p ht h al m i c s u s p e ns i on s p ro vi d e a n a lt er n a ti v e t o o ph t ha lm ic s o lu t io ns . 3 . S us p e nd i n g a ge n t s in c lu d e h y d ro p hi li c c ol l oid s , c la y s , a nd a f e w o t h er a g e nt s. S om e a r e a ls o us e d as em u l si f yi n g a g en t s (s e e V I . D .3 ) . a . H yd r o p h i l i c c o ll o i ds ( i . e ., h yd r o c o l l o i d s ) i nc r e a s e th e v is co s i t y o f wa t e r b y b in d in g wa t e r m o le c u l es , t hu s l im i ti ng th e i r m ob il i t y , o r fl ui d it y. V i sc os i t y is p r op o r ti o na l t o t he c o nc en t r at i on of th e h yd ro c o ll o id . Th es e a g e nt s s u pp o r t th e g row t h o f mi c r o o rg a n is ms a n d re qu i r e a p r es e r va tive . Th e y a r e m o s t l y an i o ni c, wi t h t he e xc e p ti on o f m e t h yl c el l ul os e P.50
( n e u tr a l ) a nd c h it os a n ( c a t i on ic ) . Th us th e a ni o nic h yd ro c o l lo id s a r e i n co m p a ti bl e wi t h q u at e rn a r y a nt i ba c t e ri a l a ge n ts a n d o th e r p os i ti ve l y c h a rg ed d ru gs . C hi t os an i s i nc om pa t ib l e wi t h ne ga t i ve l y c ha r g ed d ru gs and e xc i p i e nt s . Mo s t h y d ro c ol l oi ds a re i ns o lu b l e i n al c o h ol i c s o lu t i on s .
( 1 ) Ac a c i a is us ua l l y u s ed as a 3 5% di s p e rs i on in wa t e r ( m u ci l ag e ) . I ts vi s co si t y is g re a te s t b etwe e n p H 5 a nd p H 9 . Ac a c ia is s us c e p ti bl e to m ic r o bi al de c o m p os i ti o n. ( 2 ) T r ag a ca n t h is us ua l ly u s ed as a 6 % d is pe r s io n in wa t e r (m uc il a ge ) . O n e a d va n ta g e o f t r ag ac a nt h o v e r ac ac i a is t ha t l es s is ne e de d . A ls o , t r a g ac an t h d oe s n ot c o n ta i n t h e o xi d a s e th a t i s p re s en t i n a ca c i a . Th is o xi d a s e c a ta l y z e s t he dec om p os it i on of o rg a ni c ch e m i c a ls . Th e vis c os i t y o f t r a g ac an t h is g re a te s t a t p H 5 . ( 3 ) M e t h yl c e l l u l o se is a p ol y m e r t ha t i s n o ni on ic an d s t ab le t o h ea t a n d l i gh t . I t is a v a i la bl e i n s ev e r a l v is c o si t y g ra d es . Be c au s e it is s o lu bl e i n c ol d wa t e r , b u t n ot in ho t wa te r , di s p e rs io n s a re p re pa r e d b y a dd in g m e th y l c e ll ul os e to bo il i ng wa t e r a n d t he n c oo l in g t h e p re p a ra t io n u n ti l t h e m at e ri a l d i ss ol ve s . ( 4 ) C a r bo x ym e t h yl c e l l ul o s e i s a n a ni on ic m a t er ia l th a t is so l ub le in wa t er . P r o l on g ed e xp o s u r e t o he a t c au s es l os s o f vis c os i t y . b . C l a ys ( e . g . , be n to ni t e, V e eg um ) a re s i li c a t es th a t a r e a n io ni c i n a qu e ou s d i sp e rs io ns . Th e y a re s t ro n gl y h y d r a te d a n d e xh i b i t th i xo t r o p y ( t h e p r o pe r t y o f f o rm in g a ge l- l ik e s t r uc tu r e o n s ta n di ng a nd be c o m i n g f lu i d o n a g i ta t io n ). ( 1 ) Th e of f ic ia l f o rm of be n t o ni t e i s t h e 5 % m a gm a . ( 2 ) V ee g um is h y d ra t ed t o a g r ea t e r d eg r ee t ha n b e nt o ni t e. Th u s i t is m or e vi s co u s a t t he s a m e c o nc e nt r a ti o n. c . O t he r a ge n t s i nc lu de a g a r , c h o nd r us (c a r ra g ee n a n) , ge la t in , pe c t i n, an d g e la t in i z e d s ta r c h . Th ei r u s e is li m i t ed b y th e ir s us c e p ti b il i t y to ba ct e ri a l a t t ac k, t he i r i nc om pa t ib ili t i es , a nd t he i r co s t. Xa nt h a n g um i s u se d i n m any m o de r n s us pe ns i on fo r m u l a ti on s b ec a us e o f i ts c o s ol ve n t c om pa t ib il i t y, i ts s t ab i li t y, an d i ts s o lu t io n' s h ig h v is c o s i t y r el a ti v e t o c o nc e nt r a ti on . 4 . P r e pa r a t io n a . S o li d s a r e w et t e d i n it i a l l y t o s e p a ra t e i nd i vidu a l p a r ti c l es an d c oa t the m wi t h a la y e r of di s pe rs i on m e d iu m . W ett in g i s acc om p li sh e d b y l e vi ga t i on ( i . e ., ad d it i on of a s ui t abl e no ns ol v e n t , o r l e vi g a ti n g ag e n t, t o t he s o li d m a te r i al , f o ll o we d b y b l en d in g to fo r m a p a s t e ) , us i ng a g la s s m o r ta r a n d p e st l e o r a n o i nt m e n t s l ab . A s u r f ac t a n t c a n a ls o b e u s e d . b . S u sp e nd i n g a ge n t s ar e t he n a d de d a s d r y powd e r a l on g wi t h t h e ac t i ve i n g re d ie n t. Fo r be s t r es ul t s , t he s u s p en d in g a g ent i s a dd ed in t he fo r m o f i t s a q ue o us d is p e rs i o n. ( 1 ) Th e aq ue o us di s p e rs io n is a d de d t o th e s ol id (o r t he le vi g at e d s o l id ) b y g e o me t r i c d i lu t i o n. ( 2 ) Th e pr e pa r a ti on is b ro u g ht to t he de s i r ed v o lum e b y s ti r r in g i n t h e a p p ro p r ia t e v e h ic le . D . E m u ls i on s 1 . P u r po s es o f e mu l s ion s a . I nc r e as e d d r u g s o lub i l i t y. Ma n y d r u g s h a v e l i m i t ed aq ue o us s o lu bi l ity b u t h a ve m a xi m um s o lu bi l it y i n t h e o il ph as e o f an em u ls io n . D r u g
p a r ti t io n in g f r om t he oi l p h as e t o th e wa t e r p ha s e ca n m ai n ta i n o r e n ha nc e a c ti vi t y. b . I nc r e as e d d r u g s t ab il i t y. Ma n y d r u g s a r e m o re s ta bl e wh e n i n co r po r a te d i n to an em ul s io n r a t he r th an an aq ue o u s s o lu t io n . c . P r ol o n ge d d ru g a c t i on . I nc o rp o ra t io n o f a d rug i nt o a n e m u ls i on c a n p r o lo n g b io a v ai l ab i li t y , as wi t h c e r ta i n in t r am us c u l a r i n je ct i on p re pa r a ti o ns . d . I mp r o ve d ta s t e. D r ugs wi t h an un pl e as an t ta ste a r e m o r e p al a ta b le and t h us m o r e c on v e ni e nt l y a d m i ni s te r ed in em ul si o n f o rm . e . I mp r o ve d a p p ea r a nce . O i l y m a te r ia ls in t en d ed f o r t op ic a l a pp li c at io n a r e m o r e a pp ea l in g i n a n e m u l s i f ie d f o rm . 2 . P ha s es o f e mu l s io n s. Mo s t e m u ls io ns a re c on s id e re d tw o -p h as e s ys t e m s . a . Th e li q u id d r op l e t is k n o wn as th e d i s pe r s ed , i n t e r na l , o r d i s co n t i nu o us p ha s e. Th e ot h e r li q ui d i s k no wn a s th e d i sp e r s io n m e d iu m , e x te r n a l p ha se , o r c o nt i n uo u s p h as e . b . I n p ha r m a c e u ti c a l a p pl i c a t io ns , o n e p ha s e is us u al l y an aq u e ou s s o l u t io n . Th e o th e r p has e i s u s u al l y l ip i d o r oi ly. Th e l i pi ds r an ge f r om ve g e t ab l e o r h y d r oc a rb on o il s t o s em is ol id h yd roc a r bo ns an d wa xe s . E m u ls io ns a re us ua ll y de s c r i be d i n t e rm s o f wa te r a nd oi l. O i l is t he li pi d, o r n o n aq ue o us , p h as e, r ega r d le s s of it s c om po s i t ion . P.51
( 1 ) I f wa t e r is th e i n t e r na l p ha s e, th e e m u ls i on is cl as s i f ie d a s w / o . ( 2 ) I f wa t e r is th e e x t e rna l p ha s e, th e e m u ls i on is cl as s i f ie d a s o /w . c . Th e t yp e o f e m ul s i on f o rm e d is p ri m a r il y d e ter m i ne d b y t he r e la t i ve p h a se vo l u me s a nd t he e m u ls i f yi n g a g e n t us ed. ( 1 ) F or an id e al em ul s i on , t he m a xi m um c o nc en tr a t io n of in t e rn al ph as e is 7 4 % (i .e . , th eo r e ti c a ll y , a n o/ w e m ul si o n c an be p r e pa r e d c o n ta i ni ng ≤ 74% o i l ). ( 2 ) Th e c h oi c e of an em u l s i f y i ng ag e nt is m o re im p o rt a nt th a n t h e r el a ti v e p h as e v ol um es in de t e rm i n in g th e f i na l e m u ls io n ty p e . Mo s t ag e nt s p r e f er e nt i al l y fo r m o ne ty p e o f e m u ls io n o r t he oth e r i f th e p h as e v o l um e p e r m i ts . 3 . E mu l s if yi n g a g e n ts . A n y c om po u nd t ha t l o we r s th e i n te r f ac ia l t e ns io n a n d f o rm s a fi lm at th e in t e r fa c e c a n p o te n ti al l y fu n c t i on as a n e m ul s i f y ing a g e nt . Th e e f fe c t i v e ne s s o f th e e m u ls i f yin g a g en t d e pe n ds o n i ts ch em ic a l s t r uc t ur e , c on c e n t ra t io n , s ol u bi li t y, p H , p h ys ic a l p r o pe r t ie s , an d e l ec t r os ta t ic e f f ec t . T r u e e m ul s i f yi n g a g e n t s ( p rim a r y ag e nt s ) c an fo r m a n d s ta b il i z e e m u ls i on s b y t h em s e l v es . S ta b i li z er s ( a u xi l ia r y a ge n ts ) d o n o t f o r m ac c ep t ab le em ul s i on s wh e n u s e d a lo n e, bu t a ss i s t p r im a r y ag en t s i n s t ab i li zi ng t he p ro du c t ( e. g . , i nc r ea se v i s c os it y) . E m u ls if y i n g a ge n ts a r e e i t he r na t u r al o r s yn t h e t i c . a . N a tu r a l e m ul s i f yi n g a g e n ts :
( 1 ) Ac a c i a f o rm s a g oo d, s ta b le em ul si on o f l o w v i s co s i t y. I t t en ds t o c rea m e a si l y, i s a c i di c , a nd is s t a b le at a p H r an ge o f 2 -1 0 . L ik e o t he r gu m s , i t i s n e g at i vel y c ha r g ed , d e hy d r a t es ea si l y , an d u su all y r e q ui r es a p re s e r va t i ve . I t is in co m p a ti bl e wi t h Pe r u v i an ba ls am , bi sm ut h s al t s , an d c a rb o na t es . ( 2 ) T r ag a ca n t h f o rm s a s t ab l e em u ls io n t h at is co a r s e r th a n ac ac i a e m ul si o n. I t is an i on ic , is di f fi c ul t t o h y d r a te , and is us ed m a in l y f or i ts e f f ec ts on v i s c os it y . L es s t ha n o f t h e a m o un t us ed f o r ac a ci a is n ee de d . ( 3 ) Ag a r is a n a ni on ic gum t ha t i s p r im ar i l y u s e d to i nc r ea s e vis c o si t y. I ts s t ab i li t y is af f ec te d b y he a t in g , d eh y d r a ti on , an d d es t r uc ti o n o f c ha r ge . I t i s a l so s us c ep t ib le to m i c rob i al de g r ad a ti on . ( 4 ) P ec t i n i s a q u as i- em u l s i f ie r th a t is us ed in t he sa m e p ro p o rt i on as t r a g ac an t h. ( 5 ) G e la t i n p r o v id es go od em u ls io n s ta b il i za ti on in a c on c en t ra t io n o f 0. 5% 1 . 0 %. I t m a y b e a ni o ni c o r c a t io n ic , d ep e nd in g on i ts i s oe le c tr ic po i nt . Ty p e A g e la t in ( +) , pr e pa r ed f ro m a n a ci d - t re a te d p r ecu r s or , is u se d i n a c i d ic m e di a . Ty p e B g el at i n ( - ), p r ep a re d fr o m a n a lk al i- t r e a te d p r ec u rs o r, is us e d i n ba si c m e d ia . ( 6 ) M e t h yl c e l l u l o se is n o ni o ni c a nd in d uc es vis c os i t y . I t is u s e d a s a p r i m a r y em ul s i f ie r wi t h m i ne r al oi l a n d c o d l i ve r o i l , a nd y i el ds an o/ w e m ul si o n. I t is us ua l l y u s e d in 2% c o nc en t r at i on . ( 7 ) C a r bo x ym e t h yl c e l l ul o s e i s a ni on ic an d i s u s u a ll y u s e d t o i nc r e as e vi s co si t y . I t t ol e r at es al c o h ol up t o 4 0% , fo rm s a b a si c s o l ut i on , a n d p r e ci pi t a te s i n t he p re s en c e o f f r ee ac i ds . b . S yn t h e t i c e m u ls i f yi n g a ge n t s a r e a ni o ni c , c at i o ni c , o r n on i on ic . A l t h ou gh t he s e s u r fa c ta nt s ar e a m ph ip h il ic m o le cu l e s , th ei r li po p hi li c a n d h yd r o ph i li c r e gi on s a r e s e l do m i n ve rs e e qu a ls of e a c h ot h e r: S om e s u r fa c ta n t m o l ec ul es te nd t o b e p r ed om i na n tl y l ipo p hi l ic , wh e re as o th e rs a r e pr e do m i n an t l y h y d r op h il ic . Th is im ba l an c e is r e f le c te d i n t h e h yd r o ph i li c -l ip o ph il ic ba la n c e ( H L B ) s c al e : Th e lar g e r th e HL B v a lu e , t he m o r e h y d r op hi l ic t h e m ole c ul e . Ta b l e 3 - 1 li s ts H LB va l u es fo r s u r fa c t a nt s a n d t h ei r c o r re s p o nd i ng u s es .
Table 3-1. Hydrophilic-Lipophilic Balance (HLB)
HLB Value RangeSurfactant Application 0-3
Antifoaming agents
4-6
Water-in-oil emulsifying agents
7-9
Wetting agents
8-18
Oil-in-water emulsifying agents
13-15
Detergents
10-18
Solubilizing agents
P.52
( 1 ) An i o n i c s y n th e ti c a ge n ts in cl u de su l f u r ic ac id e s te r s (e . g. , s o di um l a u r yl s ul f at e ) , s ul f o n ic a c i d d e r i va t i ve s ( e .g . , di o c t y l s o di um s u lf os uc c i n a te ) , a nd s oap s . So a ps ar e fo r e xt e r n a l us e. Th e y h a v e a h i gh p H a nd a re , th e re f o re , s e n s i t i v e t o t h e a dd i ti on of a c i ds an d e le c t ro l yt es . ( a ) Al k a l i s o ap s a r e h y dr o p hi l ic a n d f o rm a n o / w e m ul s i o n. ( b ) M e t a ll i c s oa p s a r e wa t e r i ns o lu bl e a n d f o rm a w/ o em u ls io n . ( c ) M o n o va le n t s o a ps fo r m a n o / w e m ul s i on . ( d ) P o l yva l e n t s oa p s f or m a w/ o e m u ls i on . ( 2 ) C a t io n ic s y nt h et ic ag e n ts (e . g. , be n z a lk on ium c h lo r i de ) a r e u se d a s s u r fa ce - ac t i v e a ge n ts in 1 % c o nc en t r at i on . Th e y a r e i n c o m p a ti bl e wi t h s o ap s. ( 3 ) N o ni o n ic s y nt h et ic ag e n ts a r e re si st a nt t o t he a dd i ti on o f ac i ds a n d e l ec t r ol y t es . ( a ) Th e so r b i ta n es t e rs k n o wn as S pa n s a r e h y dr o p ho b ic i n n a tu r e a n d f o r m w/ o e m u ls i on s . Th ey h a v e lo w h y d r o p hi l ic -l ip o p hi li c b al a nc e v a l ue s (1 9 ) ( Ta b le 3 -2 ) . ( b ) Th e po l ys o r b a t e s k no wn a s Tw ee n s a re h y d ro p hi l ic a n d t en d to fo r m o / w e m ul s i o ns . Th e y m ay f o r m c om pl e xe s wi t h ph e n ol i c c om p ou nd s . Th ey h a ve hi g h h y d r op hi l ic -l i po p hi l ic b a la nc e v al u es (11 - 2 0 ). 4 . P r e pa r a t io n . Va r io us m e th o ds a r e u se d to p rep a r e e m u ls io ns , de p en din g o n th e t y pe of em ul s i f y i ng a ge n t. a . C la ss ic al , ac ac ia - s t a bi l i z ed em ul s i o ns a r e p r ep a r e d b y on e o f th e f o l lo wi n g fo u r m et h od s :
( 1 ) W et g um ( E ng l is h ) m e t h od . A p r im a r y e m u ls i on of fi xe d o i l, wa t e r , an d a c ac ia ( in a 4 :2 : 1 r a ti o ) is p re p ar e d a s f ol lo ws : ( a ) Two p a r t s o f wa t e r a re a dd e d a ll a t on c e to one p a rt of ac ac i a. Th e m i xt u r e is tr i tu r a te d u n ti l a s m oo t h m u c i l ag e i s f or m e d. ( b ) O i l is ad d ed in s m al l i n c re m e n ts (1 - 5 m L) , wi th c o n ti n uo us t ri t u ra t io n , u n t il th e p r im a r y em ul s i on is f or m e d . ( c ) Th e m i xt u r e ( an o/ w e m ul s i o n) is t ri t ur a te d for a n ot h er 5 m in . ( d ) Th e o/ w m i xt u r e c a n t h e n b e b r ou gh t to vo lu m e wi t h wa t e r an d m i xe d to a c hi e v e h om o ge n ei t y . ( 2 ) D r y g u m ( c o nt i n en ta l ) me t h od . A p r im a r y em u ls io n o f th e f i xe d o il , wa t e r , a nd ac ac ia ( in a 4: 2 : 1 r a ti o ) i s p r ep a re d a s f o ll o ws :
Table 3-2. Commonly Used Surfactants and Their Hydrophilic-Lipophilic Balance (HLB) Values Agent
HLB Value
Sorbitan trioleate (Span 85, Arlacel 85)
1.8
Sorbitan tristearate (Span 65)
2.1
Propylene glycol monostearate (pure)
3.4
Sorbitan sesquioleate (Arlacel C)
3.7
Sorbitan monooleate (Span 80y)
4.3
Sorbitan monostearate (Arlacel 60)
4.7
Sorbitan monopalmitate (Span 40, Arlacel 40)
6.7
Sorbitan monolaurate (Span 20, Arlacel 20)
8.6
Glyceryl monostearate (Aldo 28, Tegin)
5.5
Gelatin
9.8
Triethanolamine oleate (Trolamine)
12.0
Polyoxyethylene alkyl phenol (Igepal CA-630)
12.8
Tragacanth
13.2
Polyoxyethylene sorbitan monolaurate (Tween 21)
13.3
Polyoxyethylene castor oil (Atlas G-1794)
13.3
Polyoxyethylene sorbitan monooleate (Tween 80)
15.0
Polyoxyethylene sorbitan monopalmitate (Tween 40)
15.6
Polyoxyethylene sorbitan monolaurate (Tween 20)
16.7
Polyoxyethylene lauryl ether (Brij 35)
16.9
Sodium oleate
18
Sodium lauryl sulfate
40
P.53
( a ) O i l is ad d ed to t he ac a c ia , a n d t he m i xt u r e is tr i t u ra t ed un t il th e po wd er i s d is t r ib u te d u n if o rm l y th r o ug h ou t th e o il . W at e r i s a d de d a ll a t o nc e, f o l lo we d b y r ap id t ri t u ra ti o n t o f o rm t he pr im a r y em u ls io n . ( b ) A n y r em ai ni n g wa t e r a n d o t he r in g re d ie n ts a re a dd e d t o f in is h th e p r o du c t. ( i ) E l ec t r o l yt e s i n h i g h c o n ce n t r a ti o n t e nd to cra c k an em ul s i o n . Th e y s h ou l d b e a dd ed la s t a nd i n as di l ut e a f or m a s po s s i bl e . ( i i ) Al c o h ol i c s o lu t i o ns t e n d t o d eh yd r a te an d p re c ip i ta t e h y d r oc ol lo i ds . Th e y s h ou l d b e a dd e d i n a s d il u te a c on c e n t ra t ion a s po ss i bl e. ( 3 ) B o t t le me t h od ( a v a ri a t io n o f t h e d r y gu m m eth o d u s e d f o r v ol a ti l e o il s ) . O i l is ad de d to th e a c a c ia i n a b o t tl e. Th e r at io o f o i l, wa t e r , a nd ac ac i a s h ou l d b e 3 :2 : 1 o r 2 : 1 : 1. Th e lo w v i s c os i t y o f th e vo l a ti l e o il re q ui r es a h i gh e r p r o po r ti o n o f a c ac i a. ( 4 ) N a sc e nt s oa p m e t hod . A s o ap is fo rm e d b y m i xi n g r el at i ve l y eq ua l vo l u m e s o f a n o il an d a n a q ue o us s ol u ti o n t ha t c o n t ai ns a su f f ic ie n t am ou n t o f al ka l i. Th e s o ap ac ts a s a n e m u ls i f yin g a g en t .
( a ) Th i s m e t ho d i s u s e d to f o rm a n o / w o r a w/ o em u ls io n , d ep e nd in g o n th e s o ap fo r m e d . F o r e xa m p le , ol i v e o i l, wh i c h co n ta in s o l ei c ac i d, is m i xe d wi t h l i m e wa t e r d u ri n g t he p rep a r a ti on o f ca l am in e l o tio n to ca lc iu m o le a te , an e m ul si f y i ng ag e nt . ( b ) A 50 : 50 r at i o o f o il to wa t e r e ns u re s s uf f ic ie n t e m u ls i on , p r o v i de d t h at t h e o i l c o n ta i ns a n a d equ a t e am o un t o f f re e f a t t y a c i d . Ol i v e o i l us u al l y d o es . C ot t on s e e d o il , p ea n u t o il , a n d s o m e o th e r v e g e t ab l e o il s d o n ot . ( c ) Th e ad di t io n o f an ac i d de s t r o ys t h e em u ls if y in g s o ap an d c au se s t h e e m ul si o n t o s e p a ra t e. b . E m u ls io ns s t a bi li z e d b y s y n t he t ic e m u ls i f y in g a g e n t s a r e r e ad il y p r e pa r e d b y a t wo - p h as e p r oc e du r e : ( 1 ) O i l- m i s c i bl e i ng r ed i en t s a nd wa t e r - m i sc ib le ing r e d i e nt s a r e s ep a ra t el y a d m i xe d , us i ng he a t i f ne c es s a r y t o e ns u re li qu ef a c ti on an d e as e of m i xi n g o f ea ch ph a s e . ( a ) H ig h m el t in g p o in t o i l- m is c i b le i n g re di e nt s (e .g . , wa xe s ) a r e m el t ed b e f o re lo we r m el ti n g p oin t in g r ed ie n ts (e . g ., oi ls ) a r e a d de d . ( 2 ) Th e t wo ph as e s a re h e a te d t o 7 0 ° - 80 ° a n d t he n c om b in e d wi t h st i r ri ng u n t il th e re s u l ta n t em u ls io n ha s c oo le d . ( a ) I n g en e ra l , h ea t - la bi le o r v ol a ti le in g r ed ie n ts s h ou l d n ot be in c o r po r a te d i n th e s ep a r at e p h as es bu t in th e re s u l ta n t e m u ls io n af t e r i t h as c o ol e d t o a b o ut 40 ° C . o r le s s . ( 3 ) F ur t he r m e c h an ic a l pr o c es s i ng of t he em ul s i on b y a h an d h o m o ge n i zer , i m m e rs i on bl en d e r, o r o th e r eq ui pm e nt m a y b e w a r r a n t e d t o i m p r o v e t h e h o m o g en ei t y a nd s t ab i li ty o f t he p ro d uc t. 5 . I nc o r p o ra t i on o f m e di c i n al ag e n ts . Me d ic i na l a g en ts ca n b e i n co r po r a te d i n to an em ul s io n e i th e r d u ri ng o r a f te r i ts fo rm a ti o n. a . Ad d i t i o n o f a d r ug du r i n g e m u ls i on f o r ma t io n . It is be s t t o i nc or p o ra t e a d r ug in t o a v eh ic l e d ur in g em ul s i o n f o rm at i on , wh e n i t c a n b e i n co r po r a te d i n m ol ec u lar f o rm . So l ub le d ru gs s ho u l d be di s s o l v ed in th e a p p ro p r ia t e p ha s e ( e. g ., d r u gs th a t a r e s o l ub l e in t h e e xt e r n a l p ha s e o f t he e m ul si o n s h o ul d b e a dd ed as a s ol u ti on t o t he p rim a r y em ul si o n) . b . Ad d i t i o n o f a d r u g t o a p r e fo r m ed em u ls i o n c a n p r es en t s om e d i f fi cu l t y , d e pe nd i ng on th e t y pe o f em u ls io n a n d t h e n a tu r e o f th e e m ul si f ie r ( Ta bl e 3 - 3 ) . ( 1 ) Ad d i t i o n o f o l ea g i no u s m a t e ri a l s t o a w / o e m u ls i o n p re s en ts no p r o bl em be c a u s e of th e m is c i b il i t y o f th e a d di ti v e wi t h t h e e xt e r n a l p ha se . H o we ve r , a d d i ti o n o f ole a g in o u s m at e r i al s to an o /w em u ls i o n c a n b e d i f fi cu l t a f te r em ul s i on f or m a ti o n. ( a ) O cc as i on al l y , a s m al l a m o u nt o f o il y m a t e ri al is ad d ed if e xc e ss e m ul si f ie r wa s u s e d i n the o ri g in a l f o rm at i on . ( b ) A s m a l l am o un t o f an o i l- s o l ub l e d ru g c a n b e a d d ed i f it is d is s ol v e d in a ve r y s m al l q ua n ti t y o f o il wi t h g eo m e t r ic di lu t io n te c hn i qu es . ( 2 ) Ad d i t i o n o f w a te r o r a n aq u eo u s m a te r i al t o a w / o e m ul s io n is e xt r e m e l y di f fi c u l t , u nl es s en o ug h e m u ls i fi e r h as b e e n in c or p o ra t ed in t o th e e m ul si o n. H o we v e r , ad d it i o n o f a qu e ou s m a t e ria l s to a n o /w e m u ls i on
u s ua ll y p r es en t s n o p r obl e m s i f th e a d de d m at e ria l do es no t i n te r ac t wi t h t h e e m u ls i f y in g a g en t . Po t e nt i al in t er a ct io n s s h ou l d b e e xp e c t ed wi t h c a ti o ni c c o m p o un ds an d s a lt s o f we ak ba s es . ( 3 ) Ad d i t i o n o f s m al l qua n t i t ie s o f al c o ho l ic s ol u t i o ns t o a n o /w e m u ls i o n is po s s ib l e i f th e s o lu t e is c o m p a ti bl e or d is p er s i b le in th e a q u eo us ph as e o f th e em u ls io n . I f P.54
a c ac ia o r a no t he r gu m is u s e d a s t h e em u ls if yi n g a g e nt , th e a lc oh o li c s o lu t io n s ho u ld be di lu t ed wi t h wa t e r be f or e i t is a d d ed . Ta bl e 3 - 3 l is ts s om e c om m e r c i al em ul s io n ba s e s a nd t he i r g en e ra l c o m p os it i on .
Table 3-3. Selected Commercial Emulsion Bases: Emulsion Type and Emulsifier Used Commercial Base
Emulsion TypeEmulsifier Type
Allercreme skin lotion
o/w
Triethanolamine stearate
Almay emulsion base
o/w
Fatty acid glycol esters
Cetaphil
o/w
Sodium lauryl sulfate
Dermovan
o/w
Fatty acid amides
Eucerin
w/o
Wool wax alcohol
HEB base
o/w
Sodium lauryl sulfate
Keri lotion
o/w
Nonionic emulsifiers
Lubriderm
o/w
Triethanolamine stearate
Neobase
o/w
Polyhydric alcohol esters
Neutrogena lotion
o/w
Triethanolamine lactate
Nivea cream
w/o
Wool wax alcohols
pHorsix
o/w
Polyoxyethylene emulsifiers
Polysorb hydrate
w/o
Sodium sesquioleate
Velvachol
o/w
Sodium lauryl sulfate
o/w, oil in water; w/o, water in oil.
( 4 ) Ad d i t i o n o f c r ys t a l l i n e d r ug s to a w /o em u ls i o n o c c u rs m o re ea si l y i f t h e d r u gs a r e d is s o l v e d o r di s pe rs e d i n a s m a ll qu a n ti t y o f o il b e f or e th e y a r e ad de d . E . O i n t me n t s 1 . I n t ro d uc t i o n. O i n tm en t s a re se m is o li d p re p ar a t i o ns i n te n de d fo r e x t e r na l us e . Th e y a r e e a s i l y s p r ea d . Mo d i f yi n g t h e fo rm u la t io n c on t r ol s t h e ir pl a s t ic v is c o s i t y . O in t m e n ts a re t ypi c a ll y u s ed as : a . E mo l l ie n t s t o m ak e th e s k i n m o re pl i ab le b . P r o t ec t i ve ba r r i e r s to p r e v en t h a rm f ul s u bs t an c es f ro m co m i n g i n c o nt ac t wi t h th e s k i n c . V eh i cl e s i n wh i c h t o in c o rp o ra t e m ed ic a ti on 2 . O i n tm e n t b as e s a . O l ea g i no u s b as e s a re a nh y d r ou s a n d i ns ol ubl e in wa t e r . Th e y c an n ot a b so r b o r c o nt a in wa t e r a n d a r e n o t wa s h ab l e i n wa t e r . ( 1 ) P e t ro l a t um i s a go o d b as e fo r o i l -i ns ol u bl e i ng r e di e nt s . I t f o rm s a n o cc l us i ve f il m o n t h e s k in , ab s o r bs < 5 % wa t e r un d e r n o rm al c o nd i ti o ns , a n d d o es n o t b ec om e r an c id . W a x c a n b e i nc o r po r a t ed to s t i ff e n t he ba s e . ( 2 ) S yn t h e t i c e s t e rs a re u s e d a s c on s t i tu e nt s o f o l ea g in o us b as es . Th es e e s te r s i nc lu d e g l yc e r y l m o n os t ea r a te , i so p r op y l m yr i s t at e , i s o p ro p yl p a lm i ta t e, bu t y l s t ea r a te , a n d b ut y l pa lm i ta t e . L ong - c ha in al c o h ol s ( e .g . , c e t yl a lc oh o l, s t e a r y l al c o h ol , P E G ) c an al s o b e u s ed . ( 3 ) L an o l in de r i va t i ve s a r e of t en us ed in t op ic al a n d c os m e ti c p r e pa r a ti o ns . E xa m p l es a r e l a no l in oi l a nd h yd rog e n at e d l an ol i n. b . Ab s o r p t i on b as es a re a nh y d r ou s a n d wa t e r in s ol u bl e. Th e r e fo r e, t hey a r e no t wa s h a bl e i n wa t er , a lt h ou g h t he y c an ab so r b wa t e r . Th e s e ba s es p e r m i t wa t e r -s ol ub l e m ed i c a m e n ts to be in cl ud e d t h r ou g h p ri o r s ol u ti o n an d u p t ak e a s t he in t e rn al pha s e. ( 1 ) W oo l fa t ( an h y d ro us l a no l in ) c o nt a in s a h i gh p e r c e n ta ge o f ch o le s t e r ol a s we l l as es t e rs a n d a lc o h ol t ha t c on t ai n fa t t y ac i d s. I t a bs o rb s t wi c e i ts we i g h t in wa t e r a n d m e l ts be t we e n 36 ° C an d 4 2 °C .
( 2 ) H yd r o p h i l i c p e t r ol a tu m is a wh i t e p e t ro la t um c om bi n ed wi t h 8% b e es wa x, 3 % s t ea r y l al c o h ol , an d 3 % c ho l es te r ol. Th e s e c o m p o ne n ts a r e a d d ed to a w/ o e m u ls i fi er . P r e pa r ed fo r m s i n c l ude A q ua ph o r , wh ic h u s e s wo o l a lc o ho l t o re nd e r wh i t e p et r ol a t um e m u ls i fi ab l e . A q ua ph o r i s s up e ri or i n it s a bi li t y t o a bs o rb wa t e r . c . Em u l si o n b a se s m a y b e w/ o em ul si o ns , wh ic h a r e wa t e r i ns ol u bl e a n d a r e no t wa s h a bl e i n wa t er . Th e se em ul si o ns c a n a b s o r b wa t e r b ec au se of t h e ir a qu eo us in t e rn a l ph a s e . Em ul s i o n b as es m a y a l s o b e o / w e m ul si o ns , wh i c h a re wa t e r i ns o lu ble b ut wa s h ab le in wa t e r . Th e y c a n a bs o rb wa t e r in t h e ir a qu eo us e xt e r n al ph a s e . P.55
( 1 ) H yd r o u s w oo l fa t (l an o li n ) i s a w/ o em ul s i o n t h a t c on t ai ns a p p ro xi m a t el y 2 5% wa t er . I t a c t s a s a n e m o ll i en t a n d oc cl u si ve fi lm on the s ki n , e f fe c ti v e l y pr e v e nt in g ep id e rm a l wa t e r lo s s . ( 2 ) C o ld c r ea m i s a w/ o e m ul s i o n t ha t i s p r ep a red b y m e l ti ng wh i t e wa x, s p e rm ac et i , a nd e xp r e s s e d al m o n d oi l to ge t he r ; a d di n g a ho t a q ue ou s s o lu t io n o f s od i um b o r ate ; an d s t ir r i ng un t il th e m i xt u r e is c o ol . ( a ) Th e us e o f m i n e ra l o il r a th e r t h an al m o nd oi l m ak e s a m o re s t ab l e co ld c r e am . H o we v e r , c o l d c re a m p r ep a re d wi t h a lm on d oi l m ak es a be t t e r e m ol li e nt ba s e . ( b ) Th i s o in tm e nt s h ou l d b e fr es h l y p r e pa r ed . ( 3 ) H yd r o p h i l i c o i n tm e nt i s a n o / w e m u ls i on th a t u s e s s od i um l a ur y l s u lf a te as an em ul s i f y i ng a g en t . I t a b s o r bs 3 0 % -50 % w/ w wi t h o u t l os in g i ts c o ns is te n c y . I t i s r e ad il y m is c i bl e wi t h wa t e r a nd i s re m o v e d fr om t he s k i n e a si l y. ( 4 ) V an i s hi n g c r e am is a n o/ w e m ul s i o n t h at c o nt a i ns a la r g e p er c e n t ag e o f wa t e r a s we ll as hu m e c ta n t (e . g. , gl y c e ri n , p ro p yl e ne gl y c ol ) t ha t re t ar d s m o is tu r e l os s . A n e xc e s s o f s t ea r ic ac id in th e fo rm u la he lp s f o rm a t hi n f i lm wh e n th e wa t e r e v a po r a t es . ( 5 ) O t h e r e m ul s io n ba se s in c l ud e D er m o van , a h y p o a ll e rg e ni c , g re as el es s e m ul si o n b as e, an d Un i ba s e, a n on g r ea s y e m ul sio n ba s e th a t a bs o rb s a p p ro xi m a t el y 3 0% o f i ts we i g h t i n wa t e r a nd ha s a p H c lo s e to t ha t o f th e s ki n . d . W at e r - so l u bl e ba se s m a y be an h yd r ou s o r m ay c o n ta in s o m e wa t e r . Th e y a r e wa s ha b le in wa t e r an d a bs o r b wa t e r to th e po in t of s o lu b il i t y . ( 1 ) P E G o in t me n t i s a ble n d o f wa t e r -s ol u bl e p oly e t h yl e ne gl yc ol s t h at for m a se m i s o l id ba s e . Th is ba s e c a n s o lu bi l i z e wa t e r -s o lu bl e d r u gs a n d s om e wa t e r - i n s o lu b le dr u gs . I t i s c om pa t ib l e wi t h a wi de r a ng e o f d r ug s . ( a ) Th i s b as e c o n ta i ns 40 % P E G 33 50 an d 6 0 % P E G 4 0 0 . I t i s p re p a re d b y t h e fu si on m e t ho d (s ee V I . E . 3 .b ) . ( b ) O n l y a s m al l a m o u nt o f li q ui d ( < 5% ) c an be in c o rp o ra t ed wi t h ou t lo ss o f vi s co si t y . Th i s b as e c a n b e m a de s t i ff e r b y i nc r eas i ng th e a m o u nt o f P E G 3 3 5 0 t o 6 0% .
( c ) I f 6 % t o 2 5% o f a n aq u e ou s s o l ut i on is t o b e i n c o r po r a te d , 5 g o f t he 4 0 g o f P E G 3 35 0 c an be r ep l ac e d wi t h an eq u al am o u n t o f s te a r y l a lc o ho l . ( 2 ) P r o p yl e n e g l yc o l a nd p r o p yl e n e g l yc o l - e t h an o l fo r m a c le a r g e l wh e n m i xe d wi t h 2% h y d ro xy p r o p y l c e ll ul os e . Th is b as e i s a po pu l a r d er m a t ol o gic ve h i cl e . 3 . I nc o r p o ra t i on o f m e di c i n al ag e n ts . Me d ic i na l s ub s ta nc es m a y b e i n co r po r a te d i n to an oi n tm e nt ba se b y le vi g a t i on o r b y th e fu s io n m e t hod . I n so l ub le s u bs t an c e s s ho u ld be r ed uc e d t o t h e f in e s t po ss i bl e f o rm an d l e vi ga t ed b ef o re in c o r p ora t i on wi t h a s m al l a m o unt o f c om pa t ib l e l e vig a ti ng a g e nt o r wi t h t he ba s e its e lf . a . L e vi ga t i on . Th e s ub s ta n c e is i nc o r po r a te d i n to t h e o in t m e n t b y l e vi ga t io n o n a n oi nt m e nt s la b . ( 1 ) A s t ai nl e s s -s t ee l s pat u l a wi t h a l on g , b r oa d , fl e xi b l e b l ad e s ho u ld be u s ed . If th e s u bs ta nc e m a y i n te r ac t wi t h a m e ta l s p at u la ( e. g ., wh e n i n co r po r a ti n g i od in e a n d m e rc u ri c s al ts ) , th en a ha r d ru b be r s p at u la c a n be u s ed . ( 2 ) I ns ol ub l e s u b s t a nc es s ho u ld be po wd e r e d f i ne l y i n a m o rt a r a n d m i xe d wi t h a n e q ua l q u an t it y o f b as e u n ti l a sm oo t h, g ri t- f r e e m i xt u r e i s o bt a in e d. Th e r e st o f t he ba s e is ad d e d in in c re m e n ts . ( 3 ) Le vi g at i on of po wd e r s in t o a s m a l l p or t io n o f b a se is fa ci li t a te d b y t he u s e o f a m e lt e d b as e o r a s m al l q u an t it y o f c om pa t i bl e l e v ig a ti o n a id ( e. g ., m i ne r al oi l , g l yc e r in ) . ( 4 ) W ate r -s ol u bl e s al ts ar e in c or p o ra t ed b y d is s o lv i n g th em in t he s m a l le s t p o ss ib l e am o un t o f wa t er a n d i nc or p o ra t in g t h e aq u e ou s s o l ut i on di r ec tl y i n t o a c om pa t ib l e b as e. ( a ) U su a ll y , o rg an ic s o l ve n ts ( e. g . , e th e r , c h l o ro fo r m , a lc oh o l) a re no t use d t o di ss ol v e t he d ru g b ec a u s e th e d r u g m a y c r y s ta l li z e as th e s ol ve n t e va p o ra t es . ( b ) S ol v e n ts a re us ed as l e v i ga t in g a id s o nl y i f t he s o l id wi l l b ec om e a fi ne p o wd e r a ft e r t h e s ol v e n t e v a p o ra t es . b . F us i o n m et h o d. Th i s m e th o d is us e d wh e n th e b as e c o nt ai n s s o li d s t hat h a ve hi g he r m el t in g p o int s (e . g ., wa xe s , c e t y l a lc o h ol , gl y c e r y l m o no st e a ra t e ). Th is m e th o d i s a ls o us e fu l fo r s o li d m e di c a m e n ts , wh ic h ar e r e a di l y s o lu b le in th e m el t e d b as e. ( 1 ) Th e oi l p ha s e s h ou l d b e m e lt e d s e p a ra t el y , s ta r t in g wi t h m at e r ia ls th a t h a ve th e h i gh es t m el t in g p o in t . A l l o th e r o il - s o l ub l e in g re d ie n ts a r e a d de d i n d e c re as in g o r d e r o f m e l tin g po in t . ( 2 ) Th e in g re d ie n ts i n t he wa t e r ph as e a r e c om bin e d a n d h ea t ed s e pa r a tel y t o a t em p er a tu r e th a t is e q u al to o r s e v e r al d eg re e s a bo v e t ha t o f th e m e lt e d o il ph as e . P.56
( 3 ) Th e t wo ph as e s a re c o m bi n ed . I f a w/ o s y s te m i s d es i re d , t he n th e h o t a q u eo us ph as e i s i nc o rpo r a t ed in t o t he ho t o i l p ha s e wi t h a gi ta t io n . I f a n
o / w s ys t em is p r e fe r r ed , t h e n t he ho t oi l p ha s e is i n c o r po r a te d i n to th e h o t a q u eo us ph as e . ( 4 ) V ol a ti l e m a t e ri al s ( e .g . , m e nt h ol , c am ph o r , i od i ne , al c o h ol , p e r fu m e s ) a r e ad de d a f t er t he m e lte d m i xt u r e c o ol s t o 4 0 ° C o r le ss . F . S u pp o s it o r i es 1 . I n t ro d uc t i o n. A s up po s it o r y is a s ol i d o r se mi s o l id ma s s i n te n de d t o b e i ns e r t ed in t o a b od y o r i f i ce (i . e ., r ec tu m , v ag i na , u re t hr a ) . A f t er i t is i n se r t ed , a s u pp os i to r y ei t h er m e l ts a t bo d y te m pe r a t ur e o r di ss ol v e s ( o r d i sp e rs es ) i n t o t he aq u eo u s s e c re t io ns o f t he bod y c a vi t y. a . S up p os it o ri e s a re o ft en us e d f o r l oc al ef f ec ts (e . g . , r el i ef o f h em or r h oi ds o r in f ec t io n ) . b . W hen u s e d re c t a ll y , s u p p os it o ri es c a n p r o vid e s ys te m i c m ed ic a ti on . The a b so r p ti on o f a d r u g f r om a s up po s i t o r y th r ou g h t h e re c t a l m u c os a i nt o t he c i rc u la ti o n i n v ol v e s t wo s t ep s : ( 1 ) Th e dr u g is r el e as ed f r o m a v e hi c l e a nd pa r t it io n s / d if f us es th r o ug h t h e m uc o sa . ( 2 ) Th e dr u g is t r an s p o rte d th r o ug h t h e v e i ns o r lym p h v es s e ls in t o s ys t em ic fl ui ds o r t is s u es . Th e f i rs t - pa s s e f f ec t is a voi d ed be ca us e th e r e c ta l vei ns “ b y pa s s ” th e l i v e r . c . R ec ta l s up p os it o r ie s ar e us e fu l wh e n o r al ad m in i s t r a ti o n is in a pp r op r ia te , a s wi t h i n fa n ts , d eb i li t ate d o r c o m a t os e p a ti en t s, a n d p at i en ts wh o h a ve n a us e a, v o m i ti n g, o r g as t r o in t es t in al di s tu r ba nc es . S om e d ru g s ca n c au s e d i st u r ba nc es of t he ga s t ro i n te s t i na l t r ac t . 2 . T yp e s o f s u pp o s it o r ie s a . R ec t a l s u pp o si t o r i es a r e u s u a ll y c yli n dr ic a l an d ta p e re d t o a po i nt , f o r m i n g a b u ll et - l ik e s h ap e . As th e re c t um c o n tr ac t s , a s up po s i t o r y of th is s h ap e m o v es in wa r d r at he r t ha n o u t wa r d . S u pp osi t o ri es f o r a du l ts we i gh a p p ro xi m a t el y 2 g. S up po s it o ri e s f o r i nf a nt s a nd c h il d re n a r e sm a ll e r . b . V a gi n al s up p os i t o r ies a r e o v a l a nd t ypi c a l l y we i g h a pp r o xi m a te l y 5 g . D r u g s a dm in is t e re d b y th i s r o ut e a r e i n te nd e d t o h a v e a lo c a l e f f ec t , b ut s ys t em ic a bs o r pt i on c a n o c c u r . A n ti s e p ti cs , c on t ra c ep t i v e a ge n ts , a n d d rug s u s ed to t re a t t r ic h om on al, m on il i al , o r ba ct e ri a l i nf e c ti on s a r e o f te n f o r m u l at e d as v a gi n al s up p os i to r ie s . c . U r e th r a l s u pp o s it o r ie s a re t y pi c a l l y l o ng an d t a pe r e d. Th e y a re a p p ro xi m a t el y 6 0 m m lo ng a nd 4 -5 m m i n d ia m e t er . Th e y a r e a dm in is t e re d f o r a l oc al ef f ec t a n d a r e m os t o f te n us ed fo r an t i- i n fe c ti v e ag e nt s . A l p r os ta d il , o r p ro s t a gl an d in E 1 (P G E 1 ) , wh e n u s e d to t re a t e r ec t il e d ys f un c ti o n, is a v a i la bl e f o r u re t hr a l i ns e rt i on in th e fo r m o f a m ic r o pe ll e t, o r m i c ro s u p po s i t or y , t ha t i s o nl y 3 - 6 m m lo ng an d 1 . 4 m m in di am e te r . 3 . S u pp o si t o r y b a s e s a . C r i t e ri a fo r s a ti s fa c to r y s u p p o s i t o r y b a s e s . S u p po s i t o r y b as es s h oul d ( 1 ) R em a in fi r m a t r o om t e m p e r at u re t o a ll o w i nse r t io n . Th e s u p po si t o r y s h ou l d n ot s o f te n < 30 ° C t o a v oi d m el ti n g d u ri n g s t o ra g e. ( 2 ) H a ve a na r r o w, o r s ha r p , m el t in g ra ng e
( 3 ) Yi e l d a c le a r m el t j us t b el o w b o d y te m p e ra t u re o r d is so l ve ra pi d l y i n th e c a vi t y fl u id ( 4 ) B e i ne r t a n d c o m p a tib l e wi t h a v a ri e t y of d ru gs ( 5 ) B e n on i r ri t at i ng an d n o ns e ns it i z i ng ( 6 ) H a ve we t t in g a nd em u l s i f y i ng p ro pe r t ie s ( 7 ) H a ve a n a c i d v al u e of < 0. 2 , a s a po ni f ic a ti on v a l u e o f 2 0 0 -2 45 , an d a n i o di n e v a l ue of < 7 if t he b as e i s f a tt y b . S e le c ti n g a su p p os i to r y b a s e . L ip id - wa t e r s ol u bi l it y m us t b e c on si de re d b e ca us e o f i t s r e la ti o n t o t h e d r ug - r el e as e r a te . ( 1 ) I f a n o il - s o lu b le d ru g i s i nc o r po r at e d i nt o a n o il y b as e , t h en th e ra t e o f a b so r p ti on is s om e wh a t le s s t ha n t h at ac hi e ve d w i t h a wa t e r -s o lu bl e b a se . Th e l i pi d -s ol u bl e d r ug ten d s t o r e m a in di s s ol ve d in t he oi l y po o l f r om th e s u pp os i to r y . I t is le s s li k e l y t o e sc ap e i n to th e m u c ou s s ec re t io n s f r om wh i c h it is ul t im at el y a bs o r b ed . ( 2 ) C o n v er s el y , a wa t e r -s o lu bl e d r u g t en ds t o p as s m o re ra p id l y f ro m t he o i l p h as e t o th e a q ue ou s p ha s e. Th e r ef o r e, if r ap i d on s et o f ac t io n i s d es i re d , t h e wa t e r -s ol u bl e d r ug s h o ul d b e i n co r po r a te d i nt o t he oi l y ba se . c . B as e s t h at me l t i nc l ud e co c oa b ut t e r , o t he r co m b i na t i on s o f f a ts and w a xe s , W i te p so l ba s es , a n d W ec o be e ba se s ( Ta b le 3 -4 ) . ( 1 ) C o co a b u t t e r ( t he o br o m a o il ) i s t h e m o s t wi d e l y us e d s up po si t o r y b a se . I t is fi r m a nd s o li d u p t o a t em pe r a tu r e o f 3 2 ° C , at wh i c h p oi n t i t b e gi ns to s o f te n . A t 3 4 - 35 ° C , i t m el t s t o p r od uc e a t hi n , b lan d , o i l y l i qu id . P.57
Table 3-4. Composition, Melting Range, and Congealing Range of Selected Bases That Melt Base
Composition
Melting Congealing Range (°C) Range (°C)
Cocoa butter
Mixed triglycerides of oleic, palmitic, and stearic acids
34-35
28 or less
Cotmar
Partially hydrogenated cottonseed oil
34-75
—
33-36
32-33
37-39
36-37
Dehydag Base I Base
Hydrogenated fatty alcohols and esters
II Base III
9 ranges
9 ranges
Wecobee R
Glycerides of saturated fatty acids C12-C18
33-35
31-32
Wecobee SS
Triglycerides derived from coconut oil
40-43
33-35
32-33
29-32
H-15
33-35
32-34
H-85
42-44
36-38
Witepsol H-12
Triglycerides of saturated fatty acids C12-C18, with varied portions of the corresponding partial glycerides
( a ) C oc o a b ut t e r is a g ood b as e f o r a r ec t a l s up po s i t o r y, b u t i t i s l es s t han i d ea l fo r a v a g in al o r u r et h r al s u p po s i t or y . ( b ) A m i xt u r e of t ri g l yc e ri d es , c oc o a b ut t e r e xh i b it s po l y m o r ph is m . D e p e nd in g o n th e f us i on t e m p e ra t u re , i t c a n c r ys t a l li ze in t o a n y o n e o f f ou r c r ys t al fo r m s . ( c ) M a j o r l i mi t a t io n s o f c o c oa b ut t e r . Be c a us e o f t he fo ll o wi n g l im i ta t ion s , m a n y c om bi n a ti on s o f f at s an d wa xe s a r e us e d as s u bs t it u te s ( Ta b l e 3 - 4): ( i ) An i n a bi l i t y t o a b s o rb a q ue o us so l u t io n s. Th e ad di t io n o f no ni o ni c s u r fa c ta n ts t o th e b as e am e li o ra t es th is p ro bl em to s o m e e xt e n t . Ho we v e r , t h e re su l ta n t s up po s i t o rie s h a v e po o r s ta bi l it y a nd m a y t u r n r an c i d ra p id l y. ( i i ) T he low e r i n g o f th e m e l t in g po i n t p r o d uc e d b y c e r t a i n d r ug s (e . g. , c h lo r al h y d ra t e ). ( 2 ) W i te p so l b as e s c o n ta i n n a tu r al sa t ur a te d fa t ty a c id c h ai n s b et we e n C1 2 a n d C1 8 . L au r ic ac id is th e m a jo r c om p on e nt . Al l 1 2 ba s e s o f t h is s e ri es ar e c o lo r le ss an d a lm os t o d or l e s s . Th e d ru g - re l ea se c h a ra ct e ri s ti c s o f W it ep so l H 1 5 a re s im i la r to th os e o f c o c o a b u tt e r . ( a ) U nl ik e c oc o a b ut t e r, W itep s o l b as es do no t exh i b i t p ol ym o rp hi s m wh en h e a te d a n d c o o le d . ( b ) Th e in t e r v al be t we e n s o ft e ni ng an d m el t in g tem p e ra t ur e s is v e r y s m al l. B e c au se W it ep s o l b as e s s ol i di f y r ap id l y in t he m o l d , l ub r ic at i on of t he m ol d i s n o t n ec es s a r y .
( 3 ) W ec o be e b as es a re d e r i v ed f ro m c oc on u t o il . Th e i r ac ti o n is si m i la r to t h a t o f W ite ps o l b as es . In c o rp o ra t io n o f g l y c er y l m o no s t e a ra t e a nd p r o p yle n e g l yc o l m o n os te a r a te m ak es t he s e ba s e s e m u ls i fi a bl e . d . B a se s th a t d i ss o l ve in c lu d e P E G po l ym e r s wi th a m ol ec u la r we i gh t of 4 0 0 -6 0 00 . ( 1 ) A t ro om te m p e r at u re , P E G 4 0 0 is a l iq ui d , PEG 1 0 0 0 is a s e m i s ol id , P E G 1 5 00 an d 1 6 00 a re f a i rl y f i rm s em is o li ds , a nd P E G 3 35 0 a nd 60 0 0 a re f i r m wa x- l i k e s o l id s . ( 2 ) Th e s e ba s e s a r e wa t e r s o l ub le , bu t t h e d is s o lu t i on p ro c e ss i s ver y s low. I n t he re c tu m a nd v a gi n a, wh e r e t he am ou n t o f f lui d is v e r y s m a ll , th e y d i ss ol ve v e r y s l o wl y , b ut t h e y s o f te n a nd s p r ea d . ( 3 ) P E G s c om pl e x wi t h s e v e r a l d r ug s a nd a ff ec t dr u g re l ea se an d a b so r p ti on . ( 4 ) Mi xt u r e s o f P E G p o l ym e rs in va r yi ng p ro po r t ion s p r o v i de a b as e o f d i f fe r e nt p ro pe r t ie s ( Ta b le 3 - 5) . 4 . P r e pa r a t io n . Su pp os it o r ie s a r e p r ep a r ed b y t he f ol l o wi ng t h re e m et h ods : a . H a nd - r o l li n g i n v ol v e s m ol d in g t h e s u p po si t o r y wi t h t h e f in g er s a f te r a p l as t ic m as s is f or m e d . ( 1 ) A fi ne l y po wd e r e d d ru g is m i xe d wi t h th e g r a te d ba s e in a m o r t a r a nd p e st l e, us in g l e v i ga t io n a n d g e om et r ic di lu t io n tec h ni q ue s . A s m a ll qu a nt it y o f fi xe d o i l m a y b e a d ded t o f ac il i ta t e p r ep a r at i on . P.58
Table 3-5. Mixtures of Polyethylene Glycol (PEG) Bases Providing Satisfactory Room Temperature Stability and Dissolution Characteristics Base Comments 1
2
Provides a good general-purpose, watersoluble suppository
Provides a good general-purpose base that is slightly softer than base 1 and dissolves
Proportion Components (%) PEG 6000
50
PEG 1540
30
PEG 400
20
PEG 4000
60
more rapidly
3
Has a higher melting point than the other bases, which is usually sufficient to compensate for the melting-point lowering effect of such drugs as chloral hydrate and camphor
PEG 1500
30
PEG 400
10
PEG 6000
30
PEG 1540
70
( 2 ) Th e un i fo rm l y m i xe d s em i pl as t ic m as s is k n e ad e d f u r th e r , r ol l ed in t o a c yl i nd e r , a nd di v i de d i n to t he r eq u is it e n um b er of s up po s i t o ri es . Ea c h s m a l l c yl i nd e r i s r ol l ed b y h a nd u nt i l a s up p os it o r y sh ap e is fa s h io n ed . b . C o mp r e ss i o n is ge n er a l l y u s ed wh e n c oc oa bu t t e r is us ed as a b as e . ( 1 ) A un if o rm m i xt u r e o f d r u g a nd ba s e is p re pa re d as fo r th e h a nd - r ol li ng m e th o d. ( 2 ) Th e m i xt u r e is p l ac ed i n to a s up po s i t o r y c om pr e s s i on de v i c e . P re s s u re i s a p pl ie d , a nd t he m i xt u r e is fo r c e d i n to lu b ri c a te d c om p r es s i on m o ld c a vi ti es . Th e m ol d i s t hen c o o le d a n d t he s u pp os i t o ri es ej e ct e d. ( 3 ) Th i s p ro c ed u re ge n era l l y pr o du c e s a 2 -g s u ppo s it o r y. H o we ve r , a la r ge vo l u m e of t he ac ti v e in g re d ie n ts c a n a f fe c t t he am o un t o f c oc o a b ut t e r r e q ui r e d f o r a n i nd i v id u al f o rm ul a . ( a ) Th e am ou n t o f c oc oa b u t te r n e ed e d is de t e rm i n ed b y c a lc ul a ti n g t he t o t al am ou n t o f a c t i v e i ng r e di e nt t o b e us e d, di vid i ng t hi s n um be r b y th e c oc o a b u tt e r d en s i t y f ac to r ( Ta b le 3 -6 ) , a n d s u b t ra c ti n g t he r es ul t in g n u m b e r f r om th e to t al am o un t o f c oc o a b ut t e r r eq u i re d fo r th e d es i re d n u m b e r o f s up p os it o r ie s . ( b ) F o r e xa m p le , s up p os e 1 2 s u p po si t o ri es , e ac h c on t ai n in g 3 0 0 m g as pi ri n , a r e re q ui r ed . E ac h m o l d c a v i t y ha s a 2 - g c ap ac i t y. F o r 1 3 s up po si t o ri es ( c a lc ul a te d t o p r o v id e one e xt r a ) , 3 .9 g as p ir i n ( 13 × 0 . 3 g = 3 . 9 g ) i s r e q ui r e d. Th is nu m b e r i s d i v i de d b y t he de n s i t y fa c to r of as pi r i n ( 1 .1 ) ( Tab l e 3 - 6 ) . Th us 3 . 9 g of as pi r in r e pl ac es 3. 5 5 g o f c oc o a bu t te r . Th e t o ta l a m ou n t o f c oc oa bu t te r ne e d ed fo r 13 s u pp os i to r ie s o f 2 g e ac h e q ua ls 26 g . Th e am ou n t o f c oc oa b u t te r r eq ui r e d is 26 g - 3 . 5 5 g , o r 2 2 .4 5 g. c . Th e fu s io n me t h od is t h e p r in c i p al wa y t h a t s u p p os it o ri es a re m a de c om m e r c i a ll y . Th is m e t ho d is u s e d p r im a ri l y f or su p p os it o ri es t ha t c on t ai n c oc o a b u tt e r , P E G , an d g l y c e ri ng e la t in P.59
b a se s. Mo l d s m ad e o f a lu m in um , b r as s , o r n ic k e l- c o pp e r a ll o ys a r e us e d a n d c an m a k e 6- 5 0 s up po s it o ri e s a t o ne ti m e .
Table 3-6. Cocoa Butter Density Factors of Drugs Commonly Used in Suppositories Drug
Cocoa Butter Density Factor Drug
Cocoa Butter Density Factor
Aloin
1.3
Dimenhydrinate
1.3
Aminophylline
1.1
Diphenhydramine hydrochloride
1.3
Aminopyrine
1.3
Gallic acid
2.0
Aspirin
1.1
Morphine hydrochloride
1.6
Barbital sodium
1.2
Pentobarbital
1.2
Belladonna extract
1.3
Phenobarbital sodium
1.2
Bismuth subgallate
2.7
Salicylic acid
1.3
Chloral hydrate
1.3
Secobarbital sodium
1.2
Codeine phosphate
1.1
Tannic acid
1.6
Digitalis leaf
1.6
( 1 ) Th e ca p ac i t y o f t h e m o l ds is de t e rm i n ed b y m e lt i ng a s u f fi c i e n t q u a nt i t y o f ba s e o v e r a s t e am ba t h , p ou r in g i t i n to t he m o ld s , a nd al lo wi n g i t to co n ge al . Th e “b la nk ” s up p os it o ri e s a re t ri m m e d , re m o ve d , a nd we i g h e d . O n c e th e we i gh t is k n o wn , th e d r ug - c on t a in in g s u pp os i to r ie s a re p r e pa r e d.
( a ) To p re p a re s u pp os i tor i e s , th e d r u g is r ed uc e d t o a f in e p o wd e r . A sm all a m ou n t o f g r at e d c oc oa b u t te r is l i qu e fi ed in a s ui t a bl e c on t ai ne r pl ac e d in a wa t e r ba t h a t 3 3 ° C o r le s s . ( b ) Th e fi n el y p o wd e r ed d r u g i s m i xe d wi t h m el t ed c o c o a bu t te r wi t h c o nt i nu o us s ti r r in g . ( c ) Th e re m a i nd e r o f th e g r a te d c oc oa bu t t er is ad d e d wi t h st i r ri ng . Th e t e m p e r at u re is m a in t ai ned a t o r b e lo w 3 3 ° C . Th e l i qu i d sh o ul d a p pe a r c r e am y r at h e r t ha n c le a r. ( d ) Th e m o ld is v e r y l i ght l y l ub r ic a te d wi t h m i n e ra l oi l , a nd th e c r ea m y m e l t i s p o u re d i n to th e m ol d at r o om te m p e ra t u re . Th e m e lt is po u re d c o nt i nu o us l y t o a v o i d l a ye r i ng . ( e ) A f te r th e s up p os it o rie s c on g ea l , t he y a r e p lac e d i n a re f r ig e ra t o r t o h a r de n . Af t e r 3 0 m i n , t hey a r e r em o v ed f ro m t h e re f r ig e r at o r , t r im m e d, a nd u n m o l de d . ( 2 ) Th e fu s i o n p ro c es s s h o ul d b e us ed c a r ef ul l y wi t h t h e r m ol a bi l e d r u gs a n d i n s ol u bl e pow d e r s. ( a ) I ns ol ub l e p o wd e rs in t h e m el t m a y se t tl e o r fl oa t du r i ng po u ri n g, d e p en di n g o n t he i r d e ns it y . Th e y m a y al so c o ll ec t a t on e e nd o f t he s u pp os i to r y b ef o r e t he m e l t c on g ea ls , a n d c au se a n on u ni f or m d r ug d i st r ib u ti o n. ( b ) H a r d c r ys t al l in e m at er i a ls (e . g ., io di n e, m e r b ro m i n ) c a n b e i nc o rp o ra t ed b y d is so l v i ng th e c r y s ta ls in a m in im um vo lu m e of s ui t ab le so l ven t be f o re t h e y a re in c o r p or a te d i n to t he ba se . ( c ) V eg e ta b le e xt r a c ts c a n be in c o r po r a te d b y m o i s t e ni ng wi t h a f e w d r ops o f al co h ol an d l e v i ga ti n g wi t h a s m a l l am o un t o f m e lt e d c o co a bu t te r . G . P ow d e r s 1 . I n t ro d uc t i o n. A p h a rm ac e ut ic a l p o wd e r i s a m i xt u r e of f in el y d i v id e d d r u gs or c h em ic a ls i n d ry f o r m . Th e po wd e r m a y b e us ed in t e rn al l y o r e xt e r n a l l y . a . Ad va n t a g es o f p o wd er s ( 1 ) Fl e xi b i li t y o f c om po un d in g ( 2 ) G o od c h em ic al s t a bi lit y ( 3 ) R a pi d d is pe r s i o n o f in g r ed i en ts be c au s e of the s m al l p a r ti cl e s i z e b . D i sa d va n t ag e s o f p owd e r s ( 1 ) Ti m e- c o n s u m i ng p re pa r a ti o n ( 2 ) I na cc u ra c y o f do s e ( 3 ) U ns u it a bi li t y f or m a ny u n p le as a nt - t as ti n g, h yg r o s c op ic , a n d d el iq u es c e n t d r u gs c . M i l li n g i s t he m e c h an ic a l p r oc ess o f r ed u c i ng th e pa r t ic le s i ze o f s ol i ds ( c o mm i n u ti o n ) b ef o r e m i xi n g wi t h o th e r c om po n en t s , f u rt h e r p ro c e ss i ng , o r i n co r po r a ti o n i nt o a fi n al p r o du ct ( Ta b le s 3 - 7 a nd 3 - 8 ) . Th e pa r t ic le s i z e of a p o wd e r i s r e la t ed to the p r op o rt i on of t he po wd e r t ha t c an p as s th r o ug h t h e o p en i ng of s t an d a rd s i e v es o f v a r io us di m e nsi o n s in a sp ec i fi e d am o un t o f ti m e. M i c r om e r i ti c s is t he s t ud y o f p a r ti c l es .
Table 3-7. United States Pharmacopeia Standards for Powders of Animal and Vegetable Drugs Type of Powder
Sieve Size All Particles Sieve Size Percentage of Pass Through Particles Pass Through
Very coarse (#8)
#20 sieve
20% through a #60 sieve
Coarse (#20)
#20 sieve
40% through a #60 sieve
Moderately coarse (#40)
#40 sieve
40% through a #80 sieve
Fine (#60)
#60 sieve
40% through a #100 sieve
Very fine (#80)
#80 sieve
No limit
P.60
Table 3-8. United States Pharmacopeia Standards for Powders of Chemicals Type of Powder
Sieve Size All Particles Sieve Size Percentage of Pass Through Particles Pass Through
Coarse (#20)
#20 sieve
60% through a #40 sieve
Moderately coarse (#40)
#40 sieve
60% through a #60 sieve
Fine (#80)
#80 sieve
No limit
Very fine (#120)
#120 sieve
No limit
( 1 ) Ad va n t a g e s o f m i l li ng ( a ) I nc r ea s e s t he s u r fa c e a r ea , wh ic h m a y in c rea s e t he di s s ol u ti o n r a te a s we l l a s b io a v a il ab i li t y ( e.g . , gr is e of u l vin ) ( b ) I nc r ea s e s e xt r a c t io n , o r le ac h in g , f r om a n im al g l an ds ( e. g ., li v e r , p a nc r ea s ) a nd f ro m c r ude v e g et a bl e e xt r a c t s ( c ) F ac il it a te s d r y i ng o f we t m a s s es b y i nc r ea s ing t he s u r fa c e a re a a n d r e d uc in g th e d is t an c e tha t m o is t ur e m us t tr a v e l to r e ac h t he ou t e r su r f ac e .
Mi c r o n i z a t io n a nd s u bs eq u e nt d r y in g , i n t u rn , i nc r e a s e s t ab i li t y as occ l ude d s o l ven t i s r e m o v e d . ( d ) Im p r o v es m i xi n g , o r b l en d in g , o f s e ve ra l s ol id i ng r ed i en ts i f t he y a r e r e d uc ed t o a pp r o xi m a te ly t h e s am e s i z e ; a ls o m in i m i ze s s e g r eg a ti on a nd p r o vi de s g r ea t e r d os e u ni f o rm i t y ( e ) P e rm it s u ni f o rm d is t r ib u t io n o f c ol o r in g a ge n ts i n a r t if ic i al l y c o lo r ed s o li d p ha r m a c e u ti c a ls ( f ) I m p r o v es th e fu nc t io n o f l u b ri ca n ts u s ed to c oa t t he s u r fa c e of t he g r a nu l at i on o r p o wd e r i n c om p r ess e d t ab l et s a n d c a p s ul es ( g ) Im p r o v es th e t e xt u r e , a p pe a ra nc e , a n d p h ys ic a l s t ab i li t y of oi n tm en t s , c r e am s , an d p as t es ( 2 ) D i sa d va n t ag e s o f m il l in g ( a ) C a n c h a ng e t h e p ol y m o r ph ic fo r m o f t h e ac t i ve i ng r ed i en t , r e nd e ri n g i t l e ss a c ti v e ( b ) C a n d eg r ad e th e d r ug as a r e s u lt o f h ea t b u ild u p , o xi d a t io n , o r a d so r p ti on o f u n wa n te d m o is tu r e b ec a us e o f i nc re a s e d s u rf ac e a r e a ( c ) D ec r ea s es t h e b ul k de n s i t y o f t he ac t i v e c o m po u n d a nd e xc i pi en t s , c a us in g f l o w p r ob l em s an d s e g re ga t io n . ( d ) D ec r e as es th e p a rt ic le s i z e o f t he r a w m at e ri al s a n d m a y c r ea t e p r o bl em s wi t h s ta t ic c ha rg e , wh ic h m a y ca us e p a rt i c l e a g g re ga t io n a n d d e c re as e t h e d is s o lu t io n r a t e ( e ) I nc r ea s e s s u r f ac e a re a , wh ic h m a y p ro m o t e ai r ad s or p ti o n a nd in h ib it we t t a b i li t y ( 3 ) C o mm i nu t i o n t ec h n iq u e s. O n a la r g e sc al e , v a r i o us m i ll s a nd p u l ve ri z e r s ( e .g . , ro t ar y c u t te r , h am m e r , ro ll e r , f lu i d e ne r g y m i ll ) a re us ed d u r in g m an u fa c tu r in g . O n a s m a ll s c al e , t he ph a rm ac is t us ua ll y u se s o ne o f t h e fo ll o wi n g c om m i nu t ion t ec hn i qu es : ( a ) T r i tu r a t i on . Th e s ubs t an c e is r ed uc ed t o s m a l l p a rt ic l es b y r u bb i ng it i n a m o r t a r wi t h a p es t le . Tr i t u ra t io n a ls o d es c ri b es t h e p r oc es s b y wh i c h f ine p o wd e r s a r e i n ti m a t el y m i xe d i n a m o rt a r . ( b ) P u l ve r iz a t io n b y i n t e r ve n t i o n . S u bs ta nc es ar e r ed uc e d a nd s u bd i v i de d wi t h a n a d di t io n al m a te r ia l (i . e ., so l ven t ) th a t is ea s il y r em o ve d a f te r p u l ve ri z a t io n . Thi s t ec h ni q ue is of t en us ed wi t h gu m m y s ub s t a nc es th a t r e a gg l om e ra t e o r re s i s t g r i nd i ng . F o r e xa m p l e, c a m ph o r i s r ea d il y r e du ced a f t e r a s m a ll am ou n t o f al c oh ol o r o t he r v ol a ti l e s o l v e n t is ad d ed . Th e s o l ven t i s t h en pe r m i t te d t o e v ap o ra t e . ( c ) L e vi ga t i on . Th e p a r tic l e s i z e o f t he su bs t an c e i s r e du c e d b y a dd i ng a s u it a bl e n o ns ol v e n t ( le v ig a t in g a g en t ) t o f o rm a pa s te . Th e p as t e i s t he n r u b be d i n a m o r ta r an d pe s tl e o r us in g a n o i nt m en t s l ab an d s pa t ul a . Th is m e th o d is o ft e n us e d t o p r e v e n t a g r i tt y f e el wh en s o l id s a r e i nc or p o ra t ed i n t o d e rm at o lo gi c o r o p hth a lm ic oi n tm en ts an d s us p e n si o ns . Mi n e ra l o il is a c om m o n l e v i ga t in g a g en t. 2 . M i x in g pow d e r s. P o wd e r s a re m i xe d , o r b l en de d , b y t h e f ol l o wi ng f i v e m e th o ds :
a . S pa t u la t i o n. A s pa t ula is us ed t o b le nd sm al l a m ou n ts o f po wd e r s o n a s h ee t o f pa pe r o r a p i ll til e . ( 1 ) Th i s m e t ho d i s n o t s ui t a bl e f o r l a rg e q u an t it i es o f p o wd e rs o r f o r p o wd e r s t h at c o n ta in p ote n t s ub s ta nc es be c a us e h o m o g en eo u s bl e nd i ng m a y no t oc c u r . P.61
( 2 ) Th i s m e t ho d i s p a rt ic u l a rl y u se f ul fo r s o li d s ub s ta nc e s t ha t l i qu e f y o r f o r m e u te c t ic mi x t u re s ( i . e ., m i xt u r e s t h at m e l t a t a l o we r te m pe r at u r e th a n a n y o f t h ei r i n g re di e nt s ) wh e n i n c lo se , pr o lo n ge d c on t ac t wi t h o ne an o th er b e ca us e l i tt l e c o m p r es s io n o r c o m p ac t io n re su l ts . ( a ) Th e s e s u bs ta n c e s i nc l ud e p h en ol , c am p ho r , m e nt h ol , th y m ol , a sp i ri n , p h e n yls al ic y l a te , a n d p he n ac e ti n . ( b ) To d im in is h c on t ac t , p o wd e r s p r ep a r ed f ro m th e s e s u bs t an c e s a r e c om m o n l y m i xe d wi t h an i n er t di lu e nt ( e. g . , l ig h t m a gn es i um o xi d e o r m a gn es i um c a rb o na t e, k a o li n , s ta r ch , b e nt o ni t e ). ( c ) S il ic ic ac id ( ap p ro xi m a t e l y 2 0 % ) p re v e n ts eu t exi a wi t h a s pi r i n, p h e n yls al ic y l a te , a n d o the r t r ou bl es om e c om p ou nd s . b . T r i tu r a t i on is u s ed bot h t o c o m m in u te an d to m i x p o wd e r s . ( 1 ) I f co m m i nu ti o n is d es i r e d, a p o rc el a in o r ce r am ic m o r ta r wi t h a r ou g h i n ne r su r fa c e is p re f er r ed t o a gl as s m o r t a r wi t h a s m oo t h wo r k i ng s u r f ac e . ( 2 ) A gl as s m o r t a r is p ref e r a bl e f o r c he m i ca ls th at s ta i n a p o rc el a in o r c e r am ic s u rf ac e as we l l a s fo r s im pl e a d m i xt u r e o f su bs t an c e s wi t h o u t s p ec ia l n e ed fo r c om m i nu t i on . A g la s s m o r ta r c lea n s m o r e re a di l y af t e r us e . c . G e om e t r ic di l u t io n i s u s e d wh e n p o te n t su bs ta n c e s m us t b e m i xe d wi t h a l ar g e a m o un t of di l ue nt . ( 1 ) Th e po t en t d r u g a nd a n ap p ro xi m a t el y e q ua l v o l u m e of di l ue n t a r e p l ac e d in a m o rt a r a nd th o r ou g hl y m i xe d b y t r i tu ra t i on . ( 2 ) A s ec o nd po r ti o n o f di l ue n t , e qu al in v o lu m e to t he po wd e r m i xt u r e i n t h e m o rt a r , is a dd ed , and t r it u r at i on i s re pe a te d . Th e p r oc es s i s co n ti n ued ; e q u al v ol u m e s o f d il u en t a r e a d de d t o t h e p o wd er m i xt u r e i n t h e m o r t a r un t i l a l l o f t h e d il u en t i s i nc o rp o r a te d . d . S i f ti n g . P o wd e r s a r e m i xe d b y pa s s i ng th em th r o ug h s i ft e rs s im i la r to t h os e u s ed to s i f t f lo u r . Th i s p ro ce s s re s ul ts in a l i gh t , f lu f f y p ro d uc t. U s u al l y , i t is n o t a c c ep t ab l e f o r i nc o rp o r at i ng po te n t d r u gs i n to a d il u en t b a se . e . T um b li n g i s t he p ro c es s o f m i xi n g p o wd e r s i n a l ar g e c on t ai ne r r ot a te d b y a m o t o ri z e d p r oc es s . Th e s e b l en d er s a r e wi del y u se d i n i n du s t r y , as a re l a r ge - vo l um e p o wd e r m i xe r s t h at us e m ot o r i z ed bla d e s to bl e nd th e p o wd er i n a l ar g e m i xi n g v e s s e l. 3 . U se a nd pa c ka g i ng of p ow d e rs . D ep e nd in g on t he i r i n te n de d u se , p o wd e r s a r e p ac k a g ed an d di s p e ns ed b y p h a rm ac is t s a s bu lk po wd e r s o r d i vi de d p o wd e r s .
a . B ul k p o wd e rs a re di s pe n s e d b y t h e p ha rm a c i s t i n b u lk c on t ai n e rs . A p e r f o r a te d , o r si f t e r , c an is us e d f o r e xt e r n a l d us t in g , a nd an ae r o s ol c o n t ai n e r i s us e d f o r s pr a y i n g o n to s ki n . A w i d e- m o u t he d g l as s ja r p e r m i ts ea s y re m o v a l of a s p o on f ul of po wd e r . ( 1 ) P o wd e rs c o m m on l y di s pe ns e d i n b ul k f o rm ( a ) An t a c i d a nd l ax a t i ve p ow de r s ar e us ed b y m i xi n g th e d i r ec te d a m ou n t o f po wd e r ( us u al l y ap p roxi m a t e l y 1 t e as po o n) in a p o rt i on of li qu i d, wh i c h t h e p a ti e nt t he n d r in k s . ( b ) D o uc h e p ow d e rs a re d is s o l v ed in wa r m wa te r a nd ap pl i ed va gi n al l y . ( c ) M e d ic a te d an d no nm e d ic a t ed pow d e r s f o r e x t e r na l us e a r e us u al l y d i sp e ns ed in a s i f te r f or c o n v en i en t a p pl ic a ti on to t he s k in . ( d ) D e n ti f r i ce s , o r de n ta l c le a ns i ng p ow de r s , a r e us ed fo r o ra l h y g ie ne . ( e ) P o wd e rs f or t he ea r , n o s e, t h r oa t , to o t h s ock e t s , o r va gi n a a r e a d m i ni s te r ed wi t h an in s u f f la t o r, o r p o wd e r b l o wer . ( 2 ) N o np o t en t su b s ta n ce s a re us ua ll y d is pe n se d i n b u lk p o wd e r fo r m . Th o s e i n te n de d f o r e xt e r n a l u s e s h ou l d b e cl e ar l y l a be le d . ( 3 ) H yg r o s c o p i c, de l i que s c en t , o r vo l a ti l e p o wde r s s ho u ld be pa c k ed in g l as s j a rs ra t he r th a n p as t eb o a rd c o nt a in e rs . Am b e r or g re e n g la s s s ho u ld b e us ed if ne e de d t o pr ev e n t de c om po s i t io n o f l igh t - s e ns i ti v e c o m p on e nt s . A l l p o wd e r s s ho ul d b e s to r e d i n t ig h tl y c lo se d c on t a in e rs . b . D i vi d e d p ow de r s ar e d i s p e ns ed in in di v i d ua l do s es , u s u a ll y in f ol d e d p a p e rs ( i. e . , c h a r tu l ae ) . Th e y m a y a ls o b e d is pe ns e d i n m e t al f oi l, sm al l h e a t -s ea le d o r r es ea l ab le p l as t ic b ag s , o r o t he r c o nt a in e rs . ( 1 ) A f te r th e i n gr e di e nt s a r e we i gh e d, c o m m in u ted , an d m i xe d , th e p o wd er s m us t be ac c u r at e l y d i vi de d in t o t he p re s c r ib e d nu m be r of do se s . ( 2 ) D e pe nd i ng on th e p o te n c y o f th e d r u g s u bs t anc e , t h e p ha r m a ci s t d e ci d es wh e th e r t o w e igh e ac h p o rt i on s e pa r a te ly b e f o re pa c k ag i ng o r t o a p p ro xi m a t e p o r ti on s b y t h e bl o ck - a nd - d i vi de me t h o d. P.62
( 3 ) P ow de r p ap e r s c an b e of an y c on ve n ie n t s i ze t ha t fi ts t he re q ui r ed d o se . Fo u r b as ic t y pe s ar e us e d: ( a ) V eg e t ab l e p a r ch m ent i s a th in , s em i op aq u e, m o is tu r e - re s i s ta n t p ap e r. ( b ) W hi t e b o n d is an opa q u e p ap e r t ha t ha s n o m o is tu r e - re s i s ta n t p r o pe r t ie s . ( c ) G l as s i ne is a gl a z e d, t r a ns pa r e nt , m oi s tu r e - res is t an t pa pe r . ( d ) W ax e d p ap e r is a t ran s pa r en t wa t e r p ro o f p ape r . ( 4 ) H yg r os c o p ic a n d v o l at i l e d ru g s a re be s t p r ot ec t ed wi t h wa xe d p a p e r t ha t i s d o ub le wr a p p ed an d c o v e r e d wi t h a b o nd pa p er t o i m p r o ve t h e a p p ea r an c e . Pa r c h m e n t a n d g la s s i ne pa pe r s a r e o f li m i t ed us e f o r t h es e d r u gs . 4 . S pe c ia l p r ob l em s . V ol a t il e s ub s t a nc es , e u te ct ic m i xt u r e s , l iq ui ds , an d h yg r o sc op ic o r d el iq u es c e n t s ub s ta nc es p re se n t p r o b l em s wh e n t he y a r e m i xe d i nt o p o wd e r s t ha t r e q ui r e s pe c i a l t r ea tm e nt.
a . V o la t i le su b s ta n ce s (e . g . , c a m p h o r, m e nt h ol , e ss e nt i al oi ls ) c a n b e l ost b y vo l a ti l i z at i on af t e r t hey a r e in c o r p or a te d i n to po wd e r s . Th is pr o c e s s i s p r e ve n te d o r re t a rd e d b y t h e u s e of he a t -s ea l ed p l as t ic b a gs o r b y do ub le wr a p p i n g wi t h wa xe d o r g l as s i n e p ap e r i ns id e whi t e b o nd pa p er . b . L iq u i ds a re in c o r po r at e d i n to di v i d ed po wd e r s i n s m a ll am o u n ts . ( 1 ) Ma g n e s i um c a rb o na te , s t a rc h , o r l ac t os e c an b e ad d ed to in c re as e t h e a b so r ba b il i t y o f th e p o wd e r s b y in c re as i ng th e s u r f ac e a r e a. ( 2 ) W hen t h e li q ui d i s a s o l v en t fo r a n on vo la t il e h e a t -s ta b le c om p ou n d, it i s e va p o ra t ed g en tl y i n a wa t e r b a th . So m e f lu id e xt r a c ts an d t i nc tu r es a re t r e a te d i n t h is wa y . c . H yg r o s c o p i c an d de l iq u e sc e n t s ub s t an c es tha t be c o m e m o is t b ec a us e o f an a ff i ni t y fo r m o is tu re i n t he ai r c a n b e p r ep ar e d as d i v i de d p o wd e r s b y a d di n g i ne r t d i lu en t s . D ou b le wr a p p in g i s d es i ra ble f o r f u rt h e r p r ot ec t io n . d . E u te c t ic mi x t u re s H . C a p su l es 1 . I n t ro d uc t i o n. C ap s u le s a r e s ol i d d os ag e f o rm s in wh i ch o ne or m o r e m e di ci n al o r in e r t s u bs t an c es (a s p o wd e r , c om pac t , b e ad s, o r g r an ul a ti o n) a r e en cl os ed wi t h i n a s m a l l g el a ti n s he l l. G e la t in c a ps ul es m a y b e h a rd or s o f t. Mo s t c a ps ul es a re in t e nd e d t o b e s wa l lo we d wh o l e , b u t o c c as io n al l y , t h e c on t en t s a r e r em o v ed f r om th e g el a ti n s he l l an d us ed as a p re m e a su re d d o se . 2 . H a r d g e la t i n c ap s ul es a . P r e pa r a t io n of f i ll e d h a r d ca p su l es in cl u de s p r e pa r i ng th e f o rm u la t ion , s e le ct i ng th e a p p ro p ri a te c ap s u l e, f il li n g t he c a ps u l e s he ll s , a nd c l ea n in g a n d p ol is h in g t h e f il l ed c a p s u l es . ( 1 ) E m p t y ha r d c ap s u l e s h el ls a re m a nu f ac tu r e d f r o m a m i xt u r e of ge l at in, c o lo r an t s , an d s om e ti m es an op a ci f yin g a g en t (e .g . , ti t an iu m d io xi d e ) . The U S P a ls o p e rm i ts th e a dd i t io n o f 0 . 15 % s ul f u r d io xi d e t o p r e ve nt d e co m p os i ti o n o f g el a ti n d u ri n g m an u fa ct u r e. ( 2 ) G e la t in U S P i s o b ta ine d b y p a r ti a l h yd ro l y s i s o f c o ll a ge n o b ta i ne d f r om t h e s ki n , wh i t e c on n ec ti v e t is s u e , a nd bo n es o f an i m a ls . Ty p e s A an d B ar e o b t ai ne d b y a c i d a n d a lk a l i p r oc es si ng , re s pe ct i ve l y . ( 3 ) C a ps ul e s he ll s a r e c a s t b y d ip pi n g co l d m e t all i c m o l ds o r pi ns in t o g e la t in so lu t io ns t ha t a r e m ai n ta i ne d a t a un i fo r m t e m p e r at u re a nd an e xa ct d e g re e o f fl u id it y . ( a ) V a ri a ti on in t he v is c os i t y of th e g e la t in s o lu t ion i nc r ea s e s o r d ec r e as es t h e th ic k n es s o f t h e c a ps u l e wa ll . ( b ) A f te r th e p i ns a r e wi th d r a wn f r om t h e g el a ti n s o lu t io n , t he y a r e r o ta t ed wh i l e b ei ng d ri ed in k i ln s . A s t r o ng bl as t o f fi l te r ed a ir wi t h c o nt r o ll ed h u m i di t y is f or c e d th r ou gh t he k i ln s . E ac h c ap s u le is t he n m ec ha ni c al l y s t r ip p ed , t r im m e d , a nd joi n ed . b . S t o r ag e . H a r d c a p s u le s s ho u ld be st o re d i n tig h t l y c lo s e d g l as s c o nt a in e rs an d p r o te c t e d f r om du s t a nd e xt r e m e s o f hu m i d it y a nd t e m p e r at u re .
( 1 ) Th e s e c a ps ul es c o n ta i n 1 2% - 1 6% wa t e r , var y i n g wi t h s to r ag e c o nd i ti on s . W hen h um i dit y i s l o w, t h e c a ps u le s be c om e b r it t le . W hen h u m i di t y is hi g h, t he c a ps u le s b ec om e f l acc i d a nd s h a pe l ess . ( 2 ) S t or a ge at hi g h t em pe r a t ur es al s o a ff ec t s t he q u al i t y o f ha r d g el a ti n c a ps ul es . c . S iz es . H ar d c a ps ul es a r e a v ai la b le in a v a r i et y o f s i z es . P.63
( 1 ) E m p t y c a ps ul es a re n u m be r e d f r om 00 0 , wh ic h i s t h e l ar g es t s i ze t hat c a n b e s wa l lo we d , t o 5 , th e s m a l le st s i ze . Th e a pp r o xi m a t e ca p ac it y o f c a ps ul es r an g es f r om 600 t o 3 0 m g f o r c a ps u le s fr o m 0 0 0 t o 5 , re sp ec t i v ely . Th e c ap ac i t y v a r ie s b ec au s e o f v a r yin g d en s i t ie s o f po wd e r e d d r ug m a te r i al s a nd th e d e gr e e o f pr es s ur e u s e d to fi l l th e c a ps ul es . ( 2 ) La r g e c a ps u le s a r e av a i l ab l e f o r ve t e r i na r y m e d ic i ne . ( 3 ) S e le c ti n g c a ps u le s . C a p s u l e s i z e sh ou l d b e c h os en c a r ef u ll y. A p r o pe r l y fi l le d c ap s u l e s h o ul d h a v e it s b od y f il l ed wi t h t he dr u g m i xt u r e an d i t s c ap fu l l y e xt e n d e d d own t h e b od y. Th e c a p is m e an t to en cl os e t h e p o wd e r , no t to re t ai n a dd i t io na l p o wd e r . Ty p i c a lly , h a r d g el a ti n c ap s u l es a r e u s ed to en c ap s u la t e b e twe e n 6 5 m g a nd 1 g of po wd e r e d m a te r ia l , i nc lu di n g t h e d r u g a nd an y d il ue n ts ne e de d . ( a ) I f t he d ru g d os e i s i na d e qu a te to fi l l t he c a ps u l e , a d i lu en t (e . g ., l a ct os e ) i s a dd e d. ( b ) I f t h e am o un t o f dr u g n e ed e d f o r a u su a l d os e i s t o o la r g e t o p la c e in a s i ng le c a ps u le , t wo o r m o r e c a ps ul es m a y b e r equ i r ed . ( c ) Lu b r ic an ts s u c h as m a g n es iu m s t e a ra t e ( f r equ e n tl y , 1% ) a re ad de d to f a ci l it a te th e fl o w o f th e p o wd e r wh e n an au t om ati c c ap su l e -f i ll in g m ac hi ne i s u se d . ( d ) W ett in g a g en ts ( e. g . , s od i um l a u r yl s u l fa t e ) m a y b e a d de d t o c a ps ul e f o r m u l at io n s t o e nh a nc e d r u g d is so lu t io n . d . F il l i ng ca p s ul e s. W he t h e r o n a l a rg e - o r a s m a l l -p r od u ct io n s ca l e, th e c a p is f ir s t s e p a ra t ed f rom t he bo d y of t he c a ps ule b ef o r e f il li n g t he c a ps ul e b o d y wi t h th e f o rm u la t ion a nd th e n r e at t ac hi n g th e c a p. A u to m a t ed an d s em i au t om at e d c ap s u le - fi l li n g e qu ip m e n t f i ll th e ca p s u l e b od ie s wi t h t he f o r m u l at io n b y g r a v i t y fi ll, t am p in g , o r a s c re w- f e ed ( i .e . , a ug e r ) m ec h an is m . E xt e m p o ra ne o us l y c o m p ou n de d c aps u le s a r e us u al l y fi l le d by t h e p u nc h m et h od . ( 1 ) Th e po wd e r is pl ac ed o n p a pe r an d f l at t en e d wi t h a s p a tu la so th a t t he l a ye r of po wd e r is no m or e t ha n a p pr o xi m a t el y o ne t hi r d t h e l en g th of t he c a ps ul e . Th e pa p e r is hel d in th e l e ft ha n d. Th e bo d y o f t h e ca ps u le is h e ld i n th e ri gh t ha n d a nd re pe a t ed l y p re s s ed in t o t he p o wd e r u nt il t he c a ps ul e i s fi ll e d. Th e c ap is r ep lac e d a nd th e c a ps ul e we ig h e d. ( 2 ) G r a n ul a r m a te r ia l tha t do es no t le nd i ts el f we l l t o t h e p un ch m e t ho d c a n b e po u re d i n to ea c h c a ps u le f ro m t he po wd e r p ap e r o n wh i c h it wa s we i g h e d .
( 3 ) C r ys t a l l i n e m at e ri a ls , e s p ec ia l l y th os e t h at c o n si st o f a m as s o f f i l am en t -l ik e c r y s ta ls ( e.g . , qu in i ne s a lt s ) wi l l no t f i t i n to a c a ps u le ea s i l y u n le ss th e y a re po wd e r ed . ( 4 ) A f te r th e y a re fi l le d , c a ps ul es m u st be cl ea n ed a nd po li s he d . ( a ) O n a sm a l l s ca l e, c ap s ul es a re c l ea n ed i n di v id u al l y o r i n sm a ll n u m b er s b y r u b bi ng t he m o n a c lea n ga u ze o r c l ot h . ( b ) O n a l a r ge sc a le , m a n y c a p su le - f il li n g m a c h in e s h a ve a c l ea ni n g va c u um th a t r em o v es any e xt r a n e o us m a t e ri al as t h e c ap s u le s l ea ve t he m ac h in e . 3 . S o f t g el a t i n c ap s ul es a . P r e pa r a t io n ( 1 ) S o ft ge la t in c a ps u le s a r e p r ep a r ed f ro m g el a tin s h e ll s. G l y c e r i n o r a p o l yh y d ri c a lc oh o l ( e .g . , s o r bi t ol ) i s a dd e d t o t h ese s h e ll s t o m ak e t he m e l as t ic o r pl as t ic - li k e . ( 2 ) Th e s e s h el ls c o nt a in p r e s e r va ti v e s (e . g. , m e thy l a n d p r op yl pa r ab e ns , s o r bi c ac i d) t o p r e v en t th e g ro wt h o f f u ng i . b . U s es . So f t g el a ti n s hel l s a re o bl on g , e ll i pt ic al , o r sp h er ic a l. Th e y a r e u s ed to c o n ta in li q ui ds , s us p en si o ns , p as t es , d r y p o wd e r s , o r p el l et s. ( 1 ) D r ug s t h at a re c om m e r c ia ll y p r ep a re d i n s o ft c a ps ul es in c l u de d e m e cl oc y c li n e h y d r oc hlo r i de ( D ec lo m yc i n , L ed er l e ) , c hl o ra l h y d r a te , d i go xi n ( L a no xi c a ps , G laxo S m i t h K li n e ), v i t am in A, a nd v i t am in E . ( 2 ) S o ft ge la t in c a ps u le s a r e u s u a ll y p re p a re d b y t h e p l at e p r oc es s o r b y t h e ro t a r y o r r ec ip r oc a ti ng d ie p ro ce s s . 4 . U n i fo r m i t y a n d d i s i nte g r a t io n a . Th e un i f o rm i t y o f d o s a g e f o rm s c an be de m o ns t r at e d b y ei t h er we i g ht va r i a ti o n o r c on t en t un i fo r m it y m e t ho d s. Th e o f f ic i al c om p en d ia s h ou ld be c o ns ul t ed fo r de t ai ls o f th e s e p ro ce d ur es . b . D i si n t eg r a t i on te s ts a r e no t u s u a ll y r eq u i re d f o r c a ps ul es un l es s t he y h a ve be e n t r ea t ed to r es i s t s ol u ti on in ga s tr ic f lu id ( e nt e ri c c oa t ed ) . I n th is c as e , t h e y m us t m ee t the r e qu i re m e n ts fo r di s i n te g r a ti on o f e nt e ri c -c oa t ed t a b le ts . P.64
I . T AB L E T S 1 . I n t ro d uc t i o n a . Th e o ra l r ou t e i s t h e m os t im po r ta n t m et h od fo r a dm in is t er i ng d ru gs for s ys t em ic e f f ec t . O r a l d r ug s c an b e gi v e n as s ol i ds o r l iq ui d s . ( 1 ) Ad va n t a g e s o f s o l id d o sa g e fo r m s ( a ) A cc ur a t e d os ag e ( b ) E as y s hi pp i ng an d ha n dl i ng ( c ) Le ss s h el f s pa c e n eed e d p e r d os e t h an fo r li qu i d ( d ) N o p r es e r v a ti o n r eq ui r e m e n ts ( e ) N o t as t e -m as k i ng p rob l em ( f ) G e n er a ll y m o r e s t ab le t ha n l i qu id s , wi t h lo n ge r e xp i r a ti o n d at es
( 2 ) Ad va n t a g e s o f l i q uid d o sa g e f o r ms ( a ) F or s o m e d ru gs ( e. g ., a ds o rb e nt s , a nt ac i ds ) , g r e a te r e f f ec ti v e n es s t han s o li d f o rm ( b ) U se f ul f or pa t ie n ts wh o ha v e t ro u bl e s wa l l o win g s o li d d os a ge fo r m s b . T ab l e ts a re th e m o s t c o m mo n l y u s e d s o l id do s a ge f o rm . ( 1 ) Ad va n t a g e s ( a ) P r ec is io n a n d l o w c on t e nt v a r ia b il it y o f th e un i t d os e ( b ) L o w m a n uf ac t u ri n g c o s t ( c ) E as y t o p ac k a ge a nd s hi p ( d ) S im pl e to id en t i f y ( e ) E as y t o s wa l lo w ( f ) A p p ro p ri a te fo r s p ec ia l - r el ea s e f o rm s ( g ) B es t s ui t ed t o l ar g e -s c a l e p r od uc t io n ( h ) Mo s t s t a bl e o f a l l o ral d os ag e f o rm s ( i ) E s s en t ia ll y t am p e rp r oo f ( 2 ) D i sa d va n t ag e s ( a ) S om e d r ug s r es is t c om p r es s i on in t o t ab l et s . ( b ) S om e d r ug s ( i .e . , t h os e wi t h p o or we t t i ng , s low d i s s ol ut i on p ro p er t ie s , i n t er m ed ia t e t o l a rg e d os e s , o p ti m u m a bs o rp t io n h i g h in t he ga s t r o in t es ti na l t r a ct , or a n y c om bi n at i on o f th es e f e a tu r es ) m a y b e di f fi cu l t t o f o rm u la t e to p r o vi de ad e qu a te bi o a v ai l ab i li t y . ( c ) S om e d r ug s ( e .g . , t ho s e wi t h a n o bj ec ti o na b le t as t e o r o d or , th os e s e ns it i v e to o xy g e n o r a tm os p he r ic m o is tu r e ) r e qu i r e e nc ap s u l at i on o r e n t r ap m e n t b ef o r e c o m pr e s s i on . Th es e d r ug s a r e m o re ap p ro p r ia t e i n c a ps ul e f o rm . 2 . T ab l e t d es i gn a nd f or m u l a ti o n a . C h a ra c te r i s t ic s o f i de a l ta b le t s ( 1 ) F re e o f de f ec ts (e . g ., c hi ps , c r ac k s , d is co l or a ti o n , co n ta m i n at i on ) ( 2 ) S t ro n g e no u gh to wi t h s ta n d t he m e c h a ni c a l s tr e s s es o f p ro d uc ti o n ( 3 ) C h em ic al l y an d p h y s ic a ll y s ta bl e o v e r ti m e ( 4 ) C a pa bl e o f re l ea s i n g m e di c i n al a g en t s i n a p re d ic t ab le a nd re p r od uc ibl e m a nn e r b . T ab l e t e xc i p ie n ts . Tab l e ts a r e m an u fa c tu r ed by w e t g r a n ul a t io n , d r y g r a n u la t i on , or d i re c t co m p r es s i on . R eg a rd l ess o f th e m et h od of m a nu f ac tu r e , t a bl e ts f o r o r a l i ng es t io n u su a ll y c on t a in e xc i pi e nt s, wh i c h ar e c om p on e nt s a dd e d t o t he ac t i v e i ng r e di en t s t ha t h a v e s p ec ia l f u nc ti o ns ( Ta b l e 3 - 9 ) . ( 1 ) D i l ue n ts a re fi l le r s de s ig n ed to m a k e up th e re q ui r e d b ul k o f t h e t ab l et wh e n t h e d r ug do s a g e am o un t i s i na d eq u at e . D i lu e n ts m a y al so im p ro v e c o he si o n, pe r m i t d i re c t c o m p re ss io n , o r p r om o te f l o w. ( a ) C o mm o n d i lu e n ts inc l ud e k ao li n , l ac t os e, m an n i to l , s t a rc h , m ic r oc r y s ta l li ne c e ll u lo s e , po wd e r e d s ug a r , a nd c a l c iu m p ho s p h at e . ( b ) S e le c t io n o f t he d ilu e n t i s b as ed on t he e xp e r i en ce o f t he m a nu f ac tu r e r a s we l l as o n th e c os t o f th e d il u en t a n d i ts c om p at i bi li t y wi t h t h e o t he r ta b le t i n g re di en t s . F o r e xa m p le , c al c i um sa l ts c an n ot be us e d a s
f i ll e rs f or t et r ac y c li n e p ro d uc ts b ec au s e c a lc iu m i n t er f e re s wi t h t he a b so r p ti on o f t et r ac y c li ne f r om th e g as t r oi n te st i na l t ra ct . ( 2 ) B i nd e r s a n d a d he s ive s a r e a dd e d i n e it h e r d r y o r li qu i d f o rm to p r o m o t e g ra n ul a ti o n o r to p r om ot e c oh es i v e c om p a ct s d u ri n g d ir e c t c om p r es s i on . ( a ) C o mm o n b i nd i n g a ge n t s i nc lu d e a 10 % -2 0 % a q ue o us p r e pa r at i on of c o r ns ta r c h , a 25 % - 50 % s o l u ti on o f g lu c o se , m ol ass es , v a r io us na t ur a l g um s ( e . g ., ac ac ia ) , c e ll ul os e d e r i v a ti v e s ( e .g . , m et h y lc e ll ul os e , c a r bo xy m e t h y l c el lu l os e, m ic r oc r y s ta l li ne P.65
c e ll ul os e ) , g el a ti ns , an d p o v i d on e . Th e na t u ra l g um s a r e va r i ab le in c om p os it i on an d a r e u s ua l l y c o nt am i na t ed wi t h ba c te r i a.
Table 3-9. Some Common Tablet Excipients Diluents Calcium phosphate dihydrate NF (dibasic) Calcium sulfate dihydrate NF Cellulose NF (microcrystalline) Cellulose derivatives Dextrose Lactose USP Lactose USP (anhydrous) Lactose USP (spray dried) Mannitol USP Starches (directly compressible)
Starches (hydrolyzed) Sorbitol Sucrose USP (powder) Sucrose-based materials Binders and adhesives Acacia Cellulose derivatives Gelatin Glucose Povidone (PVP) Sodium alginate and alginate derivatives Sorbitol Starch (paste) Starch (pregelatinized) Tragacanth Disintegrants Alginates
Cellulose Cellulose derivatives Clays Crospovidone (cross-linked PVP) Starch Starch derivatives Lubricants PEGs Stearic acid Stearic acid salts Stearic acid derivatives Surfactants Talc Waxes Glidants Cornstarch Silica derivatives
Talc Colors, flavors, and sweeteners FD&C and D&C dyes and lakes Flavors available in two forms (spray dried, oil) Artificial sweeteners Natural sweetener D&C, drugs and cosmetics; FD&C, food, drugs, and cosmetics; NF, National Formulary; PEG, polyethylene glycol; PVP, polyvinylpyrrolidone (more commonly, povidone); USP, United States Pharmacopeia. ( b ) I f t h e d ru g s u bs ta nc e i s a d v e rs el y a f fe c t e d b y a n a q ue o us b i nd e r, a n o n a qu e ou s bi n de r c a n b e u s e d o r t he bi nd e r c a n be ad d ed dr y . Th e b i nd i ng ac ti o n is us u al l y m o r e e ff e c t i ve wh e n t he b i nd e r i s m i xe d i n l i qu i d form. ( c ) Th e am o un t of bi n der o r ad he si ve us e d d ep en d s o n t he e xp e r i en ce of t h e m an u fa c tu r e r as we l l a s o n t h e o th e r t a bl e t i ng r e di e nt s . O ve r we t t i n g u s ua ll y p r od uc e s g ra n ule s th a t a re t oo ha r d t o a ll o w p r o pe r t ab le t in g . U n d e r we t t in g u s u a ll y p r od u c e s t a bl et s t h at a re too s o f t a n d t en d to c r um ble . ( 3 ) D i si n t eg r a n ts a re add e d t o ta bl e t f o rm ul a ti o ns t o f ac il i ta t e d i si n te g ra t io n wh e n t he ta b le t c o nt ac t s wa t e r in th e ga s t r o in t es ti n al t ra ct . D i s in t eg r an t s f un c ti on b y d r a wi n g wa t e r i nt o t h e ta b le t , s we l l in g , a nd c a us in g t h e t ab l et t o b u rs t . ( a ) Ta b le t di s i nt e g ra t io n m a y be c ri ti c al to th e s ub s eq u en t d is s o l ut i on of th e d r u g a nd t o s a t is f ac to r y d r u g b io a va il ab i li t y . ( b ) C o mm o n d i si n t eg r an t s in c l ud e c o rn s ta r c h an d po t at o s t a rc h; s t a rc h d e r i va ti v e s ( e .g . , s od iu m s t ar c h gl yc o la t e) ; c e ll ulo s e d e ri v a t i v es (e . g. , s o di um c a r bo xy m e t h y l c el l ul os e , c r os c a rm el l os e s o d iu m ) ; c l a y s ( e .g . , V E E G U M, b e n to n it e ) ; a nd c a t io n e xc h a n ge r es in s . ( c ) Th e to t al am o un t o f d i s i n te g r an t is n o t a l ways a dd e d t o t h e d r ug d i lu e nt m i xt u r e . A p o r ti on c a n b e a d de d , wi t h t he l u br ic a n t, to t he pr e pa r ed g r a nu l at i on of t he dr u g. Th i s ap p r oa ch c a us es dou b l e di si n te g r at i on of t he t a b le t . Th e p or t io n o f di s i n t eg r an t th a t is ad d ed la s t c au se s t he t ab le t to b r e ak in t o s m al l p i ec es , o r c h u nk s . Th e p o r ti on th a t i s a dd e d f i rs t b r ea ks t h e p i ec es o f ta b le t i n to f i n e p a rt ic le s .
( 4 ) L ub r i c an t s , a n ti a dhe r e n t s, an d gl i da n t s h av e o ve r l ap pi n g f un c ti on . ( a ) L ub r i c an t s r e du c e t he f r ic ti o n t ha t occ u rs be twe e n t h e wa ll s o f t h e t a b le t a n d t he wa l ls o f t he d ie c a vi t y wh e n t h e t abl e t i s e je c te d . Ta l c , m a gn es i um s t ea r at e , a nd c a lc i um s t ea r a te ar e c o m m o nl y us e d . P.66
( b ) An t i a d he r e n ts r ed uc e s ti c k in g , o r a d he s i on , o f t he ta b le t g r an u la t io n o r p o wd e r t o t he f ac es o f the p un c h es o r t he di e wa ll s . ( c ) G l i da n t s p ro m ot e t he f lo w o f t he t ab le t g r a nu l a ti on o r p o wd e r b y r e d uc in g fr ic t io n a m o n g p a r ti c l e s. ( 5 ) C o lo r s an d d ye s d i s g u is e o f f -c ol o r d r ug s , p ro vi d e p r od uc t i d en t i fi ca t io n , a nd pr o duc e a m o r e a es t he t ic al l y a p p ea li n g p ro d uc t . F o od, d r u g , a n d c os m e ti c d ye s a r e a pp li e d as s o lu t io ns . La k es ar e d y e s t h at h a ve be e n a bs o rb ed on a h y d r ou s o xi d e . L ak e s a r e t y pi ca l l y u s e d a s d r y p o wd e r s . ( 6 ) F la vo r i n g a g en t s a re us u al l y li m i t ed to c h e wa b le t ab le t s o r t a bl e ts tha t a r e i n t en de d to di s s ol v e i n th e m ou t h . ( a ) W ate r -s ol u bl e f l a v or s u s u a ll y h a v e p oo r s t ab i li t y. F o r t hi s r e as on , fl a vo r o i ls or d r y po wd e r s a r e ty p i c al l y us ed . ( b ) F la v o r oi ls m a y be ad d e d t o t ab l et g ra n ul a ti on s i n s ol ve n ts , d is p e rs ed o n c l a ys a nd ot h er ad s orb e n ts , o r e m ul s i fi e d i n aq u e ou s g ra n ul a ti n g a ge nt s . U s u al l y , th e m a xi m um am o un t o f oi l t h at c a n b e a d d ed to a g r an ul a ti o n wi t h o u t a f f ec ti n g i ts ta ble t c h a ra c te r is ti cs is 0 . 5% - 0 . 75 % . ( 7 ) Ar t i f i c i al sw ee t e ne rs , li k e fl a vo rs , ar e t y pi c al l y us e d o nl y wi t h c h e wa b le ta b le ts o r t ab le t s t h at a re in t en d ed to d i s s ol v e in th e m ou t h . ( a ) S om e sw e e tn e ss m ay c o m e f ro m t he di l ue n t (e . g . , m a n ni t ol , l ac t os e ). O t h e r ag en t s ( e .g . , s ac c h a r in , as pa r ta m e) m a y a ls o b e a d de d . ( b ) S ac c ha r i n h a s a n u np l ea s an t a f te r t as t e. ( c ) As p a r t am e i s n o t s tab l e i n t h e p r es en ce of m o i s t u r e a nd he a t. ( 8 ) Ad s o r b e nt s (e . g ., m a g n es iu m o xi d e , m ag n es i u m c a r b on a te , b e nt o ni t e, s i li co n d io xi d e ) h ol d q uan t i ti es of f lu id in an ap p ar e n tl y d r y s ta t e. 3 . T ab l e t t yp e s a n d c las s e s. Ta b le ts a re c l as s i fi e d a c c o rd in g to th e ir r ou t e o f ad m i n is t ra t io n , d r ug de l i v e r y s ys t em , a nd f or m a n d m e t ho d o f m a nu f ac tu r e ( Ta bl e 3 - 10) . a . T ab l e ts f o r o r a l i n ges t i o n a r e d es ig n ed to be s wa l l o we d i n ta c t, wi t h th e e xc e p t i on of c h e wa b le t ab l e ts . Ta bl et s m a y be c oa t e d f o r a n um b e r o f r e a so ns : to m as k t h e t as t e , c o lo r , o r o d o r o f t h e d r u g ; t o c o n t ro l d r u g r e l ea se ; to p ro t ec t t h e d ru g f ro m t he ac id e n vir o nm e nt o f t he s t om ac h ; t o i n co r po r a te an o th e r d r ug a n d p r o vid e s eq u en ti a l re l ea s e o r a v o id i n co m p a ti bi l it y ; o r t o i m pr o v e a pp ea r a nc e. ( 1 ) C o mp r e ss e d t a bl e t s a r e f o rm e d b y c o m p r es s i o n a nd h a v e n o sp ec i al c o at i ng . Th e y ar e m a de fr o m p o wd e r ed , c r ys ta l li ne , o r g r an ul a r m at e r ia ls , a l on e o r in c o m b in a ti o n wi t h e xc i p i en t s s u ch as b i n d e rs , di s i n te g ra n ts , d i lu e nt s , a nd c o lo r an t s .
( 2 ) M u l t ip l e c o mp r e ss ed t a b le t s a r e l a y er e d o r c om p r ess i on - c o a te d . ( a ) L a ye r e d t a b l e ts ar e p r e pa r e d b y co m p r es si ng a ta bl e t g r an u la ti o n a r o un d a p re v i o us l y c om p r e s s ed g ra nu l at i on . Th e o p e ra t io n i s r ep e at e d t o p r o du c e m u l ti pl e l a y e rs . ( b ) C o mp r e ss i o n -c o at ed , o r d r y- c o a t e d , t ab l e ts a r e p re p a re d b y f ee d ing p r e vi ou s l y c om p re s s ed ta b le t s i nt o a s p ec ia l ta ble t i ng m ac h in e . Th i s m ac h in e c om p re s s es an o u t e r s h e ll ar o un d t h e t ab l e ts . Thi s p r oc es s a pp l ie s a t hi n ne r , m o re un i fo rm c o at i ng th a n s u g a r co a tin g , a n d i t c an be us ed s a fe l y wi t h d ru gs th a t a re s e ns i ti v e t o m o is t u re . Th i s p ro ce s s c a n b e us ed t o se pa r a te in c o m p a ti b le m a te r ia ls , to P.67
p r o du c e r ep e at - ac t io n o r p r ol o ng e d -a c t i on pr o du c t s or t o p r od uc e t a bl e ts wi t h a m u l ti la y e r e d a pp ea r a nc e .
Table 3-10. Tablet Types and Classes Tablets for oral ingestion Compressed Multiple compressed Layered Compression coated Repeat-action Delayed action and enteric coated Sugar coated and chocolate coated Film coated Air suspension coated Chewable
Tablets used in the oral cavity Buccal Sublingual Troches, lozenges, and dental cones Tablets used to prepare solutions Effervescent Dispensing Hypodermic Triturates ( 3 ) R e pe a t -a c t io n ta b le ts a r e l a y er e d o r c om p res s i o n -c oa t ed ta b le ts in wh i c h th e ou t er la y e r o r s h el l r a pi d l y d is i nt e gr a t e s in t he s t om ac h ( e .g . , R e p e ta bs , Sc h er i ng ; E xt e n t ab s , W ye th ) . Th e c om p o n en ts of t he in ne r la y er o r in n e r t ab l et a re in s o l ub l e i n g as t ri c m ed i a b ut s o lu bl e i n i n te s ti na l m ed ia . ( 4 ) D e la ye d - a c t i o n a nd e n t e r ic - c oa t e d t a bl e ts d e la y t h e r e le as e o f a d ru g f r o m a d o s a ge f or m . Th is de l a y i s i n te nd e d t o p re v e n t d e s t r uc t io n o f t h e d r u g b y g as t ri c j ui c e s , t o p r e v e nt i rr i ta t io n o f th e s t om ac h l in i ng b y th e d r u g , o r t o p r om o te ab s or p t io n , wh ic h i s b e tt e r i n t h e i n te s ti ne t ha n i n t h e s t om ac h . ( a ) E n te r i c -c o a te d ta bl et s ar e c o at e d a nd re m ai n i n ta c t in t he s t om ac h , bu t yi e l d t h ei r i n g re di e nt s i n t h e i n te s ti ne s ( e .g . , Ec o tr i n , Gl a xo S m i th K l in e ). E n t e ri c -c oa t ed t ab le t s a re a fo rm o f d el a y e d- ac t ion t ab l et . H o we ve r , n o t a ll d e la ye d - ac ti o n t ab l et s a re e nt e r ic o r ar e i n te n de d t o pr o du ce an en t e ri c e f f ec t . ( b ) A ge n ts us ed t o c o a t th e s e ta b le ts in c l u de fa t s, f a tt y a ci ds , wa xe s , s h el la c , a nd c e ll ul o s e ac e t a te ph t ha l at e . ( 5 ) S u ga r - c oa t ed an d ch o c o la t e -c o a te d ta b le t s a r e c om p re s s ed t ab le t s t h a t a r e c o a t ed fo r v a ri ou s re as o ns . Th e co a ti n g m a y be ad d ed t o p ro t ec t t h e d r u g f r om a i r a n d h um i di t y , to p ro vi de a b a r rie r t o a d r u g 's ob je c ti o nab l e t a s te or s m el l , o r t o i m p ro v e t he ap p ea r a nc e o f t he t ab l et .
( a ) Ta b le t s m a y b e c oa t ed wi t h a c ol o re d o r an unc o lo r ed s u ga r . Th e p r o ce s s i nc l ud es se a l co a t i ng ( wa t e r p ro o fi n g) , s u b co a t in g , s yr u p c o a ti n g ( f o r s m o o th i ng an d c ol o rin g ) , a n d p o li s hi n g . Th es e s t ep s t ak e p la c e in a s e r ie s o f m ec ha ni c a l l y op e r a te d c oa t in g p an s . ( b ) D i sa d va n t ag e s o f s ug a r -c o at e d t a bl et s i nc l ude t he ti m e a nd e xp e r ti s e r e q ui r e d f o r t he p ro c e s s a n d t h e i nc r ea s e in ta b let s i z e a nd we i g ht . Su g a rc o at e d t ab l et s m a y b e 50 % la r ge r an d h e a v ie r tha n th e o r i gi na l t a bl e ts . ( c ) C h oc ol a te -c o a te d t a bl e ts a re r ar e to d a y . ( 6 ) F il m - co a te d ta b l et s a r e c om p r es s e d t ab l et s th a t a r e c oa t ed wi t h a t hin l a ye r of a wa t e r - i ns ol ub le o r wa t e r -s ol ub l e p ol ym e r ( e .g . , h yd r o xyp r o p y l m e th y l c e l lu lo s e, et h y lc e ll u lo s e , po v i d on e , P E G ) . ( a ) Th e fi lm is u s u a ll y c ol o r ed . It is m o re du r a bl e , l es s b ul k y , a n d l es s t im e c o ns um in g t o ap pl y t h an s ug a r c oa t in g . A l th o ug h t h e f il m t y p ic a ll y i nc r eas es t a b le t we i gh t b y o nl y 2 %- 3 % , i t i nc r e as es fo rm u lat i o n e ff ic i en c y , re s i s t a nc e t o ch ip p in g , a nd ou t pu t . ( b ) F il m - c oa ti n g s ol u ti ons us ua l l y c o nt ai n a f il m fo r m er , an al lo y i n g s u bs ta n c e , a pl as t ic i z e r, a s u r fa c ta n t, op ac i fi e rs , s we e t e ne rs , fl a vo rs , c o lo r s , gl os s a n ts , a n d a v o l a t il e s ol v e n t. ( c ) Th e v o la t il e s ol v e n ts u s ed in th es e s ol u ti o ns a r e e xp e ns i v e a n d p o t en t ia ll y t o xi c wh e n re le a s e d i n to th e a t m o s p h er e . S pe c i f ic al l y fo r m u la t ed a q u eo u s d i sp e r s io n s o f p o l ym e rs ( e. g . , e th yl ce l lu l os e ) a r e n o w a va il a bl e a s a l te r n at i v es t o o rg a nic s o l v en t - ba s e d c o at in g s o lu t io ns . ( 7 ) Ai r s u s pe n si o n -c o a te d t ab l e ts a re fe d i n to a v e r t ic a l c yli n de r an d s u pp o r te d b y a c ol um n of a i r t ha t en t er s f r om th e b o t to m o f t he c y li nd e r . A s t h e c oa t in g s ol u ti o n e nt er s th e s ys te m , i t is r ap i dly a p p li ed t o t he s us p en d ed , ro t at i ng s o lid s (W u r s te r p r oc e ss ) . Ro u n di ng co a ts c an be a p pl i ed in < 1 hr wh e n bla s ts of wa r m ai r a r e re lea s ed in th e c ha m be r . ( 8 ) C h e wa bl e ta bl e ts di s in t e g ra t e sm oo t hl y a nd r ap i dl y wh e n c h e we d o r a l lo we d t o d is s o l v e i n t he m o u th . Th es e ta bl e ts c o n t ai n s pe c i a ll y c o l or e d a n d f l a v o re d m an ni t ol and y i e ld a c re am y b as e . ( a ) C h e wa bl e ta bl e ts a re e s p ec i al l y us ef u l i n f o rm u la t io ns fo r c h il d re n . ( b ) Th e y a r e c o m m on l y us e d f o r m ul ti vi t am in t ab le t s a nd a re us ed f or so m e a n t ac id s a nd an t ib i ot ic s . b . Ta b le t s us e d i n t he o ra l c a v i t y ar e a l lo we d t o d i s s ol v e in th e m ou t h . ( 1 ) B uc c a l a nd s u bl i ng u al t ab l et s a ll o w a bs o r pt i on t h ro u gh th e o r al m u c o s a a f t e r t he y d is s o l v e i n t h e b uc c a l p o uc h ( b uc c a l t ab l e ts ) o r be lo w t h e to n gue ( s u bl in g ua l t a bl e ts ) . Th es e fo rm s a r e u se f ul fo r dr u g s t ha t a r e d es t r o y ed b y g a st r ic ju ic e o r po o rl y a bs o r be d f r om th e i n te s ti nal t r ac t . E xa m p l es i nc l ud e s u bl in g ua l n i t ro gl y c e ri n ta b le t s , wh i c h di s s o l v e p ro m pt l y t o g i v e r ap i d d r ug e f f ec ts , an d b uc c a l p r oge s te r o ne ta b le ts , wh i c h d i s s ol v e s l o wl y . P.68
( 2 ) Tr o c h e s , lo z e n ge s , an d de n ta l c on es di s s ol v e s lo wl y i n t he m o ut h a n d p r o vi de p ri m a r il y l oc al e ff e c ts .
c . Ta b le ts us ed t o p re p ar e s o l ut i on s a re di s s ol ve d i n wa t e r be f o re a d m i ni s t ra ti o n . ( 1 ) E f fe r v e s c en t ta bl e ts a r e pr e pa r ed b y c o m p r es s i ng g ra nu l a r e ff e r ves cen t s a lt s o r o t he r m a t er i al s (e . g . , c i t r ic a c i d , t a r ta r ic a c id , s od i um b ic a r bo n ate ) t h a t r e le as e c a rb o n d io xi d e ga s wh e n t he y c o m e in t o c on t ac t wi t h wa t e r. C o m m e rc i al al k a li n i z in g a n al g es ic ta b le ts a re of te n m a de to e ff e r v es c e t o e n co u ra g e r a pi d d is s o l uti o n a nd a bs or p ti o n ( e .g . , A l ka - S el t z e r , Ba y e r ) . ( 2 ) O t he r ta b le t s us e d t o p r e pa r e s ol ut i on s i nc lu de d i s pe ns i ng ta b le ts , h yp o d er m i c t a bl e ts , a nd t a b le t t r i tu r a te s . 4 . P r oc es s i ng p ro bl e m s a . C ap p in g i s t he p ar t ia l o r c o m p l et e s ep a r at i on of t h e t op o r b ot t om c r o wn f r o m t he m a in bo d y o f t he t ab l et . La m i na t io n i s s e p a ra t io n o f a t ab l et in t o t wo o r m or e d is t in c t l a y er s . Th es e p r ob l em s a re u s ua ll y c au s e d b y e n t r ap m e n t o f a i r d u ri ng p r o c e s s in g . b . P ic ki ng is re m o v al of th e s u r fa c e m a t er i al of a t a b le t b y a pu nc h . S t ic kin g i s a d he s i o n o f t ab l et m a te r i al to a d ie wa l l . Th es e p r o bl em s a re c a us e d b y e xc e s s i v e m o is t u re o r t he i nc lu si on o f s u bs t a nc es wi t h lo w m e lt i ng t e m p e r at u re s i n t h e f o rm u l a ti on . c . Mo t t l in g i s u ne q ua l c ol o r d is t r ib u ti o n, wi t h l i gh t o r da r k a r ea s s ta nd i ng o u t o n a n o t he r wi s e u n ifo r m s u rf ac e . Th is p r ob l em oc c u r s wh e n a d r ug ha s a d if f e re n t c o l o r t ha n t h e t a bl e t e xc i p ie n ts or wh e n a d r u g h as c ol o r ed d e g ra d at i on p ro du c ts . Co l o ra n ts s o l v e t he p ro b lem b u t c a n c re a te ot h e r p r o bl em s . 5 . Ta b le t e v a l ua t io n a n d c o nt r o l a . Th e ge ne r a l a pp ea r a nc e o f ta b le ts is an i m p o r ta n t fa c t o r i n c on s u m e r a cc e pt a nc e . I t a ls o a ll o ws m o ni t o ri n g o f l ot - t o -l o t u n i fo r m i t y , ta bl e t -t o - ta b le t u n i fo r m i t y , a n d e le m e n ts o f th e m an u fa c tu r in g p ro c es s . Th e a p pe a ra n c e o f t h e ta bl e t i nc lu d es v is ua l i d en t it y a nd o v e ra l l a pp e a r an c e . Th e a p pe a ra nc e o f t he ta b le t i s c o n t ro l led b y m e as u re m e n t o f a t tr i b ut e s s u c h as s i z e , s hap e , c o lo r , o d or , ta s te , s u rf ac e , t e xt u r e , p h ys ic a l f la ws , c on s i s t e nc y, an d l e gi b il i t y o f m a rk in gs . b . H a rd n es s a nd r es is tan c e t o f r ia b il i t y a r e n ec es sa r y f o r t a bl e ts t o wi t h s t an d th e m ec ha n ic al s h oc k s of m a nu f ac t u re , p ac ka g in g , a nd sh ip p in g, a n d t o e ns u r e c o ns u m e r a c c e pt a nc e . H a r dn es s i nv o l v e s b o t h t ab le t d i si n te g ra t io n a n d d r ug d i s s ol u ti on . C e rt a in ta b le t s t h at a re in t en d ed to d i ss ol ve s l o wl y a r e m a de h a rd . O th e r t a bl e ts th at a r e i nt e nd e d t o d is s o l ve r a p id l y a re m a de s o f t. F ri a bi l it y i s t he te n de nc y of t h e t ab l et to cr u m b le . ( 1 ) Ta b le t ha r dn es s t es te r s m ea s u r e t h e d eg r e e o f f or c e r eq u ir e d t o b r eak a t a b le t . ( 2 ) F ri a bi la t o rs de t er m i ne f r ia bi l it y b y a ll o wi n g t he t ab l et t o r ol l a n d f al l wi t h i n a r o ta t in g t um b li ng a pp a ra t us . Th e t a bl et s a r e we i gh ed b ef o re an d a f t e r a s pe c i f ie d n u m b e r o f r ot a ti o ns , a nd t he we ig h t l os s i s d et e rm in e d . ( a ) R es is t an c e t o we i g h t l o ss i n di ca t es th e a bi l it y o f t he ta b le t t o wi t hs t an d a b r as io n d u r in g h an d li n g, p ac k a gi n g, an d s h ip pi ng . C om p re s s e d t ab l et s th a t l o se < 0 . 5% - 1% of t he i r we i g h t a re us ua ll y c on s id e r ed ac c e p ta b le .
( b ) S om e c he wa b l e t a bl et s an d m os t e f fe r ve s c en t t a bl e ts ar e h i gh l y f ri a ble a n d re qu i r e s p ec i al un i t p a c k ag i ng . c . Ta b le ts a re r ou ti n el y we i g h e d t o e ns u r e t ha t th e y c o n t ai n t he p ro p e r a m ou n t o f d r ug . ( 1 ) Th e U S P d e fi n es a we i gh t v a r ia ti o n s ta n da r d t o wh i ch t ab le t s m u s t c o nf o rm . ( 2 ) Th e s e s t an d a rd s a ppl y t o ta bl e ts th a t c on t ai n 5 0 m g o r m o r e o f d r ug s u bs ta n c e wh e n t h e d r ug s ub s ta nc e i s 5 0% o r m or e ( b y we i g ht ) of th e d o sa g e f o rm u n it . d . C o nt e nt un i fo r m i t y is e v a l u at e d t o e ns u re th a t e ac h ta bl e t c on t ai ns th e d e si r ed am ou n t o f d r u g s u b s t a nc e , wi t h li t tl e v a ria t i on am on g c on t en t s wi t h i n a b at c h . Th e U S P d e f in es c o nt e nt u ni fo r m i ty t e s ts fo r ta b le ts t ha t c o nt a in 50 m g o r le s s of d r u g s ub st a nc e. e . D is in t eg r a ti o n is e v al ua t e d t o e ns u re t ha t t h e dr u g s u bs ta nc e i s f u ll y a va i la b le fo r di s s ol u ti o n a n d a bs o rp t io n fr o m t he g a st r o in t es ti n al t ra ct . ( 1 ) A ll U S P ta bl e ts m us t p a s s a n of f ic ia l d is in t eg ra t i on te s t t ha t i s c o nd uc t ed in v i t ro wi t h s p e c i al eq u ip m e n t . ( a ) D is in t eg r a ti o n t im es fo r u nc oa t ed U S P t a bl e ts a r e a s l o w a s 2 m in ( n i t ro g l yc e r in ) to 5 m i n (a s pi r in ) . Mo s t h a ve a m axi m u m di si n te g r at i on ti m e o f le s s th a n 3 0 m i n . ( b ) B uc c a l t a bl e ts m us t d i s i n te g ra t e wi t hi n 4 hr . ( c ) E n te r ic -c o at e d t ab l ets m u s t sh o w n o e v i d en ce o f d is in t eg r a ti o n a ft e r 1 h r in si m u la t e d g as t ri c f lu i d . I n si m ul at e d i nt e st i na l fl u id , t h e y s h ou ld d i si n te g ra t e i n 2 hr pl us t h e ti m e s p ec if i ed . P.69
( 2 ) D is s o l ut io n re q ui r em e n ts in t he U S P h a ve rep l ac e d e ar l ie r di si nt e g ra ti o n r e q ui r em e nt s f o r m an y dr u g s . f . D is s ol u ti on c h a ra c t e r is t ic s a r e t es te d to de t e rm i ne d ru g a bs o rp t io n a nd p h ys io l og ic a v ai la b il i t y . ( 1 ) Th e U S P g i v es s t a nda r d s f o r t ab l et di s s ol u ti on . ( 2 ) A n i nc r ea s e d e m p h as i s o n te st i ng ta b le t d is sol u t io n a nd de t e rm in i ng d r u g b io a v a il ab i li t y ha s in c r ea s e d t h e us e o f s o ph i s t ic a te d te s t i ng s y s t em s . J . A e ro s o l p r od uc t s 1 . I nt r od uc t io n . Ae r os ol p r o du c ts , o r a e r os ol s , a re p r es s u ri z e d do s a g e f o r m s . Th e y a r e d es i gn ed t o d el i v e r d r ug s ys t em ic a ll y o r t o pi c a ll y wi t h t he a i d o f a li q ue f ie d o r p r o pe l le d g as ( p ro p el la n t ). Ae r o s o l p r od uc t s co ns is t o f a p r ess u ri z a b le c o n ta in er ( t i n- p la t ed s t ee l , a lu m in u m , gl as s , o r p la s ti c ); a va l v e t ha t al lo ws t h e p r es s u r i z e d p r od uc t t o be exp e l l e d f ro m t he c o n ta ine r ( e i th e r c on t in u ou s l y o r i nt e r m i t te n tl y ) wh e n t he ac t u a to r is p r es se d ; a nd a d i p t u be th a t c on v e y s the f o rm ul a ti o n f r om t h e bo t t om of th e c o nt ai n e r t o t h e val v e as s e m b l y . Ae ro s ol s a r e p r ep a re d b y s pe c ia l m et h od s ( c o l d f il li ng , p r e ss u re fi ll i ng ) be c a us e o f th e g as e ou s c o m po ne n ts .
2 . S y s te m i c o r p u lm on a ry d r u g d e li v e r y is p ro v i de d b y a e r os ol d ru g d el i ve r y s ys t em s , o r m e t e re d d os e i nh al e rs ( MD I s ) . Th e s e d e v ic es al l o w a dr u g t o b e i n ha l ed as a f in e m is t o f d r u g o r d r u g -c on t ai ni n g p a r ti c l e s . MD I s u se s p ec i a l m e te r i ng v a l v es to re g ula t e th e a m o un t of f or m u la t i on an d d r ug t ha t i s d i sp e ns ed wi t h e ac h d o s e ( i .e . , e ac h a c t u at i on of t h e c on t ai ne r ) . Ae r os ol p r o du c ts a r e u s e d fo r top i c a l d r ug de l i v e r y. Th e fo r m ul a ti on s r a ng e f r om s o lu t io ns to di s p e rs i on s . Me t e r i n g val v e s m a y a lso b e us e d wi t h t op ic a l a e r os ol p ro d uc ts to r eg ula t e th e a m o un t of d ru g ap p li e d p e r a pp li c a t io n . 3 . P r op el l an ts us e d i n ae r o s o l p r od uc t s a . C om p re s s e d g as es i nc l ud e c a rb on di o xi d e , n i tr o g en , an d n i tr o us o xi d e. A e r o so l p r od uc t s t ha t c on t a in c om p r es s e d g as ten d to lo se p re s s u re o v e r t i m e as th e p r od u c t is d is p en s e d . Th e d ro p i n p re s s u r e r e fl ec ts t he e xp a n s i on of th e he ad s p a c e in th e c on t ai n e r ( i .e . , i n cr e as e i n t he v o l um e t h a t t h e g as c an oc c u p y ) a s f o rm ul a ti o n is wi t h d ra wn f o r us e . F o r t hi s r e a so n , h ig he r in i ti al p res s u r es a re t ypi c al l y u s ed wi t h c om p re s s ed ga s b a se d s y s te m s th a n wi t h l i qu e fi ab l e g as - ba s e d f or m u la ti o ns . b . Li q ue f ia b le ga s e s i nc lu d e s at u r at e d h yd r oc a rbo n s ( n -b u t an e , is o bu t an e, p r o pa n e ); c h lo r o fl uo r oc ar b o ns ( C F Cs ) , i nc lu d in g t e t r af l uo r od ic h lo r oe t ha ne ( p r o pe ll a nt 1 14 ) , d ic hl o ro d i fl uo r om e th a ne ( pr o pel l a n t 12 ) , a n d t r i c h lo r o fl u o ro m e t ha ne (p r o pe l la n t 1 1 ); di m e t h yl e t h e r; an d h yd r o f lu o ro c a r b on s , s u c h as 1 ,1 , 1, 2 - fl uo r o et h ane ( p ro p el la n t 1 3 4a ) a n d 1 , 1 d i f lu o ro e th a ne ( pr o pe ll an t 15 2 a ). Th e n e ga t i v e ef f e c t of ol d e r C F C s o n a t m o s p h e ri c o z o ne an d th e po t en t ia l f o r g lo b al wa r m in g l ed t o t he wo r l d wi d e r e du c t i on in CF C p r od uc t io n u n de r th e Mo n t r e a l P ro t oc ol . Th is p l an ca ll e d f o r a ge ne r a l b a n o n C F C p ro d uc ti o n i n in du s t ri al i z e d co u nt r i es b y J an u a r y 1 9 96 . As a re s ul t , t h e us e o f C F Cs in p h a rm ac eu t ic al p ro du c ts i s b e in g p h as ed ou t . Te m p o ra r y e xe m p ti o ns f o r C F C s in MD I s wi l l e ve n t ua ll y l a ps e ( in 20 08 ) as s t a bl e, s a f e, an d ef f e c t i v e a l te r na t i ve f o r m u l at io n s a re de v e l ope d wi t h m o re ac c e p ta bl e p r o pe ll a nt s ( e .g . , h yd r o f lu o ro c a r b on s ) . 4 . A d van t ag es o f a e ro s o l p r o du ct s i nc lu d e t he c on v e n i en c e of pu s h - b ut t on d i sp e ns in g o f m ed ic a ti o n a n d t he st a bi li t y a ff o r ded b y a c lo se d , p r ess u r i ze d c o nt a in e r t h at m i ni m i z e s t h e l ik el i ho od o f t am pe r in g an d p r o te ct s t h e c o nt e nt s f r om li gh t , m oi s t u r e , a i r ( o xy g e n ) , an d m i c r ob ia l c on t am in a ti o n. A e r o so l f o rm ul a ti o ns a n d p ac k a g in g c om po n en t s (v a l v e s , a ct u at o rs ) pe r m i t a wi d e r an ge o f p r od uc ts t o be di s p en se d as s p rays , f oa m s , o r s em is o li ds . 5 . Th e pr i nc ip al di s a d v an t a ge of ae r os o l p r od uc ts is en v i r on m e n ta l (e . g. , d i sp os a l o f p r es s u r i z ed p a c k ag es , ve nt i ng of p rop e l l a nt s t o th e a t m o s p h e re ) . K . C o n t ro ll e d -r e le as e d os a ge fo r m s 1 . I nt r od uc t io n . Co n t ro ll ed - r e le as e d os a ge fo r m s a r e al s o k n o wn as d e la ye d - r el ea s e , s us t ai ne d - ac t io n , p ro l on g ed - ac tio n , s us t ai ne d - r el ea se , p r o lo n ge d - re l ea s e , t im e d- r e l ea s e , s lo w- r e l e as e , ext e n d e d - ac t io n , a nd e xt e n d e d - re l ea s e fo r m s . Th e y a r e de si g ne d t o re le a s e d ru g s ub s t a nc e s l o wl y t o p r o v id e p r o lo nge d ac ti o n i n t he bo d y .
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2 . A d van t ag es o f c o n t ro lle d - r el e as e f o rm s a . F e we r pr o bl em s wi t h p a t ie n t c o m p l ia nc e b . U se o f le s s to t al d ru g c . Fe we r l oc a l o r s y s te m ic s i de e ff ec t s d . Mi n i m a l d r u g ac c u m u la t i on wi t h l o ng - t er m d os a g e e . F e we r pr o bl em s wi t h p o t en t ia t io n o r l o ss o f d ru g ac ti vi t y wi t h lo n g -t e rm use f . I m p r o v ed t re a tm en t ef fi c ie nc y g . Mo r e r a pi d c on t r ol of th e pa t ie n t 's c o nd i ti o n h . Le ss fl uc t ua t io n i n d r ug l e v el i . Im p r o v ed bi oa v a i la b il ity f o r s o m e d ru gs j . Im p r o v ed ab il i t y to p rov i d e s p ec ia l e f fe c ts (e . g., m or n in g re li e f o f a r t hr i ti s b y b e dt im e d o s i ng ) k . R ed u c e d c os t 3 . S us t ai ne d - re l ea s e fo rm s c an be g ro up e d a c c or d i ng t o t he i r p h a rm ac e ut ic al m e c h a nis m . a . C oa t e d b ea ds or g ra nu l es ( e. g ., S pa ns u le s, G la xo S m i t h K li ne ; Se q ue ls , W ye th ) p r o du c e a b lo o d l e v e l p r o fi le s im i la r to tha t ob t ai n ed wi t h m ul t ip l e d o si n g. ( 1 ) A s o lu ti o n o f t h e d r ug s u bs t a nc e i n a n o na que o us s o l ven t (e . g ., al c o ho l ) i s c oa t ed on t o s m a ll , i n er t b ea ds , o r g ra n ul es , m a d e o f a co m b in a ti o n o f s u ga r an d s ta r c h . W hen t h e d r u g d os e is la r g e, th e s t a rt i ng g ra nu l es m a y b e c om p os ed o f t he d ru g i t s e lf . ( 2 ) S om e o f t h e g r an ul e s a r e l e ft un co a te d to p rov i d e im m e di a te r el ea se o f t h e d r u g. ( 3 ) C o at s o f a li pi d m a ter i a l ( e .g . , b e es wa x) o r a c e ll ul os ic m a t e ri al ( e. g . , e t h ylc e ll ul os e ) a r e a p pl ie d to t he re m a i ni n g g ra nu l es . So m e g ra n ul es r e c ei ve fe w c o a ts , a nd s o m e r ec e i ve m a n y. Th e va r i o us c o at i ng th ic k n es s es p r o du c e a s us ta i ne d - re l ea s e e f fe ct . b . Mi c r o en c a p s u la t io n i s a p ro c e ss b y wh ic h s ol id s , l iq u id s , o r g as es ar e e n ca se d i n m ic r os c o pi c c a ps ul es . Th in c o a ti ng s o f a “ wa l l ” m a te r ia l a r e f o r m e d a r ou n d t h e s u bs ta n c e to be en c ap s u la t ed. ( 1 ) C o ac er v a t io n i s t h e m os t c om m o n m e th o d o f m ic r o en c a ps u la ti o n. I t o cc u rs wh e n a h y d r op hi l ic s u bs t an ce is a d de d to a c o l lo id a l d r ug di sp e rs io n a n d c au s e s l a y e ri n g a nd t h e f o rm a ti on o f m i c ro c ap s ul es . ( 2 ) Fi lm - f o rm in g s ub s ta nc es t ha t a r e u s e d a s t h e c o at i ng m a te r i al i n cl ud e a va r i e t y of na t u ra l a n d s yn t h et ic po l ym e r s . Th e se m a te r i al s in c l u de s h el l ac s , wa xe s , g e la t in , s ta r c h es , c el l ul os e a c e t at e p h th a la t e , a nd e th y l c e ll u lo s e . A f t e r t h e c oa t in g m at e ri al d is s o l v es , a ll o f t he d rug i ns id e t h e m i c ro c a ps u le i s i m m ed i at e l y a v a i la bl e f o r di s s ol u ti o n a nd ab s o rp t i on . Th e t hi ck n es s o f th e wa l l c an v a r y f ro m 1 to 20 0 m m , d ep en d in g o n t he am o un t o f c o at i ng m a te r i al u s ed (3 % - 30 % o f t ot al we i g h t) .
c . Ma t r i x t a b l et s u s e in s o l ub l e p la s t ic s (e . g. , p o ly e t h yl e ne , p o l yv i n y l a c et a te , po l y m e t ha c r y la te ) , h y d ro p hi li c p ol y m e rs ( e . g ., m e t h y lc el lu l os e, h yd r o xyp r o p y l m et h y lc e llu l os e ) , o r f a tt y c om po u nd s (e . g. , va r io us wa xe s , g l yc e r y l t r is te a r at e ) . E xa m p le s i nc lu d e G r a du m e t ( A b b ot t ) an d Do s p a n ( A ve n t is ) . ( 1 ) Th e m os t c om m o n m e t h od of p re p ar a ti o n is m i xi n g of t he dr u g wi t h th e m a t ri x m a t e ri a l f ol lo we d b y c om p re s s io n o f th e m a t e ri a l i nt o ta bl e ts . ( 2 ) Th e pr im a r y do s e , or t h e p o r ti o n o f t he d ru g to b e re l ea s e d i m m ed ia t ely , i s p l ac ed on th e ta bl e t as a l a y e r, o r c oa t . Th e r es t of th e d o s e is re le as ed s l o wl y f r om th e m at r i x. d . O sm o ti c s y s t e m s i nc lu d e t h e O r o s s y s t em ( A lz a ) , wh i c h i s a n o ra l o sm o ti c p um p c om po s e d o f a c o r e t a bl e t a nd a s e m ip e rm ea b le c o at i ng tha t h a s a s m a ll ho l e ( 0 .4 m m in di am e te r ) fo r dr u g exi t . Th e h o le is p ro du ce d b y a l as e r b ea m . E xa m p le s i n c l ud e G lu co t r ol XL ( gl ip i z i de e xt e n d ed - r el ea s e t a b le ts , P fi z e r ) a n d P r oc a r d ia XL ( n if e di pi n e e xt e n d e d- r e le as e t a bl e ts , P f i ze r ) . ( 1 ) Th i s s y s t em r eq ui r es o n l y osm o ti c p r es su r e t o b e e f f ec ti v e . It is e ss e nt i al l y in d ep en d en t o f p H c ha n ge s i n t he en v i r o nm en t . ( 2 ) Th e dr u g - re le as e ra te c a n b e c h an ge d b y c han g in g th e t a bl e t su r f ac e a r e a , t he na t u re of t he m e m b ra ne , or t he di am e ter o f th e d r ug - r el e as e a p e r tu r e. e . I on - e xc h an g e r es i ns c a n be c om p le xe d wi t h d ru g s b y p as s a ge of a c a ti o ni c d r ug s o lu t io n t h ro u g h a c ol um n t h at c o n ta i ns th e re si n . Th e d ru g i s c om p le xe d t o th e re s i n by r e p l ac em en t o f h y dr o ge n at om s . E xa m p l es i n cl ud e Io n am i n c a ps ul es ( C el l te c h ; re s i n c om pl exe s o f p he n te r m i ne ) an d t h e Pe n nk in e ti c s y s t em (C e l l te c h ) , wh ic h i nc o r po ra t es a p ol ym e r b a r ri e r c o at i ng an d b e ad te c h n ol o g y in ad di t io n to th e i on - e xc h a n ge m ec h an is m . P.71
( 1 ) A f te r th e c om po n en ts a r e c om pl e xe d , t he re s in - d r ug c o m p le x i s wa s h ed a n d t a bl e te d , e nc ap s u l ate d , o r s u sp en d ed in an aq u e ou s ve h ic le . ( 2 ) R el e as e o f d r ug f r om t h e c om pl e x d e p en ds on t h e i on ic en v i r o nm en t wi t h i n th e g as t r oi n te s ti na l t ra c t an d o n th e p r op er t i es of t he re s i n . Us ua l ly , r e l ea se is gr e at e r i n t h e h i gh l y ac id ic s t om a ch tha n in th e l es s a c i di c sm al l i n t es ti n e. f . C o m p le x f o r m a ti on is u s ed fo r c e r ta i n d r ug s ub s ta nc e s t ha t c om bi n e c h em ic al l y wi t h o t h er age n ts . Fo r e xa m pl e , h y d r ox y p r o p y l - β - c y c l o de xt r i n f o r m s a c h em ic a l c o m p l ex t h a t c an be on l y sl o wl y s ol u bl e f r om bo d y fl u id s , d e p en di n g o n t he p H o f th e en v i r on m e n t . Ta n n ic a c id (i . e ., t an na t es ) c om p le xe s wi t h t he am ino g r ou ps of we a k b as es d i s s ol ve at a s lo w r a t e i n t h e g as t r oi n te s ti na l t r ac t, t h er e b y p r o v i di ng f o r a p r o lo n ge d re le as e o f dr ug . E xa m p l e s o f t h e l at t e r i nc l ud e b r om ph e ni r am in e ta n n at e ( Br o v e x, A t h l on ) a n d c hl o rp h en i ra m i n e/ p he n y l e ph r in e t a nn a te s ( Ry n a t a n, W alla c e ) . P.72
STUDY QUESTIONS D i r e c t i on s fo r q ue s t io ns 1 - 28 : E a c h o f t he qu es t i o ns , s ta t em en t s , o r i n co m p l et e s ta t em e nt s i n t h is s ec t io n c an be c o r re c tl y a ns we r e d or c om p le t ed b y on e o f t h e s u gg es t ed an s we r s o r phr a s es . Ch oo s e t he be s t a n s we r . 1 . W hi c h s u bs t an c e i s c l a ss i f ie d a s a w e ak e le c t r o l yt e ? ( A ) g lu c o s e ( B ) u r ea ( C ) e p he d ri n e ( D ) s od i um c hl o ri d e ( E ) s uc ro s e V i e w A n s we r 1 . T h e a n sw e r i s C [ se e] . 2 . T h e p H va l u e is ca l cu l a te d m a t h em a ti c al l y a s t h e ( A ) l og of t he h y d ro xy l i o n ( O H - ) co nc e nt r a ti on . -
( B ) n eg a ti v e lo g o f th e OH c o n c e n tr a ti o n. +
( C ) l og o f t he h y d ro g en io n ( H ) c on c en t ra t io n . +
( D ) n e ga ti v e l og of th e H c o nc en t r at io n . +
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( E ) r a ti o o f H / O H c on c en t r a ti o n. V i e w A n s we r 2 . T h e a n sw e r i s D [ se e] . 3 . W h ic h p r o p e r t y i s c l a ss i f ie d a s c o l li g a ti ve ? ( A ) s ol ub i li t y of a s ol u te ( B ) o s m ot ic p re s s u re +
( C ) h y d r og e n i on ( H ) c on c en t r at i on ( D ) d is s o c i a ti o n o f a s olu t e ( E ) m i s c i bi li t y o f t he li q ui d s V i e w A n s we r 3 . T h e a n sw e r i s B [ se e] . 4 . T h e c o ll i g a t i ve p r o pe r t i e s o f a s o l u ti o n a r e re l a ted t o t he ( A ) p H of th e s o lu ti o n. ( B ) n um be r of io ns in t he s ol u ti o n. ( C ) t o ta l n um b e r o f s ol ute p a rt ic l es i n t h e so l ut i on . ( D ) n um b er o f u ni on i z e d m o le cu l es i n t h e s o l ut i on. ( E ) p K a o f t h e s o l ut i on . V i e w A n s we r 4 . T h e a n sw e r i s C [ se e] . 5 . T h e p H o f a b u f fe r s ys t e m c a n b e ca l cu l a te d w i th t h e ( A ) N o y e s -W hit n e y e q ua ti o n . ( B ) H e nd e rs o n - Ha s s el b al c h e qu a ti o n. ( C ) Mi c h a e li s- Me n t e n e qu a t io n . ( D ) Yo u n g e q ua t io n . ( E ) S t ok es eq u at i on . V i e w A n s we r 5 . T h e a n sw e r i s B [ se e] . 6 . W h ic h m e c ha n is m i s m o s t o f t e n re s po n s ib l e f o r ch e m ic a l d e g ra d a ti o n ? ( A ) r ac em i z a ti o n
( B ) p ho t ol y s is ( C ) h y d r ol y s is ( D ) d ec a rb o xy l a t i o n ( E ) o xi d a t io n V i e w A n s we r 6 . T h e a n sw e r i s C [ se e] . 7 . W h ic h e q u a ti o n i s u s ed t o p r e d i ct t h e s ta b i li t y o f a d r u g p r o du c t a t r o om t e m pe r a t u re f r om e x p e ri m en t s a t ac c el e ra t e d te m pe r a t u re s ? ( A ) S t ok es eq u at i on ( B ) Yo u n g e q ua t io n ( C ) A r r h en iu s e q ua t io n ( D ) Mi c h a e li s- Me n t e n e qu a t io n ( E ) H i xs o n - C r o we l l e qu at i o n V i e w A n s we r 7 . T h e a n sw e r i s C [ se e] . k kk 8 . B a se d o n t h e r e la t i o n b e tw e e n t h e d eg r e e o f io n i z a t i on a nd t he so l u bi l i t y o f a w e ak ac i d , t h e d r u g as p i r in ( p K a 3 .4 9 ) w i l l b e m os t so l u bl e a t ( A ) p H 1. 0 ( B ) p H 2. 0 ( C ) p H 3. 0 ( D ) p H 4. 0 ( E ) p H 6. 0 V i e w A n s we r 8 . T h e a n sw e r i s E [s e e] . 9 . W h ic h s o l u t io n i s us e d a s a n as t r i n ge n t ? ( A ) s t ro ng io d in e s ol u ti on U S P ( B ) a lu m i n um a c e t a te top i c a l s ol u ti on U S P ( C ) a c e t ic a c i d N F ( D ) a r om a ti c am m o n ia s p i r it U S P ( E ) b en z a lk o ni um c h lo r ide s o l ut i on N F V i e w A n s we r 9 . T h e a n sw e r i s B [ se e] . 1 0. T he pa r t i c le s iz e o f th e d i s pe r s e d s ol i d i n a s us p e ns i o n i s u s ua l l y g r e a t e r t ha n (A) 0.5 µm (B) 0.4 µm (C) 0.3 µm (D) 0.2 µm (E) 0.1 µm V i e w A n s we r 1 0 . T he a nsw e r i s A [ se e] . 1 1. I n t h e e x t em p o ra n eo u s p r e p a r at i o n o f a s us p en s i o n, le vi g a t i on i s u sed t o ( A ) r e du c e th e z e ta po t en t i al . ( B ) a v o id ba c te r ia l g r o wt h . ( C ) r e du c e pa r t ic le s i z e . ( D ) e n ha nc e v is c os i t y . ( E ) r e du c e v i s c os it y . V i e w A n s we r 1 1 . T he a nsw e r i s C [ se e] . 1 2. W hi c h c o mp o u nd i s a n a t u r al em u l si f yi n g a g en t ? (A) acacia ( B ) l ac t os e
( C ) p ol y s o rb a te 2 0 ( D ) p ol y s o rb a te 8 0 ( E ) s or b it a n m o n op a lm ita t e V i e w A n s we r 1 2 . T he a nsw e r i s A [ se e] . A c ac i a ,P .7 3
1 3 . Va n is h i ng c r ea m i s a n o in t me n t th a t m a y b e c la s si f i ed as ( A ) a wa t e r -s ol u bl e b as e. ( B ) a n o le a gi no u s b as e. ( C ) a n a bs o rp t io n b a s e . ( D ) a n e m u ls i on ba s e . ( E ) a n o le ic ba s e . V i e w A n s we r 1 3 . T he a nsw e r i s D [ se e] . 1 4. R e ct al s u pp o si t o r i es i n t e nd e d f o r ad u l t u s e u s u al l y w ei g h a p p ro x im a t e l y ( A ) 1 g. ( B ) 2 g. ( C ) 3 g. ( D ) 4 g. ( E ) 5 g. V i e w A n s we r 1 4 . T he a nsw e r i s B [ se e] . 1 5. I n t h e f u s i on me t h od o f m a k in g c o c oa bu t t e r s up p o s it o r i es , w h ic h s u bs t a n ce is mo s t l i ke l y t o b e us e d to lu b r i ca t e the m ol d ? ( A ) m i n e ra l o il ( B ) p r op y l e ne gl y c ol ( C ) c et y l al c o h ol ( D ) s te a r ic a c i d ( E ) m ag ne s i um s i li c a t e V i e w A n s we r 1 5 . T he a nsw e r i s A [ se e] . 1 6. A ve r y f i n e p ow de r e d c h e mi c al i s d e fi n ed as o n e th a t ( A ) c om pl e te l y pa s s es thr o u gh a # 80 s i e v e . ( B ) c om pl e te l y pa s s es thr o u gh a # 12 0 s ie v e . ( C ) c om pl e te l y pa s s es thr o u gh a # 20 si e ve . ( D ) p as s e s t h ro u gh a # 60 si e ve a n d n ot m o r e t h an 4 0% th r o ug h a #100 sieve. ( E ) p as s e s t h ro u gh a # 40 s i e v e a n d n ot m o r e t h an 6 0% th r o ug h a # 6 0 s ie v e . V i e w A n s we r 1 6 . T he a nsw e r i s B [ se e] . 1 7. W hi c h t e c hn i q ue is t yp i c a l l y u s e d t o mi l l ca m p ho r ? ( A ) t r it u r at i on ( B ) l e v ig a ti o n ( C ) p ul v e r i z a ti o n b y in t e rv e n t i on ( D ) g e om et r ic di lu t io n ( E ) a t t ri ti o n
V i e w A n s we r 1 7 . T he a nsw e r i s C [ se e] . 1 8. T he d is p e ns i n g p h a r ma c is t us u a ll y b l e n d s po t e nt p ow de r s w i th a la r g e a mo u n t o f d i l u en t b y ( A ) s pa t ul a ti on . ( B ) s i f t in g . ( C ) t r i tu r a ti on . ( D ) g e om et r ic di lu t io n . ( E ) l e v ig a ti o n. V i e w A n s we r 1 8 . T he a nsw e r i s D [ se e] . 1 9. W hi c h t yp e o f p a p e r b e s t p r o t ec t s a d i vi de d h yg r o s c o p i c p ow d e r? ( A ) wa xe d p a pe r ( B ) g la s s in e ( C ) wh i t e bo n d ( D ) b lu e b o nd ( E ) v e g e ta bl e p a rc hm e nt V i e w A n s we r 1 9 . T he a nsw e r i s A [ se e] . 2 0. W hi c h c a ps u l e s iz e h as t h e sm a ll e s t c ap a ci t y? (A) 5 (B) 4 (C) 1 (D) 0 ( E ) 0 00 V i e w A n s we r 2 0 . T he a nsw e r i s A [ se e] . 2 1. T he sh e l l s o f s o f t g e l a ti n ca p su l es ma y b e m ad e e l as t i c o r p la s tic - l i ke b y t h e a d d i t io n of ( A ) s or b it o l. ( B ) p o v id o ne . ( C ) p ol y e t h y l en e g l y c o l (P E G ) . ( D ) l ac t os e. ( E ) h y d r o xy p r o p y l m e t h y lc e ll ul os e . V i e w A n s we r 2 1 . T he a nsw e r i s A [ se ea n d] .2 2 . T he U n i te d S ta t e s P h a r m ac o pe i a ( U S P ) con t e n t u n i fo r m i t y t e s t f o r t a b l et s is us e d t o e n s u re w h i ch q ua l i t y? ( A ) b io e qu i v al e nc y ( B ) d is s o lu t io n ( C ) p o te nc y ( D ) p u ri t y ( E ) t o xi c i t y V i e w A n s we r 2 2 . T he a nsw e r i s C [ se e] . 2 3. Al l o f t h e f ol l ow i ng s t a t em e n ts ab o u t c he mi c a l d e g ra d a ti o n a r e t rue e xc e p t ( A ) a s t em pe r a tu r e i nc r ea s es , d e gr a da t io n d ec r ea s es . ( B ) m os t d r ug s d eg r ad e b y a f ir s t- o r de r pr o ce s s . ( C ) c he m i c a l d e gr a da t ion m a y p r od uc e a t o xi c p ro d uc t . ( D ) c he m i c a l d e gr a da t ion m a y r e s u l t in a l os s o f a c ti v e in g r ed ie n ts . ( E ) c he m i c a l d eg r a da t ion m a y a f fe c t t he th e r ap eu t ic ac t i v it y o f a drug.
V i e w A n s we r 2 3 . T he a nsw e r i s A [ se ea n d] .k A e
-Ea/RT
k A E a RT 2 4. Al l
o f t h e f o l low i n g s t a te me n t s c o nc e r n in g z e r o -or d e r d eg r a d at i o n a r e t r u e e x c ep t ( A ) i ts r at e i s i nd e pe nd en t o f t he c o nc en t r at i on . ( B ) a pl ot o f c o nc e nt r a ti on ve r s u s t im e yie l ds a str a i gh t l i ne on r e c ti li n ea r pa p er . ( C ) i ts ha l f -l i fe is a c h ang i ng pa r am e te r . ( D ) i ts c o nc e nt r a ti on r em a i ns un c h a ng ed wi t h r esp e c t t o t im e. ( E ) t h e s l o pe of a p lo t o f c on c e n t ra t io n ve rs us tim e y ie l ds a r at e c o ns ta n t . V i e w A n s we r 2 4 . T he a nsw e r i s D [ se e] . C t P . 74
2 5 . Al l o f t h e f o l low i n g s t a t em e n ts ab o u t f i r s t -o r d e r de g r a da t i on a r e t r u e ex c ep t ( A ) i ts r at e i s d ep e nd en t o n th e c on c en t ra t io n . ( B ) i ts ha l f- l if e i s a c h ang i ng pa r am e te r . ( C ) a pl o t o f t h e l og a ri t hm o f c o nc e nt r a ti o n v e r sus t im e y i e ld s a s t r ai g ht li ne . ( D ) i ts t 9 0 % is in d ep e nd en t o f t he c o nc en t r at i on . ( E ) a pl ot o f t he lo g a ri thm o f co nc e nt r a ti o n v e r s us t im e a ll o ws th e r a t e c on s ta n t t o b e d et e rm i ne d . V i e w A n s we r 2 5 . T he a nsw e r i s B [ se e] . t k t2 6 . A sa t i s fa c t o r y s u p p os i t o r y b a s e m us t m e e t a l l o f th e fo l l ow ing c r i t e ri a e x ce p t ( A ) i t s ho ul d h a v e a n ar ro w m e l ti n g r a ng e . ( B ) i t s ho ul d b e no ni r r it at i n g a nd no ns e ns it i z i ng . ( C ) i t s ho u ld di s s ol v e o r d i s i n te g ra t e r a pi dl y i n t he b od y c a v it y. ( D ) i t s ho u ld m e lt < 3 0 ° C. ( E ) i t s ho ul d b e i n e rt . V i e w A n s we r 2 6 . T he a nsw e r i s D [ se e] . 2 7. C o co a b u t t e r ( t h e o b ro m a o i l ) e xh i b its a l l o f th e fo l l ow in g p ro p e r t ie s ex ce p t ( A ) i t m el ts a t t em pe r a tur e s b e t we e n 3 3 ° C a nd 35 ° C . ( B ) i t i s a m i xt u r e o f gl y c e r i de s . ( C ) i t i s a p o l y m o r ph . ( D ) i t i s u s e f ul i n fo r m u lat i n g r ec t al s u pp os i to r ie s . ( E ) i t i s s o l ub le in wa t e r . V i e w A n s we r 2 7 . T he a nsw e r i s E [s e e] . T he o b r oma c ac a o. 2 8. U n i t e d St a t es P ha r m aco p e ia ( U S P ) te s ts t o e ns u r e th e qu a li t y o f d r u g p r o d u c ts in t ab l e t f o r m i n c lu d e a l l o f th e fo l l ow i ng e xc ep t ( A ) d is in t eg r a ti on . ( B ) d is s o lu t io n . ( C ) h a rd n es s a nd f ri ab i li ty. ( D ) c on t en t u n if o rm i t y . ( E ) we i g h t v a ri at i on .
V i e w A n s we r 2 8 . T he a nsw e r i s C [ se e] . D i r e c ti o ns f o r qu e s ti o ns 2 9 - 42 : Th e q u es ti o ns and i nc om pl e te s t a te m e n ts i n t h is s ec t io n c an be c o r re c tl y a ns we r e d o r c om p le t ed b y on e o r m o re o f th e s ug g es te d a ns we r s . C h o os e th e a ns we r , A- E . 2 9 . Fo r m s o f w a te r t ha t a r e su i t ab l e f o r us e i n p a r e n te r a l p r e pa r a t i on s i n c l ud e I . p u r if i e d w a t e r U S P. I I . w a te r f o r in j ec t i on US P . I I I . s t e r i le w a te r f o r i n je c t i on U S P . A i f I o n l y i s c o r re c t B i f II I on l y i s c o r r ec t C i f I a n d I I a r e c or r ec t D i f II a nd I II a re c o r re c t E i f I, I I, an d II I ar e c o r re c t V i e w A n s we r 2 9 . T he a nsw e r i s D [ se e] . 3 0. T he pa r t i c le s in an i de a l s u s pe n si o n s h o ul d s a t is f y w h ic h of t he f o ll ow in g c r i te r i a? I . T he i r si z e s ho u l d b e u n i f o r m. I I . Th e y s h o u l d b e s t a t io n a r y o r m o ve r a n do m ly. I I I . Th e y s h o u l d r e ma i n d i s c re t e . A i f I o n l y i s c o r re c t B i f II I on l y i s c o r r ec t C i f I a n d I I a r e c or r ec t D i f II a nd I II a re c o r re c t E i f I, I I, an d II I ar e c o r re c t V i e w A n s we r 3 0 . T he a nsw e r i s E [s e e] . 3 1. T he se d i me n t a ti o n o f p a r t i c le s i n a s us p en s io n ca n be mi n i mi z e d b y I . a dd i n g s od i u m b en z oa t e . I I . i nc r e as i ng t he vi s c os i t y o f t h e su s pe n s io n . I I I . r ed u ci n g t h e p a r t ic le s iz e o f t he ac t i ve in g re d i en t . A i f I o n l y i s c o r re c t B i f II I on l y i s c o r r ec t C i f I a n d I I a r e c or r ec t D i f II a nd I II a re c o r re c t E i f I, I I, an d II I ar e c o r re c t V i e w A n s we r 3 1 . T he a nsw e r i s D [ se e] . 3 2. I ng r ed i e n ts t ha t ma y b e u s e d a s s u sp e nd i n g a ge n t s i n c lu d e I . m et h yl c e l l u l os e . I I . ac a ci a . I I I . ta l c. A i f I o n l y i s c o r re c t B i f II I on l y i s c o r r ec t C i f I a n d I I a r e c or r ec t D i f II a nd I II a re c o r re c t E i f I, I I, an d II I ar e c o r re c t
V i e w A n s we r 3 2 . T he a nsw e r i s C [ se e] . 3 3. M e c ha n i sm s th a t a r e t h o u g ht t o p r o vi d e s t a bl e em u l si f i ca t i on s i n c lud e t he I . f o r ma t i on o f i n t e r fa c ia l f i lm . I I . l ow e ri n g o f in t e r f ac ia l t en s i on . I I I . p re s en c e o f c h a rg e o n t he i on s . A i f I o n l y i s c o r re c t B i f II I on l y i s c o r r ec t C i f I a n d I I a r e c or r ec t D i f II a nd I II a re c o r re c t E i f I, I I, an d II I ar e c o r re c t V i e w A n s we r 3 3 . T he a nsw e r i s E [s e e] . 3 4. N o ni on i c su r f a ce - ac t i ve a g e n ts us e d a s s yn t h e t i c em u l si f i e rs i nc l ud e I . t r a ga c an t h . I I . so d i um la u r yl s u l f a te . I I I . s o r b i ta n e s t e rs ( S pan s ) . A i f I o n l y i s c o r re c t B i f II I on l y i s c o r r ec t C i f I a n d I I a r e c or r ec t D i f II a nd I II a re c o r re c t E i f I, I I, an d II I ar e c o r re c t V i e w A n s we r 3 4 . T he a nsw e r i s B [ se e] . 3 5. Ad va n t a g e s o f s ys t e m i c d r u g ad m i ni s t r at i o n b y r e c t a l s u pp o si t o r ie s inc l u de I . a vo i da n ce o f f i r s t -p as s e ff e c ts . I I . su i t ab i l i t y w h en t he o r a l r o ut e is no t f ea s ib le . I I I . p re d ic t a bl e d ru g r ele a s e a nd a bs o r p ti o n . A i f I o n l y i s c o r re c t B i f II I on l y i s c o r r ec t C i f I a n d I I a r e c or r ec t D i f II a nd I II a re c o r re c t E i f I, I I, an d II I ar e c o r re c t V i e w A n s we r 3 5 . T he a nsw e r i s C [ se ea n d] .3 6 . T ru e s ta t em e n ts a b o u t t h e m i ll i n g o f p ow d e rs i nc l ud e I . a fi n e p a r t ic l e s iz e i s e s se n t ia l if t he l ub r i c an t i s t o f un c t io n p r o p e r l y. I I . an i nc r e as e d s u r fa c e a r e a m a y e n h a n c e th e d i s so l u t io n r at e . I I I . m i l li n g m a y c a u s e de g r a da t i o n o f th e r mo l ab i l e d r u g s. A i f I o n l y i s c o r re c t B i f II I on l y i s c o r r ec t C i f I a n d I I a r e c or r ec t D i f II a nd I II a re c o r re c t E i f I, I I, an d II I ar e c o r re c t V i e w A n s we r 3 6 . T he a nsw e r i s E [s e e] . P . 75
3 7 . Su b s ta n ce s u s ed t o i n s ul a t e p ow de r c om po n e n ts t ha t l iq u e f y w h en m i x ed i nc l ud e I . t a lc . I I . ka o l in . I I I . li g h t m ag n es i um o xid e . A i f I o n l y i s c o r re c t B i f II I on l y i s c o r r ec t C i f I a n d I I a r e c or r ec t D i f II a nd I II a re c o r re c t E i f I, I I, an d II I ar e c o r re c t V i e w A n s we r 3 7 . T he a nsw e r i s D [ se e] . 3 8. A c e ra m i c m o r ta r ma y b e p r ef e r a bl e to a g l ass m o r ta r w h e n I . a vo la t i le o il i s a dd e d t o a p ow d e r m ix t u r e . I I . co l o r ed su b s ta n ce s ( d ye s ) a r e m ix e d i n t o a p ow d e r . I I I . c o mm i n ut i o n i s d e sir e d i n a d di t i on t o m i xi ng . A i f I o n l y i s c o r re c t B i f II I on l y i s c o r r ec t C i f I a n d I I a r e c or r ec t D i f II a nd I II a re c o r re c t E i f I, I I, an d II I ar e c o r re c t V i e w A n s we r 3 8 . T he a nsw e r i s B [ se e] . 3 9. D i vi de d p ow de r s m a y b e d is p en s ed i n I . i nd i vi d u al - d os e pa cke t s . I I . a b u lk co n t ai n e r . I I I . a p e r fo r a t ed , s i f t e r -t yp e c o n t a i ne r . A i f I o n l y i s c o r re c t B i f II I on l y i s c o r r ec t C i f I a n d I I a r e c or r ec t D i f II a nd I II a re c o r re c t E i f I, I I, an d II I ar e c o r re c t V i e w A n s we r 3 9 . T he a nsw e r i s A [ se ea n d] .4 0 . T ru e s ta t em e n ts a b o u t t h e f u nc t i o n o f ex c i p ie n ts u se d i n ta b l et f o r m u la t i on s i n c lu d e I . b in d e r s p r o mo t e g r a nu l a t i on du r i n g t h e w et g r a n u la t i on p r oc e ss . I I . g li d an t s h e l p p r om o te t h e f l ow of t he t ab l e t g r a n u la t i on d u r in g m a n u fa c tu r e . I I I . lu b r ic a n ts h el p th e p a t i en t sw al l ow th e ta bl e t s . A i f I o n l y i s c o r re c t B i f II I on l y i s c o r r ec t C i f I a n d I I a r e c or r ec t D i f II a nd I II a re c o r re c t E i f I, I I, an d II I ar e c o r re c t V i e w A n s we r 4 0 . T he a nsw e r i s C [ se e] . 4 1. W hi c h m a nu f a c tu r i n g va r i a b l e s w o u ld b e l i kel y t o a f f e c t th e di s so l u ti o n o f a p r e d ni s o ne t a b l e t i n t h e b o d y? I . t h e a mo u n t a nd t yp e o f b i nd e r a d d ed
I I . t he am o un t an d t yp e o f d is i n te g r an t ad d e d I I I . th e fo r c e o f co m p res s i on u se d d u r i n g t a ble t i n g A i f I o n l y i s c o r re c t B i f II I on l y i s c o r r ec t C i f I a n d I I a r e c or r ec t D i f II a nd I II a re c o r re c t E i f I, I I, an d II I ar e c o r re c t V i e w A n s we r 4 1 . T he a nsw e r i s E [s e e V I .2 . b . (3 )] .4 2 . Ag e n ts t ha t m a y b e u s ed t o c o a t e nt e r i c - co a te d ta b l et s in cl u d e I . h yd r o x yp r o p yl m e t h yl c e l lu l os e . I I . ca r b ox ym e t h yl c e l l u l o s e . I I I . c e l lu l os e a c e ta t e p ht h a l a te . A i f I o n l y i s c o r re c t B i f II I on l y i s c o r r ec t C i f I a n d I I a r e c or r ec t D i f II a nd I II a re c o r re c t E i f I, I I, an d II I ar e c o r re c t V i e w A n s we r 4 2 . T he a nsw e r i s B [ se e] . D i r e c ti o ns f o r qu e s ti o ns 4 3 - 46 : E a c h o f t h e f ol l owi n g t a bl e t -p r oc es si ng pr o b le m s c a n b e t he r es ult o f o n e t h e f ol l o wi n g r ea s o ns . Th e p r oc es si n g p ro b lem s m a y b e u se d m o re t ha n o n ce o r n ot a t al l . Ch o os e t he b es t a ns we r , A- E . 4 3 . Pi c ki n g A e xc e s s i v e m o is t ur e i n t h e g r a nu la t io n B e n t ra pm e nt o f a ir C t a bl e t f r ia b il i t y D d e g ra d ed dr u g E t a bl e t h a rd ne s s V i e w A n s we r 4 3 . T he a nsw e r i s A [ se e] . 4 4. M o t t l in g A e xc e s s i v e m o is t ur e i n t h e g r a nu la t io n B e n t ra pm e nt o f a ir C t a bl e t f r ia b il i t y D d e g ra d ed dr u g E t a bl e t h a rd ne s s V i e w A n s we r 4 4 . T he a nsw e r i s D [ se e] . 4 5. C a pp in g A e xc e s s i v e m o is t ur e i n t h e g r a nu la t io n B e n t ra pm e nt o f a ir C t a bl e t f r ia b il i t y D d e g ra d ed dr u g E t a bl e t h a rd ne s s V i e w A n s we r 4 5 . T he a nsw e r i s B [ se e] . 4 6. S t ic k in g A e xc e s s i v e m o is t ur e i n t h e g r a nu la t io n B e n t ra pm e nt o f a ir C t a bl e t f r ia b il i t y D d e g ra d ed dr u g E t a bl e t h a rd ne s s
V i e w A n s we r 4 6 . T he a nsw e r i s A [ se e] . D i r e c ti o ns f o r qu e s ti o ns 4 7 - 49 : E a c h o f t h e f ol l owi n g p r oc es s e s c an be de sc r i be d b y o ne of t he f o l lo wi n g c om m i n ut i on pro c ed u re s . Th e p ro c e s s es m a y b e us e d m o r e th an o n ce o r n ot a t al l . Ch o os e t he b es t a ns we r , A- E . 4 7 . R ub b i ng o r g r i n di ng a su b s ta nc e in a m o r ta r t h a t h as a ro u g h i n ne r s u r f a ce A t r i t u r a ti o n B s p at ul a ti o n C l e v i ga t io n D p u l v e ri z a t io n b y i nt e r ve n t io n E t um b li n g V i e w A n s we r 4 7 . T he a nsw e r i s A [ se e] . 4 8. R e du ci n g an d s u b d i vi di n g a su b s ta n ce b y a d d i n g a n e a si l y r e m o ve d s o l ve n t A t r i t u r a ti o n B s p at ul a ti o n C l e vi ga t io n D p u l ve ri z a t io n b y i nt e r ve n t io n E t um b li n g V i e w A n s we r 4 8 . T he a nsw e r i s D [ se e] . 4 9. Ad d i ng a su i t ab l e a ge n t to f or m a p as t e a n d t h e n r u b bin g o r g ri n d in g th e pa s te i n a mo r t a r A t r i t u r a ti o n B s p at ul a ti o n C l e vi ga t io n D p u l ve ri z a t io n b y i nt e r ve n t io n E t um b li n g V i e w A n s we r 4 9 . T he a nsw e r i s C [ se e] . P . 76
D i r e c t i on s fo r q ue s t io ns 5 0 -5 3 : E ac h o f th e fo llo wi n g c o n t ro ll e d -r e le as e d os a ge f o r m s i s re p re s e n te d b y o n e o f th e f o ll o wi n g d r ug p r o du c t s . Th e do s a g e f or m s m a y b e us ed m o r e t ha n o nc e o r n ot at al l . Ch oo s e t he b e s t a ns we r , A- E . 5 0 . Io n am i n c ap s u le s A m a t r i x f o r m ul a ti on s B i o n -e xc h a n ge re s i n c om p le x C d r u g c o m p l e xe s D o sm o ti c s y s t em E c oa t ed be a ds o r g ra n ul e s V i e w A n s we r 5 0 . T he a nsw e r i s B [ se e] . 5 1. T ho r az i n e S p an s ul e c a ps u l es A m a t r i x f o r m ul a ti on s B i o n -e xc h a n ge re s i n c om p le x C d r u g c o m p l e xe s D o s m o ti c s y s t em E c oa t ed be a ds o r g ra n ul e s V i e w A n s we r 5 1 . T he a nsw e r i s E [s e e] . 5 2. R yn a t a n pe d i a t ri c s u sp e ns i on A m a t r i x f o r m ul a ti on s
B i o n -e xc h a n ge re s i n c om p le x C d r u g c o m p l e xe s D o sm o ti c s y s t em E c oa t ed be a ds o r g ra n ul e s V i e w A n s we r 5 2 . T he a nsw e r i s C [ se e] . 5 3. P r o car d i a X L A m a t r i x f o r m ul a ti on s B i o n -e xc h a n ge re s i n c om p le x C d r u g c o m p l e xe s D o sm o ti c s y s t em E c oa t ed be a ds o r g ra n ul e s V i e w A n s we r 5 3 . T he a nsw e r i s D [ se e] . P . 77
ANSWERS AND EXPLANATIONS 1 . T he an sw e r is C [ s ee I V . A . 1. a ; I V . A .3 . d] . G l u c os e, u re a , a nd s u c ro s e a r e n on el e c t r ol y t e s . S o d iu m c hl o ri d e is a s t ron g e l ec t r ol y t e . E l ec t ro l y t es a r e s u bs ta nc e s t ha t fo rm i o ns wh e n d is s o l v ed in wa t e r . Th u s t he y c a n c on d uc t an e le c t r ic c u r r en t t h r ou gh t he s o lu t io n . I o ns a r e p a r ti c l e s t h a t b ea r el ec t r ic al c h a rg e s : C a ti o ns a r e p os i ti v el y c ha r g ed , a n d a ni on s ar e n e g at i vel y c ha r g ed . St r on g el ec t r ol yt es a re c om pl e t el y i on i z ed in wa t e r at a l l c o nc en t r at i on s . W eak e le c t ro l y t es (e . g ., ep h ed r in e ) ar e o n l y p a r ti a ll y i oni z e d at m os t c o nc en t r at i on s . B ec a us e n on e le ct r o l y te s d o n o t f o rm io ns wh e n i n s o l u ti on , t h e y a re no nc o nd uc t o rs . 2 . T he an sw e r is D [ s ee I V . A . 3. b ]. Th e p H is a m e as u r e o f th e ac id i t y , o r h yd r o ge n io n c o nc en t r at i on , o f an a q u eo us +
s o lu t io n . Th e p H i s t he lo g a ri t hm of th e re c i p r oc a l of th e h y dr o ge n i o n ( H ) c o nc en t r at i on e xp r e s s ed i n m ol es pe r li t er . B ec au s e t he lo g a ri t hm o f a r ec i p ro c a l e q u al s t he ne g at i v e l o gar i t hm of t he nu m b e r , t he p H is t he ne g at i v e l o ga r it h m o f t h e +
H c o nc en t r at i on . A p H of 7 . 0 in d ic a te s n eu t r al it y. A s th e p H de c re as es , the ac i di t y i n c re as es . Th e p H of a rte r i al bl o od is 7 . 35 - 7 .4 5 ; o f u ri n e, 4. 8 - 7. 5 ; o f g as tr i c j ui c e , a p p ro xi m a t el y 1 . 4; an d of c er e b ro s p i na l f lu i d, 7 .35 - 7 . 40 . Th e co n c e p t o f pH wa s i n t ro d uc ed b y S ör e ns en in t he ea r l y 19 0 0s . A lk a lin i t y is th e n e ga t i ve l og a ri t hm o f -
[ O H ] an d i s i n v e rs el y r e la t e d t o a ci di t y. 3 . T he an sw e r is B [ s ee I V . A . 2. d ]. O s m ot ic p re s s u re is an exa m p l e of a c ol li g at i v e pr o p e rt y . Th e os m o t ic p r es s u r e i s t h e m ag n it u de of p re s s u re n ee d ed to s t o p os m o s is ac r os s a s em ip e rm e ab le m em b r an e b e t we e n a s olu t i on an d a pu r e s ol ve n t. Th e c ol li g at i v e p r op e r ti es o f a s o lu t io n d e pe nd on t he to t a l n um be r of di s s oc ia te d an d u n di s s oc ia t ed s o lu t e p a r ti c l e s . Th es e p r o pe r t ie s a r e i n de pe n de n t o f t he s i z e o f t he so lu t e . O t he r c o ll ig a ti v e p ro p e rt ie s o f s o lu t es a r e re d uc ti o n i n th e va po r p re s s u re of th e s ol u ti o n, e l e va ti on o f i ts bo il i ng po i n t, an d d e p re s s io n o f i ts f re e z i ng po i nt . 4 . T he an sw e r is C [ s ee I V . A . 1. b ]. Th e c ol l ig a ti v e pr o pe r t ies o f a s ol u ti o n a re r el a te d t o t h e t ot a l n um be r of s o lu t e p a r ti c l e s t ha t i t c o nt a in s . E xa m p l es o f c o l li ga t i v e p r o pe r t ie s a r e t he os m o ti c
p r e ss u re , l o we r i ng of t he v a p o r p r es su r e , e le v a t ion o f t h e b oi li n g p oi n t, and d e p re ss io n o f th e fr e e z ing , o r m e l ti n g, po i nt . 5 . T he an sw e r is B [ s ee I V . A . 3. e ]. Th e H e n de r s o n - H as s e lba l c h eq u at i on fo r a we a k a c i d a n d i ts s a lt is a s f ol l o ws :
wh e r e p K a i s t he ne g a ti v e l og of t he di s s oc ia t io n c o ns ta n t o f a we a k a ci d a n d [ s al t ] /[ ac i d] is th e ra t io of t h e m o l ar c o nc e nt r a ti on o f s a lt an d a ci d u s e d to p r e pa r e a b u f fe r . 6 . T he an sw e r is C [ s ee V . D . 1 ]. A l t h ou gh al l o f th e m ec ha n is m s l is t ed ca n b e re sp o ns i bl e, t he c h em ic al de g r ad a ti o n o f m e di c i n al c om p ou n ds , p a r ti c u l ar l y es t er s i n l iqu i d f o rm ul a ti o ns , i s us u al l y ca us e d b y h yd r o l ys is . Fo r th is r ea s on , d r u gs th a t h a ve es t e r fu nc t io n al g ro up s a r e f o r m u l at e d i n d r y fo r m wh e n e v er po s s i bl e . O xi d a t i o n i s a no t he r c om m o n m o de of d e g ra d at i on an d i s m i n im i z e d b y in c l u di n g a nt i oxi d a n t s (e . g. , as c o r bi c ac i d ) in d ru g f o r m u l at io n s . P ho t ol y s is i s re d uc ed b y p ac k ag in g s us c ep ti b le p ro d uc ts i n am b e r o r o p a qu e c on t ai ne r s . D ec ar b o xy l a t i o n , wh i c h is t he r e m o v al of C O O H g r ou ps, a f fe c t s c om p ou n ds th a t i nc lu de c a r bo xyl i c ac i d. R ac em i za t i o n ne u t ra li ze s t h e e ff ec t s o f a n o p t ic al l y ac ti v e c o m p o und b y c o n v e r ti ng ha l f o f i ts m o le c u l es i n to t he i r m ir r o r - im ag e c o nf i gu r a ti on . As a r es u lt , t he de xt r o r o t a to r y a nd l e v o r o ta t or y f o rm s c an cel e ac h o t h e r o ut . Th is t y pe o f de g r ad a ti o n a f fe c t s o nl y dr u g s t ha t a r e c ha r ac t e ri z e d b y o p t ic al is om e ri s m . 7 . T he an sw e r is C [ s ee V . E . 3 .d ] . Te s t i ng o f a d r ug f or m ula t i on to de t e rm in e i ts s he l f l i fe c a n b e a c c el e ra t ed b y a p pl yi n g t h e A r r he ni u s eq u a ti on t o d at a o b ta i ne d a t hi gh e r t em p e ra t u re s . Th e m e th o d i n v ol v e s d e te rm in i ng t he r at e c on s ta n t ( k) va l u es f o r th e d eg r a da ti o n o f a d r u g a t v a ri ou s e le v a t e d t e m p e r at u re s . Th e lo g o f k is p l ot t ed ag a in s t th e r e c ip r oc al o f t he ab s o lu t e t em p e ra tu r e , a n d t he k v a l ue fo r d e g ra d at i on at r oo m t em p e r a tu r e is o b t ai ne d b y e xt r a p o la t ion . P.78
8 . T he an sw e r is E [ s e e I V . A . 3. g ]. Th e s ol u bi li t y o f a we a k a c id v a r ie s as a f u nc ti o n o f p H. B ec au s e p H a n d p K a ( th e d i ss oc ia t io n c on s ta n t) a re r el a t ed , s ol u bi li t y is als o re l at e d t o t he d eg r ee o f i o ni za t io n . As pi r in is a we a k ac i d t ha t is c om pl e tel y i o ni z e d a t a p H t h at is 2 un i ts g r e a te r th an i ts p K a . Th er e f o re , it is m os t s ol u bl e a t p H 6 .0 . 9 . T he an sw e r is B [ s ee V I . B . 7] . A l u m i nu m a c e t at e a n d a lu m in um s u ba c e t a te s o lu ti o ns a re as t ri ng e nt s t h at a r e u s e d a s a n ti p e rs pi r an t s a nd as we t d r es s i ng s f o r c on ta c t d e rm a ti ti s . S t r on g i od i ne s o lu t io n a n d b en z a lk on i um c h lo r i de ar e to pi ca l a nt i b ac te r i al s ol u ti o ns . Ac et i c a ci d i s a d d ed to p ro du c ts a s a n a c id i fi e r. A r om at ic am m on i a s pi r it is a r es p ir a to r y s t im ul a nt . 1 0 . Th e a n sw e r i s A [ s ee I V . B .1 . a] .
A s us pe ns i on is a t wo - ph a s e s y s t em th a t c o n si s ts o f a f i ne l y po wd e r e d s o l id d i sp e rs ed in a l iq u id v e hi c le . Th e p a rt ic l e s i z e o f t h e s us p en de d s ol i d s h ou l d b e a s s m a l l as po s s ib l e t o m in im i z e s ed im e nt a ti o n, bu t i t is u s ua ll y > 0. 5 µm . 1 1 . Th e a n sw e r i s C [ s ee V I . E .3 . a] . L e vi g at io n i s t h e p r oc es s o f bl en d in g a n d g ri n di ng a su bs t an c e to s e p ar a te t h e p a r ti c l e s , r ed uc e t h ei r s iz e , a nd f or m a pa st e . L ev i g a t io n i s p e rf o rm ed b y a d di n g a s m a l l am o un t o f s u it a bl e l e v i ga t in g a ge n t (e . g. , gl y c e r in ) to th e s ol i d a nd b l en d in g t h e m i xt u r e wi t h a m o r ta r a n d p es tl e . 1 2 . Th e a n sw e r i s A [ s ee V I . D .3 ] . A c ac i a, o r g um a r a bi c , is t h e e xu d a t e o b ta in e d f ro m th e s te m s an d b r an c h e s o f va r i o us s p ec ie s o f Ac ac ia , a wo o d y p l an t n a ti ve to A f r ic a. Ac a c i a i s a n a tu r a l e m ul si f y i ng ag e nt th a t p ro v i d es a s ta bl e e m ul s i on o f l o w v i s co s i t y . Em u ls io n s a r e d r o pl e ts of on e o r m o r e im m i s c ib l e l iq ui ds di sp e rs e d i n a no t he r li qu i d. Em u l s i on s a r e i n he r e nt l y un s t a bl e : t h e d r o pl e ts t e nd t o co a le sc e i n to la r g er an d l a r ge r d ro ps . Th e p u r po s e of an em ul s i f y i n g a ge n t is t o k e e p t he d r op le t s d is pe r s e d a nd p r e v e nt t h em f ro m c oa l es c i ng . Po l y s o rb a te 20 , p o l ys o r bat e 80 , an d s o rb it a n m on op a lm i ta t e a r e al so em ul s i f ie rs , bu t a r e s y n t he t ic , n o t n at u r al , s u bs t an c e s . 1 3 . Th e a n sw e r i s D [ s ee V I . E .2 ] . O i n t m e n ts a r e t y p i c a ll y us e d as em ol l ie n ts to s o f te n th e s k i n , as p ro t ec ti v e b a rr i e rs , o r as ve hi c l es f or m e di c a t i on . A v a r i et y o f o i nt m e n t b as e s a re a v ai l ab le . V a n is hi n g c r e am , a n e m u ls io n t y pe o f oi nt m en t b as e , is a n o i l -i n - wa t e r e m u ls io n th at c on t ai ns a h ig h p e rc en t ag e o f wa te r . S te a ri c a c i d i s us e d to c re a te a t hi n fi lm on the sk in wh e n t h e wa t e r e v a po r ate s . 1 4 . Th e a n sw e r i s B [ s ee V I . F. 2 .a ] . B y c o n v en t io n , a r ec ta l s u p p os it o r y fo r an ad u lt we i gh s a p pr o xi m a te l y 2 g . S u p po si t o ri es f or in f an t s a n d c h i ld r en a re s m al le r. V a gi n al s u pp os i to r ie s typ i c al l y we i g h a pp r o xi m a te l y 5 g . R e c ta l s up p os it o ri es a re u s u a ll y sh a pe d l ik e a n el o ng a te d b u ll e t ( c y li n d ri c a l a nd t ap e r ed a t o ne en d ) . V ag i na l s u pp os i to r ie s a r e u sua l l y o v oi d . 1 5 . Th e a n sw e r i s A [ s ee V I . F. 4 .c ] . I n t he fu s i o n m e t ho d o f m ak i ng s u pp os i to r ie s , m o l ds m a de of al um i nu m , b r a s s , o r n i ck el - co pp e r a l lo y s a r e u s ed . Fi ne l y po wd e r e d dr u g m i xe d wi t h m e l te d c oc o a b ut t e r i s p o u re d i n to a m o l d t hat i s lu b r ic at e d v e r y l ig h tly wi t h m i ne r al oi l . 1 6 . Th e a n sw e r i s B [ s ee V I . G ; Ta bl e 3 - 8] . Th e U S P d e fi ne s a v e r y f i n e c h em ic a l p o wd e r a s o n e t h at c o m p le t el y p as s e s t h r o ug h a s t an d a rd #1 20 s ie v e , wh i c h ha s 1 25 - µm op e ni n gs . Th e U S P c la s s i fi c a t io n f o r po wd e r e d v eg e ta bl e a n d a ni m al d r u gs d i f fe rs f r o m t ha t fo r po wd e r e d ch e m i ca ls . To b e cl as s i f ie d a s v e r y f i n e, po wd e r e d veg e ta b le a nd an im al d ru gs m u st p as s c om p le t el y t h ro u gh a # 80 s i e v e , wh ic h h as 18 0 - µm op e ni n gs . 1 7 . Th e a n sw e r i s C [ s ee V I . G .1 . c . ( 3 . (b ) ] . P u l ve r i z at i on b y i n te r v e nt i o n is th e m il l in g t ec h ni q u e t h at is us ed fo r d ru g s u bs ta n c e s t ha t ar e g um m y a nd t en d t o re a gg lo m e r a t e o r r e si st g ri nd i ng (e . g . , c am p ho r , i o di ne ) . In th is s en s e , in t er v e n t io n i s t he a dd i ti on o f a s m a ll am o u n t o f m a te r i al th a t a id s m i l li ng a n d c a n b e re m o v e d e as i l y a f t er pu l v e r i z at i on is c om pl e te . F o r e xa m pl e , c am ph o r c a n be r ed uc e d r ea d il y i f a s m al l a m o u nt o f v o l at i le so l ve nt ( e . g ., al c o h ol ) is a d de d . Th e s ol v e n t i s t he n a l lo we d to e vap o r at e .
P.79
1 8 . Th e a n sw e r i s D [ s ee V I . G .2 . c] . Th e p h a rm ac is t u s e s g eo m et r ic di lu t io n to m i x p o t e nt s u bs t an ce s wi t h a la r g e a m ou n t o f d il u en t . Th e po t e nt d ru g a n d a n e qu al a m ou n t o f d il u en t a r e f i rs t m i xe d i n a m o r t a r b y t ri t u ra t io n . A v o l um e o f di lu e nt eq u al t o t he m i xt u r e in th e m o rt a r is a d d ed , a n d t he m i x i s aga i n t r i tu r a te d . Th e p ro ced u r e i s r ep e at e d, a nd eac h ti m e , d i lu e nt eq u al in v o lu m e to t he m i xt u r e t he n i n t h e m o rt a r i s a dd e d, un t il all o f t he d i lu e nt is in c o r po r a te d . 1 9 . Th e a n sw e r i s A [ s ee V I . G .3 . b . (4 ) ] . H yg r o s c o pi c a nd v o la t il e d r u gs a r e b es t p r o te c ted b y wa xe d p a p e r , wh i c h i s wa t e r p r o o f. Th e p ac k et m a y be do u bl e - wr a p pe d wi t h a bo n d p ap e r t o i m pr o ve t he a p p ea r an c e o f t he c om p le t e d p o wd e r . 2 0 . Th e a n sw e r i s A [ s ee V I . H .2 .c . ( 1 )] . H a r d c a ps ul es a re nu m be r e d f r om 00 0 (l a rg es t ) to 5 (s m a ll es t ) . Th e i r a p pr o xi m a t e c a pa ci t y r an g es fr o m 6 00 t o 3 0 m g; ho we v e r , t h e c ap ac i t y of t he c a ps ul e d e p en ds o n th e d e ns it y o f th e c ont e n ts . 2 1 . Th e a n sw e r i s A [ s ee V I . H .3 . a a nd b] . Th e s he l ls o f s o ft ge l at i n c ap s u l es ar e p l as ti ci ze d b y t h e a dd i ti on o f a p o l yh yd r i c a l co h ol (p o l y ol ) , s uc h a s g l y c e r i n o r s o rb it o l. A n a n t if u ng al p re s e r v a t i ve ca n al so be a d d ed . Bo t h h a rd an d s of t g el at i n c ap su le s c an be f il l ed wi t h a po wd e r o r a n o th e r d r y s ub s ta nc e . S o ft ge l ati n c a ps ul es a re al s o us efu l do sa g e f o rm s f or f lu ids o r s em is o li ds . 2 2 . Th e a n sw e r i s C [ s ee V I . H .4 . a] . A c on t en t un i fo rm i t y te s t i s a te st o f p ot e nc y. To e n s u r e t h at ea ch t ab le t o r ca ps u le c o nt a in s t he in t en d ed am o un t o f dr u g s ub s t a nc e, t h e U S P p ro v i de s t wo t e s ts : we i gh t va r i a ti o n a nd c o n te n t u nif o r m i t y . Th e c on t en t un i fo r m it y t es t c an be us e d fo r a n y d o sa g e u ni t , b ut is r eq uir e d fo r c o at e d t ab l et s , f or t a bl e ts i n wh ic h th e a c ti ve i n g re d ie n t m a k e s u p < 50 % of t he ta b le t , f o r s us p e ns i on s i n s i n gl e -u n it c o n t ai ne r s o r i n s o f t c a ps u le s , an d fo r m a n y s ol i ds th a t co n ta i n a d d ed s u bs ta nc e s. Th e we i g h t va r i a ti o n t es t c a n b e us ed f o r l iq ui d - fi ll e d s of t c ap s ul es , fo r a n y d os ag e fo r m u n it t h a t c on t ai ns at le as t 50 m g o f a s i n gl e d r ug if t he d r ug m ak es up a t l ea s t 5 0 % o f t h e b u lk , f o r s ol id s t h at d o no t c on t ai n a d de d s ub s ta nc e s, an d f o r f r e e ze- d r i ed s o lu t io ns . 2 3 . Th e a n sw e r i s A [ s ee V . A a n d V . B ] . Th e r e ac t io n v el oc i t y , o r d e g ra d at i on r at e , o f a pha r m ac eu t ic al pr o du c t is a f f ec t ed b y s e ve ra l fa c t o rs , i nc l ud i ng t em pe r a tu r e, so l ve nt s , a n d li g h t. Th e d e g ra da t i on r at e i n c re as es t wo t o t h re e t im es wi t h ea c h 10 ° in c rea s e i n t em pe r a tu r e . Th e e f f ec t o f t e m p e r at u re o n r ea c ti on r a t e i s g i ven b y th e Ar r he n iu s e q ua t io n : k = Ae
-Ea/RT
wh e r e k i s t h e r ea c ti o n ra t e c on s ta n t, A i s t h e f r eq u e nc y f ac to r , Ea is th e e n e rg y o f a c ti va t io n , R is t he ga s c o n s t a nt , an d T is th e a bs o l u te te m p e r at u re . 2 4 . Th e a n sw e r i s D [ s ee V . B .2 . a ].
I n ze r o -o r de r de g ra d at i on , t he c o nc en t r at i on of a d r u g d ec r ea se s o ve r t im e . H o we ve r , t h e c ha n ge of c o nc en t r at i on wi t h re sp ec t to ti m e is un c h a ng ed . I n t he e q u at io n :
t h e fa ct th a t d C / dt is ne ga t i v e s ig n if i es th a t t he co n c e n t ra t io n i s d ec r ea s in g . H o we ve r , t h e v el oc i t y o f t h e c on c en t ra t io n c ha n ge is c o ns t an t . 2 5 . Th e a n sw e r i s B [ s ee V . B .2 . b .( 2 ) ]. Th e h a lf - li f e ( t 1 / 2 ) is th e t i m e r eq ui r e d f o r t he co nc e nt r a ti o n o f a d r u g t o de c r ea s e b y o n e h al f . F o r a f ir s t- o r der d e gr a da t io n :
B e c au se bo t h k a n d 0 .6 93 a r e c o ns t an t s , t 1 / 2 i s a c o ns ta n t . P.80
2 6 . Th e a n sw e r i s D [ s ee V I . F. 3 ]. A s a ti sf ac t o r y s up p os it o ry b a s e sh o ul d r em a in fi rm a t r oo m t em p e ra t ur e . P r e f e ra b l y , i t sh ou l d n ot m e l t < 3 0 ° C t o a v oi d p r em at u r e s o f te n in g d u r in g s to r a ge an d i ns e r ti o n. I t sh o ul d a ls o b e i ne r t , no n s e ns i ti z i n g, no n ir r i ta t in g , a n d c o m pa ti b le wi t h a v a r i et y o f d r u gs . Mo r e o v e r , i t s ho uld m e l t j us t b el o w b o d y tem p e ra t ur e a n d s ho ul d d is s o l v e o r d i si n te g ra t e r a pi dl y i n t he f lu i d o f t he b od y c a v i t y i n to wh i c h i t is in se r t ed . 2 7 . Th e a n sw e r i s E [s ee V I . F. 3 .c . (1 ) ] . C o c oa bu t t er is a f at t ha t i s o b ta in e d f r om th e s eed o f T h eo b ro m a ca c a o . C h e m i ca l l y , i t i s a m i xt u re o f s te a ri n , p al m i t in , and o th e r g l y ce r id e s t ha t ar e i n so lu b le in wa t e r a n d f re e l y s o lu bl e i n e t h er an d c hl o r of o rm . De p en d in g o n th e f u si o n t em pe r a tu r e , c o c oa b ut t e r c a n c r y s ta l li z e in t o a n y on e o f fo u r c r ys ta l fo r m s . C o c oa bu t t er is a g oo d ba s e f o r r ec t al s u pp o si to r ie s , a l th ou g h i t i s l ess tha n id ea l f o r va gi n al or u re t h ra l s up p os i to r ie s . 2 8 . Th e a n sw e r i s C [ s ee V I . I. 5 ]. To s a t is f y th e U S P s ta nda r d s , ta b le ts a re r eq u ir ed t o p as s o ne of t wo t es ts . A we i g h t v a r ia t io n t es t i s us e d i f t h e ac t i v e i ng r e di en t m a k e s u p t he bu lk o f th e ta b le t . A c on t en t un i fo rm i t y te s t i s u s e d i f t h e t ab l et is co a t ed o r i f t he ac t i v e i ngr e d ie n t m ak e s u p < 5 0 % o f t h e bu l k o f t h e t ab l et . Ma n y t ab l e ts fo r o r a l a dm in is t ra ti o n a r e r e q ui r e d t o m e e t a di s i n te g r a ti on t es t. D is i nt e gr a ti o n t im es a re s p ec if i ed in t he i n di vi d ua l m on o gr a ph s . A d is s o l ut i on te s t m a y be r e qu i re d i ns t ea d i f th e a c ti ve c om p on e nt o f t he ta b le t h a s l im it e d wa t e r so lu b il it y . H a r d ne ss a n d f r ia b il ity wo u l d a f f ec t t h e d is in t eg r a ti on a n d d is s o l ut i on ra t es , b ut h a rd n es s an d fr i ab il i t y t e s ts a r e i n - ho us e q u al i t y c on t r ol te s ts , n o t o f fi ci al U S P te s t s . 2 9 . Th e a n sw e r i s D ( I I , I I I ) [s ee V I . A. 1 ]. W ate r f o r i nj ec t io n U S P is wa t e r th a t h as be en pur i f ie d b y d is t il la t io n o r b y r e v e r s e o sm o si s . Th is wa t e r i s us e d t o p r ep a r e p ar e nt e r al s o l ut i on s t ha t ar e s u bj ec t to fi n al
s t e ri li za t io n . F o r p a re n ter a l s ol u ti o ns th a t a r e p r ep a r ed as ep t ic al l y an d n ot s u bs eq u en t l y s t er i li z e d , s t e ri le wa t e r fo r in je c ti on U S P is us e d. S te r il e wa te r f o r i n je c ti on U S P is wa t e r f or i nj ec t io n U S P t h at ha s b e e n st e r il i zed an d s ui t ab l y p a ck ag e d. Th i s wa t e r m ee t s t h e U S P r eq ui r em e nts f or st e ri l it y . B ac t e ri os ta t ic wa t e r f o r in je c ti on U S P is s t er il e wa t e r f o r i n je ct i on U SP t h at c o n ta i ns o n e o r m o r e a n t im ic r ob ia l a g en ts . It c a n be us ed in pa r en t e ra l s ol u ti o ns i f th e a n ti m i c ro b ia l a d di t i ves a re c om p at i bl e wi t h t h e o th e r i ng r e di ent s in th e s ol u ti o n, bu t i t c a nn o t b e u s ed in ne wb o r n s . P u ri fie d wa t e r U S P i s n ot us ed i n p a re n te r al p re pa r a tio n s. 3 0 . Th e a n sw e r i s E ( I , II , I I I) [s e e I V . B .2 ] . A n i de al s u s p e ns io n wo ul d ha v e pa r t ic le s o f u ni f or m s i z e , m in im al s e di m en t a ti o n, a n d n o i n te r ac t io n b e t wee n pa r t ic le s. A lt h ou g h t he s e i de al c ri t er i a a r e r a re l y m e t , t h e y ca n b e a p pr o xi m a ted b y k e e pi ng th e pa r ti cl e s i z e a s sm al l a s p os si ble , t he d e ns i ti es of t he s o li d a nd t he di sp e rs i on m e di um a s s im il a r as po s s i bl e, an d th e d i sp e rs io n m ed i um a s v is c o u s as po s s ib l e. 3 1 . Th e a n sw e r i s D ( I I , I I I ) [s ee I V . B. 2 ]. A s S to k es ' s l a w i nd ic a tes , th e s ed im e nt a ti o n r a te o f a su s p e ns io n i s sl o we d b y r e d uc in g i t s d en s i t y , re du c in g t h e si ze o f t he s u sp e n de d p a rt ic l es , o r i n c re a s i n g i ts vi s co si t y b y in c o r p o ra ti ng a th ic k e ni n g a ge n t. S od i um be n z o at e i s a n a n tif u n ga l a g e nt an d wo u ld no t re du c e t he se di m en t at io n rat e o f a s us pe ns i on . 3 2 . Th e a n sw e r i s C ( I , II ) [ s e e VI . C . 3] . A c ac i a a nd m e th y l c el lu l os e a r e c om m o n s us pe n din g ag e nt s. A ca c i a i s a na t u r al p r o du c t, an d m e th y l c e ll ul o s e is a s y nt h et ic po l y m e r . B y in c re as i ng th e vis c os i t y of t h e l i qu id , th es e a g en ts e n a bl e p a rt ic l es to re m a in s u sp e nd e d f o r a l o ng e r p e ri o d . 3 3 . Th e a n sw e r i s E ( I , II , I I I) [s e e V I . D .3 ] . E m u ls if y i n g a ge n ts p r o v id e a m e ch a ni c a l b a r ri e r to c o a le s c en c e . Th e y al s o r e du ce t h e n a tu r a l t en d en c y o f th e d ro pl e ts in th e i n te r na l ph as e (o il o r wa t e r ) of t h e e m ul si o n t o c o a le s c e . Th r e e m ec h an is m s a p pe a r t o be in v o l v e d. S om e e m u l s i f ie rs p r o m o t e s ta bi l it y b y f o rm i n g s t ro n g, pl i ab le in t e rfa c ia l f i lm s a ro u nd th e d ro p le t s . E m u ls if y i n g a ge n ts a ls o r e d uc e i n te r fa c i a l t en s i on . Fi n al l y , i o ns (f r om t he e m u ls i fi e r ) i n th e i n te r f ac ia l f i lm c an l e ad to ch a rg e re p ul s i o n t h a t ca us es d ro p le ts t o r e p el on e a n o th e r , t he r eb y p r e v e nti n g c oa le s c e nc e. 3 4 . Th e a n sw e r i s B ( I I I) [ s e e V I. D . 3 ]. A l l o f th e s ub s ta nc es li s te d a re em ul si f y i ng ag en ts , bu t o n l y s o rb i ta n e s t e rs a re n o ni o ni c s y n th e ti c a ge n ts . Tr a ga c an t h, li ke ac ac ia , is a n at u ra l e m u ls i f y ing a ge n t. S o d iu m l au r y l s u lf a te is a n an io n ic s u r fa c t a nt . Sor b i ta n es te r s ( k n o wn co l lo q ui a ll y a s Sp a ns b e c a us e o f t h ei r t r ad e n am es ) ar e h y d ro p h ob ic an d f o rm wa t e r -in - o il e m ul si o ns . Th e po l y s or ba t es ( k n o wn c o ll o qu i al l y a s Twe e n s ) a r e a ls o n oni o ni c , s yn t he t ic s o r bi t an de r i v at i v e s . H o we ve r , t he y a r e h yd r o ph i li c a nd th e r ef o re f o rm oi l i n - wa t e r e m ul s i on s . S o diu m l a u r y l su l fa t e, as an a l k a li s o ap , is a ls o h yd r op h il ic an d t h us f or m s oi l -i n - wa t e r em u ls io ns . P.81
3 5 . Th e a n sw e r i s C ( I , II ) [ s e e VI . F .1 an d 2 ] .
R e c t al s u pp os i to r ie s a r e u s ef u l f o r d el i v e ri n g s y ste m ic m ed ic a ti o n u nd e r c e r t ai n c i rc um s ta nc es . Ab s o r p tio n of a d r ug f ro m a re c tal s u p po s i t o r y i n v o l v es re le a s e of t h e d r u g f r om th e s up pos i to r y v e h ic le , d i f fu s i on th r o ug h th e r e c t al m u co s a , an d t r a ns p or t to t he c i rc ul a tio n th r o ug h t h e r ec t al ve in s . Th e r ec t al ve in s b ypa ss t he l i ve r , s o t hi s r o ut e a v oi ds r ap i d h ep a ti c d eg r ad a ti o n of ce r ta i n d r ug s ( f i rs t- p a ss e f f ec t ) . Th e r ec ta l ro u te i s a ls o u s e f ul wh e n a d rug c a n no t b e g i v e n o r al l y ( e . g ., b e c a us e o f v om i ti n g) . H owe v e r , t h e e xt e n t o f d r ug r e le a s e an d a bs o rp t io n is va r i a bl e . I t d e pe n ds o n th e p ro pe r t ie s o f t h e d r ug, t h e su p po s i t o r y b as e , an d th e e n vi r on m e n t i n t h e r ec t um . 3 6 . Th e a n sw e r i s E ( I , II , I I I) [s e e V I . G .1 . c] . Mi l l i n g i s t h e p ro c e s s of m ec h an ic a ll y r ed u c i ng t he p a rt ic l e s i z e of s o li ds b e f o re t h e y a re fo r m u l at e d i nt o a f in a l p ro d uc t . To wo r k e f f ec t i v el y, a l ub r ic an t m u s t c oa t t h e s u rf a c e of th e g r a nu la t i on o r p o wd e r . H e nc e fi n e p a r ti c l e si ze is es s e nt i a l. D e c r ea s i n g t he pa r t ic le s i z e i nc r ea s e s t he su r f ac e a r ea an d c an en h an c e t h e d i ss ol u ti on r a te . Th e rm ola b il e d r u gs m a y un d er g o d e g ra da t io n b ec a us e o f t h e b u il d up of he a t d u ri n g m il l in g . 3 7 . Th e a n sw e r i s D ( I I , I I I ) [s ee V I . G .2 . a. ( 2 ) ]. S o m e so l id s u bs ta n c e s (e . g . , as p ir i n, ph e n y ls al icy l a t e , p he n ac et i n, t h ym ol , c am p ho r ) l i qu e f y or f or m e u te c ti c m i xt u r e s wh e n in c l os e , p r ol o ng ed c o n tac t wi t h o n e a n ot h er . Th es e s ub s t a nc es a re be s t i ns ul a ted b y t he ad di t io n o f li gh t m a gn es i um o xi d e o r m agn e s i um c a r bo n at e . O t h e r i n er t di lu e nt s t h at c a n be us e d a r e k a ol in , s t a rc h, a nd be n ton i t e. 3 8 . Th e a n sw e r i s B ( I I I) [ s e e V I. G . 2 .b ] . W hen p o wd e rs a re m i xe d , if c o m m in u ti o n is es pec i al l y im po r ta n t , a p o rc e la i n o r c e r am ic m o rt a r t h at ha s a r o ug h i nn e r s u rf ac e i s p r e f er r e d o ve r t h e s m o oth wo r k i ng s u r fa ce o f a g l as s m o r ta r. B e c a us e a gl as s m o r t a r c le a ns m o re ea si l y a ft e r u s e , it is p r e f er r e d f o r c h em ic a ls th a t m a y s t ai n a po r ce l ain o r c e ra m i c m o r t a r as we l l a s f o r s im p le m i xi n g of s u bs t anc es t ha t d o n o t r e qu i re c o m m i nu t io n . 3 9 . Th e a n sw e r i s A ( I ) [ s ee V I . G .3 . a a nd b] . P o wd e r s fo r o ra l u s e c a n b e d is p en s e d b y t h e p ha r m ac is t i n b ul k f o rm or d i vi de d i n t o p r em ea s u r ed do s e s ( d i v i de d p o wd e r s ). D i v ide d p o wd e r s a r e t r a di ti o na l l y d i sp e ns ed in fo l de d p ape r p ac k e ts (c h ar t ul a e ) m a d e o f p a rc hm e nt , bo nd p a p er , g l as si n e, o r wa xe d p a p er . H o we ve r , i nd i v id u al dos es c a n b e p ac ka g ed in m e ta l fo il o r sm al l p la s ti c b ag s i f th e po wd e r n ee ds g re a te r p r o te ct i on f ro m h um id i t y o r e va p o ra t io n . 4 0 . Th e a n sw e r i s C ( I , II ) [ s e e VI . I .2 . b] . Ta b l e ts f or o ra l i n ge s t i on us u al l y c o nt a in e xc i pi en t s t h at a re ad d ed to th e f o r m u l at io n fo r th e ir s p ec i al fu nc t io ns . Bi n de r s an d ad h es i v es a r e a d de d t o p ro m o t e g r a nu l at i on o r c o m p ac t ion . D il u en ts a re fi l le r s t ha t a r e a dd e d t o m ak e u p th e r e q ui r e d t ab l et bu lk . Th ey c a n a ls o a id in t he m an u f ac tu r i ng pr o c e ss . Di sin t e g ra n ts a i d i n t a bl e t d is in t eg r at i on i n g as t ro i nt es t in a l f l u ids . Lu b ri c a n ts , a n ti a dh e ren t s , a nd g l id a nt s a id in r ed uc i ng fr i c ti on o r a dh es i on be t we e n p a r ti cl es or be t we e n t a bl e t a nd d i e . F o r e xa m p le , l u b ri c an t s a r e u se d i n t h e m a n uf a c tu r e o f t a bl e ts to re d uc e fr ic t io n wh e n t h e t a bl et is ej ec t ed f r om th e d ie ca v i t y. Lub r i c a n ts a r e u su a ll y h y d ro p h ob ic s u bs ta n c e s t ha t c a n a ff ec t th e d is so l ut i on ra t e o f t h e a c t i v e i n gr e di e nt .
4 1 . Th e a n sw e r i s E ( I , II , I I I) [s e e V I .2 . b . (3 ) ] . D i s in t eg r an t s a r e a dd ed t o t ab le t fo r m u la t io ns t o f a ci l it a te di s i n te g ra t io n in g a st r o in t es ti n al fl ui d s . Di s in t eg r a ti on o f t he ta b l et i n t he b od y is c r i ti ca l t o i t s d i ss ol u ti on a nd s u bs eq ue n t a bs o r pt i on an d b io a va i la b il i t y . Th e bi n de r an d t h e c om p r es s i on fo r c e us ed d u r in g ta bl e t m an u fa ct u rin g af f ec t t h e h a rd n es s of t h e t a b le t a s we ll as ta b le t di s in t eg r a ti on an d d r u g d i s s o l ut i on . 4 2 . Th e a n sw e r i s B ( I I I) [ s e e V I. I .3 . a .( 4 ) ] . A n e nt e ri c -c oa t ed t ab le t h a s a c o at in g th a t r em a in s i n ta c t i n t he s t om ac h , b u t d i ss ol ve s i n t he in t es t in es t o y i e ld th e t a bl e t i ng re d ie n ts th e r e. E nt e r ic c oa t i ng s i n cl ud e v a ri o us fa ts , fa t ty a c id s , wa xe s , an d s he ll a c s . Ce ll u lo s e ac e ta t e ph t h al a te r e m ai ns in t ac t i n t he s t om ac h b e c a us e i t d is so l ve s o n l y wh e n t h e p H > 6 . O t h e r e n t e ri c- c o a ti n g m at e ri a ls i nc l ud e p o vi do ne ( po l y v in y l p y r r o li d on e ), po l y vi n yl ac e ta t e p h t ha la t e , a nd h y d ro xy p r o p y l m e th y l c e l lu lo s e p hth a l a t e . 4 3 . Th e a n sw e r i s A [ s ee V I . I. 4 ]. 4 4 . Th e a n sw e r i s D [ s ee V I . I. 4 ]. 4 5 . Th e a n sw e r i s B [ s ee V I . I. 4 ]. P.82
4 6 . Th e a n sw e r i s A [ s ee V I . I. 4 ]. S t i ck in g i s a dh es i on of ta b le t m a te r i al to a d ie wa l l . I t m a y b e c au s ed b y e xc e s s i ve m o is tu r e o r b y th e u s e of i n gr e di e nt s t h at ha v e low m e l t in g te m p e ra t u re s. Mo t t l i n g i s u n e ve n c o l or di s t ri bu t io n. I t i s m os t o f te n c au se d b y p o o r m i xi n g o f t h e t abl e t g r a nu l at i on bu t m a y al s o o c c u r wh en a d e gr a de d d r u g p r od uc es a c ol o re d m e ta b ol i te . Ca p pi n g is s e p a ra t io n o f th e t o p o r bo t t om c r o wn o f a ta bl e t fr o m t h e m a in bo d y . C ap pi n g im p li e s t ha t c om p r ess e d p o wd e r i s n o t co h es i v e . R e as o ns fo r c a pp i ng i n c l ud e e xc e s s i v e f o rc e o f c om p re s s io n , u s e o f i ns u ff ic i en t b i nd e r, wo r n t a b le t t o ol i ng eq ui pm e nt , a n d e nt r a pm en t o f ai r du r i ng p ro ce s s in g . P ic ki ng is a d h er e nc e o f t a bl e t s u r fa c e m a t e ri a l t o a p u nc h . I t c a n b e c au s e d b y a g ra n ul a ti o n t h a t i s t oo da m p , b y a s c r a t c h e d p un c h , b y s ta t ic c h a rg es on th e p o wd e r , a n d p a r ti c ul a rl y b y t he us e o f a pu nc h ti p t h at is e n g ra ve d o r em b oss e d . 4 7 . Th e a n sw e r i s A [ s ee V I . G .1 . c; V I . G .2 ] . 4 8 . Th e a n sw e r i s D [ s ee V I . G .1 . c; V I . G .2 ] . 4 9 . Th e a n sw e r i s C [ s ee V I . G .1 . c; V I . G .2 ] . C o m m i nu t io n i s t he p ro c e s s o f r e du ci ng t he pa r tic l e s i z e o f a p o wd e r to in c r ea s e it s f i n en es s . S e v e ra l c om m in u t io n t ec h ni q ue s a re s ui t a b l e f o r sm a ll - s c al e u s e i n a p h a rm ac y . Tr i t u ra t io n i s u s ed bo t h t o c om m i nu t e a n d t o m i x d r y p o wd e r s . I f c om m i n ut i on is d es i r ed , t h e s ub s ta nc e i s r u bb e d i n a m o r t a r t ha t h a s a rou g h i nn e r s u r fa ce . Pu l v e r i z at i on b y i n te r v e n ti o n is of t en us ed f o r s u b s t a nc es th a t t end t o a g gl o m e r at e o r r es is t g r in d in g . A s m al l a m o u nt o f e as i l y re m o v e d (e . g. , v ol a t il e ) s o l ven t i s a dd e d. A f te r th e s u bs t an c e is p u l v er i ze d , th e s ol v e n t is al l o wed t o e va p o ra t e o r i s o t he r wi s e r em o v e d. Le v i g at i on is o f t en us ed to p re p ar e pa s te s o r o i n tm en ts . Th e p o wd e r is r ed uc e d b y ad d in g a s u i t ab le no n s o l v en t (l e v i ga t i ng ag e nt ) t o f or m a pa s t e a n d t he n e i th e r ru bb i ng th e p as t e i n a m o r ta r wi t h a p es tl e o r r u b bi n g i t o n a n o in t m e nt s la b wi t h a s pa t ul a . S pa t u la t io n a nd t um bl in g a re
t e ch n iq u es t h at a re us ed t o m i x o r b le nd po wd e r s , n o t t o r e du ce th em . S pa t u la t io n i s b l en di n g s m al l a m o u n ts o f p o wd e rs b y s t ir r i ng th e m wi t h a s pa t ul a o n a s h ee t o f p a p er o r a p i ll ti l e. Tu m bl i ng is bl en d in g l a rg e a m o u n ts o f po wd e r in a l a rge r o ta t in g c o nt a in e r . 5 0 . Th e a n sw e r i s B [ s ee V I . K .3 . e] . 5 1 . Th e a n sw e r i s E [s ee V I . K .3 . a] . 5 2 . Th e a n sw e r i s C [ s ee V I . K .3 . f] . 5 3 . Th e a n sw e r i s D [ s ee V I . K .3 . d] . C o n t r ol le d - re l ea s e do s ag e fo r m s ar e d es i gn e d t o r e l e a se a d ru g s lo wl y f o r p r o lo n ge d a c t i on in th e bo d y . A v a ri e t y of ph a rm ac e ut ic a l m e c h a ni s m s a re u s e d to p r o vi de t he c o nt r ol l ed r el e as e . I on - e xc h a ng e re s in s m a y be c om p le xe d t o d r u gs b y p a ss in g a c a ti o ni c d r ug s o l u ti on t hr o ug h a co lu m n t h a t c o n ta i ns th e r es i n. Th e d r u g i s c om pl e xe d t o t h e r es in b y r ep l ac em en t o f h y d ro g e n a to m s . Re l ea se of d r u g f r om t h e c om pl e x d e p en ds on t h e i o ni c e n vi ro nm en t wi th i n t h e g as t ro i nt es t in a l tr a c t a nd o n th e p r o pe r ti es o f t he re s in . Co a t ed be ad s ( e . g., Th o r a z i ne S pa ns u le c ap s ul es ) or g r a nu l es p r o du c e bl o od le v e l s s i m i l a r t o t ho s e o bt a i ne d wi t h m u l ti p le do s in g . Th e va r i o us c o at i ng th ic k n es s es p ro d uc e a s us t ai n ed- r e l ea s e ef f ec t . Ma t r i x d e v i c es m a y us e in s ol u bl e p la s ti c s , h yd r oph i li c p ol ym e rs , o r fa t t y c om p ou n ds . Th es e c o m po n e nt s a r e m i xe d wi t h t he d r ug an d c om p re s s ed in t o a t a b le t . Th e p ri m a r y d os e, o r th e p o rt i on of t he d ru g to be r el e as ed im m e di a t el y , is p l ac e d o n t he ta b le t a s a l a y e r o r c o at . Th e re m a in d e r o f t h e d os e i s r el e as e d s l o wl y f r o m t he m a t ri x. R e l a t i v el y i ns o lu bl e ta nn a t e- am in e c om p le xe s p r o v id e f or a p r o lo n ge d g as t r oi n te s t i na l ab s o r p ti on ph as e a n d s us t ai n ed s ys t em ic c o nc e n t r at i on s o f t he we a k b as es . Os m o t ic s ys t em s em p lo y os m o t ic p re s s u re to co n t ro l th e r el ea s e o f t he ac ti v e in g re d ie n t fr o m t h e f o rm ul a ti o n. O sm o ti c t a bl e t f o rm ul a ti on s p r o vi de a s em i pe r m e ab l e m e m br a ne as a c oa t in g t h at su r r ou n ds th e o s m o ti c a ll y a ct iv e c o re . Th e c oa t in g a l lo ws wa t e r t o di f fu se in t o t he c o r e b u t d o es n o t a ll o w d r u g to d if f us e o u t . A s wa t e r f lo ws i n to th e ta b le t , t h e d ru g d is s olv e s . Th e l as e r -d r il l ed ho le i n t he c o at i ng al lo ws t h e d r ug s o l u ti on wi t h in t he ta b le t to f lo w t o t he ou t si de a t a r a t e t ha t i s e q ui va le n t t o th e r a te o f wa t e r fl o w i n to th e ta bl e t . Th e os m o t ic p r es s u re g r ad ie n t a n d a ze r o -o r de r dr u g - rel e as e ra t e wi l l be m a in t ai n ed as lo n g as e xc e s s os m o t ic al l y a c ti ve so lu t e ( e . g. , e l ec tr o l y t e ) r em a in s i n t he t ab l e t c o r e .
4 Biopharmaceutics and Drug Delivery Systems L aw re n ce H . B lo c k
I. INTRODUCTION A. B i o p h a r m ac e u ti c s is t h e s tu d y o f t he r el a ti on o f th e p h ys i c a l a n d c h em ic a l p r o pe r t ie s o f a d ru g t o i ts bi o a v ai la b il i t y , p ha r m ac ok i ne t ics , an d p h ar m a c o d yn am ic a n d t o xi c o lo g ic e f fe c ts . 1 . A d ru g p ro d u ct is th e f i ni s h e d d os ag e f o rm ( e.g . , ta bl e t , c a p su le , s ol u tio n ) th a t c o nt a in s t he ac t i v e d r ug i n g re d ie n t i n as s o c i a ti o n wi t h n on d r ug ( us ua ll y i na c ti v e ) i n g re d ie n ts (e x ci p ie n t s ) t h a t m ak e u p t he ve h i cle , o r f o r m ul a t io n m a t r ix. 2 . Th e ph r as e d r ug de li v e r y s y s te m i s o ft e n us e d i n te r c h a ng ea b l y wi t h t he t e rm s d r u g p r od uc t or do s a g e fo r m . H o we ve r , a d r u g de l i ve r y s ys t e m i s a m o re c om p r eh e ns i v e c o nc e pt , wh i c h in cl u de s t he d ru g fo r m ul a ti on an d th e d yn am ic i n t er a ct i on s am o ng th e dr u g , i ts f or m u l at i on m a t rix, i t s co n t ai ne r , a n d t he p a t ie n t. 3 . B i oa va i l ab i l i t y i s a m e a s u r em e nt of t he ra t e an d e xt e n t ( a m o un t ) o f s y s t em ic a b so r p ti on o f t he t he r ape u t ic al l y ac ti v e d ru g . B . P h a r ma c ok i ne t i cs is t h e s t ud y o f t h e t im e c o ur s e o f d r u g m o ve m e n t i n t h e b o d y d u r in g a bs o r pt i on , d is t r ib u t io n , a nd el im in a ti o n (e xc r e t i o n a nd bi o tr a ns f orm a ti o n ). C . P h a r ma c od yn a m i c s is t he s t ud y o f t h e r e la t ion o f t h e d ru g c o nc en t ra t io n o r a m ou n t a t t h e s i t e o f a c t io n ( re ce p t or ) an d i ts ph ar m ac o lo gi c r e sp on s e as a f un c ti on o f ti m e.
II. DRUG TRANSPORT AND ABSORPTION A. T r a n s p o r t o f d r ug mo l e cu l e s a c ro s s c el l mem b r a ne s . D ru g a bs o rp t io n r eq ui r es t h e d r u g t o b e t r an s p o r ted ac r os s va ri ou s c el l m em b r an es . D ru g m ol ec u les m a y e n t e r t he bl o od s t r e am an d be t ra ns p o rt e d t o t he t i s s ue s a n d o rg a ns o f the b od y . D r u g m o le c u l es m a y c r os s a dd i ti o na l m em b ra ne s t o en t er ce ll s . D r u g m o le c ul es m a y a l so c r os s a n i n tr ac e ll ula r m e m b r an e , s uc h a s t he n uc le a r m em b ra ne o r e n d op la s m ic re t ic ul um , to r e ac h t he si t e o f ac t io n. F ig u r e 4 - 1 d em on s t r a tes so m e of t h e k e y t ra ns p or t p ro c e s s es in v o l ve d i n d r ug ab so r p ti o n .
Figure 4-1. The key drug transport processes in intestinal epithelial cells. 1, Transcellular passive (diffusion and partitioning); 2, paracellular transport (diffusion and convection); 3, carriermediated transport; 4, P-glycoproteinmediated efflux. [Modified from Brayden DJ, Pharm News 4(1);1997:11-15.]
P.84
1 . G e ne r a l p r i n ci p le s a . A c e l l m em b r an e i s a s em ip e rm e ab le s t r uc t u re c o m p o s e d p r im a ri l y of l i pi ds an d p r o t ei ns . b . D r ug s m a y b e t ra ns por t e d b y p as s i ve di f f u si on , p a r ti t i on i n g, ca r r i e r -m e d ia t e d t r a n s po r t , pa r a ce l l ul a r t r a n s po r t , o r ve s i cu l a r t r a n s po r t . c . Us u al l y , p ro t e in s , d r ug s b ou n d t o p r ot e i ns , an d ma c r om o le c u le s d o n o t e as i l y c r os s c el l m em br a ne s . d . N o n po l a r l i p id - s ol u bl e d r ug s tr a v e rs e c e ll m e m b ra ne s m o re ea si l y tha n do i o n i c o r p o l a r w a t e r -s o lu b l e d r u g s. e . L ow m o le c ul a r w e ig ht d r u g s d if f us e a cr o s s a c e ll m em b r an e m or e ea si l y t ha n d o h ig h m o le c u la r w e igh t d r u gs . 2 . P as s i ve d i f f us i o n a nd p a r t i ti o ni n g a . W i th i n t h e c yt o p l a s m o r in in t e r s ti t i al f l ui d , m os t dr u gs un de r g o t r ans p o rt b y s im p le di f fu s i o n. b . F ic k 's l aw o f di f f u si on . S i mp l e p as s i ve di f f us i o n i n v ol ve s t h e t r an s fer o f d r u gs f r o m a n a r ea of hi g h c o nc e nt r a ti o n ( C 1 ) t o a n a r ea o f l o we r c o nc en t r a ti on ( C 2 ) a cc o r di ng t o F ic k 's la w o f d if f us io n :
wh e r e d Q / d t is t he ra t e of d r ug di f fu si o n, D is th e d i f fu si o n c o e f fi ci en t fo r th e d ru g , A i s t he s u r f ac e a r ea of th e pl an e ac ro s s wh i ch t ra n s f e r o c c u rs , h is th e t hi ck n es s o f t h e re g io n t h ro u gh wh i c h d i ff u s i on oc cu r s, an d ( C 1 - C 2 ) i s t he di f fe r e nc e b e t we e n t h e d r u g c o nc e nt r a ti o n in a r ea 1 a nd ar e a 2 , re s p e c t i v e l y . c . P ass i v e d r u g t r an s p o rt a c r o s s c el l m em b ra n es i n v o l v es th e s uc c e s s i ve p a r t i t i on i ng o f a s ol u te b e t we e n a q ue o us a n d l ipi d ph as es as we l l a s d i f fu s i o n wi t h i n th e re s p ec t i v e p has es . Mo d i f y i ng Fi c k ' s l a w o f di f fu s i o n t o ac c om m od a t e t he p a r ti t io n in g o f d r u g g i v es t h e f ol l o wi n g:
Th e r a t e o f d r ug di f fu s i on , d Q /d t , n o w r e f le ct s i ts d i re c t d ep e nd en c e o n K, t h e oi l to wa t e r p a r ti t io n c oe f fi c i e nt o f t h e d r ug , a s we ll as o n A a n d ( C 1 - C 2 ) . d . I on i z a t i on o f a w ea k e l e c t ro l yt e i s a f f ec te d by t h e p H o f t h e m e d iu m in wh i c h t h e d r u g is di s s ol v e d a s we l l a s b y t he p K a of t he d r u g. Th e n o ni o ni ze d s pe c ie s is m o r e li p id s o lu b le th a n th e io ni ze d s p ec ie s, an d it p a rt i ti o ns m o re r ea di l y a c r os s c e ll m em b r an es . 3 . C a r r ie r - m ed i a te d t ran s p o r t a . Ac t i ve t r a n sp o r t o f the d r ug ac r os s a m em br an e is a c a r r ie r -m e di a te d p r o ce s s t h a t h as th e fo ll o wi n g c ha r a c t e ri s ti c s . ( 1 ) Th e dr u g m o v es a g ain s t a c o nc en t r at i on gr a die n t . ( 2 ) Th e pr o c e s s re q ui r es e n e rg y.
( 3 ) Th e c a r ri e r m a y b e s e l ec t i v e f o r c e r t ai n t y pe s o f dr u gs th a t r es em b le n a t u ra l s u bs t ra t es or m e t ab ol i tes t ha t a r e n o rm al l y ac t i ve l y t r an sp o r te d . ( 4 ) Th e c a r ri e r s y s te m m a y b e s a tu r a te d a t a hi gh d r ug c o nc en t r at i on . ( 5 ) Th e pr o c e s s m a y be c om p et i ti ve ( i. e . , d ru g s wi t h s im il a r s t ru c tu r es m a y c om p et e f o r th e s am e c a rr i e r) . b . F ac i l it a t ed d if f u si o n i s a ls o a ca r r ie r -m e di a ted t r an s p o r t s y st em . H o we v e r , f a ci l it a te d d i ff us i on oc c ur s wi t h (i . e. , in th e d i re c ti o n o f ) a c o nc en t r at i on gr a d ie n t a n d d o es n o t r e qu i re ene r g y . 4 . P a ra c el l u la r t r a ns p or t . D r u g t r an sp o r t a c r o s s t i gh t (n a r ro w) j u nc t io ns b e t we e n c e ll s o r t r a ns en d ot h el ia l c h an n el s o f c el ls i s k no wn as p a ra c el l u la r t r an sp o r t . It i n vo l ves bo t h d if f us io n an d th e c o n ve c ti ve ( b ul k ) f l o w o f wa t e r a nd ac co m p a n y i ng wa t e r - s o lu bl e d r u g m o l ec u le s t h ro u gh th e p a r ac el l ul a r c ha n ne ls . 5 . V es i cu l a r t ra n sp o r t is t he pr o c e s s o f en gu l fi ng p a rt ic l es o r di ss ol v e d m a te r i al s b y a ce ll . Ve s i c ul a r t r an s p o r t i s t he on l y t r an s p o rt m ec ha n is m t ha t d o es n ot r e qu i re a d r ug to be in an aq u eou s s ol u ti o n t o b e a bs o rbe d . Pi n o c yt o s i s a n d p ha g o c yt o s i s a r e fo r m s o f v es ic u la r t ra n s p o r t. a . P i no c yt o s i s i s t h e e ng u l fm en t o f s m a l l s o l ut e o r f lu id v o lu m es . P.85
b . P h ag o c yt o s i s i s t he e n g ul fm e nt of la r g er pa r ti c le s, o r m a c ro m o l ec ul es , g en e r al l y b y m ac r op h ag es . c . E nd o c yt o s i s a n d e xoc yt o s i s a r e t h e m o v e m en t o f m a c ro m o l ec ul es in to a nd ou t o f t he c e ll , re s p ec t i v el y . 6 . O t h e r t r a n sp o r t m e ch a n is m s : t r a ns p o r te r pr o t e i ns . V ar i ou s t r a ns po r t e r p r o t e i ns ( e. g ., P - gl yc o p r o t e i n ) a r e em b ed d ed in t h e l ip i d b il a y e r o f c el l m em b r an es i n ta n de m i n α - h el ic a l t ra n s m em b ra n e r eg i on s o r d om a in s . Th e se p ro t ei ns a re a d e no s i ne t ri p ho s p h at e - ( A TP ; e n e rg y ) d ep e nd e nt “ p u m ps , ” wh ic h c an fa ci l it a t e t he e f f lu x o f d r ug m o le c ul es f r o m t he c e ll . B ec au s e the s e t r an sm em b ra n e e f fl ux p u m p s a r e of t en fo u nd in c o nj un c ti o n wi t h m e t ab ol i z i ng e n z y m e s s u ch as c yt o c h r o m e P4 5 0 3 A4 , t h ei r ne t ef f ec t i s to s u bs t a nt ia l l y re d uc e i nt r a c e ll u la r d ru g c on c e n t ra t i on s. Th u s t he y d et e rm i ne , t o a l ar g e e xt e n t , th e p h arm ac o ki ne t ic d is p os i ti on a n d c i rc u la ti n g p la s m a c on c en t r a ti o ns o f d r u gs (e . g. , c y c lo s po r in , n i fe d ip in e , d i go xi n ) t h a t a r e s u b s t r a te s f o r t he s e p r ot e in s . B . R o u t es o f d r u g a dm in i s t r a ti o n 1 . P a re n t e ra l ad m in i s t ra t i o n a . I n t ra ve n o us b ol u s i nj e c t io n . Th e d r ug is i nj ec t ed di r ec t l y i n to t he bl oo d s t r e am , d i st r ib u t es t h r ou gh o u t t he b od y , an d a c ts ra p id l y . A n y s id e e f fe ct s , i nc lu din g an i n t en se ph a rm ac ol o gi c re s po ns e , a na p h y la xi s , o r o ve r t to xi c i t y, al s o oc c ur r a pi d l y . b . I n t ra - a r t e ri a l i n je c t ion . Th e d ru g i s i nj ec t ed in t o a s p ec i fi c a r te r y t o ac h ie v e a h i gh d ru g c on c en t ra t io n in a s pe ci f ic ti s s ue be f o re d r ug di s t r ib u ti o n oc c urs t h r o ug ho u t t h e b od y . I nt ra - a r te r i al i n je c t i on is u s ed f o r d ia g no s t ic ag e nt s an d o cc a si on a ll y f o r c h em o the r a p y . c . In t r a ve n o us in f u si o n. Th e d ru g i s g i v en in t r av e n o us l y a t a c on s ta n t inp u t ra t e. C o n s ta n tr a te in t r a v en o us in f us io n m ai n ta i ns a r el a t i v el y c o ns t an t pl as m a d r u g
c o nc en t r at i on on c e th e in f us i on r at e i s a pp r o xi m a t e l y e q ua l t o th e d r ug ' s e l im in a ti o n r a t e f r om th e bo d y (i . e ., o n c e s t e ad y st a t e is r eac h ed ) . d . I n t ra m us c ul a r in j ec t io n . Th e d r u g is in je c te d d e e p in t o a s ke l et a l m u s c l e. Th e r a t e o f a bs o r pt i on de p end s o n th e v as c u la r i t y o f th e m us c l e s i te , th e l ip i d s o lu bi l it y o f t he dr u g, an d th e f o rm u l a ti on m a t ri x. e . S u bc u ta n e ou s i n j ec t io n . Th e d r u g is in je c te d b e n ea t h t he s k i n . Be c a us e th e s u bc ut a ne o us re g io n i s le s s v a sc ul a r t h an m us c le t i s su es , d r u g a bs o rp ti on is le ss r a p id . Th e f ac t o rs th a t a ff e c t a bs o rp ti o n f r om in t ra m us c u la r de p ot s a ls o af f e c t s u bc ut a ne o us a b s o r pt i on. f . M is ce l l an e ou s pa r e n te r a l r ou t e s ( 1 ) I n t ra - a r t ic u la r i nj e c ti o n . Th e d r ug is i n je ct e d i n to a j oi n t. ( 2 ) I n t ra d e rm a l ( i n t r ac ut a n e ou s ) i n j ec t i on . Th e d r u g is in je c te d i n to th e d e rm is ( i . e ., t he v as c u l a r r eg i on o f th e s ki n b el o w t h e e pi d e rm is ) . ( 3 ) I n t ra t h ec a l i n je c ti o n. Th e d ru g i s i nj ec t ed in to t he sp in a l f lu i d. 2 . E n te r a l a d mi n is t r a t ion a . B u cc a l a nd s ub l i ng ua l a dm i ni s t r a ti o n. A ta bl e t o r lo z e n ge is p l ac ed u n d er t he t o n gu e (s u bl i n gu a l ) o r in c o n ta c t wi t h t he m uc osa l ( bu c ca l ) s u rf ac e o f the c h e ek . Th i s t yp e o f a dm in is t r at io n al lo ws a no n po la r , l i pi d - s o lu b le dr u g t o b e a bs o r b ed a c r oss t he ep i th el i al li nin g of t he m o ut h . A f t er buc ca l o r s u bl i ng ua l a dm i nis t r at i on , t h e d r u g is ab s o r b ed di re c tl y i n to th e s ys te m i c c ir c u la ti o n , b y p as s i ng th e l i ve r a n d a n y f i rs t -p as s e f fe c ts . b . P e r o ra l ( o ra l ) d r u g ad m i n is t r a t io n . Th e d ru g i s a dm in is t e re d o r al l y , is s wa l l o we d , a n d u nd e rg oe s a bs o r pt i on f ro m t he ga s t ro i nt es t in a l t r ac t t h rou g h t h e m es e nt e r ic c i rc ul a ti o n t o t h e h ep a ti c p o rt a l v e i n i n t o th e l i ve r a nd th e n t o t h e s ys t em ic c i rc ul a ti o n. Th e p e r or a l r o ut e i s t he m o s t c om m o n r o ut e o f a dm i ni s t ra t io n . ( 1 ) Th e pe r o ra l r o ut e i s th e m os t c o n ven i en t a n d t h e s a fe s t r ou t e. ( 2 ) D is a d v an t ag es of t his r ou t e i nc lu d e t he f ol lowi n g . ( a ) Th e dr u g m a y n o t b e a b s o r be d f ro m t he ga s tro i n te s t i na l t r ac t c on s i s ten t l y o r c om p le t el y . ( b ) Th e d ru g m a y b e d i ge s te d b y g as t r oi n te st i na l e n zy m es o r d ec om po s ed b y t he a c id p H o f t h e s to m a c h . ( c ) Th e dr u g m a y i r r it a te m uc os al ep i th e li al c e ll s o r c o m p l e x wi t h t h e c o n te n ts o f t he g a st r o in t es ti n al t ra c t . ( d ) S om e d r ug s m a y b e in c om pl e te l y ab s o r b ed bec a us e o f f i rs t - pa s s e f f ec ts o r p r e s ys t em ic el im in a ti o n (e . g . , t he d ru g i s m e t ab o li z e d b y th e l i v e r b ef o r e s y s t e m i c a b so r p ti on oc c u r s ). ( e ) Th e ab s o r p ti on r at e m a y be e r ra t ic b ec a us e o f de l a yed ga s t r ic em p t yi n g o r c h an g es i n i n te s t i na l m oti l it y . P.86
( 3 ) Mo s t d ru gs a re xe n ob i o t i cs or ex o g en o us m o l ec ul e s a nd , c on se q ue nt l y , a re a b so r be d f ro m t he ga s tro i n te s t i na l t r ac t b y p a ss ive d i f f u si o n a n d p a r ti t io n i n g. C a r r i e r - m ed i a te d t ra n sp o r t , pa r a ce l l ul a r t ra n sp o r t , an d ve si c ul a r t r ans p o r t p l a y s m a l le r , b u t c ri t ic al , ro l es , pa r ti cu l a rl y f o r e nd o ge n o us m ol ec u le s .
( 4 ) D r ug m o le c u l es a r e ab s o rb ed t h ro ug h ou t th e g a s t r o i n t es ti n al t ra ct ; but t h e d u o d en a l r e g io n , wh ic h h a s a l a r ge s u r fa ce a re a b ec a us e o f t h e vi l l i an d m ic r o vi ll i, i s th e p r im a r y a bs o r pt i on s i te . Th e l a rg e b lo o d s up p l y p ro vi de d b y t h e m es e nt e r ic ve s s el s al l o ws th e d r u g to b e a bs o rb e d m o r e e f fi c i e n tl y ( se e I I . A .2 ) . ( 5 ) Al t e r e d ga s t r ic em pt yi n g a f f e c t s a r r i v al of th e d ru g i n t h e d uo de n um f o r s ys t em ic a bs o r pt i on . G as t r i c e m p t yi n g t i m e i s af f e ct e d b y f oo d c on t en t , e m ot i on al s t a te , a n d d r ug s t ha t a l te r g as t ro in t es t in al t ra c t m o ti l it y ( e .g . , a n ti c h o li ner g i cs , n a r co t ic a n al ge s i c s , p r ok i n e ti c a ge n ts ) . ( 6 ) N o rm al in t es t in al m o ti l it y f r om pe r i s ta l s is b rin g s t he d ru g i n c on t ac t wi t h t h e i n t es ti n al ep i th el i al c e ll s . A s u f fi c i e nt pe r i od of co n t ac t ( r es i de nc e t im e ) is ne e de d t o p e r m i t d r ug ab s or p ti o n ac r os s t h e c e l l m e m b r a nes f ro m t h e m u c o s al to the s e r os a l s u r fa ce . ( 7 ) S om e d r ug s , s u c h as c i me t i d in e a n d a ce t am in o p h en , wh e n g i ven in an i m m e di a te - r el e as e p er o ra l do sa g e f o rm t o fa s t e d s u bj ec ts p ro d uc e a s y s t em ic d ru g c o nc en t r at i on ti m e wi t h two p e a k s . Th is do u b le - pe a k p h en o me n o n is a tt r ib u t ed to va r i a bi l it y i n s to m a c h em p t y i n g, v a r ia b le in t es ti n a l m o t il i t y , a nd en t e ro h epa t ic c yc li n g. c . R ec t a l a dm i n is t r a ti on . Th e d ru g i n s ol u ti on (e n em a ) o r s u pp os i to r y f or m is p l ac e d in t he r ec tu m . D ru g di f fu si o n f r om th e s olu t i on o r r el e as e f r om th e s u pp os i to r y l ea ds to ab s o r p ti o n a c r o ss t h e m u c os a l s u r f ac e o f t h e r ec t um . D r u g a b so r be d i n th e l o we r t wo t hi r ds of t he r ec tu m e nt e r s t he s ys t em ic c i rc u lat i o n d i r ec tl y, b y p as s i ng t he liv e r a n d a n y fi rs t - pa s s eff e c ts . 3 . R es p i r a to r y t r a c t a dm i n is t r a t i on a . I n t ra n as a l a dm i n is t ra t i o n . Th e d ru g c on t ai ned i n a s ol u ti o n o r s us pe ns i on is a d m i ni s te r ed t o t he na s al m u c o sa , ei t he r a s a s p ra y o r as dr o ps . Th e m e d ic a ti o n m a y be us e d f o r l oc al (e .g . , na s a l d ec on g es t an ts , i n t ra n as al s t e ro id s ) o r s ys t e m i c e f f ec ts . b . P u lm o na r y i n h a l a t i on . Th e d ru g , as li q ui d o r s o li d p a r ti cl es , i s i nh al ed p e ro r al l y ( wi t h a ne b ul i z e r o r a m et e r e d- d os e a e ro so l ) i n to t h e p u lm on a r y t re e . I n ge n e ra l , p a r t i c le s > 60 µ m a r e p ri m a ri l y d e po s i t ed in th e tr a c h ea . Pa r t i c le s > 20 µm d o n ot r e a ch th e b r o nc hi ol es , an d pa r t i c le s < 0. 6 µ m a re n ot de p os it e d a nd a re e x h al e d . P a r t ic le s b e t we e n 2 a n d 6 µ m c a n r ea c h t he al ve o l a r du c t s, al t ho u gh on ly p a r t ic le s o f 1 -2 µ m a r e re t a in e d in t h e a l ve o li . 4 . T r an s de r m al a nd t opi c a l a d mi n is t r a t io n a . T r an s de r m al ( pe r c u ta n e ou s ) d r u g a bs or p ti o n i s t h e pl a ce m e n t o f t h e d r u g ( i n a l o t io n , o in tm e nt , c r ea m , p a s t e , o r p a tc h ) o n t h e sk i n s u r f ac e f o r s y s te m i c a b so r p ti on . A n oc c l us i v e d r es s i n g o r f i lm i m p r o ves s ys t em ic d ru g a bs o rp t io n f ro m t h e s ki n . S m a ll li p id - s o lub l e m ol ec ul e s , s u c h as ni t r og l y c er i n, ni co t in e , sc o p ol a m i ne , c l on id i ne , fe n ta n y l , a nd s t e ro i ds (e . g. , 17 - β - es t ra d io l , t es t os t er o ne ) , a r e r e a di l y a b so r be d f ro m t he s k i n . b . D r ug s (e . g. , a n ti b ac t er i a ls , l oc al an e st h et ic age n ts ) a re ap pl i ed t op i ca ll y t o t h e s ki n fo r a lo c a l e f f ec t . 5 . Mi s c el la n eo us r ou t es o f d ru g a dm i ni s t r a ti on inc l ud e o p h th a lm i c , o t ic , u r e t h r a l, a n d va gi n a l a dm in is t ra t io n . Th es e r o ut e s o f a dm in i st r a ti o n a re ge n e ra ll y u s ed fo r l o ca l t h e ra pe u ti c a c t i v i t y. H o we ve r , so m e s ys t em ic d ru g a bs o r pt i on m a y oc c u r .
C . L o ca l d ru g ac t i vi t y v e r s us s ys t e m i c d ru g abs o r p t i on . Th e r o ut e of a d m i ni s t ra ti o n , a bs or p ti on s i t e , a nd bi oa v a i la bi l ity o f t he d ru g f r om th e d os a ge fo r m a r e m a jo r fa c t o rs in th e d e s i g n o f a d r u g p r od uc t. 1 . D r ug s i n te nd e d f o r l oc a l a c t i vi t y, s u c h as to pi c al an t ib io t ic s , an t i -i n fec t i v es , a n t if u ng al ag e n ts , a nd loc a l a ne st h et ic s a r e f o rm u l a te d i n d os a ge fo r m s th a t m i ni m i ze s y s t em ic a bs o rp t i on . Th e c on c e n t ra ti o n o f t he se dr u gs at th e a pp l ic a ti on s i te a ff ec t s t he i r a c t i v i t y . 2 . W he n s ys t e m i c a b so r p t i o n i s d es i re d , t he bi oa va i la b il i t y o f th e d r ug f ro m th e d o sa g e f o rm a t th e a bs or p t io n s i te m us t be c o ns id e r ed ( e. g . , a d r u g g i ven i n t ra ve n ou s l y i s 1 00 % b io a v a il a bl e b ec a us e a ll of t h e d r ug is p l ac ed di r ec tl y i n to th e s ys t em ic c i rc ul a ti o n) . The am o un t , o r d o s e , o f d ru g in th e d os a ge fo r m i s b a se d o n t h e e xt e n t o f d r ug ab s o rp t i on an d t h e d es i re d s ys t em ic dr u g c on c e n t ra ti on . Th e t y pe o f do sa g e f o rm (e . g ., im m e di a te r el ea s e , c o nt r ol le d r el ea s e ) af f ec ts t he ra t e o f dr u g a b so r p ti on . P.87
III. BIOPHARMACEUTIC PRINCIPLES A. P h ys i c o c h em i ca l p rop e r t i es 1 . D r u g d i ss o l ut i o n. F or m os t d r u gs wi t h l im it e d wa t e r s ol u bi li t y, th e ra t e a t wh i c h t h e s ol i d d r ug en t er s i n to s o l ut i on (i . e ., t he ra t e o f di s s ol u ti o n ) is of t en t he r a te l i m i ti n g s te p i n b i oa v a il ab i li t y . Th e N o ye s - W h i t ne y e q u a t i on de sc ri b es the d if f us io n c o nt r o ll ed r at e o f dr u g d is s o l ut i on ( d m /d t ; i . e. , the ch a ng e i n t h e am o un t o f d ru g i n s o lu t io n wi t h r es p ec t t o ti m e ):
wh e r e D is t he di f fu s i o n c o ef f ic ie n t o f t h e s ol ut e , A i s t he su r f ac e a r ea of th e s o li d u n d er g oi n g di s s o lu t io n , δ is t he th ic k n es s o f th e d i f fu s i o n l a y e r, C s i s t h e c o nc en t r at i on of t he s o l va t e a t s a tu r a ti on , an d C b i s t h e co nc e nt r a ti o n o f th e d ru g i n t h e b u lk s ol u ti o n p ha s e a t ti m e t . 2 . D r u g s o lu b i li t y i n a s a t u r at e d so l ut i on (s e e Ch a p te r 3, I V ) is a s ta t ic ( e q ui l ib r iu m ) p ro p e rt y . Th e di s s ol u ti o n r a te of a dr u g i s a d y na m i c p r op e r ty r e l a te d t o t he ra t e o f a bs o r pt i on . 3 . P a r ti c le s iz e a nd su r fa c e a r e a a r e i n v er s el y re l a te d . A s s ol id d ru g p a rt i c l e s i ze d e c re as es , p a r ti c l e s u rf ac e a r e a i nc r ea se s . a . A s d es c r ib e d b y t he No y e s -W hi tn e y eq u at i on , th e di s s ol u ti o n r a te is d i re c tl y p r o po r t io n al to th e s u r fac e a r e a. A n i nc r ea s e in su r f ac e a r e a al l o ws fo r m o r e c o nt ac t be t we e n th e s ol id d r ug pa r ti c l es an d th e s o l v en t , r e s u lt i ng in a f as t e r d i ss ol u ti on r a te (s ee I I I.A . 1 ) . b . W ith c e rt a in h yd r o p h o b i c d r u g s, e xc e s s i v e pa r t ic le s i z e r ed uc t io n d oe s n o t a l wa ys i nc r ea s e t he di s s o l u ti on r at e . Sm al l p a rt icl e s t en d to re a gg r e ga t e in t o l a r ge r p a r ti c l e s t o r e du c e th e h ig h s u r fa c e f re e e n e rg y pr o d uc ed b y pa r t ic le s i z e r e d uc t io n .
c . To p re v e n t t he f or m a t io n of ag g r eg a te s , sm al l d r u g p a rt ic l es a r e m ol ec u l a rl y d i sp e rs ed in po l y e th y l e ne g l yc o l ( P E G ) , p o l yv i n y lp y r r o l id o ne ( P V P; po v i d on e ) , d e xt r o s e , o r o t he r ag e nts . Fo r e xa m pl e , a m ol ec u l a r d is pe r s i o n o f g r is eo fu l vi n i n a wa t e r - s o lu bl e c a r ri e r s uc h as P E G 40 0 0 ( e .g . , G ris - P E G ) en h an c e s i ts di s s o lu t io n a n d b io a v a il a bi li t y . 4 . P a r ti t i o n c oe f f i ci e n t a n d e x t en t o f i o ni za t i on a . Th e pa r t i t io n co e f fi c ie n t of a d r ug is th e ra ti o o f th e s ol u bi li t y o f t he dr u g , a t e q ui l ib r iu m , in a n o na que o us s o l v en t (e . g ., n -o c ta n ol ) t o t ha t i n a n a q ue ou s s ol ve n t ( e . g ., wa t e r ; p H 7 .4 bu f fe r s o l ut i on ) . H y d ro ph i li c d r u gs wi t h h i gh e r wa t e r s o lu bi l it y h a ve a f as t e r d is s o lu t io n r a t e t ha n d o h y d r o ph o bic o r l ip o ph il ic d ru gs , wh ic h h a ve p o o r wa t e r s o l ub il i t y . b . E x te n t o f i on i z a t i on . D r u g s t ha t ar e we a k e le c t r o l yt es (a c i ds o r b as es ) e xi s t i n b o t h a n i on i z e d f o rm a n d a no n io ni ze d fo r m i n s o lu t i on . Th e e xt e n t of io n i za t i on d e p en ds on th e p K a o f the we a k el ec t ro l y t e a nd th e p H o f t h e so l ut i on . The i on i z ed f o r m is m o r e p ol a r , a nd th e r e fo r e m o r e wa t e r s olu b le , th a n t he no n io ni z e d f o rm . Th e H e n d e r so n - H as s el b al c h e q ua t i o n d es c r i be s t he r e l at i on be t we e n th e i on ize d a nd t h e n o ni o ni z e d f o rm s o f a d r ug as a f un ct i on of pH a n d p K a . W hen t h e p H o f t he m e di um eq u al s t he p K a of t h e d ru g , 5 0% o f t he d ru g in s o lu t io n i s n on io n i ze d an d 5 0 % i s i on i z ed , as c an be s h o wn f r om th e fo ll o wi n g eq u at i on s : ( 1 ) F o r w ea k a ci d s :
( 2 ) F o r w ea k b as e s :
5 . S al t f o rm a t io n a . Th e c h oi c e of s a lt f o rm f or a d r ug de p en ds on t h e d es i re d p h y s i c a l , c he m ic al , o r p h a rm ac ol o gi c p r op e r ti es . C e rt a in s a lt s a r e d es ig n e d t o p r o vid e s lo we r di s s o lu t io n , s l o we r bi oa v a i la b il it y , a nd l on ge r du r a ti o n o f ac t i o n . O th e r s al t s a re s e le ct e d fo r g r e a te r s t ab il i t y , l es s l oc a l ir r i ta t io n a t th e a bs o rpt i o n si t e, o r l es s s ys t em ic t o xi c it y. ( 1 ) S om e s ol ub l e s a l t f o rm s a r e l es s s t a bl e t h an th e no ni o ni z e d fo rm . Fo r e xa m p l e , s o di um as pi r in is le s s s ta b le t ha n a s p i ri n i n t h e ac i d f o rm . ( 2 ) A s o li d d os ag e fo rm c o nt a in in g bu f fe r in g a g en t s m a y b e fo rm u la t ed wi t h t h e f r ee a c id fo r m o f t h e d r ug (e .g . , bu f fe r ed as pi r i n) . P.88
( a ) Th e bu f fe r in g a g en t fo r m s an al k a l in e m ed iu m i n t h e g as t ro i nt es t in a l t ra c t , a nd t h e d r u g d is s o l v es i n s i tu . ( b ) Th e di s s ol v e d s al t for m of t he dr u g d if f us es in t o th e b ul k f l ui d o f t h e g a st r o in t es ti n al t ra c t , fo rm s a fi n e p re c i p it a te t ha t r e di ss o l v es ra p id l y , a n d b ec om e s a va i la b le fo r ab s o r p ti o n. b . E f f e r ve sc e n t g r an u l es o r ta b le t s c on t ai ni n g th e ac id d ru g i n a dd i ti o n to s o d iu m b i ca r bo n at e , t a r ta r ic ac id , c i t ri c a c i d , o r o t he r i ng r e di e nt s a r e a dd e d t o wa t e r j us t b e f o re or a l a dm in is t r at i on . Th e e xc es s s od iu m b ic a r bo na t e f o rm s a n a lk ali n e
s o lu t io n i n wh ic h t h e d r ug d is s o l v es . Ca r b on di o xi d e i s a ls o f o rm ed b y th e d e co m p os i ti o n o f c ar b oni c a c i d . c . Fo r we a k l y a c i di c d r ugs , po t as s i um a n d s o d iu m s al t s a re m o r e s ol ub l e th a n d i va le n t c at i on s a lt s ( e . g. , c a lc i um , m a g ne si um ) o r t r i v al en t c a ti o n sa l ts (e . g . , a l um in um ) . d . F o r we a k b as e s, c om m o n wa t e r - s o l ub le s a l ts in c lu d e t he h yd ro c h l or i de, s ul f at e , c i t ra t e, an d g l uc on a te s al t s . Th e es to l at e , n ap s y la t e , a nd s t e a ra t e s a l ts ar e le s s wa t e r s ol u bl e . 6 . P o l ym o r p h i s m i s t h e a b il i t y of a d r ug to e xi s t i n m o r e t ha n o n e c r ys t al li n e f o rm . a . D i ff e re n t p ol y m o rp hs h a v e di f fe r e nt ph y s ic al pr o p e rt i es , i nc lu d in g m el t in g po in t a n d d is s o l ut i on ra t e . b . Am o r p h o us , o r n on c rys t a l l i n e , f o rm s o f a d rug h a ve f as t e r d is s o lu t io n r a t es t h a n d o c r y s t a ll in e f o rm s . 7 . C h i ra l i t y i s t h e a b il i t y o f a d ru g to e xi s t a s o p ti c a l l y a c t i ve s t e r eo i s om e r s o r e n a n ti o me r s . I n di v i du a l e n a nt io m er s m a y n o t h ave t h e s am e p ha r m a c o k in e t ic a n d p h a rm ac o d y na m i c ac t i v ity . B e c au s e m os t c h ir a l dr u g s a re us e d as r ac em ic m i xt u r e s , t h e re su l ts o f s t ud i es wi th s u c h m i xt u r e s m a y be m is l ea di n g b ec au s e t he d r u g i s a ss u m e d t o b e ha v e as a s i ng le en t i t y . F o r e xa m p le , ib u p ro f en e xi s ts as t he R - an d S - e n an t io m e r s ; on l y t he S - e n an t io m e r is p h a rm ac o l og ic a ll y ac t i v e . W hen th e r a c em ic m i xt u r e o f ib up ro f e n is t ak en o ra ll y , t he R - e n a nt io m er un d e rg oe s p r e s ys t em ic in v e r s i on in t h e g u t t o t h e S - e na n ti om e r . B ec a us e t h e r a te an d e xt e n t o f i n ve r si on a re s i te s p ec i fic an d fo r m u la t io n d e pe nd e n t, ib u p ro f en ac ti v i t y m a y va r y c o ns id e ra b l y . 8 . H yd r a t e s . D r ug s m a y e xi s t i n a h yd r a t e d , o r so l va t e d , f o r m o r as a n an h yd r o u s m o l ec u le . D is s o lu t io n rat e s d i ff e r f o r h y d r a te d a nd a nh y d r ou s f o rm s . F o r e xa m p l e , t h e a n h y d ro us fo r m o f am p ic il li n d is s o l v es f as te r a n d is m o r e r a pi dl y a bs o r b ed t ha n t h e h yd r a te d fo rm . 9 . C o mp l ex f o rm a t io n . A c o mp l ex is a sp ec i es fo r m ed b y th e r e v e rs i bl e o r i r r e ve rs i bl e a s s oc ia t io n o f t wo o r m o re in t er a c t ing m o l ec ul es o r i on s . C h el a t e s a re c om p le xe s t h at t y pi c a l l y i n v o l v e a r in g -l ik e s t ru c tu r e fo r m e d b y t he in t e rac t io n b e t we e n a pa r t ia l r i ng of a t om s a nd a m e t al . Ma n y b i o lo gi c a l l y i m p o r ta n t m o le cu l es ( e . g ., he m o g lo b in , i ns u lin , c y an oc o ba la m i n ) a r e c h e l a te s. D r ug s s uc h a s t e t r ac yc li ne f o r m ch e la t es wi t h d i v a len t ( e. g . , C a
++
, Mg
++
) a n d t r i v a le n t ( e .g . , Al
+++
, Bi
+++
) m e ta l
i o ns . Ma n y d r ug s a ds o rb s t ro n gl y o n c ha rc o al o r c l a y (e . g. , k a ol in , be n to ni t e ) p a r ti c l e s b y fo r m i n g c o m p l e xe s . D ru g c om pl e xe s wi t h p r o te i ns , s uc h as alb u m i n o r α 1 - a c id gl y c op r o te in , of te n oc c u r . a . C om pl e x f o r m at i on us u a ll y a l te r s t he ph ys ic al a n d c he m i c a l c ha r ac t e ri st i c s of th e d r u g . F o r e xa m p le : ( 1 ) Th e c h el a te of te t r ac y c l i ne wi t h c al c i um is le s s wa t e r s o lu bl e a n d is poo r l y a b so r be d . ( 2 ) Th e op h y l li ne c o m p l exe d wi t h e th y l e ne di am i ne t o f o rm am in op h y l li n e is m o r e wa t e r s ol u bl e a n d is us ed f o r p a re n te r al an d re c ta l ad m i ni s tr a ti o n. ( 3 ) C yc lo d e xt r i ns a re us e d to f or m c om pl e xe s wi t h m a n y d ru gs t o i nc re a se t he i r wa t e r s ol u bi li t y .
b . L ar g e d r ug c om p le xe s , s uc h as d ru g -p r o te i n com p le xe s , do n ot c r os s c el l m em b r an es ea s i l y . Th es e c o m p l e xe s m us t d is s oci a t e t o f r ee t he dr u g f o r a b s o r p ti on a t t he ab s o r p ti on s i t e o r t o pe r m i t tr a ns po r t a c ro s s ce ll m e m b r an es o r g lom e r ul a r f i l t ra t io n b e fo r e t h e d ru g i s e xc r e t e d in t o t h e u r ine . B . D r u g p r od u c t a nd d el i ve r y s ys t e m f o r m u l at io n 1 . G e ne r a l c o ns i de r a t i on s a . D es i g n o f th e a p p r o pr i a t e do s ag e fo r m o r del i ve r y s ys t e m d e p en ds o n th e ( 1 ) P h ys i c a l a nd c h em ic a l pr o pe r t ie s o f t h e d r ug ( 2 ) D os e o f th e d r ug ( 3 ) R o ut e o f a dm i ni s t r a tio n ( 4 ) Ty p e o f d r ug de li v e r y s y s te m d es i re d ( 5 ) D es i re d th e ra p eu t ic ef f e c t ( 6 ) P h ys i ol o gi c r e le as e of t h e d ru g fr o m t he de li v e r y s y s te m ( 7 ) B io a v a il ab i li t y o f t he d r u g a t t h e a bs o rp t io n s it e ( 8 ) P ha r m a c o k i n et ic s a nd p ha r m a co d y n am ics o f th e d ru g P.89
b . B i oa va i l a bi l i t y. Th e m o r e c o m p l ic at e d t he f orm u la t io n o f t h e f in is h ed d r u g p r o du c t ( e .g . , c on t ro l le d -r e l ea s e t ab le t , e n te r ic - c o a t ed ta b le t , t r an s de rm al p at c h ) , t h e g r e at e r t h e p ot e nt i al f o r a b io a va il ab i li t y p ro ble m . F o r e xa m p le , th e r ele a s e o f a d r u g f r om a p e ro r al do s ag e fo r m a nd it s s ub s e q ue n t b i oa v a il a bi li t y d ep e nd o n a s uc c ess i on of r at e p r oc es s e s (F ig u r e 4 - 2) . Th es e p r oc es s e s m a y i nc l ud e th e f o l lo wi n g : ( 1 ) At t r i t i o n , d i si n t eg r at i o n , o r di s ag g r e ga t i on o f t he dr u g p r od uc t ( 2 ) D i ss o l ut i o n o f t h e d ru g in an aq u eo us en v i r on m en t ( 3 ) C o n ve c ti o n a nd d i ffu s i o n o f t h e d ru g m ol ecu l es to t he ab so r bi n g su rf a c e ( 4 ) Ab s o r p t i on of t he d ru g ac r os s c e ll m e m b r an es in t o t h e s ys t em ic c i rc u la t i on c . Th e ra t e - li m i ti n g s t ep i n t he bi o a vai l ab il i t y o f a d ru g f r om a d r ug p ro du c t i s t he s l o we s t s t e p i n a s e ri es o f k i ne t ic pr oc e ss es . ( 1 ) F or m o s t c o n v e nt io na l s o li d d r ug p ro d uc ts (e. g . , c ap s u l es , t a bl e ts ) , th e d i ss ol u ti on r a te is t h e s lo we s t , o r r a te - li m i t in g , s t e p fo r b i oa va i la bi l it y. ( 2 ) F or a c on t r ol le d - o r s u s ta i ne d - re l ea se d ru g p ro d uc t , t h e r el e as e o f t h e d r u g f r om t h e d e li v e r y s y s t em is the r a te - li m i t in g s te p . 2 . S o lu t i on s a r e h om o ge n e ou s m i xt u r e s o f on e o r m o r e s ol u te s d i s pe r s ed m o le cu l ar l y in a d is s o l v in g m e di um (s o l ven t ) . a . C om p ar e d wi t h o th e r o r a l a nd pe r o ra l d r u g f o rm u la t io ns , a d ru g d is s o l ve d in an a q u eo us s o lu t io n i s i n t he m o s t b io a vai l ab l e a nd c o ns is te n t f o rm . Be c a u se t he d ru g i s a l re a d y in P.90
s o lu t io n , n o d is s o lu t io n s t e p i s n ec es s a r y b ef o r e s y s t em ic a bs o r pt i on oc c u r s . P e r o r al dr u g s ol u ti on s a re o f te n u s e d a s t he r ef e re n ce p re pa r a ti o n f o r so l id p e ro r al f o r m u l at io n s .
Figure 4-2. The processes involved in drug release from peroral dosage forms. GI, gastrointestinal.
b . A dr u g d is s o l v ed in a h y d r o al co h ol ic s o lu t io n (e . g . , el i xi r ) a ls o h as go od b i oa va i la b il it y . A lc o ho l ai d s d r ug s o lu bi l it y . H o we ve r , wh e n t he dr u g i s di lu t e d b y g a st r o in t es ti n al t ra c t fl u id a nd ot h e r g ut co n te n ts ( e . g. , fo o d) , it m a y f o rm a fi n el y d i vi de d p r ec i pi t at e i n t h e l um e n o f t h e g as t ro in t es t i n al t ra ct . Be c au se of t he e xt e n s i v e di s p e rs io n a n d l a rg e s u r fa c e a re a o f s uc h fi ne l y di v i d ed p re ci pi ta t es , r e d is so lu t io n a n d s u b s e qu e n t a bs o rp t io n o c c u r r ap i d l y. c . A visc o us dr u g s ol ut i on ( e .g . , s yr u p) m a y i nt e r fe r e wi t h d i lu ti o n a nd m i x i n g wi t h g a st r o in t es ti n al t ra c t c o nt e n ts . Th e s ol ut i on de c rea s es th e g as t r ic e m p t y i ng r a te an d t h e ra t e o f t r a ns fe r of d ru g s o lu t io n t o th e d uo d en a l r e gi o n, wh e r e a bs o r pt i o n is m os t ef f ic ie n t. 3 . S us p e ns i on s a r e d is pe r s io ns of fi n el y d i vid e d s o li d p a r ti c l es of a d r ug in a l i qu id m e di um in wh i c h th e dr ug is no t re a di l y s o lu b le . Th e l i qu id m e di um o f a su s pe ns i on c om p r is es a s a t u ra t ed s o l u ti on o f t he d ru g i n e qu i l i b ri u m wi t h th e s ol i d dr u g . a . Th e bi oa v a i la bi l it y o f th e d ru g f r om s us p en si o ns m a y b e s i m i l ar t o t ha t o f a s o lu t io n b ec a us e t he fi ne l y d i v id ed p ar t ic le s a r e d i sp e rs ed an d pr o v i de a l a r ge s u r fa ce a re a f o r ra pi d d is s o l ut i on . O n t he o th e r ha n d , a s lo w d i ss o lu ti o n ra t e d e c re as es th e a b s o r pt i on r a te . b . S u sp e nd i n g a ge n t s ar e o ft e n h yd r op hi l ic c ol l oi d s ( e .g . , c el lu l os e d e ri va t i v es , a c ac ia , xa n t h an gu m ) add e d t o s us p en s i on s t o i nc r e as e v i s c os i t y , i nh i bi t a g gl o m e r at i on , a n d d ec re a s e th e ra t e a t wh ic h pa r t i c le s s et t le . H ig hl y vi sc o us s us p en s i o ns m a y p ro lo ng g as t ri c e m p t y i ng ti m e , s l o w d r ug di ss ol u ti o n, and d e c re as e t h e a bs o rp t io n r a t e . 4 . C a ps u le s a r e s ol id d os a ge fo r m s wi t h h a r d o r s o f t g el a ti n s he ll s t h at c o n t ai n d r u gs , u s u a ll y a dm i xe d wi t h e xc i p i en t s. C oa t i n g t h e c ap su le s h el l o r t he d r u g p a r ti c l e s wi t h i n t he c a ps u l e c an af f ec t b i oa v a il a bi l it y. a . H a r d g e la t i n c ap s ul es a r e us u al l y fi ll e d wi t h a p o wd e r b le n d t h at c o nta i ns th e d r u g . Ty p i c al l y , th e p o wd e r bl en d i s s im pl e r a nd l e ss c om p ac te d t h an t he b l en d i n a c om p r es s e d t ab l et . A ft e r i n ge s t i on , th e g el a ti n s of t e ns , s we l ls , an d b eg i ns t o d i ss ol ve in th e g as t r oi n te s ti n al t ra ct . E nc ap s u la te d d ru gs a re re l ea s e d rap i dl y a nd d i sp e rs ed ea s i l y , an d b ioa v a i la b il i t y i s g oo d . Ha r d g e la t in c a ps ul es a re th e p r e fe r r ed d o sa g e f o rm fo r e a r l y c lin i c a l t r ia ls o f n e w d r ug s .
b . S o f t g e la t i n c ap s ul es m a y c on t ai n a no n aq ue o us s o lu t io n , a p o wd e r , o r a d r ug s us p en s i o n. Th e v e hi c l e m a y be wa t e r m is c i b le ( e. g . , P E G ). Th e c a r di ac glyc o si d e d i go xi n , d is p er s e d i n a wa t e r -m is ci bl e veh ic l e ( L an o xi c a ps ) , h as be t t e r b i oa va i la b il it y t h an a c om p r es s e d t ab l et f or m u l ati o n ( L an o xi n ) . H o we ve r , a s o f t g e la t in ca ps u le th a t c o n ta i ns th e d r u g d is s o l ved in a h yd r o p h o b i c v eh ic l e ( e . g. , ve g e t ab l e o il ) m a y ha v e p o o re r bi o a vai la b il i t y t h an a c om p re s s ed t ab le t for m u la ti o n o f t he dr u g. c . Ag i n g a n d s t o ra g e c on d i t i on s c an a ff ec t th e m o is tu r e c on t en t of th e ge l a ti n c om p on e nt o f t he c a ps ule s h e ll an d t h e b io a v a il ab i l i t y o f t he d ru g . ( 1 ) A t l o w m oi s t u r e l e v els , th e c ap s u l e sh e ll be com es b ri t tl e a n d is ea s i l y r u p t ur e d. ( 2 ) A t h ig h m oi s tu r e l e v el s , t h e c a ps u le s h el l b ec o m es m oi s t, so f t, an d d is t o rt e d. Mo i s t u r e m a y be t ra ns f e rr e d to th e c a ps ul e c on t en t s , p ar t ic ul a r l y i f th e c on t e nt s a r e h yg r o sc op ic . 5 . C o mp r e ss e d t a bl e t s a r e s o li d d os ag e fo r m s in wh i c h h ig h p r es su r e i s u s ed to c om p r es s a p o wd e r b l end o r g r an u la t io n t h at co nt a i n s th e d r ug an d o t he r i n g re d ie n ts , o r e xc i p i en ts , in t o a s ol i d m a ss . a . E xc i p ie n ts , in c l ud i ng d i lu e nt s (f il l e rs ) , b in de r s , d is in t eg r a n t s, lu b r ic an ts , g l id a nt s , s u r f ac t an ts , d y e , an d fl a v o ri n g a ge n ts , h a ve th e fo ll o wi n g p r op er t i es . ( 1 ) Th e y p e rm i t th e e f fi c ie n t m an u fa c tu r e o f c om pr e s s e d t ab l et s . ( 2 ) Th e y a ff e c t th e p h y s ic a l a nd c h em ic al ch a ra c te r i s t ic s o f t h e d r ug . ( 3 ) Th e y a ff e c t bi o a v ai lab i li t y . Th e h i gh e r t h e r a tio o f e xc i p ie n t t o a c ti v e dr u g , t h e g r e a te r th e l ik el i ho o d t ha t t he e xc i pi en t s a f fe c t bi o a vai l ab il i t y . b . E xa m p le s ( 1 ) D i si n t eg r a n ts ( e. g . , s t a rc h , c ro s c a rm el lo s e , s o di um s t a rc h g l y c o la t e ) v a r y i n a c ti o n, de p en d in g o n t h ei r c o nc e nt r a ti on , th e m e th o d b y wh i c h t h e y a r e m ixe d wi t h t h e p o wd e r fo r m u l at i on or g r an u la t io n , a nd th e d eg r e e o f t a bl e t c o m pa ct i on . A l t h ou gh t ab le t di s i n te g ra t i on is u su a ll y n ot a p r o b l em be c a us e i t o f t en occ u rs m o r e r a p id l y t ha n d r ug di s s ol ut i o n, it is ne ce s s a r y fo r di s s o lu t io n i n i m m ed ia t e - re l ea s e f o r m u l at io n s . In a bi li t y t o d i s i n te g ra t e m a y i n te r f e re wi t h bi o a v ai l ab il i t y . P.91
( 2 ) L ub r i c an t s a r e us u all y h y d r o ph ob ic , wa t e r -i ns o lu bl e s u bs ta nc e s s u ch a s s te a ri c a c id , m ag n es iu m s te a ra te , h y d ro g en a te d v eg e ta bl e oi l , a nd ta lc . Th e y m ay r e d uc e we t t i n g o f th e s u rf ac e of t h e s ol i d d r ug pa r ti cl es , s l o wi n g t he di s s ol u ti o n an d b i oa va i la b il it y r a t es o f the d r ug . W ate r - s o lu b le lub r i c a n ts , s uc h as L -l e uc in e , d o n o t i n t er f e re wi t h di s s ol u ti on o r bi o a v ai la b il it y. ( 3 ) G l i da n t s ( e .g . , c ol lo id a l s il ic on di o xi d e ) im pro v e t he f lo w p r o pe r t ie s of a dr y p o wd e r bl e nd be f o re it is c om p re ss ed . R at h e r t han p os in g a po t en t ia l p r obl e m wi t h b i oa va i la b il it y , g li da n ts m a y r ed uc e ta bl e t -t o - ta bl e t v a ri a bi li t y an d i m p r o ve p r od uc t e f f ic ac y . ( 4 ) S u r fa c t an t s e n ha nc e d r u g d iss o lu t io n r a te s an d bi oa v a i la b il it y b y r e du c in g i n t er f ac i al te ns i on at th e b o un d ar y b e t we e n s o l id d r u g a nd li qu i d a nd b y im p r o v in g t h e we t t ab il i t y (c o nt ac t ) o f s o li d d r u g p ar t ic le s b y t h e s ol v e n t.
c . C oa t e d c om p r es s ed ta b l e ts ha v e a s ug a r c oat , a f i lm c oa t , o r an en t e ri c c oa t wi t h t h e f o ll o wi n g p r op e rt i es : ( 1 ) I t p r ot ec t s t he d ru g f ro m m oi s tu r e, li g ht , an d ai r . ( 2 ) I t m a s k s t h e t as te o r o d o r o f t h e d r ug . ( 3 ) I t im p r o v es th e a pp ea r a nc e o f t h e t a bl e t. ( 4 ) I t m a y a f fe c t t he r el ea s e r a te of t he d ru g . d . I n a dd i ti on , en t e r ic co a t i ng s m in im i z e c o nt ac t b e t we e n t he d ru g a nd th e ga st r ic r e g io n b y r e s i s t in g d is s ol u t io n o r a t t ri t io n a n d p r ev e n t i ng c o nt a c t be t we e n t h e u n d er l yi ng d ru g a nd t he g a s t r ic c o n te n ts o r ga s t r ic m u c o sa . So m e en t e ri c c o at i ng s m i ni m i ze ga s t r ic c o n ta c t b e c a us e th e y ar e i ns o lub l e a t a c i d ic p H s . O t h e r c o at i ng s r e s is t a t tr i ti o n a nd r em ain wh o l e l o ng en ou g h f o r t h e ta bl e t t o l e a v e t he ga s t ri c a r e a . B y r es is t in g d is s o lu t i on o r a tt r i ti on , en t e ri c c oa t in gs m a y d ec r ea se b i oa va i la b il it y . E n te r ic c o a t in gs a re us ed to ( 1 ) Mi n i m i z e i r ri ta t io n o f t h e g as t r ic m uc os a b y t he d r ug ( 2 ) P r e v en t i n ac ti v a t io n o r d eg r ad a ti o n o f t he d rug i n t he s t om ac h ( 3 ) D el a y r el e as e o f t h e d r u g u n ti l t h e t ab le t r ea ch e s t he s m al l i n te s t i ne , wh e r e c o nd i ti on s f o r a bs o r pt i on m a y be op t im al 6 . M o d i fi e d - re l ea s e d o sa g e fo r m s a r e d r ug pr o du c ts th a t a lt e r th e r a te or t im i ng of d r u g r e le as e . B ec a us e m o d i fi ed - r el e as e d os ag e fo r m s a re m o r e co m p l e x t h a n c o n ven t io n al im m e di a te -r e l ea s e do s a g e f o rm s , m o r e s t r in ge n t q ua l it y c on tr o l a n d b i oa va i la b il it y t es t s a r e re q ui r e d. D o se du m p in g , o r th e a b r up t , u nc on t r ol le d r e l ea se o f a l a rg e a m o u nt o f d r ug , is a p ro bl em . a . E x te n de d - r el e as e d os a g e f o r ms in cl u de co n tr o l l e d - re l ea s e, s us t ai ne d - a ct i o n, a n d l o n g -a c ti n g d r u g de l i ve r y s ys t e m s . Th es e d e li ve r y s y s te m s a l lo w a t l ea s t a t wo f o l d re d uc ti o n i n d os in g f re q ue nc y co m pa r ed wi t h c on v e n t io na l i m m edi a t er e l ea se f or m u l at i on s . ( 1 ) Th e e xt e n de d , s l o w r e l ea s e o f c o n t ro l le d - re lea s e d r ug p ro du c ts p r o duc es a r e l at i ve l y fl a t, s u s t a in ed p l as m a d ru g c on c e n t ra t io n th a t a v o id s t o xi c i t y ( fro m h i gh d r u g c on c e n t ra t io ns ) o r la c k o f e f fi c a c y (f r om lo w d r u g co nc e nt r a ti o ns ) . ( 2 ) E xt e n d ed - r el e as e d os a ge fo r m s pr o v i de an im m e d ia t e ( i ni ti a l ) r el e ase o f t h e d r u g , f ol lo we d b y a s lo we r s u s ta in e d r el e as e . b . D e la ye d - r e l e a se do sa g e fo r m s r e le as e a c t i ve d r ug at a t im e o t he r tha n i m m e di a te l y af t e r a dm in is t r at i on at a d es i re d s i te i n t h e g as t ro i nt es t in a l t ra c t . F o r e xa m p l e , a n e nt e r ic -c o ate d d ru g p r od uc t do es not a l l o w f o r d is so l ut i on in t h e a c i d e n vi r on m e n t o f t h e s to m a c h b ut , ra t h er , in th e l es s a c i di c e n vi ro nm e nt o f t h e s m a ll i n t es ti n e. 7 . T r an s de r m al d r u g d el i ve r y s ys t e m s , o r p a t ch e s , a r e c o n t ro l le d - re le as e d e v ic e s t h a t c on t ai n t h e d r ug fo r s y s t em ic a bs o r pt i on af t er t o pi c a l a p pl ic a ti on to t he s k in s u r fa ce . Tr a ns de r m a l d ru g de li v e r y s ys te m s a r e a va i la b le fo r a n um be r of d r u gs ( n i t ro g l yc e r in , n ic o ti n e, s c o po l am in e , c l o ni di n e, fen t a n y l, 17 - β - es t r ad io l , an d t e s to st e r on e ). A lt h ou g h th e fo r m u l at i on m a t ri ce s o f t he se de li ve r y s y s te m s di f f er s om e wh a t , t h e y al l d if f e r f r om c o n ve nt i on al t op ic a l fo r m u la t io n s in t he fo l lo wi n g wa ys : a . Th e y h a v e a n im p e rm e a bl e oc c lu s i ve b a ck i ng f i l m t ha t p r e v e nt s i ns en s ib le wa t e r l os s f r om th e s k i n b e n ea t h t he pa t c h . Th is f i lm c a us es in c re as ed h yd r a ti o n
a n d sk i n t em p er a tu r e u nd e r th e p a tc h a nd en h anc e d p e rm ea t io n o f th e sk i n b y th e drug. b . Th e fo r m u l at io n m a t rix o f t h e pa t c h m a in t ai ns t h e d r u g c o nc e nt r a ti o n gr a d ie n t wi t h i n th e d e v ic e a f t e r ap p li c a t io n s o t h at d ru g de l i ve r y to th e i n te r f ac e be t we e n t he p a tc h a n d t he s k in is s us t a i ne d . A s a re su l t , d ru g p a r ti t io n in g a n d d if f us io n i n to th e s ki n p e rs is t , a n d s y s t em ic ab s o r p ti o n is m a in t ai ne d th r o ug ho u t t h e d os in g i n te r v a l . c . Tr a ns d er m a l d r u g d el iv e r y s y s t em s a re k e p t i n p l ac e o n t he s k in s u r fa ce b y an a d h es i ve l a ye r , e n s u ri ng d r ug c o nt ac t wi t h t h e s k i n a nd c o nt i nu e d d ru g de l i v e r y . 8 . T a rg e t ed ( si t e -s p ec i fi c ) d r ug de l i ve r y s ys t e m s a re dr u g c ar r i er s ys te m s t ha t p l ac e t h e d r ug at o r n ea r t h e r ec e pt o r s i te . E xa m p l es in cl ud e m ac r om ol e c u l a r d r ug c a r ri e rs ( p ro t ei n d r ug P.92
c a r ri e rs ) , p a r ti c u l at e d r ug d el i v e r y s y s t em s ( e. g . , l i po s o m e s , na n op a r ti cl es ) , a n d m o no cl o na l a n ti bo d ie s . W ith t a rg e te d d r u g d el i ve r y , t he d ru g m a y be de liv e r e d to a . Th e c a pi ll a r y be d o f th e ac ti v e s i t e b . A s p ec ia l t y p e o f c e ll ( e . g ., t um or c e ll s ) b u t n ot t o n o rm al c e ll s c . A s pe c i f ic o r g an o r t is s u e b y co m p l e xi n g wi t h a c a r r ie r th a t re c o gn i z e s t h e t a rg e t 9 . I ns e r t s, im p l an t s , a nd d e vi ce s a r e u s e d to c o n t r ol dr u g d el i ve r y fo r lo c al i z e d o r s ys t em ic d r u g e ff e c t s . Th e d ru g i s im p re g na t ed in t o a bi o de g ra d ab l e o r n o n bi od e g ra da b le m a te r ia l an d i s r el e as ed s l o wl y. Th e in s er t s , im pl a nt s, an d d e vi ce s a r e i ns e rt e d i nt o a v a r ie t y o f c a vi t ie s ( e .g. , v a g in a , b ucc a l c a v i t y ) o r t iss u es ( e . g ., sk in ) . F o r e xa m p l e, t h e le u p ro li d e a ce t at e im p la n t, V ia d ur , is i ns e r te d be n ea t h t h e s ki n o f t h e u pp e r a rm . It p ro vi d es p a ll ia t i v e tr e a tm e nt of ad v a n ce d p ro s ta t e c a nc e r f o r 1 y ea r . P.93
STUDY QUESTIONS D i r e c t i on s : E a c h qu es t io n , s t at em e nt , or in co m pl e t e s ta t em en t i n t h is s ec t io n c an b e c o r re c tl y a ns we r e d o r c om pl e te d b y o n e o f t h e s ug g es t ed an s we r s o r ph r a se s . C h o os e th e b e st an s we r . 1 . W hi c h s t a te me n t be st d e sc r i b es bi o a va i la b ili t y? ( A ) r e la t io n b e t we e n t he p h y s ic al an d t h e c he m i c a l pr o pe r t ie s o f a dr u g an d it s s ys t em ic a bs o r pt i on ( B ) m ea s u r em en t of th e r a t e a n d am o un t o f th e rap e u ti c a ll y a c t i ve d r u g t ha t r ea ch es t h e s ys te m i c c ir c ul at i on ( C ) m o vem en t of th e d r ug i nt o b o d y ti ss ue s o v e r t i m e ( D ) d is so l ut io n of th e d r ug i n t he ga s tr o in t es ti n al t r a c t ( E ) a m o un t of d ru g d es t ro y e d b y th e l i v e r b e fo r e s y s t em ic a bs o r pt i on f rom t he g a st r o in t es ti n al t ra c t oc c u r s V i e w A n s we r 1 . T h e a n sw e r i s B [ se e] . 2 . T h e r ou t e o f d r u g a dm i n is t r a ti o n t h a t gi ve s t he mo s t ra pi d o ns e t o f t he ph a r mac o l o gi c e f f ec t is ( A ) i nt r am us c u l a r i nj ec t io n .
( B ) i nt r a v e no us in j ec ti o n. ( C ) i n tr a de r m a l i nj ec t io n . ( D ) p e ro r a l a dm in is t ra t ion . ( E ) s ub c u t an e ou s i nj ec tio n . V i e w A n s we r 2 . T h e a n sw e r i s B [ se e] . 3 . T h e r ou t e o f d r u g a dm i n is t r a ti o n t h a t p ro vi d e s c o mp l e te ( 1 0 0 %) b i o a va i l a b il i t y i s ( A ) i nt r am us c u l a r i nj ec t io n . ( B ) i nt r a v e no us in j ec ti o n. ( C ) i n tr a de r m a l i nj ec t io n . ( D ) p e ro r a l a dm in is t ra t ion . ( E ) s ub c u t an e ou s i nj ec tio n . V i e w A n s we r 3 . T h e a n sw e r i s B [ se e] . 4 . Af t e r pe r o r a l a d mi n i st r a t i on , d r u g s g e ne r a l l y a r e a b s o r b e d b es t f r om t he ( A ) b uc c a l c a v it y . ( B ) s to m a c h . ( C ) d u od en um . ( D ) i le um . ( E ) r ec t um . V i e w A n s we r 4 . T h e a n sw e r i s C [ se e] . 5 . T h e c ha r a c t e ri s t ic s o f an ac t ive t r a n s po r t p r oc e ss i nc l ud e a ll o f t h e f o l low i n g e x c ep t f o r w h i c h o ne ? ( A ) A c ti v e t ra ns p or t m o ve s d r u g m o l ec ul es ag a ins t a c o nc e nt r a ti o n g ra d ien t . ( B ) A c ti v e t ra ns p or t fo l lows F i c k ' s l a w o f di f fu s i on . ( C ) A c ti v e t ra ns p o rt is a c a r ri e r -m e di at e d t r an s p or t s y st em . ( D ) A c ti v e t ra ns p o rt r eq ui r e s e ne r g y . ( E ) A c ti v e t ra ns p or t of d ru g m o le cu l es m a y be s a tu r a t ed at hi g h d ru g c o nc en t r at i on s . V i e w A n s we r 5 . T h e a n sw e r i s B [ se ea n d] .6 . T h e p a ss a ge o f d r u g m o l ec u le s f r om a r e g ion o f hi g h d r u g c o nc e n tr a t i o n to a r e g io n of l ow d r ug c o n ce n t r a ti o n i s k n ow n a s ( A ) a ct i v e t r a ns po r t . ( B ) b io a v a il ab i li t y . ( C ) b io p ha r m a c e u ti c s . ( D ) s im pl e d i ff us i on . ( E ) p in oc y t o s i s . V i e w A n s we r 6 . T h e a n sw e r i s D [ se e] . 7 . W h ic h e q u a ti o n d e sc r i be s th e r a t e o f d r u g d i ss o lu t i o n f r om a ta b le t ? ( A ) F ic k 's la w ( B ) H e nd e rs o n - Ha s s el b al c h e qu a ti o n ( C ) L a w o f m as s a c t i on ( D ) Mi c h a e li s - Me n t e n e qu a t io n ( E ) N o y e s -W hit n e y e q ua ti o n V i e w A n s we r 7 . T h e a n sw e r i s E [s e e] . 8 . W h ic h c o n d it i o n u s ua l l y i n c r e a s e s t h e r a te o f d r u g d i ss o lut i o n f r om a t a bl e t ? ( A ) i nc r ea s e in th e p a r ti c l e s i z e o f th e d r ug ( B ) d ec r ea s e in th e s u r fac e a r e a o f t h e d ru g
( C ) u se of t he f re e a c i d o r f r ee ba se fo r m o f t h e d r u g ( D ) u se of t he io ni z e d , or s al t , f o rm of t he dr u g ( E ) u se of s u ga r c o at i ng a r o un d th e t a bl e t V i e w A n s we r 8 . T h e a n sw e r i s D [ se ea n d] .9 . Dos e du m p in g is a p r o bl em i n t h e f o rm u la t i o n o f ( A ) c om pr e s s ed ta b le ts . ( B ) m od if i ed - r el e as e d r ug p r od uc ts . ( C ) h a rd ge l at i n c a ps u les . ( D ) s of t ge la t in c a ps ul e s . ( E ) s up po s i t o ri es . V i e w A n s we r 9 . T h e a n sw e r i s B [ se e] . 1 0. T he ra t e - l im i t in g s t e p i n th e b i o a va i la b i li t y o f a l i pid - s o lu b l e d r u g f o r mu l at e d as an i mm ed i a te - r e le a s e c o m p re s se d ta b le t i s t he r a t e o f ( A ) d is in t eg r a ti on o f t he t a b le t a n d r e le as e o f t h e d r u g. ( B ) d is s o lu t io n o f th e d r ug . ( C ) t r a ns po r t o f th e d r ug m ol ec u le s ac r os s t h e i nte s ti n al m uc os a l c el ls . ( D ) b lo o d f lo w t o t he ga s t r o in t es t in al t r ac t. ( E ) b io t r an s f o rm a ti o n, o r m e ta bo l ism , of th e d r u g b y t h e l i ve r b ef o r e s y st em ic a b so r p ti on oc c u r s . V i e w A n s we r 1 0 . T he a nsw e r i s B [ se e] . P . 94
1 1 . Th e e x te n t of i on i z at i o n o f a w ea k e l ec t r o l yt e d r u g d ep e n ds on t he ( A ) p H of th e m e di a a nd p K a of t he d ru g . ( B ) o il to wa t e r pa r ti t io n c o ef f ic ie n t o f t h e d r ug . ( C ) p a r ti c l e s i z e a nd s u r fa c e a r ea of t he dr u g. ( D ) N o y e s -W hit n e y e q uat i o n f o r t he d ru g . ( E ) p ol ym o rp h ic f o rm o f th e d ru g . V i e w A n s we r 1 1 . T he a nsw e r i s A [ se e] . 1 2. T he ra t e o f d r u g b i oa va i l ab i li t y i s mo s t r ap i d w h e n t h e d r u g is f o r mu l a te d a s a ( A ) c on t ro l le d - re l ea s e pro d uc t . ( B ) h a rd ge l at in c a ps u le . ( C ) c om p re s s ed ta b le t . ( D ) s ol u ti on . ( E ) s us pe ns io n . V i e w A n s we r 1 2 . T he a nsw e r i s D [ se e] . 1 3. T he am o u n t o f d ru g t ha t a t r a n s de r m al p at c h ( i . e. , t r a n sd e r ma l d r ug de l i ve r y s ys t e m ) d e l i ve r s w it h i n a 2 4h r p e r i od de p e nd s o n th e ( A ) p a tc h c o m p os i ti o n, wh i c h in cl ud e s a n oc c l us i ve b ac k i ng an d a n a d he s iv e f i lm i n c o nt ac t wi t h th e s k i n. ( B ) a f fi ni t y o f t h e d ru g for t h e f o rm ul a ti o n m a t r i x r e l a ti ve to it s a f fi n it y f o r th e s t r at um c o r ne um . ( C ) r a t e o f d r ug pa r ti t io ni n g a nd / o r d i ff us i on th r ou g h t h e p at c h t o t he sk in s u rf a c e . ( D ) s u rf ac e a r e a o f t he pa t c h . ( E ) A l l o f t h e a bo v e
V i e w A n s we r 1 3 . T he a nsw e r i s E [s e e] . P . 95
ANSWERS AND EXPLANATIONS 1 . T he an sw e r is B [ s ee I . A . 3] . B i o a vai l ab il i t y is t h e m ea s u re m e n t o f t h e r a te and e xt e n t (a m ou n t) o f t he ra p e ut ic al l y a c ti ve d ru g t h a t r ea c h e s t h e s y s te m i c c ir c ul at i on . Th e r e la t io n o f th e p h ys ic a l a nd t h e c he m i c a l p r o pe r ti e s o f a d r ug to i ts s y s te m i c a b s o r p ti on ( i. e . , b io a vai la b il i t y ) i s k n o wn as it s b io p ha r m a c e u t ic s . Th e m o v em en t of a d ru g i n to bo d y ti ss u es i s a n a s pe ct o f p ha r m a c o k i n eti c s , wh i c h is th e s tu d y o f d r u g m o v e m e n t i n t h e bo d y o v e r t i m e . Th e d is s o l ut io n of a d r ug in th e g as t r oi n te st i n al t ra ct is a p h ys ic oc he m ic al p r o ce s s th a t a ff e c t s b io av a i l ab i li t y . Si g ni f ic an t d es t r uc ti o n o f a d ru g b y t he l i v er b e f o re it is s y s te m i c a l l y a b s o r be d (k no wn a s t h e f i r st - p as s e ff ec t b e ca us e i t o c c u rs d u r in g th e f i rs t p as s a g e o f t he dr u g t h ro u gh th e l iv e r ) d ec r ea se s b i oa v a il ab i li t y . 2 . T he an sw e r is B [ s ee I I . B .1 . a] . W hen t he ac t i v e f o rm o f t h e d r u g is gi ve n i n t ra ven o us l y, i t en t er s t h e s y ste m ic c i rc u la ti o n d i re c t l y . Th e d r u g i s d el i ve re d ra pi d l y t o al l t is s ue s, in c l u di ng th e d ru g r e c ep t or s i t es . F o r a ll o th e r ro u te s o f d r u g a dm ini s t ra t io n , e xc e p t i n t ra - a rte r i al i n je c ti on , th e d r u g m u s t b e s y s t em ic al l y ab s o r b ed b ef o r e i t is di s tr i bu t ed t o t he dr u g r e c ep t or s i t es . F o r t h is re a s o n , t he on s et of ph a rm ac o lo g ic e f fe c ts i s s lo we r . I f t he d r u g i s a p r od r u g t ha t m u s t b e c on ve r t ed to an ac t i v e d r ug , o r a l a dm in is t ra t i on , n o t i n t ra ve n ou s i nj ec t io n , m a y n o t p r o vid e th e m os t ra p id on s et of ac t i v it y i f co n v e r s i on t o t he ac ti v e f or m t ak es p l ac e i n t h e g as t ro i nt es t in a l t r ac t o r li v e r . 3 . T he an sw e r is B [ s ee I I . C .2 ] . W hen a d r u g is gi v e n b y i n t ra v e n ou s i nj ec t io n , t he e nt i r e d os e e nt e rs th e s ys t em ic c i rc u la ti o n . W ith o t he r r ou t es o f a dm in is t ra t io n , t he d r ug m a y be lo s t b ef o re i t r e a ch es th e s y s te m i c c irc u la t io n . F o r e xa m p le , wi t h f i rs t - pa s s ef f ec ts , a po r t io n of a n o ra ll y a dm in is t e re d d ru g is e l im in a te d , us u al l y t h r o ug h d eg r a da t io n b y li ve r e n zym e s , be f o re th e d r ug r e ac he s i ts re c e p t or si te s . 4 . T he an sw e r is C [ s ee I I . B .2 . b. ( 4 ) ]. D r u g s g i v en o ra ll y a r e w e l l a bs o rb e d f r om th e d uo d e nu m . Th e d u od e nu m h a s a l a r ge s u r fa ce a re a b ec a us e o f t h e p r es e nc e o f vil li an d m ic r o vi ll i. I n a dd i ti on , bec a us e t h e d u o de nu m i s we l l pe r f us e d b y th e m es en t e ri c b loo d v es s el s , a c o n ce n tr a tio n g r a di e nt is m a in t ai ne d be t we e n t he l u m e n o f t h e d u o de nu m a nd t he bl oo d. 5 . T he an sw e r is B [ s ee I I . A .2 an d 3 ] . F i ck ' s l a w o f d i ff u s i on des c ri b es p as s i ve di f f us io n o f dr u g m o l ec ul es m o vin g f ro m a h i gh co nc e nt r a ti on t o a lo w c o n c e n tr a ti o n. Th i s pr o c es s is no t s a tu r ab l e an d do es n o t re q ui r e e ne r g y . 6 . T he an sw e r is D [ s ee I I . A .2 ] . Th e t r a ns po r t o f a d ru g ac r os s a c e ll m em b ra n e by p a s s i v e d i ff us i on fo l lows F i c k ' s l a w o f di f f us io n : Th e d rug m o v e s wi t h a c o nc en t ra t i on g ra di e nt ( i. e . , f r om a n a r e a o f h i gh co nc e nt r a ti on t o a n a r e a o f l o w c on c e n t ra t ion ) . In c o n t ra s t , d r u gs th at a r e a c ti ve l y t ra n s p o rt e d m o v e a ga in s t a c on c en t ra t ion g r ad ie n t . 7 . T he an sw e r is E [ s e e I I I . A. 1 ] .
Th e N o ye s -W hi tn e y eq uat i o n d esc r i be s t he r at e at wh i c h a s o li d d r ug di s s o l v e s. F i ck ' s l a w i s s i m i l ar t o t he N o y e s -W hit ne y e qu a ti on i n t ha t bo t h e qu a ti on s d e s c r ib e d r u g m o v em en t c au s ed by a c on c e n t ra t io n g r ad i en t . Fi c k ' s l a w g en e r al l y re f e rs to p a ss i ve d if f us io n , o r pa s s i v e tr a ns po r t , o f d r ug s . Th e l a w o f m as s a c t i on de sc r i be s t h e ra t e o f a c h em ic al r ea c ti o n, t he Mi c h ae li s - Me n t e n e qu a ti o n i n v ol ve s en z ym e k i ne t ics , an d t h e H e nd e rs o n - Ha s s el b al c h eq u at ion g i v es th e p H of a b u ff er s ol u ti o n. 8 . T he an sw e r is D [ s ee I I I . A. 1 a n d 3 ] . Th e i o ni z e d , o r s al t , f o rm o f a d r ug ha s a c h a rge a nd is g e ne r al l y m o r e wa t e r s o lu bl e a n d , t he r e fo r e, di s s o l v es m o re r ap i dl y t han t he no n io ni ze d ( fr e e ac i d o r f r e e b a se ) fo r m o f t h e d ru g . Th e di s s ol u ti o n r a te is d i re c tl y p r op o r ti on a l t o t h e s u r fa ce a r e a a nd in v e r s e l y p ro p or t i on a l t o t h e p a rt ic l e s i z e . A n i nc r ea s e in th e p a rt i c l e s i z e o r a d ec r e as e i n t he s u r fa c e a r ea s l o ws th e d is sol u t io n r a te . 9 . T he an sw e r is B [ s ee I I I . B. 6 ] . A m od i fi e d- r e le as e , o r c o n t r ol le d - re l ea se , d r u g pr o d uc t c on t ai ns t wo o r m o r e c o n ven t io n al do s e s o f t he d r ug . An ab r up t re l ea se o f t h e d ru g , k no wn a s d o se d u m p i ng , m a y c a us e i nt oxi c a t i o n. P.96
1 0 . Th e a n sw e r i s B [ s ee I I I. B . 1. c ]. F o r li pi d -s o lu bl e d r u gs , th e r at e o f d is s ol ut i on is th e s l o we s t ( i .e . , r a te - li m it i n g) st e p i n dr u g a bs o rp t io n a n d th u s i n b io a v a il ab i li t y. The d is in t eg r a ti on r at e o f an i m m e di a te - r el e as e o r c on v e n t io n al c om p re s s e d ta b le t is u s u a ll y m o r e ra pi d th a n t he r a t e o f d r u g d is s o lu t io n . B e c au s e th e c el l m em b ra n e i s a l i po p ro t ei n s t ru c t u r e , t r a ns p or t of a l ip i d- s o l ubl e dr u g a c r o s s t h e c el l m e m b ra ne is us ua ll y r a pi d. 1 1 . Th e a n sw e r i s A [ s ee I I I. A . 4. b ] . Th e e xt e n t o f i on i z a ti o n o f a we ak el ec t r ol y t e i s d e sc r ib ed b y th e H en de rs o n H a s se lb a lc h e qu a ti o n, wh i c h r el a te s t he p H o f t he s o l ut i on to t he p K a of th e d ru g . 1 2 . Th e a n sw e r i s D [ s ee I I I. B . 2. a ] . B e c au se a d r ug in s o lu t io n is a l r ea d y di s s ol v e d , n o di s s ol u ti o n is ne e de d b e fo r e a b so r p ti on . C on s e q ue n tly , c om p a re d wi t h o th e r dr u g fo r m u la t io ns , a d r ug i n s o lu t io n h a s a h i gh r at e o f bi oa v ai l ab i li t y . A d r ug in aq u eo u s s ol u ti o n h as th e h ig he s t b i oa va i la b il it y r a t e a nd is o ft e n us e d as t he r ef e re n c e p re pa r a ti o n f o r o the r f o r m u l at io n s . D r ug s i n hy d r o a lc oh o li c s o l ut i on ( e. g . , e li xi r s ) a ls o h a v e g oo d b i oa va i la b il it y . Th e r at e o f d ru g b i oa v a il a bi li t y f r om a h a rd ge l at i n c a ps u le, c om p r es s e d t ab l et , or s us p en s i o n m a y b e e qu a l to t ha t of a s ol ut i on if an o p t im al f o r m u l at io n i s m an u fa c t ur e d an d t h e d ru g i s i nh e re n t l y ra p id l y ab s o r be d . 1 3 . Th e a n sw e r i s E [s ee I I I. B . 7] . D r u g de li v e r y f r om a t r ans d e rm al dr u g d el i ve r y s y s t em de pe n ds on al l o f th e fa c to r s c i te d — th a t is , on th e p r es e nc e o f a n o cc lu s i v e bac k i n g ( t o m ai nt a in s ki n hy d r a t i on a n d e le v a t e s k i n t em p era t u r e s l i gh tl y) a nd an adh e s i v e fi lm t o m a i nt ai n co n t ac t o f t h e fo rm u la t io n m at r i x wi t h t he s ki n t o en ab l e d r ug t r an sf e r fr om t he pa tc h i n to th e s ki n . I f th e d r ug ' s a f f in i ty f o r t he fo r m u l at io n m a tr i x i s g r ea t er t ha n i ts a ff in i t y f or t he s t r at um c o r ne um , th e d ru g ' s e s c ap i ng te n de nc y fr o m t h e p at c h wi l l b e re du c ed , m i ni m i zi ng t he gr a di e nt fo r d ru g tr a ns f er in t o t h e s k i n . Th e m i c ro vi sc os it y o f t he
f o r m u l at io n m a t ri x, t h e pr e s en c e of a m em br a ne b e t we e n th e d r ug r es e r vo i r i n th e p a tc h a n d t he s k in s u r fac e , a nd in t e ra c ti on o f t he d r ug wi t h t h e f o rm ul a tio n m a t ri x a f f ec t t h e r a te an d e xt e n t o f d i ff us i on an d /o r pa r tit i o ni ng o f t he d ru g t h r oug h th e p a tc h to th e s k i n s ur f ac e. F in a ll y, t he e xt e n t o f d ru g de li ve r y f r om th e p a tch is d i r ec tl y p r op o r ti o na l t o th e s u r fa c e a re a o f th e pa t c h in co n ta c t wi t h th e s k i n s u r fa ce .
5 Extemporaneous Prescription Compounding L o yd V . Al l e n J r .
I. INTRODUCTION A. D e f i n i t i o ns 1 . C o mp o u nd i ng vs man u f a c tu r i n g 2 . I t is im po r t an t , b u t o f te n t im es d i f fi c u lt , to di s tin g ui s h b et we e n c om p oun d in g a n d m a nu f ac tu r i ng . 3 . C o mp o u nd i ng ha s b ee n de f in e d b y th e N at i ona l As so c i a ti o n o f B o a rd s o f P h a r m a c y a s t h e p re p a ra t i on , m i xi n g , a s s em bl ing , pa c k a gi ng , o r la b el in g o f a d ru g o r d e vic e ( i ) a s t he r es ult o f a p ra c t i ti o ne r ' s p r es c r i pt io n dr u g o r de r o r in it i a ti v e b a se d o n t h e p ha r m a c i s t/ p a ti e nt / p re sc r ib e r r e la t io n s h i p in t he c o u rs e o f pr o f es s i o na l p r a ct ic e o r (i i ) f o r th e p ur p o s e of , a s a n i nc i de n t to r es e ar c h, te ac h in g , o r c h em ic al a n al ys is an d n o t f o r s al e o r di s p e ns in g . C om p ou nd i n g al s o in cl u de s t h e p re p a ra t io n o f d ru gs an d d e v ic es in a n t ic ip a ti on o f p r esc r ip t io n d ru g o r de r s b as ed on r o u ti n e, r e g ul a rl y o bs e r v e d p at t er n s . 4 . M a n u fa c tu r i n g h as be e n d e fi n ed as t h e p r od uc t io n , p r ep a ra t io n , p r op ag a t io n , c o n ve rs io n o r pr o c e s s ing o f a dr u g o r d e v ic e , e i th e r di r ec tl y o r i n di r ec t l y , b y e xt r a c t i on f ro m s ub s t a nc e s o f na t ur a l o r ig in o r i nd e p en de n tl y b y m e a ns o f c he m i ca l o r bi o lo g ic al s y n t he s i s , an d in c l ud e s a n y p ac ka g in g o r r ep a ck ag in g o f th e s u bs ta n c e (s ) o r l ab el i ng o r r el a be li n g o f i ts c o n ta i n e r, a nd th e p r om o ti on a n d m a rk e ti n g o f s uc h d ru g s o r d e v ic es . Ma n u fa c t u ri ng a ls o i nc lu d es t h e p r epa r a ti o n a n d p r om o ti on o f c o m m er c i al l y a va i la b le pr o du c ts f r om bu lk c o m p o un ds for r e sa le b y p h a rm ac ie s , p ra c ti ti on e r s , o r o th e r p e rs o ns . 5 . Th e pu r po s e o f p ha rm a c eu t ic al c om p ou n di ng is t o p re p a re an in di vi d ual i z e d d r ug t r e a tm en t fo r a p at ie n t ba s ed on an o rd e r f r om a d u l y li c e ns e d p re sc r ib e r . Th e f u n da m e n ta l d i ff e r en c e be t we e n c o m p ou n di n g a nd m a n u f ac t u ri n g is t he exi s t e n c e o f a p ha r m a c i s t / p re s c r ib e r /p a t ie n t r el a ti o ns hi p t h a t c o nt r o ls t h e c om po un d ing o f t h e d r u g p r ep a ra t io n . Co m p ou n d ed dr u gs ar e n o t f o r re s al e b u t, r at h e r, a re per s o na l a n d re sp on s i v e t o t he pat i e nt ' s i m m ed i at e n e ed s . Th e y a r e p r e pa r ed an d a d m i ni s te r ed b y th e p a tie n t , c ar e gi ve r o r p at i en t 's he a lt hc a r e p r of es s i o nal s , wh ic h a l lo ws f o r t h e m on it o r in g o f pa ti e n t o ut co m e s . O n t h e o t he r h a nd , dr u g m a nu f ac tu r e rs p ro d uc e ba t c h es c o ns is t in g o f te ns o r hu n dr e ds of th o us and s o f d o sa g e u ni ts , s uc h a s t ab l e ts o r c a ps ul es , fo r re s a l e , us i ng m a n y p e rs o nne l an d l a r ge - sc al e m an u fa c tu r ing e qu ip m en t . Th e se p ro du c ts a re di s t r ib u te d th r ou g h t h e n o r m a l c ha nn e ls o f in t ers t a te c om m e r c e t o in d i v id u al s u nk n o wn to t he c om p an y . Ma n u f a c tu r e rs a re no t req u i re d to , a n d d o n ot , p ro v i d e o v e r si gh t of in d i vid u al p a t ie n ts . I t i s a ls o a c c ept a b le an d ro u ti ne p ra c t ic e f o r p ha r m a ci st s t o c om p o u nd fo r “ o f f ic e us e ” th os e p r ep a ra t i on s t ha t ar e n o t c om m e r c ia ll y a va il a bl e . Th e s e p r e pa r a ti o ns a r e “F o r O ffi c e U s e O n l y ” a n d a r e n ot f o r r es a le o r t o b e g i v en t o t h e p a t ie n ts to ta k e ho m e ; the y a r e t o b e ad m i ni s te r ed a t t h e o ff ic e . 6 . Th e U ni t ed S ta t es Pha r m a c op ei a ( U S P ) us es th e te r m p r ep a ra t io n to ref e r to c om p ou n de d p r es c ri pt i on s a n d t he t e rm p r od u ct s t o re f e r t o m an u fa c t u r ed p h a rm ac e ut ic al s . A ls o , fo r s t a bi li t y p u rp os es , c om p ou n de d p r ep a r at io n s a r e
a ss i gn e d a “b e y o nd - us e ” d a te an d m an u fa c tu r ed p r o du c ts a r e a ss ig n ed an “ e xp i r a t i on da t e. ” B . R e g u la t i on 1 . C u r r e nt g oo d m a n uf ac t u r i n g p r ac t i ce s (c G M P s ) a re t he s t an d a rd s o f p r a c t ic e u s ed in th e p h a rm ac eu t ic a l i nd us t r y an d a r e re gul a t ed b y th e F o od an d D ru g A d m in is t ra t io n (F D A ) . P.98
2 . G o o d c om p o un d in g p r a c t ic e s ( G C P s ) a r e the s ta nd a r ds o f pr a c t ic e de t a il ed in t h e U S P , c h a pt e r < 1 07 5> . C om m u n it y p ha r m a ci st s m us t c om p l y wi t h s ta te b oa r d o f p h a rm ac y l a ws , re gu l at i on s , a nd gu i de li n es to ens u r e a q u al i t y p r ep a r at i on , wh i c h i n cl ud e s us i ng pr o pe r m a t e ri a ls , we i gh in g e q ui pm e nt , do cu m e n te d t ec h ni q ue s , a nd d i sp e ns in g a nd s t o r ag e in s t ru c ti on s . 3 . L eg a l c on s i de r a t io n s a . E xt e m p or a ne o us c om p o u nd in g b y t h e p ha r m ac is t or a p r es c r i pt i on o rde r f r om a l i ce ns e d p ra c ti t io ne r , a s wi t h t h e d is pe n si ng o f an y o t he r p re s c r ip t io n , is c o nt r o ll ed b y t h e s ta t e b oa r ds o f ph a r m a c y . b . Th e le ga l ri s k (l i ab il i ty ) o f c o m p o un di n g is no g r e a te r th an t he ri s k of f il l in g a p r e sc ri p ti o n f o r a m a nu fa c tu r e d p r od uc t b ec a us e t h e p ha r m a c i s t m u s t e ns u r e t ha t t h e c o r re c t d ru g , d os e , an d di r ec t io ns ar e p r o v i ded . Th e ph a rm ac is t i s a lso r e s po ns ib l e f o r p r ep a ri ng a q u al i t y p h a rm ac eu t ica l pr e pa r a ti o n, p ro vi di n g p r o pe r i n st r uc t io ns r eg a rd i ng it s s t or a ge , a n d a d vis in g the p at i en t o f an y a d v e rs e e f f ec ts . 4 . F oo d a n d D r ug Ad m in i s t r a ti o n . Th e F D A h as d e ve lo p ed a li s t o f p r epa r a ti o ns t h a t s ho ul d n o t b e e xt e m p o r an e ou sl y c om po un d ed . Th i s li s t wa s d e vel op ed p ri m ar i l y f r o m co m m e rc ia l p r o du c ts t ha t h a v e b e en r em o ved f r om th e m a rk et o wi n g t o s a f et y a n d /o r ef f ic ac y c o nc e r ns . Th i s i s a l e ng t h y l is t and m u s t b e r e ad c a re f ul l y b e c a us e , i n s om e c as es , o n l y c e r ta i n d os a ge fo r m s o f a s pe c if ic d ru g a r e i nc lu d ed o n th e l is t a n d o t he r s a r e n ot . Th e li s t i s t oo e xt e n s i v e to inc l ud e h e re bu t c a n b e acc es s ed at w w w. f d a . g o v / c d e r /p ha r m c om p /p c wd . t xt . C . S t a b il i t y a n d q u a l i t y c o n t r o l o f c o mp o u nd e d p r e p a ra t i on s 1 . B e yo n d - u s e d a te s . Th e as s i gn m e n t o f a be yon d - us e d a te is o n e o f t he m o s t d i f fi cu l t t as k s re q ui r ed o f a c o m p ou n di n g p ha r m a ci s t . C h ap t e rs < 7 95 > a n d < 7 9 7> of t h e U S P p r o v id e g u id el i ne s fo r th is ta sk . Ch a pt e r < 7 9 5> in vo l ves no ns t e ri le p r e pa r a ti o ns , a nd c h ap t er < 7 97 > i n vo l ves s t e ri le p r e pa r a ti o ns . F o r n on s ter i l e p r e pa r a ti o ns , c ur r e nt U SP c r it e ri a fo r no na q ue o us l i q ui ds an d s ol id f o rm ul a t io ns ( fo r wh i c h a m an u fa c t u r ed dru g p ro du c t is t he s o ur c e o f ac t i ve i ng r ed i en ts ) in c l u de a b e yo n d- u s e da t e n ot la t er t h an 25 % o f th e t im e rem a in in g u n ti l th e p r od uc t' s e xp i r a t i on da t e o r 6 m o nt h s , wh i c he ve r is e a rl i e r. W hen a U SP o r Na t io na l F o r m u l ar y ( N F ) s u bs ta nc e is t he s o ur c e o f ac t i ve i n g re d ie n t, t he be yo nd - us e d a te is n o t l a te r th a n 6 m on t hs . F o r wa t e r -c o nt a in in g fo rm u la t io ns ( pr e pa r ed f r om i n g re d ie n ts i n s ol i d f o rm ), t h e b e y on d -u s e da t e i s n o t l a te r th a n 1 4 d a y s wh e n s t o re d a t c ol d te m p e ra t ur e s . F o r a ll ot h e r f o rm ul at i o ns , t h e b e yon d -u s e dat e is no t l a t er t ha n t h e i nt e nd e d du r a ti o n o f t h e ra p y o r 3 0 d a y s , wh ic h e ve r is ea r li er . Th e se
b e yo n d- u s e da t es m a y be e xc e e de d wh e n t h er e is su pp o r ti n g v a l id s ci e nt if i c s t ab i li t y in f o rm at i on th a t i s d i re c tl y a pp li c ab le t o th e s p ec if ic p re p a ra ti o n . F o r s t e ri l e p re p a ra t io ns , i f a s te r il i t y te s t i ng p ro g ra m i s n o t i n pl a ce , t h e f ol l o wi n g c a n b e u s e d p r o v id e d t he p r ep a ra t io n i s p r op e rl y p a c k a g ed an d s t or e d . L o w- R i s k L e v el C om p oun d e d S t e ri le P r ep a ra t io ns : N ot m o r e t ha n 48 ho u rs a t c o nt r o ll ed r oo m t em p er at u r e , n ot m o r e t h an 14 da ys a t a c ol d te m p e ra t u re ( r e f r ig e ra t o r ) a nd fo r 45 d a y s f ro ze n a t -2 0 ° C o r c o ld e r . Me d i u m - R is k L e v el C om p o u nd ed S t er i le P re p a rat i o ns : No t m o re th a n 3 0 h o u rs at c o nt r o ll ed r oo m t em p er at u r e , n ot m o r e t h an 9 d ays a t c ol d te m p e ra t u re ( re f r ig e r at o r ) a n d f o r 4 5 d a y s f r o z e n at - 2 0 ° C o r c ol d er . H i g h - Ri s k Le v e l Co m p o un d e d S t e ri le P r ep a ra t io ns : N o t m o r e t ha n 24 ho u rs a t c o nt r o ll ed r oo m t em p er at u r e , n ot m o r e t h an 3 d ays a t c ol d te m p e ra t u re ( re f r ig e r at o r ) a n d f o r 4 5 d a y s f r o z e n at - 2 0 ° C o r c ol d er . I f a s te r i li t y te s ti ng p ro g ra m i s i n p la c e , th e b e y on d - us e d a te s f o r n on s te ri l e p r e pa r a ti o ns a p pl y . As in n o ns te r i le c om p ou n di ng, t h es e b e y on d -u s e d at es f or s t e ri le c o m p o un di n g m a y b e e xc e e d ed wh e n th e re is s u pp o r ti n g v a l id s c i en t i fi c s t ab i li t y in f o rm at i on th a t i s d i re c tl y a pp li c ab le t o th e s p ec if ic p re p a ra ti o n . 2 . Q u a li t y c o n t r o l . Q ua li t y c on t ro l i s b ec om in g on e of t he fa s te st g ro wi n g a s p ec t s o f ph a rm ac y c om po u nd ing . P ha r m a c i s t s a r e b ec om i ng m o r e i n v ol ve d i n t he f in a l t e s ti ng o f c o m p o un d ed pr e p a ra t io ns o r a r e s e n din g th em t o co n t ra c t la b or a t o ri es f or t e s ti ng . Fo r e xa m pl e , t he f o ll o wi n g q u al it y c on t r ol t e s t s c an be c o ns id e re d f o r th e r e s pe c t i v e c om po u nd e d d o s a g e f o rm s : P.99
a . O i n tm e n ts , c r e am s , a n d ge l s. Th e o re t ic al we i gh t c om p a re d t o a c tu al we i g h t , p H , s p ec if ic g ra v i t y , ac ti v e dr u g as s a y , ph y s ic al ob s er va t i o ns (c ol o r , c l a ri t y , te xt u r e s u r fa ce , te xt u r e - s pa t ul a s p r ea d , a pp e ar a nc e, f ee l) , a nd r he ol o gi ca l p r op e rt i es . b . H a r d g e la t i n c ap s u les . W ei gh t o ve r a ll , a ve r ag e we i g ht , i n di v i d ua l we ig h t va r i a ti o n , di s s o lu t io n o f c a ps ul e s he l l, di s i n te g ra t i o n o f c ap su le c o n te n ts , a c ti v e d r u g a ss a y , p h y s i c a l a p pe a r an c e ( c o lo r , u n if o rm i ty , e xt e n t o f f i ll , l oc ke d ) , a n d p h ys ic al s t a bi li t y ( di s c olo r a ti o n , c h a ng es in ap p ea r a nc e ). c . S pe c ia l ha r d g e la t i n c a p su l es . W eig h t o ve r all , a ve ra g e we i g h t, in d i vid u al we i g h t va r i a ti o n , di s s o lu t io n o f c a ps ul e s he l l, di s i n te g ra t i o n o f c ap su le c o n te n ts , a c ti v e d r u g a ss a y , p h y s i c a l a p pe a r an c e ( c o lo r , u n if o rm i ty o f a pp ea r a nc e, un i fo r m i t y o f e xt e n t o f f i ll , c lo s u r es ) , a n d p h y s i c a l s t ab il i t y (d is c o l o ra t io n o r o t he r c h ang e s ). d . S u pp o s it o r i es , t r oc he s , lo l l ip o ps , an d s t i cks . W ei gh t , s pe c i f ic g r a vi ty , a c ti v e d r u g a ss a y , p h y s i c a l o bs e r v a t i on s ( c o l or , c l ar i t y , t e xt u r e o f s u rf ac e , a pp ea r a nc e , f e e l) , m e lt i ng te s t, di s s olu t i on te s t, ph y s ic al s t a bil i t y. e . O r a l a n d t o p ic a l l i qu id s . W eig h t t o v ol um e , pH , s pe c i f ic g r a vi t y , a c t i ve d r ug a ss a y, gl o bu le s i z e ra n ge , r he o lo gi ca l p r o pe r ti es/ p o u ra bi l it y , p h ys ic a l o bs e r va t i on s ( c o lo r , c la r it y ) , a nd ph y s i c al s t ab i li t y ( di s c ol o ra t io n , fo r ei g n m a t e ri al s , g as f o r m a t io n , m o l d g r o wt h ) .
f . P a r en t e r al p r ep a r a ti on s . W eig h t o r vol u m e , pH , s pe c i f ic g r a v i t y, o sm ol a li t y , a ss a y, ph y s ic al ob s e r v a ti o ns (c o lo r , c la r it y ) , p ar t ic u la t e m a t t er , s t e ri li t y, an d p yr o g en ic i t y . 3 . Q u a li t y c o n t r o l te s t in g . P ha rm a c i s t s h a ve t he o pt i on of do i ng te s ti ng i n - ho us e o r o u ts o u rc in g i t t o l a bo r a to r i es . a . I n -h o us e te s t in g c an i n c l ud e m e as ur em e n ts s u c h as we i g h t, v o lu m e , pH , s pe c i f ic g r a vi t y, o s m o la li t y , ph y s ic a l o bs e r v at i on s, st e ri l i ty a n d e n do t o xi n s . b . O u t - so u r ce d t es t i ng c a n i nc lu d e st e r il i t y, e ndo t o xi n s , p o te nc y , an d d i s s o lu t io n . c . Te s t re s ul t s s ho u ld be k e p t o n f i le wi t h t h e c om p ou n di ng r ec o rd s f o r th e i n di vi d ua l c om po u nd e d pr e p a ra t io ns .
II. REQUIREMENTS FOR COMPOUNDING A. S o u r c e s fo r c he m ic al s a nd d r ug s . P h a rm ac is t s c a n o b ta i n s m al l q u an t i ti es of t h e a p p ro p ri a te c h em ic als o r d r ug s f r om wh o le s a le r s o r c h em ic al s u pp l y ho u s e s . Th e s e s up p li e rs th e n m ay a l s o s e r v e as c om po u nd i ng c o ns u lt a nt s t o t h e p h a rm ac is ts t o a id i n ens u r in g t h ei r p r o du c t ' s p ur i t y a nd qu a li t y . B . E q u ip m en t . Th e c o rre c t e qu i pm en t i s i m p o rt an t wh e n c om p ou nd i ng . Ma n y s ta t e b o a rd s o f p h a rm ac y ha v e a re q ui r ed m i ni m u m l is t o f e q ui pm en t fo r c om p ou n di n g p r e sc ri p ti o ns . Su gg e s t e d e q ui pm e nt , wh i ch v a ri es a c c o rd i ng to t he am ou n t o f m a te r i al n e ed e d a nd th e t y p e o f c o m p o un d ed pr es c ri p ti o n ( e .g . , p a re n te r al ) , i n cl ud e s t he fo l lo wi n g : 1 . E le ct r o ni c b al an c e a nd / o r c la ss A p r es c r i pt i on b a l a nc e 2 . H o t p la t e 3 . Ma g n e ti c s ti r r e r 4 . E le ct r ic m i xe r 5 . S pe ci a l c o n ta i ne r s f o r p ac k a g in g (e . g. , ap pl ic at o r ti p b o t tl es , i ns u ff l at o rs ) 6 . G r a du a te d c y l in de r s f ro m 1 0 m L t o 1 0 00 m L 7 . G l ass , W ed g wo o d, and p o rc el ai n m o rt a rs an d p e s t l es o f v a ri o us s i z es 8 . F un ne ls o f v a r io u s s i z e s 9 . S pa t ul as o f v a r io us s iz e s , in c l ud i ng s e ve r al pla s ti c s pa t ul as 1 0 . W eig h in g a nd f il t er pa p e rs 1 1 . St i r ri n g r o ds (g l as s ) 1 2 . O in tm e nt / pi l l t il e 1 3 . Ca p s u le - f il li n g m a c h in e 1 4 . O in tm e nt - f il li n g m a c h i ne 1 5 . Au t oc la v e 1 6 . L am i na r fl o w c le a n be n c h 1 7 . Sp ec i al s u pp os i to r y , t r o c h e a n d m e d ic at i on - s ti ck m o ld s P.100
1 8 . Re c or d -k e ep in g s y s te m (c om po u nd in g l o g b oo k ) 1 9 . G la s s b e ak e rs f ro m 5 0 m L to 10 00 m L C . L o ca t i on o f c o mp o un d i n g a r ea . Ma n y p h a rm a c ie s ac t i vel y i n v ol ve d in c om p ou n di ng ha v e d ed ic a t e d a s ep a r at e a r e a i n th e p h a rm ac y t o t h is p r oc e s s . Th e
i d ea l l oc a ti o n is a wa y f r om he a vy f o ot t ra f f ic a n d is ne a r a s i nk wh e r e t h ere is s u f fi ci en t s p ac e t o wo r k a n d s to r e a l l c h em ic a ls an d eq ui p m e n t. Fo r c o m po u n di ng o f s t e ri le p re p a ra t io ns , a lam i na r ai r - fl o w h o od (m in i m a l ) a nd a c l e an ro o m ar e cu r r en t p r a ct ic e , o r i s o l at i on ba rr i e r te c h no l og y e qu i pm en t . D . S o u r ce s o f i n fo r m a tio n 1 . Li b r ar y a t a c o ll e ge of p h a rm ac y 2 . R e fe r e nc e s a . A ll e n J r L V . T he A r t , S c i en c e an d T ec h no l og y o f Ph a r m ac e ut ic a l C o mp o u nd in g . 3 r d ed . W as h in g to n , D C : A m e ri c a n Ph a rm ac eu t ic a l As s o ci a ti o n, 20 0 8. b . A no n . Re m i n gt o n: Th e S c ie nc e a n d P r ac t ic e o f P h a r m ac y . 2 1s t e d. P hi la d el p hi a : L i pp i nc ot t W ill i am s & W ilk i ns ; 2 00 6 . c . Sm i th A , H e c k el m a n PE , O ' N e i l M, B u da v a r i S, e ds . Me r c k I nd e x . 13 t h e d . W hite h ou s e S ta t io n , N J : Me r c k & C o , 2 00 1 . d . T he U S P Ph a r m ac is ts ' P h a r m ac o pe ia . 2n d Ed iti o n Ro c k v i ll e , MD : U . S . P h a r m a c o pe i al C on v e n tio n , In c . , 2 0 08 . e . A ll e n L V J r , P o po v i c h N G , A n se l H C . A ns e l 's Ph a r m a c e u ti ca l Do s a g e Fo r m s an d D r u g D el iv e ry Sy s te m s . 9 t h Ed i ti o n Me d i a , P A: Lip p in c ot t W ill ia m s & W ilk in s , 2 00 8 . 3 . J ou r n al s a . I nt e rn a ti o na l J ou r na l o f P ha r m a ce u ti c a l Co mpo u n di ng b . U . S . P h a r m ac is t c . P ha r m ac y T i m es d . Li p pi nc o tt ' s H os pi t al P h a r m a cy e . A m e r ic an J o u rn al o f He a l th - Sy s te m P h a r m ac is ts 4 . Ma n u f ac t u re rs ' d r ug pr o d uc t i n fo r m a t io n i ns e r ts ; c om p ou n di ng sp ec ia l ty s u pp l ie r s 5 . We b si t e s a . C om p ou nd i ng To d a y : w w w. C o m p o u nd in g To d a y. c om b . I nt e r na t io na l J ou r n al o f P ha r m a ce u ti c a l Co mpo u n di ng : ww w. i j p c .c om c . P ad do c k La b or a to r i es , I n c . : ww w. p a d d oc kl a bs .c om
III. COMPOUNDING OF SOLUTIONS A. D e f i n i t i o n. U S P 3 0 de f i ne s s o lu t i on s a s l iq u id p r ep a ra t io ns th a t c on ta i n o ne o r m o r e ch em ic a l s u bs t an c e s d is s o l ve d ( i .e . , m ol ec u l a rl y d is pe r s e d ) i n a s u it a b le s o l ven t o r m i xt u r e o f m u tu a ll y m is c i bl e s ol ve n ts . A l t h ou gh t he un i fo rm i t y o f t he d o sa g e i n a s ol u ti o n c a n b e a s s um e d, th e s t ab il i ty, p H , so lu b il i t y o f th e d ru g o r c h em ic al s , t as te ( fo r o ra l s ol u ti o ns ) , a nd pa ck ag in g ne e d t o b e c on s i de r ed . B . T yp e s o f so l u t io n s 1 . S t e ri l e p a r en t e r al a nd o p h th a lm i c s o lu t i on s r e q ui r e s p e ci al c o ns id e ra t i on fo r t h e ir p re p a ra t io n ( s e e XI ) . 2 . N o ns t e r il e s o l u ti o ns i n c l ud e o r a l, t op ic al , a n d o t ic s o lu t io ns . C . P r e p a ra t i on o f s o lu t io n s . So lu t io ns a re th e ea s ie st o f t he do s a g e f o rm s t o c om p ou n d e xt e m po r a ne ou s l y , a s l on g a s a fe w g en e r al r ul es a re fo l lo we d . 1 . E ac h d r ug o r c h em ic a l i s d is so l ved in t he s o l v en t in wh i c h i t is m o s t s o lu b le . Th us t h e s ol u bi li t y c h a r ac te r is t i c s of ea c h d ru g o r c h em ic a l m u s t b e k n o wn .
2 . I f a n a lc oh o li c s o l ut i on o f a po o rl y wa t e r - s o l ubl e dr u g i s us e d, th e aq ueo u s s o lu t io n i s a dd e d t o t he a l c o h ol ic s ol u ti o n t o m ain t a in as h i gh an al co h ol c o nc en t r at i on as p os s i b le . P.101
3 . Th e s a lt fo r m o f t h e d ru g — no t th e f r e e -a c i d o r b a s e fo r m , wh i c h b ot h ha v e p oo r s o lu bi l it y— i s u s e d . 4 . Fl a v o r in g o r s we e t e nin g ag e nt s a r e p r ep a re d a h e ad of ti m e . 5 . W he n a dd i ng a s a l t t o a s y r up , d is s o l v e t h e s al t in a f e w m il li l it e rs of wa t e r f i rs t ; t h e n a dd th e s y r u p t o v olu m e. 6 . Th e pr o pe r v e hi c l e (e .g . , s y r u p , e li xi r , a r om a tic wa t e r , p u ri f ie d wa t e r ) m us t be s e le ct e d. D . E x am p l es 1 . E xa m pl e 1 a . M e d ic a t io n o rd e r
Triamcinolone acetonide
100 mg
Menthol
50 mg
Ethanol
10 mL
Propylene glycol
30 mL
Glycerin
20 mL
Sorbitol 70% solution, qs
100 mL
Sodium saccharin
100 mg
Sodium metabisulfite
20 mg
Disodium EDTA
100 mg
Purified water
5 mL
b . C o mp o u nd i n g p r o ced u r e . Tr i am c i no lo n e a c et o n id e 0 . 1% m o ut h wa s h s o lu t io n i s p r e pa r e d b y di s s ol v i n g th e t ri am c i n ol on e a c e t on id e an d m en t ho l i n t h e e th a n ol . Ad d t h e p r o p y le ne gl y c ol , gl y c e r in , a n d a bo u t 1 0 m L of t h e 7 0% s o rb i to l a n d m ix we l l .
D i s so l v e t h e s o d iu m s a c c h a ri n , so d iu m m e t ab is u lf i t e , an d di s o di um E D TA i n th e p u r if i ed wa t e r . Ad d t h e aq u e ou s s o l ut i on to th e dru g m i xt u r e an d m i x we l l . A d d s u f fi ci en t 70 % s or b it o l s o l u ti on t o v o l um e a nd m ix we l l . H ow m u c h o f th e t ri a mc i n o lo n e b as e is p re s en t i n th i s p r e sc r i p ti o n ? Th e m o le cu l ar we i g ht o f t r iam c i n ol o ne i s 3 9 4. 4 a n d th a t o f t ri am c i no l on e a ce to n id e i s 4 3 4 .5 .
2 . E xa m pl e 2 a . M e d ic a t io n o rd e r
Potassium chloride
1 mEq/mL
Preserved flavored, oral vehicle, qs
100 mL
b . C a lc u la t i o ns . Th e m ol e c u la r we i g ht o f p ot as s iu m c hl o r id e i s 7 4. 5 ( K = 3 9 ; Cl = 3 5 . 5 ). O n e m i ll i eq u i v al ent ( m Eq ) we i g hs 7 4 .5 m g . 1 0 0 m L × 74 . 5 m g /m L = 7 4 5 0 m g o r 7 .4 5 g o f K Cl r eq u i re d W h a t i s th e m o l a r c o nce n t r a t io n of t h is p re s c ri p t i o n? 7 . 4 5 g p e r 1 0 0 m L o r 7 4.5 g p e r 1 0 00 m L 1 m o l e o f K C l we i gh t s 7 4. 5 g I t is a 1 m ol a r s ol u ti o n c . C om p o un d i ng p r oc ed u r e . Th e s ol ub i li t y of po t as s i um c h lo r i de is 1 g i n 2. 8 m L wa t e r . Th e r e fo r e , d is s o l ve t he 7 .4 5 g K C l i n 2 1 m L o f p u ri f ie d wa t e r. A dd s u f fi ci en t p r e se r ve d f l a v or e d o r al ve h ic le t o vo l um e a nd m i x we l l . 3 . E xa m pl e 3 a . M e d ic a t io n o rd e r
Salicylic acid
2%
Lactic acid
6 mL
Flexible collodion, ad
30 mL
b . C o mp o u nd i n g p r o ced u r e . Ph a rm ac is ts m u st u s e c a u ti o n wh e n p re p a ri n g t h is p r e sc ri p ti o n b ec au s e f lexi b l e c ol lo d io n i s e xt r e m e l y f la m m ab l e. A 1 - o z . ap p li c a t o r t i p b o tt l e is c a li b r at e d, us i ng et h an o l, wh i ch is pou r e d o u t a nd an y r em a in in g al c o h ol a l lo we d t o P.102
e va p o ra t e , r es u lt in g i n a d r y b ot t le . S al ic y l ic ac i d ( 0 . 6 g ) i s a dd e d d ir e c t l y i n to th e b o t tl e , t o wh ic h i s a dd e d t h e 6 m L o f l ac t ic ac id . Th e b o t tl e is a gi ta t e d o r a g la s s s t i r ri ng r od is u s e d to dis s o l v e th e s al ic yl ic ac id . F l e xi b l e c o l lo di o n is ad de d up to t h e c al i b ra t ed 30 -m L m ar k on th e a p pl ic a to r - ti p bo t t le . 4 . E xa m pl e 4 a . M e d ic a t io n o rd e r
Iodine
2%
Sodium iodide
2.4%
Alcohol, qs
30 mL
b . C o mp o u nd i n g p r o ced u r e . I o di n e ( 0 .6 g ) a nd s o di um io di d e ( 0 .7 2 g ) ar e d i ss ol ve d i n t h e a lc oh o l, a n d t h e f in a l so l ut i on is p l ac e d in a n am b er bo t t le . A r u b b e r o r p l as t ic s pa t ul a is us ed be c a us e i o d ine i s c o r r os i ve .
IV. COMPOUNDING OF SUSPENSIONS
A. D e f i n i t i o n. S us p en s io n s a r e d e fi n ed b y U S P 3 0 as l i qu id p re p a ra t io ns t h a t c o ns is t o f s ol i d p a rt ic le s d is p e rs ed th r o ug ho u t a l i qu i d p ha s e in wh i c h t he p a r ti cl es a r e no t s ol u bl e . B . G e n e r al ch a r ac t e r is ti c s 1 . S om e s us pe ns i on s s ho u ld c o n ta i n a n a nt im ic ro b ia l a g en t a s a p re se r v a t i v e . 2 . P a rt ic l es s e tt l e i n s u s p e ns i on s e v e n wh e n a s u s pe n di ng ag e nt is ad ded ; t hu s s us p en s i o ns m us t b e we ll s h ak e n b ef o r e us e to en s u re th e d is t r ib u ti on o f p a r ti cl e s f o r a u ni f o rm d os e . 3 . Ti g ht c o n ta i ne rs a re ne c es s a r y t o e ns u re th e s t a b il i t y o f th e f i na l p r ep ar a t io n . 4 . P r in c i pl es t o k e e p i n m i nd wh e n c om po u nd i ng i nc l ud e t h e f ol l o wi n g: a . I ns ol ub l e p o wd e rs s h ou l d b e sm a ll an d u ni f o rm i n s i z e t o d ec r e as e se t tli n g . b . Th e s us p en s i o n s h o uld b e v i sc o us . c . To p ic al s us p en s i o ns s h o ul d h a v e a s m oo t h , im p a lp a bl e t e xt u r e . d . O r a l s u s p e ns io ns s h ou l d h a v e a pl e as an t o d o r a n d t as t e. C . F o r ma t i o n o f s u sp e ns i o ns . S us pe ns i on s a re e a s y to c om p ou n d; ho we v e r , p h ys ic al s t a bi li t y a ft e r c o m po u nd in g th e f i na l p r ep a r a ti on is pr o bl em a ti c . Th e f o l lo wi n g s t ep s m a y m in im i z e s t ab il i t y pr o bl em s . 1 . Th e pa r ti c l e s i z e o f a l l p o wd e r s us e d i n t he f o rm u la t io n s ho ul d be re d uc e d. 2 . A th ic k e ni n g ( s u s pe ndi n g ) a ge n t m a y b e u se d to i nc r ea se v is c o s i t y . C om m o n t h ic ke n in g a g en ts in c l u de a lg in ic ac id , be n to ni t e , V E E G U M, m e t h y l ce ll u los e , a nd t r a g ac an t h. 3 . A l e vi ga t in g a g en t m ay a i d i n t h e i ni t ia l d is p ers i on of in s o l ub le p ar t ic les . C om m o n l e vi ga t in g a g en t s i nc lu de g l y c e r i n, p ro p y le n e g l y co l , a lc o ho l , s yr up s , a nd wa t e r . 4 . Fl a v o r in g a g en ts an d p r e s e r v a ti v e s s ho u ld be s e le c t e d a nd ad d ed if t he p r e pa r a ti o n is in t en d ed fo r o ra l u s e . C om m o n p r es e r va ti v e s i nc lu d e m e t h yl p a ra b en , p r o p ylp a r ab en , be n z o ic a c id , a n d s o d iu m b en z o at e . Fl a vo ri n g a ge n ts m a y b e a n y f l a v o r ed s y r u p o r fl a v o r c o nc en t r at e ( Ta bl e 5 - 1 ). 5 . Th e s o ur c e o f t he ac t iv e i n g re di e nt s ( e .g . , b u lk p o wd e r s v e r su s t a bl e ts o r c a ps ul es ) m us t be c o ns id e r ed ; if c om m er c i a l d os a g e f o rm s a r e us e d, t he i n ac t i ve i n g re d ie n ts m us t b e c ons i de r ed an d o n l y i m m ed ia t e - re l ea s e ta b le ts o r c ap s ul es s h ou l d b e us e d a nd no t m o di f ie d r e le as e . D . P r e p a ra t i on o f s u spe n s io n s 1 . Th e i n s o lu b le po wd e rs a re t ri t u ra t ed to a f i ne p o wd e r . 2 . A s m a ll po r t io n o f l i qui d is u s e d a s a le vi ga t in g a g en t , a nd t he po wd e r s a r e t r i t u ra t ed un t il a s m oo t h p a s t e i s f o rm e d. 3 . Th e v e hi c l e c on t ai ni ng t he s u sp e nd in g a g en t is ad d ed in di v i d ed po r ti on s . A hi g h s p ee d m i xe r g r ea t l y i nc re a s e s t h e di s pe rs i on . P.103
Table 5-1. Selected Flavor Applications
Drug Category
Preferred Flavors
Antibiotics
Cherry, maple, pineapple, orange, raspberry, bananapineapple, banana-vanilla, butterscotch-maple, coconut custard, strawberry, vanilla, lemon custard, cherry custard, fruit-cinnamon
Antihistamines
Apricot, black currant, cherry, cinnamon, custard, grape, honey, lime, loganberry, peach-orange, peachrum, raspberry, root beer, wild cherry
Barbiturates
Banana-pineapple, banana-vanilla, black currant, cinnamonpeppermint, grenadine-strawberry, lime, orange, peach-orange, root beer
Decongestants and expectorants
Anise, apricot, black currant, butterscotch, cherry, coconut custard, custard mint-strawberry, grenadinepeach, strawberry, lemon, coriander, orange-peach, pineapple, raspberry, strawberry, tangerine
Electrolyte solutions
Cherry, grape, lemon-lime, raspberry, wild cherry, black currant, grenadine-strawberry, lime, Port wine, Sherry wine, root beer, wild strawberry
4 . Th e pr e pa r a ti on is br ou g h t t o t h e r eq u i re d vol um e u s i n g t he v e hi c l e . 5 . Th e fi na l m i xt u r e i s t ra n s f e r re d to a “ t ig h t ” b ott l e f o r d is p en s i n g t o t he p a t ie n t. 6 . A ll s us p en s i o ns a r e d is p en s e d wi t h a “s h ak e we l l ” l ab el . 7 . S us pe ns i on s a r e n ot fil t e re d . 8 . Th e wa t e r -s ol u bl e i ng re d ie n ts , i nc l ud in g fl a vo rin g ag e nt s, a re m i xe d i n th e ve h i cl e b e fo r e m i xi n g wi th t he in s o l ub le in g r ed ie nt s . E . E x am p le s 1 . E xa m pl e 1 a . M e d ic a t io n o rd e r
Propranolol HCI
4 mg/mL
Disp
30 mL
Sig:
1 mL p.o. t.i.d.
b . C a lc u la t i o ns . P ro p ran o lo l H C l: 4 m g / m L × 3 0 m L = 1 20 m g . P r o pr a no lo l H C l is a va i la b le as a p o wd e r o r i n i m m ed i at e - re l ea se and e xt e n d ed - r el e as e ( l on g- a c ti n g) d o sa g e f o rm s . O nl y t h e p o wd e r o r t h e im m e d ia t e- r e l ea s e ta b le ts a re us ed f o r c om p ou n di ng p re s c r ip t ion s ; t h er e fo r e , s om e co m b i na t io n o f p ro p ra n ol ol HC l t ab l et s t h a t yie ld s 1 20 m g ac ti v e d r u g ( e .g . , 3 × 4 0 m g t ab l e ts ) m a y be us ed . c . C om p o un d i ng p r oc ed u r e . Th e p r op r an o lo l t ab l e ts a r e re du c ed to a f in e po wd e r i n a m o r t a r. Th e p o wd e r o r t he c o m m i n u te d t a bl e ts a re le v i g at e d t o a s m oo t h p as t e , u s in g a 2% m e th y l c el lu l os e s ol u ti o n. To t hi s m i xt u r e , a b ou t 1 0 m L o f a s ui t a bl e f l a v o ri n g a ge n t i s a dd ed . Th e m i xt u r e i s t r an sf e r re d to a c al ib r a te d c on t ain e r an d b r o ug h t t o t h e f in a l v o l um e wi t h p u ri f ie d wa t e r o r s ui t ab l e s u s p e nd i ng v e hi c le . A “ s h ak e we l l ” l a be l i s a t tac h ed to t he p re sc ri p ti o n c o nt a in e r . 2 . E xa m pl e 2 a . M e d ic a t io n o rd e r
Zinc oxide
10
Ppt sulfur
10
Bentonite
3.6
Purified water, ad
90 mL
Sig:
Apply t.i.d.
b . C o mp o u nd i n g p r o ced u r e . Th e p o wd e rs a re re d uc e d t o a fi ne un i fo r m m i xt u r e in a m o r t a r. Th e p o wd e r s ar e m i xe d t o fo r m a sm o o th p as te us in g wa t e r a n d t r a ns f e r re d t o P.104
a ca l ib r a te d b o tt l e. Th e fi n al v o lu m e is at t ai n ed wi t h p u ri f ie d wa t e r . A “s h ak e we l l ” l a be l i s a t ta c h e d t o t h e pr e s c r ip t io n c o nt ai n e r. 3 . E xa m pl e 3 a . M e d ic a t io n o rd e r
Rifampin suspension
20 mg/mL
Disp
120 mL
Sig:
u.d.
b . C a lc u la t i o ns . Ri f am pin : 20 m g /m L × 12 0 m L = 2 4 0 0 m g . Ri f am pi n i s a v a i la b le in 1 5 0 -m g a nd 30 0 -m g c aps u le s . H e nc e, 8 c ap s u les c o n ta in i ng 30 0 m g o f rif a m p i n i n e a ch c a ps ul e o r 16 c a ps u l es c o nt a in i ng 15 0 m g o f r i f am p in pe r c a ps ul e ar e n ee de d . c . C om p o un d i ng p r oc ed u r e . Th e c on t en ts of t he a pp r op r i at e n um b e r o f r i f am pi n c a ps ul es a re em pt i ed in to a m o rt a r a n d co m m in u te d wi t h a pe s tl e . Th i s p owd e r i s l e vi ga t ed wi t h a s m al l am o un t o f 1% m e th y l c e l lul o se s o lu t io n . Th e n 2 0 m L o f s im pl e s yr u p a r e a d de d a nd m i x e d . Th e m i xt u r e i s b r ou gh t t o t he fi n al v o lu m e wi th si m p l e s yr u p . “ S h ak e we l l ” an d “ r e f r ig e ra t e ” l ab e ls a r e at t a c h ed t o t he p re sc r ip t io n c o nt a in e r .
V. EMULSIONS A. D e f i n i t i o n. Em u ls io ns a r e tw o- p h as e s ys t e m s i n wh ic h o n e l iq ui d i s d is p e rs ed t h r o ug ho u t a no t he r li q uid i n t he f or m o f s m a ll d ro p le t s ( se e Ch a pt e r 3 . V I. D ) . B . G e n e r al ch a r ac t e r is ti c s . E m ul si on s c an be us e d e x te r n al l y a s l ot i ons an d c r e am s o r i n te r n a ll y t o m as k t h e t as t e o f m ed ica t i on s . 1 . Th e t wo li q ui ds in an e m ul s i o n a re im m i s c ib le a n d re qu i r e t he us e o f an e m u ls i f yi n g a g e n t . 2 . Em u ls io ns a re c l as s i fie d as e i th e r o i l - in -w a t e r ( o /w ) o r w a t e r - in - o il (w / o ) ; t h e r e c a n a ls o b e m ul ti p le em ul s io ns , s uc h a s o i l -i n -w at e r - i n - oi l ( o/w / o ) a n d w a t e r - i n o i l - i n -w at e r (w /o /w ) , a s we l l a s em u ls io n -g e ls , i n wh i c h th e e xt e r n a l p h a s e o f a n o il i n wa t e r e m u ls i on is t h ic k e ne d wi t h a ge ll i ng ag en t . 3 . Em u ls io ns a re u ns t abl e b y na t ur e , a n d t he fo l lo wi n g s t e ps s h ou ld be t ak e n t o p r e ve n t t he t wo p ha s e s o f an em ul s i o n f r om s e pa r a ti n g i nt o t wo la ye r s a ft e r p r e pa r a ti o n. a . Th e c o r re c t p r o po r t i on s o f oi l a n d wa t e r s h o uld b e us e d d u ri ng p re p a ra t i on . Th e i n t er n al ph as e s ho u ld r ep r e s e n t 4 0% - 60 % o f th e t o t al vo lu m e .
b . A n e m u ls i f y in g a g en t i s n e ed e d f o r em u ls io n fo r m at i on . c . A h a nd h om o ge n iz e r , wh i c h re d uc es th e s i z e o f gl o bu le s o f th e i n te r na l ph as e , m a y be us e d; if s m al l q ua n t it i es a r e c om po u nd e d, t wo 6 0 -m L s y r i ng es at ta c he d wi t h a L eu r - Lo c k ad ap t e r c an b e u s e d a n d t h e m a t e ri al s p us h ed ba c k an d f o r th b e t we e n t h e t wo s y r i n ge s . d . P r e se r va t i ve s s h ou ld b e a d de d i f th e p r ep a r ati o n i s i nt e nd ed t o l as t l on g e r t h an a f e w d a y s . G e ne r al l y , a c om b in a ti o n o f m e t h y lp ar a b en ( 0. 2 % ) a nd p ro p y lp a r ab e n ( 0 . 0 2% ) m a y be us ed . e . A “ s ha k e w e l l” la b el s h ou l d b e p la c e d o n t h e f i n al pr e pa r a ti on . f . Th e p re p ar a ti o n s ho uld b e p r o t ec t ed f ro m l ig ht a nd e xt r e m e t em pe r a tur e . B ot h f r e e zi ng an d h ea t m a y ha v e a n e f fe c t on s t a bi li t y . C . E m u ls i f yi n g a g e n t s 1 . G u ms , s uc h a s a c a c i a o r t ra g ac an t h, a re us ed t o f or m o / w e m u ls i on s . Th e s e e m ul si f y i ng ag e nt s a r e fo r g en e ra l u s e , e s pe ci al ly f o r em ul si o ns i n te n de d f o r i n t er n al ad m i n is t ra t io n (Ta b l e 5- 2 ) . a . U se 1 g o f ac ac ia po wd e r fo r e v e r y 4 m L of fi x e d oi l o r 1 g t o 2 m L fo r a vo l at i le oil. b . I f u s i ng t ra g ac an t h i n p l ac e o f a ca c i a , 0 . 1 g o f t r a g ac an t h is us ed f or e ve r y 1 g o f a c ac ia . 2 . M e t h yl c e l l u l o se a nd c a r b ox ym e t h yl c e l l u l o se a r e us e d f o r o / w e m u ls i o ns . Th e c o nc en t r at i on s o f t h es e a g e nt s v a r y , d ep en d in g o n th e g r a de th a t i s us ed . Me t h yl c e l lu lo s e is a v ai l ab l e i n s e v e ra l v isc os i t y g r a d es , ra n gi ng f ro m 1 5 to 4 00 0 a n d d e si g na t ed b y a c e n ti po is e n um b e r, wh i c h is a u ni t of vi sc os it y . P.105
Table 5-2. Agents Used in Prescription Compounding Ointments Oleaginous or hydrocarbon bases
Hydrous emulsion bases (w/o)
Anhydrous
Hydrous
Nonhydrophilic
Will absorb water
Insoluble in water
Insoluble in water
Not water removable (occlusive)
Not water removable (occlusive)
Good vehicles for antibiotics Example Petrolatum Absorption bases
Examples Cold cream Hydrous lanolin Emulsion bases (o/w)
Anhydrous
Hydrous
Will absorb water
Hydrophilic
Insoluble in water
Insoluble in water
Not water removable (occlusive)
Water removable
Examples Hydrophilic petrolatum Lanolin USP (anhydrous)
Can absorb 30-50% of weight Examples Hydrophilic ointment USP Acid mantle cream Water soluble Anhydrous or hydrous Soluble in water Water removable Hydrophilic
Example Polyethylene glycol ointment Suspending Agents Acacia 10%
Methylcellulose 1%-7%
Alginic acid 1%-2%
Sodium alginate 1%-2%
Bentonite 6%
Tragacanth 1%-3%
Carboxymethylcellulose 1%-5%
VEEGUM 6%
Preservatives Methylparaben 0.02%-0.2%
Propylparaben 0.01%-0.04% Emulsifying Agents
Hydrophilic colloids
Surfactants, nonionic
Acacia
Concentrations used (1-30%)
Tragacanth
Tweens (e.g., polysorbate 80)
Pectin; favor o/w
Spans
Carboxymethylcellulose Methylcellulose Proteins
Soaps
Gelatin
Triethanolamine
Egg whites; favor o/w
Stearic acid
Inorganic gels and magmas
Others
Milk of magnesia
Sodium lauryl sulfate
Bentonite; favor o/w
Dioctyl sodium sulfosuccinate Cetyl pyridinium chloride
o/w, oil-in-water; w/o, water-in-oil P.106
3 . S oa p s c an be us ed to p r e pa r e o / w o r w/ o em uls i on s f o r e xt e r n a l p r ep a ra t i on s . 4 . N o ni o n ic em u ls i f yi n g a ge n t s c an be us ed for o / w a n d w/ o e m u ls i on s. D . F o r ma t i o n a nd p r ep ar a t i o n o f em u ls i o ns . The p r oc ed u re f or p re p ar i ng a n e m ul si o n d ep en ds on t he d es i r ed em ul si f y i ng ag en t i n th e fo r m u la t io n . 1 . A m o r t a r a n d p es t l e a r e f re qu e nt l y al l th e e qu i pm e nt th a t i s n ee de d . a . A m o r ta r wi t h a r o ug h s u r f ac e (e . g. , W ed g wo od ) sh o ul d b e u se d . Th i s ro u g h s u r fa ce al l o ws m a xi m al d i s p e rs io n o f gl ob u le s t o p r o du c e a f in e p a r ti cl e s i z e . b . A r ap i d m o t io n i s e s s e n t ia l wh e n t r it u ra t in g a n e m u ls i on us in g a m o r ta r a n d p e st l e. c . Th e m o rt a r s ho u ld be a b le t o h ol d a t l e as t t h ree t im es th e q u a nt i t y b e i n g m a de . Tr i t u r a ti o n s el do m r e qu i re s m o re t ha n 5 m i n t o c re a t e t he em ul s i o n. 2 . E le c t r ic m ix e r s a nd ha n d h om o ge ni z e r s a r e us e fu l fo r p r o du c i ng em u ls i on s a f te r t h e c oa r s e em ul s i o n is fo r m ed in th e m o rt a r . 3 . Th e o rd e r of m i xi n g of i ng r e di en t s i n a n em u lsi o n d ep e nd s o n t h e t yp e o f e m ul si o n b ei ng p re p ar e d ( i . e. , o/ w o r w/ o ) a s we l l a s t h e em u ls if y i n g a ge nt c ho s e n . Me t h o d s u s ed fo r c om p ou n di n g i nc lu d e t he f ol lo wi n g : a . D r y g u m ( c o n ti n en t al ) m e th od is us ed fo r fo r m in g em ul s i o ns u s i n g n at ur a l e m ul si f y i ng ag e nt s a nd re q ui r es a s pe c i f ic o r d er o f m i xi n g . b . W et g um ( E ng li s h ) m e t h od is u se d fo r fo r m i ng e m u ls i on s us i ng na t u ra l e m ul si f y i ng ag e nt s a nd re q ui r es a s pe c i f ic o r d er o f m i xi n g . c . B o t tl e m e t ho d i s u s ed f o r f o rm in g e m u ls i on s u s in g n a tu r al em ul si f yi ng a g en ts a n d re qu i r es a s p ec i fi c or d e r o f m i xi n g . d . B e ak e r m e t ho d i s u s e d to p re p ar e e m ul si on s u s in g s yn t he ti c e m u ls i f yin g ag e nt s a n d p r od uc e s a s at is f ac to r y p r ep a r at i on r eg a rd l es s o f t h e o r de r of m i xi n g. 4 . P r es e r va t i ve s . I f th e e m ul s i o n is k e pt f or a n ext e n d e d pe r io d o f ti m e , r e f r ig e r at i on i s u s u a ll y s u f f ic ie n t. Th e p re pa r a ti on sh o ul d n o t b e f r o zen . If a p r e se r va ti v e is us ed , i t m us t be s o lu bl e i n th e wa t e r p h as e t o b e e f fe ct i ve .
5 . F la vo r i n g a g en t s . I f th e ad di t io n o f a f la v o r is n e ed e d t o m a sk th e ta s te o f t h e o il p h as e , t he f la v o r s h ou ld b e ad d ed to th e e xt e r n a l p h as e b ef o r e em u ls if ic at i o n ( Ta b le 5-3). E . E x am p le s 1 . E xa m pl e 1 a . M e d ic a t io n o rd e r
Mineral oil
18 mL
Acacia
qs
Distilled water, qs ad
90.0 mL
Sig:
1 tablespoon q.d.
b . C o mp o u nd i n g p r o ced u r e . W ith t he dr y g um m e th o d, an in i ti a l em u ls io n ( pr im a r y e m ul si o n) is fo r m e d , us in g 4 p a rt s ( 1 8 m L ) of oi l , 2 pa r ts ( 9 m L) o f wa t e r , a n d 1 pa r t ( 4 . 5 g ) of po wd e r e d a c a c i a . Th e m i n e ra l o il is t ri tu r a t ed wi t h t h e a ca c i a i n a W edg wo o d m o r t a r. Th e 9 m L o f wa t e r is ad d ed al l a t on c e an d , wi t h r ap i d tr i t u ra t io n , f o r m t he p ri m a r y em u ls ion , wh i c h is t ri t u ra t ed fo r a b o ut 5 m i n . Th e r em ai n in g wa t e r i s i nc o r po r at e d i n s m al l a m ou n ts wi t h t r i tu r a ti on . Th e e m u ls i on is tr a ns fe r re d to a 9 0 - m L pr e s c ri p ti o n b ot t le, a nd a “ s h a ke we l l ” l ab el is at t ac h ed to th e c o nt ai n e r.
Table 5-3. Flavor Selection Guide Taste
Masking Flavor
Salt
Butterscotch, maple
Bitter
Wild cherry, walnut, chocolate mint, licorice
Sweet
Fruit, berry, vanilla
Acid
Citrus
P.107
2 . E xa m pl e 2 a . M e d ic a t io n o rd e r
Olive oil
30 mL
Zinc oxide
8g
Calamine
8g
Lime water
30 mL
b . C o mp o u nd i n g p r o ced u r e . Th e o li v e oi l i s p lac e d i n a s ui t ab l y s i z e d be a k e r . U s i ng an el ec t r ic m i xe r , t h e z in c o xi d e , th e c al am i n e , a nd th e l im e wa t e r ar e a dd ed i n th a t o r de r . Th is y ie l ds a w/ o em u ls io n . Th i s p ro c ed u re is k n o wn as th e n a sc en t s o ap m e th o d . Th e ol i v e o i l r e ac ts wi t h th e c al ci um h y d ro xi d e s o l ut i on (l im e wa t e r ) a n d f o rm s a s o ap . F o r t hi s re ac t io n t o o c c u r , f r es h l im e wa t e r (c a lc iu m h yd r o xi d e s o lu t io n ) i s r eq u i re d . A s m a ll qu an t i t y o f ol ei c a c id ca n a ls o b e a d de d to fu r t h er s t ab i li ze th e e m u ls i on . 3 . E xa m pl e 3 a . M e d ic a t io n o rd e r
Mineral oil
50 mL
Water, qs
100 mL
Sig:
2.5 mL p.o. h.s.
b . C o mp o u nd i n g p r o ced u r e . Us in g a co m b in a tio n of no n io ni c e m u ls i f y ing a ge n ts , s uc h a s Sp a n 4 0 a nd Tw e e n 4 0 , t he c o r r ec t h y d ro p hi l ic - li po p hi li c b al a nc e ( H L B ) is o b t ai ne d . Ne xt , t h e m in er a l o i l is wa r m ed in a wat e r ba t h t o a bo u t 6 0 ° C , an d th e S p a n 4 0 i s d is s o l v ed in th e he a te d m in e ra l o i l. The wa t e r is wa r m ed to abo u t 6 5 ° C , a n d t h e Twe e n 4 0 i s d is s o l v e d i n t h e h ea t ed wa t er . Th i s m i xt u r e i s a dd e d t o t he
m i ne r al oi l a n d d is s o l v ed S p a n 4 0 a nd s t i r re d u n til co o le d . A n “e xt e r n a l u s e o nl y ” l a be l i s a dd e d t o t h e c o nt a i ne r .
VI. POWDERED DOSAGE FORMS A. D e f i n i t i o n. P ow de r s a r e i n ti m a t e m i xt u r es o f d r y, f in e l y d i v i de d d r ug s a n d /o r c h em ic al s t ha t m a y be int e n de d f o r i n te r na l (o r al p o wd e r s ) o r e xt e r n a l (t op i c a l p o wd e r s ) u s e . Th e m aj o r t y p e s a r e p o wd e r p ap e rs , bu lk po wd e r s , a nd in s u f f la t io ns . B . G e n e r al ch a r ac t e r is ti c s 1 . P o wd e r d os a ge fo r m s a r e us ed wh e n d r u g s t ab i l i t y o r s o l u b i li t y i s a c o n ce r n . Th e s e d os a ge f or m s m a y a ls o b e u s e d wh e n t h e p o wd e r s a r e t o o b ul k y to m ak e i n to c a ps ul es an d wh e n t h e pa t i en t h as di f fi c ul t y s wa l lo wi n g a c ap s u l e. 2 . S om e d i sa d va n t ag e s t o po wd e r s i nc l ud e u n pl ea s an t - ta s ti ng m e di ca t io ns an d , o cc a si on a ll y , th e ra p id de t e ri o r at i on of po wd e r s . 3 . B l en d i ng of po wd e r s m a y be ac co m p l is he d b y u si n g t r it u r at i on i n a m or t a r , s t i r ri ng wi t h a s p a tu l a, an d s i f ti ng . G eo m e t r ic d i lu t i on s h ou l d b e us e d i f ne e d ed . W hen h ea v y p o wd e r s a re m i xe d wi t h l ig h te r on es , t h e h ea v i e r p o wd e r s hou l d b e p l ac e d o n t op of t he li gh te r o ne an d t h en bl en d ed. W hen m i xi n g t wo o r m or e p o wd e r s , e ac h p o wd e r s h o ul d b e pu l v e ri z e d s epa r a t el y t o a bo u t t h e sa m e p a rt ic l e s i z e b e fo r e b l en di n g t oge t h e r. a . Th e m o r ta r a n d p es t le m e th od is pr e fe r r e d wh e n p u l ve r iz a ti o n a n d a t ho r o ug h m i xi n g of in g r ed ie n ts ar e d es i r ed (g e om e tr ic di l ut i o n ) . A W edg wo o d m o rt a r i s p r e f er a bl e , b ut gl as s o r p o r c e la i n m a y a ls o b e u s e d . b . Li g ht po wd e r s ar e m i xe d be s t b y us in g t h e s i f ti n g me t h od . Th e s if t in g i s r e p ea t ed t hr e e t o f o u r t im es t o e ns u re th o ro u gh m i xi n g of t he po wd e r s . C . P r e p a ra t i on o f p ow de r d o sa g e f o r ms 1 . B u lk p ow de r s , wh i c h m a y be us e d i nt e rn a ll y or t o pi c a ll y , i nc lu d e d us tin g p o wd e r s , d ou c h e p o wd e rs , la xa t i v e s , a n ta ci ds , a nd i ns uf f la t io n p o wd e r s . 2 . A f te r a b ul k p o wd e r ha s b e en pu l v e ri z e d an d b l en d e d , i t s h ou l d b e di sp e ns e d i n a n ap p ro p r ia t e c o n ta i ne r. a . H yg r o s c o p i c o r e f f e rve s c e n t s al ts sh ou l d a l wa ys be pl a ce d i n a ti gh t , wi d e m o ut h j a r . b . D u s ti n g p o wd e rs s h ou l d b e p la c ed i n a co n ta in e r wi t h a s i f te r to p . P.108
3 . E u te c t ic mi x t u re s o f p o wd e r s c an c a us e p r ob le m s be c au s e th e y m a y l iq u e f y . O n e r em ed y i s t o a dd an i n er t po wd e r , s uc h as m a g n es iu m o xi d e , t o s e par a t e t h e e u t ec ti c m at e ri a ls . 4 . P ow de r p ap e r s a r e a ls o c al l ed di vi d ed po wd e rs . a . Th e en ti r e p o wd e r is in i t ia ll y b le n de d . E ac h d os e i s t h en in di v i d ua ll y w e i gh e d. b . Th e do s a g e sh o ul d b e we i g h e d, th e n t r an s fe r re d on t o a p o wd e r pa p er a n d f o ld e d. Th i s t ec hn iq u e r e qu i re s p r a c t ic e . H yg r o sc op ic , de l i q u es c e n t, an d e f fe r v es c e n t p o wd e r s re qu i r e t he us e o f gl as si n e p ap e r a s a n in s id e l in i ng . Pl as t ic ba gs o r e n ve l op es wi t h s na p - an d- s e al c l os ur e s o ff e r a c on v e n i en t a l te r na t i v e t o po wd e r p a p er s .
c . Th e f o ld e d p ap e rs ar e d is p en s e d i n a po wd e r b o x o r o t he r s u it a bl e c ont a i ne r ; h o we ve r , t he s e c o n ta i ner s a re no t c hi l d r es is t an t. D . E x am p l es 1 . E xa m pl e 1 a . M e d ic a t io n o rd e r
Camphor
100 mg
Menthol
200 mg
Zinc oxide
800 mg
Talc
1.9 g
M foot powder Sig:
Apply to feet b.i.d.
b . C o mp o u nd i n g p r o ced u r e . Th e c am ph o r a nd m e nt h ol a re t ri t ur a te d tog e t he r in a g l as s m o r t a r, wh e r e a li qu i d e u te c t ic is fo r m e d . Th e zi nc o xi d e a nd t al c a re b le nd e d a n d m i xe d wi t h th e e u te c t i c , us i ng ge om e tr ic di l uti o n . Th i s m i xi n g r es u lt s in a d r y p o wd e r , wh i c h is pa s s ed t h r ou g h a wi r e m es h s i eve . Th e f in al p re p a ra t io n i s d i sp e ns ed in a c o n ta i ne r wi t h a s i ft e r to p . 2 . E xa m pl e 2 a . M e d ic a t io n o rd e r
Citric acid
0.3 g
Sodium bicarbonate
0.25 g
Psyllium mucilloid
2g
Powdered flavor, qs M. Ft d.t.d. charts v
Sig: Empty the contents of one chart into a glass of water and take h.s.
b . C a lc u la t i o ns . Ca lc u lat e f or on e e xt r a p o wd e r p a p er :
Citric acid 0.3 g × 6 doses
=
1.8 g
Sodium bicarbonate 0.25 g × 6 doses
=
1.5 g
Psyllium mucilloid 2 g × 6 doses
=
12 g
Total wight
=
15.3 g
15.3 g/6 doses
=
2.55 g/dose
N o t e : Al s o c o ns id e r t h e we i g h t of t he po wd e r e d fl a v o r . c . C om p o un d i ng p r oc ed u r e . Th e i ng r ed i en ts a re f i rs t p ul v e r i z e d a nd we i g he d . Th e c i t ri c ac i d a nd s o di um bic a r bo na t e a r e m i xe d to ge t h e r f i rs t; t he ps y l li um m uc i ll oi d i s t h e n a dd e d a lo ng wi t h the p o wd e r ed fl a vo r , us i ng g e om et r ic di l ut io n . Ea c h d os e ( 2 . 5 5 g ) o f t h e r es u lt a nt m i xt u r e is we i gh e d a nd pl a ce d i n to a p o wd e r p a pe r . Th is p r e pa r a ti o n is an ef f e r v es c e n t p o wd e r . W hen di s s o l v e d i n wa t e r, t he c i t ri c a c id an d s o di um bi c a r bo n at e re ac t t o f o rm c a r bo n ic a ci d , wh i c h yi el ds c a r bo n d i o xi d e , m a k i n g t h e s ol u ti o n m o r e p a la t ab l e .
VII. CAPSULES A. D e f i n i t i o n. C a ps u le s a r e s ol i d d os ag e f o rm s in wh i c h t h e d ru g i s e nc los e d wi t h i n e i t he r a h ar d o r s o f t s o l ub l e c on t ai n er o r s h e ll . Th e s h el ls a re us ua ll y m ad e f ro m a s u it a bl e g el a ti n . Ha r d g el a t in c a ps ul es m a y b e m a n u al l y fi ll e d f o r e xt e m po r a ne o us c om p ou n di ng . P.109
Table 5-4. Approximate Amount of Powder Contained in Capsules Capsule SizeRange of Powder Capacity (mg) No. 5
60-130
No. 4
95-260
No. 3
130-390
No. 2
195-520
No. 1
225-650
No. 0
325-910
No. 00
390-1300
No. 000
650-2000
B . C a p su l e s iz e s 1 . A l is t of c a ps ul e s i z es a n d t he ap p r o xi m at e a m o u n t o f p o wd e r th a t m a y b e c o nt a in e d i n t he c a ps ul e a p pe a r o n t h e si d e o f t he ca ps u le bo x ( Ta b l e 5 - 4) . 2 . C ap s ul e s i z es f o r o r a l a dm i ni st r a ti o n in hu m ans r an g e f r om n o . 5 , t h e s m a ll es t , t o n o . 0 0 0, t he la r ge s t. 3 . N o . 0 i s u s u al l y t he lar g e s t o ra l s i z e s u i ta b le fo r h um an pa t ie n ts . 4 . C ap s ul es fo r v e te r i na ri a ns a re a v ai la b le in no . 1 0 , n o . 1 1 , a nd no . 1 2 , c o n t ai ni n g a p p ro xi m a t el y 3 0 , 1 5, and 7 .5 g , r es p ec ti v e l y . C . P r e p a ra t i on o f h a r d a n d s o f t c a ps u l es 1 . A s wi t h th e b u lk p o wd e r s , a ll in g re d ie n ts a r e t ri t u ra t e d a nd bl en d ed , u sin g g e om e t ri c d il u ti on . 2 . Th e c o r re c t s i z e c a ps u l e m us t b e d e te r m i ne d b y t r y i n g d if f e re n t c ap su le s i z e s , we i g h i ng t he m , an d t h en c ho os i ng th e a p p ro p ri a te s i z e . 3 . B ef o r e f il li n g c ap s u le s wi t h t h e m e d ic at i on , t h e b o d y a n d c ap of th e c a ps u le a re s e pa r a te d . F il li n g is ac c o m pl is h ed b y u s i n g t he “p u nc h ” m et h od ( Al t e rn a tive l y, sm a ll c a ps ul e m ac hi n es a r e c om m o n l y u s e d to p re pa r e u p to 30 0 c ap s ul es at a ti m e, e xt e m p o r an e ou s l y ) . a . Th e po wd e r f or m u l at i on is c o m p r es se d wi t h a sp a t ul a o n a pi ll ti l e o r p ap e r s h ee t wi t h a un i fo r m d ep t h o f ap p r o xi m a te l y ha l f t he le ng t h o f th e c ap s u l e b od y.
b . Th e em pt y c ap s u l e b od y i s r e pe a te d l y p r es se d i n to th e po wd e r un t il fu l l. c . Th e c ap s u l e is t he n we i gh e d t o e ns u re an ac c u r a t e d os e. A n em p t y ta re c a ps u le o f t he s am e s i z e i s p la c ed o n t he pa n c o nt ai n in g th e we i g ht s . 4 . F or a l a rg e n um b er o f c a ps ul es , c a ps ul e -f i ll in g m ac h in es ca n b e u se d f or sm a ll s ca l e us e to s a v e ti m e . Mo s t c om m o n l y, c ap s u l es m a c h in e s a re us e d c a pa b le o f p r e pa r i ng 10 0 t o 3 0 0 c ap s ul es at a t im e . 5 . Th e c a ps ul e i s wi p e d c l ea n o f a n y po wd e r o r oi l an d d is pe n s e d i n a s u it a b le p r e sc ri p ti o n v i a l. D . E x am p l es 1 . E xa m pl e 1 a . M e d ic a t io n o rd e r
Rifampin
100 mg
dtd #50 Sig:
1 cap p.o. q.d.
b . C a lc u la t i o ns . Co m p ou n d t h is p r es c ri p ti on us in g th e c om m e r c i al l y a v ail a bl e 3 0 0 m g c ap s ul es as t h e d r ug s ou r c e . C al c u la t e f o r a t l e as t o n e e xt r a c ap su le .
51 caps × 100 mg/cap
=
5100 mg rifampin
5100 mg rifampin ÷ 300 mg/cap
=
17 caps
P.110
c . C om p o un d i ng p r oc ed u r e . Us e 1 7 ri fa m pi n c ap s ul es , e a c h c o nt a in in g 3 0 0 m g r i f am pi n . Th e c o n te n t o f e a c h c a ps ul e i s e m p t ie d , a n d t he po wd e r is we i g he d . Th e p o wd e r e qu i v al e nt t o 1 00 m g r if am p in is p l ac ed in a c ap s ul e ( e .g . , i f th e to t a l c o nt e nt s o f o n e c a p s u le we i g h 3 60 m g ; t h en 10 0 /3 0 0 = x / 3 60 ; x = 1 20 m g o f ac t i v e d r u g p o wd e r re q ui r ed f rom t he c a ps ul e c on t en t s to p r o vid e 1 00 m g ac ti v e d r u g ) a nd s u f fi ci en t la c t os e a d de d t o fi l l t he c a ps ul e . Th e to t a l f il le d c a ps ul e c on t en t s we ig h 2 0 0 m g. Th e we i g ht of t he ac t i v e d r ug po wd e r is s u bt r ac t ed f ro m 2 00 m g t o ob t ai n t h e a m o u nt o f l ac to s e r eq u i re d p e r c ap s u l e, wh i c h i s 20 0 m g - 12 0 m g = 80 m g . Th is i s m ul t ip li e d b y 5 1 c a ps ul e s . E no u gh la ct os e (5 1 c a ps ul es × 8 0 m g/ c a p = 4 . 0 8 g ) i s a d d ed to m a k e a t ot a l o f 1 0 .2 g o f p o wd e r . Th e po wd e r s a re c om b in e d, usi n g g e om e t ri c d il u ti on , a n d 50 c a ps u le s c an be pu nc he d ou t . E a c h c a ps ul e s ho u ld we i g h 2 0 0 m g ( 1 0. 2 g / 51 c a ps ). 2 . E xa m pl e 2 a . M e d ic a t io n o rd e r . Thi s o r d er is fo r v e te r i na r y u s e o nl y.
Castor oil
8 mL
Disp
12 caps
Sig:
2 caps p.o. h.s.
b . C a lc u la t i o ns . No c a lc u l a ti on s a r e n ec es s a r y. c . C om p o un d i ng p r oc ed u r e . A n o. 11 v e t e ri na ry c a ps ul e i s u s e d . U s in g a c a li b ra t ed d ro p pe r o r a pi p e tt e , 8 m L o f th e o il is c a r ef u ll y a dd ed t o t he ins i de of e a ch c a ps ul e b o d y . Ne xt , t h e lo we r i ns i de po r t io n o f th e c ap is m oi s te n ed , u s i n g a g l as s r o d o r b r us h . Th e c a p a nd bo d y a re jo in e d t o g et h e r, us in g a t wi s ti ng m o t io n , t o f or m a ti g ht s e al . Th e c a ps ul es a re pl ac e d o n a p ie c e of f il te r pa p e r a nd c h ec k ed f o r s i gn s o f l ea k ag e . Th e c ap s u l es ar e d is p en se d i n th e a p p ro p ri a te s i z e an d t ype o f p r e sc ri p ti o n v i a l. Th e y c a n be s t o re d i n a r ef r i ge ra t o r i f d es i r ed .
VIII. MOLDED TABLETS (TABLET TRITURATES) A. D e f i n i t i o n. Ta b le t tr i tu r a t es a r e s m a ll , u s u a ll y c y l in d ri c al m ol d ed o r com p r es s e d t a b le ts . Th e y a re m a de of p o wd e rs c re a te d b y m oi s te n in g t h e p o wd e r m i xt u r e wi t h a l co h ol a n d wa t e r o r b y th e p ro c e ss o f s i nt e ri n g. Th e y c a n b e u s e d f o r c om p ou n di ng p o t en t d r u gs i n s m a ll dos es an d fo r pr e pa r a ti on o f a r a pi dl y d is i nt e gr a ti ng / d iss o l v in g d o sa g e f o rm . B . F o r m ul a t io n a n d p r ep a r a t io n o f t a bl e t t ri t u ra t e s u s in g m o i s te n ed pow de r s
1 . Ta b le t t ri tu r a te s a r e m a d e i n s pe c i a l m o l ds c ons is t in g o f a p eg bo a r d a nd a c o r re s po nd i ng pe r f or a ted p la t e. 2 . I n a dd i ti on t o t he m o ld , a d il u en t , u s u al l y a m ixt u r e o f la c to se an d s uc ro s e ( 8 0 : 20 ) , a nd a m oi s t e ni ng a ge n t, us ua l l y a m i xt u r e o f e t h y l a lc oh ol an d wa t e r ( 6 0 : 40 ) , a r e r e qu i re d . 3 . Th e di lu e nt is t ri tu r a ted wi t h t he ac ti ve in g r ed ie n ts . 4 . A p a s t e i s t he n m ad e , u s i n g t he al c o h ol an d wa t e r m i xt u r e . 5 . Th i s p as te is s p re a d in t o th e m ol d ; t he ta b le ts a r e p u nc he d o u t a nd r em a in on th e p e gs un t il d r y . C . E x am p l e 1 . M e d ic a t io n o rd e r
Atropine sulfate
0.4 mg
Disp
#500 TT
Sig:
u.d.
2 . C a lc u la t i on s . F o r 5 0 0 TT: 5 0 0 × 0 . 4 m g = 20 0 m g a t r op i ne s u lf a te 3 . C o mp o u nd i ng p r oc ed u r e . Th e m o l d p r ep a re s 7 0 -m g t a bl e ts . Th e 2 00 m g o f a t r o pi ne s u l fa t e, 6. 8 g o f s uc r os e , a nd 28 g o f l ac t o se a re we i g he d a n d m ixe d b y g e om e t ri c d il u ti on . Th e po wd e r i s we t wi t h a m i xt u r e of 40 % p u ri f ie d wa t er a n d 6 0% e t h yl a lc o ho l (9 5% ) . Th e p as t e t h at is fo r m e d i s s p r e ad on t o t h e t ab l et t ri tu r a t e m o ld ; th e t a bl e ts a r e t h en p un c h e d o ut o f t he m o ld a nd al lo we d t o d r y o n th e pe gs . Th i s p ro c e d ur e i s re pe a te d un t il th e re q ui r ed num b e r o f t ab l et t ri t u ra t es h a s b ee n p r e pa r e d. P.111
D . F o r m ul a t io n a n d p r ep a r a t io n o f t a bl e t t ri t u ra t e s u s in g si n t e ri n g 1 . Th e se ta b le t t r i tu r a te s a r e m ad e i n s pe c i a l m o ld s c on s i s ti n g o f m a t e ri a ls t ha t c an t o l er a t e h ea t t o a b ou t 1 00 ° C . 2 . I n a dd i ti on t o t he m o ld , a d il u en t , u s u al l y a m ixt u r e o f ac t i v e d r ug an d d i lu e nt , wh i c h m a k e up ap p ro xi m a t e l y 6 5 % o f t h e t ab l et we i gh t , a r e b l en de d to ge th e r . Ma n n i t o l i s g oo d t o u s e in c o m b i na t io n wi t h l ac tos e fo r p a r ti c l e s i z es of 60 - 8 0 m es h f r a ct i on . 3 . Th e m i xt u r e is t r i tu r a te d wi t h p o l yet h yl en e g l yc o l 3 35 0 wi t h a p a r ti cl e s i z e o f 80 1 0 0 m es h f r ac t io n .
4 . Th e po wd e r m i xt u r e is p l ac ed in t o a pp r op r i at e m o ld s a nd li gh t l y ta m p e d. 5 . Th e m o ld s c o n ta i ni ng t h e p o wd e r a re pl ac ed in a n o v e n a t ab o ut 90 ° C fo r 1 0- 2 0 m i n, r em o v ed an d a l lo we d t o c oo l . D e pe n di ng on t h e m ol ds us e d, th e ta ble t s c an be d i sp e ns ed in th e m ol ds or r e m o v e d f r om th e m ol ds an d p a c k ag ed an d l a bel e d . E . E x am p le 6 . M e d ic a t io n o rd e r
Homatropine hydrobromide
300 mg
Mannitol
3.5 g
Lactose
3.47 g
Flavor (dry powder type), qs Polyethylene glycol 3350
3.5 g
7 . C a lc u la t i on s . As p r es e n t ed , th is fo r m u la is fo r 1 0 0 r a pi d -d is s o l v i ng ta bl e t t r i t u ra t es . 8 . C o mp o u nd i ng p r oc ed u r e . Bl e nd th e h om a t rop i ne h yd ro b r om id e , m a nn i t ol , l a ct os e , a nd d r y fl a v o r t og e t he r un t il fi ne an d un i fo r m l y m i xe d . Se p a ra t el y , r e d uc e t h e p a r ti c l e s i z e o f t h e po l y e t h y le n e g l yc o l 3 35 0 to 1 00 - 20 0 m es h f r ac t io n . L i gh t l y b l en d i n th e p ol y e t h y l ene g l yc o l 3 35 0 i n to th e p re v i o us l y bl e nd ed po wd e r s . Pl a ce 1 0 0 m g o f t h e p o wd e r i n to t he c a vi t ie s o f a m ol d (s om e b l is te r pa c k s wo r k we l l ; o t h e r wi s e , o b ta i n a ta bl et t r it u r at e m ol d o r a s pe c i a l m ol d f o r p r ep a ri n g t he s e t a b le ts ) . Pl ac e th e m ol d c o nt a in in g th e p o wd e r i n a n o v e n a t 80 - 90 ° C f or 1 5 - 20 m i n . Th e t im e de pe n ds o n th e m ol d , f o rm ul a ti o n, o v en , e t c . R em o v e f r om th e ov e n a nd p l ac e i n a r ef r ig e r at o r f or a p pr o xi m a te l y 5 m in . Re m o v e f r om th e re f ri g e rat o r an d l e t s e t a t ro om te m p e r at u r e. P a c k ag e a n d l ab e l.
IX. OINTMENTS, CREAMS, PASTES, AND GELS A. D e f i n i t i o ns 1 . O i n tm e n ts , c r e am s , a n d pa s te s a r e s em is ol id d os ag e f o rm s i n te nd e d f o r to pi ca l a p pl ic a ti o n t o t h e s k in o r m uc ou s m em b ra ne s . O in t m e nt s ar e c ha r ac t e ri ze d as b e in g o l ea g in ou s i n n a tur e ; c re a ms a re ge ne r a ll y o / w o r w/ o e m u ls io ns , an d pa s t es a r e c h ar a c t e ri z e d b y t h eir h ig h c o nt e nt of s o li d s (a b o ut 25 % ) . 2 . G e ls (s o m e ti m es c al l ed j el li es ) a re s em is o li d sy s t e m s c on si s ti n g o f su s p e ns i on s m a de up of ei t he r s m al l in o r ga n ic p a r ti c l es o r l arg e o rg an ic m o le cu l es i n t er p en e t ra t ed b y a li q ui d . B . G e n e r al ch a r ac t e r is ti c s . Th es e d os ag e f o rm s a r e s em is ol i d p re p a ra t ion s g e n er a ll y a pp li e d e xt e r na l l y . Se m i s o li d do s a ge fo r m s m a y c o n ta i n ac t i ve d r u gs i n t en de d to :
1 . A c t s o le l y on th e s u r fa c e o f t h e s k in t o p ro d uce a l oc a l e f fe c t ( e. g . , a nti f u ng al a g e nt ; to pi c a ls ) 2 . R el e as e t h e m e d ic at i on , wh i c h , in tu r n , p en e t ra t es in t o t h e s k in ( e. g . , h yd r o co r ti s on e c r ea m ) 3 . R el e as e m ed ic a ti on f or s y s te m i c a bs o rp t io n t h ro u g h t he s k i n (e . g ., ni t r og l y c e ri n ; t r a ns d er m al s ) C . T yp e s o f o in t me n t ba s e s 1 . H yd r op h ob ic ba s e s f ee l gr e as y a nd c o nt a in m ixt u r e s o f f a ts , o i ls , a nd wa xe s . H yd r o p h ob ic ba s e s c a n no t be wa s h ed of f u s i n g w a t e r . P.112
2 . H yd r op h il ic ba s e s a r e u s ua ll y e m u ls i on ba se s . Th e o / w- t y p e em u ls io n ba s es c a n b e ea si l y wa s he d o f f wi th wa t e r , bu t t h e w/ o t y p e i s s li gh t l y m o re di f fi c ul t t o r em o v e . D . P r e p a ra t i on o f o i n tme n t s , c r ea m s, p as t es , an d g el s 1 . Mi xi n g c a n b e d on e i n a m o r ta r o r o n a n o in tm e n t s la b o r ti l e o r u s i n g a n oi n tm en t m i ll . 2 . Li q ui ds a re in c o r po r a te d b y g r a du al l y ad d in g th e m t o a n a bs o rp t io n - t y pe b as e a nd m i xi n g . 3 . I ns ol ub l e p o wd e rs a re r e d uc ed to a f in e po wd er a n d t he n a d de d t o th e b a s e , u s in g g e om et r ic di lu t io n . 4 . W at e r -s ol u bl e s ub s t a nc es a re di s s ol ve d wi t h wa t e r a n d t he n i nc o r po r ate d in t o t he b a se . 5 . Th e fi na l p r e pa r a ti on s h ou l d b e s m oo t h ( im p alp a bl e ) a n d f r ee of an y ab r a si ve p a r ti c l e s . E . E x am p le s 1 . E xa m pl e 1 a . M e d ic a t io n o rd e r
Sulfur Salicylic acid, aa
600 mg
White petrolatum, ad
30 g
Sig:
Apply t.i.d.
b . C o mp o u nd i n g p r o ced u r e . Th e p a rt ic l e s i z e s o f t he s u lf u r a nd s a li c y lic ac id a re r e d uc ed s e p ar a te l y in a W edg wo o d m o r t a r a nd the n bl en d ed t og e th e r. U s in g a p il l t i l e, th e p o wd e r m i xt u r e is le v i g at e d wi t h t he ba s e. U s in g g e om et r ic di lu t ion , t he
b a se an d p o wd e r s a r e b le n d ed to th e fi na l we i gh t. A n o i nt m e n t j a r o r p l as ti c tu be is u s ed fo r di s p e ns in g , a nd a n “e xt e r n a l u s e on l y” la b el is pl ac e d o n t he c on t a in e r . c . Al t e r n a te me t h od . Sup p os e y ou ha v e s u l fu r 5% i n wh i t e p e t ro l at um oin t m e n t a nd a sa l ic y l ic a c i d 5 % o i nt m e n t . How c an yo u p r e p a r e t h e p r e sc r i p ti o n u s in g t he s e a n d di l u ti n g w i th w h i te p e t r o la t u m?
H o we ve r , s i nc e we a r e us i ng t wo di f f er e n t 5 % oi nt m en t s, 2 p a rt s o f e ac h , t h is l e a ves 1 p a rt f or t he wh i te p et r o la t um . A t ot al o f 5 p a r ts i s t o b e u se d to m a k e 3 0 g ( 6 g p e r p a rt ) : 2 p ar t s ( 12 g ) o f th e s ul f u r 5% , 2 pa r t s ( 1 2 g ) o f th e s al ic y l ic ac id 5% , a n d 1 pa r t (6 g ) o f t he wh i t e p et r ol a t um c ou l d b e u s ed . To c h ec k :
12 g × 0.05
=
600 mg of sulfur
12 g × 0.05
=
600 mg of salicylic acid
12 g + 12 g + 6 g
=
30 g
2 . E xa m pl e 2 a . M e d ic a t io n o rd e r
Methylparaben
0.25 g
Propylparaben
0.15 g
Sodium lauryl sulfate
10 g
Propylene glycol
120 g
Stearyl alcohol
250 g
White petrolatum
250 g
Purified water
370 g
Disp
60 g
Sig:
Apply u.d.
P.113
b . C a lc u la t i o ns . Th e q ua n t it y o f e ac h i n gr e di e nt r e q ui r e d t o p r ep a re 60 g i s o b t ai ne d as f o ll o ws . Th e m ed ic a ti o n o r de r i s f o r 1 0 0 0 g ; t he r e fo r e , t he m u l t ip li c a t io n f a c to r i s 6 0 /1 0 00 = 0 .0 6 .
0.25 g × 0.06
=
0.15 g methylparaben
0.15 g × 0.06
=
0.009 g propylparaben
10 g × 0.06
=
0.6 g sodium lauryl sulfate
120 g × 0.06
=
7.2 g propylene glycol
250 g × 0.06
=
15 g stearyl alcohol
250 g × 0.06
=
15 g white petrolatum
370 g × 0.06
=
22.2 g purified water
S i n ce th e 0 . 00 9 g o f p rop y l p a ra b en is to o sm a ll to ac c u r a te l y we i g h, a d ilu t i on c a n b e p re pa r e d as f ol lo ws , a s s u m i ng a m i n im um we ig h a bl e q ua n ti t y o f 1 20 m g . W ei gh 1 2 0 m g o f p r op y l p a ra be n a n d a dd to 40 m L of p rop yl e n e gl yc o l, r es ul t in g in a p r o p ylp a r ab en c o nc e nt r at i o n o f 3 m g /m L. Ta k e 3 m L o f th is s o lu t io n t o o b ta i n t h e p r o p ylp a r ab en an d s u bt ra c t t h e 3 m L f r om th e q ua n t it y o f p r op yl e ne gl yc ol r eq u i re d i n th e f o rm u la . c . C om p o un d i ng p r oc ed u r e . Th e s te a r y l a lc oh ol a nd th e wh i te pe t r ol a tum a re m e lt e d o n a s t ea m b at h a n d h e at e d t o a bo u t 7 5 °C . Th e o th e r i ng r e di en t s , p r e v i ou sl y d i ss ol ve d i n p u ri f ie d wa te r a t a bo u t 7 8 ° C, a re add e d . Th e m i xt u r e is s t i r re d un t il it c o ng e al s . A n o in tm e nt jar i s us e d f o r d is pe ns i ng , a n d a n “e xt e r n a l u se on ly ” l a b el i s p l ac e d o n t he ja r . 3 . E xa m pl e 3 a . M e d ic a t io n o rd e r
Scopolamine hydrobromide
0.25%
Soy lecithin
12 g
Isopropyl palmitate
12 g
Pluronic F-127 20% gel, qs
100 mL
Sig:
Apply 0.1 mL t.i.d.
b . C a lc u la t i o ns . Th e q ua n t it y o f s co po l am in e h y d r o b ro m i d e r eq u i re d f o r th e p r e sc ri p ti o n wi l l be 0 . 0 02 5 × 10 0 m L = 0. 2 5 g o r 2 5 0 m g
c . C om p o un d i ng p r oc ed u r e . Mi x t h e s o y l e ci th in wi t h t he is op r op y l pa lm i t a te . D i s so l v e t h e s c op o la m i ne h y d r ob r om id e i n a b ou t 3 m L o f p ur i fi e d wa t e r and a dd to a b o ut 70 m L o f th e Pl u ron i c F - 12 7 g e l. A dd th e so y l ec i th i n -i s o p ro p yl p a lm i ta t e m i xt u r e , a n d m i x we l l . Ad d s u f fi c i en t Pl u r on ic F -1 2 7 g el t o v o l um e, an d m i x we l l u s in g a s h ea r in g te c h ni qu e . Pa c k ag e a n d l ab e l.
X. SUPPOSITORIES A. G e n e r a l ch a r ac t e r is ti c s 1 . S up p os it o ri e s a re s ol id b o di e s o f v a ri ou s we i gh t s a nd sh a pe s , ad a pt e d f o r i n t ro d uc t io n i n to th e re c ta l , v ag i na l , o r u r e th r al o ri f ic es o f t he hu m a n b o d y. Th e y a r e u s ed to de l i v e r d ru g s f o r t h ei r lo ca l o r s ys t em ic ef f e ct s. 2 . S up p os it o ri e s di f f e r i n s i z e an d s h ap e a n d i nc lu d e a . R ec t al b . V ag i na l c . U r et h ra l B . C o m mo n s u p po s i to r y b a s e s 1 . C o co a b u t t e r ( t he o b ro m a o il ) , wh ic h m el t s a t b o d y te m p e r at u r e, is a fa t - s o l ub le m i xt u r e of t ri g l yc e r id es th a t i s m os t o f te n u s e d f or r e c t a l s u p po si t o ri es . W i t e ps ol is a s yn th e ti c t r ig l y c e r id e . F a t t y ac id ba se s i nc lu d e F a t ti b as e . 2 . P o l ye t h yl e n e g l yc o l ( P E G , c a rb o wa x) d e r i v a t iv e s a re wa t e r -s o lu b le bas es s u it a bl e f o r v ag i na l a nd re c ta l s up p os it o r ie s . P ol y b a s e is a n e xa m p l e . 3 . G l yc e r i n a t e d g el a t in i s a wa t e r -m is ci b le ba se o f t en us ed in v a gi n al and r ec t al s u pp os i to r ie s . P.114
C . S u p po s i to r y m o l d s 1 . S up p os it o r y m o ld s c an b e m a d e o f r u bb e r , p las t ic , b r as s , s t a in le s s s t ee l , o r ot h e r s u it a bl e m at e r ia l. 2 . Th e fo r m u la t io n a n d v o l um e o f th e b as e d e pe nd o n t he s i z e of t he m o ld u se d , l e ss th e d is pl ac e m e n t c au s ed b y th e a c t i ve i n g red i e n t . D . M e th o ds o f p r e pa r i ng a n d d is p e ns i ng s up po s i t o r ie s 1 . M o l de d su p po s i to r i es a r e p re p a re d b y f i rs t m e l t in g t h e b as e a nd th e n i n co r po r a ti n g t he m e di c at i o ns u n if o rm l y in t o t he ba s e. Th i s m i xt u r e is t he n p o u re d i n t o t he s u pp os i to r y m old ( f us io n m et h od ) . 2 . H a nd - r o l le d s u p po s i to r i e s re qu i r e a s pe ci a l te c hn i qu e . W ith p r o pe r tec h ni q ue , i t i s p os si b le to m a k e a p re p a ra t io n e q ua l i n q u al ity t o t he m o ld e d su p po s i to r i es . 3 . C o n ta i ne r s fo r t h e su p p o si t o r ie s a r e d e te r m i n ed b y th e m e th od a nd b a se us ed i n pr e pa r a ti o n. H an d - ro l le d an d m ol d ed s u pp os i tor i e s sh o ul d b e d is pe n se d i n s p ec ia l b o xe s t ha t p r e v en t t he s u pp os i to r ie s f r om c om in g i n c on t ac t wi t h ea c h o th e r . S u p po si t o ri es m a de us ing p la s t ic st r ip m o ld s a r e e a s i l y di s p e ns ed in v a ri ou s t y pe s o f pa ck a ge s . 4 . S t o ra g e c o nd i t i on s . If a pp r o pr i at e , a “ re f r ig e ra t e ” l a be l s ho ul d a p pe a r o n th e c o nt a in e r . R e ga r dl es s o f t h e b as e o r m e di c a t io n u s ed in th e fo rm u la t io n , t h e p a ti e nt s h ou l d b e i ns t ru c t e d t o s t o r e t h e su p po s i t o ri es in a co o l, d r y p l ac e .
E . E x am p le s 1 . E xa m pl e 1 a . M e d ic a t io n o rd e r
Naproxen suppository
500 mg
Disp
#12
Sig:
Insert u.d. into rectum
b . C a lc u la t i o ns . Ea c h s ta n d ar d a d ul t s up p os it o r y s ho u ld we i g h 2 g , bu t i t d e p en ds o n th e m ol d u s e d a n d s ho u ld be c a li b r at e d b ef o re c o m p o un d in g . A ls o , t he d i sp la c em en t m us t b e d et e r m i n ed fo r th e a d de d po wd e r . 2 g (t o ta l we i gh t ) - 0 .5 4 0 g ( we i g ht of b as e d is pl ac e d b y t he 50 0 -m g t a bl e t) p e r s u pp os i to r y
=
1.46 g cocoa butter per suppository × 13 suppositories
=
18.98 g cocoa butter
c . C om p o un d i ng p r oc ed u r e . Th e 1 3 n ap r o xe n 50 0 - m g ta b le ts a re t ri t u ra te d to a f i n e p o wd e r , us i ng a W ed g wo o d o r p or ce l ai n m o rt a r . Th e 1 8 .9 8 g c oc o a bu t t e r b as e i s m el t ed in a b ea k e r , u s i n g a wa t e r b a th . Th e t em p e ra t ur e o f th e wa t e r ba t h s ho u ld n o t e xc e e d 36 ° C . Th e p owd e r i s th en ad d ed an d s t i r re d u n ti l m i xe d . Th e m i xt u r e is p o u re d i n to an ap p r op r iat e r ec ta l s up p os i to r y m o ld ( a bo u t 2 g pe r s u pp os it o r y) a nd p l ac e d in t o a r ef r ig e r at o r u n ti l t h e s up po si t o ri es c o n g ea l. A n y e xc e s s i s s c r a p ed f r o m t he t op of t he m o ld , a n d a s up p os it o r y bo x i s us ed f o r di s pe ns in g . A “ r e f r ig e ra t e ” l ab e l is pl ac e d on th e b o x. 2 . E xa m pl e 2
a . M e d ic a t io n o rd e r
Progesterone
50 mg
Disp
#14
Sig:
1 per vagina once daily on days 14-28 of cycle
b . C a lc u la t i o ns . To ta l we i gh t of ea c h v a gi n al s up p os i to r y is 1. 9 g. As s um i ng 50 m g p r o ge s te r on e d is p la c e s 5 0 m g P E G b as e : 5 0 m g p r o ge s t e r on e /s upp o s i t o r y × 15 = 7 5 0 m g pr o g es t er o ne 1 . 9 g ( to t al we i g ht ) - 0 . 05 0 g p r og es t e ro ne = 1 .8 5 g P E G × 1 5 s up po s it o ri e s = 2 7. 7 5 g P E G to t al P.115
c . C om p o un d i ng p r oc ed u r e . Th e P E G is m e lt e d t o 55 - 57 ° C , a n d 7 50 m g p r o ge s te r on e i s a dd e d. Th i s m i xt u r e is po u re d i nt o a v ag in a l su p po s i t o r y m o ld , a l lo we d t o c oo l , c l e an e d, a n d d is pe ns e d.
XI. PARENTERAL PREPARATIONS A. G e n e r a l r e qu i r em e n ts . Th e e xt e m p o r an eo us c om p ou n di ng o f s te r il e pr e p a ra t io ns o cc u rs in m a n y ph a rm ac y e n v i r o nm en ts , in cl ud i ng co m m un i t y, h om e h e al th c a re , h o sp i ta l , a nd nu c l e ar . Mi n i m u m r e qu i re m e n ts i n c lu d e 1 . P r op e r e qu i pm en t a n d s up p li es 2 . P r op e r f ac il i ti es , in c l ud i ng a l am in a r - fl o w c le an b en c h an d a cl ea n ro om o r i s ol a ti on ba r r ie r t ec hn ol og y e q ui pm e nt 3 . P r op e r d oc um e nt a ti on o f al l p r ep a ra t io ns m a de 4 . Q u al i t y c on t r ol , i nc l udi n g b a tc h s te r il i t y te s t i ng 5 . P r op e r s to r ag e bo t h at t h e f ac il i t y a n d i n t r an sp o r t t o th e p a ti en t ' s h om e 6 . P r op e r l ab e li ng o f t he p r e s c ri p ti o n p r ep a ra t io n 7 . K no wl e d g e o f p r od uc t 's / p re p ar a ti o n 's s t a bi li t y a n d i nc om p at i bi li t ie s 8 . K no wl e d g e o f a ll an c i ll a r y e qu ip m e n t i n v ol ve d in c o m p o un d in g o r de li v er y o f t he m e di ca t io ns B . C o m po u n di n g o f pa r e n t e r al p r ep a r a ti o ns
1 . C om p ou nd i ng of s t e ri le p r ep a ra t io ns , i nc l ud i ng i n t ra v e n ou s a dm i xt u r es , r e q ui r es s p ec ia l s k i ll s a nd t ra i ni ng . C om p ou nd i ng pa r en t er a l p r e pa r a ti on s o r p r o v id i ng t hi s s e r vic e wi t ho u t p r op e r t ra i ni n g sh o ul d n o t b e a t tem p te d . 2 . Th e se pr e pa r a ti on s m u s t b e c om po u nd ed in a c l ea n e n vi ro nm e nt , us ing as e pt ic t e ch n iq u e ( i .e . , wo r k i ng u n d er c o n t ro ll e d co n di t ion s to m i ni m i ze c o nt am i na t i on ) . 3 . D r y p o wd e rs of pa r e nte r a l d r ug s f o r r ec o ns ti t u ti o n a r e u se d f o r d r ug p rod u ct s o r p r e pa r a ti o ns t h at a re uns t ab l e as so lu t io ns . I t is i m po r t an t t o k no w t h e cor r e c t d i lu e nt s t h at c a n b e u s ed t o y ie ld a s ol u ti on . 4 . S ol u ti o ns o f d r u gs fo r p a r en t e ra l a dm i ni st r a ti on m a y al so be fu r t he r di lut e d b e fo r e a d m i ni s t ra ti o n . I f f u r th e r d i lu t io n i s r e qu i re d , t h en t h e p ha r m a c i s t m u st k no w t h e s t ab i li t y an d c om pa t ib i li ty o f t he d ru g i n t h e d il uen t . C . R e c on s t i tu t i on o f a d r y p o w de r f r o m a vi al 1 . W or k t ak es pl ac e i n a c l ea n -a i r e n v i ro nm e nt , ob s e r v in g a se p ti c t ec hn i qu e . 2 . Th e m a nu f ac tu r e r 's ins t r uc ti o ns s h ou ld be ch ec ke d to de t e rm in e t h e r eq u i re d vo l u m e of di l ue n t. 3 . Th e ap p ro p ri a te ne e dle s i z e an d s yr i ng e a r e c h o s e n , k ee pi n g i n m i n d th a t th e c a pa ci t y o f t he s y ri n ge s h o ul d b e s li g ht l y la r g e r th a n t h e v o l um e r e qu i re d f o r r e c on s t i tu t io n . 4 . U si ng t he c o r re c t d il ue n t , t h e s u r f ac e o f t h e c o n t ai ne r is c l ea ne d , u si ng a n a l co h ol p r e p p ad , a f t er wh i c h th e a lc o ho l i s p e rm it t e d t o e v a p o ra t e. 5 . Th e s y r i ng e i s f i ll ed wi t h t h e d il u en t t o th e p r op e r vo lu m e . 6 . Th e s u r fa c e of t he v i al c o n ta i ni ng t he s t e ri le po wd e r i s cl e an e d, us in g a n al co h ol p r e p p ad , af t e r wh i c h i t is pe r m i t te d to d r y . Th e di l ue n t i s i nj ec t ed in t o t he v i a l c o nt a in in g th e d r y p o wde r . 7 . Th e v i al i s g e nt l y s h ak e n o r ro ll e d, an d th e p owd e r i s a l lo we d t o d is s o lve . 8 . A f te r th e p o wd e r ha s d i s s ol v e d , t he vi al is in v e r t e d a nd th e d es i r ed v ol u m e is wi t h d r a wn . 9 . Th e v e hi c l e i s p re p a red b y s wa b bi ng t he m e di c a t i on po r t o f th e b ag o r bo t t le wi t h a n al co h ol pr e p p ad . P.116
1 0 . Th e s ol u ti on in t he s y r i n g e i s i nj ec t ed in t o t he v e h ic le . If a p la s t ic c on t a in e r i s u s ed , c a re m u s t be t ak en n ot t o p un ct u r e t he s i de wa l l s o f t h e co n ta i ne r wi t h t h e t i p o f t he ne ed l e. 1 1 . Th e c on t ai ne r s h ou l d b e s ha k en or k n ea d ed or r o t at e d t o e ns u re th o r ou g h m i xi n g of t he c o nt e nt s . 1 2 . Th e c on t en ts o f t he c o n t ai ne r s h ou l d b e c h e ck e d f o r p a rt ic u la t e m a t t er . 1 3 . A s te r il e s ea l o r c a p i s a p pl ie d o ve r t he po r t o f t he c o nt a in e r. 1 4 . Al l n e ed le s a nd s y r ing e s s h o ul d b e p r o pe r l y di s c a r de d . 1 5 . Th e b ag is la be l ed . D . R e m o vi n g t h e f l ui d co n t e n ts f r om an am p u le 1 . Th e am pu le is he ld upr i g ht t o o pe n i t , a nd t he to p is ta pp e d t o r e m o v e an y s o lu t io n t r a pp ed in t hi s ar e a . 2 . Th e ne c k o f th e a m p u le is s wa b be d wi t h a n a lco h ol s wa b .
3 . Th e am pu le is gr as p ed o n e ac h s i d e o f t h e n ec k wi t h t he t hu m b an d i nd e x f i n g e r o f ea ch ha n d a nd qu ic k l y s na p pe d o p en . 4 . A 5 - µ m f i lt e r n e ed le is a t t ac he d t o a s y ri n ge of t h e a pp r o pr i at e s i ze . 5 . Th e am pu le is ti l te d , an d th e n e ed l e is in s e r t ed. 6 . Th e ne ed l e is po s i t io ne d ne a r t h e n ec k o f t he a m pu l e, an d t h e s o l ut i on i s wi t h d r a wn f r om t he am pu l e . 7 . I f t he s o lu t io n i s f o r an i nt r a v e no us pu s h ( bo lus in j ec ti o n ), th e fi lt e r n ee d le is r e m o ved f ro m t he s y r in ge a nd r ep la c e d wi t h a c ap . 8 . I f t he s o lu t io n i s f o r an i nt r a v e no us in f us io n , th e n t h e f il t e r n ee dl e i s re m o ved an d r e p la ce d wi t h a ne w n e ed l e o f t h e a pp r o pr i at e s iz e . Th e d ru g i s i nj ec t ed in t o th e a p p ro p r ia t e v e h ic le . 9 . A ll m a te r i al s s h o ul d be d is c a r de d p r op e r l y , a nd t h e fi n al p ro d uc t o r p r ep a r a ti on s h ou l d b e l ab el e d. E . R e m o vi ng d r ug s ol u ti o n f r om a vi a l 1 . Th e ta b a r ou n d t he r ub b e r c lo s u r e o n t h e v i a l is r em o v ed , an d t h is s u rfa c e is s wa b b e d wi t h an al c oh ol p r e p p ad . 2 . A n e qu i v a le n t am o un t o f s t e ri l e a i r is in je c te d in t o th e v ia l t o p r e v e nt a n e g at i ve va c u um f ro m b ei ng c r e a te d an d t o a l lo w t h e d r u g t o be r em o ved . 3 . U si ng t he ap p ro p r ia t e n e e dl e si ze a nd s y r i n ge , t h e n ee d le is i ns e r te d i nt o t he r u b be r c l os u re . 4 . Th e pl un g e r is pu s h e d d o wn , a nd ai r i s r e le as ed i n t o t h e via l; wh e n th e p l un g e r is p u ll e d b ac k , th e s ol u ti o n i s wi t hd r a wn . 5 . Th e s o lu ti o n i s t he n i nj e c t e d i nt o th e a pp r o pr i at e v e hi cl e . F . E xa m p le s 1 . E xa m pl e 1 a . M e d ic a t io n o rd e r
Progesterone
5g
Benzyl alcohol
10 mL
Sesame oil, qs
100 mL
b . C o mp o u nd i n g p r o ced u r e . Di ss ol v e t he p ro ges t e ro n e i n t he be n zy l al c o h ol . A dd s u f fi ci en t s es am e o i l t o m ak e 1 0 0 m L. S te r il i z e by f i l t ra t io n t h r ou g h a s te ri l e 0 . 2- µ m f i l te r or b y d r y h e at ( 17 0° C f o r 1 . 5 h r ) . P ac k ag e in s te r il e via ls an d l a be l. 2 . E xa m pl e 2 a . M e d ic a t io n o rd e r
Fentanyl (as the citrate)
2 mg
Bupivacaine hydrochloride
125 mg
0.9% sodium chloride injection, qs
100 mL
P.117
b . C a lc u la t i o ns . Si nc e 15 7 µ g f e nt a n y l ci t r at e i s e q ui v a l en t to 10 0 µg f en ta n yl , th e q u a nt i t y o f fe n ta n y l c it r at e r eq u ir e d is ( 15 7 /1 0 0 ) × 2 m g = 3 .1 4 m g f en t any l c i tr a te . Th i s is th e q u an t it y o f f en t a n y l ci t r at e th a t wo u l d b e r eq ui r e d i f c o m p o un d in g as a h i gh - r is k p r ep a ra t io n f r om bu lk po wd e r s . I t wo u ld a ls o re q ui r e 1 25 m g b u pi va c ai n e, a n d t h e r em a in de r is th e 0 . 9% s o di um c h lo r i de inj e c t i on . Ho we v e r , c om m e r c ia l p r o du c ts a r e a v a i la bl e s o we c a n c a lc u la t e h o w m uc h o f ea ch m i gh t b e re q ui r e d u s in g f e nt a n y l 5 0 µ g /m L i n je c ti on an d b u pi va c a i ne h y d r oc hl o ri d e 0 .5 % i n je c ti o n.
B u p i vac ai n e h y d r oc hl o rid e 0. 5 % i nj ec t io n c on t ain s 5 0 0 m g / 1 00 m L ; t he r ef o r e ,
I f 4 0 m L of f en t an y l in je c t i o n is us ed , an d 2 5 m L o f bu p i vac ai n e h yd r oc hl or i d e i n je c ti on is us ed , th en 40 + 2 5 = 6 5 m L ; th e q u an t i t y of 0. 9 % s o d iu m c hlo r i de i n je c ti on r eq u ir e d is 1 00 m L - 6 5 m L = 3 5 m L . N o te : I f t h e o r d e r i s to b e fi l l e d i n a 2 0 - m L pu m p w it h de l i ver y f o r 3 0 d a ys , w h a t i s t h e de l i ve r y r a t e i n µ L/h r ?
c . C om p o un d i ng p r oc ed u r e . Us in g c om m e r ci al ly a va i l ab le in j ec ti o ns , a c c u r at e l y m e as u re th e v ol um e o f ea c h a nd fi l l i nt o a s t e ri l e a m b u la t o r y p um p re s e r vo i r . An ai r b u b bl e c an be in je c te d an d us ed to t ho r ou g hl y m ix t h e s o lu t io n . R em o v e th e ai r f ro m t h e re se r v o i r , a nd ti g ht l y s ea l /c lo s e t he ou t le t . L ab e l . 3 . E xa m pl e 3 a . M e d ic a t io n o rd e r
Morphine sulfate
5g
Citric acid
100 mg
Sodium chloride, qs to isotonic Methylparaben
150 mg
Sterile water for injection, qs
100 mL
b . C a lc u la t i o ns . Us in g a s od i um c hl o r id e e qu i va le n t o f 0. 0 9 f o r a 5 % m o rp h in e s u lf a te s o lu t io n , 0 . 18 fo r c i tr ic ac id , 1 f o r s o d iu m c h lo r id e , a nd ig n o ri ng t he m e th y l p a ra be n , t h e c a lc u l a ti on s c an be m a de as f o ll o ws : 5 g m o rp h in e s ul f at e i s eq u i v al e nt t o 4 50 m g s o diu m c hl o r id e ( 5 g × 0 . 09 = 4 50 m g ) . 1 0 0 m g ci t r ic a c i d i s e q ui v a l en t to 18 m g s o di um c h lo r id e (1 0 0 m g × 0 . 18 = 1 8 ) 4 5 0 m g + 18 m g = 46 8 m g To b e is o to ni c , t he s o lu t io n ne e ds t h e e qu i v a le n t o f 90 0 m g o f s od i um c hlo r i de in t h e 1 0 0 m L : 90 0 m g - 468 m g = 4 3 2 m g s o di um c h l o ri d e n ee ds to be ad d ed . c . C om p o un d i ng p r oc ed u r e . Di ss ol v e t he m e thy l p a r ab e n i n a bo u t 9 0 m L o f s te r i l e wa t e r f o r i n je c t i on . A s m a l l a m o un t of he a t m a y be r e qu i re d . C o ol th e s o lut i o n t o r o o m t em pe r a tu r e ; t he n a d d t h e m o r p hi ne s u l fa t e, c it r ic ac id , a n d s o d iu m c h lo r id e . A d d s u f fi c i en t s t e ri le wa t e r f o r i nj ec t io n t o v ol um e a n d m i x we l l . S te r il i ze by f i l t ra t io n t h ro u gh a s te r ile 0 .2 - µ m f i lt e r i n to a s t er i l e vi a l o r re s e r v o i r. P ac k a ge an d l a be l . 4 . E xa m pl e 4 a . M e d ic a t io n o rd e r
Mefoxitin Diluent to final concentration of 125 mg/mL
P.118
1g
b . C a lc u la t i o ns . A 1 - g v i a l o f Me f o xi n ( c e f o xi t i n fo r in j ec ti o n ) is r ec on s ti tut e d wi t h 1 0 m L o f di lu e nt t o p ro v id e fo r ap p ro xi m a t e wi t hdr a wa l o f 1 0 .5 m L an d a n a p p ro xi m a t e a v e r ag e c on c en t r at i on of 95 m g /m L . W h a t q u an t i t y o f d i l u en t s ho u l d b e ad d e d t o p r o vi d e a n a p p r ox i ma t e a ve r a g e co n c en t r a t io n o f 1 25 m g /m L ?
c . C om p o un d i ng p r oc ed u r e . As ep t ic al l y , wi t h dra w 7 . 5 m L of di l ue n t a nd i n je c t in t o t h e via l t o be re c o n s t i tu te d , u s i n g a n a pp r op r i at e v e n t ed ne e dl e . G e n tl y s wi r l u n ti l d i ss ol ve d . P.119
STUDY QUESTIONS D i r e c t i on s fo r q ue s t io ns 1 - 3 : E ac h q ue s ti on o r in c om pl e te s t a te m e n t i n th i s s ec t io n c a n b e c o r r ec t l y a n s we r e d o r c om pl e te d b y o n e o f th e s ug g es te d a n s we r s o r p h r as es . Ch o os e t h e b es t a ns we r . Th e fo ll o wi n g m ed ic a ti o n o r de r i s g i v en t o t h e p h a rm ac is t b y t h e p h ys ic i a n .
Olive oil
60.0 mL
Vitamin A
60,000 units
Water
120.0 mL
Sig:
15 mL t.i.d.
1 . T he f in a l d o sa g e f o rm o f th i s p r e sc r i p t io n w i l l b e ( A ) a s o lu ti o n. ( B ) a n e li xi r . ( C ) a n e m u ls i on . ( D ) a s us p en s i o n. ( E ) a l o ti o n. V i e w A n s we r 1 . T h e a n sw e r i s C [ se e] . 2 . W h en pr e p a r i ng t h is p re s c r ip t io n , t h e ph a r ma c is t ne e ds to a d d ( A ) Twe e n 8 0 . ( B ) a ca c i a . ( C ) g l yc e r in .
( D ) a lc o ho l. ( E ) p r op y l e ne gl y c ol . V i e w A n s we r 2 . T h e a n sw e r i s B [ se e] . 3 . W h ic h o f t h e f o l low i n g c a ut i on l a b e ls sh o ul d t he ph a rm a c is t af f i x t o th e co n ta i n e r w he n d i s pe n si n g t h i s p r e p a r at i o n? ( A ) D o no t re f ri g e ra t e. ( B ) S h ak e we ll . ( C ) F o r e xt e r n a l u s e on l y. ( D ) N o p re s e r v a t i v es a dd e d . V i e w A n s we r 3 . T h e a n sw e r i s B [ se e] . F o r 1 - 3 : Di r e c t i on s fo r q ue s t io n s 4 - 9 : E a c h q ue s t i on o r s ta t em e n t i n t h is s ec t io n c an be c o r r ec t l y a ns we r e d o r c om p le t ed b y o n e o r m o re of t he s u g g es te d a ns we r s o r p h ra s es . Ch o os e t he co r r ec t a ns we r , A-E: 4 . W hi c h s t a te me n t s a bo u t t he f o ll ow i ng p r es cr i p t i o n a r e c o r r ec t ?
Morphine
1 mg/mL
Flavored vehicle, qs ad
120 mL
Sig:
5-20 mg p.o. q 3-4 hours prn pain
I . T he am o u nt o f m o r p hi n e ne e de d i s 24 0 m g . I I . P ow de r e d m o r ph i n e a l k al o i d s ho u l d b e u s ed w h e n c o mp o u nd i ng th i s p r e s c r ip t i on . I I I . Th e fi n al d os a ge f o rm o f th i s p r e sc r i p t io n is a s o l u ti o n . A i f I o n l y i s c o r re c t B i f II I on l y i s c o r r ec t C i f I a n d I I a r e c or r ec t D i f II a nd I II a re c o r re c t E i f I, I I, an d II I ar e c o r re c t V i e w A n s we r 4 . T h e a n sw e r i s B [ se e] . 5 . W h en pr e p a r i ng t he f o ll ow i n g p r e s c r ip t i on , t he ph a r ma c i s t s ho u l d
Podophyllum
5%
Salicylic acid
10%
Acetone
20%
Flexible collodion, ad
30 mL
Sig:
Apply q h.s.
I . t r i t u ra t e 1 . 5 g of p odo p h yl l u m w i t h th e 8 m L o f ac e t on e . I I . ad d 3 g o f sa l ic yl i c a c i d t o t h e c ol l o di o n w i th t r i t u r a ti o n. I I I . a f f i x a n “ ex t e r na l us e on l y” l a b e l t o th e c on t a i ne r . A i f I o n l y i s c o r re c t B i f II I on l y i s c o r r ec t C i f I a n d I I a r e c or r ec t D i f II a nd I II a re c o r re c t E i f I, I I, an d II I ar e c o r re c t V i e w A n s we r 5 . T h e a n sw e r i s B [ se e] . P . 12 0
6 . W hi c h s t a te me n t s a bo u t t he f o ll ow i ng p r es cr i p t i o n a r e c o r r ec t ?
Sulfur
6g
Purified water Camphor water, aa qs ad
60
I . P r e ci p i ta t e d s ul f u r can b e u s ed t o p r e pa r e thi s p r es c r ip t i o n. I I . Th e su l f u r c an b e t r it u r a t e d w i t h gl yc e r i n be f o r e m i x in g w i th o th e r i n g r e di e n ts . I I I . A “ sh a ke w e ll ” l a be l s h o ul d be af f i xe d t o t he b o t tl e . A i f I o n l y i s c o r re c t
B i f II I on l y i s c o r r ec t C i f I a n d I I a r e c or r ec t D i f II a nd I II a re c o r re c t E i f I, I I, an d II I ar e c o r re c t V i e w A n s we r 6 . T h e a n sw e r i s E [s e ea n d] . 7 . W h ic h s ta t em e n ts ab o u t t he f o l l ow i ng p r es c r ip t i o n a r e co r r e c t ?
Starch
10%
Menthol
1%
Camphor
2%
Calamine, qs ad
120
I . T he p ow de r s s h o ul d b e b le n de d to g e th e r in a m o r ta r , us i n g g eo m e tr i c d i l u t io n . I I . Th e p re s c ri p t i on sh ou l d be p r ep a r ed b y d i s s o l vi n g th e c a mp h o r i n a s u f f i ci e n t a mo u n t o f 9 0% a l c o h o l . I I I . A e u t ec t ic m ix t u r e sh o u l d b e a vo i d ed . A i f I o n l y i s c o r re c t B i f II I on l y i s c o r r ec t C i f I a n d I I a r e c or r ec t D i f II a nd I II a re c o r re c t E i f I, I I, an d II I ar e c o r re c t V i e w A n s we r 7 . T h e a n sw e r i s A [ se e] . 8 . W h en pr e p a r i ng t he f o ll ow i n g p r e s c r ip t i on , t he ph a r ma c i s t s ho u l d
Salicylic acid
3g
Sulfur ppt
7g
Lanolin
10 g
White petrolatum
10 g
I . r e du c e t h e p a r t ic l e s iz e of t he p ow de r s , u s ing a m o r t a r a n d p e st l e or u s i ng t h e p il l ti l e w it h a s pa tu l a . I I . p la ce o n a n o i n tm e nt t i l e a n d l e vi g at e th e ing r e d i en t s , u si n g g e om et r i c d i l u t io n . I I I . pa ck a ge t he o in t m en t i n a n o i n tm e n t j a r o r t u b e . A i f I o n l y i s c o r re c t B i f II I on l y i s c o r r ec t C i f I a n d I I a r e c or r ec t D i f II a nd I II a re c o r re c t E i f I, I I, an d II I ar e c o r re c t V i e w A n s we r 8 . T h e a n sw e r i s E [s e ea n d] . 9 . An e q u al vo l u me o f a i r i s i n j e ct e d w he n re m o vi ng d r u g s o lu t i o ns f r om I . vi a l s. I I . am p ul e s . I I I . s yr i n g e s . A i f I o n l y i s c o r re c t B i f II I on l y i s c o r r ec t C i f I a n d I I a r e c or r ec t D i f II a nd I II a re c o r re c t E i f I, I I, an d II I ar e c o r re c t V i e w A n s we r 9 . T h e a n sw e r i s A [ se e] . P . 12 1
ANSWERS AND EXPLANATIONS 1 . T he an sw e r is C [ s ee V . B . 1 .] . 2 . T he an sw e r is B [ s ee V . B . 2 ; V . C .1 ] . 3 . T he an sw e r is B [ s ee V . B . 3 ]. F o r 1 -3 : B e c au s e ol i v e oi l an d wa t e r a re t wo im m i sc i bl e l iq u id s, t he i r i nc or p o r at i on r e q ui r es a t wo - p h as e s ys t em in wh i c h on e l iq u id i s d is p e rs ed th r o ug ho u t a n o th e r l i qu i d i n t he f or m o f s m a ll d ro p le t s . To ac c o m p li s h t hi s , a n em u ls if yi n g a ge n t i s
n e ce ss a r y . Ac ac ia is th e m os t s ui t ab l e em u ls if yi ng a ge n t wh e n f or m i n g a n o i l- i n wa t e r e m u ls i on th a t i s i nt e n de d f o r i n te r na l u se . E m u ls io ns a re ph y s ic al l y u ns t ab l e, an d th e y m us t b e p r o te c t e d a ga i ns t t he e f fe ct s o f m ic r o bi al c o n ta m i na t io n a n d p h ys i ca l s ep a r at i on . S h ak i ng be f o re us e r e dis t r ib u te s t h e t wo la y e r s o f e m u ls ion . B ec au se li g ht , ai r , a nd m i c ro o rg a ni sm s a ls o af f e c t th e s t ab i li t y o f a n em u ls io n , p r e s e r va ti ve s c an be add e d . 4 . T he an sw e r is B (I I I ) [ s ee I II . A . C .3 ] . Th e c on c e n t ra t io n o f m or p h in e n e ed e d f o r t he p re s c r i pt i on de s c r ib ed in th e qu es t io n i s 1 m g /m L , a nd be c a us e 1 2 0 m L is th e f i na l v ol um e , 1 20 m g of m o r ph i ne i s n e ed e d t o co m p ou n d t hi s p r es c rip t i on . Mo r p h in e a lk al o id h a s p oo r s o lu bi l it y; t he r ef o r e , o ne o f t he s a lt fo r m s s h ou ld b e us ed . Be ca u s e m o rp hi n e i s d iss o l v ed in th e v eh i cl e , r e s ul ti n g i n a l i qu i d p re pa r a ti o n , t he fi n al do s a g e f o rm is a s o l ut i on . 5 . T he an sw e r is B (I I I ) [ s ee I II . C . 1. ; II I . C .5 ; II I .D . 3 ] . C a l cu l at i ng fo r th e a m o un t o f e ac h i ng r ed i en t o f th e p re sc ri p ti o n i n t he que s ti o n r e q ui r es 1. 5 g o f p od o phy l l u m , 3 g of s a li c yli c ac i d , an d 6 m L of ac e to ne . Th e c o r re c t p r oc ed u re wo u l d b e to t ri t u ra t e t he po d oph y l l um wi t h th e a ce t on e , t h e n a dd t h e tr i tu r a te d s al ic y l ic ac i d to a c al ib r a te d b o tt l e c o nt a in in g th e p o do ph y l lu m a n d a c et o ne . Fl e xi b l e c o l lo dio n is th en ad d ed up t o th e 30 - m L c a li b ra t io n . A n “ e xt e r n a l u s e o nl y ” l ab el s h ou l d be a f fi xe d t o t h e c on t ai ner . 6 . T he an sw e r is E ( I , II, a nd I II ) [s e e I V . B. 2 ; I V .C . 5 ; I V. D . 1 a n d 2 ]. W hile pr ec i pi t at e d s u l fu r c an be us e d t o p r ep a re t h e p r es c ri p ti on de sc r ib ed i n t he q u es t io n , i t i s di f f ic ul t t o t r i tu r a te ; th e re f o re , i t m u s t f i rs t b e l e v i ga t ed wi th a s ui t ab l e l e vi ga t in g a g en t (e . g ., gly c e r i n) . A ll s us p en si on s , o wi n g to t he i r i ns ta b il i t y, r e qu i re s h ak in g b e fo r e u s e to r ed i s t r ib u t e t he in s o l ub le in g r ed i en ts . 7 . T he an sw e r is A ( I ) [s e e V I. C . 3 ; V I . D .1 ] . Th e p r o pe r p r oc e du r e f or c om po u nd in g th e p r es cr i p ti o n d es c r i be d i n t h e qu e st i on is t o fi r s t f o rm a li q ui d e u tec t ic . Th is i s d on e b y t r i tur a t in g th e m en t ho l a n d c a m ph o r t o g et h e r i n a m o rt a r . Th is eu t ec t ic i s t h en bl en d ed wi t h t he po wd e r e d s ta rc h a n d c a la m i n e, us in g g e om et ri c d i lu t io n . 8 . T he an sw e r is E ( I , II, a nd I II ) [s e e I X. D . 1 an d 3 ; I X. E . 1] . Th e p r o pe r p r oc e du r e f or p r ep a r in g t h e p re s c r ip t io n gi v e n i n t h e q ue s t i on i s to r e d uc e t h e p a rt ic le s i z e o f ea c h po wd e r a nd m i x t h em t og e th e r, us i ng ge om e t ri c d i lu t io n . Thi s e ns u re s t he p r op e r b le n di ng o f t he p o wd e r s . N e xt , t h is po wd e r ed m i xt u r e is i nc o r po r a te d , g e om e t ri ca ll y , wi t h th e pe t r ol a t um . Th e n , t h e l ano l in is a d d ed ge om e tr ic a ll y . 9 . T he an sw e r is A ( I ) [s e e XI . E . 2 ]. A n e qu al v o lu m e o f a ir m u s t b e i nj ec t ed wh e n rem o vi ng a d r ug s o lu t io n f ro m a v i al . Th i s is do ne t o p re v e n t th e fo r m a t io n o f a va c u um wi t h in t he v i al . Th is p ro b le m d o es n o t o cc u r wi t h am p ul es an d s y r i n ge s c o n ta i ni n g dr u g s o lu t io ns ; t h e re f o re , i t is u n n ec es s a r y t o in j ec t a ny a i r wh e n re m o vi n g t hem .
6 Basic Pharmacokinetics R i c c a r do L . B o n i L e o n Sh a r ge l
I. PHARMACOKINETICS A. I N T R O D U C T I O N 1 . P ha r m ac o k in e t ic s i s t h e q u an t it a ti ve m e as u rem e nt o f d ru g a b so r pt i on , d i st r ib u ti o n, a nd el im in a ti o n ( i .e . , e xc r e t i on an d m e ta b ol is m ) a nd in c l ud es t h e ra t e p r oc es s e s f o r d ru g m o v em e n t in t o t h e b od y , wi t h i n t h e b od y , an d o u t o f th e b o d y . 2 . C om m o nl y u s e d u n it s i n ph a rm ac ok in e ti cs a re t a b ul a te d i n Ta bl e 6 - 1. 3 . R a te s a n d o r d e r s o f r e a c t io n s . Th e r a te of a c he m i ca l re ac t io n o r p h a rm ac ok i ne ti c p r oc es s i s t h e v e l oc it y wi t h wh i c h i t o c c ur s . T h e o r de r o f a r e a ct i on is t h e wa y i n wh i c h t he co nc e nt r a ti on o f a d r ug or r ea c ta n t i n a c h em ic al r ea c t i on af f ec ts t h e r a te . a . Z e ro - o r de r r e ac t i on . Th e d r u g co nc e nt r a ti o n c h a n ge s wi t h r es pe c t t o t i m e a t a c on s ta n t r a te , a c c o r di ng t o t he f ol lo wi n g e qu a ti o n:
Table 6-1. Common Units in Pharmacokinetics Pharmacokinetic Parameter
Abbreviation
Fundamental Units
Units Example
Area under the curve
AUC
Concentration X time
µg X hr/mL
Total body clearance
ClT
Volume/time
Liters/hr
Renal clearance
ClR
Volume/time
Liters/hr
Hepatic clearance
ClH
Volume/time
Liters/hr
Apparent volume of distribution
VD
Volume
Liters
Volume of distribution at
Vss
Volume
Liters
steady state Peak plasma drug concentration
Cmax
Concentration
mg/L
Plasma drug concentration
Cp
Concentration
mg/L
Steady-state drug concentration
Css or Cav
Concentration
mg/L
Time for peak drug concentration
Tmax
Time
hr
Dose
Do
Mass
mg
Loading dose
DL
Mass
mg
Maintenance dose
DM
Mass
mg
Amount of drug in the body
DB
Mass
mg
Rate of drug infusion
R
Mass/time
mg/hr
First order rate constant for drug absorption
ka
1/time
1/hr or hr-1
Zero order rate constant for drug absorption
ko
Mass/time
mg/hr
First order rate constant for drug absorption
K (sometimes referred to as kel)
1/time
1/hr or hr-1
Elimination halflife
t½
Time
hr
Fraction of drug absorbed
F
(no units)
Ranges from 0 to 1 (0 to 100%)
P.123
wh e r e C is t he d ru g c on c e n t r at i on an d k 0 is t he z e r o - o r d e r r a t e c o ns t an t e xp r e s s ed in un i ts o f c on c en t r at i on pe r ti m e ( e. g. , m i ll i g ra m s p e r m il li l it e r p e r ho u r ). In t e gr a ti o n o f t h is eq u at i on y i el ds th e li n ea r (s t r ai g ht - li n e ) e q u at io n : C = -k0t + C0 wh e r e k 0 i s t he s l op e o f th e li ne ( s e e F ig u r e 3 - 5) a n d C 0 is th e y in t er ce p t , o r d ru g c o nc en t ra t io n , wh e n t im e (t ) eq u al s z e r o . Th e n eg a ti v e si gn i n di ca t es th a t t h e s l o pe is de c re as i ng . b . F i rs t - o r de r r e ac t i on . Th e c ha n ge in d ru g c on c e n t r at i on wi t h re s p ec t to t i m e eq u al s t he p ro d uc t o f t he ra t e c on s t a nt an d t h e c on c en t ra t io n o f dr ug r e m ai ni n g, ac c o r di n g t o th e fo l lo wi n g eq ua t io n :
wh e r e k i s t h e f i rs t -o r de r r a t e c o n st a nt , e xp r e s s ed i n u ni ts o f r ec ip r oc a l t i m e , or ti m e
-1
-1
( e .g . , 1 / h r o r h r ) .
( 1 ) I nt e gr a ti o n o f t h is e qu a t io n yie ld s t h e f ol l o wi ng m a t he m a t ic al l y e q ui va l en t eq ua t io ns :
( 2 ) A gr a ph of t he eq ua t io n in Fi g ur e 6 - 1 s ho ws th e li ne a r re la t io n o f th e lo g o f t he c o nc en t r at i on v e rs u s ti m e . I n Fi gu r e 6 - 1 , t he s l o pe of t he li ne is e q u al to -k / 2. 3 , a n d t he y in t e rc ep t i s C 0 . Th e v alu e s f o r C a re pl o t te d o n l o ga r i th m i c c oo r di n at es , a n d t h e v a l ue s f o r t a re s h o wn on li n ea r c o o rd in a te s .
( 3 ) Th e ha l f - li f e (t ½ ) o f a r e ac ti o n o r p r oc es s is th e ti m e r eq u ir e d f o r t he c o nc en t r at i on of a d r ug to d ec r ea s e b y o n e h al f . F o r a f i rs t -o r de r r ea ct i on o r p ro ce s s , th e h al f - li f e is a c on st a nt an d i s r e la te d to t he fi r st - o rd e r ra t e c o ns ta n t , ac c o r d in g t o the f ol l o wi ng e qu a ti on :
2 . M o d el s a n d c o mp a r tm e n t s a . A m o d el is a m a t he m a t ic de s c r ip t io n o f a bi o lo g ic s y s t em a n d is us e d t o e xp r e s s q u an t it a ti v e r el at i o ns hi ps . b . A co m pa r t m en t i s a gr o u p o f t is s u e s wi t h s i m i la r bl o od fl o w a n d d r ug a f f in i t y . A c o m p a r tm en t is no t a r ea l p h ys io lo g ic o r a na t om ic re gi o n. 3 . D r u g d i s t ri b u t io n a . D r ug s d is t ri b ut e ra p id ly t o t is s u es wi t h h i gh bl oo d fl o w a n d m or e s lo wl y t o ti ss u es wi t h l o w b lo o d f l o w. b . D r ug s ra pi d l y c r os s c a p il l a r y m em b ra n es i n to t i ss ue s b ec a us e o f p a ssi ve d i f f u si o n a n d h yd r o s t a t i c p r es s u re . D r u g p e rme a b i li t y a c r o ss c ap i ll a r y m em b r an es v a r ie s . ( 1 ) D r ug s e as il y c r os s t he c a p il la r i es o f th e g lo m e r u l u s o f t h e k i d ne y a nd t h e s in us o id s o f t h e l i v e r. ( 2 ) Th e c a pi ll a ri e s o f t he b r ai n ar e s u r ro u nd ed b y g l i a l c el ls th a t c re a te a b l o o d -b r a i n b a r r ie r , wh ic h a c ts a s a th ic k l ip i d m e m b ra ne . P ol a r a nd io nic h yd r o ph i li c d r ug s c ro s s th i s b a rr i e r sl o wl y . ( 3 ) I n d is ea s e s t a te s , m em b r an es m a y be c om e m o r e pe rm e ab l e t o d r ug s . F o r e xa m pl e , i n m e n in g iti s , t h e bl o od b ra i n b ar r i er b ec om es m o r e p e r m e ab l e t o t h e p en e t ra t i on of d ru gs in t o b r ai n . c . D r u gs ma y a c c u m ul at e i n t i ss u es as a r es u lt o f th ei r ph y s ic oc h em ic al c h a ra ct e ri s ti c s o r s p ec ial a ff i ni t y o f t he ti ss u e f o r t h e d r ug . ( 1 ) Li p id - s o lu b le d ru gs m a y a c c um u la t e i n a di po s e ( f at ) ti ss u e b ec au se of p a r ti t io n in g o f th e d r ug . ( 2 ) Te t r ac y c li n e m a y a c c u m ul a te in bo n e b ec au s e c om pl e xe s a re f or m e d wi t h c al c i um . P.124
d . P l as ma p r o te i n b i n din g o f d r ug s a ff e c t s d r ug d i st r ib u ti o n. ( 1 ) A dr u g b ou n d t o a p ro t e in fo r m s a c o m p l e x t ha t is to o l a rg e to c r os s c e l l m em b r an es . ( 2 ) Al b u m i n is th e m aj o r p l as m a p r o te i n i n v ol v e d i n d r u g p ro t e i n b i nd in g . α 1 - G l yc o p r o t e i n , a ls o fou n d i n p la s m a , is im po r ta n t fo r th e b in d in g o f s uc h b a si c d r ug s as p ro p r an olo l . ( 3 ) P o te n t d ru gs , s uc h as ph e n yt oi n, t ha t a r e h i gh l y b ou n d ( > 9 0 %) t o p l as m a p ro t ei ns m a y be d i s p la c ed b y o t he r hi gh l y b o un d d r ug s . Th e d i sp la c em en t o f th e b o un d d ru g r e su lt s i n m o re fr e e (n o nb o un d ) d r ug , wh i c h
r a p id l y r ea c h es t he dr u g r e c ep t or s a n d ca us es a m o r e i nt e ns e p h a rm ac ol o gi c r es p on s e . ( 4 ) A fe w h o r m o n al dr u gs bi n d t o s pe ci f ic p l as m a p r o te i ns . F o r e xa m p le , p r e dn is o ne bi n di ng t o t ra n s c o rt i n ( a nd al bu m i n ) r e s ul ts in do se - d ep en d en t p h a rm ac ok i ne ti c s of p red n is o ne . Th is n o nl in e a r p h a rm ac ok i ne ti c s is d u e t o s a tu r a bl e p r ot e in bi n di ng. Tr a n sc o r ti n h as hi gh a ff i n it y a nd lo w c a pa c i t y wh i l e al b um in ha s l o w a ff i n it y a nd a h ig h c ap ac i ty . B . O n e - co m pa r t m en t mo d e l 1 . I n t ra ve n o us b ol u s i nj e c t io n . Th e e nt i r e d ru g d o s e en t e rs th e b od y r a p id l y , an d t h e r a te of ab s o rp t io n i s n eg le c te d i n c al c u l at i on s ( F ig u re 6 -1) . Th e e n ti r e b o d y a c ts a s a s i n gl e c om pa r tm e nt , an d th e d r u g r ap i dl y e q ui l ib r a te s wi t h al l o f the t is s u es in th e b o d y. a . D r u g e l im i na t i o n is a f i rs t - o rd e r k i n e ti c p ro c es s , ac c o r d in g t o t h e e q u at io n s i n I . A. 1 . b. ( 1 ) Th e fi r s t - o rd e r e li m i na t i on r at e c on s ta n t ( k o r k e l ) i s t h e su m o f t h e r a te c o ns ta n ts fo r r em o v al of d r u g f r om th e b o d y , i nc lud i ng t he r at e c on s ta n ts f o r r en al e xc r e ti o n a nd m e ta b ol is m ( b i ot r a n sf o rm a t i on ) as d es c ri b ed b y t h e fo ll o wi n g e q ua t io n : k = ke + km wh e r e k e i s t he r at e c on s t a n t f o r r e na l e xc r e t i on an d k m i s t h e r a te c o ns ta nt f o r m e ta b ol is m . Th i s e qua t i on ass um e s t ha t a l l r at e s a r e f i rs t -o r d er p r o ce s s es .
Figure 6-1. Generalized pharmacokinetic model for a drug administered by rapid intravenous bolus injection. , extrapolated drug concentration; VD, apparent volume of distribution; DB, amount of drug in the body; k, elimination rate constant; t1/2, elimination half-life. [Adapted with permission from Gibaldi M, Perrier D. Pharmacokinetics, 2nd ed. New York, Marcel Dekker, Inc., 1982. Copyright © 1982 Routledge/Taylor & Francis Group, LLC.]
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( 2 ) Th e el i mi n a ti o n h a l f- l i f e (t 1 / 2 ) is gi v e n b y t h e f o ll o wi n g e q ua ti o n :
b . Ap p a r e n t vo lu m e o f d i s t r i bu t i on ( V D ) i s t h e h y p o t he t ic al vo lu m e of b o d y fl u id in wh i c h th e dr u g i s d is s o l v e d. Th is v a l u e is n o t a t ru e a n at om ic o r p h ys ic a l v o l um e. ( 1 ) V D i s n e ed ed t o es t im a te t he am ou n t o f d r ug i n t h e b od y r e la t i v e t o th e c o nc en t r at i on of d ru g i n t h e p l asm a , a s s h o wn i n t h e fo ll o wi n g : VD × Cp = DB wh e r e V D ( li t e rs ) i s t h e ap p a re n t v ol um e o f d is t r ibu t i on , C p ( m g / li t er ) is th e p l as m a d ru g c on c e n t ra t io n , a n d D B ( m g ) is th e am o un t o f dr u g i n t he bo dy . ( 2 ) To c a lc u la t e t he V D af t e r a n i n t ra v e n ou s b ol us i n je c t i on , t h e e qu a ti o n is r e a r r an ge d to gi v e :
wh e r e i s t he do s e ( D B ) of d r ug gi v e n b y i nt r a v e nou s b o lu s a nd is th e e xt r a p o l a te d d r ug c o nc en t r a ti o n a t z e r o tim e o n th e y a xi s , a f t er t he dr u g e q ui l ib r a te s ( F ig u re 6 -1 ) . ( 3 ) A cc or d in g t o th e e q ua t i on , V D is in c re as e d a nd is de c re as e d wh e n t he d r u g i s d is t ri bu t ed m o r e e xt r a v a s c ul a r l y i n to th e ti s s u es . W hen m o r e d ru g i s c o nt a in e d i n t he v a s c ul ar s pa c e o r p la sm a, is in cr e a se d a nd V D is d e c re as e d. 2 . S i ng l e o r a l d o se . I f th e d ru g i s g i ven in an ora l do sa g e f o rm (e . g. , t a b le t , c ap s u le ) , th e d r ug is ge n e ra ll y a bs o rb e d b y f i rs t - o rd e r k in e ti cs . E l i m i na t io n o f th e d r ug al s o f ol l o ws th e p r in c i p le s o f fi r s t - o rd e r k in e ti cs ( F i gu r e 6 - 2 ) . a . Th e fo ll o wi n g e q ua t ion d es c r i be s t he ph a rm ac o k in e ti cs o f f i rs t - o r de r a b s o r pt i o n a n d e li m i nat i o n :
wh e r e k A is th e f i rs t - or d er a bs o rp t io n ra t e c on s t an t an d F is th e fr a ct io n of d r u g b io a v a il ab l e. C h an ge s i n F, D 0 , V D , k A , an d k a f f ec t t he pl a sm a d ru g c o nc en t r at i on . b . Th e ti m e f or m a xi m u m , o r pe ak , d r ug ab s o r pt io n is gi v e n b y t he f o l lo wi n g e q ua t io ns :
wh e r e t m a x d e p e nd s o nl y o n th e ra t e c on st a nt s k A a n d k , n o t o n F , D 0 , or V D .
Figure 6-2. Generalized plot for a onecompartment model showing first-order drug absorption and first-order drug elimination. [Adapted with permission from Shargel L, WuPong S, Yu ABC. Applied Biopharmaceutics and Pharmacokinetics, 5th ed. New York, McGrawHill, 2005.]
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c . A ft e r t m a x i s ob t ai n ed , t h e p e ak d r u g co nc e n tr a ti o n ( C m a x ) i s ca lc ul a te d , u s in g t h e e qu a ti o n i n I . B. 2 . a a nd s u bs t it u ti n g t m a x f o r t. d . Th e a re a u nd e r t h e c ur v e ( A U C ) m a y b e d e te rm i ne d b y i nt e g ra t io n o f C P d t u s i ng t he t ra pe z o i da l ru l e o r b y t h e f ol l o wi ng e qu a ti o n:
c h an g es i n F , D 0 , k , an d V D a f f ec t t he A U C . Mi n o r c ha n ge s i n k A do no t a f f ec t t h e A U C . e . To o bt ai n , o bt a in th e [ A U C ] f r om 0 t o t b y t h e t r a p e z oi da l ru l e a nd ad d o n th e e xt r a p o l at e d s e c tio n of A U C , wh i c h i s t h e la s t m ea s u r ab l e d r ug c o nc en t r at i on at ti m e t d iv i d e d b y t he s l op e of th e t e rm i na l e li m i n at i on c u r ve , a s s h o wn i n t he fo l lo wi n g eq u at i on :
f . L a g t i me oc c u rs at t he b e gi nn i ng of s ys t em ic dr u g ab so r p ti on . Fo r s om e i n di vi d ua ls , s y s te m i c d r ug a bs o rp t io n i s d el a y ed a f t e r o r al dr u g a d m i ni s t ra ti o n b ec au s e o f de l a y ed s t om ac h e m p ty i n g o r o th e r f ac t o rs . 3 . I n t ra ve n o us i nf u s io n a . I nt r a v en o us in f us io n is an e xa m pl e of z e r o- o r de r a bs or p ti o n a nd fi r s to r d e r e li m i na t io n (F i gu r e 6 - 3 ) . b . A fe w o r a l c on t r ol le d - re l ea s e d ru g p r o du ct s r e le a s e th e d r u g b y z e r o o r d e r ki n et ic s a n d h a v e z e r o - o rd e r s ys t e m i c abs o r p t i on . c . Th e p l as m a d r u g c o nc e n t r at i on at an y t im e a f te r t he s t a r t o f a n i n t ra ve n ou s i n fu s i on is gi v e n b y th e f o ll o wi n g e qua t i on :
wh e r e R is t he z e r o- o r der r a t e o f i nf us i on gi v e n in u ni ts as m i ll ig r am s p e r h o u r o r m il l ig r am s p er m in u t e. d . I f t h e i nt r a v en o us i n f us i on is d is co n ti n ue d , t he p l asm a d r u g c o nc en t r at i on de c l in e s by a f i rs t -o r d e r p ro c es s . Th e el im in a ti o n h al f -l i fe , or e l im in a ti o n r a te c o ns t an t, k , m a y b e o b ta i ne d f r om t he de cl in i ng pl as m a d r u g c on c e n t ra t io n v er s us t im e cu r ve . e . A s t he d ru g i s i nf us e d, t h e pl a sm a d ru g c o nc en t r a ti o n in c re as e s t o a p l a te au , o r s te a d y- s t a t e c o nc e n t ra t i o n ( C S S ) .
Figure 6-3. Generalized semilogarithmic plot for a drug showing zero-order absorption and firstorder elimination. Css, steady-state concentration; k, elimination rate constant. [Adapted with permission from Gibaldi M, Perrier D. Pharmacokinetics, 2nd ed. New York, Marcel Dekker, Inc., 1982. Copyright © 1982 Routledge/Taylor & Francis Group, LLC.]
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( 1 ) U n de r s t ea d y- s t a te c o n di t io ns , th e fr ac t io n o f d r u g a bs o rb ed eq u al s t he f r a ct i on of d ru g e l im in a te d f ro m t he bo d y. ( 2 ) Th e pl as m a c o nc en t ra t i on at s t e ad y s ta t e ( C s s ) i s g i v en b y th e f o ll o win g e q u at io n :
W her e, C l T i s t o ta l b o d y c l ea r an c e ( se e Se c t i on I.E . ) ( 3 ) Th e ra t e o f d r u g in f us i on ( R ) m a y b e c a lc ul a te d f ro m a re a r ra n ge m e n t o f t h e e q ua t io n i f th e d es i re d C s s , t he V D , a n d t he k a r e k no wn . Th e s e v a l ues c a n o f te n b e o b ta in e d f ro m th e d r ug li t e ra t ur e . To c a lc u la t e t he r at e of i n f us io n , t he f ol lo wi n g eq u a ti on is us ed : R = Css VDk = Css ClT wh e r e C s s is th e d e s i r ed ( t a r ge t ) p l as m a dr u g c o nc e nt r a ti o n a nd C l T i s t o ta l b o d y c l ea r an c e. f . A l oa d in g do s e ( D L ) is gi v e n a s a n i ni t ia l i n t rav e n o us bo l us d os e to p r o du c e t he C s s a s r a pi dly a s po s s ib l e. Th e i n t ra ve n o us i n fu si o n i s s t a r te d a t t he s am e tim e as t h e D L .
( 1 ) Th e ti m e to r ea c h C s s d e pe n ds o n t h e e li m i n ati o n h al f - li f e o f t h e d ru g . R e a ch i ng 90 % , 9 5% , o r 9 9 % o f th e C s s wi t h o ut a D L t ak es 3 .3 2 , 4 .3 2 , o r 6 . 6 5 h al f -l i v e s , r es pe c t i ve l y . Th u s, fo r a d r ug wi th a n e li m i na t io n t 1 / 2 o f 8 h r , i t wi l l t ak e 3. 3 2 × 8 h r, or 2 6 .5 6 h r , t o re ac h 9 0 % o f C s s i f no lo ad i ng do s e i s g i v e n. ( 2 ) Th e D L is t he am ou n t o f dr u g t ha t , wh e n d is sol v e d in th e a p pa r en t V D , p r o du c e s t h e d es i re d C s s . Th u s D L is c a lc ul a te d by t h e fo ll o wi n g e q ua t io n :
g . A n i n tr a v e no us in f us ion p r o v id es a r el a ti v e l y co n s t a nt pl as m a d ru g c o nc en t r at i on an d i s p a rti c ul a rl y u se f ul fo r dr u gs t h a t h a v e a na r r o w t h e r ap eu t ic ra n ge . Th e IV i n fu s i o n ke e ps th e p las m a d ru g c on ce n t ra t io n b e t we e n th e m in im um toxi c c o nc e nt r a ti on ( MTC ) a n d t h e m i n im um e f f ec tive c o nc en t r at i on ( ME C ) . 4 . I n te r m i tt e n t i n t r a ve no u s in f u si o ns a . I nt e rm i tt e nt in t r a v en ou s i n fu si o ns a r e i n fu s i o ns in wh i c h t he d ru g i s i n f us ed fo r s h o rt pe r i od s t o pr e ve nt ac c u m u l at i on a n d t o xi c i t y . b . I nt e rm i tt e nt in t r a v en ou s i n fu si o ns a r e u s e d fo r a f e w d r ug s, s u c h as the a m in o gl y c os id es . F o r e x a m pl e , g en t am ic in m a y be g i v en as a 1 -h r in f us ion e ve r y 1 2 h r . In th is c a s e , s t ea d y- s t a te d ru g c on cen t r a ti o ns a r e n o t a c hi e v e d. c . Th e p e ak d r u g c o nc e nt r a t io n i n t h e p la s m a f o r a d r ug gi v e n b y i n t er m i t t en t i n t ra v e n ou s in f us i on m a y b e c a lc u la t ed b y t he fo l lo wi n g e q u at io n :
wh e r e C p , n i s t h e p ea k d ru g c o nc en t r at i on , R i s t he r a te of d ru g i n fu s i o n, C l i s to t al b o d y c l ea r an c e , k is th e d os a ge in t e r val , n is t he nu m b e r o f i n f us io ns , t is th e ti m e for t h e i nf us i on , a n d τ i s t he d os ag e i n te r va l . 5 . M u l t ip l e d o se s . Ma n y d r u gs a r e g i ve n in t e rm i tt e n tl y i n a m ul t ip l e -d os e r e g im en f or c o n ti nu o us or p r ol o ng e d t he r ap e ut ic a c ti vi t y . Th is r eg im e n is o f t en us ed t o t r ea t c h ro ni c d is e as e. a . I f d r ug do s e s a r e g i v en f r eq u en t l y b e fo r e t h e pr e v i o us do s e is c om pl e tel y e l im in a te d , t h en pl as m a d r u g c on ce n t ra t io ns ac cu m ul a te an d i nc r ea s e t o a s t ea d y - s ta t e l e v el . b . A t s t ea d y s t a t e , p l as m a d r u g c o nc e nt r a ti o n f lu c tu a te s b e t we e n a m a xi m um ( ) a n d a m in im u m ( ) v a l ue ( Fi gu r e 6 - 4 ) . c . W he n a m ul t ip le - d os e r e g im en is c a lc ul a te d , t he s up e r p os i t io n p r in c ipl e a ss u m e s t ha t p r e v i ou s dr u g do s e s h a v e n o e f fe ct o n s ub s eq ue n t d os es . Th u s t he pr e di c t e d p la s m a d r u g c o nc e nt r a ti o n is t h e t o ta l p la sm a d r ug c o nc en t r at i on ob t ai ne d by a d d in g t h e r es i du al d rug c o nc e n tr a ti o ns fo un d a f t e r e ac h p r e v io us do s e. d . W hen a m u lt i pl e -d os e r e gi m en i s d es i gn ed , onl y t h e d o si n g ra t e ( D 0 / τ ) c a n b e a dj us t ed ea s i l y .
( 1 ) Th e do s i ng r at e i s b as e d o n t he s iz e o f th e do s e ( D 0 ) an d th e i n t e r val ( τ ) b e tw e en d os e s, o r th e f r eq u en c y o f d o s in g. P.128
Figure 6-4. Generalized plot showing plasma drug concentration levels after administration of multiple doses and levels of accumulation when equal doses are given at equal time intervals. τ, time interval between doses (t), or the frequency of dosing. [Adapted with permission from Shargel L, Wu-Pong S, Yu ABC. Applied Biopharmaceutics and Pharmacokinetics, 5th ed. New York, McGraw-Hill, 2005]
( 2 ) Th e do s i ng r at e i s g iv e n b y t he fo l lo wi n g eq ua t i on :
( 3 ) A s l on g a s t he do s i ng r a te is th e s am e, t he exp e c t e d a ve r ag e d r u g c o n ce n t r a ti o n a t st e ady s t a t e ( ) is t he s am e (Fi g u re 6 -4 ) . ( a ) F or e xa m pl e , i f a 60 0- m g d os e i s g i v en e v e r y 1 2 h r, th e d o s i ng r at e i s 6 0 0 m g/ 1 2 h r , o r 5 0 m g /h r . ( b ) A do s e of 30 0 m g e v e r y 6 h r o r 2 0 0 m g e v e r y 4 h r a ls o g i v es th e s am e d o si n g r a te (5 0 m g /h r ) , wi t h t h e s am e e xp e c t ed . H o we v e r , t h e a nd v a lu es wi l l b e d i ff e re n t . ( c ) F or a l a rg e r d os e g i ve n o v e r a l o ng e r i nt e r va l ( e . g. , 60 0 m g e v e r y 12 h r ) , th e i s h ig h er an d th e l o we r co m p a r ed wi t h a s m a ll e r d os e g i ven m o r e f r e q ue n tl y ( e .g . , 2 00 m g e v e r y 4 h r ). e . C e r ta in an t ib i ot ic s a r e g i v e n b y m ul t i pl e r ap i d i n t r a ve n ou s b o l us i n j e ct i o ns . ( 1 ) Th e pe ak , o r ma x im um , se r u m d r u g c o nc e n tr a t i o n a t s t ea d y s t a te m a y b e es ti m a t ed b y th e fo ll owi n g e q ua t io n :
( 2 ) Th e mi n im u m s e r um d r u g c o n ce n t r at i o n ( ) a t s t e ad y s ta t e is th e dr ug c o nc en t r at i on af t e r t he dr u g de cl in es on e d o s a ge i n te r v a l . Th u s i s d e t e rm in ed b y th e fo ll o wi n g e qu a ti o n:
( 3 ) Th e a ve r ag e d r u g co n c en t r a t io n ( ) a t s te a dy s t a te is es ti m a t ed wi t h t h e e q ua t io n u s e d f o r m ul t i pl e o r al do s e s :
F o r in t r a v en ou s b ol u s in je c ti o ns , F = 1 . P.129
f . O r a ll y a dm in is t e re d d ru g s g i v en in im m ed i a te -r e l e as e do s ag e fo r m s ( e . g ., so lu t io ns , c o n v en t io n al t ab le t s , c a ps ul e s) by m u l ti pl e o r al do s es a r e u s ua ll y r a pi d l y a bs o r be d a n d s l o wl y e l im in a te d k A ≥ k ) . a nd fo r th e s e dr u gs a r e ap p ro xi m a t ed b y th e e q u at io n s s h o wn i n I . B .5. e . ( 1 ) a nd (2 ) . ( 1 ) F or m o r e e xa c t c a lc ul a t io ns of an d a f t er m u l tip l e o r al do s e s , t he f o l lo wi n g e q ua t io ns a re u s ed :
( 2 ) Th e c a lc ul a ti on o f is t h e s am e a s f o r m u l ti p le i n t ra v e n ou s b ol u s i n je c ti on s , us i ng th e e q ua t i on s h o wn in I . B. 5 .e . ( 3) . ( 3 ) Th e te r m 1 / (1 - e
-kτ
) is k n o wn as t he ac c um u la t i o n ra t e .
( 4 ) Th e f ra c t i on of d ru g re m ai ni n g i n t he bo d y ( f ) a f t e r a d os a ge in t e r v al is g i ve n b y t he f ol lo wi n g equ a t io n : f = e
-kτ
g . L oa d i ng d os e . A n i ni ti a l l oa d in g d os e ( D L ) i s gi v e n to ob t ai n a t h e r ap eu t ic s t ea d y - s ta t e d r u g l e v el qu ic kl y. ( 1 ) F or m u l ti pl e o r al do s e s , D L is c a lc ul a te d b y :
wh e r e D M i s th e m ai n te na n c e do s e . ( 2 ) I f D M i s g i v e n a t a d os a ge in t e r v al eq ua l to the e li m i na t io n h a lf - li f e o f t h e d r u g, th e n D L eq u al s t wi c e th e m ai n te n an c e do s e. C . M ul t i co m pa r t m en t mo d e ls 1 . D r ug s t h at e xh i b it m u lt i c o m p a r tm en t ph a rm ac ok i ne t i cs di s tr i bu t e i nt o d i f fe r e nt ti s s ue g ro u ps at d if f e re n t r a te s . Ti s s u es wi t h h ig h b l oo d f l o w e q ui l ib r a te wi t h a d ru g m o r e ra p id l y th a n t is su es wi t h l o w b l oo d f l o w. D r ug c o nc en t r at i on in v a ri o us t i s s ue s d e pe nd s o n t h e p h y s ic al an d c he m i c a l
c h a ra ct e ri s ti c s o f th e d r ug a nd th e n a tu r e o f th e t is s u e . F o r e xa m p l e, hi g hly l i pi d -s o lu bl e d r u gs a c c um u la t e sl o wl y i n fa t (l ip id ) t iss u e. 2 . Tw o -c o mp a r t me n t mo d e l (i n t r a ve no u s b o lus i n je c t io n ) a . A f te r an i n t ra v e n ou s bo l us in je c ti on , th e d r u g di s t ri bu t es an d e q ui li b r at es r a p id l y in t o h ig h l y p e r fu s e d ti s s ue s (c e nt r a l c o mp a r t m en t ) an d m or e s lowl y i n t o p e ri ph e r al ti s s ue s ( ti s s ue c om pa r t m en t ) .
b . Th e in i ti al r ap id de c l in e in pl as m a d ru g c on c en t r a ti o n is k n o wn as th e d i s t r i bu t i on p ha s e. Th e s lo we r r a t e o f d ec li n e i n d r u g c o nc e nt r a ti o n a ft e r c om p le t e e qu il i b ra t io n i s a c h i e v ed is k n o wn as the e l im i na t i on p ha se ( F i gu r e 6 - 5 ) . P.130
Figure 6-5. Generalized plot showing drug distribution and equilibration for a twocompartment model (intravenous bolus injection). The distribution phase is the initial rapid decline in plasma drug concentration. The elimination phase is the slower rate of decline after complete equilibration of the drug is achieved. [Adapted with permission from Shargel L, Wu-Pong S, Yu ABC. Applied Biopharmaceutics and Pharmacokinetics, 5th ed. New York, McGrawHill, 2005.]
c . Th e p l as m a d r u g c o nc e n t r a ti o n a t a n y ti m e is t h e s um o f t wo fi r s t- o r de r p r o ce s s es , a s g i v en in the f ol l o wi ng e qu a ti on : Cp = Ae
-at
+ Be
-bt
wh e r e a an d b a re h y b ri d f i rs t - o rd e r r a te c o ns t an ts an d A a nd B ar e y i n t er c ep ts . ( 1 ) Th e h yb r i d f i r s t - o r de r r a t e c o ns t a nt b i s o bt a i ne d f r om th e s lo p e o f t h e e l im in a ti on ph as e o f t h e c u r v e ( F ig u r e 6 -5 ) and r e pr es e n ts t h e f i rs t o r d e r e li m i na t io n o f dr u g f r om t he bo d y af t e r t he d r u g e qu i li b ra t es wi t h a l l t i ss ue s . ( 2 ) Th e h yb r i d f i r s t - o r de r r a t e c o ns t a nt a i s o bta i ne d f ro m t he s l op e o f th e r e s id ua l l i ne of th e d is t r ib u t io n p h as e a ft e r th e e li m in a ti on ph as e i s s u bt r ac t ed . d . Th e ap p a re n t vo l um e o f d is t r i bu t i o n d ep e nds on t he t ype o f p h a rm ac ok i ne ti c c al c u l ati o n . V o lu m e s o f d is t ri b ut io n in c l ud e th e vol um e o f t h e c en t r al c o m p a rt m e n t ( V p ) , th e v ol um e o f di s t r ib u t io n a t s t ea d y s t a te ( V s s ) , an d t h e v ol um e o f t h e ti s s ue c om p a rt m e n t (V t ) . P.131
3 . Tw o -c o mp a r t me n t mo d e l (o r a l d r u g a d mi n ist r a t i o n ) a . A d r u g wi t h a r a pi d d is t r ib u ti o n p ha s e m a y no t s ho w t wo - c o m pa r tm e nt c h a ra ct e ri s ti c s a f t e r o ra l a dm i ni s t r a ti o n. As t he dr u g i s a bs o r be d , i t e q ui l ib r a te s wi t h t he ti s s u e s s o t ha t th e e li m i n at i o n ha l f -l if e o f th e e l im in a ti o n p o rt i on of th e c u r v e e qu a ls 0 . 69 3 /b . b . Two - c o m pa r tm e nt c h ar a c te r is t ic s a re s e en if th e d ru g i s a bs o rb ed r ap id l y a n d t h e d is t ri b ut i on ph as e is s l o we r . 4 . M o d el s w i th a dd i t io na l c om pa r t m en t s a . Th e ad di t io n o f ea c h n e w c o m p a rt m e n t t o th e m o de l re qu i r es a n a d di t io n al fi r s t - o r de r p l ot. b . Th e ad di t io n o f a t hi r d c om pa r t m e n t s u g ge st s th a t th e d r ug s l o wl y e q ui l ib r a te s i nt o a de e p ti s s u e sp a ce . I f th e d r u g is gi ve n a t f re q ue n t i n t er va l s , th e d r u g b eg ins t o ac cu m u l at e i n to t he t h i rd c o m p a r tm en t . c . Th e t e rm i na l l in e ar p ha s e g en e ra l l y re p r es en ts t h e e li m i n at i on of th e d r u g f r om th e b o d y a f t er e q ui l ib r a ti on oc c u r s . Th e r a t e c o n s t a nt f ro m t h e e l im in a ti o n p ha s e is u s ed t o c al cu la t e d os a ge reg i m e ns . d . A de q ua t e p ha r m a c o k in e t ic d es c ri p ti o n o f m ul tic om p a rt m e n t m od el s i s o f t en di f fi c ul t a n d d ep end s o n p r o pe r pl as m a s am p li ng an d d e t er m i n at i on o f d r u g c on c e n t ra t io ns . 5 . E l im i na t i on r a te c ons t a n ts a . Th e el im in a ti o n r a te c o n s t a nt , k , re p r es en ts d ru g el im in a ti o n f r om th e c e nt r a l c o m p a r tm en t . b . Th e te r m i n al e l im in a tio n r at e c on s ta n t ( λ o r b in t he t wo - c om pa r tm e nt m o de l ) r e p re s e n ts d r u g e l im in a ti o n a f te r d r u g d is t r i bu t io n i s m os tl y c om p le t ed . D . N o n l in e a r p h a rm a cok i n e ti c s a r e a ls o k n o wn a s c ap a c i t y- li m i t ed , d o s ed e p en de n t , o r s at u r at i on p h a rm ac ok in e ti cs . No n lin e a r p ha r m a c o ki n et ic s do n o t fo ll o w f i rs t - o rd e r k ine t ic s a s t he do s e in c re as e s (F i gu r e 6 - 6 ). N on l in ea r
p h a rm ac ok i ne ti c s m a y r es u lt f ro m t h e sa t u ra t io n o f an en z ym e o r c a rr i e rm e di a te d s y s te m . 1 . C h a ra c te r i s t ic s o f n on l i n ea r p ha r m ac o ki n e tic s in c l ud e a . Th e A U C i s n o t p ro p o rt i o na l t o t h e d os e . b . Th e am ou n t o f d r ug exc r e t e d in th e ur i ne is n ot p r op o r ti on a l t o t h e d os e . c . Th e e li m i n at i on ha l f -l ife m a y i nc r ea s e a t h ig h do s es . d . Th e r at io o f m e t ab o li te s fo rm e d c ha ng e s wi t h in c r ea se d d os e . 2 . M i c ha e li s -M e n te n k i ne t i c s d es c r i be th e v el oc it y o f en zy m e re a ct i on s . Mi c h a e li s - Me n t en k i ne t ic s a re us ed t o d es c r i be no n l i n ea r ph a rm ac ok in e tic s .
Figure 6-6. Generalized plot showing plasma drug concentration versus time for a drug with Michaelis-Menten (nonlinear) elimination kinetics. For this one-compartment model (intravenous injection), the doses are 1 mg, 10 mg, and 100 mg; and the apparent in vivo rate constant (kM) is 10 mg. The maximum velocity of the reaction (Vmax) is 0.2 mg/min. [Adapted with permission from Gibaldi M, Perrier D. Pharmacokinetics, 2nd ed. New York, Marcel Dekker, Inc., 1982. Copyright © 1982 Routledge/Taylor & Francis Group, LLC.]
P.132
a . Th e M i ch a el i s -M en t en e q ua t i on de s c r ib es the r a te of c h a ng e ( v e l oc ity ) o f pl as m a d ru g c on c e n t ra t i on af t e r a n i nt r a v e no us bo l us i n je c t i on , a s f o l lo ws :
wh e r e V m a x i s t he m a xi m u m v el oc i t y of t he re ac t io n , C p is th e s u bs t ra t e or p l as m a d ru g c on c e n t ra t io n , a n d k M is th e Mi c ha el i s co ns t an t eq ua l to th e C p a t 0 .5 V m a x . b . A t l o w C p v a l ue s , wh er e C p << k M , t h is e q ua t ion r e du ce s t o a fi r s t - o rd e r r a t e e q ua t io n b ec au s e bo t h k M a nd V m a x a r e c o nst a n ts .
c . A t h ig h C p v a lu e s , wh e r e C p > > k M , t he Mi c h ael i s - Me n t e n eq ua t io n i s a ze r o - o r de r ra t e e qu a ti o n, a s f o ll o ws :
3 . D r ug s t h at fo l lo w n o n li n ea r ph a rm ac ok i ne t ic s m a y s h o w ze r o - o rd e r e l im in a ti o n r a te s a t h ig h d r u g c on c e n t ra t io ns , f r ac t i o na l -o r de r el im i na t io n r a t es at in t e rm ed i at e d r ug c o nc e n tr a ti o ns , a nd f irs t - o rd e r e li m i n at i on ra t es a t lo w d r u g c on c e n t ra t ion s (F i gu r e 6 - 6 ). E . C l e a ra n ce is a m e as ur e m en t o f d r u g e li m i na t ion f r om th e b od y . U n it s f or c l ea r an c e a re v o lu m e per t im e (e . g. , li t er s p e r h ou r ) . 1 . T o ta l b o d y c l e a r a n c e ( C l T ) i s t he d ru g e li m i n at i o n r a te di vi d ed b y t h e p l as m a d ru g c on c e n t ra t io n . Ac c o r di n g t o t he c o nc e pt o f c l e ar a nc e , t he bod y c o nt a in s a n a pp a r en t v olu m e o f d is t ri b ut i on in wh i c h t he d ru g i s d is s o l v ed. A c on s ta n t p or t io n o f th is v o lu m e is c l ea r ed , or re m o v ed , f ro m t he bo d y pe r u n i t t im e. a . Th e fo ll o wi n g e q ua t ion s e xp r e s s t h e m e as u r em e nt o f t ot a l b od y c l ea r an c e :
b . F o r d ru gs t ha t fo ll o w f i r s t -o r de r (l i ne a r ) p ha r m a c ok in e ti c s , t o ta l b o d y c l ea r an c e is th e s um of a l l t h e cl e ar a nc es in th e b o d y, a s s ho wn i n th e f o l lo wi n g e q ua t io n : CLT = CLR + ClNR wh e r e C L R is re n al c l ea ra n c e an d Cl N R is no n re na l c l ea r an c e . N on r en a l c l ea r an c e , C l N R , is of t en e q u at e d wi t h he p at ic c l ea r a nc e , C l H . c . Th e re la t io n b e t we e n C l T an d t 1 / 2 is ob t ai n ed by s u bs t it u ti n g 0 .6 9 3/ t 1 / 2 fo r k in t he eq ua t io n i n I. E . 1 a t o o bt a in th e f o ll o wi n g e xp r e s s i o n:
wh e r e V D a nd C l T ar e c on s id e re d i n de p en de n t v ar i a bl es , an d t 1 / 2 is c o ns id e re d a d ep en d en t v a r i a bl e . d . A s c l e a ra nc e d ec r ea s e s (e . g. , in re n al di s e as e) , t ½ i nc r ea s e s . C h an g es i n V D a ls o c au s e p ro p o rt io n al c h a ng es in t ½ . 2 . R e na l d r u g e x c re t i o n i s t h e m a j or r ou t e o f d r ug e li m i na t io n fo r p o la r d r u gs , wa t e r -s ol u bl e d r ug s , d r ug s wi t h l o w m o l ec u l a r we i g h t ( < 50 0 ), an d d r u gs th a t a r e b io t r an s f or m e d s l o wl y. Th e r el a ti on b et we e n t he dr u g e xc r e t i o n r a te an d t h e p la s m a d r u g c o nc e n tr a ti o n i s s ho wn P.133
i n Fi g ur e 6 - 7 . D r u gs ar e e xc r e t e d th r ou g h t he ki dn e y i nt o th e u r in e b y g l om e ru l a r f il t ra t io n , t u bu l a r r e ab s o r p ti on , an d ac t i v e t u bu la r s e cr e ti o n.
Figure 6-7. Generalized plot showing the excretion rate versus plasma drug concentration for a drug with active tubular secretion and for a drug secreted by glomerular filtration only. [Adapted with permission from Shargel L, WuPong S, Yu ABC. Applied Biopharmaceutics and Pharmacokinetics, 5th ed. New York, McGrawHill, 2005.]
a . G l o me r u la r f i l t ra t i on i s a pa s s i ve p r oc es s b y wh i c h s m al l m o l ec ul es an d d r u gs ar e fi l te r ed th r o ugh t he gl om e r ul us of th e ne p h ro n . ( 1 ) D r ug s b ou n d t o p la s m a p r o te i ns a r e t o o l a rge t o b e f il t e re d a t th e g l om e ru l us . ( 2 ) D r ug s s uc h a s c r ea t in i n e a n d i n ul i n a r e n o t a c ti ve l y se c re t ed or r e a bs o rb e d. Th e y a re us e d to m e as u re t he gl o me r u l a r fi l t r a ti o n ra t e (GFR). b . T ub u l a r r e a bs o r p ti on is a p as s i v e p ro ce s s tha t f ol lo ws F ic k 's la w o f d i f fu si o n. ( 1 ) Li p id - s o lu b le d ru gs ar e r ea bs o r be d f r om th e lu m en of t he ne ph r o n b ac k i n t o t he s ys t em ic c i rc ul a ti o n . ( 2 ) F or we a k e l ec t ro l y t e d r u gs , u r in e p H a ff e c t s th e r at i o o f n on i on i z ed and i o ni ze d d r u g. ( a ) I f t he d ru g e xi s t s p r im a r il y in t he no ni o ni z e d o r li p id - s o lu b le fo r m , t hen i t is re a bs o rb ed m o r e e as i l y fr om t he lu m e n o f t he n ep h ro n . ( b ) I f t h e d ru g e xi s t s p r im a r il y in t he io ni z e d o r wa t e r - s o lu bl e fo rm , th e n i t i s e xc r e t e d m or e e a s i l y in t he u ri n e. ( c ) D e pe nd i ng on th e p K a o f t h e d r ug , a l te r a ti on o f u ri n e p H a l te r s t he r ati o o f io n i zed to no n io ni z e d d r u g a nd a ff ec t s t he r at e o f dr u g e xc r e t io n . F o r e xa m p l e , a lk al in i z a ti o n of t h e u ri n e b y t he ad m i nis t r at i on of s o di um b i ca r bo n at e i nc r e as es the e xc r e t io n o f s a li c y la t es ( we a k ac id s ) i nt o th e u r i ne . ( 3 ) A n i nc r ea s e in u ri ne fl o w c a us ed b y s im u lt a neo u s a dm in is t r at i on of a d i u re t ic de c r e as es th e t im e fo r d r u g r e ab s o r pt i on. C o ns e qu en t l y , m o re d ru g i s e xc r e t e d i f g i v e n wi t h a d iu r e ti c . c . Ac t i ve t u bu l a r s e c re ti o n is a ca r r ie r -m e di a te d a c ti v e t ra ns p or t s y s t em t h a t r e qu i re s e ne r g y . ( 1 ) Two a c t i v e t u bu la r s ec r e ti o n p at h wa y s e xi s t i n t h e k id ne y : o ne s y s t em f o r we a k a c i ds an d o n e s y s t e m f o r we a k ba se s . ( 2 ) Th e ac ti v e t ub ul a r s ec r e ti o n s y st em s h o ws c om p et i ti o n e ff e c t s . F or e xa m p l e , p r o be n ec i d (a we a k a ci d ) c o m pe t es f o r t h e s am e s y st em as
p e ni ci l li n , d ec r ea s i ng t he r a te of pe n ic il li n e xc r e t i o n , r es u lt in g i n a lo n ge r p e ni ci l li n t 1 / 2 . ( 3 ) Th e re n al c l ea r an c e o f d ru gs th a t a r e a c t i v e l y s ec r e te d , su c h as p a m i no h i pp u r a te ( P AH ) , i s u s e d to m e as u re ef f e ct i ve r e n a l b l oo d fl ow (ERBF). 3 . R e na l c l ea r a nc e i s t he v o l um e o f d r ug c o n ta ine d in th e p l as m a th a t is r e m o ved b y th e k id ne y pe r u ni t t im e . Un i t s f o r r en a l cl e a ra n ce a re e xp r e s s ed in v o lu m e pe r t im e (e . g ., m i ll il i te r s p e r m in u te o r l it e rs pe r ho u r) . a . R en a l c l e a ra nc e m a y b e m e as u re d b y d i v id i ng t h e r a te o f d r ug e xc r e ti on b y t h e p la s m a d r ug c o nc e n t r at i on , a s s ho wn i n t he f ol l o wi ng e qu a ti on :
P.134
b . Me a s u re m en t o f re n al c le a r an c e m a y al s o be e xp r e s s ed b y th e f o ll o win g e q u at io n : ClR = keVD wh e r e k e i s t he fi r s t - o r der r e na l e xc r e t i on r at e c on s ta n t a nd
wh e r e i s t he t ot a l am o unt o f p a re n t ( u nc ha n ge d ) d r u g e xc r e t e d i n t he u ri ne . c . R en al c l e ar a nc e is m ea s u re d wi t ho u t r e ga r d t o t h e p h ys i ol o gi c m ec h an is m o f re na l d r u g e xc r e t i on . Th e p r ob a bl e m ec ha n ism f o r r en a l c l ea r an c e is ob t ai ne d wi th a c l ea r a n ce r a ti o , wh ic h re l at es d ru g c le a ra nc e t o in u li n c le a ra nc e (a m ea s u re of G F R ) . ( 1 ) I f t he c l ea r a nc e r a ti o i s < 1. 0 , t h e m e c h a ni s m f o r d r u g c l e ar a nc e m a y r e s ul t f r om fi l t ra t io n p l us r e a bs or p ti o n. ( 2 ) I f t he r a ti o is 1 .0 , th e m ec ha n is m m a y b e f il t ra t i on on l y . ( 3 ) I f t he r a ti o is > 1 . 0, th e m ec h an is m m a y b e f i lt r a t io n p lu s a c t i v e tu b ul ar s ec r e ti o n. 4 . H e pa t i c c le a r an c e is t h e v ol um e o f pl as m a c on t a in in g d r u g t ha t i s c l ea r ed b y th e l i v e r p e r u n i t t im e. a . M e as u r e me n t o f he pa t i c c l ea r a nc e . He p at ic c l ea r an ce is us ua ll y m e as u re d i nd i r ec tl y , as th e di f fe r e nc e b et we e n tot a l b o d y c le a r an c e an d r e n al cl ea r a nc e, as s h o wn i n t he f ol lo wi n g eq u at io n : ClH = ClT - ClR wh e r e C l H is th e h e pa ti c c l ea r an c e . H ep a ti c cl e a ra n ce is g e ne r al l y c o ns id e re d to be eq ui v a le n t to C l N R , o r n on r en a l d r u g c le a ra nc e . He p at ic c l ea r an c e c a n a ls o b e c al c ul a te d a s t he p r o du c t o f t h e l i ve r b lo o d f l ow ( Q ) a n d t he ex t r a c ti o n ra t i o ( E R ), as s h o wn in th e fo l lo wi n g eq ua t io n : ClH = Q(ER)
( 1 ) Th e ex t r ac t i o n r a t io i s th e f r ac t io n o f d r u g t ha t is i r r e v e rs ib l y r em o v ed b y a n o r g an o r t is s u e a s t h e p l as m a -c o nt a in in g d ru g pe r f us es th a t t is s u e . ( 2 ) Th e e xt r a c t i on r at i o is ob t ai n ed b y m e as ur i ng t h e p la sm a d r ug c o nc en t r at i on en t e ri ng th e li v e r an d t h e p la s m a d r u g c on c e n t ra t io n e xi t i ng t h e l i ve r :
wh e r e C a is th e a r t e ri al p l as m a d ru g c on c e n t ra t io n en t e ri ng t he li v e r a n d C v i s th e ven ou s p la s m a d ru g c o nc en t r at i on e xi t i ng t h e l i v e r . ( 3 ) V al u es fo r th e E R r an g e f r om 0 t o 1 . F o r e xa m p le , i f th e E R is 0 .9 , t he n 9 0 % o f th e i nc om in g d r ug is r em o v ed as th e p l as m a p e r fu s e s t h e li v e r . If t h e E R i s 0 , t he n n o dr ug is r em o ved b y th e l i v e r. b . B l o od f low , i n t ri n s ic c l e a ra n ce , an d p r o t ei n b i n d in g af f ec t h e pa t ic c l ea r an c e . ( 1 ) B l oo d f low t o t h e li v e r is ap p ro xi m a t el y 1 . 5 L/ m in an d m a y be al t er e d b y e xe r c i s e , fo o d, di s e as e , o r d r ug s. ( a ) B lo o d e nt e rs th e l i v e r t h r ou g h t he he p at ic po r ta l v e in an d h e pa t ic a r t ery a n d l ea v e s t h r ou g h t he he p a ti c ve i n. ( b ) A f te r o ra l d r ug ad m i ni s t ra t io n , t he d ru g i s a bs o r b ed f ro m t h e g a st r o in t es ti n al t ra c t in to t he m e se n te r ic v es se ls a n d p r oc ee ds to t he h e p at ic po r t al v e in , l i v e r , a n d s y st em ic ci r cu la t io n. ( 2 ) I n t ri n s ic cl e a ra n ce , C l i n t d es c r i be s t he ab i li ty o f t he li v e r to r em o v e th e d r u g i nd e pe n de n tl y o f b lo o d f l o w. ( a ) I nt r in s i c d r ug c l ea r a nc e p r im a ri l y oc c u r s b ec au s e o f t h e i nh e re n t a bi l ity o f t he bi o t r a ns f o rm a t ion e nz ym e s ( m i xe d - f u nc t io n o xi d as es ) to m e t ab ol iz e t h e d r u g as it en t e rs th e l i v e r . ( b ) N o rm al l y , ba s a l l e v e l m i xe d - f un c ti on o xi d as e e n zy m e s b io t ra ns f o rm d r u gs . L e v e ls o f th es e en z y m e s m a y be i n c r e as ed b y v a r io us d ru gs ( e. g . , p h e no ba r b it al ) an d e n v i ro n m e n ta l a g en ts ( e. g . , to b a c c o sm ok e ). Th es e e n zym e s m a y b e i nh i bi t ed b y o th e r d r ug s a nd en vi r o n m en t al ag e nt s ( e .g . , c im e ti d in e , ac u te le a d po i s o ni n g ). P.135
( 3 ) P r o te i n b i n di n g . D r ug s th a t a re b ou nd t o p ro te i n a r e n o t e as il y cl e ar ed b y t h e l i v e r o r k id n e y b ec a us e o nl y t h e f r ee , o r no n pl a sm a p ro t ei n - bo un d , d r u g c ro s s es t he c e ll m em b r an e i n to th e t is s ue . ( a ) T he f r ee d r ug is a v ail a bl e to dr u g -m et a bo li zi ng e n zy m es f o r b i o tr a ns f or m a t io n . ( b ) A s u dd e n i nc re a s e i n f r e e -d r ug pl as m a c o nc en t r a ti o n r es ul t s i n m o r e a va i la b le d ru g a t p h a rm ac o lo gi c re c e p to r s, p ro duc i n g a m o r e i n te ns e e f f ec t i n th e o r g an s ( e .g . , k id ne y , l i v e r ) i n v ol v e d i n d r ug r em o va l.
( c ) B l oo d f low ( Q ) , in t r in s i c c l ea r a nc e ( Cl i n t ) , an d f ra c t i on of f r ee dr u g in p l as m a ( f ) a r e r e la t ed to h e pa t ic c le a r an c e as s ho wn i n th e fo ll o wi n g e q u at io n :
( 1 ) Th e he pa t ic c l ea r an c e o f d r ug s t h at ha v e hi gh e xt r a c ti o n r a ti os an d h ig h C l i n t va lu es ( e. g ., p ro p r an o lo l ) i s m o s t a f fe c t e d by c h an g es in bl oo d fl o w a n d i nh i bi t o rs o f th e d r ug m e t ab o li s m e n zy m es . ( 2 ) Th e he pa t ic c l ea r an c e o f d r ug s t h at ha v e lo w e xt r a c t i on r at i os a n d l o w C l i n t va lu es ( e. g ., t he o phy l l i ne ) is m os t a f f ec te d by c h an g es in C l i n t an d i s a f f ec t ed on l y s l ig h tl y b y c h an g es i n h e pa t ic b l oo d f l o w. ( 3 ) O n l y d r u gs th a t a re hi g hl y p la s m a p r o te in bo un d (i . e ., > 9 5% ) an d h a ve a l o w i nt r i ns ic c le a ra n c e ( e . g ., ph e n y t oi n ) a r e a ff ec t ed b y a su d de n s hi f t i n p r o t ei n b in d in g . Th i s s hi ft c au s e s a n i nc r ea s e in fr e e - d ru g p la s m a c o nc en t r at i on . c . B i li a r y d r u g e x c r e t ion , a n ac t i v e t r an s p o r t p ro c es s , is a ls o i nc l ud e d in h e p at ic c l ea r an c e. S ep a ra t e a c ti v e s ec r e ti o n s y ste m s e xi s t fo r we a k ac i ds a n d we ak ba s e s . ( 1 ) D r ug s t h at a re e xc r e te d in bi le a re us ua l l y h i gh m o l ec ul a r we ig h t c om p ou n ds (i . e. , > 5 00 ) o r p ol a r d r ug s , s u ch as re s e rp in e , d ig o xi n , an d va r i o us gl uc u ro n id e c on ju g a te s . ( 2 ) D r ug s m a y b e re c y c le d b y th e e n te r o h ep a t ic c i r c ul a t io n . ( a ) S om e d r ug s a r e a bs or b e d f r om th e g as t r oi n tes t in a l t r ac t t h ro u gh t he m es e nt e r ic a n d h ep a ti c p o r t al v e in s, p ro c e e di ng t o t he l i v e r . Th e li v e r m ay s ec r e te s o m e of t he dr u g ( u nc h an ge d or as a g lu c u r o ni d e m e t ab o li t e ) in t o t h e b i le . ( b ) Th e bi le an d d r u g a re s to r ed in th e g a ll bl a dde r a n d wi l l e m p t y in t o t he g a st r o in t es ti n al t ra c t t hro u g h t he bi le d uc t a nd the n m a y be r ea bs o r be d . ( c ) I f t he d ru g i s a gl u cur o n i d e m e ta b ol i t e, ba c te r i a i n t he g as t ro in t es t ina l t r a ct m a y h y d r ol y z e t he g l uc u ro n id e m oi e t y, a ll owi n g t h e r e le as e d d ru g to b e r ea bs o rb e d. d . F i rs t - p as s e f f ec t s (pr e s ys t e m i c el i mi n a ti o n ) o c c u r wi t h d ru g s gi v e n o r a ll y. A po r ti o n o f t h e dr u g i s e li m i n at e d b ef o r e s y s t em ic a bs o r pt i on o cc u rs . ( 1 ) Fi r s t- p as s e ff e c t s g en e r al l y r es ul t fr om r ap i d d r u g b io t r an sf o rm a ti o n by l i ve r e n z y m es . O t he r m ec h an is m s i n cl ud e m e ta bo l is m o f t h e d ru g b y g a st r o in t es ti n al m uc os a l c e ll s , in t es t in al fl o r a, and b il ia r y s ec re t io n . ( 2 ) Fi r s t- p as s e ff e c t s a r e u s u a ll y o bs e r ved b y m ea s u ri ng t he ab s ol u t e b i o a va i la b i li t y ( F ) o f the d r ug (s e e C h ap t e r 7 ) . If F < 1 , t h en s om e o f th e d r u g wa s e li m i na t ed b efo r e s y s t em ic d r u g a bs orp t i on oc c u r r ed . ( 3 ) D r ug s t h at ha v e a h ig h h ep a t ic ex t r a ct i o n ra t i o , s uc h as p ro p r an ol ol a n d m o rp hi n e, s h o w f i rs t- p a s s e f f ec ts . ( 4 ) To o bt a in be t te r s y s te m ic a bs o r pt i on of a d r ug t ha t de m o ns t r at es hi g h f i r s t - p as s e ff ec t s , th e n ei t h er
( a ) Th e dr u g d os e c ou ld b e in c re as ed ( e .g . , p r op ra n ol o l, pe n ic il li n ) ( b ) Th e d ru g c ou ld be giv e n b y a n al t e rn a te r ou te o f a dm in is t r at i on ( e. g ., n i t ro g l yc e r in s u bl i ng ua l , i n s u li n s ub c ut a ne ou s , est r a di o l t r an sd e rm a l) ( c ) Th e do s a g e f o rm c oul d be m o di f ie d a s a d e laye d - r e l e as e d r u g p ro d uc t ( e . g ., en t e ri c -c oa t ed as pi r i n, m e sa la m i n e ) so t ha t t h e d r ug m a y b e a bs o rbe d m o r e d is ta ll y i n t h e G I t ra c t F . N o nc o m pa r t me n t m et h o d s. S om e p ha r m a c o k i n e ti c p a ra m e t er s f o r a b so r p ti on , di s t r ib u ti o n, a n d e li m i n at i on m a y b e e s ti m a t ed wi t h n o nc om p a rt m e n t m e t ho ds . Th es e m e th od s u su al ly r e q u i r e c om p ar is o n o f t h e a r e as u n de r th e c u r ve . 1 . M e a n r e si d e nc e t i me a . M e a n r e si d e nc e t i me ( M R T ) i s t he a v e ra g e t im e fo r th e d r ug m o le cu l es t o r es id e i n t h e b od y . M R T i s a ls o kn o wn a s t he m e a n t ra ns i t t i m e a nd m e a n s o jo u rn t i m e. b . Th e MR T d e p e n ds on t h e ro u te of ad m i n is t ra t io n an d a s s um es th a t t h e d r u g i s e lim i na t ed f ro m th e c e nt r a l co m p a r tm en t . P.136
c . Th e MR T i s t he t ot a l re s id e nc e t im e f o r a ll m o le c ul es in th e b o d y di v i ded b y t h e t o ta l n um b e r o f m o l ec ul e s in t he bo d y , a s s h o wn in t he fo ll o wi n g e q u at io n :
d . M RT a f te r I V b o l us inj e c t io n ( 1 ) Th e MR T a f t e r a b o lus in t r a v en o us i n je c t i on is c al c u l at e d b y t he f o l lo wi n g e q ua t io n :
wh e r e A U MC i s t h e a r ea u n d er t he fi r s t m o m e n t ve r s us tim e c u r v e f r om t = 0 t o t = i nf i ni t y an d A U C 0 - ∞ i s t he a re a u n de r th e p l as m a d ru g c on c e n t ra t io n ve r s us t im e c u r v e f ro m t = 0 to t = in f in i t y . A U C 0 - ∞ i s a ls o k no wn a s t h e z e ro m om e nt c u r v e . ( 2 ) Th e MR T I V i s r e la t ed t o t he el im in a ti o n r a te c on s ta n t b y t he f ol lo wi n g e xp r e s s io n : MR T I V = 1 / k ( 3 ) D u ri n g MR T I V , 6 2 . 3% o f th e i n t ra ve no u s b ol us d os e i s e li m i n at e d. ( 4 ) Th e MR T f o r a d ru g gi v e n b y a no n in s t a n ta neo u s i np u t is lo n ge r th a n th e MR T I V . 2 . M e a n a bs o r p t io n ti me ( M AT ) is th e d i ff e r en ce b e t we e n MR T a n d MR T I V a f t e r a n e xt r a v a s c u l ar r ou t e i s u se d . MA T = MR T e v = MR T I V
W hen f i rs t -o r de r ab s o r p tio n oc c u rs , MA T = 1 / k a. 3 . C l ea r a nc e i s t h e v o l um e o f pl as m a c l ea r ed o f d r u g p e r u ni t ti m e an d m a y b e c a lc ul a te d wi t ho u t c on s id e ra t io n o f th e c om par t m en t m od e l.
A f t e r a n IV do s e, F = 1. 4 . S t ea d y- s t a t e vo l um e o f d i st r i b u ti o n ( V s s ) a . Th e s t ea d y- s t a te v o lum e o f di st r ib u ti o n is t he r a t io o f t he am ou n t o f d ru g i n th e b o d y a t s t ea d y s t at e an d th e a ve r ag e s t ea dy - s t a t e d ru g c o nc en t r at i on . b . A f te r an in t ra v e n ou s bo l us in je c ti on , V s s i s c a lcu l a te d b y t he f ol lo wi n g e q u at io n :
II. Clinical Pharmacokinetics i s th e a pp l ic at i on of ph a rm ac o k i ne t ic p r i nc ip le s f o r t h e r a ti o na l d es ig n o f an i n di vi d ua li z e d do s a ge r eg i m e n . Th e t wo m a i n o bje c ti v e s a r e m a in t e na n ce o f a n o p t im u m d r u g c on c e n t ra t i on a t t h e re c ep t o r s i te to p ro du c e t he d e si r ed t he r ap e ut ic r es po n s e fo r a s pe ci f ic p e ri od a nd mi n i mi z a t i on o f an y a d ve r s e o r t o xi c e f f ec ts o f t h e d ru g .
III. Toxicokinetics i s th e a pp l ic at i on of ph a rm ac o k i ne t ic p r i nc ip le s t o t h e d es ig n , c on d uc t, and i n t er p r et a ti o n o f d r ug s a fe t y e v a lu a ti o n s tu di e s . A. T o x i c ok i n et i cs is al s o us e d t o val id a te do s e- re l a te d e xp o s u r e in a n im al s . To xi c o k in e ti c s tu d ie s a r e p e rf o rm e d i n an i m a ls du r in g p r ec li n ic al d r u g d e v el o pm en t to ai d i n pr e di c ti on o f h um an dru g to xi c i t y . To xi c o k in e ti c ( n o nc li n ic al ) s t ud i es m a y c on t in u e a f te r th e d r ug h a s b ee n t e s t e d i n h u m a ns . B . C l i n ic a l t o xi c o lo g y i s t he s t ud y o f a d ve rs e e ff e c ts o f dr u gs a n d t o xi c s u bs ta n c e s ( p oi s o ns ) i n t h e h um a n b od y . Th e pha r m ac ok in e ti cs o f a d ru g i n a n o ve rm ed ic a te d (i n to xi c a te d ) p a ti e nt m a y b e ver y d i f fe r e nt f ro m t h e p h a rm ac ok i ne ti c s of t he s am e d r u g g i v en in th e r ap e u ti c d os es . F o r e xa m p l e , a v e r y hi gh t o xi c d os e m a y s h o w n on l ine a r ph a rm ac ok in e ti c s due t o sa t ur a ti o n k i n et ic s P.137
c om p a re d t o th e d r ug gi v e n at lo we r t h e ra p eu t ic do s es i n wh i ch th e d r ug lev e l s f o l lo w l i ne a r p h a rm ac ok in e t ic s .
IV. Population Pharmacokinetics i s th e s tu d y o f s o u rc es an d c o r re l at e s o f v a r i ab il it y i n dr u g co n c e n tr a ti o ns a m o n g i n di vi d ua ls wh o a re th e ta r g e t p at i en t p o pu la t io n . P o p ul a ti on ph a rm ac ok i ne t ic s i s
m os t of t en ap p li ed t o t he c li n ic al pa t ie n t wh o is re c ei vi n g r el e v a nt do s es o f a d r ug o f in t e re s t . B ot h p h ar m ac ok i ne t ic a n d n on p ha r m ac ok i ne t ic d a ta m a y b e c on s id e re d , i n cl ud i ng ge n de r , a g e, we i gh t , c r ea t in i ne c l ea r anc e , a nd co nc om i ta n t d is ea s e. P.138
STUDY QUESTIONS D i r e c t i on s : E a c h qu es t io n , s t at em e nt o r i nc om ple t e s t at em e nt in th is s e c t i o n c a n b e c o r re c tl y a ns we r e d o r c om p le t ed b y on e o f th e s ug g es t ed an s we r s o r p h r as es . C h o os e th e b e st an s we r . 1 . C r e at i n in e c l e a ra n ce i s us e d a s a m e as u r eme n t o f ( A ) r e na l e xc r e t i on ra t e . ( B ) g lo m e r ul a r fi lt r a ti o n ra t e ( G F R ). ( C ) a ct i v e re n al s ec r e ti on . ( D ) p as s i v e r en al a bs or pt i o n. ( E ) d r ug m e ta b ol is m r a te. V i e w A n s we r 1 . T h e a n sw e r i s B [ se e] . F o r q u es ti o n s 2 - 5 : A ne w c e ph a lo s p o ri n a n ti b io ti c wa s g i ve n a t a do se o f 5 m g /k g b y a s in gl e i n t ra ve n o us b o lu s i nj ec t io n to a 5 8 - ye a r - ol d m an wh o we i g hed 7 5 kg . Th e a n ti b io t ic f ol l o ws th e p h a rm ac ok i ne ti c s of a on e - c o m p a r tm en t m od e l an d ha s a n e li m i n at io n h al f - li f e o f 2 h r . Th e a p pa r en t v o lu m e o f di s t r ib u ti o n is 0 .2 8 L /k g , a nd t he d ru g i s 3 5% b o u nd to p l as m a p ro t ei ns . 2 . W ha t is t he i ni t i al p la s m a d r u g c on c en t r a t io n ( ) in t hi s pa t ie n t ? ( A ) 0 . 24 m g /L ( B ) 1 . 80 m g /L ( C ) 1 7 .9 m g /L ( D ) 5 6 .0 m g /L ( E ) 1 33 9 m g /L V i e w A n s we r 2 . T h e a n sw e r i s C [ se e] . 3 . W h a t is t h e p r e di c t ed pl a sm a d r u g c o n ce n t r a ti o n ( C p ) a t 8 h r a f t e r t h e d o se ? ( A ) 0 . 73 m g /L ( B ) 1 . 11 m g /L ( C ) 2 . 64 m g /L ( D ) 4 . 02 m g /L ( E ) 1 5 .1 0 m g/ L V i e w A n s we r 3 . T h e a n sw e r i s B [ se e I . A . 1. b . (1 ); ] .4 . H ow m u ch d r ug r e m a in s in t he pa t i en t 's b o d y ( D B ) 8 h r a f t e r th e d os e ? ( A ) 1 5 .3 m g ( B ) 2 3 .3 m g ( C ) 8 4 .4 m g ( D ) 1 0 0. 0 m g ( E ) 1 12 . 0 m g V i e w A n s we r 4 . T h e a n sw e r i s B [ se e] . 5 . How l on g a f te r t he d os e i s e xa c t l y 7 5 % o f t h e d r ug el i m ina t e d f ro m th e p a t ie n t 's b o d y?
( A ) 2 hr ( B ) 4 hr (C) 6 hr (D) 8 hr (E) 10 hr V i e w A n s we r 5 . T h e a n sw e r i s B [ se e] . C D C V t F o r q u es t i o ns 6 -1 1 : A 35 - y e a r o l d m an wh o we i g hs 7 0 k g a n d h as no rm a l r e na l f u nc t io n n e ed s a n i nt r a ve n o us i n f us io n o f th e a n ti bi o ti c c a r be ni c i l li n . Th e de s i r ed s te ad y - s t at e p l asm a d ru g c o nc en t r at i on is 1 5 m g /dL . Th e ph y s ic ia n wa n ts th e an t ib io t ic to be in f us ed i nt o t h e p a t ie n t f o r 1 0 h r . C a r be ni c il li n h as an el im i na t io n h a l f- l if e (t 1 / 2 ) o f 1 hr an d a n a p p ar e nt v o lu m e di s t ri but i o n ( V D ) of 9 L i n th is pat i e nt . 6 . As s u m in g th a t n o loa d i n g d os e w as g i ve n, w h a t r a t e o f i n t r a ve n ous i n f us i on i s r e co mm e n de d fo r t h is p a ti e n t? ( A ) 9 3 .6 m g /h r ( B ) 1 35 . 0 m g/ h r ( C ) 4 6 8. 0 m g/ h r ( D ) 9 3 6. 0 m g/ h r ( E ) 1 35 0 .0 m g / hr V i e w A n s we r 6 . T h e a n sw e r i s D [ se e] . 7 . As s um in g t ha t n o l oa d i ng i n t r a ve n o us do s e w a s g i ve n , how l o ng a f te r th e i ni t i a ti o n o f t he in t ra ve n o u s i n f u s io n w ou l d th e p l asm a d r ug co n ce n t r a ti o n r e a c h 9 5 % o f t h e t h e o re t i c s t e a d y- s t a t e d r u g c o nce n t r a t io n ? (A) 1.0 hr (B) 3.3 hr (C) 4.3 hr (D) 6.6 hr ( E ) 1 0 .0 hr V i e w A n s we r 7 . T h e a n sw e r i s C [ se e] . P . 13 9
8 . W ha t is t he r ec o mm en d e d l o ad i n g d o se ? ( A ) 9 3 .6 m g ( B ) 1 35 . 0 m g ( C ) 4 6 8. 0 m g ( D ) 9 3 6. 0 m g ( E ) 1 35 0 .0 m g V i e w A n s we r 8 . T h e a n sw e r i s E [s e e] . 9 . T o i n f us e t he an t i b io t i c a s a s o l u t io n c o n ta i n in g 1 0 g d r u g i n 5 0 0 m L 5 % d e x t r o s e, h ow m a n y m i l l i li t e r s pe r h o u r o f t h e s o lu t i on w ou l d be i nf u se d in t o th e p a t i en t ? ( A ) 1 0 .0 m L /h r ( B ) 4 6 .8 m L /h r ( C ) 1 0 0. 0 m L/ h r ( D ) 9 3 6. 0 m L/ h r ( E ) 1 14 1 .0 m L / hr
V i e w A n s we r 9 . T h e a n sw e r i s B [ se e] . 1 0. W ha t i s t he t o ta l bo d y c l e a r a n c e r a t e f o r c a r be n ic i l li n in t h i s p a t ie n t ? ( A ) 1 00 m L / hr ( B ) 9 36 m L / hr ( C ) 4 8 62 m L /h r ( D ) 6 2 37 m L /h r ( E ) 9 00 0 m L /h r V i e w A n s we r 1 0 . T he a nsw e r i s D [ se e] . 1 1. I f t h e p a t i en t ' s r e n al cl e a ra n ce f o r c a r be n ic i l li n is 86 m L /m i n , w h a t i s th e hep a t i c c le a r a nc e f o r ca rb e n ic i l l in ? ( A ) 1 08 m L / hr ( B ) 1 07 7 m L /h r ( C ) 3 8 40 m L /h r ( D ) 5 1 60 m L /h r ( E ) 6 84 4 m L /h r V i e w A n s we r 1 1 . T he a nsw e r i s B [ se e] . C R k V C C CC D C l C l C l C l C l C l C l C l 12 . T h e e a r l ie s t e vi d e nc e th a t a d r u g i s s t o r ed i n t i s s ue is ( A ) a n i nc r ea s e in pl as m a p r ot e in bi nd i ng . ( B ) a l a r ge ap p ar e nt v o lum e o f di st r ib u ti o n ( V D ) . ( C ) a de c re as e i n t h e r a te o f f o rm a ti on o f m e t ab ol i t es b y t h e li ve r . ( D ) a n i nc r ea s e in t he num b e r o f s i d e e f fe c t s p r odu c ed b y th e d r ug . ( E ) a de c r e as e i n t h e am o u n t o f f r ee d ru g e xc r e t ed i n t he u ri n e. V i e w A n s we r 1 2 . T he a nsw e r i s B [ se e] . V 1 3. T he i n t e ns i t y o f t h e p h a r ma c o lo g ic ac t i o n of a d r ug is m os t de p end e n t o n t he ( A ) c on c e n t ra ti o n o f t h e d r u g a t t h e r ec e pt o r s it e . ( B ) e li m i n at io n ha lf - l if e (t 1 / 2 ) o f th e d r ug . ( C ) o ns e t t im e o f t h e d r ug a f te r o r a l a dm in is t ra t ion . ( D ) m in im um to xi c c on c en t r a ti o n ( MTC ) o f t h e dr ug i n p la sm a. ( E ) m i n im um e f f ec ti v e c on c en t r at i on ( ME C ) o f th e d r u g i n t he bo d y. V i e w A n s we r 1 3 . T he a nsw e r i s A [ se e] . 1 4. D r u gs t h a t s h ow no n li n ea r p h a r ma c ok i n et i cs h a ve w h ic h p r o p e r t y? ( A ) A co ns t an t ra t io of d ru g m e ta b ol i te s is f or m e d a s t h e a dm in is t er e d d os e i n c re as es . ( B ) Th e el im i na t io n h al f - li f e (t 1 / 2 ) i nc re as e s as th e a dm i ni st e r ed do se in c rea s es . ( C ) Th e a r ea un de r th e pl a s m a d r ug c o nc en t r at i on v e r su s t im e c u r v e ( A UC ) i n c re as es in di r ec t p r op or t i on t o a n i nc r ea se in the a dm in is t e re d d os e . ( D ) B o t h l o w a nd hi g h d os es f ol lo w f i r s t -o r de r el im i na t io n k in e ti cs . ( E ) Th e s t e ad y - s ta t e d r ug c o nc e n tr a ti o n i nc r ea s es in di r ec t p r o po r ti o n t o th e do s i n g rate. V i e w A n s we r 1 4 . T he a nsw e r i s B [ se e] . 1 5. T he l oa d i n g d os e ( D L ) o f a d r u g i s u su a ll y b a s e d on t he ( A ) t o ta l b od y c le a ra n c e ( C l T ) o f th e d r ug . ( B ) p e rc en t ag e o f dr u g bo u n d t o p la sm a p r ot e in s . ( C ) f r ac t io n o f d r u g e xc r e t e d u nc ha n ge d i n t h e u ri n e . ( D ) a p pa r en t v ol um e of di s t ri bu t io n ( V D ) a nd de si re d d ru g c on c e n t ra t io n i n p l asm a . ( E ) a r ea un d er t he pl as m a d r ug c o nc en t r at i on ve rs us t im e c u r ve ( A U C ) .
V i e w A n s we r 1 5 . T he a nsw e r i s D [ se e] . D D V 1 6 . Th e r e na l c l ea r a nc e o f i n u l in i s u se d a s a m eas u r e me n t o f ( A ) e f fe c t i v e re n al bl oo d f l o w. ( B ) r a te o f r en a l d r ug e xc r e ti o n. ( C ) i n tr i ns ic en z y m e a c tiv i t y . ( D ) a ct i v e re n al s ec r e ti on . ( E ) g lo m e r ul a r fi lt r a ti o n ra t e ( G F R ). V i e w A n s we r 1 6 . T he a nsw e r i s E [s e e] . P . 14 0
1 7 . Al l o f t h e f o l low i n g s t a t em e n ts ab o u t p l asm a p r ot e i n b i nd i n g o f a d r u g a r e t r u e ex c ep t w h ic h on e ? ( A ) D i sp la c e m e n t o f a d ru g f ro m p la sm a p r ot e in bi n di n g si t es r es ul ts in a tr a n s i en t i n c re as ed v o lu m e o f d is tr i b ut i on ( V D ) . ( B ) D i sp la c e m e n t o f a d ru g f ro m p la sm a p r ot e in bi n di n g si t es m ak e s m o r e f r e e d r ug a va i la b le fo r gl om e r ul a r f i l t ra t io n . ( C ) D i sp l ac em en t o f a p ot e n t d r ug th a t i s n o rm al ly > 9 5 % b ou nd m a y c a us e t o xi c i t y . ( D ) A l bu m i n i s t h e m a j or p r o t ei n i n v ol ve d i n p r o te i n b in di n g o f d r ug s . ( E ) D r u gs th a t a r e h ig hl y b o un d t o p l as m a p r o te i ns ge n e ra ll y h a v e a g re a te r V D c om p a re d wi t h d r ug s t hat a r e h ig hl y b o un d t o t is su e p ro t ei ns . V i e w A n s we r 1 7 . T he a nsw e r i s E [s e e] . V 18 . Th e o n s e t t i me f o r a d ru g g i ve n o r al l y i s t h e ti m e f o r t h e d r u g t o ( A ) r e ac h t he pe a k p la s m a d r u g co nc e nt r a ti o n. ( B ) r e ac h t he m i ni m u m ef f e c t i v e c on c e n t ra t io n ( ME C ) . ( C ) r e ac h t h e m i n im um to xi c c on c en t ra t io n ( MTC ) . ( D ) b e gi n t o b e e li m i n at ed f r om th e b od y . ( E ) b eg i n t o b e a bs o rb e d f r om t he s m a l l i nt es t in e . V i e w A n s we r 1 8 . T he a nsw e r i s B [ se e] . 1 9. T he i ni t i a l d i s t ri b u t io n of a d r u g i nt o t is s ue is de t er m i n e d c hi e f l y b y t h e ( A ) r a te o f b lo od f lo w t o t i s s ue . ( B ) g lo m e r ul a r fi lt r a ti o n ra t e ( G F R ). ( C ) s to m a c h em p t y in g t im e . ( D ) a f fi n it y o f t h e d r ug for t is s u e . ( E ) p la s m a p r ot e in bi n din g of t he dr u g. V i e w A n s we r 1 9 . T he a nsw e r i s A [ se e] . 2 0. W hi c h t i s su e ha s t h e g r e a te st c a p ac i t y t o b i o t r a n s f o rm d r u gs ? ( A ) b r ai n ( B ) ki d ne y ( C ) l i ve r ( D ) l un g ( E ) sk i n V i e w A n s we r 2 0 . T he a nsw e r i s C [ se e] . 2 1. T he pr i n c i pl e of s up e r p os i t ion i n d es i gn i n g m u lt i p le - do s e re g i me n s a ss u me s t h a t ( A ) e ac h d os e a f fe c ts the n e xt s ub s e q ue n t d os e, c au s i n g n on l in ea r el im ina t i on . ( B ) e ac h d os e o f d r u g is e l im in a te d b y z e r o - o rd e r e l im in a ti on .
( C ) s te a d y -s t a te pl as m a d r u g c on c e n t ra t io ns ar e r e a ch ed a t a pp r o xi m a te ly 1 0 ha l f l i ve s. ( D ) e a rl y d os es of d ru g do n ot a ff ec t s u bs eq ue n t d o s e s. ( E ) t h e f r ac ti o n o f d r ug ab s o rb ed is eq u al to th e fr a c ti o n o f d r ug el im in a ted . V i e w A n s we r 2 1 . T he a nsw e r i s D [ se e] . C l F o r q u es t i o ns 22 - 2 4 : A ne w c a r di ac gl y c os id e i s d e ve l op e d f o r o r al an d i n t rav e n o us ad m i n is t ra t io n . Th e d ru g h a s a n e li m i na t io n h a lf - l if e ( t 1 / 2 ) o f 2 4 hr an d a n a p p ar e nt vo lu m e o f d is t rib u t io n (V D ) o f 3 L /k g . Th e e ff ec t i v e d r u g c on c e n t ra t io n i s 1 .5 n g /m L . To xi c e f f ec ts of th e d ru g a r e ob se r v e d a t d r ug c on c en t r at i on s > 4 ng / m L . Th e d r u g is bo u nd to pl as m a p r o t ei ns at ap p ro xi m a t ely 2 5 % . Th e d ru g i s 7 5% b i oa v a i la b le af t e r a n o r al d os e . 2 2 . W h a t i s th e o r a l m ai n t e na n ce d os e , i f gi ve n o n ce a d a y, f o r a 6 8 - ye a r - o ld m a n w ho w e i gh s 6 5 k g a n d ha s c o ng e s ti ve h ear t f a i l u re ( C H F ) a n d n o rm a l re n a l f u n c t io n ? ( A ) 0 . 12 5 m g ( B ) 0 . 18 0 m g ( C ) 0 . 20 3 m g ( D ) 0 . 27 0 m g ( E ) 0 . 33 3 m g V i e w A n s we r 2 2 . T he a nsw e r i s D [ se e] . 2 3. W ha t i s t he l oa d i ng do s e ( D L ) f o r t h i s p a ti e n t? ( A ) 0 . 27 0 m g ( B ) 0 . 29 3 m g ( C ) 0 . 45 0 m g ( D ) 0 . 49 8 m g ( E ) 0 . 54 0 m g V i e w A n s we r 2 3 . T he a nsw e r i s E [s e e] 2 4 . I f th e d r u g is a va i la b le i n t a bl e t s o f 0 .1 2 5 m g a nd 0. 2 50 m g , w ha t is t he pa t i en t 's p l as ma d r ug c on c en t ra t i o n i f he h a s a d os a ge r eg i me n o f 0 .1 2 5 m g e ve r y 1 2 h r? ( A ) 1 . 39 ng /m L ( B ) 1 . 85 ng /m L ( C ) 2 . 78 ng /m L ( D ) 3 . 18 ng /m L ( E ) 6 . 94 ng /m L V i e w A n s we r 2 4 . T he a nsw e r i s A [ se e] . D F V k Fk VD F D k V C C D P . 1 41
D i r e c t i on s fo r q ue s t io n 2 5 : Th e q ue s t i on in th is s ec t io n c an be c o r r ec tl y a ns we r e d b y o n e o r m o re of t he s u g g es te d a ns we r s . C ho os e th e c o rr ec t an s we r , A- E . 2 5 . W h i ch eq u a ti o n i s tr u e f o r a z e r o - o rd e r r eac t i o n ra t e o f a d r u g?
A i f I o n l y i s c o r re c t B i f II I on l y i s c o r r ec t C i f I a n d I I a r e c or r ec t D i f II a nd I II a re c o r re c t E i f I, I I, an d II I ar e c o r re c t V i e w A n s we r 2 5 . T he a nsw e r i s A [ se e ] . A t k Ak t A tP . 1 4 2
ANSWERS AND EXPLANATIONS 1 . T he an sw e r is B [ s ee I . E . 2. a ]. A s ub s ta nc e t h at is us ed t o m e as u re th e G F R m us t be fi l te r ed bu t no t re ab s o rb ed o r a c ti ve l y s e c re t ed . Al t ho ug h in ul i n c l e a ra nc e g i v es a n a c c u ra t e m ea su r em en t o f G F R , c r e at i ni ne c l ea r a nc e is ge n e ra l l y u se d b e c a us e no e xo g e n ou s d r ug m us t b e gi v e n . H o we ve r , c r ea t in i ne fo rm a ti o n d ep e nd s o n m u sc l e m as s a nd m u s c le m e ta b ol is m , wh i c h m a y c h a ng e wi t h ag e an d va ri ou s d is e as e c o n di t io ns . 2 . T he an sw e r is C [ s ee I . B . 1. b . (2 ) ] . 3 . T he an sw e r is B [ s ee I . A . 1. b . (1 ) ; I . B . 1] . 4 . T he an sw e r is B [ s ee I . B . 1. a . (2 ) ] . 5 . T he an sw e r is B [ s ee I . B . 1. a . (2 ) ] . S u b st i tu t in g t h e d a ta fo r t h is pa t ie n t i n t h e e qu a tio n fo r th e i n it i al pl as m a d r u g c o nc en t r at i on ( ) g i v es
To o b t ai n t h e p a ti en t ' s p la s m a d r u g c o nc e n tr a ti o n ( C p ) 8 h r a f t er t he do s e , t h e f o l lo wi n g c al c ul a ti on is pe r f o rm ed :
Th e a m o u nt o f d ru g i n the p at i en t ' s b od y a t 8 h r is c a lc ul a te d a s f o ll o ws : D B = C p V D = ( 1 . 11 ) ( 0. 2 8)( 7 5 ) = 2 3. 3 m g F o r an y f i rs t -o r d er el im i na t i on p ro c e s s , 5 0% o f t he i ni t ia l a m o un t of d ru g is e l im in a te d a t th e e n d o f t h e fi rs t ha l f- l if e , a nd 50% o f t h e r em ai n in g d r ug ( i . e ., 75 %
o f t he or i gi n al a m o u n t) is el im i na t ed at t he en d of t h e s e c o n d h al f -l i fe . B ec a us e t h e d r u g i n t h e c u r r en t c as e h a s a n e li m i na t io n h a lf - l i f e ( t ½ ) of 2 h r , 7 5 % o f t he d os e is e l im in a te d i n t wo ha l f- l i ve s , o r 4 h r . 6 . T he an sw e r is D [ s ee I . B . 3. e . (3 ) ] . 7 . T he an sw e r is C [ s ee I . B . 3. c ]. 8 . T he an sw e r is E [ s e e I . B . 3. f . (2 ) ] . 9 . T he an sw e r is B [ s ee I . B . 3. e . (3 ) ] . 1 0 . Th e a n sw e r i s D [ s ee I . B .3 . e. ( 3 ) ; I . E .1 . a] . 1 1 . Th e a n sw e r i s B [ s ee I . E .4 . a] . Th e e q ua t io n f o r t h e p las m a c o nc e nt r a ti on a t s tea d y s ta t e ( C s s ) p r o vi de s t h e fo rm u la f o r c a lc ul a ti n g t he r at e of a n i nt r a v e no us in f us io n ( R ) . Th e eq ua t io n i s
wh e r e k i s t h e f i rs t -o r de r e l im in a ti on r at e c on s ta nt a nd V D i s t h e a pp a re n t v o l u m e of d i st r ib u ti o n. R e ar r a ng in g t h e e qu a ti o n a nd s u bs t itu t i ng th e d a ta f or t hi s p at i e nt gi ve t h e fo ll o wi n g c al c u l at i ons :
P.143
Th e t im e i t ta k e s f o r a n in f us e d d r ug to r ea ch th e C s s d ep e nd s o n t he el im i n a ti on h a l f- l if e o f th e d r u g. Th e t im e re q ui r ed t o r ea c h 95 % of t he C s s i s e qu al t o 4 . 3 t im es t h e h a lf - li f e , wh e r e as th e t im e re q ui r ed t o r ea c h 99 % of t he C s s i s e qu al t o 6 . 6 t im es t h e h a lf - li f e . B ec a us e t he h al f -l i fe in t he c u r re n t c as e i s 1 h r, th e ti m e to r e a ch 95 % o f t he C s s i s 4 .3 × 1 h r, o r 4 .3 h r. Th e l o ad in g d o s e ( D L ) is c a lc ul a te d a s f ol l o ws :
Th e a ns we r t o qu es t io n 6 s h o ws t ha t th e i n fu s i on r a t e s h o ul d b e 9 3 6 m g / hr . Th e r e f o re , if a d r ug s o lu ti o n c on t ai ni n g 1 0 g i n 5 00 m L is us ed , th e r e qu i red i nf us i on rate is
Th e p a ti e nt ' s to t al bo d y c l ea r an c e ( C l T ) i s c al c u la t e d as f ol lo ws :
Th e h e pa t ic c le a r an c e (C l H ) is th e di f fe r en c e be twe e n t o t al c le a r an c e ( C l T ) an d re n al c l ea r an c e ( C l R ): ClH = ClT - ClR C l H = 62 37 - (8 6 m L /m in × 6 0 m i n /h r ) = 1 07 7 m L /h r 1 2 . Th e a n sw e r i s B [ s ee I . B .1 . b. ( 1 ) ]. A l a rg e a p pa r e nt v o lu m e o f di s t r ib u ti o n ( V D ) i s a n e a rl y s ig n t h at a d r ug is n o t c o nc en t r at e d i n t he pl as m a , b u t is di st r i bu t ed wi d e l y in ti ss ue . A n in c re as e i n
p l as m a p ro t ei n b in d in g s u g g es ts th a t t he d ru g i s lo c at e d i n t he pl as m a r a th e r th a n i n t i ss ue . A d ec r ea s e i n h ep a t ic m e ta bo l is m , an in cr e a s e in s i de ef f ec ts , o r a d ec r ea s e i n ur i na r y e xc r e t io n o f f re e d ru g i s c a us e d b y a de c r ea s e in d ru g e li m i n at io n . 1 3 . Th e a n sw e r i s A [ s ee I . A .3 . d. ( 3 ) ]. A s m o r e d r ug is c on c e n tr a t e d a t t he r ec ep t o r s i t e, m or e re c e p to r s i nt e r ac t wi t h t h e d r u g t o p r od u c e a p ha rm a c ol o gi c e ff ec t . Th e i nt en s it y o f t h e r es p on s e in cr e a s e s u n t il it r ea c h es a m a xi m u m . W hen al l o f t h e a va ila b le r ec ep t o rs ar e o cc u pi e d b y d r u g m ol ec ul es , ad di t io na l dr u g d oe s n o t p r od uc e a m o r e i nt e ns e r es p on s e . 1 4 . Th e a n sw e r i s B [ s ee I . D ]. N o n l in ea r ph a rm ac ok i ne ti c s is a t e rm u s e d to in dic a te t ha t f i rs t - o rd e r e li m in a t io n o f a d r ug do es no t o c c u r a t a l l d ru g c o nc en t ra t io n s . W ith s o m e d ru gs , s uc h as p h e n yto i n, as th e p la s m a d r ug c o nc en t r at i on in c re a s e s , t he el im in a ti o n pa t h wa y f o r m e ta b ol is m o f t h e d ru g be c om es s a tu r a te d a n d t he h al f -l i fe in c re as es . Th e a r e a u n d er t he pl as m a d ru g c o n c e n t ra t io n ve rs us tim e c u r ve ( A U C ) o f t he d ru g i s n o t p r o po r t io n al to th e d os e ; n e it h e r is th e ra t e o f m et a b ol i te fo r m a t io n . Th e m e ta b ol ic r a t e i s r e la t ed to th e e f f ec t s o f t h e d ru g . 1 5 . Th e a n sw e r i s D [ s ee I . B .1 . b. ( 2 ) ; I . B .5 . g. ( 1 )]. A l o ad in g d os e ( D L ) o f a d r u g i s g i v en to ob t ai n a t h e r ap eu t ic pl as m a d ru g l e ve l a s r a p id l y as po s s ib le . Th e D L i s c a lc u la t ed on th e ba s is o f th e a p pa r en t vo lum e o f d i st r ib u ti o n ( V D ) an d t h e d e s i r ed pl as m a le v e l o f th e d ru g . 1 6 . Th e a n sw e r i s E [s ee I . E .3 .c ] . I n u li n i s n ei t he r re a bs o rb e d n o r a c t i v e l y s ec r e ted . Th e r ef o r e, it is e xc r e te d b y g l om e ru l a r f il t ra t io n o n l y. Th e in u li n c le a ra nc e ra t e is us ed as a s t a nd a rd m e as u re o f t he G F R , a te s t t ha t i s u s e f ul bo t h i n a c l in ic al s i tu a ti o n a nd in th e d e v el o pm e nt o f ne w d r u gs . 1 7 . Th e a n sw e r i s E [s ee I . A .3 . d] . D r u g s t ha t ar e h i gh l y bou n d t o p l asm a p r o te i ns di f f us e p oo r l y in t o t is s u e a n d h a ve a l o w a p p ar e nt v o l um e o f d i s t r ib u ti o n ( V D ) . 1 8 . Th e a n sw e r i s B [ s ee I . B .3 . g] . Th e o ns e t t im e i s t he t im e f r om th e a dm in is t r a ti on o f th e d r ug t o t he ti m e wh e n a b so r be d d r u g r e ac he s P.144
t h e ME C . Th e ME C i s t he d r ug c o nc en t r at i on in th e pl as m a th a t i s p r op o rti o na l , b u t n o t n ec e s s ar i l y e q ua l , t o t h e m in im um dr u g c o n c e n t r at i on at th e re ce p to r s i te t ha t e l ic i ts a ph a rm ac o lo gi c re s po ns e . 1 9 . Th e a n sw e r i s A [ s ee I . A .3 . a] . Th e i n it i al d is t r ib u ti o n o f a d ru g i s c h i ef l y de t e rm in e d b y b lo o d f lo w, wh e r e a s th e a f f in i t y o f th e d r u g f o r t is s u e d et e rm i ne s wh e t h e r t h e d r u g c o nc e nt r a te s a t t h a t s i t e. Th e G F R a f fe c ts t h e r e na l c l ea r an ce o f a d r u g, no t it s i ni t ia l d is t r ib u ti on . Th e g as t r ic e m pt y i n g t im e a nd de g r ee o f p la sm a p r ot e in bi n din g af f ec t d r u g di s t ri bu t ion b ut a re l e ss i m p o r ta n t t ha n th e ra t e o f bl oo d fl o w t o t is s ue . 2 0 . Th e a n sw e r i s C [ s ee I . E .4 . b. ( 2 ) ].
Th e k id n e y , l un g , s k i n, an d in t es ti n e a ll ha v e s om e ca p ac it y t o b i ot r a ns fo rm , or m e ta b ol i z e , d r ug s ; bu t the b r ai n h as li t tl e c ap ac i ty f o r d ru g m e ta bo l is m . Th e li ve r h a s t he hi g he s t c a p ac it y f o r d ru g m et a bo li s m . 2 1 . Th e a n sw e r i s D [ s ee I . B .5 .c ] . Th e s up e r po s i t io n p r in c ip l e , wh i c h u nd e rl i es th e d e s i g n o f m u l ti p le - do s e re g im e ns , a ss u m e s t ha t e a r li e r d r ug d os es do no t a f fe c t s ub s eq u en t d os es . If t he eli m in a ti on r a t e c on s ta n t o r t o ta l b od y c le a r an ce of t he dr u g c h an g es d u ri n g m ul ti p le d o si n g, t h e n t he s u pe r p os it i on pr i n c i pl e i s n o l on g er v a lid . C ha n ge s i n t h e t ot a l bo d y c l ea r an c e ( C l T ) m a y be c a u s e d b y e n zy m e i nd uc t io n , e n z y m e i n hi bi t io n , o r s a tu r a ti o n o f a n e li m i n at io n pa t h wa y . A n y of t he se c h a ng es wo u l d c au se n o nl i ne a r p h a rm ac ok i ne ti c s . 2 2 . Th e a n sw e r i s D [ s ee I . B .5 . e. ( 3 ) ]. 2 3 . Th e a n sw e r i s E [s ee I . B .5 . g. ( 1 ) ] 2 4 . Th e a n sw e r i s A [ s ee I . B .5 . d. ( 2 ) ; I . B .5 . e. ( 3 )]. Th e o r al m a in t e na nc e d os e ( D o ) sh ou l d m a i nt a in th e pa t ie n t 's a v e ra g e d rug c o nc en t r at i on at t he ef f ec t i v e d r ug c o nc en t r a ti on . Th e b io a v a il ab i li t y o f t he d r ug ( F) , t h e a p pa r en t v o lu m e of di s t ri bu t io n ( V D ), t he do sag e in t e r v al (τ ) , a n d t he exc r e t i o n r a t e c on s ta n t ( k ) m u s t be c o ns i de r ed in ca lc ul a tin g th e d os e . Th e e qu a ti on us e d is
F o r th is d ru g , F = 0 .7 5 , k = 0 . 69 3 /2 4 h r , V D = 3 L/ k g × 65 k g , τ = 2 4 h r , an d = 1 . 5 n g /m L , o r 1 . 5 µg / L . Th e re f o r e, b y s u bs ti t ut i on , D o = 27 0 µ g, o r 0 .2 7 0 m g. W hen t he m a in t en a nc e d os e is gi v e n at a d os ag e f re qu e ncy e q u al to t he ha l f- l if e , th e n t h e l o ad i ng do s e is eq ua l to t wi c e t he m a in t en a nc e do s e , in t hi s ca s e 54 0 µ g, o r 0. 5 40 m g . To d e te r m i ne t he pla s m a d r u g c o nc e n tr a ti o n f o r a do sa g e r e gi m e n o f 0 . 12 5 m g e ve r y 1 2 h r , th e f o rm ul a i s u s e d . Th is t im e , F = 0. 7 5 , D o = 0 . 12 5 m g, k = 0 . 6 93 / 24 h r , V D = 3 L /k g × 6 5 k g , a n d τ = 1 2 h r . Th e r e fo r e , = 1 .3 9 n g /m L. F or ca r dia c g l yc os id es , th e p e ak ( C m a x ) a n d t ro ug h ( C m i n ) c o nc e nt r a ti o ns a r e c al cu l at ed , an d p l as m a d ru g c on c e n t ra t io n s a r e m o n it o r ed af t e r d o s i n g. Th e l o ad in g d o s e ( D L ) m a y b e gi ve n i n s m a ll in c re m e n ts o v e r a s p ec if i ed pe ri o d , ac co r d in g t o t h e d os a g e r e g im en s u gg e s t e d b y the m a n uf ac t u re r . 2 5 . Th e a n sw e r i s A ( I ) [ s ee I . A. 1 .a ] . Th e f i rs t eq ua t io n i n th e q u es t io n d es c ri b es a z e ro - o r de r re a ct i on (d A / d t) in wh i c h t h e re ac t io n ra t e i nc r ea s e s o r de c re as es a t a c ons t an t ra t e (k ) . A ze r o -o r de r r e a ct i on pr o du c e s a gr a ph o f a s t r ai gh t li ne wi t h th e eq u at i on of A = - k t + A o wh e n A i s p lo t te d a g ai ns t ti m e ( t ) . Th e o t he r eq u at i on s in t he qu es t io n re p r es en t f i rs t o r d e r r e ac ti o ns .
7 Bioavailability and Bioequivalence L e o n Sh a r ge l
I. BACKGROUND A. B i o a va i l a b il i t y a n d b i o e q ui va l e nc e s t u di e s a r e i m po r ta n t f o r t h e d e ve l op m en t o f bo t h n e w d r ug p ro d uc ts ( ne w d r u g a p pl ic a ti on [N D A ] ) a nd ge n e ri c d r ug p r o du c ts ( a b b re vi a te d n e w d r u g ap p li c a t io n [ A N D A] ) B . B i o a va i la b il i t y s t u d i e s a re us ed fo r es ta b li s hi n g d os a ge re g im en s o f n e w d r u g p r o du c ts C . B i o e qu i va l en c e s t udi e s c an be us e fu l d u ri n g t h e i n v es t ig a ti o na l n e w dr u g ( I N D ) d e ve l op m e n t o r N D A d e ve l op m en t p e ri o d t o e s t a bl i s h li nk s b et we e n 1 . E a rl y a nd la t e c l i ni c a l t r i al f or m ul at i on s 2 . F or m u l at i on s us e d i n c l in ic al t ri a l a nd s t ab i li t y s t ud ie s , i f d if f e re n t 3 . C li n ic al t ri al f or m u l at io n s a nd to - b e -m ar k et e d d r u g p r od uc t D . B i o e qu i va l en c e s t udi e s a r e a c r i ti ca l c om po ne n t o f A N D A s ub m i s s io ns 1 . Th e pu r po s e o f t he s e s t ud i es i s t o d em o ns t ra te b io eq u i val e nc e b et we e n a p h a rm ac e ut ic al l y eq u i v ale n t g e ne r ic dr u g p r od uc t a n d t he co r r es po n di ng re f e r en c e l i st e d d r ug (u s u a ll y t he br a n d d r ug p ro d uc t ). 2 . To g e th e r wi t h t he de te r m in a ti on o f p ha rm a c e ut i ca l e q ui va le n c e , e s t a bl is h in g b i oe q ui v a l en c e al lo ws a r e g ul a to r y c on c l us io n o f t h e r ap eu t ic eq ui va l en c e . E . S c al e - up a nd po s t - ap p r o v al ch a n ge s ( S U P A C ) — A f t e r m a rk et ap p r o va l , a d ru g p r o du c t m a y m ak e a m anu f ac t u ri n g c h a ng e . A bi oe q ui v a l en c e st u d y m a y be n ee d ed t o sh o w t h at t he ne w f o rm u la t io n o r ne w m e th o d o f m a nu f ac t u re ( te st p rod u ct ) an d t h e p r i or f or m u l at i on o r m e th o d o f m an u fa ct u r e (r e f e re nc e pr o du ct ) a re eq u i v al e nt . 1
II. DEFINITIONS
A. B i o a va i l a b il i t y i s a m e a s u r em e nt of t he ra t e an d e xt e n t ( a m o un t ) to wh i c h t he a c ti ve in g r ed ie n t o r a c ti v e m o i et y b ec om es a vai l ab l e a t t h e s it e o f a c ti on . B i o a vai l ab il i t y is a ls o c on s id e re d a m e as u re o f t he r a te an d e xt e n t o f t he ra p e ut ic al l y a c ti ve d ru g t h a t is s y s t em ic a ll y a bs o rb ed . Fo r d ru g p ro du c ts th a t a re no t i n t en de d to b e ab so r be d i n to t he bl oo d s t r e am , b io a v a il ab i li t y m a y be as s e s s ed b y m e as u re m e n ts i n te n de d t o r ef l ec t t h e r a te an d e x t e n t t o wh ic h th e a c t i v e in g r ed i en t o r ac t i ve m oi et y b ec om es a v ai l ab le a t t he s i t e o f a c ti o n. B . B i o e qu i va l en t d r ug p r o d u c ts . A g en e ri c d r ug p r od uc t i s c on s i de r e d b i oe q ui v a l en t t o th e re f er e n c e l i s te d d r u g ( R D L) p r o d uc t if bo t h p r od uc ts a re p h a rm ac e ut ic al eq u i v al en t s a nd t he ge n er ic d ru g p r o du c t ' s ra t e a nd e xt e nt o f s ys t em ic d r u g a bs o rp t ion ( bi o a v ai l ab il i t y ) d o n o t s h o w a s t at is t ic al l y si gn if i c a n t d i f fe r e nc e wh e n ad m i n is te r e d i n t h e s a m e m o la r do s e o f t h e ac t i v e i ng r e die n t , i n t h e s am e c h em i c al fo r m , in a s i m i l ar do s ag e f o rm , by t h e s am e ro u te of ad m in i s t r a ti o n, a n d u n de r th e s am e e xp e r i m e n ta l c on di t io ns . The R D L is g e ne r al l y th e b ra n d p r o du c t. P.146
C . G e n e r ic d r ug p r od u ct 1 . Th e ge ne r ic d ru g p r odu c t r e qu i re s a n a b b re vi a t e d new d r u g a p pl i ca t i on ( A N D A ) f o r ap p ro v a l b y t h e U . S . F o o d a nd D r ug A dm in is t ra t i on ( F D A ) a nd m a y be m a rk e te d a f t e r p at e nt e xp i r a ti o n o f t h e r e fe r e nc e d r ug pr o du c t ( s ee C ha p te r 1) . 2 . Th e ge ne r ic d ru g p r odu c t m us t b e a t he r a pe u ti c e qu i va l en t to t he re f er e n ce dr u g p r o du c t b ut m a y d if f e r i n c e rt a in c h a ra c t e r is ti c s , in c lu di n g s ha pe , s c o r i ng c o nf i gu r a ti on , pa c k ag in g, a nd e xc i pi e nt s (s uc h as c ol o rs , fl a v o rs , p r es e r vat i v e s , e xp i r a t i on da t e , a nd m i no r as p ec ts of la b el in g ) . 3 . F D A b e li e v es th a t p r od u c t s c la s s if i ed as th e rap e u ti ca ll y e q ui v a le n t c an b e s u bs ti t u te d wi t h t he f ul l e xp e c t a ti o n t ha t th e s ubs t i tu t ed pr o du c t wi l l p r o du c e t he s am e c li n ic al ef f ec t a n d s a fe t y p r of il e a s t h e p r es c r i be d p r od uc t . D . P h a r ma c eu t i ca l e q u iva l e n t s a r e d r ug p ro d uc ts t ha t c on t ai n th e s am e t h e r ap eu t ic al l y ac t i v e d ru g in g re d ie n t (s ) ; c o n ta i n t h e s am e sa l t , es t e r, o r c h em ic al f o r m ; a re of t he s am e d os a ge fo r m ; a nd ar e i d en ti c al in s t r en g th , c on c en t ra t i on , a n d r o u t e o f a dm in is t r at i on . P h a r m a ce u ti ca l e qu i va len t s m a y d i ff e r i n c ha r ac te r i st ic s s uc h a s s ha p e, s c or i ng c o n f ig u ra t io n , r e le as e m ec h an is m s , p ac k a g in g , a nd e xc i p i e nt s ( i nc lu di n g c o lo r s , f la v o r i ng , a n d p r es er v a t i v e s ). E . T h e r e f e re n ce l is t ed d r u g p r od u c t is us ua l l y t h e c u r re n tl y m a r ke t ed , b r a nd n a m e p ro du c t wi t h a f u ll n ew d r u g a p pl i ca t i on (N D A) a p p r o v e d b y t h e FD A . Th e R L D i s t he r ef e r en c e dr ug p r od uc t i d en t if i ed b y FD A ( s ee “ E le c t r o ni c O r an g e Bo ok ” a t ww w. f d a . g o v / c d e r /o b /d e f au l t. h tm ) . F . T he r a pe u t ic e qu i va l en t d r u g p r o du c t s a r e p ha r m ac eu t ic al eq ui v a l en t s t h a t c a n b e e xp e c te d t o h a v e t h e s am e c li n ic al ef f ec t a n d s a fe t y p r of il e wh e n a dm in i st e r ed to p a t ie n ts u n de r th e s am e c o nd i ti on s s pe c i f ie d i n t he l ab el i ng . Th e ra p eu t ic eq u i val e nt d r u g p r od uc t s h a v e t he fo l lo wi n g c r i te r ia : 1 . Th e pr o du c t s a r e s af e a n d e f fe ct i ve . 2 . Th e pr o du c t s a r e p ha rm ac e ut ic a l e qu i va le n ts th a t c on t ai n th e s am e ac ti v e d r ug i n g re d ie n t i n t he s a m e do s ag e f o rm , gi v e n b y t he s am e r o u te of ad m i ni s t ra t i on ; m ee t c om p en d ia l o r o t he r ap p li c ab le st a nd a rd s o f s t re ng t h , q ua l it y , p ur i t y, a n d id e n ti t y; a n d m ee t a n a c c e pt a bl e i n v i t ro s t an d a rd . 3 . Th e dr u g p r od uc ts a re b i oe qu i v a le n t i n t ha t th ey d o no t pr e s e n t a k no wn p ot e nt i al p r o bl em an d a r e s ho wn t o m e e t a n a pp r o p ri at e bio e q u i va le nc e s t an d ar d . 4 . Th e dr u g p r od uc ts a re a d eq u at e l y l a be le d . 5 . Th e dr u g p r od uc ts a re m an u fa c tu r ed in co m p lia n ce wi t h c u r re n t g oo d m a nu f ac tu r i ng p ra c t ic e re g ul a ti o ns . G . P h a r ma c eu t i ca l a l t e rn a t i ve s a r e d r ug p ro d uc ts t ha t c on t ai n th e s am e t h e r ap eu t ic m o ie t y bu t are d if f e re n t s a l ts , e s te rs , o r c o m p l e xe s (e . g. , te t r ac y c li n e h yd r o ch lo r i de v e rs us t et ra c y c l i ne ph os p ha t e ) o r ar e di f f e re n t d os ag e f o rm s ( e. g . , t a b le t ve rs us c a ps ul e ; im m e di a te - r el e as e d os ag e f o r m v e r su s c on t r ol le d - re l ea s e d o sa g e f o rm ) o r s t r en g ths .
III. BIOAVAILABILITY AND BIOEQUIVALENCE. Th e s e m a y be de t e rm in ed d ir e c t l y us in g p h ar m ac o k in e ti c s tu di es ( e .g . , p la s m a d r u g c o nc en t r at i on v e rs us t im e p r of il e s, u ri na r y d r ug exc r e t i o n s t ud ie s ), m e as ur e m en ts o f a n ac ut e p h a rm ac od y n am ic e ff ec t , c om pa r a ti v e c l in ic al s t u di es , o r in v i t ro s tu di es .
Th e c ho ic e o f s t ud y u s ed is ba s e d o n th e s it e o f a c ti o n o f t h e d ru g an d t he a bi li t y o f t h e s t ud y d es ig n t o c om p a r e d r ug de l i v er e d t o t ha t s i t e b y th e t wo p ro d uc t s . A. Ac u t e p ha r m ac o d yn a m i c e f fe c t s, s u ch as c h a n ge s i n h ea r t r a t e, bl oo d p r e ss u re , e l ec t ro c a r di o gr a m ( E C G ) , c l o tt i ng ti m e , o r fo r c e d e xp i r a t o r y v o lu m e i n 1 s ec ( F E V 1 ) c a n b e u s e d to m e as u r e b io a v ai l ab il i t y wh e n n o a s s a y fo r p l as m a d r u g c o nc en t r at i on is a v a i la ble o r wh e n t he pl as m a d ru g c o nc en t r at i on do es no t r el a te to t h e p h a rm ac ol og ic a l r es p o ns e (e . g. , a b ro nc h od il a t o r P.147
s uc h a s a l bu t er o l g i v en b y i n ha la t io n ) . Qu a nt i ta t io n of t he ph a rm ac ol o gi c a l ef f ec t ve r s us t im e p ro f il e c an be us e d a s a m ea s u r e o f b i oa v a i la b il it y a n d/ o r b i oe q ui v a l en c e ( Fi gu r e 7- 1 ) .
Figure 7-1. Generalized plasma drug concentration versus time curve after oral drug administration. MEC, minimum effective concentration; MTC, minimum toxic concentration. [Adapted with permission from Shargel L, Wu-Pong S, Yu ABC: Applied Biopharmaceutics and Pharmacokinetics, 5th ed. New York, McGraw-Hill, 2005, p. 6.]
1 . O n se t t im e . A s t h e d ru g is s y s te m i c a l l y a bs o rb e d , t he d ru g c on c e n t ra ti o n a t t h e r e c ep t or r is es to a m i nim u m e f f ec t i ve co n ce n t ra t i o n ( ME C ) a n d a p ha rm ac o lo g ic al r e s po ns e i s i ni t ia t ed . The t im e f r om dr u g a dm in ist r a t io n t o th e ME C i s k nown a s t he o n se t ti m e . 2 . I n te n si t y. Th e i n t en s it y o f th e p h a rm ac ol o gi cal e ff e ct is p r o po r ti o na l t o t h e n u m b e r o f re c e p to r s oc c u p ie d b y t h e d r ug up to a m a x i m u m p ha r m a co l ogi c al ef f ec t . Th e m a xi m um ph a rm ac olo g ic al e ff ec t m a y oc cu r b e f o re , a f te r , or a t p ea k d r u g a b so r p ti on . 3 . D u r a ti o n o f ac t i on . As lo n g as t he d ru g c on c en t r a ti o n r em ai ns ab o v e th e ME C , p h a rm ac ol o gi c a l a c t i v i t y i s o bs e r ve d. Th e du r at i on o f a c t i on is t h e t im e f or wh i c h th e d r u g c on c e n t ra t io n r em a in s a b o v e t h e ME C . 4 . T he r a pe u t ic w i n dow . A s th e d r ug c o nc e nt r a tio n in c re as es , o t he r r ec ep t o rs m a y c om b in e wi t h t h e d ru g to e xe r t a t o xi c o r ad v e r s e r e s p o ns e. Th i s d ru g c o nc e nt r a ti o n i s th e m i ni m um t ox i c c on c e n t ra t i on ( MTC ) . Th e d r u g c on ce n t ra t io n r a nge b et we e n t h e ME C a n d t h e M TC i s t h e t h er a pe u ti c wi n d o w. B . P l a sm a d r u g c o nc e nt r a t i o n . Th e pl as m a d rug c o nc e n tr a ti o n v e r su s t im e c u r ve i s m os t of t en us ed t o m e as u r e th e s y s te m i c b io a v a ila b il i t y of a d r ug f ro m a dr u g p r o du c t ( F ig u re 7 -2 ) .
1 . T im e fo r pe a k p l as ma d r u g c o nc e nt r a t i on ( T m a x ) r e l a t es t o t he r at e c o n s t a nt s f o r s ys t em ic d r u g a bs o rpt i o n a nd el im in a ti o n. I f two o r a l dr u g p r od uc t s con t a in th e s am e a m o u n t o f ac t i v e dr u g bu t d i ff e r en t e xc i p i en t s , t he do s a g e f o rm th at yi e ld s t h e f a s te r ra t e o f d r ug ab s orp t i on ha s t he s h o r te r T m a x . 2 . P ea k p l as m a d r u g c on c e n t ra t i on ( C m a x ) . Th e p l as m a d ru g c on c e n t ra t io n at T m a x r e l at e s t o t he in t en s i t y of t h e p ha rm a c o lo g ic al res p on s e . Id e al l y , C m a x s h o u ld be wi t h i n th e th e ra p eu t ic win d o w. 3 . Ar e a u n de r t he p la sm a d r ug co n ce n t r a ti o n ve r s u s t im e c u r ve ( A U C) r e la t es to t h e a m o u nt o r e xt e n t of d r u g a bs o rp t io n . Th e am o u n t o f s y s te m i c d r ug abs o r pt i on is d i r ec tl y r e la t ed t o t he AU C . Th e A U C is us ua l l y c a lc ul a te d b y t he t r a pe zo i d a l r u l e a n d i s e xp r e s s e d i n u ni ts o f c o nc en t r at i on m u lt ip l i e d b y ti m e (e . g ., ) . C . U r i n a r y d r u g e x c r e t io n . Me a s u re m e n t o f u r ina r y d r ug e xc r e t io n c an de t e rm i ne b i oa va i la b il it y f r om a d r ug p r od uc t . Th i s m et h od is m o st ac c u r a te i f th e a c t i v e t h e r ap eu t ic m o ie t y is e xc r e t e d u nc ha n ge d i n si g nif i c a n t q ua n ti t y i n t he u rin e ( Fi gu r e 7-3). P.148
Figure 7-2. Generalized plasma drug concentration versus time curve, showing peak time and peak concentration. AUC, area under the curve; MEC, minimum effective concentration; MTC, minimum toxic concentration. [Adapted with permission from Shargel L, Wu-Pong S, Yu ABC: Applied Biopharmaceutics and Pharmacokinetics, 5th ed. New York, McGrawHill, 2005, p. 7.]
Figure 7-3. These corresponding plots show the relationship of the plasma drug concentration versus time curve to the cumulative amount of drug in the urine versus time curve. [Adapted with permission from Shargel L, Wu-Pong S, Yu ABC: Applied Biopharmaceutics and Pharmacokinetics, 5th ed. New York, McGrawHill, 2005, p. 463.]
P.149
1 . T he cu m ul a t i ve a m ou n t o f a c ti ve d r u g e xc re t e d i n t he u r in e () is dir e c tl y r e l at e d t o t h e e xt e n t of s y s t e m i c d r ug ab s o r p ti on . 2 . T he r a te o f d r u g e xc re t i o n i n th e u r i n e ( d D U /d t ) is d i r ec tl y r e la t ed to th e r at e o f s ys t em ic d r u g a bs o rp t ion . ∞
3 . T he t im e fo r t he d r ug t o b e c om p le t e l y e x c r e t e d ( t ) c o r re s p o nd s t o th e to t al t i m e f or t he dr u g t o b e s y s t e m i c a ll y a bs o rb e d a nd c o m p l et e l y e xc r e t e d a ft e r a d m i ni s t ra ti o n . D . C o m pa r a t i ve c l i ni c al t r i a l s t o a d r u g ca n b e u s ed to m e as u re bi o a v ail a bi l it y q u a nt i ta t i v el y . C li n ic al s tu d ie s a r e h ig h l y va ri a bl e a n d l ess p re ci se t ha n o th e r m e th o ds b e c a us e o f i n div i d u al di f f er e nc es in dr ug p ha r m a c o d y n am ics and s u b je c t i v e m e as u re m e n ts . E . I n vi t r o m ea s u r em e nt s o f b i o eq u i va le n ce . Bio e q ui va le nc e m a y s om e ti m es b e d e m o ns t r at e d us i ng an in v i t r o b io e qu i val e nc e s ta n d ar d , e sp ec i al l y wh e n s uc h a n i n vi t r o te s t h as b e en c o r r el a t ed wi t h h um a n i n v i v o b i oa v a i la b il it y d a ta . Fo r e xa m p l e , t h e ra t e o f d r ug di s s ol u tio n in v i t ro fo r c e r ta i n d r ug p r od uc ts c o r r el a te s wi t h d r ug b i oa va i la b il it y i n v i v o. I f t h e d is s o l ut i on te s t i n v i tr o is c o ns id e r ed s t at is t ic a l l y a d e qu a te to p re di c t d r ug b i oa v a il a bi li t y , t he n , i n s om e c as es , di ss ol u ti on m a y be u s ed in pl ac e o f a n i n v iv o b i oa va il a bi l it y s tu d y .
IV. RELATIVE AND ABSOLUTE BIOAVAILABILITY A. R e l a t i ve b i oa va i l ab i li t y ( R B A ) i s t he s ys t em ic a v a i la bi l it y o f t h e d r ug fr o m a d o sa g e f o rm a s c om pa r ed t o a re f e re nc e s t an da rd g i v en b y th e s am e r o ute o f a d m i ni s t ra ti o n . R e la t i v e b i oa v a i la b il it y i s c a lc u la te d as th e r a ti o o f th e A UC f o r th e d o sa g e f o rm to th e A U C f o r th e re f e re nc e d os a ge f o rm gi ve n i n th e s am e d o se . A r e l at i ve bi oa v a i la bi l it y o f 1 ( o r 1 00 % ) im p li es th a t d r u g b io a vai l ab il i t y f ro m b o th d o sa g e f o rm s is th e s am e b ut do es no t in di ca t e th e c om p le t en es s o f s ys te m ic d r u g
a b so r p ti on . Th e d e te r m in a t io n o f re l at i ve b io a v a il a bi l it y i s im p or t an t in gen e r ic dr u g s t ud i es (e . g. , bi oe q ui v a le n c e s t u di es ) . B i oe q ui v al e nc e i s a re l at i v e b i oa va i la b il i t y s t ud y.
B . Ab s o l u t e b i oa va i l a bil i t y ( F ) i s th e f r ac t io n o f d r u g s ys te m i c a ll y a bs o rbe d f ro m t h e d os a ge fo r m . F i s c alc u la t ed as th e ra ti o of the A U C f o r t he do sa g e f o rm gi v e n o r a ll y t o t h e A U C o bt a ine d af t e r i nt r a ve no us ( I V ) d r u g a dm in is t ra t io n (a d ju s te d fo r d o se ) . A p a re n te r al d ru g s ol u ti o n g i v en b y I V a dm i ni st r a ti on is c o ns id e red t o h a v e 1 0 0 % s y s t em ic ab s o r p ti on ( i .e . , F = 1 ) . A n F v a l ue o f 0 . 80 (o r 80 % ) i nd ic at e s t h at o n l y 80 % o f th e d r ug wa s s ys t em ic al l y a vai l ab l e f r o m t he o ra l d os a ge fo rm .
V. BIOEQUIVALENCE STUDIES FOR SOLID ORAL DRUG PRODUCTS A. O b j e c t i ve o f b i o eq u iva l e n c e s t ud i es . Th e o bj e ct i v e o f a b io eq u i val e nc e s t ud y is t o m e as u re an d c om pa r e f o rm u la t io n p e r fo rm a nc e b et we e n t wo o r m o re p h a rm ac e ut ic al l y eq u i v ale n t d r u g p ro d uc ts . B . D e s ig n o f b i oe q ui va le n c e s t ud i es 1 . Th e F D A 's D i v is io n o f B i o eq u i v al e nc e, O f fi c e of G e n e ri c D r u gs p r o vi de s g u id an c e f o r th e p e r fo r m a nc e o f i n v i t r o d is so l ut i on an d i n v i v o b i oe q ui v a le nc e s t udi e s. Th e se g u id a nc es ar e a v ai la b le a t ww w. f d a . g o v / cd e r /g u id a nc es . 2 . F as t i ng s tu d y. B i o e q u i v a le n c e s t ud i es a r e u s u a ll y e va lu a t ed b y a s i ngl e - do s e , t wo - p e r i od , t wo - t r ea tm e nt , t wo - s eq u en ce , o p en - lab e l , r a nd om i z ed c ro s s o ve r d es ig n , c om p a ri ng eq u al do s e s of t h e t es t (g en e r ic ) a nd re f e r en c e ( br a nd ) pr o du c ts in f a s te d , a du l t, he a lt h y s ub j ec ts . a . B ot h m e n a nd wo m en m a y be us e d i n t he s t udy. b . B lo o d s a m pl in g i s p e rfo r m ed ju s t be f o re th e d os e ( z e ro ti m e ) an d a t a pp r o p ri a te i n t er va l s a ft e r t h e d os e to o bt a in an ad e qu a te des c ri p ti o n o f t he pl as m a dr u g c o nc en t r at i on v e rs us t im e p r of il e . P.150
3 . F oo d in t e r ve n t io n s tu d y. I f t h e b io a v a il a bi li t y o f th e a ct i ve dr u g i ng r ed i en t is k n o wn t o b e a ff e c t e d b y f o o d, t he ge ne r ic d ru g m a n u fa c t u r e r m u s t in c l u de a si ng l e d o se , ra n do m i z e d , c ro s s o v e r , fo o d e f fe c t s s tu d y c om p a ri ng eq u al do s e s of t h e t es t p r o du c t a nd r ef e re nc e pro d uc ts gi ve n i m m e di a te ly a f t e r a s t an d a rd hi gh - fa t - c o n te n t b r e ak f as t . 4 . O t h e r s t u d y d e s i g n s . C r o s s o v e r s tu d ie s m a y n o t b e p r ac t ic al in d ru gs wi t h a l o ng ha l f -l i fe in th e b o d y, a nd a p a ra l le l s tu d y de s i gn m a y be us e d i ns te ad . A l t e rn a te s t u d y m e th o ds , s uc h a s i n vi t r o s tu di es o r e qu i val e nc e s tu di e s wi t h c li n ic al o r p ha rm a c o d y na m i c e n d p o in ts , ar e u s ed fo r dr ug p r od uc ts wh e r e p l as m a
c o nc en t r at i on s a r e n ot us e fu l to de t er m i n e d el i v er y o f t he d ru g s ub st a nc e t o t he s i te o f ac t i v it y ( s u c h as in ha le r s , n as al s p r a y s, an d t op i c a l p r od uc t s a pp li e d t o t h e s k i n) . 5 . Wa i ve r o f a n in vi vo b i o e qu i va l en c e s t ud y ( B i ow a i ve r ) a . A c om p ar a ti v e in v i t ro d is s o l ut i on ( dr u g -r e le ase ) s t u d y be t we e n t h e t est a nd t he r e f e re nc e pr o du c t s m a y b e us ed in li eu o f a n i n v i v o b io eq u i v al e nc e s tu d y f o r s om e i m m e di a te - r el e as e ( c o n ve n t io na l ) o r al d ru g p r o duc t s . b . N o b i oe qu i v a le nc e s t ud y i s r e qu i re d fo r c e r ta in d r u g p ro d uc ts gi v e n a s a so l ut i on s uc h a s o r al , pa r en t e ra l , o p ht h al m i c , o r o th e r s olu t i on s b ec au se bi o eq ui va l en c e is s e lf - e vi de n t. In t hi s c a s e, t h e d ru g i s i n a pu r e a qu e o us s ol u ti o n a nd th e r e i s n o d r u g d is s o lu t io n ra t e c ons i de r a ti on . c . Im m e di a te r el ea s e ( I R) s ol id o ra l d r u g p ro d uc ts t ha t m ee t bi op h a rm ac eu t ic c l as s i fi c a t io n ( B C S ) s y s te m c la s s 1 d r ug s , i. e . , h ig h l y wa t e r s ol u bl e , r a pi dl y d i ss ol vi n g, an d ra pi d p e rm e at i on of c e ll u la r m em b r a ne s m a y o b ta i n a b i owa i v e r . d . D r ug p ro d uc ts c o nt a ini n g a lo we r d os e s t re n gth ( e .g . , 2 00 m g , 1 0 0 m g , a n d 5 0 m g I R t a bl e ts ) . Th e d ru g p r od u c t m u s t be in t he s am e d os ag e f o rm , l o we r s t re n g th , a n d i s p r o po r ti o na t el y s i m i l a r i n i ts ac t i ve a nd in ac t i ve i ng r ed i en ts . B . P h a r ma c ok i ne t i c e val u a t i on o f t h e d a ta . Ph ar m ac ok i ne t ic a n al y s is i nc l ud es c a lc ul a ti on f o r e ac h s u b je c t o f t h e A U C t o t h e la s t q ua n ti f ia b le c o nc en t r at io n ( A U C O t)
a nd to in f in i t y ( A U C 0 - ∞ ) , T m a x , a n d C m a x . I n a dd it i o n, th e el im in a ti o n r a te c on s ta n t
( k ) , t h e e li m i n at io n ha lf - li f e (t 1 \ 2 ), an d o t he r pa r am e te r s m a y b e e s tim a t ed . C . S t a t is t i ca l e va l u a ti on o f t he da t a 1 . Th e s t at is t ic al m e t ho do l og y f o r a n al yz i n g b io eq u i v al e nc e s tu d ie s is c a ll e d t h e t wo o n e -s id e d t es t p r oc e du r e. Two s i t u at i on s a r e t es te d wi t h th is s t a ti s t ic a l m e th o do l og y . a . Th e fi r s t of t he t wo one - s id ed t es ts de t er m i n es wh e t h e r a ge n e ri c p ro d uc t ( te st ) , wh e n s ub s ti t ut e d f o r a b ra n d -n am e p r o du c t ( r ef e re n c e ) is s ig n if ic a nt l y le ss b i oa va i la b le . b . Th e s ec o nd o f t he t wo o n e -s id ed t es ts de t er m in e s wh e t h e r a b r a nd - nam e p r o du c t ( r e f e re nc e ) wh e n s u b s t i tu t e d f o r a g e ne r ic p ro duc t ( te s t ) is s ig n if ic a nt l y le s s b i oa va i la b le . c . B as ed on th e o p in io ns o f F D A m e d ic al e xp e r ts , a di f fe r e nc e o f > 20 % f or e ac h o f t h e a b o v e t es ts wa s de t er m i ne d t o b e s ig n if ic a nt a n d , t he r e fo r e , u nd es i rab l e f o r a ll d r u g p r od uc t s . 2 . A n a na l y s i s o f v a ri an c e ( A N O V A ) s h ou l d b e p er f o r m e d o n t h e l og t ra ns fo r m ed A U C a n d C m a x v a l u e s o b ta i ne d f ro m e ac h su b je ct . Th e 9 0% co n fi de nc e i n te r va l s f o r b o t h p ha r m a c o k i n et ic par a m et e rs , A U C a n d C m a x , m us t b e e n ti r el y wi t h i n th e 80 % t o 1 2 5 % b ou nd a r ie s b as ed o n lo g t r a ns fo r m a t io n o f t h e d a ta . Th e ra t io of th e m ea ns o f t h e s t ud y d at a (t es t to r ef e r e nc e) sh o ul d l ie in th e c en t e r o f t h e 9 0% c o nf id e nc e i n t er va l , o r c l os e t o 1 00% ( e qu i val e nt t o a t es t to r e fe r en c e r a ti o o f 1 ) ( Ta b le 7 -1 ) . 3 . D i ff e re n t s ta t is t ic al c r it e r ia a re so m e t im es u s ed wh e n bi o eq ui v a l en ce is d e m o ns t r at e d t h ro u gh c om p a ra t i v e c l i ni c a l t r ia ls , p h a rm ac o d y na m i c s tu di es , or c om p a ra t i v e i n v i t r o m e th o d ol og y. 4 . Th e bi oe q ui v a le n c e m e t h od ol o g y an d c ri t e ri a de sc r i be d a bo v e s i m u l ta ne o us l y c o nt r o l f o r b ot h d i ff e r en c e s i n th e a v e r ag e re sp o ns e b e t we e n t es t an d r e fer e n ce p r o du c ts a s we ll as th e pr e c is io n wi t h wh i c h t he av e r a g e r e s p on s e in t he po p ul a ti o n
i s e s ti m a t ed . Th is p r ec is i o n d ep e nd s o n t h e wi t h in - s ub je c t ( n or m a l v ol u nte e r or p a t ie n t ) v a r ia b il i t y i n t h e p h a rm ac ok in e ti c p a ra m e t e rs ( A U C a n d C m a x ) o f t h e t wo p r o du c ts a n d o n t he nu m b e r of s u bj ec t s i n t he s t ud y . Th e wi d t h o f th e 9 0 % c o nf i de nc e i n te r v a l i s a re f l ec ti o n i n p a rt of t he wi t h i n- s ub je c t v a r ia b il i t y o f t h e t es t a n d re f er e nc e p r od uc t s in t he bi o eq ui va l en c e st ud y . P.151
Table 7-1. Bioavailability Comparison of a Generic (TEST) and Brand (Reference) Drug Product LN-Transformed Data 90 % Confide nce Geometric Mean Interval
PK Variabl e Units
x
ng/ mL
AU C0-t
ng hr/ mL
Cma
AU Cinf
ng hr/ mL
Test
344. 79
265 9.12
270 8.63
(Lower % Limit, Referenc Ratio Upper e T/R Limit)
96. 6
(89. 5, 112 )
0.3 586
0.8 791
17.9 0%
99. 4
(95. 1, 104 )
0.8 172
1.0 000
12.6 0%
271 8.52
99. 6
(95. 4, 103 )
0.8 865
1.0 000
12.2 0%
356. 81
267 4.92
hr
4.29
4.24
10 1
1/h r
0.09 61
0.09 80
98. 1
Tma x
keli m
Pvalues Power for of Product ANOV ANOVA Effects A % CV
t1/2
hr
8.47
8.33
10 1.7
AUC, area under the curve; Cmax, peak plasma drug concentration; Tmax, time for peak plasma drug concentration. The results were obtained from a two-way crossover, single-dose, fasting study in 36 healthy adult volunteers. Mean values are reported. No statistical differences were observed between AUC and Cmax values for the test and reference products.
P.152
VI. BIOEQUIVALENCE ISSUES A. P r o b l e m s i n d e t e rm in i n g b i o eq u i va le n ce in cl u de la ck of an ad e qu a te s t ud y d e si g n; in a bi li t y t o ac c u ra t e l y m ea su r e th e d r ug an a l y t es , i nc lu d in g m et a bo l i te s a nd e n a nt io m er s ( c hi r al d ru gs ) ; a n d l ac k o f s y st em ic d r u g a bs o rp t io n ( Ta bl e 7- 2 . ) B . B i o e qu i va l en c e s t udi e s fo r wh i ch ob je c ti v e bl o od d ru g c on c en t ra t io ns c an n ot be o b t ai ne d re q ui r e e i th e r a p h a rm ac od y n am ic st u d y, a c li n ic al t ri a l, o r a n i n v i t r o s t ud y t h at ha s b ee n c o r re l a te d wi t h h um an in v i vo b io a v ai l ab i li t y da t a. 1 . P ha r m a c o d y n am ic m ea s u re m e n ts a r e m o re di ff i c u l t t o o b ta in , an d t h e d a t a t en d t o be va r ia b le , re qu i r in g a l ar g e r n um be r of su bj ec t s c o m p a r ed to t he b i oe q ui v a l en c e s t ud i es fo r s y s t em ic a ll y a bs o rb ed d r u gs . a . A b i oe q ui v a le nc e s t udy u s in g p h a rm ac od y n am ic m e as u re m e n ts t ri es to o b t ai n a p h a rm ac o d y na m i c e ff e c t v e r s us t im e p ro f il e fo r the d r ug in ea c h s u bj ec t . b . Th e a re a u nd e r t h e e ff e c t v e r s u s t im e p r o fi le , p e ak ef f ec t , a nd t im e f o r p e ak e f f ec t a r e o b ta in e d f o r t he t es t a n d r e fe r en c e p rod u ct s a n d a re t he n s ta t ist i ca l l y a n al yze d . 2 . C om p ar a ti v e c l in ic a l tr i a ls a r e m o re di f fi cu l t t o r u n , d o n ot ha v e e as il y q u a nt i fi ab l e o bs e r v at i ons , an d a r e q ui t e c os tl y . 3 . I n vi t r o s tu di es m a y r eq u i re t he de v e lo pm e nt o f a r el ia b le s u r r og a te m a rk e r t h at m a y be c o r r el a te d wi t h hu m an in vi v o b i oa v a i la bi li t y d a ta . F o r e xa m p l e, t he p e n et r a ti on o f d ru g i n to la y e r s o f s k i n wi t h r es p ec t t o t im e ( d e r m a to p ha r m a c o k i n et ic s ) h as be en s u g ge st e d a s a m e t ho d f o r m ea su r in g th e b i oe q ui v a l en c e of t op ic al d r u g p ro d uc ts in t en d ed f o r lo c a l a c t i vi t y.
VII. DRUG PRODUCTION SELECTION A. G e n e r i c d r ug s ub s t itu t i o n 1 . G e ne r i c d r u g s u bs t i tu t i o n i s t he p ro c e s s of di s pe ns i ng a g en e ri c d r ug p r o du c t in p l ac e o f th e p r es c r i be d dr u g pr o du c t ( e .g . , g en e ric p ro d uc t f o r b r an d - na m e p r od uc t , g e n er ic p ro d uc t f o r a no th e r ge ne r ic p ro d uc t, b ran d - na m e p ro d uc t f o r g ene r i c
p r o du c t) . Th e s ub s ti t ut ed p r od uc t m us t b e a th e ra p e ut ic eq u i v al en t to th e p r es c ri be d p r o du c t. 2 . G e ne r ic dr u g p r od uc t s t h a t a re c l as s i f ie d a s t he r a pe u ti c e qu i v a le n ts b y t h e F D A a r e e xp e c t e d t o p r od uc e t h e s am e c li ni c a l e f f ec t a n d s af e t y p ro f il e a s t he p r e s c ri b ed drug.
Table 7-2. Problem Issues in the Determination of Bioequivalence Problem Issues
Example
Drugs with highly variable bioavailabilitya
Propranolol, verapamil
Drugs with active metabolites
Selegiline
Chiral drugs
Ibuprofen, albuterol
Drugs with nonlinear pharmacokinetics
Phenytoin
Orally administered drugs that are not systemically absorbed
Cholestyramine resin, sucralfate
Drugs with long elimination halflives
Probucol
Variable-dosage forms
Dyazide, conjugated estrogens
Nonoral drug delivery Topical drugs
Steroids, antifungals
Transdermal delivery systems
Estrogen patch
Drugs given by inhalation aerosols
Bronchodilators, steroids
Intranasal drugs
Intranasal steroids
Biotechnology derived drugs
Erythropoietin, interferon
Bioavailable drugs that should not reach peak drug levels
Potassium supplements, hormone replacement therapy
Target population used in the bioequivalence studies
Pediatric patients; renal disease
a
These drugs have high intrasubject variability.
P.153
3 . P r es c r i ba b i li t y r e f e r s t o th e m ea s u r em e nt of a v e r a ge bi o eq u i v al en c e in wh i c h t h e c om pa r is o n o f p op u la t i on m e an s o f t h e t es t an d r ef e re n c e pr o du ct s f al l s wi t h i n a cc e pt a bl e s t at is t ic al c r it e r ia . P re s c r ib a bi li t y is th e c u r re n t b as is fo r F D A a p p ro v a l o f t he r ap e ut ic eq u i v al en t g e ne r ic dr u g p r od uc ts . 4 . Sw i t ch a bi l i t y r e f e r s to t he m e as u re m e n t o f i nd i v i du a l b io e qu i v al e nc e, wh i c h r e q ui r es k n o wl e dg e o f i nd i v i du a l va r i ab il i t y (i n t ra s u bj ec t va ri a bi li t y) an d su b je c t -b y f o r m u l at io n ef f ec ts . S wi tc h ab il i t y en su r es th a t t he su bs t i tu t ed ge n er ic d rug p r od uc t p r o du c e s t h e s a m e r es po n s e in th e i n di vi d ua l p at i e n t . B . T h e ra p e ut i c s u bs t i t ut i o n 1 . Th e r ap e ut ic s u bs t it u tio n is th e p r oc es s o f d is pe n s i n g a t h e ra pe u ti c a l ter n a ti ve i n p l ac e o f th e p r es c r i be d dr u g pr o du c t. Fo r e xa m ple , am o xi c il l in is d is p en s e d fo r a m pi ci ll i n. 2 . Th e s u bs ti t ut e d d r ug p r o du c t is us ua l l y i n t h e s am e th e ra p eu t ic c la s s (e . g . , c a lc iu m c h a nn e l b lo c k e r) a n d is e xp e c te d t o h a v e a s i m i la r c l in ic al p ro f il e . C . F o r m ul a r y i s s u e s 1 . A fo r m u la r y i s a li s t of d r ug s . A po s i ti ve f o rm u l a r y l is t s a ll th e d r u gs th a t m a y be s u bs ti t u te d , wh e r e as a ne g a t i ve f o rm u la r y li s ts dr u g s f o r wh i c h t he p ha rm a c is t m a y n o t s ub s ti t ut e . A r e st r i c ti ve f o rm u la r y l is ts on l y th o s e d ru gs th a t m a y b e re i m b u rs ed wi t h o u t j us t i fi c a t io n b y th e p re s c ri b e r; f or d ru gs n o t l is t ed in th e re s tr ic t ive f o r m u l ar y , t he p re s c r ib e r m us t j us t if y t h e n ee d f o r t h e n on l is te d d r u g. 2 . Ma n y s t a te s h a v e l ega l re q ui r em e nt s t ha t ad dr e ss t he i ss u e o f d r ug p ro d uc t s e le ct i on . St a t es m a y pro v i d e i n fo r m a t io n a nd gui d an c e in d ru g p r o du ct s e l ec t io n t h r o ug h p os i ti v e , n e ga t i ve , o r r es t r ic ti v e f or m u l a rie s . 3 . Th e F D A a nn u al l y pu bl i s h es A pp r ov ed D r ug P ro d uc ts w i th Th e r ap eu t ic E q u iv al e nc e E v a l ua t io ns ( t h e “ O r a ng e Bo ok ” ) . Thi s p u bl ic a ti on is al so r epr o d uc ed in t h e Un i te d S ta t es Ph a r ma c op e ia ( U S P ), D I Vo l . I II , A pp r ov e d D r u g P r o du ct s an d L e g al R eq ui r e m e nt s , p ubl i s h ed an n ua l l y b y t h e US P C o n ve nt i on . Th e “ E l e c t r on ic O r a n g e B o ok ” m a y be fou n d a t h t t p: / / ww w. f d a . g ov / c d e r /o b /d e fa ul t . ht m .
a . Th e “ O r an ge B oo k ” p ro v i d es th e r ap e ut ic e v al ua t i on c o de s f o r d r ug p rod u c t s ( Ta b l e 7 - 3 ) .
Table 7-3. Therapeutic Equivalence Evaluation Codes A Drug products that are considered to be therapeutically equivalent Codes to other pharmaceutically equivalent products AA
Products in conventional dosage forms not presenting bioequivalence problems
AB
Products meeting bioequivalence requirements
AN
Solutions and powders for aerosolization
AO
Injectable oil solutions
AP
Injectable aqueous solutions
AT
Topical products
Drug products that the FDA does not at this time consider to be B therapeutically equivalent to other pharmaceutically equivalent Codes products BC
Extended-release tablets, extended-release capsules, and extendedrelease injectables
BD
Active ingredients and dosage forms with documented bioequivalence problems
BE
Delayed-release oral dosage forms
BN
Products in aerosol-nebulizer drug delivery systems
BP
Active ingredients and dosage forms with potential bioequivalence problems
BR
Suppositories or enemas for systemic use
BS
Products with drug standard deficiencies
BT
Topical products with bioequivalence issues
BX
Insufficient data
FDA, U.S. Food and Drug Administration.
P.154
( 1 ) “ A - “ ra t ed ” d ru g p r od uc t s a r e d ru g p r o du ct s t ha t c o n ta in ac t i v e i ng r ed ie n ts an d d o sa g e f o rm s t ha t a r e no t r eg a rd e d a s p re se n ti ng e it h e r ac t ua l o r po t en t ia l b i oe q ui v a l en c e p ro bl em s o r d ru g q ua l it y s ta n da r ds i s s u es . H o we v e r , a ll o ra l do sa g e f o r m s m us t m ee t an ap p ro p r ia t e i n vi t r o b io e qu i v al e nc e s ta n da r d t h at is ac c e pt a bl e t o t he F D A t o b e a pp r o ve d as th e ra p eu t ic al l y equ i v a le n t a n d m a y b e i nt er c h an ge d . ( 2 ) “ B “ - ra t ed ” d ru g p r od uc t s a r e d ru g p r o du ct s f o r wh i c h a c tu a l o r p o te n ti al b i oe q ui v a l en c e p ro bl em s h a v e n o t b ee n re s o l v e d b y a d eq u at e e vi d en ce of b i oe q ui v a l en c e . Th es e pr o d uc ts o ft e n h a ve sp ec if i c d os ag e fo r m p ro b le m s r at h e r t h a n a p r o bl em wi t h th e a c ti v e in g r ed ie n ts (e . g ., t wo d i f f er e nt ni c ot in e pa tc h es ) . “ B “ r a t ed ” d ru g p r od uc t s a re n ot c o ns id e r ed th e r ap eu t ic a ll y e qu i val e nt t o o the r p h a rm ac e ut ic al l y eq u i v ale n t p r o du ct s a nd a re no t i n te r c h a ng ea b le . ( 3 ) C e r ta in p ro d uc ts pr es e nt s p ec i al s i tu a ti on s t ha t de s e r v e a m or e c om p le t e e xp l a n a ti o n t h an c a n b e p r o v i de d b y t h e t wo - c ode s u s e d i n th e “ O ra n ge B o o k . ” Th e s e d r u gs h a v e p a r ti c u l a r p r ob le m s wi t h s t an da r d s o f i de n ti t y, an al yt i ca l m e th o do l og y , o r b io eq u iv a l e nc e t h at a re co ns id er e d i n di vi d ua ll y . F o r t he s e d r ug s , c o ns ul t th e “ O r a n ge B ook . ” b . F o r s o m e d ru g p r od uc t s , b i oe qu i v a le nc e h as no t be e n es t ab l is he d o r no g en e ri c p r o du c t is c u r r en t l y a v a i la b le . 4 . V a ri ou s h os p it al s , i ns ti t u ti o ns , i ns u ra nc e p l an s, h ea l th m a in t en a nc e o r ga n i za ti on s ( H M O s ) , a nd ot h e r t hi r d -p a r t y pl a ns m a y ha ve a fo r m ul a r y th a t p r o v id es gu i da n ce f o r d ru g p r od uc t s u bs ti t ut i o n. P.155
STUDY QUESTIONS
D i r e c t i on s fo r q ue s t io ns 1 - 3 : E ac h o f t h e q ue s tio n s , s t a te m e n ts , o r in c om p le t e s t a te m e n ts i n th is s ec t ion c a n b e c o r re c t l y a ns we r e d or co m p le t e d b y o ne o f th e s u gg es t ed an s we r s o r phr a s es . Ch oo s e t he be s t a n s we r . 1 . T he pa r a me t e r s u se d t o d es c r ib e b i o a va il a b il i t y a r e ( A ) C m a x , A U C 0 - t , an d A UC 0 - ∞ . ( B ) C m a x , A U C 0 - t , A U C 0 - ∞ , a nd T m a x . ( C ) C m a x , A U C 0 - t , A U C 0 - ∞ , a nd t 1 \ 2 . (D) Cma x a n d AUC0- t. ( E ) C m a x , A U C 0 - t , A U C 0 - ∞ , a nd T m a x , a n d t 1 \ 2 . V i e w A n s we r 1 . T h e a n sw e r i s B [ se e] . C T t 2 . T o d e t e r mi n e t h e a bs o l u te b i o a va i la b i li t y o f a d r ug g i ve n a s a n o ra l e x t en d e d - re l ea s e t a b le t , t he b i o a va i la b i li t y o f t h e d ru g m us t be co m pa r e d to t h e b i oa va i l ab i l i t y o f t h e d r ug from ( A ) a n im m ed ia t e - re le as e o r al ta bl e t c on t ai ni n g th e s am e a m ou n t o f ac t i ve i n g re d ie n t. ( B ) a n o r al s o lu t io n o f the d r ug in th e s am e d os e . ( C ) a pa r en t e ra l s ol u ti o n o f th e d r ug gi v e n b y i n t ra v e n o us (I V ) bo lu s o r I V i n f us io n . ( D ) a r ef e re n c e (b r a nd ) e xt e n d e d - re l ea se ta b le t t h a t i s a p h ar m a c eu t ic al e q ui v a l en t . ( E ) a n im m ed ia t e - re le as e h a rd ge la t in c a ps ul e co n t a i ni n g t he s a m e am ou n t o f ac ti ve d r u g a nd la c to s e . V i e w A n s we r 2 . T h e a n sw e r i s C [ se e] . F 3 . A s i ng l e - do s e , tw o -w a y c r o s so ve r , f a st i n g, c om p a r a ti ve b i oa va i l ab i l i ty s t u d y w as pe r f o r me d i n 2 4 h e a l th y, a d u l t ma l e s u bj e c t s. P la s ma d r ug co nc e n t r a ti o ns w e r e o b t ain e d fo r e a c h s ub j e ct , an d th e re s u l ts sh ow n in Ta b le 7- Q 3 w e r e ob t a in e d . T he r e l a t i ve b i o a va i la b i li t y o f t h e d ru g f r o m t h e g en e r i c t a bl e t co m pa r e d t o t he r e fe r e n ce tablet is
Table 7-Q3 Drug Product
Dose (mg)Cmax (µg/mL)Tmax (hr)AUC0-∞ (µg hr/mL)
IV bolus injection
100
Oral solution
200
21.3
1.2
3143
Generic tablet
200
17.0
2.1
2822
Reference tablet
200
16.5
1.9
2715
IV, intravenous. ( A ) 8 2 .3 % . ( B ) 6 9 .8 % . ( C ) 9 1 .7 % .
1714
( D ) 9 6 .2 % . ( E ) 1 03 . 9% V i e w A n s we r 3 . T h e a n sw e r i s E [s e e] . D i r ec t i o ns f o r qu e s ti o ns 4 -6 : Th e q u es t io ns an d i nc om p le te s ta t em en ts in t hi s s e c ti o n c an be c o r r ec tl y a ns we r e d o r c om p le t ed b y on e o r m or e o f t h e su g ge s te d a nswe r s . C h o os e t he an s we r , A- E . P.156
4 . F o r tw o d r ug p r od u ct s , ge n e r ic ( te s t ) a n d br a n d ( r ef e r e nc e ) , t o b e c o n si d e r ed b io e qu i va l en t I . t h e re sh o u ld be n o s ta t i s t ic a l d i f fe r e nc e b e tw e en t he ex t e nt o f b i oava i l a b i li t y o f t h e d r u g f r o m t h e t es t p r o du c t c o mp a r ed t o t h e r ef e r e nc e p r o d uc t . I I . t he 90 % c o n f i d e nc e in t e r va l s a b o ut t h e r a t io o f t he me a ns o f t h e C m a x a nd AU C va l u e s fo r t h e t es t p r o d uc t t o r e f e re n ce pr o d u c t m u st b e w i t h in 8 0 %- 1 2 5 % o f t h e r e f e re n ce p r od u ct . I I I . th e r e s h ou l d b e n o s t a t is t i ca l di f f e r en c es b e tw e e n t h e m ea n C m a x a n d AU C va l u e s fo r t h e t es t p r odu c t co m pa r e d t o t he r e fe r e n ce p r od u c t. A i f I o n l y i s c o r re c t B i f II I on l y i s c o r r ec t C i f I a n d I I a r e c or r ec t D i f II a nd I II a re c o r re c t E i f I, I I, an d II I ar e c o r re c t V i e w A n s we r 4 . T h e a n sw e r i s E [s e e] . T C 5. F o r w h ic h of t h e f o ll ow i n g p r o d u c ts is me a su r i n g p l a sm a d r u g c o n ce n t r at i o n s n o t a p p r op r i a te fo r e s t i ma t i ng b io e qu i va l en c e ? I . m et e r e d- d os e in h al e r c o n ta i n in g a b r o nc h odi l a t o r I I . an t i f un g a l a ge n t fo r t h e t r ea t me n t of a va gin a l in f e ct i o n I I I . e n t e r ic - co a t ed t ab l et c o n ta i n in g a n on s te r oi d a l a n t i -i n f la m ma t o r y a g e n t A i f I o n l y i s c o r re c t B i f II I on l y i s c o r r ec t C i f I a n d I I a r e c or r ec t D i f II a nd I II a re c o r re c t E i f I, I I, an d II I ar e c o r re c t V i e w A n s we r 5 . T h e a n sw e r i s C [ se e] . 6 . Bi o e qui va l e n ce s tu d i es co m par e t h e b io a va i la b i li t y I . o f th e g e ne r i c d r u g pr o d u c t t o t he b ra n d d r ug p r o d uc t . I I . o f a r ef o r m ul a t ed b ra n d d ru g p ro d u ct t o the o r i gi n a l f o r mu l a ti o n of t h e b r a n d p r o d u c t. I I I . of a t o - be - m a rk e te d b r a n d p r o d uc t t o t h e d ru g p r o du c t u s ed i n t h e c l i n ic a l trials. A i f I o n l y i s c o r re c t B i f II I on l y i s c o r r ec t C i f I a n d I I a r e c or r ec t D i f II a nd I II a re c o r re c t E i f I, I I, an d II I ar e c o r re c t
V i e w A n s we r 6 . T h e a n sw e r i s E [s e ea n d] . P . 15 7
ANSWERS AND EXPLANATIONS 1 . T he an sw e r is B [ s ee I I I . B] . A U C r e l at es t o t he e xt e nt o f d r ug ab s or p ti o n. C m a x a n d T m a x r e l a t e to th e ra t e o f d r u g a bs o rp t io n . Th e el im i na t io n t 1 / 2 o f t h e d ru g i s u s u a ll y i nd e pe nd e nt of t h e r ou t e o f d ru g a dm i ni s t r a ti on and is no t us ed as a m e as u r e of bi o a vai la b il i t y. F or t h e F D A , o n l y th e C m a x a n d A U C pa r a m e t er s m us t m ee t 9 0% c o n fi d en c e in t e r v al s of 8 0 -1 2 5% o f t he re f e re nc e (b r an d ) p r o du c t ( Ta b le 7 .1 ) . 2 . T he an sw e r is C [ s ee I V . B ] . A f t e r a n IV bo l us i n je c t i on o r I V in f us io n , a ll th e do s e is ab s or b ed in t o t he b o d y. Th e r a t io o f t he A U C of t he dr u g gi v e n o r al l y to t he AU C o f th e d r u g g i ven b y I V i nj ec t io n i s u se d to ob t ai n t h e a bs o l u te bi oa v a i la b il it y ( F ) of t h e d ru g . 3 . T he an sw e r is E [ s e e I V . A ] . Th e r e la t i v e b io a v a il a bi lit y i s d e te r m i ne d f ro m t he r a t io of t he A U C o f th e g e n er ic ( t e st ) p ro d uc t t o t h e A UC o f th e re f e re nc e s ta n da r d . Th us th e re la t i v e b io a v a il a bi li t y c a n e xc e e d 1 00 % , wh e rea s th e a bs ol u te bi o a v ai la b il i t y c a nn o t e xc e e d 1 00 % . 4 . T he an sw e r is E [ s e e V . C ] . A l t h ou gh T m a x i s a n i n di c a t i on of r at e o f dr u g a bs o r p ti o n , i t is a d is c r e te m e as u re m e n t a nd us ua l ly t o o v a ri a bl e t o u s e f o r s t a ti s t ic a l c o m p a ri s on s in b i oe q ui v a l en c e s t ud i es . S t a t is ti ca l c om p ar is o ns u s e A U C a nd C m a x v a l u e s f ro m t es t a n d re f er e nc e d r ug p ro du c ts as th e b as is of bi o eq u i val e nc e . 5 . T he an sw e r is C [ s ee V . A ] . A l t h ou gh s o m e s y s t em ic a b s o r p ti on m a y b e d em on s t ra t ed af t e r a dm in is t e ri n g a m e te r e d d os e i nh al e r c on t a in in g a b ro nc h od il a t or o r a v a g in a l a nt i fu n ga l ag e n t, b i oe q ui v a l en c e c a n b e de t e rm i ne d o nl y b y us i ng a c l i ni c a l r e s p on s e m e as u r e m e n t. 6 . T he an sw e r is E [ s e e I . A , B, C , D a n d E ] . B i o eq u i v al e nc e s tu di es c o m pa r e t h e b io a v ai l ab il i ty o f a d r ug f r om o n e d rug p r od uc t t o an o th e r d r ug p ro d uc t c o nt a in in g th e s am e a ct iv e i n g re di e nt . D r ug pr o du c ts s uc h a s c ap s ul es th a t a r e us ed i n c l i ni c a l t r ia ls sh ou l d b e b i oe q ui va le n t t o t h e m a rk e te d d r u g p r od uc t wh i c h m a y b e a t ab l et . G en e r ic d r ug p r o du c t s a nd t he c o r re sp o n di ng b r a nd d ru g p r o du c t m u s t b e b i oe q ui v a le n t . F o r an y c ha n ge a f o rm ul a ti o n, t h e m a nu f ac tu r e r (b r an d o r ge n e ri c ) m u s t d em on s t r a te t ha t th e f o rm u la t io n c ha n g e d oe s n o t a f f ec t t h e bi o a v ai l ab il i t y c o m p a re d t o th e o r ig in a l p r od uc t .
8 Functional Group Chemistry and Biochemistry M a r c W . Ha r r o l d
I. FUNCTIONAL GROUP CHEMISTRY A. I n t r o d u c t io n . D ru g m o l ec ul e s ca n b e v ie we d a s a c o ll ec t io n o f fu nc t ion a l g r ou ps ( i . e ., g ro u ps o f at om s p re s en t wi t hi n th e d r ug t hat c on f er s p ec i fi c c h e m i c al a nd p h ys ic al p ro pe r t ie s [ F ig ur e 8 -1 ] ) . F u nc ti o na l g r oup s d e te r m i n e s u c h c h a rac t e ri st ic s a s i o ni z a t io n , s o l ub il i t y in a qu e ou s a nd li pi d e n v i r o n m e n ts (a k a po l ar i t y ) , r e a ct i vi t y, c h em ic al s t ab i li t y , an d i n v i v o m et a bo li c s ta b il i t y . A d d i ti on a ll y, t he se fu nc t io n al g r o up s a r e c a pa b le o f fo r m i n g s pe c i fi c bo n ds ( p r im a r il y n on co v a le n t ) wi t h t h ei r r e c ep t or s a n d a re t hu s ext r e m e l y im p o rt a nt in d rug ac t i v i t y a n d p ot e nc y. 1 . F un ct i on al g ro u ps t h at i m p a r t h yd r o p h i l i ci t y a r e li k e l y t o i nc r ea s e th e d r u g 's wa t e r s ol u bi li t y , wh i l e f un c ti o na l g r ou ps t ha t i m pa r t l ip o ph i l ic i t y ( h yd r o p h o bi c i t y) a r e l ik e l y to in c re as e t h e d r u g 's te n de nc y t o c r oss ce ll u la r m em b ra n es th ro u g h p a ss i ve d if f us io n . Se e Ch a p te r 12 V II I B 1 fo r a fu r t h er di s c us s i o n o f wa t e r a nd li pi d s o lu bi l it y . a . A c i di c a nd ba s i c f u nc ti o na l g r o up s a ll o w f o r d r u g i on i za t i on an d , i n m o s t c as es , i m pa r t e n ha nc ed wa t e r s o l ub i li t y t o t he m o le c u l e. O n e no t ab l e e xc e p ti o n to t hi s i s s e en in am p ho t e r ic d r ug s ( i. e ., t ho s e c o m p ou n ds po ss es s i n g b ot h a c i d ic a n d b as ic f u nc t io n al g ro up s ). A s e xe m pl i fi ed b y am pi c i ll i n i n F i gu r e 8 - 2 , am p ho t er ic c om p ou n ds c an f o rm z w it t e r i o ns , or i n te r n al sa lt s . S in c e th e z wi t t e ri o n fo r m o f a m pi ci ll i n h as a ne t o v e ra l l c ha r ge o f z e r o , i t h as d i ff ic u lt y d is s o l v i ng i n aq u e ou s e n vi r on m e n ts s uc h as t he g as t ro i nt es t in a l ( G I ) t ra c t . b . N e ut r al f un c t i on al g rou p s ( i .e . , t h os e t ha t ar e in c ap a bl e o f i o ni za t io n ) c a n e n h an c e ei t he r wa t e r o r li p id s o lu b il i t y d e pe n di ng o n th e i r a bi li t y t o f o rm hyd r o g e n b o n d s w i t h w a te r . H y d ro g e n b on di n g is t he pr im a r y m ec ha n ism f or in c rea s in g t h e wa t e r s ol u bi li t y o f n on e le c t ro l y t es (i . e ., c om p ou nd s th a t d o n ot po s s es s ac i di c , b a si c, o r q ua t e rn a r y am m o ni um fu nc t io n al g ro ups ) . 2 . F un ct i on al g ro u p r e act i vi t y a f f e c t s d r u g s h el f l i f e , s ta b i li t y, a n d s to r a g e . Th er e a r e a n um be r of fu nc t io na l gr o up s t h at wi l l d e gr ad e , p r im a ri l y t hr o ug h a i r o xi d a t i on a n d h yd r ol y s is , u n de r nor m a l e n vi r o n me n t al c ond i t i o ns . Two e xa m p l es of t hi s l a t te r c o nc e rn a re s e en wi t h a s p i r in an d n i tr o gl y c e r in . Bo t h co m p o un ds ar e s u b je c t t o r ap i d h y d ro l y s i s i f e xp o s ed to m o is t e n v i r on m en t s . 3 . F un ct i on al g ro u ps a ls o a f fe c t i n vi vo s t a bi l i t y a n d t he du r a ti o n o f d r ug a c ti on . Th e s us c e p ti bi l it y o f a giv e n d r ug to m e t ab ol ic bio t r a ns fo r m a t io n d e pe nd s i n p a r t u p o n t he fu nc t io n al g ro up s th a t a re p re s e n t ( s ee C h a p te r 17 I I, I II ) . a . D r ug s t h at c o n ta in a la r g e n um be r o r p e rc en t ag e of h yd ro p hi li c f u nc ti on a l g r ou ps a r e of t en el im in a te d f rom t he bo d y un c h a ng ed or wi t h m i n im al m e ta b ol ism . b . D r ug s t h at c o n ta in a la r g e n um be r o r p e rc en t ag e of li p op hi l ic fu nc t io nal g ro u ps o f t en r eq u ir e e xt e n s i v e m e ta b ol is m .
Figure 8-1. Ibuprofen, a nonsteroidal antiinflammatory agent, is comprised of an ionizable, hydrophilic carboxylic acid and three hydrophobic functional groups: an isobutyl alkyl chain, an ethyl alkyl group, and an aromatic ring.
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Figure 8-2. Ampicillin is an amphoteric compound. It contains an acidic carboxylic acid and a basic amine and exists in vivo as a zwitterion. The proton from the carboxylic acid binds to the basic amine, producing a molecule with an overall net charge equal to zero.
B . Ac i d i c f un c t io n al g ro u p s 1 . T yp e s . S h o wn i n F i gur e 8 -3 a re e xa m pl es o f th e s i x m o st c o m m on ac id i c f u nc t io n al g ro up s . I n g ene r a l, c a r bo xy l i c a ci ds ten d to be m o r e a c i di c t h an a n y o f t h e o t he r fi v e f un c t i on al g r o up s . Th e te t r a z ol e ri ng p r o vid es th e b es t c h a rg e d e lo c al i z at i on s i nc e r es on a nc e a ll o ws t he c h a rg e t o be eq u al l y s h a re d a m o n g a ll f i ve a to m s i n t h e r i ng . 2 . C o mm o n a t t r ib u t es a . A c i di c f un c ti o na l g r oup s i m p a r t h yd r o p h i l i c it y t o a d ru g m ol ec u le du e to t he i r p o t en t ia l f o r i on i z a ti o n. b . A ci di c f u nc ti o na l g r oup s c an f o rm i o n ic , io n - di p o l e, an d h yd r o g e n b on d s wi t h r e c ep t or s , e n z y m es , t r ans p o rt p ro t ei ns , a n d o th e r m ac r om ol ec u le s . c . Ac i di c f un c t i on a l g ro up s c an f o rm s a l ts w h en c o m bi n e d w i t h b a se s .
d . C a r b ox yl i c a c id s a r e o f t en es t e r if i e d f o r t he p u r po se s o f p r o dr u g f o rm a ti o n ( s e e C h a p te r 17 , s ec t io n VI for a d di ti o na l i n fo r m a t io n ). Th e y c a n a ls o u nd e rg o a c id - or e n zym e c a t al y z e d de c a rbo x yl a t i o n r ea c ti on s . e . M e t ab o l is m . A c i d ic fun c ti o na l g r ou ps ca n u n de r g o c o nj u ga t i o n wi t h glu c u ro ni c a c id , g l y c i n e, an d g l ut am i n e .
Figure 8-3. Examples of drugs that contain an acidic functional group as part of their chemical structure.
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C . B a s ic f un c t io n a l g r ou p s 1 . T yp e s a . Al i p h a ti c an d a l i c yc l i c a mi n es a re th e m os t co m m o n b as ic fu nc t io n al g r o up s . A s s h o wn in Fi g u re 8 -4 , t h es e a m i n es c a n b e p r i mar y, s e c o n d a r y, o r t e r t i a r y, d e p en di n g o n t he nu m b er o f s ub s ti t ue n ts a t t ac hed t o t h e n it r og e n. b . Ar o m a t i c a mi n es , s uc h a s t h at s e en in p ro c a in a m i d e ( Fi g u re 8 -4 ) , a r e m uc h l es s b a si c a nd fo r al l i n te n ts a n d p u rp os e s ca n b e c on s i d e re d n e ut r a l. c . Ar o m a t ic , he t e r oc yc l i c n i t ro g en s v a r y in th e ir b as ic i t y, b u t i n g en e ra l a r e m uc h l e ss b as ic t ha n a li p ha t ic a n d a li c yc l ic am in es ( Fi g u r e 8- 5 ) . d . A dd i ti o na l b as ic fu nc t io n al g ro u ps i nc l ud e i m i ne s , h yd r a z i n e s , a mi d i ne s , a n d g u a n id i ne s (F i gu r e 8 - 6 ). I m i n es te n d t o b e l es s ba s ic th an al i ph a ti c a nd al i c yc l ic a m in es , wh e r ea s g ua n id in e s t en d to be m uc h m o re b as ic . Th e b as ic it y o f th e ot h e r t wo f u n c t i on al g ro u ps l i es s o m e wh e r e i n b e t we e n. 2 . C o mm o n a t t r ib u t es a . B as ic fu nc t io n al gr o ups im pa r t h yd r o p h i l i c i t y t o a d r u g m o l ec ul e d ue t o t h ei r p o t en t ia l f o r i on i z a ti o n an d th e i r a bi li t y t o f o rm hyd r o g en bo n ds . b . B as ic fu nc t io n al g ro ups c a n f o rm i on i c, i on - d ip o l e , a nd h yd r o g e n b on d s wi t h r e c ep t or s , e n z y m es , t r ans p o rt p ro t ei ns , a n d o th e r m ac r om ol ec u le s . c . B as ic f u nc ti o na l g r ou ps c a n f o rm sa l t s w h e n co m b i ne d w i th ac i ds . d . M e t a bo l is m . Co m m on m e ta bo l ic p a th wa y s f o r p r i m a r y am in es a re o xi da t i ve d e a mi n a ti o n , a ce t yl a t i o n , a nd N - ox i d at i o n. C om m o n p a th wa ys f o r s ec on d a r y an d t e r t ia r y am i ne s a r e a ce tyl a t i o n ( s ec o nd a r y a m i ne s o n l y) , o x id a t i ve N -d ea l k yl a t i o n , a n d N -o x id a t io n . A ro m at i c a m i ne s c an be ac e t yl a t e d , wh i l e a r om a ti c h ete r o c yc l ic
n i t ro g en s c an un d er g o N - o x i da t i on o r N - de a lk yl a t i o n . Im i ne , h y d r a z i ne , a m id in e , a n d g u an id i ne g ro up s c an u nd e rg o s im il a r re ac t ion s a s t h os e l is te d fo r p r im a r y , s ec o nd a r y , a n d t e r ti a r y am i ne s . A dd i ti o na ll y , am in e s c a n be gl u cu r o n i dat e d , s u l f a te d , a nd me t h yl a t e d b y p ha s e I I c o n ju g a tio n r ea c ti on s . D . Ad d i t i o n al h yd r o p h i l i c f u nc t i on a l g r o up s 1 . S im il a r t o a m i n es , h yd r o x yl g r o u p s (o r a lc o ho l s ) m a y be c l as s i fi e d as p r im a r y, s e c on d a r y, o r t e r t i a r y, d e p en di n g o n t he nu m b er o f s ub s ti t ue n ts a t t ac hed t o t h ei r r e s pe c t i v e c a rb o ns . A g oo d e xa m pl e o f th is is s een wi t h t he gl uc oc o r ti c o id f l u dr o co r ti s o n e ( F ig u re 8- 7 ) . a . H yd r o xy l g r o up s c an fo r m i o n - di p o le an d h yd r o g e n b o n ds wi t h re ce p to r s , e n zym e s , t ra ns p o rt p ro t ei n s , an d o t he r m a c r om o le c ul es .
Figure 8-4. Examples of drugs that contain a primary, secondary, tertiary, or aromatic amine as part of their chemical structure. Whenever an amine is part of a nonaromatic ring (e.g., ticlopidine), it is referred to as an alicyclic amine. Whenever an amine amino is part of a side chain or is attached to a nonaromatic ring, it is referred to as an aliphatic or alkyl amine. Whenever an amine is directly attached to an aromatic ring (e.g., procainamide), it is referred to as an aromatic amine.
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Figure 8-5. Examples of drugs that contain aromatic, heterocyclic nitrogens as part of their chemical structure.
b . H yd r o xy l g r o u ps e n han c e w a te r so l u bi l i t y d u e t o t h ei r a b il i t y t o fo r m h yd r o ge n b o n ds wi t h wa t e r.
c . H yd r o xy l g r o up s a r e of t e n e s te r i f ie d in or d e r to p r od uc e p r od r u gs . S e e C h a pt e r 1 7 V I f o r a dd i ti o na l i n fo rm a ti o n o n p r od r ug s . d . M e t a bo l is m . P r im a r y h y d r o xyl g r o u ps a re i n it ia l l y ox i d iz ed t o a l de h yd e s an d t h e n t o c a r bo x yl i c a c i ds . S ec on d a r y h y d r o xyl g r o u ps a re ox i d iz ed t o k et o n e s, wh i l e t e rt i ar y h y d r o xy l g ro u ps a re no t u su a ll y o xi d i z e d . H yd r o xy l g r o u ps m a y al so u n d er g o p h as e I I gl u cu r o n i d e o r su l f at e c o n ju ga t i o n .
Figure 8-6. Examples of drugs that contain a basic imine, hydrazine, amidine, or guanidine functional group as part of their chemical structure.
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Figure 8-7. Examples of drugs that contain a hydroxyl group, phenol, catechol, or quaternary ammonium functional group as part of their chemical structure. Fludrocortisone contains a primary, secondary, and tertiary hydroxyl group. This designation is similar to that used for amines and depends on the number of substituents attached to the respective carbons. As illustrated with levodopa, a catechol is simply two phenol groups that are ortho to one another.
2 . P he n o ls , a s e xe m p l if ie d b y e s t ra di o l ( F ig u re 8- 7 ) , ar e h y d r o xy l g r o u ps t h a t a r e d i r ec tl y a t ta c h e d t o a n ar o m at ic r in g . a . D ue t o r es o na nc e s tab i li z a t io n o f th e a r om a ti c r i ng , ph e no ls c a n b e i oni z e d in b a si c e n v i ro nm e nt s ; ho w e v e r , m o s t ph e no ls ar e pr i m a r i l y u n i o n i z ed at p h ys io l og ic al p H a nd as s uc h s h ou ld be t re a te d as n eu t r a l, no n io ni za b le fu n c t i on al g r o up s .
b . S im il a r t o a lc o ho ls , ph e n ol s p ri m a r il y f o rm i on - d i p ol e a n d h yd r o g e n b o n d s. Th e y c a n a ls o e n ha n ce w a te r s ol u b il i t y a n d b e e s te r i fi e d t o f o rm p r o d rug s (s ee C h a p te r 17 V I ). c . D r ug m o le c u le s c on t ain i ng ph e no ls o r c a te c hol s (s e e l e vo d op a i n Fi gur e 8 -7 ) a r e s us c e p ti b le to a i r o xi d a t i on an d t o ox i da t i on o n co n t ac t w i t h f e r r ic io n s . d . M e t a bo l is m . P h en o ls u n d er g o s u lf a t io n , g l u cu r o n i da t i o n, a r om a ti c h yd r o x yl a t i o n , an d O - me t h yl a t i o n . 3 . Q u a te r n a r y a m m o n i um s al t s , as e xe m p li fi e d b y i p r at r op i um b r om i de (F i g ur e 8 7 ) , a re ne i th e r a c i di c n o r b as ic bu t c o nt a in a p e rm a n en t po s i ti ve c h a rg e. a . Th e se s a lt s e n ha n ce w a te r s ol u b il i t y; h o we v e r , du e t o th e p e rm an e nc e o f th e p o si t i ve c h a r ge , c om po un d s c o n t ai ni n g t hi s f un c ti o n a l g r o up of t en ha ve di f f i c ul t y p a s si n g th r o u gh l ip i d m e m b ra n es . b . S im il a r t o a m i n es , q ua t e r na r y am m o n iu m s a l ts c a n p a r ti ci pa t e i n i o nic a nd i on d i p o le b on d s. c . Q ua t e rn a r y am m o ni um s al t s a re ge n e ra ll y n o t m e ta b ol i z e d; ho we v e r , N d e a lk yl a t i o n c o u ld oc c ur i n s om e c as es . E . F u nc t i on a l g r o u ps w i t h i n te r m ed i a te po l a r i ty 1 . K e to n es a re le s s pr e v a l en t th a n a lc oh o ls a n d p h e no ls i n th e s t ru c tu r es o f dr u g m o le cu l es . O n e e xa m p l e i s s ee n i n t h e o ra l h y p og l yc em ic a g en t , a ce t oh exa m i d e , s h o wn in Fi g u re 8 -8 . a . K et o ne s a r e p r im ar i l y l i pi d s ol u bl e ; h o we ve r , th e y a r e a bl e t o f o rm h yd r o g e n b o n d s wi t h al c o h ol s a nd c e rt a in am in es . Th e y c an a ls o f o rm io n - di p o le bo n ds . P.163
Figure 8-8. Examples of drugs that contain a ketone, ester, amide, lactone, or lactam as part of their chemical structure.
b . M e t a bo l is m . K e to n es a r e v e r y s t ab l e. Th e i r p r im a r y r ou t e o f m et a bo li sm is r e d u c ti o n to an a lc o ho l. 2 . C om p ou nd s c on t ai ni ng e s te r s , a mi d es an d the i r re s p ec t i ve c y cl ic f o rm s , l a c t on e s, a nd la c t am s c a n be s e en in Fi g u re 8- 8. a . Th e se fu nc t io n al gr o up s a r e c ap a bl e o f fo rm i ng h yd r o g e n b on d s wi t h r e c ep t or s , e n zym e s , t ra ns p o rt p ro t ei n s , o th e r m a c ro m o l ec ule s , a nd wa t e r . Si m i la r to k e to ne s ,
e s te r s a nd la c to ne s c an f u nc t io n a s h yd r o g e n - bo n d ac ce p t o r s, wh i l e am i de s a nd l a ct am s c an fu nc t io n a s e i t he r h yd r o g e n - b o n d do n o r s o r a cc e pt o r s . b . M e t a bo l is m . E n z y m a ti c h yd r o l ys i s i s t h e p ri m a r y r o u te of m e t ab ol is m fo r t he se f u nc t io n al g ro up s . E s t e rs a n d l ac to n es a r e h y d r o ly z e d t o al c o h ol s a nd c a rb o xyl i c a c id s, wh i l e am i de s a nd l a c t am s a r e h yd r ol yz e d to a m i ne s a nd c a r bo xyl i c a c id s. E s t e rs a n d l ac to n es ar e m o r e s u s c ep t ib l e t o h y d ro l y s is th an a re am id es an d l a ct am s . A d di ti o na l l y , s om e l ac t am s m a y u nd e r go N - d e al k yl a t i o n p ri o r t o o r in pl a ce o f h yd ro l y t ic c le a v a ge . F . L ip o p hi l i c f u nc t i on a l g r o u ps 1 . Al k yl g r o u p s a re sa tu r a t e d h yd r o c a r b o n c ha i n s , l i nk s , a nd r i ng s tha t ca n v a r y i n s i ze fr om s i ng l e -c a rb on m e th yl a n d me t h yl e n e g r o up s t o l a rg e c ha i ns . S i m il a r t o t h e d es i gn a ti o ns p r e v io us l y gi v e n fo r a m i n es , t h e d es i gn a ti o n a li c yc l i c r e f e r s t o a l k yl g r ou ps th a t a r e p a rt o f a no n ar om a ti c ri ng , wh i l e t he de s i g na t io n a l ip h a t ic r e f e rs to t ho s e th a t a r e pa r t of a s id e c ha in o r t h at f u nc ti o n t o c on ne c t, o r b r i dg e , o t h e r f un c t i on a l g ro u ps . E xa m p l e s o f a lk yl gr o ups a re il lu s t ra t ed in Fi gu re 8 - 9. a . A lk yl g r o up s c a n pa r tic i pa t e i n va n de r W aa l s i n t e r ac t i o ns (i . e ., in du c e d di po l e i n du c ed di po l e b on ds ) an d h yd r o p h o b i c b on d ing . b . M e t a bo l is m . O xi d a ti on is t he m a jo r ro u te of m e t a bo li s m . Al k y l si d e c hai n s a r e u s ua ll y o xi d i z e d at ei t her t h e t e r mi n a l ( ω ) o r p en u l t im a t e ( ω- 1 ) c a rb o n a t om s . 2 . Al k e n es , a ls o k no wn a s ol e f in s , a r e u ns a t u rat e d an al o gs of al k y l g r oup s (s ee F i g ur e 8 - 9 ) . a . Th e bi nd i ng ab il i t y of a l k e n es i s s i m i l a r t o t ha t o f s a tu r a te d a lk y l g ro ups . P.164
Figure 8-9. Examples of drugs that contain alkyl groups and alkenes as part of their chemical structure. For the sake of clarity, only certain functional groups have been highlighted.
b . M e t a bo l is m . A lk e ne s a r e s om e wh a t m o re r ea ct i ve t ha n a lk y l gr o up s a nd a r e s u bj ec t to m e ta b ol ic h yd r a t i o n , e po x i da t i on , pe ro x i da t i o n, an d r ed u ct i on . 3 . Mo s t a r om a ti c h yd r o c a r b o ns ar e an al o gs o f e i t he r be nz e ne o r n a ph th a l en e ( s e e F ig u re 8 -1 0 f o r e xa m p le s ). W he n a t ta c h e d to a d r u g m o l ec ul e , b en z e n e i s r e f e r re d t o a s a p he n yl g r o u p .
a . S im il a r t o a lk y l g ro up s a n d a lk en es , a r om a ti c hyd r o c a rb on s c an pa r t ic ipa t e i n va n d e r W aa l s i n te r a c ti o ns a n d h yd r o p h o b i c b o n din g . A dd i ti on a ll y , a ro m a t ic r in gs ca n p a r ti c i p a te i n ch a r ge - t r an s f e r in t e r ac t i on s . E l ec t r o n - ri ch a ro m a t ic ri n gs (i . e ., t ho se wi t h e l ec t ro n - do na t in g g ro u ps ) c a n f o rm d i po l e- l ik e i nt e r ac ti o ns wi t h e le c tro n - po o r a r o m a t ic ri ng s (i .e . , t h os e wi t h el ec t r on - wi t h d ra wi n g g ro up s ) . b . M e t a bo l is m . O xi d a ti on is t he pr im a r y r ou t e o f m e ta b ol is m f o r a r om at ic h yd r o ca r bo ns , wi t h h yd r o x yl a t i o n , ep o xi d a t io n , a n d d i o l f o r ma t i on c o m p r i si ng t he t h r e e m o s t c o m m on pa t hwa y s . 4 . E t he r f un c t i on al g ro up s c on t ai n a n o xy g e n a to m b o un d o n b o th s i de s b y e i th e r a l k yl o r a r om a ti c c a r b ons . Th e y c a n b e p r es en t as ei t he r a t e rm in a l f un c t io n al g r o up , s uc h a s t h e m e tho x y g r o u p o f n a pr o xe n , o r as pa r t o f a c e n t ra l c h ai n /b ac k b o ne , s uc h a s t h a t s e e n i n g em fi b ro zi l ( F i gu r e 8 - 1 0) . a . Th e c o nt r ib u ti o n o f e th e r s t o d r ug bi nd i ng is m i n i m al ; ho we v e r , t he s e fu n c t i on al g r o up s c an pa r t ic ip a te in d i p ol e - in d u ce d d i p ol e i n t e r ac t i o ns an d c an s er ve a s h yd r o g e n - b o n d a c ce p t or s . b . M e t a bo l is m . Me t h y l an d et h yl e t he r s c an un der g o O - de a lk yl a t i o n , wh i le t ho se l a r ge r do no t g e ne r al l y un d e rg o m e ta bo l ism . W hile e th e rs us ed as o rg an ic s ol v e n ts ( e . g ., di e th y l e th e r ) c an fo r m p e r o xi d es an d m a y e x p lo d e, t hi s p ro p e rt y is ge n e ra ll y n o t p r es e nt in d ru g m ol ec u le s . 5 . Al k yl a n d a r o ma t i c ha l i d es ar e e l ec t r o n -w i thd r aw i n g f u nc ti o na l g r o up s . Th e y a r e of t en us ed t o “ lo c k ” a d r ug m o le c u le in a d es i r e d c on f or m a t io n a n d/ o r t o d e c re as e a r om a ti c o xi d at i o n o f t h e d ru g . F l uo r in e i s t h e s m al l es t h al o ge n , wi t h i ts s i z e ve r y s im il a r to th a t o f h y d ro g en . Ch l o ri ne is t h e s ec o nd s m a l le s t , fo llo we d b y b r o m i ne an d i o di ne , r es pe c ti v e l y . S ee Fi gu r e 8 - 10 f o r s p e ci fi c e xa m p l es . P.165
Figure 8-10. Examples of drugs that contain an aromatic hydrocarbon, ether, and/or alkyl or aromatic halide as part of their chemical structure. For the sake of clarity, only certain functional groups have been highlighted.
a . W it h t h e e xc e p ti o n o f f l u or i ne , wh i ch c a n s e r v e a s a h y d ro ge n - bo nd ac c e p t o r, h a li d es d o no t d i re c tl y pa r t ic ip a t e in t he bi nd i ng o f d ru gs to t he i r r ec e pt o rs o r o th e r m ac r om o le c u le s .
b . M e t a bo l is m . A r om a ti c h a li de s a r e n o t n or m a l l y m e ta bo l i z ed . Al k y l h al i de s c an u n d er g o o x id a t i ve d e ha lo g e na t i o n t o f o rm al de hyd e s .
II. BIOCHEMISTRY A. I n t r o d u c t io n . B i oc hem is t r y is th e s t ud y o f c he m ic al p ri nc ip l es th a t sup p o r t li f e p r o ce s s es . I t i n fl u en c e s d r u g m et a bo li sm , t h e ra pe u t ic e f f ec ti v e n ess , an d b i o tr a ns f or m a t io n . Bi oc he m ic al l y s i gn i fi c a n t m o l ec u le s i nc lu d e am i no ac ids , c a r bo h yd ra t es , l i pi ds , p y r i m i d in es , p u r in es , a n d bi o po l y m er s —p r o te in s a nd e n zym e s , wh i c h a re bu i lt f r om am in o a ci d s; po l y sa c c h a ri de s , wh i c h a r e b ui l t f r om c a r bo h yd ra t es ; a n d n uc le i c ac i ds , wh ic h a r e b ui l t f r om p y r im id i ne s a nd pur i n es . B . Am i n o a ci d s a r e t he m o no m e r ic un i ts o f pr o tei n s a nd en zy m e s a nd hav e t h e f o l lo wi n g g e ne r al f o rm ula :
1 . W it h t h e e xc e p ti o n o f g l y c in e , n at u r al l y oc c u r rin g am in o a ci ds a re L, α -a m in o a c id s. P r ot e in s a r e m a d e u p o f th e 2 0 d i ff e r en t am i no ac id s , wh i c h d if f e r in t he si de c h ai n ( R ) a tt ac h ed t o P.166
t h e α -c a r bo n . Th e 20 di f fe r e n t s i d e c h a in s v a r y i n s i ze , s h a pe , c ha r g e, h yd r o ge n b o n di ng c a pa c i t y , an d c he m ic al r ea c t i v i t y . A p ro t ei n c a n b e h yd r ol yz e d in to i ts c om p on e nt α - am i no ac ids b y ac id s, ba se s , o r e n zy m e s . a . Am i no ac id s wi t h a ci di c s id e c h ai n s i nc lu d e as p a rt ic ac id an d g l ut am ic a ci d . b . A m i no ac id s wi t h b as ic s i de ch a in s i nc l ud e a rg i ni n e, l y si ne , an d h is t am i ne . c . Am in o ac id s wi t h p ol ar , n o n io n ic s id e c h ai n s i nc l ud e g l y c i n e, s e r in e , c ys t ei ne , t h r e on in e , t y r o s i ne , as par a g in e , a nd gl u ta m i n e. d . A m i no ac id s wi t h n o np o l a r , h yd r o p h o b i c s i de c ha i n s in cl u de al a ni ne, v a l in e , l e uc in e , i s o le u c i ne , ph eny l a l an i ne , m e th io n in e , p ro l in e , a nd t r y p to p ha n . 2 . Am i no ac id s h a v e a z w i t te r i o n s t r u ct u r e , wh i c h a c c o un ts fo r t he i r h igh m e l ti n g p o in t an d l o w wa t e r s o l ub i li t y . Am i no ac id s i n so lu t i on ha v e th e fo ll o wi n g g e n er a l f o r m u l a:
3 . I on i z a t i on of am in o ac i ds to th e z wi t t e ri o n f o rm o r o th e r f o rm s d ep e nds on p H ( F i gu r e 8 - 1 1) . C . C a r b o h yd r a t e s . Th e s e a r e p ol y h yd r o xy a l d ehy d e s o r k e t on es . Th r ee m a jo r c l as s e s o f c a r b oh y d r a te s e xi s t . 1 . M o n os a cc h a ri d es ( s im p le s u ga r s ), s u c h as g lu c os e o r fr uc t os e , co n s is t of a s i ng le po l y h y d r o xy a l d ehy d e o r k e to ne un i t . a . Al d e h yd i c m o n os ac c ha r i de s a r e r e du c i n g su g ar s .
b . Mo n o s ac c h a ri de s c an b e li nk ed t og e th e r b y g l yc o s id i c b o n ds , wh ic h a re h yd r o l yz e d b y a c i ds bu t n o t b y b as es . 2 . O l i go s ac c ha r i de s , s uc h a s s uc r os e, m a l to s e , a n d l ac t os e, co ns is t o f sh o r t c h ai ns of m o n os ac c h a ri de s j o in ed c o v a l en t l y. a . S uc r o s e c a n no t b e a bs o r be d b y t he in t es t in e un t i l i t is co n v e r te d b y suc r as e i n to i t s c om po ne n ts , g l uc os e a n d f r uc t os e . b . M a l t os e i s h y d r ol y z e d b y m al t as e i nt o t wo m o le c ul es of gl uc o s e . c . La c t os e ( o r m il k s ug ar ) c an no t be ab s o r be d by t h e in t es ti n e u nt i l i t is c o n ve rt e d b y l ac t as e i n to it s c om pon e n ts , g al ac t os e a n d g luc os e . 3 . P o l ys a c c h a r i de s , s uc h as ce l l ul o se an d gl yc o g e n , c o ns is t of lo n g cha i ns of m o no sa c c ha r i de s . D . P yr i m i d i n e s a n d p u r in e s . Th es e a re ba s es t ha t , wh e n b o nd ed wi t h ri bo s e, f or m n u cl e os id es , wh ic h wh e n s ub s e q ue n tl y b on d ed to p h os ph o ri c a c i d f o rm n u cl e ot id e s— t he s t r uc t u ra l bu il d in g b lo c k s o f n uc le i c ac i ds . 1 . P yr i m i d i n e b a se s i nc l u de : a . C yt o s i n e ( C ) , f ou n d in d eo xy r i b o n u cl ei c a c i d (D N A ) a n d r i bo nu c l e ic a cid ( R N A ) b . U r a ci l ( U ) , f ou n d i n RN A o n l y c . Th ym i n e ( T) , f o un d i n D N A o nl y
Figure 8-11. Amino acid ionization in solution. The carboxyl and amino groups are either in ionized or unionized form depending on the pH of the solution.
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2 . P u r in e ba se s i nc l ud e : a . Ad e n i ne ( A ) , f ou n d i n D N A a n d R N A b . G u a ni n e ( G ) , fo u nd in D N A a n d R N A 3 . P y r im i di ne s a n d p ur i ne s e xh i b i t ta u t om e r is m ( a f o rm o f s t e re oi s o m e r is m ) a nd c a n e xi s t in ei t he r k e t o (l a c t am ) o r e no l (l ac t im ) fo r m s . E . B i o po l ym e r s 1 . P r o te i n s a re p ol y m ers o f am i no ac id s t ha t ar e l i nk ed to g et h e r b y pe p t id e b on d s ( i . e ., li nk s b e t we e n c a r bo n y l c a r bo ns an d a m i n o n i t ro g en s [ F ig u re 8 -1 2 ] ). P r o t ei ns h a ve fo u r s t ru c tu r al le v e ls .
a . P r i ma r y s t r u c tu r e r e fer s to t he s e qu e nc e o f a m i n o a c i ds an d l oc a ti o n o f d is u lf i de b o n ds i n t h e p r ot e in . b . S ec o n da r y s t r u c tu r e re f e rs to t he s p at i al a rr a ng e m e n t o f s eq u en ce d a m i n o a c i ds ( f o r e xa m pl e , α - c on f o rm a t i on [h e li c a l c oi l ] o r β -c o n f o rm at i on [p l ea t ed s h ee t ] ) . c . Te r t i a r y s t r u c t u re re f er s to t he th r e e- d im en si on a l s t ru c t u r e o f a s i ng le p r o t ei n . d . Q u a te r n a r y s t r u c t u re r e f e rs to t he ar r a ng em e nt o f i nd i vi du a l su b un i t c ha i ns in t o c om p le x m o l ec ul es . 2 . E nz ym e s a r e p r ot e in s c ap a bl e o f a c ti ng as c a ta l y s ts fo r bi ol o gi c r e ac tio n s . Th e y m a y be s i m p le o r c om pl ex a n d m a y r eq ui r e c of a c to r s o r c o en z y m e s f o r b iol o gi c a c ti vi t y. a . A n e n z y m e e nh a nc es t h e ra t e o f a s p ec if ic c h em ic a l r e ac ti o n b y lo we r i ng t he a c t i va t i on en e r g y o f t h e r e ac t io n . I t d o es n o t c ha n g e t he r ea ct i on ' s e q ui li b r iu m p o in t , a n d i t is n ot us ed u p o r p er m a n en t l y c h an ge d b y th e r e ac t io n . b . A c o fa c to r m a y be an i n o r g an i c c o mp o ne n t (u s ua ll y a m e ta l i o n ) o r a n o n p r o te i n o r g an i c m o le c u le . A c of ac t o r m a y be b io lo g ic al l y in ac t i v e wi t h o ut an a p o en z y m e (t h e p r ot e in p o r ti o n o f a c om p le x e n z ym e ) . A c of ac t o r f i rm l y bo u n d t o t h e a p oe n z y m e i s c a l le d a p r o st h e t ic g ro u p . A n o r g an ic c o f ac to r th a t i s no t fi r m l y b o u nd bu t i s ac t i v el y i n vo l v e d d u ri n g c a t al ys is is c a ll ed a c o en z ym e . c . A c om pl e te , c a ta l y t ic al l y ac t i ve e n z ym e s ys t em i s r e fe r r ed t o as a h o l oe n z ym e . d . E n zy m es fa ll in t o s i x m a jo r c l ass es . ( 1 ) O x i do r e du c t as e s ( e .g . , de h y d ro g en as es , o xi d a se s , p er o xi d a s e s ) a r e i m po r t an t i n th e o xi d a t i v e m e ta bo l is m o f d r u gs . ( 2 ) T r an s f e ra s es c a ta l yz e t h e t r an s fe r of g ro u ps , s uc h as ph os p ha t e a nd a m i n o g r o up s . ( 3 ) H yd r o l a s e s ( e .g . , p ro t e ol y t ic en z y m e s , am y la s es , e st e r as es ) h y d r ol y z e t h ei r s u bs t ra t es . ( 4 ) L ya s e s ( e . g. , de c a r bo xy l a s e s , d e am in as es ) ca t a l yz e th e r e m o va l o f f un c ti o na l g r o up s b y m e a ns ot h er th a n h y d r ol ys is . ( 5 ) L ig a se s (e . g. , D N A l ig a s e , wh i c h bi nd s n uc leo t i de s t og e th e r d u ri n g D N A s yn t he s i s ) c at a l y z e th e c o u pl i ng of t wo m o l ec ul es . ( 6 ) I so m e ra s es c a ta l y z e v a r i o us i so m e r i za ti o ns , s uc h a s t h e ch a ng e fr om D t o L f o r m s o r t he c h an ge f r om c i s i s o m e r s t o t r an s i s om e rs . 3 . P o l ys a c c h a r i de s (a ls o c a l le d g l y ca ns ) a re l o ng - c ha in po l y m e r s o f c a rbo h y d r a te s a n d m a y b e l i ne a r o r b r an c he d . Th e y a r e c la ss if ie d as h om o po l ys a c c h ar id e s o r h e t e ro po l y s a c c h ar i de s . a . H o mo p o l ys a c c h a r i des ( e .g . , s ta r c h , g l y c og en, c el lu l os e ) c o n ta i n o nl y o n e t yp e o f m o no m e r ic un i t. ( 1 ) S t a rc h (a r es e r v e f oo d m a te r i al of pl an t s ) is c om p os ed o f t wo g lu c o s e p o l ym e r s —a m y lo s e (l i nea r a nd wa t e r s ol u bl e ) a nd am y l o pe ct i n ( h ig hl y b ra n ch e d a nd wa t e r i ns o lu bl e ) . I t y ie l ds m a in l y m a l to s e ( a gl u c o s e d is ac c h a ri d e) a ft e r en z ym a t ic h yd r o l ys i s wi t h s a li v a r y o r p an c r e a ti c am y l as e ; on l y g lu co s e af t e r c om pl et e h yd r o l ys i s b y s t r o ng ac ids .
Figure 8-12. Peptide bond formation occurs as a result of the condensation of the carboxyl group of one amino acid with the amino group of another. Water is eliminated during this process.
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( 2 ) G l yc o g e n , l ik e a m y lop e c t i n, is a h ig hl y b r an ch e d , c o m p a c t c h ai n o f D- g l uc os e . Th e m ai n s t or a ge po l y s ac c h a r id e o f a n im al c e ll s , i t i s f o un d m os tl y i n l i v er a n d m us c l e a n d c an be h y d rol y z e d b y s a li va r y o r p a nc r e a ti c a m y la se in t o m al to s e a nd D - g l uc os e . ( 3 ) C e ll u l os e (a wa t e r -i ns o lu bl e s t r uc tu r al po l ys ac c h a r id e f o un d i n p la n t c e l l wa ll s ) i s a li n ea r , u n br a nc he d c h a in o f D - g lu co s e . It c a nn o t b e d i ge st e d b y h um an s b e ca us e th e h um an in t es t i n al t ra c t se c re t es n o e nz y m e c ap a bl e o f h y d r ol y zi n g it . b . H e te r o p o l ys a c c h a r i de s ( e. g ., he p a ri n , h ya lu ro n ic ac id ) c o nt a in t wo o r m o re t yp e s o f m on om e r ic u n its . ( 1 ) H e pa r i n (a n a c i d m uc o po l y s a cc ha r i de ) c o ns is t s o f s ul f at e d e ri va t i ves o f D g l uc u ro n at e , D -g lu c o s am i n e a nd L -i d u ro na t e . I t ca n be is ol a te d f r om lu n g t i ss ue an d i s u se d m ed ic a ll y t o p r e ve n t b l oo d c lo t fo rm a ti o n. ( 2 ) H ya l u r o n i c a c id , a c o m po n en t o f b a ct e ri a l cel l wa l ls as we l l as o f t he v i t r e o us h u m o r an d s y n o v ia l f l ui d, c on s i st s o f a l te r na t in g u n i ts o f N - ac et y l - D - gl uc os am i ne a n d N -a c e t y l -m u r am i c a c i d . 4 . N u cl e ic ac i d s a re li ne a r po l ym e r s o f n uc le o tid e s —p y r i m i di n e a nd pu r in e ba se s l i nk ed t o r ib o s e or de o xy r i b os e s ug a rs (n u c l eo si de s ) a n d b ou n d t o p ho sp ha t e g r o up s . Th e ba c k bo n e o f t h e n uc le ic ac id co ns is ts o f a lt e rn a ti n g p ho s p h ate a nd p e n to se un i ts wi t h a pu r in e o r p y r im id i ne ba se at ta c he d t o e a c h . a . N uc le ic ac i ds a r e c lo s e l y as s o ci a t ed wi t h c e ll ul a r c at i o ns an d s uc h b as ic p r o t ei ns as h i s to n es a nd p r o ta m i ne s . b . Th e t wo m a in t y p es o f n uc l ei c ac i ds a r e D N A an d R N A. R N A e xi s t s i n th r e e forms. ( 1 ) R i bo s om a l R N A ( r RN A ) f u nc ti o ns as a f ra m ewo r k t o bi nd bo t h m es s en g e r a nd t r a ns f e r R N A . I t is c om p ri s ed of nu m e r o us s ub u nit s wi t h t h e 4 0 S a nd 60 S b e in g th e m os t we l l k no wn . ( 2 ) M e ss e n ge r R N A (m RN A ) s e r ves a s t h e t em pla t e fo r p r o te i n s y n th es is a n d s p ec if i es a po l y p ep t id e ' s a m i n o ac i d se q ue nc e .
( 3 ) T r an s f e r R N A ( t R N A) c a rr i es ac ti v a t ed am in o a c i ds t o t he r ib os om es , wh e r e t h e a m in o a c i ds a re in c o r po ra t e d i nt o th e g r o wi n g p oly p e p t id e c ha i n. c . In bo t h D N A a nd R N A , t h e s ucc es s i v e n uc le o tid e s a r e j oi ne d b y p h os ph o d i es t e r b o n d s b et we e n th e 5 ′ - h yd r o xy g r o u p of on e n uc l eo t i de ' s p e nt os e a n d t he 3 ′ - h y d r o xy g r o up o f t he ne xt n u c le ot i d e 's pe n to s e . d . D N A di f fe r s f r om R N A i n t h at i t l ac k s a h yd r o x yl g r o u p a t t h e p en t os e ' s C 2 ' p o si t io n , a nd it c o n ta in s T r a t h e r t h an U . e . D N A s t r uc t ur e c on s i s ts o f t wo α - h e li c a l D N A s tr a n ds c o il ed a ro u nd th e s am e a xi s t o f or m a do ub l e h el i x. T h e s t r an ds a re an t ip a ra l le l — t he 5 ′, 3 ′ -i n te r nu cl e ot i d e p h os p ho di es t e r l in k s ru n i n o p po s i t e d i re c t i on s. ( 1 ) H yd r o g e n b o nd i ng be t we e n s p ec i fi c b as e p air s A - T a nd C - G ho l ds t he t wo D N A s t r an ds t og e th e r. Th e s t ra n ds a re c om p le m e n ta r y ( t h e b as e s eq ue nc e of on e s t r an d d e t e rm in es th e b as e s equ e nc e o f th e o t he r ) . ( 2 ) Th e h yd r o p h o b i c bas e s a r e o n t h e i ns id e o f t h e h e li x; t h e h ydr o ph i li c d e o xyr i b o s e- p ho s p h at e b a c k bo n e is on t he ou ts id e .
III. BIOCHEMICAL METABOLISM A. O ve r vi e w . B io c h em ic a l m e ta b ol is m is t he re vie w o f p a th wa ys t h at le a d t o th e s yn t he s i s o r br e ak do wn o f c o m p ou n ds im po r ta n t t o t he l i fe o f a n o r ga ni sm . 1 . C o n t ro l o f m et a b ol i sm . Me t a b ol is m i s c o n t ro ll e d b y s u b st r a te c o nc en tr a t io n , e n zym e s ( c o ns t it u ti v e o r i n du c e d ) , a ll os t er ic ( r egu l a to r y ) en z ym e s , h or m on e s, an d c om p a rt m e n ta t io n . 2 . C a ta b o li s m is t he s um o f d eg r ad a ti o n r ea c ti on s th a t us u al l y r el ea s e en e r g y fo r u s ef u l wo r k ( e. g . , m e c h an i c a l , os m o t ic , b i os y n th et i c ). 3 . An a b o l is m i s t he s u m o f bi os yn t he t ic (b ui l d -u p) r e ac t io ns th a t c on s u m e e n e rg y t o f o r m n e w b io c h em ic a l c om p ou n ds (m et a bo li t es ) . 4 . Am p h i b ol i c p a thw a ys a r e t ho s e t ha t m a y b e u s ed fo r bo t h c at a bo li c as we l l a s a n a bo li c p u rp os es . K r ebs c yc l e b r e a k s d o wn m et a b ol i te s p ri m ar i l y t o re le a s e 90 % o f t he to t al en e rg y o f a n o r g an is m . I t a ls o d r a ws o f f m e ta b ol it e s t o f o rm c o m po u nd s s uc h a s a m i n o ac i ds (e . g. , as p ar t ic , g l ut am ic , al an i ne ) . H em og lo b in ha s i ts he m e m o ie t y f or m e d f ro m s u c c i n y l c o en zy m e A (s ucc i ny l C o A ) an d g l y ci n e f ol l owe d b y a c om p le x s e t of r ea c ti on s . P.169
B . B i o e ne r g e ti c s 1 . S u bs t r a te le ve l p ho sp h o r yl a t i o n en t ai ls t he fo r m at i on of on e u n it of ad e n os in e t r i ph o sp ha t e ( A TP ) p e r un i t o f m e ta b ol it e t ra ns f orm e d ( e .g . , s uc c i n y l C o A t o s uc ci n at e , p h os ph oe n ol py r u v a t e t o p yr u v a te ) . The s e r e ac ti o ns d o n o t n eed o xyg e n . 2 . O x i da t i ve ph o sp h o r yl a t i o n e nt ai ls t he fo r m a t io n of on e - an d -a - h al f o r two - a n d - a h a l f u ni ts o f A TP p e r u nit o f m et a bo li t e t r a ns fo r m e d b y o xi d o r e d uc ta se enz ym e s ( e . g ., de h y d r og e na s e s ); t h es e e n z ym es us e f l a v in A di n uc le o ti de ( F A D ) fo r m ed f ro m +
t h e vi ta m i n r i bo f la v i n , o r n ic o ti n am id e A d in uc le ot i d e ( N A D ) f ro m t h e v i t am i n n i co t in am id e a s c of a c t o rs . Th e re ac t io ns a re c o up l ed t o t he el ec t r on t ra ns p o rt s ys t em , a nd t he en e rg y re l ea s ed i s u s e d t o fo r m A TP i n t he m i to c ho nd r i a.
C . C a r b o h yd r a t e m e t a bo l i sm 1 . C a ta b o li s m. Th is p roc es s re le as es s t o r ed ene r g y f r om c a rb o h y d ra t es . a . G l yc o g e n o l ys i s i s the b r ea k d o wn o f g l y co ge n i n to gl uc os e p h os ph a te i n th e l i ve r a n d sk e le t al m u s c le . I t i s c on t r ol l ed b y t h e h o rm on e s g lu c a g on an d e pi n eph r i ne . b . G l yc o l ys i s i s t he br ea k do wn o f s u ga r ph os pha t es ( e. g . , g lu c o s e , fr u cto s e, g l yc e ro l ) i nt o p y r u v a t e (a e r ob ic a ll y ) o r l ac t at e (an a e ro b ic al l y) . 2 . An a b o l is m . Th i s p r oc e s s c o ns um es en e r g y to b u il d u p c om pl e x m o l ec ul e s f r om s im p le r m o le c u le s . a . G l yc o g e n e s i s i s t he fo r m at i on of gl yc og e n i n th e li v e r an d m us c l es fr om gl uc os e c o ns um ed in t he di et ; it s s y n t he s i s is c o n t ro ll e d by t h e pa nc r ea t ic ho rm o ne i ns ul in . b . G l u co n eo g e ne s is is th e fo r m a t io n o f g l uc os e fr o m n o nc a rb oh y d r a te s ou r c es , s uc h a s l ac t at e , a la n in e , p y r u v a t e , a nd K re bs c yc l e m e ta b ol i te s ; f at t y ac ids c a nn o t f o r m g lu c o s e . D . K r e b s c yc l e . Th i s p ath wa y i s al s o k n o wn a s t he c i t r ic a c i d c y c le , s e r v es bo t h b r e ak do wn a n d s y n th e ti c p u r po s e s, an d o c c u rs in t h e m it oc h on d ri a l c o m pa r t m e n t. 1 . C a ta b o li s m. Th is p ath wa y c o n v e r ts p yr u vat e ( g l y c ol y s is ) , ac e t y l Co A ( f a t t y ac id d e g ra d at i on ) , a n d am i no a c i ds t o c a r b on di o xi d e a n d wa t e r wi t h a r e le as e o f en e rg y. Th e c yc le is s t ri c tl y o xy g e n - de p en d en t (a e ro b ic ) . Ma t u r e r e d b lo o d c el ls l ac k m i to ch o nd r ia ; he nc e , t her e is no K r eb s c y cl e a c t ivi t y. 2 . An a b o l is m . Th i s p at hwa y f o r m s a m i n o ac i ds s u c h as as p ar t a te an d g lut a m a t e f r o m c yc l e i n te r m e di a te s ; a ls o , t he po r ph yr i n ri n g o f he m e (e . g ., he m o g lob i n , m yo g lo b in , c y t oc h ro m e s ) i s f o rm ed f ro m a c y c l e in t e rm e di a te . 3 . An a p l e r ot i c re a ct i o ns . B ec au s e m e t ab ol i te s a r e us ed to m a k e am in o a c id s o r h e m e ( e. g ., s u c c in y l C oA ) , t he m e t ab ol i te m u s t b e r ep la c e d b y i n te r m e dia t es f ro m o t h e r so u rc es ( e. g . , gl u ta m at e fr om t he b re ak down o f p r o te in f or m s α - k et o g lu t a ra t e) . 4 . E le c t r o n t r a ns p o r t . Th e el ec t r on t ra ns p or t s ys t e m a c c ep ts el ec t r on s an d h yd r o ge n f ro m t he o xi d a ti o n o f K re bs c y c le m e t abo l i te s a nd c o up l es t h e en e r g y r e l ea se d to s y n t he s i z e ATP i n t he m i t oc ho nd r i a. E . L i pi d me t ab o l is m 1 . C a ta b o li s m. T r ig l yc e r i d e s (t r ia c y lg l yc e r o ls ) st o r e d i n f at ce ll s ( a di p oc yt e s ) ar e h yd r o l yz e d b y h o rm on e -s e ns it i v e l i pa s e s i nt o th re e fa t t y ac id s a nd gl y c e ro l . a . F at t y a c i d s a r e b r ok en d o wn b y be t a o xi d a t io n t o ac et y l C o A ( t wo c a rbo n un i ts ) , wh i c h en t e r t he K r eb s c yc l e t o c om pl e te th e o xi d a t i on to ca r bo n d i o xi d e an d wa t e r wi t h r e l ea s e of c o ns id e ra b le en e r g y . To o r ap i d br e a k d o wn o f f a tt y a ci ds le a ds to k e to n e b od i es (k et o ge n es is ) as i n d i ab e te s m el li tu s . b . G l yc e r o l e n te rs gl y c ol y s is an d i s o xi d i ze d to py r u v a t e an d , v ia th e K reb s c y c le , t o ca r bo n d i o xi d e a nd wa t e r . c . S te r o i ds m a y b e c o n ve r t e d t o o th e r c om po u nds su c h as b i le ac id s , v i t am i n D , or s t e ro i da l h o rm on es ( e. g ., c or t is on e , e s t r o ge ns , an d r og e ns ) ; t h e y a r e n o t b r o ke n d o wn c om pl e te l y . 2 . An a b o l is m . B i o s yn t h e s i s f o rm s f at t y ac i ds , s te r o id s , a nd ot h er t e rp ene - r e la t ed m e ta b ol i te s . a . F at t y a c i d s a r e f o rm ed i n t he c yto p la s m , a nd u n s a t u ra t io n o c c u rs i n t he m i to ch o nd r ia P.170
o r e nd op l as m ic r e ti c u lum . H um an s c an no t m ak e l i no le ic ac id ; th us , i t is im p o rt a nt t h a t i t b e i nc lu d ed in th e d i et ( es s e nt i al fa t t y ac id) . b . T e rp e ne c om p ou n ds a r e de r i v ed f ro m a c e t yl C o A v i a m e v al o na t e a nd i n c l ud e : ( 1 ) C h ol es t er o l a nd ot h er s te r o id s ( 2 ) F at - s o lu b le v i ta m i ns ( i . e ., A , D, E , K) ( 3 ) B il e a c i ds c . S ph i n go l i pi d s c o n ta in s p h in g en in e fo rm e d f r om pa lm i to yl C o A a nd s e ri n e . S p h in g en i ne fo r m s a c e ra m id e b ac k b o ne wh e n j oi n ed t o f a tt y a ci ds . Th e ad d i ti on o f s u ga r s , s i al ic ac id , or c ho l in e p h os ph a te f or m s co m po u nd s s u ch as c e r ebr o s id es , g a n gl io s i d es , o r s ph i ng om y e l in fo u nd in ne r ve ti s s u es a n d m em br a ne s . d . P h os p ha t i d yl c o m p ou n d s , s u ch as ph os p ha t id yl ch o li ne ( le c i t hi n ) , p ho s ph a ti d y l s e r in e , o r e t ha no l am in e , a r e al s o im po r ta n t p a r ts o f m e m b r an es . F . N i t r o ge n m e ta b o li s m. N i t ro g en m e t ab ol is m i nvo l ve s a m i n o a ci d m et a bo l is m a nd n u cl ei c a c i d m et a bo l is m ( s e e C h ap t e r 9 f o r a di s cu s s i on of t he nu cl ei c a c id r ol e i n c e ll ac ti v i t y ) . 1 . C a ta b o li s m a . Am i n o a c i ds . Th e am i n o g r ou p i s r em o v e d b y a t r an s a m i n as e e n z ym e. Th e c a r bo n sk e le t on is b r ok en d o wn t o ac e t y l C o A (k e t o ge ni c a m i n o ac i ds ) o r t o c i t ri c a c id c yc le in t e rm ed i at es ( g l y c og en ic am in o a ci d s) a n d o xi d i z e d t o c a rb o n d i o xi d e a n d wa t e r f o r e ne r g y . G ly c o g en ic am in o a c i ds f orm gl uc os e a s n e ed ed v i a g l uc o ne og e ne s i s ; s o m e a m in o a c i ds a re bo t h k e to g e ni c a nd gl y c og e ni c ( e. g . , t yr o s in e ) . b . P u r i ne s a r e s al v a ge d ( 9 0 %) , an d t h e r em ai n ing 1 0% a re de g ra d ed in a s eq u en c e t h a t i nc lu d es xa n t hi n e oxi d a s e fo r m i n g u ri c a c i d i n hu m a ns . c . P yr i m i d i n es a re c a tab o li z e d to β - al an i ne , a m m o ni a , a nd c a r bo n d io xi d e . 2 . An a b o l is m a . Am i n o a c i ds ar e fo r m e d f ro m t he ci t ri c a c i d c yc l e i nt e rm e di a te s ( s e e I I I D 2 ) ; o t h e rs m us t b e e a te n d a il y i n d i et a r y p ro t ei ns . The l at t e r a r e c a l le d e s s en ti a l a m i no a c id s ( p he n y la l an i ne , v ali n e , t r yp to p ha n [ P V T] ; t hr e o ni n e, is ol e uc in e , m e th i on i ne [ TI M] ; h i s t i di ne , a r g in in e i n i n fa n ts , l y s in e , l eu c i ne [ H A LL ] ) . b . P u r i ne s a r e f o rm ed by c o m p le x r e a c t io ns us ing c a r b am o y l p ho s p h at e , a s pa r t at e , g l u ta m i ne , gl y c in e , c a r bo n di o xi d e , a n d f o rm y l t et r a h yd ro f ol a te . c . P yr i m i d i n es a re fo r m e d f ro m a s p a rt a te an d c a r b am o y l p ho s ph a te in a m ul t is t ep p r o ce s s . G . N i t r o g en ex c r e ti o n . E xc e s s ni t r og en m u s t be e l im in a te d b ec a us e i t is t o xi c . H u m an s p r im a ri l y e xc r e te u r ea bu t a ls o e xc r e t e ur i c a c i d . 1 . U r e a s yn t h e s i s . Th e K r e b s - H e ns e le i t p a t hw a y i s u se d to fo r m u r ea p r i nc ip a ll y i n th e l i v e r . Th e am m o nia is r em o ved f ro m a m i no a c i ds b y am in o a c i d t r an s fe r as es ( t r a ns am in a s e s ) t ha t u s e p y r i d o xa l ph os p ha t e ( v i ta m in B 6 ) as a c oe n z ym e. G l u t a m in e i s f o rm ed f rom gl u ta m a t e ( a n i nt e rm ed i a te ) an d a m m on ia ; gl u ta m in e a n d c a r bo n d io xi d e f o rm c a rba m o y l p ho sp h at e , wh ic h e n t e rs t h e u r ea c yc l e a nd a f te r s e ve r al s t ep s f o rm s u r ea. 2 . U r i c a ci d s yn t h e s i s . A l t h ou gh m o s t pu r i ne s ar e s a l v a ge d , h um an s e xc r e t e t h e r e m ai ni n g p u ri ne s a s u ric ac id .
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STUDY QUESTIONS D i r e c t i on s : E a c h of t he n u m b e re d i t em s o r i nc om p le t e s ta t em en ts in t his se c t i on is f o l lo we d b y an s we r s o r by c o m p le t io ns o f t he s t a te m en t . Se le c t t he o ne l et t e r ed a n s we r o r c o m p l et i on tha t is be s t i n e ac h c as e. 1 . W hi c h o f th e fo l l ow in g f u nc t i on a l g r o u ps ca n r ea c t w i th h yd r o c h l o r i c ac i d t o f o r m a s a lt ? ( A ) Te r t i a r y a m i n es ( B ) C a r bo xy l i c a c i ds ( C ) A m id es ( D ) E t h er s ( E ) S ec o nd a r y al c o h ol s V i e w A n s we r 1 . T h e a n sw e r i s A [] .2 . T h e c om po u n d s h ow n c o n ta i ns al l o f t h e f ol l ow i ng f un c t i on al g r o u ps E X C E P T :
( A ) a ph en o l ( B ) a s u bs ti t ut e d p he n y l r i n g (C) an ester ( D ) a n a li c y c l ic ni t r og en ( E ) a k e to n e V i e w A n s we r 2 . T h e a n sw e r i s C [] .3 . W h ic h o f th e f o ll ow i ng f u nc t i on a l g r o u p s i s m o st s us ce p ti b l e to h yd r o l ys i s ? (A) R—CO—R (B) R—COOR (C) R—O—R (D) R—NH—CH3 (E) R—COOH
V i e w A n s we r 3 . T h e a n sw e r i s B [] .4 . M o no m e r u n i t s o f p ro t e in s a r e know n as ( A ) m on os ac c h a ri d es ( B ) p r os th e ti c g r ou ps ( C ) a m i n o ac i ds ( D ) p u ri n es ( E ) n uc le os i de s V i e w A n s we r 4 . T h e a n sw e r i s C [] .5 . W h ic h o f th e f o ll ow i ng f o r mu l as r e p r e se n t s t h e z w i t te r io n f o r m o f a n a m i no aci d ?
V i e w A n s we r 5 . T h e a n sw e r i s D [] .6 . G lu c os e is a ca r b o h yd r a t e t h a t c a n no t be h yd r o l yz e d i n t o a s i mp l e r s u bs t an ce . I t i s b e s t d es c r i be d as ( A ) a s u ga r ( B ) a m o no s a c c ha r id e ( C ) a di s a c c ha r id e ( D ) a po l y s a c c ha r i de
( E ) a n o li g os ac c h a ri de V i e w A n s we r 6 . T h e a n sw e r i s B [] .7 . Al l o f t h e fo l l ow i ng ca r b o h yd r a t e s a r e co n s id e r ed t o b e po l ys a c c h a r i de s E X C EPT ( A ) h ep a ri n ( B ) s ta r ch ( C ) g l yc o g en ( D ) m al t os e ( E ) c el lu l os e V i e w A n s we r 7 . T h e a n sw e r i s D [] .8 . W h ic h o f th e f o ll ow i ng c om p ou n ds a r e co n s id e r ed t he b ui ld i n g b l o ck s o f nu c le i c a c i ds ? ( A ) N u c l eo t id es ( B ) N u c l eo s i d es ( C ) Mo n o s ac c h a r id es ( D ) P u r in es ( E ) A m i n o ac i ds V i e w A n s we r 8 . T h e a n sw e r i s A [] .P . 17 2
9 . W hi c h o f th e fo l l ow in g t e rm s be s t d es c r i bes a c o f ac t o r th a t i s fi r ml y b o u n d t o a n a p oe nz ym e ? ( A ) H o lo e n z y m e ( B ) P r os t he t ic gr o up (C) Coenzyme ( D ) Tr a n s fe r as e ( E ) H e t er o po l y s a c c h ar i de V i e w A n s we r 9 . T h e a n sw e r i s B [ an d] . O 10 . En z ym e s t h a t u nc o up l e p ep t i d e l i n k ag e s a r e b es t cl a ssi f i e d a s ( A ) h yd r ol as es ( B ) l ig as es ( C ) o xi d o r e du c t a s e s ( D ) t r a ns fe r as es ( E ) is o m e r as es V i e w A n s we r 1 0 . T he a nsw e r i s A [] .1 1 . T he s ug ar t h a t is in h e r en t in t he n u c le i c a c id s R N A a n d D N A i s ( A ) g lu c o s e ( B ) s uc ro s e ( C ) r i bo s e ( D ) d ig i to xo s e ( E ) m al to s e V i e w A n s we r 1 1 . T he a nsw e r i s C [] . Di r e c ti o ns : E a c h i te m b el o w c o nt a in s t h r e e su g ge s t e d a ns we r s o f wh i ch on e o r m o r e is c o r re c t . C ho os e t h e a nswe r . 1 2 . W h i ch o f t h e f o l low in g f u nc t i on a l g r o u ps ca n f o rm a h yd r o g e n b on d ? I . An a r o m at i c a m in e I I . A t e r t i a r y h yd r o x yl I I I . An a r om a t ic h yd r o c a r b o n
A i f I o n l y i s c o r re c t B i f II I on l y i s c o r r ec t C i f I a n d I I a r e c or r ec t D i f II a nd I II a re c o r re c t E i f I, I I, an d II I ar e c o r re c t V i e w A n s we r 1 2 . T he a nsw e r i s C [] .1 3 . W hi c h o f t h e f ol l ow i ng f un c t i on al g r o u p s c om m on l y u n d er g o e s c o nj u g at i o n w i t h g l u cu r o n ic ac i d ? I . A c a r b o x yl i c a c i d II. A primary amine I I I . A p h en o l A i f I o n l y i s c o r re c t B i f II I on l y i s c o r r ec t C i f I a n d I I a r e c or r ec t D i f II a nd I II a re c o r re c t E i f I, I I, an d II I ar e c o r re c t V i e w A n s we r 1 3 . T he a nsw e r i s E [] . Q u e s ti o ns 14- 1 6 Th e f o ll o wi n g q u es ti o ns r e f e r t o t h e d r ug m o le c u le s h o wn b el o w.
1 4 . Th e fu n c ti o na l g ro up s t ha t en h an c e t h i s c om p o u nd ' s a b il i t y t o c r o s s ce l l m e m b ra n es i nc l ud e : I . t h e p he n yl r i n g s I I . t he ce n t r al a lk yl c h ai n I I I . th e s e co n d a r y a n d t e r t i a r y h yd r o x yl s A if I only is correct B i f I I I o nl y i s c o r r e c t C i f I a n d I I a re co r r e c t D i f I I a n d I I I a r e c o r r ect E i f I , I I , a nd I I I a r e c o r re c t 1 5 . Ba s ed u po n t he f unc t i o na l g ro u p s p r es e n t, t h i s d r u g w ou l d b e e x pe c t e d t o b e ab l e to f o rm : I . va n de r W aa l s i n te r ac t i o ns
I I . i on i c b o nd s I I I . h yd r o g e n b o n ds A if I only is correct B i f I I I o nl y i s c o r r e c t C i f I a n d I I a re co r r e c t D i f I I a n d I I I a r e c o r r ect E i f I , I I , a nd I I I a r e c o r re c t 1 6 . Po s si b l e m et a b ol i c p a t hw a ys f o r t h i s d r ug i n c l ud e : I . r e du c t io n o f t h e c a rbo x yl i c a c i d I I . h yd r o l yt i c c l e a va g e I I I . a r o ma t i c o x id a t io n A if I only is correct B i f I I I o nl y i s c o r r e c t C i f I a n d I I a re co r r e c t D i f I I a n d I I I a r e c o r r ect E i f I , I I , a nd I I I a r e c o r re c t V i e w A n s we r 1 4 -1 6 . T h e a n s w e r s a r e : 1 4 - C [] , 15 -E ( I , II , an d I I I )[ ] , 1 6 - B ( I I I )[ ] . P. 1 73
ANSWERS AND EXPLANATIONS 1 . T he an sw e r is A [ I C 2 c ]. S u b st a nc es th a t r e ac t wi t h ac id s t o f o rm sa l ts m us t be ba se s . O n l y o r g an ic c om p ou n ds th a t c o n ta i n t h e n i t ro g en -c o nt a in i ng a m in e g r ou p a r e b as es . W hile a m id es c o nt a in ni t r og en , t h e a dj ac e nt c a r bo n y l g ro u p d ec r ea s es t h e b as ic it y; t h e r ef o re , th e y a re es s en t i al l y ne u tr a l. 2 . T he an sw e r is C [ F igu r e s 8 -4 , 8 -7 , 8 - 8 , 8 -1 0 ] . A s sh o wn in F ig u re 8 -8 , e s te r s h a v e a c a r bo n yl at o m d i re c t l y bo n de d to an o xy g e n a t om . Th is s t r uc t ur a l f eat u r e i s n ot p re s e n t i n t his co m p o un d . H o we ve r , th e c om p ou n d d oe s h a v e t h re e s u bs ti t u te d p h en y l ri ng s , t wo p h en o ls , a te r ti a ry a l ic y c li c n i t ro g en , a k e t on e , a nd a n et h e r. 3 . T he an sw e r is B [ I E 2 b ] . H yd r o l ys is i s a do u bl e de c om po s i t io n re ac t io n i n wh i c h wa t e r i s o ne of t he r e a ct a nt s . E s t e rs , p a r ti c u l a rl y s i m pl e e st e rs , c om m o nl y u nd e rg o h y d r o l ys is . C e rt a in t yp e s o f e t he r s s uc h as g l y c os id es al so un d e rg o h y d r o l y si s , bu t th e y us ual l y r eq u i re s t r on g l y a lk a li ne c o nd i ti on s o r a c at al ys t s uc h a s a n en z ym e . Ke t on es , a m i n es , o r c a r bo xy l i c ac i ds d o n o t un d e rg o h y d r o l ys is . 4 . T he an sw e r is C [ I I B 1 , II E 1 ] . P r o t ei ns a re la r g e m o l ec u l es wi t h m ol ec u la r we i gh t s r a ng i ng f ro m 5 00 0 t o m o re th a n 1 m i l li on da l to ns . Al l p r ot e i ns a r e c om po s e d o f c h a in s o f a m i n o ac i ds a n d c an be h yd r o l yz e d t o y ie l d a m i xt u r e o f th ei r r es pe ct i ve am i no ac id s. Th e r e a r e 2 0 α - a m in o a c id s, wh i c h a re c o m m on l y f ou n d i n p r ot e in s. A ll t h e n a tu r al l y oc c u r r in g a m in o a c i ds i n pr o t ei ns ar e L - e na n ti om e rs , wi t h t h e e xc e p t io n o f gl y c in e . A ll ha ve a t l ea s t o ne a m in o g r ou p a n d o ne c a rb o xy l g r o u p . Th e am in o a c id s a r e l in ke d t o ge t he r t h r ou g h
t h e a m i n o g r ou p o f o n e a m in o a c i d a n d t he c a r bo xy l g r o u p of an o th e r a m i n o a ci d wi t h t h e s pl i tt i ng ou t o f a wa t e r m ol ec ul e to fo r m a n am id e l in k a g e , wh i c h i n a p r o t ei n i s r e fe r r ed to as a p ep t id e . Mo n o s ac ch a rid e s a r e s i m p l e, no n h yd ro l yz a b l e s u ga r s . P u ri ne s a n d p y r im i di ne s a r e o r ga n ic b as e s , wh il e a p ro s th e ti c g ro u p i s a c o fa c to r th a t is f ir m l y b ou n d t o a n a p oe n zy m e . 5 . T he an sw e r is D [ I A 1 a , I I B 2 , 3 , II E 1 , Fi gu r e s 8 -2 , 8 -1 1 , 8 -1 2 ] . A zwi t t e r i o n is a s in gl e s p e c i es c o n ta in i ng bo t h ne g a ti ve an d p os i ti v e ch ar g e s . I t s om e ti m e s i s r e fe r r ed to a s a n i n te r n al s a lt . Am ino ac i ds h a ve an am in o gr o u p a nd a c a r bo xy l g r o u p i n t h e s am e m ol ec u le . Th e a m i no g r o u p , wh ic h i s b as ic , at t r ac t s t he p r o t on f ro m t he c a r bo xy l g r o up an d b ec om es po si t i v e l y c ha r g ed , wh i le th e c a rb o xy l g r o up be c o m es n e ga t i v ely c h a rg e d wh e n it do n a te s i t s p ro t on t o t he am ino g r ou p . A m i no ac id s e xi s t as z wi t t e r io ns at ne a r n e ut r a l pH s uc h a s o c c u rs wi t hi n a c e l l o r i n t h e b l oo ds t r ea m . 6 . T he an sw e r is B [ I I C 1 ] . W hile gl uc os e i s a s ug a r, i t i s m o r e s pe c i f ic al l y a s im pl e s ug a r t h at c a n not b e h yd r o l yz e d i n to m o r e s im p le s u ga r s —t h us , i t i s c l as s i fi e d as a m on os acc h a ri de . S u g a rs m a y be s i m p le , s u c h as gl u c o se , o r c om p le x, s u c h as su c ro s e , a n d a r e c l as s i fi e d as di s a c c h ar i de s o r ol i go sa c c ha r id es , re s pe c t i v e l y . Po l y sa c c ha ri d es c o ns is t o f l o ng c h ai ns of m on os a cc ha r id es su c h a s c el l ul os e a n d g l yc o gen . 7 . T he an sw e r is D [ I I C 2 b , 3 , E 3 a , b ] . P o l ys ac c h a ri de s a r e l ong - c ha in po l y m e r s o f s uga r s . A s t h e p r ef i x “ p o l y” in d ic a te s , t h e r e a re m a n y s u ga r uni t s i n t he m o le c ul e . Ma l t o s e is c o m p os e d o f t wo m o le cu l es o f gl uc os e a n d is c l as s i f ie d as a di s a cc h ar i de o r a n ol ig os a c c ha r id e . 8 . T he an sw e r is A [ I I D, E 4 ]. N u c le ic ac id s a r e l in e ar p o l y m e r s o f n uc le o ti d es t h a t c on s i s t o f t h re e d i ffe r e n t m o le cu l es t h at a re c o v a le n t l y l i nk ed to f or m o ne u n i t: ( 1 ) a n o rg a ni c b as e o f ei th e r a p u r in e o r a p y r im i di ne ; (2 ) a 5 - c a r bo n s ug a r (e . g., p en t os e ); a nd (3 ) a p hos p ho r ic a c id g ro up . A n uc l eo s i de c on s i s ts o f th e o r ga n ic b a se an d t h e p en t os e . A m o no sa c c ha r i de is a s im p l e n on h yd r ol yz a b l e ca rb o h y d ra t e , wh i c h m a y b e c o ns id e re d a b ui ld i ng blo c k o f p ol y s ac c h a ri d es . P u r i ne s a r e h et e r oc y c l ic b a se s . A d e ni n e a nd gu a ni ne a re t h e t wo p u ri n es fo u nd in d e o xyr i b o nu cl e ic ac id (D N A ) a n d r i b on uc l ei c ac i d ( R N A ) . A m i no ac id s a r e t he bu ild i n g bl oc ks of p ro t ei n . P.174
9 . T he an sw e r is B [ I I E 2 b , c a nd d ]. C o m pl e x, o r c o nj u ga t ed , e n z y m es c o n ta in a n on pr o t ei n gr o up c a ll e d a c ofa c to r , wh i c h is re q ui r ed f or bi o lo g ic ac ti vi t y . In m a n y c as es , th e c o fa c t o r i s q ui t e f i rm l y b o u nd to th e p r o te i n. In o t h e rs , t he bi n di n g oc c u rs on l y du r i ng th e re ac t ion t ha t th e e n zym e c a ta l y z e s . C o fa c t o r s t ha t a re fi r m l y b ou nd t o t h e p ro t ei n a r e k no wn as p r o st h et ic g ro u ps , wh e r ea s th os e t h at a re ac ti v e ly b o u nd to t he p ro t ei n on l y d u ri ng c a ta l ysi s a r e r e fe r r ed t o a s c oe n z ym es . A h o lo en z y m e is a c o m p le t e , c at a l y ti c a l l y a c ti ve en z y m e s ys t em . A t r an s fer a s e is an e n zym e th a t c a t al y z e s the t r an s f e r o f gr o up s f r om o n e s u b st a nc e t o a no t he r , s u ch a s c a te c h o l- O - m et h y l t r an s fe r as e ( C O MT) . A h e t er o p ol ys ac c h a ri d e is a
p o l ysa cc ha r i de th a t c o n ta i ns t wo o r m or e d i f fe r ent m on om e ri c u ni t s , s uc h a s h e p ar i n. 1 0 . Th e a n sw e r i s A [ I I E 2 d] . A p e pt i de li nk ag e i s a n am i de fu nc t io n al g ro up f orm e d f r om th e l os s o f a m o l ec ul e o f wa t e r f r om t wo am i no ac i d s . U nc o up li n g t hi s l in ka g e i s t he r e ve rs e o f t h is r e ac t io n , a h yd r ol y s is re ac t io n . A h y d r o la se is an en zy m e th a t c a ta l yz e s h y d r ol y s is r e a c t i on s . Mo r e s p ec i fi c t e rm s f o r an e n z y m e t ha t c a ta l y ze s t h e h yd r o l ys is o f p ro t ei ns a re a m id as e o r pe p ti da s e. A l i ga s e ca t al yz e s th e c oup l i n g o f t wo m o le c u l es . A n o xi d o r e d uc ta s e c a t al y z e s o xi d a ti o n r e ac ti o ns . A tr a n s f e ra s e c a t al yz e s th e t r a ns fe r o f g ro u ps f r om on e s u bs ta n c e to an o th e r . A n i s om e r as e c a t al yz e s th e i n t er c on v e r s i on o f o ne is o m e r t o a no t he r . 1 1 . Th e a n sw e r i s C [ I I E 4 ] . N u c le ic ac id s a r e b io p oly m e r s c on si s t i ng of lo n g c h ai ns of nu c l e ot i de s . Nu c le o ti de s c o nt a in a p en t os e m on os a c c h a ri de as on e o f th ei r t h r ee c o ns ti t u en ts . R N A c on t ai ns , a s th e n am e s ug g es ts , th e m o no s a cc ha r i de ri b os e , wh e r e as D N A c on t ai ns d e o xyr i b o s e. Th e o n l y d if f e r en c e be t we e n th es e two s u g a rs i s t h e a bs en c e o f o xyg e n i n th e 2 p os it io n o f t he ri b os e r i ng . G lu cos e , a ls o k no wn a s d e xt r o s e , i s a h e xo s e . D ig i to xo s e is a d e o xy h e xo s e p r es e nt in t h e d i gi t al is gl y c os id es . S u c r os e a n d m al t os e a r e d is ac c ha r i de s . 1 2 . Th e a n sw e r i s C ( I , II ) [ I C 2 b, D 1 a , F 3 a ]. H yd r o g e n b on ds a re a s p e c i al i z e d t y p e o f d i po l e b o n d in wh i c h a h y d r oge n at om s e r ves as a b ri d ge be t we e n t wo e l ec t ro n eg a ti v e a t om s . H yd r o ge n -b o nd do n o rs i n cl ud e h y d r o xy l g r o u ps , p h en ol s , am i ne s , an d am i de s. H y d r og e n -b o nd ac ce p to r s i n cl ud e h y d r o xy l g r o u ps , p h en ol s , u ni o ni ze d n i tr og e n a t om s , k e to n es , a n d e t he r s. H yd r o c a rb o ns , r e ga r dl es s i f t he y a r e a li ph a ti c , a li c yc li c , o r a r om a ti c , a re no t c a pa b le of fo r m i n g h y d r og e n b o nd s . 1 3 . Th e a n sw e r i s E ( I , II , a nd II I ) [I B 2 e , C 2 d , D 2 d] . G l u c ur o ni d e c o n ju ga t io n i s th e m os t c om m o n p has e II m e ta b ol ic pa t h wa y fo r t wo r e a so ns : (1 ) Th e b o d y ha s a r ea d il y a va il ab l e sup p l y of gl uc u r on ic ac id , a n d (2 ) t h e r e a re a l a rg e n um b e r o f fu nc t io n al gr o up s t h at c an re a c t wi t h th is c om p o u nd . I n cl u de d a m o n g t he s e f un c ti o na l g r ou ps a re ca r bo xy l i c a c i ds , p ri m a r y , s ec o nd a r y a n d t e r ti a r y am in es , a n d p h e no ls . 1 4 - 16 . Th e a n sw e rs a r e: 1 4 - C ( I , II ) [I A 1, D 1 b, F 1, 3 ], 15 - E ( I, I I, an d I I I ) [I B 2 b , C 2 b , D 1 a , F 1 a , 3 a ] , 16 - B ( II I ) [ I B 2 e, E 2 b , F 3 b ] . L i po p hi li c f u nc ti o na l g r ou p s i nc r ea s e a d r ug ' s a bi l it y t o c r os s ce l l m e m b ra n es . Th e t h r e e a ro m a t ic ph e n y l r ing s , a s we l l as th e a li p ha ti c b u t y l c ha in co nn e c t i ng t h e c e nt r a l p he n y l r i ng to t he n it r o ge n o f t h e p ip e ra di n e r i ng , a r e a l l li p op h il ic ( i . e. , h yd r o ph o bi c ) a nd c o nt r i bu t e to th e d r ug ' s pa s s age t h ro u gh c e ll m em b r an es . Th e h yd r o xyl g r o u ps , a s we ll a s th e a c i di c c a rb o xyl i c a c id an d t h e b as ic al ic y c l i c am i ne , a r e al l h y d r op h il ic a n d en h a nc e t he o ve ra ll wa t e r s ol u bi li t y o f t he co m p o un d . Th e p h en y l r in gs , a s we ll a s t h e ce n t ra l a lk y l c h ai n a nd th e m e th y l g ro up s , a r e c a pa b le of fo r m i n g v a n de r W aals in t e ra ct i on s wi t h a r om at ic an d a l ip ha t ic h yd r o ca r bo n re g io ns on r e c ep t or m o le c ul es . Th e c a r b o xy l i c ac i d a nd th e ba s ic n i t ro g en a re c a pa b le of fo r m in g b o th io ni c a nd h yd r o ge n b o nd s , wh i l e t h e h y d r o xy l g r o up s a r e a ls o c ap ab l e o f f or m i n g h yd r og e n b ond s .
O f t h e m et a bo li c p a th wa y s l is t ed , a r om a ti c o xi d at i o n is th e on l y pl au s i b le c ho ic e . Th e t wo u n s u bs t it u te d ph e n y l ri ng s a r e v e r y s us c e pt i bl e t o h y d r o xy l a t i o n, e p o xi d a ti o n , a nd / or di o l fo r m at i on . Ca r b o xyl i c a c id s a r e n o t n o rm al l y r ed uc e d, bu t r a t h er c o nj u ga t ed wi t h eit h e r g l uc ur o ni c a c i d, gl y c i ne o r g lu t am in e . E s t e rs , a m i de s a n d t h ei r c y c li c d e ri v a t i ve s , l ac t on es an d l ac t am s , a r e t he p ri m a r y f un c ti on a l g r ou ps t h a t u nd e r go h y d ro l y s i s . N o n e o f th es e f u nc ti o na l g r o up s a r e p re se n t i n t he c om p ou n d s h o wn .
9 Microbiology G a i l G o o dm a n- S n i tk o f f
I. SCOPE OF MICROBIOLOGY. Mi c r o b i ol o g y i s t h e s t u d y o f or g an is m s f ro m t h re e d om a in s as we l l as a c e ll u la r e n t it i es t h a t a re no t c o ns i d e re d to be li v i ng in th e b i ol og ic a l s e n s e . A. D o m a i n s o f li vi n g o rg a n is m s 1 . Ar c h a e a i nc lu de p ro k a r y o t es wi t h c e ll wa l ls tha t a re bi oc h em ic al l y di f fe r e n t f r om b a ct e r ia an d t h at in h ab i t e xt r e m e en v i r on m e n ts of h ea t , c ol d , p H , o r s a lt s . A r c ha e a a r e no t a m e di c a l l y i m p or t a n t d om ai n o f m ic r oo r ga n i s m s . 2 . E uk a r ya c o n t a in s s om e m i c ro o rg a ni sm s — f o r exa m p l e , fu ng i ( y ea s ts a nd m o l ds ) , p r o t o zoa , a n d a lg ae — a lon g wi t h m ac r os co pi c o r ga n is m s s uc h a s m us hr o om s , p l an t s, an d a n im al s . D i mo r p h i c f u n gi a re th os e th a t c an e xi s t i n e i th e r t he u n ic el l ul a r ( y e a s t ) or t he f i la m e n to us (m o ld ) ph as e , de p en d in g o n t h e i nc ub a t io n t e m p e r at u re ( e .g . , H i s t op l as m a an d Bl as t o my c es ) . a . F un g i a r e c la s s if i ed in t o p h y l a b as ed on t he ty p e o f r e p ro d uc ti v e st r uct u r es o b se r v e d o r th e l ac k o f ob s e r v ab le s e xu a l r ep r o du c ti v e s t r uc t u re s . ( 1 ) As c o m yc o t a ( a s c u s ) ( e . g. , C an di d a a nd H is to p la s m a ) ( 2 ) B a si d i om yc o t a ( b a s id i um ) (e . g ., C ry p to c oc c us ) ( 3 ) Z yg o m yc o t a ( z y g o t e) ( e . g. , R hi zo p u s ) ( 4 ) D e u te r o m yc o t a ( a s exu a l , a ls o c al l ed fu n gi im p e r f ec ti ) (e . g ., C oc c i di o id e s ). R e c en t l y, s om e s e xu a l re p r od uc t i v e s ta t es ha v e b e e n id e n ti fi e d i n f un g i cl a ss if i ed a s b e lo n gi ng t o D e ut e r om y c o ta . b . P r o t oz oa , un ic el l ul a r , n o np h ot os y n t he t ic eu kar y o t e s c ha r ac t e r i ze d b y m o de of m o ti l it y , in c l u de th e fo ll owi n g : ( 1 ) M a s ti g o ph o r a (f l ag ell a t es ) (e . g. , G ia r di a ) ( 2 ) S a rc o d in a (a m o e ba e) ( e . g. , En t a m oe b a ) ( 3 ) C i l io p ho r a (c il i at es ) ( e . g ., B al a nt i di u m ) ( 4 ) S p o ro z oa (n o nm o ti le) ( e . g. , Pl as m o d iu m ) 3 . B ac t e r i a c o n ta i n a wid e v a r ie t y of p ro ka r y o t es , i nc lu d in g g r am - po s i t i ve a n d g r am n e g at i ve b ac t e ri a . S ec t ion s II - V I I ch a r ac te r i z e b ac t e ri a i n m o re de t ai l . B . N o n l i vi n g, bu t me d i ca l l y s i g n i f ic a n t e n ti t i es a r e t h e f ol l o wi n g 1 . V i r us e s ( s e e VI I I ) , wh i c h a r e c l as s i f ie d b y : a . C a ps i d s t r uc t u r e , wh i c h is t he pr o te i n co a ti n g a r o un d t h e n uc le ic ac id b . T yp e a n d s t r a nd e dn es s o f n u cl e ic ac i d , wh i ch c o u ld be D N A or R N A , e i t he r s i ng le o r d ou b le s t r an d ed c . P re se n c e or ab s e n c e o f a l i p id en ve l o p e s u r ro u n di ng t he pr o te i n ca p s i d d . P r es en c e o f e nz ym e s , wh i c h m a y b e e i th e r i nco r p o ra t ed in t o t he li p id en v e l o pe o r f ou n d i n t he c a ps id nea r t he nu c l e ic a ci d 2 . P r i on s , i n f ec t i ou s p r o t e i ns , ar e i m p l ic at e d i n s om e s po n gi f or m e n ce p ha lo p at h ie s ( e .g . , m a d c o w d i s ea s e , C re u tz f e l d t -J ak ob di se as e , a nd ku r u ) .
II. TAXONOMY AND NOMENCLATURE OF BACTERIA
A. T a x o n om y i s c la s s if ic a t i on o r o rd e r in g i n to gr ou p s b as ed on de g r ee of r e l at e dn es s . B ac t e ri a a re p r o ka r yo t e s t h at be l on g to t he B ac te r ia do m a in a nd th e E u b ac t e ri a k in gd om an d a r e gr o up e d a nd na m e d p r i m a r il y b y m o r ph o lo g y , b i oc h em ic al an d m et a bo li c d i ff e r en c e s, a nd i m m un o lo g ic a n d g en e ti c r e la ti o ns hi p s. D N A t e c h n ol og y h as le d t o t he re c l as si f ic a ti on o f s om e o r g an is m s b a s e d on D N A s e qu e nc es a n d h om ol o gy . B a c te r ia a re na m e d us i ng th e Li n na e an o r b in o m ia l s ys t em a s a ge n us a n d s p e c i es ( e. g ., H o m o s ap i en s i s t h e g en us an d s pe c i e s f o r h u m a ns ) . P.176
B . M o r ph o l og y i s t he c la s s i fi c a t io n o f ba c t e ri a by s h ap e an d s t ru c t u r e. 1 . C u l tu r a l m o r p ho l og y i s b as ed on t he s i ze , s ha p e , a nd te xt u r e o f c ol on i es th a t a r e gr o wn i n p u re c u lt u re o n a n a ga r pl a te . Ea c h c ol o n y o r i gi na t es f ro m a c o l on yf o r m i n g u n it ( C F U ) , c o ns is t in g o f a si n gl e c el l o r g r o up of ad h er e n t c e ll s . 2 . M i c r os c op i c m o r p ho lo g y d e s c ri b es ba ct e ri a on t he ba si s o f th e s i z e, s h a p e, an d a r r a ng em e nt o f t he c e ll s ( s e e I I . C a nd D ) . C . S t a i ns . Be c a us e o f the i r s m a ll s i z e an d re la t i ve t r an s p a r en c y, b ac t er i a m us t be s t ai n ed to be v i s i bl e u n de r t he li gh t m ic r os co p e. S t a i ni ng is al so us ed as a c l as s i fi c a t io n s y s te m . Th e m a j o r t yp es of s t ai n in g r e ac t io ns a re th e fo ll o wi n g : 1 . S im p l e s ta i n . A s i ng le d y e (e . g. , G e nt ia n v i ole t , s a f ra ni n ) t h a t c o l or s th e c e ll s . 2 . G r a m s t ai n . A d if f e ren t i al s t ai n in g p r oc ed u r e th a t d i v i de s b ac te r i al c e lls in t o e i t he r gr am - p os it i v e (p u rp l e ) o r g r am - ne g a ti v e (p in k ) . 3 . Ac i d - f as t s ta i n. A pr oc e du r e t h at s t a in s ce l ls th a t h a ve a n o u t er la ye r o f a wa xy l i pi d (a c i d fa s t ) bu t no t c e l ls th a t l ac k t ha t l a ye r (n o n -a c i d - fa s t) . 4 . S p o re s ta i n. A pr oc ed u r e t h at us es he a t t o he l p d ye en t e r t he s p o re . 5 . C a ps u le s ta i n . Two d y e s a re us ed t o s ta in t he c el l a n d t he ba c k g ro u nd, a ll o wi n g vi s u al i za ti on o f t he un s ta i ne d c a ps ul a r m a t e ri a l. D . B a c te r i a l c el l sh a pe a n d a r r a n ge m en t 1 . C o cc i a r e s ph e ri c a l an d e xi s t i n c ha in s (S t r ept o co c c us py og e ne s ), pa ir s o r d i pl oc o c c i ( S t re p to c o c c us pn e u m on i ae , Ne is s e r i a g o no r r ho e ae ) , c lu s t e rs ( s t ap h yl oc oc c i ) , a nd pa c k e ts of f ou r o r ei g ht (s a rc i na e ) . 2 . B ac i l l i a re c y li nd r ic a l a n d ro d -s ha p ed o rg an ism s ( p s e ud om o na ds , Es ch e r ic hi a ) . 3 . C o cc o ba c il l i a r e s ho rt r o un d ed ro d s ( B r uc el la ). 4 . S p i ro c he t e s a nd s pi ri l l a a r e h el ic a l, li k e a c or k sc r e w ( T r ep o ne m a pa lli d u m ) ; s p i ri ll a a r e r i gi d h el ic e s , wh e r e a s s pi r oc h et es a re f l e xi b l e h el ic es . 5 . F us o ba c te r i a h a v e tap e r ed en ds a nd ar e s li g ht l y c ur ve d (i . e ., fu si f o rm ; F u so b ac te r i u m m o rt i fe r um ) . 6 . F il a me n t ou s o r g an is m s a r e b r an ch i ng or g an is m s an d a r e a s s oc ia t ed wi t h m ol d l i ke ba ct e r ia ( Ac ti n o m y c e s b ov is ) . 7 . V i b ri o s a r e c om m a s ha p e d r od s (V i b ri o c ho le ra e ) . 8 . P le o m o rp h i c o rg a ni s m s e xi s t in v a r ie d f o rm s ( H a e m o p hi lu s , L eg io n el la , C o r y ne b ac te r ia ) . E . O t h e r c l as s i f ic a ti o n p a r a me t e r s 1 . P r es e nc e o r a bs e nc e o f
a . S p o re s u s e d fo r s u r v iv a l ( B ac il l us a n th r ac is ) . b . C a ps u le s o r s li me l aye r s u s e d fo r a d he r e nc e. C a ps ul e s a re al so an t iph a g oc y t ic ( S t r e p to c o c c us p n eu m o ni a e , N e is s e r ia m e ni ng i ti di s ) . 2 . M o t i li t y a n d t he t y p e o f f la g e ll a a . M o n o t ri c h ou s . A s i ngl e fl a ge ll um b . L op h o t r ic h o us . A t uf t o f fl ag e ll a a t o n e p ol e c . Am p h i t r ic h ou s . A f lag e ll um a t b ot h p o le s d . P e r i t ri c h ou s . F la g el la d is t ri b ut e d e v e nl y o ve r t h e e n ti r e ce l l e . Ax i a l fi l am e n ts . Pe r ip l as m i c f la g el la wr a p p ed a r o un d s pi r oc he t es f . G l i d in g m o t i li t y. A s de m on s t r a te d b y s li m e m ol d s P.177
III. STRUCTURE OF THE PROKARYOTIC CELL A. O ve r vi e w . P ro k ar y o t ic c e ll s ( b ac t er i a ) a re sma l l an d r e la t i v el y s im p l e ( F i gu r e 9 1 ) . Th e y ha v e t he fo l lo wi n g c h a ra c t e r is ti cs : 1 . C o n ta i n n o i n t e r na l m e m b ra n e b o un d o rg a ne l l es bu t ha ve c om p le x c e ll wa l l s t r uc t ur es 2 . La ck a t r ue nu c l e us , a n uc l ea r m em b r an e , a nd i n t ra c y t op l asm ic m e m b r an o us o r g an e ll es ( e. g ., pl as t id s , e nd o pl as m i c r e ti c u l um , va c uo l es ) 3 . Mu l t i pl y a s e xu a l l y b y b i n a r y f i s s i o n r a th e r t ha n b y m i to s i s o r m ei os is 4 . P r o te i n s yn t h e s i s i s m e di a te d b y 7 0s ra t he r th a n b y 8 0s ri b os om es . 5 . B ac t er i al ge ne t ic in f o rm a ti o n is a r ra ng e d o n a s i ng le s u p er co i le d c i rc ula r st r a nd o f do u bl e -s t ra n de d D N A ; t h e n u cl e o id is th e a r ea o f th e c el l c on t ai n in g t he t ig h tl y c o il ed c h r om os om e . 6 . S om e b ac t er i a c o n t ai n s t or a ge g ra n ul es , o r in c l u s i on bo d ie s , t he s t ai n in g of t he se g r a nu l es m a y al s o be us e f u l i n i de n ti f y i ng th e b ac t e ri a . B . E x t e r na l s t r u c tu r e s 1 . C a ps u le an d sl i me laye r a . Th e ca p su l e is an adh e r en t , s u rf ac e c o at m a de u p o f l on g c ha i n r e pe at s of c a r bo h yd ra t es o r p ep ti d es . Th e c ap su l e d if f e rs i n c om p os it i on am on g b ac te r i a o f d i f fe r e nt ge n us a n d s p ec i e s . A nt i ge n ic d i ff e r en c es am on g c a ps ul es c a n be us e d t o i d en t i f y s t ra i ns wi t hi n a s i ng le s p ec i es o f b a c t e ri a ( S t r ep t oc oc c us pn e u mo n ia e ) . C a p su l es a r e u s u a ll y p oly s a c c h ar i de in na t u re ; ho we v e r , t h e c ap su l e o f Ba c il lu s i s p o l yp ep ti d e . Th e c a ps ule h as s e v e ra l fu nc t io ns : ( 1 ) I nc r ea s e s t he vi r u l en c e (d e gr e e o f o r ga n is m p a th o ge n ic it y ) o f a m ic ro o r ga n is m ( 2 ) P r e v en t s p ha g oc yt o s i s o f th e o r ga n is m b y m a c r op ha g es an d n eu t r oph i ls ( 3 ) A id s i n a d he r e nc e o f t h e o r ga n is m to h os t c e ll s b . I f t h e p ol y s ac c h a ri de is no n ad h er e n t, it is c a ll ed a s l i me la ye r .
Figure 9-1. Structure of a procaryote cell. [Adapted with permission from Winn WC Jr, Allen SD, Janda WM, et al. Koneman's Color Atlas and Textbook of Diagnostic Microbiology, 6th ed. Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, 2006.]
P.178
c . T ra n s fo r m a ti o n f r om s m o o th t o r o ug h c ol on i es on m e di a i n di c a t es c ap s u le l os s . C o n cu r r en t l y , t h e re is a lo s s o f vi r ul e nc e . Th i s c ap s ul a r m at e ri a l is im m u no g e ni c, t h e r eb y i nd uc in g th e p r od u c t i on of a nt i b od i es , wh i ch ac t a s o ps on i ns t o en h a nc e p h a go c y to s i s ( o p so n iz a ti o n ) . 2 . F la g el l a a r e p r ot e in ac e o us , h e li ca ll y c oi le d or ga n s us e d f o r m o v em en t th a t e xt e n d o ut wa r d f r om th e c y t o pl as m t h r ou gh t he c e l l wa ll in t o t h e e n v ir o nm e nt ( F i gu r e 9 - 2 ) . F la g el la r ota t e e i th e r c lo ck wi s e o r c o u n te r c l oc k wi s e , al lo wi n g a s e ri es o f r un s a nd t um bl es in res p on s e t o c h em ic a ls i n th e en vi r on m e n t . Th e di re c ti o n o f m o vem e nt is c o nt r o ll ed b y a c o m p le x m e c ha n is m i n v o l v in g c he m o r ec e pt or s an d a n i n t ra c el lu l ar c a s c ad e o f m e th y l a ti o n a nd ph os p hor yl a t io n re ac t io ns , c a us in g ba ct e r ia t o m o ve to wa r d n ut r ie n t c h em oa t t ra c ta n ts a n d a wa y f r om r ep e ll an t s. a . S t r uc t u r e ( 1 ) Fl a ge l la ar e c om p os ed o f f l a ge l li n , a p ro t ei n c a ll ed H a n ti g en , wh i ch is a n t ig en ic a ll y d is ti nc t f rom o th e r f la g el la in eu c ary o t e s . ( 2 ) Fl a ge l la ha v e t h re e p a r t s : ( a ) B a sa l b o d y ( i ) A t ta c h es t he fl a ge ll a to t he c yto p la s m ic m em b ra n e a n d c e l l wa l l
Figure 9-2. Structure of a procaryote flagella from a Gram-negative organism. [Adapted with permission from Winn WC Jr, Allen SD, Janda WM, et al. Koneman's Color Atlas and Textbook of Diagnostic Microbiology, 6th ed. Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, 2006.]
P.179
( i i ) Th e n um b e r o f r i ng s t h a t m ak e u p t he ba s a l bo d y d if f e r i n g r am -p o si ti ve ( t wo ) a n d g r am - ne g at i v e (f o u r) o r g an is m s . Th e L a n d P r i ng s a r e a bs e nt in G r am - p os it i ve o r g an is m s . ( b ) H o ok ( c ) F il a me n t b . P e r ip l as m ic f la g e ll a , a ls o c al l ed ax i al f i la men t s , o c c u r i n s pi r oc he t es a n d a r e e m be d de d i n to th e c el l wa l l 's ou t e r m em br a ne . Bec a u s e t h e y c au se a c o rk s c re w t yp e o f m o t io n o n c on t r ac t io n , t h es e o r ga ni s m s ar e n ot hi n de r ed b y th e vis c o si t y o f m e di a . 3 . P i li ( f im b r ia e ) a r e p r ot e i na c e o us , h ai r - li k e e xt e n si o ns t h at a re s h o rt e r t h a n f l a ge ll a a n d c o m po s e d of r e gu l ar l y a r ra ng e d p r ote i n s ub u ni ts c a ll e d p i li n o r f i m b r i li n . Th e y a r e m o re c om m o n i n g r am - ne g at iv e o r g an is m s b u t c an be f o un d i n g r a m - p os it i v e o r g an is m s . Th e r e a r e t wo m o rp h olo g ic a l an d fu nc t io n al va ri e t ie s: a . C o mm o n ( a tt ac h m e n t) p il i ( 1 ) A pp e a r i n g re a te r num b e rs t h an s e x p i l i ( 2 ) H a ve a d he s i v e p ro per t i es , wh i ch ar e i m p o r ta nt i n t he f o rm at i on of bi o fil m s ( 3 ) A r e l ec ti ns , wh i c h a re r es p on si bl e fo r t ro ph ism , th e a b il it y o f th e o r gan i s m to b i nd t o sp ec i fi c r e c e p to rs on ho s t ce l ls b . S ex ( c o nj u ga t i v e o r F ) p i li ( 1 ) A r e l on g er t ha n c om m o n p il i ( 2 ) F or m i n g r ou ps o f < 1 0 ( 3 ) A r e i n v ol v e d i n t h e t ra n s p o r t o f D N A b et we e n d o n or an d re c i p ie n t c e l ls C . T h e c el l w a ll , pe r i p las m i c s pa c e, a nd c yt o p l a s m ic me m b ra n e 1 . Th e ce l l w a l l i s r ig i d. A l t h ou gh i t p ro v i d es th e g e n er a l s h a pe of t he c e ll, i ts f u nc t io n i s t o p r o te c t t he c el l f r om os m o t ic s ho c k . I f th e c el l wa l l is de s tr oy e d , t he b a ct e r ia l c el ls ar e s us c ep t i bl e t o a l te r a ti on s i n t he t on ic i t y of th e e n v i r onm e nt . Th e wa l l i s c o m p o s e d o f a bas ic p ep t i do g l yc a n l a ye r , wh i c h i n t u rn is c om p os e d of r e p ea t in g d is ac c ha r id e un i ts ( a p ol y m e r o f N- a ce tyl g l u c o s a m in e a n d N -
a c e t yl m u r a m i c ac i d ), wi t h a f o ur - am i no - ac id s i de c ha i n t ha t is c o val e nt l y l i nk ed t o a m in o a c i ds f ro m n ei g hbo r i ng di s a c c ha r i de un i ts , f o rm i ng a s ta bl e c r os s -l in k ed s t r uc t ur e . Mo s t b ac t er i a a r e de s i gn a te d a s e i th e r g r am - po s i t i ve o r gr am - ne g a ti v e , b a se d o n f u nd am e nt a l d if f e r en c e s i n t h e co m p o ne n ts o f t he ce ll wa l l . O wi n g to t he u n iq u en es s a nd t he im por t a nc e o f th e c el l wa ll t o b a ct e r ia l v ia bi l it y, i t is the t a rg e t o f m a n y an t ib io t ic ag en ts . a . G r a m -p o si t i ve o r ga n is m s h a ve a th ic k c el l wal l , wh ic h i s 9 0% pe p ti d ogl y c a n , wi t h e xt e n s i v e c r os s - l in k i n g t h at is ap p ro xi m a t el y 4 0 l a ye rs th ic k a n d f o rm s a l a ye r ed ne t wo r k a ro un d th e c y t o pl a sm i c m em b ra ne . W i t hi n th e c el l wa ll , a v a r i e t y of e l em e nt s s e r v e t o s ta bi l iz e t h e c el l wa ll , m a in t ai n i t s as s o ci a ti o n wi t h t he c yt o pl as m i c m em b ra ne , a n d a c t as r ec ep t o rs a n d a n ti g en ic de t e rm in an t s . Th e s e e l em e nt s i nc lu d e p ro t ei ns , po l y s a cc ha r id e s a nd te i c h oi c a c i d (g l y c e r ol o r r i b it o l p h os p ho di es t e rs ) . ( 1 ) T ei c ho i c a c id s (g l y c e r o l o r ri bi t ol ph o s p ho d ie s te r s ) ( a ) M e m b ra n e -a ss o c ia te d t ei c h oi c a c id s (l ip o te i c h oi c a c i d ) a r e c o v al ent l y l in ke d to g l yc ol ip i ds o f th e c y t o pl as m i c m em b ra ne . ( b ) W al l - as s oc i a te d te ic h o ic a ci d s a r e c o va l ent l y l in ke d to th e g l yc a n c h a in o f p e p ti do g l y c a n . b . G r a m -n e ga t i ve o r ga ni s m s' c e ll wa l ls a re m u lti l a ye re d wi t h a th i n p ep t id o gl y c a n l a ye r th a t h as no te ic h oic ac id s . E xt e r n a l t o th is is t he ou t e r m e mb r a ne , a c o m p l e x c e ll wa l l l a y e r , wh i c h is li n k e d t o th e p ep t id o gl y c a n la y e r b y t h e l i po p r o te i n l a y e r . Th e o u te r m em b r an e a c ts as a h y d r op ho b ic d i f fus i on ba r r ie r an d c on s i s t s o f ( 1 ) P h os p ho l i pi d , a bi la y e r s i m i l ar t o t he c y to p la s m ic m e m b r an e wi t h p ro t e in c h an n el s , c a ll e d p o r in s , f o r n u t ri e nt t ra ns p o rt . Th e ph os p ho li p id la y e r of t h e o u te r m em b r an e f ac es t he c y t o p la s m ic m em b r an e . ( 2 ) Th e li p o po l ys a c c h a r i d e ( LP S ) c om p on e nt p ro j ec ts f ro m t h e c e l l s u r f ac e a n d is b o t h t o xi c an d a n ti ge n ic ( O a n t i ge n ) . I n a gr a m - ne g a ti v e o rg an is m , t he L PS b l o ck s d i f f u si o n o f l o w m ol ec u la r we i g h t su bs t an c es i n to t he c e ll , s o a n ti b io ti c s a n d c h em ic al s t ha t at t ac k t he c el l wa l l ( e .g . , l ys o zy m e, p en ic i ll in ) c a nn o t e as ily p a ss t h r o ug h . L P S , a ls o k n o wn as e nd o t ox i n , is to xi c t o hu m a ns a nd i s c om pos e d o f t h r e e p ar t s : ( a ) L ip i d A: t o xi c p o r ti o n t h a t c a n e i th e r s lo u gh of f in t ac t c el ls o r b e r e le as e d i nt o c i rc u la ti o n u po n l y s is of t h e c el l , c au si ng no n s p ec i fi c i nf l am m a ti o n, in cl u di n g d i a r rh e a, fe v e r , an d s ep ti c s ho c k P.180
( b ) C o r e p o l ys a c c h a r i de : s i m i la r wi t h in ge n e ra ( c ) O - s pe c i fi c s i d e c ha in : s p ec i es s p ec if ic ( 3 ) P r o te i n 2 . Th e pe r i p la sm i c s p ac e , a n a r e a b et we e n th e c e ll wa l l a nd t he c y t o pl as m i c m em b r an e , c o n ta i ns a ge l of s e v e r al t y p es o f m ol e cu le s (e . g. , h y d r o l y ti c e n z ym e s , p e r ip l as m ic - b in di n g p r ote i ns ) th a t p r oc es s m o le cu l e s be f o re th e y en t e r t he c yt o pl as m . I t a ls o c on t ain s p r o te i ns t h a t ac t a s c h e m o r ec e pt o rs fo r c h em o t a xi s ,
o t h e rs t h at ac t a s c a rr i e rs o f n ut r ie n ts (s im il a r t o c a r ri e rs in th e c y t o pl as m i c m em b r an e ), a nd an t ib io t ic - i na c t i va ti n g e n z y m e s . 3 . Th e c yt o p l a s m i c m em b r a ne is a p ho sp h ol ip id b il a ye r m at r i x o f a f a tty a c id c o r e ( h y d r o ph o bi c ) a nd gl y c e ro l ph os p ha t e ( h y d ro p hi lic ) . In th e p r es e nc e o f p ro t e in s e m be d de d i n t h e m a t r i x, t h es e m em b ra n es a r e a c t i ve l y an d p as s i v e l y e nga g e d in s e ve r al ce l lu l a r fu n c ti on s . a . T r an s po r t a t io n of nu tr i e nt s t h r ou gh ( 1 ) P as s i v e di f fu s i o n ( 2 ) F ac il it a te d d i f fu s i on ( 3 ) A ct i v e t r a ns po r t (t h is m e th od is th e o n l y o n e th a t a c ti v e l y us es e n e rg y b e c a us e m o le cu l es a r e m o v in g i n to t he c e ll ag a in st a c on c e n t r at i on gr a di e nt ) b . Th e s i te o f r e sp i r a t ion p r o t ei n s u s e d f o r e l ect r o n t r a ns p o r t a nd en e rg y f o r m a t io n c . E nz ym e s i n v o l v e d i n th e as s e m b l y of th e c el l wa l l c om po n en ts d . S ec r e t i on o f e xo t o xin s an d o t he r s u bs t an c e s f o r th e b r ea kd o wn o f m ac r om o le c u le s D . I n t e rn a l s t r u ct u r e s 1 . S t o ra g e g r a n ul e s a re i nc l us io n b o di es us ed for f o od o r e ne r g y s t o ra g e ( e . g ., p o l yp ho s p ha t e c om pl e xe s , c a r bo h y d ra t e ). 2 . R i bo s om e s a r e c e l lu la r u ni ts th a t s yn th es i ze p r o t ei n b y t he t ra ns l at i on o f m es s en ge r R N A (m R N A ) b as e s e qu en c e s i n to am i n o a c i d p r o te in s e qu e nc e s . Th es e r i b os om es , u n li k e th os e in e uk a r yot ic c e ll s , a re 70 s u n it s a nd a re no t as s o c ia t ed wi t h m em b ra n es s uc h a s m it o c h on d r ia or r ou g h en d o pl as m i c r e ti c u lu m . 3 . Th e nu c le a r r eg i o n of b ac t er i a is a c on d en s ed a r ea (a nu c l e oi d ) c on ta i ni n g t he b a ct e r ia l c hr om o s o m e , wh i c h la ck s a n uc l ea r m em b r an e a nd c o ns is t s o f a l on g , d o u bl e -s t ra n de d , s u p e rc o i le d , c ir c ul a r D N A m o lec u le . 4 . S om e o r ga n is m s c on ta i n p l as m id s , c ir c ul a r do u bl e -s t r an d ed pi ec es of D N A t h at a r e fo u nd ou ts i de of t he b a c t e r ia l c hr om o s o m e . Th e s e s t r uc t ur e s a re au t on o m o us ( n o t c on t r ol le d b y t h e b ac t e ri al c h r om os om e ) , c on t a in in f or m at io n fo r he av y m e t a l a n d a n ti bi o ti c re s i s t a nc e, a r e c o n ju nc t i v e , a nd c ar r y g e ne t ic el em e nt s c a l le d t r a n s po s o ns .
IV. MICROBIAL PHYSIOLOGY A. N u t r i t i o n a l t yp e s 1 . Au t o t r o p hs us e c a rb on d io xi d e as th e i r s o l e o r m ai n c a rb o n so u rc e . a . P h ot o a ut o t r o ph s u s e l i gh t a s a n e ne r g y so u rc e . b . C h em o au t o t r op h s o x i d i z e o r ga n ic o r in o rg a nic c o m p o un ds to p ro d uc e e n e rg y. 2 . H e te r o t r o ph s u s e o rga n ic c om p ou n ds a s t h ei r m ai n c a rb o n s o u rc e . a . P h ot o h et e r o t r op h s us e l i gh t a s a n e ne r g y s ou r c e. b . C h em o he t e r o t r op h s o xi d i z e o r ga n ic a n d i no rg a ni c c om po u nd s t o p r od u ce e n e rg y. 3 . P r o t ot r o p hs a re pa r en t c e ll s t h at ha ve no s p ec i al nu t ri t io n al r eq ui r em en t s . Th e y r e q ui r e t h e s a m e n ut r ie nt s as t h e m aj o r n um be r of t h e n at u ra l m em be r s o f t h e s p ec ie s .
4 . Au x o t r o p hs ar e m u tat e d s o t h at t he y c a n no t sy n t h es i z e th e s am e e s s en t i al n u t ri e n ts (u s u al l y am in o a c id s ) as t he i r p a re n t c e l l . 5 . S u bs e ts a . H o lo p h yt i c . O r g a n is m s wh o s e n ut r ie n ts m us t be i n a s ol u bl e , d if f us ib l e f o r m b . H o l oz oi c . O rg a ni s m s t h a t n ee d c om pl e x n u t r ien t s , o ft e n s ol id m a te r i al s t h a t a re i n ge s te d a n d t he n b r ok en d o wn c . S ap r o p h yt i c . O r g a n is m s wh os e n u t ri en t s a r e o b t ai ne d f ro m d ea d o r de c a y in g o r g an ic m a t te r P.181
d . P a r as i t ic . O r ga ni s m s wh o s e nu t r ie n ts a r e o b tai n ed f r om a n d a t t he e xp e n se of a l i vi ng o rg a ni s m (h um a n p a t ho g en s ) B . N u t r i t i on a l r e q ui r e me n t s . B ac t e ri a u se a wi d e v a r i et y o f n u t ri en t s t o o b t ai n e n e rg y a nd t o c o ns t r uc t n e w c e ll u la r c om p on en t s . Th e s i x e l e m e n ts us ed a s th e m a in c om p on e nt s o f c a rb o h y d ra t es , l i pi ds , p r o te in s , a nd nu c l e ic a ci d s a re c a rb o n, o xyg e n , h y d r o ge n , n it r o ge n , p h os ph o r us , a nd su lfu r . S e ve ra l m in o r a nd t rac e e l em e nt s as we l l as c at io n s p la y va r i ou s r o le s i n t h e m ic ro o r ga ni s m s . C . T e mp e r a tu r e r el a t ion s 1 . P s yc h r o p h i l e , a n o r ga n is m t ha t gr o ws we l l at 0 ° C , ha s o p ti m a l g r o wt h a t 15 ° C o r l e ss , a nd a m a xi m um g r owt h t e m pe r a tu r e o f 2 0 ° C 2 . M e s op h i le : a n o r g an is m wi t h o pt im a l g r o wt h at 2 0 ° -4 5 ° C , m i n im um g r owt h t e m p e r at u re s b e t we e n 15 ° a nd 20 ° C , a n d a m a xi m um g ro wt h t em p e ra t ur e o f a p p ro xi m a t el y 4 5 ° C (h um a n p at h og e ns ) 3 . T he r m op h i le : a n or g an i s m th a t ca n g r o w a t 55° C o r g re a te r , wi t h a m ini m um g r o wt h t em pe r a tu r e o f ap p r o xi m a te l y 45 ° C . D . O x yg e n r e q u i r em e n ts . H o w o r ga n is m s u se oxy g e n c an be a m a j or f ac t o r i n t he i r c l as s i fi c a t io n . 1 . Ae r o b e s h a v e t h e a bi li t y t o g r o w i n t h e p r es enc e o f at m o s p h e ri c o xyg e n . a . O b l ig a t e a e ro b es de pe n d c om pl e te l y on o xy g e n f o r g r o wt h . O xy g e n se rv e s as t e r m i n al e l ec t ro n a c c e pto r in a er o bi c r es p ir a ti o n. b . F ac u l ta t i ve ae r o be s h a v e th e a b il i t y to gr o w wi t h o r wi t h ou t m o le c u la r o xyg e n . 2 . An a e r o be s h a v e th e a b il i t y to g ro w wi t h o u t o xyg e n . a . O b l ig a t e a na e r ob e s d o no t to le r a te o xy g e n at a ll an d d i e i n i ts p r es e nc e . Ma n y s t r ai ns la c k c a ta l as e a nd s up e r o xi d e d is m u t as e, wh i c h p ro t ec t c el ls f ro m t h e d e st r uc t i v e o xi d i z i n g c a pa b il i ti es o f h yd r og en pe ro xi d e a n d s u p e ro xi d e ion s , wh ic h a r e no rm a ll y p r od uc e d un d e r a e ro b ic c on d it i on s . b . F ac u l ta t i ve an a e ro b es d o n ot r eq u ir e o xy g e n b u t g r o w b e t te r i n i t s p res e nc e. 3 . M i c r oa e r o ph i le s re q ui r e o xy g e n l e v e ls be lo w n o r m a l a tm os p he r ic pr e ss u r es fo r g r o wt h ( e .g . , He li c o b ac te r py l or i ) 4 . C a pn o p hi l es r eq ui r e h i gh e r l e ve ls o f c a rb o n di o xi d e t ha n a r e f o un d a t n o r m a l a t m o s p h e ri c p r es s u r es fo r g ro wt h ( e . g. , N ei ss e ria s p . an d St r ep t oc oc cu s p n e u m on ia e ) . E . B a c te r i a l g r ow t h c u rve . B a c te r ia l g r o wt h is de f i ne d a s a n i nc r ea se in t h e n u m b e r o f c el ls p re s e n t. B e c au se ba c te r ia r ep r odu c e b y b in a r y f i s s i o n, gr o wt h c an
b e pl o tt e d as t he lo g o f th e c e ll nu m b e r v e rs us t im e to pr o du c e a c ur ve wi t h f o u r d i st i nc t p ha s e s (F ig u r e 9- 3 ) . 1 . L ag ph a se . A t r an s i t io n pe r io d d u r in g wh ic h th e ba c t e r ia ar e re p li c a t in g D N A an d t h e e n zy m es ne e de d f o r t h e n e w e n v i r on m e n t a r e b e in g i nd u c e d . Th e c e lls a re i n c re as in g i n s i z e b u t n ot i n n um be r . D ur i ng th is p h as e o f g r o wt h , th e c el ls a re m o st p e r m e ab l e. 2 . L og a r i th m ic ( l og ) pha s e . D i vis i on oc c u r s a t co n s t a nt an d m a xi m a l r a te , an d th e n u m b e r o f c el ls in c re as es in a g eo m e t r ic p r o g re s s i on . Th e g en e r at i on ti m e , wh i ch va r i e s am o ng s p ec ie s , is u s u a ll y 1 5 -2 0 m in u te s (E s c h e r ic hi a ), bu t m a y be h o u rs ( My c o b ac t e ri u m ) . Be c a us e th e c el l wa ll is be in g s y n t he si z e d s o ra pi d l y , ba c te r i al c e ll s a r e m o s t s u s c ep t ib le t o c el l wa l l in h ib i to rs du r i ng t hi s p ha s e . 3 . S t a ti o na r y p h a s e . The g r o wt h ra t e t ap e rs o ff a n d g r o wt h an d d e at h rat e s a r e n e a rl y e qu a l. A fa i rl y c on s ta n t p op u la t io n o f v ia bl e c e ll s r es u lt s. D u ri n g th i s p ha se , c e ll ul a r m et a bo l it es a re p o ll u ti n g t he en vi r o nm ent . 4 . D ea t h ph a se . W hen th e c o nc en t r at i on of vi ab le ce l ls d ec r e as es b e ca us e o f th e a cc u m u la t io n o f to xi c wa s t es an d a u to l y t ic e n z y m e s .
V. METABOLISM AND ENERGY PRODUCTION. Mi c r o o r g an is m s de r i v e en e r g y f ro m n ut r i en ts b y a se r i es o f c h em ic al re ac t io ns b y wh i c h th e en e rg y s to r ed i n c h em ic al bo n ds i s t r ans f e r re d t o n e wl y f o r m e d c h em ic al b o n ds t o p r o v i de en e rg y s t o ra g e i n a u se f ul f or m , s uc h a s a de n os in e t r ip ho s ph a te ( A TP ) . P.182
Figure 9-3. Growth curve of bacterial culture. [Reprinted with permission from Winn WC Jr, Allen SD, Janda WM, et al. Koneman's Color Atlas and Textbook of Diagnostic Microbiology, 6th ed. Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, 2006.]
A. AT P g e n e r at i o n 1 . S u bs t r a te - l e ve l p h osp h o r yl a t i o n r el e as es e ne r g y t h ro u gh di r ec t t r an s f e r of h i gh - e ne r g y ph os p ha t e gr o u ps f ro m a n i nt e rm e dia t e m e ta bo l ic c om p ou nd t o a d e no s i ne di p ho s p h at e (A D P ) . N o m ol e cu la r o xyg e n o r ot h er in o r ga ni c f in a l e le c t ro n a cc e pt o r i s r e qu i re d .
2 . O x i da t i ve ph o sp h o r yl a t i o n r em o ves el ec t r ons f ro m o r ga n ic c om po u nd s a n d p a ss es th es e e l ec t ro ns th r o ug h a s e r ie s o f e l ec t ro n ac c e p to rs al o ng an ele c t ro n t r a ns p or t c h ai n , wi t h m o le c ul a r o xyg e n o r s om e ot h e r i n or g an ic c o m p ou n d a s t h e f i n al acc e pt o r . B . F e r me n t at i o n r e fe r s to e ne r g y- p ro d uc in g o xi d a t i v e s eq u en ce s , i n wh i ch o r ga ni c c om p ou n ds s e r v e a s b oth e le c t r o n d on o rs an d a c c e pt o rs . Th is p ro c e s s o cc u rs in th e a b se nc e o f e xt e r na l e l ec t r o n a c c ep t o rs . 1 . G l yc o l ys i s i s th e fi rs t s t ep in fe r m e n ta t io n a nd r e s p i ra t io n a n d ca u s e s th e o xi d a t i on o f g lu c o s e to py r u v i c ac id wi t h a y i e ld of t wo m ol es o f A TP . Th e re a r e d i f fe r e nt pa t h wa y s fo r p yr u v i c a c i d p r o du c t i on i n m ic r o or g an is m s : a . Th e Em b d en - M e ye r h o f ( g l yc o l yt i c ) p a t hw a y i s th e m aj o r p at h wa y . b . Th e E n tn e r - D ou d o r o ff p a t hw a y i s a n a l te r na te . c . Th e h e xo s e m o no p hos p h a te sh u n t u s e d wi t h t h e g l yc o l y t ic pa t h wa y i s a n a l t er n a ti v e . 2 . S ec o n da r y f e r m e n t a ti o n p r oc es s . Ma n y b ac te r i a u s e p y r u v at e t o o xi d i ze r e d u ce d ni c o ti n am i d e ad e n i ne di n u cl e o ti d e ( NAD H ) , p r o d uc e d i n g l yc ol ys is , to m a nu f ac tu r e a v a r ie t y o f f i n al pr o du c ts . a . L ac t ic ac i d fe r m en t at i o n . Th e s i m p l es t p r oc es s , wh i c h c on v e r ts p y r u va t e to l a ct a te ( La c t o ba c i l lu s , S tr e p t oc oc c us ) . b . Al c o h o l f e r me n t at i o n. P y r u va t e i s co n v e r te d to e th a no l a n d ca r bo n di oxi d e ( S a cc h ar o m y c es ) . c . M i xe d a c i d f e r me n ta ti o n . A co m bi na t io n o f l ac t ic , f o rm ic , an d a ce t ic ac i ds i s p r o du c e d wi t h e t ha n ol , hy d r o g en , an d c a rb on di oxi d e ( E s c h e ri c h i a c ol i ). d . B u t an e di o l fe r m en t a ti o n . P y r u v at e i s c on v e r te d to ac e to in , wh i c h is re d uc e d t o 2 , 3 - bu t an ed i ol ( En t e ro b ac t e r ). e . B u t yr i c a c id f e rm e n ta t i o n . B u ta no l , i s o p ro p an o l , a nd ac et o ne a re p rod u c e d ( C l o st r id i u m ) . P.183
f . P r o p io n i c a ci d fe r m en t a t i on . P y r u v a te is c onve r t e d t o o xa l o a c e t a te wi t h t h e a d di t io n o f c a r bo n d io xi d e a nd th e n t o p r op i on ic a c id ( P ro p io ni b ac t er i u m ). C . R e s pi r a t i on r ef e rs to e n e rg y - p r o du ci ng o xi d a tive s eq u en ce s , i n wh i c h in o r ga n ic c om p ou n ds a c t as t he las t el ec t ro n a c c e pt o r i n a s e r ie s o f r e ac ti o ns . Th is p r o c e ss i n cl ud e s g l yc o l ys i s , t h e t r i c a r b ox yl i c a c i d ( T C A) c yc l e , a nd th e el e ct r on t r a n s po r t s ys t e m , wh i c h y i e ld s A TP wh e n c ou ple d wi t h o xi d a t i v e p h os p ho r y l a ti o n . 1 . Ae r o b i c re s pi r a t i on . O xy g e n s e r ves as t h e f ina l el ec t r on ac c e pt o r . a . P y r u v a te is c o n v e rt e d t o ac e t yl c o e n z ym e A a n d c a r bo n d io xi d e a nd wa t e r t h r o ug h t h e T C A c yc l e . b . Th e el e c t ro n t r an s por t s ys t e m p la ys a r ol e i n t h e t r an s p o r t o f e l ec t ro ns al o ng a s e r ie s o f c ar r i er s f o un d in t he c y to p la sm ic m em b ra n e , e ac h wi t h su c c es si ve l y h ig he r o xi d a t i on p ot e nt i al s . Ma j o r c o m p o ne n ts o f th e e l ec t r on t ra ns p o rt s ys t em i nc l ud e ( 1 ) C yt oc h r om es ( 2 ) Fl a v o p ro t ei ns ( 3 ) U bi q ui n on es
2 . An a e r o b ic r es p i r at i on . A n i no r g an ic el ec t r on a cc e pt o r o t he r th a n o xyg e n ( e. g ., n i t ra t e , s u l fa t e , c a r b on a te ) s e r v e s a s t he fi n al el ec t r on ac c e p to r .
VI. GENETICS A. D e f i n i t i o n a nd t e rm s. G e n et ic s i s t he s t u d y of wh a t g en es a re , h o w t he y c a r r y i n f or m at io n , a n d h o w t hey a r e r ep li c a t ed an d pa ss e d o n. 1 . C h r om o s om es a re bod i es c om p os ed o f D N A th a t c on t ai n g e ne t ic i n fo rm a ti o n. B a c te r ia h a v e o nl y o ne c h r o m o so m e — a s in gl e , co n t in u o u s ( c l os e d) , do ubl e s t r an d ed , c i rc ul a r p ie c e o f D N A . a . D u pl i ca t i o n oc c u r s by s e m i c o ns e r v a ti ve r ep lic a ti o n, in wh i ch t he t wo s t r an ds o f t h e h e li x s e p a ra t e ( o r i gin ) a nd at t hi s p oi n t ( tw o r e p l i ca t i on f o rk s ) n e w s t r a n ds a r e s yn t he s i z e d , b i di r ec ti o nal l y , wi t h th e o r ig i na ls s e rv i n g as te m p la t es . b . S t r u ct u r e . Th e c e ll m e m b ra ne is at t ac he d to th e c h r om os om e; as th e c e ll gr o ws , i t se pa r a te s t h e d au gh t er c h ro m o s o m e s . Th e r e for e , ea ch da u gh t e r ce l l ha s o n e o r i gi n al an d o ne ne w s t ra n d . 2 . G e ne s a r e D N A s eg m e n ts t ha t a r e p r oc es se d in t wo s te ps t o p r od uc e va r i ou s p r o t ei ns . A n o rm al ba c t er i a l c e l l is h ap l o id . B . R e g u la t i on an d ex p re s s io n o f g en e t ic i nf o rm a t i on 1 . D N A h a s m an y f u nc t io n s . a . I t is d up l i ca t ed f or t ra n s f e r t o p r o ge n y du r in g c el l d i v is i on . b . I t i s t r a ns c r ib e d i n to R N A , wh i c h c an be t ra n s l a t ed in t o a p r o te in . c . It co n ta in s c o n t ro l sig n a ls , wh i ch ul t im at e l y c o n t r ol th e s yn t he s i s o f p ro t e in . d . I t c an be mu t a te d to a l t er s p ec i fi c ch a r ac te r ist i cs en co d ed b y g e ne s . e . I t ca n b e du pl ic a te d an d t ra ns f e r re d t o o t h e r ba c t e r ia l c e l ls in pr o ce s s e s o t he r t h a n ce l l d i v is io n (e . g. , c o n ju g at i on ) . 2 . D N A r e p l i ca t i o n, t r ans c r i p t io n , a nd t r a ns l at io n a ff ec t c e ll ul a r g r o wt h a n d d e ve l op m e n t. a . B ac t er i al r ep l i ca t i on in v o l v e s a c c ur a t e d up li cat i o n o f c hr om o s o m a l D NA , wh i c h e n a bl es th e f o rm a ti o n o f t wo i d e nt ic a l d au g ht e r c e l ls . b . T r an s c r ip t i on o f i nf o rm a ti o n f r om D N A t o R N A i s t h e f i rs t o f t wo s t ep s n e e de d t o p r o du c e ne c es s a r y p ro t ei n s . O n e g en e c an be t ran s c r i be d i n to m a n y c op i es o f R N A . S i m pl is ti c al l y , R N A p ol y m e r as e l oc at es t he be gin n in g o f th e g e ne ( pr o m o t o r ) , a nd t h is a re a u n de r go es lo c al i z e d u n wi n di n g t o a ll o w R N A p o l y m e r as e t o t ra ns c r i be R N A ( c al l ed m R N A) f r om t h e D N A t em pl a te . Th e R N A i s n o t p r oc ess e d, as in e u ka r y o t es . Th er e a r e no i nt r o ns a n d e xo n s , n o c a pp i ng of th e 5 ′ en d , a nd n o p o l ya de ni n e t ai ls ad d ed t o t he 3 ′ e nd . c . T ra n s la t i on is th e p r oc es s i n g o f g e ne ti c i n fo rm a ti o n t o s yn th es i z e p r ot e i ns . B e f o re t r an s c ri p ti o n is c o m pl e te d , a ri b os om e wi l l a tt a c h to th e 5 ′ en d o f th e m es s ag e . Th e 70 s P.184 b a ct e r ia l ri b os o me is c om p os ed of t wo s ub un i ts , 3 0 s a nd 50 s . Th e r ib os om e t r a n s la t e s t he m e s s ag e i n t o p r ot ei n b y re ad i ng th e t r i pl e t c o do n ( th r ee n u cl e ot id e s ) wh i c h c o d e f o r a s p e c i fi c a m i no ac i d. Th i s a m i n o ac i d is c a r rie d to t he s i te b y t r an s fe r R N A ( t R N A) a n d p ai r s wi t h t he c o d o n b y an an t i co d o n. A m i no
a c id s a r e j oi ne d , a nd t he r i bo s om e m o v e s t o t h e n e xt c o d on . Th is c on t in ue s u n ti l t h e c om p le t e p r ot e in is s y n th e s i z e d . 3 . R e gu l a ti o n . Th e p ro du c ts of ce ll u la r g r o wt h m u s t b e p r od uc e d i n c o r r ec t p r o po r t io ns fo r t he c e ll to l i v e a nd fu nc t io n . Th e two m o s t c o m m o n m e ch an i s m s o f m e ta b ol ic an d g e ne t ic reg u la t io n a r e a s f o ll o ws : a . F ee d ba c k i nh i b i ti o n o f en z y m e ac ti vi t y ( m e t ab o li c r e gu l at i on ) i n hi bi t s t h e s yn t he s i s o f th e c el l g r owt h p r o d uc t . Th e p ro d uc t b i nd s wi t h an al l os te r ic s i te on t he e n zym e , t h e re b y in ac t i v at i n g t he ac t i v e s i t e. b . R e p re s si o n o f e n z y m e ac t i v i t y (g en e ti c re gu l at i o n) in h ib i ts th e s y n th e s i s o f th e e n zym e at th e tr a ns c r i pt io n al le ve l . c . In d u ct i o n o f e n z y m e a c ti v i t y ac t i va te s t he s y nt h es is o f t he en zy m e at th e t r a ns c ri p ti on le v e l . C . O t h e r me t h od s o f DN A t r a n s f e r . Mi c r o o rg ani sm s c an c h an g e t he i r ge n e ti c c o ns ti t u ti on b y th e tr a ns fe r o f g en e ti c m a t e ri a l f r om a d on o r c h ro m o s o m e to a r e c ip ie n t c hr om o s o m e ( re c om bi n at i on ) . Re co m b in a t io n o c c u rs b e t we e n ho m ol o go us s e gm en t s ( t ho s e th a t h av e s im il a r n uc l eo t id e s equ e nc es ) . Th e re a re th r e e g e ne r al m ec h an is m s : 1 . T r an s f o rm a t io n i n v o lv e s t he r ec ip ie n t c el l t aki n g u p c el l -f r e e, f ra gm e nt e d (i . e. , n a ke d ) D N A a nd r ec om bin i ng ge n e ti c el e m e n ts . a . Th i s p ro c e s s is p ri m i ti ve a n d oc c ur s n a tu r al l y wi t h i n on l y a f e w g e ne r a. b . R e qu i re m e n ts in c l ud e c om pe t en t r ec ip ie n t c el ls ( e xh i b it i ng D N A re c e p to r s ) o r a “ l ea k y” b a c t e r i a l c el l w a l l , s o t ha t D N A c a n b e in t r o du c e d i n to th e c el l . c . It is ge ne r a ll y as s o c i at e d wi t h re c om b i na n t DN A t e c h n o l o g y o r c l o n in g , a t e ch n iq u e t o am p li f y a s p e c i f ic g e ne in p re pa r a tio n fo r an a l ys is . In th is pr o c es s , th e b a ct e r ia l c el l wa l l s a r e m a d e l ea k y b y c h em ic al t re a tm e nt . ( 1 ) C lo n in g i n v o l v es s pl ic i ng a g en e i n to a p la s m i d D N A ( ve c to r ) . Al l v ec to r s s ha r e s e ve r al c om m o n c h ar ac te r i s t ic s : ( a ) Ty p i c al l y s m a l l, we l l -c h a ra c t e ri z e d m o le cu le s o f D N A ( b ) C o nt a in at le as t on e r e p li c o n a n d c a n b e re p lic a te d wi t hi n th e h os t e v en wh e n t h e vec t o rs c on t ai n f o r eig n D N A ( c ) C o de fo r a p he no t y p ic t ra i t t h at c a n b e u s e d to d et ec t th e p r es e nc e o f f o r ei g n D N A , wh i c h c an o ft e n b e u s e d to di s t i ng ui sh pa r en t a l f r om re c o m b i na n t vec t o rs ( 2 ) S e le c ta b le ma r k e r s a r e us ed to fi n d c el ls th at c on t ai n t h es e ve c to r s. ( 3 ) P l as m id s c an n ot m a in t a in s t ab i li t y un l es s t hey a r e be n ef ic i al to th e h os t , s o t h e p l as m i d s ho u ld c o nt a in a g e ne es se n ti al fo r c e ll u la r s u r vi va l —e i th e r a n e nz y m e r e q ui r e d in a m et a bo li c pa t h wa y o r a g en e th a t r es i s t s c e r t ai n a n ti bi o ti cs (s e e I I I . D .4 ) . 2 . C o nj u g at i o n is an im p o r t an t m ea ns o f g en e t ra n s f e r , p a rt ic u la r l y am ong g r am +
n e g at i ve o r ga n is m s . Th is p ro c e ss in vo l ves t wo m a ti n g t y p es — t he do no r ( F ) a nd -
r e c ip ie n t ( F ) c e l ls — an d t h e e xt r a c h r om os om al pie c e kn o wn a s t he s e x o r f e r t il i t y f a c to r (F f ac t o r ) . Th e F fa c to r ( e. g . , F p l asm i d o r e p is om e ) i s n ot un d e r t he c o n t ro l o f t he c h ro m os om e a nd c a n r e pl ic a te au t on om o us l y . Pl a sm i d -m e di a te d exc h a n g e o f g e n et ic in f o rm at i on c a n o c c u r o n l y th r ou g h t he exp r e s s i on of t ra ns f e r g ene s . Th e g e n es e nc o de d o n t h e p la s m i d r es u lt in th e tr a ns fe r o f a s in g le s t r an d o f DN A t h r o ug h t h e s e x p i l us in to t he r ec ip i en t c el l . Th e F f ac t o r h as s e v e ra l g e ne s th a t
c o de fo r fo r m a t io n a n d ai d in do no r a tt ac hm e nt of s e x p i li . D ur i ng th is p roc es s , a +
c o p y i s m ad e , a s in g le s tr a n d i s t r an s f e r re d , a nd th e r ec ip ie n t b ec om es F . R p l as m i ds al s o e xi s t , wh i c h e nc od e f o r re si s t a nc e to c e r t ai n a n ti b io ti cs o r he a v y m e ta ls . W he n a n F p l as m i d i nt e gr a t es i n to th e c e l lu l a r ch r om os om e , t h e b a c t e r ia l s t r ai n i s s a i d t o b e a hi gh - f r e q ue n c y r e c o m b i n at i o n ( H f r ) s t ra in . D u ri ng t h e c o nj u ga l t r an s fe r i n v o l v in g an H f r s t ra in , de pe n din g on th e a m o u nt o f t im e, t h e wh o l e b ac te r ia l c h ro m o s o m e m a y b e t r a ns fe r r ed . A n t i b i ot ic - r es is ta n ce gen e s a r e o f t en pa r ts o f t r a ns p os on s (s e e I I I. D . 4 ) , wh i c h ar e r es po n si bl e f o r a d di t io n s , d e le t io ns , an d i n v e rs io ns o f l a r ge ( 4- 8 0 k i l ob as es) s eq u en c e s . W hen d i ff er e n t t r a ns p os on s “ j um p” in t o tr a n s f e ra b le pl as m i ds , c on t a gi ou s re s i s t a nc e t o m u l t ip le a n t ib io t ic s c a n o c c u r . 3 . T r an s du c t io n is t h e t ra n s f e r o f g e ne t ic m a te r ial b y b ac t e r io p ha g es ( vi ru s es th a t i n f ec t b ac t er i a ). S uc h v i ru s es c a n b e c l as si f ie d i nt o t wo g r ou ps : P.185
a . L yt i c p h a g e s e nt e r t he c e l l, r ep li c a t e , a nd pa c k a ge th e i r D N A ; th e y t hen l ys e t he c e ll to r el ea s e m a t u re in fe c ti v e vi r io ns . b . L ys o g e n i c ( t em p e ra te ) p ha g es c a n a l te r na t e b e t we e n t wo pa t h wa y s : ( 1 ) Th e l y ti c p at h wa y ( 2 ) Th e l ys o ge ni c p a th wa y- i n t eg r at i ng in t o t he ho s t D N A a nd r em ai ni n g do r m an t ( a ) Th e v i ra l D N A d o es no t r ep li c at e b u t is in t eg ra t e d i nt o th e h os t g e no m e a nd is k n o wn as p r op h ag e . ( b ) Th e p ro ph a ge s u pp r es s e s t h e l y t ic s t at e b y s yn t h es i z in g a p ro t ei n k nown a s a r e p r es so r , wh ic h p r o te c ts t he c e ll f ro m f u rt h e r i nfe c ti o n b y a v ir u s . ( c ) S om e p r op h ag es c a n c ha n ge th e c el l ' s p he n ot yp e ( p ha g e o r l ys o g e n ic c o n ve r s i on ) , wh ic h a l lows t h e o rg an is m t o e l abo r a t e m a t e ri al s ( e xo t o xi n s o r vi r u l en ce f ac to r s ) t ha t a re d et r im e nt a l t o t he hu m a n ho s t . L ys o ge n ic c on v e r s io n t h e r eb y i nc r ea s e s t he v i ru l en c e o r t h e s y m p t om s o f a s pe c i f ic p a th o ge n — fo r e xa m p l e , C o ry n eb ac t e ri um d i p ht h e ri ae ( di p ht h er ia t o xi n ) , S tr e pt oc o c c us py o ge n es ( e r yt h r og e ni c t o xi n in s c a r l et f e v e r) , an d Cl os t r idi u m t e ta ni ( te t an us t o xi n) .
VII. EXAMPLES OF UNIQUE BACTERIA A. C h l a m y d ia ar e o b li g at e in t r ac el lu l a r p a ra si t es t h a t 1 . L ac k t h e a b il i t y t o g e n e r a t e AT P ; h e n c e t h e y m us t ob t ai n i t f r om th e ho s t c el l 2 . H a ve a tw o - ph a se li fe c yc l e a . Th e i n fe c ti o us f o rm , or e l em e n ta r y b o d y, i s a d e ns e , n on r e pl ic at i ng c el l th a t is r e s is ta n t t o d r y i ng in t he e n v i r on m e n t. b . Th e r e ti c u la t e b o d y f o r m s f ro m e ng u lf e d e le m e n t a r y b o d y a n d u nd e rg oe s b i na r y f i ss io n . A f t e r m u l ti pl e d i vi s io ns , th e r e ti c u l at e b o di e s b ec om e t h e d en s e , el e m e n ta r y b o di e s, wh i c h a re r el ea s e d f ro m t he ho s t c e l l ( e .g . , C hl a m yd ia t r ac ho m a t is , wh i ch c a us es bl in d ne s s a n d s exu a l l y t r a ns m i t te d d is e as e s ) . B . R i c ke t t s ia , o bl i ga t e in t r ac e ll ul a r p a ra si t es t ran s m i t te d b y a r th r op o ds , a p p ea r to h a ve th e a b il i t y to ge ne ra t e A TP , bu t i ns t ea d u s e t h e ho s t c e ll p r od u c ts , i n c lu d i ng
AT P , a m i n o a c id s , n i cot i n a mi d e a de n i ne d in u cl e o t i de ( N AD ) , a n d c oen z ym e A ( e . g ., R ic k e t ts ia r ic k e t ts ii , wh i c h c a us es R oc k y Mo u n ta in sp o tt e d f e v e r ). C . My c o p l a sm a , t h e s m a l le s t b ac te r i a, a re un iq ue i n t ha t 1 . Th e y l ac k a ce l l w al l . 2 . Th e pl as m a m em b r ane c o n ta i ns s t e r o ls fo r add e d s t re n gt h (e . g. , My c op l as m a p n e u m on ia , wh i c h c a us es an a t y pi ca l o r wa l k i ng p n e um on ia ) .
VIII. VIRUSES A. V i r a l s t r u ct u r e 1 . Th e ba s i c s tr uc t u re o f a v i r us i s t h e vi r i o n o r n u c le o ca p s id . Th is s t r uc t u re is c om p os ed o f a p r o te in c o a t , wh ic h s u rr o un ds t he v i r a l g e no m e . Th e s h a pe o f t h e n u cl e oc ap s i d i s o ne c om p o n en t t h at de t e rm in es th e c l ass i fi ca t io n o f th e vi r u s . As n o t ed in I .B . 1 .b , th e v ir a l g e no m e is c om p os ed of e i t he r R N A o r D N A an d m a y be s i ng le o r d ou b le s t r an d ed . Th e nu cl eo c a p s i d o f vi r u s e s t ha t i n fe c t h um ans ha s t wo b a si c sh a pe s . a . I co s ah e d ra l . A r eg u lar g e om e t r ic s t r uc t u re wi t h 12 o r m o r e fa c e s ; r ese m bl es a s oc c er ba l l b . H e li c al . Th e p r o te i ns t h a t m ak e u p t he s t r uc t ur e wr a p in a h el ic a l f as hio n . He l ic al c a ps id s o f te n h a v e c on e o r b ul le t s h ap es . P.186
Table 9-1. The Multiplication of Animal Viruses NumberStep
Action(s)
1
Attachment (adsorption)
Virus attaches to a protein or polysaccharide molecule (receptor) on the surface of a cell
2
Penetration
Entire virus enters the cell, in some cases because it was phagocytized by the cell
3
Uncoating
Viral nucleic acid escapes from the capsid
4
Biosynthesis
Viral genes are expressed, resulting in the production of pieces or parts of viruses (i.e., viral DNA and viral proteins)
5
Assembly
Viral pieces are assembled to create complete virions
6
Release
Complete virions escape from the bacterial
cell by lysis or budding Reprinted by permission from Burton GRW, Engelkirk PG. Microbiology for the Health Sciences, 7th ed. Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, 2004.
2 . Th e v i ri o n m a y h a v e a l i p id e n ve lo p e, wh i c h is p ro d uc ed wh e n th e v iru s b u ds f r o m t he ho s t c e l l. Th e en v e l o pe i s c om po se d o f th e ho s t c e ll pl as m a m e m b r a ne an d vi r a l l y c o de d g l y c o p ro t ein s . B . V i r a l re p l ic a ti o n . V i ru s es a r e n o nl i v in g e n ti t ie s th a t m u s t e nt e r a ho st c el l t o r e p l i ca t e . O n c e in th e ho s t c el l , t he v i r us i s a bl e t o re p li c a t e i ts ge no m e a n d p r o du c e m o r e v ir us e s , wh i c h wi l l i n fe ct o th e r c e l ls . Th e s te p s i n t he m u lt ip l ic a ti on o f a n im al v i r us es ar e ou tl i ne d in Ta b le 9- 1 a n d i n volv e : 1 . Th e v i ru s a t ta c h es ( a tt a c h me n t ) t o t h e h os t c el l us in g vir a l p r ot e in s o r g l yc op r o te in s , wh i c h b ind t o r ec e pt o rs on t he hos t c e ll s u r fa ce . 2 . Th e v i ri o n t he n e n t e rs ( p e ne t r a t io n ) th e h os t ce l l . E n t r y m a y be acc om p l is he d b y f u si o n o f a v i ra l e n v e lo pe wi t h t he c e ll m em b r ane o r b y u pt a ke of th e v i rio n in t o a n e n d oc yt ic v es ic l e. I f t he v i r u s e n te r s t he c e ll t hr ou g h a n e n do c y ti c v es ic le, t h er e a r e s e ve r al wa y s f o r i t t o l eav e t h e e nd o c y ti c v e s ic le a n d e n te r th e c yt o pl as m o f t he h o st ce ll . 3 . O nc e i n th e h os t c el l , t h e v i ru s u n co a ts , an d th e nu c l ei c a ci d i s r e le ase d f ro m t h e c ap s i d . Th e f r ee nu c le i c ac i d t he n i s a bl e to be g in t he p ro ce s s o f re p ro d uc t io n . 4 . P r o te i n s yn t h e s i s o c c u rs in t wo s t a ge s . E a r l y p r o t e in s a r e n ec es s a r y f o r th e s yn t he s i s o f a ne w v i r a l g e n om e a nd ar e s y n t he s i z e d im m e di a te l y af t e r i nf e c ti on . L a t e p r o t e in s a r e s y n the s i z ed af t e r t h e v i r al ge no m e h as b e en c o pi e d; t he s e a r e t h e p r o te i ns n ec es s a r y fo r t he as se m b l y of th e ca p s i d , g l yc o p ro t ei ns fo r th e e n ve l op e , a nd an y e n z ym es in c l u de d i n t h e n uc le o c a p s i d. a . F or vi r us es wi t h a si ng l e - s t ra n de d R N A g e n om e , th e R N A m a y b e a pl u s ( + ) s t r an d o r a m i n us ( -) s t ra n d . P l us -s t r an d R N A g en o m e s a r e m R N As an d ar e t r a ns l at e d d ir ec t l y to p rot e i ns . Mi n us - s t r an d R N A g e no m e s h a ve a n R N A -d e p en de n t R N A p o l y m e r as e t h at c op i es th e g e no m e in t o a s t r a n d o f m R N A f o r tr a ns c r i p ti o n. b . D o u bl e -s t r a n de d R NA g e n o m e s us e a n R N A -d e p en de n t R N A p ol y m e ra s e t o t r a ns c ri be t he m i nu s s t ran d of R N A in t o a m es s a ge f o r t r an s l a ti o n. c . S om e p lu s - s t ra nd R NA v i r u s e s a r e m e m b e rs of t h e r e t r o vi r u s f am il y (e . g . , h um an i m m u no d ef ic i en c y v i ru s ). Th e s e v ir u se s h a ve a n e n z y m e c a ll ed r e v e rs e po l ym e ra s e , wh i c h t ra ns c ri b es th e RN A t o do ub l e -s t ra n de d DN A . Th e d ou bl e -s t r an d ed D N A i s i n t eg r a te d i n to th e h os t c e ll c h r om os om e ( a p r o vi r u s ) an d t h en t ra ns c ri bed t o
m R N A us i ng ho s t c e ll enz y m e s . Th e vir a l m R N A is t he n t r an sl a t ed i n t o v i ra l p r o t ei ns . d . I n vi r us es wi t h a D N A g e n om e , t he D N A m a y b e do u bl e s t ra nd e d o r s in g le s t r an d ed . I n ei th e r c as e , t h e D N A is t ra ns c ri b ed to m R N A a n d t he n t r a ns la t e d i nt o p r o t ei ns . 5 . A f te r ge no m e an d p r o te i n s y n th e s i s , th e vi ru s is as s em b le d in t o n e w v ir i o ns . 6 . A f te r as s em b l y , t h e v ir i o ns ar e r el e as e d f r om t h e h os t c e ll . F o r n o ne n ve l op e d vi r u s es , t h e v i r io ns a re re l ea s ed wh e n t h e h os t ce l l l y s es . E n v e lo p ed vi r us es a re r e l ea se d fr om t he ho s t c e l ls b y b u dd i ng ou t o f the h os t c el l m em b ra ne . P.187
IX. TRANSMISSION OF INFECTIOUS AGENTS A. I n f e c ti ou s a ge n ts a re f o u nd in a n um be r of di f fe r e n t e n vir o nm en t s , c a lle d r e s e r vo i r s . 1 . H u ma n s a re r e se r vo ir s f o r d is ea s e s t h at a re o b li g at e h um a n p a th og en s , wh ic h i n cl ud e a lm o s t al l v ir a l in f ec t io ns an d m a n y b ac te r i al di s e as es . W he n h um a ns a r e t h e re se r v o i r f o r t h e d is ea s e, t he y a r e s a i d t o b e c a r r i e r s. a . As ym p t o m a t i c c a r r i er s h a rb o r a n i n fe c t i on but h a v e n o s ym p t om s . S om e a s ym pt om a ti c c a r r ie r s c a r r y t h e i nf ec t io us ag e nt a s p a rt o f t he i r n o rm al flo r a ( S t r e p to c o c c us p y og en es ) . b . S ym p t o m a t i c ca r r i e rs h a v e o b vio us si gn s a nd s y m p t om s o f d is ea s e . 2 . A n a n im a l r e se r vo i r e xi s t s wh e n t h e p r im a r y h o st is an an im al . S uc h a n im al s m a y be wi l d (e . g ., fo xe s , r a c c oo ns ) o r d om es ti ca te d (l i ve s t oc k a nd pe t s ). 3 . E n vi r o nm e n ta l r es e rvo i r s i nc lu d e s oi l, la ke s , a n d p la n ts . B . Th e t r a ns m is s io n o f i n f e c ti o us a ge n ts de p en d s o n t he s o u rc e o f i n fec t io n . F o r d i se as es wi t h hu m a n re s e r v o i rs , th e m ec ha n is m s o f t ra ns m i s s io n i nc lu d e 1 . C o n ta c t a . D i r ec t co n t ac t re q ui re s p h y si c al c o nt ac t be t we e n a n i n fe c t e d i nd i v i dua l an d a s us c ep ti b le in d i v id ua l (s e xu a l l y t r a ns m i tt e d d is eas es ) . b . I nd i r e ct c on t ac t in v o lv e s a s us c e p ti bl e i n di vi du a l c om in g i n c on t ac t wi th a c o nt am i na t ed s u r fa c e ( m a n y v i r us es an d b a ct e ri a) . F om i t es a re s u r fa ce s t h a t c an b e an d f r e qu en t l y a re c on t am i na t ed wi t h m ic r oo rg a ni s m s ( d oo r k n ob s, cou n t e rs a n d o t h e r su r f ac es , c om pu t e r k e y bo a r ds , t o y s ). 2 . D r o p le t t ra n sm i ss i o n. I n fe c t e d d r op le t s a r e f or m e d wh e n an in f ec te d in d i v id u al c o ug hs o r s n e e z es . Th e i n f ec te d d r o pl e ts t r a nsm it t h e di s ea se to a s usc ep t i bl e i n di vi d ua l wh e n t he y c om e i n c on t ac t wi t h t h e m u c ou s m em br a ne s o f t h e i n di v i du a l 's n o se , m ou t h , o r e y e s ( m e a s l es ) . 3 . Ai r b o r n e t ra n sm i ss i on . W hen s m a ll c o nt am i na t e d d us t p a r ti c l es or t he r es i du e f r o m d r ie d d r op l et s ( d r opl e t n uc l ei ) re m a i n s u sp en d e d in t he ai r fo r lo ng pe r i od s o f t i m e , th e y c a n t r an s m i t di s ea s e ( in f lu en z a , pn eum o ni a , t ub e rc u lo s i s ). The s e sm al l n u cl ei ca n i n fe c t bo t h t he u pp e r a nd t he lo we r r es p i ra t or y t r ac t . 4 . F oo d a n d w at e r co n ta m i na t i on . Fo o d o r wa t er c on t am in a te d wi t h b ac te r i a f r om h u m a n o r an im al f ec es le a ds to t ra n s m is s i on of d i s e as e t h r ou g h t he fe c al - o r al ro u t e.
C . V e c to r s ar e a n im al s c a pa b le of t ra ns m i t ti n g di s ea se s . Th e m os t c om m o n vec t o r f o r di se as e i s t h e m o s q ui t o (m al a ri a ) , b ut o th e r in s ec ts ( fl e as , t ic k s a n d fl i es ) a r e a l so vec t o rs ( R oc k y Mo u n t a in s p ot t ed f e v e r) . In ad d i ti on , m am m a ls ( do gs , m ic e a nd r a t s ) c a n b e v ec t o rs f o r d i s e as e . D . E n t r y i n t o a ho s t . B ac t e ri a c an en t e r a h os t th r o ug h i n ge st i on of f oo d o r wa t e r , i n ha l at i on of d ro p le ts o r d u s t pa r t ic le s , in j ec ti o n b y a n i ns e ct vec t o r , o r by c o nt am i na t io n o f a wo u nd .
X. MECHANISMS OF PATHOGENICITY A. Mi c r o o r ga n is m s c au s e d is ea s e in di f fe r e nt wa ys . A l th o ug h s ig ns an d sy m p t om s o f t h e d is e as e a r e o f te n t he r es u lt of t he ho st r es po n se , m ic r oo r g an is m s c an d am ag e t i ss ue t hr o ug h th e p r od uc t io n o f e xo t o xi n s a n d en d o to xi n s , a n d b y d ir ec t e f f ec ts . In a d di t io n , m ic r ob ia l v i ru len c e f ac t o rs c on t r ib u te to t h e a bi l it y o f a m ic r o or ga n is m t o i n f ec t a ho s t an d c au s e d i s e as e . 1 . V i r ul e nc e fa c t o rs a re t h e c ha r ac t er is t ic s o f a n o r g an is m t ha t a l lo w i t t o e i th e r d a m a g e t he ho s t o r e v a de h os t d e fe ns es . a . E xo t o xi n s a r e t o xi n s t h a t a r e s e c re t ed b y th e m ic r o or g an is m e it h e r i nto t he e n vi r on m e n t o r af t e r c o lo n i z a ti on o f a h os t . ( 1 ) E xo t o xi n s s e c re t ed int o f oo d o r wa t e r t h at a re t h e n i ng es t ed b y a h os t c a us e i n t o xi c at i on ( bo t ul is m a nd s ta ph y l o c o cc al fo o d p oi s on in g ) . ( 2 ) E xo t o xi n s p r od uc ed a f t e r i nf ec t io n a n d c ol on iz a t i o n i nt e r fe r e wi t h c e l l f u nc t io n o r p h ys ic al l y da m a g e t he c e l l ( B o r de t el la pe r t us s is , C o r y n e ba ct e r iu m d ip h the r i ae , V i b r io c h ol e ra ) . P.188
Table 9-2. Important Human Pathogens and Their Diseases Infectious Agent
Typical Infection
Bacteria Gram-positive cocci Staphylococcus aureus
Abscess, skin infections, toxic shock
Streptococcus pyogenes
Strep throat, erysipelas, rheumatic fever
Streptococcus pneumoniae
Pneumonia
Gram-positive rods Bacillus
Anthrax
Clostridium
Gas gangrene, tetanus
Corynebacterium
Diphtheria
Acid-fast rods Mycobacterium tuberculosis
Tuberculosis
Mycobacterium leprae
Leprosy
Nocardia
Nocardiosis
Gram-negative cocci Neisseria gonorrhoeae
Gonorrhea
Neisseria meningitidis
Meningitis
Gram-negative rods Bordetella
Pertussis
Brucella
Brucellosis
Escherichia coli
Sepsis, diarrhea, urinary tract infection
Haemophilus influenzae
Meningitis
Legionella
Legionnaires disease
Pseudomonas
Opportunistic lung and burn infections
Salmonella
Typhoid fever, salmonellosis
Shigella
Dysentery
Vibrio cholerae
Cholera
Yersinia pestis
Plague
Spirochetes Borrelia
Lyme disease
Treponema pallidum
Syphilis
Mycoplasma
Pneumonia, urinary infections
Rickettsia
Rocky Mountain spotted fever
Chlamydia
Urethritis, vaginitis
Fungi Systemic mycoses Aspergillus
Aspergillosis
Blastomyces
Blastomycosis
Candida albicans
Candidiasis
Coccidioides immitis
Valley fever
Cryptococcus neoformans
Cryptococcosis
Pneumocystis (carinii) jiroveci
Pneumonia (PCP)
Sporothrix schenckii
Sporotrichosis
Protozoa Entamoeba histolytica
Amoebiasis
Giardia lamblia
Giardiasis
Plasmodium
Malaria
Toxoplasma gondii
Toxoplasmosis
Trichomonas vaginalis
Trichomoniasis
Trypanosoma brucei
Sleeping sickness
Helminths Ascaris
Acariosis
Cestodes
Tapeworm
Schistosoma
Schistosomiasis
Various fluke infections Various roundworm infections
Adapted with permission from Cowan MK, Talaro KP. Microbiology: A Systems Approach. 1st ed.: McGraw-Hill, 2005. With permission of The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
P.189
Table 9-3. Important Human Virus Families and Their Diseases Family
Virus
Disease
DNA viruses Poxviridae
Variola and vaccinia
Smallpox, cowpox
Herpesviridae
Herpes simplex 1 virus (HSV-1)
Fever blister, cold sores
Herpes simplex 2 virus (HSV-2)
Genital herpes
Varicella zoster virus (VZV)
Chickenpox, shingles
Human cytomegalovirus (CMV)
CMV infections
Human adenoviruses
Adenovirus infection
Adenoviridae
Papovaviridae
Human papillomavirus (HPV)
Several types of warts
JC virus (JCV)
Progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy (PML)
Hepadnaviridae
Hepatitis B virus (HBV; of Dane particle)
Serum hepatitis
Parvoviridae
Parvovirus B19
Erythema infectiosum
Poliovirus
Poliomyelitis
Coxsackievirus
Hand-foot-mouth disease
Hepatitis A virus (HAV)
Short-term hepatitis
Human rhinovirus
Common cold, bronchitis
Calciviridae
Norwalk virus
Viral diarrhea, Norwalk virus syndrome
Togaviridae
Eastern equine encephalitis virus
Eastern equine encephalitis (EEE)
Western equine encephalitis virus
Western equine encephalitis (WEE)
RNA viruses Picornaviridae
Yellow fever virus
Yellow fever
St. Louis encephalitis virus
St. Louis encephalitis
Rubella virus
Rubella (German measles)
Dengue fever virus
Dengue fever
West Nile fever virus
West Nile fever
Bunyamwera viruses
California encephalitis
Sin Nombre virus
Respiratory distress syndrom
Rift Valley fever virus
Rift Valley fever
Crimean-Congo hemorrhagic fever virus (CCHF)
Crimean-Congo hemorrhagic fever
Filoviridae
Ebola, Marburg virus
Ebola fever
Reoviridae
Colorado tick fever virus
Colorado tick fever
Human rotavirus
Rotavirus gastroenteritis
Influenza virus, type A (Asian,
Influenza, flu
Flaviviridae
Bunyaviridae
Orthomyxoviridae
Hong Kong, swine) Paramyxoviridae
Parainfluenza virus, types 1-5
Parainfluenza
Mumps virus
Mumps
Measles virus
Measles (red)
Respiratory syncytial virus (RSV)
Common cold syndrome
Rhabdoviridae
Rabies virus
Rabies (hydrophobia)
Retroviridae
Human T-cell leukemia virus (HTLV)
T-cell leukemia
HIV (1 and 2)
AIDS
Arenaviridae
Lassa virus
Lassa fever
Coronaviridae
Infectious bronchitis virus (IBV)
Bronchitis
Enteric corona virus
Coronavirus enteritis
SARS virus
Severe acute respiratory syndrome
Adapted with permission from Cowan MK, Talaro KP. Microbiology: A Systems Approach. 1st ed.: McGraw-Hill, 2005. With permission of The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. P.190
b . E n do t o xi n s ( s e e II I . C. 1 . b ) a r e i nt e gr a l p a rt s of t h e o ut e r m em b ra ne o f g r a m n e g at i ve b ac t e ri a . D u r ing a n i nf ec t io n , e nd o to xi n s a re ab l e t o i nd uc e fe ver a n d s h oc k in t he ho s t . c . C ap s u le s ( s e e II I . B. 1) a r e u se d f o r a d he r en c e t o ho s t s u r fa c e s a n d h elp t he b a ct e r ia e v ad e p h ag oc y to s is b y t h e h os t c el ls . 2 . M e c ha n is m s o f d i se as e . Th e re a re th r e e m a i n p a t te r ns b y wh i c h m ic r oo r g an i s m s c a us e d is ea s e : a . I n to x ic a t io n [s ee X. A . 1 . a .( 1 ) ] b . I n fe c t io n i s s uf f ic ie n t t o c a us e d is ea s e fo r som e m ic r oo r ga n is m s , e s pe c ia ll y f o r d i se as es s u c h as p n eu m o n ia , in wh i ch th e c a ps ule su r r ou n di n g t he ba c te ri a s t im ul a te s a s t r on g i n fl am m a t o r y re s p o ns e . Th i s r e s po ns e i s r es p on s i bl e f o r m a n y of t h e s ym pt om s o f th e d is e a s e . In s om e c as es , i n fe c ti o n m a y b e f o ll o we d by t o xi n p r o du c ti on ( s e e X. A . 1. a .( 2 ) ) , a s i n d ip h th e r ia . c . In va s i o n o f h o s t t i ssu e s a n d t he n g r o wt h in th e ti ss ue is th e m ec ha n is m o f d i se as e i n fe c t i on b y v i rus es an d ba c t e ri a s uc h a s My c o b ac t e ri a . S om e b ac t e ri a ( e . g ., S hi g el la s p . ) a r e ab l e t o p r o du ce to xi n s a fte r t he in v a si o n o f h os t t is su e .
XI. DISEASES CAUSED BY INFECTIOUS AGENTS A. D i s e a s es ca u se d b y b a c t e ri a , f u n gi , p ro t o zoa , a nd he l mi n t hs ( Ta b le 9 - 2 ) B . D i s ea s es ca u se d b y vi r u s e s ( Ta bl e 9 - 3 ) P.191
STUDY QUESTIONS D i r e c t i on s fo r q ue s t io ns 1 - 12 : E a c h qu e st io n , st a t em en t , o r in co m p le t e s t a te m e n t i n th is s e c t i on c a n b e c or r e c tl y a ns we r e d o r c om p l e te d b y o n e o f t he su gg e s t e d a n s we r s o r p h r as es . Ch oo s e t he b es t a n s we r . 1 . C e ll w a l ls o f b o th g ra m - p os i t i ve a n d g r a m- ne g a t i ve b a c te r i a a r e c om p o se d of c o m pl e x m ac r o m ol e cu le s . W h i ch o f t h e f o l low in g s ta t e me n ts d es c r ib es b o th t yp e s o f c e ll w a l ls ? ( A ) Th e y c on t ai n s ig n if ic a n t a m o u nt s o f te ic ho ic a c id . ( B ) Th e y c on t ai n p o re s m a de f ro m p r ot e in s . ( C ) Th e i r a n ti g en ic s p ec if i c i t y is de t e rm in ed b y the p ol y s ac c h a ri d e O a nt i ge n . ( D ) Th e y c on t ai n p e pt i dog l y c an . V i e w A n s we r 1 . T h e a n sw e r i s D [ se e] . 2 . W h ic h o f t h e f o l low i n g d e s c ri p t i on s b e s t c ha ra c t e r iz es se x p i l i? ( A ) Th e y e n ab le D N A t ran s po r t b e t we e n b ac t er i a d u r i n g c on j ug a ti o n. ( B ) Th e y p l a y a r ol e i n t he a dh es i on of ba c te r ia to t h ei r ta r g et c e ll s . ( C ) Th e y a r e n um e r ou s on t he ba c te r ia l c el l s u rf ac e . ( D ) Th e y a r e f o un d o n l y o n g ra m - p os it i v e or g an is m s . V i e w A n s we r 2 . T h e a n sw e r i s A [ se e] . 3 . T h e m od e o f g e ne t r an s f e r i n w h ic h na ke d D N A i s t ake n u p i s c a ll e d ( A ) t r an s fo r m a ti o n.
( B ) t r an sd u c t io n . ( C ) c on j ug a ti on . ( D ) c el l f us i on . V i e w A n s we r 3 . T h e a n sw e r i s A [ se e] . 4 . Ba c te r ia t h a t m ak e e i t he r a f e r m e n ta t i ve o r r e sp i r at o r y s e t o f e nz ym e s a r e k n ow n a s ( A ) o bl i ga t e a na e ro b es . ( B ) o bl i ga t e a er o be s . ( C ) m ic r oa e ro p hi le s . ( D ) f ac u lt a ti v e o rg a ni s m s . V i e w A n s we r 4 . T h e a n sw e r i s D [ se e] . 5 . W h ic h o f t h e f o l low i n g s t a te me n t s d e s c ri b es p la s mi d s? ( A ) Th e y a r e s in gl e -s t r and e d D N A m ol ec ul es . ( B ) Th e y c a r r y o p ti o na l ge n es . ( C ) Th e y c a r r y g e ne s e s s e nt i al fo r g ro wt h . ( D ) Th e y a r e a l wa y s f oun d in li ne a r f o rm . V i e w A n s we r 5 . T h e a n sw e r i s B [ se e] . 6 . Al l o f th e f o ll ow i ng s ta t e me n ts d e s c ri b e th e n u cl e a r bo d y e x c e p t w h ic h o n e? ( A ) I t i s r e fe r r ed t o as nuc l eo id . ( B ) I t i s f r ee o f r ib os o m es . ( C ) I t i s c om po s e d o f ri bo s om es . ( D ) I t l a c k s a n uc le a r m em b r an e . V i e w A n s we r 6 . T h e a n sw e r i s C [ se ea n d] .7 . Ba ct e r i a th a t g r ow a t t e m p e ra t u r es as hi g h as 5 5 ° C a r e k n ow n a s ( A ) p s yc h r op hi l es . ( B ) t h er m o p hi le s . ( C ) m es op h il es . ( D ) a u xo t r o ph s . V i e w A n s we r 7 . T h e a n sw e r i s B [ se ea n d] .8 . W h ic h o f t h e f o l low i n g o r g a n is m s c an us e on ly m o l e c u l a r o x yg e n a s t h e f in a l a cc e p to r ? ( A ) o bl i ga t e a na e ro b es ( B ) f ac u lt a ti v e an a er o bes ( C ) o bl i ga t e a e ro b es ( D ) s t ri c t an a e ro b es V i e w A n s we r 8 . T h e a n sw e r i s C [ se ea n d] .9 . Vi ru s e s a r e c l as s if i e d b y a l l o f t h e f ol l ow i ng ex c ep t b y ( A ) s t ru c t u r e o f c a p s i d. ( B ) t yp e o f n u c l ei c a c i d. ( C ) o xyg e n r e q ui r em en ts . ( D ) p r es en c e o f l ip id en v e l op e . V i e w A n s we r 9 . T h e a n sw e r i s C [ se e] . 1 0. P r o t oz o a a r e c l as s i fi e d b y ( A ) s ha pe . ( B ) c el l wa l l t y p e. ( C ) s e xu a l re p ro d uc ti v e s t r uc t ur es . ( D ) m od e o f m o ti li t y .
V i e w A n s we r 1 0 . T he a nsw e r i s D [ se e] . 1 1. W hi c h o f t he f o ll ow i n g i s n o t p a r t o f t h e vi r us e 's i n fec t i o us c yc l e ? ( A ) a t ta c h m e n t ( B ) u n wi n di n g ( C ) r e pl ic a ti o n o f t h e g en o m e ( D ) p r o te in s y nt h es is ( E ) r e le as e V i e w A n s we r 1 1 . T he a nsw e r i s B [ se ea n d] .P . 19 2
1 2 . In f ec t i o us ag e n ts ar e t r a ns m i t te d to p eo p le f r o m r e se r vo i r s . Th e se r e s e r vo i r s i n c lu d e ( A ) d r op le t s . ( B ) a ni m a ls . ( C ) f om i te s . ( D ) c on t am in a te d f o od . V i e w A n s we r 1 2 . T he a nsw e r i s B [ se ea n d] . Di r e c ti o n s fo r q ue s ti o n s 1 3- 20 : Th e q u es ti o ns a n d i nc om p l e te s t a te m e n ts i n t h is s ec t io n c a n b e co r r ec t l y a n s we r e d o r co m p l et e d b y o ne o r m o r e o f th e s ug g es t ed an s we r s . Ch o os e t he c o r re c t a ns we r , A-D. 1 3 . G r am - n eg a t i ve a n d g r a m - po s i ti ve c e ll w a lls s ha r e w h ic h o f t he f ol l ow i n g c h a r ac t e r is t i cs ? I . p ep t i de c r os s - li n ks be tw e e n p o l ys a c c h a r i d es I I . h yd r o l ys i s b y l ys o z ym e I I I . r ig i d p o l ys a c c h a r i de f r a mew o r k A i f I o nl y is c o r r ec t B i f II I on l y is c o r re c t C i f I a n d I I a r e c or r ec t D i f II a nd I II a re c o r re c t E i f I, I I a nd I II a re c o r r ec t V i e w A n s we r 1 3 . T he a nsw e r i s E [s e ea n d] . 1 4. A d e c l in i ng g r ow t h r a t e o c c u rs d u r in g w h ic h o f t h e fo l l ow in g ph a se s of b a c te r i al ce l l g r ow t h ? I . l ag p ha s e I I . ex p on e n t ia l p h as e I I I . de a th p ha s e A i f I o nl y is c o r r ec t B i f II I on l y is c o r re c t C i f I a n d I I a r e c or r ec t D i f II a nd I II a re c o r re c t E i f I, I I a nd I II a re c o r r ec t V i e w A n s we r 1 4 . T he a nsw e r i s B [ se ea n d] .1 5 . T he p ep t i d og l yc a n b a c kb o ne o f a ba c t e ri a l c e l l c on t a in s I . d ip e p t id e c h ai n s . I I . N - ac e t yl m u r a m i c ac id . I I I . N -a c e t yl g l u c o s am i ne .
A i f I o nl y is c o r r ec t B i f II I on l y is c o r re c t C i f I a n d I I a r e c or r ec t D i f II a nd I II a re c o r re c t E i f I, I I a nd I II a re c o r r ec t V i e w A n s we r 1 5 . T he a nsw e r i s D [ se e] . N N 1 6 . E n ti t i e s t h a t a r e a ce l l ul a r d o n o t f i t t h e c la s si c al d e fi n i t i on o f l i vi n g th i ng s . T h e y a r e I . vi r u s es . I I . f un g i . I I I . p ri o ns . A i f I o nl y is c o r r ec t B i f II I on l y is c o r re c t C i f I a n d I I a r e c or r ec t D i f II a nd I II a re c o r re c t E i f I, I I a nd I II a re c o r r ec t V i e w A n s we r 1 6 . T he a nsw e r i s C [ se ea n d] .1 7 . D im o r p h ic f un g i h a ve I . a ye a s t p h a se . I I . a s ex u al p ha s e. I I I . a m ol d p h as e . A i f I o nl y is c o r r ec t B i f II I on l y is c o r re c t C i f I a n d I I a r e c or r ec t D i f II a nd I II a re c o r re c t E i f I, I I a nd I II a re c o r r ec t V i e w A n s we r 1 7 . T he a nsw e r i s C [ se ea n d] . Bl a s to m y ce s , C o c c i di o i de s , Hi s t op l asm a 1 8. T ra n sm i ss i o n o f a n i n fe c ti o u s d is e as e by t h e f ec a l- o r a l r o u t e o ccu r s w h e n I . i n fe c t io u s a ge n t s a r e d e p os i t ed on s u r fa ce s s u c h a s d o o r k n ob s . I I . an i nd i vi d u al co u g hs o r s ne ez e s a n d d r o pl e ts w i t h in f ec t i o us ag e n ts a r e e x p el l e d. I I I . fo o d o r w a t e r i s c o nt a m i na t e d w i t h h u ma n o r a n im a l f e ce s . A i f I o nl y is c o r r ec t B i f II I on l y is c o r re c t C i f I a n d I I a r e c or r ec t D i f II a nd I II a re c o r re c t E i f I, I I a nd I II a re c o r r ec t V i e w A n s we r 1 8 . T he a nsw e r i s B [ se ea n d] .1 9 . V ir u l e n ce f ac t o r s t h at e n h an c e m ic r o b ia l pa t ho g e n ic i t y i n c l u d e I . c ap s ul e s. I I . en d o to x i ns . I I I . e x o to x i ns . A i f I o nl y is c o r r ec t B i f II I on l y is c o r re c t C i f I a n d I I a r e c or r ec t D i f II a nd I II a re c o r re c t
E i f I, I I a nd I II a re c o r r ec t V i e w A n s we r 1 9 . T he a nsw e r i s E [s e e] . 2 0. O n F rid a y, J a n u a r y 1 3 , a n u m be r o f p a t r o ns o f M o m ' s D i n e r b e ca me i ll 2- 6 h r af t e r e a t in g at t he r e s t a u ra n t . T h e h ea l t h d e p a r tm e n t w a s c a ll e d i n t o i n ve s t ig a t e. D u r ing t h e i n ve s t i ga t i o n, i t w a s fou n d t ha t a l l th e in d i vi du a l s w ho be c am e i l l h ad e a te n b a n an a c r e am p ie , M o m' s s pe c ia l i t y, b u t h a d no t e a te n a n yt h i n g e ls e in c o m mo n . T h e i n ve s ti g at o r s f ou n d n o vi a bl e pat h o g en s in t he p ie , b u t t e s t s i n d i ca t e d t h e p r es e nc e o f s t ap h yl o c o c c a l co n ta m i na t i on o f th e c r e am p i e . I l l n es s re s u lt i n g f r o m th i s co n t am i na t i on w o u ld b e c o ns i de r e d a n I . i n fe c t io n . I I . i n vas i o n. I I I . in t o xi c at i o n. A i f I o nl y is c o r r ec t B i f II I on l y is c o r re c t C i f I a n d I I a r e c or r ec t D i f II a nd I II a re c o r re c t E i f I, I I a nd I II a re c o r r ec t V i e w A n s we r 2 0 . T he a nsw e r i s B [ se e] . S t a ph y loc o c cu s a u r e us P . 19 3
ANSWERS AND EXPLANATIONS 1 . T he an sw e r is D [ s ee I I I . C .1 ] . Th e c el l wa l l o f g r am - pos i ti v e ba c te r ia is a t hi c k l a y e r of pe p ti d og l yc a n wit h a l a rg e a m ou n t o f t e ic ho ic ac id s ( s u r fa ce an t ig e ns ) . G r a m - n e ga t i ve b ac t e ri a h a ve o n l y a s m a l l am o un t o f pe p ti dog l y c an , n o te ic ho ic ac i d, a n d a n o u te r m em b r an e c om p os ed o f li p op r ot e in an d l i po po ly s a c c h ar i de , o f wh i c h the p ol y s ac ch a ri d e m a k e s u p th e O a n t ig en . 2 . T he an sw e r is A [ s ee I I I . B. 3 .b ] . S e x p i l i ar e fo un d o n l y on g r am -n e ga t i ve o r ga n is m s a nd in v e r y s m al l n um b e rs (< 1 0 ) . Th e y a c t as f ra g il e tr a n s p o rt t ub es fo r D N A exc h a n g e . Co m m on pi li a re a d h es io ns . 3 . T he an sw e r is A [ s ee V I . C . 1] . O f t h e t h re e m e th o ds o f D N A t r a ns f er , on l y t ra ns fo r m at i on ta ke s u p D N A wi t h o u t a n i n t er m ed ia r y . 4 . T he an sw e r is D [ s ee I V . D . 1. b ] . F a cu l ta t i v e o r ga n is m s c an g r o w wi t h o ut ai r an d m a k e e it h e r a f e rm e nt a ti v e o r a r e s pi r at o r y s e t o f e n z y m e s , d ep e nd i ng on th e c on d i ti on s . 5 . T he an sw e r is B [ s ee I I I . D .4 ; VI . C . 2] . Th e c h ro m o s o m e c a r r ie s a l l o f t he ge n es es s e nt ia l fo r g ro wt h , wh e r e as p la sm i ds a r e e xt r a c h r om os om a l, do u bl e - s t r an d ed , c i rc ul a r p ie ce s o f D N A th a t c a r r y o pt io n al g e n es t h at ad d e xt r a pr op e r ti e s . 6 . T he an sw e r is C [ s ee I I I . D .2 an d 3 ] . R i b os om es a re fo u nd in t h e c y t o pl as m , no t in th e n uc l eo id ( a l on g , c ir c u l ar , d ou b le s t r an d ed D N A wi t h ou t a n u c l e ar m e m b r an e ) .
7 . T he an sw e r is B [ s ee I V . C . 1, 2 a nd 3 ]. Th e r m o ph il es g ro w a t 5 5° C a n d a r e f ou n d i n h ot s p r i n gs an d c om po s t pi l es . Me s o p h i le s g ro w a t a pp ro xi m a t e l y 3 7 ° C , p s yc h r op h il e s g ro w a t 1 5 ° C a nd l o we r , a nd a u xo t r o p hs a re m u ta n t or g a ni s m s. 8 . T he an sw e r is C [ s ee I V . D . 1 a nd 2] . O b l i ga t e a e ro b es re qu i r e o xy g e n a n d l ac k a n a lt er n a ti v e f e rm en t at i ve p a thwa y . O b l i ga t e a na e r ob es ar e s t r ic t a na e r ob es th a t c ann o t l i v e i n t h e p r es en ce o f o xyg e n . F a cu l ta t i v e a na e r ob es c a n us e o xyg e n a s t he fi na l ac c e pt o r o r to p ro vi d e a n a l t er n a te fe r m e n ta t i v e pa t h wa y . 9 . T he an sw e r is C [ s ee I . B . 1; V I II . A ] . V i r us e s a re c l as s i f ie d b y t h e s t ru ct u r e o f t he c a ps i d, t he t ype an d s t ra n ded n es s o f t h e n uc l ei c ac i d, t he p res e nc e o f a li pi d e n ve lo pe , an d th e p r es en ce o f en z ym e s . V i r us e s d o n ot ge n er a t e t h e ir o wn e ne r g y , h e nc e t h e r e is no ne e d f o r o xyg e n . V i r us e s us e t h e e ne r g y in t he ho s t ce l l. 1 0 . Th e a n sw e r i s D [ s ee I . A .2 . b] . P r o t o zo a a re un ic e ll ul a r , n o np h ot os y n t he t ic eu k ar y o t e s t h at a re c l as s i fi e d b y t h ei r m o de of m o t il it y o r la c k o f m o t il it y. Th e t y p es o f m o ti l it y a r e f la g el la , c il i a, a nd a m oe b oi d m o v em en t . 1 1 . Th e a n sw e r i s B [ s ee V I I I. B . 1, 2 , 3 , 4 , 5 an d 6 ] . Th e v i r a l i n fe c t i ou s c y c l e c on s i s ts o f at t ac hm en t , e n t r y , u n c o a ti ng ( no t u nwi n d i n g ), p r o t ei n s y n th es is , ge nom e re p li ca ti o n , as se m b l y, a nd r el e as e. 1 2 . Th e a n sw e r i s B [ s ee I X. A . 1 , 2 an d 3 ] . I n f ec t io us ag en t s c a n b e f o un d i n m an y d i ff e re n t e n vi r on m e n ts , i nc l ud in g p e o pl e, a n im al s , a nd th e n a tu r a l e n v i r on m e n t . A n im al s a re a re se v o i r ; f om i te s , d ro p le t s a nd c o nt am i na t ed fo o d o r wat e r a re m ec h an is m s o f t ra n s m is si on . 1 3 . Th e a n sw e r i s E ( I , II , I I I) [s e e I I I. C . 1 a n d 2 ]. P e p t id og l y c a n i s t h e b as i c l a y e r o f th e c el l wa ll i n b ot h g r am - p os it i ve a n d g r am n e g at i ve o r ga n is m s . I t p ro v i d es a r i gi d f r am e wo r k t h a t is s u sc ep t ib le t o t he ac t io n o f l ys o zym e . G r a m -p os i ti v e c el ls a re de f ic ie n t i n l ip i d s ; h o we v e r , g ra m - n eg a ti v e ce l ls a r e ri c h in c o m p le x l i p i ds ( e. g . , l ip op o l ys a cc ha r id e ) . Bo t h t y p es of ce ll wa l ls ha v e c r os s -l in k s be t we e n p o l ys ac c ha r id es . P.194
1 4 . Th e a n sw e r i s B ( I I I) [ s e e I V. E . 1, 2 , 3 a n d 4 ]. D u r i ng t he la g p ha s e, the c e l ls p r e pa r e f o r g r o wt h , so th e re is no ac tu a l gr o wt h . G r o wt h i s m a xi m al du r i ng t he e xp o n en t ia l p h as e a n d l e v el s o u t d u ri ng t he s t at i on a r y p h as e wi t h n o n e t i nc re as e i n c el l n um b e r. Th e r e i s a de c l i ne in o rg an is m n u m b e r d u r in g th e d ea t h p ha s e be c au s e t he r e a r e m o r e or g a n i sm s d yi ng th a n a r e b e in g p r o du c e d . 1 5 . Th e a n sw e r i s D ( I I , I I I ) [s ee I II . C . 1] . Th e c el l wa l l o f b o th gr am - p os it i ve a n d g r am -n e ga t i ve o r g an is m s i s c om po s ed of r e p ea t in g d is ac c ha r id e un i ts . Th es e u n it s c on t ai n N - a c e t yl gl uc os a m i ne and N a c et yl m u r am ic ac id , to wh i c h te t r ap e pt i de c h ai ns a r e c r os s -l in k e d . On l y g ra m p o si t i ve o r ga ni s m s h a v e t e ic h oi c ac i d.
1 6 . Th e a n sw e r i s C ( I , II I ) [s e e I . B .1 an d 2 ] . V i r us e s a re ba s i c al l y p r ot e i ns a n d n uc le ic ac id s , wh e r e a s p r io ns a re p ro t ei n s, n e i th e r o f wh ic h a r e c el ls . B ac te r ia a re p ro k a r yo ti c c el ls , an d f u ng i a r e e uk a r yo ti c c e ll s. 1 7 . Th e a n sw e r i s C ( I , II I ) [s e e I . A .2 . a. ( 1 ) , ( 2 ), (3 ) a nd (4 ) ] . D i m o rp hi c f u ng i l ik e Bl as t o m y c e s, C oc c i d io id es , an d H is to p la s m a c an be gr o wn i n e i t he r a y e as t (u n ic el lu l ar ) o r m ol d (f i la m e n to us ) p h as e , d ep e nd in g o n th e t e m p e r at u re o f i nc ub a ti on . F un gi a re pl ac e d i n ph y l a ba s e d o n t h e t y p e of s e xu a l r e p r od uc t io n o bs e r v e d: ei t h er as cu s , b as id iu m , o r z y g o t e . F u ng i i m p e r fe c t i c on s i s t o f sp ec ie s wi t ho u t o bs e rv a b l e s e xu a l re p ro d uc ti v e s tr u c t u re s . 1 8 . Th e a n sw e r i s B ( I I I) [ s e e I X. B . 1, 2 , 3 a n d 4 ]. Th e f e ca l -o r al r ou t e o f t ra n s m is si on in v o l v es c o n ta m in a ti on o f f oo d o r wa t e r wi t h a n im al f ec es . 1 9 . Th e a n sw e r i s E ( I , II , I I I) [s e e X. A . 1 ] . C a p su l es a c t as v i r ul e nc e f ac t or s b y i nh i bi ti n g p ha g oc y t o si s a nd ac ti n g t o a t t ac h m ic r o or g an is m s to ho s t s u r fa c e s . E xo t o xi n s a r e s ec r e te d b y m ic r oo r ga n is m s an d e i t he r al te r c e ll fu n c t i on s o r c a us e c el l d ea t h . E ndo t o xi n s i n du ce s h oc k i n m am m a l ia n h os ts t h ro ugh t he li p id A c om po n en t o f t he m o le cu le . P ep ti d og l yc an is t h e b ac k bo ne o f t he ba c te r i al c e ll wa l l . 2 0 . Th e a n sw e r i s B ( I I I) [ s e e X. A . 1 .a . ( 1) ; X. A . 2 ]. S t a p hy lo c o c c us au r eu s c a n p ro du ce a n e xo t o xi n , wh i c h r es ul ts in ga s tr o int e s ti na l d i se as e . W hen th e re is di s ea s e in th e a bs e nc e o f i n fe c ti on o r i n vas io n o f th e ti s s ue s b y a li v e o rg a ni s m , t h e di s ea s e is c al l ed an in t o xi c a ti o n.
10 Immunology G a i l G o o dm a n- S n i tk o f f
I. THE PHYSIOLOGY OF THE IMMUNE SYSTEM A. I m m u n o ge ns , an t i gen s , an d h a p te n s 1 . I mm u no g en s a r e c hem ic a l c o m p o un ds t ha t c au s e a s p ec if ic i m m u ne r es po ns e . 2 . An t i g e ns a re c h em ic al c o m p o un ds t ha t b in d to p r o du ct s o f a n i m m u ne r es po ns e . W hen t h e a n ti ge ns a re r ec og ni ze d b y a n ti b od y o r ac t i vat e d c el ls , t h e y c a n be el im in a te d b y a s pe c if ic im m u ne r e s po ns e . 3 . I mm u no g en - a n ti g en s. C o m p o un ds ass oc i at e d wi t h o r s ec r e te d b y p a r as it ic ba c te r ia , p r ot o z o a , f u ng i , a nd v i r us es a n d o f m ol ec ul a r we i g h t (m o l wt ) > 5 00 0 da l t on s m a y a c t as bo t h im m u n og e ns a n d a n t ig en s . a . Mo l e c u l a r c o m p l e xi t y is as im po r t an t a s m o l ecu l a r we i g h t i n d e t e rm in in g th e s ta t us of a c o m p ou n d a s a n im m un o g en . F o r a m o le cu l e t o b e im m u n oge n ic , i t m us t c o nt ai n p r o te i n o r pe p ti de . Th e r e f o re , pr o te i ns , g l y c o p r o te in s , li p op r o te i ns , an d nu cl e op r ot e in s a r e th e m os t p o te n t im m u n o ge n -a n ti g en s. b . D r ug s o f s u ff ic i en t m ol e c u la r we i g ht ( e. g . , i ns ul i n ) c a n ac t as i m m u no g en - an t ig e ns . Th e c e l ls o f an o th e r i nd i v i du a l a nd t he c e ll s o f on e ' s o wn b od y ( s ee II I ) c a n a ct as im m u no g en - a n ti ge ns . I m m u no g en - an t ig e ns c a n b e c on t ac t ed en v i r on m en t a ll y ( e .g . , p o ll e ns ) . 4 . H a pt e ns a re lo w m o lec u la r we i gh t c om p ou n ds t h a t a c t as i m m u no g en s a ft e r c o v al en t l y bi n di ng t o a l a rg e r m o l e c u l e o r c el l s u r fa ce . A ft e r t h e y s t im ul a t e t he im m u ne s ys t em in t hi s c om pl e x, t h es e c om p ou nd s c an ac t a s a nt i ge ns in th e u n bou n d o r bo un d s t a te . a . H ap t e ns m a y be pr es en t in th e en v i r on m e n t ( e .g . , p e n ta d ec ac at ec h ol of poi s on i v y ) . b . S e ve ra l t y p e s o f d r ugs ac t a s h ap t en s (e . g. , pe n ic il l in ) . 5 . T ol e r o ge n s a re c h em ic a l c o m p o un ds t ha t e li ci t s pe c i f ic n o n re sp o ns i v en es s . Th i s s pe c i f ic no n re s p o ns i v ene s s m a y b e c a us ed b y th e a b il it y o f th e c om p ou n d t o b e b r ok e n do wn b y t h e b o d y o r b y t he ro u te o f ad m in is t r at io n of th e c om p o u nd (e . g ., o ra l a d m i ni s t ra ti o n o f te n c aus es s p ec i fi c n on r es p on siv e n e ss ) . 6 . I n t hi s c h a p te r , t h e t e rm an t ig e n is us ed f o r c om p ou n ds a n d c e l ls t h a t a r e b ot h i m m un o ge ns an d a n ti g en s. B . C e l ls o f t h e i m mu n e s ys t e m
1 . B l ym p h o c yt e s a n d T l ym p h o c yt e s a r e th e p ri m a r y c el ls of s p ec if ic im m u ne r es po ns e s . Al l B an d T l y m p h oc yt e s a r e a nt i ge n s p ec if ic be c au s e th e y hav e s pe ci f ic an t ig en r ec ept o r s em b ed d ed in t h e ir pl a s m a m e m b r a ne s . I n t h is c ha p t er , th e t e rm s B ce ll a nd T c e ll ar e us ed in s t e ad of B l y m ph oc y t e an d T l y m p h oc y t e . 2 . An t i g e n r e ce p t o r s o f B c e ll s a r e a n ti b od y m ol e c u le s . a . B c el ls ha v e t ho us a nds o f i de n ti c a l a n ti bo d ie s i n th e ir m em b r an es th a t a ll o w t he m to bi nd t o a s m a ll g rou p of c h em ic al l y r e l at e d a n ti ge ns . Th is g ro u p d e fi n es t h e a nt i ge n s p ec if ic i t y of ea ch B c el l . D i f fe r en t B c el ls h a v e di f fe r e nt an t ig e n spe c if ic i ti es , bu t e a ch B c el l h as on l y on e s pe c i f ic i t y. B c e ll s t h at re c og n i z e s p ec i fi c a n t ig en s d i v i de to fo r m ne w B c e ll s ( m em o r y B c e l l s ) a nd p la sm a c e l ls ( an t i b od y- f o r m i n g c e l ls ) , wh ic h s ec r et e fre e , s ol u bl e ( h u m o r al ) an t ib od y m ol ec u le s i nt o e xt r a c e ll u la r flu i ds ( Fi gu r e 1 0 - 1) . b . V i rg i n B c e ll s h a v e n ot r es p on d ed to an an t ig en s i nc e th ei r r e l ea se in t o t h e c i r c u la t io n f ro m b on e m a r ro w. T h e i r m em br a ne a n t ib od i es ar e o f th e i m m u no g lo bu l in M ( I g M) a n d D ( I g D) cl as s e s (see I.D). c . Me m o r y B c el ls a re der i v e d b y c el l d i v is i on f rom an o th e r B c e l l t h a t h as re s po nd e d t o a n a n ti g en . Th ei r m em b r ane a nt i bo di e s a re o f im m u no g lo b ul in c l as s e s A ( I g A ), E (I g E ) , o r G ( I g G ; s e e I . D ) . P.196
Figure 10-1. B cells: antigen specificity and activation.
3 . An t i g e n r e ce p t o r s o f T c e l l s h a ve t wo m em b ra n e p r o te in s ( α a n d β o r γ an d δ ) , wh ic h d e f in e t h e a nt i ge n s pe c i fi c it y o f e ac h T c e ll , a n d s e v e r a l o th e r i nt e g r al m em b ra n e p r ot e ins k n o wn as C D 3 +
c o m pl e x. Th e r e fo r e, T c e l ls ar e C D 3 . E ac h T c el l ha s t ho us a nd s o f id e nt ic a l a nt i ge n r e c ep t o rs in it s m em b ra ne . Di f f e re n t T c e ll s o f d i f fe r e nt an t ig e n s p ec i fi c i t i es d i ff e r i n t h e c on f orm a ti o n o f t h ei r a n t ig en r ec ep t o rs .
a . M a j o r h i s to c om p a ti b il i t y c o m p l e x ( M H C ) p r ot e i n s. Th e an t ig en r e c ep t or s o f T c e l ls d o no t r ec og n i z e a nt i ge ns alo n e . R a t he r , t h e y n o r m a ll y r ec o gn i z e p e p t id e ep i t o pe s (f r ag m e n ts o f an t ig e n ) t ha t a r e c h em ic al l y c om b in e d wi t h MH C p r o t e i ns o n the s u r f ac e o f o t he r b o d y c e ll s ( F ig u re 10 - 2 ) . MH C p r o t e i ns a re di v i ded i nt o tw o m aj o r c l a ss e s : ( 1 ) C l as s I p r o te i ns , wh ic h a r e p r es e nt on th e s ur f a c e s o f a lm os t a l l b od y c el ls ( 2 ) C l as s I I p r ot e i ns , wh i c h a re pr e s e n t o nl y o n t h e s u rf a ce s o f s p ec ia l a n t ig e n -p r e se n ti n g ce l ls ( AP C s ) b . T h ym u s g l a n d. T c el ls do no t en t e r t he c i rc u la t i on di r ec tl y f r om b o n e m a r r o w b u t f i rs t e nt e r th e th y m us g l an d t o m a tu r e . Mo s t d e ve l op in g T c e ll s d ie in t h e t h ym u s . Th e c e ll s t ha t di e e i th e r d o n o t re co g ni z e no r m a l s elf - a n ti g en s o r p r od uc e a re s po ns e a g ai ns t n o r m a l s el f -a n ti g en s . ( 1 ) T c el ls th a t a r e r e le as e d f r om th e t h y m u s i n to t h e c ir cu l at i on a r e vi r g i n T c e l ls . ( 2 ) T c el ls th a t o r ig i na t e t h r o ug h c el l d i v is io n fr om t he re s po ns es of o t h e r T c el ls a re me m o ry T c e l l s o r e f f ec t o r T ce l l s . c . G l yc o p r o t e i n s . Mo s t T c e l ls c a n b e c l as si f ie d b y t h e p r es en c e o f a m e m b r a ne gl y c op r o te in k n o wn a s C D 4 — th e hel p e r , o r T H c e ll — o r t h e p r es e nc e o f C D8 — t he c yt o t o x i c T l ym p h o c yt e ( C T L ), o r T C cell. ( 1 ) T H c e ll s c a n b e d i v ide d in t o t wo f u nc ti o na l g ro u ps : T H 1 an d T H 2 . Th e s e c el ls ha v e di f f e ren t f un c t i on s i n t he im m un e r es po ns e a n d r e g ul a te im m u ne r es po ns es t h ro ug h th e p r od uc t io n of in t e rl e uk in s ( I L ; a ls o c al l ed l ym p ho k in e s ), wh i c h a re p ro t ei ns t h a t a ct on c e ll s i n a n au t oc r in e , p ar a c r i ne , o r e nd oc r in e m an n e r. P.197
Figure 10-2. Helper T cell (TH cell) antigen recognition. MHC, major histocompatibility complex; APC, antigen-presenting cell.
( a ) T H 1 c el l s a c t i v a te oth e r c e ll s , in cl u di ng so m e T H c e ll s , T C c e ll s , a n d m ac r op h ag es . I n a dd i t io n , t he y c an de c re as e a nt i bo d y ( A b) p r o du c ti on b y in hi b it i ng th e fo r m a t io n o f T H 2 c e ll s. ( b ) T H 2 c el l s a c t i v a te B c e ll s t o d i vid e a n d p r od uc e Ab . Th e y c a n a l so in hi b it t he fo r m a t io n o f T H 1 c e ll s. ( 2 ) T C c e ll s a r e a b le to k i l l c el ls th a t a r e i nf ec t ed b y v i r u s e s . Th e y d o th is t hr o ug h d i re c t b in d in g wi t h t h e i nf ec t ed ce l l o r th r ou g h t he r e l ea se o f c y t ot o xi n s . ( 3 ) T r ce l ls , or T r e g ul ato r y c el ls , h a ve re c e n tl y b e e n d es c r ib e d . +
+
Mo s t o f th e s e c e ll s a re CD 4 , a lt h ou gh t he r e i s a C D 8 s ub s e t as we l l . A ll o f t he s e c e ll s s u p p re s s im m u ne r es po nse s th r ou g h t he s ec r e ti o n o f I L -1 0 a n d t ra n s f o rm i ng gr o wt h f ac t or β ( TG F - β ) ; i n +
+
a d di t io n , c el ls de s i g na t ed C D 4 C D 2 5 a r e a ls o ab l e t o i n hi bi t ot h er T c e l ls th r ou g h d i re c t c on t ac t . ( 4 ) I nt e rl e uk in s a r e p a rt o f a l a rg e r n e t wo r k o f r eg u la t o r y c yt o k i n e s . Th is ne t wo r k i nc l ud es s e cr e ti o ns o f ot h e r c el l t y p es in a d di t io n to th os e o f l ym ph o c y te s . Ta b l e 1 0 -1 li s t s t h e s ou r c e s a nd a c ti o ns o f im po r ta n t c y t ok i ne s t ha t re g ul a te t he im m u n e s y st em a nd i n f la m m at i on . 4 . N a tu r a l k i l le r ( N K ) c el l s ar e l a r ge , g r an u la r l ym p ho c y t es wi t ho u t a sp ec i fi c T o r B c e ll an ti g en r ec ep t o r. Th e i r c y t ot o xi c i t y is s im i la r t o t ha t o f C TL ( T C ) c e l ls . N K c el ls re c og ni z e an d d e s t r o y t um or s , a n d a r e i m p o rt a nt f o r c on t r ol l in g v i ra l i n fe ct i on s p r i o r t o t h e d e ve l op m e n t o f a da p ti v e i m m un i t y . 5 . AP C s a r e e s s en t ia l f or m os t i m m un e re s p on s es an d a r e f o un d i n t h e s i te s a t wh i c h t h es e r e s po ns es o ri gi n at e . a . Th e be s t un d e rs to o d A P C s a re th e m a c r op h ag e s a n d d e nd r i t ic c e l ls o f t he l ym p h n o d es , s pl e en , a n d o t he r l ym p h o id t is s ue . Mo s t i m m u ne r es po ns es wi t h i n th es e o r g an s b eg in wh e n t he s e c e ll s p r e se n t e pi t op es bo u nd to t he i r s u rf ac e MH C c l as s I I m o l ec ul es t o T H c e l ls an d s ec r et e c y t ok i ne s as ac ce s s o r y s i gna l s ( F ig u re 10 - 2 ) .
A P C s , es pe c i al l y m a c ro ph a g es , a r e a bl e t o c on t ro l th e t y p e of i m m u ne r es po ns e g e ne ra t e d. Th e y d o t hi s b y s ec r e ti n g d if f e re n t c yt o ki ne s i n re s p on s e t o d i f fe r e nt t ype s o f p a th o ge n s ( e .g . , e xt r a c e l lu la r ba c t e r ia , i nt r a c e ll u la r ba c t e r ia , vi rus es ) . P.198
Table 10-1. Major Cytokines and Their Actions Cytokine
Sources of Secretiona
Major Actions
IL-1
Macrophages, APCs, others
T and B cell activation, pyrogenic, proinflammatory
TNF-α, TNF-β
Macrophages, TH1 cells, TC cells
Similar to IL-1, but including cytotoxicity
IL-2
TH0 cells, TH1 cells
T cell, B cell, and NK cell activation
IFN-γ
TH1 cells
Induction of MHC, activation of macrophages and NK cells, formation of memory B cells, antiviral
IFN-α, IFN-β
Leukocytes, fibroblasts
Induction of MHC, antiviral, and growth inhibition
IL-3
Macrophages, TH cells
Proliferation of multilineage marrow stem cells
IL-4
TH2 cells
B cell activation and memory B cell formation, increased mast cell precursors, activation of mast cells
IL-5
TH2 cells
Memory B cell formation, eosinophil production
IL-6
TH2 cell, other types
Plasma cell maturation, others similar to IL-1
IL-7
Bone marrow stroma
Lymphocyte maturation
IL-8 (CXCL8)
Monocytes, macrophages, endothelial, fibroblasts cells
Chemokine, attraction and activation of neutrophils, attraction of T cells
IL-9
TH1 cells
Proliferation and differentiation of bone marrow cells and thymocytes
IL-10
Macrophages, TH2 cells CD8+ T cells, B cells
Increased humoral (antibody) immunity, decreased cellmediated immunity, mast cell growth
IL-11
Bone marrow stroma
Proliferation and differentiation of bone marrow cells and thrombocytes
IL-12
Macrophages, B cells
Promotion of cell-mediated immunity, activation of TC and NK cells, suppression of humoral immunity
IL-13
TH cells
IL-4-like effects on B cells, inhibition of production of inflammatory cytokines by monocytes
IL-14
TH cells
Important for the generation of B memory cells
IL-15
Endothelial cells, epithelial monocytes, muscle cells
IL-2-like effects
GM-CSF
TH1 cells, macrophages
Marrow proliferation of myeloid precursors
G-CSF
Fibroblasts, endothelial cells
Proliferation and survival of neutrophil precursors
M-CSF
Fibroblasts, endothelial cells
Survival of monocyte macrophages
APC, antigen-presenting cell; G-CSF, granulocyte colony-stimulating factor; GM-CSF, granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor; IFN, interferon; IL, interleukin; M-CSF, macrophage colony-stimulating factor; MHC, major histocompatibility complex; NK cell, natural killer cell; TCcell, T cytotoxic cell; THcell, T helper cell; TNF, tumor necrosis factor. a
Not all sources are listed.
b . A n y c e ll in th e b o d y c a n ac t a s a n A P C f or im m u ne r es po ns es i n vo l vin g C TL c e ll s . N uc le a t ed c e ll s c a n p r es e nt fr a g m e n ts o f +
a n t ig en s b o un d t o t h ei r s u r f ac e MH C c l as s I m ol ec u l e s t o T c ( C D 8 ) l ym p ho c y t es . c . B ot h T an d B c el ls c on t i nu al l y ci r c u la t e f r om th e bl oo d th r ou g h t h e l ym ph no d es , s pl e en, a nd o th e r s ec on da r y l y m p ho i d t is s u e a nd t h e n b ac k in t o t h e b lo o d. I f th e r e is an t ig e n p re s en t in th e s ec o nd a r y l ym p ho i d t is s u e th a t b in ds s p ec i fi ca ll y t o th e re ce p to r on t h e T o r B c e ll , th e n a n im m u n e r es p on se c a n b eg i n . P.199
6 . N e ut r o p h il s , m ac r o ph a g es , eo s in o p hi l s, b as o p h il s , p l a te l et s , a n d m a st ce l l s as s i s t i n e l im in a ti n g a nt i ge ns f rom t he bo d y. Th ei r f u nc t io ns m a y b e p ha g oc y t i c , p r oi n fl am m a t o r y , c y t o t o xi c , r e g ul a to r y , o r a c om b in at i o n o f t h es e. C . H u m o ra l im m un i t y: p r i m a r y a n d m em o r y r e s p o n se s th a t p r o d u ce an t i b od i es 1 . O ve r vi ew . I n m os t h um o r al i m m u ne re s p o ns es, a n ti ge ns a re r e c og ni z e d b y a n ti g en -s p e c i f ic B c el ls a n d T H c el l s ( no n - an t ig e ns p ec if ic B an d T H c e ll s do n ot r es po n d ). In i ti a ll y , B a n d T H 2 c el ls d i vi de t o i nc r ea s e th e ir c e l l n um be r s . R es p on d in g B c el ls p r o du c e b o t h m e m o r y B c e ll s a n d p l as m a c el ls , ai de d b y c yt o k in es s e c re t ed b y T H 2 c e ll s . T -i n d ep e nd e n t re s p on s es to c e r tai n ba c t e r ia l p o l ysa cc ha r i de an t ig en s d o no t re q ui r e T H c e ll s . D u r i ng Ti n de p en d en t re s p o ns es , a s u bc l as s o f B ce ll s ( B 1 B c el ls ) re sp o nd s a l on e a n d p r od uc es pl as m a c el ls t ha t s ec r et e IgM a n t i b o di es , b u t n o m em o r y B c el ls a re pr o d uc ed .
2 . P r i ma r y i m m u n e re sp o n se . Th e f i rs t ti m e a sp e c i f ic a n ti g en is e n co u nt e re d , o nl y vi r g i n B c e ll s a n d vi r g i n T H ce l l s a r e p r es en t to r e s po nd t o t he an t ig e n. In i t ia ll y , t he T H c el ls be c o m e T H e f f ec t or c e ll s, an d th e B c e ll s p r od u c e pl as m a ce ll s t h at s e c r et e I g M a n t ib od y . L at e r i n t h e im m u ne r es po ns e , p la s m a c e ll s p r od uc in g o t h e r cl as s e s o f a n ti b ody d e v e l op . Th e p r im a r y im m u n e r es p on s e is d e t ec te d i n th e s e ru m a fte r 4 d a ys a nd pe ak s i n 7- 1 1 da y s . I n a p r i m a r y im m u ne r es po ns e , I g M i s p r od uc e d f i rs t a n d i s f ol l o we d b y I g G . Me m o r y B an d T H 2 c e ll s a r e a ls o p ro d uc ed . Me m o r y B c el ls c a n a ls o b e a c t i v a te d t o p r o du c e t he ot h e r c l as ses o f a nt i bo d y in s u bs eq u en t i m m un e re s po n s e s . 3 . M e m o r y i m m u n e r esp o n se s . Th e s e co n d o r s u bs eq u en t e n co u nt e r wi t h t he s a m e a n ti g en o r a c lo s e l y r el at e d a n ti g en p r o du c e s re s p on s es b y m em o r y B c el ls an d m em o r y T H 2 c el ls . Th e s e re s p o ns es ar e m or e r ap i d b ec au s e m e m o ry c e ll s r e qu i re le s s a n t ig en f o r s t im u la t io n an d a re of g re a te r m a gn i tu d e b ec a us e t he r e a r e m o re an t ig e n -s pe c i f ic B an d T c e ll s t o r es p ond . Mo s t s e r um a n t ib od y p r od u c e d i s I gG , wi t h s m a ll e r am o un t s o f I gA an d Ig E . S i g ni f ic an t am ou n ts o f an t i bo di es a re p ro d uc ed as r ap i dl y as 2 -3 d a ys a f t e r t he r ee nc o un te r wi t h an t ig e n, an d th e a b s o l ut e a m o u nt o f an t ib o d y (m ea s u r e d i n m il li g r am s pe r de c i l it e r o f se r um ) i s g r e a te r th an in p ri m a r y im m u n e r es p on s e s . Th e d u r a ti on o f m e m o r y va r i e s am o ng an t ig e ns an d p ro ba b l y a m o n g i nd i vi d ua l s . S om e, bu t n o t a l l, m e m o r y is li f el ong . 4 . M a j o r ro l es o f a n t ib od i e s a . Th e fi r s t fu nc t io n o f an a nt i bo d y is to ac t a s an a n ti g e n r e ce p t o r f o r B c el ls s o th a t t he B c e ll s c a n re c o g ni z e an d r e s po nd t o a n t ig en s . b . Th e s ec o nd f un c t i on of a n a n ti bo d y is to ai d i n t h e e l i mi n a ti o n o f a n ti g en . E li m i na t io n o c c u rs t hr o ug h n o ns pe cif i c f u nc ti o ns , s uc h a s p h ag oc y t o s i s o r c om pl e m e n t ac t i v a ti on . Th e m e c ha n ism of e l im in a ti o n d ep e nd s o n th e c l as s o f a nt i bo d y in v ol v e d . c . Th e t h i rd fu nc t io n o f an a nt i bo d y is ne u t r al iz a ti o n o f t o xi n s. N e u t r al i z a ti on oc c u r s wh e n an an t ib o d y b i nd s t o th e to xi n a n d p r e ve n ts i t f ro m r ea c hi ng t h e t a rg e t c el l o r re c e p to r . D . I m mu n o gl o bu l i ns : a n t i g en b in d i ng a nd cl a ss - s p ec i f ic f u n c t io n s. Th e te r m s a nt i b od y a nd i m m u no g lo bu li n ar e us ed i n t er c ha ng e ab l y . 1 . S t r uc t u r e . Th e s t a nda r d i m m u no gl o bu li n u n it h a s f ou r p o l yp ep ti d e c ha in s : t wo id e n ti c a l l ig h t ( L ) p o l y pe p t i d e c h a in s a nd t wo i d e nt ic a l h ea v y ( H ) po l y p e pt id e c h ai ns . Th e s t r u c t u r e is r e p r es en t ed as H 2 L 2 . Eac h c ha i n c an be di vi de d in t o a C - t e rm i n al c o n s ta n t re g i on an d a n N - t e r m i na l va r i ab l e r e gi o n of am in o a c i ds ( F i gu r e 1 0 - 3) . Th e N -t e rm i na l v a ri ab l e r eg i on fo rm e d f r om th e H a n d L v a r ia bl e d om a in s is r es po ns i bl e f o r a n ti g en b i nd in g b y t h e
i m m u no gl o bu l in . Th e C - te r m in al c o ns t an t re gi o ns o f th e H c ha in d e t e rm in e t h e c l as s o f t he im m u n og l ob ul i n. 2 . C l as s . Th e r e a r e f i v e g e n er a l h ea v y - c h ai n , c on s ta n t - re gi o n a m in o a c i d s eq u en c e s . Th e s e de t e rm in e t h e f i ve g e n e ra l cl a ss e s o f i mm u n og l o bu l in s : I gM , Ig G , I g E, I g A, an d IgD . W ith in s o m e c l as s e s, v a r ia n ts o f th e h e a v y - c ha i n s e q ue nc e yie l d s ub c l as se s : I g M1 - 2 , I g G 1 -4 , a n d I g A1 - 2 . Th e c l as s o f a n i m m u n o gl ob u li n d e f in es it s n on s p e c i fi c an t i ge n e li m i n at i on o r i nf l a m m a to r y f u nc ti o n. Th e s e fu nc t io ns a re ac tiv a t e d o n l y a f t e r a nt i ge n -a n t ib od y c om p le xe s a r e f o rm ed , no t b y un bo u nd an t ib o di es . a . I gM i s t h e f i rs t im m u no g lo b ul i n s e c re t ed du r ing p ri m ar y i m m un e r e s po ns es . It pl a y s a m in o r ro l e i n m e m o r y r es po n s e s. I t d oe s n o t l e a ve t h e b lo o d i n s i g ni fic a nt am ou n ts be c a us e o f i t s p en t am er ic s t r uc t ur e a n d l a rg e s i z e ( m o l wt 9 0 0 ,0 00 da l to ns ). I t a cc o un ts fo r a p p ro xi m a t el y 2 0% o f t he a du l t s e r um im m u no g lo b ul i n . I g M i s t h e m os t po t en t a c t i va t o r o f t h e c o mp l em e n t s ys t e m ( se e I . E . 2) . It s s e r um h a lf - li f e i s 9 -1 1 da y s . P.200
Figure 10-3. Immunoglobulin molecule. Fc, fragment, crystallizable.
b . I g G i s t h e p re d om in a nt s er um im m u n og lo b ul in s ec r e te d a t th e e n d o f t he p r i m a r y im m u ne r es po ns e s a n d d u ri ng m e m o r y r es p on se s . I t c an di f fu se f r o m b lo o d i nt o o t he r e xt r a c el lu l ar f lu id s , p a rt ic ula r l y in in f la m e d m ic r o v as c u l at u r e, an d i t c r os s e s t h e p la ce n ta to e n t e r t he fe t al c i r cu la t ion . I t ac co u nt s f o r a pp r o xi m a t e l y 7 0 % o f a du l t s er u m i m m un o gl o bu li n . I t o p s o ni z e s a n t i ge n s f o r p h a g oc yt o s i s a nd ac t i va t e s t h e c o mp l em e n t s ys t e m . I ts s e r um ha l f- l if e is 25 - 35 da y s . c . Ig E is s ec r e te d d u ri n g m em o r y re sp o ns es an d m a y al so be se c re t ed la te d u r in g a p ri m a r y r es p on s e . I t n o rm al l y ac c o un ts fo r < 1 % o f s e ru m i m m u no gl o bu l in . I t bi n d s t o I g E r e ce p t o rs l oc a ted o n th e c e l l s u r fa c es o f
b l o o d b as o p hi l s a n d o n m u co s al a nd co n n ec t ive t i s s ue ma s t c e ll s t o t r i gg e r th e s ec r et i on of in f l am m a to r y m ed ia t o rs fro m th es e c el ls in th e p r e se nc e o f s pe c i f ic an t ig e ns . Ig E m e di a te s a ll e rg i c r e ac ti o ns . I ts s e r um h a l f- l if e i s 2 - 3 d a y s , bu t i t s m as t c el l -b ou n d h al f - li f e i s s e v er a l m o n th s t o ye a r s . d . I g A i s s e c re t ed du r in g m em o r y re sp o ns es an d m a y al so be se c re t ed la te d u r in g a p ri m a r y r es p on s e . I t ac c ou n ts f o r 1 0 % o f s e ru m im m u n og l ob ul i n. H o we ve r , i t is s e c re t e d in l a r ge q ua n t it i es a c ros s mu c os a l s u r fa c es i nt o g a s t r oi n t es t i na l , re s p i ra t o r y, l a c h r ym a l , m amm a r y, a n d g en i t o u ri n a ry s e c r e ti o ns , w h e re i t p ro t e c ts m uc o sa f r om co lo n i z a t i on b y ba ct e r ia and o t h e r m i c ro o rg a ni s m s . Its s e r um ha l f- l if e i s a pp r oxi m a t e l y 5 d a ys . e . I g D a c c ou n ts fo r < 1 % o f s e ru m i m m un o gl ob u lin a nd ha s n o k no wn f u nc t io n a s a s ec r e te d im m u n og l ob ul i n. 3 . S pe c i fi c i t y. Th e s pe c if i c i t y o f e ac h im m u n og l ob u li n fo r a n ti g en bi n di ng r e s id es in th e t wo i d en t ic a l a nt i ge n -b i nd in g s i te s, e ac h f o rm e d b y th e c om b in a ti o n o f t he v a r iab l e r e gi o ns o f he a v y a nd l i gh t c ha i ns . I g G , I g E , an d I g D as we l l a s s er um I g A h a v e t wo an t ig e n- b in di ng s i t es . I g M a n t ib o di es h a ve 10 id e nt ic a l a nt i gen - b in d in g s it es t hr o ug h th e c om b in a ti o n o f P.201
f i ve H 2 L 2 un i ts wi t h a jo in i ng po l y p ep t id e c ha i n to f o rm a pe n ta m er . L i ke wi s e , s ec re t e d I g A ty p i c al l y e xi s ts as a di m er wi t h f ou r bi n di ng si t es . 4 . Q u a nt i t a ti o n o f im m un o g l ob u l in : a n t i ge n bi nd i n g a n d c r o ss 8
r e a c t i vi t y. B e t we e n 1 0 a n d 1 0
11
un i qu e i m m un og l ob u li ns wi t h di f fe r en t
a n t ig en - b in di n g s pe c i fi c it i es a re fo r m e d b y t h e im m u ne s ys t em . a . E ac h i m m un og l ob ul i n s p ec if ic i t y c a n b in d t o s ev e r a l di f fe r en t , b u t c l o s el y s t r uc t ur a ll y r el a te d , a n tig e ns . Th is ab il i t y i l lu s t r at e s t h e p he no m en on o f c r os s - re ac t i v it y o f a s i ngl e an t ib od y f o r m ul t ip le an t i ge ns . Ea c h i m m u no gl o bu l in - an t ig e n i n t er a c t i on i s q u an t it a te d b y i ts as s oc i a ti o n c o n s ta n t ( K a ) . b . C r os s -r e ac t i v it y m a y a l s o oc c u r th r ou g h t he sh a r in g o f s om e , b u t n ot a l l , a n t ig en s b y t wo s t ra i ns of b ac t er i a, v i r us es , o r oth e r m ic r oo r g an is m s . c . B ec au s e ea c h m ic r o o rg a ni s m ha s s e v er a l a nt i ge n s, ea c h el ic i ts th e p r o du c ti on o f m u l ti pl e ant i b od ie s wi t h u ni q ue s p ec i fi c i t ie s b y t he im m u ne s ys t em . Th is re s p o ns e is k no wn a s a p ol yc l o n a l r e s p o ns e a nd r es ul t s i n a c om b in a ti o n o f a nt i bo di es k n o wn as a p o l yc l o n a l a n t is e r um a nd de fi n es t h e s e ro t y p e o f t h e im m un i z i ng o rg a ni sm . 5 . F r ag m en t s o f im m uno g l o bu l i n f o r cl i n ic a l us e . Im m u no gl o bu li n s c a n b e en zy m a ti c al l y c l ea v ed i nt o f r a gm en ts — f o r e x a m pl e , F ab a nd F (a b ' ) 2 ( a n ti g en - bi n di n g f r ag m en t s ), F c ( c r ys t al l i zab le f ra g m e n t ), an d F v ( va r i a ble r e g io n fr a gm en t ) . F ab a nd F ( ab ' ) 2 f ra gm en t s a r e c l in ic al l y us e fu l b ec a us e t h e y r et a in an t ig e n s p ec if i c i t y , bu t n o t c la s s -s p ec i f ic ( e. g . , in f la m m a to r y ) f u nc t io ns , an d a r e r e ad ily e xc r e t e d re n al l y. C on ve r s el y , th is c h a ra c te r is tic l i m i ts th e i r e ff e c t i v e ne s s i n c e rt a in s i tu a ti o ns .
E . An t i g e n e l i mi n a ti o n a n d a c u te i n fl a mm a to r y m e ch a ni s ms o f h u mo ra l i m m un i t y 1 . O p s on iz a t io n i s t h e pr e p a ra t io n o f a n y e xt r a c e l lu l a r a nt i ge n f o r p h a go c y to s i s t h ro u gh bin d in g o f an t ib o d y. N e u tro p hi ls an d m ac r op h ag es h a ve a v a r i et y o f re c e p tor s fo r th e c o ns ta n t r e gi on o f I g G an t ib od i es (F C γ R ) , wh i c h bi n d a nt i ge n -a n ti bo d y c o m pl e xe s . W hen the a nt i ge n i s so l ub l e, th e i m m u ne c om p le xe s m us t b e s u ff ic i en t l y l a rg e to in d uc e t h is re ac t io n . Thi s b i nd i ng t ri g ge r s p ha go c yt o s i s o f t h e a n ti ge n - an ti bo d y c o m pl e x a n d a c t i v a te s t h e m e ta bo l is m o f t he pha g oc y t e , s hi f ti n g i t t o wa rd t he p ro d uc ti o n o f b a ct e r ic id al o xy g e n r ad ic a l s ( e .g . , s up e ro xi d e a nio n , h y d r o ge n p e ro xi d e ) . 2 . C o mp l em e n t is a g r ou p of ap p r o xi m at e l y 2 0 s e r u m p ro t ei ns t ha t , wh e n a c ti va t ed , fo r m a p r o te o ly t i c c as c a d e s i m i l a r t o t he c l o t ti ng an d fi b ri no l yt ic s e qu e nc e. W it hi n th is c om p le x o f p r ot e in s, t he r e a r e s om e th a t in h ib i t c om p le m e n t a c t i v a ti o n. C o m pl em e nt is re s p o ns ib l e f o r i nc r ea s i n g t he i n f la m m at o r y r es po ns e , p h a go c yto si s o f a n ti g en , l y s is of c e ll s ( us u al l y p a t ho g en s ) , an d c le a ra nc e o f im m u ne c om p le xe s . a . I n t he cl a ss i c a c ti va t i o n pa t hw a y, i m m u ne c om p le xe s o f I g M o r I g G a n t ib od i es bo un d to an t ig e n b in d s u bu ni t s o f c om p le m e n t c o m p o ne n t 1 (C 1 ) a n d t r i gg e r a n i ni t ia l s er ie s o f pr o te o l y ti c c le a va ge s . b . I n t he a lt e r n at i ve ac ti va t i o n pa t hw a y, t h e c ell wa l l s o f c er t ai n m ic r o or g an is m s (e . g ., g ra m - ne ga t i v e b ac t e ri a ) a re a bl e t o b i nd C 3b an d o t h e r co m p l em en t p r o te in s th a t i ni ti a te a d i ff e r ent s eq ue n ce of p ro t eo l yt ic c l ea va g es , l ea d in g t o t he s a m e en d po in t a s t h e c l ass ic ac t i v at i on pa t h way . c . In th e m a n no s e- b i nd in g p at hw a y, m a n n o s e - bin d in g p r o te i n ( MB P ) i s p r o du c e d b y t h e l i v e r d uri n g t h e ac u te - p ha s e r es po n s e . MB P b i nd s t o m a nn os e o n th e s ur f ac e o f ba c te r ia an d , i n c on jun c ti o n wi t h as s o ci a te d s e r um p r o te as es , t ri gg e rs p ro t eo l y t ic c le a va ge s id e n ti ca l t o th os e s ee n i n t h e c la ss ic pa t h wa y o f c o m pl em e nt . d . C 3 b, C 4b , an d a s s oc ia t e d d eg r ad a ti o n p r od uct s pr o v i de op s o n i z at i on , v i a c om p le m e n t r ec e pt o rs on c e l ls s uc h a s m a c ro p ha g es an d n e ut r o ph il s , in a d di t io n to th a t p r o v id e d b y I g G in im m u ne c om p le xe s . e . P r o in f l am m at o r y f r a g m e n ts of c e r ta i n c o m ple m en t p r o te i ns a c t b ot h b y d i r e c t a c ti vi t y o n t h e mi c r o va s cu l a t u re , p r om o ti n g a r t er i ol e d il a ti o n a nd i n c re as ed v a s c ul a r p e rm e a bi l it y , a nd b y tr i gg e ri ng t he r el e as e o f h is t am i ne a n d o t he r pr o in f la m m at or y m e di a to r s f r om m as t ce l ls an d b as o ph il s . f . A c o m p le x o f c om pl em e n t p r o te i ns k no wn a s t he m em b r an e a t t a ck c o m pl e x ( M AC ) c an in s er t i nt o a n y li p id bi la y e r m e m b ra ne , fo r m i ng a l a rge c h an n el th r ou g h wh i c h i on s a n d wa t e r di f f us e. Ma n y b ac t e ri a , e n vel o pe d vi r u s es , a nd s o m e hu m an o r m am m a li a n c e l ls a re s u b j e ct t o t hi s o s m ot ic l ys is . P.202
3 . C i r cu l a ti n g b a so p h ils a nd c on n ec t i ve t is s ue m as t ce l ls a re m a in l y p r o in f la m m a to r y c e ll s t ha t r ap i dl y in i ti a te ac u te i n f l am m a ti o n. Tr i g ge r s o f
s ec r e ti o n i nc lu de m e c h an i c a l a nd t he r m a l t r au m a a n d im m u n ol o gi c t r ig ge rs , c om p le m e n t, an d Ig E . a . I g E a n ti b o di e s, r eg a rd l es s o f a n ti ge n s p ec if ic it y , e q ui li b ra t e b e t we e n s e r um a n d b in di n g n on c o v a l e nt l y to hi g h -a f fi ni t y I g E r ec ep t o rs o n m as t c e l l a n d b as o ph il s u r fa c es . Th i s ac t i v i t y a r m s th e m as t c el ls an d b as op h il s, but t h e tr i gg e ri n g o f s ec r et i on b y t he se c e ll s r e qu i re s t h a t a nt i ge n b in d to an d c r os s -l in k a n ti g en -s p ec ifi c Ig E m ol e c u le s a l re a d y a f fi xe d t o th e i r r ec e pt o rs . b . Ma s t c e ll s a nd b as oph i ls , wh e n t r ig g er e d, im m e di a te l y s ec r e te t he c o nt e nt s o f th ei r s t o ra g e g r a nu le s , i nc lu di n g h is ta m in e , t um o r n ec r os is f a c to r α ( TN F - α ) , pr o te as es , an d c he m o t ac ti c p ro t e in s f o r n eu t r op hi ls and e o si n op hi ls . In ad d it io n , a c ti v a t io n o f ph os p ho li pa s e A 2 re l ea se s a r a ch id o ni c ac i d f r om m e m b ra ne ph o s p ho l ip id s an d r e s ul ts in th e s y n t he s i s o f va r io us le uk o t ri en e s , p r o s t a gl an d in s, an d th r om b o xa n es . Th e p r im a r y e f f ec ts o f t he s e m e di a to rs a re ( 1 ) V as c u la r di l at io n ( 2 ) I nc r ea s e d v as c u la r pe r m ea bi l it y ( 3 ) C o nt r ac t io n o f re s p i ra t o r y an d g as t r oi n te s t i nal s m oo t h m us c l e ( 4 ) N e ut r op h il an d e os i no p hi l c he m ot a xi s 4 . An t i b o d y- d e p e n d e n t c e l l -m e di a t ed c yt o t o x i c i t y i s m ed i at e d b y ce ll s wi t h c yt o to xi c p o te n ti al as we l l a s re c e p to r s f o r I gG . Th e s e c el ls , N K c el ls , m ac r o ph a ge s , an d s om e T C c e l ls , b i nd to an d l y s e t a rg e t c e l ls c o at e d wi t h IgG. 5 . Ac u t e in f l am ma t i o n a l lo ws i nc r ea s ed ea s e of m o v em en t of c r u c i al c om p on e nt s o f t h e b lo o d i n to th e ti s s ue s , in c l u din g ph a go c yte s ( e s p ec ia l ly n e u t ro ph i ls ) , I g G a n ti b odi e s , c o m p le m e n t , c l o t ti ng p r o te i ns , a nd ki ni ns . The a d a pt i ve re s u l t is th e i s ol a t io n a nd r em o v al o f i n va d in g m ic r oo r g an is m s a nd n e c ro t ic t is s ue s , fo l lo we d b y t is s u e r e pa i r a nd r eg e n er a ti o n. F . C e ll - m ed i a te d i m mu ne r es p on s e s ( c el l - me d iat e d im m un i t y) a r e t ho se i n wh i c h an t i b od y i s n o t i n vo l ve d i n t h e e l im i nat i o n o f a n ti g en . 1 . N o n vi r a l i n t ra c el l u lar p a r a si t e s o f m a c ro p hag e s , su c h as My c ob ac t e ri a , L i st e ri a , a n d c e r t ai n p r o to z o a , a r e p r im a ri l y el im in a t ed b y T c e l l+
m ac r o ph a ge i m m u ni t y . CD 4 T H 1 c el ls r ec og n i z e in f ec t ed m a c ro ph a ge s a nd s ec r e te l y m p ho k i n es , p ar t i c u la r l y in t e rf e r on γ ( I FN - γ ) . Th es e l y m ph ok i ne s a c ti va t e m ac r op ha g es to p r o du c e m o r e b ac te r ic ida l o xy g e n r ad ic al s (e . g. , s u pe r o xi d e a n io n , h y d r og e n p e ro xi d e ) a nd al s o to i n c r ea s e th e s ec r e to r y f u nc t io n o f th e m ac r op h ag e s a nd in h ib it p ha go c y to s i s , e na b li n g t he m ac r o ph a ge s t o k i l l t he p a r as i te s i n t he ex t r a ce ll u l a r e n vi r on m e n t. 2 . V i r us e s m u s t b e e li m in a t ed f ro m b ot h e xt r a ce llu l a r s i t es an d i n fe c t e d c e ll s. a . An t i b o d ie s o ps o ni z e v i r u s p a r ti c l es in bl oo d an d ti s s ue f lu id s f o r p h a go c y to s i s , b ut an t ib od i es a re ge ne r a ll y i ne f fec t i v e a ga i ns t i n fe ct e d ce ll s . b . C T L c e ll s re c o g ni z e in f ec t ed ce ll s a nd di r ec t ly k i ll th e m in an a nt ig e n s p ec if ic m a nn e r , s ec r et in g l ym p ho k i n es , s uc h as TN F - β a s we l l a s g r a n zy m es a n d g r an ul y s in s . I n a d di t io n , C TL c an i n du c e a po p to s i s v i a F AS l i ga n d b in di n g t o F A S on t h e t a rg e t c el ls . O f te n , th e c e ll s a r e ki ll e d b e fo r e
i n f ec ti o us v i ru s p a rt ic l es a r e a s s em bl e d. W he n k il l ed ce ll s r e le as e i n f ec ti o us v i ra l p a r ti c l es , t h e y m a y be op s o n i z ed b y a n a n ti b od y . C e ll m e di a te d i m m un i t y a n d hu m o ra l i m m un it y m us t f un c ti o n i n co nc e r t t o p r o vi de op t im al an t i v i ra l d e f en s e s . c . N K c e l ls k i ll in f ec te d ( a n d t um o r ) c el ls i n a n on - a n ti ge n -s p ec if ic m a nne r , b i nd i ng to MH C - l i k e m ole c ul es us in g a va r ie t y o f r e ce p to r s . N K c e ll s ki l l t h e ir t a rg e t c e l ls u s i n g m e c ha n is m s s im i l a r t o t h os e u se d b y C TL s. d . I F N - γ (s ec r e te d b y C TL , N K , a n d T H 1 c el ls ) a nd I F N - α a n d I F N -β ( s ec r e te d b y f ib r o bl as ts a n d o t he r c e ll s) p ro v i d e a d di t io n al an t i vi ra l i m m u ni t y b y bi nd i ng to re c ep t o rs o n o t he r c e ll s an d in du ci n g s y n th es is o f k i na se s a nd en d on uc l eas es ( i. e . , a nt i v i ra l p r o te in s ) , wh i c h i nh i bi t vi ra l an d c e ll ul a r g r o wt h . In t e rf e ron s a ls o u p r eg ul a te c l as s I MH C p r o t e i ns , wh ic h m ak e i n fe c te d c el ls m o r e v i s ib l e t o C TL c el ls . 3 . T um o r s a r e m o d if i ed h o s t c e ll s a nd m u s t be eli m in a te d b y t he im m u ne s ys t em , u s u al l y b y c e ll -m e di a te d i m m un i t y . a . N K ce l ls a re p ri m a r il y r e s p o ns ib le f or ki ll i ng tum o r c el ls . Th e y ac t b y r e c og ni z i n g c h a ng es in c e l l -s u rf ac e p r o te i ns o r by a n t i b od y- d e p e n d en t c e l l -m e di a t ed c yt o t o x i c i t y. P.203
b . C T L c e ll s re c o g ni z e tu m o r c e l ls i n a n a n ti g en -s p ec if ic m a nn e r a n d k i l l t h em b y s ec r e ti n g l y m p ho k in es , s uc h a s TN F - β , a n d b y i nd uc i ng ap op t os is t h r o ug h t h e b in di n g o f FA S a n d F A S -l i ga n d. c . M a c ro p h ag e s al s o k i ll t u m o r c el ls in a n on s pec i fi c m an ne r , th r ou g h t he r e l ea se o f TN F - α . 4 . G r a f t re j ec t i o n ( s e e V )
II. Hypersensitivity Reactions are exaggerated, inappropriate, or prolonged immune responses that cause damage to otherwise normal tissue. F o u r t yp e s o f h y p e rs en s it i v i t y r ea c ti on s a r e r ec o gn i z e d , p r im ar i l y o n th e b a si s o f t h e m e c h a ni s m s o f pa t ho ge n es is ( Fi gu r e 1 0 - 4) . Ma n y d i f fe r en t d i se as es a re in c l u de d wit h i n e ac h t yp e . Al l e r g e ns a r e b ro a dl y d ef i ne d a s a n t ig en s o r ha p te ns th a t i n du c e h y pe r s e ns i ti v i t y r e a c t i on s, an d th e y ar e u s ua ll y n o np a th og e ni c , no n t o xi c a g en t s.
Figure 10-4. The four main types of hypersensitivity reactions. RBC, red blood cell.
P.204
A. I g E - m e d ia t e d t yp e I h yp e r s e n s i t i vi t y r e a c t io n ( im m ed i a te h yp e r s e n s i t i vi t y) 1 . A t ype I h y p e rs en s i t i v it y r e a c t io n i s c au se d b y i n a p p ro p r i a te p r od u c tio n a n d h yp e r s e c r e t i on o f Ig E t o s pe c i f ic a l le r ge ns p l us au xi l i a r y f ac to r s , s uc h a s i nc r e as ed m uc o s a l p er m e ab il i t y to ir r i ta n ts (e .g . , S O 2 , N O 2 , di es el f u m e s ). Th e t en d en c y t o h yp e r s e c r e te I g E i s in h e r i ta b l e ; a c hi ld ' s p r o ba b il i t y o f be in g a h yp e r s e c re t or is 50 % i f o ne p a re n t is a h yp e rs ec r eto r a n d 7 5 % i f b ot h p a r en ts a r e h y pe r se c r e t or s . Th es e i n di v i du a ls ar e c o ns id e re d to be at o pi c . a . I gE is p ro du c e d l oc a lly a f t e r n on s ys te m i c e xp o s u r e t o a n a n ti ge n . ( 1 ) I n n or m os ec r et o rs (1- 1 0 µ g/ d L o f I g E ) , a rm ing o f l oc al m a s t ce ll s o c c u r s ( s e e I . B .6 ) . ( 2 ) I n h y p e rs ec r et o rs ( t yp i c a ll y 1 00 µ g - 1 m g / dL of I g E ), I g E sp i ll o ve r o cc u rs , ar m i n g b as op h il s a n d n on l oc al m as t c el ls a n d c au s i n g i nc r ea se d o cc u pa nc y o f m as t c el l an d ba s o p hi l I g E r e c e p to rs b y Ig E . b . B ec a us e t he r e i s a l ag p e ri od f or I g E s y nt h es is an d c el l a r m i n g, a t y p e I r e a ct i on us ua ll y d oe s n ot o c c u r o n t he fi r s t ( o r f i rs t s e as on a l) e xp o s ur e to a s p ec if ic al l e rg en . 2 . C o mm o n a l le r g en s a . R es p i r a to r y a l l e r g e ns i nc lu de p ol le ns o f v a r io u s p la n ts (e . g ., r ag we e d , g r a ss es , t r ee s ) , f un g i, an i m a l f u r , c a r p et m i te s , a n d o t he r s h ed al le r g en s . b . G a s t r oi n t es t i na l a l ler g e n s i nc lu d e d ai r y p r odu c ts , s he l lf is h , t r ee nu t s, a n d p e an u ts . c . S ki n a n d m o u th al l e rg e n s i nc lu d e t op ic a ll y ap p li e d d r ug s ( e .g . , p r o ca in e ) . d . I n t ra ve n o us a ll e r ge ns i nc lu de in s ec t v e n om s a n d d r ug s t h at ac t a s c ell o r pl a sm a p ro t ei n - bo u nd h a pt e ns (e . g ., pe n ic il li n , c ep h al os p or i ns ,
va c ci n es ) . Th es e d r ug s m a y c a us e t y p e II o r I I I h y p e r s e ns i ti vi t y r ea ct i ons in p e o pl e wh o d o n o t h y p e rs ec r e te I gE in r es po ns e t o t he s e dr u gs . 3 . Ac t i va t i o n o f ma s t ce l l an d b a so p h il se c r e t io n b y an al le r g en r eq ui re s t wo o r m or e re c e p to r - bou n d I g E m ol ec u le s t o b e c r os s -l in k ed b y a sp ec i fic a l le r g en . Ha p te n -s i z e d ru g s t ha t pr o vo k e th is r eac t io n b o th s e ns i ti z e th e i m m u ne s y s t em a n d t r ig ge r m a s t c e ll s wh e n t he dr u g i s b o un d t o a la r ge r m o le cu l e ( e .g . , a p r o te i n) . A c ti v a ti o n l ea ds t o a t ra n si e nt in c re as e i n t h e c yc li c a de n os in e m on o ph o s p h at e (c A MP ) l e v e l , fo l lo we d b y a n i nc r ea s e in t h e l e ve l o f c y c l ic gu a nos i ne m o no p ho sp h at e (c GMP ) r e l a t i v e to c A MP . T h i s i s fo ll o we d b y p h os ph o lip a s e C pr o du c i n g s e c o nd m e s s e ng e rs , wh ic h l e ad t o a r a pi d i nc r ea s e in c y to p la s m ic c a lc iu m i on s ( Ca c yt o pl as m i c Ca
++
++
) . W ith t h e i nc r ea s e in
, th e r e is im m e di a te f us io n o f v es ic l es c on t ai n in g
i n f la m m at o r y m e di a to r s wi t h t h e c el l m em b ra ne a n d re le as e o f th es e m e di a to r s i nt o t h e e xt r a c e l lu l a r m i li e u. I n a dd i ti o n, a f te r de g ra n ul a ti on , m as t c e ll s p r od uc e a dd i tio n al c yto ki n es , l eu k ot r ien e s, an d p r os t ag l an di n s. Th e s e a c ti v a t e t he la t e -ph a s e r es po ns e , wh i c h f ur t h e r a ct i va te s t h e l oc al i n f la m m at o r y r es po ns e . P r o l on g ed in c r e as es in cA MP l e ve l s in hi b it m a s t c e ll ac ti v a t io n . 4 . E f f ec t s o f m e d ia t o r s s e c r e te d f ro m m a s t c el ls a nd b as o ph i l s a . V as od i la t io n a nd in c rea s ed c a pi ll a r y pe r m e a bi lit y a r e c a us ed b y h i st am i ne ; th e l eu k o t r ie ne s C 4, D 4 , a nd E4 ; an d p r o st a gl an d in D 2 (P G D 2 ) s ec r e te d b y m as t c el ls . b . G a s t r oi n te s ti na l a n d re s pi r a to r y sm oo t h m u s c le co ns t r ic ti o n is c a us e d p r i m a r il y b y hi s ta m i ne , th e le uk o t ri en es C 4 , D 4 , a n d E4 ; P G D 2 ; a nd p l a te le t - ac ti v a t i ng fa c t o r s ec r e te d b y m a s t ce l ls an d ot h e r l eu k o c y te s . c . E os in op h il an d n eu t r op h il in f il t r at i on is c au s e d b y c he m o t ac ti c f ac t o rs s ec r e te d b y m as t c el ls . 5 . L oc a l s ym p t o m s o f pa t h o ge n es i s i nc lu d e i nf la m m a ti o n o f t h e u pp e r ( r h i ni t is ) a n d lo we r r e s p ir a t o r y t ra c t ( as t hm a) , gas t r oi n te s t i na l t r ac t , a n d s ki n . a . C om m o n c li ni c al s y m pt o m s in c l ud e u r t ic a ri a , p ru r i tu s (i tc h in g ), na s al c o ng es t io n , b r on c h oc o ns t r i c t i on , m uc us an d l ac h rym a l h y p e rs ec r e ti o n, l a r yn ge a l e de m a , v om i tin g , a n d d ia r r he a . b . S ym pt om s m a y b e c on f i ne d t o th e p o rt a l o f a lle r g en en t r y ( e .g . , r e s pi r at o r y al l er g en : re s p i r at o r y s ym p to m s ) or m a y b e m o re wi d es p r ea d a s a r es u lt of al l e rg en s p il l ov e r i n to th e c i rc ul a ti o n (e . g . , f oo d a ll e r ge n : g a st r o in t es ti n al , s k i n, r es p i ra t or y s y m p t om s ). c . At o p i c d e r ma t i t is t y pi c al l y in c l ud es s e ve r e p ru r i ti c d e rm a ti ti s , a nd m ay a l so in cl ud e rh i ni t is o r as t hm a , f oo d a l le r gi es , a n d c h a ng es in th e c e ll m e di a te d i m m un e s y s tem . d . Th e lo c a l i n tr o du c ti on o f al le r ge n s om e ti m e s le a ds to an a ph y l a xi s . e . A pp r o xi m a te l y 50 % o f p a ti e nt s wi t h as t hm a h yp e r se c re t e I g E. Th i s t e n de nc y i s p ro b ab l y c o nt r i bu t o r y, b u t a nc il l ar y, to t he un d e rl yi ng b ro nc h ia l h yp e r r ea c ti v i t y p re s e n t in t he s e pa t ie n ts (s e e C ha p t e r 4 8) . P.205
6 . S ys t e m i c a n ap h yl a c t i c ma n i fe s t at i o ns o f p at h o g en e si s . I n s en s i t i zed i n di vi d ua ls , i n t ra v e n ou s in j ec t io n o f a n a l le r ge n (e . g . , b ee v e no m ) o r a b so r p ti on ac r os s t he m u c ou s m em br a ne s ( e .g . , p e a nu ts ) c a n c a u s e s ys t em ic e d em a a nd h y po v o l em ic s h oc k , wi t h c a rd i ac a rr h y t hm ia , a s ph yxi a t i o n a s a re s u l t o f b ro nc h oc on st r ic t io n an d m uc o us h ype r s e cr e ti on , a n d u r t ic ar i a. D e at h u s ua l l y oc c u rs be ca u s e of as p h yxi a t i on . W hil e o t he r s e ns it i z e d i nd i v i du al s m a y h a v e on l y m il d l oc a l s ym p t om s u po n e n co u nt e ri n g t he al l e rg en , t he s e re s ul ts de m o ns tr a t e d i ff e r in g h os t r e s po ns es to id e nt ic a l p ro t e in s . 7 . T im e c o u rs e . I m m ed ia t e h y p e rs e ns it i v i t y re a ct i o ns h a ve t wo ph as es . Th e e a r l y r e a c t i o n, r es ul t in g f r om m e di a to r s e cr e ti o n b y m as t c el ls , b e gi ns wi t h i n 1 -2 m i n a ft e r a l le rg e n c on t ac t a n d p ea ks wi t h in 1- 2 h r . Th e l a t ep h a se r ea c t i on be gi n s 6- 1 2 hr a ft e r c on t ac t wi t h t h e a l le r ge n a n d l as ts for s e ve r al ho u rs . Th e l at e -p h as e re ac t io ns a re in i tia t e d b y ne wl y s yn t h es i ze d l e uk o t ri en es an d p r os t agl a nd i ns a l on g wi t h c y t ok in e s , ch em ok i ne s, an d o t h e r i nf la m m a to r y m e d ia t o rs . Th e l a te - ph as e rea c ti o n is ch a ra c te r i z ed by i n c re as ed nu m be rs o f e os i no p hi ls a n d i s m a i nt ai ne d b y th e p r od uc t s o f t h es e c el ls . 8 . D i ag n os i s . I n s c r a tc h t e s t s , a va ri e t y o f al le r ge n s a r e i nj ec t ed i n t ra d e rm al l y to s c r ee n fo r t he p re s e nc e o f a wh e a l an d f l ar e (i . e. , ed em a a n d e r yt h em a ) r es p on s e i n th e s k i n . R a d io a ll e r go s o r b en t ( R AS T ) a nd r a d i o im m un o so r b e n t ( RI S T ) as s a ys u s e r ad io l ab e le d re a ge n ts to de t ec t s e r um I g E c o nc en t ra t io ns . Th e re s u l ts o f th es e as s a ys do no t a l wa y s a g re e wi t h e ac h ot h er o r wi t h c l i ni c a l m an i fe s ta t io ns of t y p e I h y p e rs e ns it i vi t y. 9 . P r o ph yl a x i s a . I de n ti f y i ng an d a v o id in g al le r g en s is t he m os t i m po r t an t f o rm of p r o ph y l a xi s . b . H yp o s e n s i ti z at i o n ( de s e ns i t iz a ti o n ) is p er f o rm e d b y in j ec ti n g we e k l y, i n c re as in g d os e s o f a ll e rg e n i n t ra m u sc ul a rl y t o e li c it an al l er g en - s p ec i fi c I g G r es p on s e an d d ec r ea s e t he al l e rg en - s p ec i fi c I g E . On c e d es en si t i z at io n h a s b ee n a c h i e v ed , m on th l y i nj ec t io ns a re us ed to m a i nt a in th e Ig G le ve ls . I g G is ab l e t o b in d to th e a l le r ge n a n d i nh ib i t i ts bi n di n g t o t h e m a s t- c el l b o u nd Ig E . 1 0 . Th e r ap y a . C o mp e t it i ve H 1 - an t ago n is ts o f h is ta m i n e a r e us e fu l i n l oc a l f o rm s bu t do n o t c om pl e te l y r e v e rs e th e in f la m m at i on be ca us e h is t am in e i s n o t t he on ly i n f la m m at o r y m e di a to r in t h e r e ac ti o n. C om p et i ti v e H 1 - an t ag o ni s t s h a v e l i t tl e e f fe c t o n a na p h y la x i s . b . E p in e p h ri n e r e v e rs es a n ap h yl a xi s t h r ou g h i ts α - a g o ni s t an d β -a g on is t e f f ec ts . Pa t ie n ts wi t h s y s t em ic al le r gi e s a re gi v en e pi ne p h ri ne se l f a d m i ni s t ra ti o n k it s . β 2 - ag o ni s ts (e . g. , al bu t e ro l ) a r e ab le t o p ro m o t e b r o nc ho d il a ti on , an d α 1 -a g o ni s t s ( e .g . , p h en yl p rop a n ol am in e ) d ec r ea s e n a sa l c on g es ti o n.
c . C r om o l yn s o d i u m (c ro m og l y ca t e ) is a l oc al l y a d m i ni s te r ed in h ib i to r o f m as t c e ll de g ra n ul a ti on . G l u c o co r t i c oi d s a r e a ble t o b lo c k th e l a te ph as e o f t he re ac t io n b u t a r e l es s e f fe c ti v e du r in g t h e ea r l y p ha s e . An t i l e u k o t r ie n e t h e ra p ie s a re al so ab le t o b lo c k t h e l at e ph as e o f t h e r e a ct i on . d . T op i ca l s te r o id s i n hib i t i n fl am m a t io n a n d im m u ne r es po ns es . To pi c al a p pl ic a ti o n v i a s p ra y o r in h al e r l im i ts th e s id e e f fe c ts s e en wh e n g l uc oc o r ti c o id s a r e a dm in i s t e r ed s y s t em ic al l y. I n a d di t io n to us in g t o pi c a l s t e ro i ds a l on e , t he y a r e a l s o c om b in e d wi t h lo n g -a c ti n g β 2 - ag o ni st s a s t h e r ap y f o r as t hm a . e . An t i - I g E th e r ap y i s c o m po s e d o f a hi g h -a f fi n ity m o no cl o na l a n ti b od y t o t h e Fc re gi o n o f I g E . I t is ab l e t o b in d Ig E an d p re ve n t s e ns it i za ti on o f m as t c e ll s a nd ba s o p hi ls . Th is t h e ra p y is u s ef u l in hi g h l y a t op ic in d i v id ua ls a nd i s u se d fo r i n di v i d ua ls wi t h s e v e r e a st hm a fo r wh o m o t he r th e r ap ie s h a v e p r o ve n i ne f f ec ti v e . B . N o n - I gE - m ed i a te d t yp e I h yp e r s e n s i t i vi t y r e a c t i on s a r e p r ob a bl y t h e r e s ul t o f s e v e ra l p o o rl y un d e rs t oo d c au se s a nd a re s o m e t im es c a ll ed a n a ph yl a c t o i d r ea c t io ns . Th e fo ll o wi n g fa c t o rs m a y c o n t ri bu t e t o a n d e xa c e r b a te no n - Ig E -m e di a t ed t ype I re ac t io ns . 1 . R es pi r a to r y β 2 - r ec ep to r u nr es p on s i v e n es s , wh i c h l ea ds to a d im in i s h ed b r o nc ho d il a to r y e ff e c t of t h e s y m p a th e ti c n e r v ous s ys t em . 2 . H yp e r re ac t i v it y o f m as t c el ls th r ou g h H 2 - r ec ep to r u nr es p on s i v e n es s . Thi s d e c re as es th e n e ga t i v e fe e d ba c k o f hi s t am i ne on t h e a c t i v a ti o n o f m a s t c e ll s. P.206
C . T yp e I I h yp e r s e n s i t ivi t y r e a c t i o ns 1 . P a th o ge n es i s . A n ti b od y - m e di a te d c y t o to xi c i t y o cc u rs t hr o ug h t h e p r o du c ti on o f I g M a n d I gG . Th e s e a n ti bo d ie s a r e a b le t o b in d t o s pe ci f ic a l le r g en s l oc at e d o n c e l l s u rf a c e s . a . Th e s e al le r g en s m a y b e in t ri n s i c t o t he ce ll ( i.e . , na t ur a l ce l l -s ur f ac e c om p on e nt s ) o r e xt r i n s ic c om po u nd s ( i .e . , d r ug s ) a ds o r be d t o th e c el l s u r fa ce . b . C yt o t o xi c it y m a y r e s u lt f r om ac ti v a t io n o f c om pl e m e n t, ph a go c y t os is o f t h e Ig G op s o n i z ed c e ll , or b o th . c . A t h ir d c y t o to xi c m ec ha n is m , k n o wn as an t ib o dy- d e p en d en t , c el l m e di a te d c y t o to xi c i t y , inv o l v e s th e d i re c t k i ll i ng o f an t ib o d y -c o at e d ce l ls b y N K c el ls , m ac r o ph ag es , o r e os in op h il s . d . Typ e I I re ac t io ns m a y e xh i b i t an a ph y l ac t ic s ig ns an d s ym pt om s i f e n ou gh c om p le m e n t is ac t i v at e d; h o we v e r , t he y us u al l y do n ot p ro g re ss to t hi s s t ag e . 2 . C o mm o n a l le r g en s . Ty p e I I a ll e r ge ns a re di ver s e . I t i s t h e p at h og en ic m ec h an is m t h at is c om m o n to al l t h e r e ac ti o ns .
a . F or e ig n b lo o d s ur f ac e a n ti g en s m a y a c t as al ler g e ns to p ro d uc e t r a n s f us i on m is ma t c hes o r Rh d is e as e . b . D r ug al l e rg en s (o r d r ug m e t ab o li t e a ll e rg e ns ) ac t i n g a s h ap t en s a r e t h e l e a d in g c a us e o f he m o lyt i c a n e m i a. ( 1 ) Th e s e al le r g en s m a y d i r ec tl y a ds o r b t o c e l l s ur f a c e s a nd be sp ec i fi c a lly b o u nd b y a n ti b od ie s ( e . g. , p en ic il li n s , c e ph a lo s p or i n s , qu i ni di n e) . ( 2 ) A lt e r na t el y , t he y m a y f o rm s e r um - ph as e i m m un e c om p le xe s , wh i c h a d so r b n on s pe c i f ic al l y to b l oo d c el l s u rf ac es . Th is m a ke s t he c e ll s us c ep ti b le to l y s i s o wi ng t o t h e “ in n oc en t b ys t and e r ” e f f ec t ( e .g . , ri f am pin , s u lf o na m i d es , c hl o rp r om a z i n e ) . c . S el f - an t i ge n s a r e t he a l le r g en in c e r ta in a ut oim m u n e d is ea se s ( e .g . m ya s th e ni a g r a v is , a u to im m u n e h em ol y t ic a ne m ia ; se e I I I ) A u to im m u n e h e m o l yt ic a n em ia is s om e t im es as s o ci a te d wi t h ad m in is t r at io n of α m e th y l d op a , wh i c h i nd uc e s a u to a nt i bo d ie s a ga in s t t h e r ed bl o od c e ll s u r fa ce . d . H yp e r a c u t e re j ec t i o n o f t ra ns pl a nt e d t is s u e (se e V ) 3 . C h em i ca l m e di a t o rs . C o m pl em e nt p ro t ei ns p ro d uc e c y t o to xi c i t y a nd i n f la m m at i on , wh ic h s t im u l a te ma c r op h a ge s a n d g r a n u lo c yt e s t o s ec r e te c yt o ki ne s a n d e n z y m e s , wh i c h in tu r n e n ha nc e i nf l am m a t io n . 4 . C l in i ca l s ym p t o m s de p e nd on th e t y p e of an ti g en o r a ll e rg e n i n vol v e d ( s e e I I . D. 2 ) . H e m o l y t ic an e m i a a n d t h ro m b oc yt o pe n ia a re t he m a jo r c li n ica l s i gn s o f t y p e II h y pe r s e ns i ti v i t y r ea c ti on s . I n h ype r a cu t e g r af t re j ec ti o n, th e t r a ns p la n te d t is s u e d o es n o t s ucc es s fu ll y p e r fu s e b ec a us e o f a n ti b od y m e di a te d c y t o to xi c i t y t o t h e tr a ns pl a nt e d v a sc ul at u r e . 5 . T im e c o u rs e a . I n t he fi r s t s e ns i ti z a t io n to a d r ug al l er g en , the b lo od c e ll l y s i s a nd i n f la m m at i on be gi n 7 - 1 0 d a y s a f t e r in i ti a ti o n o f d ru g th e r ap y. Th e s ec o nd e xp o s u r e t o th e d r ug c a us es s ym p to m s wi t h in 3 da y s . b . T r an s f us i o n m is m at ch . H em o l ys is be g in s 1 - 2 h r a ft e r t r a ns fu si o n. P eak e f f ec ts oc c u r af t e r a pp r oxi m a t e l y 12 h r. +
c . R h d i se a se do es no t o c c u r i n t h e f i rs t Rh D p re g n an c y o f an R h D
-
m o th e r . Ma t e r n a l I g G i s p r o du c e d i n th e s ec on d a n d s ub s e q ue n t +
p r e gn a nc ie s a f te r t ra ns pla c en t al m a te r n al s e ns it i za t i on to t he R h D f e ta l r e d bl oo d c el ls . Th is s e ns i ti z a t io n u s u a ll y t ak es pl a ce in th e th i rd t ri m e s t er . Ma t e r n a l an t i- R h D Ig G c r o s s es t he pl ac en t a , b ind s to th e f e t al re d b l oo d c e ll s, an d a c ti v a t es th e fe t a l c o m p l em en t s y s te m p r e na t al l y, wh i c h le ad s to p e r in a ta l h em o l y ti c a nem i a. 6 . P r o ph yl a x i s a nd t he ra p y. I n d r ug - i nd uc ed h yp e r s e ns i ti v i t y r ea c t i on s, wi t h d r a wi n g th e d r ug us u a ll y r e ve rs e s t he l ys is . P r e ve n ti n g r ec o nt a ct is th e b e st p ro p h y la xi s . I n R h di s ea s e , a n ti - R h D i s a dm in i s t e r ed du r in g p r eg n an c y +
a n d wi t hi n 7 2 h r po s t p a rtu m fo r e a c h R h p r eg n anc y. Th e s i m p le s t e xp l a n a ti o n f o r t h e e ff ic ac y o f a n ti - R h D i s t h at th is pa s s i v e i m m un i z a ti o n ( s e e V I . B. 2 . d) bi n ds to fe t a l r e d bl o od ce ll s i n t he m a t e rn a l c i r c u la t io n a nd p r e ve n ts s en s i t i z a ti on o f t h e m at e rn a l im m u n e s ys t em .
D . T yp e I I I h yp e r s e n s i t ivi t y r e a c t i o ns in vo l ve the p e rs is te nc e o f im m u ne c om p le xe s i n t h e c i r c u la ti o n o r at lo c a l t is su e s i tes wh e n th e y a re no t r e m o ved af t e r p r od uc t ion o f s pe c i f ic a n ti b od ie s a n d a n ti g en - an t ib o d y c om p le xe s . Th e s u bt y p es o f t y p e I I I h y p e rs en s i t iv i t y r e a ct io n s h a ve d i v e rs e c a us es , a n d o nl y t he pa th o g en ic m ec h an is m is co m m o n t o t h em a l l. P.207
1 . P a th o ge n es i s . Im m une c o m p l e xe s ac ti v a t e c om p le m e n t, ca us e i n f la m m at i on , a n d i nd uc e p os it i v e c he m ot a xi s in n e u t ro ph i ls . P e rs is t en ce o f i m m u ne c om p le xe s m a y b e c a us ed b y th e f o ll o wi n g : a . A hi g h c o nc e n t ra t i on o f a nt i g en o r a n t ib o d y, wh i c h l e ad s t o a di s p a rit y i n th e m ol a r ra ti o of an t ig e n t o a n ti b od y a nd t he p r o du c ti on o f sm al l i m m u n e c om p le xe s . b . C h r o ni c fo r m a ti o n o f i m mu n e c o mp l ex e s i n th e c i rc u la t io n a s a re s u l t o f p e rs i s te n ce o f a n ti ge n as wi t h s om e c h ro ni c i n f ec ti o ns . c . O t he r fa c t o rs t ha t c aus e i ns o lu bl e i m m u ne c om p le xe s t o f o rm an d p r e ci pi t a te i n t ra v a s c ul a r ly o r o n b as em en t m em b ra n e s . 2 . C o mm o n a l le r g en s a . S el f - a n ti g en s in mo st n o n -o r g a n -s p ec i f ic ( rhe u m a t ol o gi c ) a ut o i mm un e d i s o r de r s (e . g. , s y s t em ic lu p us e r yt h em a to su s , rh e um a to i d a r th r it is ) b . B a ct e r i al o r p r o t oz oa n an t i g en s i n pe r s is t en t o r ch r o n ic i nf e c ti o ns a n d i n t h e i ni t ia l s ta g es o f v i r em ia fo r c e r ta i n v i ra l in f ec ti o ns (e . g. , p r o d ro m e of h ep a ti ti s B v i r u s i n fe c t i on ) . c . D r u gs ( e. g ., pe n ic il li n, s ul f on am id es , th i ou r ac il ) . d . An t i s e r a f r om an o th er s pe c i es ( e. g . , h or s e) , c a n c a us e s er um s i ck ne ss wh e n u s e d fo r p a s s i v e im m u n i z at i on . e . F un g al a nd ba c t e ri a l s p o r es in th e l oc a l r es pi r a to r y f o rm of t he re ac t io n 3 . C h em i ca l m e di a t o rs . C o m p l em e nt p r o te i ns c a u s e in f la m m at i on an d s t i m ul a t e m as t c e l l a nd b a so p h il se c r e t io n s, wh i ch en h an c e i n f la m m at i on . Th e i nc r eas e d v a sc u la r p e rm e ab il i ty a l l o ws i m m un e c om p le xe s t o l e a v e t he c i r c ul at i on an d a t t ac h t o ba s em en t m em b ra n es , wh i c h un d e rl a y th e e n dot h e li al li n in g o f b l oo d v es s e ls . Th e k id n e y g l om e ru l us a n d s m al l a r te r i es ar e p a r ti c u l ar l y s u sc e pt i bl e . C om p le m e n t a nd m as t c e ll pr o te i ns a t t r ac t n e ut r o ph il s ; t he s e c e ll s c a n p ha g oc yt i z e i m m un e c om p le xe s a nd r el e as e en z y m e s t h at da m a g e l oc a l ti s s ue , th us in t en si f yin g i n f la m m at i on . I n a d di t io n, p la t el e t a gg r e ga ti o n a nd m i c ro t h ro m b us fo r m a t io n m a y oc c u r . 4 . C l in i ca l s ym p t o m s de p e nd on th e s e ve ri t y and s y s t em ic o r l oc al na t u re o f im m u ne c o m p le x d e p os i ti o n a nd pe r s i s t e nc e. a . Th e fi r s t s y m p to m s of s y s t em ic re ac t io ns a re l ym p ha d en op a th y , s p le n om eg al y , f e v e r, and r as h . Th e s e a re c o m m o n in d ru g -i n du ce d a nd vi r e m ia - in d uc ed t y pe I II h y p e r s e ns i ti v i t y r ea c t i ons . b . Mo r e s e ri ou s s y m p t om s i nc lu d e va s c u li ti s a nd g lo m e r ul o ne p hr i ti s , b oth o f wh i c h m a y b ec om e n ec ro t i z i ng . Th es e s y m p t om s o f t en oc c u r wi t h s y st e m ic
l u pu s e r y t h em at os u s ( S LE ) . A r t hr a lg i a a nd ar t h ri ti s o cc u r i n b ot h s y s t em ic a n d l oc al r ea c ti on s . c . Th e m os t c om m o n t y pe s o f lo c a l t yp e II I h y p e rs e ns it i v i t y re a ct io n s a re p n e um on i ti s f r om i n ha led f un g i a nd ba c t e r ia to wh i c h th e p a ti e nt is o cc u pa t io n al l y e xp o s e d (e . g . , m o l d y h a y in f a rm er ' s l un g ) a n d r e ac ti o ns to s p o re s b o rn e i n a e ro s o l m ic r o dr o pl e ts f ro m d ir t y u l t ra s on ic hu m i di f ie r s ( e . g ., h um i d if i e r l u n g) . Th e c au se o f t he s e di s ea s es i s n o t c o m p l et e l y u n d er s to od , bu t b o th I g E a n d I g G a r e i n v o l v ed . IgE c au s e s t h e i ni t ia l i n f la m m at i on an d t r a pp ing o f a n ti ge n , a nd I g G i s r e s po ns ib l e f o r t he lo n g t e r m e f fe c t s . S y m pt om s in c lu d e ( 1 ) N as a l c o n ge s t i on and b r on c h oc o ns t ri c t i on ( 2 ) Jo in t pa in an d i n fl am m a ti o n o f r h eu m a t oi d a r th r i ti s c au s e d b y j oi n t l o ca li ze d i m m u ne c om p le xe s i n vo l vin g rh e um at o id f ac t or an d ne u tr o ph il p h a go c y to s i s ( s ee C ha p te r 4 9) 5 . T im e c o u rs e a . S ys t e m i c . I n p a ti en t s wi t h n o p r i or e xp o s ur e to t h e a ll e rg e n , t he s ym p to m s a p pe a r i n 1 - 2 we e k s (p o s s ib l y l o ng e r ) a f t e r e xp o s u re . In pa t ie nt s wi t h p r e e xi s ti n g a nt i bo die s , s y m p t om s a pp e ar wi t h i n s e ve ra l h ou r s t o 1 day a f t e r e xp o s u re . Se v e r e s y m p t om s , s u ch as g l om er u l on e ph r it is , us ua ll y r e q ui r e 2 we e k s o r m o r e t o ap p ea r . b . L oc a l. I n p at i en ts wi t h p r ee xi s t i ng an t ib od i es , h y p e rs e ns it i vi t y p n e um on i ti s s y m p t om s ap p e ar 6 -8 h r a f te r e xp o s u r e to th e a n ti g en . 6 . P r o ph yl a x i s a nd t he ra p y. I n d r ug - i nd uc ed r eac t io ns , w i t hd r aw i n g t h e d r u g us ua l l y re v e r s e s t he r e ac ti o n. Tr e a tm en t i nc l ud es an t ih is t am in es o r c o r ti co s te r oi ds . Tr a ns ie nt i nf e c t io u s f o rm s r es ol v e sp o nt a ne o us l y a s i m m u ne c om p le xe s a r e re m o v ed b y ph ag oc y t e s. E . T yp e I V h yp e r s e n s i t ivi t y r e a c t i o ns 1 . P a th o ge n es i s . Ty p e IV r e ac t io ns in cl u de pr o lon g e d in a pp r o pr i at e a n d a p p ro p r ia t e im m u n e r es po n s e s m ed ia t ed b y an t ige n - s p ec i fi c T H 1 c el ls i n c o nc e rt wi t h ac ti v a t ed m a c r op ha g es . P.208
Th e T H 1 c e ll s i nf il t r at e tis s u e s in wh i c h t he an t ige n is p r es e nt e d a nd r ec ru i t a n d a ct i v a te m a c ro ph a ge s . Th e r el e as e o f e n z ym es an d c yt o k i ne s b y t he s e c e ll s r es u lt s i n i nf l am m a ti o n a nd di s ru p ti o n o f t is s u e s t r uc t ur e i n th e a b se nc e o f an ti b od y . a . R ea c t i on s to in f e c ti on s in v o l ve a T H 1 r es p ons e a g ai ns t s p ec if ic i n t ra c el lu l ar ba c te r ia l (e .g . , My c ob ac t e ri a ) a nd p ro t o z o an pa r as i te s . W hen t h e re sp o ns e is p ro l on ged a nd in e ff ec t i v e , g r an ulo m a f o rm at i on wi l l o c c u r. b . C o n ta c t d e r ma t i t is is a n i n ap p ro p r ia t e s k in r ea c ti o n t o h ap t en s (e . g. , p e n ta d ec ac at ec h ol s o f po i s o n i v y) , wh i c h b in d to e p id e rm a l c e l l su r f ac es a n d e li c i t a C TL a nd T H 1 c el l re sp o ns e. c . Tu b e r cu l in r e ac t i on is ob s e r ve d i n th e d e rm is a n d is an ap p r op r ia t e r e a ct i on to m y c o ba c t e ri al a nt i ge ns . Th is re ac t io n i n di c a t es a s ta t e o f a c t i ve T H 1 i m m u ni t y ( o wi n g t o an ac t i v e i n fe c t i on ) o r T c e l l m em o r y t o th e
o r g an is m . ( I n p at i en ts wh o ha d a po s i t i ve t ub e rcu l i n r ea c ti on , a s u bs e que n t n e g at i ve re ac t io n wo u ld in d ic a te im m u no l og ic an er g y o r un r es po n si ve ne s s . ) 2 . C o mm o n a n ti g e ns a . I n fe c ti o u s a ge n t s i nc l u de My c o ba c te r iu m t ub er c u lo si s, M. l e p ra e , L i st e ri a m o no c y to g en es , t r yp a no so m e s , a nd v i r us es . b . H a p te n a l le r g e ns , s uc h a s p e nt a de c a ca t ec ho ls f ro m p oi s on i vy , p o is on o a k, ch r om a te s , ni c k el ion s (l e ac he d f r om wa t c h b a c k s a nd ot h er je we l r y ) , a c r yl at es , ha i r d y es t ha t c o nt a in p -p he n y l en e d i am i ne , p a r a- am i no b en zo ic a c id , a n d c e r t ai n a n ti b io ti c o i nt m e n ts (e . g ., t op ic al n eo m yc i n ), m a y i nd uc e c o n t ac t de r m a ti t i s. c . A nt ig e ns th a t i nd uc e a t u be r c u l in re ac t io n i nc l ud e pu r i fi ed p ro t ei n d e r i v a ti v e ( P P D ), t ub e rc u l in ( Ma n t o u x r e a c t io n ) , C a n d id a , m u m p s , a nd oth e r a n t ig en s f r om m i c r o o rg an i s m s . 3 . C h em i ca l m e di a t o rs a r e i m po r ta n t i n t yp e I V r e a c t i on s . Th e s e m e di a to r s a r e c yt o k i ne s p r od uc e d b y a c ti v a t ed T H 1 c e ll s . Th e c y t o ki n es a t t ra c t a nd a c ti va t e m ac r op ha g es to t h e s it e (s ) wh e r e t h e p at h o ge n /a ll e r ge n i s l oc at ed . I n t ur n , t h e ac t i v a te d m ac r o ph ag e s s e c re t e c y t ok in e s , wh i c h a re r es po ns i bl e f o r in f la m m at i on an d c y to t o xi c i t y (e . g ., TN F - α ) . 4 . C l in i ca l s ym p t o m s de p e nd on th e s ub t y p e o f r e a ct i on . a . G r a nu lo m a s a r e l oc al a g g re g at i on s o f T H 1 c el ls , m ac r o ph ag es , an d g ian t e p i th el i oi d c el ls ( de r i v ed f r om f us io n o f a c ti va t ed m ac r o ph a ge s ) . Th e y oc cu r a t si t es o f c h ro n ic i n fe c tio n an d s e r v e t o r e s t r ic t th e s p r ea d o f th e i n fe c t i on . b . I n co n ta c t s e ns i ti v i t y , c e ll ul a r i n fi l tr a ti o n o f t h e e p id e rm is b y C TL , T H 1 c e ll s, an d m ac r op h ag es p r o du c e s m ic r o ves ic le for m a ti o n wi t h sp on g io s i s . c . Tu b er c ul in te s ts c au s e e r y t he m a an d i n du r a ti on as a r e su lt o f ce l lu la r i n f il t ra t io n o f th e d e rm is , b u t n o e pi d e rm al s p on gi o s is i s o bs e r v ed . 5 . T im e c o u rs e a . G r a nu lo m a s f o rm at v a r i ou s t im es af t e r t h e o ns e t o f a c h r on ic im m u ne r e s po ns e b u t g en e ra l l y re q ui r e a m i ni m u m o f 2 we e ks . b . C o nt ac t s e ns it i v i t y m ay n o t occ u r wi t h t h e f i rs t t r a ns i en t e xp o s u r e. H o we ve r , i n a s e ns i ti z e d i n di v i du a l, sk in in f la m m a t i on wi l l a pp e a r 1 2 -2 4 hr a f t e r co n ta c t wi t h t he an ti g en an d pe ak s b et we e n 4 8 an d 7 2 h r af t e r e xp o s u r e . c . Tu b er c ul in r ea c t i on s fo l lo w t h e s am e ti m e c o u rs e a s c on t ac t s en s i t i vit y . Th i s r ea c t i on is o f t en c a ll e d d e la ye d c u t a ne o us h yp e r s e n s i t i vi t y, o r d e la ye d - t y pe h y p er s en s it i v i t y . 6 . P r o ph yl a x i s a nd t he ra p y. Tr e a t m e n t o f g r an ulo m as d e pe n ds o n th e o r g an is m i n v ol v e d . Pr o pe r t r ea tm e nt t o r es ol ve th e in f ec ti o n wi l l al so ai d i n r e s ol vi ng t he c h r on ic i m m u ne r es po ns e . F o r c on ta c t s en s i t i vit y , i t is n e ce ss a r y to id en t i f y t h e a n ti g en / al le r g en in v o l v ed . R em o va l a nd a v oi da nc e o f t he al le r g en i s i m p o r ta n t fo r p r o ph y l a xi s . Fo r tr e a tm e nt , to pi ca l c o r ti co s te r oi ds s u pp r es s T c e ll an d m ac r op h ag e fu n c t i on . In s e v e r e c a se s , o r a l c or t ic os t e ro id t he r ap y m a y be r eq ui r e d.
III. Autoimmunity
i s a ti ss u e- d am ag i ng im m u ne r es po ns e d i re c te d s p ec i f ic a ll y a nd i n ap p r op r ia t el y a ga i ns t on e o r m o r e s el f - an ti g en s . A. Th e o r i g i n of au t o re ac t i v e i m m un e r e s p on s e s i s n o t g en e r al l y k n o wn , bu t i t r eq ui r es lo s s of s e l f- t ol e r an c e an d d e r eg ul a ti o n o f th e c on t r ol ne t wo r ks t h a t n o rm al l y p re v e n t d ev e l o pm e nt of au t oi m m u ne d is ea s e . Su c h d e r eg u la t io n m a y i nc l ude l ac k o f r eg u la t io n o f T H a n d T C c e ll s , P.209
c r os s - re ac t i v it y wi t h a nt ig e ns f ro m m i c ro o r ga ni s m s , l os s o f se l f -t o le r an ce o r f a i lu r e t o d e v e lo p t ol e r an c e, an d a b e r ra n t p re s en t a ti o n o f s el f -a n ti g en on s p ec if ic H L A m ol ec ul e s . B . E p i de m io l o g y 1 . F am i li a l c l us t e r in g i s e v i d en t fo r m an y , i f n o t m os t , a u to im m u n e r e a ct i on s r e pr es e nt i ng a c om p le x i n h e ri t ed p re d is p o si t io n t o wa r d a u t oi m m un i t y . I n m os t c a s es , t h is p r e di s p os i ti on i s a s s oc ia t ed wi t h s p ec if i c MH C t yp e s , u s u a ll y c l as s I I m o l ec ul es ( e. g . , r heu m at o id a rt h ri t is wi t h t h e MH C c l as s I I m ol ec u le HL A - D R 4 ) . 2 . Th e se re a c t io n s a re m o r e c om m o n i n wo m e n . Th e fe m a l e -t o -m al e ra t io in m ya s th e ni a g r a v is i s a ppr o xi m a t e l y 2 : 1 a nd in S LE i s a pp r o xi m a te l y 10 : 1. I n c o nt r as t , Sj ög r e n 's di s e as e a n d G o o dp as t u re s y nd r o m e ar e m o re c o m m on i n m e n t ha n i n wo m en . C . P a t h og e ne s is 1 . O ve r vi ew .
In a specific autoimmune disorder, the primary pathogenic
mechanism may be humoral (mediated by antibodies with or without a contribution by complement), T cell mediated, or involve both humoral and cell-mediated components. These diseases are commonly associated with exacerbation and remission of the disease. 2 . E n vi r o nm e n ta l fa c t o rs a r e t ho u gh t t o c o nt r ib ut e t o p at h og en e s i s . H o we ve r , s p ec if ic as s o c ia t i on s h a v e b ee n fo un d in o nl y a fe w c as e s; th es e i n cl ud e S tr e pt o c o c c us g ro u p A p ha r y n gi t is , rh eum a ti c f e ve r , e xp o s u re to o r g an ic s o l v en t s , G o od pa s tu r e s y n d ro m e , ul t ra v io l e t i r ra d ia t io n , a nd S LE. I t i s l ik e l y t h a t e n v ir o nm ent a l f a c t o rs ac t i n c on ce r t wi t h g en e ti c p r e di sp os i ti o n t o i nd uc e d i s e as e . 3 . O r g a n -s pe c i f ic an d sys t e m i c ( n o n -o r g an - s pe c i f ic ) di s o r de r s a . O r g a n -s pe c i f ic di s o rd e r s (e . g ., an t it h yr o id au t o im m u ni t y ) a re li m i t ed t o a n d d i re c te d s pe c i f ic al l y a g ai n s t s e lf - a nt i ge n i n a s i ng le o rg a n. Le si o ns a nd c l in ic al s ym p to m s a re lim i te d p r im a ri l y t o t ha t o rg a n . C e ll ul a r d am a ge m ay b e m e di a te d t h r ou gh an t ib o d y- m e di a te d a n d c om pl e m e n t -m ed ia t ed c yt o t o xi c it y ( t y p e I I h y per s e ns it i v i t y ) a n d/ o r t h r oug h c e ll - m e di a te d c yt o t o xi c it y ( t y p e I V h y pe r s en s i t i v it y) . b . S ys t e m i c d i s o rd e r s (e . g . , S L E ) ( 1 ) Th e s e di s o r de r s a r e a l s o k n o wn as c o nn ec t i ve t is su e , co l la ge n vas c u la r , o r r he um a to l og ic di s o r d er s . Au t oa n ti b od ie s a r e f or m e d a ga in s t a nt i ge ns
f o u nd in m os t or al l ti s s ue s , e s p ec i al l y th os e l oc at e d i n t h e n uc le i o f c e ll s a n d c on t ai n in g D N A, R NA , o r n uc l ea r - as so c i a te d p r o te i ns (a n t in u cl e a r a n t i bo d i es ) . Pa t ho lo g ic c h an g es o c c u r s y s te m a t ic a ll y , p ri m a r i l y i n t he c o nn ec t i v e t is s u e a n d a re a t l ea s t p ar t ia l l y c au s ed b y t y p e I I I h yp e r se ns i ti v i t y r ea c t i ons . S y m p t om s m a y b e s een i n t he bl o od v es s el s , k i dn e y gl om e ru l i, s k in , j oi n ts , an d s er o us m em b r an e s . ( 2 ) N o n- o r ga n -s pe c i f ic dis o r de r s a re so m e t im es di f f ic ul t to di st i ng ui s h f rom o n e a n ot h er be c au s e of th e s im i la r it i es i n a u to a nti g en s a n d p at h og en e s i s . F o r e xa m pl e , m o s t p at i en t s wi t h S L E h a v e c i rc ula t i ng an t in uc le a r a n t ib od i es ; h o we v e r , th es e a ls o o c c u r i n 5 0 -6 5 % o f pa t ie n ts wi t h Sj ö gr e n 's s yn d r om e a nd r he um a to id a r th r i ti s as we l l a s i n a s m a ll pe r c e n ta g e o f c l in ic al l y no r m a l i n di v i dua l s . B y co n t ra s t , rh e um at o i d f ac t or ( an t i -I g G ) i s s e en in 75 - 90 % o f pa t ie nt s wi t h rh e um at o id ar t h rit i s o r Sj ö gr e n 's s ynd r om e a s we l l as in 35 % o f pa t ie n ts wi t h S L E. Th e s y n ov i t i s o f rh eu m a t oi d a r t h rit i s i s o f t en a c l i ni c a l f in d in g i n SL E , a n d t he v a sc ul i ti s o f SL E is fo u nd in r h e um a to id a rt h r it is (s e e C h a pt e r 4 9 ) . D . O r g a n - sp e ci f i c a u to im m u ni t i es 1 . R h eu m at i c f e ve r is no t t ec hn ic al l y an au t oi m m u ne r es po ns e b ec a us e a n t ib od i es ar e p r o du c e d a g ai n s t g ro up A s t r ep t oco c c i a n d c ro ss - r ea c t wi t h c a r di ac m us c l e fi be r s t ha t a re da m a g ed b y c om pl e m e n t. I nc re a se d r is k i s r e l at e d t o a s t r on g i m m un e r es po ns e t o s t r ep t oc oc c a l M a n t ig en . 2 . An t i t h yr o i d a u t o im mu n i t i es (s ee C h ap t er 5 2). A s pe c t s o f s e v e ra l s u bt yp e s m a y o c c ur in t he s a m e pa t ie n t . I nc r ea s ed r is k is as so c i a te d wi t h MH C c l as s I I t y pe s D R 3 a n d D R5 . a . P r i ma r y a u t o i m mu n e m yx e d e m a . A n ti b od ie s a g ai n s t th e th yr o id s t im ul a ti n g h o rm on e ( TS H ) r e c e p to r on th y r o i d f ol l i c le ce ll s a c t as a n t ag o ni s t s t o t h e s ti m u la t i on of g ro wt h o f t h e f oll i c l e c el ls no rm a ll y p r o vo k e d b y TS H . Th e r es u lt is th yr o id a tr o ph y wi t h h y po t h y r oi d is m . P.210
b . H a sh i mo t o 's t h yr o i d i t i s . An t ib o di es ag ai n s t th yr o i d p e ro xi d a s e o n f o l li cl e c el ls c a us e c y t oto xi c i t y a nd in f la m m a ti on t h r o ug h t h e ac t i v a ti on o f c om p le m e n t. A n ti bo d ie s a g ai n s t th y r o g lo bu l in (c ol l o i d ) a ls o m a y be pr es en t . C e l l -m ed i at e d im m u n it y m a y c a us e s om e c y t o to x i c d am a ge . Th e r e su lt i ng h yp o t h yr oi di s m is tr e at ed wi t h s ynt h et ic t h y r oi d h o r m o ne . c . G r a ve ' s d is e as e . A n tib o di e s ac t a s a g on is ts of TS H , b i n di ng to t he TS H r e c ep t or a nd s t im ul a ti ng h y p e r s e c re t io n o f t h y r o id h o rm o ne ( th y r o id s t im ul a ti n g im m u n og lo b ul i ns ) . Th e r es u lt is h yp e rt h y r o i di sm , wh i c h i s t r e a te d b y a n ti th y r o i d d ru g s ( e .g . , p r op y l t hi o u ra c i l ) o r th yr o i d a bl a ti on wi t h s u r ge r y o r r a di a ti o n. 3 . M ya s t h e n i a g r a vi s a . P a th o ge n es i s . A n ti b od i es ag ai n s t th e n ic o ti n ic a ce t y l c h ol i ne r ec ep t o r on s ke l et a l m u s c le pl a s m a m em b r an e a t n e u ro m u s cu l a r j u n c ti on s a ct as c om p et i ti v e an t ag o ni s t s o f ac e t yl c h o l i n e bi n di ng. Th i s a c t i v i t y c a us es
we a k n es s a n d f at i gu e i n s k e l et a l m u s c le s . I n a dd it i o n t o t hi s d i re c t b l oc ka g e o f n eu r om us c u la r t r an sm is s i on , d o wn r eg u la t io n o f r ec ep t or s a nd c om p le m e n t d am ag e to m us c l e fi be r s o c c u r. Ma n y p a ti e nt s h a v e s wa l l o wi n g a n d re sp i ra t o r y m us c l e dy s f u nc t io n t h at m a y b e ca u s e d b y p en ic i ll am in e t h e r ap y. In c re as e d r is k is as s o c i a te d wi t h MH C c l a s s I t yp e B 8 . b . T he r a p y. A n t i c h ol in es t e r as e t h e ra p y ( e. g ., n eos t ig m i n e ) in c re as e s a c et yl ch o li n e s y na p ti c c o n c e n t ra t io ns ( pr es e r va tio n of en d og e no us a c et yl ch o li n e) . Im m u no s u p p re s s io n wi t h c o rt ic os te r o id s i s us e d i n s e v e r e c as e s; pl as m a p he r es is to r em o ve a u to r e ac ti v e an t i bo di es f r om t h e b lo o d i s a l so he lp f ul . Th y m ec t om y h e l ps m an y p a ti e nt s. 4 . Au t o i m mu n e p e r ni c io u s a n em i a a . P a th o ge n es i s . A n ti b od i es ag ai n s t in t r in s i c f ac t o r a re s ec r e te d i n to th e s t om ac h l um e n, wh e r e t he y i n hi bi t th e a s s oc ia t io n o f i n t ri ns ic f ac to r wi t h vi t a m i n B 1 2 . Th us th e a bs o r pt i on of v i ta m i n B 1 2 is d ec r e as ed . Th is c o nd i tio n a l so c a n r es u lt f ro m a n tib o di e s a ga in s t g as t ri n rec e pt o rs on pa r i et al ce ll s o f t h e s t om ac h m u c o s a t ha t b l oc k st im u la t io n o f t h e c e ll s b y ga s t ri n a nd d e c re as e t h ei r s ec r e ti on o f in t r in s i c f ac t or . b . T he r a p y i s i n t ra m u s c u l a r i nj ec t io n o f c ya n oc ob a la m i n o r o ra l a d m i ni s t ra ti o n o f c on c e nt r a t ed in t r in si c f ac t or p rep a r a ti on s . 5 . G o o dp a st u r e 's s yn d r o m e a . P a th o ge n es i s . A n ti b od i es ag ai n s t g lo m e ru l a r c a p i ll a r y b a s e m e n t m e m b ra n e ( G B M ) a c ti v at e c o m p le m e n t a n d n eu t ro p hi l -m e di a te d d am a ge . Th i s ac t i v at i on l e ad s t o g l om e ru l on e ph r it is , wi t h r a p id de t e ri o ra t io n o f re na l f u nc t io n . Th es e a nt i bo die s c r os s - r e ac t wi t h p ul m o n a r y c a pi ll a r y ba se m e nt m em b r an e , p r od uc in g p ul m on a r y he m o r r ha g e i n s m ok e rs . In c re as e d r is k is a ss o ci at e d wi t h MH C c l as s I I t y pe D R 2 . b . T he r a p y. I m m u no s u pp r e s s i v e t he r a p y i nc l ud es co r ti c os te r oi ds , wi t h p l as m a p he r es is to r em o ve a ut o r ea ct i v e a n ti b od ies . 6 . Au t o i m mu n e h em o l yt i c a ne m ia ( r ed b lo o d c el l ) , t h ro m bo c yt o p e n i a ( p l a t el e t ), n eu t r o pe n i a ( n e u t r op h i l ), an d l ym p h o p e n ia ( l ym p h o c yt e ) a . P a th o ge n es i s . A n ti b od i es ag ai n s t m em b r an e a n t ig en s o f o n e o r m o re o f t h e i n di c a t ed c e ll t y pe s m a y ac t i v at e c om pl em e nt a nd op so n i ze t h e c e ll s f o r r a p id sp le n ic p h ag oc y t o s i s . I t m a y al s o oc c u r a s p a r t o f th e s pe c t r um o f a u t oi m m un i t y i n n o n -o r ga n - s p ec i fi c d is o rd e rs , p ar t i c u la r l y S L E. Th e s e a u t oi m m un e v a ri e ti es m us t be di s t i ng ui s h e d f r om t h os e p r ec i pi t at e d b y r e s po ns es to e xt e r n al ant i g en s ( e .g . , d r ug s ) b ut th e c l in ic al e ff ec t s a re s im i la r . b . T he r a p y. Th e s e d is o rd e r s a re o ft e n ac u te an d s el f - li m i t in g , b ut th e r apy i s re q ui r ed wh e n th e y are c h r o ni c. In a du lt s , t r eat m en t be gi ns wi t h c o r ti co s te r oi ds . Ad d it i ona l op t io ns a re c y c lo p ho s p h am i de , c hl o ra m b u ci l, a n d i n t ra ve n ou s i m m un e g lo bu l in ( I V I G ). 7 . I ns u l in - d ep e nd e n t d ia b e t es me l li t u s ( I D D M; s e e C h ap t e r 5 1 ). P r o g r ess i v e a n d u lt im a tel y c om pl e te de s t ru c t i on o f pa nc r e at ic B - is le t c el ls o cc u rs in di a be t es . Al th ou g h t h e y a r e p r e di ct i v e l y u s e f ul , an t ib od i es a g ai ns t i n su li n a n d s ur f ac e c y t opl a s m ic a n ti g en s o f t h e B -i s le t c el l a r e p r es en t
b e f o re c l in ic al on s e t . The m a i n c y t ot o xi c m e ch a ni s m s a pp e a r t o b e m e di a te d b y T c e ll s a nd m ac r o ph a ge s . Th is vi e w i s s up p o rt e d b y t he b e n ef ic ia l e f f ec ts of c yc lo s po r in e th e ra p y in pa t ien t s wi t h e a rl y - s ta ge I D DM a t le ve ls t ha t h a v e l i tt l e e f f ec t o n a n ti b od y p r od uc t io n . I nc r ea s ed ri s k is a ss o ci at e d wi t h MH C c l as s I I t y pe s D R 3 an d D R4, a nd D Q 2 an d D Q 8. 8 . M u l t ip l e s c le r o si s (M S ) a . P a th o ge n es i s . T c el ls a n d m a c ro p ha g es , wh i ch a r e t ho u gh t t o be c yt o ci da l fo r o l ig o de nd r oc y t e s , in f il t r at e t h e c en t ra l ne r v o us s ys t em ( C N S ) a n d a t t ac k th e b a si c p ro t e i n o f P.211 m ye l i n a s a n a u to a nt i gen . Th e i m m u no lo g ic c om p o n en t m a y be s ec o nd a ry t o o th e r, un k no wn i ni t ia t in g ag e nt s. C N S de m ye l i n a t i on w i t h s c le r o t ic p l a q ue s l ea d s t o s p a s t ic i t y . I nc r ea se d ri sk i s a s so c ia t ed wi t h MH C c l as s II t yp e D R 2 . Gu i ll ai n - Ba r r é s y n d ro m e is a r el a te d co n di t io n th a t i n v ol v e s p e r ip h e ra l n e r v ou s s y s tem ( P N S ) d em y e l in a ti on th a t , u nl ik e MS , c an be a c ut e . b . T he r a p y. S p a s t ic i t y i s t r e at e d wi t h b ac l o fe n wi t h va ri a bl e e f fe ct i v e ne ss . Th e p e ri p he r al s k el e ta l m us c l e re l a xa n t da n t r ole n e i s e f fe ct i ve i n s om e p a t ie n ts . Ad r e n oc o r t ic ot r o p i c h o r m on e ( AC T H ), r a th e r t h an c o r ti co s te r oi ds , i s t h e f av o r e d im m u no s u p pr es s i ve t he r a p y . R e c o m b i na n t I F N - β - 1 b ( B e ta s e r o n) , IFN - β - 1 a , a n d g la t ir am e r ac e ta t e a r e a pp r o ve d b y th e U . S . F oo d a n d D r u g A dm i n is t ra t io n (F D A ) as a t r ea t m e n t f o r MS . E . N o n - o rg a n -s p ec i f ic au t o i mm u n it i es . Th e s im il a r it i es a n d d if f e re nc es in t h is cl as s o f d is o rd e rs a re s h o wn b y a c om pa r is on o f S j ög r en ' s s y n d r om e a n d SL E . Rh e um at o id a rt h r i ti s is di sc us s e d i n Cha p t e r 4 8. 1 . S j ög r e n 's s yn d r o m e a . D i ag n os i s i s us u al l y b a s e d o n l y m ph oc yt i c i nfi l t ra t io n a n d t he p re s e nc e o f au t oa n ti b od i es a g ai ns t s al i v a r y g l an d a n ti g en s a n d e xo c r i ne gl an d s o f t h e e ye s , g as t ro i nt es t in al a nd r es pi r at o r y s ys t em s , an d v ag in a . H yp e r g am m a g lo bu l in em ia ( 5 0% ) a s a r es ul t o f h y p e r ac t i v e B c e ll s , a n t in uc le a r a n ti b od ie s (50 - 6 5% ) , a n d r h eu m a t oi d f a c to r s ( an t i -I g G ; 7 5 - 90% ) a r e pr es e n t in t he in di c at e d p e rc e nt a ge s o f p a ti en t s . b . P a th o g en e si s . P r im a ry s y m p to m s in c l ud e in h ib i t i o n o f e x oc r i n e g la nd s e c r e ti o n , wi t h d r y ne s s o f t he e y es , m ou t h, an d g a st r o in t es ti n al , r e s pi r at o r y , an d v ag in a l m uc o us m em b ra n es ; a n d p a in an d e d em a i n t he s a li va r y g la nd s . P a ti e nt s wi t h h yp e rg am m a g lo b ul in e m i a o f te n h a ve t y pe I II h yp e r se ns i ti v i t y r ea c t i ons ( e. g . , va s c ul i ti s wi t h CN S i n v o l v em en t a n d k id ne y d i se as e ; s ee II . D ) . c . Th e r a p y. Mi l d c as es ar e t r ea t ed wi t h a r t i f ic i a l t e a r s a n d f r eq ue n t d r i nk in g o f wa t e r . F o r m o r e s e ri o us c as es ( e. g . , v a s c ul it is ) , tr e a tm en t i s s im i la r to th a t f o r S L E (sys t e m i c c o r t ic o s te r o i ds ) . 2 . S L E ( S ys t e m i c Lu p us E r yt h e m a t o s us ) a . D i ag n os i s i s c o m p l ic a t e d a nd de p en ds on th e p r es e nc e o f 4 or m o r e of 1 1 c r i te r ia . Th e m os t u s ef u l c r it e ri o n i s a h ig h c o nc e nt r a ti o n o f a nt i nu c l e ar
a n t ib od i es di r ec te d a g ain s t d ou b le - s t r a nd ed D NA a n d t he Sm i th ( Sm ) n u cl e ar an t ig e n, bo t h o f wh i c h a re c o ns id e re d s pe c i f ic f or S L E. O t he r d i ag n os ti c c r it e ri a i nc l ude t he p re se nc e o f th e l up u s e r y t he m a t os us c e ll (a n e u t ro ph i l t ha t ha s p ha go c y t os e d n uc le i ); a d is c oi d er yt h em a to us f ac ia l r a s h; ph o to s e ns i ti v i t y ; o ra l ul c e r s ; a rt h ri t is ; p e rs is t en t pr o te i nu r ia ; an d a n t ic a rd io l ip in , an t ie r y t hr o c y t e , o r a n ti le uk oc y t e a n t ib od i es . b . P a th o g en e si s i s t ha t o f t yp e I I I h yp e r s e n s i t i vi t y. P a t i e n ts ha ve h yp e r a c t i vi t y o f B c e l l s o f un k n o wn o ri g in . Th is h yp e r r ea c ti vi t y c a us es h yp e r ga m m a gl ob u li ne m ia , wi t h c i rc ul a ti n g im m u ne c o m p l e xe s of D N A an d o t h e r n uc le a r a nt i ge ns th a t p r ec i pi t at e o n to v a sc u l a r b as em en t m em b r ane s a n d a ct i v a te c o m p l em en t. ( 1 ) Mi l d a rt h r it is , fe v e r , ra s h, an d fa t ig ue oc c u r . ( 2 ) P r og r es s i v e ne c ro t i z in g v as c ul it is wi t h C N S i nv o l v e m en t a n d g l om e ru l on e ph r it is a re the m o s t s e r i ou s c o ns e qu en c e s , o cc u r ri ng in a p p ro xi m a t el y 5 0% o f p at i e nt s . ( 3 ) H yp e r te ns io n m a y dev e l o p s ec on d a r y t o k id n ey d i se a s e . ( 4 ) H em o l y ti c a ne m i a a nd t h ro m b oc y t o pe n ia a re c om m o n . ( 5 ) B eh a vi o ra l c ha ng e s o c c u r i n a p p ro xi m a t el y 25 % of p a t ie n ts . ( 6 ) S e ve ra l d r ug s (e . g. , p r o c a in a mi d e, h yd r a l a z i n e , q u i ni d i ne , m e t h yl d o p a , i s on i az i d , p h e n yt o i n , c h l o r p r om az i n e) p ro vo k e a l up us - l ik e s yn d r om e t ha t us ua ll y r es o l v es wh e n t h e d r ug i s wi t h d r a wn . Th e ba si s f o r t h is s ynd r om e i s n ot un de r s to o d. N o r e na l d is o rde r oc cu r s i n d r ug - in d uc ed SLE. c . Th e r a p y. Mi l d d is ea s e ( e . g. , lo w- g r a d e f e v e r, ar t h r i ti s) is m a na ge d wi t h n o ns t e ro id a l a nt i -i n fl am m a to r y d r ug s ( N S A I D s) . Th e r a p y f o r p at i en ts wi t h s e ve r e s y m p t om s is us ua l l y or a l m e t h y l pr e dn is o lo n e . C yc l op ho s p h am id e m a y al s o be us e d, an d pl a s m ap h er e si s t o r em o ve c i rc ul a ti n g im m u n e c om p le xe s m a y b e h e lp fu l . F . P r o sp e c ts f o r m o r e sp e c i fi c im mu n o lo g i c t he r a p ie s . Cu r r en t th e ra p ie s i n vo l ve a p pr o ac he s t h at s u pp r es s a ll im m u ne r es p o ns es ; ho we v e r , cu r r ent c l in ic al t ri a ls s ee k t o s upp r e s s o n l y l ym ph oc yt e s th a t a r e a c t i v a t ed — fo r e xa m p l e : 1 . F ee d in g a u t oa n t i ge ns t o p a ti en t s t o i nd uc e im m u n ol o gi c su p pr e s s io n 2 . V ac c in a t io n w i t h a u to r e a c ti ve T c e l ls to in du c e im m u n ol o gi c s u pp r es s i o n P.212
3 . A dm in is t r at i on of an t i- T H m o n oc lo n al an t ib od ie s (p a r ti cu la r l y an t i - C D4) t o e l im in a te au t o re ac t i v e T c e ll s 4 . A dm in is t r at i on of co n ju g a t es o f I L -2 a nd t ox in s f ro m p la n ts or b ac te r ia t o el im i na t e a ut o re a c t i v e T c e ll s wi t ho u t g en e r al iz e d T c e ll s u pp r es s i on
IV. Immunodeficiency
i s e i th e r p r im a r y o r s e c on d a r y . P r im a r y i m m u n od e f i ci e nc i es a re ei t he r h e r e d it a r y o r c o n ge n i tal , a nd at le as t o n e e le m en t ba s i c t o t h e im m un e s ys t em d o es no t f u nc ti o n p r o pe r l y o r is a b se n t. Se c o nd a r y i m m un o d ef i c ie n ci e s a re t he r e su l t o f an o t he r s ys t e m i c di so r d er o r a r e i a t r o ge n i c i n p a t ie n t s gi ve n i mm u n os u p p re s sive t h e r a p y. Th e y u s ua l ly d e ve l op i n pa ti e n ts wh o p r e v i ou s l y s ho we d n o rm a l im m u ne fu nc t io n . Th e e xp e c t e d c li ni c a l o u tc om e o f a n i m m un od e fi c i e ncy i s go v e r ne d b y t h e s p ec if ic po r t io n o f th e i m m u ne s y s t em th a t is a ff ec t ed ( e. g . , B an d T c e ll s , p h a go c y ti c c el ls , a n d c om p le m e n t ). A. P r i m a r y i m m u n o d e fic i e nc i es a re , wi t h o n e exc e p t i o n, r a re . E xa m pl es a r e th e f o ll o wi n g : 1 . X - li n ke d ag a mm a gl ob u l i ne m ia ( h ypo g am m a gl o bu l in em i a) is an in he r i te d d e f ic ie nc y i n a nt i bo d y p ro d uc t io n (h um o ra l i m m un i t y ) in wh i c h T c el l f u nc t io n i s r e la t i v el y n o rm a l, bu t B c el ls do no t fu l l y m a tu r e b ec a us e o f a f a i lu r e o f B c e l l s i g na li n g. S e r um i m m un o gl o bu li n l e v e ls a re lo w. B e c a us e t h is di so r d er is li nk ed t o t h e X c hr om o so m e , i t o cc u rs p ri m a r il y i n m e n . a . P a th o ge n es i s o c c u rs 6 - 9 m o nt hs a ft e r b i rt h a nd r e pr es e n ts s it u at i on s in wh i c h an t ib o d y fu nc t io n is de f ic ie n t b u t T- c e ll fu nc t io n i s i n ta ct , s uc h a s r e c ur r e nt in f ec ti o ns wi t h e xt r a c e l lu la r p y og e ni c ba c te r i a ( e .g . , s t re p to c o cc i , p n e um oc oc c i , Ha e m o ph ilu s ) . I m m un i t y to fu n gi and m o s t vi r us es is g e n er a ll y f un c ti on a l. b . C l i ni c al s ym p t o m s i nc l ud e p n eu m o ni a , s in us i ti s , o ti t is , m en i ng i ti s , an d s e pt ic em i a. c . Th e r a p y i s p a ss i ve im m u ni z a t i o n w i t h h u man i n t r a ve no u s i m m un o g lo b u li n ( IV I G ; s e e V I . B .1 .c ) . 2 . C o mm o n va r i a b le imm u n o de f ic i e nc y i s a n ac q ui r ed de f ic ie nc y o f B c e l l m a tu r a ti o n t o p la s m a c ell s . I t c an oc c u r at an y a ge a nd in ei t he r s e x. S ym p t om s a nd t re a tm en t a r e s im il a r t o t h os e f o r X- l i n k ed a g am m a g lo bu l in em ia ; the p at h og e ne s i s a nd o ri gin v a r y s ig ni f ic an t l y. 3 . S el e c ti ve I g A d e f ic i en c y i s t h e m o s t c o m m on p r im a r y im m u no de f ic ie nc y , a f f ec t in g a pp r o xi m a te l y 0 . 5 % o f t h e U . S . p op u la ti o n . I t a p pe a rs to be i n he r i te d . Th e lo w s e c re to r y I g A (s Ig A ) co nc en t r at i o n p r ed is po s e s p a ti en ts t o e xt r a c el lu l ar ba c te r ia l i n fe c ti on s o f t h e m u c os a l s u r fa c e s , le a di n g t o r e s pi r at o r y , ur o ge n it al , an d ga s t r o in t es ti n al in f ec ti o ns . So m e a ff ec t ed i n di vi d ua ls a re as y m p t om a ti c f o r u nk n o wn r ea s on s . Ce r t ai n a u to im m u ni t ie s m a y be m o r e p r e v al e nt . Th e r e is no s p ec if ic im m u n ol o gi c t h er a p y. 4 . D i G e o rg e s yn d r o m e re s ul ts f ro m d e v e lo pm en ta l fa i lu r e o f t h e t h ym u s a n d p a ra t h y r oi d g l an ds , a c c o m p an i ed b y c a rd i o va s c u l a r an d o t he r d e ve l op m e n ta l a no m a l ies . P at ie n ts ha ve a d ec r ea s e i n t o ta l T c e ll nu m b er s b u t re l at i v el y n o rm al im m u no g lo bu l in le v e ls . a . P a th o ge n es i s i n s e v er e c a s e s ( i .e . , l i tt l e f un c ti o na l th y m ic ti s s ue ) r e p r es en t s c o n di t io ns inv o l v i n g T c e ll de f ic ie nc y, s uc h a s r ec u r re n t i n f ec ti o ns o f th e s k i n , lun g s , ge n it o u ri na r y t r ac t , a n d b lo o d wi t h o p p or t un is t ic pa t ho ge n s , p a r ti c u l ar l y v i r us es (e . g. , h er p es v i ru s e s ) , f un gi ( e . g ., C a nd id a ) , a nd p ro to z o a ( e. g ., P ne u m o c y s t is c a r in ii ) ; i n cr e as ed
i n ci de n c e of c e r ta i n c a nc e r s ; g r af t - v e rs us - h os t ( G V H ) d is e as e ( se e V. C ) a f t e r t r an s fu s i on o f wh o le b lo od ; an d d e at h i n i n fa n c y o r ea r l y c h il d ho od . b . T he r a p y f o r s e v e r e T c e ll de f ic ie nc ie s i s b on e m a r ro w t r a n sp la n ta t io n , a l t ho ug h th y m us gr a f ts m a y be a tt em p te d i n Di G e o r ge s y nd r om e ( s ee V .C ) . 5 . N ez e lo f s yn d r o m e i s p r o ba b l y i n he r i te d a nd c a u s e s l ym ph op e ni a a n d t h ym ic ab no r m a l it i es b u t n o rm a l o r e le va t ed se r um i m m u no g lo b ul in le ve ls . G r a m - ne g at i v e s ep s i s m a y o c c u r i n a dd i ti o n t o t he o pp o r tu ni s ti c i nf ec t io ns a ss o ci at e d wi t h T c el l d ef i c i e nc y . 6 . S e ve r e c om b i ne d imm u n o de f ic i e nc y d i s o r de r s ( S C I D s) a re a h e t e ro ge n eo us g ro u p o f i n he r i te d d is o r de rs wi t h d e f ic ie nc ie s i n T c e ll s , B c e ll s ( va r ia b le ) , a n d s e r um im m u no g lo b ul in . In f ec t i o ns wi t h o pp o r tu n is ti c o r g an is m s oc c u r i n t h e f ir s t fe w m o nt h s p os tn a ta ll y , a nd su r v i v a l f o r l on g er t h a n 1 y ea r is ra r e wi t hou t s u c c es s f ul bo n e m ar ro w t r a n s p l an t at i on . Th r ee f o r m s i n v o l v e f ai l u re of D N A b i os y n t he si s o r re pa i r , a n d a f o u rt h d e fe c t is t h e re su l t o f d e fi c i en c y of t h e γ c ha in o f t he IL - 2 re c ep t o r. P.213
7 . C h r o ni c g r a n ul o ma t ou s d is e as e ( C G D ) is a de f ec t in th e a b il it y o f p h a go c y te s t o k il l b ac t e ri a . Th e d is ea s e is c a us ed b y a g en e ti c d e fe c t in th e p r o du c ti on o f o xy g e n r a di c al s t ha t ar e i m p o r ta n t fo r in t r ac el l ul a r a nd e xt r a c e l lu la r k i ll in g o f bac t e ri a . Th e de f ec t c an oc c u r i n a n y of t he fo u r p r o t ei ns es s e nt i al fo r p ro d uc i ng o xy g e n r ad ic al s , b u t t h e m o s t co m m on d e f ec t i s X- l i nk e d. C G D is c h a ra c te r i zed b y c h ro ni c i n fe c ti on wi t h or g an ism s s uc h a s St a ph y l oc oc c u s a u r eu s a nd is us ua ll y f a ta l . 8 . L eu k oc yt e a d h e si o n d e f i ci e nc y ( L A D ) i s as so c ia t ed wi t h a de f ec t i n th e p h a go c y ti c c el ls . Th es e c e ll s l ack in t e rc el l ul a r ad h es i on m o le c u le s , t he p r o t ei ns ne c e s s a r y fo r b in d in g to th e e n do t he li a l c e ll s o f t h e b lo od ve s s els a n d o t he r c e ll m em b r an es . Th is de f ec t l ea d s t o an i na bi l it y o f p h ag oc yt ic c e ll s t o e xi t t h e b lo o d a nd e nt e r t h e t is su es . In ad d i ti on , th e p h ag oc yt e s h a ve a d ec r ea s e d a b il it y t o bi nd t o ac t i vat e d c om p o n en ts of co m p l em en t o n a b ac te r i al s u r fa c e , l e ad in g to a d ec r ea s e in ph a go c y t os is . Pa t ie n ts ha v e s e ve r e b ac te r i al i n fe c ti on s , e s p ec i al l y i n th e m out h an d g as t r oi n te s ti na l t r a ct . 9 . C h éd i ak - H i ga s h i s yn d r o m e i s a d e fi c i e nc y in t h e fu s i on o f l y s o so m e s wi t h p h ag oc y t i c v e s i c l es . Th e c au s e is u nk n o wn , b u t th is s yn d r om e l ea ds t o b a ct e r ia l s ur v i v a l i n th e p h a go c y te , wi t h a n i nc r ea s e i n b ac te r i al in f ec ti o ns . 1 0 . De f e c ts in c om p le me n t m a y be t he r es ul t o f d e f ec ts in th e a c ti v a t io n p a t h wa y s , m em b ra n e a tta c k c o m p l e x, o r re g ul at or y p r o t ei ns . De f ec ts in t he a c ti va t io n p a th wa y s a n d i n th e m em b ra n e a tt a c k c om p le x a r e as so c i a t ed wi t h i nc r e as ed in f ec ti o ns o wi n g to p y o ge ni c b ac t er i a a n d wi t h i nc re a se d r a t es of im m u n e c o m p l e x d is e as es , s uc h a s S L E . D e f e c t s i n r e gu la t io n c an b e ob se r v e d a s a ng i on eu r o ti c e d em a a nd no c t u rn a l p a ro xs ys m a l h e m o g lo bi n u ri a.
B . S e c on d a r y i m m u n o de f i c ie n ci e s i n v ol ve de c re a se d i m m un o lo gi c r e s po ns i v e ne s s . 1 . C yt o t o x i c d ru g s p r e ve n t th e d i vis io n o f re s pon d in g l ym p ho c yte s , s u pp r es s t he p ro d uc ti o n o f bl o od c e ll s i n b on e m a r r o w, a n d m a y d i re c t l y k i ll c e ll s. P at i en ts wh o r ec e iv e c he m ot h er a p y an d e xh i bi t a s i g ni f ic an t l os s o f n e u t ro ph i ls m a y be t re a te d wi t h fi lg r as t im o r r ec om b in a nt g ra nu l oc y t e c o lo n y - s t im u la t in g f ac t o r ( G - C S F ; N eu p og e n) , to r e s to r e t h e wh i t e b l oo d c e ll c o un t to no rm a l l e v el s . Tr ea t m e n t t o i nc r ea s e n e ut r o ph il le v e ls in th e s e p a t ie n ts re s u l ts i n d e c r ea s ed m o r bi di t y r a te s f r om ba c te r ia l i n fe c t i on . C o r t ic os t e ro i ds b r o ad l y s u p p re s s im m u ne s ys t em c e ll s, in c l u di ng de c re as ed d i vi si on , c y t o k i ne s e c re t io n , a n d c h e m o t a xi s (e m ig r a ti o n f r om th e b l oo d i nt o t i ss ue s ) . 2 . L eu k em i as , l ym p h o ma s , a n d m ye l o m a s a r e as so c i a te d wi t h d ec r e as ed i m m u ne r es po ns i v e ne s s , a t l e as t s om e o f wh ic h re s ul ts f ro m d es t r uc ti o n of t h e a r ch i te c t u r e o f l y m pho i d o r ga ns ( e. g . , sp l ee n , l y m ph no d es ) . Ma l i g n a nc y - r e la t ed im m un o d ef ic ie n c y a ls o o cc u rs i n o t he r c a nc e rs . 3 . P r o te i n -c a l o ri e m a l nu t r i t i o n s i g ni f ic an t l y d ec r e a s e s im m u n e c om p et e nc e , p ar t ic ul a r l y i n c hi l dr e n. 4 . Ag i n g is a s s oc ia t ed wi t h d ec r e as ed im m u no lo gi c c om pe t en c e. 5 . Ac u t e in f e ct i o ns p rod u c e a t r an s i e nt im m u nod e f ic ie nc y. 6 . AI D S i s a s ec o nd a r y im m u n od e fi c i e nc y t ha t i s u s ua ll y p e rs is t en t a n d is a n in di r ec t c o ns eq u en c e o f i n fe c ti o n b y H I V -1 o r H I V - 2 . H I V -1 i s t h e m o r e c om m o n s u bt y p e i n t h e U n i t ed S ta t es an d we s ter n E u ro p e. a . P a th o ge n es i s . Th e v ir a l e n v e lo p e g l yc o p ro t ein 1 20 ( gp 12 0 ) h as a s t ron g a f f in i t y fo r C D 4 ( s e e I. B .3 . c ), al l o wi n g t he vi r us to d ir e c t l y in f ec t TH c e ll s . I n ad d it i on , t h es e p r ot e in s u s e o ne of t wo c h em ok i ne r ec ep t o rs : C C R 5 to g a in en t r y t o m a c ro p ha ge s a n d d en d ri t ic c e ll s a nd C XC R 4 t o ga i n e nt r y i nt o +
C D 4 T c e ll s . B ec a us e i t i s a re t r o vi ru s , vi r al en t ry a n d u n c o a ti ng r el ea s e t h e vi ra l R N A g en om e a nd t he as so c i a te d re v e r se t r a ns c r i pt as e e n z ym e , wh i c h s y nt h es i z es a do ub l e -s t ra n de d D N A c op y of t h e g en om e ( p r o vi ru s) . Th e p r o v i ra l c op y i s i nt eg r a t ed in t o t he ge n om e o f t he i n f ec te d c el l , a nd t h e vi r u s e n te r s a p e r io d o f la t e nc y , du r in g wh ic h i t is e s s en t ia l l y h i dd e n f r om t h e i m m un e s y s te m . ( 1 ) D u ri n g i n i ti a l i n fe c t io n , th e r e m a y b e a n a cut e il l ne ss th a t la s ts a n a ve r a ge o f 3 we e k s a n d r e s em bl es m o no n uc le os is ; s om e i n di v i du a ls h a ve n o s ym p to m s . ( 2 ) S e r oc o n ve r si o n (i . e., t h e a pp ea r a nc e o f a n tiv i r a l a n ti b od i es ) o c c u rs 3 we e k s to 6 m on t hs a f te r t h e i n it i al e xp o su r e t o H IV - 1 . A p e ri o d o f a s ym p t o m a t ic i n fe c ti o n t y p i c a ll y f o ll o ws s e r oc on v e r s io n . P.214
( 3 ) I nf ec t ed T H c el ls a re k i ll ed wh e n vi r a l g e ne s a r e r ea c t i va t ed f r om l a t e nc y a n d v i r us es bu d f r o m t he ce ll . In ad d it i on, i nf e c t e d T H c el ls m a y f u se t o f o rm s y n c y ti a . Thi s fu s i on m a y h as te n th e s p re a d o f v i r us t o
u n in f ec t ed T H c el ls an d c o n t ri b u te to c e ll k i ll in g . A p r o g r es s i ve de p le t i on 3
o f T H c e ll s oc c u r s ( n o rm a l c o un t : 8 00 - 1 00 0 /m m ). H o we v e r , e v e n b ef o r e a n +
+
o b vi o us l os s o f C D4 T c e l ls oc c u rs , th e re is e v ide n c e of a d e fe ct in C D 4 T c e ll fu nc t io n . Th e f un c t i on a l d e fe c t is a f ai l ur e o f t h es e c el ls t o r es p on d t o a n t ig en s t o wh i c h th e y we r e pr e vi ou s l y s en s i t i zed ( e . g. , te t an us t o xo i d ). +
Th e d e fe c t i n r es p on s i v en e s s m a y be a f un c ti o n o f t he C D 4 T c e ll s, t he A P C s , or bo t h . ( 4 ) Ma c r o ph a ge s m a y p ro d uc e n e w v i r u s wi t ho u t b e in g k i l l ed an d m a y +
s p r ea d t h e v i r us to un i nfe c te d T H c e l ls a n d o th e r c e ll t ype s . C D 4 c e ll li nes t h a t a r e s u s c e pt i bl e t o HI V i nf ec t io n i nc l ud e n e uro n s , li v e r , a n d f ib r o bl as ts . I n di r ec t c el l - to - c e ll t ra ns f e r o f t h e vi r us , m in im a l e xp o s u r e t o t h e e xt r a c e l lu la r im m u ne s y s t e m ( e .g . , a n ti b od y ) m a y o c c u r . ( 5 ) AP C s a r e a ls o a f fe c te d b y th e i n fe ct i on . Th e re is a l os s o f f ol l ic ul a r d e n dr i ti c c el ls an d i n te r di g i ta t in g c el ls in th e l y m p h oi d ti s s ue . Th is lo s s +
l e ad s t o d ec r e as ed an t ige n p re s e n ta t io n t o th e CD 4 T c e ll s . I n a dd i ti on , +
t h e c yt ok i ne s p r od uc e d b y t h e AP C s m a y pr o du ce C D 4 T c el ls th a t i n c re as e B c e l l ac t i v at i on b ut do no t pr o du ce t he a p p ro p ri a te c y t o k i n es f or T c e ll pr o li f e ra t io n . Th i s ac t i v i t y c h a ng es th e T H c e l l r a t io s . b . C l i ni c al s ym p t o m s ( 1 ) P e rs i s te n t ge n e ra l iz e d l ym p h a d e n o pa t h y ( e xt r a i n g u in a l) is an i n di ca t o r o f i m p e nd in g p ro g r es s i on t o f ul l d is e as e. U n e xp l a in e d f e ve r, ni gh t s we a t s , d ia r r he a , a nd o th e r s y m p to m s k no wn a s AI D S - r e l a t e d co m pl e x ( AR C ) m a y o c c u r . ( 2 ) P r og r es s i on t o f ul l -b lo wn A I D S m a y o c c u r 8 ye a r s o r l on g e r a f te r th e 3
i n i ti al in f ec ti o n. D e pl e ti on o f t h e T H c el l l e v e l t o < 2 0 0/ m m a n d o ra l +
c a nd i di as is s u gg es t i m m i n en t di s e as e . B ec a us e C D 8 T c e ll s a r e n ot +
+
s i gn i fi ca n tl y a f fe c t e d, the r a ti o o f c i rc ul a ti n g C D4 t o C D8 c e l ls i s i n v e rte d . I n ad d it i on , t h e n um be r o f v i r gi n T H c e ll s r e la t i v e t o m em o r y T H c el ls i n c re as es . TH c e l ls a r e lo s t , a nd m em o r y T H c el ls a r e l os t i n re l at i vel y l a r ge r nu m b e rs . Th e re is a ls o a sh i ft in th e t y pe of T H c e ll he lp be i ng g e n er a te d . ( 3 ) A di ag n os is o f A I D S in v o l v e s t h e oc c u r r en c e o f o pp o r t u ni s t ic i n f e c ti o ns o r n e op l as ms a s a r es u l t o f th e p r og r e s si ve i m m un o d ef i c ie n c y c a u s e d b y s e v e re de p le t io n of T H c e ll ( C D 4 ) f un c ti on . A l s o i nc lu de d i n th is di ag n os is a re th e H I V wa s t in g s y n d r om e a nd e n ce p ha lo p at h y . ( a ) O p po r t un is t ic i n fe c ti on s a r e t h e m aj o r c o ns e qu e nc e o f A I D S, pa r t ic ul ar l y b y P . ca r in i i ( as m a n y as 8 0 % o f p a ti en t s ) , C an d id a al bi c a n s, My c o b a c t e ri u m av iu m - i n tr a c el lu l ar e , h e rp es s i m p le x v i r u s ( H S V ) , c yt o m e g al o v i ru s ( C MV ) , a n d o t he r s. Tu b e rc ul os is o c c u rs as a r ea c t i va ti o n o f a l at e n t in f ec t io n i n c ar r i e rs . C um ul a ti v e l y , th es e op p o r t un i s ti c i n f e c ti o ns a r e t h e p r ima r y c a u s e o f d e at h . ( b ) K a po s i s a r co m a, an o t he r wi s e ra r e c an c e r , oc c u r s i n f e we r t ha n o n e h a l f o f p a ti en t s wi t h A I DS . N o n - Ho d gk in l ym p hom a i s a ls o m or e c om m o n i n t h es e i n di v i d ua ls th a n i n t h e g en e r al po pu l at i on .
( 4 ) H I V -a s so c i at e d d eme n t i a c om p le x ( H AD C ) a f f ec ts m o r e t ha n o n e h al f o f pa t ie n ts wi t h AI D S . In H A D C , m a c ro p ha g es i n fi l t ra t e t h e b r ai n a nd a re t h e m os t p r o du c t i v e l y i n fe c te d c el l i n c om pa r is o n t o ne u r on s o r g li a . So m e p a t ie n ts s ho w d e m y e li nat i o n. ( 5 ) O t he r im m u ne s ys t em ab n o rm al i ti es i n c l ud e p o l y c l o n a l B c e ll ac t i v at io n a n d h yp e rg a m m ag lo b ul ine m ia wi t h a co nc om i ta n t d e c re as e d a bi li t y t o m o un t h u m o r al im m u ne r es po ns e s to s p ec if ic an t ig e ns . C h e m o t a xi s , c yt ok i ne s ec r e ti o n, an d c y t o to xi c a b il i t y of m o no c yt e- m ac ro p h ag es ar e al l d i m i ni s h e d. Th e s e p ro ble m s a re c o ns eq u en ce s of im p a i r ed T c el l r e g ul a ti o n. c . Th e r a p y ( 1 ) C u r re n t t he r a p y i nc l ud e s p r op h y la c ti c us e o f a n t ib io t ic s a nd an t if u ng al a g e nt s. O p ti m a l a n ti - H I V t h e ra p y is c om b in a ti on th e r ap y wi t h t h re e a n t ir e t ro v i r a l d ru gs . A t pr e s en t , t he r e a r e f o u r cl as s e s o f a n ti r e t ro v i r al d r u gs ap p ro v e d b y t h e FD A . Th e s e a r e n uc le os ide r e v e rs e - tr a ns cr i pt as e i n hi b it o rs ( N R TI s ; e . g. , zi d o v u di ne - A Z T, la m i v u d in e , s t a v ud in e , zal c i t ab ine d d C , d i da n os in e -d d I , a nd a ba c a v i r ) , n o nn uc le os id e r e v er s e- t r an s c r ip t as e i n hi b it o rs ( N N R TI s ; e . g. , n e v i r ap in e , d el a vi r di ne , e f a v i r en z ) , p ro t ea se i n hi b it o rs ( e. g . , s a q ui na v i r , in di n a vi r, r it o na vi r , n el f i na v i r ) a n d i nt e g ra s e i n hi b it o rs ( e. g . , r al t eg r a vi r ) . IF N - α is r ec om m e nd ed f o r t he t re a tm e nt of K a p os i s a rc om a. O t he r dr u g s a nd im m u no m o d ul a to r s a r e c u rr e nt l y un d e r d e ve l op m e n t a nd te s ti ng. P.215
( 2 ) A n e f fe c t i v e a c ti v e va c c i ne is n e ce s s a r y t o l im i t t h e sp r ea d o f H I V i n f ec ti o n. B ec au s e o f v i ra l an t ig en ic v a r ia t io n , c el l - to - c e l l t r an s m is s i on , an d t h e u nc e r ta i n r ol e o f an t ib o di e s in p ro t ec t io n , t he p r o c e s s o f v ac ci n e d e ve l op m e n t is di f fi c u l t . A l i v e , a t te nu a te d vac ci ne ( se e VI . C . 2 ) is c o ns id e re d to o g r ea t a r is k . Tr i a ls of su bu n it v a c c i ne s a r e u nd e r wa y .
V. GRAFT REJECTION A. O ve r vi e w . In d i v id u al d i f fe r e nc es i n t h e m ol ec u l a r s t ru ct u r es o f c el ls an d t i ss ue s o c c u r, e xc e p t i n id e n ti c a l t wi n s , b ec a us e o f t he ge ne t ic v a ri a ti o n i n he r e nt in hu m a ns . B ec a u s e of t he se m o le c u l ar d i f fe r e nc es , t r an sp l an t ed t i ss ue s o r or g an s ( i .e . , gr a f ts ) a re li k e l y to be an ti g en ic a ll y d if f e re n t f r om t h e re ci p ie n t a nd th e re f or e m a y s ti m u la t e a n i m m u n e re sp on s e. 1 . A lt h ou g h MH C c l a s s I a n d I I gl y c op r o te in s p la y a n e ss e nt ia l ro l e i n al l T c e ll im m u ne r es po ns es (s e e I . B .3 . a ), th e se m o lec u le s a r e p a rt ic ul a r l y a n t ig en ic a nd v a ri a nt in s t r uc t ur e a m o n g d if f e re nt h um an s (p ol ym o rp h ic ) . 2 . E ac h p e rs on ' s s e t o f MH C g l yc o p ro t ei ns is c all e d h is o r h er h um a n l e u ko c yt e a n t i ge n ( H L A) , o r h i s to c om p a ti b i li t y t yp e . C l a s s I g l yc op r o te in s a r e k no wn a s H LA - A , - B, an d - C a n ti g en s . C l as s I I g l yc op r o te in s a r e k no wn a s H LA - D R , - D P , a nd - DQ a n t ig e ns . E ac h p e rs o n
r e c ei ve s o ne s e t o f g e nes ( a h ap l ot y p e ) e nc o di ng t h es e p r ot e in an t ig e ns f r o m e ac h p a re n t. 3 . I de n ti c a l t wi n s h a v e th e s am e h is t oc om p at i bi lit y t y p e . Fo r ot h er s i bl i ngs , t h e p r o ba bi l it y i s a pp r o xi m a te l y 25 % (0 . 25 ) th a t two s i b li n gs wi t h t h e s a m e p a r en t s a r e H L A i d en ti c al , o r m a t ch ed , an d a p pr oxi m a t e l y 50 % th a t t he y ar e o n e h al f H L A m a t c h e d, or h a pl oi d en t ic al . Pa r en t s a n d c h i ld r en a re al m o s t a l wa ys h ap l oi de n ti c a l . So m e t r an sp l an t ed ti s s ues a re r ej ec t ed be c a us e of H L A i nc om pa t ib il i t y . I n ot h e r c as es , t h e r e as on for r e je c ti on is th e re s u l t of m i no r hi s t oc om p at i bi li t y a n t ig en s o r is u nk n o wn . H L A m a t c h in g i s n o t a l wa ys a fa c t o r i n re je c tio n . B . C o m mo n s o l id - o r g an t r a n sp l a n ts ar e k id n e y , h e a rt , l i ve r , h ea r t -l u ng , a n d p a nc re a s . O r ga n s a re o bt a in e d f r om c ad a v e rs o r l i v in g d o no rs . Th e p r o ba b il i t y o f an e xa c t HL A m a t ch in a ca d a v e r gr a f t i s a pp r o xi m a te l y 1 i n 1 0 m i ll io n . 1 . H L A m a t ch i n g a . Th e pr im a r y p ro bl e m wi t h o r g an do n at io n i s rej e ct i on of t he t ra ns pl a nt ed o r g an b y th e h os t ' s i m m u n e re s p on s e. D on a ti o n o f an o rg a n b y an H L A m a tc he d s ib l in g i s t he bes t wa y t o a v oi d t h is p r o bl e m . b . A l th ou g h H L A - D R an d H L A - B m a tc hi n g d ec r eas es t he r ej ec ti o n r e ac ti on i n re n al an d c a rd i ac g r a ft s , re je c ti on do e s oc cu r i n H L A -m a tc he d s i tu a ti ons . H L A m a t c h in g i s n o t im po r t a nt in li v e r t ra ns pl a nta t i on . 2 . T yp e s o f r e j ec t i o n o f o r g a n g r a f ts a . H yp e r a c u t e re j ec t i on i s m ed ia t ed b y pr e e xi s t in g an t ib o d y i n t h e r e c ip ie n t , us u al l y ag ai ns t A B O m i sm a tc he s . C om p l em e nt is a c ti v a t ed , c l ot t in g o c c u rs , a n d t he v a s c ul at u r e o f t h e t r an s pl a n te d o r ga n i s o c c lu de d. R e j ec t io n o c c u rs wi t h in 2 d a ys a ft e r t r a ns pl an t a ti o n . A n A B O -m is m a tc h ed g r a f t is r a re l y at t em p te d . R e j ec ti o n is es s e n ti al l y u n t r ea t ab le . b . Ac u t e r ej e c ti o n i s a T c e l l -m ac r op ha g e -m ed ia t e d a t ta c k o n th e g r af t b a se d o n HL A an d o t he r t i s s ue an t ig e n m i sm a tc he s . T c e ll s a nd m ac r o ph a ge s i nf il t r at e the g r af t a n d, in 10 - 1 4 d a ys , c a us e c e l lu la r ne c ro sis a n d i n fl am m a t io n p e ri v as c u l a rl y . Th e e n ti r e g r a ft b e gi ns to ne c ro s e i f u n t r ea t ed . c . C h r on i c r e j ec t i on oc c u rs s e v e r al m o n th s t o se v e r a l yea r s a ft e r t r a ns p la n ta t io n . I t c au s es f ib r os is a n d o cc lu s i on o f s m al l a r te r i es a n d a r t e ri o le s i n t he k i dn e y s a n d a t he r os c l e ro s i s i n t h e h ea r t . I t i s c on t ro l le d by i m m u no lo g ic i n ju r y a nd m e di a te d p r im a ri l y b y a nt i b o d y a nd in c l u de s t he r e l ea se o f i nf l am m a to r y c y t o k i ne s b y m ac ro p ha ge s . De sp i te th e h i gh s uc c ess r at e o f MH C - m at c he d , p ha r m a c o l og ic a ll y t r e at e d g r af t s i n t he fi r s t ye a r a ft e r tr a ns pl a nt a ti on ( 8 5- 9 0% k i dn e y g ra f ts ), t h e r ej ec t io n ra t e a f te r 5 ye a r s i s n ea r l y 50 % . Th is f or m o f re je c ti o n is r ela t i v e l y re si st a nt t o t he r ap y, a l t ho ug h t re a tm en t wi t h c o r ti c o s te r oi ds c a n b e he l p fu l . C . B o n e m a r r ow t ra n sp la n t a t io n i s s om et im es at t e m p t ed in pa t ie n ts wi t h i m m u no d ef ic i en c y d is e as e s , a pl as t ic an em ia s , som e l e uk em ia s , an d c e r tai n g e n et ic di s e as es . Th e g ra f t c o nt a in s a P.216
h i gh p ro p o rt i on of do n or l y m p ho c yt es t h at r es po nd t o t h e h os t HL A an d o t h e r a nt i ge ns . Th is re s po n s e c a us es g ra f t - v er s us - h os t ( G V H ) d is ea s e . 1 . G r a ft T c el l re c o gn i ti on o f t h e h os t i s im po r t ant i n G V H d is ea se , as s h o wn b y th e d ec r e as ed i n c i de n c e of G V H di se ase a f te r p r oc e du r es th a t p u r ge m a t ur e T c e l ls fr om t he do no r m a r r o w. 2 . C l in i ca l s ym p t o m s o f G V H d is e as e a r e s e e n in t he s k in (e . g ., r as h, d e sq u am at i on ) , g as t r oi n te s ti n al t ra c t ( e. g . , p ai n , vo m i ti n g, in t es ti n al b l ee d in g ) , a nd li v e r (e . g ., n ec r os is i n di c a t ed b y i n c r ea s e d s e ru m b il i ru bi n l e ve ls ) . De a th c o m m on l y o c c u rs . 3 . H L A m at c h i ng is i m p or t a n t i n b on e m a rr o w t r an s pl a nt a ti o n, bu t th e f a ilu r e r a t e e ve n o f m a tc he d g ra f t s as a r es u lt o f G V H di s ea se is h i gh . 4 . B ec au s e t he r ec ip ie n t o f t he m a r ro w ( h o s t) is im m u n os up p r ess e d, o wi ng t o p ri m a r y im m u n od e fi c ie n c y o r b y dr u gs or r ad ia t i on , h os t re j ec ti o n o f t r a ns p la n te d b on e m a r row i s l es s im p o rt a nt . D . P r o p h yl a x i s a n d t r e at m e n t o f g ra f t r ej e c ti o n 1 . I mm u no s up p r e ss i on o f t h e g r a f t r e c ip i en t a . C o r t ic o s te r o i ds (e . g ., m et h y l pr e dn is o lo ne , pre d ni s on e ) a r e a dm in is t e re d j u st be f o re t ra ns p la n ta t io n an d ra pi d l y ta pe r e d be c au s e o f t he i r s id e e f f ec ts . C or t ic os t e ro id s a r e us ed in c om b in a ti on wi t h a z a t hi o p ri ne , c yc lo s po r in e , o r a n t il ym p h o c yt e g l o b u l i ns / an t i th ym o c yt e g l o b u li n s ( AL G s / AT G s ) . b . Az a t h io p r i ne is gi v e n b e fo r e t r a ns pl an t a ti on . Ma i n t e n a nc e d os es a r e g i ve n a f te r wa r d . c . M e t ho t r e xa t e is us e d p r i m a r il y f o r b on e m a r row t r a n s pl a nt a ti o n i n c om b in a ti o n wi t h A L G / ATG . I t i s a dm in is t e re d e i th e r a f e w d a ys b ef o r e o r a t t h e ti m e of t ra ns p la n ta t io n . 2 . S pe c i fi c su p p re s si o n o f T c e ll s a . C yc l o s p o r i n e A ( c y c lo s po r in ) bi n ds t o a n i n t ra c el lu l a r p ro t ei n k n o wn a s c yc lo p hi li n a n d b lo c k s t he t r an s c r ip t io n o f c y t ok i ne g en es in a T c e ll th a t h a s r ec o gn i z e d a nt i ge ns . I n t h is wa y , i t i nh i bi ts T H c el l s ec r e ti on of I L -2 an d p r o du c ti on o f t he hi g h- a ff i n it y I L -2 r ec ep t o r a nd pr e ve n ts c o m p le t e T c e ll a c ti va t io n . I t i s a dm in is te r e d p r op h yl ac ti c a l l y b ec a u s e it is m o re e ff ec t i ve i f i t is p r es e nt be f o re r ej ec t i o n b eg in s . C y c l os po r ine A is c om m o n l y c om bi ne d wi t h o t he r ag e nt s . Th e m a j o r s i d e e f fe ct is ne p hr ot o xi c i t y . b . T ac r o l im u s ( F K - 50 6 ) i s a n i m m un os u pp r es s i v e a ge n t t ha t in hi b it s TH c e ll fu nc t io n i n t h e s am e wa y a s c y cl os p o ri ne A . B o t h d r u gs f u nc ti o n t h r o ug h t h e s a m e pa t h wa y a n d a r e n ot us ed t og et h e r . c . R ap a m yc i n ( s i r ol im us ) i nh i bi ts T H c el l re sp o ns e t o I L -2 an d p r e v e nt s T H c e ll ac ti v a t io n . I t wo r k s th r o ug h a di f f er e nt pa t h wa y t h an ei t he r c yc l os po r in e o r t ac r ol im us an d i s es pe c ia ll y e f fe c ti v e in c om b in a t io n wi t h t he o th e r d r u gs . d . AL G a n d AT G a r e a nti s e ra de r i ved f ro m a ni m al s . Th e y c on t ai n a v a r ie ty o f an t ib o d y s pe c i f ic i ti es a g ai n s t T c el l a n ti ge ns . Th e y a r e us ed bo t h
p r o ph y l ac t ic al l y an d th e ra p e ut ic al l y in bo n e m ar ro w a n d o rg a n t r a ns p la n ta t io n . e . M u r o mo n a b- C D 3 ( O KT3 ) i s a m o us e m on oc l on a l a n ti bo d y s p ec i fi c f o r t h e C D 3 a n ti ge n , wh ic h i s p re s en t o n a l l p e ri ph e r al T c el ls . O K T3 is us ed t h e r ap eu t ic al l y t o h al t a nd r e v e rs e a cu t e r e je c t i on a s s oo n a s i t i s d i ag n os ed . ( 1 ) I ts m ai n a c ti o n is th e o ps o ni za t io n o f T c e l ls fo r e nh an c e d ph ag oc yt o s is . I t is ad m i ni s te r ed da i l y fo r 1 0- 1 4 d a y s. O n l y o n e c o u rs e is t y p ic al l y us ed b e ca us e i t c a us es a n i m m u ne r es po ns e a g ai ns t th e fo r e ig n m ou s e an t ib od y . ( 2 ) A cu t e s i d e e ff e c t s a re c o m m on , p ro ba b l y b e ca u s e of no n s p ec i fi c T c ell a c ti va t io n th a t c a us es t he r el e as e o f c y t ok i ne s . Si d e e f fe c ts i nc l ud e h ig h f e ve r , c hi l ls , b lo o d p r es s u r e c h an ge s , v o m i t in g , di a r r he a , a nd r es pi r at o r y d i st r es s . O K T3 i s c o n t ra in d ic a te d i n p a ti e nt s wh o h a v e fl ui d o v e r l oa d b e ca us e i t m a y c a us e f a ta l pu lm on a r y ed em a . ( 3 ) O K T3 m a y a ls o b e u s e d in v i t ro to pu r g e d on or b o ne m a r ro w o f T c el ls t o r ed uc e t h e r is k o f G VH d is e as e . 3 . I n ve st i g at i o na l a g e nts b ei ng t es te d to p re v e nt o r re v e r s e g ra f t r e je c t io n i n cl ud e a n ti - T c el l i m m un o t o xi n s ( s e e VI I . C .1 ) , c o n ju g at e s o f I L -2 an d a t o xi n , a nd o th e r m on oc lon a ls th a t p r e v en t T c e l ls f r o m a dh e ri n g t o f o r ei gn g r a f t c e l ls . Th es e a ge n ts a r e a dm i ni st e re d to th e g r a f t r ec i pi en t . I n a d di t ion , m o no cl o na l a n ti bo d ie s ar e us e d t o m ask H L A a n ti g en s o n t h e g r af t ti s s ue b e f o re it is tr a ns pl a nt e d i n t o t he r ec ip i en t . P.217
VI. VACCINATION A. O ve r vi e w 1 . P as s i ve va cc i na t i o n i s th e i nt r am us c ul a r o r i nt r a v e n ou s i nj ec t io n o f a n t ib od y p r ep a r at i on s t o e n ha nc e a pa t ie n t 's im m u n e c om pe t en c e . P r o t ec t io n d e pe nd s o n th e s e r um h a lf - li f e o f t h e i n je c te d a n ti bo d y a nd is l i m i t ed to s e v e r al we e k s t o s e v e r al m o n th s f o r e ac h a dm i ni s t r a ti o n o f h um a n s e r a. 2 . Ac t i ve va c c i na t i on is t h e i nt r am us c ul a r, s u bc u t a ne o us , o r o r al i n t ro d uc t io n o f o n e o r m o r e an t ig en s d es ig n ed t o s t im ul a te th e i m m un e s ys t em to pr o du c e a s pec i fi c im m un e r es p on se . Th i s r es po ns e g e ne r a te s a n t ib od y , ac t i v a te d T c e ll s , a nd sp ec i fi c m e m o r y. P r o t ec t io n t h r ou gh m em o r y v a r ie s wi t h t he va c c i ne , b u t i m m un i t y i s lo n g l as t in g . B . P a ss i ve va c ci n a t io n ( Ta b l e 1 0 - 2 ) 1 . P r e pa r a t io n s. D os es o f in t r am us cu la r p re pa r at i o ns a r e s om e ti m e s g i v en i n un i ts p e r k il o gr am an d s om e ti m e s i n m i ll i li t e rs p e r k il o g ra m . Th e do s e va r i e s wi t h t he v ac c i n e an d pa t ie n t p op u la ti o n. I nt r a ve n ou s p r ep a ra t io ns ar e c om m o n l y u s ed in hi gh do s es .
a . S t an d a r d h um a n s e ru m im m u no g lo b u li n f o r i n t r am u sc u l a r va c c i n a ti o n i s a p o l yc l on a l a n ti s e r um pr e pa r e d fr o m p o ol ed pl a s m a o f d o n or s . I t c on t ai ns 16 5 m g /m L h um an im m u n og lo b ul i n, P.218
p r e do m i n an t l y th e f o ur s u b c l as s e s o f I g G . Si d e ef f e ct s a r e r a re , m i ni m a l , a n d u su a ll y c o n fi n ed to m i no r i n fl am m a t io n a n d p a in a t t he si t e o f i nj ec t io n . Th i s p re p ar a ti o n is un s u it a b le fo r in t r a ven ou s i nj e c t io n b ec a us e a n ti bo d y a g g re g at es f o rm a n d m ay a c t i v at e c om pl em e nt an d pl a te le t s.
Table 10-2. Passive Vaccines Illness
Vaccine
Rationale
Intramuscular Hepatitis B (HBV)
Hepatitis B immunoglobulin (HBIG)
Prophylaxis
Hepatitis A (HAV)
Immunoglobulin, intramuscular (IGIM)
Prophylaxis
Non-A, non-B hepatitis
IGIM
Prophylaxis, therapy
Measles
IGIM
Prophylaxis, therapy
Rabies
Rabies immunoglobulin (RIG)
Prophylaxis
Rubella
IGIM
Fetal prophylaxis in exposed mother
Varicella
Varicella zoster immunoglobulin (VZIG)
Prophylaxis and therapy in immunocompromised individual
Tetanus
Tetanus immunoglobulin
Prophylaxis
(TIG) Hypogammaglobulinemia
IGIM
Therapy for antibody deficiency
Rh disease
Rho (D) immunoglobulin (RhoGAM)
Prophylaxis during pregnancy and after delivery of Rh+ fetus by Rh- mother
Botulism
Botulism antiserum (equine)
Prophylaxis, therapy
Snakebite
Polyvalent antivenin (equine)
Prophylaxis, therapy
Black widow bite
Black widow antivenin (equine)
Prophylaxis, therapy
Hypogammaglobulinemia
Intravenous immunoglobulin (IVIG)
Therapy for antibody deficiency
Idiopathic thrombocytopenic purpura (ITP)
IVIg
Therapy
Chronic lymphocytic leukemia
IVIg
Therapy for antibody deficiency
Cytomegalovirus (CMV) infection
CMV IVIG
Therapy in renal transplant patients
Intravenousa
Acute renal rejection
Muromonab-CD3 (murine)
Reversal of acute rejection
a
U.S. Food and Drug Administration-approved uses; many others currently in trials result from vaccine preparation in cells of nonhuman origin. The valence of a vaccine indicates the number of strains of organism included (e.g., trivalent polio vaccine includes three strains of poliovirus).
b . S p ec i al i nt r a m us c ul ar i m m un o g lo b ul i n s ( I G IM s ) a r e i nd i v i du al s e r a p r e pa r e d f r om p l as m a l ot s of s u bj ec t s ac t i vel y im m u ni z e d a g ai ns t o r r e c o ve ri ng f ro m s pe c i f ic d i s e as es . Ea c h s e r um is e n ri c he d f o r a n ti bo d ie s o f t h e d es i r ed s p ec if ic i t y (e. g . , t e ta n us i m m u no gl o bu l in c o n ta in s m o re a n t ib od i es ag ai ns t te t anu s to xi n t h an wo u l d b e fo u n d in I G I M) . c . I VI G s a re pr e pa r e d f ro m p o ol e d h um an s e r um a n d m o d if i ed to m i ni m i z e a n t ib od y a g gr e ga t io n . C h i ll s , n au s e a , a nd ab d om i na l p ai n o c c u r i n a p p ro xi m a t el y 1 0% o f p at i e nt s . S id e e f f ec ts ar e di m in is he d b y r e du c i n g t he r a t e o f i n t ra v e n ou s i nf us io n . P re m e di c at i on wi t h c o r t ic os t e ro id s i s r e c om m e nd e d, an d i n t rav e n o us ep i ne ph r i ne is u s e d if an a ph yl a xi s oc c u rs . d . An i m a l a n t is e r a. E qui n e ( h o rs e ) a nt is e r a a re u s ed in c e r ta i n s i t ua t io ns ( Ta b l e 1 0 - 2 ). Mo u s e m on o c l o na l a n ti bo d y (m u r om o na b - C D 3 ) is us ed in a c ut e re n al re j ec ti o n ( s ee V . D . 2. e ) . Th e ha l f -l i v es o f a ni m a l a n ti bo d ie s a re s h o rt e r i n h um a ns . 2 . R a t io n al e s f o r pa s sive va c c i n a ti o n a . P r o ph yl a x i s o f i n f ec ti o u s d i se a se . An t ib o di es a re gi v e n p r o ph y l ac t ic al l y t o p re v e n t c l in ic a l s y m p t om s o f a v i r a l o r ba c t e ri a l i n f ec ti o us p r oc es s , p a rt ic u la r l y i n a p at i en t wi t hou t p re vi o us e xp o s u r e a nd t h e r ef o re wi t h o ut im m u no l og ic m e m o r y . Th e v ac c i n e p r o te ct s t h e r ec ip i en t d u r in g th e i nc ub a ti o n p er i o d f o r i n fe c t i on . F o r e x a m pl e : ( 1 ) C lo s t ri di u m t et a ni i n fe c ti o n h as a n i nc u ba t io n p e ri o d o f a p pr o xi m a te l y 5 d a ys b e f or e s ig n if ic a nt qu a n ti t ie s o f t e ta n us t o xi n a r e p r od u c e d . A p rim a r y i m m u ne r es po ns e o f 7 - 10 d a ys is to o s lo w. P a ss ive v a c c i n at i on wi t h t e ta nu s i m m u no gl o bu l in ( TI G ) bin d s t he t o xi n an d p r e v ent s di s e as e . ( 2 ) H e pa t i t is B im mu n og l o b ul i n ( H B I G ) is ad m in i st e r ed to in d i v id ua ls as s o on as po s s ib le a ft e r exp o s u r e to p re ve n t v ir a l in f ec t io n . b . P r o ph yl a x i s o r t he r ap y p r e v e n t s or a tt e nu a tes t he ef f ec ts of in f ec t io n i n s p ec ia l p o pu la t io ns . E xa m p le s a r e t he us e o f va ri c e l la z o s te r i m m un o g lo b u li n ( VZ I G ) i n i m m un oc om p r om is ed p a t ie n ts a n d t he us e o f I G I M i n p r e gn a nt wo m en wh o a r e e xp o s e d t o ru be l la an d h a ve no t b e en a c ti ve l y v a c c in a te d .
c . T re a t me n t o f an t i bo dy d e f i c i e n c y. I n d i v i d ua ls wh o a r e d e fi c i e nt in a n t ib od y p r od u c t io n , e i the r b ec au se of p ri m a r y im m u no d ef ic i en c y (s ee I V ) o r as a r es u lt o f c h r on ic l y m p ho c yti c l eu k em ia , rec e i ve i nt r a v e no us i m m u no gl o bu l in ( I VI G ) or I G I M e v e r y 2 - 4 we e k s to m a i nt a in hu m o r al i m m u ni t y . I VI G is p re f e rre d . d . O t h e r s i t ua t i on s . I V IG i s u s e d fo r i d io p at h ic (a u t oi m m un e ) t h r om b oc y t op e ni a p u rp u ra . I nt r am us cu l ar R h o ( D) im m u n og l ob ul i n ( R h o G AM) i s u se d p r o ph y l ac t ic al l y fo r R h d is e as e ( s e e II . C .5 . c ). Mu r o m on a b - C D3 (s e e V . D . 2 . e) is us ed fo r ac u te r e na l g r af t re j ec ti o n. C . Ac t i ve va c c i n a ti o n (Ta b l e 10 - 3 ) is us ed f o r pr o p h y la xi s . 1 . O ve r vi ew a . C o n te n ts . Ac t i v e v ac c i n es c o nt a in on e o r m o r e s ub u ni ts o f a p a th o ge n o r wh o l e p at h og en ic o rg a nis m s bu t m a y al so c o nt a in p r e s er v a t i v es , l o w d o se s o f an t ib i ot ic s , a nd ot h er c om p ou n ds th a t d o n ot af f e c t th e i m m un e r e s po ns e . b . Ad m i n i st r a t i on . Ac t i ve v a c c in e s a re ad m i n is ter e d s u bc ut a ne o us l y, i n t ra m us c u la r l y , i n tr a de rm a ll y , o ra ll y , o r i n t ra na s a l l y . So m e a re in t ro d uc ed a d so r be d to al um in um hy d r o xi d e o r al um in um pho s ph a te ad j u v an ts . A n a d ju va n t i nc r ea s es t h e an t i ge ni ci t y o f t h e v a c c in e. c . S e ro c on ve r s i o n. F or m os t ac ti v e va c c in es , the s u cc es s o f t h e se r i es of va c ci n at i on s i s in d ic at e d b y s e ro c o n v e rs io n o f the p at i en t . S e r oc on v e r si on i n di ca t es th a t a pe r s o n wh o p r e vi o us l y d i d n ot ha v e sp e c i fi c s e ru m a n t ib od i es (i . e ., s e r on ega t i v e ) n o w h as t he se an ti b od i es (i . e. , s e r op os i ti v e ) . S e r o co n v e rs io n d o es n o t i n di c a t e es t ab l is he d i m m u ni t y f or c e r t ai n vac c i ne s ( e . g ., ba c i l lu s C a lm et t e -G u é r i n va c c in e fo r tu b erc u lo si s ). d . A s c h ed u l e o f a c t i ve va c c i na t i o n is r ec om m e n d ed fo r in f an ts an d c h il d re n ( Ta bl e 1 0 -3 ) . The f i rs t v ac c i na t io n i s g i ve n af t e r t he in f an t is 6 we e k s ol d b ec au s e r es po n s e s a r e n o rm al l y in ade q u at e i n n e wb o r ns an d b e ca us e m a te r na l a n ti b od i es r em ai n i n t h e n e wbo r n c i rc ul a ti o n; s o m e va c ci n es (e . g ., he p at i ti s B v i r u s ; H B V ) , h o we v e r , m a y be gi v e n i m m e di at e ly a f t e r b i rt h . S om e v ac c i ne s a r e i n te n de d f o r u s e p r i m a r il y i n n on in f an t p o p ul at i on s . P.219
P.220
Table 10-3. Commonly Administered U.S. Food and Drug AdministrationApproved Active Vaccines
Vaccine
Target Populationa
Number of Vaccinations Schedule
Notes
Live, attenuate d viral Oral polio (OPV; trivalent)
Infants, children, healthcare and daycare workers
4
2, 4, 15-18 months; 1 at school entry
Approxim ately 1 in 2.6 million risk of vaccinein duced paralysis; no longer recomme nded because of risks; substitute killed vaccine
Measles, mumps, rubella (MMR)
Infants, children
2
15 months (< 12 months if high risk); 1 at school entry
Generally affords lifelong immunity
Rubella
Adolescent girls not previously vaccinated
1
Postpubert y
Protects future fetus from congenital rubella injury
Varicella
Children, other at-risk individuals
1 (if ≥ 13 years old, 2)
1 between 12 and 18 months or 2-3 years; after 13 years old,
Duration of immunity or effect on developm
Influenza (trivalent)
2-4 weeks apart
ent of shingles unknown
Individuals between 5 and 59 years old at risk for infection
1 per year
Annually for maximum protection
Administe red intranasall y
Individuals exposed to sputumpositive tuberculosis patients
Varies
Depends on success or initial vaccinatio n
Unpredict able effectiven ess; induces cellmediated immunity
Influenza (trivalent or polyvalent )
Geriatric patients, healthcare workers, individuals at risk for complications
1 per year
Annually for maximum protection
Variant strains may appear each year; vaccine must be updated annually
Hepatitis B (HBV)
All
3
Between 1 and 2 months, 2 and 3 months,
Recombin ant, subunit
Bacterial BCG tuberculos is
Killed, inactivate d viral or viral subunit
after 6 months Inactivate d polio (IPV; trivalent)
All children; as booster in healthcare and day-care workers
4
2, 4, 15-18 months; 1 at school entry
No slgA; thus reduced protection ; no paralysis risk
Killed, inactivate d viral or viral subunit Animal-care workers
4 or 5b, with boosters
7 days apart; boosters as required to maintain immunogl obulin
Two doses to exposed, already immune individual
Diphtheri a, tetanus, pertussis (DTP)
Infants, children
4, with boosters
2,4, 15-18 months; 1 at school entry
Tetanus toxoid (Td) booster every 10 years or on exposure through a wound
Tetanus and diphtheria
Children ≥ 7 years old; adults with no
3, with boosters
Second dose in 4-8 weeks;
Td booster every 10
Rabies (HDCV)
Bacterial, subunit
toxoids (Td)
vaccination
third dose 6 months later
years or on exposure through a wound if more than 10 years or vaccine history unavailabl e
Haemophi lus b (Hib)
Infants, children, HIVinfected adults
Depends on formulati on
Depends on formulatio n
Polysacch aride capsule is poor antigen; conjugate vaccines enhance potency
Pneumoco ccus (polyvale nt)
At-risk adults or children ≥ 2 years old (e.g., immunocompr omised patients, geriatric patients)
1 or 1 per year
As necessary in at-risk patients; not given during active infection; 1 per year in geriatric patients
Poor response to polysacch aride antigen in children < 5 years old
Meningoc occus (quadrival ent A, C Y, W135)
College freshmen living in dormitories; high-risk adults or children ≥ 2 years old, including individuals
1, subcutane ously
As necessary in at-risk individuals at 3- to 5year intervals
Polysacch aride vaccine give poor response in children < 2 years old; does not
with complement component deficiencies or anatomic or functional asplenia
protect against serotype B, which accounts for 46% of cases
BCG, bacille Calmette-Guérin; HDCV, human diploid cell vaccine; slgA, secretory immunoglobulin A. a
Entire target population is not listed in all cases.
b
Five doses to already exposed individuals.
P.221
e . Mo s t v a c c in es r eq ui r e a se r i e s o f va cc i na t i ons ; o t h e rs a re ef f ec ti v e wi t h a si ng l e v a c c i na ti o n. F o r t h os e t ha t re q ui r e a s e r i es , i nt e r v a ls b e t we e n va c ci n at i on s g r ea t e r t han t ho s e r ec om m e nd e d do n ot ge n e ra ll y d im in is h p r o t ec ti o n. Th e d u r at i on o f m e m o r y v a r ie s wi t h ea c h va c c i ne , a n d b o os t er va c c i n a ti o ns a re of t en n e c e s s a r y . f . S i de e f fe c ts in c l u de in f l am m a ti o n a t t h e s i t e of v a c c i na t io n , m a l ai s e , m i l d f e ve r , c hi l ls , h ea d ac he , m y a l gi a , a nd a rt h ra l gi a . Mo r e s e ve r e s id e e f fe c ts i n cl ud e fe b ri l e il l ne s s , s o m no l en ce , s ei z u r es , o r a n a ph y l ac t ic h yp e r se ns i ti v i t y t o v a c c in e an t ig e ns o r ac c es s ory c o m p o ne n ts (e . g. , a n t ib io t ic , c hi c k en p ro t ein ) . S e v e re re a c t io n s c o nt r a in d ic a te c o nt i nu a ti on o f a se r i es . A pe r s o n wi t h s e v e r e fe b ri l e i ll ne s s s h ou l d n o t b e ac t i v el y va c ci n at e d u n ti l t he il l nes s r e s o l v es . 2 . T yp e s o f a c t i ve vac ci n e s a . L i ve , a t te n u at e d vacc i n es c o ns is t o f wh o le or g a ni s m s ( us u al l y v i ru ses ) . Th e s e o r g an is m s m ul t ip ly a f t e r v ac c i na t io n , b ut ar e a tt e nu a te d t o re d uc e t h e ir p at h og en ic i t y . ( 1 ) A s m a ll d os e p ro d uc e s a s t r o ng i m m u ne re s po n s e be c a us e th e a n ti gen c o nc en t r at i on in c re as es wh e n t h e o r ga n is m m u lt ip l ie s . S om e vac c i ne s e lic i t l i f el on g i m m un i t y in t wo d o s e s —f o r e xa m p l e, t he m e as le s , m u m p s , r ub e ll a ( M M R ) v a c c i ne . Be c a us e o f th ei r r el a ti ve ge n et ic i n st a bi li t y , v i r us es c a n r e v e r t to v i r ul en c e a nd c a u s e th e d is e as e a ga i ns t wh i c h th e p a ti en t is va c ci n at e d . Th i s is a p a rt i c u l ar p ro b le m wi t h on e o f t he s e ro t y p es of t he o r a l p ol i o v a c c in e ( O P V ). ( 2 ) Li ve , at t en u at e d v i r a l v a c c i ne s a r e n o t r ec om m e nd e d f o r p r eg na n t wo m e n o r t ho s e in t en d ing t o b ec om e p r eg n an t wit h i n 3 m on t hs of
va c ci n at i on . L i v e , a t te n ua t e d v i r a l o r b ac t e ri al v ac c i n es a r e n o t g i v en t o i m m u no c o m p r om is e d i ndi v i d ua ls . b . K i l le d , i n ac t i va t ed va c c in e s m a y c on t ai n who l e k il le d c el ls ( e. g . , p h e no l -k il le d Bo r d et e ll a p e r t us s is ) o r a n y a n ti g eni c fr ac t io n i s o l at e d f r om t h e o r g an is m . Th e y a re u s ua ll y g i v e n a ds o rb ed to a dj u va nt . c . S om e is o la t ed an t ig ens ( su b u ni t va c ci n es ) m a y r e q ui r e i na ct i v a ti o n b e f o re th e y a re us ed in a v a c c in e — fo r e xa m p l e , f o rm a ld e h y de - m o di f ie d t o xi n o f C lo s t r id i u m te t an i , k no wn a s te t an u s t ox o i d (T d ) a f te r m o di f ic at i on . I n ac t i v at i on e li m i na t es pa t ho g en ic ity , b u t p r es e r ves s om e a n t ig en ic i t y . O th e r s ub un i t v ac c i ne s i nc lu d e p r ote i ns an d g l y co p r ot ei n s of a n o rg an is m t h at a re p rod u c e d b y r ec om b in a nt DN A t e c h no l og y i n b ac t er ia , ye a s t , o r m am m a li a n c e l ls an d a r e t h en us ed as th e an t ig e ns f o r va c ci n at i on . Th e H B V v ac c i n e c o n t ai ns pr o te i ns pr o d uc ed b y r ec om bi na n t g e n et ic te c h n ol o gi es an d i s a pp r o v e d b y t he F D A f o r us e i n h um an s . ( 1 ) B ec au s e n o li v e o rg an i s m s a re p re s e n t, r e v e rs i on to pa t ho g en ic i t y i s n o t a p r ob le m . H o we v e r , do s e s o f c e ll s o r a n ti ge n s m u s t b e h ig h e r t ha n i n l i v e, a t t en u at e d v a c c i ne s , and h y p e rs en s i t i v it y r e ac tio n s t o v ac c i ne c o m p on en t s a r e m o re c o m m on . Mi n im um e ff ec t i ve d os es a re u s u a ll y m e as u r ed in n u m b e rs of c e ll s o r m ic ro g r am s o f a n ti ge n . ( 2 ) V ac c i ne s i n wh ic h t he a nt i ge ni c f r a gm en t i s a p o l ys ac c ha r id e (e . g. , H a e m o p hi lu s b ) ar e u s u al l y p oo r at el ic i ti ng im m un e r es po ns es an d m em o r y, pr o ba b l y b ec a us e th e y do no t e vo k e T c e l l a ct i v a ti o n. Th e se va c ci n es ha v e be e n im p ro v e d b y c o nj ug a ti n g t he p o l y sa c c ha r i de to an o the r a n t ig en ic c o m p o un d (e . g. , Td ) . Th es e a r e k no wn a s c o n ju g a te va c ci n es . 4 . E xp e r i me n ta l va cc i ne s in c l ud e ot h er s u bu n it v a c c i n es ; p e pt i de s p r o du c e d b y c he m i c a l , c e l l -f r e e s y n th es is ; re c o m b i n a n t D N A vi r us es c o nt a in in g ge ne s f o r t h e a n t ig en s o f m ul t ip l e o r gan i sm s ; an d a n ti - id i ot yp e a n t ib od i es us ed fo r ac ti v e v a c c in a ti o n. 5 . S pe c i fi c va cc i n es i n c om m o n u s e a nd re c om m e nd e d a dm in is t ra t io n s ch e du l es a r e l is t ed in Ta b le 10 - 3 . D . S i m ul t a ne o us a dm i ni s t r a t io n o f a ct i ve a nd p a s si ve va c c in e s. S o m et im es ac t i v e a nd pa s s i v e v ac c i n es a g ai ns t a p at h og e ni c o rg a ni s m ar e a d m i ni s te r ed s i m u l ta ne ou s l y to m a xi m i ze p os t e xp o s u r e p r op h y l a xi s . Th e i m m u no gl o bu l in of f e rs im m e d ia t e p r ot ec t io n , a nd t he ac t i v e v a c c in e s t im ul a te s a n i m m un e res p on s e . Th es e v ac ci ne s a r e gi v e n a t s ep a r at e s ite s t o p re ve n t a n ti bo d y ( pa s s i v e ) a n d a nt i ge n ( a ct i v e) f r om r ea ct i ng an d i n ac t i vat i ng on e a n ot h er . 1 . I nf a nt s wi t h H B V wh o a r e bo r n t o m ot h e rs wh o h a ve th e h ep a ti t is B s u r fa ce an t ig e n ( H B s Ag ) a r e s ig n if ic a nt l y p ro t ec te d f ro m b ec om in g c h ro n ic c a r ri e rs b y th is c o m b in ed p r op h yla xi s . 2 . R a bi e s. P os t e xp o s u r e p r o ph y l a xi s t y pi c a l l y i ncl u de s t h e co m bi ne d u s e o f a c ti ve an d p a s s i v e v a c c in e s b ec au s e o f t he le t hal n at u r e o f t he un c he c k ed i n f ec ti o n. Th e e xc e pt i on i s p a ti e nt s wi t h a p r e v i ou s a c ti v e v ac c i n at i on wh o h a ve s u f fi c i en t e xi s ti n g s e r u m a nt i bo d y c o nc en t r at i o n. P.222
3 . T et a n us . Co m b i ne d pr o p h y la xi s i s s o m e t im es u s ed , d e pe n di ng on t he t yp e o f wo u n d a n d t he pa t i en t ' s h is to r y o f a c t i ve v a c c i n at i on . R ec om m e nde d g u id e li n es a r e a s f ol l o ws : a . A t e t a n us - p r on e w oun d is on e t h at p ro d uc es a n a er o bi c co n di t io ns ( e.g . , d e e p p un c t u r e) o r o ne in wh i c h e xp o s u r e t o Cl os tr i d iu m o r i t s s p o re s i s p r o ba b le ( e. g ., c o n ta m i na t e d wi t h an im a l f ec es ) . I f t he pa t ie n t 's hi s t o r y o f a c ti ve va c c in a ti o n is un c e r t ai n or in c l u de s f e we r th a n t h r ee do s e s, bo t h TIG a n d Td a r e a dm i ni s t e re d. Th e p at ie n t re t ur ns t o c o m pl e te th e to xo i d s e r ies . ( 1 ) I f t he wo u n d i s t et a nu s - pr o ne bu t th e p a ti e nt r e c ei v e d a fu l l s e r ie s o f a c ti ve va c c in a ti o n, no t re a tm e nt is ne c e s s a r y i f th e la s t Td d os e wa s r e c ei ve d wi t hi n t h e l as t 5 y e a rs . ( 2 ) I f t he la s t d os e wa s re c ei v e d m o re th a n 1 0 y ea r s a g o, Td , bu t n o t TI G , i s g i v e n t o b oo s t m e m o ry i m m u ni t y a nd an t ib od y p r o du c ti on . b . F o r a c l ea n , m i no r w o u n d , i f t h e p at i en t ' s h is t o r y o f a ct i v e vac ci n at ion i s u nc e r ta i n o r i nc lu d es fe we r t h a n t h re e d os es , Td is ad m i n is te r e d. ( 1 ) I f t he pa t ie n t r e c e i v ed a fu ll s e r ie s o f a c t i v e va cc i na t io ns , n o t re a tm ent i s n ec es s ar y i f t h e l as t Td d os e wa s r ec e i v ed wi th i n 1 0 yea r s . ( 2 ) I f t he la s t d os e wa s re c ei v e d m o re th a n 1 0 y ea r s a g o, Td , bu t n o t TI G , i s g i v e n t o b oo s t m e m o ry i m m u ni t y a nd an t ib od y p r o du c ti on .
VII. PROSPECTS FOR IMMUNOMODULATION A. F a b a n ti d i go x i n a n tib o d y p r e p a r at i on s o bt a in e d f r om s h ee p a r e a p p ro ve d fo r th e re v e r s al o f t o xi c i t y a s s oc i at e d wi t h t o xi c d ig o xi n se r um l e ve ls . Th e a n ti bo d y bi nd s d i go xi n a n d p re ve n ts i t f ro m b in d in g t o i t s n orm a l r e c ep t or s i t e. Th e Fa b -d ig o xi n c om pl e x i s e xc r e ted r e na ll y. B . M on o c lo n al a nt i b od ie s a re ge ne r a ll y p ro d uc ed t h ro u gh th e i n v it r o f u si o n o f a c a nc e ro us pla s m a c el l (m ye lo m a ) wi th a n ac t i v a te d m ou s e B c e ll . Th e r es u lt i ng h yb r i d o m a s ec re t es m u r in e (m o us e ) a nt i bo di es o f a s i ng le de f in e d s pe c i f ic it y a n d h as th e i m m o rt al i t y c h a ra c t e ri s ti c o f t h e m ye l om a. Te c hn iq u es for t h e p r od uc t io n o f h um an m o n oc lo n al an t ib od i es a n d a va r ie t y o f h y b ri d m o u s e - hu m an m o no c l on a l a n t i b od i es ar e a ls o a va i la b le . 1 . M o n oc l o na l a n t ib o d ie s — f or e xa m p le , wh o le a n t ib od i es or F ab or F (ab ' ) 2 f r a gm e nt s —a r e r o ut i ne l y u s e d fo r i n vi tr o di ag n os t i c t es ts ( e .g . , b lo o d g rou p a n d t is su e t y pi ng f o r H LA ) , s c r ee n in g f o r c an ce r -r e l at e d a n ti ge ns ( e. g . , c a rc i no em b r y on ic an t ig en ; C E A ) , u r in e t es t in g for d r ug s a n d m e t ab o li te s , a n d t es t in g fo r H I V i nf ec t i o n. In t he se an d m an y o t h e r d ia gn os t ic a p pl ic a ti o ns , m on oc l on al a n ti b od ie s a r e o f te n c onj u ga t ed t o e n z ym es , r a d io is o to p es , o r fl uo r es c e nt d y es . 2 . M u r o mo n a b- C D 3 is us e d t o t r ea t ac ut e g r a f t re j ec t io n . O t h e r m o n oc lon a l a n t ib od i es ar e u s e d fo r tr e a tm e nt of b re as t c a nc er a n d l eu ke m i a . 3 . I n cl in i c a l t r ia ls , th e us e o f mo n oc l o na l a n t i bo d i es a ga i ns t T c e ll s c a us es i m pr o v em e n t in c e r t ai n au t oi m m un e d is o rd e r s.
4 . M o n oc l o na l a n t ib o d ie s ag a i ns t ne o pl a s ti c ce l l s s ho w s o m e s uc c e ss , a n d a r e u s e f ul in t re a ti ng c e r t ai n l e uk em ia s a nd l y m p ho m a s , as we l l a s b r e as t a n d c o l on c a nc e rs . C . M on o c lo n al a nt i b od ie s a re c on j ug a t ed t o e nz ym e s , d r u gs , p ro d r u gs , r a d i o is o t op e s, o r pl a n t a n d ba c te r i a l t o xi n s t o p r o v i de s p ec i fi c d el i ve r y o f t he c o nj ug a te d a g en t t o on e o r m o r e f oc us e d in v i v o si t es o f ac ti o n. S e ve r a l p r ob le m s a re as s oc i at e d wi t h t he us e o f t h es e a g en t s. 1 . I mm u no t o xi n s a r e us u a ll y p r od uc e d b y t he c on j ug a ti o n o f a m o no c l o na l a n t ib od y t o a bi o lo gi c p ol y p e p ti de t o xi n ( e. g ., di p h t h e ri a t o xi n ) t ha t i s m o di f ie d t o re d uc e n on s p e c i f ic to xi c i t y . 2 . A lt h ou g h t he y a r e b ein g te s te d f o r g r a ft r ej ec t io n an d a u to im m u n it y , i m m u no t o xi n s a r e p ri m ari l y us e d as an t in e op l as tic a g e nt s . C l in ic al t ri a ls s h o w m od e ra t e s uc c es s i n t re a ti ng le u ke m i a a nd l y m p ho m a , wi t h l o we r s uc c ess r at es ag a in s t t um o rs s u c h as b r e as t c arc i no m a . 3 . M o n oc l o na l a n t ib o d ie s co n j ug a te d t o r a d io is o t o pe s (e . g. ,
90
Y) c a use
r e m iss i on s i n p at i en ts wi t h H od g ki n d is ea s e an d a c u t e T c e l l le u ke m i a . 4 . M o n oc l o na l a n t ib o d ie s co n j ug a te d t o e nz ym e s t h at ac t i vat e a p ro dr u g t o t he ac ti v e d ru g a t a s p e c i f ic ti ss ue s i te ( e. g . , n e o pl as ti c c el l s u rf ac e ) a r e i n hu m a n t r i al s . P.223
D . I m mu n os t i mu l a ti o n h a s b ee n a t te m pt e d wi t h a v a r ie t y o f c o m p o un ds , r a n gi n g f r om c y t ok i ne s to b ac te r i al pr o du c t s ( Tab l e 1 0 -1 ) . 1 . I F N - α h as m a n y s u bt y p e s . Two a r e c u r r en t l y FD A a p p ro ve d . B ec a us e i t i n hi b it s c el l g r o wt h , i t i s u s ed to t re a t h ai r y c el l le u k e m i a , K a po s i s a rc om a i n pa t ie n ts wi t h AI D S , a nd g en i ta l wa r ts . A t l o w do s es , i n te r fe r o ns s t im ul at e i m m u ne c e ll ul a r f u nc t io n ( e . g. , T c e l ls , N K ce l ls , m ac r o ph a ge s) , bu t a t hi gh d o se s, t he y a r e im m u n os u p p re s s i ve . Th e us e o f IF N - α a g ai ns t o t he r c a nc e rs p r o du c e s v a r i abl e re s ul ts . 2 . I F N -γ p r o v i de s g r ea t er i m m un os t im ul a ti o n in th e in t ac t i m m un e s y s te m , b u t i t s e ff ec t s d ep e nd on d os e a n d t im in g . Th e c om b in e d us e o f IF N - α a nd I F N - γ yie ld s b e tt e r re s u l ts . Th e m os t c om m o n s ide e f fe ct s o f i n te r f er o n t h e r ap y a r e in f lu e n z a -l ik e s y m p t om s . IF N - γ i s a pp r o ve d f o r u se as a m ac r o ph a ge - ac ti v a t in g fa c to r in c h r on ic g ra nu l om a to us di s e a se . 3 . S e ve ra l p r o to c o ls us ing I L -2 s h o w p r om is in g res u lt s , wi t h ap p a re n tl y c om p le t e r em is s i o ns i n s o m e p at i en ts wi t h m e la no m a. W it h t h is te c h ni q ue, k n o wn as ad op t i v e i m m un o t he r ap y , a p a ti e nt ' s p er i p h e r al bl o od l ym p ho c y t es , o r t u m o r - inf i l t ra t in g l ym ph oc y t es , a re r em o v e d. Th e y a re c u lt u r ed wi t h I L - 2 a nd r ei n f us ed wi t h a d di t io n al IL - 2 . Th es e I L -2 - r es po n s ive c e ll s a r e li k el y T c el ls and N K c e ll s . S e ve re c a pi l la r y l e ak ag e s y n d ro m e , o cc a si on a ll y l ea di n g t o de a t h, is a p ro b le m a t ic s id e ef f ec t . 4 . H o r mo n es o f t h e t h ym u s t h a t in d uc e T c e ll m a t u r at i on an d o t he r f u nc t io ns a re us ed t o i nc r e a s e c e r ta i n ce ll - m e d ia te d im m u ne fu nc t io n s, wi th va r i a bl e re s u l ts .
5 . S ul f u r- c on t ai ni n g c o m p o u nd s , su c h as le va m is o l e ( a p h en y l im i do t hi a zo l e a n t he lm in t ic ) an d d ie t h y ld i t hi oc a rb am a te ( Im u t h io l ) , ha v e i m m u no s t im u la t o r y a c ti v it y . Th e i r ef f ec t i s g r ea t er o n c el l -m e di a te d i m m u ni t y t ha n o n h um o ra l im m u ni t y . Le v a m i so le i s a p p ro v e d a s a n o r al a g e nt fo r us e i n c ol on c an c e r i n c o m b i na t io n wi t h f l u or o u ra c i l . 6 . I no s in e p ra n o be x i s li c en s e d f o r u s e in m a n y c o un t r ie s as an i m m u no s t im u la n t. I t i nd uc es T c el l d i ff e r en t ia t io n a n d a u gm en ts ce ll m e di a te d i m m un e f u nc ti on s , wi t h m i n im al to xi c i t y. 7 . A s a c om po n en t o f m y c o ba c t e r ia l c el l wa ll s , mu r a m yl d i p e p t i d e ( M D P ) s t im ul a te s m ac r op ha g e ac t i v a ti on an d m a y be us ed as an ad j u van t , g i ve n wi t h a n ti g en (s e e I ) , o r gi v e n al on e as a n i m m un os t im ul a nt . P.224
STUDY QUESTIONS D i r e c t i on s : E a c h qu es t io n , s t at em e nt , or i te m o r i nc om p le t e s ta t em en t i n t h is se ct i on c a n b e c o r r ec t l y an s we r ed o r c om pl e te d b y on e o f th e s u gg es t ed an s we r s o r phr a s es . Ch oo s e t he be s t a n s we r . 1 . A m a n h a s s ym p t o m s o f a vi r a l in f ec t i o n o f a b o u t 4 da ys ' d u r a t i o n . T o c on f i r m t h e d i ag n osi s , t he ph ys i c i a n d raw s a b lo o d s am p l e a nd r e q u es t s th e a n t i bo d y t i t e r ( le ve l ) f o r t h e s u spe c t e d a ge n t . T h e f i r s t b l o o d s am p le s how s a low ti t e r of a nt i b od y. A w e ek la t e r , a n ot h e r b l oo d s a m pl e is d raw n , a n d th e t i te r a ga i ns t t he vi r us i s m u ch hi g h e r. T hi s s i t u a ti o n i s a n e x am p le o f ( A ) a n i nf l am m a t or y r e s po n se to t he v i r al i n fe c ti on . ( B ) a pr im a r y im m u ne r es p on s e t o t he v i r al i n f ec ti o n . ( C ) a s ec o nd a r y im m u ne r e s p o ns e t o t h e vi r al in fe c ti o n. ( D ) a c e ll ul a r re s p o ns e to t he v i r al in f ec ti o n. V i e w A n s we r 1 . T h e a n sw e r i s B [ se ea n d] .2 . W h ic h c la ss o f a n t i bo d y h a s t h e l o ng es t s e ru m h a l f -l i f e a n d op s o n iz es an t i ge n s f o r p h a g oc yt o s i s t h r ou g h tw o d i f f e re n t pa t hw a ys ? ( A ) I m m un o gl ob u li n G (Ig G ) ( B ) I m m un o gl ob u li n M ( Ig M) ( C ) I m m un o gl o bu li n A ( Ig A ) ( D ) I m m un o gl o bu li n E ( Ig E ) V i e w A n s we r 2 . T h e a n sw e r i s A [ se e] . 3 . U r ti c a ri a t ha t ap p ea r s r a p i d l y a f t e r t h e i ng e st io n o f fo o d u s ua l l y i n d i c a t es w h i ch t yp e o f h yp e r s e n s i t i vi t y r e a c t io n ? ( A ) Ty p e I ( B ) Ty p e I I ( C ) Ty p e I I I ( D ) Ty p e I V
V i e w A n s we r 3 . T h e a n sw e r i s A [ se ea n d] .4 . I n w h ic h au t o im m un e d i s o r de r i s t h e m ec h ani s m o f p at h o ge n es i s c la s s i fi e d a s t yp e I I h yp e r s e n s i t i vi t y? ( A ) S y s t em ic l u pu s e r y t he m at os u s ( S L E ) ( B ) I ns u li n -d e pe nd e nt dia b e te s m e l li t us (I D D M) ( C ) G r a v e ' s di s e as e ( D ) H a s h im o to ' s th y r o id i ti s V i e w A n s we r 4 . T h e a n sw e r i s C [ se ea n d] .5 . A pa t i e n t r e ce i ve s l o n g - te r m , h i g h- d o se t he r a p y w i t h a s ul f o na m id e . Af t e r a pp r o x im a te l y 3 w e ek s o f t he r a p y, t h e p a t i e n t h as a l ow - g r ad e f e ve r , r a s h, an d m u sc l e a n d jo i n t p a in . Wh i ch typ e o f h yp e r s e n s i t i vi t y a c co u n ts f o r th e se s ym p t o m s ? ( A ) Ty p e I ( B ) Ty p e I I ( C ) Ty p e I I I ( D ) Ty p e I V V i e w A n s we r 5 . T h e a n sw e r i s C [ se ea n d] .6 . I n w h ic h t yp e I V h yp e r s e n s i t i vi t y r e a c t io n i s t h e t i ss u e -d a ma g in g d is o r d e r c o ns i de r e d a n i na p p r op r i a te r es p on s e b y t h e i m m un e s ys t e m ? ( A ) P o is on i v y d er m a t i ti s ( B ) C h r on ic t ub e rc ul os is ( C ) A c ut e g r a ft r ej ec t io n ( D ) Tu b e r c u li n te s t V i e w A n s we r 6 . T h e a n sw e r i s A [ se e] . My c o b a c te r i u m .7 . W h i ch a g e n t i s c om m o nl y u s e d t o t r ea t m u l t ip l e s cl e ro s i s ( M S )? ( A ) N e os t ig m i ne ( B ) C y a n oc o ba la m i n ( C ) I F N - β - 1b ( D ) P r o p y lt h io u ra c i l V i e w A n s we r 7 . T h e a n sw e r i s C [ se e] . 8 . T h e t he r a p eu t i c ro l e o f m u r o m on a b - C D3 i n a cut e r e na l g ra f t r ej e c ti o n i s p r ob a b l y b a s e d o n ( A ) a c t i v a ti o n o f T c e ll fun c ti o n a nd s e c r e ti o n o f cy t o k in es . ( B ) d es t ru c ti on o f T c el ls b y c om pl em e nt . ( C ) o ps o ni z a t io n o f T c e ll s fo r p h ag oc y t o s i s . ( D ) s el ec t i v e i nh i bi ti o n of T H c e ll fu nc t io n . V i e w A n s we r 8 . T h e a n sw e r i s C [ se e] . 9 . W h ic h i s a c u r r en t c li n ic a l a p p l ic a t io n o f i n t ra ve no u s hu m an im m un o g lob u l i n ( I V I G ) ? ( A ) P r o ph y l a xi s af t e r h epa t i ti s B v i r us ( H B V ) e xp o s u r e ( B ) Tr e a t m e n t o f h um o ral im m u n od e fi c i en c y ( C ) P r o ph y l ac t ic in f an t im m u n i zat i on fo r po l io ( D ) P r o ph y l a xi s f or R h d is e as e b y i nf a nt im m u ni za t i on V i e w A n s we r 9 . T h e a n sw e r i s B [ se e] . 1 0. W hi c h c yt o k i n e i s a p p r o ve d fo r t he t r ea tm e n t o f ce r t a in f o rm s of c a nc e r ? ( A ) I n te r le uk i n 2 (I L - 2) ( B ) I n te r f er o n α ( I F N - α )
( C ) I n te r f e ro n γ (I F N - γ ) ( D ) I m u t hi o l V i e w A n s we r 1 0 . T he a nsw e r i s B [ se e] . P . 22 5
F o r q ue s t io n s 1 1 a n d 12 : A 6 - y e a r - ol d c hi ld ha s a de e p p un c t u r e wo u n d . Th e p a r en t i s u ns u re of th e c h il d ' s hi s to r y o f vac c i n a ti on . 1 1 . If n o o t he r i n fo r m a ti o n is a va i la b le , w ha t sh o u l d t h e p h ys i c i a n r e c o mm e nd ? ( A ) N o v ac c i n at i on ( B ) Te t a n us i m m un o gl obu l in ( TI G ) ( C ) Te t a n us to xo i d ( Td ) ( D ) B o t h TI G a n d Td a t s e p a ra t e s it es V i e w A n s we r 1 1 . T he a nsw e r i s D [ se e] . 1 2. I f t h e c h i l d r e ce i ve d a f u l l se r i es o f d i ph t h e r ia, p e r t us s is , te t a nu s ( DP T ) va c c in a t io n s, t he la s t a t e n t r y i n t o s c h oo l , w h a t sh o u ld t he p h ys i c i a n r e c om me n d ? ( A ) N o v ac c i n at i on ( B ) Te t a n us i m m un o gl obu l in ( TI G ) ( C ) Te t a n us to xo i d ( Td ) ( D ) B o t h TI G a n d Td a t s e p a ra t e s it es V i e w A n s we r 1 2 . T he a nsw e r i s A [ se e] . 1 3. P e r sis t e n t i n f ec t i on s b y o p p o r t un i s ti c pa t h og e ns , s uc h a s Ca n d id a a l b ic a n s a nd P n eu m oc y st i s c a r i n ii , co u ld i nd i ca t e a l l o f t h e f o ll ow i n g e xce p t ( A ) i nh e ri t ed T c el l i m m un o d ef ic ie n c y. ( B ) h um o ra l i m m un o de f ici e nc y . (C) AIDS. ( D ) c om bi n ed im m u no de fi c ie nc y . V i e w A n s we r 1 3 . T he a nsw e r i s B [ se e] . 1 4. W hi c h s t a te m en t ab o u t H I V i n f ec t i on is n o t c o rr e c t ? ( A ) I n di v i du a ls wh o b e c om e i n fe c te d wi t h H I V - 1 al wa y s s h o w o ve r t s y m p to m s s h or t l y af t e r in f ec t io n . ( B ) S e r oc on v e r s i on t o p os i ti v e s t a tu s f o r a n ti - H I V- 1 a nt i bo di es is th e p r i m a r y c ri te r i on fo r di agn o si s o f a vi ra l c a r ri e r . ( C ) Th e i nc ub a ti o n p er i od f o r t he pa t ho g en es is of A I D S is b e li e v ed t o be 8 y ea r s o r l on g e r af t e r th e i ni t ia l i n fe c t i on wi t h H I V. +
( D ) C D 4 T c el ls an d m ac r o ph ag e s m a y b e a bl e to s p r e ad H I V t o +
u n in f ec t ed C D 4 c el ls wi t h o ut r el e as in g a n y e xt r ac e ll ul a r vi ru s p a r ti c l e s . V i e w A n s we r 1 4 . T he a nsw e r i s A [ se e] . D i r e c ti o ns : Th e q u es t io ns a n d i nc om p le t e s t a te m ent s in th is s e c t io n c a n b e c o r re c tl y a ns we r e d o r c om p le t ed b y on e o r m or e o f t h e su g ge s te d a nswe r s . C h o os e t he an s we r , A-E. 1 5 . W h i ch s ta t em e n ts ab o u t th e c u r r e n tl y a p p r o ve d s he e p F a b f r a gm en t u s e d t o co u n te r a ct d igo x i n o ve r d o se a r e t r u e?
I . I t i s ob t a in e d b y t h e im m u ni za t i o n o f s h ee p w i t h a di g ox i n -p r o t e in c o n j ug a te a nd su b se q ue n t p r ot e o l yt i c c l e a va ge o f th e c o l le c te d a n t i bo d y. I I . I t s pe c i fi c al l y b i n d s d i g o xi n , p r e ve n t in g i ts a c t i vi t y. I I I . It h as a s e ru m ha l f -li f e o f a p p ro x im a t el y 3 w e ek s . A i f I o n l y i s c o r re c t B i f II I on l y i s c o r r ec t C i f I a n d I I a r e c or r ec t D i f II a nd I II a re c o r re c t E i f I, I I, an d II I ar e c o r re c t +
V i e w A n s we r 1 5 . T he a nsw e r i s C [ se e] . 1 6. C D 4 T c e l l s s p e ci f i ca l l y r e c o g n i z e a n t i ge n s i n w hi c h fo r m? I . B o u nd t o m aj o r h is t oc o m pa t i bi l i t y ( M H C ) c l as s I m o le c ul e s o n th e s u r f a ce o f a n y b o d y c e l l I I . I n f r e e, so l u bl e fo r m i n ex t r a ce l lu l a r fl u i ds I I I . B ou n d t o M H C c la s s I I mo l ec u l es on t he sur f a c e o f sp e ci a l a n t ig en p r e s en t i n g c el l s ( AP C s ) A i f I o n l y i s c o r re c t B i f II I on l y i s c o r r ec t C i f I a n d I I a r e c or r ec t D i f II a nd I II a re c o r re c t E i f I, I I, an d II I ar e c o r re c t V i e w A n s we r 1 6 . T he a nsw e r i s B [ se e] . 1 7. W ha t i s a n o r ma l o u t c om e o f t he ac t i va t io n o f th e c o mp l em e n t sys t e m b y e i t h e r t h e c l a ss i c o r al t e r na t i ve pa t hw a y? I . Ac u t e in f l am m a ti o n I I . O p so n iz a t io n of i mmu n e c o m pl e xe s I I I . C yt o l yt i c a c t i o n A i f I o n l y i s c o r re c t B i f II I on l y i s c o r r ec t C i f I a n d I I a r e c or r ec t D i f II a nd I II a re c o r re c t E i f I, I I, an d II I ar e c o r re c t V i e w A n s we r 1 7 . T he a nsw e r i s E [s e e] . 1 8. I n a n tivi r a l i m mu n i t y, w h a t d i r ec t l y r e c o g n i z es a nd k il l s vi r al - i n fe c ted c e ll s ? I . C yt o t o x i c T c e ll s ( CTL s ) I I . An t i vi r a l an t i b od i es I I I . In t e r fe r o n s A i f I o n l y i s c o r re c t B i f II I on l y i s c o r r ec t C i f I a n d I I a r e c or r ec t D i f II a nd I II a re c o r re c t E i f I, I I, an d II I ar e c o r re c t V i e w A n s we r 1 8 . T he a nsw e r i s A [ se e] . P . 22 6
1 9 . A p a t ie n t i s t re a t ed w i t h p en i c il l i n a nd p r od u c es an t i b od i es ag a i ns t t h e d r ug . Th e y a r e s t i l l m o s t l y p r e s e n t . An e mer g e n c y s i t u a t i o n r e q u i r es ad m i ni s t r at i o n o f a n i n t ra ve n o us d ose o f pe n ic i l li n . I f t he p a t i en t ha s a t yp e I p e ni c i l li n h yp e r s e n s i t i vi t y r e a c t io n , w hi c h p a t h ol o g ic co n se q u en ce w o u l d b e e xp e c te d , an d w i t h in w h a t t i me c o u r se o f c l in i c al on s et ? I . H e mo l yt i c a n em i a, w it h a n o n se t o f 1 -2 h r a ft e r t h e i n t r a ve no u s d ose I I . An a p h yl a x i s , w it h an o n se t o f a few m i nu t es a f t e r th e i n t r a ve n ou s dose I I I . C ut a ne o u s u r t ic a r i a a n d p r u r i t us , w i th a n on s e t o f a f ew mi n u te s a f t e r t he in t r a ve n o us do s e A i f I o n l y i s c o r re c t B i f II I on l y i s c o r r ec t C i f I a n d I I a r e c or r ec t D i f II a nd I II a re c o r re c t E i f I, I I, an d II I ar e c o r re c t V i e w A n s we r 1 9 . T he a nsw e r i s D [ se ea n d] .2 0 . Wh i c h s i t ua t i on o c c u rs i n a l l t yp e I V h yp e r s en s i t i vi t y r e a c t i o ns ? I . I n fi l t r a ti o n o f t he a ff ec t e d ti s su e b y m o n o n uc l e a r c e ll s I I . A d e l a y o f 1 2 h r o r lo n g e r i n t he on s e t o f c li n i c al s ym p t o m s a f te r a l l e r ge n c o n ta c t I I I . Si g n i fi c an t be n e fi c ia l e f fe c t o f th e ad m in i st r a t i o n o f H 1 -a n ta g o ni s ts A i f I o n l y i s c o r re c t B i f II I on l y i s c o r r ec t C i f I a n d I I a r e c or r ec t D i f II a nd I II a re c o r re c t E i f I, I I, an d II I ar e c o r re c t V i e w A n s we r 2 0 . T he a nsw e r i s C [ se ea n d] .2 1 . Wh i c h i m mu n o lo g ic f i n d i ng is n o t u n iq u e t o s ys t e m i c lu p u s e r yt h e m a t o su s (S L E ) ? I . H yp e r g a m m ag l o bu l i ne m i a I I . Th e p re s en c e o f c i r cu l a t i ng an t i nu c le a r an t ib o d i es I I I . Th e p r e se n ce o f c i rc u l a ti n g rh e um a t oi d fac t o r s A i f I o n l y i s c o r re c t B i f II I on l y i s c o r r ec t C i f I a n d I I a r e c or r ec t D i f II a nd I II a re c o r re c t E i f I, I I, an d II I ar e c o r re c t V i e w A n s we r 2 1 . T he a nsw e r i s E [s e e] . 2 2. An o rg a n do n o r w ho i s h u m an l eu k oc yt e a n t i ge n ( H L A) m a tc h ed w i t h t h e r ec i p ie n t o f a g r a f t i s s o u g ht . Wh i c h i n di vi d ua l i s a t l e as t so mew h a t l i k el y t o p r o vi d e a t o t al HLA match? I . A s i b l in g o f t h e g r a f t r e c i p ie n t I I . A p a r e n t o f th e g r a f t r e c i pi e n t
I I I . A c a da ve r A i f I o n l y i s c o r re c t B i f II I on l y i s c o r r ec t C i f I a n d I I a r e c or r ec t D i f II a nd I II a re c o r re c t E i f I, I I, an d II I ar e c o r re c t V i e w A n s we r 2 2 . T he a nsw e r i s A [ se e] . 2 3. G r a f t -ve r s u s - h os t ( G V H ) d i s ea s e i s a ss o c ia t ed pr i m a r i l y w i t h w hi c h t yp e o f t ra n s pl a n ta t i on ? I . K i d ne y I I . H ea r t I I I . B on e m a r r ow A i f I o n l y i s c o r re c t B i f II I on l y i s c o r r ec t C i f I a n d I I a r e c or r ec t D i f II a nd I II a re c o r re c t E i f I, I I, an d II I ar e c o r re c t V i e w A n s we r 2 3 . T he a nsw e r i s B [ se e] . 2 4. T he pr o p h yl a c t i c us e o f c yc l o s p o r i n e i n g r a f t rej e c t io n is p r ob a bl y b a s e d o n i t s a b il i t y t o I . i nh i b i t s yn t h e s i s o f an t i b o di e s, t he r e b y p r e v e n t i ng h yp e r a c u t e r e j e c ti o n . I I . i nh i bi t ac t i va t i on o f T c e l l s , t h e re b y p r e ve n t i n g ac u te r e je c t io n . I I I . bl o ck t r an s c r ip t i on o f t h e i n te r l e uk i n 2 ( IL -2 ) g en e a n d s yn t h e s i s o r s e c r e ti o n o f IL - 2 . A i f I o n l y i s c o r re c t B i f II I on l y i s c o r r ec t C i f I a n d I I a r e c or r ec t D i f II a nd I II a re c o r re c t E i f I, I I, an d II I ar e c o r re c t V i e w A n s we r 2 4 . T he a nsw e r i s D [ se e] . 2 5. W hi c h i s a va l i d c o m pa r i s on o f l i ve , a t te n u a te d a n d k i ll e d , i nac t i va t e d a c ti ve va c c i nes ? I . R e pl i ca t i o n o f th e o r g a n is m s i n a l i ve , a t te nu a t e d va c c in e in c r ea s es t h e s ti m ul a t io n o f t h e im m u ne s ys t e m a n d a l ow e r d o se i s o f t en r e q u i r ed . I I . At t e n u a te d va cc i ne s o f t e n r e q ui r e m u l t ip l e d o s es . I I I . A k i l le d , i n ac t i va t ed va c c i ne p r ob a b l y p r o d u c e s l i fe l o ng im m u ni t y i n o n e o r tw o d os es . A i f I o n l y i s c o r re c t B i f II I on l y i s c o r r ec t C i f I a n d I I a r e c or r ec t D i f II a nd I II a re c o r re c t E i f I, I I, an d II I ar e c o r re c t V i e w A n s we r 2 5 . T he a nsw e r i s A [ se ea n d] .2 6 . Wh i c h a c t i ve va c c i n e i s re c om me n d ed f o r he a l th c a re w o r ke r s b u t i s n o t r ou t i ne l y g i ve n t o i n f an t s ? I . M e a sl e s, mu m ps , r ube l l a ( M M R ) va cc i n e
I I . I nf l u en z a p ol yva l e n t I I I . Te t an u s t o x oi d (T d ) A i f I o n l y i s c o r re c t B i f II I on l y i s c o r r ec t C i f I a n d I I a r e c or r ec t D i f II a nd I II a re c o r re c t E i f I, I I, an d II I ar e c o r re c t V i e w A n s we r 2 6 . T he a nsw e r i s D [ se e] . 2 7. W hi c h s t a te m en t ab o u t p n e um o c oc c us an d m en i n g oc o cc u s va c c in e s is t r u e? I . T he y a r e c o m po s ed of p u r i f ie d p o l ys a c c h a r id e s . I I . Th e y a r e r e c om m en de d f o r c h il d r e n < 2 ye a r s o f a g e . I I I . Th e va cc i ne s p r o t ect a g ai n s t a l l s e ro t yp e s o f d i se as e c a us i n g p n e um o c oc c us o r m en in g o c oc c us . A i f I o n l y i s c o r re c t B i f II I on l y i s c o r r ec t C i f I a n d I I a r e c or r ec t D i f II a nd I II a re c o r re c t E i f I, I I, an d II I ar e c o r re c t V i e w A n s we r 2 7 . T he a nsw e r i s A [ se e] . P . 22 7
ANSWERS AND EXPLANATIONS 1 . T he an sw e r is B [ s ee 1 . C . 2 a nd 3] . A p r im a r y i m m u ne re s pon s e t o a n i n fe ct i on is c ha r a c t e ri ze d b y t h e i ni t ia l p r o du c ti on o f I g M, b e gi nn i ng ab o u t 4 d a ys a f te r a n t ig en is en co u nt e re d . A s wi t c h t o a di f f er e nt im m u n o gl ob u li n i so t y p e ( i .e . , I g G , Ig E , o r Ig A ) occ u rs b e f o re th e p e ak o f an t ibo d y p r od uc t io n i s r e ac hed . Th e pe ak pr im a r y i m m u ne r es po ns e o c c u rs 1 0 - 14 da y s a f t er t he an ti g en is en c o u nt e re d , a n d t h e s e ru m c on t ai ns bo t h I g M a n d I g G . 2 . T he an sw e r is A [ s ee I . D . 2. b ; I . E ] . I g G h as a s e r um ha l f- l if e o f 25 - 35 da y s , l o ng e r t ha n th a t o f a n y o th e r cl as s , a l t ho ug h m as t c el l - bo und I g E h as th e l o ng es t h al f - l i f e . I n g en e ra l , i m m une c om p le xe s c on t ai ni n g I gG a r e op s o ni ze d fo r ph ag o c y to s i s t h r ou gh bi n di ng t o t he Ig G r ec e pt o rs on n e u t ro ph i ls a n d m a c ro p ha g es an d a d di t io na l l y t h r o ug h t h e ac t i v a ti on o f c om pl em e nt . Ig M a l s o op s on i z es , bu t o nl y t h r oug h t h e a c ti v a t io n o f c om pl em e nt . 3 . T he an sw e r is A [ s ee I I . A .5 . a a nd b ]. F o o d a ll e rg i es a r e u s u a lly t y p e I re ac t io ns . In a pa t i en t wi t h p r ee xi s t i ng h yp e r se c re t ed Ig E s p ec i fi c to a f oo d a ll e r ge n a n d b o un d t o m as t c el ls , th e a l le r g ic re s p o ns e us u al l y o c c u rs s h o rt l y af t e r i ng e s t io n . Ma s t c el l s ec re t ion s l e ad t o vo m i t in g . S y s t em i c s pi l lo v e r of al le r g en int o t he c i rc ul a ti o n m a y l ea d t o m i ld e r e f fe c ts i n o t he r t i s s ue s ( e .g . , u r ti c a r i a) . 4 . T he an sw e r is C [ s ee I I . C .1 a nd 2. c; I II . D . 2. b ].
I n G r a ves ' d is ea s e , a n an t i bo d y ac ti n g as a TS H a g o ni s t h ype r s t im u la t es t h e th yr o id . In S LE , pe r s i s te n t c ir cu l at i ng im m u ne c om pl e xe s a re r e s po ns ib l e f o r m uc h o f th e pa t ho g en es is ( t y pe I II) . I n I D D M, T c e l l c yt o t o xi c it y t o b e ta is le t c e ll s is p ro b ab l y re s po ns i b le f or t he m a jo r p a t ho g en es is ( t y pe I V ). In H a s h im o to ' s t h y r oi d it is, a n ti bo d ie s t o t h y r oi d p e r o xi d as e m a y in i ti a te in f l am m a ti o n b ut T H 1 c e l ls an d m ac r op h ag es i n f il t ra t e t h e o rg a n ( Ty p e I V ) . 5 . T he an sw e r is C [ s ee I I . D .2 . c ; I I. D . 4 .a an d b ; I I . D . 5. a ] . O n e o f t he m o s t c o m m on c au s e s o f t y pe I II h ype rs e ns it i vi t y is t h e r es p on se t o d ru gs . Th is t y pe o f r ea c ti o n is o ft e n se e n a f te r l o ng - t er m , h ig h -d os e t h e r ap y. Th e t re a tm en t of c ho ic e i s t o d is c o n ti nu e t r e at m e n t a nd s u bs t it u te a n un r el a te d d r u g. 6 . T he an sw e r is A [ s ee I I . E .1 ] . P o i so n i v y c on t ai ns a h ap t e n, pe n ta d ec y l c a te c ho l , wh ic h i s n o t kn o wn t o b e t o xi c . Th e r e fo r e , i ts c apa c it y t o e l ic it an im m u ne r e s p o ns e is in a pp r op r i ate b e ca us e i t s e r v es no us ef u l f u nc ti o n . I n c h r o ni c tu b e rc ul os is , th e i m m un e r e s po ns e i s a t te m p t in g , a l t ho ug h un s u cc es s f ul l y , t o el im in a te th e m yc o ba c t e ri a l p at h og e n. A c u te gr a f t r ej ec t io n i s a l s o ap p ro p r ia t e, bu t u n f o rt u na t e, be c a us e i t is a r e s p on s e ag a in s t f o re i gn t is s u e. A tu b er cu l in t e s t is an ap p r op r ia t e m an i f es ta t io n o f th e e xi s t e nc e o f ac ti v e im m u ni t y o r m em o r y t o My c o ba c te r ium . 7 . T he an sw e r is C [ s ee I I I . D .8 . b] . Tr e a t m en t wi t h I F N - β - 1b l o we r s th e f r eq u en c y of a t t ac ks b y 3 3 -5 0 % a t 2 ye a r s i n MS p a ti e nt s . N eo s ti gm i ne is u s e d a s a n a n t ic ho li n e rg ic ag e nt in m ya s th e ni a g r a v is . C y ano c ob a la m i n i s a dm in is t ere d i n au t oi m m un e p e r ni ci o us a n em ia to r epl a c e no n ab s o r be d vi ta m in B 1 2 . P r op yl t hi o u ra c i l is u s ed as an an ti t h y r oi d i n G r a v e s ' di s e as e . 8 . T he an sw e r is C [ s ee V . D . 2 .e ] . Mu r o m o n ab - C D 3 is a m ou s e a nt i - C D 3 m on oc lo n al a nt i bo d y th a t b in ds t o al l T c e l ls be c a us e C D3 is a c on s ta n t p a rt of t he an t ig e n re c e p to r of ea c h T c e ll . Th e b in d in g o f m u rom o na b - C D 3 o ps on i z es t he T c e ll s f o r p h a go c y to s i s . Th e r e fo r e , t h e t o ta l n um b er o f T c el l s is r ed uc e d. Mo u s e a n t ib od i es ar e i n ef f ic ie n t a t ac ti v a t in g h um a n c om p le m e n t. S om e T c e ll a c ti va t io n wi t h c y t ok in e s ec r e ti o n oc c u r s , b ut it is an un d es i ra bl e s id e e f fe c t o f m u r om on a b - C D3 ad m in i s t r a ti o n. 9 . T he an sw e r is B [ s ee V I . B . 1. c ; Ta b le 10 - 2 ]. I V I G s ar e u s e d to r ep la c e a nt i bo d y in im m u no d efi c ie n t i nd i vid u al s. H e pa t it i s B i m m un o gl ob u li n ( H BI G ) i s a dm in is t e re d i n tr am us cu l a rl y . A nt i - R h a nt i bo dy i s a ls o a dm i ni s t e r ed in t ra m us c u la r l y to t he m o the r im m e d ia t el y p os tp a r tum ( s om e ti m e s d u ri n g p re g na n c y ) , b u t n ot to t he in f an t . P ro p h y la ct ic in f an t i m m u ni z a t io n f o r p o li o is p r o v i de d t h ro u gh ac t i v e, n o t p as si ve , vac ci n at io n. P.228
1 0 . Th e a n sw e r i s B [ s ee V I I . D] .
I F N - α i s a pp r o v ed f or us e i n p at i en ts wi t h ha i r y c e l l l eu k e m i a a n d i n p a t ie n ts wi t h AI D S an d Ka p os i s a rc om a. S om e o f i t s b en e fi c i a l e ff e c t s p r o ba b l y d e r i v e f r om i t s a b il i t y to in h ib it g ro wt h . Th e o t he r c y t o k i n es a r e in va r i o us s t ag es o f c l i ni c a l t r i al s as an t in e op l as ti c th e r ap i es , a l th ou g h I F N -γ i s a p p ro v e d f o r u s e in pat i e nt s wi t h c h r o ni c g ra n ul o m a t ou s d is ea se . I m u th io l i s n ot a c y t ok ine b ut a s y n th e ti c d r ug . 1 1 . Th e a n sw e r i s D [ s ee V I . D .3 . a; Ta b le 10 - 3 ]. A p a ti e nt wi t h an un c e r tai n hi s t o r y of v a c c in a ti o n a n d a te t an us - p r on e wo u n d r e qu i re s b ot h a c tiv e a n d p as s i v e v ac c i n at io n . TI G p ro v i d es i m m e di a te p ro t ec ti o n i f th e in di v i d ua l d o es n o t ha v e m e m o r y. Td b eg i ns th e s e r ie s t ha t l e ad s t o t h e es t ab l is hm en t o f m em o r y . A t e ta nu s -p r o ne wo u n d i n a n in di vi d ua l wi t h a fu ll s e r i es of ac ti v e v a cc in a ti on s re q ui r es no t re a tm en t i f th e l as t v ac c i n a ti on in t h e s e ri es wa s ad m i ni s ter e d l e s s t h an 5 yea r s e a r li e r . Th e s e r ec om m e nd a t io ns a re ge ne r a l g ui de l in es . 1 2 . Th e a n sw e r i s A [ s ee V I . D .3 . a; Ta b le 10 - 3 ]. 1 3 . Th e a n sw e r i s B [ s ee I V . A ; I V . B. 6 ] . O p p o r tu n is ti c i n fe c t i on s b y f u ng i , vir us e s , an d p ar a s it es ot h e r t ha n e xt r a c e l lu la r p y og e ni c ba c te r i a s u g ge st a d e fi ci en c y o f T c el l fu nc t io n . I n h e ri t ed T c e l l im m u n ode f ic i en c y a n d A I D S ar e in h e ri t ed an d a c q u i re d T c e ll de f ic ie nc ie s , r es p ec ti v e l y . C om bi n ed im m u nod e f ic ie nc y i nc lu d es b o th h u m o r al an d T c e l l d ef ic ie n c y . O nl y h um or a l im m u n o d e fi c i e nc y is a p r im ar i l y h u m o r al de f ic ie nc y i n whi c h t he e xp e c te d s ig ns ar e r ec u r re n t i nf ec t io ns by e xt r a c e l lu la r p y og e ni c ba c te r i a. 1 4 . Th e a n sw e r i s A [ s ee I V . B .6 . a. ( 1 )] . I t is no t k no wn wh a t p e rc e n t ag e o f i n di vi d ua ls s ho ws o v e r t s y m p to m s a f t er i n i ti al in f ec ti o n. Th o s e wh o do , h o we v e r , ge n e ra lly s h o w m on o nu cl e os is -l ik e s ym p to m s fo r a p p ro xi m at e l y 3 we ek s . S om e i nd i vi d ua l s di s p l a y no o ver t s ym p to m s . 1 5 . Th e a n sw e r i s C ( I , II ) [ s e e I . A .4 ; I. D . 2 ; I . D .5; V I I . A] . D i g o xi n is a h ap t en , a m o l ec ul e th a t is t oo s m a l l t o st im u la t e r es po n s e s (b e a n im m u no g en ) i n i t s f r ee f o rm , b u t c a n b e re co gn i z e d b y a nt i bo d ie s . To o b t ai n s he e p a nt i di go xi n a n ti b od ie s , t he sh ee p i s i m m un i z e d wi t h di g o xi n t h a t h as be en c o u pl ed t o a la r g er m o le cu l e, in t his c a s e , a p ro t ei n . Th e a n t ib od i es ob t ai ne d fr om t h e s he ep a re c l ea v e d wi t h p r o te o l y ti c e n z y m es t o yi e l d t h e F ab f ra gm e nt . Th i s f ra gm e nt is s p ec if ic t o an d c an bi nd di g o xi n , b l oc ki n g i ts b i ol og ic ac t iv i t y . A n im al an t ib o di es h a ve a s h or t e r s e r um ha l fl i f e wh e n in je c te d i n to hu m an s , an d al l F ab f ra gm e n t s , e v e n h um an , h a ve a s h o rt ha l f -l i fe c om p ar e d t o c o m p le t e a n ti bo d y m ol e c u le s . O n l y c o m p le t e h u m a n I g G ha s a ha l f- l ife o f a pp r o xi m a te l y 1 m on t h . 1 6 . Th e a n sw e r i s B ( I I I) [ s e e I. B . 3; I . B. 5 ] . +
C D 4 , o r h e lp e r, T c el ls h a v e r ec ep t o rs t h a t r ec og n i ze f r a gm en ts ( ep i to p es ) o f im m u ni z i n g a nt i ge ns (i m m u no g en s ) on l y wh e n t h e fr a gm en t s a re bo u nd t o an MH C c l a s s I I m o lec u le on th e s u r fa c e of AP C s . As a r es u lt , T c e l ls +
c a nn o t b e a c t i v a te d i n app r o p ri a te l y b y s ol u bl e a nt i g en s. C D 8 T c e l ls r e c og ni z e f r ag m e n ts b o un d to MH C c l a s s I m o le c u l es .
1 7 . Th e a n sw e r i s E ( I , II , I I I) [s e e I . E .2 ] . W hen co m p l em en t i s a c t iv a t e d , d i ff e re n t p r o te in s o f t he c om p le m e n t s e qu e nc e h a v e f un c ti on s t h a t le a d t o a ll t hr e e a c ti o ns . Ac u te i n fl am m at io n a l lo ws g r ea t e r m o v em en t o f pl as m a pr o te i ns an d p h a g o c y te s f r om bl oo d to t i ss ue . O ps o ni z a ti o n o f im m u n e co m pl e xe s en han c es th ei r ph a go c yto si s . C yt o l ys is of m i c ro o rg a nis m s of t en r es ul ts in t he i r k il li n g . 1 8 . Th e a n sw e r i s A ( I ) [ s ee I .F . 2 ]. A n t i vi ra l a n ti b od ie s a r e p r o ba b l y m os t i m p o r ta n t i n e xt r a c e l lu la r im m u ni t y t o vi r u s es , b in d in g v ir u s p ar t i c l es fo r op so n i zat i on a n d p re ve n ti ng ad d it i on a l i n f ec ti o n o f c el ls . I n te r f er o n s a re s e c re t ed f ro m v i r a l -i n fe ct e d a nd ot h e r c e ll s ( e .g . , m ac r op ha g es , T c e ll s ) a nd , a f te r bi n din g to r ec ep t o rs , i nd uc e t h e a p pe a ra n c e of an t i v ir a l p r o te i ns i n o t he r c e lls . C TL s r e c o gn i z e vi ra l i n f ec te d c el ls an d c a us e d i r ec t c y t o to xi c i t y. P.229
1 9 . Th e a n sw e r i s D ( I I , I I I ) [s ee I I. A . 2. d ; I I . A .6 an d 7; I I. C . 1 .b ; II . C . 5] . I f t he pa t ie n t p r od uc e d an t i bo di es t ha t a r e s ti l l p re s en t a n d t he h yp e r se ns i ti v i t y r ea c t i on i s t y p e I , th es e a n ti b od ie s a r e I g E , m os tl y b ou n d t o m a st c e ll an d b as o ph il I g E re c e p to r s . Th e i r h alf - l i fe is s e v e ra l m on t hs to ye a r s . I n t ra v e no u s i nt r odu c ti o n o f p en ic i ll in c a us e s r ap i d ac t i vat i on of a nd s ec r e ti o n b y bl o od ba s op h il s . S ym p to m s o f t y pe I h y p e rs en si t i v it y o c c u r wi t h i n m i nu t es . Th es e s ym p to m s m a y be s e ve r e (a n a ph y l a xi s ) o r le ss s e ve r e ( c u t an e ou s , ga s t ro i n te s t i na l , o r re s p i ra t o ry ) , d e pe n di ng on t he i n di vi d ua l . H e m o l y ti c a ne m ia is a n e xp e c t e d r esu l t o f a t yp e I I h yp e r se ns i ti v i t y r ea c t i on t o pe ni c i l li n , b as ed on th e p re se nc e o f Ig M o r I gG a n t ib od i es i n th e s e ru m . Th e o ns e t i s d el a yed b y a f e w h o ur s i n a pa t ie n t wi t h p r e e xi s ti n g a nt i bo die s . 2 0 . Th e a n sw e r i s C ( I , II ) [ s e e I I . E .3 , 4 , 5 a nd 6]. Typ e I V h y p e rs e ns it i v i t y r e a c t i on s a r e d el a y ed a fte r t he in t r od uc t io n o f a l le r g en be c a us e a l le r gen - s pe c i f ic T c e ll s b ec om e a c t i v a te d a nd a tt r ac t o t h e r ce l ls , s u c h as m a c r o p ha g es , t o th e s it e o f a l le r g en in t ro d uc ti o n ( e .g . , t h e e p id e rm is of th e s k i n i n c on t ac t s en si t i v i t y, t he l un gs in tu b e rc ul os is ) . Th e s e s i te s a r e in f il t r at ed b y m o no n uc le a r c el ls . I n f la m m a ti on is pr im a r il y c a us ed b y ti s s ue di s ru p tio n an d n ec r os is as we l l a s b y s ec r et i on of c yt o ki ne s b y t he in f il t r at in g c e ll s. A lt h ou g h h is tam i ne s ec r e ti o n c a n a ls o o cc u r fr om lo c a l m as t c el l s , H 1 -a n ta g on is t s o f h is t a m i n e us u al l y do no t h av e s i gn i fi ca n t e f fe c t s b ec aus e T c e l l a nd m ac r o ph age ac t i v a ti on , m i gr a ti o n, a n d s ec r et i on a re no t g re a t l y a f f ec te d b y t h es e dr u g s . 2 1 . Th e a n sw e r i s E ( I , II , I I I) [s e e I I I. C . 3 .b ] . A l l th r ee f in di n gs a r e c om m o n to m o r e t ha n o n e n o n -o r g an - s p ec i fi c a u t oi m m un e d is o rd e r , b ut t h e y o c c u r i n d if f e re n t p e r c e n ta ge s o f p a ti e nt s wi t h s pe c i f ic di s o r de r s . F o r e xa m pl e , a nt i nu cl e ar a n ti b od ie s a r e p r ob a bl y p r e se n t i n a ll pa ti e nt s wit h S L E b ut a re fo u nd in o n l y a f r ac ti o n o f p a ti en ts wi t h r h e um at o id a rt h ri t is a n d Sj ög r e n 's s y n d r om e. R h e um a to id f ac to r s a r e
m o r e co m m on in r he um at o i d a r th r i ti s t ha n i n SL E o r S jö g re n ' s s y nd r om e , a n d h yp e rg a m m ag lo b ul ine m ia is m o re p re va le n t in S L E t h an in S jö g re n ' s s yn d r om e. 2 2 . Th e a n sw e r i s A ( I ) [ s ee V . A .3 ; V. B ] . P a r e nt s a n d c h i ld r en a re r a r el y H L A m a tc he d b u t a r e us ua ll y h al f m a tc he d. A n H L A m a tc h f r om a c ad a v e r - de r i v e d o rg a n is un l ik el y. Th e p ro b ab il i t y th a t t wo s i bl i ng s a r e H L A m a tc h ed is 2 5 %; t he p ro ba b il i t y th a t t h e y a r e h a lf m a tc he d i s 5 0% . 2 3 . Th e a n sw e r i s B ( I I I) [ s e e V . C. 1 ] . I n bo n e m a r r o w t r a ns pl an t a ti o n, m a r r o w c o n ta i nin g c om p et e n t l y m p h oc yte s i s tr a ns pl a nt e d t o a ge ner a l l y i m m u no s u pp r es s e d h o s t . Th e g r ea t es t p r o bl em is an im m u ne res p on s e b y th e g r a ft ag a in s t HL A s a nd ot h e r t is sue a n t ig en s o f th e h os t . I n re n al an d c a rd i ac tr a ns pla n t at i on , th e g r ea t es t p r o bl em is re j ec ti o n o f t he f o re i gn or g an b y th e im m u n e s y st em o f t he hos t ( H V G d i s e as e ) . 2 4 . Th e a n sw e r i s D ( I I , I I I ) [s ee V . B .2 ; V. D . 2 .a ] . C e l l -m ed i at e d im m u n e m e c ha n is m s a r e t ho u gh t to b e m o r e i m p o r ta n t i n a c ut e g r a ft r ej ec t io n , a nd t he in h ib i ti on o f T c el l a c ti v a t io n a p pe a rs to be t h e k e y el em e nt in im m un o s u p pr e s s io n . R es p on di n g T c e ll s r e qu i re s i gn al i ng f ro m I L -2 t o r ea c h f ul l a c ti va t io n a nd p ro g r es s t o c el l d i v is io n . IL - 2 i s p r o du c e d b y ac t i v a te d T c e ll s a n d c a n a c t in an a ut oc r i ne m a nn e r . C yc l o sp o ri n e b lo c k s t ra ns c ri p ti o n o f t he I L -2 ge ne d u ri ng T c el l a ct i v a ti o n, i n hi b it s t h e s y n th es is of I L - 2 , a nd p re ve n ts fu ll T c e ll ac ti v a t io n a n d d i vi si on . I ts e f fe c ts a r e l im i te d to ac ti va t ed T c el ls . B ec au s e it ha s n o d i rec t e f f ec t o n a n ti b od y s y n the s is , i t i s n ot us e fu l i n t he h yp e ra c u t e r e je ct i on p h e no m e na t ha t a r e b as e d on an t ib o d y-m e di at e d m ec ha n is m s . H y p e r ac u te r e j ec ti o n i s es s e n ti a ll y un t r e at a bl e b ec au s e i t d ep e n ds o n t h e p r es en c e of a n t ib od i es i n th e g r a ft r ec i pi en t . 2 5 . Th e a n sw e r i s A ( I ) [ s ee V I . C. 2 . a a nd b] . L i ve , a t t en ua t ed v a c c in es in t r od uc e o r g an is m s t ha t a re c o m p e te n t t o r e p li ca t e . Th i s r e pl ic a ti on s ti m u la t es th e i m m un e r e s p o ns e. F or t hi s a nd p r o ba b l y o t he r r ea s o ns , a l i v e, at t e nu a te d vacc i ne ( b ut no t a k i ll e d, i n ac t i vat e d v a c c i ne ) p r ob a bl y p r o vid es li f el o ng im m u n it y i n o ne o r t wo d o se s. 2 6 . Th e a n sw e r i s D ( I I , I I I ) [s ee V I . C. 1 .d ; Ta b le 1 0 - 3 ]. Th e M M R v a c c in e i s a dm i n is t er e d t o i n fa n ts wi t hin o r s ho r t l y a f t er t he 1s t ye a r o f l if e . A s e c o n d d os e i s r e c o m m en de d a t s ch o ol en t r y . In f lu e n z a a c ti ve va c c in e i s t a rg e ted t o wa r d s pe c i f ic ad ul t po p ul a ti o ns . He a lt hc a r e wo r k e r s a r e i nc lu d ed in th i s t a rg e t p op u la t io n , as a r e i n f an ts an d c hi l dr e n a t r i sk ; h o we v e r , t he v a c c ine is no t ro u ti n el y a dm in is t e re d t o i n fa n ts . Td i s no t r o u ti n el y a dm in is t e re d t o i n fa n ts , wh o i ns t ea d re c e i v e D TP . Td is us ed p r i m a r il y f o r i ni t ia l v ac c in a t io ns in ad ul t s wh o we r e n ot p re v i ou sl y va c ci n at e d a nd f or 10 - y ea r b oo st e r v ac c i na t io ns in a ll in di vi d ua ls , i nc l ud ing h e al t hc a re wo r k e rs . P.230
2 7 . Th e a n sw e r i s A ( I ) [ s ee V I . C. 2 ; Ta bl e 1 0 -3 ] . Th e p n eu m o c o c c al an d m e ni n go c o c c al vac c i n es a r e m u l t i v al e n t a nd c o nta i n p u r if i ed po l y s a c c h ar i de fr o m a nu m b e r o f d i f fe r ent s er o t y p es . H o we ve r , t h es e vac c i n es d o n o t c on t a in po l y s a cc ha r i de f rom al l t h e r e le va n t i n f ec ti o us a g en ts . P ur i fi ed p ol y s ac ch a ri d es d o n o t s t im ul a te i m m u ne r e s po ns es in c h il d re n y ou n g er t ha n 2 y e a rs o f a ge . F or po l ys a cc h ar i de va c ci n es to be ef f ec t i v e in y o u ng c h il d re n , t h e p ol y s a cc h ar i de m u s t be c o nj u ga t ed to a p r ot e in a s i n th e Hi b v ac c i ne .
11 Biotechnology Drug Products Godwin W. Fong Charles Lee I. INTRODUCTION. Advances in biotechnology have made many formerly unstable or difficult-to-produce biologic products available for therapeutic use. Some life-threatening diseases are now treated with biotechnology products. A. Interferon (INF) is an example of a drug that was genetically engineered to inhibit certain types of cancer cells and some viruses. B. Cellular hormones known as interleukins, lymphotoxins, and tumor necrosis factor are now used to treat cancer and immunodeficiency diseases. C. Monoclonal antibodies (MAbs) can deliver toxins specifically to cancer cells and destroy them. MAbs are also used with radioisotopes to diagnose and visualize cancer cells. Monoclonal antibodies have been developed to target signaling pathways associated with immune response and are being used to treat various immunological disorders, such as rheumatoid arthritis, inflammatory bowel disease, psoriasis, and moderate to severe asthma. D. Many biopharmaceutical products derived from the body tissues (through cell lines) are now produced on a large scale. Modified natural products also may be further improved. E. A synthetic analogue of thyrotropin-releasing hormone prevents paralysis after spinal cord injuries in animal studies. F. Superoxide dismutase may be useful in preventing damage to tissues that are deprived of oxygen. G. New biotechnologic treatments have been developed for emphysema, congestive heart failure, ulcers, atherosclerosis, and an increasing number of medical conditions. Table 11-1 lists the biotechnology products that are approved for human use. II. BASIC TERMINOLOGY A. An antigen is a substance that stimulates the production of antibodies. B. An antibody is an immunoglobulin produced by the body in response to stimulation from an antigen. C. Antisense DNA is a complementary strand of DNA that is specifically synthesized to attach to the sense DNA and prevent genetic transcription. The sense DNA that carries the information that affects the disease process is usually elucidated before an antisense drug is designed. D. Colony-stimulating factors (CSFs) are a class of glycoprotein hormones. CSFs regulate the differentiation and formation of blood cells from precursor cells. E. Cytokines are a group of special proteins (nonantibodies) released by cells to trigger action in other cells. F. DNA is the molecule that contains the genetic instructions of a cell. DNA consists of deoxyribose, phosphate, and repeating bases as building blocks. The four bases are adenine, guanine, thymine, and cytosine. P.232
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Table 11-1. Approved Recombinant Therapeutics and Vaccines Drug (Trade Name) Indication(s) Company; Year Introduced Human insulin (Humulin) Diabetes Eli Lilly, Genentech; 1982 Somatrem for injection Human growth hormone deficiency in Genentech; 1985 (Protropin) children Interferon α-2a (Roferon- Hairy cell leukemia Hoffmann-La A) Roche; 1986 Interferon α-2b (Intron A) Hairy cell leukemia Schering-Plough, Biogen; 1986 Extension of therapy for chronic 1997 hepatitis C from 6 months to 18-24 months Follicular lymphoma in conjunction 1997 with chemotherapy Hepatitis B vaccine Prevention of hepatitis B Merck, Chiron; recombinant (Recombivax 1986 HB) Muromonab-CD3 Reversal of acute kidney transplant Ortho Biotech; (Orthoclone OKT3) rejection 1986 Somatropin for injection Human growth hormone deficiency in Eli Lilly; 1987 (Humatrope) children Alteplase (Activase) Acute myocardial infarction Genentech; 1987 Acute pulmonary embolism 1990 Restoration of function to central 2001 venous access devices (as assessed by the ability to withdraw blood) Interferon α-2a (Roferon- AIDS-related Kaposi sarcoma Hoffmann-La A) Roche; 1988
Interferon α-2b (Intron A) AIDS-related Kaposi sarcoma Genital warts Hepatitis C Interferon n3 (Alferon N Genital warts injection) Hepatitis B vaccine Hepatitis B prevention (Engerix-B)
Schering-Plough, Biogen; 1988
1991 Interferon Sciences; 1989 SmithKline Beecham, Biogen; 1989 Chronic hepatitis C infection 1998 Erythropoietin (Epogen) Anemia associated with chronic renal Amgen, Johnson & failure Johnson, Kirin; 1989 Erythropoietin (Procrit) Anemia associated with AIDS or Amgen, Ortho zidovudine administration Biotech; 1990 Anemia associated with chronic renal 1990 failure Chemotherapy-associated anemia in 1993 patients with nonmyloid malignancy Anemia associated with cancer and 1993 chemotherapy PEG-adenosine ADA-deficient severe combined Enzon, Eastman (ADAGEN) immunodeficiency Kodak; 1990 Interferon γ-1b Management of chronic granulomatous Genentech; 1990 (Actimmune) disease Delaying time to disease progression in InterMune patients with severe, malignant Pharmaceuticals osteopetrosis (2000) CMV immunoglobulin Prevention of CMV in kidney Medimmune; 1990 (CytoGam) transplant recipients Filgrastim; G-CSF Chemotherapy-induced neutropenia Amgen; 1991 Acute myeloid leukemia 1998 Glucocerebrosidase Type I Gaucher diseasea Genzyme; 1991 (Ceredase) Glucocerebrosidase Type I Gaucher diseasea Genzyme; 1994 (Cerezyme) Sargramostim (GM-CSF) Autologous bone marrow Hoechst-Roussel, (Prokine) transplantation Immunex; 1991 Sargramostim (GM-CSF) Neutrophil recovery after bone marrow Immunex, Hoechst(Leukine) transplantation Roussel; 1991 Antihemophilic factor Hemophilia B Armour; 1992 (Mononine) Antihemophilic factor Hemophilia A Genetics Institute, (Recombinate) Baxter Healthcare; 1992 Interleukin 2 (Proleukin) Renal cell carcinoma Chiron; 1992 Metastatic melanoma 1998 111 Indium-labeled Detection, staging, and follow-up of Cytogen, Knoll; antibody (OncoScint colorectal cancer 1992 CR103)
111
Indium-labeled antibody (OncoScint OV103) Interferon β-1b (Betaseron) DNase alfa (Pulmozyme) Factor VIII (Kogenate) Filgrastim (G-CSF) (Neupogen) PEG-l-asparaginase (Oncaspar) Human growth hormone (Nutropin) Abciximab (ReoPro)
Detection, staging, and follow-up of ovarian cancer
1992
Relapsing/remitting multiple sclerosis Chiron, Berlex; 1993 Cystic fibrosis Genentech; 1993 Hemophilia A Genentech, Miles; 1993 Bone marrow transplant Amgen; 1994
Refractory childhood acute Enzon; 1994 lymphoblastic leukemia Short stature caused by human growth Genentech; 1994 hormone deficiency Antiplatelet prevention of blood clots Centocor; 1994 Treatment of a broader range of patients undergoing percutaneous coronary intervention; revised dosage and patient management to reduce bleeding Unstable angina that does not respond to conventional medical therapy when percutaneous coronary intervention is planned within 24 hr Live varicella virus Active immunization of persons 12 Merck; 1995 vaccine (Varivax) months of age and older RSV immunoglobulin Prevention of serious lower respiratory Massachusetts (RespiGam) tract infection in children younger than Public Health 24 months old Biologic Labs; 1996 Inactivated hepatitis A Immunization against hepatitis A in Merck; 1996 vaccine (Vaqta) children older than 6 years of age Interferon β-1a (Avonex) Multiple sclerosis Biogen; 1996 Human antihemophilic Hemophilia A Centeon; 1996 factor Haemophilus b conjugate Immunization of individuals 6 weeks Merck; 1996 (meningococcal protein to 15 months of age born of HBsAgconjugate) and hepatitis B negative mothers (recombinant vaccine) (Comvax) Cryoprecipitated Control of bleeding associated with Blood Bank of the antihemophilic factor A Factor VIII deficiency Redwoods; 1996 Reteplase (Retavase) Acute myocardial infarction in adults Boehringer Mannheim; 1996 DTaP vaccine (Infanrix) Primary and booster immunization of SmithKline infants and children except as a fifth Beecham; 1997 dose in children who previously received four doses of DTaP Recombinant coagulation Control and prevention of hemorrhagic Genetics Institute; Factor IX (BeneFix) episodes in patients with hemophilia B, 1997
including perioperative management of patients with hemophilia B who are undergoing surgery Autologous cultured Repair of clinically significant, Genzyme Tissue chondrocytes (Carticel symptomatic, cartilaginous defects of Repair; 1997 SM Service) the femoral condyle (medial, lateral, or trochlear) caused by acute or repetitive trauma Interferon alfacon-1 Treatment of chronic HCV infection in Amgen; 1997 (Infergen) patients 18 years of age or older who have compensated liver disease and anti-HCV serum antibodies or HCV RNA Subsequent treatment of HCV-infected 1997 patients who tolerated an initial course of interferon therapy Rabies vaccine Preexposure and postexposure Chiron; 1997 (RabAvert) immunization of children and adults Oprelvekin (Neumega) Prevention of severe thrombocytopenia Genetics Institute; and reduction of the need for platelet 1997 transfusions after myelosuppressive chemotherapy in patients with nonmyeloid malignancies who are at high risk for severe thrombocytopenia Rituximab (Rituxan) Treatment of patients with relapsed or Genentech; 1997 refractory low-grade or follicular B cell non-Hodgkin lymphoma Daclizumab (Zenapax) Prophylaxis of acute organ rejection in Hoffman-La patients receiving renal transplants; Roche; 1997 part of an immunosuppressive regimen that includes cyclosporine and corticosteroids Becaplermin (Regranex) Lower-extremity diabetic neuropathic OMJ ulcers that extend into the Pharmaceuticals; subcutaneous tissue or beyond and 1997 have an adequate blood supply HTLV-I and -II Detection of antibodies to HTLV-I and Organon Teknika; (Vironostika HTLV-I and -II in human serum or plasma 1998 -II MicroELISA System) Fibrin sealant (Tisseel VH Adjunct to hemostasis in surgeries that Osterreichisches kit) involve cardiopulmonary bypass Institut fur Haemoderivate; 1998 Treatment of splenic injuries caused by blunt or penetrating trauma to the abdomen when control of bleeding by conventional surgical techniques, including suture, ligature, and cautery, is ineffective or impractical Closure of colostomies
Pooled plasma, solvent detergent treated (VIPLAS/SD)
Basiliximab (Simulect)
Palivizumab (Synagis)
Sacrosidase (Sucraid) Eptifibatide (Integrilin)
Diphtheria and tetanus toxoids and acellular pertussis vaccine adsorbed (Certiva) Infliximab (Remicade)
Documented deficiencies of V.I. Technologies; coagulation factors for which there are 1998 no concentrate preparations available, including congenital single-factor deficiencies of Factors I, V, VII, XI, and XIII and acquired multiple coagulation factor deficiencies Reversals of warfarin effect Thrombotic thrombocytopenic purpura Prophylaxis of acute organ rejection in Novartis; 1998 patients undergoing renal transplantation Part of an immunosuppressive regimen that includes cyclosporine and corticosteroids Use in renal transplantation in 2001 combination with triple immunosuppressive therapy Use in pediatric renal transplantation Use of an IV bolus injection Prophylaxis of serious lower Medimmune; 1998 respiratory tract disease caused by RSV in pediatric patients at high risk of RSV disease Congenital sucrose isomaltase Orphan Medical; deficiency 1998 Acute coronary syndrome COR Therapeutics; 1998 Treatment of patients undergoing percutaneous coronary intervention Active immunization of individuals 6 North American weeks to 7 years of age (before the 7th Vaccine; 1998 birthday) Treatment of moderately to severely Centocor; 1998 active Crohn disease to reduce the signs and symptoms in patients who have an inadequate response to conventional therapies Treatment of patients with fistulizing Crohn disease to reduce the number of draining enterocutaneous fistula(s) For reduction in signs and symptoms 1999 of rheumatoid arthritis in patients who have had an inadequate response to methotrexate Inhibition of progression of structural 2000 damage in patients with rheumatoid arthritis who have had an inadequate response to methotrexate
Improving physical function in patients 2002 with moderately to severely active rheumatoid arthritis who have had an inadequate response to methotrexate Reducing signs and symptoms, and 2002 inducing and maintaining clinical remission in patients with moderately to severely active Crohn disease who have had an inadequate response to conventional therapy Reducing the number of draining 2003 enterocutaneous and rectovaginal fistulas and maintaining fistula closure in patients with fistulizing Crohn disease Improving physical function in patients 2003 with moderately to severely active rheumatoid arthritis who have had an inadequate response to methotrexate Primary immunization of infants at 2, Wyeth-Ayerst 4, and 6 months of age Laboratories; 1998
Rotavirus vaccine, live, oral, tetravalent (RotaShield) Trastuzumab (Herceptin) Metastatic breast cancer in patients Genentech; 1998 whose tumors overexpress the HER-2 protein and who have received one or more chemotherapy regimens for metastatic disease Median survival 2001 (Etanercept) Enbrel Reduction in signs and symptoms of Immunex; 1998 moderately to severely active rheumatoid arthritis in patients who have had an inadequate response to one or more DMARDs Reducing the signs and symptoms and 2000 delaying structural damage in patients with moderately to severely active rheumatoid arthritis, including those who have not previously failed treatment with a DMARD Reducing signs and symptoms of 2002 active arthritis in patients with psoriatic arthritis Recombinant OspA Active immunization against Lyme SmithKline (LYMErix) disease in people 15-70 years old Beecham; 1998 Vitravene (Fomivirsen) Local treatment of CMV retinitis in Isis patients with AIDS who are intolerant Pharmaceuticals, of or have a contraindication to other Ciba Vision; 1998 treatments for CMV retinitis or who were insufficiently responsive to previous treatments
Antithymocyte globulin (Thymoglobulin)
Acute rejection in renal transplant patients
Pasteur-Mérieux Serums et Vaccines—France; 1998 Denileukin diftitox Treatment of patients with persistent or Seragen; 1999 (Ontak) recurrent cutaneous T cell lymphoma whose malignant cells express the CD25 component of the interleukin 2 receptor Hepatitis B Treatment of acute exposure to Nabi; 1999 immunoglobulin (Nabi- HBsAg, perinatal exposure of infants HB) born to HBsAg-positive mothers Sexual exposure to HBsAg-positive individuals Household exposure of infants to people with acute hepatitis B virus infection Recombinant coagulation Treatment of bleeding episodes in Novo Nordisk factor VIIa (NovoSeven) hemophilia A or B with inhibitors to A/S— Denmark; Factor VIII or Factor IX 1999 Interferon α-n1, Chronic HCV infection in patients 18 GlaxoWellcome; lymphoblastoid years of age or older who do not have 1999 (Wellferon) decompensated liver disease Antihemophilic factor/vonUsed in adult patients for treatment and Centeon Pharma— Willebrand factor prevention of bleeding hemophilia A Germany; 1999 complex (Humate-P) (classic hemophilia) Used in adult and pediatric patients for treatment of spontaneous and traumainduced bleeding episodes in severe von Willebrand disease Used in mild and moderate von Willebrand disease when use of desmopressin is known or suspected to be inadequate Hetastarch (Hextend) Plasma volume expander for treatment BioTime; 1999 of hypovolemia during surgery Pneumococcal 7-valent Immunization of infants 2, 4, 6, and Lederle conjugate vaccine 12-15 months of age to prevent Laboratories (diphtheria CRM197 invasive pneumococcal disease Division American protein) (Prevnar) Cyanamid; 2000 Immunization of infants and toddlers 2002 against otitis media caused by vaccine serotypes Antihemophilic factor Control and prevention of hemorrhagic Genetics Institute; (recombinant) (ReFacto) episodes and for short-term routine and 2000 surgical prophylaxis in patients with hemophilia A BCG, live (PACIS) Treatment of CIS in the absence of BioChem associated invasive cancer of the Pharma—Canada; bladder 2000
Tenecteplase (TNKase) Crotalidae polyvalent immune Fab (ovine) (CroFab) Botulinum toxin type B (MYOBLOC) Botulinum toxin type A (BOTOX or BOTOX COSMETIC)
Reduction of mortality associated with AMI Treatment of minimal and moderate North American Crotalidae envenomation Treatment of cervical dystonia to reduce the severity of abnormal head position and neck pain Treatment of cervical dystonia
Genentech; 2000 Protherics; 2000
Elan Pharmaceuticals; 2000 Allergan; 2002
Temporary improvement in the appearance of moderate to severe glabellar lines associated with corrugator and/or procerus muscle activity in adult patients ≥ 65 years of age Peginterferon α-2b (PEG- Treatment of chronic hepatitis C in Schering; 2001 Intron) patients not previously treated with interferon-α who have compensated liver disease and are at least 18 years of age Alemtuzumab (Campath) Treatment of patients with B cell Millennium and chronic lymphocytic leukemia who ILEX Partners; have been treated with alkylating 2001 agents and who have failed fludarabine therapy Hepatitis A inactivated Active immunization of people 18 SmithKline and hepatitis B years of age or older against disease Beecham (recombinant) vaccine caused by hepatitis A virus and Biologicals; 2001 (TWINRIX) infection by all known subtypes of hepatitis B virus Digoxin immune Fab Treatment of patients with lifeProtherics; 2001 (ovine) (DigiFab) threatening or potentially lifethreatening digoxin toxicity or overdose Darbepoetin α (Aranesp) Treatment of anemia associated with Amgen; 2001 chronic renal failure, including patients on dialysis and patients not on dialysis Treatment of anemia in patients with 2002 nonmyeloid malignancies when anemia is the result of the effect of concomitantly administered chemotherapy Hepatitis B Treatment of acute exposure to HBsAg Nabi; 2001 immunoglobulin (human) after acute exposure to blood (Nabi-HB) containing HBsAg, perinatal exposure of infants born to HBsAg-positive mothers, sexual exposure to HBsAgpositive persons, and household
exposure of infants to people with acute hepatitis B virus infection Anakinra (Kineret) Reduction in signs and symptoms of Amgen; 2001 moderately to severely active rheumatoid arthritis, in patients 18 years of age or older who have failed one or more DMARD Drotrecogin α (activated) Reduction of mortality in adult patients Eli Lilly; 2001 (Xigris) with severe sepsis (sepsis associated with acute organ dysfunction) who have a high risk of dying from sepsis, as measured by a scoring system based on their general health and the severity of their illness (e.g., by APACHE II) Pegfilgrastim (Neulasta) To decrease the incidence of infection, Amgen; 2002 as manifested by febrile neutropenia, in patients with nonmyeloid malignancies receiving myelosuppressive anticancer drugs associated with a clinically significant incidence of febrile neutropenia Ibritumomab tiuxetan Treatment of patients with relapsed or IDEC (Zevalin) refractory low-grade, follicular, or Pharmaceuticals; transformed B-cell non-Hodgkin 2002 lymphoma, including patients with rituximab (Rituxan) refractory follicular non-Hodgkin lymphoma The therapeutic regimen includes rituximab, 111indium ibritumomab tiuxetan, and 90 yttrium ibritumomab tiuxetan Interferon β-1a (Rebif) Treatment of patients with relapsing Serono; 2002 forms of multiple sclerosis to decrease the frequency of clinical exacerbations and delay the accumulation of physical disability DTaP vaccine adsorbed Active immunization of infants and Aventis Pasteur— (DAPTACEL) toddlers at 2, 4, 6, and 17-20 months of Canada; 2002 age against diphtheria, tetanus, and pertussis Rasburicase (Elitek) Initial management of plasma uric acid Sanofi-Synthelabo; levels in pediatric patients with 2002 leukemia, lymphoma, and solid tumor malignancies who are receiving anticancer therapy expected to result in tumor lysis and subsequent elevation of plasma uric acid Peginterferon α-2a Treatment of adults with chronic Hoffman-La (PEGASYS) hepatitis C who have compensated Roche; 2002 liver disease and who have not been
previously treated with interferon α Combination therapy with ribavirin, 2002 USP (Copegus), for the treatment of chronic HCV infection Peginterferon α-2a coPrefilled syringes of Pegasys 2004 packaged with ribavirin (peginterferon α-2a) for the treatment (Pegasys Copegus of chronic hepatitis C, as a Combination Pack) subcutaneous injection taken once a week Urokinase (Abbokinase) For adults for the lysis of acute Abbott massive pulmonary emboli, defined as Laboratories; 2001 obstruction of blood flow to a lobe or multiple segments For the lysis of pulmonary emboli accompanied by unstable hemodynamics (i.e., failure to maintain blood pressure without supportive measures) Adalimumab (Humira) For reducing signs and symptoms and Abbott inhibiting the progression of structural Laboratories; 2002 damage in adult patients with moderately to severely active rheumatoid arthritis who have had an inadequate response to one or more DMARDs Can be used alone or in combination with methotrexate (MTX) or other DMARDs Laronidase (Aldurazyme) For patients with Hurler and Hurler- Biomarin Scheie forms of MPS-I and for patients Pharmaceutical; with the Scheie form who have 2003 moderate to severe symptoms Alefacept (Amevive) Treatment of adult patients with Biogen; 2003 moderate to severe chronic plaque psoriasis who are candidates for systemic therapy or phototherapy Agalsidase beta For use in patients with Fabry disease Genzyme; 2003 (Fabrazyme) to reduce GL-3 deposition in capillary endothelium of the kidney and certain other cell types Tositumomab and Treatment of patients with CD20 Corixa; 2004 131 iodine tositumomab positive, follicular, non-Hodgkin (Bexxar) lymphoma, with and without transformation, whose disease is refractory to rituximab and has relapsed after chemotherapy Omalizumab (Xolair) For adults and adolescents (≥ 12 years Genentech; 2004 of age) with moderate to severe persistent asthma who have a positive skin test or in vitro reactivity to a
perennial aeroallergen and whose symptoms are inadequately controlled with inhaled corticosteroids Bevacizumab (Avastin) First-line treatment for patients with Genentech; 2004 metastatic colorectal cancer Cetuximab (Erbitux) A monoclonal antibody that targets the Imclone Systems; protein EGFR 2004 99m Technetium For scintigraphic imaging of patients Palatin fanolesomab with equivocal signs and symptoms of Technologies; 2004 (NeutroSpec) appendicitis aged 5 years or older Natalizumab (Tysabri) Treatment of patients with relapsing Biogen Idec; 2004 forms of multiple sclerosis to reduce the frequency of clinical exacerbations Palifermin (Kepivance) Decreases the incidence and duration Amgen; 2004 of severe oral mucositis in patients with hematologic malignancies receiving myelotoxic therapy requiring hematopoietic stem cell support Galsufase (Naglazyme) Treatment of patients with MPS-VI Biomarin Pharmaceuticals; 2005 Alglucosidase alpha Infantile-onset Pompe disease (GAA Genzyme; 2006 (Myozyme) deficiency) Ranibizumab injection For the treatment of neovascular (wet) Genentech; 2006 (Lucentis) age-related macular degeneration (AMD) Panitumumab (Vectibix) For the treatment of patients with Amgen; 2006 EGFR-expressing colorectal carcinoma with disease progression on or following fluoropyrimidine-, oxaliplatin-, and irinotecan-containing chemotherapy regimens Eculizumab (Soliris) For the treatment of patients with Alexion paroxysmal nocturnal hemoglobinuria Pharmaceuticals; (PNH) to reduce hemolysis 2007 ADA, adenosine deaminase; AMI, acute myocardial infarction; CIS, carcinoma-in-situ; CMV, cytomegalovirus; DMARD, disease-modifying antirheumatic drug; DTaP, diphtheria and tetanus toxoids and acellular pertussis; EGFR, epidermal growth factor receptor; G-CSF, granulocyte colony-stimulating factor; GL, globotriaosylceramide; GM-CSF, granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor; HBsAg, hepatitis B surface antigen; HCV, hepatitis C virus; HER-2, human epidural growth receptor 2; HTLV, human T lymphotropic virus; MPS, mucopolysaccharidosis; PEG, polyethylene glycol; RSV, respiratory syncytial virus. a Gaucher disease is an autosomal dominant or recessive disorder caused by an excess of glucocerebroside in the reticuloendothelial cells because of the lack of the metabolic enzyme cerebrosidase. Proliferation of abnormal cells leads to splenomegaly, hepatomegaly, skeletal lesions, and other symptoms. Data from Biotechnology in the U.S. Pharmaceutical Industry. Research Triangle Park, NC, Institute for Biotechnology Information, 1995; and www.fda.gov. P.241
G. DNA ligase is an enzyme that seals single-stranded nicks between nucleotides in double-stranded DNA. DNA ligase enables DNA fragments from different sources to be joined. H. DNA polymerase is an enzyme that catalyzes the synthesis of DNA. It uses a single strand of DNA as the template and nucleotides as the substrates. I. An enzyme is a protein that catalyzes a substrate during its conversion to a product. J. A gene is a segment of DNA that codes for a specific polypeptide. K. A genome is the genetic information content of a cell. L. A hormone is an endogenous substance that is secreted by one type of cell and acts on another type of cell. M. A hybridoma is a hybrid cell produced by the fusion of a myeloma cell and a specific antibodyproducing B lymphocyte. A single hybridoma produces a single type of antibody. N. Interferon (INF) is any of a class of glycoproteins produced by animal cells in response to viral infection. O. Interleukin is a group of proteins synthesized by macrophages and T lymphocytes in response to antigen and other stimulation. P. A lymphokine is any of a class of soluble proteins produced by some white blood cells. These proteins stimulate other white blood cells as part of the immune response. Q. A plasmid is a circular piece of duplex DNA that is not part of a chromosome and can replicate independently. Plasmids are used as vectors for the transfer of DNA in recombinant DNA technology. R. RNA is a macromolecule that contains information for protein synthesis. The three types of RNA are ribosomal (rRNA), transfer (tRNA), and messenger (mRNA). RNA is also the genetic material of some viruses. S. Recombinant DNA (rDNA) is a hybrid DNA that is formed when pieces of DNA from different sources are joined. The process is also known as gene splicing. T. A restriction endonuclease is an enzyme that cleaves DNA at sequence-specific sites. U. Tumor necrosis factor (TNF) is a lymphokine produced by macrophages. It can be activated to kill tumor cells. V. Reverse transcriptase is an enzyme present in RNA viruses that catalyzes the formation of DNA from the viral RNA. III. PROTEINS AND PEPTIDES. Proteins and peptides play essential roles in all aspects of cellular function. Many endogenous substances synthesized in the body are essential proteins. Many enzymes that catalyze vital reactions in the body are proteins. A. Hemoglobin (Hb) is a large protein involved in oxygen transport. B. Globulins are special proteins in the plasma that are involved in immunogenic response and antibody formation. C. Albumin is a plasma protein that binds to many drugs and is used as a carrier for new drugs. D. Other well-known proteins include insulin and the enzymes involved in digestion. P.242
Table 11-2. Immunoglobulin Applications Gammaglobulinemia
Hepatitis A prophylaxis Measles and rubella prophylaxis Multiple myeloma with specific antibody deficiency Prophylaxis in infants and children with HIV exposure Chronic inflammatory demyelinating neuropathy Acquired hemophilia Orphan drug for the treatment of juvenile rheumatoid arthritis Respiratory tract infections Immune thrombocytopenic purpura Orphan drug for the treatment of polymyositis and acute myocarditis Acute exposure to hepatitis B surface antigen Kawasaki disease in conjunction with high-dose aspirin E. Protein is an important component of keratin in hair and myosin in muscles. F. Albumin (human) 5% USP is used to reverse hypovolemia in shock patients, burn patients, and those with chronic hypoalbuminemia. IV. Immunoglobulin (Ig) is an important class of globulin proteins involved in immunity and the allergic response. IgG is used therapeutically to modulate or replace antibody in various immunodeficiency and disease states. Intramuscular and intravenous preparations are available from a variety of manufacturers (Tables 11-2 and 11-3). Most of these products must be stored under refrigeration (2-8°C) and have a limited shelf life. V. RECOMBINANT HUMAN GRANULOCYTE COLONY-STIMULATING FACTOR (G-CSF) A. CSFs are glycoproteins that regulate the production of many types of blood cells and components in the body. These include macrophages, eosinophils, neutrophils, basophils, and platelets. Natural and modified CSFs are used to treat a number of congenital disorders and several forms of cancer. B. Lenograstim is a recombinant human granulocyte CSF (rhG-CSF) derived from Chinese hamster ovary cells. It is glycosylated at the same site as natural hG-CSF (threonine-133) and consists of 174 amino acids. C. Filgrastim is an Escherichia coli-derived glycoprotein. It is not glycosylated, and it differs in structure from natural hG-CSF. Like natural hG-CSF and filgrastim, lenograstim selectively promotes the proliferation, differentiation, and maturation of blood cell precursors. Dose-related P.243 increases in blood neutrophil counts are observed after lenograstim administration. Lenograstim reduces the duration of neutropenia and the severity of infection in patients who are receiving cytotoxic chemotherapy for nonmyeloid malignancy. Colony-forming assays show that lenograstim is approximately three times as potent as filgrastim. These agents were similarly potent in cell-proliferation assays. Both natural and recombinant G-CSF products stimulate the release of mature neutrophils from hematopoietic tissue, prolong their survival, and enhance their phagocytic and cytotoxic activity. Table 11-3. Immunoglobulin Products Gamimune-NNabi-HB Gammagard RespiGam Polygram Sandoglobulin Gammar Polygam Iveegam Venoglobulin
D. Other actions of rhG-CSF include synergism with interleukin 3 (IL-3) to induce megakaryocyte formation and with granulocyte-macrophage CSF (GM-CSF) to stimulate granulocyte- macrophage colonies. VI. GLYCOPROTEINS A. Many special proteins acquire biologic activity as a result of their covalent linking with a polymer of sugar or carbohydrate. The covalently linked protein-carbohydrate molecule is a glycoprotein. Glycoproteins form natural structural membranes in the cells of unicellular (e.g., bacteria) and multicellular (e.g., humans, animals) organisms. B. N-acetylglucosamine (NAG) forms the cell membrane in bacteria. It is an example of a carbohydrate chain linked to a protein through a chain of amino acids. Bacterial resistance to penicillin is linked to the integrity of NAG in the cell membrane. C. The extent and site of glycosylation of a protein molecule may affect the physicochemical properties, stability, and specificity of a surface receptor in a cell. Glycoproteins on the surface of red blood cells are involved in recognizing the specific blood type. D. The charge at the site of a glycoprotein molecule may play a role in the orientation and interaction of the receptor. The charge may be modified by sialic acid, sulfate, and phosphate groups. The protein molecule presents potential sites for Nglycosylation and O-glycosylation. Change in glycosylation is a powerful tool for use in engineering the preferred configuration and stability when designing recombinant glycoprotein for therapeutic use. E. Carbohydrates contribute to activities in a number of ways, including recognition of the terminal sialic acids of glycoproteins by various viruses and bacteria, recognition of polylactosamines on erythrocytes by autoimmune antibodies, and recognition of sialylated, fucosylated lactosaminoglycans on leukocytes by E-selectin of endothelial cells. VII. DNA A. DNA is the genetic material of all organisms except some viruses, whose genetic material is in the form of RNA. Most organisms have double-stranded DNA. Some viruses contain single-stranded DNA. This type of virus replicates itself by entering a host cell, where it makes a complementary copy of itself and temporarily forms a double strand. B. All DNA molecules consist of many covalently linked subunits called nucleotides. The nucleotides consist of deoxyribose, phosphate, and one of the nitrogen-containing bases (adenine, guanine, thymine, or cytosine). DNA encodes information to produce all of the proteins needed by the organism. The DNA sequence may be modified or recombined with new strands. This recombinant technology may be used to correct genetic defects in living organisms. VIII. ANTISENSE DRUGS A. Many diseases occur because of genetic defects or errors in the gene involved in producing essential enzymes or proteins. Genetic information resides in chromosomes that house helical strands of DNA within the nucleus. The Human Genome Initiative was created several years ago to study all human genes. This national effort is now yielding information on many serious P.244 diseases that involve congenital defects, cancer, infection, AIDS, and other disorders of the immune system.
B. Strategies are now available to moderate many disease processes by altering or blocking the transcription of DNA. If the DNA sequence is altered so that the complementary strand is transcribed instead of the normal “sense” gene, then the DNA cannot make a copy of the normal RNA that participates in protein synthesis. The aberrant copies of RNA may pair up (hybridize) with other RNA strands that complement it and thereby block protein synthesis. This technique involves targeting DNA or RNA with antisense drugs. C. Many oligonucleotides are designed to target viral disease and cancer cells. To further stabilize the drug, phosphodiesters are chemically converted to phosphothioates. D. Antisense drugs against cytomegalovirus (CMV), HIV, and other viruses are in various phases of clinical trials. The first antisense drug, Vitravene, was approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) in 1998. Vitravene is a potent biotechnology drug that is indicated for the local treatment of CMV retinitis in patients with AIDS who are intolerant of other treatments, who have a contraindication to other treatments, or who were insufficiently responsive to previous treatments. The recommended labeled dosage is an induction dose on days 1 and 15, followed by a monthly intravitreal injection of 330 µg. E. When the nucleotide base sequence of a gene that controls a specific body function is known, the antisense DNA strand can be synthesized. If necessary, the DNA strand can be modified to provide increased stability and potency. These strands can then be introduced into cells, where they attach themselves to the complementary sense DNA strands and depress transcription of these genes. This technique was performed successfully in cell culture for the gene that produces human squamous cell carcinoma of the larynx. F. If a duplicate copy of a gene is inserted into a chromosome in reverse orientation to the normal gene, then the antisense DNA strand of this gene is transcribed. This process yields an antisense mRNA strand that is complementary to the mRNA strand transcribed for the normal gene. The two complementary RNA strands bind to each other, thereby preventing the translation of the normal RNA strand that may control protein synthesis. IX. GENE THERAPY. The first example of human gene therapy is from 1990, when the FDA approved PEG-ADA (Enzon) for adenosine deaminase deficiency. This rare, but serious, genetic disorder weakens the immune system and causes increased susceptibility to infection. Two girls were reinfused with their own genetically altered white blood cells. The altered cells live and function normally, and the two girls were living a relatively normal life after 5 years. X. MISCELLANEOUS BIOTECHNOLOGIC PRODUCTS A. Alteplase (Activase, Genentech) is a thrombolytic agent formerly known as tissueplasminogen activator. Intravenous alteplase effectively produces recanalization of occluded coronary arteries after acute myocardial infarction. Intravenous alteplase is also effective in the treatment of acute massive pulmonary embolism. Adverse effects, including bleeding complications, reperfusion arrhythmias, and reinfarction, are the primary concerns with this therapy. Systemic fibrinolysis is less than that seen with streptokinase. The recommended dose to produce recanalization after myocardial infarction is 100 mg in divided doses. The recommended dose to treat pulmonary embolism is 100 mg infused intravenously over 2 hr. B. Antithrombin III (heparin cofactor, human antithrombin III, ATnativ, Pharmacia) is designated an orphan product. It is used as replacement therapy to prevent or treat
thromboembolic episodes in congenital deficiency states. The amount of intravenous antithrombin III concentrate to be administered is based on antithrombin III levels. In patients who have congenital or acquired antithrombin III deficiency, the goal is to maintain levels between 80% and P.245 120% of normal. Once-daily doses of antithrombin III should maintain serum levels above 80% of normal. Levels should be monitored twice daily until they stabilize, then daily thereafter immediately before the next dose is administered. C. IL-3 is a hematopoietic growth factor used to treat patients with bone marrow failure. Recombinant human IL-3 (rhIL-3) alone improves neutrophil and platelet counts in patients who have chemotherapy-related bone marrow failure and myelodysplastic syndromes. However, only minimal improvements in hematopoiesis are seen in patients who have aplastic anemia. Enhanced responses are seen with the sequential combined use of rhIL-3 and other hematopoietic growth factors (e.g., GMCSF). Recombinant human IL-3 is given subcutaneously or intravenously. Intravenous doses range from 30 to 1000 µg/m2/day infused over 4 hr. D. Aldesleukin, a lymphokine, is a hrIL-2 product that is used to treat metastatic renal cell carcinoma. The starting dose is 0.037 mg/kg every 8 hr by a 15-min intravenous infusion. Aldesleukin is absorbed erratically after intramuscular or subcutaneous injection. It follows two-compartment pharmacokinetics, with an α-half-life of 13 min and a β-half-life of 85 min. It is eliminated renally. The principal side effects are hypotension and flulike symptoms. Most adverse effects are dose related. E. Abciximab (c7E3 Fab, ReoPro) is a chimeric monoclonal antibody Fab fragment that is specific for platelet glycoprotein IIb-IIIa receptors. Abciximab is extremely effective in reducing fatalities (> 50%) in subjects who have unstable angina after they undergo angioplasty. The recommended dosage is an intravenous bolus of 0.25 mg/kg administered 10-60 min before the start of angioplasty, followed by a continuous infusion of 10 µg/min for 12 hr. Platelet aggregation is almost completely inhibited 2 hr after the initiation of abciximab therapy. The major complication of abciximab infusion is dose-related bleeding. F. Campath-1 is a MAb that targets human lymphocytes and monocytes. It is used for immunosuppression in patients who undergo organ transplant. The intravenous dose is 25 mg once or twice daily. Campath-1 is also used to treat refractory autoimmune disorders, including rheumatoid arthritis. It is used experimentally to treat vasculitis. Campath-1 antibodies are used to prevent graft-versus-host disease and to treat lymphoid malignancy caused by immunosuppression in patients who undergo organ transplant. G. Edobacomab is an immunoglobulin directed against gram-negative bacterial endotoxins. For septic shock, single doses of 2-15 mg/kg intravenously every 24 hr are used. The volume of distribution ranges from 4 to 8 L. The elimination half-life is 10-18 hr. The main side effects are hypersensitivity reactions and antibody production. The drug is also being investigated for the treatment of gram-negative sepsis and septic shock. H. Muromonab-CD3 is an immunosuppressive agent with specific targeting. It is effective in reversing acute renal allograft rejection. The usual dose is 5 mg/day intravenously for 10-14 days after the initial signs and symptoms of rejection. The volume of distribution is approximately 6.5 L, and the half-life is 18 hr. Side effects include flulike symptoms, which appear to be associated with the release of cytokines. Symptoms may be self-limiting or severe and life threatening.
I. Nebacumab is an immunoglobulin directed against gram-negative bacterial endotoxins. The drug is being investigated for the treatment of gram-negative sepsis and septic shock. Signs and symptoms of septic shock usually resolve during the first 7 days after treatment. Its half-life is 15.9 hr, and the volume of distribution is 48.5 mL/kg. J. Satumomab pendetide is an MAb conjugate produced from the murine MAb B72.3. It requires radiolabeling to form 111indium chloride satumomab pendetide. It is used as a diagnostic imaging agent in the staging of patients with known colorectal and ovarian carcinoma. The metabolic fate of this agent is unclear. The antibody conjugate is cleared slowly. It has a terminal half-life of approximately 56 hr. Approximately 10% of an administered dose appears in the urine. K. Zolimomab aritox (Orthozyme-CD5, Xoma/Ortho Biotech) is an immunoconjugate of monoclonal anti-CD5 murine IgG and the ricin A-chain toxin. Its primary use is in the treatment P.246 of steroid-resistant graft-versus-host disease after allogeneic bone marrow transplant for hematopoietic neoplasms (e.g., acute myelogenous leukemia). Other potential uses include the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis and insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus. After therapeutic doses, peak serum levels range from 1 to 5 µg/mL. The serum halflife is 1.5-4 hr. The dose varies, depending on the indications. L. Betaseron (INF-β, Berlex Laboratories) is a glycoprotein with antiviral, antiproliferative, and immunomodulatory activity. Many of its effects are similar to those of INF-α. Its uses include the treatment of multiple sclerosis, AIDS, malignant melanoma, herpesvirus, and papillomavirus infections. It is also recommended at a dose of 8 million units subcutaneously every other day to reduce exacerbations in patients who have relapsing-remitting multiple sclerosis. It is administered intravenously, intramuscularly, subcutaneously, intrathecally, topically, or intralesionally for a variety of indications. Its biologic activity is evident in the absence of detectable serum levels. Serum concentrations are not consistently detectable after subcutaneous or intramuscular administration. Interferon β may cross the disrupted blood-brain barrier. The compound does not appear in urine after systemic administration. Adverse effects include flulike symptoms, bone marrow suppression, neurotoxic effects with high doses, anorexia and other gastrointestinal symptoms, and elevations of liver enzymes and serum creatinine. P.247
STUDY QUESTIONS Directions: Each of the questions, statements, or items or incomplete statements in this section can be correctly answered or completed by one of the suggested answers or phrases. Choose the best answer. 1. Which type of cell contains double-stranded DNA? (A) Human cells (B) Bacteria cells (C) HIV cells (D) Viruses View Answer 1. The answer is A [see VII.A].
Human cells contain double-stranded DNA, whereas lower organisms (e.g., bacteria, viruses) do not. 2. Which enzyme is used by the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) to form DNA in the host cell? (A) Restrictive endonuclease (B) DNA-directed polymerase (C) Reverse transcriptase (D) Both A and B (E) None of the above View Answer 2. The answer is C [see II.V]. Reverse transcriptase is the enzyme that a virus uses to assemble its DNA from RNA. Unlike higher organisms, viral particles have genetic material in the RNA and need a host cell for reproduction. 3. Gammaglobulin is considered to be (A) DNA. (B) RNA. (C) a protein. (D) None of the above View Answer 3. The answer is C [see III.C; Table 11-2]. Gammaglobulin is a subclass of immunoglobulin protein involved in immunity and allergic response. 4. Glycoprotein is considered to be a protein linked to (A) a carbohydrate. (B) a hormone. (C) a lipid. (D) DNA. (E) None of the above View Answer 4. The answer is A [see III.B; VI]. Glycoprotein consists of a carbohydrate linked to a protein. 5. An enzyme that cleaves DNA at a specific site is called a (A) restriction endonuclease. (B) restrictive ribonuclease. (C) trypsin. (D) None of the above View Answer 5. The answer is A [see II.T]. A restriction endonuclease is an enzyme that specifically cleaves DNA molecules. Ribonuclease will cleave RNA only, and trypsin is a digestive enzyme found in the gastrointestinal tract. 6. An example of a cytokine is (A) interleukin. (B) insulin. (C) gonadotropin. (D) thyroxine. (E) None of the above View Answer 6. The answer is A [see II.O;, X.C].
Interleukin is a “messenger” substance synthesized by the cell (cytokine) to communicate and trigger cellular response. 7. A common storage condition for most biotechnology products after reconstitution is (A) at room temperature. (B) in a cool place. (C) in a warm place. (D) no excessive heat. (E) in a freezer. View Answer 7. The answer is B [see I]. Most biologic compounds are heat labile and must be stored at low temperature. 8. What drug is used to prevent embolism in the lung and during myocardial infarction? (A) Alteplase (B) Human growth hormone (C) Granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor (GM-CSF) (D) Epogen (EPO) (E) None of the above View Answer 8. The answer is A [see X.A; Table 11-1]. Alteplase is a thrombolytic agent formerly known as tissue-plasminogen activator. 9. What base is found in DNA? (A) Cytosine (B) Adenine (C) Guanine (D) Thymine (E) All of the above View Answer 9. The answer is E [see VII.B]. All DNA molecules consist of nucleotides, which consist of deoxyribose, phosphate, and one of the following nitrogen-containing bases: adenine, guanine, thymine, and cytosine. P.248
ANSWERS AND EXPLANATIONS 1. The answer is A [see VII.A]. Human cells contain double-stranded DNA, whereas lower organisms (e.g., bacteria, viruses) do not. 2. The answer is C [see II.V]. Reverse transcriptase is the enzyme that a virus uses to assemble its DNA from RNA. Unlike higher organisms, viral particles have genetic material in the RNA and need a host cell for reproduction. 3. The answer is C [see III.C; Table 11-2]. Gammaglobulin is a subclass of immunoglobulin protein involved in immunity and allergic response. 4. The answer is A [see III.B; VI]. Glycoprotein consists of a carbohydrate linked to a protein. 5. The answer is A [see II.T].
A restriction endonuclease is an enzyme that specifically cleaves DNA molecules. Ribonuclease will cleave RNA only, and trypsin is a digestive enzyme found in the gastrointestinal tract. 6. The answer is A [see II.O;, X.C]. Interleukin is a “messenger” substance synthesized by the cell (cytokine) to communicate and trigger cellular response. 7. The answer is B [see I]. Most biologic compounds are heat labile and must be stored at low temperature. 8. The answer is A [see X.A; Table 11-1]. Alteplase is a thrombolytic agent formerly known as tissue-plasminogen activator. 9. The answer is E [see VII.B]. All DNA molecules consist of nucleotides, which consist of deoxyribose, phosphate, and one of the following nitrogen-containing bases: adenine, guanine, thymine, and cytosine.
12 Principles of Pharmacodynamics and Medicinal Chemistry M a r c W . Ha r r o l d N e l s o n S . Ye e
I. INTRODUCTION. P h a r m a c o d y na m i c s is a b r a nc h o f p h a rm ac ol og y t h a t f oc us es on t he s t udy o f t he b i oc h em ic al an d p h y s i olo g ic al e ff ec t s o f d r ug s an d th e m ec h an is m s b y w h i c h th e y p r o du c e s u c h ef f ec ts . A na l y s is o f dr u g a c t i on pr ovi d e s t he ba s i s f o r ra t io na l de s i gn o f t he r ap e ut ic ag e nt s a nd p r o v id es in s i gh t in t o t he r e gu la t io n o f c e ll ul a r fu n c t i on s.
II. EFFECTS OF DRUGS A. P e r t u r b a t i on o f n o rm a l p h ys i o l o g i c a l p r o ce s s es . Th e ac t io ns o f d ru g s a r e t he c o ns eq u en c e s o f t h e d y na m ic i n te r ac t io ns be t we en d r ug m o le c u le s a n d c el l ul a r c om p on e nt s . S uc h i n te r ac t io ns le a d t o a l te r at i on in t he f un ct i on s o f t h es e c om p on e nt s , c a l le d re c ep t o r s . Th e r es u lt in g bi oc h e m i c a l a n d p h ys i ol og ic c h an g es f o r m t he ba s i s o f th e c el lu l a r r es p on se t o t he d rug . D r ug s a c t b y m o du la t in g th e o n g oi ng p ro c e s s es in s i de t he c e ll s . B . Ag o n i s t s a n d a n ta g on i s t s 1 . P ot e nt i al l y , a n y m a c rom o le c u l ar c o m p on e n t m ay a c t a s a d r ug r ec e p to r. F o r e xa m p l e , c - Ki t t y ro s i n e k i n as e c an be in h ib i te d by i m a ti ni b m es y l a te ( G lee v e c ) , c yc lo o xy g e n a s e- 2 i s b loc k e d b y c el ec o xi b ( C e leb r e x) , a n d c h ro m o so m a l D N A i s c r os s -l in k ed b y c is pl a ti n ( P l a ti n ol ) . 2 . C e r ta in d ru g re c e p to rs no r m a l l y s e r ve a s r ec ep t o rs fo r en d og e no us li ga n ds an d t h us a re p h ys i o l o g i c al re c e p to r s . F o r e xa m p le , a d r en e r gi c r ec e pt o rs a re p h ys io l og ic al r ec ep t o rs fo r c a t ec ho l am in es ; e s tr og e n re c e p to r s f o r es t r ad io l . 3 . D r ug s wh os e re s p o ns e s re s e m b l e t he e ff ec t s o f t he en do g en o us m ol ec u le s a r e r e c ep t or a go n is t s . F o r exa m p l e , b e th a ne ch o l d ire c tl y s ti m u l at es c h ol i ne rg i c r e c ep t or s a n d is th u s a n a g o ni s t . 4 . P ha r m ac o l og i ca l an ta g o n is t s a r e d r ug s t ha t l a ck in t r i ns i c a c ti vi t y a n d p ro du ce e f f ec ts b y co m pe t i t i ve l y o r n on c om p et i t i ve l y i n h i bi t in g th e a c t i on of th e e n d og en o us m ol e c u le s at t h e r ec ep t o r . a . A c o m pe t i ti ve a n ta g on i s t a c ts b y i n te r fe r i ng wi t h b i nd in g of th e e n dog e n ou s l i ga n d t o t h e r ec e pt o r i n a r e v e rs ib l e m a n ne r . Fo r e xa m p l e, p ro p an ol o l com p et es wi t h c a te c h o la m i ne s f o r b i nd i ng wi t h ad r en e rg ic β - r e c ep t or s ; t am o xi f e n c o m pe t es wi t h e s t ro ge n re c e p to r s fo r bi n di n g wi t h es t ra d io l . b . A no n c om pe t i t i ve a nt a g o ni s t a c ts b y i n te r ac ti n g wi t h t he no n li g an d b in d in g s i te o f t he re c e p t or ( e. g . , t h ro u g h c o va l en t m od i fi ca t io n ) , s uc h t h at no r m a l b ind i ng o f t he e n d og en o us l i ga n d t o t he r ec e pt o r i s i r re v e r si b l y i n hi bi t ed . Fo r in st a nc e, m o no am i ne o xi d a s e ( MA O ) i n hi bi t o rs s uc h a s t r an yl c y p ro m i n e ( P a r na t e ) i ni t ia ll y i nt e r ac t wi t h MA O i n a re v e r s i bl e m ann e r bu t t h en fo r m c o v al en t ad d uc ts th a t i r r e v er sib l y i nh ib i t MA O .
5 . P a r ti a l a n t ag o ni s t s in h ib i t t h e e nd o ge no us lig a n d f r om b i nd in g th e r ec e pt o r b u t p o ss es s s o m e in t r in s i c ac t i v i t y . N a lo r p hi ne is a pa r t ia l a n ta g on is t fo r th e o p ia t e r e c ep t or . 6 . P h ys i o l o g i c a l a n ta g on i s m o c c ur s wh e n t he d ru g s ac t in de p en d en t l y a t d i ff e r en t r e c ep t or s i t es , o f te n y ie ld i ng op p os in g a c ti on s . Fo r e xa m p le , e p in ep h r in e a n d a c et yl ch o li n e ac t o n th e s y m p at h et ic an d p a ra s ym p at h et ic au t on o m i c n erv o u s s ys t em , r e s p ec t i v el y , and t he i r e f fe c ts a r e a n ta go n is t ic to ea c h ot h e r. P.250
7 . N e ut r a l iz i ng an t a go ni s m o c c u rs wh e n t wo d r ug s b i nd wi t h e a c h ot h er to f o rm a n i n ac t i ve c o m p o un d . F o r e xa m p l e , d ig o xi n - b in di n g a n ti b od y us e d i n d ig o xi n o ve r do se a c ts b y s eq u es t er i ng th e d r u g, r es ul t in g i n t h e f o rm a ti o n o f a n i na c ti v e c om p le x.
III. MECHANISMS OF DRUG ACTION A. C e l l s u r f ac e re c ep t or s 1 . R ec e pt o rs c a n b e p r ot e i n s o r gl yc o p r o t e i n s. F o r e xa m pl e , c el lu l ar de te r m in an t s s uc h a s C D2 0 a n ti g en on B l ym p ho c yt es c an bi nd wi t h r it u xi m a b ( R i tu xa n ) , a c h im e ri c m o n oc lo na l a n tib o d y ta r g et e d a ga in s t t he C D 2 0 a n ti ge n . 2 . Th e bi nd i ng of d ru gs to r ec e pt o rs is h i gh l y s p ec i fi c a nd ca n i n v ol v e a va r i et y o f i n t er a ct i on s , in c l u di ng hy d r o p ho b ic i n te r ac t io ns a n d van de r W aa ls f o rc es wi t h io ni c , h yd r o ge n , a n d c o v a l en t b o n ds . Th e t y p e o f i n te ra c ti o n a nd th e b i nd i ng aff i n it y c an i n f lu en ce t he du r a ti on and r e v e rs ib i li t y o f t he d rug ac t io n . 3 . Th e i n te r ac t io n a n d b in d in g a f f in i t y a r e re la t ed t o th e c he m i ca l s t ru c tu re o f b o th t h e d r u g a nd th e l i ga nd . C h e m i ca l m od i fi c a t io n o f t h e s t ru c t u r e o f t he d ru g m ol ec u le c a n ch a ng e th e p ha r m a c o l og ic a l a nd ph a rm ac ok in e t ic p r o pe r ti es o f d r ug s. 4 . Th r o ug h s t ru c tu r e -a c t iv i t y r e l at i on s h i p s t u di es , s yn t he t ic d r u g a na lo gs c a n b e d e ve l op ed t o ac h ie v e a h i gh s e le c ti v i t y o f d ru g ac t io n — a d es ir a bl e ra t io o f t h e r ap eu t ic to to xi c e f fe c t wi t h a b e tt e r - to l er a te d s i de ef f ec t p r o fi le . B . S i g na l t r an s du c t io n b y c e l l - s u r f ac e r ec e pt or s 1 . C el l -s u r fa c e r ec ep t o rs a r e c om po se d o f e xt r a c e l lu l a r d om ai ns th a t b in d t h e l i ga n ds (d r u gs o r ph y s io lo g ic al m o le c ul es ) . F o r exa m p l e , e p id e rm al g ro wt h f ac t or ( E G F ) r ec e pt o r n o rm al l y b i nd s E G F a nd t ra ns f o rm i n g g r o wt h fa c to r α , a n d i t is th e t a r g et of t he m o no c l o na l a n t ib od y c et u xi m a b ( E r bit u x) , wh i c h co m p e ti t i vel y b i nd s t o t h e E G F r ec e pt o r . 2 . Th e l i ga n d b in di n g s e rv e s as a t r ig g er i ng s i gn al t ha t c a n b e p ro p ag a te d i n t h e t a r g et c e ll th r o ug h i n tr a c e l lu l a r r eg u la t o r y m ol ec u l e s, k n o wn as se c on d m e s se n ge r s o r e ff e c to rs . F or e xa m pl e , i so p ro t er e n ol bi n ds wi t h t h e β - a dr e n e rg ic r e c ep t or , wh i c h is fu nc t io n al l y c o u pl ed t o a de n y la t e c y c la s e vi a t he st im ul a t or y G p r o t ei n ( G s ) . As a r es u lt , a d en y l a te c y c l as e is ac ti v a t e d, an d th e c y c l ic ade n os i ne m o no p ho s p h at e (c A MP ) le v e l in c re as es . 3 . Li g an d b in d in g o f re c ep t o rs of t en le a ds to in t e ra c ti o n o f t h e r ec e pt o rs wi t h t h e c yt o pl as m i c e f fe c to r s , wh i c h in tu r n b ec om e a c tiva t e d . I n te g r at io n of th e m u lt i pl e s i gn al t r an s d uc in g e v e n ts al o ng th e re c e p to r - e ff ec t o r s y s t e m m i gh t c h an ge t he c e ll ul a r p h en o t y pe o r g en e e xp r e s s io n , l ea di n g to n e w p r ot e in s yn t he s i s . F o r
e xa m p l e , b in di n g o f t h e li g an d s t o t he E G F re c e pt o r le a ds t o a c ti v a t io n o f t h e t yr o s in e k in as e o f th e i n tr a c el lu l ar do m ai n o f t h e r e c ep t or , wh i ch th e n a c t iv a t e s d o wn s t r ea m s i g na l in g p at h wa y s t h at r es ul t s i n ce ll u la r p ro li f e ra t io n . Th e m o n oc l on al a n t ib od y e r lo t in i b ( Ta r c ev a ) b i nd s t o t h e a de no s in e t ri p ho s p ha t e ( A TP ) po ck e t o f th e t yr o s in e k in as e o f th e EG F r e c e p to r an d i nh i bi ts n o r m a l A TP b i nd i ng , t h us in h ib i ti ng t h e a c ti v i t y of t he t y r os ine k i n as e. C . S i g na l i ng me d ia t e d b y i n t r a c e l l u la r r ec e p tor s . Th yr o i d h o rm on e , s ter o i d h o r m o ne s , v i t am in D , a nd t he r et i no i ds a ct t h ro ug h bi nd i ng c yto p la s m ic re c ep t o rs , wh i c h t ra ns l oc at e i n to t he n uc le us . Th es e re c e p to r s a r e s ol u bl e, D N A - bi nd i ng p r o t ei ns th a t r e gu la t e t he t r an s c r ip t io n o f s pe ci f ic ge n es . F o r e xa m p l e, all - t r an s r e t in o ic ac id ( A TR A ; V es a n oi d ) b i nd s t o r e ti n oi c ac i d r ec e pt o r i n t h e c y t os o l , r e s ul ti n g i n u p - re gu l at i on o f t a rg e t g en e e xp r es s io n an d d i ff e r en t ia ti o n o f l e uk em ic p r o m yel oc y t es . D . T a r ge t ce l l d e se n si t iz a t io n an d h yp e r s e n s i t iz a t io n 1 . C el ls ha v e t he ab il i t y t o r e sp o nd t o e nd o ge nou s re g ul a to r y m o l ec ul es o r e xo g e n o us l y ad d ed dr u gs o v e r a wi d e r a ng e o f c o n c e n t ra t io ns . Ho we v e r , p r o t ec ti v e m ec h an is m s ar e a v a i la b le f o r m a i nt a in in g h o m e os t a ti c co n t ro l t o p r e v e nt o ve r s ti m u l at i on or un d e rs t im ul a ti o n o f t h e t a rg e t c e ll s . 2 . C el l r eg u la t i on c a n oc c u r a t di f f e re n t l e v el s a lo n g t h e s i g na l t r a ns du c t io n p a t h wa y . R e gu la t io n c a n i n v o l v e ch a ng es in t he le ve l of t he re c ep t or s o r a l t er a ti o ns i n th e d o wn s t re am e ff ec to r m o l ec ul es . P.251
3 . Th e e xp r e s s io n o f re c e p t o rs i s n o rm al l y un d er h o m e os t at ic c o n t ro l t h rou g h r e c ep t or in t e rn a li z a t io n , r e c y c l i ng , a n d d e n o vo sy n t h es is . 4 . D ow n - r eg u la t i o n a nd d e se n s it i za t i on a . D ow n - r eg u la t i o n o f re c ep t o rs i s c au s e d b y c on t i nu ou s p r ol o ng e d e xp o s u r e o f r e c ep t or s t o d r u gs th a t di s r up t t h e h om eo s ta t ic eq u il i b ri um an d r es u lt in al t e re d l e ve ls of t he re c ep t or s . Th i s di s ru p ti o n in v o l v e s e n d oc y t os is of li ga n d -b ou n d r e c ep t or s , r es u lt i ng in s eq u es t r at i on of r ec ep t o rs f r o m t he ce ll su r f ac e a nd p os si b l y a cc e le r a te d d e gr a da t io n o f t he re c e p t or s o r i n ac tiv a t i o n o f t h e r ec e pt o rs . b . D e se n si t iz a t io n is t he r es u lt of do wn - r e g ul a tio n . Th e t a rg e t c el ls be com e d e se ns i ti z e d , a nd t he ef fe c t o f s ub s e q ue n t e xp o s u r e to th e s am e c on c e n t ra t i on of t h e d r u g is r ed uc e d. Th er e f o re , an in c r e as ed c o nc e nt r a ti o n o f t he d ru g i s r e q ui r e d t o p r o du c e an e ff ec t of th e s am e m ag n it u de as th e in i t ia l e xp o s u re wi t h a s m a l le r d ru g c o nc en t r at i on . c . R ep e at e d d os es o f bro n c h o di la t o r s u c h as al bu t e r ol i n ha l er f o r t he t rea t m e n t o f a s th m a c a n l e ad to do wn - r e g ul a ti on o f β - a d re ne rg i c r ec e pt o rs in th e b r o nc h ia l c el ls . Th e p a ti e nt de v e l op s t ole r a nc e a nd r eq u i re s i nc re a s e d d os a ge of t he dr ug t o a c hi e v e re li e f o f t h e i ni t ia l e xt e n t . I n t hi s c as e, t he t a rg e t ce l ls b e c o m e des e ns it i z e d o n l y to li g an ds th a t b in d t o t ho s e re c ep t or s ; t hi s is c a ll e d h om o l og o u s d e s en s i ti z a t i o n. 5 . H e te r o l og o u s d es e nsi t i z a t i o n. S om e f o rm s o f d es e ns it i z a ti o n i n v ol v e a l t er a ti o n o f co m p on e n ts i n t h e s i gn a li n g p at h wa y , s uc h a s a G p r ot e in . W hen c u lt u re d
f i b ro b la s ts a r e e xp o s e d to p r os ta g la nd i n E 1 ( P G E 1 ) , wh i c h no r m a l l y a c ti v at e s a d e n yla t e c y c l as e t h ro u gh a G s , t he c e ll s l os e re s p o ns i v e ne ss n o t o nl y t o P G E 1 b u t a l so to o th e r l ig a nd s b ind i ng t o o th e r re c e p to r s th a t a c t t h ro u gh th e G s -ad e n y l at e c yc la s e p at h wa y . 6 . H yp e r r e a c t i vi t y o r s up e r s en s i t i vi t y t o r e c e pto r a go ni s ts i s e xp e c t ed wh e n t a r ge t c e ll s a r e s u b je c t t o lo n g -t e r m e xp o s u re to r ec ep to r a nt a go ni s ts fo ll o we d b y a b r up t c es s at io n of ad m i ni s t ra t io n of t he dr u g. Th i s c a n i n v o l v e re c e p to r up - r e gul a t i o n t h r o ug h s y n th es is o f n e w r e c e p to r s . E . P h a rm a co l o gi c al e f fe c t s n o t m e di a t ed b y r e c e p t o rs . Th e e f fe c ts o f s o m e d r ug s d o no t i n v o l v e b in d in g wit h s p ec i fi c r ec e pt o rs be ca u s e of in t e ra c ti on wi t h m o le c u l es o r io n s, wh i c h a re no t t yp i c a ll y d e fi ne d a s re c e p to r s . 1 . C o ll i g at i ve d ru g e f f ec t s ar e c h ar ac t e ri z e d b y a l ac k o f re qu i r em en t fo r h i gh l y s p ec if ic c h em ic al s t r uc t ur e . a . V ol a ti le g en e ra l a n es th e t i c a ge n ts wi t h d i v e rs e s tr u c t u re s a r e l ip o ph il ic an d i n t er a ct wi t h th e l ip i d b ila y e r o f c el l m e m br a ne s , r e s ul ti n g i n d ep r es s e d exc i t a b i li t y. E xa m p l e s i nc lu d e ni t r ous o xi d e a n d d es fl u r an e . b . C a t ha r t i cs , s uc h a s m a gn es i um s ul f at e an d so r b it o l, ac t b y i nc r ea s i n g t h e o sm o la r i t y o f i n te s ti na l flu i ds an d t h us c h an gi n g th e di st r i bu ti o n o f wa t e r. 2 . Me t h o t re xa t e , c y t a ra bin e , a n d 5 - fl u or o u ra ci l a re e xa m p le s o f a n t im e tab o l i t es . A n t im e ta b ol i te s a re s t r uc t u r al a na lo gs o f e nd og e no u s m o l ec ul es an d a r e i n co r po r a te d i n to c e ll u la r c om po n en t s t ha t i n te r f er e wi t h th e n o rm a l c e l lu la r f u nc t io ns . 3 . C e r ta in d ru gs in t e ra c t wi t h s pe ci f ic i o ns n o rm al l y f ou n d i n b od y f lu i ds . F o r e xa m p l e , a n ta c id s s uc h a s a l um in um h y d ro xi d e , c a lc iu m ca r b on a te , a n d m a gn es i um h yd r o xi d e ac t b y n eu t r al iz i n g ga s t r ic ac id .
IV. RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN DRUG CONCENTRATION AND EFFECT A. D o s e - r e s po n se r e la t io n s h ip . In ge n er a l, t he la r g e r t he d ru g d os e , t h e h i gh e r th e d r u g c on c e n t ra t io n a t i ts s i te of ac ti o n a nd th e gre a t e r t he ef f ec t o f th e d ru g , u p to a m a xi m um e ff ec t . Hi g he r d r u g c on ce n t ra t io ns (o r d o se s ) wi l l no t p r o du ce a n ef f ec t g r e a te r th an t he m a xi m um e ff ec t . B . A q u a n t a l d os e - r es po n s e c u r ve de s c r ib es the r el a ti o ns hi p b e t we e n th e nu m b e r o f pa t ie n ts e xh i bi t in g a de f i ne d re s p on s e ( e .g . , a 5 0 % i nc r ea s e in pe a k f low) a n d t he s p ec if i ed do s e of t he d rug ( e .g . , m in im um do s e of a l bu t e ro l f o r 5 0% in c re as e i n p e ak fl o w) . Th i s re la t io ns h ip of t en f ol lo ws a ga us s i an ( be ll - s h a pe d ) d is t ri bu t i on ( F i gu r es 12 - 1 a n d 1 2 -2 ) . C . A g r a d e d d o se - r e sp on s e c u r ve d es c r ib e s t he r e la t io n s h ip be t we e n the m a gn i tu d e o f t he e ff ec t o f a d r ug ( e. g . , r ed uc t io n o f bl oo d p r es s u r e b y n ife d ip i ne ) in a n in di vi d ua l a n d t he dos e o f th e d r u g ( Fi g u re 12- 3 ) . P.252
Figure 12-1. Frequency distribution curve, plotting the number of patients showing a quantal response to a drug against the minimum dose needed to produce the response.
Figure 12-2. Quantal dose-response curve, cumulating the data used to plot Figure 12-1.
Figure 12-3. Graded dose-response curves for two drugs, A and B. DAand DB, amount (dose) of drug A and drug B, respectively, needed to produce the drug effect, E1; Emax, maximum effect.
P.253
Figure 12-4. Log dose-response curves for two drugs, A and B. ED50, smallest dose showing an effect that is 50% of the maximum effect (Emax).
1 . G e ne r al l y , as t h e d os e o f a dr u g i nc r ea s e s, t he e f fe c t p ro d uc ed wi l l r ea c h a m a xi m um le v e l . 2 . G r a de d d os e - re s p o ns e c u r v e s f o r d i ff e re n t d r ug s a l lo w c o m p a ri s o n o f th e i r e f f ic ac ie s a nd po t e nc ie s . a . E f f ic a c y o f a d r ug is m e as u re d b y i ts m a xi m um e ff ec t ( E m a x ) . b . P o te n c y o f a d r u g is a r el a ti v e m e as u r e t ha t c o m pa r es th e d i ff e r en t d os es ( m o la r d o se s ) o f d if f e re n t d r ug s n e ed e d t o p r od uc e t h e s a m e e f fe c t . F ro m a c li ni c a l vi e wp o i n t , p ot e nc y is c on s id e re d i n d r u g se l ec ti on ( e .g . , t r ia z o l am i s p r e fe r r e d f o r t h e tr e at m e n t o f i ns om n ia i ns te a d o f d ia z e p am ) . c . In c l in ic a l s i t ua t io ns , a d r ug wi t h g r e at e r e f fi c a c y m i gh t be ne e de d t o a c hi e v e t h e t h e r ap eu t ic ou tc om e (e . g. , h y d ro m or p ho n e is p re fe r r e d t o a c e t am in o ph en f o r c o nt r o ll in g b o ne pa in in a p at i en t wi t h m et as t a ti c b r e as t c an ce r ) . D . A l o g d os e - r es p on s e c u r ve d es c r ib e s t he r ela t i on s h ip b et we e n th e d ru g ef f ec t a n d t h e l og of t he do s e . Th i s c u r v e fa c i li t a te s com p a ri so n o f p o te nc y a nd e f fi c ac y a m on g d i ff e r en t d r ug s wit h t he s am e m ec ha n is m o f ac t io n ( wh i c h t h us h a ve t he s am e s lo p es ) (F i gu r e 1 2- 4 ) . 1 . Th e ef f i ca c y o f a d r ug is de t e rm in e d b y t he he i g h t o f i ts lo g d os e - re s p o ns e c u r ve ( E m a x ) ; th e h i gh e r t h e c ur v e , t he g re a te r th e E m a x a n d e f fi c a c y . 2 . Th e po t e nc y o f t wo d r u g s c a n be c om p a re d b y d e te r m i ni n g t h ei r E D 5 0 . Th e E D 5 0 i s th e d o se of ea c h d ru g p r o du ci ng 50 % o f th e c or r e s p o nd i ng m a xi m um e ff e c t ( 50 % o f E m a x ) . Th e s m al l e r t he E D 5 0 , th e g r ea t e r t he pot e nc y . 3 . A c o m pe t i ti ve a n ta g on i s t s hi f ts th e l o g d os e - re s po ns e c u r v e t o t h e r i gh t , an d t h e s hi f t i s p a r al l el . A g re a t e r c o nc e nt r a ti o n o f t he a go ni s t is r eq u ir e d t o p r o du c e t h e s am e re s p on s e t ha n wh e n t h e c om pe t it i v e a n ta g o ni st is a bs e nt . E v e n in t he p r e se nc e o f th e a n ta go n is t , t h e s am e E m a x c a n be ac h ie v e d i f e n ou g h a go n is t i s a d d ed ( Fi gu r e 1 2 -5 ) .
Figure 12-5. Shift in the log dose-response curve that occurs when an agonist is administered in the presence of a competitive antagonist. Emax, maximum effect.
P.254
Figure 12-6. Shift in the log dose-response curve and lowering of the maximum effect (Emax) that occur when an agonist is given in the presence of a noncompetitive antagonist.
4 . A no n co m pe t i t i ve a nt a g o ni s t b i nd s t o t h e s am e re ce p to r o r b in ds to a n o th e r s it e t h a t p r e v en t s t he ag o ni s t f r om p ro d uc in g a r es pon s e. Th e s h if t o f th e l o g d o se r e s po ns e c u r v e is t o t he r i g h t an d n o n pa r a ll e l , re s ul t in g i n a low e r E m a x . Th e a c ti o n o f t h e a nt a go ni s t c a nn o t b e o ve rc o m e e v en i f m or e a g on is t i s p r es e n t (F i gu r e 1 2 - 6 ).
V. ENHANCEMENT OF DRUG EFFECTS A. Ad d i t i o n o c c u rs wh en t wo d i ff e re n t d r ug s wi th t he sa m e ef f ec t a r e g i ve n t o g et h e r, r es ul t in g i n a dr u g ef f ec t t h at is eq ua l in m a g ni t ud e t o th e s um o f t he i n di vi d ua l e f fe c ts o f th e two d r u g s . F or e xa m pl e , tr i m et h op r im a n d s u l fa m et h o xa zo l e i n hi b it di f f er e nt s t e ps i n t h e s y n t he s i s o f f o li c ac id , r es ul t in g i n t h e s u p p re ss i on of b a ct e r ia l g r o wt h . B . S yn e r g i s m oc c u r s wh e n t wo d ru gs wi t h th e s am e e f f ec t a r e g i v en to g eth e r , p r o du c i n g a d r u g e f fe c t th a t i s g r ea t e r i n m a g ni t ud e th a n t he s u m o f t h e in d i v id u al
e f f ec ts o f t he t wo d ru gs . F o r e xa m pl e , p en ic i ll in an d ge n ta m i ci n a r e s y n e rg i s t ic in t h e ir a nt ip s eu do m o n al ac t i v i ti es . C . P o t e nt i a ti o n o c c u rs wh e n o n e d r ug , l ac k i n g a n ef f ec t o f i t s o wn , in c re a s e s t h e e f f ec t o f a n o th e r d r ug tha t is ac ti v e . Fo r e xa m p l e, c ar b id o pa is a n i n ac ti v e a na lo g of d o p a. W he n c a r b id op a b lo c k s t h e d eg r ad a ti o n o f d o p a a nd is g i ve n wi t h do p a , i t p r o lo n gs th e h al f - li f e o f d o p a a nd th e d u ra t io n o f t h e a n ti - P ar k i n s o ni a n e ff e c t.
VI. SELECTIVITY OF DRUG ACTION A. Th e t h e r a p eu t i c i n dex a nd th e m a r g in o f s a fe t y a r e t h e r e la t io ns h ip (r a t io ) b e t we e n th e d os e o f a d ru g r eq ui r e d t o p r od uc e un d es i re d e f f ec ts ( to xi c o r l e th a l) a n d t h e d os e r e qu i re d to p r o du c e th e d es i r ed ef fe c ts ( th e ra p eu t ic ) . 1 . Th e t he r a pe u t ic i nd ex o f a dr u g is a re la t i v e m e as u re of t he s a fe t y a nd e f f ec t i v en es s i n l ab o ra t or y s t u di es . 2 . Th e t he r a pe u t ic i nd ex is t he ra t io o f t he m i nim um do s e t ha t i s t o xi c fo r 5 0% of t h e p o pu l at io n (m e di a n to x i c d o se ; T D 5 0 ) to th e m i ni m u m d os e t ha t is e f fe c ti ve f or 5 0 % o f th e p op u la t io n (m e d ia n e f f e ct i ve d os e ; E D 5 0 ) . B . I n g e ne r al , th e g r ea t er t h e TD 5 0 o r t h e s m a ll e r t h e E D 5 0 , t h e g re a te r t he t h e r ap eu t ic in de x a n d t hu s th e s af e r t h e d r ug wh e n us ed at t he ef f ec t i v e d o s a g e. C . Th e m a rg i n o f sa f e t y i s a m o re p ra c ti c a l t e rm t o de s c ri b e t h e r el a ti ve s a fe t y a nd e f f ec t i v en es s o f a dr u g . Th e m a rg i n o f s a f e t y i s th e r at i o o f t he m i ni m u m to xi c d os e f o r 0. 1 % o f t h e p op ul a ti on ( m in i ma l t ox i c d os e ; T D 0 . 1 ) t o th e m in im um eff e c ti v e d o se fo r 99 . 9% o f t he pop u la t io n (m i n im a l e f fe c ti ve d o s e ; E D 9 9 . 9 ) . P.255
VII. DRUG SOURCES AND MAJOR CLASSES A. N a t u r a l p r od u c ts a re d r u gs o b ta i ne d f r om pl an t an d a n im al s o u rc es . 1 . Al k a l oi d s a r e n it r o gen - c on t ai ni n g c o m p o un ds o b t ai ne d pr im a ri l y f r om pl a n ts t h r o ug h e xt r a c t io n a n d pu r i fi c a t io n , wh ic h p os s e ss ph a rm ac o lo gi c al a c ti v i ty. Th e m a jo r it y o f a lk a lo id s a r e b a s i c c o m po un ds ( e .g . , m o r p h in e , f r om th e o p ium po p p y ; a t r o p i ne , f r om t he be ll ad o n na pl an t ) ; a l th ou g h so m e a r e n eu t r al a m i d es ( e . g ., c o l ch i c in e , f r om th e a u tu m n c ro c u s ). A ll al ka l oi ds en d i n th e s uf f i x - i n e; h o we v e r , i t i s i m p o r ta n t t o n o te th a t n o t a l l d ru g s t ha t e n d i n - i n e a r e a lk al oi d s ( e .g . , m e pe r id i ne ) . 2 . P ep t i de s a n d p o l yp e p t i d es a re po l ym e r s o f am i no ac id s , a re ob t ai n ed f r om e i t he r hu m a n o r a n im al s o u r c e s a nd a re s m a l le r th a n p r o t e in s . Th e am in o a ci d l e ng t h d is t in c t i on s b et we e n th es e th r ee cl as s i f ic at i o ns a r e v ag u e a nd of t en v a r y f r o m o ne s o u rc e t o a n oth e r . Na t u ra ll y o c c u r ri ng p e p ti de s h a v e l i tt l e t o n o o r al a c ti vi t y a nd s h o rt ha l f -l i ve s (e . g. , so m at o s ta t i n , a 1 4 -a m i no ac id pe p ti d e; g l u ca g o n, a 2 9 -a m i n o ac i d p ol yp e pt i de ) . 3 . S t e ro i d s a re c h em ic a l d e ri v a t i v es of c y cl op e nta n o pe r h y d ro p h e na n th r e ne a nd c a n b e ob t ai n ed f ro m e it h er h u m a n o r an im al s o u rc es ( e. g . , e s t ra d io l , te s t os t e r o ne , h yd r o c o r t i s o n e ). 4 . H o r mo n es a re c h em ic a l s u bs ta n c e s t ha t a r e for m e d i n o ne or g an o r p a rt o f t h e b o d y an d c a r ri ed in t he b l oo d to an o th e r o r ga n or p a r t. Th e y a re p ri nc i pa ll y p r o te i ns
o r st e r oi ds an d c an be ob t a in ed ei t he r s y nt h et ic al l y , th r o ug h re c o m b in a nt D N A t e ch n ol o g y (e . g. , in s u li n) , o r f r om an im a l s o u rc es ( e. g . , t h yr o i d h o r m one s an d c o n j ug a te d es t r o ge n s ). 5 . G l yc o s i d e s a re o rg a ni c s ub s ta nc es co ns is t in g o f a s u g ar m o ie t y b ou n d t o a n o ns u ga r (a g l yc o ne ) m o ie t y b y m e a ns o f a g l yc os i d ic bo nd ( i. e . , a b o nd be t we e n t he a n om e ri c c a rb on o f t he s u g a r a nd a h y d r o xy g r o up o n t he ag l y c o n e ). Th e y c an be o f e i t he r pl an t (e . g ., d ig i t ox i n ) o r m ic r o bi al ( e. g . , st r e p t o m yc i n , d o x o r ub i ci n ) o ri gi n . 6 . V i ta m in s a r e o r g an ic s u bs ta n c e s t ha t ar e p r es e n t i n f o od s a nd a re es se n t ia l t o n o r m a l m et a bo li s m . a . Wa t e r - so l u bl e vi t am in s a re th i am in e (B 1 ) , r i bo f l a v in ( B 2 ) , ni ac in ( B 3 ), p yr i d o xi n e ( B 6 ) , c ya n oc ob a la m i n ( B 1 2 ) , a s c o rb ic ac i d ( C ) , f o li c a c i d , p an t o th en ic ac id, a nd b i o ti n ( H ) . b . L ip i d -s o l ub l e vi ta m in s a re r et i no l ( A ) , e r g oc a l c i f er o l ( D ) , α - to c o p he ro l ( E ), an d p h yt o na d io ne ( K ) . 7 . P o l ys a c c h a r i de s a r e p o l y m e r s o f s ug a rs th a t c a n b e o bt a in e d f r om e i th e r hu m a n o r a ni m a l s ou rc e s . Th es e c o m p o un ds c a n b e u s ed e it h e r di r ec t l y (e . g ., hep a r i n ) , a f t e r p a rt i al de po l y m e r i za t i on ( e. g ., t i nz ap a r i n, en o x ap a r i n ), o r a f te r s t r uc t u ra l m o di f ic at i on ( e. g ., s uc r al f a t e ). 8 . An t i b i o ti c s a r e c h em ic a l s u bs t a nc es p r o du c e d b y m ic ro o r ga ni sm s t h at e i t he r s u pp r es s o r k il l o t he r m ic r o or g an is m s (e . g ., pe n ic i l l in , te t r a c yc l i n e , d oxo r u b i ci n ) . B . S yn t h e t i c p r o du c ts ar e d ru gs s ynt h es i zed f rom o rg a ni c c o m p o un ds . 1 . S y n t he ti c p r od u c t s c an h a v e c he m ic a l s t r u ctu r e s c l o se l y r e s e m b l i ng t h os e of a c t i ve na t u r al p r od u c ts ( e . g. , h yd r o x ym o r p h o n e , wh i ch r es em bl es m o r ph i ne ; a m p ic i l li n , wh ic h re s e m b l es pe ni ci l li n ) . 2 . S y n t he ti c p r od u c t s c an c o n ta i n s i m i l a r sp ac i ng o f fu nc t io n al gr o up s b u t l ac k t h e g e n er a l s tr u c t u re o f a n at u r al l y oc c u r r in g c om po un d . Pe p t id o m im e ti c s a re m o le cu l es wi t h n o p ep t ide b on ds , a m o le c ul a r we i g h t < 7 00 , a n d ac t i v it y s im i la r to t h e o r i gi na l p e pt i de (e . g ., l o sa r t a n is a p ep t id om im e ti c a nd an an g io t en s in I I r e c ep t or a nt a go ni s t) . 3 . S y n t he ti c p r od u c t s a ls o c a n b e c o m pl e te l y n e w p r od u c ts , o b ta i ne d b y s c r e en i ng s yn t he s i z e d m a te r ia ls f or d r ug ac t i v it y ( e .g . , b a rb i t u r a te s , a n t ib a ct e r i al s u l f on a mi d es , t hi az i d e d i u r e t ic s , p he n o t hi az i ne a n ti p s yc h o t i c s , be nz o d i az e pi n e a n x io l yt i c s ) . C . M aj o r ch e mi c al an d p h a r ma c o lo g ic c la ss e s o f d r u gs ( Ta b le 12 - 1; F ig u r es 12 7 , 12 - 8 , 1 2 -9 , 1 2 - 10 , a nd 1 2 -1 1 ) P.256
P.257
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Table 12-1. Major Chemical and Pharmacological Classes of Drugs Classificationa 1.
Polyhalogenated ethers and hydrocarbons
Acid/Base Characterb
Examplec (Structure)
Nonelectrolyte
Isoflurane (1)
Acidic
Phenobarbital (2)
Basic
Diazepam (3)
Acidic
Phenytoin (4)
Acidic or nonelectrolyte
Methsuximide (5)
Basic
Chlorpromazine (6)
Basic
Thiothixene (7)
General anesthetics 2.
Barbiturates Sedative/hypotonics; anticonvulsants
3.
Benzodiazepines Anxiolytic agents; sedative/hypnotics
4.
Hydantoins Anticonvulsants
5.
Succinimides
Anticonvulsants 6.
Phenothiazines
Antipsychotics; antihistamines; antiemetics 7.
Thioxanthenes
Antipsychotics 8.
Butyrophenones
Basic
Haloperidol (8)
Basic
Imipramine (9)
Basic
Fluoxetine (10)
Basic
Olanzapine (11)
Basic (weak)
Theophylline (12)
Basic
Codeine (13)
Basic
Meperidine (14)
Basic
Methadone (15)
Antipsychotics 9.
Tricyclic antidepressants Antidepressant agents
10.
Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors Anxiolytic agents
11.
Benzazepines Atypical antipsychotics
12.
Methylxanthines CNS stimulants; bronchodilators
13.
Opioids Narcotic analgesics; antitussives
14.
4-Phenylpiperidines Narcotic analgesics
15.
Phenylpropylamines
Narcotic analgesics 16.
Direct-acting cholinergics
Quaternary ammonium salt
Bethanechol (16)
Basic or quaternary ammonium salt
Dicyclomine (17)
Basic
Benztropine (18)
Basic or quaternary ammonium salt
Biperiden (19)
Basic
Tripelennamine (20)
Basic
Chlorpheniramine (21)
GI smooth-muscle stimulant; cataract therapy 17.
Aminoalkyl esters
Anticholinergic agents 18.
Aminoalkyl ethers Anticholinergic agents; antihistamines (H1antagonists)
19.
Aminoalcohols
Anticholinergic agents 20.
Ethylenediamines
Antihistamines (H1antagonists) 21.
Alkylamines (propylamines)
Antihistamines (H1antagonists) 22.
Piperazines
Basic
Cyclizine (22)
Acidic
Cromolyn sodium (23)
Basic
Albuterol (24)
Basic
Guanabenz (25)
Basic
Terazosin (26)
Basic
Propranolol (27)
Acidic
Misoprostol (28)
Antihistamines (H1antagonists); antivertigo; antiemetics 23.
Mast cell degranulation inhibitors Antiallergenics
24.
Phenylethylamines Sympathomimetics (αand β-adrenergic agonists)
25.
Adrenergic α2-agonists Antihypertensive agents
26.
Adrenergic α1-agonists Antihypertensive agents
27.
Aryloxypropanolamines β-adrenergic blockers
28.
Prostaglandins Eicosanoids
29.
Salicylates
Acidic
Aspirin (29)
Acidic
Mefenamic acid (3)
Acidic
Phenylbutazone (31)
Acidic
Tolmetin (32)
Acidic (weak) or nonelectrolyte
Celecoxib (33)
Basic
Sumatriptan (34)
Basic
Ondansetron (35)
NSAIDs 30.
Fenamates
NSAIDs 31.
Pyrazolidinediones
NSAIDs 32.
Arylacetic acids (includes indoleacetic acids, pyrrolacetic acids, and propionic acids) NSAIDs
33.
Selective COX-2 inhibitors
NSAIDs 34.
Triptans 5-HT1B/1D agonists
35.
Serotonin 5-HT3 antagonists Antiemetic agents
36.
Coumarins
Acidic
Warfarin (36)
Acidic
Heparin (37)
Acidic
Chlorothiazide (38)
Acidic
Furosemide (39)
Nonelectrolyte
Isosorbide dinitrate (40)
Basic (weak)
Nifedipine (41)
Acidic
Losartan (42)
Amphoteric
Enalapril (43)
Oral anticoagulants 37.
Sulfated polysaccharides Anticoagulants
38.
Benzothiadiazides (thiazides) Diuretics; saluretics
39.
High-ceiling (loop) diuretics Diuretics; saluretics
40.
Organic nitrates
Antianginal agents 41.
Dihydropyridines Antihypertensives; antianginal agents; antiarrhythmics
42.
Angiotensin II receptor antagonists Antihypertensive agents
43.
ACE inhibitors
Antihypertensive agents 44.
HMG-CoA reductase inhibitors
Acidic
Pravastatin (44)
Basic or quaternary ammonium salt
Cholestyramine (45)
Acidic
Gemfibrozil (46)
Nonelectrolyte
Dexamethasone (47)
Basic
Raloxifene (48)
Nonelectrolyte
Finasteride (49)
Cholesterol-lowering agents 45.
Bile acid sequestrants
Cholesterol-lowering agents 46.
Fibrates Cholesterol- and triglyceride-lowering agents
47.
Steroids
Estrogens; progestins; androgens; adrenocorticoids 48.
Selective estrogen receptor modulators Estrogen receptor agonists and antagonists
49.
5α-Reductase inhibitors
Antiandrogen 50.
Androgen receptor antagonists
Nonelectrolyte
Nilutamide (50)
Acidic
Tolbutamide (51)
Acidic
Repaglinide (52)
Amphoteric (acid stronger than base)
Pioglitazone (53)
Basic
Miglitol (54)
Basic
Cimetidine (55)
Basic
Omeprazole (56)
Nonelectrolyte
Carmustine (57)
Antiandrogen 51.
Sulfonylureas Oral hypoglycemics
52.
Meglitinides Oral hypoglycemics
53.
Thiazolidinediones (glitazones)
Insulin sensitizers; antidiabetic agents 54.
α-Glucosidase inhibitors Antidiabetic agents
55.
H2-receptor antagonists Antiulcer agents
56.
Proton pump inhibitors Antiulcer agents
57.
Nitrosoureas
Antineoplastic agents 58.
β-Chloroethylamines (nitrogen mustards)
Basic
Mechlorethamine (58)
Amphoteric
Methotrexate (59)
Basic
6-Mercaptopurine (60)
Basic
Cytarabine (61)
Basic
Doxorubicin (62)
Basic
Topotecan (63)
Basic
Saquinavir (64)
Antineoplastic agents 59.
Folate antimetabolites Antineoplastic agents; antibacterial agents; antifungals
60.
Purine antimetabolites
Antineoplastic agents; Antiviral agents 61.
Pyrimidine antimetabolites Antineoplastic agents; antiviral agents
62.
Anthracyclines Antineoplastic agents
63.
Topoisomerase inhibitors Antineoplastic agents
64.
HIV protease inhibitors
Antiretroviral agents 65.
Sulfanilamides
Acidic
Sulfamethoxazole (65)
Acidic
Ampicillin (66)
Acidic
Cefoxitin (67)
Amphoteric
Tetracycline (68)
Basic
Gentamicin (69)
Basic
Erythromycin (70)
Amphoteric
Ofloxacin (71)
Basic
Terbinafine (72)
Antibacterial agents 66.
Penicillins Antibacterial agents
67.
Cephalosporins Antibacterial agents
68.
Tetracyclines Antibacterial agents
69.
Aminoglycosides Antibacterial agents
70.
Macrolides
Antibacterial agents 71.
4-Quinolones Antibacterial agents
72.
Allylamines
Antifungal agents 73.
Polyenes
Amphoteric
Amphotericin B (73)
Basic
Oxiconazole (74)
Antifungal agents 74.
Imidazoles Antifungal agents
ACE, angiotensin-converting enzyme; COX, cyclooxygenase; 5-HT, 5hydroxytryptamine (serotonin), Gl, gastrointestinal; HMG-CoA, β-hydroxyβ-methylglutaryl coenzyme A; NSAID, nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug. a
Organized according to chemical structure. Not an inclusive list; includes only classifications that contain multiple compounds with a similar structure. In some instances (e.g., direct-acting cholinergic agonists and H2-receptor antagonists), drugs are chemically similar but are usually denoted only by pharmacological classifications. b
A general notation; some specific singular agents fall outside these general notations (e.g., ampicillin is amphoteric, whereas the penicillins are generally acidic). c
Structures are given in Figures 12-7, 12-8, 12-9, 12-10 and 12-11.
P.259
Figure 12-7. Chemical structures (1-19) representing the major chemical classes of drugs listed in Table 12-1.
P.260
Figure 12-8. Chemical structures (20-37) representing the major chemical classes of drugs listed in Table 12-1.
VIII. DRUG ACTION AND PHYSICOCHEMICAL PROPERTIES A. D r u g a c t i on r es ul ts f ro m th e i n te r ac ti o n o f d r ug m o l ec ul es wi t h ei th e r no r m al or a b n or m a l p h y s i o lo g ic al pr o c es s es . D r ug s n o rm al ly i n t e ra c t wi t h r ec ep t o rs , wh i c h c a n b e ei t he r pr o te i ns , e n z y m es , c e ll li pi ds , o r pi ec es o f D N A o r R N A . P.261
Figure 12-9. Chemical structures (38-53) representing the major chemical classes of drugs listed in Table 12-1.
1 . S y s te m i c a l l y a c t i v e dru g s m u s t e n te r an d be tr a n s p o r te d b y b o d y f l u i d s . a . Th e dr u g m u s t p as s va r i o u s m em b r an e ba r r ie r s , es ca p e e xc e ss i ve d i s t r i bu t i on in t o s it es o f l os s , a nd pe n e t ra t e to th e ac t i ve si t e . b . A t t h e a c t i v e s it e , t h e d r u g m ol ec ul es m u s t o rie n t th em s e l v es an d i n te ra c t wi t h t h e re ce p to r s t o a l te r f un c t i on . P.262
Figure 12-10. Chemical structures (54-68) representing the major chemical classes of drugs listed in Table 12-1.
c . Th e d r ug m u s t be r em o v e d f ro m t h e ac t i ve si t e a n d m e ta b ol i z e d t o a f or m th a t i s e a si l y ex c r e te d b y t he bo d y . 2 . D r ug ab s o r p ti o n, m e t ab o li s m , u t il i za ti o n, an d exc r e t i o n a l l d ep en d o n the d r u g' s p h ys i c o c h em i ca l p r op er t i e s a n d t he h os t ' s p h ys i o l og i ca l an d b i oc h emi c a l p r o p e r t ie s . A d ru g ' s p h ys ic oc h em ic al p ro p er t ie s c a n b e a lt e r ed v i a t he s yn t h es is o f c h em ic al an a lo gs , wh e r ea s th e h os t ' s p r op e r ti es u s ua ll y c an n ot be al t e red . P.263
Figure 12-11. Chemical structures (69-74) representing the major chemical classes of drugs listed in Table 12-1.
B . Two o f t h e m os t i m p or t a n t p h ys i c o c h e m ic a l p r o p e r t ie s o f a d ru g m ole c ul e a r e i t s p ol a ri t y a nd it s a c i d -ba s e n at u r e. 1 . D r u g p o la r i t y i s a re la t i v e m ea s u r e o f a d ru g 's li p id an d wa t e r s o l ub il it y a n d i s u s ua ll y e xp r e s s e d i n t e rm s o f a pa r t i t i on co e f f ic i e n t. a . Th e pa r ti t io n c oe f f ic ien t ( P ) o f a d ru g i s d ef i ned as t he ra t io o f t he s o lub i li t y o f t h e c om po u nd in an o rg an i c s o l ve nt t o t he s o lu b ili t y o f t h e s a m e c o m p o und i n a n a q u eo us en v i r on m e n t :
Th e p a r ti t io n c oe f fi c i e nt i s o f t en e xp r e s s ed as a lo g v a lu e . b . W at e r so l u bi l i t y ( o r h yd r o p h i l i c i t y) d e p e nd s p r i m a r il y o n t wo f ac t o rs : i o ni c c h a ra ct e r a n d h y d r og en -b o n di ng ca pa b il i ti es . The p r es en c e of o xy g e n - an d ni t r og en c o nt a in in g fu nc t io n al gr ou p s us u al l y en h an c e s wa t e r s o lu b il it y. W ate r s ol ub i li t y is r e q ui r e d f o r: ( 1 ) D is s o l ut io n i n th e g as t r oi n te s t i na l ( G I) t ra c t ( 2 ) P r ep a ra t io n o f pa r en te r a l s ol u ti on s ( as op p ose d to su s p e ns io ns ) ( 3 ) P r ep a ra t io n o f op h tha l m i c s o l ut i on s ( 4 ) A de q ua t e u r in e c on c e n t r at i on s ( pe r t ai ns p ri m a r i l y to an t ib io t ic s ) c . Li p i d s o lu b il i t y ( o r l ip o p h il i c it y) i s e nh a nc ed b y n on i on i za bl e h y d r oc ar b o n c h ai ns an d ri ng s ys t em s . L i pi d s ol ub i li t y is re q ui re d fo r : ( 1 ) P en e t ra t io n t h r ou gh th e li pi d b i la ye r i n th e Gl t r a ct ( 2 ) P en e t ra t io n t h r ou gh th e bl oo d - b ra in ba r r ie r ( 3 ) P r ep a ra t io n o f in t ra m u s c u la r ( I M) d e po t i nj e c ta b le f o rm ul a ti on s ( 4 ) E nh a nc ed pu lm o na r y a bs o r pt i on wi t h in th e res p i ra t o r y t r ac t ( 5 ) E nh a nc ed to p ic al po te n c y (s ee n wi t h m an y t op i ca l g lu c o c or t ic oi ds ) ( 6 ) E nh a nc ed pl as m a p ro t e in bi nd i ng 2 . I on i za ti on o f a ci d s a nd b as e s p la ys a r ol e wi th su bs t a nc es t h a t di s s oci a t e i nt o i o ns .
a . Th e io n iz a t io n c o n sta n t ( K a ) i nd ic a te s t he r ela t i v e s t re n gt h of th e a c i d o r ba s e . A n ac i d P.264 wi t h a K a o f 1 × 1 0
-3
-5
is s tr o n ge r (m o r e io n i zed ) tha n on e wi t h a K a o f 1 × 10 ,
wh e r e a s a ba s e wi t h a K a o f 1 × 1 0
-7
i s we ak e r (le s s io n i z ed ) th a n o ne wi th a K a o f 1
-9
× 10 . b . Th e ne g a ti ve l o g o f th e i on iz a t io n co n s ta n t (p K a ) al so in d ic at es t he re l a ti ve -5
s t r en g th of t he ac id o r ba s e. A n a c i d wi t h a p K a o f 5 ( K a = 1 × 10 ) is we a k e r ( le s s -3
i o ni ze d ) th an on e wi t h a p K a of 3 ( K a = 1 × 1 0 ), wh e r e a s a ba s e wi t h a pK a o f 9 ( K a -9
-7
= 1 × 1 0 ) i s s t r o ng e r (m o r e i on i z ed ) th a n o ne wi t h a p K a o f 7 ( K a = 1 × 1 0 ) . c . S t ro ng ac id s — fo r e xa m p le , h yd r o c h l o r i c a c i d ( H C l ) , s ul f u ri c a c i d ( H 2 SO 4 ) , n it r ic a c id ( H N O 3 ) , h y d r ob r om ic ac id ( H B r ) , i od ic ac id (H I O 3 ) , an d pe rc h lo r ic ac id ( H C l O 4 ) — a r e c o m p l et e l y i o ni z e d . A lm os t a l l o th e r a c i ds , i n c l ud i ng o rg an ic a c i ds , ar e we a k . O r g a ni c ac i ds c on t a in on e o r m o re o f t hes e fu nc t io na l g r o up s: ( 1 ) C a rb o xy l i c ac id g ro up ( — C O O H ) ( 2 ) P he n ol ic g ro up ( A r —O H ) ( 3 ) S ul f on ic ac id g ro u p (— S O 3 H ) ( 4 ) S ul f on am i de g ro up (— S O 2 N H — R ) ( 5 ) Im i de gr o up ( — C O —N H — C O — ) ( 6 ) β - C a rb o n y l g r ou p ( —C O — C H R — C O — ) ( 7 ) Te t r a z ol e ri n g ( f i v e -m em b e r C H N 4 r in g ; s e e F i g ur e 1 2 - 9, 42 , fo r e xa m p le ) d . S t r o ng b as es — f o r e xa m pl e , s o d iu m h y d r o xi d e ( N a O H ) , po t as si um h y d ro xi d e ( K O H ) , m ag n es iu m h y d ro xi d e ( Mg ( O H ) 2 ) , c al c i um h y d ro xi d e ( C a ( O H ) 2 ), b a r iu m h yd r o xi d e ( B a ( O H ) 2 ) , and q ua t e rn a r y am m o ni um h y d r o xi d e s —a r e a ls o c om p le t el y i o ni ze d . Al m o s t al l o t he r b a s e s , in cl u di n g o rg a ni c b a s e s, a re we a k . ( 1 ) O r g a ni c ba se s c on t ai n a p ri m a r y, se c o n da r y, o r t e rt i ar y a li p ha t ic o r al ic y c li c a m in o g r ou p ( — N H 2 , — NH R , o r — N R 2 ). ( 2 ) Mo s t a ro m a t ic o r un s a t u r at e d h et e ro c yc l ic ni t ro g e ns a r e s o we a k l y ba si c th a t t h e y do no t r ea di l y f or m s a lt s wi t h ac i ds . Sa t ur a te d he t e ro c yc l ic n i t ro g ens , in c o nt r as t , a r e s im il a r t o al i ph a ti c a m i ne s . ( 3 ) A dd i ti o na l b as ic fu nc t i o na l g r ou ps in c l u de im in e n i t r og en s ( — N = C — ) , h y d r a z i ne n i t ro g en s ( — N H — N H 2 ) , a m id in e n i t ro g en s ( — N H— C = N — ) , an d g u an i di ne n i t ro g en s ( f o u r a t om f u nc t io na l g r ou p , C H 4 N 3 ; s e e F ig u r e 12 - 8 , 2 5 , f o r e xa m p le ) . e . We a k a c id s . I on i z a ti on o f a we a k ac i d ( e .g . , ac e ti c a ci d , wh i c h h as a pK a o f 4 . 76 ) t a ke s p la c e as fo l lo ws :
( 1 ) W hen a we a k ac i d ( s u c h as ac e ti c ac i d ) is pl ac e d i n a n a ci d me d iu m , t h e e q ui l ib r iu m s hi f ts to th e le f t , s up p re s s i ng io ni z a t io n . Th is de c r e as e i n i on iza t i o n c o nf o rm s t o L e C ha t e li er ' s p r i nc i pl e , wh ic h s t ate s th a t wh e n a s t re ss i s p l ac e d o n a n eq ui l ib r iu m r e ac ti o n, th e r ea ct i on wi l l m o v e i n t h e d i r ec ti o n t ha t te nd s to r el i e ve t h e s t re s s .
( 2 ) W hen a we a k ac i d is p l ac e d in a n a lk a li n e m ed i u m , i on i z a ti on in c re as e s . Th e H
+
-
i o ns f ro m t he ac id a nd the O H io ns f ro m t h e al k ali n e m ed iu m c om bi n e t o fo r m wa t e r , s hi f ti ng t he eq u il ib r i um to th e ri g ht . ( 3 ) W ea k l y a c i d i c d ru g s a r e l es s i on i ze d i n ac i d m e di a t h an in al k a li n e m e d ia . W hen t he p K a o f a n ac i dic d ru g i s g r ea t e r t ha n t he p H o f th e m ed i um i n wh i ch it e xi s t s , i t wi l l b e > 50 % in i ts no ni o ni z e d (m ol ec ul a r ) f or m a n d t hu s m o r e l ik e l y to c r os s l ip i d c e l lu la r m em br a n es . f . W ea k ba se s . I o ni z a t ion o f a we a k b as e i s t he o p p os it e o f th a t f o r a wea k a c i d . ( 1 ) W eak b as es a r e l es s i o ni z e d i n a b as i c ( a lk a li n e ) m e d iu m a nd m o r e io n i z e d in a n ac i d m e di u m. ( 2 ) W ea k l y b a s i c d ru gs a r e l e s s i o ni ze d i n a lk al in e m e di a t h an in a c id m e d ia . W he n t h e p K a o f a b as ic d r u g is le s s th a n t he p H o f th e m ed i um i n wh ic h i t e xi s ts , it wi l l b e > 5 0% in it s n on i on i z e d (m o le c u l ar ) fo r m a nd t hu s m o re li k e l y to cr o ss l i pid c e l lu la r m em b r an es . g . P e r ce n t i o n iz at i o n c a n be ap p ro xi m a t e d b y us i ng th e r ul e of n in e s. I f t h e | p H p K a | = 1, th e n a 90 : 10 rat i o (n o te th a t t h er e i s o ne n in e i n t h e r a ti o ) e xi s ts . If t he | p H - p K a | = 2 , t h e r a ti o b e c o m e s 9 9 :1 ( t wo ni n es i n t h e r a ti o ) , a nd if t he | p H - p K a | = 3 , t h e r a ti o i s 9 9. 9 :0 . 1 ( t h r ee ni n es i n th e r a ti o ). Th e p re d om in a nt fo r m , i o ni z e d o r u n io n i z ed , i n th es e ra t ios c a n e as il y b e d e te r m i ne d (s e e V I I I. B . 2. e . (3 ) ; V I I I . B .2 . f .( 2 ) ) . 3 . A s a l t i s t he c om b in a ti o n o f a n a ci d a n d a b a s e . a . W it h a fe w m i no r e xc ep t i on s ( m e r cu r ic an d c adm i um h a li de s a n d le a d ac e ta t e ), a l l sa l ts a r e s t r on g el ec t r o l yt e s . P.265
b . B ec a us e t he v a s t m a jo r i t y of d ru gs a re o rg an ic m o le c u l es , d r ug s a l ts c a n be d i vi de d i n to t wo c l as s es b a s e d o n t h e c he m i c a l na t u r e o f t he s u bs t an c e fo r m in g t h e s a lt . ( 1 ) I no r g a ni c s a l ts a re m a de b y c om b in in g d r u g m ol ec u le s wi t h in o r ga ni c ac id s a n d b a se s, s u c h as h y dr o c h lo r i c ac i d, s u lf u r ic a ci d , po t as s i um h y d ro xi d e , an d s od i um h yd r o xi d e . Th e s al t fo r m o f t he dr u g h as i n cr e as ed wa t e r so lu b il i t y i n c om p a r is on wi t h t h e p a re n t m ol ec ul e. I n or g an ic s a lt s a r e g ene r a ll y u se d t o i nc r ea s e th e a q u eo us di s s ol u ti on o f a c om po u nd . ( 2 ) O r g a ni c s a l ts a re m a d e b y c om bi ni n g d r ug m o le c u l es wi t h e it h e r s ma l l , h yd r o p h i l i c o rg an ic c o m p o u nd s ( e .g . , s ucc i ni c ac i d , c it r ic ac id ) o r l i po p h il i c o r g an ic c o m p o un ds (e . g ., p r oc ai n e) . W at e r- s ol ub le o r ga ni c s al ts a re us ed t o i n c re as e d is s o lu t io n a n d b i oa v a i la b il it y a s we l l as t o ai d i n t he p re p a ra t io n o f p a r en t e ra l a n d o ph t ha lm ic f or m u l at i on s ( e .g . , t im o l ol m a le a te ) . L i pi d -s ol ub l e o r ga n ic s a lt s a r e p r im a ri l y u s ed to m a k e de p o t in j ec ti o ns ( e . g ., p ro c a i ne pe ni ci l li n) . c . Am p h o te r i c c o mp o u nd s c o n ta in bo t h a c i di c an d ba s i c f un c ti on a l g r oup s a n d a r e c a pa b le of fo r m i n g i n te rn a l sa l ts , or z wi t t e r i on s, wh i c h o f t en ha ve di s s olu t i on p r o bl em s . d . D i ss o l ut i o n o f s a l ts c a n a lt e r t h e p H of an aqu e o us m ed i um .
( 1 ) S al t s o f s t r o ng ac i ds ( e .g . , H Cl , H 2 S O 4 ) an d b a s ic d ru g s ( e . g. , c im et i d in e ) d i ss oc ia t e i n a n a qu e ou s m ed i um to y i el d a n a c idi c s ol u t io n . ( 2 ) S al t s o f s t r o ng ba s es ( e .g . , Na O H , K O H ) an d a c i di c d r u g s ( e .g . , p hen o b ar b it a l) d i ss oc ia t e i n a n a qu e ou s m ed i um to y i el d a ba s ic s o l u ti o n. ( 3 ) S al t s o f w e a k a ci d s a n d w ea k b a se s d is s o cia t e i n a n a q ue o us m ed i um t o y i e ld a n ac i d ic , b a si c , o r ne ut r a l s ol u t io n , d e pe nd i ng o n th e r es p ec t i v e i on i z at i o n c o ns ta n ts in v o l v e d. ( 4 ) S al t s o f s t r o ng ac i ds a nd s t ro n g b a se s (e . g. , N a C l ) d o n ot s i gn i fi c a nt l y a lt e r t h e p H o f a n a qu e ou s m e d iu m . 4 . A ne u t r al i z a t i on r ea ct i o n m ig h t o cc u r wh e n an ac i di c so l ut i on of an o rg a ni c s al t ( a so l ut i on of a s a l t o f a s t r on g a ci d a n d a we a k b a s e ) is m i xe d wi t h a b as ic s o lu t io n ( a so l ut i on of a s a l t o f a we a k a ci d a nd a s t ro n g b a s e ) . Th e n on i on i z ed o rg a ni c a ci d o r t he no n io ni z e d o r g an ic ba s e is li ke l y to p r ec i pi t a t e i n t h is c as e . Th i s re a ct i on is t h e b as is f or m a n y d r ug i n c om p a ti b i li t i es , pa r ti cu l a rl y wh e n in t r a ven o us s o lu t io ns a r e m i xe d . N eu t r al i z a ti on r e ac ti o ns c an be a voi de d b y k n o wi ng ho w t o p re d ic t th e a p p ro xi m a t e p H of t he aq u e ou s s o l ut i on s o f c om m o n d r ug s a lt s . a . G e ne r al l y , a d ru g ' s s al t f o r m c an be re c og ni z ed wh e n t he ge ne r ic o r t ra d e n am e c o ns is ts of t wo s e p a ra t e wo r d s , in d ic at i ng a c a ti on a nd an a ni o n . b . D r ug s wi t h n i t r at e , s ul f a t e , o r h yd r o c h l o r i d e n o t a t io n s ( e .g . , p il o ca r pi n e n i t ra t e , m o r p hi ne s u l fa t e, m ep e ri di n e h y d r oc hl o rid e ) ar e s al t s o f s t r o ng ac i d s . Th u s t h es e d r u gs (e . g. , pi lo c ar p i ne , m o rp h in e , m e p e rid i n e ) m u st be ba s es . c . D r ug s wi t h s od i um o r p o t a ss i um ca t i on s (e . g ., wa r f a r i n s o d iu m , po t as s i um p e ni ci l li n G ) a r e s a l ts of s t r o n g b a se s . Th u s t h ese d r ug s ( e .g . , wa r f ar i n, pe n ic il l in G ) m us t be ac i ds . d . D r ug s wh os e c a ti on na m e e nd s wi t h t he s u f fi x “ - o n iu m” o r “ -i n i um ” a nd wh o s e a n io n i s a c h lo r id e , b r om i d e , i od id e , n i tr a te , or s ul f a te ( e. g . , b en za lk o ni um c hl o ri d e , c e t ylp yr i d in iu m c hl o ri d e), a r e k n o wn a s q ua t e rn a ry a m m o ni um sa l ts a n d f or m n e u t r al a qu e ou s s o l u tio n s .
IX. STRUCTURAL FEATURES AND PHARMACOLOGIC ACTIVITY. D r u g s c a n b e c l as s i fi e d a s s t r uc tu r al l y no ns p ec i fi c o r s t r uc t ur a ll y sp e c i fi c . A. S t r u c t u r a l l y n o n s p ec i f i c d r u gs a re th os e fo r wh i c h th e d r ug ' s i n te r act i o n wi t h t h e c el l m em b ra n e d ep en d s m o r e o n th e d r ug m ol e cu le ' s ph y s ic al c h a ra c te r i s t ic s t h a n o n i ts c h em ic al s t r uc t u re . Us u al l y , t h e i nt e r ac t io n i s b as ed on t he ce ll m e m b ra n e' s li p i d n a tu re a nd th e d ru g ' s l i pi d a tt r a c t i on . Mo s t ge n e ra l a n e s th e t ic s , as we l l a s s om e h yp n o t i c s an d s om e ba c te r i c id a l a ge n t s, a c t t h r o ug h t h is m ec ha n is m . B . S t r u c t u ra l l y s p e c i f i c d r u g s a r e t ho s e f or wh i c h p h a rm ac ol o gi ca l a c t i vi t y i s d e t e rm in ed b y th e d r u g 's a b il i t y t o b i nd to a s p eci f i c e n d og e no u s re c ep to r . 1 . R ec e p to r - s i te t he o r y d es c ri b es th e p ha r m a c ol o gi c a l a c ti v i t y o f s u c h dr u g s . a . Th e lo c k -a n d -k e y t h e o r y p o s t u l at es a c om pl e te l y c o m p l em en t a r y re l at io n sh i p b e t we e n th e d r ug m o le c u l e a nd a s pe ci f ic a r e a on t he s u r fa c e o f t he r ec ep t o r m o le cu l e ( i. e . , t he P.266
a c t i ve , o r ca t a l yt i c , s i t e) . Th i s t h eo r y d oe s n ot ac c o u nt f o r c o n fo r m a t io n al ch a ng es i n ei t he r d r u g o r re c e p tor m ol ec u le s a nd is a n o v e r s im pl if ic a ti o n o f a c om p l e x p r o ce s s . b . Th e in d u ce d - fi t t he o ry a l s o p os tu l at es a c om pl e m e n ta r y r el a ti o ns hi p be t we e n t h e d r u g m o l ec ul e a nd i ts ac t i v e s i t e ; h o we ve r , i t p r o v i de s f o r m u tu a l c o n f o rm a t io n a l c ha n ges b et we e n t he dr u g a nd it s re c ep t or . C on f o rm at i on a l c h an g es i n t h e r ec e pt o r m o le c u l e a re t he n t r an sla t e d i nt o b i ol og ic a l r es po n s e s. Th i s t h e o r y e xp l a i ns m a n y m or e p he no m e n a ( e .g . , a l l os t e r i c i n hi b i t o rs ) th a n th e lo ck a n d -k e y m o de l . c . Th e o c cu p a ti o n al t heo r y o f r e s p o n se f ur t h er p o s t u la t es th a t, f or a s t ru c tu r a ll y s p ec if ic d ru g , t h e in t e ns it y o f th e p h a rm ac ol o gi cal e ff e ct is d i r ec tl y p r op o rt i o na l t o t h e n um b e r o f r ec e pt o rs o c c u pi e d b y t he dr u g. 2 . R ec e p to r - s i te b in d i ng . Th e ab i l i t y t o b i n d t o a s pe c if i c re c ep t o r , a l th o u gh no t i n de p en d en t o f th e d r ug ' s ph y s ic al ch a ra c te r is ti c s , is p r im a ri l y de t e rm in ed b y t he d r u g 's c he m ic a l s t r uc t ur e . a . I n su c h an in t e ra c t i on , t h e d r ug ' s c h em i ca l r eac t i vi t y p l a y s a n im p o rt an t r ol e , r e f le c te d i n i ts b on d i ng a b i l i t y a n d i n t h e e xa c tne s s o f i ts f i t t o t h e r ec ep t o r . b . D r u g i n t e ra c t io n wi t h a s p ec i fi c r ec e pt o r i s a na l og o us to th e fi t ti n g t oge t h e r o f j i gs a wp u z z l e pi ec es . O nly d r u gs o f s i m i la r s h ap e ( i . e ., s i m i la r c h em ic al s t ru c tu r e ) c a n b in d t o a s p ec i fi c r ec e pt o r a n d i ni t ia t e a b i ol o g ic al r es po ns e . c . O f te n , o nl y a c ri t i ca l p o r t i o n o f th e d ru g mo le c u le ( r at h er t ha n t h e wh o le m o le cu l e) is i n v o l v ed in r e c ep t or - s i t e b in d in g . ( 1 ) Th e fu nc t io n al gr o up m ak i ng up th is c ri ti c a l po r t i o n i s k no wn a s a p h a r ma c o ph o r e . ( 2 ) D r ug s wi t h s im i l a r c ri t i c al r e gi o n s b ut di f fe r en c es i n o t he r pa r ts m a y h a ve s im i la r q u al i ta t i v e ( a lt h ou g h n o t n ec es s a r il y q uan t i ta t i ve ) p ha r m a c o lo g ic a l ac ti vi t y . d . I n g en e ra l , t h e b e tt e r a d r u g f i t s t he r ec ep t o r s i te , th e h i g he r t he a f fin i t y b e t we e n th e d r ug an d t he r ec e pt o r a n d t he g r ea te r t h e o bs er ve d bi ol o gi ca l r e s po ns e . A d ru g t h at bin d s t o a re c ep t or an d e l ic i ts a b io lo g ic al r es po nse is c a ll e d a n ag o n is t . e . S om e d r ug s , la c k in g th e s p ec if ic ph a rm ac o ph or e f o r a p a r ti cu la r r ec ep to r , c a n n o n et h el es s b in d t o t h a t r e c ep t or . S uc h a d r u g wi l l ha v e li t tl e o r no ph a rm a c ol o gi ca l e f f ec t a n d m i g ht al s o p rev e n t a m ol ec ul e h a v i ng th e s p ec if ic ph a rm ac o ph or e f r om b i nd i ng , b l oc k i ng t he e xp e c t e d b io l og ic al r es po ns e . A d ru g th a t b lo ck s a n a t u ra l a g o ni st an d p r e v e nt s i t fr o m b i nd in g to i t s r ec e pto r is c a ll e d a n a n ta g on is t . 3 . Th e st e r e oc h em i st r y o f bo t h t h e r ec e pt o r -s it e s u r fa ce an d th e d r ug m o le c ul e h e lp s d e te r m i ne t he na t ur e a nd ef f ic ie nc y o f t h e dr u g - r ec ep t o r i nt e ra c ti on . S t e r eo is o m e rs c a n b e d iv i d e d i n to th r e e m a i n g rou p s : o p ti c al is o me r s , ge o m e t ri c i s o me r s , a n d c on f o r ma ti o n a l i so m e rs . a . O p t ic a l i s om e r s c o n ta i n a t l e as t o ne as y m m et r i c , o r c h i r al , c a rb o n a tom ( i. e . , a c a r bo n a t om th a t is c o v al e n tl y b on d ed to fo u r d i ffe r e n t s u bs t it u en t s) . E ach a s ym m e t ri c c a r b on at om c an e xi s t i n o n e o f t wo n o ns u pe r im po sa b le is om e r i c f o rm s ( F i gu r e 1 2 - 12 ) .
( 1 ) E na n t i om e r s a re o pti c al is om e rs t h at a re m i rr o r im ag es o f o ne an o the r . E n a n ti om e rs ha v e id en t ic a l p h ys ic a l a nd c h em ica l pr o pe r t ie s e xc e p t t h at o n e r o ta t es t h e p l an e o f p o la r i z ed li gh t in a c l o c k wi s e d i re ct i on ( d ex t r o r o ta t o r y; d e s i gn a t ed D o r + ) a n d t he ot h e r i n a c o un t e rc lo ck wi s e d i re c t io n ( le vo r o t a t o r y; d e s i g na t e d L o r ). ( 2 ) A n e qu a l m i xt u r e o f D a n d L en an t io m e r s is ca l le d a r a ce m ic mi x t u re a n d is o p t ic al l y in ac t i v e. ( 3 ) E na n ti om e rs c a n h a ve l ar g e d if f e re nc es in pot e nc y , r ec e pt o r f i t, bi o log i c a l a c ti vi t y, t ra ns p o rt , a n d m e t a bo li s m . Th es e d i ff e ren c es re s u l t wh e n t he d rug m o le cu l e h as a n a s y m m e t r ic in t e ra ct i on wi t h a re c ep t o r, a t r an s p o r t p r ote i n , o r a m e ta b ol i z in g e n z y m e . F or e xa m p l e, le vo r p h a n ol h a s n a rc ot ic , an al g es ic , a n d a n t it us s i v e p ro p e rt ie s , w h e r ea s i ts m i r r or im ag e , d e x t r o r ph a no l , h as on l y a n t it us si v e ac t i v it y . ( 4 ) D i as t e r eo m e rs a re s t e r e oi s o m e r s, wh i c h a re n e i th e r m i r r o r i m a ge s n or s u pe r im po s ab le . A d r ug m us t ha ve at le as t t wo ch i r al c e n te rs t o e xi s t in d i as t e re om e rs . Un l ik e e na n t io m e r s, in wh i ch al l s te r e oc he m i c al c e nt e rs a re o p p os it e , d ia s t e r eo m e r s h a v e P.267 s om e s t e re oc he m i c al c en t e rs th a t a r e i de n ti c a l an d s om e th a t a r e o pp os i te . D i a st e r eo m e r s p os s e s s d i f fe r e nt ph ys ic oc he m i c al p ro p e rt i es a n d t hu s d i ffe r in p r o pe r t ie s s uc h as s o lu bi l it y , v o l at i li t y, an d m el tin g po in t .
Figure 12-12. The two enantiomers of 2hydroxybutane. The chiral, or asymmetric, carbon is bonded to four different groups: a methyl group, an ethyl group, a hydroxy group, and a hydrogen. The structures shown are mirror images, which cannot be superimposed.
Figure 12-13. Epimerization of tetracycline to 4epi-tetracycline. The stereochemistry of the 4dimethylamino group is inverted; however, the stereochemistry of all other chiral centers remains unchanged.
( 5 ) E p im e r s a r e a s pe c ia l t y pe o f d ia st e re o m e rs b e c a us e a l l e pi m e rs a re a l so d i as t e re om e rs ; h o we v e r , t h e o pp os i te is no t t r u e. E p im e rs a re c om p ou n ds t h a t a re s t r uc t ur a ll y i de n ti c a l i n al l re s p e c t s e xc e p t f o r th e s t er e oc he m i s tr y o f o n e c h i ra l c e nt e r . Th e p ro c e s s of ep i m e r iz a ti o n ( i n wh i c h th e s t e re oc h em is t r y of one c h i r al c e nt e r i s i n v e rt e d ) is im po r t a nt in d ru g d eg r a da t ion a nd in ac t i v at i on ( Fi g ure 1 2 -1 3 ). b . G e om e t r ic i so m e rs (c i s - t r an s i s om e r s ) oc c ur a s a re su l t o f re s t r ic t ed r o t at i on a r o un d a c h em ic al b on d , o wi n g to do u bl e b o nd s o r r i g i d r in g s ys te m s in th e m o le cu l e. ( 1 ) C i s -t r a n s i so m e rs ar e n ot m i r ro r im ag es an d h a v e d i f fe r en t p h y s ic och e m i ca l p r o pe r t ie s a nd ph a rm ac ol o gi c a ct i v i t y . ( 2 ) B ec au s e t he fu nc t io na l gr o up s o f t h es e i s o m er s a re s e pa r a te d b y d if f er e n t d i st a nc es , t h e y g e ne r al l y d o n o t f i t t he sa m e r ec ep t o r e q ua ll y we l l . If t he s e f u nc t io n al g ro up s a r e p ha r m ac op h or es , th e i s o m e r s wi l l d i f fe r i n b i ol o g ic a l a c t i vi t y. F o r e xa m p le , c is - d ie t h yls ti l -b es t r ol ha s o n l y 7% of t he es t ro g en ic ac t i vit y o f t ra ns - d ie t h y ls ti l be s t r ol ( F i gu r e 1 2 -1 4 ) . c . C on f o r ma t i o na l i s ome r s , al so k n o wn as r o tam e r s o r co n f o rm e r s , a re n o ns u pe r im po s a b le o ri en t a ti o ns o f a m o l ec ul e t ha t r es ul t fr om t he r ot a ti on o f a t om s a r o un d s in g le bo n ds . A lm os t e v e r y d r u g ca n e xi s t in m o re t ha n o n e c o n fo r m at i on , a n d t h is a b il i t y a l lo ws m a n y d r ug s t o b in d to m u lti p le r ec ep t o rs a n d r ec e pto r s u bt yp e s . Fo r e xa m pl e , th e t ra ns c o n fo rm a ti o n o f a c e t yl c h ol i ne bi n ds t o th e m us c ar i ni c r ec e pt o r , wh e r e as th e g a uc he c o n fo rm a ti o n b in ds to t he ni c o ti n ic r e c ep t or ( Fi g u re 12 - 15 ) . d . B i o is o st e r es a re m o le c ul es c o n ta in i ng gr o up s t h a t a re s p a ti al l y an d e l ec t r on ic al l y eq u i v al e nt a n d t h us a r e i n te r c h a ng ea b le wi t h o ut s i gn i fi ca n tl y a l te r in g t h e m ol ec u le s ' p h y s i c o c he m ic al p ro pe r t ie s. I so s te r i c r ep l ac e me n t o f fu nc t io n al g r o up s c an in c re as e p o te n c y , P.268 d e c re as e s id e e f fe c ts , s e p a ra t e b io l og ic al ac t i v iti e s , an d i nc r e as e t he du ra t i on of a c ti o n b y al t e ri n g m e t abo l is m . I n a dd it i on , is o ste r i c an a lo g s m a y a ct a n t ag o ni s t ic a ll y t o t he pa r e n t m o l ec ul e .
Figure 12-14. The presence of the double bond in diethylstilbestrol allows for the formation of cis and trans geometric isomers. Only the trans isomer has estrogenic activity.
Figure 12-15. The trans (A) and gauche (B) conformations of acetylcholine occur as the result of rotation around the carbon-carbon single bond.
( 1 ) P r o ca i na m id e , a n am i de , h as a l on g e r d ur a tio n of ac t io n t h an p r oc a in e , an e s te r , b e c a us e o f t h e i s os t e ri c r e pl ac em e nt of t he e s te r o xy g e n wi t h a ni t ro g e n a to m ( F i gu r e 1 2 - 16 ) . ( 2 ) Al l o x a nt h i ne is a n i nh i bi t o r o f xa n t hi n e o xi d as e . I t i s a ls o a n i s o st e r e o f x a n t hi n e , t he no r m a l s ub s t ra t e f o r t h e e n z ym e (F i g ur e 1 2 - 16 ) .
X. MECHANISMS OF DRUG ACTION A. I n t e r a c t io n w i th r e cep t o r s (s ee I X. B . 1 a n d 2 ) 1 . Ag o n i s ts in t e ra c t wi t h s pe c i f ic c e ll ul a r c on s ti tue n ts , k n o wn as re ce p t ors , an d e l ic i t a n o bs e r v ab le bi o lo g ic al r es po ns e . Ag on is ts ha ve b ot h a f f i ni t y f o r th e r e c ep t or a nd in t r i n si c ac t i vi t y.
Figure 12-16. Bioisosteric pairs procainamide/procaine and alloxanthine/xanthine. The isosteric replacements are boxed.
P.269
2 . P a r ti a l a g on i s ts in t e ra c t wi t h t he sa m e r ec ep to r s a s f ul l a g on is t s b ut ar e u na bl e t o el ic i t t he s a m e m a xi m u m re s p o ns e. P a rt i al ago n is ts ha ve lo we r i n t ri ns ic ac t i v it y t h a n f ul l a g on is ts ; ho we v e r , th e i r a ff i ni t y f or t he re c ep t o r c a n b e g r e at e r th a n , l es s t h a n, o r e qu a l t o t ha t of f u l l a go ni s ts . 3 . An t a g o ni s t s i nh ib i t t he ac t io ns o f a go ni s ts . a . P ha r m ac o l og i ca l an ta g o n is t s b in d t o th e s am e re c e p to r as th e a g on is t , e i th e r a t t h e s am e s it e o r at an al lo s te r ic si te . Th e y ha v e af f i ni t y f o r t he r ec ep t o r b ut l ac k i n t ri ns ic ac t i v it y . P h ar m ac o lo gi c al a n t ag on is t s c an b e s u b di v i d ed in t o r e ve r s ib le , i r r e ve rs i bl e , c o m p e ti t i v e, a n d n on c o m p e ti t i v e c ate g o ri es s i m i la r to en zy m e i nh ib i to r s ( s e e X. B . 2 ) . b . C h em i ca l a n t ag o n is ts r e ac t wi t h o ne an o th e r, r e s u l ti n g in t he in ac t i vati o n o f b o t h co m p o un ds . ( 1 ) Th e an t ic oa gu l an t hep a r i n , a n a c i di c p ol y s acc h a ri de , is c he m i ca l l y a nt a g on i z e d b y p r o t a mi n e, a b as ic p ro t e in , via an ac id - b as e in t e r ac ti o n. ( 2 ) C h el a t in g ag e n ts c an b e us e d a s a n ti d o te s fo r m e ta l po i so n i ng . E t h yl e n e d i a mi n e te t r a ace t i c a c id ( E D TA ) ch e la te s c al c i um an d l e ad ; pen i c i ll a mi n e c h el a te s c op pe r ; a n d d im e r c ap r o l c he l at es m e rc u r y , go ld , a n ti m o n y , and a rs e ni c . c . Fu n c ti o n al ( o r p h ys i c a l ) a n t ag o n is t s p r od uc e a nt a go n is ti c p h ys i ol o gic a l ac t io ns t h r o ug h b in d in g a t s ep a ra t e re c e p to r s . Th e ad r ene r g ic an d c ho li n e rg ic ne rvo u s s ys t em s f r eq ue n tl y p r odu c e t hi s t y p e o f an t ag on is m . Ac e t yl c h o l i n e c on s tr i c ts th e p u pi l b y a c t i ng on r ec ep to r s t h at co n t ro l t h e c i r c ul a r m us c l es o f t he e ye, wh e r ea s n o r e p in e p h ri n e d il a te s th e pu pi l b y a c t i ng on r ece p t o rs t h at c o n t ro l o cu lar d il a to r m us c l e s . B . I n t e ra c t io n w i th e nz ym e s 1 . Ac t i va t i o n , o r i n c r eas e d e n z ym e a c t i vi t y, c a n r es u lt f ro m i nd uc t io n of e n z y m e p r o t ei n s y n th es is b y s uc h d r ug s as ba r b it u ra t es , p h e n yto i n a nd ot h er a nt ie p il e pt ic s , r i f am pi n , a n ti hi s ta m i ne s , g r is e of u l vin , a n d o ra l c o n t r ac e pt i v es .
a . Al l o s t e ri c bi n d in g . A d r u g c a n e n ha nc e e n z y m e a c ti vi t y b y al lo s te r ic b i nd i ng , wh i c h t ri g ge r s a c on f o rm a t i on al ch a ng e i n t h e e nz ym e s y s te m a nd th u s alt e r s i ts a f f in i t y fo r s u bs t ra t e b ind i ng . b . C o en z ym e s p l a y a r o le i n o pt im i z i ng en zy m e ac t i v i t y . C o en z y m e s i nc lud e vi t a m i n s ( p ar t ic ul a r l y t he vi t a m in B co m pl e x ) an d co f a ct o r s —m ai n l y m e t a ll ic io ns +
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s uc h a s s od i um ( Na ) , po t as s i um ( K ) , m ag n es ium ( Mg (Zn
++
) , an d i r on ( Fe
++
++
) , c al c i um ( C a
++
), z i n c
) . C o e n z y m es ac ti v a t e e n zym e s b y c o m pl e xa t i on an d
s t e re oc h em ic al in t e ra c t io n . 2 . I nh i b i ti o n, o r d e c re as e d e n z ym e a c t i vi t y, c a n r es u lt f ro m d r ug s t ha t in t e r ac t wi t h t h e a po e n z y m e, t he c oe n z ym e , o r e v e n th e wh o l e e n z ym e co m p le x. Th e d r u g m i gh t m od i f y or de s t ro y th e ap o en z ym e ' s p r ot e in c o nf o rm a ti o n, r ea ct wi t h t h e c o en zym e ( th us r ed uc in g t h e e n z ym e s ys t em ' s c ap a ci t y t o f un c ti on ) , o r bin d wi t h th e e n zym e c om p le x ( r e n d e ri n g i t u n ab le t o b in d wi t h i t s su bs t r at e ) . a . R e ve r s ib l e i n hi b i t io n r e s u l ts fr o m a n o n co va le n t i nt e r ac t i o n b et we e n t h e e n zym e an d t h e d ru g . The d r ug is f r e e t o a s s oc ia te a nd di ss oc ia t e wi t h t he e n z y m e , a n d a n e q ui li b ri um e xi s ts b e t we e n b ou n d a nd f re e d r u g. b . I r r e ve r s ib l e i n hi b i t ion r es u lt s f r om a s ta bl e , c o va l e n t i n te r a c ti o n b et we e n t h e e n zym e an d t h e d ru g . On c e b ou n d t o t h e e n z y m e , t he dr u g is no t ab le t o d is s o c i a te . c . C om p e ti t i ve i nh i b it i on o c c ur s wh e n t he r e i s m u t u al l y e x c l u si ve b i nd i n g o f th e s u bs t ra t e a nd t he in hi b ito r . W hi le it is p os s i b le for c om pe t it i v e i n hi bi t o rs to b in d t o a l lo s te r ic s i te s , t he s e inh i bi t o rs ar e u su a ll y s t ru ct u r al l y s i m i la r to t he na tu r a l s u bs t ra t es an d c om pe t e wi t h t h e s ub s t r a te s f o r co m m o n b in d in g s it es . C om p et i ti v e i n hi b it i on c a n b e o v e rc om e b y i nc r ea si n g t he c on c en t r at i on of th e s u bs t ra t e . d . N o nc o m pe t i ti ve i n hib i t i o n oc cu r s wh e n a d ru g bi nd s t o a n a l l os t e r ic s i t e o n t he e n zym e . Th is b i nd in g i n du c es a co n fo r m a t io na l c h a n g e i n th e e n z y m e t h at i nh i bi ts e n zym e ac ti o n, e v en if a s ub s t ra t e is bo u nd to the e n zy m e. In c re as i ng s ub s t ra t e c o nc en t r at i on do es no t ov e r c om e th is t y pe o f in h ib i t io n . C . I n t e ra c t io n w i th D N A / R N A f o r m a t i o n a n d f u nc t i o n 1 . I nh i b i ti o n o f nu c le o t id e b io s yn t h e s i s oc cu r s wh e n f o la t e, pu r i ne , a n d p yr i m id in e a n t im e t ab o li te s in t e rf e re wi t h th e b i os yn t h es is o f p u ri ne an d pyr i m i di ne b u il d in g b lo c k s . a . F ol i c a c id an a l og s (e. g . , m et h ot r e xa t e , t ri m e t re xa t e ) i n hi bi t pu r in e a n d t h ym id y l a te s y nt h es is b y i n hi bi t in g d i h yd ro f ol a te r e d uc t as e. P.270
b . P u r i ne an a lo g s ( e .g . , 6 - m e r ca p to p ur i ne , th io gu a ni n e ) ac t as a n ta g on is t s in th e s yn t he s i s o f p u r in e b as es . Th es e a n al og s d o n o t a c t a s ac t i v e i nh i bi t or s un t i l t he y a r e c o n v e rt e d t o t he i r res p ec ti v e n uc le o ti de s . c . P yr i m i d i n e a na l o gs (e . g . , 5 - fl uo r o ur a ci l ) i nh ibi t th e s yn t he si s o f t h ym id y l i c ac i d b y i n hi bi t in g th y m id in e s y n t h e ta s e. As wi t h pu r ine a na lo g s , p y r im id in e a na l og s a r e n o t a c ti v e un t il th e y a re c o n v e rt e d t o t h ei r re s p ec t i v e nu c l e ot i de s . 2 . I nh i b i ti o n o f D N A o r R N A b i o s yn t h e s i s oc cu rs wh e n dr u gs i n te r f e re wi t h n uc l ei c a c id s yn t h es is . Th e s e d ru g s a r e us e d p r im ar i l y as an t in e op l as ti c a ge n ts fo r ca nc e r c h em ot h e ra p y .
a . D r ug s t h at in t e rf e re wi t h D N A r ep li ca t io n a n d fu n c t i on in c l u de i n t er c a l at i n g a g e nt s ( e .g . , t h e a n th r ac yc l i n e s , da c t in o m yc i n ) , a lk y l at i ng ag e nt s ( e .g ., n i t r og e n m u s t a rd s , n i t r os o u r ea s) , a nd an t im et a bo li t es . b . D r ug s t h at c a n d am a ge a nd de st r o y D N A in c l ud e c om p ou n ds th a t p ro du c e f r ee r a d ic al s ( e .g . , b l e om yc i n , t he an t h r ac yc l i n e s ) an d c om p ou n ds th a t i nh ibi t t o p oi so m e r as es ( e. g ., e pi p o d op h yl l o t o x i ns , mi to x a n t ro n e , i r i no t e ca n , t o p o t ec a n ). c . D r ug s t ha t i n te r f e re wi t h m i c r o tu b ul e a s s em bl y i n th e m e ta ph as e o f ce l l m i t os i s i n cl ud e th e vi nc a a l ka l oi d s an d p a cl i t ax e l. D . I n h ib i t io n o f p r o te i n s yn t h e s i s 1 . T et r a c yc l i n e s i nt e r fe re wi t h p ro t ei n s y n t he s i s b y i n hi bi t in g tr a ns f er R NA ( t R N A ) b i nd i ng to t he ri b os om e a n d b lo ck i ng th e re le as e o f c om p le t ed pe p ti de s f ro m th e r i b os om e . 2 . C h lo r a m ph e ni c o l a nd e r yt h r o m yc i n ( wh i c h c om p et e fo r th e s am e b in d in g s i te ) b i nd t o t he r ib os om e a n d i n hi bi t pe p ti d y l t r an s fe ra s e, bl oc k i n g f o rm a ti on o f t he p e p ti de b on d a nd in t e r rup t i ng fo r m a t io n o f th e p ep t i de c h ai n . 3 . Am i n o g l yc o s i d e s d ec r e a s e th e f i de l it y o f t r ans c ri p ti o n b y bi n di ng t o t he r i b os om e , wh i c h p e rm it s f o r m a t io n o f a n a b no r m al i ni ti a ti o n c om pl e x a n d p r o hi b it s a d di t io n o f am in o a c i ds to t he pe p ti d e ch a in . In ad d i ti on , am in og l yc os id es c au s e m is r e ad in g o f th e m es s en g e r R N A ( m R N A ) t em pla t e , s o t ha t i n co r r ec t a m i n o a c i ds a r e i n co r po r a te d i n to th e g r o wi n g p ol y p e p ti de c h ai n . 4 . Q u i nu p r i st i n a n d d a lf o p r i s t in , i n c om bi n at i on, c on st r ic t th e e xi t c ha n ne l on r i b os om al R N A ( r R N A ) . Th i s ac t io n p r e v en t s n e wl y s y n t he s i z e d p o l ype p tid e s f r om b e in g re l ea s e d a n d i n t ur n in h ib i ts fu r t he r p r o te i n s y n t he s i s . E . I n te r a c ti o n w i th ce l l m e m b ra n es 1 . D i gi t a l is gl yc o s i d e s in h ib i t t h e ce l l m e m b r a ne' s so d iu m -p o ta s s iu m p um p , +
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i n hi b it i ng th e i n fl u x o f K a n d t he ou t f lo w o f N a . 2 . Q u i ni d i ne af f ec ts t he m em b r an e p o te n ti al o f m y o c a r di al m e m b r an es b y p r o lo n gi ng bo t h t h e p ol ar i z e d an d d ep o la r i z ed s ta t e s . 3 . L oc a l a ne s t he t i cs blo c k im pu ls e c o nd uc t io n in n e r ve ce l l m e m b r a ne s b y +
+
i n t er f e ri n g wi t h m e m b r ane p e rm ea bi l it y t o Na a nd K . 4 . P o l ye n e a n t i f un g al dr u g s (e . g ., am ph o te r ic i n B , n y s ta t in ) af f ec t c el l m e m b ra ne p e r m e ab i li t y , c a us in g l eak a ge of ce ll u la r c o ns ti t ue n ts . 5 . C e r ta i n a n t ib i o t ic s (e. g . , p ol ym y xi n B , c ol is t in) a f fe c t ce l l m e m b r a ne p e r m e ab i li t y t hr o ug h a n u n k n o wn m e ch a ni s m . 6 . Ac e t yl c h o l i n e i nc r eas es m e m b r an e p e rm e ab ili t y t o c at i on s . +
+
7 . O m ep r a z o l e a nd la n so p r a z o l e i nh i bi t t h e H / K p u m p (l oc a te d i n p a r ie ta l c e ll m em b r an es ) , t h us d e c r ea s in g t h e e f fl u x o f p ro t on s i n to t he s t om ac h . 8 . S e ve ra l a n t in e op l a st ic a ge n ts e xe r t t h e ir ac t io n s b y in i ti a ll y b in di n g to c el l u la r d e t e r mi n an t s ( C Ds ) e xp r e s s e d b y t um o r ce ll s . a . G e m tu z u m ab oz o ga mi c i n b in d s wi t h C D 3 3 e xp r e s s ed b y l e uk em ic c e lls an d i m m a tu r e m y e lo m o n oc y t ic c e ll s . b . Al e m t uz u ma b , a m o no c lo n al a n ti b od y , b in ds to t he C D 5 2 a nt i ge n e xp r e s s e d o n B l ym p ho c y t es , T l y m p ho c y t e s , a n d v a r i ou s o th e r c e l ls . P.271
F . N o ns p ec i f ic ac t i o n 1 . S t ru c tu r al l y no ns p ec if ic d ru gs f or m a m o no m o le c ul a r l a y e r o ve r e n ti r e a r e as of c e r ta i n ce l ls . B ec a us e t he y i n v o l ve s uc h l ar g e su rf a c e s , t he s e d ru gs a re us u al l y g i ve n i n re la t i v el y l a rg e d o s e s . 2 . D r ug s t h at ac t b y n ons p ec if ic ac t io n i nc lu d e t he vo l a t i le ge n e ra l an e sth e t i c g a s es ( e. g ., e th e r, ni t r ou s o xi d e ) , so m e de p r es sa n t s (e . g. , e t ha n ol , c hl o ra l h yd r a t e) , an d m an y a n ti s e p t ic c om po u nd s ( e .g . , ph e n ol , ru bb i ng al c o h ol ) . P.272
STUDY QUESTIONS D i r e c t i on s : E a c h of t he q u es t io ns , s t at em e nt s , or i nc om p le t e s t a te m en ts i n th is s ec t io n c a n b e c o r r ec t l y a n s we r e d o r c om pl e te d b y o n e o f th e s ug g es te d a n s we r s o r p h r as es . Ch o os e t h e b es t a ns we r . 1 . A 4 0 - ye a r - o l d m a n co m p la i n s o f d ys u r i a a nd u r i na r y u r g e n c y a n d i s d i a g no s ed t o h a ve un co m p l ic a te d go n oc o cc a l u r e t h r i ti s . He is g i ve n p r o c a in e p e n ic i l l in G i nt r a mu s cul a r l y. I n a d di t i o n, p r ob en e c id i s g i ve n to p r ol on g t he d u r a t i on o f a c ti o n o f pen i c i ll i n . T h is t yp e o f c om b i ne d d r ug e ff e c t i s kn ow n as ( A ) s yn er g is m . ( B ) c om pe t it i v e a n ta g on is m . ( C ) a d di ti o n. ( D ) p o te n ti a ti on . ( E ) n on c o m p e ti t i v e a n tag o ni s m . V i e w A n s we r 1 . T h e a n sw e r i s D [ se e] . 2 . A 4 0 - ye a r - o ld t ea c he r w a s p r e s c r ib e d l o va s ta t i n fo r t h e t re a tm e n t o f h yp e r c h o le s te r o l em i a. S he w an t e d t o k n ow t he me c ha n is m of t h e d ru g be f o r e t ak i n g i t . H e r p h a r ma c is t e x p la i n ed t o h e r t ha t l o va st a t in ac t s b y b l o c k i n g t h e s ub s t ra t e - b in d in g si t e o f t he e n z ym e β h yd r o x y- β - m e t h yl g l u t a r yl - c o e n z ym e A ( H M G - C o A) r e d u c t as e , w hi c h ca t a l yz e s t h e r a te - l im i t in g st e p i n c h o le s te r o l b i o s yn t h e s i s . S uc h d r u g e f f ec t is k n ow n a s ( A ) a dd i ti o n. ( B ) s yn er g is m . ( C ) n o nc om pe t it i v e a n tag o ni s m . ( D ) p o te n ti a ti on . ( E ) c om pe t it i v e a n ta g on is m . V i e w A n s we r 2 . T h e a n sw e r i s E [s e e] . 3 . A 7 0 - ye a r - o l d m a n h ad p r o lo n ge d b l e ed i n g d u r i ng an e le ct i ve k n ee su r g e r y. S u b s e q ue n t l y, t h e p a t i en t a d m i t te d to t h e su r g e on t ha t he had b ee n se l f -a d m in i s te r in g 81 m g as p i r in da i l y. T h e c o n su l t an t p ha r m ac i st e x p la i n ed t o t h e p a ti e nt t h a t , a l th o u gh as p i r in h a s a s h o r t pl a sm a h a l f -l i f e, it c a n i r r e ve r s ib l y i n h i b it p l a te l e t f u nc t i on b y a c e t yl a t i n g t h e no n s ub s t r at e - bi n d in g s i te o f t h e p la t e le t cyc l o o x yg e n a s e , r e su l t in g i n p r o l o n ge d e f f ec t on p lat e l e t a g g re g a ti o n . T h is d r u g e ff e c t i s k n ow n a s ( A ) p o te n ti at i on .
( B ) c om pe t it i v e a n ta g on is m . ( C ) s yn e rg is m . ( D ) a d di ti o n. ( E ) n on c o m p e ti t i v e a n tag o ni s m . V i e w A n s we r 3 . T h e a n sw e r i s E [s e e] . 4 . A 6 5 - ye a r - o l d w om a n w i t h i n t r a c ta b le p ai n s e co n da r y t o b o n y m e t a s t a si s o f b r ea s t c a nc e r ha d be e n r e c e i vi n g e sc a la t i ng d os e s o f mo r p h in e s u l fa te i n t r a ve no u sl y. At 1 0 A. M . , s h e w a s f o un d to b e u n r es po n s i ve , h e r r es p i ra t o r y r a t e w a s 4 b r e a th s pe r m i n u te , a n d he r p up i ls w e r e p i n- p o i n te d . Na l ox o n e, a co m p e ti t i ve an t a go n i st o f t h e o p i a te r e ce p to r , w a s g ive n i n t r a ve n ou s l y a n d r e p e a te d o n ce . S he g r ad u a l l y b e c am e c o ns c io u s a n d b e g an t o c o mp l ai n o f pa i n un r e l ie ve d b y m o r p h i n e g i ve n a t t h e p r e vi o us do s e. Th i s is mo s t l i ke l y b e c au s e ( A ) n al o xo n e di r ec t l y a gg r a v a t es th e p ai n c au s ed b y t he bo n y m e ta s ta s i s. ( B ) n al o xo n e r ed uc es the E m a x f o r m or p hi n e. ( C ) n al o xo n e r ed uc es t he E D 5 0 f o r m or p hi n e. ( D ) n al o xo n e in c re as es th e Em a x f o r m o r ph i ne . ( E ) n al o xo n e in c re as es th e E D 50 fo r m o r ph i ne . V i e w A n s we r 4 . T h e a n sw e r i s E [s e e] . 5 . W h ic h o f t h e f o l low i n g s t a te me n t s r e g a r d in g si g na l t r an s du c t i on i s i n co r r e c t? ( A ) Th yr o xi n e - b o un d re c e p t o rs a c t o n D N A an d re g ul a te sp ec i fi c t r an sc r ip t i on of g e n es . ( B ) C yc l ic a d en os i ne m on o p ho s p ha t e c an ac t a s a s e c o n d m es s e ng e r . ( C ) Th e l e v el of d ru g re c e p t o rs a t th e c el l s u rf ac e i nc r e as es wi t h c h ro ni c s t i m u l at i on b y r e ce p to r ag o ni s t s . ( D ) B i nd i ng of li g an d t o c e ll - s u r fa ce r ec ep t o rs c an l ea d t o s y n t he si s o f p ro t e in s. ( E ) A n ta c i d s ac t b y i n te ra c ti n g wi t h sm al l i on s n or m a ll y f ou n d i n t he ga s t ro i n te s t i na l t r a ct . V i e w A n s we r 5 . T h e a n sw e r i s C [ se e] . 6 . A p h a rm a c is t is co n s ul t e d a bo u t s e l ec t i ng a d r u g t h a t i s r e l a t i ve l y s a f e a n d e f fec t i ve f o r t re a t in g t he pa t i e n t. H e s e a r ch e s t h e l i te r a t u r e a n d ob t a in s th e fo l l ow in g d at a th a t m a y h e l p g u i d e h i s d e c is i o n. T he T D 0 . 1 a n d E D 9 9 . 9 f o r d r ug A a r e 20 m g a nd 0. 4 m g , r e sp ec t i ve l y; w h e re a s t h e T D 0 . 1 a nd E D 9 9 . 9 fo r d r u g B a r e 1 5 m g a n d 0 .2 m g , re s pe c ti ve l y. W h i c h o f th e fo l l ow in g s t a t em e n ts is t r ue ? ( A ) D r u g A ha s a hi gh e r TD 0 . 1 a n d t h us s ho u ld be t h e d r ug of ch oi c e. ( B ) B o th d ru gs ha v e t he s am e m a rg i n o f s af e t y, so m o r e i n fo r m a t io n i s n ee d e d. ( C ) D r u g B h as a hi g he r m a r gi n o f s af e t y an d t h us is pr e fe r r e d t o d r ug A . ( D ) D r u g A is p re f e rr e d be c au s e it ha s a g re a te r m a r gi n o f s af e t y th a n d ru g B . ( E ) Th e in f o rm a ti on ob t ain e d i s i r re l e van t . V i e w A n s we r 6 . T h e a n sw e r i s C [ se e] . P . 27 3
7 . W hi c h o f th e fo l l ow in g s ta t e me n ts c on c e rn in g a d r u g re c ep t o r is t ru e ? ( A ) I t m ed i at es t he no ns p e c i f ic a c ti on o f vo l at i le a n es t he t ic s . ( B ) I ts e xp r e s s io n i s i ndu c ed on l y b y e xo g en o us ly a d d ed d ru gs . ( C ) I t c a n b in d e nd o ge n ou s l i ga nd t o p r od uc e p h ys i o l og ic a l ac t i v i t y .
( D ) I t m e di a te s t he c a t har t i c ac t i v i t y o f m a gn es ium c i t ra t e . ( E ) D o wn - r e g ul a ti on o f re c ep t o r l e v el c a n l ea d t o s en s i t i za ti on o f t he ta r ge t ce ll to t h e re ce p to r ag o ni s t . V i e w A n s we r 7 . T h e a n sw e r i s C [ se ea n d] .8 . W h ic h o f t h e f o l low i n g s t a t em e n ts co n ce r n i ng m o r p h in e a n d h yd r o m o r p h o n e i s t r u e ? ( A ) H yd r o m o r ph o ne is a m o r e e ff e c t i v e a n al ge si c b ec a us e i t h as a s m al l er E D 5 0 th a n m o r ph in e . ( B ) Mo r p h i n e a nd h y d rom o r ph on e a r e e q ua ll y p ot e n t b ec au s e t he y h a v e th e s am e E max. ( C ) Mo r p h i n e h as a g re at e r E D 50 an d i s t h us a les s e f fe c ti v e an al g es ic tha n h yd r o m o r ph o ne . ( D ) H yd r o m o r ph o ne is a m o r e p ot e nt an a lg es ic be c au s e it ha s a g re a te r E m a x t h a n m o r ph in e . ( E ) H yd r o m o r ph o ne ha s a s m al l e r E D 5 0 a nd t hu s i s a m o r e p ot e nt a na lg esi c th an m o r ph in e . V i e w A n s we r 8 . T h e a n sw e r i s E [s e ea n d] . 9 . A 72 - ye a r - o l d m an w i t h h yp e r t e n s i o n h a s b ee n t a k i ng h ig h - do s e p r o p ra n o l ol f o r 2 0 ye a r s . H e l e f t ho m e f o r a w ee k a n d fo r g o t to b r i n g h is me d i ca t i on w i t h h im . O n e d a y, h e w a s f o un d c o l l ap s ed on t he f l oo r a n d w as b r ou g h t t o t he e m e rg e nc y r o o m . H i s b l o o d p r e s su r e w as 3 00 / 18 0 , h e a r t ra t e w as 18 0 b e a ts p e r m i nu t e , a n d r e t ina l h e m o r r ha g e w a s o b se r ve d . W h ic h of t he f o ll ow i ng b es t ex p la i ns t h is s i t ua t i o n? ( A ) Th e β - ad r e ne r gi c r ec e p t o rs i n t h e c ar d ia c m us c l es un d e r we n t s po n ta ne o us m u ta t io n a n d b ec am e h y p e r ac t i ve. ( B ) R e du c ti on in t he c h ro n ic an t ag o ni s m o f th e β- a d r en e rg ic r ec ep t o r l ed t o do wn r e g ul a ti o n o f t h e β - ad r e ne r g ic re ce p t or . ( C ) Th e p r op r an o lo l t h at h e ha d p r e v io u sl y in g es te d r em ai ne d i n h is bo d y a n d a c t e d a s a r ec ep t o r a go n is t. ( D ) L o ng - te r m a dm in is t ra t i on of p ro p ra n ol o l r es ul t s i n d es en s i t i za ti on o f c a r di ac m us c l e s t o e nd o ge no u s β - a d r en e r gi c st im u la t io n . ( E ) R e du c ti on in t he c h ro n ic le v e l o f re c e p to r bl oc k a d e r es u lt s i n s up e rs en s it i v i t y to s t im ul a ti o n wi t h en d og e no u s c a t ec h ol am in es . V i e w A n s we r 9 . T h e a n sw e r i s E [s e e] . 1 0. A 4 2 - ye a r - o ld ma n w i t h c h r oni c l ym p h o c yt i c l e u k em i a un d e r g oi n g th e r ap y m e n t i o n ed t o h i s p h a rm a cis t t h at h is d o c t o r h a d p r e sc r i be d r i t u x im a b fo r t r ea t i ng hi s ca n ce r . Th e pa t i en t as k e d w h a t r i t u x im a b i s a n d h ow i t w o r ks . H is p ha r m ac i st e x p la i n ed t o h im t ha t r it u x i ma b i s a m o no c lo n a l a n ti b od y t h a t ( A ) i nh i bi ts D N A s y n t he s i s . ( B ) b lo c k s c e l l c y c l e p r og r e s s io n . ( C ) b in d s t o c e l l s u r f ac e m o le c u l es . ( D ) b o os ts th e i m m un e re s po ns e . V i e w A n s we r 1 0 . T he a nsw e r i s C [ se e] . 1 1. A 6 5 -ye a r - o l d w om a n e x p e ri e nc e d a n gi n a l p ai n w i t h ST se g me n t e l eva t i o n o n E K G . S he w as t r e a te d w i t h I V he p a ri n , n i t r o glyc e r i n , a n d a t e no l o l f o r a c u te m yo c a r d i a l in f a rc t i o n . T h e n 2 h r l a te r , w h en he r n u r se r e pl a ce d h e r Fo l e y b a g , sh e no t i ce d fr a n k b l o o d d r a in i n g o u t o f th e F ol e y c a t h e t e r . Th e p h ys i c i a n ch e ck e d t h e p a t i en t ' s
p a r t i a l t h r om b i n t i me w h i c h w as > 1 50 s . Th e pa t i e n t w a s t h e n a dm i n is t e r e d p r o t a mi n e , w h i ch ac t s b y ( A ) p r om ot i ng th r om b os is . ( B ) r e ac ti n g wi t h he p a ri n a n d t hu s n eu t r al i z i ng the e f fe ct of h ep a ri n . ( C ) d i re c tl y i nh ib i ti n g b lee d in g . ( D ) e n ha nc in g s ec r e ti on o f p ro c o a gu la n ts . V i e w A n s we r 1 1 . T he a nsw e r i s B [ se e] . 1 2. A 4 5 -ye a r - o l d m a n w i th ac u te p r o m ye l o c yt i c l e u k em ia i s b e in g t r ea t ed w i t h a l l - t r an s - r e ti n o ic ac i d (AT R A) . H e a s k s t h e p ha r m ac i s t i f AT R A w o rk s li k e vi t a m in A a s a h e al t h su p pl em e n t . T he p h a r ma c is t ex p la i n ed th a t AT R A i s a f o r m o f vi t a m in A t h a t ac t s b y ( A ) im p r o v in g i m m un e f un c ti o ns . ( B ) i nh i bi ti n g l eu k e m i c c e l l s ec r et i on . ( C ) l im i ti ng le uk em ic c e ll g r o wt h . ( D ) i nd u c i ng di f fe r e nt i at io n of le uk em ic c e ll s . V i e w A n s we r 1 2 . T he a nsw e r i s D [ se e] . 1 3. A 5 5 -ye a r - o l d m a n w i th a h i s t o r y o f h e a v y s m o k in g h ad be e n d i ag n o se d w i th n on - sm a l lc e ll l ung c an c e r , w h ic h w as t r ea t e d w i t h c h e mo t h e ra p y; h i s d i s ea s e p r o g r es s ed . H e i s n ow r e c e i vi n g e r l ot i n ib , an d h e as ks h is p ha r ma c i st h ow e r lo t i ni b w o r ks . T h e p h a r ma c is t ex p la i n s t ha t e r l ot i n ib ac t s b y ( A ) i nh i bi ti n g p r ot e in t y ro s in e k in as e a c ti vi t y of tu m o r c e l ls . ( B ) d ec r ea s i n g l e v el of pr o t ei n t yr os in e k in as e o f t u m o r c e ll s . ( C ) i nc r ea s i n g l ig an d bi nd i ng o f p r ot e in t y r os in e k i n as e o f tu m o r c el ls . ( D ) i nd u c i ng t um or c e ll di f f e re n ti a ti on . V i e w A n s we r 1 3 . T he a nsw e r i s A [ se e] . P . 27 4
1 4 . W h i ch o f t h e f o l low in g d r u g- a c ti o n p a i rs i nvo l ve s s p ec i f ic r e ce p t or s ? ( A ) Ma g n e s i um s u l fa t e fo r t r ea tm e nt o f c o ns t ip a ti o n . ( B ) C a lc iu m c a rb on a te f or r e li e f o f h e ar t bu r n . ( C ) D e s fl u ra n e f o r i nd uc in g s e da t io n . ( D ) Ta m o xi f e n fo r th e ra py o f b re a st c a nc e r. ( E ) S o r bi t ol fo r re d uc in g i n t ra c ra n ia l h y p e r te ns io n . V i e w A n s we r 1 4 . T he a nsw e r i s D [ se e] . 1 5. W hi c h o f t he f o ll ow i n g s al t s w i l l m os t li k el y yi e l d a n a q ue o us so l u t io n w i th a p H < 7? ( A ) S o di um s a li c y la t e ( B ) P o ta s s i um c hl o ri d e ( C ) Ma g n e s iu m s u l fa t e ( D ) P o t as s i um p e ni c i ll i n ( E ) A t r op i ne s u lf a te V i e w A n s we r 1 5 . T he a nsw e r i s E [s e e] . 1 6. Wh i c h o f t he f o ll ow i n g c h e mi c al / p ha r m ac o lo g ic a l c l as s es o f a ge n t s is i n co r r e c tl y m a t ch e d w i t h i t s a c i d -b a se na t u r e? ( A ) A d r en e rg ic β 2 -a g on is t s : b as ic ( B ) P r os t ag l an di n s : ac id ic ( C ) O r g a ni c n it r a te s : n one l ec t r ol y t es
( D ) Me g l i t in i de s : ac id ic ( E ) 4 - Q ui n ol o ne s : ba s i c V i e w A n s we r 1 6 . T he a nsw e r i s E [s e ea n d] . 1 7. Al l o f t he f ol l ow i ng m e d ic i na l ag e n ts a re c la s s i fi e d a s n a tu r a l p r od u c t s e xc e p t ( A ) a t ro p in e . ( B ) d ia z e p am . ( C ) d ig i to xi n . ( D ) p e ni c i ll in . ( E ) m or p hi n e. V i e w A n s we r 1 7 . T he a nsw e r i s B [ se ea n d] .1 8 . Al l o f t he f ol l ow i ng s t a t em e n ts ab o u t a s t ru c t u r al l y s p e c i f ic ag o ni s t a re t r u e e xc e pt w h i ch o n e? ( A ) A c ti v i t y is de t er m i n ed m o r e b y i ts c h em ic al s tr u c tu r e t h an b y i t s p h ys ic a l p r o pe r t ie s . ( B ) Th e e nt i re m o le c u l e is in v o l ve d i n b in di n g t o a s p ec i fi c e nd o ge n ou s re c ep t o r. ( C ) Th e d r ug c a nn o t ac t u n le s s it is fi r st bo u nd to a r ec ep t o r. ( D ) A m i n or s t r uc t u ra l c ha n g e in a p h ar m a c op ho re ca n p r o du ce a l os s in a c ti v i t y. ( E ) Th e hi g he r th e a f fi n ity b e t we e n th e d r ug a nd it s re c ep t or , th e g r ea t e r th e b i ol o gi c a l re s p on s e. V i e w A n s we r 1 8 . T he a nsw e r i s B [ se e] . 1 9. T he de x t r o ( D ) f o r m o f βm e t h ac h ol i ne ( s t ru c t u re s how n ) i s a pp r o x im a te l y 5 0 0 t i me s m o r e a c tive t h a n t h e le vo ( L ) e n a nt i o me r. T h e o bs e r ve d di f f e r enc e i n p ha r m ac o l og i ca l a c t i vi t y b e tw e e n t h e tw o is o mer s i s m o s t l ik e l y t h e r e s u l t of d i ff e r e nc es i n
( A ) r ec e pt o r s el ec t i v i t y . ( B ) d is s o lu t io n . ( C ) d is t ri b u ti on . ( D ) i n te r a to m i c d is ta nc e b e t we e n p h a rm ac op h or e g r o u p s . ( E ) s ol ub i li t y . V i e w A n s we r 1 9 . T he a nsw e r i s A [ se e] . e na n t i ome r 2 0 . T h e c om p o un d s h ow n be l ow c a n b e c la s s i fi e d a s a
( A ) p en ic i ll in . ( B ) t hi a z i de . ( C ) c ou m a r in . ( D ) p h en o th ia z i n e. ( E ) h yd an t oi n . V i e w A n s we r 2 0 . T he a nsw e r i s B [ se ea n d] .2 1 . Wh i c h o f t he f ol l ow i ng aci d s h a s th e hi g he s t d e g re e o f i o ni za t i o n i n a n a q ueo u s s o l u ti o n ? ( A ) A sp i r in ; p K a = 3 .5 ( B ) I n do m e t ha c i n ; p K a = 4 . 5 ( C ) W ar fa r in ; pK a = 5 .1 ( D ) I b up r o fe n ; p K a = 5. 2 ( E ) P h en o ba r bi t al ; p K a = 7 . 4 V i e w A n s we r 2 1 . T he a nsw e r i s A [ se e] . P . 27 5
2 2 . W h i ch o f t h e f o l low in g s ta t e me n ts c on c e rn in g t he s t r uc t u r e s how n b e l ow i s n o t co r r e c t ?
( A ) Th e c o m p o un d i s a n a c id . ( B ) Th e c o m p o un d c an be us e d t o t r e at a rt h ri t is . ( C ) Th e c o m p o un d i s a fe n am a te . ( D ) Th e c o m p o un d i nc r ea s es p r os t ag l an d in pr o du c ti o n . ( E ) Th e c o m p o un d i s a no n s t e r oi da l a n ti - in f la m m a t o r y d ru g ( N S AI D ) . V i e w A n s we r 2 2 . T he a nsw e r i s D [ se e] . 2 3. Al l o f t h e f ol l ow i ng c la ss e s of d r u g s a r e us e d t o t re a t h yp e r t e n s i o n e xc e p t ( A ) a r yl o xy p r o p a no la m i ne s . ( B ) t hi a z i de s . ( C ) f i br a t es . ( D ) d ih yd r o p y r id in es . ( E ) a ng i ot e ns in - c o n v e r tin g en z ym e ( A C E ) i nh ib i to r s . V i e w A n s we r 2 3 . T he a nsw e r i s C [ se e] . 2 4. F lu r a z e p a m h as p K a o f 8 . 2 . W h a t p e r ce n t ag e of f l u ra z ep a m w i l l b e io n iz e d a t a u r i n e p H o f 5 .2 ? ( A ) 0 . 1% (B) 1% (C) 50% (D) 99% ( E ) 9 9 .9 % V i e w A n s we r 2 4 . T he a nsw e r i s E [s e ea n d] . D i r e cti o n s fo r q ue s ti o n s 2 5- 29 : Th e q u es ti o ns a n d i nc om p l e te s t a te m e n ts i n t h is s ec t io n c a n b e co r r ec t l y a n s we r e d o r co m p l et e d b y o ne o r m o r e o f th e s ug g es t ed an s we r s . Ch o os e t he an s we r , A - E . 2 5 . D r ug s th a t a c t s ys t e m i ca l l y m u s t I . u nd e r g o b i o t ra n s fo rm a t i on i nt o an ac t i ve fo r m a f te r r ea c h in g th e ir a c t i ve site. I I . be i n a fo r m ca p ab l e o f p as sa g e t h r o ug h var i o u s m e mb r a ne b a r ri e rs . I I I . be in o r b e c o n ve r t ed t o a f o r m t h a t i s r e a di l y e x c r e t e d f r o m th e bo d y. A i f I o n l y i s c o r re c t B i f II I on l y i s c o r r ec t C i f I a n d I I a r e c or r ec t
D i f II a nd I II a re c o r re c t E i f I, I I, an d II I ar e c o r re c t V i e w A n s we r 2 5 . T he a nsw e r i s D [ se ea n d] .2 6 . E xa m p le s o f s t ro n g e l e c t ro l yt e s ( i . e. , co m pl e t e l y d i s s o c i at e d i n a n a q ue o u s s ol u t i on ) in c lu d e I . a ce t ic ac i d . I I . pe n t ob a r b i ta l s o d ium . I I I . di p he n h yd r a m i n e h yd r o c h lo r i d e. A i f I o n l y i s c o r re c t B i f II I on l y i s c o r r ec t C i f I a n d I I a r e c or r ec t D i f II a nd I II a re c o r re c t E i f I, I I, an d II I ar e c o r re c t V i e w A n s we r 2 6 . T he a nsw e r i s D [ se e] . p e nt o b a rb i t a l s o d i um d ip h e nh y d ra m ine h yd r o c hl o r i de 2 7. P r ec i p i ta t i o n m a y o c c u r w h e n m i x in g aq u eo u s s o lu t i on s o f m ep e r i di n e h yd r o c h l o r id e w i th w h i ch o f th e f o l l ow i ng so l u t io n s? I . S o di u m b i ca r b o na t e in j e c ti o n I I . At r o p i n e s u lf a t e i n jec t i o n I I I . So d i um ch l o r id e in je c t i on A i f I o n l y i s c o r re c t B i f II I on l y i s c o r r ec t C i f I a n d I I a r e c or r ec t D i f II a nd I II a re c o r re c t E i f I, I I, an d II I ar e c o r re c t V i e w A n s we r 2 7 . T he a nsw e r i s A [ se ea n d] .2 8 . D ru g s c l a ss i f ie d a s a n t i me t a bo l i te s i n c lu d e w h ic h o f t he f ol l ow i ng? I . 5 - fl u o r ou r a c il I I . su l f is o xa z ol e I I I . di g ox i n A i f I o n l y i s c o r re c t B i f II I on l y i s c o r r ec t C i f I a n d I I a r e c or r ec t D i f II a nd I II a re c o r re c t E i f I, I I, an d II I ar e c o r re c t V i e w A n s we r 2 8 . T he a nsw e r i s C [ se e] . 2 9. T he ex c r e t io n o f a w ea k l y a c i d ic d ru g is ge n e r al ly m o r e r a p i d in a lk a li ne u r i ne t ha n in ac i d ic ur i n e . T h i s p r o c es s oc c u rs be c au se I . a w ea k a c id i n a lk a li ne m ed i a w il l e x is t p r ima r i l y i n i t s io n iz e d f o r m, w hi c h c a n no t be r e ab s o r be d ea s i l y. I I . a w e a k a ci d in al k al in e me d ia w i l l e x is t in i ts l i po p h il i c f o r m , w h i ch c a nn o t b e r ea b s o rb e d e as i l y. I I I . a l l d r u g s a r e e xc r e te d mo r e r ap i d l y i n a n al k a l in e u r i n e. A i f I o n l y i s c o r re c t B i f II I on l y i s c o r r ec t C i f I a n d I I a r e c or r ec t
D i f II a nd I II a re c o r re c t E i f I, I I, an d II I ar e c o r re c t V i e w A n s we r 2 9 . T he a nsw e r i s A [ se e] . P . 27 6
Q u e s t i on s 3 0 - 33 , re f e r to t he d ru g m ep e ri d in e (s t r u ct u r e sh o wn ) . 3 0 . Fu n c ti o na l g ro u p s p r e s en t i n t h e m ol e cu l e s h ow n i n cl u d e I . a n e s te r . I I . a t e r t ia r y a m i n e . I I I . a ca r b o x yl i c a c i d .
V i e w A n s we r 3 0 . T he a nsw e r i s C [ se ea n d] .3 1 . M e p e r i di n e i s c l as s i fi e d a s a I . w e ak ac i d . I I . sa l t . I I I . w ea k b a se .
V i e w A n s we r 3 1 . T he a nsw e r i s B [ se ea n d] .3 2 . As s u m in g t ha t m e pe r i d i ne i s a bs o r be d a f t e r o r a l ad m i n is t r a t io n a n d t h a t a l a r ge pe r c en t a ge o f th e d os e i s e x c r e te d u n ch a n ge d , t he e f fe c t o f al k a li n iz a ti on o f t he u ri n e w il l in c r ea s e i t s I . d u ra t i o n o f a c t io n . I I . r a te o f e xc r e t io n . I I I . io n iz a ti o n i n t he gl om e r u la r f i l t ra t e .
V i e w A n s we r 3 2 . T he a nsw e r i s A [ se ea n d] .3 3 . T he a pp r o p r i at e c h em i ca l c l a ss i f ic a t io n fo r m ep er i d i n e i s I . p he n yl p r o p yl a m i n e . I I . p ip e r az i ne . I I I . 4 - p he n yl p i p e r i d in e .
V i e w A n s we r 3 3 . T he a nsw e r i s B [ se ea n d] . Di r e c ti o n s fo r q ue s ti o n s 3 4- 38 : Th e r e la t io n s h ip of e ac h p a i r o f s t ru c tu r es s h o wn i n th is s e ct i on is m os t c lo s el y a ss o ci at e d wi t h o ne o f th e fo l lo wi n g te r m s . Th e te r m s m a y b e us e d m o r e t h a n o nc e o r n ot at al l . Ch oo s e t he b e s t a ns we r , A- E . 34.
A G e o m e t r ic i s o m e r s B E n a nt i om e rs C D i a s t e re om e rs D B i o is os te r es E C o n fo r m a t io n al is om ers V i e w A n s we r 3 4 . T he a nsw e r i s C [ se e] . 3 5.
A G e o m e t r ic i s o m e r s B E n a nt i om e rs C D i a s t e re om e rs D B i o is os te r es E C o n fo r m a t io n al is om ers V i e w A n s we r 3 5 . T he a nsw e r i s B [ se e] . P . 27 7
36.
A G e o m e t r ic i s o m e r s B E n a nt i om e rs C D i a s t e re om e rs D B i o is os te r es E C o n fo r m a t io n al is om ers V i e w A n s we r 3 6 . T he a nsw e r i s A [ se e] . 3 7.
A G e o m e t r ic i s o m e r s B E n a nt i om e rs C D i a s t e re om e rs D B i o is os te r es E C o n fo r m a t io n al is om ers V i e w A n s we r 3 7 . T he a nsw e r i s D [ se e] . 3 8.
A G e o m e t r ic i s o m e r s B E n a nt i om e rs C D i a st e re om e rs D B i o is os te r es E C o n fo r m a t io n al is om ers V i e w A n s we r 3 8 . T he a nsw e r i s E [s e e] . P . 27 8
ANSWERS AND EXPLANATIONS 1 . T he an sw e r is D [ s ee V . C ] .
P r o b en ec i d a lo ne is in ac t i v e ag a in s t go n oc oc c i . H o we ve r , i t c a n co m p e t e wi t h p e ni ci l li n f o r u r in a r y e xc re t i on . Th us pr o be n ec id c a n r ed uc e t h e e li m i na t ion r a te of p e ni ci l li n , wh o s e d u ra t ion o f a c t i on be co m e s p r olo n g ed . Th e re f or e , p r ob en e c i d p o t en t ia t es th e a c t i v i t y of p en ic i ll in wh e n th e t wo a r e gi v e n t o ge t he r . 2 . T he an sw e r is E [ s e e I I . B .4 . a; I V . D .3 ] . L o va st a ti n re v e r s i b l y b i nd s to th e s ub s tr a te - b in din g s i te o f t he en z ym e HM G - C o A r e d uc t as e, wh i c h c a t al y z e s th e r a te - l im it in g s t ep i n th e s y n t he s i s o f c ho les t e ro l , t h us lo we r i n g t h e c h o le s te r o l l e vel . Th e re f o re , l o va s ta t in in h ib i ts t h e e n zy m e b y c om p et i ti v e an t ag o ni s m . 3 . T he an sw e r is E [ s e e I I . B .4 . b; I V . D .4 ] . A s p ir i n ca n c o v a le n tl y m o d i f y th e p la t el e t c yc l o o xy g e n as e th r ou g h ac e t y lat i o n o f t h e e n zym e ot h er t ha n t h e s u b s t r a te - bi n di n g si t e, c au s in g i r r e v e rs ib le in h ib i tio n of p l a te le t ag g re g at i on . The r e f or e , a s p i ri n i n hi bi t s p l a te le t fu nc t io n b y n on c o m pe t it i v e a n t ag o ni s m o f c y c lo o xy g e n as e . 4 . T he an sw e r is E [ s e e I V . D . 3] . N a l o xo n e is a c o m p e ti t i ve a nt a go n is t o f o pi a te r ec e pt o r . I f o n e c o m p a r es t h e l o g d o se - r es po ns e c u r v e o f b o t h m o r p hi ne an d n a lo x o n e t o th a t o f m o r p hi ne a l on e , t h e m o r ph in e - na lo xo n e c ur v e is s h i ft e d t o t he r ig h t. A s a r es u lt , th e E D 5 0 fo r m o r ph in e i s i n c re as ed . Th is m e an s th a t a la r g er t ha n p r e v io us do s e o f m o r p hi ne is req u i re d fo r a c hi e v i ng th e s am e a na lg e s i c e f fe ct . 5 . T he an sw e r is C [ s ee I I I . D .4 ] . Th e l e ve l o f d r ug r ec ep to r s a t th e c el l s u rf ac e u s u a ll y d ec r ea s e s wh e n t he t a rg e t c e ll s a r e c h r o ni c a ll y s ti m u l a te d b y r ec e pt o r a g on is t s . D o wn - r e gu la t io n o f re c ep t o rs i s a p ro t ec ti v e m e c h a ni s m t ha t c an p re v e n t t he ta r g e t c e l ls f r om be i ng o ve r s ti m u l at e d. 6 . T he an sw e r is C [ s ee V I . C ] . Th e m a rg i n o f s a f e t y o f th e t wo d ru gs ca n b e h e lp f u l i n g ui di n g s e l ec ti o n o f a d r ug . Ma r g i n o f s af e t y is th e ra t i o o f TD 0 . 1 t o E D 9 9 . 9 . Th u s t he m a r gi n o f s a fe t y f o r d ru g A i s 2 0 m g ÷ 0 .4 m g , o r 50, wh e r e as t he m a r gi n o f s a fe t y f o r d r ug B i s 1 5 m g ÷ 0 .2 m g , o r 7 5 . Be c a us e d r ug B h as a g re a te r m a r gi n o f s a f et y t h an dr u g A , dru g B i s r e l at i ve l y s a fe at t he do s a g e g i v e n t o p r od uc e t h e d es i r ed ef f ec t . 7 . T he an sw e r is C [ s ee I I . B .2 ; II I . D .4 ; II I . E .1 . a a n d b ] . A d r ug r ec ep t o r, s u c h as m us c a r in ic ch ol i ne r gi c re c ep t o r, wh i c h ca n b in d a t r o pi ne , n o r m a ll y b in ds en d og e nou s a c e t yl c h o li ne to p ro du c e t he ph ys i ol og ic a l r es p o ns es c o nt r o ll ed b y th e p a r as ym p at h et ic au t on o m i c n ervo u s s y s t em . V o la t il e a ne s th e ti cs a c t c ol li g at i v e l y a s s ol u te s i n th e l ip i d b il a ye r o f t h e c el l m em b ra n e. D r ug r e c e p to r s a r e en do g en o us l y e xp r e s s e d , b u t t he i r l e vel c a n b e m o du l at e d b y e xo g e no u sl y a d d ed dr u gs . Th e c a t ha rt i c a c t i v i t y o f m a gn es i um c i tr a te is a c o ns e qu e nc e o f i n c re as e i n t h e os m o l a ri ty o f t he ga s tr o in t es ti n al f l u id s . D o wn - r e gu la t io n of r ec e pt o r l e ve l c an le a d t o d es en s it i z a t io n , n o t se ns i ti z a t ion , o f t he ta r g et c e ll to t he r ec e pt o r a g o ni st . 8 . T he an sw e r is E [ s e e I V . D . 1 a nd 2] . Th e e f fi c ac y o f a d r ug is d e t e rm in ed b y it s E m a x , wh e r e a s i ts po t en c y is m e a su r ed b y t h e E D 5 0 . H y d ro m o r p ho ne h as a sm al le r E D 5 0 a nd t hu s i s a m o re po t en t an a lg e s i c t h a n m o r p hi ne . H y d r om or p h on e a n d m o r p hi ne a re b ot h a g on is ts f o r o pi a te
r e c ep t or s , a nd th e y h a v e t h e s am e a na lg e s i c e ff ic a c y ( i. e . , t he y h a v e t h e sa m e E m a x ) i f s u ff ic i en t a m o u n ts o f b ot h d r u gs a r e u se d. 9 . T he an sw e r is E [ s e e I I I . D .6 ] . A c h ro ni c l e v e l o f b lo c k in g th e β -a d r en e rg ic r ec ep t o rs b y pr o p ra no l ol r esu l ts in up r e g ul a ti o n o f t h e r ec ep t or l e v el . W he n t he pa t ie n t c ea se d ta ki n g t he d ru g , t h e c a r di ac m us c l es be c am e s up e rs e ns it i v e to s t im ula t i on wi t h e n do g en ou s c a te ch o la m i n es . Thi s re s u l t ed in th e h yp e r te ns i v e c r is is th a t c a us e d c er e br a l h e m o r r ha g e a nd lo s s o f c o ns c i ou sn es s . P.279
1 0 . Th e a n sw e r i s C [ s ee I I I. A . 1] . R i t u xi m a b is a m on oc l ona l an t ib od y t h at sp ec i fi c a l l y bi nd s t o C D 20 an t ige n on m a li gn a nt an d no rm a l B ly m p h oc y t es , l e ad i ng to th e i r d es t ru c ti on . 1 1 . Th e a n sw e r i s B [ s ee X. A . 3 . b .( 1 ) ]. P r o t am in e i s a c h em ic al a n t ag o ni st of he p a ri n t ha t ac ts vi a a n a ci d -b as e i n t er a c t i on . 1 2 . Th e a n sw e r i s D [ s ee I I I. C ] . A TR A b i n ds t o r e ti no ic ac i d r ec e pt o r o n t h e c e l l m em b r an e , l ea di n g t o e xp r e ss io n o f t a r g et ge n es a n d r es u lt in g in di f fe r e nt ia t io n o f leu k em ic p r om ye l oc y t es . 1 3 . Th e a n sw e r i s A [ s ee I I I. B . 3] . E r l o ti n ib bi nd s t o th e A TP p oc k e t of th e t y r os in e k i na se of t he E G F re ce p to r a nd t h us in h ib i ts t y ro s i n e k i na s e ac t i v i t y. 1 4 . Th e a n sw e r i s D [ s ee I I . B. 4 .a , II I . E .] . Ta m o xi f e n an d i t s m e t abo l i te s b in d t o e s tr o ge n re c ep t o rs , a nd p re ve n t t he m fr om b i nd i ng es t ra d io l . Th i s r es u lt s i n s up p re ss io n o f es t r og e n- d ep e nd e nt g ro wt h i n b r e as t c an c e r c e ll s . Th e p h a rm ac ol o gi ca l e f fe c ts o f t he ot h er d ru gs a re not m e di a te d b y r ec e pt o rs . 1 5 . Th e a n sw e r i s E [s ee V I I I. B . 3. d ] . Th e s ol u ti o n m u s t c o n ta in a n ac i di c s u b st a nc e t o h a ve a p H < 7 . A t r op i ne s u lf a te is a sa l t o f a we a k b as e a nd a s t ro n g a ci d ; t he r e fo re , it s a q ue ou s s ol u ti on is ac id ic . S o d iu m s al ic y l a te an d po t as s i um pe n ic il li n a r e bo t h s al t s o f s t ro ng ba s es a n d we a k a c id s; t he r ef o r e, t he i r a qu e o us s ol u ti o ns a r e a lk al i n e . Ma g n e s i um s u lf a te a n d p o t ass i um c hl o r id e a r e s a l ts o f s t r o ng ba s e s a nd s t r on g a c i ds ; th e re f o re , th e i r a q u eo us s o lu t io ns a re ne u t r al . 1 6 . Th e a n sw e r i s E [s ee Ta b l e 1 2 -1 ; F i gu r es 12- 8 , 12 - 9 , a nd 12 - 11 ] . 4 - Q u i no lo n es ar e a m p h ot e r ic c om p ou n ds . Al l c om p ou n d s i n t h is c h em ic al c l as s c o nt a in a c a r b o xy l i c a c i d a s we ll as a b as ic n i t ro g e n . Mo s t 4 - q ui no l on es c o n t ai n a b a si c p ip e ra z i n e r i ng and b as ic h e te r oc y c li c r i ngs ; ho we ve r , s o m e o f t he o l de r c om p ou n ds i n th is c l as s o n l y ha v e th e b a s i c h et er o c yc l ic r in gs . Al l o t he r c o m po u nd s a r e c o r re c tl y m a t c h ed wi t h t he i r ac i d -b as e n a tu r e. 1 7 . Th e a n sw e r i s B [ s ee V I I . A a nd B ]. D i a ze p am i s a be n z od i a ze p in e a n xi o l y t i c , wh i c h —a l t h o ug h i t is a he t e ro c yc l ic n i t ro g en - c o n ta i ni ng m o lec u le — is no t a n a lk a lo id a n d i s p r ep a re d s yn t he t ic a ll y . N a t u r al pr o du c ts re f e r t o s ub s ta nc es bi os yn t he siz e d i n p la n ts o r an im a ls . N a t u ra l p r o du c ts i nc l ud e a lk al o ids , s uc h a s a t r op in e a n d m o r ph in e ; p ep t id es , s uc h as
g l uc a go n ; s t e r oi ds , s uc h a s e s t r a di ol ; h o rm o ne s, s uc h a s i ns u li n; gl y c os i de s , s uc h a s d i gi t o xi n ; v i ta m i ns , s uc h a s ri bo f la v i n ; p ol ys ac c h a ri de s , s u ch as he p ar in ; an d a n t ib io t ic s , s u c h as p e nic i ll in . 1 8 . Th e a n sw e r i s B [ s ee I X. B ] . Th e b i nd in g o f a d r ug to i t s r ec e pt o r u s u a ll y i n v ol ve s on l y s p ec i fi c f un c ti on a l g r o up s . Th e s e g ro u ps m a k e u p wh a t is k n o wn as t h e p ha r m a c o p ho r e o f th e d ru g m o le cu l e. A lt h ou gh t he en t i re d ru g m ol ec u le is p re s en t a t th e re ce p to r s i te , on l y a p o r ti o n o f i t , t h e p ha rm ac o ph o re , is re q ui r ed fo r a b io lo g ic al r es po ns e . 1 9 . Th e a n sw e r i s A [ s ee I X. B . 3 . a; Fi g u re 12 - 12 ]. Th e t e rm en a nt i o m e r a nd t he D an d L in di c at e t ha t t he β -m e th ac h ol in e h as a c hi r al c e nt e r a n d e xh i b i ts o p ti c a l is om e ri s m . B ec a us e th e op t ic al is om e rs h a ve d i f fe r e nt o r i en t a ti on s i n s pa c e , o ne o ri e n ta ti o n wi ll gi v e a b e t te r fi t th a n t he ot h e r a n d wi ll m os t li k e l y ha v e g re a te r b i ol o gi ca l a ct i v i t y th a n th e ot h e r. D is so lu t io n , d is t r ib u ti o n, i n t er a t om i c d is t an c e s , an d s o lu bi l it y a r e a ll r el a te d to t he ph y s ic al an d c h e m i c a l p r o pe r t ie s o f t h e t wo c om p ou n ds , wh i c h a r e i de nt i c a l b ec a us e t he c o m p ou n ds a re e n a nt io m er s . 2 0 . Th e a n sw e r i s B [ s ee Ta b l e 1 2 -1 ; F i gu r es 12- 7 , 12 - 8 , 1 2- 9 an d 1 2 -1 0] . K e y s t ru c tu r al f ea t ur es of a th ia z i d e —a be n z o th i ad i a z in e ri n g wi t h an el ec t r o n wi t h d r a wi n g c h lo r id e a t om an d a su l fo n yl g r ou p on t he be n z e ne r in g —i d ent i f y t hi s c om p ou n d as a t h ia z i de . P.280
2 1 . Th e a n sw e r i s A [ s ee V I I I. B . 2. b ] . Th e p K a (t h e n eg a ti v e log o f t h e ac i d i on i z a ti on c o n st a nt ) in d ic at es t he re la t i ve s t r en g th of a n ac i di c d rug . Th e l o we r t he p K a o f an ac i di c d r ug , t h e s t ro nge r i t is as a n ac id . A s t ro ng ac id is d e f in ed as on e t h at is c om p le t el y i on i z ed o r d is s oc i at e d i n a n aq u eo us s o lu t io n ; t her e f o re , th e s t ro n ge r th e a c id , th e g r ea t e r t he io n iz a t i o n. 2 2 . Th e a n sw e r i s D [ s ee Ta b l e 1 2 -1 ; F i gu r e 1 2 -8 ] . Th e c a rb o xy l i c ac id id e nti f i es t h is c om p ou nd as an ac i d. O t he r st r uc t ur a l fe a t u re s i d en t i f y i t a s a fe n am at e . F e na m a t es a re N S A I Ds t h a t c an be us ed fo r in f la m m a to r y d i so r de r s ( e .g . , a r t hr i ti s , b u rs i ti s ). Th e m ec h an is m o f ac t io n o f N S A I Ds i s i n hi bi t io n o f c yc l oo xy g e n a s e, wh i c h r es u lt s i n a d e c r e as e in t he p ro d uc ti o n o f p r os ta g la n di ns . 2 3 . Th e a n sw e r i s C [ s ee Ta b l e 1 2 -1 ] . F i b ra t es de c re as e c ho l es t e ro l a n d t r ig l y c e r id e l ev e l s . Al l o f t h e o th e r c hem ic a l c l as s e s c a n b e u s e d to tr e a t h y p e r te ns i on . A r y loxy p r o p a n ol am in es a re β -b l oc k e r s , t h i a zid es a re di u re t ic s , di h y d r op y r i d in es ar e c a lc i u m c ha n ne l b l oc k e rs , a nd A C E i n hi b it o rs de c re as e t h e s y n t h es is o f a ng io t e ns in II , a p o te n t v a s oc on st r ic to r . 2 4 . Th e a n sw e r i s E [s ee V I I I. B . 2. f an d g ; Ta bl e 1 2 - 1 ]. F l u ra ze p am ( ta k e no t e of t h e s u f fi x, wh i c h h el ps c l as s i f y th e c om po u nd ) is a b e n zo di a z ep i ne an d t h us a ba s i c c om po u nd . Be c a u se th e p H is le s s th a n t h e p K a , f l u ra ze p am is i n a n a c i d ic en v i r o nm en t a n d, t he r ef o r e , e xi s t s p r im ar i l y i n th e io ni ze d f o r m . Th e pe r c e n t i on i z ed c a n b e e a si l y c al c ul a ted b y us in g th e ru le o f ni ne s . Th e | p H - p K a | is 3 , s o t h e r at i o i s 9 9. 9 %: 0 . 01 % i n f a vo r o f t he io n i z ed fo r m . 2 5 . Th e a n sw e r i s D ( I I , I I I ) [s ee V I II . A .1 an d 2 ] .
G e n e r al l y , d r u gs m us t be l ip op h il ic to pa s s th r o ug h li po p r ot e in m em b r an es an d h yd r o ph i li c t o b e e xc r e t ed b y t he k i dn e y . D ru gs do n ot ha v e t o b e c o n v e r te d in t o a n a c ti ve f or m a t th ei r ac ti v e s i t e , al t h ou gh m o s t d rug s m us t b e i n th ei r ac ti ve f o rm wh e n t h e y re a c h th ei r ac t i v e s i t e. Ma n y d r u gs a r e a c ti ve in th e f o rm in wh ic h th e y a r e ad m i ni s te r ed . So m e d r u gs , u s u a ll y r e fe r r ed to as p ro d r ug s , a re bi o tr an s fo r m e d i n t o t he i r a c t i v e fo rm a fte r a dm in is t ra t io n . Th eo re t ic a ll y , d ru gs th a t re ac h t h ei r a c ti ve si t e a nd th e n a r e m e ta b ol ic al l y ac t i v at e d sh o ul d b e m o re s p ec i fi c in t he i r a c ti o n a nd ha v e f e we r s id e ef f ec ts . C u rr e nt l y , re se a r c h ef f o rt s a r e u nd e r wa y t o d e ve l op s i te - s p ec i fi c d el iv e r y s y s t em s a nd p ro ce s s es . 2 6 . Th e a n sw e r i s D ( I I , I I I ) [s ee V I II . B .2 . c ; V I II . B. 3 . a ; V I II . B . 4. a ]. A l m os t a ll s a lt s ( wi t h v e ry f e w e xc e p t i o ns ) a r e s t ro n g e le c t ro l y t es , a nd t he t e r m i n ol og y p en t ob a r bi t al s o d iu m a nd di p he nh y d ra m i n e h y d r oc hl o r id e i nd ic a te t ha t e a ch c o m p ou n d is s a l t. A c e ti c a ci d i s a we ak ac id ; t he r ef o r e, it is a we a k e l ec t r ol y t e . 2 7 . Th e a n sw e r i s A ( I ) [ s ee V I II . B .3 a nd 4] . W hen m e p e ri di n e h y d r oc h l o ri d e so l ut i on is m i xe d wi t h t h e a lk al in e s ol u ti on o f s o di um bi c a r bo n at e , a ne u t r al i z a ti on r ea ct i on oc c u rs wi t h th e p os si b le p re c ip i ta t io n o f t he wa t e r -i ns o lu bl e f re e ba s e m e pe r id i ne . A ne u t r al i za ti on r ea c t i on oc c u rs wh e n a c id ic s o lu t io ns a re m i xe d wi t h ba s i c s ol u ti on s , o r c on v e r se l y. N o r e ac ti o n, i n t e rm s o f ac id - b as e, oc c u r s wh e n s o l ut i on s a r e m i xe d wi t h o th e r a ci d ic o r ne u t ra l s o lu t io ns o r wh e n ba s i c s ol ut i on s a r e m i xe d wi t h o th e r b as i c o r ne u t ra l s ol u ti on s . Th e r e s h ou l d b e n o r ea c ti on , the n , wh e n t h e m e p er i di n e h y d r oc h lo r id e s ol u ti o n, wh i c h is a c id ic , i s m i xe d wi t h th e a c id ic s o lu t io n o f a t r op i ne s u l fa t e o r th e n e ut r al s o l u ti on o f s o di um c h lo r id e . 2 8 . Th e a n sw e r i s C ( I , II ) [ s e e I X. B . 3 . d ; X. C . 1 ; X. E . 1 ] . B o t h s ul f is o xa z o l e a n d 5- f l uo r o u ra c i l c om pe t e wi t h a nd an t ag o ni z e is os te ri c n o rm a l b i ol o gi c a l m ol ec u le s a nd t h us ar e a n ti m e t a bo li t es. D i go xi n i s a dr u g t h at is t ho ug h t +
+
t o in h ib i t N a / K - A TP a s e o r to a ff ec t i n t ra c e l lu la r i n f lu x o r u s e of c a lc iu m io n ( C a
++
).
B e c au se di g o xi n is s te r oi d al , it is n o t i s o st e ri c wit h ei t he r an en zy m e , wh ic h i s a p r o t ei n , o r a n i on ; th e re fo r e , i t i s n o t c l as s i f ie d as an an t im e ta bo l it e . 2 9 . Th e a n sw e r i s A ( I ) [ s ee V I II . B .1 ; V II I . B .2 . e] . A we a k l y ac id ic d ru g wi l l b e m o re io n i z ed in an alk a li ne u ri n e; t he r ef o r e, it wi l l b e m o r e p ol a r a nd th u s m o re s o l ub le in t he aq u eo us u r i n e . I t wo u ld al s o b e le ss l i po so l ub l e, le s s l ik e l y to u n de r go t ub ul a r re ab s orp t i on , a n d t hu s b e m o re li k el y t o b e e xc r e te d . 3 0 . Th e a n sw e r i s C ( I , II ) [ s e e VI I I . B. 2 a n d 3 ; F ig u r e 1 2 -7 ] . 3 1 . Th e a n sw e r i s B ( I I I) [ s e e V II I . B .2 an d 3 ; F i gu r e 12 - 7] . P.281
3 2 . Th e a n sw e r i s A ( l ) [s e e V I I I. B . 2 a nd 3 ; F ig u re 1 2 -7 ] . 3 3 . Th e a n sw e r i s B ( I I I) [ s e e V II I . B .2 an d 3 ; F i gu r e 12 - 7] . Th e m ol ec u le c o nt a in s a b as ic ni t r og e n, wh i ch is b o n de d t o t h r ee c a r bo n a t om s ( i . e ., a t e r ti a r y a m i n e ), an d an et h y l c a rb o xyl a t e , wh i c h is a n es te r gr o up . A n es t e r i s th e p r od uc t of th e re ac t io n o f an al co ho l wi t h a c a r b o xy l i c a c i d th a t f o rm s a n a lk y l
c a r bo xy l a t e . Th e r e is no f r e e c a rb o xy l i c ac id p re s e n t . Ho we v e r , i f t hi s m ole c ul e i s s u bj ec t ed to h y d ro l y s i s , it f o rm s a c a rb o xyl i c ac id a n d e th y l al co h ol . B e c au se m e pe r id i ne c o nt a i ns a t er t ia r y a m i ne , i t i s c la ss i fi ed as a b as e; be c au s e it i s a n o r g an ic ba s e , i t i s c o ns id e re d we a k . Th e nit r o g en is n o t p r ot o na t ed . I t is n o t i o ni c a nd , th e r ef o re , is no t a s al t . A l k al in i za ti o n o f t h e u ri ne d ec r ea se s t he io n i z at io n of m e pe r i di ne , m ak i ng i t m or e l i po so l ub l e a nd th us m o re l ik el y t o u nd e r go re a bs o r p ti o n i n t h e ki d ne y t ubu l e . Th i s r e s ul ts in a d ec r ea s e d rat e o f e xc r e t io n a n d a n i nc r e as ed du r a ti on o f ac t ion . Th e s i x- m e m b e r , n on a ro m a t ic r in g i s a p i pe r id i ne ri ng t ha t i s s ub s ti t ut e d a t th e 4 p o si t io n (n it r o ge n i s p os it i o n 1 ) wi t h a p h en y l r in g. Th e co m p o un d d o es n ot c on t ai n a p ip e ra z i n e r i ng or a p ro p y l g ro up . 3 4 . Th e a n sw e r i s C [ s ee I X. B . 3 . a. 4 ; F ig u r e 1 2- 13 ] . Th e s e m ol ec u le s a r e is om e rs th a t h a v e t wo a s y m m e t ri c c a r b on at om s . Th e y a r e n o t s u pe r im po s ab le an d a r e n o t m i r ro r i m a g es ; t h e re fo r e , t h e y a r e k no wn a s d i as t e re om e rs . 3 5 . Th e a n sw e r i s B [ s ee I X. B . 3 . a. 1 ; F ig u r e 1 2- 12 ] . Th e s e m ol ec u le s a r e is om e rs th a t h a v e o n e as ym m e t r ic c a rb o n a to m . Th e y a r e n o ns u pe r im po s a b le m i r ro r im a ge s ; th e r ef o r e, th ey a r e en a nt i om e rs . 3 6 . Th e a n sw e r i s A [ s ee I X. B . 3 . b; Fi g u re 12 - 14 ]. Th e s e m ol ec u le s h a v e d if f e r en t s pa t ia l a r r an g em e n ts ; ho we v e r , t he se m ol e c u le s d o n o t h a ve a n a s y m m e tr ic c e nt e r . Th e p re s e nc e of t h e d o ub l e b on d , wh i c h re s t ri c t s t h e ro t at i on of t he gr o ups on ea c h c a r bo n a t om in vo l ve d i n t h e d ou b le bon d , c h a ra c t e ri z e s t h is t y pe of i s o m e r ism as ge om e t ric . 3 7 . Th e a n sw e r i s D [ s ee I X. B . 3 . d; Fi g u re 12 - 16 ]. Th e s e m ol ec u le s a r e n eit h e r i s o m e r s n o r t he sa m e c o m p o un d b ec a us e o ne c o n ta i ns t h r e e o xy g e n s , wh e re a s t h e o t he r c o n ta in s t wo ox yg e n s an d a s u lf u r . B ec a u se o xyg e n a n d s ul f u r a r e i n t h e s am e p e ri o di c f am il y , t h e y a r e i so s t e r ic a n d ar e k n o wn a s b i oi so s t e r es . 3 8 . Th e a n sw e r i s E [s ee I X. B . 3 .c ; Fi gu r e 1 2 - 15 ]. Th e s e s t r uc tu r es a re ac tu a ll y t wo v i e ws o f th e s am e c om po u nd . R ot a ti o n a r o un d th e s i de c h ai n s in g le bo nd s c o nn ec t in g t h e r i ng ni t rog e n t o th e t e r ti a r y ni t ro ge n p r o du c e s t h es e t wo d i ff er e n t c on f o rm at i on s. Th u s t h es e a r e c on f or m a t io n al is om e rs .
13 Medicinal Chemistry and Pharmacology: Drugs Affecting the Nervous System H a b i b a O . U . Vo n g ta u As h iw e l S. U n di e h
INTRODUCTION. D r u g s a f fe c t i ng th e n e r vo u s s y s t em m o d ul at e neu r o t ra ns m i s s i on i n th e ce n t r a l n e r vo u s s ys t e m ( C N S ) , wh i c h co ns is ts o f t he b rai n an d t h e s p i na l c o rd , or i n t h e p e r i p he r a l n e r vo u s s ys t e m ( P N S ), wh i c h in c l u de s th e a u t on o mi c ne r vo u s s ys t e m ( AN S ) a n d t he s o m a ti c s y s t e m t ha t i n ne r v a t es the s k el e ta l m us cl es . Th e A N S , i n t u r n , c o n s i s t s o f s y m p a th e t ic (o r ad r en e r gi c ) an d p a r as ym p a th e ti c ( o r c hol i ne r g ic ) b r a nc he s . A g en ts ac t in g i n th e A N S i nc lu d e a dr e ne r g ic ag on is t s a nd an t ago n is ts , c h ol in e r gi c a go ni s ts a n d a n t ag o ni s t s , an d i n di r ec tl y a c ti ng ag e nt s t h at c o ul d af f ec t o n e o r bo t h A N S s y s t em s . D r ug s a ff e c t i ng th e PN S a r e u se f ul fo r t re a ti ng a v a ri e t y o f ai lm e nt s i nc lu d in g b loo d p re s s u re di st u rb a nc es , br o nc hi a l as t hm a , ca rd i ac d ys f un c ti o ns , a na p h y la c ti c re ac t io ns , n a sa l c on ges t io n , a nd s k el e ta l m usc le s p as ti ci t y . D r ug s a f fe c t i ng t he C N S p ro v i de an e sth e si a a n d s e d at i on , re li ev e p a in a n d a n xi e t y , s u p pr es s m o v e m en t d is o r de r s a nd ep i le p ti c s ei zu r es , a n d t r ea t p s yc ho ti c a n d a ff e c t i v e di s o rd e rs . Th es e d r ug s i nc l ud e g e ne r al an d l oc a l a n es t he t ic s , an xi o l y t i c s a n d s ed a ti ve - h y p no t ics , o p io i d a na l ge s i c s , a n ti par k i ns on ia n a g e nt s, an t ie p il e pt ic s , an t i ps y c h o ti cs , a n d a nt i dep r e s s an ts .
I. GENERAL MECHANISMS OF DRUG ACTION IN THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. D r u g s ac t in g i n th e n e r vo u s s y s t em ac h ie v e th e ir p h a rm ac ol og ic e ff ec t s by m o di f yi ng th e s y n a pt ic c o n c e n t ra t io ns o r r ec ep t or a c t i on s o f n e ur o t ra ns m it t e rs . O t h e r dr u gs m o du la t e t he i nt r ac e ll ul a r r e s p on s e p a t h wa y s b y wh ic h th e re c ep t o r a c ti o ns o f th e tr a ns m i t ter s a re c o n v e yed t o y i e ld t h e u l ti m a t e p h ys i ol o gi cal r e s po ns e . Th e m a jo r ne ur o t r an s m i tt e rs in th e n e rvo u s s y s t em , t he i r p r im ar y r e c ep t o r s u bt yp e s , an d t h e p r ed om i na n t e f fe c t s o f re ce p tor s ti m u l at i on on ne u ro t r an sm is s i o n a r e s h o wn in Ta b le 13 - 1 . S o m e ge n e ra l m ec ha ni s m s b y wh i c h d i v e rs e d r ug s m o du l at e t h e ac t i v i t y o f th e ne r v o us s y s t em a r e s u m m a r i z ed in Ta b le 13 - 2, wi t h e xa m p l es d ra wn f r om t he a d re ne r g ic a n d c h o li ner g i c co m p o ne n ts o f th e PN S . I n a d di t io n , t h e re ar e v a ri ou s c la s s es of d ru gs t ha t m o du l at e n e ur a l f un c ti on b y i n t er a ct i ng wi t h t h e p o res o f i on c h an ne ls o r b y bi n di n g t o a ll os t e ri c s i t es o n th e p r o t ei n s ub un i ts th a t c ons t i tu t e t he c h an n el .
II. ADRENERGIC AGONISTS A. C h e m i s t r y 1 . D i r ec t - ac t i n g a d re n er g i c ag o n is t s i nt e r ac t d ir e c tl y wi t h a dr e ne r gi c r ec e pt o rs t o e l ic i t a re s p o ns e. Th e s e a g o ni s t s i nc lu d e n or e pi ne p h ri n e a nd ep i ne ph r i ne , wh i c h a r e e n d og en o us o r na t u ra ll y o c c u r ri n g c at ec h ol am in es . Th e c at e c h ol am i ne s ar e b i os yn t he s i z e d fr om t y r os i ne , a n a m i n o ac i d ( F igu r e 13 - 1 ). E xa m p le s o f ot h e r d i re c ta c ti n g a d re ne r g ic a g on is t s in c l ud e n a ph a z o li ne , te r b u ta li n e, an d d o bu t am in e ( Fi gu r e
1 3 - 2 ). Th e c l as s i fi c a t io n o f ad r e ne r gi c a go n is ts an d an t ag o ni s t s s ho wn i n Ta b l e 13 3 s h o ul d p r o v id e a b ro a d p e rs p ec ti ve on t he v a ri et y o f ag e nt s t h at ac t o n th i s s ys t em to pr o du c e t he i r p h a rm ac ol o gi c a nd t he r ap e u ti c e f fe ct s . a . Th e et h y l am in e c ha in c om m o n to th es e a g on is ts is es s e nt i al to t he i r a d re n e rg ic a c ti vi t y. b . N - su bs t it u ti o n a lt e rs dr u g ac ti vi t y . Sm a ll s u bs tit u e nt s ( e .g . , h y d r o ge n , α - m e th y l g r o up ) p ro du c e α - r ec e pto r ac t i v it y , as wi t h no r epi n ep h r in e ; l ar g e r s u bs t i tu e n ts (e . g. , i s op r op y l g ro u p) p ro d uc e β - r e c e p to r ac ti vi t y , as wi t h i s o p r ot e re n ol . c . R em o v al of t he pa r a (4 ) h y d ro xy l g r o u p l e a ves o n l y α - re c ep t or ac t i vit y , a s wi t h p h e n yle ph r i ne . P.283
Table 13-1. Major Neurotransmitters in the Nervous System, Their Major Postsynaptic Receptors, and Receptor Effects on Ionic Conductance and Second Messenger (Signaling) Pathways Primary Receptor Neurotransmitter Subtypes Acetylcholine
Dopamine
GABA
Effects of Receptor Stimulation
Muscarinic M1 (and M3 , M5 )
Excitatory (↑IP3/DAG)
Muscarinic M2 (and M4 )
Inhibitory (↓cAMP)
Nicotinic (N1 and N2)
Excitatory (↑cation conductance)
D1 (and D5)
Excitatory (↑cAMP; ↑IP3/DAG)
D2 (and D3, D4)
Inhibitory (↓cAMP; ↑K+ conductance)
GABAA
Inhibitory (↑Cl- ion conductance)
GABAB
Mixed (cAMP modulation; ↓Ca2+; ↑K+ fluxes)
Glutamate
Histamine
Norepinephrine
Serotonin (5HT)
Opioid peptides
Ionotropic-NMDA
Excitatory (↑Ca2+ ion conductance)
IonotropicAMPA/Kainate
Excitatory (↑cation conductance)
Metabotropic
Excitatory (↑IP3/DAG; modulate cAMP)
H1
Excitatory (↑IP3/DAG)
H2
Excitatory (↑cAMP)
α1
Excitatory (↑IP3/DAG)
α2
Inhibitory (↓cAMP)
β1
Excitatory (↑cAMP)
β2
Inhibitory in ANS (↑cAMP)
β3
Excitatory (↑cAMP)
5HT1
Inhibitory (↓cAMP)
5HT2
Excitatory (↑IP3/DAG)
5HT(3/4/5/6/7)
Mixed (type 4,6,7 ↑cAMP)
Mu (µ)
Mixed (↓cAMP; Ca2+ & K+ channel effects)
Delta (δ)
Mixed (↓cAMP; Ca2+ & K+ channel effects)
Mixed (↓cAMP; Ca2+ & K+ channel effects)
Kappa (κ)
Table 13-2. Some General Mechanisms of Drug Action in the Nervous System Exemplified by the Adrenergic and Cholinergic Neurotransmitter Systems Mechanism
Adrenergic System
Cholinergic System
1.
Ganglionic stimulation
Nicotine
2.
Ganglionic blockade
Hexamethonium, trimethaphan
3.
Inhibition of neurotransmitter synthesis
Metyrosine, carbidopa
Hemicholinium
4.
Inhibition of neurotransmitter release
Bretylium, guanethidine
Botulinum toxin
5.
Facilitation of neurotransmitter release
Amphetamine, tyramine
α-Iatrotoxin
6.
Depletion of vesicular transmitter storage
Reserpine
Vesamicol
7.
Blockade of
Cocaine,
See notea
8.
neurotransmitter reuptake
desipramine
Inhibition of neurotransmitter metabolism
Clorgyline (inhibits MAO-A)b
Neostigmine and other AChE inhibitors
Selegiline (inhibits MAO-B) Tolcapone (inhibits COMT) 9.
Direct interaction with postsynaptic receptors
Adrenoceptor agonists
Cholinergic agonists
Adrenoceptor antagonists
Cholinergic antagonists
a
Reuptake is not a major mechanism for termination of acetylcholine's action; most of the released transmitter is metabolized by acetylcholinesterase (AChE). b
COMT (catechol-O-methyl transferase); MAO-A, MAO-B (monoamine oxidase-A, -B). P.284
Figure 13-1. Synthesis of catecholamines from the amino acid tyrosine. In the presence of tyrosine hydroxylase, (A) tyrosine is converted to (B) dihydroxyphenylalanine (dopa). Further substitutions permit the synthesis of (C) dopamine, (D) norepinephrine, and (E) epinephrine.
Figure 13-2. Structural formulas of representative direct-acting sympathomimetic amines. (A) Naphazoline, (B) terbutaline, (C) dobutamine.
P.285
Table 13-3. Classification of Adrenoceptor Agonists and Antagonists*
Class A.
Nonselective
A.1
Indirect-acting
Adrenoceptor Agonist Adrenoceptor Antagonist
Tyramine Ephedrine Amphetamine Cocaine
A.2
Direct-acting
Norepinephrine
Labetalol
Epinephrine
Carvedilol
B.
α-Receptor-Selective
B.1
Nonselective α
Oxymetazoline
Phenoxybenzamine
Xylometazoline
B.2
Selective α1
Tetrahydrozoline
Phentolamine
Phenylephrine
Prazosin
Methoxamine
Terazosin
Metaraminol
Doxazosin Indoramin
B.3
Selective α2
Clonidine
Rauwolscine
Guanabenz
Yohimbine
Guanfacine
Tolazoline
Rilmenidine Moxonidine α-Methyldopa C.
β-Receptor-Selective
C.1
Nonselective β
Isoproterenol
Propranolol Nadolol Pindolol Carteolol Timolol Sotalol Penbutolol
C.2
Selective β1
Xamoterol
Acebutolol Atenolol Betaxolol Celiprolol Esmolol
Metoprolol C.3
Selective β2
Metaproterenol
Butoxamine
Fenoterol Terbutaline Albuterol (Salbutamol) Ritodrine Salmeterol Formoterol Pirbuterol Bitolterol C.4
Selective β3
BRL37344; CL316243
*
To describe the classification of a particular drug, the receptor selectivity class on the left is combined with the receptor activity descriptor on the top of the column; for example, tyramine is an indirect-acting adrenoceptor agonist, and tolazoline is a selective α2-adrenoceptor antagonist. P.286
d . Th e m e ta ( 3 ) h y d r o xy l g r o up is e s s en t ia l f o r d ir e c t α - a nd β - ac ti v i t y. H owe ve r , d r u gs in wh i c h th e m e ta h y d r o xy l i s r ep l ac ed b y a m e th o xy g r o u p ( e .g . , m e th o xa m i ne ) r et ai n α - ac t i v i t y . e . C a te c h o la m i ne s a r e i na c ti v a t ed b y m e th yl a ti o n o f t he m e ta h y d ro xy l g r o u p ( c a ta l yz e d b y c at ec h ol O- m e th y l t r an s f e r as e [ C O M T] ) a n d b y o xi d a t i v e d e am i na t io n ( c a ta l yz e d b y m on o am i ne o xi d a s e [ MA O ] ) .
2 . I nd i r ec t - a ct i n g a d r ene r g i c a g on i s ts a re c h em ic a ll y r el a te d to th e c a te ch o la m i n es , b u t t he y d o n o t s ig ni f ic an t l y in t era c t d i re c t l y wi t h ad r en e rg i c r e c ep t or s . Th e s e m o s t l y s y n t he t ic c om p ou n ds i n du c e t he i r p h ar m ac ol og ic a l ef f ec ts b y e n ha nc i ng th e re le a s e o f t h e e nd og e no us ne ur o t r a n sm i tt e rs . Ph y s io l ogi c al l y , t h e r ef o re , th e y ha v e e ff ec t s s i m i l ar t o t he ca t ec ho l am in e n e u ro t r an sm it t e rs , he nc e t h e ir ni c k n am e o f s y m p at h om im e ti c a m i ne s . E xa m p le s i nc lu d e am p he t am i n e , e p h ed r in e , p he n y l ep h ri ne , an d t y ra m i n e ( F ig u re 1 3 - 3 ). a . I nd i re c t - ac t in g s y m pa th o m i m e t ic a m i n es m a y ha v e t wo , o ne , o r no h yd ro xy l g r o up s . Th e fe we r t h e h y d r o xy l g r o u ps , t h e h ig h er t h e l ip o ph il ic i t y , a n d t he g r e at e r t h e a bs o r pt i on an d t h e du r a ti o n o f a ct i vi t y af t e r or a l a d m i ni s t r a ti o n. Fa s ter a n d g r e a te r a b s o r pt i on al s o im p li es le ss i n te s ti na l d es t r uc ti o n o f t h e d r ug . b . A lk yl s u bs ti t u ti on a t th e α - c a r bo n (a d ja c e n t t o t h e a m i no g ro u p) r e ta r ds d e st r uc t io n o f ph en o l a nd p he n yl c om po u nd s a nd i nc r e as es l i po ph i li c c h a ra c te r , c o nt r i bu t in g t o p r ol o ng ed ac t i v i t y. c . N -s u bs ti t ut i on wi t h bu lk y g r ou ps in c re as es di r ec t β - re c e p to r ac t i v it y , as wi t h t h e d i r ec t ac ti n g a ge n ts . B . P h a r ma c ol o g y 1 . Ad r e n e r g ic pe r i p he ra l r e sp o ns e s a r e m e d ia te d b y b o th α - an d β -a d r en o ce p to r s ( Ta b l e 1 3 - 4 ). A d re ne r g ic ( a n d o th e r A N S) r ec ep to r s m a y be lo ca t ed at the ce l l m em b r an es of ne r v e t erm i na ls ( pr e ju nc t io n al re c e p t o rs ) o r at th e m em b ran e s o f p o st j un c t i on a l c e ll s wh ic h r ec e i ve t he ne u r al i n put f r om th e n e r ve t e rm i na ls . P r e j un ct i on a l a nd po s t j un c ti o na l re c e p to r s a re als o c al l ed p re s y na p ti c a nd p o st s yn ap t ic re c e p to r s , re s pe c t i v e l y , wh e r e b ot h th e p re ju nc t io n al c e ll an d t h e p o st j un c t i on a l c e ll a re ne r v e c e l ls s ep a r at e d b y a s y na p ti c s pa c e . a . α - R ec e p to r s fa ll in t o t wo m a in g ro u ps . ( 1 ) P os t j u nc t i on a l α 1 - ad r e n e r gi c r ec e pt o r s a r e f o un d i n th e r a di al s m oot h m u s c le o f t he i r is ; i n th e a r t er i es , a r te r i ol es , a n d v e i ns ; in t he pi l om ot o r s m o ot h m us cl e o f h a i r f ol l ic le s ; in t he he a rt ; a nd i n th e s ph i nc te r s of t h e g as t ro in t es t in al ( G I) t r ac t . D r u g s t ha t ar e α 1 -s e le c ti ve a g o ni s t s c a us e e xc i t a t o r y r es po ns es s u ch as va s o co ns t ri c ti on an d s m o o t h m u s c le c o n t ra ct i on , a n d i nc lu d e p he n yle p h rin e an d m e th o xa m i ne . ( 2 ) P r e ju n c ti o na l α 2 -a d re n e r g ic r ec e p to r s m ed ia t e th e i nh i bi t io n o f a d ren e r gi c n e u ro t r an s m it t e r r e le as e. D r u gs th a t a r e α 2 - se l ect i ve a g o ni s ts al so in h ib it l ip o l ys is i n fa t c el l s a nd pr om o te p l a te le t ag g re g at i on . E xa m pl es of s u ch d ru gs in c l u de c l on id i ne an d g u an a be n z.
Figure 13-3. Chemical structures of some indirect-acting sympathomimetic amines. (A) Hydroxyamphetamine (Paredrine), (B) ephedrine or pseudoephedrine (Sudafed), (C) methamphetamine (Methedrine), (D) tyramine.
P.287
Table 13-4. Adrenoceptor-Mediated Responses to Adrenergic Agonists Organ/Tissue Heart
Receptor Type
Response
β1
Increases conduction velocity (dromotropic)
β1
Increases contraction force (inotropic)
β1
Increases contraction rate (chronotropic)
α1
Constricts cerebral arterioles
α1
Constricts cutaneous arterioles
α1
Constricts visceral arterioles
β2
Dilates skeletal muscle arterioles
Eye
α1
Contracts iris sphincter muscle, producing mydriasis
Lung
β2
Relaxes tracheal and bronchial muscles
Arterioles
Intestine
α, β
Decreases peristalsis
α1
Contracts sphincters
Urinary bladder
α1
Contracts trigone and sphincter muscles, inhibiting micturition
Uterus
β1
Relaxes detrusor muscle
α1
Excites uterine contractions
β2
Inhibits uterine contractions
β3
Causes adipolysis; mobilizes fatty acids
Adipose tissue
b . β - R ec e pt o r s f a ll in t o t h r e e m a i n g ro u ps . ( 1 ) P os t j u nc t i on a l β 1 -ad r e n e r gi c r ec e pt o r s a r e f o un d m ai n l y i n th e m y oc a r di um , wh e r e t h ei r s t im ul a ti on in c r ea s e s m y oc a ri d al c o nd u c t i on s p ee d (d r om o tr op i c e f fe c t ) a n d t h e f o rc e ( i no t r op ic e f f ec t ) a nd r a te (c h ro n otr o p ic ef f ec t ) o f m yo c a r dia l c o nt r ac t io n . D r u gs th a t ar e β 1 -s e le c t i ve a g on i s ts i nc l ud e xa m ot e r ol an d to s o m e e xt e n t d ob u ta m i n e. ( 2 ) P os t j u nc t i on a l β 2 -ad r e n e r gi c r ec e pt o r s a r e f o un d i n th e sm o ot h m us c l e o f th e va s c ul at u r e, b ro nc h io le s , a nd u te r us ; s ti m u l at i on o f t he se re c ep t or s c au s es s m oo t h m us c l e re l a xa t i on . D ru gs t h a t a re β 2 -s e le c ti ve a go n i s ts in cl u de al bu t e ro l a n d t e r b ut a li ne . ( 3 ) P os t j u nc t i on a l β 3 -ad r e n e r gi c r ec e pt o r s a r e e xp r e s se d o n fa t c el ls , a n d t h ei r s t im ul a ti o n c a us e s li p ol y s is . A n um b er o f β 3 - ag o ni s ts ar e u n de r de v e l op m e n t a s p o t en t ia l t r e at m e n ts fo r o b es i t y , n on - i ns ul in - d epe n d en t d i ab e te s m e l li tu s, a nd f r e q ue n t u ri n at i on . 2 . D i r ec t - ac t i n g a d re n er g i c ag o n is t s ( e .g . , n o re p in e ph r in e , p h en y l ep h r in e , c l on id i ne , te r bu t al i ne ) p ro d uc e t h ei r ef f ec ts p ri m a r i l y b y di r ec t s ti m u l at i on o f a d r en e r gi c r ec e pt o rs . The y m a y be r ec ep t o r- s e l ec t i v e , as wi t h th e d r ug s li s te d p r e vi ou s l y , o r t h e y m a y b e no ns e le c t i v e . F o r e xa m p le , th e a d re n er g ic n e u ro t r an s m it t e r n o re p ine p h ri n e a f fe c t s a ll ad r ene r g ic re c e p t or s , es p ec ia ll y α 1 - , α 2 - , a n d β 1 - r ec e pt o rs , wh e r ea s th e a d re n al m e du ll a r y h o rm o ne e p in e ph r in e a ff e c ts α 1 -, α 2 - , β 1 - , a n d β 2 - re c ep t ors . Is op r o te r en o l a f fe c t s b o t h β 1 - a n d β 2 - r ec ep t o rs bu t no t α r e c ep t or s . 3 . I nd i r ec t - a ct i n g a d r ene r g i c a g on i s ts wo r k th ro u g h o th e r p r im a r y m ec ha n is m s , wh i c h ul t im at e l y l e ad to r e c ep t or e ff ec t s . Fo r e xa m p le , t yra m i n e a c t s b y re l ea s i n g
n o r ep i ne p hr i ne f ro m s to ra g e s it es in ad r e ne r gi c ne u r on s , wh i l e c oc ai n e b lo ck s t h e r e u p ta ke of no r e pi ne p h rin e , th e re b y in c re as i ng the d u ra t io n a nd ac t i vit y o f t h e t r a ns m i t te r at t he s y n a ps e . 4 . C e r ta in ag o ni s t s ( e .g . , e p he d ri n e, m e t ar a m i no l , m ep h en t e rm in e ) p r od uc e t he i r e f f ec ts t hr o ug h b o th di r ec t an d i nd i r ec t m e c ha ni s m s . C . T h e ra p e ut i c i n d ic a tio n s 1 . E p in e ph r i n e, an α - an d β - ad r en e r gi c a go ni s t, i s i nd ic a te d to t re a t b ron c ho s p as m a n d h yp e rs e ns it i v i t y re ac t i o ns a n d is t he ag en t of c h oi c e fo r an a ph y l ac t ic re a c t i on s. I t is us ed to P.288 p r o lo n g t he ac t i v it y o f l oc a l a ne st h et ic s o lu t io n s a n d t o re s t o r e c a r d ia c ac t i v i t y in c a r di ac ar r es t . Ep in e ph r in e is a ls o u s e d to pi c al l y i n th e t r e at m e n t o f g l au c o m a, p r e su m a bl y d ec r ea s i n g in t r a oc ul a r p r es s u r e b y en h a n c in g t h e o ut f lo w o f a q u eo us h u m o r an d t h r ou gh v a s oc o ns t ri c ti on - in d uc ed de cr e a s e in pr o du c ti on o f aq u e ou s h u m o r . L oc a l a pp li c a t io n o f ep in e ph r in e i s u s e d to a r re s t b lo od f lo w i n ep is t a xi s an d g i ng i va l s u r g e r y . 2 . P he n yl e p h r i n e , a n α 1 - s e le c t i v e a g on is t , i s us ed t o p r o v id e p r es so r ac tiv i t y i n h yp o t en s i v e em e rg e nc ies , to p ro lo n g t he ac t i v it y o f lo c a l a n es th e ti c s ol u tio n s , an d t o r el ie v e p ar o xy s m a l a t ri a l t ac h y ca r d ia . Ph e n y lep h r in e o r ph e n y lp r op a no la m in e i s g i ve n s y s te m i c a ll y f o r n as a l d ec on g es ti o n. O xy m e t a z o li ne a nd xy l o m e ta z o l in e , a ls o α - r e c ep t o r a go n is ts , a r e a p pl i ed lo ca l l y t o re l ie ve n as a l co n ge s ti on . 3 . C l on i d in e a n d re l a ted α 2 - s e le c ti v e ag on is t s (e . g . , m e t h y ld o pa , g u an f ac i ne , g u a na be n z ) a re us ed as a n t ih y p e r te ns i ves ba s e d o n th e i r in h ib i ti o n o f c e nt r a l s ym p at h et ic ou t fl o w. A p ra c lo ni d in e i s u se d t o pi c al l y i n t he e y e t o d ec r e as e i n t ra o c u la r p re s s u re du r in g s u r ge r y . 4 . I so p r o te r e n ol , a β - adr e n e rg ic ag o ni s t , i s u s e d a s a br o nc ho d il a to r an d a s a c a r di ac s t im ul a nt in s h oc k an d c a rd i ac a r r es t . 5 . D o bu t a mi n e, a r e la t i ve l y β 1 -s el ec t i v e a go n is t , i s u s e d to im pr o ve m yo c a r d ia l f u nc t io n i n c on g es ti v e he a r t f a il u re , es pe ci al l y in e m e r g en c y s i tu a ti on s . 6 . Te r b ut a li ne an d ot h er β 2 - s e l ec ti v e ag o ni s t s ( e .g . , m e ta p ro t e re n ol , a l bu te r o l, b i t ol t er o l, s a lm e te r ol ) a re us e d a s s y s t em ic o r l oc a l b r on ch od i la t o rs i n t he t r ea tm e nt o f b ro nc h os pa s t ic c o n di tio n s s u c h as as t hm a. 7 . Th e β 2 - s e le c ti v e ag o ni s ts , e s p ec i al l y ri t od r i ne , m a y be us ed to r el a x u te r i ne s m o o th m u s c le in th e tr ea t m e n t o f p r em a tu r e l abo r . D . Ad ve r s e e f f ec t s . A d re n e rg ic ag o ni s t s m a y c au s e c a r d ia c d ys rh yt h m i as , c e r eb r al h e m o r r ha g e, pu lm o na r y h y p e r t en s i on a nd ed em a, a n xi e t y , he a da ch e , a nd r e b ou nd n a sa l c on g es ti o n.
III. ADRENERGIC ANTAGONISTS A. C h e m i s t r y 1 . α - Ad r e n e r g ic an t a gon i s t s ( α - b lo ck e rs ) h a v e v a r i e d s t ru c t u r es a n d b ea r li t t le r e s em bl an c e t o t he ad r en e r gi c a go n is ts . An t ag o ni s ts in cl ud e th e e r go t al ka l oi ds ( e . g ., e rg o ta m i n e) , th e d ib e n z am i ne s ( e .g . , p he n ox y b e n z a m in e ) , t he be n z ol i ne s ( e . g ., t ol a z ol i ne ) , a n d t he q ui na zo l in es ( e. g . , p raz o s i n ) ( F ig u re 13 - 4 ) .
2 . β - Ad r e n e rg i c a n t ag on i s t s ( β - bl o ck er s ) a r e s tr u c tu r al l y si m i la r to β - ago n is ts ( F i gu r e 1 3 - 5) . Th e c a te ch o l r i ng c a n b e r e pl ac e d b y a va ri e t y of o th e r r i ng s y st em s wi t h o u t l os s o f a n ta g on is t i c a c t i vi t y. Th e l en g th of t h e s id e c ha in is im po r ta n t a n d t h e s id e c ha i n h y d r o xy l , a s we l l as a p r op yl o r o th e r bu lk y s u bs t i tu t io n o n t h e c ha in n i t ro g en , ar e e s s e nt i al fo r in t e ra c ti on wi t h β - re c e p t o rs . B . P h a r ma c ol o g y 1 . A d re n er g ic a n ta g on is ts in h ib i t o r b lo ck ad r en e rg i c r ec e pt o r -m ed i at e d r es p on s e s .
Figure 13-4. The structural formulas of (A) phenoxybenzamine (Dibenzyline) and (B) prazosin (Minipress), representative α-blockers.
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Figure 13-5. The structural formulas of (A) propranolol (Inderal); (B) pindolol (Visken); (C) atenolol (Tenormin), and (D) timolol (Blocadren), representative β-blockers.
2 . α - Ad r e n e r g ic an t a gon i s t s m a y b e α 1 -s el ec t i ve ( e .g . , p r a z os in ) o r n ons e le c t i v e ( e . g ., ph e no xy b e n z a m i ne ) . P he n o xy b e n z a m i n e is an i r re v e r si bl e a n ta g oni s t b ec au s e i t fo r m s c o v a le n t b on ds wi t h α - r e c ep t or s , t he r e by i n ac t i v a ti ng t he re c ep to r s . 3 . β - Ad r e n e rg i c a n t ag on i s t s m a y b e β 1 - s e l ec ti v e ( e .g . , m et o p ro lo l ) o r no n s e l ec ti ve ( e . g ., p ro p ra n ol o l) . G en er a l l y , h o we v e r , β 1 -s el ec t iv e a g en t s m a y l os e t h ei r s e le ct i v i t y at hi g he r d o s e s a n d t hu s b lo c k β 2 - re c e p t o rs a s we ll ( a p ot e nt ia l pr o bl em i n as th m a t ic s ). C . T h e ra p e ut i c i n d ic a tio n s 1 . P r az o si n a n d r e la t ed α 1 - s e le c t i v e a n ta g on is ts ( e . g ., do xa zo s i n , t e r a z osi n , t r i m a zo s i n , a lf u z o s i n ) p ro d uc e vas od i la t io n ( b y blo c k i ng ba s a l v as cu la r ton e m a in t ai ne d b y c i rc ul a ti ng c a te c h ol am i ne ac ti va t ion o f vas c u la r α 1 - re c e p to rs ) . Th e y a r e th us im po r t an t a n ti h yp e r t en si ve ag e nt s. Th e y a r e al so us ef u l i n t he s ym p to m a t ic t r e a tm en t o f be ni g n p r os t a t ic h y pe r pl as i a. P.290
Figure 13-6. The structural formula of acetylcholine.
2 . P he n o x yb e n z a m in e an d ph e n to l am i n e ( n on sel e c t i v e α - bl oc k e r s) c a n be us e d t o r e l ie ve v a s o s p as m i n R ay n a u d ' s s ynd r om e a n d f or a cu t e h yp e rt e ns i v e e m e r g en c i es r e s ul ti n g f r om ph eo c hr om oc y t o m a o r f r om i n ta ke o f MA O i n h ib i to r s o r s ym p at h om i m et ic s . To l az o l i ne , a s i m i l ar ag e nt , is us ed t o t r ea t p e rs is t ent n eo n at a l p u lm o na r y h y p er t en s i o n. 3 . L ab e ta l o l, an ag e nt th a t p os s ess es bo t h s el ec t i v e α 1 - b lo ck in g a c ti vi t y a n d n o ns e le c t i v e β -b l oc k i ng a c ti v i t y , is u s ed i n th e t re a tm e nt o f h y p e rt e ns io n . 4 . P r o p ra n o lo l , a no ns e le c ti v e β - an t ag o ni s t , is us e d f o r t he p ro p h yla xi s of a ng i na p e ct o r is , s up r a v en t r ic ul ar a n d v e n t ri cu la r d ys r h yth m ia s , an d m ig r a in e h ead a c h e . I t i s a ls o u s e d a s a n a n ti h yp e r t en si v e , a ne g at i v e i no t r o pi c a ge n t i n h y p e rt r op h ic o b st r uc t i v e c ar d io m y op at h y , a nd a n eg a ti v e c h r on o t r op ic ag en t in an xi e t y a n d h yp e r t h y r oi di s m . 5 . β 1 - Se l ec ti v e an t ag o nis t s ( e .g . , m et o pr o lo l , b eta xo l o l , at e no lo l , a c e b ut ol o l ) a r e u s ed in th e tr e at m en t o f h y p e r t en s i on , ta c h ya r r h yt h m i as , an d a ng i na . 6 . B ot h β 1 -s el ec t i v e ( b eta xo l o l ) an d n o ns el ec t i ve ( t i m o lo l ) b l oc k e rs de c re as e c il i ar y b o d y p ro du c ti o n o f a qu eo u s h um o r a nd m a y be us e d i n t he t op ic al t re a tm e n t o f g l au c om a. D . Ad ve r s e e f f ec t s 1 . P r az o si n c a n c a us e s u d d en s y n c o p e wi t h t he fi r s t d os e, o r th os t at ic h y po t e ns io n , d i zzi n es s , h ea da c h e , d r ows i n e s s , p a lp i ta ti o ns , f l ui d re t e nt io n , a n d p ri a pi s m . 2 . P he n o x yb e n z a m in e c a n c a us e o r th os t a ti c h y po t e ns io n , t ac h y c a r di a , i nh i bi t io n o f e j ac ul a ti o n, m i os is , a n d n a s a l c on g es ti o n. 3 . P r o p ra n o lo l c a n c a us e b r ad y c a rd ia an d c on g es t i ve h ea r t fa il u r e , in c rea s ed a i r wa y r e s is ta nc e , i nc r eas e d s e r um t ri g l yc e r id es , d e c re as e d hi g h -d e ns it y li p op r o te i n c h ol es t e ro l , b lo od d y s c ra s ia s , ps o ri as is , de p re ss i o n , h al lu c i n at i on s , an d tr a n s i en t h e a ri n g l os s . S ud de n wi th d r a wa l c a n b e c a r di o toxi c d u e to re b ou n d s ym p at h om i m et ic ac ti v i ty . 4 . M e t o p ro l o l h as a d v e rs e e f f ec ts s im il a r to th ose o f p r op r an o lo l , e xc e p t t h a t i t i s l e ss l ik e l y to in c r e as e a ir wa y r e s i s t a nc e g i v en i ts β 1 - s e l ec ti v i t y.
IV. CHOLINERGIC AGONISTS
A. C h e m i s t r y 1 . Ac e t yl c h o l i n e , t he nat u r al e nd og e no us m e di a to r a nd th e m os t p o te n t ch o li n e rg ic a g o ni st , i s a n e s t e r o f a c e t ic ac id an d c ho l in e —a q u a te r na r y a m i no al c o h ol ( F ig u re 1 3 - 6 ). A c e t y lc h ol in e i n th e bl oo d i s u ns t ab l e as it i s q ui c k l y i n ac ti v a t ed t hr o u gh h yd r o l ys i s b y ac e t y lc ho lin e s t e r as e. Th u s, it is e xt r e m el y sh o r t ac t in g a n d u s ua ll y i s n o t a sa t is fa c to r y t he r ape u t ic a g en t . 2 . T he r a pe u t ic a l l y u s e f u l c ho l i ne r g ic a go n is t s m a y be di r ec t a c t i ng o r in d i re c t a c ti n g. a . D i r ec t - ac t i n g a go n is ts m a y b e p r od uc e d b y r ep l ac in g th e a ce t y l g r o up o f a c et yl ch o li n e wi t h a c ar ba m o y l g r ou p o r b y s ub s tit u t in g a m e t h yl g ro u p o f t h e β c a r bo n . Th e s e s u bs t it u tio n s p r od uc e c om po u nd s t h a t a r e m o r e re s i st a n t to a c e t yl c h o l i n e s te r a se an d th us ha v e lo n ge r du r at i o ns o f ac ti o n. S uc h s tab l e a g o ni st s i nc lu d e m e t ha c h o li n e ( P r o voc h ol in e ) a nd b e t h an ec h ol ( U re c ho lin e ) ( Fi gu r e 1 3 - 7 ).
Figure 13-7. Clinically useful direct-acting cholinergic agonists include (A) methacholine chloride (Provocholine) and (B) bethanechol chloride (Urecholine).
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Figure 13-8. The structural formula of neostigmine bromide (Prostigmin), a reversible acetylcholinesterase inhibitor.
b . I nd i r e ct - a c ti n g a g on is t s ar e g e ne r al l y ac e t ylc h o li n es te r as e i n hi bi t o rs a n d a r e d i vi de d i n to t wo m a j o r c la s s e s . ( 1 ) R e ve r s ib l e ( s h o r t- ac t i n g ) a ge n t s a r e p ri nc ip a ll y c a rb am a te s ( ca r b am ic ac id e s te r s ), s u c h as p h y s os tig m in e (E s er i ne ) , n e os ti gm i ne , a n d am b en o ni um (Me t yl a s e ) ( F i gu r e 1 3 - 8) . ( 2 ) I r r e ve r s ib l e ( l o ng - ac t i n g ) a ge n t s a r e p ri nc ip a ll y o r ga n op h os ph a te es t e rs , s uc h a s e ch o t hi op h at e ( Ph os ph o li n e ) ( F ig u re 13 - 9 ) . B . P h a r ma c ol o g y 1 . C h ol i n e rg i c re s po n se s a re m e di a te d b y b ot h m us c ar i ni c a nd ni c o t in ic r e c ep t or s ( Ta b l e 1 3 - 5 ). a . P N S m u sc a r i ni c r ec ep t o r s a r e p r es e nt a t p ara s y m pa t he ti c p os t ju nc t ion a l n e u ro e f fe c t o r s it es . b . P N S ni c o ti n i c r e ce p to r s a re p re s e n t a t t h e ga n gl i a o f b o th th e p a r as ym p at h et ic a n d s ym pa t he t ic b r an c hes o f t he A N S a n d a ls o a t t h e n eu r om us c u l a r j un c ti o ns of t h e s om a ti c n e r v ou s s y s te m . 2 . C h ol i n e rg i c a g on i s ts a c t b y m i m i c k in g th e ac t i vi t y o f e n d o g en o us a c e t yl c h o l i n e at m us c ari n ic an d n ic o ti ni c re ce p to r s i t es . a . D i r ec t - ac t i n g a go n is ts i nt e r ac t d i re c t l y wi t h the s e r ec e pt o rs . b . I nd i r e ct - a c ti n g a g on is t s i n hi b it o r b lo ck th e ac t i vi t y o f c h ol in es t e ra se e n z ym e s ( e . g ., ac e t y lc ho li n es t er as e , b u t yr y lc h ol in es t e ra se) , wh i c h b r ea k d o wn en do g e no us a c et yl ch o li n e t o i na c t i v e m e ta b ol i te s . Th u s , fo l lo wi n g p h y si ol o gi c a l re le a s e o f a c et yl ch o li n e f r om n e r v e t e rm i na ls , th es e a g en ts a l lo w t h e ne u ro t r an s m i tte r t o a cc u m u la t e a t c ho li n e rg ic s y na ps es , th e re b y e nha n c i n g c h o li ne r gi c re c e pt o r s t im ul a ti o n. O r g an op h os p h a te c h ol i ne s t e ra s e in hi b i to rs , s uc h a s c e rt a in ag r i c u lt u r al i n se ct ic i de s a nd th e s o -c a l le d n e r ve g as e s , c a n be e xt r e m el y t o xi c as th e y b i nd to t h e e n zy m e t o fo rm a n i rr e v e r s i b le o r l on g -l as t in g e n z ym e i nh i bi t o r c o m p l ex. C . T h e ra p e ut i c i n d ic a tio n s 1 . D i r ec t - ac t i n g a go n is ts a r e i nd ic a te d t o : a . I ni ti a te m i c t u ri t io n i n a c ut e n o no bs t r uc ti ve u rin a r y r e te n ti on ( e .g . , b et ha n ec h ol ) b . P r od uc e m io s i s i n t h e t r e a tm en t o f gl au c om a (e . g . , pi l oc a rp i ne ) 2 . I nd i re c t - ac t in g a g on is ts a re in d ic at e d t o: a . P r od uc e m io s i s i n t he t r e a tm en t o f gl au c om a (e . g . , p h ys os t ig m i n e, ec ho t h io ph a t e) b . A id in t he di f fe r en t ia l d i ag n os is of m ya s th e ni a g r a vi s ( a d is e as e c a us e d b y n i co t in ic r ec ep t or h yp of un c ti o n a t t h e n eu r om us c u l a r j un c ti on ) an d h yp e rc h o li n e rg ic c r is is ( wh i c h p ro du c es de p ol a r i zat i on bl oc ka d e of t h e n eu r om us cu la r ju nct i o n) . E d r o ph o ni um is u s e d fo r t h is pu r po se . c . Tr e a t m y as t he ni a g r a vi s (e . g. , am be no n iu m , n eo s ti gm i ne , p y r i d os ti gm i ne ) d . C o un t e ra c t in t o xi c at i on o r a d ve rs e e f fe c ts fr om c o m p ou n ds wi t h a n ti c h o li n e rg ic a c ti vi t y ( e .g . , p h y s o s t i gm i ne ) e . Im p ro v e c o g ni ti v e f unc t io n i n Al z h e im er ' s di sea s e p at i en ts ( e .g . , t ac r ine , d o n ep e z il , ga la n ta m i n e, a n d ri v a s t i gm in e ) f . Tr e a t p a r al y t ic il e us o r c a rd i ac t a rc h y a r r y t hm ias ( e. g . , e d ro ph o ni um ) .
Figure 13-9. The structural formula of isoflurophate (Floropryl), an irreversible acetylcholinesterase inhibitor.
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Table 13-5. Cholinoceptor-Mediated Responses to Cholinergic Agonists Organ
Response
Heart Atrioventricular node
Decreased conduction velocity (negative dromotropy)
Atria, ventricles
Decreased contraction force (negative inotropy)
Sinoatrial node
Decreased contraction rate (negative chronotropy)
Sphincter muscle
Contraction, producing miosis
Ciliary muscle
Contraction, accommodates for near vision
Eye
Lung
Bronchial muscle
Contraction (bronchoconstriction)
Bronchial glands
Increased secretion
Gastrointestinal tract Intestine
Increased motility (peristalsis)
Sphincters
Relaxation of sphincters
Glands
Increased secretions
Urinary bladder Detrusor muscle
Contraction
Trigone and sphincter
Relaxation
Glands (sweat, salivary, nasopharyngeal, lacrimal)
Increased glandular secretion
D . Ad ve r s e e f f ec t s 1 . T op i ca l ad ve r s e e f f ec t s i n c l ud e c on g es t ed c o n ju n c t i v a e, m y o p ic ac c o m m o da t i o n , a n d t r a ns ie n t l en t ic ul a r op a c i t y . 2 . S ys t e m i c a d ve r s e e f fe c t s i nc lu d e h ea d ac he , s yn c op e , n au s e a , v o m i t in g , b r a d yc a r di a , h y p o te ns ion , b ro nc h os pa s m , a b do m i n al c r a m p s, di a r rh e a, epi g as t ri c d i st r es s , s a li v a t io n , s we a t i ng , l ac r im a ti on , fl us h i n g , a n d t r em o rs .
V. CHOLINERGIC ANTAGONISTS b l oc k t he ac t io ns of ac e ty l c h ol in e a t m us c ar i ni c or n ic o ti ni c c ho li n oc ep t o rs . A. C h e m i s t r y 1 . At r o p i n e , a n a lk al oi d e xt r a c t e d f r om th e b e ll ado n n a pl a n t, i s th e p r ot o ty p i c al c h ol in e r gi c a nt a go n is t ( an t ic h ol in e r gi c a ge n t ). A p o r ti o n o f t h e a t ro p in e m o l ec ul e i s s t r uc t ur a ll y s i m i l ar t o ac e t y l c h o li ne ( Fi g u re 13 - 10 ) , p e rm it t in g t h e m o l ec ule t o b in d t o po s tj un c ti on a l r ec e pt or s . P.293 H o we ve r , t h e m ol ec u le ha s n o i n t ri ns ic ac ti vi t y , an d it s b ul k y s h ap e p r e ven t s a c et yl ch o li n e f r om b i nd ing t o t h e r ec e pt o r .
Figure 13-10. Structural formula of atropine, a cholinergic antagonist.
Figure 13-11. Structural formula of propantheline bromide (Pro-Banthine), a synthetic cholinergic antagonist.
2 . S yn t h e t i c a n t ic h o li ne r g i c a g en t s (e . g. , d ic y cl o m i ne [ B en t y l ], gl y c o p y rr o l at e [ R o b in u l] , p r o pa n th el i ne [ P r o - B an t hi n e] , p i r en z e pin e an d t r o pi c a m i de ) a re a l so a va i la b le . Th es e a g en ts , l ik e a t r op in e , a r e b ul k y a n al o gu es o f ac e t y lc ho l in e ( Fi gu r e 1 3 - 11 ) . 3 . A n im p o rt a nt f ac to r tha t de t e rm in es th e ph a rm a c ol o gi c s p ec t r um o f a n t ic ho li n e rg ic ag e nt s is t h e p r es en c e o f a q u a ter n a r y n i t r o g e n ( as i n p r o pa n th e li ne , gl y c op y r r o l a te , a n d i p ra t ro p iu m ), wh i c h r ed uc es pa ss ag e a c r os s t he b l oo d - b ra in ba r r ie r , o r a t e r t i a r y n i t r o g e n ( as in d i c yc l om in e , p i re n z ep i ne, t r o pi c am id e , a nd be n z t r op i ne ) , wh i c h pe r m i ts a b ro a d er v o lu m e o f d is t ri bu ti o n ( o r a cc e ss ib il i t y to a wi d e r ra n g e o f t is s u es ) . B . P h a r ma c ol o g y 1 . C ho l in e rg ic an t ag o ni s ts c om p et i t i ve l y i n h i b i t th e ac ti vi t y o f e nd o ge n ous a c et yl ch o li n e. 2 . A nt a go n is ts th a t i nh i bit m us c a ri n ic re c e p to r - m ed i a te d re s p on s es a r e c all e d a n t i mu s ca r i n ic ag e n ts ; t h os e th a t i nh ib i t n ic o ti nic r ec ep t o r -m ed ia t ed r es p o ns es a t t h e g a ng li a a r e c al l ed gan g l i on i c -b l o ck i ng a ge nt s , wh e r e as t h os e t h at inh i bi t
n i co t in ic r ec ep t or - m e d ia te d r es po ns es at t he ne u ro m us c u la r ju nc t io n a r e ca l le d n e u r o mu s cu l a r -b l o ck i ng a ge n t s . C . T h e ra p e ut i c i n d ic a tio n s 1 . An t i m u sc a r in i c a g ent s a re in d ic at e d t o : a . R ed u c e gl an d ul a r a nd b r o nc hi ol a r s ec r et i on s be f o r e a ne s t h es ia ( e. g ., at r o pi n e , g l yc op yr r o la t e ) b . I nd uc e s ed a ti o n ( e .g . , s c o po l am in e ) c . Al l e v ia t e m o t io n s ic k ne s s ( e .g . , sc o po la m i n e) d . R e du c e v a ga l s ti m u l ati o n o f t h e m y oc a r di um (e. g . , a t r op in e ) e . P r od uc e o p ht h al m i c m y d r i a s i s a nd c yc lo p le g ia ( e . g ., ho m a t r op i ne ) f . R e du c e G I s m o o th - m us c l e s pa sm s ( e .g . , p r op an t h el in e ) g . Tr e a t b r on c h o s p as m as s o c i a te d wi t h c h ro ni c ob s t ru c ti v e pu lm on a r y di s e a s e ( e. g ., i p r at r o pi um ) h . C on t r ol P a rk in s o n ' s d is e as e s ym p t om s a nd s om e n e u ro le p ti c -i n du ce d e xt r a p yr a m i da l r e ac ti o ns ( e . g. , be n zt r op in e , t r ih ex yp h e n i d yl) i . Tr e a t i n to xi c a t io n b y c h o li n e rg ic ag on is t s o r b y a c u t e m us h ro om po is o nin g ( e. g ., a t r o pi ne ) 2 . G a n gl i on i c -b l o ck i ng a g e n ts a re in di c a t ed t o tr e a t h y p e r te ns i v e c r is is (e . g . , t r i m e t ha p ha n , m e c a m y lam i ne , h e xa m e th o ni um ) . B y b l oc ki n g g an g li on ic t r a ns m i s s io n , t h es e a gen t s r e du c e s ym p at h et ic a c ti v i t y , r es ul t in g i n a h yp o t en si v e e f f ec t . D . Ad ve r s e e f f ec t s 1 . T op i ca l ad ve r s e e f f ec t s i n c l ud e h y p e r op ic acc om m o d at i on an d i nc r e as e d i n t ra o c u la r p re s s u re . 2 . S ys t e m i c a d ve r s e e f fe c t s i nc lu d e h ea d ac he , n e r v o us n es s , dr o ws i ne s s , d i zzi n es s , p al pi t at i on s , ta c h y c a r di a , d r y m o u th , m y d r i as is , b lu r r ed vi si on, n au se a , vo m i ti n g, c o ns t ip a ti on , ur i n a r y re t en t io n , a nd f e ve r . P.294
Figure 13-12. Structural formula of tubocurarine chloride (Tubarine), a competitive nondepolarizing agent.
VI. NEUROMUSCULAR BLOCKING AGENTS
a c t b y b lo c k in g t h e e f fe c t s of ac e t y lc ho li n e a t t h e n e r ve -m us c l e j u nc ti o n of s k e le t al m us c l e s . A. C h e m i s t r y 1 . N e u ro m us c u la r b lo ck i n g a g en t s c an be c o m p e t it i ve (a s wi t h t he p ro to t yp ic a l c u r ar e a lk a lo i ds ) o r de pol a r i z in g (a s wi t h s u cc in y l c h ol in e ) . Me m be r s o f e ith e r c a te g o r y u l ti m a t el y p r e ve n t th e a c t i on of ac e t ylc h o li n e a t n ic o ti ni c r e c e p to r s l oc a te d i n th e n e r v e -m us c l e j u nc t i o n. 2 . Th e co m pe t i t i ve n o nd e p o la r i zi n g a ge n t s i ncl u de t he na t u ra ll y o cc u rr in g a l ka lo i ds o f cu r a r e , wh i c h a r e b ul k y a n d r ig i d m o le c ul es , a s we l l as s e v e ra l s yn t he t ic an al o gu es . a . Th e p ri n c ip a l a c ti ve a l k al o i d i n c u r a re is tu bo c u ra r in e (F i gu r e 1 3 -1 2 ). A cl os el y r e l at e d t r im e th y l a te de r iv a t i v e is m e to c u r i ne ( Me t u b in e ) . Th e i r m os t im p or t a n t s t r uc t ur a l f ea t u re is th e p r e s e nc e o f a t er t ia r y- q ua t e r na r y am in e i n wh i ch t h e d i st a nc e b et we e n t he t wo c a t io ns is ri g id l y fi xe d a t ab o ut t wi c e t he le n gt h o f th e c r i ti ca l re c e p to r - bi nd i ng m o ie t y o f ac e t y lc ho l in e . b . A nu m b e r o f p o t en t syn t h e t i c a n al o g ue s h a ve b ee n d e v e lo pe d . Th ese i nc lu de t h e s t ru c tu r al l y s i m i la r iso q u i no l i ne s a t r ac u ri um ( Tr a c r i um ) , d o xa c u ri um (N u r o m a x) , a n d m i v ac u ri um ( Mi v a c r on ) , as we l l a s t he s te r o id d e r i va t i ve s p an c u r on iu m ( P a vu l on ) , v ec u ro n iu m (N o r c u ro n ), an d pi pe c u r on i um ( A rd u an ) . 3 . Th e no n co m pe t i t i ve d e p o la r i zi n g a ge n t s i ncl u de s u cc in y l c h o li ne ( A ne c ti n e ) a nd g a ll am i ne ( Fl a xe d i l ) ( F igu r e 13 - 13 ) . a . U nl ik e th e l a rg e , b ul k y c o m p e ti t i ve a ge n ts , n on c om pe t it i v e a g en t s a re s l en d er a l ip h at ic m o le c u l es . b . S u cc i n yl c h o l i n e h as a s h o r t d u ra t io n o f a c ti on co m p a r ed wi t h th e o t he r n e u ro m u s c u la r b l oc k i ng a g e nt s . Th i s r es ul t s f r om i t s s i m p l e es t e r f un c ti ona l gr o up , wh i c h is ra p id l y h y d ro l y z e d b y p l as m a an d l i ve r ps e ud oc h ol in es t e ra se ( b u t yr yl ch ol i ne s te r as e ). It s ac ti o n m a y b e p r ol o nge d , h o we v e r , in pa t ie n ts wi t h a n a b n or m a l g e ne t ic v a ri a nt o f ps eu do c ho li n es te r as e , wh i ch h as o n l y a b ou t 2 0 % t h e a c ti vi t y o f n o rm al ps eu do c ho li n es t er as e . B . P h a r ma c ol o g y 1 . Th e co m pe t i t i ve n o nd e p o la r i zi n g a ge n t s c om p et e wi t h a ce t y lc h ol i ne f o r n i co t in ic r ec ep t or s a t th e n e u ro m u sc ul a r j un c ti on . Th e s e a ge n ts de c re as e t h e e n d p l a te po t en t ia l s o t ha t the d ep ol a r i zat i on th r es h ol d is no t re ac h ed . C om pet i t i v e n o n de po l a ri z i ng ag e nt s p r o du c e P.295 a su r m o u nt a bl e b lo c k a de o f ne u ro m u s c ul a r t r a nsm is s i o n i n t ha t ad m i ni s tra t i on of c h ol in e s t e ra s e in h ib i to r s o r p re ju nc t io n al r el ea se o f a la r g e q ua n ti t y o f ac e t y l c h o li ne c a n r e li e v e t h e b lo c k ad e.
Figure 13-13. Structural formula of succinylcholine chloride, a noncompetitive depolarizing agent.
2 . Th e no n co m pe t i t i ve d e p o la r i zi n g a ge n t s d es e ns it i z e th e n ic o ti ni c r ec e pt o rs a t t h e n e u ro m u s c ul a r j un c tio n . Th es e a ge n ts r ea ct wi t h t h e n ic o ti ni c r e ce p to r s , d e c re as in g re c e p to r s e ns i ti v i t y in a m an n er si m i la r t o t ha t of e xc e s s re l ea s ed a c et yl ch o li n e. Th e y de p ol a r i z e t h e e xc i t ab l e m e m b r a ne f or a p r ol o ng ed p er i o d ( 2 - 3 m i nu t es ) ; t he m e m b r an e t h e n b ec om es un r es po ns i v e ( d es en s i t i z ed ) . C . T h e ra p e ut i c i n d ic a tio n s . Ne u r o mu s cu l a r b lo c k in g ag e n ts , wh ic h c au s e o nl y s ke l et a l m u s c le p ar a l ys is ( th e p a ti e nt r em ai ns c on s c i ou s a nd c a pa b le of s e n sa t io n ) , a r e us ed to : 1 . P r om ot e s k e le t al m u s c l e r el a xa t i o n a nd f ac il ita t e e n do t r ac he al in t ub a tio n , a s a n a d ju n ct to s u r gi c a l a n es th e s i a 2 . Li m i t th e t r a um a t ha t c o ul d re s u l t f r om e xc e s s iv e s k e le t al m u s c le c o nt ra c ti o n d u r in g e l ec t ro c o n v u ls i v e s h oc k t he r ap y 3 . R el a x t h e s k e l et a l m us c l es an d fa c i li t a te bo ne p l a c em en t a n d m an ip u lat i o ns d u r in g o r t ho p ed ic pr o c e du r e s D . Ad ve r s e e f f ec t s 1 . C o mp e t it i ve n on d e po l a r iz i n g a ge n t s c a n c au s e r es p ir a t or y p a ra l y s i s , h is t am in e r e l ea se , br o nc ho s p a s m , a n d h y p o te ns i on ( e. g ., tu b oc u ra r i ne ) o r r es pi r a tor y p a r al ys is , t a c h y c a rd ia , an d h y pe r t en s i o n ( e .g . , pa n c u r on i um ) . 2 . N o nc o mp e t i ti ve d ep ol a r i z i n g a g en t s (e . g. , s uc ci n ylc h ol i ne , g a ll am in e ) c an c a us e r es p i ra t or y p a ra l ys is , m us cl e fa s c ic ul a ti on wi t h p ai n , e xt r a o c ul a r m u sc l e c o nt r ac t io n wi t h i nc r ea s ed i nt r a oc ul a r p r es s u r e, an d in c re as ed in t r ag as t r ic p r es s u r e . I n ad d it i on , s uc c i n y lc h ol in e m a y c a us e m us ca r in ic r es po ns es su c h as br ad yc a r di a , i n c re as ed gl a nd u la r s ec re t i on s , an d c a rd i ac a r r es t . I n c o m b i na t io n wi t h t he a n es t he t ic h a lo t ha n e, s uc c i n y lc h ol i ne m a y ca us e m a l i gn a nt h y p er t he r m i a in g e n et ic al l y p re d is po s e d in d i v id u al s .
VII. GENERAL ANESTHETICS i n du c e a c om bi n ed s t a te o f an al g es ia , a m n es i a, lo s s o f co ns ci o us ne s s , i nh i bi t io n o f s e ns o r y a n d a ut o no m i c re f l e xe s , a nd sk el e ta l m us cl e re l a xa t i on . I d ea l g en e r al a n es t he t ic s in d uc e a ne s th e s i a ra pi d l y a n d s m o oth l y a nd pe r m i t ra pi d re c ov e r y o f t he p a t ie n t o nc e a dm in is t r at io n of t he ag en t c e as es .
A. C h e m i s t r y 1 . V o la t i le o r i n ha l a ti o n a n es t h e ti c s a re d ru gs in h al e d a s g as es o r v a por s . Th es e d i ve r se dr u gs ar e re l at i ve l y s i m p l e l ip op h il ic m o le c ul es . Th e y in cl ud e th e i n or g an ic a g e nt ni t r ou s o xi d e ( N 2 O) a n d t he n on f l am ma b l e h a lo ge n a te d h y d r oc a rb on s (e . g. , h a lo t ha n e ) a nd et h e rs (e. g . , m et h o xyf l u r a ne , i so f lu r a ne , de s f l ur a ne , s e v o flu r a ne ) . 2 . N o n vo la t i le o r in t r a ve n o us a ne s th e t ic s a r e a d m i ni s te r ed in t r a v en o us l y o r o cc a si on a ll y i nt r am us c u la r l y a nd c om e a s a qu e ou s s o l u ti o ns , a qu e ou s p ro p yl e ne g l yc ol s o lu t io ns , o r em uls i on s . a . Th e w a te r - s ol u b le and r el a ti ve l y sh o r t- a c t i ng a g e nt s i nc lu d e u lt r a -s ho rt - a c t i ng b a r bi t u ra t es (e . g ., th i op en t a l, m e t ho he xi t a l , th i am yl a l ) , c yc l o he xy l a m i n es (e . g . , k e ta m i n e ), be n z o - di a z epi n es ( e. g ., di a z e pa m , m id a z o l am ) , b ut y r o p he no ne s (e . g. , d r o pe r i do l ), an d o p io id an a lg e s i c s (e . g. , m o rp h ine , f en t an yl ) . b . Th e im id a z ol e , e t om ida t e , i s p re p a re d a s a n aq u e o us p r op yl e n e g l yc o l s o l u t io n , wh i c h i s c o m pa t i bl e wi t h m a n y p re a ne s t h e ti cs . c . Th e d i al k y lp he n ol , p r op o f ol , i s a dm in is t e re d a s a n e m u ls i on , wh i ch s h ou l d n o t b e m i xe d wi t h o th e r t h er a peu t ic ag e nt s b e fo r e a dm ini s t ra t io n (F ig u r e 1 3 -1 4 ). B . P h a r ma c ol o g y 1 . G e ne r a l a n es t h et i cs d e p re s s th e C N S , p r od uc i ng a r e ve rs i bl e l os s o f c o ns ci ou s n es s a n d l os s o f al l f o rm s o f s en s a t io n . P.296
Figure 13-14. Structural formulas of nonvolatile general anesthetics: (A) thiopental sodium (Pentothal), (B) ketamine hydrochloride (Ketaject), (C) fentanyl citrate (Sublimaze), (D) midazolam (Versed), (E) etomidate (Amidate), and (F) propofol (Diprivan).
2 . I nh a la t i o na l a n es t h eti c s a r e a bs o r be d a nd p rim a r il y e xc r e t ed th r o ug h th e lu ng s . F r e q ue n tl y , th es e dr u gs a r e s u pp le m e n te d wi t h an a lg e s i c s , a s k e l et al m us c l e r e l a xa n t , a n d a n a nt im us c a r in ic ag en t . a . An a l g es i cs pe r m i t a re d uc t io n i n t h e r e qu i re d c o nc en t r at i on of in h al a tio n al a n es t he t ic . b . S ke l e ta l m u sc l e re l ax a n t s c a us e a d eq u at e m u s c l e r e la xa t i o n d u ri n g su r g e r y. c . An t i m us c a ri n i c a ge nt s d ec re a s e bu c c al an d b r o nc hi o la r s ec r e ti o ns .
3 . N o n vo la t i le a ne s th e ti c s a r e u s u a ll y a dm in is te r e d i n tr a v e no us l y ( e. g . , t h i ob a rb i tu r a te s , be n z o dia z e p i ne s ) , bu t s om e a gen t s m a y a ls o b e g i v e n i n t ra m us c u la r l y (e . g ., k e ta m in e ) . C . T h e ra p e ut i c i n d ic a tio n s 1 . I nh a la t i o na l a n es t h eti c s a r e i n di c a t ed to p ro v i d e g en e r al s u r gi c a l a nes t he s i a . 2 . N o n vo la t i le a ne s th e ti c s (e . g. , th i op en t al , di aze p a m , m i da z o l am ) a r e in d ic a te d t o i n du c e d ro ws i n es s a nd pr o v i d e r e la xa t i o n b e fo r e t h e i n du c t i on of in h al a ti on a l g e n er a l a ne s t h es ia . P.297
3 . U se of s o m e p re v i ou s ly p o p ul a r v ol a ti le an es t he t ic s h as be e n di sc o nt i nu e d b e ca us e o f s e ri o us to xi c it y ( e . g ., c h lo r o fo r m ) o r be c au se o f t he fl am m a b le a n d e xp l o s i v e p r op e r ti es o f th e c om p ou n ds (e . g. , c y cl o p ro p an e , d ie t h y le t he r ) . D . Ad ve r s e e f f ec t s . Ge ne r a l a ne s th e ti c s d e p re s s r e s p i ra t io n , c ir c u l at i on , a n d t h e C N S . Th e y c an al s o d ec re a s e he p at ic an d k id n e y f u nc t io n (e . g. , m e th o xy f l u r a ne ) a n d c au s e c a r di ac d y s r hy t h m ia s a s a re su l t o f i nc r e as ed m y o c ar d ia l s en s i t i vi t y to c a te ch o la m i n es (e . g. , hal o t ha ne ) .
VIII. LOCAL ANESTHETICS A. C h e m i s t r y. Mo s t l o c al a ne s t h et ic s a r e s t ru c t u ra l l y s im i la r to th e a lk a lo id c o ca i ne ( F i gu r e 1 3 - 15 ) . Th es e d ru g s c o n si st of a h y d r op hi l i c am in o g r ou p l i nk ed th r o ug h a n e s te r o r am i de c o nn ec t ing g r ou p t o a li p op hi l ic a ro m at ic m o ie t y . A fe w p he n ol s a n d a r o m a t ic a lc o ho ls al s o ha v e l oc al an es t he t ic ac tivi t y. 1 . E s t e r -t y p e ag en t s a re g e n er a ll y s h o r t a ct in g due t o r a pi d h yd r ol ys is b y p l as m a e s te r as es . Th es e a g en ts i nc l ud e c oc ai n e, p ro c a ine , ch lo r o pr o c a in e , b en z oc a in e , b u t am be n , a nd te t r ac ai ne . 2 . Am i de - t y p e a ge n ts are g en e ra l l y l o ng e r a ct i ng a n d a r e m e t ab o li z e d i n th e li ve r . E xa m p l e s o f t h e am i de - ty p e l oc al an es t he t ic s i nc l u de li d oc ai n e, di b uc ai ne, p r i lo ca i ne , m ep i v ac a in e , b u pi v a c ai ne , an d e t id oc ai n e . 3 . Th e dr u g 's p K a ( o r d is s oc i at i on c o ns t an t ) i n fl ue n ce s i ts c h em ic al s t a te , wh i c h i n t u r n d e te r m i ne s t h e a ne s t h e ti c e f fe ct i ve ne s s of t he c o m p o un d . Th e s i t e o f a n es t he t ic a c ti on is at t he i nn e r s ur f ac e o f th e c el l m em b r an e . A t t is s ue pH , t h e d r u g i s i n t he fo r m o f a lip o p hi li c, un c ha r ge d , s e c o n d ar y o r te r ti a r y am in e , a n d t hu s d i f fu se s a c ro s s c on n ec tiv e t i s s ue an d c el l m em b ra n es an d e n te r s n e r ve ce l ls wh e r e i t is i o ni z e d t o a c h a rg e d a m m on i um c a ti on . Th e c a ti o ni c f o rm o f th e d r u g i s t h e a c ti ve f or m o f th e d r ug th a t b l oc k s t h e g en e ra t ion o f a ct i on po t en t ia ls at t h e m em b r an e r e c e p to r c om p l e x. A l so , b e c a us e o f i ts c h a rg e d am m o n iu m c ati o n , t he i n t ra c el lu l ar io n i z ed m o le c ul e p o or l y pe n et r a te s th e c e ll m em b r an e a nd t hu s re m a i ns t r a p pe d wi t hi n t h e c e l l, th e r eb y e nh a nc in g i t s d ura t i on of ac t io n . B . P h a r ma c ol o g y 1 . Lo ca l a n es th e ti c s r e ve r s i b l y b l o c k n e r ve i m pu l s e c o nd u c ti o n a nd p ro d u ce r e ve r s i b l e l os s o f s en sa t i o n a t t h ei r ad m i ni s tr a ti o n s it e . Th e y d o n o t p r od u ce a l o ss o f c o ns c i ou s n es s .
a . Sm a ll , n o nm y e li n at e d n e r v e fi b er s , wh i c h c on du c t p ai n a n d t em pe r a tu re s e ns at i on s , a re a ff ec t ed f i r s t . b . L oc al an es t he t ic s ap pe a r to be c o m e en t r ap p ed wi t h i n th e n e r ve m em bra n e o r to +
+
b i nd t o sp ec i fi c m em b ran e s o di um io n ( Na ) c h an n el s , r es t r ic ti n g N a per m e ab il i t y i n r e s po ns e t o p a r ti al d ep ola r i z a ti o n . 2 . Lo ca l a n es th e ti c s ol u ti o ns f re q ue n tl y c o n ta i n th e v as o c o ns t ri c to r ep i nep h r i n e, wh i c h r ed uc es v a s c ul a r b l oo d fl o w a t th e a dm in is t r a t io n s it e . Thi s p r ol o ngs t he d u r a ti on o f ac t io n , a nd re d uc es s ys t em ic ab s o r p ti o n , a nd he nc e s y s te m i c t o xi c i t y .
Figure 13-15. Structural formulas of local anesthetics structurally similar to cocaine: (A) procaine (Novocaine) and (B) lidocaine (Xylocaine).
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C . T h e ra p e ut i c i n d ic a tio n s . L oc a l a ne s t h et ic s ar e in d ic a te d t o : 1 . P r od uc e re gi o na l n e r ve b lo c k fo r th e re li e f o f pa i n wh e n i nj ec t ed c l os e to t he i n ne r va t in g n e r v e 2 . P r o v id e a n es th es i a f or m in o r o pe r a ti o ns wh e n i n f il t ra t ed a ro u nd th e ti s s u e s i t e 3 . P r o v id e a n es th es i a f or s u rg e r y of th e l o we r l im bs an d p e l v is an d f o r ob s te t r ic s u r ge r y wh e n in je c te d i nt o t he ep id u r al s p ac e o r t h e s ub a r ac hn o id s p ac e o f t he s p in al c o r d 4 . P r o v id e a n es th es i a o f t h e s k i n a nd m u co us m em b r an es wh e n a p pl ie d l oc a ll y. Th i s i n cl ud e s t wo m i s c e ll an e ou s l oc a l a ne s t h et ic s : d yc l o n i ne , u s ed pr im a r il y i n t h r oa t l o ze n ge s a nd s p r a ys , and p r am o x in e , u s e d p r im a r i l y i n a n ti h em o r rh oi d al p r e pa r a ti o ns . D . Ad ve r s e e f f ec t s 1 . E s t e r -t y p e l o c a l a ne s th e t ic s ca n c au se h y pe r s e n s i t i v it y r e ac ti o ns i n s us c e p ti b le i n di vi d ua ls . 2 . S y s te m i c a bs o rp t io n of t o xi c c o nc en t r at i on s o f l o c a l a ne s th e ti c s c a n c au s e s e i zu re s ; C N S , re s p i ra t or y , a n d m y oc a r di al de p res s i o n; an d c i rc ul a to r y c ol l ap se .
IX. ANTIPSYCHOTICS. Th e c la s s ic an t ip s yc h ot ic ag e nt s a r e t h e p he no t hi a z i ne s , t hi o xa n t h en es , a n d b u t yr o ph en o ne s . C h em ic a l c l as s es o f n e we r c om p o u nd s h a vin g a n ti ps yc ho t ic
a c ti vi t y i nc lu de t he di h y dr o i nd o lo ne s (e . g. , m ol i nd o n e ) , d ib en z o xa ze p i n es ( e . g ., l o xa p i n e ), di b en z o d ia z e pi n es ( e. g ., c l o z a pi ne ) , d ip h e n y lb u t ylp ip e ri d in es (e . g . , p i m o zi d e) , an d b en z i s o xa z o l es ( e. g ., r is pe r i do ne) . A. C h e m i s t r y 1 . P he n o t hi az i ne s (e . g ., c hl o r pr om a zi ne , t ri fl u p ro m a z in e , t hi o r id a zi n e , p r o ch lo r p er a z i ne , t ri fl u op e r a z in e , f l up he n a zin e ) m u s t ha ve a n i t r og e n -co n t a in i n g s i d e -c h ai n su b s ti t u en t o n th e ri n g n it r og e n f o r an t i ps yc h o ti c a c t i v i t y ( Ta bl e 13 - 6 ). Th e r i ng a nd s i de -c h ai n n i t ro g en s m us t b e s ep a ra t e d b y a t h r ee -c a r bo n c h a in ; p h e no t hi a z in es in wh i c h t h e ri n g a nd s i de -c h ai n ni t r og e ns ar e s e pa r at e d by a t wo c a r bo n c ha in h a v e o nl y a n t ih is t am in ic o r s e d at i ve a c t i vi t y. a . Th e s i de c h ai ns a re eit h e r a li p ha t ic , p ip e r a zin e, o r p i pe r id i ne de r i va ti v es . P i p e ra zi n e s i d e c h a in s c o n f e r t he g re a te s t po t enc y a nd t he hi gh e s t ph a rm ac o lo g ic al s e le ct i v i t y . b . F lu ph e na z i n e a nd lo ng - c ha in al c o h ol s f o rm s ta b le , hi g h l y l i p o p h i l ic es t e r s (e . g. , e n a nt h at e , d ec an o at e ) , wh i c h po s s es s m a r k e d l y p r o lo n ge d a c t i v i t y . 2 . T hi o xa n t he n es ( e. g . , c h lo r p ro t hi xe n e , th i ot h i xe n e ) l ac k t he r in g n i tr o ge n of p h e no t hi a z in es an d h a v e a s i de c h ai n a t t ac he d by a d ou b le bo n d ( F ig u re 1 3 - 16 ) . 3 . B u t yr o p h e n o ne s (e . g. , h al op e ri d ol ) a re c h em ic a ll y u n re la t ed t o p h e no th i a z in e s b u t h a ve s im il a r a c t i v i t y ( F i gu r e 1 3 - 17 ) . 4 . N e we r ag e n ts d e ri v e fr o m d i v e rs e c he m i c a l c las s e s a n d i nc lu de cl o zap in e , o l an za p in e , l o xa p i ne , p im o z i de , m ol i nd o ne , q u eti a pi n e, r is pe r id o ne , re m oxi p r i d e , zi p r a si do n e a nd a r ip i p r az o l e. B . P h a r ma c ol o g y 1 . Th e se ag en t s h a v e g en e r al l y s im i la r ph a rm ac o d yn am ic ef f ec ts in t he tr e a tm e nt of p s yc ho ti c i ll n es s . Th e ir an t i ps y ch o ti c a c t i on ( i. e ., i m p ro v e m e n t o f c og ni t i ve a nd b e h a vio r al ab n or m a l it i es ) r e s u l ts p r im a ri l y f ro m th e i r b lo ck ad e o f do pa m in e r e c ep t or s i n c o rt ic a l a nd l i m b ic ar e as of th e b r a in , wh e r e a s t he i r a d v e rs e e xt r a p yr a m i da l e f fe c t s s u c h as p ar ki ns o ni a n r eac t io ns r es ul t f ro m a nt a gon i s m o f d o p am in e r ec e pt o rs in t he b as al ga n gl ia . 2 . O t he r ef f ec ts v a r y am o n g t h e c l as s es o f a n ti psy c h o ti c s . Th es e i nc lu d e a n t ie m e t ic a c ti vi t y a nd bl oc k a d e o f m us c ar i ni c , se r ot o ne r gi c , α 1 - a d re ne r g ic , a nd H 1 h i st am i ne r gi c r ec e p to rs . 3 . Th e at y p ic a l a nt i ps y c ho t ic s ( e .g . , c lo z a p in e , a r ip i p ra z o l e ) a re ne we r a g en t s t h at s h o w s t ro ng a nt a go ni s ti c p r o pe r ti es a t se r o to n in re c ep t o rs i n a d di t io n t o t he i r b l oc ka d e o f d op am i ne r ec e pt o rs . C om pa r ed t o t he p he n ot h ia z i ne s , b ut y r op h e no ne s , a n d o t he r c l as s ic an t ip s yc h ot ic d ru gs , th e a t y p ic al a ge n ts a r e e f fe c ti v e in a m el io r a ti n g a wi d e r r ang e of s ym p to m s , i nc l ud ing n eg a ti ve s ym p to m s , a nd t he y a l so a re le s s l ik e l y t o i nd u c e e xt r a p y r am i da l s ide e f fe c t s . P.299
Table 13-6. Antipsychotic Phenothiazines
General Phenothiazine Structure*
Drug
XSubstituent
R-Substituent*
Chlorpromazine (Thorazine)
-Cl
-(CH2)3-N(CH3)2
Triflupromazine (Vesprin)
-CF3
-(CH2)3-N(CH3)2
Thioridazine (Mellaril)
-SCH3
Prochlorperazine (Compazine)
-Cl
Trifluoperazine (Stelazine)
-CF3
Fluphenazine (Prolixin)
-CF3
*
Antipsychotic phenothiazines have the general structure illustrated in the table. Substituents at positions marked X and R result in different drugs.
Figure 13-16. Thioxanthenes, similar to phenothiazines, have substituents at X and R positions that alter drug activity. Chlorprothixene (Taractan) has a —Cl substituent at X and CH—(CH2)2—N(CH3)2 at R. Thiothixene (Navane) has a—SO2 N(CH3)2 substituent at X and the group:
Figure 13-17. Structural formula of haloperidol (Haldol), a butyrophenone antipsychotic.
P.300
Figure 13-18. Structural formulas of (A) phenelzine (Nardil), a hydralazine derivative monoamine oxidase (MAO) inhibitor, and (B) tranylcypromine (Parnate), a cyclopropylamine derivative MAO inhibitor.
C . T h e ra p e ut i c i n d ic a tio n s . An t ip s yc h ot ic s a r e in d ic a te d p r im a ri l y fo r the t r ea tm e nt o f ps yc ho s i s a s s oc ia t ed wi t h s c h i z o ph r en i a ( e .g . , h a lo pe r i do l , a ri p ip r a z ol e) , p a r an o ia , a n d To u r e tt e ' s s y n d ro m e ( e. g . , p im o z ide ) . P r om et h a z in e a nd o th e r c l as s ic a g e nt s a r e us e d as a nt iem e ti c s ba s e d o n t h ei r blo c k a de o f d op am in e re ce p t o rs i n t h e c he m o r ec e pt o r t r i gge r z o n e o f t h e m e d ul la an d i n th e s t om ac h. D . Ad ve r s e e f f ec t s 1 . C e nt r a l l y m e d i a t e d ad ve r s e e f fe c ts in cl u de dr o ws i n es s ; e xt r a p yr a m i da l s ym p to m s s uc h a s a k a t hi s ia , a c u t e d y s to n ia , a ki ne s ia , a n d t a rd i v e d y s k i nes i a; a l t er a ti o n o f t em p e ra t ur er e g ul a ti n g m e ch a ni s m s in c l u di n g p oi k i l ot h er m y ; in c r ea s e d a p p et i te an d we i gh t g a in; a nd al t e ra t io ns in h y po th a la m i c a n d e nd oc r in e fu n c t i on s uc h a s i nc r ea s ed re l ea s e o f c or t ic o t ro pi n , g on a do t r o pi ns , p r ol ac t in , gr o wt h h o r m o ne , an d m el an o c y te - s ti m u l at in g ho rm o ne . 2 . P e r ip h e ra l ad ve r s e ef f e c t s i nc lu de po s tu r al hyp o t e ns io n a n d r e fl e x t ac h y c ar d i a ; h e p at o to xi c i t y an d j a un di c e; f ai lu r e o f e j ac ul a ti on ; b on e m a r ro w d e p r es s i on ; p h o to se ns i ti v i t y ; xe r o s tom i a; an d b l u rr e d vi si o n.
X. ANTIDEPRESSIVE AND ANTIMANIC AGENTS m a y be b ro a dl y c l as s i f ied i nt o f i ve s t r uc tu r a ll y a nd m e c h a ni st ic a ll y u n re la te d g r o up s : t he MA O i n h i bi t or s , c la s s ic a l o r t r ic yc li c a n t id ep r es s a n ts , s el ec t i ve s e r ot o ni n r e up t ak e i nh i bit o r s ( S S R I s) , th i rd - g en e ra t i on o r a t y pi c a l a n ti d ep re ss a nt s , a n d a n ti m a ni c a n ti d ep r es s a n ts o r m o o d s ta bi l i zer s . A. C h e m i s t r y 1 . M AO i n h ib i t o rs m a y b e we a k l y p o te n t h yd r a l a z i ne s ( e .g . , p h en el z i n e) o r e xt r e m e l y po t en t ph e n yl c yc l o p r o p yl a m i n e s s uch as t ra n yl c y pr o m i ne wh ic h i s a r i n g -c lo s e d a m p h et am i ne d e ri v a t i v es (F i gu r e 1 3 -1 8 ) . 2 . T r ic yc l i c a n ti de p r es s a n ts , wh i c h a re us ed c om m o n l y , a r e s ec on da r y o r t e rt i ar y a m in e d e ri v a t i v es of m o le c ul es th a t h a v e a fu s e d t h r ee - r in g s y s te m . a . Th e pr i nc ip al t ri c y c l ic a n t id ep r es sa n ts a re de r iva t i ve s o f d i be n z a ze pi ne ( e . g. , i m i p r am i ne , d e s i p ra m i ne , c l om ip r am i ne , t r im i pr am i ne ) an d d ib e n z oc y c lo he p t ad ie n e ( e . g ., am i tr i pt y l i ne , n o r t ri p t y l in e , p ro t r ip t yl in e ) ( F ig u r es 13 - 19 an d 1 3 - 20 ) .
Figure 13-19. Structural formulas of tricyclic antidepressants derived from dibenzazepine: (A) imipramine (Tofranil) and (B) desipramine (Norpramin).
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Figure 13-20. Structural formulas of tricyclic antidepressants derived from dibenzocycloheptadiene: (A) amitriptyline (Elavil) and (B) nortriptyline (Aventyl).
b . O t h er c l os el y r e la t ed tr i c y c l ic an t id e pr e s s an ts in c lu d e d o xe p in , a d ib en zo xe p i n e , a n d a m o xa p i n e , a d i be n zo xa z e p i n e . 3 . At yp i c a l a n t id e pr es s an t s h a ve v a ri ed s t r uc t u res r an g in g f r om th e s im ple p h e ne t h y la m i ne v e nl a fa x i n e a nd t he ph e n y lp ip e r az i n e ne f a zod o ne to t he a m in ok e to n e b up r op i on a n d t h e c o m pl e x h e t er oc y c l ic s m ap r o ti li n e a nd m ir t a z e p in e . 4 . S S R I s h a v e v a r ie d c he m ic al s t r uc t ur es an d a re r el a t ed on l y b y t h ei r p h a rm ac ol o gi c a l l y c om m o n ab il i t y to in h ib it t he re u p ta ke of se r o to ni n fr om t he s yn a pt ic c l e ft . Th es e c om p ou n ds i nc l ud e f l uo xe t i n e , p a r o xe t i ne , s e rt r a li ne , an d f l u v o xa m i ne ( Fi g ur e 1 3 - 21 ) . 5 . L i th i um is an al k a li m e t a l t ha t i s u s e d i n t h e fo r m o f th e c a rb on a te s a lt i n t he t r e a tm en t o f m a ni c d ep re s s i on o r b ip ol a r d is e ase . O t he r ag e nt s i n t hi s t he r a pe u ti c c a te g o r y i nc l ud e t h e o r ga n ic c om p ou n ds va l p ro ic a ci d an d c a r ba m az ep in e . B . P h a r ma c ol o g y 1 . M AO i n h ib i t o rs ap p ea r t o p r od uc e t h ei r an t ide p r es s a n t e f fe ct s b y b loc k i n g t he i n t ra n eu r o na l o xi d a t i v e de a m i n at io n o f b ra in bi o ge n ic am in es ( e. g ., d op am i ne , n o r ep i ne p hr i ne , s e ro t on in ) . Th is ac t io n i nc r ea s e s t h e a v a il a bi li t y o f b io g en i c am i ne s a t ce n tr a l am i ne r gi c s y na p s e s , a nd he nc e t h e p ro b a bi li t y o f i nt e ra c ti on wi t h p o st s yn ap t ic re c e p to r s to e li c i t t h e d es i re d t h e rap e u ti c e f fe c t s . O t h er bi oc h em ic al e ve n ts ( e .g . , t he do wn - r e g ul a ti o n o f c en t r al β -a dr e n e rg ic an d s e ro t on e rg ic r e c ep t or s ) t h at r es ul t fr om c h r on ic in h ib i ti on of M A O a n d re up t ak e b lo c k ad e c a n a ls o e xp l a i n th e t h e ra pe u ti c ac t io n o f an t id ep r es s a n ts . Th i s e xp l an a ti o n is su gge s te d b y t h e l a te nc y p e ri o d o f MA O i n hi b it o rs , wh i c h ta k e 2 - 4 we e k s to be co m e ef fe c ti v e . 2 . T r ic yc l i c a n ti de p r es s a n ts ap p ea r to ac t p r in cip a ll y b y r e du c i ng C N S ne u r on a l r e u p ta ke of t he bi og e ni c a m in es no r ep i ne p hr i ne an d s e r ot o ni n . Th i s p r ol ong s th e s yn a pt ic a v a il ab i li t y of bio g e ni c am i ne s a nd he nce t he i r a c t i on at c e n t ra l a m in e rg ic r e c ep t or s .
Figure 13-21. Structural formulas of (A) trazodone (Desyrel) and (B) fluoxetine (Prozac), atypical antidepressants.
P.302
3 . S S R I s a nd a t yp i c a l an t i de p re ss an t s h a ve va ry i n g ef f ec ts on r eu p ta ke o f bi o ge ni c a m in es . Th e SS R I s s el ec t i v el y i nh i bi t s e ro t on i n re u p ta k e in t o t he ne r ve te r m in al , t h us p ro l on gi n g t he s y nap t ic ac t i v it y o f t h e am i ne. Tr a z o d o ne an d o t he r h e t e ro c yc l ic s al s o in h ib i t a m i n e t r an s m it t e r r e up ta k e. W hile bu p r op io n a pp e a rs to s e le ct i v e l y i n hi bi t do p am i n e r e up t ak e , i ts m ec h ani s m m a y i n vol v e ad di t io na l c u r re n tl y u nk n o wn ac ti o ns s i nc e s om e o th e r i n hi bit o r s o f d op a m i ne r eu p ta k e m a y n o t e xh i b i t a n ti d ep r es s i v e e f fe c t s . +
4 . L i th i um ap p ea r s t o i nt e r f e re wi t h tr a nsm e m b ra n e Na e xc h a ng e , a lt e rs t he r e l ea se o f am i ne r gi c n eur o t r an s m i tt e rs , a n d b lo c k s in os i to l m e ta bo l ism , ul ti m at e l y l e ad i ng to de p le t io n o f c e l lu l a r in o s i t ol a n d i nh i b it i o n o f p ho s p h ol i pa s e C -m e di a te d s i gn al t r an s d uc t io n . Th e r e l e v an c e o f t he se ac t ion s to th e m oo d -s t ab i li z i ng e f fe c t s o f li t hi um , h o we v e r , h as n o t b e en es ta b li s h e d. C ar b a m az ep i n e a nd va l p ro i c ac i d a r e k n o wn to in t e rf e r e wi t h io n ic c on d uc ta n ce s i n n e r ve c e ll s , an d to m o dul a t e o th e r i n t ra c el lu l ar s i gn a li n g c as c a d es , b u t t he c o n t ri bu ti o ns of t he s e ac ti o ns to th e i r c l in ic al e ff ec t i v en es s i n b i po l a r d is or d e r r em a in u n cl e ar . C . T h e ra p e ut i c i n d ic a tio n s 1 . M AO i n h ib i t o rs a re ind i c a t ed to t re a t d e pr es sio n , p h ob ic an xi e t y , a n d n a r c o le ps y t h a t h as no t re s p o nd ed to o th e r t r e at m e n ts . Ho w e v e r , th e i r us e i s l im it e d b y t h ei r a d ve r s e ef f ec ts (s e e X. D . 1 ) . 2 . T r ic yc l i c a n d a t yp i c a l a n ti de p r ess a nt s a nd t he S S R I s a re t he ag e nt s o f c h oi ce f o r en d og en o us de p re s s io n . Ad d it i on al l y, i m i p r am i n e i s us e d t o t r ea t en u re s is ; c l om ip r am in e , f lu o xe t i n e, a nd fl u v o xa m i ne a re us e d in ob se s s i ve -c om pu ls i v e d i so r de r ; a n d d o xe p i n, fo r a n xi e t y . 3 . L i th i um an d va l p r oi c a c i d a re in d ic at e d f o r t he t r ea tm e nt o f m a n ic - dep r e s s io n ( o r bi p ol a r d is ea s e ) . Th e a n ti e pi le p ti c d r ug , c a rb a m a z e pi n e, ha s a ls o b ee n u s e d a s a m o o d -s ta b il i z e r i n b ip ol a r i l ln es s . D . Ad ve r s e e f f ec t s
1 . M AO i n h ib i t o rs in t e rac t wi t h s y m pa t ho m i m e t ic d r u gs a n d wi t h f oo ds tha t ha v e a h i gh t yr am i ne c o nt e nt s uc h a s c he es e , wi n e , an d s a us ag e . H y pe r t en si ve cr i s es c an r e s ul t . I n a dd i ti o n, MA O i n hi b it o rs ca n c au s e a wi d e r an ge o f a d v e rs e e ff ec t s, i n cl ud i ng : a . C N S ef f ec ts , s uc h a s C N S s t im ul a ti on , t re m o rs , ag i ta ti o n , o v e ra c ti v i t y , h yp e r r ef l e xi a , m a ni a, and i ns om ni a f o ll o we d b y we a k n es s , f a ti gu e , a nd dr o ws i n es s b . C a rd i o v as c u la r ef f ec ts , s uc h a s p os t u ra l h yp ot e ns i on c . G I e f fe c ts , s uc h as n au s ea , a b do m i n al pa in , an d c o ns ti p at i on d . A n ti m u s c a ri ni c e f fe c t s , s uc h as d r y m o ut h , u r ina r y r e t en t io n , a nd c o ns tip a t io n 2 . T r ic yc l i c a n ti de p r es s a n ts c a n c au s e ad v e r s e e f f ec ts , i n cl ud i ng : a . C N S ef f ec ts , s uc h a s d r o ws i n ess , d i zz i n es s, we a kn es s , f at i gu e , a nd c on f us i on b . C a rd i o v as c u la r ef f ec ts , s uc h a s o r t ho st a ti c h y p o t en si o n, ta ch y c a rd i a, a n d i n t er f e re nc e wi t h a t r io v en t r ic ul a r c on d uc ti o n c . A nt im us c a r in ic e ff ec t s , s uc h as d r y m o ut h , u r ina r y r e t en t io n , a nd c o ns tip a t io n d . G I ef f ec ts , s uc h a s n au s ea , v om i ti ng , di a r rh ea , a n d a no r e xi a e . B on e m a r ro w d e p re s s io n f . Ma n i a p re c i pi t a ti on ( in p a ti e nt s wi t h m a n ic - de pr e s s i v e i ll n es s) 3 . At yp i c a l a n t id e pr es s an t s c an c a us e a d v e rs e ef f e c t s, in c l u di n g: a . C N S ef f ec ts , s uc h a s d i z z i n es s, ni g ht m ar es , c o n f us io n , d r o ws in es s , f ati g ue , h e a da c h e , i ns om ni a , im pa i r ed m e m o r y, ak at h is ia , n um b ne ss , a n d t on ic - c lo n ic s e i zu re s b . C a rd i o v as c u la r ef f ec ts , s uc h a s h y p e r te ns io n , h yp o te n s i on , ta c h yc a rd ia , ch es t p a in , an d s y n c o pe c . G I e f fe c ts , s uc h as n au s ea , v om i ti ng , di a r rh ea , a n d c o n st ip a ti o n d . B lu r r ed v i s i on an d ti nn i t us e . A nt im u s c ar i ni c e f fe c t s , s uc h as u ri n ar y r e t en tio n , d r y m ou t h, an d c on s ti p a ti on f . B o ne m a r ro w d e p r es s io n g . S e xu a l d y s f un c ti on and m e ns t r ua l i r r eg u la r it i es 4 . L i th i um t he r ap y m a y b e as s o ci a te d wi t h d e v elo p m e n t o f f i ne ha nd t rem o rs an d i n c re as ed u ri n at i on ; t h es e s i d e e f fe c t s , h o we v e r , u s ua ll y d im in is h wi t h c ont i n ue d t h e r ap y. P.303
XI. ANXIOLYTICS AND SEDATIVE-HYPNOTICS. A n t i an xi e t y a n d s e d at i v e- h y p n o ti c a ge n ts i n c u r ren t us e c om p ri s e th e h i ghl y e f f ec t i v e b en z o di a z e pi n es ( e. g . , a lp r a z ol am , di a ze p am , fl u ra z e p am ) a n d th e at y p ic a l a za s pi r od e c a ne d io n es (e. g . , b us p ir o ne ) an d i m i daz o p yr i d in es ( e .g . , z o l pi de m ) . D i v e r s e c l as s es o f a g en ts p re v i o us l y u s e d a s a n xi o l yt ic s an d s ed a ti v e - h y pn o t ics ( e . g ., ba r b it u ra t es , m ep ro b am a te , a n d h y d r o xy zi n e ) a re no lo n ge r fa vo r e d b e ca us e o f t he i r l ia bi l it y t o p r od uc e to le r a nc e, ph ys ic al dep e n de nc e , s e ve r e wi t hd ra wa l r e a ct i on s , an d s e ri o us t oxi c i t y wi t h o v e r d os ag e . A. C h e m i s t r y
1 . B e nz od i az e pi n es ( e.g . , al p ra z o l am , d ia z e p am , c h lo r di a ze po xi d e , c l o n a z e p am , c l o ra z e pa t e , l or a z e pa m , a n d o xa ze p a m ) h a ve v a ry i n g du r a ti on s o f a c ti on , wh i c h ca n b e c o r re l at e d wi t h t he i r s t r u c t u r es i n s om e c as es ( Ta b l e 1 3 - 7 ). a . A ge n ts wi t h a 3 -h y d r ox y l g r o u p a r e e as il y m e ta b ol i z e d b y p ha se I I g l uc u ro n id a ti on a nd ar e s h o rt ac ti n g ( s e e R 3- s u bs t i tu en t c o lu m n in Ta b le 1 3 - 7 ). b . A ge n ts la c k in g a 3 -h y d r o xy l g r o u p m us t u nd e rg o c o ns id e ra b le ph as e I m e ta b ol is m , in c l u di ng 3 -h y d r o xy l a t i o n . Th e se age n ts a re lo n g ac t in g . Mo s t lo ng a c ti n g a ge n ts fo r m t he int e r m e d ia t e m e t ab o li t e d es m e t h y ld i a z ep am , wh i ch h a s a ve r y l o n g h al f -l i fe . Th us , t h es e a ge n ts c a n h a ve a cu m u l at i v e a c ti on . c . Tr i a zol o be n z o di a z e pi ne s (e . g. , al p ra zo l am ) u nd e r go a d i ff e re n t p a tt e r n o f m e ta b ol is m a nd a re in t erm e di a te in ac ti v i t y. d . A ge n ts la c k in g a n a m in o s i de c h ai n a r e n o t b as ic en o ug h t o fo r m wa t e r- s o lu bl e s a lt s wi t h ac i ds . F o r e xa m p le , i n t ra v e n ou s s o l ut io n s o f d ia z e p am c o nt a in p r o p y le ne g l yc ol as a s o l v e nt . P re c i p i ta t io n c an oc c u r i f th es e s ol u ti o ns a r e m i xe d wi t h a q u eo us s o lu t io ns . 2 . Az a s pi r o d ec a ne d io ne s o r a za p i r on e s ( e .g . , b u s p i ro n e, ge p i ro ne , ip sa p i ro n e, t i as p ir o ne ) a re c h em ic al ly u n r e la t ed to th e be n z od i a z e pi ne s . R e p re s e n te d b y b u sp i ro n e, t he s e ag e nt s h a v e an xi o l y t i c a c t i v i t y re s em bl i ng th a t o f t h e b e n zo di a z ep i ne s . U n li k e t h e b en zo d ia z e p in es , bu s pi r on e l ac ks C N S de p re ss a nt a c ti vi t y a nd is c on s i d e red a n a t ypi c a l a n xi o l y t ic (F i g ur e 1 3 - 22 ) . 3 . Th e im i da z op yr i d i n e z o l p id e m is a n on b en zo di a ze pi n e s ed a ti ve - h y pn o ti c wi t h a c ti o ns g e ne r al l y r es em b l in g th os e o f th e b en zo d i a z e pi ne s . 4 . B a r bi t u r a te s a r e 5 , 5 -d i s u bs t it u te d d e r i v at i ves o f ba r bi t u ri c ac i d, a s atu r a t ed t r i k e t op y r i m i di n e ( Ta b l e 1 3 - 8 ). a . Two s i d e c h a in s i n p os i ti o n 5 a r e e s s en t ia l f o r s ed a ti ve - h y p no t ic a c ti v i ty . b . L on g -a c t i ng ag e nt s h av e a ph e n y l a nd an e th yl g r o u p in po s i t io n 5 . c . B ra nc h ed s i de c h ai ns , u ns a tu r a te d s id e c ha i ns , o r s id e c ha i ns l o ng e r t ha n an e t h yl g r o up in c r e as e l ip op h il ic i t y an d m et a bo li s m r a t e . I nc r ea se d l i po p hi li ci t y l ea ds t o a s ho r te r on s e t of ac t io n , a s h o rt e r d u r at i on of a c ti o n, an d i nc r e as ed pot e nc y . d . R e pl ac em e nt of t he po s it i on 2 o xyg e n wi t h su lf u r p ro du c es a n e xt r e m e ly l i p op hi l ic m o le cu l e t ha t d is t r ib u te s r a pi d l y i n to li p id ti s s ue s o u ts id e th e b r ai n . ( 1 ) Th e s e ul t ra - s h o r t -a c ti n g b a rb i tu r a te s a r e n ot u s ef u l as s e d at i v e -h y p n ot i c s bu t a r e ef f ec ti v e in f ac il i ta ti ng t he in d uc ti o n o f a ne s the s ia (s e e XI I . C . 4 ) . Th e ac t io n o f t h es e d r u gs i s t e rm in a ted v e r y q ui ck l y . ( 2 ) Th e pr o to t y p e u l t ra -s h o r t -a c ti ng ba r b it u ra t e i s t h io p en t al ( Pe n to t ha l ) , th e 2 -t h io i s os te r e o f p e n to ba r b it al. e . Th e ba r bi t u ra t es a n d m a n y o f th e ir m e t ab ol i tes a re we a k a c i ds , a n d c ha n g es i n u r i na r y p H gr e at l y in f lu en c e t he i r e xc r e t i on . Th is i s p a r ti cu l ar l y t ru e wi t h ov e r d o s e s , wh e n a r el a ti v e l y la r ge am o un t o f un ch a ng ed d rug a p p e ar s i n t h e g lo m e r ul a r fi l tr a te . f . P h en o ba r bi t al is o n e of t h e m o s t p o we r f ul a n d ve r s a ti l e a ge n ts th a t ca n i n du c e c e r ta i n e n z y m e s ys t em s ( e . g ., t he c y t o c h r om e P -4 5 0 m et a bo li c s ys te m ). Th i s i n c re as es th e p o te n ti a l fo r d ru g i n te r ac t io ns an d i n c l ud e s in t e ra c ti on wi t h a n y d r ug m e ta b ol i z e d b y th is s ys te m . O th e r b a rb i tu r a te s ha ve l es s e n zy m e - in d uc ing e f fe ct , e xc e p t wh e n th e y a re us e d c o nt i nu o us l y i n h i gh er - t h an - n or m al d o se s .
5 . P i pe r i d in e di o n es (e .g . , gl ut e t him i de , m e th yp ry l o n ) an d a l de h yd e s ( e . g . , p a r al d eh y d e , c hl o ra l h y dr a t e ) d i ff e r s t ru c t u r al l y (F i g ur e 1 3 - 23 ) an d a r e u s e d le ss c om m o n l y th a n t he be n zo d ia z e p in es as s e da t i v e -h y p n o ti c s . B . P h a r ma c ol o g y 1 . B e nz od i az e pi n es ap pe a r to p ro du c e t he i r c alm i ng an d h y p n ot ic ef f ec ts b y d e p re ss in g th e l im bi c s ys t em an d re ti c ul a r f o rm at i o n t h ro u gh po t en t ia t io n o f th e i n hi b it o r y ne u r ot r an s m i tte r γ -a m i no b ut y r i c a c i d (G A B A ) . P.304
Table 13-7. Benzodiazepine Anxiolytics and Sedative-Hypnotics General Benzodiazepine Structure*
Drug
R1
R2
R3
X (R2′) Comments
Diazepam (Valium)
—CH3
=O
—H
— H
Chlordiazepox ide (Librium)
= (Ring double bond)
— NH — CH3
—H
— H
Halazepam (Paxipam)
—CH2CF3
=O
—H
— H
Clorazepate (Tranxene)
—H
=OH (— OK)
— COO H (— COO K)
— H
—O (Noxide) at positi on 4
Oxazepam (Serax)
—H
=O
—OH
— H
Lorazepam (Ativan)
—H
=O
—OH
— C l
Alprazolam (Xanax)
R1C(CH3)=N -N=R2 (Fused R1R2 triazolo ring)
—H
—H
Flurazepam (Dalmane)
CH2CH2N( C2 H5)2
=O
—H
— F
Quazepam (Doral)
—CH2CF3
=S
—H
— F
Triazolam (Halcion)
R1C(CH3)=N -N=R2 (Fused R1R2 triazolo ring)
—H
—H
Temazepam (Restoril)
—CH3
=O
—OH
*
— H
Benzodiazepine anxiolytics and sedative-hypnotics have the general structure illustrated in the table. Substituents at the positions marked R1, R2, R3, R7, and X (R2′) and the ring nitrogen at the position 2 result in different drugs and clinical properties. All compounds shown have Cl substitution at position R7. Clonazepam, not shown, has an NO2 substituent at R7 and is used primarily as an anticonvulsant.
Figure 13-22. Structural formula of buspirone (Buspar), the prototypical azaspirodecanedione anxiolytic.
P.305
Table 13-8. Barbiturate Sedative-Hypnotics General Barbiturate Structure*
Drug
R1Substitue nt R2-Substituent
Phen obar bital (Lu mina l)
— CH2 CH3
Amo barb ital (Am
— CH2 CH3
Duratio n of Action Lon g
—CH2CH2CH(CH3)2
Inte rme diat e
ytal) Buta barb ital (But isol)
— CH2 CH3
Inte rme diat e
Pent obar bital (Ne mbu tal)
— CH2 CH3
Sho rt
Seco barb ital (Sec onal )
Sho rt
— CH2 CH =C H2
*
Barbiturate sedative-hypnotics have the general structure illustrated in the table. Substituents at R1 and R2 positions result in different drugs with different durations of action. a . A n xi o l y t ic a c ti v i t y c o r re l a te s wi t h t he d ru g 's bin d in g a f f in i t y t o a m a c rom o le c u l ar c om p le x c o n s i s t i ng of GA B A A r ec e p to rs an d c hl or i d e c ha nn e ls . b . Th e in t er a c t i on of be nz o d i a z e pi ne s wi t h G A B A c au s e s a n i nc r ea s e in th e f r e q ue nc y o f c hl o ri d e c ha n n el o p en i ng e ven ts , lea d i n g to a f ac il i ta t io n o f c h lo r id e i o n c on d uc ta nc e , m em b ra n e h y p e rp o la r i z a ti on , an d ul t im at e l y s yn ap t ic inh i bi t io n .
Figure 13-23. Structural formulas of (A) glutethimide (Doriden), a piperidinedione sedative-hypnotic and (B) chloral hydrate (Noctec), an aldehyde sedative-hypnotic.
P.306
c . In ad d it i on to th e i r a nxi o l y t i c p ro p er t ie s , m o s t b e n zo di a zep i ne s h a ve o th e r s i gn i fi ca n t C N S ac t io ns , i n c l ud i ng h y pn o ti c , a ne sth e t ic , a n ti c o n v ul sa n t , a nd m u s c le r e l a xa n t ef f ec ts at ap p r op r i at e do s e s. d . B en zo d ia z e p in es in c re a s e th e d e p re s s an t ef f ec t s o f a lc oh o l a nd ot h e r C N S d e p re ss a nt d ru gs . 2 . Az a s pi r o d ec a ne d io ne s ha v e m u lt i pl e b io c hem ic a l ac t io ns , bu t t h ei r pr i n c i pa l m ec h an is m o f a n xi o l y t ic e f f ec t i s s ti ll un k n o wn . a . B u sp i r o ne bi n ds t o c e n t r al do pa m i n e a nd s e ro t o ni n re c e p to r s r a th e r th a n t o G A B A - c h lo r id e i o no ph o re r ec e pt o r c om pl e xe s . Int e r ac t io ns of a z a pi r on es wi t h s e r ot o ni n r e c e p to rs m a y b e ag o ni s t ic wh e n a c ti ng a t s om a to d en d ri t ic 5- H T1 A a u t o re ce p to r s o r a n ta g on i s t ic wh e n ac ti n g a t p ost s y n ap t ic 5 - H T1 A r ec ep t or s . b . B us pi r o ne po s s es s e s n o h y pn o ti c o r a n ti co n v ul s an t p r o pe r ti es an d do es no t a p p ea r to en ha n c e th e de p r es s a n t e f fe ct s o f a lc oh o l o r ot h er C N S de p re ss a nt d ru gs . c . B us pi r on e h as m i ni m al a bu s e li ab i li t y an d d o es n o t p r od uc e re b ou nd anxi e t y f o l lo wi n g a b r up t d is c o n tin u a ti on . 3 . T he im i da z op yr i d i n e s h a v e s t ro ng s e da t i ve ef f e c t s wi t h m i ni m al c li n ica l a n xi o l yt i c ac t io ns . a . Z ol pi d em i s a s e ff ec t iv e a s t h e b en z o d ia z e pi ne s i n s ho r t en i ng s l ee p l at e nc y a n d i n pr o lo n gi ng t ot a l s l e ep t i m e in pa t ie n ts wi t h i ns om n ia . b . Z ol pi d em i s r a r el y as s o c ia t ed wi t h p h ys ic al dep e n d e nc e , r e bo un d i ns om n ia , o r r e s pi r at o r y de p r es s i on ev e n i n o v e r do s a g e. 4 . B a r bi t u r a te s a r e l es s s el ec t i v e t h an be n z o di aze p i n es a n d p r od uc e g en e r al i ze d C N S d e p re s s io n . a . B a rb i tu r at e s b in d t o a s i te t ha t i s d is ti nc t f ro m t h e b e n z od i a z ep in e b i nd in g s i te on a m a c ro m o l ec ul a r G A B A- c h lo r id e i on o ph o r e r ec ep t o r c om pl e x. B a r b it u ra te b in di n g i n du c es a n i nc r e as e i n th e du r a ti on o f c h a nn el op e n i n g e v e n ts , a nd t hu s m im ic s o r e n h an c e s t he in h ib i to r y a c ti o ns o f G A B A . b . B a rb i tu r a te s h a v e a wi d e r a ng e o f do s e - de p end e n t p ha r m a co lo g ic al ac t i o ns r e l at e d t o C N S d ep r es s io n , i nc l ud in g s e da t io n , hy p n o s i s, a nd an es t he si a . Th e y a l so a c t a s p ot e nt r es pi r a to r y d e p re ss an ts an d i n du c er s of he p at ic m i c ro s o m a l d r u gm e ta b ol i z in g e n z y m e a c ti v i t y . 5 . P i pe r i d in e di o n es , a ld e h yd e s , a n d ot h er no nb a r bi t u ra t e s e d at i ve - h y pn o t ics ha ve s im i la r p h a rm ac ol o gi c a l a c ti o ns re l at e d t o C N S de p r es si on . a . C hl o r al h y d ra t e is c om m o n l y u s e d to in d uc e sl e ep i n pe d ia t r ic o r ge r iat r i c p a t ie n ts . I ts lo w c o s t is th e m a jo r fa c t o r a c c ou n tin g fo r it s p r ef e r r ed us age i n i n st i tu t io n al s e tt i ng s . b . C h lo r al h y d ra t e is bi o tr a n s f o rm e d t o t r ic hl o ro e th a n ol , wh ic h i s r es p on sib l e f o r t h e p h a rm ac ol o gi c a l a c t i v i t y o f t he dr u g. C h lo r al h y d ra t e i n du c e s h ep a ti c m i c ro s om al d r u g -m et a bo l i z in g e n z y m e ac t i v i t y . C . T h e ra p e ut i c i n d ic a tio n s 1 . B e nz od i az e pi n es a nd t h e a za s p i ro d ec a ne d i on e b us p i r on e a r e i nd ic at e d to t r e a t a n xi e t y . B us pi r on e i s m o re ef f ec t i ve i n p at i en t s wi t h g en e ra l i zed an xi e t y o f m i ld to m o de r a te s e v e r ity . Th e a n ti a n xi e t y ef f ec ts o f b us pi r on e m a y re q uir e u p t o a we e k t o b e e s t a bl is h ed .
2 . B e nz od i az e pi n es a nd t h e im i da zo p yr i d i n e a re i nd ic a te d t o p r o du ce dr o ws i n es s a n d p r om o te s l ee p . 3 . B e nz od i az e pi n es a re i n di c a t ed fo r us e a s a pr e a ne s th e ti c m e d ic at i on , a s a n t ic on v u ls a nt s , a nd du ri n g a c u t e a lc oh o l wi t h d rawa l . 4 . B a r bi t u r a te s a r e n o lo n g er c o ns id e r ed ap p ro pr i a te as an xi o l y t i c s or sed a t i v e h yp n o ti c s i n v ie w o f t he a v a i la b il i t y o f th e s a fe r be n zo d ia ze pi n es . L o ng - ac t i n g b a r bi t u ra t es c o nt in u e t o b e wi d e l y u s e d a s a n ti epi l ep t ic s , wh i l e t he ul t r a -s h o r t a c ti n g b a rb i tu r at es a re us e d f o r t he in d uc ti o n o f g e n er a l a ne st h es ia an d a s g e ne r al a n es t he t ic s ( in c o m b in a tio n wi t h a n a n al g es ic ) f o r s ho r t s u rg ic a l p r oc ed u res . 5 . C h lo r a l h yd r a t e i s i nd i c a t ed fo r us e a s a p e dia t r ic o r g er i at r ic h y pn o tic , an d a ls o a s a p re a ne s t h et ic ag e nt f o r m in o r s u rg ic al an d de n t al p ro ce du r es . P.307
D . Ad ve r s e e f f ec t s 1 . A d ve rs e e f fe c t s a s s oc i a t ed wi t h be nz o d ia z e p in e s i nc l ud e : a . C N S ef f ec ts , s uc h a s C N S d e p re ss io n , d r o ws in e ss , s ed a ti o n, at a xi a , c o n f us io n , a n d d ys a rt h r ia b . G I ef f ec ts , s uc h a s n au s ea , v om i ti ng , an d d ia r rh e a c . Ps y c hi a t ri c e f fe c t s a r e r a r e a nd in c l u de pa r ad oxi c a l e xc i t em en t , i ns om ni a , p a r an o ia , a n d r a ge re a c ti o ns d . P o te n ti al f or ab us e and d ep e nd en c e 2 . A d ve rs e e f fe c t s o f b us p i r o ne a re li m i t ed to r es t le ss ne ss , d i zz i n es s , hea d ac h e, n a us e a, di a r rh e a, an d pa r e s t h es ia s. 3 . B a r bi t u r a te s c an c a us e a v a r ie t y o f a d v e rs e ef f e ct s, in c l u di n g: a . C N S ef f ec ts , s uc h a s d r o ws i n ess , c o nf us i on , nys t a gm us , d ys a r th r ia , d ep r e s s ed s ym p at h et ic ga n gl io n ic t ra n s m is s i on , h y p e r al g es ia , im pa i re d j u dg m e n t , im p a i re d fi ne m o to r s k i l ls , p a ra d o xi c al e xc i t e m e n t ( in ge r i at r ic p a t ie n ts ) , a nd po t en t ia t io n of o th e r C N S d e p re s s an t dr u gs . b . R es p ir a t or y a nd c a r dio v a s c u la r ef f ec ts , s uc h as r es pi r a to r y d ep r es s i on , b r a d yc a r di a , a nd o rt h os ta t ic h y po t en s i o n. c . G I e f fe c ts , s uc h as n au s ea , v om i ti ng , c o ns ti p ati o n , d ia r r he a , a nd ep i gas t r ic d i st r es s . d . E xf o l i a ti v e de rm a ti t is a n d St e v e ns -J o hn s o n s yn d r om e . e . H ea d ac he , fe v e r , h e pa t o to xi c i t y, an d m eg a lo bla s ti c a ne m i a ( wi t h t h e chr o n ic us e o f ph e no b ar b it a l ). 4 . T r ic h l o ro e t ha n o l, th e a c ti v e m e ta b ol i te of ch lo r a l h yd r a t e , i s m et a bo li ze d to t r i c h lo r o ac et ic ac id , wh i c h is hi g hl y t o xi c an d t e nd s to ac c um u la t e wi t h r ep e a te d a d m i ni s t ra ti o n o f c hl o ra l h y d r a t e. U s e of ch lo r a l hy d r a t e i s a s s oc ia t ed wi t h t h e f o l lo wi n g a d v e rs e ef f ec ts . a . G I ef f ec ts , s uc h a s G I i r r it a ti o n a nd up s e t , n a us e a, an d v om i ti ng . b . C N S e ff ec ts , s uc h a s C N S d e p re ss io n , d is o ri en t a ti o n, in co h e re nc e , d ro ws i n es s , a t a xi a , he a da c h e , a nd po t e nt i at i on of o th e r C N S d e p re s s a nt s ( p a rt ic ul a r l y a lc o ho l ) . c . Le uk o pe ni a
XII. ANTIEPILEPTICS A. C h e m i s t r y. A n t i e p i lep t ic s ( a nt ic o n vul s a n ts ) va r y wi d e l y i n s tr uc t u re ( Fi g u re 13 24). 1 . O l d e r a ge n t s, wh i c h a r e s t il l wi d el y us e d, in c lu d e d e ri v a t i ves o f t he lon g - ac t in g b a r bi t u ra t es (e . g ., ph e nob a r bi t al , m e ph ob a r bi t al , m e th a r bi t al , p r im id o ne ) , h yd a n to i ns (e . g. , ph en y t o i n , e th o to i n ), s uc ci n im id e s ( e .g . , e t ho su xi m i d e, p h e ns u xi m id e ), o xa z o l i din e di o ne s ( e .g . , t r im e th ad i o n e , d im e th a di on e ) , a nd d i al k yla c et a te s ( e .g . , v alp r o ic ac id ) . 2 . N ew e r a g en t s , wh i c h a r e m o re s t r uc t u ra ll y d i ve r s e, in cl u de th e i m i n os ti l be n es ( e . g ., ca r ba m a z e p in e ) , be n z o d ia z e pi n es (e . g ., dia z e p am , c lo n a zep am , c lo r a ze pa t e ) , G A B A a n al o gs ( v ig a ba t rin , ga b ap e nt i n, p re ga b al in ) , an d t h e m i s c el l an e ous ag e nt s l a m o t ri g in e , f el b am at e , le v e t i r ac et am , z o ni sa m i de , an d to pi r am a te wh i c h i s a c tu al l y a su bs t i tu t ed m o no s a c c ha r i de . B . P h a r ma c ol o g y 1 . A nt i ep il e p ti c s p r e v e nt o r r ed uc e e xc es s i ve di s ch a r ge an d re d uc e t he s pr e a d o f e xc i t a t io n fr om C N S s e i zu r e fo c i . 2 . Th e m ec h an is m s o f ac t i o n o f a n ti ep i le p ti c s a p pe a r to be al t e ra t io n o f Na
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n e u ro n al c o nc en t r at i on s b y p r om o ti o n o f N a ef f lux ( e . g . , h y d an t oi ns ) an d r e s to r a ti on o r e nh a nc em e n t o f G A B A - er g ic i n hi bi to r y n e ur o na l f u nc ti o n ( e .g . , b a r bi t u ra t es , b en z o d ia z ep i ne s , v a l p ro ic ac id ) . C . T h e ra p e ut i c i n d ic a tio n s . Th es e a ge n ts ar e ge n e ra l l y c a te go r i z e d b y th e t y pe o f s e i zu re ag ai ns t wh i c h the y a r e e f fe c ti v e . 1 . D r ug s t h at a re in di c a te d fo r th e tr e a tm en t o f to n i c -c l o ni c (g r a n d m al ) s e iz u r es i n cl ud e p h en o ba r bi t al , ph e n y t oi n , p r im id on e , a nd c a rb am a ze pi n e. 2 . D r ug s t h at a re in di c a te d fo r th e tr e a tm en t o f ab s e nc e (p e t i t m al ) se iz u r e s i n cl ud e p h en o ba r bi t al , eth o s u xi m i d e, t ri m e t ha d ion e , c lo n a z ep am , an d v alp r o ic ac id . P.308
Figure 13-24. Structural formulas of the antiepileptic agents: (A) primidone (Mysoline), (B) phenytoin (Dilantin), (C) ethosuximide (Zarontin), (D) trimethadione (Tridione), (E) clonazepam (Klonopin), (F) carbamazepine (Tegretol), and (G) valproic acid (Depakene).
3 . C lo n a z ep am is in di c a te d fo r th e tr e a tm en t o f myo c l o n i c s ei z u re s .
4 . A ge n ts th a t a r e e f fe c t iv e a g ai ns t pa r t i al se i z u re s in cl ud e c l or a z e pa t e, fe l ba m at e , g a b ap en t in , an d l am o tr i gi n e . 5 . P he n y t oi n , p he n ob a rbi t a l, p ri m i do n e, an d c a rba m a z e p i ne ar e e f f ec ti v e a g ai n s t p s yc h o m o t o r se iz u r es . 6 . I nt r a v en o us di a z ep am , p he n y t oi n , a nd ph e no ba r b it a l a r e i nd ic a te d f o r th e t r e a tm en t o f s ta t us e pi le p t i cu s . 7 . To p i ra m a t e h as m ul t ipl e m ec h an is m s of ac ti o n a n d e xe r t s be n ef ic i al ef fe c ts a g ai n st a b r oa d s pe c t r um o f s e i zu r es . D . Ad ve r s e e f f ec t s 1 . B a r bi t u r a te s (s ee XI I .D . 3 ) an d be nz o d ia z e p ine s (s e e XI I . D . 1 ) u s e d a s a n t ie pi l ep t ic s ha v e t he s a m e a d v e rs e e f fe c t s a s wh e n u s e d fo r a n xi o l y t ic o r s e da t i ve -h y p n ot ic pu r pos es . In t r a ven o us u s e o f th e s e ag e nt s c ou ld ca us e c a r di o vas c u l ar c o ll a ps e a n d re s p i ra t o r y d e p re s s io n . P.309
2 . A nt i ep il e p ti c a ge n ts ge n e ra l l y h a v e th e p r op e ns i t y to c a us e t h e f ol l o wi ng s i d e e f f ec ts : a . G I i r r i ta t io n , n au s e a , a n d v om it i ng b . C N S s e da t io n , d ip l op ia , n y s t a gm us , a t a xi a , d i zzi n e ss , a n d c o n fu s i o n c . Bl o od d y s c r as ia s , in c lu d in g a p la s ti c a ne m i a a nd b le ed i ng di so r d er s d . A ll e r gi c - t y p e r e ac t io ns , in c l ud i ng S te v e ns - J o hn s on s y n d r om e e . V a ri ou s o r ga n -s y s t em t o xi c i ti e s, in c l u di ng r ena l a n d l i ve rf a il u re , pa nc re a t it is , a n d c a r di o to xi c i t y 3 . Th e h y da n to in s (e . g. , p h e n y to i n) c a n a ls o c au s e sp ec i fi c a r r h yt h m i a s an d g i n g i va l h yp e r p l a s ia . 4 . A nt i ep il e p ti c s a s a c l as s a ls o h a ve t h e p ot e nt ia l to c a us e v a ri ou s b i r t h d e f ec t s , i n cl ud i ng c l ef t pa la t e ( e .g . , c a rb a m a z e pi n e, ph e ny t o i n ) a n d n eu r al tu b e de f ec t s ( e . g ., va lp r o ic a c i d ) . Th es e e f f ec ts pr e s e n t a u n iqu e p ro bl em in t re a ti n g p re g n an t wo m e n wi t h c o n v ul s i v e di s o rd e rs . Di s c on t in u at i on o f an ti c on vu ls an t th e r apy c a n r e s ul t i n a s e i z u re s t a te t h a t c ou ld ha r m t h e f et us . H o we ve r , c o n ti n ue d t h er a p y ca n i n c re as e t h e r is k o f b i rt h d e fe c ts a n d p la c e th e m o t h e r a t r is k o f b l ee di n g d i so r de r s d u r in g d e li v e r y . Mo r e o v er , p r eg na n c y b y i ts el f c an e it h e r in c re as e o r de c re a s e s e i zu re in c i de nc e of th e m o th e r . R i sk /b e ne f it e v alu a t io n o f th e ra p y sh ou l d b e m a de o n in di vi d ua l c as es ba s ed o n t he pa t ie n t 's hi s to r y .
XIII. ANTIPARKINSONIAN AGENTS A. C h e m i s t r y. Th e p r i nc i p al an t ip a rk i ns on ia n a ge n ts a re ei t he r do p am i ne r g i c a g o n is t s o r c h o li n e r gi c a n t ag o n is t s . 1 . S om e a n t ic h ol i ne r g i c a n t i pa r k in s on i a n a ge n ts a re st r uc t ur a ll y r e la t ed t o a t r o p i ne ( e. g ., be n z t r op in e , tr i he xy p h e n i d yl ). O t he r a nt i pa rk i ns on i an an t ic h o li n e rg ic a g e nt s i nc lu d e p ro c y c l i din e ( Ke m ad r in ) , o r ph e na dr i n e ( N o r fl e x) , a n d b ip e rid e n ( A k in e to n ) . 2 . Th e pr o to t y p ic al d op am i n e r gi c a n ti p ar ki n so nia n ag e nt is th e c a te c ho la m i ne l e vo d o p a ( F ig u re 13 - 2 5), a pr o d ru g t h at m u s t be c o n ve rt e d i n v i v o t o d opa m in e b y
d o p a d e ca r b ox yl a s e . D ir e c t r ec e pt o r -a c ti ng d opa m in e rg ic s i nc lu d e e r g oli n e s s uc h a s b r om oc r i pt in e ( Pa r lo de l ) P.310 a n d p e rg o li de ( P e rm a x) , t h e p h en a nt h re n e a p omo r p h i ne , an d t h e n e we r n o n er g ol in e d o pa m i n e ag o ni s ts p ra m ip e xo l e ( Mi r a p e x) a n d ro p i ni r o l e ( Re q ui p ) .
Figure 13-25. Structural formulas of antiparkinsonian agents: (A) benztropine (Cogentin), (B) trihexyphenidyl (Artane), (C) ethopropazine (Parsidol), and (D) levodopa (Larodopa).
3 . S e ve ra l a g en ts a re a va i la b le to im p ro v e th e the r a pe u ti c e f fi c a c y an d s a f e t y of l e vo d op a . a . C a r bi d o pa , a le v o d opa a na lo g ue t ha t d o es n o t c r os s t he bl o od - b ra in bar r i e r , is a d e c a rb o x yl a s e i n h i bi t or t h a t d im in is he s t h e d ec a r b o xy l a t i on an d s u bs equ e n t i n ac t i vat i on of le v o d op a i n pe r i p he r a l t i ss u es . W hen c o a dm in is t e re d , m o r e l e vo d op a i s p re s er v e d to e n te r th e C N S . A c o m b in a t io n o f l e v o do p a a nd c a r b id o pa ( S i n em et ) is a v ai la b le for c li ni c a l u s e. b . S e le g il i n e ( d ep r e n yl ) , i s a s e le c t i ve m o no a mi n e ox i da s e - B ( M AO - B ) i n h i bi t o r t h a t i nh i bi ts th e i n t ra c e re b r al de g r ad a ti on o f e ndo g e no us or le vo d op a - de ri ve d d o p am in e . c . To l ca p o ne o r e n ta cap o n e a r e s el ec t i v e i nh ib it o r s o f C O MT, t h u s re d uc i ng th e c o n ve rs io n o f l e v o do p a to 3 - O -m e th y l d op a , a n i na c ti ve m e t ab ol i te t ha t a ls o i n hi bi t s l e vo d op a u p ta k e in t o t he b r ai n . Ad di t io n al l y, i n hib i t io n o f d o pa m i ne b re ak d o wn b y C O MT m a y p r o l on g th e av a i l ab i li t y an d a c ti on o f th e t ra ns m i t te r in th e C NS . B . P h a r ma c ol o g y. A n t i p a r k in s o ni a n a ge n ts ac t by r e s t or i ng th e s t ri a ta l ba l an c e o f d o p am in e rg ic an d c ho l ine r g ic ne u ro t r an s m is s i on , wh i c h i s d e ra n ge d i n p ar k i ns on is m a s a r es ul t o f de g en e ra t io n of do p am in e rg ic ne u ro n s t ha t s u pp l y do p am ine t o t h e b a s al g an g li a (c a ud a t e -p u t a me n ) . 1 . L e vo do p a, wh i c h c a n c r os s t h e b lo od - b ra i n b ar r i e r , is t he im m e di a te pre c u rs o r o f t h e s t ri a ta l n e u ro t ra n s m it t e r d o pa m i n e a nd is c onv e r t e d t o d o pa m i n e i n t he b od y . 2 . Am a n t ad i n e, an an t i vi r a l a ge n t, a pp ea r s t o s tim u la t e t he r el e as e o f d op a m i n e f r o m i nt ac t s t r ia t al te r m in a ls of r em ai n in g d op am i n e rg ic ne u r on s. As t he d i s e as e p r o g re ss es an d f e we r d op a m i n er g ic n e u ro ns r em a i n , a m a nt a di n e b ec om es p r o g re ss i v el y i ne f f ec ti v e.
3 . Ap o m o r p hi n e, b r om oc r i p t i ne , p e r g ol i d e, p r am i p ex o le , an d r op i n i r ole , wh i ch a r e di r ec t d op a m i ne r gi c r e c ep t or a go ni s ts , m i m i c t h e a c t i v i t y o f do p am i n e i n t h e c a ud a te - pu t am e n. N e v e rt h e le s s , t h e d r ug s c a n not r e p ro du c e t he pu ls a ti le r h y t hm o f e n d og en o us d o pa m i n e re l ea s e. 4 . S el e g il i ne , an in hi b it or o f th e c en t r al MA O - B i so e n z y m e , bl o c k s t he c e nt r a l c a ta b ol is m o f d op a m i ne , i nc r e as in g i ts a vai l ab il i ty i n t he c a ud a te - pu t am en . 5 . An t i c h ol i n e rg i cs , s uc h as t ri h e xy p h e n id y l , b en z t r o p in e , a nd or p he n ad r i n e, bl o c k t h e e xc i t a t or y c ho l in e rg ic s ys t em , t h us re d uc in g t h e fu nc t io na l i m b a la nc e b e t we e n d o p am in e a nd ac e t y lc ho li n e i n t h e s tr i at um . 6 . Th e en z y m e i n hi bi t o rs , c a r bi d o pa an d to l ca po n e , i nc r ea s e t he t ra ns po r t an d b i oa va i la b il it y o f l e v o do pa i n t he b ra i n a nd ar e th u s g i ve n a s a dj un c ti v e t re a tm e nt s wi t h l e v o do p a. C . T h e ra p e ut i c i n d ic a tio n s 1 . L e vo do p a, c u r r en t l y th e m os t ef f ec t i v e t r ea tm e n t fo r p a rk i ns on is m , is in d ic a te d t o t r e a t i di op a t hi c , po s t e nc e p h al it ic , or a r te r io s c le ro t ic f or m s of t he di s e as e. 2 . Am a n t ad i n e is in d ic ate d to t re a t i di o pa t hi c, pos t en ce p ha l it ic , o r a rt e ri os c l e r ot ic p a r k i ns on is m , as we l l a s e xt r a p y r a m id al s ym p t om s ( e xc e p t t a rd i v e d y s ki nes i a ) i n du c ed b y a n ti ps y c ho t ic d r u gs . 3 . Ap o m o r p hi n e ( A p ok yn ) h as b e en ap p ro v e d for t r e at i ng th e ri gi d i t y a nd a ki n es ia o r im m o b il it y a s s oc ia t ed wi t h P a r ki ns o n d is ea se . 4 . B r o mo c r i p ti n e is in d ic a te d to t re a t i di op a th ic o r p os te nc e ph a li ti c p a rk in s on is m . 5 . S el e g il i ne , an t i ch o l in e r g i cs , a n d a n ti h i st a mi n e s a r e i nd ic a te d f o r u s e as a d ju n ct i v e t h e ra p y fo r al l t y p e s o f p a rk in so n is m , in c lu di n g d r ug - in d uc ed e xt r a p yr a m i da l s y m p t om s ( wi t h th e e xc e p t io n o f ta r d i ve d y s k i ne si a ) . D . Ad ve r s e e f f ec t s 1 . L e vo do p a is as s o c i a te d wi t h th es e a d ve rs e e ff e c ts : a . G I ef f ec ts , s uc h a s G I u ps e t , n au s e a , v o m i t in g, a no r e xi a , an d e xc e s si ve s a li va t io n b . C a rd i o v as c u la r ef f ec ts , s uc h a s o r t ho s t a ti c h yp o t en s i o n, ta c h yc a rd i a, a n d d ys r h yt hm ia s c . C N S e f f ec ts , s uc h a s h e a da c h e , d i zz i ne ss , a nd i ns om ni a P.311
d . A bn o rm a l i n v ol un t a r y m o v em e nt s , s u c h as d ys k i ne s i a a n d ch o r ei fo r m or d y s t on ic m o vem e nt s e . P s yc h ia t ri c e f fe c ts , s uc h a s d el u s i on s , h al lu ci na t i on s, c o n fu s i on , ps y c ho s es , a n d d e p re ss io n 2 . Ap o m o r p hi n e c an c au s e n au s e a a n d v o m i t in g, s om no le nc e , d i z zi n e s s , a n d h a ll uc i na t io ns , a n d m a y e xa c e r b a te e xi s ti n g d y sk i n e s ia . Th e d r u g h as a re a so n ab le p o t en t ia l f o r a b us e d ue p r i m a r il y t o i ts pe r ce i ved p r o -l i bi do e ff ec t s . 3 . Am a n t ad i n e is as s o c ia t e d wi t h t he s e ad v e r s e e f f ec ts : a . C N S ef f ec ts , s uc h a s d r o ws i n ess , i ns o m n ia , diz zi n e s s , s l u rr e d s pe ec h , a n d n i gh t m a r es b . U r in a r y r et e nt i on an d a n k l e e d em a
c . Li ve do r et ic u la r is (m o tt l i ng of s k in on th e e xt r e m i ti es ) d . P s yc h ia t r ic e f fe c ts , s uc h a s h al l uc in a ti o ns a n d c o nf us i on 4 . B r o mo c r i p ti n e a nd r el a t ed e rg ol i ne s a r e as soc i at e d wi t h na u se a , h yp ot e ns i on , p s yc hi at r ic e ff ec t s s u c h a s c on f us i on an d h al l uc in a t io ns , l i ve do r et ic u la r is , an d a b n or m a l i n v o lu n at r y m ov e m e nt s s uc h a s d ys k in es i a a nd c h o re i fo r m o r d y s t on ic m o vem e nt s . 5 . S el e g il i ne is as s o c i ate d wi t h a d v e rs e e f f ec ts th a t a r e s im il a r t o t h os e o f b r o m o c ri pt i ne , i nc l ud i ng d y s k i n es ia s a nd ha l lu c i na t i on s . 6 . A nt ic h ol i ne r gi c a nt i par k i ns on ia n a g en t s h a v e th e s am e a d ve rs e ef f ec ts a s o t he r c h ol in e r gi c a nt a go n is ts (s e e V I . D ) .
XIV. OPIOID ANALGESICS and ANTAGONISTS. A n a lg es ic op i oi ds a re opi o id r ec ep t o r a go n is ts tha t co ns is t o f na t ur a l o pi at e a l ka lo i ds a n d t h ei r s y n t he t ic de r i v a ti v e s . A. C h e m i s t r y. Th e o p ia te a lk al oi ds a re de r i v e d f ro m o p iu m , wh i c h is c o nsi d e re d th e o l de s t d r ug on re c or d . Op i u m ( t h e d ri e d e xu d a t e o f t he po pp y s ee d c ap s ul e ) c o nt a in s a bo u t 2 5 d if f e ren t al k a l oi ds . O f t h es e, m o r p hi n e is t he m os t i m p or t a n t, bo t h q u a nt i ta t i v el y a nd ph a rm a c ol o gi ca ll y ( F ig u re 1 3- 26 ) . 1 . M o r p h in e 's p he n ol i c h yd r o x yl g r o u p i s e xt r e m e l y i m p o r ta n t f o r a c t i v i ty; h o we ve r , a na l ge s i c ac t i vi t y a pp e a rs t o de pe n d o n a p -p h en y l - N - al k y lp i pe r id i ne m o ie t y, in wh i c h th e p i per i d in e ri ng is in th e c ha i r f o rm an d i s p e rp e nd ic ula r t o t he a r o m a t ic ri ng . Th e a lk y l g r o up is us ua ll y m et h y l . Th e m o r p hi n e m o le c ul e c an be a l t er e d i n a v a ri e t y of wa y s ; r el a te d c om p ou nd s al s o ca n b e s y n t he s i z e d fro m o t he r s t a rt i ng m a te r i al s . 2 . N a tu r a l o r s yn t h e t i c o p i o id s m a y be c l as s i fi ed i nt o f o u r c h em ic a l g r oup s (F i gu r e 1 3 - 27 ) : a . P he n a nt h r e ne s (e . g. , m o rp h in e a nd h y d ro m o rp h o ne , c od e in e a nd h y d ro c od o ne , n a lb u ph i ne an d b u pr e no rp h in e , a n d n al o rp hi n e , na l t re xo n e , a nd na lo xo n e ) . Me t h yl a t i o n o f t h e p he nol i c ( 3 ) -h y d r o xy l g r o up wi t h o r wi t ho u t m od if ic a ti o n o f th e 6 h yd r o xyl g r o u p o f m o rp hin e y i el ds ag e nt s wi t h r edu c ed ag o ni st po t en c y but e n h an c e d o r al bi o a v ai lab i li t y ( e .g . , c od ei n e, h y dr o c od on e , o xy c o d o n e ). b . P h en yl h e p t yl a m i n e s ( e . g ., m e t ha do n e a nd p ro p o xy p h e n e ) a r e b is ph en yl d e r i va ti v e s o f h ep t y l am ine t ha t ha v e s t r on g (m et ha d o ne ) o r m o de r a te ( p r o po xy p h e n e ) ag on is t p o t en c y an d e xc e l le n t o ra l b i oa v a i la b il it y. c . P he n yl p i p e r i d i n e s i nc l ud e m ep e ri d in e , f en t any l , a nd s u f en t an il , wh i c h a r e s t r on g a g o ni st s t ha t a re m o re ef f e c t i v e wh e n g i v en pa r en t e r al l y , a n d t he m o de r at e ag o ni s t s d i ph e no xy l a t e a nd lo p e ra m id e . d . Th e mo r p h in a n l e v o rp h a no l is a s t ro n g a go nis t wi t h h i gh or a l b io a va ila b il i t y.
Figure 13-26. Structural formula of morphine.
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Figure 13-27. Structural formulas of selected opioid agonists, including (A) codeine, (B) heroin, (C) hydromorphone (Dilaudid), and (D) oxycodone (Percodan), morphine analogues; (E) meperidine (Demerol) and (F) diphenoxylate (Lomotil), piperidine analgesics; and (G) methadone (Dolophine) and (H) propoxyphene (Darvon), methadone analgesics.
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3 . O p i oi d an t ag o n is t s ar e d er i ve d b y r ep l ac in g th e m e th yl g ro u p o n t he ni t r og e n a t om wi t h m o r e b ul k y s ub s ti t u ti on s . Th u s , na l bu ph i ne an d bu p re n or p hi n e a r e p h e na n th r en e m i xe d a go n i s t -a n t ag o ni s t s ; n al t re xo n e a n d n al o xo n e ar e p h e na n th r en e p u r e a n t ag o n i st s ; a n d b ut o r ph an ol a nd le v a ll o r ph an a re m o r p hi n an d e r i ved an t ag o ni s t s (F igu r e 13 - 28 ) . 4 . A ge n ts ha v i ng bo t h a f r e e p h en ol ic h yd ro xy l g r o u p a n d a t e r ti a r y am in e f u nc t io n ( e . g ., m o r ph i ne an d n al bu p hi n e ) a r e c h em ic a ll y am p h o t e ri c . Am p ho t e ri c i t y p r o ba bl y a cc o un t s f o r t he e r ra ti c a b s o r p ti on o f m o r p hi ne wh e n a dm i ni s t e r ed or a ll y .
5 . S om e n e we r op i oi d a na l ge s i c a g en ts , s uc h a s tr a m a do l , a r e c he m i c a l l y u n r el a te d t o t he na t ur a l, s e m i s y nt he t ic , an d s y n th e ti c o pi a te d e ri v a t i v es . 6 . N um e ro us an a lo g ue s o f en d og e no us op io i d p ep t i de s h a ve b ee n s y n t hes i z e d a nd a r e be in g u s e d i n re s e a rc h . B . P h a r ma c ol o g y 1 . O p i oi d an a lg e si c s m im ic t he ac ti o ns o f en do ge n o us o p io id pe p ti d es a t C N S o p io i d r ec e pt o rs , ra is i ng t h e p a in th r es h ol d a nd in c r e as in g p ai n to le r a nc e. Th e a n al g es ic ac ti o ns a r e m ed i a te d p r im a ri l y th r o ug h t h e µ -s ub t yp e o f o p io i d re c ep t o rs . 2 . O t he r ac ti o ns at t r ib u ta b le t o s ti m u la t io n o f op io i d r e c e p to r s in c l u de in du c ti o n o f e u p ho r ia , s ed a ti o n, c o u gh s u p p re ss io n , a nd c h em o r e c e p to r t ri gg e r - z on e s ti m ul a ti on l e ad i ng to na u s e a a nd v o m it i ng . 3 . T r am a do l a p pe a rs to a c t v ia a m e t ab o li t e, wh ic h i s s el ec t i v e f o r t he µ -o p io i d r e c ep t or a nd al s o i n hi b its r eu p ta k e o f n or e pi n ep hr i n e a nd se r ot o ni n . I ts no n o pi at e c h a ra ct e r a p pe a rs to c o nf e r no c l ea r be ne f i ts o ver t h e o pi a te s . 4 . P u r e o p io i d a n ta g o nis t s s uc h a s n al o xo n e blo c k t he ac ti o ns o f op io i d a g on i s ts . M i xe d ag o ni s t - an t a go n is t s s uc h a s n al b up h in e , b u p re n o rp hi n e, bu t o rp h an o l , a n d p e n ta zo c i n e b lo c k th e a c t i o ns o f ag on is t s a t s om e r ec e pt o rs wh i l e d ir ec t ly s t im ul a ti n g o th e r re c e p tor s to p ro d uc e a go n is ti c ef f e c t s . C . T h e ra p e ut i c i n d ic a tio n s 1 . O p io id an a lg es ic s a r e i n di c a t ed t o r e li e ve m o de r a t e to se ve r e pa i n , s uc h a s t h e p a in as s o c i a te d wi t h m yo c a rd ia l i n fa r c t i on , c an ce r , an d l a bo r . I n t h e l at te r us e , m e pe r id i ne is p r e fe r r ed to m o r p hi ne be ca u s e m e pe r i d i n e is le s s l ik e l y to in d uc e n e o na t a l re s pi r a t o r y d e p r e s si o n . 2 . O p io id s a r e u s e d a ls o a s p r e an e s th e t ic me d ic a t i on s , a s a na l ge s ic ad j u n ct s d u r i n g a n es t he s ia , an d o c c a s i on a ll y as a p r im a ry a n es t h et ic ag e nt . 3 . Mi l d to m o d er a te ag o ni s ti c o pi o id s a r e us e d as a n t i tu s si ve s ( e. g ., co de i ne an d d e xt r o m e th o r ph an ) an d a s a n t i di a r r h ea l s ( e .g . , d i ph e no xyl a t e a nd lo p e ra m id e ) .
Figure 13-28. Structural formulas of opioid antagonists: (A) naloxone (Narcan), (B) pentazocine (Talwin), and (C) butorphanol (Stadol).
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4 . P u re op io i d a nt a go n is t s ar e u s ed as a n ti d ot es t o r e ve rs e t he ad ve r s e ef f e c t s ( e . g ., r es pi r a to r y d ep r es s i on , c a rd i o vas c u la r de pr e s s i on , s ed a ti o n ) o f o pio i d a g o ni st s o r o p io id ag o nis t - an t ag o ni s t s . N a lt r e xo n e is a n o r a ll y ac t i v e c om p ou n d t ha t p o ss es s e s p u re an t ag on is t ic ac ti v i t y a nd i s u se d in t he t re a tm en t of op i oi d a d di c ti on . D . Ad ve r s e e f f ec t s 1 . O p i oi d an a lg e si c s a re as s o c i a t ed wi t h t h e f ol lo wi n g a d ve rs e e ff e c t s : a . C N S ef f ec ts , i n c l ud i ng C N S d e pr es s i o n, m i os is, d i z z i ne ss , s ed a ti o n, c on f us i on , d i so r ie n ta t io n , a nd c o m a b . G I ef f ec ts , i n c l ud i ng na u s e a , vo m i t in g , c on st i pa t i on , b i li a r y s p as m , a n d i nc r e as ed b i li a r y t ra c t p re s s u re c . C a rd io v a s c ul a r e f f ec ts , s uc h as o rt h os t at ic h y po t e ns io n , p e ri ph e r al c i rcu l a to r y c o ll ap s e, d y s r h y t hm ia s , a n d c a rd ia c a r r es t d . R es p ir a t or y d ep r es s i on e . B r on c h oc o ns t ri c t i on f . P s ych ia t r ic e f f ec ts , s uc h a s e u ph o ri a , d y s p h o ria , an d h a ll uc in a ti o ns g . A bu s e p ot e nt i al a n d de p e nd en c e h . P r ec ip i ta t io n o f wi t hd ra wa l s y m pt om s i n o pi o id- d e pe n de n t p at i en ts ( wh e n op io i d a g o ni st - an t ag o ni s t s , s u c h as pe n ta z o c in e o r n a lbu p h i n e, a re us ed as an a lg e s i c s ) i . C l as s ic op i oi d a na l ge s i c s c a n a ls o p r om p t t he re l e a s e o f h is ta m i n e, c a us i ng i n t en se p ru r it us , v as o di la t i on , a n d b r on c h oc o ns t ri c ti o n, wh i c h c a n b e c on fu s ed wi t h a t r ue al le r g ic re ac t io n . j . Tr a m ad ol ap p ea r s t o ha v e s i g ni f ic an t l y fe we r re s pi r a to r y d ep r es sa n t e ffe c ts th a n t h e c la ss ic op io i ds . I t al s o d oe s n ot ap p ea r to c a us e th e r e le as e o f hi s t am in e . It ha s f e we r c a rd i o v as c u la r ef fe c ts wi t h th e e xc e p t io n of o r th os t a ti c h yp ot e ns io n, wh i c h i s p r o du c e d . Tr am a do l d oes po s s es s t h e t yp ic al µ - re c ep t o r- m ed ia t ed s i de e ff e c ts o f c o ns ti p at i on , n a us ea , v om i ti n g, an d s ed a ti o n. 2 . O p i oi d an t ag o n is t s ar e as s o c i a te d wi t h t h e f ol l o wi n g a d ve rs e e f fe c t s : a . P u re op io i d a nt a go n is t s c a n p r ec ip it a t e a wi t hd r a wa l s ynd r om e i n o pi o id d e p en de n t p a ti en t s . P u re a nt a go n is ts , g i ve n in th e ab s e nc e o f op io i d a go n is ts o r a g o ni st - an t ag o ni s t s , p r od u c e no c l in ic a ll y s i g ni fic a nt e ff ec t s. b . I n t he ab s e n c e of op io i ds , m i xe d ag o ni s t - a nt ag o ni s ts p r o du c e op i oi d -l ik e e f f ec ts , s uc h a s re s p i ra t o r y d e p re s s i on . P.315
STUDY QUESTIONS D i r e c t i on s fo r q ue s t io ns 1 - 14 : E a c h o f t he qu es t i o ns , s ta t em en t s , o r i nc o m pl e te s t a te m e n ts i n th is s ec t ion ca n b e c o r re c t l y a ns we r e d or co m p le t e d b y o ne o f th e s u gg es t ed an s we r s o r phr a s es . Ch oo s e t he be s t a n s we r . 1 . W hi c h o f th e fo l l ow in g d r u gs w o ul d m o s t l ik e l y b e u s e d i n t h e t r e at m e n t o f b r o n c ho s pa s m t h a t i s as s o ci a t ed w i t h c h r on i c o b s t r uc t i ve p ul m on a r y d i s ea s e? ( A ) e d ro p ho ni um ( B ) i p ra t r op iu m
( C ) a m b e no ni um ( D ) p r op a nt h el in e ( E ) h om a tr o pi n e V i e w A n s we r 1 . T h e a n sw e r i s B [ V . C. 2 . b, c ; V I .C . 1 . e -g] . 2 . Al l o f t he f o l l ow i ng ad ve r s e e f f e ct s a r e m an i f es t a ti o n s of c h o li n e rg i c a g on i s ts e x c ep t ( A ) b r ad y c a rd ia . ( B ) b r on c h oc o ns t ri c t i on . ( C ) xe r o s t om i a. ( D ) l ac r im a ti on . ( E ) m yo pi c ac c o m m od a tio n . V i e w A n s we r 2 . T h e a n sw e r i s C [] .3 . W h ic h o f th e f o ll ow i ng d r u gs is c o n si d e r ed t o b e t h e ag e n t o f ch o i ce f o r a na ph yl a c t i c r e ac t i o ns ? ( A ) cl o ni d in e ( B ) is o p ro t e re no l ( C ) e pi n ep h ri n e ( D ) p h en y l ep h r in e ( E ) t e rb u ta l in e V i e w A n s we r 3 . T h e a n sw e r i s C [] .4 . W h ic h o f th e f o ll ow i ng n e u r o mu s cu l a r b l oc k i ng a ge n t s c an c au s e m us c a r in i c re s po n se s s u ch a s b r a d yc a r d i a a n d in c r eas e d g l a nd u la r s ec r e t ion s ? ( A ) t u bo c u r a ri ne ( B ) s ucc i n y lc ho li n e ( C ) p a nc ur o ni um ( D ) d ec am e th o ni um ( E ) g al l am in e V i e w A n s we r 4 . T h e a n sw e r i s B [ V II . D . 2] . 5 . W h ic h o f t h e f o l low i n g a g en t s w o ul d no t be a pp r o p r iat e i n t h e t r e a tm e n t o f gl a u co m a? ( A ) a t ro p in e ( B ) p il oc a rp i ne ( C ) p h ys o s ti gm in e ( D ) t im o lo l ( E ) e pi n ep h ri n e V i e w A n s we r 5 . T h e a n sw e r i s A [ an d] .6 . Ad ve r s e r e ac t i o ns t o a t r op i ne i n c l ud e a l l o f t he f ol l ow i ng e xc ep t ( A ) p ho t op h ob i a. ( B ) d r y m o u th . ( C ) s ed a ti o n. ( D ) d ia r r h ea . ( E ) t ac h y c a r d ia . V i e w A n s we r 6 . T h e a n sw e r i s D [] .7 . W h ic h o f th e f o ll ow i ng d r u gs is a vo l a t i l e s u bs t a nc e t h a t i s a dm i ni s t e re d b y i n h a l a t i o n? ( A ) t hi o pe n ta l ( B ) h al o th a ne ( C ) a lp r a z o la m ( D ) b us p ir o ne
( E ) p he n y t oi n V i e w A n s we r 7 . T h e a n sw e r i s B [] .8 . T h e s t r u ctu r e o f p r o c hl o r p e ra z i n e i s s h ow n . W h ic h o f t h e f ol l ow i n g m ed i ca t i o ns , be c a us e o f i ts ch e mi c al r e l a t i on s hi p to p r oc h l or p e r a z i n e , w o u ld m os t li k e l y c a u s e s im i la r s ide e f fe c t s?
( A ) f lu p he n a z in e ( B ) t hi o r id a z in e ( C ) a lp r a z o la m ( D ) b us p ir o ne ( E ) p en t ob a r bi t al V i e w A n s we r 8 . T h e a n sw e r i s A [] .9 . T h e b r i e f du r a t i o n o f a c t io n of a n u l t r a - sh o r t - ac t i ng b a rb it u r a t e i s th e r es u l t o f a ( A ) sl o w r a t e o f m e ta bo l is m i n t h e li v e r . ( B ) l o w l ip i d s o l ub il i t y , re s ul t in g i n a m i ni m a l c o nc e nt r a ti o n i n t he b ra in . ( C ) h ig h d e g re e o f b i nd ing t o p la sm a p r ot e in s . ( D ) r a pi d ra t e o f r e di s t r ib u t io n f r om th e b r a in o win g to it s h i gh l i po so l ub il it y . ( E ) sl o w r a t e o f e xc r e t i on b y t he k i dn e y s . V i e w A n s we r 9 . T h e a n sw e r i s D [ X II . A . 4. c , d ;] . P. 3 1 6
1 0 . W h i ch o f t h e f o l low in g me c ha n i sm s o f ac t io n i s t r u e a n d m os t li ke l y c o n t r i bu t es t o th e t re a tm e n t o f pa r k i ns o ni s m? ( A ) Th e di r ec t - ac ti n g d opa m in e rg ic ag o ni st am an ta d i n e m im ic s t he ac t i vit y o f s t r ia t al d o p am in e . ( B ) Th e a nt im us c a r in ic ac t i v i t y o f d i ph e nh yd r am ine c o n t ri b ut es t o t he r es to r a ti o n o f s t r ia t al do p am in e rg ic - c ho l in e r gi c n eu r o tr a ns m i t ter b al a nc e . ( C ) S t r ia t al H 1 - re c e p to r s a r e b l oc k e d b y t he an t ihi s ta m i n ic tr i he xy p h e n i d yl. ( D ) Th e e r go li n e b r om oc r i p ti n e s ti m u la t es th e re le a s e of s t r ia t al do p am ine f r om i n t ac t t e rm in a ls .
( E ) Th e a bi li t y o f d op am in e to c r o s s t h e b lo o d- b ra i n b a r ri e r a ll o ws i t t o r es t o re s t r ia t al do p am in e rg ic - c ho l in e r gi c n eu r o tr a ns m i t ter b al a nc e . V i e w A n s we r 1 0 . T he a nsw e r i s B [] .1 1 . Al l o f t he f o l l ow in g a d ve r s e e f f ec t s a r e as s oc i a te d w i th t he u s e o f le vo d o pa ex c ept ( A ) si a lo r r he a . ( B ) o r th os t a ti c h y p ot e ns io n . ( C ) d el u s i on s , c o n fu s i o n, a n d d ep r es s i o n. ( D ) d ys k i ne s i a a n d d y s ton i a . ( E ) l i ved o re t ic ul a ri s . V i e w A n s we r 1 1 . T he a nsw e r i s E [] . 1 2. T he ac t i vit y o f w hi c h o f t he f o l l ow i ng d r ug s de p en ds o n a p -p h en yl - N - a l k yl p i p e r id i n e m oi e t y? ( A ) p he n ob a rb i ta l ( B ) c hl o rp r om a z in e ( C ) d ia ze p am ( D ) i m i p ra m i n e ( E ) m ep e ri di n e V i e w A n s we r 1 2 . T he a nsw e r i s E [ X V. A . 1 , 2 ;] .p NN p 1 3 . O pi o i ds a re us e d a s a l l o f t h e f o ll ow i n g a gen t s ex c ep t ( A ) a n ti tu s s i v es . ( B ) a na l ge s i c s . ( C ) a n ti - in f la m m at o r ie s . ( D ) a n ti di a r rh e al s . ( E ) p r ea n es th e ti c m ed ic a t i on s . V i e w A n s we r 1 3 . T he a nsw e r i s C [ X V . C] . 1 4. Wh i ch o f t he f ol l ow i ng ag e nt s w o ul d no t be a n a l te r n at i ve t o p he n ob a r b it a l i n t h e t re a t me n t o f pa r t i al s e iz u r e s? ( A ) t r im e th ad i on e ( B ) g ab a pe n ti n ( C ) f e lb am a te ( D ) l am o t ri gi n e ( E ) N o ne o f t he ab o v e V i e w A n s we r 1 4 . T he a nsw e r i s A [] . Di r e c ti o ns f or q u e st i o ns 15 - 1 9 : Th e q u es t io ns an d i nc om p le te s ta t em en ts in t hi s se c ti o n c an be c o r r ec tl y a ns we r e d o r c om p le t ed b y on e o r m or e o f t h e su g ge s te d a nswe r s . C h o os e t he an s we r , A- E . 1 5 . C ho l i ne s te r a se i nh ib i t o r s c a n b e u se d t he ra p e u ti c al l y I . a s m io t i c a ge n t s i n th e t r ea t m en t o f g la u c om a . I I . t o i n c re a se sk e le t al m u s cl e to n e i n th e t re at m e n t o f m ya s t h e n i a g ra vi s . I I I . to d ec r e as e g a st r o in t e s t in a l ( G I ) an d u ri n ar y b l a d d e r s m oo t h m u sc l e to n e . A i f I o n l y i s c o r re c t B i f II I on l y i s c o r r ec t C i f I a n d I I a r e c or r ec t D i f II a nd I II a re c o r re c t E i f I, I I, an d II I ar e c o r re c t
V i e w A n s we r 1 5 . T he a nsw e r i s C [] .1 6 . An t i m u sca r i n i c a ge n t s a r e u s ed i n t h e t r ea t me n t of P a rk i ns o n di s ea s e a nd i n t h e c o n t r o l o f s o me ne u r o le p t i c i n d u ce d e x t r ap yr a m i d a l d i s o rd e r s . T he s e a ge nt s i nc l u de I . i p ra t r o p iu m . I I . be n z t r o p in e . I I I . t r ih e x yp h e n i d yl . A i f I o n l y i s c o r re c t B i f II I on l y i s c o r r ec t C i f I a n d I I a r e c or r ec t D i f II a nd I II a re c o r re c t E i f I, I I, an d II I ar e c o r re c t V i e w A n s we r 1 6 . T he a nsw e r i s D [ V I. C . 1 .g , h] . 17 . C e r t a i n d r u gs a re s o m e ti me s in c o r po r a t ed i n t o l oc a l a n es t h et i c s o l u t io n s t o p r o l o ng t he i r a ct i vi t y a n d r ed u ce t he i r s ys t e m i c to x ic i t y. T h e s e d r ug s i nc l ud e I . d ob u t am i ne . I I . ph e n yl e p h r i n e . I I I . e p i ne p h r in e . A i f I o n l y i s c o r re c t B i f II I on l y i s c o r r ec t C i f I a n d I I a r e c or r ec t D i f II a nd I II a re c o r re c t E i f I, I I, an d II I ar e c o r re c t V i e w A n s we r 1 7 . T he a nsw e r i s D [ II I . B .1 . b ,] . 1 8. Im p r o p e r a dm i n is t r a t io n o f l o c a l a ne s t he t ic s c a n ca u s e t o xi c pl a sm a c o nce n t r a t io n s t h a t m a y r e s u l t i n I . s ei zu r e s a n d c en t r a l n e r vo u s s ys t e m ( C N S ) d e p r es s i on . I I . r es p i r a to r y a n d m yo c a r d ia l de p r es s i on . I I I . c i r c ul a t o r y c o l l a p s e. A i f I o n l y i s c o r re c t B i f II I on l y i s c o r r ec t C i f I a n d I I a r e c or r ec t D i f II a nd I II a re c o r re c t E i f I, I I, an d II I ar e c o r re c t V i e w A n s we r 1 8 . T he a nsw e r i s E [] . P . 31 7
1 9 . In ad d i t io n to t he i r a n x io l yt i c p r o p e r t ie s , be n z od i az ep i n es a re i ndi c a t ed f o r use I . a s p r ea n es t h e ti c m e di c a t io n s . I I . as an t i co n vu l s an t s . I I I . du r i n g a cu t e w i th d raw al f r om a lc o ho l . A i f I o n l y i s c o r re c t B i f II I on l y i s c o r r ec t C i f I a n d I I a r e c or r ec t D i f II a nd I II a re c o r re c t E i f I, I I, an d II I ar e c o r re c t
V i e w A n s we r 1 9 . T he a nsw e r i s E [] . F o r q u es t i o ns 2 0 -2 2 : A 58 - y e a r -o l d wh i t e m a l e wh o h as a h is t o r y of es s e n ti al h y pe r te n s i o n a nd br o nc hi a l as th m a h as r e c en t l y b e en di ag n os ed wi t h p r os t at ic h y pe r t r oph y . H i s m e d ic at i on hi s t o ry i n cl u de s t h e fo ll o wi n g d r ug s : D i r e c t i on s : Th e f ol l o wi ng q ue s t i on s c an be an s we r e d b y o ne o f t he li s t e d d r u gs . C h o os e th e b e st an s we r , A- E . 2 0 . W h i ch o f t h es e a g en t s an d us es c ou l d w o rs e n th e u ri n a r y r e t e n t i o n h e i s e x p e ri e nc i n g a s a r es u lt o f h is p ro s t a te p ro b l em s ? ( A ) p r op r an o lo l , f o r h y p er t e ns i on ( B ) i p ra t r op iu m , f o r as t hm a ( C ) m et a p ro t er e no l , f o r as t hm a ( D ) f i na s t e r id e ( P r os c a r ), f o r p r os t at ic h ype r t r op hy ( E ) p r a z os in , fo r h y pe r ten s io n V i e w A n s we r 2 0 . T he a nsw e r i s B [] .2 1 . W hi c h a ge n t an d us e c o ul d w o r se n o r c a us e a n a c u te as t hm a a tt a ck ? ( A ) p r op r an o lo l , f o r h y p er t e ns i on ( B ) i p ra t r op iu m , f o r as t hm a ( C ) m et a p ro t er e no l , f o r as t hm a ( D ) f i na s t e r id e ( P r os c a r ), f o r p r os t at ic h y pe r t r op hy ( E ) p r a z os in , fo r h y pe r ten s io n V i e w A n s we r 2 1 . T he a nsw e r i s A [ I V. D . 3] . 2 2. W hic h ag e n t a c ts se l ec t i vel y a t β 2 - re c ep t o r s? ( A ) p r op r an o lo l , f o r h y p er t e ns i on ( B ) i p ra t r op iu m , f o r as t hm a ( C ) m et a p ro t er e no l , f o r as t hm a ( D ) f i na s t e r id e ( P r os c a r ), f o r p r os t at ic h y pe r t r op hy ( E ) p r a z os in , fo r h y pe r ten s io n V i e w A n s we r 2 2 . T he a nsw e r i s C [] .F o r qu e st i o ns 2 3 -2 5 : A 55 - y e a r -o l d b l ac k f em al e h a s a h is t or y o f m o d er a te h y pe r t ens i on , g l au c o m a , a n d m i l d o s te o a rt h ri t is . He r m e di c a t i on hi s t o r y in c l u de s t he f ol l o wi ng d ru gs : D i r e c t i on s : Th e f ol l o wi ng q ue s t i on s c an be an s we r e d b y o ne o r m o r e o f th e li s t e d d r u gs . Ch o os e t h e b es t a n s we r s , A- E . 2 3 . W h i ch o f h e r g l a uco m a m e di c i ne s a c ts vi a a n in d i r ec t m e ch a n is m? ( A ) m et o pr o lo l , f o r h y p e rt e ns i on ( B ) p il oc a rp i ne ge l , f o r gl a uc om a ( C ) e pi n ep h ri n e d r op s , fo r gl a uc om a ( D ) i so f lu r op h at e , f o r g lau c om a ( E ) t im ol o l, f or gl a uc om a V i e w A n s we r 2 3 . T he a nsw e r i s D [] .2 4 . W hi c h tw o a ge n t s c o ul d ha ve a n a d d i t i ve e f f ec t to p r o duc e ex c es s i ve b r a d yc a r d i a ? ( A ) m et o pr o lo l , f o r h y p e rt e ns i on ( B ) p il oc a rp i ne ge l , f o r gl a uc om a ( C ) e pi n ep h ri n e d r op s , fo r gl a uc om a ( D ) i so f lu r op h at e , f o r g lau c om a ( E ) t im ol o l, f or gl a uc om a
V i e w A n s we r 2 4 . T he a nsw e r s a r e A a nd E [ I V. B . 3, D . 4] .2 5 . W h ic h tw o g l a uc o ma a ge n ts c ou l d l e ss e n t h e e f f ec t s o f th e o th e r ? ( A ) m et o pr o lo l , f o r h y p e rt e ns i on ( B ) p il oc a rp i ne ge l , f o r gl a uc om a ( C ) e pi n ep h ri n e d r op s , fo r gl a uc om a ( D ) i so f lu r op h at e , f o r g lau c om a ( E ) t im ol o l, f or gl a uc om a V i e w A n s we r 2 5 . T he a nsw e r s a r e B a nd D [] . D i rec t i o ns f o r q u es t i on s 2 62 8 : E a c h s t a te m en t i n t hi s s ec t io n d es c ri be s o n e o f th e f o ll o wi n g d r ug s . C h o os e th e b e s t a ns we r , A- E . P.318
2 6 . An a nx i o l yt i c d r u g th a t do e s n o t p o ss e ss ei t h e r h yp n o t i c o r an t i con vu l s a n t p r o p e r t ie s ( A) t r a n yl c yp r o m i n e ( B ) i m ip r a m in e ( C ) b u sp i r o ne ( D ) f l u ox e t in e ( E ) p h en e lz i ne 2 7 . A p r o t o t yp e t r i c yc l i c a n ti d e p re s sa n t w it h an t i m us c a ri n i c p r o pe r t i es t h a t m a k e i t u s e fu l in t he t re a t me n t of e nu r e si s ( A) t r a n yl c yp r o m i n e ( B ) i m ip r a m in e ( C ) b u sp i r o ne ( D ) f l u ox e t in e ( E ) p h en e lz i ne 2 8 . An a n ti d ep r e ss a n t th a t i nh i bi t s s e r o to n i n r e u p t ak e a n d m a y c a u s e a d ve r s e e f f e c ts su c h a s i m pa i r ed m em o r y, a k a t h is i a, an d me n s t r ua l i r r e g u la r it i e s ( A) t r a n yl c yp r o m i n e ( B ) i m ip r a m in e ( C ) b u sp i r o ne ( D ) f l u ox e t in e ( E ) p h en e lz i ne V i e w A n s we r 2 6 -2 8 . T h e a n s w e r s a r e : 2 6 - C [] , 27 -B [ ] ,2 8 - D [] . D i r e c ti o ns f or q u e s ti o ns 29 - 3 1 : E ac h s t r uc t ur e i n th is s ec t io n c a n b e d es c r i be d b y o n e o f th e f o l lo wi n g p h a rm ac ol o gi c a l c a te g o ri es . Ch o os e t he b es t an s we r . 29.
( A) g e n e r a l a n es t he t i c ( B ) l o ca l an e st h e ti c ( C ) a n t id e p re s sa n t ( D ) a n xi o l yt i c ( E ) o p io i d a n t ag o n is t 30.
( A) g e n e r a l a n es t he t i c ( B ) l o ca l an e st h e ti c ( C ) a n t id e p re s sa n t ( D ) a n xi o l yt i c ( E ) o p io i d a n t ag o n is t 31.
( A) g e n e r a l a n es t he t i c ( B ) l o ca l an e st h e ti c ( C ) a n t id e p re s sa n t ( D ) a n xi o l yt i c ( E ) o p io i d a n t ag o n is t V i e w A n s we r 2 9 -3 1 . T h e a n s w e r s a r e : 2 9 - B [] , 30 -D [ ] ,3 1 - C [] . p F o r q u es t i on s 3 2 - 33 : A 3 8 - y e a r- o ld m an h as a hi s to r y o f a f fe ct iv e d is o r de r s , in c l u di ng s ch i zo ph r e ni a, d ep r es s i on , ob s e s s i ve -c om p ul s i v e d is o r de r , a nd s i t ua t io na l a n xi e t y . H i s p a st m e di c a t io ns in c lu d e t h io t hi xe n e , c h lo r p rom a z i ne , a m i t r ip t y l in e , a nd d i a ze pa m . H is c u r re n t m e d ic a ti on p ro f il e i nc l ud es t wo o f t h e f ol l o wi ng d ru g s : D i r e c t i on s : Th e f ol l o wi ng q ue s t i on s c an be an s we r e d b y o ne o f t he li s t e d d r u gs . C h o os e th e b e st an s we r , A- D . 3 2 . W h i ch ag e n t i s m o st l i ke l y b e i n g us e d t o t re a t hi s s c h iz op h r e ni c p s yc h o s i s ? ( A ) cl o za pi n e ( B ) f lu o xe t i n e ( C ) b us p ir o ne ( D ) r i sp e ri d on e V i e w A n s we r 3 2 . T he a nsw e r i s A [] .3 3 . W hi c h a ge n t is m os t li k el y b e i n g u s e d t o t r ea t de p r es s ion a n d o bs e ss i ve - c om p ul s i ve d is o r de r ? ( A ) cl o za pi n e ( B ) f lu o xe t i n e ( C ) b us p ir o ne ( D ) r i sp e ri d on e V i e w A n s we r 3 3 . T he a nsw e r i s B [] .P . 31 9
D i r e c t i on s fo r q ue s t io ns 3 4 -4 0 : E ac h o f th e q u es t io ns , s t a te m e n ts , o r i nc om p le t e s t a te m e n ts i n th is s ec t ion c a n b e c o r re c t l y a ns we r e d or co m p le t e d b y o ne o f th e s u gg es t ed an s we r s o r phr a s es . Ch oo s e t he be s t a n s we r . 3 4 . T yr a m i n e e xe m pl i f ie s t he p ha r ma c o lo g ic m e c ha n is m o f
( A ) g an g li on ic bl oc k ad e . ( B ) i nh i bi ti o n o f t r a ns m i tte r r el e as e. ( C ) f ac i li t at i on of t ra ns m it t e r re l ea se . ( D ) i n te r f er e nc e wi t h v e s i c ul a r s to r ag e . ( E ) b lo c k ad e o f t ra ns m i t te r r eu p ta k e. V i e w A n s we r 3 4 . T he a nsw e r i s C [] .3 5 . C o ns i d e rin g t he g en e r al c he m ic al s t r u c t u re s o f s ym p a t h o m i m e ti c a m in e s, d el e t io n o f th e 3 - h yd r o x y g r o u p o n t h e p h e n yl r i n g o f n o r ep i n ep h r i n e w o u l d l i ke l y p r o d u c e ( A ) i nc r ea s e d α - re c e p to r p o te nc y. ( B ) i nc r ea s e d β - re c e p to r p o te nc y. ( C ) i nd i r ec t s y m p a th om im e ti c a ct i vi t y . ( D ) d ec r ea s ed t ra ns p or t t h r o ug h t h e b lo od - b ra i n b a r r ie r . ( E ) l os s o f a n y bi ol o gi c a l a c ti v i t y in th e n e r v o us sy s t e m . V i e w A n s we r 3 5 . T he a nsw e r i s C [] .3 6 . S o me t ime s co m bi n a ti o n t re a tm en t o f P a r ki n s on d is ea s e i s w a r ra n t ed . Wh i c h o f the f o l low i n g d r u g c o mb in a t i on s c o u l d w o r k c o o pe r a t i vel y t o e n h a n ce a c l in i ca l a n t i pa r k in s on i a n r e spo n s e? ( A ) a m p he t am in e a n d r es e r pi ne ( B ) l e vod o pa an d c a rb ido p a ( C ) c a rb id o pa an d t o lc apo n e ( D ) a m a n ta d in e a nd ha l op e r id o l ( E ) d op am i ne an d t y r a m in e V i e w A n s we r 3 6 . T he a nsw e r i s B [] .3 7 . T e ra z os in i s a b le t o f a ci l i ta t e m i c t u ri t i o n w h e n u se d in t h e t r e a tm e n t o f b e n ig n p r os t a t ic h yp e r t r o p h y ( B P H ) b e c au s e t h e d r u g ( A ) r e la xe s t he p ro s ta t e g l an d . ( B ) c on s t r ic ts t he ne c k of t h e bl a dd e r . ( C ) p r e ven t s p en il e e r ec ti o ns ass o c i a te d wi t h B PH . ( D ) b lo ck s s em in al fl u id p r o du c ti on . ( E ) b lo c k s p r os ta t e c el l g r o wt h . V i e w A n s we r 3 7 . T he a nsw e r i s A [] .3 8 . B R L 37 3 44 i s a β 3 - a go n is t . I t m igh t b e o f i n t e re s t t o de ve l op t h i s a ge n t i n t o a cl i n ic a l l y u s a b l e d r ug be c au s e o f t he e x p ec t a ti o n th a t β 3 - ag on i s t s w o u l d ( A ) c on s t r ic t b l oo d v es s el s a n d i nc r ea s e bl oo d p re s s u r e i n sh oc k p a ti en t s. ( B ) i nd uc e l i po l y s i s a nd d e c re as e l ip oc yt e m a ss in o be se pa t ie n ts . ( C ) i nc r ea s e gl y c o ge no l ys is an d p r e v e nt gl yc og e n s t or a ge in li ve r c i r rh os is . ( D ) e n ha nc e r e na l v as odi l a ti on an d i nc r e as e u r ina r y e li m i n at i on of e th a nol i n a l co h ol ic s . ( E ) c au s e b ro nc ho d il a ti on a nd c o un t e ra ct t he ne ga t i ve e f f ec ts of as th m a t re a tm e nt a g e nt s. V i e w A n s we r 3 8 . T he a nsw e r i s B [ II I . B .1 . b] .3 9 . Th e p ha r m ac o lo g i c p r o f il e o f c a r ve d il o l i s m o s t s im i l a r to t ha t o f ( A ) e sm ol ol . ( B ) l ab e ta l ol . ( C ) m et o p ro lo l . ( D ) n a do lo l .
( E ) t im ol o l. V i e w A n s we r 3 9 . T he a nsw e r i s B [ I V. C . 3 ;] . 4 0. B es i d es b o th o f t h em be in g p h e na n t h r en e d e r i va t i ve s , a p om o r p h in e a n d mo r p h i ne a ls o h a ve t he co m m on property of ( A ) s ti m u la t in g b r a in ne ur o g en es is an d he nc e a n ti d e p r es s a n t a c t i v i t y . ( B ) e li ci t in g a po t en t n e rv e b l oc k a de an d h e nc e an e s t h et ic ac t i v it y. ( C ) s ti m u l at i ng µ - op io i d r e c ep t or s a n d h en c e an al g e s ic ef f ic ac y. ( D ) i m p r o v in g i m m ob i li t y a n d h e nc e a nt i pa r k i ns oni a n a c t i v i t y . ( E ) i nd uc i ng r e wa r di n g s t i m u l i a nd he nc e a d di c t ion l ia bi l it y . V i e w A n s we r 4 0 . T he a nsw e r i s E [ X V. A . 2 , C] . P .32 0
ANSWERS AND EXPLANATIONS 1 . T he an sw e r is B [ V . C. 2 . b , c ; V I . C .1 . e- g ] . I p r a t ro pi um is a n e wl y ap p r o v ed an t im us c a r in ic a g e n t us ed to t r ea t b r onc h os pa s m . P r o p an t he l in e a nd ho m atr o p in e a r e a n ti m u s c a ri nic ag e nt s u s e d a s a ga st ro i n te s t i na l ( G I ) a n ti s p as m o d ic a n d a s a m y d ri a ti c , r es pe ct i ve l y . E d ro p ho ni um an d am b en o ni um a r e i n di r ec t - ac ti n g c h o li ne r g ic ag on is t s a nd , a s s u c h, wo u l d b e e xp e c t ed to i nd uc e b r o nc ho s pa s m . 2 . T he an sw e r is C [ V I .D ] . Xe r o s t om i a, o r d r y m o uth , r es ul ts f r om re du c ed sa l i v a r y s ec r e ti o ns a n d, th e r e fo r e, i s n o t a m a ni f es ta t io n o f c h ol in e r gi c a go ni s t ac t i v it y . A l l o f t h e o th e r e f f ec ts li s te d i n t h e q u es ti o n a r e e xt e n s io n s o f t h er a pe u ti c e f fe c ts o f c h o li ne r g ic a g on is ts t o th e p o in t of be i ng ad v e r s e eff e c ts . 3 . T he an sw e r is C [ I I I .C . 1 ] . O f t h e a d re n er g ic ag on is t s li s t e d i n t he qu es t io n , o n l y ep in e ph r in e , b ec a us e o f it s b r o ad , no ns el e c t i v e α - an d β - ac ti v i t y, is a n a g en t o f c h oi c e fo r an a ph y l ac ti c r e a ct i on s . E pi n ep h ri n e im p r o v es c i rc ul a to r y a nd r e s pi r at o r y f un ct i on an d c o un t e ra c t s t h e vas cu l ar e ff ec t s o f h is t am in e - re l at e d a na p h y la xi s . 4 . T he an sw e r is B [ V I I .D . 2 ] . N e u r om us c u l ar bl oc k i n g a g e nt s i nt e r ac t wi t h n ic ot i n ic re ce p to r s a t t h e s k el e t al n e u ro m u s c u la r j u nc ti o n. S u c c i n ylc ho li n e is al s o c a p a bl e o f e li ci t in g a u to no m ic m us c ar i ni c r es p on s e s , s u c h as b ra d y c ar d ia , i nc re a s e d g l an du l a r se c re t ion s , a nd c a r di ac ar r es t . 5 . T he an sw e r is A [ V . B a n d C ] . B o t h d i re c t -a c t i ng (e . g ., p i lo c a r p in e ) a nd in d ir e ct- a c ti n g ( e .g . , p h y so s t i gm i n e ) c h ol in e r gi c s m a y be us ed i n g la uc om a t o i nc r e ase c h o li ne r g ic a c ti v i t y an d f a ci li t at e o u t fl o w o f aq ue o us hu m or . S im il a r l y, b o th β - ag on is t s ( e .g . , e pi n ep h ri n e ) an d a n t ag o ni s t s ( e .g . , t im o lo l) m a y b e us ed re s pe ct i ve l y t o i nc r ea s e ou t fl o w a n d d e c re as e p r od uc t io n o f aq u e ou s h um o r. A t ro pi n e i s c on t r ai n di c a t ed in gl au c om a b e ca us e i t s a nt ic h ol in e rgi c e f f ec ts c a n b lo c k th e o u t fl o w o f aq ue o us hu m or a n d, c o ns eq u en t l y , i nc r ea s e in t r a oc ul a r p r es s u r e. 6 . T he an sw e r is D [ V I .D ] .
C l a ss ic s i gn s a nd s y m p to m s o f m u sc a ri n ic b l oc ka d e , as wi t h at r o pi ne , inc l ud e m yd r i as is , wh i c h m a y c au s e l ig h t s e ns i ti v i t y ( ph ot o p ho bi a ) ; d r y m o u th and c o ns ti p at i on b y d e c r e as in g s ec r e to r y a ct i vi t y a n d m o ti li t y in t he G I t r ac t ; a n d t a ch yc a rd i a b y in h ib i ti ng t h e n o rm al in hi b it o r y cho l in e r gi c co n t ro l o f th e c a r d ia c s ys t em . Di a r rh e a is on e o f t he c om m o n s ig ns o f c h ol in e r gi c a go ni s ts (s uc h as s a li va t io n , l ac ri m at io n o r t e a ri n g, u ri na t io n , a nd di a r r he a ) . 7 . T he an sw e r is B [ V I I I. A . 1 ] . Th e g e ne r al an es t he t ic s a r e di v i de d i n to t wo m a jo r c l as s e s o f d r ug s : t ho se t ha t ar e g a se s o r v ol a ti l e l iq ui ds , wh i c h a r e a dm i ni s t e r ed b y i n ha la t io n , a n d t ho s e t h a t a r e n o n vo la ti l e s al ts , wh ic h a r e ad m i ni s te r ed as i n t rav e n o us so lu t io ns . H al o tha n e i s a h a lo g en a te d h y d r oc a r bon , wh i c h b el on gs t o t he fo r m e r cl as s . I t h as th e ad v a n t ag e o ve r o ld e r v o l at i le an es th e t ic s ( e. g . , e th yl e th e r, c yc lo p r op a ne ) o f be in g n o n fl am m a b le . Th io pe n ta l s o di um , a l p ra z o la m , bu s pi r on e , a nd ph e n yt oi n a r e al l n o n vo la ti l e s ub s t a nc es th a t a r e a dm i ni s t e re d o r al l y o r p a re n te r a ll y. Th i ope n t al is a g e n er a l a ne s t h et ic an d is s o m e t im es re f e rr e d t o a s a ba s al a n es t he t ic b ec a us e i t d o es no t p r o du c e s i gn i fic a nt t hi r d -s ta g e s u r g ic al a n es t he s i a . A l p ra z o la m a n d b u sp i ro n e a r e a n xi o l y t ic s , wh e r e as ph e n y t oi n is an a nt ic o n vul s a n t. 8 . T he an sw e r is A [ X. A . 1 ; Ta bl e 1 3 - 6] . F l u ph en a z i ne , l ik e p r oc hl o r pe r a zi ne , i s a p i pe r a z in y l p he n ot h ia zi ne an t ip sy c h o ti c a n d wo u ld be li k e l y to c au s e s i m i l a r s i d e e ff ec t s. W her ea s t hi o ri d a z in e i s a l s o a p h e no t hi a z in e a n ti ps y c ho t ic , i t is a pi p e ri d yl d e ri v a t i v e r at h e r t ha n a pi p er a z i n y l d e r i va ti v e . Al p ra z o l am , ph e n y t oi n , a nd pe n to b a rb it a l a r e n o t p he n ot h ia z i nes ; t h e r ef o re , s t r uc tu r a ll y , the y a r e n o t s i m i l a r t o p r oc h lo r pe r a z i ne . 9 . T he an sw e r is D [ X I I .A . 4 . c , d; Fi g u re 13 - 8 ]. U l t r a -s h or t - ac ti n g b a rb i tu r a t es a r e c ha r ac t e ri z e d b y h a vin g b r a nc he d o r un s at u r at e d 5 , 5 -s i de c h ai ns an d b y ha v i n g a s u lf u r a t om i n p la c e o f o xy g e n i n t h e 2 po s it i on of t h e b a r bi t ur ic ac id m o le c u l e . Th e s e m o di f ic a ti on s o f ba r bi t u ri c ac i d r es ul t i n an e xt r e m e l y li p os ol ub l e m ol e c u le t ha t i s ver y s ol u ble i n l ip id ti ss u es . A f t er a d m i ni s t ra ti o n , a n ul t r a -s h o rt - ac t in g b a rb i tu r a te re a di l y c ro ss es th e b lo o d- b r a in b a r r ie r bu t t h en is q u ic k ly r e d is t r ib u te d i n to e xt r ac e r eb r al ti ss u e, r es ul t in g i n a r ap id l o ss o f ac ti v i t y . W hi le the s e a ge n ts do re m a i n i n t h e b o d y fo r a lo n g t im e a n d s ee m t o ha ve s l o w r a t es o f m et a b ol is m a nd e xc r e ti o n, th e i r l on g re t en t io n t im e is du e m o r e t o t he i r s lo w r a t e of l ea c h i ng ou t o f li pi d t is s u e. P.321
1 0 . Th e a n sw e r i s B [ XI V . B ] . Th e H 1 - a nt a go n is t d ip h en h y d r am in e p o ss es s es an t im us c a r i ni c ac t i v it y, wh i c h al lo ws i t to be o f us e i n th e r e s to r a ti o n o f s t ri a ta l d o pa m i n e rg ic - c h o li ne r gi c n e u ro t r an s m it t e r b al a nc e. A m a n t ad in e a p pe a rs to s t i m ul a te th e re le as e o f s t r ia t al d o p am in e ; i t d oe s n ot m im ic t he ac ti o n o f d op am in e . Tr i he xyp h e n i d y l i s an a n t im us c a r in ic , n o t a n ti hi s ta m i n ic , a ge n t ; i t b lo ck s c h ol i ne r gi c , n ot H 1 , r ece p t o rs . B r o m oc ri p ti n e is a d op am i ne r gi c a go n is t a nd m im ic s t h e ac t i v it y o f s t ri a ta l d o p am in e . Th e ne u ro t r an s m i t te r d o pa m i n e is no t a b le to c r os s t h e b lo o d-b r a in b a r r ie r an d i s , th e r ef o r e, n o t e f fe c t i v e as a n a n ti pa r k in s o ni a n d r ug .
1 1 . Th e a n sw e r i s E [ XI V . D . 1 ] . L i ve d o r e ti c u la r is is a c i rc u la t o r y d is o r de r c ha r ac te r i z e d b y l ar g e, bl u is h a re a s o n t h e e xt r e m i ti es . It is an a d v e r s e ef f ec t a ss oc ia t ed wi t h t he us e o f a m a n tad i ne an d b r o m o c ri pt i ne bu t n o t wi th t he us e o f l e v o - do pa . 1 2 . Th e a n sw e r i s E [ X V. A . 1 , 2 ; F i gu r e 1 3 -2 7 E ]. Th e p - p he n y l - N -a lk y l p ipe r i di n e m o i et y i s c o m m on t o t h e s t r uc t u ra l l y s pe c i f ic op i oi d a n al g es ic s . Me p e r id i ne is an op i oi d a n al ge s i c a nd i s an N - m e t h y l- p - ph e ny l p i pe r i di ne d e r i va ti v e . I t s c h em ic a l n a m e is e t h yl 1 -m e th y l -4 - p he n y l pi p er i di ne - 4 -c a rb o xy l a t e . P h e no b a rb i ta l i s a b a rb i tu r a t e s e d at i ve . Ch lo r p rom a zi ne is a ph e no t hi a zi ne a n t ip s yc h o ti c . D ia z e p am i s a be n zod i a zep i ne an xi o l y t ic . I m i p ra m i n e is a t ri c y cl ic d i be n za z e pi n e a nt i de p res s a n t . 1 3 . Th e a n sw e r i s C [ X V. C ] . U n l ik e t h e s al ic y l at e s , op i oi ds do n ot po s s es s a nt i - in f la m m a to r y ac t i v it y . O p i o id s d o s u pp r es s t he c o u gh re f lex a n d a r e p r e em in en t ana l ge s i cs . O pi o id s c a us e c o ns ti p at i on an d a r e , t hus , ef f ec ti v e a nt i di a r rh ea l a g en ts . W he n us e d as p r e an es t he t ic m e di c a t ion , op i oi ds pe r m i t a r ed uct i o n i n t he am ou n t o f g en e r al a n es t he t ic re q ui r ed f or s u r g ic al an es t he s i a . 1 4 . Th e a n sw e r i s A [ XI I I . A . 1 , C . 2 ]. W hile m a n y a n al ep t ic s ar e us e fu l i n c on t r ol li n g m o r e th a n o ne s e i zu re t y pe , t r i m e t ha di o ne is ef f ec ti v e p ri m ar i l y a g ai ns t a bs en c e ( p et i t m a l ) s ei z u r es . A d d i ti on a ll y , it s s id e -e f f ec t pr o fi l e is m o r e e xt e n s ive t h an t he ne we r a g en ts ( e. g . , l a m o t ri g in e , g ab a pe n ti n , f e l ba m a t e ) t ha t a r e e f f ec t i v e in t re a ti n g p a rt i al s ei zu r e s. 1 5 . Th e a n sw e r i s C [ V .C . 2 ] . C h o l in es t er a s e i n hi b it o rs a r e i n di r ec t -a c t i ng c h ol i n e r gi c a go n is ts us ef u l i n t r e at i ng m ya s th e ni a g r a v is a n d g la u c o m a . Th ei r ef f ec ts on G I a nd u ri n ar y b la d de r s m o ot h m us c l e wo u ld be t o i nc rea s e s m o ot h -m us c l e t o ne , n o t d ec r ea s e i t. 1 6 . Th e a n sw e r i s D [ V I .C . 1 . g , h ] . A l l th r ee c o m p o un ds li s te d in th e q u es ti o n a r e an t i m us ca r i ni c a ge n ts ; h owe v e r , o n l y b e n zt r op in e a n d t r ih e xy p h e ni d y l a r e u se d to c o nt ro l pa r k i ns on is m a nd s o m e n e u ro l ep t ic -i n du c e d e xt r a p y r a m i da l d is o r de r s . Ip ra t r o pi um i s a ne wl y a p p ro ve d a g e nt fo r th e t re a tm en t of b r on c h os p as m . 1 7 . Th e a n sw e r i s D [ I II .B . 1 . b, C . 1, 2 ]. D o b u ta m i n e is a β 1 - s e lec t i v e a d re n e rg ic ag on is t . I t wo u l d b e i na pp r o p ri ate t o u se d o b ut am i ne to de c re as e b l oo d fl o w a t th e s it e o f lo c al an es t he t ic a d m i ni st ra t i on . E p i ne p h ri ne is a n on s e lec t i v e α - a nd β - ag o ni st , an d ph e n y le ph r i ne is a n α 1 - s el ec t i ve a g o ni st ; b o th o f t he s e d ru g s c a n be us ed to li m i t t h e s ys te m i c a bs o rp t io n o f lo ca l a n es t he t ic s a nd pr o lo n g t h e ir ac t i vit y . 1 8 . Th e a n sw e r i s E [ I X.D . 2 ] . C a r e f ul ad m i ni s tr a ti o n o f a lo c a l a n es th e ti c b y a k n o wl e dg e ab le p ra c t i ti o ne r is e ss e nt i al to p re v e n t s y s te m ic a bs o r pt i on an d c ons e qu e nt to xi c i t y. Th i s is e s pe ci a ll y i m po r t an t wh e n t he pa t ien t ha s c a rd io va s c ul a r d ise a s e , p o o rl y c o n t ro ll e d di a be t es , t h yr o t o xi c os is , o r pe r ip he r a l v a s c u la r di s e as e . 1 9 . Th e a n sw e r i s E [ XI I. C . 1 , 2 , 3] . B e n zo di a z e pi n es c an s e rv e a s i nd u c t io n a g en t s fo r g en e ra l a n es th es i a; th e y a ls o h a ve an xi o l y t i c p r op e r ti es . In ad d it i on , i n t ra ve no u s di a ze pa m is us e d t o t re a t s t at us
e p il e pt ic us , wh e r e as c lon a z e p am i s u s e d o r al l y fo r m yoc lo n ic a n d a bs en ce ( p et i t m a l ) se i z u re s . B e n z od i az e p i n es a ls o d im i ni s h alc o ho l wi t hd r a wa l s ym p tom s . 2 0 . Th e a n sw e r i s B [ V I .D ] . Th i s an t ic ho l in e rg ic , i f ab s o rb ed s ys t em ic al l y , c ou l d c au s e cl as s i c a nt ic ho l in e r gi c e f f ec ts , wh i c h in c l ud e u r in a r y r e te n ti on . P.322
2 1 . Th e a n sw e r i s A [ I V .D . 3 ] . B e c au se th is is a n on s e le c ti v e β - bl oc k e r , th e re c o u ld be so m e in h ib it i on o f β 2 r e c ep t or s i n t h e b r on c h ial t r ee , c au s i n g b r on c h oc o n st r ic t io n a n d p oss i bl e c om p li ca t io n o f th e p a ti en t ' s a s th m a . 2 2 . Th e a n sw e r i s C [ I II .C . 6 ] . P r o p r an ol o l is a n on s el ec t i v e β -b lo c k e r, a nd pr a zo s in is a se le c ti v e α 1 - bl oc k e r . N e i t he r ip r at r o pi um no r P r o s c a r wo r k s th r ou g h th e ad r en e r gi c s ys t em . Me t a p r o t e re n ol is a s e lec t i v e β 2 - a go ni s t. 2 3 . Th e a n sw e r i s D [ V .A . 2 , C .2 ] . P i l oc a rp i ne ac ts di r ec tl y a t t he m us c a r i ni c r ec ep to r , wh e r e as e p in ep h r in e a n d t i m o l ol bo t h ac t di r ec tl y a t β - r ec ep t o rs . I s o f lu r oph a t e i nh ib i ts th e m e ta bo li s m o f a c et yl ch o li n e, in di r ec t l y in c r ea s i ng le ve ls o f t he en d o ge no us ne u r ot r a nsm it t e r . 2 4 . Th e a n sw e rs a re A a n d E [ I V . B. 3 , D. 4 ] . Me t o p r o l ol , a β 1 -s e le c t i ve a ge n t, ca n c au se b ra dyc a r d ia al on e . Th e a dd i tio n of t o p ic al ti m o l ol , wh i le lim it i n g s y st em ic ab so r p ti o n , c ou l d h a v e a n a dd i ti v e β - b l oc k i ng e f f ec t t o d e c r e as e h ea r t r a t e (n eg a ti ve c h r on o t rop y ) . 2 5 . Th e a n sw e rs a re B a n d D [ V . C . 1, 2 ]. P i l oc a rp i ne an d i s o f lu r oph a t e c o u ld li m i t t h e e f fe c t s of ea ch o th e r, be c au s e , u l t im at e l y , b ot h ac t v i a c h o li n e rg ic re c ep t or s . P ilo c a rp in e a c ts d i r ec tl y o n t h e r e c ep t or , wh i l e is o fl u ro ph a t e i nd i re c tl y i nc re as e s a c e t y l c h ol i ne le ve ls . Pi lo c a rp in e a n d a ce t y l c h ol i ne c o ul d c om p et e fo r ea c h ot h e r a t t he re c e p t or si t e, ef f ec t i vel y d e c re as in g th e e f fe c ts o f b o th . Ep i ne p hr i ne an d tim o lo l a r e β - a go n is ts an d β a n t ag o ni s t s , r es pe c ti v e l y. A l th o ug h b o th ag e nt s ar e e ff ec t i ve i n t r e at in g g la u c o m a a l on e , t h e us e o f bo t h c on c om it a nt l y co ul d re su l t i n a p ha r m a c o lo g ic al an ta g o ni s m , e f f ec t i v el y d ec r ea s i ng t he e f fe c t s o f b o th . 2 6 - 28 . Th e a n sw e rs a r e: 2 6 - C [ XI I . B . 2 ], 27 - B [ XI . C . 2 ] , 2 8 - D [ XI . B . 3 , D. 3 ] . B u s pi r on e ' s m e c h a ni s m o f an xi o l y t i c a c t i on is u nk n o wn . U nl ik e t h e b en z od i a z e pi ne s , b u sp i ro n e l ac k s h y p n ot ic a n d a nt ic o n v ul sa n t p r ope r t ie s . Th e t ri c y cl ic an t ide p r es s a n t i m ip r am in e i s u s e f ul i n th e t re a tm en t o f en u re si s, b ec au s e t he c om p ou n d b l oc k s m us c ar i ni c r ec e pt o rs m ed i a ti ng m i ct u ri t io n . Tr a z od o n e is c a te g o ri z e d a s an a t ypi ca l a n t id ep r es s a n t t h at s e lec t i v el y b lo ck s s e r o to n in re u p ta ke . 2 9 - 31 . Th e a n sw e rs a r e: 2 9 - B [ I X. A ; F ig u re 13 - 15 ] , 30 - D [ XI I . A ; Ta b l e 1 3- 7 ] , 3 1 - C [ XI . A . 2 ; Fi g u re 13 - 19 ] . Th e s t ru c tu r e s ho wn i n qu e s t i on 29 is th a t o f p r oca i ne , wh i ch is a di e th yl am i no e th y l p - a m i no b en z o a te es t er . It c on t ai ns a h y d r op hi l ic a m i n o g r ou p i n th e a lc oho l po r ti o n o f t he m o le c u le an d a li po p hi l ic a r om a ti c a c i d c onn e c t e d b y t he es te r li nk ag e . Th e p r o ca in e m ol ec u le is t y pic a l o f e s t e r - t y pe lo ca l a ne s th e ti cs .
Th e s t ru c tu r e i n q ue s ti on 3 0 i s t h at of di a ze pa m , wh i c h ha s a be n z o -1 , 4 -di a ze pi n e a s i t s b as e n uc le us . Th e wi d e l y us e d b en z o - 1 ,4 -d i a z e pi ne de r i v a ti ve s h av e s i gn i fi ca n t a n xi o l y t ic , h y p n o ti c , an d a n ti co n v u ls an t ac t i v it i es . Th e s t ru c tu r e i n q ue s ti on 3 1 i s t h at of de s i p r am ine , wh i ch h as a di b en z a ze p in e a s i t s b as e n uc le u s . D ib e n za z e p i ne de r i vat i v e s t ha t h a v e a m e t h y l - o r d i m e t h yla m i n op r op y l g rou p at t ac he d to th e ri n g ni t r og e n h a v e s ig ni f ic an t a n t id ep r es s a n t a c t i v i t y . S i m il a rl y s u bs t i tu t ed di be n zo c yc l oh e pt a di e ne s a ls o h a v e a n t id ep r es s a n t a c t i v i t y . To g e t h e r, th es e t wo ch em ic a l c l as s e s m ak e u p th e m a jo r it y o f t he t ri c yc l ic a n ti d ep r es s a n ts . 3 2 . Th e a n sw e r i s A [ X. C ] . C l o za p in e , wh i l e t h e ra peu t ic a ll y d ef i ne d a s a g e ne r a l a n ti ps y c ho t ic , i s us ed a lm os t e xc l u s i v el y i n t he t r ea tm e n t o f s c h i z o ph r en i a. 3 3 . Th e a n sw e r i s B [ XI . A . 3 , C .2 ] . F l u o xe t i ne is m os t l ik el y b e in g u s ed in th is pa t ie nt i n a n a t te m p t to t re a t de p r es s i on a n d o bs es s i v e - c o m p u ls i ve d is o rd e r wi t h t he s am e d r u g. C li n ic al t ri al s h a ve s h o wn f l u o xe t i ne to im p ro v e bo th c o n di t io ns . Th e u s e of a si n gl e a g en t f o r b o th co n di t io ns wi l l m in im i z e t h e r is k o f d r u g -d r ug in t e ra c ti on s , as we l l a s re du c e t he c h an c es o f a d ve r s e ef f ec ts . 3 4 . Th e a n sw e r i s C [ I II .A . 2 , B .3 ; Ta bl e 1 3 -2 ] . Tyr a m i n e i s a n i nd i re c tl y a c ti ng s ym p at h om im et ic a m i n e t ha t en t er s t h e ne r ve t e r m i n al a n d d is pl ac es no r e pi n ep h ri n e f r om th e st o r a ge v es ic l es , t h us i ncr e a s i ng t he q u a nt a o f th e t r a ns m i tt e r r e le a s e d . P.323
3 5 . Th e a n sw e r i s C [ I II .A . 1 , 2 ] . B o t h a r om a ti c h y d r o xy l f u n c t i on s a r e im p o rt a nt for b o th al p ha an d b e ta r ec e pt o r b i nd i ng . H o we v e r , re m o v a l of on e o r bo t h o f t h e gr o u ps wo u l d in c re as e upt a ke o f t h e re su l ti n g c o m p o un d in t o th e b r ai n a n d a dr e ner g i c n er ve t e rm in al s , r esu l t in g i n t r a ns m i t te r di s p l ac em en t f r om v e si cu l ar st o ra g e an d in c re as ed t r an sm it t e r r e l ea s e . 3 6 . Th e a n sw e r i s B [ XI V . A . 2 , 3 ] . W hile l e v o do p a c a n c r os s t he bl oo d b r a in ba r r ie r t o ga i n ac ce s s in t o t he br a i n, a s i gn i fi ca n t p o rt i on of an o r a ll y a dm in is t e re d d os e g e ts c o n ve rt e d i nt o d o pa m in e a n d n o r ep i ne p hr i ne at pe r i phe r a l s i t es , l e ad i ng to pe ri p he r a l s i d e e f fe c t s a nd d e c re as e d b r a in bi o a v ai la b il i t y . Ca rb i do p a, a d o pa de ca r bo x yl a s e i nh ib i to r t ha t d o es n o t c r os s t h e b l oo d b r ai n b a r ri e r , is c o ad m i n is te r e d wi t h lev o d o p a t o d ec r ea se it s pe r i ph e r al c o n ve rs io n , i nc r ea s e c e nt r a l d el i v e r y o f t he d ru g a n d h e nc e t he t he r ap e ut ic r e s po ns e . 3 7 . Th e a n sw e r i s A [ I V .C . 1 ] . Te r a zo s i n b lo c k s al p ha re c ep t o rs o n th e p r os t at e g l an d t o c au se a re la xa n t e ff ec t , wh i c h r ed uc es t he pr es s u r e e xe r t e d b y th e p r os ta t e o n th e u r et h r a, t hu s e a s i n g u r i na r y v o i da nc e . 3 8 . Th e a n sw e r i s B [ I II .B . 1 . b] . S t i m u l at io n of be t a -3 re c e p t o rs i n du ce s t he m e t ab o l i c b r ea k d o wn o f f a t s to r e s i nt o f r e e f a t t y a c i ds t ha t c an b e fu r t he r c a ta b ol i z e d b y t h e b od y . Th e ho p e is th a t th is
c a te g o r y o f ph a rm ac ol o gi c a g en ts co ul d , wi t h r e pe a t ed us e, le a d t o a de c r e a s e in t h e c on t en t an d n um b er o f f at c e ll s, an d h e nc e an a nt i ob es i t y e f f ec t . 3 9 . Th e a n sw e r i s B [ I V .C . 3 ; Ta b le 13 - 3] . L i ke la be t al o l, c a r v e di l ol i s a no ns el ec t i ve a lp h a a n d b e ta r ec ep t o r a nt a go n is t u s e d i n th e t r e at m e n t o f h y p e rt e ns i on . Bl oc ka d e o f vas c u la r al ph a (a l ph a -1 ) re ce p t o rs wo u l d ca us e v as o di la t at io n an d d ec r e as ed pe r ip he r a l v a sc u la r re s i s ta nc e , wh i l e b l oc ka d e o f m y oc a r di al be t a (b e ta - 1 ) r ec e pt o rs wo u l d de c re as e c a rd i ac c o n t r ac ti li t y . Th e r e su l ta n t d ec r ea s e in c a r d ia c o ut p ut wo u l d pr o d uc e a fa l l i n bl o od p re s s u r e ( b l oo d p r es s u r e = c a r di ac ou t pu t × p e ri ph e r al re s i s ta nc e ) . 4 0 . Th e a n sw e r i s E [ XI V . A . 2 , D. 2 ; X V . A . 2, C ] . D e s pi t e t h e s i m i la r i ti es in t he i r n am es an d c he m ic a l s tr u c t u re s , t he s e t wo a g en ts h a ve ve r y di f f er e nt ph a rm ac o lo g ic al ef f ec ts an d th e r ap e ut ic us es . Th e o ne c om m o n al i t y a m o n g t h em is th a t b ot h p r o du c e re wa r d i n g e f fe ct s a nd t hus ab us e l i ab i li t y — m o r ph i ne p ri m ar i l y t h ro ug h i t s e up ho r i an t C N S ef f ec ts an d a p om o r p hi n e p r i m a r il y t h ro u gh it s p r o-l i bi d o ( e re c ti le ) ef f ec ts in m a l es .
14 Autacoids and Their Antagonists, Nonnarcotic Analgesic-Antipyretics, and Nonsteroidal Anti-inflammatory Drugs S c o t t F. L on g
I. INTRODUCTION A. Au t a c o i ds , al s o c a ll ed a ut o ph a rm ac ol o gi ca l ag e n ts o r lo ca l h o rm o ne s, h a ve wi d e l y d i ff e r in g s t ru c tu r es an d p h a rm ac ol og i ca l a c t i on s . A lt h ou g h th e t e r m r em a in s p oo r l y de f in e d , t he cu r r en t l y a cc e pte d c r i te r io n th a t d ef i ne s a s u bs ta n c e as a n a u ta c o id is lo c a l re le a s e an d a c t i o n l im i t e d t o a s pe c i f ic s i te . Two o f m o s t e xt e n s iv e l y i n ves t ig a te d a u t ac oid s a r e h i s ta m in e a n d t he p r o s t ag l a nd i ns . H o we v e r , se r o t o ni n , b r a d yk i n i n , a nd ka l li d i n a ls o f u nc t io n i n a s i m i la r m a nn e r . W hil e s om e a ut ac o id s (h is t am in e a n d s e r ot o ni n ) f un c ti on as neu r o t ra ns m i t t e rs , t he i r a u ta c oi d f u nc ti o n is t he fo c u s o f t hi s c h a pt e r . C u r r en tl y , t h er e a r e n o a g en ts t hat s pe ci f ic al l y m o du la t e t he f u nc t io n o f br a d y k i ni n o r k a ll id i n; ho we v e r , d r ug s o r a na lo gs t ha t m im ic , b l oc k, o r m od ul a te o th e r a u t ac oi d f u nc ti o ns ha v e i m po r t an t t h e ra pe u ti c r o l es . B . N o n n a rc o t ic an a l ge si c - a n ti p yr e t i c s ha v e di ss im i la r s t r uc tu r es bu t s h a re c e r ta i n t he r ap e ut ic a c ti on s , i nc lu di n g r e li ef o f pa i n, f e v er , an d s om e ti m e s i n fl am m a t io n . Me c h a n is ti ca l l y , t h es e ag e n ts a c t b y in h ib i ti ng s yn t he s i s o f p r os t ag l an din s . C . N o n s te r o i da l a n t i -i n fl a m ma t o r y d r u g s ( N S AI D s ) d if f e r i n s tr uc t u re and a c ti vi t y f r om th e n on n a rc o t ic an a lg es ic - an t ip y r e t ic s , b ut po ss es s a nt i i n f la m m at o r y p ro pe r t ie s . I n ad d it i on , m an y o f t h es e a ge n ts a ls o e xh i b i t a n t ip yr e t ic a n d a na lg es ic a c ti v i t y . N S A I Ds a ls o a c t b y i nh ib i ti o n o f p r o st a gl an d in s y n t h es is .
II. AUTACOIDS AND THEIR ANTAGONISTS A. H i s t a m i ne an d an t i his t a m in i cs 1 . C h em i st r y a . H i s ta m in e i s a b i oa m in e de r i ved p ri nc i pa ll y f r om di e ta r y h is ti d in e , wh i c h i s d ec a r bo xy l a t e d b y L - hi s ti d in e d ec a rb o xy l a s e (F i g ur e 1 4 - 1 ). b . An t i h i s ta m in i cs ( hi s ta m in e a n ta g on is ts ) c a n b e c l as s i fi e d as H 1 - o r H 2 r e c e p to r a nt a g on i s ts . ( 1 ) H 1 - r ec e p to r an t a go ni s t s , t he c l as si c a nt i hi sta m in ic ag e nt s , a re c h em ic al l y c l as s i fi e d a s e t h yl e n e d i am i ne s (e . g ., p y r i la m i n e ), a lk yl a m i n es ( e . g ., b ro m p h en i ra m i n e [D i m et a pp ] , c hl o rp h en i ram i ne [ Ch l o r- Tr i m et o n] ) , e t h a no l am i ne s (e . g ., dip h e nh y d r am in e [ B e na d r yl ] , c le m as ti n e [ Ta v i s t] ) , p i p e r az i ne s ( e .g . , h y d r ox y z i n e [ A t a ra x, V i s t a ri l ], c e ti r i z in e P.325 [ Z y r t e c] ) , ph e no t h ia z in es ( e .g . , p r om e th a zin e [Ph e n er g an ] ) , d i b e nz oc yc l o h e p t en e s ( c y p r o he p ta di n e [ P e ri ac ti n ] ) , p h th a la z in o ne s
( a z e l as t in e [ O p t i v ar , As te l in ] ) , a nd p ip e r i di n es (e . g . , a za ta d in e [ O p t im ine ] , l o r at a di n e [ C la r i ti n ], de s lo r a t ad in e [ Cl a ri n e x] , a n d f e xo f e n ad i ne [ Al l eg r a] ) . C e t i r i z in e , a z e la s t i ne , l or a t a di ne , de s l o ra t ad i ne , a n d f e xo f e n ad i ne m ak e u p t h e s ec o nd - ge n er a ti o n an t i hi s t am i ni cs , wh ic h a r e l e s s s ed a ti ng t ha n t h e o l de r , fi r s t - ge n e ra t io n d ru g s , o wi n g t o t h ei r l im i ted a bi li t y t o c ro ss th e b l oo d - b ra in ba r r ie r ( Fi g ur e 1 4- 2 ) .
Figure 14-1. Structural formula of histamine, an autacoid.
Figure 14-2. Structural formulas of representative H1-receptor antagonists. (A) Chlorpheniramine (alkylamine). (B) Diphenhydramine (ethanolamine). (C) Promethazine (phenothiazine). (D) Loratadine (nonsedating piperidine).
( 2 ) H 2 - r ec e p to r an t a go ni s t s a r e h e te r oc y c li c c o ng e n er s o f h is t am in e . Th e s e i nc l ud e c i me t i di ne ( Ta g am e t ), r a ni t i di n e ( Z a n ta c ), f am o t id i ne ( P e p ci d ), an d ni z a t i di n e ( A xi d ) ( F i gu r e 1 4 -3 ) . ( 3 ) Al t e r n a t i ve s t o t he H 2 - r e c e p to r a n t ag on is t s i nc l ud e o m ep r a z o l e ( P r i l os ec ) , l a ns o p ra z ol e ( P r e v a c i d ), r a be p r az o le ( A c ip H e x) , p a n to p r az o le ( P r o t on i x) , a n d e so m ep r a z o le P.326 +
+
( N e xi u m ) ; sp e ci f i c i n hi bi t o r s o f H / K - AT P a s e (p r o t on pu m p in hi b it o rs , or P P I s ) , t he ul t im a te m e dia t o r o f g as t r ic ac id s ec r et i o n. S t ru c tu r al l y, th es e
a g e nt s a r e s u bs t i tu t ed be n z im i da z o l es li nk e d t o a p y r i di ne r in g b y a +
+
s u lf i n yl b ri d ge , wh i c h is r e q ui r e d f o r H / K - A TP as e i n hi bi t io n .
Figure 14-3. Structural formulas of (A) cimetidine, an H2-receptor antagonist, and (B) omeprazole, a proton pump inhibitor.
2 . P ha r m ac o l og y a . H i s ta m in e h as po we r f u l ph a rm ac ol o gi c a l a c t i on s , m ed ia t ed b y t wo s p ec if ic r ec ep t o r t y p es (Ta b l e 14 - 1 ). A th i rd hi s ta m in e re ce p to r ha s b ee n i d en t i fi ed . It s f u nc ti o n h as y e t t o be el uc id a te d , bu t it is be li e v e d t o a c t , at l e as t i n p a r t, as an au t o re c ep t o r. ( 1 ) H 1 - r ec e p to r s m e di a te t y p ic al al l er g ic an d a na p h y l ac ti c r es p on s e s t o h i st am i ne , s uc h a s b r on c h o c o ns t r ic ti o n, va s o di l at io n , i nc r e as ed c a pi ll a r y p e r m e ab i li t y , an d s pa s m o d ic c o nt r ac t io ns o f g as tr o i nt e st i na l ( G I ) s m o o t h m us c l e . ( 2 ) H 2 - r ec e p to r s m e di a te o th e r re s p o ns es to hi s ta m in e , su c h as in c re as ed s ec r e ti o n o f g as t ri c a c i d , p e ps in , a n d C a s t l e 's fa c t o r ( in t ri ns ic f ac to r ) . b . H 1 - r ec e p to r a nt a g on is t s c om p et i ti v e l y bl oc k H 1 - r e ce p to r s , t hu s li m i t ing t h e h is t am in e ' s e f fe c t s on b r on ch ia l s m o o th m us c l e , c ap i ll a ri es , a n d G I s m o o th m u s c le . Th es e an t a go ni s ts a ls o p r e ve nt h i s t am i ne - in d uc ed pa i n a n d i t ch i ng of t he s k i n a n d m u c ou s m em br a ne s . c . H 2 - re c ep t o r a n t ag o n is t s c om p et i ti v e l y bl oc k H 2 - r e ce p to r s , t hu s li m i t ing t h e e f f ec ts of hi s t am i ne o n ga s t r ic se c r e ti o ns . +
+
d . Th e P P Is i rr e v e rs i bl y i n hi b it t he pr o to n p u m p H / K - A TP a s e b y c o val en t l y b i nd i ng to t he p ro t ei n . 3 . T he r a pe u t ic i nd i ca t io n s a . E xo g e no u s h i st a mi ne c a n b e u s ed as a d ia gn o s t ic a ge n t f o r t es t in g g a st r ic f u nc t io n . Ho we v e r , o th e r s t im ul an t s o f g as t ri c s ec r e ti o n ( pe n ta g as t ri n ) a re m o r e s u it a bl e a n d s a f e r. b . H 1 - r ec e p to r a nt a g on is t s ar e u s ed to p ro v i de s y m p to m a t ic re li e f o f a l le r g i c s ym p t o m s , s uc h a s s eas o na l rh in i ti s, co n ju nc t i vit i s , a nd th e s ym pt om s o f r h in o v i r al i n f ec ti o ns (c om m o n c ol d) . Th e i r a n ti hi s ta m i ni c e ff e c ts a ls o m ak e t h em u se f u l f o r s ym p to m a t ic re li e f o f u r t ic a r ia . Ag e nt s wi t h a h ig h d e g re e o f a n ti ch o li ne r g ic ac t i vit y ( e . g ., di p he n h y dr a m i ne ) a r e s om e ti m e s u s e d t o tre a t n a us ea an d v om i ti ng a ss o ci at e d wi t h m o t io n s i c k n es s a nd ve r ti go . In ad d i ti on , pr o m e t ha z i ne ( wh i ch al s o
h a s a h i gh de g re e o f an ti c ho li n e rg ic ac ti v i t y) is s o m et im es us e d as an an ti e m e t ic , a n d h yd r o xy z i n e p am o ate is oc ca si o na ll y e m p lo ye d as a m i ld an xi o l yt i c . Th e s ec o nd - g en e ra t io n d r ug s ( i . e. , l o r at a di ne , de sl o rat a d in e , P.327 f e xo f e n a di n e, ac r i v as ti ne , c e t ir i zi ne , a n d a ze la s ti n e ) p r o vid e t h e a dd e d ad v a n t ag e o f li t tl e to ne gl i gi bl e s eda t i on , o wi n g to t he i r r e lat i v e in a bi li t y t o c ro s s th e b l oo d b r a in ba r r ie r .
Table 14-1. Selected Actions of Endogenous Histamine Site
Receptor Type
Action Cardiovascular
Vascular
Heart
Arterial contraction
H1
Arteriolar relaxation
H1 and H2
Venule contraction
H1
Venule relaxation
H2
Endothelial cells, release of EDRF
H1
Endothelial cells, contraction
H1
Increased heart rate
H2
Increased force of contraction
H2
Slowed atrioventricular conduction
H1
Respiratory Bronchiolar smooth-muscle contraction Gastrointestinal (GI)
H1
Gastric mucosa
Increased secretion of acid and pepsin
H2
GI smooth muscle
Contraction
H1
Various Cutaneous nerves
Pain and itch
H1
EDRF, endothelium-derived relaxing factor. c . H 2 - re c ep t o r a n t ag o n is t s ar e u s ed to t re a t g ast r i c h yp e r s e c r e t o r y c o nd i t io ns , s uc h a s d u od en a l u lc e r a n d Z o ll in g e r- E l li s o n s y nd r o m e . Th e y ar e e f f ec ti v e i n r e d uc in g p a in as s o c i a te d wi t h g as t r oe s o ph a ge a l re f l u x d is e as e, bu t no t e th a t th e y d o no t p r e v e nt ac t ua l r e fl u x. d . Th e p r ot o n p u mp i nhi b i t o r s a r e us e d t o t r ea t d u o d en a l u l ce r s a n d a re t he d r u gs of c h oi c e f or t he t re a tm e nt o f Z o ll i n ge r - E l li s o n s yn d r o m e . 4 . Ad ve r s e e f fe c t s a . H i s ta m in e m a y c a us e n um e r ou s a d v e rs e e f fe ct s re l at e d t o i ts ba s i c p h a rm ac ol o g y (s ee I I. A .2 . a ) . b . H 1 - r ec e p to r a nt a g on is t s ar e a s s oc i at e d wi t h th e fo l lo wi n g ad ve r s e e f fe c t s : ( 1 ) C e nt r al ne r v o us s ys te m ( C N S ) e f fe ct s , s u ch a s C N S d e pr e s s io n , s e da t i on , f a t ig u e, ti n ni t us , h al l uc ina t i on s , an d a t a xi a ( 2 ) G I ef f ec ts , s uc h a s na u s e a a n d v o m i t in g ( 3 ) A n tim u s c ar i ni c e f fe c ts , s uc h a s d r y m o u th , u r in a r y r e te n ti on , an d c on s ti p a ti on ( 4 ) Te r a to g en ic ef f ec ts (p o s s ib l e wi t h pi p er a zi ne c om p ou n ds ) c . N on s ed a t in g H 1 - re c ep t o r a nt a g on i s ts , b ec a us e th e y po s s es s li t t le a n t ic ho li n e rg ic ac ti v i t y an d do no t c r os s t he bl o od - b r ai n b a r ri e r , a re r el a tive l y f r e e o f si de e ff ec t s . d . H 2 - r ec e p to r a nt a g on is t s ar e a s s oc i at e d wi t h th e fo l lo wi n g ad v e r se ef fe c ts : ( 1 ) C N S ef f ec ts , s uc h a s c on f us io n a n d d i z zi ne ss ( 2 ) H e pa ti c a n d r en a l d ys f un c ti on ( 3 ) I nh ib i ti o n o f t h e h ep at i c m i c ro s o m al d r u g -m eta b ol i z i ng en z ym e s ys t em ( wi t h c im e ti d in e ) ( 4 ) A nd r o ge ni c e f fe c ts (wi t h h i gh do se s o f c im et id i ne ) , s uc h a s i m p o te nc e a nd g yn e co m a s ti a i n m en and g al ac t o rr h ea in wo m en +
+
e . Th e H / K - AT P a s e i nh i b i t o rs ha v e be e n r e por t e d t o c au s e d ia r r he a , G I p a in , a n d h e a da c h e a s t he i r m os t fr e q ue n t a d ve rs e e f fe c ts . I n ad d it i on , t h e y m a y in te r f e re wi t h t h e m et a bo li s m of dia z e p am , wa r f a ri n , p he n yt o i n, an d th eo p h yll in e . B . S e r o t on i n 1 . C h em i st r y
a . S e r ot o n in ( 5 -h y d r o xy t r y p t a m i n e) is a b io am in e t h a t is s y n t h es i zed f ro m t h e a m in o a c i d t r y p t op h an by a t wo - s t ep en zy m a t ic pr o c es s c a t al y z e d b y t r y pto p h an h yd r o xyl a s e an d L - am in o a c i d d ec a r bo xyl a s e ( Fi gu r e 14 - 4 ). b . S e r o to n i n a go n is t s ( 1 ) 5 - H T 1 - r e ce p t o r a go ni s t s (i . e. , s um a t ri pt a n [ Im i t re x] , r i z a t r ip t an [ Ma x a l t ], n a r a tr i pt a n [ A m e r ge ] , z olm i t ri p ta n [ Z om ig ] , a lm o t ri p t an [ A xe r t ] , e l et r ip t an [R e l p a x] , a n d f r o v a t ri p ta n [ F r o v a] ) a r e i n do le de r i v a ti v e s s tr u c tu r al l y s i m i la r to s e r ot o n in ( F i gu r e 1 4 - 4) . ( 2 ) T eg a se r o d ( Z el n or m ), a n i n do l e d e ri v a t i v e , ac t s as 5 - H T 4 - r ec ep t o r a go n is t ( F i gu r e 1 4 - 4) . ( 3 ) E r g o t a lk a lo i d s ( e rgo t am i ne [ E rg om a r ]) ha v e s om e a c t i vi t y as a s e r oto n in a g o ni st / pa r t ia l a go n is t . c . S e ro t o ni n an t a go n is ts ( 1 ) E r g o t a lk a lo i d s a nd d e r i v a ti v e s wi t h an t ag o nis t / pa r ti a l a go n is t ac t i vi t y i nc l ud e e r g o n o vi ne ( E r go t ra t e ), d i h yd r o e r g o t a m in e , m et h ys e r g i d e , an d b r o m ocr i p t i n e ( P a r l od el ) . ( 2 ) 5 - H T 3 - a nt a go n i s ts m a y b e e i th e r i n d ol e d e r i va t i v es ( on d an se t r on [Z o fr a n ] ) o r b e n zi m id az o l es (g r a ni s e t r o n [ K y t r il ] ) . O t h e r d rug s o f th e c la ss in cl ud e do l a se t r o n ( A n ze m et ) , p a l on o se t r on ( A l o xi ) an d a l o se t r o n ( L o t ro n e x) ( F i gu r e 1 4 -4 ) . 2 . P ha r m ac o l og y a . S e r ot o n in e xe r t s a wi d e r an ge o f e ff e c t s v i a a f a m i l y of r ec ep t o rs t h at i n c l ud e s a t l e as t s e v e n t y p es an d s ev e r a l s u bt y p es . Ma j o r p hys i o lo gi c al e f f ec ts of s e ro t o ni n i n cl ud e v as oc o ns t ri c t i on ( 5 - H T 2 ) ; p la t el e t a gg r eg at i o n ( 5 - H T 2 ) ; i nc r e as ed re l ea s e o f a c et yl ch o li n e i n t he en t er i c re gi o n ( 5 - H T 4 ) ; n a us ea / em es is ( 5 - H T 3 ) ; a nd nu m e ro us b e h a vio r al ac ti o ns th a t in f l ue nc e a n xi e t y , d ep r es s i on , a g g re s s io n , im p ul s ivi t y , a n d a p p et i te ( 5- H T 1 , 5 - H T 2 , 5 - H T 3 ) . I n a d di ti o n, t he 5- H T 1 - r e c e pt o r a c t s a s a n a u t o re ce p to r to in hi b it p re s y n ap t ic ac ti v i t y a t b ot h s e ro t on e r gi c a nd ad r ene r g ic n e u ro n es i n th e C N S. F ur t h e rm o re , i t di r ec tl y c ont r i bu t es to v a sc ul a r t o ne t h r o ug h va s o co ns t ri c ti on . S er o ton i n m a y a ls o p r o du c e num e r o u s o th e r e f fe c ts , i nc l u di n g t he o p p os it e o f th os e j us t s ta t e d, de p en d in g o n t h e sp e c i f ic re c e p to r th a t m edi a t es th e e ve n t . P.328
Figure 14-4. Structures of (A) serotonin and representative serotonin agonists (B) sumatriptan, (C) tegaserod, and (D) the serotonin antagonist ondansetron.
b . S e r o to n i n a go n is t s ( 1 ) 5 - H T 1 - a go n is t s m im ic t he ac ti o ns o f s e ro t o nin a t t hi s re ce p to r to de c re a s e p r e s yna p ti c n eu r o tr a ns m i t t e r r el e as e . D i re c t v a s oc o ns t ri c ti on , d e c r e as ed re l ea s e o f i n f la m m at o r y an d v as od i la t i ng s u bs ta n ce s ( ne u r ok i ni n A, s u bs t an c e P ) , an d a d i re ct a n t in oc ic e pt i v e a c t i v i ti es a r e t h ou g ht to c o n t ri bu te t o t h e e ff ic a c y o f th es e d r u gs . ( 2 ) T eg a se r o d a c t i v a te s t h e s e ro t on e r gi c r ec ep t or ( 5 - H T 4 ) , c a us in g t h e r el e as e o f a c et yl ch o li n e, ot h e r n eu ro t r a ns m i tt e rs , an d c al c i to n in ge n e - re la t ed pe p ti de . Th e s e , i n tu r n , i nc r ea s e ga s t r ic a n d i n te st i na l m ot i li t y and t on e . I n a d di t io n , di r ec t a ct i on s o n th e g as t r oi n te s ti na l s m o ot h m us cl e i s t ho u gh t t o c o nt r ib u te i t i ts e f f ec t, t h us a cc o un t in g f o r b o th t he d i r ec t a n d i nd i re ct ac t io ns o f t eg as e r od . ( 3 ) E r g o t a lk a lo i d s p r odu c e a wi d e r a ng e o f p h a rm ac o lo g ic al ef f ec ts , i nc lu d in g b o t h a g o ni st ic an d a n ta g on is ti c a c ti v i t y at ad r e ne r gi c , d o p am in e rg ic , a n d s er o to n e rg ic r e c ep t or s . S p ec if ic ac t ion s d e pe n de n t o n d r ug and a ni m a l m od el s . c . S e ro t o ni n an t a go n is ts s u c h as o nd a ns e t r on a n d re la t ed d ru gs bl oc k th e io n c h an n el c o up le d 5 - H T 3 - r e c ep t o r, th u s i nh ib i ti n g th e ab il i t y of s e r ot o ni n t o c au se n a us e a a nd / o r em es is . Th i s ac t io n a p pe a rs to occ u r b o th lo ca l l y a t th e G I t r ac t an d c e nt r a ll y i n t he a re a p os tr e m a. In ad d it i on , a c ti v a ti o n o f p e ri p he r al 5 - H T 3 - re c ep t o rs wi l l i nc r ea s e pa i n, ab d om i na l d is t en t io n , a nd m ot o r r es po ns es of t he in t es t in a l t r ac t . B l o ck ad e o f th es e a c t i ons , th us sl o wi n g G I m o t il ity , b y a l os e t r o n is r es pon s ib le f o r i t s u se f ul ne s s in c e r ta i n c as e s o f i r ri t ab l e b o we l s y n d r om e ( I B S ) . 3 . T he r a pe u t ic i nd i ca t io n s a . S e r ot o n in a go n is t s ( 1 ) N um e ro us C N S ac t i ve d r ug s us e th e s e ro t on er g i c s y s t em to m o d ul at e b e h a v io r , s uc h a s t h e a no r e xi a n ts ( d e xf e n f l ur am i ne ) , a n xi o ly t i c s ( b us pi r on e ) , a nd s el e ct i ve s e r ot o ni n r e up t ak e i nh i bit o r s f o r d ep r es s i o n ( f lu oxe t i n e ) . Th es e d r u gs a r e a c ti ng m o r e o n t he ne u r ot r an s m i tt e r fu nc t io n o f s e ro t on i n a nd a re di s c us s e d he r e . ( 2 ) S om e e r g o t a lk a l oi ds , s um a t r ip t an , an d s im i l a r d r ug s ac t to m o du l ate t he a u t ac oi d f u nc ti o n o f s e rot o n in . Th e y ar e u s ed to p r e ve n t a nd t re a t p ai n as s o ci a te d wi t h m ig r a in e h ea d ac he s b y a l te r in g s e ro t on in ' s ac t io ns t ha t re s u l t i n ch a ng e s i n va s c ul a r t on e . P.329
( 3 ) I n a dd i ti on , s om e e r go t a lk a l oi d s a r e us e d t o p r e v e nt po s tp a rt um h em o r r h ag i ng ( t h r ou g h b ot h v as oc o ns t ri c ti v e an d u t e ri n e c o n t rac t il e a c ti on s ) a nd to p re v e n t p o st p a rt um b re as t e n go rg e m e n t ( b r o mo c r ip t i ne , t h r ou g h d op am in e r gi c ac t i v i t y ) . ( 4 ) T eg a se r o d is us e d i n t h e t r ea t m e n t o f I B S th at i s co ns t ip a ti o n p re d om in a n t. b . S e r o to n i n a n ta g on i s ts . Th e se ag en t s ( e .g . , on d a ns e t r o n, g r an i se t r on , d o l as e t r o n, pa l o no s e t ro n ) a re us ed to p re v e n t a n d t r e at na us e a a nd em e s is s ec o nd a r y to an t in e op l as t ic th e ra p y b y bl oc k i n g t h e a c ti on s o f s e ro t on i n a t t he 5H T 3 - r e c e pt o r . Al o s e t r o n i s u s e d f o r t h e t r ea tm e nt o f I B S th a t i s d ia r r he a p r e do m i n an t . 4 . Ad ve r s e e f fe c t s a . S e r ot o n in a go n is t s ( 1 ) 5 - H T 1 - a go n is t s m a y p r o du c e f ee li n gs o f wa r m t h , p ar e st h es ia s, di z z i ne s s , an d t i g ht n es s o r h ea v i n es s in t h e c he st . R a re l y, p a ti en t s m a y e xp e r i e nc e c he s t p ai n . B e c au se th e s e ag en t s m a y c au s e c o r o na r y v a so c o n st r i c t io n , t he y a r e c o nt r a in di c a t ed in an g ina p at i en ts an d s h ou ld be u s e d c a ut io u sl y in p at ien t s wi t h h yp e r t en s i on o r o t he r ri s k f ac to r s f o r is c he m i c h ea r t di se as e . ( 2 ) T eg a se r o d m a y p r odu c e d ia r r he a , a bd om i na l c r am p in g a nd pa i n, di z z i n e s s , a n d h e a da c h e a s s i d e e f fe c t s . ( 3 ) E r g o t a lk a lo i d s m a y c au s e G I up s e t a n d c ol d e xt r e m i ti es . As to xi c i t y p r o g re ss es , t h e p a ti en t m a y e xp e r i en ce em es is , d i a r rh e a, pe r ip h e ra l p ai n s ec on d a r y t o lo c a l i s c he m i a , a nd hal l uc in a ti o ns o r de l us io ns . b . S e r o to n i n a n ta g on i s ts . Th e 5- H T 3 - a n t ag on is ts wi l l p r o du c e he a da c h e , c o ns ti p at i on , a n d d i z z i nes s . I n a dd i ti o n, g ra ni s et ro n ha s b ee n re p or t ed t o p r o du ce s om n ol e nc e a nd di a r rh ea . Th e us e o f a l os e t r on i n pa t ie n ts wi t h d ia r r he a -a s s o ci at e d I B S h as re s u l te d i n s om e c a s e s o f i s c he m i c c ol i ti s a n d l if e - th r ea t en i ng c om p li ca t io ns f ro m s e v e re c o ns t ip a ti o n. S ub s e q ue n t to a se r ie s o f a d ve rs e d r ug r e a ct i on s i n t hi s m a n ne r , a l os et r o n is ge n er a ll y p re sc r i be d o nl y b y p h y s i c ia n s wh o h a ve be e n e n ro ll e d i n a p r e s c ri b in g p r og r am m e . C . P r o s t ag l an d i ns 1 . C h em i st r y a . P r os ta g la n di ns ( P Gs ) a r e de r i va t i ve s o f p r os ta n oi c a c i d , a 2 0 -c a r bo n fa t t y ac i d c o nt a in in g a 5 -c a rb o n r ing ( F ig u re 14 - 5 ) . I n t he bo d y , p ro s ta gl a nd in s a r e p r i nc ip a ll y s yn t he s i z e d f ro m a r ac hid o ni c a ci d , wh i c h i s f o rm e d f ro m t he m e m b r an e p h os p ho li p id s b y ac t io n o f ph os p ho l ip as e A 2 . Spe c if ic a ll y , p ro s t a gl a nd in s a r e s yn t he s i z e d f ro m a r ac hid o ni c a ci d b y t he e n zy m e c yc l oo xy g e n a s e ( C O X) , wh i c h e xi s t s as th r ee is o z y m es : C O X 1 , 2 , a n d 3 . C O X 1 a pp e ar s t o fu nc t io n c on s ta n tl y . I t s ro le s e em s t o b e t h e d a il y s yn th e s i s o f p r os tag l an d in s , wh i c h c o n t ri b ute t o n o r m a l h om eo s ta s i s , an d i nc l ud es p ro t ec ti o n o f t he g as t ri c m uc os a t h ro u gh t he p r o st a gl an d in s a nd he m o s ta s i s t h r ou gh t he s yn th e s i s o f t h ro m bo xa n e . CO X 2 i s e xp r e s s ed p ri m a r il y i n r es p on s e t o in f la m m a ti on o r in j u r y , c on t ri b ut i ng to t h e i n f la m m at o r y r es po ns e . It i s al s o im p or t an t in no rm a l ( n on in j ur y ) r e gu l at i on o f c a r di ac an d p e rh a ps o t he r f un c t i on s . C O X 3 i s t ho u g ht to be p re d om in an t ly a c t i ve wi t h i n th e C N S , c o n t ri b uti n g t o n o rm a l t he r m o r egu l a to r y c o n t ro l a nd p ai n p e r ce p ti on ,
t h r o ug h t h e s y n th es is of p r o s t a gl an d in s , c e n t ra ll y. N o t e t ha t th e p r od u ct s o f c yc lo o xy g e n a s e a re t he n c on v e r t ed in t o e it h e r p ro s ta g la n di ns b y p r os t ag la n di n s yn t ha s e o r t h ro m bo xa n e s b y t h r om bo xa n e s y nt ha s e. Th e th r om b o xa n es d i f fe r f ro m t h e p r os t ag l an di ns m a in ly b y t h e s ub s ti t ut i on of a t e t ra h yd r op y r a n r i ng s t ru c tu r e f o r t h e p e nt a ne r in g f o un d in p r os ta g la nd i ns . Th e o nl y c li n ic al l y re l e v an t th r om b o xa n e c u r re n tl y i de n ti f ie d i s t h ro m bo xa n e A 2 ( TxA 2 ) , wh i c h c au s es p l at e le t a g gr eg a t io n . b . C l as s i fi c a ti o n o f p r os t a g la nd i ns as p r os t ag la nd i n A ( P G A ) , p r os t ag l and i n B ( P G B ) , p r os ta g la n di n E (P G E ) , a nd s o fo r t h r e la te s to th e p r es e nc e o r a bs e nc e o f k e to o r h y d r o xy l P.330 g r o up s a t p os i ti o ns 9 and 1 1 ( F ig u re 14 - 5 ) . S u bsc r i pt s r e la t e t o t h e n um be r a nd p o si t io n o f d o ub l e b on ds i n t h e a li p ha t ic c ha i ns (F i g ur e 1 4 - 6 ).
Figure 14-5. Structural formula of prostanoic acid, from which the prostaglandins are derived.
Figure 14-6. Structural formula of misoprostol (Cytotec), a derivative of prostaglandin E1 (PGE1).
2 . P ha r m ac o l og y a . E n do g en o us p ro s ta gla n di n s a pp ea r to a ff ec t n u m e r ou s b o d y f u nc ti o ns . Th e y a r e r e l ea se d i n re s p o ns e t o m a n y c h em i c al , b ac t e ri al, m ec ha ni c a l , a nd o th e r in s ul ts ;
a n d t h e y a p pe a r t o c on t ri b u te to t he s i gn s a nd s ym p to m s of t he i n fl am m ato r y p r o ce ss , i nc lu d in g p ai n an d ed em a . b . P h ys i o l o g i c a l r e s pon s e s t o p r os ta g la n di ns in c lu d e v a so d il a ti on in m o s t vas c u la r b e ds , a l th o ug h v as oc on s t r i c t i on c a n oc c ur in is ola t e d a r ea s . P G I i n hi bi t s p l a te le t a g g re g at i on an d s ti m u l ate s g as t r ic re l ea s e of bi c a r b on a te an d m uc us , b o th o f wh ic h s e r ve to pr o te c t t he ga s tr i c e pi t h el iu m . Th e P G E s i n hi bi t pl a te le t a g g re g ati o n , r el a x b r o nc hi a l a nd G I s m o o th m us c l e , co n t ra c t u te r in e s m o o th m us cl e , a nd in h ib i t g as t r ic a c id s ec r e ti o n. A lt e r na t i ve l y , t he P G D s a nd P G Fs c on t r ac t b r on c h i al an d G I s m o o th m us c l e . Pr os t a gl an d in s a l s o in c re as e re na l b l ood f l o w, p r o m o t e di u r es is , n a t ri u r es is , a nd k a li u r es is ; bu t p a ra d o xi c al l y t he y i nc r e as e r e ni n s ec re t io n. Th e y a l so po s s es s d i v e rs e e nd o c ri ne an d m e ta b ol ic e ff e c ts . 3 . T he r a pe u t ic i nd i ca t io n s a . P G E 1 a n a lo g s ( 1 ) Al p r o s t ad i l ( Pr o s t i n V R P e d ia t ri c ) i s us e d f o r t e m p o ra r y m a i nt e na nc e o f a p a t en t d uc t us a rt e ri os u s wh e n a wa i t i ng c o r re c ti ve s u rg e r y fo r c o ng e ni t al he a r t d e f ec ts . ( 2 ) Al p r o s t ad i l ( Ca v e r j ec t ) i s u se d i n t r e at i ng i m p o t en c e o wi n g t o e r ec ti le d ys f un c ti o n. ( 3 ) M i s op r o s t ol ( C y t o tec ) is u s ed fo r th e p r e ve nt i o n o f N S A I D - in d uc ed GI u lc e rs ( F i gu r e 1 4 - 6) . b . P G E 2 an a lo g s a n d d er i va t i ve d i n op r o s t on e (P r o s ti n E 2 , P re pi d il , C ervi d i l ) a r e u s ed fo r th e i r a bo r ti f ac i en t e ff ec t s a nd to in d uc e c e r v ic a l- r i pe ni n g i n p r egn a nc y. c . P G F 2 α an a lo g s ( 1 ) C a r bo p r o s t ( H em a bat e ) , wa s u se d fo r i t s a bor t i f ac ie n t e f fe c t s . A hi gh i n ci de n ce o f ca r di o v as c u l a r c o l la ps e c a us e d i ts r em o v al f rom t he U . S. m a r ke t . ( 2 ) L at a n op r o s t ( Xa l a tan ) , t r a vo p r os t ( Tr a v a ta n) , b i ma t op r o s t (L um ig a n) , a nd u n o p r os t o ne ( R es c u la ) a r e us ed to p ic al l y to lo we r in t r ao c u l a r p re s s u re in g l au c om a. d . P G I an a lo g ep o p r os te n o l (p r os ta c y cl i n, [ Fl ola n ] ) i s us e d p r im a ri l y fo r t h e t r e a tm en t o f em e rg en t pu l m o n ar y h y p e r te ns io n . 4 . Ad ve r s e e f fe c t s as s oc i at e d wi t h P G E in c l u de t h e fo ll o wi n g : a . C N S ef f ec ts , s uc h a s C N S i r r i ta bi l it y, f e ve r, s ei z u r e s , an d h e ad ac h e b . C a rd i o v as c u la r ef f ec ts , s uc h a s h y p o te ns i on , d y s r h y t hm ia s , va s o d il a tio n , f l us h in g , a nd c a r di ac a rre s t c . R es pi r a to r y e ff ec t s , s u c h as r es pi r a to r y d ep r es s i o n a nd di s t r es s d . H em a to l og ic al e ff ec t s , s uc h a s a ne m i a , t h ro m bo c y t op e ni a , a nd di ss em in a t ed i n t ra va sc u la r c o ag ul a ti on ( D I C ) e . D ia r r he a f . D e cr e as ed r en a l f un c t io n g . S po t t y bl e ed in g a n d m e ns t ru a l i r re g ul a ri t ie s , a b o r ti on , an d p en i le pa in D . L e uk o t r ie n es 1 . C h em i st r y a . L eu k o t ri e ne s . The leu k ot r i en es ( L Ts ) a re 20 -c a r bo n d e ri va t i v es of th e f a t t y a ci d s t h a t a r e f o rm ed v i a t h e en z y m a t ic pa t h wa y c at a l yze d b y li p o xy g e n as e . Unl i ke th e
p r o st a gl an d in s , t he y c o nt a i n n o r in g s t r uc tu r e a nd a r e co v a l en t l y l i nk ed to t wo o r t h r e e am i no ac id s . P.331 Th e t wo i m po r t an t l eu k otr i e ne s i de n ti f ie d t o d a t e ( L TC 4 a n d L TD 4 ) d if f e r on l y b y t he p r e se nc e o f g l ut am i ne . Th e no m e nc l at u re o f t he le u k o t r ie ne s i s s i m i l ar t o t h a t u se d f o r th e p r os t ag l an di n s . b . L eu k o t ri e ne a nt a g oni s t s ( 1 ) L ip o x yg e n a s e i nh i b it o r s s u ch as z i le u t on ( Zyf l o ) a re be n zo th io p he n e d e r i va ti v e s . ( 2 ) L eu k o t ri e ne a nt a g on i s t s s u c h as z a f i r lu k ast ( A c c o la t e) an d m o n te lu k a s t ( S i n gu l ai r ) re p re s e n t a di v e r s e ch em ic a l g r ou p t ha t is pe p ti do m i m e t ic - li k e i n i ts s t r uc t ur e . 2 . P ha r m ac o l og y a . L eu k o t ri e ne s p l a y a ro l e i n n um e ro us ph y s i ol og i c a l f u nc ti o ns . Th e y h a ve b ee n i d en t i fi ed as th e s lo w- r e a c ti n g s u b st a nc e o f a nap h y l a xi s . Sp ec i fi c a ct i ons o f t he l e uk o t ri en es in c l u de th e f o l lo wi n g : (1) Heart ( a ) N e ga ti v e i no t ro p y ( b ) S m o o th - m u s c le c h em o t a xi s ( 2 ) G I t r ac t . Ne u t ro p hi l c h e m o t a xi s th a t h as b e en c o r re la t ed wi t h in f la m m a t o r y b o we l d is ea s e ( 3 ) P u lm o na r y. Th e a c t io n s o f t h e l eu k o t ri e ne s wi t h i n th e p u lm on a r y s y s t e m a pp e a r t o be m a jo r . Th es e a c t i on s a r e t h e m os t im p o rt a nt p ha r m a co l og ic al l y . ( a ) B r on c h oc o ns t ri c t i on ( b ) I nc r ea s e d p e rm ea b il it y ( c ) I nc r ea s e d m uc us s ec r e t io n ( 4 ) B l oo d / l ym p h . A s no te d p re v i ou s l y , t he le uk o tr i e ne s a c t as c h em ot ac t ic ag e nt s f o r ne u t ro ph i ls a n d e os ino p hi ls an d ac t t o m od i f y l y m p ho c y t e p ro l if e r at io n a n d d i f fe r e nt ia t io n . b . L eu k o t ri e ne a nt a g oni s t s ( 1 ) T he l ip o x yg e n a s e i nh i b i t o r z il e u to n pr e v e nts t he s yn t he s i s o f l e uk otr i e ne s b y i n hi b it i ng th e e n z y m e res p on s i b le fo r th e ir f or m at i o n —n am el y l ip o xy g e n as e . Th is a c ti o n p r e v en ts t he fo r m a t i on of al l l e uk ot r ie n es , t h us p re v e n ti n g t he i r c ont r i bu t io n t o va r io us in f la m m at o r y p r o c e s s es . ( 2 ) Th e le uk o tr i en e a n tag o ni s ts z a f i rl u ka s t a n d m o n t el u ka s t n o ns el ec t i ve l y a nd c om p et i ti v e l y in h ib i t t he e n d og en o us l e uk o tr i en es a t th ei r v a r io us r ec ep t o r s i te s . Th i s ac t io n b lo c k s t he e ff e c ts o f hi st am i ne , m os t n o t ab l y th e b r o nc ho c o ns t r i c t i on a n d p ul m on a r y e d em a a s s oc i at e d wi t h as t hm a a nd a ll e rg ic r ea c t i on s. 3 . T he r a pe u t ic i nd i ca t io n s fo r z il e u to n , z af i r l uk a s t , a nd mo n t e lu k as t a r e l im i te d t o t he t re a tm en t o f as thm a . Th es e a ge n ts re d uc e b r on c h os p as m an d a s so c ia t ed s ym p to m s th a t a r e m e d ia t e d t h ro u gh th e l e uk ot r ie n es . 4 . Ad ve r s e E f f ec t s
a . Z il e u to n pr es e nt s wi th r el a ti ve l y f e w si d e e f fec t s , p re d om in an t l y ga s t ro i n te st i na l i n na t u re (i . e ., d y s p ep s i a a n d n au s e a ) . H o we ve r , i t do es ca us e t r a ns ie n t in c r ea se s i n he pa t ic en z y m e s . Th is p o te n ti a l f o r h ep a to t o xi c i t y h as li m i te d i t s us e . b . Z af i rl uk a s t m a y p ro d uc e G I u ps e t a nd li v e r d ysf u nc t io n (n o t a s g re a t a s wi t h zi l e u to n ) , a nd m a y in h ib it t h e m e t ab o li s m o f th eop h yl li n e, wa r f a r in , a n d po t e nt i al l y o t h e r d ru g s . S ud de n wi th d r a wa l o f c o r ti c o st e r oi ds i n pa t ie n ts ta ki n g z a f i rlu k as t h as p r e ci pi t a te d a C hu r g - St ra u s s s y n d ro m e o f e os in op h il ic v a sc ul i ti s. P at i en ts s ho u ld be c o un se l ed to ta k e z a f i rl uk as t wi t h fo od t o e nh an c e i ts ab s o r pt i on . c . M o n te l uk a s t p r es en ts wi t h a s i de - ef f ec t p r o fi l e s im il a r t o t h a t f o r z a f i rl uk as t bu t t yp i ca l l y wi t h l es s i nc id en c e t ha n wi t h zaf i r lu ka s t. C h u rg - S t r au s s s yn d ro m e h as n o t b e e n r ep o r te d ; h o we v e r , t h is m a y s i m p l y re f le c t th e r el a ti ve l y re c e n t a p pea r a nc e o f t h e d r u g o n t he m a rk e t . Mo n t e l u k a s t m a y b e t ak en wi t h o ut r eg a r d t o f oo d .
III. NONNARCOTIC ANALGESIC-ANTIPYRETICS AND NSAIDS A. S a l i c yl a t e s 1 . C h em i st r y a . S al ic y l a te s a r e d e r i vat i ve s o f s a li c yl i c a c i d , wh i c h is fo u nd as t h e g l yc os i de s a li ci n i n wi ll o w b a rk . The p r ot o t y pi c a l d r ug is asp i r i n , t h e ac e t y l e s t e r o f s al ic yl ic a c id ( Fi gu r e 1 4 - 7) . P.332 A s im pl e e s te r , a s p i ri n hy d r o l y z e s e as i l y , i s u ns ta b le in aq u eo us m e di a , a n d i s a f f ec t ed b y m oi s tu r e.
Figure 14-7. Structural formula of aspirin, the prototypical salicylate analgesic-antipyretic.
b . M o r e st a b le s a li c y la te s i nc l ud e d i f l un i sa l ( Dol o bi d ) a n d t he t op ic al age n t m e t h yl s a l ic yl a t e ( wi n t e r g re e n o i l ) ( F ig u re 14 - 8 ) . O t h e r s a li c y la t es a r e s a ls a la t e ( D i s a lc i d) ; s o d i um t hi o sa l ic yl a t e ( R e s ol u te ; i n je c t a bl e ) ; c ho l i n e s al i c yl a t e ( Tr i l i sa te ; o ra l l i qu i d ); an d t h e s al ic y l ate d e r i va t i ves me s al a min e ( As ac o l ), o ls a la zi n e ( D i p en t um ) , a n d s u l fa s al az i ne ( A z u lfi d in e ) . c . Mo s t s a li c y la t es a r e w e a k a c id s . Th ei r e xc r e t io n is i n fl u en c e d b y c ha ng e s i n u r i na r y p H .
2 . P ha r m ac o l og y a . S al ic y l a te s i n hi b i t t h e e n z y m e c y cl o o xy g e n a se a n d t hu s i nh i bi t l oc a l p r o st a gl an d in s y n t h es is ( s e e I I . C. 1 .a ) . As a r es u lt , t he y a r e a na lg e s i c f o r l o wi n t en si t y in t eg um e nt a l pa i n , a nt i p y r et ic , a n d a nt i- i n fl am m at o r y . No t e t h at a s pi r in is t h e o n l y s al ic y l a te t ha t i rr e v e r s i b l y i n hi bi t s c y cl o ox yg e n a s e b y c o va le n t ace t y l a ti o n o f t he en z y m e . b . S al ic y l a te s a ls o b l oc k p l at e le t c y c lo o xyg e n a s e a n d s u b se qu e nt f or m a t io n o f t h r om b o xa n e A 2 . As a r es u lt , th e y in h ib it pl a te l et a g g re g at i on an d e ve n tu al t h r om b us fo rm a ti o n. 3 . T he r a pe u t ic i nd i ca t io n s a . S al ic y l a te s a r e i nd ic a te d fo r us e a s : ( 1 ) An a l g es i cs , fo r re l ief o f m us cu lo sk el e ta l p a in, h ea d ac he , n e u ra lg i as , m ya l gi as , a n d s pa s m od ic d y s m en or r h e a ( 2 ) An t i - i n f la m ma t o r y a g e n t s, f or r el ie f of v a r iou s a r t h ri t is s y m pt om s a nd ac u te r h e um a ti c f e v e r ( 3 ) An t i p yr e t i c a g e nt s , f o r r el ie f of fe v e r . ( Ch i ldr e n wi t h v a ri c e ll a o r in f lue n z a - t y p e vi r a l i n fe c ti on s s ho u ld no t be gi v e n s al ic y l a te s be c au se o f t he ob se r ve d a ss o c i at i on b e t we e n s al ic y l a te us e in t he s e si t ua t io ns an d Re ye s yn dr om e . ) b . As p i r i n i s a ls o i nd ic a te d fo r p r op h yl a x i s o f myo c a r d i a l i n fa r c t i on . c . M e t h yl s a l i c yl a t e ( wi n t e r gr e en oi l ) i s us e d t op i c a ll y a s a c o u n te r i r r i ta n t . d . S u l fa sa l az i ne , ol s al az i n e, an d m e sa l am i ne ar e us e d t o r e du c e th e i n fl a m m at i on a ss o ci at e d wi t h i nf la m m a t o r y bo we l d is ea s e an d C r o h n d is e as e. 4 . Ad ve r s e e f fe c t s a . S al i c yl a t e s a r e a s s oc i a t ed wi t h th e f o ll o wi n g ef f e c t s : ( 1 ) G I ef f ec ts , s uc h a s na u s e a ; v o m i t in g ; a nd G I i r r i ta t io n , d is c o m f o r t, ul ce r a ti o n , a n d h em o r rh a ge ( 2 ) I nc r ea s e d d ep t h o f res p i ra ti o ns ( 3 ) E xc e s s i v e b l ee d in g as s o c i a te d wi t h i n hi bi t io n o f t hr om b o xa n e s y n t he s is ( 4 ) U nc o up li n g o f o xi d a t iv e p h os ph o r y l at i on , h y pe r g l y c e m i a , g l yc os u r ia , an d r ed uc ed l i po g en es is
Figure 14-8. Structural formulas of salicylate derivatives. A. Diflunisal. B. Methyl salicylate.
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Figure 14-9. Structural formula of acetaminophen, the prototypical p-aminophenol derivative.
( 5 ) D el a y e d o ns e t o f l abo r ( 6 ) L ow d a i l y d o s e s of s a li c y la t es (2 g ) d ec r ea se r e na l u r at e e xc r e t i on an d i n c re as e s e ru m u ri c a c i d l e v e ls . Hi g h d a il y d o s e s ( 5 g ) ha v e th e o p po s i te e f fe c t . b . S u l fa sa l az i ne ha s a ls o b ee n s ho wn t o ha ve m a l e r e p ro d uc ti v e ef f ec ts , c a us in g i n f er t il i t y . c . S al i c yl i s m ( s al ic y l a te t o xi c i t y , u s ua ll y m ar ke d b y t i nn i tu s , n au se a , a nd v o m i ti n g ) d . I ng e s ti o n o f 1 t ea s p oo n of t he to p ic al ag en t m e t h yl s a l i c yl a t e ( wi n t er g r e en oi l ) c a n ca u s e fa t a l i n t ox i cat i o n . B . p - Am i n o p he n ol d e ri va t i ve s 1 . C h em i st r y. Th e p r o t ot y p i c a l p - am i no ph e no l de r i v a ti ve is ac e ta m i no ph e n ( Tyl e n o l ) , a n a c t i v e m e tab o li t e o f p h en ac e ti n a n d a c et a ni li d (F i gu r e 1 4 -9 ) . 2 . P ha r m ac o l og y a . p - Am in op h en o l d e ri v at i v e s i nh i bi t c en t r al p ro sta g la n di n s yn t he s i s ( s e e II . C . I .a ) , p r e su m a bl y t h r ou gh a s el e c t i v i t y fo r C O X 3 wi t h re l a ti v e l y li t tl e o r no ac ti v i t y o n C O X 1 o r C O X 2 . Th e y a r e a na lg es ic f or lo w- i n t en s it y p ai n a n d a r e a nt i p yr e t ic . b . B ec a us e t he y a r e l es s e f f ec ti v e th a n s al ic yl a tes in bl oc ki n g p e ri ph e r al p r o st a gl an d in s y n t h es is , t h e y ha v e n o a nt i -i n fl am m a to r y a c t i v i t y a n d d o no t a ff ec t p l a te le t fu nc t io n . 3 . T he r a pe u t ic i nd i ca t io n s a . Ac e t a mi n o ph e n is p rim a r il y us e d f o r i ts an a lge s i c a nd an t i p yr e t i c ac ti vi t y, p a r ti c ul a rl y i n a p a ti e nt u n a bl e t o t o le r a te s a li c y la t es . b . Ac e t a mi n o ph e n m a y b e s a fe l y us e d as an al te r n a t i ve a n t i p yr e t i c i n ch i ld r e n wi t h va r i c e l la or an in f lue n z a - t y p e v i r a l in f ec t io n ( s e e I I I. A . 3. a . (3 ) ) . 4 . Ad ve r s e e f fe c t s a . W he n g i v en in t he r ape u t ic d os e s , ad v e r se ef fe c ts a re l im i te d to : ( 1 ) S ki n r as h ( 2 ) H em o l y ti c a ne m i a ( wit h lo n g -t e rm ph en a c e ti n u s e ) ( 3 ) Me t h e m o gl o bi n em ia ( 4 ) R e na l d y s fu nc t io n a nd t ub u la r ne c r o s i s
b . A cu t e ac e ta m i n op h en o v e r d os e c au se s s e v e re h e p at o to xi c i t y wi t h ne c ros is an d l i ve r fa il u r e. C . P yr a z o l o n e d e r i va t i ve s 1 . C h em i st r y. Th e m o s t i m po r t an t p yr a zo l on e d e ri va t i ves a re p he n yl b u t a z o n e, it s m e ta b ol i te ox yp h e n b u t az o n e, an d t h e u r ic os u ri c a g e nt su l f i np yr a z o n e ( An t u r an e ). P h e n ylb u ta z o n e i s t he p ro t o t y pi ca l a g en t (F i gu r e 1 4 - 10 ) .
Figure 14-10. Structural formula of phenylbutazone, a pyrazolone derivative.
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2 . P ha r m ac o l og y a . P he n yl b u t a z on e , o x yp h e n bu t az o ne , a n d a z ap r o p az o ne in h ib i t p r os tag l an d in s yn t he s i s (s ee I I. C . I .a ) an d s t ab i li z e l ys os o m a l m e m b ra ne s . A s a re s u l t , th e y h a ve a n al g es ic , a n ti p y r e ti c , an d an t i -i nf l am m a t or y e f fec t s . Th e y al s o h a ve g ood u ri c os ur ic a c ti vi t y. b . S u l fi n p yr a z o n e i nh ib it s pr o xi m a l t ub u la r ab so rp t i on of u ra t e a nd ha s a u r i c o su r ic e f f ec t . H o we v e r , i t is de v o i d o f a n al ge si c , a nt i p y re t ic , or an t i -i n fl am m a t o ry e f f ec t s . 3 . T he r a pe u t ic i nd i ca t io n s a . P he n yl b u t a z on e a n d o x yp h e n b u t az o ne a re us e d f o r s ho r t -t e rm t re a tm e n t o f a c ut e rh e um at o id a rt h ri t ic c o nd i ti o ns a n d a cu t e go u t . Ho we v e r , t he y s ho u ld b e g i ven o n l y af t e r o th e r th e ra p eut i c m ea su r es ha ve fa i le d. b . S u l fi n p yr a z o n e is us e d to c o n tr o l h yp e ru r ic em i a i n t he t re a tm en t of in t e rm i tt e nt a n d c h ro ni c g o ut . c . Th es e a g en ts a re r a rel y u s e d , h a vin g b e en r epl a c e d wi t h r e la t i vel y sa f er c om p ou n ds . 4 . Ad ve r s e e f fe c t s a . Th e ad v e r s e ef f ec ts of p h e n yl b u t a z o ne , ox yp h e n b ut a z o n e, an d a z a p ro p a zo n e ( t o a m u c h le s s e xt e n t ) of t e n l im it t he i r us e an d in c lu d e ( 1 ) G I ef f ec ts , s uc h a s d is c o m fo r t , n au s e a , v om it in g , d ys p ep si a , a nd pe p tic u l ce r a ti on ( 2 ) B lo o d d y s c r as ia s , s uc h a s a g ra n ul oc yt o s i s, ap l as t i c a n em ia , h em o l ytic an em i a, t h r om b oc y t op e ni a , a nd pe t ec h ia e
( 3 ) C a rd i o v as c u la r ef f ec ts , s uc h a s c on g es ti v e hea r t fa i lu r e wi t h e de m a and d ys p ne a ( 4 ) R e na l e f fe c t s , s u c h as ne p h ro t ic l i th i as is , r e na l ne c ro s i s , im pa i re d re na l f u nc t io n , a nd r en a l f ai l ure ( 5 ) C N S ef f ec ts , s uc h a s d r o ws i ne ss , a gi t a ti on , c o n f us io n , h ea d ac he , l e tha r g y, n u m b n es s , we a k n es s , t in n i tu s , an d h e a ri ng lo s s ( 6 ) H yp e rg l y c em i a ( 7 ) S ki n r as h b . S u l fi n p yr a z o n e is as s oc i at e d wi t h t he fo l lo wi n g ad v e r s e ef f ec ts : ( 1 ) G I ef f ec ts , s uc h a s d is c o m fo r t a n d u ps et ( 2 ) B lo o d d y s c r as ia s , as wi t h p h en y l b ut a zo ne an d o xyp h e n b u ta z o n e ( 3 ) R e na l f ai l u re D . A g en t s us e d f o r t he t re a tm e nt o f g ou t 1 . C h em i st r y a . A c u t e a tt ac k s of go u t r e s ul t f r om an in f la m m ato r y r e sp o ns e t o j oi n t d epo s it i on s o f s o di um u ra t e c r y s t al s . Th e r ap e ut ic ag e nt s c ou n te r t hi s r es p on s e b y re d uc i ng pl as m a u r i c ac i d c o nc e nt r a ti o ns o r in h ib i ti n g t he in f la m m a t o r y r es po ns e . b . A ge n ts us ed fo r t he t re a tm e nt o f g ou t h a v e wid e l y va r y i ng s t r uc tu r es an d in c l ud e t h e p yr a z o l on e d e ri v a t i ve s u l fi n p y r a zon e (s ee II I .C . 2 . b ; I I I. C . 3 .b ; II I . C .4 . b) ; t he a l ka lo i d c o lc h ic i ne ; i s opu r i ne s , s u c h as al l o pu r in o l ( Z y lo p ri m ); an d b e n zo i c ac i d d e r i va ti v e s , s u c h as p rob e n ec i d (B e ne m i d ) ( F igu r e 14 - 11 ) . 2 . P ha r m ac o l og y a . C o lc h ic i n e' s m ec ha n is m o f a c ti on is pr es um ed t o b e r e la t ed to i ts a n tim i to t ic a c ti vi t y. I t i nh ib i ts tu b ul in s y n th es is , wh i ch i s re qu i r ed f or t he m o vem e nt o f i n f la m m at o r y c e ll s . P.335 Th r o u g h i ts ab il i t y to p rev e n t t ub ul i n p ol ym e ri z a t i o n , c ol c h ic i ne ap p ea r s to i nh ib i t c h em ot a xi s o f l eu k o c y t es an d o t he r in f la m m at o r y c el ls in t he af f ec te d j o int , t hu s r e d uc in g th e i n fl am m a t ory r e s po ns e to de po si t e d u r a t e c r ys t al s b y i nh ib i tin g l e uk oc yt e m ig r a ti o n a nd p h a go c yto si s . I t a ls o i n te r f e re s wi t h ki n in fo r m a t io n an d r e d uc es le uk oc y t e l a c t ic a c id p ro du c ti on .
Figure 14-11. Structural formulas of agents used in the treatment of gout. A. Allopurinol. B. Probenecid.
b . Al l o p u r i no l re d uc es s e r u m u ra t e l e vel s b y b loc ki n g u r ic a c i d p r o du c t i on . I t c om p et i ti v e l y in h ib i ts th e e n z y m e xa n t hi n e o xi d a s e , wh i c h c o n v e r ts xa n t hin e an d h yp o xa n t h i ne to u ri c ac id . c . P r ob e ne c i d, a u r ic os u r i c a ge n t, in h ib it s t h e pr o xi m a l tu b ul a r r e ab s o r pt i o n o f u r ic a c id , i nc r e as in g u r ic a c id e xc r e t io n , t h us re du c i ng p la s m a u r ic a c i d c on c en t r a ti o ns . 3 . T he r a pe u t ic i nd i ca t io n s a . C o lc h ic i n e is us ed p rin c ip al l y f o r t he t re a tm ent o f a c u t e g ou t at t ac ks . b . Al l o p u r i no l , wh ic h red u c e s u r ic a ci d s y n t he s is an d fa ci li t a te s t he di s s o l u ti on o f t o p hi (c h al k y u r a te de p os i ts ) , i s us e d t o p r e v en t t h e d e v e lo pm e nt o r p r ogr e s s i on of c h r on ic to p ha c e o us g o ut. c . P r ob e ne c i d is us ed t o t r e at ch r on ic t op ha ce o us go u t . I t i s a ls o us e d i n s m a l le r d o se s t o p r ol o ng th e e f fe c ti v e n es s o f p en ic il l in - ty p e a nt i bi o ti c s b y i nh i bi t in g th e i r t u b ul a r s ec r et io n . 4 . Ad ve r s e e f fe c t s a . C h ro n ic u s e o f c ol c h ic i n e i s as so c i a te d wi t h th e s e ad v e r s e ef f ec ts : ( 1 ) A g ra n ul oc y t os is , ap las t ic an em ia , m y o p at h y, ha i r l os s , a nd pe r ip h e ra l n e u ri t is ( 2 ) N a us ea , v om i ti ng , a bd o m i n al p a in , a n d d ia r r he a (i n di ca t io ns o f im p end i ng t o xi c i t y) b . Al l o p u r i no l i s a s s oc ia t e d wi t h t he fo l lo wi n g ad v e r s e e f fe ct s : ( 1 ) G I ef f ec ts , s uc h a s G I d is t re s s , n a us ea , v om i ti n g , a nd di a r rh e a ( 2 ) S ki n r as h , St e v e ns -J o h ns o n s ynd r om e , a nd he p a to t o xi c it y ( 3 ) P r ec ip i ta t io n o f a n a c u t e g o ut a tt ac k ( wi t h in i tia l al lo p u ri no l t h e ra p y o wi n g t o i n i ti al m o bi l i z at i on of s t or e d ur a te ) c . P r ob e ne c i d is as s o c ia t e d wi t h t he fo l lo wi n g ad v e r s e e f fe ct s : ( 1 ) H e ad ac he s , n au s e a , v o m i ti n g, u ri n ar y f r eq u enc y, so r e g um s , a nd de rm a t i ti s ( 2 ) D i zz i n es s , an em ia , he m ol y t ic an em i a, an d ren a l l i th ia s i s E . N S AI D s 1 . C h em i st r y a . Th e c l as s ic N S AI D s c o n s i s t o f m a n y st r uc t u ra ll y d i ve rs e a ci ds . Th es e in c lu d e p r o p i o ni c a c i d d e ri v a t i ve s (f e no p r of e n [ N al f on ] , f l u rb i p ro f en [ Oc u fe n ] , i bu p r o fe n [ Mo t r i n ] , k e to p r of e n [ O r ud i s ] , na p ro xe n [ A n ap r o x, N a p r os y n ] , a nd o xa p r o zi n
[ D a yp r o ] ), ac e t ic ac i d de r i v a ti v e s (d ic lo f en a c [ Vo l t ar e n ], et o do l ac [ L od i ne ] , i n do m et h ac in [I n do c i n ], k e to r o la c [ To r a do l ], s u li nd a c [ C li n o ri l ], an d t o lm eti n [ To l e c ti n] an d th e s ub c l as s o f t h e f e na m a t es o r an t h r an il ic ac id de r i v a ti v es m ec l of e na m a t e a nd m e f en a m i c ac i d [ P on s te l ]) , and t he e no l ic ac i d d e ri v a ti ve s ( p i r o xi c am [F e ld en e ] , m el o xi c a m [ Mo b i c ], an d n a bu m et o ne [ R el a fe n ]) ( Fi g ur e 1 4- 1 2 ). b . S e le c ti ve C O X 2 in h ib i t o r s c e le c ox i b ( C e le br e x) a n d r o f ec o xi b ( Vi o xx) , a n d va l d e c ox i b (B e xt r a ) a r e p y r a z o l e d e ri v a t i v es ( Fi gu r e 14 - 13 ) . 2 . P ha r m ac o l og y a . N o ns p ec i f ic N S AI D s h a v e an t i -i n fl am m a t or y ef f e c t s , r es ul t in g fr om t hei r ab i li t y t o i n hi b it t he c y c lo o xy g e n as e e n z y m e s y s te m a nd th u s r e du c e lo c a l p r os t agl a nd i n s yn t he s i s (s ee I I. C . 1. a ) . b . N S A I Ds al s o h a v e a na l ge s i c a n d a nt i p y re t ic ef f e ct s . I n a dd i ti on , s om e N S A I D s h a ve m i ld u ri c o s u r ic ac tiv i t y . S o m e ag e nt s a ls o ha v e we a k in hi b it o r y ac ti vi t y f o r l i po xyg e n a s e , m i l d s e l ec t i v i t y f o r C O X 2 , a nd we a k to m o de r a te ab il i t y to i n hi b it l e uk oc yt e pr o li f er a ti o n an d m i g ra ti o n a nd t o s t a bil i ze l ys os om a l m e m b r a ne s . Th e c l in ic al r el e v a nc e o f t h es e s e c o n da r y a c t io n s h as n o t b e en el uc i da t ed . c . C O X 2 i n hi b i to r s e xe r t a nt i -i n fl am m at o r y ef f ec t s b y s p ec i fi ca ll y i nh i bi ti n g p r o st a gl an d in s y n t h es is a s s o c i at e d wi t h t he in f lam m a t o r y re s p o ns e . Th e i r a b il i t y t o d e c re as e p ai n an d i nf l am m a t io n a ss oc i at e d wi t h a r t h ri ti c d is e as es i s a ppr o xi m a t e l y e q u al to th a t p r od uc e d by t h e no ns el e c t i v e N S AID s . Mo r e o v e r , b y v i r t ue o f t he i r s e le ct i v i t y , t h ei r ac ti o ns o n ga s t r ic m u c o sa an d pl a t el e t a gg r eg a ti o n a r e th e o ri ze d to b e le ss th an t he no ns e lec t i v e N S AI D s . P.336
Figure 14-12. Structural formulas of representative nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs). A. Ibuprofen (propionic acid derivative). B. Indomethacin (acetic acid derivative). C. Mefenamic acid (anthranilic acid derivative). D. Piroxicam (enolic acid derivative).
3 . T he r a pe u t ic i nd i ca t io n s a . N S AI D s , li k e as pi r i n, a r e ag en t s o f c ho ic e f o r t h e tr e at m e n t o f rh e um ato i d a r t h ri t is , o s t e oa r t h ri ti s , an d an k ylo si n g s p o nd yl i tis . Th e y m a y a ls o b e us ed as s ec o nd a r y t re a tm en t s i n g o u t y a r t h ri t is . b . C O X 2 i n h ib i t o r s a re a p p ro v e d fo r us e i n b ot h r h e um at o id ar t h ri t is a n d o s te o a rt h ri t is .
4 . Ad ve r s e e f fe c t s a . N S AI D s a r e as s o c i a t ed wi t h t he fo l lo wi n g a d v er s e e f fe c ts : ( 1 ) G I ef f ec ts , s uc h a s G I d is t re s s an d i r r it a ti o n, e r o si on o f g as t ri c m u c o sa , na us e a, vo m i ti n g, an d d y s p ep s i a ( 2 ) C N S ef f ec ts , s uc h a s C N S d e pr es s i o n, d ro ws in e s s , h e ad ac he , di zz i n es s , vi su a l d i st u r ba nc es , o t o to xi c i t y, a nd c o n fu s i on ( 3 ) H em a to l og ic ef f ec ts , s uc h a s t h r om bo c y to p en ia , al t e re d p l at el e t f u nc tio n , a n d p r o lo n ge d b le e di n g t im e
Figure 14-13. Structural formula of celecoxib, a COX 2 specific inhibitor.
P.337
( 4 ) S ki n r as h ( 5 ) N e ph r ot o xi c i t y b . C O X 2 i n h ib i t o r s d o n o t a p pe a r t o c au s e as gr e a t a n i nc i de nc e o f G I ul c e ra ti o n o r a nt i pl at e le t e f f ec ts as t h e n on se l ec ti v e N S A I Ds . Th e m os t c om m o nl y re p o r te d s i de ef f ec ts in c l u de G I up s et a t a l o we r i nc id en c e l e v e l. D es pi t e t h e p r om is e o f m i ni m a l G I u lc er a ti o n, m a n y p at i en ts e xp e r i en ced g as t ro i nt es t in a l b le ed in g wi t h t h es e d r u gs s oo n a f t e r th e i r r e le as e . Th i s i s t ho ug h t to ha v e be e n a n i ns ta n c e of o ve r u se / o v e rd os in g of the d r ug . Th is ri s k of ga s t ri c d am a ge an d p o te n ti a l u l c e r a ti on a p p ea rs t o i nc r ea s e wi t h c h ro n ic , h ig h d os e u s e o f t he s e dr u gs . Th e p ot en t i al fo r n e p hr o to xi c i t y d oe s e xi s t f o r th es e d r ug s , a nd pa ti e n ts s ho u ld be m o ni t o red f o r c h an g es i n re n al fu nc t ion . Mo r e r ec e nt ad ve r s e d r u g r e ac ti o ns ass oc i at ed wi t h t he s e d r u gs in c l ud e a n i nc r e as e d ri s k of t h ro m b o ti c e v en t s , l ea di n g t o m yoc a r dia l i n f ar c ti o n a nd s t r ok e, wh i c h c o u ld be po t en t ia ll y fa t a l. Th is is li k e l y th e res u lt o f a n i n hi b it i on of c a r di o v as c u la r C O X 2 a n d s u bs e qu e nt c lo t f o rm a ti o n. Th is ha s l e ad to t h e vol u nt a r y r em o v al of s om e o f th es e d r u gs fr om t he m a rk e t a nd c a u ti ou s , c lo s e l y s u pe r v i s e d u s e of t he oth e r s . P.338
STUDY QUESTIONS
D i r e c t i on s : E a c h of t he q u es t io ns , s t at em e nt s , or i nc om p le t e s t a te m en ts i n th is s ec t io n c a n b e c o r r ec t l y a n s we r e d o r c om pl e te d b y o n e o f th e s ug g es te d a n s we r s o r p h r as es . Ch o os e t h e b es t a ns we r . 1 . A 4 5 - ye a r - o l d l o n g - ha u l t r uc k e r s u f fe r s f rom s ea s on a l a l le r g i es . He a sk s a d vi c e on w h ic h o ve r - th e co u n te r p r o du c t i s be s t t o r e l ie ve h is s ym p t o m s . W h i c h o f th e fo l l ow in g c h o ic e s i s th e b e s t r e co m m en d a ti o n f o r t hi s pa t i e n t? ( A ) d ip h en h y d ra m i n e ( B ) p r om et h a z in e ( C ) c le m a s t i ne ( D ) c hl o rp h en i ra m i n e ( E ) l o ra t ad in e V i e w A n s we r 1 . T h e a n sw e r i s E [s e e] . 2 . W h ic h o f t h e f o l low i n g c h oi c es w o ul d be mo s t a p p r op ri a t e i n t r ea t i ng na u se a a n d vo m it i n g a ss o ci a t ed w it h m o t i on s ic k ne ss ? ( A ) d ip h en h y d ra m i n e ( B ) b r om ph e ni r am in e ( C ) o n da ns e tr o n ( D ) o m e p ra z o l e ( E ) r a ni t id in e V i e w A n s we r 2 . T h e a n sw e r i s A [ se e] . 3 . Es om ep r a z ol e w ou l d b e e f f e cti ve i n t h e t r e at m en t o f ( A ) g as t ro e s o ph a ge a l r e fl u x d i s ea s e . ( B ) p ep t ic ul c e r d is e as e . ( C ) Z o ll in g e r- E l li s o n s y nd r o m e . ( D ) A l l o f t h e a bo v e ( E ) N o ne o f t he ab o v e V i e w A n s we r 3 . T h e a n sw e r i s D [ se e] . 4 . W h ic h o f t h e f o l low i n g a n t iu l ce r m e d ic a t io n s i s m o s t l ike l y t o c a u se d r ug i n te ra c t i on s a n d e n do c r i ne s i d e e f f e c ts ? ( A ) r a ni t id in e ( B ) o m e p ra z o l e ( C ) l an s op r a z ol e ( D ) c im et i di ne ( E ) f am o ti di n e V i e w A n s we r 4 . T h e a n sw e r i s D [ se e] . 5 . A p a ti en t h as j us t be e n d i ag n os e d w i t h r e c u r re n t m i g r ai n e h e ad a ch e s . W hi c h o f th e f o ll ow i ng p r ee x is t i ng c o n d it i o ns w o u ld p r ec lu d e th e us e o f su m a t rip t a n fo r t h is pa t i en t ? ( A ) l i ve r d is ea s e ( B ) r e na l f a il u re ( C ) i sc he m i c h ea r t d is e as e ( D ) i r r it a bl e b o we l s y n d ro m e ( I B S ) ( E ) g ou t y a r th r it is V i e w A n s we r 5 . T h e a n sw e r i s C [ se e] . 6 . W h ic h o f t h e f o l low i n g i s a n a p p r o p r ia t e i n di c a ti o n fo r t h e d r u g te g as e r od ? ( A ) a fe m a l e p at ie n t wi t h c on s ti pa t io n - re l at e d i r ri ta b le bo we l s y n d ro m e ( I BS )
( B ) a fe m a l e p at ie n t wi t h d i ar r h ea - r el a te d I B S ( C ) a m a le pa t ie n t wi t h Cr o h n d is ea s e ( D ) a m a le pa t ie n t wi t h di a r r he a - re l at e d I B S ( E ) a pa ti e nt wi t h Zo l li nge r - E l li s o n s y n d ro m e V i e w A n s we r 6 . T h e a n sw e r i s A [ se e] . 7 . W h ic h o f t h e f o l low i n g p r o s t ag l a nd i n a n al o gs i s u se d s p ec i f ic a ll y f o r t h e t r ea t me n t of g la u com a ? ( A ) a lp r os t ad il ( B ) l at a no p r os t ( C ) c a rb op r os t ( D ) d in o p ro s t o ne ( E ) e po p r os te n ol V i e w A n s we r 7 . T h e a n sw e r i s B [ se e] . 8 . T h e u se o f m i s op r o s to l to p r eve n t n o n s te r o i da l a n t i -i n f l am m a to r y d r u g - i n d u ce d u l c e rs c ou l d c a us e w hic h o f t h e f o l l ow i ng si d e e f f ec t s ? ( A ) f e ve r ( B ) g as t ro i nt es t in a l c ra m p i ng an d di a r rh ea ( C ) h e ad ac he / pa i n ( D ) A l l o f t h e a bo v e ( E ) N o ne o f t he ab o v e V i e w A n s we r 8 . T h e a n sw e r i s D [ se e] . 9 . W h ic h o f t h e f o l low i n g a s th m a t h e r a pi e s h a s b ee n a s so c i a te d w i th a n a cu t e va s c ul a r s yn d r o m e t h a t i s a s s oc i a te d w i th su d d en w i th d r aw a l o f c o r t ic o st e r o i d a n t i -i n f la m ma t o ry d r u g s ? ( A ) za f i rl uk as t ( B ) zi l eu t on ( C ) m on t el uk as t ( D ) A l l o f t h e a bo v e ( E ) N o ne o f t he ab o v e V i e w A n s we r 9 . T h e a n sw e r i s A [ se e] . 1 0. W hi c h o f t he f o ll ow i n g a st h ma t h e r a pi e s i s e f f ec t i ve by d e c r e a s i n g t h e a mo un t s o f r e l ea se d le u ko t r ie n e s? ( A ) za f i rl uk as t ( B ) zi l eu t on ( C ) m on t el uk as t ( D ) A l l o f t h e a bo v e ( E ) N o ne o f t he ab o v e V i e w A n s we r 1 0 . T he c o rr e c t an s w e r is B [ se e] . P. 3 3 9
1 1 . R iz a t ri p t an i s e f fe c ti ve i n t r ea t i ng m ig r a in e h e ad a ch e b y ( A ) d i re ct l y v a s o c o ns t r ic ti n g i n v ol v e d bl oo d ves sel s . ( B ) i nh i bi ti n g t h e r el e as e o f i n fl am m at o r y ne u ro t ra n sm it t e rs . ( C ) d i re c tl y b lo c k in g p ain t r an s m is si on . ( D ) A l l o f t h e a bo v e ( E ) N o ne o f t he ab o v e
V i e w A n s we r 1 1 . T he a nsw e r i s D [ se e] . 1 2. W hi c h o f t he f o ll ow i n g d r u gs , b a s ed o n i t s m ec h an i sm o f a c t io n , i s e f f ec t i ve i n t re a t in g di a r r he a - pr e d o m in a n t i r r i t a b le b ow el s yn d r o m e ( I B S )? ( A ) t e ga s e r od ( B ) n a ra t r ip t an ( C ) a lo s et r on ( D ) A l l o f t h e a bo v e ( E ) N o ne o f t he ab o v e V i e w A n s we r 1 2 . T he c o rr e c t an s w e r is C [ se e] . 13 . W hi c h o f th e fo l l ow in g s a l ic yl a t e s h as be e n l in k e d t o m a le r e p r od u c ti ve t o x ic i t y w i t h c h r o n ic d os i n g? ( A ) a sp i ri n ( B ) d if l un is a l ( C ) s od i um t h io s a li c y l at e ( D ) o ls al a z i ne ( E ) s ul f as al a z in e V i e w A n s we r 1 3 . T he c o rr e c t an s w e r is E [s e e] . 14 . As p i r i n e x e r ts i ts an ti p l a t el e t e f f ec t b y i n h i b i t i n g ( A ) c ycl o o xy g e n as e ( C OX) 1 . (B) COX 2. (C) COX 3. ( D ) p r os t ag la n di n s y n t hes is . ( E ) l eu ko t r ie n e s y nt h es is . V i e w A n s we r 1 4 . T he c o rr e c t an s w e r is A [ se e] . 15 . Ac e t a mi n o ph e n h as a d va n t a ge s o ve r a sp i r in o r o th e r no n s te r o i da l a n t i -i n f la m ma t o r y d r u g s b y vi r t u e o f i ts ( A ) r e la t i v e l ac k o f a nt i -pl a t el e t e ff e c t s . ( B ) r e la t i v e l ac k o f g as t ro i n te s t i na l u lc e ra t i v e e f fe c ts . ( C ) b ei n g a s a fe al t e rn a ti v e f o r ch i ld r en wi t h v i r al i n fe c ti on s . ( D ) A l l o f t h e a bo v e ( E ) N o ne o f t he ab o v e V i e w A n s we r 1 5 . T he c o rr e c t an s w e r is D [ se e] . 16 . Ac e t a mi n o ph e n t o xi ci t y i s c ha r a ct e r iz e d b y ( A ) p r of o un d v as oc on s t ric t io n a n d p ai n . ( B ) s e v er e ab do m i n al c ra m pi n g a nd di a r rh ea . ( C ) c en t r al ne r v o us s y s te m s t im ul a ti on an d s ei zur e s . ( D ) p r o fo un d l i v e r d am a ge a nd fa i lu r e . ( E ) A l l o f t h e a bo v e V i e w A n s we r 1 6 . T he c o rr e c t an s w e r is D [ se e] . 17 . W hi c h o f th e fo l l ow in g a n t i go u t m e d ic a t io n s i s s p ec i f ic a l l y u s e d i n a cu t e a tt a ck s ? ( A ) c ol c h ic in e ( B ) a ll o pu r in ol ( C ) p r ob e ne c i d ( D ) A l l o f t h e a bo v e ( E ) N o ne o f t he ab o v e
V i e w A n s we r 1 7 . T he c o rr e c t an s w e r is A [ se e] 1 8. W h ic h of t he f o ll ow i ng a n t i go u t m e d ic a t io n s ac t s b y d e c r e a s i ng se r um l e ve ls b u t i nc r e as i n g u r i n e l e ve l s of u r ic ac i d , t h us i n c re a si n g t h e ri s k o f k i d ne y s t o n e de ve l o pm e n t ? ( A ) c ol ch ic in e ( B ) a ll o pu r in ol ( C ) p r ob e ne c i d ( D ) A l l o f t h e a bo v e ( E ) N o ne o f t he ab o v e V i e w A n s we r 1 8 . T he c o rr e c t an s w e r is C [ se e] 1 9. T h e n o ns t e r oi d al a nt i i n f l am m a to r y d r u g s , as a c la ss , a re an t i - in f l amm a t o r y p r i m a r i l y t h r o u g h t he i r ability to inhibit ( A ) c ycl o o xy g e n as e ( C OX) 1 . (B) COX 2. (C) COX 3. ( D ) l eu k ot r ie n e s y n th es is . ( E ) t h ro m b o xa n e s y nt h es i s . V i e w A n s we r 1 9 . T he c o rr e c t an s w e r is B [ se e] 2 0. T h e s el e c ti ve c yc l o o x yg e n a s e ( C O X ) 2 i n hi b i to r s ha ve b ee n a s s oc i a te d w i th w h ic h o f t h e f o l l ow i ng ad ve r s e d ru g r e a c ti o n s? ( A ) s e v er e i s c h em ic c ol i ti s ( B ) t o rs ad e d e s p oi n te s ( C ) c a rd io v a s c u la r th r om b o t ic e v e n ts ( D ) a cu t e l i v e r f ai lu r e ( E ) C h u rg - S t ra u s s s y n d ro m e V i e w A n s we r 2 0 . T he c o rr e c t an s w e r is C [ se e] P.3 4 0
ANSWERS AND EXPLANATIONS 1 . T he an sw e r is E [ s e e I I . A .1 . b. ( 1 ) ; I I . A. 3 .b ] . D i p h en h y d ra m i n e, p ro m et h a z i ne , a n d c l em a s t in e a l l p os se s s m o de r at e to s t r on g a n t ic ho li n e rg ic ac ti v i t y . Th i s wi l l i nc r ea s e t he r i sk o f s e d at i on , wh ic h c o uld p r o v e d a n ge r ou s i n t hi s p a ti en t. C h lo r p he ni r am i ne , wh i le t he le as t s e da t in g o f the f i rs t g e n er a ti o n d r ug s , s t il l m a y c r os s t he bl o od - b ra in b a r r ie r an d c au s e s o m e s e da t io n . L o r a ta di n e, as a s e c o n d -g e n er a ti o n d r ug th a t h as m i n im a l a nt ic h ol in e r gi c a c ti v i t y a n d d o es n o t c ro s s th e bl o od - b r ai n b a r ri e r ( t hu s p r o du ci n g n o c en t ra l e f fe c ts ) , i s l e as t l ik e l y to c a us e s e da t i on an d t h us a f f ec t h is j o b . 2 . T he an sw e r is A [ s ee I I . A .3 . b] . W hile on da ns e t ro n i s u s e d fo r na us e a as s o ci a t ed wi t h c h em o th e ra p y a nd a n a es th e ti c s , i t i s n o t t yp i c a ll y u s e d f o r n a us ea a s s o c i at e d wi t h m o t io n or v e r t i go . D i p h en h y d ra m i n e, wh i c h p os s e s s es a h ig h d e g ree o f a n ti c h ol i ne r gi c a c t i vi t y , is e f f ec t i v e i n r ed u c i ng na us e a a nd v o m i ti n g a ss oc ia t e d wi t h v e s t i bu lo c oc hle a r ac ti v i t y, ve r t i g o, an d m ot i on s i c k n e s s . No n e o f t h e o th e r c h oi c e s d i re c t l y r ed uc es n a us e a o r vo m i ti n g, t he r ef o r e, di p he n h y d ra m i n e is t he be s t c h oi c e . 3 . T he an sw e r is D [ s ee I I . A .1 . b. ( 3 ) ; I I . A. 3 .d ] .
B e c au se al l t h r ee of th es e d is ea se s t a te s r e p re sen t so m e ac ti o n o f e xc e ss i v e ac i d s ec r e ti o n, es om ep r a z o le, wh i c h a ls o b lo c k s t h e pr o t o n o r a ci d p um p , wo u ld b e e f f ec t i v e i n r ed u c i ng t he a c id - in d uc ed pa i n a nd da m ag e a s s oc ia t ed wi t h g a st r o es op h ag ea l re f lu x d i s e as e ( G E R D ) , p ep t ic u l ce r di se as e (P U D ) , and Z ol li n ge r E l l is on s y nd r om e . 4 . T he an sw e r is D [ s ee I I . A .4 . d] . O f t h e d r ug s l is te d , a n d s p ec if ic a ll y , o f t he H 2 -a nt a g on is ts , c im e ti d in e i s th e on l y d r u g t h at in h ib it s t h e h ep a t ic m ic r os om al m e t ab ol i z i ng s ys t em (s p ec if ic a lly t h e 3 A4 i s o zym e) an d th e o nl y d ru g th a t e xh i b i ts we a k a nd r o ge n ic a c ti vi t y. Th e f o rm e r i s r e s po ns ib l e f o r n um e ro us d ru g i n te r ac t io ns an d s o m e s i d e e f fe ct s , wh e r ea s th e l a t te r is re s p o ns ib le f or e n d oc ri n e ( sp ec i fi c a l l y a n d r og e n -l ik e ) si d e e f fe c ts . 5 . T he an sw e r is C [ s ee I I . B .2 . a; I I .B . 4 .a . ( 1) ] . S u m at r ip t an ( an d o t he r dr u g s i n t he c l as s) s p ec i fic a ll y c a us e v as oc o ns t ri c t i o n. Th is e f f ec t , wh e n p re s e n t i n c o r o no r y v e s s e ls , c an c a us e c he s t t ig h tn es s o f p a in as a n o r m a l s id e e f fe c t o f t he d r u g. H o we v e r , in pa t ien t s wi t h is c h em ic he a r t di s ea s e , a n gi n a, o r a ri s k fo r c o r on a r y a r te r y d is ea s e , th is a c ti o n c o u ld p re ci pi t a te a t t ac ks o f a n gi n a o r p o te n ti a ll y c a us e m y o ca r di a l i nf a rc t io n a n d s ho u ld no t b e u s e d in t ho s e p a t ie n ts . 6 . T he an sw e r is A [ s ee I I . B .1 . b. ( 2 ) ; I I . B. 2 .b . ( 2 ); I I . B .3 . a. ( 4 ) ]. C u r r e n tl y , d ru gs a re a v ail a bl e s pe ci f ic al l y f o r wo m e n wi t h I B S c ha r ac t e ri z e d b y e i t he r c o ns ti p at i on or di ar r h e a. Th e in t es ti n al s t i m u la n t ac t io n o f te g as e ro d m ak e s i t u s ef u l f o r t ho s e p at i en ts wi t h c on s ti p at io n as s o c i at e d IB S . Al t ho u gh t eg as er o d (a n d a l os e t ro n ) is ( a re ) be in g e v a l u at e d f o r us e i n m en wi t h I B S , t h e c ur r e nt r e c om m e nd a ti on is p ri m a r i l y fo r wo m en . Te ga se ro d , a s a pr o k i ne t ic ag en t, wo u l d wo r s e n I B S t ha t p re s e n ts p ri m a r il y wi t h d ia r r he a . B e c a us e i t ha s n o a nt i i n f la m m at o r y ef f ec t , i t wo u ld no t be ef f ec t i ve i n tr e a ti n g t h e p ri m a r il y i n fla m m a to r y n a t u re of C r oh n d is e as e. Te g a s e r o d h as n o e f f ec t o n g as t r ic a c i d s ec r e ti on a nd wo u l d , th e r ef o r e, no t b e u s ef u l i n Z ol li n ge r - E ll is o n s y nd r om e . 7 . T he an sw e r is B [ s ee I I . C .3 . c. ( 2 ) ]. A l t h ou gh m o s t p ro s t a gl an d in an a lo gs a re no ns p ec i fi c i n t h ei r s it e s o f ac t io n an d m a y p r o du c e s i m i la r ph y s io l og i c a l e f fe c ts , l at a no p r os t i s s pe c i f ic al l y fo r m u la t ed a nd m a rk e te d fo r u s e in t he tr e a tm e nt of gl a uc om a . I ts r el a ti ve s e le c t i vi t y fo r th e P G F 2 α r e c ep t or is r es po ns ib l e fo r i ts a b il i t y t o l o we r i nt ra o c u l ar p re s s u re an d , t he r e f or e , i ts b e n ef i t i n t r ea t in g g la u c om a . 8 . T he an sw e r is D [ s ee I I . C .2 . b ; I I . C .4 ] . A s no t ed in t he an s we r to q ue s t i on 7, m o s t p ro s ta g la n di n a n al og s h a v e ac t i v i t y a t r e c ep t or s t h r ou gh o ut t he b o d y , c au si n g a p r os t agl a nd i n -l ik e e f fe c t o n n um e r o us o r g an s ys t em s . Mi s o p ro s t o l , a s a re la t i v el y n on s el e c t i v e a g on is t , wo ul d c au s e c o nt r ac t io n o f ga s t r oi n tes t in a l s m oo t h m us c l e, s t im u la t e p ai n f i be r s, an d re s et t he t h e rm o re g ul a to r y c e n te r o f t he C N S , t h us c au s i n g a l l t he po t en t ia l s id e e f fe c ts l i st e d. P.341
9 . T he an sw e r is A [ s ee I I . D .4 ] .
Z a f i rl uk as t i s t h e o nl y d ru g th a t h as be e n as s o c ia t e d wi t h C h ur g - S t ra us s s y n d r om e, a co n di t io n o f e os i no p hi li c v as c u li t is th a t o c c ur s wh e n a pa t ie n t wh o i s o n b o th za f i r lu k as t a nd c o r ti c o s te r o id t he r ap y s ud de n l y di s c o nt i nu es th e c o r ti c o s te r o id . Th is e f f ec t h as no t be en ob s er v e d wi t h t he ph a rm ac olo g ic al l y s i m i la r d ru g m ont e l uk as t . N o t e th a t s l o w wi t h d r a wa l of th e c o r ti co s t e r oi d (wh i c h sh ou l d b e d on e a ny wa y, t o m i ni m i ze ac ut e a d r en al in s uf f ic ie nc y) wi l l p re ve n t t h is ad v e r s e dr u g r e ac tio n . 1 0 . Th e c o r r ec t an sw e r i s B [s ee I I. D . 2 .b ] . Z a f i rl uk as t a n d m o n te l uk a s t e xe r t t h ei r ef f ec t b y b l oc ki n g le u ko t ri e ne s a t t h e ir r e c ep t or . Zi l eu t on , wh ic h a c ts b y i nh i bi t in g l ip o -o x y g e n a s e , wi l l d ec r ea s e t h e s yn t he s i s o f th es e i n fl am m a to r y m ed ia t o rs . Th er ef o r e , i t i s t he on l y d ru g l is t ed t ha t wi l l d ec r ea s e t he s y n t hes is an d , c on s e q ue n tl y , the r el e as e o f l e uk ot r ie n es . 1 1 . Th e a n sw e r i s D [ s ee I I . B. 1 .b . ( 1 ); I I. B . 2. b . (1) ] . R i z a t r i pt a n ( a nd ot h er d ru g s i n t he cl as s ) a re ac t in g as 5 - H T 1 - a g on is ts . Thi s m ec h an is m r es u lt s i n t h re e di s t i nc t a nd be n ef ic i al p ha r m a c o d yn am i c e f fe c t s . F i rs t , i t c a us es di r ec t v as oc on s tri c ti o n, wh i c h r et u r ns th e b l oo d v es s e l t o i t s p r eh ea d ac h e d i am e te r . Se c o n d, b y ac ti n g o n n e ur o na l re c e p to rs , it in hi b it s t h e r el e as e o f a d di t io n al v a s o di l at i ng an d pa in - t r an s m it t in g s ubs t an ce s , s u c h as ne u r ok in i n A a nd s u bs ta n c e P . Th i r d , t hi s a c ti o n h as b e en sh o wn to h a ve a d i r ec t a n ti no c i c e p t i v e a c ti o n, p re v e n ti n g t he fi ri n g o f p a in ne u ro n es d i re c tl y. Th e r e fo r e a ll th r e e a ns we r s c o r re c tl y d es c r i be th e b en e f it of r i z a tr i pt a n. 1 2 . Th e c o r r ec t an sw e r i s C [s ee I I. B . 1 .c . (2 ) ; I I .B . 2 . c ; I I. B . 3. b ] . A l o se t ro n i s t h e a ge n t us e f u l i n t r ea t in g d ia r r he a -p r e do m i n an t I BS . B y bl oc ki n g t he 5 - H T 3 - r e c ep t or , it in hi b its t he s e r ot o ni n -i nd u ce d in c r ea s e in in t es ti n al m o ti l it y , t hu s s l o wi n g p er is t al s i s a n d gu t m o v e m e n t. Te g as e ro d wo u l d wo r s en di a r rh e a p r e do m i n an t I BS , be c a us e i t s s e r o to n er g ic a c ti on s a r e a g on is t ic a n d wo u l d s t im ul a te G I s m o o th m us c l e c o nt r ac t io n . Na r a tr i pt a n, ac t in g a s a 5- H T 1 - a g on is t , h as l i tt l e e f f ec t o n G I m ot il i t y . 1 3 . Th e c o r r ec t an sw e r i s E [s ee I II . A .4 . b ]. O f t h e s al ic y l a te s , s u l fa s a l a z in e h a s b ee n m os t as s o c i a te d wi t h t h is p a r ti cu l a r t o xi c i t y. I t is a t o xi c i t y tha t oc c u r s wi t h c h r on ic us e o f t h e d ru g i n m en wi t h C r o h n d i se as e o r ot h e r in f la m m a t o r y c o nd i ti o ns o f th e i nt e s ti ne . W it hd r a wa l o f the d r ug m a y al l o w r e p ro du c ti v e fu n c t i on to r et u r n, al t ho ug h th is is no t a l wa y s t he c as e . I n a d di t io n , i t m a y ta k e an e xt e n d e d p e ri o d o f t im e , a f t e r ce s s a ti o n o f t he r a py , f o r f u nc t io n to re t u rn . 1 4 . Th e c o r r ec t an sw e r i s A [ s ee I I. C . 1 .a ; II I . A .2. a ] . R e c al l t h at in p ro s ta gl a nd i n a nd t h ro m b o xa n e s yn t h e s is , C O X 1 is re s p o ns i bl e f o r m uc h o f th e d a il y p r od uc t i o n o f m ai nt e na nc e e ic os a no i ds . C O X 2 , wh i l e als o c o nt r i bu t in g t o d a il y p ro du c ti o n o f p r os t ag la n di ns a n d t h r om bo xa n e s , is m o r e i m po r t an t i n i n fl am m a t ion . C O X 3 i s t he ce n tr a l s o u r c e of p ro st a gl a nd in s th a t c o nt r i bu t e t o C N S f un c tio n of t he ei c o sa n oi ds . Als o re c a l l t ha t i t is t h r om b o xa n e t ha t s p ec if ic a ll y h as p l at e le t -a g g re g at i ng ab il i t y. Th e re f o r e, it is th r ou g h i nh i bit i o n o f C O X 1 a n d th e s u bs eq uen t de c re as e i n th r om bo x a n e (n o t p ro s ta gl a nd i n or l e uk o t ri en e ) s y n t he s i s t ha t t he an t ip la t el e t e f fe c t o f as pi r i n is ef f ec t ed . 1 5 . Th e c o r r ec t an sw e r i s D [s ee I I. C . 1 .a ; II I . B .3] .
Th e r o le s o f C O X 1 , 2, an d 3 a r e r e vie we d i n t h e a n s we r to qu e s t io n 1 4 . Be c au s e , m ec h an is t ic al l y , a c et am in o p he n i s t ho u gh t t o be r e l at i ve l y s e le ct i ve f o r CO X 3 , i t wo u l d n ot po s s es s a n y an t i pl a te le t ac ti v i t y , no r wo u ld i t r ed u c e th e s yn t hes is o f g a st r ic c y to p ro t ec t i v e p ro s ta g la n di ns . Th e re f or e , i t wo u ld no t in t er f e re wi t h p la t el e t f u nc t io n o r ot h e r a nt i pl a te l e t t he r a pi es an d i t wo ul d no t b e p r o ne to c a us e g as t r ic u l ce r a ti on . In ad d it io n , th e r el a ti on s h i p b et we e n a s pi r in an d Re y e s y nd r om e i n c h il d re n wi t h v ir a l i nf ec t io n s d oe s n o t a pp a re n tl y e xi s t wi t h ac e ta m i n op h en , m a k i ng i t a s af e a n ti p y r e ti c t o u s e i n t ho se pa t ie n ts . 1 6 . Th e c o r r ec t an sw e r i s D [s ee I II . B . 4. b ]. A c e ta m i n op h en to xi c i t y is c h a ra c te r i z ed b y a p ro fo u n d h ep a to xi c i t y, wh i c h i s m e di a te d b y a re ac t i v e in t e rm e di a r y fo r m e d o n sa t u r at i on an d d ep l et i on o f t he n o r m a l m et a bo li c p a th wa y s . Th i s d oe s n o t a ff e ct th e v as c ul a tu r e ( as wi t h th e e rg o t d e r i va ti v e s ) , th us no v a s o c on s t r ic t io n i s o bs e r v ed. N e i th e r is se v e r e G I u ps e t e vi d e nt ( al t ho ug h m il d GI u ps e t m a y o cc u r e ar l y in t o xi c i t y) . N o r d o es p r o fo u n d C N S s t im ul a ti o n oc c u r , a s i t do e s wi t h as p ir i n t o xi c i t y . Th e r e f o re an s we r D is c o r r ec t . P.342
1 7 . Th e c o r r ec t an sw e r i s A [ s ee I II . D . 1. a ; I I I . D.2 . a ; I I I . D. 3 .a ] A l l op u ri n ol an d p r o be ne c i d , wh i le ef f ec t i v e i n p rev e n t i ng at t ac ks o f go u t y a r t h ri t is b y l o we r i n g c i r c u l at i ng le v e ls o f u ri c a c i d , a r e n ot e f fe c ti ve in t re a ti n g t he ac ut e i n f la m m at o r y s i tu a ti o n t ha t c h a ra c te r i z es a n ac ute a t ta c k . Co lc hi c i n e, b y in h ib i ti n g t h e m ig r a ti o n o f p r oi n fl am m a t o r y c e ll s in t o t h e a ff e c te d j oi n t , wi l l re d uc e th e i n f la m m at o r y p ro c e s s , t hu s a l le vi a ti ng t he pa in an d ed em a a s s oc ia t ed wi t h ac u te a t t ac ks o f go u t y a r t h ri ti s . 1 8 . Th e c o r r ec t an sw e r i s C [s ee I II . D . 2. c ; I I I. D .3 . c ; I I I. D . 4 .c . (2 ) ] P r o b en ec i d, as a u ri c o s ur i c a n d p ro m o t in g th e e xc r e ti o n o f u r ic a c i d , wi ll e f f ec t i vel y l o we r p la s m a c on c e n t ra t io n of u ra t e. H o we v e r , it a l s o in c re as es th e u r i na ry l e ve ls o f u r i c ac i d. I f t hi s c on c e n tra t i on e xc e ed s t h e s o l ub ili t y c on st a nt o f u ri c a c i d in t he u r i ne , th e n i t m a y c r y s t a ll i z e an d p r ec ip i ta t e o u t, c a us in g s t on e f o rm a ti on o r u ri n a r y l i t hi as is . F o r t h is re as o n, p a ti e nt s t ak i ng pr o be n ec i d sh o ul d a l wa ys be c ou n se l ed to d r i nk c o pi ou s a m o u nt s of wa t e r . 1 9 . Th e c o r r ec t an sw e r i s B [s ee I I. C . 1 .a ; II I . E .2] Th e r o le s o f C O X 1 , 2, an d 3 a r e r e vie we d i n t h e a n s we r to qu e s t io n 1 4 . I t i s t h r o ug h t h ei r i n hi bi t io n of i nf l am m a t or y p r os t ag lan d in s y nt h es is b y i n hi bi t in g C O X 2 , t h a t t h e N S A I D s e xe r t t he i r a n ti - i nf l am m a to r y ac t io n s . 2 0 . Th e c o r r ec t an sw e r i s C [s ee I II . E . 4. b ] Th e p r im a r y s i de ef f ec ts t h a t h a v e b ee n ass oc i ate d wi t h th e C O X 2 s p ec ifi c i n hi b it o rs a re ga s t r o in t es t i n al bl ee d in g a n d, m o r e r e c en t l y , p ot e n ti al l y fa t al t h r om b ot ic e v en t s . Th e la t t e r is t ho ug h t t o re f le c t a t o xi c od y n am ic ef f ec t th a t re su l ts f r o m i nh ib i ti o n o f v as c u la r C O X 2 , wh i c h c on t ri bu t es t o t he da i l y c on t r ol o f pl a te l et a n d /o r v as c u l a r f un c ti on . S e v e r e i sc he m i c c ol it is h a s b ee n re p or t ed wi t h al o se t r on ; t o r sa d e d es p o in ts , wi t h o l de r , s ec o nd - ge n e ra t io n a n ti h is ta m i n ics ; an d c is a p r id e wh i c h a re no lo n ge r a v a il a bl e fo r u s e; ac ut e l i v e r f a il u re , wi t h a c e t am in o ph e n o ve r d os e ; a nd C hu r g - S tra u s s s y n d ro m e wi t h za fi rl u k a s t an d c o r ti c o st e r oi d
wi t h d r a wa l . N on e o f th es e a d v e rs e d r ug re a ct io n s h as be e n a ss oc ia t ed wi th t he C O X 2 sp ec i fi c i nh i bi t o rs .
15 Medicinal Chemistry and Pharmacology: Cardiovascular and Diuretic Drugs E dw a rd J . M o r e t o n
I. INTRODUCTION. Ma n y c a t e g or i es o f dr u gs a ff ec t th e c a rd io v a sc u la r ( C V ) a n d r e na l s y s tem s . C e r ta i n d r u gs c a n b e us e d t o t r ea t he a r t f ai l u re (e . g ., c a rd i ac gl yc os id es an d d i u re t ic s ), r e l ie ve an g in a p ec t o ri s (e . g . , a nt i an gi n al ag en t s ), a nd c o n tr o l d ys rh yt h m ia s (e . g. , a n t ia r r h y th m i c a g en ts ) . O t h e r s c a n re d uc e h y p e rt e ns i on ( e. g ., an t ih y p e r te n s i ve s , i n cl ud i ng a v a r i et y o f d i ur e t ic s , β - bl oc k i n g a ge n ts , a nd a rt e r io la r s m o o t h m us cl e d i la t o rs ) , t r ea t th e h y p e r li p id em i as (e . g ., an t ih y p er l i pi d em ic a g en ts ) , re d uc e cl o t ti ng a n d t r e at s u c h c o nd i ti ons as v e no us th r om b os is a n d p ul m on a r y e m bo li s m ( e . g. , a n t ic oa g ul an t s , th r om b oly t i c s ) , an d t r e at an em i as ( e . g. , an t ia ne m i c a ge n ts) .
II. CARDIAC GLYCOSIDES AND POSITIVE INOTROPES A. C h e m i s t r y 1 . A lm os t a ll o f t he c a r dia c g l y c o s i d es (a ls o c al l ed c a rd i o t on i cs ) a re na t ur a l l y o cc u r ri n g s te r oi d al gl y c os i de s o bt a in e d f r om p l ant s ou r ce s . D i gi t o xi n i s ob t a in ed f r o m D i gi t al is pu r pu r e a, d i g o xi n fr o m D i gi t al is l an a t a, an d ou a ba i n f r om S t r o ph a n th us gr a tu s . 2 . Th e c a rd i ac g l y c os id es a re c l os el y r e la t ed s t r uc t u ra ll y, co n s i s t in g of one o r m o re s u ga r s ( i .e . , g l yc o n e p o r t i o n ) an d a s t e ro id a l n uc l eu s ( i .e . , a g l yc o n o r g e n i n p o r t i o n ) b on de d th r ou g h a n e t h e r ( g l yc o s i d i c ) l in k a ge . Th es e a g en ts al s o h a ve a n u n s a tu r a t ed la c t on e sub s t i t ue n t (c yc l i c e s t e r ) o n th e g e ni n p o r ti on . The p r o t ot yp ic a l a ge n t is d igi t o x i n ( Fi g u re 15 - 1 ). a . D i go x i n ( La n o xi n ) has an ad d it i on al h yd ro xy l g r o up a t p os i t i on 12 ( Fi gu r e 15 - 1 ). b . O u a ba i n h as a r ha m no s e g l yc o ne po r t io n a n d a d di t io n al h y d ro xyl g r o up s a t p o si t io ns 1, 5 , 1 1, an d 19 ( F ig u re 15 - 1 ) . 3 . R em o v i ng th e g l y c o n e p o r ti o n c a us es de c re as e d ac ti v i t y a nd in c re as ed t o xi c i t y f r o m ch a ng es in po l a ri t y t h a t c au s e e rr a ti c a bs o rpt i o n f r om th e g as t r oi nt e st i n al ( G I ) t r a ct . 4 . Th e du r a t io n o f a c ti on o f a c a r di ac gl yc os id e i s in ve r s e l y p r o p o r t i o na l t o t h e n u m be r o f h yd r o x yl g r o u p s , wh ic h i nc r e as e p ola r i t y . In c r e as ed po l a ri t y r e s ul ts in d e c re as e d p ro t ei n b i nd ing , de c re as e d l i v e r bi o t ran s fo r m a t io n , a nd de c re as e d r e na l t u b ul a r r e ab s o r p ti on . a . D i gi t o xi n ha s a l o ng d u r a ti on o f ac t io n a n d m a y a c c um u la t e. b . O u a ba i n, in c o n t ra s t , h a s a n e xt r e m el y s ho r t du r a ti o n o f a c t i on an d i s ef f e c t i v e o n l y wh e n g i v e n i nt r a v e no u s l y .
Figure 15-1. Structural formula of digitoxin (Crystodigin), the prototypical cardiac glycoside.
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Figure 15-2. Structural formulas of bipyridine derivatives. A. Amrinone (Inocor). B. Milrinone (Primacor).
5 . Am r i n o n e, i na m r in o ne , a nd mi l r i no n e a r e b ipy r i d i ne de r i va ti v e s wi t h po s it i v e i n o tr o pi c a c t i on ( Fi gu r e 1 5 - 2 ). B . P h a r ma c ol o g y. C a r d i a c g l y c o s i d es in c r e as e m y o c ar d ia l c on t r ac ti li t y a n d e f f ic ie nc y , im p ro v e s y s t em ic c i rc u la t io n , im p r o ve r e n al pe r f us io n , a nd r edu c e e d em a . Th e el ec t r op h y s io l og ic a l e f fe c t s o f c a rd i ac gl y c os id e s a re s u m m a ri z e d in Ta b l e 15 - 1 . A ng i ot e ns in -c o n v e rt i ng en zy m e ( A C E) i nh i bi t o rs a n d p e rh ap s A T 1 a n gi o te n s i n - re c e p to r an ta g o ni s t s; v a so d il at o rs s uc h a s n i tr o p ru s s id e , n it r og l y c e ri n , a n d h yd r al a z i ne ; a n d d iur e t ic s m a y b e i m p o r ta n t a d j u n c t s t o c a rd ia c g l y c os i de s. A C E i n hi bi t o rs m a y be c o n s i d er e d as f ir s t -l in e t re a tm e nt . 1 . W he n g i v en in t he r ape u t ic d os e s , c a r di ac gl yc o s id e s p ro du c e p os it i v e in o t r op ic +
+
e f f ec ts b y in hi b it i ng m em b r a ne - b ou nd N a / K -a c tiv a t e d a d en os i ne t ri ph o s p h a ta s e ( A TP a s e ) . Th es e e f fe c t s o f c a r di ac gl y c os id es in cr e a s e th e ra t e o f t e ns io n d e ve l op m e n t, th e c o nt r ac t il i t y , a n d t he r at e o f re la xa t i o n of c a r di ac m u sc le . Th e e f f ec ts in c l u de
a . I nc re a s e i n i n t ra c e l lu la r s o d iu m c o nc e nt r a ti o n b . R e du c t i on in c a lc iu m tr a n s p o rt f r om t h e c el l b y t h e s od iu m -c al c i um e xc h a n ge r c . Fa ci li t a ti on o f c a lc i um e n t r y via v o l ta g e- g at e d m em b r an e c ha n ne ls d . I nc r ea s e d re le as e o f c a l c i um f ro m sa r c o p la s m ic r et ic u lu m 2 . Th e r ap e ut ic do s e s o f c a r di ac gl yc os id es al s o c a us e a . A n e ga t i v e c hr o no t r opi c e f f ec t f r om i n c r e as ed v a g a l t o ne of t he s i no a t ria l ( S A ) node b . D im i ni s h ed c e n t ra l n er v o u s s ys te m ( C N S ) s ym p a t he t i c o u t fl o w f r om in c r e a s e d c a r ot i d s i n us b a r or ec e pto r s e ns i ti v i t y c . S ys t e m i c a r te r io la r and v e n ou s c on s t r ic t io n , wh i ch in c re as es ve no us r et u r n a n d t h us in c re as es c a r di ac ou t p ut 3 . Am r i no ne a nd m il r i non e p ro du c e p os it i ve i no t ro p ic ef f ec ts an d vas o di lat i o n v i a s e le ct i v e i n hi bi t io n o f t yp e I II ph os p ho di e s t e ra s e ( P D E ) is o zy m e , le a di n g t o an i n c re as e i n c y c l ic ad e nos i ne m o no p ho s p h at e (c AMP ) i n c a r di ac an d sm o ot h m u s c le . I n h ib i ti on o f t y p e I I I P D E p r o du ce s
Table 15-1. Effects of Cardiac Glycosides on the Heart Effects Direct
Atria
AV Node
Contractility ↑
ERP ↑
Contractility ↑
ERP ↑
Conduction velocity ↓
ERP ↓
Conduction velocity ↓ Indirect
On electrocardiogram
Ventricles
Automaticity ↑
ERP ↓
ERP ↑
Conduction velocity ↑
Conduction velocity ↓
P changes
PR interval ↑
No effect
QT ↓
T and ST depressed Adverse
Extrasystole
AV depression or block
Fibrillation
Tachycardia
Extrasystole Tachycardia
AV, atrioventricular; ERP, effective refractory period; ↑, increased; ↓, decreased. Reprinted with permission from Jacob LS, Pharmacology, 3rd ed. Malvern, PA, Harwal, 1992:96.
P.345
a . V as od i la t io n a nd f al l in v a s c ul a r re s i s t a nc e b . I nc r ea s e d f o rc e o f c a rd i ac c o nt r ac t io n c . In c re as e d v e l oc it y o f c a r di ac re l a xa t i on C . T h e ra p e ut i c i n d ic a tio n s 1 . H ea r t fa il u r e ( s t a ge C o n l y ) 2 . A t ri a l f ib r il l at io n 3 . A t ri a l f lu t te r 4 . P a ro xy s m a l at r ia l t a c hy c a r d ia 5 . Am r i no ne a nd m il r i non e a re in di ca t ed f or sh o rt - t e rm t re a tm en t of c o nge s ti v e he a r t f a i lu r e o nl y . D . Ad ve r s e e f f ec t s 1 . E a r l y a d ve r s e e f f ec ts o f c ar d ia c g l y c o si de s re p r es en t th e e a rl y s ta g es o f t o xi c i t y, in c l u di ng a . G I ef f ec ts , s uc h a s a no r e xi a , n au se a , v o m i t in g, a nd di a r rh e a b . C N S e ff ec ts , s uc h a s h e a da c h e , v i s u a l d is tu r ba n ce s ( g r ee n o r yel l o w vi s io n ), c o nf us i on , d e li r iu m , n eu ra l gi as , an d m us c l e we a k n e s s 2 . L at e r ad ve r s e e f f ec ts r e pr es e n t in t o xi c a ti o n a n d i nc lu d e s uc h s e r i ou s c a rd i ac d i st u r ba nc es as p r em a tur e v e n t ri c u la r c o n tr ac t ion s , p a ro xy s m a l an d n o npa r o xys m a l a t r ia l ta c h y c a rd ia , at r io v e n t ri c ul a r ( A V ) d is s oc ia tio n o r b lo c k , v e n t ri c u l a r t a ch yc a rd i a, an d v en t r ic u l a r f ib r i ll at i on .
III. DRUGS FOR TREATMENT OF MYOCARDIAL ISCHEMIA A. C h e m i s t r y 1 . An t i a n gi n a l a ge n t s in c lu d e n i t r it e s ( i .e . , o r ga n ic es te r s o f n i t ro us ac id ) s u ch as a m yl n i t ri t e, n i t ra t es ( i. e. , o rg a ni c es t e rs of ni t r ic a c i d ) s uc h a s n it r og l y c er i n a n d i s os o rb id e , β - b lo c ke r s s u c h as p ro p r an ol o l, an d c a l ci u m a n ta g o ni s t s s uc h a s ve r a p am il an d n i fe d ip in e ( F i gu r e 1 5 -3 ) .
a . Am yl n i t r i t e i s a v ol a ti l e a nd f la m m ab le li q ui d a d m i ni s te r ed b y in ha l at io n . It r e q ui r es s p ec ia l p r ec a ut io n s ( es p ec ia ll y r e s t r ic t io n o f sm ok i ng ) du r in g a d m i ni s t ra ti o n . b . N i t r o gl yc e r i n i s a ls o a v o l at i le an d f l am m a bl e l i qu id an d re q ui r es gr e at c ar e d u r in g s t or a ge . It m u s t be d is pe ns e d f r om i t s o ri gi n al gl as s c on t ai n er s a nd p r o te c t e d f r o m b od y h ea t . ( 1 ) W hen g i v en in t r a v eno u s l y , ni t r og l yc e r in r eq u ir e s t h e u se of s p ec ia l p la s ti c a d m i ni s t ra ti o n s et s t o a v o i d a bs o rp t io n a n d l os s o f po t en c y . ( 2 ) N i t r og l yc e r i n is m e ta b ol ic a ll y u ns t ab le an d un d e rg o es e xt e n s i ve f i rs t -p a ss m e ta b ol is m . 2 . P e r ip h e ra l va s od i la to r s in c l u de th e d i pi p er i di n o -d i p y ri m i d in e d i p y ri d am o le ( F i gu r e 1 5 - 3) . B . P h a r ma c ol o g y 1 . N i t r i te s a n d n i t r a te s a r e fa s t - ac t in g a n ti a ng ina l ag en t s t ha t di r ec tl y r el a x va s c ul a r s m oo t h m us c l e b y f o rm a ti o n o f t h e f r ee ra d ic al ni t r ic o xi d e ( N O ) , wh i c h is i d en t ic al t o e nd o th el i um -d e r i v ed r el a xi n g fa c t o r (E D R F ) . N O ac t i v a te s g ua n y l y l c yc la s e t o i nc r ea s e s y n th e s i s o f c yc l ic gu a no si ne m o n op h os ph a te (c G MP ) wi t h i n s m o o th m u s c le , re s u l ti n g i n d e ph os p ho r y l at i on of l i gh t c h ai n m yos i n a nd m u s c l e r e l a xa t i on . Th is c a us es p e r ip h e ra l p oo l in g o f t h e b l oo d , d im in is he d v e no us r et u r n ( r e d uc ed p re lo a d ), de c rea s ed s ys t em ic v as c u l a r re s i s ta nc e , a n d d ec re a sed a r te r ia l p r e ss u re ( re d uc ed af t e rlo a d ) . Th e s e va s c ul a r e f fe c ts : a . R ed u c e m y o c a r d ia l o x y g e n de m a n d b . C a us e r e di s t r ib u ti o n of c or o na r y b lo o d f lo w a l on g th e c ol l at e r al c o ro n a ry a r t e r ie s , i m p ro vi ng pe r f us io n o f the is c h em ic m yoc a rd iu m 2 . β - Ad r e n e rg i c b l oc k e rs d ec r ea s e s ym p at h et ic -m e di a te d m yo c a r di al s t im u la t i o n ( s e e C h ap t e r 1 3, I V . A. 2 , I V . C . 4 ) . Th e r es ul t in g n eg a t i v e i no t r op ic an d n ega t i v e c h r on o tr o pi c e f fe c t s re duc e m y o ca r di a l o xy g e n r eq u i re m e n ts . P.346
Figure 15-3. Structural formulas of antianginal agents. A. Nitroglycerin (Nitrostat). B. Isosorbide dinitrate (Isordil). C. Nifedipine (Procardia). D. Dipyridamole (Persantine).
3 . C a lc i um an t a go n i st s ( a l s o k n o wn as ca l ci u m c h a nn e l b l oc k e rs ) bl oc k c al ci um e n t r y th r o ug h t h e m e m b ra n o us c al c i um io n ( Ca
++
) c ha n ne ls of c o r on a r y and
p e r ip h e ra l v a s c u la r s m oo t h m us cl e . a . P e ri ph e r al ar t e ri o le s di l a te an d t o ta l p e ri p he r al r e si st a nc e d ec r ea se s , re d uc i ng a f t e rl o ad an d r e du c i n g m y o c a r di al o xyg e n r eq u i rem e n t s . b . C a lc iu m a nt a go ni s ts al s o i nc r ea se o xy g e n de l iv e r y t o t he m yo c ar d iu m b y d i la t in g c o r on a r y ar t e ri es an d a r te r i ol es . 4 . D i p yr i d a m o l e r el a xe s s m o o th m us c l es , de c re as i ng c o r on a r y vas c u l a r re s is ta nc e a n d i nc r ea s i n g c or o na r y b l oo d fl o w. C . T h e ra p e ut i c i n d ic a tio n s 1 . N i t r i te s a n d n i t r a te s a r e us ed to r el ie v e ac u te a n gi na l a t t ac k s , as p ro ph y l a xi s d u r in g a n ti c i p at i on of an a c ut e a n gi n al at t ac k, and f o r l on g - te rm m a n ag em e nt o f r e c ur r e nt an g in a p ec t o ris . 2 . β - Ad r e n e rg i c b l oc k e rs a r e us e d f o r a dj u nc ti v e p r o ph yl a xi s of c h r on ic st a b le a n gi n a p ec t or is in c o m b in a t io n wi t h n it r i te s o r n i tr a t es . Th e y ha ve al s o bee n s h o wn t o in c re as e s u r v i v al ti m e i n h e a rt fa i lu r e a nd a ft er m yo c a r di al in f a rc ti o n (MI ) . Th r e e β - b l oc ke r s a re p ro v e n to r e d uc e m o r t al i t y i n h e a rt f ai l u re an d a r e n o w c las s I r e c om m e nd a ti on s f o r h ea r t fa i lu r e . 3 . C a lc i um an t a go n i st s a r e us ed to t re a t c hr o ni c s t ab le an g in a p ec t o ri s an d va r ia n t ( P r i n zm e t al ) an gi n a . 4 . D i p yr i d a m o l e is n o w u s ed p ri m a r il y as a p la t el e t a g g re ga t io n i n hi bi t o r. P.347
D . Ad ve r s e e f f ec t s 1 . N i t r i te s a n d n i t r a te s a r e as s oc i at e d wi t h : a . C N S ef f ec ts , s uc h a s h e a da c h e , a pp r eh e ns io n, d i zz i ne s s , a n d we a k nes s b . C V ef f ec ts , s uc h a s hy p o t e ns io n , t ac h y c a r di a , p a lp i ta t io ns , a n d s y nc op e c . Sk i n e ff ec t s , s u c h as ra s h a nd de r m a t it is d . Me t h e m o g lo bi n em ia 2 . β - Ad r e n e rg i c b l oc k e rs a r e as so c i a te d wi t h : a . W or se n in g o f c on g es t iv e h e a rt fa i lu r e b . B r ad y c a rd i a a nd h y pot e ns i on c . R ed uc e d k i d ne y b lo o d f l o w a nd de c re as e d g lom e r ul a r f il t r at i on 3 . C a lc i um an t a go n i st s g e n er a ll y p r od uc e o nl y m i ld ad v e r s e ef f ec ts . a . W he n g i v en in c o nj u nc t io n wi t h β -a d re n er g ic bl o ck e rs , t h e C V ef f ec ts of c al c i um a n t ag o ni s t s m a y b e e n han c ed , re s u l ti n g i n b ra d y ca r d ia , h ypo t en si on , pe r iph e r al e d em a , c o n ge s ti v e he a rt f a il u re , A V b lo c k , a n d as ys t ol e . b . V e r ap a mi l m a y al s o c a u s e s l ee p le s s ne s s , m us c l e f a ti gu e , n y s ta gm us , a n d e m ot i on al de p r es s i on . Du r i ng t he fi r s t we e k o f t he r a p y, ve ra p am il i n c r e ase s s e ru m d i gi t al is c o nc e nt r a ti on s a n d m a y c a us e d ig i ta li s to xi c i t y . 4 . D i p yr i d a m o l e is a s s oc i at e d wi t h : a . G I ef f ec ts , s uc h a s n au s ea , v om i ti ng , an d d ia r rh e a b . C N S e ff ec ts , s uc h a s h e a da c h e a nd di zz i n e s s c . C V e f fe c ts , s uc h a s h yp o t en s i o n ( wi t h e xc e s s i ve d os es )
d . B le e di n g
IV. ANTIARRHYTHMIC AGENTS A. C h e m i s t r y. A n t i a r r h y th m ic a g en ts h a v e wi d e l y d i v e rs e c he m i ca l s t ru c tur e s . Th e y i n cl ud e re p r es en t at i v es o f t he fo ll o wi n g g r o up s: 1 . C i nc h o na al k al o i ds —s uc h a s q u in id i ne (a n o pt i c a l i s o m e r of qu i ni ne ) 2 . Am i d e s —s uc h as p roc a in am i de ( P ro n es t y l ), fle c ai ni d e ( Ta m bo c o r ) , a nd d i so p yr am id e ( No r p ac e ) 3 . X yl yl d e r i va t i ve s — s uc h a s l id oc a in e ( Xyl o ca ine ) a nd m e xi l e t in e ( Me xi t i l ) 4 . Q u a te r n a r y a m m o n i um s al t s —s uc h a s b r et yl iu m ( B re t yl ol ) 5 . D i io d o be nz yl o x ye t h yl a m in e s —s uc h a s am i oda r o ne ( C o rd a ro n e ) 6 . β - B lo c ke r s —s uc h a s , n a do lo l ( Co r g ar d ) , p r op ra n ol o l ( I nd e r al ) , e sm ol ol ( B r e vi b lo c ), an d a c e b ut ol o l ( S ec t r al ) 7 . C a lc i um an t a go n i st s— s uc h a s d il t ia ze m ( C a rd i ze m ) a nd v e r ap am il ( Ca l an ) 8 . H yd a n t o i n s —s uc h a s p h e n y to i n ( D il a nt i n ) B . P h a r ma c ol o g y. A n t i a r r h y t h m i c a ge n ts a r e c las s i f ie d a c c o rd i ng to t he i r a b il i t y t o a l t er t he ac ti o n p ot e nt i al o f c a rd i ac c el ls ( Ta b le s 1 5 - 2 a nd 15 - 3 ) . Th e m yoc a r di al a c ti o n p ot e nt i al c u r v e i s s h o wn in Fi g u re 15 - 4 . 1 . C l as s I A d r u g s (e . g ., q u in i di n e, p ro c a in am i de , d is o p y r am id e ) p r od uc e s t a te d e p en de n t s od iu m c ha n ne l bl oc ka d e t o sl o w t h e ra t e o f ri s e o f p ha s e 0 ( t he p ha se o f r ap i d d ep ol a ri z a t i on an d r e v er s al of t ra ns m e m b r a ne v o l ta ge ) an d p r ol on g r e p ol a ri z a t io n an d e f fe c t iv e r e f r ac to r y p e ri od . 2 . C l as s I B d r u gs (e . g ., l i do c a i ne , to ca in i de , m e xi l e ti ne , ph en yt o in ) ha v e a m i n im al e f f ec t o n t h e r a te o f r is e o f ph as e 0 an d s h or t en re p ol a r i zat i on . 3 . C l as s I C d r u gs (e . g ., f l ec a in id e , p r op a fe n on e ) h a v e a m a r ke d e f fe c t in s l o wi n g t h e ra t e o f r is e of ph as e 0 a nd in s l o wi n g c o n du c ti o n . Th e y h a v e l i tt le e ff ec t on r e p ol a ri z a t io n . En c a in i de wa s wi t h d r a wn f r om th e m a rk e t b u t is a vai la b le on a l i m i t ed ba s i s . P.348
Table 15-2. Major Effects of Antiarrhythmic Drugs on Electrocardiogram
QRS
QT
PRa
↑
↑
→↑
Disopyramide
↑
↑
→
Lidocaine
→
↓
→↑↓
→
↓
→↑
Drug Quinidine Procainamide Amiodarone
Phenytoin Tocainide Mexiletine Propranolol
↑, increased; ↓, decreased; →, no change. a
All antiarrhythmic drugs have a variable response, usually with little observable effect. However, lidocaine hardly ever affects the PR interval, whereas phenytoin and propranolol usually increase the PR interval. Reprinted with permission from Jacob LS. Pharmacology, 3rd ed. Malvern, PA, Harwal, 1992:102. Table 15-3. Effects of Antiarrhythmic Drugs on Electrophysiologic Properties of the Heart
Drug Class
Automaticity SA Purkinje Node Fibers
Effective Refractory Period Purkinje AV Node Fibers
Membrane Responsiveness Purkinje Fibers
IA
→↑
↓→
↑→↓
↑↓
↓
IB
→
↓
→↓
↓
→↓
IC
→
↓
↑
↓
↓
II
↓
↓
↑
↓→↑
↓
III
↑↓
↑↓
↓→↑
↑
→
IV
↓
→↓
↑
→
→
↑, increased; ↓, decreased; →, no change.
Figure 15-4. Myocardial action potential curve. This curve represents ventricular depolarization/repolarization. 0, phase 0 (rapid depolarization); 1, phase 1 (early rapid repolarization); 2, phase 2 (plateau); 3, phase (final rapid repolarization); 4, phase 4 (slow depolarization).
P.349
4 . C l as s I I d ru g s ( e . g. , p r o p ra n ol ol , na do l ol , e sm o lo l , ac e bu t ol ol ) a re β -a d r en e r gi c a n t ag o ni s t s t ha t c om p et it i v e l y bl oc k c at ec h ol am in e - in d uc ed s t im ul a ti o n of c ar d ia c β r e c ep t or s a n d d ep r es s de p ol a r i z at i on of ph as e 4 .
5 . C l as s I I I d r u g s ( e .g . , b r e t y li u m , am io d ar o ne , so t a lo l , i bu t il id e , d of e ti l ide ) i n c re as e a c t i on po t en t ia l d u r at i on b y p r ol o ng i ng re p ol a r i zat i on vi a b lo ck ade o f t h e d e la ye d re c ti f ie r p o ta s s iu m c u r re n t I K r . 6 . C l as s I V d r ug s (e . g. , v e r a p am il , di lt i a zem , b ep r i di l ) a r e c al c i um an t ago n is ts t ha t b l oc k t he s l o w i n wa r d c ur r e n t c a rr i ed b y c al c i um d u r in g p h as e 2 (i . e. , lo ng - s us ta i ne d d e p ol a ri z a t io n o r th e p l at e a u o f t h e ac t io n p o te n ti a l ), in c re as e th e e f fe c ti v e r e f r ac t o r y p e ri o d, an d d ep r e s s p h as e 4 d e po l ar i za t i on . 7 . D i go x i n a nd a de n os in e . D ig i ta li s g l yc o s i de s (d i go xi n ) e l ic it a va g o to nic r es po ns e t h a t i nc r ea s e s A V no d al r e f r ac t o ri ne s s . Ad e no si ne ac t s a t G -p r o te in - c o u ple d a d e no s i ne r ec ep t o rs to in c r ea s e A V n o da l r e f ra c to r i ne ss . 8 . M o r i c iz in e i s a t y pe I a n t ia r r h yth m i c b u t n ot A , B , o r C . I t e xh i b i ts p o ten t lo ca l a n es t he t ic a c ti v i t y an d m y o c a r di al m e m b r an e s t ab i li z i n g ac t i v i t y. Mo r i c i z in e r ed uc es f a s t i n wa r d s od iu m c u rr en t , de c r e as in g th e a ct i on p o te n ti a l d u ra ti o n a nd ef f e c t i v e r e f r ac t o r y p e ri o d, an d i nc r e as es th e P R, Q R S , an d Q T e i nt e r v a l. C . T h e ra p e ut i c i n d ic a tio n s . An t ia r r h y th m i c a gen t s a r e u s e d t o re du c e a b n or m a l it i es o f i m pu ls e g e ne r a ti on ( ec to p ic pa ce m a k e r a ut om a ti ci t y ) and t o m od i f y t h e d is t u rb a nc es o f im pul s e c o n du c ti on wi t h in ca rd i ac ti s s ue . ( In di c at io n s f o r s p ec if ic ag e nt s a r e g i v en i n Ta bl e 1 5 -4 . )
Table 15-4. Use of Antiarrhythmic Drugs in Common Cardiac Arrhythmias Arrhythmia
Treatment of Choice Alternatives I. Supraventricular
Atrial fibrillation or flutter
Digital to control ventricular rate, DC shock for conversion
Quinidine to suppress recurrences after DC shock
Paroxysmal atrial or nodal tachycardia
Vagotonic maneuver; digitalis
Verapamil (quinidine, procainamide, disopyramide, and β-adrenergic antagonists may all be useful, especially prophylactically)
II. Ventricular Ventricular premature depolarization
Lidocaine
Procainamide, quinidine, or disopyramide for prolonged suppression
Ventricular
DC shock
Lidocaine, procainamide, or
tachycardia
mexiletine III. Digitalis-induced Lidocaine or phenytoin
Procainamide is somewhat useful; β-adrenergic antagonists are useful but have a high incidence of adverse effects
DC, direct current. Reprinted with permission from Jacob LS. Pharmacology, 3rd ed. Malvern, PA, Harwal, 1992:102. P.350
D . Ad ve r s e e f f ec t s 1 . C l as s I A d r u g s ar e as s o c i a te d wi t h C V e f fe c ts ( e. g . , m y oc a rd i al de p res s i o n, A V b l oc k, v e n t ri c u la r d ys r h yt h m i as , as ys to le , an d h y p o t en s i o n) an d wi t h G I ef f e c t s ( e . g ., G I up s e t , n au s e a , v o m i ti n g, an d d i a rr h ea ) . I n ad d it i on : a . Q u i ni d i ne c a n c a u s e c i nc ho n is m , wi t h t i nn i tu s , c on f us io n , p ho t op h ob ia, h e a da c h e , a nd ps y c ho s is . b . P r o ca i na m i de c a n c au s e s y s t em ic lu p us er y t he m at os u s- ( S L E- ) li k e s yn d r om e . c . D is o p yr a m i d e c an c au s e c o n ge s ti v e he a rt f ai lu r e an d a n ti m u s c a ri ni c ef f e ct s . 2 . C l as s I B d r u gs ar e as s o c i a te d wi t h C N S e f fec t s ( in c l u di n g C N S de p r es s i o n, d r o ws i n es s , d is o r ie n ta t ion , an d p a r es th es i as ) , C V e f f ec ts (i nc l ud in g h yp o te n s i o n a n d c i rc ul a to r y c o ll a ps e ), a nd he p at i ti s . I n a dd i ti o n : a . L id o ca i ne c a n c au s e s e i z u re s a nd r es pi r at o r y a r r es t . b . T oc a in i d e c a n c au s e p n e um on i ti s a nd bl oo d dy s c r as ia s . c . M e xi l e ti n e c an c a us e h e p at ic in ju r y a nd bl o od d y s c ra s i as . d . P h en yt o i n c an c a us e n y s t ag m us , d ec r ea s e d m e n t al fu nc t io n , a nd bl o od d ys c ra s i as . 3 . C l as s I C d r u gs ar e as s o c i a te d wi t h : a . C V ef f ec ts , i nc l ud in g wo r s e n i ng of a rr h y t hm i as in pa t ie n ts wi t h v en t r icu l a r a r r h yt hm ia s , p a rt ic u la r l y p a t ie n ts wi t h a hi st o r y of MI . Th e y c a n wo r s en s in u s n od e d ys f un c ti o n a nd he a rt f ail u r e. b . V is ua l d is t u rb a nc es s u c h as bl u r r ed or do u bl e v i s i o n 4 . C l as s I I d ru g s a r e a s s oc i at e d wi t h : a . C V ef f ec ts , s uc h a s hy p o t e ns io n , A V bl oc k , a nd as y s t ol e b . R es p ir a t or y e f fe c ts , s u c h as b ro nc h os pa s m
5 . C l as s I I I d r u g s a r e as s oc i at e d wi t h : a . C V ef f ec ts , s uc h a s hy p o t e ns io n a n d i ni t ia ll y in c r ea se d d ys r h y th m i as b . G I ef f ec ts , s uc h a s n au s ea an d v om i ti ng 6 . C l as s I V d r ug s a r e as s o c i a te d wi t h C V a d ve rs e e f f ec ts , s uc h a s h y p ote n s i o n, b r a d yc a r di a , A V bl oc k , c o n g es ti v e he a r t f ai l ur e , a n d a s y st o le . 7 . C a r di a c g l yc o s i d e s (s e e I I . D ). Ad e n o si n e c au s es a s y s to le la st i ng le s s t ha n 5 s ec an d i s t h e t he r a pe u tic ob j ec ti ve . 8 . B ec au s e o f i ts p r o a rr hy t h m ic ac ti v i t y , mo r i c iz in e is re s e r v e d fo r p a ti e nt s wi t h l i f e- t h re a te n in g v en t r ic ula r a r rh y t h m i as .
V. ANTIHYPERTENSIVE AGENTS A. C h e m i s t r y. A n t i h y p e rt e ns i v e a g en t s v a r y s o wi d el y i n c he m i ca l s t ru c t ur e t ha t t h e y a re us ua l l y c la s s i fi ed b y m e ch a ni sm o f a c ti on r a th e r t h an c h em ic al c la s s ( Ta b le 1 5 - 5 ). B . P h a r ma c ol o g y. A n t i h y p e r t e ns i ve a ge n ts l o we r b l oo d p r es s u r e b y r e d u ci n g t o ta l p e r ip h e ra l r es is t an c e o r c a r di ac ou t pu t th r ou g h a v a r i e t y o f m ec h an is m s (Ta b l e 15 5). 1 . D i u re t i cs s u c h as th iaz i d e s c re a te a n eg a ti v e s o di um ba l an ce , re d uc e b l oo d vo l u m e , a n d d ec r ea s e v as c u l a r s m oo t h m us c l e r es p on s i v e n es s t o v a s o c ons t r ic to r s (see VI.C). 2 . V as o d il a t o rs s u c h as d i a z o xi d e a n d m i n o xi d il a r e po t ass i um c ha n ne l ac t i v a to r s t h a t p r od uc e m em b ra n e h y p e r po l a ri za t io n , wh e r ea s h y d r a la z i ne m a y s ti m u l a te f o r m a t io n o f E D R F ( N O ) t o de c re as e a r t e ri al r es is t an c e . H um an b ra i n n atr i u r et ic p e p ti de ( B N P ) v ia r ec ep to r s t im u la t io n a n d s o d ium ni t r op r us si de v i a re le as e o f N O a c ti va t e g ua n y l y l c y c la s e, f o rm in g c G MP t o r e la x b o t h a r te r io l es a n d ve i ns . 3 . P e r ip h e ra l s ym p a t h o l yt i c s i n t e rf e re wi t h ad r en e r gi c f u nc ti o n b y bl oc k in g p o st g an g li on ic ad r e ne r gic r ec ep t o rs (e . g ., p ro p ran o lo l , p r a z os in ) , l im i ti n g t h e r e l ea se o f n eu r ot r a ns m i tt e r s f r om ad r en e rg ic ne ur o n s ( e .g . , g ua n et h id in e ), o r d e pl e ti n g i nt r a ne u ro n al c a t ec h ol am i ne s t o ra g e s i te s (e . g. , r es er p in e ) . 4 . C e nt r a l α 2 - s ym p a t h o m i m e ti c s ( e .g . , cl o ni d ine , m e t h yld op a ) a p pe a r to m e d ia t e t h e ir e ff ec t s b y s t im u la t in g p re s y na p ti c α 2 - i nh ib i to r y r e c e p to r s, r es ul t in g in a n e g at i ve s y m pa t he t ic o u tf l o w a n d l o we r e d p er i phe r a l r es is t an c e. P.351
Table 15-5. Classification of Antihypertensive Agents by Their Mechanism of Action
Mechanism of Action
Drug
Vasodilators Arteriolar
Diazoxide (Hyperstat IV) Hydralazine (Apresoline) Minoxidil (Loniten)
Arteriolar and venous Peripheral sympatholytics
Nitroprusside (Nipride) Acebutolol (Sectral) Atenolol (Tenormin) Betaxolol (Kerlone) Bisoprolol (Zebeta) Carteolol (Cartrol) Carvedilol (Coreg) Doxazosin (Cardura) Guanadrel (Hylorel) Guanethidine (Ismelin) Labetalol (Trandate) Metoprolol (Lopressor) Nadolol (Corgard)
Penbutolol (Levatol) Pindolol (Visken) Prazosin (Minipress) Propranolol (Inderal) Reserpine (Serpasil) Terazosin (Hytrin) Timolol (Blocadren) Central α2-sympathomimetics
Clonidine (Catapres) Guanabenz (Wytensin) Guanfacine (Tenex) Methyldopa (Aldomet)
Calcium channel blockers
Amlodipine (Norvasc) Diltiazem (Cardizem) SR Felodipine (Plendil) Isradipine (DynaCirc) Nicardipine (Cardene) Nifedipine (Procardia) SR
Verapamil (Calan) Angiotensin II receptor antagonists
Candesartan (Atacand) Irbesartan (Avapro) Losartan (Cozaar) Telmisartan (Micardis) Valsartan (Diovan)
Angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors
Benazepril (Lotensin) Captopril (Capoten) Enalapril (Vasotec) Fosinopril (Monopril) Lisinopril (Prinivil) Moexipril (Univasc) Perindopril (Aceon) Quinapril (Accupril) Ramipril (Altace) Trandolapril (Mavik)
Endothelin receptor antagonist P.352
Bosentan (Tracleer)
5 . C a lc i um ch a n ne l b l oc k e r s ( e .g . , a m l od i pi ne , d i l ti a zem , f e lo d ip in e , i s ra d ip i ne , n i ca r di p in e , n if e di pi n e, v e r a pa m i l ) l o we r v a s c ul a r r e si s t a nc e a nd bl o od p re ss u r e v i a b l oc ka d e o f v o l ta g e -g a ted c a lc i um c ha n ne ls . A rt er i o le s a r e m o r e s en si t i v e t h an ve i n s. 6 . AC E i n h i bi t o r s ( e . g. , c a pt o p ri l ) b lo ck th e c on ve r s io n o f i n ac ti ve an g io te n si n I t o t h e p o te n t v as oc on s tr ic to r a ng io t en s i n II . Th e r ed u c e d a n gi o te ns in I I c onc e nt r a ti o n a l so lo we r s al do s te r on e c o nc en t r at i on , wh ic h l im it s s o di um r et e nt io n . 7 . An g i o t en s i n I I re c ep to r a n ta g o ni s t s ( e .g . , l osa r t a n) a re no n pe p ti de a nt a g on is ts o f t he A T1 an gi o te n s i n I I r e c e p to r s u bt y p e l o c a t ed i n v a sc ul a tu r e , m y oc a rd i um , b r a in , k i dn e y , a n d a d re na l gl om e ru l os a. Th e y p rod u c e v a so di l at i on , c au s e l os s o f s a lt an d wa t e r t o d ec r e as e p l as m a v ol u m e , a n d de c r ea se m y o g en ic ac t i v ity . 8 . E n do t h el i n re c ep t o r a n t a go n is t s (e . g. , bo sen t a n ) a re po t en t o ra ll y ac t i v e n o n pe p ti de en d ot h el in r ec e pt o r a n ta g on is ts . C . T h e ra p e ut i c i n d ic a tio n s 1 . A nt i h y pe r t en s i v e ag e nt s ar e u s ed s e pa r a te l y or i n c om bi n at i on to t r ea t h i g h b l o o d p r e ss u r e. 2 . Th e se ag en t s m a y a ls o b e a dm in is t e re d p a re n te r a ll y t o t re a t h yp e r t e n si ve e m e r ge n ci e s s uc h as m a l ig n an t h yp e r te ns i on , ec l am ps ia , o r th e s e v e re h yp e r t en s i on as s o c i a te d wi t h e xc e s s c at ec h ol am in e s . P a re n te r al t he r ap y m a y i n cl ud e s om e c om bi n at i on o f t h e f ol lo wi n g ag e nt s : a . Ar t e r i o l a r a n d ve no us va s o d il a t o r s u ch as nit r o p ru ss id e or bo se n ta n ( i . e ., p u lm o na r y a rt e r ia l h y p e rt e ns i on ) b . Ar t e r i o l a r va so d i la t or s uc h a s d ia z o xi d e o r hyd r a l a z in e c . D ua l α -a d r e ne r g i c- an d β -a d r en e r g ic - r e ce p to r b l oc k e rs s u ch as l a be t a lo l d . β - B lo c ki n g a g en t s u c h as p ro p r an ol o l e . G a n gl i on i c -b l o ck i ng a g e n t s u ch as t ri m e t ha ph a n D . Ad ve r s e e f f ec t s 1 . D i u re t i cs ( t hi az i d es ) c a n c a u s e a . Fl u id an d s ol u te im ba la n c e s , su c h as h ypo k a lem i a, h ype r c a lc em i a, h yp e r u ri c e m i a , h y p om agn e s e m i a , h y p on a t re m i a , a n d h y p e rg l y c em ia b . I nc r ea s e d s e ru m l o w- d e ns i t y l i po p ro t ei n (L D L ) c ho l es te r o l a nd t ri gl yc e ri d e c o nc en t r at i on s c . O t he r e f f ec ts (s e e V I .C . 4 ) 2 . V as o d il a t o rs a re as s o c ia t ed wi t h : a . G I up s e t b . C N S e ff ec ts , s uc h a s h e a da c h e a nd di zz i n e s s c . C V e f fe c ts , s uc h a s t ac h y c ar d ia , fl ui d re t en t io n, a nd wo r s en i ng of an g ina d . O t h er e ff ec t s , s u c h as n as a l c o n ge s ti on , he pa ti t is , g l om e ru lo n ep h ri t is , a n d SL E l i ke s yn d r om e 3 . P e r ip h e ra l s ym p a t h o l yt i c s a r e as s oc i at e d wi t h a v a ri e t y o f ad ve r s e eff e c ts , d e p en di n g o n t he s p ec i fic ag e nt . a . β - B lo c ke r s (e . g. , pr op r a no l ol ) a r e a s s oc i at e d wi t h :
( 1 ) C V ef f ec ts , s uc h a s br a d y c a rd ia , c o ng es t i ve he a r t f a il u re , an d Ra yn a ud p h e no m e no n ( 2 ) G I up s e t ( 3 ) B lo o d d y s c r as ia s ( 4 ) C N S ef f ec ts , s uc h a s d e p re ss io n , h al lu c i n at i on s , o r ga n ic b r ai n s y n d rom e , a nd t r a ns i en t h e ar i ng lo s s ( 5 ) O t he r ef f ec ts , s uc h as in c re as e d a i r wa y r es is ta n c e , i nc r e as ed s e r um tri g l y c e r id e c o nc en t r at i on s , de c re as e d hi gh - d en s i t y li p op r o tei n ( H D L ) ch o le s t e r ol c o nc en t r at i on s , an d p s ori a s i s ( 6 ) C a rd i ac a r r h y t hm ia s if wi t h d r a wa l i s a b ru p t b . P r az o si n is a s s oc ia t ed wi t h : ( 1 ) C V ef f ec ts , s uc h a s s u d d en s yn c o p e wi t h t he fi r s t d os e, pa l pi t at i on s , an d fl u id r e t e nt i on ( 2 ) C N S ef f ec ts , s uc h a s h e ad ac h e, d ro ws i n es s , we a k n es s , d i z z i ne s s , a nd v e r t ig o ( 3 ) A n tim u s c ar i ni c e f fe c ts an d p r i ap is m P.353
c . G u an e t hi d i ne i s a s s oc i at e d wi t h : ( 1 ) C V ef f ec ts , s uc h a s br a d y c a rd ia , or t ho s ta t ic hyp o t e ns io n , a nd s o di um a n d wa t e r r e t e nt i on ( 2 ) D ia r r h ea ( 3 ) A gg r a v a ti o n o f b r on c h i al as t hm a d . R e se r p i ne is a s s oc ia te d wi t h : ( 1 ) C N S ef f ec ts , s uc h a s n i gh tm a r es , d ep r es s i o n, a n d d r o ws in es s ( 2 ) C V ef f ec ts , s uc h a s br a d y c a rd ia ( 3 ) G I ef f ec ts , s uc h a s G I u ps e t a nd ac ti va t io n o f p e p ti c u lc e r ( 4 ) N as a l s t u f fi ne s s 4 . C e nt r a l α 2 - s ym p a t h o m i m e ti c s al s o h a v e a d ve r s e e ff e ct s t ha t va r y wi t h t he s p ec if ic ag e nt . a . C l on i d in e i s a s s oc ia te d wi t h : ( 1 ) C N S ef f ec ts , s uc h a s s ed a ti o n a nd d ro ws i n ess ( 2 ) D r y m o u th an d s e v e re r e bo un d h y p e r te ns i on ( 3 ) I ns om ni a , h ea d ac he , a n d c a rd ia c d y s r h y th m i as ( wi t h s u dd en wi t h d ra w a l ) b . M e t h yl d o p a i s a s s oc ia t e d wi t h : ( 1 ) C V ef f ec ts , s uc h a s or t h os t at ic h y p ot e ns io n an d b ra d yc a r di a ( 2 ) C N S ef f ec ts , s uc h a s s ed a ti o n a nd fe v e r ( 3 ) G I ef f ec ts s u c h as c ol i ti s ( 4 ) O t he r ef f ec ts , s uc h as he p at i ti s , c i r r ho s i s , C oo m bs - po s i t i ve h em ol y t ic a n em i a, a n d SL E - li k e s y n d r om e 5 . C a lc i um ch a n ne l b l oc k e r s a r e as so c i a te d wi th C V e ff ec t s, r es ul t in g i n h yp o t en s i o n, di z z i n es s , h e a da c h e , a nd fl us h in g . W he n g i v en wi t h β -a d r ene r g ic b l oc ke r s , t he i r e f fe c t s m a y b e e n ha nc e d, r es ul t ing i n b r ad yc a rd ia , h yp o t en s io n , p e r ip h e ra l e de m a , c o ng es t i v e h ea r t fa il u r e, A V b lo c k , an d a s ys t ol e . L o ng -t e r m a d m i ni s t ra ti o n i s as s o c i at e d wi t h r is k o f g i ng i v al h y p e r pl as i a a nd B a rr e t t e s op h ag us .
6 . AC E i n h i bi t o r s a r e as s o c i a te d wi t h : a . C V ef f ec ts , s uc h a s hy p o t e ns io n a n d s y nc o pe b . H em a to l og ic ef f ec ts , s u c h as n eu t ro p en i a a nd a g r an u lo c y to s i s c . O t he r e f f ec ts , s uc h a s c h ro n ic c ou g h, an o r e xi a, p ol y u r i a, ol ig u r ia , a c u te r e na l f a i lu r e, c h ol e s t a ti c j au n di c e, an d ( ra r el y ) a ng io e d e m a 7 . An g i o t en s i n I I re c ep to r a n ta g o ni s t s a r e as soc i at e d wi t h ad ve r s e e ff ec t s s im il a r t o A C E i n hi b it o rs , e xc e p t t h a t c o u gh an d a n gi oe de m a, wh i c h a re in d ep e nde n t o f a n gi o te n s i n a n ta go n is m , o c c u r l es s f r eq ue n tl y . 8 . E nd o th e li n r ec e p to r an t a go ni s ts ( Bo s e n ta n ) ha v e t he po t en t ia l fo r s e rio u s l i v e r i n ju r y a nd da m a g e t o a fe t us .
VI. DIURETICS A. O s m o t i c di u r e ti c s 1 . C h em i st r y. O s m o t ic di u r et ic s (e . g. , m a nn it o l, u r e a , g l yc e ri n , i s o s o r bi de ) a re h i gh l y po l a r, wa t e r -s o lu bl e ag en t s wi t h a l o w r e nal t h re s h o ld ( Fi gu r e 1 5 -5 ).
Figure 15-5. Structural formulas of osmotic diuretics. A. Mannitol (Osmitrol). B. Urea (Ureaphil).
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2 . P ha r m ac o l og y a . O sm o ti c d iu r et ic s a r e r e l at i v e l y i n e rt c h em ic al s t h a t a re f re e l y fi l te r ed at t h e g l om e ru l us a n d p oo r l y r ea b s o r be d f ro m t he r en al t u b ul e . B y i nc r ea s i n g t he o sm o la r i t y o f th e g lo m e ru l a r f il t r at e , t h e y li m i t t ub u l a r re a bs o r p t io n o f w a t e r an d t h us p r om o t e d i u re s is . b . B ec a us e t he s e ag e nt s i nc r e as e wa t e r , s o di um , c hl o ri d e , a nd bi c a r bo n ate e xc r e t i o n, th e y c a us e a n i n c r ea s e i n u r i na r y p H . 3 . T he r a pe u t ic i nd i ca t io n s . Os m o t ic d i u re t ic s ar e us e d t o: a . H el p p r e v e nt an d tr e at o l ig u ri a a n d a nu r ia b . R e du c e c e r eb r al ed em a a n d d ec r ea se in t r ac ra n ia l p r es s u r e c . R ed uc e i n t ra oc ul a r p re s s u r e 4 . Ad ve r s e e f fe c t s. O s m o ti c d iu r e ti cs a r e a ss oc i a t ed wi t h : a . H ea d ac he an d b l u rr e d v i s io n
b . I nc r ea s e d b lo o d v ol um e th a t wo r s e ns c on g es ti v e h ea r t f a il u re B . C a r b o ni c a n h yd r a s e i n h i bi t o r s 1 . C h em i st r y. C a r b o n ic a n h y d ra s e in h ib i to r s a r e a r o m a t ic o r he t e ro c yc l ic s u lf o na m i d es wi t h a pr om i ne n t t hi a di a z ol e n u c l eu s . Ac e ta z ol a mi d e is t he p r o t ot yp ic a l a ge n t ( F ig u re 1 5 -6 ) . 2 . P ha r m ac o l og y a . C a rb o ni c a nh y d r as e in h ib i to r s n o nc o mp e t i ti ve l y i n h i b i t t he en z ym e c a r b o ni c a n h yd r a s e . Th is p re v e n ts t he en zy m e fr o m p ro v id i ng t he tu b ul a r h y d r og en i on s n e e de d f o r e xc h a n ge wi th s o d iu m i n t he p ro xi m a l t u b u l e, r es ul t in g i n s od iu m b i ca r bo n at e d i u re s i s . b . B ec a us e t he s e ag e nt s i nc r e as e wa t e r , s o di um , p o ta s s iu m , a nd bi c a r bon a t e e xc r e t i o n, th e y c a us e a n a l ka l i ne u r in a r y p H . 3 . T he r a pe u t ic i nd i ca t io n s . Ca r bo n ic an h y d ra se i nh ib i to r s a r e us e d t o : a . R ed u c e ed em a (a s a dju n c t di u r et ic th e r ap y ) b . R e du c e in t r ao c u la r p re s s u r e ( r e ta r d a qu e ou s h u m o r fo r m a t io n ) c . Al k al in i z e t h e u r in e , en h a nc in g e xc r e t i on of ac i d ic dr u gs an d t h ei r m e tab o li t es d . Tr e a t m ot o r d is o r de rs s uc h a s p e ti t m al ep i le ps y, p a r o xy s m a l ch o r ea and d ys t on i a, pe r i od ic at a xi a , a nd s o m e c as e s o f es s e n t ia l t r em o r 4 . Ad ve r s e e f fe c t s. C a rb o ni c a n h y dr a s e in hi b it or s a re as s o ci at e d wi t h : a . C N S ef f ec ts , s uc h a s C N S d e p re ss io n , d r o ws in e ss , s ed a ti o n, fa t ig u e, d i so r ie n ta t io n , a nd pa r es t h es i a b . G I ef f ec ts , s uc h a s G I u ps e t , n au s e a , v o m i t in g, a nd co ns t ip a ti on c . H em at o lo gi c e f fe c ts , s u c h as b on e m ar r o w d e pr e s s i on , t h r om bo c y t op eni a , h e m o l yt ic a n em ia , l e uk op e ni a , a n d a gr a nu l oc yt os is d . H yp e rc h lo r em ic m e ta bo l ic ac id os is e . S ul f on am i de - t y p e h y pe r s en s i t i vit y r e ac ti o ns C . B e nz o t h ia d ia z id e d iu r e t i cs 1 . C h em i st r y a . Th e c om m o n l y u s e d th i a z id e d i u re t ic s a re p rim a r il y c l os e l y re la t ed b e n zo t h ia d ia z id e s w i t h va r i a b l e s u bs t i t ue n t s. Th e p r o to t yp ic al ag e nt is c h lo r o th ia z i d e ( F ig u re 15- 7 A ) . b . O p ti m al d i u re t ic a c ti v it y d e pe n ds on c e r ta in s tr u c t u r a l f e at u r e s. ( 1 ) Th e be n z e ne ri n g m us t ha v e a s u lf o n am i de gr o u p ( p r ef e r ab l y un s u bs ti t u te d ) i n p o si t io n 7 an d a ha l o gen ( us u al l y a ch l o ro gr o up) o r a t r i f lu o r o me t h yl g r o u p in p o si t io n 6 ( Fi gu r e 1 5 - 7) . ( 2 ) S a tu r a t i on o f t h e 3 ,4 - d o ub l e b o n d i nc re a s es po t en c y , a s wi t h h yd r o ch lo r o th i a z id e (F igu r e 15 - 7 B ).
Figure 15-6. Structural formula of acetazolamide (Diamox), the prototypical carbonic anhydrase inhibitor.
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Figure 15-7. Structural formula of (A) chlorothiazide (Diuril), the prototypical benzothiadiazide diuretic, and (B) hydrochlorothiazide (HydroDIURIL). Structural formulas of (C) cyclothiazide (Anhydron) and (D) quinethazone (Hydromox), related compounds with substituents that prolong activity and enhance potency.
( 3 ) L ip o p hi l ic s ub s t i tu en t s at po si t io n 3 o r m e thyl g r o u p s a t p os i ti o n 2 en h a nc e p o t en c y an d p r ol o ng ac tiv i t y , a s wi t h c yc l o th ia z i de ( F ig u re 15 - 7 C ) a n d b e n dr o fl um e th i a z id e . ( 4 ) R e pl a ce m en t o f t h e s u l f on yl g r o u p i n p os it io n 1 b y a c a r bo n yl g r o u p p r ol on g s a c ti vi t y, as wi t h q u in e th az o n e ( Fi g ur e 1 5 - 7 D ). c . A f e w s u l f am o yl b e n z a m i de s (e . g. , in da p am ide , ch lo r t ha li d on e ) h a v e ac t i v i t y s im i la r to th a t o f t h e b enz o t h i ad ia z i d es ( Fi gu r e 15 - 8 ) . d . B e nz o th i a di az i n es w i t h o u t t h e s u l fo n am i de g r o u p (e . g. , di a z o xi d e ) e xh i b i t a n t ih yp e r te ns i v e a c t i v i t y b u t l ac k d iu r e ti c a ct i vi t y ( F i gu r e 1 5 - 9) . 2 . P ha r m ac o l og y a . B en zo t hi a di a z id e s d i re c t l y i n h i b i t s o di u m a nd c h lo r i d e r e ab s o r p ti o n o n th e l u m i na l m em b ra n e o f t h e e a rl y s eg m e n t o f t h e d is t a l c on v o l ut e d t ub u le .
b . Th e se ag e nt s i nc r ea s e wa t e r , s o di um , c hl o ri de , po t as si um , a n d b ic a rbo n a te e xc r e t i o n a nd de c re as e c a lc iu m e xc r e t io n a n d u ri c a ci d s ec r e ti on . Th e y m a y c a us e a n al k al i n e u r i na r y p H b y i n hi bi t in g c a rb o ni c a nh y d r a se .
Figure 15-8. Structural formula of indapamide (Lozol), a sulfamoylbenzamide with pharmacological activity similar to that of the benzothiadiazide diuretics.
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Figure 15-9. Structural formula of diazoxide (Hyperstat), a benzothiadiazine lacking a sulfonamide group and diuretic action.
3 . T he r a pe u t ic i nd i ca t io n s . Be n z o th ia d ia zi d es a r e us ed to t re a t : a . C h ro n ic e d em a b . H yp e r te ns i on c . C on g es ti v e he a r t f ai l ur e ( as ad ju n c t i v e e d em a t h e r ap y ) 4 . Ad ve r s e e f fe c t s. B enz o t h i ad ia zi d es ar e a ss oci a t ed wi t h : a . C N S ef f ec ts , s uc h a s h e a da c h e , d i z z i ne s s , p a re s th es i as , d r o ws i ne s s , an d r e s tl es sn es s b . G I ef f ec ts , s uc h a s G I i r r it a ti o n, na u s e a , v o m i ti n g , a bd om in a l b lo a ti n g, a n d c o ns ti p at i on c . C V e f fe c ts , s uc h a s o rt h os t a ti c h y p ot e ns io n , pa l pi t a ti on s , h em oc on c e n tr a t io n , a n d ve n o us t hr om b os is
d . H em a to l og ic ef f ec ts , s u c h as bl o od d y sc r as ia s , l e uk op e ni a , t h ro m b oc y to p e ni a, a g r an u lo c y to s i s , a pl as t ic a n em ia , h em o l y ti c a ne m i a , a n d r as h e . Fl u id an d e l ec t ro l y t e im b al a nc es , s uc h as h ypo k al e m i a, h y po n at r em ia , a n d h yp e r ca lc em i a f . Mu s c ul a r c r am ps g . H yp e r ur ic em i a a nd ac u t e g o ut a tt ac ks h . H yp e rc ho l es t er o le m i a a n d h y p e r t ri gl y c e ri d em i a i . S ul f on am i de - t y p e h y p er s e ns it i vi t y re ac t io n D . L o o p d i u re t i cs 1 . C h em i st r y. L o o p di u re t ic s a r e a nt h r an il ic ac id d e ri v a t i v es wi t h a s u l fo na m id e s u bs ti t ue n t ( e . g. , fu r os em i de , b um e ta n id e ) o r a ryl o xya c e t i c a ci ds wi t h ou t a s u lf o na m i d e s u bs t it u en t ( e . g ., e th ac r yn ic ac id ; F ig u r e 1 5 -1 0 ) . 2 . P ha r m ac o l og y a . Th e se ag en t s ac t pr i nc i pa ll y a t th e t hi ck as c e nd i ng li m b o f t he lo o p o f H e n l e, wh e r e t h e y in h i bi t t he co t r a n sp o r t o f s od i u m, p o t a ss i um , a n d c h l o ri de f r o m t h e l u m i na l fi l t r a te . b . L oo p d iu r e ti c s i nc r e as e e xc r e t io n o f wa t e r , so di u m , po t as s i um , c al ci um , a n d c h lo r id e ; d ec r ea s e u ri c ac i d s e c re t io n ; a nd ca us e n o ch a ng e in u r in a r y p H . 3 . T he r a pe u t ic i nd i ca t io n s . L o op di u re t ics a re u s ed to t re a t a . E de m a f ro m c on g es ti v e h ea r t f a il u re , he pa t ic c i r r h os is , a nd r en a l d is eas e b . P ul m o n a r y e d em a a nd a s c i te s 4 . Ad ve r s e e f fe c t s. Lo op d iu r e ti cs a r e a s s oc ia t ed wi t h : a . Fl u id an d s ol u te im ba la n c e s , su c h as de h yd ra t io n , h y p o k a le m i a , h y p e rur i c em ia , h yp e r ca lc iu r i a, an d a z o te m ia b . C N S e ff ec ts , s uc h a s h e a da c h e , v e r t ig o , b lu r re d v is i on , ti nn i tu s , a nd (r a r e l y ) i r r e ve rs i bl e h ea r i ng lo s s c . H em at o lo gi c e f fe c ts , s u c h as t h ro m b oc yt o pe n ia a n d a g ra nu l oc yt os is
Figure 15-10. Structural formulas of loop diuretics. A. Furosemide (Lasix). B. Ethacrynic acid (Edecrin).
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d . C V ef f ec ts , s uc h a s o rt h os t a ti c h y p ot e ns io n
e . G I ef f ec ts , s uc h a s n au s ea , v om i ti ng , an d d ia r rh e a f . L eg c r am ps g . H yp e rc h ol es t e ro le m i a a n d h y p e rt r ig l y c er i de m ia h . S ul f on am i de - t y p e h y pe r s en s i t i vit y r e ac ti o n E . P o t as s iu m - sp a r i ng di u r e t i cs 1 . C h em i st r y. Th e p o t a s s i um -s p a ri ng di u re t ic s a re p te r i di ne o r p y r a z i ne de r i v a ti ve s ( e . g ., t ri am t e re n e, am il o ri d e ) o r s t er o id an a lo g a nt a g on is ts o f a ld os t e ro ne ( e . g ., s p i ro no l ac to n e; F ig u re 15 - 1 1 ). 2 . P ha r m ac o l og y a . S p i ro n o la c t on e a n d ep l e r e no n e ac t as c o m pet i t i ve i n hi b i to r s o f a ld os t e r o ne a t m i ne r al o c o r ti c o i d r ec ep t o rs in th e l a te di s ta l t ub u le an d c o ll ec ti n g d uc t . Th e y i n t er f e re wi t h al do s te r one - m ed ia t ed s o di um - p ot as si u m e xc h a ng e , d ec r eas i ng p o t ass i um s ec r e ti on . b . T r ia m t e re n e a n d a mil o r i d e, wh i c h a re n ot al do s te r o ne an t ag o ni s t s , ac t d i re c t l y o n th e l a te di s ta l t u bu le a n d c ol le c ti n g d uc t. Th ey d i s ru p t s od iu m e xc h a ng e wi t h p o t ass i um a n d h y d r og e n b y b lo c k in g s o di um c h an n el s a n d d ec r ea s i ng t he d ri v i n g f o r ce fo r s e c r e ti o n o f p o ta s s i um a n d h y d r og e n. c . Th e p o ta s s iu m -s pa r ing d iu r e ti c s i nc r ea s e bi c ar b o na t e e xc r e t i on an d c au s e a n a l k al i n e u r i na r y p H . 3 . T he r a pe u t ic i nd i ca t io n s . Po t ass i um -s p ar i ng d i u re t ic s a re us e d a . A s a dj un c ti v e th e ra p y t o t re a t e de m a f r om c ong e st i ve h e a rt f ai lu r e , h ep a t ic c i r rh os is , ne p hr o ti c s y n dr o m e, an d h y p e r al do s te ro n i s m ( p ri m a r y a nd s e con d a r y ) b . A s a dj un c ti v e th e r ap y ( wi t h t h ia z i d es a n d l oo p d i u re t ic s ) t o t r ea t h yp e r te n s i o n c . To t re a t o r p r e v e nt h yp o k a l em ia 4 . Ad ve r s e e f fe c t s a . S p i ro n o la c t on e i s as s oc i at e d wi t h : ( 1 ) H yp e rk al em i a ( 2 ) G I ef f ec ts , s uc h a s G I u ps e t, G I b l ee d in g , g ast r i t is , n au se a , a bd o m i na l c r am ps , a n d d ia r r h ea ( 3 ) E nd oc r i ne ef f ec ts , s uc h a s g y n ec om as t ia , m en s t ru a l i r re g ul a ri t ie s, and h ir s ut is m ( 4 ) C N S ef f ec ts , s uc h a s m en t al c o n fu si on an d l et h a r g y b . T r ia m t e re n e a nd am i lo r i d e a r e a s s oc ia t ed wi t h : ( 1 ) H yp e rk al em i a ( 2 ) G I ef f ec ts , s uc h a s G I u ps e t, G I b l ee d in g , n aus e a, an d v om i ti ng ( 3 ) C N S ef f ec ts , s uc h a s h e ad ac h e a nd di zz i n es s ( 4 ) I nc r ea s e d u r ic a c i d c o n c e n t ra t io n i n p a ti en t s wi t h g o ut y a r t hr i ti s ( wi t h t r i am t e re ne ) ( 5 ) Me t h e m o gl o bi n em ia in p at i en ts wi t h al c o h ol ic c i r rh os is ( wi t h t ri am t er e ne , wh i c h i n hi b it s d ih y d r o fo l at e re du c ta s e )
Figure 15-11. Structural formulas of potassiumsparing diuretics. A. Triamterene (Dyrenium). B. Spironolactone (Aldactone).
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VII. ANTIHYPERLIPIDEMIC AGENTS A. C h e m i s t r y. A n t i h y p e rl i pi d em ic a g en ts v a r y i n c h em ic al s t r uc t ur e a n d ar e us u al l y c l as s i fi e d b y t he i r s i t e o f a c ti on — l oc al l y in th e i n te s ti n e ( n on ab s or b ab l e ag e n ts ) o r s ys t em ic al l y ( ab s o r ba b le a g en ts ) . 1 . N o na b so r b a bl e a g e nt s a re b il e a c i d s eq u es tr a n t s . Th es e a ge n ts a r e h yd r o ph i li c , wa t e r - in s o l ub l e r e s i ns th a t b in d t o b i le ac i ds i n th e i n te st i ne . E xa m p l e s i n cl ud e c ol e s e v e la m h y dr o c hl o ri d e; ch o l es t yr a m i n e ch l o r id e , a b a s i c a nio n e xc h a n g e r es i n c o ns is t ing o f t r im e th yl be n z yl a m m o n iu m g r ou ps in a l a rg e c o po l ym e r o f st yr e n e a nd di v i n y lb en z e n e ; c o le s ti p o l h yd r o c h l o r id e , a c o po l y m e r of d i e th y l pe n t am i n e a nd epi c hl o ro h y d r in ( Fi gu r e 1 5 -1 2 ) , a n d ez e t im i be , a 2 a ze t i di no n e b lo c k e r o f t he g as t ro i nt es t in a l c h o le s t e r ol t r an sp o rt e r . 2 . Ab s o r b a bl e a g en t s i nc l ud e n i c ot i n ic ac i d ( b ut n o t t he s t r uc t ur a ll y si m il a r n i co t in am id e ) , t h e a r y lo x y i s o bu t y r ic ac id de r i va ti v e s fe n o fi b r a te ( p ro d ru g ) a n d g e m f ib r o z i l , t h e 3 - h y d rox y - 3 - m e t h ylg l ut a r yl -c oe nzy m e A ( H MG - C o A ) r e d uc t as e i n hi b it o r l o va s t at i n , a nd t h e f a tt y f is h o i ls c on t ain i ng la r g e am o un ts o f e i c os a pe n t ae n oi c ac i d ( E P A) a n d d oc o sa h ex a en o i c a c id ( D H A; F i g u r e 1 5 - 13 ) . B . P h a r ma c ol o g y. A n t i h y p e r l ip i de m i c a ge n ts in cr e a s e c a ta b ol i sm o r r e du c e l i p o p r ot e i n p r o du c t io n ( e . g ., lo v a s ta t in , g em f ib ro z i l ) o r i nc r e as e th e e f f ic i e nc y o f l i p o p r ot e i n r e mo va l ( e.g . , c h ol es t yr am i ne , c ol es t i p ol ) . C . T h e ra p e ut i c i n d ic a tio n s . Th es e a ge n ts ar e us e d ( i n c o n ju nc t io n wi t h a p p ro p r ia t e d i e t a nd e xe r c is e ) t o r e du c e p la sm a l ip o pr o te i n co n c e n t ra t io ns . D . Ad ve r s e e f f ec t s 1 . N o na b so r b a bl e a g e nt s ( e .g . , c ho le s t y ra m i n e, c ol es t ip o l ) a re as so c i a te d wi t h G I d i st r es s , in c l u di n g a bd om i na l b lo a ti n g, na us e a, d ys p ep s i a , s te a to r r he a , a n d c o ns ti p at i on o r d ia r r he a . 2 . Ab s o r b a bl e a g en t s (e . g . , s t a ti ns , fi b ra t es ) are as s o ci a t ed wi t h G I d is tr e s s , s ki n r a s h, an d l e uk op e ni a.
Figure 15-12. Structural formulas of nonabsorbable antihyperlipidemic agents. A. Cholestyramine chloride (Questran). B. Colestipol hydrochloride (Colestid).
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Figure 15-13. Structural formulas of absorbable antihyperlipidemics. A. Nicotinic acid (niacin). B. Gemfibrozil (Lopid). C. Lovastatin (Mevacor). D. Eicosapentaenoic acid (found in Promega, ProtoChol, and others). E. Docosahexaenoic acid (found in Promega, Proto-Chol, and others).
a . L o va st a t in an d o t he r s t a ti ns (e . g ., s i m v as ta t in, p r a vas t at in , fl u v as t a ti n , a t o r vas t a ti n, ) m a y i nc r eas e b l oo d t r a ns am in as e an d c r e at i ni ne ph os p ho kin a s e a c ti vi t y as s o c i a te d wi t h m y o p at h y , es pe ci a ll y wh e n c om b in e d wi t h fi b r at es o r c yc lo s po r in s . b . G e m fi b r oz i l m a y a ls o c au s e s k el e ta l m us c l e pa i n , b lu r r ed v is i on , a n d an e m i a . c . N ic o t i ni c a c id p ro d uc e s fl us hi n g as s oc ia t ed wi t h p r u ri t us , wh ic h m a y be a l le vi a te d b y o n e as p ir i n p e r d a y. To le r a nc e t o n ic o ti n ic a c i d d e v e lo ps in 1 - 2 we e ks . H i g h d os es o f n ic ot i ni c ac i d ( 2 g / da y) m a y p r od uce h ep a ti c d am ag e .
VIII. ANTICOAGULANT, ANTIPLATELET, AND THROMBOLYTIC AGENTS A. An t i c o a g ul a n ts . Th e m a jo r an ti c oa gu l an t a g en t s a r e h e pa r i n , l ow m ol e c u la r w e ig h t h e pa r i n (L M W H ) a n d t he o r al an t ic oa g ula n ts . 1 . C h em i st r y
a . H e pa r i n i s a l a rg e , h ig h l y ac id ic m uc o po l ys a c c h a ri de co m p o s e d o f s ulf a t ed D g l uc os am i ne an d D -g lu c u r o ni c a c i d m ol ec ul es e xt r a ct e d f r om bo vi ne lu n g a n d p o r ci ne in t es t in e ( F ig u r e 1 5 - 14 ) . b . LM W H f r ag m en t s ( 1 -1 0 k D a ) e n o xa p a ri n , d a lt e p a r in , t in z a p a r in , an d a r d e pa r i n a r e pr o du c e d th r ou g h c on t r ol l ed de p ol ym e ri za t ion o f h ep a r in , b u t t he y a re n ot i n t er c ha ng e ab l e wi t h hep a r in in th e i r ac t io ns an d u s e . ( 1 ) B ec au s e t he y a r e h igh l y ac i di c , he p a ri n a nd LMW H f ra gm e nt s e xi s t as a n io n s a t p h ys io l og ic p H a nd a re po o r l y ab s o r be d fr om t he G I t r ac t . Th us th e y a re us u al l y a d m i ni s te r ed pa r e nt e r al ly a s th e s od i um s al t . P.360
Figure 15-14. Structural formula of heparin, a mucopolysaccharide anticoagulant agent.
( 2 ) Th e ac ti o n o f h ep a ri n a n d L MW H f ra gm e nt s is q u ic k l y t er m i n at e d b y p ro t a m in e s u l f a te , a hi g hl y b as ic pr o t ei n th a t c o m b i ne s c hem ic a ll y wi t h t he m i n a pp ro xi m a t e l y e q u al a m ou n ts (m g: m g ) . c . Low m o le c ul a r w ei g ht h e pa r i n oi d s ( d a na p a ro i d ) ar e gl yc o s a m i no g lyc a n s e xt r a c t e d f r om po r c i ne m u c os a. d . L ep i r u di n i s a r ec om b i na n t - D N A -d e r i v ed 65 am i no ac id po l y p ep t id e n ea r l y i d en t ic al t o h i r ud i n , wh i c h b e lo n gs t o th e g r ou p o f is op o l y pe p ti d es o f th e l e ec h H i r u do m e di c i n al is . e . Ar g a t r o b a n is an L -a rg i ni n e -b as e d st r uc t u re . f . B i va l i r u di n i s a 20 am i n o a c i d p e pt id e . L e pi r udi n , b i v a li r ud i n , an d a r ga tr o b an a re s yn t he t ic th r om b in i n hi b it o r s . g . D r o t r ec o g in α is a r ec om b in a nt fo r m o f h um an - a c t i v a te d p r o te in C th at i n ac t i vat es f ac to r s V a a nd V I I Ia . h . F on d ap a r i nu x i s a pen t as ac c ha r id e t h at r es em b le s t he an t i th r om bi n bi n di n g r e g io n o f he pa r i n. i . C o um a r i n d e r i va t i ves, wh i c h a r e h ig h l y e f f ec tiv e , a nd t he r el at i ve l y un i m p o rt a nt i n d a ne d io n e d e r i va t i ves a r e o ra l a n ti co a gu l an ts . ( 1 ) Th e co u ma r i n d e r i va t i ve s (e . g ., w a r f a ri n , di c u ma r o l ) a r e wa t e r in s ol u bl e , we a k l y a c i di c 4 - h y d ro xy c o u m a r in la c to ne s (F ig u r e 1 5 - 15 ) .
( a ) Th e s e ag e nt s a r e c he m i ca l l y r e l a t e d t o vi t am i n K , a nd th e i r m e c h a ni s m o f a c ti o n is di r ec t l y re l at e d t o t he i r a nt a go n is m of t he r e du ct as e re sp o ns ib le f o r r e d uc in g v i ta m i n K e po xi d e to t he re d uc ed h y d roq u in o ne . ( b ) Th e s e ag e nt s a r e a ls o h ig hl y p r o te in bo u nd an d e xt e n s i v e l y m e ta b ol i ze d in th e l i ve r . Th es e c h a r ac te r is t ic s , i n a dd i ti on t o a re la t ive l y n a r ro w t h e r a pe u ti c in d e x, m ak e th e c ou m a r in de r i va t i v es s u sc ep t ib l e t o s i gn i f ic an t d r u g i nt e ra c ti on s. ( 2 ) P he n i nd i o ne r ep r es en t s a t ypi ca l i n d an e di o ne d e r i va t i ve ( F ig u r e 1 5-1 6 ) . 2 . P ha r m ac o l og y a . H e pa r i n c at a l y z es t he i n hi bi t io n o f th r om bi n b y a n ti t h ro m b i n I I I ( he p a ri n c o fa c to r ) , p r e v en t in g t h e c on v e r s i o n o f f i br i no g en t o fi b ri n .
Figure 15-15. Structural formulas of coumarinderivative oral anticoagulants. A. Warfarin (Coumadin). B. Dicumarol.
P.361
Figure 15-16. Structural formula of the indanedione-derivative oral anticoagulant phenindione (Hedulin).
b . LM W H f ra gm e nt s a r e u n a bl e t o c at a l yz e i n hi b it i o n o f t h ro m b i n, bu t th ey c a t al y z e i n hi b it i on b y a n ti t h ro m b in I I I o f f ac t o r Xa , wh i c h is r es po ns i bl e f o r c on ve rs i on of p r o t hr om b in to t hr o m b in . H e p a ri n p r ol o ng s b lo o d c l o t t in g t im e b o t h in v i v o a n d i n vi t r o , wh e r ea s L MW H f rag m en ts ha v e m i ni m al i n vi t r o ef f ec t .
c . G l yc o s a m i n o g l yc a n s ( D a n ap a r o id ) in hi b it f ibr i n fo r m a t io n b y i nh ib i ti on o f c l ot t in g f a c t o rs Xa a nd I Ia ( le s s e r e f fe c t) . d . L ep i r u di n , d e si r u d in , a r g a t r ob a n, an d bi va l i ru d i n b i nd to an d b l oc k th e c a ta l yt ic ac ti v i t y o f t h rom b in . e . D r o t r ec o g in in hi b it s pr o t e ol y t ic in ac t i v at i on of f a c to r s V a a nd V I II a . f . F o nd a pa r i n ux fa c i l it a te s i n hi bi t io n o f fa c to r Xa b y a n ti t hr om b in b y 30 0 -fo l d b u t h a s n o d i re c t e ff ec t o n th r o m b in . g . O r a l a n t ic o ag u l an t s in t e r f e r e w i t h th e vi t am in K - d e pe n de n t h e pa t i c s yn t h e s i s o f t h e a c ti ve c lo t t i ng f ac t o r s II ( pr o th r om b in ) , VI I , I X, an d X a nd t he an t ic o ag u la n t p r o t ei ns C a n d S . Th es e a g e nt s p r ol on g b l oo d c lot t i ng ti m e in v i v o on l y . 3 . T he r a pe u t ic i nd i ca t io n s a . H e pa r i n i s i nd ic a te d ( 1 ) F or t he pr o ph y l a xi s an d t re a tm en t o f v e no us th r o m b os is , p u lm on a r y em b ol is m , p e r ip h e ra l a r te r i al e m bo li s m , an d a t ri a l f ib r il l at i on wi t h em bo l i z at i on ( 2 ) To p re v e n t c lo t ti n g du r i ng a rt e r ia l s ur g e r y a nd c a r d ia c su r g er y ( 3 ) To d ia gn os e a n d t r eat d is s e m i na t ed in t r a vas cu l a r c oa gu l at i on ( D I C ) ( 4 ) To p re v e n t p os t op e r at i v e v e no u s t h ro m b os is an d pu l m o na r y em b ol ism ( i n l o wd o se fo r m ) ( 5 ) To p re v e n t c e re b ra l th r o m b os is du r in g a n e vol v i n g s t ro k e ( 6 ) A s a dj un c t t he r a p y t o p r e v e nt co r on a r y occ l us i o n wi t h ac u te MI b . LM W H f ra gm e nt s a r e a p p ro v e d fo r t re a tm en t of t h ro m b o em bo l ic c om pl ic a ti o ns a ss o ci at e d wi t h s u r g er y , u n s t a bl e a n gi na , an d MI . c . D an a pa r o i d is ap p r o ve d fo r p re v e n ti on o f d eep ve i n t h ro m b os is . d . L ep i r u di n an d a r g a t ro b a n a r e i nd ic a te d fo r tre a tm e nt o f p at i en ts e xp er i e nc in g h e p ar i n -i nd uc e d t h ro m b oc y t o pe n ia . e . D es i r u d in is a p p ro v ed o f t r ea t m e n t o f d ee p ve i n t h r om bo s i s. f . D r o t r e co g i n α is ap p ro v e d fo r r ed uc t io n o f m or t a li t y i n a du l t p at i en ts wi t h s e ve re s e ps is a s s oc i at e d wi t h ac u te o rg a n d ys fu nc t io n . g . F on d a pa r i n ux i s a p pro v e d fo r th e pr o ph yl a xi s o f de e p v e i n t h ro m b os is i n p a t ie n ts u n de r go i ng hi p fr a c tu r e s u rg e r y an d h ip o r k n e e r e pl ac em en t s u rg e r y . Th e r e is no an t id o te fo r fo n d a pa r i n ux - in d uc ed ble e di n g. h . Wa r f a r i n s o di u m is an o r al an ti c oa gu l an t i n dic a te d ( 1 ) F or t he pr o ph y l a xi s an d t re a tm en t o f v e no us th r o m b os is , p u lm on a r y em b ol is m , a n d a t r ia l f ib r i ll at i on wi t h e m b o li z a t io n ( 2 ) A s a dj un c t t he r a p y t o p r e v e nt co r on a r y occ l us i o n wi t h ac u te MI 4 . Ad ve r s e e f fe c t s a . H e pa r i n ( 1 ) H e pa r in is a s s oc i at ed wi t h : ( a ) H em a to l og ic ef f ec ts , s uc h a s h em o r rh a ge , l oc a l ir r i ta t io n , t h ro m b oc y t op e ni a , h e m a t om a, ul c e r a ti o n, e ry t h e m a , an d p ai n ( b ) O t h er e ff ec t s , s u c h as h y pe r s e ns i ti v i t y r ea c ti on s , f e v e r , c h i ll s , an d u r t ic a r ia ( 2 ) S e ve re ad v e r s e ef f ec t s m a y be t re a te d b y a dm i ni s t e ri n g p r ot am i ne s ul f a te , th e s p ec if ic an t id o te f or h epa r i n.
b . LM W H f ra gm e nt s a r e a b s o r be d m o re un i fo r m l y t h an he p a ri n , h a v e a l on g e r b i ol o gi c a l h a lf - li f e, an d m a y be as so c i a te d wi t h a l o we r in ci de nc e of s i de e f f ec ts t h a n h ep a ri n . P.362
c . D an a pa r o i d is c o n t ra in d ic a te d i n va ri ou s b le ed i ng di s o r d e rs a n d p at i en t s h yp e r se ns i ti v e to po r k p ro d uc ts . D an a pa r oi d c on ta i n s s o di um s u lf i te , wh i c h m a y c a us e l if e - th r ea t en i ng al le r g ic re ac t io n s . d . L ep i r u di n m a y be as s o c ia t ed wi t h c e re b r al bl ee d in g a n d a ll e rg ic , s k i n , a n d a n a ph y l ac t ic re ac t io ns . e . D es i r u d in wh e n e m p lo y e d wi t h ep id u r al /s pi n al a n es th e si a o r s pi n al pun c tu r e m a y l e ad t o e pi du r a l o r s pi n al h em a to m a , r es ul ti n g i n l o n g - te rm o r p e rm an e nt pa r a l y si s. f . D r o t r e co g i n α - i nd uc ed b le ed i ng is th e m os t co m m o n s e r i ou s a d v e rs e r e a c t i on . g . F on d a pa r i n ux wh e n em p lo y e d wi t h e pi d ur a l/ s pi n al an es t h es ia or s p in a l p u nc tu r e m a y le a d t o e pi d u ra l o r s p i na l h em a to m a, r es ul t ing i n l on g -t e rm o r p e rm ane n t p a r al ys is . Th e m os t c o m m o n a d v e rs e r e ac ti o ns as s o c i a te d wi t h fo n da p a ri n u x a r e b l ee d in g c om pl ic a ti o ns . h . Wa r f a r i n ( 1 ) Th e or a l a nt ic o ag u lan t wa r f a r in s o di um is a s s o c ia t ed wi t h th e f o ll o wi ng a d v e rs e e f f ec ts : ( a ) H em o r rh a ge ( b ) A no r e xi a , u rt ic a r ia , pu r p u ra , a n d a lo p ec ia ( 2 ) B le e di ng m a y b e t r eat e d b y a dm in is t e ri n g v i t am i n K ( ph y t o na d io ne ) , the s p ec i fi c a n t id o te fo r wa r f a r in s o di u m . B . An t i p l a t el e t a g en t s 1 . C h em i st r y. A n t i p la t ele t d ru gs in c l u de as pi r in , a s a l ic yl at e ; t ic l op id i ne , a t h i en op y r i d in e ; d ip y r i dam o le , a di p ip e ri d in o -d i ni tr o p y r im id i ne ; p r os t ac y c li n an al o gs , a n d t h e F ab f ra gm e n ts of h um an m o no c l o na l a n tib o d y to t he gl yc op r o te in I I b / II I a ( G P I I b / I II a ) r ec e p to r . 2 . P ha r m ac o l og y a . As p i r i n i n l o w d os es in h ib i ts pl a te le t c yc lo o xy g e n as e p ro d uc t io n o f t h ro m bo xa n e A 2 , p re v e n ti n g pl a t el et ag g r eg a ti o n. C y c lo o xy g e n a s e is pe r m a n en t l y i n hi bit e d fo r t h e l i fe of t he pl a te le t (7- 1 0 da y s ) . b . T ic l o pi d i ne an d c l op id o g r e l i nt e r fe r e wi t h a den o s i n e di p ho s p h at e - ( A DP - ) i n du c ed m em b ra n e -m ed ia t e d p la t el e t -f ib r i no ge n b i nd i ng , l e ad i ng to in hi b it i o n o f p l a te le t - pl a te l et ag g re g at i o n. c . Fa b f ra g me n t s ( e .g . , a b c i xi m a b ) a r e m on oc lo na l an t ib od i es a g ai ns t th e G P I I b / II I a r e c ep t or t ha t p e rm a ne n tly i n h ib i t p la t el e t- p la t el e t i n te r ac t io n . d . G P I I b/ I I Ia - r e ce p t o r an t a g on i s ts ( e. g . , t i ro f ib an , ep t if i ba t id e ) a r e r e ve rs i bl e a n t ag o ni s t s o f f i br i no g en, v o n W ill e b ra nd f ac to r , a n d o t he r ad he s i o n l ig a nd s a t th e G P I I b / I II a re c e p to r , l e ad in g to in h ib i ti on o f p la t el et a gg r e ga t io n . e . An a g r e l id e d ec r e as es p l at e le t p r o du c t i on . f . C i l os t az o l a nd i ts m e ta b ol i te s a r e t y p e I I I P D E i n hi bi t o rs th a t i nc r ea se c A MP , l e ad i ng to v a s o d il a ti on an d de c re as e d p la t el et a gg r e ga t io n .
g . T r ep r o s t in i l i s a p r os t a c y c l in an a lo g o f p r os t ag l an d in I 2 ( P G I 2 ) , wh i c h is a d i re c t va s o di l at o r a nd in h ib i to r o f pl a te l et ag g r eg a ti on . h . D i p yr i d a m o l e m a y inh i bi t pl a te le t ag g re g at i on v i a in h ib i ti on o f: ( 1 ) R e d bl o od c e ll ad e nos i ne , wh ic h ac ts o n th r om b o xa n e A 2 r ec ep t o rs o f p l at e le ts ( 2 ) P ho s p h od i es te r as e to i nc r ea s e in t ra c el lu l ar c o n ce n t ra t io ns of c A MP ( 3 ) Th r om b o xa n e A 2 f o rm a ti o n 3 . T he r a pe u t ic i nd i ca t io n s a . As p i r i n i s i nd ic a te d fo r r ed uc t io n o f m o r ta li t y i n po st - MI , p r o ph y l ac t ic tr e a tm e nt o f MI t o p re v e n t r e in f a rc ti o n , a nd p ro ph y l a xi s a ft er t r a ns ie n t is c h em ic a tt ac ks an d m i no r s t r ok e. b . T ic l o pi d i ne is a p p ro v e d to r ed uc e th e r is k o f th r o m b o ti c s tr ok e i n p a ti en t s wi t h d e m o ns t r at e d r is k b ut wh o c a nn o t t ol e r at e a s p i rin . C l op i d og r e l i s a pp r o ve d to r e d uc e MI , s t r ok e , a nd v a s c u la r de a th s . c . Ab c i x im ab is in di c a t ed f o r us e wi t h a s p i ri n a nd h ep a ri n i n p a ti e nt s u nde r g oi n g p e r cu t an eo u s t r an s l um ina l c o r on a r y an gi o pl as t y (P TC A ) o r a t he r ec t om y . d . T i r of i b an an d ep t i f iba t i d e a r e a pp r o ved f or t re a tm e nt o f ac u te co r on ar y s yn d r om e a nd pa t ie n ts un d e rg o in g P TC A . e . An a g r e l id e i s a pp r o ve d to r ed uc e p l at e le t c oun t in pa t ie n ts wi t h e ss ent i a l t h r om b oc y t he m i a . f . C i l os t az o l i s a pp r o v ed f o r t r ea tm e n t o f i nt e rm it t e n t cl a ud ic a ti on . P.363
g . T r ep r o s t in i l i s a pp r o ve d fo r t re a tm en t of pu lm o n a r y ar t e ri a l h y p e rt e ns io n . h . D i p yr i d a m o l e is i n di c a t e d f o r p r op h yla xi s a g ain s t t h ro m bo em bo l i sm a fte r ca r di ac va l v e r e pl ac em e nt . 4 . Ad ve r s e e f fe c t s a . As p i r i n i n d os es us ed f o r tr e at m e n t o f th r om bot i c d is ea s e is as s oc i at e d wi t h e p ig a st r ic pa in , he a rt b u rn , na us e a, r as h , n as al po l y p s , go u t , a nd an a ph y la c ti c r e a ct i on s i n s e ns i ti v e in di v i d ua ls . b . T ic l o pi d i ne is a s s oc ia t e d wi t h a h ig h i nc i de nc e o f a d v e rs e r e ac ti o ns , in c lu di n g d i a r rh e a, r as h, na us e a, v o m i ti n g, G I pa in , an d ne u t r op en i a. c . Ab c i x im ab is as s o c i a te d wi t h m aj o r a n d m i n o r b l ee d in g e v e n ts , t h r om b oc y t op e ni a , h um an a nt ic h im e ri c a nt i bo d y fo r m a t i on , c a rd ia c a r r h y th m ia s, A V b l oc k, b ra d y c a r d ia , d i ar rh e a , a bn o rm al t hi nk in g , a n d d i zz i n ess . d . T i r of i b an an d ep t i f iba t i d e a r e as so c i a te d wi th b le ed i ng e v en t s a nd ble e di n g c om p li ca t io ns , n a us ea , fe v e r , an d h e ad ac h es ; i n t h e c as e o f e p ti f ib a ti d e, wi t h h yp o t en s i o n. e . An a g r e l id e c a r ri es a wa r n i n g fo r us e i n p at i ent s wi t h h e a rt di s e as e a nd m a y l ea d t o se r io us ad v e r s e e ff ec ts , in c l ud i ng c o ng es t i v e he a r t f a il u re , MI , h ea r t b lo c k , f i b ri l la t io n , a nd ot h e rs . f . C i l os t az o l i s c o n t ra ind i c a t ed in pa t ie n ts wi t h co n g es ti ve he a r t f ai l ur e . In d og s , c i lo st a z o l p r od uc e d c a r dio v a s c u la r le s i on s , i nc lu di n g e nd o c a r di al h em or r ha g e a n d h e m o si d er i n d ep os i ti o n, n e c ro s i s o f sm o ot h m us c l e , i n ti m a l t h ick e ni n g, and a r te r i ti s i n th e c o ro n ar y a r t er y .
g . T r ep r o s t in i l m a y p r od u c e h y po t en s i o n a nd ble e di n g wh e n co m b i ne d wi t h va s o di l at o rs an d a n ti pl a te l e t d r ug s. In j ec ti o ns m ay b e e xt r e m el y p ai n fu l an d a ss o ci at e d wi t h i nf us i on s i te e r yth e m a , i nd u r at i on, r as h , b le e di n g a nd br u is i ng . h . D i p yr i d a m o l e is a s s oc i at e d wi t h na u s e a , e pi ga s t ri c p ai n , d i zz i n e ss , h ea d ac h e, a n d ra sh . C . T h r o mb o l yt i c a g e n t s 1 . C h em i st r y a . Al t e p l as e , r e t ep l as e , a n d t e ne c te p l as e a r e re c om bi n an t D N A -d e ri v e d t i s su e p l a sm i n og e n a c ti va t o r s ( t - P As ) c on s i s ti ng o f 5 27 , 35 5 , a nd 52 7 a m i n o ac i ds , r e s pe c t i v e l y , o f t h e n at u ra l t - P A, wh i c h c a t al y z e s c o n ve rs io n o f p l asm i no ge n to p l as m i n . b . S t r e pt o k in a se is a non e n z y m a ti c 4 7- k D a p ro t ei n de r i ved f ro m c ul t ur e s o f G r o up C β - h em o l y ti c s t re p to c o c c i . c . An i s t r e pl a se (a n is o y la t e d p la s m in o ge n s t re p to k in as e a c ti va t or c o m p lex; A P S A C ) i s a co m p le x o f h um a n l ys - p la s m in og e n a nd s t r ept o k i n as e wi t h a n a ni s o yl g r o up b l oc ki n g t he c a ta l y t ic s i te . d . U r o k in a se is a t wo - c ha i n s e ri ne p ro t ea se ob t ain e d f r om cu lt u r ed hu m a n k id n e y c e ll s. 2 . P ha r m ac o l og y. Th r o m b ol y t ic ag e nt s f ac i li t at e t h e c on v e r s i on o f p la sm i n og e n t o p l as m i n , wh i c h s ub s e qu en t l y h y d ro l yz e s f i br i n t o d i ss ol ve c l ot s . a . Al t e p l as e a n d r e t ep l as e a re re f e r re d t o a s c lo t s el ec t i ve b ec a us e c o n ve r s io n o f p l as m i n og en t o p la s m in b y t - P A is e n ha nc e d s e ve r a l h un d r ed - fo l d i n t he p r e s e nc e o f f i b ri n . b . S t r e pt o k in a se , wh ic h h as no en zy m a t ic a c ti v i ty, f o r m s a on e - to - o ne c om p le x wi t h p l as m i n og en , re s u l ti n g in a c on f o rm a ti on a l c h a ng e th a t e xp o s es th e c a tal yt i c s it e o f p l as m i n og en . Th e s ta b le a c ti v a t ed c om p le x s u b s e q u en tl y c le a ves f re e p la s m i no g en t o f or m p la s m in . c . An i s t r e pl a se i s a p rod r u g a c t i va te d i n v i v o b y d e ac y l at i on of t he an is ol e m o ie t y f r o m t he ac t i v e s i t e o f t he p la s m in o ge n -s t re p to kin a s e c o m p le x. Th e a c ti v a t e d c om p le x c o n v e r ts pl as m in o g en to pl as m i n i n t h e b l oo d s t r ea m o r th r om bu s . d . U r o k in a se , i n c on t r as t t o s t re p to k i n as e, is en zy m a t ic an d d i re c tl y co n ve r t s p l as m i n og en t o p la s m in . 3 . T he r a pe u t ic i nd i ca t io n s a . Al t e p l as e a n d r e t ep l as e a re in di c a t ed f or t r ea tm e nt o f ac u te MI a n d a c u t e m as s i v e p ulm o na r y em bo l is m . b . S t r e pt o k in a se is i n dic a te d fo r a c ut e MI , d ee p ve i n th r om bo s i s , a r te r ia l t h r om b os is , a nd a rt e r ia l e m bo li , e xc e pt t ho se o rig i na t in g fr o m t he le f t s ide o f t h e h e a r t. c . An i s t r e pl a se i s i n di c at e d fo r tr e at m en t o f a cu te MI a n d l ys is o f co r on a ry a r t e r ia l t h r om b i. d . U r o k in a se is i n di c a t ed f o r t r ea tm e n t o f co r o nar y a r t e r y th r om b os is a n d p u lm o na r y em bo l i. P.364
4 . Ad ve r s e e f fe c t s a . t - P As a r e as s o c i a te d wi t h : ( 1 ) I nt e rn a l b le e di ng o f th e G I a n d g en i to u ri n a r y tr a c t, r et r o pe r i to ne a l b le ed i ng , an d i n t ra c ra n ia l b le e di n g ( 2 ) S up e r fi c i al bl e ed i ng a t c a t he t er in s er t io n s i tes , ar t e ri a l p un c t u r es , a nd s u r g ic al s i te s ( 3 ) O t he r ad v e r s e e ff ec ts , in c l ud i ng h ype r s e ns i tiv i t y r e a c t io n s, na us e a, vo m it i ng , h yp o t en s i o n, an d fe v e r b . S t r e pt o k in a se m a y be as s o c i a t ed wi t h : ( 1 ) I nt e rn a l a nd s u pe r f ic ia l bl ee d in g [ s e e V II I . C .4 .a . ( 1 ) a nd ( 2 )] ( 2 ) A ll e rg ic r ea c ti on s , i nc l ud in g b r o nc ho sp as m , an g io n eu r o ti c e de m a , u r t ic a r ia , h e a da c h e , a nd de la y e d h y p e r s e ns i ti vi t y r ea c t i ons c . An i s t r e pl a se m a y be a s s o c i at e d wi t h: ( 1 ) I nt e rn a l a nd s u pe r f ic ia l bl ee d in g [ s e e V II I . C .4 .a . ( 1 ) a nd ( 2 )] ( 2 ) C a rd i ac a r r h y t hm ia s a n d h y p o te ns i on ( 3 ) A ll e rg ic t y p e r e ac ti o ns s u c h as b r o nc ho sp as m , a ng i on e ur o ti c e de m a , ur t i c a r ia , a n d d el a y e d p u rp u ri c ra s h d . U r o k in a se m a y be as s oc i at e d wi t h : ( 1 ) I nt e rn a l a nd s u pe r f ic ia l bl ee d in g [ s e e V II I . C .4 .a . ( 1 ) a nd ( 2 )] ( 2 ) A ll e rg ic r ea c ti on s l ead i ng t o b r on ch os p asm an d s k i n ra s h
IX. ANTIANEMIC AGENTS A. C h e m i s t r y. Th e m a jor a n ti a ne m i c a ge n ts a r e ir o n pr e pa r a ti on s , c y an o c o b al a m i n ( vi t a m i n B 1 2 ) , f ol ic ac id , a n d h em a to p oi e ti c g ro wt h f ac t or s (e r yt h r o p o i e t in , c ol o n ys t i m ul a t in g fa c t o rs , and i n te r l e uk i n 1 1 ). 1 . M o s t i r o n p r e pa r a t i on s co n s is t o f f e r r ou s sa l t s , wh i c h a r e b et t e r a bs o r be d f r o m t he G I t ra c t t ha n f e rr i c s al ts o r e le m e n ta l i r on . P a re n te r al i ro n p r ep a ra t i on s — i n cl ud i ng so d i um f e r r ic g l u c on a te c o m p l e x i n s uc r os e (F e r r l ec i t ) , i r o n su c r o se ( S a c ch a r a te ) , a n d i r o n d e x t r an ( I N Fe D , D ex f e r ru m ) — s h ou l d b e em p lo yed o nl y wh e n c le a rl y i nd ic a t ed . a . Typ i c al or a l p r ep a ra t io n s i nc lu d e f e r r o us su l fa t e ( Fe os ol ) , fe r r o u s g lu c o na t e ( F e r go n ) , a nd f e r r ou s fum a r a t e ( F eo s t a t ). b . W hen p a re n te r a l a dm in i s t r a ti o n is in di c at e d, so d i u m f e r r ic g lu c o na t e i s p r e f er r e d o v e r i r o n de x tr a n be c au s e it is a s s oc ia t e d wi t h a l o we r r isk o f a n a ph y l ac t ic re ac t io n . I ro n s uc r o se m a y al s o h av e a be t t er s a f et y a n d ad v e r s e e f f ec t p r o fi le t ha n i r on de xt r a n . 2 . C ya n o c o b a l a mi n ( v i ta m in B 1 2 ) is a nu cl e ot i de- l ik e m ac r om ol ec u le wi t h a m o di f ie d p o r ph y r i n u n it ( a c o r r in ri n g ) c on t ai ni n g a tr i v a le nt c ob al t at om . A c y a ni de i o n i s a ls o c o o rd in a te d to th e c ob a lt a t om , a s is a b e n zim id azo l e g ro up . Th e b e n z im id a zo l e g r o up is bo nd e d t o a n α -r i b os y l ph os ph a t e. 3 . F ol i c a c id c o ns is ts of t h r ee m a jo r c om p on e nt s : a pt e ri d in e n uc l eu s b ond e d t o th e n i t ro g en o f p -a m i n ob e n zo i c ac i d, wh i c h is bo n ded t h ro u gh an am id e l in kag e to g l u ta m i c ac i d ( F ig u re 15 -1 7 ) .
4 . E p oe t i n α an d d a r b ep o e t in α a re gl y c o pr o te in s p r o du ce d v ia r ec om bin a n t D N A t e ch n ol o g y . E p oe t in α ( 16 5 am in o a c i ds ; 3 0 .4 k Da ) i s id e nt ic al t o n at u r al e r y t h r op o ie t in . 5 . C ol o n y -s t im ul a ti n g f ac t o r s f i l g ra s t im an d p e g fi l g r a s ti m (g r an u lo c yte c o l on y s t im ul a ti n g f ac t or ; G - C SF ) a nd sa r g r am o s ti m (gr a n ul oc y t e - m a c r o ph a ge c o lo n y s t im ul a ti n g f ac t or ; G M- C S F ) a re gl yc o pr o te i ns p ro d uc e d v i a re c o m b i na n t D N A t e ch n ol o g y .
Figure 15-17. Structural formula of folic acid, an antianemic agent.
P.365
6 . O p r e l ve ki n (i n t e r le u ki n 1 1) is a r ec om bi n an t D N A - p r o du ce d n o ng l y cos y l a te d p o l yp ep ti d e g r o wt h fa c t or t h at di f f er s f r om th e n at u r al c y to k i n e b y o ne am i n o a c i d . B . P h a r ma c ol o g y 1 . I r on p r ep a r a ti o n s ( f er r o us s a l ts ) a r e r e ad i l y ab s o rb ed f r om t h e G I t ra c t a nd s t o re d i n t h e b on e m a r row, l i v e r , an d s pl e en as fe r r i t i n a n d h em o si d e r in. Th e y a r e s u bs eq u en t l y i nc o r po r ate d as n e ed e d i nt o h em og l ob i n , wh e r e th e i r on r ev e r s i bl y b i nd s m ol ec u la r o xy g e n . A l ac k o f b o d y i r on c a us e s i r o n- d ef ic i en c y an em ia wi t h h yp o ch r om ic , m ic r oc y t ic r e d bl oo d c el ls , wh i c h t ra n s p o r t o xyg e n p oo r l y. 2 . C ya n o c o b a l a mi n is re a di l y ab s or b ed f ro m t h e G I t r ac t i n t h e p r es en c e o f i n t ri ns ic f a c to r ( Ca s tl e f ac t o r ), a g l y c op r o te in p ro d uc ed by g a s t ri c p ar i et a l c e l ls tha t is n e ce ss a r y fo r G I a bs o r pti o n o f c y a no c ob al am i n. a . C ya n oc ob al am i n is t ran s po r t ed to ti s s u e b y t ran s c o ba l am in II . It is es s e n t ia l f o r c e ll gr o wt h , fo r m a in t ai n in g no r m a l n e r ve c el l m ye l in , an d f o r t h e m e t ab o li c f u nc t io ns o f f ol a te . b . L ack of di e ta r y c y a noc o ba l am in (o r la ck of in t ri n s i c f ac t or ) ca us es a v i ta m in B 1 2 d e f ic ie nc y a nd m e ga l ob la s ti c a ne m i a wi t h h y p e rc h r o m i c, m a cr oc y t i c, im m a t u r e r ed b l oo d c el ls . D em y e li n at io n of ne r v e c e ll s a ls o o cc u rs , c a us in g i r r e v e rs ib le C N S d a m a g e. 3 . F ol i c a c id is re a di l y ab s o rb ed f r om t h e G I t ra c t , t r an s p o r te d t o t is su e , a n d s to r e d i n t ra c el lu l ar l y . It is a p r ec u rs o r o f s e v e ra l c oe n z ym es ( de r i v a ti v e s o f t e t rah yd r o f ol ic a c id ) th a t a r e i n v ol v e d i n s in g le c a r bo n a t om tr a ns f e rs . A l ac k o f di e t ar y fo l ic ac id
c a us es fo li c a c i d d e fi c i en c y an d m e ga lo b la s t ic an e m i a wi t h h yp e rc h ro m i c, m ac r oc yt i c , im m a tu r e red b lo od ce ll s . F ol ic ac id d e f ic ie nc y c au se s n o n eu r o lo g ic i m pa i rm en t , b u t f ol ic ac id d ef ic i en c y i s a ss oc ia t ed wi t h bi r t h d ef e c t s ( e .g ., s pi na b i f id a ). 4 . E nd o ge n ou s e r y t h ro po i e ti n , wh o s e p r od uc t io n i n t h e k i d ne y s is s t im ul at e d b y b l oo d l os s , a ne m i a , a nd h y p o xi a , is m i m i ck ed b y e p o e ti n α a n d d a r be p oet i n α to i n c re as e p r ol i fe r a ti on and d if f e re n ti a ti on o f e r y t h ro i d p r og e ni t o r c e ll s . 5 . F il g r as t i m a nd p eg f i lg r a s t im in c re as e p r ol i fe ra t i on , d i ff e r en t ia t io n , a nd a c ti va t io n o f ne u tr o ph i ls i n pa t ie n ts e xh i b i t in g n e u t r o pe ni a a f t er un d e rg oin g m ye l os up p r es s i v e c he m ot h e r ap y. S a r g ra m os t im s t im ul a te s m at u r at io n o f g r a nu l oc y t es an d m ac r op h a ge s a nd ac ti v a t io n o f m a tu r e c el ls via c e ll s u rf a ce r e c ep t or s . 6 . O p r e l ve ki n i nc r e as es p l at e le t p r o du c t i on v i a st i m u l at i on of he m a t op o iet i c s te m c e ll s, m e ga k a r y o c y t es p ro g e ni to r c e ll s , a nd m a tu ra t i on of m e ga ka r y o c yt es. C . T h e ra p e ut i c i n d ic a tio n s 1 . I r on p r ep a r a ti o n s ( f er r o us s a l ts ) a r e u s e d t o tr e a t i r on - d ef ic i en c y a n em i a. 2 . C ya n o c o b a l a mi n is us e d t o t r ea t m e ga l ob la s tic an em i a r es u lt i ng f ro m v i t a m i n B 1 2 de f ic ie nc y . 3 . F ol i c a c id is u s e d to tr e a t m eg a lo bl as t ic an em i a re s ul ti n g f r om fo li c a cid d e f ic ie nc y . 4 . E p oe t i n α an d d a r b ep o e t in α a re ap p ro v e d fo r t r ea tm e nt o f a ne m i a re s ul t in g f r o m ch r o ni c r e na l f ai l u re . 5 . F il g r as t i m a nd p eg f i lg r a s t im a re ap p ro v e d for t r e at m e n t o f c h ro ni c a nd c h em ot h e ra p y - in d uc ed ne u t r op en i a. S a r g ra m os t im is ap p r o v ed fo r m y e l oid r e c on s t i tu t io n i n p a ti e nt s wi t h n on - H o dg k i n o r H od g k i n d is e as e o r wh o h ave u n d er g on e b o ne m a r ro w t r a ns p la n ta t io n . 6 . O p r e l ve ki n i s a pp r o ve d fo r p re v e n ti on o f c h em o th e r ap y - r e la t ed t h r om b oc y t op e ni a . D . Ad ve r s e e f f ec t s 1 . I r on p r ep a r a ti o n s g i ve n o ra ll y a r e as s oc ia t ed wi t h G I e f fe c ts , s uc h as G I d i st r es s , n au s e a , h ea r t bu r n , d i ar r h ea , a n d co ns t ip a t io n . P a re n te r a l i ro n a d m i ni s t ra ti o n m a y b e as s o c i a te d wi t h f a ta l a n ap h yl a c t i c an d a n ap h y l act o i d r e a ct i on s . 2 . C ya n o c o b a l a mi n on l y r a r el y p r od uc es ad ve r s e e f f ec ts . 3 . F ol i c a c id is a s s oc i ate d wi t h o n l y ra r e a ll e r gi c r e ac t io ns af t e r p a re n te ra l a d m i ni s t ra ti o n . P.366
4 . E p oe t i n α an d d a r b ep o e t in α m a y in c re as e bl o od p re s s u re , wh i ch s h ou l d b e m o ni t o re d a nd e ff ec t i v ely m a na g ed . 5 . F il g r as t i m m a y p r o duc e a l le r gi c r e ac ti o ns i n vo l vi ng s k in , re s p i ra t o r y , o r c a r di o vas c u l ar s ys t em s a f t e r i ni t ia l o r s ub s eq ue nt d os in g . F i l g ra s t im an d p e g f i lg r a s ti m a r e c on t r ai n di c a t ed in pa t ie n ts al ler g i c t o E s c he r ic h ia c o li - de r i v e d p r o t ei ns .
6 . O p r e l ve ki n p r o du c e s f l u id re t en t io n , wh ic h m ay l e a d t o p e ri p he r al ed em a a n d d ys p ne a . P.367
STUDY QUESTIONS D i r e c t i on s fo r q ue s t io ns 1 - 7 : E ac h o f t h e q ue s tio n s , s t a te m e n ts , o r in c om p le t e s t a te m e n ts i n th is s ec t ion c a n b e c o r re c t l y a ns we r e d or co m p le t e d b y o ne o f th e s u gg es t ed an s we r s o r phr a s es . Ch oo s e t he be s t a n s we r . 1 . C a lc i um ch a n ne l b l oc k e r s h a ve a l l o f t he f ol l ow i n g c ha r a c te r i s t ic s e x c ep t ( A ) t h e y b l oc k t he s l o w in wa r d c u rr e nt c a r r ie d b y c al ci um du r i ng ph as e 2 o f t he c a r di ac ac ti o n p ot e nt i al . ( B ) t h e y d il a te p er i ph e ra l a r t e ri ol es an d re d uc e t o t a l p e ri p he r al r es is t an c e . ( C ) t h e y c o ns t ri c t c o r on ar y a r t e ri e s a nd ar t e ri o le s a n d d ec r ea s e o xy g e n de l i v e r y to t h e m yo c a r di um . ( D ) t h e y a r e u s e f ul in t rea t i ng s t ab l e a ng i na pe cto r i s a nd P ri n z m e t al an g in a . ( E ) a d ve rs e e f fe c t s i nc lud e ag g ra va t io n o f c o ng es t i v e h ea r t fa il u r e. V i e w A n s we r 1 . T h e a n sw e r i s C [ se e] . 2 . T h e t e rm i n a ti o n o f he p a r in a c t i vi t y b y p r o t a m i n e su l f a t e i s t h e r e s ul t o f ( A ) a c h el a ti ng ac t io n . ( B ) t h e in h ib i ti o n o f g as tr o i nt e s t i na l a bs o rp t io n o f h e pa r in . ( C ) t h e d is pl ac em e nt of h e p ar i n -p la sm a p r ot e in bi n d i n g. ( D ) a n a c i d -b as e i n te r ac ti o n . ( E ) t h e p ro t h ro m b i n- l ik e a c ti v i t y o f p r ot am i ne . V i e w A n s we r 2 . T h e a n sw e r i s D [ se e] . 3 . W h ic h o f t h e f o l low i n g c a r d i o vas c u la r ag e n ts is c la s si f i ed c he m ic a ll y a s a g l yc o s i d e ? ( A ) N i f ed ip i ne ( B ) D i go xi n ( C ) F l ec ai ni d e ( D ) C h o le s t y r a m i n e ( E ) W arf a r in V i e w A n s we r 3 . T h e a n sw e r i s B [ se e] . D i g i ta l is la n a t a. D i g i ta l is p u r p u r ea , S t r o ph a n th u s g r a t us . 4 . C a r d ia c g l yc o s i de s m a y b e u s e fu l in t r e a t i ng a ll o f t h e f o l low i ng c on d i ti o n s e xc e pt ( A ) a t ri a l f lu t te r . ( B ) p a ro xy s m a l at r ia l t a c h y c a r di a . ( C ) c on g es ti v e he a r t f ai lu r e . ( D ) ve n t r ic ul a r t ac h y c a r di a . ( E ) a t ri a l f ib r il l at i on . V i e w A n s we r 4 . T h e a n sw e r i s D [ se e] . 5 . I n ge s t io n o f w hi c h o f th e f o l l ow i ng vi t a mi n s s h ou l d be a vo i de d b y a p a ti e n t ta k in g an o ra l an t ic o a gu l a nt ? ( A ) V i ta m i n A ( B ) V i ta m i n B ( C ) V i t am in D
( D ) V i t am in E ( E ) V i ta m i n K V i e w A n s we r 5 . T h e a n sw e r i s E [s e e VI I I .4 . e] . 6 . T h e s t r u c tu r e sh ow n is c h a r ac t e r is t i c o f w h ic h o f t he f o ll ow i n g a ge n ts ?
( A ) O s m o t ic d i ur e ti c s ( B ) C a r bo n ic a n h y d ra s e in h ib i to r s ( C ) Th i a z i de s ( D ) L o op di u re t ic s ( E ) P o ta s s i um -s pa r i ng diu r e ti c s V i e w A n s we r 6 . T h e a n sw e r i s C [ se e] . 7 . W h ic h o f t h e f o l low i n g d i u re t ic s i s mo s t s i m il a r in ch e mi c a l s t r u ct u r e to t he ant i h yp e r t e n s i ve a ge n t d ia z ox i d e? ( A ) F u ro s e m i d e ( B ) S p i ro no l ac to n e ( C ) Ma n n i t ol ( D ) A c et a z o la m i d e ( E ) C h lo r o th i a z id e V i e w A n s we r 7 . T h e a n sw e r i s E [s e ea n d] . P . 36 8
D i r e c t i on s fo r q ue s t io ns 8 - 11 : Th e q ue s ti on s an d in c o m p l et e s ta t em e nts in t hi s s ec t io n c a n b e c o r r ec t l y a n s we r e d o r c om pl e te d b y o n e o r m o re of t he s u g g es te d a n s we r s . C h oo s e th e a ns we r , A- E . 8 . I n t h e o r a l t r e a tm e nt o f i r o n -d e f ic i en c y a n e m i a s, i r on i s p r e fe r a b l y a d m in i s te r e d a s I . f e r r ou s i ro n . I I . f e r r ic sa l ts . I I I . e l em e n ta l i ro n . A i f I o n l y i s c o r re c t B i f II I on l y i s c o r r ec t C i f I a n d I I a r e c or r ec t D i f II a nd I II a re c o r re c t E i f I, I I, an d II I ar e c o r re c t V i e w A n s we r 8 . T h e a n sw e r i s A [ se e] . 9 . Pa r e n te r a l l y a d m i n i s t e re d a n t i h yp e r t e n s i ve a g en ts u se d in t r ea t i ng h yp e r t e n s i ve e m e rg e nc i es in c l u de t he I . c en t r a ll y a c t i n g an t i ad r e n e r gi c c l o ni d i ne . I I . a r te r i o la r an d ve n ous va s o d il a t o r n i t r op r u ss i d e . I I I . ga n gl i o ni c - bl o ck i n g a g en t t r i me t ha p ha n . A i f I o n l y i s c o r re c t B i f II I on l y i s c o r r ec t C i f I a n d I I a r e c or r ec t D i f II a nd I II a re c o r re c t E i f I, I I, an d II I ar e c o r re c t V i e w A n s we r 9 . T h e a n sw e r i s D [ se e] . 1 0. C e r t ain f a c to r s c o n t r ib u t e t o t h e l o n g e r d u r a ti o n o f ac t io n o f d i g it o x in w h en c om p a r ed w i t h t h a t o f di go x i n . T h e se i nc l ud e I . g r ea t e r p r o t e in b in d in g . I I . r ed u ce d po l a r i t y. I I I . g re a te r t u bu l a r re a bs o r p t i on . A i f I o n l y i s c o r re c t B i f II I on l y i s c o r r ec t C i f I a n d I I a r e c or r ec t D i f II a nd I II a re c o r re c t E i f I, I I, an d II I ar e c o r re c t V i e w A n s we r 1 0 . T he a nsw e r i s E [s e e] . 1 1. O r a l an t i c oa g u la n ts h a ve w hic h o f t h e f o l low i n g p r o pe r t i e s ? I . T he y i n t e r f e r e w i t h vi t a m i n K - d ep e n de n t s yn t h e s is o f a c ti ve c lo t t i ng f a c to r s I I , V II , I X, a nd X . I I . Th e y h a ve a d ve r s e ef f e c t s t h at i nc l u de he mo r r h a g e, u r t ic a r ia , pu r pu r a , an d a l o pe c i a I I I . Th e y p r o l o n g t h e c lo t t i n g t i me o f b l oo d bot h i n vi vo a nd in vi t r o . A i f I o n l y i s c o r re c t B i f II I on l y i s c o r r ec t C i f I a n d I I a r e c or r ec t D i f II a nd I II a re c o r re c t
E i f I, I I, an d II I ar e c o r re c t V i e w A n s we r 1 1 . T he a nsw e r i s C [ se e VI I . 4. e . (1 )] .D i r e c t i on s fo r q ue s t io ns 1 2 - 14 : E a c h g r ou p o f a dv e r s e e f f ec ts i n th is s ec ti o n i s m o s t cl os e l y re la t ed t o o n e o f t he fo ll o wi n g d r u g c l as s e s . Th e d ru g c la s s es m a y be us e d m o r e t h an o n c e o r n ot a t al l . C h oo s e t he be s t an s we r , A- E . 1 2 . B r ad yc a r d i a , h yp o t e n s io n , i n c r ea se d ai rw a y r e s i s t a n ce , a n d c o ng e s t i ve h e a r t fa i l u re ( A ) C a r di ac gl y c os id es ( B ) C a lc iu m c ha n ne l b loc k e r s ( C ) A n gi o te ns i n -c on v e r t in g en z ym e ( A C E ) i nh ib i to r s ( D ) β - A d r en e rg ic bl oc k ers ( E ) N i t ri t es an d n i tr a te s V i e w A n s we r 1 2 . T he a nsw e r i s D [ se e] . 1 3. V i su a l d i s t u rb a nc e s ( ye l l ow or g r e e n vi si o n ), c on f u si on , a no r e xi a , vo mi t i ng , a t r i o ve n t r i cu l a r ( AV ) b l o c k , a n d ve n t r i c u l a r t a ch yc a r d i a ( A ) C a r di ac gl y c os id es ( B ) C a lc iu m c ha n ne l b loc k e r s ( C ) A n gi o te ns i n -c on v e r t in g en z ym e ( A C E ) i nh ib i to r s ( D ) β - A d r en e rg ic bl oc k ers ( E ) N i t ri t es an d n i tr a te s V i e w A n s we r 1 3 . T he a nsw e r i s A [ se e] . 1 4. H yp o t e n s io n , a c u te r en a l f a i l u r e, ch o l es t a ti c j a un d i ce , an d a g r a nu l o c yt o s i s ( A ) C a r di ac gl y c os id es ( B ) C a lc iu m c ha n ne l b loc k e r s ( C ) A n gi o te ns i n -c on v e r t in g en z ym e ( A C E ) i nh ib i to r s ( D ) β - A d r en e rg ic bl oc k ers ( E ) N i t ri t es an d n i tr a te s V i e w A n s we r 1 4 . T he a nsw e r i s C [ se e] . D i r e c ti o ns f o r qu e s ti o ns 15 - 1 7 : E a c h s ta t em en t i n t h is g ro u p i s m o s t cl os e l y c ha ra c te r i z e d b y o ne of t he fo l lo wi n g d r u gs . Th e d r ug s m a y b e u s e d m o re t ha n o nc e o r n o t a t a ll . C ho os e th e be s t a n s we r , A- E . 1 5 . It i n te r f e r es w i t h d is t a l tu b u la r al d os t e r o ne - m e di a te d so d iu m - po ta s s iu m e x c ha n ge ; r e n d e r s t h e u r i n e a l ka l i ne ; a n d m a y c a us e h yp e r k a l e m ia , g yn e c o m a s t ia , a n d m e ns t r u a l i r r e g ul a r i ti e s. ( A ) F u ro s e m i d e ( B ) H yd r o c h lo r o th i a z id e ( C ) S p i ro n ol ac t on e ( D ) Ma n n i t ol ( E ) A ce t a z o la m i de V i e w A n s we r 1 5 . T he a nsw e r i s C [ se e] . 1 6. F r ee l y f i l t e re d , th i s d r u g l i mi ts t u b u la r r e ab s o r p ti o n o f w a te r an d is us e f ul i n r e d u c in g c e r e b ra l e d ema a nd i n t r a c ra n i al p r es s u re . ( A ) F u ro s e m i d e ( B ) H yd r o c h lo r o th i a z id e ( C ) S p i ro n ol ac t on e
( D ) Ma n n i t ol ( E ) A ce t a z o la m i de V i e w A n s we r 1 6 . T he a nsw e r i s D [ se e] . 1 7. T he pr i n c i pa l s i t e o f ac t i on of t h i s d ru g is on t he t h ick a sc e nd i n g l im b o f t h e l o o p o f H en l e ; i t is us ef u l i n t r e a t i ng p ul m on a r y e d e m a an d a s c it e s. ( A ) F u ro s e m i d e ( B ) H yd r o c h lo r o th i a z id e ( C ) S p i ro n ol ac t on e ( D ) Ma n n i t ol ( E ) A ce t a z o la m i de V i e w A n s we r 1 7 . T he a nsw e r i s A [ se e] . P . 36 9
ANSWERS AND EXPLANATIONS 1 . T he an sw e r is C [ s ee I I I . B. 3 ; I I I . C. 3 ; I I I . D. 3 ] . C a l ci um c h an n el bl oc k e rs a re us ed in t he t re a tm e n t o f an gi n a b ec au s e t he y d i la t e c o r on a r y ar t e ri es an d a r te r i ol es , th us de c re as i ng c o r on a r y v as c u l a r r es is ta n c e an d i n c re as in g c o ro n a r y b l ood f lo w. 2 . T he an sw e r is D [ s ee V I I I . A. 1 ; VI I I .A . 4 ; F ig u re 1 5 - 14 ] . H e p a ri n i s a hi gh l y ac id ic m u c o p ol y s acc h a ri de , wh e r ea s p r o ta m i ne is a hig h l y ba si c p r o t ei n . W hen a dm i ni s t er e d af t e r h ep a ri n , p r ot am i n e c he m i c a ll y c om bi n es wi t h i t ( p r es u m a bl y b y a n ac i d -b a s e in t e ra c t i on ) a n d i nac t i va te s i ts an ti c oa gu l an t e f f ec t. H e n ce it is an ef f ec t i v e an t i do t e f o r h ep a ri n . Ca u ti o n m us t b e e m p lo ye d wh e n u s i n g p r o t am in e b ec au s e a n exc e s s of p ro t am in e c an c a u s e an an t ic oa g ul an t eff e c t i ts el f . 3 . T he an sw e r is B [ s ee I I . A .1 ] . Mo s t g l y c os id es a re na t ur a l p r o du c t s o b ta in e d f r om pl a nt m a t er i al . Al t ho ug h th e r e a r e ve r y fe w m e d ic in al ag e n ts th a t a r e gl y c os i des , th e g r ou p k n o wn as the c a r d ia c g l yc os id es is e xt r e m e l y im p o rt a nt an d i s wi d e l y us e d f o r t r ea t in g c on g es tiv e h e a rt f a i lu r e. D i go xi n i s a c a rdi a c g l yc os i de ob t ai n ed f ro m Di g it a li s l an a ta . O th er c a rd ia c g l yc os id es in c l u de di gi t oxi n , wh i c h is ob t ai ne d f ro m Di g it a li s p u rp u re a , an d ou a ba in , wh i c h is o b t ai ne d f r om St r o p ha n th us g ra t us . 4 . T he an sw e r is D [ s ee I I . C ; Ta bl e 1 5 -4 ] . V e n t ri cu l a r t ac h y c a r di a is p ro d uc ed b y to xi c c a r di a c g l yc os i de do sa g e a nd wo u l d n o t b e a t he r a pe u ti c i nd ic a tio n fo r th e a g en t s. C a rd iac gl yc os id e s i nc re a s e s ys t ol ic c o nt r ac t io n v el oc i t y an d i n c re as e t h e r e f ra c t o r y pe r i od o f t he A V n o de . The y a ls o h a ve a p os it i v e i n ot r o pi c e f f ec t. 5 . T he an sw e r is E [ s e e V I I I . A. 2 .e ; V II I . 4. e ]. Th e o r al a nt ic o ag ul a nt s , s uc h a s wa r f a ri n , ac t b y i n hi b it i ng th e l i v e r b io s yn t h es is o f p r o t hr om b in , wh i c h is t he p r ec ur s or o f t he en z y m e t h ro m b i n t ha t c a ta l y zes t he c o n ve rs io n o f s ol u bl e f i br i n og e n t o t h e i ns ol ub l e p o l y m e r fi b ri n , wh ic h re s u l ts in c l o t f o r m a t io n . O n e o f th e p r in c ip al f ac to r s i n t he bi o s yn t h es is o f p r ot h ro m b i n is v i t am in K , wi t h wh i c h wa r f a r in c om p et es t o i nh ib i t t hi s p r oc es s . B ec a us e t hi s i s a re v e r s ib le c om p et i ti o n, v i t am in K ac t s as an an t ag o ni s t t o th e o ra l a n ti co ag u la n ts . 6 . T he an sw e r is C [ s ee V I . A ; F i gu r e 1 5 -7 ] .
Th e s t ru c tu r e c an be r ec o g ni z e d as a be n zo th i ad ia z i n e , wh i c h i s kn o wn a ls o a s a t h i a zid e . I t re p re s e n ts the s tr u c t u re o f h yd r oc hl o ro t h ia z i de , a su l fo n am id e d i ur e ti c . O t h e r s u lf o na m i de di u r eti c s in c l u de th e c a rb o ni c a n h yd ra s e in h ib i to r s, suc h a s a c et a zo la m i d e, an d t h e lo o p d iu r e ti cs , s uc h a s f ur o s em id e . N e it h e r o f t hes e s u bc la s s es c o nt a in s d r ug s wi t h a be n zo th i ad ia z in e n u c l e us . 7 . T he an sw e r is E [ s e e V I . C ; Fi gu r es 15 - 7 a n d 1 5 - 9 ]. D i a zo xi d e is a b en z o t hi ad i a z in e d e r i v at i v e ; t h er e fo r e , i t wo u ld be m o s t s im i la r to c h lo r o th ia z i d e, wh i c h is a l s o a b en z o t hi a di a z in e . A l t ho u gh bo t h t he t hi a z id e s a nd t h e d i a z o xi d es ha v e an t ih y p e r t en si ve ac ti vi t y , on ly t h e th i a z id es ha v e s i gni f ic a nt d i u re t ic ac ti v i t y . O ne o f th e s t r uc t ur a l r e qu i re m e nt s of th e th ia z i d e d iu r e ti c s is an e l ec t r on - wi t h d ra wi n g gr ou p , s uc h a s a h a lo g en , or t h o t o th e s ul f on am id e gr o u p o n t h e b e n z en e n uc l eu s . Th e d ia z o xi d e m o l ec ul e l ack s s uc h a g r o up . 8 . T he an sw e r is A ( I ) [s e e I X. A . 1 ]. A b s o rp ti o n o f o r al l y ad m in i s t e r ed ir o n is si gn i fi c a n t l y im p ro ve d wi t h f e r ro us i ro n t h an wi t h e i th e r f e r ri c s al ts o r e l em en t al ir o n, p re su m ab l y b ec au s e o f i ts b e t te r s o lu bi l it y c h a ra ct e ri s ti c s . I r o n p rep a r a ti on s ( f e r ro us s a lt s ) a r e m o re r ea d il y a bs o rbe d f ro m t he g a st r o in t es ti n al t ra c t an d a r e s to r e d i n t he bo n e m a r ro w, l i v e r , a n d s p l een as f er r i ti n a n d h em os i de r in . 9 . T he an sw e r is D (I I , II I ) [s e e V . B .4 ; V . C. 2 .a ; V. C . 2 . e] . C l o n id in e i s n o t r ec og n i ze d as a d ru g o f c h oi c e for h y p e r te ns i ve e m e r g en c i e s , p o ss ib l y be c a us e o f it s c e n t r al m ec h an is m o f a ct io n an d t h e l at e nt pe r i od r e q ui r e d f o r it s e f fe c t, c om p a re d wi t h o t he r pe r ip h e ra l a gen t s . 1 0 . Th e a n sw e r i s E ( I , II , I I I) [s e e I I . A; Fi g u re 15 - 1 ] . S t r u ct u r al l y , d ig i to xi n h as on l y on e a lc o ho l g r ou p o n i t s st e r oi da l n uc l eu s , wh e r e a s d i go xi n h a s t wo . Th i s s l ig h t d i ff e r en c e in s t r uc t ure h as a si gn i fi c a n t e f fe c t o n th e p o la r i t y of th e m ol ec u le . O wi n g t o it s g r ea t e r l ip os o lu bi l it y , d ig i to xi n i s m or e li k e l y t o u n d er g o t ub u la r re a bs o rp t i on , t o un de r g o e nt e r oh e p a t ic P.370 c yc li n g, t o p en e t ra t e i nt o t h e l i v e r m i c ro s o m e s a nd u nd e rg o m e ta b ol is m , an d to be p r o t ei n b ou n d, al l o f wh ic h c on t r ib u te t o i ts l o ng er d u ra t io n o f ac ti o n a nd p o t en t ia l c um u la t i v e e f fe c t s . 1 1 . Th e a n sw e r i s C ( I , II ) [ s e e VI I I . A. 2 .e , V II . 4. e. ( 1 ) ] . O r a l an t ic oa g ul a nt s a r e e f f ec t i v e o nl y i n vi vo be ca u s e th e y bl o c k h e pa t ic s yn t he s i s o f vi t am in K -d e pe n de n t c o a g ul at i on fa c to r s ( f ac tor s I I, V I I, I X, a nd X) . Th is al s o e xp l a i n s t he la t en c y pe r io d as s o c i a te d wi t h i ni ti a ti o n o f o r al a nt ic o ag ul a nt t h e r ap y . 1 2 . Th e a n sw e r i s D [ s ee I I I. D . 2 ]. 1 3 . Th e a n sw e r i s A [ s ee I I . D] . 1 4 . Th e a n sw e r i s C [ s ee V . D . 6] . N o n se l ec ti v e β - ad r e ne r gi c b l oc k e rs ( e. g . , p ro p r an o l o l ) p r od u ce ad v e r se ef f e c t s a ss o ci at e d wi t h t he i r m ec h an is m o f a c t i on on th e a u to n om ic n e r v o us s ys te m . Th us b r o nc ho s pa s m , l o we r i ng o f bl o od p re s s u re , a n d re d uc e d h ea r t ra t e r es ul t f r o m b l oc ka d e o f a ut o no m i c β- a d r en e rg ic r ec ep t o rs . Vis u a l di s t u r ba nc es ( y e ll ow o r g r e e n vi s i on ) ar e p e c u li a r t o c ar d i ac gl y c os id e o ve r do s e. A V di s s oc ia t io n a n d ve n t r ic ul a r t a ch yc a rd i a a r e o b v io us ly m o r e s i g ni f ic an t a d ve rs e e f f ec ts . A C E i nh ib i to rs
r e p o rt e dl y m a y c au s e blo o d d y s c r as i as i n a d di t ion t o c ho le s ta t ic j a un di c e a n d ac u te r e n al f ai lu r e . 1 5 . Th e a n sw e r i s C [ s ee V I . E .2 . a; V I .E . 4 .a ] . 1 6 . Th e a n sw e r i s D [ s ee V I . A .3 . a; V I .A . 3 .b ] . 1 7 . Th e a n sw e r i s A [ s ee V I . D .2 . a; V I . D .3 . a] . S p i r on o la c t o ne in t er f e res wi t h al do s te r on e -m e dia t e d s o d iu m -p o ta s s iu m exc h a n g e , r e d uc in g th e a m o u nt of po t as s i um e xc r e t ed an d i s o f t en us ed wi t h o t he r diu r e ti c s t h a t p r om ot e th e e xc r e t io n of po t as s i um , s uc h a s t h e b en z o t hi a di a z i de s . Ma n n i t o l i n c re as es th e o s m ol a r it y o f th e g l om er u la r fi l t ra t e b ec a us e i t i s r e ab so r bed p oo r l y . B y i n c re as i ng th e o s m ola r i t y of t he gl om e ru l ar f ilt r a t e, m a nn i to l l im i ts tu bu l a r r e a bs o rp t io n o f wa t e r , t hu s p r om o ti n g d iu r es is . I n t h is wa y, i t re du c e s c e re b r al e d em a a n d d ec r ea s e s i nt r a c ra ni a l p r es s u r e. Fu r os em i de is a di u r et ic of c h o ic e f o r t r e a ti n g ac u te c o ng es t i ve h ea r t f a il u re be c a u s e it p r om ot e s a s ig ni f ic a nt ra p id e xc r e t i o n o f wa t e r a nd s o d iu m .
17 Drug Metabolism, Prodrugs, and Pharmacogenetics M a r c W . Ha r r o l d
I. INTRODUCTION TO DRUG METABOLISM. D r u g m e ta b ol is m ( a ls o c a l le d bi o t r an s f o rm a t io n) r e f er s t o th e b io ch em ic a l c h an g es t h a t d r ug s a nd o th e r f o rei g n c he m i c a ls ( xe n ob i o ti c s ) u n de r go in th e b o d y, l ea d in g t o t he fo r m a t io n o f d i ff e re n t m e ta bo l it es wi t h di f fe r e n t e ff ec t s. Xe n o bi o ti cs ca n u n d er g o a v a ri e t y of bi o tr a n s f o rm a ti on p at h wa ys , r e s u l ti n g in t he p ro du c tio n of a m i xt u r e of in t e rm ed i at e m e ta b ol i te s a nd e xc r e ted p r od uc ts , i n cl ud i ng unc h an g ed p a r en t dr u g. R a re l y is onl y o n e m e t ab o li t e p r od uc e d f ro m a s in g le d ru g . A. I n a c t i ve me t a bo l i te s. S om e m e ta b ol it e s a re in a c t i ve (i . e. , th e ir p h a rm ac ol o gi c a l l y a c t i v e p a r en t c om po u nd s b ec om e i n ac ti v a t ed o r d e to xi f i e d ). 1 . Th e h y dr o l y s i s o f p r oc a i ne t o p -a m i n ob e n z oi c a c i d a n d d ie t h yle t ha n ola m in e r e s ul ts in a l os s o f a ne s th e t ic a c ti vi t y. 2 . Th e o xi d a ti on o f 6 -m er c a p t op u r i ne t o 6 -m e rc ap t u ri c a c i d re su l ts i n a los s o f a n t ic an c e r ac ti v i t y . B . M e ta b ol i t es t ha t r e tai n s im i la r a ct i vi t y. C e r t a i n m et a bo li t es r et ai n the p h a rm ac ol o gi c a l a c t i v i t y o f t he i r p a re n t co m p o und s to a g re a t er o r l ess e r d e g re e . 1 . I mi p r am i ne is de m e t hy l a t e d t o t h e es se n ti a ll y e q ui a ct i ve a n ti d ep r es s a nt , d e s ip r a m in e . 2 . Ac e t o he x am i de is r ed u c e d t o th e m o re ac ti v e h y p o gl yc em ic , l h yd r o x yh e x a m i d e. 3 . C o de i ne is de m e t h y lat e d to th e m o re ac ti ve ana l ge s i c , m o r ph i ne . C . M e ta b ol i t es w i t h a l ter e d ac t i vi t y. S o m e m e tab o li t es de ve l op ac ti v i t y di f f e re n t f r o m t ha t of th e i r p a re n t d r u gs . 1 . Th e an ti d ep r es s a n t i pr o n i az i d i s d ea lk y l a te d to t he an t i tu be r c u l ar , is on i a zi d . 2 . Th e v i ta m i n re t i n oi c ac i d ( v i ta m i n A ) is i s om eri z e d to t he an t i- ac n e a gen t , i s o r e t in o ic ac i d . D . B i o ac t i va t e d m et a b ol i t e s. S om e p ha r m a c o l og i c a ll y i na c ti v e pa r en t c om p ou n ds a r e c o n v e rt e d t o a c t i v e s p e c i es wi t h in th e b o d y . Th e se pa r en t c om p ou n ds a r e k n o wn a s p ro d r u gs . 1 . Th e pr o d ru g e n al a p r il i s h y d r ol y ze d t o e na l apr i l a t , a po t en t a n ti h yp e rte n si ve . 2 . Th e pr o d ru g s u li n d ac, a s u lf o xi d e , i s r e du c e d t o t he ac ti v e su l fi de . 3 . Th e an ti p a rk in s o n ia n le vo d o p a ( L - d op a ) i s d ec a r bo xy l a t e d in th e n e u ro n to a c ti ve d op a mi n e .
II. BIOTRANSFORMATION PATHWAYS A. P h a s e I r e ac t i o ns are t ho s e in wh i c h p ol a r f un c ti o na l g r ou ps a re in t r od u ce d i n to t h e m ol ec u le o r u nm as k ed b y o xi d a ti o n, r ed uc t io n, o r h yd r o l ys is . 1 . O x i da t i on is th e m os t c om m o n p h as e I b i ot r a ns f o rm at i on . a . Th e m a jo r it y o f o xi d a t io n s oc c ur in t he li ve r ; h o we v e r , e xt r a h e p at ic t is s u e s , s u ch a s th e i n t es t i na l m u co sa , l un g s, a nd ki d ne y, c a n a ls o se r v e as m e ta b ol ic s i t es .
b . Th e v as t m a jo r it y o f oxi d a t i o ns a re c a ta l yz e d by a g r ou p o f m i xe d - f un c tio n o xi d a s es k n o wn as c yt o c h r o me P 4 5 0 ( C Y P 45 0 ). Th e s e o xi d a s es ar e b o un d to t he s m o o th en d op l as ti c r e ti c u l um of t he l i v e r a n d r e qu i r e b o th N A D P H a n d a p o r ph yr i n p r o st h et ic g ro u p. U nl ik e m os t en zy m e s, C YP 4 5 0 u s es a v a r ie t y o f o xi d a t ive b i o tr a ns f or m a t io n s t o m et a b ol i z e a di v e r s e gr o up o f su bs t r at es . P.399
c . C YP 4 5 0 e xi s t s i n m u l ti p l e i s o fo r m s o r fa m i li es . Th e p r es e nc e o f t he s e d i ff e r en t i s of o rm s is r es po n s i bl e fo r t he la r ge su bs t r at e v ar i a ti o n s ee n wi t h C YP 4 5 0 . ( 1 ) C YP 4 5 0 i s o f o rm s a re n am e d us i ng th e ro o t “ C YP ” f o l l o we d b y a n a r ab ic nu m b e r d e si g na ti n g t h e f am il y , a l e tt e r d es i gn a ti n g t he s ub f am i l y, a nd a s ec on d a ra b ic n u m b e r i nd ic a ti n g t he ind i v i du a l g en e (e . g. , C YP 3 A 4 ) . ( 2 ) S i x m am m a li a n f am il ie s a r e i n v o l v ed in s t e ro id a nd bi le ac id m e t ab ol ism : C YP 7 , C YP 1 1 , C YP 1 7 , C YP 1 9 , C YP 2 1 , a n d C YP 2 7 . ( 3 ) F ou r m am m a li a n f am il i es ar e i n v o l v ed in xe n ob i o ti c , o r d r ug , m et a bo l is m : C YP 1 , C YP 2 , C YP 3 , a n d C YP 4 . E xa m p l es o f d ru g s m e t ab o li ze d b y t h es e f am il i es a n d s u bf am i li es a re s h o wn in Ta b l e 1 7 - 1. N ot e th a t a n u m b e r o f d r u gs (e . g. , t ri c y cl ic a n t id ep r es s a n ts , d i a z epa m , o nd a ns e tr o n, t he op hy l l i n e ) a re m e ta b ol i ze d by m u l ti pl e i s of o rm s . d . A dd i ti o na l o xi d a t io n s ( e . g ., e th an o l t o a ce t al de h y d e ) a r e c at a l y ze d b y n o nm ic r os om al o xi d a s e s l oc a te d i n c y t os o l a nd m i t oc h on d ri a o f e xt r a h ep at i c t i ss ue s . e . C YP 4 5 0 a n d n on m i c ros om a l o xi d a se s c at a l yz e a r om a ti c , al i ph a ti c , ol e fin i c , b e n zyl ic , a l l y li c , an d α - hy d r o xy l a t i o n s; N - , O - , a nd S - de a lk y l a ti on s ; o xi d a ti v e d e am i na ti o n; N - an d S- oxi d a t i o ns ; d es u lf u r at i on ; d e h al og e na t io n ; a nd o xi d a t io ns of a l co h ol s a nd al de h y d es (Ta b l e 17 - 2 ). f . Th e i nc r e as e d p o la r i ty o f t h e o xi d i z e d p r od uc ts (m e ta b ol i te s ) e nh a nc es t he i r wa t e r s ol u bi li t y a nd re d uc es t he i r t ub u la r r ea bs o rp t i on to s o m e e xt e n t , t hus f a v o ri ng t h e ir e xc r e t io n i n t h e u rin e . Th es e m et a bo li t es a re s o m e wh a t m o re p ol a r t h a n t he i r p a r en t c om p ou n ds a n d v e r y c om m o nl y u nd e r go fu r t h er bi o t ra ns f o rm at i on b y p h as e I I p a t h wa y s (s e e I I B) . 2 . R e du c t io n i s l es s c om m o n l y e nc o un t e re d t h an o xi d a t io n ; h o we v e r , the o ve r al l g o al is th e s am e : t o c re at e po l a r f un c t i on a l g ro u ps t ha t c an be el im i na t ed i n th e u r i ne . Th e re is e v id en c e s u gg es t in g t h at t he C YP 4 5 0 s y s te m m i g ht be in v o l v e d i n s om e re d uc ti o ns . Ad di t ion a ll y , b ac te r i a r es id e nt in t he G I t ra c t a re k n o wn t o be i n vo l ve d in a z o a n d n it r o r e d uc ti o ns . R e ac t io ns c a t a l y ze d b y r ed uc t as es ar e s h o wn i n Ta b le 17 - 3. 3 . E nz ym a t i c h yd r o l ys i s , t he ad di t io n o f wa t e r a c r os s a b on d , a ls o re s ul t s i n m or e p o la r m e t ab ol i te s ( s e e Ta b le 17 - 3 ) . a . E s te r a se en z ym e s , us u al l y p re s e n t i n p la sm a a n d va ri ou s t is s u es , a re n o ns p ec if ic an d c a ta l y z e d e - es te r i fi c a t io n , h yd r oly zi n g r e la t i vel y n on po l a r e s te r s i n t o t wo p ol a r , m o r e wa te r - s o l ub l e c o m p o un ds : an a l c oh ol a nd an ac id . Es t e ra se s a r e re sp o ns ib l e f o r c o n ve r t in g m a n y p r o dr u gs i n to t he i r a c t i ve fo r m s .
b . Am i d a se en z ym e s h y d r o l y z e am id es in t o am i ne s a n d a c i ds (d e am id a tio n ) . D e a m i d at i on oc c u rs p ri m a r i l y i n th e l i v e r. c . E st e r d ru g s s us c e p tib l e t o p l as m a e s te r as es ( e . g ., p ro c a i ne ) ar e u s u al l y s h o r te r a c ti n g t ha n s t r uc tu r al l y s i m il a r a mi d e d r u gs ( e .g ., p r oc ai n am id e ), wh i c h ar e n ot s i gn i fi ca n tl y h y d r ol y z e d u n t il th e y r ea ch th e l i v e r. d . L ac t o ne s a n d l ac t ams a r e c yc l ic es te r s a nd am i de s , r es pe c ti v e l y , a n d a r e th us a l so s us c ep t ib le to h y d rol y t i c m et a bo li s m . B . P h a se II r e ac t i on s a re t ho s e in wh i c h t he fu nc t i o na l g r ou ps o f t he o ri gin a l d r ug ( o r m e t ab ol i te f or m e d i n a p ha s e I r e ac t io n ) a r e m as k ed b y a co n j ug a t ion r e ac t i o n. Mo s t p h as e I I c o nj ug a tes a re v e r y po l a r, r es ul t ing i n r a pi d d r ug el im in a ti on f r om th e b o d y. 1 . C o nj u g at i o n r e ac t i o ns c o m b i ne th e pa r e n t d ru g ( o r i ts m e ta b ol i te s ) wi t h c e rt a in n a t u r al e nd o ge n o us con s t i t ue n t s, s u c h as g l uc u r o ni c a c i d , g l yc i ne , g l uta m in e , s u lf a te , gl u ta t hi on e , t h e t wo - c a r b on ac et y l f ra gm e n t , o r th e o ne - c a r b on m e t h yl f r a gm e nt . Th es e re ac t ion s g e ne r al l y r eq u ir e b o th a h ig h - en e r g y m o l e c u le a nd an e n z ym e . a . Th e hi g h -e n e r g y m o l e c u le c o ns is ts o f a c o enz ym e b o u nd to th e en dog e n ou s s u bs t ra t e , t he pa r en t d rug , o r t he d ru g ' s p ha s e I m e ta b ol i te . b . Th e en z ym e s ( c a ll ed t r a n s f e ra s es ) th a t ca t aly z e c o nj u ga t io n re ac t io ns a re fo u nd m a in l y in th e l i v e r a nd , to a l es s e r e xt e n t , i n t he i n t es ti n es a n d o th e r ti ss u e s. c . Mo s t c o nj ug a te s a r e hi g h l y p o l a r a n d u n a bl e t o c r os s ce l l m em b r an es , m a k i ng t h em al m o s t a l wa y s ph ar m a c ol o g ic a ll y i n a c t i ve a n d o f l it t le o r n o t o xi c i ty . E xc e p t i o ns to th is a re ac e t y l a te d a n d m e t h y la t e d c o nj u ga t es . Th e s e c o n jug a t es d o n o t p os s es s in c re as e d po l a ri t y ; ho we ve r , t he y a re us u al l y ph a rm ac ol o gi c a l l y i n ac t i ve. 2 . Th e r e a r e s ix co n j uga t i o n p a thw a ys ( Ta b l e 17 - 4 ) . a . G l u cu r o n id a t io n i s t he m os t co m mo n c o nj uga t i on pa t h wa y b ec au s e of a re a di l y a va i la b le s u pp l y o f g lu c ur o n ic ac id as we l l as a l a r g e va ri e t y of f un c t i on al g r o up s , wh i c h ca n e n z y m at ic a ll y r e a c t wi t h th is s u ga r de r iv a t i v e . P.400
Table 17-1. Examples of Drugs Metabolized by Specific Cytochrome P450 (CYP) Isoforms
CYP1A2 Acetaminophen Amitriptyline and other TCAs Diazepam Methadone Olanzapine Propranolol Riluzole Tacrine Theophylline CYP2B1 Chlorpheniramine CYP2B6 Bupropion Cyclophosphamide and ifosfamide CYP2C8 Diazepam
Diclofenac Mephobarbital Omeprazole Paclitaxel Retinoids Tolbutamide CYP2C9 Amitriptyline and other TCAs Chlorpheniramine Carvedilol Dapsone Diazepam Glimepiride Hexobarbital Losartan NSAIDs Phenytoin
Tolbutamide Torsemide Verapamil Warfarin Zafirlukast CYP2D6 Amitriptyline and other TCAs β-blockers Benztropine Captopril Chlorpheniramine Chlorpromazine Clemastine Clozapine Codeine Delavirdine Dextromethorphan
Diphenhydramine Dolasetron and Ondansetron Donepezil Encainide Fenfluramine Fentanyl Flecainide Fluphenazine Hydrocodone Hydroxyzine Imipramine Lidocaine Loratadine Meperidine Methadone Methamphetamine Mexiletine
Morphine Ondansetron Oxycodone Risperidone Selegiline SSRIs Tamoxifen Thioridazine Tolterodine Tramadol Trazodone CYP2E1 Acetaminophen Ethanol Felbamate General anesthetics Isoniazid
Ondansetron Tamoxifen Theophylline CYP3A4 Acetaminophen Alfentanil Benzodiazepines Amitriptyline and other TCAs Amiodarone Anastrazole Azole antifungals Buspirone Busulfan Carbamazepine Chlorpromazine Cimetidine Clozapine
Codeine Cyclophosphamide and ifosfamide Cyclosporin Dapsone Darifenacin Delavirdine Dexamethasone Dextromethorphan Dihydroergotamine Dihydropyridines (i.e., nifedipine) Diltiazem Disopyramide Docetaxel and paclitaxel Dolasetron and ondansetron Donepezil Doxorubicin Efavirenz
Enalapril Ergot alkaloids Erlotinib Estrogens Ethosuximide Etoposide Erythromycin and clarithromycin Felbamate Fentanyl Fexofenadine Finasteride Flutamide Glyburide Granisetron Haloperidol HIV protease inhibitors HMG-CoA reductase inhibitors
Hydrocodone Hydrocortisone Irinotecan Lansoprazole Lidocaine Loperamide Loratadine Losartan Midazolam Mifepristone Navelbine Nefazodone Nevirapine Norethisterone Omeprazole Ondansetron Oral contraceptives
Oxybutynin Pimozide Prednisone and prednisolone Quinidine Repaglinide Rifampin and analogs Risperidone Salmeterol Sildenafil SSRIs Sulfamethoxazole Tacrolimus Tadalafil Tamoxifen Teniposide Testosterone Theophylline
Tolterodine Tretinoin Valproic acid Vardenafil Verapamil Vinca alkaloids Warfarin HMG CoA, β-hydroxy-β-methylglutaryl-coenzyme A; NSAIDs, nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs; SSRIs, selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors; TCAs, tricyclic antidepressants. P.401
Table 17-2. Phase I Metabolism: Oxidative Pathways Type of Reaction (Examples) 1 .
Aromatic Hydroxylati on (phenytoin, phenylbutaz one)
2 .
Aliphatic Hydroxylati on (pentobarbit al, meprobamat
Reaction Pathway
e) 3 .
Olefinic Hydroxylati on (carbamazep ine, cyproheptadi ne)
4 .
Benzylic Hydroxylati on (tolbutamide , imipramine)
5 .
Allylic Hydroxylati on (pentazocine , hexobarbital )
6 .
Hydroxylati on-α to a Carbonyl (diazepam, ketamine)
7 .
Oxidative Deamination (amphetami ne, dopamine)
8 .
NDealkylation (morphine, ephedrine)
9 .
N-Oxidation (acetaminop hen, guanethidine )
1 0 .
ODealkylation (codeine, papaverine)
1 1 .
SDealkylation (6methylmerca ptopurine)
1 2 .
S-Oxidation (chlorproma zine, mesoridazin e)
1 3 .
Desulfuratio n (thiopental)
1 4 .
Dehalogenat ion (halothane, chloramphen icol)
1 5 .
Oxidation of Alcohols (ethanol, estradiol)
1 6 .
Oxidation of Aldehydes (acetaldehyd e, PGE2)
P.402
Table 17-3. Phase I Metabolism: Reductive and Hydrolytic Pathways Type of Reaction (Examples) Reduction 1 .
Carbonyl Reduction (acetohex amide)
2 .
Azoreduct ion (sulfasalaz ine, olsalazine )
3 .
Nitroredu ction (chloramp henicol, clonazepa m)
Reaction Pathway
Hydrolysis 4 .
Ester Hydrolysi s (procaine, meperidin e)
5 .
Amide Hydrolysi s (lidocaine, indometha cin)
( 1 ) Th e hi gh - e ne r g y fo r m o f gl uc u ro n ic a c i d , u r i d in e d ip h os p h at e gl u cu r o n i c a c id , r e a ct s wi t h a v a ri e t y o f fu n c t i on al g ro u ps u n de r th e in f lu en c e o f g lu cu r ony l t r a ns f e ra s e . ( 2 ) D r ug s t h at po s s es s hyd r o x yl o r c a r b o x yl f u n c t io n al g ro up s r e ad i l y u nd e r go g l uc u ro n id a ti on t o f o rm et h e rs an d e s te rs , r es pe c ti ve l y. I n a dd i ti on , N - , S - , a n d C g l uc u ro n id es a re al s o pos s i b le . ( 3 ) A s sh o wn i n Ta b l e 1 7- 4 , th e a d di t io n o f g l uc u ro n ic ac id to a d r ug m o lec u le ad ds t h r e e h y d r o xy l g r ou p s a nd o ne c a r bo xyl g r o u p . Th i s a d di t io n g r ea t l y i n c r e as es t he h yd r o p h i l i c i t y o f t h e d ru g m o le cu l e. As a r es u lt , i t i s u nl ik e l y to pe n et r a te c e l l m em b r an es an d e li c i t pha r m ac ol og ic a l ac t i v i t y . I t i s a ls o p oo r l y r ea bs o rb ed b y t he r e n al t ub ul es an d , t h us , is r ea d il y e xc r e t ed . ( 4 ) G l uc u ro ni d es wi t h h ig h m ol e cu l a r w ei g h t ( m o r e th a n 5 00 ) a r e o f t en e xc r e t e d i n t o t he bi l e a nd , e v e n tua l l y , i n to th e i n te s ti ne s . Th e i n te s ti na l e n z ym e β g l uc u ro n id as e c an t he n h y d r o l y z e th e c on j ug a te , r e l e a si ng t he un al t e re d d r u g ( o r i ts p r i m a r y m e t ab ol i te ) fo r re a bs o rp t io n b y t h e i nt es ti n e . b . S u l fa t e c o nj u ga t i o n is m u c h le ss c om m o n t h an g lu cu r on i de c o nj u ga t ion b ec au se t h e r e is no a v ai l ab le po ol o f e nd o ge n ou s s u l fa t e . A d d i ti on a ll y , t he r e a r e f ewe r f u nc t io n al g ro up s c ap a ble o f f o rm in g s ul f a te c o nju g a te s . Th e hi gh - e ne r g y f o rm o f s u lf a te , 3′ - p h os p ho a de no s i ne - 5 ′ - ph o sp h os u l fa te ( P AP S ) , r e ac ts wi t h phe n ol s , a l co h ol s , a r y la m i ne s , a nd N - h y d r o xy l c om po u nd s u n de r th e i n fl u en ce of s u l f o t ra n s fe r a se to f orm hi g hl y p ol a r m et a bo li te s . c . Am i n o a c id co n j ug a t io n in v o l ve s t he r ea c t i on o f ei t he r gl yc in e o r gl u tam i ne wi t h a l ip h at ic o r a r om at ic ac id s to fo r m am i de s . A dr ug m o l ec ul e i s f i rs t c on ver t e d t o a n a c yl c oe n z y m e A i nt e rm ed i a te . An N - ac yl t ra ns f e ras e e n z ym e t h en ca t al y ze s t he c o nj u ga ti o n o f t h e ac t i v at e d d r u g m o l ec ul e wi t h th e am in o a ci d . d . G l u t at h i on e c o n ju g a ti o n is e xt r e m e l y i m p o r tan t in p re v e n ti n g t o xi c it y fr o m a va r i e t y of ha r m fu l e le c tro p hi l ic a g en t s . G lu t a th ion e , a t ri p ep t id e c on t ai n ing a
n u cl e op hi l ic s ul f h y d r y l g ro u p , is p re s e n t i n a lm os t a l l m a m m al i an ti s s ue s . U n d e r t h e i n f lu en ce o f g l u ta t h io n e S - t r a n sf e r as e , g lu t a th ion e c a n r e ac t wi t h h al id es , e p o xi d e s , an d o t he r el ec t r o p hi li c c om po un ds t o fo r m h a rm le s s in ac t i ve p ro d uc ts . W hen g lu t at h io ne ha s rea c te d wi t h a n e le c t ro ph i le , it un d e rg o es a se r ie s o f r e a ct i on s t o p r od uc e a m e r c ap t ur ic ac i d d er i v a ti v e , wh i ch is el im in a te d . P.403
Table 17-4. Phase II Metabolism: Conjugation Pathways Type of Conjugate 1 .
Glucur onide (X = OH, NR2, CO2H, SH, acidic carbon atoms)
2 .
Sulfate (X = OH, arylami nes, NH— OH)
3 .
Amino Acid (Occur s only with acid functio nal groups)
Reaction Pathway R = Drug Molecule; X = Functional Group
4 .
Glutath ione (X = electro philic center such as halide, epoxid e, or Michae l accepto r)
5 .
Methyl (X = OH, NH2, SH)
6 .
Acetyla tion (X = NH2, NHNH 2, SO2NH 2, CO— NH2)
e . M e t h yl a t i o n o f o xy g e n - , ni t r og en - , a n d s ul f ur -c o nt a in in g fu nc t io n al gr ou p s r es u lt s i n m e ta b ol i te s t ha t ar e us u al l y le s s p o la r th a n t he u na l te r ed d ru gs . Me t h yl a t io n c an i n ac t i vat e c e rt a in c o m p ou n ds [e . g ., c a t ec ho l O -m e t h y l tr a ns fe r as e ( C O MT ) m e th y l a te s a nu m b e r o f c a te c h o la m i n e n eu r o tr a ns m i t t er s ], bu t o v er a ll it pl a y s a m i no r ro l e i n t he el im i na ti o n o f d r u gs . I ts m a jo r r ol e is i n t h e b io s y n th es is o f e n d og en o us c om p ou nd s ( e . g ., ep i ne p hr i ne ) . Th e h i gh - e ne r g y fo r m r e qu i red f o r m e th y l t r an s fe r as e e n z y m e s i s S- a de n os ylm e th i oni n e ( S A M) . f . Ac e t yl a t i o n c an oc c u r wi t h p r im a r y a m i n es , h y d r a z i de s , su l fo n am id es , a n d , o cc a si on a ll y , am id es . It le a ds to t he fo r m a t io n o f N - a c et yl a te d p r o du c t s . Th e s e
p r o du c ts a r e u s u a ll y l es s p o la r th a n t he un a lt e re d d r u g a nd c a n r e ta i n p h a rm ac ol o gi c a l a c t i v i t y . ( 1 ) N - ac e t y la t ed m e ta b oli t es c a n a cc um ul a te in tis s u e o r in th e k i dn e y s, as in t he c as e o f c e r ta i n a nt i ba c t er i a l s u l fo n am id es . C r y st al l u ri a a n d su bs e qu e nt ti s s u e d a m a g e m a y r es u lt . ( 2 ) Th e hi gh - e ne r g y m o le c ul e f o r a ce t y l a ti on is ac e t y l - Co A . Th e re ac t io n is c a ta l yze d b y N -a c e t y l t ran s fe r as e . P.404
III. FACTORS INFLUENCING DRUG METABOLISM A. C h e m i c al s t r uc t u r e s p e c i f ic al l y in f lu en c e s a dr u g ' s m et a bo li c p a th wa y . Th e p r e se nc e o r ab s e nc e o f c e r ta i n f un c t i on a l g ro u ps wi l l d et e rm in e th e n ec es s i t y, r o u t e, an d e xt e n t o f m e ta b ol is m . B . S p e ci e s d i f fe r e nc e s 1 . Q u a li t a ti ve d i f fe r e nce s in th e a c tu al m e t ab ol ic pa t h wa y . S uc h a v a r ia ti o n c an r e s ul t f r om a g en e ti c d e fi c ie nc y o f a pa r ti c ul a r e nzy m e o r a d if f e re nc e i n a p a r ti c u l ar e n d og en o us s u bs t ra t e. In g en e ra l , q ua l it a ti v e di ff e r e nc es o c c u r p r im a ri l y wi t h p h a se I I r e ac t i on s . 2 . Q u a nt i t a ti ve d i f fe r e nc e s a r e d i ff e re nc e s i n t he e xt e n t to wh i c h t he s am e t y pe of m e ta b ol ic r ea c t i on oc c u rs . S uc h a v a ri a ti on c a n re s ul t fr om a d i ff e re n c e in t he e n zym e l e v e l, t he p re s en c e o f s pe ci es s p ec i fi c is o z y m es , a di f f er e nc e i n t h e a m o un t o f en d og e no us in hi b it o r o r in d uc e r, o r a di f fe r en ce i n t he e xt e n t o f c om p eti n g r e a ct i on s . In g en e ra l , q ua n t it a ti v e di f fe r e nc es oc c u r p r im a ri l y wi t h ph a se I r e a c t io n s . C . P h ys i o l o g i ca l o r d ise a s e s ta t e 1 . B ec au s e t he li v e r i s t he m a j o r o rg a n i n vol v e d in b io t r an s f o rm a ti on , pa th o l o gi c al f a c t o r s t ha t a l t e r l i ve r fu n c t io n c a n a f fe c t a d r ug ' s he p at ic c l ea r a nc e. 2 . C o ng e s ti ve h ea r t f ai lu r e de c re as e s h ep a ti c b lo o d f l o w b y r ed uc i ng c a rd i ac o u t pu t , wh ic h a l te r s t he e xt e n t o f d r u g m e t ab o li sm . 3 . A n a l te r a t i on in a lb um i n p ro d u ct i o n ( t he pl as m a ' s m aj o r d r u g- b in di ng p r ot e in ) c a n a lt e r t h e f r ac t io n o f b o u nd to un b ou nd d ru g . Th u s , a d ec r ea s e in pl asm a a l bu m i n c a n in c re as e the f r ac ti o n o f u nb o un d (f re e ) dr u g, wh i c h t he n b ec o m es a va i la b le to e xe r t a m o re i n te ns e p h a rm ac ol o gi ca l e f f ec t. Th e re v e r se is t ru e wh e n p l as m a al b um in i n c r e as es . D . G e n e t ic va r i a ti o ns 1 . Th e ac e t yl a t i o n r a t e d e p en ds on th e a m o u nt o f N - ac e t ylt r an s fe r as e p re s en t , wh i c h is d e t er m i n ed b y ge n e ti c f ac t or s . Th e ge n er a l p o pu l at i on c a n b e d i vi d ed in t o f a s t a c e t yl a t o r s a n d s l ow ac e t yl a t o r s . F o r e xa m p l e , f as t a c e t yl a to rs a re m o r e p r o ne t o h ep a t o to x ic i t y f r o m t he an t i tu be r c u l a r ag e n t is o ni a zi d t ha n s lo w a c et yl a to r s , wh e r e as s l ow a c e t y l a to r s a r e m o r e pr o n e t o i so n ia z i d 's o th e r t o xi c e f f ec ts (s e e V I I . B. 4 .d ) . 2 . Th e di s c o v e r y o f i s o f or m s a nd f am i l ie s o f C YP 4 5 0 e n zy m es ha s s h o wn t h a t g e n et ic v a r ia t io ns e xi s t in is o fo r m s th a t o xi d i z e de b r i s oq u i ne . I n di vi d ua ls wh o a r e
p o o r m et a bo li z e r s o f t h is c om po u nd ( PM p he n o t yp e ) al so e xh i b it im pa i re d m e ta b ol is m o f m or e th a n 2 0 o t he r th e r ap e ut ic age n ts , in cl ud i ng β - bl oc k e rs , a n t ia r r h y th m i c s , o p io id s , a n d a nt i de p re s s a nt s . A pp r o xi m a t el y 5 %- 1 0% of wh i t e s , 2 % o f A si an s , a nd 1% of A r ab s e xp r e s s t h e P M p h e no t y p e a n d a r e a t r is k f o r a d v e r se d r u g r e ac ti o ns . E . D r u g do s ag e 1 . A n i n c re a se in dr u g do s ag e re su l ts i n i nc r e ase d d ru g c on c e n t ra t io ns an d c a n s a tu r a te c e r ta i n m e t ab o lic en z y m e s . A s d r ug c o nc e n t r at i on e xc e ed s 5 0% s a t u r at i on f o r a p a rt ic u la r e n z y m e , d r u g e li m i n at i on v i a t hi s p a t h n o l on g er f ol lo ws s o l el y f i rs t o r d e r ki n et ic s , b ut r at h e r i s a m i x o f ze r o - a nd fi rs t - o rd e r k in e ti cs . A t 10 0% s a tu r a ti o n, m e ta b ol is m v i a th is en zy m e fo l lo ws ze r o - o rd e r k i n e ti cs . 2 . W he n th e m e ta b o li c p a t hw a y i s s a t u r a t ed ( ei t h er b ec au s e of an e xc ee d in g l y h i gh d ru g l e v e l o r b ec a us e th e s up pl y o f a n e n dog e n ou s c o n ju ga t e d a ge nt i s e xh a u s t ed ) , a n a l te r n at i ve p at h wa y m a y be pu r sue d . Fo r e xa m p l e, a t n o rm a l d os es , 9 8 % o f a do s e o f ac e ta m i n op h en un d e rg oe s c on ju g a ti o n wi t h ei t he r gl uc ur o n ic ac id o r su l fa t e; ho we v e r , a t to xi c d os e s , c o nj u ga t io n p a t h wa y s be co m e s a tu r at e d a n d a c et am i no p he n u nd e r goe s e xt e n s i v e N -h y d r o xy l a t i on , wh ic h c a n le a d t o h e p at o to xi c i t y . F . N u t r i ti o n al s ta t us 1 . Th e l e v e ls of s o m e con j u g at i n g a ge n t s ( o r e nd o g en ou s s ub s t r a te s ), su c h as s u lf a te , gl u ta t hi on e , a nd ( r a r e l y ) g lu cu r o ni c ac i d, a r e s e ns it i v e t o bo d y nu tr i e nt l e ve ls . Fo r e xa m p l e, a l ow - p r o te i n d i e t c a n l e ad t o a d e fi c i en c y of c e r ta i n a m i n o a c id s, su c h as g l y c i n e . Lo w- p r o t e in di e ts al so dec r e as e o xi d a t i v e d r ug m e t a bo li s m c a pa ci t y . P.405
2 . D ie t s d e fi c ie n t in es se n t i al f a tt y a c i d s ( pa r t icu l a rl y l in o le ic ac id ) re d uc e th e m e ta b ol is m o f e t h y l- m orp h in e a n d h e xo b a r bi t al by d e c re as i ng s y n t h es is of c er t ai n d r u g -m et a bo l i z in g e n z y m e s . 3 . A de f ic i e nc y o f c e r t ai n d ie t a r y m i n e r a l s al so a f f ec ts dr u g m e t ab o li s m . C a lc iu m , m a gn es i um , a nd z i nc de fi c ie nc ie s d ec r ea s e d ru g -m e ta b ol i z in g c a pa c i t y , wh e r ea s i r o n d e fi c i en c y ap pe a rs to i nc r ea se it . A c op pe r de f ic i en c y l e ad s t o v a ri ab le e f fe ct s . 4 . D e f ic i en c ie s o f vi t a mi n s (p a r ti cu l ar l y vi t am in s A , C , E , a nd th e B g r oup ) a ff ec t d r u g -m et a bo l i z in g c ap ac i t y . F o r e xa m p le , a v i ta m i n C d e fi c i e nc y c a n re su lt i n a d e c re as e i n o xi d a t i v e p at h wa y s , wh e r e as a v it am i n E d e fi c i e nc y c a n r e ta rd d e al k y l at io n an d h y d r o xy l a t io n . G . Ag e 1 . Me t a b ol i z i ng en z y m e s y s t em s a re no t fu ll y d e ve l op e d a t b i r th ; t h us , i n fa n t s a n d yo u n g c h i l d r en ne e d t o r e c ei v e s m a l le r d o s e s o f d r u gs t h an ad u lt s t o a voi d to xi c s i de ef f ec ts . Th is is p a r tic u la r l y t ru e o f d r u gs t h at r e q ui r e g lu c u r on i de c o nju g a ti on . 2 . I n o l de r ch i l d re n , s om e d r u gs m a y be le ss a c t i v e t ha n i n a du l ts , p a r ti c u l a rl y i f t h e d os a ge is b a s e d o n we i g h t . Th e l i v e r d e vel op s fa s t e r t h an th e i nc r e as e i n g e n er a l b od y we i g h t a nd, t h us , r e p re se n ts a g re at e r f ra c t i on of t ot a l b od y we i g h t .
3 . I n t he el d e r l y, m e t a bol i z i ng en zy m e s y s t em s de c li ne . Th e l o we r e d l e v el o f e n zym e ac ti v i t y s l o ws the r a te of d ru g e l im in a ti on , c a us in g h i gh e r p la sm a d r ug l e ve ls pe r do s e th a n i n y o u n g a du l ts . H . G e n d e r. Me t a b ol ic di ff e r e nc es b e t we e n t h e s exe s h a v e b ee n o bs e r ved f o r a n u m b e r o f c om po u nd s , s u g g es ti n g t ha t a n d ro g en , e s tr o ge n , a nd / o r a d re noc o r ti co i d a c ti vi t y m i g ht af f ec t th e a c ti v i t y o f c er t ai n C YP 4 50 e n z ym e is o z y m es . 1 . Me t a b ol is m o f d i a z epa m , p r ed n is ol on e , c af f ein e , a n d ac e ta m i n op h en is s li g h tl y f a s t e r i n w om e n . 2 . O xi d a t i v e m e ta bo l is m o f p ro p ra n ol o l, c h lo r di a ze p o xi d e , l id o c a in e , a nd s om e s t e ro i ds o c c u rs fa s t e r i n m e n t h an i n wo m en . I . C i r ca d i an r h yt h m s . T h e no c t u r na l p l as m a l eve l s o f d r ug s , s u ch as the o p h y ll in e a n d d ia z e p am , a r e l o we r t h an t he di u r n al p la s ma l e ve ls . J . D r u g a d mi n is t r a t io n r o u t e 1 . O r a l a d mi n i st r a t i on . Th e d r u g is ab s o r b ed f rom t he G I t r ac t an d t r an s p o r t ed to t h e l i ve r t h r ou gh t he he pa t ic po r t al v e in be f o re en t e ri n g t h e s y s t em ic c i rc u l a ti on . Th u s , th e d r ug is s u bj ec t t o he pa t ic m e ta b ol is m be f o r e i t r e ac he s i ts s i te o f ac t io n . Th i s is an ef f ec t k no wn as t he f i rs t - pa s s e f f ec t , o r p r e s ys t e m i c e li m in a ti o n ( Ta bl e 1 7 - 5 ). a . Th e fi r s t - pa s s ef f ec t c a n c a us e s i gn i f ic a n t c l in i c a l p r o bl e ms . Be c a us e d r ug s a r e m e ta b ol i z ed in t he liv e r f r om t he i r ac t i v e f o rm s t o i n ac ti v e f or m s , t h is e ff ec t m us t be c o un t e ra c t e d t o a c hi e v e t h e d es i re d p la s m a o r ti ss u e d ru g l e v e l. b . A c om m o n a p p ro ac h is t o i nc r e as e th e o ra l do s e , o f fs et t in g th e l os s of d r ug a c ti vi t y f r om th e f i rs t -p as s e f fe c t.
Table 17-5. Examples of Drugs That Undergo First-Pass Metabolism Acetaminophen
Fluorouracil
Oxprenolol
Albuterol
Imipramine
Pentazocine
Alprenolol
Isoproterenol
Progesterone
Aspirin
Lidocaine
Propoxyphene
Cortisone
Meperidine
Propranolol
Cyclosporin
Methyltestosterone
Salbutamol
Desipramine
Metoprolol
Terbutaline
Dihydropyridines
Nortriptyline
Testosterone
Estradiol
Organic Nitrates
Verapamil
P.406
Table 17-6. Examples of Common CYP3A4 Inhibitors and Inducers Potent Inhibitors
Moderate InhibitorsInducers
Amiodarone
Amprenavir
Carbamazepine
Atazanavir
Ciprofloxacin
Efavirenz
Clarithromycin
Diltiazem
Nevirapine
Indinavir
Erythromycin
Phenytoin
Itraconazole
Fluconazole
Phenobarbital
Ketoconazole
Fluvoxamine
Rifabutin
Nefazodone
Grapefruit juice
Rifapentine
Nelfinavir
Norfloxacin
Rifampin
Ritonavir
Verapamil
St. John's Wort
Telithromycin Troleandomycin Voriconazole
2 . I n t ra ve n o us ad m i ni s tr a t i o n b y p as s e s t h e f i rs t- p a ss e f f ec t b ec au s e t he d r u g is d e li v e r e d d ir e c t l y to t he b l oo d s t r ea m wi t ho u t b ein g m e ta b ol i z e d i n t he li v e r . Th us , i n t ra ve n ou s d os es of d rug s u n de r go i ng c o ns id e r ab l e f i rs t - pa s s e f f ec ts ar e m uc h s m a l le r th a n o ra l d os e s . 3 . S u bl i n gu a l a dm i n is t ra t i o n a nd r e ct a l a d mi n is t r a t i on al so b y pa s s fi r st - p as s e f f ec ts , al th o ug h re c t a l ad m in is t r at io n c a n p ro d uc e va r i ab le e ff ec t s. K . C o n c u r re n t d r u g th er a p y. Th e c o - a dm in is t ra ti o n o f d r u gs t h at a re ca pa b le o f e i t he r i n hi b it in g or in d uc in g s p ec if ic C YP 4 5 0 i s o z y m e s c an in c re as e o r dec r e as e, r e s pe c t i v e l y , t h e p la s m a l e v e ls of o th e r d r ug s t hat r e qu i re t he se is o z y m e s f o r n o r m a l d r ug m e ta b ol is m . 1 . A s in d ic at e d o n Ta bl e 1 7 - 1 , m o s t d ru gs a re m et a b ol i z ed b y th e fo ll o wi ng t h re e i s o zym es : C YP 2 C 9 , C YP 2 D 6 , a n d C YP 3 A 4. Th e po t e nt i al fo r d ru g i n te r ac tio n s d ue t o en zym e in hi b it i on o r in d uc t io n i s t he r e fo r e g r ea t e r wi t h t he s e c o m p o und s . 2 . D r ug s t h at al t e r t he ac t i v i t y o f C YP 4 5 0 is o z y m e s a r e u s u a ll y su bs t r a tes o f t he se s am e i s o z y m e s . Th i s c an b e o bs e r v ed b y c om p ar i n g Ta b l es 17 - 1 a nd 17 -6 . 3 . Th e c li n ic al ou t c o m e o f t he s e t y pe s o f d r u g int e r ac t io ns de p en ds up o n t h r ee f a c to r s: a . Th e po t en c y o f th e i nh i bi t o r o r i n du c e r ( Ta bl e 1 7 - 6 ) b . Th e a v ai la b il i t y o f al t er n a t e e lim i na t io n p a th wa y s c . Th e e xt e n t t o wh i c h t he h ig he r o r l o we r pl as m a c on c e n t ra t io ns o f t he d ru g c a us es s ym p to m s a n d/ o r u n de s ir a b le e ff ec ts .
IV. EXTRAHEPATIC METABOLISM A. D e f i n i t i o n. E xt r a h e pat i c m et a bo li s m re f e rs to d r u g b io t r an s f o rm a ti o n th a t ta ke s p l ac e i n ti s su e s o t he r th a n th e li ve r . Th e m os t c om m o n s i te s i nc lu d e t he p o r ta l s o f e n t r y ( e . g . , G I m u c o s a , na s a l p as s ag es , l u ng s ) a n d t he p o r ta l s o f e x cr e t i o n ( e . g ., ki dn e y s ) . H o we v e r , m et a bo li s m c a n oc c u r th r o ug h ou t th e b od y . B . M e ta b ol i sm s it e s 1 . P la s ma c o n ta in s e s ter a s e s, wh i ch a re r es po ns i bl e p r im a ri l y fo r h y d ro lys i s o f e s te r s . S i mp l e e s te r s (e. g . , p r oc ai n e, s u cc in y l cho l in e ) a r e ra pi d l y h y d r o l yz e d i n t he b l oo d . Ad di t io n al l y , p l as m a e s te r as es c a n ac t i va te a v a ri e t y o f es te r p ro d ru g s.
2 . Me t a b ol i z i ng en z y m e s i n t h e i n t es t i na l m u co sa a r e es p ec ia ll y i m p o rt an t f or d r u gs un de r g oi ng m i c ro s o m al o xi d a ti on , gl uc u ro ni d e c on ju g a ti on , an d s ul fa t e c o nj u ga ti o n . a . A s a l ip i d -s ol ub l e d r ug p as s e s t h ro ug h th e i n te s ti n al m uc os a du r in g d ru g a b so r p ti on , it c a n b e m eta b ol i z e d i nt o p o la r o r in a c t i v e m et a bo li t es be f o re e n t e ri ng t h e b l oo d . Th e r es ul t i s c o m pa r a b le t o a fi r s t - pa s s e f f ec t . P.407
b . Th e in t es ti n al m uc os a' s d r ug -m e t ab ol i z i ng c a pa c it y c om pa r es to t ha t o f t h e l i v e r. H o we ve r , i t s h o ws m uc h g r e a te r i n di v i d ua l v a r i at io n be c a us e o f i t s g r ea t er e xp o s u r e t o t he en v i r on m e n t . 3 . I n te s ti n a l b ac t e r ia l flo r a s e c re t e a n um b e r o f e n z ym e s c a p ab le o f m e ta b ol i z i ng d r u gs an d o t he r xe n o bi o ti c s . a . A n y fa c t o r t h a t m od i f ie s t he i nt e s ti n al f l o ra m a y al s o m od i f y d r u g a c t i vi t y. A g e , d i et , d is e as e s ta t e, a n d e xp o s u re to en v i r o nm e nt a l ch em ic a ls o r d rug s m a y al l b e im po r t an t . ( 1 ) C e r ta in d is e as es , par t i c u la r l y i n te s ti n a l d is ea s e , a f fe c t in t es ti n al fl o ra . U l c e ra t i v e c o l it is , fo r e xa m pl e , p r om ot es ba c te r ia l gr o wt h . D ia r r he a re d uc es t he n u m b e r o f b ac t e ri a . ( 2 ) C e r ta in e n vi r on m en ta l c he m ic a ls an d d r u g s a ls o a c t o n i nt es t in a l f lor a . A n t i bi o ti c s , f o r e xa m p le , d e c re as e t h e n um be r of b a ct e r ia . b . B ac t e ri al fl o r a s ec r e te β - g lu cu r on i da se , wh i c h h y d r o l yz es t he po la r gl uc u r on id e c o nj u ga t es o f b i le an d a ll o ws t he f r ee , n o np ol a r bi l e a c i ds to be r ea bs o r bed . Th i s e n t e r oh e pa t i c c i r cu l a tio n pa r t ia l l y m ai n ta i ns t he p oo l o f b i le ac id s . Th i s s am e p r i nc ip l e a pp li es t o c e r t ai n gl uc u ro n id e c on j ug a tes o f d ru g s. c . C e rt a in ba c t e ri a l f lo r a c o n ve r t v i ta m i n p r ec u rso r s t o th ei r ac t i ve f o rm s, a s wi t h vi t a m i n K. d . B ac t e ri al fl o r a c a n a ls o c on ve r t c er t ai n s ub s tan c es to th e ir t o xi c fo r ms , as wi t h t h e c on v e r s i o n o f t h e a r ti f ic i al s we e t e ne r c yc la m a t e to c y c lo h e xyl a m in e , a s us p ec t ed c a rc i no ge n . e . I nt es t in a l b ac te r ia p rod u c e az o r ed u c ta se , wh ic h re d uc es th e p r od r u g s u lf as a la z i n e t o t he ac t i ve a nt i -i n fl am m a t o r y am ino s al ic y l ic ac id an d t h e ac t i ve a n t ib ac t e ri al s u l fa p y r id i ne . S ul f as al a z i ne is o n e o f t h e f e w a ge n ts ef f ec t i ve i n t he t r e a tm en t o f ul c e r a ti v e c o l i ti s . 4 . Th e ac i di c e n vi r o n me n t of t he st o ma c h p r odu c es n o ne n z y m a ti c d eg ra d a ti on o f a n u m b e r o f d r u g m o l ec ul es , in c l ud i ng pe ni c i l li n G , c a r be ni c i l li n , e r y t h ro m yci n , a n d t e t r ac yc li ne . Ad d it i on al l y, g as t ri c a c i d a ss is ts in th e de g ra d at i on of p ro t ein s a n d p e p ti de s (e . g. , i ns u li n ) . 5 . Th e na s al mu c os a p ro v i d es a h ig h l e v e l o f C YP 4 5 0 a c t i v i t y , wh ic h c an s i gn i fi ca n tl y a lt e r t h e am o u n t o f d r ug th a t re ac hes t he s ys t em ic c i rc ul a ti on . N as al d e co n ge s t a nt s , a ne s t h eti c s , ni c o t in e , co c a i ne , a nd o th e r c om po u nd s h a ve b e en s h o wn t o u nd e rg o n as a l m e ta b ol is m . 6 . Th e lu n g i s r es p on s i bl e fo r fi r s t - p as s m e t ab ol is m o f d r u gs a dm i ni st e red i n t ra ve n ou s l y , i nt r am us c u l a rl y , t r an s d e rm al l y , o r s u bc ut a ne o us l y .
a . Th e t ot a l a m ou n t o f m e t a bo l iz i ng e nz ym e s p r e se n t i n t he lu n gs i s l es s t h an th a t i n th e l i v e r ; h o we v e r , th e s pe c i f ic ac ti v i t ie s o f t h e e n zy m es a re c om p a ra ble t o t h os e i n th e l i v e r . b . Th e lu ng s p r o v id e s e co n d - pa s s m e ta b ol i sm fo r d ru gs le a v i ng th e l i v e r. C . P l a ce n ta l an d fe t a l m e t a bo l is m 1 . P la c en t a . I n g e ne r al , i f a d r ug o r o th e r xe n o bio t ic is l i pi d s ol u bl e e no ug h to be a b so r be d i n to t he c i rc u lat i o n wh e n ad m i n is te r e d to a p r e gn an t wo m an , i t wi l l l ik el y a l so pa s s th r ou g h t he pla c en t a. a . Th e pl ac en t a i s n ot a p h y s ic al o r m e t ab o li c b ar r i e r t o xe n o bi o ti cs . Ve r y l i tt l e xe n o b i o ti c m e ta b ol i z in g en z y m e ac t i vit y h as be e n d e m o ns t r at e d i n t he pl ac e n t a. b . D r ug s p r es e nt in th e ir a c t i ve fo r m i n th e m at er n a l c i r cu l at i on li k e l y pas s u n c ha n g ed in t o t he f et a l c i rc ul a ti o n. c . A n e xc e p ti o n t o t hi s l ac k o f e n zy m e a ct i v i t y in th e pl ac e nt a i s t he p re sen c e o f a s m a l l am o un t o f a r yl a r o m a t i c h yd r o x yl a s e , wh i c h i s i n d uc i bl e in p r eg na n t w o me n w ho sm o ke c ig ar e t t e s . A po t en t ia l c on s eq u e nc e is an in c re as e i n t h e p r o du c ti on o f p en ul t im a te c a r c i n og en s f r om th e ac t i o n o f th is en z y m e on th e p o l yc ycl ic a r om a ti c h y d ro c a rb on s p r es en t in c i gar e t t e s m ok e a n d o th e r e n vi r on m e n ta l s ou r c e s . 2 . F et u s . I n t e rm s o f f e ta l m e ta b ol is m , t he r e a r e va r yi n g de g re es o f d ru g m e ta b ol i z in g a c ti v i t y de pe n d en t u p on a n um be r of f a c t o rs in c l ud i ng fe t al ag e . a . A m a j o r d e fi c ie n c y i s t h a t o f g l uc u r o ni c a c id c o n j ug a t in g a c t i vi t y b o t h i n t he f e t u s a n d t h e n e on a te . b . Two c o n s e qu e nc es of t h is a re th e g ra y b a b y s yn d r o m e , r e su l ti ng f ro m d e c re as e d c h l or am p he n ic o l g lu cu r on i da t io n , a nd n e o na t a l h yp e r b i l i r u b ine m i a, r e s ul ti n g f r om a d ec r ea s e i n b il i ru bi n g l uc u ro ni d e f o rm a ti o n. P.408
V. STRATEGIES TO MANAGE DRUG METABOLISM. A va r i e t y o f m e th o ds h a ve b ee n u se d t o c i rc um v en t t he ra p id m e ta b ol is m o f c e r ta i n d r u gs . Th es e m et h od s s e e k t o i m p r o ve d r ug th e ra p y b y d ec re a s i ng th e ov e r a l l e xt e n t o f m e ta bo l is m and i nc r ea s i ng t he du r a ti on o f ac ti o n. In s o m e in st an c es , t h es e m e th o ds h a v e pr o v i de d in c r ea s e d s it e s pe ci f ic i t y. A. P h a r m a c eu t i ca l s t r a te g i es in vo l ve th e u s e of d i f fe r e nt do s ag e f o rm s to e it h e r a vo i d o r c om p en s a t e f o r r a p id m e t ab ol is m . 1 . S u bl i n gu a l t a bl e t s a re us e fu l fo r d e li v e r in g d ru g s d i re c t l y in t o t he s ys te m ic c i rc u la ti o n a nd b y pa s s i ng h ep a ti c f i rs t -p as s m et ab o li sm . N it r o g l yc e r i n , a r a p id l y a c ti n g a nt i an gi n al ag e nt , i s e s s en t ia ll y i ne f f ec ti v e wh e n a dm in is t e re d o r al ly d u e to a n e xt r e m e l y hi g h f i rs t -pa s s e ff ec t bu t i s v e r y e f fe c ti ve in t re a ti n g ac u t e at t a ck s o f a n gi n a i f g i v en s u b li ng ua l l y . 2 . T r an s de r m al p at c he s a n d o i n tm en t f o rm u l a tio n s p r o vi de a c o n ti n uo us s u pp l y o f d r u g o ve r an e xt e n de d pe r i od o f t im e a nd a re us e f u l f o r r a pi dl y m et a bo li z e d c om p ou n ds s uc h a s n it r og l y c e ri n . Th e s e de l i ver y s y s t em s , wh i le n ot s u it ed t o t r ea t
a c ut e a n gi n al s y m p to m s , a r e e f fe c ti v e in p ro v i di ng p r op h y la c ti c co nc e nt r at i o ns o f n i t ro g l yc e r in . 3 . I n t ra m us c ul a r de p o t i n j e ct i o ns al so p ro v i de a co n ti n uo us su pp l y o f dr u g o v er a n e xt e n d e d p e ri o d o f t im e . H i g h l y l ip i d s o l ub l e es t e rs o f e st r a d io l an d t e s tos t e r o ne ( e . g ., es t r ad io l b e n z oa t e, t es t os t er o ne en a nt h at e) a r e s lo wl y a b s o r b ed f rom t he i r a d m i ni s t ra ti o n s it e . H y d ro l y s is o f th es e p r o dr u gs ( s e e V I ) p r od u c e s a s t ead y s up p l y o f t he s e ra p id l y m e t ab ol iz e d h o rm on es . 4 . E n te r i c -c o a te d fo r m ul a t i o ns c a n p ro t ec t a ci d -s e ns it i v e d r u gs a s t h e y pa ss t h r o ug h t h e ac i di c e n v i ron m en t o f th e s t om ac h. M e t h e na m in e , e r yt h r o m yc i n , a n d o m e p ra z ol e a r e e xa m p le s o f ac id - s e ns i ti v e ag ent s th a t a r e a v a il ab l e a s en t e ri c c o at e d p r ep a ra t io ns . 5 . N as a l a d mi n is t r a t i on a l lo ws f o r t he d el i v e r y of p ep t id es , s uc h a s c a lc it o n i n s a l mo n , wh ic h h a v e v e ry l o w ( i f an y) o r al bi o a v ai l ab i li t y . C ha r ac t er is t ic s o f t he l u ng m ak e i t id ea l f o r th e a dm i n is t ra t io n o f pe p ti de s . Ae r o so li ze d d r u gs o n l y n ee d to p e n et r a te a t hi n e p it h el ia l la y e r to r ea c h ab u nd an t c a pi l la r y b ed s . A dd i ti on a ll y , t he l u ng s c on t ai n p r o te as e in h ib i to r s , wh i c h a ll o w f o r g r e at e r s ta b il i t y o f th e pe p t id es . B . P h a r ma c ol o g ic a l s t ra t e g ie s i n v o l v e t he co ncu r r e nt us e o f e n z ym e i n hi b i to rs t o d e c re as e d r ug m e t ab ol is m . In s o m e i n s t a nc es , t he co nc u r r en t u s e o f a n ad d i ti on a l a g e nt do es no t pr e v e nt m e ta b ol is m b ut r at h e r p re v e n ts t he to xi c i t y c a us ed b y m e ta b ol i te s o f t h e t he r ape u t ic a g en t . 1 . L e vo do p a ( L - do p a ), th e am in o a c i d p r ec u rs o r o f do p am in e , is us ed in th e t r e a tm en t o f pa r k i ns on is m . U nl ik e d op a m i ne , L- do p a c an pe n et r a te th e b lo o d -b r a in b a r r ie r an d r e ac h t h e c en t r al n er vo u s s y st em ( CN S ) . W hen i n th e b r ai n , it i s d e ca r bo xy l a t e d t o d op am i ne . To en s u r e t ha t ade q u at e c on ce n t ra t io ns of L - d op a r e a ch th e C N S , p e ri ph e ra l m e ta b ol is m o f t h e d rug m u s t b e b lo c k ed . Th e c o nc u r re n t a d m i ni s t ra ti o n o f c a r b ido p a , a do p a d ec ar b o xyl a s e i n hi bi t o r t h at c a nn o t pe n e t ra t e t h e b l oo d -b r a in ba r r ie r , p r e v e n ts p e r ip he r a l f o rm a t i on of do p am in e a n d a ll o ws si t e s p ec if ic de l i v e r y o f do pam i ne to t he C N S . 2 . β -L a c ta m a n t ib i o t ic s. Th e a nt ib a ct e ri a l ac t i v i ty o f a n um b e r o f β - l ac tam a n t ib io t ic s is r ed uc e d b y m ic r oo r ga n ism s c ap a bl e o f s ec r e ti ng t he en z ym e β l a ct am as e . Th is e n z y m e h y d r o l y ze s t he β - la c ta m r i n g a nd in ac t i v a te s t he a n t ib io t ic . To c o un t e r t hi s re s i st a nc e m e c h a ni s m , a β - la ct am a s e i nh ib i to r , s uc h a s c la vu l a n i c a c i d , is us ed in c o nj u nc ti o n wi t h a p e ni c i ll i n, su c h as am o x ic i ll i n , t o s uc c es s fu ll y t r e a t i nf ec t io ns c a us e d by β - l a c ta m a s e - p ro d uc in g b a c t e ri a . 3 . I f os f am i de is an al k y la t i ng ag e nt th a t m us t u nd e r go in vi v o m e ta b ol is m t o p r o du c e an ac t i v e n it r o ge n m us t a rd . In th e p r oc es s o f t h is m e ta b ol ic ac ti v a t i on , s i gn i fi ca n t c o nc e nt r a ti o ns o f a c ro l e in a re pr o du c e d . Th es e a c ro le i n m o l ec u le s r e ac t wi t h n uc l eo p hi le s o n r e na l pr o t ei ns an d p r od uc e h e m o r r ha g ic c ys ti t is . To p r e v e n t t h is t o xi c it y , i fo s f am i de is al wa y s c oa dm i ni st e r ed wi t h m es n a , a s ul f h y d r yl c o nt a in in g c om p ou nd t hat r e ac ts wi t h a n d n eu t r al ize s an y a c ro le i n t ha t is p r e se n t i n t h e k id n e y . 4 . H I V p r o t ea s e i n hi b i to r s a re e xt e n si v e l y m e tab o li z e d b y C YP 3 A i s o z ym es . In a d di t io n , c om po u nd s wi t h i n t h is c la s s c a n i nh ib i t t h es e s am e i so z ym e s . Th i s l at t e r a c ti o n h as b e en us ed t o o p t im i z e t he r a p y. R i t o navi r i s an H I V p r ot e as e i nh i bi t o r t h a t i s k n o wn t o c au s e he p a to xi c i t y a t t he r a pe u tic do se s . L o pi n a vi r is a n H I V
p r o t ea s e in hi b it o r t h at is i n ef f ec ti v e i f us e d a lo n e d u e t o r a pi d C YP 3 A o xi d a t io n . A c om b in a ti o n o f l o w d os e r i t on a v i r wi t h a th e r ap eut i c P.409 d o se of lo p in a v i r r es u lt s i n an in hi b it i on of C YP 3 A , t he es t ab li s hm en t o f ad e q ua t e p l as m a le v e ls of lo p in a v ir , a nd th e r ap eu t ic ef f ic ac y wi t h o u t h ep a to t o xi c it y.
Figure 17-1. Selected examples of chemical modification that eliminate metabolic transformations. Methylation of testosterone blocks the rapid oxidation of the 17-hydroxyl group and allows oral activity, whereas replacement of the metabolically labile paramethyl group on tolbutamide with a chloro group allows for a much longer duration of action.
C . C h e mi c al s t ra t e gi e s i n v o l v e t h e a dd i ti o n, de le t i on , o r is os te r ic m o di f ic a ti o n o f k e y f un c t i on al g ro u ps . Th e s e m o le c u l ar m o di f ic a ti o n s hi nd e r o r c o m p le t ely e l im i na t e m e ta b ol ic t ra ns f o rm at i ons ( Fi g u re 17 - 1 ). 1 . T es t os t e r on e i s n o t or a l l y a c ti ve du e t o ra p id o xi d a t i on o f i ts 17 - h y d roxy l g r o u p t o a k et o ne . Ad d it i on of a 1 7 α -m e th y l g ro up c o n ve r t s t he la b il e s ec on d a r y a lc o ho l t o a s ta bl e te r ti a r y al c o h ol . Th e r es u lt i ng c om p ou n d, m e th yl t e s t o s t e r on e , is o n l y h a lf a s p o te n t a s t es t os te r o ne ; ho we v e r , i t i s n ot s u bje c t t o ra pi d fi rs t - pa s s m e t a bo li s m a n d c an be us ed o ra ll y . A s im il a r s t ra t eg y h as bee n us ed to m a k e o ra ll y ac t i v e e s t ra d io l a na l og u es . 2 . T ol b u ta m id e i s a n o ra l h y po gl y c em ic wi t h a sh o r t d u ra t io n o f ac ti o n. Th i s s u lf o n ylu r ea r ap i dl y u nde r g oe s o xi d a t io n o f it s pa r a -m e th y l g ro u p. A s t r uc t u ra ll y s im i la r c om p ou nd , ch l o rp r o p a mi d e, ha s a no nm e t a bo li za b le pa r a -c hl o r o g r o up an d , a s a r es ul t , h as a m u c h lo n g er du r a ti o n o f a c t io n . 3 . I so p r o te r e n ol is a po te n t β -a d r en e rg ic ag o ni st u se d fo r th e re li e f o f b r o nc ho s pa s m a s s oc ia t ed wi t h b ro nc h ia l a st hm a . B e c a us e i t i s a c a te c ho l ( i . e. , 3, 4 d i h yd ro xy - s u b s t it u te d b en z e n e ri ng ) , i s o p r ot e r eno l is s ub j ec t t o ra pi d m e ta b ol is m b y c a te ch o l O - m et h y l tr a ns fe r a s e ( C O MT) a n d , t hu s , h as po o r o r al ac t i v it y . Al t e ra t io n o f t he 3, 4 -d i h y d ro xy s u b s t i tu ti o n t o a 3, 5 - di h yd rox y s u b s t i tu t io n p r o du ce s m e t a p ro t e r en o l , a b r o nc h o di l at o r t h a t is no t s us ce p t ib le t o C O M T, i s o ra lly a c t i v e, a n d h as a l on g er du r a ti on o f a c t i on th a n is o p ro t er e n ol . 4 . O c t r eo t i de is a s y n the t ic oc t ap ep t id e u s ed to s u pp r es s o r i n hi bi t s e ve re d ia r r he a a ss o ci at e d wi t h c e r t ai n tu m o rs . O c t re o ti d e m i m i cs t he ac ti o ns o f so m at os t a t i n, a n a t u ra ll y o c c u rr i ng , 1 4 - am i no ac id pe p ti d e. S om at o s ta t in un de r g oe s r a pi d p r o t eo l y s i s , ha s a ha l f- l ife o f 1 - 3 m i n ut es , an d m us t be ad m i ni s te r ed as a c o nt i nu o us i n t ra v e n ou s in f us i on . Oc t r eo t id e c on ta i n s th e a m i n o ac i ds e ss e n t ia l f o r
c l in ic al e ff ic ac y b u t r ep la c es t wo of t he am in o a c i d s wi t h t he i r D - e na n ti om e r s . Th e s e u n n at u ra l D -a m i n o ac i ds a r e m o re r es is ta n t t o h y d r o l y si s. As a r e s u l t, oc tr e o ti d e h as a n in c re as ed h al f -l i fe and c a n b e a d m i ni s t e r ed as a s ub c u t an e ou s i nj ec t io n .
VI. PRODRUGS. Th e s e d r u gs a r e m ol ec u le s th a t a re ei t he r in ac t i ve o r v e r y we a k l y ac t i v e an d r eq ui r e i n v i v o b i ot r a ns fo r m a t io n t o pr o du c e t he ph y s io log i c a ll y a ct i v e d r u g. Th e p h as e I m e ta b ol ic P.410 p r o ce s s es d is c us s e d p r ev i o u s l y a r e us e d t o a ct i va t e p r o dr u gs . A v a r i et y of a d va n t a ge s c an be ga i ne d b y u si n g a p r o d ru g i ns t ea d o f th e a c ti ve fo r m o f t he drug. A. A n i n c r ea s e i n w at e r s o l ub i l i t y i s u se f ul fo r th e p re pa r a ti o n o f o ph t hal m ic a n d p a r en t e ra l f o rm u la t io ns . S o d i u m s uc c in a t e e st e rs a nd so d i um ph o s ph a te e s te r s h a ve be e n us e d t o m ak e a nu m b e r o f wa t e r -s ol u bl e s t e ro i d p ro d r ug s . B . A n in c r ea s e i n l i p id s o l u bi l i t y i s u s ef u l f o r a v a r i e t y o f r ea so ns . 1 . I nc r e as e d d u r at i o n of a c t io n . L ip i d- s ol ub l e es t e rs of es t ra d io l , su c h as b e n zo at e , v a l e ra t e, an d c y p i on a te , a r e u s e d to pro l on g e s t ro ge n ic a c ti vi t y. I M i n je c ti on s o f th es e e s t e rs in oi l re su l t i n a d e po s it o f d r ug t ha t i s s l o wl y h y d r o l y ze d , t h e r eb y r el e as in g f r e e es t r a di o l o ve r a p ro l on ge d p e r io d o f ti m e (s e e V . A .3) . 2 . I nc r e as e d o r a l a bs o rp t i o n i s o bt a in ed b y c o nve r t i n g c a r b o xy l i c a c i d gr o u ps to e s te r s . Th e s e es t er s c an t h en be r ap i dl y c o n ve r ted t o t h e ac t i ve a ci ds b y p l as m a e s te r as es . E na l ap r i l a t is a po t en t an gi o te ns i n -c on v e r t i ng en zy m e ( A C E ) in h ib i to r t h a t i s us e d f o r p a re n te ra l ad m i ni s tr a ti o n, bu t , d ue t o i ts hi g h p ol a ri t y , i t is o ra ll y i n ac t i ve. I ts m o no m e t h y l e s te r , e n a la p r i l, is c o ns id e r ab l y m o r e l ip o ph il ic an d , th us , p r o vi de s g oo d or a l a bs o rp t i on . Th is s t r at e g y h as b e e n su c c es sf u ll y us e d fo r a va r i e t y of o th e r c om po u nd s , i nc lu d in g a d di ti o na l A C E i n hi bi t o rs , f i br ic ac id d e r i va ti v e s , am pi c i l li n, an d s e v e r al c e ph a lo s p o rin s . 3 . I nc r e as e d t o p ic a l a bs o r p t i on of s t e r oi ds is ob t a in ed b y m a sk in g h yd ro xy l g r o u p s a s e s te r s o r a c e t on i de s . Th e s e p r o dr u gs ar e m uc h l ess po l a r t ha n t h e p a re n t c om p ou n ds a n d a ll o w i nc r e as ed de r m a l p e rm ea bi l it y f o r t h e t r ea t m e n t o f i n f la m m at o r y , a l le r gi c , an d p ru r it ic sk in c o nd i ti on s . E xa m p le s i nc lu de t r i am c i no l o ne a c e t on i de , di f l o ra s o ne d i a ce t a te , an d b e ta m e th a s on e va l e ra t e . 4 . I nc r e as e d p a la t ab i l i ty. A n t i b i o ti c s s uc h a s s ul f i s ox az o l e h a ve a b i t te r t a s t e a n d a r e no t s ui t ab l e f o r a dm in i s t r a ti o n t o yo u ng ch il d re n wh o c a nn o t y et s wa llo w t a b l et s o r ca ps u le s . E s t e ri f ic a ti on t o p r od uc e s u l f is o xa z o l e ac e t yl d e c r e as es the wa t e r s o lu bi l it y o f t h e a n ti bi o tic an d , t h us , d ec r ea se s i ts in t e ra c t i on wi t h bi t te r ta s te r e c ep t or s o n t h e t on g ue . Th i s c om p ou nd is m a rk et e d a s a fl a v o r ed s us p ens i on . S i m il a r s tr a te g ie s h a v e be e n u s e d t o m as k t h e bi tt e r ta s te of ch l o r am p hen i c o l a nd o t h e r a nt i bi o ti c s . C . A d e c r e as e in G I i r r it a t i o n. N o ns te r oi d al an t i- i n fl am m at o r y ag en t s ( NS A I D s ) p r o du c e ga s t ri c i r ri t at i on a n d u lc e ra t io n v ia t wo m ec h an is m s : a di r ec t i r r it a n t e f fe c t o f t he ac id ic m o le c u le and i nh ib i ti o n o f g as t ro p r ote c ti ve p ro s ta gl a nd in p rod u ct i on . Th e p r o dr u gs su l in d ac an d na b um e t on e p r o du ce l es s G I i r ri t at i on be c a us e t he
g a st r ic an d i n te s ti na l m uc os a a r e n o t e xp o s e d t o h i gh c o nc e nt r a ti on s o f ac t i ve d r ug d u r in g o r al a dm i n is t ra t ion . A dd i ti o na ll y , n ab um e to n e i s a k e to ne , no t a n ac i d, an d l a cks an y d i re c t i r ri t an t ef f e c t s . D . S i t e s p ec i f ic i t y i s u s e f u l f o r i nc r ea s i ng t he c on c en t r at i on of d ru g a t the ac t i v e s i te an d fo r d e c r e as in g s i d e e f fe c ts . 1 . M e t h yl d o p a i s a pr o dr u g th a t is s t r uc t u ra ll y s im i la r to L -d op a . A s a r es u l t , m e th y l d op a i s t r an s p o r ted i nt o t h e C N S a nd m e tab o li z e d to th e a c ti v e c om p o u nd , α m e t h yl d o p a m i n e , v i a t he s a m e pa t h u s e d f o r t h e s yn t he si s o f d op am i ne . Th i s a l lo ws a s i gn i fi c a n t am ou n t o f α -m e t h yld op am i ne t o re ac h th e C N S a nd bin d to c e nt r a l α 2 - ad r e ne r gi c r ec e pt o rs . 2 . O m ep r a z o l e is us ed to t r ea t g as t r ic ul c e rs and o th e r h y p e rs ec r e to r y di s o rd e rs . A f t e r o r al ab s or p ti o n, i t is s e le c ti v e l y ac ti v a t ed a t t h e a c i di c p H le v e ls ( p H l es s t h an 1 ) se e n i n g as t ri c p a ri e ta l c e ll s . Th is al l o ws th e a c ti ve f or m o f th e d r ug to b e +
+
p r o du c e d i n c lo s e p ro xi m i t y to th e e n zy m e H / K - A TP a s e ( pr o t on pu m p ) , r e su l ti n g in i r r e ve rs i bl e i nh i bi t io n o f t h e e n z ym e a n d a d ec r ea s e i n g as t ri c a ci d s ec r et i o n. A c t i v a ti on in th e s t om ac h p ri o r to ab s o r p ti on ca n b e p r e v e nt e d b y t he us e o f en t er ic c o at e d f o rm ul a ti o ns (s ee V . A . 4 ). 3 . F o rm a ld e h yd e i s a n ef f e c t i v e u r in a r y t ra c t a nt is e pt ic ; ho we ve r , o r al a d m i ni s t ra ti o n r es u lt s i n s i gn i fi ca n t t o xi c i t y . To av o i d th is p ro b le m , th e p ro d r ug m e t h en am i n e is ad m i n is t e r e d i ns te a d. Me t h e na m i n e i s s ta bl e a n d n on t o xi c a t n o r m a l p h y s i ol o gi c a l p H , b u t i s se l ec ti v e l y h yd ro ly ze d t o fo r m a l de h y de and a m m o ni um io ns in th e a c i d ic ur i ne ( p H l es s t ha n 5 . 5 ) . A s wi t h om e p ra z o le, a c ti va t io n b e fo r e a bs o r pti o n c an be p re v e n te d b y t h e u s e o f e nt e ri c -c oa t ed f o r m u l at io n s ( s e e V. A . 4 ). P.411
4 . O l sa l az i ne is a hi g hl y p o la r dim e r o f 5- am i no sa l ic yl ic ac id th a t i s p oo r ly a b so r b ed a f t e r o r al ad m i ni s tr a ti o n. O n r e ac hi ng t he la r ge int e s ti ne , c o lo ni c b ac t e ri a c l ea ve t h e a zo bo n d a nd li b er a te t he ac t i ve a nt i -i n fl am m a t o r y ag e nt . O ls al a zi ne a n d a r e l at e d c om po un d , s u l fas a l az i ne , a r e u s e f ul in t re a t in g i n fl am m a t o r y b o we l di se as e . E . I nc r ea s e d s h el f l i fe of b o th s o li ds an d p a r en t er a l a d m i xt u r e s c an be obt a i ne d b y t h e u se o f p r od r ug s . C yc l o p h os p ha m i de i s a p rod r u g t h at r eq ui r es in vi vo o xi d a t i on , fo l lo we d b y non e n z y m a ti c d ec om po s i t io n , to pr o du ce t he ac ti v e p h os p ho r am id e m us t ar d . A s a r es ul t , a q ue ou s s olu t i on s o f c y cl o ph os p ha m i d e a r e m uc h m o re s t a bl e t h an th o s e of o th e r n it r o ge n m u s ta r ds ( i. e . , m e c h l or e tha m in e ) . M e ch l o r e th am i n e is hi gh l y r e ac ti v e , d o es no t req u i re in v i v o ac ti v a t io n , a n d c an r a p id l y de c o m p o s e i n aqu e o us e n vi ro n m e n ts b e fo r e ad m i ni s tr a ti o n.
VII. PHARMACOGENETICS A. G e n e s a nd t he i r in vo l ve m e n t i n d ru g r es p o ns e an d t ox i ci t y 1 . G e ne s c an be d ef in e d a s d is c re t e se gm e nt s o f D N A t h at a re c a pa b le of r e p r od uc t io n d u ri n g c el l r e p li c a t io n a n d t ha t ar e re s po ns i bl e f o r g ui d in g t he b i os yn t he s i s o f s pe c i f ic p r o t ei ns an d e n zy m es .
2 . G e ne s e nc od e p r o te i ns in v o l v e d i n t he a bs o r pt i o n , t ra n sp o r t , m e ta b ol i s m , a nd e l i m in a t io n o f dr u g m o le c ul es . Ad d it i on al l y , th ey e n c o d e p r ot e in s t ha t s e r v e as d r u g r ec e p to r s . I t is o bv i o u s t he n th a t a g e ne t ic d is p os it i on th a t wo ul d re s ul t i n e i t he r an o ve r - o r a n u nd e r e xp r e ss i o n o f th e se g e ne s c o ul d s ig ni f ic an t ly a l t e r d r u g r es p on s e an d to xi c it y . 3 . A s s um in g t h at a p at i en t ha s b ee n p r es c ri b ed a m ed i c a ti o n t ha t is i n di c a t e d f o r h is o r h er c o n di ti o n o r d is e as e s t at e , t h er e a r e s e ve ra l re a s o ns wh y a p at ie n t m a y no t r e s po nd o r m a y s u ff e r s ev e r e a d ve rs e e ff e c t s : a . I na p p r op r i a te d os i ng b . D r u g - d ru g in t e r ac t i on s c . D r u g a ll e r g ie s d . M e d ic a t io n e r ro r s e . G e ne t i c p r e di s po s i t io n 4 . I n i ts m os t s im pl is t ic fo r m , p h a rm a co g en e t ic s c an be de f in e d a s t he us e o f g e n et ic in f o rm at i on to s el e c t t he “ ri g ht d ru g f o r t he r ig h t p a ti e nt . ” Th is a r ea o f s tu d y p r i m a r il y s e ek s t o i d en t ify t h e in di vi d ua l g e ne ti c d i f fe r e nc es a n d p r ed is pos i ti o ns th a t i n f lu en ce d ru g re s p o ns e a n d s af e t y. B . G e n e t ic va r i a ti o n i n th e D N A s e qu en c e ca n ca u s e c e r ta i n p op ul a ti o ns o f i n di vi d ua ls to be m o re l ik e l y t o d e ve l o p s pe c i fic d i se as e s t a te s , t o b e m o r e li k el y t o f o l low a s p ec i f ic pa th o f di s ea s e p r o g re s sio n , to be mo r e li k e l y t o r e s p o nd t o s p e ci f i c d r u g t h e ra p y, a n d /o r to be mo r e li k el y t o d e ve lo p c e r t ai n ad ve r s e d r u g e f f e c ts . 1 . Th e ge ne t ic v a ri a ti o n b e t we e n a n y t wo u n re la te d in di vi d ua ls is a p p ro xi m a te l y on e b a se pa i r c ha n ge i n e v e ry 1 0 0 0 b as e p ai r s. 2 . Th e se c h an g es a r e ref e r r ed t o as s in g le n uc le o t i de p ol ym o r p h i s m s (S N P s ) a nd a r e th e m os t c om m o n f o rm o f g en e ti c v a r ia t io n . 3 . T he e ff e c ts o f S N P s va r y b a s e d u po n t h e t yp e a nd l oc a t io n o f th e v ar i a ti o n. a . An S N P l o ca t ed w i t h in t h e c o di n g re g i on of a g en e c ou l d p ro d uc e n o d i sc e rn ab l e e f fe c t s , n eg li g ib l e e f fe c t s , o r a s i gn i fic a nt al t e ra t io n i n e f fe c ts d e p en di n g u po n h o w t h e S N P a f fe ct e d t he am in o a c i d c od i ng . ( 1 ) A n S N P t ha t di d n o t a l t e r th e a m i no ac id se qu e nc e i n a p ro t ei n wo ul d p r o du ce n o d is c e rn a b le ef f e c ts . ( 2 ) A n S N P t ha t re s u l te d i n o n e am i no ac id be in g r e pl a ce d b y a s i m il a r am i n o a c id wo u l d h a v e a ne g li g i bl e e f f ec t ( e. g . , ch a ng in g a p o r ti o n o f t he ge n et ic c o d e f r om A U U t o G U U wo u l d r es u lt i n is o le uc i ne be in g re p la c e d b y va li ne , a s i m i la r h yd r o ph o bi c a m i no ac id ). ( 3 ) A n S N P t ha t re s u l te d i n o n e am i no ac id be in g r e pl a ce d b y o ne wi t h s ig n i f i ca n t l y d i f f e r en t ch e mi c al p r ope r t i e s wo u l d c au s e a s i gn i f i ca n t a l t e ra t i o n o f e ff e c t s ( e . g ., P.412 c h an g in g a po r ti o n o f t he g en e ti c co d e f r om G UU t o G A U wo u l d r es ul t in va l i ne b e in g re p la c e d wi t h t he a c id ic , a n d m o r e h y d r o ph i li c , as p a rt ic ac id ) . b . An S N P i n a s pl i ci n g c o n t r ol r e gi o n c ou ld r es u lt in th e fo r m a t io n o f a n o ve l p r o t ei n t h at is e i th e r l a rge r o r s m a ll e r i n s i ze t ha n t h a t wh i c h is na t u ra ll y oc c u r r in g .
c . An S N P i n a p ro m o ter r e g i o n c o u ld al t er t he tr a n sc ri p ti o n r a te , re s u l tin g in e i t he r an i n c r e as e o r a de c r ea s e in th e p r o du c t i on o f t h e t a rg e t p r ot ei n . d . A n S N P r es id i ng ou t s id e of an y o f th e a bo ve loc a ti o ns i s g e ne t i ca l l y s i l e n t a n d d o es no t p r o du c e an y o bs e r v a bl e e f fe c ts . 4 . E xa m pl e s o f k n ow n g e n e ti c va r i at i o ns an d t h e i r ef f e ct s on d r ug e ff i c a c y a n d safety a . Wa r f a r i n. P a ti en t s wi t h s p ec i fi c va ri at i on s i n th e ge n e f o r t he m e t ab ol iz i n g e n zym e C YP 2 C 9 re q ui r e l o we r d os es a n d a r e a t a n in c re as ed r is k o f b le ed i ng . b . S a lm e te r o l a n d a l bu te r o l . G en e ti c v a r i at i on s in t he ge n e c o d in g f o r the β 2 a d r en e r gi c r ec e pt o r ( A D B R 2 ) c a n re su l t i n a d ec re a s e d e f fi ca c y . c . 6- M e r c a pt o p u r in e . G e n e ti c va r i at i on s a ff e ct i ng t he en zy m e th i op u ri n e m e th y l t r an s fe r as e a r e k no wn t o p ro d uc e i nc r ea s ed t o xi c i t y . d . P r o ca i na m i de , h yd r a l a z in e , a n d i so n i az id . Ge n e ti c v a r i at i on s a ff e c t i ng t he r at e o f N - ac e t y la t io n a f fe c t bo t h th e e f fi c a c y an d a d ve r s e e ff e ct p ro f il es of the s e a ge n ts . Th e i d en t if ic a ti o n o f f as t a n d s l o w a c et y l a to r s is o n e o f th e b es t k no wn e xa m p l e s o f h o w g e n et ic v a r ia t io n c an a f fe c t th e r ap e ut ic s a fet y a n d e f fi c a c y . e . Q u i ni d i ne , c i sa p r i de , a n d c l a ri t h r o m yc i n . G e n e t ic va ri a ti o ns i n t h e g en e c o di n g f o r po t as s i um c h an ne ls c a n r es ul t i n i nc r ea s e d ri s k an d p r e va le nc e o f Q T- s y n d r om e a n d a r r h y t hm i a s . f . Z i le u t on . Pa t ie n ts wi th g en e ti c va r i at i on s i n t he g en e c od i ng fo r th e e nz ym e 5 l i po xyg e n a s e d o n o t r es p o n d t o t hi s d r ug . C . C l i n ic a l p h a rm a co g en e t i c a ss a ys 1 . Th e go a l o f a c l in ic al p h a rm ac o ge ne t ic as s a y is t o p la ce pa t ie n ts i n to on e of f ou r c a te g o ri es . a . I nd i vid u al s wh o a r e m o s t l ik el y t o re sp o nd an d a r e a t a lo w r i s k f o r a d ve r s e e f f ec ts b . I nd i v id u al s wh o a r e m o s t l ik el y t o re sp o nd an d a r e a t a hi g h r is k f o r a dv e r s e e f f ec ts c . In d i vid ua ls wh o a re les s l ik el y t o re s p o nd an d a r e at a l o w r is k f o r a d v er s e e f fe c ts d . I nd i v id u al s wh o a r e l es s l ik el y t o re s p o nd an d a r e at a h ig h ri s k fo r a d ve r s e e f f ec ts 2 . Is su es in t he de v e lo pm e nt o f p ha r m a c o ge n et ic as s a y s i n c l ud e : a . Im p ro v e m en t i n a m e di c al l y im po r ta n t re sp on s e ( i .e . , t h e as s a y s ho ul d a l lo w h e al t hc a re p ro v i d e rs t o m ak e a be t t e r d ec is io n th a n wo u ld ot h e r wi se be p o s s ib l e) . b . F al s e p os i t i ve s f o r ef f i c ac y- b a s e d as s a ys s h o u l d b e k e pt a t a m i n im u m i n o r d e r t o p r e v en t no n re s po n d er s f r om be i ng pr es cr i b e d d ru gs th a t wi ll no t p r o v i de t he d e si r ed t he r ap e ut ic ou t c o m es . F a ls e n eg a ti v e s ( i. e . , re s p on d e rs i d en t if i ed as n o n re sp o nd e rs ) ar e no t a s c r uc ia l s in c e t he y wo u l d b e p r es c ri be d a p p ro pr i a te a l t er n a ti v e th e ra p y . c . Fa l se ne g a ti ve s f o r sa f e t y- b a s e d a s sa ys s h o u l d be ke p t a t a m i ni m um i n o r d e r t o p r e v en t at - r is k pa t i en ts f ro m b ei n g e xp o s e d to po t en t ia l s e ri o us ad v e r s e e f f ec ts . A h ig h e r r a te of f a ls e p os i ti v e s ( i .e . , p a tie n ts id e nt i fi e d as “ at r is k” ) i s a cc e pt a bl e . E xc l u d in g a c e r ta i n p er c en t ag e o f p at i e nt s i n o r de r to a v oi d s e r i ou s a d ve r s e ef f ec ts ha s b een p r op os ed t o b e a re aso n a bl e t r ad e - of f .
d . Th e r es ul ts fo r t he as s a y s m us t b e b o th in t e rpr e t a bl e a nd p ro v i d e c l i nic a ll y us e fu l r e s ul ts . Th e a s s a y s s h o ul d be s im p le to us e i n a c l in ic al s e t ti n g a nd s h ou ld p r o vid e r e s ul ts th a t a r e e as il y u nd e r s t o od b y th e p a ti en t , p h y s ic ia n , p ha r m a c i s t , an d ot h e r h e al t h -c a re p ro v i d er s . e . A na l y t ic al an d c li n ic al v a l i da t io n o f t h e a s s a y m us t m e et F D A a p pr o v a l s t an da r ds . 3 . A s d ef in e d h e re , p h a rm ac o ge n et ic as sa y s d o n o t te s t fo r t he pr es e nc e o r ab se nc e o f a d is ea s e - s p ec i fi c m uta t i on , n o r d o t h e y pr o vi de a n y i n fo r m a t io n t h at c ou l d b e u s ed to p re d ic t d is ea s e s t a te s i n a n i nd i v id u al o r h is o r h e r f am il y . A s su c h , it ha s b e e n su g ge s t e d t ha t le ga l an d e t hi c a l i s s ue s s urr o u nd i ng di se as e -s p ec if ic ge n e t e s ts s ho u ld no t a p pl y t o p r e di c t i on s o f s af e t y a nd e f fi ca c y o f dr u gs (i . e. , t h e p r i m a r y f oc us o f ph a rm ac o ge n et ic s ). D . S N P m ap s a n d t h e i r p o t e n ti a l u s e 1 . A n S N P m a p f o r a n i nd i v i du a l c o n t ai ns th e s pec i fi c n um be r an d l oc a ti on s o f ba se p a i r va r i at i on s . S uc h a m a p c o ul d b e u s e d to pr e di c t p a ti en t re s p o ns e a nd s us c ep ti b il i t y to s e ri o us a d v e r s e r ea ct i on s . P.413
Figure 17-2. Hypothetical single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) maps. At the top is a composite SNP profile developed by using genetic information from a large database of patients/volunteers. This overall SNP can then be compared to individual SNP maps (i.e., Patients A-D) to help determine the overall benefit/risk for the given drug in each of these four patients.
2 . A s i m pl i f i ed ex am p l e o f t h is is sh ow n in Fi gu r e 17 - 2. A l a r ge da t ab as e wo u ld i n i ti al l y be us ed t o i de n tif y S N P s th a t c ou l d b e us e d as p r e di c t o rs of e ff ic ac y a nd s a fe t y. A t t h e t op o f F ig ur e 1 7- 2 , t h e t wo o u ts id e , s ha d ed r eg io n s in t hi s h yp o t h e t i c a l m o de l s hou l d b e re ga r d ed as S N Ps t h a t wo u l d p r ed ic t th a t a p a ti e nt wo u l d f a v o ra bl y r e s p o nd t o th e d r ug . S im i l a rl y, the t wo i nn e r , b la ck re g io ns s h ou l d b e r eg a rd e d as S N P s t ha t wo u l d i nd ic a te th a t a p a t ie n t wa s m o r e p r on e to t he d e ve l op m e n t o f s er i ou s a d v e r s e ef f ec ts . O t he r SN P s ( i. e . , t he no n hi gh l igh t e d r e c ta n gl es s h o wn f or t he f o u r p at i en ts ) s h ou l d b e r e g ar d ed as i r r el e va n t he r e (i . e ., t h e y do no t p re di c t e it h er e f fi c a c y o r s a f et y f o r t he d r ug in qu es t io n ). a . P at i en t A wo ul d b e p re d ic t ed to r es po n d t o t r ea t m e n t wi t ho u t t he de v e lo p m e n t o f a n y se r i ou s a d v e rs e e f fec t s . b . P a ti en t B wo u ld be pre d ic t ed to r es po n d t o t r ea t m e n t b u t wo u l d a ls o be e xp e c t ed t o de ve l op s e r io us ad v e rs e e f f ec ts .
c . P at ie n t C wo u l d b e p re d ic t ed to be a n on r es p on d e r t o t r e at m e n t b u t wo u l d b e u n li k e l y t o e xp e r i en c e any s e r io us ad ve r s e e ff ec ts . d . P a ti en t D wo u ld be p re d ic t ed to be a n on r es p on d e r t o t r e at m e n t b u t wo u l d b e e xp e c t e d t o d e v e lo p s e rio u s a d ve rs e e f fe c t s . P.414
STUDY QUESTIONS D i r e c t i on s : E a c h of t he n u m b e re d i t em s o r i nc om p le t e s ta t em en ts in t his se c t i on is f o l lo we d b y an s we r s o r by c o m p le t io ns o f t he s t a te m en t . Se le c t t he on e l et t e r ed a n s we r o r c o m p l et i on tha t is be s t i n e ac h c as e. 1 . W hi c h o f th e fo l l ow in g s ta t e me n ts c on c e rn in g d r u g m et a b ol i sm is t r u e ? ( A ) G e n e ra ll y , a s in gl e m e t a bo li t e i s e xc r e t ed f or e a c h d ru g a dm in is t e re d . ( B ) O f t e n, a d r ug m a y und e r go a p ha s e I I r e ac ti on f ol l o we d b y a p h as e I re a c t i on . ( C ) D r u g -m e ta bo l i z in g en z y m e s a r e f o un d o nl y in t he li v e r . ( D ) A l l m et a bo li t es ar e le s s ac t i ve p ha r m a c o l og ic a l l y t ha n th ei r pa r en t d ru g s. ( E ) P h as e I m e ta b ol i te s m o r e li k el y a re ab l e t o c ro ss ce ll u la r m em b r an es t h a n p ha s e I I m e t ab o li te s . V i e w A n s we r 1 . T h e a n sw e r i s E [] . 2 . W h ic h of th e f o ll ow i ng me t a bo l i t es w o ul d be t he le a s t l i ke ly e x c r e t i o n p ro d u ct o f o r a l l y a d m i n i s t e re d as pi r i n ( se e s t r u c t u re be l ow ) ?
( A ) G l yc in e c on j ug a te ( B ) E s te r gl uc u ro n id e ( C ) U n c h a ng e d d ru g ( D ) E t h er gl u c u r on i de ( E ) H yd r o xy l a t e d m e ta b ol i t e V i e w A n s we r 2 . T h e a n sw e r i s C [ an d] .3 . Su l f asa l az i n e ( se e s t r u c tu r e b e l ow ) is a p r o d ru g t hat i s a c t i va te d in t he i n te s t i ne b y b a c t e r i a l e nz ym e s . T h e e n z ym e m o s t l ik e l y r e s p o n s ib l e i s ( A ) a zo r ed uc t as e
( B ) p se ud oc h ol i ne s t e r as e ( C ) N - a c e t y l t ra ns f e ra s e ( D ) β - g lu c u r o ni da s e ( E ) m et h y l t ra ns f e ra s e
V i e w A n s we r 3 . T h e a n sw e r i s A [] .4 . Ch l o r am p he n i co l ( se e s t r u ct u r e b e l ow ) is co n si d e re d t o b e t ox i c i n i n f an t s ( g r ay b a b y s yn d r o m e ) . T hi s i s du e to t i s s ue ac c um u la t i o n o f u n c ha n g ed ch l o r am p hen i c o l, r es u l t in g f r om an i m m a tu r e m e ta b o li c pa thw a y. W h i c h o f t h e f o l low in g en z ym e s w o ul d m o s t l i ke l y b e de f i c ie n t ? ( A ) P se u do c h o li ne s te r as e ( B ) G l uc u r on y l t ra ns f e ras e ( C ) N - A c et y l t r an s f e r as e ( D ) A zo r e du c ta s e ( E ) Me t h y l t r a ns f e ra s e
V i e w A n s we r 4 . T h e a n sw e r i s B [ an d] .5 . W h i ch o f t h e f o l low i n g t h e r a pe u t ic ad va n t a ge s c a nn o t be ob t a in e d b y t h e us e of p r od r u g s? I nc r e a se d
( A ) o r al ab s o r p ti on ( B ) wa t e r s o l ub il i t y ( C ) d u ra t io n o f ac ti o n ( D ) p o te nc y ( E ) p al a ta b il it y V i e w A n s we r 5 . T h e a n sw e r i s D [ an d] . P. 4 15
6 . W hi c h o f th e fo l l ow in g s ta t e me n ts r e ga r d i ng p h a rm a co g en e t ic s i s INCORRECT? ( A ) S i ng le n uc le o ti de po ly m o r p hi s m s ( S N Ps ) in a p r o m o t er r eg i on c a n r es u l t i n a d e c re as e d p ro d uc ti o n o f a t a rg e t p r ot e in . ( B ) I t i s c ru c i a l t ha t fa ls e p os i ti ve s f o r s af e t y - ba s e d as s a ys b e k ep t at a m i ni m u m . ( C ) Th e a r ea of ph a rm ac o g e ne ti c s fo c us es p r im ar i l y on t he ge n et ic va r ia t io n s t ha t a f f ec t d r ug e ff ic ac y a n d s a fe t y . ( D ) Th e e f fe c t s o f S N Ps v a r y b a s e d u p on th e t ype a nd lo ca t io n o f th e va ria t i on . ( E ) G e n et ic v a r ia t io n o c c u r s wh e ne v e r th e r e is a c h an g e i n t he D N A nu cl eo t i de ba se p a i r s eq ue nc e . V i e w A n s we r 6 . T h e a n sw e r i s B [ an d] . Di r e c ti o ns : E a c h q u es ti o n b el o w c o nt a in s t h re e s ug g es t ed a ns we r s , o f wh ic h on e o r m o re is c o r re c t. C hoo s e t he a n s we r . 7 . T e rm s th a t m a y b e u s e d to d es c r ib e th e fo l low in g me t ab o l ic r ea c t io n i nc l u de I . N - d ea l k yl a t i o n I I . ox i d at i ve d ea m in a t ion I I I . ph a se I m e ta b ol i sm
A i f I o n l y i s c o r re c t B i f II I on l y i s c o r r ec t C i f I a n d I I a r e c or r ec t D i f II a nd I II a re c o r re c t E i f I, I I, an d II I ar e c o r re c t V i e w A n s we r 7 . T h e a n sw e r i s D [] . N P. 4 16
8 . W hi c h o f th e fo l l ow in g r e ac t i on s c a n b e c l as s i f ie d a s ph a se II me ta b o l is m ?
A i f I o n l y i s c o r re c t B i f II I on l y i s c o r r ec t C i f I a n d I I a r e c or r ec t D i f II a nd I II a re c o r re c t E i f I, I I, an d II I ar e c o r re c t V i e w A n s we r 8 . T h e a n sw e r i s C [] .9 . Co n d i ti o ns t h a t te n d t o in c r ea s e th e a c t i on o f a n o r a l l y a d m i n i s te r e d d r u g th a t u n de r g o es p ha s e I I m e ta b ol i s m i n c l ud e I . e n te r o he p a ti c c i r c ul at i o n I I . en z ym e s a t u r a t io n I I I . fi r s t - pa s s e f fe c t A i f I o n l y i s c o r re c t B i f II I on l y i s c o r r ec t C i f I a n d I I a r e c or r ec t D i f II a nd I II a re c o r re c t E i f I, I I, an d II I ar e c o r re c t V i e w A n s we r 9 . T h e a n sw e r i s C [] .1 0 . W hi c h o f t h e f ol l ow i ng s ta t em e n ts c o n ce r n i ng C Y P 45 0 a r e c o r r e ct ? I . T he C Y P 7, C Y P 11 , and C Y P 2 7 s u bf a mi l i es a re i n vo l ve d in ch o le s t e ro l m e t a bo l is m . I I . A s i n gl e d ru g ma y b e m e ta b ol i ze d b y m u l t i p l e is o f o rm s o f C Y P 45 0. I I I . Th e m a jo r i t y o f x e no b i o t ic s , o r d r ug s , a r e m e t a bo l iz e d b y t h e C Y P 4 B a n d C Y P 1 A s u b f a mi l i es . A i f I o n l y i s c o r re c t B i f II I on l y i s c o r r ec t C i f I a n d I I a r e c or r ec t D i f II a nd I II a re c o r re c t E i f I, I I, an d II I ar e c o r re c t V i e w A n s we r 1 0 . T he a nsw e r i s C [ I. A . 1 .c ;] .1 1 . M e t a b ol i c re a ct i o ns l ik e ly t o b e a f fe c te d b y a p r o t e in - d e f ic i en t d ie t in c lu d e I . g l yc i n e c o n ju g a t io n I I . h yd r o l ys i s I I I . gl u cu r o n id a t io n A i f I o n l y i s c o r re c t B i f II I on l y i s c o r r ec t C i f I a n d I I a r e c or r ec t D i f II a nd I II a re c o r re c t E i f I, I I, an d II I ar e c o r re c t V i e w A n s we r 1 1 . T he a nsw e r i s A [] . Di r e c ti o ns : T h e g ro up o f i te m s i n th is s ec t io n c o ns is ts o f le t te re d op t io ns fo l lo we d b y a s e t o f n um be r e d i te m s . F o r ea c h i t em , s e le c t th e on e l e tte r e d o p ti on t ha t i s m o s t c l os el y as s oc ia t ed wi t h it . E ac h l e t te r e d o pt i on m a y be s e l ec t ed on c e , m o re t ha n o n c e , o r no t at al l . Q u e s t i on s 1 2 - 15 F o r ea ch d ru g , s e l ec t i ts m os t l ik e l y m et a bo l ic p at h wa y. 1 2 . Be n z o i c a c id
( A) E t h e r g l u cu r o n id a t io n ( B ) E s t e r g l uc u r o n id a t io n ( C ) N i t r o r e du c t io n ( D ) O x i d a ti ve d ea m in a t io n ( E ) E s t e r h yd r o l ys i s P.417
1 3 . P r oc a in e
( A) E t h e r g l u cu r o n id a t io n ( B ) E s t e r g l uc u r o n id a t io n ( C ) N i t r o r e du c t io n ( D ) O x i d a ti ve d ea m in a t io n ( E ) E s t e r h yd r o l ys i s 1 4 . Ac e t am i no p h en
( A) E t h e r g l u cu r o n id a t io n ( B ) E s t e r g l uc u r o n id a t io n ( C ) N i t r o r e du c t io n ( D ) O x i d a ti ve d ea m in a t io n ( E ) E s t e r h yd r o l ys i s 1 5 . Am p h et a mi n e
( A) E t h e r g l u cu r o n id a t io n ( B ) E s t e r g l uc u r o n id a t io n ( C ) N i t r o r e du c t io n ( D ) O x i d a ti ve d ea m in a t io n
( E ) E s t e r h yd r o l ys i s V i e w A n s we r 1 2 -1 5 . T h e a n s w e r s a r e : 1 2 - B [] , 13 -E [ ] , 1 4 - A [] , 1 5D [ ] .e t h e re s te r P . 41 8
ANSWERS AND EXPLANATIONS 1 . T he an sw e r is E [ I ; I I .A . 1 , B ]. P h a se I m et a bo li t es ar e o f t en s o m e wh a t m o r e p ol a r th a n t he i r p a re n ts . W it h t he e xc e p t i on of ac e t y la t ed a n d m et h y l at e d m et a bo lit e s , p ha se I I m e t ab o li t es a r e a l wa ys m uc h m o re po l a r t ha n t he i r p a r en ts . Th us , ph as e I m e t ab o li te s a r e m o re li k el y t o r e t ai n s om e l i po s o lu b il i t y a n d a r e m o r e l ik el y t o c r o ss ce ll u la r m em b ra n es . I t is un us u al fo r a s i n gl e m e ta b ol i te to be e xc r e t ed f o r a g i v e n d r ug . Mo s t d r u gs yi e l d a m i xt u r e of m e t abo l i te s . B ec au s e o f t he hig h po la r i t y an d s ub se q ue n t h i gh e xc r e t i o n o f p ha s e I I m e ta b ol i te s , t he y a r e n o t li k e l y t o u nd e r go fu r t he r m e t a bo li s m . P h a se I m et a bo li t es , o n th e ot h e r h an d , a r e le s s p o la r an d a r e v e r y l ik e l y t o un d e rg o f u r t he r ph as e I I m e ta b ol ic r ea c ti on s . W her ea s t he m a jo r s i te o f m e t ab ol is m i s t he li ver , t he r e a r e m an y e xt r a he p a ti c s i t es t h a t s ec r et e d r ug - m e t abo l i z in g e n z ym es . Al t ho u gh m a n y m e t ab ol i te s a r e le s s p h a rm ac ol o gi c a l l y a c t i v e t h an t he i r p a re n ts , t h er e a r e m an y d r ug s wh o s e m e ta b ol i te s h a v e e qu a l o r g re a te r ph a rm ac o lo gic a l a c t i vi t y a n d s o m e t im e s g r e at e r t o xi c i t y as we l l . P r o d ru gs ( i. e . , d ru g s in a c t i v e i n t h e fo rm ad m i n is te r e d ) al wa y s f o r m a t le as t on e a c t i v e m e tab o li t e . 2 . T he an sw e r is C [ I I . A. 1 . e, 3. a , B. 2 .a . ( 2) , c ; Ta b le s 1 7 -2 , 17 - 3, a nd 17- 4 ] . B e c au se of t he t y pe s o f fu n c t i on al g ro u ps p r es e nt, a s p i ri n m a y u n de r g o a n u m b e r o f d i f fe r e nt m e ta b ol ic r ea c t io n s . Th e s e in c l ud e h y d ro xy l a t i o n of t he ar o m a ti c n uc l eu s , c o nj u ga ti o n o f t h e c a r b ox y l g r o u p wi t h gl yc in e , co n ju g at i on of t he c a r bo x y l g r o up wi t h g l uc u ro ni c a c i d wi t h t h e f o rm a ti on o f a n es t er g lu c ur o ni d e, h y d ro l y s i s o f th e a c et a te es t e r, an d c on j ug a t io n o f th e p he n ol g rou p ( re s u l ti n g f r om h yd r o lys i s o f t h e a c et a te es t e r) wi t h gl uc ur o n ic ac id to fo r m a n e t he r gl u cu r on i de . B e c au se th e a c et a te es te r is a s i m p l e es t e r , as p ir i n i s s us ce p ti bl e t o h yd ro l ys is i n t h e a ci d m ed i a o f t h e s tom ac h b e fo r e a bs o r pt i on ta k es p l ac e . I n a dd i ti on , a n y a c et yl a te d m ol e c u le s t h at a r e a bs o rb e d a re su bj ec t ed t o h y d r ol y s is a n d a re c a ta l yze d b y t h e m a n y es t e ra s e s p r es en t i n th e c i r c ul at i on . An y a c e t y l at ed m o le cu l es n o t h y d r ol y z e d i n t he c i rc u la t io n a r e s u b je c t t o h yd r ol ys is in the l i v er . A ll o f t he s e pr o c e s s es o c c ur b e fo r e t h e d r ug re ac h es t he gl om e ru l ar f il t ra t e ; t h e r ef o re , e xc r e t i o n o f t h e u nc ha nge d ac et yl a te d d r u g is hi gh l y u nl ik el y . 3 . T he an sw e r is A [ I I . A. 2 ; Ta bl e 1 7 - 3] . S u l f as al a z in e h a s b ot h an t i -i n fl am m a t o r y an d a n tib a c t e r ia l a c t i v i t y wh e n co n v e r t ed t o am in os a li c y li c ac i d a nd s u l fa p y r i di ne in t he bod y. Th i s re ac t io n o c c u rs b y r e d uc t i v e c l e a v ag e o f the “ a z o ” l in k a g e c on t ai ned i n t he s u l fa s a la zi n e m ol e cu le an d i s c a ta l y z e d i n t h e i nt es ti n e b y b ac te r i al a z or e duc t as e . Th i s is a f o rm of si t e -s p ec if ic d e li v e r y b ec au s e t he in ta c t d r ug is n o t a bs o rb e d f r o m t he st om ac h o r up pe r in t es t in e a n d re ac he s t h e c o l on , wh e r e i t i s m et a bo li ze d . S u l f as al a zin e i s o ne o f a f e w d r u gs t h a t i s e ff ec t i v e f o r t h e t re a tm e nt o f u lc er a ti v e c o li t is .
4 . T he an sw e r is B [ I I . B. 2 . a .( 2 ) ; I I I. G . 1 ; Ta bl es 1 7 - 2 , 1 7- 3 , a nd 1 7- 4 ] . Th e c hl o r am ph en ic o l m o le c ul e c on t ai ns an a ro m at i c n uc le us , wh i c h wo u l d b e s u bj ec t to h y d ro xy l a t i o n , a ni t r o g r ou p t h at is s u bj e c t t o r ed uc t io n , a n a m id e g ro up t h a t i s s u b je c t t o li v e r h yd r o l y s i s, an d a lc o ho l g r ou p s t ha t ar e s u bj ec t t o g l uc u ro n id a ti on . O f a l l t he e n z y m e s ys t em s r es p on s i b le f o r t he se r ea c t i ons , th e s ys t em re s p o ns ib le f o r gl u c u r on i da t io n i s d e v el op e d p o or l y in p re m a t u re i n f an ts an d i n f an ts up t o a pp r o xi m a te l y 6 - 8 we e k s o f a ge . 5 . T he an sw e r is D [ V I .A , B . 1 , 2 , 3 a n d 4 ] . B y d e f in i ti o n, p ro d ru gs ar e in a c t i ve o r v e r y we a k ly a c t i v e m o l ec ul es th a t re q ui r e i n vi vo a c ti v a t io n t o th e p a re n t m ol ec u le . Th us , c onv e r s i on of a d r ug m o le c ul e to a p r o d ru g d o es n o t i nc r ea s e p ot e nc y b ec au se th e or i g i n a l m o l ec ul e , wi t h wh a t e v e r p o t en c y i t c o nt a in s , is pro d uc e d a ft e r a dm i ni s t r a tio n . A va r i et y o f a d va nt ag e s, i n cl ud i ng in c re as e d wa t er s ol u bi li t y, du r a ti on o f a c t io n , o r al ab s o r p ti on , an d p a la t ab i li t y , c a n b e o bt a in e d t h r ou gh t he us e o f pr o d r ug s , b ut no n e o f t hes e a d va n ta g es re s u l ts i n a n i nc r e as e i n p ot e nc y o f th e pa r en t m o le c u le . 6 . T he an sw e r is B [ V I I .A . 4 , B .1 , 2 , 3 an d C .2 . c] . W hile k e ep in g fa ls e p os it i v e s a nd f al se ne g at i v es a t a m i ni m um i s a l wa y s d e si r ab l e, i t is m os t c r uc ia l t h at f als e n e ga t i v es be k e pt at a m i n im um fo r s a fe t y - b as e d as s a ys i n or d e r t o p r e v en t at - r is k pa t ie n ts f ro m b ei n g e xp o s e d t o p o te n ti a l s e r i ous s i de e f f ec ts . A h ig h e r r a te of f a ls e p os i ti v e s i s ac c e p ta b le si nc e p r e v e nt in g s er i o us a d ve r se ef f ec ts is pe rc e iv e d t o b e m o re i m po r ta nt t h an e xc l ud in g s om e pa t i en ts f r o m t he r a p y . P.419
G e n e ti c v a ri a ti on oc c u r s wh e n e ve r t he r e a r e b as e p a ir ch a ng es in th e D NA n u cl e ot id e s e qu en c e. The m o s t co m m on f or m o f g e n et ic v a r ia t io n i s a s ing l e n u cl e ot id e po l y m o r ph is m ( S N P ) . Th e c um ul a ti v e e f f ec ts o f t he se v a r ia t io ns va r y b a se d o n t h e t y p es an d lo c at i on s o f t h e S N P s . Va r i at i on s i n c od in g re g ion s c an al t e r p r o t ei n f u nc ti o n, wh i l e t ho s e i n sp l ic in g a n d p ro m o t e r re gi o ns c a n al t e r p ro t e in s i z e a n d p r o te in p ro d uc ti o n, re s pe c t i v e l y . So m e S N Ps p r o du ce no di s c e rn ab l e c h an g es a n d a r e t h er e fo r e g e ne t ic a ll y s i l en t . P h a rm ac og en e t ics p ri m a r il y s ee k s to u s e S N P s a n d o t he r ge ne t ic in f or m a t i on to p re d ic t p r ed is pos i ti o ns th a t i nf lu e nc e d r ug r e s po ns e a n d s a f et y i n in d i v id u al pa t ie n ts . 7 . T he an sw e r is D (I I , II I ) [ II . A ; Ta bl e 1 7 -2 ] . Th e r e ac t io n s ho wn i n the q ue s t i on in v o l v es t he c o n ve r s i on o f o ne fu nc t ion a l g r ou p t o an o th e r (a m i ne t o c a rb o n y l ) ; t hu s, i t is cl as s i fie d as a ph a se I r e ac ti o n. Th e i n t ro d uc t io n o f o xy g e n i nt o t he m o le cu le in d ic at es o xi d a t i on , a n d t he lo s s o f t he a m in o g r ou p s ig n if i es d ea m in a ti on ; th us , th e re act i o n a ls o ca n b e c la ss i fi ed as o xi d a t i ve de am i na t io n . N- D e a lk yl a ti on im pl i es th e r e m o va l o f a n a lk y l g ro up f r om a n i t ro g en . Th e n i t ro ge n i n t h e p a re n t m o l ec ul e d o es no t ha v e an al k y l g r oup a t ta c h ed t o it . 8 . T he an sw e r is C (I , II) [ I I . A, B ; Ta bl e 1 7 -4 ] . P h a se I I m e t ab o li c r ea c tio n s i n v ol v e m a s k in g a n e xi s t i n g f un c ti on a l g r ou p wi t h a n a t u ra l e nd o ge n ou s c o ns t i tu en t . Th e f o rm ul as sho wn i n c h oi c e s I an d I I re p r es en t
t h is t yp e o f r e ac ti o n, wi t h c h o ic e I be in g a n a c ety l a t i on r ea c t i on an d c ho ic e II , a g l yc in e c on j ug a ti on r ea c ti o n . C h oi c e I II r ep r es en ts a c ha n ge i n a n e xi s ti ng f u nc t io n al g ro up an d , t hu s , r e p re se n ts a p ha s e I r e a c t i on . I t is a n o xi d a t i ve d e am i na ti o n r e ac ti o n. 9 . T he an sw e r is C (I , II) [ I I . B. 2 .a . ( 4 ), I II . E .1 , 2; I V . B . 3 .b ] . E n t e ro h ep a ti c c ir c u l at i on r e f e rs t o th e p r oc es s b y wh i c h g l uc u ro ni d es , wh ic h a r e s ec r e te d i n to t he i n t es ti ne wi t h t he bi le , ar e h y d r ol y ze d b y in t es t in al ba c ter i a l β g l uc u ro n id as e . Th e h y d ro l y z e d f re e d r u g, wh i c h is n o lo n ge r po la r , b e c o m e s a va i la b le fo r in t es ti n al r ea b s o r p ti on in t o t h e s y s t em an d s ub s eq ue n t p en e tr a t io n to i t s a ct i ve s it e . I f a n e n z y m e s ys t em be c o m es s a tu r a te d , t he n t h e a c ti v e dr u g c an no t be ina c ti v a t ed b y t h a t p at h wa y . I f th e dr u g c a nn o t u nd e rg o a n al t e rn a ti ve p at h wa y, t h e in c r ea se d p l as m a le v e ls of an un c ha n g ed ac ti v e d ru g c an r es u l t in in c re as e d ac t i v it y o r t o xi c i t y. Th e f i rs t - pa s s ef f ec t re s u l ts in m e t ab ol is m o f a dr u g b y t h e l i v e r b ef o r e t he d r ug r e a ch es it s s it e o f a c ti on, r es u lt i ng in an o v e ra ll d e c re as e i n i ts ac t i vit y . D r u g s t ha t u n d er g o f i rs t -p as s m et a bo l is m g en e ra l l y a r e e f fe ct i ve in m u c h s m a l le r i n t ra v e n o us d o se s a s c o m p a r ed to o ra l do s e s . 1 0 . Th e a n sw e r i s C ( I , II ) [ I . A. 1 .c ; Ta bl e 1 7 -1 ] . Th e r e a re s i x m a m m al i an f am il i es i n vo l ved in s t er o i d a nd bi l e ac i d m e t abo l is m . Th e s e a r e C YP 7 , C YP 1 1, C YP 1 7 , C YP 1 9 , C YP 2 1, a nd C YP 2 7 . Si nc e c h ole s te r o l is t h e c om m o n i n te r m e di a te f o r t he bi os y n t h es is o f a l l e nd o ge n ou s s te r oi ds , s om e o f t h es e e n z y m es a re di r ec t l y i n v ol ve d i n c ho l es te r ol m e t ab o li s m . Th e f am il ie s l is t ed , C YP 7 , C YP 1 1 , a n d C YP2 7 , a l l m e t ab o li z e c h ol est e r ol , wh i l e t he ot h e r t h re e fa m i l ie s c a ta l yze a dd it i on a l o xi d at i o ns o f th e i ni t ia l m e ta b o l i te s . A s is e v id en t f ro m Ta b l e 1 7 - 1 , m u l ti pl e i s o f o rm s of C YP 4 5 0 c a n m et a bo li ze a s in g le d r u g . A n e xa m p l e o f t hi s i s s ee n wi t h im i pr a m i ne , a n a n ti d ep r es s a n t t ha t is m e ta b ol i z e d b y C YP 1 A , C YP 2 C , a n d C YP 2 D is o fo r m s . Ad d it i on al l y , Ta b le 1 7 - 1 i n di ca t es th a t t h e s u b fam i li es C YP 2 C , C YP 2 D , an d C YP 3 A m e t ab o li z e the m a j o ri t y o f d ru gs , o r xe n o b io t ic s . 1 1 . Th e a n sw e r i s A ( I ) [ I I I . F. 1 ]. P h a se I I m e t ab o li c r ea c tio n s r e qu i re na t u ra l e nd og e n ou s s u bs t r at e s , wh i ch n o rm al l y a r e s u pp li e d i n t he di e t . A d e fi c i e nc y o f t he se s ub s ta nc e s r es ul t s i n a d ec r e a se in t h e b i ot r a ns fo r m a t io n o f d r u gs th a t u s e th es e p a th wa y s . G l y c i ne c o nj u ga tio n is a p h as e I I re a c t i on . Gl y c i ne is an am in o a ci d th a t re q ui r es di e ta r y p r ot e in . A d i et d e f ic ie n t i n p r ot ei n , t h e re f o r e, c o ul d l e ad to a d ef i c i e nc y o f g l yc i ne an d , th u s , a d e c re as e i n g l y c i n e c o n ju g a ti on . G lu c ur o ni d at io n i s a ls o a ph as e I I re ac t io n th a t r e q ui r es en d og en o us gl uc u r on ic ac id , b u t t hi s s ub s ta nc e i s s up p li ed b y die t a r y c a r bo h yd ra t es . H y d ro xy l a t i on is a ph as e I m e t abo l ic re a c t i on an d d oe s no t r eq u ir e d i e ta r y p ro t ei n . 1 2 - 15 . Th e a n sw e rs a r e: 1 2 - B [ I I . B. 2 .a . ( 2 )] , 1 3 -E [ I I . A. 3 .a ] , 1 4 - A [ I I . B. 2 .a . ( 2 ) ], 15 - D [ I I . A .1 . e] . B e n zo ic ac id c o nt a in s a c a r bo xy l i c ac i d, a f u nc ti on a l g r ou p th a t c o m m on l y u n d er g oe s c on ju g at i on wi t h g l uc u ro ni c a c i d . Th e re s ul t in g c on j ug a ti on p rod u c e s a n e s te r . C ar b o xy l i c ac id s c a n al s o un d er g o c on ju g at i o n wi t h t he am in o a ci ds g l y ci n e
a n d g lu t am in e . Ad di t io n al l y , be n zo ic a c i d c an u nde r g o a r om at ic h yd ro xy l a t i o n , a c om m o n p h as e I pa t h way f o r d ru gs c o n ta in i ng uns u bs ti t u te d a r om a ti c r in gs . O f t h es e o p ti o ns , e s t e r g l uc u r o ni d at i on is th e o nl y an s we r a va il a bl e h e re . P.420
P r o c ai ne is an es te r - c o nt a i ni ng lo c a l a n es t he ti c . D u e to t he wi d e p h y si o log i c a l d i st r ib u ti o n o f e s t e r as e en z y m e s , i t i s e xt r e m el y s u sc e pt i bl e t o i n vi vo h ydr o l ys is . Th i s s u s c ep t ib il i t y to h y dr o l y s is i s t he m a jo r r ea s o n wh y e s te r - c o n ta in i ng l o c a l a n es t he t ic s h a v e s h o r te r d u r at i on s o f a ct io n as c o m pa r ed t o t ho se in o th er c he m i c a l c l as s e s. O n e o f t he p ri nc i pa l f u nc t i o na l g r ou ps in ac e ta m in o p he n i s t he ph e no l g r ou p . Si m i la r t o t he c a rb o xy l i c ac i d i n b e n z o ic a c i d , t he p he no l c om m o nl y u n de r go es glu c u ro ni d e c o nj u ga ti o n . Th e on e d i ffe r e nc e i s t ha t a p he no l (o r a n a lc oh ol ) p ro du c es a n e th e r g l uc u ro n id e , wh i l e a c a rb o xy l i c ac i d p r od uc es an e s t e r g lu cu r on i de . Ph e no l s a ls o c om m o n l y u n de r g o s u l fa te c o n ju g at i on re ac t io ns a n d o c c as io n al l y un d er go O m e th y l a ti o n r e ac ti o ns . Th e p r in c i p al fu n c t io n al g r o up in am ph e ta m i n e is i t s p ri m a r y a m i ne . O xi d a t i ve d e am i na ti o n is a v e r y c om m o n m e ta bo l ic p a th f o r p r i m a r y am in es . Oc ca s io n al l y, p r i m a r y am in es u nd e rg o p h as e I I ac et y l a ti o n; ho we ve r , th is is a l es s c o m m o n p a t h wa y . A r om a ti c h y d r ox y l a t i o n, s i m i la r to t ha t di s c us s ed ab o ve f o r b e n zo i c ac i d, i s a ls o p os s i b le fo r am phe t am i ne .
18 Drug-Drug and Drug-Nutrient Interactions Al i c e C . E n ge l b re c h t L e o n Sh a r ge l
I. INTRODUCTION A. D e f i n i ti on o f d r ug i n t er a c ti o n 1 . D r u g i n t e ra c t io n re f er s to an a d ve r se d ru g r es p on se p ro d uc ed b y th e a d m i ni s t ra ti o n o f a d ru g o r c o e xp o s u re of t he dr ug wi t h an o th e r s ub s ta nc e , wh i ch m o di f ie s t he pa t ie n t 's r es p on s e t o t he d ru g . S om e d r ug in t er ac t io ns a re in t e nt i on al i n or d e r t o p r o v id e i m p r ov e d t he r a pe u ti c r es p on s e o r t o d ec r e as e a d v e rs e d r u g e f f ec ts . A p r e ci p i ta n t d ru g is th e d r ug , c h em ic al , o r fo o d e le m e n t c au si ng t h e i n t er a ct i on . An ob j ec t d ru g is th e d r ug af f ec t ed by t h e in t er ac t io n . 2 . D r ug in t e ra c t i on s i nc lu d e : a . D r u g -d r u g i n te r ac t io ns b . D r u g - he r b al in t e ra c t io n s c . Fo o d -d r u g i n te r ac t io ns d . P h a rm a co g en e t ic in te r a c t i on s e . C h em i ca l - d ru g in t er ac t io ns , s uc h a s t h e i nt e ra c ti o n o f a dr u g wi t h a lc o h ol o r t o b acc o f . D r u g - la b o r at o r y t e s t i n t e r ac t i o ns s uc h a s c he m ic al in t er a ct i on s . B . C l a ss i f ic a t io n o f d r ug i n t e ra c t io n s. D r ug in te r a ct i on s t ha t oc c u r i n v iv o a r e g e n er a ll y c l as s i f ie d a s ph a r m ac o ki n e ti c o r p ha rm a c od yn a m i c in t e ra ct i on s . 1 . P ha r m ac o k in e t ic or bi o p h a rm a ce u t ic a l i nt e rac t io ns oc c u r wh e n t h e a bs o r pt i on , d i st r ib u ti o n ( p r ot e in an d t i s s ue bi n di n g) , or el im i na t i on ( e xc r e ti on an d / or m e ta b ol is m ) o f t he d ru g is a ff ec t ed b y an o th e r d ru g , c he m i ca l , o r fo o d el em e nt . 2 . P ha r m ac o d yn a m i c i nt e r ac t io ns oc c u r wh e n t he p ha r m a c o d y n am ic e f f ec t of th e d r u g i s a lt e re d b y a n ot he r d ru g , c he m i c a l , o r f o od e le m e n t, p ro d uc in g a n a n t ag o ni s t ic , s y n e rg is t ic , o r ad d it i v e e f fe c t. 3 . P ha r m ac o g en e t ic in te r a c t i on s oc cu r wh e n the p ha r m a co k i n et ic ef f ec t o f th e d r ug i s a l te r e d b y ge n et ic po ly m o r p hi s m s in a ff ec t in g p r o ce s s es . 4 . P ha r m ac e u ti c al in t e ra c ti o ns a r e c au s e d b y a c h em ic al o r p h ys ic a l i nc o m pa t ib il i t y wh e n t wo o r m o r e d r ug s a r e m i xe d t og e th e r . P h a rm ac e ut ic a l i nt e r ac ti o ns c a n occ u r d u r in g th e e xt e m p o ra ne ou s c om p ou nd i ng of d ru gs , in c l ud i ng th e p r e pa r at io n of i n t ra ve n ou s (I V ) s ol u ti o ns . Fo r e xa m pl e , a n I V s ol u t io n o f a m i n op h y ll i ne ha s a n a l ka li n e p H an d s ho ul d no t be m i xe d wi t h s u ch d ru g s as e pi ne p h ri ne , e r yt h r o m yc i n g l uc e pt a te , o r c e ph a lo t hin s o d iu m , wh i c h d ec om po s e i n a lk al in e p H . P he nyt o i n s o di um wi l l p r ec ip i ta t e f ro m a s o lu t io n th a t h as an ac i d p H , s uc h a s d e xt r o s e 5 %. P h a r m a c e u ti c a l i n te r ac tio n s a r e us u al l y c o ns id e re d du r in g th e d e vel o pm en t , m a nu f ac tu r i ng , a n d m a r k e t i ng of t he dr u g p r od uc t. O n l y d ru g i n te r ac t io ns in v o l v i n g p h a rm ac ok i ne ti c , p ha r m a c od y n am ic , or ph a rm aco g e ne ti c p r oc es s e s wi ll b e c o ns id e re d i n th is c h ap te r .
II. PHARMACOKINETIC INTERACTIONS A. A b s o r p ti on
1 . D r ug in t e ra c t i on s c an a f f ec t t h e r a t e a nd t he ex t e n t o f s ys te m i c d r ug ab s o rp t io n ( b i oa va i la bi l it y ) f r om th e a bs o r pt i on s i te , re s u l ti ng i n i nc r ea s e d o r d e c r e as e d d r ug b i oa va i la b il it y ( Ta b l e 1 8 -1 ) . P.422
Table 18-1. Drug Interactions That Affect the Bioavailability of the Drug from the Gastrointestinal (GI) Tract Drug Interaction Complexation/chelation
Adsorption
Examples (Precipitant drugs)
Effect (Object drugs)
Calcium, magnesium, or aluminum and iron salts
Levofloxacin complexes with divalent cations in the diet or tube feeding, causing a decreased bioavailability
Sodium polystyrene sulfonate
Cations in antacids bind to sodium polystyrene sulfonate, causing reduced renal clearance of bicarbonate, resulting in systemic acidosis
Cholestyramine
Decreased bioavailability of digoxin, levothyroxine
Kaolin
Decreased bioavailability of digoxin
Activated charcoal
Decreased bioavailability of many drugs
Acarbose
Decreased bioavailability of digoxin
Increased GI motility
Laxatives, cathartics
Increases GI motility, decreases bioavailability for drugs that are absorbed slowly. Will decrease the bioavailability of drugs from controlledrelease products.
Decreased GI motility
Anticholinergic agents
Propantheline decreases the gastric emptying of acetaminophen (APAP), delaying APAP absorption from the small intestine.
Alteration of gastric pH
H-2 blockers, antacids, and proton pump inhibitors
H-2 blockers, antacids and PPIs increase gastric pH. The dissolution of ketoconazole is reduced at basic pH, causing decreased drug absorption and therapeutic failure.
Alteration of intestinal flora
Antibiotics
Digoxin has better bioavailability taken after erythromycin. Erythromycin administration reduces bacterial inactivation of digoxin. Estrogen/progestin birth control requires intestinal flora to facilitate enterohepatic circulation. Antibiotics reduce intestinal flora and reduce estrogen/progestin levels resulting in
failure of ovulation suppression and menstrual changes. Inhibition of drug metabolism in intestinal cells
Monoamine oxidase inhibitors (MAOIs) (e.g., tranylcypromine, phenelzine)
MAOIs inhibit metabolism of albuterol and levalbuterol, leading to hypertension.
2 . Th e m os t c om m o n d r ug a bs o rp t io n s i te is in the g as t r o i n te s ti n a l ( G I ) tr a c t . H o we ve r , d r u g b io a v a il ab i li t y f r om o t he r ab s o r p tio n s i te s , su c h as th e s kin , c a n b e a f f ec t ed b y d r u g i nt e ra c ti o ns . Fo r e xa m p l e, ep i nep h r in e , a v as oc o ns t ri c to r, wi l l d e c re as e t h e p e rc ut a ne ou s a bs o r pt i on of t ra ns d er m a l li d oc ai n e o r t r a ns der m a l f e n ta n yl . 3 . O t he r p ot e n ti a l d r ug -d r u g a nd d ru g - fo o d in t e ra c ti o ns th a t a f fe c t bi o a va i la b il i t y i n t h e G I t r ac t c ou l d b e d ue t o : a . C o mp e t it i o n f o r c ar r ie r - m e d ia t ed d ru g a bs o rpt i o n i n wh i c h t he pa r t ic ipa n t d r u g c om p et e s f o r t he s a m e c a r r i e r as th e o b je c t i . C om p et i ti o n f o r t he P -g p s y s t em (a n A TP - d ep en d e nt ef f lu x p u m p o n e pit h e li al c e ll s o f t h e i nt es t in es ) is i n v o l v ed in t ra ns p or t of c y c lo s po r in an d d i go xi n . D i s pl ac em e nt c a n r e s u l t i n to xi c i t y o f t ho s e d ru gs . i i . G r ap e f ru i t j ui c e an d or a n ge ju ic e fr om S e v il l e o r a ng es in h ib i t O A TP ( o rg a ni c a n io n t ra ns po r t in g p o l y pe p t id es ) pr o te i ns i n th e e p i th el i al c e ll s o f t h e s m a l l i n t es ti n e, r ed uc i ng th e b io a v a il a bi li t y o f o r al fe xo f e n a di ne . b . Al t e r a t i on o f i nt es t ina l bl oo d fl o w c au s e d b y th e p re ci pi t an t dr u g. I n c o n g es ti ve h e a r t d is ea s e , th e b lo o d f l o w t o th e G I t r ac t i s p oo r a nd an or a ll y a dm in is te r e d d r ug can P.423 h a ve a s l o we r r a te o f a bs o r pt i on . Af t e r d ig o xi n t he r a p y , t h e p e rf us i on of th e G I tr ac t i s i m p r o v e d a lo ng wi t h bio a v a il a bi li t y o f t h e o bj ec t d r ug . B . D i s t r i bu t i on . Th e d is tr i b ut i on of t he d ru g m a y b e af f ec t ed b y p l as m a p ro t e in b i nd i ng an d d is p la c e m e nt i nt e r ac ti o ns o r ti s s u e an d c e ll ul a r i n te r ac t io ns . 1 . P la sm a p r ot e in bi nd i ng a nd di s p l ac em en t o n al b um in an d a l ph a 1- a c i d g l yc op r o te in c a r r ie r pr o te i ns . a . V al p r o ic ac i d d is p la c e s p h en y t o in f ro m p la s m a a lb um in p ro t ei n - bi nd i ng si t es an d r e d uc es he p at ic ph e n y toi n c l ea r an c e b y in hi b it i ng t he li v e r ' s m et a bo l is m o f p h e n yto i n, r es ul t in g i n h ig h e r p he n y t oi n l e v e ls . b . As p i r i n i s 9 0% t o 9 5% p r ot ei n bo un d a n d d is p l ac es wa r f a r in f ro m p r ote i n b in d in g s i te s r e s u lt i ng in hi g he r wa r f a r i n l e ve ls an d i nc r e a s ed bl e ed in g .
2 . T is s ue an d ce l lu l a r in t e r a c ti o ns . D ig o xi n t o xi c it y c an be en ha n c e d b y c o nc u r re n t a dm in is t ra t ion o f q ui n id in e . Qu i ni di n e r e d uc es d i go xi n c le a ra nc e a n d d i sp la c es d i go xi n f r om bo t h a l ph a -1 gl yc op r o te i ne a nd al b um i n ti s s ue - bi nd i ng s i t es , l e ad i ng to a h ig h e r p la s m a d i go xi n c on ce n t ra t ion . C . D r u g e li m i n at i on an d c l ea r an c e 1 . D r ug Me t a b ol is m a nd H e p a ti c C l ea r a nc e a . D r ug m e t ab ol is m ( h epa t ic c l ea r a nc e ) c a n b e a ff e c te d b y e n z ym e in d uc t io n , e n zym e i n hi b it io n , s ub s t ra t e c om pe t i ti on f or t he s a m e e n z y m e, an d c ha n ge s i n h e p at ic bl o od fl o w ( Ta b le 1 8 -2 ) . b . Ma n y d r u gs th a t s ha re t he s a m e d ru g -m et a bo li z i n g e n zy m es ha ve a p ot e n ti a l f o r a d r ug in t er ac t io n . F o r exa m p l e , fl uc on a z o le in h ib i ts t he he pa t ic m e ta b ol is m o f wa r f a r i n , c au s i n g i nc re as e d r is k o f b le e di n g. C a rb a m a ze p in e i s b ot h a s ub s t ra t e a nd a n in du c er o f t he C YP 3 A 4 is o en z ym e , t h e re b y ind u c i n g i ts o wn m e ta b ol is m an d t a ki n g 3 - 5 we e k s t o r e ac h s ta bl e b l oo d l e v e ls ( Tab l e 1 8 -3 ) . Ph e n y to i n is al s o a s u bs t ra t e o f t h e C YP 3 A 4 a n d i nd uc es it s o wn m e ta b ol is m . c . O ve r - th e -c o un t e r ( O TC ) d r u gs a n d h e rb al p rep a r a ti on s c an al s o be inv o l v e d in C YP 4 5 0 i s o e n z y m e m e t ab o li s m an d c an ca us e s er i o us d r u g -h e rb a l i nt e ra c t i o ns . F o r e xa m p l e , S t . J oh n ' s W ort m a y in du ce C YP 3 A 4 is oe n z ym e s a nd de c re as e c y c l os p o ri n t o su b th e ra p eu t ic l e v e ls . To b a c c o u s e (s m o k i n g ) c a n i nd uc e t h e C YP 1 A 2 is o en zy m e a n d d ec r ea s e c l o z a pi ne le v e l s , in c re as i ng th e ri sk o f t he r ap e u ti c f ai lu r e in t r ea t in g OCD. d . F oo ds m a y al s o in t e r fe r e wi t h h e pa t ic d r u g m et a b ol is m . F or e xa m pl e , gr a p e fr u it j u ic e i s a p o we r f u l i nh ib it o r of t he C YP 3 A 4 i s oe nz y m e , a nd wi l l i nc r ea s e b l oo d l e ve ls of C YP 3 A 4 s u bs t ra t es s u ch as ri t on a vi r , m e t h ad o ne , a m l o di pi n e, alp r a zo la m , c yc lo s po r in , a n d d il t ia z em , i f ta ke n to ge t he r .
Table 18-2. Drug Interactions That Affect the Drug Metabolism Examples (Precipitant Drug Interaction drugs)
Effect (Objective drugs)
Enzyme induction
Enzyme inhibition
Smoking (polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons)
Smoking increases duloxetine metabolism and decreases duloxetine levels
Phenytoin
Tacrolimus levels are decreased because of increased metabolism
Mixed function oxidase
Cimetidine
Decreased atorvastatin clearance and increased drug levels
Induction of UDP-G metabolism
Phenytoin, cimetidine, midazolam, rifabutin
Decreased posaconazole levels due to induction of metabolism
Other enzymes
Monoamine oxidase inhibitors, MAOIs (e.g., pargyline, tranylcypromine)
Serious hypertensive crisis can occur following ingestion of foods with a high content of tyramine or other pressor substances (e.g., cheddar cheese, red wines, avocados), and catecholamines
P.424
Table 18-3. Drug/Herb/Food Actions with Cytochrome P450 Enzymes Enzyme CYP1A2
CYP2C9
Inhibitor
Inducer
Substrate
Ciprofloxacin
Phenytoin
Naproxen
Levofloxacin
Carbamazepine
Amitriptyline
Cimetidine
Charbroiled foods
Verapamil
Citalopram
Tobacco
Clopidogrel
Ketoconazole
Ritonavir
Duloxetine
Paroxetine
St. John's Wort
Ramelteon
Cimetidine
Rifampin
Tamoxifen
Fluoxetine
Carbamazepine
Losartan
Voriconazole
Phenytoin
S-Warfarin
Fluconazole
Celecoxib
Amiodarone
Phenytoin
Efavirenz
Carvedilol
Metronidazole
Voriconazole Glyburide Sildenafil
CYP2C8
Gemfibrozil
Phenobarbital
Paclitaxel
Nicardipine
Rifampin
Carbamazepine
Atazanavir
Carbamazepine
Amiodarone
Trimethoprim CYP2C19
Pioglitazone
Ketoconazole
Rifampin
Diazepam
Omeprazole
Carbamazepine
Phenytoin
Topiramate
Phenytoin
Citalopram
Fluoxetine
Omeprazole
Fluvoxamine
Diphenhydramine
Duloxetine R-Warfarin CYP2D6
CYP2E1
CYP3A family
Methadone
Carbamazepine
Amitriptyline
Cimetidine
Phenytoin
Metoprolol
Fluoxetine
Ethanol
Paroxetine
Ritonavir
St. John's Wort
Duloxetine
Haloperidol
Ritonavir
Haloperidol
Amiodarone
Venlafaxine
Paroxetine
Tramadol
Quinidine
Trazodone
Sertraline
Narcotic anagesics
Cimetidine
Ritonavir
Acetaminophen
Disulfiram
Isoniazid
Caffeine
Ethanol
Venlafaxine
Erythromycin
Carbamazepine
Atorvastatin
Ketoconazole
Phenobarbital
Warfarin
Saquinavir
St. John's Wort
Lidocaine
Verapamil
Nevirapine
Ethylestradiol
Efavirenz Metronidazole
Carbazepine
Cyclosporin
Amiodarone
Rifampin
Alprazolam
Cimetidine
Garlic Supplements
Ziprasidone
Diltiazem
Grapefruit
Doxorubicin
Posaconazole
Seville Oranges
Amitriptyline
Metronidazole
Bitter Orange
Methadone
Nifedipine
Cyclosporin
Voriconazole
Amlopdipine
Atazanavir
Indinavir Cyclosporin Paclitaxel Ritonavir Lidocaine Lovastatin
Midazolam Tamoxifen Zaleplon Atazanavir
P.425
e . N on h ep a ti c e n z y m es c a n b e i n vol v e d i n d r ug in t e r ac ti o ns . F o r e xa m p le, s er o to n in s yn d r om e h as b e en r ep or t e d i n p a ti e nt s r ec e i v in g a n ti d ep r es s a n ts s uc h a s c i ta l op r am (a n S S R I i nh ib i t or ) in c o m b in a ti o n wi t h a m on am i ne o xi d as e i nh i bi t o r, s uc h a s l in e z o li d . A c o ns i d e ra b le po r ti o n o f t h e CYP 3 A 4 e n z ym es a re fo un d no t o n l y i n th e l i v e r , b ut al s o in th e G I tr ac t , wh e r e s o m e o f t he s e s u bs t ra t es ar e m e ta b ol i z e d. f . A de c re as e i n t h e h epa t ic bl o od fl o w c an d ec rea s e t he he p at ic cl e ar a nce f o r h ig h e xt r a c t i on d ru gs , s uc h as p ro p ra n ol o l a nd m o r ph in e . 2 . R e na l d r u g c l ea r a n ce c a n b e a f f ec te d b y c han g es in gl om e ru l a r f il t ra ti o n , t ub u la r r e a bs o rp t io n , a c t i v e d r ug s ec r e ti on , a n d r e na l b loo d fl o w a n d n ep h r ot o xi c it y ( Ta b l e 1 8 - 4 ).
III. PHARMACODYNAMIC INTERACTIONS A. D r u g s th a t h a v e s im ila r p ha rm a c o d y na m i c a c t io n s m a y p r od uc e an e xc e ss i v e p h a rm ac ol o gi c a l o r t ox i c r e s p on s e. 1 . F or e xa m pl e , c en t r al n e r v o us s y s t em d e p re s s a n ts , s uc h a s t h e c o m b i na t i on of n a r co t ic s an d a n ti h is ta m in e s ( e .g . , d ip h en h y d r am in e , c hl o r ph en i r am in e ) c an p r od uc e i n c re as ed d ro ws i n es s i n t h e p a ti e nt . 2 . D r ug s h a v in g a n ti c h o lin e r gi c e f fe c t s , su c h as pr o m et h a zin e a nd O TC a n t ih is t am in es , c an c a us e e xc e ss i v e d r yn es s o f th e m o ut h , b lu r r ed vi si on , a n d u r i na r y r e te n ti o n. 3 . D r ug s t h at p ro lo n g t he Q Tc i n t er va l (s uc h a s pa l ip e r id on e , a m i od a r on e , s o ta lo l , m o xi f l o xa c i n, an d a t y p ic a l an t is p yc h ot ic s s uc h as z i p ra s i d on e ) h a v e a m u c h g r ea t e r r i sk of c a us i ng Q Tc in t e rv a l a r rh yt h m i as wh e n g i ve n to g et h e r.
Table 18-4. Drug Interactions That Affect the Renal Clearance
Drug Interaction
Examples
Effect
Glomerular filtration rate (GFR) and renal blood flow
Methylxanthines (e.g., caffeine, theobromine)
Increased renal blood flow and GFR will decrease time for reabsorption of various drugs, leading to more rapid urinary drug excretion.
Active tubular secretion
Probenecid
Probenecid blocks the active tubular secretion of penicillin and some cephalosporin antibiotics.
Tubular reabsorption and urine pH
Antacids, sodium bicarbonate
Alkalinization of the urine increases the reabsorption of amphetamine and decreases its clearance. Alkalinization of urine pH increases the ionization of salicylates, decreases reabsorption, and increases its clearance.
P.426
B . Th e p ha r m a c o d y n am ic e ff ec t of on e d r ug c a n b e an t ag o ni z e d b y t he op p os i te p h a rm ac o d y na m i c e ff e c t o f a s ec on d d r ug . Fo r e xa m pl e , t he an t ih y p e r te nsi ve e f fe c t o f be t a b lo c k e rs c a n b e o v e r c om e b y t he us e o f v a s o p re s s o rs . Ob v i o us l y, t hi s c an h a ve a d el e te r io us e ff ec t, b e a th e ra p eu t ic fa il u r e, o r b e a t he r ap e ut ic s t r at e g y in c l in ic al t re a tm e nt , d e pe nd i ng on t he s i tu a ti o n C . D r u g t h e ra p y c a n p r od u c e an ad v e r s e ef f ec t th a t re su l ts i n a n in c r ea se d s e n si t i vi t y o r t o x i ci t y w h e n a n ot h er d ru g i s g i v en . F or e xa m pl e , t h e a lt e ra t i on of e l ec t r ol y t e c on c e n t ra t io ns p ro d uc ed b y a di u r et ic , s uc h a s a th ia z i d e d e ri va t i v e , wi ll d e pl e te p ot as s i um , re s u lt i n g i n s e ns i ti z a t io n o f the h ea r t t o d i go xi n t h e ra py . D e p l et i on of s o di um b y a d i ur e ti c c an al s o r es ul t i n l it h iu m t o xi c it y . D . Th e r a pi es t ha t h a v e in t r i n s ic a ll y o p p o s i t e e ff e c t s o n t he sa m e ta r g et s y s te m c a n r es u lt in th e r ap e ut ic f a i lu r e. F or e xa m p le , n a lo xo n e c om pe t es wi t h n a rc o ti cs at t h e n a rc o ti c r ec e pt o r s ite , r es ul t in g i n t h e ra pe u tic f ai lu r e o f n a rc o ti c -b as ed a na g es ia t h e r ap y. E . P h a rm a co d yn a m i c dru g in t e ra c t i on s a ls o c a n o c c u r wi t h d r ug - h er b al int e r ac t io ns a n d d r ug - f oo d i n te r ac t ion s . F o r e xa m p l e, b y i n ges t i n g l a r ge am ou n ts o f vit a m i n K i n t h e d i et , th e e f fe c t o f a n ti c oa g ul at i on b y wa r f a ri n i s a n t ag o n iz ed .
F . S t ar t in g a n d s to p pi ng t h e r ap ie s t h at in f lu e nc e m e ta b ol is m o f o t he r d r u gs c a n r e s ul t i n t h e ra pe u ti c f a ilu r e i f th e i n du c e d m et a bo l is m r e du c e s t he bl o od l e ve ls of t h e ta r ge t d r u g. Fo r e xa m p le , s t ar t in g a pa t ie n t o n ni c o t in e p a tc he s r e pla c es s m o k i n g f o r a pa ti e n t. S in c e t he pa t ie n t i s n o l ong e r s m o ki n g t ob ac c o, the C YP 1 A 2 i s oe n z ym es ar e n o l o ng er i nd u c e d , a nd th e s ub s tra t es o f t he C YP 1 A 2 s ys te m ( c l o zap in e o r ha l op e ri d ol, f o r e xa m p le ) m a y b e i nc r e as ed to t o xi c l e v e ls . Th i s e ff ec t c a n oc c ur in s e v e r al en z y m e s ys t em s wh e n st o ppi n g p he n yt o in , a n i n du c er f o r s e ve r al C YP e n z y m e s y s t e m s .
IV. HERBAL-DRUG INTERACTIONS A. H e r b a l p r e pa r a ti on s ar e v a r io us c o m b i na t io ns o f he r bs , s om e ti m e s b ein g on e h e r b , o r a c om b in a ti on of h e rb s . S om e h e rb a l p r ep a r a ti on s r e p re se n t a s ing l e h e rb c o nt a in in g a v a r ie t y o f a lk a lo id s o r c o ns ti t ue n ts th a t m a y e xh i bi t a v a r i et y o f p h a rm ac ol o gi c a l a c t i v i ti es . 1 . S om e h e rb s c on t ai n a n um b e r o f d if f e re n t p ha rm ac o lo g ic al l y ac ti ve c o ns t i tu en t s . F o r e xa m pl e , S t . J oh n ' s W ort h as a t l ea st si x d i f fe r e n t co ns t it u en t s : h ype rf o r in , b i ap i ge n in , h y p e ri c i n , q ue r c it in , c h lo r og e ni c ac i d, a n d ps e ud o h y pe r ic in . Ea c h c o ns ti t ue n t h as it s o wn m e ta b ol is m , bi n di ng a nd p h a rm ac ol og ic ac t io n . Th e p r e do m i n an t e f f ec t o r i n te r a c t i on de pe n ds up on th e r el a ti v e po t en c y o f eac h c o ns ti t ue n t i n t h e h e rb . F o r e xa m pl e , t he c o ns t itu e n ts o f S t. Jo hn ' s W or t h a ve i n hi b it o r y ac ti v i t y o f t h e C YP 4 5 0 i so e n z ym e s 3 A 4, 2 C 9 , 1 A 2, 2 D6 , an d 2 D9 , bu t n o n e o f t he s e e ff ec t s a re c o ns i de r ed c l in ic a ll y s ig n i fi ca n t. S t . J o h n 's W ort a pp e a rs o ve r a ll t o b e a n i nd uc e r o f C YP 3 A 4 , a n d i ts c o nst i t ue n ts ha v e m a n y a d di ti o na l e f f ec ts on m e t ab ol is m an d bi nd i ng s i te s ( Ta bl e 18 - 5 ) .
Table 18-5. Pharmacokinetic Activity of the Constituents of St. John's Wort Activity
Site
Metabolized
CYP450, most notably by the 3A4 isoenzyme
Transported
Intestinal P-glycoprotein
Active at receptor sites
GABA, norepinephrine, dopamine, Lglutamate receptor sites
Active at reuptake sites
Seratonin reuptake and norepinephrine reuptake sites
Inhibits
MAO, and possibly the cellular phosphodiesterase sites
Inhibits
Beta-adrenergic and muscarinic receptor sites
Binding site competition
DNA sites in human leukemia cells
P.427
Table 18-6. St. John's Wort Drug Interactions Pharmacokineti c Process Site Metabolism
CYP3A4
Action Induces
Results in Lower levels of
Drug NNRTI
Protease Inhibitors Benzodiaze pines Calcium channel blockers Carbamaze pine Cyclospori n Irninotecan
Digoxin CYP2C9
Induces
Lower levels of
Warfarin
CYP1A2
Induces
Lower levels of
Warfarin
Transporter proteins
Intestinal Pglycoprot ein transporte r proteins
Increased catalyzed efflux of substrate drug
Lower levels of
Digoxin Calcium channel blockers Simvastatin
Pharmacody namic Toxicity
Serotonin reuptake receptor sites
Inhibits serotonin reuptake
Additive SSRI activity
SSRIs
Serotonin reuptake receptor sites
Serotonin agonist activity
Additive serotonin toxicity
Serotonin agonists (e.g. fenfluamin e) and “triptans”
MAO receptor sites
Increased MAOI and serotonin activity
Additive serotonin toxicity
MAOIs
Serotonin and norepinep hrine reuptake sites
Inhibits reuptake of norepinep hrine and serotonin
Norepinep hrine and serotonin toxicity
Nefazodon e
Pharmacoki netic
DNA binding sites in human leukemia cells
Distorts DNA binding sites
Reverses etoposidestabilized cleavage complexes
Antagonize s chemothera py effect of etoposide (in vitro)
2 . Ma n y h e r ba l d r u gs i n te r a c t at t he s am e tr a ns po r t , m e ta bo l is m an d re cep t o r s it es a s tr a di t io n al pr es c ri p ti on d r ug s ( Ta b le 18 - 6 ) . 3 . Tr a d it i on al C hi n es e m e d ic in e ( TC M) m a y c o nt ai n a c o m b i na t io n o f h e r bs . S om e i m po r t ed TC M p r o d u c t s h a v e be e n f ou n d t o c on ta i n u nl is t ed le g en d d r u gs . A n e xa m p l e i s a TC M m e d ic a t i on ad ve r t is ed to t re a t d i ab e te s t h at wa s fo u nd t o c o n ta in t h e p h a rm ac eu t ic al s g l y bu r i de an d p h en f o rm in . 4 . S om e h e rb a l p re p a ra t io n s m a y c on t ai n u n re c ogn i ze d c on t am in a nt s s uc h a s h ea vy m e ta ls , or a s im il a r -a pp ea r i ng he r b t h at is m is t ak e n l y ha r v e st e d. Th e s e a re q ua li t y c o nt r o l is s u es t ha t a r e t o a la r g e e xt e n t u n r eg ul a te d b y g o v e r nm en t a g en c i e s . B . D r u g -h e r ba l i nt e r ac ti on s c an oc cu r as p h a rm aco k in e ti c o r p h ar m ac od y na m ic i n t er a ct i on s ( Ta b le 18 - 7 ). C . D r u gs wi t h n a r r o w t her a p eu t ic wi n do ws a r e a t g r e a te r ri s k fo r dr u g -h e rb a l i n t er a ct i on s . Fo r e xa m ple , im po r t an t d r u g- h e rb int e r ac t io ns oc c u r wi t h p a ti e n ts t a ki n g wa r f a r i n. 1 . C oe n z y m e Q 10 ha s a c h em ic al s t r uc t ur e re l at ed t o v it am i n K . Th e c om bi n a ti on o f wa r f a r i n a n d Co en z y m e Q 1 0 r es ul t s i n a nt a go ni z e d wa r f a ri n ac ti vi t y an d in a d eq ua t e a n t ic oa g ul a ti on . P.428
Table 18-7. Table of Common Herbs and Potential Drug Interactions
Herb
Drug/Drug Class
Interaction
Effect
Black Cohosh
Antihypertensives
Pharmacodyna mic potentiation
Increased effect of antihypertensives (hypotension)
Coenzy me Q10
Warfarin
Pharmacodyna mic antagonism
Vitamin K antagonism (increased INR and risk of bleed)
Dong Quai
Beta blockers
Inhibition of CYP450 Enzymes
Increased level of beta blockers (increased hypotension)
Benzodiazepines
Inhibition of CYP 450 Enzymes
Increased benzodiazepine levels (increased drowsiness and CNS depression)
Echinace a
Immunosuppressa nts Monoclonal antibodies
Pharmacodyna mic antagonism
Decreased immunosuppressi on (flair of autoimmune disease, transplant graft rejection)
Ephedrin e Ma Huang
Beta blockers
Pharmacodyna mic antagonism
Sympathomimeti c effect (hypertension)
MAOIs
Blocked metabolism
Increased and prolonged sympathomimeti c effect (Hypertensive crisis)
Corticosteroids
Increased metabolism Induced hepatic metabolism
Decreased corticosteroid levels (decreased steroid effectiveness)
Antiplatelets
Pharmacodyna mic potentiation
Decreased platelet aggregation (increased risk of bleed)
Phenothiazines
Additive toxicity
Reduced seizure threshold (seizures)
Ginkgo biloba
Warfarin, LMWH
Pharmacodyna mic potentiation
Increased inhibition of platelet aggregation (increased risk of bleed)
Ginseng
MAOI
Pharmacodyna mic effect
Increased GABA metabolism and increased dopamine levels (mania symptoms)
Kava Kava
Acetaminophen Azole antifungals Statins
Additive toxicity
Increased otential for hepatic toxicity (elevated LFT, hepatic failure)
Barbiturates Benzodiazepines
Synergy
Increased GABA receptor binding affinity (increased drowsiness, CNS depression)
Evening Primrose Oil
Levodopa
Antagonism
Dopamine blockade (decreased effectiveness of levodopa)
Soy
Lethothyroxine
Impaired absorption
Decreased levels of levothyroxine (hypothyroid symptoms)
St. John's Wort
Irinotecan
Induced CYP3A4 Metabolism
Reduced levels of active irinotecan metabolite for chemotherapy (decreased myelosuppressio n)
Valerian
Sedatives
Pharmacodyna mic
Increased CNS depression (drowsiness and sedation)
Benzodiazepines
Displacement from binding sites
Displaced benzodiazepine but additive CNS depression (possible increased drowsiness)
P.429
2 . G i ng e r , g ar l ic , a nd f e ve r f e w a ls o i nc r e as e b le ed i n g in pa t ie n ts ta ki n g wa r f a ri n b y d i r ec tl y i n hi bi t in g p l at el et s an d c au si n g in c re as e d r i s k o f bl ee d in g . 3 . W he a t g ra s s ac tu a ll y c o nt a in s h ig h l e v e ls o f vit a m i n K wh i c h d i re ct l y an t a go ni ze s wa r f a r i n c a us in g i na d equ a t e a nt ic o ag u la t io n a nd t h e ra p eu t ic f a il u re . D . P o t en c y o f he r ba l p r ep a r a ti on s i s i nf l ue nc ed by a va r i et y o f fa c t o rs : 1 . Th e s t ag e o f g r o wt h du r i ng wh i ch t he he r b wa s h a r v es t ed 2 . Th e dr y i n g t im e
3 . Th e s o l v en ts us ed in e xt r a c t i on of t he he r b 4 . Th e s h el f l i fe an d s to ra g e c on d it i on s o f t he h erb a l e xt r a c t
V. Food-drug interactions A. F o o d c a n i nc r ea s e , de c r ea s e , o r no t a f f ec t t he a bs o rp t io n o f d r u gs ( Ta b le 18 - 8 ) . B . F o od c a n i nf l ue nc e t he b io a v ai l ab i li t y of a d r ug f r om a m o di f ie d - re l ea se d os ag e f o r m ( e .g . , c on t r ol le d re le a s e , d e la ye d re le a se [en t e ri c c oa t ed ] ) ra t he r th an f r om a n i m m e di a te - r el e as e d os ag e fo r m . F or e xa m p le , op e ni n g t h e c a ps u le of ent e r ic c o at e d o m ep r a z ol e b e ad s a nd gi v i n g i t i n a n a c i d ic f o od s u c h a s a p pl es au c e o r wi t h o r a ng e j u ic e , e as es a d m i ni s t r a tio n of t he dr u g wh i l e m ain t a in in g th e e n te r ic c o at in g on th e o m ep r a z ol e b e ad s u n ti l th e d ru g r e ac he s t h e b as ic p H o f th e d uo d en um wh e r e t h e o m ep r a z ol e b e ad s a r e un c oa t ed an d t h e d r ug is a b so r be d . C . C o m p l e xa t i on an d a ds o r pt i on of th e d r u g i n t he G I t ra c t wi t h an o th e r fo o d e l em e nt is a c o m m on d ru g in t e ra ct i on th a t r e du ce s th e e xt e n t o f d ru g a bs o r pt i on . F o r e xa m pl e , q ui n ol on e a n t ib io t ic s c o m p l e x wi t h c a l c iu m ( f ou n d i n m i lk p ro d uc ts ) . 1 . Q u in ol o ne an t ib i ot ic s wi l l c om pl e x wi t h c al c i um f ro m t h e d ie t a n d t he re s ul t wi l l b e r ed uc ed q ui no l on e a nt i b io t ic . 2 . I ba nd r o na t e f o r os t eop o r os is ha s s i g ni f ic an t l y r e d uc ed ab s or p ti o n wh e n g i v en wi t h f o od . Si n c e ab s o r p tio n is v e r y po o r, wi t h le s s t ha n 0 . 6% bi oa v a i la bi l it y i n f a s ti ng c i rc u m s ta nc es , an d up to 99 % p r o te i n b ind i ng , th e s ig n if ic a nt r ed uc t io n i n i b an d r on a te wh e n g i v e n wi t h f o od m a y r e du c e the d r u g to s u b th e ra p eu t ic l e v e ls . 3 . A n u m b e r o f d r ug s s uc h a s p h en y t o in an d q uin o lo n e a n ti bi o ti cs ar e a ds o r be d t o c a lc iu m a nd i ro n i n t u be f e e di ng s . D . F o od c a n b e m e t ab o liz e d b y t he s am e l i v e r e nz ym e s th a t m et a bo li ze dr u g s , c a us in g e n z y m e i nh i bi t ion o r i n du ct i on , a n d r es ult i n g i n t o xi c or su b th e ra pe u t ic d r u g l e ve ls . Fo r e xa m p l e, P.430 g r a pe f r ui t a n d v a l en c i a or a n ge s i nh i bi t th e C YP 3A 4 is o en z ym e s ys te m , c a u si n g i n c re as ed le v e ls o f s u bs tr a t e d r ug s s uc h a s s a q uin a vi r , i n di na vi r , m id a z o la m , n i m o di p in e , n if e di pi n e, lo v a s ta t in , c y c lo s p o r in , c a r b am a ze pi ne , a n d v er ap a m i l .
Table 18-8. Affect of Food on Drug Bioavailability
Reduced or delayed NSAIDs (nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs) naproxen, naproxen sodium
Increased
Not affected by food
Griseofulvin
Theophylline*
Metoprolol
Metronidazole
Aspirin
Phenytoin
Acetaminophen
Propoxyphene
Antibiotics (tetracycline and penicillin)
Dicumarol
Ethanol
Morphine
*
Food does not significantly affect drug absorption of theophylline in an immediate-release dosage form. However, food may affect theophylline absorption from a controlled-release formulation. E . F oo d c a n p ha rm a c o d yn a m i c a ll y a n ta g on i ze t h e e f f ec t o f s om e d r ug s . Fo r e xa m p l e , s p i na c h an d b ro c c o li p ro vi de di e ta r y s ou r c es o f v i ta m i n K, wh i ch a n t ag o ni z e s t he e ff ec t o f wa r f a r i n . G a r li c c an c a us e a d di t i v e a nt i pl a te le t ef f e c t in c om b in a ti o n wi t h wa r f a r in , he p a ri n , a nd L MW H , an d c a us e i nc r ea s e d ri s k o f b l ee d in g . F . F oo ds c a n c on t ai n p ha r m ac ol og ic a ll y ac t i v e c o m po u n d s t ha t i n te r ac t wi t h d r u gs m e an t to in hi b it en d og e no u s c o m po un ds . Mo n o am i ne o xi d as e i n hi bi t o rs (MA O I s ) p r e ve n t n o rm al m e ta b ol is m o f c a te c h ol am i ne s. Th e y a ls o i nh i bi t t h e m e t ab o li sm of t yr a m in e f r om t y r am in e c o n t ai ni n g f oo d s s u c h as r e d wi n e , ch e es e. Th e inc r e as ed l e ve ls of t y r am in e c a us e h y p e r t en s i v e c r is is .
VI. Chemical-drug interactions A. S m o k in g b y i nh al i ng ar o m at ic po l yc yc l ic h yd roc a r bo ns ( to b acc o ) c an ind u c e th e C YP 1 A 2 i s oe n z y m e m e t ab o li s m an d d ec r ea s e l e ve l s o f s ub st r a te d ru gs s uc h a s t h e op h yll i ne , d i a z ep am , t r i c yc l ic a n ti d ep r es sa n ts , d u lo xe t i n e , a nd r am el t eo n . B . E t h an ol c a n i nc r ea s e o r d ec re a s e th e a c ti vi t y o f he p at ic d ru g m e ta bo l iz i n g e n zym e s . 1 . C h ro n ic a lc o ho li s m c an i nc r ea s e th e ra t e o f m e t a bo li s m of t ol bu t am id e, wa r f a r i n, a n d p h en y t o in . 2 . A c u t e al c oh ol in t o xi c at i o n c a n i n hi bi t he pa t ic en z y m e s i n n o na lc oh o li c i n di vi d ua ls .
3 . E th a no l i n du c e s m e t ab o li s m in th e C YP 1 A 2 a nd 2 E 1 i s o en z y m e s . Le v e ls o f 1 A 2 s u bs t ra t es c l o z ap in e , c yc l ob e n z ap r in e , im i p ra m in e , n a p ro xe n a r e d ec r eas e d. Le ve l s o f t he 2E 1 s u bs t ra t es a c e t am i no p he n a r e r e du ced . 4 . D is ul f i ra m i nh i bi ts al c o h ol de h y d r og e na se , re s u l t i n g i n l im it e d m e t ab o lis m o f e t h an ol a nd c a us in g s e ve r e et h an ol in t ol e r an c e .
VII. Pharmacogenetics and Drug Interactions A. G e n e t i c di f f e re nc es in d r u g m e t ab o li s m a r e t h e r e s u l t o f g en e ti c a l l y b a s e d va r i a ti o ns in al l el e s f o r g e n es t h at co d e f o r e n zym es r es po ns i bl e f o r t h e m e ta b ol is m o f d ru gs . 1 . I n n or m a l e n z y m e f u nc t io n , t h e g en e e nc o di ng f o r th e e n zy m e is c o m po s ed of t wo n o r m a l a ll e le s . In P o l ym o r p h i sm s , t he ge n es c on t a in ab n or m a l p a i rs o r m u lt i pl es of a b n or m a l a l le le s l ea d in g t o al te r e d e n z ym e f un ct io n . 2 . P ol y m o rp hi s m s c an oc c u r i n a n y en z y m e s y s t em in c l u di ng t he C YP 4 5 0 h e p at ic e n zym e s , th e m i xe d o xi d a s e a nd n -a c e t yl tr a ns f era s e s ys t em s , a nd th e UG T m e ta b ol ic en z y m e s y s t em s . I n t he C YP 4 5 0 s y s t em , th e C YP 2 D 6 , C YP 2 C 9, a nd C YP 2 C 1 9 p o l ym o r ph is m s a re th e m os t e xt e n s i vel y s t ud ie d . 3 . D i ff e re n c e s i n e n z y m e a c ti v i t y oc c u r a t di f fe r ent r a te s a c c o rd in g to ra c ia l gr o up ( Ta b l e 1 8 - 9 ). 4 . P o l ym o r p h i s m s ( d if f er e n c e s i n t he al l el es ) c an a ls o va r y wi t h i n a ra c ia l gr o up b y g e o gr a ph ic di s t r i bu t io n . F o r e xa m pl e , i n W es t er n E u r op e an s p ol y m o rp h is m f or t he C YP 2 D 6 a l l el es c a n v a r y wi t h 1 0 t im es as m a n y ul t r a m et a bo li ze r s ( U M) i n G r e e c e a s i n Au s tr i a. 5 . Th e e xt e n t o f t h e d r ug i n te r ac t io n i s p r ed ic t ed b a s e d u p on th e b as e li ne a c ti v i t y of t h e e n zy m e i n a n i nd i v i du a l . B as e li ne en z y m e ef fi c i e nc y v a r i es g r e at l y am o n g i n di vi d ua ls de p en di n g u po n th e t y pe an d e xt e n t of p ol y m o rp h ic c ha n ge s to t he e n zym e . B . S i n g le N uc l eo t i de Po l ym o r p h i s m s ( S N P s ) ar e s i n gl e c ha ng e s in on e a l le le o f a g e n e r es po n s i bl e f o r a v a r i et y o f m e ta bo l ic p r oc es s e s i nc lu d in g e n z ym a ti c m e ta b ol is m . P.431
Table 18-9. Ethnic Differences in the CYP2D6 Enzyme Activity
Ethnicity
As a Percentage of the Population
Caucasians
7-10% PM / 1% UM
African-Americans
8% PM
Asians
>50% PM / 1% UM
Adapted from Zagaria MAE. The promise of pharmacogenomics. Available online at http://www.uspharmacist. com/index.asp?show=article&page=8_1190.htm. Retrieved January 18, 2006; and Johannson I, Oscarson M, Yue QY, et al. Genetic analysis of the Chinese cytochrome P4502D locus: Characterization of variant CYP2D6 genes present in subjects with diminished capacity for debrisoquine hydroxylation. Mol Pharmacol 1994;46:452-459. 1 . Th e ge ne t ic S N Ps c a n b e o f s e v e r al di f fe r en t k i n ds , re su l ti n g i n m a n y di f f e re n t va r i a n ts o f th e e n z y m e . C YP 2 D 6 h a s m or e th an 7 0 va r ia n t a ll el es . 2 . Th e c om b in a ti on o f a lle l es en co d in g t h e g en e d e t e rm in es th e a c ti v i t y of t h e e n zym e . Th e c o m b i na t ion s c an in c l u de m i s s in g al l el e s , de f ec ti ve al l el es , d u pl ic a te d , a n d m ul t ip le al l el es . In ad d i ti on , al le l es c an de m o n s t ra t e a m p li f ic at i on , s ub s ti t u ti on , o r d ef ec t i v e s pl ic in g . N u ll e n z y m e ac t i vit y , o r a bol i sh ed ac t i vit y c an occ u r f r o m e r r o rs in t ra ns c ri p ti o n, s p l ic in g , s ta r t a n d s to p c od o ns , a n d a m i no ac id cha n g es . 3 . Th e c om b in a ti on o f a lle l es in th e a f f ec te d g e ne r e s u l ts i n d i f fe r en c e s i n t h e e f f ec t i v en es s o f t h e e n z ym e . Th e o ve r al l f un c ti on o f t he en zy m e i s t h e p hen o t yp e o f e n zym e fu nc t io n . *
*
a . P oo r m e ta b ol i z e rs ( PM) c a r r y t wo d e f ec t i v e a ll e le s , f o r e xa m p le C YP 2 D 6 4 / 5 a nd *
*
C YP 2 D 6 4 / 4 . P Ms a l s o in c lu d e c o m b i na t io n o f a lle l es in c l ud i n g on e re su l ti n g i n n o *
*
e n zym e , f o r e xa m p l e C YP 2 D 6 5 an d C YP 2 D 6 4 /de l e ti on . b . I nt e rm e di a te m e ta b ol iz e r s ( I M) a r e h e te r o zy g ou s , t h at is , h a vi ng on e wi l d t y p e a l le l e a nd on e d e fe c ti v e a l le l e. c . N o rm al m e ta b ol i z e rs c a r r y “ wi l d t y p e” al l el es , fo r e xa m p le C YP 2 D 6 * 1 / * 33 . W il d t yp e al l el es en c o d e g en es f or no r m a l e n z ym e f u nc t io n . d . E xt e n s i v e m e t ab o li z e rs ( E M) c a r r y on e wi l d t ype a nd on e a m p l if ie d g e ne , f or *
*
e xa m p l e C YP 2 D 6 1 / 2 . An o t he r e xa m pl e o f E M c ar r y t h e f o ll o wi n g p ai r s : *
*
*
*
C YP 2 D 6 A / 1 a a n d C YP 2 D 6 1 A / 5 . e . U l tr a - r ap id m e t ab ol i z er s ( U M) c a r r y t wo o r m o re co p ie s o f a n a m p li f ie d g e n e, fo r *
*
e xa m p l e C YP 2 D 6 2 / 2 . 4 . G e ne t ic c ha n ge s m a y i n ac t i v at e o r r ed uc e e n zy m a t ic ac ti v i t y ( e .g . , p oor m e ta b ol i z e rs ) , l ea d in g t o i nc r e as es i n t h e s ub s t r at e d ru g . 5 . G e ne t ic d u pl ic a ti o n m a y i nc r e as e e n z ym at ic ac t i vi t y (e . g. , ul t ra - r ap i d m e ta b ol i z e rs ) , re s u l ti ng in l o we r le v e ls of t he s u bs t r at e d r u g.
6 . I n t he C YP 2 D 6 en z y m e , ge n et ic v a r ia t io n c an c a us e a 10 - to 30 - fo l d d if f e r en c e in t h e l e ve ls o f dr u gs m e tab o li z e d b y t h at en zy m e . Ta b l e 18 - 10 li s t s a fe w C YP 2 D 6 va r i a n ts a n d t he i r e f fe c ts o f th e d r ug m e t ab ol is m a c ti v i t y o f t he e n z ym e . C . P o l ym o r ph is m s af f ec t d r u g i nt e ra c ti on s b y a lt er i n g t h e e ff ec t of in h ib i tor s an d i n du c er s o n t h e e n z y m es . Th e r es ul t is a n e xa g g er a t e d e ff ec t o r m i ni m al ef f e ct on t h e s ub s t ra t e. 1 . I n a n E M , t he le v e l o f s u bs t ra t e d r ug is n o rm a lly l o w b e c au s e of t he ra pi d m e ta b ol is m b y t he en z y m e . A n in h i bi t o r to th e e n z ym e wi l l s ub st a nt i al l y i n hi bi t th e e xt e n s i v e m e ta b ol is m a nd c a us e s i gn if ic a nt el e v at i o ns i n t h e s ub s t r a te d ru g . Th e s u bs t ra t e l e v el s r is e d r am a ti c a l l y b ec a us e t h e e ffe c t o f t h e i nh i bi t or is m uc h g r e at e r i n an E M. Th e d r ug in t e ra c ti o n m a y o c c u r t o a gre a t e r e xt e n t th a n i t wo u ld i n n o rm al m e ta b ol i z e rs ( Ta bl e 1 8 - 11 ) . 2 . I n a PM , t h e l e v el of s u b s t r a te d ru g re m a in s h ig h be ca us e th e m et a bo lis m o f t h e s u bs t ra t e i s m u c h le s s tha n no r m a l . W hen a n i n h ib i t o r is a d de d t o th e r e gi m en , th e a d di t io n al P.432 i n hi b it i on of m e t ab ol is m i s n o t m uc h g r ea t er t ha n i s a l re a d y o cc u r ri ng in a P M. Th e r e f o re t he ef f ec t o f an i nh ib i to r on a P M i s l es s t ha n i t wo u ld be in no rm a l m e ta b ol i z e rs . Th e d r ug in t e r ac ti o n m a y n o t oc c u r.
Table 18-10. Allele Activity Patterns in the CYP2D6 Isoenzyme Gene
Polymorphism
Enzyme activity Phenotype
CYP2D6*1
Wild-type
Normal
EM or normal
CYP2D6*2
Same as 2D6*1 but possible
Increased enzyme
EM/UM
Duplication or amplification
Activity
CYP2D6*4
Defective splicing
Inactive enzyme
PM
CYP2D6*5
Gene depletion
No enzyme
PM
CYP2D6*10
Single AA substitution predominant
Reduction in
PM
CYP2D6*17
Variant in people of Asian descent
Enzyme activity
Single AA substitution predominant
Reduction in
Variant in people of African descent
Enzyme activity
PM
Adapted from Zagaria MAE. The promise of pharmacogenomics. Available online at http://www.uspharmacist.com/index.asp?show=article&page=8_1190.htm. Retrieved January 18, 2006; Ingelman-Sundberg M. Genetic polymorphisms of cytochrome P4502D6 (CYP2D6): clinical consequences, evolutionary aspects and functional diversity. Pharmacogenomics J 2005;5:6-13; and Lee LS, Nafziger AN, Bertino JS Jr.Evaluation of inhibitory drug interactions during drug development: Genetic polymorphisms must be considered. Clin Pharmacol Ther 2005;78:1-6. 3 . I n a n E M , t he le v e l o f s u bs t ra t e d r ug is a g ai n lo we r t h a n e xp e c t ed i n a n o r m a l m e ta b ol i z e r b ec au s e o f th e r ap id m e t ab ol is m . Th e a dd i ti on o f a n i n du c e r d o es no t c a us e a gr e at di f f er e nc e i n th e l e v e l o f s ub st r a te b e ca us e th e m et a bo li s m i s a l re a d y i n c re as ed g re a tl y . Th e dr u g i n t er ac t io n m a y no t oc c u r . 4 . I n a PM , t h e l e v el of s u b s t r a te d ru g i s a ga i n hig h e r t h an e xp e ct e d i n a n o r m a l m e ta b ol i z e r b ec au s e o f th e lo we r m et a bo li s m of th e s u bs t ra t e . Th e ad d it ion o f a n i n d u ce r wi l l c au s e a s ign i f ic an t i nc r e as e i n t he m e ta b ol is m o f t h e s u bs t ra t e a n d c a us e a m uc h l o we r l e v el o f s ub s t r a te th a n e xp e c t e d i n a no r m a l m et a bo liz e r . Th e d r u g i n te r ac ti o n m a y o c c u r t o a g r e at e r e xt e n t t ha n in no r m a l m et a bo li ze rs , or t he d r u g i n te r ac ti o n m a y r e s u l t i n s ub s tr a te le v e ls sim i la r to th os e o f no r m a l m e ta b ol i z e rs . 5 . A s a g e ne r al r ul e , t he e f f ec t o f i n hi bi t o rs is g r ea t e r i n E Ms t ha n i n P Ms . Th e e f f ec t o f i n du c e r s is g re at e r in P Ms t h an in E Ms . 6 . Th e di f fe r en c e be t we e n E M a n d U M c a n b e d e sc r i be d a s t he di f fe r e nc e b e t we e n h e t e ro zy g o us an d h om o zy g o u s i nd i v i du al s wi t h du p li c a t ed o r a m p li f ie d g en e s . Th e a d di t io n o f an in hi b it o r to a n U M wo u l d be e xp e ct e d to s h o w a n e ve n g r ea t e r d r ug r e a ct i on th a n wo u l d b e s e e n wi t h a n E M. 7 . C om pl e x d r u g i n te r ac ti o ns c a n b e s ee n wh e n a s ub s t ra t e is m e ta b ol i z ed t h ro u gh m o r e t ha n o n e e n z y m e s y s t e m wh e r e on e o r m o re e n zy m es a r e a f fe c te d b y p o l ym o r ph is m . I n t h es e c as e s , th e s ub s t ra t e is m e ta b ol i z e d t h ro ug h a po l ym o rp hi c e n zym e an d b ec om es an a c ti v e m e ta b ol i te an d an i nh i b i to r o r i nd uc e r i n a s e co n d s ys t em . Po l y m o r ph is m i n t h e f i rs t e n zy m e c an c au s e t he le v e l o f th e i n hi bi t o r o r i n du c er t o b e g re a t er o r le s s t ha n
P.433 e xp e c t e d , t hu s c au s i ng th e e xt e n t o f th e e xp e c t ed i nh ib i ti o n o r i n du c t i on o f t he s ec o nd en z y m e to be s i gn i f ic an t l y c ha n ge d .
Table 18-11. The Effect of Inhibition of EM/UM and PM on CYP2D6 Substrates
Enzyme
Inhibitor
Substrate
Effect of Effect of EM/UM On PM On the the substrate substrate
CYP2D6
Diphenhydramine
Metoprolol
Increased 61%
Little change
CYP2D6
Quinidine
Svenlafaxine
Increased 4x
Little change
Rvenlafaxine
Increased 12x
No change
CYP2D6
CYP2D6
Diphenhydramine
Venlafaxine
Increased 2x
Little change
CYP2D6
Fluoxetine
Risperidone
Increased 4x
Increase 1.3x
Adapted from Lee LS, Nafziger AN, Bertino JS Jr.Evaluation of inhibitory drug interactions during drug development: Genetic polymorphisms must be considered. Clin Pharmacol Ther 2005;78:1-6. D . S p ec i fi c P h ar m a c o g en o m i c D r u g I n te r ac ti o ns f r o m t he li t e ra t u re . 1 . O m e p r a z ol e I n on e s t ud y o f o m e p ra z o l e a c t i vi t y on th e i n hi bi ti o n o f m oc lo b em id e i n CYP 2 C 1 9 E Ms a n d P Ms , t he e ff ec t o f i n hi b it i on v a ri e d ac c or d i ng t o t he de g re e o f gen e t ic p o l ym o r ph is m . O n e wo u ld e xp e c t i nh i bi t io n o f th e m e ta bo l is m o f t he su bs tr a t e m oc l ob em i de b y t h e i nh ib i t or om e pr a z o le . Bu t in E Ms , t h e A U C l e v e l o f t he s u bs t ra t e m oc lo be m i d e al m os t d ou b le d , r e fl ec t in g t h e g r ea t e r e f fe c t of in h ib i t io n o n m oc l ob em i de wh i c h wa s o r i gi n al l y e xt e ns i v e l y m et a b o l i zed . In co m p a ri so n, P Ms a l r ea d y s h o w p o or m e t ab o li s m of t he m ec l ob em id e . In hi b it i on of th e 2 C 19 e n z ym e b y o m e p r a z ol e i n P M d i d n o t s ho w a n e xt e n si ve ch a n g e i n th e A U C l e v el s o f m oc l ob em i de , b ec a us e m e ta b ol is m wa s a lr e ad y i m pa i re d .
1
2 . Fl u v o xa m i ne F l u vo xa m i ne in hi b it s t h e m e ta b ol is m o f d ip h en y d ra m i n e b y t he C YP 2 C 1 9 is o en zy m e . W hen E M t a k in g d i ph e n yd r a m i ne we r e gi ve n th e 2 C 1 9 i n hi bi t o r f lu vo xa m in e , th e
A U C a n d Cm a x l e v e ls o f d i ph e nh y d r am i ne in c r e ase d s i gn i fi ca n tl y o ve r p l ac e b o . W hen P M t a k in g d i ph e nhy d r a m in e we r e g i v en t he i n hi b i t o r f lu v o xa m i n e, t he A U C a n d Cm a x o f di p he nh y d ra m in e d id no t c h an g e s ig n i fi c a n tl y . Th e ef f ec t o f i n hi bi t io n o n th e s ub s t ra t e o f a n EM i n t h e C YP 2 C 1 9 wa s gr e a t er t ha n i t wo u ld ha ve b e en in a n o r m a l m et a bo li z e r . Th e e f f ec t o f i n hi bi t io n o n the su bs t r a te of a P M i n C YP 2 C 1 9 i s n o t s ig n if ic a nt . In ad d it ion , t ho s e E Ms wh o we r e h o m o z yg o us s h o we d g rea t e r i n hi b it i on th a n t he E Ms wh o we r e h e t e ro z y g o us . Th i s de m o ns t r a te s t ha t th e de g re e o f in h ib i ti on v a r ie s b y g en o t y p e. H om o z y g o us E Ms s h o we d gr e a te r re d uc tio n in e n zym e ac ti v i t y t ha t h e ter o z y g o u s E M. I n t he s a m e wa y , E M s h o w g r e a t e r i n hi b it i on t h a n P M b e c au s e P M a l re a d y ha ve r ed uc e d e n z ym e a c ti v i t y an d wi l l n ot s h o w a g r e a t ch a ng e i n Cm a x o r A U C , e v e n wi t h in h ib i ti on .
2
3 . D ip h en h y d r am in e D i p h en h y d ra m i n e i nh ib i ts t he m e ta b ol is m o f m eto p r ol o l. In E M i n t he C YP 2 D 6 , th e C m a x a n d A U C o f di ph en h y d r am in e i nc r e as ed b y 1 6 % a n d 61 % , r es p ec ti v e l y , as c om p a re d t o n o n -p ol y m or p h is m s . Th e in h ib i to r dip h e n h yd r am in e d ec r e as ed c o n ve rs io n o f m e to p ro l ol t o i t s m e t ab o li t e b y a f ac t o r o f 3 . In th e P M, t h e c h an g e i n m e to p r ol ol c o n v e rs io n wa s i ns i gn i fi c a n t. A ga i n, th e ef f ec t o f i n hi b it io n o n t h e s u bs t ra t e i n t h e E M wa s g r e a te r th an in P M.
3
4 . D ip h en h y d r am in e D i p h en h y d ra m i n e i nh ib i ts t he m e ta b ol is m o f v en la f a xi n e b y th e C YP 2 D 6 is o en z ym e . W hen d ip he n h y d ra m i n e is gi v e n to a E M wh o i s ta k in g ven l af a xi n e , t h e l ev e l s o f ve n l a fa xi n e r is e t wo f o l d. D i p he n h y d ra m i ne gi ve n t o a P M wh o i s t ak i ng v en l a fa xi n e c a us es i n s i gn i fi c a n t c han g e i n t h e l e v el s o f ven la f a xi n e . As wi t h t h e e xa m p le wi t h m e to p r ol ol ab o v e , t h e e xt e n t o f i n hi bi t io n i n E M is m u c h g re a te r th an in PM.
4
E . Th e e ff ec t of po l y m o rp h is m o n d r ug de v e l op m e n t a n d d r ug s a fe t y . 1 . Mo s t d ru g c om pa n ie s d u r in g d r u g d e vel op m e n t d o n o t g en o t yp e t he i r s u b je c ts fo r p o l ym o r ph is m s . In s m a l l s t ud i es , o r i n s t ud ie s o f g e n et ic al l y h om og en o us s u bj ec ts , t h e p h a rm ac ok in e ti c s d es c ri b ed fo r th e d r u g m a y b e s ke we d t o wa r d t h e p o l ym o r ph is m s p re v a le n t i n t h e s ub je c t p op ul a ti on . Th i s c a n o c c u r wh e n , f o r e xa m p l e , A s i a ns a r e t h e p r i m a r y su bj e ct po p ul a tio n fo r ph a rm ac ok i ne t ic s t u d ie s f o r a d r ug m e ta b ol i z ed b y CYP 2 C 1 9 . C YP 2 C 1 9 po l ym o r ph is m s o c c u r i n 2 0% t o 25 % o f t h e As ia n p o pu la t io n . 2 . W he n p ol y m o rp h is m s a n d p h ar m a c og en om ic s a r e no t c o n s i d e re d d u ri ng d r ug d e ve l op m e n t, th e re s u l t c a n b e t he de v e l op m e n t o f s o m e d ru gs th a t h a v e s h o wn t o xi c i t y i n c e r t ai n p op u lat i o ns , a nd ha v e b ee n wi th d r a wn f r om t h e m a r k e t a s a r e s ul t . Th e s e d ru gs in c l ud e t ro g li ta z o n e ( R e z u li n ) a n d m i b ef r a di l. 3 . P ha r m a c o g en om ic te s t i n g d u ri ng d ru g d e ve lo pm e nt c a n i de n ti f y t he dos i ng va r i a bl es in c e r ta i n p ol y m o r ph ic po pu l at i on s a nd c o u l d l ea d t o a g re a te r s a fe t y i n t h e u se o f t he s e P.434 d r u gs . Cl i ni c a l t r ia ls in wa r f a ri n th e ra p y wi t h ge n et i c t es t in g f o r p o l ym o r ph is m s in *
*
C YP 2 C 9 s u c h as t h e C YP 2 C 9 2 an d C YP 2 C 9 3 . 4 . Th e i d en t if ic a ti o n o f po l y m o rp hi c f ac t o rs i n a s p e c i f ic d r u g u nd e r d e v elo p m e n t m a y li m i t th e c li ni c a l u s e o f th a t d r ug to c e r ta i n ph a r m a c o g en om ic po pu l ati o ns .
5 . Th e F D A m a y m ak e r ec om m e n da t io ns , or r eq u ir e la b el i ng fo r ge n et ic tes t in g o f p a t ie n ts to de t er m i n e p oly m o r p hi sm s t ha t a f fe c t dr u g m e ta b ol is m o r t r a ns po r t . a . Th e i n v a de r U G T1 A 1 m o le c u l ar as sa y f o r U G T 1 A 1 de t ec ts po l ym o r ph is m s t h at c a n r e du c e th e m e ta bo l is m o f i r in o te c a n , a c h em o t h e ra p y fo r c o lo r ec t al ca n c e r . b . Th e F D A h as c l ea r ed t h e Am pl ic C h ip C yt oc h rom e P4 5 0 G e n ot y p i ng Tes t fo r p o l ym o r ph is m s in th e C YP 4 5 0 i s o en zy m e s ys t em wh i c h is e xt e n s i ve l y i n v ol ve d in d r u g m et a bo li s m . c . Th e F D A ha s a d de d l ab e li n g t o v a ri ou s d r ug s to t es t f o r g e ne t ic p o l ym or p h is m s t h a t a f fe c t m e t ab ol is m , s u c h as a nt ie p il e pt ic d ru gs . d . Th e F D A h as al s o m an d a te d t h e t es t in g o f H IV s t ra i ns fo r g u id a nc e i n u s i n g Ma r a vi r o c .
VIII. CLINICAL SIGNIFICANCE AND MAN AGEMENT OF DRUG INTERACTIONS A. P o t e n t ia l d r ug in t e ra c t i o ns 1 . M u l t ip l e -d r u g th e r apy, i n c l u di ng bo t h p r e sc r ip t i o n a n d n on p r e sc r i p tio n ( O TC ) m e di ca t io n , c a n p o te n ti al l y l ea d t o d r u g in t e ra c tio n s . Th e m o r e d ru gs us ed b y a p a t ie n t, t he gr e at e r t h e po t e nt i al fo r a d r ug in t er ac t io n . 2 . M u l t ip l e p r e sc r i b e rs . P a t ie n ts c a n b e se e n b y d i ff e r en t p r es c ri b er s who p r e sc ri b e i nt e r ac ti n g m ed i c a t io n . 3 . P a ti e n t c om p l ia n ce . P a t i en ts ne e d t o f o ll o w pr o p e r i ns t ru c ti on s f o r t ak i n g m e di ca t io ns . Fo r e xa m p le , a p a ti en t m i gh t t ak e te t r ac y c li n e wi t h f oo d r a th e r th a n b e f o re m e al s . 4 . P at i en t ri s k fa c t o rs a . O l de r pa ti e n ts a r e a t m o r e r is k f o r d r ug in t er ac t io ns t ha n y ou n ge r p a tie n ts . O ld e r p a t ie n ts m ig h t h a v e c han g es in th e i r p h ys i ol og ic a l an d p a th o ph y s io lo g ic al c o n di t io n t h a t l ea d to al t er e d b od y c om po s i t io n , a l te r ed G I t r a ns i t t im e a nd d ru g a bs o r p ti o n , d e c re as e d p ro t ei n b i nd ing , al t e re d d is t r ib u ti on , an d de c re as e d d ru g c le a ra n c e . Th e s e c ha n ge s c an e xa c e r b a te or in c re as e th e r is k o f a d ru g i n te r ac t io n . b . P a ti en t s wi t h p re d is pos i ng il ln es s (d ia b et es , as t h m a , A I D S, an d a lc o ho l is m ) a nd p a t ie n ts wh o ar e c li n ic al ly h y p e r se ns i ti v e ( at o pi c ) a r e m o re at r isk f or d rug i n t er a ct i on s t ha n n o n - a to p ic pa t ie n ts . c . P ha rm ac o ge n et ic po l ym o r ph is m s i n e n z ym e f un c ti o n c a n o c c u r a t d i ff e re n t ra t es i n di f fe r en t r ac ia l p op u lat i o ns , a nd t o a l es s e r e xt e n t , i n d if f e re n t n a ti on s . Th e s e p h a rm ac o ge ne t ic di f fe r en c es c a n l ea d t o a wi d e v a r i a ti o n i n t h e p ot e nt i al f o r a d ru g i n t er a ct i on . B . C l in ic a l s i g ni f ic an c e 1 . N o t a ll dr u g i nt e r ac ti on s a r e c li n ic al l y s i gn i fi ca n t o r c a u s e an ad v e r se ef f e ct . In s om e c as es , i n te r ac t in g d r u gs c a n b e p r es c r i be d f o r pa t ie n ts a s l on g as t he p at i en t i s g i v e n p r op e r i ns t ru c ti on s a n d is c o m p li a nt . Fo r e xa m p l e , ci m e t id i ne an d a n a n t ac id m i gh t b e p r es c rib e d t o th e p a ti en t , b u t t he p at i en t s ho u ld be in s t ru c te d to n o t ta ke bo t h m e d ic at i ons a t t he s a m e ti m e . 2 . C om bi n at i on d ru g t h e ra p y c a n ha v e be ne f ic ia l e f f ec ts . D ru g c om b in a ti on s a r e u s ed to im p ro v e t he th e ra p e ut ic ob j ec ti v e o r t o de c r ea se ad ve r se e v en t s . S o m e e xa m p l es in c l u de :
a . Tr i m e t ho p r im a n d s u l fa m et h o xa z o l e —c om b in a ti o n a n ti bi o ti c f o r i nc r ea s e d ef f ic ac y i n ur i na r y t r ac t i n fe c t i ons . b . A m o xi c i ll i n a nd c l a v ula n a te po t as s i um —c o m b in a t io n c on t ai ni n g a be t a-l a c t am as e i n hi b it o r (c la v u la n at e ) to i n hi bi t th e b r ea k do wn o f a m o xi c i l li n . c . H yd r oc hl o ro t hi a z i de an d t ri am t e re ne — c o m b i nat i o n d iu r et ic a nd an ti h ype r t e ns i v e t o m i ni m i z e po t as s i um exc r e t i o n . d . R i to n a v ir is gi v e n a s a “ b oo s t e r ” wi t h t ip r an a v i r . C oa dm i ni s t r a ti on in c re a se d t i p ra n a v i r l e v el s 3 0 -f o ld b y i n hi bi t io n o f th e C YP 3A 4 e n z ym e r es po ns i bl e fo r m e ta b ol is m o f t i pr a na v i r . e . P r ob e ne c i d i nh i bi ts r en a l t u bu la r se c r e ti o n o f p e n i ci l li n , t he r e b y p r ol o ng i ng t he p l as m a ha l f -l if e o f th e a nt i b io t ic . P.435
3 . S om e d r ug - f oo d i n te r ac t io ns a re ut i li z e d f o r t he i r b e ne f ic ia l e f fe c ts . Phe n y t o in is g i ve n wi t h d ie t a r y fa ts to i nc r e as e i ts b i oa v a i la bi l it y t h r ou g h e nh a nc ed ab so r p ti o n . 4 . A no t he r t y pe o f d r ug -d r u g i n te r ac ti o n oc c ur s wh e n t h e c on ve r si on o f a p r o- d r ug to t h e a c ti v e m e ta b ol i te is in h ib i te d o r in d uc ed at t he m e t ab o li zi ng e n zy m e . a . Th e c o n v e rs io n o f i n ac t i v e c od ei n e t o i ts ac t i ve m e t ab o li t e m o r p hi ne c a n be r e d uc ed b y C YP 2 D 6 is oen z y m e in h ib i ti on c a us e d b y c i m e ti di n e o r c it a lo p ra m . Th e r e d uc ed m e t ab ol is m c an r e s ul t i n s ub t he r ap e u ti c le v e l s o f m o rp hi n e, an d th e r ap e ut ic f a i lu r e i n p ai n t r e at m e n t . b . Th e in du c ti on o f t he m e ta b ol is m o f C YP 2 D 6 by p h e n y t oi n o r St . J o hn ' s W or t c an i n c re as e m et a bo li s m of c o d ei n e t o m o rp hi n e, r ai s e m o r p hi ne le v e ls , an d m a y r es ul t i n e xc es s i v e s e d at i on and n a rc ot ic to xi c i t y. c . O t he r p r o - dr u g d ep e nd e n t u po n m et a bo l ic c onv e r s i on to ac ti ve m e t ab ol i t es i n cl ud e e n al a pr i l, v a la c yc l o v i r, le v o d op a , a nd c a ri s op r od o l. 5 . Th e de t er m i n at i on of th e c l in ic al s i gn i fi c a nc e of a po t en t ia l d r ug in t e ra c t i o n s h ou l d b e d oc um en t ed in t h e l it e r at u r e. Th e l ik e lih o o d o f a d r u g i nt e ra c ti on c a n b e c l as s i fi e d as f ol lo ws : a . E s ta b li s he d — a d r ug in t e r ac ti o n s u p po r t ed b y we l l - p r o ve n c l i ni c a l s tu d ie s b . P r o ba b l e— a d r u g i nt er a c ti o n t ha t i s v e r y l ik e l y b u t m ig h t n ot be p ro v e n c li n ic al l y c . S us p ec t ed — a d r u g i nt e r ac t io n t h at m i gh t oc c ur ; s o m e d at a m ig h t b e a va i la b le d . P o ss i bl e — a d r ug i n t er a c ti o n t ha t c o ul d o cc ur ; l i m i t ed da t a a re a v ai l ab le e . U n li k el y— a d r u g in t era c ti o n t ha t is d o ub t fu l ; no g oo d e v i d en c e of an alt e r e d c l in ic al e ff ec t i s a v a il a ble 5 . Th e c li n ic al r el e v an c e o f a p ot e nt i al dr u g i nt e ra c ti o n s h o ul d a ls o c on sid e r th e : a . S iz e o f th e d os e a n d th e du r a ti on o f t he r ap y b . O n s et ( r ap id , de la y e d) a n d s e ve r i t y ( m a j o r , m o d e ra t e , m i n or ) of t he pot e n ti a l i n t er a ct i on c . E xt r a p ol a t io n to r el a te d d ru gs 6 . P ol y m o rp hi s m in ph a rm ac o ge n et ic s m a y a f f ec t t h e t o xi c i t y a n d t h e c l in ic a l e f f ic ac y o f c er t ai n d r u gs i n c e r ta i n p op ul a ti o ns . Kn o wn i n hi bi t o rs m a y po s e s i gn i fi ca n t r is k s to E xt e ns i v e Me t a bo l i z e rs o f en zy m e s ys t em s . C . Ma n a g e m e n t o f d r ug in t e r ac ti o ns
1 . R e vie w t h e pa t ie n t p ro f i le , i nc l ud in g d r u g h is to r y a n d p at i en t ri s k fa c t or s . Th e p a t ie n t 's pa s t m e di c al h is t o r y c a n r e v e al a t en d an c y f o r n on -c o m p li a nc e, p a st t h e r ap eu t ic fa i lu r es , a nd e v i d en ce fo r ph a rm ac o ge n e ti c c o n si de r a ti on s . 2 . A v o id c o m p le x t h e r a pe u t ic d r u g r eg im e ns . 3 . D e te r m i ne t he pr o ba b il i t y of a c li ni ca l l y s ig n if ic a n t d r u g i nt e ra c ti on . G ene t ic t e s ti ng m a y b e us e fu l ( Ta b le 18 - 1 2 ). 4 . S ug g es t a di f fe r en t dru g if th e r e is a h ig h p r o ba b il i t y fo r a cl i ni c a ll y s ign i f ic an t d r u g i n te r ac ti o n. F or e xa m p le , a c e t am in o ph e n c an b e us e d f o r h ea d ac he in s te a d o f a s pi r in f or a p a ti en t on an t ic o ag ul a n t t he r ap y . 5 . C a re f ul l y in s t r uc t th e p a t ie n t as t o t he ti m i n g of t h e m e d ic at i on . F o r e xa m p le , a n a n t ac id an d H -2 bl oc k e r s h ou l d n ot be ta k en at the s a m e t im e. Th e p a ti e nt s ho u ld u s e m a xi m u m s pa c i n g be t we e n d ru gs . In s t r uc t the p at i en t a s t o t h e t im in g o f m e di ca t io ns to be t ak en “ o n an em pt y s to m a c h . ”
Table 18-12. FDA Encourages Genetic Testing for Patients Who Will Take Specific Drugs Imatinib
Atomosetine
Venlafaxine
Voriconazole
Tamoifen
Omeprazole
Fluoxetine
Celecoxib
Tramadol
Capecitabine
Beta-blockers
5FU
Rifampin
Dapsone
Irinotecan
Rasburicase
Valproic acid
primaquine
Adapted from http://www.fda.gov/cder/genomics/genomics_biomarkers_table.htm P.436
6 . Mo n i t o r t he pa t ie n t f o r a d v e rs e e v e n ts . Su l fo n am i de s , s u ch as s ul f is o xa z o l e an d s u lf am e th o xa z o l e , c a n pr o l on g p r o th r om bi n ti m e i n p a t ie n ts g i v e n wa r f a r in t he r a p y. Th e p r o th r om bi n ti m e s s h o ul d b e m o ni t or e d i n t he s e p at i en ts . 7 . R ee va l ua t e t h e p at i ent p r of i le an d d r ug hi s to r y wh e n c ha ng i ng d ru g t h er a p y . Fo r e xa m p l e , wh e n di s c on t inu i ng t he di u re t ic of a c o ng e st i v e h e a rt f ai lu r e p a tie n t o n d i go xi n , a r e v ie w o f t he p r o fi l e m a y r e v e al a p o tas s i um su p pl em en t th a t s h o ul d b e d i sc on t in u ed as we l l.
8 . E v a lu a te t he ri s k s o f d r u g t h er a p y wi t h re s p ec t t o p h ar m a c og en e ti c p oly m o r p hi c s t a tu s o f m et a bo li s m . Con s id e r r is k s id e nt i fi ed wi t h r ac ia l g r ou ps an d ge og r a ph ic d i st r ib u ti o n. Te s t f o r e n zy m e ph e no t y p e wh e n f eas i bl e . S e le ct d ru g a n d ad j us t d os e s a s i n di c a t ed , a n d a c c or di n g t o c li n ic al re s po ns e . C o n s i d e r g en o t y pi ng f or p o l ym o r ph is m s wh e n u ne xp e c t e d v ar i at i on s i n cl in i c a l r e s p on se .
IX. References. A vast number of drug interactions are reported in the literature. Some general references that are updated periodically include: A. D r u g I n te r ac t io n F ac ts . S t. Lo u is , MO : F a ct s an d C om pa r is o ns . B . H a ns t en P D , Ho r n J R ( e d s ) . D r ug In t e ra c t i on s & U p d at es . V an c o u ve r , W A:A p pl ie d Th e r a p eu t ic s , In c . C . Z uc c h e r o FJ , H og a n MJ , S c h u lt z C D , ed s . E v a l ua t io ns o f D r u g I n te r act i o ns . S t . L o ui s , MO : P r o f e s s io n al D r u g S ys te m s . D . P D R G u i de to D r ug Int e r ac t io ns , Si d e E f fe c ts , a n d I n di c a t io ns . Mo n t va le , N J : Me d i c a l Ec on om ic s D a t a. E . MI C R O ME D E X ® S y s t e m s , D R U G D E X® S y s t e m , D r ug E v al u a ti on s . E ng l e wo o d , C O : A l t - Me d D e x. F . N a tu r al Me d i c i n es C om p r eh en s i v e D a ta b as e. A va i l ab l e o nl in e a t h t t p :/ / ww w. n a t u r a ld a ta b as e .c om . G . P 4 5 0 D r u g I n te r ac ti o ns Ta b le . In di a na U ni ve r s it y S c h oo l o f Me d ic i ne . Div i s i on of C l i ni c al Ph a rm ac o lo g y . A v a i l ab l e o nl in e a t ht t p :// m ed ic i ne . iu pu i .e d u/ cl i nic a l/ . H . P h a rm ac og e ne t ic a n d P h a rm ac o ge no m i c s K nowl e d g e B as e. In d ia n a U ni v e r s it y S c h oo l o f Me d ic i ne . Di v is i on of P ha r m a c o l og y. Av a i l ab l e o nl i ne at h t t p :/ /m e di c i n e. i up ui . ed u/ c li n ic al / . I . C D C N a ti o na l O ff ic e o f P u b li c H e al t h G e n om ics . A v a i la b le on li n e a t h t t p :/ / ww w. c d c . g o v /g e nom ic s / J . N a ti on a l I ns t it u te s o f G e n e r al Me d i c a l Sc ie nc es . P ha rm ac o ge n et ic R ese a r ch N e t wo r k . Li nk in g ph en o ty p e s a n d g en o t y pe s . O n t h e i n te r n et at w w w. n i g m s . n ih . go v / I ni t iat i v e s / P G R N / K . F D A ge n et ic t es ti n g an d d ru g l ab e li ng . O n t h e i n t er n e t a t w w w. f d a . g o v / c d e r /g en om i c s _ bi om a rk e rs _ ta bl e .h tm 1 . Yu K S , Yi m D S, C ho J Y, e t a l . E f fe c t o f o m e p ra zo l e o n t h e p ha r m a co k in e t ic s o f m oc l ob em i de ac c o r di ng to t he ge n et ic po l ym o r p his m o f C YP 2 C 1 9. C li n Pha r m a c ol T h e r 2 0 01 ; 69 ( 4 ): 26 6 - 273 . 2 . Ya s ui - F u ru k o r i N , S ai to M, U n o T, e t a l . E f f ec ts o f f lu v o xa m i n e o n l an s o p r a z ol e p h a rm ac ok i ne ti c s in r el at i o n t o C YP 2 C 1 9 ge n ot yp e s . J C l in P ha r m a c o l 2 0 0 4; 4 4( 1 1 ): 1 22 3 -1 2 29 . 3 . H am el i n B A , Bo u a y ad A , Me t h o t J , et al . Si g ni f ic a nt in t e ra c t i on be t we e n t h e n o n pr es c ri p ti o n a nt i hi s t am i ne di ph e nh y d r am i ne an d th e C YP 2 D 6 s u bs t ra te m e to p r ol ol in he a lt h y m en wi t h hi g h o r l o w C YP 2 D 6 a ct i v i t y . Cl in P ha r m ac o l T he r 2 0 0 0; 6 7( 5 ) :4 6 6 -4 77 .
4 . Le ss a rd E , Ye s s in e MA , H a m e li n B A, e t a l. D iph e n h y dr a m i ne al t e rs th e d i sp os i ti on o f v e n la f a xi ne t h ro u gh in hi b it i on of CYP 2 D 6 a c ti v i t y i n h um ans . J C li n P s yc ho p ha r m a c o l 2 0 01 ; 21 ( 2 ) :1 7 5 -1 84 . P.437
STUDY QUESTIONS D i r e c t i on s : E a c h qu es t io n be lo w c o n ta i ns th r ee s u gg es t ed an s we r s , o f wh i c h on e o r m o r e i s c o r r ec t . Ch oos e th e a ns we r 1 . D r u g i n t e ra c t io n s m ay b e c l a s se d as I . p ha r m ac o ki n e ti c in t er a c t i on s I I . ph a r ma c o d yn a m i c i nt e r a c t io n s I I I . ph a r ma ce u t i ca l i n t er a c t i on s A I o n l y i s c o r re c t B I I I on l y i s c o r r ec t C I a nd I I a r e c o r r ec t D I I an d II I a re c o r re c t E I , II , an d II I ar e c o r re c t V i e w A n s we r 1 . T h e a n sw e r i s E [] . 2 . S i t ua t i o ns t h a t ca n p o t en t i al l y l e a d t o d r u g i nt e r ac t i o ns in c l ud e I . m ul t i p le - d r ug t he r a p y I I . mu l t i pl e p r e sc r i b e rs I I I . pa t ie n t c o m pl i an c e A I o n l y i s c o r re c t B I I I on l y i s c o r r ec t C I a nd I I a r e c o r r ec t D I I an d II I a re c o r re c t E I , II , an d II I ar e c o r re c t V i e w A n s we r 2 . T h e a n sw e r i s E [a n d] . D i r e c ti o ns : Th e q u es t io n b e lo w i s f o l lo we d b y fo u r s ug g es te d an s we r s . S el ec t th e on e le t te r e d a ns we r t ha t is t he be s t r e s po ns e t o th e q ue s ti on. 3 . W hi c h o f th e fo l l ow in g s ta t e me n ts r e ga r d i ng d r u g i n t e ra c t io n s i s tr u e ? ( A ) A l l d r ug i n te r ac t io ns c a n p ot e nt i al l y c a us e a n a d v e rs e re s p o ns e i n t he p a ti e nt . ( B ) Th e c l in ic a l s i g ni f ic an c e f o r e ac h p o te n ti al d ru g in t e ra c t i on m us t be c o n s i d er e d i n di vi d ua ll y . ( C ) A p re c i p it a nt d ru g tha t in h ib i ts t h e m et a bo li s m o f t he ob j ec t d r ug c a us es a m o re s e r io us dr u g i nt e r ac ti o n c om p a re d t o a p re c i p it a nt d r ug c a us in g a n i nc r e as e i n th e b i oa va i la b il it y o f th e o bje c t d r ug . ( D ) I f th e p a ti e nt is p r es c r i be d d r ug s t h at c a n p ote n t ia ll y i n te r ac t , t he p res c ri b er s h ou l d b e c a l le d , a nd a d i f fe r e nt p re c i pi t an t dr u g s ho u ld be s u gg es t ed . V i e w A n s we r 3 . T h e a n sw e r i s B [] .4 . A p a t ie n t o n i nd i n a vi r An t i - R e t r ovi r a l T h e r a p y ( AR T ) b e g i n s ta k i ng S t . J o hn ' s W o r t fo r d e p re s si o n a n d s u f fe r s u n e xp e c te d re d u ct i o n in C D 4 co u n t . T h is is mo s t l ik e l y d u e t o : ( A ) P h a rm ac od y n am ic int e r ac t io n p r od u ci ng ad d iti ve t o xi c i t y.
( B ) P h a rm ac od y n am ic int e r ac t io n p r od u c i ng an t ag o ni s ti c t he r a pe u ti c e f fec t ( C ) E n z y m e i n du c t i on b y S t . J o hn ' s W or t ca u s i ng i nc r e as ed m e ta b ol is m of A R T. ( D ) E n z y m e i n hi bi t io n b y S t . J o hn ' s W or t c a u s i ng t o xi c l e v el s o f A R T. V i e w A n s we r 4 . T h e a n sw e r i s C [] .5 . W h ic h o f th e f o ll ow i ng i s a va l id t h e r a pe u t ic us e o f a d ru g i n te r a c ti o n? ( A ) Th e us e o f p r o be n ec id wi t h pe n ic il li n G to pr ol o ng hi g h p en ic i ll in le v e ls t o t r ea t a s e xu a l l y t ra ns m i t t ed di s ea s e. ( B ) G i vi n g as p i ri n wi t h wa r f a ri n to en ha nc e an ti c o a g ul at i on . ( C ) I ns t r uc ti n g t h e p at ien t t o t ak e l e v o fl o xa c in wi t h m i lk or an t ac id t o d ec re a se G I i n t ol e ra nc e to or a l t he r ap y . ( D ) Th e t r ea tm e nt o f d epr e s s i on wi t h a c o m b in a tio n of c i t al op r am an d a n MA O I . V i e w A n s we r 5 . T h e a n sw e r i s A [] .6 . W h ic h o f th e f o ll ow i ng i s n o t a h a r m f ul f o od - d r u g i n te ra c t i on ? ( A ) R a w g r e en s a la d s f o r p a ti e nt s o n wa r f ar i n D VT p r o p h y l a xi s . ( B ) G r a p ef r ui t j u ic e a nd c y c lo s po r in to p re ve n t g ra f t v s. h os t r e je ct i on of a t r a ns p la n te d k id ne y . ( C ) O m e pr a z o le be a ds i n a p pl es a uc e f o r a p a ti e nt wi t h p r ob l em s s wa ll o wi ng c a ps ul es s e c o nd a r y t o G E R D . ( D ) Mi l k wi t h do xy c y c l i n e t o t re a t h . p y l o ri . V i e w A n s we r 6 . T h e a n sw e r i s C [] .P . 43 8
7 . W hi c h o f th e fo l l ow in g s ta t e me n ts r e ga r d i ng p h a rm a co g en e t ic p o l ym o r p h i s m s i s n o t tr u e ? ( A ) A n E M t a k i n g m e t op ro l ol f or h yp er t en si o n b egi n s t o t ak e O TC Ta g a m e t r e g ul a rl y f o r he a r tb u rn . H e is at inc r e as ed ri s k fo r b ra d y c a rd i a a nd ca r di ac a r rh yt hm i a s . ( B ) A n E M t a k i n g m e t ha do n e , b eg i ns t ak i ng Te g r et o l f o r n e u ro pa t hi c p ai n . H e is a t r i sk fo r t re a tm en t fa il u r e a n d p ai n c r is is . ( C ) A P M t a k in g a t o r v as ta t i n f o r h y p e rl ip i de m i a i s p l ac ed on k e to c on a z ol e f o r a f u n ga l i n fe c t i on . He is at i nc r e as ed ri sk fo r m ya l gi a an d rh ab d om y o l y s i s . ( D ) A P M t a k in g m e to p rol o l f o r t ac h y ca r d ia be gi ns t ak in g Be na d r y l f o r s lee p . He is n o t a t ri s k fo r s i gn i fi c a n t b r a d yc a r di a a nd ca r di ac b l oc k . V i e w A n s we r 7 . T h e a n sw e r i s C [] .8 . As i a ns a re a t g r ea t es t r is k of a ll r a c i a l g r o up s fo r g en e ti c p ol ym o r p h i s m i n w h ic h o ne o f t h e f o l low i n g C Y P 4 5 0 i s o en z ym e s ? ( A ) C YP 2 D 6 ( B ) C YP 3 A 4 ( C ) C YP 2 C 1 9 ( D ) C YP 1 A 2 V i e w A n s we r 8 . T h e a n sw e r i s A [] .9 . W h ic h o f th e f o ll ow i ng s ta t e me n ts r e g a r d in g ph a r ma c og en e t i cs is f al s e? ( A ) P o l ym o r ph is m s o c c u r o n l y i n t h e C YP 4 50 he pa t ic en zy m e s . ( B ) P o l ym o r ph is m s re s u lt i n m an y v a r ia t io ns o f an is o en zy m e . ( C ) Th e o v e r al l e xp r e s s io n of t he c om b in ed al l ele s i s t h e p he no t y p e o f the e n z ym e.
( D ) S N P s c an oc c u r as er r o r s o f t r a ns c r ip t io n , d ef e c ti v e s p li ci ng , s t a rt and s to p c o do n es , a nd am in o a c i d c ha n ge s . V i e w A n s we r 9 . T h e a n sw e r i s A [] .1 0 . W hi c h o f t h e f ol l ow i ng s ta t em e n ts r e g a r d in g al l el e po l ym o r p h i sm s i s fa l se ? ( A ) W ild t y pe al le l es e nc o d e f o r “n o rm al ” m e ta b oli s m . ( B ) U Ms h a v e t wo o r m o re am p li f ie d a ll e le s . ( C ) P Ms c a r r y on e d e fe c t i v e al l el e a nd on e a m p l if i e d a ll el e . ( D ) E Ms wi t h h e t er o z y g ou s a l le le s a n d h a ve sl o we r m e t ab o li s m t h an m e t ab o li ze r s wi t h h om o z y g o us al le l es . V i e w A n s we r 1 0 . T he a nsw e r i s C [] .P . 43 9
ANSWERS AND EXPLANATIONS 1 . T he an sw e r is E [ I . B ]. Mo s t d r u g i nt e r ac ti o ns i n v i v o a r e c au s e d b y p ha rm ac o ki ne t ic a n d p ha r m ac o d y na m i c i n t er a ct i on s . P ha r m a c e u ti c al in t er a c t io n s c a n o cc u r d ur i ng e xt e m po r an e ous c om p ou n di ng , pr e pa r a ti on o f i nt r a v e no us ( I V ) a dm i xt u r e s , a nd i m pr o pe r do s in g , as i n th e c as e o f g i v i ng as pi r i n wi t h ac i di c ju ic e s ( e .g . , or a ng e , c ra n be r r y ) . 2 . T he an sw e r is E [ I V .A . 1 , 2 an d 3 ] . P a t i en t p r o fi le s m ig h t n ot c on t ai n a ll th e dr u g h is t o r y i nf o rm a ti o n o f t he pa t i en t . P a t i en ts wh o t ak e n on p re s c r i pt i on ( O TC ) m ed ic at i o ns , g o t o s e ve ra l d i ff er e n t p h ys ic ia ns , or pu r c h as e d r u gs at va r io us ph a rm ac i es m a y ne gl e c t to in f o rm t he p h a rm ac is t o f al l t he m ed i c a t io ns be i ng ta k e n . 3 . T he an sw e r is B [ I V .B ] . N o t al l d r u g i nt e ra c ti on s a r e c li n ic al l y si gn i fi c a n t. S o m e po t en t ia l c li ni c al ly s i gn i fi ca n t d r ug in t er ac t io n s c a n be pr e v e nt e d b y p r o pe r p a ti e nt in s tr u c t i on a nd c om p li a nc e. Th e p o te n tia l fo r a c l i ni c a ll y s ig ni f ic a n t d r u g i nt e ra c ti on sh ou l d b e d o cu m e n te d b e fo r e c al lin g a p h y si ci an c o nc e rn i ng t h e p re s c r ib e d m e d ic ati o n . 4 . T he an sw e r is C [ I I . C. 1 .c ; Ta bl e 1 8 - 3] . S t . Jo h n 's W or t i n du c e s C YP 3 A 4 i s oe n z y m es i n cre a s i n g t he m e ta b ol is m of t h e i n di n a vi r a nd r es ul ti n g i n l o w i n di na v i r le v e ls an d t h e r ap eu t ic fa i lu r e o f A RT. S t . J o hn ' s W or t i ts el f ha s n o d i re c t e f fe ct on C D 4 . 5 . T he an sw e r is A [ I I . C. 2 ; Ta bl e 1 8 - 4] . P r o b en ec i d is gi v e n wi t h p e ni c i ll i n a nd s om e c e ph a l o s po r in s i n t r ea tm e nt o f s o m e s e xu a l l y t ra ns m i t t ed di s ea s es . Pr o be n ec id c om p et e s wi t h p en ic il l in s f o r r en a l e l im in a ti o n, p ro l on gi n g th e ha l f -l if e o f th e p e ni c i ll i n . A sp i ri n a n d wa r f a r in c a us e a d di t i ve a n ti c o a gu la t io n l e ad i ng to bl e ed i ng . L e vo f l o xa c in ta k e n wi t h m il k t o d e c re as e G I i r ri t a ti on c au s es c om p le xa t i o n o f t h e l e v o fl o xa c i n wi t h t he c a lc i um i n t h e m il k a nd r es ul ts in de c r ea s e d l e vo fl o xa c i n t o b e a vai la b le . C on co m m itt a n t t r e a tm en t o f de p re s s io n o f c i t al op r am an d MA O I r e s ul ts in S e ro t on in S y nd r o m e , a n a d di t i ve t o xi c i t y . 6 . T he an sw e r is C [ V . B] . O m e p ra z o l e b ea ds a re en t e ri c c oa t ed . G i vin g a n e n t e ri c co a te d b e ad wi t h a n a c i d ic f o o d su c h as ap p le s a uc e p r es e r v es th e e n t er ic c oa t i ng an d a ll o ws t he d rug t o p as s
i n t ac t t h ro u gh th e ac id ic s t om ac h e n v i ro nm e nt a nd i nt o t h e b as ic du od e num e n vi r on m e n t wh e re i t is a b s o r be d . Th e r es u lt is im p r o v ed d ru g a bs o rp t io n a n d d e c re as e d d ru g d e s t r uc t io n in th e a c i d ic s t om ac h i f th e b e ad s we r e n o t i n a n ac id ic f o o d. 7 . T he an sw e r is C [ V I I .C . 2 ] . Th e P M a l r e a d y ha s i nh ib i t ed m e ta b ol is m o f a t orv a s t a ti n . A d di ti o na l i n hi bi t i on wi l l n o t s ig n if ic a nt l y in c re as e t h e b lo o d l e v el s o f a t or v a s ta t in . Th e re f o re do s e - re l a te d t o xi c i t y is un l ik el y . Th e E M t a k i n g m et o pr o lo l a nd Ta g am e t ( c i m e t id i ne ) wi l l s ho w a g r e a te r i nc r e as e i n t he m e to p r ol ol le v e ls du e to t h e e xa g g e r a te d e f fe c t of t h e i n hi b it o r i n E M. Th e E M t a k in g m et h ad o ne an d Teg r e t ol (c a rb am a ze pi n e) wi l l h a ve i n c re as ed en z y m e in d uc ti o n a nd m e t ab o li sm o f the m e t ha d on e , l o we r i ng m e th a do n e l e ve ls an d p u tt i ng th e p at i e nt at r is k f o r t r ea tm e nt f a il u re o f h is p a in . Th e P M t a k i n g m e to p r ol ol an d Be n ad r y l ( d ip h en h yd r am in e ) wi l l s h o w i nh i bi ti o n o f t h e m et a b ol is m o f t h e m e to p ro l ol an d i nc r ea s ed le ve ls of m e t op r ol ol l ea di n g t o a hi gh e r ri s k o f b r a d yc a r di a a n d c a r d ia c b l oc k . 8 . T he an sw e r is A [ V I I .A . 3 ] . P o l ym o rp hi s m i s h i gh es t i n t h e C YP 2 D 6 i s o en z ym e i n As ia ns , re ac h in g in c id e nc e o f g r e a te r th an 50 % . 9 . T he an sw e r is A [ V I I .A . 2 ] . P o l ym o rp hi s m s c a n o c c ur i n a n y en z ym e s ys t em in c lu di n g m i xe d o xi d a s e a n d n a c et yl t ra n s f e ra s e s y s t em s a s we l l as th e C YP 4 50 h ep a ti c e n z ym e s ys t em . 1 0 . Th e a n sw e r i s C [ V I I. B . 3 .a ] . P o o r m e ta b ol i z e rs ( P M) c a r r y a n o rm al al le l e c om b in e d wi t h a d ef e c t i v e o r d el e te d a l le l e.
19 Nuclear Pharmacy S t e p h en C . D ra g o ta k es Jeffrey P. Norenberg
I. INTRODUCTION A. O ve r vi e w 1 . N u cl e a r p h a rm a c y i s d e f in ed as a “ p at i en t -o r ie n t ed s e r v ic e th a t e m bo d ie s t he s c ie n ti fi c k n o wl e d ge an d p r o fe s s io na l ju dg m e n t re qu i r ed to i m p ro ve an d p r om o te hea l t h t h ro u gh th e s a fe and e f fi ca c i ou s u s e of r a d io ac t i v e d r ug s f o r d iag n os is an d t h e ra p y. ”
1
2 . R a di o p ha r m ac e ut i ca ls a r e d ru g p r o du c t s t h at c o nt a in a b io lo g ic al m o ie t y an d a r ad i oa c t i v e e l em en t . Th e bi o lo g ic al c o ns t ru c t t a rg e ts a p h ys io l og ic al o r p at h op hy s i o lo gi c al p r oc es s o f i n te r e s t , a l lo wi n g th e l o ca li za t io n o f r ad ia t io n th a t , i n t u rn , m a y be im age d o r us e d t o e f fe ct t h e r ap y. Mo s t r ad io p ha rm ac e ut ic a ls a r e u s e d i n d i ag n os ti c m ed ic a l im a gin g ; h o we ve r , t he y a r e a ls o us e d i n t he r a pe u ti c a pp li c a t i on s, su c h as i n th e t r e a tm en t o f h y pe r t h y r oid i s m , t h y r oi d c a nc er , po ly c y t h e m i a v e ra , a n d i n th e a l le vi a ti o n o f b on e p a in . 3 . N u cl e a r p h a rm a c y p r a c t i ce en t ai ls th e : a . P r oc u re m e n t o f r a di o ph a r m a ce u ti ca ls b . C om p ou n di ng o f r ad i op h a rm ac e ut ic al s c . P er f o rm an c e o f r ou t ine q ua li t y co n t ro l p r oc e dur e s d . D is p en s i ng o f r a di op ha r m ac eu t ic al s e . D is t ri b ut i on of r ad i op ha r m ac eu t ic al s f . I m p le m e n ta t io n o f ba s ic r ad i at i on pr o te c ti on p ro c ed u re s a n d p ra c ti c e s g . C o ns ul t at i on wi t h a n d/o r e du ca t io n o f t h e n uc lea r m e d ic in e c om m u ni t y, p a t ie n ts , p ha r m a c i s ts , o th e r he al t h p r of es s i o na ls , a n d t he ge n e ra l p ub l ic r e g a rd i ng ( 1 ) P h ys i c a l a nd c h em ic a l pr o pe r t ie s o f r a di o ph ar m ac e u t ic a ls ( 2 ) P ha r m a c o k i n et ic s a nd b io di s t ri bu t io n o f ra d iop h a rm ac e ut ic al s ( 3 ) D r ug in t e ra c t i on s a nd o t he r fa c to r s t ha t a l te r p a t te r ns of di s t ri bu t io n h . Mo n i t o ri n g o f p at i en t o u tc om e s i . R es e a rc h a nd de v e l opm e nt o f r ad i op h ar m ac eu ti c al s B . P r o p e r t ie s o f r ad i o ph a r m ac e u ti c al s 1 . P ha r m ac o l og i ca l ef f ec t s . Ty p ic a ll y, r ad i op ha rm ac e ut ic a ls l ac k p h a rm ac ol o gi c a l e f fe c ts b e c a us e th e m as s qu a nt it i es r an g e f r om p ic o g ra m ( p g ) to na no g r am (n g ) pe r k i lo g r am (k g ) o f a dm in i s t e r ed do se . 2 . R o u te o f a dm i n is t r a tio n . Mo s t ra d io p ha rm a c eu t ic a ls a r e p r ep a r ed as s t e ri le , p y r og en - f r ee in t ra v e n o us (I V ) s o lu t io ns or s us pe ns i on s t o b e a d m i ni s te r ed di r ec t l y to th e pa t ie n t. O t he r r ou t es o f ad m i n is t ra t io n i nc lu d e i n t ra d e rm al , o r a l, in t e rs tit i a l, an d i n ha la t io n (e . g. , r a di o ac t i v e g as es , a e r os ol s ). 3 . R a di o n uc l id e s
a . Th e ra d io ac t i v e c om po n e nt of a r a di o ph a rm ace u t ic al is re f e rr e d t o a s a r a d io n uc li de . N uc li d es a re i de n ti f ie d a s a to m s havi n g a s p e c i fi c n um b er of p r o t on s a nd ne u t ro ns in t h e n uc l eu s . A nu c l id e i s t y p i c a ll y i de n ti f ie d b y t he c h em ic al s y m b ol of th e el e m e n t wi t h a m as s nu m b e r s h o wn as a s u pe r s c r ip t , i nd ic a ti ng t he s u m o f p r o to ns an d n eu t r o ns (e . g. , i o di d e- 1 31 is i n di ca t ed as
131
I ) . W hen t h e a t om is ra di o ac ti ve , it i s ca ll e d a ra d io n uc li de.
b . R a di on uc l id es un d e rgo s p o nt a ne o us ra d io ac t iv e d ec a y ac c o m p a ni e d by t h e re l ea s e of en e r g y . Th e di s t r i bu ti o n , m e t ab o lis m , a nd el im in a ti o n o f t he r a d io p ha r m a c e u ti c a l c an P.441 b e de t e rm in ed b y m e as ur i n g t hi s e n er g y wi t h im ag i ng eq u ip m e n t . Th e r e ar e f o u r m aj o r t y p es o f r ad i at i o n em i tt e d t h ro u gh th is p r oc es s : α - , β - , γ - , a nd xr a y s . α - a n d β - r a di a ti on s a r e n o t us e f ul i n m ed ic al im a gi ng an d a r e , t h e r ef o re , un de s i r a bl e i n d i ag no s ti c a pp li c at i on s . Mo s t d i ag n os ti c r a d io p ha r m a c e u ti c a ls us e p en e t ra t in g γ - ra d ia t io n, wh i c h c an be ea s i l y d e t ec te d a n d c on v e r t ed in t o i m a g in g d a ta . 4 . H a l f- l i ve s o f r ad i o pha r m a ce u t ic a ls a . Th e ph ys i c a l h al f - l if e o f a r ad i op h ar m a c eu ti c al is th e a m ou n t o f t im e n e ce ss a r y fo r th e ra di o ac t i v e a t om s t o d ec a y to o n e h al f th e i r o ri g in al n u m b e r . E ac h ra di o nu c l id e is c ha r ac t e ri z e d b y a s p e c if ic ha l f -l i fe th a t i s a p h ys ic al c o ns t an t . b . Th e bi o l og i ca l ha l f - lif e o f a ra d io ph a rm ac e ut ic a l is t he am ou n t o f t im e r e q ui r e d f o r t he bo d y t o m e ta b ol i ze o r el im in a te o n e h al f of t he a d m i ni s te r ed do s e o f a ny s u bs t an c e th r o ug h b i olo g ic al p ro c e s s es . c . Th e e f f ec t i ve ha l f - li fe o f a ra d io p ha rm a c e u ti c a l is t h e t im e re qu i r ed for a n ad m i ni s te r ed r ad i op ha r m ac eu t ic al do s e to be r e d u c ed b y on e h a lf as a r e s ul t o f b o th ph y s ic a l de c a y a n d b io l og ic al m e ch a n i s m s . I t is d ef in e d a s : Te = Tp + (Tb/Tp) × Tb wh e r e T e i s t h e e f fe c t i v e h a lf - li f e , T p i s t he ph ys ic a l h al f -l i fe , an d T b i s t he b i ol o gi c a l h a lf - li f e. C . O p t i ma l r ad i o ph a r ma c e u ti c al s 1 . O p t im a l d i ag n os t i c ra d i o ph a r ma c eu t i ca l s a . S ho u ld c o nt a in a r a dio n uc li d e wi t h a h a lf - li f e s h o rt en o ug h t o m in im i ze r a d ia t io n e xp o s u r e t o t he p at i en t , y et lo n g e no ugh t o a ll o w f o r c ol l ec ti o n o f i m ag in g i n fo r m a t io n . Th e o p ti m a l re la t io ns h ip is a p h y s i c a l h a lf - li f e e q ua l to a p p ro xi m a t el y 6 7% o f t he b io lo g ic al p ro c e ss o f in t e r es t. b . S ho u ld in c o r po r a te a γ - em i tt i ng r ad io n uc li d e, wh i c h de c a y s wi t h th e e m is s i on of a p ho t on e ne r g y b et we e n 10 0 a n d 30 0 k i l o el ec t r on v o l ts (k eV ) , wh i c h is e f f ic ie n tl y d et ec t e d wi t h c u rr e nt in s tr u m en t a ti o n c . S ho ul d c on t ai n a bi o log i c a l c om po n en t t h at al lo ws r a p id lo c a li z a t io n i n t h e o r g an s y s t em o f i n te re s t a nd be m e t ab ol i z e d o r e xc r e t ed f ro m t h e n o n ta r ge t ti s s ue s t o m a xi m i z e c o n t ra s t a nd m i ni m i z e t he r ad i at i on ab so r bed d o se to no n ta r g et o rg a ns d . S ho u ld be r ea di l y a v ail a bl e a n d c os t -e f fe c ti ve
2 . O p t im a l t h e r ap e u ti c r a d i o ph a r ma c eu t i ca l s, in a dd i ti on t o I . C .1 . c a nd d , s h ou l d c o n ta i n α - o r β- em i tt i ng r ad io n uc li d es t h at c an ef f ec ti v e l y d el i ve r r a d ia t io n i n q u an t it i es s uf f i c i en t to c a us e t h e d es ir e d th e ra p eu t ic e f f ec t . S u c h e f fe c t s i nc lu d e a pop t os is , D N A d am a ge , or i r r e pa r ab l e ce l l d am ag e l e ad i ng to t is s u e e f fe c t s .
II. SODIUM PERTECHNETATE
99M
TC GENERATOR
A. O ve r vi e w 1.
99m
Tc , t h e m os t c om m o n l y us ed r ad io n uc li d e in d ia gn o s t ic im ag i ng to da y ,
i s p r o du c e d b y t he r ad i oa c ti v e de c a y o f m ol yb d en u m -9 9 ( a.
99m
99
Mo ) .
Tc i s o b ta i ne d v ia c om m e r c i a ll y s u p pl ie d , st e r il e , p yr o ge n - f re e
g e n er a to r s ys t em s . A g en e r a to r i s a de vi ce us ed t o se pa r a te a s ho r t h al f l i f e r ad i on uc l id e f r om th e l o ng e r -l i v ed p ar e nt nu c l id e wh i l e r e ta in i ng th e p a r en t to p ro du c e m o r e o f t he da ug h te r nu c l i de . I n t hi s wa y , s h o rt ha l f -l ife n u cl id e s c a n b e m ad e a v a i la b le c o nt i nu o us l y a t gr e a t d is t an c e s f r om th e s i te s o f g e ne r a to r p r o duc t io n . b . A ll of t he c om m er c i a lly s u pp l ie d g e ne r at o rs cur r e n tl y u s e f r o m t he f is s i on of u ra niu m - 23 5 (
235
U ). Th i s
99
99
Mo o b t ai n ed
Mo p a r en t i s a bs o rb e d o n an 99m
a l um in a i o n ( A l 2 O 3 ) e xc ha n g e c o l um n, an d t h e
Tc f o r m ed f ro m i ts de cay
-
i s e xc h a n ge d fo r th e c hlo r i de io n ( Cl ) a v a il a bl e in t he 0 .9 % s al in e e l ua t e s o lu t io n wa s h e d t h ro u gh t h e c ol um n , as t he s o diu m p e r te ch n et a te + 99m
Na (
-
Tc O 4 ) f o r m . + 99m
2 . Th e c h em ic al v a le nc e s t a te of N a (
-
Tc O 4 ) as i t i s e lu t ed f r om t h e
c o lu m n is +7 . Ty p ic a ll y , it m us t b e r e du c e d t o a lowe r va l e n ce s t a te be f o re i t is a b le to r ea c t wi t h o th e r c om p ou n ds . A l th o ugh m a n y p ro ce s s es c a n 99m
r e d uc e u s ed in
Tc , t h e s t an n ou s i o n ( S n
99m
++
) re d uc ti o n m e th o d is m o s t c o m m on ly
Tc r a d io p ha rm ac e ut ic a l k i t s.
P.442
a . A ra d io ph a rm ac e ut ic a l k i t c o ns is t s o f s te r il e , pyr o g e n -f r e e v i a ls c o nt a in in g a r ed uc i ng age n t , t h e b io lo g ic al c om po u n d t o b e l ab e le d , a nd a n y a dd i ti o na l a dj u ta n ts n e c e s s a r y to ef f ec t t h e re a c t i on o r t o s ta bi l i z e t he l a be l ed p ro du c t. b . I n m o s t c a s e s , t he y a re l y o ph il i z e d u nd e r i ne r t a t m o s p h e re s, s o as to m i ni m i ze o xi d a ti on o f t he r e d uc in g a ge n t ( e . g. , Sn B . S o d iu m pe r t ec h n et a te Na
+99m
99m
++
).
T c U S P ( U ni t ed S tat e s Ph a r m ac op e ia ;
-
T c O 4 ) as el u te d fr o m a ge n er a t or in 0 .9 % s o di um c h lo r id e ( Na C l )
s o lu t io n i s a n is o to n ic , s t e r il e , n on p yr o ge n ic , d iag n os t ic r a d io p ha r m a c e u ti c a l s ui ta b le f o r I V i n je c t i on , o r al a dm i ni s t r a ti o n, an d d i rec t i n st i ll a ti on . 1 . P h ys i c a l p r o p e r ti e s a . Th e s o lu ti o n s ho ul d be c l e a r, c o lo r le s s , a n d f re e of v i s i bl e fo r ei g n m a te r i al . Th e p H i s 4 . 5 -7. 0 .
b. Na
+99m
-
Tc O 4 i s i ts el f a r a di o ph a rm ac e ut ic a l, o r i t m a y b e us e d t o
r a d io l ab el al l o t he r
99m
Tc r a di o ph a rm ac e ut ic a ls .
2 . B i od i s t r ib u t io n a.
99m
-
Tc O 4 i s h an dl e d by t h e bo d y in a f as hi o n s i m il a r t o
131
I— t ha t is , i t is
t a ke n u p a n d r e le as e d bu t no t or g an i fi e d b y th e th y r o i d . b . A f te r I V a dm in is t r at i on ,
99m
-
Tc O 4 c on c e n t ra t es i n t h e c ho r oi d p l e xu s ,
t h yr o i d g la nd , s a li v a r y gla n d , a nd s t om ac h , b ut r em a in s i n t he c i rc u la t io n l o ng en o ug h fo r fi rs t - pa s s bl o od - po o l s tu di es , o rga n pe r f us io n , a nd m a jo r ve s s el s t ud i es . c . It is pr im a r il y e xc r e t ed b y t h e ki d ne ys u n c h an ge d an d i s e xp r e s s e d i n th e u r i ne 15 - 5 0% b y 2 4 h r . d . B e t we e n 1 0 a nd 55 % o f t he ad m i ni s te r ed do se i s e li m i n at e d v i a f e ce s wi t h i n 3 d a y s . 3 . D ec a y d a t a a.
99m
Tc d e c a y s b y i s o m e r i c t r an si t io n wi t h a p h ys ic a l h al f -l i fe o f 6 h r .
b . Th e p ri m a r y r ad i at i on e m is s i on s a r e 1 40 k e V γ e n e rg y p ho t on s . 4. Purity a . U S P ra d io n uc li di c p u rit y r e q ui r es a µCi/mCi of
99m
99
Mo b r ea k th r o ug h l im i t o f < 0. 1 5
Tc a t t h e ti m e o f p a ti en t ad m i ni s tr at i o n.
b . U S P c h em ic al pu r i t y re q ui r es an al um i nu m i on ( A l
+3
) t es t r es ul t o f l es s
t h a n 1 0 µ g /m L . 5 . Ad m i n is t r a t io n an d do s a ge . Al l o f th e f o ll o win g im ag in g s t ud i es a r e a d m i ni s te r ed v i a I V , e xc e p t n as o la c ri m a l i m a gi n g, wh i c h i s i ns ti l le d i nt o th e l a c ri m a l c an al . a . B r ai n i m a gi n g: 10 - 2 0 m C i (3 7 0 -7 40 m e ga b ec qu e r el s ; MB q ) b . Th yr o i d i m a gi n g: 1 -1 0 m C i ( 3 7 -3 7 0 MB q ) c . S al i va r y g l an d i m a gi ng : 1 -5 m C i (3 7 - 18 5 MB q ) d . P la ce n ta lo c a l i z at i on : 1 - 3 m C i (3 7 -1 1 1 MB q ) e . B lo o d- p oo l i m a g in g : 10 - 3 0 m C i ( 3 70 - 74 0 MB q ) f . U r i na r y b la dd e r i m a g ing : 0 .5 - 1 m C i ( 18 - 3 7 MB q ) g . N as o la c ri m a l im a gi n g: < 10 0 µ C i ( < 3 . 7 MB q )
III. RADIOPHARMACEUTICALS FOR CARDIOVASCULAR IMAGING A. P e r f u s i o n a g en t s f o r c a r d ia c i m ag i n g. R ad i op h a rm ac e ut ic al s a r e u s ef u l i n c a r d ia c im a gi ng a s a ge n ts th a t p r o vid e in f o rm a ti o n o n t he r eg io na l m yo c ar d ia l b lo o d p e rf us io n . Th e y t y pi c a l l y a r e a dm i ni s t e r ed as p a r t o f a c a r di ac s t r es s t es t s o as t o pr o v i de in f o rm at i on at p ea k c a rd ia c o u tp u t. The p a t ie n t wi l l ru n on a t r ead m il l t o “s t re s s ” th e h ea rt . I V c o ro n ar y ve s s e l d i la t in g a g en ts a re us ed i n pl ac e o f th e t r ea dm i ll wh e n t h e p a ti en t i s n o t p h ys ic al l y ab l e t o e xe r c is e . E xa m pl es of t he s e ph a r m a co lo g ic al ag e nt s ar e d i p yr id am o le , a d en os i ne, a nd do b ut am i ne . Th e pa t i en t wi l l a ls o b e im a ged wh e n t h e h ea r t i s a t “r e s t . ”
1 . T ha l lo u s c h lo r i d e t ha l l i um - 20 1 (
201
Tl ) is a r ad i on u c l id e t h at is p ro du c e d
b y a c yc l ot r o n. I t is us ed f o r m y o ca r di a l p e rf us i on i m a g in g i n t h e d ia gn os is o f co r on a r y a rt e r y di s e as e a nd lo ca li z a t io n of m y oc a r di al in f a rc ti o n. P.443
a . B i od i s t r ib u t io n (1)
201
Tl is a m on o v al e n t c a ti on wi t h di s t r ib u ti o n a n al o go us t o a p o ta s s ium +
+
+
i o n ( K ) ; m y o c a r d ia l u p tak e i s b y ac t i ve t r an s po r t v i a t he N a / K -a d en os i ne t r i ph o sp ha t as e (A TP a s e ) p um p . ( 2 ) B io d is t ri bu t io n i s g ene r a ll y p r op o r ti on a l t o o r ga n bl oo d fl o w a t th e t im e o f in j ec ti o n, wi t h bl oo d c l e a ra nc e b y m y oc a r di um , k id n e ys , th y r o i d, li v e r , a n d s to m a c h. Th e re m a in d e r i s d is t ri bu t ed un i fo rm l y t hr o ug h ou t t h e r es t o f the body. (3)
201
Tl is e xc r e t ed s l o wl y a n d e qu a ll y in b ot h u r in e an d f ec e s .
b . D e ca y d a t a ( 1 ) P h ys i c a l h a l f -l i f e : 73 h r ( 2 ) E f f ec t i ve ha l f - li f e : 2. 4 da y s ( 3 ) B i o lo g ic a l h a l f- l i fe : 1 1 da y s ( 4 ) P r i ma r y r a d i a t i o n em i s si o ns : 6 8 - 8 0 k e V x- r a ys an d 16 7 a nd 13 5 k eV γ e n e rg y p ho t o ns . c . Ad m i n is t r a t io n a n d do s a ge . I V, 2 -4 m C i (7 4 - 14 8 MB q ) 2.
99m
Tc se s t am i bi (
99m
T c - M I B I) e xi s ts as a s te r ile , p y r og e n -f r ee I V
i n je c ti on a ft e r k it r ec on s ti t u ti o n wi t h N a
+99m
-
Tc O 4 a n d h e at i ng at 10 0 ° C f o r
1 0 m i n. a . B i od i s t r ib u t io n (1)
99m
Tc s e s t am i bi i s a c a ti o n co m p l e x t h a t h as b e e n f ou n d t o a c c um ul a te
i n v i ab le m y oc a rd iu m b y p a s s i v e d if f us io n i n to t he m y oc y t e wi t h s ub se q ue n t b i nd i ng to t he m i to c h o ndr i a wi t hi n th e c el l . ( 2 ) Th e m a jo r p a th wa y f o r c l e ar a nc e o f
99m
Tc s e s t am ib i i s t h e h ep a to bi l ia r y
s ys t em . Th is a g en t i s e x c r e te d wi t ho u t a n y e v id en c e o f m et a bo li s m v i a u r i ne an d fe c e s . b . D e ca y d a t a ( 1 ) E f f ec t i ve ha l f - li f e : 3 h r (m y o c a r d iu m ) ( 2 ) B i o lo g ic a l h a l f- l i fe : 6 h r (m yoc a r di um ) c . Ad m i n is t r a t io n a n d do s a ge . I V, 10 - 3 0 m Ci ( 37 0 - 11 1 0 MB q ) 3.
99m
Tc t e t ro f o sm i n e xi s t s as a s te r il e a n d p yr og e n - fr e e I V i n je c ti on a ft er
k i t r ec o ns ti t u ti on wi t h s od i um pe r t ec hn e ta t e a . D es c r i p ti o n .
99m
99m
T c in j ec ti o n U S P .
Tc t e tr o f os m i n i s a l i po p hi li c , c a ti o ni c
99m
Tc c o m p l e x t h a t
h a s b ee n f o un d to ac c um u la t e i n vi a bl e m yoc a r di u m . b . B i o di s t r ib u t i on . Th e m a jo r pa t h wa ys fo r c l ea ra n c e of
99m
Tc t e t r o fo s m in
a r e th e re na l s y s te m a n d t h e h ep a to b il ia r y s y s tem wi t h 26 % o f t h e a d m i ni s te r ed do s e e xc r et e d i n t h e f ec es an d 4 0 % e xc r e t e d i n t h e u ri n e wi t h i n 48 h r. c . P h ys i c a l p r o pe r t i es . S e e II . A ; I I . B .3 .
d . Ad m i n i st r a t i on an d do s a ge . I V d ur i ng e xe r c is e , 5 -8 m C i (1 8 5 -2 96 MB q ) ; d u r in g re s t , 15 - 24 m Ci (5 5 5 -1 4 43 MB q ) 4 . R u bi d i um - 82 (
82
Rb ) ch l o r i de is a g en e ra t o r -p ro d uc e d
r a d io p ha r m a c e u ti c a l o b ta i ne d b y t h e d ec a y of it s a c c el e r at o r -p r o du ce d p a r en t s t r on t iu m (
82
S r; ha l f -l i fe is 25 da y s ) a ds o rb e d o n a s t an n ou s o xi d e
c o lu m n . a . B i od i s t r ib u t io n ( 1 ) W hen e lu t ed wi t h 0. 9% N a C l a t a r at e o f 5 0 m L / m i n , a s o lu ti o n o f t h e s h o rt - li v e d d a ug h te r
82
R b is el u te d fr om t he ge ner a t o r f o r d i re c t I V
a d m i ni s t ra ti o n . ( 2 ) A f te r I V a dm in is t r at ion ,
82
Rb r ap id l y c l ea r s f r om t he bl oo d a n d is +
e xt r a c t e d b y t he m y oc a rd i al t is s u e i n a m an n e r an a l o g ou s t o K . ( 3 ) Myo c a r d ia l a c ti v i t y is v i s ua l i z ed wi t h in 1 m i n a f t e r a dm in is t r at i on . b . D e ca y d a t a ( 1 ) P h ys i c a l h a l f -l i f e : 75 s e c . ( 2 ) Th e de c a y m o d e is by p o s i t r on em is s i on . ( 3 ) Th e p r im a r y r a d i a t i o n e mi s s io n s a r e a nn ih i la t i on 51 1 k e V γ e ne r g y p h o to ns . ( 4 ) P a re n t
82
S r a nd c o n ta m in a nt
85
S r b re ak t h ro ug h m us t be c l os el y
m o ni t o re d . A c c ep t ab l e l ev e l s o f s t r on t iu m b r ea k t hr o u gh a re < 0 . 02 µ C i 82
S r /m C i
82
R b a n d < 0. 2 µ C i
85
82
S r /m C i
R b.
c . Ad m i n is t r a t io n a n d do s a ge . I V, 30 - 6 0 m Ci ( 11 1 0 -2 2 20 MB q ) 5 . Am m o n ia
13
N e xi s t s un d e r a U S P m on o gr a ph a s a n o n s i te c y c lo t r on
p r o du c e d , s te r il e I V s o l ut i o n o f
13
N H 3 , us e fu l a s a m yoc a rd i al pe r f us io n
a g e nt . P.444
a . D ec a y d a t a ( 1 ) P h ys i c a l h a l f -l i f e : 10 m i n . ( 2 ) D e ca y m o d e : p o s i t ron em is s i o n r es u lt i ng in th e p ro du c ti on o f t wo 5 11 k e V a n ni hi l at i on γ ph o ton s . b . B i o di s t r ib u t i on ( 1 ) A f te r I V i nj ec t io n , i t c i r c ul at e s as vi a d if f us io n a s
13
13
N H 3 bu t loc a li z e s i nt o th e m yoc yt es
N H 3 . I t i s t h en m e ta b ol i z ed t o gl u t am in e a nd r e ta in e d b y
t h e m yo c y te s . ( 2 ) A f te r I V i nj ec t io n , i t is c l ea r e d r a pi dl y f r om the b lo od ; < 2 % o f t h e a d m i ni s te r ed do s e r em ain s a f t er 5 m in po s t i nj ec t io n . ( 3 ) I t is p re d om in an t l y m e t a bo li ze d to
13
N - g lu t am in e b y d i f fe r en t o r g an s o f
the body. ( 4 ) B e t we en 1 0% an d 2 0% is e xc r e t ed vi a t he r ena l s y s t em . c . Ad m i n is t r a t io n a n d do s a ge . I V, 15 - 2 0 m Ci ( 55 5 - 74 0 MB q ) B . Ag e n t s us e d t o me as u r e c a r d ia c fu n c ti o n . R e g i on al m y oc a rd ia l wa l l m o ti o n
1.
99m
Tc - l ab e le d r ed b loo d ce l l s (
99m
Tc - R B C s ) ar e us e d f o r b lo od - p oo l
i m ag in g , i nc lu d in g c a rd iac f ir s t- p as s a nd ga t ed equ i li b ri u m im a gi ng ( r e g io n al c a rd i ac wa l l m o t i on ) . a . P h ys i c a l p r o p e r ti e s. A u t o lo go us R B C s c an be l a be le d b y a nu m b e r o f t e ch n iq u es t h at us e t h e S n
++
r a di o la be l in g m et h od wi t h t hr e e g en e r al s t eps .
( 1 ) Th e c e ll s a re t r ea t ed wi t h S n
++
t o p r o v id e a n in t r ac e ll ul a r s ou r c e of t he
r e d uc in g a g en t . Th is s t ep c a n b e c a r ri e d o ut wi t h e i th e r i n vi vo o r i n v it r o l a be l in g p r oc ed u r es . ( 2 ) Th e ne xt s t e p is th e re m o v al of e xc e s s Sn
++
e it h e r b y c he m i ca l o xi d a t ion
( i n vi t ro m e th o d) o r b y b io l og ic a l cl e a ra nc e (i n vi vo m e t ho d ) . ( 3 ) A ll of t he m e th o ds i nc l ud e t h e a dd i ti o n o f so di u m p e rt ec h ne t at e (
99m
-
Tc O 4 ) . Th is
99m
Tc , w h i le in t he +7 v a le nc e s ta t e , c ro ss es t he i n ta c t
e r y t h r oc y t e m em b ra n e an d bi nd s t o i n t ra c e l lu la r h e m o g lo bi n ( Hb ) af t e r b e in g re d uc ed b y th e a v a i la b le in t r ac el lu l ar S n
++
.
b . B i o di s t r ib u t i on . Af t e r I V in j ec ti o n, t he la be l ing R B C s d is t r ib u te wi t h in t h e b l oo d p o ol an d a r e w e l l m ai n ta in e d i n t he bl oo d po ol wi t h a b i e xp o n e n t ia l wh ol e b o d y c l ea r an ce o f 2 .5 - 2 .7 h r an d 75 - 17 6 h r ( e. g . , m a j or r o u t e o f e xc r e t io n i s v ia t h e u r i ne ) . c . Ad m i n is t r a t io n a n d do s a ge . I V, 10 - 2 0 m Ci ( 37 0 - 74 0 MB q ) 2 . P yr o p h o s p ha t e in j ect i o n U S P a n d p h os p ha te s U S P . Th e m a jo r us e fo r t h es e a g en t s in n uc le a r m e di c i n e is as c o n v en ien t a n d s t ab le s o u rc es of Sn
++
f o r t h e l ab el i ng of au t o lo go u s R B C s . I n t hi s a p pl i c a ti o n, t he k i ts ar e
r e c on s t i tu t ed wi t h no rm al s a l in e a nd in j ec te d v ia I V . 3.
99m
Tc al b u mi n (
99m
T c- H S A) i n j e c t i on
a . B i od i s t r ib u t io n (1)
99m
Tc a l b um in di s t r ibu t es in i ti a ll y wi t h i n t he in t r a va s cu l a r s p ac e a n d
l e a ves th is s p ac e a t a r at e s l o w e n ou gh t o p er m i t i m a g in g o f t h e b lo o d p oo l . ( 2 ) P la s m a c le a ra nc e i s b i - e xp o n en t ia l : a fa s t com p on e nt c l ea r in g wi t h a h a l f- l if e o f 2 h r a n d a s low c o m p on en t c l ea r in g wit h a h al f - li f e o f 1 0 -1 6 h r . ( 3 ) Th e m a jo r ro u te o f eli m in a ti on is vi a t he u ri ne. b . Ad m i n i st r a t i on an d do s a ge . I V, 20 m Ci (7 4 0 MB q ) C . Ag e n t s f o r i m ag i n g m yo c a r d i a l in f a r c ti o n in c lu d e p y r op h os ph a te i n je c ti on U S P an d p ho s ph a t es U S P . 1 . M e c ha n is m o f l oc a li z a t i o n . Th e s k e l et a l l oc al iz i n g r ad io p ha r m a ce u ti c al p yr o p ho s ph a te ha s b ee n s ho wn t o ac cu m u la t e a ls o i n z on e s o f m y oc a rd i al i n f ar c ti o n. Th is lo c a l i z at io n is th ou g ht t o b e t he re s ul t o f bi nd i ng of t he p yr o p ho s ph a te to m ic r oc a l c i f ic at i on wi t h h y d r o xy a p a ti t e c r ys t al s f o un d i n i n f ar c te d t is s u e . 2 . B i od i s t r ib u t io n of la be l ed p y r op h os ph a te de pe n ds on th e a b il i t y o f p h os p ha t es to be c o m e inv o l v e d wi t h c a lc iu m i on (C a n e c ro t ic c a rd i ac t is s u e .
IV. SKELETAL IMAGING A. S k e l e t al - i ma g i ng age n t s
++
) d ep o si ti o n i n
1 . O ve r vi ew .
99m
Tc - l a b e le d bo n e a ge n ts a r e u se fu l in th e d e te c ti on o f b one
l e si on s t h at a re as s o c i a te d wi t h m e ta s t a ti c n eo p la s m s , m e t ab o li c d is o rd er s , a n d i n fe c t i on s o f t h e b one . Th e i m ag in g a d va nt a ge s o f
99m
Tc , c ou p le d wi t h
t h e s en s i t i v i t y o f bo ne ag e n t l oc al i z a ti on in P.445 s ke l et a l b on e h y d r o xy a p a t i te , a l lo ws f o r d e te c t i on o f b on e p a th o lo g y be f or e e vi d e nc e is s h o wn b y c on v e n t io n al x- r a ys . 2.
99m
Tc b on e a g en t s . Th e r e a r e m a n y d if f e re n t fo r m s of
99m
Tc b o n e
a g e nt s, wi t h m i no r di f fe re n c e s i n t he i r i n di v i du a l c h em ic al s t r uc t ur e . C u r r e n tl y us e d b on e -i m ag i ng ag e n ts a r e b as e d on e it h e r t he P — C — P d i ph o sp ho n at e s t r uc tu r e , i nc l ud in g
99m
m e d r o na t e d i so di u m a nd
99m
Tc
o xi d r o n a te , or t he in o rg an i c P — O — P ph os p ha t e st r u c t u r e, su c h as p yr o p ho s ph a te . Th es e bo n e a g en ts a re S
++
99m
Tc
re d uc t io n m e th od k i ts , wh i ch
e xi s t a s s te r il e , p y r o ge n -f r e e I V r ad io p ha r m a c e u tic a ls a f t er r ec on s ti t ut i on wi t h N a
+99m
-
Tc O 4 .
a . P h ys i c a l p r o p e r ti e s ( 1 ) A ll of t he
99m
Tc b o ne- i m ag in g a g en ts a re s u s c e pt i bl e t o ra d io lo g i c al
d e co m p os i ti o n wi t h r eo xi d a t io n o f th e
99m
Tc t o a h i gh e r v al e nc e s ta t e.
Th e s e a g en t s s o m e t im es i nc l ud e a n ti o xi d a n ts (e .g . , as c o r bi c o r g en t is ic a c id ) i n th ei r f or m u l at i on t o i m pr o v e th ei r in vi t ro s t ab i li t y. ( 2 ) Th e y s h o ul d b e s to r ed a t r o om te m p e ra t u re be f o r e a nd af t e r r e c on s t i tu t io n . b . B i o di s t r ib u t i on ( 1 ) I t is be l ie v e d t h at t he l oc a li za t io n o f t h e d ip h os p ho n at es oc cu r s b y c h em is o rp t io n o n to th e hy d r o xy a p a t i t e m in e r al m a t r i x o f s k el e ta l b on e wi th u p t ak e r e la t ed to bo n e m e t a bo li c a ct i vi t y an d b one b lo od f lo w. ( 2 ) F or
99m
Tc m e d ro n at e d i s o di u m a nd
99m
Tc o xi d r o n a te , a p p ro xi m a t el y 5 0%
o f t he ad m i ni s te r ed do s e l oc a li z e s i n t he s k el e to n, a nd 50 % i s e xc r e t e d b y t h e k id n e y s wi t h i n t he fi rs t 4- 6 h r a ft e r I V in je c ti on . c . Ad m i n is t r a t io n a n d do s a ge . I V, 10 - 2 0 m Ci ( 37 0 - 74 0 MB q ) B . B o n e m a r r ow i m ag i ng . S ee V I . A. 1 ; V I . A .3 ; V I. B .
V. LUNG IMAGING. R a d i op ha r m a c e u ti c a ls a re us e d t o e va lu a t e b ot h p u lm o na r y pe r f us io n a n d p u lm o na r y v e n ti la t io n , t o d e te c t p ul m o na r y e m b oli sm an d to as s es s p u lm o na r y f un c t i on be f o re p ne um o ne c t om y . A. P u l m o n a r y p e r f u s i o n i m ag i n g 1.
99m
Tc al b u mi n (
99m
T c- M AA)
a . P h ys i c a l p r o p e r ti e s ( 1 ) Th e
99m
Tc a l bu m i n a gg r e ga t ed k i t c on t ai ns H SA a l bu m i n t h at ha s b ee n
a g g re g at e d b y h ea t d e nat u r a ti o n. ( 2 ) Th i s S n
++
re d uc ti o n m e th o d ki t e xi s ts as a s te r i le , p y r o g en - f re e
s us p en s i o n o f r a di ol a be le d ag g re g at e d p a rt ic l es a f t e r r ec o ns ti t u ti on wi t h Na
+99m
-
Tc O 4 .
( 3 ) I t sh o ul d b e s t or e d a t 2 ° - 8 ° C a f te r r ec on s t i tu t io n . b . B i o di s t r ib u t i on ( 1 ) A f te r I V a dm in is t r at ion o f
99m
Tc a l b um i n a gg r eg a t ed , 8 0 % o f t h e
r a d io l ab el e d a lb um i n p art i c l es be c o m e t r ap pe d by c a pi l la r y b lo ck ad e i n t he p u lm o na r y c i r c u la t io n . ( 2 ) A f te r t ra pp i ng , th e p ar t i c l es a re c l ea r ed f ro m th e lu ng s m ai nl y b y m ec h an ic a l b re a k u p . Th e s e s m al l e r p ar t ic le s a r e u l ti m a t el y c l e a re d f r om th e c i rc u la ti o n b y t he r et ic u lo e n do t he li a l s y s t em . ( 3 ) P a rt ic l e s i z e s h ou l d b e c o nt r o ll ed — t ha t i s , 90 % of t he pa r ti c l es s h o uld b e be t we e n 1 0 a n d 9 0 µ m , an d n on e s h ou ld be > 1 5 0 µ m , t o e ns u re a d e qu a te t ra pp i ng b y th e l u ng c a pi ll a r y be d b u t no oc c l us i on of t he la r ge b o r e ves s e ls . ( 4 ) P a rt ic l e n um be r s h oul d be be t we e n 2 0 0, 0 00 an d 70 0 ,0 0 0 p ar t ic le s p e r a d ul t do s e to ob t ai n u n ifo r m i m a g in g d a ta wi t h out c om pr o m i s i ng ca pi l la r y b l oo d fl o w. N e on a te s s ho u ld r ec ei v e < 1 2 5, 0 00 pa r t i c le s . c . D ec a y d a t a . B i ol o gi c al h al f -l i fe in th e l u ng : 2 - 3 h r d . Ad m i n i st r a t i on an d do s a ge . I V, 1 -4 m C i (3 7 - 14 8 MB q ) B . P u l mo n a r y ve n t i l a t i on i ma g i ng wi t h r ad io ac t ive g as e s is a r o ut i ne n u cl e ar m e di c i n e p r oc edu r e th a t c a n pr o vi de v a lua b l e in f o rm a ti on ab o ut r e g io n al lu ng v e n ti la t io n . R a d io p ha r m a c e u ti c a ls us e d a r e e it h er r ad i oa c t i ve g a se s o r ra d io ae r os o ls . 1 . X en o n -1 3 3 (
133
X e ) i s s u pp li e d a s a ra di o ac ti v e g as c o n ta in e d i n g la s s
s e pt um v i al s t o b e a dm i ni s te r e d b y in h al a ti on t hr ou g h a c l os ed r es pi r a to r y s ys t em o r a s pi r om et e r . It i s a b yp r od u c t of
235
U f is s i o n.
P.446
a . B i od i s t r ib u t io n (1)
133
Xe i s a re a di l y di f fu s ib le ga s , wh i c h i s n ei th e r us ed no r pr o du ce d by
t h e b o d y . I t pa s s es th r oug h m em b r an es an d f r e ely e xc h a n g es be t we e n b l oo d a n d t is s u e , t en d ing t o c on ce n t ra t e m o r e i n b o d y fa t . ( 2 ) I nh al e d
133
Xe di s t r ib ut e s wi t hi n t h e a l veo li an d e n te r s t he p ulm o na r y
ve n o us c i rc u la t io n v ia the c a p il la r i es ; m os t o f t h e a bs o r be d
133
Xe ia
r e t u rn e d a nd e xh a l ed f rom t he lu ng s a f te r a s i n gle p ass t h ro ug h th e p e r ip h e ra l c i r c u l at i on . ( 3 ) I n co nc e nt r a ti o ns u s ed f o r d ia g no s i s , th e ga s is ph ys io l og ic a ll y i na ct i ve. b . D e ca y d a t a ( 1 ) E f f ec t i ve ha l f - li f e i n t h e l un g : 2 m i n ( 2 ) P h ys i c a l h a l f -l i f e : 5 .2 d a ys . ( 3 ) D e ca y m o d e : β m in us an d γ de c a y . ( 4 ) P r i ma r y r a d i a t i o n em i s si o ns : 1 0 0 k e V β e ne r g y a nd 81 k e V γ en e rgy p h o to ns . c . Ad m i n is t r a t io n a n d do s a ge . In h al at i on , 2 - 3 0 m C i (7 4 - 11 10 MB q )
2 . X en o n -1 2 7 (
127
X e ) i s s u pp li e d a s a ra di o ac ti v e g as c o n ta in e d i n g la s s
s e pt um v i al s t o b e a dm i ni s te r e d b y in h al a ti on t hr ou g h a c l os ed r es pi r a to r y s ys t em o r a s pi r om et e r . It i s p ro d uc ed b y a c y c l o tr o n . a . B i od i s t r ib u t io n . L oc al i z a t io n i s t he s a m e as
133
Xe .
b . D e ca y d a t a ( 1 ) P h ys i c a l h a l f -l i f e : 36 . 4 d a y s ( 2 ) D e ca y m o d e : b y e l ec t r o n c ap t u re ( 3 ) P r i ma r y r a d i a t i o n em i s si o ns : 2 0 3 k e V , 1 90 k e V , 1 72 ke V , a n d 3 75 ke V γ en e r g y p h ot o ns . c . Ad m i n is t r a t io n a n d do s a ge . In h al at i on , 5 - 1 0 m C i (1 8 5 -3 70 MB q ) 3 . R a di o ae r o s ol s h a v e b e c o m e in c re as i ng l y us ed wi t h t he ad ve n t o f n e b ul i ze rs th a t p ro d uc e p a r ti c l e s o f a c o ns is te n t s i z e n ec e ss ar y f o r u n if o rm l u ng di s t ri bu t io n . a . B i od i s t r ib u t io n (1)
99m
Tc p e n te t a te ( D TP A ) r a di o ae r os ol s o f a p pro xi m a t e l y 0 . 25 µ m m as s
m e di a n a er o d y na m i c d iam e te r a re us ef u l i n d et e rm i ni ng lu n g v e n ti l at i on . ( 2 ) A f te r de po s i t io n o f the n eb ul i z e d d r op l et s wi t hi n th e a i r wa y s , th e
99m
Tc
p e n te t at e i s a bs o rb e d i nto t he pu lm o na r y ci r c u l at io n . ( 3 ) Th e m a te r ia l i s s ub s eq u e nt l y e xc r e te d b y t h e k i dn e y s. C l ea r an c e f ro m t h e l u ng s is s u f fi c i e nt l y s l o w t o al l o w f o r im a gi n g o f t he l u ng s i n m ul ti p le p r o je c ti on s f r om a s i n gl e a dm i ni s t r a ti o n. b . P h ys i c a l p r o p e r ti e s. S e e II . B . 3. c . Ad m i n is t r a t io n a n d do s a ge . In h al at i on , 3 0 µ Ci ( 11 1 0 MB q )
VI. HEPATIC IMAGING A. O ve r vi e w . H ep a ti c im a g in g re q ui r es th e u se of t wo d i ff e r en t c la s s es of r a d io p ha r m a c e u ti c a ls to e v a l u at e t h e t wo c el l t y pe s re s p o ns ib le f o r h ep a tic f u nc t io n . 1 . R e t ic u lo e nd o t he l i al s ys t e m i m a gi n g. Th e li v e r , s p le e n, an d b o ne m a r ro w a r e e v al u at e d wit h r ad i ol ab e le d c ol lo i da l m a te r i al , ra ng i ng in s i z e f r o m 0 .1 t o 3 .0 µ m . Th e s e p a rt ic l es a r e r a pi d l y c le a r ed f ro m t h e b lo od b y p h a go c y to s i s b y t he K upf f e r c el ls o r t r ap p ed in the s p ac e of D is s e , wh ic h is f o u nd be t we e n th e p ol y go n al he p a to c y te s a nd t he K u p f f e r c e l ls . 2 . L i ve r s p l ee n i m ag i n g. R a di o ph a rm ac e ut ic a ls a r e us ef u l i n im a gi ng s p ac e -o c c up y i n g p ri m ar y t u m o rs a nd m e ta s t a ti c ne o pl a s m s as we l l a s h e p at ic de f ec ts c a us ed by a b s c es se s , c y s t s , a nd t r a um a . 3 . B o ne ma r r ow i ma g i ng . Im a ge s t ha t lo c a li z e in t he bo n e m a r r o w a r e u s ef u l i n t he e v al u at i on o f pa t ho l og ie s t h at a ff ec t b o ne m a r ro w. 4 . H e pa t o bi l ia r y i m a g i ng . H e pa t oc yt e f u nc ti o n c a n be e v al u at e d b y s u bs ta n c e s m e e ti n g r e qui r e m e n ts o f m ol e c u la r we i gh t , l i po ph i li ci t y , a n d c h em ic al s t r uc t ur e , t o b e e xc r e t e d b y t he po l y g ona l c e ll s i nt o t h e h e p at o bi li a r y s y s t em . Hep a t ob il i a r y -i m a g in g ra di op h a rm ac e ut ic al s a r e u s ef u l i n t he di a gn os is of c y s ti c d uc t o bs t ru c ti on i n ac ut e c ho l ec y s ti t is a s we l l a s d ef i ni n g p os tc ho le c y s te c t om y a n at om y a nd p h ys i ol o g y . P.447
B . R e t i cu l oe n d o th e li a l -im a g in g ag e n ts 1.
99m
Tc su l f u r c o l lo i d (
99m
T c 2 S 7 ) is a s te r il e , p yr o g en - f r ee I V
r a d io p ha r m a c e u ti c a l f o rm e d v i a a ch em ic al r ea c ti o n b e t we e n
99m
-
Tc O 4 a nd
a n ac id i fi ed s o lu t io n o f s o d iu m t h io su l fa t e a t 1 00° C . a . P h ys i c a l p r o p e r ti e s ( 1 ) Tc 2 S 7 is t ho u gh t t o re m ai n i n t h e + 7 va l en c e s t a te as th e h ep t as ul f id e c o p re ci pi t a te of el em e nta l s u lf u r t h at oc c u r s d ur in g th e re ac t io n . ( 2 ) Th e us e o f Na
+99m
-
Tc O 4 wi t h A l
+3
le ve l s > 1 0 µ g / m L c a n l e ad to t he
f o r m a t io n o f p a r ti c l es > 5 µ m , wh i c h c an re s ul t in l un g u p ta k e . ( 3 ) H e at in g ti m e s s h o ul d b e c on t r ol l ed to p re c l ude l ar g e p a rt ic l e f o rm at i on . b . B i o di s t r ib u t i on . Af t e r a dm i ni s t r a ti o n, 80 % -9 0% o f t h e d os e is p h a go c y ti z e d b y t h e K u pf f e r c el ls o f t he li v e r or tr a p pe d i n th e s pa c e of D i s se , 5 % -1 0 % b y t he s pl e en , an d t h e b al a nc e b y t h e b on e m a r ro w. Th e b l oo d c le a r an c e ha l f -l i fe i s a p p ro xi m a t el y 2 .5 m i n. P a r ti c l es a re no t m e ta b ol i z e d a nd re s i d e in t he r et ic u lo e nd o th el i al s ys t em fo r a p ro l on ge d p e r io d . c . Ad m i n is t r a t io n a n d do s a ge . I V, li v e r /s p le en : 1 - 8 m C i (3 7 -2 9 6 MB q ) ; b o n e m a r r o w: 3 -1 2 m C i (1 1 1 -4 4 4 MB q ) C . H e p a to b i li a r y- i m a g i ng a ge n t s 1 . O ve r vi ew a . I mi n od i ac e t ic ac i d (ID A) d e r i va t i ve s , wh i c h a r e l i do ca i ne an al o gs , a re u s ef u l as he p at o bi l ia r y- im a gi n g a ge n ts b ec a us e o f t he i r l ip op h il ic i t y , wh ic h a l lo ws t h em to be s e le c t iv e l y c le a r ed b y c a r ri e r -m e d ia t ed h ep a to c yte m e ta b ol ic pa t h wa y s . Be c a u s e th e s e ag en t s s h a r e t h e s am e e xc r e t io n p a t h wa y a s b il i ru bi n , p a ti e n ts wh o ha ve in c r e as ed b il i ru bi n l e v e ls e xh i bi t d e c re as e d h ep a ti c c l e ara n c e an d a n i nc r e as ed re n al cl ea r a nc e. La ck of g a ll b la d de r v is ua l i z at i on i s a n a b no r m a l f i nd in g , s u g g es ti n g ac u te c h ol ec ys ti t is . b . C h o le c ys t o k i n e t i c a ge n t s , s u c h as s i nc al i de a n d c ho l ec y s to k i ni n , m ay b e us ed to em p t y th e c on t e nt s o f t h e g al l bl ad d e r i n f a s t in g pa ti e n ts b e fo re i n je c ti on o f I D A c om p oun d s i n a n a t te m p t t o pr om o te ga l lb la d de r fi ll i ng an d vi s u al i za ti on . Th es e a g en t s c an al s o be in je c te d a f t e r t he in j ec ti o n o f t h e I D A c om po u nd to c a us e a v i s u a li ze d g a ll bl a dd e r t o e m p t y . C h o l ec y s to k i ne t ic ag e nt s a r e u s e d t o i n c r e as e t he s pe c i f ic i t y a n d s e ns i ti v i ty o f t he i m ag in g p r oc e du r e. c . N a rc o t ic a na l ge s ic s , s uc h a s m o rp hi n e, ha ve b e e n us e d t o c on st r ic t the s p hi nc t e r o f O d d i t o p r odu c e i nc r ea s e d i n t ra du c tal p re s s u re s t o p r om o te r e t r og r a de ga ll b la d de r fi ll i ng . 2.
99m
Tc d is o fe n i n (
99m
Tc - D I S I D A)
a . P h ys i c a l p r o p e r ti e s. S e e II . B . 3. b . B i o di s t r ib u t i on (1)
99m
Tc - D I S I D A i s r ap id l y c l e a re d f r om th e b l ood ; 8% r em ai ns in th e b l oo d
after 30 min.
( 2 ) A pp r o xi m a te l y 9% of t h e a dm i ni st e r ed ac ti vi t y i s e xc r e t e d in t he u ri ne d u r in g th e f i rs t 2 h r. Th e r e m a i nd e r o f t h e ac t i vit y i s c le a re d t h r ou gh t he h e p at o bi li a r y s y s t em . ( 3 ) P ea k l i v e r u pt ak e i s wi t h i n 10 m i n; pe ak ga l lbl a dd e r u p ta k e is b y 3 0 - 40 m i n. ( 4 ) G a ll bl a dd e r a n d in t es t i n al v is u al i za ti on oc c u r s wi t h i n 6 0 m in p o st a dm in is t r at i on . c . Ad m i n is t r a t io n a n d do s a ge . I V, no n ja un d ic ed p a ti e nt : 1- 5 m C i (3 7 -1 85 MB q ) ; I V , j au n di c e d p a tie n t : 3 - 8 m C i ( 11 1 - 29 6 MB q ) 3.
99m
Tc me b r o fe n i n
a . P h ys i c a l p r o p e r ti e s. S e e II . B . 3. b . B i o di s t r ib u t i on (1)
99m
Tc m e b ro f en i n is ra p id l y cl ea r e d f r om th e bl o od ; 17 % re m a in s a f te r
1 0 m i n. O n l y 1 % o f th e ad m in is t e re d a c t i vi t y i s e x c r e te d i n t h e u r in e wi t hi n t h e fi rs t ho u rs ; t h e r em a in d e r o f t h e a c t i v i t y c le a rs t hr o ug h t h e h ep a to b il iar y s ys t em . ( 2 ) P ea k l i v e r u pt ak e oc c u r s wi t hi n 1 0 m in ; v is u al iz a t i o n o f t h e h ep a ti c d uct a n d g al l bl a dd e r, wi t h in 10 - 1 5 m in ; t h en in t es ti n al a c ti v i t y , wi t h in 30 - 6 0 m i n. c . Ad m i n is t r a t io n a n d do s a ge . I V, no n ja un d ic ed p a ti e nt : 2- 5 m C i (7 4 -1 85 MB q ) ; I V , j au n di c e d p a tie n t : 3 - 10 m C i (1 1 1 -3 70 MB q ) P.448
VII. RENAL IMAGING A. O ve r vi e w 1 . R ad i op h ar m ac eu t ic al s a r e u s e d i n re na l i m a g ing t o d e te rm i ne r en al f u nc t io n , r e na l v as c u la r fl o w, a n d r e na l m o rp ho l og y . Th e y a r e a ls o u se f ul f o r th e e v a l ua t io n o f re na l fu nc t io n i n p os t t ra n s p la n t p a ti e nt s f o r c om p li ca t io ns s u c h as ob s t ru c ti on , i n fa r c ti on , l ea k ag e , t ub u la r ne c ro s i s , a n d re je c ti on . 2 . Th e us e o f r a di op h a rm ac e ut ic a ls to de t e rm ine r e na l f u nc ti o n o r r e na l m o r ph ol o g y i s b as e d o n t h e t wo ph y s io l og ic al m ec h an is m s re sp o ns ib l e f o r e xc r e t i o n: gl om e r ul a r f il tr a t io n an d t u bu la r s e c r e ti o n . B . Ag e n t s cl e a re d b y g l o m e r u la r f il t r a t io n a re u s ef u l i n d et e rm i ni ng t he g l om e ru l a r f il t ra t io n ra t e ( G F R ) , r e na l a r te r y p e rf us i on , a n d t he v i s u al i za ti on o f t he c o ll ec t in g s y s te m . 1.
99m
Tc pe n t e ta t e (
99m
Tc - D T P A)
a . P h ys i c a l p r o p e r ti e s. S e e II . B . 3. b . B i o di s t r ib u t i on ( 1 ) A f te r ad m i ni s tr a ti o n,
99m
Tc p e n te t at e ra pi d l y di s t ri bu t es th r o ug ho u t
e xt r a c e l lu la r fl u id s p ac e, f r om wh i c h i t is r ap i dl y c l ea r ed b y gl om e ru l ar f i l t ra t io n o nl y . ( 2 ) U p t o 1 0 % m a y b e p ro t e in bo u nd , l e ad in g t o a d ec r e as e i n m e as u r ed GFR.
( 3 ) A f te r ad m i ni s tr a ti o n, 5 0 % o f th e d os e i s c l e a re d b y th e k id ne y s wi t h in 2 h r , an d u p t o 9 5 % is c l ear e d b y 2 4 h r . c . Ad m i n is t r a t io n a n d do s a ge . I V, 10 - 2 0 m Ci ( 37 0 - 74 0 MB q ) 2 . S o di u m i o t ha l am a te io d i n e- 1 25 (
125
I ) i n je c t i on is a c om m e rc i al l y
s u pp li e d, s t e r il e , p y r og en - f r ee in j ec ti o n c o n ta i ni n g 1 m g s od iu m i o th al am at e p e r m il l il i te r . a . B i od i s t r ib u t io n ( 1 ) S od i um i o th a la m a t e
125
I is u se d fo r d e te r m i n at i o n o f t h e G F R bu t no t fo r
i m ag in g b e c a us e o f p o o r i m a g in g e m i s s io ns of
125
I.
( 2 ) Th yr o i d b lo c k ad e wi th o r al po t as s i um i o di de (K I ) i s su gg es t ed . b . D e ca y d a t a ( 1 ) P h ys i c a l h a l f -l i f e : 59 d a ys ( 2 ) D e ca y m o d e : b y e l ec t r o n c ap t u re ( 3 ) P r i ma r y r a d i a t i o n em i s si o ns : 3 5 k e V γ en e rg y p h ot o ns an d x- r a ys . c . Ad m i n is t r a t io n a n d do s a ge . I V, 10 - 5 0 µ C i (3 .7 - 1 8 .5 MB q ) C . T u b ul a r s e c re t i o n a ge n t s a r e u s e d t o e v a l ua te r e na l t u bu la r fu nc t io n a n d m ea s u r e e f fe c ti v e r en a l p la sm a f l o w. 1 . I od o h ip p u r at e io d i ne- 1 3 1 (
131
I ) h ip p u ra n . No l o ng e r c om m e r ci al l y
a va i la b le 2.
99m
Tc me r t i a ti d e (
99m
T c - M AG 3 )
a . D es c r i p ti o n ( 1 ) S up p li ed as a s te r il e , p y r o g en - f re e , l y o ph i li z ed k i t c o nt a in in g b e ti a ti d e, p r e cu r so r o f m e r ti a ti de , a n d c he l at i on ad ju t an t s . ( 2 ) A f te r th e s od i um p e r te c hn e ta t e is ad d ed t o t he k i t , i t m us t b e h e at e d in a h ot wa t e r ba t h o r h ea t in g bl oc k a t 1 00 ° C f o r 1 0 m in t o f o rm
99m
Tc
m e r ti a ti de f r om t h e b et i at i d e p r ec ur s or . b . B i o di s t r ib u t i on ( 1 ) Me r t i a ti d e is r en a ll y e xc r e t e d , 9 0% o f t he adm i ni s t e r ed do s e is e xc r e t e d wi t h i n 3 h r p os t in j ec ti o n. ( 2 ) I t is p ri m a r il y c le a re d v i a ac t i ve t ub u la r s ec r e ti o n a nd t o a s m a ll e xt e n t vi a g lo m e r ul a r f i lt r a ti on . c . P h ys i c a l p r o pe r t i es . S e e II . B . 3. d . Ad m i n i st r a t i on an d do s a ge . I V, 5 -1 0 m C i ( 1 85 - 3 70 MB q ) D . R e n al c o r ti c al im a g in g a ge n ts a re us ed t o eva l u a te r en al an a to m y b e ca us e o f th ei r ab i li t y to ac c u m ul at e i n th e k id ne y a n d p r o vid e a n at om ic a l i m ag in g d a ta . 1.
99m
Tc g lu c ep t a te (
99m
Tc-GLH)
a . P h ys i c a l p r o p e r ti e s. S e e II . B . 3. b . B i o di s t r ib u t i on P.449
(1)
99m
Tc - G L H r a p id l y dis t r ib u te s t h ro u gh o ut th e b o d y, wi t h ra pi d b l oo d
c l ea r an c e v i a g lo m e r u la r f i lt r a ti o n a nd tu b ul a r s ec r e ti o n a nd re a bs o rp t io n.
( 2 ) A pp r o xi m a te l y 25 % of t h e a dm in is t er e d d os e is e xc r e t ed wi t h in th e f i rst h o u r ; 6 5% , wi t hi n 6 h r; an d 70 % , wi t h i n 2 4 h r . ( 3 ) A f te r 3- 6 h r , a m a xi m u m o f 5% - 15 % o f th e d os e a dm i ni st e r ed is c o nc en t r at e d i n t he p ro xi m a l r e na l t u bu la r c e ll s o f t h e r e na l c o rt e x. c . Ad m i n is t r a t io n a n d do s a ge . I V, 10 - 2 0 m Ci ( 37 0 - 74 0 MB q ) 2.
99m
Tc su c ci m e r (
99m
Tc - D M S A)
a . P h ys i c a l p r o p e r ti e s ( 1 ) S ee I I. B . 3. (2)
99m
Tc s u c c im e r c o m pl e x m u s t b e a ll o we d to inc u ba t e f o r 1 0 m i n
p o st r ec o ns ti t u ti on an d m u s t b e u s e d wi t hi n 4 h r po s ti nc u ba t io n . b . B i o di s t r ib u t i on ( 1 ) W it hi n 3 - 6 h r po s t a dm i ni s t r a ti on , 40 % -5 0 % of t h e d os e l oc al i zes in the r e n al co r te x, wh e r e i t is t a k e n u p b y t h e t ub u la r c e l ls . ( 2 ) E xc r e t io n i n to t he ur in e is s lo w; 5 % - 20 % i s e x c r e te d wi t hi n t h e f i rs t 2 h r , 1 0 % -3 0 % b y 6 h r , a n d < 4 0 % b y 2 4 h r . c . Ad m i n is t r a t io n a n d do s a ge . I V, 2 -6 m C i (7 4 - 22 2 MB q )
VIII. THYROID IMAGING A. O ve r vi e w 1 . Th e ba s i c f un c ti on o f th e th y r o i d g la nd is th e pr o d uc t io n o f t h yr o id h o r m o ne f or t he r eg ul a tio n of m e t ab ol is m . Th e thyr o i d ho rm o ne s a r e p r o du c e d wi t hi n th e g la nd t h ro u gh th e o r g an if ic a ti o n o f i o di ne ob t ai n ed f ro m t h e o xi d a t i on of a v ai l ab le i od id e c i rc ul a ti n g i n t h e b lo od . Th e i n ab il i t y of t h e b o d y to di s ti ng u is h b et w e e n t h e is o to p es of io di ne p r o vid es a p e rf ec t m e ta b ol ic t ra c e r fo r th e th y r o i d b io c h em ic a l s ys t em . 2 . Th e fu nc t io n o f th e t hy r o i d gl an d c an be e v al ua t e d b y t he up t ak e o f or
123
131
I
I , a l lo wi n g th e d e tec t io n o f h y po t h y r oi di sm wi t h d ec r e as ed up t ak e an d
h yp e r t h y r oi di s m wi t h i nc re a s e d u p ta ke . 3.
99m
-
Tc O 4 i s a m on o v a le n t a n io n wi t h a n i on ic ra d iu s s im il a r t o i od i de . As
a r es u lt , th e p e r te c h ne t at e io n i s t r ap p ed b y th e th y r o i d g la n d i n a fa sh io n s im i la r to io di d e. Th e t wo s p ec i es ar e s u ff ic i en t l y d i ff e r en t i n th a t
99m
Tc O 4
-
i s n o t o r ga n if i ed or in c o rp o r a te d i n to th yr o id ho rm o ne , a n d i t i s s u bs eq u en t l y re l ea s e d un c ha n ge d . B . T h yr o i d i m a gi n g a gen t s 1 . S o di u m i o di d e i o di ne - 1 23 (
123
I ) i s a ra d io ph ar m ac e ut ic a l a v a il ab l e i n
e i t he r s o lu ti o n o r c ap s ule f o rm fo r o r a l a dm in is t ra t i on . I t is p r o du ce d b y a c yc lo t r on . a . B i od i s t r ib u t io n ( 1 ) O r a ll y a dm in is t er e d io d in e i s ra pi d l y a bs o r bed f r o m th e g as t r oi n te st i na l ( G I ) t r ac t ; t h y r oi d g l an d u p t ak e is e v id e nt wi t h i n m i nu t es . ( 2 ) S od i um i o di de
123
I i s c o ns id e re d a n i d ea l ra dio p h ar m a c eu ti c al fo r i o din e
u p t ak e a nd im ag i ng s t udi e s b ec au se o f i ts s ho r t h a l f- l if e a n d u se f ul 1 5 9 ke V p r i m a r y γ em is s i o ns . b . D e ca y d a t a ( 1 ) P h ys i c a l h a l f -l i f e : 13 . 2 h r
( 2 ) B i o lo g ic a l h a l f- l i fe : 3 . 5 d a y s ( 3 ) D e ca y m o d e : b y e l ec t r o n c ap t u re ( 4 ) P r i ma r y r a d i a t i o n em i s si o ns : 1 5 9 k e V , 2 7 k e V , an d 5 2 9 k e V γ e ne r gy p h o to n s c . Ad m i n is t r a t io n a n d do s a ge . O r al th y r o i d u pt ak e : 1 00 - 2 00 µ C i ( 3 .7 - 7 .4 MB q ) ; t h yr o i d im a ge : 1 0 0- 5 00 µC i ( 3 .7 - 18 . 5 MB q ) 2 . S o di u m i o di d e
131
I is u s ed fo r th yr o i d u pt ak e an d im ag in g s t ud i es ; h o we v e r , it is
n o w u s ed le s s of t en be c a u s e of t he hi gh r ad i at i on d os e a bs o rb e d. a . B i od i s t r ib u t io n ( 1 ) O r a ll y a dm in is t er e d io d in e i s ra pi d l y a bs o r bed f r o m th e G I t r ac t ; wi t h t h y r o i d g l an d u p t ak e is wi t h in m in u t es . P.450
( 2 ) S od i um i o di de
131
I i s n o t c on si d e re d a n i de a l ra d io i od i ne ra d io p ha rm a ce u t ic al fo r
i o di n e u pt a k e an d i m a gin g s t ud i es b e c a us e o f i ts l o ng ha l f- l if e , p oo r im agi n g p r o pe r t ie s , an d th e h ig h r a d ia t io n d os e to th e t h yr o i d f r om it s β d ec a y c om p on e nt . ( 3 ) Th e ra d ia t io n d os e f ro m th e h ig h - en e rg y β p ar t i c l e wi t h t he im ag i ng po t e nt i al of i t s γ e m i s s io ns m a k e th is r ad i on uc li d e t he ag e nt o f c h oi c e f or t he r ap e ut ic t r e at m e n t o f h ype r t h y r oi di s m an d th y r o i d c an c e r . b . D e ca y d a t a ( 1 ) P h ys i c a l h a l f -l i f e : 8 .0 8 da y s ( 2 ) D e ca y m o d e : b y β de c a y ( 3 ) P r i ma r y r a d i a t i o n em i s si o ns : 6 0 6 k e V a nd 3 3 3 k e V β en e r g y ; 3 64 k e V , 63 7 k e V , a nd 28 4 k e V γ e n e rg y p h ot o ns . c . Ad m i n is t r a t io n a n d do s a ge .
131
I i s a va il ab l e as ei t he r a c a p su le o r i n s o l u ti on
f o r o ra l a dm in is t r at i on . ( 1 ) D i ag n os t i cs ( a ) Th yr o i d u pt a k e : 2 - 15 µ C i ( 0 .0 7 4 -0 . 55 5 MB q ) ( b ) Th yr o i d i m a ge : 30 - 50 µ C i ( 1 .1 1 -1 . 85 MB q ) ( c ) W hole bo d y im ag e : 1- 5 m Ci ( 37 - 18 5 MB q ) ( 2 ) T he r a pe u t ic s ( a ) H yp e r th y r o id is m : 1 0-3 0 m C i (3 7 0 -1 11 0 MB q ) ( b ) Th yr o i d c a rc in om a : 50 - 2 00 m Ci ( 18 50 - 7 40 0 MB q ) 3. Na 4.
201
+99m
-
T c O 4 . S ee I I. B.
T l . P a ra t h y r oi d i m ag i ng
a . B i od i s t r ib u t io n .
201
TI c on c e n t ra t es in th e t h yro i d a nd al s o in p ar a th yr oi d
a d e no m a s , wh i c h c a n b e d e te c te d b y a d u al is ot op e s u bt r ac t io n te c h ni q ue o f s u bt r ac t in g t h y r o id up t ak e c o u nt s f r om N a
+99m
-
Tc O 4 to un m a sk no n th y r o i d th a ll i um
u p t ak e c ou n ts (s ee I II . A .1 ) . b . Ad m i n i st r a t i on an d do s a ge . I V, 2 m C i ( 74 MB q )
IX. BRAIN IMAGING A. C e r e b r a l pe r f u s io n br a i n - im a g in g a g e nt s . Ra d io p ha r m a ce u ti c a ls f or e v a l u at in g b r a in pe r f us io n m us t p os s es s a li po p hi li c p a r ti ti on co e f fi c i en t s u f fi c i en t to d i ff u s e p a ss i vel y a c r os s t h e b loo d - b ra i n b ar r i er ( B B B ) a lm o s t c om p le t el y wi t h i n on e pa s s of
t h e c e re b r al c i rc ul a ti o n, a s we l l as b ei ng s u f fi ci e n t l y r et a in e d t o p e rm it da t a c o ll ec t io n . Th e r eg io n al u p t ak e o f t h es e a ge n ts is p ro p or t io n al to c e r eb r al b lo od f l o w. Th i s c la s s of r ad iop h a rm ac e ut ic al s i s us e ful i n t he di a gn os is of al t e re d r e g io n al bl oo d p e r fu s i o n i n s t r ok e. 1.
99m
Tc ex a me t az i me (
99m
T c - H M P AO ) e xi s t s a s a s te r il e , p y r o ge n - fr e e IV i nj e c t i on
a f t e r r ec o ns ti t u ti on wi t h s o di um pe r t ec hn e ta t e U S P , wh i c h m a y b e s t ab il iz e d wi t h t h e a d di t io n o f a m e t h y len e bl ue / p ho s p ha t e b u ff e r s t ab il i z i ng s o lu t io n . a . D es c r i p ti o n (1)
99m
Tc e xa m e t a z i m e is a n eu t r al , l i pi d -s ol u bl e c om p le x t h a t f re el y c r os s es t he
B B B . Th i s is a re la t i v el y u n s t a bl e c om pl e x, wh i c h r a pi d l y c o n ve rt s t o a s ec o nd a r y , l e ss l i po ph i li c c o m p l e x in c ap a bl e o f p e ne t ra t in g in t o th e b r ai n . Th e in vi t ro a dd i ti on o f a m et h y l en e b lu e /p h os p ha t e b uf f e r s ta b il i zin g s o lu t io n a f te r p re pa r i ng th e
99m
Tc
e xa m e t a z im e wi l l s ta bi l i ze t he li p id -s o lu b le c om p le x f o r 4 h r . ( 2 ) A dd i ti o na l l im it a ti o ns o n k i t p re p a ra t io n p a ram e te r s r e qu i re t he us e of h ig h m ol e f r a ct i on te c h n e ti um ge ner a t o r e lu a te s o f < 2 h r po s te l ut i on f ro m a g e ne r at o r p r e vi ou s l y e lu t ed wi t h in 2 4 h r. b . B i o di s t r ib u t i on (1)
99m
Tc e xa m e t a z i m e ra p id l y cl ea r s f r om th e b lo o d , wi t h a m a xi m um b r ai n up t ak e
o f 3 .5 % -7 % , a nd up to 2 .5 % r em ai ni n g a f te r 2 4 h r. ( 2 ) Th e ac ti v i t y is wi d e l y d is t r ib u te d t h r ou gh o ut th e bo d y; 3 0 % d is t ri b ut es t o th e G I t r a ct . ( 3 ) W it hi n 4 8 h r , 40 % o f t h e d os e i s e xc r e t e d t h rou g h t h e u r in e a nd 15 % i s e l im in a te d v ia t he fe c e s . c . P h ys i c a l p r o pe r t i es . S e e II . B . 3. d . Ad m i n i st r a t i on an d do s a ge . I V, 10 - 2 0 m Ci ( 37 0 - 74 0 MB q ) P.451
2.
99m
Tc b ic i sa t e (
99m
T c- E C D )
a . D es c r i p ti o n (1)
99m
Tc b i c i s a t e e xi s t s a s a s t e ri l e, p yr og e n -f r ee I V i n je c t i on af t e r r ec o ns t i tu ti o n
wi t h s od i um p e r te c h n et at e
99m
Tc U S P a n d t he add i t io n o f a ph os p ha t e b uff e r .
( 2 ) A f te r re c o n s t i tu t io n , a s ta bl e l i po ph i li c
99m
Tc b i ci sa t e co m p l e x i s f o rm e d , wh ic h
i s a b le to c r os s t h e B B B b y p as si ve d if f us io n . b . B i o di s t r ib u t i on (1)
99m
Tc b i c i s a t e i s r ap id l y c l e a re d f r om bl oo d ; a m a xi m um of 6. 5 % o f t h e
a d m i ni s te r ed do s e is lo c a l i z ed in t he b ra in , a n d 5% is le f t i n t h e b lo od a fte r 1 h r . ( 2 ) O nc e l o c a t ed i n th e br a i n c el ls ,
99m
Tc b i c is a te i s m et a bo li z e d b y e nd o ge n o us
e n zym e s t o a p o la r c om po u n d t ha t i s u na b le to di ff u s e ou t of t he br a in c e lls . (3)
99m
Tc b i c i s a t e i s p ri m a r i l y e l im in a te d v ia th e k i d ne y s ; 5 0 % is e xc r e t ed wi t h i n 2
h r , an d 7 4 % i n 2 4 h r . H ep a t ob il i a r y e xc r e t i on ac c o u n ts fo r a p p ro xi m a t el y 1 2 . 5% of t h e a dm i ni s t e r ed do s e aft e r 48 h r. c . R ad i o nu c li d e p r o p e r ti e s . S e e I I . B. 3 . d . Ad m i n i st r a t i on an d do s a ge . I V, 10 - 3 0 m Ci ( 37 0 - 11 1 0 MB q ) 3 . I o fe t am i ne h yd r o c h l o r i d e
123
I. N o t c o m m e rc ia l l y a v ai la b le
B . C a r r i e r - me d ia t e d t r an s p o r t ( c e re b r a l m e ta bo l i sm ) me c ha n is m s. Th e s e a r e r e s po ns ib l e f o r t r an s p o r ti n g g lu co s e ac r os s t he BB B . A g en ts su c h as
18
F
f l u de o xyg l u c os e a id in the e v a lu a ti o n o f ce r e b ra l f u nc t io n b y m ap pi n g t h e d i st r ib u ti o n o f g lu c os e m e t a bo li sm .
18
F f l ud e o xyg l u c os e is p ro d uc ed b y a cy c l o t ro n .
1 . B i od i s t r ib u t io n . Cu r re n t l y , t h er e i s a U S P m on o g ra p h f o r o n -s it e c y c lot r o n p r o du c e d
18
F fl ud e o xy g l u c os e, wh i c h is a g lu c o se a na lo g .
18
F f l ud eo xy g l u c os e
c o nc en t r at es in t he br a in, wh e r e it is ph os p ho r yl at e d b u t d oe s n o t u nd e rgo s u bs eq u en t m e ta bo l is m b e c a us e o f th e re pl ac em e n t o f th e h yd r o xyl g r o up i n t h e 2 p o si t io n wi t h a fl uo r i ne at o m . I t i s t he n m e ta bo l ic a l l y t ra p pe d f o r a s u f fi c ie n t ti m e to a l lo w i m a gi ng . 2 . D ec a y d a t a a . P h ys i c a l h a l f -l i f e : 109 . 7 m in b . D e ca y m o d e : b y p os i tr o n em iss i on c . P r im a r y r a d i a t i on emi s s i on s : 6 33 k e V en e rg y p os i t ro ns an d 5 1 1 k e V γ e n e rg y p h o to ns . 3 . Ad m i n is t r a t io n an d do s a ge . I V, 5 -1 0 m C i ( 1 85 - 3 70 MB q ) C . C e r e b r al ne u r o t r an sm i t t e r i m ag i n g : F lu o r od o p a f l u o r in e -1 8 (
18
F ) in j e c ti o n
1 . D es c r i p ti o n a . C e re b r al ne u ro t r an s m it t e r s y n t he s i s c an be s t ud i ed wi t h fl u o ro do p a
18
F i n je c ti on .
Th e i n t ra c e r eb r a l d is t ri bu t i on of t hi s n eu r ot r a ns m i t t e r t r ac e r c a n b e u s e d in t he a ss e ssm e nt o f n eu r od e ge n e ra t i v e d is ea s es s uc h a s p a rk i ns on is m . b . F lu o ro d op a
18
F i nj ec t io n e xi s ts un d er a U S P m o n o gr a ph as an on -s i te -p r o du ce d
s t e ri le I V s ol u ti o n o f a l ev o d o p a a na lo g i n wh i c h a p o rt i on of th e m ol ec u le h as be e n r e p la ce d wi t h
18
F , a p os it r o n -e m i t t in g r a di o nu c l ide .
2 . B i od i s t r ib u t io n a . A f te r I V i nj ec t io n , p la s m a a c ti vi t y de c re as es t o 1 0 % o f th e a dm in is t e re d d o se wi t h i n 5 m i n a f t er in j ec tio n . b . F lu o ro d op a
18
F i nj ec t io n is p r e do m i na n tl y m eta b ol i ze d i n p e ri ph e r y v i a d o pa
d e ca r bo xy l a s e , an d c a tec h ol - O - m e t h y l t r an s fe r as e . To m a xi m i ze b ra in up ta k e, c a r bi do p a m a y b e u s e d to d ec r ea se pe r ip h e ra l m e t a bo li s m . c . R ap id e xc r e t io n v ia r en a l s y s te m as do p am in e m e ta b ol i te s 3 . R a di o n uc l id e da t a. Se e I X. B . 2 . 4 . Ad m i n is t r a t io n an d do s a ge . I V, 10 - 2 0 m Ci ( 37 0 - 74 0 MB q ) D . C e r e b r os p in a l fl u id (C S F ) d yn a m i c s . R a di onu c li de ci st e r no g ra p h y i s u s ef u l i n t h e e va l ua t io n o f h y d r oc e p h al us an d i n d e te c t i ng C S F le a ks . I n C SF im agi n g , t he r a d io p ha r m a c e u ti c a l i n d iu m - 1 11 pe n t et a t e (
111
I n- D T P A) i s in t r od uc e d i nt ra t h ec al l y
i n t o t he s p in a l s u b a ra c hn o id s p ac e , a sc en ds th ro u g h t he ba sa l c is t er ns , p r o c e ed s o ve r t he c e r eb r al he m i s ph e r es , a n d e v e nt u al l y d ra i n s in t o t he s u pe r i or s ag i t ta l s i nu s.
111
I n p en t e ta t e is c om m e r c i a ll y s u p pl ie d as a s te r il e , p y r o ge n - f re e u n i t d os e
i n je c ti on . It is p ro du c e d b y a c yc l ot r o n. P.452
1 . B i od i s t r ib u t io n
a . A f te r i n t ra t he c a l i n je c ti o n , t hi s r a di o ph a rm ac eut i c a l n o rm al l y as c e n ds to t h e p a r as ag i t ta l r e gi o n wi t h in 2 4 h r . b . A f te r ab s o r p ti on in t o th e bl oo d s t r ea m v ia th e ar a c hn oi d v il l i, th e m aj o r r o u t e o f e l im in a ti o n is b y k i dn e y ; 6 5 % o f th e d os e i s e xc r et e d wi t hi n 4 8 h r ; a n d 8 5% , wi t h in 7 2 h r. 2 . D ec a y d a t a a . P h ys i c a l h a l f -l i f e : 67 h r b . C S F b i o lo g i ca l h a l f -li f e : 1 2 hr c . E f fe c t i ve h a l f -l i f e : 10 h r d . D e ca y m o d e : b y e l ec tr o n c a pt u r e e . P r i ma r y r a d i a t i o n e mi s s i on s : 1 71 k e V an d 2 45 ke V γ e ne r g y ph o to ns 3 . Ad m i n is t r a t io n an d do s a ge . In t r at h ec al , 5 0 0 µ C i ( 1 8. 5 MB q )
X. INFECTION AND INFLAMMATION. E va l u a ti on o f s i t es of in fe c ti o n i nc lu d e t he us e o f a g en ts t ha t c an as s o ci at e wi t h c om p on e nt s o f t h e n at u ra l de f en s e m e c h an is m s a n d c an ac c u m u la t e wh er e t he y l o ca li ze . A. G a l l i u m (
67
G a ) c i t r a te
1 . D es c r i p ti o n a . I t is s u pp l ie d a s a s t e ri l e , p y r o ge n -f r e e r ad i op ha r m ac eu t ic al wi t h p r es e rv a t i v e s . b . Th e m ec h an is m o f l oc a l i z a ti on is th o ug h t t o d ep e n d o n t he fo r m a t io n o f a ga l li um t r a ns f e r ri n c om pl e x i n the b lo od a nd on bi nd i ng to t r an s f e r ri n re ce p to r s as so c i a te d wi t h i n fe c ti on an d i n fl am m a ti o n. c . It ac c u m u l at es in a re as o f wh i t e b l oo d c el l (W BC ) l oc a li z a t io n . 2 . B i od i s t r ib u t io n a . A f te r ad m i ni s tr a ti o n, th e hi gh e st c o nc en t r at i on o f
67
G a c i t ra t e, o th e r t ha n at t he
s i te o f in f ec t io n , is in t he r e n al c o r te x. A f t e r 24 hr, t h e m a xi m u m c on c e n t ra t i on s h if t s t o bo n e a nd l ym p h n od es ; bu t a f te r 1 we ek , i t i s m a in l y c o nc en t r at e d i n th e li v e r an d s p le e n. b.
67
G a c i t r at e i s e xc r e t ed s l o wl y f r o m t he bo d y ; 2 6 % i s v i a u r i ne , a n d 9 % i s v ia
f e ce s . W hol e b od y r e te n ti o n i s 6 5% af t e r 7 d a y s . 3 . R a di o n uc l id e da t a a . M o d e o f p ro d uc t i o n : b y c y c lo t r on b . D e ca y m o d e : b y e l ec tr o n c a pt u r e c . P h ys i c a l h a lf - l i fe : 7 8 h r d . D e ca y e m i s s io n s : 9 3 k e V , 1 85 k e V , 3 00 k e V , a n d 3 9 3 k e V γ ph o t on s 4 . Ad m i n is t r a t io n an d do s a ge . I V, fo r in f ec ti o n, 3 - 8 m C i (1 1 1- 3 00 MB q ) . A d a il y l a xa t i ve o r a n e n em a s ho u ld be us e d b y t he pa t ie n t a f t er t he in je c ti on and b ef o r e t h e i m a g es to c l ea ns e t he b o we l o f ra d io ac t i v it y th a t m a y in t er f e re wi t h the im a ge s a n d p os s i b l y l e ad to a f al s e p os it i v e re su l t. B . W B C l ab e li n g a g en t s. R a di o la b el ed W BCs a re us e d i n t he de t ec t io n of a wi d e va r i e t y of in f ec t io us an d i n f la m m at o r y p ro c e ss es . C u r r e nt us e i nc lu d es the d ia gn o si s o f in t r a -a bd om i na l a bs c es s e s , i nf l am m a to r y b o wel d i s ea se , a p pe n di c i t is , fe v e r o f u n kn o wn o r ig in , an d o s te o m y el i ti s. W BCs c a n b e r a di o la b el ed wi t h 99m
Tc - e xa m e t a z i m e .
111
I n oxi n e o r
1.
111
I n o x yq u i n o l i n e so l u t i on (
111
In o xi n e )
a . D es c r i p ti o n 111
(1)
I n o xy q u i n o li n e is s u pp li e d a s a s te r i le pr es e r v a ti ve - f r ee , p y r o g en - fr e e ,
r a d io p ha r m a c e u ti c a l s olu t i on fo r us e i n t he r ad i ol a be l in g o f a u to l og o us l eu k oc yt es . 111
(2)
I n f o rm s a s a tu r ate d ne u t ra l l ip o ph il ic c o m p l e x wi t h o xyq u i n o l in e ( 1: 3 r at i o ),
wh i c h en a bl es it to p en et r a t e a c el l m em b ra n e. ( 3 ) A f te r i n c u ba t io n o f the
111
111
I n o xy q u i no l in e wi t h a po p ul a ti o n o f a u to lo g ou s le u ko c y t es ,
In is th o ug h t t o b ec om e fi rm l y bo u nd t o c yto p la s m ic c om p on e nt s , t he r e b y
a l lo wi n g th e f re e o xi n e to b e r e le as ed b y th e c el l. b . B i o di s t r ib u t i on ( 1 ) A f te r ra d io la b el i ng , th e au t ol o go us le uk oc yt es a re r ei nj ec t ed ; 30 % i s t a ke n u p b y t h e s pl e en , a n d 3 0% is ta k en up b y th e l i ve r , r eac h in g a pe ak at 2 -4 h r p o st i nj ec t io n . ( 2 ) P ul m o n a r y u p ta k e is i m m e di a te l y e v id e nt po s ti n je c ti on , bu t i t c le a rs , wi t h m i ni m a l v is ib le ac t i v it y , a f t e r 4 h r . P.453
( 3 ) Th e r e is a b ie xp o n e nt i a l b lo od c l ea r a nc e; 9% -2 4 % c le a rs wi t h a bi o lo gic a l h al f l i f e o f 2 - 5 h r , a nd th e rem a in in g 1 3 % -1 8% cl ea r s wi t h a bi ol o gi c a l h al f - li fe o f 6 4 -1 1 6 hr. ( 4 ) E li m i n at io n i s m ai nl y t h r o ug h r a di o ac ti v e de c ay ; < 1 % is e xc r e t ed in fec es an d u r i ne du r in g th e f i rs t 2 4 h r . c . R ad i o nu c li d e d a ta ( 1 ) M o d e o f p ro d uc t i o n : b y c y cl o t ro n ( 2 ) D e ca y m o d e : b y e l ec t r o n c ap t u re ( 3 ) P h ys i c a l h a l f -l i f e : 67 h r ( 4 ) D e ca y e m i s s io n s : 24 5 k e V a n d 1 71 k e V d . Ad m i n i st r a t i on an d do s a ge . I V, 20 0 - 50 0 µ Ci (7 . 4 - 8. 5 MB q ) 2.
99m
Tc - H M P AO . A s a s t e r il e a n d p y r o ge n - fr e e IV i nj e c t i on af t e r r ec o ns tit u t io n wi t h
s o di um pe r t ec hn e ta t e,
99m
Tc - H MP A O m a y b e us ed t o r a di ol a be l l e uk oc y t es .
a . D es c r i p ti o n (1)
99m
Tc - H MP A O i s a n eu t r al , li pi d -s o lu bl e c om ple x t h a t is ab l e t o p en e t ra t e th e
W BC m em br a ne . Th is li po p hi l ic c om pl e x i s r el a ti v e l y u ns ta b le an d ra pi d l y c o n v e rt s t o a s ec on d ar y c om pl e x i n c ap a bl e o f p e ne t ra t in g t h e W B Cs . ( 2 ) Th e m e th y l e ne bl ue /p h os p ha t e b uf f e r s ta bi l i ze d s o l u t io n i s n ot ab l e t o r a di o la b el c e ll s a nd s h ou l d n ot be u s ed . ( 3 ) A dd i ti o na l l im it a ti o ns o n k i t p re p a ra t io n p a ram e te r s r e qu i re t he us e of h ig h m ol e f r a ct i on te c h n e ti um ge ner a t o r e lu t es of < 2 h r p os t e l ut i on f ro m a g e ne r a to r p r e vi ou s l y e lu t ed wi t h in 2 4 h r. b . B i o di s t r ib u t i on ( 1 ) A f te r I V i nj ec t io n , t he r a di o la b el ed c e ll s l oc al iz e i n th e l un gs , li v e r , s ple e n , b lo o d p o ol , bo n e m a r r o w, a nd b l ad d e r. ( 2 ) E li m i n at io n i s p r im a ril y v i a t he li v e r . c . R ad i o nu c li d e d a ta . Se e I I. B . 1. b ; I I . B. 3 . a a nd b .
d . Ad m i n i st r a t i on an d do s a ge . I V, fo r in f ec ti o n, 7 - 2 5 m C i ( 2 60 - 92 5 MB q )
XI. BREAST IMAGING 99m
A.
Tc-MIBI
1 . D es c r i p ti o n a.
99m
Tc - MI B I i s u s e d f o r b o th b re as t an d c ar d ia c i m ag in g .
b.
99m
Tc - MI B I i s i n di c a t ed f o r p la n ar im ag i ng as a s ec on d l i ne of e val u at i ng b r ea s t
l e si on s i n p a ti en t s wi t h an a bn o rm al m a m m og r am o r a p al p ab le b re as t m as s . c.
99m
Tc - MI B I m a y n o t b e u s e d to s c re e n f o r b r eas t c a nc e r, to co n fi r m t he p r es e nc e
o r a bs en c e of m a li g na nc y , o r t o r e pl ac e a bi op s y . 2 . B i od i s t r ib u t io n .
99m
T c - MI B I i s p r im a ri l y e xc r et e d b y t h e h ep a to bi l ia r y s y s t em .
3 . P h ys i c a l p r o p e r ti e s. S e e II . B . 3. 4 . Ad m i n is t r a t io n an d do s a ge . I V, 20 - 3 0 m Ci ( 74 0 - 11 1 0 MB q )
XII. TUMORS A. Th e u s e fu l ne s s o f r adi o ph a rm ac e ut ic a ls i n th e d e te c ti on o f t um o rs v a rie s i n s e ns it i v i t y an d s pe c i f ic ity , wi t h d i ff e r en c e s i n t um o r l oc a ti o n a nd t ype . 1.
67
Ga
a . D es c r i p ti o n 67
(1)
G a is s u pp l ie d a s a s t er i le , p y r o g en - f re e ra di o ph a rm ac e ut ic a l wi t h
p r e se r va ti v e s . ( 2 ) Th e m ec h an is m o f l oc a li z a t io n i s t ho u gh t to de p e nd on th e f o rm a ti o n o f a g al l iu m t r a ns f e r ri n c om pl e x o r bin d in g to t ra ns f e r ri n r ec ep t o rs on tu m or c e ll s . ( 3 ) I t ac c um ul a te s i n p rim a r y m e t as ta t ic tu m o r s it e s a nd m a y d et ec t th e pr e s en c e of H o d gk i n d is ea s e , l y m ph om a , a nd b ro nc h og e ni c c a r c in o m a . b . B i o di s t r ib u t i on . Se e X. A . 2 . c . R ad i o nu c li d e d a ta . Se e X. A . 3 . d . Ad m i n i st r a t i on an d do s a ge . I V, fo r t um or , 10 m C i (3 7 0 MB q ) P.454
2.
111
I n p e n te t r e ot i d e
a . D es c r i p ti o n ( 1 ) I t is s u p pl ie d a s a s te r i le , p y r o g en - f re e k i t f or t h e p r ep a ra t io n o f
111
In
p e n te t r eo t id e . Th e t wo - c o m po n en t k it c o ns is ts o f a r e ac ti o n vi a l co n ta i ni ng a l yo p hi l i z ed m i xt u r e o f p en t e t re o ti d e wi t h s t a bi li z e r a dj u t an ts an d a s e co nd vi a l c o nt a in in g an i n di um
111
In c h l o ri de / f er r ic c h lo r id e s ol u ti o n.
( a ) Th e pe n te t re o ti d e m ol e c u le is a co n ju g at e o f p e n te t at e (d i et h y l en e tr i am i ne p e n ta ac e ti c a c i d; D TP A ) a n d o c t r e ot i de , wh ic h i s a s o m a t os t at i n a na lo g . (b)
111
I n p en t e t re o ti de is p r e pa r ed b y ad di n g t he
111
I n/ F e c h l o ri de s o lu t io n t o th e
vi a l c o nt a in in g th e p e nt et r e o ti d e. Th e p e nt e ta t e po r t io n of th e m ol ec u le ac t s as a b i f un ct i on al c h el a t e, li nk i n g t h e
111
I n ra di o nu c l i de t o th e b i ol og ic a l ac t i v e o c t re o ti d e
p o r ti o n o f t h e a ge n t. (2)
111
I n p en t e tr e ot i de is i n di c a t ed fo r lo c a li z a t ion o f p r im a r y a n d m e t as t at i c
n e u ro e nd oc r in e tu m o r s exp r e s s i ng s om a to s ta t in re c ep t o rs . b . B i o di s t r ib u t i on
( 1 ) W it hi n 1 h r a f te r I V in j ec t io n ,
111
I n p e nt e t re o ti d e d is t ri b ut e s f r om t h e p l as m a to
e xt r a va s c ul a r s pa c e ; le s s t ha n o ne t hi r d o f t h e ad m in is t e re d d os e re m a ins in t he p l as m a 10 m i n p os ti n je c ti o n . (2)
111
I n p en t e tr e ot i de loc a li z e s as a f u nc ti o n o f so m at os t a ti n r e c e p to r d e ns i t y , wi t h
a cc u m u la t io n i n n o rm al p i t ui t ar y, t h y r oi d , l i v e r, s p l ee n , a n d t he u ri na r y b la d d er . ( 3 ) E li m i n at io n i s p r im a ril y r e n al ; 5 0 % o f t he ad m in i s t e r ed do s e is e xc r e t ed wi t h i n 6 h r p os ti n je c t i on ; 8 5 %, aft e r 24 h r, an d < 90 % a f te r 4 8 h r . L es s t ha n 2 % of t h e a d m i ni s te r ed do s e is c l ea r e d v ia th e f e c e s wi t h i n 7 2 h r po s t - i nj ec t io n . c . R ad i o nu c li d e d a ta ( 1 ) M o d e o f p ro d uc t i o n : i b y c yc l ot r o n ( 2 ) D e ca y m o d e : b y e l ec t r o n c ap t u re ( 3 ) P h ys i c a l h a l f -l i f e : 67 h r ( 4 ) D e ca y e m i s s io n s : 24 5 k e V a n d 1 71 k e V d . Ad m i n i st r a t i on an d do s a ge . I V, 3 -6 m C i (1 1 1 -2 2 2 MB q ) 3 . I ob e ng u a ne
131
I i n j ect i o n (
131
I -M I B G )
a . D es c r i p ti o n ( 1 ) I t is s u p pl ie d a s a s te r i le , p y r o g en - f re e ra d iop h a rm ac e ut ic al f o r us e as an a d ju n ct i v e d i ag no s ti c a ge n t fo r th e l oc al i za ti o n of p r im a r y a n d m e t as t at ic p h e oc hr o m o c y to m a s a nd n e u ro bl as t om as . ( 2 ) I ob en g ua n e ( m e t a -i od o b en z yl g ua n id i ne ) l a be le d wi t h
131
I a c t s a s a p hy s i o lo gi c al
a n al o g o f n o re p in e ph r in e a n d is t ra ns p o rt e d a nd a c c u m u la t ed in th e a d r en a l m e du ll a . Th is a l lo ws f o r t h e d e te c ti on o f n eu r oe nd o c ri ne t um or s v ia th e s p e ci f ic u p t ak e o f l ab e le d i o be ngu a n e. ( 3 ) B ec au s e o f i ts ph y s iol o gi ca l s im il a ri t ie s t o n o re p in e ph r in e , m an y cl a ss e s o f d r u gs th a t i nt e r fe r e wi t h c a te c h o la m i n e t r an sp o r t a n d f u nc ti o n m a y a f fe c t th e up t ak e a n d l oc al i z a ti o n o f l ab e le d io be n gu a ne . b . B i o di s t r ib u t i on ( 1 ) A f te r I V i nj ec t io n , t her e is r ap id up t ak e i n t h e l i v e r , wi t h l ess e r a m o u nts a cc u m u la t in g i n t h e l un gs , he a rt , an d s pl e en . ( 2 ) N o rm al ad r e na l g la n d u p ta k e is lo w; b u t f o r t um o rs s u c h as p h eo ch r om o c y t om as a n d n e ur o bl as t om as , t h e u p ta k e is re l at i v e l y h i ghe r . ( 3 ) E li m i n at io n i s re na l ; m os t of th e dr u g is e xc r et e d m ai n l y u nc h an g ed . Be t we e n 4 0 % a n d 5 0% of th e a dm i n is t er e d d os e i s e xc r e t ed wi t h i n 2 4 h r , a nd 70 % -9 0 % i s e xc r e t e d wi t hi n 4 da y s po s ti n je c t i on . ( 4 ) A dm in is t r at i on of po ta s s i um i o di d e 1 d a y be f or e a nd fo r 10 da y s a f t e r a d m i ni s t ra ti o n i s s u g ge s te d to r ed uc e th yr o id up ta k e o f p o te n ti al r ad i oi od id e c o nt am i na n ts . c . P h ys i c a l d a ta . Se e VII I . B . 2. b . d . Ad m i n i st r a t i on an d do s a ge . I V, 0. 5 - 1 m Ci ( 18. 5 - 3 7 MB q ) 4.
201
T l . Th i s a ge n t h as u t i li t y as a t um o r- im a gi ng a ge n t b ec au se o f i ts ac c u m ul at i on
i n th e ra pi d l y m e ta b ol i z in g c e ll s o f c er t ai n tu m o rs in ac c o r da nc e wi t h i ts m ec h an is m o f lo c a l i z at i on (s e e I I I. A .1 ) . a . Ad m i n is t r a t io n an d do s a ge . I V, 1. 5 - 3 m Ci ( 55- 1 1 1 MB q ) 5.
18
F f lu d e ox yg l u c o s e U S P . C u r r en t l y , t h er e i s a U S P m o no g r ap h f o r o n- s i te
c yc lo t r on p r od uc ed
18
F f lu d e o xy g l u c o s e , wh i c h is a g lu c o se an a lo g . Th i s ag e n t h as
u t i li t y as a t um o r- im a gi ng a ge n t b ec au se o f a n i nc r e as ed de m a n d f o r g lu c o s e b y t u m o r s wi t h a n a d v an c e d s t at e o f m al i gn a nc y . N ot o n l y c an
18
F fl u de o xyg l u c os e
l o ca t e a nd di f fe r e nt i at e tu m o rs b u t P.455 i t ca n a ls o h el p d is t in g uis h b e t we e n r e c u r r en t b ra i n t um o r a n d r ad i at i on n e c ro s i s i n p a t ie n ts re c e i v i ng ra d ia t io n th e r ap y ( s e e I X. B ) . a . B i od i s t r ib u t io n .
18
F fl u de o xy g l u c os e c on ce n t ra t es in m e t ab ol ic a ll y ac t iv e c el ls ,
wh e r e i t i s p ho s p h o r y la te d bu t d o es n o t u n de r go s ub s e q ue n t m et a bo li s m b e ca us e o f t h e re p la c e m e n t o f t h e hy d r o xy l g r o u p in th e 2 pos i ti o n wi t h a f l uo r in e a t om . It is t h e n m e t ab o li c a ll y t r a ppe d fo r a s u f f ic ie n t t im e to a ll o w i m a gi n g. b . Ad m i n i st r a t i on an d do s a ge . I V, 5 -2 5 m C i ( 1 85 - 3 70 MB q )
XIII. THERAPEUTIC AGENTS. Th e t h e ra p eu t ic u s e o f ra d io p ha r m a c e u ti c a ls is ba s ed on th e c o nc ep t o f s e l ec t i v e l o ca li za t io n o f r ad io p ha rm ac e ut ic a ls c o up le d wi th t he le t ha l it y o f t h e sa m e b ec au s e o f t he ti s s ue da m a g e r es u l t in g f r om hi gh l y io n i z ing p a rt ic u la t e em is s i o ns s u c h as β p a r ti c l e s . A. C h r o m i c ph o s ph a te p h o s ph o r u s- 3 2 (
32
P ) s us p e ns i o n
1 . D es c r i p ti o n . A v a i la ble as a s te r il e , p y r o ge n - f re e aq u eo us s us p e n s i o n u s ed in th e t r e a tm en t o f pe r it o ne a l or p le u r al ef f us io ns c a us ed b y m e t as ta t ic di s e as e . A l s o us e d i n th e t r e at m e n t o f o v a r ia n an d p r os t at e c an c er . 2 . B i od i s t r ib u t io n a . C ol l oi da l s us p en s i on o f
32
P is r ap id l y t ak en up b y m ac r op ha g es ad he r in g to t he
c a vi t y wa l l , t he r e b y c on c e n t r at i ng an d l oc al i z i ng th e ir r a di a ti on e ff ec t of the
32
P
r a d io n uc li de β pa r t ic ul a te em is si o n. b . A f te r in f us io n , t he s u s p e ns i on ra p id l y di s t r i bu te s fr om wi t h i n t he c a vi t y a n d m a y l o ca li ze in t he lu ng s , a d re n al gl a nd s , k i d ne y s , l y m p h n od es , l i v e r , s pl ee n, b on e m a r ro w, p l as m a , e r y t h r oc y t e s , an d l e uk oc y t es , de p e nd in g o n c ol l oi da l p ar t i c l e s i ze. c . El im i na t io n i s p ri m ar i ly r e n a l. 3 . R a di o n uc l id e da t a a . M o d e o f p ro d uc t i o n : b y r e ac t o r b . D e ca y m o d e : β c . P h ys i c a l h a lf - l i fe : 1 4. 3 da y s d . D e ca y e m i s s io n s : 6 95 k e V m e an en e r g y β , 1 00 % ab u nd an c e 4 . Ad m i n is t r a t io n an d do s a ge a . I nt r ap e r it o ne al in s ti ll at i o n: 10 - 2 0 m Ci ( 37 0 -7 4 0 MB q ) b . I nt r a pl eu r al in s ti ll a ti on : 6 -1 2 m C i ( 2 22 - 44 4 MB q ) c . C a rc in om a i n te r s t i ti al : 0 . 1 -0 . 5 m C i ( 3 .7 - 18 . 5 M B q ) d . C a ut i on is a d v is e d f o r v i s ua l i ns p ec ti o n t o p r ev e n t m i s a dm in is t r a ti on of t h e s o di um ph os p ha t e f o rm (c l ea r , c ol o rl es s ) , wh i c h is de si g na t ed fo r in t r a v asc u la r us e o n l y. B . S o d iu m ph o sp h a te 1 . D es c r i p ti o n
32
P s o l ut i o n
a . I t is a v ai l ab le as a c om m e r c i a ll y su p pl ie d , s te ri l e , p y r o ge n -f r e e r a d io p ha r m a c e u ti c a l . b . I t i s p ri m a r il y u s e d a s a n a n ti n eo pl a s t ic fo r th e t r e at m e n t o f p o l yc yt h em i a ru b r a ve r a a nd is s el ec t i v el y us e d f o r t he p al li a ti v e t rea t m e n t o f m et a s t a ti c b one p ai n . c . It s t h e ra pe u ti c e f fe c t is o wi n g t o c el l d am a ge re s ul t in g f r om i rr a di a ti on p r o du c e d b y b e ta pa r t ic ul a te em is s i on . 2 . B i od i s t r ib u t io n a . I t co n c e n tr a te s a s p hos p ha t e wi t h i n t he D N A o f r a pi d l y di v i di n g h em at op o ie t ic c e ll s i n t he t re a tm en t of p o l y c y th e m i a r u b ra v e r a a n d a s p ho s p h at e i n a r ea s o f i n c re as ed bo n e f o rm a ti on . b . A f te r I V a dm in is t r at i on , it di f f us es ra p id l y in t o e xt r a c e ll u la r a n d i nt r ac el l ul a r s p ac e, c o nc e nt r a ti ng in th e bo n e m a r r o w, sp l ee n , a n d l i ve r. c . El im i na t io n i s p ri m ar i ly r e n a l; 5% - 10 % i s e xc r e t e d wi t hi n 2 4 h r , a n d 2 0% wi t h i n 1 we e k . d . W hole bo d y bi o lo g ic al h a lf - li f e i s a pp r o xi m a te ly 3 9 da ys . 3 . R a di o n uc l id e da t a a . M o d e o f p ro d uc t i o n : b y r e ac t o r b . D e ca y m o d e : b y β c . P h ys i c a l h a lf - l i fe : 1 4. 3 da y s d . D e ca y e m i s s io n s : 6 95 k e V m e an en e r g y β , 1 00 % ab u nd an c e P.456
4 . Ad m i n is t r a t io n an d do s a ge a . P ol y c y t h em ia ru b r a v er a : I V, 3 -5 m Ci ( 11 1 -1 8 5 MB q ) b . Me t a s ta t ic bo n e le s i on s : I V , 1 0 - 21 m C i (3 7 0- 77 7 MB q ) c . C au t io n i s a d v is ed fo r v i s ua l i ns p ec ti o n t o p r ev e n t m i s a dm in is t r a ti on of t h e c h r om ic p h os ph a te fo r m ( g r e en , c lo u d y ) , wh ic h i s d es i gn a te d f o r i n te r st i tia l us e o n l y. 131
C . S o d iu m io d i de
I (th e r a pe u t ic )
1 . D es c r i p ti o n a . I t is in d ic at e d f o r t r ea tm e nt o f h y p e rt h y r oi d ism a n d t h yr o id c a rc i no m a . b . I ts th e ra p eu t ic ac ti o n i s o wi n g to t he ac c um u lat i o n a nd r et e nt i on of io din e an d i ts i s ot o pe
131
I.
2 . B i od i s t r ib u t io n a . S ee V I II . A ; V I I I .B . 2 . b . B i o lo g ic a l h a l f- l i f e in t h e t h yr o i d : e u t h yr o i d p a ti e nt , 80 da ys ; h y p e rth y r o i d p a t ie n t, 5 -4 0 d a y s 3 . R a di o n uc l id e da t a. Se e V II I . B .2 . b. 4 . Ad m i n is t r a t io n an d do s a ge . O r al c a ps ul e o r or a l s ol u ti o n a . H yp e r th y r o id is m : 1 0- 30 m Ci ( 37 0 - 11 10 MB q ) b . Th yr o i d c ar c i n om a : 3 0- 2 0 0 m C i ( 1 11 0 -7 4 00 MB q ) D . S t r o n t iu m - 89 ( 1 . D es c r i p ti o n
89
S r ) ch l o r i de
a . I t is in d ic at e d f o r t he a l le v i a ti o n o f b on e p a in a r i s i ng f ro m m et as t a ti c bo n e d i se as e . b . A s a m e ta bo l ic a n al o g o f c a lc iu m ,
89
S r c o nc en tr a t es s e le c ti ve l y i n ar e as o f
i n c re as ed os t eo g en es is , t h us de l i v e ri ng a r a di a ti on d os e s uf f ic ie n t t o p r o v id e a p a ll i at i v e e f f ec t. c . P ai n r e li e f b eg in s 7 - 21 d a ys a ft e r a dm i ni s t r a tio n , wi t h m a xi m um re li e f b y 6 we e ks a n d a n a v e r a ge du r at i on o f 6 m o n th s . d . R e du c t i on in pa t ie n t an a lg e s i c us a ge oc c u rs in u p to 75 % o f p a ti e nt s t re a t ed ; c om p le t e p ai n re li e f is s e e n i n 2 0% o f t r ea t ed pat i e nt s , a nd no pa in r el i ef i n 2 0 %2 5 % o f tr e at e d p at i en ts . e . B on e m a r ro w s u pp r es s i on ef f ec ts li m i t
89
S r u s e t o p a ti en t s wi t h in i ti al W BC
c o un ts > 2 , 40 0 a n d p la t el e t c ou n ts > 6 0, 0 00 . 2 . B i od i s t r ib u t io n a . A f te r ad m i ni s tr a ti o n,
89
S r c l e ar s ra pi d l y fr om blo o d a n d l oc al i z es in th e b o n e
h yd r o xya p a t i t e. b . I ni t ia l b io l og ic al ha l f -li f e i n n o rm al bo n e is 1 4 d a ys ; l on g e r r e te n ti o n is s e en in m e ta s ta t ic b o ne le s i on s . B e t we e n 12 % a n d 9 0% of t h e a dm in is t er e d d os e is r et a in e d f o r up to 3 m on t hs a f t er a d m i ni s t ra ti o n . c . El im i na t io n i s p ri m ar i ly r e n a l; 66 % o f th e a dm in i s t e r ed do s e c l ea r s v i a G F R wi t h i n t h e fi rs t 2 d a ys , an d 3 3% i s e xc r e t e d v i a f ec e s . 3 . R a di o n uc l id e da t a a . M o d e o f p ro d uc t i o n : b y a c c el e r at o r b . D e ca y m o d e : b y β c . Em i s si o n d a ta : 1 . 4 6 Me V m a xi m u m β e n e rg y, 1 0 0% ab u nd an c e d . P h ys i c a l h a l f -l i f e : 5 0. 5 da y s 4 . Ad m i n is t r a t io n an d do s a ge . I V, 4 m C i ( 14 8 MB q ) , 40 - 60 µ C i /k g ( 1 .5 - 2 .2 MB q / k g ) E . S a ma r i um - 1 53 (
153
Sm ) l ex i d r on a m
1 . D es c r i p ti o n a.
153
S m is in d ic at e d f o r t h e re li e f o f p a in in pa t ien t s wh o h a v e c on f i rm ed m e ta s ta t ic
c a nc e r o f t h e b on e . b.
153
S m c on c e n t ra t es i n a r e as o f h i gh bo n e t u rno v e r a nd acc um u la t es m o r e i n
o s te o bl as t ic l es i on s t h an i n t h e n o rm al bo n e. c . Th e g o al of
153
S m t he ra p y is f or pa t ie n ts to be a b le t o r e du c e th e a m o un t o f
n a r co t ic a n al ge s i c s ne e de d to c o n tr o l t he i r p a in . P.457
2 . B i od i s t r ib u t io n a . Th e l e s i on t o n or m a l bo n e ra t io i s 5 : 1. b . Th e pe r c e n ta ge o f u pta k e o f
153
Sm i s d i re c tl y pr o p o rt i on al t o t he nu m b er o f
l e si on s t h e p at i en t h as . c . Le ss th an 1% o f t he do s e r em a in s i n t he bl o od 5 h r p os ti n je c t i on . d.
153
S m i s 1 00 % r e na ll y e xc r e t e d o v e r 1 2 hr .
e . Th e on s e t i s a pp r o xi m a t e l y 1 we e k . 3 . R a di o n uc l id e da t a
a . M o d e o f p ro d uc t i o n : b y c y c lo t r on b . D e ca y m o d e : b y β a nd γ d ec a y c . P h ys i c a l h a lf - l i fe : 4 6. 3 h r d . D e ca y e m i s s io n s : 6 40 k e V , 71 0 k e V, an d 8 4 0 k e V β e ne r g y an d 1 03 k e V γ e n e rg y p ho t o ns 4 . P r ec a u ti o n s.
153
S m m a y c au s e b on e m a rr o w s u p p re ss io n , wh ic h s ho u ld r e tu r n t o
b a se li n e wi t h i n 8 we e k s p o s t i nj ec t io n . 5 . Ad m i n is t r a t io n an d do s a ge . I V, 1 m C i/ kg ( 37 MB q / k g ) F . Y t t r i um - 90 (
90
Y ) i b ri tu m o ma b ti u xe t a n a n d
111
I n i b r i t um o ma b ti u xe ta n
1 . O ve r vi ew a.
111
I n i b ri t um om ab ti u xe t a n a nd
90
Y ib r i tu m o m ab t iu xe t a n a re pa r t o f a th e r ap e ut ic
r e g im en us ed in t he t re at m en t of no n - H od gk in l ym p ho m a ( N H L ) p at i en ts wi t h r e l ap se d re f r ac to r y l o w- gr a d e , f ol li c u l a r, o r t r an s fo r m ed B c el l N HL an d p at i e nt s wi t h r i t u xi m ab r ef r ac t o r y N H L . b . I b ri tu m om ab ti u xe t a n is an im m u no c on ju g at e c o n si st i ng of a m on oc lo n al a nt i bo d y i b r it um o m a b , wh i c h is li nk e d t o t h e c h e la t o r t iu xe t a n . c . Th e i b ri t um om ab an t ibo d y is a m u ri ne im m u no gl o bu l in G 1 (I g G 1 ) κ m ono c lo n al a n t ib od y p r od u c e d i n C h in e s e ha m s t er o va r y ( C HO ) c e ll s . Th e i b ri t um om ab a nt i bo d y i s d i re c te d a g ai ns t t h e CD 2 0 an t ig e n, wh i c h is e xp r e s s ed on th e s u r fa ce of n o rm al a n d m al ig n an t B l y m ph oc y t e s . d . Th e li nk e r c he la t o r t iuxe t a n p r o vi de s a h i gh - a ffi n i t y c he l at i on s i te f or c as e o f th e i m a g in g d os e a nd fo r
90
111
I n i n th e
Y in t he c as e o f th e t h e ra pe u ti c d os e .
e . Th e th e ra p eu t ic re g im e n is a dm i ni s t e r ed in t wo s ep a r at e d os es . Th is al lo ws f o r t h e q u al i ta t i v e e v a lu a ti on o f t h e b io di s tr i bu t io n to a v o id po t en t ia l t o xi c i tie s s uc h a s a b n or m a l l y h i gh bo n e m a r r o w l o c a li za t io n o r p ro lo n g ed re n al e xc r e ti o n. In e ac h a d m i ni s t ra ti o n , p at ie n ts m us t be p re m e di c a t ed wi t h di p he n h ydr am i ne 50 m g a n d a c et am i no p he n 6 50 m g 0. 5 h r b ef o r e r ec e i v in g t he r i tu xi m a b i n fu s i o n r eq ui r e d b e f o re ad m i ni s te r in g t h e r a d io l ab el e d a nt i bo d y . ( 1 ) S t ep 1 is th e a dm i ni s t r a t io n o f ri t u xi m ab fo l lowe d b y t h e
111
In ib r it um om a b
t i u xe t a n d i ag n os ti c im a gin g do s e . ( 2 ) S t ep 2 f ol lo ws s t ep 1 b y 7 - 9 d a y s a nd c o ns is ts o f a s ec on d ri t u xi m ab in f us i on f o l lo we d b y th e
90
Y i b r it um om a b t he r a p y d os e .
2 . D es c r i p ti o n a . S up p li ed as t wo s e p ara t e k i ts t o p r o du c e a s i ng l e d os e o f t i u xe t a n a n d a s in g le dos e o f
90
111
In ib r i tu m o m ab
Y i b r i tu m o m a b t i uxe t a n
b . E ac h k it c o ns is ts o f f ou r v i al s c on t ai n in g : ( 1 ) I br i tu m o m a b ti u xe t a n i n s al i ne , 3 . 2 m g ( 2 ) S od i um a c e t a te , 5 0 m M ( 3 ) F or m u l at i on bu f fe r (c o n t ai ns hu m a n s e ru m a lb u m i n ) ( 4 ) O n e em p t y r ea c t i on vi a l c . E xi s ts as a s te r il e , n on p y r o ge n ic I V s o l ut i on aft e r fo r m u l at i on wi t h e i th er 90
Y
3 . B i od i s t r ib u t io n a . Th e m e an ha l f- l if e f o r
90
Y i b r i tu m o m a b t i u xe t a n i n t h e b lo o d is 30 h r.
111
In or
b . A pp r o xi m a te l y 7 .8 % of t h e a dm in is t er e d d os e is e xc r e t ed in th e u r in e ov e r 7 d a ys . c . Th e e s t im a te d bi ol o gic a l h al f -l i fe is 48 hr . 4 . R a di o n uc l id e da t a a.
111
b.
90
I n . S e e XI I I . B . 1. c .
Y
P.458
( 1 ) M o d e o f p ro d uc t i o n : b y r e ac t or ( 2 ) D e ca y m o d e : b y β ( 3 ) P h ys i c a l h a l f -l i f e : 64 . 1 h r ( 4 ) D e ca y e m i s s io n : 9 35 m e a n k e V , 10 0% em is s i on 5 . P r ec a u ti o n s a.
90
Y i br i tu m o m a b ti u xe t a n s h ou l d n ot be ad m i n is t e re d t o p a ti e nt s wi t h a lt e r e d
b i od is t r ib u ti o ns o f th e b.
90
111
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( 4 ) H yp oc e ll ul a r b o ne m a r r o w ( 5 ) H is t o r y o f fa il e d s te m c el l c ol l ec ti o n c . Ib r i tu m o m a b t i u xe t a n is c o n t ra in d ic at e d i n p at ie n ts wi t h k n o wn h y pe r sen s it i v i t y or a n a ph y l ac t ic re ac t io ns to m u ri n e p ro t ei ns . d . P a ti en t s wh o h a v e p r ev i o u s l y r ec e i v ed m u r in e -b a se d p r o te in t he r ap y s ho u ld be s c re e ne d f o r h um a n a nt im o us e a nt i bo d ie s . e . I nf us i on - r el a te d a d v e rs e e v e n ts , i nc l ud in g as the n i a , c h il ls , a n d n au s e a , a r e c om m o n a n d a r e us u al l y s e lf - li m i t ed . Tu m o r l ys is s y n d r om e h as b e en r ep or t e d a f te r r i t u xi m a b in f us i on s , wh i c h a r e p ar t of
90
Y ib r i tu m o m ab ti u xe t a n th e ra p y . P a t i en ts
s h ou l d b e m o n it o re d c los e l y fo r th is po t en t ia ll y fa t a l a d v e rs e e v e nt . G . T o s i tu m om a b a nd I od i n e I 13 1 To s i tu m om ab 1 . O ve r vi ew a . To s it um om a b a nd Io d in e 11 3 1 To s it um om a b a re p a rt of a t h e ra pe u ti c r eg i m e n i n di ca t ed f o r t he t re a tm en t o f p at i en ts wi t h C D 20 a n t ig en - e xp r e s s i ng r el aps e d o r r e f r ac t o r y , l o w g r ad e , f oll i c u la r , o r t ra ns f o rm ed no n - H o dg k i n 's l ym p ho m a, i nc l ud in g p a t ie n ts wi t h Ri t u xi m ab - re f r ac t o r y n o n - Ho d gk in ' s l y m p ho m a . b . Th e To s i t um om ab an d I o di n e I 13 1 Tos i tu m o m a b th e r ap eu t ic re g im en is an a n t in eo p la s ti c r ad i oi m m un o t he r ap e ut ic m o n oc lo na l an t ib od y- b as e d r e gi m e n c om p os ed o f t he m o no c lo n al an t ib o d y , Tos i tu m om a b, an d th e r a di o la be l ed m o no cl o na l a n ti bo d y , Iod i ne I 1 3 1 To s i tu m o m a b . c . To si t um om ab is a m u ri n e I g G 2 a la m bd a m on ocl o na l a n ti b od y d i re ct e d ag a in s t t he C D 2 0 an t ig e n, wh i c h is fo u n d o n t he s u r fa ce o f no r m al an d m al ig n an t B l ym p ho c y t es . To s i tu m o m a b is p r o du c e d i n a n a n tib i o ti c- f r ee c u l tu r e o f m am m a l ia n c e ll s a nd is c om p os ed of t wo m u ri n e g am m a 2a he a v y c h ai ns of 45 1 a m i no ac i ds
e a ch an d t wo l a m b da li gh t c h ai ns o f 2 20 am in o ac i ds e ac h . Th e a pp r o xi m a t e m o le cu l ar we i g ht o f To s it u m o m a b i s 1 50 k D. d . Th e th e r ap eu t ic re g im e n is a dm i ni s t e r ed in t wo d is c re t e s te ps : th e d os im e t ri c s t ep an d th e ra p eu t ic s t ep . E ac h s te p c on s i s ts o f a s e q ue n ti a l in f us i on of To s i t um om ab f ol lo we d by I o d in e I 1 31 To s i t um om a b. Th e th e ra p eu t ic s t ep is a d m i ni s te r ed 7 -1 4 d a y s a f t e r t he do s i m e t r ic s t ep. e . To s it um om a b b in ds s pe c if ic a ll y t o t h e C D 2 0 ( hu m an B -l y m p ho c y te - r es t ri c te d d i f fe r e nt ia t io n a n ti g en . Bp 3 5 o r B1 ) an t ig en . Th is a n ti g en is a t ra ns m em bra n e p h os p ho p ro t ei n e xp r e s s e d on p re - B l y m ph o c yte s a n d a t h ig h e r d en s i t y on m a tu r e B l ym p ho c y t es . Th e an t ig en is al s o e xp r e s s ed on >9 0 % o f B -c el l n on - H o dg k i n ' s l ym p ho m a s ( N H L ) . Po s s ib l e m ec ha n is m s o f a ct i on o f t h e B E XXA R t h e r a pe u t ic r e g im en in c l u de in du c ti on o f a po p to si s , c o m p l em e n t - de pe n de n t c y t ot o xi c it y ( C D C ) , a n d a n ti b od y - d ep e nd e nt c e ll ul a r c yt o to xi c i t y ( A DC C ) m ed i at e d b y t he an t ib o d y . 2 . D es c r i p ti o n a . To s it um om a b is s u pp l ie d as a s t e ri l e, p y r og e n -f r e e , c l e a r t o o pa l esc e nt, c ol o rl es s t o sl ig h tl y y e l lo w, p r e s e rv a t i v e - f r ee li qu i d c o nc e n t r a t e. I t is su p pl ie d a t a n o m i n al c o nc en t r at i on of 14 m g /m L o f To s i t um om ab in 35 m g an d 2 2 5 m g s i n gl e -u s e vi a ls . Th e f o rm u la t io n c on t ai ns 1 0 % ( w/ v ) m a l to s e , 1 4 5 m M s o d iu m c hl o ri d e, 10 m M p h os p ha t e a nd W at e r f o r I n je c ti on , U S P . p H i s a pp r o xi m a t el y 7 .2 . b . I od in e I 1 31 To s i t um om a b is a r a di o -i o di n at e d d e r i v a ti v e of To s i t um om a b th a t h as b e e n co v a l en t l y l i nk ed to I o di n e -1 31 . Io d in e I 13 1 To s i t um om ab is s up p li ed as a s t e ri le , c l ea r , p r es e r v a tiv e - f r e e l iq u id fo r I V a dm in i s t r a ti o n. Th e d os im e t ric do sa g e f o r m is s u p pl ie d a t n om in a l p r o te in an d a c ti vi t y co n c e n t ra t io ns of 0 .1 m g /m L a n d 0 . 6 1 m Ci / m L P.459 ( a t da t e o f c al ib r a ti o n) , re s pe c t i v e l y . Th e t he r a peu t ic do sa g e f o rm i s s up pl i ed a t n o m i n al p r o te i n a nd ac tiv i t y c o nc en t r at i on s o f 1 .1 m g / m L an d 5 . 6 m Ci / m L ( a t d a te o f c a li b ra t io n ) , r es p ec ti v e l y. Th e f o rm ul a ti on f or t he d o s i m e t r ic a n d t he t he r ap e u ti c d o sa g e f o rm s c o n ta in s 4. 4 % - 6. 6 % ( w/ v ) p o v i d on e, 1 - 2 m g / m L m a lt os e (d os im e t ri c d o se ) or 9 -1 5 m g /m L m a lt o s e ( th e r ap e ut ic do s e ) , 8 . 5 - 9. 5 m g/ m L s o d iu m c h l o ri d e, a n d 0 . 9 -1 . 3 m g / m L as c o rb i c ac i d. p H i s a pp r o xi m a t e l y 7 . 0 . 3 . B i od i s t r ib u t io n a . Th e m e di an bl o od c l ea r a nc e f o ll o wi n g a dm in is t r a t io n o f 4 8 5 m g o f To s it u m o m a b i n 11 0 p a ti en t s wi t h N H L wa s 6 8 .2 m g /h r ( r an ge : 3 0 . 2 -2 60 . 8 m g/ h r ) . ( P a tie n ts wi t h h i gh t um o r b ur d en , s pl e no m eg a l y, o r b o ne m a r row i n v o l v e m en t ha ve a f as t e r c l ea r an c e , s h o rt e r t e rm in a l h al f - li f e, an d l a r ge r vo l um e o f d is t r ib u ti on . ) b . Th e m e di a n t ot a l b od y e f f ec ti ve ha l f -l i fe , a s m ea s u re d b y t o ta l b od y g am m a c am e r a c o u nt s , i n 9 80 pa t i en ts wi t h N H L wa s 6 7 h o u rs ( ra n ge : 2 8 - 11 5 h ou r s ) . 4 . R a di o n uc l id i e Da t a a . S ee V I II . B .2 . b . 5 . Ad m i n is t r a t io n & D os i n g a . D os im e t ri c s t e p ( 1 ) To s it um om a b 4 50 m g i n t ra v e n ou s l y i n 5 0 m l 0. 9 % So d iu m C h lo r id e o v e r 6 0 m i nu t es .
( 2 ) I od in e I 1 31 To s i t um o m ab (c o nt a in in g 5 . 0 m Ci I od i ne - 13 1 a n d 3 5 m g To s i t um om ab ) in t r a v en ou s l y i n 3 0 m l 0 . 9% So d ium C hl o r id e o v e r 20 m i nut e s . b . T he r a pe u t ic s te p ( 1 ) To s it um om a b 4 50 m g i n t ra v e n ou s l y i n 5 0 m L 0 . 9 % S o di um C hl o ri d e ov e r 6 0 m i nu t es . ( 2 ) Th e re c om m e nd ed I od i ne I 1 3 1 To s i tu m o m a b d o s e is th e a ct i vi t y of Iod i ne - 1 31 c a lc ul a te d t o d e li v e r 75 c G y t o t al bo d y i rr a di a ti on a nd 35 m g To si t um om a b , a d m i ni s te r ed in t r a v en o us l y o v e r 2 0 m in u te s . ( P ati e n ts wi t h N Cl G r a de 1 3
t h r om b oc y t op e ni a (p la t ele t c o un t s = 1 0 0 ,0 00 bu t < 1 50 , 00 0 p l at e le ts / m m ) : r e c om m e nd e d d os e is 65 c G y t o ta l b o d y i r r ad i at i on ) . 6 . P r ec a u ti o n s a . Th e r ap e ut ic Io d in e I 13 1 To s i t um om ab s h o ul d n o t b e a dm i ni st e r ed to pa t i en ts wi t h a l te r e d b io di s tr i bu t io n s o f t h e I od i ne I 1 31 To s it um om a b im a gi n g a nd d os im e t r y d o se . b . Th yr o i d -b l oc k i ng m e dic a ti o ns s h ou ld be in i ti a te d a t le as t 24 ho u rs be fo r e r e c ei vi ng t he do s i m e t ri c d o s e an d c on t in u ed un t il 1 4 d a ys a f te r th e th e ra pe u t ic d o se . c . Th e m os t c om m o n a d ve r s e r ea c ti o ns we r e s e ve r e or li f e -t h r ea t en in g c yt o p en ia s . d . I od in e I 1 31 To s i t um om a b is c o n t ra in d ic at e d in p at i en ts wi t h k n o wn h yp e r se ns i ti v i t y o ra n ap hy l a c ti c r e ac ti o ns to m u r in e p ro t ei ns . Pa t ie n ts wh o h a ve p r e vi ou s l y r e c e i v ed m u r in e - ba s e d p r o te i n t he r a py s h ou l d b e s c r ee n ed f or h um a n a n t im ou s e an t ib o di es . e . h ype r s e ns i ti v i t y r ea c tio n s , in cl u di n g f at a l o ut c o m e, ha v e b ee n r e po r t ed. E m e r ge nc y s u p pl ie s i nc lu d in g m e di ca ti o ns fo r the t r ea tm e nt o f h yp e rs en si t i v i t y r e a ct i on s , e. g . , e pi n ep h ri n e , a nt i hi st am i ne s a nd c o r t ic os t e ro id s , s h o ul d b e a va i la bl e f o r im m e di a te us e i n t he e v e n t o f an al le r g ic re ac ti o n d u ri n g a dm in is t r at io n.
XIV. REFERENCES A. A m e r ic a n P h a rm ac eu ti c al As so c i a ti o n. N uc le a r P h a rm ac y P r ac t ic e Gu i de l in es . A c a de m y o f P ha rm a c y Pr a c ti c e , 1 9 95 . B . B e r ni e r D R, C h ri s ti an P E , L an g an J K . N uc le a r Me d i c i n e Te c hn o lo g y and Te c h n iq u es . S t . L o ui s , Mo s b y 1 9 94 . C . C h il t on H M, W it c o f s k i R : N uc l ea r P ha rm a c y : An I n tr o du c t i on to t he C li ni c al A p p li ca t io ns o f R a di o ph ar m ac e ut ic a ls . P h il a de lp hi a , L e a & Fe b ig e r 1 98 6 . D . S wa n s o n D P , C hi lt o n H M, Th r a l l J H . Ph a rm ac e u t ic al s i n Me d i c al Im ag in g . Ne w Yo r k , Ma c m il l an 19 9 0. E . U n i te d S t a te s P h a rm ac o pe i a D r u g I nf o rm a ti o n ( U S P D I ) 2 00 2 . P.460
STUDY QUESTIONS D i r e c t i on s fo r q ue s t io ns 1 - 7 : E ac h o f t h e q ue s tio n s , s t a te m e n ts , o r in c om p le t e s t a te m e n ts i n th is s ec t ion c a n b e c o r re c t l y a ns we r e d or co m p le t e d b y o ne o f th e s u gg es t ed an s we r s o r phr a s es . Ch oo s e t he be s t a n s we r .
1 . W hi c h o f th e fo l l ow in g em i ss i o ns f r om t he d e c a y o f r a d i o n uc l i de s i s mo s t c o m mo n l y u s e d i n nu c le a r me d ic i n e d ia g n os t ic i ma g i ng ? ( A ) x- r a y (B) β (C) α (D) γ ( E ) P os i t ro n V i e w A n s we r 1 . T h e a n sw e r i s D [ se e] . 2 . W h ic h o f t h e f o l low i n g r a d i o nu c l id e s i s m os t co m m on l y u s e d i n n uc l ea r p h a rm a c y p r a c t i c e ? ( A ) g al li u m - 6 7 (
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( E ) t ec h ne t iu m - 9 9m d i s of e n in V i e w A n s we r 4 . T h e a n sw e r i s B [ se e] . 5 . W h ic h o f t h e f o l low i n g r a d i o ph a r ma c eu t i ca l s is u se d in t he d ia g no s is o f ac u t e c h ol e c ys t i t i s ? ( A ) t ec h ne t iu m - 9 9m s u lfu r c o ll o id ( B ) t ec h ne t iu m - 9 9m m e dr o n a te di s o di um ( C ) t ec h ne t iu m -9 9m al bum i n ( D ) t ec h ne t iu m -9 9m e xa m e ta z i m e ( E ) t ec h ne t iu m - 9 9m d i s of e n in V i e w A n s we r 5 . T h e a n sw e r i s E [s e ea n d] . 6 . W h ic h o f t h e f o l low i n g c yc l o t r o n - p r o d uc e d ra di o p h a rm a ce u t ic a ls is us e d fo r a ss es s i ng r eg i on a l m yo c a r d i a l pe r f u si o n as p a r t o f an ex e r ci s e s tr e s s te s t ? 201
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V i e w A n s we r 6 . T h e a n sw e r i s A [ se e] . 7 . G lo m e ru l a r f il t r a t io n an d th e u r i n a r y c o l l e c t i o n s ys t e m ca n b e s t b e e va l u ate d us i n g w h i c h o f th e fo l l ow i ng a g e n ts ? ( A ) t ec h ne t iu m - 9 9m s u lfu r c o ll o id ( B ) t ec h ne t iu m - 9 9m a l bum i n ( C ) t ec h ne t iu m -9 9m s es ta m ib i ( D ) t ec h ne t iu m -9 9m di s of e n in ( E ) t ec h ne t iu m - 9 9m p e n te t a te V i e w A n s we r 7 . T h e a n sw e r i s E [s e e] . D i r ec t i o ns f o r qu e s ti o ns 8 -1 1 : Th e q u es t io ns an d i nc om p le te s ta t em en ts in t hi s se c ti o n c an be c o r r ec tl y a ns we r e d o r c om p le t ed b y on e o r m or e o f t h e su g ge s te d a nswe r s . C h o os e t he an s we r , A- E . 8 . T he de f i n it i o n o f th e o p t i ma l r ad i o ph a r ma c eu t i c al i nc l u de s w hi c h of t h e f o l l ow i ng a t t ri b u te s ? I . s ho r t ha l f - l if e I I . γ p h o to n w i th a 1 00 -3 0 0 k e V e n e rg y I I I . r ap i d l o ca l iz a ti o n i n t a r g e t t i ss u e a n d q u ick c le a r a nc e f r o m n o n tar g e t t is s ue A i f I o n l y i s c o r re c t B i f II I on l y i s c o r r ec t C i f I a n d I I a r e c or r ec t D i f II a nd I II a re c o r re c t E i f I, I I, an d II I ar e c o r re c t V i e w A n s we r 8 . T h e a n sw e r i s E [s e e] . 9 . W h ic h o f t h e f o l low i n g s t a te me n t s a r e t r ue f o r s o d iu m p e rt e c h ne t a te t ec h ne t i um -9 9 m ( I . I t i s us e d t o ra d i ol a be l a ll o th e r I I . Th e m o l yb d e n u m - 9 9 (
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0 . 1 5 k B q /M B q ). I I I . It h as a p h ys i c a l h a lf - l i f e o f 16 h r. A i f I o n l y i s c o r re c t B i f II I on l y i s c o r r ec t C i f I a n d I I a r e c or r ec t D i f II a nd I II a re c o r re c t E i f I, I I, an d II I ar e c o r re c t V i e w A n s we r 9 . T h e a n sw e r i s C [ se ea n d] .P . 46 1
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A m e t a b ol ic t ra pp i ng B p h ag oc y t o s i s C c a pi ll a r y bl oc k a d e D a c ti ve t ra ns p o rt E p as si v e di f f us io n V i e w A n s we r 1 2 . T he a nsw e r i s D [ se e] . 1 3. t ec h ne t i u m -9 9m a lb u mi n a g g r e ga t ed U S P A m e t a b ol ic t ra pp i ng B p h ag oc y t o s i s C c a pi ll a r y bl oc k a d e D a c ti ve t ra ns p o rt E p as si v e di f f us io n V i e w A n s we r 1 3 . T he a nsw e r i s C [ se e] . 1 4. t ec h ne t i u m -9 9m s ul f u r c o l lo id A m e t a b ol ic t ra pp i ng B p h ag oc y t o s i s C c a pi ll a r y bl oc k a d e D a c ti ve t ra ns p o rt E p as si v e di f f us io n V i e w A n s we r 1 4 . T he a nsw e r i s B [ se e] . 1 5. t ec h ne t i u m -9 9m ex a me t az i me A m e t a b ol ic t ra pp i ng B p h ag oc y t o s i s C c a pi ll a r y bl oc k a d e D a c ti ve t ra ns p o rt E p as si v e di f f us io n V i e w A n s we r 1 5 . T he a nsw e r i s E [s e e] . 1 6. f lu o r in e - 1 8 f l ud e ox yg l u c o s e A m e t a b ol ic t ra pp i ng B p h ag oc y t o s i s C c a pi ll a r y bl oc k a d e D a c ti ve t ra ns p o rt E p as si v e di f f us io n
V i e w A n s we r 1 6 . T he a nsw e r i s A [ se e] . P . 46 2
ANSWERS AND EXPLANATIONS 1 . T he an sw e r is D [ s ee I . B . 3. b ]. C u r r e n t c a m e r a t ec h no l og y m os t e f fi c i e n tl y d et ec t s γ r ad ia t io n . α a n d β em is si o ns a r e no t u s e f ul in nu c l e ar m ed ic i ne im ag in g b e ca us e o f th e ir ha r m fu l p a rt ic u l a te e m is s i on s a nd lo w t i s s u e p e ne t r at i on . Al t ho ug h x- r a y e m i ss io ns c a n b e u s e d as i n t h e c as e o f th e m er c ur y d a u gh t er o f t he t ha ll o us c h lo r id e
201
Tl pa r en t , t h ey a r e no t
e f f ic ie n tl y d e te c t e d. A nn ih i la t io n ra d ia ti o n a ss oc i a t e d wi t h po s i t r on de ca y c an be i m ag e d, bu t th is te c h n olo g y is c u r r en t l y l im i te d to a fe w s p ec ia li z e d c e nte r s . 2 . T he an sw e r is C [ s ee I I . A . 1 ] . 99m
Tc h a s b ec om e t he r ad i on u c l id e o f c h oi c e in cu r r e nt nu c l e a r p ha r m a c y p r ac t ic e 99m
s i nc e i ts in t ro d uc ti o n i n th e m i d -1 96 0s .
Tc f u l fil l s a ll of th e re q ui r em en ts o f t he
o p t im al ra d io p ha r m a c e u ti c al , wi t h i ts ph y s ic al ha lf - l i fe of 6 h r , 1 40 ke V γ e n e rg y e m is s i on , re a d y a v a i la bi li t y , c o st , an d a b il it y t o be r a di ol a be le d to a wi d e va r i e t y of b i ol o gi c a ll y a c t i v e c om po u n ds . 3 . T he an sw e r is A [ s ee I I . A . 1 .a ] . 99m
Tc i s o b ta i ne d v ia c om m e r c i a ll y s u p pl ie d , s te ri l e , p yr o ge n -f r e e g en e ra to r
s ys t em s . A g e ne r at o r i s a d e v ic e u s e d t o s ep a r ate a s ho r t h a lf - l if e ra di o nu c li de f r om t h e l o ng e r -l i v e d p ar e nt nu c li de , wh i le r e ta in i ng th e p a re n t t o p r od uc e m o re o f t h e d a u gh t er nu c l i de . In th is wa y , s h o r t - ha lf - l if e n uc l id e s c a n be m a de a v ai la bl e on a c o nt i nu o us b as is a t g re at d is t an c e s f r om th e s it es o f g en e ra t o r p r od uc t ion . 4 . T he an sw e r is B [ s ee I V . A . 2] . Th e
99m
Tc d i ph os ph o na te c o m p o un ds a re th e m os t po pu l a r b on e -i m a g in g a g e nt s
c u r re n tl y u s e d i n n uc l ea r m ed ic i ne im ag in g . Th e y a r e ra pi d l y ta k e n u p b y s k e l et a l b o n e; 50 % o f th e a dm in is t e re d d os e i s a ds o rb e d o n t o b on e h y d r o xy a p a t i te a nd th e r e m ai nd e r i s e xc r e t ed b y t h e k id ne y s . Th e i m a gi ng a d v an t ag es o f t he
99m
T c , c o up le d
wi t h t h e s en s i t i v it y o f b on e ag e nt lo c a li z a t i on i n s k e l et a l b on e h yd r o xya p a t i te , a l lo w f o r de t ec ti o n o f b o ne pa th o lo g y b ef o re e v id e nc e o f pa t ho l og y ca n be s h own b y c o n ven t io n al x- r a y . 5 . T he an sw e r is E [ s e e V I . C . 1 an d 2 ] . 99m
Tc d i s o f en in is an im in o di a c e ti c a ci d d e ri v a t i ve , wh i c h is us ef u l f o r h ep a t ob il i a r y
i m ag in g d u e t o i ts ab i li t y t o be s e le c t i v e l y c le a r ed b y a c a rr i e r- m e d ia t ed h e p at oc y t e p a t h wa y . L ac k o f g al lb l ad d e r v is ua li z a t io n i s a n a b n or m a l fi nd i ng s u gg est i ve o f a c ut e c h ol ec y s ti t is . 6 . T he an sw e r is A [ s ee I I I . A. 1 ]. R e g i on al up t ak e o f th al lo u s c h l o ri de s u pp l y. Th e i nj ec t io n o f
201
201
TI U S P is p r o po r ti o na l t o m y o ca r dia l bl oo d
TI i n c on c e r t wi t h a t rea d m i ll e xe r c is e s t re ss tes t
d e t e rm in es m y o c a r d ia l pe r f us i on at m a xi m u m ca rd i ac ou t pu t wh e n c ar d ia c d em a nd o u ts t r ip s s up pl y a nd t he d i s t r ib u ti o n o f
201
TI is l es s a f te r af f ec t ed b y c ol l at e r al bl o od
s u pp l y wi t h in th e m y o c a rd i um . Re g io ns t ha t d o no t t ak e u p
201
TI a r e i n te rp r e t ed as
a r e as of in f a rc t o r i s c hem i a. I f t he s e f oc al a re as o f de c re as e d u pt ak e s u bs e qu e nt l y
f i ll in wi t h r ed is t ri b ut e d
201
TI , t he y a r e i n te r p re t ed t o be ar e as of isc h em ia , i n
c o nt r as t wi t h a r ea s o f i n fa r c t, wh i c h r em ai n a s d im i ni sh e d a re as o f ac t i vi ty . 7 . T he an sw e r is E [ s e e V I I . B . 1 ] . 99m
Tc p e n te t at e i s c le a red t h ro u gh gl om e ru l ar f il t ra t i on in th e s am e m an ner a s i nu li n
a n d c an be us ed t o d et e rm i ne th e G F R a s we l l as i n t h e e va lu a ti o n o f o bs tr u c ti o n o f va s c ul a r s u p pl y a nd r ena l m o r ph ol o g y . 8 . T he an sw e r is E ( I , II, I I I ) [ s e e I . C ] . Th e o p ti m a l ra di o ph a rm ac e ut ic a l h as a ha l f -l i fe sh o r t e n ou gh t o m i n im i ze r a d ia t io n e xp o s u r e t o th e p a ti en t ye t lo n g e no u gh to al lo w f o r c o ll e c t i on of im ag in g i n f or m at io n . I t s h ou ld in c o r p o ra t e a γ - em it t in g rad i on u cl id e , wh i c h d ec a y s wi t h t h e e m is s i on of a p ho t on e ne r g y b et we e n 10 0 a n d 30 0 k e V , wh ic h i s e f fi ci ent l y d e te ct e d wi t h c u r re n t i ns t ru m e n ta ti o n . Th e r ad io p ha r m a c e ut i c a l s ho u ld lo c a li ze r ap id l y i n t he o r g an s ys t em of in t e re s t a n d b e m et a bo l i zed , e xc r e t e d, o r b ot h fr om t he no n t a rg e t t i ss ue s t o m a xi m i z e c on tr a s t a nd m i ni m i ze r ad ia t io n - ab s o r b ed do s e . 9 . T he an sw e r is C (I , II) [ s e e II . A a n d B ] . S o d iu m p e rt e c h ne t a te
99m
Tc U S P d e c a ys b y is om e r i c t r an s i t io n a nd ha s a p h y s ic al
h a l f- l if e o f 6 h r . Th e em is s i o n o f a γ ph o to n h as th e en e rg y o f 1 4 0 ke V . P.463
1 0 . Th e a n sw e r i s E ( I , II , I I I) [s e e V I . B . 1 ]. 99m
Tc s u lf u r c ol lo i d l oc ali z e s wi t hi n th e r e ti c ul oe nd o t he li a l s y st em ; 80 % -90 % of t he
d o se is p h ag oc y t i z e d b y t h e Ku p ff e r c el ls o f t he liv e r ; 5 % -1 0% , b y th e s ple e n ; a nd t h e b a la nc e , b y t he bo n e m a r ro w. 1 1 . Th e a n sw e r i s E ( I , II , I I I) [s e e V I I I. B ] . A l t h ou gh al l o f th e l is t ed a g en ts ac c u m u l at e i n t he t h y r oi d g l an d , o nl y s o di u m i od id e 123
I p os s e s s es id e al i m ag i ng c h a ra c te r is ti c s an d o r g an i fi c a t io n i n to th yr o id h o rm on e .
W hile th e i m a gi n g p r op er t i es of s o di um pe r t ec hne t a te
99m
Tc U S P a r e g o od , t he
p e r t ec hn e ta t e i on is tr a pp e d o nl y b y t he t h y r oi d an d no t o r g an i fi ed , th us lim i ti n g t he i n f or m at io n pr o v i de d b y th e im ag e . 1 2 . Th e a n sw e r i s D [ s ee I I I. A . 1 ] . Th a l l ou s c hl o ri d e
201
TI US P i s a m on o v a le n t c at i on wi t h di s tr i bu t io n a n al og o us to
+
+
+
p o t ass i um i o n ( K ) . My o c a r di al up t ak e i s b y ac t i ve t r an sp o r t v i a th e Na / K - A TP a s e pump. 1 3 . Th e a n sw e r i s C [ s ee V . A . 1 ] . A f t e r I V ad m i n is t ra t io n of
99m
Tc a l b um i n a gg r eg a te d U S P , 8 0% o f t he r ad io l ab e le d
a l bu m i n p a r ti c l es be c o m e t r ap p ed b y c ap i ll a r y blo c k a de in th e p u lm on a r y c i rc u la ti o n . 1 4 . Th e a n sw e r i s B [ s ee V I . B . 1 ]. A f t e r t h e a dm in is t r at i on o f
99m
Tc s u lf u r c ol l oi d , 80 % - 90 % o f th e d os e i s
p h a go c y ti z e d b y t h e K u pf f e r c el ls o f t he li ve r ; 5 %- 1 0 % , b y th e s pl e en ; an d t h e b a la n ce , b y t he b on e m ar r o w. 1 5 . Th e a n sw e r i s E [s ee I X. A . 1 ]. 99m
Tc e xa m e t a z im e i s u s e d fo r e v al u at i ng br a in pe r f us i on . I t po s s es s e s a l i po p hi li c
p a r ti t io n c o ef f ic ie n t t ha t i s s u ff ic i en t t o d i f fu s e pas s i v e l y ac r os s t he B B B al m os t
c om p le t el y wi t h i n o ne pas s o f t h e c er e b ra l c ir c ul at i o n, an d th a t is s u f fi c i ent l y r e t ai n ed t o p er m i t da t a c o l le c ti on . 1 6 . Th e a n sw e r i s A [ s ee I X. B . 1 ]. 18
F fl u de o xy g l u c os e is us e d i n e v a lu a ti n g ce r eb ra l fu nc t io n b y m ap pi n g th e
d i st r ib u ti o n o f c e re b ra l gl u c o s e m e ta b ol is m . A s an a na lo g of gl uc os e ,
18
F
f l u de o xyg l u c os e is t ra ns p o r t ed in t o t he b ra in b y c a r ri e r -m e di at e d t r an s p or t m ec h an is m s re s p o ns ib l e f o r tr a ns po r t in g g lu c os e a c ro s s th e B B B. B ec au se t he p r e se nc e o f th e f l ou r in e a t om in t he 2 p os it i on pre v e n ts m e t ab o li s m b e y on d th e p h os p ho r y l at i on s t e p, b r a in .
18
F f lu d eo xyg l u c o se be com es m e t ab ol ic a ll y t r ap p ed wi t h i n t he
20 Pharmaceutical Care and Disease State Management P e g g y C . Y a r b o r o ug h
I. INTRODUCTION A. P r a c t i c e o f ph a r ma cy. Th e p r ac t ic e o f p h a rm a c y em b ra ce s a v a r ie t y o f s e t ti ng s , p at i en t p o pu la t io n s , an d s p ec ia li s t a nd g e n er a li st ph a rm ac is t s . C e n t r al to th e pr ac t ic e o f p h a rm ac y, ho we v e r , is th e p ro vi s i on o f cl i ni c a l s e r vic es di r ec t l y to , a n d f o r th e b e ne f it o f, pa t i ent s . B . D e f i ni t i o n. Th e te r m p h a r ma c eu t i ca l c a r e (s o m et im es c a ll e d p h a r ma c is t ca r e ) d es c rib e s s p e ci fi c a c t i vi ti es and se r v i c e s t h ro u gh wh i c h a n in di vi d ua l p h ar m a c i s t “ c o op e ra t es wi t h a pa t ien t an d o t he r p ro f ess i on al s i n de si gn i ng , i m p l em en t in g an d m on i to r in g a t he ra p e ut ic pl a n t ha t wi l l p r o du c e s p ec i fi c t he r a peu t ic ou t co m e s f o r t he pa ti e n t. ”
1
C . P h a rm ac eu t ic al c a r e is in c re as i ng l y be in g a u gm e nt e d b y ac t i v it i es th a t m a y be de s c r ib e d a s f o cu s e d a r ea s o f p r ac t i ce , wh e r e i n t h e p ha r m a ci st i s e n g ag ed in : 1 . D r u g m o ni t o r i ng , fo r a s p ec i fi c d r ug o r f o r t her a p y f o r a s pe c i f ic di s e as e s t a te 2 . D i se a se mo n i to r i n g, f o r a s p e ci fi c d is e as e s ta t e 3 . D r u g t h e r ap y a n d d i se a s e m an a ge me n t / co l lab o r a t i ve p ra c t ic e , b y p ro t oc o l 4 . A p h a rm ac is t m a y i nc o r p o ra t e o ne o r m o r e a re a s o f f oc us e d p r ac ti c e in t o a g e n er a l p r ac ti c e of p ha rm ac y o r m a y s p ec ia l i ze wi t h i n a n a rr o w f i el d o f pr a c ti c e . E xa m p l e s o f h ig h l y s pe c ia l i z ed p ra c ti c e in cl ud e ph a r m a c i s t - di r ec t ed di a bet e s m a na g em en t c li n ic s , h y pe r t e ns io n c li ni c s , a n ti c o ag u la t io n c li n ic s , an d h os p i t al b a se d i n fe c t i ou s d is ea s e s e r v ic es .
II. SCOPE OF PRACTICE WITHIN PHARMACEUTICAL CARE A. R o l e . P h ar m a c e u ti c al c a re ha s e v o l v ed f r om an em p ha si s o n p r e v en t ion o f d r ug r e l at e d p r ob l em s ( ba s i c al l y d r u g m an a ge m en t ) to t he e xp a n de d ro le s o f p h a rm ac is ts in t he t r ia ge o f pa t ie n t s, t r ea t m en t o f r o u ti n e a cu t e il l ne ss e s , m a n ag e me n t o f ch r o n ic d i s ea se s , a nd p r im a r y d i s ea s e p r e ve n t io n . B . F u nc t i o n. Th e p r o v is io n of ph a rm ac e ut ic a l c a re d oe s n ot im pl y t h at t he p h a rm ac is t i s n o l on g e r re s po ns i bl e f o r d is pe n si ng f un c ti on s . I n m an y i ns ta n c e s, h o we ve r , im p le m e n ta t io n o f ph a rm ac eu t ic al ca r e s e r v ic es ne c e ss i ta t es a re d es i gn of t h e p r o fe s s io n al wo r k fl ow, wi t h as s i g nm en t of tec h ni ca l f u nc ti o ns to te c hn i c a l p e r so nn e l u nd e r t h e d ir ec t s u pe r v i s i on an d re s p on s i b il i t y of th e p h a rm ac is t . P.466
Table 20-1. Uniqueness of Pharmaceutical Care
Traditional Characteristic Pharmacy
Clinical Pharmacy
Pharmaceutical Care
Primary focus
Prescription order or OTC request
Physicians or other health professionals
Patient
Continuity
On demand
Discontinuous
Continuous
Strategy
Obey
Find fault or prevention
Anticipate or improve
Orientation
Drug product
Process
Outcomes
OTC, over the counter.
III. UNIQUENESS OF PHARMACEUTICAL CARE. P r o vi si o n o f p h ar m a c eu tic a l c a r e o v e r l ap s so m e wh a t wi t h o t he r as pe c t s o f p h a rm ac y p r a ct ic e ( Ta bl e 2 0 -1 ) . Ho we v e r , p h a rm ac eu t ic al c a r e is no t th e s am e a s th e s e ot h e r a r e as , wh ic h i nc l ud e A. C l i n i c a l p h a rm a c y B . P a t ie n t c o u ns e li n g C . P h a r ma c eu t i ca l s e r vi c e s ; wh e n th e a c ti vi t ie s o f a p ha rm a c y o r ph a rm a c y d e p ar t m e n t a r e p er f o rm ed f o r “ f ac el es s ” p at i en ts o r ch a r ts , t h e ac t i vit y i s o n e o f p h a rm ac y s e r v i c e , no t ph a r m a c e u ti c a l c a re (i . e ., c ha r t o r d ru g p r o fi le r e vi e ws wi t h o u t i n pu t fr om t he pat i e nt o r c a r e gi v e r i s n o t p h a rm ac e ut ic al ca r e ).
IV. ESSENTIAL COMPONENTS OF PHARMACEUTICAL CARE A. P h a r m a c is t - pa t i en t re l a t io n s hi p . The im po r ta n c e of pu t t in g a fa ce and p e r so na l it y wi t h t he c l in ic a l p ic tu r e i s a k e y c o m po n e nt of ph a rm ac e ut ic a l c a r e. A p h a rm ac is t c an ha v e a c a r i ng r el a ti on s hi p wi t h a p a t ie n t b ut no t wi t h a c ha r t o r d ru g p r o fi l e. A ph a rm ac is t c ann o t h a ve e m pa t h y f o r wor d s o n a pa g e o r o n a c om p ut e r s c re e n. P ha r m a c e u ti c a l c a r e is ba se d o n a co ll ab o r a ti v e ef f o rt be t we e n ph a r m a c i s t a n d p a ti e nt . B . P h a r ma c is t ' s w o r k u p o f d r ug t he r a p y ( P W D T ) . Th e p ro vi si o n o f p ha rm ac e ut ic a l 2
c a r e is of t en c e n te r ed a ro u n d a p r oc es s d es c r i bed as t he PW DT. Th e PW D T c o nt a in s t he t ho u gh t p r oc es s es n ec es s a r y f o r p ha r m ac eu t ic al c a r e. Th e PW D T is to o l e ng t h y to be us e d as the c h a r t n ot e fo r ph a rm aci s t i nt e r v e nt i on s; an a bb re vi a t ed f o r m a t k n o wn as a F A R M ( f i nd in g s, as s e ss m e nt , re s ol u ti on s / re c o m m en d at io n , a n d m o ni t o ri ng ) no t e o r a S OA P ( s ub je c ti v e , o b je c t i v e, a s s es s m e n t , a nd pl a n) n o t e is m o r e a pp r op r ia t e f o r a c h a r t n o ta t io n ( Ta bl e 2 0 -2) . N o ne t he l ess , it is h e lpf u l t o th e
p h a rm ac y s tu de n t , o r t o a p ha r m a ci st en t e ri n g a n e w f i e ld of ph a rm ac y p ra c ti c e , to wr i t e o u t c om pl e te PW DTs f o r a v a r ie t y o f p a ti ent s as t r a in in g o r o ri en t a tio n e xe r c i s es . Al th o ug h th e fo r m s an d m e th od s u s e d f o r th e PW D T m a y v a r y, t h e c om p on e nt s a r e e s s en t ial l y t he sa m e . 1 . D a ta c ol l ec t i on . C ol le c t , s y n th es i z e , a nd in t er p r e t r e le v a n t i nf o rm a ti on , s u ch as : a . P at i en t d em o g ra p hi c d a t a: ag e , r a c e , s e x b . P e rt i ne n t m e d ic al in f or m a ti o n ( 1 ) C u r re n t a nd pa s t m ed i c a l h is t o r y ( 2 ) F am il y hi s to r y ( 3 ) S oc ia l h is t o r y ( 4 ) D ie t a r y hi s t o r y ( 5 ) Me d i c a t io n h is t o r y (pr e s c r ip t io n , O TC , so c i al d r u gs ; a l le r gi es ) ( 6 ) P h ys i c a l f i nd in gs ( e.g . , we i gh t , h e ig h t, bl o od p r e s s u re , e d em a) ( 7 ) La b o ra t o r y o r ot h e r te s t r e s u lt s (e . g. , s e ru m d r u g l e v el s , p ot as s i um leve l , se r um c r e at i ni ne as re l e v an t to d r u g t h er a p y ) c . P at ie n t c om pl ai n ts , s y m p to m s , s ig ns P.467
Table 20-2. Components of a FARM Note and a SOAP Note PWDT Component
FARM Note
SOAP Note
The identified or suggestive patient-specific information that gives a basis for or leads to the recognition of a pharmacotherapy problem or indication for pharmacist intervention Findings
Findings (F)
Subjective and objective data incorporated into same section
Desired outcomes Desired end points
Subjective data (S) separated from objective data (O)
Assessment (A)
The pharmacist's clinical judgment based on his or her findings—thus it is no better than the database (the
Drug-related problems Therapeutic selection
findings); the assessment forms the basis for the intervention plan
Resolutions/Recommendation (R)
Monitoring parameters
Plan (P) Monitoring (M)
Follow-up 2 . D e vel o p o r i d en t if y t he C O R E p h a rm a co t h e rap y p l a n
3
a . C = c o nd i t io n or pa t ie n t n e ed . N ot e t h at t hi s m a y in cl u de no nm e di c a l c o nd i ti on s o r n ee ds an d i s t hu s n o t a r ei t e ra t io n o f th e c u r ren t m e di ca l p r o bl em s . b . O = o u t co m e (s ) de s i re d fo r th e c o nd it i on s o r n e e ds . ( 1 ) P a ti e n t o u tc o me s ( PO E MS : p a t ie n t -o r ie n te d e v i d e nc e t ha t m a tt e rs ) . Th e r e a re g e n er a ll y f i v e c at e go r ie s o f pa ti e n t o ut c o m e s : ( a ) Mo r t a l it y ( b ) Mo r b i d it y ( i ) R e la t ed to di s e as e p ro c es s ( i i ) R el a te d to m e di c a t ion / t r ea tm e nt pl a n ( c ) B eh a v i o r ( d ) E c o n om ic ( e ) Q u al i t y o f li fe ( 2 ) T he r a pe u t ic e nd po in t s (s u r ro g at e m a rk e rs ; D O E S : d is e as e -o r ie n te d e v i d e nc e) ( a ) A th e ra p eu t ic e n d p oin t r ep r es e nt s t he ph a rm a c ol o gi c a l o r th e ra p eu t ic e f f ec t t ha t i s e xp e c t e d, ul t im at e l y , to ac h ie ve th e d e si r ed out c om e (s ) . ( b ) Mo r e t h an on e e n d po i n t is us ua l l y n e ed e d t o a ch i e ve a n o ut c om e— f or e xa m p l e, b o t h n ea r - no r m a l g l y c e m i c c on t r ol an d n o rm al i z a ti o n o f b l oo d p r es su r e a re n e ce ss a r y to s i gn i fi c a n tly r e d uc e th e r is k o f e n d -s t ag e re n al di s e as e . c . R = r e gi m en t o ac h ie v e t he de si r e d o ut c o m e ( s ) ( 1 ) T he r a pe u t ic r e gi m en s ( a ) E x is t i ng t he r a p y. F o r e xa m p l e, a p ha r m a c i s t i s a s k ed t o wo r k wi t h a pa t i en t f o r wh o m o ne o r m o r e a g en ts a re al r ea d y p re s c r ib e d f o r th e d is e as e p r oc es s o r p r o bl em . ( i ) E v a l ua t e t he c u r r en t d r u g r e gi m e n f o r i ts p ot en t i al to ac hi e ve d es i r ed e n d p oi n ts a n d t o m ee t th e p a ti e nt ' s i n di v i du a l n ee ds . ( i i ) R e vis e t h e r e gim e n as ap p r op r ia t e. ( b ) I n it i a l t h e ra p y. A p h a r m ac is t is as k e d t o wo rk wi t h a p at i en t wh o s e c o n di t io n wa s n e wl y d i ag n os ed o r i s a s k ed t o d e vel o p a n in i t i a l t r ea t m e n t p la n . ( i ) L is t t he t he r ap e ut ic op t i on s ( d ru g a n d r e gi m en ) m o s t li k e l y t o ac h ie v e t h e d es i re d e n d p oi n ts .
( i i ) S el ec t th e o p ti on be s t s ui t ed fo r th e p a ti e nt ' s m e di c a l , p h ys ic a l ( e .g . , h a n di c a p ), p s yc ho s o c i al ( e. g . , s u p po r t s y s t em ) , m en t al (m o tiv a t i o n, de n ia l , f ea r ) , a n d f i na nc i al we l l - b e in g . P.468
( 2 ) G o a l s et t i n g a nd b eh a vi o r r e g im e ns . Th e pa t i en t i s a n e s s en t ia l p a rt n e r f o r s e t ti ng an d a c h i e v in g i n te r m ed ia t e - a nd s h o rt - t e rm go a ls a n d t he be h a v ior c ha n ge s n e ce ss a r y to ac hi e v e t h os e g o al s . To c o ns t r uc t e ff e c ti v e be ha v i o r re gi m ens , th e p h a rm ac is t p r ac t it i on e r m us t in c o r po r a te th e fo llo wi n g c o nc e pt s : ( a ) I de n ti f y th e t yp e o f g o a l be in g s e t, s u ch as t he f ol l o wi ng : ( i ) S t a r t a ne w p o s i t i v e a c ti o n —f o r e xa m p l e, s t ar t a n e xe r c is e p r o gr a m . ( i i ) I nc r e as e t h e f r eq u enc y o r i n te n si t y of a p os i tive a c ti on — f o r e xa m p le , d r i nk t wo m o r e cu ps o f wa t e r da il y . ( i i i ) S to p o r d ec r e as e the f r eq u en c y o r in t en s i t y o f a d es t ru c ti v e ac ti o n —fo r e xa m p l e , s to p s m ok i ng . ( i v) C o n t i n ue an ac ti o n th a t i s “ p e rf ec t ” — fo r e xa m p le , c on t in u e t o e xe r c is e 3 0 m in a d a y, e ve r y da y . ( b ) S t at e th e b eh a v i o r go a l i n t e rm s t ha t ar e c l ea r , s pe c i fi c , a nd r ea s o na b l e . ( i ) S e t t i me l im i ts — f o r exa m p l e , “ O ve r t h e n e xt 3 we e k s . ” ( i i ) Ta r g et a s pe c i f ic act i o n — fo r e xa m pl e , “ I wi l l wa l k . ” ( i i i ) Se t me as u r e s a nd fr e q u e nc y— f o r e xa m p l e, “ s i x b l oc k s , t h r ee da ys a we e k . ” ( i v) D i vi d e a b i g ta sk int o s e v e r al sm al l o ne s , m a k in g e ac h c ha n ge s m al l r e la t i ve t o t h e c u r re n t p at i en t b e hav i o r . Th e o l d s a y i n g “ I t ' s h a r d b y th e y a rd , bu t a c i nc h b y t h e i nc h ” i s t r ue . d . E = e va l ua t i o n p a ra me t e r s t o a s s es s o u tc om e a c h i e v em en t . ( 1 ) E f f ic a c y p a r a m e t e r s. W hat s h ou l d b e m o n it or e d , h o w o f t en , a n d b y wh o m t o e n su r e t h at t he r ap e ut ic e n d p oi n ts o r p at i en t o u tc om e s a re be i ng ac hi e v ed . ( 2 ) T ox i ci t y p a r a m e t e rs. W hat s h ou l d b e m o n it or e d , h o w o f t en , a n d b y wh o m t o e n su r e t h at ad v e r s e e ff ec t s , al l er g ic re ac t io ns , or t o xi c i t y is n o t o cc u rr i ng . 3 . I de n t i f y t h e P R I M E ph a r m ac o t he r a p y p r o b l e m s o r in d ic a ti on s f o r p har m ac is t 4
5
i n t er ve n t io ns , s o m et im es r ef e r r ed to as d r u g -r e la t e d p r ob le m s . Th e go al is to i d en t i f y a c tu al o r p ot e nt ia l pr o bl em s t h at c o ul d c o m p ro m i se th e d es i r ed pa t i en t o u tc om e s ( Ta b le 20 - 3 ) . a . P = p ha r m ac e u ti c al - ba s e d p r o bl e ms ( 1 ) P a ti en t n o t re c e i v in g a p r es c r ib e d d r ug , d e v ice , o r i nt e r v e nt i on ( 2 ) R o ut in e m o ni t or i ng (la b s , s c r ee ni n gs , e xa m s ) m is si ng
Table 20-3. PRIME Pharmacotherapy Problem Types
P = Pharmaceutical-based problems • •
Patient not receiving a prescribed drug, device, or intervention Routine monitoring (labs, screenings, exams) missing
R = Risks to patient • •
Adverse drug reaction/drug allergy Potential for overlap of adverse effects (must be kept in mind as part of the workup or evaluation of any new complaint or problem reported by patient)
I = Interactions •
Drug-drug, drug-disease, drug-food interactions
M = Mismatch between medications and condition or patient needs • •
No indication for a current drug, device, or intervention Indication for a drug, device, or intervention but none prescribed
E = Efficacy issues • • •
Too much of the correct drug Too little of the correct drug Wrong drug, device, intervention, or regimen prescribed; more efficacious choice possible
Adapted with permission from Canaday BR, Yarborough PC. Documenting pharmaceutical care: Creating a standard. Ann Pharmacother 1994;28:12921296. P.469
b . R = ri s ks t o p a ti e n t ( 1 ) A d ve rs e d r ug r ea c t i on / d r ug al le r g y ( 2 ) P o te n ti al fo r o v e rl a p o f ad v e r se e ff ec t s ; m us t b e k e pt in m i nd as pa r t of t h e wo r k u p o r e v a lu a ti on o f a n y n e w c om pl ai n t o r p ro b le m re po r t ed b y pa ti e nt c . I = in t e r ac t i on s ( 1 ) D r ug - d ru g , d r ug - d is ea s e, d ru g - fo o d, d ru g -l a b i n t er a c t i on s d . M = m i sm a t ch be t we en m e d ic at i on s a nd co nd i ti o n o r pa ti e n t n ee ds ( 1 ) N o i nd ic a ti o n f o r a c ur r e n t d r ug , d e v i c e , o r in te r v e n t io n ( 2 ) I nd ic a ti on f or a d r ug , d e v ic e , o r i n te r v e n ti o n bu t no n e p r es c r i be d ( 3 ) P e rc ei v e d o r ac tu a l ba r r i e rs t o i m p l em en t at i on o f m e di c a t io n o r b e ha v io r r e g im en , s uc h a s f i na nc ia l c o ns t ra i nt s ; li f es t y l e is su e s ; an d i n te ll ec t u al , p h y s ic al , o r e m ot i on al li m i t a ti on s . e . E = e f fi c ac y i s s ue s ( 1 ) To o m uc h o f th e c o r re c t d r ug ( 2 ) To o li t tl e o f t h e c or r ec t dr u g ( 3 ) W ron g d r ug , d e v ic e , in t e r v e nt i on , o r r eg im en p r e s c ri b ed o r m o r e e f fi ca c io us c h oi ce po s s ib l e C . D o c um e n ta t i on o f p ha r m a ce u t ic a l c a re . Fo rm u la t e a F AR M no t e o r S O AP n o t e t o de sc r ib e a n d d oc um en t t he i n t er v e n ti o ns i n te nd e d o r pr o vi de d b y t h e ph a r m a c i st . S o m e h ea l th c a r e f ac i li ti es m a y sp ec i f y on e f o rm at o ve r th e o t he r ; p h ar m ac is t s n ee d t o be co m e p ro f ic ie n t i n ea c h. 1 . F o rm a t o f a F AR M n ot e a . F = f in d i ng s . Th e p at ie n t -s p ec if ic in f o rm at i on th a t g i ves a b as is fo r , o r l e ad s t o , t h e re co g ni t io n o f a ph a rm ac o th e r ap y p r ob le m o r i n d i c a t io n fo r ph a rm ac is t i n t er ve n t io n . W ith in th e F A R M f o r m a t , f in d in gs inc l ud e s ub j ec ti ve an d o b je c ti ve i n f or m at io n ab ou t th e p at i e nt . b . A = a ss e ss m en t . Th e p h a rm ac is t 's e val u at i on o f t he fi n di ng s , i nc lu di n g s t a te m e n ts o f : ( 1 ) A n y ad di t io n al in f or m a t i on th a t i s n ee de d to be s t a ss es s t he p ro bl em to m a k e r e c om m e nd a ti on s ( 2 ) Th e s e v e r it y , p ri o ri t y , o r u rg en c y of t he pr o bl em ( 3 ) Th e s h o rt - t er m a nd lo n g - te rm go a ls of th e i n te r v e n t io n p r op os e d o r p ro vi d e d. ( a ) E xa m p le s o f s h o r t - ter m g o al s : e li m i n at e s ym p t om s , l o we r bl oo d p r ess u r e ( B P ) t o 14 0 /9 0 m m H g wi t hi n 6 we e k s, m a na g e ac u te a s th m a f la r eu p wi t ho u t re q ui r i ng h o sp i ta li z a t io n ( b ) E xa m p l es o f lo n g - te rm g oa l s : p r e ven t re cu r re n ce , m ai n ta i n B P at < 13 0 / 80 m m H g , p re v e n t p r og r es s i o n o f di a be t ic n e r v e d is e as e c . R = r e so l u ti o n (i nc lu di n g p r e v en t io n ) . Th e in t er ve n t i on pl an in c l u de s ac t u a l o r p r o po s e d a c ti o ns b y t h e p h a rm ac is t o r r ec om m e nd a t io ns to o th e r h ea l th c ar e p r o f ess i on al s . Th e r at i ona l e f o r c ho os i ng a s p ec i fi c i n te r ve n ti o n s h o ul d b e s t at e d. I n t e r ven t io n o p ti o ns m a y i nc l ud e t h e f ol l o wi n g: ( 1 ) O bs e r v i ng , re as s e s s in g , o r fo l lo wi n g — no in t er v e n t i on ne ce s s a r y a t th is t im e. I f n o ac ti o n wa s t ak en o r re c om m e nd e d, t he F A R M n o t e s e r v e s a s a re c o r d o f t he e ve n t a n d s ho ul d c on s ti tu t e p a r t o f t h e p at i en t ' s p h a rm ac y ch a r t o r d a ta ba s e. ( 2 ) C o un s e li n g o r e d uc ati n g t h e p at i en t o r c a r eg ive r
6
( 3 ) Ma k i ng r ec om m e nd a ti o ns to t he pa t ie n t o r c a re g i v e r ( 4 ) I nf o rm in g th e p r es c rib e r ( 5 ) Ma k i ng r ec om m e nd a ti o ns to t he pr e s c ri b e r ( 6 ) W it hh o ld i ng m e di c a t io n o r a d vis in g a ga i ns t us e d . M = m o n i to r i n g a nd fo l lo w- u p . Th e pa r am e te rs an d ti m i ng o f f ol lo w- u p m on i to r in g t o as se s s th e e f fi c a c y , s a f e t y , a n d o ut c o m e o f t he i nt e r v e nt i on . Th is p o r tio n of t he F A R M n o t e s h o ul d i nc lu de t he f ol lo wi n g : ( 1 ) Th e pa r am e te r to be f o l lo we d ( e .g . , p ai n , d epr e s s e d m o o d, se r um po ta ss i um l e ve l ) ( 2 ) Th e in t en t o f th e m oni t o ri n g ( e .g . , e f fi c a c y , toxi c i t y , a d ve rs e e ve n t ) ( 3 ) H o w t h e p a ra m e t e r wi l l b e m on i to r ed ( e. g ., p at i e nt in t e r vie w, s e ru m d ru g le v e l , p h ys ic al e xa m in a ti o n) P.470
( 4 ) F re q ue nc y o f m on i to ri n g ( e . g. , we e k l y , m o nt h ly ) ( 5 ) D u ra t io n o f m o ni t or i ng ( e .g . , u n ti l r es o l ved , wh i l e on an t ib i ot ic , un t il re s ol v e d t h e n m o n th l y f or 1 y ea r ) ( 6 ) A n ti c i pa t ed o r d es i red f in d in g ( e . g. , n o p a in , e u gl y c em i a, he a li ng o f les i on ) ( 7 ) D ec is i on po in t to al t er t h e ra p y wh e n o r if ou t c o m e is no t ac hi e v e d ( e .g. , p ai n s ti ll p r e se n t a ft e r 3 da y s , m ild h y p og l y c e m i a m o re th an t wo t im es a we ek ) 2 . F o rm a t o f a S O AP n o t e . Th e S O A P f o rm a t is th e on e u se d m os t o f te n b y m ed ic a l p r a ct i ti o ne rs ; ho we v e r , wh e n u s e d wi t hi n th e p ha r m a c eu t ic al c a r e co n text , t h e c o nt e nt o f t he s e c t i on s m us t be r e v is ed to m a tc h t he ph a rm ac is t ' s l eg a l s c o p e o f p r a ct ic e . a . S = s ub j ec t i ve f in d i ng s . Th e p a ti en t - s p ec i fi c s u bj ec t iv e i nf o rm a ti o n t ha t gi ve s a b a si s f o r, o r l ea ds t o, the r ec o gn i ti on o f a p h ar m a c ot h e ra p y p ro bl em o r i nd i ca t io n f o r ph a rm ac is t i n te r v e n tio n . W ith i n t he S O A P fo rm a t , p at i en t f i nd in g s a re d e li ne a te d i n t o su b je c t i v e a n d o bj ec t i v e da t a . ( 1 ) S ub j ec ti v e da t a a r e op e n t o i n di vi du a l i nt e r pr et a t io n , wh e r e as ob j ec ti v e d a ta a re e a si l y du pl ic a t ed or qu an t i fi e d. E xa m p le s o f s ub je c ti ve f in di n gs i nc l ud e t he p at i en t ' s s t a te m e n t o f c om pl ai n t ( th e c h ie f c om pl a in t ; c c ) an d du r a ti on o r s e ve r i t y of s ym p to m s . ( 2 ) S om e ti m e s , th e d a t a t o be no t ed a re no t c l ea rl y d e li ne a te d a s s ub j ec tiv e o r o b je c ti v e o r t he r e m a y be a p r e po nd e r an c e of one t y p e o f d a ta . In th es e in s ta nc e s, t h e s ub j ec ti v e an d ob je c t i v e da t a m a y b e c om bi ne d as a s i ng l e s e c ti o n, la b el e d “ S / O F i n di ng s .” b . O = o b j ec t i ve f in d in gs . Th e pa ti e n t- s p e c i fi c ob j ec t iv e i nf o rm a ti o n t ha t g i v e s a b a si s f o r, o r l ea ds t o, the r ec o gn i ti on o f a p h ar m a c ot h e ra p y p ro bl em o r i nd i c a t io n f o r ph a rm ac is t i n te r v e n tio n . E xa m pl es o f o bj ec t i ve i nf o rm a ti o n in c l u de la bo r a t or y d a t a, we i g ht , he ig h t , b loo d p re s s u re , a n d p ul s e . c . A = a ss es s me n t . I n th e m e di ca l m od e l, th e as s e ss m e n t s ta t es th e p hy s i ci a n 's wo r k i n g d ia g no s i s a nd / o r p os s i b le e xp l a na t io ns for t h e p at i en t ' s m e d ic al p ro b le m (s ) . I n t he ph a rm ac eu t ic al c ar e m o d el , h o we v e r , di a gn o s i s is no t no r m a ll y wi t h i n t h e p h a rm ac is t ' s s c o pe of p ra c ti c e . In s te ad , th e a s s es s m e nt s ec t io n i nc l ud es t h e
p h a rm ac is t ' s e v a lu a ti o n o f t he s u bj ec t i v e a nd ob je c ti v e f in di n gs i n a m a nne r si m i la r t o t he de s c ri p ti o n o f t h e a s s e s s m e nt in th e F A R M f o rm a t ( s ee I V. C . 1 .b ) . d . P = p l an . In th e m ed ic a l m o d el , th e p la n s t at es t he ph ys ic ia n ' s i nt e nd ed d r ug r e g im en ( s ), s u r gi c a l p r oc e d u re s , a nd / o r di a gn os t ic t es ts . I n th e p ha r m a ceu t ic a l ca r e m o de l , p ha r m a c i s t s m a y n o t h a v e th e a u th o ri t y t o i n it i at e o r al t er d ru g t h er a p y r e g im en s o r o r d e r l ab o rat o r y t es ts . La bo r a to r y o r p r e s c ri p ti v e a ut h or i t y m ay b e g r a n te d o n a s t a te - b y s t at e ba s i s , u nd e r c ol la b o rat i v e p ro t oc ol wi t h s p ec if ic p h ys ic ia n (s ) or wi t h in a s p ec if ic he a lt hc a r e f ac il i t y o r s ys t em . Ac ti o ns i n c l u de d wi t h i n th e p l an s ec t io n s h o ul d b e i d en t if i ed as rec o m m e n de d a c ti on s wh en a p p ro p r ia t e. In t he ph a rm ac e ut ic a l ca r e m od e l, th e pl an is us ua ll y e xp a n d e d t o d e sc r ib e i n fo rm a ti o n i nc lu d e d in t he m o ni t o ri ng an d fo l lo w- u p s e c t i on of th e F A R M n o t e ( se e I V . C . 1. d ) .
V. FOCUSED AREAS OF PRACTICE. Th i s ph r as e re f e rs t o a r ea s o f s p ec ia l t y p r ac t ic e in wh i c h p ha r m a c i s t s a r e i n c re as in g l y b e in g re c o gn i z e d f o r t h ei r th e ra p eu t ic o r m a n ag em e nt e xp e r t is e . As s uc h , p h ar m a c e u ti c al c ar e p ro v i d ed b y th e p h arm ac is t is a u gm en t ed b y a c ti vi t ie s n o t n o r m a ll y p r o v id e d wi t h i n t h e g e ne r al is t ph a rm ac is t r o le . Ca t eg o r ie s o f f oc us e d p r a ct ic e m a y be s t be des c ri b ed b y th e t y p e a n d e xt e n t o f s pe ci a lt y a c t i v it i es . A c t iv it i es fo r ea c h de s c r ip t iv e l ev e l a r e a dd i ti v e to , o r a ug m e n t, t he p re v io u s l ev el — t h a t i s, fo c u s ed dr u g m on i t or i ng in co r p or a te s a nd e xp a n d s t h e ac t i v it i es of p h a rm ac e ut ic al c a r e ; f oc u s ed di s e as e m on i to r i ng i nc o r po r at e s t he ac ti vi t ie s o f p h a rm ac e ut ic al c a r e p lus f oc us ed d ru g m on i to r ing , a n d s o o n . A. D r u g m o n i to r i n g . S pe c ia li z e d m o ni to r i ng fo r a s p ec i fi c d r ug o r d r ug th e r ap y f o r a s p ec if ic di s e a s e s t at e . Exa m p l e s a r e t he f ol lo wi n g : 1 . E x te n si ve p a ti e n t e du c a t io n c o nc er n in g t h e d r u g , t he d ru g m on i to r ing p r oc ess , a n d t h e p ha r m a c i s t ' s a nd p at i en t ' s r es p on s i bi l it ie s fo r fo c u se d d r u g m o n it o r in g . I t m us t be s t r es s e d t o t h e p a t ie n t t ha t fo r th e f o c u s e d d ru g m on i to r in g p r og ra m to be e f f ec t i v e, th e ph a rm ac is t m us t h a v e a c c es s t o i n fo r m at i on c o nc e rn in g a l l th e m e di ca t io ns be i ng ta k e n b y , o r p r es c ri b ed fo r , th e p a ti e nt . P.471
2 . E ac h t im e t h e p at i en t r e t u rn s f o r a r ef il l o f th e m o ni t o re d m ed ic a ti on ( e.g . , fo r h yp e r t en s i on , di ab e te s , h y p e r li p id em ia , c i rc ul a tio n , c a rd i o v asc u la r di s e as e , g l au c om a) : a . P e rf o rm a c om p l ia n ce c he c k ( e xp e c te d v e rs us ac t ua l r e fi l l d at e ) a n d d e t e rm in e w h y th e n e ed ed m e di c at io n o r s u p pl ie s a r e n o t be i ng r e fi ll e d. P h ys ic a l, f in a nc i al , i n t el le c tu al , m e nt a l, o r em o ti o na l i s s ue s m a y b e in v o l v e d , r e qu i ri n g r e fe r ra l to ot h e r h e al t hc a re p ro v i d e rs o r re q ui r i ng ot h e r in n o va ti v e s ol u ti o ns . Tak e t h e r es po n s i bi l it y a n d a p pr o p ri a te ac ti o n to r es o l v e t he s e is su es . b . A sk a b ou t th e o c c u rr en c e a nd f re q ue nc y o f s i de e f fe c t s, es pe ci a ll y t hos e re l at e d t o qu a li t y o f li f e —s uc h as o rt h os t at ic h y po t en s i on , ch an g es i n s e xu a l fu nc t io n , e n e rg y l e v el , e xe r c is e t ol e r an c e , h y po gl yc em i a, hyp e r g l y c e m i a , a nd ab il i t y t o
c o nc en t r at e . Co u ns el the p at i en t a b ou t s t r at e gi es t o m i n im i z e t he s e e ff ect s or c o nt ac t th e p r es c ri b er t o o f f er op t io ns t o r es o l ve t h e p a ti e nt ' s re p or t e d p ro b le m s . 3 . W it h e ac h n e w p r e sc r i p t i o n o r o ve r - t he - co u nt e r ( O TC ) m e d ic a t io n ad d e d t o t he m o ni t o re d d r ug r eg im en , o bs e r v e a n d c o u ns el t he p at i en t c on c e r n in g t h e f o l lo wi n g : a . D r ug s t h at m a y a ff ec t t h e e f fi c ac y o f t he m o ni to r e d d r ug ( d ru g -d is e as e a n d d r ug d r u g i n te r ac ti o ns ) . F o r exa m p l e , wi t h d ia b et e s m e d i c a ti on s : ( 1 ) C e r ta in d ru gs m a y d ir e c tl y c ha ng e b l oo d g lu co s e l e v el s. ( 2 ) C e r ta in d ru gs m a y i nd i r ec tl y c ha n ge bl oo d g lu c os e l e v el s b y i nt e ra c tin g wi t h th e h yp o g l yc em ic ag e nt . b . D r ug s t h at m a y a f fe c t t h e c ou r se o f t he di s e ase f o r t he m o ni t o re d d r u g. F o r e xa m p l e , c e r t ai n d r u gs ad d e d t o a d i ab e te s r e gi m e n m a y a ff ec t th e c om pl ic a ti o ns o f d i ab e te s b y a gg r a v a ti n g n e u ro p at h y a nd ne ph r o pa t h y as a r es u lt of de c rea s ed c i rc u la ti o n . c . D r ug s t ha t m a y af f ec t c om o r bi di t y c o n di t io ns of t h e d is ea s e f o r t he m o nit o r e d d r u g . F o r e xa m p le , c e rt ai n dr u gs ad de d to a d ia be t es r eg im e n m a y a f fe c t c o nc u r re n t h yp e r t en s i on , li pi d a b no rm a li t ie s , an d o t he r c o nd it i o ns th a t oc c u r m o r e f r eq u e nt l y in t h e d i ab e ti c p op u la ti o n. 4 . R em in d a n d e nc ou r a ge p at i en ts t o a dh e re t o s c h ed u l e s f o r r ec om m e n de d l a b o r at o r y t e s t s du r i ng t h e c ou r se o f t he d ru g t he r a p y . E xa m pl es in c l u de p r o t hr om b in ti m e t es ts , l iv e r f u nc ti o n t es ts , e y e exa m i n a t io ns , a n d r e na l fu n c t i on t e s ts . A d he r en c e t o s u c h m on i to r in g pa r am et e rs wi l l a ll o w p r e v e nt i on o r ea r l y d e t ec ti o n a nd t re a tm en t o f c e r ta i n a d v e rs e d r ug e f f ec ts . B . D i s ea s e m on i t o r in g . S p e c i al i z e d m o n it o r in g fo r a s pe ci f ic d is e as e s tat e . D i s ea se - m o n it o ri n g ac t i vi t i es a r e o p ti m a ll y p e r fo rm e d a t r e gu l ar in t e r val s ( e . g ., a t s e t a pp o in tm e nt t im es ) , b u t s ho u ld at le as t be per f o r m e d e ac h t im e th e pa t i en t r e t u rn s f o r re f il l o f a di s e a s e - r el a te d m ed ic a ti o n o r s u p pl y. 1 . A fo cu s e d d is e as e -m on i t or i ng p ro g ra m i s e xt e ns i v e i n ti m e , e f fo r t , a nd p a t ie n t e d uc a ti o n. A t t hi s l e v e l, h o we v e r , t he ph a rm ac is t d o es n o t i ni t ia t e c ha ng es in p h a rm ac ol o gi c a l t h e ra pie s . Re c o m m en d at i on s f or c ha n ge s a r e r el a ye d t o t h e m e di ca l p r o v id e r , wh o t he n di r ec ts th e ph a rm ac ist c on c e r ni n g s p ec i fi c r e gi m en a d ju s tm en ts . 2 . E xa m p le s o f f o c u s e d d i s e as e -m o ni to r i ng ac ti vit i es a re th e fo ll o wi n g : a . E x te n si ve p a ti e n t e du c a t io n c o nc er n in g t h e d i se as e a n d i ts t re a tm ent , t he d i se as e -m o ni to r i ng pr o c e s s , an d t h e p ha r m a ci st ' s an d p a ti e nt ' s re sp o ns ib i li t ie s f o r f o cu se d di s e as e m on i to r in g . Ed uc a ti o n wi l l li k e l y b e ne e de d i ni t ia ll y a n d pe r i od ic a ll y d u r in g th e m on i to r in g p ro g r am . b . F oc us ed m o ni t o ri ng o f a c h r on ic di se as e wo u ld i nc l ud e p a ti en t ed uc a ti on t o e s ta b li sh th e p a ti e nt ' s de s i re d t a rg e ts o r g oa ls an d s t r at e gi es t o a tt a in the m . ( 1 ) E nc ou r a ge an d a s s is t p a ti en t s t o s et lo ng - t e rm go a ls — fo r e xa m pl e , l os e 3 0 l b o r q u i t sm ok in g . ( 2 ) E nc ou r a ge an d a s s is t p a ti en t s t o s et s h o rt - t e rm go a ls th a t a re di r ec t ed t o wa r d m e et i ng th e l o ng - t er m go a ls — f or e xa m p le , l os e 1 l b i n 1 -2 we e k s o r d ec re a s e s m o k i n g b y o ne c i ga r et te p e r d a y . c . As se s s m e n t f o r s ub j ec t i ve e vi d en c e o f i mp r ov e m e nt o r wo r se ni n g o f d i s e as e s y mp to m s .
( 1 ) Th e f re qu e nt o r c on s is t en t occ u r re n c e of c e r tai n s y m p to m s (s uc h a s ast h m a a t t ac ks , h y p og l y c em ia , c h e s t pa i n, di a r rh e a f r om u l ce r a ti ve c o li ti s ) s ho ul d b e b r o ug h t t o t h e a t te n ti on o f t he m e di c a l p r o v id e r . P.472
( 2 ) La ck of s u bj ec t i v e e v i d en c e o f e f fi c a c y (f a il u re o f p ai n c on t r ol , m in im al o r n o i m p ro ve m e n t o f n oc t ur i a ) s ho u ld al so be r ep o r te d t o th e p r es c ri be r . ( 3 ) Th e pa t ie n t 's re p o rt o f da y s of wo r k or sc ho ol m i s s ed o wi n g t o e xa c e rb a t io n o f d i se as e s y m pt om s i s a va l ua b le as se s sm e nt o f d is e as e c on t ro l o r t re a tm en t . d . A ss es s m en t f o r o b j ect i ve e vi d e nc e o r c e r ta i n i n di c e s o f d is e as e c on t rol o r t r e a t m en t . F o r e xa m p l e, a p ha r m a c i s t m a y r e v i e w a n d g ui d e a d i ab e ti c p ati e n t i n i n t er p r et a ti o n o f s el f -m on i t or e d b lo o d g lu c o s e ( SMB G ) r e c o rd s . U si n g t hes e d a ta , t h e p h a rm ac is t c an th e n a d v i s e th e p a ti e nt c o nc er n i ng t he ap pl ic a ti o n o f a p r e sc ri b ed in s u l in ad ju s tm e nt al g o ri t hm . ( 1 ) S om e d a ta m a y be pa t i en t d e ri v e d , s uc h a s SMB G , we i g h t , m e as u re m e n t o f c a lf c i rc um f e re nc e , a nd r ea din g s f r om a p ea k - f lo w m et e r . ( 2 ) S om e d a ta m a y be ph a r m a c i st in i ti a te d , s u c h a s a ph a rm ac y - b as ed lip i d m o ni t o ri ng p ro g ra m , b loo d gl uc os e t e s t in g , a n d b l oo d p r es s u r e m ea s u r em e nt s . I t s h ou l d b e n ot e d t ha t a ph a r m a c y m a y ne e d t o b e C l i n ic a l L a bo r a t o r ie s I m p r o ve me n t Ac t ( C L I A) c e rt i fi e d b ef o re pe r f o rm i ng c e r ta i n wa i ve d o r m o de r a te l y c om p le x l a b o ra t o r y pr o c e d u re s . ( 3 ) S om e d a ta m a y be ob t a in ed t h ro ug h th e p h ys i c ia n ' s o ff ic e ; a c o p y i s fo r wa r d e d t o t he ph a rm ac is t o r br ou g h t i n b y t he pa t ie n t. C . D r u g / di s ea s e m an a ge m e n t b y p r o t o c o l . Th e c om po n en t s o f t hi s f oc us e d p r a ct ic e i nc l ud e t h e f ol l owi n g : 1 . D is ea s e a nd dr u g m oni t o ri n g, in cl u di n g a s ig n ifi c a n t c om po n en t of pa t ien t e d uc a ti o n 2 . D is ea s e a nd qu al i t y - of- l i fe ou t co m e s i de n ti f ie d a n d a g re e d o n b y p at i en t, m ed ic al p r o vi de r , a n d p ha r m a c i s t 3 . A pp l ic at i on of a d r ug -d i s e as e -m a na ge m e n t p ro t oc o l, de v e l op e d as a co l la b o ra t i v e wo r k r e l at io n s h ip be t we e n p ha r m a ci s t an d m ed ic al p ro v i d e r, wh i c h el a bo r at e s s p ec if ic au t ho r i z a ti o ns or l im i ta t io ns fo r th e p h a rm ac is t ' s a ct i vi ti es . C om po n e nt s o f a d r ug - di s e as e -m a na gem e nt p ro t oc ol m a y i nc lud e th e fo ll o wi n g : a . P r oc es s b y wh i c h t he p h y s ic ia n re f e rs t h e p at ie n t to th e p h ar m ac is t b . D r ug s , d e v ic es , m ed ic a l t re a tm en t , t es t s a nd pr o c ed u re s t h at m a y b e pr e s c r ib e d, a d m i ni s te r ed , or o rd e r ed, a s a pp r op r ia t e f o r t h e tr e a tm e nt of t he he al t h p ro b le m a d d re ss e d b y th e p r o to c o l ( 1 ) D r ug in i ti a ti o n, do s a ge a dj us tm e nt an d /o r di s co n t i n ua t io n ( 2 ) S pe c i f ic l a bo r a to r y o rd e r s a nd in t er p r et a ti o n c . Li m i t ed ph y s ic al as s es s m e nt d . I nt e g ra t io n o f t h e p har m ac e ut ic a l c a r e p l an i n to t he t ot a l m e d ic al c a re p l an f o r t h e p a ti e nt e . P r ed e te r m i ne d p l an for e m e r ge n c y s e r v ic es
f . W rit t en c o m m un ic a ti on/ d oc um e nt a ti o n t o /f r om m e di c a l p r o vid e r (e . g. , ch a r t a c c es s a n d n o te en t r y )
VI. CLINICAL SKILLS AND PHARMACIST'S ROLES IN PHARMACEUTICAL CARE. Th e s ki ll s , ac t i v it i es , a nd s e r v ic es in he r e nt in th e p r o v i si on o f p ha r m a c e u tic a l c a r e i n cl ud e th e f o ll o wi n g : A. P a t i e n t a s se s sm e nt 1 . P h ysi c a l a ss es s m e n t 2 . B a r ri e rs to ad he r e nc e 3 . P s yc h os oc ia l i s s ue s B . P a t ie n t e d u ca t i on and c o un s el i n g 1 . I nt e r v ie w s k il ls 2 . C om m u ni c at i on s k i ll s ( e . g ., em pa t h y , l is t en i ng , s pe ak i ng o r wr i t i n g a t t he p a t ie n t 's le v e l o f u n de r s ta n di n g ) P.473
3 . A bi li t y t o m ot i v a te , i ns p i r e 4 . D e vel o p a nd im pl em en t a p a ti en t ed uc a ti on pla n ba s e d o n a n i n it i al e du c at i on a ss e ssm e nt 5 . I de n ti fi c at io n an d r es ol u t io n o f c om pl i an c e ba r ri e r s C . P a t ie n t - sp e ci f i c p har m a c is t ca r e pl a ns 1 . R ec o gn i ti on , p r e v e nt io n , a n d m a n ag em e nt o f d r u g i n te r ac ti o ns 2 . P ha r m a c o l og y a nd th er a p eu t ic s ( in n o va ti v e and c o n v e n ti on a l) 3 . I nt e rp r e ta t io n o f l a bo ra t o r y te s ts 4 . K no wl e d g e o f c o m m u ni t y r es o u rc es , p r o fe s s io na l re f e r ra ls 5 . C om m u ni c at i on an d r ap p o r t wi t h c o m m un i t y m ed i ca l p r o v id e rs D . D r u g - t r ea t m en t p r oto c o ls 1 . D e vel o p a nd m a in t ai n ( u p da t e ) p r ot oc o ls . 2 . F ol lo w p r o t oc ol s a s a p h a rm ac is t c li n ic ia n . 3 . Mo n i t o r a gg r eg a te a dh e r en c e t o t r ea tm e nt p rot o c o ls ( e. g . , d r ug - us e e va l ua t io ns ; D U E s ) , es pe c i al l y f o r a m a na g ed - c a r e o r h e al t h-s y s t em fa ci li t y . E . D o s ag e a d j us t me n t 1 . I de n ti f y pa t ie n ts a t ri s k f or e xa g g e ra t ed o r s u bt h e r ap eu t ic re s po ns e . 2 . A pp l y ph a rm ac ok i ne t ic p ri nc i pl es to de t e rm in e p a ti e nt - s p ec i fi c d os in g . 3 . O r d er an d i n te r p r et r el e v a n t t es ts a t co r r ec t t im e i n te r v a ls to as s e s s do s ag e a d ju s tm en t (e . g. , pl as m a d r u g c o nc e nt r a ti o ns , b loo d gl uc os e l e v e ls , b lo o d p r e s s u re m e as u re m e n ts ) . F . S e le c ti o n o f t he r a peu t i c a l t e r na t i ve s 1 . U se d ru g i n fo rm a ti o n re s ou r c e s e f fe c t i v e l y . 2 . R e vie w a n d c r i ti qu e d ru g li t er a tu r e . 3 . C on s t ru c t c o m p a ra t i ve a na l y se s t o s up p or t the r a pe u ti c d ec is io n s . G . P r e s c r ip t i ve au t h o r ity i n d e s ig n at e d p ra c ti c e s i te s o r p o si ti o ns H . P r e ve n t i ve se r vi c e s
1 . Im m u n i z at i on s 2 . S c r e en i ng s 3 . H ea l th an d we l ln es s ed u c a t io n I . M a n ag e r i al sk i l ls 1 . P la n , d i r e ct , an d im pl e m en t ph a rm ac e ut ic al - c a r e ac ti vi t ie s wi t h i n a var i e t y of p r a ct ic e e n v i r on m e n ts , s u c h as co m m un i t y p h a rm a c y , am bu la t o r y - c a r e se tt i n gs , m a na g ed or c o n t ra c t u al c a r e, ho m e - h ea l th s e r v ice s , l on g - te r m -c ar e fa ci li ti e s, i n pa t ie n t h os pi t al p ra c ti c e , an d o t he r s . 2 . Al l o c a te r es ou r c e s .
VII. PHARMACEUTICAL CARE AS THE MODEL FOR PHARMACY PRACTICE. Th e c on c e p ts , a c ti v i t ie s , a n d s e r vi ce s o f p h a rm ac e ut ic a l ca r e f o rm t he bas is f or p r o vi si on o f c l i ni c a l s er v ic es di r ec t l y to , a n d f o r th e be n ef i t o f , p at i en ts in a l l p h a rm ac y p r ac ti c e s e t ti ng s . Th es e se t t in gs in c l ude h om e -h ea l th , ho s p i ta l , a m bu l at o r y - c a r e, p ri m a ry- c a r e , co n su lt a ti o n, lo ng - t e rm - c a r e, an d c om m un i t y p h a rm ac y p r ac ti c e . W or k f l o w, st a f fi ng p at t e rn s , p r o c e ss es , a n d p ha rm a cy p r o g ra m s m i gh t d i ff e r , b u t t he c o r e a p p ro ac h t o p a ti e nt ca re r em a in s p ha r m a c e u ti ca l c a r e i n a l l s et t in gs . P.474
VIII. DOCUMENTATION OF PHARMACEUTICAL CARE. “ I f it is n ' t d oc um e nt e d, it i s n ' t do n e! ” D oc um en t a ti o n o f p h a rm ac eu t ic al c ar e is i n t eg r al to c o n ti n ui t y of c a r e , d em o ns t ra t io n o f c lin i c i an c o m p e te nc e , c om m u ni c a t io n a m on g h e al t h- c a r e p r o v id e r s , e vid e nc e o f c on t ri bu t i on s t o p a ti en t c a r e, an d r e i m b u rs em en t of p ro f es s i on al s e r v i c e s. A. P h a r m a c eu t i ca l c a r e, i nc lu d in g t h e p ha r m a c eu t ic a l ca r e p l an pr oc e ss ( C O R E , P R I ME , F A R M, o r S O A P ) , i s a s y s te m a t ic m e th o d f o r r ec o rd in g t h e p ha r m ac is t ' s e xa m i n a ti o n o f a p a ti e nt ' s ph a rm ac o th e r ap y a nd s u bs eq u en t i d en t if ic a ti on o f m e di ca t io n - re l at e d p ro b le m s . B . C o m pu t e r so f tw a r e pr o g r a m s, in m os t p ra ct ic e se t t in gs , m ai n ta i n p at ie n t d a ta a n d d r ug - p ro f il e re c o r ds . Th u s af t e r d oc um en t at i on o f t h e i ni ti a l p ha r m a c eu t ic a l c a r e p l an , pa t ie n t d at a o r d rug r e gi m e ns ar e i n cl ud e d i n s u bs eq u en t F A R M ( o r S O A P ) n o t es o n l y i f a c h a ng e oc c u r s t h at is re l e v an t to t h e th e ra p eu t ic i s s ue be in g a d d re ss e d in t he no t e. C . F o rm s t ha t s um m a r i ze p ha r m a c i s t s ' i n te r ve n tio n s us i ng a u n i fi e d c o din g s ys t e m a r e us ef u l f o r p r oc es s i ng r e im b ur s e m e n t o r bi ll i ng f o rm s , b ut t he s e fo r m s a r e no t a d e qu a te do c u m e n ta t io n o f ph a rm ac eu t ic al c a r e. Th e s e fo rm s d o n o t c om m u ni c a t e t o o th e r h ea l th p ro f es s i on a ls th e d e pt h a n d q ua l ity o f p ha r m a c i st in t e r ven ti o ns o r t h e p h a rm ac is t 's pl a n f o r o n go in g ph a rm ac eu t ic al c a re .
IX. PHARMACEUTICAL CARE: AN ONGOING PROCESS. Th e p a t ie n t p ro f i le ( da ta b as e ) i s r e vis e d a nd rea s s e s s ed ea c h ti m e a n ew d r u g is a d d ed to o r d el e te d f r om t h e m ed ic a ti on r eg im e n, a ne w d i s ea s e or c o n di tio n is
d i ag n os ed , or t he pa t ie nt u nd e r go es ot h e r c l i ni cal i nt e r ve nt io n , s uc h a s s u r g e r y . W hen t he pa t ie n t r e tu r ns t o th e p h ar m a c y o r is r ea d m i t te d to th e h e al t h s ys t em f a ci l it y, t he ph a rm ac is t us es t he pa t ie n t p r of il e , PW D T, an d F A R M ( o r S O A P ) n o te s ( m a in t ai ne d i n t h e p a ti ent p ha r m a c y c h a rt o r i n t he m e d ic al c h a rt ) as th e ba s is fo r o n g oi ng ph a rm ac is t - pa t ie n t i n te r ac t io ns .
X. IMPORTANCE OF PHARMACEUTICAL CARE IN TODAY'S PHARMACY PRACTICE A. Th e p o t e nt i al fo r me di c a t io n e r ro r s is g r o wi ng , an d o n e p r of es s i o na l g r o up m u st a ss u m e a p ri m a r y r o le in a d d re ss in g t h is i ss ue , ra t h e r t ha n v a ri ou s g r ou ps o r i n di vi d ua ls m a k i ng f ra gm e n t ed ef f o rt s . Th e ph a rm a c i s t i s t r ai ne d s p ec if ic all y t o a d d re ss th es e th e ra p eu t ic is s u es . B . Th e us e o f pr e s c ri p ti on a nd no n pr e sc ri p ti o n m e d ic a ti on s i s g r o wi n g a nd n o w c o ns ti t u te s t he p ri m a r y th e r ap e ut ic m o da l it y a v a ila b le t o h ea l th c a r e p r ac tit i o ne r s a n d p a ti e nt s . C . Th e n um be r , c om pl e xi t y , a n d p ot e nc y o f p r esc ri p t io n a nd no n p re s c r ip t ion d r ug p r o du c ts a r e i nc r ea s i n g. D . Th e n ee d f o r p h ar m a c e u t ic al c a r e se c u r es an e n d ur i ng r ol e f o r t h e p har m ac is t i n t h e U . S. he a lt hc a r e s y s te m . E v e r y e nc o un t er wi t h p at i en ts , re g a rd le ss of p r ac t ic e s e t ti ng , pr o v i de s p ha r m ac e ut ic a l c a r e . E . P h a rm ac eu t ic al - c a r e a c ti v i t ie s i n te g ra t e p ha rm ac is t s i nt o t h e h ea l th car e s ys t em o f t he fu t u re . P.475
STUDY QUESTIONS D i r e c t i on s : E a c h of t he q u es t io ns , s t at em e nt s , or i nc om p le t e s t a te m en ts c a n b e c o r re c tl y a ns we r e d o r c om p le t ed b y on e o f th e s ug g es t ed an s we r s o r p h r as es . C h o os e th e b e st an s we r . 1 . W hi c h o f th e fo l l ow in g s ta t e me n ts b es t de sc r i b es F AR M ? ( A ) c ul ti v a t io n o f a p ha rm ac is t ' s k no wl e d ge t o be t t e r s e r v e t he pu bl ic ( B ) f in d in gs , a s s es s m en t, r es o lu t io n , m o n it o r in g ( C ) f i nd in gs , as s e s s m e nt, r ec o gn i ti o n, m a na g em en t ( D ) t h e p r oc es s b y wh i c h a n i n di vi du a l p ha r m a ci st i n te r ac ts wi t h a s p e c i fi c p a ti e nt t o a t t ai n p e r ti n en t m ed ic a l in f o rm a ti o n V i e w A n s we r 1 . T h e a n sw e r i s B [ se e] . 2 . An ex am p l e o f an ex p an d ed r ol e o f t h e p ha r m ac i s t i s ( A ) c om m u ni t y le a de r . ( B ) p r ep a ra t io n o f c om p ou n d ed pr es c ri p ti o ns . ( C ) m ai n ta in i ng ad e qu a te i n v en t o r y o f or p ha n d ru g s. ( D ) t r ia g e o f p a ti e nt s . V i e w A n s we r 2 . T h e a n sw e r i s D [ se e] . 3 . W h a t is t h e m os t im p o r ta n t f oc u s o f p ha r m ac e u ti c al c a re? ( A ) p ha r m a c i s t
( B ) p a ti en t ( C ) p r es c ri pt i on ( D ) p a ti en t c h a rt V i e w A n s we r 3 . T h e a n sw e r i s B [ se e] . 4 . W h ic h o f t h e f o l low i n g s t a te me n t s r e g a r d in g ph a r ma c eu t ic a l c a r e i s t ru e ? P h a r ma c e u ti c al ca r e ( A ) u su al l y do es no t o v er l a p i nt o o t h er a re as o f he a t h c a r e . ( B ) a nd c l in ic a l p ha r m a c y a r e s yno n ym o us . ( C ) i m p li es t ha t t h e p ha rm ac is t is n o l o ng e r r es po n si bl e fo r di s p en s i n g f un c ti o ns . ( D ) i s b as ed on s t r a te gi es t o p ro v i d e c on t in uo us p a t ie n t c a r e t o a t t ai n d es i r ed o u tc om e s . V i e w A n s we r 4 . T h e a n sw e r i s D [ se e] . p h a rm ac eu t i c al ca r e 5 . E s se n t ia l c o m po n e nt s of p ha r m ac e u t ic a l c a re i nc l u de ( A ) p a ti en t - ph a rm ac is t rel a t io ns hi p , l eg i bl e p h y si c i a n o r de r s, an d a c c u ra t e d a ta c o ll ec t io n . ( B ) p ha r m a c i s t - p at i en t rel a t io ns hi p a n d wo r k u p o f d r u g t he r ap y . ( C ) a s o f t wa r e p r og r am th a t a c c es s e s m ed ic a ti on h is t o r y a n d p r om pt s t h e p h a rm ac is t c on c e r n in g qu e s t i on s t o a s k th e p a ti en t . ( D ) m ai n te n an c e of pa t ien t m e di ca t io n h is t o r y fo r a t le as t 2 ye a rs an d a foc us on a c ut e i l ln es s . V i e w A n s we r 5 . T h e a n sw e r i s B [ se ea n d] .6 . I n th e C O R E p ha r m ac o t he ra p y p l a n , w h a t d o es t he E st a n d fo r ? ( A ) e du c a t io n o f pa t ie n t o r c a r eg i v e r ( B ) e f fi c a c y i s s u es ( C ) e la b o ra t io n ( D ) e va l ua ti o n p a ra m e t e rs V i e w A n s we r 6 . T h e a n sw e r i s D [ se e] . 7 . T h e m os t i mp o r t an t r ea s o n f o r u s i n g t h e F AR M n o te i s t o ( A ) c ol le c t in f o rm a ti on f or t h e p h y s i c i an . ( B ) d oc um en t p ro bl em - s o l v i ng an d / or in t e r v en t ion s p e r fo r m e d b y t he p har m ac is t . ( C ) k ee p a lo g o f a l l d r ug i nt e r ac ti o ns . ( D ) c r ea t e a u n if o rm m e th o d o f re co r di n g p a ti en t i n f or m at io n . V i e w A n s we r 7 . T h e a n sw e r i s B [ se e] . 8 . W h ic h o f t h e f o l low i n g t o p ic s w o ul d no t be i nc l u de d in t h e a ss e ss m en t po r t io n o f th e F AR M n o t e? ( A ) r ec om m e n da t io ns m ad e to t he pa t ie n t o r c a reg i v e r ( B ) s e v er i t y , p r io r i t y , o r u r g en c y of t he pr o bl em ( C ) s ho r t - te r m a nd lo ng - te r m g o al s o f t he in t e r v ent i o n ( D ) a d di ti o na l i n fo r m a t ion t ha t i s n e ed ed t o b es t a s s e s s t h e p r ob le m V i e w A n s we r 8 . T h e a n sw e r i s A [ se e] . 9 . I m mu n iz a t io n s , s c re e ni n g s, and w e ll n es s e d u ca t i on a re e x am p le s of w h i ch cl i ni c a l s k il l ? ( A ) c om m u ni t y he a lt h o v e r v i e w ( B ) p a ti en t m e di c a ti o n ed u c a t io n a n d c o u ns el in g ( C ) p r e ven t i v e s e r v ic es ( D ) m an a ge r ia l s e r v ic es
V i e w A n s we r 9 . T h e a n sw e r i s C [ se e] . 1 0. T he ph a r m ac i s t' s r ol e in t he s e l ec t i on o f t h e r ap e u tic a l te r n a ti ve s r e qu i r es w h ic h of t h e f o ll ow i n g c l i n ic a l s k i l ls ? ( A ) r e v i e w a nd c r i ti q ue dr u g l i te r a tu r e ( B ) m ot i v a te an d i ns p ir e p a t ie n ts ( C ) p e r fo rm d ru g - us e e va l ua t io ns ( D U E s ) ( D ) k no wl e d g e o f c o m m un i t y r es ou r c e s V i e w A n s we r 1 0 . T he a nsw e r i s A [ se e] . P . 47 6
ANSWERS AND EXPLANATIONS 1 . T he an sw e r is B [ s ee I V . C ] . A F A R M p r o g r es s n o te is u s e d to de sc r ib e a nd doc um e nt t he in t er v e n t io ns i n te n de d o r p ro vi d ed b y th e p h arm ac is t . Th e a c r o n ym F AR M s t a n d s f o r f in d in gs , a s s e s sm e nt , r e s ol u ti on , an d m on i to r ing a nd fo l lo w- u p . 2 . T he an sw e r is D [ s ee I I . A ]. P h a r m a c e u ti c a l c ar e ha s e v o l v e d f r om an em ph as is on p re ve n ti o n o f d r ug- r e l at e d p r o bl em s t o t h e e xp a n d ed r ol e s o f t r ia g e o f p at i en t s , t r ea tm e nt o f r ou t in e a c ut e i l ln es se s , m a n ag em e nt of c hr o ni c d is ea s e s , a nd p r i m a r y di se a s e pr e ve n tio n . 3 . T he an sw e r is B [ s ee I V . A ] . P h a r m a c e u ti c a l c ar e i s ba s ed on a c ol la b or a ti v e e f f o rt be t we e n ph a rm ac is t an d p a t ie n t. 4 . T he an sw e r is D [ s ee I . B ; I X] . Th e t e rm ph a r m ac e ut ic a l c a re de s c r ib es s p ec i fi c a c ti vi t ie s a nd se r v i c e s t hr o u gh wh i c h an in d i v id ua l p h a rm ac is t c o op e ra t es wi t h a p a ti e nt an d o t he r p ro f es s i on al s i n d e si g ni ng , i m p l em en t in g , a n d m o n it o r in g a th e ra pe u t ic p l an th a t wi ll p ro d uc e s p ec if ic t he r ap e ut ic ou t c o m es fo r th e p a ti e nt . The p at i en t p r o fi le ( da t ab as e ) i s r e v i s ed an d t h e p ot e nt i al f o r d r u g- r e la t ed p ro bl em s is re a s s es s e d e ac h t im e a n e w d r u g i s a dd ed t o o r d el e te d f ro m t he m e di c at io n re g im e n, a n e w d is ea s e or c on d it i on i s d i ag no s ed , o r th e p a tie n t u n de r go e s o th e r c li nic a l i nt e r v e nt i on (e . g ., s ur g e r y) . 5 . T he an sw e r is B [ s ee I V . A an d B] . Th e e ss en t ia l c om p on en ts o f p ha r m a c e u ti ca l c ar e a r e t h e p ha r m a ci st - p at ie n t r e l at i on sh i p a nd th e p h ar m ac is t ' s wo r k u p o f d r ug t h e ra p y . 6 . T he an sw e r is D [ s ee I V . B . 2] . Th e a c ro n y m C O R E re f er s to t he c om p on e nt s o f th e ph a rm ac o th e ra p y pl an , wh i ch is p a r t o f th e p ha r m a c i s t 's wo r k u p of d ru g t h e ra p y . C O R E s t a nd s f o r c o n di t io n ( or p a t ie n t n ee d ) , o ut c o m e (d e s i r ed f or t ha t c on d it i on ) , r eg im en ( se le c te d t o a c hi e v e t h a t o u tc om e ), an d e v a l ua t i on pa r am e te r s ( t o as s e ss ou t c o m e ac hi e vem en t ) . 7 . T he an sw e r is B [ s ee I V . C ; V II I ; I X] . Th e F A R M n o t e is th e p ha r m ac is t 's p ro g re s s no t e, d es c ri bi n g a nd do cu m en t i ng th e i n t er ve n t io ns in t en de d o r p r o v i de d b y t he ph a rm ac is t . Th is c on s ti t ut es t he p r o gr es s n o t e i n t he m e di c a l c ha r t ( i n h e al th - s y s t em f ac il it ie s ) o r in th e p h a rm ac y pa t i en t c h a rt ( in c om m u n it y p ha rm ac y o r s i te s wi t h o u t r ea d y ac c es s t o t he m e di c a l c h a rt ) . 8 . T he an sw e r is A [ s ee I V . C ] .
Th e a ss es s m en t p o r ti o n o f t he F A R M n o te s t a te s t h e p h a rm ac is t 's e v al u at io n of t he f i n di ng s . R e c o m m en da t io n s a r e m a d e t o t h e p at ie n t o r c a r eg i v e r t o re s o lve o r p r e ve n t a n ac t ua l o r po te n t ia l p r ob l em i d en t if i ed b y t h e p ha r m a c i s t. Th u s s uc h r e c om m e nd a ti on s wo u ld b e in c l ud e d i n t h e r es ol ut i o n p o rt io n of th e FA R M n o te . 9 . T he an sw e r is C [ s ee V I . H ] . I m m u ni z a t io ns , s c re e ni ng s , a nd he a lt h a n d we l l ne s s ed u c a t io n a r e e xa m pl e s o f c l in ic al s k il ls us ed in a ph a r m a c i s t ' s p r o vis i on of p r e v e n ti ve s e r vic es . 1 0 . Th e a n sw e r i s A [ s ee V I . F] . F o r ef f ec t i v e s e l ec ti o n o f t h e ra p eu t ic a l te r na t i v es , a ph a rm ac is t wo u ld us e c e r ta i n c l in ic al s k il ls , i nc l ud in g u s e o f d r ug in f o rm at i on re s ou r ce s , c o m p a ra t i v e an a l ys e s , a n d re vi e w a n d c ri t iq ue o f d ru g l i te r a tu r e.
21 Drug Information Resources P a u l F. S ou n e y C o n n i e L ee B a r ne s V a l e r ie B . C li n a r d
I. DEFINITION. D r u g in f or m at io n i s c u rr en t , c r i ti c a ll y e xa m i ne d , re l e v a nt da t a a bo u t d r ug s a n d d r ug us e i n a gi v e n p a t ie n t o r s it u at i on . A. C u r r e n t i n f o rm a t io n u s es th e m os t r e c e n t, up- t o - da t e s ou r ce s p os s i ble . B . C r i t i ca l l y e x a m i n e d in f o r m a ti o n s ho ul d m e et t h e f ol l o wi n g c ri t e ri a : 1 . Mo r e t ha n o n e s ou r c e s ho u ld be us ed wh e n a pp r o p ri a te . 2 . Th e e xt e n t o f a g re em e n t o f s o ur c es s ho u ld be d e te r m i n ed ; i f s ou r ce s do n o t a g r ee , g o od ju dg m e nt s ho ul d b e u s e d . 3 . Th e pl au s i b il i t y o f i n for m a ti o n, ba s e d o n c li n ica l c i rc um s t a nc es , s ho u ld b e de t e rm in ed . C . R e l e va n t i n fo r m a ti on m us t b e p r es en t ed in a m an n e r t ha t a p pl i es d i r ec tl y t o th e c ir c um s t an c es u n de r c o ns id e r at ion ( e .g . , p a ti en t pa r am e ter s , t h e r ap eu t ic ob je c ti v e s , al t e rn a ti ve a pp r oa c h es ) .
II. DRUG INFORMATION RESOURCES. Th e r e a re t hr e e s ou rc e s o f d ru g i n fo r m a t io n : j ou rn a ls ( pr im a r y s o u rc es ) , i n de xi n g a nd ab s tr a c t in g s e r v ic es (s ec o nd a r y s o ur c e s ) , a n d t e xt b o ok d a t ab as es ( te r t ia r y s o u rc e s ) . A. P r i m a r y s o u r c e s 1 . B e ne f i ts . J o ur n al a rt ic l es p r o v i de th e m os t c ur r e n t i n fo rm a ti o n a bo u t d r u gs an d , i de al l y , s h ou ld b e t he so u rc e f o r a ns we r i ng t he r ap e ut ic q u es t io ns . J o ur n al s e nab l e p ha r m a c i s ts to : a . K ee p a b r ea s t of p ro f es s i o na l n e ws b . L ea r n h o w a no t he r c l in i c i an ha n dl e d a p a r ti c u la r p ro b le m c . K ee p u p wi t h n e w d e ve l op m en ts in pa t ho p h ys io l og y , d ia g no s t ic ag e nt s, a n d t h e ra pe u ti c r e gi m e ns d . D is t in g ui s h us ef u l f r om us el es s o r e v en ha r m fu l th e r ap y e . E nh a nc e c o m m u ni c a t io n wi t h o t he r he a lt hc a r e p r o f es s i on al s a n d c o ns um e rs f . O b t ai n c on t in u in g e duc a ti o n c re d it s g . S ha r e o p in io ns wi t h oth e r he al t hc a re p ro f es s i on a ls th r o ug h l e tt e rs to t he e d i to r h . P r ep a re f or t he bo a rd c e r ti f ic at i on e xa m in a ti o n i n p h a rm ac ot h e ra p y, n u t ri t io n s u pp o rt , on c o log y , e tc . 2 . L im i t at i o ns . Al t ho u gh p u bl ic a ti on o f a n a r ti cl e i n a we l l - k n o wn , r e s pe c t e d j ou r na l e n ha nc es t he c r e di bi l it y o f i n for m a ti o n c o n ta i ne d i n a n a r t ic le , th is do es no t gu ar a n t ee th a t t he a r ti cl e is a cc u r at e . Ma n y a r ti c l es p o ss es s i na de q ua c i es t ha t be c o m e a pp a re n t as th e ab il i t y to e val u at e d r ug i n f or m at io n i m p r o v es .
3 . R e vi ew a r ti c le s (n a r ra t i ve r e vi ew s , s ys t e m a t i c r e vi ew s , a nd me t a a n a l ys e s ) , a r t i cl e s o f op i n i on , co r r e s po n de n ce , s pe c ia l re p o r t s. A l l m a te r ia l i nc l ud ed in a j o ur n al is n o t c on s i d er e d a p r im a r y r es ou r c e . O r i g i na l c li ni c a l t r i al s a re c o ns i de r ed p ri m a r y l it er a t u re ; ho we v e r , r e v i e w a r t ic le s , a r ti c l es of o pi nio n , c o r re s p o nd en c e, an d s pe ci a l r e po r ts a re no t . B . S e c on d a r y s o u r c e s 1 . B e ne f i ts . In d e xi n g a nd a bs t ra c ti ng s e r v ic e s a re v a l ua bl e to o l s f o r q u ick a n d s el ec t i v e s c r ee n in g o f t he pr im a r y li t e ra t ur e f o r s p ec if ic in f o rm a ti on , d a t a, c i t at i on , a n d a r ti c le s ( Ta bl e 2 1 -1 ) . P.478 I n so m e c as e s , th e s ou rc es p ro vi d e s u f f ic ie n t i nfo r m at i on to s e r ve a s r e f e re nc e s f o r a ns we r i ng d r u g i nf o rm a ti on r eq u es t s .
Table 21-1. Examples of Abstracting and Indexing Services Secondary References
Journals Indexed
Approximate Lag Time
CINAHL*
2,717
ClinAlert
150
1-6 weeks
Current Contents Connect
8000
1-6 weeks
Embase
7000
10 days
Medline/PubMed
5000
1 week
Inpharma
1800
3 weeks
International Pharmaceutical Abstracts
800
3-4 weeks
Iowa Drug Information System
340
30-60 days
Pharmaceutical News Index
—
2-8 weeks
Reactions
1800
—
3 weeks
Science Citation Index *
3700
3 months
Cumulative Index to Nursing and Allied Health Literature
2 . L im i t at i o ns . Ea c h in de xi n g o r ab s t r ac t in g s e r vi c e r e v i e ws a f in it e n u m b e r o f j o ur n al s . Th e re f o r e, r el yi ng on on l y one s e r v i ce c a n g r ea t l y h i nd e r th e t h or o ug h ne s s o f a l it e r at u r e s e a rc h . A no t h e r im p or t an t fa c t t o r e m em be r i s t h e s u bs t a nt i a l d if f e re nc e i n l ag t im e ( i . e. , th e i n te r v a l b e t wee n t h e p u bl ic a ti on o f a n a r tic l e a nd th e c i ta t io n o f t ha t a rt ic l e i n a n i nd e x) a m on g t h e a v a il a bl e s erv i c es . S e v e ra l e xa m p le s a r e gi v e n i n Ta bl e 2 1 -1 . a . S ec on d a r y s ou r c e s u s u a ll y d e sc r i be on l y a r ti c l e s a nd c l in ic al st u di es f r o m j ou r na ls . F re qu e nt ly , r e a de r s r es p on d t o , c ri t ic i z e , a nd ad d n e w i n f or m at io n to pu bl is h ed a r t ic le s a n d st u di es t hr ou g h l e tt e rs . Se r v i c e s s uc h a s Me d l in e / Pu b Me d o r t he I o wa D r ug I nf o rm a ti o n S e r v i c e g en e ra ll y d o i n cl ud e p e r ti n en t l e tt e rs t o t he ed i to r wi t hi n th e s c o pe of co v e r ag e . b . I nd e xi n g an d a bs t r ac tin g s e r vic es a re p ri m a r il y u s e d to lo c a te jo u rn a l a r t ic le s . I n g en e r al , a bs tr a c ts s h ou ld no t be us ed a s p r im a r y s ou r ce s o f i n f or m at io n be c a us e t h ey a r e ge n e ra ll y i nt e r pr e ta t i on s o f a s t ud y a nd m ay b e a m i s i n te r p re t a ti on o f i m p o r ta n t i nf o rm a ti o n. Ph a r m a c i s t s s ho ul d o b ta i n a n d e va l ua t e t he o ri gi n al a r t ic le be c a us e a bs t r ac ts m a y n ot in c l u de en o ugh i n f or m at io n to c r i ti c a ll y ev a l u a te th e s t ud y . C . T e r t ia r y s o u r c e s 1 . B e ne f i ts . a . T ex t b oo ks . G e ne r al re f e r en c e te xt b o o k s c a n p r o vi de ea s y an d c o n ven i en t a c c es s t o a br o a d s pe c t r um of r el a te d t o pi c s . Ba ck g ro u nd i n f or m at io n on dr u gs a n d d is e as es i s o f te n a v a i lab l e . A l th o ug h a te xt b o o k m i gh t a ns we r m an y d r ug- r e l at e d q ue st i on s , t he lim i ta t io ns o f t he se s o u rce s s h ou l d n ot be o v e rl oo k ed . ( 1 ) I t co u ld ta k e s e v e r al y e a r s to pu bl is h a t e xt , so i nf o rm a ti o n a va il ab l e in t e xt b o o k s m i gh t n o t i nc lud e th e m os t re ce n t d e velo p m e n ts i n th e f i el d . O t h e r re s ou rc e s s h o ul d b e us ed to up d a te or s u pp l em e nt in f o rm at i on o b t ai ne d f ro m t e xt b o ok s . ( 2 ) Th e au t ho r o f a t e xt b o o k m i g ht no t ha v e c o ndu c te d a t ho r ou g h s e a rc h o f t h e l i te r a tu r e , s o pe r t in en t da t a c ou ld ha ve b ee n o m it t ed . An au t h or al s o
m i gh t h a v e m is in t e rp r e ted t he p ri m a r y o r s ec on d ar y l i t e ra t ur e . Re f e re nc e c i ta t io ns s h ou l d b e a v a ila b le t o ve r i f y th e val id i t y a n d ac c ur ac y o f th e d a ta . b . D a ta b as e s . C om p ut e r d a ta b as es ar e c on v e n ien t , ea s y to us e, an d r e f e re nc e d . Th e s e r es our c es a re s im i la r to te xt b o o k s , bu t a r e t y p ic a ll y u p d at e d m o r e f r e qu en t l y. C o m p u te r da t ab as es a re e as y t o s e a rc h a n d a r e o f t en us e fu l r e s o u rc es for d r ug m o no g r ap hs , p i ll id e n ti f ic at i on s , d ru g i n t er a ct i on s , an d v a ri o us t h e ra p eu t ic c al c u l at i on s . A d di t io n al l y , c om pu t e r d a t ab as es m a y a dd r es s c l in ic al qu es t io n s . In som e i ns t an c e s , a P D A ve r s i on of th e da t ab as e is a v ai l ab le . E xa m p le s i nc l ud e Cl i ni c a l P h a r m a c o lo g y O n H an d , C l i ni c al Xp e r t, Le xi - C o m p O n - H a nd , a n d e P o c r at es R x. 2 . G e ne r a l c o ns i de r a t i on s wh e n e xa m i n in g a n d u s in g t e xt b o o k s a n d/ o r d a t ab as es as s o u rc es o f d r u g i nf o rm a ti on in cl u de t h e f ol l o wi n g: a . Th e au t ho r , p ub l is he r , o r bo t h: W hat a r e t h e au t h o r 's an d p u bl is he r ' s a r e as of e xp e r t is e? b . Th e y e a r o f p ub l ic at i on ( c o p y r ig h t d a te ) or la s t r e vi si o n d at e ? P.479
c . Th e e d it io n of th e te xt : I s i t t h e m o s t c u r r en t ed i t io n? d . Th e p re s e nc e o f a bi bl i og r a ph y: I f a b i bl io g r aph y i s i nc lu d ed , a r e i m po r t an t s ta t em e nt s a c c u r at e l y re f e re nc ed ? W he n we r e th e re f e re nc es p u bl is h ed ? e . Th e s c o p e o f t h e t e xt bo o k o r d a ta b as e: H o w a c c es si b le is th e i n f or m at io n ? f . A l te r na t i v e re s o u rc es th a t a r e a v a i la bl e (e . g. , pr i m ar y a nd s e co n da r y s o u rc es , o t he r re l e v an t te xt s )
III. INTERNET A. B e n e f i t s . Th e I nt e rn et e xp a n d s t he ab il i t y to se a r ch th e r ap ie s t h at ha ve b e e n r ec en t l y pu bl is h ed o r di s c us s e d i n th e m ed ia . A n I n te r ne t s e ar c h m ay b e r eq ui r e d f o r t he f ol lowi n g : c o m pa n y - s p ec i fi c in f o rm a ti o n, iss u es c u r ren t l y i n th e n e ws , al t e rn a ti v e m e di c i n e, o r U . S . g o ve rnm e nt in f o rm at i on . Th e m os t po pu l a r W eb b ro ws e r s a r e Mo z i l la F ir e fo x a n d Mi c r os o f t I nt e r ne t E xp l o r e r . A v a ri e t y of s ea r c h e ng in es , s o f t wa r e to o ls fo r s e a rc hi n g t he I n t e rn e t, ha v e b ee n d e v el o pe d . G en e ra l s ea r c h en g in e s ( A lt a V is ta , G oo g le , Ya h o o , As k , D o gp il e ) a t te m pt t o i nd e x a s m uc h of t h e I nt e r ne t a s p os s i bl e. B . L i mi t a t io n s 1 . U nl ik e i n fo r m a t io n p ub l is he d i n j o u rn al s a nd te xt b o o k s , in f o rm at i on o b t ai ne d f ro m t he In t e rne t m a y n ot be pe e r re vi ewe d o r e di t ed be f o re r e l ea se . 2 . I nf o rm a ti on r ec ei v e d fr o m t h e I n te r ne t m a y be o n l y as re l ia bl e a s t h e p e r so n wh o p os t ed it a nd t he us e rs wh o r ea d a nd co m m en t on it s c on t ent . A W eb s it e s h ou ld be e v alu a t ed b y i t s s o u rc e (a u tho r ) o f i nf o rm a ti on . Th e n a m e , l oc a ti o n, an d s p on s o rs hi p s ho ul d be di s c lo s ed . Al so , a r ep u ta b le s i t e
wi l l p r o v id e e as y a c c es s t o in f o rm at i on an d t h e ab i li t y t o g i ve f ee d ba c k . P h a r m a c i s t s s ho ul d u s e t r a di t io n al li t e ra t ur e e v a lu a t io n sk i ll s t o d e te rm i ne wh e t h e r in f o rm at i on on W eb s it e i s c le a r , c o nc is e , un b ia se d , r e le v a n t, and r e f e re nc e d . C . U s e . To o b ta in in f o rm a t i on f ro m t he I nt e rn e t , th e us e r m u s t h a ve a n a d d re ss ( re f e r re d t o a s a U R L , o r u ni f or m re s o u rc e l oc at o r ) t o t y p e in t o t he b r o ws e r , wh ic h wi l l t he n f i n d t he s i t e a ut om a ti c a l l y . Ma n y a s s oc i at io n s a nd o r g an i za ti o ns h a v e W eb s i te s t h at a re li nk ed t o ot h e r W eb p ag es . Ta bl e 21 2 p r o vid es a s e l ec ti o n o f W eb s i t es .
IV. STRATEGIES FOR EVALUATING INFORMATION REQUESTS. I t is im po r t an t t o o b ta i n a s m uc h i n fo r m a t io n a s p o s s ib l e a bo u t d ru g i n f or m at io n re q ue s t s b e fo r e be gi n ni ng a l i te r at u re s e a rc h . B o th t im e a nd m o ne y c an be lo s t do i ng a v a s t se a rc h . B el o w a re im p o rt a nt qu es t io ns t o a sk t he in qu i r er o r t o e v a l ua t e b e fo r e a m a nu al or c om pu t e ri z e d s ea r c h . A. C o n ve r s e w it h t he inq u i r e r . Be f or e s p en di n g t i m e s e a rc hi n g f o r i n f or m at io n , t a lk to th e pe r s on wh o is re q ue s t i ng t h e i n fo r m a t io n a n d a c qu i re an y n ec es s a r y ad d i ti on a l i nf o rm a ti o n. 1 . D e te r m i ne t he r ea s on f o r t he in q u i r y. F i n d ou t wh e r e th e i nq u ir e r h ea r d o r r ea d a b ou t th e d r ug . Is he o r s he ta k i n g t he m e d ic a ti on ? If so , wh y? B e c au se th e s e ar c h c a n b e do n e b y th e dr u g o r di s ea se na m e , de t er m i n e i f t h e i n qu i re r ha s a m ed ic a l c o nd i ti on . As ce r t ai ni ng t he r ea s o n fo r th e i nq ui r y h e lp s d e te r m i ne wh a t add i t io na l i n fo r m a t io n s ho ul d be p ro vi de d . F o r e xa m p l e , i f t h e i nq ui r y c o n c e r ns a f o re i gn dr u g, th e in qu i r er m i gh t as k f o r a d o m e st ic eq u i v al e nt . 2 . C l a ri f y t h e d r u g 's i de n t i f ic a t io n a n d a va i l abi l i t y. Ma k e su r e t ha t th e d r u g i n q ue s ti on is a v ai la b le an d do ub l e -c he c k in f o rm a ti o n a bo u t t he d rug , s uc h a s : a . Th e co r r e c t s pe l l in g o f t he dr u g 's na m e b . W het he r i t is a ge n e r ic o r b r a n d n am e d r u g c . W ha t p h a rm ac e u t ic a l c o mp a n y m a n u f ac t u re s t h e d r u g a nd in wh a t c o u n t r y t h e d r u g i s m a nu f ac t u re d d . W het he r th e d r ug is pr e s c r i pt i o n o r n o n p re s cr i p t i o n e . W he t he r th e d r ug is s ti l l u n de r i n ve st i g at i o n an d , i f i t is o n t h e m ar k e t , t h e le n g th o f ti m e o n t he m a rk e t f . Th e d os a ge f o rm of th e d ru g g . Th e pu r p o se of t he d ru g (i . e ., wh a t m e di c a l c on d i ti on o r s ym p t om th e d r u g i s i nt e nd ed t o a ll e v ia t e ; t hi s i n fo r m a t io n h el ps na r r o w t h e s ea rc h i f p r o du c ts wi t h s im il a r n am es a re f ou nd ) P.480
Table 21-2. Selected Web Sites
Site
URL (Web Address)
Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality
www.ahrq.gov
American Association of Colleges of Pharmacy
www.aacp.org
American Cancer Society
www.cancer.org
American Diabetes Association
www.diabetes.org
American Heart Association
www.americanheart.org
American Society of Health-System Pharmacists
www.ashp.org
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
www.cdc.gov
Clinical Trial Results
www.clinicaltrialresults.org
Clincal Trials
www.clinicaltrials.gov
Drug Infonet
www.druginfonet.com
eMedicine
www.emedicine.com
Healthfinder
www.healthfinder.gov
Health on the Net Foundation
www.hon.ch
Mayo Clinic College of Medicine
www.mayo.edu
Medscape
www.medscape.com
MedWatch
www.fda.gov/medwatch
National Cancer Institute
www.cancer.gov
National Guideline Clearinghouse
www.guideline.gov
National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute
www.nhlbi.nih.gov
National Institutes of Health
www.nih.gov
National Library of Medicine
www.nlm.nih.gov
Pharmaceutical Research and Manufacturers of America
www.phrma.org
PharmacyOneSource
www.pharmacyonesource.com
Pharmscope
www.pharmscope.com
RxList
www.rxlist.com
RxMed
www.rxmed.com
U.S. Department of Health and Human Services
www.os.dhhs.gov
U.S. Food and Drug Administration
www.fda.gov
WebMD
www.webmd.com
B . To i d e nt i f y o r a s se s s p r o d uc t a va il a b il i t y, c o n s id e r u s i ng t he fo l lo wi ng r e s ou r ce s ( s e e a ls o Ap pe n di x E ) . S o m e o f t h es e r e s ou r c e s a re a v a il ab l e in a n el ec t r on ic fo r m a t o r in a n I n te r ne t / In t r an e t v er s i on . 1 . F or d ru gs m a nu f ac t u re d in th e U ni t e d S t a te s , t h e f ol l o wi n g r es o ur c es a r e a vai la b le : a . T he A m e ri c a n D ru g Ind e x , up d at e d a nn u al l y
b . D r ug F ac ts an d Co mpa r i s o ns , u p da t ed m o nt h ly a n d b o un d a n nu al l y / F ac t s a n d Co m p a r is on 4. 0 (o nli n e ) c . D r ug To p ic s R ed B oo k , p e ri o di c a ll y s up pl em e nte d an d u p da t ed an nu a ll y d . P hy si c i a n 's D es k R e fer e n c e ( P D R ) , u pd a te d a nn u al l y e . A m e r ic an H os pi t al Fo rm u l a r y S e rv ic e ( A H F S ) D r u g In f o r m at i on , s u pp l em en t ed qu a r te r l y a n d u p da t ed an nu a ll y f . Ma r t i n d al e : T he C o mple t e D ru g Re f e re nc e , u pda t e d e ve r y 3 yea r s g . L ex i- D r u gs O nl i ne (L ex i - C o mp O n li n e ) h . C li n ic al P ha r m a c o lo gy i . Th o m s on H ea l th c a r e Se r i es ( Mi c r om ed e x) 2 . F or d ru gs m a nu f ac t u re d in f o re i g n c ou n t r i es , t h e f ol l o wi n g r es o ur c es a r e a vai la b le : a . Ma r t i n da l e: Th e Co mp l e t e D r u g R e fe r e nc e b . I nd ex N o m in u m c . U S P Di c ti on a ry of U ni te d S ta t es Ad o p te d Na m es ( U S A N ) a n d I n t e rn a ti o na l Dr u g N a m es d . L ex i- D r u gs In t er n a ti ona l O nl i ne ( Le x i - C o mp Onl i ne ) 3 . F or i n ve st i g at i o na l dr u g s , t h e f ol l o wi n g r es ou r c es a r e a v a i la bl e : a . Ma r t i n da l e: Th e Co mp l e t e D r u g R e fe r e nc e b . D r ug F ac ts an d Co mpa r i s o ns / Fa c ts a n d C o mpa r i s o n 4 . 0 ( on l in e ) c . Th e Pi nk S he e t p ub li s h e d b y F D C R ep o r ts d . T he N D A Pi p el in e p u bl i s h ed b y F D C Re p o rt s P.481
4 . F or o r ph a n d r u g s— t ha t is , d r ug s t h at a re us ed t o p r e v en t or t re a t a r ar e d i se as e (a f fe c ts < 20 0 ,00 0 pe o pl e i n t h e U n it e d S t a t es , s o t he co s t o f d e ve l op m e n t is no t l ik e l y t o be of fs e t b y s a l es ) a nd f o r wh i c h t h e U . S . F o od a n d D ru g Ad m i ni s tr a ti o n ( F D A ) o ff e rs as si st a nc e a n d f i na nc i al i nc e n ti ve s to s p on so r s u nd e r ta k i n g t he d e v el o pm en t o f th e d r ug s — th e fo ll o wi n g r e s ou r ce s a re a v a il ab l e: a . D r ug F ac ts a n d Co mpa r i s o ns / Fa c ts a n d C o mpa r i s o n 4 . 0 ( on l in e ) b . Th e F D A O ff ic e o f O rp h a n P r od uc t s D e v e lo pm e n t ( O O P D ) c . Th e Na t io n al In s ti tu t es o f H e al t h ( N I H ) O f fi c e o f R a re D is ea s es d . N a ti o na l O rg a ni z a t io n f o r R ar e Di s or d e rs e . Le x i - D r u gs O nl in e (L ex i - C o mp O n li n e ) 5 . F or an u nk n ow n d r u g ( i . e. , on e t h at is i n h a nd b u t n o t i de n ti fi e d ), c h em ic al an a l ys is c a n be p e rf o rm ed o r t h e d ru g c a n b e i de n ti f ie d b y p h ys ic al c h a ra c t e r is ti c s , s uc h a s c ol o r , s p ec i al m a r k in gs , a n d sh a pe . C o n su l t t h e f ol lo wi n g s ou r c es fo r h e lp : a . P D R , D ru g F a c t s a nd C o mp a r is o ns , F ac ts an d C o mp a r is o n 4 .0 ( on li n e ), D r u g To p ic s R e d B oo k , Id e n t -A - D r u g R e fe r e nc e b . I de n ti de x ( Mi c ro m e d ex ) c . Th e m an u fa c tu r e r d . A la bo r a to r y
e . Le x i - C o mp O nl in e (L ex i - D r ug I D ) f . C l in ic al P ha r m a c o l og y P r o du c t I de n ti f ic a ti on 6 . F or a n a t u ra l p ro d uc t, t h e f ol lo wi n g r es ou r ce s a r e a v a i la bl e : a . F ac ts a n d Co m p a ri s o n 4 . 0 ( o nl in e ) b . N a tu r al Me d i c i n es C om p r eh en s i v e D a ta b as e c . N at u r al S ta nd a r ds d . C om p le t e G e r m a n Com m i s s io n E Mo n og r a ph s e . N a tu r al P r od uc ts ( Le xi - C o m p O n li n e )
V. SEARCH STRATEGIES. To d e ve l op an ef f ec t i v e s e a rc h s tr a te g y f o r l oc at in g d ru g i n fo rm a ti o n l i t er a tu r e , t h e f ol lo wi n g ta c ti c s s h ou l d b e f ol lo we d a f te r d e te r m i n in g wh e th e r p r i m a r y o r s ec on da r y s ou r c es a r e d es i re d . A. D e t e r m in e wh e th e r t he q ue s t i on at ha n d is c lin i c a l o r re s ea r c h r e l at ed . D e f i n e t h e q u es t i on as s p ec if ic a ll y as po s s i bl e. A l s o, id e nt i f y a p p ro p ri a te i n de x t e r m s ( a ls o c a l le d k e y wo r d s or de s c r ip t o rs ) wi t h wh i c h t o s ea r c h f or t h e i n fo r m a t io n . B . D e t e rm in e t h e t yp e o f i n f o rm a t io n an d h ow m u c h is ne e de d (i . e. , onl y o n e f ac t , t h e m os t r ec e nt j o ur n al a rt ic l es , r e v i e w a r t ic le s , o r a c om p r eh e ns i v e d at a ba s e s ea r c h ) . C . As c e r t a i n a s m uc h in f o r m a ti o n a s p o ss i b le a b ou t th e d r ug be i ng q u es t io n ed an d t h e i n qui r e r ' s a s so c ia t i o n wi t h it . R em em b e r t ha t d a t a on a d ve r s e d ru g e f fe c ts o r d r u g i n te r ac ti o ns a r e o f te n f ra gm e nt e d a nd i n ad e qu a te l y do c u m e n t ed . S ee I V . A. 2 f o r t h e s pec i fi c d r ug in f o rm at i on th at s h ou l d b e ac q ui r ed . D ete r m in e t h e a ns we r s to the f ol l o wi ng q ue s t i on s: 1 . W ha t i s t he in d ic at i on f o r th e p r es c ri b ed dr u g? 2 . Is th e d r u g 's us e a pp ro v e d o r u na p pr o ve d? Th is in f o rm at i on c a n b e f o un d i n th e f o ll o wi n g re s o u rc es ( r em em be r to c h ec k h ow o f t e n th es e re so u rc es a r e up da t ed t o e ns u re ha v i n g t h e l at es t in f or m a t io n ) . a . Ap p r o ve d u se s o f d r ug s c an b e ch ec k e d i n : ( 1 ) A H F S D ru g I n fo r m a t io n ( 2 ) D r ug F ac ts an d Co mp a r is on s /F ac t s a nd C o mp a r is on 4 .0 (o n li n e) (3) PDR ( 4 ) U S P D r ug In f o r m at i on ( 5 ) D r ug d ex ( Mi c r o m ed ex ) ( 6 ) C li n ic al P ha r m a c o lo gy ( 7 ) D r ug I nf o r m a ti on H a nd b o ok /L ex i - D ru g s O n li n e ( L ex i - C o mp O n li n e ) b . U n ap p r o ve d u s es o f d r u gs c a n b e f ou n d i n: ( 1 ) A H F S D ru g I n fo r m a t io n ( 2 ) D r ug F ac ts an d Co mp a r is on s /F ac t s a nd C o mp a r is on 4 .0 (o n li n e) P.482
( 3 ) Ma r t i n da l e: Th e C o mp l e te D r ug R ef e r en c e ( 4 ) Me d l i ne
( 5 ) D r ug d ex ( Mi c r om ed ex) ( 6 ) I np ha r m a ( 7 ) U S P D r ug In f o r m at i on ( 8 ) C li n ic al P ha r m a c o lo gy ( 9 ) D r ug I nf o r m a ti on H a nd b o ok /L ex i - D ru g s O n li n e ( L ex i - C o mp O n li n e ) 3 . W ha t a r e t h e a ge , s e x, a nd we i g ht o f t he pa t ien t in qu es t io n ? 4 . D oe s t h e p at i en t h a v e a n y o th e r m ed ic al c o nd it i o ns o r r en al o r h ep a ti c d i se as e ? 5 . Is th e p a ti e nt t ak in g an y o t he r m e di c a t io ns ? 6 . W ha t d r ug s h as th e pa t i en t t a k e n d u ri n g t he pa s t 6 m o nt hs , an d wh a t we r e t h e d os a ge s ? 7 . D id t he pa t ie n t e xp e r ie n c e an y s ig ns or s ym p to m s o f a p os s i b le ad v e r s e d r u g r e ac ti o n? I f s o : a . H o w s e v e re wa s th e re a c t i on ? b . W hen d id t he r ea c t i on a p pe a r? c . H as th e p a ti en t (o r any m e m b e r o f t h e p at i en t 's f am il y) e xp e r i en c e d a ny a l le r g ic o r ad v e r s e r ea c t io n s t o m ed ic a ti on s i n t he p as t? d . C o ns ul t t h e f ol l o wi n g r e s ou r c e s f o r m o r e i n fo rm a ti o n: ( 1 ) Me y l e r ' s S id e Ef f ec ts o f D r ug s ( 2 ) A ge ne r a l d ru g re f e ren c e ( e .g . P D R ) ( 3 ) R e ac ti o ns ( 4 ) Me d l i ne e . Th e m a nu f ac tu r e r o f th e d ru g m a y b e a us e fu l s o u rc e f o r m i s s in g i n f or m at io n . Mo s t c om pan i es r eq ue s t f u rt h e r i nf o rm a ti o n r e ga r di n g a s us p ec t ed ad v e r s e dr u g r e a c t i on . 8 . D id t he pa t ie n t e xp e r ie n c e an y s ig ns or s ym p to m s o f a d r u g in t e ra c ti on? I f so : a . W ha t we r e t h e s p e c i fic d ru gs in qu es t io n ? b . W hat we r e t h e r es p ec t i v e do s a g es of th e d r u gs ? c . W ha t wa s t he du r a ti on o f th e ra p y? d . W hat wa s t h e l en g th of t h e c o u rs e o f a dm i ni st ra t i on ? e . W ha t a r e t h e d et a il s of t h e e ve nt s s ec on d ar y to t he su s p ec t ed r ea c t i on? f . C o ns ul t th e f o ll o wi n g re s ou r c e s f o r m or e i n fo rm a ti o n: ( 1 ) A dr u g i nt e r ac ti o ns re f e r en c e — f or e xa m pl e , D r u g In t e ra ct i on Fa c ts , H a n s te n 's D r ug I nt e ra c tio n A na ly s i s a nd Ma n a g em e n t , Ev a lu a ti on s o f D rug I n t e ra ct i on s ( E D I ) ( 2 ) A ge ne r a l d ru g re f e ren c e ( e .g . , P D R ) ( 3 ) R e ac ti o ns ( 4 ) Me d l i ne 9 . W ha t i s t he pa t ie n t 's c u r r e nt m e di c a t io n s t at us ? 1 0 . Do e s t he pa t ie n t h a ve a n y u n de r l yin g d is e as es ? 1 1 . Ho w h a s th e p a ti en t b e e n m a n ag ed s o fa r ? 1 2 . W ha t is th e s t ab il i t y o f t he dr u g? H o w i s c o m p a t ib il i t y of th e d r u g wi t h o t h e r d ru g s ?
W hat a r e t he ad m i n is t ra ti o n t ec h ni q ue s ? W ha t a re a pp r op r i at e c on t ai n er s f o r th e p r o du c t ? R e s ou r ce s a v a il a bl e wi t h t h is i n fo r m a t io n i nc l ud e a . Tr i s s el ' s H an db o ok o n I n je c ta bl e D ru gs b . K in g ' s G u i de to P a re nt e r al A d m ix t u re s c . Tr i ss el ' s St a bi li ty o f Co mp o u nd ed F or m u l at i ons D . E x p lo r e o th e r p o ss ib l e in f o r ma t i on r e so u r ce s i f n ec e ss a r y. F o r e xa m p l e , i t m a y b e u s e fu l to fi n d b ac k g r ou n d m at e r ia l i n te xt b o o k s ( te r ti ar y r e f e re nc e s ) , an d t h en s ea r c h t he jo u rn a l l it e r at u re ( p ri m a r y r e fe r e nc es ) f or m o r e cu r r en t in f or m a t io n.
VI. EVALUATING A CLINICAL STUDY. R e s ou r ce id e nt i fi c a t io n is f ol lo we d b y a c r it ic a l a s s e s s m e n t o f t h e a v a il a bl e i n f or m at io n . Th is s t ep is c r i ti c a l i n d e v el o pi n g a n a p p ro p r ia t e r es p on s e fo r t h e i n qu i re r . P.483
A. E va l u a t e t he o bj e c tive o f t h e s t ud y. D e t e r m i n e t h e a im o f th e re s e a rc h t h a t wa s p e rf o rm e d. 1 . W ha t d id t he r es ea r c he r s i n te n d t o e xa m i ne ? 2 . Is th is go a l s ta t ed c l ea r l y ( i .e . , is t he ob je c ti v e s p ec i fi c )? 3 . W as t h e r es e a rc h l im i te d to a s in gl e o b je c t i v e , o r we r e t he r e m ul t ip le d r u gs or e ff ec t s b ei ng t es t ed ? B . E va l u a te t he s ub j ec ts o f th e s t u d y. D e t e r m in e th e p r o fi l e o f t he st u dy p o p ul at i on b y as s es s i n g t h e fo ll o wi n g i n fo r m a ti o n: 1 . W er e h e al t h y s ub j ec ts o r af f ec t ed pa t ie n ts u s ed i n t he s t u d y? 2 . W er e th e s ub je c ts v olu n t ee r s ? 3 . W ha t we r e t h e c ri t e ri a f o r s el ec t in g th e s ub j ec ts ? 4 . H o w m an y s ub je c ts we r e i n c l ud e d, an d wh a t ar e t he de m o g r ap hi c s of th e s u bj ec ts ( ag e , s e x, a nd ra c e )? 5 . I f a d is e as e wa s b ei ng t r e at e d, di d a n y o f t he su b je c ts h a v e di s e as es o t h e r t ha n t h at in i ti a ll y be i ng t r ea t ed ? W ere an y a d di t io n al t re a tm en t s g i ve n ? W ere th e re an y c o n t r ai nd ic a ti o ns to th e t he r a p y? 6 . W ha t wa s t h e p at i en t s e le c t i on m e th o d a nd wh o wa s e xc l u de d f r om th e s t ud y? 7 . A p a ti e nt s e le c ti o n r ev i e w s h o ul d b e d o ne . You wi l l fi n d t ha t m os t g r o up s o f su bj ec t s a r e h om og ene o us ( i. e ., t he y a ll ha ve c om p a ra bl e c h a ra c t e ri s ti c s ) . I f a di s ea s e s ta t e is st u di ed , pa t ie n ts s h o ul d e xh i b i t s i m i la r s e ve r it y o f s y m pt om s . Re s ea r c h e rs ai m t o e li m i na t e i n te r p at i en t v a ri ab i li ty . B y s e le c ti ng pa t ie n ts wi th s i m i l ar c h a ra c te r is ti c s , r e s e a rc h er s c an a v oi d r e s ul ts th a t a r e c au s e d by i n d i v id ua l d i f fe r en c e s a m on g p a ti e nt s . S t ro n g i n di vi d ua l d i ff e r en c e s c an o bs c u r e t he r es ul t s o f t h e e xp e r i m en t . I f s t ud y in g a g r ou p o f p a ti e nt s wh o e xh i b i t s i gn i fi c a n t i nt e rpa t i en t v a ri a bi li t y is n e ce ss a r y , re s e a rc he r s m a y di v i d e t he pa t ie n ts in t o g r o up s ac c o r d in g t o th e
va r i a bl es li k e l y t o b e as s o c ia t ed wi t h re s p o ns i v ene ss t o t he r a p y . Th i s i s k n o wn as s t r at i fi c a t io n . C . E va l u a te t he a dm i nis t r a t i on o f t h e d r u g t r ea t m e nt . Fo r ea ch d ru g b e in g i n v e s t i ga t ed , d e te rm i ne th e fo ll o wi n g i n fo rm a ti o n: 1 . D e ta i l s o f t re a tm e n t wi t h t h e a ge n t b ei n g s tud i ed : a . D ai l y do s e b . F r eq ue nc y o f a dm i ni s tr a t io n c . H ou r s o f d a y wh e n a dm i ni s t e r ed d . R o ut e o f ad m i ni s tr a ti on e . S ou r c e of d ru g (i . e. , th e s u pp li e r ) f . D o sa ge f or m g . Ti m in g o f d r ug a dm i n is t r at i on in r el a ti on t o f ac t o r s a f fe c t i ng d ru g a b so r p ti on h . Me t h o ds of en s u r i ng c o m pl ia n ce i . To t a l d u ra ti o n o f t r e atm e nt 2 . O t h e r t h e r ap e u ti c m ea s u r es in ad d it i on to th e a g en t b e in g s tu d ie d D . E va l u a te t he se t t i ng o f t h e s t ud y. Tr y t o d e ter m i ne th e e n v i ro nm e n t o f t h e s t ud y a nd th e d a te s o n wh i c h t he t ri al be g an a n d e n de d . A ss es s t he f o l lo wi n g i n fo r m a t io n : 1 . P eo p le wh o m a de th e o b s e r v a t io ns ; v a ri o us p ro f es s i o na ls wh o o ff e r d i f fe r e nt an d u n iq ue pe rs p ec ti v e s b as e d o n t he i r b a c k g r o un ds an d i n te r es t s (W er e t h e s a m e pe o pl e m ak i ng ob s e r v a t io ns th ro u g ho u t t he s t u d y?) 2 . W he t he r th e s tu d y wa s do n e o n a n i np a ti e nt or o u tp a ti e nt ba si s 3 . D es c ri p ti on o f p h ys ic al s e t ti n g ( e .g . , h os p it a l, c l in ic , wa r d ) 4 . Le n gt h o f th e s t ud y ( i .e . , da t es o n wh ic h th e t r ia l be ga n an d e nd e d ) E . E va l u a te t he me t h ods a nd d es i gn o f t h e s t ud y. Th e m et h od s e ct i on o f t h e re se a rc h p a pe r e xp l a i n s h o w t h e r es ea r c h wa s co nd u c t e d. Th e s t ud y d e si g n ( i .e . , r e t ro s p ec t i ve , p ro s p ec t i v e , b li nd , c r os s o ve r ) an d t h e m et h od s u s ed to c o m p l et e t h e s tud y a r e i m p o r ta n t i n j ud gin g wh e t he r P.484 t h e s t ud y a nd th e re s u l ts a r e re li a bl e a nd va li d . Fr o m t h e s tu d y, tr y t o d e t e rm in e a ns we r s to t he f ol l o wi ng q ue s t i on s:
Figure 21-1. Parallel study design.
1 . A r e t he m e t ho ds of as s es s i n g t h e t he r ap e ut ic e f f ec ts c l ea r l y de s c r ib e d? 2 . W er e th e m et h od s s tan d a rd i z e d? a . R e t r os p ec t i ve ve r s us p r o sp e ct i ve ( 1 ) R e t r os p ec t i ve s t ud i es e v al u at e e ve n ts th a t ha ve a l re ad y o cc u r re d t o f i n d so m e c o m m on li nk am o ng th em , r eq ui r e re li an c e o n p at i en t m em o ri es a n d a cc u ra t e m e d ic al r ec o r ds , a nd a re un a bl e t o s ho w c a us e a n d e f fe ct . R e t r os p ec ti v e s t u di es a re us e fu l fo r s t ud y i n g r a re d is ea s e s ( o r e f fe c ts ) an d c a n h el p a he a lt hc a re p ro f es s i o na l d ec i de if en ou g h i n fo r m a t io n e xi s t s t o wa r r a n t p ro s p e c t i v e e xa m i na t io n o f a p ro bl e m . ( 2 ) P r o sp e ct i ve s t u di es f o l lo w i d en t i fi ed pa t ie n ts f o r wa r d in ti m e t o a ns we r a sp ec i fi c q ue s ti on . Th e y c an be ob s er v a t io n al o r e xp e r i m en t al ( i. e . , c l i ni c a l t r i al s ) . b . T r ea t me n t a l l oc a t io n ( 1 ) P a ra l l el s t u d y d es i gn i s a pr o to co l i n wh i c h t wo o r m o re pa t ie n t g r ou ps a r e s t ud i ed c o nc u rr e nt l y . Th e g r ou ps a re t re a te d id e n ti ca ll y e xc e p t fo r on e va r i a bl e , s uc h as a d r ug t h e r ap y ( F ig u re 21 - 1 ) . ( 2 ) C r o ss o ve r de s i g n m a y b e u s ed as a n a d di t ion a l c on t r ol fo r in t er p at i en t a n d i n t ra pa t ie n t v ar i ab il it y ( F i gu r e 2 1 -2 ) . In th is ty p e o f d es ig n , e ac h p a t ie n t g r ou p u nd e r go es e ac h t ype of t re a tm en t . H o we v e r , t h e s eq u en c e in wh i c h th e s u bj ec ts un d e rg o t re a tm en t i s re ve r s e d f o r o n e g r ou p . C r os so v e r d e si g n r ed uc e s t he po s s ib i li t y t ha t th e re s u l ts we re s tr o ng l y in f lu e nc ed b y t h e o r d er in wh i c h t he r apy wa s g i v e n . A n d b ec au s e b ot h g r o up s o f p a ti en ts r e c ei ve bo t h t y p es of t rea t m e n t , a n y d i ff e r en c e s in r es p on si v e n ess be t we e n t h e g r o up s as a r e s u lt o f p a ti e nt se le c ti on wi l l b e u nc o v e r ed . 3 . W er e c o n t r ol me a su re s us ed to r ed uc e va ri a tio n th a t m ig h t i nf lu e nc e th e r e s ul ts ? E xa m pl es o f s uc h c on t r ol m e t ho ds in c l ud e a . C on c ur r e nt c o n tr o ls b . S t ra t i fi c a t io n o r m a tc he d s u bg r ou p s c . A ru n -i n p h as e d . Th e pa t ie n t as hi s o r h e r o wn c o nt r o l ( i .e . , c ros s o v e r de s i g n ) e . I de n ti c a l a nc il l ar y t r e at m en t
4 . W er e c on t r ol s u s e d t o r e d uc e b ia s? E xa m p le s o f s u c h c o nt r o ls i nc l ud e a . B l in d as se s sm e n t, wh i c h m e an s t h at th e p e op l e o bs e r vin g th e p a ti en ts do no t k n o w wh o i s a s ub j ec t an d wh o is a c o n t ro l
Figure 21-2. Crossover study design.
P.485
Table 21-3. Types of Blind Studies Patient Aware of Treatment
Physician Aware of Treatment
Open label (nonblind)
[check mark]
[check mark]
Single-blind
—
[check mark]
Double-blind
—
—
Types of Blinds
b . B l i nd pa t i en t s , wh i c h m ea ns t ha t th e p a ti en t s d o no t k no w wh e t h e r t hey r e c ei v e d t h e s ub s ta nc e b e in g s tud i ed o r a pl ac eb o (d o u ble - b l i nd c om b in es th is p oi n t wi t h p o in t a a bo v e [ V I. E . 4. a ] ) ( Ta b l e 2 1 -3 ) c . R an d om a ll o ca t i on , wh i c h m e an s t h at pa t ie n ts in vo l ve d i n t he st u d y ha ve a n e ve n c h an c e o f b ei ng as s i gn e d t o e it h e r t he g ro up o f s ub je c ts re c e i v i ng th e ac ti v e d r u g o r th e g r ou p re c e i v in g a p la ce b o d . M a t c hi n g d u mm i es , wh i c h a re pl ac e bo s t ha t a r e ph ys ic al l y id en t ic al to t he ac t i ve a g e nt be i ng s t ud i ed e . C o mp a r is o n o f a pl ac e b o o r a t he r ap y t o a r eco g ni z e d s t an d a rd pr ac t ice ( p l ac eb oc o nt r o ll ed )
F . E va l u at e th e an a l ys i s o f th e s t u d y. A f t e r a s se s s i ng s p ec i fi c a re as o f t h e s t ud y s e pa r a te l y , c om pi l e t he in f o rm a ti o n t og e th e r t o de t e rm i ne wh e t he r th e t r ia l is a cc e pt a bl e a n d t he c o nc lu s io ns a re ju s t i fi e d b y de t e rm i ni ng an s we r s t o t he f ol l o wi ng q u es t io ns ( Fi g ur e 2 1 - 3 ): 1 . W er e th e s ub je c ts s ui ta b l y s e le c t e d i n r e la t io n t o t he ai m ( s ) o f t h e s tu dy ? 2 . W er e th e m et h od s o f m e as u re m e n t v a l id in r ela t i on to t he ai m ( s ) o f t h e s t ud y ? 3 . W er e th e m et h od s a de q u at el y s ta n da r di z e d ? 4 . W er e th e m et h od s s u ff i c i e nt l y s e ns i ti ve ? 5 . W as t h e d es ig n a p p rop r i at e ? 6 . W er e e n ou g h s u b je c t s e n r ol le d ? 7 . W as t h e d os ag e a p p rop r i at e ? 8 . W as t h e d u ra t io n o f t re a tm e nt ad e qu a te ? 9 . W er e c a r r y o v e r e f fe c ts a v oi d ed , o r we r e c o m pe n sa t io ns m a de f or t he m ? D i d a wa s h - o u t p e ri od e xi s t ? 1 0 . If no c o n tr o ls we r e us e d, we r e t he y u nn ec es sa r y o r o v e rl oo ke d ? 1 1 . If c o nt r o ls we r e u s e d, we r e t h e y a d eq ua t e ? 1 2 . W as t he c o m p a ra b il ity o f t r ea tm e nt g ro u ps e x a m in e d? 1 3 . A re th e d a ta ad e qu a te f o r as s es s m e n t? 1 4 . If s t a ti s t ic a l t es ts we r e n ot do n e, we r e th e y un n ec es s a r y o r o v e r l oo k ed ? 1 5 . If s t a ti s t ic a l t es ts a re r e po r te d , a ss es s t he fol l o wi n g: a . Is it c l ea r ho w t h e s t a ti s ti c a l t e st s we r e d on e ? b . W ere th e t es t s a pp r opr i a te l y us e d? c . If r es ul t s s h o w n o s ign i f ic an t d i ff e r en ce be t we e n te s t g ro u ps , we r e e n ou g h p a t ie n ts s t ud ie d (i . e. , s ta t is t ic al po we r ) ?
VII. GENERAL GUIDELINES FOR RESPONSES TO DRUG INFORMATION REQUESTS A. D o n o t g ue s s ! B . R e sp o ns es to a m e m be r o f t he pu b li c m u s t t ak e s e ve r a l e th ic a l is s u es in t o a cc o un t . P.486
Figure 21-3. Evaluation of study analysis.
P.487
1 . P at i en t p r i v ac y m us t be p r ot ec t ed . 2 . P r of es s i o na l e t hi c s m u s t b e m ai n ta in e d. 3 . Th e pa ti e n t- p h y s i c i an r e l at i on s h i p ca n no t b e b re a c h e d. 4 . R es p on s e is n o t n ec es s a r y i f t h e i nq ui r e r i n ten d s t o m is us e o r a b us e in f o rm a ti o n t h a t i s p ro v i d ed . Th e i nqu i r e r o f te n a dm i ts i n te n t o r o ff e rs cl ue s t o p o te n tia l ab us e , s uc h a s i n t h e f ol l o wi n g e xa m p l es : a . A p a ti e nt as k s h o w a c e r ta i n d ru g i s d os e d ( i .e . , ho w m uc h th e d r ug c a n be i n c re as ed , wh e n i t c an be i nc r ea se d , wh a t t he m a xi m u m d a il y d os e is ) . Th i s ki n d o f i n qu i r y s i gn a ls th a t t he pa t i en t m ig h t b e a dj us t in g h is o r h e r o wn t he r a p y . b . A pa t ie n t as k s a p ha rm ac is t to id e nt i f y a t ab let t h at is a p re s c r ip t io n p ro d uc t k n o wn f or a h ig h ra t e o f a b us e . C . O r g a ni z e in f o rm at i on b e f o re at t em pt i ng to c o m m u ni c a t e t he r es po ns e to t he i n qu i r er . R es po ns es s h ou l d b e c on c i s e an d s uc c in c t . A n ti c i pa t e a d di ti o na l q u es t io ns . D . Ta i l o r t he r es po ns e to t h e i nq u ir e r ' s b ac kg r ou nd . A ls o, c o ns i de r th e e n vi r o nm en t o f t he pr ac t ic e , i ns ti t u ti on a l p ol ic y a n d p ro c e d u re, a nd f or m u l a r y . E . Te l l t h e i nq u ir e r wh e re t he in f o rm at i on wa s fou n d . E xe r c i se c a u ti on wh e n m ak in g s t a te m e n ts s uc h a s , “ The r e ar e n o re p o rt s i n t he l i te r a tu r e .” F . U se ex t re m e c a u ti o n wh e n m ak in g s t at em e nt s s uc h a s , “ I r e c o m m en d … ” D o no t h e si t at e to re f e r c on s u m e r s t o th ei r ph ys ic ia ns . G . U s e m o re th a n a bs t rac t s t o a ns we r d r ug in f o rm a ti o n q ue s t i on s b ec au s e t he y m i gh t b e ta k e n o u t o f c on t e xt a n d d o n o t i nc lu d e a l l o f t h e d at a a v ai la b le in t he o r i gi n al ar t ic le . H . A l e rt t he in qu i r er o f a p os s i b le de l a y wh e n i t ta k es l o ng e r t h an an t ic ipa t e d t o a n s we r th e q u es ti o n.
I . A sk i f th e i n fo r m a t io n th a t i s p r o v id e d a ns we r s t h e i n qu i re r ' s q u es ti o ns . J . A s k i f th e i nq u i re r wou l d l ik e t o h a v e re p ri n ts o f a rt ic l es o r a wr i t t e n r es p on s e . P.488
STUDY QUESTIONS D i r e c t i on s : E a c h of t he n u m b e re d i t em s o r i nc om p le t e s ta t em en ts in t his se c t i on is f o l lo we d b y an s we r s o r c o m pl e ti on s o f th e s ta t em e n t . S e le c t t he on e l e t ter e d a n s we r o r c o m p l et i on tha t is be s t i n e ac h c as e. 1 . P r i ma r y l i t e r a t u r e i nc l u de s w h ic h o f t he f o llow in g ? ( A ) O r i gi n al c l in ic al t ri a ls ( B ) L e tt e rs to th e Ed i to r ( C ) S ys t em a ti c r e v i e ws ( D ) S p ec ia l re p or t s V i e w A n s we r 1 . T h e a n sw e r i s A [] .2 . W h ic h o f th e f o ll ow i ng s ta t e me n ts i s T R U E r e g a r di n g t e r t ia r y r e s o u r c e s ? ( A ) Te r t i a r y re s o u rc es inc l ud e t e xt b o o k s a n d c o m p u t e r d at a ba se s . ( B ) Te xt b o o k s t y p ic a ll y in c lu d e t he m o s t r ec en t l it e r a tu r e a nd / o r i nf o rm a tio n . ( C ) Te r t i a r y re s ou rc e s do n ot t y p ic al l y in c l ud e a b i bl i og r ap h y. ( D ) Th e c re d en t ia ls of the e di t o r o f a te r ti a r y r es o u r ce ar e no t c on s i d er e d i m p o r ta n t. V i e w A n s we r 2 . T h e a n sw e r i s A [] .3 . W h ic h o f th e f o ll ow i ng s ho u l d N O T b e d o n e w he n d e ve l o pi n g a n e f fe c ti ve s ea r c h s t ra t e g y? ( A ) D e t er m i n e i f t h e q ues t io n i s c li ni c a l o r r es ea rc h - re l at e d ( B ) I d en ti f y a pp r op r i at e s e a rc h t e rm s ( C ) D i s re g ar d o t he r m e dic a ti o ns th e p a ti en t m a y b e ta k i n g ( D ) A sc e r ta i n i f t he in q uir e r is a h ea l th c a r e p r of es si o na l V i e w A n s we r 3 . T h e a n sw e r i s C [] .4 . W h ic h o f th e f o ll ow i ng r e so u r ce s w o ul d be ap p r o p r ia t e fo r i d en t i f yi n g a d r u g ma n u f ac t u r ed i n a fo r e i gn c o un t r y? ( A ) Ma r t i n d al e : Th e C om p l e te D r ug R ef e r en c e ( B ) C l in ic a l P h ar m a c ol ogy ( C ) Tr i s s e l ' s S t ab il i t y of C o m po u nd e d F o rm ul a ti on s (D) AHFS V i e w A n s we r 4 . T h e a n sw e r i s A [] . Ma r t i n da l e : Th e C o mp l e te D r u g R e f e r e nc e Ma r t i n d a le : Th e C o mp l e te D r u g R e f er e n c e, L ex i - D r u gs I n t e r na t i o na l O nl i n e ( Le x i - C om p O n li n e ), D i c tio n a r y o f U n it e d St a t es A d o p t e d N a me s ( U S A N ) a n d I n t e rn a t io n a l D r u g N a m es . C li n i ca l P h a r m ac o l og y , T r i ss e l 's S t a bi l i ty o f Co m po u nd e d Fo r m u la t i on s , A H F S5 . W h i c h o f th e fo l l ow in g r e s o u r ce s w ou l d b e a pp r o p r i a te f o r i d en t i f yi n g t h e c a p su l e w it h t he im p r i nt c o de o f W a ts o n 4 0 5? I F a ct s a n d Co m pa r i s on 4 . 0 ( o nl i n e) I I L ex i D r ug s O n li n e ( Le x i - C om p O n li n e ) I I I M yl e r ' s S i d e E f f e ct s o f D r u g s ( A ) I an d I I on l y ( B ) I an d I I I o n l y
( C ) I I an d I I I o nl y V i e w A n s we r 5 . T h e a n sw e r i s A [] .F a ct s a n d Com p a r is o n 4 . 0 ( O n l i ne )L e x i D r u g s O n l in e (L e xi - C om p O n l in e ). 6 . W h i ch o f t h e f ol l ow i ng r es o u r ces w o ul d be ap p r o p r ia t e fo r d e te r m i ni n g th e a d ve r s e e f f ec t s o f g in k o b il o b a ? I N a t u r al M e d ic i ne s C om p r e he n s i ve Da t a ba se I I F ac t s a n d C o m pa r i son s 4 .0 ( on l i ne ) I I I N a tu r a l St a n da r d s I V C l i n ic a l P h a rm a co l og y ( A ) I an d I I on l y ( B ) I I a n d I I I o nl y ( C ) I , II , an d I I I o nl y ( D ) I I an d I V on l y V i e w A n s we r 6 . T h e a n sw e r i s C [] .F a ct s a n d Com p a r is o n 4 . 0 ( o n li n e ), N a t u r a l Me d i ci n es C o mp r e h e ns i ve D a ta b as e , Na t u r a l S t a nd a r d s, C o m p l et e G e rm a n Co mm i s si o n E Mo n o g r a p hs ,N a t u r a l P ro d uc t s (L e xi C o m p O n li n e ). 7 . W h ic h o f t h e f o l low i n g re s ou rc e s w ou l d b e a p p r op r i at e f o r d e te r m i ni n g i f Le va q u i n i s c o m pa t i bl e o r st a b l e i n D5W ? ( A ) E va l ua t io ns of D r ug In t e r ac ti o ns ( E DI ) ( B ) Tr i s s e l 's H a nd bo ok on I nj ec t ab l e D r u gs ( C ) R e d Bo ok ( D ) I n ph a rm a V i e w A n s we r 7 . T h e a n sw e r i s B [] .T r i ss e l 's H and b o o k o n I n je c t ab l e D r u g s , K i n g 's G u i d e t o Pa r e n te r a l A dm i x tu r e s, T r i ss e l's S t a b i l i ty o f C o m p o un d ed F o rm u l at io n s .8 . Wh i c h o f th e fo l low in g r es o u r ce s c a n be u s e d t o de t e rm i n e u na pp r o ve d u se s o f d r ug s ? ( A ) C l in ic a l P h ar m a c ol ogy (B) PDR ( C ) I n de x N o m i nu m ( D ) K i ng ' s G ui d e t o P a r en t e r al Ad m i xt u r e s V i e w A n s we r 8 . T h e a n sw e r i s A [] . Cl i n ic a l P h a rm a c ol o gy . K i n g 's G ui d e t o P a r e n t e ra l A dm i x tu r e s.9 . W hi c h o f th e fo l l ow in g a r e N O T i mp o r t an t w h en e va l u a t in g a c li n i ca l s tu d y? ( A ) S t ud y o bj e c t i v e ( B ) P a ti e nt de m o g r ap hi c s ( C ) D r u g a dm in is t r a ti on ( D ) N u m b e r o f a u th o rs V i e w A n s we r 9 . T h e a n sw e r i s D [] .1 0 . W hi c h o f t h e f ol l ow i ng s ta t em e n ts i s TRUE? ( A ) P r os p ec ti v e s t u di es e v a l u at e e v e n ts th a t h a ve a lr e ad y o cc u rr e d. ( B ) R e t ro s pe c t i v e s t ud ies a re us e fu l f o r e v a lu a ti ng r a re di s e a s e s . ( C ) A r un - i n p ha s e t y pi c a l l y in c r e as es v a r ia ti o n. ( D ) C r o s s o v e r d es ig n a llo ws p a ti e n ts t o u n de r g o o n l y on e t y p e o f t re a tm en t . V i e w A n s we r 1 0 . T he a nsw e r i s B [] .P . 48 9
ANSWERS AND EXPLANATIONS 1 . T he an sw e r is A [ I I . A. 3 ] . A l l m a te r ia l i nc l ud ed in a j o ur n al is n o t c on si d er e d a p r im a r y r es ou r c e . O ri g in a l c l in ic al t ri a ls a r e c on s i de r e d p r im a r y l i te r a tu r e; ho we v e r , r e v i e w a r t ic le s, a r t ic le s o f o p in i on , c o r re s p o nd e nc e, a nd s p ec ia l re p or t s a r e n o t . 2 . T he an sw e r is A [ I I , II . C ] . Te r t i a r y r es o ur c e s i nc lu de b ot h te xt b o o k s a n d d a ta b as es . In f o rm at i on a vail a bl e i n t e xt b o o k s m a y n ot in c l u de t he m o s t r ec en t d a ta sin c e i t c ou ld t ak e se v e r a l y e a r s t o p u bl is h . A b ib li o gr a ph y an d r ef e re n c e c i ta t io ns s ho u ld be p re se n t i n b o th te xt b o o k s a n d d a ta b as es s o t h at t he r e ad e r m a y r e f er t o a sp e c i f ic re f e re nc e i f d es i re d . A d d i ti on a ll y , t he ar e as of e xp e r t is e fo r th e a u th o r a n d/ o r p u bl is he r s h ou l d b e e va l u at e d wh e n us in g a te r t ia r y r e s o u rc e. 3 . T he an sw e r is C [ V . A, V . C , V II . B , V I I . D ]. O n e sh o ul d d e te r m i ne if t h e q u es ti o n is r el a te d t o a cl in ic a l s c en a r io or is r e s ea r c h r e l at e d t o d e v e lo p a n e f fe c ti v e s e a rc h s t ra t eg y . Ap p r op r i at e i n de x t e r m s s h o ul d b e i d en t i fi ed t o as s i s t i n t he l i te r a tu r e s ea rc h . O th e r m e di c a t io ns , i nc l ud i ng he r b al p r o du c ts , a nd di s e as e s ta t es s h o ul d b e t ak e n i nto c o ns i de r a ti on . Th e b ac k g r ou nd o f t h e i n qu i re r s h ou l d b e de t e rm i ne d s o t ha t th e res p on s e c a n b e t a il o re d to t he s p ec if ic in q ui r e r. 4 . T he an sw e r is A [ I V .B . 2 ] . Ma r t i n d a le : Th e Co mp l ete D r u g R e fe r e nc e is on e r e s o u rc e t h at m a y b e us e d to i d en t i f y a d ru g m an u fa c tu r e d i n a fo r ei g n c o u nt r y. O t h e r r es o u rc es fo r i d en t i f y in g d r u gs m a nu f ac tu r e d i n a f o r ei g n c ou n tr y i nc lu d e Ma r t i n d a le : Th e Co mp l ete D r u g R e f e r en c e , L e x i - D r ug s In t e r na t io na l O nl in e (L ex i- C o mp O n li n e ), an d th e U S P D i c ti o na r y o f Un i te d St a te s Ad o pt e d N a m e s ( U S AN ) a n d I n te r na t io n al D rug N a m e s . C l i ni c al Ph a r m ac o lo gy , Tr i s s e l 's S ta bi l it y o f Co mpo u n de d F o r m ul a ti o ns , a nd A H F S d o no t c on t ai n th is t y pe o f in f o rm at i on . 5 . T he an sw e r is A [ I V .B . 5 ] . F o r an un k n o wn d r ug , the p h ys ic a l c ha r ac te r is t ic s , in cl ud i ng an im p ri nt co d e , m a y b e us ed to id e nt i f y th e dr u g i n ad di t io n t o th e u se o f s e v e ra l r es o u rc es , in c lu di n g F a c ts a n d C o mp a ri s o n 4 .0 ( O n li n e) a nd Le x i D r ugs O n li ne ( Le x i - C o mp O nli n e ). 6 . T he an sw e r is C [ I V .B . 6 ] . F o r a n at u r al pr o du c t, the f ol l o wi ng r es ou r c e s a re a va il ab l e: F ac ts an d Co mp a r is on 4 . 0 (o n li ne ) , Na t u ra l Me di c in es C o mp re h en si ve Da t a b a se , N at u ra l S ta nd ar d s , C o mp l e te G e r m a n C o m m i s s i on E Mo n o g ra ph s , a nd N a tu r a l P r od u ct s ( L ex i- C o mp O n l i ne ) . 7 . T he an sw e r is B [ V . C. 1 2 ] . Th e s t ab il i t y o f a d r ug , th e c om p at i bi li t y o f a dr ug wi t h o th e r d r ug s a nd / or a p p ro p r ia t e c o n ta i ne r s , a n d p r op e r a dm i ni s t r a ti on t ec hn i qu es a re in cl ud ed i n T r i ss el ' s Ha n db o ok o n I nj e c t a bl e D ru gs , Ki n g 's Gu i de t o P a re n te r a l A d m ix t u r es , a n d T r i ss el ' s St a bi li t y o f C omp o u n de d F o r m ul a ti o ns . 8 . T he an sw e r is A [ V . C. 2 . b ].
U n a p p ro v e d u s e s o f d r ug s c an b e f ou n d i n C l in ica l P ha r m a c o lo gy . Th is inf o r m a t io n i s n o t a v a il a bl e i n t h e PD R , I n de x N o m i nu m , o r K i n g 's G u id e t o Pa r e nt e ra l A d m i x tu r es . 9 . T he an sw e r is D [ V I .A , V I . B , V I . C ]. A c r it ic a l as s e s s m e n t o f a v a i la b le in f o rm at i on is im p o rt a nt in de v e l op in g an a p p ro p r ia t e r es p on s e . Th e s t ud y o bj e c t i v e , t he st u d y s u bj e c t s ( v i a d em o gr a p hi c s a n d i nc lu s i o n a nd e xc l us i o n c ri t e ri a ) , a nd d ru g a dm i ni s t r a ti on sh o ul d b e eva l u a te d . 1 0 . Th e a n sw e r i s B [ V I .E ] . R e t r os p ec ti v e s t u di es e va l ua t e e v e n ts th a t h a v e a l r ea d y oc c u r r ed an d a re us e fu l fo r s t ud yi n g r a r e di s ea s e s . P r o s pe c t i v e s t ud ie s f o ll ow i d e n t if i ed pa t ie n ts fo rwa r d i n ti m e t o an s we r a s pe c i f ic q u es t io n . C ro s s o v e r d es ig n a l l o ws f o r e ac h p a ti e nt gr o u p t o u n d er g o e ac h t y p e o f tr ea t m e n t . A r un - in ph as e is a c on t r ol m e as ur e u s ed t o r e du c e va r i a ti o n .
22 Adverse Drug Reaction Reporting B a r b a r a Sz ym u s i a k - M u tn i c k
I. INTRODUCTION. A d ve r s e d ru g re ac t io ns (A D R s ) a re a c au se of s ig n i fi ca n t m o r b id it y a n d m o r ta li t y i n p a t ie n ts i n a l l a re a s o f he a l th c a r e t od a y. Th e re is wi d e v a ri a ti o n i n t he c u r r e nt h e al t hc a re li t e ra t u re , b u t i t h a s b ee n e s t im a te d tha t f ro m o ne t hi r d t o a s h ig h as o n e h a l f o f A D R s a r e b e li e v ed t o b e p r e v en t ab l e. Th e I n s t i tu t e o f Me d ic in e re po r t e d i n J u l y 2 0 06 th a t a n e s t im at e d 1 . 5 m il li o n i nj u ri es oc c u r ea ch y e a r a s a re sul t of m e di ca t io n e r r o rs . B e t we e n 44 , 00 0 t o 9 8 ,0 0 0 p eop l e d ie f ro m m ed ic a ti o n e r r o rs a n n ua ll y . Me d i c at i on er ro r s k il l m o re pe op l e p e r y e a r t ha n b r e as t c an c e r , A I D S , o r m o to r ve hi c l e a c c id e nt s . Th e c os t o f m o rb i di t y and m o r t al i t y o wi n g to d ru g- r e l at e d a d ve r s e e v en t s in ho s pi ta l i z ed pa t ie n ts wa s re cen t l y es t im at e d t o b e a t l ea s t $ 3 .5 b i ll i on an nu a ll y . Th e r e a re a n es t im a te d 3 m i ll io n h o s p i ta l a dm is si o ns e ac h ye a r c a us ed b y th e m is us e o f p h a rm ac e ut ic al s . Th e suf f e r in g t h at pa t ie n ts e xp e r i en ce b e ca us e o f dr u g -r e la t ed e v e n ts c a n no t b e q u an t ifi e d .
II. DEFINITIONS. Th e t e rm s a dv e rs e d r ug r e a c t i on , a dv e rs e d r ug ev e nt , un t o wa r d d r ug r ea c t i o n, d ru g m i s a dv en t u re , s id e e f f ec t , m e d ic at i on er r o rs , m is u s e o f p ha r m a c e u ti ca ls , a n d d r ug r e l at e d p r ob l e m a r e m any t i m es u s e d i n te r ch a nge a bl y b u t d o n ot al wa ys d e sc r ib e t h e s am e s it u at i on . A. Th e N a t i o na l Co o r di na t i ng C ou nc i l f o r Me d i c ati o n Er r o r Re p or t in g a n d P r e ve n ti o n s t a te s “ A m e di c a t io n e r ro r is an y p r e v en t ab l e e ve n t th a t m a y c au s e o r lea d to i n ap p r op r ia t e m ed ic a ti on u s e o r p at i en t h a rm wh i le t he m e di c a t io n i s i n t he c o n t ro l o f t he he al t h c ar e pr o fe s s i on al s , p at i en t , o r c o nsu m e r. S uc h e v e n ts m a y b e r el a te d t o p ro f es s i on a l p ra c ti c e , h e al t h c a re pr o du c ts , p ro c ed u re s , a nd s y s t em s , in c lu di n g p r e sc ri b in g ; o r de r c om m u n ic a ti on ; p ro du c t l ab el in g ; p ac k ag in g ; a nd no m e n c l a tu r e ; c om p ou n di ng ; di s p en s i ng ; di s tr i bu t io n ; a dm in is t ra t i on ; e d uc at i on ; m on i to ri n g ; a nd u s e. ”
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B . Th e U . S . F o od an d D ru g A dm in is t ra t io n ' s ( F D A) d e fi ni t io n o f an ad ve r se d r u g e ve n t i s “ a n y ad v e r s e e ve n t a s s oc i at e d wi t h th e us e o f a d ru g i n h u m a ns , wh e t h e r o r n o t c on s i d e re d d r ug r el at e d , i nc lu d in g t h e f ol l o win g : a n a d v e rs e e v e n t o c c u r ri n g i n t h e c ou r s e o f t he us e o f a d r ug in pr o fe s s io n al p ra c ti c e ; an ad v e r s e e v en t o c c u r ri ng f r o m a d r u g o v e r do s e , wh e t he r ac c i de n ta l o r i n ten t i on al ; an ad v e r se e v ent o c c u rr i ng f r o m d r ug ab us e ; a n a d ve r s e e v e nt oc c u r r in g f r om d ru g wi t hd r a wa l ; a n d a n y s i gn i fi ca n t f ai l ur e o f e xp e c te d p h a rm ac ol o gi c a l ac t io n . ”
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C . Ad ve r s e d r u g r ea c t io n is de f in ed b y th e W orl d H ea l th O r ga n i zat i on (W HO ) a s “ o n e wh ic h i s n o xi o us and u ni n te n de d , a nd wh i c h o cc u rs at do se s n o rm al ly u s ed in m a n f o r t he p ro p h y la xi s , d i ag n os is , o r th e ra p y o f d i s e as e , o r f o r th e m od i fi c at i on of p h ys io l og ic al f un c t i on . ”
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D . Th e W HO de f in es a s id e ef f ec t o f a d ru g a s : ‘ an y u n in t en d ed ef f ec t o f a p h a rm ac e ut ic al p ro d uc t o c c u r ri n g a t d os es no r m a l l y us ed b y a pa t ie n t whi c h is r e l at e d t o t h e p ha r m a c o lo g ic al p ro p e rt i es o f th e d r u g .’
III. TYPES OF ADVERSE DRUG REACTIONS A. T yp e A 1 . Typ e A r ea c t i on s a r e e xt e n s i on s o f t h e d r ug ' s k n o wn ph a rm ac o lo g y and a r e r e s po ns ib l e f o r t he m a jo ri t y o f A D Rs . P.491
2 . Typ e A r ea c t i on s a r e u s ua ll y d os e d e pe n de n t a n d p r ed ic t ab l e b ut c a n b e th e r e s ul t o f c on c om it a nt di s e a s e s t a te s, d ru g - dr u g in t e r ac ti o ns , o r d r u g- f oo d i n t er a ct i on s . 3 . W a ys to m i ni m i z e t y pe A r ea c t i on s i nc lu d e u nd e r s t a nd in g th e p ha r m a c o l og y o f th e d r u g b ei n g p r es c r i be d , m o n i to r in g d r u gs wi t h a nar r o w t h e r ap e ut ic in d e x, an d a vo i di n g p ol y p h a rm ac y wh e n p os s i b le . B . T yp e B 1 . Typ e B r ea c t i on s i nc lud e id io s ync r a ti c r e ac ti o ns , im m u no lo g ic al o r a ll e rg i c r e a ct i on s , an d c a rc in o gen i c / t e ra t og e ni c r ea c ti o ns . 2 . Typ e B r ea c t i on s a r e u s ua ll y n o t t he r es ul t of a k n o wn p ha r m a co l og y of t h e d ru g b u t s ee m t o b e a f un c t i on o f p a ti en t s us c e p ti b il i ty . Th e y a r e r ar e l y p r e di c t a b le , a r e u s ua ll y n o t d os e d ep e nde n t , a nd s e em to c o nc e nt r a t e i n c e r t ai n b o d y s y s te m s su ch a s th e l i v e r, bl o od , s k i n , k i dn e y , a n d n e r v ou s s y s te m . 3 . Typ e B r ea c t i on s a r e u n c o m m on bu t ar e g e ne ra l l y s e ri o us an d c an be li f e t h r e at e ni ng . 4 . E xc e p t f o r i m m ed i at e h y p e r s e ns i ti v i t y r ea c t i ons , t ype B re ac t io ns us ua ll y t a ke 5 d a ys b e f or e th e p a ti en t d e m o ns t r at es h y p er s e n sit i v i t y t o a d r u g. Th e r e is n o m a xi m um t im e f o r t he oc c u r re n ce of a r e ac ti o n, bu t m o st oc c u r wi t hi n 12 we e k s of i n i ti a ti on o f t he r ap y .
IV. RECOGNITION A. D r u g s m us t al wa y s b e c on s i d e re d a s a p os si b le c a us e of di se as e o r s y m p to m s t h a t a r e am o ng a p a ti en t' s l is t o f c om pl a in ts . C om p le t e d r ug hi s t o ri es , inc l ud in g n o n pr es c ri p ti o n d r ug s , m u s t a ls o b e c a rr i ed ou t . B . R e co g ni t io n i s o ft e n s u b je c ti ve , a n d i t i s n ot alwa y s p o s s i bl e t o d em o ns t r a t e s t r on g c au s a l it y b e t we e n t h e d r ug an d t h e o c c ur re n c e . 1 . S e ve ra l f ac t o rs m a y he l p i n a s s es si ng th e de te r m in a ti on o f ca us a li t y . a . D id t he pa t ie n t ac t ua l ly i n g es t t h e d r ug i n qu es t i o n? b . D i d t he on s e t of s y m pt o m s occ u r a f te r t he dr ug wa s t ak en ? c . W ha t is t he ti m e in t e rv a l b et we e n t ak in g t h e dr u g an d t h e o ns et o f s y m p t om s ? d . D i d t he s y m p to m s re s o l v e o r im p ro v e a ft e r t h e d r u g wa s s t o pp e d o r t h e d os e d e c re as e d? e . D id t he s y m p to m s re oc c u r a ft e r t h e d ru g wa s re i n tr o du ce d ? f . D i d d r ug - d ru g i n te r ac t io n s c o n t ri b ut e to th e s y m p to m s ? g . W ere th e d r ug s m ea s u r e d i n “ t o xi c le v e ls ” i n th e pa t ie n t 's s e r um ? h . H as th is r ea c ti on be en p r e v io us l y s e en wi t h us e o f th e d r u g? i . W hat i s t h e p er s o n al exp e r i e n c e o f t he c l in ic i an wi t h p re vi o us u se o f t he d r ug an d r e a c t i on s s e c o n da r y t o th e d ru g?
2 . N om o gr am s h a v e b e en d e v el o pe d t o a i d i n t he a ss es s m en t of c a us al i t y.
V. SURVEILLANCE PROGRAMS. P h a r m a c i s t s a s we l l as al l he al t hc a re p ro f es s i on al s s ho u ld ta ke an ac t i ve r o l e i n m o ni t o ri ng , re p o rt i ng , a nd t r en d in g A D R i nf o rm a tio n . So m e o f t he ac ti v i t ies in v o l v e d i n a co nc u r r en t a n d o ng oi n g A D R s ur ve i ll an c e p rog r a m a t a n i ns ti t u ti on a l le v e l i n cl ud e th e f o ll o wi n g c om p on e nt s : A. P h a r m ac y d ep a rt m en ts s h ou l d t ak e t h e l ea d i n t h e c ol le c ti on o f i nf o rm at i o n a nd s h ou l d s u bm i t a ll r e v ie ws an d re p o rt s t o t h e p ha rm ac y a n d t he r ap e ut ic s c o m m i t te es f o r r e vie w a n d e v a l ua t ion . 1 . E nc ou r a ge al l h ea l th c a r e pr o fe s s i on al s t o b e in v o l v e d i n re po r t in g . 2 . Mo n i t o r p at i en ts wh o a r e us in g h ig h - ri sk ag e nts . 3 . R e vie w p a t i en ts wh o h a v e r ec ei ve d “a n ti do t e ”- t y p e d ru gs . 4 . N o ti f y p re s c r ib e rs of s u s pe c t e d A D R s , a nd en c o u r ag e th o ro u gh do c u m en t a ti o n o f t h e d es c ri p ti o n o f t h e r ea c ti o n as we l l a s t h e o utc om e i n p a ti e nt s ' m ed ic al r ec o rd s . P.492
5 . R ep o r t a pp r o pr i at e l y id e n ti f ie d A D Rs to th e F DA . 6 . D e vel o p t h e us e o f p ha r m ac y c o m p u te r s y s t em s t o t r ack A D R s . B . E va l ua t io n o f th e c aus es o f A D R s s ho u ld be c a r r i ed ou t . A D R r e po r t i nf o r m a t io n s h ou l d b e us e d f o r e du c a t i on al pu r p os es a n d i den t i fi ca t io n o f d r u g us e a nd m e di ca t io n u s e p ro c e s s es t o p re v e n t f u r th e r o c c ur r e nc e s o f s u c h r ea c ti ons . A D R r e p o rt i ng in f o rm at i on s ho u ld be in c or p o ra t ed in to i ns ti t ut i on a l r is k m a n ag e m e n t p r o g ra m s .
VI. REPORTING TO THE FDA. Th r e e o f t he f i v e m a j or c e n t e rs a t th e F D A a re inv o l v e d wi t h e val ua t in g the sa f e t y a n d e f fi c a c y of d ru gs . The l ar g es t c en t e r is t he Ce n t e r f o r D r u g E va l ua t ion a nd R e s ea r ch ( C D E R ) , wh ic h o v e r s e es bo t h p r es cr i pt io n an d n o np r es c r i pt i on —o v e r - t he c o un t e r ( O TC ) — d r u gs . In 2 00 2 , C D E R es t ab l is he d th e Ad ve r se E ve n ts Re p o r ti ng S ys t e m ( A E R S ) , a c om pu t e ri z e d da t a b as e d es ign e d t o s up p o rt t he F D A 's p o st m a r k e t in g s a fe t y p rog r a m f o r d r ug s a nd th e r ap e u ti c b io lo g ic p r o du ct s . A n n ua ll y , t h e A E R S r ec e i v es a b ou t 4 7 0, 0 00 r ep o rt s o f a d v er s e e xp e r i e nc es po ss ib l y a ss o ci at e d wi t h d ru g s . Th e C en t e r f o r B i ol og ic a l E v a l u a ti on an d R es ea r ch ( C B E R ) e n su r es th e s a fe t y an d ef f i c a c y o f bl oo d p r o du c t s , v a cc i ne s , al l er g en ic s , bi o lo g ic al t h e r ap eu t ic s , ge n e t he r ap y , m ed ic al de vi c es a n d t e s ts , xe n o t r a ns pl a nt a ti on p r o du c ts , a nd ba nk e d h um a n t is s u e a n d c e ll u la r p r o d u c ts . Th e C e nt e r f o r F o od S a f e t y an d A p pl i ed N ut r it i o n ( C F S A N ) e s t a bl is h ed t he C F S A N Ad v e r se E ve n ts R e p o r ti ng S y s te m ( C A ER S ) i n 2 0 02 . Th e C A E R S p r o vi de s a m on i to r in g sy s t e m t o i d en t i f y p o te n ti a ll y s e r iou s p r o bl em s s e co n da r y to n on - F D A -a p p ro ve d h e rb s , m i ne r al s , v i t am in s , di e tar y s u pp l em en ts , an d o t he r s u bs t an c e s . A. Th e n a t i on al V ac c i ne Ad ve r s e E ve n t R e p o r tin g S ys t e m ( V A E R S ) i s c o ad m i n is te r ed b y th e FD A a n d t he C e nt e rs fo r D i s ea se C o nt r ol an d P reve n t i on ( C D C ) . Mo r e t h a n 1 0 m i lli o n v acc i ne s a r e g i v en to c hi l dr e n a nd m a n y m i ll ion m o r e
d o se s t o a d ul ts ea c h y e ar . A l th o ug h v acc i ne s p r ote c t m an y p eo p le f ro m d an g e ro us d i se as es , th e y do ha v e th e po t en t ia l t o c au se a dve r s e e f f ec ts . 1 . Th e N at i on al C hi l dh o od V ac c i n e I nj u r y Ac t ( N CV I A ) r eq u i re s h ea l th p ro fe ss i on a ls t o r ep o r t a . A d ve rs e e v e n ts a f te r th e ad m i ni s t ra t io n o f v ac c i ne s sp e c i fi e d i n t he ac t, a s d e sc r ib ed in t he “ R ep o rta b le E v e n ts Ta bl e , ” wi t h in t he sp ec i fi ed t im e p er io d ( a v a i la b le at ww w. v a e r s .h h s . g o v/ o r 1- 8 00 - 82 2 - 79 6 7 ) b . A n y e v en t l is t ed in t he m a n uf ac t u re r ' s p ac ka ge i ns e rt as a co n t ra in d ica t i on to s u bs eq u en t d os e s o f t he v a c c i ne 2 . I n 1 99 0 , V A E R S wa s s e t u p t o re ce i ve a ll r ep or t s o f s us p ec t ed ad v e r s e e v e n ts c a us ed b y an y U . S . l ic e ns e d v a c c i ne ( Fi gu r e 2 2 -1) . 3 . Th e V A E R S d ep e nd s o n v o lu n ta r y r e po r ti n g b y h e al t h p r of es s i o na ls to : a . I de n ti f y r ar e ad v e rs e re a c t i on s n ot de t ec t ed in p r e li ce ns i ng s t ud i es b . Mo n i t o r f o r i nc r ea s e s i n al r ea d y k n o wn r ea c ti on s c . Id e nt i f y ri s k fa c t o rs o r p r e e xi s ti n g c o n di t io ns th a t p r om o te r ea ct i on s d . I de n ti f y pa r t ic ul a r v ac c i ne lo ts wi t h un us u al l y h i gh r a te s o r u nu s ua l t y pe s o f e v e n ts B . M ed W a tc h , t he F D A ' s Me d i c a l P r od u c t s R e po rt i n g P r og r am es t ab li s h e d i n 1 9 93 , i s a vo lu n ta r y s y s te m f o r h e al t hc a re pr o v i de r s ( F ig u r e 2 2 -2 ) . Ho we v e r , m a nu f ac tu r e rs an d d is t r ib u t o rs o f F D A -a pp r o ve d d r u gs , b i ol og ic s , r ad i at i on - e m i t ti ng d e vi ce s, s p ec i al nu t ri t io na l pr o du c ts , d ie t a r y s up pl e m e n ts , i n fa n t f o rm ul as , a n d d e vi ce s a r e m a n da t ed to r e p or t pr o bl em s t o t h e FD A . Th e g oa ls of th e p r og r a m a re t o in c re as e a wa r e n es s of r e po r t in g o f m ed ic a l- p ro d u c t - in du c e d di s e as es a n d t h e i m po r t an c e of r ep o r ti ng , t o c l a ri f y wh a t s h ou l d b e r e p or t ed , to m a ke re p o rti n g a s e a s y a s p os s i b le , a n d t o p r o v i de f ee db a c k t o h e alt h p ro f es s i on a ls . 1 . I mp o r t an c e o f re p o r ti n g a . Th e i n c i de nc e o f A D Rs oc c u r s a t a hi gh r at e i n h e al t h ca r e t o da y. ( 1 ) G e ne r al l y , it is re p or te d th a t 3 % -1 1 % o f a ll hos p it a l a dm is s i on s c an be a t t r ib u ta bl e to A D R s , al th o u gh s om e s t ud ie s r e po r t th e fi gu r e t o b e a s h ig h as 2 9 %. ( 2 ) Th e li k e li h oo d t h at a p a t ie n t wi l l e xp e r ie nc e an A D R wh i l e h os pi t al i z e d i s r e p o rt e d i n t he li t e ra t u re t o be i n a r an g e f r om 5% - 2 5% . P.493
Figure 22-1. VAERS form for reporting possible adverse drug reactions.
P.494
Figure 22-2. Form for reporting possible adverse drug reactions to the FDA Medical Products Reporting Program.
b . P r e ven t io n o f A D Rs is a n i m p o r ta n t s t ra t eg y i n h e al t h c a r e . I t h as be e n e s ti m a t ed t h a t a t l e as t o ne th i r d o f a l l A D R s m a y be p re v e n ta b le . It h as b e en fu r t he r n o t ed t h a t p r e v en t ab l e A D R s te n d t o b e th e m os t c os tly t o t r ea t a n d ca us e th e g r e a te s t d e g re e o f pa t ie n t m o r bi di t y . ( 1 ) F ut u re A D R s c an be p r e v e n te d i n i nd i v i du al pa t i en ts b y c a r ef u l a nd c on s is te n t d o cu m e n ta t io n i n p a ti e nt r e c o r ds . ( 2 ) A pr o g ra m t ha t t ra c k s A D R s c an he lp di s c o v er p r e v io us l y u ni de n ti f ie d t r e n ds . Th e s e tr e nd s c an be us ed wi t h i n t he in s ti t ut i on to d e v e lo p p r og r am s o f p ro s pe c t i v e i n t er ve n t io n P.495 t o p re ve n t r e oc c u r r en c e o f t he re ac t io n i n th e p a ti e n t p op ul a ti o ns th a t a r e a t s im il a r r i sk .
c . R ec og n it i on of p re v i ous l y un d is c o v e r ed A D R s at t r i bu t ab le t o a d r u g is pa r t ic ul a r l y t r u e i n t h e c a s e o f n e wl y m a rk et e d p r od uc t s . ( 1 ) A lt h ou g h c l i ni c a l t r ia ls a re ge n e ra ll y e f fe c t i ve i n as s es si n g e f fi c a c y and r is k t o b e n ef i t r a ti o , i nh e re n t l im i ta t io ns e xi s t i n p r em a rk e ti n g t r ia ls . ( a ) Th e t ri al s a r e u s u al l y r e la t i v el y s ho r t i n d u ra t io n an d d o n o t e f fe c t i ve l y m im ic th e e xp o s u r e p a ti e nt s wo u l d e xp e r i e nc e i f us in g t h e dr u g as a c h r on ic a ll y a dm i n is t er e d a g e nt . ( b ) D r u g- d r ug in t er a c t io ns an d u s e in pa t ie n ts wi th c o nc o m i ta n t d is e as e s ta t es m a y n o t b e te s t e d f o r i n t he s e t r ia ls . ( c ) Th e s m a l l s i z e of t he t r i al s ( us u al l y 10 00 - 3 500 i nd i vid u al s ) is in s u f fi c ie n t to d e t ec t r a r el y oc c u r r in g ad v e r s e r e ac ti o ns . ( d ) R ac i al an d e t hn ic g rou p s m a y n o t b e p a rt ic i pat i n g i n t he sa m e nu m b e rs as r e p r es en t ed in th e ge ne ra l po pu l at i on . d . P r om p t r ec al l i n c as es o f pr o du c t p ro b le m s a r e a c c om pl is h ed wh e n th e Me dW a tc h P r o g r am i s u s e d t o re p ort p r od uc t p r o bl em s o r d evi c e d e fe c ts . 2 . W ha t sh o ul d be r e por t e d ? a . A D R s t ha t ar e s e ri o us , e v e n i f c au s a l it y i s n ot p r o ve n , i nc lu di n g ( 1 ) A pa ti e nt ' s de a th th a t i s s us pe c t e d o f b ei n g a d i r ec t o u tc om e o f a n A DR ( 2 ) A l i fe - t h re a te ni n g e v e n t ( 3 ) A n i ni t ia l o r pr o lo n ged h os pi t al i za ti on ( 4 ) A s i gn if ic a nt , pe r s i s te n t , o r p e rm a ne n t ch a nge o r d is a bi li t y/ in c ap ac i t y ( 5 ) A c o ng en i ta l a n om al y ( i nc lu d in g t h os e o cc u rr in g in a f e tu s ) ( 6 ) O t he r p ro bl e m s t h at a r e n ' t l is t ed i n th e m an u fa c tu r e r ' s p ac k a ge in s e r t a s a k n o wn s i de e ff ec t b . Ma l f u nc t io ni n g m ed ic a l de v i c e s s uc h as he a r t v a l v e s , l a te x g l o ve s , di a ly s i s m ac h in es , a n d v en t il at o rs an d p r o bl em s wi t h nu t ri t i on al p ro d uc ts c . P ro d uc t p r ob l em s t ha t c an r es ul t i n c om p ro m i se d s a fe t y o r q u al it y, i nc lu d in g p r o du c t c o n ta m i n at i on , m is l ab el i ng , u nc l ea r la bel i n g , po o r p ac k a gi n g, po te n c y p r o bl em s , a nd qu es t io n ab l e s ta b il i t y d . C o un t e rf ei t o r s u s p ec te d c o un t e rf e it d ru gs e . A d ve rs e e v e n ts wi t h fo o d , h e rb s , v i t am i n s , c os m e t ic s , o r d ie t a r y s up p le m en ts , a l t ho ug h C A E R S i s t he pr e f e re d re p o rt in g s y s t em f . A d ve rs e e v e n ts o wi n g t o bl o od p ro du c ts , a ll e rge n ic s, ge n e t he r a p y , h um a n t is s u e a n d c el lu l a r p r od uc ts , and xe n o t r a ns pl a nt a ti on p ro d uc ts g . Me d i c at i on er r o rs 3 . C o n fi d en t i al i t y o f b o th t he r ep o r te r an d t h e pa t i en ts wh o s e ca s e s a r e r e p o rt e d a r e s u bs ta n ti a ll y p ro t ec te d b y th e F D A . 4 . R ep o r ti n g o f p r ob l em s wi t h O TC m e d ic at i on s ar e r eq u i re d wh e n t he p rod u ct ha s b e e n m a r k e t ed wi t h a new d r u g a pp li ca t io n ( N D A) , i n c lu di n g d r ug s f o rm e rl y m a rk e te d a s p r es c r i pt i on- o n l y dr u gs . O TC p r od uc t s m a rk e te d wi t ho u t a n ND A d o n o t r e q ui r e re po r t in g , b ut r ep o r ti n g i s st r o ng l y en c o ur a g ed . A pp r o v al of t he FD A i s n o t r e q ui r e d f o r t he m a rk e ti ng o f n on p r esc r i pt io n he rb s , m in e ra ls , vi ta m i ns , di e t ar y s u pp l em en ts , an d o t he r s u bs ta n c e s . B ec au s e t he F D A d oe s n ot ap p r o v e th e se s u bs ta n c e s , ef f ic ac y a nd s a fe t y do no t ha v e to be d em o ns t ra t ed , no r i s i t m a nd a te d t o r ep o r t p ro b le m s to th e F D A .
5 . R ep o r ti n g t o m an u fa c tu r e rs is no t d es c ri b ed in t h e F D A 's gu id e li ne s , a lth o u gh a s ec t io n o f th e Me dW atc h f o rm c a n b e c he c k ed o ff t o i n fo r m t h e F D A th a t a c op y o f t h e re p or t ha s b ee n f o r wa r d ed t o t he m a nu f ac t ure r b y th e re p o rt e r . C . I n f o rm a t io n on p r e vio u s l y r e p o r t e d e ve n t s 1 . Th e F D A W eb s i t e p rov i d e s o n -l in e s a fe t y in f o rm a ti o n a t w w w. f d a . g o v / m e d wa t c h /s a fe t y . h tm g a th e re d f rom ap p r o xi m at e l y 2 5 ,0 0 0 r e p o rt s t h at a r e s u bm it t ed ea c h y e a r . 2 . C li n ic al l y im po r t an t p ro d uc t s a fe t y al e r ts a r e av a i l ab l e vi a a n a u t om at ed e -m a il m es s ag ed e li v e r y s y s t em f r om ww w. f d a . g o v / m e d wa t c h / el is t . ht m . P.496
3 . F D A a l er t s a ls o a pp e ar o n ww w. P h a r m ac is t .c om , a j oi nt v e n tu r e o f t h e A m e ri c an P h a r m a c i s t As s o c i a ti o n a n d t h e N a ti o na l As s o ci at i o n o f B o a rd s o f P h a rm ac y .
VII. American Society of Health-Systems Pharmacists (ASHP) Guidelines d e f in e c r it e ri a fo r c la s s i fy i n g an A D R as s ig n if ic an t . Th e y en c o u r ag e r e por t i ng o f s e r io us or u ne xp e c t ed AD R s t o t h e F D A , t h e m a nu f ac t u re r , o r bo t h.
VIII. Joint Commission on Accreditation of Healthcare Organizations (JCAHO) r e q ui r em e nt s f o r a c c r ed it a t io n d es c ri b e t he ne e d f o r ea ch he a lt hc a r e o rg an i za t io n t o m o ni t o r f o r a d v e rs e e v e nt s in v o l vin g d r u gs a n d de v i c es i n a co n ti nu a l, c o ll a bo r a ti ve f a sh i on .
IX. United States Pharmacopeia (USP). Me d i c a t io n Er r o rs R ep o rt i n g P r og r am a t ww w. u s p . o r g /h q i/ p at i en t Sa f e t y /m e r / a nd th e U S P - I n s t i tu t e f o r Sa f e M e d ic a ti on P r ac ti c es (I S M P ) Me d i c a ti on E r r o rs Rep o r ti n g P r o g r am a t ht t ps : // w w w. i s m p . o rg / o rd e r fo rm s / re por t e r r o rt o I S MP . a s p a re t wo p r o g ra m s i n v o l v ed in c o lle c ti o n o f m ed ic a ti on e r ror d a ta .
X. FURTHER INFORMATION A. I n f o r m a t io n a b ou t t h e Me dW a tc h p r og r am c a n b e ob t ai n ed b y p h on e a t 1 - 8 00 F D A - 1 0 88 an d a t ww w. f d a . g o v / Me d wa t c h / . B . I n fo r m a t io n a b ou t V AE R S c an be ob t ai n ed b y p h o ne at 1 -8 00 - 8 22 - 79 67 a nd at w w w. f d a . g o v / c b e r / v ae r s /v a e r s .h t m . C . I n fo r m a t io n a b ou t re po r t in g to th e C F S A N p r og r a m c a n b e o b ta i ne d b y p h on e a t 3 0 1 -4 3 6 -2 40 5 o r a t ww w . c fs a n. f da . go v . D . F u r th e r i nf o rm a ti o n ab o u t t he F D A ' s r e po r ti n g s y s te m s an d p r og r am s , s uc h a s C D E R , c an be f ou nd on th e F D A 's W eb s i te ( ww w . f d a .g o v) . P.497
STUDY QUESTIONS
D i r e c t i on s : E a c h of t he q u es t io ns , s t at em e nt s , or i nc om p le t e s t a te m en ts c a n b e c o r re c tl y a ns we r e d o r c om p le t ed b y on e o f th e s ug g es t ed an s we r s o r p h r as es . C h o os e th e b e st an s we r . 1 . T he ph r a se “ o n e w h ic h i s n ox i o us an d un i n te n d ed , an d w h ic h o c cur s a t d o s es n o rm a ll y u s e d i n m a n f o r t he p r op h yl a x i s , d ia g no s is , o r t h e r apy o f d i s ea s e, o r fo r t h e m odi f i c a ti o n o f ph ys i o l o g i ca l f u nc t i on ,” d es c r ib e s ( A ) a s i de ef f ec t . ( B ) a n a d v e rs e d r ug r ea c t i o n. ( C ) a n a d v e rs e d r ug e v en t . ( D ) a m e di c a t io n e r r o r. V i e w A n s we r 1 . T h e a n sw e r i s B [ se e] . 2 . T yp e A r e a c ti o n s a r e c h a r ac t e r iz e d b y w h i c h o f t he f o ll ow i n g? ( A ) i di os y n c ra t ic re ac t ion s ( B ) a fu nc t io n o f p a ti e nt s us c ep ti b il i t y ( C ) c au s e d b y d r ug - d ru g i n te r ac t io ns ( D ) A l l o f t h e a bo v e ( E ) N o ne o f t he ab o v e V i e w A n s we r 2 . T h e a n sw e r i s C [ se e] . 3 . T h e M ed W a t ch f o rm i s n o t t h e a p p r o p r ia t e f o r m t o r epo r t w h i c h o f th e fo l l ow in g e ve n ts ? ( A ) a vac c i n e e v e nt de s c r i b ed in th e Va c c in e Ad ve r s e E ve n t R e po r t in g S ys t em ( V A E R S ) “ R e po r t ab le E v e n ts Ta b le ” ( B ) a s us p ec te d c ou n t er fe i t d r u g ( C ) a m a lf u nc ti o ni n g v e nt i l at o r ( D ) a d ru g t h at is c o nt ain e d i n a pa ck ag e wi t h u nc l ea r l a be l in g ( E ) N o ne o f t he ab o v e V i e w A n s we r 3 . T h e a n sw e r i s A [ se e] . 4 . P re ve nt a b l e a d ve r se d r ug r e a c t io n s ( AD R s ) ( A ) g en e r al l y di s p la y m ild s y m p t om s . ( B ) a r e a l wa y s ea s i l y re c o g ni z e d . ( C ) a r e p r ob l em s t ha t a re e as il y m e d ic al l y m a nag e d . ( D ) A l l o f t h e a bo v e ( E ) N o ne o f t he ab o v e V i e w A n s we r 4 . T h e a n sw e r i s E [s e e] . 5 . R e p o r tin g p r o bl e ms w i t h vi t a mi n s t o t h e F D A i s r e qu i r e d b y l a w i n w h ic h o f t he fo l l ow i ng s it u a t io n s? ( A ) wh e n t he p ro bl em is d i s c o v e re d b y t he co ns um e r ( B ) wh e n s a f et y a nd e ff ic a c y ha ve b ee n p r o v en b y m an u fa c tu r e rs to th e F D A ( C ) wh e n a h e al t hc a re pro f es s i o na l d is c o ve r s t he p r o bl em ( D ) A l l o f t h e a bo v e ( E ) N o ne o f t he ab o v e V i e w A n s we r 5 . T h e a n sw e r i s E [s e e] . P . 49 8
ANSWERS AND EXPLANATIONS 1 . T he an sw e r is B [ s ee I I . C ] .
Th i s is th e d e fi ni t io n fr om t he W HO . 2 . T he an sw e r is C [ s ee I I I . A. 2 ] . Typ e A r e ac t io ns c a n b e c a us ed b y dr u g -d r ug in t er a c ti o ns . I di os y n c ra t ic r ea c ti o ns a n d re ac t io ns c a us ed b y p a ti e nt s u s c ep t ib il i t y are g en e ra l l y i n th e c la s s ifi c at i on of Typ e B r e ac t io ns . 3 . T he an sw e r is A [ s ee V I . A . 1] . A l l th e o t he r s a r e r ep o r ta b le on t he Me dW atc h f or m . Th e Na t io n al C hi ld h oo d V a cc i ne In j u r y Ac t r e qu i re s th e u se of a V A E R S fo r m t o re p o rt v ac c i n e - re la t e d i n ju r i es . 4 . T he an sw e r is E [ s e e V I . B . 1] . P r e ve n t ab le A D R s c a n be t he c a us e o f s e ri o us m e d ic al p ro b le m s th a t r equ i r e i n t en si ve m e di c a l c a re . A l t h ou gh s o m e p re v e n tab l e A D Rs m a y ap p ea r obvi o u s o n r e v i e w o f a p a ti en t ' s m ed i c a t io n h is t o r y, t hi s i s no t al wa ys t h e c a s e. 5 . T he an sw e r is E [ s e e V I . B . 4] . Ma r k e t i n g o f t he s e p ro d uc t s d oe s n ot de p en d o n th e m a nu f ac t ur e rs p ro v i ng e f fi c a c y a n d s af e t y of t he pr o du c t s . No la w r e q u ir e s r ep o rt i n g o f s ub s e qu e n t p ro b le m s . Th e s e p r o du c t s d o n o t re q ui r e a n N D A . A l th o ug h i t i s n o t r e qu i re d f o r h e al t hc a r e p r o f ess i on al s t o re p or t pr o b le m s , i t i s e s s en t ia l th a t v ol u nt a r y r ep o r ti ng ta k es p l ac e .
23 Medication Errors R o b e r t C is n e r os
I. MEDICATION ERROR PROBLEM A. Th e 2 0 0 0 I ns t i tu t e o f Me d i c i n e ( I O M) r e p o r t To E r r Is H u m an br o ug h t th e p ro bl em o f e r ro r s in m e di c i n e t o n a t io na l a t t en t io n .
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1 . A n e s t im a te d 4 4 ,0 0 0-9 8 , 00 0 d e a th s p e r ye a r a r e c a us ed b y m e di c a l er r o r s . O f t h o s e d ea t h s, ap p r o xi m a t e l y 7 , 00 0 a r e t h e r es u lt o f m ed ic a ti o n e r ro r s. 2 . A c al l to ac ti o n wa s giv e n t o i m p r o v e p a ti en t sa f e t y . B . I n re c e n t y e a rs , t ra gi c m ed ic a ti o n e r ro r s h a v e fo c us ed a tt e nt io n on c o nc e r ns r e g a rd i ng pa t ie n t s a f et y . 1 . A c h em ot h er a p y m i x u p a t a m a jo r c an c er c e n te r r es ul t ed in t he de a th o f a p a ti en t f r o m a fo u r f o ld o ve r d ose d ai l y fo r 4 d a y s. 2 . A c hi l d ac c i d en t al l y r ec e i v ed an i nt r a ve n o us ra t h e r th a n i n t r am u sc u la r d os e o f l o ng - ac t in g p e ni c i ll i n a nd d ie d . 3 . A c om p ou nd i ng e rr o r re s ul t ed in de a th of a c hi ld wh o r ec e i ved a t r ic yc lic a n t id ep r es s a n t a t a do s e 1 0 ti m es g r ea t e r t h a n th e d os e p r e sc r i b ed b y p h ys ic ia n . 4 . Mi xu p s wi t h h e pa r in v ia l s wh i c h h ad s im i la r p ac k a gi n g , b u t d i f fe r e n t c o n ce n t r a ti o ns , r es ul t ed i n o ve r d o se s c au s i n g s e r io us in ju r y a nd se v e ra l in f an t d e a th s.
II. ERROR DEFINITION. Th e N a t io n al C oo r di n a ti ng C o un ci l f o r Me d ic a ti o n E r r o r R ep o r ti ng a nd P rev e n t i on ( N C C ME R P ) d e f in es a m e d ic a ti on e r ro r as fo ll o ws : “ A m ed ic a ti on e r ro r i s a n y p r e ve n ta bl e e v e n t t h at m a y c au s e o r l ea d to in app r o p ri a te m e di c a t io n u s e o r pa t ie n t h a r m wh i l e t h e m e d ic at i on is in th e c o nt r ol o f t he h e al t h c a re pr o fe s s i on al , p a ti e nt , o r co ns um e r . S uc h e v e n ts m a y b e r e la t ed to p ro fe ss i on a l p ra c ti c e , h e al t h c a re p r o du c ts , p r oc ed u r es , a nd s y s t em s , i nc lu di n g p r es c ri b in g ; o rd e r c om m u nic a ti o n; p r o du c t l ab el i ng , p ac k a gi n g , a nd no m e nc l at u re ; c o m p o u nd in g ; d is pe ns i ng ; d i st r ib u ti o n; a dm i n is t ra t io n ; e d uc at i on ; m on i to r i ng ; an d u se . ”
2
III. TYPES OF ERRORS. Th e f o ll o wi n g c at e go r ie s o f er r o rs ha v e be e n us ed i n n um e ro us r es ea r ch s t ud i es .
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A. W r o n g d r u g e r r o r . A d r u g t h at wa s no t o r d er ed f o r a p a ti e nt wa s ad m in i s t e r ed — f o r e xa m pl e , a p a ti e nt ac c i de n ta ll y r e ce i ved f ur o se m id e 4 0 m g o r al l y. Po s s i bl e c a us es : Th e p ha r m a c i s t a c c i de n ta ll y f i ll ed t he pat i e nt ' s p r es c ri p ti on f o r an a nt i bi o ti c wi t h f u r os em id e ; t h e p har m ac is t re ac h ed fo r t he wr o n g b o tt l e o n t he sh el f a n d d id n o t c he c k th e l a be l c a re fu l l y en ou g h . B . E x t r a d o se e r r o r. A pa t i en t re c e i v es m o r e d os e s o f a d ru g th a n we r e or d e r ed — f o r e xa m pl e , a p a ti e nt wa s s up p os ed t o r ec ei ve a m e d ic at i on wi t h b r e ak fa s t f o r 3 d a ys b u t re c e i v ed i t f o r 5 d a y s . P os si b le c a us e: Th e pa t ie n t 's nu r s e wa s co n f us ed b y t h e m ed ic a ti on di r ec t io n s . C . O m i ss i o n e r r o r . A d os e o f a d ru g wa s n o t a dm i ni s t e r ed as o r d er e d b ut wa s s ki p pe d — fo r e xa m pl e , a p a t ie n t wa s s u p po se d t o r e c ei ve di go xi n 0 . 25 m g o r a ll y i n
t h e m o rn i ng bu t d i d n ot re c ei v e th e d o se . Po s s ib le c a us e : Th e p at i en t ' s nu r s e wa s s o b us y t h at he o r s he for g o t t o a dm i ni st e r t h e d os e . P.500
D . W r o n g d os e o r w r ong s t r en g t h e r r o r . Ei t he r t h e wr o n g d os e o f a m e di c in e o r t h e wr o n g s tr e ng t h i s a dm i ni s t e r ed — fo r e xa m pl e , t h e p a ti en t wa s s up p os ed t o r e c ei ve wa r f a ri n 0 . 5 m g b u t re c e i v e d wa r f a r in 5 m g i ns t ea d . Po ss ib le c au s es : Th e p h a rm ac is t m is r ea d t h e la b el ; th e p h y si ci a n wr o t e t h e o r de r as “ wa r f a ri n . 5 m g .” A n o t he r e xa m pl e : a p a tie n t wa s s up p os ed to r ece i ve ti m o l ol 0. 2 5% bu t wa s g i v e n t i m o l ol 0. 5 %. P os s i bl e c a u s e : Th e p ha r m a c i s t t oo k th e wr o ng p ro d uc t o f f o f t he s h el f , c on f us ed b y th e c o n c e n t ra t io ns . E . W r o ng r o u te e r r o r . A p a ti e nt r ec ei ve s a do s e o f a m ed ic a ti on b y a r o ute t ha t wa s n o t o r d er e d b y t he ph y s ic i an — f or e xa m p le , a pa t ie n t wa s s up p os ed to r ece i ve p r o ch lo r p er a z i ne 10 m g in t r am us c u l a rl y b ut th e d ru g wa s ad m i ni s te r ed i n t ra ve n ou s l y . P os s i b le c a u s e s : Th e nu r s e m is r e ad t he o rd e rs ; th e p h y si c ia n m is t ak en l y wr o t e “ I V” in s t e a d o f “ I M. ” F . W r o ng t im e e r r o r . A p a t ie n t d oe s n ot r ec ei v e a d os e o f m ed ic a ti on a t th e ti m e a t wh i c h it wa s to be a dm i ni s te r e d— f o r e xa m p le , a h o s p i ta li ze d pa ti e n t wi t h d i ab e te s i s s ch e du l ed to r ec ei v e a do s e o f i ns ul i n im m e d ia t ely b e f o re b re ak f as t (a t 7 :0 0 A . M. ) b u t th e d os e i s g i v en 2 hr a f te r b re ak f as t . P os s i b le c a us e : Th e n u rs e wa s b u s y a n d c o ul d n o t g i v e d os e o n t im e . G . W r o n g d o sa g e f o r m e r r o r . A pa ti e n t r ec ei ve s a do s e o f m e d ic in e i n a d o s a g e f o r m t ha t wa s n o t i n te nde d — f or e xa m p le , n ic o ti nic ac id 50 0 m g t a bl e ts we r e o rd e r ed f o r a p at i en t wh o i n s t e ad r e c e i v es ni c o t in ic ac id 50 0 m g s lo w- r e l e as e c ap s u l es . P o ss i bl e c au s e : Th e p har m ac is t d i d n ot c a r e fu ll y c h ec k t he p ro du c t o r was c o n fu s e d b y t h e l ab e l. H . O t h e r . E rr o rs t ha t d o n o t fi t i n to an y o f t h e o the r c a t eg o ri e s .
IV. COMMON ERROR HAZARDS A. D a n g e r o u s a bb r e vi a ti o n s . N um e r ou s c o m m o n a b b re vi a ti on s a nd s ym bo l s h a v e b e e n as s o c i a te d wi t h e r ro r s . D e t ai le d l is ts a re a va i la b le f ro m t he I ns ti t u te f o r Sa f e Me d i c a t io n Pr a c t ic es ( I SMP ) a t h t t p :/ / ww w. j o i n t c o m m is s io n . o rg / S en ti n el E ve n ts / for m s . an d th e J oi n t C o m m i ss i on on A c c re d it a ti o n o f H e al t hc a r e O r ga n i z at i on s ( J C A HO ) a t h t t p :/ / ww w. j o i n t c o m m is s io n . o rg / P at ie n t Sa f e t y / DoN o t U s eL is t / . J C A H O ' s a c c r e di t ed o r g an i za ti o ns a r e re q ui re d to a voi d u s i n g t he p ote n t ia ll y c on f us in g a b br e vi a t io ns on i t s “ D o N ot U s e ” l is t . 1 . U , I U : u n i t ( s ) . Th e le tt e r U c a n e as il y b e m i si nt e r p re t ed as a n um be r ( e. g . , 0 o r 4 ) , an d s e ri ou s h a rm ha s o c c u r re d wi t h i ns ul i n a nd h ep a ri n a s a re s ul t o f th i s c o nf us i on . Fo r e xa m p l e , a p at i en t re ce i ve d 6 6 u nit s of in su l in i n s t e ad of 6 u n i ts . Th e o r d e r, wh i c h wa s wr i t t e n f o r “ 6 U ” o f r e gu la r in su l i n wa s m i s re ad as 66 . The wo r d u n i ts s ho u ld be wr i t t en ou t in fu l l.
2 . Q D , Q . D . , q d , q .d . ( dai l y) . Th e s e c o m m on ab b re vi a t io ns ha v e be e n m is i nt e r pr e te d a s “ Q I D ” o r “ qi d ” (f o ur t im es d a il y) r e su l ti ng in o ve rd os es . Th e wo r d d a il y s ho ul d be wr i t t en ou t in fu l l. 3 . Q . O . D , Q O D , qo d (e ve r y o t h e r d a y) . Th e s e c o m m o n a bb r e v ia t io n s h av e b e en m is i nt e r pr e te d a s Q I D ( fo u r ti m e s d ai l y ) , re s u l ti ng i n o v e r do s e s . Th e wo r d s e v e r y o t h e r d ay s ho u ld be wr i t te n ou t c om pl e te l y. 4 . T r ai l i ng z e r o . W hen a d os e i s o r de r e d a nd fo llo we d wi t h a de c i m a l p oin t an d a ze r o , su c h as 2 . 0 m g o r 2 5 . 0 m g , er r o rs c a n o c c ur . Th e de c i m a l p o in t m a y b e m is se d a n d a n o v e r do s e c a n oc c ur . Fo r e xa m pl e , wa r f a r i n 2 . 0 m g m a y b e m is i nt e r pr e te d a s 2 0 m g. Tr a i l in g ze ro s s ho ul d b e a vo i de d , a nd th e d o s e wr i t t e n wi t h o u t th e a dd i ti o na l z er o — f o r e xa m p le , wa r f a rin 2 m g ( i ns te a d o f 2 . 0 m g ) . 5 . L ac k o f le a di n g z e r o. A d r ug ' s d os e m a y be les s t h an 1 m g , s uc h a s f or d ig o xi n . O f t e n th e d os e i s wr i t t e n wi t h o u t a le ad i ng ze r o: d i go xi n . 2 5 m g i ns te a d of d ig o xi n 0 . 2 5 m g . E r ro r s h a v e o c c u r re d b e c a us e t h e d ec im a l p oi n t is m i s s ed — f or e xa m p l e , wa r f a r i n .5 m g m a y be int e r p re t ed as wa r f a ri n 5 m g . L ea d in g ze ro es s h ou l d b e i n cl ud e d, s o th e d o s e i s wr i t t e n as di go xi n 0 . 25 m g o r wa r f a r in 0. 5 m g. 6 . M S , M S O 4 ( mo r p h in e s u l f a te ) , M g S O 4 ( m ag n es i u m s u l fa t e ). Th e a b b re v i a t io ns f o r m o r ph in e s ul f a te an d m ag n es iu m s ul fa t e a r e q u i te s im i la r a n d c an be c o nf us e d . I t is r ec om m e nd th a t m o rp h in e s ul f a te an d m ag n es i u m s ul f a te be wr i t t en in o ut in f u l l. P.501
B . O t h e r co n f us i n g s ym b o l s , a bb r e vi a t i on s . Th e r e ar e n um e r ou s o th e r h a za r do u s s ym b ol s a nd ab b re v i a ti on s th a t sh o ul d b e u s e d wi t h c au t io n wh e n wr i t i n g p r e sc ri p ti o n o r de r s a nd c a r e f ul l y e xa m in ed wh e n fi l li n g p re sc r ip t io ns . E xa m p le s i n cl ud e th e f o ll o wi n g : 1 . cc . S t an d s f o r c u b ic c e n t im et e rs an d i s o f te n us e d i ns te a d o f m L. Th i s h a s b ee n m is i nt e r pr e te d a s a 0 ( z er o ) ; us e m L . 2 . µ g . U s ed fo r m ic r o gr am s —f o r e xa m p l e, le v o t hy r o xi n e 2 5 0 µg da i l y . Th e a b b re vi a ti o n h as b e en m i s ta k e n fo r m g , a nd o ve rd o s e s h a v e o c c u rr e d; bet t e r to us e m cg o r t o wr i t e o ut th e wo r d m ic r og r a m s . 3 . < , > . S ym b ol s f o r l es s t h an ( < ) a nd g re a te r th an ( > ) h a v e b e en m is t ak en f o r e ac h o t h e r o r m is in t er p r et e d as nu m b e rs . B et t e r t o wr i t e o ut t he wo r d s l ess t han o r g r e a te r th an . 4 . H C T . Th is a b br e v i at i on f o r “ h y d r oc or t is on e ” h as be e n m i s i n te r p r et e d as h yd r o ch lo r o th i a z id e . B e tte r t o wr i t e t he wo r d ou t c om p le t el y . 5 . H C l . Th e a bb r e v ia t io n f o r “h yd r oc h lo r ic a c i d ” ha s b e en m is i nt e r p re t ed as K C l ( p o t ass i um c hl o ri d e ). B et t e r to wr i t e o u t t he wo r ds c o m p le t el y . C . S o u nd - a - li k e o r l oo k- a - l i ke d r ug na m es . A de t a il ed li s t o f c o n f us in g d r u g n am es c a n b e f ou n d i n t he 2 00 4 U n i te d S ta t es Ph a r m ac op e ia pu b li c a t io n “ U S P Q u a li t y R e vi e w” ( w w w. u s p . o r g/ pd f / E N / pa t ie n tS a f et y / q r 792 0 0 4- 0 4 -0 1 .p d f ). A no t her l is t i s a va i la b le f ro m I S MP ( w w w. i s m p .o r g / To ol s / c o n fu s e d d ru g na m e s .p d f) . 1 . E xa m p le s i nc lu d e t he f o l lo wi n g : a . Am i t ri p t y li n e a nd am ino p h y ll i ne
b . C is p la t in an d c ar b op la t i n c . K - Du r an d C ar d u ra 2 . To a v o id th es e p r o bl em s , t he I S MP o f f e rs s e ve r a l s ug ge s ti on s , i nc lu din g th e u se o f co m p u te r i z ed r em in d er s , n am e - al e r t s t ic ke r s , a n d i nd e pe n de n t ch e c ks ; o p en in g t h e b o t tl e i n f r on t of th e p a t ie n t, wh o c a n c on f i rm t h e a pp e a ra nc e ; a nd r ep o r ti n g e r r o rs . D . H i g h - r is k d r u g s. C e rta i n p o t en t d r ug s h a ve be e n i m p li c a t ed in m a n y se r i ou s a n d t r a gi c m e d ic at i on er ro r s . Th e s e h a v e b ee n c al l e d hi g h -r is k o r hi gh - al er t d r ug s . A l is t o f s uc h m ed ic a ti o ns c a n b e f o un d a t w w w. i s m p .o r g / To ol s / h ig ha l e rt m ed ic a ti on s .p d f. E xa m pl es in c l u de th e f o ll owi n g : 1 . B l oo d - mo d i f yi n g a g en t s su c h a s h e pa r i n a nd w a r f a r i n. E r ro r s h a v e r e s ul t ed in s e r io us in ju r y o r d e at h fro m h em o r rh a gi n g as a r es u lt o f o v e rd o se (p a ti e nt r e ce i vi ng 1 0 m g i ns t ea d o f 1 m g ) or f r om bl o od c l ot s a s a re s ul t o f un de r d os e ( p at ie n t r e c ei vi ng 0 .5 m g i ns t ea d o f 5 m g ) . 2 . N a r co t i cs an d s e da t ive s . C e n tr a l n e r v ou s s y st e m d ep r es s i o n a nd r es pi r a to r y a r r es t ha v e r es ul t ed f rom e r ro r s wi t h th e se dr u gs , s uc h a s d ia z e p am 25 m g g i v e n i n t ra ve n ou s l y i ns t ea d o f 2 . 5 m g . 3 . N e u ro m us c u la r pa r a lyz i n g a g e n ts su c h a s su c c in yl c h o l i n e a n d ve cu r o n i um . A c ci d en t al us e o r i n ad v er t e n t us e b e f or e a d eq u ate v e n ti l at i on p ro c e du r es we r e s t a rt e d h a v e r es u lt e d i n r e s pi r at o r y a r re s t an d d ea t h . 4 . C h em o t he r a p y d r u g s . Th e s e d ru g s a re as s o cia t e d wi t h po t en t ad ve r s e e f f ec ts , a f f ec t in g n um e ro us bo d y s y s te m s , s uc h a s t he im m u ne , n e u ro lo g ic , a nd clo t t in g s ys t em s . D ea t hs ha v e oc c u r re d a s a r es ul t o f e r r or s wi t h th es e p r od u c t s. Fo r e xa m p l e , v i nc r is t in e wa s a c c id e nt a ll y g i ven to a c h i ld in s te ad o f v i n bl as t ine , r e s ul ti n g i n d ea t h . C o nf us i on o v e r t he do s i n g o f cy c l o ph os p ha m i d e r es ul t ed i n a f a t al fo u r fo l d o v e r do s e .
V. SEVERAL SAFETY TECHNIQUES OBSERVED IN COMMUNITY PHARMACIES 4 A. K e e p wo r k p ro c e du r es o rg a ni ze d a n d s i m p li f ied . B . D o n ' t wo r k o n s e v er a l p r es c ri p ti on s a t o nc e , j us t on e a t a ti m e . P.502
C . Ma n a g e i n t er r u pt i on s , d o n ' t b e p r ess u r ed to r us h . D . S m el l c he c k . E . B a r c od e c he c k . F . U se a m ag ni f y i ng gl as s wh e n ne ed e d. G . E n h an c e th e d e s i gn of t h e f ac il i t y .
VI. ROOT CAUSE AN ALYSIS (RCA). Th i s is a s t r uc t u re d p r oc e s s f o r id e nt i f y in g d i r ec t a n d i nd i r ec t f ac t o rs th a t c o nt r i bu t ed to a m ed ic a tio n e rr o r . A f ra m e wo r k f or c on d uc ti n g a n R C A is ava i l ab l e a t h t t p :/ / ww w. j o i n t c o m m is s io n . o rg / S en ti n el E ve n ts / for m s . S ee “ F ra m e wo r k F or C o n d uc ti n g a Ro o t Ca us e A n al y s is . ”
A. I m p o r ta n t q ue s ti on s to as k : 1 . W ha t h a pp en e d a nd wh y ? 2 . W ha t we r e t h e c o n t ri bu t i ng fa c to rs ? a . A ge ? Ho u rs wo r k ed ? S t a f fi n g? b . W ork l o ad ? St r es s ? C on f us i ng na m e s? Lo ca t io n o n s he l f? c . In a de qu a te in f o rm a ti on ? C om m u ni c a t io n ? d . I na d eq ua t e e qu i pm en t? e . W or kp l ac e a tm os p he re c o n du ci ve t o s a f et y ? f . I na d eq u at e t r a in in g o f p h a rm ac is t o r te c h n ic ia n? B . L a te n t de f ec t . A w eak n e ss i n a s ys t e m t ha t d o es no t i m m ed i at e l y res u lt in an e r r o r b u t, un d e r t he r ig h t s e t o f ci r c u m s t an ce s , c an c o n t ri b ut e t o a m i st ak e. F o r e xa m p l e : 1 . S t oc k in g lo ok - al ik e o r s ou n d -a li k e d ru gs ne xt t o e ac h o th e r , c on t ri b ut i ng t o a p h a rm ac is t i nc o r re c tl y f ill i ng a p r es cr i pt i on . 2 . I na d eq u a te t r ai n i ng o f em pl o ye es , c on t r ib u tin g to an e r ro r i n wh i c h an a u t om at e d d is pe ns i ng m a c hi n e wa s us ed im p ro pe r l y a n d a p at i en t re c e i ve d th e wr o n g m ed ic a ti o n.
VII. NATIONAL SAFETY EFFORTS A. J C A H O ' s N a t io n al P ati e n t S a fe t y G o al s f o r Ac cr e d it e d O rg a ni za t io ns c an b e f o u nd at h tt p :/ / ww w. j o i n tc om m i s s io n .o r g / Pa t ie n t Sa f e t y/ N at i on al P a ti e nt S a fe t yG o a ls / . H o s pi t al go a ls i nc l ud e : 1 . Im p ro v e t he ac c u r ac y o f pa t ie n t i de n ti f ic at i on . H a v e t wo m ea ns o f i de n ti f yi n g t he p a t ie n t o th e r t h an r oo m n u m b e r . 2 . Im p ro v e c o m m un ic a ti on am o ng c a r eg i ve rs . Ve ri f y a nd r ea d b ac k t e le pho n e a n d o r a l o r de r s . 3 . C r ea t e a l is t of “ do not u s e ” a b b re vi a ti on s . S t an d a rd i z e th e a bb r e vi at i on s u s e d , a n d p r oh i bi t th e u s e of th o s e th a t a r e p r on e t o co n f us io n a n d m i si n te r p ret a t io n . 4 . Im p ro v e t he s a fe us e o f m e di c i n es . a . Li m i t th e n um b er o f d if f e r en t c on c en t ra t io ns a va i la b le pe r dr u g p r od uc t ; s t an d a rd i z e . b . D e ve lo p m et h od s o f id e n ti f y i ng an d re v i e wi n g s o un d -a l ik e a nd lo ok - al ike d r ug s , p r e ve n ti ng e r ro r s wi t h t he m . c . Al l m ed ic a ti o ns a n d c o n t ai ne r s s ho ul d b e p r o pe r l y la b el e d. d . R e du c e th e l ik e li ho o d o f pa t ie n t h a rm a s s oc i ate d wi t h th e u s e of an t ic oa g ul a ti o n t h e r ap y. 5 . R ed u c e th e ri s k o f i n fe c ti o ns . a . C om pl y wi t h a ll C en t er s fo r D is ea s e C o nt r ol an d P re ve n t io n ( C D C ) r e c om m e nd a ti on s f o r h an d wa s hi n g a nd h ygi e ne . b . Th o r ou g hl y i n v es ti g ate a ll s e ri o us ad v e r se e ve n ts an d d e at h s as so c i a te d wi t h i n f ec ti o n ac q ui r ed in a he a l th c a r e s et t in g . P.503
Figure 23-1. The medication error form used by the United States Pharmacopeia. [Reprinted with permission of the United States Pharmacopeia.]
P.504
6 . K ee p a c c u ra t e p a ti en t m ed ic a ti o n r ec o r ds a n d h i s t o ri e s t h ro ug h ou t th e c o nt i nu um o f ca r e. a . E ns u re th a t a pa t ie n t 's m e di c a t io n re co r ds a re c om pl e te an d a c c u ra t e wh e n h e o r s h e is r ef e r r ed or t ra n s f er r e d wi t hi n o r be t we e n o rg a ni za t io n s . b . P r op e r c om m u ni c a t io n o f ac c u r at e p a ti e nt m e dic a ti o n i nf o rm a ti o n is c r i tic a l f o r e ve r yo n e i n v ol v e d in th e p a ti e nt ' s c a re . B . T h e F iv e Mi l l i on Li v e s C a mp a ig n i n it ia t e d b y the I ns t it u te fo r H ea l th ca r e I m p ro ve m e n t c an be fo un d at h tt p :/ / ww w. i h i . o r g /IH I / P r o g ra m s / C am pa ig n . 1 . P u rp os e : “ To p r ot ec t p a t ie n ts fr om f i ve mi l l ion i n ci d en t s o f me d ic a l h a r m o v e r t h e n e xt t wo y e a r s ( D ec em b e r, 20 0 6- D e ce m b e r , 20 0 8 ) .” 2 . Twe l v e i n t er v e n ti o ns we r e i d en t i fi ed an d c an b e fo u nd de s c r ib e d in m o r e de t ai l a t t h e we b s i t e a bo v e . Th e in t e r v e nt i on s i nc lu de d : a . P r e v en t in g a d ve r s e dr u g e ve n ts t h ro ug h m e di c a t io n r ec o nc i l ia t i on . b . P r e ven t in g s u r g ic a l si t e i nf e c ti o ns b y ap p r op r i a t e c a r e a nd an i t b io ti c u se . c . Fo cu s o n p r e v en t in g ha r m f r om h ig h r is k m e dic a t i on s s uc h a s a nt ic o ag u la n ts , s e da t i ves , n a rc o ti c s , a nd i ns u li n . d . R e du c e M e t hi c i ll i n - Re s i s ta n t St a ph y l oc o cc us a u re u s (M S R A) i n f ec ti o n s t h r o ug h a pp r o p ri at e e vi d e n c e -b a se d p r a c ti c es . C . Th e I O M i n J ul y 2 00 6 r e l ea s e d i t s r ep o r t “ P r e ve n t in g Me d ic a ti o n E r r o rs. ” S e v e r al r e c om m e nd a ti on s we r e m a de to im p ro ve pa t ie n t s a fe t y i nc lu di n g: en h an c in g r ol e o f p a t ie n t i n m e d ic at i on m an a g em en t , im p r o v in g p a ti e n t e du c a t io n , a nd in c rea s in g t h e u s e o f t ec h no lo g y , s u c h a s e - p re s c r ib i ng . Th is rep o r t c an be ac c e ss ed at w w w. i o m . e du . D . M ed i ca t i on e r r o r re po r t i n g . Th e r ep o r ti n g o f m e di ca t io n e r r o rs p r o v i de s c r it ic a l s a fe t y f ee d ba c k . F i gu r e 2 3 - 1 s ho ws t h e f o rm u sed i n t he U ni t ed S t at es P h a r m a c o pe i a 's e rr o r rep o r ti n g p r og r am . E rr o rs c a n b e s ub m i t te d a n on y m o us l y v ia t h e In t er n et , b y te le p ho ne , o r b y m a il .
E . Th e “ S o rr y W ork s C o al i ti o n ” ( ww w. s o r r y wo r k s .n e t ) i s a n o r ga ni z a t io n of v a r i ou s i n di vi d ua ls ( he al t hc a re pr o f es s i o na ls , l a wye r s , i ns u r an c e e xe c u ti ve s , c o nc e r ne d c i ti ze ns , et c .) wh o p ro m o t e th e n ec es si t y o f d is cl o s u r e a nd a po l o g y f o l lo wi n g e r r o r . Th e c o al i ti o n p r o v id e s t r ai n in g a nd ed uc a tio n p ro g ra m s . F . Th e In s ti t ut e f o r Sa f e Me d i c a t io n Pr a c t ic es ( ww w. i s m p .o r g ) f oc us es i ts e f f or t s o n m e d ic a t io n e r r o r p r e ven t i o n a n d p a ti e n t s a fe ty. Th e I S MP p u b l is he s fo u r di f fe r en t s a fe t y n e ws le t te r s , p ro v id e s c o n su l ti ng s e r v ic e s , a n d p r es en t s n um e ro us e d uc a ti o na l p r og r am s , s e r v i c es , a nd ac t i vit i es . G . Th e N a t io na l Pa t ie n t S a f e t y Fo u nd a ti on ( ww w. n p sf . o rg ) r ep r es en t s s tak e h ol d e r s f r o m a b r o ad a r r a y o f d i s c i pl i ne s , i nc lu d in g p a ti e n ts a n d f am il i es . Th e NP S F m is si o n is f oc us ed on imp r o vi n g p at i e nt sa f e t y. I t p ro v i d es n u m e r ou s r eso u r c e s , p u bl ic a ti o ns , a n d ac t i v it ie s d i r ec te d a t i m p r o vi ng t h e c a re of p at ie n ts . P.505
STUDY QUESTIONS D i r e c t i on s : E a c h of t he q u es t io ns , s t at em e nt s , or i nc om p le t e s t a te m en ts c a n b e c o r re c tl y a ns we r e d o r c om p le t ed b y on e o f th e s ug g es t ed an s we r s o r p h r as es . C h o os e th e b e st an s we r . 1 . A m a j o r re s ul t i n t h e 2 0 00 I ns t i tu t e o f M e d ici n e ( I OM ) r ep o r t is t ha t ( A ) p ha r m a c i s t s a r e n o t b l am e d f o r t he m a jo r i t y of m ed ic al e r ro r s. ( B ) s ur g eo ns m a k e m o r e m is t ak es th an an y o t he r h e al t h p r of es s i o na l . ( C ) p h ar m a c i s ts m ak e m o r e m is t ak es th a n a n y o th e r he al t h p r of es s i o na l . ( D ) t h e re is n o w m o re em p ha s i s o n e r r or p re v e nt i o n. V i e w A n s we r 1 . T h e c o r re c t an s w e r i s D [s e e] . 2 . A p h a r m a c is t is p r es e nt e d a p r es c r i p ti o n f o r 25 0 m c g o f l e vo t h yr o x i n e . W h i c h o f th e fo l l ow in g d o s ag e s w o ul d be eq u i va l en t t o t h a t am o un t ? (A) 2.5 mg ( B ) 0 . 25 gm ( C ) 0 . 25 m g (D) 25 gm V i e w A n s we r 2 . T h e c o r re c t an s w e r i s C [s e e] . 3 . A p r e s c r i p t i on is w ri t t en f o r w a r f a r i n 1 .0 mg . The c om m un i t y p h a r m a c is t a cc i de n t al l y d i s p e n se s 10 mg . T h e pa t i en t de ve l o ps se ve r e b l ee d in g w i th i n 3 d a ys a n d n e a r l y d i e s . W h i c h o f t h e f ol l ow i ng i s t h e m os t a cc u r a te as se s sm e n t o f t h is p re s c r ip t i on ? ( A ) A t ra i li ng z e r o i s p res e nt in t hi s p re s c r ip t io n a n d c ou l d h a v e c o n t ri b ute d to t he p h a rm ac is t ' s e r ro r . ( B ) Th i s i s a n e xa m p le of a l e ad i ng ze r o, wh i c h co n t ri b u te d t o t h e e r r or an d th e p a t ie n t t r ag e d y . ( C ) S o un d - al ik e m ed ic a tio n s c o n t ri b ut e d t o t h is er r o r . ( D ) Th i s d o es n o t q ua l if y a s a n e r r o r b as ed on the N a ti o na l Co o r di na t in g C o u nc i l f o r Me d i c a t io n Er r o r Re p o rt in g an d P re ve n ti on ( N C CME R P ) d e f i n i ti on . V i e w A n s we r 3 . T h e c o r re c t an s w e r i s A [s e e] . 4 . A h o s p i t a l p h a rm a c y b e g i ns s to ck i n g n ew int r a ve n o u s m i ni - b ag s o f a n eu r o mu s cu l a r - bl o cki n g ag e n t.
T h e pa ck a g in g is si m ila r t o a c om m on l y u s e d i n t r a ve n o us an t i bi o t ic . T h e a d d i t io n o f t he new m i ni - b a gs w a s n o t w id e l y c o m m un i ca t e d t o a l l p e rs o n ne l . O n e w e e ke n d, se ve r a l d o s es o f t h i s n ew p r o du c t w e r e a cc i de n t al l y d i s p en s ed i n p la c e o f th e in t e nd ed d o se s o f an t i bi o t i c. Se ve r a l p at i e nt s s u f f e red r e s p i r at o r y a r r e s t a n d o n e of t he p a ti e n ts e ven t u a l l y d i e d . W ha t w o uld a r oo t c a u se an a l ys i s o f t h i s e r r o r f i n d? ( A ) Th e o nl y c a us e o f th is e r ro r wa s a ph a rm ac is t wh o wa s n o t p a y in g a t t en t i on . Th e p h a rm ac is t s ho u ld be di s m is s e d . ( B ) P o o r c o m m un ic a ti o n p r a c t ic es is a la t e nt de f ec t in th is ph a rm ac y s ys t em an d s i gn i fi ca n tl y c o n t ri b ut e d t o t he er r o r . ( C ) Th e p ha r m a c y te c h nic i an s a r e t o b la m e f or t hi s e r r o r, no t th e p h a rm ac i s t , b e ca us e th e t ec h ni c i an s o b t ai ne d th e m in i -b a gs fro m s t ock an d p l ac ed t he l a be ls on t h e b a gs . Th e p ha r m a c i s t c he c k ed on l y th e te ch nic i an ' s wo r k . Th e te c h n ic ia n s h ou l d b e di sm is s e d. ( D ) Th i s i s a n e xa m p le of a n e xt r a d os e e r r o r. V i e w A n s we r 4 . T h e c o r re c t an s w e r i s B [s e e] . 5 . W h a t d o t he f ol l ow i ng a b b r e vi a t io n s M S, M S O 4 a n d M g S O 4 h a ve i n c om m o n? ( A ) c om m o n a bb r e v ia t io ns f or m o r ph i ne s u lf a te ( B ) c om m o n a bb r e v ia t io ns f or m a g ne s i um s u lf a te ( C ) s ho u ld no t b e u s e d in J C A H O - ac cr e di t ed in sti t u ti o ns ( D ) a p pr o v e d a bb r e v i at i on s i n m os t h os p it a ls V i e w A n s we r 5 . T h e c o r re c t an s w e r i s C [s e e] . 6 . A m a j o r e r r o r in a h o spi t a l p h a r ma c y r e s u l t e d i n a t o t a l p a r e nt e r a l n u t r it i on s o lu t i on b ei n g m i st a ke n f o r a c a r d i op l eg i c s o lu t i o n fo r c o r o na r y b yp a s s s u rg e r y. W h i c h o f t h e f o ll ow i ng i s t r u e r e ga r d i ng t he r o o t c a u se an a l ys i s t h a t w as d o ne a t t h e h os p i ta l a f t e r t he error? ( A ) Th e p ri m a r y o bj ec t i ve is t o f in d o u t wh i c h p ha r m ac is t m ad e t h e m i s t ak e th a t a l lo we d t hi s t o ta k e pl ac e . ( B ) Th e r es ul t of th e a n al y s is wo u l d b e t h e a dm iss i on th a t a n e r r o r h ad tak e n p la ce . ( C ) A l l f ac t o rs th a t c o u ld h a v e c o nt r ib u te d to th is e r r o r wo u ld be id e nt i fi ed a n d a n al yze d . ( D ) A r oo t c a us e a na l y s is wo u l d b e i na p p ro p ri a te i n t h is c as e . V i e w A n s we r 6 . T h e c o r re c t an s w e r i s C [s e e] . P .5 0 6
ANSWERS AND EXPLANATIONS 1 . T he co r r e c t a nsw e r is D [s e e I . A .2 ] . Th e I O M r e p o r t r e v ea l ed a l ar m i n g d a ta on de a th s r e la t e d t o m e d ic al e rr o rs . Th e r e p o rt co n t ri bu t ed t o i nc re a s e d e f fo r t s t o im p r o v e p a t ie n t sa f e t y . 2 . T he co r r e c t a nsw e r is C [s e e I I I. D ] . A l t h ou gh t hi s m a y s ee m t o be an el em e nt a r y qu es t io n a n d a ns we r , a wr on g do s e e r r o r s uc h a s t hi s c ou ld e a s i l y le ad t o a s e ri o us i n j u r y or de a th t o a p a ti en t . 3 . T he co r r e c t a nsw e r is A [ s e e I V . A .4 ] .
W arf a ri n 1 . 0 m g . i s a n exa m p l e of a t r ai l in g z e ro . J C A H O h as i nc l ud ed t his in it s “ Do N o t U se ” li s t of a bb r e v iat i o ns . Ho we ve r , i n t he c om m u n it y s et t in g , i t i s a pr a c ti c e t h a t c an s t il l b e f r e qu en tl y s ee n o n p r es c ri p ti o ns . W hen a t r ai l in g z er o i s o b s e r ve d , m uc h c a ut io n s h ou ld be e xe r c i s ed in in t er p r et i ng t h e p r es c ri p ti on . 4 . T he co r r e c t a nsw e r is B [s e e V I . A .2 ] . P o o r c om m u n ic at i on wa s a m a jo r c o nt r i bu t in g f act o r to t hi s t r ag ic s e r ie s of e r r or s . Th e d r u g wa s a h ig h - ri s k d r u g a nd ha d s im il a r p ac k a g in g a s a no t he r c o m m o nl y us e d d r u g . Th e s e a re t wo m a jo r in g r ed ie n ts fo r th e s e ri o us e rr o r t h at t oo k p la c e . Th i s d o es no t a b s o l v e t h e t ec h n ic ia n a n d p ha r m a c i s t to t a ll y f r om a n y bl am e b ut e m ph as i z es t he s i gn i fi c an t r ol e t h at f ai lu r e o f c om m u n ic at i on pl a ye d wi t hi n th is p h a rm ac y s y s t em . Th e s y s t e m wa s as m u ch or m o r e to bl am e t h an an y i nd i v i du a ls . F i r in g th e i nd i v i du al s d oe s n o t r e pa i r t h e p r ob lem o f p oo r c om m u n ic at i on i n t he s ys t em b u t o nl y s et s t h e s t ag e fo r a si m i la r m is t ak e to oc c u r a g ai n . 5 . T he co r r e c t a nsw e r is C [s e e I V . A .6 ] . Th e s e a b b re v i a ti on s a r e i n c l ud e d i n J C A H O ' s “ Do N o t Us e ” l is t . Er r o rs r esu l t in g i n s e r io us ha r m h a v e oc c u rr e d af t e r m i x u p s wi t h m o r p hi n e a nd m a gn es i um . 6 . T he co r r e c t a nsw e r is C [s e e V I . A .2 ] . A r o o t c a us e a n al y s is is n o t i n te n de d t o fo c u s o n b l am e b u t o n a ll fa c to rs th a t c ou l d h a ve be e n r el a te d to th is e r r o r. F ac to r s m i g ht ha ve i nc lu de d t ra in i ng of pha r m ac is t a n d t ec h ni c i a ns , t h e ac tu a l d r ug o rd e r , a nd th e la b el . Th e c on t r ib u ti o n o f s uc h f a c to r s m i g ht no t b e d is c o v e r e d i f t h e f oc us is o n o n l y id en t i f y in g wh ic h p ha r m ac is t, t e ch n ic ia n , o r o t he r p ro fe s s i on a l is to bl am e .
24 Clinical Toxicology J o h n J . Po n zi l l o
I. OVERVIEW A . Th i s c ha p te r is i n te n de d to p ro v i d e t he r ea d er wi t h a n o v e r vi e w o f th e m a na g em en t o f v a ri o us to xi c e xp o s u r es . Em er g en c y m e di c al s e r v ic es ( E MS ) s h o u ld be im m e dia t e l y c on t ac t ed to p ro vi de a d v an c e d l i fe s u pp o r t fo r p a t ie n ts wi t h u ns t ab l e v i ta l s i gn s r es u lt i ng f ro m a p o is o ni ng e xp o s u r e . I n a d di t io n , t h es e p at i en ts s h ou l d b e r e fe r r ed to a ho s pi t al fo r fo l lo w- u p . A n a t io n wi d e t o ll - f re e p o is o n c e nt e r n um b e r b ec am e a v a il ab l e. Th i s n um be r, 8 0 0 -2 2 2 -1 22 2 i s a v a il a ble 2 4 h r /d a y an d s ho u ld be u s e d b y h ea lt h ca r e p r o f es s i on al s a n d t he gen e r al pu b li c wh e n de a li ng wi t h e xp o s ur e s t o p o t en t ia ll y t o xi c su bs t anc es . B . D e f in it i on s 1 . C li n ic al to xi c o l og y . F oc us e s o n t he ef f ec ts o f s u b st a nc es in pa ti e n ts c a us ed b y ac c i de n ta l p ois o ni n gs o r in t en t io na l o v e r d os es of m e di ca t io ns , d r u gs of ab us e , h ou s eh ol d pr o du c ts , o r va ri o us ot h e r c he m i c a ls 2 . I nt o xi c a ti o n. To xi c i t y a s s o c i at e d wi t h a n y c hem ic a l su bs t an c e 3 . P oi s o n in g . A c l in ic al to xi c i t y s ec on d ar y t o a c c i d e n ta l e xp o s u r e 4 . O v e r d os e. A n i nt e nt i on a l e xp o s u re wi t h th e i n te n t o f c a us in g s el f -i n ju r y o r d ea t h C . E p id em i ol og y . I n 2 004 , m o r e t ha n 2 . 4 m il li o n a c c i de n ta l a n d i nt e nt i ona l p o is o ni ng s we r e r e po r t ed t o t h e A m e r ic an A ss oc ia t i on of P oi s o n Co n t ro l C e n t e rs ( A A P C C ). Th e m a j o ri t y o f p oi s o n e xp o s u re s (8 4 .1 % ) we r e a c c i de n ta l . H o we v e r , 1 18 3 of t he s e e xp o s u r es r es u lt e d i n d ea t h. Mo r e i n f or m at io n c a n b e f ou n d a t th e A A P C C 's W eb s i te ( ww w. a a p c c .o r g ) . D . I n fo r m a t io n re s o u rc es 1 . C om p ut e ri ze d d a ta b as e s a . P oi si n de x i s a c om pu te r i z e d C D - R O M d a t ab as e t ha t i s u p da t ed qu a r te rl y a n d i s a p r im a r y r es ou r ce f o r p oi s o n c on t r ol c e nte r s . 2 . P r in t ed pu bl ic a ti o ns . Te xt b o o k s an d m an u al s p r o v i de us e fu l i n fo rm a ti on r e g a rd i ng th e a s s es s m en t an d tr e at m e n t o f p a ti en t s e xp o s e d t o v a r i ou s s u bs ta n c e s , al t ho u gh the i r u s ef u ln es s is li m i t ed b y t h e l ag t im e o f i n f or m at io n pu bl is h ed in t h e p r im a r y li t er a tu r e re a c h in g u p da t ed ed i ti on s . a . E ll e nh o rn MJ , e d. Me d i ca l To xi c o lo g y: Di a gn os is an d Tr e at m en t o f H u m an P oi s o n in gs , 2 n d e d . Ne w Yo r k , E l s e v i e r Sc i en c e , 1 9 97 . b . F ra u nf e ld e r F T, F r au nf e l de r FW . D ru g - In d uc ed O c u la r Si d e E f f ec ts , 5 t h e d . L i tt l e R o ck : B u t te r wo r t h - H ei n em an n , 2 00 1 . c . F ra un f el d e r, F ra u nf e lde r a nd W ile y . C l in ic al O c u l a r To xi c o l o g y . Ma r c h 2 0 0 8 6 th ed i ti o n S au n der s d . G o ld f r an k L , e d. To xi c o l og ic E m e r ge nc i es . 8 t h e d . Ne w Yo r k : Mc G r a w H i l l , 2 00 6 . e . G r a nt W M. To xi c o lo g y o f th e E ye, 4 th ed . Sp r in g f ie ld , IL : C ha r le s C Th o m as , 19 95 .
f . H a dd a d a nd W inc h es te r ' s C li ni c a l Ma n a ge m e nt o f Po is on i ng an d D ru g O ve r d o s e S ha n no n MO , B o r r o w SW , B ur n s M 4 t h E d i ti o n 2 00 7 W B S au nde r s g . H ed g es J R , H en d er s on R G , e ds . Te r r o r is m a nd c ri t ic al c a r e: c h em ic al , b i ol o gi c a l , r a di ol o gi c , and n uc le a r we a po ns . C ri t C a r e C li n 2 0 05 ; 21 ( 4 ). h . H ol s te g e C P , R us y n iak D E , e ds . Me d i c a l To xi c o l og y. Me d C l i n N o r th Am 2 0 0 5; 8 (6 ) . i . Le ik i n J B, P al o uc ek FP . P o is on i ng an d To xi c o lo g y C o m p en d iu m , 3 rd ed. H u d so n , O H : L e xi - C o m p , 2 0 02 . j . O ls o n K R , ed . , wi t h , An d e rs on I B , B e no wi t z N L , B l an c P D , et al . P o i s o ni n g a nd D r ug O v er d o s e , 5 t h e d . S t am fo r d , C T, A p p l e to n & La n ge , 2 0 0 6. P.508
3 . I nt e rn e t
1
a . C en t e rs fo r D is ea s e Co n t r ol an d P r e v e nt i on ( CD C ) a t ww w. c d c . go v b . U . S . F oo d a n d D r u g Ad m in is t r at io n ( F D A) a t ww w. f d a . g o v c . N at i on al Li b r ar y o f Me d i ci ne a t w w w. n l m .n i h. g ov d . N a ti on a l I ns t it u te fo r O c c up a ti o na l Sa f et y a nd H e a lt h ( N I O S H ) a t w w w. c d c . go v/ n i os h e . Am e r ic an S oc ie t y o f He a l th - S y s te m P h a rm ac is ts a t ww w. a s h p . o r g f . Ma t e r i al S af e t y D at a Sh e e ts a t ww w. m s d ss e ar c h . c o m g . U . S . E n v i r on m e n ta l Pro t ec t io n Ag e nc y ( E P A ) at w w w. e p a . go v h . C he m i c al Ab s t ra ct s Se r v i c e a t w w w. c a s .o r g 4 . P oi s o n c on t r ol c e nt e rs a c c r ed i te d b y t h e A A P CC p r o v i de in f o rm at i on to t h e g e ne r al pu b li c a nd he a l th c a r e p r o v id e rs . Th es e c en t e rs ar e th e m os t r e l ia b le an d u p -t o - da t e s o u r ce s o f i nf o rm a ti o n; t hu s th e AA P C C ' s ph o ne n u m b e r ( 8 00 - 2 22 - 12 2 2) s h ou l d b e r ea d il y a va il ab l e .
II. GENERAL MANAGEMENT A . S u pp o r ti v e c a r e a nd A B C s . E v al u a ti ng an d s up p o r ti ng t he vi ta l f u nc ti on s ( a i r wa y , b r ea t hi n g, an d c i r c ul at i on [ A B Cs ] ) a r e t he m a n da t o r y fi rs t s t ep s in t h e i n it i al m a na ge m e n t of d r ug in g es ti o ns . A f t er th e pa t ie n t is st a bi li z e d , t h e s pe c i f ic is s u e (s ) o f po i so n m an a ge m e n t s h o uld b e a dd r es s e d .
2
B . Tr e a t m e n t f o r p at i en ts wi t h d ep r es s e d m e nt al s t a t us in c l ud es t he f o l lo wi n g : 1 . To r ul e o u t o r tr e at h yp o gl y c em i a, 50 m L of 50% d e xt r o s e in ad u lt s a nd 1 m L /k g i n c hi ld r e n, in t r a ve n o us l y (I V ) 2 . Th i am in e 1 0 0 m g I V pu s h ( g lu c o s e c a n p r ec ip it a t e t h e W ern ic ke K o r s ak of f s y n d ro m e in t hi a m i ne - d ef ic i en t p a ti e nt s) 3 . N al o xo n e ( N a rc an ) 0.4 - 2 m g I V pu sh , if op i at e i n ge s t i on is s us pe c te d C . O b t ai n in g a hi s t o r y o f e xp o s u r e 1 . I de n ti f y th e s u bs ta nc e( s ) in ge s te d , t he r ou t e o f e xp o s u r e, t he qu an t i t y i n ge s te d , t he am ou n t o f t i m e s i nc e i ng es t io n , s ign s a n d s ym p t om s o f
o ve r d os e , a nd an y a s s oc i a t ed il ln es s o r i n ju r y . Co r r o bo r a te hi st o r y an d o t h e r p h ys ic a l e v i de nc e ( e . g ., pi l l co n ta i ne r s) f rom p re h os pi t al pr o v i de r s . 2 . N eu r o lo gi c a l e xa m i n a ti o n e v a lu a t es a n y se i zu re s , a l te r at i on s i n c o ns ci ou s n es s , c o n fu s i on , a ta xi a , s l u r re d s pe ec h, t r em o r, he a da c h e , o r s yn c op e . 3 . C a rd i op ul m o n a r y e xa m i na t io n e v a lu a t es a n y sy n c o p e , pa lp i ta t io ns , c o ug h , c he s t pa i n, s h o rtn e s s o f b re a th , o r bu r ni ng o r i r r it a ti o n o f t h e u ppe r a i r wa y. 4 . G as t r oi n te s ti na l ( G I) exa m i n a t io n e v a l ua t es a ny a b d om in a l p ai n , n au sea , vo m i ti n g, di a r rh e a, o r d iff i c u l t y i n s wa l l o wi n g. 5 . P as t m ed ic a l hi s to r y s h o ul d i nc l ud e a . Me d i c a t io ns , in c l ud i ng n o np r es c ri p ti on ( o ve r- t he - c ou n te r [ O TC ] ) s u bs ta n c e s b . U se of he r b al m e di c a ti o ns c . Al c oh ol o r d r ug ab us e d . P s yc h ia t ri c h is t o r y e . A ll e rg i es f . O cc u pa t io na l o r ho b b y e xp o s u r es g . Tr a ve l h . P r io r i n ge s t i on s i . S oc ia l h is t o r y wi t h p o te n t ia l f o r d om es t ic vio l en c e o r n e gl ec t j . La s t n or m a l m en s t ru al p e r io d o r p re gn a nc y P.509
D . R o u ti n e l ab o ra t o r y a s s es s m e nt 1 . C om pl e te bl o od c e ll (C B C ) c ou n t 2 . S e ru m e le c t r o l y te s 3 . B lo o d u re a n i t ro g en (B U N ) ; s er um c re a ti ni n e (S C r ) 4 . B lo o d g lu c o s e 5 . U r in a l ys is 6 . E le ct r oc a r di og r am ( EC G ) 7 . C he s t r o en t ge no g r am a n d /o r k i dn e ys , u re t e rs , a n d b la d de r ( K U B ) x- r a y E . To xi c o l o g y l a bo r a to r y t e s ts 1 . A d van t ag es a . C on f i rm or de t e rm in e t h e p r es e nc e o f a pa r ti cul a r a g en t b . P r ed ic t th e a n ti c i pa t ed t o xi c ef f ec ts o r se v e r i ty o f e xp o s u re to s o m e p o is o ns c . C on f i rm o r di s t i ng ui s h d i ff e r en t ia l o r c o nt r ib u tin g di ag n os is d . O cc as i on al l y he l p g uid e th e r ap y 2 . D is ad v a n t ag es a . Th e se te s ts c an n ot p ro v i d e a s p ec if ic di a gn os is f or al l p a ti e nt s . b . A ll po s s ib l e i nt o xi c a tin g ag e nt s c an no t be s c re e n ed . c . In c r i ti c a l l y i ll pa t ie n ts , s up po r t i v e t r ea t m e n t is n e ed e d b ef o re la b o ra t o ry r e s ul ts of t he to xi c o l og y s c re e n a r e a va il ab l e.
d . La b o ra t or y d r ug - d et ec t i o n a bi li t ie s d if f e r . e . I n g en e ra l , o nl y a q u al i t at i v e d e te r m i na t io n o f a s u bs t a nc e o r s ub s t a nc e s i s n ec es s ar y ; h o we v e r , qu a n ti t at i ve l e v e ls o f th e fo l lo wi n g d ru gs a re n e ce ss a r y to gu id e th e rap y : ( 1 ) A ce t am in op h en ( 2 ) A m i no g l yc os i de s ( 3 ) A rs e ni c ( 4 ) C a rb am a z e pi n e ( Te gr e t ol ) ( 5 ) C a rb o xy h e m o gl o bi n ( 6 ) C y c lo s p o ri n e ( 7 ) D ig o xi n ( L an o xi n ) ( 8 ) E t ha no l ( 9 ) E t h y le ne gl y c ol ( 1 0 ) Ir o n ( 1 1 ) L e ad ( 1 2 ) L i th i um ( Es k a li t h ) ( 1 3 ) Me r c u r y ( 1 4 ) Me t h an o l ( 1 5 ) Me t h em o gl ob i n ( 1 6 ) Me t h o t re xa t e ( 1 7 ) Ph e no b ar b it a l ( 1 8 ) Ph e n y to i n ( D i la n ti n ) ( 1 9 ) Sa l ic y l at es ( 2 0 ) Ta c r o li m u s ( 2 1 ) Th eo p h y ll in e ( 2 2 ) Va l pr o ic ac id ( D ep ak e ne ) ( 2 3 ) Va nc om y c i n F . S ki n d ec o nt am i na ti o n s h ou l d b e p er f o rm ed wh e n pe r c u t an e ou s a b so r p ti on o f a s ub s ta nc e m a y r e s u l t in s ys t em ic t o xi c i t y o r wh e n t he c o nt am i na t in g s ub s ta nc e m a y pr o du c e lo c a l to xi c e f f ec ts ( e. g . , ac i d b ur n s ). Th e p a ti e nt ' s c lo t hi n g is r e m o v ed , a n d t he a re as a r e i r r ig a t ed wi t h c op i ous q u a nt i ti es of wa t e r . Ne u tr a l i z at i on sh ou l d n ot be a t t em p te d . F o r e xa m p le , n e u t ra li z i n g ac i d b u rn s wi t h s od i um b ic a r bo na t e wi l l p r od uc e a n e xo t h e r m ic c h em ic al r ea c t i on , t h e reb y e xa c e r b at i ng th e p a tie n t ' s co n di t io n . G . G a s t ri c d ec on t am in a tio n m a y be a tt em p te d wh e n s u pp o r ti v e c a r e is b e g un . G I d ec on t am in a tio n in v o l v es r em o v al of th e i n ge s ta n t wi t h em es is o r l a va g e, th e u s e o f ac t i v at e d c ha r co a l p ot e nt i al l y to b in d a n y in g es ta n ts , an d t h e u se o f c a t ha r t ic s t o ha s te n e xc r e t i on an d th e re b y l im it ab so r p ti o n. P.510
1 . Em e s i s a . C on t r ai n di c a t io ns ( 1 ) C hi l d re n y ou n ge r th an 6 m on t hs of ag e ( 2 ) P a ti en t s wi t h c e n tr a l n e r v o us s y s t em ( C N S ) de p r es s i on o r s ei zu r es
( 3 ) P a ti en t s wh o h a v e i ng e s t e d a s t r on g a c i d , a lka l i , o r a s h a rp ob je c t ( 4 ) P a ti en t s wi t h c o m p r om is e d a i r wa y p r ot ec t i v e r e f le xe s ( i nc lu d in g c om a a n d c on v u ls i on s ) ( 5 ) P a ti en t s wh o h a v e i ng e s t e d s om e t y p es of h yd r o c a r bo ns o r p et r o le um d i st i ll a te s ( 6 ) P a ti en t s wh o h a v e i ng e s t e d s ub s t a nc es wi t h a n e xt r e m e l y r ap i d o ns et o f a c ti o n ( 7 ) P a ti en t s wi t h em es is a f t e r t he in g es ti o n b . S yr u p o f i pe c a c . O wi n g t o c on c e r ns of s a f et y , e f f ic ac y a nd th e d e la y o f a n t id o te ad m i ni s t ra ti o n , s y r u p o f i p ec ac is n o l o ng e r re co m m e nd ed f or g e n er a l us e . I p ec ac m a y b e a dm i ni s t e r ed wi t h in 3 0 m i n o f a n i ng es t io n an d 3
o n l y on th e a d v ic e of a po i s o n c on t r ol c e nt e r . Th e r e i s n o c on t r ai nd ic a ti on t o t he us e o f i pe c a c s y r up : an d Th e re is s u bs ta n tia l ri sk of s e r io us t o xi c it y t o t he vic t im : a nd Th e r e i s n o a l te r n at i v e t h e ra p y a v a i la b le o r e f fe c t i v e t o d e c re as e g as t r oi n te s t i nal a bs o rp t io n ( e .g . , a c ti v at e d c ha r c o a l ); an d Th e re wi l l b e a de la y o f g r e at e r t h an 1 h ou r be f o re th e pa t i en t wi l l a r ri v e a t a n e m e rg en c y m e di c a l f ac i lit y a n d i pe c a c s y r u p ca n b e ad m i ni s te r ed wi t h in 30 9 0 m i nu t es o f th e i n ge s t io n ; a n d I pe ca c s y r u p a dm i ni s t r a ti on wi l l n o t a d ve r s e l y af f ec t m o re def i n it i v e t r e at m e n t t h at m ig h t b e p r o v i de d a t th e h o sp i ta l . ( 1 ) Me c h a ni s m o f a c ti on . Th e o ns e t o f e m e s i s us u a ll y o cc u rs wi t hi n 3 0 m in a f t e r s y r up o f i pe c a c . Th e e f fe c t s l as t f o r a p pr o xi m a te l y 2 h r a n d p r od uc e a p p ro xi m a t el y t h r ee ep is o d es of em es is in 60 m i n. ( 2 ) D os a ge s . P at i en ts 6 -1 2 m o nt hs o f a ge , 5 - 1 0 m L ; p a ti en t s 1 -1 2 y e ar s o f a g e , 1 5 m L ; pa t ie n ts o l de r t ha n a g e 1 2 ye a rs , 3 0 m L . E ac h d os e o f s y r u p o f i p ec ac s h ou l d b e f ol l o wed wi t h 12 0 - 24 0 m L o f wat e r . Th e p a ti en t s h ou ld be u p r ig h t t o a v o i d ac c i d en ta l as pi r a ti on an d s ho u ld b e s u pe r v i s e d . ( 3 ) A d ve rs e e f fe c t s . D i a rr h e a , l et h ar g y / d ro ws i n ess , an d p r ol o ng ed ( > 1 h r) e m es is 2 . G as t r ic l a v a ge a . U se . G as t ri c l a v ag e i s i n f re q ue n tl y us e d i n p at ie n ts wh o a re no t al e rt o r h a ve a d im in is h ed ga g re f l e x. Th i s p r oc ed u r e sho u ld al s o b e co ns i de r ed i n p a t ie n ts wh o ar e s ee n ea r l y a ft e r m as s i v e in ge s ti o ns . Th is pr oc e du r e i s c o nt r a in di c a t ed in pa t ie nt s wh o ha v e in g es te d a c id s , a lk al is , or h yd r o ca r bo ns . In ad d it i on , pa t ie n ts s h ou ld no t r ec e i v e g as t ri c l a vag e i f the y a r e at r is k f or G I pe r fo r at i o n o r i f t h e y ar e c om b at i v e . b . P r oc ed u re . P at i en ts ar e pl a c e d i n t h e l ef t l a te ra l de cu bi t us po si t io n . L a va g e is pe r f o rm ed af t er a c u f fe d e n do t ra c h e al tu b e i s i n p la ce to p ro t ec t t h e a i r wa y . A f t e r as p ir a tio n of t he ga s t r ic c o nt e nts , 25 0 -3 0 0 m L o f t ap wa t e r o r sa li n e i s in s ti ll e d a nd t h e n as p i ra t ed . Th e s eq u e n c e s h ou l d b e r e pe a te d u n t il th e re t u rn i s c on t inu o us l y c l ea r fo r at le as t 2 L . 3 . A ct i va te d c ha r c o a l a ds o r bs a lm os t al l c om m o nl y i n ge s t e d d r ug s a nd c h em ic al s a nd is us ua ll y a dm i ni s t e r ed to m o s t o ve r d os e p a ti en t s as qu ic k ly a s p os s i b le . C om m o nl y in g es t ed s u bs t an c e s n ot a d s o r be d i nc l ud e e t ha n ol ,
i r o n, li t hi um , c y a n id e , e th y l e n e gl y c o l, le a d, m e rc u r y, m e t h an ol , o r g an ic s o l ven ts , po t as s i um , s t ron g ac id s, an d s t r on g a lk a l is . a . D os a ge . Ac ti v a t ed c ha r c oa l ( A c ti do se wi t h s o rb i t ol ) i s a v a il a bl e a s a c o ll oi d al di s p e rs io n wi t h wa t e r o r s o r bi t ol . I n a d u lt s , t h e d os e o f a ct i va t ed c h a rc oa l i s 2 5 -1 00 g ; t he d os e i n c hi l d re n 1 - 12 y ea r s o f a g e is 2 5- 5 0 g ; t he d o se in c h il d re n u p to 1 y e a r o f a ge is 1 g /k g. C on s ti p at i on ha s n ot be e n o b se r v e d a f te r th e a d m i ni s t ra t io n o f a s i ng l e d os e o f ac ti va t ed ch a rc oa l . Mu l t i p l e d os es of an y c ath a r ti c s sh ou l d b e a vo id ed b ec au se t he y c a n c au se e l ec t r ol y t e i m b a la nc es an d / o r d eh y d r a ti on . To xi c i n ge s ti on s wi t h d r ug s h a vi n g a n e nt e ro h ep a ti c c i rc u la ti o n ( e .g . , c a rb am a z e p i ne , t h eo p h y ll in e , p h e no ba r b it al , t ri c yc l ic an t i de p re ss an t s, ph e no t hia z i n es , d i gi t al is ) ge ne r a ll y r e q ui r e t h at t he c h a rc oa l b e re a dm in is t er e d e v e r y 6 h r t o p r e ven t r e a bs o rp t io n d u ri n g r ec i rc u la t io n . b . A d ve rs e e f fe c t s . C h a rc o al as pi r a ti on an d e m pye m a h a v e be en r ep o r ted i n t h e l i te r a tu r e . A s s u c h , c h a r c o al s h ou l d b e wi t h h el d if pa t ie n ts a r e v om i ti ng . B o we l o bs t r uc ti o n m a y P.511 o cc u r wi t h m ul t ip le do s es o f ac t i va te d c ha r c o al an d / o r p at i en ts wh o a re r e c ei vi ng c o nc om i ta n t t he r a p y wi t h n e u ro m u sc ul ar - b l ock i ng d ru gs .
4
H . W hol e -b o we l ir r i ga t ion h as b e en s h o wn t o b e e f f e c t i v e u nd e r c er t ai n c o nd i ti on s , p a rt ic u la r l y wh e n a c t i v a te d c h ar c o a l la c k s e f fi c a c y . An is os m ot i c c a th a r ti c s ol ut i on s u c h as po l y e th y l e ne gl yc ol ( Go L YTE L Y, C o l y t e ) i s u s ed . Th e d os a ge is 1 - 2 L / h r gi v e n o ra ll y o r b y n as o gas t r ic tu be un t il t he re c ta l e f f lu e nt is c l ea r . I . F o rc ed di u re s i s a nd u ri n a r y p H m a n ip ul a ti o n m a y b e u s ed to en h an c e th e e l im in a ti o n o f s ub s t a nc es , wh o s e el im in a ti o n is pr i m ar i l y re n al , i f t h e s u bs ta n c e ha s a re la t i v ely s m al l vol um e o f d is t r ibu t i on wi t h l i tt l e p r ot e in b i nd i ng . H o we v e r , t h e u s e o f t h es e m e t ho ds is ass oc i at e d wi t h f lu id an d e l ec t r ol y t e d is t u rb an c es . 1 . A lk al i ne di u re s i s p r om o t es t he io ni z a t io n o f we a k a c i ds , th e r eb y p r e ve n ti ng t he i r r e ab s o rp t i on b y th e k id ne y , wh i c h f ac il i ta t es th e e xc r e t i on o f su ch we a k a c i ds . Th is p r oc e du r e h as be en us ed i n t he m a na g em en t o f p a t ie n ts wh o ha v e in ge s te d lo ng - ac t in g b a r bi t ur a te s s uc h a s p he n ob a rb i tal o r sa li c y li c a c i d . P a ti e nts a re gi ve n 5 0 - 10 0 m E q o f s o di um bi c a r b on a te I V p u sh , fo ll o we d b y a c o n tin u o us i n fu s i o n o f 5 0 -1 0 0 m E q o f s od i um b i ca r bo n at e i n 1 L o f 0 . 25 % - 0 .4 5% no r m a l s al i ne , m a i n ta i ni ng a u r in e p H o f 7 . 3 - 8. 5 . U r i ne ou t pu t s hou l d b e 5 - 7 m L/ k g / h r. C om p li c a t io ns in cl ud e m e ta b ol ic al k a lo s i s , h y pe r n a tr em i a, h y p er os m o l ar i t y , an d fl ui d o v e r l oa d . J . D ia l ys i s . I n p at i en ts wh o fa i l t o r es p on d t o th e m e as u re s o f d e co n ta m i n at i on al r ea d y o u tl i ne d , h em od ia l y si s , a n d t o a le s s e r e xt e n t p e r it o ne a l d ia l y s i s , m a y e n h an c e dr u g e li m i n at i on . S ub s ta nc es th a t a r e r e m o ved b y h em o di a l ys is ge n e ra ll y a r e wa t e r so lu b le , ha v e a s m al l vol um e o f di s tr i bu t io n (< 0. 5 L / k g ) , ha v e a l o w m ol ec ul a r we i g h t (< 50 0 d a lt o ns ) , a n d a r e n o t s i g ni f ic an t l y b o u nd to pl as m a p ro t ei ns . H em od i al y s is u s u a ll y is
i n di ca t ed f o r li f e -t h r ea t en i ng in g es ti o ns of et h y l e n e gl y c ol , m e th an o l, o r p a r aq u at . Th is te c hn iq u e a ls o h as be e n u s e d t o en h a nc e t he el im i na ti o n of e t h an ol , th e op h y l li ne , l i th i um , s al ic y l a te s , a nd lo n g - ac t in g b a rb i tu r a te s . K . H e m o pe r f us io n i s a tec h ni q ue i n wh i c h an t ic oag u l a t ed bl o od is pa s s ed t h r o ug h ( p e rf us e d ) a c olu m n c o n ta i ni n g ac t i vat e d c h a r c o a l o r re s i n p a r ti c l e s . Th is m e t ho d o f e l im in a ti on c l ea r s s ub s ta n c e s f r om th e b l oo d m or e r a p id l y t ha n h em od i al y s is , bu t i t d o es no t c o rr e c t f l ui d a n d e le c t r ol y t e a b n or m a l it i es , a s d oe s he m od i al y s is . H e m o pe r f us i on , a l th o ug h m o re e f f ec t i v e i n r em o v in g phe n o ba r bi t al , p h en y t o in , c a r b am a z e pi ne , m e th o t re xa t e , a nd th e oph y l l in e th an he m od ia l y s is , i s l es s e f fe ct i ve i n r e m o vin g e t ha no l o r m e th a n ol . Co m p l ic at i on s o f h e m o p er f us io n i nc l ud e t h r om b oc y t op e ni a , l eu k op e ni a , h yp oc a lc em ia , h y p o gl y c em i a, an d h yp o t en s i o n.
III. MANAGEMENT OF SPECIFIC INGESTIONS A . A ce t am in o ph e n ( Ty l e n o l ) is a n a nt i p y re t ic - an al g e s ic th a t c an p ro du c e f a t al he p at o to xi c i t y i n u nt r e a te d p a ti e nt s t h ro u gh t h e g e ne r a ti on o f a t o xi c m e ta b ol i te . 1 . A va il a bl e d os ag e fo r m s . Ac e ta m i n op he n i s a v ai l ab l e i n a v a ri e t y o f O TC a n d p r es c ri p ti on d ru g p ro d uc ts . 2 . To xi c o k in e ti c s . A c et am i no p he n i s we l l ab s o r be d f ro m t he G I t ra c t an d h a s a h a lf - li f e b e t we e n 2 a n d 3 h r . L e ss t h an 5% i s e xc r e t e d u nc ha n ge d in t h e u r i ne ; t h e r em a in de r i s m e ta bo l i zed in th e l i v e r b y t he c y to c hr om e P4 50 s ys t em . 3 . C li n ic al p re s e n ta t io n a . P ha se I (1 2 -2 4 h r po s ti n ge s ti on ) . N au s e a , v o m it i n g, an o r e xi a , a n d d i ap h o re s i s b . P ha se I I ( 1 -4 da y s pos t in g es ti o n ). As y m p to m at i c c . P ha se II I (2 - 3 d a y s i n u n t r ea t ed pa t ie n ts ) . N a us e a, ab d om in a l p ai n , p r o g re ss i v e e v i de nc e of h e p at ic fa i lu r e , c o m a , a nd d ea t h P.512
4 . La b o ra t or y d a ta a . S e ru m ac e ta m i n op h en l e v e ls . P a ti e nt s wi t h l e ve l s g r ea t er t ha n 1 5 0, 70 , o r 4 0 m g /m L at 4, 8 , o r 12 h r a f te r in g es ti o n r e qu ir e a nt i do t al th e ra p y wi t h N - a c et yl - L -c y s te i ne ( N AC ) a c c o rd i ng to th e R um a c k - Ma t t h e ws n om og r am . b . B as el i ne li v e r fu nc t io n t e s t s s ho ul d b e d o ne in a l l p a ti en t s. c . R en al f un c t i on te s ts , in c lu di n g a B U N a n d S C r , s ho u ld be do n e. d . C oa g ul a ti o n s t u di es inc l ud e p r o th r om bi n t im e (P T) , p a r t ia l t h ro m b o pl as ti n t i m e ( P TT) , a n d b le e di ng t im e . 5 . Tr e a tm en t a . A du l t p at i en ts wh o h av e i n ge st e d > 10 g o r c hil d r en wh o ha v e i ng es t ed > 2 0 0 m g/ k g r eq u i re t re a tm e nt . El d e rl y a nd al co h ol i c p at i en ts ha v e an i n c re as ed s u s c ep t ib i li t y to ac e ta m i n op h en he p at ot o xi c i t y.
b . Th e re c o m m e nd ed t rea t m e n t i s G I de c o n ta m i na t i on wi t h a c ti va t ed c h a rc oa l . c . A nt id o ta l th e ra p y wi t h N A C i s i nd ic a te d fo r pa t ie n ts wi t h to xi c b lo o d l e ve ls of ac e ta m i no p he n . ( 1 ) N A C do s a g e is 14 0 m g /k g a s a l o ad in g d o se f o ll o we d b y 7 0 m g /k g e v e r y 4 h r f o r a to t al o f 1 7 d os e s . N A C is ad m i n is te r e d e i t he r or a ll y o r via a n a so g as t ri c t ub e . N A C (Mu c o m ys t ) 2 0 % c o n ta i ns 2 0 0 m g / m L . Ea ch do s e m us t be di lu t ed 1 :3 in ei th e r c o la or f ru i t j ui c e t o m as k t h e u np l ea sa n t t as t e a n d sm e ll . Th e d os e o f N A C s h ou ld be r ep e at e d i f th e p a ti en t vom i ts wi th i n 3 0 m i n o f a dm in is t r at i on . P a t ie n ts wi t h s e v e re nau s ea s e co nd a r y t o N A C m a y be p re t r ea t ed wi t h IV m et o cl op r am i de ( R eg la n ) 10 m g e v e r y 6 h r . Me t o c l o p ra m i de ac ts as a n an t ie m e t ic wh i le in c rea s i n g t h e r a te of N A C a b so r p ti on . ( 2 ) I V N A C ( A c e t ad o te ) ( a ) Lo a di n g d os e: 15 0 m g / k g o v e r 6 0 m in ( b ) Ma i n t en a nc e d os e : 50 m g / k g o ve r 4 h r fo l lo we d b y 1 0 0 m g/ k g o ve r 1 6 h r ( c ) A na ph y l ac t oi d re ac t ion s a r e o bs e r ve d i n a pp r oxi m a t e l y 20 % o f pa t ie n ts. C a u t io n s ho u ld be e xe r c is e d i n p at i en ts wi t h a h is t o r y o f a s t hm a . B . A lc o ho ls
5
1 . E th yl e ne gl y c ol a . A va il a bl e f o rm s . E th y le n e g l y c o l c om m o nl y i s u s ed in an t if r e e z e a nd wi n d s h ie ld de ic i ng s o lu t io n s . Th i s f o rm i s s om et im e s c o lo r l es s an d h a s a s we e t t as te . b . To xi c o k in e ti c s . E t h y len e gl y c ol is h e pa t ic al l y m e ta b ol i z e d b y al co h ol d e h yd ro g en as e to gl y c ola l de h y d e , wh i c h is m e t ab o li z e d b y a l de h yde d e h yd ro g en as e to gl y c ol ic ac id . G l y c o li c a c i d i s c o n ve r t ed to gl y o xy l i c a cid , wh o s e m o s t t o xi c m et a bo l i te is o xa l i c a c i d . c . C li ni c a l p r es e nt a ti o n ( 1 ) S t ag e I ( 0. 5 -1 2 h r s po s ti n ge s t i on ) . At a xi a , n ys t ag m u s , n au s e a a n d vo m i ti n g, de c re as e d d eep t en d on r ef l e xe s , a nd se v e r e ac id os is (m o re s e ve r e o v e r do s e s : h y p oc a l c e m i c t e ta n y an d s ei zur e s , c er e b ra l e de m a , c om a , a nd d ea t h) ( 2 ) S t ag e I I (1 2 -2 4 h r s po s ti n ge s t i on ) . Tac h yp nea , c y an os is , ta c h yc a rd ia , p u lm o na r y ed em a , a n d pn e um o ni ti s ( 3 ) S t ag e I I I ( 2 4 -7 2 h r s po s ti n ge s t i on ) . F l an k p ai n a n d c o s to v e r t eb r al an g le t e n de r ne s s ; o l ig u ri c r e nal f ai l ur e d . La b o ra t or y d a ta m a y re v e a l s e v e re m e ta b ol ic ac i do s i s , h y p oc al c e m i a , a n d c al c i um o xa l a te c r y s t a ls in th e ur i na l y si s . e . Tr e a tm en t ( 1 ) G as t r ic l a v a ge is pe r fo r m ed wi t h in 30 m i n o f in g es t io n . ( 2 ) I V e t ha n ol ( Et O H ) is u s ed in s i tu a ti o ns i n wh ic h fo m e pi z o l e is no t a va i la b le . ( a ) I nd ic a ti on s i nc lu d e an e th y l e ne gl yc ol le v e l > 2 0 m g /d L , su s p ic i on of i n ge s ti on p en di n g l e v el , o r a n a ni on ga p m e ta bo l ic ac id os is wi t h a h is to r y o f i n ge s ti on , r eg a rd l es s o f th e le v e l .
( b ) E t O H do s a g e ( i ) A n E t O H le v e l o f at lea s t 1 00 m g / dL s h ou l d b e m ai n ta i ne d . ( i i ) L o ad in g d o s e i s 7 . 5 -1 0 m L /k g o f a 10 % e t ha no l in de xt r o s e 5 % i n wa te r ( D 5 W ) o v e r 1 h r , fo ll o we d b y a m ai n te na n ce i n f us i on of 1 .4 m L /k g /h r . ( i i i ) I nf us i on r at es m a y ne e d t o b e i nc r e as ed in pa t i en ts r ec ei v i n g h e m o d ia l y s i s . P.513
( 3 ) F om ep i z ol e ( An t i z ol ) i s a po t en t in hi b it o r o f a lc o ho l d e h y dr o ge n as e t ha t c a n p r e v en t th e f o rm a ti on o f t h e t o xi c m e ta b ol it es o f e it h er m e t ha n ol o r e t h yl en e g l y c o l . ( a ) A dm in is t e r a l o ad in g d o s e of 15 m g /k g (u p t o 1 g ) i n 1 0 0 m L of D 5 W o r 0 . 9 % so d iu m c h l o ri de ( Na C l ) in f us ed o v e r 3 0 m i n. ( b ) Ma i n t en a nc e d os es : 1 0 m g /k g e v e r y 1 4 h r f o r 4 do se s , t he n i nc r e as e to 1 5 m g /k g (t o o f fs e t a ut o in d uc t io n p h en om en o n ) un t i l m e t ha n ol or e th y l e ne g l yc ol le v e ls a re < 2 0 m g / d L. ( 4 ) P yr i do xi n e ( 10 0 m g IV e v e r y d a y ) a n d t hi am i ne ( 1 00 m g I V e v e r y da y ) a r e c o fa c to rs t ha t m a y c o n v e r t g l y o xy l i c ac id t o no n o xa l a t e m e t ab o li t es . ( 5 ) S od i um b ic a r bo na t e is us ed as ne e de d t o c o r re c t t h e ac i do s i s . ( 6 ) H em o di al y s is . Et O H in f us i on m us t be c o nt i nue d , a n d t he r at e of a d m i ni s t ra ti o n m a y n e ed t o be i n c r e as ed . In d ic at io n s i nc lu d e e th y l e ne g l yc ol le v e l > 50 m g / dL , c o ng es t i v e h ea r t fa il u r e, r e n al f ai lu r e , a nd s e v e r e a c id os is . 2 . Me t h a no l a . A va il a bl e f o rm s i nc lu de g as - li ne an t i fr e e z e, wi n d sh i el d wa s h e r , a nd s om e s t e rn o . b . To xi c o k in e ti c s . A lc o hol d eh y d r og e na s e co n v e r ts m e t ha no l to f o r m a l de h y de , wh i c h is th e n c on ve r t ed to f or m i c a c id . c . C li ni c a l p r es e nt a ti o n ( 1 ) S t ag e I . Eu p ho r ia , gre g a ri o us ne ss , a n d m u s c le we a k ne s s fo r 6 -3 6 h r , d e p en di n g o n t he r at e o f f o rm a ti o n o f f o rm ic ac id ( 2 ) S t ag e I I . V o m i ti n g, up p e r a bd om i na l p ai n , d iar r h e a, di z z i n e s s , h e a da c h e , r es t le s s ne s s , d y s p ne a , b lu r r ed v i s i on , p h o to p ho bi a , b li n dn es s, c om a , c e re b ra l e d em a, c a r d ia c a nd r es pi r a to r y de p r es si on , s e i z u re s, an d d e a th d . La b o ra t or y d a ta in c l ud e s e v e r e m e t ab o li c ac i do s i s , h y p e rg l y c e m i a , a nd h yp e r am y l as em i a. e . Tr e a tm en t ( 1 ) G as t r ic l a v a ge . C ha rc o al ha s n ot be e n s ho wn t o ab so r b a lc oh o ls . ( 2 ) I V Et O H ( us e d i n s i t ua t i on s i n wh i c h f om e pi zol e is n o t a v a il a bl e ) ( a ) I nd ic a ti on s i nc lu d e an y p e ak m e th a no l l e v el > 2 0 m g /d L , a s us pi c i o us i n ge s ti on wi t h a p os it i v e h i s t o r y , o r an y s y m p t om a t ic pa t ie n t wi t h a n a ni on g a p a ci d os is . ( b ) A dm in is t r at i on is th e s am e a s p e r e t h y le ne glyc o l (s ee I II . B .1 ) .
( 3 ) F ol ic ac id ad m i ni s te re d at 1 m g/ k g (m a xi m um 5 0 m g ) I V e v er y 4 h r f o r 6 d o se s i nc r ea s e s t h e m e ta b ol is m o f fo rm a te . ( 4 ) F om ep i z ol e ( An t i z ol ) ( s e e I I I. B . 1. e . (3 ) ) ( 5 ) S od i um b ic a r bo na t e is us ed f o r s e ve r e a c i d osi s . ( 6 ) H em o di al y s is is u s e d f o r m e th an o l l e v el s > 50 m g /d L , se v e r e a n d r e s is ta n t a c i do s i s , r en a l f a i lu r e, o r v is ua l s y m p t om s . 6
7
C . A n t ic oa gu l an ts , ,
8
an d
9
1 . H ep a r in / L o w Mo l e c u la r W eigh t H ep a ri n (L MW H ) a . A va il a bl e d os ag e fo r m s in c l u de pa r en t e ra l d os a g e f o rm s f o r I V an d s u bc ut a ne o us a dm i ni s t r at i o n. b . To xi c o k in e ti c s . He pa r in h as a ha l f -l i fe of 1 -1 . 5 h r a nd is p r im a ri l y m e ta b ol i z e d in t he li v e r . Th e n e we r L MW H s —e noxa p a r i n ( Lo v e n o x) , d a l te pa r i n ( F r ag m i n ), ti nz a p a r in ( In n oh e p )— h a ve a l o n ge r ha l f- l if e , e s pe ci a ll y in p at ie n ts wi th r e na l f ai l u re . c . C li ni c a l p r es e nt a ti o n. L o ok fo r an y s ig ns o r s ym p to m s of bl e ed in g o r b r u is in g . d . La b o ra t or y d a ta . O bt ai n P TT, b l ee d in g t im e , an d pl a te le t c o un ts . e . Tr e a tm en t ( 1 ) S t op pi n g h ep a ri n a dm i ni s t r a ti on f o r 1 -2 h r a nd r es t a rt i ng th e r ap y a t a r e d uc ed do s e c a n re v e r s e m i l d o v e r -a n ti co a gu l at io n . P.514
( 2 ) S e ve re o v e rd os es m a y r e q ui r e t he ad m i n is t rat i o n o f p r ot am i ne . ( a ) P r ot am i ne c om b in es wi t h h e pa r in an d n e ut r a liz e s i t: 1 m g p ro t am in e n e u t ra li z e s 1 00 U he p ar in . ( b ) P r ot am i ne s h ou l d b e a d m i ni s te r ed s l o wl y, i nt ra v e n o us l y o ve r 10 m i n. Th e m a xi m um do s e of p ro t am i ne is 5 0 m g i n a n y 1 0 - m i n p e ri o d. ( c ) C on s i d er a bl e c on t r o ve r s y e xi s ts ab o ut t he m et h o d o f r e v e rs i ng th e o v er a n t ic oa g ul a ti on wi t h L MW Hs . So m e s o u rc es re c o m m e nd th e a d m i ni st r a tio n o f p ro t am in e t o n e ut r a li z e p a rt of t he ef f ec ts of t he s e a nt ic o ag u la n ts , wh e r e a s c as e r e po r ts r ep o r t ed s uc c e ss es wi t h rec om b in a nt fa c to r V II ( N o vo S e v e n ) . ( d ) Th e s e o v e rd os es s h ou l d b e re f er r e d t o a he m a t o l o gi s t a nd / o r t he po is o n c o nt r o l c e n te r . 2 . W ar f a ri n ( Co um a di n ) a . A va il a bl e d os ag e fo r m s in c l u de o ra l t a bl e ts a nd a s ol u ti o n f o r p a re n te ra l a d m i ni s t ra ti o n . b . To xi c o k in e ti c s . W ar fa ri n is we l l a bs o rb ed a ft e r o r a l a dm in is t r at i on . It s m e an ha l f -l if e i s 3 5 h r ; pr o t ei n bi nd i ng is 9 9 %, wi t h a 5 - da y d u ra t io n o f a c ti vi t y. V it am i n K - de p end e n t c l o t ti ng f ac to r s b eg in t o d ec li n e 6 h r af t e r a d m i ni s t ra ti o n , b ut th e r ap e u ti c a nt ic o ag u la t io n m a y r e q ui r e s e v er a l d a ys . c . C li ni c a l p r es e nt a ti o n in c lu d es m in o r b le e di n g, b r u is in g , h em a tu r ia , e p is t a xi s , a nd c o nj u nc t i va l he m o r r ha g e. Mo r e s e ri o u s bl ee d in g i nc l ud es GI , i n t ra c ra n ia l , r e t ro pe r i to ne a l , a nd wo u n d s i t e .
d . La b o ra t or y d a ta in c l ud e P T, in t e rn a ti o na l n o rm a l i ze d ra ti o ( I N R ), an d b l ee d in g t im e . e . Tr e a tm en t ( 1 ) I f P T o r I N R i s s li gh t ly e l e v a te d , wi t hh ol d wa r fa r i n f o r 2 4 -4 8 h r ; th en r e i ns ti t u te th e r ap y wi t h a r e d uc ed do sa g e. ( 2 ) I f P T o r I N R i s e le v a te d an d b l ee di n g, ad m i n is t e r 1 0 m g o f p h y to n ad i on e ( vi t a m i n K) o v e r 3 0 m in . P a t i en ts wh o a re bl e ed ing m a y r e qu i re t he a d m i ni s t ra ti o n o f b lo o d pr o d uc ts t ha t c on t ai n c lo t ti n g f ac t o rs . ( 3 ) F or m i ld o v e r -a n ti c o ag u la t io n , f o ll o w A m er ic an C o ll e ge of C he s t P h ys ic i an s ( A C C P ) gu i de l in es . ( 4 ) F or pa t ie n ts wi t h l i fe t h r e at e ni ng bl e ed in g or in t r ac r an i al he m o r r ha g e, t h e Am e ri c a n Co l le ge o f C h e s t P h y s i c i a ns re co m m e nd s t he us e o f p r o t hr om b in c o m p le x c o n c en t r at es o r r ec om b in an t f ac to r V II a to i m m e di a te l y r e v er s e t he I N R . D . A n t id ep r es s a n ts 1 . Tr i c ycl ic an t id ep r es s an t s ( TC A s ) a . A va il a bl e f o rm s i nc lu de am i t ri p t y li ne ( E la v i l ), no r t r ip t y l in e ( A v en t y l ) , i m ip r am in e ( To f ra ni l ) , d es i p ra m i ne ( N o rp r am in ) , do xe p i n ( S in e qu an ) , p r o t ri p t y li n e ( V i v ac t il ) , an d c l om ip r am in e ( An a f ran i l ). b . To xi c o k in e ti c s . Th e c om p ou n ds a r e h e pa t ic al l y m e ta bo l i z ed , u n de r go e n t e ro he p at ic r ec i rc ul a tio n , a r e h i gh l y bo un d to p l as m a p ro t ei ns , a n d h av e a n el im in a ti o n h al f -l i fe o f a p p ro xi m a t el y 2 4 h r . c . C li ni c a l p r es e nt a ti o n. A n t ic h ol in e r gi c e ff ec t s i nc l ud e m y d r ia s i s , il e us , u r i na r y r e te n ti o n, an d h y p e r p y r e xi a . C ar d io p ul m on a r y t o xi c it y e xh i b i ts t a ch yc a rd i as , c on d uc ti o n b l oc k s , h y p ot e ns io n , a nd p ul m o n ar y e de m a. C NS m a ni f es ta t io ns r an g e f r om ag i ta t io n a n d co n fu s i on t o h al l uc in a ti on s , s e i zu re s , an d c om a . d . La b o ra t or y d a ta . Bl o od l e v el m o ni t o ri ng do es n o t c o r re la t e we ll wi t h c l in ic al s i gn s a n d s y m p to m s o f t o xi c it y . S om e a ut h o rs s u gg es t th a t e l ec t r oc ar d io g ra p hi c m on i t or i ng is a b et t e r g ui de t o as s es si n g t he s e v e r i ty o f in g es ti o n. e . Tr e a tm en t ( 1 ) G I de c o n ta m i n at io n . S y r u p o f i pe ca c is n ot r ec om m e n de d b ec a us e p a t ie n ts m a y qu ic k l y b ec o m e c o m a t os e , i nc r ea s i ng t he r is k o f as p i ra t io n . A c t i v a te d c ha r c o al is gi v e n e v e r y 6 h r. ( 2 ) A lk al i ni z a t io n wi t h s od i um bi c a r bo n at e 1 - 2 m Eq / k g t o m a i nt a in an a r t e ri a l p H o f 7. 4 5 -7 . 55 d e c re as es th e fr e e f r ac t io n of t he ab s o r be d to xi n s , wh i l e r e v e rs in g s om e o f t h e c a rd i ac a b no r m a li t ies . ( 3 ) P he n y t oi n ( Di l an t in ) a n d /o r be n z o di a z ep i ne s m a y be r eq u ir e d t o c on t ro l s e i zu re s . P he n y t oi n m us t b e a dm in is t e re d a t a r at e no t e xc e ed in g 25 m g /m in be c a u s e of h y po te n s i v e s i de ef f ec ts . ( Fo sp h e n y to i n [ C e re b yx] m a y b e us ed be c a us e i t ha s a l o we r in ci de nc e of h ypo t e n s io n t h an ph e n yto i n.) P.515
( 4 ) P h ys o s t i gm in e 2 m g IV o v e r 1 m i n m a y be us ed t o r e v e rs e s e v e re a n t ic ho li n e rg ic to xi c i t y owi n g t o th es e d r ug s . B ec a u s e th is an t id o te m a y c a us e a s ys t ol e , t h e us e o f t hi s a nt i do t e f o r TC A o v e r d os es is d e cl in i ng . 2 . S el ec t i v e s er o to n in r eu p t ak e i nh i bi to r s ( S S R I s ) a . A va il a bl e f o rm s ( n on t ri c y c l ic ag e nt s ) i nc lu d e f l u o xe t i n e ( Pr o za c ) , s e r t ra li n e ( Z ol o ft ) , a n d pa r o xe t i n e ( P a xi l ) . b . To xi c o k in e ti c s . S S R I s a r e we l l a bs o rb ed a ft e r o r a l a dm in is t r at i on . Pe ak l e ve ls oc c u r wi t hi n 2 - 6 hs . S S R Is a r e h e pa t ic al l y m e ta b ol i z e d wi t h a h al f l i f e b et we e n 8 a nd 30 h r. c . C li ni c a l p r es e nt a ti o n in c lu d es m il d s y m pt om a to l o g y . P a ti e nt s m a y b e co m e ag i ta t ed , d r o ws y , o r c on f us e d. S ei zu r es a n d c a rd io v a sc u la r to xi c it y a r e ra r e . d . La b o ra t or y d a ta . E C G m on i to r in g i s re c o m m end e d . B l oo d l e v el m o ni t o rin g i s n o t r ec o m m en de d . e . Tr e a tm en t in c l ud es g as t r ic l a va ge an d s up p o rt ive t r e at m en t . S om e t o xi c o l og is ts m a y r ec om m e nd th e u s e o f c yp ro h ep t a di ne ( P e ri ac t in ) to m a na g e t he s e r ot o ni n s yn d r om e , wh i c h m a y m an if e s t as a r es u lt o f t he s e i n ge s ti on s . E . B e n z od i a z ep in e s 1 . A va il a bl e f o rm s i nc lu de c h l o rd ia ze p o xi d e (L ib r iu m ) , d ia z e p am ( Va li um ) , f l u ra ze p am ( D al m a ne ) , m i da z o l am (V e rs e d ), lo ra ze p am ( A ti v a n ) , a lp r a zo l am ( Xa n a x) , a n d t ri a z o la m (H a l c i o n) . 2 . To xi c o k in e ti c s . Th es e d r u gs ar e he pa t ic al l y m et a b ol i z ed . 3 . C li n ic al p re s e n ta t io n in c lu d es d r o ws i ne s s , a t axi a , a n d c on f us io n . F a t al i ti es a re ra r e . 4 . La b o ra t or y d a ta . D ru g l e v e l m o n it o ri n g is no t in d ic a te d . 5 . Tr e a tm en t a . S up p o rt i v e t r e at m e n t in c lu d es g as t r ic e m p t yi ng, a c t i v a te d c ha r c o a l, an d a ca t ha r t ic . b . Fl um a z e ni l ( Ro m a z i c on ) is gi ve n 0 . 2 m g I V o ver 3 0 s ec ; re pe a t d os es of 0 . 5 m g o v e r 30 s ec a t 1 -m i n i nt e r v al s f o r a m a xi m um cu m u la t i v e d os e o f 5 mg. ( 1 ) Fl u m a z e ni l h as a s hor t e li m i na t io n h a lf - li f e . ( 2 ) C a re f ul ob s e r v a t io n fo r r es ed a ti o n is ne c es s ar y , e s pe c i al l y fo r i n ge s ti on s o f l o ng - ac t in g b e n z od i a zep in es . ( 3 ) Fl u m a z e ni l i s c on t ra in d ic a te d i n m i xe d o v e rdo s e p at i en ts ( pa r t ic ul a rl y i n vo l vin g t ri c yc l ic a n ti d ep r e s s an ts ) in wh o m s ei z u r e s a re li k e l y . F . β - ad r e ne r gi c a n ta go n is t s 1 . A va il a bl e d os ag e fo r m s . C la s s e xa m p l es in c l ude p r op r an o lo l ( I nd e r al ) , m e to p r ol ol ( Lo p re s s o r ), a n d a t en o lo l ( Te n o rm i n) . O r a l an d p a re n te r al d o sa g e f o rm s a re a v ai l ab l e . 2 . To xi c o k in e ti c s . A l l o f th e m em b e rs wi t hi n th is c l a s s d i f fe r i n re g ar d to r e n al ve rs u s h ep a ti c e lim i na t io n , l ip id so lu b il i t y, a n d p r ot e in bi nd i ng . P a t i en ts m a y b ec om e t oxi c o wi n g t o c ha n ge s i n o r g an f un c t i on .
3 . C li n ic al p re s e n ta t io n in c lu d es h yp o te ns i on , b ra d y c a rd ia , an d a t r io ve n t ri c u l a r b lo c k . B ro n c h os p as m m a y oc c ur , p a r ti c ul a rl y wi t h n o nc a rd i os el ec t i v e a ge n ts . 4 . La b o ra t or y d a ta in c l ud e s e r um e l ec t ro l y t es a nd b lo od gl u co s e (p a ti e nts m a y be c om e h y p og l y c e m i c ) . 5 . Tr e a tm en t a . G I de c o n ta m i na t io n i nc l ud es ga s tr ic la va g e a nd ac t i v a te d c ha r c o al . b . G l uc ag o n is gi v e n 5 0 -1 5 0 µg / k g as a lo a di ng do s e o v e r 1 m i n , f ol lo we d b y a co n ti nu o us i n f us io n o f 1- 5 m g /h r . c . E pi ne p h ri ne s h ou l d b e u s e d c a ut io u s l y in β - bl oc k e r o ve rd os es . U n o p po s e d α - re c e p to r s ti m ul a ti on in t he fa c e o f c o m pl e te β - re c ep t or bl oc k m a y le a d t o p r of o un d h y p e r t en s i on . d . C al ci um s a l ts (s ee C al c iu m C h an n el A nt a go ni s t s ) e . H ig h D os e I ns ul i n D e xt r o s e (s e e C a lc iu m Ch ann e l An t ag on is t s ) G . C a lc i um c h an ne l a n tag o ni s ts 1 . A va il a bl e f o rm s i nc lu de v e r a pa m i l ( C a la n ) , d il t i a z e m ( Ca r d i zem ) , a nd the d i h yd ro p y r i di ne c l as s ( n if e d ip in e d e r i v at i ves [ P roc a r di a ]) . P.516
2 . To xi c o k in e ti c s . On s e t o f ac t io n i s a pp r o xi m a te ly 3 0 m i n , wh e r e as th e d u r a ti on is 6- 8 h r . Se v e ra l c om p ou n ds a r e a v a i lab l e a s su s ta in e d - re le as e d o sa g e f o rm s , wh i c h m ay c o n t ri bu t e t o p r ol o ng ed t o xi c i t y. 3 . C li n ic al p re s e n ta t io n . H y p o t e ns io n i s c om m o n t o al l c la s s es . B ra d yc a r di a a n d a t r io v e n tr ic u la r bl oc k a re m o r e c o m m o nl y see n wi t h i n ge s t i on s o f ve r a p am il o r d il t ia z e m . Pu l m o n ar y e de m a a nd s e izu r e s ( v e ra pa m i l ) h a ve b e e n r ep o r te d . 4 . La b o ra t or y d a ta in c l ud e E C G an d s e ru m e le c tr o l y t es . 5 . Tr e a tm en t a . G I de c o n ta m i na t io n i nc l ud es ga s tr ic la va g e, ac t i v a t ed c h a rc oa l , a nd wh o l e - b o we l i r r ig a ti o n ( es p ec ia ll y f o r i n ge st i on s wi t h s us t ai n ed - r el ea se p r o du c ts ) . b . C al ci um . C al c i um c h lor i d e 1 0% ( 10 - 20 m L ) I V p u sh is g i v e n f o r t h e m a na g em en t o f h y po t en s i o n , b r ad y c a rd ia , o r he a rt b l o c k . c . G lu ca g on do s a g e is t he s a m e as fo r β - bl oc k e r o v e r d os e . d . C om bi n ed in s u l in an d d e xt r o s e a dm i ni s t r a ti o n h a s b ee n u s e d i n s el ec t ed c as e s. Th is s h ou l d b e u s e d on l y in c o ns ul t at i on wi t h a po is o n c o n t ro l c e nt e r . e . P ho sp h od i es te r as e I nh i bi t o rs . I n am r in on e o r m i lr i no n e. H . C o ca i ne 1 . A va il a bl e f o rm s i nc lu de a lk al oi d o b ta i ne d f r om E r y t h r o xy l o n c oc a. 2 . To xi c o k in e ti c s . Co c a in e is we l l a bs o rb e d a ft e r o r al , in ha l at i on a l, i n t ra n as al , an d I V ad m i nis t r at i on . C oc ai ne is m e tab o li z e d i n th e l i v e r a nd e xc r e t e d i n t h e u r in e .
3 . C li n ic al p re s e n ta t io n in c lu d es C N S a nd s ym p ath e t ic s t im ul a ti on ( e. g . , h yp e r t en s i on , ta c h y p n ea, t ac h y c a r d ia , n a us ea , vo m it i ng , s ei z u r es ) . De a th m a y r es ul t f ro m r es pi r a to r y f a il u re , m yo c a r d ia l i nf a r ct i on , o r c a r di ac a rr e st . 4 . La b o ra t or y d a ta in c l ud e c oc a in e a n d c o ca i ne m e ta b ol i te u ri ne sc re e ns. 5 . Tr e a tm en t is s up p o rt i ve : be n z o di a z e pi ne s f o r se d a ti on s e i z u re t re a tm e nt , L a b et al o l ( N o rm o d y ne ) fo r h y p er t e ns io n . I . C o r ro s i v e s 1 . A va il a bl e f o rm s i nc lu de s tr o ng ac id s o r a lk a li s . 2 . To xi c o k in e ti c s . Co r r os i v e s a r e we l l a bs o rb ed af t e r o r a l a nd in ha l at i on al a d m i ni s t ra ti o n . 3 . C li n ic al p re s e n ta t io n . Th e s e c om p ou nd s p r od uc e b u r ns o n c on t ac t . 4 . La b o ra t or y d a ta . A rt e ri a l b lo o d g as es ( A B Gs ) , c h es t ra di o g ra ph s , a nd at l e as t 6 h r o f o bs e r v a ti on a r e re qu i r ed fo r in ha l at i o n e xp o s u r e . 5 . Tr e a tm en t is d ec o nt am i na t io n . E xp o s e d sk in m us t be ir r i ga t ed wi t h wa t e r . N e u t r al i z a ti on s h o ul d b e a v o i d ed be c a us e t h es e re a c t i on s a r e e xo t h e rm ic a n d wi ll p ro d uc e f u rt h e r t i s s ue da m a g e . J . C ya ni d e 1 . A va il a bl e f o rm s i nc lu de i nd us t r ia l c he m i ca ls and so m e na i l -p ol is h r e m o ve rs . 2 . To xi c o k in e ti c s . Th e d ru g is ra p id l y ab s o r be d a ft e r o ra l o r i n ha l at io n e xp o s u r e . 3 . C li n ic al p re s e n ta t io n in c lu d es h e ad ac h e, d ys pn e a , n au s e a , v o m it in g , a t a xi a , c o m a , s ei z u r es , a n d d e at h . 4 . La b o ra t or y d a ta in c l ud e c y a n id e l e ve ls , A B G s , e le c tr o l yte s , a nd an E CG . 5 . Tr e a tm en t . a . C ya ni d e a n ti do t e k it ( 1 ) A m yl ni t r it e Pe a r ls a re c ru s h e d a nd he l d u nd er t h e p at i en t ' s n os t ri ls . ( 2 ) S od i um n i t ri t e 1 0 m L I V p us h . C o n v e rt s h em og l ob i n t o m et h em og l ob in, wh i c h bi n ds th e c y a ni de i o n . ( 3 ) S od i um th io s u l fa t e 50 m L o f a 2 5 % s o l ut i on IV p us h . Ma y b e re p ea t ed i f t h e r e is no r es po ns e . P.517
b . O xyg e n c . S od iu m b ic a rb o na t e. A s ne e de d f o r s e ve re ac id o s i s d . H yd r o xy c o b a la m i n ( C y a n ok i t ) ( 1 ) A du l t d os e i s 5 g r am s I V o v e r 15 m i nu t es . Dos e m a y be r ep ea t ed f o r a t o t al do s e o f 1 0 g r am s . N o d at a ar e a va i la bl e fo r p e di a t ri c d os in g .
7
K . D i go xi n ( L a no xi n ) 1 . A va il a bl e d os ag e fo r m s in c l u de o ra l a nd pa r e nte r a l. 2 . To xi c o k in e ti c s . Di go xi n is we l l a bs o r be d , is p ri m a r il y r en a ll y e li m i na t ed, a n d h as a h al f - li f e o f 3 6 -4 8 h r. I ts v ol um e o f di s t ri b u ti on is 7- 1 0 L /k g . E q u il i br a ti o n b et we e n s er u m l e ve l a nd m y o ca r d ial b i n di n g r e qu i re s 6 - 8 h r .
3 . C li n ic al p re s e n ta t io n in c lu d es c on f us io n , a no re xi a , n a us ea , a n d vom it in g i n m i ld c as es . In m o r e s e v e r e c as es , c a r di ac d ysr h y t h m i as a re s e en . 4 . La b o ra t or y d a ta in c l ud e s e r um d i go xi n l e v el s , e l ec t r ol y t es , p a r ti c u l a rl y s e r um p o ta s s iu m l e v el s , a n d a n E C G . 5 . Tr e a tm en t a . D ec o nt am i na t io n wi t h a c ti v a t ed c h a rc oa l i s r e c o m m e nd e d. b . S up p o rt i v e t h e ra p y inc l ud es m a na g in g h yp e rk a l em i a o r h y p ok al em i a an d i n o tr o pi c s up po r t a s n e ed e d . c . D ig o xi n - s p ec i fi c F a b an t i bo di es ( D ig i bi nd ) . To d e t e rm in e t h e d os ag e , us e t h e fo ll o wi n g f o rm u la
E a c h vi a l c o n ta i ns 4 0 m g o f d ig o xi n a nt i bo di e s (D i g i bi nd ) an d s ho u ld be r e c on s t i tu t ed wi t h 4 m L o f s t e ri l e wa t e r . L . E le ct r o l y te s 1 . Ma g n es i um a . A va il a bl e d os ag e fo r m s in c l u de o ra l , r ec t al , a nd p a re n te r al . Ma g n es iu m c o nt a in in g c a th a r ti c s (e .g . , m a gn es iu m c it r a te ) ha v e b ee n re p or t ed t o p r o du c e h y p er m a g ne s e m i a in pa t ie n ts re ce i vi ng re p e ti t i v e d os es wi t h a c ti va t ed c h a rc oa l . b . To xi c o k in e ti c s . Ma g nes i um i s f o un d i n tr ac e ll ula r l y a nd is re na l l y e l im in a te d . c . C li ni c a l p r es e nt a ti o n ( 1 ) Mi l d : D ee p t e nd o n r ef l e xe s m a y b e d ep r es s e d; l et h a rg y a nd we a kn e s s ( 2 ) S e ve re : R es pi r at o r y p a r al y s is an d h e ar t bl oc k ; pr o lo n ge d P R, Q R S , an d Q T i n t e r v a ls d . La b o ra t or y d a ta ( 1 ) Mi l d : > 4 m E q/ L ( 2 ) S e ve re : > 1 0 m Eq / L e . Tr e a tm en t is 1 0 % c a lc i u m c h l o ri de 10 - 2 0 m L to t e m p o ra r il y a n ta go n i z e t h e c a rd i ac e f f ec ts o f m ag n es i um . I n s e v e re c as es , he m o di a l ys is m a y b e r e q ui r e d. 2 . P ot a s s iu m a . A va il a bl e d os ag e fo r m s a re o ra l a nd pa r e nt e r al. b . To xi c o k in e ti c s . P o ta s s i u m is p ri m a r il y a n i nt r ac e l lu l a r c a t io n . C h an g es in a c id - ba s e ba l an c e p ro d uc e s hi f ts in se r um p o ta ss i u m va l ue s ( e .g . , a 0. 1 - U i n c re as e i n s e ru m p H p ro d uc es a 0 . 1- 0 .7 m Eq / L d e c re as e i n s e ru m p o t ass i um v al u es ) . c . C li ni c a l p r es e nt a ti o n in c lu d es c a rd ia c i r r it a bi l i ty a n d p e r ip he r a l we a k nes s wi t h m in o r i nc r ea s es . C ar d i ac d ys r h y t hm ia s , in c l ud i ng b ra d y ca r d ia , m a y p r o g re ss to as y s to l e. d . La b o ra t or y d a ta . E C G d a ta in c l u de pe ak e d T wa v e s a n d p r ol o ng a ti on o f t h e Q R S c om pl e x. P.518
e . Tr e a tm en t ( 1 ) C al c i u m . A dm in is t er c a lc iu m ch l o ri de 10 % 1 0- 2 0 m L t o a n ta g on i z e th e c a r di ac ef f ec ts of h y p er k a l em ia . ( 2 ) S od i um b ic a r bo na t e . 1 - 2 m E q /k g I V i n c r e as es s e ru m p H an d c au s e s an i n t ra c el lu l ar s h i ft of p ot as s i um . ( 3 ) G l uc os e a nd in s u l in . 5 0 m L o f 50 % d e xt r o s e an d 5 -1 0 U o f r e gu l ar i n su li n a r e a dm i ni s t e r ed v i a I V p u s h to s h if t po t as s i um fr om t he e xt r a c e l lu la r fl u id in t o t he c e l ls . ( 4 ) C a ti on e xc h a ng e re s in s b i nd po t as s i um i n e xc h a n ge fo r an o th e r c at i on ( s o di um ) . So di um po l y s ty r e n e s u lf o na t e ( K a ye xa l a t e ) i s g i v en 15 g/ 6 0 m L wi t h 2 3 .5 % s o rb i to l i n d os es 15 - 3 0 g b y m ou t h e ve r y 3 - 4 h r as n e ed ed u nti l t h e h yp e rk a le m i a re s o l ve s . Al te r n at i ve l y, 5 0 g of s od i um p o l ys t yr e ne s u lf o na t e c a n b e gi v e n re c ta l l y i n 2 0 0 m L o f s o d iu m c hl o r id e a s a re t en t ion e n em a . ( 5 ) H em o di al y s is is re s e rv e d f o r l if e - th r ea t en i ng h yp e r k al em ia t ha t d o es no t r e s po nd t o t he ab o v e m ea s u re s . M. I r o n ( F e ) 1 . A va il a bl e d os ag e fo r m s . N um e ro us O TC p r o duc t s a r e a v a il ab l e. To xi c i ty i s b as e d o n t he am o un t o f el em e nt a l i ro n i n ge s ted : su l fa t e sa l t 2 0% e l em e nt al F e; fu m ar a te s a l t 3 3 % e le m e n ta l F e ; a nd g lu c o n at e s al t 1 2 % e l em e nt al F e. 2 . To xi c o k in e ti c s . I r on is a bs o r be d i n t h e d uo d enu m a n d j ej un u m . 3 . C li n ic al p re s e n ta t io n a . P ha se I . N a us ea , v om i t i ng , d i ar r h ea , G I b le e din g , h y p o te n si on b . P ha se I I. C li n ic al im p ro v e m en t s e en 6- 2 4 h r p os t in g es ti o n c . P ha se II I . Me t a bo l ic ac i do s i s , r en a l a nd he pa t ic f ai lu r e , s e ps is , p u lm o na r y ed em a , a n d de a t h 4 . La b o ra t or y d a ta in c l ud e s e r um F e l e v e ls , t o ta l i r on - b in di n g c ap ac i t y ( TI B C ; i s c on t r o v e rs ia l ), A B G s , li ve r fu nc t io n t e s ts ( LF Ts ) , he m o gl o bi n , an d h e m a t oc r it . R ad io l og ic al e v a l u at io n of th e a b do m e n no t es th e p r es en c e o f r a d io p aq u e pi l ls . 5 . Tr e a tm en t a . D ec o nt am i na t io n . F o r i n ge s ti on s > 40 m g /k g . Ga s t ri c l a vag e u si n g s o di um bi c a r bo n at e i s o f q u es ti o na b le ef f ic ac y. W hole - bo we l i r ri g at i on is u s ed fo r la r ge in g es ti o ns . b . S up p o rt i v e t r e at m e n t c . D ef e r o xa m in e ( De s f e ra l ) i s u s e d t o c h el at e i r on . A dm in is t e r 2 5 -5 0 m g/k g u p to a d os e o f 1 g , a nd o b s e r v e fo r a r e d c o l o r in t he u ri n e. Th e n a d m i ni s te r at a r a te of 15 m g / k g / h r u p t o a m a xi m um do s e o f 6 g / da y . C o n t in u e u nt i l s e r um ir on is wi t h in t he th e ra p eu t ic r an g e. N . I so n ia z i d (I N H ) 1 . A va il a bl e d os ag e fo r m s in c l u de o ra l a nd pa r e nte r a l.
2 . To xi c o k in e ti c s . I N H is we l l a bs o rb ed o ra l l y . P ea k l e ve ls a r e wi t hi n 1 - 2 h r p o st i ng es t io n . I s o ni a z i d is he p at ic a ll y m e t ab o li zed . 3 . C li n ic al p re s e n ta t io n in c lu d es n a us ea , v om i ti ng , sl u r re d s pe ec h , a ta xi a , g e n er a li z e d t o ni c -c lo ni c s e i z u re s, an d c om a . 4 . La b o ra t or y d a ta in c l ud e s e v e r e l ac ti c a ci do s i s , h y p og l y c em i a , m il d h yp e r ka le m i a , a nd le u k oc y t o s i s . 5 . Tr e a tm en t a . D ec o nt am i na t io n . A v oi d em es is b ec a us e p a ti en t s a r e a t h ig h ri s k fo r d e ve l op in g s ei z u r es ; fo r s e v e r e i ng es t io ns us e a c t i v a t ed c h a rc oa l g as t r ic l a va g e. b . P yr i do xi n e , wh i c h r e ve r s es I N H -i nd uc e d s ei z ur e s , is gi ve n i n g r am do s e s e q ui va l en t to th e a m o u nt o f i s on ia zi d i n ge st e d. Py r i d o xi n e is m i xe d as a 1 0 % s ol u ti on in D 5W a nd i nf us e d o ve r 3 0 - 60 m i n. c . S od iu m b ic a rb o na t e c o r r ec t s t he ac id os is . P.519
O . L e ad 1 . A va il a bl e f o rm s i nc lu de l ea d -c on t ai n in g p ai n t or g as o li ne f um e i nh al a ti on . 2 . To xi c o k in e ti c s . L ea d ha s s lo w d i s t ri bu t io n , wi t h a ha l f -l i fe of a p p ro xi m a t el y 2 m o nt hs . 3 . C li n ic al p re s e n ta t io n in c lu d es n a us ea , v om i ti ng , ab d om in al p ai n, p e r ip h e ra l n eu r o pa t hi es , c on v u ls i on s , a nd c om a . 4 . La b o ra t or y d a ta in c l ud e an em i a a nd an el e v a te d b l oo d - le ad le ve l . 5 . Tr e a tm en t a . E de t at e c a lc iu m d is odi u m ( c a lc i um d is o di um Ve r s e n a te ) i s g i ve n 5 0- 7 5 m g /k g /d a y in t r am us c u la rl y ( I M) o r vi a sl o w I V in 4 d i v id ed d os es . b . D im e rc ap r o l ( B A L ) is g i v e n 4 m g /k g I M e v e r y 4 h r f o r 3 - 5 d a y s. P . L it h iu m ( E s k al i th ) 1 . A va il a bl e d os ag e fo r m s in c l u de li qu i d, c a ps u les , an d t a bl e ts (i m m ed ia te a n d s us t ai ne d re le a s e ) . 2 . To xi c o k in e ti c s . L it h ium is we l l a bs o rb e d a f te r o r a l a dm in is t r at i on . It is n o t a p p re c i ab l y bo u nd t o p l as m a p r o te i ns a n d h as a s m a ll v o lu m e of d i st r ib u ti o n ( V d ) o f 0 . 5 L /k g . El im in a ti o n is r en al , wi t h a ha l f -l i fe of 14 - 2 4 h r . 3 . C li n ic al p re s e n ta t io n a . Mi l d : Po l y u r ia , b l ur r e d v i s io n , we ak n es s , s l ur r ed s p e ec h , a ta xi a t r em o r , a n d m y o c l on ic je r k s b . S e ve re : D el i ri um , c om a , s e i z u re s , a nd h y pe r t he r m ia 4 . La b o ra t or y d a ta a . Th e r ap e ut ic r an ge : 0.6 - 1 . 2 m Eq / L b . Mi l d to xi c i t y : 1 .5 - 2. 5 m E q /L c . Mo d e r a te to xi c i t y : 2. 5 -3 m Eq / L d . S e ve re to xi c i t y : > 3 m E q / L 5 . Tr e a tm en t
a . S up p o rt i v e c a re , i nc l ud i ng ba s i c l i fe s u pp o r t an d fl u id an d e le c t ro l y t e r e p la ce m e n t b . D ec o nt am i na t io n ( 1 ) S yr u p o f i pe c a c n o t re c om m e nd e d ( 2 ) A ct i v a te d c ha r c o a l i ne f f ec t i v e ( 3 ) S od i um p o l ys t y r e ne s u l f on a te ha s b ee n e f f ec tiv e i n e xp e r i m en t al m o de ls . N ee d t o m on i to r p o ta s s iu m l e v el s . ( 4 ) W hole - b o we l i r r ig a ti on f o r l a rg e i ng es t io ns , es p e c i al l y t ho se in v o l v i ng s us t ai n ed - r el e as e p r od uc t s ( 5 ) H em o di al y s is fo r s e ve r e l y s y m p to m a t ic p a ti e nt s wi t h a cu t e e xp o s u re l e ve ls > 2 . 5 m Eq / L o r c hr o n ic l e ve ls > 1 .5 m Eq / L. N o t e : L it h iu m l e v el s m ay r i s e a ft e r d i al y s is o wi n g t o a r e bo u nd ef f ec t . Q . O p i a te s 1 . A va il a bl e d os ag e fo r m s in c l u de o ra l i m m ed ia t e- r e l ea s e an d s us t ai ne d r e l ea se p re p ar a ti o ns as we l l a s p a re n te r al ag e nts . 2 . To xi c o k in e ti c s . S om e a g e nt s h a v e p r ol o ng ed el i m i na t io n h a lf - li v e s (e . g., h e r oi n , m et h ad on e ) . 3 . C li n ic al p re s e n ta t io n in c lu d es re s p i ra t o r y d e p re s s i on an d a de c re as e d l e ve l o f c on s c io u s n es s . R a r e ef f ec ts in c l u de h y po t e ns io n , b r ad y c a rd ia , an d p u lm o na r y ed em a . Se i z ur e s h a ve b e en r ep o rt e d in p at i en ts wi t h r en al d ys f un c ti o n in in d i v id u als wh o a re r ec ei v i n g m e pe r i di n e o wi n g t o th e a cc u m u la t io n o f th e m eta b ol i te no r m e p e ri di n e. 4 . La b o ra t or y d a ta in c l ud e ba s e li n e A B G s a n d t oxi c o l o g y s c re e ns . 5 . Tr e a tm en t a . N al o xo n e is gi v e n 0 . 4-2 m g e v e r y 5 m i n u p t o 10 m g an d 0 . 03 - 0 .1 m g /k g i n pe di a t ri c p a ti en t s . N alo xo n e h as a ver y s ho r t ha l f -l i fe , an d r e se da t io n is a co nc e r n i n p at i en ts o ve r d os in g o n l o ng - ac t in g o p i o i ds o r s u s t a in ed r e l ea se do s a g e f o rm s . P.520
b . N al m e f en e ( Re v e x) h a s a h al f - li f e o f 4 - 8 h r . I nit i a l d os ag es a re 0. 5 m g /7 0 k g . A f ol lo w- u p d os e 2 - 5 m i n l at e r i s 1 m g /7 0 k g. R . O r g a no p ho s p ha t es 1 . Th e r e a r e a v a ri e t y o f a v a i la b le fo r m s ; t h e y ar e u s u a ll y p es ti ci d es o r c h em ic al wa r f a r e a ge n ts . 2 . To xi c o k in e ti c s . O rg a no p h os ph a te s a r e a bs o rbe d th r o ug h t h e l un gs , s kin , G I t r ac t , a n d c o n ju nc t i v a. 3 . C li n ic al p re s e n ta t io n in c lu d es e xc e s s i v e c h ol i ne r g ic s t im ul a ti o n. 4 . La b o ra t or y d a ta in c l ud e r ed bl oo d c el l a c e t y l c h o li n es te r as e a c ti v i t y. 5 . Tr e a tm en t a . D ec o nt am i na t io n b . A t ro p in e i s g i v en 0. 5 -2 m g I V t o re ve r s e th e pe r i ph e r al m us c a r in ic e f f ec ts .
c . P ra l id o xi m e (2 - P A M; P r o t op a m ) is gi v e n 1 g IV o v e r 2 m i n a n d r e pe a te d i n 20 m i n as ne e de d . S . S a li c y la t es 1 . A va il a bl e d os ag e fo r m s in c l u de a v a r i et y o f O TC p r o du ct s : o r al , re ct a l, a n d t o pi c a l . 2 . To xi c o k in e ti c s . S a li c y la t es a re we l l a bs o r be d af t e r o r a l a dm in is t ra t io n . Th e h a lf - li f e i s 6 -1 2 h r a t l o we r d os es . I n o ve r d os e si t ua t io ns , th e h a lf - li f e m a y be p ro l on ge d to m o re t ha n 2 0 h r . 3 . C li n ic al p re s e n ta t io n in c lu d es n a us ea , v om i ti ng , ti n ni t us , a n d m a l ai s e ( m il d to xi c i t y ) . L e th a r g y , c on v u ls i on s , co m a , a n d m e ta b ol ic ac id os is ap p ea r i n m o r e s e v e r e o v e r d os es . P ot e nt ia l c om pl ic a ti o ns f ro m t h e ra pe u ti c a nd t o xi c d os es in c l u de G I b le e di n g, in c re as e d P T, he p a ti c t o xi c i t y, p a nc r ea t i ti s , an d p r o te inu r i a. 4 . La b o ra t or y d a ta fo r the f ol l o wi ng 6 -h r po s t i ng es t io n l e v e ls a r e : a . 40 - 6 0 m g / dL : ti nn i tu s b . 60 - 9 5 m g / dL : m o de r ate t o xi c i t y c . Mo r e t ha n 9 5 m g/ d L: s e v e r e to xi c i t y d . W it h t h e p r es en c e of a c id em i a a nd ac id u ri a , ev a l u a te A B G s . e . I n a dd i ti on , l a bo r a to r y e v a l ua t io n m a y s h o w l eu k oc yt os is , t h r om b oc y t op e ni a , i nc r ea s ed o r d ec r ea s e d s e rum gl uc os e a n d s od iu m , h yp o ka l em ia , a n d i nc r eas e d s e r um B U N , c r ea t in in e , a n d k e t on e s. 5 . Tr e a tm en t a . D ec o nt am i na t io n . R e pe t i ti v e do s e s o f a c ti v a t ed c h a rc o al e v e r y 6 h r, wi t h 1 d os e o f c at h a rt ic fo r pa t i en ts wh o in g es t ed > 15 0 m g /k g . W hol e- b o we l i r r i ga t io n f o r l a rg e i n ge s ti o ns . b . A lk al i ne di u re s i s is giv e n as n ot e d in d ec on t am i na t io n s ec ti o n t o e nh an c e s a li c yla t e e xc r e t io n . Thi s i s i nd ic a te d fo r l e ve ls > 4 0 m g /d L . c . H em od i al y s is i s u s e d fo r s e v e r e i n to xi c a t io ns wh e n s e ru m l e v el s a r e > 1 0 0 m g/ d L. Th i s m e t ho d o f de c o n ta m i n at i on is m u c h b et t e r t h an re p et i ti v e d o se s o f a c t i v a te d c h ar c o a l . d . Fl u id an d e l ec t ro l y t e re p la c em en t i s a dm in is t e re d as n e ed e d. e . V it am i n K ( A qu am e phy t o n ) an d f r es h fr o z e n p la s m a a r e u s e d to c o r re c t a n y co a gu l op a th y . T. S n a k e bi t es 1 . Typ e s . Th e r e a r e n um e r o us s p ec ie s o f s na ke s f o u nd wo r l d wi d e . Th e ve n o m o us s n ak es fo u nd i n N o rt h Am e ri ca in c l ud e t h e f ol l o wi n g: r at t le s n a ke , c o t to nm ou t h , c o p pe r he ad , an d c o ra l . B ec a us e p at i e nt s m a y b e e xp o s e d to m o r e e xo t i c s na k e s , a he r p e to lo g is t s ho ul d b e c o n su l te d f o r a m o r e d e f in i ti v e id en t i fi c a ti o n . 2 . To xi c o k in e ti c s . On s e t o f s ym p to m a t ol o g y d e pen d s o n t he sp ec i es o f s n ak e a nd t he pa t ie n t 's u n d er l y i ng m e di ca l c on d it i o n. 3 . C li n ic al p re s e n ta t io n in c lu d es n a us ea ; v om i ti ng ; di a r rh e a; s ync op e ; t a ch yc a rd i a; an d c ol d , c la m m y s k i n. Lo c a l fi nd i ngs in c l u de pa i n, ed em a , an d e r y t h em a . Mo r e s e v e re en v e n om a ti o ns c an le a d to se v e r e ti ss ue in ju r y , c om p a rt m e n t s y n d ro m e , a n d s ho ck .
P.521
4 . La b o ra t or y d a ta a . C B C an d p l at el e t c oun t b . C oa g ul a ti o n p ro f il e c . Fi b ri n d e g ra da t io n p r od u c t s d . E le ct r o l y te s e . B U N , S C r, an d u r i na l ys is 5 . Tr e a tm en t a . S up p o rt i v e . Mo v e t h e p a t ie n t a wa y f r o m s tr ik i ng d is ta nc e o f th e s na k e . I d e al l y, t h e p a ti en t s h ou ld b e t r an sp o r te d t o a m ed i ca l f ac i li t y as s o on as p o ss ib l e. C on s tr ic t i v e c lo t h in g , r in g s , wa t c he s, et c . s ho u ld be r em o ved . Te t a n us im m u ni z a t io n s ho u ld be as s e s s ed , an d s u r g ic al in t e r v en t io n m a y b e n e ce ss a r y fo r s e v e r e c as es . b . A nt i v e no m s ( 1 ) A n ti v e ni n ( C ro t al id a e) p ol y v a l e n t is a h o rs e -de r i v e d p r od uc t th a t h as b e e n r ep o r te d t o pr o du c e a ll e rg ic r ea c t i on s. F or m i ld bi t es , t he r e c om m e nd e d d os e is 5 -1 0 v i al s; m o de r a te , 10 - 20 ; an d s e v e re e n ve n om at i on s m a y r e qui r e 2 0 or m o r e vi a ls . ( 2 ) C r o ta li d ae po l y v a l en t i m m un e Fa b i s a p o l yv a le n t a n ti v e n in m a de f ro m s h ee p s ou r c e s . Th e in i tia l do s e is 4 - 6 v ia ls di l ute d in 25 0 m L o f 0 . 9% n o r m a l s al in e ( N S ) a dm in i s t e r ed o ve r 1 h r . Ad di t io n al do s es m a y be r e q ui r e d f o r s e v e r e e n v en o m a t io ns . U . Th e o ph y l l in e 1 . A va il a bl e d os ag e fo r m s in c l u de li qu i d, s u s t a in ed - r e le as e t a bl e ts a n d c a ps ul es as we l l a s p a ren t e r al fo r m s . 2 . To xi c o k in e ti c s . W ell ab s o rb ed o ra l l y wi t h a V d o f ap p r o xi m at e l y 0 . 5 L /kg . Th e o p h y ll i ne is h e pa t ic all y m e ta bo l i z ed an d h as a h a lf - li f e o f 4 - 8 h r . Th e o p h y ll i ne c l ea r an c e d e p en ds hi gh l y on ag e , c o nc o m it a nt di s ea s e s t a te s , a n d i n te r ac t in g d r ug s . 3 . C li n ic al p re s e n ta t io n in c lu d es n a us ea , v om i ti ng , se i zu re s , a nd c a r di ac d ys r h yt hm ia s . C h r on ic toxi c i t y c a r ri es a p oo r e r p ro g n os is t h an ac u te t o xi c i t y. 4 . La b o ra t or y d a ta . Th e ra p e ut ic th e op h yl li ne le v el s a r e 5 - 20 µ g /m L . H yp e r g l y c e m i a a n d h y p ok a le m i a a r e s ee n wi t h ac u t e i n ge st i on s . O t he r u s ef u l l ab o ra t o r y te s t s i nc l ud e s e ru m e le c t r o l y te s , B U N , c r e at i ni n e, he p at ic f u nc t io n , a nd E C G m o ni to r i ng . 5 . Tr e a tm en t a . S up p o rt i v e t h e ra p y inc l ud es m a in t ai ni n g a n a ir wa y a n d t r ea t in g s ei z u re s a n d d ys r h y th m i as as th ey o c c u r . b . D ec o nt am i na t io n . S y r u p of ip ec ac no t r ec om m e n d ed . c . Ac t i vat e d c ha rc o al ( rep e t it i v e d os es ) t o e nh anc e e l im in a ti on . W ho le b o we l i r ri g at io n fo r m as s i v e i ng es t io ns ( es pe ci al ly wi t h s us t ai n ed - r el e as e p r o du c ts ) . C h a rc oa l h em o p e r fu s i on is us ed in uns t ab l e p at i en ts wh o a re in
s t a tu s e pi le p ti c u s . H em od i al y s is is u s e d wh e n h em o p e r f us io n i s u n a va il ab l e. d . β - ad r e ne r gi c a nt a go n is t s ( e .g . , e sm ol ol , B re vib l oc ) ar e u s ed to t re a t t he h yp o t en s i o n, ta c h yc a r di a, a nd d y s rh yt hm i as c au se d b y e l e v at e d c y cl ic a d e no s i ne m o no p ho s p h at e le v e ls .
IV. REFERENCES A . A m e r ic a n A c a d em y o f C l i ni c a l To xi c o lo g y an d E u r o pe a n A ss oc ia t io n o f P o i so ns C en t r es a n d C l in i c a l To xi c o lo gi s ts . P o s i ti o n s ta t em en t : Si n gl e -d os e a c ti va t ed c h a rc oa l . Cl in To xi c o l 1 9 97 ; 3 5 :7 2 1 -7 41 . B . A m e r ic a n A c a d em y o f C l i ni c a l To xi c o lo g y an d E u r o pe a n A ss oc ia t io n o f P o i so ns C en t r es a n d C l in i c a l To xi c o lo gi s ts . P o s i ti o n s ta t em en t : S y r up of i p ec ac . Cl i n To xi c o l 19 97 ; 3 5: 6 99 - 70 9 . C . A m er ic a n C o ll e ge of E m e r ge nc y P h y s i c i a ns . C l i ni c al p o li c y fo r th e i nit i a l a p p ro ac h to pa t ie n ts p r es e nt i ng wi t h a c ut e t o xi c in g es t io n o r de r m a l o r i n ha l at i on e xp o s u r e . A n n E m e rg Me d 1 99 9 ; 3 3: 7 35 - 7 62 . P.522
D . A m er ic a n C o ll e ge of E m e r ge nc y P h y s i c i a ns . C l i ni c al p o li c y fo r th e i nit i a l a p p ro ac h to pa t ie n ts p r es e nt i ng wi t h a c ut e t o xi c in g es t io n o r de r m a l o r i n ha l at i on e xp o s u r e . A n n E m e rg Me d A p ri l 1 9 95 ; 25 : 2 7 0 - 58 5 . E . A m e r ic a n H e a rt As s oc i a t io n . To xi c o l o g y i n E CC . C i r c u la t io n [S p ec ia l i ss u e] 20 0 5; 1 12 : I V1 26 - IV 1 3 2 . A v a i la bl e a t ww w. c i rc u la ti o na h a. o r g. F . A ns el l J , Hi r s h J , H y l ek E , e t a l . P h a rm ac ol o g y a n d m a n ag em e nt o f t he vi t a m i n K a nt a go n is ts . Am e r ic an C ol le g e o f Ch est P h ys ic ia ns E v i de nc e B a s ed C li ni c al P ra c ti c e G u i d el i ne s ( 8 th E di ti o n ). C h e st 20 0 8; 1 33 : 16 0s 1 9 8s . G . B o n d R C . Th e ro l e o f a c ti v a t ed ch a rc oa l a n d ga s t ri c em p t yi ng i n g a st r o in t es ti n al de c o n tam i na t io n : A s t a te - o f- t he -a r t r e v ie w. A n n Em e rg Me d 2 0 0 2; 3 9: 2 73 - 28 5 . H . G o l d B S , D ar t R C , Bar i s h R A . Bi t es of v e no m ou s s na k es . N e w E n g l J Me d 2 0 0 2 ;3 4 7: 3 47 - 35 6 . I . H i rs h J , Ba ue r K A , D on a t i MB , e t a l. P a re n te r al a nt ic o ag ul a nt s . A m e r ica n C o l l eg e o f Ch es t P h ys ic ia n s E v i d en c e - B as ed C li ni c al P ra c ti c e G ui d el i ne s ( 8 t h Ed i ti on ) . C he s t 20 08 ; 1 33 : 14 1s - 1 59 s . J . Sc h ul m a n S, B e y th R J , K e a ro n C, e t a l. H em o rr h a gi c c om pl ic a ti on s o f a n t ic oa g ul an t an d t h ro m b o l y t ic tr e at m e n t . A m e r ica n C ol l eg e o f Ch es t P h ys ic i an s E v i d en c e - B as e d C l in ic a l P r ac t ic e G u id e li n es (8 t h E d it i on ) . Che s t 2 0 0 8; 1 33 : 25 7s - 29 8s . K . L it o vi t z TL , Kl e in - Sc hwa r t z , R o d g e rs G C , e t al. 2 00 1 a n nu a l r ep o r t o f th e A m e ri c an As s o c i a ti o n o f P o i s o n Co n t ro l Ce n te r s To xi c E xp o s u r e S u r ve i ll a nc e S y s t em . A m J Em e rg Me d 2 00 2 ; 20 : 1- 6 2 .
L . Me g a r b an e B, B o rr o n SW , B au d F J . C u r r en t rec om m e n da t io ns f or t he t r e a tm en t o f s e v e r e t o xi c a lc o ho l p oi s on in gs . In t en s i v e C a r e Me d 2 0 0 5; 3 1: 1 89 - 19 5 . M. Mo k h l e s i B , L ei k e n J B , Mu r r a y P , e t a l . A d ul t t o xi c o l og y i n c ri t ic al c a re p a r t 1 : G en e ra l a p p ro ac h t o t h e i nt o xi c a te d p a ti en t . C he st 20 0 3; 1 23 : 57 7 592. N . Mo k h l es i B, Le ik e n J B , Mu r r a y P , e t a l . A d ul t t o xi c o l og y i n c ri t ic al c a re p a r t 2 : G en e ra l a p p ro ac h t o t h e i nt o xi c a te d p a ti en t . C he st 20 0 3; 1 23 : 89 7 922. O . P a l ou c e k F . An t id o ta l f l um a z en i l us e — Th e p r ot a m i n e o f t h e 9 0s . C r i t C a r e Me d 1 99 9 ;2 7 :1 0 - 11. P . P a t ro n o C , B ai ge n t C , H i r s h J , R o th G . An t ip lat e l et D r ug s . A m e r ic an C o l l eg e o f Ch es t P h ys ic ia n s E v i d en c e - B as ed C li ni c al P ra c ti c e G ui d el i ne s ( 8 t h Ed i ti on ) . C he s t 20 08 ; 1 33 : 19 9s - 2 33 s . P.523
STUDY QUESTIONS D i r e ct i on s : E ac h o f t h e qu e s t i on s , s t a te m e n ts , o r i n c o m p l et e s ta t em e nt s c a n b e c or r ec t l y a n s we re d o r c o m p l et e d b y on e o f t he s u gg es t ed an s we rs o r p h r as es . Ch o os e t h e b es t a ns we r . 1 . A p h ys i c i a n r ec e i ve s a ca l l f ro m th e pa r e n t o f a 2 - ye a r - o l d c hi l d w h o h a s in g es t ed a n u nk n ow n q u a nt i t y o f m o r p h ine c on t r o l le d - r el e as e t a b l e ts an d is now u n co n s ci o u s. T he ph ys i c i an ' s in i t ia l r e c o mm e nd a t io n is t o ( A ) c al l em e r ge nc y m ed ic a l se r v i c e s ( E MS ) a n d h a ve th e c hi l d t ak e n t o t he ho s p i ta l e m e r ge nc y d e p a rt m e n t . ( B ) a dm in is t e r 1 g / k g of a c ti va t ed ch a rc oa l wi t h s o r b it o l. ( C ) a dm i ni s t e r s y r u p o f ip e c a c 1 5 m L b y m o u th to i nd uc e vom it i ng . ( D ) s ug g es t t h at th e c hi ld r ec e i ve em e r ge nc y h em o di al y s is . ( E ) s ug ge s t t ha t th e c hi ld r ec e i v e ac i d d iu r es is wi t h a m m on i um c h lo r id e . V i e w A n s we r 1 . T h e a ns we r is A [ se e I. A ] . 2. A g r a nd f a t h e r a r r i ve s a t yo u r p h a r m a c y a s k i n g to p u r ch a se a b o t tl e of s yr u p o f i p e ca c to ke e p i n h is h om e i n th e e ve nt o f a p o is o ni n g w he n gr a n d c hi l d r en a re vi s i t i n g . W ha t sh o u ld yo u t e ll h im ? ( A ) A dm i ni s t e r 1 5 m L o f s yr u p o f i p ec ac at th e fi rs t s i gn of an i n ge s ti on . ( B ) S y r u p o f i p ec ac is n o l o ng e r r ec om m en de d b y t h e A m er ic a n A s s o c i a ti o n o f P o is on Co n t r ol C en t e rs a n d t he Am e r i c an Ac a de m y o f P e d ia t r ic s . ( C ) P r o v i de hi m wi t h t he t o l l- f r ee nu m b e r f o r t h e p o is o n c o n t ro l c e nt e r . ( D ) B o t h B an d C .
V i e w A n s we r 2 . T h e a ns we r is D [ se e II . G . 1 .a ] .3 . An u n co n sc i o us p a t i en t is b r ou g h t i n t o t h e em e r ge n c y d e p a r t me n t . Th e p a t ie n t i s gi ve n 5 0 m L of 50 % d e x t r o s e i n w a t e r , t h ia m in e 1 0 0 m g IV , f ol l ow ed b y n a l ox o n e 1 m g , a t w hi ch p o in t he aw ak e ns . Thi s p at i e nt m os t li k el y h a s o ve r d o s e d o n w hi c h o f t h e f ol l ow i ng su b s ta n ce s ? ( A ) m et h an ol ( B ) a m i t ri p t y li n e ( C ) c oc ai n e ( D ) h al o pe r id o l ( E ) h e ro in V i e w A n s we r 3 . T h e a ns we r is E [ se e II I . Q .5 ] . 4. C on t r a i n di c a ti o ns t o t h e ad m in i s t ra t i o n o f syr u p o f i p e c ac i nc l ud e w h ic h of t h e f o ll ow i n g? ( A ) a n u nc on s c i ou s p at i en t ( B ) a pa ti e nt wh o is e xp er i e nc in g a ge n e ra li ze d ton i c -c lo ni c s ei z u r e ( C ) a pa t ie n t wh o h as ing e s t e d a c a us ti c s ub st a nc e ( D ) A l l o f t h e a bo v e ( E ) N o ne o f t he ab o v e V i e w A n s we r 4 . T h e a ns we r is D [ se e II . G . 1 ]. t he a ns we r t o qu es t io n 2 5 . An u nc o n sc i ou s pa ti e n t is b ro u g h t t o th e em e r g en c y d e p a r tm e n t w i t h a h is to r y o f a n u n k now n d r ug o ve r d o se . Wh i ch o f th e f o l l ow i ng ac t i on s sh o uld t h e p h ys i c i a n p e r f o rm ? ( A ) a dm in is t e r 5 0 m L o f 5 0 % d e xt r o s e, t hi am in e 1 0 0 m g I V pu sh , a n d n al o xo n e 0 .4 m g IV p u s h ( B ) p r ot ec t th e p a ti e nt ' s a i r wa y a n d e ns u re t ha t vi t a l s i g ns a r e s ta b le ( C ) o r de r th e fo ll o wi n g l ab o r a to r y t es ts : c om pl e te b l oo d c o un t ( C B C ) , e le c t r o l y te s , a nd a t o xi c ol o g y s c re en ( D ) A l l o f t h e a bo v e V i e w A n s we r 5 . T h e a ns we r is D [ se e II ] . 6. A p a t i en t w h o o ve r do s es o n ac e t am i no p h en is ad m i t t ed t o t h e h o sp i t al f o r a n t id o ta l t he r a p y w it h N - a c e t yl - L - c ys t e i n e ( NAC ) . T h e p a ti e n t h as t he f o l low i n g m ed i ca t i o n o r d e r s : N AC 1 4 0 m g / kg l o a d in g do s e f o ll ow e d b y 7 0 m g / kg f o r a t ot a l o f 1 7 do s es , r an i t i di n e 5 0 m g IV e ve r y 8 h r , p r o chl o r p e r az i ne 10 m g I M e ve r y 6 h r a s n ee d ed f or n a u se a , t h ia m in e 1 0 0 m g IV e ve r y d a y f o r 3 d o s es , an d Da r vo c e t N -1 0 0 1 - 2 t a b le t s e ve r y 4 h r a s n e ed e d f o r h e a da c he . Wh a t i s th e b e s t c o u rs e of a ct i o n? ( A ) C a ll t he ph y s ic ia n t o i n c re as e t h e d os ag e o f ra n i ti di n e t o 5 0 m g IV every 6 hr. ( B ) C a ll t he ph y s ic ia n t o h a ve th e D ar vo c et N - 10 0 d is co n ti n ue d . ( C ) C a l l t he ph y s ic ia n t o i n i ti a te he m o di a l ys is t he r a p y. ( D ) H a v e t he pa t ie n t p rop h y l ac t ic al l y in t ub a te d t o p r o te c t t he ai r wa y. ( E ) A dm i ni s t e r e t ha n ol 10 % at a l oa d in g d os e o f 7 . 5 m L /k g o v e r 1 h r, f o l lo we d b y a c on ti n uo us i n fu si o n o f 1 . 4 m L /k g / hr f o r 4 8 h r . V i e w A n s we r 6 . T h e a ns we r is B [ se e II I . A ]. O TC P . 5 2 4
7 . E t h yl a l c o h o l ( E t O H ) i s a dm i ni s t e re d to pa t ie n t s w ho ha ve i n ge s t ed e i t h e r e t h yl e n e g l yc o l o r m e th a n ol be c au s e E tO H ( A ) h el ps s e da t e p a ti en ts . ( B ) i nc r ea s e s t h e m e t abo l is m o f e t h y le ne gl y c ol a n d m et h an o l. ( C ) b lo c k s t h e f o rm at i on o f t he to xi c m et a bo li t es o f e th y l en e g l y co l a n d m et h an o l. ( D ) i nc r ea s e s t h e r e na l cl e a ra nc e o f et h yl en e g l yc o l a nd m e th a no l . ( E ) is n ot an an t id o te fo r e t h y le n e g l yc o l o r m e tha n ol o ve rd os e s. V i e w A n s we r 7 . T h e a ns we r is C [ se e II I . B ] .8 . A p a ti e n t w i th r e na l f a i l u r e i s i n ad ve r t e n t l y g i ve n 3 d o se s o f p ot a ss i u m c h lo r i d e 4 0 m Eq IV i n 1 00 m L o f 0. 9 % s o d iu m ch l o r i de o ve r a 3 -h r p e r i od . Th i s e r r o r is i m m ed i a te l y d i s c o ve r e d a n d a ST AT s e r u m p ot a s s iu m l e ve l is 8. 0 m E q /L . Th e pa t ie n t is br a d yc a r d i c w i t h a ma r ke d l y p r o l o n g ed Q R S c o m pl e x. T he pa t i en t sh o u l d r e ce i ve w h i ch o f t h e f ol l ow i ng ? ( A ) c al c i um c h lo r id e 1 0 % 1 0 m L I V pu sh ( B ) s od iu m b ic a rb o na t e 5 0 m E q IV pu s h ( C ) i ns ul i n 1 0 U a nd 50% d e xt r o se 50 m L I V p us h ( D ) s od i um p o l ys t y r e ne s u l f on a te 30 g b y m o u th ev e r y 3 h r fo r 4 doses ( E ) N o ne o f t he ab o v e V i e w A n s we r 8 . T h e a ns we r is A [ se e II I .L . 2 ]. 9 . Pa re n t e r al ca l c iu m i s u s e d a s a n a n t id o t e f o r w h ic h o f t he f ol l ow i ng s i t u a ti o ns ? ( A ) v e r a pa m i l o v e r do s es ( B ) h y p e rk al em i a ( C ) c oc ai n e i nt o xi c a ti o n ( D ) v e r a pa m i l o v e r d os es a n d h y p e rk al em ia V i e w A n s we r 9 . T h e a ns we r is D [ se e II I . G I II . L .2 ] . 10 . A 6 5 - ye a r - o l d w o ma n w i th n o rm a l r e na l f u nc t i on is a dm i ni s te r e d a 0 .2 5 m g d o se o f d i g o xi n I V p us h . A s e r um l e ve l o b t ai n ed 1 h r af t e r d r u g a dm i n is t r a ti on i s 5 n g /m L . Y o u r re c omm e n da t i on t o t h e p h ys i c i a n i s w hi c h o f t he f o l l ow i ng ? ( A ) A dm i ni s t e r 2 v i al s o f d i go xi n i m m u ne an ti b od ie s S TA T. ( B ) A dm i ni s t e r re p et i ti v e d os es o f ac t i v a te d c ha rc o al . ( C ) C a l l a n e ph r ol o gi s t , a n d p u t t he pa t ie n t o n he m od i al y s is . ( D ) R e p ea t th e s er um dig o xi n l e vel 6 -8 h r a f te r th e do se , a n d r e a s s es s t he pa t ie n t. V i e w A n s we r 1 0 . T he an s w e r is D [ se e I II . K ] .1 1 . A 1 6 - ye a r - o l d w o ma n i s r e po r t e d t o ha ve o ver d o s e d o n 4 0 s u st a i ne d- r e l e as e th e op h yl l i n e t a b l e ts . Sh e is t r an s po rt e d t o t h e e me r g en c y d e p a r t me n t , w h e r e g as t ri c l a va g e w as pe r f o r me d a n d s h e w as gi ve n o ne d o s e o f ac t i va t ed c h a r co a l . An i n i t ia l t heo p h yl l i n e l e ve l i s 4 2 µg/ m L , b u t a fo l l ow - up le ve l i n t h e i n te n si ve c a re un i t ( I C U ) i s 9 5 µ g/ m L . Wh a t is t he m os t a p p r o p r ia t e c o u rs e o f th e r a p y? ( A ) c ha rc o al he m o p e rf usi o n a nd m u l ti pl e - do s e ac t i v a t ed c h a rc oa l ( B ) s y r up o f i pe c a c a dm in i s t r a ti o n
( C ) f o rc e d a lk al in e d i u res is ( D ) n as o ga s t r ic ad m i ni s tr a t io n of s o di um - po l ys t yre n e s ul f on a te V i e w A n s we r 1 1 . T he an s w e r is A [ se e II I . T] . 1 2. A 2 3 - ye a r - o l d m a n is a d m i t te d to t he i nt e ns ive c a r e un i t (I C U ) a f te r i n g es t i n g 2 0 a c e ta m i no p he n ta b le t s 5 0 0 m g w i t h a s ix - pa c k o f b ee r . H e w a s in i t ia l ly aw ak e a n d a le r t i n t h e e m e r ge n c y d e p a r t m e n t a n d w as g i ve n o ne d ose o f a c ti va t e d c h a rc o al . H i s i ni t i a l a ce t am i n op he n l e ve l t ak e n a p p r o xi m at e l y 2 h r a f t er i n g es t i on i s 9 0 µ g /m L . W h a t w o u l d b e t h e m os t a p p r o p r ia t e c o u rs e o f ac t i o n? ( A ) A dm i ni s t e r re p ea t ed d o s e s o f a c t i v a te d c h ar co a l a nd s o r bi t ol . ( B ) A dm i ni s t e r s y r u p o f ip e c a c. ( C ) A d m i ni s te r a lo a di n g d o s e of N - ac e t yl -L -c y s t ein e ( N A C ) , a nd r e p ea t th e a c e t am in o ph en l e vel in 4 h r . ( D ) D i s c ha r g e t he pa t ie nt t o h om e . V i e w A n s we r 1 2 . T he an s w e r is C [ se e I II . A ] .m g1 3 . An o ve r d o s e vi c t i m p r es e nt s to t he e m e r ge n c y d e p a r t m e n t w i t h a n e l e va te d he a r t r a t e , de c r ea se d bl o o d p r e s su r e , d i l at e d p u p ils , a nd le t h a rg y. U p o n a r r i va l t o th e in t e ns i ve c a r e u n i t (I C U ) , s h e h as a ge n e ra l iz e d t o ni c c l o n ic se iz u r e th a t i s t re a t e d w i t h I V d ia ze p am a n d fo s ph e n yt o i n . W h ic h o f t h e f o l low i n g i s th e m o s t l i ke l y i n t o x i ca n t ? ( A ) e t h y l al c oh ol ( B ) m et h an ol ( C ) a c e t am in o ph en ( D ) o xy c o d o n e ( E ) a m i t ri p t y li n e V i e w A n s we r 1 3 . T he an s w e r is E [ se e II I . D ] . P. 5 25
ANSWERS AND EXPLANATIONS 1 . Th e an s we r is A [ s e e I. A ] . P a t i en ts wi t h un s t a bl e v it a l s ig ns s h ou l d b e t ak en t o a n e m e r ge nc y d e p ar t m e n t f o r im m e d ia te t r ea tm e nt . 2 . Th e an s we r is D [ s e e I I . G . 1 .a ] . I n d uc ed v o m i ti n g is no lon g e r a n a cc ep t ab l e o pt i on o f m an ag i ng po is o ni ngs a t ho m e be c au s e it is a re l a ti v e l y in e ff ec t i ve m et ho d of r em o v in g t o xi n s and r e s ul ts in a d el a y in ad m i n is t er i ng an t id o ta l t h e ra p y . I t i s i m p o rt a nt t o c o un ci l p a ti e nt s o n p oi s on p r e v en t io n a nd t o g i ve p a r en t s a nd ot h e r f r ie nds a n d re la t i v es th e t o ll - f ree n um be r fo r th e p o is on c o nt r o l c e n te r . Pa r e nt s s h ou l d al s o k n o w b a s i c fi r s t a id an d c a rd io p ul m on a r y r es us c i t at i on ( C P R ). 3 . Th e an s we r is E [ s e e II I . Q . 5 ]. N a l o xo n e r e v er s es t h e ef f e c t s o f o pi o id r ec ep t o r a g o ni s t s, su c h as he r oi n, m o r ph in e , a nd p ro p o xy p h e n e. 4 . Th e an s we r is D [ s e e I I . G . 1 ].
C o n t r ai nd ic a ti o ns to ip ec a c i nc l ud e t h e t h re e Cs : c a us ti c s , c on s c i ou s , an d c o n vul si o ns ; s ee al s o the a ns we r t o q ue s ti on 2 . Th e u se o f s y r up of ip ec a c i s re se r v e d f o r ra r e c ir c um s ta nc es an d o n l y u n de r t h e d i re c t i on of t he p o is o n c o n t ro l c en t e r a nd / o r a ph ys ic ia n . Th es e a r e ne w r e c om m e nd a ti o ns a n d m an y p a re n ts , r e la t iv e s , an d f r ie n ds m a y hav e t h is pr o du c t i n t he i r m e di ci n e c a b in e ts . 5 . Th e an s we r is D [ s e e I I ] . Th e m an a ge m e n t o f u nc o n s c io us o ve rd os e p a ti en t s i n v ol ve s a g gr es s i v e s u pp o r t o f v i t al s i gn s a nd t he ad m i n is t ra t io n o f em p i ri c a nt id o t al th e ra p y, wh i l e o bt ai n in g v a ri o us la b o ra t o r y te st s t o d e te rm i ne th e n a tu r e o f th e o ve r d os e . 6 . Th e an s we r is B [ s e e II I . A ] . D a r vo c et N - 10 0 i s a n a c e t am i no p he n -c on t ai n in g p r o du c t t ha t s h ou ld no t b e g i ve n t o a pa t ie n t wi t h do c um en t ed ac e ta m i no p he n to xi c i t y . B e a wa r e p a r ti c ul a rl y o f O TC p r odu c ts c o nt a in in g a c et am i no p h en . 7 . Th e an s we r is C [ s e e I I I . B ]. E t h a no l s at u r at es al c o h ol d eh y d r og e na s e an d p r ev e n t s t h e f o rm at i on of t he t o xi c m et a bo li t es of ei t he r e th y l e ne gl yc ol or m e th a n ol , h o we v e r t hi s a n t id o te is fa ll i ng ou t o f f a v o r o wi n g t o i ts ad v e r s e m e t ab o li c a nd c e nt r a l n e r vo us s y s t em e f f ec ts . F o m e p i zol e (A n ti z o l ) , a sp e c i f ic i n hi bi t o r o f a lc oho l d e h yd ro g en as e , i s b ec om i ng th e p r e fe r r ed an t ido t e fo r m e th an o l o r e t h y le n e g l yc ol o v e rd os es . E th ano l m a y be us e d in s i t ua t io n s i n wh i c h f om e pi zo le i s n o t a va i la bl e . 8 . Th e an s we r is A [ s e e II I . L .2 ] . A l l o f th e s el ec t io ns a re u s ed to m a n ag e h y p e rk al e m i a . A l th o ug h , in a n u n st a bl e p a ti e nt , th e c a rd i ac ef f ec ts o f h y p er k al em i a m u s t f i rs t b e r e ve rs ed wi t h i n t ra v e n ou s c a lc i um . 9 . Th e an s we r is D [ s e e I I I . G ; II I .L . 2 ]. P a r e nt e r al c a lc iu m is us e d to r e v e rs e t he c a r di ac e f f ec ts of c a lc iu m c h a nne l b l oc ke r o v e ru s e an d h y pe r k al em ia . 1 0 . Th e a ns we r i s D [s e e I I I . K] . Th e p l as m a - ti s s ue di s tr ib u t io n p h as e f o r d ig o xi n i s 6 - 8 h r p o st a dm in is t r at i on . Sa m p l in g d i go xi n l e ve ls s oo ne r m a y g i v e a fa ls el y e l e va te d l e v e l. O nl y s y m p t om a ti c p a ti en t s sh o ul d r e c e i v e d i go xi n i m m un e a n t ib od i es . He m o d ia l y s i s i s o f n o v al u e i n m a n ag in g di go xi n o v e r d os es . 1 1 . Th e a ns we r i s A [s ee I I I . T] . L a r ge in g es ti o ns o f s us ta i ne d - r el ea se p ro d uc ts m a y ac t a s d r ug r es e r voir s , n e ce ss it a ti n g a gg r es s i v e m ea s u r es t o r em o ve t h e t o xi n . P.526
1 2 . Th e a ns we r i s C [s e e I I I . A] . L a r ge ac e ta m i no p he n i ng e s t i on s ( > 1 4 0 m g/ k g ) m a y be f at a l i f u n r ec og n i z ed . Th e Ru m ac k - Ma t t h e w n om og r am re q ui r es a 4 - h r l e v el to
a cc u r at e l y a s s es s t he p ot e n ti a l f o r t o xi c i t y . I f t h e 4 - h r l e v e l is in t he to xi c r a n ge , th e f u ll c o u rs e o f N A C t h e ra p y s h o ul d b e ad m in is t e re d . 1 3 . Th e a ns we r i s E [s ee I I I . D ]. Tr i c yc l ic a n ti d ep r es s a n t o v e r d os es wi l l p r od uc e se i zu r es , h y p o te ns i on , m yd r i as is , h y p o te ns io n , a n d v en t r ic ul a r d y s rh y t hm i as . Th e ca r di a c a nd CN S e f f ec ts o f t r ic y c l ic an t id ep r e s s an t to xi c i t y wi l l re sp o n d t o b ic a rb on a te t h e r ap y. O p ia t es s uc h a s o xy c o d o n e wi ll p ro d uc e m i os is .
25 Federal Pharmacy Law R o b e r t C . P a vl a n J r . J a m es A. B o yd
I. FEDERAL CONTROLLED SUBSTANCES ACT A. S c h e d u le s of c on t r o ll e d su b s ta nc e s . C e r ta in d r u gs h a v e a po t en t ia l fo r a bu se t h a t l ea ds t o p h ys ic a l o r p s y c ho lo g ic al de pe n de nc e . As a r es ul t , t h e U . S . f e d e ra l g o ve r nm e nt ha s p la c e d th e s e d ru gs in t o sc he d ule s (I , II , I II , IV , an d V) an d r ef e rs to t h em as c o nt r o ll ed s u bs ta n c e s . Th e A tt o r ne y G e ne r a l o f t h e U n it e d S t a te s h as t he a u t ho r i t y t o a d d o r re m ov e a d ru g o r s u bs t an c e fr o m o n e o f t he f ed e ra l s c h ed u le s , o r t o t r an s fe r a d ru g f r om on e fe de r a l sc he d ul e to a no t he r . Th e f ed e r al s c h ed u le s a r e up da t ed an d p u bl is he d an n ua ll y b y t he fe d e ra l g o v e r nm en t . 1 . S ch e d ul e I ( C I ; C - I ) Sc h ed u le I d r ug s m a y n o t b e k e pt in a p ha r m a c y no r d i sp e ns ed pu r s u an t to a p r e s c ri p ti o n ( e xc e p t f o r p r o pe r l y r eg is t e re d f ac il it i es f or i n ve st i ga t i v e o r re s e a rc h p u r po se s ). A c on t r ol l ed s u bs ta n c e an al o gu e o f a d r u g i n a n y f ed e r al s c h e du l e, c om m o n l y re f e r re d t o a s a “ d e s i gn e r d r ug , ” i s c on sid e r ed a s ch e du l e I s u bs ta nc e to t h e e xt e n t i nt e nd ed f o r hu m an c o ns um p ti on . R equ i r ed f i n di ng s b y t he go v e r nm e n t fo r p l ac em en t of a d ru g in t o sc he d ul e I in cl u de : a . Th e dr u g o r o t he r s u bs t an c e h as a hi g h p ot e nti a l f o r a bu s e. b . Th e d ru g o r o t he r s u bs t an c e h as n o c u r re n tl y a c c e pt e d m ed ic al us e i n t r e a tm en t i n th e Un i te d S ta t es . c . Th e re is a l ac k o f ac c e p t ed s a fe t y f o r us e of th e d ru g o r o t he r su bs t anc e u n de r m e di ca l s up e r v is io n . 2 . S ch e d ul e I I ( C II ; C - I I ). R e qu i r ed fi n di ng s f o r p la c em en t o f a d r ug in t o s c h ed u le II i n cl ud e : a . Th e dr u g o r o t he r s u bs t an c e h as a hi g h p ot e nti a l f o r a bu s e. b . Th e d ru g o r o t he r s u bs t an c e h as a c u r r en t l y ac ce p te d m e di c a l u se in tr e a tm e nt in t h e Un i te d S ta t es o r a c ur r e n tl y a c c ep t ed m e di ca l u s e wi t h s e v e r e r es t r ic tio n s . c . A bu se of th e d r u g o r ot h e r s ub s ta nc e m a y l e ad t o s e v e r e ps y c ho l og ic al o r p h ys ic al de p en de n c e . 3 . S ch e d ul e I I I ( CI I I ; C - II I ) . R eq ui r e d f in d in gs fo r p l ac em en t o f a d r ug i n to s c h ed u le I I I in cl ud e : a . Th e dr u g o r o t he r s u bs t an c e h as a po t en t ia l f or a b us e l es s t ha n t h e d rug s o r o t h e r su bs t an c e s i n s c h ed u le s I an d II . b . Th e d ru g o r o t he r s u bs t an c e h as a c u r r en t l y ac ce p te d m e di c a l u se in tr e a tm e nt in t h e Un i te d S ta t es . c . A bu se of th e d r u g o r ot h e r s ub s ta nc e m a y l e ad t o m o de r at e o r lo w p h ys i c al d e p en de nc e o r hi g h ps y c h o lo g ic al de p en de n c e . 4 . S ch e d ul e I V ( C I V ; C - IV ) . R e qu i re d fi nd i ng s f o r p l ac em en t o f a d r ug i n to s c h ed u le I V i nc lu d e: a . Th e dr u g o r o t he r s u bs t an c e h as a lo w p o t en t ia l fo r ab us e re la t i v e t o th e d ru gs o r o t h e r su bs t an c e s i n s c h ed u le I II . b . Th e d ru g o r o t he r s u bs t an c e h as a c u r r en t l y ac ce p te d m e di c a l u se in tr e a tm e nt in t h e Un i te d S ta t es .
c . A bu se of th e d r u g o r ot h e r s ub s ta nc e m a y l e ad t o l im i te d p h ys i c al de pen d e nc e o r p s yc ho lo g ic al de pe n de nc e re l at i v e t o th e d r ug s o r o th e r s ub s t a nc es in s c h ed u le II I . 5 . S ch e d ul e V ( C V ; C - V ) . R e qu i r ed fi n di ng s f o r p la c em en t o f a d r ug in t o s c h ed u le V i n cl ud e : a . Th e dr u g o r o t he r s u bs t an c e h as a lo w p o t en t ia l fo r ab us e re la t i v e t o th e d ru gs o r o t h e r su bs t an c e s i n s c h ed u le I V . b . Th e d ru g o r o t he r s u bs t an c e h as a c u r r en t l y ac ce p te d m e di c a l u se in tr e a tm e nt in t h e Un i te d S ta t es . c . A bu se of th e d r u g o r ot h e r s ub s ta nc e m a y l e ad t o l im i te d p h ys i c al de pen d e nc e o r p s yc ho lo g ic al de pe n de nc e re l at i v e t o th e d r ug s o r o th e r s ub s t a nc es in s c h ed u le I V. P.528
B . R e g is t r a t io n r eq u i r em e n t s. Th is Ac t r eg ul a tes t he us e o f c on t ro l le d su b s t a nc es b y r e q ui r in g a ll en t i ti es th a t l a wf u l l y h a nd l e t he m t o r eg is t e r wi t h t he fe d era l g o ve r nm e nt , s pe c i f ic al l y , t h e D ru g E n fo r c e m e n t Ad m in is t r at io n ( D E A ). 1 . E n ti t i es t ha t mu s t reg i s t e r a . M a n u fa c tu r e r s a n d w h o l es a l e rs of c o n tr o ll e d s u bs ta n c e s m u s t r eg is t er wi t h t he D E A i n it ia l l y a n d r e r eg is te r e v e r y y e a r t he r e af t e r. b . D i sp e ns e r s ( p r ac ti t ion e r s a nd ph a rm ac ie s ) o f c o nt r o ll ed s u bs t an ce s m u s t r e g is t er wi t h th e D E A i nit i a ll y a nd re r e gi s t e r e v e ry 3 y e a r s t he r ea f t e r. P har m ac is t s, p h a rm ac y i nt e r ns , p ha r m a c y t ec hn ic i an s, an d a l l o t h e r em p lo y e es o r a ge nt s of a p h a rm ac y d o n ot ha v e t o r e gi s te r , p r o vid i ng th e ph a r m a c y i s p r op e rl y r e gis t e re d a n d t h e e m p l o y ee o r a ge n t is a c ti ng in t he us ua l c ou rs e o f em pl o y m e n t o r b us i n es s . c . Al l o t he r en t it i es th a t la wf u l l y h an d le an y c o n t ro l le d s ub s ta nc e m us t reg i s t e r wi t h t h e D E A , in c l u di n g r es e ar c h er s , cl i ni c s a n d l ab o ra t o ri e s, an d t e ac hi n g i ns t i t ut i on s. 2 . S ep a r a te r e gi s t r at i on f o r se p a ra t e a c t i vi t ies . E v e r y en t i t y t h a t e ng ag e s i n o ne o f t he fo ll o wi n g a c ti v i t ie s m us t re gi s te r wi t h t h e D E A . A se pa r a te r eg is t r at io n is r e q ui r e d f o r e ac h ac t i v i t y, wi t h ce r t ai n e xc e p t io ns ( e . g. , a m a n uf ac t u re r of a s ch e du l e o f a c o nt r ol l ed s u bs ta n ce is a ll o we d t o d i s t r ib u t e t ha t s c h e du le wi t h o u t b e in g re g is te r e d as a d is t r i bu t o r ). a . Ma n u f ac t u ri ng c o n tr o lle d s u bs t an ce s b . D is t r ib u ti ng c o n t ro ll e d s ub s ta nc es c . D is pe ns i ng c o nt r ol l ed s u bs ta n c e s l is te d i n s che d ul e s I I - V ( e .g . , p r ac ti t io n e rs , p h a rm ac ie s ) d . C o nd uc t in g re s e a rc h wi t h c on t r ol l ed s u bs ta nce s l is t ed in sc he du l es II -V e . C on d uc t in g i ns t ru c ti ona l ac ti vi t ie s wi t h c o n t ro lle d s u bs t an ce s l is te d i n s c h ed u le s II-V f . C o nd uc t in g a na r c o t ic t r e a tm en t p r o g ra m us i ng a n y na r c o t ic dr u g l is te d i n s ch e du l es II , II I , I V , o r V g . C o nd uc t in g re s e a rc h a n d i ns t r uc ti o na l a c t i v i tie s wi t h c on t r ol le d s ub s tan c es l is t ed i n s ch e du l e I h . C on d uc t in g c he m i c a l a n al y s is wi t h c o nt r ol l ed s u b s ta n c e s l is te d i n a n y s ch e du l e i . Im p o rt i ng c o nt r ol l ed s u b s t a nc es j . E xp o r t i ng c o n tr o ll e d s u b s t a nc es
k . P a rt ic i pa t in g i n m ai n te n a nc e o r d e to xi f i c at i on t r e a tm en t a n d m i xi n g , p re p a ri n g, p a ck ag i ng , o r c h an g in g th e do s a g e f o rm o f a n arc o ti c d r ug li s t e d i n s c h ed u le s I I , I I I , I V , o r V f or us e i n m ai n te n a nc e o r d e to xi f i c at i on t r e a tm en t b y a n ot h er na rc o ti c t r e a tm en t p r o g ra m . 3 . S ep a r a te r e gi s t r at i on s f o r s e pa r a t e l oc a t ion s . Ea c h p ri nc i pa l p la c e o f bu si n es s o f a r e gi s t r a nt ha v i n g m or e t ha n o n e l oc at i on m us t h a v e i ts o wn r eg is t r at i on c e r ti f ic at e . Ea c h ph a rm ac y , c h a in ph a rm ac y, an d h os p it a l t ha t di s p en s e s c o nt r o ll ed s u bs ta n c e s m u s t h a v e i ts o wn r eg is t r at i on c e r ti f ic a te . R eg is t r at i on is n o t r e q ui r e d f o r an of f ic e t h at is us ed b y a re g is t ra n t wh e re c on t r ol l ed s u bs t an ce s a r e n e i th e r s t o re d n o r d is p en s e d . a . Wa r e h ou s es . A wa r eho u s e wh e r e c on t r ol le d s u b st a nc es ar e s t o re d b y o r o n b e h al f o f a r eg is t r an t i s n o t re q ui r ed to r eg is t e r un l es s o ne of t he fo l lo wi ng oc cu r s : ( 1 ) C o nt r ol l ed s u bs ta n c es a re di r ec t l y d is t r ib u te d f r om t he wa r e ho u s e to a r e g is t er e d l oc at i on di f fe re n t th an t he lo c a t io n f r om wh i c h t he s u bs t an ce s we r e s h ip p ed . ( 2 ) C o nt r ol l ed s u bs ta n c es a re di r ec t l y d is t r ib u te d f r om t he wa r e ho u s e to a p e rs o n o r e n t it y n o t r eq u i re d t o re gi s te r un d er t he Ac t . 4 . R e gi s t r a ti o n p r o ce d ur e . A pp l ic at i on s t o b ec om e re g is te r ed m u s t be s u b m i t te d to t h e D E A o n t h e a pp r op r ia t e fo rm wi t h th e re q ui r ed f ee , i n f or m a t io n , a nd si g na t u re o f o n e o f th e f o ll o wi n g: a . Th e i n di v i d ua l wh o o wn s a n d o pe r a te s t he en t it y , i f d o in g b us i ne s s a s a n i n di vi d ua l b . A pa r tn e r o f th e a p pl ic a nt , if a p a rt n e rs hi p c . A n o ff ic e r o f th e a p pl ic a nt , if a c o r p o ra t io n , c or p o r at e d i v is i on , a s s oc i at i o n, t ru s t, o r o th e r e n ti t y d . O n e o r m o re in d i v id ual s wh o h a ve be en g ra n ted a p o we r o f a t to r ne y b y a n a p pl ic a nt . A p ow e r o f a tt o r n e y a l l o ws o n e to la wf u l l y a c t i n pl a ce of an o th e r . Th e p o we r o f a t t or n e y m us t be s i g ne d b y o ne o f t he ind i v i du a ls l is t ed ab o ve in a - c a n d b y t h e i nd i v i du al r ec ei v i ng t he po we r o f at t o rn e y . Th e p o we r o f a t to r ne y r em a in s va l i d u n ti l r e v o k e d b y t he a pp li c a n t . P.529
5 . R e gi s t r a ti o n a c ti o n by t h e D E A. I f a n a pp li c a ti o n i s co m p l et e , i t wi ll be a c c ep t e d f o r fi l in g . I f i t i s d ef ec t i ve , t he D E A wi ll r e tu r n t he a pp li c a t io n wi t h a s t a te m en t i n di ca t in g th e re as on f or i t s n on ac ce p ta nc e . Th e a p pl ic a ti o n m a y b e c o r rec t ed an d r e s ub m i t te d a t a n y t im e. a . I ss u an c e o f c e r t i fi c at e o f re g i st r a t i on . A c ert i f ic at e o f r eg is t ra t io n wi ll b e i ss u ed b y th e D E A wh e n i t de t e rm in es th a t t h e r eg i s t r a ti o n is r eq ui r e d b y l a w i n o r d e r t o c on d uc t s uc h ac t i v i t y ( e .g . , m a n uf a c t u ri ng , di s tr i bu t in g , o r d is p ens i ng a c o nt r o ll ed s u bs t an c e ) . Th e c e r ti f ic at e m us t b e c on s pi c u o us l y m ai n ta i ne d a n d re ad i l y r e t r ie va b le at t he re g is t er e d l o c a t io n . b . D e ni a l o f r eg i s t ra t i on . I f t h e D E A de t e rm in es t h a t a re gi s tr a ti o n is no t r e q ui r ed b y l a w, i t wi l l is s u e a n Or d e r To S ho w C a u s e wh y t h e r e gi st r a ti o n s h o ul d n o t b e d e ni e d. Th e ap pl ic a nt m a y r e q ue st a h ea r i ng an d e xp l a i n wh y t h e ce r t if ic at e o f
r e g is t ra t io n s ho u ld be is s u ed . A ft e r t h e h ea r in g , t h e D E A m a y d e n y th e ap p li c a t io n o r is su e t h e c er t i fi c a t e. 6 . M o d i fi c a ti o n o f r eg i st r a t i o n . A re g is t ra n t m a y s ub m i t a l et t e r o f r e qu es t to th e D E A s ee k i n g t o m od i f y i ts r eg is t r at i on . A m o d if ica t i on m a y be s o u gh t wh en t he r e i s a ch a ng e i n t h e n am e o r a d d re s s th a t a pp e a rs o n t h e c e rt i fi c a t e , o r wh e n th e p h a rm ac y s e e k s D E A a pp r o v a l t o d is p en se ad di t io n al c o n t ro ll e d s u bs t an c e s [i f i n i ti al l y au t ho r i z e d t o o nly d i s p e ns e a pa r ti c u l a r s c h ed u le (s ) o f c o n t ro ll e d s u bs ta n c e s ] . 7 . T r an s f e r o f re g i s t ra t io n . A re gi s tr a ti o n t o d is pe n s e c o n tr o ll ed s u bs t an ce s m a y n o t b e tr a ns f er r e d t o a n y o t he r pe r s o n o r en t it y exc e p t wh e n t he o wn e rs h ip o f a p h a rm ac y is be i ng t ra ns fe r r e d f r om on e e n ti t y to a n o th e r . I n s uc h a c as e , c o nt r o ll ed s u bs ta n c e s i n s c he d ul es I I - V m us t b e p r o pe r l y dis p os ed o f o r t r an s fe r r ed t o t he ne w e n t it y. 8 . S us p e ns i on o r re vo ca t i o n o f r eg i s t ra t i on . Th e D E A m a y s us p en d o r r e v o k e a n y r e g is t ra t io n . Th e D E A m u s t f i rs t i s s ue an O r d er To S h o w C a u s e ( up o n t he r e g is t ra n t ) wh y t h e r eg is t r a t io n s ho u ld no t b e re v o k ed o r s u sp e nd e d. Th e r e g is t ra n t m a y r eq u es t a he a ri n g t o e xp l a i n wh y t h e r eg is t r at i o n s h o ul d n o t b e s u s pen d e d o r r e v o k ed . Af t e r a he a ri n g, t h e D E A m a y s us pe nd , re vo k e, o r t ak e n o a c ti on o n th e r e g is t ra t io n . a . O r d e r o f su s pe n s io n o r r e vo c a t io n . Af t e r a reg i st r a nt ha s r ec e i v ed an o r d e r s us p en d in g o r re v o k i n g it s re g is t ra t io n , i t m us t t ak e th e f o ll o wi n g ac t io n : ( 1 ) Im m e d ia t el y d el i v e r i ts c e r ti f ic a te of r eg is t r at io n an d a n y D E A 2 2 2 o r de r f o rm s in i t s p os s e s s io n t o th e n ear e s t o f fi c e of t he D E A ( 2 ) A s i ns t ru c t e d b y t he D E A , e it h e r: ( a ) de l i v e r a ll c o nt r ol l ed s u bs ta n c e s i n i ts p o ss es s i o n to t he ne a re s t o ff ic e o f th e D E A o r to au t ho r i z e d a ge n ts o f t he D E A o r ( b ) pl a c e al l c on t ro l le d s u b s t a nc es in i t s p os s e ss i o n u nd e r s ea l . b . I mm i ne n t d a n ge r t o p u b l ic he a l th o r s a f e t y. Th e D E A m a y s e r v e on a r e gi st r an t a n o rd e r o f i m m ed ia t e s us p en s i o n wh e n it fi n ds tha t t he r e is an i mm i ne n t d a n ge r t o t h e pu b li c he a l th o r s afe t y. Th e i m m e d ia t e s u s pe n s i o n r em ai ns in e ff ec t u n t il th e c o nc lu s i o n o f a ll p ro c e edi n gs , e i th e r a dm i ni s t r a ti v e p r oc ee di n gs b y t h e D EA o r j u di ci a l p r oc ee di n gs . Af te r r ec ei vi n g a n o r de r of i m m e d ia t e s u s pe ns io n , t he r e g is t ra n t m us t t ak e t h e s am e a c ti on as ou t li ne d a b o v e u n de r I B 8 a . 9 . E xe m p ti o ns f r o m r e gi s t r a t io n . Ce r t ai n i nd i v i du a ls a re e xe m pt f ro m r eg i s t r a ti o n u n d er t he Ac t . Th e f ol l owi n g a r e e xe m p t : a . M i l i ta r y o f f i c i a l s. Mi l it a r y o f fi ci al s , i nc lu di n g Pu b li c He a lt h Se r v i c e an d B u r ea u of P r i so n s o ff ic i al s , wh o a re a ut h o ri z e d t o p r es c ri be, d is pe ns e , o r ad m i ni s te r, b u t n ot t o p ro cu r e o r pu rc h as e , c o nt r o ll ed s u bs t an c e s i n t h e c ou r s e o f t he i r o f fi c ia l du t ie s, a r e e xe m pt f ro m r e gi s t e ri n g wi t h t he D E A . Th e i nd i v i du a l m u s t, ho we v e r , o b t ai n a r e g is t ra t io n fo r s uc h a c t iv i t i es c o nd u ct e d d ur i ng a n y s e p a ra t e p r i v at e p r ac t ic e . b . L aw -e n f o rc e me n t o f fi c i a ls . F e de r al an d s t at e l a w- e n f or c em en t p e rs o nn e l a c t i ng i n th e c ou r s e o f e nf o rc ing a n y l a w r e l at i ng to c o nt r o ll e d s ub st a nc es a r e exe m p t f r om r e g is t ra t io n .
c . C i vi l d e f en s e o f f ic i als . C i v il de f en se an d di s as t e r -r e li e f o r ga ni z a t io n of f i ci al s a r e e xe m p t f r om re gi s tr a ti o n i n o r d er t o m a i nt a in an d d is p en s e co n tr o ll ed su bs t an c e s d u r in g tim e s o f p r oc la im e d em e rg en c i e s o r d is as t e r s . d . Ag e n t s a n d e m pl o ye e s o f r e g is t r a n ts . Ag e nts an d e m p l o y ee s , wh i l e a c ti n g l a wf u l l y in th e u s u a l c o u rs e o f th e ir bu s i n es s o r em p lo y m en t , a r e e xe m p t fr o m r e g is t ra t io n wh e n t h e b us i ne s s o r em pl o y m e n t i s c o nd uc t ed on be h al f o f a p e rs o n ( o r bu si n es s ) wh o is r eg is t e re d u n de r th e Ac t . D el i v e r y p er s o n ne l (e . g. , Un i t ed P a r c el Se r v i c e , Fe d er a l E xp r e s s ) a re th e re f o re no t r eq u ir e d t o r e gi s t e r . Li k e wi se , p h a rm ac is ts wo r k in g fo r a r e gi s t e re d p h a rm ac y ar e n ot r eq ui r e d t o r e gi s t er . P.530
1 0 . Te r m in a t io n of r e gis t r a t i on . Th e re gi s tr a ti on o f a n y pe r s o n o r e n ti t y wi l l t e r m i n at e wh e n t he pe r s o n di es , c ea s es l e ga l e xi s t en ce ( e .g . , c o r p o ra t e di s s o lu t io n , p a r t ne rs h ip di s s ol u ti o n) , o r di s c o nt i nu es bu si n es s o r p ro f es s i on al p ra c ti c e . Th e D E A m us t be no t if i ed pr om p tly wh e n a n y o f t h es e oc c u r s . I n s uc h a c as e , a ll c o n t r ol le d s u bs ta n c e s i n s c he d ul es I I - V m us t b e p r o pe r l y dis p os ed o f. C . R e q u i re d in ve n t o r ies . Th e Ac t re q ui r es a l l ph a r m a c i es an d h os p it a ls ( e v e r y s e pa r a te l y r eg is t er e d l oc a t i on ) to c o nd uc t an in it i a l in v e n to r y a nd bi en n ia l i n ve nt o r y o f al l c on t r ol le d s u bs ta nc es in s c he d ul es II , II I , IV , a nd V . 1 . I ni t i al i n ve n to r y. Th e i n it i al i n ve n to r y m u s t be t a ke n o n t h e d at e th e en t i t y c om m e n c e s b us in es s a nd b eg in s d is p en s i ng c o n tr o l le d s ub s ta nc es . If th e e n t it y h as n o c o nt r o ll ed s u bs t an c e s o n h a nd , a r ec o rd of t his f ac t m us t b e m ai nt a in ed as i ts i n i ti al in v e n to r y . 2 . B i en n ia l in ve n t o r y. T h e bi en n ia l i n v e nt o r y m us t be ta k e n a t le as t e ve ry 2 y e a r s f r o m t he da t e o f th e i ni t ia l in v e n to r y. a . B i en n ia l da t e . Th e bie n ni a l d at e m a y be an y d a t e t ha t is wi t hi n 2 ye a rs o f t he p r e vi ou s b ie n ni al ( o r i ni t ia l ) d a t e. Th is da t e d oe s n o t ha v e t o b e r e po r te d t o t he D E A i f i t i s d i ff e r en t t h an t h e b ie n ni al da t e t h at wo u ld o th e r wi s e a pp l y (i . e. , o n t he e xa c t d a y 2 y e a rs a ft e r th e p re v i ou s i n v e nt o r y ) . 3 . I n ve n to r y p r o c e d u r es a . A ll in v e n to r ie s m us t be m a i nt a in ed in a w r i t ten , t yp ew r i t t en , or p r i nt ed f o r m a nd b e c o nd uc t ed a t e it h er th e op e ni ng o f b us in es s o r t he c l os e o f b us i ne s s o n th e i n ve n to r y d at e ( wh ic h m u s t b e n o te d o n t h e i n v en t o r y) . b . S e pa r a te i n ve n to r y r e c o r d f o r sc h ed u l e I I co n t r o l le d s u b st a nc e s. B e c au se al l r e c or d s f o r s c he d ul e I I c o n t r ol le d s ub s ta nc es m us t be m a in t ai ne d s ep a r ate l y f r om o t h e r r ec o rd s , s c he d ul e II i n v en t o ri es m u s t be m ai n t ai ne d s e pa r at e l y fr om o t h e r c o nt r o ll ed - s u bs t an c e in v e n t o ri es . 4 . I n ve n to r y c o n t e n t . A ll i n v en t o r y re c o r ds m us t c o nt a in th e fo ll o wi n g : a . D a te th e i n v e nt o r y is ta k en b . E ac h f i ni s h ed f o rm o f t h e s ub s ta nc e (d os a ge fo r m a n d s tr e ng t h ) c . N um be r of un i ts or v o lu m e o f e ac h f i ni s h ed f o rm in ea ch c o m m e rc ia l c on t a in e r ( e . g ., 10 0 - ta b le t b o tt l e ). F o r op e ne d c om m e rc i al c o nt a in e rs , i n ve nt o r y m us t be ta ke n a s fo ll o ws : ( 1 ) F or s c he d ul e I I c on t ro l le d s ub s ta nc es , an e xa c t c o un t o r m e as u re m us t b e t ak e n.
( 2 ) F or s c he d ul e I I I , I V , a n d V c o n t ro ll e d s ub s t a nc es , an es ti m a t ed c o u nt o r m e as u re m a y be t ak en , e xc e p t t ha t a n e xa c t c o un t m u s t be t ak en if th e c o n t ai ne r h o ld s m o re th a n 1 00 0 t ab l e ts o r c a ps ul es . d . F o r e ac h c o n t ro ll e d s u b s t a nc e m ai n ta in e d f o r e xt e m p o r an e ou s c o m p o un d in g , o r f o r s u bs t an c e s t ha t ar e da m ag e d, de f ec ti ve , o r im p u r e a nd a wa i ti n g d is po s a l : ( 1 ) N am e o f th e s ub s t a nc e ( 2 ) To t a l q ua n ti t y to t he n e a re s t m e t r ic u n it we i gh t o r t he t ot a l n um be r of u n i ts o f f i n is he d f o rm ( 3 ) R e as on th e s ub s ta nc e is be i ng m a in t ai ne d a nd wh e t h e r i t is c a p ab le of u s e in t h e m an u fa c tu r e o f a n y c o n t r ol le d s ub s ta nc e i n f in i sh e d f o rm 5 . I n ve n to r y r e c o r d m ain t e n an c e. E v e r y in v e n tor y r e c o rd m us t be m a in t ai n ed a t t h e re g is te r ed lo c a t io n (e . g . , p ha rm a c y , h os pi t al ) f o r a t le as t 2 ye a rs f ro m t h e d a te o f t he i n v e n to r y . a . S c h ed u le I I in v e n t or i es m u s t be m a in t ai n ed s ep a r a te l y f ro m a ll ot h er r ec o r ds o f t h e p h a rm ac y . b . S ch e du le I II - V in v e n tor y r e c o rd s m u s t b e m a i nta i ne d e i th e r s ep a r at e l y fr o m a ll o t h e r r ec o rd s o f t h e p ha rm ac y o r i n s uc h a m a nn er t h at t he re q ui r ed in f o rm a ti o n is r e a di l y r et r i e v ab le f ro m o r d in a r y bu s i n ess r ec o rds o f t he ph a rm ac y . “ R e ad i l y r e t r ie va b le ” m e an s t ha t th e in v e n to r y r ec o rd s c an b e s ep a r at e d o ut f ro m al l ot h er r e c or d s in a re as on a bl e ti m e. 6 . P e r pe t ua l in ve n t o r i es . Th e Ac t d o es n o t re qui r e a di s pe ns e r r e gi st r a nt ( e .g . , p h a rm ac y , ho s p i ta l ) t o m a i n ta in a p e rp e tu a l i n vent o r y o f a n y c o nt r o ll ed sub s ta nc e . 7 . N ew l y c o n t r o l l e d s u bs t a n ce s o r c ha n ge s i n s c h ed u l in g of a s u bs t an c e . A n i n ve n to r y o f a s u bs ta nc e m us t b e t a ke n wh e n, b y o r d er o f t he D E A , i t b eco m es a n e wl y c o n tr o ll ed s u bs t anc e o r it s h i ft s i nt o a n o the r sc he d ul e . Th e in ve n tor y o f t ha t p a r ti c ul a r c o n t ro l le d s ubs t an c e m u st be t ak en on t h e e f fe c t i v e da t e o f t he c ha n ge . A c om p le t e i n v en t o r y o f al l c on t r ol l ed s u bs ta nc es is n o t r e qu i re d , n o r is a n in v e n t o r y r e q ui r e d wh e n a s u b s t a nc e m o v es f ro m a c o nt r ol le d - s u bs t an c e s c he du l e to a n o n fe d er a l s c h ed ul e . P.531
8 . T r an s f e r o f b u s in e ss a c t i vi t y. A n i n ve n t o r y of c on t ro l le d s ub s ta nc es II - V m u s t b e ta ke n a t th e tim e a ph a r m a c y o r ho s p i ta l u n de r g oe s a c h an g e i n o wn er s h ip . Th e i n ve n to r y m u s t b e t ak en o n th e d a te o f t r an s f e r an d s e r ves as th e fi na l i nve n t o r y o f t h e tr a ns fe r o r a n d t he in it i a l i n v en t or y o f th e t r ans f e re e . 9 . I n ve n to r y r e c o r d s u bm i s si o n . Th e Ac t do es no t r eq u ir e th e s ub m i s s ion o f i n ve n to r y r ec o rd s t o a n yo n e , i nc lu di n g t h e D E A . Th e r e co r ds m us t be m a in t a in ed a t t h e re g is te r ed lo c a t io n fo r in s pe c t i on an d c op y i ng b y au t ho r i z e d a ge n ts of t h e D E A . D . O b t a i ni n g c o n t ro l l ed s u bs t a nc e s. S c h ed u le II c on t ro l le d s ub s ta nc es m us t be o b t ai ne d f ro m a s up p li e r ( wh o l e s al e r, m a nu f ac t u re r ) b y us in g D E A F o rm 22 2 . Th e A c t do es no t re q ui r e t he u s e o f a n y s p ec ia l f o rm to o bt a in c o nt r o ll ed s u bs ta n ce s i n s ch e du l es II I - V . 1 . D E A F o r m 22 2 . O n l y e n t it i es t h a t a re r eg is t e re d to di s p e ns e o r h a nd l e s ch ed u le I I co n t ro ll e d s u b s t a nc es m a y ob t ai n Fo rm 22 2 . The f o rm s a re se r ia ll y n um b e r ed an d
i ss u ed b y th e D E A wi t h th e na m e , a d d re ss , r e gi s tr a t io n nu m b e r, au t ho r i z ed ac t i v i t y, a n d sc h ed u le s o f t h e r egi s t ra n t. E ac h f o rm c o nt a in s a n o r i gi na l , d up l ic at e , a n d t r i pl ic a te c o p y ( C op y 1 , C o p y 2 , a n d C o p y 3 , r es p e c t i v e l y ) . a . E xe c u ti o n o f Fo r m 22 2 . Fo rm 22 2 m a y be e xe c ut e d o nl y o n b eh a lf o f t h e r e g is t ra n t n am e d o n t he f o r m a nd on l y if t he re g is t r at i on ha s n o t e xp i r e d n o r be en r e v o k ed o r s u s p e nd e d. Th e fo r m m u s t b e p r ep a red i n t r ip li c a t e a s p r o v id ed b y t he D E A b y u s e of a t y p e wr i te r , pe n , o r i n de li b le pe nc i l i n t he fo l lo wi n g m a nne r : ( 1 ) O n l y o n e i te m m a y be o r de r ed on ea c h o f t he 1 0 n um b e re d l in es on t he f o rm . Th e t o t al n u m b e r o f i t em s o rd e re d m us t b e n o t ed o n th e f o rm in th e s pa c e p r o vi de d . ( 2 ) O n e i te m m a y c on s i s t o f o n e o r m o re c om m e rc i al or b ul k c o n ta i ne rs o f a p ro d uc t. A s ep a r at e i t em m us t b e m ad e fo r d i f fe r en t c om m e rc i al or bu lk c o n ta in e rs o f a p r o du c t. Fo r ea c h i te m , th e fo r m m u s t co n ta i n t he f o ll o wi n g i n fo r m a ti o n: ( a ) N am e o f th e a r ti c l e or d e r ed ( b ) F in is he d or bu lk f or m o f th e p r od u c t ( do sa ge fo r m a n d s tr e ng t h ) ( c ) N um b er o f u ni ts o r v o l um e i n e ac h c om m e rc ia l or b ul k c o n ta i ne r (e . g ., 1 00 - t ab l et b o t tl e ) ( d ) N um b e r o f c o m m e rc ia l or b ul k co n ta i ne rs o rde r e d ( e ) I f t he a r ti c l e is no t in p u r e f o rm , t h e n am e a nd q ua n ti t y pe r un i t o f t h e c on t r ol l ed s u bs ta n c e s c o n ta i ne d i n t h e a r t ic le . ( 3 ) Th e s u pp li e r ' s n am e a n d a d dr es s m us t b e i nc l u de d o n th e f o rm . O nl y o n e s u pp li e r m a y be li s t e d on a n y o n e f o rm . ( 4 ) E ac h f o rm m us t in c l ud e th e d a te o f t he o rd e r , a n d n o f o rm i s val id m o re t ha n 6 0 d a ys a f t e r i ts e xe c u t io n b y t h e p u rc ha se r . ( 5 ) Th e fo r m m u s t b e s i gn e d e i th e r b y t he pe r so n wh o s ig n ed t he m os t rec e nt a p pl ic a ti o n f o r r e gi s t r a tio n o r r e re g is t ra t io n , o r by a p e rs on au t ho r i z e d t o o b t ai n a n d e xe c u t e or d e r f o rm s b y a p ow e r o f a t t o rn e y. ( a ) A n y pu r c h as e r m a y au t h o ri z e on e o r m o re in di vi d ua l s ( do es no t ha v e to b e a n a t t o rn e y - a t -l a w) , wh e t h er o r no t l oc a te d a t th e reg i s t e r ed lo c a t io n , t o o bt ai n an d e xe c u t e 22 2 F o rm s b y exe c u t i n g a p o we r o f a t to rn e y f o r t he in d i v id u al (s ) . ( b ) Th e po we r o f a t t or n ey m u s t be s i gn e d b y t he p e r so n wh o s ig n ed th e m o s t r e c e n t a p pl ic a ti o n f o r r e gi s t r a tio n o r r e re g is t ra t io n a n d b y t h e i nd i vi du al ( s ) r ec e ivi n g th e p o we r o f a t t or n e y . Th is fo r m m us t b e s im il a r o r i de n t ic al to t he D E A ' s “ P owe r o f A t t o r ne y f o r D E A O r d e r F o r m s . ” ( c ) O nc e pr o pe r l y e xe c ute d , th e i nd i vi du al r ec ei vin g th e p o we r o f a t to r ne y m a y o b t ai n a n d s i g n D E A Fo rm 22 2 to th e s am e e xt e n t a s t he in d i vid ua l wh o s ig n e d t he m os t re c en t a p pl ic a ti on fo r r eg is t r at i on o r r e re g is t r a t io n . ( d ) Th e po we r o f a t t or n ey m u s t be fi l ed wi t h th e e xe c u t e d 2 22 F or m s of th e p u r ch as e r a nd be r et a ine d fo r th e s am e p e ri o d as an y o r de r fo r m b ea r in g t h e s i gn a tu r e o f t h e a t to r ne y [ s ee I. D . 1 .a ( 8) ] . Th e p owe r o f a t to r ne y d o es n o t h a v e to b e s u bm it t ed t o t he D E A. ( 6 ) C o pi es 1 a nd 2 m u s t b e s u bm it t ed t o t he su ppl i e r. C o p y 3 m u st be r et ai n ed b y t h e p u rc h as e r. ( 7 ) W hen t h e o rd e r ed s c h e d ul e I I c on t r ol l ed s u bs t a nc es a re r ec ei v e d b y th e p h a rm ac y , t he fo ll o wi n g in f o rm a ti o n m u s t b e r ec or d e d o n t h e r e ta in e d C o py 3 : ( a ) N um b er o f c o m m e rc ia l or b ul k co n ta i ne rs f u rn i s h e d o n e ac h i te m ( o r li n e )
( b ) D a te on wh i c h t he c on t a in e rs ar e re c e i v e d b y t h e p h a rm ac y ( 8 ) D E A 22 2 F o rm s m u s t b e m ai n ta i ne d a t th e r eg i s t e r ed lo c a t io n ( p ha r m a c y o r h o sp i ta l ) f o r a t l e as t 2 ye a r s f r om th ei r e xe c u ti on. Th e t im e o f e xe c u t io n wo u l d b e t h e d a te t he la s t en t r y wa s m ad e o n C op y 3 . P.532
b . C a nc e ll a t io n b y p u r c h a s e r. A pu r c h as e r m a y c a nc el al l o r pa r t o f a n or d e r b y n o t if yi n g t he s u pp l ie r i n wr i t i n g . Th e su p pl i er m us t in di ca t e t h e c a nc e ll a tio n on C o p i es 1 an d 2 b y dr a wi n g a l in e t h r ou gh t he c an c el e d i te m s a n d p r in t ing t he wo r d “ c a nc el ed ” in th e s p ac e p r o v i de d fo r n u m b e r o f i te m s s h ip p ed . Li ke wi s e , a s u p pl ie r m a y vo id al l o r pa r t o f an o r de r b y n o ti f yi ng th e p u r c h as e r i n wr i ti n g a nd p r i nt i ng th e wo r d “ c a nc el ed ” in th e s p a c e p ro vi de d fo r nu m b er o f i t em s s h i pp ed . c . M a in t e na n ce o f D E A F o r m 22 2 . E xe c u t ed C o py 3 f o rm s a nd C op i es 1 a n d 2 of e a ch un ac c e p te d o r de f ec t i v e f o rm an d t h e s ta t em e nt o f r e fu s a l f r om th e s u pp li e r m us t be m a in t ai ne d b y th e pu r c h as e r . Th e y m us t b e k ep t s e pa r a te f ro m al l ot h er r e c or d s a nd be a v ai la b le f o r i ns p ec ti o n f o r a t l eas t 2 y e a rs . Al l f o rm s m us t b e m a in t ai ne d a t th e re g is ter e d l o c a t io n p r ep r in t ed on t he f or m , a nd no t a t a c e nt r a l l o ca t io n . d . L os s o r t h ef t o f D E A F o r m 22 2 . A n y us ed o r un u s e d f o rm s t o le n f r om or l os t b y a p u rc ha s e r or s u p pl ie r m us t be r ep o rt e d im m e d ia t e l y to th e D E A. S uc h no t i fi ca t io n m us t in c l ud e th e s e ri al nu m be r of ea c h f or m l os t o r st o le n . 2 . O b t ai n i ng sc h ed u l e II I - V co n t r o ll e d s u bs t a nc e s . Th e r e i s n o s pe ci al f o r m f o r o b t ai ni n g s c h ed ul e II I - V c o nt r o ll ed s u bs t an ce s . Ea c h r e gi st r a nt m us t , h o we ve r , m a in t ai n a c om p le t e a nd a c c u ra t e r ec o r d o f r ec e ip t f or ea c h s u ch s u bs t anc e . Th e r e c or d m us t b e m ai n ta i ne d at ei t he r th e re g is te r ed l oc at i on of t he ph a rm ac y o r h o sp i ta l , o r a t a c e n t ra l lo c at i on , fo r 2 ye a rs . I f a c e nt r a l l oc at i on is u se d , t h e p h a rm ac y m u s t f i rs t n o ti fy t h e D E A , i nd ic a ti n g i ts i n t en t io n t o k ee p c en t r al r e c or d s . C e n t r al re c or ds m a y t hen b e m a i nt a in e d u nl es s th e D E A d e ni es th e re q ues t to k e ep s uc h re c o r ds . An in v o ic e o r pa c k in g s li p wi l l s u f fi c e a s a r ec or d o f r ec ei p t, p r o v id i ng t h e fo ll o wi n g i n fo r m a ti o n i s i nc lu d ed : a . N am e o f th e c on t r ol led s u bs t a nc e b . F in is he d fo r m o f t he s u b s t a nc e ( d os ag e f o rm an d s t r en g th ) c . N um be r of un i ts or v o lu m e o f t h e f in is h ed fo r m i n ea ch c om m er ci a l co n ta i ne r ( e . g ., 10 0 - ta b le t b o tt l e ) d . N um b e r o f c o m m e rc ial c o n ta i ne r s o f e ac h s uc h f in is h ed fo r m r ec e i v ed f r o m o th e r p e r so ns e . D a te of ac t ua l r ec e ip t o f ea c h co m m e rc ia l c on ta i ne r f . N a m e , a d dr e s s , a nd r eg i s t r a ti o n n um be r o f th e p e r s o n f r om wh o m t h e co n t ai ne r s we r e r e c ei v e d E . S t o r a ge o f c on t r o l led s u bs t an c es . Al l c on t ro l le d s ub s ta nc es in s c hed u le s I I - V m us t be s t o re d i n o n e o f t h e fo ll o wi n g wa ys : 1 . I n a s ec u re l y lo c k ed , s u bs ta n ti a ll y c o n s t r uc t ed c ab i ne t 2 . D is pe r s e d th r ou g ho u t t h e s t oc k o f u ns c h ed u le d p r es c ri p ti on m e di c at io n t o p re ve n t a n y t he f t o r di v e r s i on
F . T he f t o r s i gn i f ic a n t lo s s o f sc h ed u l e I I - V c on t r o l l ed su b s ta n ce s . E v e r y r e g is t ra n t m us t p r om pt l y n o t if y t h e r eg i on a l o ff ic e o f th e D E A o f t h e t he f t o r s i gn i fi ca n t l os s o f a n y c on t r ol l ed s u bs t an ce in s che d ul e s I I - V. Th i s r ep o r t m us t be d o n e us i ng D E A F o r m 10 6 . G . D i s p os a l o f c o n t r ol le d su b s ta n ce s . E v e r y d is p os al of a c on t r ol le d s ub s ta nc e m us t be ac c om p li s h e d by s u bm i tt i ng D E A F o r m 4 1 to t he D E A (e xc e p t for d is p os al s p u r su an t to a v al id p re s c r i p ti o n, di sc us s e d b e lo w) . Th e f o rm m us t l is t th e c o nt r o ll ed s u bs ta n c e s e a rm ar k e d fo r di s po s a l . Th e D E A wi ll a ut h o ri z e th e d is p os al a n d i ns t r uc t t h e re g is t ra n t t o d is po s e o f th e c on t r ol le d s u bs tan c es i n o n e o f t h e f ol l o wi n g wa ys : 1 . B y t he t ra ns f e r t o a pe r s on or e nt i t y re g is te r ed wi t h t he D E A a n d a ut ho r i ze d t o p o ss es s t he s u bs t an c e . S c h ed ul e II co n tr o ll e d s ub s ta nc e s m u s t b e t r an sfe r r e d b y u s e o f t h e t r an s f e r ee ' s (a n o th e r p ha r m a c y o r h os p i t al , o r th e wh o le s a l er or m a nu f ac tu r e r ) D E A F o rm 2 2 2. A wr i t t en re c or d o f t h e tr a ns fe r o f sc he d ul e I I I - V c o nt r o ll ed s u bs t an c e s m u s t b e k ep t fo r a t le as t 2 y e a r s a nd in c l u de th e fol l o wi n g i n f or m at io n : a . N am e o f th e c on t r ol led s u bs t a nc e b . F in is he d fo r m o f t he s u b s t a nc e ( d os ag e f o rm an d s t r en g th ) c . N um be r of un i ts or v o lu m e o f t h e f in is h ed fo r m i n ea ch c om m er ci a l co n ta i ne r ( e . g ., 10 0 - ta b le t b o tt l e ) d . N um b e r o f c o m m e rc ial c o n ta i ne r s o f e ac h f i ni s h e d f o rm t ra ns f e r re d e . D a te of t he t ra ns f e r f . N a m e , a d dr e s s , a nd r eg i s t r a ti o n n um be r o f th e t r a ns f e re e P.533
2 . B y t he de li v e r y t o a n a g e nt of t he D E A o r to the n ea r es t o f fi c e o f t he DE A 3 . B y t he de s t r uc t io n i n th e p re se nc e o f a n a g en t o f t he D E A o r ot h er au t ho r i z e d p e r so n 4 . B y a n y o t he r m e an s th a t th e D E A d et e rm in es t o en s u r e t h a t t he s u bs ta n c e do es n o t b ec om e a v ai la b le to u n a ut h or i z e d p e rs on s o r e n t it i es H . R e g u la r d is p os a ls o f c o n t r ol l ed s ub s ta n ce s . I f a r e gi s t r an t ( us ua ll y a h os p it a l ) r e g ul a rl y d is p os es o f c on t r ol l ed s u bs t an ce s i n sc h e d ul es II - V th e D E A m ay a u t ho r i ze d i sp os a ls wi t ho u t p r io r ap p r o v al in ea c h in s ta nc e. I f th e D E A g ra n ts th is au t h o ri t y , t h e re g is t ra n t m u s t k e e p r e c or d s o f e ac h d is po sa l a n d f il e p e ri o di c r e po r ts t o th e r e g io n al of f ic e o f t h e D EA s um m a r i z in g t h e d is pos a l s . Th e D E A m a y pl a c e a dd i ti on a l c o nd i ti on s o n s uc h d is pos a l, in cl u di ng t he m e th od o f d is po s a l a n d t he f r eq u e nc y an d d e t ai l o f re p or t s . I . D i sp o sa l o f c on t r o l led s u bs t an c es p u rs u an t t o a va l id p r es c r ip t i on 1 . P e rs o n s w h o m a y i s s u e p r es c r ip t i o ns f o r c on t r o l l ed su b s ta n ce s . A c o nt r o ll ed s u bs ta n c e pr e s c ri p ti o n m a y be is s u e d o nl y b y a p r a c t i ti o ne r wh o i s g r an te d s uc h a u t ho r i t y b y t h e s t a te in wh i c h th a t p r ac t it i on e r is l ic e ns ed . Al t ho u gh th e A c t i s f e d e ra l l eg is l at i on , e ac h s t a te de t er m i n es wh o wi ll b e a ut h o ri ze d t o d is p ens e c o nt r o ll ed s u bs t an c e s . M o s t s ta t es al lo w t h e fo l lowi n g i n di v i du a ls to pr es c r i b e: p h ys ic ia ns , de n ti s t s , po di a t ri s ts , a nd v e t e ri na r ia ns . S om e s t a te s a ll o w t h e f o ll o wi n g i n di vi d ua ls , re f e r re d t o as m i dl e v e l p r ac ti t io n er s , t o p re s c r ib e (u su al l y wi t h c e r t ai n
r e s t ri ct i on s ): ph y s ic ia n ' s a s s is t an ts , nu r se pr ac t i ti o ne r s , c e r t if i ed nu r se m id wi v e s , p s yc hi at r ic nu r s e s , m e n ta l he al t h c li ni c a l s pe ci a li s t s. A ll pr e s c ri b e rs m us t b e r e g is t er e d wi t h t he D E A o r e xe m p te d fr om r eg is t ra t i on (s e e I . B .9 ) . P ra c t iti o n e r m e an s a p h y s ic ia n , d en t is t , v et e r in a ri a n, o r o th e r p e rs o n l ic en s e d (m id - lev e l p r a ct i ti o ne rs ) b y th e s ta te t o p r es c r i be c o nt r o ll ed s ub s ta nc es , a n d p h a rm a c y , h o sp i ta l , o r o t he r in s t i tu ti o n l ic en se d to di s t r i bu t e c on t r ol l ed s u bs ta nc es . In d i vi d u al P r a c t i t io n e r m ea ns a p hy s i c i a n, de n ti s t, v e t er i nar i a n, o r o t he r p e rs o n l ic en s ed ( m i d- l e v el p ra c t i ti o ne rs ) b y t h e s ta t e t o p r es c ri be c on t r ol l ed s u bs ta nc es . It i s wo r t h n o t in g t h at t he te r m “ in d iv i d u al p ra c ti ti o ne r ” is i nc l u de d i n th e d e fi ni t io n o f “ p r ac t i ti on e r . ” P r es c ri bi ng a ut h o ri t y g ra n te d b y s ta t es is li m i te d to p ro f es si o na ls wi t h i n th e “i n di v i du a l p r ac t i ti on e r ” c at e go r y . Th e s t a te m e n t l ik e “ p ra c ti ti o ne r wh o is g r a n te d p r es c r i bi n g a ut ho r i t y ” m e an s t he “ in di v i du a l p r ac t it io n e r ” wh o h as b e en g r a n te d p r es c r i bi n g a ut ho r i t y b y th e s ta t e b ec a use t he in d i v id ua l p r ac t it i on e r i s i n cl ud e d i n t he d ef in i ti o n o f pr ac t i ti on e r . “ P h ar m a c y” is d ef in e d a s a “p r ac ti t i on e r ” b u t , o f c ou r s e , d o es no t h a v e p re sc r ib in g a u th o r ity . a . D E A n u m be r s an d a ut h e n t ic i t y. A f t e r r e g is te ri n g wi t h t he D E A , a ll r eg is t r an t s a r e ass i gn ed a D E A n um b e r b y t h e D E A . A p r ac t iti o ne r ' s D E A n um be r c o ns is t s o f n i ne ch a ra c te r s . Th e fi rs t t wo c ha r ac t e rs a r e l e tte r s . Th e f ir s t l et t e r wi l l be e it h e r A o r B . Th e s ec on d l e tt e r wi l l b e t h e f i rs t l e tt e r o f th e p ra c t i ti o ne r ' s l as t n am e . Th e n e xt s i x c h a r ac te r s a r e ra n d om l y c ho s e n n um b e rs . Th e l as t c h ar ac t e r is a n um b e r o f t en r ef e r re d to as th e “c h ec k di g it . ” Fo r e xa m ple , D r . He n r y J o ne s m a y h a v e a D E A n um b e r o f A J 4 35 77 8 2 . ( 1 ) Au t h e n t ic a t io n of DE A n u m b e r . Th e D E A ass i gn s D E A nu m b e rs wi t h a q ui ck m e th o d o f v e ri fi c a t io n b ui l t i n to th e n um b e r. Th is a l lo ws a di s p e ns in g p h arm ac is t to m ak e a c u r s o r y r e v ie w o f t h e n um be r fo r au t he n tic i t y . F o r e xa m p l e, us in g t h e a b o v e D E A n um b e r, th e p r ac t i tio n e r 's la s t n am e m u s t s ta r t wi t h a J . A ls o, t he fo ll o wi n g q u ic k c a lc u la t io n c an be m a de to ve r if y t h at t he “c h ec k di g it ” is c o r re c t: ( a ) Th e di gi t s in p os it io ns 1 , 3 , a nd 5 a r e a dd e d to g e th e r t o re ac h a nu m be r . In t he a b o ve e xa m p l e, t ha t wo ul d be 4 + 5 + 7 = 1 6 . ( b ) Th e di gi t s i n p os it i ons 2 , 4 , a nd 6 a r e a dd e d to g e th e r , t he n m ul t ip li e d b y 2 . In t h e a b o v e e xa m p le , th a t wo u l d b e ( 3 + 7 + 8) × 2 = 3 6. ( c ) Th e s e nu m b e rs ab o ve a r e a dd ed t og e th e r : 1 6 + 36 = 5 2 . Th e f a r- r i gh t d i gi t b e co m e s t h e c h ec k d ig i t . Th e c he c k d i gi t m us t t he r e f or e b e a 2 . I f t h e c h ec k d ig i t i s a n yt h in g o t he r th a n a 2 , t h e n um b e r m a y n o t b e a v a l i d D E A nu m b e r . I n s uc h a c as e , t h e D E A s h ou l d b e n o ti f ie d i n o r de r t o ve r i fy t h e nu m b e r . ( 2 ) M i d le ve l p r ac t i t io n er D E A n u m b e r s . Mi d l e v el p ra c ti t io ne r D E A n u m be r s a r e s im i la r to p ra c t i ti on e r D EA n um b e rs e xc e p t fo r the f i rs t c ha r ac t er . In s te ad o f th e l e t te r A o r B , m i d le v e l p ra c ti t io n e rs h a v e th e l e tt er M a s t h e f i rs t c ha r ac t er i n t h ei r D E A n um b e r. Th e m a th em a ti c a l m e th od f or v e r i f yi n g t h e a ut h en t ic it y o f t he n um be r i s th e s am e. ( 3 ) D E A n u m be r s f o r p ra c t i t io n e rs a nd mi d le ve l p r a c ti t i on e r s w ho a re e m p lo ye e s o f i ns t i t ut i on s . P ra c ti ti o ne r s a nd m id l e v el p ra c ti ti o ne r s wh o i s s u e p r e sc ri p ti o ns i n th e P.534
c o u rs e o f t h ei r e m p l o ym e n t wi t h a n i ns t it u ti o n m a y i s s ue p re s c r ip t io ns f or a ll c o nt r o ll ed s u bs t an c e s u nd e r th e i ns t it u ti o n 's D E A r e gi s t ra t io n . Th e p ra c t i tio n e r 's o r m i d -l e vel p ra c t i ti o ne r ' s “D E A n um b e r” wi l l b e a s p e ci f ic i n te r n al c o de num b e r is s u e d b y t h e i ns t it u ti o n. Th e c od e nu m b e r m us t c on s i st o f nu m b e rs , l e t te r s , o r a c om b in a ti o n o f n um be r s a n d l e tt e rs an d m us t b e a su f f i x t o th e i ns t it u ti o n 's D E A n u m b e r , p re c ed ed b y a hy p h e n (e . g. , A P0 1 23 4 56 -1 0 o r A P 01 2 34 5 6 -A 1 2 ). 2 . P u r po s e o f is s ua n ce o f c on t r o l le d - su b s ta n ce p r es c r i p ti o ns . A c on t ro l le d s u bs ta n c e pr e s c ri p ti o n m a y be is s u e d o nl y i n g oo d fa i th f or a l eg i ti m a t e m e di c a l p u r po s e b y a p r ac ti t io n er a c ti ng in t he us ua l c ou rs e o f hi s o r h e r p r of es sio n al p r a ct ic e . Th e p ra c ti ti o ner a n d t he di s p e ns in g p h ar m ac is t h a v e th e re s p o ns i bi li t y t o e n su r e t h at a p r es c r i pt i on is p ro p er l y is su e d a nd d i s p e ns ed ( re f e r re d t o as c o r re s po nd i ng r es po ns ibi l it y o f th e p ha r m a ci s t) . a . L eg i t im a te me d i ca l pu r p o s e. Le g it im a te m e dic a l p u rp os e a n d g oo d f a it h a re p r e r eq u is it es fo r al l c on tr o l le d -s u bs ta nc e p r es c rip t i on s . W it h r e sp ec t t o a p h a rm ac is t , t h es e r eq u i re m en ts wi l l b e a p pa r e nt f r o m a n o bj ec t i ve p oi n t of v i e w. A s a g en e ra l ru l e, if , f ro m a ll t he s u r r ou nd i ng fa c ts an d c i rc um s ta nc es , a r eas o na b l y p r u de n t p ha r m a c i s t wo u ld f o rm th e o pi n io n t h at a p r es c ri p ti on wa s is su ed f o r a l e gi t im a te m e di c a l p u rp os e , t h en th e p h a rm ac is t h a s f ul f il l ed hi s o r h e r r e s po ns ib i li t y un d e r t he A c t , a n d t he p re s c r ip ti o n m a y be le ga l l y d is p en s ed . b . U s ua l c o u r se o f p r o fe s s io n a l p r ac t i ce . A p ra c t i t io n e r -p a t ie n t re l a tio n s h ip fo r t h e p u r po s e of t re a ti n g an d c a r in g f o r t h e p at i en t m us t be p re se n t. U su al l y, s uc h a r e l at i on sh i p i nc lu de s t h e t a k i ng an d re c o r di n g o f a n ap p ro p r ia t e m e d ic al hi s to r y, an d a n ap p ro p r ia t e p h ys ic a l e xa m . Th i s l im i ts a p ra c ti t i on e r 's ab i li t y to p re s c r ib e ou ts i de h i s o r h e r c ou r s e of p ro fe s s i on a l p ra c ti c e ( e. g ., a v e t e r in a ri a n m a y n o t p re sc r i be a c o nt r o ll ed s u bs t an c e fo r a h um an ) . Th e n ot i on of “ u s ua l c ou r se of p ra ct ic e” b ec om es m o r e u nc le a r wi t h r es p ec t to m e di c a l d oc t o rs wh o s p ec i al i z e . S uc h s pe cia l is ts o ft e n i ss u e p r es c r i pt i on s “ ou t s i d e ” t h ei r s pe c i a lt y. G e ne r a ll y , al l c on t r ol l ed - s u bs t an c e p r e sc ri p ti o ns f ro m m e d ic a l do c t o rs a re de em e d t o b e “i n t h e us u al c o u rs e o f p r o f ess i on al p ra c ti c e ” a s l o ng as i t i s i ss ue d f o r a h um a n, r eg a r dl es s o f w h e t he r th e p r o bl em be i ng t re a te d i s wi t h i n th e d oc t o r 's sp ec ia l t y . c . R es t r i c ti o ns o n i ss ua n c e o f a c on t r o ll e d -s ub s t a nc e p r e sc r i p t io n ( 1 ) A pr es c ri p ti o n m a y no t be is s u ed b y a p r ac ti t io n e r i n o r de r fo r th a t p r ac t i ti on e r t o o b t ai n c on t r ol le d s ub s tan c es fo r th e p u rp o s e of g e n e ra l di s pe n s in g to hi s o r he r p a t ie n ts . ( 2 ) A pr es c ri p ti o n m a y no t be is s u ed f o r t he di s pe n s i n g o f c o n t ro l le d s ubs t an c e s f o r d e t o xi f i ca t i on o r m a i nt en a nc e t r e at m e n t . A dm in is t r at i on an d d i re c t d is pen s in g o f c o nt r o ll ed s u bs t an c e s a re a ll o we d on l y wh e n c ond u c t e d i n p r op e rl y r e gi s te r e d t r e a tm en t p r o g ra m s . A pr e s c r ip t io n fo r m e t ha d on e is v a li d o nl y wh e n is su e d a s a n a n al g es ic i n c as es o f s ev e r e p ai n . Me t h a d on e m a y b e d is p en se d i n a ho s p i t al to m a in t ai n a pa t ie n t 's ad dic t io n a s l on g a s t h e p at ie n t i s a dm i tt e d a nd be ing t r ea t ed f o r s om e ot h er m e di c a l c o n di t io n a n d is n ot ad m in i s t e r ed m e th a do n e s o l el y f o r d e t o xi f ic a ti o n p u rp os es . Th e 4 0m g ta bl e ts of m e th a d on e a r e o nl y a v a il a ble t o f a ci l it i es a u th o ri z e d fo r de t o xi f i ca t io n a n d m a i nt e n a nc e t r e at m e n t o f o p io id a dd ic t io n a n d h os p it a ls . Th e o th e r s t r en g th s ( 5m g a n d 1 0m g f o rm ul a ti o ns ) i nd ic a te d f o r th e
t r e a tm en t o f pa in a re a va i la b le to al l a u th o ri z e d r e g is t ra n ts , i nc l ud in g re ta i l p h a rm ac ie s . 3 . M a n ne r o f i s su a nc e o f a c o n t r ol l ed - s ub s t anc e p re s c r ip t i on . Sc h ed ul e II c o nt r o ll ed - s u bs t an c e p res c ri p ti o ns m us t b e wr i t ten wi t h in k o r i n de l ib le pen c il or t yp e wr i t t e n ( e xc e p t i n c as es o f o r al e m er g en c y s c h ed u le II p re sc r ip t io ns ) . S c he d ul e I I I - V c o nt r ol l ed - s u bs t an c e p r es c r ip t io n s m a y b e or a l l y o r d e re d b y t he p ra c t i t io n er . P r e sc r ip t io ns m a y b e p r ep a r ed b y ei t he r th e p r ac ti t i on e r o r a n a g en t o f th e p r a ct i ti o ne r , a nd c o m m un i c a t ed to t he ph a rm ac y b y t h e p r ac ti t io n e r o r t h e a g en t . A u t h or i z a ti o n f o r t h e p res c ri p ti o n ( o r r e fi l l) m u s t , h o we v e r , o r ig in a te wi t h th e p r a ct i ti o ne r . B o t h t he p ra c ti t io n e r a nd di sp en si ng p ha r m a ci s t a re r es po ns i bl e f o r t h e c om p le t en es s o f t h e p r es c ri p ti o n. A ll pr es c ri p ti on s fo r c o nt r ol l ed s u bs ta nc es m u st i n cl ud e th e f o ll o wi n g i nf or m a ti o n: a . F ul l n am e a nd ad d r es s o f t he pa t ie n t b . D a te th e pr es c ri p ti o n is is s u ed a nd s i gn ed ( one a nd th e s am e ) c . D r ug na m e , d os a ge for m an d s t re n gt h d . Q u an t it y o f d r u g p r es c r i b ed e . D i re c ti on s f o r u s e f . N a m e , a d dr e s s , a nd DE A r e gi s tr a ti o n n um be r of t h e p ra c ti t io ne r P.535
g . Th e s i gn a tu r e o f t h e pr a c ti t io n er ( no p re p ri n te d o r s t am p ed s i gn a tu r es ) a s h e o r s h e wo u l d s ig n a n y le g al d oc um e nt ( al l s ch ed u le I I co n t ro ll e d -s ub s t a nc e p r e sc ri p ti o ns m us t b e m a n u al l y s ig n ed b y th e p ra c ti t io n e r) 4 . E me r g e nc y d i s p e ns in g o f s c he d ul e II co n t ro l l e d s ub s t an c es a . A n o r al s c h e du l e I I c on t r ol l ed - s u bs t an c e p re s cr i p ti o n m a y b e re c e i v e d fr o m a p r a ct i ti o ne r i n a n e m e r ge n c y s i tu a ti on . A n em e r ge n c y p r es c ri p ti o n m u s t in c lu d e al l o f t he i n f or m a t io n re q ui re d fo r an y c on t ro l le d -s ubs t an c e p re s c r ip t io n . A n em e r ge nc y s i tu a ti o n e xi s t s wh e n al l t h r e e o f th e f o ll o wi n g f ac t o rs ar e p r es e nt : ( 1 ) Th e im m e di a te ad m i ni s t ra t io n o f th e c on t r ol led s u bs t a nc e is ne ce s s a ry f o r p r o pe r t re a tm en t of th e pa t i en t . ( 2 ) N o a p pr o p ri a te al t er na t i v e tr e at m e n t i s a v a il ab l e , i nc lu di n g a dm in is t r at i o n o f a c o nt r o ll ed s u bs t an c e th at i s n ot in s ch e du l e I I . ( 3 ) I t is no t r ea s o na b l y po s s i bl e f o r t h e p r ac ti t io ne r t o p r o v id e a wr i t t en p re s c r i pt i on t o be p re s e n te d to th e pe r s on di sp en s i n g t h e c on t r ol l ed s u bs t an ce be f o re t he d i sp e ns in g . b . P r o pe r d is p en s i ng . Th e qu a nt i t y p r es c ri b ed an d di s p e ns ed m us t be lim i te d to t h e a m o u nt ne c es s a r y to a d eq u at e l y t r e at t he pa ti e n t d u ri ng t he em er g en c y p e r i od . I f t he p ra c t i ti o ne r i s n o t k n o wn t o t he ph a rm ac is t, t h e p ha rm a c i st m us t m a k e a r e a so na b le go o d- f ai t h e ff o r t to de t er m i n e t ha t th e o r al a ut h or i z a ti o n c a m e f r o m a r e g is t er e d p r ac ti t io n er . ( 1 ) D e li ve r y o f w r i tt e n p r e s c r ip t i on . Th e p r ac t it i o ne r wh o au t ho r i zes the e m e rg en c y p re s c r ip ti o n m us t , wi t hi n 7 da ys of t he o r al au t ho r i zat i on , d e liv e r a wr i t t e n p re s c r ip t io n t o t he d is pe ns i ng ph a rm ac is t . Th e p r es c r i pt i on m us t c o n t ai n t h e i n f or m at io n re q ui r ed o f al l c o nt r ol l ed - s u bs t an c e pr e s c r ip t io ns , ha v e wr i t t en o n i ts
f a ce t he wo r d s “ A u th o ri z a t i on fo r Em e r ge nc y D isp e ns i ng , ” a nd t he da t e of t h e o ra l a u t ho r i z a ti on . Th e p r es c r i p ti o n m a y b e d e li ve r ed i n pe r s o n o r b y m ai l ; i f de l i v e re d b y m ai l , i t m us t b e p os tm a rk e d wi t h i n t he 7 -d a y p e r io d . Up on r ec ei p t , t he d is p en s i n g p h a rm ac is t m us t a t ta c h it t o t h e o r al em er g en c y p r e s c ri p ti o n, wh i c h wa s p r e v i ou s l y r e d uc ed t o wr i t i n g. ( 2 ) F ai l u r e t o d e l i ve r a w r i t t en p r es c r ip t i on . I f a p r ac ti t io n er f ai ls to de li ve r t he wr i t t e n p re s c r ip t io n a s r eq u i re d , t h e d is pe ns in g ph a r m a c i s t m u s t no t if y t he r e gi on a l o f f ic e o f t h e D E A . Fa il u re b y t he ph a rm ac is t t o no t i f y th e D E A s e r v e s t o vo i d t h e p h a rm ac is t ' s a ut h o ri t y to d is p en s e an o ra l e m e r ge n c y s c h e du le I I p r es c r ip t i on . Th e p h a rm ac is t wi l l b e d ee m e d to ha v e un l a wf u ll y d isp e n s e d a s ch ed u le I I con t r ol l ed s u bs ta n c e . 5 . F ac s im i le p r es c r ip t io n s . Pr e s c ri p ti o ns fo r c on t r ol l ed s u bs t an ce s I I I, IV a n d V ( a n d n on f ed e r al c o nt r ol le d s u bs t an c e s su c h as pe n ic il l in an d f u r os em id e ) m a y be d e li v e r e d t o t h e d is pe ns in g ph a rm ac y v i a fa cs im ile m a ch i ne . A f ac s i m i l e pr e sc r ip t io n i s d e em ed to be t he wr i t te n , s ig n ed p re sc r ip ti o n fr o m t h e p r es c r i be r s o l on g as i t c o nt a in s t he in f o rm a ti on r e q ui r e d o f a ll p re sc ri p ti o n s u nd e r f e de r al la w. T h e p r e sc ri p ti o n m u s t b e s e nt d i re c t l y f ro m t h e p r es c ri b e r o r h is au t ho r i z e d a ge n t to th e p h a rm ac y . a . S ch e d ul e I I co n t r o ll ed s u bs t an c es . P re s c r ip ti o ns fo r s c he du l e I I c on t ro l le d s u bs ta n c e s m a y b e s en t v i a f ac s i m i le t o a d is p ens i ng ph a rm ac y t o f ac i li t at e d i sp e ns in g o f t h e p r es c r ip t i on . N o d r u g m a y b e r e l e as e d t o t h e p at i en t un t i l t he o r i gi n al , s ig n ed pr e s c ri p ti o n i s p r es en t ed to t he d is p en s i n g p ha r m a c i s t . A s c h e du l e I I co n t ro ll e d -s ub s t a nc e fa c s im i le p re sc ri p ti o n w i ll s e r ve as t h e o r ig in a l, s i g ne d p r e sc ri p ti o n i n t he f ol lo wi n g s it u at i on s : ( 1 ) I nj e c ta b le h om e -h e al t h p r es c r ip t i o ns . A f ac s im i le s c h e du l e I I n a rc o ti c p r e sc ri p ti o n c al li n g f o r th e c om p ou n di ng o f a s olu t i on fo r di r ec t a dm i ni st ra t i on to a p a t ie n t i n a p r i v a te r es ide n c e , l o ng - t er m -c a re fa ci l it y , o r h os p ic e se t t in g m a y s e r v e a s th e o r ig i na l p r es c r i pt io n . Th e e xc e p t io n a p pl ies so lo ng as th e s ol u ti o n wi l l b e a d m i ni s te r ed b y m e an s of p a re n te r al , in t ra v e n ou s , i nt r am us c ul a r, s u bc u tan e o us , o r i n t ra s pi na l i n fu s i o n. ( 2 ) L on g - t e rm - ca r e fa c il i t y p r e s c r i p t i on s . A n y fa c s im i le s ch e du l e I I p r esc r i pt io n i ss u ed fo r a r es i de n t o f a l on g - te rm - c a r e f ac i li t y m a y se r ve as th e o r ig in al , s i gn e d p r e sc ri p ti o n. ( 3 ) H o sp i ce pa t i e nt p r es c r i p t io n s. A n y fa c s im ile s c he d ul e I I na r c o t ic p re s c r i pt i on i ss u ed fo r a p a ti en t en r ol l ed in a h os pi c e - c a r e p ro g r am c e r ti f ie d a nd / o r pa i d f o r b y Me d i c a r e u nd e r Ti tl e XV II I o r l ic en s e d b y s ta t e l aw m a y s e r v e a s t h e o ri g in a l p r e sc ri p ti o n. Th e pr e s c rib e r , o r hi s a ge n t, mu s t no t e o n th e p r es cr i pt i on th a t th e p a t ie n t is a h os pi c e pa t ie n t . P.536
6 . E le c t r o ni c d a t a t r a nsm i s si o n p r e sc r i p t io n s fo r n o n -c o n t r ol l ed s ub st a n c es : P r e sc r ip t io n i n fo r m a t io n t h a t i s t r an sm it t ed di r ec tl y f r om a p r ac ti t io n e r t o a p h a rm ac y b y el ec t r on ic m e an s s uc h as v i a t h e I nt e r n et is re f e r re d t o a s el e ct r o ni c d a t a t r an s m is s i on p re s c ri p t io n . E le c t ro ni c s ig na t ur e s a r e re c o gn i z e d a s leg a ll y
a cc e pt a bl e s ig n at u r es o f p r ac t it i on e rs . L e ge n d d ru g s , e xc e p t f o r c on t ro l led s u bs ta n c e s , m a y b e t r ans m i t t ed to ph a rm ac i es v ia t he I nt e rn e t i f a ll o we d b y s t at e l a w. A s ta t e m a y a ll o w a p r a c t i ti o ne r a n d p ha r m a cy t o m a i nt a in th e p r es c rip t i on i n f or m at io n i n e l ec t ro n ic f o r m wi t h o u t r ed uc i ng it to wr i t i n g, s o l o ng as th ey c o m p l y wi t h s t at e m an d at e d s afe g u ar ds . a . E le c t r o ni c d a t a t r a nsm i s si o n p r e sc r i p t io n s fo r c o n t ro l l ed su b s ta n ce s : Th e D E A d o es n o t y et r ec og ni z e e le ct r o ni c d at a t r a ns m is si o n p r es c r i pt io n s as a m e a ns o f co m m un ic a ti ng p re s c ri p t io n i n fo rm a ti o n f o r a ny c o n t ro ll e d s u bs t an c e . Th e r e f o re , p r e sc ri p ti o n i nf o rm a ti o n f o r c o nt r o ll ed s u bs t an c es m a y n ot be co m m un ic at e d fr om a p r a ct i ti o ne r to a p ha r m ac y b y e le c t r o ni c m e a ns . 7 . P e rs o n s w h o m a y d i s p e ns e c o n t r ol l ed - s ub st a n c e p r es c r i p ti o ns . A p h a r ma c is t a c ti n g i n t he us ua l c ou r s e o f h is or he r p ro f es s i on a l p r ac t ic e i n a D E A -r eg i s t e r ed p h a rm ac y ( o r h os pi t al o r o t he r r eg is t er e d f ac il i t y ) m a y di s p en s e a c on t r ol le d s u bs ta n c e pu r s u an t to a p r e s c ri p ti o n. A ph a r ma cy i n t e r n a c ti n g u nd e r t he d ir e c t s u pe r v i s i on o f h is p r ec ep t o r i n a D E A - re g is te r e d f a ci l it y m a y a ls o d is p en s e a c o nt r o ll ed s u bs t an c e pu rs u an t to a p r es c r ip t io n . 8 . D i sp e ns i n g p r o ce d u re s o f c o nt r o l le d s u b st an c e s p u r su a n t t o a p r es c r i p t io n . O n c e a c o n tr o ll ed - s u bs ta n c e p re s c r ip t io n h as bee n l a wf u l l y is s u ed b y a pr a c ti t io n er a n d p r es en t e d t o a p h a rm ac is t , i t m a y be di s p e ns e d i n ac c or d an c e wi t h th e f o l lo wi n g : a . P r es e n ta t i on t o th e ph a r m ac i s t. S c h ed u le s I I I a n d I V c o nt r ol l ed - s u bs ta n c e p r e sc ri p ti o ns ar e v al i d f or 6 m o nt h s f r om t h e d at e o f i s s u an c e b y th e p r ac ti t i on e r. S c h ed ul e II c o n tr o ll e d- s ub s ta nc e pr es c ri p ti o ns h av e n o ti m e li m i t f o r p r es en t a ti o n u n d er t he Ac t , a l th ou g h th e y a r e o ft e n r ec o gn i z e d t o be va li d f o r u p t o 6 m o n t hs . S c h ed ul e V c on t r ol le d -s u b s t a nc e p r es c r i pt i on s al s o h a v e n o s et ti m e li m it f o r p r e se n ta t io n u nd e r th e Ac t . Re g a rd le s s of wh i c h s c h e du l e o f c on t ro l le d s u b st a nc e i s i n vo l ve d, th e g o od - f ai t h a n d “l eg i ti m a t e m ed ic al p u r po s e ” li m i t at i on wi l l al wa y s a p pl y a n d m a y s e r v e t o o t he r wi s e l im it th e v al i di t y o f a p r e sc ri p ti o n. b . I n fo r m a ti o n t h a t m ust b e r ec o r de d on t he p re s c r ip t i o n b y t h e d i s p en s i n g p h a r ma c is t . U n d e r t h e A c t, a f il l ed pre s c r i pt i on is c on si d e re d t o be a l a wf u l r e c o r d o f d i s p os i ti on f o r a c o n t ro l le d s ub s t a nc e . A s a re s u l t, e v e r y p r es c ri p ti o n f o r a c on t r ol le d s ub s ta nc e m us t c o nt a in c e r ta i n i nf or m a ti o n. S om e o f t h e i nfo r m at i on wi l l a l re ad y b e c o nt a in e d i n th e p r es c ri p ti on , al t hou g h t h e d is pe ns i ng ph a rm a c is t is re sp o ns ib le f or e ns u r in g t h a t a ll of t he fo l lo wi n g in f o rm a ti o n is r ec o rd ed (u s ua ll y o n t h e f ac e o f the p r e sc ri p ti o n ): ( 1 ) N am e o f th e c on t r ol led s u bs t a nc e ( 2 ) Fi n is he d fo rm o f t he c o nt r o ll ed su bs t an c e ( dos a ge fo r m a nd s t r en g t h) ( 3 ) N am e a n d a dd r es s o f t h e p e rs on t o wh o m i t wa s d is p en s e d ( 4 ) D a te of di s p e ns in g ( 5 ) N um b er o f u ni ts o r v o l um e d is p en s e d ( q ua n tit y ) ( 6 ) W rit t en or t y p e wr i t ten n am e o r i n it ia ls o f t he i n di v i d ua l wh o d is p en s ed t he c o nt r o ll ed s u bs t an c e ( 7 ) S e ri al nu m b e r o f th e p r e s c ri p ti o n
c . R eq u i r ed i nf o r m at i o n o n p re s c r ip t i on l ab e ls . E v e r y p r es c ri p ti o n la b el f o r a c o nt r o ll ed s u bs t an c e m us t in c l ud e th e f o ll o wi n g in f o rm a ti o n: ( 1 ) N am e a n d a dd r es s o f t h e p ha r m a c y ( 2 ) S e ri al nu m b e r a s s ig ne d to t he pr e s c ri p ti o n ( 3 ) D a te of t he in i ti al fi l lin g of t he pr e sc ri p ti o n ( f or r e f il ls , t h e d at e o r i gi na ll y f i ll e d) ( 4 ) N am e o f th e p a ti en t ( 5 ) N am e o f th e p r es c r i bin g p ra c t i ti o ne r ( 6 ) D i re c ti on s f o r u s e , an d c a ut i on a r y s t a te m e n ts , if an y ( 7 ) F or s c he d ul e I I , I I I , an d I V c on t ro l le d s ub st a nc es , th e fe de r a l c ri m e t ra n s f e r wa r n i n g m us t a p pe a r o n t h e c on t ai n e r: “ C au t io n : F e d e ra l l a w p r oh i bi ts th e t r a ns fe r o f t hi s d ru g to an y p e rs on o th e r t h an th e pa ti e nt fo r wh o m i t wa s p r es c ri b ed . ” d . Al l ow a b l e q ua n t i ti e s t h a t ma y b e d i s pe n se d . Th e A c t co n ta i ns n o l im it a t io n c o nc e rn in g th e q u an ti t y o f a c on t ro l le d s ub s ta nc e t ha t m a y be di s p e ns ed p u rs u an t t o a p r esc r ip t io n . Al l q ua n tit i es a re , o f c o u rs e, li m i te d to t he go od - f ai t h a nd “ l e gi t im at e m e di ca l p u rp os e ” s t an dar d s . e . F il i n g c on t r o l le d s u bs t a n ce p re s c r ip t i on s . W rit te n c on t r ol le d -s u bs ta n c e p r e sc ri p ti o ns m us t b e m a i n ta in e d a t t h e p ha r m a c y f o r a p e ri o d o f 2 y e ar s f r o m t he d a t e o f t h e o ri g in al P.537 d i sp e ns in g o r l as t re f il l , wh i c h e ve r i s l at e r . Th e y m us t be a v ai la b le fo r in sp e c t i on a n d c op y i n g b y em pl o y ee s a n d a ge n ts of th e D EA a n d b e f il e d s eg r e ga te d f ro m a ll o t h e r r ec o rd s i n o ne o f th e fo l lo wi n g wa y s ( st a te l a w u s ua l l y d ic t at e s t he m e th o d t o b e us ed ) : ( 1 ) U si n g t h r ee se p a ra te f i le s a s f o ll o ws : ( a ) O n e f il e fo r s c h e du le I I c o nt r o ll ed - s u bs t an c e p r e s c ri p ti o ns ( b ) O n e f il e fo r s c h e du le I I I , I V , a n d V c o n tr o ll ed -s u bs ta n c e pr e sc ri p ti o ns ( c ) O n e f il e fo r u ns c he dul e d p r es c r i pt i on d ru gs ( 2 ) U si n g tw o se p a ra t e fi l e s a s f ol l o ws : ( a ) O n e f il e fo r a l l c o n t rol l ed - s u bs t an c e p re s c r ip t io n s ( I I - V ), as l o ng as s c h e d ul e I I I , I V , an d V p r es c r i pt i on s ha v e t he le t t er “ C ” s t am ped i n r e d in k i n t h e l o we r -r i g ht c o r ne r n o l e s s t h an 1 i nc h h ig h ( b ) O n e f il e fo r un s c he du l ed p re s c r ip t io n d r ug s ( 3 ) U si n g tw o se p a ra t e fi l e s a s f ol l o ws : ( a ) O n e f il e fo r s c h e du le I I c o nt r o ll ed - s u bs t an c e p r e s c ri p ti o ns ( b ) O n e f il e fo r al l o th e r c o nt r o ll ed s u bs t an c e s ( I II - V ) a nd un s c he d ul ed p re s c r i pt i on d r u gs , a s l on g a s s c h edu l e I I I , I V , a nd V pr e s c rip t i on s h a v e t he le t t e r “ C” s ta m p e d i n re d i n k in t he lo we r - r ig h t c o rn e r n o l es s t ha n 1 i nc h h i gh ( 4 ) I n e it h er ( 2 ) o r (3 ) a bo v e , i f a p h ar m a c y ut i li z e s a n e l ec t ro n ic re co r d -k e e pi n g s ys t em fo r p r es c ri p ti o ns ( i . e ., c o m p u te r i zed r ec o rd s ) , wh i c h p e rm it s i de n tif i c a t io n b y p r e sc ri p ti o n n um be r an d r e t r ie v a l o f or i gi n al d o c um e nt s b y p r esc r i be r ' s n am e , p a t ie n t 's na m e , d r u g d is p e ns e d, an d d a te fi l le d , th e n t h e r e qu i re m e n t t o m a rk th e h a r d c op y p r es c r i pt io n wi t h a r ed “ C ” i s wa i ve d . f . R e f i ll d is p en s in g of co n t r o l le d s u b st a nc e s. P r e sc r ip t io ns f or sc he d ule I I c o nt r o ll ed s u bs t an c e s m a y n o t b e r e fi l le d . P r es c ri p t io ns fo r s ch e du l es II I a n d I V
c o nt r o ll ed s u bs t an c e s m a y b e re f il le d up to fi ve ti m es wi t hi n 6 m o n th s f r om t he da t e o f is su e o f t h e p r es c r i pt io n . Sc he d ul e V c o n t ro ll ed - s ub s t a nc e p r es c r i pt i ons ha v e n o l i m i t at io n s f o r r e fi ll i ng un d e r t h e A ct ; ho we v e r , on c e a ga i n, th e g o od - f ai th a nd “ l e gi t im at e m ed ic a l p u rpo s e ” li m i t a ti on s a p pl y h er e , as we l l a s t o a ll c o nt ro l le d s u bs ta n c e re f il ls . ( 1 ) R e fi ll in f o rm at i on m ay b e m a in t ai n ed ei t he r m a n u al l y o r b y us e o f a c om p ut e r . Th e A c t re qu i r es t h at t he i n fo r m a t io n b e m ai n ta ine d on e wa y o r th e o t he r , b u t n o t b o t h wa y s . I f c o mp u t e r iz e d re f i ll r e co r d s a r e m a i n ta in e d, t he s y s t em m u s t h a v e c e r ta i n ca p ab il i ti es an d th e di s p e ns in g p ha r m a c i s t m us t f ol l o w c er t ai n p r oc e du r es . ( a ) Th e c om p ut e r m us t be a bl e t o p r o v i de on - li n e r e t r ie va l o f t h e o r ig in a l p r e s c ri p ti o n i nf o rm a ti o n, p r o v i de on - li n e r e tr i e val o f th e re f il l h is to r y , a ref i ll - b y - r e fi ll a u di t t ra il , an d a n a u xi l i ar y p r o ce d ur e i n th os e c a s es wh e r e th e s y s te m e xp e r ie nc es d o wn t i m e . ( b ) Th e s y s t em m us t a ls o a ll o w t h e p ha r m a ci st wh o r ef il ls a p r es cr i pt i on to d o cu m e n t t h at th e i n fo r m a t i on he o r sh e e n te r e d in t o th e c om pu t e r is c o r re c t . ( 2 ) W hen d is pe ns i ng a re f i ll , t h e p ha r m a c i s t m u s t r ec o r d, on t he ba c k o f th e o ri gi n al p r e sc ri p ti o n o r b y c om put e r , th e f o ll o wi n g i nf o rm at i o n: ( a ) D a te of t he re f il l ( b ) N am e o r in i ti al s o f t he r e fi ll i ng ph a rm ac is t ( c ) A m o un t of th e m e di c a t i on di sp e ns ed (i f th e am o un t i s o m i t te d , t he r e fi l l wi l l be d e em e d t o h a v e b ee n fo r t h e f ul l fa c e am ou n t p r es c ri b ed b y th e p r ac ti t io ne r ) g . M u l t i pl e s c he d u le II p r e s c r ip t i on s p re s c ri b ed o n th e s a me da y t o b e f i l le d s e q ue n t ia l l y. Th e r e f il l o f a p r es c r i pt i on fo r a c on t r ol l ed s u bs t an c e li s t e d i n s ch e du l e I I i s p r oh ib i te d . H o we ve r , a n i n di v i du a l p r a c t i ti o ne r m a y iss u e m u l t ip le p r e sc ri p ti o ns au t ho r i z in g t h e p a ti en t to r ec ei ve a t o t al of u p t o a 9 0 - da y s u p pl y o f a s ch e du l e I I c on t r ol le d s ub s ta nc e pr o v i di n g e ac h p r e s c ri p ti o n is is su e d f o r a l e gi t im a te m e di c a l p u rp os e b y a n i nd i v i du a l p ra c ti t i on e r a c t in g i n th e u s u al c o u rs e o f p r o f ess i on al p ra c ti c e . The i nd i v id u al p ra c t i ti o ne r p r o v i de s wr i t te n i ns t r uc tio n s o n e a ch p re s c r ip t io n ( o th e r t h a n t he f ir s t p r es c r ip t ion , if t he p re s c ri b in g p r ac t i t io n er i n t en ds fo r th a t p r es c r i pti o n t o b e fi ll e d im m e di a te l y) in d ic a ti ng t he ea r li es t da t e o n wh i c h a p ha r m a c y m a y fil l ea c h p re sc ri p ti o n. h . P a r ti a l d i sp e ns i n g o f c o n t r ol l ed s ub s ta n ce s . Th e A c t d oe s n ot p ro h ibi t th e p a r ti a l d is pe ns i ng of c o nt r o ll e d s ub st a nc es i n s c he d ul e s I I I a nd I V, p ro v i de d th a t e a ch pa r t ia l f il l in g i s r ec o r d ed in t he s am e m an ne r as r ef i ll s , th e to t al qua n t it y d i sp e ns ed in al l p a rt i al fil l in gs do es n ot e xc e ed th e to t al qu a nt i t y pr e s c ri be d , a n d n o p a r ti a l f il l in g o c c u rs a f t er 6 m o nt h s f r om t h e d at e o f i s s u an c e of t he pr e sc r i p ti o n. L i ke wi s e , a ll pa r t ia l f il l ing s o f a s c he d ul e V p r es c r i p ti o n m u s t n ot e xc e e d th e to t al q u a nt i t y p r es c ri b ed . ( 1 ) P a r t ia l d i s pe n si n g of a sc h ed u l e I I c o n t ro l le d su b s ta n ce . Th e p a r tia l d i sp e ns in g o f a s c he du l e I I p re sc ri p ti o n is al l o wed i f t he p ha rm ac is t is u na b le t o s u pp l y th e fu ll P.538 q u a nt i t y o r th e p r es c ri p tio n is fo r a t er m i n al l y il l p a t ie n t o r a pa t ie n t i n a lo n g -
t e r m c a re fa c i l it y ( L TC F ) . U n d e r n o o th e r c i rc um s ta n c e m a y a s c h ed u le I I p r e sc ri p ti o n b e p a rt i al l y d i s p e ns ed . ( a ) I na d eq u a te su p p l y. I n c a s e s o f a n i na d eq u ate s u p pl y , t he di s p e ns in g p h a rm ac is t m us t n o te on t h e f ac e o f th e p r es c ri p ti o n t h e am o un t d is p en s ed . Th e r e m ai ni n g b al an c e o f t he s c h ed u le I I p r esc r ip t io n m us t be di sp e ns ed wi t h in 7 2 h ou r s o f t he fi r s t pa r t ia l f il l in g . I f , fo r a n y r ea s o n , t h e ba l an c e is no t d is p en se d wi t h i n th e 7 2 - ho u r p e ri o d, t he ph a rm ac is t m us t no t if y t he p re s c r i bi ng p ra c ti ti o ne r of t h is f ac t. Th e p h a rm ac is t m a y n o t d i s p e ns e a n y fu r th e r a m o u n ts p u rs u an t to th is p re s c r i pt i on b e yo n d t he 72 - h ou r p e r io d . ( b ) T e rm i na l l y i l l a n d pa t i e n ts in L T CF s . I t i s th e ph a rm ac is t ' s r es p on s ib i li t y t o e n su r e t h at a p a ti en t has a m ed ic al di a gn os is doc um e nt i ng a t e rm in a l il l ne s s o r t h at t h e p a ti e nt is i n an L TC F. B e fo r e a n y pa r t ia l d is pe n s i n g, th e p h a rm ac is t m us t re c or d o n th e p r es c ri p ti on wh e th e r th e p a ti e nt is “t e rm i na l l y il l ” o r a n “L TC F p a tie n t . ” A n y p a r ti a l d is pe ns i ng wi t h out o ne o f t he s e no t a ti on s s h al l b e d e em ed to be a d i sp e ns in g i n v io la t io n o f t h e A c t. Th e to t al am oun t o f t he s c he du l e I I s ubs t an c e d i sp e ns ed in al l p a rt i al fil l in gs m u s t no t e xc e ed the t o ta l q ua n ti t y p re s c r ib ed . S c h ed ul e II p re s c r ip t io ns f o r a t er m i n al l y il l p a ti en t o r a p a ti e nt in an L TC F a r e v a l id u p to 60 da y s f ro m t he da t e o f i s s u an c e of t he pre s c r i pt i on b y t h e p r ac ti t io n e r . A ll o f t h e fo ll o wi n g i n fo r m a ti o n m us t b e re c o r de d , e i th er m an u al l y on th e b ac k of t h e p r e sc ri p ti o n o r v ia c o m pu t e r ( wi t h si m i l ar c a p ab ili t i es re q ui r ed fo r c om p u te r i ze d r e f il l re c o r d k ee p in g ), wh e n pa r t ia ll y d is pe ns i ng a s c h ed u le I I p r es c r ip t io n f o r a t e r m i n al l y i l l p at i en t o r a p a ti e nt in an L TC F : ( i ) D a te o f t he pa r t ia l f il l in g ( i i ) Q u an t it y o f d r ug di s pe n s e d ( i i i ) R em ai ni n g q ua n ti t y a u t ho r i z ed t o b e d is pe ns e d ( i v) I d e nt i fi c a t io n o f th e d i s p e ns in g p ha r m a c i s t i . T r an s f e r o f r e fi l l i n f or m a t i on f o r a co n t r o ll ed - s u bs t a nc e p r e sc r i p t io n . R ef i ll i n f or m at io n c o nc e rn in g s c h ed u le s I I I, I V , a nd V c o n t r ol le d s ub s ta nc es m ay b e t r a ns f e r re d t o a n ot h er pha r m ac y on l y on ce ( if al l owe d b y s t at e l a w) . P h a rm ac i es e l ec t r on ic al l y s h a ri n g a re a l ti m e , o n -l i ne da t ab as e ( s u ch as c h ai n p ha r m ac i es ) m a y t r a ns f e r r e fi ll in f o rm at i on f o r th es e c on t r ol le d s ubs t an c e s u p t o th e m a xi m u m n u m b e r o f re f il ls pe rm i t te d b y l a w a n d t h e p re sc ri b e r 's au t ho r i za ti o n. Th e c om m u n ic at i on m u s t be m a de di r ec t l y b e t we e n two l i c en se d p h a rm ac is ts . B o th t he o r i gi n al pr es c ri p ti o n a nd t h e tr a ns fe r r e d p re s c r ip t io n m us t be m a in t ai ne d fo r 2 yea r s f r o m t he da t e o f th e l as t r e f il l . Ce r t ai n i nf o rm a ti on m u s t b e r ec o rd e d a s f ol l o ws : ( 1 ) Th e t r an s fe r r i n g p ha r m a ci s t m us t : ( a ) W rit e t h e wo r d “ v o id ” o n th e f ac e o f th e o r ig i na l pr e sc ri p ti o n ( b ) O n th e b ac k o f t h e p re s c r i pt i on , re c o r d t h e n am e , a dd r es s , a nd D E A re g is t r at i on n u m b e r o f t h e p ha r m a c y t o wh i c h i t wa s t r an sf e r re d an d t h e n am e o f t h e p h a rm ac is t r e c ei vi ng t he in f or m a t io n ( c ) R ec o rd t he da t e o f t he t r an s f e r a n d t he na m e o f t he t ra ns f e rr i ng ph a rm a c is t ( 2 ) Th e r ec e i vi n g p ha r m a c is t m us t : ( a ) W rit e t h e wo r d “ t ra n s f e r ” on th e f a c e of th e tra n sf e r re d pr es c ri p ti o n ( b ) R ec o r d a ll of th e i n for m a ti o n r eq u i re d f o r a n y c o nt r o ll ed - s u bs t an c e p res c ri p ti o n ( s e e I . I. 3 ) , a nd in c l u de th e fo l lo wi n g :
( i ) D a te o f is s u a nc e o f t he o ri g in a l p re sc r ip t io n ( i i ) O r ig i na l n um b er o f r ef i ll s a u th o ri z e d on th e o ri g i n a l p r es c r ip t io n ( i i i ) D at e t h e p r es c r i pt i on wa s in i ti a ll y d is pe ns e d ( i v) N u m be r of v a li d re f ill s re m a i ni ng an d th e d a te o f t h e l as t r e fi ll ( v) P h a r m a c y ' s n am e , a dd r e s s , D EA r eg is t r at i on n u m b e r , a nd o ri gi n al pr es c ri p ti o n n u m b e r f r om wh i c h th e pr e s c r ip t io n i n fo r m a t io n wa s tr a ns f er r e d ( vi ) N a m e o f t h e t r an s f e rr i n g p ha r m a ci s t J . D i sp o sa l of c on t r o l led s u bs t an c es t o a pa t i en t w i t h ou t a p r e sc r i p t ion . C o n t r ol le d s ub s ta nc es t ha t a re no t p r es c ri p ti o n ( or l eg e nd ) d ru gs un d er f ed e r al la w m a y be di s p e ns ed t o a pa t i en t a t re t ai l wi t ho u t a p r e sc ri p ti o n. Th e s e d ru gs do no t h a v e on th e m a nu f ac tu r er ' s l ab el t he fe d er a l s ta te m en t : “ C a u ti on : Fe d er a l l a w p r o hi b it s d is pe ns i ng wi t ho u t a p re sc r ip t io n . ” Th e s u bs ta n c e s m a y b e d is pe n se d wi t h o u t a p re s c r ip t io n i n a c c o r da nc e wi t h t h e f ol lowi n g : P.539
1 . Th e di s p en s i n g m u s t b e m a de on l y b y a li ce n s e d ph a rm ac is t . Th e ac t ua l c as h t r a ns f e r o r d el i v e r y m a y b e m a de b y a n on ph a rm a c is t . 2 . N o t m o r e t h an 8 o z o f a n y s u b st a nc e c o n ta i ni ng o pi um , 4 o z of an y o t he r c o nt r o ll ed s u bs t an c e , 4 8 d os a ge un i ts o f an y s u bs t an c e c o n ta i ni ng op i um , o r 24 d o sa g e u ni ts of a n y o t her c on t r ol le d s ub s ta nc e m a y b e d is p en s e d to th e s a m e p u r ch as e r i n a n y 48 - ho ur p e ri o d. 3 . Th e pu rc h as e r is a t l ea s t 1 8 y ea r s o ld . 4 . A n y pu rc h as e r n ot k no wn t o t he ph a rm ac is t m u s t f u rn is h s ui t a bl e i de n ti f ic a ti o n. 5 . A b o un d re c o r d b o ok m us t be m a in t ai ne d fo r 2 y e a r s f r om th e d a te o f th e la s t e n t r y. Th e f o ll o wi n g i nf o rm a ti o n m u s t b e r ec o rd e d f o r e ac h p u rc h as e : a . N am e a n d a dd r es s o f t h e p u rc h as e r b . N am e a n d q ua n ti t y o f c o nt r o ll ed su bs t an c e pu rc h as ed c . D at e o f ea c h pu r c h as e d . N am e o r in i ti al s o f t h e p h a rm ac is t wh o d is p en se d th e s ub s ta nc e t o th e p u r ch as e r 6 . A ll di s p e ns in g o f a c on t r ol l ed s u bs t an c e wi t h ou t a p r es cr i pt i on m us t be d o ne in g o o d f ai t h a nd no t to e va d e t h e p r o v is io ns of t he A c t . K . S e c u ri t y c o n s i d e ra t io n s 1 . C o n t ro l l ed - s ub s ta n ce s ea l s. Ma n u f ac t u re r s m us t pa c k ag e c e rt a in c on t r ol l ed s u bs ta n c e s i n a c on t ai n er wi t h a s ec u re l y a ff i xe d s e al to r e v ea l a n y t am per i n g. E ve r y b o t tl e , m ul t ip le - d os e v ia l , o r o t he r c o m m erc i al c o nt a in e r o f a n y c o nt r o ll e d s u bs ta n c e li s t e d in s c hed u le I I, o r o f a n y na r co t ic co n t ro ll e d su bs t an c e lis t ed in s ch e du l e I I I o r I V , m us t b e pa c k ag e d wi t h s u c h a s ea l . 2 . F el o n y c o n vi c t i o n s . N o D E A r eg is t r an t m a y em p lo y a n i nd i vid u al wh o h a s ac c ess t o co n tr o ll e d s u bs t an c e s i f th a t i nd i v id u al ha d p re v i o us l y be e n c o n vic t ed o f a f el o n y o f f en se r el a te d t o c o nt r ol l ed s u bs t an ce s . 3 . M a n u fa c tu r e r ' s l a be l . E v e r y c om m e r c i al c o n tai n e r o f a c o nt r o ll ed s u bs ta n ce m us t ha v e on it s l ab e l t he s y m b ol de s i g na t in g t h e s c h ed u le in wh i c h t he c o n t r ol le d s u bs ta n c e is l is t ed . Th e s y m b ol m us t a p pe a r i n th e up p er - r ig h t c o rn e r o f t h e l a be l o r b e o ve rp r in t ed on t he l ab e l .
L . R e co r d ma i n te n an c e. A l l re c o r ds re q ui r ed t o be m a i nt a in ed u nd e r t he A c t m us t b e k e pt b y th e re g is t ra n t f o r 2 y e a rs . Th e r ec o r ds m a y be m a in t ai ne d a t a c e nt r a l l o ca t io n (e . g. , a t a c h a in p h a rm ac y ' s re g io na l o f f ic e ) a f te r no t if y i n g t h e DE A . H o we ve r , e xe c u t e d D E A 2 2 2 F o rm s ( C o p y 3) , al l c o nt r o ll ed - s u bs t an c e p res c ri p ti o ns , a n d a ll in v e n to r i es m us t b e m a in t ai ne d at th e p h ar m ac y , n ot c e nt r a ll y . A ll s c h e du l e I I co n t ro ll e d -s ub s t a nc e re c o rd s m u s t b e m a i nt a ine d s e pa r a te l y an d re ad i ly r e t r ie va b le f ro m a ll ot h e r r e c o r ds . M . D E A i n s pe c t io n s. I ns p ec ti o ns b y t h e D E A o f a n y r e gi s t e r ed fa c i li t y m a y b e c o nd uc t ed on l y in a r e as o n a bl e m an ne r an d d u ri ng r e gu la r bu s i n es s ho u rs . I n sp ec t io n m a y be c o nd uc t ed a ft e r o b ta in i ng co ns e n t o f th e re gi s t ra n t o r af t e r th e D E A h as ob t ai n ed an adm i ni s t r a ti v e wa r r a n t f r om a j u d ge . An ap p li c a t io n f o r an a d m i ni s t ra ti v e wa r r a n t m u s t s ta t e wi t h sp ec i fi c i t y t h e n a tu r e , e xt e n t , a n d au t h o ri t y to c o nd uc t th e re qu es t e d ins p ec ti o n. Th e s co p e o f an a dm in is t r at i v e i ns p ec tio n e xt e n d s to an y r ec o r ds re q ui r e d u nd e r t h e A c t , eq u ip m en t a n d c o n ta i ne r s u se d i n t h e h a nd li n g o f c on t r ol led s u bs t a nc es , a nd t he ve r i fi ca t io n o f c om p li an c e wi t h a n y r e q ui r em e nt of t he Ac t . If r ec o r ds a r e re m o v e d f ro m th e r e gi st r a nt b y th e D E A , a r e c ei p t g i v en to th e re g is t r a n t wi l l li st th e i t em s t ak e n. N . L o n g- t e r m -c a r e f ac i li t i e s ( L T C Fs ) . An L TC F is de f in e d as a n u rs in g ho m e, r e t i re m e n t c a re , m en t al c a r e, o r o th e r f ac i li t y o r in s ti t u ti on t ha t p r o v id e s ext e n d e d h e al t h c a re to r es id e nt pa t i en ts . L TC F s a re no t no r m al l y re g is te r e d wi t h th e D E A , a l t ho ug h th e y of t en m a int a i n c o n t ro ll e d s ub s t a nc e s th a t a re di s pe ns ed t o a p at i en t b y p r es c ri p ti o n f r om a pha r m ac y. Th e y a re no t req u i re d to be re g is te r e d wi t h t h e D E A b ec a us e t h e c o n t ro ll e d s ub s t a nc e i s di s pe ns e d to t he ul ti m at e u se r ( th e p a t ie n t ) a nd is n o t is s ued b y o r t h ro u gh th e L TC F . W hen d is p os in g o f c on t r ol l ed s u bs ta n c e s , L TC F s m u s t c on t ac t th e n ea r es t D EA D i ve r s i o n F ie ld O f f ic e f o r di s p os a l i n st r uc t io ns . P.540
1 . E me r g e nc y k i t s f o r LT C F s . An L TC F m a y m a in t a in c o nt r o ll ed s u bs t anc es in e m e rg en c y k i ts s o l o ng as s t a te la w s p ec i fi c a ll y ap p r o ves of s u ch us e a nd t h e s ta t e s e ts fo r t h p r oc ed u re s t ha t r eq u ir e th e f o ll o wi n g: a . S o u rc e o f su p p l y: Th e L TC F m u s t o bt a in c o ntr o l le d s ub s ta nc es fo r th e e m e rg en c y k i ts f ro m a DE A - r e g is te r ed h os pi t al /c li n i c , p h a rm ac y, or p ra c ti ti o ne r . b . S ec u r i t y s a f e g u a r d s : A c c e s s to ea ch em e rg en c y k i t i n t h e L TC F m u s t b e r e s t ri ct e d, an d th e t y p e a n d q u an t it y o f c on t r ol led s u bs t a nc es t h a t m a y be p la c e d i n t h e e m e r g en c y k i t m u s t b e s p ec if ic a ll y l im it e d. c . P r op e r co n t r o l, ac c ou n t a bi l i t y, a n d r e c o r d ke e p in g : Th e L TC F a nd th e p r o vi di n g D E A - r eg is t e red h os pi t al /c l in ic , p h a rm ac y , o r p r ac t it i on e r m u s t m a in t ai n c om p le t e a nd ac c u r at e re c o rd s o f t h e co n t ro ll e d s u bs ta n c e s p la c e d i n t h e e m e rg en c y k i t , i nc lu di n g t h e d is p os it i on of t he se c o nt r o ll ed su bs t an c e s, as we l l a s t a ke pe r i od ic ph y s ic al inv e n t o r ie s o f t h e d ru gs . d . Ad m i n i st r a t i on o f c on t r o l l ed su b s ta n ce s . I n e m e r g en c y m ed ic a l s i t ua t i on s wh e n m ed ic a ti o n is ne e de d f ro m t he em e rg e nc y ki t , o n l y L TC F p e rs o nn el wh o a r e a u t ho r i z ed b y an in di v i du a l p r ac t it io n e r ca n a dm in i st e r t h e co n t ro l le d s ubs t an c e s .
e . P r o hi b i te d ac t i vi t i es : P r o hi b it e d ac t i vi ti es c a n r e s u l t i n t he st a te r e v oc a t i on , d e ni a l, o r s us pe ns io n o f h a v i n g em e rg e nc y k i t s c o n t ai ni n g c on t ro l le d s ubs t an ce s i n a n L TC F . O . V i o l at i o ns u nd e r th e Ac t . P e n al t ie s f o r v i o la ti o ns of t he Fe d er a l C o n tro l le d S u b st a nc es Ac t d e pe n d o n th e s ch e du le o f co n t ro l le d s ub s ta nc e i n v o l v ed, t h e u n la wf u l ac t , a n d t h e k now le d ge a nd i nt e n t o f th e vi o l a to r . It wi l l a ls o de p e nd on wh e t h e r it is a f ir s t o f fe ns e o r a s ub se qu e nt o ff e ns e . 1 . C i vi l pe n al t y. G e n e r al l y , ea c h vi ol a ti o n o f t h e A c t m a y s u bj ec t an in di v id u al t o a c i v i l p en al t y ( f in e ) o f u p t o $1 0 ,0 0 0. Th e go ve r nm e n t m us t p r o v e t h at t he vi o la t o r wa s n e gl i ge n t wi t h r es pec t to c o m p li a nc e u nd e r th e Ac t , a s o pp os e d t o m e r e m is t ak e o r i n ad v e r t en c e . 2 . I mp r i so n me n t . I f a n in d i v id u al k n o wi n gl y a nd i n t en t io na l l y v io l a t es t he A c t , h e o r s h e m a y b e s en t en c e d to a t er m o f y ea r s, in ad d iti o n t o a ci v i l p en a lt y .
II. FEDERAL FOOD, DRUG, AND COSMETIC ACT (FDCA). I n 19 3 7, s u l fa ni l am id e e li xi r c o n ta i ni ng de a dl y d ie t h y l en e g l y co l (a u to m ob i le a n t if r e e z e) wa s m a nu f ac t u r e d wi t h o ut an y s af e t y d a t a. Th e r e we r e n um e ro u s d ea t hs a ss o ci at e d wi t h i ts u s e, wh i c h p ro m p t ed th e fe der a l g o ve r nm en t to pa s s th e 19 3 8 F D C A . Th e F D C A re q ui re s th a t a ll ne w d r u g p r odu c ts in t en de d fo r us e as l a be l ed b y t h e m an u fa c tu r e r i n t he U n i t ed S ta t es m us t be pro ve n to t he fe d e ra l g o v er n m en t t o b e s a fe an d e f f ec ti v e . Su c h p r oo f i s s ub m i t te d t o t h e F o od an d D ru g Ad m in i st r a ti o n ( F D A ) b y us e o f a N e w D r u g Ap p li c a t io n ( N D A ). A. D e f i n i t i o n. U nd e r t h e F D C A , t he te r m “ d ru g ” is de f in e d as in c l u di n g a ll o f th e f o l lo wi n g : 1 . A r ti cl es r ec og n i z ed in t h e o f fi ci a l U n i te d S t a te s P h a r m ac o pe ia ( U S P ) , o ff i c i a l H o m e o p at h ic Ph a r m ac o po e ia o f t he U ni t ed S t at es, o r o f f ic ia l N a t io na l Fo rm u l a r y , o r a n y su p pl em e nt t o t he s e 2 . A r ti cl es in t en d ed fo r us e i n th e d ia g no si s , cu r e, m i t ig a ti o n, t re a tm e nt , or p r e ve n ti on o f d is ea s e in m a n o r o t he r an im al s 3 . A r ti cl es ( ot h e r t ha n f oo d ) i n t en de d to af f ec t t he s tr u ct u re o r a n y fu nc t io n of t he b o d y of m a n o r ot h er an im a ls 4 . A r ti cl es in t en d ed fo r us e a s a c om p on e nt o f a ny a r t ic l e sp e c i fi e d i n 1 , 2, o r 3 a b o ve B . L e ge n d d r u gs . Le g end d r ug s a r e t ho se m e di c a t i on s t ha t ha ve on th e i r l a be l f r om t h e m an u fa c tu r e r t he f ol lo wi n g f ed e ra l l y re q ui r ed s t a te m e n t: “ R x o nl y. ” S uc h m e di ca t io ns m a y b e d is pe n s e d d i re c tl y t o t h e p at ie n t b y m ea ns of a val id wr i t t e n o r o r a l p r es c r i pt i on f ro m a p r a c t i ti o ne r o r b y a v a li d r e f il l a u th o ri za t io n o f e i th e r . B y l a w, t h es e m ed ic a ti o ns m us t be a r a l a be l wi t h ad e q u a t e d ir ec t io ns f o r us e , wh i c h c a n o nl y b e g i v en b y a lic e ns ed p ra c t i ti o ne r an d , t h e r ef o re , th e re q ui r em en t o f a p r e sc ri p ti o n. A dr u g, in t en d e d f o r us e b y h um an s , i s c on s i de r e d a l e ge nd d r u g ( a nd h a ve th e a b o v e c au t io n o n it s l ab e l) i f a n y o f th e f o ll o wi n g a p pl y : 1 . B ec au s e o f t he d ru g ' s t o xi c i t y o r o th e r p o te n tia l fo r a h a rm fu l e f fe c t, or i ts m e t ho d o f us e , o r c ol la t e ra l m eas u r es n ec es s ar y t o i t s us e , it is no t sa f e f o r u s e e x c ep t u n d e r th e s u pe r vi s i o n o f a p r ac ti t io n e r li c en s e d b y l a w t o a dm i ni st e r s uc h d r ug . P.541
2 . Th e dr u g is a n ew d r ug f o r wh ic h a n a p pr o v e d N D A l im i ts it s u s e to th e p r o f ess i on al s u p er v i s i o n o f a p r ac ti t io n e r li c en se d b y l a w t o a dm i ni st e r s uc h d r ug . A n e w d r u g i s b r oa dl y d e fin e d a s b ei n g o ne th a t g en e r al l y is no t re c o gn i z e d a m o n g e xp e r t s as s a fe an d e f f ec t i v e f o r u s e un d er t he c o n di t io ns p re sc r ib e d, r e c om m e nd e d, o r s u g ges t ed in t he la be l in g . I t i s a l s o d e fi n ed as b e in g a d r u g t h at , a s a r es ul t o f in v e s t i ga t io n s t o d e te r m i ne it s s af et y a n d e f fe c ti ve ne s s fo r u s e u nd e r s uc h c o nd i ti on s , h as b ec o m e s o r ec og n i z ed bu t th a t h as no t , o t he r th a n in t he i n ve st i ga t io ns , b e en us ed t o a m a te r ia l e xt e n t o r f o r a m a t e ri a l t im e u nd e r s uc h c o nd i ti on s . F in a ll y , a n ew d r u g m a y r e su l t f r om a c ha n ge in th e d o s a ge f or m , l a be l in g , i nd ic a ti on s , o r a n y o th e r c ha n ge in a d ru g p ro du c t t ha t i s a l re a dy b e i ng m a rk e te d . Th e ul t im a te de c is io n o f wh e t he r a d rug is a n e w d r ug li es wi t h t h e F D A b e ca us e o f i t s e xp e r t is e i n re s ol vi ng t ec hn ic al and s c ie n ti f ic qu es t io ns . a . N D A. E v e r y n e w d r u g m a rk e te d i n t h e U n i te d St a t es m us t be s a fe an d ef f e c t i v e f o r it s i n te nd e d us e as l ab e le d b y t h e m a n uf a c t u re r . P r oo f o f s a fe t y an d e f f ec t i v en es s m u s t b e s ub m it t ed t o t he F D A b y t he m a n uf ac t u re r vi a t he ND A . W hen a n e w c he m i c a l e n ti t y ( NC E ) i s i de n ti f ie d b y a m an u f ac tu r e r , t he m a nu f ac tu r e r m us t o b t ai n a n I n v es t ig a ti o na l N e w D r u g A p pl ic at i on ( IN D ) b e fo r e c on d uc ti n g pr e c li ni c a l a n im al t es ts an d c li ni c a l h u m a n i n ves t ig a ti o ns . b . I N D . Be c a us e a n N C E h as no t y e t b ee n a p p ro v e d b y th e F D A as a s a f e a n d e f f ec t i v e d ru g , a m a nu f ac t u re r is re q ui r ed to f il e a n I N D wi t h t h e F D A . The I N D a l lo ws a m a nu f ac t ur e r t o c on d uc t re s e a rc h wi t h th e N C E an d e xe m p ts t he d r u g f r om c e r ta i n p ro h ib i ti on s o f the F D C A in or d e r t o f ac i li ta t e c li n ic al in ve s t i ga t io ns ; th us , I N D s a re s om e ti m e s re f er r e d to as a n In v e s t i ga t io n al N e w D r u g E xe m p ti on . G e n e r al l y , c li n ic al in v e s ti g a ti on o f a n N C E is di v i d e d i n to th r e e p ha s e s, wi t h e ac h p h as e i n v o l v in g a gr e at er n um b er o f h um an s u bj ec t s. ( 1 ) P ha s e 1 . A p ha s e 1 in v e s ti g at i on is th e i ni t ia l i n t ro d uc ti o n o f a n i n v es ti g a ti on a l n e w d r u g i n to hu m a ns to d e te r m i n e t he m e ta b ol is m , ph a rm ac ol o g y , s id e ef f e c t s, m ec h an is m o f a c t i on , a nd e a rl y e v i de nc e o n e f fec t i v en es s . ( 2 ) P ha s e 2 . A p ha s e 2 in v e s ti g at i on in c l u de s t he we l l - c on t ro l l e d , c l os e l y m o ni t o re d c l in ic al s t u di es in o rd e r to e v a lu a te th e e f f ec ti v e ne s s o f t he d ru g f o r a pa r ti c ul a r i n di ca t io n a n d t o f u r th e r d e t e rm in e s id e e f fe c ts an d ri s k s . ( 3 ) P ha s e 3 . A p ha s e 3 in v e s ti g at i on in c l u de s e xp a n de d c li ni c a l t r i al s t o g a t he r a d di t io n al in f o rm at i on c on c e rn in g s a fe t y, ef f ec ti ve n es s, a nd th e o v e r al l be n e fi t - ri s k r e l at i on sh i p as s o c i a te d wi t h t h e d r ug ' s u s e . Th is p h as e a ls o i nc lu d es g a th e r in g i n f or m at io n to p ro v i de an a d eq u at e b as is f or ph y s i c ia n l ab e li n g. c . T re a t me n t I N D s (o r t re a t me n t p ro t o co l s ). Th e F D A m a y al l o w a tr e atm e nt I N D , wh i c h al l o ws a r es ea r c he r ( ph y s ic ia n ) to us e a n in v e s ti g at i on a l d ru g a s t re a tm e nt in s e r io us an d l i fe - th r e at e ni n g d is ea s es wh e r e n o co m p a r ab l e o r s a ti s f ac t o ry a l t er n a ti v e dr u g o r o t he r t h e r ap y is a v ai l ab le . C . O ve r - t h e - c ou n t e r ( O TC ) m e d i ca t i o ns . Ce r t ain m e d ic at i on s m a y b e d is p en s e d O TC a t r e t ai l d is t r ib u to r s wi t h o u t a pr e sc ri p ti o n. Th e fe d e ra l g o v e rn m e n t ha s d e t e rm in ed t ha t t h es e m e d ic a ti on s m a y be s a fe l y a n d p r op e rl y s el f -a dm i nis t e re d wi t h o u t th e s up e r v is io n of a pr ac t i ti on e r l ic e ns ed b y l a w t o ad m i ni s te r (o r p r e sc ri b e )
s uc h a d ru g . Ge n e ra ll y , th e s e m e di ca t io ns a re not h ab i t -f o rm i ng an d h a v e a lo w t o xi c i t y o r o t he r po t en t ial f o r a h a rm f ul ef f ec t . The s e m e d ic at i on s d o n o t h a v e th e f e d e ra l s ta t em en t “ Rx o nl y ” o n t h ei r la be l (s ee I I.B ) . 1 . O TC p r e pa r a ti o ns m us t ha v e ad e qu a t e d i r ec ti o n s f o r u s e on th e i r l abe l , a n d t he p r o du c t m u s t c o m p l y wi t h t he ap p li ca bl e F D A m on o g ra p h. Th e F D C A r e qui r e s al l d r u gs m a rk e te d i n t h e U n i t ed S ta t es to be ge n era l l y re c og ni z e d a s s af e an d e f f ec t i v e. As a r e s u l t, it c o n v en e d r e v i e w p an el s t o r e vie w O TC d r u g e f fec t i v en es s a n d c r ea t e m o n og r ap h s fo r e ac h t he r a pe u ti c c l ass o f O TC d r u gs . Th is r e vi e w i s r e f e r re d t o a s t h e D r u g -E f f ic a c y (o r E ff ec t i v en es s ) S tu d y Im p le m e n ta t io n ( D E S I ) . A ll O TC d r u g s m us t c om pl y wi t h t h e a pp l ic ab l e d ru g m o no g ra p h o r b e c on s i de r e d m is b r an de d (s ee I I. I ) a nd s u b je ct t o F D A re g ul a to r y a c ti on . 2 . O TC p r e pa r a ti o ns m us t ha v e th e fo ll o wi n g i n fo r m at i on on it s l ab el : a . I de n ti t y , i n b o ld fa c e , o f t he O TC p r o du ct on t he p ri n ci pa l d is p la y p an el b . A de q ua t e d i re c t i on s fo r us e c . In g re d ie n ts (i nc l ud in g i n e rt o r i na c ti v e in g re d i en t s ) i n t he p ro d uc t d . N e t q ua n ti t y o f c o n te nt s e . E xp i r a t io n d a te of t he p r o du c t f . L ot nu m b e r o f th e p r odu c t g . N am e a n d p la c e of bus i ne s s o f th e m an u fa c tu re r , pa ck e r, o r d is t ri b ut o r P.542
h . D is cl os u re o f c e r t ai n c o nt e nt s a n d t he de cl a rat i o n o f c er t ai n wa r n in gs , i n cl ud i ng h a bi t - f or m i n g i ng r ed i en ts a n d wa r n i ng s , p r eg na n cy / n u r si n g wa r n i ng s , a nd a s pi r in wa r n i n g s 3 . P r es c r i p ti o n d r u g c on ve r s i o n to O TC . A l eg en d d ru g wi ll c o n ve r t t o an O TC d r u g wh e n t he F D A f i nd s t h a t t he p re s c r ip t io n -o n ly l i m i t at i on is n o t n ec es s a r y f o r t h e p r o te c t i on of t he pu bl i c h ea l th b y re as o n o f t he d r ug ' s t o xi c i t y or o th e r p o te n ti a l f o r ha r m f u l e ff e c t , th e m e t h od of i ts u s e , or t he co l la t e ra l m ea s u r es ne c es sa r y t o i ts u s e. Th e F D A m u s t a ls o f i n d t ha t th e d r ug is s a fe a n d e f fe c t i v e fo r u s e in s e lf m e di ca t io n a s d i re c t e d in p r op os ed la b el i ng . 4 . M i s ce l la n eo u s re g u la t i o ns f o r O T Cs . a . I pe c ac s yr u p . A l t h oug h ip ec ac s y ru p c a n o nl y b e d is p en se d p u rs u a n t to a p r e sc ri p ti o n, t he F D A b eli e v e s t ha t it s h ou l d b e r ea d il y a v a il a bl e O TC a s an e m e rg en c y t re a tm en t em e t ic f or us e i n p oi s o n in gs . Th e F D A al l o ws th e OTC s a l e o f i p ec ac s y r u p i n 1 f lu id ou n c e c o n ta in e rs s o th a t it wi l l be r ea di l y a v a il ab l e i n t h e h o us e ho ld f or em e rg e nc y t r e a tm e nt of po is o ni n gs , un de r m e di c a l s up e r vis i on , a n d t h a t t h e d ru g b e ap p ro p ria t e l y p ac k ag ed an d l a be le d fo r th is pu r p os e. b . P r e gn a nc y- n u r s i n g w a r ni n g . A l l O TC d r u gs i n t en de d fo r s y s t em ic a bs o r pt i on m us t c o nt a in a wa r n i ng th a t i f th e u s e r is p r e gn an t o r n u rs in g a ba b y , s he s ho u ld f i r s t s e ek th e a d v ic e o f a h e al t h p r of es s i o na l b e for e us i ng th e p r od u c t . E xc e pt i on s t o t hi s la b el i ng re q ui r em e n t e xi s t wh e n an O TC i s i n t en d ed to be n ef i t t h e f e t us o r n u r si ng in f an t , a n d f o r O TC d r u g s t h at a re la be l ed e xc l us i v e l y fo r pe di a t ric us e . c . As p i r i n w a r n i ng s . Al l O TC a s p i ri n c on t ai n in g p r e pa r a ti o ns m us t h a ve a wa r n i ng t o ke ep ou t of c h il d r en ' s r e a c h an d t o c on t ac t a ph ys ic i an im m e di a te l y in c as e o f
a cc i de n ta l o v e r d os e. O ra l or r ec t al O TC a s p i ri n c o nt a in in g pr e pa r a ti on s m us t al s o h a ve a wa r n i n g c o nc e r nin g R e y e 's s y nd r om e i n ch i ld r e n a nd te e na g er s . d . C h em i ca l s a n d p r ec ur s o r s . I t wa s di s c o v e re d t h a t co m b i na t io n d r ug pr o d uc ts c o nt a in in g ep he d r in e , ps e u d oe ph e d ri ne , or ph e n yl p r o p a no la m i n e a r e t he pr e c ur s or m a te r i al s us e d b y il l eg al m e th am ph e ta m i n e l ab o ra t o ri e s . Th e C om pr e he ns i v e Me t h a m p he t am in e Co n t ro l Ac t o f 19 9 6 r eq u i re s al l re t ai l d is t r ib u to r s o f t he s e O TC p r o du c ts to fu l fi ll c e r ta i n o b li ga t io ns . A re t ai l d is tr i b ut o r i nc l ud es a g r oc e ry s t o r e, g e n er a l m e r c h a nd is e s tor e , a p ha r m a c y, o r an y ot h e r e n ti t y o r p e rs on wh o s el ls t h es e i t em s t o c us to m e rs f or pe r s o n al us e. F or re g ul a te d t ra ns ac t io ns , a r e t ai l e r m us t m a in t ai n a re c or d of t h es e t r an s a c t i on s f o r a p e ri od o f 2 y ea r s , m u st o b ta i n p r o o f o f i de n ti t y f ro m c us t om e rs , a n d m u s t r ep o rt s us pi c i ou s re gu l at e d s al e s i m m e di a te l y to t he D E A . Th e r e co r d m us t b e m ai nt a i ne d s ep a ra t el y f r om oth e r r e c or d s o f c o n t ro l le d s ubs t an c e s , a nd th e D E A s ug g es ts t ha t th e r ec o r d be m a d e i n a b ou n d l og bo ok s im i la r t o th e re c o r d k ep t f o r the s a l e o f O TC c o n t ro l le d s u bs ta n c e s ( s e e I J ) . Th e f o ll o wi n g s in gl e t ra ns ac ti o ns of t he se p ro du c ts i n t h e a m ou n ts s t at e d a r e c o ns i d e re d to be “ re g ul a te d tr a n s a c t i on s . ” ( 1 ) P he n yl p r o p a n o la m in e ( P P A) . P P A is n o l o ng e r i n an y O TC d r u g p r od u ct . ( 2 ) P se u d oe p he d r i ne . Sa l es of c o m b in a ti o n p r odu c ts c o nt a in in g m o re t han 2 4 g o f p s eu d oe ph e d ri ne . B li s t e r- p a c k s al es o f t he se p rod u c t s e xc e e d in g 2 4 g a re n o t r e g ul a te d s al es . ( 3 ) E p he d r i ne . Sa le s o f c om b in a ti o n p ro d uc ts c on t a in in g m o re t ha n 2 4 g o f e p h ed r in e a n d a l l s i n gl e- e n ti t y e ph e dr i ne p ro du c t s re g a rd le ss of t he am ou n t o f e p h ed r in e (m or e th a n z er o g ra m s ) . D . G e n e r ic d r ug s 1 . D e f in i t io n . Th e g en e ri c n a m e o f a d ru g ha s b ee n de f in e d as it s c he m i c a l na m e , a c om m o n n a m e , o r an of f ic i al na m e us ed in an of f ic i al c om p en d iu m . A m anu f ac t u re r s e ek in g a p pr o v a l f r om the F D A fo r a d ru g th a t h as al r e ad y b ee n p r o ven t o b e s a fe a n d e f fe c ti v e m a y f il e a n A b b re v i a t ed N e w D r u g A p p l i c a t io n ( A N D A ). 2 . AN D A. A f i l i ng o f a n AN D A a l lo ws t h e a pp r o v al o f a d ru g fo r wh i c h e xh au s ti ve s a fe t y a nd ef f ic ac y s tu die s h a v e al r ea d y be e n p er f o r m e d . A d ru g i s c o ns id e r ed t o b e t h e s am e a s a n a pp r o v ed d r ug wh e n t h e t wo a r e i d en t ic al in ac t i v e i ng r edi e n t( s ) , d o sa g e f o rm , s t re ng t h , ro u t e o f a dm in is t r at i on , i nd i c a t io ns , a n d co n di t io ns o f us e. R i g o ro u s a ni m a l a nd hum a n d at a to de t e rm i n e s a f e t y an d e f fe c ti v e ne s s a r e no t r e q ui r e d in t he A N D A . Ho we v e r , i n fo r m a t io n s howi n g t h at t he ge n er ic ve rs i on of t he d r u g i s b io a v ai l ab le an d b i oe q ui v a l en t t o th e p io ne e r (o r i gi na l ) d r ug is ne c e s s a r y. S u c h a pp r o v ed d ru gs a re l is te d b y t h e F D A i n the “ A pp r o v e d D r u g P r o duc t s wi t h Th e r a p eu t ic E qu i v al e nc e E v a l u at i on s , ” c om m o n l y r e f e rr e d t o a s t he F D A O r a n g e B o o k ( b ec au s e it c o m e s f r o m t he F D A i n a n o r a ng e bi nd e r ) . P.543
E . P r o p r ie t a r y d r u g s . T h e p ro p ri e ta r y n a m e o f a d r u g is th e n am e gi v e n b y t h e m a nu f ac tu r e r t o d es i gn a te t he d ru g ' s s o u rc e o f m a n u fa c t u r e a nd to di f f er en t i at e i t f r o m t he s a m e o r c h em ic a l l y s im i la r d r u gs fr om o th e r m a nu f ac tu r e rs . An o th e r na m e f o r th e p r o pr i et a r y na m e o f a d r ug is i t s t r ad e n am e .
F . E s ta b l is h ed na m es fo r d r u g s. Th e F D C A a uth o r i z es th e Co m m is s i o ne r o f t he F D A t o d es i gn a te an of f ic i al na m e fo r an y d r ug if h e d e te r m i n es t h a t su c h a c ti on is n e ce ss a r y o r de s i r a bl e in t he in t e re st o f us e fu l ne s s an d s im pl ic i t y . Th e FD C A a l s o r e q ui r es th a t a d ru g 's es t a b li s h ed n am e a pp ea r on t he la b el an d l ab e li n g o f t he d r u g . A d ru g 's es t ab li s h ed n a m e is de f in e d as f ol lo ws : 1 . I t m a y b e a n o f f i ci a l n a m e d es ig n at e d b y th e C o m m i s s io ne r of F oo d an d D r ug s . F o r N C E s , th e n am e s h ou l d b e s im pl e a n d us e fu l. I n t h is re g ar d , t h e F D A r e c og ni z e s t h e U . S . Ad op t e d N a m e s C o un c i l ( U SA N ) i n d e ri vi n g n am es for N C E s . Th e U S A N n am e i s c o ns id e r ed t o b e a n o f fi c i al na m e r ec o gn i z e d in a n o ffi c ia l c om p en d iu m . Th e F D A m a y u s e a no t he r n am e i f th e U S A N o r co m m on o r u s ua l n a m e is u n du l y c o m p le x, m is le a di ng , o r is no t u s e f u l f o r a n y o t he r r ea s o n. 2 . I f n o o f fi c i al na m e ha s b e en de s i g na t ed fo r th e d r u g a nd th e d r u g is an a r t ic le r e c og ni z e d i n a n o f f ic ia l c om p en d iu m , th e n t h e o ff i c i al t i tl e c o nt a in ed in th e c om p en d iu m m a y b e t h e e s ta b li sh e d n am e. 3 . I f n ei t he r of th e a b o v e t wo a p pl y , t he n th e c o mm o n o r us u a l n am e o f th e d ru g m a y be i ts e s ta bl is h ed na m e. G . D i s p en s in g a p r es c r ip t i o n d r u g . A p re s c r ip t io n d ru g m a y b e d is p en se d on l y b y a p r ac ti t io n er o r b y a p ha r m ac is t p u rs ua n t t o a wr i t t en o r o ra l p r es c ri p ti on o f a p r a ct i ti o ne r , o r a r e fi ll of e i th e r . Th e p re s c r ip t io n l a be l o n th e c on t ai n er dis p en se d to t h e p a ti e nt m u s t c o n ta in c e r ta i n i nf o rm a ti on , or i t wi l l b e c on s i d er e d m i sb ra n d ed an d d i sp e ns ed in v i ol a ti on o f t h e F D C A . Th is in f o rm ati o n i s m i n im al un de r th e F D C A a nd i s u su a ll y s u p pl em e nt e d b y s t at e l a ws , wh i c h r equ i r e m or e i n fo r m a t io n . So l on g a s t h is in f o rm at i on is i n En gl i s h , t h e d is pe ns i ng ph a rm ac is t wi l l b e i n c om pl ian c e wi t h t h e F D C A. I f a n y o f th e re q ui r e d i nf o rm a ti o n is in a n o th e r l an g ua g e, th e n a l l o f t h e r e q ui r e d in f o rm a ti on m u s t b e i n t h at la n gu ag e . The p r esc r ip t io n m us t a ls o b e p a ck ag e d i n a c hi l d- r es is t a n t c on t ai ne r as re q ui r ed u nd e r t h e P oi s on P re v e n t io n P a ck a gi n g A c t (s e e I I I ). Th e f o ll o wi n g i n fo r m a ti on m u s t a pp e ar on e v e r y p r e s c ri p ti o n l a be l : 1 . N am e a n d a dd r es s o f t h e p h a rm ac y 2 . S e ri al nu m b e r o f th e pr e s c r ip t io n 3 . D a te th e p r es c ri p ti on is f il le d o r th e d a te o f t he p r es c ri p ti on 4 . N am e o f th e p r es c r i ber 5 . N am e o f th e p a ti en t (if s ta t ed in th e p r es c ri p tio n ) 6 . D i re c ti on s f o r u s e an d a n y c a u ti on a r y s t a te m en t s c on t ai ne d i n th e p r es c r i pt io n H . D r u g r ec a l l. Th e F D CA a ll o ws t he F D A t o i n it ia t e re g ul a to r y ac t io ns to e ns u r e t h a t u ns a fe , u n fi t , o r i n eff e c ti v e pr o du c ts d o n o t re a c h th e m a rk e t, o r t o p ro m pt l y r e m o ve t ho s e p ro d uc ts th a t d o re ac h th e m ar k etp l ac e . Th e en f o rc em en t a c ti o ns th a t m a y be in i ti a te d i nc l ud e t h e re l ea s e of in f o rm at i on t o t h e g en e ra l p u bl ic an d / o r p r o f ess i on al g ro u ps ; a dm i ni s t r a ti ve ac ti o ns a n d i n s p ec t io ns ; th e i ns t it u tio n of r ec al l ; o r se i zu re , in ju nc t io n , o r c r im in al p ro s e c u t io n . 1 . V o lu n t a r y a c t i o n o f th e ma n u fa c t u re r . A ft e r s e v e r al un s u cc es s f u l a tte m pt s b y t h e F D A t o r ec e i v e c o u r t- o r d e re d r e c a ll s , t he F DA r e c o g ni z e s t ha t re c a l ls a r e vo l u n ta r y ac t io ns o f t he m a nu f ac tu r e rs an d d is t r ib u t o rs . A s a r es ul t , a re c a l l m a y b e u n d er t ak en a t a n y ti m e , o r u po n r e qu es t of th e FD A . I f th e F D A is u n s u cc e s s f ul in p e r su ad i ng a c om pa n y to r ec a ll a p ro d uc t , o r whe n th e F D A d et e rm in e s th a t a r ec al l
i s o r wi l l b e i ne f f ec ti v e , it m a y s ee k a c o u rt o rd e r c on d em ni n g t he p ro d uc t a n d a l lo wi n g th e pr o du c t ' s s ei z u r e . 2 . D r u g re c al l c l as s i f ica t i o n . A f te r th e F D A h as e va l ua t ed th e p r o bl em ( s ) a ss o ci at e d wi t h t he p ro du c t a nd a ft e r t h e d eg r ee o f he a lt h h a z a r d h as b e en d e t e rm in ed , th e F D A wi l l a s s ig n th e r e c a ll on e o f t h e fo ll o wi n g c la ss if ic a tio n s : a . C l as s I — a s it u at i on in wh i c h th e re is a r ea s ona b le p ro b ab il i t y th a t t h e u s e o f o r e xp o s u r e t o a v i ol a ti v e pr o d uc t wi l l c a us e s e ri o us a d v e rs e h e al t h co ns e que n c e s o r d e a th P.544
b . C l as s I I — a s it u at i on in wh i c h u se of o r e xp o s ur e t o a v io l at i ve p r o du ct m a y c a us e t e m p o r ar y o r m e di c a ll y re v e r s ib le ad ve r s e he a lt h c o n se q ue nc es o r wh e re t h e p r o ba b il i t y o f s e ri o us h ea l t h c o ns e qu e nc es i s r em o te c . C la s s I I I —a s i tu a ti o n in wh i c h u se of o r e xp o s ur e t o a v io l at i ve p r o du ct i s n o t l i ke l y to c a us e a d v e rs e he a l th c o ns eq u en c e s 3 . R ec a l l p r o ce d u re . A re c al l s t ra t eg y wi l l be de v e l op e d t h at wi l l c on s i d er t h e d ep t h o f t he re c a l l ( c o ns um e r le v e l , re t ai l l e v el , wh o l es a l e l e v el ) , th e n e ed fo r pu b li c wa r n i n g s , an d t h e e xt e n t o f ef f ec ti v e n es s c h ec k s f o r th e re ca l l. E ve r y r ec al l in g c om p an y i s r es po n s i bl e fo r n ot i f y in g e ac h o f i t s af f e c t e d d ir ec t acc o un t s by f i r s tc l as s m a il , m a il g ra m , o r t e l eg r am . Pu bl ic no t i fi c a ti o n i s m a d e b y t he F D A v i a t he we e k l y F D A E nf o rc e m e nt R e p o rt , wh i ch pu bl is h es e ac h re ca l l ac c o r d in g t o i t s c l as s i fi c a t io n . I . Ad u l t e r a ti o n a n d m i sb r a n d in g . A m i s b r a nd ing o r a d ul t er a ti o n o f a dr ug is p r o hi b it e d b y t he F D C A . A l t h ou gh t he m is b r an di ng a nd ad u lt e ra t io n p r o v isi o ns a re m a in l y c o nc e rn e d wi t h the m a n uf ac t u ri n g o f a dr ug , a p ha r m a c i s t m a y a ls o m i sb r a nd o r a du l te r at e a d ru g . The p u r po se of t he m is b ra n di n g a nd a du lt e r at i on s t a tu t es is to p r o t ec t t he p ub li c h ea l th o f c o ns um e rs wh o a re lar g e l y un ab l e t o p r ot e ct th e m s el v e s wh e r e d r ug s a r e i n v ol v ed . Th e ad ul t e ra t io n a n d m is b r an di n g s ta t ut es a re c r im in al in n a t u re an d m a y s ub j ec t a p ha r m a c i s t t o c ri m i na l p r o ce ed i ng s i n f ed e r al c o u r t , i n a d di t io n to ad m i ni s tr a ti v e p r oc ee di n gs . 1 . Ad u l t e r a ti o n . I n g en er a l , t h e t e rm a d ul t e ra t io n r e f e rs t o a c h a ng e o r var i a ti o n f r o m o f fi c i al f or m u l a r y s ta n d ar ds o r f r om th e m anu f ac t u re r ' s s ta n da r ds . A d r u g i s c o ns id e re d a d ul t e ra t ed if a n y o f t he f ol lo wi n g c o nd i t io ns oc c u r : a . I f t he d ru g c on s i s ts i n wh o l e o r i n p ar t of an y fi l t h y , p ut r i d, o r d ec om pos e d s u bs ta n c e b . I f t h e d ru g h a s b ee n pr e p a re d , p ac k e d , o r h el d u n de r un s a ni t a r y c o nd i tio n s wh e r e i t m a y h a v e b ee n c on t am i n a te d wi t h f il t h o r re n der e d i n ju r io us t o h ea l th c . If t he d ru g 's c o n ta in e r i s c om po s e d , i n wh o l e or i n p a r t, of an y p oi s on ou s o r d e le t e ri o us s ub s ta nc e t ha t m a y r e nd e r t he co n ten t s i nj u ri o us to he a lt h d . I f t h e d ru g c o nt ai n s , fo r p ur p os es of c o lo r in g on l y, a c ol o r a dd i ti v e th a t i s u ns a fe wi t h i n th e m ea n in g o f the F D C A e . I f t he d ru g i s a ne w a n i m a l d r ug , or an an im a l f e e d co n ta i ni n g a n e w an i m a l d r ug , t h a t i s u ns af e wi t hi n th e m e an i ng of th e F D C A
f . I f t h e d r ug is p u r po r ted t o b e a dr u g t h at is re c o g ni ze d i n an of f ic ia l c om p en d iu m , a n d i ts s t r en g t h di f f e rs f ro m , o r i t s q ua li t y o r p u ri ty f a l ls be lo w, t h e s t an dar d se t f o r t h i n t he c o m p e nd iu m , u n le s s th e d e v ia t io n i s p l ai n l y a n d s pe c i fi c al l y st a t ed on i t s l ab e l g . I f t h e d ru g i s n o t a c om p ou n d r ec o gn i zed b y na m e i n a n o f fi ci al co m p en d iu m ; i f i t s s t re ng t h d i ff e rs f ro m , o r i ts p u r it y o r q u al i t y f a ll s b e lo w, t h a t wh i c h i t p ur p o r ts o r i s re p re s e n t ed to po s s es s h . I f t he d ru g h as be e n m i xe d o r p ac k e d wi t h a no t h e r s u bs t an ce s o as to r e d uc e t he d r u g 's qu a li t y o r s t re ng th i . I f t h e d ru g h a s b ee n s u b s t i tu t ed , wh o ll y o r pa r ti a ll y, wi t h an o th e r s ub s ta n c e j . I f t h e d ru g i s a n O TC d r u g a nd i t is no t p a c k age d in th e re q ui r ed ta m p er - r e si st a n t p a ck ag i ng or p ro p e rl y l ab e le d i n c o nf o rm i t y wi t h t h e ta m p e r - re s i s t a nt r egu l a ti on s (see IV) k . I f t he d ru g (o r m e di c a l d e v ic e ) i s a n o ph t ha lm ic p r e pa r at i on of f e re d o r in t e nd e d f o r op h th a lm ic u s e t ha t is no t s t e ri le 2 . M i s b ra n d in g . I n g e ner a l , t h e t e rm m is b ra n di ng m e a ns th a t a d r u g is s o l d o r d i sp e ns ed wi t h a la b el or l a be li n g t ha t is i n v io l a t io n of t he F D C A . L ab el is d e fi n ed a s b e in g a di s p l a y o f wr it t e n , p ri n te d , o r g r a ph ic m a t te r u p on th e i m m e di at e c o nt a in e r o f a n y a rt ic l e (o r d ru g ) . L ab e li ng is m o re b r oa dl y d e fi ne d to in clu d e t h e l a be l a s we ll as ot h e r wr i t t e n , p ri n te d , o r g r a ph ic m a t te r u p on an y a r ti cl e or a n y of i t s c on t ai ne r s o r wr a p pe rs , or ac co m p a n y in g t h e a r t ic le ( o r d r ug ) . A d ru g is c o ns id e re d m is b ra n de d if a n y of th e fo ll o wi n g c on d i ti on s o c c u r: a . I f t he la b el in g i s f a ls e o r m is l ea di n g i n a n y pa rt i c u l ar b . I f t h e d ru g i s a n i m i t ati o n o f a n ot h e r d ru g , o r i f i t i s o f fe r e d f o r s a l e u nde r t he n a m e of an o th e r d r u g c . If t he d ru g i s c o m p os ed wh o l l y o r p a rt l y of in s ul i n a nd i t is no t p r o pe r l y b a tc h c e r ti f ie d u n de r th e F D C A d . I f t h e d ru g i s c om po s ed wh o l l y o r p a rt l y of an an t i bi o ti c a nd it is n o t p r op e r l y b a tc h c e r ti fi e d u nd e r t h e F D C A e . I f t he d ru g i s d is pe ns ed b y a n am e t h at is re c og n i ze d in a n o ff ic i al c om p e n di um a n d i t i s e it h e r n ot pa c k ag e d o r no t l a be le d i n c onf o r m i t y wi t h th e o f fi c i a l c om p en d iu m P.545
f . I f t h e d r ug is d e te r m i ne d b y th e f e de r al go v e r nm e nt t o b e li a bl e t o de t er i o r at i on a n d i t i s n o t p ac k a ge d i n a p ro p er f or m a n d m a n ne r , an d t h e l ab e l f ai ls to b e a r a s t a te m e n t o f p r op e r p r ec a u t io ns g . I f t h e d ru g i s d is pe n s e d in a n on - c h il d - re s i s tan t c o n ta in e r , wh e n a c hi ld - r es is t an t c o nt a in e r i s o th e r wi s e r eq u i re d (s ee I II ) h . I f t he m a nu f ac t u re r fa il s to pl ac e o n t h e l ab el an y o f th e f o ll o wi n g : ( 1 ) F ac t t ha t c e r ta i n d rug s m a y be ha b it fo r m i n g ( 2 ) N am e o f e a c h ac ti v e i n g re d ie n t ( 3 ) N am e a n d p la c e of bu s in es s o f t h e m a n uf a ctu r e r , p ac k e r , o r di s t r ib u to r
i . I f a ph a rm ac is t f a il s t o p l ac e o n a p r es c ri p ti o n c o nt a in e r l ab e l a n y o f the f o l lo wi n g : ( 1 ) N am e a n d a dd r es s o f t h e p ha r m a c y ( 2 ) S e ri al nu m b e r o f th e p r e s c ri p ti o n ( 3 ) D a te of f il li n g t he p res c ri p ti o n o r t h e d at e o f th e p re s c ri p ti o n ( 4 ) N am e o f th e p r es c r i be r ( 5 ) N am e o f th e p a ti en t ( 6 ) D i re c ti on s f o r u s e and a n y c a ut io n a r y s t at em e n ts c o n ta in e d i n t he p res c ri p ti o n j . I f a n o r al c o nt r ac e pt i ve is di s p e ns ed wi t h ou t the r e qu i re d p a ti e nt pa c k ag e in s e r t k . I f a n i nt r a ut e ri n e d e v ic e th a t m u s t b e d is pe ns e d wi t h a pa t ie n t p ac k a ge i ns e rt is d i sp e ns ed wi t h ou t th e i ns e r t l . I f a n e s t r o ge n p r od uc t i s d is p en s e d wi t ho u t t h e r e q ui r e d p at i en t p ac k a g e i ns e r t m . I f a p r o ge s t o ge n -c on ta i ni n g p r od uc t i s d is pe ns e d wi t h ou t th e re qu i r ed p a t ie n t p a ck ag e i ns e r t n . I f a l e ge n d d r ug is d is p e ns e d ( o r r e fi l le d ) wi t ho u t a p re s c r ip t io n (o r re fi l l a u t ho r i z a ti on ) of a l ic en s e d p ra ct i ti o ne r , i t i s d eem e d t o b e m is b ra nd e d by t h e d i sp e ns in g p ha r m a c i s t o . I f t h e d ru g i s a n O TC d r u g a nd i t is no t p a c k age d in ta m p e r - re s i s ta n t pa c k a gi n g o r p ro p e rl y l ab el e d i n c on f o rm i t y wi t h t h e t am pe r -r e s is ta n t r e gu la t io ns ( see I V ) p . I f t h e d ru g i s a n O TC d r u g a nd i t is no t p r o pe r ly l a b el ed in c o n fo r m i t y wi t h t h e l a be l in g re qu i r em en ts o f t h e F D C A q . I f t he d ru g (o r m e di c a l d e v ic e ) i s a n o ph t ha lm ic p r e pa r at i on of f e re d o r in t e nd e d f o r op h th a lm ic u s e t ha t is no t s t e ri le 3 . V i ol a t io n s u n de r t he Ac t . A n y m is b ra n di n g o r a d ul t e ra t io n o f a d ru g m a y s ub j ec t t h e i n di v i du a l ( e .g . , a pha r m ac is t ) t o i m p r is on m en t , a f in e , o r b o th . A p har m ac y a nd p h a rm ac is t wi l l b e e xe m p t f ro m c ri m i n al s a nc ti o ns i n ei t he r of t he fo ll o wi ng c a se s : a . C e r ta i n c a se s o f g ood f a i th . W he n a du l te r at ed o r m is b ra nd e d p r od uc ts a re r e c ei ve d f r om a m a n uf a c t u r e r o r wh o le s a l e r i n g oo d fa i th b y th e p h a rm ac y, t h e p h a rm ac y m a y n o t b e h el d re s po ns ib l e i n c e r t ai n s i tu a ti o ns . Thi s e xe m p t ion a pp li es o n l y if it is a f i rs t v io la t io n an d , i f r e qu es t ed , th e p h a rm ac y o r p ha r m a ci st f u r ni s h es t o t he go v e r nm en t th e na m e a nd ad d re ss of t he p e r s o n f r om wh o m t h e d ru g wa s r e c ei ve d a nd c o p ie s o f al l do c u m e n ts p e r ta i ni ng to i ts de li ve r y . b . R e ce i p t o f d r u g w i th a s i gn e d, w r i t t en g ua r an t y. A p h a r m a c y an d p ha r m ac is t wi l l b e e xe m p t fr o m m i s br a n di n g a nd ad u lt e ra t io n v i o l at i on s wh e n a si g ned , wr i t t en g u a ra n t y is re c e i v e d f r om t he wh o le s al e r o r m anu f ac t u re r . Th e g ua r a nt y m us t c o nt a in th e n am e a n d a dd r e s s o f th e p e rs o n r es idi n g i n t h e U n it e d S t a te s fr o m wh o m t h e d ru g wa s re c e iv e d i n g oo d f a it h a n d a st a t em en t th a t t he d ru g i s n o t a d ul t e ra t ed o r m i s b r a nde d . 4 . S ei z u re s . A n y a du lt e ra t e d o r m is b ra n de d d r ug wi l l b e su b je ct t o c o n dem n at i on a n d s ei z u r e b y t he U . S . g o v e r nm e nt af t e r a h e a rin g in an y d is t ri c t c o u r t of t h e U n i t ed S ta t es (o r t er r i to ry ) wi t h p r o pe r ju r is di c t i on . A s ei zu r e m a y be do ne wi t h o ut a h e a ri n g i f t h e f ed e ra l g ov e r n m en t h as p ro b ab le c a u s e to be l ie v e th a t t h e v i o l a ti on wo u l d b e d an ge r o us to he a l th o r t ha t th e l ab e li ng o f th e m is b ra nd e d a r ti c le is f r a u du le n t o r wo u ld be m a t e ri a ll y m i s l e ad i ng to the i nj u r y or da m a g e o f t he p u r ch as e r o r c o ns um er .
5 . I n ve st i g at i o ns an d ins p e c ti o ns a . Th e U . S. S ec r et a r y o f H e a l th an d Hu m a n Se r vic es ha s t h e a ut h o ri t y t o c o nd uc t e xa m i n a ti o ns a n d i ns pe c t i o ns th r ou g h f ed e r al e m p l o y e es a n d b y o ff ic e rs a n d e m pl o ye es o f an y s t a t e, t e r r i to r y, or p ol it ic a l su bd i v i s i on du l y co m m is s i one d b y th e U . S . S ec r e ta r y o f H e al t h a n d H u m a n S e r v ic es as a n of f ic e r o f t h e U . S . Dep a r tm e nt o f H ea l th an d H um an S er v i c es . b . S c op e o f i n ves t i ga t io n . A n i n v es ti g at o r m a y e n t e r a p h ar m ac y o r o the r e s ta b li sh m e n t wh e r e ad ul t e ra t e d o r m is br a nd e d dr u g s a re h el d a nd in sp ec t a ll d r u gs , m a te r ia ls , c on t ai ne r s , a nd la b el in g . Th e ins p ec ti o n d oe s n o t e xt e nd t o f i n an ci al da t a , s a l es d a ta o th e r P.546 t h a n sh i pm en t d a ta , p ri c in g da t a, pe r s o n ne l d a ta , a n d o th e r re c o r ds th a t ha v e n o b e a ri n g o n a du l te r a ti on a n d m is b ra nd i ng . Th e i nve s t ig a to r m u st p re s e n t a p p ro p r ia t e c r e de n ti al s a nd a wr i t te n n o ti c e t o t he o wn e r , o per a t o r , o r a ge n t i n c ha r ge t h a t h e o r s h e is au t ho r i z e d t o c ond u c t an in v e s ti ga t io n . The i ns pe ct i on m u s t be don e at r e a so na b le ti m e s , wi t h i n r e a s o na b le li m i ts , an d i n a r ea so n ab le m a n ne r . 6 . C u r r e nt G o o d M a n u fa c t u r in g P r ac t i ce (c G M P ) . U n de r th e F D C A , a dr u g i s c o ns id e re d a d ul t e ra t ed if i t i s n o t m a n uf ac t u re d “i n c o n fo r m i t y wi t h c u r r en t G o o d Ma n u f a c tu r i ng P ra c ti c e . ” F D A r eg u la t io ns s t a te wi t h p a r ti cu la r i t y th e m in im um c G MP s f o r m e t ho ds to be us e d i n, an d th e f ac i li tie s o r c o n tr o ls to be us ed f o r , t h e m a nu f ac tu r e , p r oc es s i ng, p ac k i ng , or h ol di n g o f a d r u g. Th e c G MP s e n s u re t ha t a d r u g m ee ts t he re q ui r em e n ts o f t he F D C A a s t o s a f e t y an d h as th e i d en t ity a n d s t r en g th an d m ee t s t he qu a li t y a nd pu r i t y c ha r ac te r i st ic s t ha t it pu r p or t s. J . R e gi s t r a ti o n o f p ro du c e r s o f d ru g s 1 . Ma n u f ac t u re rs an d bus i ne s s es th a t d is t ri b ut e a d r ug m a nu f ac tu r e d b y a n o th e r b u t s o ld un d er t he i r o wn l abe l or t r ad e n am e m us t r eg i s t e r t h ei r es ta b li s h m e nt wi t h t he F D A . Th e y a ls o m u s t s ub m it a l is t o f e ve r y d r ug ( p r es c ri p ti o n a nd O TC ) in c om m e r c i a l d is t ri bu t io n , wi t h u p da t es e ver y J un e a n d De ce m b e r . 2 . P ha r m a c i es p ro p er l y lic e ns ed b y s t at e l a w t h a t d o no t m an u fa c tu r e o r po s s e ss d r u gs fo r s a le ot h e r t ha n i n t h e r e gu l ar c o u rs e o f t h e p r ac t ic e o f p h ar m a c y a r e n o t r e q ui r e d t o r e gi s t e r wi t h t h e F D A. A p h a rm ac y eng a g ed i n m a nu f ac tu r in g o r p r o ce s s in g a c t i v i ti es t ha t a r e c on s i d e re d b e y on d th e no r m a l p r ac ti c e o f p ha r m ac y m us t re g is t er wi t h th e FD A a n d su p pl y a l is t of ev e r y d r u g i n c om m e rc i al d i st r ib u ti o n. a . S co p e o f ph a r ma c y p r a c t i ce . A p ha r m a c y or p h a rm ac is t m a y no t m anu f ac t u re d r u g p r od uc t s . Th e y m a y o n l y c om po u nd d ru g p r ep a r a ti on s p u rs ua n t t o a va l id p r e sc ri p ti o n o f a p ra c t i tio n e r f o r a pa r ti c ul a r p at ie n t . L a rg e -s c a l e m a n uf ac t u ri n g o f d r u g p r od uc t s b y a p ha rm ac y o r ph a rm ac is t i s ou t si d e t he s c op e o f p h a rm ac y p r a ct ic e a n d r e qu i re s p ro p e r r e gi s t r a ti o n wi t h t he F D A an d c om pl ia nc e wi t h c G MP s . K . P a ck a ge i ns e r t s. Th e f e de r a l g o ver n m e n t h as d e t e rm in ed t ha t p r es c ri pt i o n m e di ca t io n i n fo r m a t io n ne e ds to be di s s em i na t ed t o he al t h p r of es s i o na ls a n d , i n t he c as e o f c e r ta i n d ru g s , to t h e p a ti en t . 1 . M a n u fa c tu r e r ' s i n se rt . A n a m e n dm en t to th e F D C A r e qu i re d th a t a ll m a nu f ac tu r e rs p ro v i d e “ fu l l d is c l os u re ” c o nc e rn i ng p r esc r ip t io n m e di ca ti on t ha t th e y
m a rk e t. F ul l d is c l os u re is ac c o m p li s he d b y m e a ns o f a p ac k a g e i ns e rt t hat i s e n cl os e d wi t h e v e r y c om m e rc i al c o nt a in e r o f a d ru g p ro du c t. Th e i n s e r t s h o ul d c o nt a in es s e n ti al s c i e n ti fi c i n fo r m a t io n n e ed ed f or t h e s af e a n d e f fe ct i ve us e o f th e d r u g a nd s h o ul d b e i nf o rm a ti v e an d a c c u ra t e . I t m us t no t b e p r om o ti o na l i n to n e, f a ls e , o r m is le a di n g. 2 . P a ti e n t p ac k ag e in s er t . Th e F D A h as de t e rm in e d t h at , be c a us e o f c e rt a i n s i d e e f f ec ts as s o c i a te d wi t h th e us e o f p a r ti c u la r d ru g p r o du c t s , p at i en t p ac k ag e in s e r ts m us t be di s p e ns ed to the p at i en t a t th e t im e o f di s pe ns i ng th e m ed ic a ti o ns . Th e f o l lo wi n g p r o du c t s m us t b e di s p e ns ed wi t h a pa t ie n t p ac k ag e i ns e rt , wh i ch is s u pp li e d wi t h t he p ro du c t f r om th e m an u fa c tu r e r: a . O r a l c o n t ra c ep t i ve s . H o s pi t al in p at i en ts o r L TC F p a ti en t s m a y r e ce i ve t h e i ns e r t b e f o re ad m i ni s tr a ti o n o f t h e fi rs t or a l co n t ra c e p tive a n d e v e r y 30 da y s the r e a ft e r , as l o ng as th e th e ra p y c o n tin u es . b . I n t ra u t e ri n e d e vi c es f o r hu m a n u s e in co n tr a c e p t io n . E v e r y p r ac ti t io n er d i sp e ns in g s uc h a d e v ic e m u s t p r o v id e t h e p at i en t wi t h an in f or m a t i v e i ns e r t. c . E st r o g en an d es t r o ge n - c on t a in i n g p r o du c t s. H o sp i ta l i np a ti e nt s o r LTC F p a t ie n ts m a y r ec ei v e th e i ns e r t b ef o r e a dm in is t r at i o n o f t h e f i rs t es t r og e n d o s e an d e ve r y 3 0 d a y s t h e re a ft e r, a s l on g a s t he t he r ap y c o nt i nu es . d . P r o ge s t at i o na l d ru g p r o d u c ts . Ho s p i ta l i n pa ti e n ts o r L TC F pa t ie n ts m a y r e c e i v e t h e i ns e r t b ef o r e a dm in is t r a t io n o f th e f i rs t p r o ge s t a t io n al dr u g p r od uc t a nd e v e r y 30 d a ys th e re a f te r , a s l on g a s th e t h er a p y c o nt i nu es. e . I so p r o te r e n ol i nh a la ti o n p r od u c ts re q ui r e t he f ol l o wi ng wa r n i ng st a tem e nt on t h e i m m ed i at e c on t ai n e r l a be l o f s uc h a p ro d uc t : “W ar ni n g: D o n o t e xc e e d t h e d os e p r e sc ri b ed b y y o u r p h ys ic i an . If di f fi c u l t y pe rs is t s , c on t ac t you r p h y s ic ia n i m m e di a te l y . ” P.547
f . M is ce l l an e ou s d ru g pr o d u c ts . C e rt a in dr u g p ro d uc ts we r e a pp r o ved b y t h e F D A wi t h t h e p r o v is io n th a t t he y m us t b e d is p en s e d a lo n g wi t h a p a ti e nt pa c k ag e in s e r t t h a t i nc lu d es a pa r t ic ul a r wa r n i n g o r s t at em e nt o f b e n ef i ts a n d r is k s ass oc ia t e d wi t h t h e u se o f t he d ru g . F o r e xa m p l e , is o t re t in o in wa s ap p r o v ed fo r di s p e ns ing wi t h an i n se r t wa r ni n g a bo u t s er io u s f e ta l h a rm wh e n a dm i ni s t e r ed to p re gn a nt wo m en . L . M e d ic a t io n G u id e s 1 . Th e “ Me d ic a ti o n G u i de ” bi l l wa s s i g ne d i n to law i n A u g us t 1 99 6 . B y 2 00 6 , 9 5 % o f p a t ie n ts re c e i v i ng a n e w p r e s c ri p ti o n we r e t o r e cei v e wr i t t e n i nf o rm a ti o n i n n o n t e ch n ic al la n gu ag e a n d in a u n if o rm fo r m a t . “ Me di c at i on G ui d es ” o r “ Me d G u i d es ” s h ou l d n ot be c o n fu s e d wi t h t h e p a ti en t le a fl e ts g e n er a te d b y m os t p ha rm ac y c om p ut e r s o ft wa r e p ro g ra m s . P at i en t l ea f le t s a r e t y p i ca ll y p a rt o f t he ph ar m ac y s o f t wa r e p ac k a g e t o p r oc es s p r es c ri p ti on s a nd ar e wr i t t e n a nd up d at e d by a s ou r ce o t h e r t ha n t h e m an u fa c tu r e r o r F D A . Th e la n gu ag e of Me d i c a t io n G ui d es i s a p p ro v e d b y t h e F D A wh i l e p at i en t l e af l et s a r e n ot ap p r o v ed b y t he F D A. Th e m a nu fa c tu r e rs m us t m ak e Me d ic a ti o n G u i de s a v a il a bl e e l ec t ro nic a ll y t o p ha r m a c i es . 2 . Th e l e gi s l a ti o n h as c re a t ed s i gn i fi ca n t co n fu s io n an d c on t r o ve rs y wi t h in t he p h a rm ac y a nd he a lt h c a re c o m m un i ti es . Ma n y p ha r m ac i s ts ass um e th a t th e pa t ie n t
l e a fl e t s a t is fi e s t he Me d G u i d e r e qu i re m e n t , b ut s i n c e th e l a ng u ag e wa s n ' t a p p ro ve d b y t h e F D A , th e a g en c y (F D A ) s a ys th e t wo a re no t su bs t it u ta b le . I t is n o t c le a r i f o n e m an u fa c tu r e r 's Me d G u i d e c an be gi ve n t o t he p at i en t wh e n a no t he r m a nu f ac tu r e r ' s e qu i v al en t ge n e ri c p ro d uc t i s d is p e n s e d. E ac h m an u fa ct ur e r is to m ak e th e Me d ic a ti o n G u id e s a v a il a bl e t o p h ar m ac i es . I f a ph a rm ac y g a ve t h e wr o ng m a nu f ac tu r e r ' s Me d G u i de f o r a g e ne r ic p ro du c t, a ss u m i ng th e m a nu f ac tur e r ' s n am e i s o n th e d oc um e nt , te c hn i c a ll y t h is c ou l d b e c o ns t r ue d a s a l a be l in g v io la t i on . P r o f es si o na l p ha r m a c y or g a ni z a t io ns an d o t he r int e r es t ed pa r t ie s ( i .e . , p h a rm ac e ut ic al m a n uf ac tu r e rs ) a re wo r k in g wi t h th e F D A t o c la r i f y t h es e r e q ui r em e nt s . M . P r es c r ip t i o n d r u g s am p l es 1 . A n a me n dm e n t t o t h e F D C A ( P r es cr i pt i on D r ug Ma r k e t in g Ac t ) s e ver e ly r e s t ri c te d t h e d is t r ib u ti o n o f d r ug s a m pl es b y m a nu f ac tu r e rs . U nd e r t h e F D C A , n o pe r s on m a y s e ll , p u rc h as e, o r t r ad e , o r o ff e r t o s el l , p u rc ha s e, o r tr a de an y d r ug s a m pl e . S a m pl es m a y on l y be di s t r i bu t e d u po n wr i t te n re qu e s t o f a p r ac t it i on e r . Ma n u f a c tu r e rs m u s t m a in t a in r ec or d s o f e v e r y s am p le di s t r ib u ti o n f o r a pe r i od o f t h r e e ye a rs . Ph a rm ac i es m a y no t re c e i v e s am pl es f ro m a m a nu f ac tu r e r exc e p t i n c e r ta i n si t ua t io ns in wh i c h a p r ac t it i on e r r e qu es t s s t or a ge of hi s o r he r s am p le s i n t h e p h a rm ac y . 2 . I mp o r t a ti o n u n de r t he F D C A. Th e P r e s c ri p ti on D r u g Ma r k e t in g Ac t p ro h ib i ts th e i m po r t o f p r es c ri p ti on d ru g s o nc e e xp o r t e d. Im p or t a t io n i s a ll o we d af t e r no t i fi c a t io n a n d a p pr o v a l o f t h e F D A a n d i n c a se s o f a n e m e rg e nc y . N . M ed i ca l de vi c e s. A n a m en dm e nt to t he F D C A i n 1 9 76 ( Me d i c a l De v i c e A m e nd m e n ts ) re q ui r ed a d e v ic e m an u f ac tu r e r t o p r o v i de r ea so n ab le as sur a n c e of t h e s a fe t y an d e f f ec ti v e ne s s o f t he de vi ce . Th e am e nd m e n t r e qu i re d th e F D A t o c a te g o ri z e ea c h de v i c e on t he m a r ke t i n 1 9 76 i n to o n e o f t h re e c la s s es : C la ss I , C l a ss II , or C la s s I II , d ep e n di ng on ea c h de vi c e 's s a f et y a nd e ff ec t i ven es s . G e n e r al l y , C la s s I d e v ic e s a r e t h os e t h at ha v e a r e as o na bl e a s s u ra n c e of s af e t y a n d e f fe c ti v e ne s s . C la s s I I de v i c e s a r e t ho se t ha t d o n o t h a ve t h e r e as on ab l e a ss u r an c e of s a f et y a nd e f f ec t i ven es s, bu t th e r e is su f fi c i e nt in f o rm at i on ab o u t t he d e vi ce to es t ab li s h s p ec ia l c o nt r o ls t o e n su r e i ts s a fe t y a nd ef f ec t i v en es s ( a n d m a y b e m a rk e te d wi t h s uc h c o n t r ol s ) . C la s s I I I d e vic es a re th o se fo r wh i c h in fo r m at i on i s n o t s u ff ic i en t t o p r o v i de r e a s o na b le as su r an c e o f t h ei r s a fe t y a nd ef f ec t i ve n es s . C l a ss II I de v i c e s m a y b e m a rk et e d o nl y i f t h e y a re p r o v en to be su bs t an t ia l l y e q ui va l en t to a d e v ic e on t he m a r k e t b e fo r e 1 976 , b y ap p ro va l o f a p re m a r k et a p pl ic a ti o n, o r b y r ec la s s i fi c a t io n i n to C la s s I o r I I . 1 . M e d ic a l d e vi ce t r ac ki n g . Ma n u fa c tu r e rs o f m e d ic al de v i c es wh os e fa ilu r e wo u ld b e r ea so na b l y l ik e l y to ha v e a s e ri o us a d ve rs e he a l th c o ns eq u en ce m u s t t r a c k th e d e vi ce do wn t h e c ha in o f d is t r ib u ti on t o t he pa t ien t . Su c h t r ac k i ng al lo ws t h e m a nu f ac tu r e r t o ta k e app r o p ri a te ac ti o n wi t h r es p e c t t o r ec al ls , de f ec ts , o r o th e r r e l e van t in f or m a t io n c onc e r ni ng t he de v i c e . E v e ry f i n al di s tr i bu t o r s u ch as a p h a rm ac y , ho s p i ta l , o r ho m e h ea l th - c a r e c om pa ny m u s t r ep o r t ce r t ai n i n fo r m at i on to t h e m an u fa c tu r e r. Tr a c k in g in f o rm at i on m us t b e m a in t ai ne d b y t h e m a n ufa c tu r e r a n d d i st r ib u t or f or t he us ef u l l i f e o f t he de vi c e a nd be a v a i la b le fo r in sp ec t io n b y F D A p e r so nn e l.
P.548
2 . M a n u fa c tu r e r ' s r e p o rt s . E v e r y de v i c e m a nu f ac t u re r m us t re p o rt t o t he F D A i n f or m at io n , wh e n r ec e i ve d o r m a d e a wa r e of , tha t r ea s o n ab l y s u gg es t s th a t o n e o f i t s m ar k e t e d d e v ic es m ay h a v e ca us e d o r c on t r ibu t e d t o a de a th o r s e r io us in j ur y. L i ke wi s e , h os pi t al s a nd o t h e r m e d ic al s e r vic e f ac i l i ti e s m u s t p ro v i d e r e po r t s o n a d ve r s e r ea c t i on s t o , o r m a lf u nc ti o ni ng o f, m e di c a l de vi ce s . 3 . Ad u l t e r a ti o n a n d m isb r a n d in g . Me d ic a l d e v ic e s m a y be ad u lt e ra t ed o r m is b r an de d i n th e s am e wa y t h a t d r ug s a r e a du l te r a t ed or m i sb r an d ed (s e e I I. I ) .
III. POISON PREVENTION PACKAGING ACT (PPPA). Th e P P P A o f 1 97 0 re q ui re s th a t d ru g s f o r h um an u s e i n a n o r al do s a ge f or m m us t b e pa ck ag e d f o r t he c o ns um e r i n s pe ci a l p ack a gin g . Al l s uc h f e de r al c o ntr o l le d s u bs ta n c e s a nd d ru gs dis p en s e d p u rs u an t t o a p re sc r i pt i on m us t be di sp en s ed to t h e c on s um er in s p ec ia l p a c k ag i ng . Sp e ci a l p a cka g i n g, r ef e r re d to as c h il d r e s i s ta n t c on t ai n er s , is d e f in ed as a co n t ai ne r tha t is de s i gn e d t o b e s ig ni f ic a nt l y d i f fi cu l t f o r c hi ld r en u nde r 5 y ea r s o f a ge t o g ai n a c c es s t o wi t hi n a r ea s on a bl e ti m e . Th e c on t ai n e r m u s t n ot be t oo di f fi c ul t f o r n o rm al a d ul t s ( o ne s wi t h no o v er t p h ys i ca l o r m e n ta l h a nd ic ap s ) t o u s e p r op e rl y a nd do es no t i n c l u de pa c k ag i ng th at a ll s u ch c h il d re n c an n ot ga i n ac c e s s wi t h in a re as on a bl e ti m e. Th e C on s u m e r P ro du c ts S a f e t y C om m is s i o n is r es p on s i b le fo r in t er p r et i ng , es t ab li sh i ng r ul es an d r e g ul a ti on s f o r , a n d e nf o rc i ng th e p ro v i s io ns of t he P P P A . A. E x c e p t i on s . Th e f ol lowi n g m ed ic a ti o ns a r e e x e m pt f ro m t h e s p ec i al pac ka g in g r e q ui r em e nt s : 1 . S ub l in gu a l d os ag e f o rm s o f n i t ro gl yc e ri n ; o t her d os a ge fo r m s i n te n de d f o r o ra l a d m i ni s t ra ti o n , s u c h as n i t ro g l y ce r in s u s t ai n ed - re l ea s e p re p a ra t io ns , m us t be p a ck ag e d i n c h i ld - r es is tan t c o n ta in e rs 2 . S ub l in gu a l a nd c h e wab l e f o rm s o f i s o s o r bi d e di n i tr a te in do s ag e s t re ngt h s o f 1 0 m g o r le s s 3 . E r yt h ro m y c i n e t h y ls uc c i na t e g r an ul es f or o ra l s us p en s i o n a nd o ra l s usp e ns i on s i n p a ck ag es c o n ta in i ng no t m o r e t ha n 8 g o f t h e e qui va l en t of e r y th r om y c in 4 . C yc li c a ll y a dm in is t e red o r al c o nt r ac e pt i v es in m a n u f ac tu r e rs ' m n em o nic (m em o r y a i d ) d is pe ns e r p ac k a g es t h a t r el y s ol el y o n t h e ac t i v i t y o f o n e o r m o re p ro g es t og e n o r es t r og e n s u bs t an c e s 5 . A nh yd r o us c ho l es t y r am i ne in po wd e r f o rm 6 . A ll un i t -d os e f o rm s o f p o t as s i um s u pp le m e n ts , i n cl ud i ng in d i vid ua l l y wr a p p ed e f f e r ves c e n t t ab l et s , u ni t- d o s e vi al s o f l iq u id po t as s i um , an d p o wd e r ed po ta s s i um i n u n i t- d os e p ac k a g es , c ont a i ni ng no t m o r e t ha n 5 0 m E q o f p o ta ss iu m p e r un i t d os e 7 . S od i um f l uo r id e d r u g p r e pa r a ti o ns , i nc lu d in g l iq u i d an d ta bl e t f o rm s, con t a in in g n o m o r e t ha n 2 6 4 m g o f s o di um fl u o ri de pe r pa ck a g e a n d c o n ta i ni ng no o th e r p r e sc ri p ti o n m e d ic a ti on 8 . B et a m e t ha s o ne t ab le ts pa c k a ge d i n m an u fa c t ur e r s ' d is p en s e r pa ck ag es , c o nt a in in g no m o re t ha n 1 2 . 6 m g be t am e th as o ne
9 . P an c re li p as e p r ep a ra ti o ns in ta b le t , c ap s u le , or p o wd e r fo r m a nd c o nt a in i ng no o t h e r p re s c r ip t io n m ed ic a t i on 1 0 . P re d ni s o ne in t ab le t f o r m , wh e n di sp en s ed i n p ac ka g es c o nt a in in g n o m o r e t ha n 1 0 5 m g o f t h e d r ug , a n d c o nt a in in g no ot h er p re s c r i pt io n m e di c a t io n 1 1 . Me b e nd a z o le in ta b le t f or m i n p ac k a g es c on ta i ni n g n ot m o r e t h an 60 0 m g o f t h e d r u g a nd no o th e r p r es c ri p t io n m ed ic a ti on 1 2 . Me t h y l p re d ni s o lo n e in t ab l et f or m i n p ac k a g es co n ta in i ng no t m o re t ha n 84 m g o f t he dr u g a nd no o th e r p r e s c ri p ti o n m e d ic a ti on 1 3 . Co l es ti p ol in po wd e r f o r m i n p ac k a ge s c on t ain i ng n o t m o r e t ha n 5 g of t h e d ru g a n d n o o t he r pr e s c ri p ti on m e d ic at i on 1 4 . E r yth r om y c in e th y l s uc c i n at e ta bl e ts in pa c k age s c on t ai n in g n o m o re tha n th e e q ui va l en t of 16 g e r y t h ro m y c i n P.549
1 5 . Co n ju g at e d es t r og e n t a bl e ts U S P , wh e n di s pe n s e d i n m ne m o n ic p ac ka g es c o nt a in in g no t m o re th a n 3 2 m g o f t h e d r ug an d no o th e r p r es c ri p ti on m e dic a ti o n 1 6 . No r e th i nd r on e a c e t a te t ab l et s U S P, wh e n d is p e ns e d i n m n em o ni c p ac k a ge s c o nt a in in g no t m o re th a n 5 0 m g o f t h e d r ug an d no o th e r p r es c ri p ti on m e dic a ti o n 1 7 . Me d r o xy p r o g e s t e r one ac e ta t e t a bl e ts B . R e q ue s t s f o r a n on -c h i l d - re s is t a nt c on t a ine r . A pr e s c ri b in g p r ac t it io n e r m a y m ak e a r eq u es t i n t h e p re s c r i pt i on th a t t he m e di ca t i on be di s p e ns ed in a n o n -c hi l d r e s is ta n t c on t ai ne r . A p ra c ti t io n e r m a y n ot , ho we v e r , m a k e a b l an k e t re q ue s t t h at al l p r e sc ri p ti o ns i s s u ed b y hi m o r he r be di s p en s ed in n on - c h il d - re s i s ta n t c o nt a i ne r s . Th e p u rc h as e r, o r p at i ent , m a y a ls o m ak e a re q ue s t t h at th e m e di ca ti o n be d i sp e ns ed in a n on - c h il d- r e s i s ta n t co n ta i ne r . Th e r e q ue s t of t he pu r ch as er , o r p a t ie n t, do es no t ( un de r t h e P P P A) ha ve t o b e i n wr i t i n g . Th e p u rc ha s e r , or p a ti e nt , m a y m a k e a b la nk e t r e qu e s t t ha t n o ne of hi s o r h e r m e di c a t io ns be di s pe n s e d i n a c h il d - re s i s t a nt c o n ta in e r . A d is pe ns i ng ph a rm ac is t m a y n e v e r m ak e t h e d ec is i on to u s e n on - c h il d - re s i s ta n t c o n t ai ne r s . C . R e u se o f c h il d - r es i st a n t co n t ai n e rs . R eu s e o f c h il d - re s i s ta n t c o n ta i ne r s a r e p r o hi b it e d b y r eg u la t io n o f t he fe d er a l C o ns um e r P r o d uc ts S af e t y C om m is s i on . H o we ve r , t h e Co m m is s i on h as i n di ca t ed th a t g la s s c o n ta in e rs m a y b e r e us e d as l o ng as a n e w s af e t y c l os u r e is us ed . D . M an u f ac t u r e r' s pa cka g i n g. P ac ka gi n g f r om th e m a nu f ac t ur e r t h at is in t e nd e d t o b e di sp e ns ed di r ec tl y t o t h e p a ti e nt m u st be in c hi l d - re s i s t a nt pa c k a gi ng . B u l k p a ck ag i ng in t en de d to be r e pa c k ag e d b y th e ph ar m ac i s t fo r ea c h pr e sc ri pt i o n d oe s n o t h a ve to be in s p ec ia l p ac k a g in g f r om t he m a nu f ac t u re r . Un i t p ac ka g ing f r om th e m a nu f ac tu r e r t h at wi l l b e d is p en se d d i re c tl y t o t he co ns u m e r , o r p a ti e nt , m us t c om p l y wi t h t h e c h i ld - r es i s ta n t r e qu i re m e n ts of t he P P P A (u n le ss s p ec if ic a l l y e xe m p t e d; s e e I I I . A ). E . E x em p t io n s f o r ea s y a c ce s s. S pe c i al pa c k a gi n g i s n ot r eq u ir e d i n c a s e s wh e r e O TC m e d ic a ti o n n ee ds to b e r e ad il y a v a il a bl e t o t h e e l de r l y or ha n di c a p pe d p e r so ns . A m an u fa c t u re r m a y s u pp l y a s i n gl e s i ze o f a dr u g p r od uc t i n n on - c hi ld r e s is ta n t p ac k a gi n g, as lo n g a s i t a ls o s up pl i es th e m e di c a t io n i n p ac k a ge s th a t us e
t h e s pe ci a l p ac k a gi n g. Ad d i ti on a ll y , t he pa c k ag e m u s t be c o ns pi cu o us l y la b el e d wi t h t h e s t at em e nt : “ Th is pa c k a ge fo r ho us e ho l ds wi t ho u t you n g c hi ld r en . ” Fo r t h os e p a ck ag es t oo s m a l l f o r th i s s ta t em en t , t h e st a tem e nt “ P ac k a ge no t c h il d -r e s is ta n t ” m a y be us e d. F . H o sp i t al s a n d i n s ti t ut i o n s . Th e s p ec ia l p ac k ag i ng r eq u ir e m e n ts o f th e P P P A a p pl y t o h o us eh o ld s u bs ta n c e s . H o us eh ol d s u bs ta n ce is d e fi n ed as “a n y s u bs ta n c e wh i c h is c us t om a ri l y p rod u c e d o r di s t r ib u te d fo r s a le fo r c o ns um p ti on o r u s e, o r c us t om a ri l y s t o re d , b y i nd i v i du a ls i n o r ab o ut t he h o us e ho ld … . ” As l o ng as t h e m e di ca t io n i s a dm in is t e re d b y i ns t i tu t io na l p e rs on n el an d i s n o t d i re ct l y di s pe ns e d t o t he c o ns um e r ( pa t ie n t) , c h i ld - r es is ta n t c on t ai ne r s a r e n o t r e qu i re d . G . M i sc e ll a ne o us p r od uc t s r eq u i r in g sp e ci a l pa c k ag i ng . Th e P P P A r equ i r es th a t c e r ta i n h ou s e h ol d s ub s ta n c e s b e d is t ri b ut e d t o th e c o ns um e r i n sp e c i al pa c k a gi n g. E xa m p l e s o f t h es e s u bs ta n c e s i nc lu d e f u rn i tu r e po l i s h c on t ai ni n g p e tr o le um d i st i ll a te s , d ra in pi p e c l ea n e rs , t u r pe n ti ne , pa in t s o l v en ts , an d l ig h te r fl u id .
IV. ANTI-TAMPERING ACT. Th e U . S . C on g r es s pa s s e d th e An t i - Tam p e ri ng Ac t in 19 84 du e to a n um be r o f d e a th s t ha t oc c u r r ed i n th e ea r l y 19 80 s f r om O TC m e di c a ti o n c ap su le s co n t am in a te d wi t h c ya ni d e . A. V i o l a t i o ns . Un l a wf u l a c ts in vo l vin g a co ns um e r p ro d uc t c an be b ro k en d o wn in t o o n e o f th e f o ll o wi n g l is ted v i o la t io ns . Th e t e rm c on s u m e r p r od uc t i nc l ud es a n y f oo d , d r u g , d e v ic e, o r c o s m e tic , as we l l as an y a r ti c l e , p r o du c t , o r c o m m od i t y th a t i s c us t om a ri l y us ed b y in div i d u al s f o r p u rp o s e s o f pe r s on al c a r e o r to pe r fo rm s e r v i c e s o r d in a ri l y do n e wi t hi n a h o us e ho ld . 1 . T am pe r i n g . A n y in d i v id u al wh o t am pe r s o r a t t em p ts to ta m pe r wi t h a n y c o ns um e r p r o du c t t ha t af f ec ts in t e rs t a te or f o re ig n c om m e r ce , o r i ts la be l in g o r c o nta i ne r , m a y b e in vi ol a ti on o f t he s t a tu t e . A vi ol a ti o n oc c ur s wh e n t h e i nd i vid u al ac ts (o r t h r e at e ns t o ac t ) wi t h r ec k l es s d is r eg a r d f o r t he r i s k th a t a no t h er pe r s o n wi l l b e p l ac e d in d an ge r of de a th o r b o di l y i n ju r y . P.550 A n y i n di v i du a l wh o t ai n ts a n y c o ns um e r p r od uc t or c au s e s i ts la b el in g o r c o n t ai ne r t o be m a t er i al l y fa ls e o r m is l ea di n g is in v i ol a ti o n o f th e s ta t u te if do n e wi t h in t en t to c a us e s er i ou s i nj u r y to th e bu s i n ess o f a no t he r . 2 . F al s e c om m un i ca t i on s . Kn o wi n g l y c om m u ni c a t i ng fa ls e i n fo r m a t io n t ha t a c o ns um e r p r od uc t h as be e n t a in t ed m a y be a v iol a t io n . I f s uc h t ai n ti n g, ha d it o cc u r r ed , wo u ld c r e at e a r i s k o f de a th o r b od il y in j u r y to an o th e r p e rs on , t h e n t he f a ls e c om m u ni c at io n i s de e m e d a v i ol a ti o n. 3 . C o ns p i r ac y. A n a g re em e nt be t we e n t wo o r m or e p er s o n s t o d o ( o r f u r th e r ) e i th e r o f t he ab o v e a c t s i s c o ns i d e re d a v i ol a ti o n. B . O TC t a m p e r - r es i s ta nt p a ck a gi n g . C e r ta i n O TC p r o du ct s m us t b e p ac ka g e d, b y F D A r e gu l at io n , i n t am p er - r e s i s t a n t p ac k a gi ng . E xa m pl es in c l u de c o nt ac t le n s s o lu t io ns an d o t he r op h th a lm ic s o lu t io ns . A t a mpe r - r e s is t a n t p ac k ag e i s o n e h a vi n g o ne or m o r e i nd ic a t o rs o r b a rr i e rs t o e n t r y t h a t, if b re ac h ed o r m i s s i ng , c an r e a so na b l y b e e xp e c t e d t o p ro v i d e v i s i b le e v id enc e to c o ns um e rs th a t t am p e ri ng ha s
o cc u r r ed . To re d uc e t am p e r in g , t h e p ac k a ge m ust h a v e o n e o f t h e f ol l o win g c h a ra ct e ri s ti c s : 1 . B e d is ti nc t i v e b y d es ig n s o th a t t he p ro d uc t c a n n ot be du p li ca t ed b y co m m o nl y a va i la b le m a te r i al s o r p ro c es s e s o r 2 . U se on e o r m o r e in d ic a t o rs o r b a rr i e rs t o e n t r y t h a t em p lo y a n i de n ti f y in g c h a ra ct e ri s ti c C . O TC t a m p e r - r es i s ta nt l a be l i ng . Th e O TC p r od u ct m u st be la b el ed wi t h a p r o m i ne n tl y p la c e d s t at em e nt al e r ti n g c o ns um e rs t o th e s pe c i f ic ta m p e r - re s is ta n t f e a tu r e o f th e p ac k a g e. Th e s t at em e nt m u s t be pl a ce d s o t ha t it wi l l b e un a f fe c te d i f t h e ta m p e r - re s i s t a nt fe a tu r e i s b r ea c he d o r m is sin g . D . M ed i ca l de vi c e s a nd c o sm e t ic s . C e r ta i n m e di c al de vi ce s a nd c o sm et ic s m us t b e p a ck ag e d i n t am pe r - r es is t an t pa c k ag i ng . Th e p ac ka g i n g re qu i r em en ts a re s i m i l ar t o t h e re q ui r em en t s o ut li n ed a bo v e fo r O TC d r u g p ro d uc ts .
V. MAILING PRESCRIPTION MEDICATION A. A l l p r es c r i pt i on m e di c a t i on , i nc l ud in g c o nt r ol l ed s u bs t a nc es a n d n a rc oti cs in s ch e du l es II - V , m a y b e m a il ed f ro m a ph y s ic ia n , o r ph a rm ac is t p u rs u an t t o a p r e sc ri p ti o n, t o t he pa t ien t . Fl am m a bl e s u bs ta nc es ( e. g . , ac e to n e ) a nd al co h ol ic b e ve r ag e s m a y n o t b e s e n t to a p at i en t t h r ou gh th e U . S . m a i l. B . Th e m e d ic at i on m us t b e pl ac e d i n a p l ai n o ut er c on t ai n er o r b e s ec u re ly o ve r wr a p p e d i n p la in p ap e r . Th e re m us t be no m a r k in gs of an y k in d o n t he o ut s i d e wr a p p e r o r c o n t ai ne r th at wo u l d i n di c a t e t he na t ur e o f t he co n te n ts .
VI. OMNIBUS BUDGET RECONCILIATION ACT OF 1990 (OBRA ′90). U n d e r t h e C o ns t it u ti on of t h e U n it e d S t at es , th e fe d e ra l g o v e r nm en t h as no p o we r o r a u t ho r i t y t o d i r ec tl y r e gul a t e t he p ra ct ic e o f ph a rm ac y . S uc h p o we r r es t s wi t h e ac h s t a te . Th e f ed e r al go v e rn m en t c an , ho we v e r , i ndi r e c t l y r eg ul a te , or a ff ec t, t h e p r a ct ic e o f p h a rm ac y b y a t t ac hi n g co n di t io ns of pa r t ic ip a ti o n a nd r ei m b u rs e m en t fo r f e d e ra ll y f u nd ed p ro g ram s . A. M e d i ca i d p r e sc r i p t ion s . W it h r es p ec t t o p r es c r i pt io n s d is pe ns e d t o M e d ic ai d p a t ie n ts (p a id in pa r t b y t h e fe de r a l g o v er n m e n t a l on g wi t h t h e s ta t e g o ve r n m e n t) , t h e fe de r a l g o v er n m e n t h a s a t ta c h e d c e r t ai n c ond i t i o ns fo r r ei m b u rs em ent . S uc h c o nd i ti on s we r e d e em ed n e c e s s a r y to s t em th e a lwa y s i n c re a s i ng c o s t of th e Me d i c a i d p ro g r am s . It wa s b e li e ve d t ha t i m p r o v ed m e d ic at i on c om p li a nc e b y Me d i c a i d r ec ip i en ts wo u ld , in th e l o ng r un , re d uce t he co s t o f t he p ro g ram s b y r e d uc in g s ub s eq ue n t h os p i t al i z a ti on s a nd o th e r s u b s e q ue n t u ti li z a t i on of h e al t h c a r e. As a r e s u l t, ph a rm a c is ts a re re q ui r ed t o d o t h e f ol l o wi n g i n t he c o u rs e o f d i sp e ns in g a Me d i c a id p re s c r i pt i on : 1 . Ma k e a r e as on ab l e g oo d - f ai t h e ff o r t t o o b ta in a n d m ai n ta in a h is t o r y o f t h e p a t ie n t, in c l u di ng a m ed ic a ti o n h is to r y P.551
2 . C on d uc t a r e v ie w o f ev e r y p r e s c r ip t io n f o r a p pr o p r ia t en es s a nd t o s c r ee n fo r p o t en t ia l d r ug t he r ap y p ro b le m s 3 . Ma k e an of f e r t o c ou ns e l e ac h Me d i c ai d re c i pie n t c on c er n in g t h e d r ug ( i f th e o f f er i s a cc ep t e d, th e c ou n s e lin g m us t in c l ud e th e d r ug' s p r op e r a dm in is t r at i on , c om m o n a d ve r s e o r s e v e r e s id e ef f e c t s , t ec hn i qu es fo r s e lf - m on i to r in g , a nd p ro p er s t o ra g e) B . M an u f ac t u r e r' s be s t p r i c e . O B R A ′ 9 0 r e qu i res m a nu f ac t u re r s t ha t wi s h t o p a r ti c i p a te i n th e Me d ic ai d pr o g ra m t o o f fe r th e fe d e ra l g o v e r nm en t th ei r b e s t p ri ce f o r p re sc r ip ti o n d r ug s . Be s t p r ic e is de f in e d a s t he l o we s t p ri c e a t wh i c h an y p u r ch as e r i s p ur c ha s i ng t h a t d r ug p ro du c t.
VII. HEALTH INSURANCE PORTABILITY AND ACCOUNTABILITY ACT OF 1996 (HIPAA). H I P A A is f ed e ra l l e gi s l a ti o n t h at r eq u ir es al l h e al t h - c a r e p r o v id e rs , i nc l ud in g p h a rm ac ie s , t o p r ot ec t pa t i en t i n fo r m a t io n f r om un a u th o ri ze d u s e a nd di s c l os u re s . Th i s is re f e r re d t o a s t h e P r i v a c y R ul e a nd wa s es t ab l is he d a s a re s u l t o f t h e g o ve r nm e nt ' s re c o g ni ti on t ha t i n di vi d ua ll y i de n ti fi a bl e h e al t h i nf o rm a ti o n is r ea d il y a va i la b le du e t o he al t h -c a r e pl an s , h ea l th -c a r e c le a r in g ho us es , th i rd - p ar ty b i l li ng p r a ct ic es , c li n ic al r es ea rc h tr i al s , an d th e t r a nsm is s i o n o f h ea l th in f o rm at io n in e l ec t r on ic fo r m . P r ot ec t ed h ea l th in f o rm at io n ( P HI ) m u s t b e co n fi d en t ia ll y m a in t ai ne d b y a he a lt h -c a r e pr o v i de r to p re ve n t an y u n au t ho r i z e d us e o r di s c l os u re . O t h e r c o v e r ed en t it i es , s u c h as O r g an i ze d H e al t h C a r e A rr a ng em e nt s , H M O ' s a n d i n su r an c e pl a ns , m us t a ls o fo ll o w t h e Pr i vac y R u le . A. D e f i n i t i o ns . Un d e r t he P r i v ac y R u le , c e r ta in te r m s ha ve s p ec i fi c m e a ni n gs . 1 . “ Co ve r e d en t i t y” m e a n s : a . a h ea l th pl a n ( e .g . , g ro u p h e al t h in s ur a nc e, M e d ic ai d , Me d ic a re ) . b . a h e al th - c a r e c le a ri n gh o us e (e . g. , bi ll in g s e r v ic e c om p an ie s a nd co m pa n ie s t h at p r o ce s s h e al t h i nf o rm a tio n r ec ei v e d f r om an o th er e n ti t y ) . c . a h ea l th -c a r e p r o v id e r wh o t r a ns m i ts an y h ea l th i nf o rm a ti o n in el ec t r on ic f or m i n c o nn ec t io n wi t h a t ra ns ac t io n c o v e re d b y H I P A A . “ H e a lt h c a re ” is d e fi n ed a s i n cl ud i ng th e s al e or di s p e ns i ng of a d r ug , d e vic e , eq u ip m e n t, o r o th e r i te m i n a cc o r da nc e wi t h a pr es c r i p ti o n. 2 . “I n d i vi du a l l y i d e n t i f ia b l e h e al t h i n f o rm a t io n” is in f or m a t io n c r ea t ed o r r ec ei v e d b y a co v e r ed en t i t y t h a t r e l at e s t o t he pa s t, p re se n t , o r fu t ur e ph y s ic al or m en t al h e al t h o r c o nd i ti on o f a n i n di v i du a l; t he pr o v i si on o f he al t h c ar e to an in divi d u al ; o r a n y p a y m e n t f o r a n y p r ov i s i on of an y h ea l th c a r e, a n d t ha t i d en t if i es th e in d i v id u al o r t h at p ro v i d es a r ea s on a bl e b a si s t o i de n ti f y t he i nd i vid u al . Th e i t em s lis t ed be l o w a r e de em ed s u f fi c i e nt t o i d en t i f y a n i n di vi du a l: a . N am e b . A dd r es s , i nc lu di n g a ll g e o gr a ph ic s u bd i v is i on s s m a l le r th a n a s ta t e (e . g. , s t r e et a d d re ss , c i t y , c ou n t y , z ip c o d e ) c . D at es ( e xc e p t y e a r ) , in c lu di n g b i rt h d a te s , a dm is s i o n d at es , di s c ha r ge d a te s , d a t es o f de a th d . Te l ep h on e n um b e rs e . F a x n um b e rs f . E - m a il ad d r es s e s
g . S oc ia l Se c u r i t y n um be r s h . Me d i c a l re c o r d n um b er s i . H e al t h p la n b en e fi c i a ry n u m b e rs j . A cc ou n t n um be r s k . C e r ti fi c a t e /l ic en s e n um b e rs l . V eh ic l e i de n ti f ie r s a nd s e ri al n um be rs , in cl ud i ng l ic en s e pl a te nu m b e rs m . D e vic e i de n ti f ie r s n . W eb un i v e rs al r es ou rc e l oc a te r s ( U R L s ) o . I nt e r ne t p r o to c o l (I P ) a d d re s s nu m b e rs p . B io m e t r ic i d en t if i e rs , in c lu di n g f in g e rp r in t s a nd vo i ce p ri n ts q . F ul l f ac e p h ot o gr a ph ic i m a g es a n d a n y c om p a ra b le im ag e s r . A n y o th e r u n iq ue id e nti f y i n g n um be r , c ha r ac t is ti c , o r c od e , e xc e p t fo r c od e s a ss i gn e d t o r e id en t i f y i n fo r m at i on th a t h as be en de - i de n ti f ie d s . N am es o f an y r e la t i v e, e m p l o y e r, o r h ou s e h ol d m em b e r o f t h e in d i v id u al P.552
3 . “ P ro t e ct e d h e al t h i n fo r m a t io n ” ( P H I ) i s a ll ind i v i du a ll y i de n ti f ia bl e h ea l t h i n f or m at io n th a t is t ra ns m i tt e d o r m ai n ta i ne d i n an y f o r m o r m ed i um , e le c t r o ni c al l y o r o th e r wi s e. 4 . “ No t i ce o f p r i va c y p r a c t i ce s f o r p r o te c te d he a l t h i n f o rm a t io n .” An in d i vid u al h a s t he r ig h t t o a d eq ua te n ot ic e o f th e u s e s a nd d i sc lo s u r es of P H I t h at m a y be m a de b y th e c o v e re d e n ti t y , a nd of th e i n di vi d ua l 's r ig h ts a n d t h e co v e r e d e n t it y' s l e ga l d u ti es wi t h r es pe c t t o P H I. G e ne r al l y , th e no t ic e m us t c on t ai n i n fo rm a ti o n d e sc r ib in g th e i nd i v i du al ' s r ig h ts u n de r th e P ri v a c y R u l e a n d t h e c o ve r e d e n t it y ' s r e s po ns ib i li t ie s . a . H ea d e r . E v e r y n o ti c e m us t c o nt a in th e fo ll o wi ng s ta t em en t a s a he ad e r o r b e o t h e r wi s e p ro m i ne n tl y d is p la y e d : “ TH I S N O TI C E D E S C R I B E S H OW ME D IC A L I N F O R MA TI O N A B O U T YO U MA Y B E U S E D A N D D I S C L O S E D A N D H O W YO U C A N G E T A C C E S S TO TH I S I N F O R MA TI O N . P L E A S E R E V I EW I T C A R E F U L L Y. ” b . I nd i vi d u al ' s ri g h ts . An i nd i v id u al ha s t h e r ig h t t o re q ue s t r es t ri c ti on s on c e r t ai n u s es a n d d is c l os u re s o f P H I , t he r ig h t t o r ec e i v e c o nf i de n ti al co m m un ic a tio n s o f P HI b y a l te r n at i v e m ea ns o r a t al t e rn a ti ve lo c a t io ns , th e ri g h t t o i ns pe c t a nd c o p y h is P H I , t he r ig h t t o am e nd h i s P H I , t h e r i gh t t o re cei v e a n ac c ou n ti ng o f di s c l o s u r es of P H I , a nd th e ri gh t to ob ta i n a pa p er c o p y of t he n o t ic e f r om th e c o ve re d e n t it y . c . C o ve r ed e nt i t y' s r e sp o n s ib i l it i e s. Th e n o ti c e m u s t i nc lu de a s ta t em e n t th a t t he c o ve r ed en t it y i s r eq u i red b y la w t o m a i nt a in th e p r i va c y o f P H I, a s ta t em e n t o f i t s l e ga l d u ti es an d pr i v ac y p r a c t ic es wi t h re s pe ct to P H I , a s ta t em en t th a t i t m us t a b id e b y t h e n ot ic e c u r ren t l y in ef f ec t , a nd a s ta te m en t th a t i t r es e r v es t he r ig h t t o c h an g e t he te r m s of it s no t ic e a n d h o w i t wi ll p ro v i d e i nd i vi du a ls wi t h a re v i s ed n o t ic e. d . M i s ce l la n e ou s c o n ten t s o f n o t ic e . Th e no t ic e m u s t c o n ta i n a s t at em e n t th a t i n di vi d ua ls m a y c o m p l ain t o t h e c o ve r e d e nt i t y an d to t he U . S. D e pa r tm en t o f H e al t h a n d Hu m a n Se r v i c e s i f th e y b el ie v e t he i r p r i vac y r i gh t s h a ve b ee n vio l at ed . Th e
n o t ic e m u s t s ta t e a d a te o n wh i ch it be c om es e f f ec t i ve . Th e ef f ec t i v e d at e m us t be n o la t e r t ha n t h e d at e o f t h e fi rs t s e r vic e d e li v e r y . e . P os t i n g o f n o t ic e . A p h a rm ac y m u s t p os t t h e n o t ic e i n a c le a r a n d p rom i ne n t l o ca t io n wh e re i t is r ea s o n a bl e t o e xp e c t i n di vi du a ls to be ab l e t o r e ad th e no t ic e. f . W r i t te n ac k now l e dg me n t o f n o t ic e . E v e r y c o ve r e d e n ti t y m u s t ob t ai n a wr i t t e n a ck n o wl e dg m e n t o f re c e ip t o f t he no t ic e b y t he ind i v i du a l. I f o ne is no t o b ta i ne d , t h e c o ve r ed en t it y m us t d oc u m en t i t s g oo d -f a it h e f f or t s to ob t ai n t h e ac kn o wl e d gm e nt a n d t h e r e as on wh y i t wa s no t ob t ai ne d . g . E xc e p ti o n s f o r in m ate s . A p e rs on in ca r c e r a ted i n o r o t he r wi s e c on f in ed t o a c o r re c ti on a l i ns ti t u ti on do e s n ot ha ve a ri gh t to no t ic e u n de r th e P ri v a c y R u l e , a nd t h e n o ti c e r eq u ir em e nt s d o no t a p pl y t o a c o r re c ti o na l i ns t i tu t io n t h at is a c o ve r ed e n t it y. 5 . “ Au t h o r iz a ti o n” fo r a c o v e re d e n ti t y t o us e or d is cl os e P H I: a p a ti en t m us t gi v e wr i t t e n au t ho r i z a ti on b efo r e a c o v e r e d e nt i t y , i nc l u d in g p h a rm ac ie s a nd ph a r m a c i s t s , m a y us e o r di s c lo s e P H I . N o p a ti e n t c on s en t o r a u t h o r iz a ti o n i s n ec es sa r y wh e n P H I u se an d d is c l os u re is f or t r ea t m en t , p a ym e n t , o r he a l th - c a re o pe r a ti o n s . Th i s a l lo ws a he a lt h -c a re p rov i d e r to c o ns ul t wi t h o t he r c o v e r e d e nt i ti es ( i. e ., o t h e r h e al t h -c a re p ro v i d er s ) t o p r o v i de pr o pe r pa t ie n t c a r e wi t h ou t b e in g u nd u l y h i nd e re d b y t h e Pr i v ac y R u l e. Fo r u s es a n d d is c l os u re s t h at r e qu i re an au t ho r i z a ti on , t he w r i t t en au t h o r iz a ti o n m u s t b e wr i t te n i n p la i n l an g u ag e , a nd a s ig n e d co p y m u s t b e p ro vi de d to th e i n di v id u al . Th e s ig n ed au t ho r iz a t i o n m u s t b e m a i nt a ine d b y th e c o ve r ed en t it y f o r 6 ye a r s f r om th e d a te of it s c r ea t i on o r t he da t e wh e n i t wa s l as t i n ef f ec t , wh i c he v e r is l at e r . Th e wr i t te n a u th o ri z a t i on m us t at le as t c o nt ai n th e f o l lo wi n g c o re el em e nt s a n d s ta t em e nt s : a . A d e s c ri p ti o n o f t h e i nf o r m a t io n t o b e u s ed or d i s c lo se d t h at id e nt i fi es t h e i n f or m at io n i n a s p ec i fi c a n d m ea n in g fu l f as h io n . b . Th e na m e o r o th e r s pe c if ic id e nt i fi ca t io n o f the p e rs on ( s ) , or c l as s o f p e r so ns , a u t ho r i z ed t o m a k e t he re q u es te d u se o r d is c l os ur e . c . Th e n am e o r ot h e r s pe c if ic id e nt i fi ca t io n o f the p e rs on ( s ) , or c l as s o f p e r s o ns , to wh o m t h e c o v e r e d e nt i t y m a y m ak e th e r e qu es t ed us e o r di s c lo su r e . d . A de s c r ip ti o n o f e ac h p u r po s e o f t he r eq u es ted us e o r di s c lo su r e . e . A n e xp i r a t io n d a te o r a n e xp i r a ti on e v en t th a t r e l at e s t o t he in d i v id u al o r t he p u r po s e o f t he us e o r d is c l os u re . f . S i gn a tu r e o f t h e i nd i v id u al an d da t e. I f si g ne d b y a pe r s o n al r ep r es en t at i ve , i t m us t al s o in c l ud e a de s c r i p ti o n o f s uc h r e p re s e n ta t i ve ' s a ut h o ri t y t o ac t for t h e i n di vi d ua l . g . Th e wr i t t en au t ho r i z a ti o n m us t c on t ai n t h e f ol lo wi n g st a t em en ts : ( 1 ) Th e in di v i d ua l 's r ig h t t o re v o k e t he au t ho r i z a ti o n i n wr i ti n g a lo n g wi t h t h e e xc e p t i on s t o t h e r i gh t t o r e v o k e an d a de s c r ip t ion o f h o w t h e i nd i v id u al m a y r e vo k e t h e a u th o r i z at i on . P.553
( 2 ) Th e ab il i t y o r in a bi li ty t o c o n di t io n t r ea t m e n t, p a y m e n t , e n ro ll m e n t, o r e l ig ib i li t y f o r be n ef i ts o n th e a u th or i z a t io n , b y s ta t in g e i th er t h at t he c o ve r ed en t it y c a nn o t
r e q ui r e a u th o ri z a t io n , o r t h a t i f t h e co v e r e d e nt i t y c an r eq u ir e a u th o r i z at i on , t he c o ns eq u en c e s t o t h e i nd iv i d u al o f h is o r he r re f us a l to s i gn t he au t ho r i z at io n . ( 3 ) Th e po t en t ia l f o r t h e d i s c lo s e d i n fo r m a t io n t o b e r ed is c l os ed b y th e rec i pi en t an d n o lo ng e r b e p r o te c te d by t h e P ri v a c y R ul e . 6 . “M in i m um ne c es sa r y. ” W he n us i ng or di s c lo si n g P HI o r wh e n r eq u es tin g P H I f r o m a no t he r c o v e r ed ent i t y , a co v e r e d e nt i t y m us t m ak e re as o na bl e e f f o rt s to li m i t P H I t o t h e m i ni m um ne ce s s a r y t o a c c o m p li s h t he i nt e nd e d p ur p os e o f t he us e , d i sc lo su r e , o r re qu es t . Th e m i ni m u m n ec es s a r y ru l e d o es n ot a pp l y t o d i s c l os u r es o r r eq u es ts b y a h ea lt h -c a r e pr o v i de r fo r t re a tm ent , us es o r d isc l os u re s m a d e p u r su an t to an au t ho r i z at i o n, an d u s e s o r di s c lo su r e s t ha t a r e re q ui r ed b y l a w. “ R e q ui r e d b y la w” m e an s a m a nd a te in a l a w t h at c om p el s a n e n ti t y to m a k e a u s e o r di sc l os ur e of P H I . I t in c lu d es a c o ve r ed en t it y ' s co m p li a nc e wi t h s t a te a n d f e de r al l a ws a nd r eg ul a ti o ns th at r e qu i re t he pr o du c ti on o f in f o rm at i on ; c ou r t o r de r s a n d c o u rt - o rd e r ed wa r r a nt s , s u bp o en as o r s u m m on s is s u e d b y a c ou r t , a go v er n m en t al o r t r ib al in s p ec t o r g en e ra l , o r an ad m i ni s t ra t i ve bo d y a ut h o ri z e d t o re q ui re t he p r o du c ti on o f i nf o rm a ti on a n d Me d i c a re c o nd i ti ons o f p ar t ic ip a ti o n wi t h r es p ec t t o h e al t h -c a re p ro v i d er s p ar t i c i pa t in g i n th e p r og r am . 7 . “ Bu s i ne ss as s oc i a tes . ” A b us in es s as so c i a t e o f a c o ve r e d e nt i t y i s a p e r s o n o r b u si n es s t ha t p e r fo rm s a f u nc t io n o r a c ti vi t y on be h al f of t he c o v e r ed en t it y , s uc h a s c l ai m s p r oc es s i n g, bi l li ng , u ti li z a t io n re vi e w, q ua l i t y as s u r an c e , et c . , an d t h a t r e q ui r es th e u s e o r d is c lo s u re of in d i v id ua l l y i d en t i fi a bl e h ea l th in f o rm at io n . A b u si n es s as s o c i a te wo u ld a ls o i nc lu d e p er so n s wh o p ro v i de s e r vi ce s t o t he c o v e r e d e n t it y, a nd t he s e r v ic e i nv o l v e s d is cl o su r e o f i nd iv i d u al l y id e nt i fi a bl e h e alt h i n f or m at io n , s uc h a s l ega l , a c tu a ri al , acc o un t in g , c on s u l ti n g, da t a a gg r e ga t i on , m a na g em en t , a dm in is t r at i v e , ac c r e di ta t io n , o r fi na n ci al se r v i c e s. E xc l u ded f r om th e d e f in i ti on o f b us in es s as s oc i at es a re m e m b e rs of t h e wo r k f o rc e o f th e c o ve r e d e n t it y, a nd fu nc t io ns o r s e r v i c es th a t d o n ot r eq uir e di sc l os ur e of in di v i d ua l l y i d en t i fi ab l e h ea l th in f or m a t i on . a . B u si n es s a s so c ia t e c o n t r ac t s . E v e r y b us in es s a ss oc ia t e m us t e nt e r in t o a n a g r ee m e n t wi t h t he c o v er e d en t it y t o e ns u re c o m p l ia nc e wi t h t h e P r i v ac y R u l e . G e n e r al l y , th e a g re em e nt m us t e st a bl is h t h e r eq ui r e d u s e s a nd di sc lo s u r es o f P H I b y t h e b us in e s s a s s oc ia te a nd r eq ui r e t h e r e tu r n o r d es t ru ct i on of P H I a t te r m in a ti on o f t he c o nt r ac t . B . Ad d i t i o n al r e sp o ns ib i l i t ie s o f co ve r e d en t i ti e s . E v e r y c o v e re d e n ti t y m us t c r e at e p o li c i es an d p r oc e d u re s f o r c om pl i an c e wi t h t he P ri v a c y R ul e , m u st d es ig n at e a p ri va c y o ff ic ia l re s p o ns i bl e f o r c r ea t in g s uc h po l ic ie s a nd p ro ce d u re s , m us t d e si g na t e a c on t ac t p e rs o n o r o ff ic e th a t is r es pon s ib le f o r r ec ei v i n g co m p l ai n ts an d t h a t i s a bl e t o p r o v id e fur t h e r i n fo rm a ti o n a bo u t m a t te rs co v e r e d b y th e no t ic e , a nd m us t t ra in al l m em be r s of i ts wo r k fo r c e wi t h re s pe c t t o t h e P r i v ac y R u le . E v e r y d e si g na ti o n m us t b e m ain t a in ed b y th e c o ve re d en t i t y fo r 6 ye a rs f ro m t h e d a te it l a st wa s in ef f ec t . L as tl y , e v e r y c o ve r e d e nt i t y m u s t h a v e a n d a pp l y ap p ro p r ia t e s a nc ti o ns ag ai ns t m em be r s o f i t s wo r k f o rc e wh o f a i l t o c o m pl y wi t h th e P ri va c y Rule. C . S t a t e l aw p r i va c y r u l e s . Th e f e de r al P ri va c y R u l e i s i nt e nd e d as t he m i ni m u m r e q ui r em e nt fo r p ri v a c y s t a n da r ds . I f a s ta t e l a w is m o r e s t ri ng e nt , th e n a c o v e r ed
e n t it y m us t f ol l o w t h at s ta t e ' s p r i v ac y s t a nd a rd s . I f a s ta t e p r i vac y l a w is n o t a s s t r in g en t , t he f ed e ra l P riv a c y R u l e p re e m p ts an y c o nt r a r y s t a te la w a n d a c o v e r ed e n t it y m us t a bi d e b y t he f e d e ra l P r i vac y R u l e. D . P e n al t i es f o r vi o l a t io n o f th e P ri va c y R u l e . A n y p e rs o n wh o vi o la t es t h e P r i va c y R ul e m a y no t b e f i ne d m o re th a n $ 10 0 f or e ac h v io l at i on up to a to t a l o f $ 2 5 ,0 0 0 p er c a le n da r y ea r f o r a ll vi ol at i on s o f a n i d en t ic al re q ui r em e nt . Ad d i ti on a l p e n al ti es m a y b e im p os ed f o r t he f ol lo wi n g w r o ng f u l di s cl o su r e of in d i v id u al l y i d en t i fi ab l e h ea l th in f or m a t i on : 1 . W ron gf u l o bt a in m e n t o r di s c l os ur e of P H I : f in ed n ot m o r e t ha n $5 0 ,0 00, i m p ri so ne d n o t m or e th an 1 y ea r , o r bo t h . 2 . W ron gf u l o bt a in m e n t o r di s c l os ur e of P H I u nde r f al se p re t en s e s : f in ed n o t m or e t h a n $ 10 0 ,0 0 0, im p ri s o ne d no t m o re th a n 5 y e ars , or bo t h . 3 . W ron gf u l o bt a in m e n t o r di s c l os ur e of P H I c om m i tt e d wi t h i nt e nt to se ll , t r a ns fe r , o r us e s am e f o r c om m e rc i al ad v a n ta g e, pe r so n al g a in , o r m a li ci ou s h a rm : f i ne d n o t m o r e t ha n $ 2 50 , 00 0 , im pr i s on ed no t m o r e t ha n 10 ye a rs , or bo t h . P.554
VIII. NARCOTIC TREATMENT PROGRAMS. Me t h a d o n e us e i s c ur r e nt l y a ll o we d as p a r t o f a to t a l t r ea tm e nt p ro g r am fo r n ar co t ic a d di c ti on . R eg u la t io ns c o n c e r ni n g m e t ha d on e tr ea t m e n t p r og r am s h a ve be e n j oi n tl y e s ta b li sh e d b y th e D E A a n d F D A . N a rc ot ic - de p en d e nt in di v i d ua ls a re th os e wh o p h ys io l og ic al l y ne e d h e ro i n o r a m o r ph i ne - li k e d ru g to p re v e n t t h e o ns et o f s i gn s o f wi t h d r a wa l . A. D e f i n i t i o n. A n a rc o ti c t r e at m e n t p r og r am is a n o r g an i za ti on t ha t a dm i nis t e rs or d i sp e ns es a na r c o t ic d r ug t o a na rc o ti c a d di c t fo r m ai n te n an c e o r d et o xi f ic a ti o n t r e a tm en t , a nd p ro v i d es , wh e n a pp r o pr i at e o r ne ce s s a r y , a c o m p r e he ns i v e r a n ge of m e di ca l a n d r eh a bi li t a ti v e s e r v i ce s . Th e p ro g ra m m u s t be : 1 . A pp r o v e d b y t he F D A 2 . A pp r o v e d b y t he ap p ro p r ia t e s ta t e a ge nc y, usu a ll y t h e s ta t e 's D ep a r tm e n t o f P u b li c He al t h o r eq ui v a le n t 3 . R eg is t e re d u n de r th e F e d e ra l C o n tr o ll e d S u bs ta n ce s A c t wi t h t he D E A to us e a n a r co t ic d r u g f o r t he t re at m en t of na r c o t ic a d di c t io n B . D e t o xi f i ca t i on t r ea tm e n t i s d ef i ne d a s d is pen s in g o f n a rc o ti c d r ug s in d e c re as in g d o s e s t o a n in d i v id u al to al l e v ia t e a d ve r s e p h ys i ol og ic a l o r p s yc h ol o gi ca l e f f ec ts in c i d en t to wi t h dra wa l o f n a rc o ti c d r ug us e . D e to xi f i c at i on is fo r a p e r io d n o t i n e xc es s o f 1 8 0 d a y s . C . M ai n t en a nc e t re a t men t is t he di s p en s i n g o f a n a r co t ic d r u g, at r el a ti vel y s t ab le d o sa g e l e v el s , in th e t rea t m e n t o f a n i n di v i du a l fo r d ep en d en c e on he r o in o r ot h e r m o r ph in e - li k e dr u g. D . R e q u i re m en t s t o adm i t pa t i en t s i n t o a p r ogr a m . In ge n er a l, f or a p at i e nt to b e a d m i t te d i n to a c om pr e he n s i v e m a in t en a nc e p r ogr a m , t he f ol lo wi n g r eq ui re m en ts m us t be m e t :
1 . A p r o g ra m p h ys ic i an m us t de t e rm i n e t h at th e p e r s o n i s c u r r en t l y ph ys io l og ic a ll y d e p en de n t o n a na r c o t ic d r u g a nd be c am e p h ys i olo g ic al l y de p en d en t a t lea s t 1 y e a r b e f o re ad m i s s io n t o th e p r o g ra m . 2 . Th e pa ti e n t m u s t ha v e v o l u nt a r il y c h os e n t o p ar t i c i pa t e i n t h e p r og r am a n d m us t s i gn a “ C o ns en t to Me t ha d o ne Tr e a tm en t ” (p r o v id e d b y t he F D A ) a f te r bei n g c le a rl y a n d a d eq ua t el y i n fo rm e d a b ou t th e u se of m e t ha do n e . E . T ak e - ho m e m e th a don e . Ta k e - ho m e m e t ha d on e m a y be gi v e n on l y to p a t ie n ts wh o , i n th e c li ni c a l j u dgm e nt o f t he p ro g ra m p h ys ic i an , a r e re s p o ns ib le in h an dl i ng n a r co t ic d r u gs . Th e pa t ien t m u s t co m e to th e c li n ic f or ob s er va t io n d a il y o r a t l e as t 6 d a ys a we ek . O v e r ti m e , t he pr o g ra m p h ys ic i an m a y re d uc e c li ni c a l o bse r va t i on s t o on ce we e k l y . Me t h a d on e fo r ta ke - h om e us e m us t be di sp en s ed s im il a r l y t o th e d i sp e ns in g o f a n y s c he du l e I I c o nt r ol l ed s u bs t anc e a n d i nc lu d e t he t re a tm e nt c e nt e r ' s n am e, ad d r es s , a n d t e le p ho ne nu m b e r on i ts l a be l . P.555
STUDY QUESTIONS D i r e c t i on s : E a c h of t he n u m b e re d i t em s o r i nc om p le t e s ta t em en ts in t his se c t i on is f o l lo we d b y an s we r s o r by c o m p le t io ns o f t he s t a te m en t . Se le c t t he o ne l et t e r ed a n s we r o r c o m p l et i on tha t is be s t i n e ac h c as e. 1 . Al l o f t he f ol l ow i ng pr e s c r i pt i o n m ed i ca t i o ns m a y b e d e l i ve r e d b y m a i l t o t he p a t i en t vi a th e U . S. P ost a l S e r vi ce E X C E P T ( A ) p r oc ai n am id e ( B ) a m p ic il li n ( C ) h yd r om o rp h on e ( D ) d ia ze p am ( E ) a ll of t he ab o v e m a y b e de li v e r e d b y m a il V i e w A n s we r 1 . T h e a n sw e r i s E [] . 2 . W h ic h of th e f o ll ow i ng n a rc o t ic dr u g s h a s b e en a pp r o ve d b y t h e F D A f o r u se i n t h e t re a t me n t of n a rc o t ic add i c t i on ? ( A ) Mo r p h i n e ( B ) C o de i ne ( C ) Me t h a d o ne ( D ) H yd r o c o d on e ( E ) N o ne o f t he ab o v e V i e w A n s we r 2 . T h e a n sw e r i s C [] .3 . F o r t he U .S . g o ve r n me n t to p la ce a d r u g i nt o sc h ed u le I II , w h ic h of t h e f o ll ow i n g fi n d i ng s m u s t b e m a de c o n ce r n i ng t he d r u g? ( A ) Th e d ru g o r ot h e r s ub s ta nc e ha s a h i gh po t en t i al fo r ab us e . ( B ) A b us e o f t h e d r ug or o t h e r s u bs t an c e m a y l ead t o l im it e d p h y s i c a l d epe n d en ce o r ps yc ho l og ic al d ep en de n c e r el a ti v e to th e dr u gs o r o th e r s ub s ta nc es in s ch e du l e IV. ( C ) Th e d r ug or o th e r s ub s ta nc e ha s n o c u r r en t l y a c c ep t e d m e d ic al us e i n t r e at m e n t i n th e Un i te d S ta t es .
( D ) A b us e o f th e d r ug o r o t h e r su bs t an c e m a y l ead t o m od e ra t e o r l o w p h ys ic a l d e p en de nc e o r hi g h ps y c h o lo g ic al de p en de n c e . ( E ) Th e r e i s a l a c k o f a c c e pt e d s af e t y fo r u s e o f t h e d r u g o r o t he r s u bs tan c e u nd e r m e di ca l s up e r v is io n . V i e w A n s we r 3 . T h e a n sw e r i s D [] .4 . Un d e r th e F e d e ra l C o nt r o l le d S u b s t an c es Ac t , al l o f th e f o ll ow i ng i t em s m ust a p pe a r on a c o nt r o l led s u b s ta n ce p re s c r ip t i on l a b el E X C E P T t h e ( A ) n am e , a dd r es s , an d D E A n um b e r o f t he ph a rm ac y . ( B ) n am e o f t h e p at i en t . ( C ) n am e o f th e p r es c r i bin g p ra ct i ti o ne r . ( D ) s e ri al nu m b e r a s s ig ne d to t he pr e sc ri p ti o n. ( E ) d a te of th e i n it i al fi ll in g of t he pr e s c ri p ti o n. V i e w A n s we r 4 . T h e a n sw e r i s A [ an d] .5 . U nd e r t h e Fe d e ra l C o nt r o l le d S u b s t an c es Ac t , al l o f th e f o ll ow i ng e nt i t i es mu s t r eg i s te r w i t h th e DE A EXCEPT ( A ) p r es c r i be r s o f c o n t rol l ed s u bs t an c e s . ( B ) p ha r m a c i s t s wh o d is p e ns e c on t r ol le d s u bs tan c es . ( C ) d is t ri b u to rs o f c o n t rol l ed s u bs t an c e s . ( D ) i m p o r te rs o f c o n t ro lle d s u bs t an c e s. ( E ) u ni ve r s i t ie s c o n du c tin g in s t r uc t io n al ac ti v i t ies wi t h c o nt r o ll ed su bs t anc es li s te d i n s ch e du l es I I - V . V i e w A n s we r 5 . T h e a n sw e r i s B [ an d] .6 . U nd e r t h e Fe d e ra l C o nt r o l le d S u b s t an c es Ac t , w h ic h o f t h e f o l low i n g s t a te me n t s c o nc e r n in g th e e me r g e nc y d i s pe n s in g of a s c he d ul e I I c o nt r o l le d su b s ta nc e is t r u e? ( A ) Th e p ra c ti ti o ne r wh o a u t ho r i z es th e o r al p re sc r i p ti o n m u s t, wi t h in 7 d ay s , d el i v e r a wr i t t e n p r es c r i pt i on to t h e d is p en s i n g p ha r m a c is t . ( B ) Th e q ua n ti t y p re s c r ibe d an d d is p en se d m us t be l im it e d t o t he am o un t ne c es sa r y t o ad e qu a te l y t re a t t h e pa t i en t d u ri n g t h e em e rg en c y pe r i od . ( C ) I t i s n o t r e as on a bl y po s s i bl e f o r t h e p r ac ti t io ne r t o p r o v id e a wr i t t en p re s c r i pt i on t o be p re s e n te d to th e pe r s on di s p en si n g t h e con t r ol l ed su bs t an c e be f o re t he d i sp e ns in g . ( D ) N o ap p r op r ia t e a lt e rn a t i v e t r ea tm e nt is a v ai la b le , in cl ud i ng ad m i n is t ra t i on of a c o nt r o ll ed s u bs t an c e th at i s n ot in s ch e du l e I I . ( E ) A l l o f t h e a bo v e s t a te m en ts a re t ru e . V i e w A n s we r 6 . T h e a n sw e r i s E [] . 7 . Un d e r t h e F e d e ra l C o nt r o l le d S u b s t an c es Ac t , t he c r im e t r an s f e r w a r n i ng , “ C a u t i o n : F ed e r al l aw p ro h i b i ts t he t r a n s f e r o f th i s d r u g t o a n y p e r s o n o th e r t ha n th e pa t i e nt f o r w ho m i t w a s p r e s c r ib e d, ” m u st a pp ea r o n th e p r e sc r i p t io n c o n t ai n e r l a be l of a ll co n t r o l le d s u b s ta n ce s E X C E PT ( A ) sc h ed ul e II c o n tr o ll ed s u bs t a nc es . ( B ) sc h ed ul e II I c o nt r ol l ed s u bs t a nc es . ( C ) sc h ed u le I V c o n t ro l led s u bs t a nc es . ( D ) sc h ed u le V c on t r ol led s u bs t a nc es . V i e w A n s we r 7 . T h e a n sw e r i s D [] .P . 55 6
8 . W hi c h o f th e fo l l ow in g s ta t e me n ts c on c e rn in g d r u g r e ca l l c l as s if i ca t i o n i s true? ( A ) A C la s s I r e c a ll is a s i tu a ti o n i n wh i c h us e of , o r e xp o su r e t o , a v i ol a tiv e p r o du ct i s n o t l ik el y t o c au s e ad v e r s e h ea l th c o ns eq u en ces . ( B ) A C la s s I r e c a ll is a s i tu a ti o n i n wh i c h us e of , o r e xp o su r e t o , a v i ol a tiv e p r o du ct m a y ca us e t em p o ra r y o r m e di c a ll y r e v e r s i bl e a d ve r s e h ea l th c o ns eq u en c es o r i n wh i c h th e pr o ba b il it y o f s e r io us he al t h c on se q uen c e s i s re m o t e. ( C ) A C l as s I re c a ll is a s i tu a ti o n i n wh i c h t he r e is a r e as on a bl e p r ob a bi li ty t h a t t h e u s e o f , o r e xp o s u r e t o, a v i o l at i ve p r o du c t wi l l c au s e se r i ou s a d v e rs e h eal t h c o ns eq u en c e s o r d e at h . ( D ) A C l as s I I r ec a ll is a s i tu a ti o n i n wh i c h us e of , o r e xp o s u r e t o , a vi ol a tive p r o du c t is no t l ik e l y to c a u s e ad v e r se he a lt h c ons e qu e nc es . ( E ) A C la s s I II r ec al l i s a s i tu a ti on in wh i c h t he r e i s a r ea s o n ab le p ro b ab il it y t h a t t he u s e o f , o r e xp o s u r e t o, a v i o l at i ve p r o du c t wi l l c au s e s e r i ou s a d ve rs e h eal t h c o ns eq u en c e s o r d e at h . V i e w A n s we r 8 . T h e a n sw e r i s C [ an d] .9 . U nd e r t h e Fe d e ra l Fo o d , D r u g, a n d C os m et i c Ac t , a l l of t h e fo l l ow in g s t a te m en t s a re c on s id e r ed a m is b r a n di n g o f a d ru g E X C E PT i f ( A ) t h e la b el i ng is f a ls e o r m i s l e ad in g i n a n y pa r ti c ul a r. ( B ) a n o r al c o nt r ac e pt i v e i s d is pe ns e d wi t h o u t t he r e q ui r ed pa t ie n t p ac ka ge i ns e rt . ( C ) t h e d r ug is a n i m i t at io n of an o th e r d r u g, o r i f i t is o f f e re d f o r s al e u nde r t he n a m e of an o th e r d r u g. ( D ) t h e d r ug c o ns is ts in wh o l e o r i n p a rt o f a n y fil t h y , pu t ri d , o r d e c o m p os e d s u bs ta n c e . V i e w A n s we r 9 . T h e a n sw e r i s D [] .1 0 . Al l o f t he f o l l ow in g o ra l m e d ic a tio n s a r e ex e mp t f r om ch i l d - re s i s ta n t p a ck a gi n g E XC E P T ( A ) a nh y d r o us c ho l es t y ra m in e i n p o wd e r fo r m ( B ) n it r o gl y c e ri n p r ep a rat i o ns i n s us t ai ne d re l ea s e f o rm ( C ) c ycl ic a ll y a dm in is t e re d o ra l c on t ra c ep ti v e s i n m an u fa c tu r e rs ' m n em oni c ( m em o r y - ai d ) d is p en s e r p a c k ag es t ha t re l y s o le l y u p on th e a c ti vi t y o f o ne o r m o r e p r o ge s to ge n or es t ro g en s ub s ta nc es ( D ) p a nc re l ip as e p r ep a r at i o ns i n t a bl e t, ca ps u le , o r p o wd e r f o rm th a t c on ta i n n o o t h e r p re s c r ip t io n m ed ic a t i on V i e w A n s we r 1 0 . T he a nsw e r i s B [] .P . 55 7
ANSWERS AND EXPLANATIONS 1 . T he an sw e r is E [ V ] . N a r c ot ic s a nd c o n t ro ll e d s u bs ta n ce s i n sc he d ul es I I - V m a y be de l i v er e d t o t h e p a t ie n t b y m a il . Th e U. S . P o s ta l S e r vic e n o l o ng er p r oh i bi ts t he m a il in g o f n a rc o ti c s b y a ph y s ic i an or ph a rm a c is t ( p u rs ua n t t o a pr e sc r i pt io n ) to th e p a ti e nt . 2 . T he an sw e r is C [ V I I I; V I I I. A ; I. I . 2. c .( 2 ) ].
Me t h a d o n e is ap p r o v ed b y t h e F D A fo r us e i n t he t r ea tm e nt o f n a rc ot ic ad d ic t io n . O n l y a p ro pe r l y r eg is t e red n a rc ot ic t re a tm en t pr og r a m m a y d is pe ns e m e tha d o ne fo r m a in t en a nc e o r d e to xi f i c a t i on t re a tm en t . Ph a rm ac i es th a t a re n ot s o re g is t e r e d m a y o n l y di sp e ns e m e t ha d one f o r s e ve r e p a in . 3 . T he an sw e r is D [ I . A .3 ] . To p l ac e a d ru g i n to s c he d ul e II I , t h e U . S . g o v e rn m en t m us t m ak e t h e f oll o wi n g f i n di ng s c on c e r ni n g t he d r u g : ( 1 ) i t h as a p ot e nt ia l fo r ab us e l es s t h an the d r ug s o r o t h e r su bs t an c e s i n s c h ed u le s I an d II ; (2 ) it ha s a cu r r en t l y acc e pt e d m ed i c a l u se i n t re a tm en t i n th e Un i ted S t at e s ; an d (3 ) a b us e o f t he dr u g m a y l e ad to m o de r a te or l o w p h ys ic al de p en d en c e o r hi g h ps y c ho l og ic al dep e n de nc e . 4 . T he an sw e r is A [ I . I .8. c . (1 ) , (2 ) , (3 ) , (4 ) , (5 ) , (6 ) a nd (7 ) ] . A p h ar m ac y ' s D E A n um be r is no t re q ui r ed to a ppe a r on th e m ed ic a ti o n c on t a in e r l a be l d is p en s e d to th e pa t i en t . 5 . T he an sw e r is B [ I . B .2 . a , b , c , d , e , f, g , h , i , j a n d k ; I . B .9 . d] . A g e n ts a n d em p lo y e es of D E A r eg is t r an ts , s uc h a s p h a rm ac is ts , a r e e xe m p t f r om r e g is t er i ng wi t h th e D E A. P h a rm ac i es , n ot t he in div i d u al ph a rm ac is t s, m u s t r e gi s te r wi t h t h e D E A. 6 . T he an sw e r is E [ I . I. 4. a , b] . E m e r ge nc y d is pe ns i ng of a n o r al s c h e du l e I I c on tr o l le d -s u bs ta nc e p r es c rip t i on m us t b e do n e i n s t r ic t c om p li an c e wi t h t he la w. B e f o re d i sp e ns in g s uc h a p r es c ri p t io n , t he p h a rm ac is t m us t m ak e t he t h re s h o ld de t er m i n at i on t ha t AL L th r ee f ac to r s t h a t d e fi ne a n em e rg en c y s i tu a ti o n (s e e I . I. 4 .a ) a re p re se n t. I f a n y o n e o f t h e t h re e f ac t o rs i s a b se n t, t he p re s c ri p ti o n is no t fo r an em e rg en c y s i t u at i on , a n d a wr i t te n p re s c r i pt i on m us t be p re s e n te d t o t h e p h a rm ac is t . 7 . T he an sw e r is D [ I . I .8. c . (7 ) ] . Th e f e de r a l c ri m e t ra ns fe r wa r n i ng la b el is n o t r eq u i re d to ap pe a r o n t h e p r e sc ri p ti o n c on t ai ne r lab e l o f s c h ed u le V c on t r oll e d s ub st a nc es . 8 . T he an sw e r is C [ I I . H. 2 . a , b a n d c ]. A C l as s I r ec al l i s a s it ua t i on in wh i c h th e r e is a r e a s o na b le p ro ba b il i t y tha t t he us e o f , or e xp o s ur e to , a v i ola t i v e p r o du ct wi l l c au s e s e r io us ad v e r se he al t h c o ns eq u en c e s o r d e at h . 9 . T he an sw e r is D [ I I . I.1 , 2 ]. Th e F e de r al F oo d , D r u g, a n d C o s m et ic Ac t s t a te s t h a t a d r ug is c o ns id e red a d ul t e ra t ed i f i t c o ns is t s i n wh o l e o r i n p a rt o f a n y f i lt h y , pu t ri d , o r de c o m po s ed s u bs ta n c e . Th e t e rm s “ m i s b ra nd i ng ” an d “ a du l te ra t i on ” ar e o f t en re f e r re d t o in l i t er a tu r e a n d c a s e la w a s be i ng th e s am e o r s im il a r v io l at i on s u nd e r t h e la w. H o we ve r , t h e Ac t s et s f or t h s p ec if ic in s ta nc es of a d ul t e ra t io n a n d sp ec i fi c i ns t an c e s o f m i sb r an d in g . 1 0 . Th e a n sw e r i s B [ I II .A . 1 ] . O n l y s ub li n gu a l d os ag e fo r m s of ni t r og l y c e r i n a re e xe m p t f ro m ch i ld - r es is ta n t p a ck ag i ng .
26 Reviewing and Dispensing Prescription and Medication Orders T o d d A. B r ow n
I. DEFINITIONS A. P r e s c r i p t i on s a r e o rd e r s f o r m e d ic at i on s, non d r ug p ro d uc ts , a n d se r v i c es th a t a r e wr i t t en b y a li c e ns e d p r ac t it i on e r o r m id l e v el p r a c t i ti o ne r wh o i s a u th or i ze d b y s t a te la w t o p re s c r ib e (s e e A pp en d i x A ) . P ha r m ac is t s a r e in c re as i ng l y be in g gi ve n p r e sc ri b in g p r i v il e ge s b y e n ac tm en t of s t a te co l la b o r a ti ve d r u g t h e r ap y m a n ag e me n t ( C D T M) l e g i s l a ti on . Th is al l o ws p ha r m ac is ts to c h an g e t he d o s e of e xi s t i n g m e d ic at i on s o r or d e r n e w m e di ca t io n u nde r es t ab l is he d p r ot o co ls o r g u id e li n es a g re e d o n b y t h e p h a rm ac is t a nd ph ys i c ia n . P r ac t it i on e rs m a y p r e s c ri b e o n l y m e di c a t io ns th a t a re wi t h i n t he i r s c o pe o f p ra c ti c e . P re sc r ip t io ns m ay b e wr i t t e n , p r es e nt e d o r al l y ( b y t e le p ho ne ) , o r p re s en t e d e le ct r o ni ca ll y ( i .e . , vi a f a x o r c om p ut e r n e t wo r k ) t o t h e p h a rm ac is t . Th e r eq ui r em e nt s o f t h e p r es cr i pt i on f o rm i n cl ud e s ec u ri t y f ea t u re s a n d t am pe r - r es is t an t c ha r a c t e ri s ti cs a n d v a r y wi t h s t a te r e g ul a ti o ns . Th e p re s c r ipt i o n s e r ve s a s a veh ic l e f o r c om m un ic a ti on f ro m th e p r e sc ri b e r t o t h e p ha rm ac is t ab ou t th e n e ed s o f th e pa t ie n t. Th e fo ll o wi n g i n f or m at io n s h ou ld be inc l ud e d o n a p r es c ri p ti on : 1 . P a ti e n t i n f o rm a t io n , in c lu di n g f ul l n am e a n d ad d r es s 2 . D a te on wh i c h t he p res c ri p ti o n wa s is s u e d 3 . N am e a n d d o sa g e f o rm o f th e p r o d uc t . Th e na m e c a n b e an y o f t he f ol l o wi n g: a . P r op r ie t a r y (b r an d ) b . N o np r op r ie t a r y (g e ne ri c ) c . C he m i c a l 4 . P r o du c t s t r e ng t h . The s tr e ng t h o f t h e p r od uc t i s n o t r eq u i re d i f o n l y on e s t r en g th i s c om m e r c i al l y a v ai l ab le o r i f th e p r od uc t c o nt a in s a c o m b in a ti o n o f a c t i ve i n g re d ie n ts . I t i s a d v is a bl e to in cl u de th e s t re n gt h t o re d uc e t h e ch a nc e o f m is i nt e r pr e ti n g t he p re s c r i p ti o n. I f t h e d os e is to b e c a lc ul a te d b y t h e p har m ac is t , t h e n t he ph a rm ac is t c a n d e c i d e t he s t r en g th o f t he p r od uc t d is p en s e d a f ter c a lc ul a ti ng t he pa t ie n t 's d o s e . 5 . Q u a nt i t y t o b e d i s pen s e d. Th i s s h o ul d i nc lu de t he am ou n t a nd t he un it s of m e as u re ( e. g ., g ra m s , ou n c e s , t ab le t s ). I f t he am o un t i s n o t sp ec i fi e d, th e di r ec t io ns s h ou l d s p ec i f y th e d os e to b e t ak en an d th e d u ra ti o n o f t h e ra p y so th a t t he p h a rm ac is t c an c a lc ul a te t h e q ua n ti t y r eq u i re d f o r t h e p a ti en t . 6 . D i r ec t i on s fo r t h e p ha r m a ci s t . D i r ec ti o ns m ay b e r eq u ir e d f o r : a . P r ep a ra t io n (e . g. , c om p o u nd in g ) b . L ab el i ng (i . e ., in f o rm at i o n t o b e p u t o n t he p res c ri p ti o n l ab el ) 7 . D i r ec t i on s fo r t h e p at i e n t . Th e se s h o ul d i nc lud e e xp l ic i t i ns t ru c t i on s on t he q u a nt i t y , s c h ed ul e , a n d d u r a ti on f or p ro p er us e . “ A s D i re ct e d ” s h o ul d b e a v o i d ed . I f t h e d i r ec ti o ns v a r y , a m in i m u m a nd m a xi m u m d os e c an b e us e d. 8 . R e f il l in f o r ma t i on . If r e f il l i n fo r m a t io n i s n ot s u p pl i ed , i t is g e ne r al l y as s u m ed t h a t n o r e fi l ls a r e a u th o riz e d . “ As ne e de d ” (p r o r e n a ta [ pr n ] ) r e fi l ls a r e u su a ll y
i n t er p r et e d as al l o wi n g fo r r e fi ll s f o r 1 y e ar u nl es s la ws o r re g ul a ti o ns re s t r i ct t he a m ou n t o r t im e p e r io d i n wh i c h a p re s c r ip t io n i s va l id . 9 . P r es c r i be r i n fo r m a tio n . Th is s h ou l d i nc lu de th e na m e , o f f ic e a dd r es s, s ig n at u r e o f t he pr es c ri b e r, th e D ru g E nf o rc em e nt A dm in is tr a t io n ( D E A ) n um be r ( fo r c on t r ol l ed s u bs ta n c e s o nl y ) a nd the N a ti o na l P ro vi de r Id e nti f i er ( N P I ) n um be r . P.559
B . M ed i ca t i on o r de r s are o r de rs f o r m e d ic at i on s b y a n i n di v i d ua l a u th o ri ze d to p r e sc ri b e a nd a re in t en de d fo r us e b y p at i en ts wh i l e in an in s ti t ut io n al s et t i ng . Th e y m a y be wr i t t e n, p re s e n ted o r al l y (b y t e le ph o ne ) , o r p re s e n t ed el ec t ro n ic all y ( i . e. , v i a f a x o r c om p ut e r n e t wo r k ) t o th e p h ar m a c i s t. Th e m e di c a t io n o r de r ge n e ra ll y i nc l ud es 1 . P a ti e n t i n f o rm a t io n (e . g . , f ul l n am e , i de n ti f ic at i o n n um be r ) 2 . D a te a nd t im e t h e o r de r wa s wr i t t e n 3 . N am e of t he p r o du c t . Th e n am e c an be an y o f t h e f ol l o wi n g: a . P r op r ie t a r y (b r an d ) b . N o np r op r ie t a r y (g e ne ri c ) c . C he m i c a l 4 . P r o du c t s t r e ng t h , d os a g e, a nd r o ut e of a dmi n i s t r at i o n. Th e s t r en g th o f th e p r o du c t is no t re q ui r ed i f o n l y o n e s tr e ng t h i s com m e r c i a ll y a v a il ab l e o r if t h e p r o du c t c o n ta i ns a c o m bi n a ti on o f ac t i ve i ng r e di en t s . I t i s a d vis ab l e t o i ncl u de t he s t r en g th to r ed uc e th e c h a nc e o f m is in t e rp r e ti ng t h e o r d er . Th e p h a rm ac is t m a y d e ci d e t he s t r en g th o f t he p r od uc t d is p en s e d a f ter c al c u l at i ng th e p a ti e nt ' s do se . Th e d os a ge an d ro u te of a dm i ni s t r a ti o n sh o ul d be i n c lu de d to r ed uc e t h e c h an ce o f m is i nt e r pr e ti n g t he o rd e r a n d t o a ll o w f o r c o r re c t a d m i ni s t ra ti o n t o t h e p at ie n t . 5 . P r es c r i be r ' s s i gn a t u re . I f t he o rd e r wa s t ak e n v e r b a ll y, th e n am e of the p e rs on t r a ns c ri bi n g t he o rd e r s ho u ld be in cl u de d . 6 . D i r ec t i on s fo r t h e p ha r m a ci s t . Th e se c a n b e u s ed fo r : a . P r ep a ra t io n (e . g. , c om p o u nd in g ) b . L ab el i ng (i . e ., in f o rm at i o n t o b e p u t o n t he la be l ) 7 . I ns t r u c ti o ns f o r a d min i s t r a ti o n , i nc lu di n g q uan t i t y, ro u te of ad m i n is t rat i o n, s ch e du l e, an d d u r at io n of u s e
II. UNDERSTANDING THE PRESCRIPTION OR MEDICATION ORDER AND EVALUATING ITS APPROPRIATENESS A. U n d e r s t a n di n g t h e or d e r . A c om pl e te un d e rs t a n di ng o f a ll in f or m a t io n c on t ai n ed i n a p r es c r ip t io n o r m e dic a ti o n o r de r i s r e qu i re d . E a c h p ie ce of in f o rm at i on sh o ul d b e ap p ro p r ia t e a nd c o ns is t en t wi t h th e r em a in i ng i n f or m at io n (i . e. , th e i ns tr u c ti o ns f o r us e s ho ul d b e a p p ro pr i a te f o r t he m e di ca t io n b e in g o r d e re d ). Th e ph a rm ac is t s h ou l d r ea d th e e n ti r e p re s c r i pt i on or m e di c at io n o r d e r c a r e fu l l y t o de t er m i n e t h e p r e sc ri b e r 's in t en t b y i n te r p r et i ng th e fo ll o wi n g i nf o r m a t io n : 1 . Th e na m e an d a dd r es s o f b ot h t h e p a ti en t an d t h e p r es cr i be r 2 . Th e pa ti e n t 's di s e as e o r c o n di t io n r e qu i ri n g t r ea t m e n t
3 . Th e re as o n t h e o rd e r is in d ic at e d, r el a ti v e to t he m e d ic al ne e d o f t he pat i e nt ( e . g ., an an t ib ac t e ri a l f o r a n i n fe c ti on ) 4 . Th e na m e of th e p r o du c t , t he qu a nt i t y pr es c ri be d , a n d i ns t ru c ti on s f o r u s e 5 . A ll te r m i n ol og y , i nc lu di n g u ni t s o f m ea s u r e ( a po t h ec a r y , m et r ic , o r E ng li s h ) a nd L a t in ab b re v i a ti o ns (s ee A p p en d i x A f o r c om m o n a b b re v i a ti o ns ) B . E va l u a t in g th e a p p r op r i a t en e ss . C om pl e te inf o r m a t io n i s r e qu i re d o n t h e p r e sc ri p ti o n o r m ed ic a ti on o r de r to pr o vi de t he nec es s ar y i n fo rm a ti o n t o a ll o w t h e p h a rm ac is t to e v al ua t e th e ap p ro p r ia t en es s o f t he o r de r . W hen th e o r d er i s i n co m p l et e , t he ph a rm ac i s t m us t o bt a in th e re q uir e d i n f or m a t io n fr om ei t he r t he p a t ie n t o r t h e p r es c r i be r . Th e f ol l o wi n g s h o ul d b e c on s i d e re d d u ri n g a n e va l ua t io n : 1 . Th e pa ti e n t 's di s e as e o r c o n di t io n r e qu i ri n g t r ea t m e n t 2 . Th e pa ti e n t 's al le r gi e s o r h y pe r se ns i ti v i t ie s 3 . Th e ph a rm ac ol o gi c a l o r bi o lo g ic al ac ti o n o f t he p r esc r ib e d p r od uc t 4 . Th e pr es c ri b ed r ou t e o f ad m i n is t ra t io n 5 . W he t he r th e p r es c r i bed p r od uc t m ig h t r es u lt in a d ru g -d r u g, d ru g -d is e as e , o r d r u g -f o od in t e ra c t i on P.560
6 . W he t he r th e d os e , d os a ge fo r m , a nd do sa ge re g im e n a re s a f e a nd li kel y t o m e et t h e n e ed s o f t h e p at i en t 7 . W he t he r th e p a ti en t wi l l h a v e a n y di f fi cu l ti es ad h e ri n g t o t h e r eg im e n an d th e p o t en t ia l i m p ac t o n th e th e r ap e ut ic ou t c o m e de sir e d 8 . W he t he r th e t o ta l q u an t i t y of m e di c a t io n p r es c r i b ed is s u ff ic i en t to al low p r o p e r c om p le t io n o f a c o u rs e of t h er a p y 9 . W he t he r a ph y s ic al o r c he m i c a l i nc om p at i bi li t y m ig h t r es u lt ( i. e . , i f t he p r o du c t r e q ui r es e xt e m po r an e ous c o m p o un di n g ) 1 0 . W he th e r a l ic e ns ed pr a c ti t io n er , ac ti n g i n t he c o u rs e a nd s c op e o f p r ac t ic e , i ss u ed th e p r es c ri p ti o n in g oo d f a it h , f o r a le gi t i m a te m e di c a l p u r po se C . D i s co ve r i n g in a pp r op r i a t e p r e sc r i p ti o n s o r m e d ic a t io n o rd e r s . P h ar m ac is t s a r e re q ui r ed t o r e v ie w m e d ic a ti on p ro f il es t o e ns u r e th e a p pr o p ri a te ne s s o f p r e sc ri p ti o ns or m e di c a t io n o rd e rs . Th is i s c om m o n l y c a ll ed d ru g u t il i z a tio n r e vie w ( D U R ) . P h a rm ac is ts s h ou l d n o t f il l o r pr oc e ss p re s c r i pt i on s o r m ed ic a ti on o r de rs t h a t t h e y h a v e c on c er ns wi t h o r th a t a r e c on si de re d in ap p r op r ia t e b u t, r ath e r , s ho u ld c o nt ac t th e p r es c ri b er . Th e p ro c e s s o f c a ll in g a pr e sc r ib e r to di s c us s c o nc e r n s i d en t i fi ed du r i ng a D U R is c o m m on l y c a ll e d t h e rap e u t ic i n te r ve n t i on . 1 . W he n p e rf o rm i ng a t he r a pe u ti c i n te r ve nt i on , th e fo l lo wi n g i n fo r m a t io n s h ou l d b e p r o vi de d : a . A b r i ef de s c r ip t io n o f th e p ro bl em b . A re f e re nc e s o ur c e t ha t do c u m e n ts th e p r o bl em c . A d es c ri p ti on o f t he c li n ic al s i gn i fi c a nc e o f th e p r o bl em d . A s u gg es t io n o f a s o lut i o n t o t h e p ro b le m 2 . Th e fo ll o wi n g re s o l ut io n s a r e p os s i bl e t o s ol ve t h e p r ob l em o r c o nc e rn : a . Th e pr es c ri p ti o n o r m e d ic a ti on o rd e r wi l l b e d is p e n se d a s wr i t te n . b . Th e p re s c ri p ti o n o r m e d ic a ti on o rd e r wi l l n ot be d is pe ns e d.
c . Th e p r es c ri p ti on o r m e d ic a ti on o rd e r wi l l b e a lt e r e d a nd di s p en s ed . 3 . D oc um e nt a ti o n o f t he r e s ul ts of a t h e ra pe u ti c in t e r v e nt i on ar e re q ui r ed i f th e p r e sc ri p ti o n o r m ed ic a ti on o r de r i s c ha n ge d . Th e n a m e of t he pr e s c ri b e r, d a t e o f c om m u n ic at i on , i s s u es di s c us s ed , a n d r es ol u ti o n s h o u l d b e i nc lu de d i n the d o cu m e n ta t io n . Th i s i n for m a ti o n sh o ul d b e k ep t fo r t he s a m e ti m e pe r io d a s th e p r e sc ri p ti o n o r m ed ic a ti on o r de r . 4 . I f t he ph a rm ac is t fe e ls t h a t, in hi s o r h e r p r o fe s s i on al ju d gm en t , a n o r der i s i n ap p r op r ia t e a nd c o ul d h a r m t he pa t ie n t, t he pha r m ac is t s ho ul d n o t p r oce s s t he o r d e r. Th e ph a rm ac is t m a y a ls o b e re q ui r ed t o e xp l ai n th e s it u at i on to th e p a ti e nt . I f , af t e r a th e ra p eu t ic i n te r v e n t io n , t he ph a rm ac is t b el i e ves th e o r de r is s t il l i n ap p r op r ia t e , t he gu i de li n es of t he in st i tu t io n a n d p r of es s i o na l j ud gm e nt s h ou l d b e f o l lo we d .
III. PROCESSING PRESCRIPTIONS AND MEDICATION ORDERS r e q ui r es th a t t h e p ha r m ac is t fo ll o w a p p ro p ri a te gu i de l in es . An en vi r o nm en t t ha t l i m i ts di s t r ac t io ns an d d is r u pt i on s d u ri ng th e s e ac t i v i ti es wi l l a s s is t i n i nc r e a si ng t he a cc u r ac y o f t hi s p r oc es s . A u t om a ti on an d th e u se o f ph a rm ac y t ec hn ic i an s a l lo w t h e p h a rm ac is t to o v er s ee the s e f un c ti on s b u t s p e nd l e s s ti m e pe r fo r m i n g t hes e a c ti vi t ie s . Th e ti m e s a v ed a ll o ws th e p h a rm ac is t g r e a te r ti m e fo r pa t ie n t- fo c us ed a c ti vi t ie s , s u c h as c o un s e l in g a n d p at i en t e d uc a tio n . A. T h e f o l low i n g i n fo rm a t i on s h ou l d b e r ec o rd e d o n th e p r es cr i pt i on : 1 . Th e pr es c ri p ti o n n um be r ( f or in i ti a l f il li n g ) 2 . Th e or i gi na l d a te o f f ill i ng 3 . Th e pr o du c t a nd qu ant i t y di s pe ns ed 4 . Th e ph a rm ac is t ' s i ni tia l s B . P r o d uc t se l ec t i o n. Ge n e ri c s ub s t i tu t io n s t at u te s , a s we l l as fo rm u la r y a n d t h e r ap eu t ic s u bs ti t u ti on p o li c i es , m i gh t p r o vi de di r e c t io n i n p r o du ct se le c ti o n . C . P r o d uc t p r ep a r a ti o n f o r us e b y t he pa t ie n t. Th e fo l lo wi n g m ig h t b e n ec es s ar y f o r p r e pa r a ti o n: P.561
1 . O b ta i ni ng t he p ro pe r a m ou n t o f m ed ic a ti on t o b e di s p e ns ed 2 . R ec o ns ti t ut i on ( th e a dd i t io n o f l i qu id to m a k e a s ol u ti o n o r s us pe ns i on ) 3 . E xt e m p or a ne o us c om p o u nd in g (s ee C ha p te r 5) 4 . A s s em bl y o f t h e m e d ic a ti o n d el i v e r y un i t D . S e l ec t i on o f t h e p r op e r p ac ka g e o r c on t a ine r is r eq u i re d t o e ns u r e p r o du c t s t ab i li t y, to p ro m o t e p at ie n t c om pl i an c e , a n d t o c o m pl y wi t h le g al r eq ui r em e nt s . Th i s i n f or m at io n i s c om m o nl y f o u nd in th e Un i te d S ta te s Ph a r m ac o pe ia ( U S P ) . E . L a be l in g t he p re s c r ib e d p ro d u ct 1 . Th e p re s c ri p t i on la be l t y p ic al l y c o nt a in s t he f o l lo wi n g i n fo r m a t io n : a . N am e a n d a dd r es s o f t h e p h a rm ac y b . P a ti en t ' s n am e c . O r ig i na l d at e of fi l li ng
d . P r es c r i pt i on nu m b e r e . D i re c ti on s f o r u s e f . P r o du c t ' s b r a nd na m e o r g en e ri c n am e a nd m an u f ac tu r e r g . P r od uc t s t r en g th (i f av a i l ab l e i n m o r e t h an one s tr e ng t h ) h . Q u an t it y o f m ed ic a ti on d is pe ns e d i . P r es c r i be r ' s n am e j . E xp i r a t io n d a te o f t he m e di c a t io n k . P ha r m a c i s t ' s i n it i al s 2 . U n i t -d o se pa c ka g es c o nt a in on e d os e o r on e u n i t o f m ed ic a ti on . Fo r a m e di ca t io n o r de r th a t i s d i s p e ns ed in un i t - do s e p a c ka g es , th e l ab e l s h ou l d i de n ti f y t h e p r o du c t ' s b r a nd or ge n e ri c n am e , s tr e ng t h, lot n um be r , a n d e xp i r a t io n d a te . 3 . Au x i l ia r y a n d c a u ti on a r y l a b e l s . To e ns u re p r o pe r m e di c a t io n u s e , s t o r a ge , a n d c om p li a nc e wi t h ap p li c ab l e s ta t u te s , an d to re i nfo r c e i nf o rm a ti on p ro vi d ed d u ri ng c o un se l in g , a u xi l ia r y a nd/ o r c a ut i on a r y la be ls sh ou l d b e a f fi xe d wh e n a pp ro p r ia t e ( s e e A p pe nd i x A ) . 4 . F or m e di c a t io n i n s c he d ul e s I I -I V (s e e C h ap t er 2 5 ) , a f e de r al t r an s f e r wa r n i n g i s r e q ui r e d. F . R e co r d ke e pi n g a n d c o n f id e n ti a l i t y. Th e p h ar m ac is t i s re qu i r ed to m ai n t ai n p r e s c r ip t i on f i le s a n d re c o r ds in ac c o r da n ce wi t h s t a nd a rd s o f s ou n d p ra c ti c e an d s t a tu t or y r e qu i r em en ts . Th e i m p l em en t at i on of t he H e al t h ca r e In s u ra n ce P o r t a b i li t y a n d Ac c o u nt a b i l it y Ac t ( H I P A A ) h as p u t a dd i ti o na l r e qu i re m en t s o n a ll h e al t h p r o fe s s io na ls wh o h a v e a cc es s t o h e al t h inf o r m a t io n (s ee C ha p te r 25 ) . Th e r e c or d s in c l u de a p a t ie nt p r o f i le , c on t ai n in g p a tie n t d em o g ra ph ic in f o rm at i o n a nd a c om p le t e c h r o no lo g ic al re c o rd of al l m ed ic a ti o n us e a n d s er v i c e s p r o v id e d i n t h e d e li v e r y o f p h ar m ac eu t ic a l c a r e. 1 . Th e pa ti e n t p ro f il e s ho u ld c o n ta i n t he fo l lo wi n g p a ti e n t i n f o rm a t io n : a . P at i en t ' s n am e b . P a ti en t ' s a dd r es s (o r r o o m n um be r i n i ns t i tu t ion a l s et t in gs ) c . A n y k no wn a l le r gi es , s e n s i t i v it i es , o r h is t o r y of i d io s y nc r a ti c r e ac ti o ns to p r e v io us m e di ca t io ns d . B i rt h d a te ( i. e . , t o a s s e s s t he ap p ro p r ia t en es s o f t he do se ) e . C li n ic al c o nd i ti on ( s ) ( to h el p a s s es s t he ap p r op r i at e ne ss of t he m e di c at i o n a nd to p r e ve n t d r ug - di s e as e i n te r a c t i on s ) f . W eig ht ( to as s e s s th e a p p ro p r ia t en es s o f t h e do s e ) g . O cc u pa t io n ( t o d e te c t c o nd i ti on s a ss oc ia t ed wi t h a p a rt ic u la r oc c u pa t ion a nd to h e lp de t e rm in e i f th e p a ti e n t wi l l be ab le t o co m p l y wi t h t h e re gi m en ) h . N on p r es c r i pt i on m e di c a t i on us e ( t o p r e v en t d r ug - d r ug an d d r u g- d is ea s e i n t er a ct i on s , to as s e s s m e d ic a ti on e ff ec t i v en e s s , a n d t o d e te c t p oss i bl e ad v e r s e e f f ec ts ) 2 . I n a dd i ti on , th e p a ti e nt p r of i le s h ou l d c o n ta i n th e fo l lo wi n g i n fo r m a t io n f r o m e ac h p r e sc ri p ti o n o r m ed ic a ti on o r de r : a . N am e o f th e m ed ic a tio n b . Me d i c at i on s t r en g th c . D os ag e f o rm d . Q u an t it y d is p en s e d
P.562
e . D i re c ti on s f o r u s e f . P r es c ri p ti on nu m b e r g . D is p en s i ng d at e h . N um b er o f r e fi ll s a u tho r i z e d a nd r em ai n in g i . P r es c r i be r ' s n am e j . P ha r m a c i s t 's in i ti al s
IV. DISPENSING MEDICATION AND COUNSELING. Th e d is p en s i n g o f m e d ic a t i on r eq ui r es th a t t h e ph a r m a c i s t v e r if y t h at pa t ie n ts ha ve t h e n ec e s s ar y k no wl e d ge a nd ab il i t y to ad h e re to t he p re s c r ib e d t r ea tm en t . Th is wi l l i n c re as e t h e l ik el ih o od of o b ta in i ng th e d es i r ed ou t c o m e s . A. C o u n s e l in g pa t i en t s . Th e p ha r m a ci s t sh o ul d e v a l u at e t h e p at i en t ' s u n d er s ta nd i ng of ea c h m e d ic a ti on a nd s u pp l y ad di t i o n al in f o rm at i on wh e n t h e p a t ie n t 's in f o rm at i on i s in c o rr e c t o r i ns uf f ic ie n t. Th e p h a rm ac is t m i g ht n ee d to a d vi se pa t ie n ts re g a rd ing t he p ro p er do s ag e , a pp e a ra nc e , a n d n am e o f th e m e di ca t io n . I n fo rm a ti o n a b o ut th e ro u te o f a dm i ni s t ra t io n , i ns t ru c t i on s f o r u se , d u r a ti on o f us e , a nd t he r e a s o n t h e p r od uc t wa s p r e s c ri b ed m a y a ls o b e n e e de d . I n a d di t io n , t h e f ol l o wi ng t op i c s m ig h t a ls o b e a pp r op r i at e du r in g t h e co u ns eli n g s es si o n: 1 . S pe c ia l p r oc e du r e s. A s ap p r op r ia t e, t he ph a rm ac is t s h ou ld a d v is e p ati e n ts o n h o w t o t ak e t he m e di c at io n ( e. g ., on an em p t y s to m ac h, wi t h pl e nt y o f wat e r ) an d i n st r uc t th em on fo o ds to a v o i d wh i l e t ak i ng th e m e d ic a ti on ( e .g . , a lc oh o li c b e ve r ag e s , da i r y pr o du c ts ) . 2 . P o te n t ia l ad ve r s e e f fe c t s . Th e ph a rm ac is t s ho u ld en s ur e th a t p at i en ts a r e a wa r e o f t he po s s ib le ad v e r s e e f f ec ts as so c i a te d wi t h th e m e di ca t io n . P a ti e nt s s h ou l d u n d er s ta nd t he fo l lo wi n g: a . Th e f r eq u en c y o f a n a d v e r s e ef f ec t . Th i s wi ll h e lp pa t ie n ts r ec og ni z e c om m o n a d ve r s e ef f ec ts an d n o t b e o v e rl y c o nc e r ne d wi t h t h os e t h at a re r ar e . b . Th e se ve r i t y o f a n a dv e r s e e f f ec t. Th i s wi l l hel p pa t ie n ts fo cu s o n t ho s e a d v e rs e e f f ec ts t ha t a r e s e v e re an d no t th os e t h at a re in c o n s e q ue n ti al . c . W ha t ac t io n s h ou ld be t a k e n t o m a na g e o r m i ni m i z e th e a d ve rs e e f fe c t. Th i s wi l l h e lp pa t ie n ts de a l wi t h po s s i bl e a d ve rs e e f fe c ts in t he ap p r op r ia t e m a n ner . 3 . P r o pe r s to r a g e. Th e p h a rm ac is t s ho u ld c o un s e l pa t ie n ts o n h o w t o s t or e m e di ca t io ns p ro pe r l y t o e n s u r e s ta b il i t y a n d p ot en c y . 4 . O ve r - t h e -c o u n te r ( OTC ) p r o d u c t s. Th e ph a rm ac is t s h ou ld in s t ru c t pat i e nt s a bo u t t h e u se o f O TC p r o d uc ts t h a t m i g ht o r m i g ht no t b e ap p ro p r ia t e wh e n ta kin g a p r e sc ri b ed p ro d uc t. B . C o u n se l in g he a l th pr o f e s si o na l s . H e al t h p r of e ss io n al s ( i .e . , i n a n i ns t i t ut i on a l s e t ti ng ) m a y a dm in is t er m e di c a t io ns to pa t ie n ts . I n t he se c as es , th e p h a rm ac is t s h ou l d e ns ur e th a t t he he a l th p ro f es s i on al ha s s u f f ic ie n t k no wl e d ge t o ad m in is t e r t h e p r o du c t . In f o rm at i on t h a t h ea l th p ro f es s i on a ls wo u l d ne e d t o a dm in is t er m e di ca t io ns s a f el y a nd ef f e c t i v e l y i nc l ud e t h e f ol l o wi n g :
1 . Th e c h oi c e of a p a rt ic u l a r p r od uc t 2 . Th e pr o pe r do s a g e, do s ag e re gi m e n , a n d r ou te o f a dm in is t r at i on 3 . Th e c os t of th e p r es c ri b ed p ro d uc t a nd t he c ost s as s oc i at e d wi t h i ts u s e ( i .e . , a d m i ni s t ra ti o n c os ts an d c os ts o f t r ea t in g p os si ble a d ve rs e e f fe c t s ) 4 . Th e a v ai la b il i t y o f c om m e r c i a ll y m a d e p ro d uc ts 5 . P ot e nt i al ad v e r s e ef f ec t s 6 . D r ug in t e ra c t i on s 7 . P h ysi c a l i nc om pa t ib i li ti e s 8 . S af e h a nd l in g a nd di s p o s a l p r oc ed u r es 9 . N u t ri ti o na l i n te r ac t io ns o r r e qu i re m e n ts 1 0 . D ru g i n te r f e re nc e wi th l ab o ra t o r y te st s
V. PATIENT MONITORING. Th e p r o v is i on of ph a rm ac e ut ic a l c a r e re q ui r es a p h a r ma c eu t i ca l c a r e p la n (s e e C h a p te r 20 ) . Mo n i to r in g a p at i en t ' s n ee d f o r m ed ic a ti o n a nd th e e f f ec t o f th e m e di ca t io n P.563 o n th e p a ti e nt m a xi m i z e s t h e e f fe c t i ve ne s s of t he m e di c a t io ns be i ng ta k e n . U n d es i r ed ou tc om es as s o c ia t ed wi t h d r u g t he r a py a r e f re q ue n tl y c a l le d dr u g therapy problems. A. P h a r m a c eu t i ca l c a r e p l a n. To in c re as e th e f re q u en c y a n d b en e fi ts o f d e s i r ed o u tc om e s , a p ha r m a c e u ti c al c a r e p la n s ho ul d i nc lu d e t h e f ol l o wi n g: 1 . As s e ss m en t . A r e v i ew o f t h e m ed ic a l c o n di t ion s a n d s ym p t om s t o d et er m i ne th e n e e d f o r m e d ic at i on 2 . P la n . A d ec is io n o f a n a p p ro p ri a te d ru g t h e ra py b a s e d on th e a s s es s m e n t o f th e p a t ie n t 3 . M o n i to r i n g. A re v i e w o f t he ou tc om es o f d ru g t h e r ap y ( i .e . , g oa ls an d e n d p oi n ts ) t o de t e rm in e i f th e p a ti en t is ob t ai ni n g t he de s i r ed o ut co m e s B . D r u g t he r a p y p r o b l e m s a re e v id en c e o f l es s -t h a n -o p ti m a l d r ug th e r apy . D e t e ct io n of d ru g - re la t ed p r o bl em s r eq u i re s a n as s e s sm e nt of t he ne e d f o r a ch an g e i n dr u g t h er a p y . Po s s ib le p r o bl em s i nc lu de 1 . U n ne c es sa r y d r u g t h e r a p y. Th e m e di c a t io n c a n n ot be as so c i a te d wi t h a m e di c a l c o nd i ti on o r t h e p re s en c e o f a c o nd i ti on in wh i c h n o nd r ug t he r ap y i s m o re a p p ro p r ia t e. 2 . W r on g d ru g . Th e d r ug is no t i n di c a t ed f or t he c on d it i on o r is no t d e li v e r i ng t he d e si r ed ou t c o m e s , o r a m o r e e ff e c t i v e d r ug is a va i la b le . 3 . D o se t oo l ow . I nc o r rec t do s e , fr e qu e nc y, ad m in i s t r a ti o n, o r d ur a ti o n o f t h e r ap y r e s ul ts in an in s u f fi c i e nt d o s e of d ru g to th e p a ti en t . 4 . Ad ve r s e d r u g r e ac t i on . A n a ll e r gi c r ea c ti on , dr u g i n t er ac t io n , o r a n und e s i r ab l e e f f ec t o c c u rs f ro m a m edi c at i on . 5 . D o se t oo h ig h . I nc o r re c t d os e , f r eq u en c y , o r du r a ti o n , r es ul t s i n m o r e m e di c a t io n t h a n is r eq u ir e d.
6 . I na p p r op r i a te ad h e r en c e . Th e p at ie n t i s n ot ta k in g t h e o pt im a l am o unt o f m e di ca t io n o wi n g to c o s t, a dm in is t r at i on di f fi c u l ti e s , a l te r na t i v e h ea l th be li e fs , or a l a ck o f un de r s ta nd i ng of t h e n e ed fo r th e m e di c a tio n . 7 . N ee d ad d i ti o n al d r ug t h e r ap y. O wi n g t o a n un d e r tr e at e d c on di t io n , s yn e r gi s m wi t h c on c ur r e nt d ru g t h er a p y o r p r op h y l ac ti c t h e ra p y is r eq u ir e d. P.564
STUDY QUESTIONS D i r e c t i on s : E a c h of t he q u es t io ns , s t at em e nt s , or i nc om p le t e s t a te m en ts c a n b e c o r re c tl y a ns we r e d o r c om p le t ed b y on e o f th e s ug g es t ed an s we r s o r p h r as es . C h o os e th e b e st an s we r . 1 . M e d ic a t io n o rd e r s d if f e r f r o m p r es c r i p ti o ns i n w h i ch o f t h e f o l low i ng w a ys ? They ( A ) a r e i nt e nd e d f o r am bu l a to r y us e . ( B ) c on t ai n o nl y t h e g ene r i c n am e o f t he m e di c ati o n . ( C ) a r e i n te nd e d f o r i ns tit u t io n al us e. ( D ) m a y b e t ra ns m i t te d el e c t r o ni ca ll y. ( E ) c on t ai n t h e q ua n ti t y o f m e di ca t io n to be di spe n s e d . V i e w A n s we r 1 . T h e a n sw e r i s C [ se e] . 2 . I f a t h er a p e u ti c in t e r ve n t io n is n e c es s a r y, a l l o f t he f ol l ow i n g i n f o rm a t io n s ho u l d b e c o mm u n ic a te d t o t h e p r e s c r ib e r e x ce p t ( A ) a de c l a ra t io n t h at “ a m is t ak e wa s m ad e .” ( B ) a br i ef de s c r ip t io n o f t h e p r ob l em . ( C ) a r ef e re n c e s o ur c e th a t d oc um e n ts t h e p r ob le m . ( D ) a n a l te r na t i v e o r s u gg e s t i on to r es ol ve t he pro b le m . ( E ) a de s c ri p ti o n o f t h e c l i ni c a l s ig n if ic a nc e o f t h e p r o bl em . V i e w A n s we r 2 . T h e a n sw e r i s A [ se e] . 3 . T h e f o ll ow in g i n f o r ma t i on sh ou l d b e r ec o r d ed o n a p re s cr i p t i o n e xc e p t t h e ( A ) p r es c r i pt i on nu m b e r . ( B ) d a te of fi l li ng . ( C ) e xp i r a t io n d a te . ( D ) p r od uc t an d q u an ti t y d i s p e ns ed . ( E ) p ha r m a c i s t ' s i n it i al s . V i e w A n s we r 3 . T h e a n sw e r i s C [ se e] . 4 . A p r e sc r i p t i on la b e l u su a l l y c o n t ai n s a l l o f th e fo l l ow i ng e xc ep t t he ( A ) q ua n ti t y di s pe ns ed . ( B ) l ot nu m be r . ( C ) p a ti en t ' s d i ag no s i s . ( D ) e xp i r a t io n d a te . ( E ) p r es c r i be r ' s n am e . V i e w A n s we r 4 . T h e a n sw e r i s C [ se e] . 5 . Au x i li ar y a n d c a u t i on a r y l a b e ls s h o u ld be u se d fo r a ll o f t h e f o l low i n g p u r p ose s ex c ep t t o ( A ) s ub s t i tu t e f o r v e r b al c o ns ul t at i on .
( B ) e ns u re p ro p er us ag e. ( C ) i n fo r m o f s to r ag e re qu i r em en t s. ( D ) c om pl y wi t h r eg u la t or y r e q ui r em e nt s . ( E ) wa r n a ga i ns t t h e c o nc om i ta n t u s e of c e r ta i n dr u g s o r f o od s. V i e w A n s we r 5 . T h e a n sw e r i s A [ se e] . 6 . T h e f o ll ow in g i t e ms a re es s ent i a l f o r a pa t i en t p ro f i l e s ys t e m ex ce p t ( A ) t h e p at ie n t ' s n am e. ( B ) t h e p re s c r ib e r ' s D r u g E n f o rc em en t Ad m i n is t rat i o n ( D E A ) re g is t ra t io n nu m be r . ( C ) t h e p at i en t ' s a ll e rg i es . ( D ) t h e p at i en t ' s b i rt h d at e . ( E ) i ns t ru c ti on s f o r m ed ic a ti o n us e . V i e w A n s we r 6 . T h e a n sw e r i s B [ se ea n d] .7 . T h e f o l l ow in g a r e d r ug t he ra p y p r o b l em s e x ce p t ( A ) a n a d v e rs e e f fe c t f r om a m ed ic a ti on . ( B ) s ym p t om s c a us e d b y u n de r t re a tm e nt . ( C ) a d ru g -d r ug in t e ra c tio n . ( D ) a n u n di ag n os ed c o nd i t io n . ( E ) a n a ll e rg ic r ea c ti on to a m ed ic a ti o n. V i e w A n s we r 7 . T h e a n sw e r i s D [ se e] . P . 56 5
ANSWERS AND EXPLANATIONS 1 . T he an sw e r is C [ s ee I . B ] . Me d i c a t io n o r de r s a r e wr i t t en fo r t he c a r e o f i np a ti e n ts . B o th m e di c at i on ord e r s a nd p r e sc ri p ti o ns m a y c o n ta in t he b ra n d o r g e ne r ic na m e o f t h e d ru g an d m a y b e t r a ns m i t te d e l ec t ro n ic al ly . O n l y p r es cr i pt i on s c ont a i n t he qu a nt i t y of m e dic a ti o n t o b e di sp e ns ed . 2 . T he an sw e r is A [ s ee I I . C .1 ] . I n f o rm at i on p ro v i de d to th e p re s c ri b e r d u ri ng a t he r a pe u ti c i n te r v e nt i on s ho u ld i n cl ud e a d es c r ip t io n o f th e p ro bl em , re f e re nc e s o u r c e , d es c ri p ti o n o f t he c li n ic al s i gn i fi ca nc e , a nd an al t er n a ti v e . In f o rm in g t h e p re s c r i be r th a t a m is t ak e wa s m a de d o es no t e n c o u ra g e c o op e r a ti on an d re s o l ut i on o f t h e pr o bl em . 3 . T he an sw e r is C [ s ee I I I . A] . Th e p r es c ri p ti on nu m be r, d a te of fi l li ng , pr o du c t a n d q u an t it y d is pe ns e d, a n d p h a rm ac is t ' s i ni t ia ls s h ou l d b e re c o r de d o n th e pr e sc r ip t io n . Th e e xp i r a tio n da t e o f t h e p r o du c t be i ng di s p e ns e d is no t re q ui r ed . 4 . T he an sw e r is C [ s ee I I I . E. 1 ] . Th e q u an t it y o f m ed ic a tio n di s p e ns ed , l o t n um ber , e xp i r a t io n d a te of th e p r o du c t, a n d p r es c ri be r ' s n am e a re us u al l y in cl u de d o n t he l ab el . Th e p a ti e nt ' s d i ag n os is , a l t ho ug h l is t ed in t he pa ti e n t 's p ro f il e, is no t i nc l ud e d o n t h e p r es c r i pt i on la b el . 5 . T he an sw e r is A [ s ee I I I . E. 3 ; I V . A .1 ] . A u xi l i a r y a nd c a u ti on a r y l a be ls a re an ad j un c t t o, n o t a r ep l ac em en t fo r , ve r b al c o ns ul t at i on . Ap p r op r ia te us es f o r s u c h la b el s i nc l ud e e ns u ri n g p r op e r u se , s t o ra g e
r e q ui r em e nt s , a nd c om p li a nc e wi t h s ta t ut o r y r eq ui r e m e n ts , a nd wa r n i ng ag a in s t f oo d a n d d r ug in t e ra c t i on s . 6 . T he an sw e r is B [ s ee I I I . F. 1 a n d 2 ]. Th e p a ti e nt ' s n am e i s r eq u i re d to i d en t if y e ac h pa t i en t . O f t e n, th e a d d re ss o r r o om n u m b e r i s r eq u i re d t o i de n t if y p a ti en t s wi t h s i m i la r n am es . Th e p at ie n t ' s a l le r g ie s , b i r th d at e , a nd in s t r uc t ion s fo r u s e a re r eq u ir e d to p r e v en t d r u g al l e rg ie s a n d t o a ss e ss t h e a pp r o pr i at e ne s s o f t he p re s c r ip t io n or m ed ic a ti o n o rd e r . 7 . T he an sw e r is D [ s ee V . B ] . A d ve r s e e ff e c t s , un d e rt re a t ed c o nd i ti o ns , a ll e rg ic r ea c ti on s , a nd dr u g -d ru g i n t er a ct i on s a re al l d r u g t h e r ap y p r ob le m s . An und i ag n os ed co nd i ti o n m a y l e ad to a d r u g - re la t ed p ro b le m o nc e d i ag n os ed ; h o we v e r , d i ag n os is i s re qu i r ed be fo r e th e n e e d f o r m e d ic at i on c a n b e as s e ss ed .
27 Sterile Products J o h n F a ni k os
I. INTRODUCTION. Th e U n i te d S ta t es Ph a rm ac o pe i a a nd Th e Na t ion a l F o rm ul a r y ( U S P ) p u bl i s h ed p r a ct ic e s t an da r ds f or c om p ou n di ng st e ri l e p r ep a ra t i on s a f te r c as e re po r t s o f pa ti e n t h a r m a nd fa t al i t y . Th e p ro c ed u re s a n d r eq u i re m en t s o u tl in e d i n U S P C hap t e r 7 9 7 a r e i n t en de d to pr e v e n t p a t ie n t h a rm re s u l ti ng f ro m i n g re di e nt e r ro r s a nd m ic r ob i al c o nt am i na t io n . Th e c h apt e r in c l u de s c o m p o un d ing p e rs on ne l re sp o ns ib il i ti e s , t r a in i ng an d e v a l ua t io n re q ui r em e nt s , m e d ic at i on p r e pa r at i on s t e ri l it y a nd a c c u ra c y v e r i f ic a ti o n, c l as s i fi c a t ion o f m ic ro b ia l c on t am in a t i o n r is k , an d e q ui pm e nt a n d e n vi r on m e n ta l q u al i t y a nd c o n t ro l . W hil e t he se s ta n d ar ds ap p l y to al l f ac i li t i es ( h o sp i ta ls , n u rs in g h o m es , ph a rm ac ie s ) a nd al l p ra c ti t io n e rs (p h y si c i a ns , n u r s e s , t e ch n ic ia ns ) , t h e y ar e e s p e c i al l y im po r t an t fo r pha r m ac is ts wh o a re m os t o f t en i n vo l ve d wi t h s t e ri l e m e di c at i on p re pa r a ti o n. S in c e t he s t a nd a rd s r e qu i re s u bs ta n ti a l i n ve st m e n t i n l ab o r , e qu ip m en t , a nd s u p pl ie s , r egu l a to r y a ge nc ie s (F o od an d D r ug A d m in is t ra t io n , J oi n t C om m i s s io n o n Ac c re di t a tio n of H e al th C a re O r g ani za t i on s , U . S . st a te b oa r ds o f ph ar m ac y ) a r e e xp e c ti n g im p l em e nt a ti on b y J a nu a r y 2 0 06 , wi t h e vi d e nc e o f l on g t e rm c om p li an c e a nd ro u ti n e m on i t o r i ng th e r ea f te r .
II. DEFINITIONS A. S t e r i l i t y, a n a bs ol u te t e rm , m e an s t he ab s en c e o f l i v in g m ic r oo r ga n is m s . 1 . M i c r o be i s a m ic r os c op i c o r ga ni s m s s u c h as a b a ct e r ia , f u ng us , pr o ta zoa o r v i ru s 2 . P yr o g e n s a re m e ta b ol i c b y- p ro d uc ts of li v e o r d e a d m i c ro o rg a ni sm s t ha t c a us e a p yr e t ic r es po ns e (i . e. , a f e v e r ) up o n in j ec ti o n. 3 . S t e ri l e p r o d uc t s a r e p h a rm ac e ut ic al do s ag e fo r m s th a t a r e s te r il e . This in c l u de s p r o du c ts l ik e p a r en t er a l p r e pa r a ti o ns , i r ri g at i ng s o l u ti on s , a nd op h th a lm i c p r e pa r a ti o ns (s ee C ha p te r 2 9) . S te r il e p r o du ct co m po u nd in g re q ui r es c lea n e r f a ci l it i es , p e rs on n el t ra ini n g a nd t es ti n g, an d a s ou n d k no wl e d g e o f s te r il i za t i on an d s t ab i li t y p ri nc ip l es an d pr a c ti c e s . 4 . As e p t i c m an i pu l a ti on s r ef e rs to t he te ch n iq ue s a n d p r oc ed u re s u s e d d u r in g c om p ou n di ng t ha t m ai n ta i n t h e s te r il i t y o f ph a rm a c eu t ic al do s a g e f o rm s . 5 . C o mp o u nd e d S t e r il e P r e p a r a ti o n s ( C S P s ) in c l u de ; a . P r ep a ra t io ns , wh e n p re p a re d a c c o rd i ng to m a nu f ac t u re r in s t r uc t io ns , e x p o se a s t e ri le a ge n t t o p ot e nt i al m ic r ob i al c o nt am i na t io n. b . P r ep a r at io n s m a d e f r om no ns t e ri l e i ng r ed i en ts t h a t m us t b e s te r il e b e for e p at i en t a d m i ni s t ra ti o n . c . S te r il e o r no ns t e ri le bio l og ic a ls ( v ac ci ne s , im m u n e g lo b ul i ns ) , d ia gn o st ic s , m e di ca t io ns , n u t ri t io n al s , a nd r ad i op ha r m a c e u ti ca l s t ha t m us t be s t e ri le pr i o r to a d m i ni s t ra ti o n o r u s e as a n ir r i ga t io n , b at h , im p lan t , i n ha l at i on , i nj e c t i on , o r f o r us e i n th e e y e o r e a r. 6 . M i c r o bi a l C o n ta m i nat i o n R is k L e ve l s a r e as s i gn e d ac co r di n g t o t h e p r o ba b il i t y o f co n ta m i na t in g a p re p ar a t io n wi t h m ic r ob ia l o r ga n is m s , e nd o t o xi n s , o r wi t h f o r ei gn c h em ic al o r p h ys ic a l p a rti c ul a te m a t te r .
a . L ow Ri s k L e ve l C S Ps a r e c om po u nd e d b y as ep t ic a ll y t r an s f e r ri n g a s ing l e s te r il e d o sa g e f o rm fr om a s te r il e am pu le , v i al , b o tt l e, or b a g us i ng s t e ri le ne e dle s a n d s yr i n ge s t o a fi n al s t e ri le c on t ai n e r o r d e vic e f o r p a t ie n t a dm in is t r at io n . b . M e d iu m R is k L e ve l CS P s a re c o m p o un de d b y a s ep t ic al l y t ra ns f e r ri ng m u lt i pl e s t e ri le d os ag e f o rm s f r om s t e ri l e am p ul es , via ls , b o t tl es , o r ba gs us in g s te r i le n e e dl es an d s y r i ng es to a s i n gl e f i na l s te r il e c on ta i ne r o r d e v ic e f o r a dm ini s t ra t io n t o m u l ti pl e p a ti e nt s o r to o n e p at i en t o n m ul t ip l e o c c a s i on s . c . H i gh R is k Le ve l C S Ps a r e c o m p o un d ed f ro m n o ns t e ri le in g r ed ie n ts and t e r m i n al l y s t e ri li z e d p r io r t o pa ti e n t a dm in is t ra t i o n o r s t e ri l e i ng r ed i en ts tha t a re c om p ou n de d u n de r i n fe r io r ai r qu a li t y co nd i ti o ns . P.567
d . I mm e di a te - u se C S P s a r e c om po u nd e d i n em er g e nc y si t ua t io ns o r wh e r e i m m e di a te pa t ie n t a dm ini s t ra t io n i s m a n da t ed to a v o i d o r ha rm t ha t m a y re s ul t fr om d e la ys in t re a tm en t . 7 . C o mp o u nd e d P a r en te r a l P r ep a r a ti o ns a re ph a r m a ce u ti c a l d os a ge for m s t ha t a re i n je c te d t h r ou gh on e o r m o r e l a yer s o f s ki n . B eca u s e th e p a r en t e ra l r o ute b y p as se s t h e p r o te c t i v e ba r r ie rs o f t h e b od y , p a re n te r al p rep a r a ti on s m us t b e s te r il e. Th e p H o f a s ol u ti on m a y m a r k ed l y i nf l ue nc e t h e s ta bi l ity a n d c om p at i bi li t y o f p ar e n t er a l p r e pa r a ti o ns (s ee V . B ). B . D e s ig n an d fu n c ti o n o f s t e ri l e c o mp o un d i ng a r e as 1 . C l ea n r o om s a r e a r eas s p ec ia l l y c o ns t ru c t e d an d m a in t ai ne d to r ed uc e t h e p r o ba b il i t y o f en v i r on m en t a l c o n ta m i n at i on of s t er i l e p r od uc ts du r i ng th e m a nu f ac tu r i ng p ro c e s s . E n g in e e ri ng co n t ro ls to re d uc e t h e p ot e n ti al fo r ai r b o rn e c o nt am i na t io n i nc l ud e a ir f l o w t h r ou g h hi g h -e f fi c i en c y pa r t ic ul a te - ai r ( H E PA ) f i lt e rs , u s e o f h o ri z o n ta l f l o w c le a n b e nc he s, ve r ti ca l fl ow c l e a n b en c h es , bi ol o gic a l s a f e t y c a bi n et s , an d b a r ri e r i s o la t o rs . C le an r oo m a r e t ra d i ti on a ll y d es ig n ed in m u l t ic om p a rt m e n ts or pa r t it i on e d wo r k a r ea s f o r as e p ti c p r oc es si n g ( F ig u re 27 -1 ) . a . An t e - a r ea p ro v i d es a c l ea n a r ea f or pe r so n al h y g i e ne an d f o r d on n in g p e r so na l p r o t ec ti v e eq u ip m e n t s uc h a s h ai r co v e r s, gl o v es , g o wn s , o r f u ll c l ea n ro om a tt i re ( F i gu r e 2 7 - 2) . S up pl i es ar e r em o v e d f r om s hi p pi ng c a r t on s a nd de c o n t am in a t ed wi t h a d is en f ec ti n g a ge n t. Th e a r ea s h ou ld p ro v i d e a t l e as t a n I n te r na t io n al Or g a ni z a t io n f o r S ta n da r di z a t io n (I S O ) C l as s 8 or be t t e r wo r k e n v i r on m e n t . b . B u f fe r a r ea c o n ta in s th e wo r k s u r fa ce s f o r t he s t ag i ng of su pp l ie s a nd e q ui p m e n t u s ed in C S P p r e pa r at i on. I t s ho u ld p ro vi de a t l eas t an I S O Cl as s 7 wo r k e n vi r on m e n t . Th e bu f f er a r e a s ho ul d c o nt ai n n o s i n k s o r d ra in s a n d b e f r ee o f o b je c ts th a t s h e d p a rt ic le s (c a rd b oa r d, pa p e r, c ot t o n , e tc . ) . Tr a f f ic fl o w i n a n d o ut is m i ni m i ze d a n d r es t ri c te d t o qu al i fi e d c o m p o un di ng p e rs on ne l . c . P r im a r y e n g i n e e r i n g c o n t r o l is th e ro om t ha t p r o v i de s t h e I S O C la ss 5 e n vi r on m e n t f o r C S P p r ep a r a ti on . d . D i r ec t co m p ou n d in g a r e a i s t h e c ri t ic al ar e a wi t h t h e p r im a r y e n gi n eer i n g c o nt r o l wh e r e c om p ou n din g is p e r fo r m e d a n d c ri t ic a l s i t es ar e e xp o s e d t o H E P A f i l te r ed ai r .
e . H E P A F i l t e rs a re us ed t o c le an s e t he ai r en t er i n g t h e r oo m . Th e s e fi l te r s re m o v e a l l a i rb o rn e p a r ti c l es 0 .3 m m o r l a rg e r , wi t h an e ff i c i e nc y o f 9 9. 9 7% . Th e re f e r en c e s t an d a rd s f o r H E P A - f il t er e d ro om s h as ch an g ed to a m e tr ic ba s ed s ys t em ( Ta b l e 2 7 1 ) . H E P A - fi l te r ed r oo m s a r e c l ass i fi e d as I S O C las s 3 th r o ug h 8 . An I S O C l a s s 8 r o o m co n ta i ns n o m o re th a n 3 , 52 0 ,0 0 0 p ar t ic le s o f 0 .5 µm o r l a rg e r p e r c u b ic m e te r o f ai r .
Figure 27-1. Clean room design.
P.568
Figure 27-2. Clean room attire.
f . P o si t i ve - p r es s u re a i rf l ow is us ed t o p r e v en t c o n t am in a te d a i r f r om fl owi n g i n to t h e c le a n r o om . I n o r de r t o ac hi e ve th is , th e a i r pr e s s u r e in si d e t h e cl e an r o o m m u s t b e g re a te r th an t he p re s s u r e o ut s i d e t he r oo m , s o t ha t wh e n a do o r o r wi n d o w t o th e c l ea n ro om is o p en e d, the a ir f lo w i s ou t wa r d . g . C o u nt e r s i n t h e c l e an r o om a re m a de of s t a in le s s s t e el o r o th e r n on p or o u s , e a si l y c l ea n ed m a te r ia l .
h . Wa l l s, f l oo r s , a n d c ei l i n gs do no t ha ve c r ac k s o r c re vi c e s a n d h a v e ro u n de d c o r ne r s. A ll s u r fa c e s s hou l d a ls o b e n o np o ro us an d wa s ha b le to en a bl e re g ul a r d i si n fe ct i on . If wa l ls o r f lo o r s a re p ai nt e d, a n e pox y p a i n t i s us e d. i . Ai r f l ow . A s wi t h t he HE P A f i lt e rs us ed in c l ea n r o om s, t he ai r fl o w m o v es wi t h a u n i fo r m v e l oc it y a lo n g pa r a ll e l li n es . Th e v e l oc ity o f t he ai r f lo w i s 2 7 m e te r s (9 0 f e e t ) p e r m i n ut e .
Table 27-1. International Organization of Standardization (ISO) Classification of Particulate Matter in Room Air Class Name ISO Class
Particle Count Number of Particles of 0.5 µm or larger ISO (Particles per U.S. Federal Standard* cubic meter) (Particles per cubic foot)
U.S. Federal Standard*
3
Class 1
35.2
1
4
Class 10
352
10
5
Class 100
3520
100
6
Class 1000
35,200
1,000
7
Class 10,000
352,000
10,000
8
Class 100,000
3,520,000
100,000
*
Federal Standard No. 209E, General Services Administration, Washington DC, 20407 P.569
j . C r i t ic a l s i t e is an y o pe n in g p r o vi di ng a d i re c t p a t h b et we e n a s te r il e p ro d uc t a n d t h e e n vi r on m e n t o r a n y s u r f ac e c om in g i n d i re c t c o n t ac t wi t h t he st e ri l e p ro d uc t a n d t h e e n vi r on m e n t. La m i n ar f l o w wo r k b en ch es a re u s ed to p ro v i d e a n a de qu a t e c r i ti ca l s it e e n v i r on m e n t. U S P C h ap t e r 7 97 r eq u ire s s t e ri le p re pa r a ti o n c om p ou n di ng b e pe r f or m e d i n a t le as t a I S O C la s s 5 q ua li t y a ir e n vi r on m e n t. 2 . L am i na r f low w o r k be n c he s (L F W B ) a r e g ene r a ll y u s e d i n c on ju nc t ion wi t h c l ea n r o o m s a n d a r e s p ec i al l y d e s i g ne d t o c r ea t e a n as e p t ic e n v i r on m e n t f o r t he p r e pa r a ti o n o f s te r il e p r od u c t s . A n I S O C l as s 5 en v i r o nm en t e xi s ts in s i de a c e r t if i ed h o r i zon t al o r v e r t ic al LFW B.
a . H E P A f i l t e r re q u i re me n t . L ik e c le a n r o om s , lam i na r fl o w wo r k b en ch es u s e H E P A f i lt e rs , b u t t h e b enc h es u s e a h i gh e r -e f fi c i en c y ai r fi l te r th a n d o c l ea n r oo m s . b . T yp e s o f l a mi n a r fl ow w o r k b e nc h es ( 1 ) H o r iz o n ta l l am i na r flo w h o o ds ( Fi g u re 27 - 3 ) we r e t h e fi rs t ho od s u sed i n p h a rm ac ie s f o r t h e p r epa r a ti o n o f s te r i le pr o du c ts . Ai r f lo w i n ho r i z o nt a l ho o ds m o ve s ac r os s t he s u r f ac e o f t h e wo r k a re a , f lo wi n g fi r st t hr o ug h a p re f il t er a n d t he n t h r o ug h t h e H E P A fi l te r . Th e m aj o r d is a d v an t ag e o f t he ho r i z on t al ho o d is t h a t i t o f f e rs n o p r o te c ti on t o t he o pe r a to r , wh ic h i s e s pe c ia ll y s ig ni f ic an t wh e n a n t in eo p la s ti c a ge n ts a re b ei ng p re p a re d ( s ee V II . D . ) . ( 2 ) V e r t ic a l la m i n a r f lo w h o od s ( F ig u re 27 - 4 ) p r ov i d e t wo m a jo r a d van t a ge s o v e r h o r i zon t al fl o w h o od s . ( a ) Th e ai r fl o w i s v e rt ic al , fl o wi n g d o wn o n t h e wo r k s pa c e . Th is ai r f lo w p a t t e rn p r o t ec ts th e o p er a to r aga i ns t p o te n ti a l h a z a rd s f ro m th e p r od uc t s b ei ng p re p a re d . ( b ) A po r ti o n o f t h e H E PA - f i l te r ed ai r is re c i r c u lat e d a s e c o n d t im e t h ro u gh t he H E P A f i lt e r . Th e r em ai n de r o f t he f il t er e d a i r is r em o v e d t h ro u gh an e xh a us t fi l te r , wh i c h m a y b e v e n te d to th e ou ts i de to p ro t ec t t h e o p e ra t or f ro m c h ro ni c , c o nc en t r at e d e xp o s u re to h a z a rd ou s m at e r ia ls . 3 . B i ol o g ic a l S a f et y C a b i n e ts ( B S Cs ) a re v e r ti ca l fl o w h o od s wi t h f ou r m a j o r t yp es a va i la b le . Th e y a re di f fer e n ti a t ed b y t h e a m o un t o f ai r r ec ir cu l at e d i n t he c a bi n et , wh e t h e r th is ai r is v en t ed t o t h e r oo m o r ou ts i de , a n d wh e t h e r c o n ta m i n ate d du c t s a r e un de r po s i t i v e o r n eg a t i v e p r es s u r e. a . T yp e A c a b i n et s re c i rc u la t e 7 0% of c a bi n et ai r t h r ou g h H E P A fi l te r s b ac k i n to th e c a bi n et , th e r em a in d er is d is c h a r ge d t h r ou gh a HE P A f i lt e r i n to th e c le a nro o m , c o nt am i na t ed du c ts a r e u n d er po s i t i v e p r es s u r e. b . T yp e B 1 c a b i ne t s r e c i r c ul at e 30 % o f c ab i ne t ai r t h ro ug h H E P A f il t e rs ba c k in t o t h e c ab i ne t , t h e r em ai n de r is di sc ha r g ed th r ou g h H E P A f i lt e rs to t he ou ts id e e n vi r on m e n t , c o n ta m i n ate d du c t s a r e u nd e r n e gat i v e p re ss u re . c . T yp e B 2 c a b in e t s d is c h a rg ed al l c ab i ne t a i r t hr o u gh H E P A fi l te rs t o t he o u ts id e e n vi r on m e n t wi t h c o n ta m i n a te d d uc ts un d e r n eg a ti v e p r es s u r e.
Figure 27-3. Horizontal laminar flow hood. (Photo taken by William Salkin.)
P.570
Figure 27-4. Vertical laminar flow hood. (Photo taken by William Salkin.)
d . T yp e B 3 c a b i ne t s r e c i r c ul at e 70 % o f c ab i ne t ai r t h ro ug h H E P A f il t e rs ba c k in t o t h e c ab i ne t , 3 0% is di s c h a r ge d th r ou g h H E P A fi l te r s t o th e o u ts id e , a nd c o nt am i na t ed du c ts a r e u n d er ne g at i v e p r es s u r e . 4 . C o mp o u nd i ng as e p tic i s ol a t o r ( C AI ) p r o vi de a I S O C la ss 5 e n v i ro nm en t f or p r o du c t p r ep a ra t io n , wi t h a s e p ti c m an ip u la t io ns oc c u r r in g i ns i de a c l o s e d , p r e ss u ri z e d e n v i ro nm e nt a c c es s i bl e on l y v i a se a le d gl o ves th a t re ac h i n to t h e wo r k a r e a ( F ig u r e 2 7- 5 ) . C o mp o u n di n g a s ep t i c c on t ai n m en t i so l a to r s p r o te c t wo r k e r s f r o m e xp o s u re to un d es i ra b le o r h a z a rd o us d r u gs d u r in g th e c om po u nd in g a n d m a te r i al t ra ns f er p ro c e s s e s . I s o l at o rs us e u ni d ir ec t io n al P.571 o r t u rb ul e nt ai r f lo w t o r em o v e c o nt am i na n ts f r om t h e u ni t . I t us es p os i ti v e a i r p r e ss u re to k e ep e xt e r n al a ir b o rn e p a r ti c l es ou t of t h e is ol a t or . Th is te c h no l og y r e p r es en t s a n ac c e p ta b le a lt e r na ti ve t o L FW Bs in a c le a n r o om s f or as e pt i c p r o ce ss in g .
Figure 27-5. Barrier isolator.
3 . I ns p ec t i on an d ce r t i fi c a t io n . Cl e an ro o m s , LFW Bs , B S C s, an d ba r r ier i so la t o rs a r e i n sp ec t ed an d c e rt i fie d wh e n th e y ar e fi r s t ins t al l ed , a t l e as t e v e r y 6 m o nt hs t h e r ea f te r , a n d, in th e c as e o f LFW B, B S C s , a nd is o la t o rs , wh e n m o v e d t o a ne w l o ca t io n . a . I ns p ec t i on s s ho u ld be c o n du c te d b y N a ti o na l S a n i ta t io n F o un da t io n ( NS F ) a cc r e di t ed an d c e rt i fi e d te c hn ic i an s wi t h e xp e r t ise a nd t ra i ni ng in co n ta m in a t io n c o nt r o l t ec hn o lo gi es . E qu i pm e nt us ed fo r t es ti n g h a s a pp r op r i at e t o le r an ce f o r t he s p ec if i ed te s ti ng an d i s c a l ib r a te d t o N at i on al I ns ti t u te of S t an da r ds an d Te c hn o lo g y ( N I S T) t r a c e a bl e s ta n da rd s . b . T es t i ng is pe r fo r m e d p e r re l e van t i n du st r y s tan d a rd s a nd a t m i n im um in c lu d es : ( 1 ) H E P A fi l te r i n te g r it y te s ti n g ( 2 ) A i rf l o w t es t in g : D o wn f l o w a n d i nf l o w wh e r e app r o p ri a te ( 3 ) P a rt ic u la t e m o n it o ri ng ( 4 ) P r es s u r i z at i on m o ni to r i ng (c l ea n ro om s a n d ba r r i e r is ol a t or s ) e ns u re s t h a t n o p a r ti c l e l a r ge r th a n 0 .3 m m p as se s t h ro u gh th e H E P A f i lt e r . I n a dd i ti o n, a n a n em om e te r is u s e d to de t e rm i ne ai r fl o w ve l o ci t y, a nd a p a rt ic l e c o u n te r is us ed t o d e t e rm in e t h e p ar t ic le c ou n t .
III. QUALITY CONTROL AND QUALITY ASSURANCE A. D e f i n i t i o ns 1 . Q u a li t y c o n t r o l i s t h e d a y - t o -d a y as s e ss m e nt o f al l s te r i le c om p ou n di ng o p e ra t io ns . Th is in c l u des r ec ei p t o f ra w m a te r i als , pr e pa r a ti on , s t o ra g e, d i s t r ib u ti o n, p a t ie n t a dm in is t r at io n , an d an al yt i c t es t in g o f t h e f i ni s h e d p r od uc t . 2 . Q u a li t y a s s u r a nc e , an o v e rs i gh t f u nc t io n , i n vo l v e s t he au d it i ng of qu al i t y c o n tr o l p r o ce du r es an d s y s te m s , wi t h s ug g es ti o ns f o r c han g es as ne ed e d. B . T e st i n g p r o ce d u r es . V a r i ou s t y p es of t es ts a re us e d t o e ns u re t ha t a l l s t er i le p r o du c ts a r e f r e e o f m i c ro b ia l c on t am in a ti o n, p yro g e ns , a nd pa r t ic ul a te m a t t e r. 1 . C l a ri t y t e s t i n g i s u s ed t o c he c k s t e ri le p ro du c t s fo r pa r ti c ul at e m a tt e r a n d l ea k s . B e f o re di s pe ns in g a pa re n t e ra l s ol u ti on , ph a rm ac y p e rs on n el s h ou l d ch ec k i t f o r p a r ti c ul a te s b y s wi r li n g th e s o lu t io n a n d l oo k i ng a t it ag a in s t b ot h l ig h t an d da r k b a ck g ro u nd s , us in g a c l ar i t y t es t in g l am p o r o t he r s t an da r d l i gh t s ou r c e . 2 . C o mp o u nd Ac c u r ac y C h e ck i n g is a d ou b le ch e c k o f th e u s e d d r u g p ro d uc ts a nd s u pp li e s b y a p e rs on ot he r t ha n t h e c om po un d e r. Th i s i n cl ud es an in sp ec ti o n o f t h e l a be l a n d s y r in g es u s ed t o m e as u re t he ad di t i v es . 3 . B e yo n d U s e D a t i ng re p r es en t s t he da t e a nd ti m e b e y on d wh ic h a p ro du c t s ho ul d n o t b e a dm i ni s t e r ed be c a u s e of po t en c y, s t e ri li t y, o r s t or a ge co nc e rn s . Be y o n d u se d a t in g s ho u ld be as s i gn ed i n ac c o r d an c e wi t h th e m a n u fa c tu r e r 's p ro du c t la b el i ng . 4 . E n d p r o du c t T e s ti n g i s s t er i li t y an d p yr o g en te s ti n g wh i c h s ho ul d b e pe r f o rm ed o n al l h ig h ri s k C S Ps th at a r e p r ep a re d i n b a tc hes o f 2 5 u ni ts o r m o r e , m u l t id os e vi a l s, o r p r ep a ra t io ns wh e r e i n g re di e n ts a r e e xp o s e d l on g er t ha n 6 - 12 hou r s p r io r to s t e ri li za t io n . a . S t e ri l i t y t e s t i n g e ns ur e s t h at t he p ro c e s s u sed t o s te r il i z e th e p r od uc t wa s s uc c ess f ul . Th e m em b r an e s te r i l iz a ti o n m e th o d i s o f te n u se d to c o nd uc t s t er i li t y t e s ti ng . Te s t s a m p l es a re p as s e d t h ro u gh m em b ra n e f i lt e rs , a n d a n u t ri e nt m ed iu m
i s th en ad d ed to p ro m o t e m ic r ob i al g r o wt h . A ft e r a n in cu b at i on pe r io d , m ic r o bi al g r o wt h is de t e rm in e d. b . P yr o g e n t e s ti n g c an b e ac c o m p li s h e d b y m e an s o f qu al i ta t i v e f e v e r res p on s e t e s ti ng in r ab b it s o r b y in v i t r o l im ul us l ys a te t es t i n g. C om m e r ci al la b or a to r i es ar e a va i la b le to pe r f o rm th es e t es ts . Pe r so n ne l h a nd lin g s t e ri l e p ro d uc ts c a n at t e m p t t o a vo i d p r ob l em s wi t h p y r og e ns b y pu rc h as in g p y r og e n - fr e e wa t e r an d s o di um c h lo r id e fo r i n je c t i on f rom r ep u ta b le m a nu f ac tu r er s an d b y u s i ng p ro p er ha n dl i ng a n d s to r a ge p ro c e du r es . C . E n vi r o n me n t al T es t in g in c l u de s a i r a nd s u r fac e s am pl i ng to m e as u re m ic r o bi ol o g y c on d it i on s o f t he c l ea n ro om an d a s s es s es t h e e f fe ct i v e ne ss o f c l ea ni n g a nd s a ni t i z in g pr o c ed u re s . P.572
1 . V ia b l e Ai r s a m pl i n g in c lu d es v ol um e t ri c a i r col l ec t io n i n t h e c o n t ro ll e d e n vi r on m e n t a nd e v a lu a ti o n o f a i rb o r ne m ic r o or ga n is m s o r c o ll ec t io n o f ai r b o rn e o r g an is m s b y e xp o s i ng s t e r il e n u t ri e nt pl a te s c ont a i ni ng t r yp ti c s o y b r o th ( TS B ) o r a g a r ( TS A ) f o r a s u i ta bl e t im e f ra m e . 2 . N o n - vi ab l e Ai r S a m p li n g is i n te n de d t o e v a l uat e t he eq ui pm e nt t ha t i s u s ed to c r e at e c le a n a ir . To t a l Pa r t i c le C o un t s ( Ta bl e 27 - 1 ) s ho u ld be wi t h in es ta b li s h e d I S O c la s s i fi c a ti o ns fo r a g i v e n c om po u nd in g a r e a. 3 . S u r fa c e s am p l in g u t ili z e s TS A pl a te s c al le d rep l ic a te o rg an is m d e te ct io n an d c o un t in g ( R O D A C ) p l at es t o c a p tu r e m ic r oo r ga n is m . B o t h a i r a nd s u r f ac e s am p li ng pl a te s a r e c ol le c te d an d i nc u ba t ed . Th e nu m be r of d i sc r et e c ol o ni es of o rg an i s m s , c o lo n y fo r m i n g u ni t s ( C F U s ), a re c o un t ed a n d r e p o rt e d. D . P r a c t ic a l q ua l i t y a s s u r a n ce p r o g ra m s f o r n on c om m e rc i al s t e ri le p ro du c ts i n cl ud e t ra in i ng , m on i to r in g th e m an u fa c tu r in g p ro c es s , pe r s o n ne l c om pe te n c y a ss e ssm e nt , qu al i t y c o ntr o l c h eck , an d d oc um e nta t i on . 1 . T r ai n i ng o f p h a rm a cis t s an d te c hn i c ia n s i n p r o pe r as ep t ic te c h n iq ues an d p r a ct ic es is th e s in g le m o s t i m p o rt a nt as p ec t o f an e f fe c t i ve q u al i t y a ss u ra n ce p r o g ra m . Tr a i ni n g s h o uld im p a rt a t ho r o ug h u n de r s ta n di ng o f d ep a r tm ent a l p o li ci es a n d p r oc ed u r es . 2 . B y m on i t o r in g th e ma n u f ac t u r in g p r oc es s , a s u p e r v is o r c a n c he c k ad h e re nc e to e s ta b li sh e d p ol ic ie s a nd p r o c e du r es an d ta ke c o rr e c ti ve ac ti o n a s n ec es s a r y . 3 . A f te r t ra in i ng is c om ple t e d c om p e te n c y a s s e ss m e n t t h ro ug h p e r fo r m an c e e va l u at io n an d r e - e v al uat i o n is r eq ui r e d f o r r o ut i n e t as k s l ik e h a nd wa s h ing , g o wn i n g , g lo v i ng , an d a s e p t ic m an i pu la t io n s. E val u a ti on s s ho u ld oc c u r a nn u al l y f o r p e r so nn e l c o m po un d in g lo w a n d m e di um r is k C S Ps an d s em i -a n nu al y f o r hi g h r is k CSPs. E . P r o c es s va li d a ti o n pr o v i d es a m e c h a ni s m fo r e ns u r in g p r oc es s e s c o ns is t en t l y r e s ul t i n s te r i le pr o du c t s o f ac c e pt a bl e q u al it y . Th i s s h o ul d i nc l ud e a wr i t te n p r o ce du r e to fo ll o w a s we l l a s e va lu a ti on o f as e pt i c t ec h ni qu e th r ou g h p ro c es s s im u la t io n .
F . P r o ce s s s im u la t i o n te s t i ng o r Pe r s o nn e l E va l u a ti o n d u pl ic at e s st e r il e c om p ou n di ng o f l o w, m ed i um , a n d h ig h ri s k l e v e l C S P s un de r m o s t s t r es s f u l c o nd i ti on s e xc e p t th a t an a pp r op r i at e g r o wt h m ed i a ( S o yb ea n - C as ei n Di ge s t Me d i u m ) is u s e d i n p l ac e o f th e d r ug p ro d uc ts . Aft e r p re pa r a ti o n a nd in cub a t io n o f t h e fi na l p r o du c t , n o g r owt h i n d ic at e s p ro p e r as ep t ic t ec hn iq u es we r e fo llo we d . G . Q u a l i t y c o n t r o l c he c k i ng in cl ud e s m o n it o ri n g t h e s t er i li t y o f a s am pl e o f m a nu f ac tu r e d p r od uc ts . Th e m em b ra n e s te r il i z a tio n m e th o d is p ra c ti c a ll y e m pl o y e d u s in g a c om m er c i a ll y a va i la b le fi l te r an d t r y p t ic as e s o y b ro t h m e d ia . H . D o c um e n ta t i on o f t r ai n in g p r oc e du r es , q u al i t y c on t r ol r es ul ts , l a m i na r f l o w h o od c e r ti f ic at i on , a n d p r od uc ti o n r e c o r ds ar e re q ui r ed b y va r i o us a g en c i es an d o r g an i za ti o ns .
IV. STERILIZATION METHODS AND EQUIPMENT. S t e r il i za ti o n is pe r f o rm ed t o d es t ro y o r re m o ve al l m ic r oo r g an is m s i n o r on a p r o du c t. S te r il i z a ti o n c an b e ac h ie v e d t h r ou g h t he r m al , c he m i ca l , r a di oa ct i v e , or m ec h an ic a l m e t ho ds . A. T h e r m a l s t e r il i z a t i on i n v o l v es th e u s e of ei t he r m o is t o r d r y h e at . 1 . M o i s t- h ea t s te r i l iz a tio n is th e m o s t w i d e l y u s e d a n d r e li ab l e s t e r il i z at i o n m e th o d. a . Mi c r o o rg an is m s a re de s t ro y e d b y c e ll u la r p r ot e i n c o a gu l a ti o n. b . Th e ob je c ts to be s t e ri l i z ed a re e xp o s e d to s a tu r a t ed s t ea m u nd e r 1 atm os p he r e p r e ss u re at a m i n im um te m pe r a tu r e o f 1 2 1° C f o r a t le as t 20 - 60 m i nu t es . c . A n a u to c la ve is c o m m o n l y us ed fo r m o is t -h e at s t e ri li za t io n . d . B ec a us e i t d oe s n ot re q ui r e a s h ig h a t em pe r at u r e , m o is t - he a t s te r il i zat i o n c a us es le s s p r o du c t a nd e q ui p me n t d a ma g e c om p a re d t o d r y - h ea t s t e ri li za t i on . P.573
2 . D r y- h e a t s t e r il iz a t io n i s a pp r o pr i at e fo r m a te r ia l s t ha t c a nn o t wi t h s ta nd m oi s th e a t s te r il i z a ti o n. O bj e c ts a re s u bj ec t ed t o a t em p e r a tu r e o f a t l e as t 1 60 °C f o r 12 0 m i n u te s (i f h i gh e r t em p er a t u re s c an be us ed , l e s s e xp o s ur e ti m e is re qu i re d ) . B . C h e mi c al ( ga s ) s t e r i li z a ti o n i s us e d t o s te r i liz e s u r fa ce s a nd po r ou s m a te r i al s ( e . g ., su r gi c a l d r es s i n gs ) t h a t o th e r s te r il i za ti o n m e th o ds m a y da m a g e. 1 . I n t hi s m e t ho d , e t h yl e n e ox i d e is us ed ge n e ral l y i n co m b i na t io n wi t h he a t a n d m o is tu r e . 2 . R es i d ua l ga s m us t b e a l lo we d t o d iss i pa t e a f te r st e r il i za ti on an d b e fo re us e o f t h e s t er i le p ro du c t. C . R a d i oa c ti ve s t e ri l iz at i o n i s s ui t ab le f o r t he ind u st r i al s t e ri li za t io n o f co n t en ts in s e al e d p ac k a ge s t ha t c an n o t b e e xp o s ed t o h ea t ( e . g ., p re p ac k a ge d s u rg ic a l c om p on e nt s , s o m e op h tha l m i c o in tm e nt s ). 1 . Th i s t ec hn i qu e i n v ol v es ei t he r el e c t ro m ag n e tic o r p a r t ic u l at e r ad i a ti on . 2 . A c c el e ra t ed d ru g d ec o m po s i t io n s om et im e s r es u lt s . D . M ec h an i ca l st e r i li z a ti o n ( f il t r a t io n ) re m o v e s b u t d o es n o t d es t r o y m ic r o or g an is m s an d c la ri f i es s ol u ti o ns b y e li m i n at i n g p a rt ic ul a t e m a t te r . Fo r s o lu t io ns r en de r e d u ns tab l e b y t he r m a l , c h e m i c a l, o r ra d ia t io n s te r il i z a ti on , fi l t ra t io n
i s th e p r ef e r re d m e th o d. A d e pt h f i lt e r o r s c re e n fi l t er m a y b e us e d. P e rs on n el s h ou l d e ns ur e th e f i lt e r u s ed ei t he r du r in g c om po u n di ng o r a dm in is t r at i on is c h em ic al l y an d p h y s i c a l ly c o m p a ti bl e wi t h t h e C SP a t th e t em p e ra t ur e a n d p r es s u r e c o nd i ti on s u s e d . 1 . D e pt h f il t e r s us u al l y c o ns is t o f fr i t te d g la s s or u n gl a z e d p or c el ai n (i . e. , s u bs ta n c e s t ha t t ra p p a rti c le s i n ch a nn e ls ) . 2 . S c re e n ( m em b r a ne ) fi l t e r s a r e f il m s m e as u ri ng 1 - 20 0 m m t hi c k m ad e o f c e ll ul os e e s te r s , m i c r o fi la m en ts , po l y ca r bo n at e , s y n t he t ic po l y m e r s , s i l v er , o r s t ai n le ss s t ee l . a . A m e sh o f m i ll i on s o f m ic r oc a pi ll a r y po r es of id e n ti c a l s i z e f il t e r t he s ol u t io n b y a p r o ce s s o f ph y s ic al s i e v in g . b . F low r a t e . B ec a us e po r e s m a k e up 70 % to 85% o f t h e s u r f ac e, s c r ee n f i lt e rs h a ve a h ig h er f lo w r a t e th a n d e pt h f i lt e rs . c . T yp e s o f s c re e n f i l ter s ( 1 ) P a r t ic u la t e f i l te r s rem o v e p a r ti c l es o f gl a s s , p l as t ic , r u bb e r , a nd ot h er c o nt am i na n ts . ( a ) O t h e r u s es . Th es e f il t e rs al so a re us ed to r ed u c e th e ri sk of ph l eb i ti s a ss o ci at e d wi t h a dm in is tr a t io n of r ec on st i tu t ed po wd e r s . Fi lt r a ti o n r em o ve s a n y u n di ss o l v ed po wd e r pa r t ic l es th a t m a y c au s e ve no u s i nf l am m a ti o n. ( b ) Th e po r e si z e o f s tan d a rd pa r t ic ul a te fi l te r s ra n g es f r om 0 .4 5 -5 m m . S p e ci al p a r ti c ul a te fi l te r s a re r equ i r ed t o f il t er bl o od , e m ul s io ns ( e. g ., f at em ul s i o ns ) , o r c o ll oi d al di s p e rs io ns o r s u s pe ns i on s b ec au se t hes e p r e pa r a ti on s h a ve a la r g e r p a r ti c l e s i z e . ( 2 ) M i c r o bi a l f i l te r s , wi th a p o r e s i z e o f 0 .2 2 m m o r s m a l le r , e ns u r e co m pl e t e m ic r o bi al r em o v al an d s te r i li z a t io n . Th i s i s r e fe r re d to as c o ld s t e ri li z a t ion . ( 3 ) F in a l f i l te r s , wh ic h m a y be ei t he r pa r t ic ul a te o r m ic r o bi al , ar e o f t en in c lu d ed as p a r t o f th e t u bi ng us e d in d r ug ad m i ni s tr a ti o n. Th e y a r e r e fe r r ed to as in- l i ne fi l te r s a n d a r e u s e d t o re m o v e p a r ti c ul a te s o r m ic r oo r gan i s m s f ro m a n i n t ra v e nou s (I V ) s o lu t io n d u ri n g i nf us i on .
V. PACKAGING OF PARENTERAL PRODUCTS. P a r e nt e r al p re pa r a ti o ns a n d o t he r s t e ri le p ro d uc ts m u st be pa c k a ge d i n a wa y t h a t m a in t ai ns p ro du c t s te r il i ty u n t il th e ti m e of us e a nd p r e v en ts co n ta m i na t ion o f c o nt e nt s d u ri n g o pe ni n g . A. T yp e s o f co n t ai n e r s 1 . Am p u l es , th e o ld e s t ty p e o f p a re n te r al p ro d uc t c on t ai ne r s , a re m a de en t i re l y o f g l a ss . a . I nt e nd ed f or s in g le us e on l y, a m p ul es a re ope n e d b y b re ak i ng th e g l as s a t a s co r e l i ne on th e n ec k . b . D i sa d va n t ag e s. B ec au s e g la s s pa r ti c l es m a y b e co m e di s l o dg ed du r i n g a m p u le o p e ni ng , th e p r od uc t m us t be fi l te r ed be f o re it is a d m i ni s te r ed . Th e ir un s ui t a bi li t y f o r m u lt i pl e -d os e P.574
u s e, t he ne ed t o f il t e r s ol u t io ns be f o re us e, an d ot h e r s af e t y c o ns id e r at io ns ha v e m a rk e dl y r e du c e d t h e am p ul e a s a p a c k ag e f o rm .
Figure 27-6. Syringes and vials. (Photo taken by William Salkin.)
2 . V ia l s a r e g la s s or pl as t ic c o nt a in e rs c l os ed wi t h a r u bb e r s to p pe r an d s e al e d wi t h a n al um in u m c ri m p ( Fi gur e 2 7- 6 ) . a . V ia ls ha v e s e v e r al adva n t a g e s o v e r a m p ul e s . ( 1 ) V ia ls c a n b e d es ig n ed t o h ol d m ul t ip l e d os es ( i f p re pa r e d wi t h a b ac t er i o s t a ti c a g e nt ) . ( 2 ) Th e dr u g p r od uc t i s ea s ie r to r em o v e f r om v ia ls t ha n f r om am pu l es . ( 3 ) V ia ls el im in a t e t he r is k o f g l ass pa r t ic le c o nta m in a ti on du r i ng op e ni ng . b . H o we v e r , v i al s a ls o ha v e c e r t ai n d i sa d va n t age s . ( 1 ) Th e ru b be r s t op p e r c a n be c o m e co r e d , c au s in g a s m al l b i t o f ru bb e r to e nt e r t h e s o lu t io n . ( 2 ) Mu l t i pl e wi t hd r a wa l s ( a s wi t h m ul ti p le - do s e via l s ) c a n re su l t i n m i c ro bia l c o nt am i na t io n . c . S om e d ru g s t ha t a r e un s ta b le in s o lu t io n a r e pa c k a ge d i n via ls un r ec o ns t i tu t ed a n d m us t b e re c on s t i tu te d wi t h a d il ue n t b e fo r e u s e. S t er i le wa t e r o r s t e ri l e s od iu m c h lo r id e fo r i n je c t i on a re t h e m os t c om m o nl y us ed d r ug di lu e nt s . ( 1 ) To ac c e l e ra t e t he di s s o lu t io n ra t e a nd pe rm i t r a p i d r ec on s ti tu t io n , m any p o wd e r s a r e l y o p hi l i z ed ( f re e z e dr i e d ). ( 2 ) S om e o f t h es e d r ug s c om e i n v ia ls t ha t c on t ain a d o ub l e c h am b e r. ( a ) Th e to p c ha m b e r , c on t a in in g s t e ri le wa t e r fo r i n je ct i on , i s s ep a ra t ed fr o m t h e u n r ec on s ti t ut e d d r ug b y a r u bb e r c l o s u r e. ( b ) To d is lo d ge th e i n ne r c lo s u r e a n d m i x t h e c o nt e n ts of th e c om p ar t m e n ts , e xt e r n a l pr e s s ur e i s a pp li e d t o t h e o u te r ru b be r c l o s u re . Th is s y s te m e li m in a t es th e n e e d t o e nt e r t h e v ia l t wi c e , t h er e b y re d uc in g t h e r i sk of m i c ro bi a l co n ta m in a t io n . 3 . S om e d r ug s c om e i n v i a ls th a t m a y b e a t ta c hed t o a n d il u en t c on t ai n ing b ag fo r r e c on s t i tu t io n a n d a dm ini s t ra t io n ( AD D - V a n t ag e b y A b b ot t ) (F i gu r e 2 7 -7 ) . P r e m ea s u r ed d ru g a n d di l ue n t m a y a ls o b e s t o red i n se p a ra t e c o m p a r tm en t s wi t hi n a d el i ve r y s y s t em t h en c o m bi n ed at th e p o in t o f u s e. ( D up l e x b y B . B r aun ) .
a . Th e A D D - Va n ta g e v ia l i s s c r e we d in t o t he to p o f an A D D - V an t ag e d i lu en t ba g , a n d t h e r u bb e r d ia p hr a gm is di s l od g ed f ro m t he v i a l , a l lo wi n g th e d li u en t s ol u ti o n t o d i ss ol ve th e d r u g. b . Th e r ec on s t i tu t ed A DD - V a n t ag e v ia l a nd I V ba g a re re a d y fo r ad m i ni s t r a t io n wh e n h u n g. c . Th e Du p le x s y s t em s ha s t wo - c o m p a r tm en ts wh e r e a se a l is b ro k e n a n d d r u g a nd d i lu e nt a re m i xe d t o f o rm a s o lu t io n . Th e r ec on s ti tu t e d d r ug is re ad y f o r p at i e nt a d m i ni s t ra ti o n . 4 . P r e fi l l ed s yr i n g e s a nd c a r t r id g es a re de s i gne d fo r m a xi m u m c o n v e nie n c e (s e e F i g ur e 2 7 - 6 ). a . P r e fi l l ed s yr i n g e s . D r u g s a dm in is t er e d i n a n e m e rg en c y ( e. g ., a t ro pi ne , e p in e ph r in e ) a r e a v a i la ble f o r im m e d ia t e i nj ec t io n wh e n p ac k a ge d i n p r e fi lle d s yr i n ge s . P.575
Figure 27-7. Left, Abbott ADDVantage System. Center, B. Braun Duplex System. Right, prefilled antibiotic piggyback dose. (Photograph by William Salkin.)
b . P r e f il l ed ca r t r i d ge s a r e re a d y - to - us e p a r en t er a l p a c k ag es th a t o f fe r im p r o v ed s t e ri li t y a nd ac c u r ac y . Th e y c o n s i s t of a p la s ti c c a r t r id g e h ol d er an d a p ref i ll e d m e di ca t io n c a rt r id g e wi t h a n e ed l e a tt ac h ed . Th e m ed ic a ti o n is p re m i xe d a n d p r e m e as u re d . Na r c o t ic s s uc h a s , m e p e ri di n e ( D em e r ol ) a n d h y d r om o rp hon e ( D i l au d id ) ar e c om m o n l y a v a i la bl e i n p r e fi ll e d c art r i dg e s. 5 . I n fu s io n so l u ti o ns a re d i v id ed in t o t wo c a te go r i es : s m al l - vo l um e pa re n t e r al s ( S V P s ) , t h os e h a v in g a vo l um e l es s t ha n 1 0 0 m L; a n d l a r ge - vo l u me pa r en t e r a ls ( L V P s ), t ho s e ha v i n g a vo l um e o f 1 0 0 m L o r g r eat e r . In f us io n s ol u ti on s a re us e d f o r t h e i n te r m i t te n t o r c on t inu o us in f us io n o f fl ui ds o r d r u gs (s ee V I .B ) . B . P a ck a g in g m a t e ri a ls. Ma t e r i a ls u s e d to pa c ka g e p a re n te r a l p ro d uc ts i n c l ud e g l as s a nd pl as t ic p o l y m er s . P.576
1 . G l as s , t h e o ri g in a l p ar e n t er a l p ac k a gi n g m a t e ri a l , h as s u p e r io r c la r i t y, f a c i l it a ti n g i n sp ec t io n f o r p a r ti c u la t e m a tt e r . C om p a re d t o p l as t ic , g l as s le s s f re qu e nt ly i n t er a ct s wi t h t he p re pa ra t i on it c o n ta in s . 2 . P la s t ic p ol ym e r s u s ed f o r p a re n te r al pa c k ag in g in c l ud e po l y v i n y lc hl o ri d e ( P V C ) a n d p ol y o l e fi n. a . P V C i s f l e xi b le an d n on r i gi d . b . P o l yo l e f i n i s s e m i r ig id ; un l ik e P V C , i t c a n b e s t o re d u p ri g ht . c . B ot h t y p e s o f p la s t ic of f e r s e ve ra l a d va n t ag e s o v e r g la s s , i nc lu d in g d u ra b il i t y, e a si e r s to r a ge an d d is pos a l, r ed uc e d we i g h t, an d i m p r o v e d s a f e t y .
VI. PARENTERAL ADMINISTRATION ROUTES. P a r e nt e r al p re pa r a ti o ns m a y be gi ve n b y a v a r ie ty o f a dm in is t ra t io n ro u tes . A. S u b c u t a ne o us ( S C or S Q ) a dm i ni s t r a ti on r e fer s to in j ec ti o n i nt o th e s u bc ut a ne o us ti s s ue be ne a t h t he s k in la y e r s, us ua l l y of th e ab do m e n , a r m , o r th ig h . I n su l in is a n e xa m p l e o f a s u bc u t an eo us l y ad m i n is t e re d d r u g. B . I n t r am u sc u la r ( I M) a d m in is t r at io n m e an s i nj ec t io n i n to a m us c l e m a ss . Th e m i d d e l to id a re a a n d g lu t eu s m e di us a re c om m o n i n jec t io n s i te s . 1 . N o m o re th a n 5 m L o f a s o l ut i on s h ou l d b e i nj ec t ed b y th is r ou t e. 2 . D r ug s i n te nd e d f o r p ro l on g ed o r d el a y e d a bs or p t io n s uc h a s m e d ro xy p r o g e s te r on e ( De p o - P ro ve r a ) a nd m e t h y lp r e dn i s o lo n e ( D e po - Me d r o l ) c om m o n l y a r e a dm i ni s t e re d in t r am us c u la r l y . C . I n t r a ve no u s ( I V ) a dm i n is t ra t io n i s t h e m o s t im p o r t an t a n d m o s t co m m on p a r en t e ra l a dm i ni s t r a ti on r o u te . It al l o ws a n i m m ed i a te th e r ap eu t ic ef f ec t b y d e li v e r i ng th e d r u g d ir ec t l y i nt o th e c i rc ul a ti on . Ho we v e r , t h is ro u te p re c l ud e s r ec a ll o f an in a d v e rt e nt d ru g ov e r d o s e . An t ib i ot ic s, c a rd i ac m e di ca t io ns , a n d m a n y o th e r d r u gs ar e gi v e n i nt r a v e no u s l y . D . I n t r ad e r ma l ( I D ) a dm i n is t ra t io n i n v o l v es in je c ti o n i n to th e m os t s up e r fic i al s k i n l a ye r . Be c a us e t h is ro u te c an de l i v e r o nl y a l im i ted d r ug v o lu m e , i ts us e ge n e ra l l y i s r e s t ri ct e d t o s k i n t es ts an d c e r ta i n v a c c in es . E . I n t r a- a r t e r ia l (I A) a dm i ni s t r a ti on is in je c ti on d i r ec tl y i n to an a rt e r y . It d e li v e r s a h i gh d ru g c on c en t ra t io n t o t he ta r ge t s i te wi t h li t tl e di lu t io n b y t h e ci r c u la ti o n . G e n e r al l y , th is ro u te is us e d o nl y f o r r a di op a qu e m a te r i al s , th r om b ol y t ic ag e n ts , a nd s om e a n ti n eo p la s t ic ag en t s . F . I n t ra c a rd i ac ( I C ) a dm i n is t ra t io n i s i nj ec t io n o f a d r ug di r ec tl y i n to th e he a r t . G . H yp o d e r m o c l ys i s r e f e r s t o i n je ct i on of la r g e vo l u m e s o f a s o lu t io n i n to s u bc ut a ne o us ti s s ue to pr o v i d e a c o nt i nu ou s , a bun d a nt d ru g s up pl y . Th i s ro u t e o cc a si on a ll y is us ed f or a n t ib io t ic ad m i ni s tr a ti o n i n c h il d re n . H . I n t r as p i na l a dm i ni s t ra t i on r ef e rs to in j ec ti o n in t o th e s pi na l c ol um n . Lo c al a n es t he t ic s ( e .g . , l id oc a in e , b u pi va c a i ne ) a r e fr eq u e nt l y ad m i ni s te r ed v i a t h is ro u te d u r in g s u rg ic a l p ro c ed u re s . I . I n t ra - a r t ic u la r a dm in is t r at i on m e an s i nj ec t io n i n t o a j o in t s pa ce . C o rt ic o s te r o id s ( e . g ., m e t h y lp r ed n is ol one , h y d ro c o r t is on e ) u se thi s ro u te fo r th e t re a tm en t o f a r t h ri t is . J . I n t ra s yn o vi a l a dm in is t r a t io n re f er s t o i n je c t i on i n to th e j o in t fl ui d .
K . I n t r a th e ca l (I T ) a dm in i s t r a ti o n is in je c ti on in to t he s p in a l f lu i d; it s o m e t im es is u s ed fo r an t ib i ot ic s a nd c a nc e r ch em o th e r ap y . L . E p id u r a l ( E D ) ad m i nis t r at i on r ef e rs to t he in jec t io n o f m e di c a t io ns , u sua l l y lo c a l a n es t he t ic s a nd / or na r c ot i c s ne a r o r o u ts id e th e d u r a m at e r o f th e c en t ra l n e r vo us s ys t em . Th is ro u te is f r eq u e nt l y us ed du r in g c hi ld b i rt h . P.577
VII. PARENTERAL PREPARATIONS A. I V a d m ix t u r es . Th es e p r e pa r at i on s c on s i st of o n e o r m o re s t e r il e d r ug p r o du c ts a d d ed to an I V f l ui d, ge ne r a ll y d e xt r o s e o r s od ium c h lo r i de s o lu t io n a lo ne o r i n c om b in a ti o n. I V a dm i xt u re s a r e u s e d fo r d r u gs i n te n d ed fo r c o nt i nu ou s i n fu s io n . D r u g s t ha t m a y c a us e i r ri t a ti o n o r t o xi c i t y wh e n gi v e n as a r ap i d d ir ec t I V i n je c ti on a r e al so pr e pa r e d as I V a d m i xt u r e s . B . I V f lu i d s a nd e le c t r ol yt e s 1 . F lu i ds us e d i n t he p rep a r a ti on an d a dm i ni st r a tio n of pa r e nt e ra l p r o du c ts in cl u de s t e ri le wa t e r an d s od i um c hl o ri d e , d e xt r o s e , a n d R i n g er ' s s ol u ti o ns , a ll o f wh i c h h a ve m u lt i pl e u s e s . Th e s e f lu i ds s e r ve a s v e h ic les in I V a dm i xt u r e s , p ro vid i ng a m e an s f o r r ec o ns ti t u ti ng s t e ri le p o wd e rs . Th e y s er v e a s t h e b as is f o r c o r re c ti n g b o d y fl u id an d e l ec t ro l y te d is tu r b an c e s a nd p ro vid e a c a l o ri c s o u rc e i n p ar e n t er a l n u t ri t io n . a . D ex t r o se ( D - g lu c os e ) s o l u ti o ns a re th e m os t f r e q ue n tl y us e d g lu c o s e s o lu t io ns i n pa r en t e ra l p r ep a r at i ons . ( 1 ) U s es . G en e ra l l y , a s o l u ti on o f d e xt r o s e 5% in wa t e r ( d 5 w) is us ed as a v e h ic le in I V a dm i xt u r es . D 5W m a y a ls o s e r v e a s a h y d r a ti ng s o l ut i on . In hi gh e r c o nc en t r at i on s ( e .g . , a 10 % s o lu t io n i n wa t e r) , dext r o s e p r o v id es a s ou rc e o f c a r bo h yd ra t es in pa r en t er a l n u t ri t io n s ol u ti o ns . ( 2 ) C o ns i de r a t i on s . B ec a u s e th e p H o f D 5W ra ng e s f r om 3. 5 -6 . 5 , i ns ta b il i t y m a y r e s ul t i f i t i s c om bi n ed wi t h a n a c i d -s e ns it i v e d r ug . ( a ) D e xt r o s e c o n c e n tr a tio n s g r ea t e r t ha n 1 5 % m u s t b e a dm in is t e re d th r ou g h a c e nt r a l v e i n. ( b ) D e xt r o s e s ol u ti on s s h o ul d b e us ed c a ut i ou sl y i n p a ti e nt s wi t h d ia be t es m e ll i tu s . b . S o di u m c h lo r i d e us ua l l y is g i v e n as a 0 . 9% s o l u ti on . B ec au s e it is i s ot o n ic wi t h b l oo d , t h is s ol u ti o n is c al l ed no r m a l s al i ne s o lu t i o n ( N S S ) . A s o lu t io n o f 0. 4 5 % s o di um c h lo r id e i s t e rm ed h al f - no rm a l sa l in e . A s o l u ti on o f 0 .2 2 5% s o di um c h lo r i de i s te rm e d q ua r t e rn o rm al s a li ne . ( 1 ) S o di u m c h lo r i d e f o r i n j ec t i on , wh i ch is a so lu t i on of 0 .9 % s od iu m c hlo r i de , i s u s ed as a v e h ic le i n I V ad m i xt u r es an d fo r fl ui d an d el ec t r ol yt e re pl ac e m en t . In s m a l le r v o lu m e s , it is s u it a b le fo r th e re c o ns t i tu tio n of v a r io us m e di ca t io ns . ( 2 ) B a ct e r i os t a ti c s o d ium c hl o r i de f o r i n j ec t i on, wh i c h i s a ls o a 0 . 9% s ol u t io n , is i n t en de d s o le l y fo r m u lt ip l e r e c o ns t it u ti o ns . I t c on t a in s a n a ge n t t ha t in hib i ts b a ct e r ia l g r o wt h (e . g ., be n z y l a lc oh o l, p ro p y lp a ra b e n, m e th y l p a ra b en ) , wh i ch al lo ws f o r it s u s e in m u lt i pl e -d os e p r e pa r a ti on s .
c . Wa t e r s a re us e d f o r re c on s t i tu t io n a n d f o r d il ut i o n o f s uc h I V s ol u ti o ns a s d e xt r o s e a n d s o d iu m c hlo r i de . W at e rs s ui t ab l e f or p a re n te r a l p re p a ra t io ns i nc l ud e s t e ri le wa t e r fo r in je c ti on a n d b ac te r i os ta t ic wa t e r f o r i n je ct i on . d . R i n ge r ' s s o lu t i on s , wh i c h a re ap p ro p r ia t e f or f l ui d a nd el e c t r ol yt e rep l ac em e nt , c om m o n l y a r e a dm i ni s t e re d to po s ts u rg ic al pa t ie nt s . ( 1 ) L ac t a te d R in g e r 's inj e c t io n (i . e ., H a rt m a n n 's s ol u ti o n, R in g e r 's la ct a te so l ut i on ) c o nt a in s s od iu m l ac t at e , s o di um c h lo r id e , p o ta s s iu m c hl o r id e , a nd c a lc iu m c hl o ri d e . F r e q ue n tl y , it is c om b in ed wi t h de xt r o s e (e . g ., as 5 % de xt r o s e i n l ac t a te d R i n g er ' s i n je c ti on ) . ( 2 ) R i ng e r ' s i n je c t io n d if f e rs f ro m l ac t at e d R i ng er ' s i nj ec ti o n i n t ha t it doe s n o t c o nt a in s o di um la c t a te an d ha s sl i gh t l y d i f fe r en t c o nc en t r at i on s o f s od ium ch lo r i de a n d c al c i um c h lo r id e . L ik e l ac ta t ed R in g e r 's in je c ti o n , i t m a y b e c om bi n ed i n s o lu t io n wi t h d e xt r o s e . 2 . E le c t r o l yt e p r e p a r a t io n s . W ith io ns p re se n t in b ot h i n t ra c e l lu la r an d e xt r a c e l lu la r fl u id , e l ec t ro l y t es a re cr uc i al fo r v a ri o us bi ol o gi ca l p r oc es ses . S ur g ic al a n d m ed ic a l p at i en ts wh o c a n no t ta k e fo o d b y m o u t h o r wh o n e ed nu t r it io n al s u pp l em en t at i on re q ui r e t h e a d di t io n o f e l ec t ro l y te s i n h yd r a ti n g s o l ut i on s o r p a r en t e ra l n u t ri t io n s ol u ti o ns . a . C a t io n s a r e p os it i v e l y c ha r g ed el ec t r ol y t es . ( 1 ) S o di u m is t he c h ie f e xt r a c e l lu la r c a ti o n. ( a ) I mp o r t an c e. S od i um p l a y s a k e y r ol e i n i nt e rst i t ia l o sm ot ic p re s s u re , tis s u e h yd r a t io n , ac i d- b as e b ala n c e , n e r v e - im pu ls e t r ans m i s s io n , a nd m u s c le c on t r ac t io n . ( b ) P a r en t e r al so d i um pr e p a r a ti o n s i nc lu de s o diu m c hl o r id e , so d iu m ac et a t e , a nd s o di um ph os p ha t e. P.578
( 2 ) P o ta s si u m is t he c h ie f in t r ac el lu l a r c a t io n . ( a ) I mp o r t an c e. P ot a s s iu m p a r ti ci p at es in c a r boh y d r a t e m e t ab o li s m , p r ote i n s yn t he s i s , m u s c l e c o n t rac t io n (e sp ec i al l y of ca r dia c m us c l e ) , a nd ne u ro m u sc u la r e xc i t a b il i t y . ( b ) P a r en t e r al p ot a ss i um p r e pa r a t io n s i nc lu d e p o t ass i um a c et a te , p o tas si um c h lo r id e , a nd po t as s i um p h os p ha t e. ( 3 ) C a lc i um ( a ) I mp o r t an c e. C al c i um i s e s s en t ia l t o n e r ve -i m p u ls e t r a nsm is s i o n , m u sc l e c o nt r ac t io n , c ar d ia c f un c t i o n, bo n e f o rm at i on , a nd ca p il la r y a nd ce ll m e m b r a ne p e r m e ab i li t y . ( b ) P a r en t e r al ca l c iu m p r e p a r at i o ns in cl u de c a lc i um c hl o r id e , c a lc i um g lu c on a te , a n d c al c i um gl uc e pt a te . ( 4 ) M a g ne s iu m ( a ) I mp o r t an c e. Ma g n es i u m p la ys a vi t al pa r t i n e n zy m e ac ti v i t ie s , ne u r om us c ul a r t r a ns m i s s io n , a nd m u s c le e xc i t ab i li t y. ( b ) P a r en t e r al p r ep a r a tio n . Ma g n es i um i s g i v en p a r en t e ra ll y a s m ag ne s iu m s ul f a te . b . An i o n s a r e n eg a ti v e l y c ha r g ed el ec t r ol y t es . ( 1 ) C h lo r i d e is t he m a jo r e xt r a c e ll u la r a n io n .
( a ) I mp o r t an c e. A lo n g wi t h s od i um , i t re gu l at es in t e rs t it i al osm o ti c p r es su r e an d h e lp s t o c on t r ol bl o od pH . ( b ) P a r en t e r al ch l o r i de p r e p a r at i o ns in cl u de c a lc i um c hl o r id e , p ot as s i um c hl o ri d e , a n d s od i um c hl o ri d e. ( 2 ) P h os p ha t e i s t he m aj o r i n t ra c e l lu la r an i on . ( a ) I mp o r t an c e. P ho s p ha t e i s c ri t ic al t o v a r io u s e n z ym e ac ti v i t ie s . I t a ls o i n fl u en c e s c a lc iu m l e v el s a nd ac ts a s a bu f f er t o p r e ven t m a r k ed c h an g es i n a ci d -ba s e b a la n ce . ( b ) P a r en t e r al p ho s ph at e p r ep a r a t io n s i nc lu de p o t ass i um p h os ph a te and s o d iu m p h os p ha t e. ( 3 ) Ac e t a t e ( a ) I mp o r t an c e. A c e t at e i s a bi ca r bo n at e p r ec u rso r t ha t m a y be us ed to pr o vi d e a l ka li t o as s i s t i n t he p res e r v a ti o n o f p la s m a p H . ( b ) P a r en t e r al ac e t at e pr e p a r a ti o n s i nc lu de po ta ss i um a c et a te an d s od iu m a c et a te . C . P a r e n te r a l a n ti b i o ti c p r e p a ra t i on s a r e a v a i lab l e a s s te r il e u n re c o n st i tu t e d p o wd e r s , wh i c h m us t b e r e c on s t i tu t ed wi t h s t e ri le wa t e r , n or m a l s al i ne , o r d 5 w, o r a s a st e ri l e, r ea d y- t o -u s e l iq ui d p a r en t er a l. 1 . Ad m i n is t r a t io n me t ho d s . Pa r en t e ra l a n ti bi o tic s m a y b e g i v e n i nt e rm i tt e n tl y b y d i r ec t I V in j ec ti o n, s h o rt -t e r m i nf us i on , i n t ra m u s c u l a r i nj ec t io n , o r i n t ra t hec a l i n je c ti on . 2 . U se s . Pa r en t e ra l a n tib i o ti c s a r e u se d to t re a t i n f ec ti o ns th a t a re s e r io us an d r e q ui r e h ig h an ti b io t ic b lo o d l e v el s o r wh e n t h e ga s t ro i nt es t in a l t r ac t i s c o nt r a in di c a t ed , s uc h a s i n i l eu s. 3 . D o si n g f r e q ue n ci e s o f pa r e nt e ra l a n ti b io t ic s va r y f r o m o nc e d ai l y t o as o ft e n as e ve r y 2 ho u rs , d e pe n di ng o n t he ki ne t ic s o f t h e dr u g , s e ri ou s ne s s o f th e in f ec t io n , t h e s i te of in f ec ti o n, an d t h e p a ti en t ' s d is ea s e o r o r g an st a tu s ( e .g . , re n al d i s e as e ) . D . P a r e n te r a l a n ti n e op la s t i c a ge n t s. S tu d ie s s ug g es t th a t t he s e m e di c a ti o ns m a y b e to xi c t o t h e p e rs on n el wh o p r e pa r e a nd ad m i n is t e r t he m . Th e e vid e nc e i s n o t c o nc lu s i v e , wh i c h ne c e s s i ta t es s p ec ia l p r ec au t ion s to en s u r e s af e t y an d m i ni m i z e r i sk s. I n r es p on s e to c o nc e r ns , t h e O cc u pa t io n al S a f e t y an d He al t h Ad m i ni s t ra t io n ( O S H A ) h as pu b li s h e d a t e c h n ic al m a nu a l, “ C on t ro l li n g O c c u pa t io n al E xp o s u r e t o H a za r d o us D ru gs . ” E v e ry f a c il it y m us t h a ve a wr i t t e n p la n th a t i nc lu de s d ru g p r e pa r a ti o n p re c au ti o ns , s t or a ge , t ra ns po r t , p e rso n al p ro t ec t i v e e qu ip m en t ( gl o ves , g o wn s , m a s k s ) , wo r k e q ui p m e n t, wa s t e d is po s a l , s p il l m an ag e m e n t, an d pe r s on ne l m e di ca l s u r v ei ll a nc e, 1 . Ad m i n is t r a t io n me t ho d s . Pa r en t e ra l a n ti ne o pl a s t ic s m a y b e g i v e n b y d i r ec t I V i n je c ti on , s h o rt - t er m i n fus i on , o r lo n g- t e rm i n fu s i o n . So m e a re ad m i n is te re d b y a n o n - IV r ou t e , s u c h as the s u bc u t an eo us , in t ra m us c u l a r, in t r a- a r te r ia l , o r in t r a th ec a l r o u t es . 2 . S a fe an t i ne o p la s t ic h a n d li n g g u i de l in e s. A ll p h a rm ac y an d n u rs i ng pe r s on ne l wh o p r e p ar e o r ad m i n is te r a nt i ne op l as ti cs s h ou ld r e c e i v e s pe ci a l t r ai ni n g i n th e f o l lo wi n g g u id e li ne s t o re d uc e t h e r is k o f e xp o s ur e t o t he se d ru gs . a . A ve r t ic a l l a mi n a r fl ow ho o d s ho u ld be us ed d u r in g d r u g p re p a ra t io n , wi t h e xh a u s t di r ec te d to th e ou t s i d e.
P.579
b . A ll s y ri n ge s a nd I V t ub i ng s h o ul d h a v e L u e r -Lo k f i t ti n gs (s e e I X. B . 4 . a) . c . C l ot h i ng . Pe r s o n ne l s h o ul d we a r p e rs o na l p r o te c ti v e eq u ip m e n t i nc lu d in g c l os ed f r o n t c u f f ed s u r gi c a l g o wn s a n d d ou b le - la ye r e d lat e x s u r g eo n ' s g lo v e s . d . N e ga t i ve - p r es s u re t ec h n i qu e s ho u ld be us ed d u r in g wi t hd r a wa l of m ed i c a t io n f r o m vi a ls . Th is wi l l p re v e n t p r es s u r e f r om bu i ld ing u p i ns id e t h e v i a l a nd c a us in g t h e d r u g t o s pr a y a ro u nd t h e n ee d le . e . F in a l d o sa g e a dj u s tm e n t s ho u ld be m a de in to t he v i al , am pu le , or di re c tl y i n to a n ab so r be n t g a u z e p ad . f . P r i m in g e q u ip m en t . Sp e c i al ca r e s ho ul d b e tak e n wh e n I V a dm i ni st r a tio n s e ts a r e pr im e d. Th e I V t ub i ng s h o ul d b e p r im ed be f o re a dd in g th e d r ug , or t he t u bi n g c a n b e p r im ed wi t h d r u g-f r e e f l ui d b e fo r e c on ne c ti n g i t t o th e c he m o t he r apy d r u g c o nt a in e r . I f t h es e a r e no t a v ai l ab le , p rim e th e t ub i ng in t o s te r il e g a u z e i n a s e al a bl e p la s ti c b ag . g . P r op e r p r oc ed u r es s ho u ld be f ol lo we d f o r d i spo s a l o f m at e r ia ls us ed in t h e p r e pa r a ti o n a nd ad m i ni s tr a t io n of an t in e op la s ti cs . ( 1 ) N e ed l es s h ou l d n ot be c l i pp ed o r r ec a pp e d. ( 2 ) P r e pa r a t io n s s ho ul d b e d is ca r d ed in c o nt a ine r s t h at a re pu nc t u re - p roo f , l e ak p r o o f, an d p r op e r l y l a be le d . ( 3 ) H az a r d ou s w as t e. Th e r e i s n o c o m p l et e l y a c c e pt a bl e m et h od fo r di s po s in g o f h a za r do u s wa s t e . H i gh - te m pe r a tu r e i nc in e ra t io n m a y be t he p re f er r e d m et h o d. Th e s e m a te r ia ls m a y a ls o b e b u ri ed in an E P A -l ic e n s e d h a z a r do us wa s t e d u m p o r c h em ic al l y de ac t i v a te d . h . A f te r re m o v a l o f gl o v es , pe r s o nn e l sh o ul d w ash h a nd s t h o ro u gh l y. i . P e rs on n el an d e q ui pm e n t i n v o l ved in th e p r e par a t io n an d a dm in is t r at i on o f a n t in eo p la s ti c a ge n ts s ho u ld be m on i t o re d ro u tin e l y . 3 . P a ti e n t p r o bl e ms . In fu s io n p hl e bi t is a n d e xt r a va s a ti o n a r e t he m o s t s er i o us p r o bl em s t h at m a y oc c u r d u ri n g t h e a dm in is t ra t ion o f p a re n te r al an t in e op la s ti cs . a . I n fu s io n ph l eb i t is ( inf l am m a t io n o f a v e i n) is c h a ra ct e ri z e d b y p a in , swe l l i n g, h e a t se n s a ti o n, a nd re d ne s s a t t he in f us io n s i te . D r u g di lu t io n a n d f il t r at i on c a n e l im in a te o r m i n im i z e t he r is k o f p hl e bi t is . b . E x t ra va s a t io n (i n fi l t ra t i on of a d r ug in t o su b c u t a ne o us t is s ue s s u r r oun d in g th e ve i n ) i s e s p ec i al l y ha r m fu l wh e n a n ti n eo pl as t ic s wi t h v e s ic a nt p ro pe r t ie s a r e a d m i ni s te r ed . Me a s u re s m us t be ta ke n i m m ed i at el y i f e xt r a va s a t io n o cc u rs . ( 1 ) D e pe nd i ng on th e d ru g in v o l v e d, em e rg e nc y m e as u re s m a y i nc lu d e s to p pi n g t h e i n f us io n , i nj ec t in g h y d r oc o r ti s o n e o r a n ot h er an t i- i n fl am m at o r y ag en t di r ec t l y in t o t h e a f f ec te d a r e a, in je c tin g an an t id o te ( if a v ai l abl e ) , a n d a pp l yin g a co ld c om p r es s ( t o fa ci l it a te a d r ug - an t ido t e re ac t io n ) . ( 2 ) A wa r m c om p re s s m ay t h e n b e a pp l ie d t o i nc re a s e th e fl o w o f b l oo d , an d th us t h e ves ic a nt , a wa y f r o m d a m a g ed ti ss ue . E . P a r e nt e r a l b i ot e ch n ol o g y p r o d u c t s a r e c re a te d b y th e a pp l ic at i on of r e c om bi na n t t ec h no l og y t o t he ge ne r a ti o n o f t he ra p e ut ic ag e nt s, su c h as m o no cl o na l a n t ib od i es , v a ri ou s v ac c in e s , an d c ol o n y -s t im ul a tin g fa c to r s .
1 . U se s of th es e a g en t s i n c l ud e c a nc er t he r ap y , in f ec t io ns , t ra ns p la n t r ej ec t io n , r h e um a to id a rt h r it is , i n fla m m a to r y b o we l d is e as e, r es p i ra t or y d is e as es , an d m a la r ia a s we l l as v a c c in es ag a in s t c an ce r , H IV in f ec t io n, a nd he p at i ti s B . 2 . C h a ra c te r i s t ic s . P r o te i n a nd p ep ti d e b io t ec hno l og y d r ug s h a v e a s h o rte r h al f l i f e, of t en r eq u ir e s p ec ial s to r ag e s uc h a s r e f ri ger a t io n or f re e z i ng , a n d m u s t n o t b e s h ak en v i go r o us l y t o a v o i d de s t r o y i ng th e p r o te in m ol ec u le s . 3 . Ad m i n is t r a t io n . Ma n y b i ot ec h no l og y p ro d uc ts r e q ui r e re c o ns t it u ti o n wi t h s te r il e wa t e r o r no r m a l s al in e an d m a y be p ar e nt e r al l y ad m i n is t e re d b y d ir e ct I V i n je c ti on o r in f us i on , o r b y i n t ra m u s c u la r or s u bc u ta n eo us i n je c t i on .
VIII. IRRIGATING SOLUTIONS. A l t h ou gh t he s e s t e ri l e p ro d uc ts a re m a nu f ac t u re d b y t h e sa m e s t a nd a rd s u s ed to p r o ce s s I V p re p a ra t io ns , t h e y ar e no t in t e nd e d fo r i n f us i o n i n to t he ve no u s s ys t e m . L ab e li ng di f f er en c es b e t we e n i r r ig a ti on s o lu t io ns an d i nj e c t i on s a r e s p ec if i ed in th e Un i te d St a t es P ha r m a c o pe i a ( U SP ) a nd r e fl ec t d i ff e r en c es in a cc e pt a bl e p a r ti c u la t e m a t t e r l e v el s , v o lu m e o f s o l u ti on a v ai l ab l e f o r us e , a n d t he c o nt a in e r d es ig n . P.580
A. T o p i c a l a dm i n is t r a tio n . I r ri ga t in g s ol u ti o ns fo r t op ic a l us e a r e p ac kag e d i n p o ur b o t tl es s o th a t t h e y c an b e ap pl i ed di r ec t l y o n to th e de s i r ed a re a . Th e s e so l u ti on s a r e i n t en de d fo r s uc h p ur p o s e s as i r ri ga t in g wo un d s , m o is t en in g d r es si n gs , an d c l ea ni n g s ur g ic al in s t r um e n ts . B . I n f us i o n o f i r r i g a ti n g s o l u ti o ns . Th is p ro c e dur e , us in g a n a dm i ni s t r a tio n s e t a t t ac he d to a F ol e y c a t he t e r , is c o m m on l y us ed fo r m a n y s u r gi c a l p a ti e nts . S u r g eo ns pe r f o rm in g u r ol o gi c a l p r oc e du r es of t en u s e i r ri g at i ng s o lu t io ns to p e rf us e t i ss ue s i n o r de r to m a in ta i n t h e i nt e g ri t y of t he s u r g ic al fi e ld , re m o ve bl oo d , a n d p r o vi de a c le a r f ie l d o f v ie w. To d e c r ea se th e ri s k o f i n fe c ti o n, 1 m L o f N eo s po r in G . U . I r r ig a nt , an an t ib io ti c p r e pa r at i on , o f t en is ad d e d t o t he s e so l ut io n s. C . D i a l ys i s . D i a l y s a t es a r e i r r ig a ti n g s ol u ti on s us e d i n t he di a l ys is o f p ati e n ts wi t h s uc h d is o r de r s as r en a l fa i lu r e , p oi s o n in g , a nd ele c t ro l y t e d is tu r b an c e s . Th e s e p r o du c ts re m o v e wa s t e m a te r i al s, s e r um e l ec t ro ly t e s , a n d t o xi c pr o du c ts f r o m t he b o d y. 1 . I n p e r it o n ea l d i a l ys i s , a h y pe r to n ic di al y s a te is in f us ed di r ec t l y i n to t he p e r it o ne a l c a v i t y v i a a s u r g ic al l y im pl a nt e d c a t het e r . Th e d ia l ys a t e , wh i c h c on t ai ns d e xt r o s e a n d e le c t r o l y tes , re m o ve s h a rm f ul s u bs t a nc es b y os m o s i s a nd di f f us io n . A f t e r a s p ec i fi ed pe r i od o f ti m e, th e s ol u ti o n is dr a i ne d . A n ti b io t ics an d he p a ri n m a y b e ad d ed to th e d i al y s a te . 2 . I n h em o di a l ys i s , t h e p a t ie n t 's bl o od i s t r a ns fus e d t h ro u gh a d ia l y z i ng m em b r an e u n i t t ha t re m o v e s t h e h ar m f ul s u bs t an c e s f r om the p at i en t ' s v a sc u la r s ys te m . A f t e r p a ss in g t h r ou g h t he di aly z e r , t h e b lo o d r e en t e rs t h e b o d y th r ou g h a v ei n .
IX. NEEDLES AND SYRINGES
A. H yp o d e r m i c ne e dl e s a r e s ta i nl es s -s te e l o r a lu m in um de v i c e s t h at pe ne t r a te th e s ki n fo r th e p u rp os e o f ad m in is t e ri ng o r t r an sf e r rin g a p a re n te r al p ro du c t (F i g ur e 2 7 8). 1 . N ee d l e g au g e i s t he o u ts i de di am e te r of th e ne e dl e s h af t ; t h e l ar g e r t he n um be r , t h e s m a ll e r t h e d ia m e t e r. G a u g es i n c om m o n u s e r a n ge f ro m 1 3 (l a rg es t d ia m et e r ) t o 27 . Su b c u t an eo u s in j ec t io ns us u al l y re q ui r e a 2 4 - ga u ge o r 2 5 -g au g e ne e dl e . I n t r am us c u la r in je c ti on s r e q ui r e a ne e dl e wi t h a ga u g e b et we e n 19 an d 2 2. N e ed l es b e t we e n 1 8 g a ug e a n d 20 g au g e a re co m m on l y us e d f o r c om po un d in g p a re n t e ra ls . 2 . B e ve l s a re s l an t in g ed g es c u t i n to ne e dl e t ip s t o fa c i li t a te in je c ti on t hro u g h t i ss ue o r r u bb e r v ia l c lo s u r e s . a . R e gu l a r -b e ve l ne e dl es a r e t he m o s t c om m on ly u s ed t y p e, an d th e y a re s u i ta b le f o r s u bc u ta ne o us a n d i ntr a m us c u la r i n je c t i on s a nd h y p od e rm oc l y si s. b . S h o r t -b e ve l n e ed l es a r e us ed wh e n o n l y s ha l lo w p e n e t ra t io n i s r e qu i red ( as in I V i nj ec t io ns ) . c . In t r a de r m a l- b e ve l n ee d l es a re de s i g ne d f o r in t r a de rm a l i nj ec t io ns and h a v e t he m os t be v e le d ed ge s .
Figure 27-8. Needles. Top, 20 gauge-3½ inch. Left to right, 18 gauge-1½ inch, 20 gauge-1 inch, 23 gauge-1 inch, 25 gauge-5/8 inch, and 27 gauge-½ inch.
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Figure 27-9. Syringes. Left to right, 60 mL catheter tip, 60 mL, 30 mL, 10 mL, 5 mL, 3 mL, and 1 mL.
3 . N ee d l e l en g t hs r an g e f r om ¼ i nc h t o 6 in c h es . C h o ic e o f n e ed le le n gt h d e pe n ds o n th e d es i r ed pe ne t r a tio n . a . F or c om p ou n d in g par e n t e r al p r ep a r a ti o n s, 1 ½ - in ch - lo n g n ee dl e s a re c o m m on l y u s ed . b . I n t ra d e rm a l a n d s u bc u t a ne o us i nj e c ti o ns ne c es s i ta t e a s h o rt ne e dle l en g th , u s ua ll y ¼ i n c h to 5/ 8 i nc h . c . In t r a sp i n al i nj e ct i o n r e q ui r es a n ee d le le ng t h o f 3½ i nc h es . d . I V i n f us i o n r e qu i re s ne e dl e s t ha t ra n ge in le ngt h f ro m 1 ¼ i nc he s t o 2 ½ i n ch es . B . S yr i n g e s a r e d e v ic es f o r i n je ct i ng , wi t hd r a wi ng , o r i ns ti l l i ng fl u id s . S yr i n ge s c o ns is t o f a gl as s o r p l as t ic ba r r el wi t h a ti g h t- f itt i n g p lu ng e r a t on e e nd ; a s m al l o p e ni ng a t t he ot h e r e nd a c c om m o d at es th e he ad o f a n ee dl e (F i gu r e 2 7 -9) . 1 . Th e Lu e r s yr i n g e , t h e f i rs t s y r i ng e de v e lo p ed , h a s a u n i v e rs al ne e dl e at t a ch m e n t a cc o m m od a ti ng al l n e ed le s i z e s . 2 . S yr i n g e vo l u m es ra ng e f ro m 0 .3 t o 6 0 m L . Ins u li n s y r i ng es ha ve un i t g r a da t io ns ( 1 0 0 u ni t s / m L ) r at h er t han v o l um e g r ad a ti on s . 3 . C a li b r a ti o n s a r e in t he m e t r ic s ys te m , a nd va ry i n s p ec i fi c i t y de p en di ng o n s yr i n ge s i z e . Th e s m al l er t h e s y r in g e, t he s m a l ler t h e m e a su r em en t s c a l e. 4 . S yr i n g e t i ps c o m e in s e v e r al t y pe s . a . L ue r - L ok t ip s a r e th re a d ed to en su r e t h at t he n e ed le f it s t ig h tl y i n t h e s y r i ng e . A n t i ne op l as ti c a ge n ts s ho u ld be a dm i n is t er e d wi t h s yr in g es o f th is t y pe ( se e V II . D . ) . b . L ue r - S l i p t i ps a re un th r e ad e d so t ha t th e s yr ing e an d n e ed le do no t lo c k in t o p l ac e . B ec a us e o f t h is , th e ne e dl e m a y b ec om e di s lo dg e d. c . E cc e nt r i c ti p s, wh i c h a r e s e t o f f ce n te r , a l lo w t h e n e ed l e t o r em a in pa ra l le l to t h e i n je c t i on s i te an d m in i m i z e ve no us i rr i ta t io n . d . C a t he t e r ti p s a r e us ed f o r wo u n d i r r ig a ti o n a nd a dm in is t r at i on o f en t e ra l f e e di ng s . Th e y a r e n o t int e n de d f o r i n je c t i on s.
X. INTRAVENOUS DRUG DELIVERY A. I n j e c t io n si t e s
1 . P e r ip h e ra l ve i n i n je ct i o n i s p r e fe r r ed fo r d ru gs t ha t d o n o t i r ri t a te th e ve i n s, a d m i ni s t ra ti o n o f i s o t on ic s o lu t io ns , an d p a ti en t s wh o r e q ui r e o nl y s ho r t - te r m I V t h e r ap y. G e ne r al l y , th e do r s al fo r ea r m s ur f ac e i s c h os en f or v e ni p un c t u r e. 2 . C e nt r a l ve in i nj e c ti on is p re f e r re d f o r a dm i nis t r at i on of i r ri t at i ng dr u gs o r h yp e r t on ic s o lu t io ns , p a ti e n ts re q ui r in g l on g - te r m I V t he r ap y, a nd s i tu a ti on s i n wh ic h a p e ri ph e r al l i ne c a nn o t b e m a in t ai ne d . L a rg e vein s i n th e t h or a c i c c a vi t y, s uc h a s t h e s ub c l a v i an v e in , ar e u s ed . P.582
B . I n f us i o n m et h o ds 1 . C o n ti n u ou s - d ri p in f us i o n i s t he sl o w, p ri m ar y - l i ne in f us io n o f a n I V p re p a ra t io n t o m a in t ai n a t he r ap e ut ic d r u g l e v el or p ro vi d e f lui d an d e le c t ro l yt e r ep l ace m en t . a . F low r a t es m us t be c a r e f ul l y m o ni t or e d. G e ner a l l y , t h es e r a te s a r e e xp r e s s ed as vo l u m e pe r un i t o f t im e (e . g . , m L / h r, d ro ps /m i n ) an d s om e ti m e s a s m g / m i n f o r c e r ta i n d ru g s . b . Ad m i n i st r a t i on . D ru gs wi t h a n a rr o w t h e ra p eut i c i nd e x s u c h as o xy t o c i n ( P i t oc in ) , h e pa r in , an d pr e s s o r a g en ts s u ch as no r e pi n ep h ri n e ( L e v o- P h ed ) a nd p h e n yle ph r i ne ( N eo - S y ne p h ri n e ) t y p ic al l y a re adm i ni s t e r ed b y t h is m e th od . 2 . I n te r m i tt e n t i n f us i on a l lo ws d r ug ad m i ni s t ra tio n at s p ec i fi c i nt e r val s (e . g . , e v e r y 4 h ou r s) a nd i s m os t o f ten us e d f o r a n ti bi o ti c s . a . T h re e d i f f e re n t te c hni q u es m a y b e u s e d . ( 1 ) D i r ec t ( bo l u s) i nj e c ti o n r ap id l y de l i v er s s m a ll v o l um es o f an un di l ut ed d r u g . Th i s m e t ho d i s us e d t o : ( a ) A ch ie v e an im m e di a te e f fe c t ( as i n a n e m e r ge n c y ) ( b ) A dm in is t e r d r ug s t ha t c an n ot be di l ut e d ( c ) A ch ie v e a t h er a pe u tic s e r um dr u g l e v el qu ic k ly ( 2 ) Ad d i t i ve se t i nf u s ion , us i ng a v o l um e- c on t rol d e v ic e, is ap p ro p ri a te fo r t he i n t er m i t t en t d e li v e r y o f s m a ll am ou n ts o f I V s o l ut io n s o r d i lu t ed m e di c a t ion s . Th e f l u id c h am be r is a t ta c hed t o a n i nd e pe n de n t f lu i d s up p l y o r pl ac e d d ir e c t ly u n d e r t he e s ta b li sh e d p ri m a r y I V lin e . ( 3 ) Th e pi g g yb a c k m e t ho d is us ed wh e n a d ru g c a nn o t b e m i xe d wi t h t h e p r im a r y s o lu t io n . A s p ec ia l c ou p li n g f o r t h e p r im ar y I V tub i ng pe r m i t s i nf us i on of a s u pp l em en t ar y s ec on d a ry s o lu t io n th r ou g h t he p ri m a r y s y s te m . ( a ) Th i s m e t ho d e l im in a te s th e n ee d fo r a s e c o n d ve n i pu nc t u re o r f u rt h er d i lu t io n o f t h e s up p le m e n ta r y p r ep ar a t io n . ( b ) Ad m i x t u re s i n wh i c h t h e v eh ic le is ad de d to th e d ru g a r e k no wn a s m a nu f ac tu r e rs ' p ig g y ba c k s . A dm i xt u r e s i n wh i c h a s p ec i al d ru g v ia l i s a tta c he d t o a s p ec ia l I V ba g a r e k no wn as t he A D D - V an t ag e s ys t e m ( s e e F i gu r e 2 7 -7 ) . b . I n so m e c a s e s , i n te rm i t t e nt i n fu s io n in j ec t io n d e vi ce s a r e u s e d . A ls o c al l ed s ca l p - vei n , h ep a ri n -l o c k , o r bu t te r f l y i n fu s i o n s ets , th es e d e v ic es p er m i t in t e rm i tt e nt d e li v e r y wh i l e e l im in a ti ng t he ne e d f o r m ul ti p le ve n ip u nc t ur es o r p r ol o ng ed v e n ou s a cc e ss wi t h a c o nt i nu ous in f us io n . To p r e v e nt c lo t t in g i n t h e c an nu l a, di lu t e h e pa r in s o lu t io n o r N S S m a y b e a d d ed . Be n ef i ts o f in t erm i tt e n t in f us io n i n je c t i on d e vic es i n cl ud e th e f o ll o wi n g :
( 1 ) Th i s m e t ho d i s e s p ec i a ll y s ui t ab le f or pa t ie n ts wh o d o no t re qu i r e, o r wo u ld be j e op a r di z e d b y , ad m i n is tr a t io n of la r ge am ou n ts o f I V f l ui ds (e . g ., t ho s e wi t h c o ng es t i v e h ea r t fa il u r e). ( 2 ) B ec au s e in t e rm it t en t i n f us io n i nj ec t io n d e vi ces do no t re q ui r e c on t in uo u s a t t ac hm en t to an I V b o tt le o r b a g a nd po le , th e y p e r m i t g r ea t e r p at i en t am b ul a ti on . C . P u m ps an d c o n t ro l l er s a r e t he el ec t r on ic de v i c es u s e d to ad m i ni s te r p a r en t e ra l i n f us io ns wh e n th e u s e of g r a v it y f l o w a lo n e m i g ht l ea d t o i n ac c u r at e do sin g o r r is k p a t ie n t s a f e t y . P um p s a nd c o n t ro l le rs a re us ed t o a dm i ni s t e r p a re n te r a l nu t r i ti on , c h em ot h e ra p y , c a rd i ac m e di c a t io ns , a n d b lo o d p r o du c ts . 1 . P um p s a r e u s e d t o d el i v e r I V i nf us i on s wi t h ac c u r ac y an d s a fe t y . a . Two t yp e s o f me c ha ni s m s a r e us e d i n i nf us i on p um ps . ( 1 ) P i st o n -c yl i n d e r m ech a n is m s u s e a p is to n i n a c yli n de r or a s y r i ng e -l ik e a p p ar a tu s t o p um p th e de s i re d vol um e o f f l ui d . ( 2 ) L in e a r p e r is t a l ti c me c h an i sm s u s e e xt e r n al p r e ss u re to e xp e l t h e f lu id o ut o f t h e p um p in g c ha m b e r . b . T yp e s o f p u m ps ( 1 ) V o lu m et r i c p u m ps ar e us e d f o r i nt e rm i tt e nt in f us i on of m e di ca t io ns su c h as a n t ib io t ic s . Th e y a re al s o us e d f o r c on t in uo us in fu s io n o f IV f lu id , pa r en t er a l n u t ri t io n , a n ti c o a gu la n ts , a n d a nt i - as th m a m e di cat i o ns . ( 2 ) S yr i n g e p u mp s a r e u s ed to ad m i n is te r in t e rm i tt e n t o r c on t in uo u s in fu s io ns of m e di ca t io ns ( e. g ., a nt ib io t ic s , o pi a te s) in c o nc e nt r a t ed fo r m . ( 3 ) M o b i le in f u si o n p um p s a r e s m a ll in f us io n de v i c es d e si gn e d f o r am bu l a to r y a nd h o m e pa t ie n ts a n d u s e d f o r ad m i ni s te r in g c he m oth e r a p y a nd o pi at e m e di c a t i on s. ( 4 ) I mp l an t a bl e pu m ps a r e i n f us io n d e v ic es s u rg i ca ll y p la ce d un de r th e s ki n to p r o vi de a c on t in uo u s r ele a s e of m e di c at io n , t yp ic a l l y an op ia t e . Th e r es e rv o i r in t he p u m p is re f il le d b y i nj ec ti n g t h e m e d ic at i on th r o ug h a l at e x d i a ph r ag m i n th e pu m p . P.583
( 5 ) P a ti e n t -c o n t ro l l ed an a l ge s i c p um p s a r e us ed t o a dm in is t e r n a rc ot ic s i n t er m i t t en t l y o r on de m an d b y th e p a ti en t wi t h in th e pa t ie n t -s pe c i f ic p a r am e te r s, wh i c h a re o rd e re d b y t h e p h y s i c i a n a nd p ro g ra m m e d i nt o th e p um p . c . B en e f i ts . De s p i te t he ir e xt r a c os ts an d th e t r ain i ng r eq u ir e d b y p er s on ne l , p um ps p r o vi de a n um be r o f im po r t a nt be n ef i ts . Th e y m ain t a in a c o ns t an t , a c c u ra te f lo w r a t e a n d c a n d e te c t i nf il tr a t io n s , oc cl us io ns , an d a i r . Pu m p s a ls o m a y d ec r e a s e th e a m ou n t o f t im e a nu r s e s p e n ds d is p en s i ng m e di c a t i on . Ne we r d e vi ce s a re e q ui pp e d wi t h “ d r ug li b r ar i es ” t h a t h a v e p re sp ec i fi e d hi g h a n d lo w d o s e in f us io n l im it s wh i c h m a y f ac il i ta t e m e d ic at i on a dm i ni s t r a ti o n a nd re d uc e e r r o rs . 2 . C o n t ro l l e rs , u n li k e pum ps , e xe r t no pu m p i ng pr e ss u r e o n t he I V f lu i d. R a t h e r, t h e y r el y o n g r a v it y a nd c o nt r o l t he in f us io n b y c o u n ti ng d ro ps el ec t r on ic a l l y , o r th e y i n f us e t he f lu id m e c h an ic a l l y an d e le c t ro ni c a l l y (e . g . , v ol um e t ri c c o n t ro ll e rs ) . In c o m pa r i s on t o p u mp s , th e fo l lo wi n g ar e c ha r ac te r i s t ic s o f c on t r ol le r s: a . Th e y a re le s s c om p lex a n d g e ne r al l y le s s e xp e n s i v e . b . Th e y ac h ie v e r ea s o n ab l e a c c u ra c y.
c . Th e y a re v e r y us e fu l fo r u nc om pl ic a te d i n fu s i on t he r a p y b u t c an no t be u s ed fo r a r t e ri a l d r ug i n f us io n o r fo r in f us i on i n t o sm al l v ein s . D . I V i nc o mp a t ib i l it i es . W hen t wo o r m o re d ru gs m us t b e a dm i ni st e r ed thr o u gh a s i ng le I V l in e or gi v e n i n a s i ng l e s o l ut i on , a n u n d e s i r ab l e r e ac ti o n c a n oc c u r . A l t h ou gh s u c h in c o m p a tib i li t ie s a r e r e la t i v el y r a re , t he i r co ns e qu e nc es c a n be d e a dl y. A p a ti e nt wh o r ec e i v es a p re p a ra t io n i n wh i c h an in c o m p a ti b il i t y h a s o cc u r r ed c o ul d e xp e r i e nc e to xi c i t y o r a n i nc om ple t e th e ra p eu t ic e f f ec t. 1 . T yp e s o f i n co m pa t i b il i t i es a . A ph ys i c a l i nc o mp a t ib i l i t y o c c u r s wh e n a d r ug c o m b i na t io n p r od u c e s a v i s i b le c h an g e i n t he ap p ea r an c e o f a s o lu t io n . Th e s o lu ti o n s ho ul d ne v e r b e a d m i n is t er e d t o a p a ti en t . ( 1 ) A n e xa m p le of ph y s ic a l i nc om pa t ib il i t y is t h e e v o l u ti on o f ca r b on di o xi d e wh e n s o di um bi c a r bo n at e an d h y d r o c h lo r ic ac id a re adm i xe d . ( 2 ) V a ri ou s t yp e s o f ph y s ic a l i nc om pa t ib il i ti es m a y o c c u r : ( a ) V is ib l e c o l or c h a ng e o r d ar k e n in g ( b ) F o rm at i on of p re c i pi ta t e , wh ic h m a y re s u l t f r om t he c om b in a ti on o f p ho s ph a te a n d c al c i um . b . A ch e mi c al i nc o mp a ti b i l i t y r e f l e c ts th e c he m ic a l d eg r ad a ti o n o f o ne or m o re of t h e a dm i xe d d r ug s , r es ult i n g i n t o xi c it y o r th e ra pe u t ic i n ac ti v i t y . ( 1 ) Th e de g ra d at i on is no t al wa ys vi s ib l e. N o n vis i b l e c he m ic a l i n co m pat i b i l i t y m a y be de t ec t ed on l y b y a n al y t ic a l m e t ho ds . ( 2 ) C h em ic al i n c o m p a ti bil i t y oc c u r s in s e ve r al va r i e t i es . ( a ) C o mp l ex a t io n i s a re a c t i on be t we e n p r o du c ts t ha t i n ac ti v a t es th em . F o r e xa m p l e , t he c o m b i na ti on o f c al ci um an d t e t ra c yc l in e l ea ds t o f o rm at i on o f a c om p le x t h a t in ac t i v at es t e t r ac y c li ne . ( b ) O x i da t i on oc c u r s wh e n on e d r ug lo se s e le c t ro n s t o t h e o th e r , r es u lt i ng i n a c o lo r c h an ge a nd th e ra pe u t ic i n ac ti vi t y . ( c ) R e du c t io n ta k e s p lac e wh e n o ne d ru g g a in s e l ec t r on s f r om th e o t he r . ( d ) P h o to l ys i s ( c h em ic al d ec om po si t io n c au s e d b y l i gh t ) c an le a d t o h y d ro l y s is o r o xi d a t i on , wi t h re s u l ti n g d i s c ol o ra t io n . c . A th e r ap e u ti c in c omp a t i b il i t y o c c u r s wh e n two o r m o re d ru gs , IV f lu id s , o r b o th a r e c om b in ed an d th e res u lt is a r es po n s e ot h er th a n t h at in t en d ed . An e xa m pl e o f a t h e r ap eu t ic in c o m p a ti bi l it y i s t h e r e du ce d b ac t e ric i da l a ct i vi t y of pe n ic il li n G wh e n g i ve n a f te r te t r ac y c li ne . B e c au s e te t r ac y c li ne is a b ac te r i os ta t ic ag en t , i t s lo ws b a ct e r ia l g r o wt h ; p e ni c i lli n , o n t h e o t he r h a nd , i s m os t ef f ec ti v e a ga in s t r ap i dl y p r o li f e ra t in g b ac t e ri a . 2 . F ac t o r s a f fe c t in g I V c o m pa t i bi l i t y a . p H . I nc om p at i bi li t y is m o r e li k el y t o oc c ur wh e n t he c o m p o ne n ts o f a n IV s ol u ti o n d i f fe r s i gn i fi c a n tl y i n p H . Th i s i n c r e as ed r is k is exp l a i n e d b y t he c h em ic al r e ac t io n b e t we e n a n a c i d a n d a ba s e, wh i c h yi e ld s a s al t a n d wa t e r; t he s a lt m a y b e an i n so lu b le p re c i pi t a te . b . T em p e ra t u r e. G e ne r al l y , in c re as e d s t o r ag e t em p e ra t ur e s p ee ds d ru g d e g ra d at i on . To pr es e r ve d r ug s t ab i li t y , d r u gs s ho u ld be s t o r ed in a r e f ri ge r a t or o r f r e e ze r , as ap p r op r ia t e.
c . D eg r e e o f di l u t io n . G e n e ra l l y , t h e m o r e d il u ted t he d ru gs a re in a so l ut i o n, th e l e ss c ha n c e th e re is fo r a n io n i n te r ac t io n l ea d ing t o i nc om pa t ib i li t y . P.584
d . L en g t h o f ti m e i n s o lu t i o n . Th e ch an ce f o r a r e a c t i on re s ul ti n g i n i nc om p at i bi li t y i n c re as es wi t h th e l en g th o f ti m e th a t d r ug s a r e i n c on t ac t wi t h e ac h o t he r . e . O r d e r o f mi x i ng . D rug s th a t a re in c om pa t ib le i n c om b in a ti on , s uc h a s c a lc iu m a n d p h os ph a te , s ho u ld no t be ad d ed c o ns ec u ti v e ly wh e n a n I V a dm i xt u r e is be i ng p r e pa r e d. Th is k e e ps t h es e s ub s ta nc es f ro m p oo l in g , o r fo r m i n g a l a y e r o n t h e t o p o f t he I V f lu i d, an d , t he re f o r e, de c re as es t he c h an c e o f a n i nc om p at ib i li t y. Th o r o ug h m i xi n g af t e r e ac h a dd i ti on is al so es se n ti al . 3 . P r e ve n ti n g o r m in i m iz i n g i n co m pa t i bi l i t ie s . To r e d uc e t h e c ha nc e f or a n i n co m p a ti bi l it y , t he fo l lowi n g s te p s sh o ul d b e t ak e n : a . E ac h d r ug s h ou l d b e m i xe d t ho r o ug hl y a f te r it i s a dd e d t o t h e p r ep a ra ti o n . b . S ol u ti o ns s ho u ld be ad m in is t e re d p r om pt l y a fte r t he y a r e m i xe d t o m i nim i z e th e t i m e a vai l ab le f or a p o ten t i al re a ct io n to oc c u r . c . Th e n um b e r o f d r ug s m i xe d t og e th e r i n a n I V s o lu t io n s ho u ld be k e pt to a m i ni m u m . d . I f a pr es c ri p ti o n c a l ls f o r un f am il ia r d ru gs o r IV f l ui ds , c om p at ib i li t y r efe r e nc es s h ou l d b e c o ns u lt e d. E . H a za r d s o f pa r e n te r al d r u g t h e r ap y. A wi d e r a n g e o f p r ob le m s c a n oc c u r wi t h p a r en t e ra l d r ug ad m i n is tr a t io n . 1 . P h ys i c a l h az a r d s a . P h le b i ti s , wh i c h i s g en e r al l y a m i n o r c o m p l ic at i o n, m a y r es ul t f ro m v e in i nj u r y or i r r i ta t io n . P h le bi t is c a n be m i n im i zed o r p re ve n t ed t h ro u gh pr o pe r I V i ns er t i on t e ch n iq u e, di lu t io n o f ir r it a t in g d r u gs , a nd a d ec re a s e d i n fu si o n r a te . b . T h r om b os i s, t he fo r m a t i on of a b lo o d c l o t i n a ve i n o r a rt e r y. c . E xt r a va s a ti o n m a y o c c u r wi t h a dm in is t r at i on of d r ug s wi t h v e s i c a n t p r op e r ti e s ( s e e V I I . D. 3 .b ) . d . I r r i ta t i o n a t t h e in j ec ti o n s it e c an be r ed uc e d b y v a r y i n g th e i nj ec t io n s i te an d a p pl yi n g a m oi s tu r i z in g lo t i on to t he ar e a. e . P ai n f ro m i nf us i on is m os t c om m o n wi t h p e ri ph e r al I V a dm in is t r at i on of a hi gh l y c o nc en t r at e d p r ep a ra t ion . S wi t c hi ng t o c e n t ra l ve i n i n fu si on an d / or di l ut in g th e d r u g m i gh t a l le v i a te th e p r o ble m . f . Ai r e m b o li s m, po t en t ia l l y fa t al , c a n r es ul t f rom en t r y o f a ir in t o t h e I V t u bi n g. g . I n fe c t io n , a pa r ti c u l a r d a ng e r wi t h ce n t ra l I V lin e s , m a y s te m f r om c on ta m in a ti on d u r in g IV li n e i ns e rt i on or t u bi n g ch a ng es . In f ec ti o n m a y be lo c al o r ge n e ra l i z ed ( s e pt ic em i a) . Th e i n fe c tio n ri s k c a n b e m in im i zed b y f o ll o wi n g es t ab l is he d p r o to co ls f o r th e c a re o f c e n t ra l l ine s . h . Al l e r g i c r e ac t i on s c an r es u lt f ro m h y p e rs en s i ti v i t y t o a n I V s o lu t io n o r a d di t i v e . i . C e n t ra l c a t he t e r m i s pl a c em e n t m a y l ea d t o a ir e m b o li s m o r pn eu m ot ho r a x. To e n su r e t h at t he c a th e te r h a s p as se d i n to th e s ub cl a vi an v e in a nd ad va nc ed t o t h e l e ve l o f t h e v en a c a v a, th e pl ac em e nt s h ou l d a l wa y s be ve r i fi ed r ad io l og ic a ll y .
j . H yp o t h e r m i a , p os s i bly r e s ul t in g i n s ho c k an d c a r di ac ar r es t , m i g h t s tem f ro m a d m i ni s t ra ti o n o f a c o ld IV s ol u ti o n. Th is p ro b le m c a n b e p r e v en t ed b y al lowi n g p a r en t e ra l p r od u c t s t o r ea c h r o om te m p e ra t u re . k . N e u ro t o xi c i t y m a y b e a s e r io us c o m p li ca t io n of i nt r a th ec a l o r i n t ra sp ina l a d m i ni s t ra ti o n o f d r ug s c o n t ai ni n g p r es e r vat i v es . P r e s er v a t i v e - fr e e d r ug s s h ou l d b e u s ed in th es e c i rc um s t a nc es . 2 . M e c ha n ic a l h az a r ds a . I n fu s io n pu m p o r c on t r o l l e r f a i lu r e c an le a d t o ru n a wa y i n fu s i on , fl u id o v e r lo ad , o r in c or r ec t do s a ge s . b . I V tu b i ng c a n b ec om e k in k e d , s pl i t, o r c ra c k ed. I t a ls o m a y p ro du c e pa rt i cu l at es , a l lo w c o n ta m i n at i on , o r in t e r fe r e wi t h t he in f us io n. c . P a r ti c ul a t e m at t e r m a y b e p r es e nt in a p a re nt e r al p ro d uc t a nd c a n c au s e e m bo li s m . d . G l a ss co n t ai n e rs m ay b r e ak , c a us in g i nj u r y . e . R u bb e r vi a l c l os u r es m a y in t er a c t wi t h th e e nc l os ed p ro du c t. 3 . T he r a pe u t ic ha z a rd s a . D r u g i n s ta b il i t y m a y l e ad t o t he r a pe u ti c i ne f fe c ti v e n es s . b . I nc o mp a t ib i l i t y m a y r e s ul t i n t o xi c i t y o r r e du ce d th e r ap eu t ic ef f ec t i vene ss . c . La b el i n g e r r o r s c an c a u s e ad m i n is t ra t io n o f an i nc o rr ec t d ru g o r i m p r op e r d o sa g e. d . D r u g o ve r d o se c a n be c a us e d b y r un a wa y I V i n f us io n , f ai l ur e o f an in fu s io n p u m p o r c o n t ro ll e r , o r n ur s i ng or ph a rm ac y e r r o rs. P.585
e . P r es e r va t i ve an d so lu b i l iz i ng ag e n t t o x ic i t y c an be a s e ri ou s c om pl ic a ti o n, e s pe ci a ll y in c h il d r en . Fo r e xa m p le , p r em a tu r e in f a nt s r e c e i v in g p a r en t era l pr o du c ts c o nt a in in g be n z y l al c o hol c a n d e v e lo p a fa t al ac id o t ic to xi c s y nd r om e , whi c h is r e f e r re d t o a s t h e g as pi ng s y nd r om e . Ra pi d ad m in i st r a ti o n o f p he n yt oi n (D i l a nt in ) a n d d ia z e p am ( Va l iu m ) bo t h u t il i z e p r o p yle ne gl y c o l as a s ol ub i li zi ng a gen t , ha s b e e n as s o c i a te d wi t h c a rd i o v as cu l ar co ll a ps e . P.586
STUDY QUESTIONS D i r e c t i on s : E a c h of t he n u m b e re d i t em s o r i nc om p le t e s ta t em en ts in t his s e c t i on is f o l lo we d b y an s we r s o r by c o m p le t io ns o f t he s t a te m en t . Se le c t t he o ne l et t e r ed a n s we r o r c o m p l et i on tha t is be s t i n e ac h c as e. 1 . P a re n t e ra l p r od u c ts w i t h a n o sm o t i c p r es s ur e l e ss t ha n th a t o f bl oo d o r 0 . 9 % s o d i um ch l o r id e a r e r e fe r r e d t o a s ( A ) I so t on ic s o lu t io ns ( B ) H yp e r t on ic s o lu t io ns ( C ) H yp o t on ic s o lu t io ns ( D ) I so - os m o t ic s o lu t io ns
( E ) N e u tr a l s ol ut i on s V i e w A n s we r 1 . T h e a n sw e r i s C [ V II . B . b,] . 2. As e p t i c t e ch n i qu e s h ou l d b e u s e d i n th e p r e p a ra t i on o f a ll o f t h e f o l low i n g m e d ic a t io n s w it h t he ex c e p ti o n of; ( A ) N e om y c in i rr i ga t io n s o l u ti on ( B ) G a nc ic l o v i r ( C y t o v e ne ) in t r ao c u l a r i nj ec t io n ( C ) P h y t o na di o ne ( A qu am e ph y t o n ) s u bc u t an eo us i n je ct i on ( D ) A m pi c i ll i n ( P r in ic ip e n) I V ad m i xt u r e p ig g y b ack ( E ) B ac i t ra c i n o i nt m e n t V i e w A n s we r 2 . T h e a n sw e r i s E [] . 3 . W h ic h ne ed l e ha s th e s m al l es t d i a me t e r ? ( A ) 2 5 g au g e, 3¾ in c h es ( B ) 2 4 g au g e, 3½ in c h es ( C ) 2 2 g a ug e , 3 ½ in c h es ( D ) 2 0 g a ug e , 3 3/ 8 i nc h es ( E ) 2 6 g au g e, 35 / 8 i nc hes V i e w A n s we r 3 . T h e a n sw e r i s E [] . 4 . I n t r a -a r t i cu l a r in j ec t i o n r e f e rs t o i n j e ct i o n i n to t h e ( A ) Mu s c l e m a s s ( B ) S u bc u ta ne o us ti s s ue ( C ) S p in a l f lu i d ( D ) S u pe r f ic ia l s k i n l a y e r ( E ) J oi n t s p ac e V i e w A n s we r 4 . T h e a n sw e r i s E [I V . 1] . 5 . Ad va n ta g e s o f th e in t r a ve n ous r o u t e in c lu d e ( A ) E as e of r em o v al of th e do s e ( B ) A de p ot e ff ec t ( C ) L o w i nc i de nc e o f p h le b i ti s ( D ) R a p id on s e t o f ac ti on ( E ) A lo c a l i z ed ef f ec t V i e w A n s we r 5 . T h e a n sw e r i s D [] .6 . A c e nt r a l ve i n , e i t he r s ub c la vi a n or i n t e r na l ju g u la r , ma y b e c on s i de r e d a s u i ta b l e r o u t e fo r I V a d mi n is t r at i o n in w h ic h of t h e f o ll ow i n g s i t u a ti o ns ? ( A ) W hen a n i r r i ta t in g d ru g is g i ve n ( B ) W hen h y p e r to n ic d r ug s a r e g i v e n ( C ) F o r l on g - te r m t he r a py ( D ) F o r a dm i ni s t e ri n g d ext r o s e 3 5% as pa r en t e ral n ut r i ti on ( E ) A l l o f t h e a bo v e V i e w A n s we r 6 . T h e a n sw e r i s E [] . 7 . T o p r e p a re a t o ta l pa r e n te r a l n u t r i t i on ( T P N ) t h a t r e qu i r e s 1 0 m E q o f c a lc i um g l uc o na t e a n d 1 5 mM o f p o t a ss i um p ho s ph a t e, th e ap p r o p r ia t e a c ti o n to t a ke w o u ld be w h i ch o f t h e f o l l ow i ng ? ( A ) A d d t he c a lc iu m f i rs t , a d d t he o th e r a dd i ti v e s , t h en ad d th e p ho s ph a te l a s t , t h o r ou gh l y m i xi n g t he s ol u t io n a f te r ad di t io n . ( B ) A d d t he c a lc iu m g lu c o n a te an d p o ta s s iu m p ho s ph a te c o ns ec u ti ve l y.
( C ) N o t c om b in e t h e a gen t s t o ge t he r bu t g i v e t h em as a s e p a ra t e i nf us i on. ( D ) N o n e o f t h e a bo v e . V i e w A n s we r 7 . T h e a n sw e r i s A [] .8 . W h ic h ne ed l e ga u ge w o u ld be m os t l i k e l y u s e d a s a s u b cu ta n e ou s in j ec t i on o f e p oe t i n ? ( A ) 2 5 g au g e, 5 /8 in c h ( B ) 1 6 g au g e, 1 i nc h ( C ) 1 8 g a ug e , 1½ in c h es ( D ) 2 2 g a ug e , 1½ in c h es ( E ) N o ne o f t he ab o v e V i e w A n s we r 8 . T h e a n sw e r i s A [] 9 . Wh i ch o f the f o l low i n g d r u gs s ho ul d N O T b e p re p a r ed i n a ho r i z on t a l l a mi n a r f l ow h o o d ? ( A ) A m p ic i ll in ( P ri n c i pe n) ( B ) D o pa m i n e ( C ) C i sp l at i n ( P la t in o l) ( D ) N i t r og l y c e r in ( E ) B r e t y li um to s y l at e ( Br e t y l ol ) V i e w A n s we r 9 . T h e a n sw e r i s C [] .P . 58 7
1 0 . Al l o f t h e f o l low i n g s t a t em e n ts ab o u t d 5w a r e t r ue E X C E P T ( A ) I ts p H ra ng e i s 3 . 5- 6 .5 . ( B ) I t i s h y p e rt o ni c . ( C ) I t i s a 5% s o lu t io n o f D - g l uc os e. ( D ) I t s h ou ld be us e d wi t h c a u ti o n i n d ia b et ic pa t i e n ts . ( E ) I t i s o f te n u s e d i n I V a d m i xt u r e s . V i e w A n s we r 1 0 . T he a nsw e r i s B [] .1 1 . Al l o f t he f o l l ow in g a r e po t e n ti a l h a za r d s o f pa r e n te r a l th e r a p y E X C E P T ( A ) H yp o t he r m i a ( B ) P h le bi t is ( C ) E xt r a v a s a t io n ( D ) A l le r gi c re ac t io ns ( E ) I le u s V i e w A n s we r 1 1 . T he a nsw e r i s E [] . 1 2. P r o ce d u re s f o r t h e s a fe ha n d li ng o f a n t i ne o p la s t ic ag e n ts in c l u de al l o f t h e f o ll ow i n g E X C E P T ( A ) U s e o f L ue r - Lo k s y r in g e f i tt i ng s . ( B ) W ear i ng do ub l e -l a y er e d l a t e x g l o v es . ( C ) U s e o f n e ga t i v e- p r es s u r e t ec hn i qu e wh e n m ed i c a t io n i s b ei ng wi t h d rawn f r o m vi a l s. ( D ) W ear i ng c l os ed - f r on t, s ur g ic al - t y p e g o wn s wi th c u f fs . ( E ) U s e o f h o ri z o n ta l l am i n a r f lo w h o o d . V i e w A n s we r 1 2 . T he a nsw e r i s E [] . 1 3. I n p r e pa r in g a n i n t ra s p in a l d o se o f b u p i va ca i n e, t he be s t po r e s iz e f i l te r f o r c o l d s t e r i l iz at i o n w o u l d b e ( A ) 8 -m m f il t e r ( B ) 5 - µ m f il t e r ( C ) 0 . 45 - µ m f il t e r
( D ) 0 . 22 - µ m f il t e r ( E ) N o ne o f t he ab o v e V i e w A n s we r 1 3 . T he a nsw e r i s D [] .1 4 . P r o ce s s s i m ul a t i on ( A ) I s a m e th od o f q ua li ty a s s u r an c e . ( B ) E va l ua t es th e a d eq ua c y o f a p r ac t it i on e r 's ase p t ic te ch ni q ue . ( C ) R e q ui r es th e u s e of a m i c ro b ia l g r o wt h m e diu m . ( D ) I s c a rr i ed ou t i n a m a n n er id e nt ic a l t o n o rm al s t er i le ad m i xt u r e p ro d uc t i o n u nd e r r o u ti n e o pe r a ti n g c o n di t io n s . ( E ) A l l o f t h e a bo v e . V i e w A n s we r 1 4 . T he a nsw e r i s E [] . F o r q u es t i o ns 1 5 -1 8 : Th e ph a rm ac is t r e c ei ve s a p r es c ri p ti on fo r h y d ro m or p ho n e ( D il a ud i d ) i nj ec t io n t o b e c om po u n de d t o a so l ut i on of 15 m g pe r m L . Di la u di d i s co m m e rc i a ll y a v a il a bl e i n a n a m pu l e b u t t he c o nc en t r at i on is 1 0 m g pe r m L . Th e p h y si c i a n wo u l d l ik e a m o r e c o nc e nt ra t e d s o lu t io n p r ep a r ed s o th at 5 0 m ls c an be in s ti ll e d i n t o t he ti t an i um re se v o i r o f a Me d t r o n i c i nf us i on pu m p. Th e h yd ro m or p ho n e s o lu t i on wi l l b e c on t in u ou s ly i n f us ed , i n t ra t h ec al l y , o v e r ap p roxi m a t e l y 30 da y s , fo r a pa t i en t wi t h c hr o ni c b ac k p a in , u n co n t ro ll e d wi t h o ra l n ar c o ti c s . Th e p ha r m a ci st c h ec ks h is in v e n to r y a nd f i nd s a b o t tl e o f H y d r om or p ho n e p o wd e r , U S P . H e p r oc ee d s t o we i gh ou t e n ou gh p o wd e r fo r a 6 0 m L p re p a ra ti o n. Th e we i g h in g s te p i s c he c ke d b y a c o ll e ag u e p ha r m a c is t . 1 5 . Ac c o r di n g to U S P Ch a p t e r 7 97 t h is st e r i le p r e p a r at i o n w o u l d b e co n s i de r e d a ( A ) H i gh r is k le v e l C S P ( B ) Me d i u m r is k l e v el C SP (C) Low risk level CSP ( D ) N o n e o f t h es e V i e w A n s we r 1 5 . T he a nsw e r i s A [] .1 6 . W ha t w o ul d b e a n a p p ro p r i a te e n vi r o n m en t f o r t h e a se p t i c m an i p ul a t io n s r eq u i r e d f o r t hi s p r e p a ra ti o n . ( A ) P h a rm ac y wo r k b en c h o r c o un t e r i n am b ie n t r oo m a i r ( B ) I ns i de an An t e ro om , wi t h I S O C l as s 8 q u al i t y a i r ( C ) I ns i de a B a r ri e r I s o l at o r wi t h I S O Cl as s 5 q u ali t y a i r ( D ) A h or i z o n ta l l am in a r f l o w wo r k b e nc h b en ch , ne wl y i n s ta l le d , wi t h no c e r ti f ic at i on , b u t m an u fac t u re r gu a re n te e d t o b e IS O 5 C l ass ai r qu a li t y. V i e w A n s we r 1 6 . T he a nsw e r i s C [] .P . 58 8
1 7 . Th e p h a rm a ci s t b e gi n s t o g a th e r h i s s u pp l ie s f o r t h i s p r ep a r a t io n . T h es e s h o u ld i nc l ud e : ( A ) Mi l l i po r e 0 . 45 m i c r o n H V F il t e r wi t h st e r il e wat e r fo r in j ec ti o n ( B ) Mi l l i po r e 0 . 22 m i c r o n G S F i lt e r wi t h s od iu m c h l o ri d e 0 .9 % ( C ) B e c t i n- D i c k in s o n 1 6 g a u ge , 5 m ic r o n f il t e r n ee d l wi t h s od i um c hl o ri d e 0 . 9 % ( D ) Mi l l i p o re A A 0 . 8 m i c ro n Fi l te r wi t h d e xt r o s e 5% i n wa t e r V i e w A n s we r 1 7 . T he a nsw e r i s B [] .1 8 . Af t e r t h e s o l u t io n w as p re p a r ed t h e a p p r o p r ia t e q u al i t y a s s u r a n ce o r do u b le ch e ck b y a n o t h e r p ha r m ac i st w ou l d i n c l ud e :
( A ) I ns p ec ti o n o f t he p owd e r a n d t h e l ab el t o e ns u r e h yd r om or p ho n e wa s t h e p r e pa r e d i ng r ed i en t a n d t h a t t h e l ab el c o n ta in e d a b e yon d u se da t e a nd th e 15 m g p e r m L c on c e n t ra t io n . ( B ) S e nd i ng a s o l ut i on s a m pl e o r al iq u ot to a m ic r o b io l og y l ab to t es t f o r th e p r e se nc e o f b ac t e ri a a n d p y r o g en s p r io r to di s p ens i ng . ( C ) C h ec k t o e ns u r e a c o r r ec t s t e ri li z i n g f il t e r wa s u t il i z e d. ( D ) V i su al in s p ec t io n to e n s u r e t h e f in a l ac q ue o us so lu t io n h a d n o vi si b le p a r ti c i p a te s . ( E ) A l l o f t h e a bo v e . V i e w A n s we r 1 8 . T he a nsw e r i s E [] . P . 58 9
ANSWERS AND EXPLANATIONS 1 . T he an sw e r is C [ V I I .B . b , X. A ] . H yp o t o ni c s ol u ti on s h a ve a n os m o t ic p re ss u re l es s t h an th a t o f b l oo d ( o r 0 . 9 % s a li ne ) , wh e r ea s h y p e r ton i c s o l ut i on s h a ve a n o s m o ti c p r es s u r e g r ea t e r th a n t h at o f b l oo d , a n d is o to n ic o r is o - o s m ot ic so lu t io ns ha ve a n o s m o ti c p r ess u r e e qu a l t o t h a t o f bl o od . 2 . T he an sw e r is E [ I I . A.5 ] . I r r i ga t io n s ol u ti o ns , o ph th a lm ic p re pa r a ti o ns a n d p a r en t e ra l p r od u c t s, an d s u bc ut a ne o us a n d I V m ed i c a t io ns s h ou l d b e p re pa r e d u s i ng as e pt ic te c h ni q ue . S i n ce B ac it r ac in oi n tm ent i s a pp li e d t o t h e s k in an d do es no t b yp a s s th e b o d y' s p r o t ec ti v e ba r r ie r s , i ts p re p a ra t io n wo u ld no t b e he l d t o t h e s am e r e qu i re m e n ts . 3 . T he an sw e r is E [ I X. A . 1 ] . Th e g a ug e s i z e r e fe r s t o t h e o u te r d i am et e r o f the n ee dl e . Th e l o we r th e g a u ge s i z e n u m b e r , t he la r ge r t he ne e dl e . 4 . T he an sw e r is E [ I V .1] . I n t r a -a r ti c u l a r i nj ec t io n re f e rs to an in j ec ti o n i nt o t h e j oi n t s pa ce . Th is a d m i ni s t ra ti o n r o ut e g e ne r a ll y is us e d f o r c e r t ai n t y p e s o f c or t ic os t e ro id s t o r ed uc e i n f la m m at i on as s oc i at e d wi t h i n ju r y o r r h eu m a t oi d a r t h ri ti s . 5 . T he an sw e r is D [ V I .C ] . Th e I V r ou t e o f d r ug adm i ni s t r a ti on al l o ws fo r rap i d o ns e t o f a c t i on an d , th e r e fo r e, i m m e di a te th e r ap eu t ic eff e c t. Th e r e c a n b e n o rec a ll of th e ad m i ni s te r ed d o se , a n d p h le b it is , or in f la m m a ti on o f a v e in , c an oc cu r . I n a d di t io n , a d e po t e f f ec t ( i . e ., a cc u m u la t io n a n d s to r age o f t h e d ru g fo r di s t r ib ut i o n) c a n no t b e a c h i e v ed b y a d m i ni s te r in g a d ru g i n t ra v e n o us l y. De li v e r i ng a d r u g i n tr a v e no us l y r es ul ts in a s ys t em ic ra t he r th a n a l oc a li z e d e f fe c t. 6 . T he an sw e r is E [ X. A . 2 ] . I r r i t at in g dr u gs , h y p e r to ni c d r u gs , l on g - te r m t he r ap y , a nd de xt r o s e 35 % a re b es t g i ve n b y c en t ra l IV ad m in i s t r a ti o n. P er i ph e ra l v ein i nj ec t io n i s us e d f o r p o st o pe r a ti v e h y d ra t io n , a d m i ni s t ra ti o n o f n o ni r ri ta t i ng d ru gs , o r is ot o ni c so l u ti on s a n d f o r s ho r t - te r m I V th er a p y . 7 . T he an sw e r is A [ X. D . 2 . e ].
P h y s ic a l i nc om pa t ib il i ti es oc c u r wh e n t wo o r m o re p r od uc ts a re c o m b in e d a n d p r o du c e a c ha n ge in th e a p p ea r an ce o f t he s o lu t io n , s uc h a s t he f or m at ion o f a p r e ci pi t a te . Ca lc i um a n d p h os p ha t e so l ut i on s wh e n d ir e ct l y c o m b in e d o r ad d e d c o ns ec u ti v e l y to a s ol ut io n wi l l f o rm a wh i t e p r ec i p i ta t e. B y al t e ri n g t he o rd e r of m i xi n g , th e y c a n b e s a f ely a d d ed to TP N s ol u ti o ns . 8 . T he an sw e r is A [ I X. A . 3 . b. ] S i n ce s u bc ut a ne o us i n jec t io n d o es n o t re qu i r e pe n e t ra t io n t h ro u gh se v e ra l s k i n l a ye r s o r m us c l e t is s u e , a s h o r t n ee d le wi t h a na rr o w d i a m e t e r is us ed . A 1 6 - or 18 g a u ge ne ed l e is m o s t c om m o n l y u s e d i n th e p h arm ac y f o r p r ep a r in g p a ren t e r al s o lu t io ns . A 2 2 -g a ug e n ee d le wo u l d b e u s e d f o r in t r am us c u l a r in j ec ti o n. 9 . T he an sw e r is C [ I I . B. 2 . b .1 ] . C i s P la t in is a n a n ti n eo pla s ti c a ge n t a nd , c o ns equ e n tl y , sh ou l d b e p r ep a re d on l y in a ve r t i ca l l am in a r fl o w h ood b ec au s e o f t he po t en t ia l ha z a r d o f t h es e t o xi c a g e nt s t o t h e o p e ra t or . 1 0 . Th e a n sw e r i s B [ V I I. B . 1 .a ] . d 5 w ( d e xt r o s e [ D -g lu c o s e ] 5% in wa t e r ) i s a ci di c , i t s p H ra n ge s f r om 3 . 5 -6. 5 , an d i t i s i so t on ic . It is of t en us e d in I V a dm i xt u r es an d s h ou l d b e us e d wi t h c a u ti o n i n d i ab e ti c p a ti en t s . 1 1 . Th e a n sw e r i s E [ V II. D . 2 . , X. E ] . P a r e nt e r al th e r ap y is of te n a t r ea tm e nt f o r il e us . H yp o t h e rm ia , p h le bi t is , e xt r a va s a t io n , a nd al l e rgi c re ac t io ns c a n b e h a z ar d s o f p a r en t e ra l t h er a p y. P.590
1 2 . Th e a n sw e r i s E [ V II. D . 2 ] . I n o rd e r t o p r e v e nt d ru g e xp o s u r e , a ve rt ic a l f lo w l am i na r h o od ( no t h o r i zo n t al ) s h ou l d b e us e d wh e n an a n t in eo p la s ti c a ge n t is pr e p a re d . Th e o th e r p r ec au t i on s m e nt i on e d in t he qu es t ion a r e im p or t an t s a fe t y m e a s u r es fo r ha n dl in g p a re n t e ra l a n t in eo p la s ti c s . A l l p ha rm ac y a n d n ur s i n g p e rs on n el wh o h an dl e th es e to xi c s u bs ta n c e s s h o ul d re c e iv e s pe c i a l t r ai n in g . 1 3 . Th e a n sw e r i s D [ I V .D . 2 . c . 2 ] . S i n ce in t ra s pi na l a n d e pid u r al do s e s o f b u pi v a c a in e a re f re qu e nt l y p re p a re d f ro m n o ns t e ri le po wd e r s , c ol d s t er i li z a t io n , ac c o m p l is he d b y fi lt r a ti o n, is a si m pl e m e th o d o f en su r i ng c om p le t e m ic r o bi al r em o v al . Th e f il t er s li s t e d 8 m m t o 0 . 45 µm wi l l r e m o ve o nl y p a rt ic u la t e m a t te r . A 0 .2 2 µ M f i l te r e n s u r es th e re m o va l o f m ic r o or g an is m s . 1 4 . Th e a n sw e r i s E [ II I .F ] . P r o c ess s i m u la t io n i s o ne p a rt of an o ve ra l l q ua lit y a s s u r an ce p ro g ra m . I t r e q ui r es d u pl ic a ti n g s te r il e p r o duc t pr e pa r a ti on us in g a g ro wt h m e di um i n p l ac e o f a c tu a l p r o du c ts . I t s e r v es to e va l ua t e t h e as e pt ic t ec hn iq u e o f th e i nd i vi du al pe r fo r m in g a ll t h e n ec e s s ar y s te ps o f s t e r il e p r o du c t p re p ar a ti on . 1 5 . Th e a n sw e r i s A [ I I.A . 6 . c] . Th e h yd r om o r ph on e p r e pa r a ti o n i s a h i gh ri sk le ve l C S P b ec a us e i t i s m ad e f ro m n o n -s t er i le po wd e r . 1 6 . Th e a n sw e r i s C [ I I.B . 4 ] .
U S P C h a pt e r 7 9 7 r e qu i re s a n I S O Cl as s 5 a i r q ua l i t y e n v i r om en t f o r t h is p r e pa r a ti o n. A Ba r r ie r Is o l a to r wi t h in a cl e an r oom c r e at e s a n I S O C la s s 5 e n vi r on m e n t . A m b i en t roo m a i r i s u na cc ep t ab l e fo r a n y p r e pa r at i on . An An t e r oo m is g e n er a ll y a n a r ea of r el at i v e l y hi g h p e rs on ne l a nd s u p pl y t r af f ic . W hil e a ir q u al it y m a y be ac c e p ta b le , i t d oe s n o t p r o v id e a n a c c e pta b l e c ri ti c al s i te of as ep ti c m a ni p ul at i on s . A ll ne w l am i na r fl o w wo r k b en c h e d s h o u ld be te s te d f o r a i r ve l o ci t y a n d f i lt e r i n te g ri t y p ri o r to us e . 1 7 . Th e a n sw e r i s B [ I V .D . 2 . c (2 ) ] . Th e h yd r om o r ph on e re q ui r e s s t e r il i z a ti on p ri o r t o i n t ra t h ec al ad m i ni s tr a ti on . Th i s is b e st ac hi e v e d wi t h a 0 . 22 m i c ro n f i lt e r . S o di um c h l o ri d e 0 .9 % i s t he so l ut io n m os t s im i la r to th e C N S f l ui d a n d wo u ld be a b et t e r cho i c e o ve r s te r il e wa t e r o f d e xt r o s e 5 % in je c ti on . 1 8 . Th e a n sw e r i s E [ II I .B ] . E a c h s te p i n s te r il e c om p o u nd in g s ho u ld ha ve an a ss oc ia t e d q ua li t y as s u ra n ce d o u bl e c he c k . I ns p ec ti o n o f th e i ni t ia l i n g re di e nt s , r e vi e w o f s up p li es , m oni t o ri n g o f a s ep t ic te c h ni q ue , an d exa m i n a t io n o f th e f i na l p ro d uc t c r ea t es m u lt i pl e o p p or t un i ti es t o i nt e rc ept a n e r r or an d m ak e n ec e s s a r y c o r r ec ti o ns . Hi g h r i s k le ve ls C S P s sh ou l d b e u s e d wi th i n 2 4 h o ur s i n t h e a bs en c e o f s te r il i t y te s ti ng . Gi ve n th is p r o du c t wi l l be ad m i ni s ter e d o v er 3 0 d a ys , a st e r il i t y an d p y r o g en te s t wo u l d b e a p p ro p r ia t e.
28 Parapharmaceuticals, Diagnostic Aids, and Medical Devices J e n n y A. V a n Am b u r g h T o d d A. B r ow n
I. AMBULATORY AIDS A. C a n e s . Th es e s im pl e a m bu l at o r y ai ds p ro v i de b a la n c e an d a ll o w f o r the t r an s f e r o f we i g ht o ff a we ak e ne d l e g. 1 . H e ig h t . Th e h ei gh t o f t h e c an e m us t b e a d ju ste d to t he in di vi d ua l p a ti en t . A c an e t h a t i s c o r r ec t l y f i t te d a llo ws f o r m a xi m um we i g ht t r a ns fe r wi t h ou t al lo wi n g t he p a t ie n t t o l oc k t he el b o w. Th e c o r r ec t h e ig h t s h ou l d p r o v id e a 25 - d eg r ee a n gl e a t t h e e l bo w, o r t he to p o f th e c a ne s h ou l d c o m e t o t h e c r ea s e o f t he wr i s t wh i le p a t ie n t is s t a nd in g e r ec t . 2 . T yp e s o f c a ne s . C a ne s m a y be m a de of wo o d o r m e ta l . a . W oo d en ca n es c o m e i n v a r y i ng th ic k n es s e s . Th e th ic k e r on es a re in t end e d f o r m a le s, an d th e t h in ne r on e s a r e f o r f em al es . Th ey m a y b e c u t to th e c o r rec t he ig h t f o r th e p a ti e nt . b . M e t a l c an e s a re us u al l y a dj us t ab le in he i gh t to f it t he in di v i d ua l p a ti e nt . c . Fo l d in g c a ne s wi l l f old t o a ll o w f o r e a s y t r a nsp o r t o r s t o ra g e wh e n no t i n u s e . d . A qu a d c a ne i s a m e ta l c a ne th a t h as a q ua d ra n g ul a r b as e wi t h f ou r leg s . Th is a l lo ws f o r g r e at e r we ig h t t r a ns fe r . Th e b as e o f the q ua d c an e c om es in t wo si ze s . Th e l a rg e r b as e p r o v i de s g r e at e r s ta b il i t y b u t is m o r e d if f ic ul t to m a ni pu la t e b e ca us e o f th e s i z e a nd we i g h t . e . S ea t ca n es c o nt a in an a r ea th a t c an be fo l ded d o wn an d u s e d to s i t on . Th e y a re u s ef u l f o r i nd i v i du al s who c a n no t wa l k l on g d is t an c es wi t h ou t re s t i ng . B . C r u t c he s m a y be us ed b y pa t ie n ts wi t h te m p or a r y d is ab i li t ie s ( e .g . , s pr a i ns , f r a ct u r es ) o r b y th os e wit h c h r on ic c o nd i ti o ns . 1 . U se . C r ut c h es a re us e d to t ak e a ll th e we i gh t o f f an i n ju r e d o r we ak e ne d le g . Th e c r u tc he s a r e u s e d i n p lac e o f th e l e g. C r ut c h s i z e s ra n ge f ro m t od d le r to a d ul t . A c ce s s o ri es t ha t a r e u s ed wi t h a c r ut c h in cl u de a t i p t o p r e v en t s l ip pi n g, h a n dg r ip c us h io n , a nd a rm p a d ( f or a xi l l a r y c r u tc h ) . 2 . T yp e s o f c r u t ch e s a . A n a xi l l a r y c r u t c h , t he m os t co m mo n l y u s e d c r u tc h , is t y pi ca l l y u s e d f o r t e m p o r ar y d is a bi li t ie s . Th e to p o f th e c r ut c h sh ou l d b e 2 in c h es be l o w t he a xi l l a t o p r e ve n t “ c ru tc h p a r al y s is ” ( i . e. , i n ju r y t o t he a xi l l ar y n e r v e s, bl o od ve s s el s, a n d l ym p h n od es ) . Th e h ei g ht o f t h e h an d gr i p s ho ul d b e s e t s o t ha t th e e l bo w f o r m s a 2 5 - de g r ee an gl e . b . A f o re a r m c r u tc h (a ls o c a l le d a C an a d ia n o r L o f s t r an d c r u tc h) r em ain s i n p o si t io n b y a t ta c h in g to th e fo r e ar m b y a c ol l a r o r c u ff . It is c om m o n l y u s ed b y p a t ie n ts wh o ne ed c r u tc h e s o n a l o ng - t er m b as is. c . A q u ad c r u tc h i s a fo re a r m c ru tc h wi t h a qu a dra n g ul a r b as e t ha t ha s f ou r le g s. Th e b as e i s a t ta c h e d t o th e c r u tc h wi t h a f l e xi b l e r u b be r m o un t . Th is a l lo ws f or m o r e s t ab i li t y an d c on s ta n t c on t ac t wi t h th e g r ou n d.
d . A pl a t f o rm c r ut c h c on t a in s a re c t a ng u la r ar ea i n wh i c h t o p la ce t he fo r e a rm . Th e c r u tc h m a y b e h e ld b y a h a n dg r ip o r s e cu r e d b y a b e lt th a t wr a ps a ro un d th e f o r e ar m . I t i s c o m m on l y u s ed b y pa ti e nt s wh o d o n o t h a ve e n ou g h h an d s tr e n g th an d c o nt r o l f o r a f o r ea r m c rut c h . C . S e a t l i f t c h ai r s a r e e le c t ri c -p o we r e d c ha i rs tha t r ai se th e p a ti e nt f ro m a s i t ti n g t o a s ta nd i ng po s i t io n . P.592
D . W a lk e r s a r e l ig h t we igh t r ec ta n gu l ar - s h a pe d de v i c es th a t a r e m a d e o f m e ta l t u b in g a n d h a v e f ou r wi de l y p la ce d l e gs . 1 . U se . W alk e rs a re us ed b y pa t ie n ts wh o ne e d m o r e s up p o r t t h an a can e o r c ru tc h o r wh o h a v e t r ou b le wi t h b a la nc e d u ri n g am b ul a tio n . Th e u se re q ui r es r eas o na b l y g o o d a rm , h a nd , a n d wr i s t fu nc t io n . Th e pa t ie n t h o ld s o n t o th e wa lk e r an d ta k e s a s t ep , th e n m o v e s t h e wa l k e r a n d t ak es an o th e r s te p . 2 . T yp e s o f w al k e rs . W a l k e r s c o m e in t wo si z e s : a d ul t an d c h i ld . W alk er s m a y b e a d ju s ta bl e i n h e ig h t. S om e wa l k e rs wi l l fo ld t o m a k e s to r ag e o r t ra ns p o rt in g ea s i e r . W alke rs c a n h a v e wh e els on t he f ro n t l eg s t o a llo w t h e us e r t o m o ve t h e wa l k e r b y r a i si ng t he ba c k l e gs a nd r ol l in g i t i ns t ea d o f ha v i n g t o p ic k i t u p . P a ti e nts wi t h lo s s o f a rm , wr i s t , o r ha n d f un c ti o n o n o ne s i de m i gh t u se a h e miw a l ke r o r a s i d e w a lk e r . a . A he m iw al ke r is s i m i la r t o a s t an d ar d wa l k e r exc e p t t h at it h as o n e h and l e i n t h e c e nt e r o f th e wa lk e r f o r m a ni p ul at i on . b . A si d e w a l ke r is pl ac e d to t he s i de of th e pa tie n t i ns t ea d o f in f ro n t o f t h e p a t ie n t. c . A re c ip r o c al w a lk e r c o n t ai ns t wo hi n ge s , o ne o n ea ch s i de of t he wa l k e r . Th is a l lo ws t h e u s e r to s wi n g e a c h s i de al t e rn a te l y du ri n g a m b ul a ti o n. d . A r o ll a t o r is a wa lk e r wi t h wh e e l s o n a ll fo u r l eg s . Th e m o v e m e n t i s c o nt r o ll e d b y h a n d b ra k e s . E . W h ee l ch a i rs . Ma n y d if f e r en t t y pe s o f wh e el c ha i r s a re a v ai l ab l e. Th e pa t i en t ' s d i sa bi l it i es , s i z e, we i g ht , a n d ac t i v i ti es ar e th e m a i n c on si d er a ti o ns i n wh e e lc h ai r s e le ct i on . Th e f o ll o wi n g o p t io ns s h ou l d b e c o ns i de r e d wh e n se l ec ti n g a wh e el c ha i r. 1 . S ea t si z e . Th e s t an dar d c h a ir is 18 in c h es wi de a nd 16 in ch es de e p. A n a r r o w wh e e l c ha i r is 16 in c he s wi d e . W hee lc ha i rs ar e av a i l ab l e i n wi d t h s u p t o 48 i nc he s . Th e c ha i r s ho u ld be 2 i nc h es wi d e r t ha n th e wi d es t pa r t o f th e p a ti en t ' s bo d y ( u s ua ll y a r ou n d t he bu t to c k s o r th i gh s) . 2 . Ar m s c a n b e fi xe d o r d e t ac ha b le to al l o w t he p a t ie n t t o t r an s fe r on and o f f t he c h ai r . Ha l fl e ng t h a rm s ( as op p os ed t o f ul l l en g th ) a l lo w t h e us e t o g e t c l os e r t o a t a b le o r wo r k s u r fa c e . Va r i ou s t y p es o f p ad di n g a n d a dj u s t m e n ts i n th e ar m po s i t io n c a n as s i s t t he pa t ie n t i n o b t ai ni n g a p o si ti o n t ha t i s c om f or t a bl e a nd ke ep in g th e a r m s on t he ar m r e s t s . 3 . T i re s c an be ha r d ru bb e r or pn e um a ti c ( i. e . , a ir f i ll ed ) wh i ch al l o ws th e c ha i r t o t r a ns ve r s e r ou g he r s u rf ac es . 4 . W he e ls c a n b e r e in f orc e d wi t h s p ok es o r ca n be co m p o s i te b as ed .
5 . L eg r es t s c an be of dif f e r en t s i zes an d a r e a v ai l ab l e wi t h pa d di n g. S om e h a ve a d ju s ta bl e el e v a ti on t o ai d in he al i ng an ac ut e i n j u r y . 6 . F oo t r e s ts c a n b e o f di f f e re n t s i ze s a n d a re a va i la b le wi t h o r wi t h ou t he e l l oo ps t o k e ep th e fo o t o n t he f oo tr e s t. 7 . C as t e r s ( i .e . , f ro n t w h e e ls ) c a n b e h a rd r ub be r o r p ne um a ti c . 8 . C a l f r e s ts c a n b e o f di f f e re n t si ze s a n d a re a va i la b le wi t h p a dd i ng . 9 . S ea t up h o ls t e r y h o l d s t he pa t ie n t i n t he c h ai r. S e at s c om e i n a va ri e t y o f m a te r i al s t o ac c om m o da te p at i en ts ' n ee ds . 1 0 . Ba c k u p ho l s te r y s u p p o r ts t h e p a ti en t ' s b ac k wh i l e he o r s h e i s s it t ing i n t he c h ai r . Th e m a t e ri a l in t he s e a t a nd ba c k a re us ua l l y th e s am e . 1 1 . C r os s b r a ce s a d d s ta b il i t y an d d u ra b il i t y t o th e c h ai r . 1 2 . W e i gh t . St a nd a rd wh e e lc h ai rs we i g h 3 5 -5 0 l b. L ig h t we i gh t wh e el c h a i rs ( 25 - 35 l b . ) a r e a v a il a bl e f o r t h os e wh o ar e u n ab l e t o m an i pu l at e a st a nd a rd c h ai r a n d f o r e a se of t ra n s p o rt . F . S p o r ts ch a i r s a re wh e e lc h ai rs t ha t a r e l ig h t we i gh t an d d u ra b le . Th e y a r e d e si g ne d f o r p eo p le wh o a r e v e r y a c ti v e . G . P ow e r e d w he e lc h ai rs a r e d es ig ne d fo r pe op le wh o c an no t wh e e l t hem s e l v e s. Th i s t yp e o f wh e e lc h ai r is po we r e d b y an el ec t ri c m o to r a n d b at t e r y. P.593
II. BATHROOM EQUIPMENT. Th i s eq u ip m e n t is us ed fo r p at i en ts wh o c a nn o t ge t t o t he ba t h ro om o r f o r p a ti e nt s wh o n e e d as s i s ta nc e u s in g th e to il e t o r b a th t ub . A. E l e va t e d t o il e t s e at s a r e u s e d t o i n cr e as e t he h e ig h t a t wh ic h t h e p at ie n t s i ts o ve r t he to i le t . Th is a s s is t s p at i en ts wi t h li m i te d m o bi li t y i n g et t in g o n a nd o f f t he t o i le t . A d di t io na l s up p o rt c an be p ro v i d ed wi t h to il e t sa f e t y r a i l s . Th e s e ra i ls al lo w t h e p a ti e nt t o t r an s f e r we i gh t f ro m t he f ee t t o th e h a nd s, an d th e y he l p p re ve n t th e p a t ie n t f r om fa ll i ng wh e n g e t ti ng on o r o f f t he to i le t . B . C o m mo d es a re po r t ab l e t o il e ts t h at a re us ed b y p a ti e nt s wh o c an n ot ge t t o t he b a t h ro om . Co m m od e s c on t a in a f r am e ( wi t h o r wi t h o u t a b ac k re s t) , a se a t , a n d a b u ck et . S om e a r e a dj us ta b le in he i gh t a n d h a v e a r m s th a t d r op t o f ac il i tat e t ra ns f e r t o an d fr om t he c om m o de . F ol di n g c o m m od es a re a v a il ab l e t o m ak e s to ra g e e as i er . C . T h r ee - i n -o n e c o mm od e s fu nc t io n a s co m b i nat i o n c o m m od e , e le va t e d t o i le t s ea t , a n d t o il e t s a f e t y ra il s . Th e s e a re be n ef ic ia l fo r pa t i en ts r eq u ir i ng v a r y i ng a s s is t an c e d u r in g re c u p er a ti o n. D . B a t h b e nc h es a re s ea t s wi t h o r wi t ho u t a b a ck t ha t f i t i n t h e b at h tu b an d al lo w t h e p a ti e nt t o s i t wh i le tak i ng a sh o we r . E . T r a ns f e r b e nc h es a re p la c e d o v e r th e o u ts ide o f t h e b at h tu b . Th e y a re a v a il ab l e wi t h o r wi t h ou t a b ac k . A t r a ns fe r be nc h a ss is ts th e pa t ie n t i n g et t in g i n to t h e b a t ht u b a nd s e r v es as a b a t h b en c h wh i l e t he pa ti e n t t ak es a sh o we r . F . G r a b b a r s a r e b a rs tha t ei t he r at t ac h t o th e wa l l a r ou n d t he ba t h tu b o r t o th e b a t ht u b i ts el f to as s i s t pa t i en ts in ge t ti n g o n a nd o u t o f th e b a th t ub .
III. BLOOD PRESSURE MONITORS.
P a t i en ts wi t h h y pe r t en s io n us e t hi s e qu i pm en t to m on i to r bl o od pr es s ur e s o th a t a p p ro p r ia t e t he r ap e ut ic d e c i s i o ns c an be m a de . A p a ti e nt ' s b l oo d p r es su re m e as u re d a t h om e i s t y pi c al l y 5 m m H g l o we r th an wh e n m e as u re d a t th e o f f ic e .
1
Th e t yp e of m o ni t o r t ha t i s re c o m m en d ed s h ou l d b e de t e rm in ed b y th e p a ti e n t 's a b il i t y to us e t h e p ro d uc t c o r re c t l y . It em s t o c on s id e r wh e n a ss is ti n g a p a tie n t i n t h e s e le ct i on of a b lo o d p r es s u r e m o n it o r : e as e o f u s e ( e .g . a u to m a t ic in f la t ion ) , us e o f t h e m on i to r wi t h o n e h and ( h as D - ri ng cu f f ), t he si ze o f t h e d is pl a y m o ni t or ( v i s ua ll y i m pa i re d p a ti e nt s ), bl o od p r es s u r e c uf f s i ze , a nd th e c a pa b il it y t o s t or e re ad i ng s . Typ e s o f m on i to r s i nc lu de t he f ol lo wi n g : A. M e r c u r y s p h yg m o m a n o m e te r . Th is t y pe o f m o n i to r i s t h e m os t ac c u ra t e an d d o es no t n e ed c a li b ra t ion . Me r c u r y in a g r ad u at ed c o l um n r is es in r es po ns e to p r e ss u re ap pl i ed to t he c u f f . Th e b lo o d p re s s u re is de t e rm in e d b y m e as u rin g th e l e ng t h o f th e m er c ur y c olu m n wh i l e l is t en in g fo r th e K or o tk o ff s o u nd s i n th e s t e th os c o p e. Me r c u r y m o n i to r s a re us u al l y n o t us e d as a h om e d e v ic e b ec a us e o f t h e ir la r g e s i z e , th e n e ed f o r us e o f a s te t ho s c ope , an d th e p o te n ti al f or m e rc u r y s p il l . O wi n g t o t he r is k of m er c u r y e xp o s u re , th is t y p e o f s p h y gm om a no m et e r is b e in g p h as ed ou t of he a lt h c a r e f a c i li t ie s . B . F i n ge r mo n i t o rs . Th es e d e te c t b lo od p re ss u re b y c om p re ss in g t h e f in ge r a nd c o n ve rt i ng bl oo d v es s e l m o v em e nt in t o b lo o d p r es s u r e b y o s c il lo m e t r ic tec h no l og y. Ma n y e n v i r o n m e n ta l c ond i t io ns an d m ed ic a ti o ns c a n i nt e r fe r e wi t h t he r es u lt s o f t h es e m on i to r s . F in ge r blo o d p r es s u r e m on i to r s ar e l ea s t a cc u r a te an d no t r e c om m e nd e d f o r h om e m o ni t o ri ng . C . An e r o i d sp h yg m o m an o m e te r . Th is is s im il a r t o a m er c ur y s ph y g m o m an o m e t e r, e xc e p t t ha t i ns t ea d o f a c o lu m n of m e r c u r y , it has a d ia l t o be re a d. A ne ro i d m od el s h a ve th e a d v a n ta ge o f be i ng l es s e x pe n si ve t han m e r c u r y m o d el s ; ho we v e r , t he y d o r eq ui r e re gu l a r c a l ib ra t i on in a h ea l th ca r e p r ov i d e r ' s o f fi c e wi t h a m e rc u r y s p h ygm om an om e te r t o en s u re pr o pe r r es ul ts . The s e t y p es of m o ni t o rs are p o rt a bl e a n d l ig h t we i gh t , h o we v e r . Mo s t r e qu i re m a nu a l i nfl a t io n o f t h e c uf f , b u t a s e p a ra t e s t e th os c o p e is no t re q ui re d . P.594
D . E l e ct r o n ic o r d i g i ta l m o n i to r . Th is t y p e o f m o n i to r de t ec ts bl oo d p r es s u r e b y u s in g a m ic r o ph on e or by o s c i ll om e t ri c t ec h no lo gy , wh i c h c o n v e rt s m o v em e nt o f ve s s el s in t o b lo o d p r es s u r e . Th is t ype is e as i e r to us e th an a m e rc ur y o r a n e ro i d s p h ygm om an om e te r as m os t of f e r a ut om a ti c i n fla t i on an d d e fl a ti on an d th e r e i s n ot a n ee d f o r a s e pa r a te s te t h os c o pe . Th es e m od e ls a re m o r e e xp e ns i ve , c a n p ro v i de i n ac cu r a te r ea di n gs i f the p at i en t m o ves wh i l e t he b lo od p re ss u re is be ing p e r f or m e d , a n d r eq u i re s f r e q ue n t c a l ib r at i on ag a in s t a m e rc u r y s p h y gm om a n om e te r ; b u t th e y re p r es en t a n a l te r n a ti v e fo r pa t ie n ts wh o c an n ot us e a s p h ygm om a n om e te r . S o m e o f t h es e m o n it o rs c om e wi t h a wr i s t c uf f wh i c h m a y be us e fu l i n o v e r we i g h t o r o b es e p a ti e nt s f o r wh om t h e r e gu l ar si ze a rm b l oo d p re s s u re c u ff is to o s m a ll . P a t i en ts wi t h v e r y la r ge o r v e r y s m al l u p pe r ar m s m a y ne ed t o p u rc ha se a s pe c i a l c u f f i n o rd e r t o ob t ai n a n a c c u ra t e r e ad i ng .
IV. HEAT AND COLD THERAPY. F o r m us c ul os k e le t al di s or d e rs ( e .g . , s p r a in s , st r ain s , a r th r i ti s ), t re a tm en t m a y i n cl ud e th e a p pl ic a ti on of h ea t or c o ld t o sp ec i fi c a r e as of th e bo d y . A. H e a t c an be ap p li ed in a d r y o r m oi s t f o rm . D r y h e a t i s l es s e f fe c t i v e th a n m oi st h e a t b ut is to l er a te d b e t te r ; th us i ts c li n ic al ef f ec ti v e n es s is s i m i la r . M o is t h e at ha s a n ad va n ta g e o f n o t c a us i ng as m uc h p e rs pi r a ti on a nd is o f t en re c om m e nd e d . Th e a p pl ic a ti o n o f h e at p ro duc es v a so d il a ti on an d m us c l e re l a xa t i on . Th is fa c il i t at es p a in r el i ef an d h e al in g . P r o d uc ts th a t c an de li v e r h e at in c l u de th e fo ll o wi n g : 1 . A ho t w a te r b o tt l e , a r u b be r c o n ta in e r , sh o ul d b e h a lf fi l le d wi t h h ot wa t e r . Th e r e m ai ni n g a ir is s q ue e z ed o ut o f t he c o n ta in e r , wh i ch is th en c a pp e d . Th is r es ul t s in a f le xi b l e c o nt a in e r t h at c a n b e s ha pe d to th e a r ea o f t h e b od y f o r wh i c h i t i s b ei n g u s ed to p ro v i d e d r y he a t. 2 . A he a ti n g p a d i s a n el e c t r ic al l y p o we r ed pa d th a t c an p ro d uc e m o is t o r d r y h ea t . Mo i s t h ea t is s up p li ed b y i ns e r ti n g a we t s p on ge in a p oc k et th a t i s n e xt t o t h e p ad . P a t i en ts s h ou l d b e i ns t ruc t ed t o p la ce th e p a d o n t o p o f th e b o d y i ns t ea d of l yi ng on t h e p a d t o p r e v en t bu r nin g . 3 . A m o i st - h ea t pa c k ( a ls o c al l ed a h y d r oc ol la t o r) c on t ai ns s i li ca be a d s , wh i c h a b so r b h ea t wh e n p l ac ed i n b o il in g wa t e r . Th e hea t e d p ac k is wr a p p ed i n a t o we l a n d a p pl ie d t o th e b o d y to p r o v id e m oi st he a t . A m o is t -h e at pa c k m us t be k ep t m o is t t o r et a in it s a bs o rb e nt p ro p e r ti es . Th e p ac k sh o uld b e wr a p p e d i n pl a st ic a n d s to r e d i n th e re f r ig e ra t o r i f us e i s a n ti c i p at e d o r i n t h e f re e z e r if lo n g- t e rm s t o ra ge is r e q ui r e d. 4 . A ge l p a ck p ro v i d es dr y h e a t a f te r i t is h e at e d i n bo il i ng wa t e r o r in th e m ic r o wa v e . I t is r eu s a b le b y r e pe a ti n g t he he a ti ng p r oc es s . 5 . C h em i ca l h o t pa ck s p r o v i de d r y he a t b y m i xi n g c h em ic al s f r om t wo c om p a rt m e n ts . Th e c hem ic a ls u n de r go an e xo t he r m ic re ac t io n . S om e p ac k s a re r e u sa bl e b y r e he a ti n g i n b o il i ng wa t e r o r in th e m i c r o wa v e . 6 . P a ra f f i n b a th s pr o v i de m o is t he a t b y c o v e r in g t h e b od y wi t h h ea t ed par a f f in . O n c e t h e wa x c o o ls a n d h a r de ns , it is re m o v e d . Th i s m e t ho d i s c om m o nl y u s ed fo r p a t ie n ts wi t h a r t hr i ti s i n t h e h a nd s a nd fi n ge r s. B . C o l d a p pl ic a ti on is i nd i c a t ed m a in l y as a c ut e th e r ap y t o d ec r e as e ci r c ul a t io n t o a l o ca l a r ea an d to pr o v i de p a in r el ie f . Co l d is c o nt ra i nd ic a te d i n p a ti e nt s wi th c i rc u la t or y s ta s i s o r l a c er a t e d t is s u e. P r od uc t s t ha t ca n d el i ve r c ol d i nc l ud e th e f o l lo wi n g : 1 . A n i ce b ag is a f le xi b le p la s t ic c o n ta in e r d es i gn e d t o h o ld i c e. Th e ba g i s t h en a p pl i ed to t he bo d y . 2 . A ge l p a ck c a n b e u s e d to ap p l y c ol d b y f r e e zi n g a nd t he n a p pl yi ng t o t h e b o d y. 3 . C h em i ca l p a ck s c an b e us ed to ap p l y c o ld . Ch e m i c a ls f ro m t wo c om pa r t m e n ts a r e m i xe d t og e th e r , r es ul t i ng in a c h em ic a l r ea c tio n th a t p r od uc es co ld . Th e se p a ck s a re us e d o nc e a nd t h en di s p os e d o f . P.595
V. DIAGNOSTIC AIDS
A. S e l f - c a r e t e s ts or k its a r e us e d as s c r ee ni n g t e s ts o r fo r m o ni t o ri ng . Ma n y f a c to r s c a n a f fe c t t he ac c u r ac y o f t he te s ts . Th e m os t c om m o n fa c t o rs a re p at i en ts n o t fo ll o wi n g d i re c ti on s a n d p a ti e nt s h a vin g p o o r t e c h ni q ue . Ph a rm ac is t s s h ou l d b e p r e pa r e d t o c ou ns el pa t ie n ts on t he s e le ct i on of a t es t , o n t h e p ro p e r us e, a nd on i n t er p r et a ti o n o f r es u lt s . P h a r m a c i s t s s ho ul d re f e r p a ti e nt s t o t h e a pp r o pr ia t e h e al t hc a re p ro v i d e r i f n ec es s ar y. B . T yp e s o f t es t s 1 . U r i ne t es t s a . Th e u ri n e g l uc o se t es t d et ec t s su g ar in t he ur i n e. P a ti en t s wi t h di a be te s c an us e t h is t o e v a lu a te gl uc os e c o nt r o l. B lo od gl uc o s e m o n i to r in g i s p r ef e r re d , h owe v e r , b e ca us e i t i s m o re ac c u ra t e a n d g i v es a b et t e r de sc r i pt i on of c u r r en t g l y ce m ia . b . Th e ke t o ne t es t d e tec t s t he p re s e nc e o f k e ton e s i n t he u ri n e. Th is is u s ed b y p a t ie n ts wi t h d ia b et e s as a n i n di c a t o r o f se v e r e l y u n co n t ro ll e d d ia b et es . c . O vu l a t io n p re d ic t i o n t e s t s p r ed ic t wh e n o v u lat i o n oc c u r s t o i nc r ea s e th e c h an ce o f co nc e pt io n . ( 1 ) Th e s e te s ts d e te c t t he p r es en c e of l u te i ni z ing h o r mo n e ( L H ) i n th e ur i n e. I ts p r e se nc e m ea ns t ha t o v u l a ti on sh o ul d o c c ur wi t hi n 2 0 - 48 h r. ( 2 ) Th e te s t is pe r f or m e d d a il y u nt i l a p os i ti v e r es u l t i s o bt a in e d. Ma n y k i ts r e c om m e nd no t u s i n g t he f i rs t m or n in g u r in e a s th e L H s ur g e t y p ic al l y st ar t s i n th e m o r ni ng an d m a y no t b e d e t ec ta b le un t il la t er in th e da y . Th e r ef o r e, it is r e c om m e nd e d t o t es t b e twe e n 1 0 A. M. a n d 8 P . M . ( 3 ) Th e da y o n wh i c h t h e p a ti e nt be g in s t es t in g de p e nd s o n t he le n gt h a nd r e gu la r i t y o f he r m e ns t ru a l c y c l e . Pa t i en ts wi t h m e ns t ru a l c yc l es o f c o ns is te n t l en g th m a y n e e d t o t es t o n l y fo r 4 da y s , wh e r ea s t h os e wi t h m e ns t ru a l c yc l es th a t c ha n g e in l e ng t h m a y n e ed to t es t fo r 8 o r 9 d a ys . ( 4 ) F al s e - po s i t i v e r es u lt s c an oc cu r if th e p a ti e nt i s ta ki ng f er t il i t y m e di ca ti o ns ( e. g ., c l om ip h en e ), o ra l c on t r ac e pt i v es , o r h or m o n e - rep l ac em e nt th e r ap y o r i f th e pa t ie n t h a s p ol y c y s ti c o v a r y s y nd r o m e or im pa i r ed li v e r o r k i d ne y f un c ti on . d . P r e gn a nc y t e s t s de t ec t pr e gn a nc y b y th e p r ese n c e in th e u r i ne of h uma n c h o r i on i c g o na d o t r op i n ( h C G ) , wh i ch is s ec r e ted a f te r fe r ti l i z at i on . Ma ny p r e gn a nc y t es t k it s c an d e t ec t h C G 1 d a y a ft e r m is s e d m en s es . ( 1 ) F al s e - po s i t i v e r es u lt s c an oc cu r if th e p a ti e nt t a k e s t h e t es t t o o e a rl y , i s ta k i ng f e r t il i t y m ed ic a ti o ns (e . g., h C G ) , or ha s o v a r ia n c y s t s . ( 2 ) I f a p a ti e nt us es a h ou s eh o ld c o nt a in e r o r a wa xe d c u p t o c ol le c t u r in e, i t m a y a f f ec t t h e t es t re s u l ts . ( 3 ) P a ti en t s s h o ul d b e r ef e r r ed t o t he ap p r op r ia t e h e al t hc a re pr o vi de r if t he y r e c e i ve a p os it i v e re s u l t o r t wo ne g a ti v e r es ul ts 7 d a y s ap a r t a n d h a ve n ot ha d m e n se s . e . Th e u ri n a r y b a c t e r i a t e s t d e te c ts th e p r es en c e o f n it r i te in th e u r i ne . Th e p r e se nc e o f n i t ri t e is us ed as an in d ic at o r o f a u r in a r y t r a c t i n f ec t i o n ( U TI ) b e ca us e th e m os t c om m o n ba c t e r ia ass oc i at e d w i t h U TI s a r e g r am -n e ga t iv e b a ct e r ia , wh ic h c on v e r t n i t ra t e t o n i t ri t e. ( 1 ) B ec au s e t hi s t es t i s n o t s pe ci f ic fo r ba c t e r ia , f a ls e r es u lt s c an oc c u r . ( 2 ) Th i s t es t i s us e d b y pa t i en ts wh o h a ve r ec u r ren t o r c h r o ni c U TI s o r m an y r i s k f a c to r s. R is k f ac to r s i nc lu d e p r e v io us U TI s , d i abe t es , ur i na r y t r ac t a bn o rm a li t ie s ,
e n la r g ed p ro s t r a te , a n d b e h a v io r al ri s k fa c to r s ( e. g . , f r e qu en t s e xu a l ac ti v i t y , d e la ye d ur i na t io n , t he us e o f s pe r m i ci de s o r d i aph r a gm s ). ( 3 ) F al s e po s i t i v es c an re s ul t fr om m e di c at io n s (e . g . , p he na z o p y r i di ne ) th e pa t ie n t m a y be t ak in g o r f ro m m e n s t r u al bl oo d i n th e u r in e , d e pe n di ng on t he te st u se d . I n a d di t io n , a fa ls e n e ga t i ve m a y b e d e te c t e d i f t h e p a t ie n t is t ak in g h ig h d os es o f vi t a m i n C , a dh e re s t o a s t r ic t v eg e ta r ia n d i et , or h a s f r eq u en t u r in a ti o n. f . Th e r e a r e a v a r ie t y of F D A a pp r o v e d u r i ne d r ug t e s ts a v ai la b le fo r us e a t ho m e . S u b st a nc es th a t m a y b e d e t ec te d i n th e u r in e i nc lu d e : am p he t am in e , m e th am p he t am in e , e c s tas y , m a r ij u an a , c oc ai ne , p h e nc y c l i di ne , op ia t es , b e n zo di a z ep i ne , b a r bi t ura t es , m e th a do n e, t ri c y c l ic an t id e p re s s an ts , an d ox yc o d o ne . Mo s t u r i ne d ru g t es t s r eq u i re t wo s te ps : s cr e en in g ( at ho m e ) an d c on f i rm a ti o n ( l a bo r a to r y ) . ( 1 ) Th e fi r s t s t e p r eq u i res t he c o ll ec t io n o f u r in e in t he p ro vi d ed c o ll ec t io n c up an d r e v i e wi n g th e re s u l ts a s c o lo r ba nd s o n t h e d e v ice a t h om e . Th e c o lo r ban d s a r e s im i la r to r es ul ts ob t ai n ed o n a h om e p r e gn a nc y te s t . I f n o d r ug is de t ec ted , a n e g at i ve re s u l t wi l l ap pea r . P.596
( 2 ) A pr e li m i na r y p os i ti v e r es u lt in di c at es th e ur in e s am p le m a y c o n ta i n th e d ru g b u t a co n fi r m a t io n i s n ee d ed. To o b ta in c o n fi r m a t io n t e s ti ng , i t is n ec e s s ar y to s e n d t he u r i ne s a m p le t ha t wa s u s e d to pe r f o rm th e f i rs t s te p to t he dr u g t es t m an uf a c tu r e r 's c o nt r ac t ed la b o ra t or y . Th e r es ul ts a re a v ai la b le fr o m t h e l ab o ra t o r y 7 t o 10 b us in es s d a ys a f t e r t he s p ec im en i s m ai l ed an d a r e a no n ym o us a s t h e y a r e tr ac k ed b y a p e r so na l i d en t if ic a ti o n nu m be r . 2 . B l oo d te s t s a . Th e ch o le s t e ro l te s t d e t e rm in es a p at i en t ' s t ot a l c ho l es te r o l ( TC ) , l o w- d e ns i t y l i po p r ot e in (L D L ) , h ig h - de n s i t y li p op r o te in ( H D L ) a n d /o r t ri gl y c e ri d es . ( 1 ) S om e t es t s p ro v i d e th e pa t ie n t o nl y wi t h a TC l e ve l, wh e r e as o t he r s p ro vi d e a f u l l li p id p ro f il e ( TC , L D L, H D L , a n d/ o r tr i gl y c e ri de s ) . ( 2 ) S om e c ho le s te r ol k i ts a r e a s i ng l e- us e te s t in wh i c h pa t ie n t a pp l ie s a bl o od s am p le on t o a c ol l ec ti n g c a r d, wh i ch is m a il ed t o a l ab o ra t o r y fo r e v al ua t io n . O th e r s i ng le u s e te s t s c an be pe r f o rm ed an d e v al ua t ed b y t h e p a ti en t at ho m e . Th e m e as u re m e n t o f t h e am ou n t o f c h ol es t e ro l is d et er m i ne d b y a c ol o r c ha r t , wh i c h is p r o vi de d wi t h t h e t es t . ( 3 ) R e ga r dl es s o f t h e t es t u s e d , t he pa t ie n t p la c es a l a rg e d r op o f b lo od on t o th e t e s t ca r d o r c as s e t t e. S om e o f th e t e s t s r e qu i re th e pa t ie n t t o f as t —m e ani n g n o th in g t o ea t or d ri nk e xc e p t wa t e r fo r 12 - 14 h r b e fo r e co l le c ti ng t he bl oo d . ( 4 ) Th e s e te s ts c an be us e fu l fo r p a ti e nt s wh o wan t t o m o n it o r t h ei r th e ra py. Th e y a r e al so us ef u l as s c r een i ng t es ts . Pa t ie n ts wh o t e s t b or d e rl in e o r hi g he r f o r hi g h c h ol es t e ro l s ho ul d b e re fe r r e d t o t h e a pp r op r i at e h e al t hc a re p ro v i d e r. b . Th e bl o o d g l uc o se t es t m e as u r es t h e c on c e n tr a t io n of gl uc os e i n t h e bl o od . P a t i en ts wi t h di ab e te s us e th is in f or m a t io n , a lo ng wi t h di e t , e xe r c is e , a nd m e di ca t io n , t o k ee p g lu c o s e l e v el s wi t h i n a ta r get r a ng e .
( 1 ) O t he r te s ts a r e d es i gn e d t o b e u s e d wi t h b l o od g l uc o se me t e r s, wh i c h r e ad th e t e s t a nd di s p la y t h e ac t ua l bl oo d g l uc os e v al ue . S o m e b lo od gl uc o se m e te r s c on t ai n o p t ic al un i ts th a t m e as u re t he c o lo r c h an g e c a u se d b y g l uc os e ; o th e rs m e a s u r e t h e e l ec t ri c c ha r g e p ro d uc ed b y g lu c o s e. Th e re s u l t is t he n c al ib r a te d t o pr o vid e wh o l e b l oo d o r pl as m a gl uc o s e c on c e n t ra t io n . W hol e b lo o d i s a pp r o xi m a te l y 15% l o we r t h a n p la s m a g lu c o s e , wh i c h is wh a t is m ea su r e d in t he s t a nd a rd la b o ra t ory t e s ts . Ma n y o f t h e n e w g l uc om e t e rs p ro v i d e r es ul t s as th e “ pl as m a eq ui v a l en t , ” m e an i ng t h e y t es t wh ol e b l oo d b ut u s e an in t er n al al g or i thm t o c a lc u la t e t he pl as m a g lu c o se . ( 2 ) P a ti en t s us i ng bl oo d g l uc os e t e s t s m u s t p e rf or m th e te s t s p r op e rl y a nd u n d er s ta nd t he ap p ro p r ia t e a c ti on s t o ta k e wh e n t h e r es u lt i ng va lu es a re o u ts i de th e d e si r ed r an g e. c . O t he r ho m e b l oo d tes t k i ts ar e a v a i la b le th a t p r o v i de re s ul ts at t he tim e o f t e s ti ng in t he ho m e or t he c o l le c t e d s p e ci m e n i s s e nt t o a l a bo r at o r y f or re s ul ts . Th e s e h om e te s t i ng k i ts i n c l ud e H I V, he p at i ti s C vi r u s ( H C V ), gl y c os yl a ted h e m o g lo bi n A1 c ( A 1c ) , an e m i a , p r os t ra t e sp ec i fi c a n ti g en ( P S A ), an d th y ro i d . I f t h e s p ec im en is m ai l ed a wa y f o r p r oc es s i n g, t he re s ul t s c an be ob t ai ne d b y ca l li n g a t o l l- f r ee nu m b e r . d . Th e r e a r e a v a ri e t y of p o i n t -o f - ca r e te s t in g (P O C T ) d e vic es t ha t a r e a v a i la b le f o r us e i n p ha r m a c i es . Be c au s e a m aj o ri t y o f t hem m e e ts th e Cl in ic a l L abo r a t or y I m p ro ve m e n ts Am e nd m en t s ( C L I A ) - wa i ve d r e qu i re m en ts , ph a rm ac ie s a r e a b le t o o f f e r t he s e s e r v i c e s t o t he i r p a ti e nt s . W hen s el ec ti n g a P O C T d e vic e fo r us e m ak e s u r e t o r es e a rc h t he de v ic e s pe ci f ic a ti on s , p o rt a bi l it y , t es t in g p r oc ed u r e, a n d c os t . E xa m p l e s o f p oi n t -o f -c a re t es ts t ha t a r e a va il a bl e i n s el ec t ph a rm ac ie s i ncl u de : e l ec t r on ic pe ak fl o w m e te r s , p o rt a bl e s pi r om e tr y , H I V r ap i d t es t , r a pi d St re p te s ti ng , c o ag u la ti o n a na l y z e r s , os t eo p o ro s i s s c r ee n in g wit h qu a nt i ta t i v e u l tr as o und o r p e r ip h e ra l d ua l -e n e rg y ab s o rp t io m e t r y, a n d b lo o d t e st s t h at m e as u re A 1c , f r u ct o sa m i ne , k e to n es , ur i n a r y m ic r oa l bu m i n , a lan i n e am in o t ra ns f e ra s e s , a n d l ip i d p r o fi l es . 3 . F ec a l o cc u l t b l oo d tes t s de t ec t t h e p re se n c e o f bl o od in th e s t oo l a s a s c re e ni ng t es t f o r c ol o rec t al c a nc e r . P a ti en t s d r op a p a d i nt o th e t o il et a fte r d e f ec at i on . Th e p ad wi l l c h an g e co l or i f b lo od is p r e se n t. P at i en ts s h o ul d e a t h i gh f i b er f oo ds du r in g th e t es t in g p e r io d a nd a re in s tr u c te d t o te s t t hr e e c on se c ut i v e s t oo l s am pl es . P at i en ts wi t h a po si t i v e r e su l t s h ou l d b e re f er r e d t o t h e a pp r o p ri a te h e al t hc a re p ro v i d e r. C e rta i n c on di t io n s ( ga s tr o in te s ti n al bl ee d , n os e bl ee d, m e ns t ru a ti o n) , fo o ds ( red m e a t ), m e di c at io n s ( non s te r o id al an t i -i n fl am m a to r y d r ug s [ N S A I D s ] ), an d to il e t -b owl c l e an e rs c a n p r od uc e f a ls e - po s i t i ve r es ul t s . 4 . F e r ti l i t y m i c r o s c o pes a ll o w wo m e n to de t er m i n e t h ei r m os t fe r ti l e t im e o f t h e m o nt h . A wo m a n p la c e s s a li v a on a v i e wi n g s li d e o r pl a te , a l lo ws t he s a liv a t o dr y f o r 5 -7 m i n, an d P.597 t h e n vi e ws i t u nd e r a m ic r o s c o pe . Th e a pp e a ra nce o f a fe r ni n g p at t e rn m ea n s o vu l a ti on h as o c c u r re d . E s t r og e n l e v el s r is e a nd p e ak wi t h o v ul a ti on , c a us i ng an i n c re as e i n s al t l e v e ls i n t h e s al i v a , r es ul t in g i n a f e r nl ik e p a tt e r n i n d ri e d s a li v a . S i m pl e d o ts o r a b ub bl e lik e a p pe a ra n c e is f o un d d u r in g a no n fe r t il e p e ri od . A
wo m a n s h ou l d b e a d v is ed t o a v o id s m ok in g , e at in g , o r d ri nk in g fo r 2 h r be f o r e t e s ti ng . Po l y c y s ti c o v a r y s y n d ro m e an d p e r im en op a us e c an ca us e f a ls e -po s it i ve r e s ul ts .
VI. HOSPITAL BEDS AND ACCESSORIES. H o s pi t al be ds a re us ed by p a t ie n ts wh o a re c o nf in e d t o b e d f o r l on g p e ri od s o f ti m e o r wh o r e qu i re el e v a ti o n o f t he he ad o r f e et as p ar t o f t h ei r tr e at m e n t . H o s p i t al be ds m a y be m a n ua ll y o r e l ec t r i c a ll y o p er a te d . A. T yp e s o f h os p i ta l b ed s 1 . A m a n ua l h os p it a l b ed h as n o e l ec t ri c a l l y p o we r e d m ot o rs ; th e h ea d , fo o t , a nd b e d h ei g h t a re ad j us te d m a nu a ll y . 2 . A s e mi e le c t r i c h os pi ta l be d c on t ai ns t wo e le ctr i c m ot o rs t ha t ra is e t h e h e a d a nd f o o t o f t h e b ed . Th e p a tie n t c an us u al l y a d ju s t t he h ea d a n d f oo t p o s i ti o n wi t h a h a n dh el d c on t r ol . Th e h ei g h t o f t h e b ed is a d ju st ed m a n ua ll y . Th e se m i el ec t r ic b e d c a n us u al l y be ad j us te d m a nu a ll y in ca s e of lo s s o f el ec t r ic it y. 3 . A fu l l y e l e c t r i c ho s p i ta l be d c on t ai ns th r e e m ot o r s t ha t c a n c h a ng e th e h e ig h t o f t h e b e d as we l l a s ra is e t h e h e ad an d f o ot v i a e lec t r ic al l y po we r e d m o to r s. Th e f ul l y e l ec t ri c h os p it a l b ed c a n u s u a ll y b e a dj us t ed m a nu a ll y i n c as e o f l os s o f el e c t r ic i t y. B . Ac c e s s o ri e s 1 . B e d r a i ls k e ep th e p at i e nt in th e b e d a nd al l ow t h e p a ti en t to c h an g e p o si t io ns . 2 . A t ra p ez e i s a tr i an g ul a r -s h ap e d o bj ec t t h a t ha n gs ab o ve th e p a ti en t an d is u s e d t o ch an g e t he p at ie n t ' s po s it i on . 3 . Al t e r n a t in g p re s su r e p a ds a re us ed b y pa t ien t s t o p r e ve nt de cu b it us u l ce r s ( i .e . , b e d s o re s ). As a p r e v en ti v e m e as u r e, t he se pa ds i n fl a te , th us c h an g in g t he a r ea s o f t h e b o d y th a t r ec e i v e p res s u r e .
VII. INCONTINENCE AND INCONTINENCE PRODUCTS A. U r i n a r y i n c o n t i n e nce is a c on di t io n i n wh ic h i n v o lu n ta r y u r in e l os s is a s o c i a l o r h yg i e ni c p ro b le m a nd is o b je c ti ve l y de m o ns t r ab l e. I nc o nt i ne nc e i s a c om m o n p r o bl em in t he el de r l y . Ty p e s o f in c o n ti ne n c e in c lu d e 1 . U r g e i nc on t in e nc e, wh i c h is u nc o nt r o ll ed co n tr a c ti o ns o f th e b la d de r 2 . S t r es s i nc o nt i ne nc e , a we a k ne ss of t he s p hi nc t e r t ha t c a us es l e ak ag e wh e n i n t ra - a bd om i na l p r es s u r e i nc r e as es (e . g. , wh i le lau g hi n g, co u gh in g , s ne e z in g ) an d i s c om m o n i n p r e gn a nc y 3 . O ve r f l ow in c o n ti n en c e , wh i c h is c a us ed b y obs t r uc ti o n o f u r in e fl o w f ro m th e b l ad d e r a nd is c om m o n in e ld e rl y m en as a r es ul t o f pr os t a te en la r g em en t 4 . F un c t io n al i nc o n ti n en c e , wh ic h i s r el a te d to p h y s ic al o r ps yc h ol og ic al p ro b le m s t h a t i m p ai r th e p a ti e nt ' s a b il i t y to ge t to th e b a th ro o m 5 . T r an s ie n t in c on t i ne nc e , wh ic h i s c au s e d b y m e di c a t io ns , u r i na r y t r ac t i nf e c t io n s , o r m e n ta l i m p ai r m e n t 6 . M i x ed i nc o n ti n en c e, wh i c h is a co m b i na t io n of m or e th an on e t y pe of i n co n ti ne n c e B . I n co n t i ne n ce p r od u ct s 1 . S h ie l ds a re di s p os a ble , ab s o r b en t p a ds th a t ar e pl a c e d i n t h e u nd e r wea r a nd h e ld wi t h an ad h es i v e s tri p on th e b ac k o f th e p ad. Th e s e p ad s a r e us e d f or l ig h t i n co n ti ne n c e pr o bl em s .
2 . U n de r g a r me n ts a re di s po s a b le ab so r be n t g a rm e nt s t h at a re wo r n un de r t he u n d er we a r a nd he l d i n pla c e wi t h el a st ic s t r ap s t ha t go a ro u nd th e h i ps . Th e y a r e d e si g ne d f o r m od e ra t e i nc o nt i ne nc e p r o bl em s . P.598
3 . B r i e fs lo ok li k e ad ul t -s i z e d i ap e rs th a t a r e k e pt i n p la c e wi t h ad he si ve s t r ip s . Th e y a r e de s i g ne d f o r he a v y i nc o n ti ne nc e p r o bl em s . 4 . P u ll - u p p a nt s a r e a bs o r b an t di sp os a bl e g a rm en t s t h at lo ok li k e un d e r we a r an d a r e us ed fo r he a v y i nc ont i n en c e p ro bl em s . 5 . U n de r p a ds ar e a b s o rb e n t p ad s t o b e p la c ed on t he be d u n de r ne a t h a p a t ie n t wi t h i n co n ti ne n c e . Th es e p ads c o n ta in a b a r ri e r t o p r ot e c t t he be d di ng . 6 . Wa t e r p r oo f sh e e ts a re p la s t ic o r vi n yl s h ee ts t h a t p r ot ec t th e m a tt r es s . Th e y m a y be li n ed wi t h a s o f t m a te r i al to p re ve n t f r ic tio n ag ai n st th e s k i n . 7 . I nc o n ti n en c e s ys t e m s a r e g ar m e n ts th a t l oo k l ik e u n de r we a r bu t ha v e a po uc h o r p ock e t d es ig n ed fo r a d i s p os a bl e o r re us a bl e pa d .
VIII. ORTHOPEDIC BRACES AND SURGICAL FITTINGS. Th e s e p r o du c t s p r om o te p r o pe r bo d y al i gn m e n t an d s u pp o r t i nj u re d a r ea s . P h a r m a c i s t s s ho ul d h a v e a d di t io na l tr a in i ng be f ore a t te m p t in g t o f i t a n o r th o p ed ic d e vi ce . A. Ab d o m i n al su p p o r ts a r e el as t ic a n d a re us e d t o s u pp o r t a nd ho l d s u r gi c al d r e ss in gs in pl ac e . A b dom i na l s up p or t s co m e in d i f fe r e nt wi d t hs . B . Ar m s l i n gs a re us ed t o p ro v i d e co m fo r t a nd su p p or t du r in g re c u p er a tio n f ro m f r a ct u r es , s pr a in s , a nd s u r g e r y . Th e e lb o w s ho u ld f o rm a 90 - d eg r ee an g le i n a n a rm s l in g t o a l lo w f o r p ro pe r c i rc u la ti o n . C . B a c k s up p o r t s a re wo r n b y p a ti e nt s t o p r o vide s u p po r t o r p ro m o t e p r op e r a l ig nm e nt . S uc h s u p po r ts a re na m e d a f t er t he are a of t he s p in e o n wh ic h i t i s wo r n . 1 . A s a c ra l be l t (a ls o c al l ed sa c r a l c in c h o r s a cr o i l i ac be l t ) s up p o rt s t he l o we r b a ck . 2 . A lu m bo s ac r a l s u pp or t s up p o rt s t h e l o we r and m i d dl e b ac k . 3 . A th o r a co l um b a r s u pp o r t s u p po r ts th e m id d le a n d h ig h er a re as o f t he b a c k . D . C e r vi c a l c o ll a r s s upp o r t o r li m i t t h e r a ng e o f m o ti on o f t he ne c k . Ce rv i c a l c o l la r s s h ou l d b e o f s u f f ic ie n t l en g t h s o t ha t th e p a ti en t c a n a dj us t th e d e gr e e o f c om p r es s i on . Th e wi d th o f t he c e r v ic al co ll a r s hou l d e qu a l t he m e as u re m e n t fr om t h e c hi n to th e s t er n um wh e n t h e p a ti en t i s s ta nd i ng s t r a ig h t, lo ok i ng ahe a d . 1 . S o f t o r fo a m c e r v i c a l c o ll a rs pr o vi de m i ld s u ppo r t an d re m i nd t he we a re r t o k e e p t h e n ec k s t ra i gh t . 2 . H a r d o r r ig i d c e r v ic al c ol l ar s p r o v id e m o re sup p o r t a nd li m i t m o v em ent t o a g r e a te r d e g re e . 3 . A P hi l ad e l ph i a o r e x tr i c a t i on c o ll a r is us e d t o i m m ob i li z e th e n ec k a nd i s c om m o n l y u s ed in em er ge n c y s i tu a ti on s . E . C l a vi c le su p p o r ts a re us e d a s ai d s f o r t he r ed u c t i on an d s ta b il i za ti o n o f th e c l a vic le (i . e ., c o ll a r bo ne ). Th e s e s u p po r ts a re s om e ti m e s c al le d fi g u r e -e ig h t s t ra p s b e ca us e o f th ei r ap p ea r an c e.
F . K n ee b r ac es ( al s o c al l ed k ne e c a ge s ) a r e us e d to s u pp o r t t h e kn e e. S o m e b r a ce s h a v e m e t al s t a y s o n th e s id e to pr e ve n t t he l at e r al m o v em e nt of t he k n e e. Th o s e wi t h m et a l s ta y s m a y al s o ha v e h in ge s t o a l lo w f o r m o v e m e n t o f t he kn e e. S o m e kn e e b r ac es h a v e a c u t - ou t h o le an d p a dd in g a ro un d th e p a te ll a (i .e . , k n ee c a p ) t o p r e v en t i t s m o v em e nt . G . K n e e i m mo b i li z e r s pr e v e n t a n y m o t io n o f t h e k n ee an d a r e u se d f o r s ev e r e i n ju r i es a n d f r ac tu r es . Th e y a r e a v a il ab l e i n d if f er e n t l e ng t hs a n d a r e a dju s ta b le in size. H . N i g h t ti m e a nk l e b r a ce k e e ps th e a nk l e a t a 90 - d eg r e e a ng le wh i l e s l ee p in g . I t c a n b e u s e d i n t h e t r ea tm e nt o f A c h il l es te n do n in j u ri es o r p la n ta r fa sc ii t is . I . S h ou l d e r i mm o b il i z e rs p r e v en t m o vem en t of th e s h ou l de r a n d a rm . The e lb o w s h ou l d b e a t a 9 0 - de g ree a ng le t o a ll o w f o r h e al in g wi t h ou t a f f ec ti n g c i r cu l a ti on . P.599
J . T en n is e lb ow su p p o rt s a pp l y pr e s s ur e to th e f o r e ar m t o p r o v i de pa in re l i e f an d d e c re as e i n fl am m a t io n f ro m te nn is el b o w ( i .e . , e pi c on d y li t is ) . K . W r i s t b r a ce s p r e v en t m o v em en t of t he wr i s t to a ll o w h e al in g . Th e b rac e m a y be s h ap e d t o h a v e t h e wr i s t f l e xe d s o th a t t h e t en d on s i n th e h an d re m a i n s tre t ch e d d u r in g th e p e ri o d o f i na c t i v i t y .
IX. OSTOMY APPLIANCES AND ACCESSORIES A. D e f i n i t i o ns . An os t om y i s a su r gi ca l p r oc e dur e in wh i c h a n a r ti f ic ia l op e ni n g is c r e at e d i n t he ab d om in al wa l l f o r t he pu r p os e o f e l im in a ti n g u ri n e o r fe c a l wa s t e . Th e o p en in g i s c al le d a s t o m a. O s t om i es c a n b e t e m p o ra r y t o a ll o w f o r re p ai r o r h e al i ng of t he di ge s ti v e tr a c t o r c an be pe r m a n ent . E ac h p r oc ed u r e is nam e d t o d e sc r ib e t h e a na t om ic al l o c a t io n i n v ol v e d . 1 . I n a c o l os t om y, p a r t o f t he c o lo n i s c u t an d a tt a c h e d t o t h e a bd om i na l wa l l . Th i s p r o ce du r e i s d on e m ai n ly i n pa t ie n ts wi t h c ol o n or r e c t a l ca nc e r , l o we r - bowe l o b st r uc t io n , o r d i v e r ti c u lit i s . A c o lo s t om y m a y b e t e m p o r ar y o r pe rm a ne n t , t h e d i sc ha r ge m a y b e l iq ui d o r s e m i so l id (a s wi t h a n a s c en d in g c o lo s t om y) , or i t m a y be s o li d ( a s wi t h a d es c en di n g o r s ig m oi d c o lo s t om y ) . P a t ie n ts wi t h a n a sc en d in g c o lo st om y a n d s o m e pa t ie n ts wi t h a t r an s v e rs e co l os t om y ha v e g as t ri c e nz ym e s p r e se n t i n t he di s c ha r g e. Th e s e p a ti en t s m u s t t ak e e xt r a c ar e to en su r e t ha t t he d i sc ha r ge do e s n ot c o m e i n to c o n ta c t wi t h th e s k in . 2 . I n a n i le o s to m y, t h e i l e um is a t t ac he d t o t h e ab d om i na l wa l l . Th is p ro c e d u re is p e r f or m e d i n p a ti e nt s wi th u lc e ra t i ve co l it is o r C ro h n d is e as e. 3 . A u ro s t om y i s p e rf o rm e d i n p at i en ts wi t h bl add e r c a nc e r. In t hi s p ro c ed u r e , a n i l e a l c on d u i t is c r e at e d b y a t t ac hi ng t he u re t er s t o t he i l eu m a nd t he di s ta l en d o f t h e i l eu m t o t h e a bd om ina l wa l l . B . O s t o m y a p p l i a n ce s . Th e o s to m y a p pl ia n c e c on t a in s a s k i n b a r r ie r t hat a t ta c h es t o t he s k i n a r o un d t h e s to m a. Th e s ki n b a r ri e r p ro t ec t s t he s k in an d a ll o ws f or t he c o ll ec t io n d e v ic e o r po uc h t o b e wo r n o n t he bod y. Th e s e l ec ti o n o f a n os t om y a p pl i an c e de p en ds on the t y p e o f d is c h a r ge pr o du c ed . In ad di t io n to s i z e , c ol o r , a nd
f l e xi b i li t y , ap p li an c e s m ay h a v e d et ac h ab le po uc he s a n d b e a bl e t o b e dr ai n ed b y r e l ea si n g a c li p a t th e b ot t o m o f t he ap p li a nc e. C . O s t o m y a c c e s s o ri e s 1 . Wa s he r s , p ow d e r p as t e , a n d o i nt m en t s a r e d e si g ne d t o b e u s e d wi t h a sk in b a r r ie r an d p r o v id e a d di ti o na l p r o te c ti on o f t he s k i n ar o un d a st om a . 2 . C em e n t, e la s t ic be l t s, a nd t ap e a r e u s e d to ho l d t h e a pp li a nc e i n p la c e . 3 . D e od o r iz e r s h el p c ont r o l f ec a l o do r . Ex t e r na l d e o do r i z e rs c an be pl ac e d in t o t he a p pl i an c e ; s y s t em ic d e od o r i z e rs (e . g ., bi sm ut h su b g al la t e, c h lo r o ph y l l , c h a r co al ) c a n b e i ng es t ed as in t e rn a l de od o r i z er s . 4 . M o i s tu r i z e r s a n d d is in f e c ta n t s c a n be us ed to t r ea t th e s k i n a nd p re v e n t c om p li ca t io ns . 5 . I r r i ga t i on de vi c e s a re us e d b y p at ie n ts wh o ha ve c o n t ro l o ve r th e e l im i n a ti on o f wa s t e t o f ac il i ta t e r em o va l of th e ac c um u la t ed wa s t e . Th e de v i c e s a r e u sed t o i ns ti l l wa t e r i n to th e i n te s ti n e, wh i c h p ro d uc es p e ri s ta ls i s . D . S p e ci a l c o ns i de r a t ion s f o r o s t om y p a t i e n t s. D r u g th e ra p y c a n p r es en t un i qu e p r o bl em s f o r o s t om a te s . A b s o rp ti o n o f e n te r ic - c oa t e d o r s us t ai ne d - re l ea se p r od uc ts m a y no t be po s s ib l e. A nti b io t ic s , su l fa dr u gs , l a xa t i ves , an d d iu r e ti c s ar e s om e o f t h e c om m o n p r ob l em m ed i c a t io ns in th es e p a ti e nt s .
X. RESPIRATORY EQUIPMENT A. C o n t i n u o us p os i t i ve a i rw a y p r e s s u r e ( C P A P) i s u se d i n p a ti en t s wi t h s l ee p a p n ea . Th e p r es s u r e s u pp l ie d fr om t hi s m a c h i ne k e ep s t h e ai r wa y o p e n . It i s t yp i ca l l y wo r n wh i le s l eep i ng t o a ll o w t h e p at i en t t o sl ee p wi t ho u t d is t u rb an c e. P.600
B . A h um i d i fi e r p u ts m oi s tu r e i n to th e a i r b y b r ea k in g wa t e r i nt o s m a ll par t i cl es an d b l o wi n g t h em i n to th e a i r t o be e v ap o ra t ed . H um id i f ie rs a re so m e t im es re fe r r e d t o a s c a ll ed “ c o ol m i s t v a p o ri z er s . ” 1 . V ap o r iz e r s a r e s im i l ar t o h um i di f ie r s in t ha t the y a r e u se d to de li v e r m o i s t u r e t o t h e a i r . H o we v e r , a v ap or i z e r p ro d uc es a s t e am to i nc r ea se hu m i di t y, wh er e a s a h u m i di f ie r p ro du c es a non h e at e d m i st . 2 . A n u l t r as o ni c hu m id if i e r c o n ta in s a t ra ns d uc e r , wh i c h p ro d uc es a f ine r m i st . It is c om m o n l y u s ed to p ro m ot e e xp e c to r a ti on in pa t ien t s wi t h u pp e r - re s p i ra t o ry i n f ec ti o ns . 3 . B ot h t y pe s o f h um id i fie r s a n d va p o ri ze r s n ee d t o be c l ea n ed r eg ul a r l y to p r e ven t t h e g r o wt h o f m o l d o r b ac t e ri a . C . A n eb u l iz e r i s us e d to d el i v e r m ed ic a ti on t o th e m o ut h o r th r o at . Pa t ien t s wi t h a s o r e t h ro a t m a y u s e a n eb u li z e r t o d el i ve r a to pi c a l an es t he t ic to th e t h r oa t . An u l t r a so n i c n eb u l iz e r i s u s ed to de l i ve r m e d ic at io n in t o t he lu n gs . Th e m e d ic a ti on is d i lu t ed wi t h no r m a l s al ine a nd th e n i nh a le d . A n ul t r as o ni c n eb ul i z e r i s us e d b y p a t ie n ts wi t h r e s p i ra t o r y i n f ec ti o ns , a st hm a , o r c hr o n ic ob st r uc t i v e p ul m o na r y d i se as e ( C O P D ) . D . O x yg e n i s a dm i ni s t e re d fo r a va r i et y o f c on d iti o ns . O xy g e n c an be s t o re d as a g a s o r a li q ui d o r c an be e xt r a c t e d f r om t h e a i r via a c o n ce n t r at o r . Th e am o un t o f
o xyg e n r e q ui r e d b y t he pa t i en t i s m ea s u r ed in li t er s pe r m i nu t e ( L /m in ) . A r e g i s te r e d re s pi r a t o r y t h e r a p is t c a n b e co ns u lte d fo r in f o rm at i on on th e c o r re ct p r o ce du r es , c a ut i on s , and l a ws re g a rd in g o xy g e n u se . E . A p ea k f l ow me t e r i s u s ed b y pa ti e nt s wi t h a s th m a t o d e te c t c o ns t ri c ti on o f t h e a i r wa ys b ef o r e s y m p t om s ap p ea r . Ea r l y de t ec ti on o f a n u pc om in g a t t ack a l lo ws f o r t h e r ap y d es ig n ed to s t op o r m i ni m i z e th e s e v e ri t y o f th e d is e as e. P at i en ts e xh a l e as m uc h a s p os s i b le in t o a p e ak fl o w m e te r to ob t ain t he e xp i r a to r y f lo w r a te . I f t hi s r a t e i s b el o w a p re d et e rm i ne d b as e li ne , pa ti e nt s m i g h t b e i ns t ru c te d t o c h a n ge t h e r ap y. F . H o me sp i r o me t r y i s a n on in v a s i v e p ul m o na r y f u nc t io n t es t . I t al lo ws fo r m e as u re m e n t o f ( a ) t h e fo r c ed e xp i r a to r y vo lu m e i n on e s ec on d (F E V 1 ) , an d ( b) t he f o r ce d v it a l c a p ac i t y (F VC ) i n t h e p e rs on ' s h om e . Th i s de vi c e m a y be us ed f o r p os t l u ng t r an s p la n t p a ti en t s o r p at i en ts wi t h a hi s to r y o f as th m a an d /o r c h r on ic o b st r uc t i v e p ul m o n a r y d is e as e ( C O P D ) .
XI. THERMOMETERS. Th e s e i ns t r um en t s m e as u r e bo d y te m p e r at u re and a r e m os t co m mo n l y u s e d to d e t ec t o r e v a l ua t e t h e t re a tm e nt o f i nf ec t io ns . A. A g l a s s th e r mo m e te r h as a s ea le d g l as s c o ns t r i c t i on c h am be r th a t c ont a i ns l i qu i d m e r c u r y , r ed - o r blu e - c o lo r e d f lu i d, o r G a li ns t an ( a m i xt u r e o f g a ll ium , i n di um , a n d t i n ). R es po n di n g t o te m pe r a tu r e c ha ng es , th e m e rc u r y , r e d - o r b lu e -c ol o r ed f l u id , o r G al i ns ta n e xp a n d s o r c o n tr ac t s. I t r em a in s a t th e m a xi m um te m pe r a t ur e r e g is t er e d u nt i l s h ak e n ba c k in t o t h e r es e r voi r at t h e b o t to m . G l ass f e v er t h e rm om e te r s a r e g ra d ua t e d f r om 9 6 ° F t o 1 0 6° F i n t wo - t en t hs - of - a -d e g ree i n c re m e n ts . Th es e t y p es o f th e rm om e te r s sh o ul d b e c l ea n ed an d s te r il i z ed wi t h a l co h ol a f t e r e ac h us e . Th e Am e ri c an Ac a de m y o f P e d ia t ri cs r ec om m e nd s a g ai n st t h e u se o f m e r c u r y - c on t ai n in g th e rm om e te rs b ec au s e o f t h e r is k o f m er c ury e xp o s u r e i f i t b r e ak s . H owe v e r , m o r e r es e a rc h is n e e de d t o a s s es s t he ac c u r ac y o f t h e n e we r g la s s th e rm om e te r s ( r e do r b l ue - c o lo re d fl u id or G a li ns t an ) .
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1 . Th e o ra l th e rm om e te r h as a l on g s le n de r r es erv o i r . I t is pl ac e d u nd e r th e to n gu e , a n d t h e l ip s a r e s e a le d ar o u nd t he th e rm om e te r fo r 3 -4 m i n . I n v al i d r es ul ts m a y o cc u r i f th e p a ti en t ea ts , d r in k s , o r c h e ws gu m be f o r e t he te m p e r at u r e is t a k e n ; i n co r r ec tl y p la c es t h e t he r m om et e r i n t h e m o u th ; t a lk s o r b r ea t he s r a pi d l y t h r ou g h m o ut h o r no s e wh i l e t he t e m p e r at u re is be in g ta ke n ; o r ha s o r al ab s c es s o r d e n tu r es . P.601
2 . Th e r ec t a l t he r m o m e te r h as a bl u nt , p e a r -s hap e d b ul b to p re v e n t b r eak a ge an d a i d i n r e te n ti o n. I t is in s e r t e d 1 i nc h i n to th e re c tu m a n d l ef t fo r at le as t 2 m in . A l u b ri ca n t s ho ul d b e u s e d t o ai d i ns e rt i on . Re c ta l te m pe r a tu r e is 1 ° F hi g he r t h an o ra l t e m p e r at u re . R ec t al te m p e r a tu r es ha v e be en f oun d to la g b e hi n d t he c o re t e m p e r at u re . S o i f a p a tie n t h as a r a pi d c ha n ge in co r e t e m p e ra t u re , t h e re c ta l t e m p e r at u re wi l l n o t i m m e d ia t el y r e fl e ct it .
3 . Th e st u b b y t h e r m om et e r ha s a s h or t , s t ub b y bu l b t o p r e v e nt it f ro m b r ea k in g . I t c a n b e u s e d a s a n o r al or a r ec ta l t h e rm om et e r . A l t h ou gh a s tu b b y th e rm o m et e r c an b e us ed as ei th e r o r a l o r r e c t a l, i t is r ec om m e nd ed t ha t on e r o ut e of ad m in i s t r a ti o n i s s el ec t ed an d u s ed . 4 . A n y of th e th r ee t y p es o f gl as s t he r m o m e t e rs ca n be us ed to t ak e t he ax i l l a r y t e m p e ra t u r e i f a n o r al or r e c t a l t em pe r a tu r e c ann o t b e ta ke n . A n a xi l l a r y t e m p e r at u re is ta k e n b y h o ld i ng th e th e rm om e te r s nu g l y u n de r th e a r m f or 3 - 4 m in . A xi l l a r y t e m p e ra t u re is 1° F l o we r th a n o r al te m p er a t u re . H o we v e r , th e re is c o nt r o ve rs y a bo u t t h e ac c u r ac y o f a xi l l a r y te m p e ra t u r e. U s i ng t hi s t em pe ra t u r e l o ca t io n c an be c l in ic a ll y u s e f ul as lo ng as th e s i te is r ec o rd e d a nd us ed c o ns is te n tl y .
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B . T h e b as a l t h e r mo m et e r is us ed t o m e as u r e ba s al bo d y te m pe r at u r e. B a s al t h e rm om e te r s a r e a v a il ab l e a s a g l as s o r d ig i ta l th e r m o m e t er . A d i gi t al the r m om et e r m a y lo we r t h e p o te n ti al fo r us e r e r r o r as it o ff e rs m o r e ac cu r ac y. Th e ba s a l bo d y t e m p e r at u re is us ed to pr e d ic t o v u l at i on to in c re as e o r de c re as e t h e c ha nc e o f c o nc ep t io n . B as a l b od y te m pe r a tu r e c an be ta k e n o r al l y , r ec ta l l y , o r v ag i na l l y , b u t t h e ro u te s h ou l d b e c o ns i s te n t . C . D i g i ta l t he r m om e te r s r e gi s t e r t em p e ra t ur e qu i c k l y. He a t a lt e rs th e c ur r e n t r u n ni n g t h ro u gh a r es is to r , an d t h e t em p er a tu r e is di s p l a y ed v i a a d i gi t al r e a do u t . Th e c u r re n t is s u pp l ie d by a b a tt e r y, s om e o f wh ic h a r e re c h a rg e ab l e. D igi t a l t h e rm om e te r s c a n b e us e d o ra ll y o r re ct a ll y a nd g e n er a ll y r e qu i re pl ac i ng a pl as t ic s h ea t h o v e r th e t i p o f t he t he r m o m e t e r b ef o r e us i n g . D i gi t al th e rm om e te rs ha ve b e e n in t e gr a te d i n to pa c if i e rs to as s i s t in t ak in g an i nf a nt ' s te m p e ra t u re . D . T ym p a n i c th e r m om e te r s us e i n fr a r ed te ch n olo g y t o d e te ct t he te m p e ra t u r e o f t h e t ym p an ic m em b r an e . Th e t em p er a tu r e i s d e ter m i ne d wi t hi n s ec on ds an d is l es s i n va si v e th a n o th e r th e rm om e te r s . Th e s e th e rm om e te r s u s e di sp os a bl e t ip s th a t a re i n se r t ed in t o t he ea r . The A m e r ic a n A c a d em y of P e d ia t r ic s r ec om m e n ds th a t th is t yp e o f t he r m o m e t e r b e u s ed in ol d er ba b ie s a nd c hi l dr e n b ec au s e t he p ro b e n e ed s t o ac cu r a te l y fi t i n to t he e a r . I n ap p ro p r ia t e p la c em e nt an d to o m uc h e a r wa x c a n c a us e i na c c u ra t e r e ad ing s .
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E . S k i n t h e rm o me t e rs ar e pl a c e d d i re c t l y on t he s k i n (u s u a ll y t he f or e he ad ) t o c a lc ul a te bo d y te m pe r atu r e . Th is t ype of t he rm om e te r is a li q ui d -c r y s ta l s t r ip th a t c h an g es c ol o rs ba s e d o n t e m p e ra t u re . En vi r on m en t f ac to r s s u c h as s we a t in g an d a m bi e nt te m p e r at u r e wi l l a f f ec t t he s k in te m p e r atu r e . Th is m e th od is no t as ac c u r a te a s th e o t he r s a nd s h ou ld b e re s e r v e d f o r s it u at i on s i n wh ic h ot h er m e t hod s a r e n o t p o ss ib l e.
XII. URINARY CATHETERS. Th e s e d e v ic e s a ll o w f o r th e co l l ec t i on an d re m ova l o f u r in e f ro m t he bl ad d e r . A. E x t e r n a l c at h e te rs a re us e d f o r h ea v y i n c o n ti n e nc e pr o bl em s o r c om p l e te lo ss o f u ri n e c o n t ro l . Th e y a re a t ta c h ed t o a s t at i on a ry c o ll ec t io n d e v ic e o r a le g ba g t o a l lo w f o r am b ul a ti on . Ty p e s o f e xt e r n a l c at h et e rs i nc l ud e t h e f ol l o wi n g: 1 . Th e ma l e e xt e r n al c a th e t e r is pl ac e d a ro u nd th e pe ni s . S om e h a ve a dh e si v e to a ss is t in k e ep in g th e c ath e t e r s e cu r e .
2 . Th e fe m al e e xt e r n a l c a t h et e r , wh i c h i s a c on t ou r e d d e vic e t h at fi t s s n ug l y i n t he va g i n a. P.602
B . I n t e rn a l c at h et e rs a re u s e d d u r in g s u r ge r y o r wh e n e xt e r n a l c at h et e rs a r e i n ap p r op r ia t e . I nt e r na l c a t h et e rs c a n b e u s e d a t h o m e , b u t t h e p at i en t m us t be t a u gh t p r o pe r i ns e r ti o n te c hn i qu es to p re v e n t i nfe c ti o n. Th e c a th e te r is i ns e r te d t h r o ug h t h e u re t h ra in t o t h e b l ad d er an d i s a t ta che d to a s ta t io n ar y c ol l ec ti o n d e v ic e o r le g ba g . C a th e te r s a re s i z e d b y t h e F r e nc h sc a l e : t he la r ge r th e nu m b e r , t h e l a r ge r th e d i am et e r o f the c a t he t e r. Typ e s o f c a the t e rs in c l u de th e f o ll o wi n g : 1 . Th e st r a i gh t c a th e te r i s u s e d fo r in t e r mi t t e nt c a t h et e r iz a t io n to d ra in t h e b l ad d e r. I t c o n s i s t s o f a r u b be r tu b e; u ri n e d r ai ns f r om on e e n d a nd t he oth e r en d c o nn ec t s t o t he c o ll ec t ion d e v ic e. 2 . Th e Fo l e y c a t h e t er , an i nd we l l in g c a th e te r , c an b e us e d f o r u p to 30 da ys b e f o r e c h a ng i n g. Th e en d i ns e rt e d i n to t he bl ad d e r c o n ta i ns a b al lo o n, wh i c h is in f l at e d wi t h s t e ri le wa t e r o r s a lin e to ho l d t he c a t he t e r in p la ce . Th e b al l oo n i s de f l at e d b e f o re re m o v a l . P.603
STUDY QUESTIONS D i r e c t i on s : E a c h of t he n u m b e re d i t em s o r i nc om p le t e s ta t em en ts in t his se c t i on is f o l lo we d b y an s we r s o r by c o m p le t io ns o f t he st a te m en t . Se le c t t he o ne l et t e r ed a n s we r o r c o m p l et i on tha t is be s t i n e ac h c as e. 1 . W he n a pa t i en t i s f i t te d w i t h a n a x il l a r y c r u t c h , how f a r b e l ow th e un d e r a r m s h o u ld t he t op o f t h e c ru t c h re s t ? ( A ) 0 . 5 in c h (B) 1 inch ( C ) 2 in c h es ( D ) 3 in c h es ( E ) 4 i n c h es V i e w A n s we r 1 . T h e a n sw e r i s C [ se e] . 2 . W h a t an g l e s h ou l d th e e l b ow fo r m w h en a c an e is t he co r r e c t he i g ht ? ( A ) 1 0 d eg r e e ( B ) 2 5 d eg r e e ( C ) 4 5 d e gr e e ( D ) 6 0 d e gr e e ( E ) 9 0 d eg r e e V i e w A n s we r 2 . T h e a n sw e r i s B [ se e] . 3 . A p r o du c t t ha t de l i ve r s m o is tu r e t o t h e a i r b y h e a t i n g w a t e r t o p r o du c e s t ea m is c al l e d a ( A ) n eb u li z e r . ( B ) h um id i fi e r . ( C ) ve n t il a to r .
( D ) p e ak f l o w m et e r . ( E ) va p o ri z e r . V i e w A n s we r 3 . T h e a n sw e r i s E [s e e] . 4 . An a b so r b e n t p r o d uc t de s ig n ed f o r p a t ie n ts w i t h l i g ht in c o n ti n e nc e p r o b le m s is a ( A ) b r ie f . ( B ) s hi el d . ( C ) u n de r ga r m e n t. ( D ) u n de r pa d . ( E ) c at h et e r . V i e w A n s we r 4 . T h e a n sw e r i s B [ se e] . 5 . W h en an o r a l t e mp e r a tu r e is t a k e n, t he t he r m om e t e r s h o ul d be pl a ce d in t o t h e mo u t h f o r (A) 1-2 min. (B) 3-4 min. ( C ) 5 - 6 m in . ( D ) 7 - 8 m in . (E) > 9 min. V i e w A n s we r 5 . T h e a n sw e r i s B [ se e] . 6 . T h e d i am e t e r o f u r in a r y c a t h e t e r s i s me a su r e d b y w hi c h of t h e fo l l ow in g s c al e s? ( A ) L eu r ( B ) E n gl is h ( C ) F r e nc h ( D ) g a ug e ( E ) m et r ic V i e w A n s we r 6 . T h e a n sw e r i s C [ se e] . 7 . A c e r vic a l c o l la r t ha t im m ob i l iz e s t h e ne c k i s c a ll e d a ( A ) s of t c e r v ic al c o ll a r . ( B ) h a rd c e r v ic a l c o l la r . ( C ) f o am c e r v ic al c o ll a r . ( D ) e xt r i c a ti o n c o l la r . ( E ) r i gi d c e r v ic al c o ll a r. V i e w A n s we r 7 . T h e a n sw e r i s D [ se e] . 8 . I n co n t in e n ce t ha t is ca u se d by a n o b s t r uc t i o n o f th e b l a dd e r i s c al l e d ( A ) o ve r fl o w i n c o n ti ne nc e . ( B ) u r ge in c o n ti n en c e . ( C ) s t re s s in c o n ti ne nc e . ( D ) f u nc ti o na l i nc o nt in e nc e . ( E ) t r an si e nt in c o n ti n en c e . V i e w A n s we r 8 . T h e a n sw e r i s A [ se e] . 9 . A c o los t o m y o r i l e o s t o m y c o u l d b e pe r f o r m ed f o r a l l o f t h e f ol l ow i ng co n d i ti o ns e xc e p t ( A ) l o we r bo we l o bs t ru c tio n . ( B ) m al ig n an c y o f th e c olo n o r r ec t um . ( C ) u lc e ra t i v e c ol i ti s . ( D ) d u od en a l u lc e r. ( E ) C r o hn di s e as e .
V i e w A n s we r 9 . T h e a n sw e r i s D [ se ea n d] .1 0 . P re g n an c y t e s t k i t s a re d e s ig n e d t o d e t ec t w h ic h su b s ta n ce ? ( A ) l ut e in i z i ng ho rm o ne (L H ) ( B ) p r og es t e ro n e ( C ) h um a n c h o ri o ni c g ona d o t ro pi n (h C G ) ( D ) e st r o ge n ( E ) f ol l ic le - s t im u la ti n g ho r m on e V i e w A n s we r 1 0 . T he a nsw e r i s C [ se e] . P . 60 4
ANSWERS AND EXPLANATIONS 1 . T he an sw e r is C [ s ee I . B . 2. a ]. W hen a p a ti e nt is fi t te d fo r a n a xi l l a r y c r ut c h, th e t o p o f t h e c ru t c h s h ou ld b e 2 i n ch es be l o w t he a xi l l a (u n d er a rm ) . 2 . T he an sw e r is B [ s ee I . A . 1] . W hen a p a ti e nt is pr o pe rl y f i t te d f o r a c a ne , th e el b o w s ho u ld fo r m a 2 5 ° an g le . Th is a l lo ws f o r m a xi m um we i gh t t ra ns f e r . 3 . T he an sw e r is E [ s e e X. B ] . A va p o ri z e r p ro d uc es m oi s tu r e b y h ea t in g wa t e r to p r od uc e s te am . A h um id i f ie r a ls o p r o du c e s m oi s t u r e; ho we v e r , i t wo r ks b y m ec ha nic a ll y c re a ti n g sm al l wa t er p a r ti c l e s . A n e bu li z e r is u s ed to de l i v e r l iq ui d t o th e m o ut h a n d t h ro a t . A ve n t il a to r i s u se d to as s is t in br e ath i ng . A p e ak fl o w m et e r is us ed t o d et ec t ai r wa y c o ns t ri c ti on . 4 . T he an sw e r is B [ s ee V I I . B .1 ] . S h i el ds a re pa ds t ha t a re p la c e d i n t h e u nd e r we a r a nd he ld wi t h ad he s i v e s tr i ps . Th e y a r e us ed f or pa t ie nt s wi t h l i gh t i nc o nt i ne nc e p r o bl em s. 5 . T he an sw e r is B [ s ee XI . A . 1 ] . O r a l t em pe r at u r e is t ak en b y in se r t in g t h e b ul b o f t h e t h er m o m et e r u nd e r th e to n gu e a n d s ea li n g t h e li p s a ro un d th e th e rm om e te r fo r 3- 4 m i n . 6 . T he an sw e r is C [ s ee XI I . B ] . Th e F r e nc h s c a le i s u s ed t o m ea s u r e t h e d ia m e te r o f a u r i na r y ca t he t e r. Th e L e u r s ca l e is us e d t o m e as u r e s y r i ng e t i p si ze . Th e g au g e s c a le is u s ed to m e as u r e n e e dl e d ia m e t e r. Th e m et r i c s c al e i s a ge n er a l s ys t em of m e as u re m e n t . 7 . T he an sw e r is D [ s ee V I I I . D .3 ] . A n e xt r i c at i on c o ll a r ( a ls o k n o wn a s a Ph il a de l ph ia c o l la r ) i s u s e d t o i m m ob i li z e t he n e ck . I t i s c om m o nl y u s ed i n em e r ge nc y si t ua t io ns . S of t o r fo am c e r v i c a l c o ll a rs p r o vi de m i ld s u pp o r t a nd r e m i n d t he pa t ie n t t o k ee p th e n ec k s t ra i gh t . H a rd o r ri gi d c e r vic a l c o l la rs p ro v i d e m o de r a te s u pp o r t b ut al lo w s o m e m o ve m e n t . 8 . T he an sw e r is A [ s ee V I I . A .3 ] . O ve r f l o w i n c o n ti n en c e is c au s e d b y o bs t r uc ti o n of t h e bl a dd e r . U r g e i nc ont i n en c e is c a us ed b y un c o n t ro ll e d b l ad d e r c o n t ra c ti on s . S t re s s in co n ti n en c e is c a use d b y i n c re as es in in t ra - a bd om i n al p re ss u re . Fu nc t io na l i nc o nt i ne nc e i s r e la t ed to p h ys ic a l o r ps yc ho l og ic al p ro b le m s . Tr a ns ie n t i nc on t in e nce i s c a us e d b y m e di c a t ion s , u r in a r y t r a ct in f ec t io ns o r m e n ta l i m p a ir m en ts .
9 . T he an sw e r is D [ s ee I X. A . 1 a nd 2] . L o we r - b o we l ob s tr uc t io n, m al ig n an c y o f th e c ol on o r re c t um , an d d i v e rt icu l i ti s m a y a l l r e qu i re a c ol os t om y . U l c e ra t i v e c o l it is an d C ro h n d is e as e m a y r e qu i re a n i l eo s to m y . Th e t r ea tm e nt o f a d uo de n al ul ce r wo ul d no t i nc l ud e a c o lo s t om y o r a n i l eo s to m y . 1 0 . Th e a n sw e r i s C [ s ee V . B .1 . d ]. P r e g na nc y t es t s d et ec t hC G i n th e u r i ne . Th is i s s ec r e te d a f t er t he em b r yo h as i m pl an t ed in t he ut e r us . O v u l a t io n - p re di c ti on t es ts de t ec t L H . P ro g es t er o ne , e s t ro g en , a n d f ol l ic le -s t im u la t in g h o rm on e a r e a l l i n vo l ved in c o nt r o ll in g th e m e ns t ru a l c y c l e .
29 OTC Otic, Dental, and Ophthalmic Agents J e n ni f e r D . S m i th C o n n i e L ee B a r ne s
I. OTIC OVER-THE-COUNTER (OTC) PRODUCTS A. Th e e a r c a n b e d i v i ded i nt o t h r ee di st i nc t p a rts : th e e xt e r n a l e a r , t he m i dd le ea r , a n d t h e i nn e r e a r. 1 . Th e e xt e r na l e a r i s t y p i c a ll y t h ou g ht of as th e p a r t o f th e e a r o ne c a n se e . H o we ve r , b e in g m ad e u p o f th e a u ri c l e , t h e e xt e r n a l a ud i to r y c an al , an d th e ou t e r s u r fa ce o f t he t y m p a ni c m em b r an e , t he e xt e r n al e a r e xt e n ds m uc h f a r th er . a . Th e au r i c le , a ls o re f er r e d to as th e p i nn a , f u nc t io ns t o c o l le c t s o un d an d c h an n el i t to wa r d t he m i dd l e e a r. b . Th e ex t e r na l a u d i to ry c a n a l , al s o k n o wn a s th e ea r ca n a l, is a b ou t 1 i n ch in l e ng t h , l ea di n g d i re c t l y to t he ea r d ru m . Th e ea r c a n al c o n ta i ns s m a ll gl a nd s th a t a re r e s po ns ib l e f o r s ec re t in g c e ru m e n , b e tt e r k no wn a s e a r wa x. c . Th e o u te r s u r fa c e o f th e t y m p an ic m e m b r an e is k n o wn as t he ea r d r um. Th e e a r d ru m s ep a ra t es th e ext e r n a l a ud i to r y c a n al f ro m th e m id dl e e a r . 2 . Th e mi d dl e ea r is a n a i r - fi ll e d c ha m b e r t h at p ro v i d es di r ec t a cc es s t o th e in ne r e a r an d i nd i r ec t ac c es s to t he no s e an d th r oa t b y wa y o f t h e e us t ac hi a n tu b e . Th e m i dd le ea r ho us es t h re e s m a l l b on es (m a ll eu s , i nc us , an d s ta p es ) k no wn a s th e o ss ic l es . W hen s o un d s tr i k es t h e e a rd r um , i t v ib ra t es , t ra ns m i t ti n g t he s ou n d vi b r a ti o ns to th e o s s ic l es , wh i c h i n t u rn t r an s m it th e s o un d t o th e i nn e r e ar . 3 . Th e in n e r e a r i s a de li c at e s t ru c tu r e c om po s ed o f a ud i to r y a nd v e st i bul a r c om p on e nt s . a . Th e au di t o r y c om p on en t o f t he in n er ea r ( th e c o c hl e a) is re s po ns ib l e f or h e ar i ng . Th e c oc hl e a, a s na il - s h ap e d s t ru c tu r e f il l ed wi t h fl u id , is a t ta c he d t o o n e of t h e o ss ic l es ( th e s ta p es ) i n th e m i dd le ea r . W he n t he s t ap es m o v e s, it cr e at es wa v e s wi t h i n th e c oc hl e a. D e pen d in g o n th e wa v e p ro d uc e d, ne u r al im pu ls es a re c r ea t ed a n d t r a ns m i tt e d t o t h e b ra i n f o r i n te r p re t at i on . b . Th e v es t ib u la r c om p on e n t o f t h e i nn e r e a r ( t he se m i c i r cu l ar c a n al s a nd t he ve s t ib u le ) is re s p o ns ib le f o r m ai n ta i ni ng ba l an c e a n d e q ui li b ri um . B . C o m mo n e a r di s o r der s 1 . E xc e ss i ve / im p ac t e d c e r u me n (e a r wa x) . C o n t r a r y t o c u r re n t s o c i a l b eli e fs , e a r wa x d o e s no t ne ed t o b e re m o v e d wi t h o bj ec t s s uc h a s f in g e rs , t o we l s, a n d c o t to n -t i pp e d a pp li c a t o rs b ec a us e t h es e o bj ec ts ty p i c al l y c a us e im p ac t io n o f th e e a r wa x, r a t h e r th a n i ts re m o v al . In st e ad , th e e xt e r n al ea r ha s a u n iq u e s e l f c l ea ns i ng m ec h an is m . Ea r c a n al s ki n i s c on st a nt ly s h ed a nd re m o v e d v i a l a t er a l m i g ra ti o n f r om th e t y m p an i c m e m b r a ne ( at a r a te o f 2 -3 m m p e r d a y ) to the e xt e r n a l c a na l , wh e r e c e r um en ad h e re s t o t h e s he d s k i n a n d o t he r de b ri s . Mo v e m e n t s uc h a s c h e wi n g m o v e s t h e c e r um e n o ut wa r d wh e r e it is r e m o v ed b y d r yi n g, fl ak in g , o r s im p l y fa ll i ng ou t . Th e us e o f he a ri n g a id s o r e a rp l ug s c an bl oc k t hi s o u twa r d m i g ra ti o n, d e v el op i ng ear wa x i m p ac t io n a n d l ea d in g to he a r in g l os s . a . Th e f un c t io n s o f c er um e n i nc lu d e ( 1 ) Lu b r ic at i on of th e l i nin g of t he ea r c a na l
( 2 ) Te m po r a ri l y re p el li n g wa t e r ( 3 ) R es is t an c e t o in f ec t io n o wi n g t o i ts ac id ic na tu r e (p H = 4 - 5 ) , wh i c h c re a t es a n u n f a vo ra bl e e n v i r on m e n t f o r o r g an is m s u r v i v a l ( 2 ) Tr a p pi n g d us t, d eb r is , a nd f or e ig n o b je c t s b . E p id e mi o l og y. A s i d e f r o m im p ac ti o n c au s e d by m a ni p ul a ti on , s om e p at i e nt p o p ul at i on s a r e m o r e p ro n e t o e xp e r i e nc e i m p act e d c e ru m e n , i nc lu d in g pa t i en ts wi t h a n o ve rp r od uc t io n P.606 o f ce r um en , pa ti e n ts wi th n a rr o we d ea r c a na ls , th e el de r l y, an d p a ti en t s wi t h m en t al r e t a rd a ti o n. c . S ym p t o m s o f i m p ac t ed c e r um e n i nc lu de e ar ach e , i t c h in g o f th e e a r , r e fl e x c o u gh , d i zzi n es s , v e r t ig o , t in ni tu s , a nd c o m p r om is ed h ea r i ng . d . E a rw ax - s o ft e n in g a ge n t s m a y b e us ed al on e o r f ol lo we d b y t he us e o f a n o t ic s yr i n ge (s e e I . C ) . ( 1 ) C a r ba m id e pe r o xi d e 6 . 5% in an h yd r ou s g l yc e r i n is t he on l y U . S . F o od a n d D r u g Ad m i n i s t ra t i on ( FD A) a p p r o ve d a g en t f o r c e r um e n re m o va l. W hen c a r ba m i de pe r o xi d e m ak e s c on t ac t wi t h t is s u e e nz y m e s , o xy g e n i s re le as e d , p r o du c i n g a fo am in g a c tio n . Th is f oa m in g a c t io n s o f t en s i m pa c t ed ce r um e n . ( a ) Ava i l a b l e a g en t s . M u r i ne , D eb r o x, D e n t 's E ar W a x ( b ) I ns t r u c ti o n s f o r u s e. P a ti e nt s a g ed 12 an d o l d e r s ho u ld ti l t t he he ad s i d e wa y s a n d i ns t il l 5 - 10 d ro ps in to t he ea r . Th e a pp l ic at o r t i p s ho ul d n o t b e i ns e rt ed i nt o t h e e a r c a na l . P a ti en t s s h o uld k e e p t he he a d t il t ed t o t h e s id e ( o r i ns e r t c o t t on ) f o r s e ve r al m i nu t es to i n c r ea s e c o n t ac t t im e wi t h t he c e ru m e n . Re pe a t t h e p ro c es s tw i ce da i l y f o r u p t o 4 d a ys . F o r c h il d r en < 1 2 wi t h s us p ec te d c e ru m e n i m pa c t i on , a m e d ic al p ro v i de r s h ou ld b e c o n s u lt e d. ( 2 ) O l i ve o il (s we e t oi l ) is us ed t o s o f t en ea r wa x a n d a ll e v i at e i t ch in g . ( 3 ) Mi n e r a l oi l , r e c o m m en d e d as 2 d r op s i n t he af f e ct e d e ar ( s ) o nc e p e r we e k , h as b e e n us e d t o l iq u ef y t h e c e r um en , th us ai di n g i n it s re m o v a l . ( 4 ) D oc us a te s o di um gi v e n 15 m i n b ef o r e p ro v i d er i n -o f fi c e i r ri g at io n h a s s h o wn e f f ic ac y , bu t no da t a e xi s t to s u pp o r t t he s u p er i or i t y o f d oc us a te s o di um o v e r c a r ba m i de pe r o xi d e . ( 5 ) H yd r og e n p e ro xi d e is a c o m p on e n t o f c a r b am id e pe r o xi d e a n d h as we ak a n t ib ac t e ri al p ro p er t ie s . A s an o ti c so l ut i on , h y d ro g e n p er o xi d e m a y b e d il u t ed 1: 1 wi t h wa r m wa t e r a nd in s ti l le d i n t h e e a r t o a id in c e r um en s o f te ni n g a nd re m o v al . ( 6 ) E a r c a n dl es , a ls o k no wn a s c o ni ng c a n dl es , a r e m a de of pa r a ff i n -c oat e d fa b ri c wo u n d i nt o a fo o t -l o ng c o n e . P a ti e nt s a r e i ns t ru c t e d to pl ac e t h e c o n e i n th e ea r c a na l a n d li g ht t he di s t a l e n d wi t h a m at ch . Al l ege d l y, th e c er u m e n i s li q ue f i ed an d n e g at i ve p r es s u r e d r a ws o u t t h e wa x. I n o n e s t udy o f e ar c a n dl es , m o re c a n dl e wa x wa s d e po s i t ed in t o t h e ea r s o f p a ti e nt s t h an ea r wa x wa s r e m o ve d . H o we v e r , no da t a s u pp o r t t hi s d an g e ro us pr o c es s f or e ff ic ac y . F u rth e r m o r e, co m p li c at io n s m a y in c l u de e xt e r n a l ot i ti s , t em po r a ry h e a r in g l os s , an d b u r ns . e . P at i en ts wi t h pe r f or a te d t y m p an ic m e m b r an e , e a r dr a in a ge , e a r p ai n , or a r as h i n t h e e a r s ho u ld be r ef e r red t o a he al t hc a re p ro v i de r . In t he of f ic e, p ro vi d e rs m a y us e va r i o us de v i c e s o r i r r ig a ti n g s y s te m s to re m o ve im p ac te d c e ru m e n .
2 . V e r ti g o i s a l os s o f eq u il i b ri um , i n wh ic h o n e m i gh t d es c ri b e a ro om as s p in n in g . A s de sc r ib e d i n I . A .2 . B , t h e v es t ib ul a r c om pa r tm e n t o f th e i n ne r e a r i s r es p on s i b le f o r m a in t ai ni n g b al a nc e a n d e q ui li b ri um . Th e a u to n o m ic s y s t em m a y be c om e i n vo l ve d i f t he v e r ti g o is s e v e r e, p ro d uc in g d i z z i n e s s , pa ll o r , s we a t in g , a nd n au s e a . P a t i en ts e xp r e s s in g s y m p t om s o f v e rt i go ( as id e fr o m m ot i on s ic k ne s s ) s ho u ld be r e f e r re d t o a m e di c al pr ov i d e r . 3 . T in n i tu s m a y be de s c r i b ed b y pa t ie n ts a s a ri ng i ng , bu zz i n g , h is s i ng , wh i st l in g , o r h um m i ng no is e l as t ing f r om s ec o nd s t o m i n u te s . Ti nn it u s h as b e en li nk e d t o a va r i e t y of c a us es , i n c l ud in g Mé n i è re di s e as e , h e ad i nj u ri es , o t i ti s m e d ia , s y p h i li s , t e m p o r om an di b ul a r -j o in t ( T MJ ) d y s f u nc ti o n, an d ce r t ai n m e di ca t io ns (s al ic y l a t es , n o ns t e ro id a l a nt i -i n fl am m a to r y d r ug s , am in o gl y co s id es , l o op di u re t ic s , an d c h em ot h e ra p eu ti c a g en ts ) . If ti n ni t us i s c on st a nt o r s e v e r e, a m ed ic al c on s ul t i s a d vi se d . C u r r en t l y , t h er e a r e n o F D A - a pp r o ved t re a tm e nt s f o r t i nn i tu s. 4 . E x te r n al o t i ti s , a ls o re f e r re d to as o t i ti s e xt e r n a , i s i n f la m ma t i on o f th e e x t e r na l a u d i to r y c a n a l s ec on d a r y to a b ac te r i al o r fu n ga l i n fe c t i on . a . C a us e . E xt e r n a l o t it is , f r eq u en t l y re f e r re d t o as s wi m m e r 's ea r , i s t ho ug h t to be m os t c om m o n l y th e r e s u lt o f l o ca l t r au m a t o t he e xt e r n a l c a na l ( e .g . c o t to n - ti p pe d a p pl ic a to r s , f in g er s , s h a rp o bj ec ts ) o r p r o lo n g ed e x p os u r e t o mo i s tu r e . P r o l on g ed e xp o s u r e t o m oi s tu r e ( e .g . , hu m i d e n v i ro nm e nt , un d e r wa t e r s wi m m i ng , d i vi n g ) p r o m o t es m ac e ra t io n o f th e th i n sk in li n in g t h e e ar c an a l, al lo wi n g ba c te r ia t o p e n et r a te an d g r o w. Tr a u m a t o t h e e xt e r n a l c a n al l en ds it s e l f t o s us ce p tib i li t y t o d a m a g e a nd th us ea s i e r i n f il t ra t io n o f m ic r oo r g ani s m s . Th e p re d om i n an t m ic r o or g an is m s i s ol a te d f r o m p at i en ts wi t h s wi m m e r ' s e ar a re P se u d om on a s a e r u g in o sa an d S ta p hy lo c o cc u s a u r eu s . P.607
b . S ym p t o m s . I n it ia l s y m p to m s in cl ud e i tc h in g a n d a s e ns a ti on o f p r e s su r e / f ul l ne s s i n the e a r , f ol lo we d b y p ai n , a n o ti c di s ch a r ge , an d a p oss i bl e d e c r ea s e i n h e a ri n g . Th e p ai n m a y b e c o m e qu i te i n te ns e , e s p ec ia l l y i f the o ut e r e a r i s t o uc he d o r wi t h m o v e m en t o f th e j a w, s uc h a s c he wi n g . c . T re a t me n t i s wi t h a pr e s c r i pt i o n o t ic a n ti b iot i c an d c o r t ic o s te r o i d i f b ac t e ri a l i n or i gi n a n d o ti c a nt i bi o ti c a l on e i f f u ng a l i n o ri g in , as we l l a s d is c o nt i nu at i o n o f m ec h an ic a l t r au m a an d /o r s wi m m in g (u n ti l r e so lu t i on of in f ec ti o n ). O r a l a n t ib io t ic s a r e no t n ec es s a r y u nl es s t he in f ec ti o n is un r es po n s i v e to o ti c t r ea tm e nt , t h e p a ti e nt i s i m m un oc om p r om is ed , o r a m id dl e ea r i n fe c ti on c oe xi s t s . E x t e rn a l o t i t is s ho u l d n o t be s el f - t r ea t e d. d . P r e ven t io n o f e xt e r na l o t it is is th e k e y . Me c han i c a l t r a um a t o t he ea r , b y wa y o f c o t to n -t i pp e d a pp li c a t o rs , a nd fi n ge r s s ho ul d c eas e i m m ed i at e l y . W ate r sh o ul d b e r e m o ved as g e nt l y an d ef f e c t i v e l y a s p os s i bl e a f te r s wi m m in g o r s h o we r i ng / b at h in g u s in g a to we l a r ou n d t he e d ge s o f t h e e a r o r a hai r d r y e r s et on lo w h e a t. I t m a y a l so be be n ef ic i al to ti l t th e he a d t o t he s i de t o he l p e xp e l wa t e r . If r eo cc u r r e nc e is f r e q ue n t, on e m ig h t c on s i d e r u s i ng m o ld e d e a r p lu g s , bu t c o ns id e ra t io n s h o ul d b e g i ve n t o th e r is k o f i m p ac t ed c e r um en wi t h th e us e o f s uc h d e v ic e s.
5 . Wa t e r - cl o g ge d e a r m a y b e a c o n t ri bu t in g fa cto r t o e xt e r n a l o ti t is o wi n g t o t is su e m ac e r at i on f ro m p r ol on ge d pe r io ds o f e xp o s u re to wa t e r ; ho we v e r , wa t e r -c l og g ed e a r i s a s e pa r a te di s o r der . Th e r e fo r e , l ab el i ng of p r o du c ts a p p ro v e d b y t he F D A fo r t h e tr e at m e n t o f wa t e r -c lo g g ed ea r m a y no t a l lu de t o i ts us e f o r p r e v en t ion o f e xt e r n a l ot i ti s . Th e on l y a g e nt F D A a pp r o v e d as s a fe an d e f f ec ti v e as an e a r - d r yin g a g e nt is i s o p r op y l al c o hol 9 5% in an h yd ro us gl yc e r i n 5 %, a pp r o v ed fo r us e i n p a t ie n ts 1 2 y ea r s o f a g e a n d o ld e r . A ho m e so l ut io n of 50 / 50 is op r o p yl a lco h ol an d wh i t e vi n eg a r m a y a ls o be us e d t o d r y t he ea r . Cau t i on m us t be ta ke n n o t to r e c om m e nd s e lf - t r ea tm en t f or wa t e r -c l og g ed ea r f o r pa t ie n ts wi t h s ig ns of i n fe c ti on , d i sc ha r ge o r b le e di ng f rom t he ea r , e a r s ur g e r y wi t h in th e p r e vi ou s 6 we ek s , or t ym p an o s t om y t ub e s . 6 . F u ru n c le s , a ls o k n o wn as bo i ls , a r e s m al l a b s c es s es s u r ro un d i n g t h e b a s e of a h a i r f ol l ic le in th e o u te r p o r ti o n o f t h e e xt e r n a l ea r ca n al . St a ph yl oc oc c us au r e us i s t yp i ca l l y th e o f fe n di ng o rg a ni s m . Fu r un c l es a re us u al l y s e lf - li m i t in g a n d m a y b e m a na g ed wi t h wa r m c om p r e s s es a n d a to pi c a l a nt i b io t ic . 7 . O t i t is me d ia is a b ac te r i al in f ec ti o n t ha t is m os t pr e v a le n t b e t we en t he a g es o f 3 m o nt hs an d 3 y e a rs , o wi n g to t he le ng t h , a ng le , a n d f u nc ti o n o f t h e e us tac h ia n t u be i n c h il d re n . S y m p to m s i nc l ud e e a r p ai n , f e v e r , f lui d di sc ha r ge f ro m t h e e ar , a nd p o ss ib l e d ec re a s e d h ea ri n g . A ll pa t ie n ts wi t h s usp e c t e d o ti t is m e di a m us t b e r e f e r re d t o a m e di c al pr ov i d e r fo r e v al ua t io n a n d t r e a tm en t . C . Ad m i n i s t r at i o n o f ot ic a ge n t s 1 . I ns t ru c t i on s f o r u s e of o t ic dr o ps a . W ar m t h e s o l ut i on b y h o ld i ng th e b o t tl e i n t h e h a n d f o r a f e w m om e nt s . b . Ti l t t h e h ea d s id e wa y s wi t h th e a f f ec te d e a r up wa r d . c . P ul l t he ea r l ob e u p a nd b ac k t o s tr a ig h te n t h e c a na l f o r a d ul ts an d d o wn a nd ba c k t o st r ai g ht e n i n c h i ld r en . d . U se t he ot h er ha n d t o s qu e e ze t h e b ot t le of d ro p s , c a r e fu ll y d el i v e ri n g t h e n u m b e r o f re c o m m en d ed d r o ps i n to th e e a r c an a l. C a u ti on sh o ul d b e t ak en n ot t o i n se r t t h e a pp l ic at o r i n to t h e e a r c a n al . e . K ee p t h e h ea d ti lt e d s i d e wa y s f or se v e r al m i nut e s o r p l ac e c ot t on in th e e a r t o p r e ve n t t he m e di c a t io n fro m d r a in in g o u t . I f c ot t on is us ed , it m u s t be la r ge e no u gh , s o a s n o t t o b ec om e l odg e d i n t h e e a r, an d s ho ul d no t b e l e ft in t he ea r fo r lo n ge r than 1 hr. f . R e pe a t t h e p ro c ed u re o n th e o p po s i t e e a r, if ne c es sa r y . 2 . I ns t r u c ti o ns f o r u s e o f a n o t i c s yr i n g e a . P r ep a re a wa r m s o l ut io n of pl a in wa t e r . F il l t he o ti c s y r in g e wi t h t he wa r m wa t e r s o lu t io n . b . S t ra i gh t en th e e a r c ana l us in g t h e a pp r op r i at e m e th o d, as no t ed ab o v e . Ti l t t he h e a d o ve r a s i nk o r ba s in t o c at ch t he ou t fl o w s ol u t io n . c . In se r t th e t i p o f t he o tic s y ri n ge in t o e a r, wi t h th e ti p p o in t ed s l ig h tl y u pwa r d . d . G e n tl y s q u ee z e th e bu l b o f t h e o ti c s yr i ng e t o a l lo w t h e s ol u ti o n t o e n te r t he ea r . A l l o w t h e s o l ut i on to d ra in f r om th e e a r i nt o th e s in k o r ba si n . I f p a in o r dizz i n e s s o cc u rs , re m o v e t he s y r i ng e an d c on s u l t a m e di ca l p r o vi de r . e . R ep e a t o n o pp os i te ea r , if ne ce s s a r y. P.608
II. DENTAL OTC PRODUCTS A. D e n t a l an a t om y. A n a t o m i c a l l y , t h e t ee t h a r e di v i d ed in t o t wo p a r ts : t h e c r ow n ( a b o ve t h e g in gi v a l l i ne ) a n d t h e r o ot ( be lo w t h e g i ng i v a l l in e ) . 1 . E na m el is th e c r y s ta lli n e c al ci um s a lt s ( h yd r o xya p a t it e ) t h at co v e r th e c r o wn t o p r o t ec t t he u nd e rl y i n g t oo t h s t ru c tu r e . 2 . D e nt i n i s t h e la r g es t p a r t o f th e t o ot h s t ru c tu re , lo ca t ed be n ea t h t h e en a m e l . I t p r o t ec ts th e d e nt a l p ul p . 3 . C em e n tu m i s a bo ne - li k e s tr u c t u re t ha t c o v e rs t h e ro o t a nd p ro v i d es t he a t t ac hm en t of t he to o th wi t h t h e p e ri o do n ta l l ig am e nt s . 4 . P u lp c o ns is ts of f r ee n e r v e en di n gs . B . C o m mo n de n ta l p r obl e m s a nd O TC p r o d u c ts 1 . D e nt a l c a r ie s (i . e. , ca vi t i e s ) a r e f o rm ed b y the g r o wt h a n d im p la n ta t ion o f c a r io ge n ic m ic r oo r g an is m s . a . C a us es ( 1 ) B a ct e r i a ( p ri m a r il y S t r e p to c o cc us m u ta ns an d L ac t ob a ci ll ac e ae ) p r o duc e a ci ds ( e . g ., la c ti c ac i d) t ha t d em i ne r al i z e e n am el . In it i al l y , de m i n er a li ze d e n am el a pp ea r s a s a wh i t e , c h a lk y a re a an d be c o m e s b lu is h wh i te a n d e v e nt u al l y b ro wn o r y e l l o w. ( 2 ) D i e t is an o th e r f ac t o r i n t h e d e vel o pm en t o f de n t al c a r ie s. Fo o ds wi t h a h ig h c o nc en t r at i on of r ef i ne d s u ga r (i . e ., su c r o se ) i nc re a s e th e ri sk of de n ta l ca r i es . S u c r os e is c o n v e rt e d b y b a c t e r ia l p la q ue in t o v o la t i le ac id s t ha t de s t r o y th e h yd r o xya p a t i t e. ( a ) F r uc t o se an d l a c to se a r e l ess ca r io g en ic th an su c ro se . ( b ) N o nc a r i og e n ic su g ar s u b st i t u te s a r e xyl i t o l, s o rb i to l , a nd as pa r t am e. b . O TC p r o d u c ts fo r den t a l c a r i es i nc l ud e p r od uc t s t ha t c a n a ll e v i a t e t h e p a in an d s e ns it i v i t y un t il th e p a ti en t c a n g e t t o t h e d en t is t. E xa m p l es o f i ng r ed i en ts t h a t a re b e n ef ic ia l i n th is re g a rd in c lu d e li d oc ai n e, be n zoc a i ne ( e .g . , A n be s o l , O r a je l ) , o r an o r a l a na l ge s i c ( e .g . , a s p ir i n , a c e t am in o ph en ) . 2 . P la q u e a nd ca l c ul u s a . C a us es ( 1 ) P l aq u e is a s ti c k y s ub s ta nc e fo r m e d b y t he a tt a c h m e n t o f b ac t e ri a t o th e p e ll ic l e, wh i c h is a t hi n , a c el lu l a r, gl y c op r o te i n ( a m uc op r o te i n co a ti n g t hat a dh e r es t o t he en am el wi t h in m i nu t es a ft e r c le a ni ng a t o ot h ) . ( 2 ) C a lc u l us (o r t a r ta r ) is t he s u bs ta nc e fo r m e d wh e n p l aq ue is no t re m ov e d wi t h i n 2 4 h r. Th e p l aq u e b eg in s t o c a lc if y i nt o c al c ul us wh e n c al c i um s a l t p re ci pi t a te s f r om t h e s al i v a . Ca lc ul u s c a n b e r em o ved on l y b y a p ro f es si o na l d e nt a l cl e an ing . b . O TC p r o d u c ts ( 1 ) T oo t h b r us h es . So f t , r o u nd e d, n y lo n b r is t le s ar e p re f e r re d b y d en t is ts b e c a us e h a r d b r is tl es c a n i r r it a te t h e g i ng i v al m a r gi ns an d c au se t he gu m s to r ec ed e . So m e t o o th b r us he s h a v e s pe c ia l l y de s i gn e d b r is tl es t ha t r ea c h de e p b et we e n te e t h a nd a l on g th e g um li n e t o re m o v e s ta in s a n d p ol is h t ee t h a n d m a s s a ge gu m s . E xa m p l e s i n cl ud e C ol ga t e W hit e ni ng a nd C ol g at e Ma s s a g er t o o th b r us he s . E le c tr ic t o o th b r us he s c a n b e ne f it p a ti e nt s wh o re qu i r e s om e on e t o c le a n t he i r t e eth f o r t he m
o r p at i en ts wh o ha v e o r th o d on ti c a p pl ia nc es . Too t h b ru sh es s h ou l d b e r ep l ac e d wh e n t h e y be g in to s h o w we a r o r e v e r y 3 m o n th s , wh i c h e ve r c om es f ir s t. P at i ent s s h ou ld r e p la ce t he i r t oo t hb r us h a f t e r h a v in g a n u p pe r - r es p i ra t or y i n fe c t i on . ( 2 ) I r r i ga t i ng d e vi ce s d ir e c t a h i gh - p re s s u re st r ea m o f wa t e r t h r ou gh a no zz l e t o t h e h a r d- t o -c le a n a r ea s b y g e nt l y li f ti n g t h e f r ee g i ng i va to ri n s e ou t c r e v ic es . Two t yp e s a r e a v a il a bl e : p u lsa t i n g ( i .e . , i n te r m i t te n t lo w- a n d hi gh - p r es s u r e wa t e r s t r ea m s ) a n d s t ea d y ( i . e . , c o ns t an t an d c on s i s t en t wa t e r pr es s ur e ) , n ei t he r o f wh i c h h a s sh o wn s up e ri o r i r r iga t i ng ab il i t y . ( a ) I r ri g at i ng de v i c e s s ho u ld s e r ve as a d ju nc ts in m ai n ta i ni ng o ra l h y g i ene . ( b ) E xa m p le s i nc lu d e I n te r p la k W ate r J e t, H yd r o -P i k , a nd th e W at e rp ik ora l i r r i ga t or . c . D en t a l f l os s i s a v a il ab l e wa xe d , u n wa xe d , t h ic k , t hi n , f la v o r e d, o r u nf la vo r e d . S o m e d en t al fl os s e s a r e i m p re gn a te d o r co a te d wi t h a d di t i ves s uc h a s b ak i n g s od a a n d f l uo r id e . A ls o , s e v e ra l m a nu f ac tu r e rs a re m ar k e ti n g f lo ss m a de of m at e r ia ls wi t h s u pe r io r an t is h re d di ng pr o p e rt i es (e . g. , G li d e, C ol g a te P re ci si o n ). Th e r e ar e n o d i f fe r e nc es a m o n g P.609 d e n ta l f l os s es in t er m s of p la q ue r em o val an d p r eve n t i on of gi n gi vi t is . Th er e is no e vi d e nc e o f a re s i d ua l wa x f i l m wi t h t h e u s e of wa xe d d e n ta l f l os s . ( 1 ) Th e s e le c t i on of de n ta l fl os s d ep e nd s o n t h e c h a ra c t e ri s ti cs o f th e p a ti e n t, s u ch a s to o th ro u gh n es s o r t igh t n es s o f t oo t h c on t ac ts ( e . g ., wa xe d f l o s s i s re c o m m e nd e d f o r ti g ht - f it t in g t e e th be c a u s e it ca n p as s e as il y be t we e n t he te e th wi t h ou t s h r ed di n g ). ( 2 ) Th e Am e ri c a n D en t al A s s o c i a ti on ( A D A ) re c og n i zes th e fo ll o wi n g b r and s a s s af e a n d e f fe c ti v e : Bu t le r , J oh n s o n & Jo h ns on , an d Or a l - B . d . D e n ti f r i ce s a r e p r od uc t s t ha t en ha nc e th e re m o v a l of st a in s a nd de n ta l p l aq ue b y t h e to o th b ru s h . Th es e i nc l ud e t o ot h pa st e s , an t ip la q u e a nd an t ic al c u lo us m o ut h wa s he s , c o s m e ti c wh i t e n e rs , d es e ns it i z i ng a g e n t s , di s c lo s i n g a ge n ts , an d d e n ta l g um s . ( 1 ) T oo t h pa s t es ar e b e ne f ic i al in de cr e as in g th e i n ci de n ce of de n ta l c a ri es , r e d uc in g m ou t h o d or s , an d en h an ci ng pe r s o n al ap p e ar a nc e. S om e t o ot h pa s te s m a y c o nt a in th e a n ti o xi d a n t c o e n z y m e Q1 0 ( Co Q 1 0 ; e. g . , Pe r f ec t S m i l e Q 1 0 ) . I n g r e di e n ts in c l u de th e f o l lo wi n g : ( a ) Ab r a s i ve s a r e re s p on s ib le f o r p h ys ic a ll y r em o vi n g p la q ue an d d e b ri s. E xa m p l es i n cl ud e s il ic a te s , s o d iu m b ic a r bo na t e , d ic al c i um p h os p ha t e, s o di um m e t ap h os p ha t e, c a lc iu m p y r o ph os p ha t e, c a lc iu m ca r b on a te , m ag ne s iu m c a r b on a te , a n d a lu m in um o xi d e s . Me n t a de n t c o n tai n s s o d iu m b ic a rb on a t e, wh e r e a s Pe r o xi C a r e a n d C o l ga t e b a ki n g s o d a a nd pe r o xi de wh i t e ni n g c o n ta i n s o d iu m b ic a r bo na t e a n d p er oxi d e . H i g h a b r as i ve f o rm ul a ti o ns are n ot ad v i se d fo r l o ng - t er m us e o r fo r u s e b y pa t ie n ts wi t h e xp o s e d ro o t s u r f ac es . ( b ) S u r f ac t an t s a r e f o am i ng ag e nt s t ha t a re i n c o r p o ra t ed in t o m o s t d en ti f r ic es b e ca us e th ei r de t e rg en t a c ti o n a id s i n r em o v i ng d e b ri s . Th e mo s t f re q uen t l y u s e d s u r fa c ta n ts a r e s o di u m la u r yl s u l f a t e a nd s od i um d o de c yl b e n z e ne s ul fo n a t e. S o d iu m l au r y l s u lf a te - c on t a in in g d e nt i f ri c e s h a v e b e en as so c i a te d wi t h a n i nc r e as e
i n th e o c c u r re nc e o f c a nk e r s o re s . D e nt i f ri c e s s uc h a s Re m b r a nd t Na t u ra l, S e n so d y n e, an d Bi o te n e d o no t c on t ai n s o di um l au r yl s u l fa t e. ( c ) H u me c ta n t s p r e v en t t h e p r e pa r at i on f ro m d r yin g . E xa m pl es in c l u de s or b i to l , g l yc e ri n , a nd pr o p y le n e g l y c ol . ( d ) S u sp e nd i n g a ge n t s a d d t h ic k n es s t o t he p rod u c t . E xa m p le s i nc lu de m e th y l c e l lu lo s e, t ra g ac an t h , a nd ka r a y a g um . ( e ) F la vo r i n g a g en t s i nc l u de s o r bi t ol o r sa c c h ar in . ( f ) P yr o p h o s p h a te s a r e f o u nd in ta r t a r- c on t ro l too t h pa s t e s. Th es e p r o du c t s re t a rd t a r t a r f o rm at i on ; h o we v e r , t he y f o rm an al ka li n e so l u ti on t ha t m a y ir r i ta t e th e s ki n . S o m e p at i en ts m i gh t e xp e r i en c e a r a sh ar o un d t he o ut s i d e o f t h e m o u th . Th e s e p a t ie n ts s ho u ld us e r e gul a r to o th p as te an d o n l y oc c a si o na l l y b r us h wi t h t ar t a r c o nt r o l t oo t hp as t e ( e .g . , C o l g at e Ta r ta r C on t r ol W hite n in g ). Ta r t a r -c on t ro l t o o th p as te s d o n o t p en e tr a t e b e lo w t h e g um l in e , wh e r e t a r ta r do es th e m o s t d a m a g e. ( g ) F l uo r i de is an t ic a ri og e ni c b ec a us e i t r e pl ac es t he h yd ro xy l i o n in h ydr o xy a p a t i t e wi t h t h e f l uo r id e i o n t o fo r m f l uo r ap a ti t e o n t h e ou t e r s u rf ac e o f th e e n am e l . F l u or a pa t it e h a r de ns th e e n am el an d m ak es it m or e ac i d r es is t an t . F lu o r ide a ls o h as d e m o ns t r at e d a nt i ba c t e r ia l ac ti vi t y. ( i ) F lu o ri d e is mo s t b e ne f i c ia l i f us ed f ro m b i rt h t h r ou g h a ge 12 o r 1 3 be c au se u n e ru p te d p e rm a ne n t t ee t h a r e m in e ra l i zin g d u rin g th a t t im e . W het he r o r n o t a p a t ie n t r ec e i v es fl uo r id e d e p en ds on th e c on c e n t ra t i on in hi s o r h e r l oc al d r i nk in g wa t e r ( Ta b l e 2 9 -1 ) .
Table 29-1. Daily Fluoride Supplement Requirements for Infants and Children, Based on Concentration of Fluoride in Drinking Water Fluoride Concentration (ppm) Age > 0.6
0.3-0.6
< 0.3
Fluoride Supplement Required (mg/day)
6 months to 3 years
0
3-6 years
0
6 months to 3 years
0
3-6 years
0.25
6-16 years
0.50
6 months to 3 years
0.25
3-6 years
0.50
6-16 years
1.00
P.610
( i i ) C om m o n f l uo r i d e co m p o un d s i n t oo t hp as t e i nc l ud e 0 . 24 % s od i um f lu o r id e a n d 0 . 7 6% o r 0 .8 0 % s o d iu m m o no f lu o ro p ho s p h at e (e .g . , Ai m , C r es t , Aq ua f r es h , C o l g at e ) . C r es t G um C a re c o n ta i ns a r e fo rm u la t ed ve r si o n o f s ta n no us fl uo r i de ( 0 . 4 54 % ), wh i c h m i g ht r ed u c e gi n gi v i ti s a n d b le edi n g o f t h e g um s b y an a ve r a ge o f 2 0 % a n d 3 3% . Ho we v e r , i t c a n a ls o s ta i n t he te e th b r o wn . ( i i i ) A f lu o r id e wa r ni n g la b el , wh i ch r ec om m e nd s c on t ac t in g a po is o n co nt r o l c en t e r o r se ek i ng p ro f es s i on al a s s is t an c e i f m o r e t h an a b r us hf u l o f f lu o r id e t o ot h p as te is i n ge s te d , is r eq u ir e d b y th e F D A o n f l uo r id e -c on ta i ni n g d en t if r ic es be c a use t he f e d e ra l a ge nc y l is ts fl u o ri d e a s a to xi c s u bs t an c e. ( i v) Th e e s t im a te d to xi c d o s e of f lu o ri d e is 5 -1 0 m g /k g . ( v) A c u t e f lu o ri d e t o xi c i ty c a us es na us e a, v o m i t in g , a n d d ia r r he a . Th e AD A l im i ts t h e m a xi m um am ou n t o f f l u or i de in A D A - ac c e pt e d t o o th pa s te to 26 0 m g p er c o nt a in e r . ( 2 ) A ge n ts wi t h a n t i pl a qu e po t en t ia l f o r i nc l us io n i n d e nt i f ri ce s i nc lu d e pla n t e xt r a c t s (s an g ui na r in e ) , m e ta l s al t s ( z i nc an d s tan n o us ) , p he n ol ic c om p oun d s ( t r i cl os an ) , a n d e s s en t ia l o i ls (t h ym o l a n d e uc al yp t o l ) . ( a ) T r ic l o sa n i s a n a nt im ic r o bi al ag e nt t ha t h as b e e n d em on s t r a te d c li nic a ll y t o h el p p r e ve n t g in gi v i t is , p l aq ue , c a v i t ie s , an d ta r ta r . ( i ) C o lg a te To t al c o n ta ins 0 .2 4% s o di um f lu o ri d e a n d 0 . 30 % t r ic l os an an d i s f o r m u l at e d wi t h th e po l ym e r G an t r ez , wh i ch wo r k s t o p r ol o ng t he c o nt ac t o f t r i c l os a n wi t h o ra l s t ru c tu r e s . ( i i ) Th e r ef o re , C ol g at e To t a l c o n ti n ue s t o wo r k i n b e t we e n b r us hi n gs . ( b ) C o lg a te To t al ha s b ee n ac c e p te d b y t he A D A a s e f f ic ac io us . ( 3 ) An t i c a lc u l ou s d e n ti fr i c e s i nc lu d e t he in g r ed ie n ts z i nc c h lo r id e , z in c c i t r a te , a n d 3 3 % p y r op h os ph a te t o p re v e n t c al cu lu s f o rm a t i on . ( a ) Th e A D A d o es n o t e v a l ua t e a n ti c a lc ul o us c l aim s b ec a us e i t r e ga r ds the i n hi b it i on of s u p ra g in gi v a l c a lc ul us as a no n t he ra p e ut ic us e.
( b ) Th e A D A h as di r ec t ed t ha t th e f o ll o wi n g s ta t em e nt ap p ea r on al l p ac k a g e a n d c o nt a in e r l ab e li ng f o r ac c e pt e d f lu o r id e d en t i fr ic e p r o du c t s wi t h c a lc u lu s -c o n t r ol a c ti vi t y: “ [ P ro du c t n a m e] h as be e n s ho wn t o re d uc e th e f o rm a ti on o f t a rt a r a b o v e t he g u m l in e , b u t h as n o t b een s h o wn t o h a ve a t he r ap e u ti c e f fe c t on pe r i od ont a l d i se as es . ” ( 4 ) C o sm e t ic w h i te n in g a g en t s . Th e m os t co mm o n in g r e di e n t i n t he s e p r o du ct s t h a t i s r es po n s i bl e f o r wh i t en in g th e t e et h i s 1 0 % c a r ba m i de pe r o x id e (i .e . , i n G l yO xi d e , S im pl y W hit e, o r P r o xi g e l ) an d h y d r og e n p e r o xi d e (i . e. , in C r es t W hite s t r i ps ) . ( a ) C a rb am i de pe r o xi d e is a wh i te c r ys t al th a t r e ac t s wi t h wa t e r to r el ea s e h y d r o ge n p e r o xi d e , wh ic h i n t u r n lib e r a te s f r ee o xi d es . ( b ) S om e c os m e ti c wh i ten e r s m a y c on t ai n h yd r oge n pe r o xi d e o r pe r h y d ro l u r e a i n g e l o r l i qu i d f o rm . ( c ) P r od uc t s s p ec i fi c a ll y m a rk e te d to de n ti s t s i nc lu d e Co l ga t e P l at in u m P ro f es s i o na l To o t h W hi te n in g S ys t em a n d Re m b r a nd t L i gh t en G e l . ( i ) P a ti en t s s h o ul d p e r for m to o th bl e ac hi n g o nl y wi t h a de n ti s t 's s u pe r v i s io n . ( i i ) C r es t E xt r a W hi te n ing us es a p a te n te d s of t - sil i ca te ch n ol o g y. O wi n g to t hi s t e ch n ol o g y , t he p ro d uc t c o nt a in s 5 0% m o r e s i l ic a, wh i c h g r ea t l y en ha nc e s t h e r e m o val of e xt r i ns ic s t a in s wi t ho u t i nc r ea s i n g a br a s i v en es s. ( i i i ) C ol ga t e L um in o us a ls o c on t ai n s a s il ic a wh i te n in g te c h n ol og y a nd f luo r i de . ( d ) P o ss i bl e r is k s as s oc i at e d wi t h us in g wh i t en in g p ro du c ts i nc l ud e a l te ra t i on of n o r m a l f lo r a , t is s u e d am a g e , t oo t h s en s i t i v it y, gin g i vi ti s, an d p o te n ti a ti o n o f c a rc i no ge n ic e f f ec ts of ot h e r a g en ts . ( e ) An t i s e p ti c s h a v e b ee n us ed as wh i t en e rs (e .g . , G l y - O xi d e , P r o xi g el ) . ( 5 ) D e se n si t iz i n g a ge n ts r e du ce th e p a in in s e ns i ti v e t ee t h ca us e d b y col d , h e at , a c id s, s we e ts , o r to uc h . Th e s e p r o du ct s s ho ul d be n on a br as i v e an d s ho uld n ot be u s ed on a p e rm an e nt bas is un l es s di r ec t ed b y a d e n ti st . ( a ) E xa m p le s o f 5 % p o t a s s i um n i t ra t e c om p o und s in cl u de C ol g at e Se nsi t i v e , S e n so d y n e, A qu a f re s h Se n s i t i v e, an d C re s t S e ns i t i vi t y. ( b ) D i ba s i c s o d iu m c i t r ate i n P l ur o ni c g el an d 1 0% s tr o nt i um c hl o r id e we re c l as s i f ie d a s c la ss I II pe n di ng f ur t he r e v i de nc e o f e f f ec ti ve ne ss . ( 6 ) D i sc l os i n g a ge n t s ai d in v is u al i z in g wh e r e de n t al pl aq u e h as fo r m e d . Th e s e p r o du c ts a r e f o r o c c as ion a l u s e on l y an d s ho u ld n o t b e s wa l l o we d . Th e FD A a p p ro ve d p r o du c t is a v eg e t ab le d ye , F oo d , D ru g , a n d C o sm et ic ( F D & C ) R e d N o 3 . F o l lo wi n g u s e, th e c on s um e r s ho u ld ri ns e th e m ou t h wi t h wa t e r a nd th e n e xp e c t o r at e . P.611
( 7 ) M o u t hw as h es m a y c o n t ai n a s t r i ng en t s , de m ul c en ts , de t er g en t s , fl a vo rs , g e r m i ci da l a g en ts , an d f lu o r id e . Th e y c an be us ed f o r co s m e ti c p u rp os es , r e d uc in g p l aq u e, o r s up pl em e nt i ng f lu o ri d e c on s u m p t io n . ( a ) C o sm e t ic mo u t hw ash e s fr es h en th e br e at h . Th e y a r e no n th e r ap eu t ic a n d a r e n o t e f f ec ti v e as an an t is e p t ic a g en t . Th es e m o u th wa s h es a re c l as si f ie d by t h e i r a c ti ve in g r ed ie n ts , a lc o ho l c o nt e nt , an d a pp e a ra nc e . Th e m o s t p op ul a r p ro d uc ts a re
t h os e th a t c o n ta i n m e d ic i n al ph e no l a n d m i n t. Th e h ig he r t he pe rc e n t o f al c oh ol , th e h i gh e r th e e f fe c t o f t he fla v o r wi t h i n t he m o u th . ( b ) An t i p l a qu e m o u th r in s e s. Mo u t h ri ns e s c l aim i ng an t ic al cu lo u s o r t a rt a r - c o n t ro l a c ti vi t y c o n ta i n t he s a m e a c ti v e in g re d ie n ts a s a nt i ca lc u lu s d en t if r ic es . C oo l Mi n t L i st e ri n e h as re c ei v e d t he A D A s e al o f a pp r o val . ( i ) C e t y lp y r i d in iu m c hl o rid e ( C P C ) , a m ou t h wa s h in g r ed i en t , h as be en a ppr o v e d fo r c l as s I f o r p l aq u e a nd gin g i v i ti s t r ea tm e nt . E xa m p l es of p ro d uc ts in th is c l a s s i n cl ud e C ep ac ol , Sc o pe , O r a l - B A nt i - Pl a qu e Ri ns e , a n d C re s t P r o - He a lt h R i n s e . ( i i ) C hl o r he xi d i n e is an ac t i v e i ng r e di en t in s om e m o ut h wa s he s . A n e xa m pl e is C o l g at e Pe r io G a r d . ( i i i ) S ta in i ng is a s s oc ia te d wi t h th e o v e r us e o f CP C a n d c h l o rh e xi d i ne . ( i v) F l u o r id a t ed mo u t hw a sh e s a re us e d a ft e r c le a ni n g t h e t ee t h a nd sh ou l d b e e xp e c t o r at e d. N o th in g s h o ul d b e pu t i n to th e m ou t h fo r 3 0 m in a ft e r u s i ng t he s e m o ut h wa s he s . Th e A D A h a s a pp r o v e d t he fo l lo wi n g p ro du c ts : A C T A n t i - Ca v i t y D e n t al R in s e , A C T f o r K id s , F l uo r ig a rd A nt i - C a v ity D e n t al R i ns e, an d Re ac h F l u or i de D en t al R in s e , Or a l - B Ri ns e Th e ra p y an d A n t i - Ca v i t y Tr e a tm e nt , a n d C o l g at e Ph os - F lu r . ( 8 ) D e n ta l g u ms a re p rom o te d to re d uc e p la q ue , wh i t e n te e th , po s s ib l y r ed u c e th e r i sk of t oo t h d ec a y , a n d fr e s he n b r ea t h . C h e wi n g g u m is as s o c i a te d wi t h in c r ea s e d s a li va r y f lo w, wh i c h ap pa r e n tl y p ro d uc es a b en e fi c i a l b u ff e ri n g e f fe ct ag a in s t a c i ds i n th e o r al c a v i t y . ( a ) S om e c on t ai n b ak in g s od a a s a m i ld ab r as i ve c le a ne r an d t o n e ut r al i ze ac i d. ( b ) C a lc iu m m a y b e a dde d to he l p r em i ne r al i z e th e te e th an d p r e v e nt c a v i t i es . ( c ) Th e s e gu m s a ls o c o nt a i n xy l i t o l , a s we e te n e r t h a t i s le s s li k e l y to c a us e c a vi t ie s t h a n su g a r o r s o rb i to l . Exa m p l e s a r e Tr i d en t A d va n t ag e , A r m & H am m e r D e n t al C a r e , B re a th A s u r e , D e nta l C a re , Ad v a nc e B re a th C a r e , A q ua f r es h W hit eni n g , a nd B i o t en e . B r ea t h As u re D en t a l G u m co n ta i ns a n i n gr e d i e n t c al le d P XT- 2 0 , wh i ch is a n e m ul si o n o f p ol y d im e th y ls i lo xa n e a nd po lo xa m e r 4 0 7 . I t f o rm s a th i n co a tin g on th e t o o th t ha t i s s up po s e d to r e d uc e p la qu e b u il d up . ( d ) Th e s e gu m s ar e n o t a s u bs t i tu t e f o r g oo d o r al h y g ie ne , in c l ud i ng b ru s h i ng an d f l os si n g, bu t m a y be us ef u l f o r p e op l e wh o a r e un a bl e to b ru s h af t e r l un c h . ( e ) I t is no t k n o wn if t hes e p r o du ct s h a v e a n y adv a n t a ge o v e r r e gu la r s u ga r l es s gum. 3 . G i n gi vi t i s i s i n fl am m at i o n o f t h e gi n gi va . Th e g i ng i va m a y ap p ea r l a r ge r in s i ze wi t h a bl u is h h ue c a us ed b y e ng o r ge d g in g i val c ap i l l a ri e s a nd a s l o w ve n ou s re t u rn . a . C a us e . G i ng i v i ti s i s c a u s e d b y m i c ro o r ga ni s m s t ha t e ve n tu a ll y d am age c e l lu la r a n d i n te r c e ll u la r ti s s ue s . C h r o n i c g i ng i vi t i s m a y b e l oc a li z e d o r ge ne r a lize d . Th e g u m s re a di l y bl ee d wh e n p r o be d o r b r us h ed , a n d t h e p a ti e nt sh ou l d s e e k d e n ta l a ss is t an c e. b . O TC p r o d u c ts in c l u de a ne s t h et ic s c on t ai n in g e u ge n ol or be n z o ca i n e (e . g . , O r a j e l) t o r el i e v e t h e p ain . Mo u t h wa s h es m a y f res h en th e b r e at h ; h o we ve r , i t is i m po r t an t t o c on s i d e r t he p o te n ti a l o f t h es e p ro d uc t s t o d is gu is e a n d d el a y t r e a tm en t o f pa t ho lo g ic al c on d it i on s ( e .g . , g in g i v i ti s ) b e fo r e u s e . Al s o , a c et am i no p he n ( Ty l e n o l ) c an be r ec om m e nd e d. Th e pa t ie n t sh o ul d s ee k th e ad v i c e o f a d en t is t .
4 . P e r io d o nt a l d i se a se is t he re s ul t o f c h ro n ic g in g i v i ti s l ef t u n t re a te d . a . Th e pe r io d on t al l i ga m e n t a t t ac hm en t a n d a l v eo l a r b on e s up p o rt o f t he t o o th d e t e ri o ra t e. b . R i sk f ac t o r s i nc lu de g e n de r (m en a ff ec t ed m or e t ha n wo m e n ) , a ge ( > 3 5 y e a rs o l d ), sm ok in g , l ac k o f o ra l c a r e a nd re g ul a r d en t is t v is i ts , d ia b et e s, h y pe rt e ns i on , r h e um a to id a rt h r it is , a n d l os s o f a n te r io r t ee t h. c . P er i od o nt i ti s m a y b e tr e a t ed wi t h p r es c ri p ti on p r o du c ts : ( 1 ) P e ri os t at ( do xy c y c l i ne h y c l a te , 20 - m g c a ps ule s ) ( 2 ) A t ri d o x ( d o xy c y c l i ne h y c l at e 1 0 % ) i n t he A t ri ge l D el i ve r y S y s te m . ( a ) A t ri d o x p r o v i de s l oc al a nt i ba c t e ri a l e f fe c t s . ( b ) L o w- d os e d o xy c y c l i ne i nh ib i ts c o ll ag e na s e , an e n z y m e t ha t d es t r o ys c o nn ec t i ve t i ss ue in t he gu m s , l ea d in g to t oo t h l os s . P.612
5 . Ac u t e ne c r o ti z in g u lc e r a t i ve g i n gi vi t i s ( AN U G ) ( a l s o c a ll ed t r e nc h m o u t h ) is c h a ra ct e ri z e d b y n ec r os is an d u lc e r at i on of t he gin g i v al su r f ac e wi t h un d er l y i n g i n f la m m at i on . Th is c o nd it i o n is us ua l l y s ee n i n tee n s a nd y o un g a d ul ts . a . S i gn s a n d s ym p t o m s o f A N U G in c l u de s e v e r e p a in , h a li t os is , b le e di ng, f o ul t a s te , a n d i nc r ea s e d s al iv a t i o n. b . Th e ca u se of A N U G is un k n o wn . I t i s p os tu l ate d th a t i t m ig h t b e as s oci a t ed wi t h t h e o ve r g r o wt h o f s p ir oc h e t e a nd fu si f o rm or g an is m s . c . R is k fa c t o rs in c l u de a n xi e t y , s t re s s , s m o ki ng , m al n ut r i ti on , an d p o or or a l h yg i e ne . d . T r ea t me n t c o ns is ts of l oc a l d éb r id em e nt . Al s o , p e ni c i ll i n V K ( pe ni c i l li n V i s a d e r i va ti v e of pe n ic il li n G; h o we ve r , it is m o re s t ab l e i n a n a ci di c m ed iu m a n d , t h e r ef o re , is b e t te r a bs o rb e d f r om th e g a s t r oi n te s t i n al t ra c t ; K s ta n ds fo r po t as s i um ) o r m e t r on id a z o le m a y b e u s e d i n c e rt a in ca s e s ( e. g . , wi d es p re ad le si o ns ) . e . O TC p r o d u c ts in c l ude ac e ta m i n op h en an d p ro d uc ts wi t h be n zoc a in e (n o t e u ge n ol b e ca us e i t m a y c a us e s of t t is s u e d am ag e ) . Th e pa t i en t s ho u ld be ad v i s e d t o s e e a d e n ti s t . Th e u s e of s a li c y l a t es is no t re co m m en de d if th e pa ti e n t is p re dis p os ed t o b l ee d in g . A ls o , a de q ua t e n u t ri t io n , h ig h f l ui d i nt a k e , a nd r es t a r e e s s en t ial . R in si n g t h e m ou t h wi t h wa r m no rm a l s a l in e o r 1. 5 % p er o xi d e s ol u ti on m i gh t be he lp f u l f o r t h e fi rs t fe w d a y s . 6 . T em p o ro m an d i bu l a r j o i n t s yn d r o m e is c a us ed b y an im p ro p e r wo r k i ng r e l at i on sh i p b et we e n th e c he wi n g m u sc le s a nd the T MJ . a . S i gn s a n d s ym p t o m s i nc l ud e a du ll , ac hi ng pa i n a r ou n d t he ea r , h e ada c he s , n e ck a c he s , li m i t ed op e ni n g o f t h e m ou t h, an d a c l i ck i ng o r p op pi n g n oi s e u p on o p e ni ng t he m o ut h . b . R i sk f ac t o r s i nc lu de b r u xi s m (i . e. , g r i nd in g the t ee t h ) a nd oc c l us al ( i. e. , bi t e ) a b n or m a l it i es . c . T re a t me n t c on s i s t s o f m oi s t h ea t a p pl ie d to the j a w, m u sc le r el a xa n t s, b i t e p la t es o r oc cl us a l s p l in ts , a di et o f s of t fo o ds , c o rr ec t ing t he oc c l us io n , o r s u rg er y . d . O TC p r o d u c ts th a t c an h el p re li e v e th e p ai n i nc l ud e o r al an a lg e s ic s ( e .g . , a c et am i no p he n , i bu p ro f en ) .
7 . T ee t h in g p a i n. Th e AD A h as no t acc e pt e d a n y p r o du ct fo r t ee t hi ng pa in . A f r o z e n t ee t h i ng r i ng c an p r o v id e s y m p t om a ti c re l ie f . Pe r s i st i ng pa in m ay b e t re a te d wi t h a lo c a l a n es th e ti c s u c h as b en z o ca in e (f o und i n A n be so l Ba b y an d Or a j el B a b y) . I f a t e et h in g c hi l d p r es e nt s wi t h a f e v e r , a p h y s ic ia n s ho u ld be c o nta c te d . 8 . X e r os t om i a ( i .e . , d r y m o ut h ) i s c au se d b y im pr o p e r f un c ti on i ng of t he s a li va r y g l an d s ( as in Sj ö g re n s yn d r om e a nd di a be t es m el l it u s) . Ar t i f i c ia l sa l i va is a v ai l ab le a s a n O TC p r od uc t . Th e A D A h as ap p r o v ed th e fol l o wi n g a r ti f ic ia l s al i v a pr o d uc ts : Mo i - S t i r , S al i v a r t, Xe r o - Lu b e , a nd O r al B a la nc e Ge l . C . C o m mo n o ra l le s io ns a nd O TC p r o d u c ts 1 . C a nk e r s o r es ( al s o c a l le d r ec u r r en t a ph t h ous u l ce r s o r r e cu r r e n t ap h t h o us s t o m at i t is ) a . Th e ca u se of c a nk e r s o r es i s u nk no wn . S t u die s s ug g es t t h at t he s o r es m a y b e c a us ed b y h y pe r s e ns i ti v it y t o ba c te r ia fo u nd in the m o u th o r d y s fu nc t io n of t h e i m m u ne s y s t em i n it i at e d b y m in o r t r a um a o r s t re s s . Th is is wh y p h y si ci a ns o r d e n ti s t s m a y u s e p re d ni s o n e o r a t op ic a l s t e r oi d to r e du ce al le r g ic re ac t ion o r h a v e t h e p a ti e nt r in s e wi t h a te t r ac y c li n e su s p e ns io n . P e r i de x a n d Li s te r in e a pp e a r t o h e lp de c re as e ba c t e ri a in t he m o u th . b . L es i on s c a n oc c u r on a n y no n ke r at i ni ze d m uco s al s u r fa ce in t he m o uth ( i .e . , t o n gu e , l ip s ) a nd us ua ll y a p pe a r g r a y to y e ll o w wi t h an e r yth e m a t ou s h al o o f i n f la m e d t is s u e s u r ro u ndi n g t h e u lc e r. Mo s t le s i on s p e rs is t 7- 1 4 d a y s a nd h e al wi t h o u t s c a r r in g . c . O TC p r o d uc t s c an c on t r ol t he pa i n o f ca n k e r s o r es , s ho r te n th e d u ra t io n of c u r re n t l es io n s , an d p r e ve n t n e w l e si on s . P r od uc ts in c l u de p r o te c ta n t s, lo c a l a n e s th e t ic s , a nd dé b r i di n g an d w o un d - cl e an s in g a ge n ts . ( 1 ) P r o te c t an t s i nc l ud e O r a b as e , d e nt u re ad h es ive s ( s e e I I . F. 2 ) , a nd be nz o i n t i nc t u re . D en t ur e a d he s iv e s a re no t ap p ro ve d fo r t h is us e b y t he F D A. ( 2 ) L oc a l a ne s t he t i cs , s u c h as b en z o ca in e o r but a c a i ne , a r e t h e m os t com m o n a n e s th e t ic s f o un d i n t h es e O TC p r od uc t s . ( a ) Th e F D A h as ap p ro v e d th e fo ll o wi n g i n gr e di en t s : ( i ) B e n z oc ai ne ( 5% - 2 0% ) ( i i ) B en z y l a lc oh o l ( 0 .0 5% - 0 . 1% ) ( i i i ) D yc l o ni ne ( 0. 0 5% - 0 .1 % ) ( i v) H e xy l r e s o r c in ol ( 0. 05 % - 0 .1 % ) ( v) Me n t h ol ( 0. 0 4% - 2% ) ( vi ) P h e no l (0 . 5% - 1 .5 % ) P.613
( vi i ) P h e no la t e s od iu m (0 . 5 % -1 . 5% ) ( vi i i ) S a li c y l a lc oh ol ( 1%- 6 % ) ( b ) E xa m p l es o f O TC l oc a l an es t he t ics f o r o ra l u se i nc lu de A nb e so l, B li s tex, C a m ph o - Ph e ni q ue , O r aje l , O r aj el C o ve r Me d , Zi la c ti n - B , Z il ac t in - L , B e n zo d e nt , a n d R e m b ra n dt C an k e r P ai n R e l i ef K it . ( c ) Th e us e o f p r od uc t s c o nt a in in g s u bs ta n ti a l am o un ts o f m e n th o l, ph e no l , c am p ho r , a n d e ug e no l s h o ul d b e di s c ou r ag e d o wi n g t o t h ei r ab il i t y to i rr i ta t e ti ss ue .
( d ) A sp i ri n s ho u ld no t b e r e t ai n ed i n th e m ou t h o r p l ac ed on an o ra l l es io n i n a n a t t em p t t o p r o v id e re li e f. ( e ) P r es c r i p ti o n p r o d uct s . Am l e xa n o x ( A p h t ha so l ) h a s b ee n a pp r o v e d f or t h e t r e a tm en t o f c a nk e r s o r es . ( i ) I t i s a pp li e d 4 ti m e s da i l y af t e r m e a ls a n d a t be d t im e. ( i i ) A d vis e p at i en ts t o s ta r t us in g t h e p r od uc t a s s o on as th e y no t ic e s y m p t om s a nd t o co n ti nu e u n ti l th e u lc er i s h ea l ed , a p pr o xi m a te l y 1 0 da y s . ( f ) G e lc l ai r i s i nd ic a te d fo r lo c al m a na ge m e n t a nd r el i ef o f o r al p a in as s oc i at e d wi t h a p h th o us u lc e rs . It p ro v id e s o r al pa in r el ie f b y a c t i n g as a p r ot e c t i v e a d her e n t b a r r ie r o v er t he s u r fa c e o f t he m o ut h a n d t h ro a t. ( i ) P a ti en t s h ou l d us e o ne p ac k e t a t l e as t 3 ti m e s a da y o r a s n e ed ed . ( i i ) A d vis e p at i en ts t o m ix 1 p a c ke t wi t h 3 ta b le s po o ns of wa t e r , s wi s h f o r a m i n ut e , t h e n e xp e c t or a te . D o n ot e a t o r d r i nk f o r a p p ro xi m a te l y 1 h r a f t e r t r ea tm en t . ( g ) I n ves ti g at i on a l p r o du c t s . T h al i do m i de is b ei n g s tu d ie d f o r t h e t r ea tm e nt o f A I D S a s s oc ia t ed o ra l c ank e r s o re s . ( 3 ) D é b ri d i ng a nd w o u nd - c l ea n si n g a g en t s i nc lu d e 1 0 %- 1 5% c a r ba m i de p e r o xi d e , 3 % h yd ro ge n p e r o xi d e , 1. 2 g s od iu m p e rb o r at e m o n o h y dr a te , an d s od i um b i ca r bo n at e . Th e F D A c on s id e rs th es e fo u r a ct i ve i n gr e di e nt s t o b e s a fe an d e f f ec t i v e f o r d éb r id i ng o r wo u n d - c l e an s i ng ag e nt s f o r o r a l h ea l th c a r e. 2 . C o ld s o re s / fe ve r b l ist e r s ( al s o c a ll ed h e rp e s s i m pl e x l a bi a l is ) a r e c au s ed p r i m a r il y b y t he he r pe s s i m pl e x v i r u s t yp e 1 ( H S V- 1 ) . H S V -1 is c o nt a gi ou s a n d is t h o ug h t t o b e t r a ns m i tt ed b y di r ec t c o nt ac t . An ou t b r ea k m a y b e p r o vok ed b y st r es s , m i no r i n fe c ti o n, fe v e r , o r s un l ig h t. C ol d s o re s u s ua l l y occ u r o n t h e l ip s a nd a r e r e c ur r e nt , of t en a ri s i ng in t he s a m e lo c a t io n . a . P r es e n ta t i on . A n o utb r e ak is p r ec e de d b y b u rn i ng , it ch i ng , o r nu m b n es s . R e d p a p ul es of fl u id - c o n ta in in g v es ic l es th e n a pp ea r , a n d t he s e e v e nt u al l y bur s t a n d f o r m a c r us t . Th e s e s o r es a re t y pi c al l y s el f - li m i t ed a nd he a l in 1 0- 1 4 d a y s wi t h o u t s ca r r in g . b . O TC p r o d u c ts fo r c o ld s o r es in c l u de p ro du c ts t h a t co n ta i n s o f t en in g c o m po u nd s ( e . g ., em ol l ie n t c re am s , p e t r ol a tu m , p ro t ec ta n ts ) , wh i c h k e ep th e c ol d s o re m o is t to p r e ve n t i t f r om dr y i n g a nd f is s u r in g . L oc al an es t he t ic s i n n on d r yi ng ba s e s ( e . g ., O r a b as e , wi t h b en z o c a i ne ) d ec re a se pa in . H ig hl y a s tr i ng e nt ba s e s s ho ul d b e a vo i d ed . Th e A D A c o n tr ai n di c a t es c a us ti c a g en ts ( e . g ., ph e no l , si l v e r n i t rat e ) , c am p ho r an d o t he r c o un te r i r ri t an t s, an d h y d r oc o r ti s on e f o r t h e t r ea t m e n t of c ol d s o r es . L es io ns s h o ul d b e k ep t c l ea n b y g en t l y wa s h i n g wi t h m i l d so a p. ( i ) D o co s an o l 1 0 % c r e am ( Ab r e va ) i s in d ic a te d fo r t he t re a tm en t of c o ld s o r es . I t p r e ve n ts th e c ol d s o re i nf e c ti on f ro m e n te r in g h ea l t h y c el ls . It is ap p ro v ed b y t he F D A t o s ho r t en he al i ng tim e a n d d u ra t io n o f s ym pt o m s . Pa t ie n ts s h ou ld app l y t he c r e am a t th e f i rs t s ig n o f a n o u tb r e ak a n d co n ti n ue t o a pp l y t he c r e am f i ve t im e s a d a y u nt i l t he le s i o n is hea l ed . ( i i ) V i ra c t i n g el ( 2% te t ra c ai n e) is us ed fo r th e te m po r a r y re l ie f o f p a in an d it c h i ng a ss o ci at e d wi t h c o l d s o re s . ( 1 ) I f a s e co n d a r y i n f e c t i o n de v e lo ps , ba c i t r ac in o r N eo sp o r in an t ib io t ic o i n tm en ts s h ou l d b e r ec om m e n de d . I f ne c e s s a r y , t h e p at i en t s ho u ld c o ns ul t a p h ys ic ia n fo r a s ys t em ic a n ti b io t ic p r es c r i p ti o n.
( 2 ) A l i p s u ns c r ee n s hou l d b e u se d f o r p a ti e nt s wh o s e c o ld s o r es ap pe a r t o be c a us ed b y s u n e xp o s u re . ( 3 ) Th e es s e nt i al am in o a c id L -l y s in e h as be e n us e d i n o r al do se s o f 3 00 -1 2 0 0 m g d a il y t o a c c el e r at e re c o v e r y o r s u pp r es s r ec u r re nc e o f c o ld s o r es . H o we v e r , s t ud i es h a ve p ro du c ed c o nf l ic ti ng d at a re g ar d in g L - l y s i ne a n d i ts ef f ec t o n t h e d u ra t i on , s e ve r it y, a nd re c u r r e nc e r a t e o f c ol d s o re s . c . P r es c r ip t i o n p r o du c ts ( 1 ) V a la c yc l o vi r ( V a l t r e x ) is in di c at e d f o r t he t rea t m e n t o f h e rp e s l ab ia l is. ( 2 ) Ac yc l o vi r c r e a m 5 % ( Z o vi r a x ) i s in d ic a te d f or t h e t r ea tm e n t o f c o l d so r e s i n a d ul t s a nd ad o le s c en ts > 1 2 y ea r s o f a g e. Th e r apy s h ou l d b e i ni t ia t ed at th e on se t o f si gn an d s y m pt om s a nd a pp li e d 5 ti m e s p e r d ay f o r 4 d a y s . P.614
( 3 ) P en c i cl o vi r c r ea m 1% ( D e n a vi r ) i s a n a nt i vi ra l m e di c a t io n f o r t h e t r ea t m e n t o f c o ld s o r es i n a d ul ts an d c h il d re n 1 2 yea r s o f a g e a n d o ld e r . P a ti e nt s s ho ul d ap pl y t h e c r ea m e v e r y 2 h r wh il e a wa k e f or 4 d a y s, be gi n ni n g a t t h e f i rs t s ig n o f t i ng l in g o r s we l li ng . D . C o m mo n o ra l in f ec t io n s a n d O TC p r o d uc t s 1 . C a nd i d ia s is ( al s o c a lle d t h ru s h ) i s c a us e d b y t h e fu ng us C a nd id a a l bi c a n s, wh i c h is th e m os t c om m o n op p or t un is t ic pa t ho g en as s o ci a t ed wi t h o r al inf e c ti on s . Th r u s h h as a m il k y c u rd a p p ea r an c e , an d a f fe ct ed p at i en ts s h ou l d c on t act a p h ys ic ia n . 2 . O r a l c a nc e r . Th e m o s t c om m o n o r al c a nc er is s q u am o us ce l l c a r ci n om a , wh ic h c a n a pp e ar as r ed or wh i t e le s i o ns , u lc e ra t io ns , or t um o rs . a . S i gn s a n d s ym p t o m s i nc l ud e a c o lo r c h an ge in t he t on gu e , a s o r e t h roa t t ha t d o es no t h e al , a n d p e rs is t en t or un e xp l a i ne d b lee d i n g . Pa t ie n ts wi t h a n y o f t he se s i gn s sh o ul d c on t ac t a ph y s ic i an o r a d e nt is t . b . R i sk f ac t o r s i nc lu de s m o k ed an d sm ok e le s s to b ac c o as we l l a s a l c oho l . c . T re a t me n t c on s i s t s o f e l im in a ti ng us e o f t o ba cc o a n d a lc oh o l i n a n y f o rm ( e. g . , a l co h ol ic b e v e r ag es , m ou t h ri ns es wi t h al co ho l ) . A l s o, t re a tm en t ge ne r a lly i n c l u de s w i de l oc a l e xc i si o n f o r s m a l l l es io ns an d e n bl oc e xc i si o n s f o r l ar g e r l es i on s ( i n c o nt i nu i t y wi t h r a di c a l n ec k d is se c t i on if l y m p h n od e s a r e i n v ol ve d ) . R a di at i o n, a l on e o r c o m b in e d wi t h s u r g e r y , m a y b e a p p ro p ria t e . Ch em o th e ra p y m a y b e us ed as p a ll i at i on o r as an ad j unc t to s u r ge r y a nd r ad ia t io n . d . O TC m e d ic a t io n s s hou l d n o t b e a dm in is t e re d u n t il af t e r c h ec k i n g wi t h a p h ys ic ia n . F o r e xa m p le , O TC m e d ic a ti o ns us ed fo r in f la m m a ti on c a n i nc re a se th e e f f ec ts o f m e t ho t r e xa t e . C h e m o t he r a pe u ti c a ge n ts ca n p r od uc e m a n y p os s i bl e s id e e f f ec ts t ha t re qu i r e im m ed i a te m e di c a l a t te n ti o n (e . g . , ch es t pa in , i n fl am m a t i on , u n us u al bl ee d in g ) . S om e e xa m p l es o f s i de ef f ec ts t h a t us u al l y do no t re q uir e m e di ca l a t te n ti o n i nc lu de n a us ea , v om i ti ng , lo ss of a pp e ti t e o r h a i r, an d t ro u bl e s l ee pi n g. O TC m e di c a t ion s c an b e us e fu l i n t h es e c a se s ; h o we v e r , n a us ea a nd vo m i ti n g a r e t r ea t ed b y pr e s c r ip t io n m ed ic a ti o ns su c h as o nd an se t r on o r m e to c l o p ra m i de . N on p har m ac o lo gi ca l m ea s u r es , s uc h a s a v o i di ng di s tu r bin g
e n vi r on m e n ta l o d o rs a n d v e s t ib ul a r d is t u rb an c es , m i g h t b e h el p fu l i n m in im i z i ng n a us e a a nd v om i ti n g. E . R e c om me n de d s ta n da r d p r o ph yl a x i s f o r p r eve n t i o n of e nd o ca r d i t is 1 . Am o x i ci l l in 2. 0 g o ra ll y 1 h r b ef o r e t he p ro ce du r e fo r ad ul t s , an d 5 0 m g / k g o ra l l y f o r c h il d re n , i s t he r ec om m e n de d s t an da r d p r oph y l a c t ic r eg im e n f o r a ll de n t al , o r al , u p p er - r es pi r a to r y t r ac t , a n d e s o p ha ge a l p r oc ed ur e s . 2 . F or pa t ie n ts wh o a re a l l e r gi c to p en i ci l l in , the r ec om m e n de d a l t e rn a ti ve o r a l r e g i me n s i nc lu d e t he f oll o wi n g : a . C l in d am yc i n , 6 0 0 m g f o r a d ul ts ; 20 m g /k g f o r c h il d re n b . C e ph a le x i n o r c e fa d ro x i l , 2 .0 g f o r a du l ts ; 5 0 m g /k g f o r c h i ld r en c . Az i t h r om yc i n o r cl a r it h r o m yc i n , 5 0 0 m g fo r ad u l ts ; 1 5 m g/ k g f or c h il d re n , 1 h r b e f o re th e p r oc e du r e F . O TC d e n t u r e p r o du c ts 1 . D e nt u r e c l ea n se r s a re e it h e r c he m ic a l o r a b ra s i ve in r es pe c t t o t he i r c l ea ns i ng a b il i t y . a . C h em i ca l d e nt u r e c l ea n s e r s i nc lu de al k al in e pe r o xi d e , al k a l i n e h y p oc hlo r i te , o r d i lu t e a c i ds . ( 1 ) Al k a l i ne pe r o x id e i s t h e m o st c om mo n l y u s e d c h em ic al de n tu r e c lea n s e r an d i s a va i la bl e a s t a bl e ts o r p o wd e r s . I t c au s e s o xy g e n to be r el e as ed , wh ic h c r ea t es a c l ea ns i ng ef f ec t . A lk a li ne p e ro xi d e do e s n ot da m a g e t h e s u r f ac e o f a c r ylic r es in s ; h o we ve r , i t m a y b l ea c h th e m . ( 2 ) Al k a l i ne h yp o c h l o r i te ( i .e . , b le ac h ) d is s o l v es t h e m at r i x o f pl a qu e b u t h as no e f f ec t o n c al c u l us . I t i s bo t h b ac t e ri c i d al an d f u ngi c id al . A d i sa d va n t ag e of a lk al i ne h yp o ch l or i te is th a t i t c or r o d e s m e ta l de n t u re co m p o ne n ts . It ca n a ls o b l ea c h a c r yl ic re s i n . Th e r e fo r e , i t s h ou l d n ot be us ed m or e t ha n o nc e a we e k . b . Ab r a s i ve de n tu r e c lea n s e r s a r e a va il ab l e as g e l , p as te , or po wd e r ( e .g . , s i li ca t es , s od iu m b ic a rb on a t e, di c a lc i um p h os ph a te , c a lc iu m c a rb on a te ) . P.615
( 1 ) D e nt u re s s ho u ld no t b e s o ak ed in ho t wa t e r be c au s e t he he a t co u ld dis t o rt o r wa r p t h e a p pl ia n c e s . ( 2 ) Th e A D A a c c ep t s t he f o ll o wi n g d e nt u re c l ea ns e r s a s s af e a n d e ff e c t i v e: D e n tu r e B r i t e , E f fe r d en t , a nd P ol id e n t. 2 . D e nt u r e a d he r e n ts c o n t ai n m at e r ia ls (e . g ., k a r a ya gu m , pe c ti n , m e t hy l c e ll ul os e ) t h a t s we l l , g el , a n d b ec om e v is c o us to p ro m o t e ad h es i on , wh ic h i nc r e as es t he d e n tu r e a t ta c h m e n t t o un d e rl y i n g s o f t t is s ue s. a . D i sa d va n t ag es . As t he us e o f de n tu r e a dh e r en t s i nc r ea se s , t he s o f t t is su e d e t e ri o ra t es . De n tu r e a dh e r en t s c a n a ls o p r o v i de a m e di um f or ba c te r ia l an d fu n ga l g r o wt h . D ai l y us e o f d e ntu r e ad he r e nt s i s n ot r ec o m m e nd e d. b . Th e A D A a c c ep t s t he f o l lo wi n g d e n tu r e a dh e ren t s a s s a f e a nd e ff ec t i v e: F i xo d e n t, O R A f i x, S e a - B o nd , S up er P o li - G r i p, an d E ff e rg r i p. G . P h a r ma c is t ' s r e s po ns i b i li t i es t o t h e p a ti e n t u s i n g O TC o r a l p r od u c ts 1 . R e fe r a p a ti en t to a de n t is t i f t h e o r al c om p la in t in v o l v es an ab sc es s wi t h f e ve r , s we l l i ng , m al ai s e, l ym p ha d e no pa t h y , o r pu r ul e nt e xu d a t e .
2 . R em i n d p at i en ts t ha t c o ld an d c an ke r s o r es , wi t h a p p ro p ri a te t re a tm en t, a r e u s ua ll y a s e lf - li m i t in g p ro b le m . 3 . P at i en ts s h o ul d b e i n fo r m ed ab ou t how t o us e r e c om m en d e d p r o du c ts , t he d u r a ti on o f us e , t h e e xp e c ta t io ns o f us i ng th e p ro d uc t , a nd t he p ro c e du re t o f ol l o w i f t h e p r o du c t is i n ef f ec t i v e. 4 . I f a n o np r es c ri p ti on p ro d uc t d o es no t i m p r o v e a c o n di t io n , o r i f th e c ond i t io n wo r s e n s , us e o f th e p r odu c t s ho ul d b e d is c on t in ue d an d a ph ys ic ia n o r den t is t s h ou l d b e c o n ta c te d .
III. OPHTHALMIC OTC PRODUCTS A. An a t o m y o f t h e e ye 1 . Th e sc l e ra , a ls o k no w n as t he wh i t e o f t h e e y e, f u nc ti o ns t o pr o te c t i nt ra o c u l ar c o nt e nt s a n d m a i nt ai n the s h a pe of t he e ye. 2 . Th e co r n ea is th e m ain r e f ra ct i ng s u r fa ce of t he e y e . 3 . Th e an t er i o r c h am b e r o f t he e y e h ou s e s a c o nti n uo u s su p pl y o f a q ue o us h um o r , wh i c h is p r o du c e d i n re lat i o n t o t h e in t r ao c u l a r p re s s u r e. Th e aq ue o us h um o r i s r e s po ns ib l e f o r n ou r is hi ng t he c o r ne a . 4 . Th e i r is i s t h e c o l o re d p a r t o f t h e e ye th a t r eg ul a t es th e e n tr a nc e o f l ig ht t h ro u gh t h e p u pi l . 5 . Th e pu p i l is t he c o nt ra c ti l e o pe ni n g a t t h e c e nt e r of t he ir is t ha t d i la t es a n d c o ns t ri c ts i n re s p on s e t o l i gh t . 6 . Th e le n s is f ou nd di r ec t l y be hi n d t he i ri s a nd pu p il an d i s r e s p on s i b le fo r e n a bl in g t h e e y e to ac c om m o d at e , f oc us i ng fo r ne a r an d d is t an ce v is i on . Th e l e ns c o nt i nu es to g ro w t h r o ugh o u t l if e , g r ad u al l y b e com i ng th ic k e r o v e r t im e . Th e le ns is , t h e r ef o re , s us c e p ti b le to t h e d eg e ne r a ti v e ef f ec ts o f ag in g , m os t n ot ic e ab ly e v i d e nt i n th e 5 t h d ec ad e o f li f e a s th e i na b il i t y t o fo cu s a n d re f oc us fo r n e a r a nd d is t an ce vi s i on . 7 . A pp r o xi m a te l y t wo t hi rd s o f th e v ol um e o f th e eye i s o c c up i ed b y t h e vi t r e o u s h u m o r . A s o ne ag e s , th e g e l- l ik e c ha r ac te r is t ic s o f t he v i t re ou s h um o r i s lo s t a nd s h ad o ws a re c a s t b y v a rio u s c e l ls , g i v in g th e i ll us i o n o f “f l oa t e rs . ” 8 . Th e r e ti n a is c o m p os e d of t he op t ic d is c , t he r e t in a l v e ss e ls , a nd t he m ac u la . Th e o p ti c n e r v e e n te rs th e r et i na th r ou g h t he o pti c d is c . Th e m a cu la is res p on s i b le f o r c e nt r a l v i s i o n a nd th e r e m a i ni ng pa r ts o f t he re t i na a re re s p o ns ib l e f o r p e ri p he r al a n d c ol o r v is io n . 9 . Th e op t i c n e r ve , a ls o k no wn a s t h e s ec on d c ra n ia l n e r ve ( C N I I ) , t r an s m i ts i m pu ls es f ro m t h e r e ti na t o t he br a in . P.616
B . O p h t h al m ic F o rm u lat i o n s 1 . V eh i c le s p r o v id e i nc re a s e d vis co s i t y , th e re b y e n h an c i ng co n ta c t t im e o f t he p r o du c t. V eh ic l es c om m o n l y fo u nd in op h th a lm i c p r o d u ct s i nc lu d e c a r bo xy m e t h y l c el lu l os e (C M C ) , p o v i do n e , p ol yv i nyl a lc o ho l (P V A ) , a n d h yd r o xyp r o p y l m et h y lc e llu l os e ( H P MC ) .
2 . P r es e r va t i ve s p r o v i de a nt im ic r o bi al ac ti vi t y fo r o ph t ha lm ic pr e p a r a ti on s a n d i n cl ud e b e n z al k o n iu m c hl o r id e ( BA K ) , c hl o r he xi d in e , m e th yl pa r a be n , p r opy l p a r ab e n, e t h yl en e di am in e te t r aa c et i c a c i d ( E D TA ) , a nd s o rb i c ac i d. 3 . An t i o x id a n ts p re v e n t p r o du c t d et e ri o r at i on . Com m o n a n ti o xi d a n ts fo u nd i n o p h th al m i c p r ep a r at i on s i n c l ud e e d e ti c ac i d, s o diu m b is u lf i te , s o di um m e ta b is ul f i te , s o di um th i os ul f at e , a nd th i ou r e a. 4 . We t t i ng a ge n t s r ed uc e s u r f ac e t e ns io n o f t h e le n s a nd in c l u de po l ys o r ba t e 2 0 , p o l yso r ba t e 8 0 , p ol o xa m e r 2 82 , a n d t y l o xa p o l. 5 . B u f fe r s ar e u s e d i n op h t ha lm ic p re pa r a ti o ns to m a i nt a in a p H b e t we e n 6 . 0 a nd 8 . 0 . B u f fe r s i nc lu de ac e ti c a c i d , b o ri c ac i d, h yd roc h lo r ic ac id , p h os ph o ri c a c id , p o t ass i um b ic a r bo n at e , p o t as s i um b o r at e , p o ta ss i um c i tr a te , s o di um ac et a t e , s o di um bi c a r bo n at e , s odi u m b is ph os p ha t e, so di um bo r a te , s o di um c a rb o na t e , s o di um c i t ra t e, s o di u m hy d r o xi d e , a nd s o di um pho s ph a te . 6 . T on i ci t y a d j u s t e r s e ns u r e a n is o to n ic a g en t , eq u al t o 0 .9 % - 60 . 2% s o di u m c h lo r id e . Th es e a ge n ts in c lu d e d e xt r o s e , g l y c e r in , po t as s i um c h lo r id e , p ro p y l e ne g l yc ol , a n d s o d iu m c hl o rid e . C . N o n p r es c r ip t i o n o p ht h a l mi c a g en t s 1 . Ar t i f i c i al t ea r s a r e u s e d to h yd r a t e a n d l ub r ic a t e t h e e ye b y s t i m ul a tin g te a r p r o du c ti on an d d e c r e as in g te a r e va p o ra ti o n . I ni t ia l do si ng is r ec om m e nd ed as 2 t i m e s d ai l y , up to 4 t im es da i l y , a s n ee de d . Ho we v e r , so lu t io ns m a y b e us e d h ou r l y , i f cl in ic a ll y in d ic a te d . To r e d uc e oc u la r i r r i ta t io n , p r e se r v a ti v e - f r ee a rt i fi c ia l te a rs s h ou l d b e r ec om m e n de d t o pa t ie n ts wh o wi l l n e ed t o us e t he m e di ca t io n fre q u en tl y . 2 . L ub r i ca t i n g o i nt m en ts i nc lu de wh i t e p e t ro la t um , m i ne r al oi l , a nd la no l in , wh i c h a c t t o l u br ic a te an d h y dra t e th e e ye . As a n oi nt m e n t , t h es e a ge n ts a r e a bl e to p r o vi d e i nc r e as e d c on ta c t t im e w it h t he oc u lar s u r f ac e bu t ma y r e s u lt i n b l u r r e d vi si o n . I f p os s i bl e , b l ur r e d vi si o n m a y b e m in im i ze d ( o r l es s n ot ic e a bl e ) b y d e c re as in g th e a m o u nt of o in t m e n t in s ti ll e d i nt o th e e ye o r b y a dm in is t e rin g th e o i n tm en t a t be d ti m e . I n it ia l do s i ng is r ec om m e nd ed as 2 t im es da i l y, b ut m a y b e u s ed as of t en as e v e r y fe w h o u r s , o r o nl y o c c as io n al l y , de p en di n g o n p ati e n t r e s po ns e . P r es e r v a ti v e - fr e e op h th al m i c o in t m e n ts m a y r e du ce oc ul a r i r ri ta t i on in p a t ie n ts re q ui r in g f r e qu en t do s i n g. W hen u s i ng eye d r o ps a n d o in tm e nt , dr o p s s h o u ld be i ns t i ll e d i n t o t h e e ye b e f o r e ap p l yi n g o i n tm e nt . 3 . V as o co n s t r ic t o r s ( dec o ng es t an t s) wo r k b y p ro d uc i ng a t em p o r a r y c o n s t r i c ti o n o f t h e c on j u nc t i va l bl oo d ve s se l s , t he r eb y r e du c in g e y e r ed n ess . A v ai la b le o p h th al m i c v as oc on s t ri c to r s i nc l ud e n ap h a z ol i ne , p h en yl e ph r in e , t e tr a h ydr o z o l in e , a n d o xy m e t a z o l in e . Th es e a ge n ts m a y h a ve a r e b o u n d e f fe c t (c o ng e s tio n ) i f u s ed i n e xc es s o r fo r e xt e n ded d u ra t io ns an d s ho ul d be a vo id e d i n p at i en ts wi th n a rr o wa n gl e g l au c o m a . 4 . An t i h i s ta m in e s m a y b e us ed fo r t he t re a tm ent o f o p ht h al m i c co n di t io ns a ss o ci at e d wi t h a ll e rg ic rh i ni t is , t h ou g h t he i r u se h a s b ee n c la ss i fi ed b y the F D A as l e ss th an e ff ec t i v e b ec aus e o f th e l ac k o f d a ta dem o ns t ra t in g c li n ic al ef f ec t i ven es s . K e t o ti f en , s ol d u n de r th e b r a nd na m e Za d it o r ® , i s t h e o nl y a v a il a bl e n o np re sc r i pt i on o c ul a r a n ti hi s ta m i ne an d m as t c el l s ta b il i ze r i nd ic a t e d f o r t he t em po r a r y p re ve n t io n o f it c hi ng o f t he e y e d ue t o al l er g ic c o nj un c ti vi ti s . P h e ni r am in e a n d a nt a z ol i ne a re
a l so no n pr es c ri p ti o n o pht h a lm ic a n ti h is ta m i n es , bu t a re on l y a v ai l ab le in c om b in a ti o n wi t h th e o p ht h a lm ic d ec o ng es t an t nap h a z o li ne . a . Typ i c al do s i ng o f o ph th a lm ic an t ih is t am in es is 1 - 2 dr o ps i n e a ch e y e 3 -4 t im es d a il y . b . O p h th al m i c a n ti hi s ta m i n es s h ou l d n ot be r ec om m e n de d i n p a ti e nt s wi t h g la uc om a o r p at i en ts at hi g h r is k of d e v el o pi n g n ar r o w- a n gle g la uc om a , a s p up il di lat i o n a ss o ci at e d wi t h t he us e o f t he s e ag en t s m a y c aus e th is di s o r de r . c . Si d e e f fe c t s o f th es e a g e nt s m a y i nc l ud e b u rni n g , s ti ng i ng , i tc h in g , f o re i gn bo d y s e ns at i on , d r y e y e , l i d ed e m a , a n d p up i l di l at i on . P a t ie n ts u s i n g k et o ti f en d r o ps s h ou l d al s o b e a d v is ed of t h e p oss i bl e a d v e rs e e ff e c t o f b lo o d s h o t e ye s . P.617
5 . As t r i n g en t s d e c re a se o cu l a r i n f l am ma t i on . Th e o n l y F D A- r ec om m e nd e d a s t ri n ge n t is z i n c s ul f a te , r ec om m e nd e d as 1 -2 d r o ps fo u r t im es da i l y . 6 . I r r i ga n t s o lu t i o ns wo r k to r i ns e a n d re m o ve d e b r i s a nd c on t am i n an ts f r om th e e ye , wh i l e m a i nt a in i ng oc u la r m o is tu r e . 7 . H yp e r o s m o t ic ag e n ts i nc r e as e t he t on ic it y o f th e te a r f i lm , e v e n tu al l y el i m i na t in g e xc e s s f l ui d f r om th e c o rn e a . D . E ye d i s o r d e r s 1 . D r y e ye , a l s o k n o wn a s k e ra t oc on j un c t i vi ti s s ic ca , is a c o m m on c o nd i tio n in wh i c h pa t ie n ts c om p la in o f a f o re i gn bo d y s e ns a tio n , o p ht h al m i c i tc hi n g, de c r ea se d t e a r p r od u c t io n , re dn es s , p ai n , a nd di f fi c ul t y m o vi n g t h e e ye li ds . S ym p t om s a r e t h e r e s ul t o f a de f ic ie nc y t o p r o du c e aq u eo us , m uc i n, o r l i pi d t e ar f il m c o m p on e n ts , wh i c h m a y b e a tt r i bu t ab le t o c er t ai n d is e as e s ta te s (e . g. , th y r o i d d is ea s e , P a r k i ns o n d i se as e ) , i nf ec t io n , o r m e d ic a ti on s (e . g. , a n ti h is ta m in es , o r a l c o n t ra ce p tiv e s ) . N o n p r es c r ip t io n tr e at m en t f or d r y e ye i nc lu de s t he us e o f a r ti f i ci a l t e a rs d u r i n g t h e d a y a n d o p h th a lm i c o i nt m e n t a t n i gh t . 2 . C o nj u n ct i vi t i s i s i nf l am m a t io n o f th e c on j un ct iv a wh i c h m a y be ca us e d b y b a ct e r ia l o r v i ra l i n fe c t i on , al l er g y , o r e n v ir o nm e nt a l f a ct o rs . a . Al l e r g i c c on j u nc t i vi t is s y m p t om s a ff ec t bo t h e ye s a n d i nc lu d e r e dn es s , m il d e d em a o f th e e y e li d , e xc e s s i v e te a ri n g, e xt r e m e it c hi n g, st r in g - li k e m uc o id d i sc ha r ge , an d c he m o s i s . N o np r es c ri p ti o n t r ea tm e n t re c o m m en d at i on s a v o i da n c e of t h e a l le r ge n i f fe as ib l e, c o l d c om p re ss es , v as oc on s t ri c t o rs , an d a n ti hi s tam i ne s. N o n p r es c r ip t io n o p ht h alm ic p ro d uc ts c o nt a in in g a c o m b i na t io n o f a v a so c o n st r ic t o r a n d a n a n ti hi s ta m i n e a re a v a i la bl e (e . g ., N ap hc on A , O pc on A , Vi s i ne - A ) . b . Th e c a us es of ba c t e ria l c on j un c t i vi t is de p end o n p at i en t ' s a ge . Ap p ro xi m a t e l y o n e q u ar t e r o f p a ti en t s pr e s en t in g wi t h b ac te r i al c o nj u nc ti v i t is wi l l h a v e c o n co m i ta n t o t i t is me di a . Th e re f o re it is pr u de nt f o r a ll c h il d re n p r es e nt in g wi t h a p u r ul e nt oc ul a r d is c h a r ge o n wa k i ng in th e m o rn in g an d a b ru p t o ns e t o f re d n es s t o h a ve th e i r e ar s e xa m i n ed f o r o ti t is m e di a . T r ea tm e n t fo r ba c t e ri a l c o nju n c t i vi t is i s p r e s c r ip t i on o nl y. c . V i ra l co n ju n c ti vi t i s is m o s t o ft e n a tt r i bu t ab le t o th e a d en o vi r u s a n d is h ig h l y c o n t ag i o us . Mo r e c om m o n l y k n o wn as “ p i nk e ye , ” in di v i d ua ls of t en e xp er i e nc e a n u p p er - r es pi r a to r y i nf ec t io n o r a re e xp o s ed to ano t h e r i nd i v id u al wi t h v i ral
c o nj u nc ti v i t is b e fo r e t h e o n s e t o f s y m p to m s (e . g. , p i nk e ye , th ic k o cu la r dis c h a r ge , e xt r e m e t ea r in g , f o re i gn b o d y s e ns a ti on ) . T re a tme n t is s up p o r ti ve a nd m a y i nc l ud e c o ld c om p r es s e s , a rt i fi c ia l te a rs , a n d t op ic a l v a so c on st r ic t o rs . 3 . C h em i ca l b u r n s c a n re s ul t fr om m e di c at io n s , c h lo r in a te d s wi m m i ng p oo l s , o r e xp o s u r e t o to xi c f um es o r i r ri t an ts ( e. g . , h ai r s p ra ys , ba t te r y a c i d, v i ne g ar , o ve n c l ea n er s , l y e ) . T r ea t m ent i n c lu d es im m ed i a te an d c on t i nu e d i r r i g a ti o n o f th e e ye ( s ) wi t h s al in e o r s t e ri l e wa t e r a nd em e rg en c y a t t en ti o n f r om a p h ys ic ia n o r e ye c a r e sp ec i al is t . 4 . C o r ne a l e d em a i s c h ar a c te r i zed b y ha l o s o r st a r b u r st s ar o un d l ig h ts , wh i c h a r e t h e re su l t o f a n u n de r l y in g di s o r de r ( e. g . d am age t o t h e e ye ) . O n c e di a gn o s e d b y a p h ys ic ia n , h yp e r o s m o t ic a ge n t s s u c h as Mu r o s o l u ti on o r o in tm e nt m a y b e us ed to d r aw t h e f l u id aw a y f r o m t h e c o r ne a . D os i ng s h o ul d b e gi n wi t h a 2% s o l u ti on us e d 4 t im es da il y wi t h t he add i t io n o f a 5% oi n tm en t us e d a t n ig h t ti m e if ne e ded . I f u n r es ol v e d , t h e 2 % s o l uti o n m a y b e c h an ge d to a 5 % s ol u ti o n wi t h c o n ti nue d us e o f t h e o i nt m e n t . 5 . A ho r d e ol u m, m o r e c o m m o nl y kn o wn a s a s t y, i s a n in f ec t io n o f th e g la n ds of t he e ye l id s c au s e d b y S t a p hy l o co c cu s au r e us . S ti es p re se n t a s p ai n fu l , r ed, a nd e d em a to us bu t m a y be re l ie v e d b y t h e a pp l ic at i on o f w a rm co m p re s se s fo r 1 0- 1 5 m i n 3 - 4 t im es d a il y . To p ic a l a nt i bi o ti cs m a y be r eq u i re d . 6 . A c h a la z i o n , s i m p l y a g r a n ul o ma , m a y in v o l ve t he gl a nd s o f t h e e ye lid s o r th e s u r ro u nd i ng ar e a b u t is n o t i n fe c ti o u s. W he n i n i t s e a rl y s ta ge s , t he in f lam m a t io n m a y be r el i e v ed b y w a rm c om p r es s es ap p li ed fo r 1 0- 1 5 m i n 3 - 4 t im e s da i l y. I f no t r e s ol ve d wi t hi n 1 we e k , p r o v i de r c o ns ul t a ti on is a p p ro p r ia t e, an d s u rg ic al e xc i s io n m a y be ne c es s a r y . 7 . B l ep h a r it i s i s a b i l a te r a l in f l am m at i o n o f the e ye l i d m a r g i ns , at t r ibu t a bl e t o S t a p hy lo c o c c us , s eb o r rhe i c d e rm at i ti s , o r a c om bi n a ti on o f t he t wo . B le p ha r i ti s m a y b e id en t i fi ed b y r ed , P.618 s ca l y, th ic k e n ed e y el i ds wi t h p os s i b le lo ss of th e e y e l as h es . S t ap h y l oc oc c a l b l ep h a ri t is re q ui r es a n ti bi o t ic t r e at m e n t , b ut se bor r h e ic b l ep h ar i ti s m a y res p on d t o l i d h yg ie n e wi t h wa r m c om p r es s es f or 1 5- 2 0 m i n 2 - 4 ti m e s d ai l y, fo ll o we d b y l id s c ru bs wi t h a m i l d d et e rg e n t. E . An t i o x i da n t s 1 . Th e an ti o xi d a n t v it am in s i nc l ud e v it am i n A ( r et in o l a nd β - c a r o te ne ) , vi tam i n C , a n d vit am i n E . β- C a r o t en e 50 m g e v e r y o t he r day m a y p r e ven t t h e d e v elo p m e n t o f c a ta r ac t s , es pe c i a ll y i n s m ok e rs . H o we ve r , th e u se o f a n t i ox i da n t s i n p a ti e n t s w h o s mo k e i n c re a se s th e r i sk o f l u ng ca n ce r a n d s h o ul d , th e r e fo r e , n o t be r e c o mm e nd e d . V i t am i n C h a s b ee n s tu d ie d f o r th e p re v e n ti on o f c a t a ra cts . H o we ve r , i n s u f fi c i e nt da ta i n p ub li sh e d t r ia ls li m i ts t he re c om m e nd a ti on o f t h is s u pp l em en t f o r t h is pu r po s e. 2 . L u te i n, an an t io xi d a n t p i gm en t th a t f un c t i on s to f il t e r a nd p ro t ec t t he v is u al a p p ar a tu s a n d i ts v as c u la r s u p pl y, m a y b e b en e fic i al fo r im p ro v e m e n t i n v i s io n i n p a t ie n ts wi t h d r y a ge - r ela t e d m a c u l a r d eg e ne r at io n an d p r e v e nt io n o f c a ta r a c t s .
H o we ve r , m o re da t a b y wa y o f l a r ge r an d om i zed c on t r ol l ed t ri al s a r e n ec e ss a r y t o a ss e ss s a fe t y an d e f fi c ac y o f t h is s u pp le m e n t . 3 . P at i en ts wi t h m o de r a te a nd ad v a nc e d a ge - r el at e d m ac ul a r d e ge n er a ti on ( A R MD ) h a ve s h o wn a re du c ti on in t he p ro g re ss i on of th e d i s e as e a n d i ts a s s oc i ate d v is i on l o ss wi t h a n ti o xi d a nt s p lu s z in c , as we l l a s a c om b in a ti on o f t he f ol lo wi n g s u pp l em en ts : v i ta m i n C 5 0 0 m g, v i t am in E 4 0 0 IU , β - c ar o t en e 1 5 m g, z i nc o xi d e 8 0 m g , a nd c o p pe r 2 m g . Oc u v i te P r es e r Vi s i on , a f or m u la ti o n o f t h e a bo v e an t i o xi d an t s , zi n c , a nd c o p pe r , i s a d ie t a r y s u pp l em en t c u r re n tl y u n de r pa t en t b as e d o n t h e p r o m i si ng r es ul ts o f t he N a t i on a l E y e In s ti t ut e ' s (N E I ' s ) la n dm ar k Ag e - Re la t e d E y e D i s ea se S tu d y ( A R E D S ) . S t u di es of p at ie n ts wi t h m i ld or bo r d e rl in e A R MD h a v e n o t s h o wn be n ef i t f r om an t ioxi d a n t p lu s zi nc su p pl em e n t at i on . Th e re f o re , t h is f o r m u l at io n s h ou ld be r ec o m me n de d on l y t o p a t i e n t s w h o a re no n sm o ke r s ( o wi n g t o an in c re as e d r is k o f l un g c a nc e r ) w i t h a d ia g no s i s o f mo d e ra t e o r a dva n c e d AR M D . F . C o n ta c t L e ns e s 1 . T yp e s o f c o n ta c t l e ns e s ( a ) H a r d c o nt a c t l e ns es we r e t h e f i rs t “o r ig i na l ” c o nt ac t le ns , wh ic h we r e m ad e o f p o l ym e t h y lm et h ac r y l at e ( P M MA ) . B e c au se of t he h y d r o ph o bi c n a tu r e o f PM MA , t h e p e r m e ab i li t y o f o xy g e n is l im i te d , t hu s re st r ic t in g t h e o nc e -c om m o n u s e o f h a r d c o nt ac t le ns es . ( 1 ) A sp e ct a cl e bl u r , t he i na bi l it y t o s ee we l l wi th g la ss es af t e r r em o v al o f t he c o nt ac t le ns , m a y oc c u r wi t h t h e u s e of ha r d l e ns e s . Th e sm al l d i am et e r of t h e le n s m a y al s o c o n t ri bu t e t o l os s o f t h e l en s f r om th e ey e . ( 2 ) C a re o f h ar d c o nt ac t l e ns es in cl u de s c l e an in g b e t we e n t h e f in g er t ip s , s o ak in g , a n d we t ti n g wi t h e ac h r em o v a l o f t h e l en s f r om the e ye . F u r th e rm o re , c a re m us t b e t a ke n to a v oi d s c r a tc hi ng a nd c h ip p in g t h e su r f ac e o f th e c on t ac t l e ns . b . R i g id ga s - pe r m ea b le ( R G P ) l e ns e s i nf us e o xy g e n pe r m e a bi li t y o f s o f t c on t ac t l e ns es wi t h th e f e at u r es o f t he ha r d c on t ac t l en s es . R G P le ns es a re ge ne ra l l y t h ic ke r th a n s of t l e ns es , b u t m o re o xyg e n is de li v e r e d t o t h e c or n ea b y the s e a g e nt s. ( 1 ) Th e R G P le ns es a re a v a i la b le in da il y- a nd ext e n d e d - we a r ve r s i on s , a p p ro v e d f o r up to 7 d a y s o f we a r . ( 2 ) C a re o f t he R G P le ns i nc l ud es c l ea n in g t h e l en s i n th e p al m o f t h e h and wi t h a s u r fa ce - ac t i v e c l e an i ng p r o du c t a nd an en zy m a tic p ro d uc t . Th e le ns s h oul d th e n b e s o ak ed f or a m in im um of 4 h r i n a c on d it i on in g s ol u t io n b e fo r e r e in se r t io n . c . S o ft l en s es ar e m o re c om f o rt a bl e a n d e as ie r to r em o v e th an o th e r c ont a c t l e ns es , h o we v e r , t he v is u a l i m p r o vem en t no t ed m a y no t be as s ig n if ic a nt a s t h at wh i c h is s e en wi t h R G P o r h ar d l e ns es . So f t le ns e s s h ou l d n o t be w o r n w he n a p p l yi n g t o p i c a l o p ht ha l m ic p r od u c ts , e xc e p t t h os e p r o du c t s s pe c i f ic all y f o r m u l at e d f o r s u c h us e ( e . g ., r e we t t in g s ol u ti on ). ( 1 ) E xt e n d ed - we a r s o f t c o n t ac t l en s e s a r e a pp r o ve d fo r 7 d a ys o f c o n ti n uou s we a r . H o we ve r , a r el a ti v e l y new p r o d u ct , Fo c u s Ni gh t an d D a y , i s a pp r o v e d f o r c o nt i nu o us 3 0 d a y u s e , th o ug h n o t a ll p at i en ts wi l l b e a b le to t o l er a t e t he le ns pl ac em e n t fo r 3 0 d a ys . P.619
( 2 ) D ai l y - we a r s o f t c on t ac t le ns es a re de s i gn e d to b e wo r n f o r 1 d a y , up to 3 m o nt hs , de p en di n g o n t he l en s c h o se n . B ec a us e t h e l e ns es wi l l b e d is c a rd e d wi t hi n a sh o r t p e ri od o f t im e, an e n z y m at ic s o lu t io n i s ge n e ra l l y n o t n ec es sa r y fo r t hi s t yp e o f le ns , bu t g e ne r al c l ean i ng an d di s i nf e c t i ng eac h ti m e th e y a re r em o v ed f r om th e e ye s i s a d v is a bl e . S le e pin g in th es e l e ns es i s n o t r e c o m m en d ed . 2 . S o lu t i on i ng r e d ie n t s a r e ge ne r a ll y sp ec i fi c t o t h e t y pe of co n ta ct le ns c h os en ( e . g ., so f t , h ar d , o r R P G) . Th e r e fo r e , t he pa t ie n t s h ou l d e ns ur e th e p r od uc t s e le c t e d i s i n a cc o rd a nc e wi t h t he t y p e of le ns wo r n . a . C l ea n in g so l u ti o n s ac t to r em o ve r es i du e (e .g . , de b ri s , oi ls ) f ro m t h e c o nt ac t l e ns b y n o ni o ni c o r a m ph o t e ri c su r f ac ta n ts . If not c le an e d r e gu la r l y , th e re s id u e wi l l b u il d a n d h a rd e n, c r e at in g an oc ul a r i r r it a nt , a n d p os s i b l y a n o p ht h al m i c in f ec t io n . A h o m e m a d e c l e an in g s ol ut i o n o f b ak in g s od a a n d d i s t i ll ed wa t e r m a y be us e d , b u t i s n o t t ypi c a ll y r ec o m m en de d o wi n g t o t he in c re as ed r i s k o f o c u la r in f ec t io n a n d d i f fi cu l t y i n re m o v i n g t he a g en t fr om t he le ns . b . S o ak i ng s ol u t io n s a re us e d t o p r o v id e a n a sep t ic en v i r o nm en t f o r th e l e ns on ce r e m o ved f ro m t he e y e a nd m a y a ls o a id in r em o va l of r es id u al c o nt am i nan t on t he l e ns no t re m o v e d d u r in g c l ea ni n g. S oa k i n g s ol ut io n s g en e ra l l y h a v e a hi gh e r c o nc en t r at i on of p re s e r v a t i v e th an we t t i ng ag e nts , bu t t h e l en s s ho ul d b e t h o ro u gh l y r i n se d b e fo r e i ns e rt i on . c . We t t i ng so l u t io n s a re a pp li e d d i re c t l y t o t he le n s b ef o r e i ns e rt io n i n to t h e e y e . Th e f u nc t io n o f t h e we t t in g s o lu t io n i s t o t r an s i t ion t he le ns s u r f ac e f r om h yd r o ph o bi c t o h y d r op h ili c , p r o v id e l u br ic a ti o n, an d en h an ce fi n ge r ti p a d he s io n t o a l lo w f o r e as ie r i ns e r ti o n. W ett i ng s o lu t io ns a re no t ne c e ss a r y fo r in se r t ion i f t he p a t ie n t h as s ig n if ic a nt t ea r i ng im m e di a te l y a ft e r i n s e rt i on of th e l e ns . Sa liva s ho u ld n o t b e u s e d i n p l ac e o f a we t t i n g s ol u ti on be c au s e o f t h e p ot e nt i al fo r in f ec t io n . d . M u l t i pu r p os e p ro d u ct s a re ge n e ra ll y a s o lu t io n c om p os ed o f a c le a nin g s o lu t io n , s o ak in g s ol u ti o n, an d wet t i ng s o lu t io n f o r e as e o f u se wi t h c o nt ac t le ns es . H o we v e r , a m u l ti p ur p os e p r od uc t m a y no t be as e f f ic ac io us in t he re m o v a l o f th e re s id u e o r p r o vi di n g a de q ua t e l ub r ic a ti o n as t he us e o f t h e th r e e i nd i v i du al ag e nt s . e . R ew e t ti n g s o lu t i on s m a y be us e d t o cl e an and m o is t en t he s u r fa ce of t h e c o nt ac t le ns wh i l e t he len s i s s ti ll in t he e y e. f . C o n di t i o ni n g s o lu t i on is es s e n ti a ll y a n e nh anc e d we t t i n g so l ut io n , p r ov i d i ng i m p ro ve d c om fo r t a n d w e t t ab i li t y of t he le ns . G . I n s t il l a ti o n o f e ye m e d i ca t i o n ( Fi g u re 29 . 1 ) 1 . W as h h an ds . 2 . S ha ke s u s p e ns io ns to e v e n l y d is t r ib u te in g re d ie n ts . 3 . H ol d th e l o we r e y e l id d o wn t o f o rm a p ou c h be t we e n t he l i d a nd th e eye b a ll . 4 . A l wa y s ap pl y e y e d rop s b e fo r e a p pl yi ng e y e oi n tm e n t . D is pe ns e t h e r e c om m e nd e d n um be r o f d r o ps i n to th e p o uc h f o r e y e d ro ps . Ke e p t h e e ye l id s c l os ed an d a p pl y g en t le p r e s s u re to th e i n ne r c an t h us fo r 1 - 2 m in . W ai t 5- 1 0 m i n b e f o re in s t il l in g a n ot h er e y e m e d ic at i on . 5 . O i nt m e n ts s h ou ld b e a p pl i ed to t he lo we r c on ju n c t i v a l sa c a s a 1 / 2 -i nch r ib b on . To m i ni m i z e bl u r re d v is io n , a de c re as e d am o un t o f oi n tm en t m a y be ap p lie d to t he
e ye . B lu r r ed v i s i on wi l l be l es s no t ic ed b y th e p a ti e n t i f t he oi n tm en t is a dm i ni s t e r ed a t be d ti m e , i f fe as i bl e . P.620
Figure 29-1. Guidelines for instilling eye medication. [Modified with permission from Smeltzer SC, Bare BG. Brunner & Suddarth's Textbook of Medical-Surgical Nursing, 10th ed. Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, 2004.]
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STUDY QUESTIONS D i r e c t i on s fo r q ue s t io ns 1 - 3 : Th e qu es t io ns and i nc om pl e te s t a te m e n ts i n t h is s ec t io n c a n b e c o r r ec t l y a n s we r e d o r c om pl e te d b y o n e o r m o re of t he s u g g es te d a n s we r s . C h oo s e th e a ns we r , A- E . 1 . W hi c h o f th e fo l l ow in g n on p r e sc r i p ti o n p r od u c t s i s a p p ro ve d b y t h e U . S . F o o d a n d D ru g Ad m i n ist r a t i o n ( F D A) f o r t r e a tme n t o f i mp a c te d c e r um en ? I . o l i ve o i l I I . ca r b am i de p e ro x i de I I I . is o p ro p yl a l c o h ol 95 % i n a n h yd r o u s g l yc e r i n A i f I a n d I I a r e c or r ec t B i f I, I I, a nd I II a re c o r re c t C i f II o nl y i s c o rr ec t
D i f II I on l y i s c o r r ec t E i f I o n l y i s c o r re c t V i e w A n s we r 1 . T h e a n sw e r i s C [ se e] . 2 . W h ic h o f t h e f o l low i n g o t i c c o n d it i o ns ca n be t r ea te d w i t h a no n p r es c r ip t io n a ge n t ? I . ve r t i g o I I . t in n i t us I I I . e x t e rn a l o t i t is I V . w a t e r -c l og g e d e a r A i f I , I I, a nd I II a re c o r re c t B i f II I an d I V a re c o r r ec t C i f I a n d I V a r e c o r re c t D i f I a n d I I a r e c or r ec t E i f IV o nl y i s c o rr e c t V i e w A n s we r 2 . T h e a n sw e r i s E [s e ea n d] . 3 . W h ic h o f t h e f o l low i n g c o n d it i o ns is a pp r o p r iat e f o r th e us e o f is o p r op yl a l c o h o l 9 5 % i n a n h yd r o u s g l yc e r i n ? I . t r e at m en t o f i m pa c ted c e r um e n I I . t r ea t me n t of w a t e r -c lo g g e d e a rs I I I . p re ve n t i on o f e x te r na l o t it i s I V . t r ea t m en t o f e x te r na l o t it i s A i f I a n d I I a r e c or r ec t B i f II a nd I II a re c o r re c t C i f II I an d I V a re c o r r ec t D i f II o nl y i s c o rr ec t E i f II I on l y i s c o r r ec t V i e w A n s we r 3 . T h e a n sw e r i s D [ se e] . D i r e c ti o ns f o r qu e s ti o ns 4 -5 : E ac h o f t h e q u es ti o ns , s ta t em en ts , or in co m pl et e s t at em en t s i n t hi s s ec ti o n c an be c o r r ec t l y a n s we r e d o r c om pl e te d b y o n e o f th e s ug g es te d a n s we r s o r p h r as es . Ch oo s e t he b e s t a ns we r . 4 . Al l o f t he f ol l ow i ng ar e t r u e re g a r di n g c a r bam i d e p e r ox i de ex c ep t w h i c h one? ( A ) C a r ba m i d e p e ro xi d e s o f te ns ea r wa x b y t h e f oa m in g a c t i on p ro du c ed wh e n o xyg e n i s re l ea s e d . ( B ) C a r ba m i d e p e ro xi d e i s s a fe fo r ph a rm ac is t rec om m e n da t io n i n p a ti e nts ag e 6 ye a r s a n d o ld e r . ( C ) A p p ro p ri a te d os in g fo r c a r ba m i d e p e ro xi d e is 5 - 1 0 d ro p s in t he ea r 2 ti m es d a il y . ( D ) C a r b am i d e p e ro xi d e s h ou l d b e us e d f o r a m axi m u m o f 4 d a y s u nl es s o t h e r wi s e d i r ec t ed . V i e w A n s we r 4 . T h e a n sw e r i s B [ se e] . 5 . Al l o f th e f o ll ow i ng a r e t r u e r e g a r d in g ex t e r na l o t i t is e xc e p t w h i ch o ne ? ( A ) I ni t ia l tr e at m e n t f o r ext e r n a l o ti t is i s a n o r al an t i bi o ti c a nd c o r ti c o st e r oi d . ( B ) S ym p to m s o f e xt e r n al o ti t is i nc l ud e o t ic i t c h ing , p re s s u re an d f u ll n es s i n th e e a r , p a in , an d o t ic d is c h a r ge .
( C ) Me c h a n ic al t ra um a to t he ea r wi t h c o tt o n -t i pp e d a p pl ic a to rs c a n c on tr i b ut e to i n c re as ed s u s c ep t ib i li t y to e xt e r n a l o ti t is . ( D ) E xt e r n a l ot i ti s is al s o r e f e rr e d t o a s s wi m m e r 's ea r . V i e w A n s we r 5 . T h e a n sw e r i s A [ se ea n d] .P . 62 2
D i r e c t i on s fo r q ue s t io n 6 : Th e q u es ti o n i n t hi s se c ti o n ca n b e c o r re c tl y an s we r e d b y o n e o r m o re of t he s u g g es te d a ns we r s . C ho os e th e a ns we r , A- E . 6 . W hi c h o f th e fo l l ow in g i s a n a p p ro p r i a te cou n s el i n g t i p f o r ad m i nis t r a t i on o f o t i c d ro p s? I . P u ll t he ea r l o be u p an d b ac k to s t ra i gh t e n th e ea r c an a l f o r ch i ld r en . I I . P ul l t he ea r l o be dow n a n d b ac k to s t ra i g ht en t h e e a r c a na l fo r a du lt s . I I I . Fi l l t h e o t i c s yr i n g e w i t h h o t w at e r . I V . I f c o t t on is u se d to r e t a i n m ed i c at i o n i n the e a r , i t s h o ul d n o t be le f t i n t h e e a r f o r l o n ge r t ha n 1 h r. A i f I I I on l y i s c o r r ec t B i f I V o n l y i s c o r re c t C i f I a n d I I a r e c or r ec t D i f I, I I, a nd I V a r e c o r re c t E i f II I a n d I V a re c o r r ec t V i e w A n s we r 6 . T h e a n sw e r i s B [ se e] . D i r e c ti o ns f o r qu e s ti o ns 7 -1 7 : Ea c h o f t he qu es t io ns , s t at em e n ts , or in co m pl et e s t at em e nt s i n t h is s ec t io n c an b e c o r re c tl y a ns we r e d o r c om p le t ed b y on e o f th e s ug g es t ed an s we r s o r p h r as es . C h o os e th e b e st an s we r . 7 . Al l o f t he f ol l ow i ng ar e t r u e re g a r di n g o p h tha l m ic f o rm u l at i o ns ex ce p t w h ic h one? ( A ) V e hi c l es en h an c e c on t ac t ti m e of t he op h th alm ic p ro d uc t . ( B ) A n ti o xi d a n ts p r e v e nt p r o du c t d et e ri o r at i on . ( C ) W ett i ng ag e nt s r e duc e s u r fa c e te ns i on of t he l e ns . ( D ) To n i c i t y ad j us te r s a re us e d t o m ai n ta in a p H b e t we e n 6 . 0 a nd 8 .0 . V i e w A n s we r 7 . T h e a n sw e r i s D [ se e] . 8 . W h ic h o f t h e f o l low i n g i s a p p r o p r ia t e t r e a tm e nt o f d i ag n os e d c o r ne a l ed e m a? ( A ) h yp e ro s m o ti c a ge n t ( B ) va s oc on s t r ic t o r ( C ) a n ti hi s ta m i ne ( D ) a r ti f ic ia l te a rs V i e w A n s we r 8 . T h e a n sw e r i s A [ se e] . 9 . W h ic h o f t h e f o l low i n g i s a l so k n ow n a s “ p i nk e ye ” ? ( A ) a ll e rg ic c o nj u nc ti v i t is ( B ) b ac t er i al c o nj u nc ti v i ti s ( C ) vi r a l c on ju nc t i v i ti s ( D ) e n vi ro nm e nt a l c o n jun c ti v i t is V i e w A n s we r 9 . T h e a n sw e r i s C [ se e] . 1 0. Al l o f t h e f ol l ow i ng a re a n t i ox i d an t s u s ed f o r th e t r ea t m en t an d /o r p r eve n t i o n of o ph t h al m ic d i s o r de r s e x c ep t
( A ) vi t am in D . ( B ) β - ca r o te n e. ( C ) vi t am i n C . ( D ) l u te in . V i e w A n s we r 1 0 . T he a nsw e r i s A [ se e] . 1 1. W hi c h o f t he f o ll ow i n g s o l u t io n s m a y b e u s e d t o c le a n a n d m oi s t en t he s u r fa c e o f th e c o n ta ct l e ns w h i le t he le n s i s s t i ll i n t h e e ye ? ( A ) cl e an i ng s o lu t io n ( B ) we t t i n g s o l ut i on ( C ) s oa k i n g s o l ut i on ( D ) r e we t t i ng s o lu t io n V i e w A n s we r 1 1 . T he a nsw e r i s D [ se e] . 1 2. W hi c h o f t he f o ll ow i n g i s t r u e r e g a r d in g op h t ha l m ic an t i h i st a mi n es ? ( A ) P h en i ra m i n e a nd te t ra h y d r o z ol i ne a re th e o n ly t wo n o n p re s c r ip t io n o ph t h al m i c a n t ih is t am in es a v ai l ab le . ( B ) O p h th a lm ic a n ti h is tam i ne s a r e a v a il ab l e o nl y i n c om b in a ti on wi t h na p ha z o l in e . ( C ) O p h t ha lm ic an t ih is t am i ne s m a y c au se bu r ni ng , s t i ng in g , d r y e y es , o r m yd r i as is . ( D ) O p h t ha lm ic an t ih is t am i ne s m a y p r od uc e re b ou n d c on g es ti o n i f u se d in e xc e ss o r f o r e xt e n de d d u r at i on s . V i e w A n s we r 1 2 . T he a nsw e r i s C [ se e] . 1 3. W hi c h o f t he f o ll ow i n g i s t h e o n l y a s t r i n g en t us e d i n n o n p re s c r ip t i on o ph t ha l m ic a ge n ts t ha t is r e c o mm e nd e d b y t h e U . S . F o od a nd D r u g Ad m i n i s t r a ti o n (F D A) ? ( A ) e de t ic ac id ( B ) b en z a lk o ni um c h lo r ide ( C ) zi n c s u l fa t e ( D ) p o vi do ne V i e w A n s we r 1 3 . T he a nsw e r i s C [ se e] . P . 62 3
1 4 . Th e d e f in i t i on o f a s u r f a c ta n t ( a n i n g r ed i en t i n to o t hp a s te ) c a n be s t be d e s c ri b e d b y w h i c h o f th e f o ll ow i ng s ta t e me n ts ? ( A ) I t p r e v e nt s d r y i ng of t h e p r e pa r at i on . ( B ) I t re m o v e s d eb r is b y i t s d e te r ge n t a c t io n an d c a us es fo am i ng , wh ic h is us ua l l y d e si r ed b y th e p a ti e nt . ( C ) I t ph y s ic al l y re m o v es p l aq ue a nd de b ri s . ( D ) I t de t er m i n es th e t e xt u r e , d is pe r s i v e n ess , and a pp e ar a nc e o f t h e p r od u ct . ( E ) I t a d ds fl a v o r t o t h e p r e pa r a ti o n, wh i ch m a k es i t m o r e a pp e al i ng to the p at i en t . V i e w A n s we r 1 4 . T he a nsw e r i s B [ se e] . 1 5. A 1 6 -ye a r - o l d g i r l s to p s b y a p h a r ma c y o n h e r w a y h o m e f ro m s c h oo l . Sh e sa ys t o t h e p ha r ma c i st , “ I ha ve b e e n u s in g P r ox i ge l dai l y t o b l e a ch m y t e e t h in p r e pa r a t io n f o r m y s p r i n g f o r m a l. H ow e ve r , m y t e e t h a re b ec om i n g ve r y s e n si t i ve .” E ac h o f t h e f o l l ow i ng s t a t em e n ts is ad vi c e tha t t h e p ha r m ac i s t m i ght s u gg e s t e xc e p t w h i ch o n e ? ( A ) Th e r e i s a po s s ib il i t y t h a t y o u m a y da m a ge t he g in gi va l ti ss ue an d t o ot h pu l p. ( B ) O xi d i z i n g ag e nt s m ay h a v e t he po t en t ia l f o r m u ta t in g o r en h an ci ng t he c a rc i no ge n ic e f f ec ts of ot h e r a g en ts ( e. g . , t ob ac c o ) .
( C ) B l ea c h i ng te e th is bes t do ne un d e r d en t al s u pe r vi s io n . ( D ) P r o xi g e l i s a n a nt is ep t ic t ha t c on t ai ns z i nc an d s h ou l d n ot be us ed f or c os m e ti c wh i t e n i ng of th e te e th . ( E ) Th e m o s t c o m m on ing r e di e nt in p ro d uc ts re spo n si bl e fo r te e th wh i t en in g is 1 0 % c a r ba m i de pe r o xi d e , wh ic h c an ca us e s en s i t i v i t y . V i e w A n s we r 1 5 . T he a nsw e r i s D [ se e] . 1 6. Al l o f t h e f ol l ow i ng p r od u c ts m a y b e r e c om m en d e d by a p h a r m a c is t f o r t h e tr e a t m en t o f c an k e r s o re s ex c ep t ( A ) b en z o c a i ne . ( B ) Z il ac t in - B . ( C ) B a y e r as pi r in pl ac e d d i r ec tl y o n t h e o r al le si o n . ( D ) A n be s ol . ( E ) O r a je l . V i e w A n s we r 1 6 . T he a nsw e r i s C [ se e] . 1 7. T he U. S . F oo d an d D r ug Ad m i n i s t r a t io n (F D A) h a s ap p r o ve d w hi c h i n g re d i en t f o r p r o t ec t i on ag a i ns t p a i n fu l se n si t i vi t y o f t h e t e et h ca u se d b y c o l d , h e a t, ac i d s, sw ee t s, o r c o n ta c t ? ( A ) d ic al c i um ph os p ha t e ( B ) s od iu m l au r y l s u lf a te ( C ) 5 % p o ta s s iu m n it r a te ( D ) zi n c c h l o ri de ( E ) c al ci um c a rb o na t e V i e w A n s we r 1 7 . T he a nsw e r i s C [ se e] . D i r e c ti o ns f o r qu e s ti o ns 18 - 2 0 : Th e q u es t io ns an d i nc om p le te s ta t em en ts in t hi s se c ti o n c an be c o r r ec tl y a ns we r e d o r c om p le t ed b y on e o r m or e o f t h e su g ge s te d a nswe r s . C h o os e t he an s we r , A- E . 1 8 . W h i ch o f t h e f o l low in g c om p ou n ds i s/ a r e co n s i de r e d a s u s pe n di ng a ge n t ( a n i ng r e di e n t i n d e n ti fr i c e s )? I . d ic a lc i u m p ho s p ha t e I I . ka r a ya g u m I I I . m e t h yl c e l l u l o se A i f I o n l y i s c o r re c t B i f II I on l y i s c o r r ec t C i f I a n d I I a r e c or r ec t D i f II a nd I II a re c o r re c t E i f I, I I, an d II I ar e c o r re c t V i e w A n s we r 1 8 . T he a nsw e r i s D [ se e] . 1 9. C o l d-s o r e t re a t me n t m i gh t i n c l ud e w hi c h o f t he f oll ow in g i n g r ed i e nt s ? I . b en z oc a in e I I . do c os a n ol I I I . c a mp h o r A i f I o n l y i s c o r re c t B i f II I on l y i s c o r r ec t C i f I a n d I I a r e c or r ec t D i f II a nd I II a re c o r re c t E i f I, I I, an d II I ar e c o r re c t
V i e w A n s we r 1 9 . T he a nsw e r i s C [ se ea n d] .2 0 . P ha r m a ci s t s c an r e c o mm e nd o ve r - t he - c ou n t e r ( O TC ) d r u g t r e a tm e n t fo r w h ic h o f t h e fo l l ow i ng e a r co n d i ti o ns ? I . t r e at m en t o f a cc u mu la t e d e a rw a x I I . p re ve n t i o n o f b l o ck ed e a rs c au s ed b y a l t i t u d e ch a n ge s I I I . t re a t me n t o f w a te r - cl o g g ed ea r s A i f I o n l y i s c o r re c t B i f II I on l y i s c o r r ec t C i f I a n d I I a r e c or r ec t D i f II a nd I II a re c o r re c t E i f I, I I, an d II I ar e c o r re c t V i e w A n s we r 2 0 . T he a nsw e r i s E [s e e] . P . 62 4
ANSWERS AND EXPLANATIONS 1 . T he an sw e r is C (I I ) [s e e I . B .1 . d. ( 1 ) ]. C a r b am id e pe r o xi d e i s th e on l y F D A -a p pr o ve d ag e n t f o r c e r um e n r em o val . O l i ve o il a n d m in e ra l o i l a re us e d t o r em o ve c er um e n, b ut a r e no t F D A ap p r o v ed . Is o p ro p y l a l co h ol 9 5 % i n a nh y d r o us gl y c e ri n i s F D A ap p ro v e d fo r wa t e r -c l og ge d e a rs , bu t n o t c e r um en r em o v al . 2 . T he an sw e r is E ( I V ) [ s ee I . B. 1 .d ; I. B . 2 , 3 a n d 4 ] . P a t i en ts e xh i b it i ng s y m pt o m s of ve r ti g o, as id e fro m m o ti on s i c k ne s s , s hou l d b e r e f e r re d t o a m e di c al pr ov i d e r . Th e re is n o F D A - ap p r o ved t r ea tm e nt fo r ti nn i t us . E xt e r n a l o ti t is (s wi m m e r 's ea r ) s h ou l d b e t r ea t ed wi t h a p re sc r ip t io n o t ic an t i bi o ti c a n d c o rt ic os t e ro i d. O n l y i m pa c t e d c e r um e n a nd wa t e r -c lo g ge d e a rs m a y be t r ea t ed wi t h n o np r es c ri p ti on p rod u c t s . 3 . T he an sw e r is D (I I ) [s e e I . B .5 ] . I s op r o p y l a lc oh ol 95 % i n a n h y d ro us gl y c e ri n i s FD A a p p ro ve d o nl y f o r t r ea t m e n t o f wa t e r - c l og ge d e a rs . La be l s o n p r od uc ts o f is o pr op yl a lc oh ol 9 5% i n a n h y dr o u s g l yc e ri n s ho ul d n o t c la im t o be us ed fo r t re a tm en t o r p re v e n ti on o f e xt e r n al o ti t is ( s wi m m e r ' s e a r ) b ec au s e t h is i s a s e pa r a te di so r de r f r om wa t e r -c lo g ge d ea r s . Tr e a t m en t fo r i m p a c t e d c e r um en is c a rb am i de pe r o xi d e . 4 . T he an sw e r is B [ s ee I . B . 1. d . (1 ) ] . C a r b am id e pe r o xi d e s of te n s e a r wa x t h r o u gh it s fo a m i n g ac t io n wh e n o xy g e n i s r e l ea se d . I t i s l ab e le d f or a g es 1 2 a n d o ld e r . Th er e f o re , fo r c h il d re n < age 1 2 wi t h s us p ec t ed c e r um en im pac t io n s ho u ld be s e en b y a m e d ic al p ro v i de r . Pa t ien t s s ho ul d i n st i ll 5- 1 0 d r op s o f c ar ba m id e p e ro xi d e i nt o th e e a r 2 t im es d a il y f o r u p to 4 d a y s . 5 . T he an sw e r is A [ s ee I . B . 4. a , b an d c ]. E xt e r n a l o ti t is i s r e fe r r ed t o as s wi m m e r ' s e a r. Th o u g h p ro l on g ed e xp o s u re t o m o is tu r e i s t he t y p ic al c a u s e of e xt e r n al o ti ti s , m e c ha n ic al t ra um a , s u ch a s th e u se o f co t to n - ti pp e d a pp l ic ato r s , f in g e rs , o r s ha r p o b j e c ts in th e e a r , m a y c aus e th e e xt e r n a l ea r c a na l t o b e m o r e s u sc ep t ib l e t o d am a g e a n d m i c ro o rg a ni s m in f i lt r a ti on . P a t i en ts wi t h e xt e r n al o t it i s m a y p r es e nt wi t h ot ic i t ch in g , a s e ns at i on of pr e s s u r e o r f u l ln es s i n t he ea r , p a in , o r an ot ic di sc h ar g e. I nit i a l t r ea tm e nt is wi t h a n o t ic
a n t ib io t ic an d c o rt ic os t e ro i d , n ot an o ra l a n ti bi o tic . O r al an t ib io t ic s a r e i nd i ca t ed wh e n t h e i nf e c t io n i s u n re s po ns i v e to ot ic t re a tm e n t , t h e i nd i vid u al is i m m u no c o m p r om is e d, o r a m i d dl e e a r i nf e c t io n c oe xi s t s . 6 . T he an sw e r is B (I V ) [ s ee I . C ]. Th e e a rl o be s h ou l d b e pu l le d u p a n d b ac k t o s t rai g h te n t h e c a n al fo r ad u lt s an d d o wn a n d b ac k t o s tr a igh t e n t he c a na l i n c hi l d ren . O n l y wa r m wa t e r sh o ul d be us ed i n th e o t ic s y r i ng e , a s c ol d or h ot wa t e r m a y in duc e d i z zi n es s . I f co t t on i s u s e d i n t h e e a r t o re t ai n t h e m edi c at i on , i t m us t b e l a r ge e n o ug h t o re m o v e ea si l y a n d s h ou l d n ot be le f t i n t h e e a r fo r lo ng e r t h an 1 h r . 7 . T he an sw e r is D [ s ee I I I . B] . B u f f e rs a r e u s e d i n o p hth a lm ic p re pa r a ti o ns t o m a i n ta in a p H be t we e n 6 . 0 a n d 8 .0 . To n i c it y a dj us t e rs e n s u re t he p ro d uc t i s is o to n ic , e q ua l t o 0 . 9% - 6 0. 2 % s od i um c h lo r id e . 8 . T he an sw e r is A [ s ee I I I . D ]. O n c e d i ag no s e d b y a phy s i c i a n, co r ne a l e de m a is t re a te d wi t h h yp e r os m o t ic ag e nt s s uc h a s Mu r o s o lu t io n o r o i nt m e n t t o d r a w t h e f lu id a wa y f r o m t he co r ne a . 9 . T he an sw e r is C [ s ee I I I . D .2 ] . V i r a l co n ju nc t i v it is is m os t of t en at t r ib u ta b le to the a de n o vir us a nd i s m o re c om m o n l y k n o wn as p i nk e y e . 1 0 . Th e a n sw e r i s A [ s ee I I I. E ] . Th e a n ti o xi d a n t v i t am in s e xa m i n ed fo r th e pr e ve nt i o n a nd / o r t r ea tm e nt o f o p h th al m i c d i so r de r s i nc lu d e v i t am in A ( r e ti no l a n d β - c a r o te ne ) , v i ta m i n C , a nd vi ta m in E . L u t ei n i s a n a nt i o xi d a nt p i gm e nt th a t f u nc ti o ns to f i lt e r a n d p r ot ec t th e vis u a l a p p ar a tu s a n d i ts v as c u la r s u p pl y. Lu t ei n , is t he re f o r e, th o ug h t t o b e b e ne f ic i al fo r i m p ro ve m e n t i n v i s i o n i n p a t ie n ts wi t h d r y a ge - r ela t e d m a c u l a r d eg e ne r at io n an d p r e ve n ti on o f c a t a ra c t s . V i t am i n D is no t a n a n ti oxi d a n t v i t am in . P.625
1 1 . Th e a n sw e r i s D [ s ee I I I. F . 2] . R e we t t i n g s ol u ti on s a r e th e on l y c o nt a c t le ns s o lut i o ns th a t m a y b e u se d wh i le t he l e ns is s t il l i n t he e y e . 1 2 . Th e a n sw e r i s C [ s ee I I I. C . 4 ]. C u r r e n tl y , th e r e a re t h ree a v a il ab l e o ph t ha lm ic an t i hi st am i ne s : k e t ot i fe n , p h e ni r am in e , a nd an t a z ol i ne . P he ni r am in e an d a nt a z o l in e a r e o nl y a va il a bl e in c om b in a ti o n wi t h th e o p ht h a lm ic d ec o ng es t an t nap h a z o li ne . O ph t ha lm ic a n t ih is t am in es m a y c a us e b u rn in g , s ti n gi ng , dr y e ye s , o r m y d r ia s i s . V a s oc on s t r ic t o rs , n o t a nti h is t am in es , m a y p ro du c e r e bo un d c o ng es t io n whe n us ed in e xc e s s o r fo r e xt e n de d du r a ti o ns . 1 3 . Th e a n sw e r i s C [ s ee I I I. B ] . E d e t ic a c i d i s a n a n ti o xi d a n t a nd be n z a lk on iu m c h l o ri d e ( B A K ) i s a p r es e rv a t i v e u s ed in op h th a lm ic f o rm u l a ti on s . Z in c s ul f at e i s th e on l y F D A - re c o m m en de d a s t ri n ge n t. P o v id o ne is a v e h ic l e us e d i n o ph t ha lm i c f or m u l at i on s. 1 4 . Th e a n sw e r i s B [ s ee I I . B. 2 .d . ( 1 )] .
S o d iu m l au r y l s u lf a te is u s ed f re q ue n tl y as a s u rfa c ta n t i n m os t d en t if r ic es . It s d e t e rg en t ac ti o n a id s i n th e r em o v al of de b ri s , a nd t he f oa m i ng is us ua ll y d e s i r ed b y t h e p a ti e nt . Th e re is no e v i d e nc e t ha t s u r fa c t a nts po s s es s a n ti c a r ie s ac t iv i t y o r d e c re as e p e ri o do n ta l d is e a s e . Th e F D A c o ns id e rs su r f ac ta n ts an i n ac ti v e i n gr e di e nt i n de n ti f ri c e s . 1 5 . Th e a n sw e r i s D [ s ee I I . B. 2 .d . ( 4 )] . Te e t h - wh i t e ni ng ag e nt s u s ua ll y c on t ai n 1 0 % c a rb a m i d e p er o xi d e , wh i ch is a wh i te c r ys t al th a t r e ac ts wi t h wa t e r t o re l ea s e h y d ro ge n p e r o xi d e a nd , th e r ef o re , l i be r at e s f r e e o xi d e s . C o s m et ic age n ts c a n a l te r th e n o rm al f l o ra o r c a us e ti s s ue ir r it a t io n , g i ng i vi ti s , a nd te e th s e ns i ti v i t y . A nt is e pt ic s h a ve b e en us ed as c os m e t ic wh i t e n e rs ( e . g ., G l y - O xi d e , P r o xi g el ) al o ng wi t h c a lc iu m p ero xi d e ( e . g. , C al p ro x i n Ep i S m i le ) . E p i S m i le al s o c o n ta in s s o d iu m m on o fl u or o ph os p ha t e . 1 6 . Th e a n sw e r i s C [ s ee I I . C. 1 .c . ( 2) ] . L o ca l a n es th e ti c s c a n p ro v i d e re li e f o f c an k e r s o re p ai n . Th e m o s t c o m m on l oc al a n es t he t ic s f ou n d i n O TC p r o du ct s i nc lu d e b en z o c ai n e a nd bu t ac ai ne . So m e e xa m p l es a re A nb es ol , Zi l ac t in - B , a nd O r a je l . A s p i r in s h ou l d n ot be r et a in e d i n t h e m o ut h b e fo r e s wa l l o wi n g o r pl ac e d i n t he a re a o f t h e o r a l le si o ns be c a us e o f th e h i gh r is k f o r c h em ic a l b ur n wi t h ne c ro s i s . 1 7 . Th e a n sw e r i s C [ s ee I I . B. 2 .d . ( 5 )] . D e s en si t i z in g a g en ts s ho u ld no t be ab r as i v e o r u s ed on a c hr o ni c b as is u n le s s d i r ec t ed b y a de n ti s t. The p r od uc ts ap p r o v ed b y th e A D A i nc l ud e t h e i ng r ed i en t s 5 % p o t ass i um n i t ra t e, 1 0% s t r o n ti um c h lo r id e , a nd dib a si c s o d iu m ci t r a te 2% i n Pl u r on ic gel. 1 8 . Th e a n sw e r i s D ( I I , I I I ) [s ee I I. B . 2. d . (1 ) . D ] . S u s pe n di ng ag e nt s a r e pr o d uc ts t ha t a d d t hi ck nes s t o t h e d en t i fr ic es . E xa m p le s a r e t r a g ac an t h, k a r a y a g um , a n d m et h ylc e ll ul o s e . Di ca l c i um ph os p ha t e is c a t eg o r i z ed as a n ab r as i v e p r od uc t . 1 9 . Th e a n sw e r i s C ( I , II ) [ s e e I I . C .2 . a a nd b ]. C o l d -s o re t re a tm en t in v ol v e s k ee p in g t h e l es io n m o i s t wi t h em o ll ie n t c re am s , p e t r ol a tu m , o r p ro t ec t an ts . Lo c a l a ne s th e ti c s (e . g. , b en zo c a in e , d y c lo n in e, s al ic yl a l co h ol ) m a y be us ed . In a d di t io n , d oc os an o l 1 0% c re am ( A br e v a ) a n d t et r a c a i ne 2% g e l ( V i r ac ti n ) a r e a v a il a bl e wi t h ou t a p re sc r ip t io n f o r th e tr e at m en t o f c ol d s o r es . To p i c al c o un t e ri r r it a nt s (e . g . , c a m p h o r) an d c a us ti c s o r e s c ha r ot ic ag e n ts ( e . g ., p h e no l, m e n th o l, s i l v e r ni t r a te ) ar e n o t r e c o m m end e d b ec a us e t he y m a y fur t h e r i r r i ta t e t h e t is s u e. C o ld s o r e s a re us u al l y s e lf - li m it i n g a nd he al wi t h i n 1 0- 14 d a ys wi t h o u t s c a r r in g . 2 0 . Th e a n sw e r i s E ( I , II , I I I) [s e e I . B ]. O TC d r u g t r ea tm e nt c a n b e r ec om m e nd e d f o r a ll o f t he s e ea r c o nd i ti on s .
30 OTC Dermatological Agents L a r r y N . S w a n so n
I. PEDICULOSIS AND PEDICULICIDES A. I n t r o d u c t io n . P e di c u lo s is i s a s ki n i n fe s ta t io n p r o du ce d b y b l oo d s uc ki n g l ic e. Li c e a re s m a l l , f la t , wi ng l es s in s ec ts wi t h s tu b b y a n te n na e an d t h r e e p ai rs o f l eg s t ha t en d in s h a rp , c u r v ed c l a ws . Th r ee t yp e s o f l i c e i n f e s t h um a ns . 1 . P ed ic u lu s h u m an us c ap i t is (i . e. , th e h e ad l o us e ) 2 . P ed ic u lu s h u m an us c or p o r is (i . e. , th e b o d y l o us e ) 3 . P ht h i ru s p ub is ( i. e ., t he p ub ic , o r c r a b, lo us e ) B . L i f e c yc l e s . Th e l ic e t h a t i nf e s t hu m a ns pa ss t h r o ug h s im il a r l if e c yc les . 1 . L oc a t io n . A l l l ic e n eed h um an wa r m th t o su r v iv e . a . H ea d an d p u b ic li c e s p en d t h ei r en t ir e c yc le o n th e s ki n o f th e h um an h o st . b . B o d y l i c e l i v e i n c lo t hi n g , c o m i n g t o t h e s k in s u r f ac e o n l y t o fe e d. 2 . D e ve l op m en t a . E ac h t y p e o f l o us e d ev e l o ps f ro m e g gs ( ni t s ) t h a t i nc ub a te f or a bo u t 1 we e k . W hen t h e s m al l , gr a y - wh i t e , te a r -s h ap ed eg g s h at c h, th e n y m p hs a p p ea r . b . I n a bo u t 3 we e k s , t h e n ym p h s m a tu r e ; t he n t he f em al es st a r t t o l a y e g gs . c . E ac h t y p e o f l ou s e s u rv i v e s ab o u t 1 m on t h a s a m a tu r e a d u lt . D u ri ng t h is ti m e, th e fe m a le he ad l ou s e c a n p r od uc e 3 - 6 e g gs a d a y . 3 . E g g d ep o s it a . B o d y l i c e d e po s i t t h eir e g gs o n f i be r s o f c lo t hin g , p a r ti c u l ar l y in t he s e am s. Th es e l ic e c an s u r v i v e wi t h o ut f oo d u p t o 1 0 d a ys , a nd th e e g gs m a y r em ai n v ia b le fo r abo u t 1 m o n th . Da i l y c lo t hin g c h an g es a n d b oi li n g o r i r o ni n g i nf es t ed c l o th in g c a n e r ad ic a te bo d y l i c e . b . H e ad an d p u b ic l ic e d e p os it th e i r e gg s o n h air s t ra n ds , a bo u t 1 / 4 i nc h f r o m t he s k in . Ad u lt he ad l ic e c a n s u r vi ve o n i nan i m a t e o bj ec ts f or a bo u t 2 0 h r ; he a d li c e n it s m a y s ur v i v e u p t o 1 0 da y s o f f t he b od y . C . I n ci d e nc e . Th e in c i d en c e o f l ic e i n fe st a ti o ns in c r ea s e s e ac h yea r . 1 . Mo r e t ha n 1 0 m il l io n c a s es o f he a d li c e oc c u r e a c h ye a r i n t he U ni t ed S t a t es . 2 . Th e bu lk of th es e c as e s o c c u r b e t we e n S e pt em b e r a nd N o v em be r , wh e n s t ud e nt s a r e b ac k i n s c ho o l . 3 . I n o ut b re a k s o f h e ad li c e, 70 % o f c as es oc c u r i n c h il d re n y ou n ge r th a n 1 2 ye a rs . 4 . I nf es t at i on s t e nd to be m o r e c om m o n i n g i rl s , p r e s u m a bl y b ec a us e o f t h e ir g re a te r te n de nc y t o s ha r e g r o om i n g i te m s . 5 . U nl ik e th e o t he r t wo fo r m s of li c e , bo d y li ce a re as s o ci a t ed wi t h i m p r ope r h yg i e ne an d a r e o f te n p re s en t i n h om e le ss pe op le . Th i s in f es t at i on is ra re i n th e Un i te d S ta t es , e s pe c ia ll y wh e n p eo pl e fo ll ow p r o p e r h y gi en e ro u ti n es .
D . M ed i ca l p ro b l em s 1 . B ot h a d ul t a n d n y m ph l ic e a r e b lo o d s uc k i ng ; th e y f ee d o n h u m a ns b y p i e rc in g th e s k i n a nd in t ro d uc i ng a s m al l a m o u nt o f s a li v a ( wh i c h co n ta in s a n an t i co a gu l a n t) in t o th e fe e di n g a re a . Al l l ic e t y p e s f e ed on bl o od fo r a b o ut 30 - 45 m i n e v e r y 3- 6 h r . a . Th e at t ac hm en t of li c e t o th e b o d y c au s e s a n er yt h e m a t o us pa p u le , wh i c h m a y i t ch . b . Th e fe m a l e l ou s e p rod u c e s a s t ic k y c e me n t -l ik e se c r e ti o n t h at ho l ds th e e g gs in pl ac e o n t h e h ai r s ha f t s o s ec u re l y th a t o rd i na r y s ha m p o oi ng do es n o t re m o v e it . P.627
2 . N ei t he r he a d n o r c ra b l ic e t r a nsm i t i n fe ct i on s , b u t b o d y l ic e tr a ns m i t t yp h u s , r e l a ps i n g f e ve r, a nd t r e nc h fe ve r . 3 . Li ce an d h um a ns ha v e a t ru e pa r a si t i c r e la t i on s h i p ; li c e de p en d o n the h u m a n h os t fo r s h el t er , fo o d , a nd r ep r od uc t i v e s uc c e s s . O nc e h a tc he d , n ym p hs m us t h a v e ac c es s t o t he hu m a n h os t wi t hi n th e f i rs t 12 - to 24 - h r p e r io d , i f t h e y a r e t o s u rv i v e . E . M e t h o ds o f t r a ns m iss i o n 1 . H ea d li c e a r e m o s t c om m o n l y s p r e ad b y h e a d - t o - h ea d co n t ac t wi t h an i n f es te d p e rs o n t h ro u gh h a ts , c a ps , s c a r ves , pi ll owc a s e s , co m m un al c o m bs a n d b r us he s , o r c lo t hi n g t h a t i s h un g c lo se to g et he r ( e .g . , o n a c o at r ac k ) . 2 . P u bi c l i ce a re t r a nsm i t t e d p r im a r i l y t h r o u g h s ex u a l c on t a ct , bu t a ls o t h r o ug h s ha r ed un d e rg a rm e nt s , t o we ls , or t oi le t s e a ts . a . Th e l ic e a f f ec t t e en s an d y o un g a d ul ts m o s t of te n th r o ug h s e xu a l c on t ac t . b . Li c e f r eq ue n tl y c oe xi s t wi t h o th e r s e xu a l l y t r a ns m i t t ed di se as es . c . Sc r a tc hi ng in t he ge nit a l a r e as m a y t ra ns m i t pu b ic li ce to o th e r h ai r y r e g io ns , s uc h a s t h e e y el a s h es , e y e b r o ws , s id e bu r n s , an d m us t ac he s. F . S i gn s a n d s ym p t o m s 1 . H ea d li c e a . Mo s t pa t ie n ts ha v e fewe r t h a n 1 0 l ic e . b . Th e m os t c om m o n s ign is h ea d s c r a tc h in g . c . S ki n re d n es s a r o u nd t h e na p e ( i .e . , b a ck ) of t h e ne ck an d a b o v e t h e e a r s is us ua l l y s ee n . d . Th e li c e c a n b e i de n ti fi e d b y d i re ct e xa m in a ti on us i ng wo o d en ap p li ca to r s t ic ks o r a c o m b t o p a rt th e ha i r , t he n l o ok in g a t th e ha i r t h ro u gh a m a gn i f yin g g la s s . e . Th e l ic e a p pe a r a s t iny b r o wn i s h g r a y s po t s t ha t a re of t en di f f ic ul t t o s e e . Th e s hi n y , w h i ti s h s i l ver e g g s, wh i ch ap p ea r alm os t as g r a in s o f s ug a r, a r e m o re li k e l y t o b e s e en t ha n th e l ic e . Th e ni ts a r e i n it i al l y de p os i t ed a b o ut 1/ 4 in c h f r o m t h e s c a lp on t he ha i r s h a f t, a n d t h e y m a y be co n f use d w i t h d an d r u f f o r h ai r s pr a y d r o p l e t s . Us u al l y, ha i r g r o ws a t a ra t e o f a bo u t 1 / 2 i nc h p e r m on t h , s o the d u ra t io n o f i n fe st a ti o n c a n b e a s s es s e d b as ed o n t h is in f o rm at i on .
2 . P u bi c l i ce . Th e p r im ar y s y m p to m is s c r at c h i ng i n t h e g en i ta l a r ea . 3 . B o d y l i c e . Th e m o s t c o m m o n s ym p t om s a re bi te s a n d i tc hi n g, wh i c h a re c om m o n l y s e en as v e rt ic a l e xc o r ia t io ns on th e tr un k a r e a. G . T r e a tm e n t 1 . Th e r e a r e t h r ee s te p s i n t h e t r ea t m e n t o f h ea d a n d b o d y l i c e . a . Tr e a t t h e li c e a nd ni ts wi t h a pe di c u l ic id e a g ent . b . C o nt r ol t he s y m p to m s o f i t c h in g to p re ve n t se c o n d ar y i n fe c t i on . c . C le an t he en v i r on m e nt o f p o te n ti al li c e an d n i ts . 2 . I tc h i ng . Ph a rm ac is t s s h ou l d a d v is e p at i en ts th a t e ve n a f t e r t he c a us at i v e o r g an is m a nd ni t s h a v e b e e n k i ll e d, i tc hi ng m a y p e r si st fo r se v e r al da ys . Th i s as pe c t is v e r y im por t a n t b ec au s e pa t ie n ts m a y d ec i de to us e p e di c ul ic id es e xc e s s i v ely , t h i nk in g t h at th e y h a ve b ee n i n ef f ec ti v e wh e n t h e i t ch i ng c o nt i nu es . Ex c ess i ve u se o f p e di c u li c ide s ma y r e s u l t i n e x c es s i ve d r yi n g , w h ich c an c au s e f u r t he r i tch i n g . 3 . H om e re m e di es . B ec au s e o f t h e so c i a l s ti gm a a t t ac he d to li c e i n f es ta t io n , s om e i nd i v idu a ls m a y r es o rt t o h a rm fu l ho m e r em ed ie s . E xa m p l e s o f s uc h u nc om f o r t ab l e, in e ff ec t i ve , a nd p o te n ti a ll y d an g er o us a p p ro ac h es th a t s h o ul d n o t b e u se d i nc l ud e a . S ha vi n g t he he a d a nd p u bi c a r ea b . A pp l y i ng he a t t o t h e in f es t ed a re a wi t h a ha i r d r y e r c . S oa ki ng t he he ad in ho t wa t e r fo r s e v e r al m i nut e s d . S oa ki n g t he a re a o f inf e s ta t io n wi t h g as ol in e or k e ro se n e 4 . O ve r - t h e -c o u n te r ( OTC ) p e d i c ul i c id e p r o d uc t s ar e c o ns id e re d f i rs t - li n e t r e a tm en t s a nd i n c l ud e a . P yr e t h r i n s 0. 1 7 %- 0 . 3 3 % w i t h p i pe r o n yl b u t o x i d e 2 %- 4 %. Th i s p r od uc t i s s a fe an d e f fe c ti v e fo r t h e tr e at m e n t o f h e ad a nd p u bi c l i c e. Th e c om b in a ti o n o f i ng r ed i ent s is a n e xa m p l e o f p h a rm a c ol o g ic a l s yn e r g i s m . P.628
( 1 ) P yr e t h r i n s k i ll b y dis r u p t i ng i on - t r a ns p o r t m e c ha n is m s a t th e n e rve m e m b ra n es . Th es e n a tur a l i ns e ct ic i de s a re de r i ve d f ro m a m i xt u r e of s u bs ta n c e s o bt a in ed f r om t he fl o we r s of th e c h rys a n t h e m u m p la n t . B e c au se no t a l l e gg s m ay b e k i ll e d ( i t t ak es ab o ut 4 da ys fo r th e n e r v ou s s ys t em o f th e l o us e t o de v e l o p) wi t h a si n gl e a ppl i c a t io n o f t h is a g en t or r e m o ved wi t h a ni t c om b, i t m a y b e n e c e ss a r y t o r e a pp l y t he p y r et h ri n p r o du c t wi t h i n 7 - 10 da y s o f th e f i rs t a p pl ic a ti o n (b e ca us e th e u su al ha t c h in g t i m e o f t he eg gs is 7 - 1 0 d a y s ) . ( 2 ) P i pe r o n yl b u t o x i d e e n h an c e s t he pe d ic ul ic ide e f fe c t of p y r e th r in s b y s u p p r es s in g th e ox i da ti ve d e g r ad a t io n m e ch an i s ms o f t h e l i ce . Th e r e f o re , th e l e ng t h o f t i m e t ha t t h e p y r e th r in s c o nt ac t th e l ic e i s i n c re as ed . ( 3 ) S i de e ff e c ts f ro m e ith e r ag en t ar e un c om m on . ( a ) C o n ta c t d e r ma t i t is (s e e I V ) i s t h e m o s t f r eq ue n t l y re p or t ed s i de e ff ec t .
( b ) Al l e r g i c r e ac t i o ns . B e c au s e p y r et h r in s a re d e r i v ed f ro m a pl an t ( c h r y sa n th em um ) , th e y m a y p ro d uc e h a y fe ve r (i. e . , a ll e r gi c r hi n it is ) an d a s th m a a tt ac k s in s us c ep t i bl e i nd i v i du al s . Th u s p a t ie n ts wh o ha v e k n o wn a l le r g ie s t o r a g we e d o r c h r y s a nt h em um p l an ts s ho u ld us e t h is p r o du c t wi t h c a ut i on . ( 4 ) C om m o n t ra d e n am es f o r t hi s p r od uc t in c l ud e R I D m a xi m u m s t re n gt h S h a m p o o, A -2 0 0 m a xi m um s t r en g t h S ha m p o o . ( 5 ) D i r ec t i o ns f o r u se (s h a mp o o ) ( a ) Ap p l y t h e p r o d u ct , u n d i lu t e d, t o t he d r y h a ir u n ti l i t i s e nt i r el y we t . ( b ) A ll o w t h e p r od uc t to r e m a in o n t h e h ea d f o r 1 0 mi n . ( c ) R i ns e th o r o ug h l y wi t h wa r m wa t e r . ( d ) D r y t he a re a , p r ef e r ab l y wi t h a d is po s ab le cl ot h . ( e ) C o mb ha i r in th e p r ev i o u s l y i nf es t ed a re a w i th a f in e - to o t he d co m b to r e m o ve d ea d l ic e a n d e gg s . ( f ) D o no t e xc e e d t wo app l ic a ti on s wi t hi n 2 4 h r . I t m a y be ne c e s s a r y to r e a pp l y t he s h am po o i n 7 - 1 0 d a y s [ se e I . G . 4 .a . (1) ] . b . P e r me t h r in ( N i x) i s a p y r e t h ro i d ( i .e . , a s y n t het i c v er s i o n o f a p yr et h ri n) . I t is in di c at e d f o r t he t rea t m e n t o f h e ad l ic e o n l y. ( 1 ) M e c ha n is m o f ac t i on . P e rm e th r in ha s a s i m il a r me c ha n i sm o f a c ti on a s t he p yr e t h r i n s . ( 2 ) Ap p l i c at i o n. P e rm eth r i n c om es i n t h e f o rm of a 1% c r em e ri n se an d s h ou l d b e a pp li e d l ik e a c o n v en t io n al ha i r co n di t io n e r a f te r th e h a ir h as b e e n sh am p oo e d ( us e a s h am po o wi t h n o c on di t io n e r ), r in s e d , a nd t o we l d r i ed . Th e h ai r s h ou l d be t ho r o ug hl y s at u r at e d wi t h u n di lu t ed pe r m e t h ri n ( 2 5 - 30 m L ) , wh ic h s ho u ld r e ma i n o n th e ha i r for 1 0 m i n . t h en r i ns e d . ( 3 ) E f f ec t i ve ne s s. A s i ng l e a pp l ic at i on is g e ne r al l y e ff e ct i v e i n k il li n g l ic e. B e c au se th e a g en t i s re ta i ne d o n th e h a ir s h a ft , th e p ro du c t p r o v id es c o n t in u i ng ac t i vi t y f o r u p t o 1 4 d a ys . Th i s r e s id u al e ff ec t pe r si st s r e g a rd l es s o f n or m a l s ham p oo i ng . ( a ) E ve n wi t h t he r es id ua l ac ti v i t y, th e r e s ti ll m ay b e t he ne ed f o r r e t r ea t m e n t i n 7 -1 0 da y s . ( b ) C o mb h ai r in t he pr ev i o u s l y i nf es t ed a re a w i th a f in e - to o t he d co m b to r e m o ve d ea d l ic e a n d e gg s . ( c ) Th e r e is , at le as t th eo r e ti c al l y, t h e s p e cu la t ion t ha t be ca us e l o w- l e v e l r e s id ua l a m o u nt s o f th is a g e nt a re re t ai n ed on t he h ai r , i t m a y be po s s ib le t h a t wh e n s u b op t im al l e v e l s a r e p re s en t , s o m e li c e m a y s u r v i v e a nd gi v e r i s e t o s tr a in s t h at a re res is t an t . c . O TC p e d ic u li c i de t r ea t m e nt f ai l u r e. Tr e a tm en t f ai lu r e wi t h t he us e o f t h e p r ec e di ng ag e nt s h as be e n r e po r t ed . Sp ec u la t i on s as t o t he c a us e o f t h is t re a tm en t fa i lu r e i nc l u de f ai lu r e t o fo ll o w p r od u ct in s tr u c t io n s, n o nc om p li an c e wi t h ni t re m o v al , a n d h ea d -l ic e d ru g r es is ta nc e . S t u di es s u pp o r t t he t he o r y th a t th e r e a r e n o w “ s up e r l ic e” t h at ha v e s u r v i ve d e xp o s u r e t o p y r e t h ri ns an d pe r m e t hr i n. 5 . P r es c r i p ti o n p r o d uc ts a r e i nc lu de d h e r e t o pu t in t o p e rs pe c ti ve ho w t h e O TC a g e n t s f it in t o t h er ap y .
a . M a l at h i on ( O vi d e ) i s a n o rg an o ph os p ha t e ch ol i ne s te r as e i nh i bi t or t ha t h a s b ee n wi d el y us e d a s a la wn a n d g a rd e n in s ec t ic i d e . Re s i s t a nc e h as a l so be c o m e an is s u e wit h t hi s a ge n t. ( 1 ) M e c ha n is m o f ac t i on . S ul f u r a to m s in th e m a l a th io n b i nd wi t h s u lf u r g r o up s o n t h e h ai r , g i v ing a re s i d ua l p r ot ec t i v e e ff e c t a ga in s t r ei n fe s ta t io n. P.629
( 2 ) Ap p l i c at i o n. Ma l a t hio n is p r e pa r ed as a l ot ion i n 7 8% al c o h ol ; t h e r ef o re , c a ut i on s h ou ld b e us e d n ea r an op e n f l am e o r a h ai r dr ye r . The p r o du c t s h o ul d b e s p ri nk l e d o n d r y h ai r a n d l ef t fo r 8 -1 2 h r be f o re r in si ng. A f i n e- t o ot h ed c om b s ho u ld b e us e d t o re m o v e th e d e a d li ce a nd eg gs . ( 3 ) N o s y s te m i c a d ve r se e f f ec t s h a ve b e en r ep o rt e d wi t h t o pi c a l u s e of t hi s m e di ca t io n . ( a ) Th e al c o ho l ic v eh ic l e m a y pr o du c e st i ng in g an d po s s ib l e f la m m ab il i t y. ( b ) A l th ou g h t hi s a g en t m a y be e ff ec t i ve , i ts u n pl e as a nt od o r ( o wi n g to s u lf h yd r y l c om po u nd s ), th e r eq ui r e d t im e o f 8 - 12 h r o n t he s c al p , a nd th ose p o in t s n ot e d i n I . G . 5. a . (3 ) . ( a ) r e p re se n t t he m a in d r a wb a ck s. b . L in d a ne , o r γ - b en z e ne h e xa c hl o ri d e h as fa ll en i nt o d is f a v o r b ec au s e o f t h e p o te n ti a l f o r t o xi c i t y a n d t h e f ac t th a t i ts e f f ica c y is le s s th an t he ot h er a g e nt s a v a il a bl e ( b ot h p re s c r i pt i on an d O TC p r odu c ts ) . Re s i s ta nc e t o t h is a g e nt is wi d es p re a d. ( 1 ) I t h as ne u r o to x ic i t y p o t e n ti a l b ec au s e o f p e rc u ta n eo us ab s o r p ti o n; t h e r ef o re , it s u s e s h ou ld b e a v o i de d i n i n fa n ts , p re g n an t a n d n ur s i n g wo m e n , an d a n y on e wi t h a ne u r ol og ic a l d is o rd e r. S e v e r e c e n t ra l ne r vo u s s ys t e m ( C N S ) t o xi c i t y h a s o c c u r re d i n i n fa n ts , wi t h s ei zu r es an d d e at hs r e p o rt e d, pa r t ic ul a rl y wh e n th e l o ti o n is us ed o r wh e n t h e a ge n t i s i ng es te d . To xi c i t y h as b e en m i ni m a l wh e n t h e s ha m p oo is u s ed p ro pe r l y t o t r ea t h ea d l i ce . 6 . Ad j u n c ti ve t h e ra p y a . N i t re m o va l ( 1 ) Th e pe di c u l ic id e p r odu c ts m e nt i on e d v a r y i n th e i r a bi li t y t o k il l t h e li ce n i ts . To en s u r e s uc c e s s fu l th e r ap y , af t e r p ed ic u lic i de ap pl ic a ti o n, t he ni ts s h ou l d b e r em o v e d wi t h a f i ne - t o o th e d c om b . A s t u rd y m e ta l c o mb ( li k e t h e L ic e Me i s te r ) is re c om m e n de d b y t h e N a ti o nal P e di c u lo s i s As s oc i at i on ( N P A ) . Ma n y s c ho ol s h av e a “ n o ni t ” p o li c y— t h a t is , a c h il d ' s h ai r a n d s ca l p m u s t b e f r ee of ni ts be f o re he o r sh e i s a ll owe d t o r e tu r n t o t h e c l as s r o om . ( 2 ) A lt h ou g h v a r i ou s s u bs t an c e s h a ve b e en us ed i n an ef f o rt t o d is lo dg e th e n i ts f ro m t h e h ai r s h af ts , m os t , i f n o t a ll , h a v e b ee n un su c c es sf u l. A m i xt u r e o f 50 % v in e ga r an d 5 0% wa t e r h as be e n r ec om m en d e d, bu t i t s e f f ec t i v en es s h as be en qu e s t i on e d. A l ic e e g g r em o v e r c on t ai n in g v a ri ous e n zym e s c o m e s a s p a rt o f a k it , b u t c ha ll e ng es ha v e b ee n m ad e to i t s e f f ec t i v en es s .
b . T r ea t me n t of o t he r ho u s eh o l d m em b e rs . O nc e a li ce in f es t at i on ha s b e e n id e n ti fi e d i n o ne m e m be r of th e h o us eh o ld , a l l o t he r m em b er s s ho u ld b e e xa m in e d c a r e fu ll y . Ev e r y o n e wh o is i n fe s te d s h ou l d b e t r ea t ed at t he s am e ti m e . c . Ad j u n ct i ve m et h o ds f o r c o nt r o l l in g li c e i n fes t a t i on s ( 1 ) W as h ab l e m a te r i al it e m s s uc h as li n en s , t o we l s, ha t s, an d c lo t hi n g s h ou l d b e m a c h i ne - wa s he d in ho t wa t e r a nd d ri ed i n a h o t d r y e r to de s t r oy l i ce an d n i ts . ( 2 ) N o nw as h ab l e m a te r ia l g oo d s s ho ul d b e d r y- c l ea n ed or s e al e d i n a p l as t ic b a g f o r 2 we e k s . ( 3 ) P e rs o n al i te m s ( e .g ., c om b, b ru s h es ) s h ou l d b e s o ak ed in ho t wa t e r ( 1 3 0 °F ) fo r a t le a s t 15 m i n . ( 4 ) F u rn i t u r e a nd h ou s eh o l d i t e ms ( e. g ., ca r pe ts , c h ai r s , c o uc he s , p i ll o ws ) s h ou l d b e v a c uum e d t ho r o ug hl y . O TC s pr a y p r od u ct s t ha t c o nt a in p yr e t h ri ns a re no m o r e ef f e c t i v e t h an va c u um in g in t e rm s o f r em o v i ng th e r i sk of r ei n fe s ta ti o n . d . P ed ic u li c i d es s ho u ld n o t b e u se d a r o un d t h e e y e s . F o r e ye l a s h pu b i c l i c e i n f es t a ti o ns , pe t r o la t u m a p pl ie d f i v e ti m e s a d a y h a s b ee n u se d t o s u pp os e dl y “ as p h y xi a t e ” l i c e bu t t h is m a y on l y s l ow l i c e m o v em e nt . G en t le r e m o val wi t h b a b y s h am p o o m a y b e he lp f ul . H . H e a d l i ce m yt h s a r e n u m e r ou s . Th e f ol lo wi n g a d di t io na l fa c t s m a y r e a ss u re an d i n fo rm pa t ie n ts an d p a r en ts o f p at ie n ts . 1 . N o s ig ni f ic an t di f fe r e nc e i n i nc i de nc e o c c u rs am o n g th e v a ri o us s oc i oe co n om ic c la s s es or r a c e s . 2 . H yg ie n e a nd ha i r l en gt h a re no t c o nt r ib u ti n g f ac t o rs . 3 . H ea d l ic e d o n o t f l y o r j um p fr om pe r s o n to pe rs o n. 4 . H ea d l ic e d o n o t c a rr y o t he r di s e as es . 5 . H ea d l ic e c a nn o t b e c o n t r ac te d f r om an im a ls , a n d p e ts a r e n o t s us c ep ti b le to P ed ic u lu s h u m a n us c ap i ti s . P.630
6 . Th e he ad do es n ot hav e t o be s h a ved to ge t rid o f l ic e. 7 . W as hi ng ha i r wi t h “ b ro wn ” s o ap is n o t e f fe c ti v e . 8 . H ea d l ic e a r e u n r el a ted t o t ic ks . 9 . H ai r do es no t fa ll o ut a s a c o ns e qu en c e o f i nfe s ta t io n . 1 0 . He a d l ic e i nf es t a ti ons c a n o cc u r a t a n y ti m e o f t he y e ar .
II. ACNE AND ITS TREATMENT A. O ve r vi e w 1 . D e f in i t io n . Ac ne v u lga r i s is a d is o rd e r o f t h e p i lo s e b ac eo us un i ts , m ain l y o f t he fa c e , c h es t, a nd ba c k . Th e l es i on s us u al l y s t a rt as op e n o r c lo s e d c om e do n es a n d e v o l v e in t o i n fl am m a t o r y p a pu l es an d p u s t ul e s t ha t e i th er r e s ol ve as m ac ul es o r be c om e s ec on da r y p yo de rm a , wh ic h re s u l ts i n va r i o us s e qu el a e .
2 . I nc i de n ce a . A c n e v ul ga r is is th e mo s t co m mo n s k i n d is e as e o f a do l esc e nc e ; i t a f f ec ts ab o ut 85 % o f al l p e o pl e b e t we en t he ag es o f 12 an d 2 4 . b . I t a f fe c t s p r im a ri l y ado l es c e n ts i n j u ni o r h ig h a n d s en i or hi g h, t he n d e c re as es in ad u lt h oo d . 3 . I mp o r t an c e a . A c n e v ul ga r is is u s ua ll y s e l f -l i mi t i n g. b . H o we v e r , t he c o nd i ti on is s i gn i fi ca n t t o a d ol esc e nt s b ec a us e o f h e ig h te n ed s e l f- c o n s c io us n es s a bo u t a pp ea r a nc e. c . A g r ea t m a jo r it y o f p eo p le do n ot c o ns ul t a p hy s i ci a n f o r t r ea t m e n t o f a c ne ; th e re f o re , a ph a rm a c is t c an pl a y a si g ni f ic an t r ol e . B . O r i g i n s a nd p at h o phys i o l o g y 1 . Th e pa t h og e ne s is o f a c ne v u lg a ri s i n v ol v e s thr e e e ve n ts . a . I nc r e as e d s eb u m p r od u c t io n ( 1 ) S eb um s e c re t io n i s re g ul a te d pr im a ri l y b y and r o g e ns , wh i ch ar e a c ti ve l y s e c re t ed in bo t h s e xe s be g in ni n g a t p ube r t y . ( 2 ) O n e o f t h es e a nd r oge n s , t es to s te r on e , is c o nve r t e d t o d i h yd r o t e s t o s te r o n e ( DH T ) . ( 3 ) D H T l e v e ls i n du c e t he s e b ac eo us gl a nd s t o i nc r e as e i n s i z e an d a c ti v i ty , r e s ul ti n g i n i nc r ea s e d am o un ts o f s e b um . b . Ab n o r m a l c l um p in g o f e p it h e li a l h o r n y c e l l s w i t h i n t h e p i l o se b ac e ou s u n i t ( 1 ) N o rm al l y , k e ra t in i z e d h o r n y c el ls a re s l ou g hed f r o m th e e pi t he l ia l l in i ng o f t he pi lo s e b ac eo us du c t i n t he h ai r fo ll ic l es a n d a r e c a r ri ed to t he s k i n s u r fa ce wi t h a f lo w o f s eb u m . ( 2 ) I n t he pa t ie n t wi t h ac n e , th e k er a ti n i z at i on p ro c es s is ab n or m a l , c h a ra ct e ri z e d b y i nc r e as e d ad h er e nc e a nd p ro d uc t io n o f fo ll ic u la r ep i th el ia l c e ll s. Th i s p ro c e s s is c all e d re t e nt i o n h yp e r k e r at o s i s, an d i t re s u l ts in o b st r uc t io n o f th e o u tf l ow o f t h e p i lo se ba c eo us un i t . c . P r es e nc e o f P r o pi o n ib a c t e ri u m a cn e s ( a g r am - p os it i ve a n ae r ob e ) ( 1 ) P eo p le wi t h a c n e h a v e s k in c o lo n y co u nt s o f P . a c n es th a t a r e s i gn i fi ca n tl y h ig he r t ha n t h e c ou n ts of t ho s e wi t ho u t a c n e . ( 2 ) P . a c n es p ro d uc es s e v e r a l e n z ym es , i nc lu d ing l ip as es , th a t b re a k d own s e bu m t r ig l y c e r id e s t o s h o r t c ha i n f r ee fa t t y ac ids ( F FA s ) , wh i c h a r e i r r i ta t in g , c au s e c om e don e s , an d re s u l t i n i nf l am m a ti o n. 2 . S eq u e nc e o f ac n e l es i o n d e ve l op m en t a . Me c h an ic a l b lo c k ag e o f a p il os e ba c e o us d uc t b y c lu m p e d h o rn y c el ls r e s ul ts in a c l os e d c ome d o ( i. e ., a w hi t e he a d) . b . W hen a c l os ed c o m e do d e v el o ps , i t c an fo r m ei t h er a p a pu le o r a n o p en c o m ed o (i . e ., a b l ac k hea d ) . Th e d a r k c o lo r of th e bl ac k h e ad is a t t ri b ut ed t o a c om bi na t io n o f m e lan i n , o xi d i ze d l ip i d, an d k e r a ti n oc yt es , no t to d i r t. c . Th e l es i on m a y en l ar ge a nd fi l l wi t h pu s , wh i c h i s t h en te r m e d a pu s t u le. P.631
d . I n m o r e s e v e re c a s e s o f ac ne , pa pu l es m a y dev e l o p i n to no d ul es or c ys ts . e . Th e te r m p i mpl e n on s p e c i f ic al l y r ef e rs to wh i te h e ad s, bl ac kh e ad s , p a p ul es , a n d p us tu l es . C . C l i n ic a l f e a tu r e s 1 . L oc a t io n . A c n e v u lg ar i s l es io n s us u al l y oc c u r o n th e fa ce , n ec k , c h es t , u p pe r b a ck , a n d s h o ul de r s . A ny o r a ll t ype s o f l es i on s m a y be s e e n o n a s in g le p a ti e nt . 2 . S ym p t o m s . Th i s c on di t i on is u s u a ll y as ym p tom a ti c ; h o we ve r , s om e p at i e nt s m a y h a ve p ru r it u s o r p ai n i f la r g e , t en d er le si o ns ar e p r e s e n t. 3 . C l as s i fi c at i o n. I t is im p o rt a nt to di f f er e nt i at e n o n i n fl a mm a to r y f r o m i n f l am m a to r y a c n e to de t e rm i ne th e b es t t re a tm e n t a p p ro ac h . Th e r e h a ve b ee n m a n y ra t in g o r g ra di n g s c a le s f o r a cn e s e ve ri t y (Ta b l e 30 - 1 ). C ys t i c a c ne is p re s e n t wh e n t h e f ol l ic ul a r wa ll ru p t u re s oc c u r de e pe r i n t h e d e rm is an d n o du le s a n d c ys ts a r e s e en . Be c a us e o f the p ot e nt i al fo r s c a r r in g , c y s t ic a c n e p a ti e nt s s hou l d b e r e f e r re d t o a p h ys ic i an fo r t r ea tm e nt . Sc a r ri n g occ u rs wi t h h ype r t ro p hi c r id g es , k e lo id s , o r a t r op hi c “i c e p i c k ” p i ts . D . C o m p li c at i n g f a ct o rs . O t he r fa c to r s h a ve b ee n im pl ic a te d i n t h e e xa c e r b a ti on o f a c ne . 1 . D r u gs a nd h o rm o ne s a . Ma n y t o p ic al an d s y s te m ic m ed ic a ti o ns (e . g ., b r o m i de s , i od id es , to p ic a l c o al ta r p r o du c ts , a nd r o ge ns , p he n y t o in , p r o ge s t i ns , l it h iu m , c or t ic os t e ro id s ) c an b e c om e do g en ic an d c an m a k e ac n e wo r s e or ca n in d uc e a c n e -l ik e er u pt i ons ( i. e . , a c ne i fo r m l es io ns ) . b . Ac n e i f o rm e r up t i o ns d i ff e r fr om t ru e a c ne le si o ns in th a t a pp a r en t l y no co m e d o f o r m s , e r up t io ns a re us ua l l y ac ut e , a nd t he le s i on s u s u a ll y a r e a ll in th e s am e s t ag e o f de ve l op m e n t. 2 . S t r es s d o es n o t c au s e ac n e b ut m a y e xa c e r ba t e i t . 3 . D i e t. Th e r e is v e r y li t tl e e v id en c e t o su p po r t a r e l at i on s h i p b et we e n di et a nd a c ne . Ma n y d i ff e r en t f o od s h a v e be en bl am e d f o r a c n e , f r om c h oc ol a te s an d s we e t s t o sh el l fi s h t o n ut s a nd ot h e r f a t t y fo od s . S e ve ra l s t ud i es h a v e de m o ns t r ate d th a t c h o co l a te d oe s n o t a f f ec t a cn e . Th e m a jo r i t y o f d e r m a t ol og is t s t od a y m ak e th e f o l lo wi n g re c o m m en d a ti on s re g ar d in g d i et . a . Th e pa ti e n t s h o ul d b e e a ti n g a we l l -b al a nc ed d i e t. As wi t h m os t ot h e r d i s e as es , a n d a s a m a tt e r o f g o od h e al t h , e xc e ss fa t s a nd s i m pl e c a rb oh yd r a te s s hou l d b e a vo i d ed . b . Th e pa t ie n t wh o i ns is ts t ha t c e rt a in fo o ds c a us e e xa c e r ba t io n o f a c n e s h o ul d p r o ba b l y a v o i d t ho s e f ood s . 4 . P h ys i c a l t r a u ma o r i rr i t a t i o n c a n p r om o te th e r u p tu r e o f p l ug ge d fo ll ic l e s , wh i c h c a n p r od uc e m o re in f la m m a to r y r e ac ti o ns . Sc ru bb i ng t he fa c e , we a r in g he a d ba nd s , c r a dl in g th e c hi n wi t h t he h an d , a nd pi c k in g a t the p im pl es c a n c on t ri b ut e t o th e p r i m a r y in f la m m a ti on p roc es s . G e n t le r eg ul a r w as h i n g wi t h so ap an d wa te r c a n b e b e n ef ic ia l .
Table 30-1. Assessment of Acne Severity
Grade of Acne Qualitative Description
Quantitative Description
I
Comedonal acne
Comedones only, < 10 on face, none on trunk, no scars; noninflammatory lesions only
II
Papular acne
10-25 papules on face and trunk, mild scarring; inflammatory lesions < 5 mm in diameter
IIIa
Pustular acne
More than 25 pustules, moderate scarring; size similar to papules but with visible, purulent core
IVa
Severe/persistent pustulocystic acne
Nodules or cysts, extensive scarring, inflammatory lesions > 5 mm in diameter
—
Recalcitrant severe cystic acne
Extensive nodules/cysts
a
Some overlap with previous grade of acne.
Reprinted with permission from Berardi RR. Handbook of Nonprescription Drugs: An Interactive Approach to Self-Care, 14th ed. Washington, DC, American Pharmaceutical Association, 2004:916. P.632
5 . C o sm e ti c s . S om e c os m e ti c b as es an d c e rt a in c os m et ic in g re d ie n ts a r e c om e do g en ic ( e. g ., la n oli n s , pe t r ol e um b as es , c oc o a b ut t e r ). P r ep a ra t io ns s uc h a s c l ea ns i ng c r ea m s , s u nt an o il s , an d h e a vy f ou n dat i o n s s ho u ld be a voi d ed . 6 . M e n st r u a l c yc l e . S o m e wo m en m a y no t ic e f la r e - up s o f a c n e d u ri n g th e p r e m e ns t r ua l p a rt o f t he c y c le . Fl uc t ua t io ns in the l e v el of p ro g es te r o ne a r e th e p r o ba b le c a us e . 7 . E n vi r o nm e n ta l fa c t o rs . V e r y h um i d e n vi ro nm en t s o r h e a v y s we a ti n g l ea d to k e r at i n h y d r at io n , s we l lin g , a n d a d ec r e as e i n t he s i ze o f t he pi l os eb ac eo u s f ol l ic le o r i fi ce , wh i c h r es ul ts in d u c t ob s t ru c t i on . Th e s un , as we l l a s a r ti f ic ia l u l tr a v i o le t ( U V ) l ig h t , c a n h e lp ac ne b y d r y i ng an d p e el in g the s k in , bu t b o th al s o ca n a g g ra va t e a c n e .
E . T r e at m en t an d ca r e 1 . G e ne r a l a . Mo s t pa t ie n ts c a n b e tr e a t ed s uc c e s s f ul l y wi t h e i t he r to pi c al l y or s ys t em ic a ll y a d m i ni s te r ed m e di c a t io ns o r b ot h . Ac ne of t en im p r o v e s wh e n pa t ie n ts rea c h t he i r e a r l y 20 s . b . E ve n t h e m o s t e f fe c t i ve t r ea tm e nt p ro g r am s m a y t a k e s e ve r al we e ks to p r o du c e a n y cl i ni c a l i m p r o v em en t. Th i s a sp ec t m us t b e em p ha si ze d . c . P eo pl e a f f ec te d wi t h ac n e s h o ul d a v o i d a n y th i ng t ha t s e em s t o wo r s e n th e c o nd i ti on ( e .g . , c o s m e ti c s , c l ot h in g , c ra dl i ng th e c h in wi t h th e h an d ) . d . Th e nu m b e r a nd t y p e o f le s i o ns s ho u ld be r oug h l y de t e rm in ed t o as s es s f u r th e r t h e r ap eu t ic re s po ns es . e . S el f - t r e at m en t w i t h O TC a g e n t s i s a pp r o p ri at e on l y f or pa t ie n ts wi t h n o n i n fl a mm a to r y g r a d e I a cn e o f m il d t o m o de ra t e s e ve ri t y . 2 . C l ea n si n g re c om m end a t i on s a . B ec au s e m a n y ac ne pa t i en ts ha v e oi l y sk in , ge n t l e c le a ns i n g t wo t o th r e e t im es d a il y i s r ec om m e n de d f or r e m o v i ng e xc e s s oi l. b . A cn e l es io n s c a n no t be s c r ub b ed a wa y . C om pu l si ve s c ru b bi ng m a y a ctu a ll y wo r s e n th e a c ne b y d is ru p t in g t h e f ol l ic ul a r wa l ls an d th us s e t ti ng t he s ta g e f o r i n f la m m at i on . c . Mi l d fa c i al s o a ps , s uc h as D o ve , N e u tr o ge n a, a n d Pu r po se , s h ou ld be u s ed to c l ea ns e t h e s k i n. d . Me d i c at e d s o a ps c on ta i ni n g su l fu r , re so r ci n ol , o r s a li c y li c ac i d a r e o f l it t l e va l ue b e ca us e th e m ed ic a ti on r i n s e s a wa y r a t he r th a n p e n e t r a te s t he f ol li c l e . e . P at i en ts wi t h m i ld c om e do n al ac ne m i gh t f i nd b e ne f it f ro m c le an s er s co n t ai ni n g p u m i ce , p o l y et h y l en e , o r a l um in um o xi d e p a r ti c l es ( e. g . , B r as i v ol ) . H o we ve r , p a t ie n ts wi t h i n fl am m a t or y a c ne o r s e n si ti ve s k in s ho u ld a voi d t h es e p r odu c ts . 3 . Ap p r o a c he s t o t r e at m e n t d e pe n d o n t he s e ve r it y o f th e c o nd i ti on . Al t hou g h a c n e c a nn o t b e c ur e d, m o s t c a s es c a n b e m a n ag e d suc c e s s f ul l y wi t h to pi ca l tre a tm e nt a l on e . Ba s e d o n t h e p ath o g en es is of th e c o nd i tio n , p o te n ti a l m e t ho ds inc l ud e a . U n bl o ck i n g t he s e b ac e o us du c t s o th a t t h e c on t e nt s c an be ea s i l y e xp e l le d b . D e c re a si n g t h e am o un t o f s e b um th a t is s e c r et e d c . C ha n g in g th e c om po s i t i on of th e s e b um to m ak e i t l e ss i r r it a ti n g b y dec r e as in g t h e p o pu l at io n of P . a c ne s 4 . N o np r e sc r i p t io n t op ic a l m e d ic a ti o n s a . B e nz o yl p e r o x i d e ( 2 .5 % - 10 % ) — fo r e xa m p l e , C l e a ra s i l Ma xi m u m S t re ng t h Ac ne Tr e a t m en t C re am , P an Ox y l A q u a G el ( U . S. F oo d a n d D ru g Ad m i ni s tr a ti o n [ F D A ] c a te g o r y 3 ) — ha s t r a di ti on a ll y b ee n re c o g ni ze d a s t h e m os t e f fe ct i v e to pi ca l O TC a g e nt fo r ac ne , an d m any O TC a c n e p ro du c ts c on t a in it . H o we v e r , t h e l ate s t m o no g ra p h f r om th e F D A c ha n ge d t h e s ta t us o f be n z o y l pe r o xi d e f ro m c a te g o r y 1 ( g e ne r a ll y r ec og n i z ed as s a fe an d e f fe c ti v e ) to c at e g o r y 3 I , i nd ic a ti n g t ha t m o re d a t a a r e n ee de d to p ro v e i ts s a fe t y in r eg a r d t o lo n g - te rm ph o t oc ar c i n og en i c e f fe c t s . Ma r k e t i n g o f t hi s a g en t is pe r m i t te d p e nd i ng fi n al e va l ua t io n o f i t s t um o ri ge n ic p o t en t ia l .
( 1 ) E f f ec t s. B en z o y l pe ro xi d e h as i rr i ta n t , d r yin g, p ee l in g , c o m e d ol y t ic , an d a n t ib ac t e ri al e ff ec ts . Th e c li n ic al re s po ns e s ho ws o n l y m in im a l d if f e re nc es a m o n g t h e 2 . 5% , 5% , a n d 1 0% c o nc en t r at i on s . ( a ) A be n e fi c ia l e f f ec t s h o ul d b e no ti c ed wi t h in a b o ut 2 we e k s , bu t th e us u al le ng t h o f a t h er a pe u ti c t r ia l i s 6- 8 we e k s . ( b ) A s f o r a d ve r se e f fe ct s , be n z o yl p e r o xi d e m ay c a us e a bu r ni n g o r s ti ng i ng s e ns at i on , wh i c h gr a du a ll y d is a pp e ar s . Mo s t o f t he a d ve rs e e f fe c t s f r om thi s a g en t r e l at e to it s t h er a pe u ti c e f f ec t o f i r r i ta t in g a nd d ry i n g th e s k i n . F o r t hi s r ea s on , P.633 t h e l o we s t c on c e n t ra t io n a v a i la bl e s h ou ld be c h os e n i ni t ia ll y. A b ou t 2 . 5 % o f pa t ie n ts wi l l d e ve l op a c o n ta c t de r m a t i ti s wi t h i ts us e. ( c ) Th e v e hi c l e f o r t h e be n z o y l pe r o xi d e i s a ls o im p o rt a nt in it s o ve r al l a c t i vi t y. Th e a l co h ol g e l v e h ic le t en ds t o be m o re e ff ec t i v e t h an t he lo t io n o r c r e am f o rm u la t io ns . ( d ) B en zo y l p er o xi d e c an d is c o lo r c e r ta in t y p es o f f ab r ic o r cl ot h in g m ate r i al an d c a n a ls o b le ac h h a ir . ( 2 ) M e c ha n is m o f ac t i on . B en z o y l p er o xi d e ha s a d ua l m od e o f a c ti on , s o i t is e f f ec t i v e a ga in s t b ot h i n fl a m m at o r y an d n o ni n fl am m a t o r y ac ne . ( a ) B en z o y l pe r o xi d e de c o m po s e s t o re le as e o xy g e n , wh i c h i s l e th al t o t he P . ac n es a n a er o be . ( b ) A s a n i r ri t an t , i t i nc r ea s es th e t u r no v e r ra t e o f e p it h el ia l c el ls , re s u l ti ng i n i n c re as ed s l ou g hi n g a nd p r om o ti n g o f r es o lu t io n o f co m e do n es . ( 3 ) Ap p l i c at i o n ( a ) Th e af f ec t ed ar e a s ho u ld be wa s h ed wi t h m ild s o a p a nd wa t e r , t h en ge n t l y p a t te d d r y . ( b ) Th e p ro du c t s h o ul d be m a s s a ge d g en t l y in t o th e s ki n , a v o id i ng th e e ye s , m ou t h, l i ps , a n d i ns id e o f th e n os e . ( c ) Th e pr o du c t c a n b e ap p li e d a t n ig h t , l ef t o n for 1 5 o r 20 m i n t o t es t s en s it i v i t y , t h e n wa s h ed o ff . ( d ) I f n o e xc e s s i v e i r r i ta ti o n d e v el o ps , a p pl y o nc e d a il y f o r t he f ir s t f e w d ay s . ( e ) I f d r y i ng , re d ne s s , o r p e el in g d o es no t o cc u r in 3 d a ys , i nc r ea s e ap pl ic a t i on to t wi c e da i l y . ( f ) I f p a ti e nt s h a v e t o u s e b en z o y l pe r o xi d e du r ing t he da y, a d vis e t he m to us e a s u ns cr e en an d a v o i d u nne c es s a r y s u n e xp o s u r e. b . S a li c yl i c a c i d ( 0. 5 %-2 % ) , a n i r r it a nt k e r at o l y tic ag e nt , re s ul ts in in c re as e d t u r n o ver o f t he ep i th e li al l i ni ng (c a te g o r y 1 ) . Th r ou g h t h is e f f ec t , s a li c yli c a c id p r o ba b l y p r om o te s t h e pe n e t ra t io n o f o t he r ac ne p r o du c ts . c . S ul f u r (3 % - 8% ) , s u l fur ( 3 % - 8% ) c o mb i n ed w i th r e s o rc i n ol ( 2% ) , o r r es o r c i no l m o n oa c e ta t e ( 3 % )— f o r e xa m p l e , C l ea r as il A du l t C a r e Ac ne Tr e a tm en t C re a m , A c n om el (c a te g or y 1 ) ( 1 ) S ul f u r is a k er a to l y t ic a g en t a n d h as an ti b ac t er i a l ac t io n s . ( 2 ) S ul f u r t r ad i ti on a ll y ha s b e en r ec og n i z ed as a l es s d es i ra b le pr o du c t be c au se it m a y be ac n eg en ic wi t h c o n t in ue d us e, an d i t h a s a n of f en s i ve c o lo r an d od o r .
d . R e so r c i no l (a s a s i ngl e ag en t - c a t eg o r y 2) is a k e ra t ol yt ic ag e n t t ha t h as be e n r e c og ni z e d a s s af e a n d e f f ec t i v e ( ca t eg o r y 1 ) a ga i ns t a c n e w he n t he ag en t i s c o m bi n e d w i t h s u l fu r . F . P r e sc r i p ti o n m e di c a ti o n s , b o th t o pi c al an d s ys t e m i c , ar e i nc l ud e d h e r e f o r c om p le t en es s a nd t o p ut i n to pe r sp ec t i v e h o w O T C a g en t s f it in t o a c n e t he r a p y. 1 . T op i ca l p re s c ri p t i on a g e n ts a . T r e ti n oi n ( v i ta m i n A ac i d, t ra ns - r e ti no ic ac i d, R e t i n - A) in c re as es t he tur n o v e r r a t e o f n o na d he r in g h o r ny c e ll s i n t h e f ol li cu l a r c a n al , wh i ch r es ul ts in c om e do c l ea r in g a n d i nh ib i ts ne w c om ed o d e ve lo pm e nt . ( 1 ) E f f ec t i ve ne s s. Tr e t in o in is p ro ba b l y th e m os t e f fe c t i ve to pi c al a g en t fo r ac n e, e s pe ci a ll y ac n e c h a r ac ter i z e d b y c om ed o ne s . I t is be s t us e d f o r n o ni n f lam m a to r y a c ne . Tr e ti n oi n a ls o m a y b e u s e d i n c om bi n at i on wi t h a n ti b io t ics o r b en zoyl p e r o xi d e f o r m a na g em en t o f i n fl am m a t o r y ac ne . ( 2 ) S i de e ff e c ts . Be c a us e o f i ts i rr i ta n t p r op e r ti es , t re t in oi n c an c a us e e xc e s si ve i r r i t a t i on , e r yt h e m a , p ee l i n g, an d i nc r e as ed ri sk f o r s e ve r e s u n bu r n . The r e m a y b e an in i ti al e xa c e rb a ti on o f t h e ac n e ( p us tu l ar f l a r e ) a t 2- 4 we e k s , b u t us u a ll y b y 8 we e k s , t h e p at i en t wi l l s e e m a rk e d im p r o v em en t . B e c a us e th is ag en t m a y c au s e p h o to se ns i ti v i t y , it s h ou ld g en e ra l l y b e a p pl ie d at n i gh t . ( 3 ) Ap p l i c at i o n. Th e c r ea m fo rm u la t io n o f tr e ti n oi n , wh ic h i s l es s i r ri t at i ng t ha n th e g e l f o rm s h ou l d b e us e d i n i ti al l y fo r pa t ie n ts wi t h d r y e r s k in . Th e p a ti en t wi t h v e r y o i l y s ki n m a y do we l l i ni ti a ll y wi t h t he ge l f o rm . Th e r et i no id s s ho ul d b e ap p li e d 3 0 m i n a f te r wa s hi ng be c a us e m oi s tu r e o n t h e sk in in c r ea s e s a bs o rp t io n a n d i r r it a ti o n. To m i ni m i z e i rr i ta t io n , i nit i a ll y s u c h a p r od uc t c a n b e a p pl ie d e v e r y o t he r d a y f o r 2 we e k s , t h en da i l y . O t h e r i r r i ta t in g s ub s ta nc es , s uc h a s s t ro n g a br a s i v e c le a n er s a nd a s t ri n ge n ts , s ho ul d b e av o i d e d d ur i ng t re a tm en t wi t h t r e ti n oi n . N e we r m i cr o s i ze r e f o rm ul a ti o ns o f th is age n t ( Re t in - A Mi c r o , A vi t a) a r e l es s i r ri t at i ng . P.634
b . Ad a p a le n e ( D i f fe r in ) is a t o pi c a l r e ti n oi d -l ik e c o m po u nd th a t is do s ed on c e d ai l y. I t ca n b e a p pl ie d i n th e m o r ni ng be c a u s e of no ph o t od e gr a da t io n , a nd it h a s l es s p o t en t ia l f o r p h ot os e ns it iv i t y . ( 1 ) E f f ec t i ve ne s s. I t a ppe a r s t o c au s e le ss i r r it a tio n th a n t r et i no i n wi t h equ i v a le n t e f f ic ac y . Th e r ap e ut ic r es u l ts s h ou l d b e n ot ic e d i n 8 - 1 2 we e k s . I t c a n b e us e d as a n a l t er n a ti v e to t re t in o in i n i n di v i du a ls wi t h m il d t o m o de r a te ac ne . ( 2 ) S i de e ff e c ts . Th e s am e p r ec a ut i on s t ha t ap ply t o t r et i no in ap p l y a ls o fo r a d a pa le n e. c . Ta za r o t en e ge l a n d cr e a m ( Ta zo r ac ) i s a re t ino i d p r od r u g f o r m i l d t o m o d e ra t el y s e ve r e f ac ia l a c n e th a t is ap p li ed o nc e d ai l y in th e e v en i ng . I t ha s s i m i l ar e f fi c a c y a n d p r ec au t io n s as t re t ino i n , a nd th e d os e - r el at ed a d ve r se e f fe c ts in cl u de i tc hi n g, b u r ni n g, s t i ng in g , a nd e ry t h e m a ( r ed n es s ) . Th e ge l fo r m a pp e ar s t o b e m o r e i r r i ta t in g t h an t re t in o in . A p us t ul a r f l ar e m a y oc c u r a t a bo u t 1 0 -1 4 d a y s af t e r th is p r o du c t is be g un . d . T op i ca l an t i bi o t ic s : e r yt h r o m yc i n ( E r yd e r m ), c l in d am yc i n ( C l e oc in -T) a n d t e t r a c yc l i n e . Th e s e t op ic a l a nt i bi o ti c s a r e m os t e f f ec t i ve wh e n us ed in co m bi n at io n
wi t h b e n z o y l p e ro xi d e o r t o pi c a l re t in oi d s . C om bin a t io n p r od uc t s c o n ta i nin g be n zo yl p e r o xi d e a n d e r y t h ro m y c i n ( Be n z a m yc i n) an d be nz o yl p e r o xi d e a n d c l in d am y c in ( B e n za C li n ) a r e a ls o a v ai l ab l e. W he n t h es e a nt i bio t ic s a r e u se d a lo n e, bac t e ri al r e s is ta nc e o c c u rs ra p id l y. B e n z o y l p e ro xi d e us e in co m b i na t io n wi t h t he s e a n t ib io t ic s p r ot ec t s a ga in s t t h is re si st a nc e. ( 1 ) M e c ha n is m o f ac t i on . Th e m ec h an is m o f a c ti o n a pp a r en t l y i n v o l v es su p p re s s io n o f t he P . ac n es o r g an is m , wh i c h i n t u rn m i ni m i ze s t h e i nf l am m a t or y r e s p ons e d u e t o t h e a cn e . ( 2 ) Ap p l i c at i o n. Th e s e a n t ib io t ic s a r e a pp li e d d ir e c tl y t o a c n e s it es , th us m in im i z i ng s e r io us s i de ef f ec ts f ro m o r al a dm i n is t ra t io n . ( 3 ) S i de e ff e c ts . Th e re a r e mi n im a l s id e e f fe ct s t o th es e t o pi c a l l y a p pl ied a n t ib io t ic s . M i l d b u r n in g o r i r r i ta t i on m a y oc c u r . A l t ho u gh da il y t o pi c a l C l i n d am yc i n d o es no t pr o d uc e d e te c t a bl e l e v el s i n t h e u r in e a f te r 8 we e k s o f a d m i ni s t ra ti o n , t he r e i s a p o te n ti a l r is k o f p s eu d om e m b ra n o us co l i ti s . T e t r a c yc l i n e c an c a us e a ye l l ow st a i ni n g o f t he s k i n. e . Az e l ai c a c i d ( A z e le x) a n d s o di u m s ul f a ce t ami d e an d s u l fu r a re a dd it io n al t o p ic al ag e nt s t ha t a re l es s e f fe c ti v e th a n t he o the r t op ic a l p re s c r ip t io n a ge n ts . Th e s e a g en t s m i g ht be us e d wh e n o th e rs ar e n o t t o l er a t ed or as ad ju n c t s t o o th e r t h e r ap ie s . 2 . S ys t e m i c p r e sc r i p t ion a ge n t s a . O r a l a n t ib i o t ic s /a n t i-i n f e c ti ve s ar e th e m os t e f f ec t i ve a ga in s t i nf l am m a t o r y l e si on s b ec a us e t he y s up p r es s P . a c ne s . Th e y m a y b e u s ed wh e n t o pi c a l c om b in a ti o ns a r e n o t t ole r a t ed or ha v e f ai le d . O ra l an t ib io t ic s h a v e a n o ns e t o f a c ti o n o f 3 - 4 we e k s . Th ey a r e p re s c r ib ed f or d ai ly u s e o v e r 4- 6 m o nt hs an d th e n t a p e re d a nd ul t im a te l y dis c o n ti n ue d wi t h a c n e i m p r o v e m e n t. A nt i bi o ti cs do n ot a ff ec t e xi s t i n g l es io ns , b u t p r ev e n t f ut u re le s i o ns th r oug h th is e ff ec t . P. ac ne s re s is ta nc e t o an t ib i ot ic th e r ap y h as b e c o m e an in c re as i ng pro b le m ; e r y t h ro m yc i n r es is t an c e is t h e m os t c om m o nl y r e por t e d , a nd m i no c yc l in e res is t an c e is r ep o rt e d r a r el y . A s n o t ed p re v i ou s l y , c o nc om i ta n t a dm in is t r at i on of b e n z o yl p e ro xi d e m a y d ec r e as e t he i n ci de n c e of r es is ta nc e . ( 1 ) T et r a c yc l i n e i s t he m o s t f re q ue n t l y u s e d or a l a n ti b io t ic fo r a c ne . I t i s p r e fe r r ed b e ca us e o f i t s e f fe c t i v e ne s s , lo w t o xi c i t y, an d l ow c o s t . Th is a g en t s ho u ld b e t ak en o n an em pt y s to m a c h; foo d , a n ta c i ds , ir o n, a nd da i r y p ro d uc ts de c re as e ab s o rp t io n . Th e t e t ra c y c l in e s al s o ha v e d i re c t an t i -i n fl am m a to r y e f fe c ts i n a cn e . ( a ) I ni t i al d os e s a re 2 50 m g , 2 -4 t im es d a il y, g rad u al l y r ed uc e d t o a m a int e n an c e d o se of ab o ut 2 50 m g p er d a y . ( b ) S i de e f fe c ts . Th e m o r e c om m o n a d ve rs e e f fe c ts in c l ud e u p s e t s to m ac h , vag in a l m o ni li as is , an d p h ot os e ns i ti v i t y . ( 2 ) E r yt h r o m yc i n ( E - My c i n ) m a y b e u se d a s a n a l t er n a ti v e to te t r ac y c li ne . ( a ) I ni t i al d os e s r an g e fr o m 5 0 0 t o 2 00 0 m g p e r d a y i n d i v id e d d os es . A m a in t en a nc e d os e r a ng es f ro m 2 5 0 t o 5 00 m g p er d a y. ( b ) S i de e f fe c ts . Th e p r im a r y s i de e ff ec t a ss oc i ate d wi t h e r y t h r om y c in i s g a st r o in t es ti n al di s t r es s . ( 3 ) M i n oc yc l i n e ( Mi n o c in ) o r do x yc yc l i n e ( V i b ra m y ci n ) . E i th e r o f th es e a g e nt s c an b e ta ke n i n d os e s o f 5 0 -2 0 0 m g p e r d a y. B e c a us e o f g r ea t e r l ip id s o lu b il it y a n d
e n h an c e d p en e t ra t io n i n to s e b ac eo us f ol li c l es , the s e a ge n ts m a y be us e ful f o r r e f r ac t o r y c as es . Ei t he r c a n b e t ak e n i f b ac te r i al r e s is ta nc e i s s us pe c t e d to e r y t h r om y c in o r i f i nt o le ra b le ga s t ri c i r ri t at i on oc cu r s a f te r o ra l t e t ra c y cl ine . Th e se t wo a g e n ts c an be t ak en wi t h f o od . Si d e e ff ec t s to m i n oc y cl i ne , i nc l ud i ng d i z zi n es s o r ve r t ig o a nd he a da c h e , d is c o l o ra t io n P.635 o f sk in an d v is c e r al ti s s ue , an d d r u g- i nd uc e d l up us e r y t he m a t os us , l im it t he us e o f t h is ag e nt . D o xy c y c l i ne m a y be ph o t os en s i t i z in g a n d s ho u ld be s wa l l o we d wi t h a d e qu a te fl ui d s t o p r e v en t es op h ag e al ul c e r at i ons . ( 4 ) T r im e t ho p r i m- s u lf am e t h ox az o le ( B ac t ri m , S e p t ra ) ha s b ee n u s ed s u c c e s s fu ll y i n pa t ie n ts wi t h a c n e re s i s ta n t t o e r y t h r om y c i n o r t e t ra c y cl in e s . Mi n o c y c l in e an d d o xyc y c l i n e a r e p r ef e r red o v e r t h is d r u g c o m b i nat i o n b ec au s e of i ts s id e -e f f ec t p r o fi l e. O r a l c l i nd a m yc i n ( C l eo c i n ) i s us e d r a re ly b e c a u s e of th e ri s k of p s eu d om em b ra no us c o li ti s . b . O r a l is o t r et i n oi n ( Ac c u ta n e ) is a v i t am in A der i v a t i v e i n di c a t ed fo r se ve r e n o d u lo c ys t i c a c n e . A s in g le c o u rs e o f th e ra p y re s ul ts in a l on g - te r m s tab l e r e m iss i on in > 8 0% of pat i e nt s . ( 1 ) M e c ha n is m o f ac t i on . A l th ou g h t he e xa c t m e c ha n ism is u n kn o wn , is o t r e ti n oi n d e c re as es s e bu m p r od uc t i o n a nd k e r at i ni za t io n , an d it r ed uc es t he po pu l ati o n o f P. a c ne s. ( 2 ) D o sa g e. Tr e a tm en t is us ua l l y b e gu n wi t h a da i l y do s e of 0 .5 m g /k g an d i n c re as ed t o 1 m g /k g g i ve n in t wo di v i d ed do se s wi t h f o od f or t he us ua l du r a ti o n o f 2 0 we e k s . A m i c ro n i z ed f o r m u l at io n al lo ws f o r l owe r o n c e d ai l y do si n g wi t h no r e g a rd to f oo d i n ta k e . ( 3 ) S i de e ff e c ts in c l ud e ( a ) M u c oc u t an e ou s d r yn e s s. C he i li t is (i . e. , i n fl am m a t io n o f th e l ip s ) , d r yn e s s o f t h e n as a l m u c os a, an d fa c ia l d e rm a ti ti s m a y o cc u r wi t h is ot r e ti n oi n u s e . Th e s e e f f ec ts c a n b e t r ea t e d wi t h t op ic al lu b ri c an ts . D r yn e s s o f th e e y e s c an al so oc c u r , s o p e op l e us i ng is ot r e ti no i n s ho ul d no t we a r c on ta c t l en se s . ( b ) E l e va te d se r u m l e vel s . Is ot r e ti n oi n m a y e l e va t e s e ru m t r ig l y c e r i de s an d c h ol es t e ro l , as we l l a s l iv e r e n z ym es . ( c ) B i r t h d e fe c t s. Is o t ret i n oi n i s a p o t en t t e ra t og e n a n d s ho ul d n o t b e g iv e n t o p r e gn a nt wo m e n. A s t ri c t r i s k m an a ge m e n t p r og r am f or is o tr e ti n oi n u se r eq u i re s p h ys ic ia ns t o r eg is t e r p at i e nt s t o d oc um e nt ne g ati v e p r eg na nc y t es t s b ef or e us e . P h ys ic i an s wh o p r es c r i be t hi s a ge n t a nd ph a rm ac i es th a t d is pe ns e i t m ust b e r e g is t er e d i n a n e le c t r o ni c F D A s ys t em . ( d ) P s yc h i a t r i c e f fe c t s. Th e r e h a v e b ee n re po r ts o f de p re ss io n , s ui ci da l b e h a vio r , a n d s ui c i d e. D a ta ar e i na d e qu a te to es t ab li sh a c a u s al r el a ti on s h i p b et w e e n i s ot r e ti n oi n a dm in is t r at i on a nd de p re s s i on an d s ui c id e . Th i s i nf o rm a ti o n m u s t b e t a ke n i n th e c on t e xt t h at t e e na g er s wi t h ac n e m a y o f t en be de p re s s ed r el at e d to t h e ir a pp ea r a nc e. c . An t i a nd r o g en s a n d ho r m o n es ( 1 ) E s t ro g e ns c a n d ec r ea s e s e b um pr o du c ti on thr o u gh an an t ia n d ro ge n ic e f f ec t .
( 2 ) S om e p r og es t in ag e nt s in or a l c o n t ra c e p ti v e s ( e . g ., no r e th i nd r on e , n o rg e st r e l) h a ve an d ro g en ic ac t i v it y t h a t c an s t im ul a te s e bum s e c re ti o n r es u lt i ng in a c ne . O ne o f t he pr o ge s ti ns , n o r g es t i m at e , i s m i n im al l y and r o ge n ic , a nd wh e n it is c om b in e d wi t h e t h i n yl e s t r a d i o l as a t r ip h as ic c om b in a ti on o r al c o n t ra c e p ti v e ag e nt ( O r t h o Tr i - C yc l e n ) , i t is e ff ec t i ve i n t he t re a tm en t of m od e r a te ac ne in s om e wo m e n a nd is F D A a pp r o v e d f o r s u c h. N o r e t h i nd r o n e a ce t a te /e t h i n yl e s t r a d i o l ( E s tr os t ep ) is a l so F D A a pp r o v e d f o r ac n e. ( 3 ) S p i ro n o la c t on e ( Al da c t o ne ) i s a n o r al an t ia nd r o ge n wh i ch ac ts to de c r e a s e s e bu m p r od uc t io n a n d m a y b e u s ed on a li m i t ed b a s i s . ( 4 ) C o r t ic o s te r o i ds . Al th o u gh c o r ti co s t e r oi ds hav e b e en im pl ic a te d a s c au s in g a c ne , th e y al s o c a n b e us e d t o t r ea t s e v e r e ac n e. I n t ra l es io n al i n je c t i on s o f t r i am ci n ol on e a n d s y s t em ic c o r ti co s te r oi ds ha v e b e e n us e d f o r s e v e r e i n fla m m a to r y a c ne an d s e v e re c ys t ic ac n e, r es pe c ti v e l y . P re dn is o ne ( or i ts e q ui va le n t ) in d os es of 2 0 m g p e r d a y o r h ig h er m a y be us e d f o r a s ho r t p e r io d o f ti m e to qu ic kl y i m p ro v e a c ne fo r im po r t an t e v e n ts li k e a we d di ng . To pi ca l c o rt ic o st e ro i ds a r e n o t e f f ec t i ve.
III. SUNLIGHT, SUNSCREENS, AND SUNTAN PRODUCTS A. I n t r o d u c t io n . O v e re x p o s u r e t o s un l ig h t d am ag e s s k in . A s un t an , wh i c h h as t r a di t io n al l y be e n as s o c ia t e d wi t h he a lt h , i s ac t ua l l y a r es p on s e to in j ur y . O f t h e t h r e e t y p es of s o la r ra d ia t i on , o n l y th e U V sp ec t ru m p r o du ce s s u n bu r n a nd s u n ta n . 1 . Th e U V s p ec t r u m r a ng e s f r om 20 0 t o 4 0 0 n ano m et e rs ( nm ) . N a t ur a l an d a rt i fi ci al U V l i gh t i s f u r th e r s u b di v i d ed in t o t h r ee ba nd s . P.636
a . U V A ( 3 2 0 -4 0 0 nm ) c an c a us e th e sk i n t o t a n, a n d i t t e nd s t o b e we ak in c a us i ng t h e s ki n t o re d de n . U V A i s a b ou t 1 0 00 ti m e s l es s p o t en t th an a c om pa r ab le d os e o f U V B i n c au s i n g e r y t he m a , bu t i t is o n l y s li g ht l y bl o ck ed ou t b y t h e o zo ne l a y e r an d r e a ch es th e e a r th ' s s u rf ac e i n 1 0 - 10 0 t im es t he am o un t o f U V B . S om e h a ve p r o po s e d th a t U V A be f ur t h e r s ub di v i d ed in t o U VA I ( 34 0 - 40 0 n m ) an d U VA I I (3 2 0 3 4 0 n m ). U V A I is le s s er y t h r o ge n ic an d m el an o ge n ic th a n U V A I I o r U V B. U V A I I i s s im i la r i n e f f ec t t o U V B. ( 1 ) U s es . U V A is o ft e n us e d i n t an n in g b o ot hs and i n ps o r al en pl us U V A (P U V A ) t r e a tm en t o f ps o ri as is . ( 2 ) D i sa d va n t ag e s. U V A i s r es p on s i b le fo r m a n y p h o t os e ns i t i vi t y r e a c ti on s , p h o t oa g i ng , an d p h o tod e r m a to s es . U V A r a y s ca n al so pe n e t ra t e d e ep ly i n t o t h e d e r m is an d au gm en t th e c an c e r o us e f f ec ts of U VB r a y s . b . U V B ( 29 0 -3 2 0 nm ) cau s e s t h e u su a l s u nb u r n r e a c ti o n a n d s t im u la t es t a nn i ng . I t h as l o ng be en as s o c i at e d wi t h s un li g ht s k in dam a ge , i nc l ud in g th e v a rio u s s k in c a nc e rs . I t i s t h e m os t er yt h r o g e n i c a nd me l an og e n ic o f t he t hr e e U V r ad i a ti on b a n ds . S m a l l am o un ts o f t h is ra d ia t io n a r e r e qu i re d fo r no r m a l vi ta m i n D s yn t h e s i s i n th e s k i n . c . U V C (2 0 0- 2 90 nm ) d oe s n o t r e ac h t h e e ar t h ' s s u r fa c e be c a u se m os t o f i t i s a b so r be d b y t h e o z o ne la y e r . A r ti f ic ia l U V C so u rc es ( e .g . , g e rm ic id al an d m e rc u r y a r c l am ps ) c a n em i t t h is r a d ia t io n .
2 . Th e vi s ib l e s p ec t r u m ( 4 0 0- 7 70 nm ) p r o du c e s t h e “b r ig h tn es s ” o f t h e s u n . 3 . Th e in f r a r ed s pe c t r um ( 7 70 - 18 0 0 nm ) p ro du c e s th e “ wa r m t h ” o f t h e s u n . B . S u n bu r n an d su n t an 1 . S u nb u r n i s g en e ra l l y a s up e r f i ci a l b u r n i n vo lvi n g t h e e p id e r m is . Th is la ye r is r a p id l y r ep ai r e d wh i l e o ld c e l ls a r e b e in g s lo ug he d of f i n a p ro ce s s c a ll ed p ee l i ng . Th e n e wl y f o r m e d s k i n is t h ic k e r a n d o f fe r s p ro t ec t io n fo r th e l o we r de r m al l a y er s . a . N o r ma l s e q ue n ce af te r m i ld t o m o de r a te s un l i g h t U V r a di a t io n ( U VR ) e x p os u r e ( 1 ) E r yt he m a oc c u r s wi t hi n 20 - 30 m i n a s a re su l t o f o xi d a ti o n o f b le ac h ed m e la ni n a n d d il a ti o n o f d e rm al v en u le s . ( 2 ) Th e in it i al e r y th em a ra p id l y f ad es , a n d t r ue s un b u rn e r yt he m a be gi ns 2- 8 h r a f te r i n i ti al e xp o s u r e to th e s un . ( 3 ) D il a ti o n o f t h e a r te r iol e s r es u lt s i n i nc r ea se d v a s c ul a r p e rm ea bi l it y , loc a li ze d e d em a , a nd pa i n, wh i c h b e c o m e m a xi m a l a f te r 14 - 2 0 h r a n d l as t 2 4 -7 2 h r. b . M a n i fe s ta t i o ns ra n ge f r om m i ld ( a s l i gh t re d de n in g o f th e s ki n ) t o s e ve r e ( f o r m a t io n o f b li s te r s a nd d es qu am a ti o n) . I f t he e f f ec t i s s e v er e , t h e p at ie n t m a y e xp e r i e nc e p a in , s we l l ing , an d b l is te r i ng . F e v e r , c h il ls , a n d n au se a m a y al s o d e ve l op , a s we l l as pr os tr a t io n , wh ic h i s r e la t ed to e xc e s s i v e s yn t he si s a nd d i f fu si o n o f p r os ta g la n din s . 2 . S u nt a n i s t he r es ul t of t wo p r oc es se s : a . O x i da t i on o f m el a n in, wh i c h i s a lr e ad y p r es ent i n t he e pi de r m i s b . S t im u l at i o n o f m e la no c yt e s t o p ro du c e a dd i tio n al m e la n in , wh i c h is s u bs eq u en t l y o xi d i z e d on f u rt h e r e xp o s u re to sun l ig h t ( 1 ) W it h i nc r ea s e d m el an i n p r od uc t io n , t h e m e l an o c yte s i n t ro du c e t he pig m en t i n to k e r at i n- p r od uc in g c e ll s , wh i c h g ra d ua ll y b ec om e d a r k e ne d k e ra t in an d a fu l l s un t an i n 2- 1 0 d a y s . ( 2 ) Ta n ni n g i nc r ea s e s t ole r a nc e t o a d di t io na l s un li g h t a nd r ed uc es th e l ik el i ho o d o f s u bs eq u en t b u r ni ng . H owe v e r , d a r k s k i n is no t to t a l l y im m u n e t o s un bu rn . C . F a ct o r s a f f ec t i n g e xp o s u r e t o U V R 1 . T im e o f da y a n d s e as o n . Th e g r ea t es t e xp o s u r e to ha r m f u l U V B r a ys o c c u rs b e t we e n 1 0 A. M. a n d 4 P . M. i n m id s u m m e r. U V A r a ys ar e fa i rl y c o n ti n uo us t h r o ug ho u t t h e d a y a n d s e a s o n . 2 . Al t i t u d e. S un b u rn i s m o r e li k el y t o oc c ur a t h ig h al t it u de s . U V B i n te n s it y i n c re as es 4% wi t h e a c h 1 0 0 0- f t . i nc r ea s e in al t itu d e . 3 . E n vi r o nm e n ta l fa c t o rs . A tm os p he r ic c o nd it i ons ( e. g . , sm og , ha ze , s m ok e ) m a y a f f ec t (i . e. , d e c r e as e ) t he am o un t o f U V R re ac h in g th e s k i n . A l th o ug h d i re c t s un li g ht g r e a tl y r ed u c e s t he am ou n t o f U V e xp o s u r e n ee de d to p ro d uc e a b u r n, s un b u rn ca n o cc u r wi t ho u t i t . F o r e xa m p le , a s u nb u r n c a n a lso d e v el o p o n a c lo u d y da y b ec a us e t h e r e is s o m e U V R p e ne tr a t io n th r ou g h cl o ud la yer s ( 60 % -8 0 %) . H o we v e r , t h e r e f l e c ti o n o f li g h t ra ys ( e . g ., b y s n o w, sa n d, wa t e r ) gr e at l y i nc r e as e s t he am o un t o f U V ex p os u r e t o su n l ig h t . 4 . P r e di s po s i ng f ac t o r s. P e op l e wi t h f ai r s k i n a nd l ig h t h ai r a r e a t gr e at er r i sk f o r d e ve l op in g s un b u rn an d o t h e r U V R s k in da m a g e th a n t h ei r da rk e r c ou n te rp a r ts . P.637
D . O t h e r r ea c t io n s t o su n l i gh t ( U V R ) e x po s u r e 1 . Ac t i n i c k e ra t o si s i s a p r ec a nc e ro us c o nd i ti on a n d m a y o c c u r a f te r m a ny ye a r s of e xc e s s i v e e xp o s u re to s u n li g ht . Ty p i c a l l y a r is in g d u ri n g m i d dl e a g e o r l a te r , th is d i so r de r m a ni f es ts as a s h a rp l y de m a r c a t ed , ro ug h e ne d , o r h a rd e ne d g r owt h , wh i c h m a y be f la t o r r ai s e d , a nd i t m a y p r og r es s t o s q ua m o us ce l l c a r ci n om a . 2 . S ki n ca n ce r . C hr o ni c o v e r e xp o s u re t o su n li gh t m a y le ad t o s qu a mo u s c e l l c a r c in o ma , ba s al ce l l ca r c i n om a , o r m a li g na n t m e l an o ma . a . S q ua m ou s c e ll ca r c in o m a. Le s i o ns us ua ll y ap p e ar as th ic ke n ed , ro u gh , s c al y p a tc h es , wh ic h c an bl e ed , an d m os t c om m o nl y de ve l o p s f r om ac t in ic k e ra t os is . It a cc o un t s f o r a bo u t 1 5% o f s k in c a nc e rs . b . B a sa l c e l l c a rc i no m a. Th i s i s t he m o st c o m m o n of al l s k i n c an c e r s a nd ac c o u n ts f o r ab o ut 80 % o f s k i n c an c e rs . I t m a y ap p ea r a s p e a rl y o r tr a ns lu c e n t b um ps an d o r i gi n at es in t he ba s a l c e l ls . c . M a li g n an t me l an o ma . Ma l i g n an t m e la no m a o rig i na t es f ro m m el an oc y t es an d i s t h e d e ad li e s t fo r m o f s k in c a nc e r , a nd i ts i nc i de nc e h as b ee n i nc r ea si n g. Mo l e s s h ou l d b e wa t c he d fo r i nd i c a t io ns of m a li g na nc y— t h e AB C D s a re ( 1 ) As y m m et r ic al s h ap e ( 2 ) B o rd e r i r r eg u la r it y ( 3 ) C ol o r th a t is no n un i fo r m ( 4 ) D ia m et e r > 6 m m . d . Ma l i g na n t m el an om a fo r m at i on m a y be as s o ci at e d wi t h i n te ns e , i nt e rm i tt e n t o ve r e xp o s u re t o t he s u n ( s u nb u rn i ng ) . 3 . D r u g -i n d uc e d p h ot o se n s i ti vi t y r e a c t i o n s a . T yp e s ( 1 ) P h ot o a ll e r g y r e a c t i o n s o c c u r wh e n l ig h t m ak es a d r ug be co m e a nt ige n ic o r ac t a s a ha p te n (i . e. , a p ho to a ll e r ge n ). Th e s e r ea ct io n s a ls o r e qu i re p re v i o us c o n ta c t wi t h t h e o f fe n di ng d ru g . P h o t oa ll e r g y re ac t io ns ar e r el a ti v e l y r a r e a nd a re a ss o ci at e d m or e fr e qu e nt l y wi t h t op ic a ll y a pp li e d a g e nt s t ha n wi t h o r al m ed i ca t io ns . ( a ) O c cu r r e n ce of t he s e r e ac t io ns is n o t d os e re la t e d. Th e pa t ie n t is us ual l y c ro s s s e ns it i v e wi t h c he m i c a l l y r e la t e d c o m p o un ds . ( b ) R a sh e s a r e m o s t p rom i ne n t o n l ig h t- e xp o s ed s i te s ( i .e . , f a ce , n ec k , f or e a rm s , b a ck o f ha n ds ) , a nd th e y u s u a ll y oc c ur , af t e r a n in c ub a ti o n p er i od of 24 - 48 h r o f c om b in e d d ru g a n d s un e xp o s u r e , as an in t en s ely p r u r i ti c ec ze m a t ou s d er m a ti t is (a s e ve r e r as h ) . ( 2 ) P h ot o t ox i c re a c ti o ns oc c u r wh e n l i gh t a l te r s a d ru g t o a t o xi c fo rm , wh i c h r e s ul ts in ti s s ue d am ag e t h a t is in d ep en d en t o f an a ll e rg ic r es po ns e . ( a ) O c cu r r e n ce . Th es e re a c t i on s a r e us u al l y do s e r el a t ed , a n d t he pa t ie nt u s u al l y h a s n o c ro s s - s e ns i ti v i t y to o th e r a g en ts . ( b ) R a sh e s o f te n a pp e a r a s a n e xa g g e r at e d s un bu r n an d a r e u su al l y c o n fin e d t o a r e as of c o m b in e d c h e m ic a l a nd li gh t e xp o su r e . b . I mp l ic a t ed d r ug s . Ma n y d r u gs h a v e b e en im pli c at e d i n c a us i ng ph o to al l e rg y a nd p h o to t o xi c re ac t io ns : th ia z i d es , te t ra c yc l i ne s , phe n o th ia z i n es , s ul f on am i de s , a nd e ve n s u ns c r e en s . S om e d r u gs m a y p ro d uc e b ot h t y p e s o f re ac t io ns .
c . P r e ve n ti o n. S t an da r d s un s c r ee ns d o n ot al wa y s p r e ven t ph o to s e ns i ti vit y r e a ct i on s c a us e d b y d rug s . U V l ig h t a bo ve 32 0 nm ( i . e . , U V A li gh t ) h a s be e n i m pl ic a te d i n i nd uc i ng pho t os e ns it i v i t y re a c t i on s, s o a c h em ic al o r p h ys i cal s u ns cr e en m u s t c o v e r thi s s pe c t ru m ( s e e I I I . E. 2 ) . 4 . P h ot o d e rm a t os es a re s k i n c on di t io ns t ha t a r e t r i gg e r ed o r wo r s e ne d b y l i gh t wi t h i n s p ec if ic wa v e l e ng th s . Th es e c o n di t io ns in c lu d e p ol ym o rp h ou s l ig h t e r u p ti on ( P ML E ) , l u p us er y t h em a to s us , a n d so l ar u rt ic a r ia . 5 . P h ot o a gi n g i s a s k i n c o nd i ti on t ha t i s n o t m e re l y a n ac c el e ra t io n o f n or m a l a g in g . U V A r a di at i on is th o u gh t t o b e i n v o l v ed . Th e s ki n a p pe a rs d r y , s c al y, ye l lo w, a n d d e ep l y wr i n k l ed ; i t is a ls o th in n e r a nd m o re f ra g il e . E . S u n sc r e en ag e n ts . Pe o pl e c a n p ro t ec t th ei r s k i n f r om h a rm f ul U V R b y a v o i di ng e xp o s u r e t o s un l ig h t a nd o t he r s o u rc es o f U V R , we a r i n g p r o te c ti v e c l ot h in g , a n d a p pl yi n g s un s c r ee n . 1 . Ap p l i ca t i o n a nd g ene r a l in f o r ma t i on . A ll e xp o s e d a r ea s s ho u ld be co v e r e d 2
e ve n l y an d l i be r al l y ( 2 m g / c m , wh i c h r e qu i re s a bo u t 1 ou nc e o f s u ns c r e en p e r o ne t o t al bo d y ap p li c a t io n P.638 f o r an a v e ra g e- s i z e ad u lt i n a s wi m s ui t ) wi t h s u n sc r e en , o p ti m a l l y 3 0 m in (2 h r f o r P A B A a nd P A B A e s te rs ) b e f o re s u n e xp o s u re to al l o w f o r p e ne t ra t io n a n d b i nd i ng to t h e s ki n . a . S u bs t an t i vi t y. P e r s p ir a t io n , s wi m m i ng , s a nd , t o we l s , a n d c l o th in g te nd t o r em o ve s u ns cr e en an d m a y in c r ea s e t he ne e d f o r r e ap p lic a ti o n. ( 1 ) S ub s ta n ti v i t y is th e ab i li t y o f a s u nsc r e en fo rm u la t io n t o a d he r e t o t he s k in wh i l e s wi m m i n g o r p e rs p ir i ng . ( 2 ) W at e r r es i s ta n t l ab el i ng in d ic at es t ha t th e f or m u la re t ai ns i ts s un p rot e c ti on f a c to r ( S PF ) af t e r 4 0 m i n o f ac ti vi t y in t he wa t e r , s we a t i ng , or pe r sp i ri n g. ( 3 ) La b el in g a p ro d uc t as ve r y w a te r r e si s ta n t in d ic a te s t ha t th e p r o du ct r e t ai ns S P F a f te r 8 0 m in o f ac t i vi t y i n t he wa t e r , s we a t ing , o r p e rs pi r in g . b . P r o t ec t i on . Su ns c re en p r od uc ts va r y wi d e l y in t h ei r ab il i t y to p ro t ec t ag a in s t s u nb u rn ; th e S PF an d UV A / U V B r a y p ro t ec ti o n sh o ul d b e no t ed to de t e rm i ne th e l e ve l o f p r o te c t i on . Mo r eo v e r , ba b y oi l , m i n e ra l o i l , ol i v e o il , an d c oc oa but t e r a r e n o t s un s c r ee n s ( bu t ar e o f t en us ed t o a t ta in a t an ) . ( 1 ) S P F g i v es th e c on s um e r a gu i de fo r de t e rm i ni n g h o w t h e p r od uc t wi l l p r o t ec t t he s ki n fr om U V r a ys , pr i nc ip a ll y U V B r a y s . A n S P F o f 30 bl oc ks ab o ut 97 % o f t he U V B r a y s . Sc ie n ti f ic e v id en c e s ho ws a po i nt of di m i n is h i ng r e tu r ns a t le v e ls > 3 0 ; a n y b e n ef i ts th a t m i g ht be der i v e d f ro m us i ng s u ns c r ee n s wi t h a n S P F > 30 a re n e gl i gi bl e . Th e F D A ' s m o s t r e c e n t m o n og r ap h req u i re s s un s c r ee ns wi t h an S P F > 3 0 t o us e o ne c o ll ec t i v e t e rm “ S P F 3 0 P l us ” o r “3 0 + .” A n S P F o f a t l ea s t 1 5 fo r m o s t i n di vi d ua ls is re c o m m end e d b y t he S k i n Ca nc e r F o u nd a ti on . ( a ) D e f in i t io n s . A mi n ima l s un p r ot e c ti o n p r o d uc t h as a n S PF o f 2 t o u nd e r 12 ; a m o d e ra t e s u n p r o t ec t i on p r o d uc t h as a n S P F of 1 2 t o u n de r 3 0 ; a h ig h s u n p r o t e c ti o n p r o d uc t ha s a n S P F o f 3 0 o r a b o v e .
( b ) D e r i va t i on . S PF is de f i ne d a s t he m in i ma l e r yt h e m a d o s e ( M E D ) o f pr o t ec t ed s ki n d i v i de d b y t he ME D o f un p r ot ec t ed sk in . ME D i s t h e am o un t o f s o la r r a d ia t io n n e e de d t o p r od u c e m i nim a l s k in r ed n es s . ( c ) E xa m pl e . A p er s on wh o us ua ll y g e ts re d a f t er 2 0 m in in th e s u n a nd wa n ts t o s t a y in th e s un f or 2 h r (1 2 0 m in ) s h ou ld ap p l y a s u ns c r e en wi t h an S P F of 6 (1 2 0 m i n ÷ 20 m i n = S P F 6 ) . A n S P F 6 p ro d uc t s ho ul d p r o v i de ad eq u at e c o ve ra g e , p r o vi de d i t i s n o t wa s h ed o f f (a s f r om s wi m m i n g) o r di s s o l v ed b y s we a t . An S P F o f 1 5 bl oc k s ap p ro xi m a t el y 9 3 % o f th e U V B r a ys . ( d ) U p u n ti l n o w, t h er e ha s b e en n o g en e r a ll y a c c e p t ed co m pa r a b le te r m t h a t m e a su r e s U V A p r o t e c t io n , al t ho ug h a f e w h a ve b e e n p ro p os ed (s e e b el ow) . O n e m a jo r c o nc e rn i s t h at peo p le m a y b e s ta y i n g o ut i n th e s un lo n ge r wh e n th e y us e s u ns cr e en p ro du c ts th a t h a v e hi g h S P F v al u es . I f i n ad eq u a te U V A p r o te cti o n i s p r o vi de d i n th a t p ro d uc t , t h es e i nd i vi du al s m a y be e xp o s in g t h em s e l v es to v e r y h ig h a m ou n ts o f U V A , wi t h t he p ot e nt i al fo r s i gn i fi ca n t o ve r e xp o s u re to t hi s f o rm o f U V r a d ia t io n . ( 2 ) P r o po s ed F D A U V A P r o t e c t io n R at i n g S ys t e m . In Au g us t 2 0 07 , t h e F D A p r o po s e d a “ c o ns um e r -f ri e nd l y ” r at i ng s y s t em to ra t e s un sc r ee n p r o du ct s re g a rd i ng t h e ir le v e l o f U V A p r o te c t i o n us i ng a o ne to f ou r s t a rs ra t in g . I f th e p r od uc t do es no t p r o vi de a t l ea s t a “ o ne s t a r ” pr o te c ti on , th e n “ n o U V A p r o te ct i on ” wo u l d ne e d t o b e n o t ed on th e l a be l . ( a ) O n e s t a r : l o w U V A pr o t ec t io n ( b ) Tw o s t a r s : m e d iu m U V A p r o te c t i on ( c ) T h re e s t a r s : h ig h U VA p r o te c t i on ( d ) F ou r s ta r s : h i gh es t U V A p r o te c t i on I f a p p ro ve d , a n ad d i ti on a l w a r ni n g w ou l d b e re q u i r ed o n s un s c re e n pr o d u c ts : “ U V e xp o s u r e f r om th e s u n in c re as es th e ri s k of s k i n c an c er , pr e m a t ur e s k i n a gi ng , a n d o t he r s k i n d am a ge . It i s im p or t an t to de c re as e U V e xp o s ur e b y l im i ti ng t im e i n t h e s un , we a r in g p r o te c tiv e c lo t hi n g, an d u si n g a s u ns c r e en . ” S PF m a xi m um s , u nd e r t h is ne w p r o p os ed r ul e , wo u l d i nc re a se f ro m S P F 3 0 + t o S PF 50 + . ( 3 ) S k in ca n ce r p r e ve nti o n . Su ns c re e n a pp li c a t io n ha s b ee n s ho wn t o p re v e n t s q ua m o us c e ll c a rc i no m a , bu t i t is n o t a bs ol u te l y c on f i rm ed th a t t h ei r u s e p r e v e nt s m e la n om a. In f ac t , s o m e s t ud ie s h a v e f o un d t h at i n di vi d ua ls wh o r eg u la r l y u s e s u ns cr e en ha v e a h ig h e r r i s k o f th is c a nc e r ( p e rha p s b ec au se t he y c a n s ta y o u t i n t h e s un lo n ge r be f o re bur n i ng an d th us e xp e r ie nc e l on ge r pe r i od s o f s un e xp o s u r e ) . c . S en s i ti vi t y. S o m e peo p le m a y b e h y p e rs en s i t iv e t o s u nsc r e en ag e nt s . D i s co n ti nu e u s e i f s i g ns o f i r ri ta t io n o r a r as h o c cu r . C on t ac t d e rm a ti t is m a y o c c u r wi t h s om e o f th es e a g ent s . P.639 I f se ns i ti v e to b en z o c a ine , p ro c a i ne , s ul f on am i des , or t hi a z id es , a voi d P AB A o r P A B A e s t e rs . d . S p ec i f ic in f o r ma t i o n ( 1 ) D o n o t us e th es e p r od u c t s o n i n fa n ts y ou n ge r t h an 6 m on t hs o f ag e ( th e r e i s c o nc e rn ab o ut ab s o r p ti on o f t h es e a ge n ts ) .
( 2 ) D o n o t us e a p ro d uc t wi t h a n SP F < 4 o n c hi ld r e n y ou ng e r th an 2 year s of ag e ( t h e re is c o nc e rn th a t a n S P F < 4 wi l l n o t p r o vid e a d eq u at e p r o te c t i on ) . ( 3 ) R ec om m e n d s u ns c ree n p ro du c ts th a t a re b roa d - s p ec t r um s un sc r ee ns ( i . e. , th a t b l oc k b ot h U V B a nd U V A) . 2 . Th e t wo ba s i c t yp e s o f s u ns c r ee n ag e nt s ar e p h y s ic al s u n b lo ck s a nd c h em ic al s u ns cr e en s ( Ta b l e 3 0 -2 ). a . P h ys i c a l s u n b l oc k s a r e op aq u e f o rm ul a ti o ns t h a t r e fl ec t an d s c a t te r up t o 9 9% o f li g ht in bo t h t he U V an d v is i bl e s pe ct r um s ( 2 90 - 7 00 nm ) . E xa m pl es in cl u de t i t a n iu m d i o xi d e a nd z in c ox i d e. Th e se s u n b loc ks a re le s s c os m e t ic al l y a cc e pt a bl e t h an c h em ic al s u ns c re e ns b e c a us e t he y h a v e a g re as y a p pe a ra n c e , b u t t h e y m a y b e us e fu l fo r p ro t ec t in g s m a ll a re as ( e. g. , t he no se ) . Th es e s un b l oc ks a r e a l so us ef u l f o r p ho t os ens i ti z a t io n p r o te c t i on . N ewe r , m o r e d il u te v e rs i ons o f t it a ni um d i o xi d e p r o du c t s a n d m i c r o f in e , t r a ns pa r en t fo r m s o f z i nc o xi d e a r e m o r e c os m et ic al l y ap p ea l in g . R e d pe t r ol a tu m c o ve r s a l es s e r sp ec t ru m (2 90 - 3 65 nm ) .
Table 30-2. Sunscreen Ingredients
Type
Sunscreens Benzophenones
Chemical
UV Spectrum Concentrations (nm) (%) UVA and UVB
Oxybenzone
270350
2-6
Dioxybenzone
260380a
3
PABA and PABA esters
UVB
P-aminobenzoic acid
260313
5-15
Ethyl dihydroxy propyl PABA
280330
1-5
Padimate O (octyl dimethyl PABA)
290315
1.4-8
Glyceryl PABA
Cinnamates
264315
2-3
UVBb
Cinoxate
270328
1-3
Ethylhexyl-pmethoxycinnamate
290320
2-7.5
Octocrylene
250360
7-10
Octyl methoxycinnamate
290320
—
Salicylates
UVBc
Ethylhexyl salicylate
280320
3-5
Homosalate
295315
4-15
Octyl salicylate
280320
3-5
Miscellaneous
UVB
Menthyl anthranilate (meradimate)
260380d
3.5-5
Digalloyl trioleate
270320
2-5
Avobenzone (butyl
UVA
3
Physical
methoxydibenzoylmethane; Parsol 1789)
320400
Phenylbenzimidazole sulfonic acid
290320
4
Titanium dioxide
290700
2-25
Red petrolatum
290365e
30-100
Zinc oxide
290700
—
a
Values available when used in combination with other screens.
b
Some UVA spectrum.
c
Primarily UVB, but has about one third the absorbency of PABA.
d
Values are concentrations higher than normally found in nonprescription drugs. e
At 334 nm, 16% UV radiation is transmitted; at 365 nm, 58% is transmitted. Reprinted with permission from Drug Facts and Comparisons, 60th ed. St. Louis, MO: Wolters Kluwer, 2005. P.640
b . C h em i ca l s u n sc r e ens ac t b y a bs o r bi ng a s pec i fi c p o rt i on of t he U V l i gh t s p ec t ru m t o k ee p i t fr o m p e n et r a ti ng t he s ki n . They c a n b e c at e go r i zed o n t h e b as is o f t he i r s p ec t r a o f U V R bl o c k ag e a n d b as ic c he m ic a l c l as s i f ic a ti on . Fi ve m a i n g r o up s o f c he m i c a l s un s c r e en s a r e a v a il ab l e. ( 1 ) P AB A a n d P AB A e s t e r s p ri m a r il y a bs o rb U VB r a y s . E xa m pl es a re pa m in o be n z oi c a c i d , p ad im a te O , an d g l yc e r yl P AB A . ( 2 ) C i nn a ma t e s p ri m a r ily a b s o r b U V B r a y s . E xa m p le s a r e c i n o xa t e a n d o c t y l m e th o xyc i n n am a te .
( 3 ) S a li c yl a t e s p r im a ri l y a bs o r b U V B r a ys . E xa m p l es a re et h yl he xyl s a l ic y l a t e a n d h o m o sa l at e . ( 4 ) B e nz o ph e no n es ab s o r b U V B ra ys a n d s o m e t im es e xt e n d i n to th e U V A r a n ge . E xa m p l e s a r e o xy b e n z o ne a nd di o xy b e n z o n e . B ec a us e o f t h ei r e xt e ns i on i n t o t he U V A r a n ge , t h e y a r e s om e wh a t pr o te c ti v e ag ai ns t ph o to s e ns i ti vi t y r ea ct io n s . ( 5 ) D i be n z o yl m e t h a n e de r i va t i ve s . Avo b e n z on e ( P a r s ol 17 8 9 ) o r b u t y l m e th o xyd i b e n z o y lm e th an e , p r o v i de s c o v e r a ge ov e r t h e e nt i r e U V A r an g e a l th o ug h i t s a bs o rb a nc e d ec r ea s es d ra m a t ic al l y at 37 0 nm . P h ot o se ns i ti v i t y r ea c t i on s fr om m e di ca t io ns m a y n ot be c om p le t el y p r e v en t ed in t h e 3 7 0 -4 00 nm r an ge . In c om b in a ti o n wi t h ot h e r ag e n ts th a t co v e r th e U VB r a ng e , re as on a bl e p r o te c ti o n f o r b o t h t he U V A an d U V B ra n g es c an be ac hi e ve d. I t is th e o n l y a va i la b le ag e n t t ha t b l oc ks U V A wa v e l en g th s u p to 40 0 n m . ( 6 ) O t h e r c h em i ca l s u ns c r e en s . P h e n yl b e n z i mi d a zo l e s u lf o n ic ac i d do e s n ot m a tc h u p wi t h a n y o f th e c la s s es ab o v e . I t c o v e rs j us t th e U V B r a ng e 2 90 -3 2 0 n m . ( 7 ) A ne w a g e nt ec a ms ul e , i n c o r po r a te d i n to a c o m bi n at io n p r o du ct ( A nth e li os S X) wi t h a vo b en z o n e a nd oc to c r y l en e wa s a pp r o v e d by t h e F D A i n J u l y , 20 0 6. Th e c om b in a ti o n p ro t ec ts aga i ns t b o th U V A an d U V B. c . O TC s u ns c r ee n p r odu c t s . Mo s t su ns c re e n p ro d uc ts o n t he m a rk e t c on t a in c om b in a ti o ns o f t wo o r m o r e o f t he c l as se s o f c h e m i c a l s un s c r ee n a g en ts de sc r ib e d i n pr e ce di n g s e c ti on s . To g et ad e qu a te U V A p r o te c ti o n, ch oo s e a p r od u c t wi t h a vo b e n z on e o r a p ro d uc t wi t h t i ta n iu m di o xi d e o r z i n c o xi d e . F . S p ec i al ag e n ts o f i n te r e s t 1 . D i h yd r o x ya c e t o n e ( DH A ) i s a c h em i c al ag en t t h a t d a rk en s t h e s k in b y i n t er a c t i ng wi t h k e ra t in in th e s t r at um c o r ne um t o p ro d uc e an a r t i fi c ia l su n t an . It p ro vi d es n o p r o t e c ti o n a g ai n s t U V ra ys a n d m a y n o t p ro d uc e a n a tu r a l- l oo k i n g t an . Th i s is k n o wn as an a rt i fi c i al t an e xt e n d e r. D H A m us t be a pp li e d e ve nl y. I f a n a rt i f ic ia l s u nt a n is ac hi e v e d wi t h th i s c h em ic a l, i t we a r s o f f i n a fe w d a y s . In ad d it i on , it ca n d i sc ol o r h ai r an d c lo t hi ng . 2 . B r o nz e r s a r e a r ti fi c i a l t a n p r od uc t s t ha t s t ai n th e s k i n . Th e y a r e f u ll y wa s ha b le wi t h s oa p an d wa t e r a nd wi l l n ot p ro t ec t a ga i ns t s o la r ra d ia t io n . 3 . β - Ca r o t e ne , a v i ta m i n A p r ec u rs o r, m a y p ro d uc e s k i n c ol o ra t io n wh e n in g es t ed o r a ll y. A l th ou g h β - c a r o ten e is p r o te c t i v e ag ai ns t s om e fo r m s o f a b no r m a l p h o to se ns i ti v i t y ( e .g . , e ry t h r o p oi e ti c p ro t op o r ph yr i a ) , i t h as no t b e en s h own t o p r o t ec t a ga i ns t s un bu r n in n o rm al i n di v i d ua ls . 4 . C a nt h ax a n th i n i s a c a r o t en oi d (p r o v i ta m i n A) . I t ha s b ee n u se d a s a foo d c o lo r in g a g en t b u t h as no t be e n a pp r o ve d b y th e F D A f o r u s e as a n o r a l ta n ni n g a g e nt . It d oe s n o t p r o du c e a t r u e s un t a n b ut is d e po s i t ed in t o f a tt y t is s u e s u nd e r t h e s ki n . I t p r ob a bl y d oes no t pr o te c t t he sk in f rom su nb u r n. 5 . T yr o s i n e h a s b ee n p ro m ot e d as a ta n a c ce l e ra t o r o r t a n p r o mo t e r . Be c au s e m e la ni n p i gm en t i s e v e n tu a ll y s yn th e si ze d f r om t yr o s in e , t he th e o r y i s t h at t o pi ca l l y a p pl i ed t y r os in e wi l l e nha n c e th e fo r m a ti o n o f m el a ni n . Ho we v e r , s t ud i es h a ve n o t c o n f i rm e d a n e n ha n ce d t a n n in g e f f ec t f r om t h is a ge n t .
IV. CONTACT DERMATITIS AND ITS TREATMENT A. I n t r o d u c t io n
1 . T yp e s o f c o n ta c t d e rm a t i t is . Co n ta c t d e rm at it i s i s o ne of th e m o s t c om m o n d e r m a t ol og ic a l c o n di t io ns en c o u n te r ed in c l in ic al p r ac t ic e. I t h as t ra di t io na l l y be en d i vi de d i n to i r r i ta n t c o n ta c t de r m a ti t i s a nd al l e rg i c co n t ac t de r ma t i t is o n th e b a si s o f t h e o ri g in an d im m u n ol o gi c a l m ec ha ni sm . P.641
a . I r r i ta n t c o n ta c t d e r ma t i t i s is c a us ed b y di r ec t c on t ac t wi t h a pr im a r y i rr i t an t . Th e s e i r r i ta n ts c an be c la s s i fi e d as ab s ol ut e or re l a ti ve p rim a r y i r ri t an ts . ( 1 ) Ab s o l u te p r im a r y i r r i t a n t s a re in t r in s i c a ll y da m ag i ng s u bs ta nc es t ha t i n ju r e, on f i r s t c o n ta c t , an y p e rs on 's s k in . E xa m pl es in c l u de s t ro n g a c i ds , a lk a li s, and o th e r i n du s t ri al c h em ic al s . ( 2 ) R e la t i ve p r im a r y i r r i t a n t s c au s e m os t c as e s o f c o n ta c t de r m a t it is s e en i n c l in ic al p ra c ti c e . Th es e ir r i t an t s a re le ss to xi c t ha n ab s o l ut e p r im a r y i r r i ta n ts , an d t h e y r eq u ir e re p ea t ed o r p r o lo n ge d e xp o s u r e t o pr o v o k e a re ac t io n . E xa m p l es of r e l at i ve pr im a r y i rr i ta n ts i n c l ud e s o ap s , de t e rg e nts , be n z o yl p e ro xi d e , an d c e rt a in p l an t an d a ni m al s u bs tan c es . b . Al l e r g i c c o nt a c t d e rm a t i t is . Ma n y p la n ts , a nd a lm os t a n y c h em ic al , c a n c a us e a l le r g ic c on t ac t d e rm a ti t is . P oi s o n i v y i s a c la s s ic e xa m p l e o f a ll e r gi c co n ta c t d e r m a t it is , wh i c h i s c la s s i fi e d as a t y p e IV h y p ers e ns it i v i t y re a c t io n . Th is t y p e of a l le r g ic re ac t io n i s T c e ll- m e di a te d , a nd th e f o ll owi n g s e qu e nc e of e ve n ts m u s t o cc u r to pr o v o k e i t : ( 1 ) Th e ep id e rm is m u s t c o m e i n c on t a c t wi t h th e h a p te n (i . e. , th e s pe c i f ic a l le r ge n ) . ( 2 ) Th e ha p t en - e pi d e rma l p r o te i n c om p l ex (i . e ., t h e co m p l et e a n ti g en ) m us t fo r m . ( 3 ) Th e an t ig en m u s t e nte r t h e l ym p h a t i c s ys t e m . ( 4 ) I mm u no l o gi c al l y c o m p e t en t l ym p h o i d c el l s, wh i c h a r e s el ec t i v e a gai n s t t he a n t ig en , m us t fo r m . ( 5 ) O n r ee x po s u re t o t he h ap t en , th e t y p ic a l, lo ca l de la ye d h y pe r se ns i ti v it y r e a ct io n ( i . e ., co n ta c t de r m a t it is ) o c c u rs . ( 6 ) Th e in d u ct i o n p e r iod , d ur i ng wh i c h se ns i ti v i ty d e v e l op s , us u al l y re q uir e s 1 4 -2 1 d a ys b u t m a y ta k e as few a s 4 da y s or m o r e t h an s e v e r a l we e k s . O n ce se n s i ti vi t y i s f u ll y d e ve l o p e d : ( a ) R e e xp o s u r e t o e v e n m i nu t e am o un ts o f t he s a m e m a t e ri a l el ic i ts an ec z e m at o us r e s po ns e , t y p ic al l y wi t h a n on s e t o f 12 h r a nd a p e ak of 48 - 7 2 h r a f te r e xp o s u r e . ( b ) S en si t i v i t y u s u a ll y p er s is ts f o r li f e . ( i ) Mo s t c o n ta c t al l e rg ens p ro d uc e s e n si ti za t io n in o nl y a s m a ll pe r ce n ta ge o f e xp o s e d p e rs o ns . ( i i ) A ll e rg e ns o r s u bs t anc es s u c h as po is on i vy , h o we v e r , p r od uc e s en s i t iz a t i o n i n > 7 0 % o f th e p op u la t io n (50 % - 95 % a r e s en s i t i v e t o t h e p o is on i vy pl a nt ) . 2 . G e ne r a l p h as e s o f co n t a c t d e rm a t i ti s a . Ac u t e st a ge . W et l es io n s , s u c h as b l is te r s o r d e n ud ed an d we e pi n g sk i n , a r e e vi d e nt in we l l -o u tl i ne d p a tc h es . Al s o e vid en t a re e r y t he m a , ed em a , ve s ic l es , a nd o o zi n g.
b . S u ba c u te st a ge . In t hi s p h as e, c ru s t s o r s c a bs f o rm o v e r t h e p re v i o us l y we t l e si on s . A l le r gi c c o n ta c t d e r m a t it is an d i r r it a nt c on t ac t de r m a ti t is c a us ed b y a b so l ut e p r im a r y i r r i ta n ts p ro d uc e b ot h th e a cu t e a n d s u b ac u te s t ag es . c . C h r on i c s t ag e . I n t h is p h as e, t he le s i on s b ec om e d r y a nd t hi c k en ed ( i.e . , l i ch en i fi e d ). In i ti a ll y , d r yn e s s a n d f is s u r in g a r e t he si g ns . L a te r , e r y t h em a, l i ch en i fi c a t io n , a nd e xc or i a ti o ns ap pe a r . Th e c h ro n ic ph as e o f c o nt ac t d er m a ti t is u s ua ll y o c c u rs m o re o ft en wi t h i r ri t an t c on t ac t d er m a ti t is c au s ed b y re la t ive p r im a r y i r r i ta n ts . B . T o xi c pl a n ts . Po is o n i v y a n d p o is on oa k a r e th e mo s t c o mm o n c au s es o f a l le r g ic c on t ac t d e rm a ti t is in N o r th Am e ri c a . Th es e p la n ts we r e fo rm e r l y k n o wn a s t h e Rh u s g en us , b u t t h ey a r e no w p r o p e rl y r e fe r re d to as th e T o x i co de n d ro n ge n us . 1 . P o is o n i v y ( T o x i c od en d r on r ad ic a ns a n d T . ryd b e rg i i) g ro ws a s a v in e o r as a b u sh . It is fo u nd i n m os t p a r ts of t he U ni t ed S ta t es , bu t i s e s p ec ia l l y p r e val e n t i n t he n o r t he as t e rn pa r t o f t h e c o un t r y . Po is o n i v y i s o f te n id en t i fi ed b y it s c ha r ac t e ri st ic g r o wt h p at t e rn , d e s c ri b ed b y t he s a yi ng “ Le a v es o f t hr e e, le t it be . ” 2 . P o is o n o ak ( T . d iv er s i l ob u m ) is fo u nd i n th e we s te r n Un i te d St a t es a n d C a n ad a . I t g ro ws a s a n u p ri g ht s hr u b or a wo o d y vin e . T . to x ic a ri u m is f o un d i n t h e e as t e rn U n i t ed S ta t es . 3 . P o is o n s um a c ( T . v e rn i x ) g ro ws i n wo o d y o r swa m p y a r e as as a c o a rse s h r u b o r t r e e a n d is p re v a le n t i n th e ea s t e r n U n it e d S t a te s a n d so u th e as t er n C an ad a . C . T o xi c o de n d ro n de r ma t i t i s. Fo r de r m a t it is t o d e v e l op , p r e vio u s se ns i tiza t i o n ( a 5 - t o 2 1 -d a y in c u b at i on p e r io d ) c au s e d b y d i re c t c o nt ac t wi t h a se ns i ti z i ng a ge n t is r e q ui r e d ( s e e I V . A .1 . b ). A n o le o re s i n , u r u sh i o l oi l , wh i ch is a p en t ad ec ac a t ec h ol , i s t h e a c ti v e s e ns it i z i ng age n t i n p o is on i v y , po is on o ak , an d p oi so n s um ac . Th e r e a re s l ig h t d if f e re nc es in th e c h em ic al s t r uc t ur e s o f t he s e ns i ti zi n g a ge n t i n e ac h o f t h es e p l an ts , bu t th e t h re e ag e nt s c ro s s - r ea c t . P.642
1 . R e le a se o f t h e u r u shi o l oi l . Th e p la n ts m us t b e b ru is ed o r i nj u re d to re l ea s e t he o l eo r es i n. I t is p r es e n t in t h e r o o ts , st e ms , le a ve s , a n d f r u i t . Th e u ru sh io l oi l m a y r e m ai n a c t i v e o n t o ol s , to y s , c l ot h es , p e ts , a nd un d e r f i ng e rn a il s i f t ho se i t em s h a v e h a d c on t ac t wi t h t he b rok e n p la n ts . a . U r us hi o l o il do es no t v o l a t il i z e , s o on e c an n ot g e t d e rm at i ti s f r om ju st b e in g n e a r a p oi so n i v y p l an t ; d i re c t c on t ac t i s n ec es sa r y . Bu r n i n g p l an t s , h o we v e r , c an c a us e d r o pl e ts of oi l c a rr i ed b y s m o k e to en t e r t he r es pir a t o r y s y s t em , wh ic h c an c au s e s i gn i fi ca n t r es p ir a to r y d is t r es s . b . A c u t o r d am a ge d p o is o n i v y , p oi so n o ak , o r po i so n s um ac pl an t i n it i al ly y i e l ds a c l e a r f l u id c o n ta in i ng the o le o re si n , wh ic h tu r n s t o a b l ac k i n k y l a c q u e r o n e xp o s u r e t o a i r wi t hi n a fe w m i n ut e s. Th is c h an g e c an be a m ea ns fo r c o n fi r m i n g i d en t i fi ca t io n o f t h es e p la n ts . c . B ec au s e th e o l eo r es in c an r ap i dl y p en e tr a t e t he sk in , th e a f f ec te d a r e a m u s t b e w a sh e d w i t h s o a p a nd w a te r w i t h in 10 m in af te r e xp o s u re to p re v e n t th e d e r m a t it is e ru p ti on . W as h i ng up t o 3 0 m i n a f t er exp o s u r e is s t il l us e f ul i n r e m o vin g s om e o f th e o l eo r es in .
2 . I f a n i nd i v id u al ha s b ee n p re vi o u s l y s e n s i t i z ed , t he le s i on s u s u a ll y occ u r wi t hi n 6 - 4 8 h r a f t er c o n ta c t wi t h t he al l er g en . 3 . Typ i c al l y , t h e i n i ti a l er u p t i o n e xi s t s as s m al l p a tc h es of e r y th em a to us p a pu le s ( u s ua ll y s t re ak s ). P r u r i tu s ( i tc h i ng ) is t he p r ima r y s ym p t o m . a . P ap u le s m a y p r og r es s t o v es ic l es , wh ic h m a y th e n o o z e a n d b le ed wh e n t he y a r e s c ra t ch ed . S ec on da r y i n fe c ti o n m a y t h en de ve l op. O f t e n, th e i n fl am m a t io n i s s e v e re , a n d a s i gn i fi c a n t am o un t o f ed em a o c c u rs o ve r the e xp o s ed a re a . b . Th e le s i on s m a y l as t fr o m a fe w d a ys t o s e ve ra l we e k s . L e ft un t r ea t ed , t h e c o nd i ti on r a re l y pe r s i s t s l o ng e r th an 2 -3 we e k s . 4 . P o is o n i v y d e r m a t i t is d oe s no t sp r e ad . N e w l es i on s, ho we ve r , m a y c o n t in ue t o a p p ea r fo r s e v e ra l d a y s d e s p i te la c k o f fu r t he r c on t ac t wi t h th e p la n t . Th i s r e ac t io n m a y be o wi n g t o t h e f ol lo wi n g f ac ts : a . S k i n t ha t ha s b ee n m in i m a ll y e xp o s e d t o t he an t i ge n b e gi ns to r ea c t onl y a s t h e p e r so n 's s e ns i ti v i t y he i gh t e ns . b . A n ti ge n i s a bs o rb e d at v a r y i n g r a te s t h ro u gh th e s k i n o f di f fe r en t pa r ts o f th e b o d y. c . Th e p e rs o n in a d v e rt e nt l y t o uc he s co n ta m i n at e d o b je c t s o r m a y ha v e r es i d ua l o l eo r es i n —f o r e xa m p l e, u n d er n ea t h t he f in ge r n ail s . 5 . P o is o n i v y i s n o t c on t a g io u s . Th e se r ou s f lui d f ro m t he we e p in g v es ic l es a r e n o t a n ti g en ic . No o ne c an “ c a t c h ” p o is on i vy f r om a n ot h e r p er s on . D . T r e a tm e nt . Th e t r e atm e nt o f i r ri t an t a n d a ll e rg i c c o n ta c t d e rm at i ti s f oc us e s o n t h e r ap y f o r t he s p ec i fi c s y m p t om a to lo g y . 1 . A p h a rm ac is t s ho ul d re f e r a p a ti e n t wi t h a p ois o n i v y e r up t io n to a p h ys ic i an if : a . Th e er u pt i on in v o l v es a l ar g e a r ea of t he bo d y ( a b ou t 25 % ). b . Th e e ru p ti on in v o l v es t h e e y e s , g en i ta l a r ea , m o u t h, o r r es p ir a t or y t r ac t ( s om e p a t ie n ts m a y e xp e r ie nc e r e s p i ra t o r y di f fi c u l ti es if t h e y in ha l e t he sm ok e of b u rn i ng p o is o n i v y p la n ts ) . 2 . Th e se ve r i t y o f t h e er u p t i o n d ep e nd s o n: a . Th e qu an t i t y o f a l le r ge n th a t t h e p at i en t h as be e n e xp o s e d t o b . Th e in di v i d ua l p a ti e nt ' s s e ns i ti vi t y t o t he al le r ge n 3 . F o r s e ve r e e r u p ti o ns, a pa ti e n t s h o ul d c on su lt a ph y s ic ia n , wh o m a y pr e s c r ib e s ys t e m i c c o r ti c os t e r oid s . a . S y s te m i c c or t ic os t e ro id s a r e t h e c or n e rs to n e of t h er a p y . O ne s h ou ld us e s u f fi ci en t l y hi gh do s e s t o s up p r es s t hi s i nf l am m a ti o n . G en e ra l l y, i t i s r ec om m e n de d t h a t p r ed n is on e b e g i v e n i n a do s e o f 6 0 m g / da y fo r 5 d a y s , t he n re du c ed t o 40 m g /d a y f o r 5 d a y s , t he n 2 0 m g /d a y f o r 5 d a y s , t he n di s c on t in u ed . P re pa ck e d d os ag e p a ck s o f c o r t ic os t er o id s u s ed o v e r 6 d a y s p r o v ide t oo lo w o f a d os e o v e r t o o s ho r t a p e r io d o f ti m e . b . S om e b li s te r s m a y b e d r a in e d a t t h ei r b as e . The sk in on t op of t he bl is te r sh o ul d b e k e pt in t ac t . Dr a in i ng th e bl is t e r al l o ws m o r e t op i ca l m ed ic a ti on t o p en et r a t e f o r a n an t ip r u ri t ic e f f ec t. B a th s a n d s oa k s [ s ee I V. D .4 . b . (1 ) . (b ) ] m a y be be n efi c ia l a s we l l . 4 . F o r a le s s s e ve r e e r up t i o n , t he p ri nc i pa l g oa ls a re to r el i e ve t he it c hin g an d i n f la m m at i on an d t o p r o te c t t h e i nt e gr i t y of t he s k i n. P.643
a . S e ve ra l t h e ra pe u ti c c la s s e s o f a ge n ts c a n b e u s ed t o r e l ie ve i t ch i n g. ( 1 ) Th e ap pl ic a ti o n o f l oc a l a n es t h e ti c s— f o r e x a m pl e , b en zo c a i ne ( 5% -2 0 % ) —m a y r e l ie ve it c hi ng . R el ie f m ay b e o f sh o r t d u ra t io n ( 30 - 4 5 m in ) , b u t a pp li ca t ion o f b e n zoc a in e m a y b e e s pec i al l y us ef u l a t b ed t im e , wh e n p r u ri t us is m os t b ot h e rs om e . Th e r e is s om e qu es t io n a b o ut th e fr e qu e nc y o f th e s e ns it i zi ng ab il i t y of b e n z oc a in e ( 0 . 1 7% - 5% ) . Ce r t ai nl y , t re a tm e nt s h o ul d b e d is c on t i nu ed i f t he r as h wo r s en s . ( 2 ) T op i ca l an t i hi s t am in e s — fo r e xa m pl e , d ip h en h yd r am in e ( Be n ad r yl c re a m o r s p r a y) —m a y p ro v i de r el ie f o f m i ld i tc hi ng p ri nc i pa l l y th r o ug h a to p ic al ane s th e ti c e f f ec t ra t he r th a n a n y a nt i h is ta m i n e e ff e ct . Ma n y wo u l d n ot r ec om m e nd t he i r u s e b e ca us e th e y m a y al s o ha v e a s ig n if ic a nt se ns i ti z i n g p o te n ti al , an d i n c hi ld r e n wi t h va r i c el la in f ec ti o ns ( wh er e t he in t eg r i t y o f th e sk in is co m p r om is ed ) , s ys tem ic a b so r p ti on ha s o c c u r re d wi t h s y m pt om s o f a n ti cho l in e r gi c t o xi c it y p r od uc e d . To pi c a l a n d o r al di p he n h y dr am i ne s h o ul d n o t b e u se d c on c u rr e nt l y. ( 3 ) C o un t e r i r r i ta n t s i nc lu d e c am ph o r (0 . 1% - 3% ) , p h en ol ( 0 .5 % -1 . 5% ) , a nd m e n th o l ( 0 . 1 %- 1 % ). Th es e a g en ts ha v e a n a na lg es ic e ff ec t as a r es ul t o f de p re ss io n of c u ta n eo us r ec ep t o rs . The e xa c t an t ip r u ri t ic m ec ha n is m is no t fu ll y k no wn , b u t a p l ac e bo ef f ec t m a y re s u lt f r om th e c ha r ac t e ri st ic m e di c i n al o d o rs o f th es e a g en ts . ( 4 ) As t r i n g en t s a r e m il d p r o te i n p re c i p it a nt s t h at r e s u l t i n co n t ra c ti on o f ti s s u e, wh i c h in tu r n d ec r e as es t h e l oc a l e de m a an d i n fla m m a ti o n. ( a ) Th e pr i nc ip a l a ge n t us e d is a lu m in u m a ce t a te ( B u ro w' s s o lu ti o n ). ( b ) C a la m in e ( z in c o xi d e wi t h f e r ri c o xi d e , wh i c h p r o vi de s t h e p in k c o l o r) is al s o u s ed s o m e ti m es . C a la m in e c o nt r ac t s t is s u e a nd h e lp s d r y t he a re a , b ut th e f o r m a t io n o f th e t h ic k d rie d pa s t e m a y no t b e to ler a t e d b y s o m e pe op l e. ( 5 ) T op i ca l h yd r o c o r t i s o n e (e . g ., C o rt a id ) , wh ic h is a vai l ab le in c o nc e ntr a t i o n s u p t o 1% , i s m in im al l y us e ful f o r i ts an ti p r u ri ti c a n d an t i -i n fl am m a t o r y ef f ec ts . b . B a si c t re a t me n t ( 1 ) Ac u t e (w ee p i ng ) le si o n s (s ee I V. A . 2. a ) ( a ) W et d r es s in g s wo r k o n th e p r i nc ip le t ha t wa te r e v a po r a ti ng f ro m t h e s k i n c oo ls i t an d t h us re l ie v e s i tc hin g . W et d r es si ng s h a v e a n ad di t io n al be n ef i t o f ca u s i n g g e n tl e d é br i de m e n t a nd c l ea ns i ng of th e s k i n . ( b ) B u r ow ' s s ol u t i on ( Do m eb o ro ) in c o nc en t r at i on s o f 1: 2 0- 1 : 40 as a we t d r e s s in g o r a c oo l b a th of 1 5- 3 0 m i n 3 - 6 t im es p e r d a y p ro v i d es a si g ni f ic an t a n ti pr u r i ti c e f f ec t . ( c ) C o l lo i da l oa t me a l ba t h s (e . g. , A vee n o ) m a y a l so p ro v i de an an t ip r u rit i c e f fe c t . ( d ) T op i ca l t he r a p y t h a t m a y h i n d e r t r e a t me n t ( i ) L oc a l a n es t he t i cs and t o p ic a l a n ti h i st a mi n es m a y s en s i t i ze. ( i i ) C a la m in e m a y m ak e a m e s s wi t h ou t d o in g m uc h g o od! ( 2 ) S u ba c ut e de r m at i t i s ( s ee I V .A . 2 .b ) . A t h i n l aye r o f h yd r o c o r t i s o ne cr e a m o r l o t i o n ( 0 .5 %- 1 %) m a y b e a pp li e d 3 - 4 t im es a d ay t o t r ea t s ub ac u te d er m a t i ti s . S u p pl em e nt a l a ge n ts , s uc h a s t o pi ca l a ne s th e ti cs , m a y b e u s e d a s we ll . ( 3 ) C h r o ni c d e r ma t i t is (s e e I V . A .2 .c ) is b es t t re at e d wi t h h y d r oc o rt is o ne o i n tm en t . Th i s s t a ge is o bs e r v e d m o r e f r eq ue n tl y i n f o rm s o f c o nt ac t de rm a ti t is th at i n v ol ve c o nt i nu o us e xp o s u r e t o th e ir r i ta n t o r a l le r ge n .
E . P r e ve n t i on 1 . Th e be s t t re a tm en t fo r p o is on i vy c o n ta ct de r m a t i ti s is t o p r e ve n t c o nta c t wi t h t h e o f f en di n g c a u s e . Th is ap p r oa c h in v o l v es a void i n g t he pl an t an d we a rin g p r o t ec ti v e c l ot h in g . 2 . B a r r ie r p r e pa r a t io n s. B e n t o qu a ta m (q u at e r niu m - 18 be n to ni t e ), I vy B lo c k , an o r g an oc l a y , i s t he fi r s t po i s o n i v y b l oc k e r p r o v e n s a fe an d e f f ec ti v e . It com es as a l o t io n t h at s h ou l d b e a ppl i ed a t l ea st 15 m i n b e fo re c o n ta c t wi t h t he pl an t a n d t h en e ve r y 4 h r f o r c on ti n ue d p r o t ec ti o n a ga in s t u r us hio l . I t s h ou l d b e a pp li e d to l ea v e a s m o o th , we t , v is i bl e f il m o n th e s k i n . I vy B l oc k m a y b e re m o ve d wi t h s oa p a n d wa t e r . B e c a us e o f i ts al c o h ol c o n te n t, pa t ie n ts s ho u ld be in s t ru c t e d t o s tay a wa y f r o m f la m e du r i ng ap pl ic a t i on un t il th e p r od u c t ha s d r i ed on th e s ki n . P.644
STUDY QUESTIONS D i r e c t i on s : E a c h of t he q u es t io ns , s t at em e nt s , or i nc om p le t e s t a te m en ts c a n b e c o r re c tl y a ns we r e d o r c om p le t ed b y on e o f th e s ug g es t ed an s we r s o r p h r as es . C h o os e th e b e st an s we r . 1 . A w o ma n , w h o ha s no t b ee n in t he su n f o r 4 m o n th s , d e ve l op s r ed ne s s o n h e r c he s t a f t e r l yi n g i n t h e su n fo r 2 0 m in . Th e n e x t d a y, s h e a p p li e s a s un t a n l o t i o n a nd d e ve lo p s t h e s a me de g r ee o f re d ne ss o n h e r ba ck i n 2 h r an d 20 m in . W h a t i s th e su n p r o t ec ti o n f ac t o r (S P F ) of t he lo t i o n s h e i s u s in g ? (A) 14 (B) 10 (C) 12 (D) 9 (E) 7 V i e w A n s we r 1 . T h e a n sw e r i s E [s e e] . 2 . W h ic h o f t h e f o l low i n g c l ea n sin g p r o d u c ts w o ul d a p ha r m a c is t r ec o mm e nd f o r a p a ti e n t w i t h in f l am mat o r y a c n e ? ( A ) a n a b ra s i v e fa c i a l s po n g e a nd s o ap us ed 4 t im es a d a y ( B ) a lu m i n um o xi d e p a rt ic l es u s e d 2 t im es a da y ( C ) s ul f u r 5 % s o a p us e d 2 t im es a d a y ( D ) m il d f ac i al s o ap us ed 2 ti m es a da y V i e w A n s we r 2 . T h e a n sw e r i s D [ se e] . 3 . I f a p a ti e n t ne e ds a s ec o nd a p p l ic a t io n o f an o ve r - th e - c ou n t e r ( O TC ) p yr e t h r i n pe d i cu l ic i d e s ha mp o o , h ow m a n y d a ys a f t e r t h e fi rs t a pp l i ca t i on sh o u ld th i s be do n e ? (A) 4-5 (B) 6 ( C ) 7 - 10 ( D ) 1 4 -2 1 ( E ) 1 5 -1 7 V i e w A n s we r 3 . T h e a n sw e r i s C [ se e] . 4 . Al l o f th e f o ll ow i ng t r ea t m en ts f o r p e r s o na l a r t i cl e s i n f es te d w i t h h e ad l ic e w ou l d b e ef f e ct i ve ex c ep t ( A ) p la c i n g wo o l e n h at s in a p l as ti c b ag f or 2 we ek s .
( B ) u si ng an ae r os o l o f py r e t h r in s wi t h p ip e ro n y l b u t o xi d e s p ra y e d i n t h e a i r o f al l b a t h ro om s . ( C ) m ac hi n e- wa s h in g c lot h es in ho t wa t e r a n d d r yi n g t h em u si n g t he ho t s e t t in g o n t h e d r ye r . ( D ) d r y - c l e an i ng wo o l en s c a r v e s . ( E ) s oa k i ng ha i r b r us h es i n h o t wa t e r f o r 1 5 m i n . V i e w A n s we r 4 . T h e a n sw e r i s B [ se e] . 5 . Al l o f th e f o ll ow i ng s un s c re e n a g e n ts o r c o mb i na t i o ns o f a ge n ts w o u ld l ik e l y h e l p p r e ve n t a d r ug - i n du c e d p h o t os e ns i t i vi t y r e a c t io n ex c ep t ( A ) t i ta ni um di o xi d e . ( B ) o ct yl m e th o xy c i n n am a t e p l us h om o sa la t e. ( C ) o xyb e n z o n e an d p a dim a te O . ( D ) zi n c o xi d e . ( E ) p ad im a te O pl us a v ob e n z o ne . V i e w A n s we r 5 . T h e a n sw e r i s B [ se e] . 6 . Al l o f th e f o ll ow i ng w o u ld b e a p p r o p r ia t e r e c om me nd a t i on s fo r a n a d ul t pa ti e n t in t he ac u t e s ta g e ( i . e . , b l i s te r i n g, w e ep i n g ) o f p o i s on i v y c o n t a c t d e rm a t i t is ex ce p t ( A ) 6 0 m g p er da y o f p r ed n is o ne i n it i al l y, th en t ap e r ed o v e r 1 5 d a y s. ( B ) B u r o w' s s o lu t io n ; 1 :20 we t d r es si ng t o a r ea for 1 5 -3 0 m in , 4 t im es pe r d a y. ( C ) t wo s o ak s pe r da y i n A v e e n o B a th Tr e a tm en t . ( D ) t wo a p pl ic a ti o ns o f Iv y B l o c k. V i e w A n s we r 6 . T h e a n sw e r i s D [ se ea n d] .n o t 7. Al l o f t h e fo l l ow in g n o n p r es c r i pt i o n a ge n t s h a ve b ee n c l as s i fi e d by t h e U . S . F o o d a nd D ru g Ad m i n i s t r a t io n (F D A) a s s a fe an d e f f ec t i ve ( cat e g o r y 1 ) f o r a c n e e x cep t ( A ) s ul f ur . ( B ) s al ic y l ic ac id . ( C ) s ul f u r- r es o rc i no l c om b i na t io n . ( D ) b e n z oi c ac i d. V i e w A n s we r 7 . T h e a n sw e r i s D [ se e] . 8 . Ph a r ma c i s ts ed u ca t i ng p at i e nt s a b o u t a cn e s h o ul d me nt i o n al l of t he f o ll ow i n g e x ce p t ( A ) e li m i n at in g al l c h o c o la t e a n d f r ie d f o od s f r om t h e d i et . ( B ) cl e an s i n g s k in ge n tl y 2 - 3 t im es da i l y. ( C ) u si n g wa t e r - ba s e d no n c o m e d og e ni c c o s m e ti cs . ( D ) n o t s q u ee z i n g ac n e le s io ns . ( E ) k ee pi n g i n m i n d t ha t a c ne us ua l l y re so l ves b y o n e 's ea r l y 20 s . V i e w A n s we r 8 . T h e a n sw e r i s A [ se e] . P . 64 5
9 . A 1 5 - ye a r - o l d m a l e pa t i e n t h as be e n u s in g be n z o yl p e r o x i d e 5 % c r e a m f a i t h f ul l y e ve r y d a y f o r t h e pa s t 2 mo n t hs w i t h n o a pp a r en t si d e e f f ec ts . Al l o f t h e f ol l ow i ng ca n be sai d a bo u t th i s p a t ie n t e xc e p t ( A ) h e h as be en us in g thi s p r o du c t fo r a l on g e n ou g h t im e to de t er m i n e i f t h e d os e a n d d os a ge fo r m a r e g oin g to ha ve an y b e ne f it . ( B ) h e s ho ul d u s e t hi s p ro d uc t n o m o re f re q ue n tl y t h an e ve r y ot h er da y b ec a us e o f i t s i r ri t a ti ng p ro p e rt ie s .
( C ) t h is s t ar t in g d o s e and d os ag e f o rm a re us e fu l, e s p ec ia l l y i f he ha s d r y s k i n o r i t i s wi n te r t im e. ( D ) h is s c a l p h ai r m a y loo k b l ea c h e d i f t he p ro d uc t c om es in c o n ta ct wi t h i t . ( E ) t h e p ro d uc t wo u ld s t in g if it go t in t o h is e y e s . V i e w A n s we r 9 . T h e a n sw e r i s B [ se e] . 1 0. Al l o f t h e f ol l ow i ng de s c r ip t io n s m a t c h t h e t h e ra p eu t i c a g e n t f o r po i so n i v y e x c e p t ( A ) c al am in e : p he n ol p hth a le i n g i v es i t th e p i nk c o l o r. ( B ) I vy B l oc k : us e fu l i n pr e v e n t in g p oi s o n i v y d e rm a ti t is . ( C ) b e n z oc ai ne : da t a r e ga r d in g i nc i de nc e o f h yp er s e ns it i v i t y a r e c on f li c ti ng . ( D ) h yd r oc o r ti s o ne : us efu l fo r it s a n ti p ru r i ti c a nd a n t i- i nf l am m a to r y e f fe c ts . V i e w A n s we r 1 0 . T he a nsw e r i s A [ se e] . 1 1. Al l o f t h e f ol l ow i ng s ta t em e n ts r e l a t ed t o s u n p r o te c t ion a r e t ru e e x ce p t w hi c h o n e ? ( A ) Th e s u n ' s i nt e ns it y in c r ea s e s 2 0% wh e n g o ing f r om s e a le v e l to an al ti t u de of 5000 ft. ( B ) W ate r re s i s ta n t l ab eli n g o n a s u ns c r e en p ro du c t i nd ic a te s t h at it wi l l re t a in it s S P F a f te r 4 0 m in o f ac t i vi t y i n wa t e r , s we a t i ng , o r p e rs p ir i ng . ( C ) B a b y oi l i s n ot a s uns c re e n, bu t i t s a pp li c at i on t o t h e s k in a ft e r t a nn ing ca us e s m e la ni n to ri s e t o t he s ur f a c e . ( D ) P e r th e F D A , a p ro du c t wi t h a n S P F o f 50 m u s t n o w b e l a be le d “ S PF 3 0 Pl us . ” ( E ) Th e S P F i s r e al l y on ly a m ea su r e o f u l t ra v i ol et B ( U V B ) p r o te c t i on . V i e w A n s we r 1 1 . T he a nsw e r i s C [ se ea n d] .1 2 . Al l o f t he f ol l ow i ng s t a t em e n ts ab o u t s u nsc r e e ns a re c o r re c t e x cep t w h i ch o ne ? ( A ) Ma l i g n an t m el a no m a f o r m a t io n m a y be as s oc ia t e d wi t h in t en se , in t e rm i t t en t o ve r e xp o s u re t o t he s u n ( s u nb u rn i ng ) . ( B ) D i h y d ro xy a c e t o n e ( DH A ) wi l l n ot p re v e n t s u nb u r n . ( C ) S u ns c re en s a r e b es t a p pl ie d i m m ed i at e l y b e fo r e go in g o u t i n t h e s u n . ( D ) A vo b e n z on e p r o v id es s u ns c re en c o ve r a ge for t h e U V A sp ec t r um . ( E ) Tyr o s i ne ha s b e en m a r k et e d as a t a n ac c e l e ra t o r o r ta n m ag n if i er . V i e w A n s we r 1 2 . T he a nsw e r i s C [ se e] . P . 64 6
ANSWERS AND EXPLANATIONS 1 . T he an sw e r is E [ s e e I I I . E. 1 ] . Th e S P F is th e m in im al e r y t h em a d os e ( ME D ) o f p r o t ec te d s ki n d i vid e d b y t h e ME D o f un p r ot ec t ed s k in . Th us 2 h r a n d 2 0 m i n (1 4 0 m i n ) di vi d ed b y 20 m i n eq u al s a n SPF of 7. 2 . T he an sw e r is D [ s ee I I . E .2 ] . F o r pa t ie n ts wi t h i n fl am m a to r y a c n e , t he be s t p ro d uc t i s a m i ld fa c i a l s o ap us e d 2 t i m e s a da y . Th e s o ap s h o ul d b e ge n tl y r ub b ed in t o th e s k i n wi t h on l y t he f in g e rt ip s . C l e a ns in g p r od uc t s t ha t ir r i t a te al r ea d y in f la m e d s k i n s ho u ld be a v oi d ed . 3 . T he an sw e r is C [ s ee I . G . 4 .a . ( 1) ] . R e a p pl ic a ti on o f p y r e th r in s wi t h p ip e r on y l bu t o xi de s h o ul d b e wi t hi n 7 - 10 d a y s o f t h e fi rs t ap pl ic a ti o n. A n y l ic e n i ts th a t we r e n ot k il l ed on t he fi r s t ap p li c a t io n wo u l d h a ve ti m e t o h at c h an d th e n b e k il le d wi t h t h e sec o nd ap p li c a t io n .
4 . T he an sw e r is B [ s ee I . G . 4 a ; I. G . 6 .c ] . P yr e t h r in s wi t h p ip e ro n y l b u to xi d e i n a n a e ro s o l fo r m c an be sp r a yed di r ec t l y on i n an im a te ob j ec ts ( e. g ., c h ai r s , he a d re s t s ) t o k il l h e a d li ce , bu t th e c om bin a t io n s h ou l d n ot be s p r a y ed in t h e a i r l ik e a n a e ro so l de o d or i ze r . Mo r e o v e r , va c u u m i n g t h e fu r ni t u re wo u ld p ro ba b l y be as e f f ec ti ve as s p r a yi ng i t. Th e o t he r s e le c ti o ns a r e a p p ro p r ia t e f o r p er s on al a r t ic le s i n fe s t e d wi t h h ea d li c e . 5 . T he an sw e r is B [ s ee I I I . E. 2 ; I I I . D. 3 .c ] . O c t yl m e t ho xy c i n n am a te a n d h om os al a te p ro t ec t a g ai n st on l y U V B e xp o s ur e . B e c au se ph o to s e ns i ti v i t y r e ac t io ns a re of t en as s oc i at e d wi t h U V A ra d ia t ion e xp o s u r e , p eo p le al s o ne e d s un s c r ee n p r o te c t i on f o r t hi s p o rt i on of t he U V r a d ia ti o n b a n d. Th e o t he r ag e nt s li s te d c o v e r a t l e as t p a rt o f bo t h U V A a nd U V B s pe c t ra . 6 . T he an sw e r is D [ s ee I V . D . 3 a nd 4; I V . E. 2 ] . I vy B l o c k is u s ed as a bar r i e r p r o te ct a nt f or t he pre v e n t io n o f p o is on i v y de r m at i ti s , n o t fo r th e t r e at m e n t o f a n ac ut e e r u pt i on . Th e ot h e r o p ti o ns a r e a p pr o p ria t e to r e c om m e nd to s o m e o ne s u f fe r in g f r om t he ac ut e s t ag e o f po is on i v y d e rm a t i ti s. 7 . T he an sw e r is D [ s ee I I . E .4 ] . B e n zo ic ac id ha s n ot b ee n s h o wn t o b e e ff e c t i ve f o r a cn e t re a tm en t . Th e o t h e r a g e nt s, s u l fu r , s al ic y l ic a c id , a n d a s ul f u r - re s o r c i n ol co m b in a ti o n, a re al l s a fe an d e f f ec t i v e p ro d uc ts fo r t rea t i ng ac ne . 8 . T he an sw e r is A [ s ee I I . D .3 ] . E vi d e nc e d o es n o t s ho w t h a t a c n e wo r se ns f ro m a n y p a rt ic u la r t y pe of f oo d , i n cl ud i ng c h oc ol a te o r f r ie d fo o ds . Th e o th e r c ho ic es a re pi ec es o f i nf o rm a t i on th a t t h e p h a rm ac is t s ho ul d c o n v e y t o a pa t ie n t wi t h ac n e. 9 . T he an sw e r is B [ s ee I I . E .4 . a] . A l t h ou gh t he ir r i ta t in g p ro p e r ti es of be n z o y l p e r oxi d e m i gh t d ic t a te ap pl y in g it on l y e ve r y o t he r da y o n i ni t ia ti n g t r e at m e n t, t hi s p at i en t ha s t o le r at e d t h e a gen t on a d a il y b as is fo r 2 m o n t hs . Th u s th e re wo u l d b e n o n e e d t o d ec r ea s e th e a pp l ic a ti on f r e q ue nc y . A ll of t he ot he r c h o ic es d o a p pl y t o t hi s p a ti e nt ' s u s e o f b en z oy l p e r o xi d e . 1 0 . Th e a n sw e r i s A [ s ee I V . D .4 . a] . F e r r ic o xi d e p r o v id es t he p i nk c ol o r o f c al am i ne . A l l o f th e o t he r de sc r ip t io n s m a t ch t h e ir as s o c i a te d a g en ts . 1 1 . Th e a n sw e r i s C [ s ee I I I. C . 2 ; I I I. E . 1 .b an d c ; I I I . E. 2 .b ] . B a b y o il is n o t a s u ns c r ee n , a n d i t h as no ef f ec t o n m e la ni n . S PF do es m e a su r e U V B p r o te c t i on , a n d a n S P F h ig he r t ha n 3 0 m us t b e l a be le d S PF 30 P lu s . W ate r r e s is ta n t s un s c r ee n p r odu c ts m us t re t ai n th ei r S PF va l ue a ft e r 4 0 m in of wa t e r a c ti vi t y. Th e i n te ns i t y of t h e s un do e s in c re as e by 4 % wi t h ea c h 10 0 0- f t . ri s e i n e l e va ti on . 1 2 . Th e a n sw e r i s C [ s ee I I I. D . 2 ; I I I. E . 1 ; I I I. E . 2.b ; I II . F .1 ; II I F .4 ] . O p t i m a ll y , s u ns c re e ns s h o ul d b e ap pl i ed 1- 2 hr b e f o re e xp o s u r e t o t h e su n . Th is a l lo ws t im e fo r th e p r od uc t to bi n d t o t he s t r a tu m c o r ne um , wh ic h p r o vi de s b e t te r p r o t ec ti o n. Th e o t he r r es p o ns es a re c o r r ec t.
31 OTC Weight Control, Sleep, and SmokingCessation Aids J e n ni f e r D . S m i th
I. WEIGHT CONTROL A. O b e s i t y is a g ro wi n g e p id e m i c in A m e r ic a, s pa n ni n g a ll ag e g r ou p s f ro m c h il dh o od t o a du l th oo d . A p p r o xi m a te l y 30 . 5% of a d ul t s we r e c o n si de r e d o b es e i n t h e ye a r 2 00 0 , a nd 15 . 5% of a d ol es ce n ts we r e c o ns id e r ed o v e r we i gh t . Th is gr o wi n g e p id e m i c wa s r es po ns i ble f o r 5 .7 % o f to t al r ec en t U . S . he a lt h e xp e n d i tu r es . 1 . Th e U . S. P r e v en t i v e Se r v i c es Ta sk F o rc e ( U S PS TF ) d e t e rm in ed t ha t the b od y m as s i nd e x ( B MI ) i s re li ab l e a nd v a li d i d en t if i e r f or a d u lt s a t in cr e as ed r is k f or m o r bi di t y a nd m o r ta li t y owi n g t o o v e r we i g h t a nd ob e si t y . Th e B MI i s ca lc u la t e d as e i t he r we i gh t (i n p o un ds ) d i v i de d b y h ei g ht ( in i n c h e s s q u a re d ) m ul t ip li e d b y 7 0 3 o r a s we i gh t (i n k il o gr a m s ) d i v i de d b y h e ig h t ( in m e te r s s qu a r ed ) . Th e f ol l o win g g u id e li n es re la t e B MI t o o v e r we i g h t a n d o be si t y : a . M o r b i d o be s i t y i s d e fi n ed as a B M I > 40 kg /m 2 . b . O b e si t y i s d ef i ne d a s a B M I > 3 0 kg /m 2 . c . O ve rw e i g h t is de f in e d a s a BM I be tw e en 25 an d 30 k g/ m 2 . 2 . Tr u nk a l f a t ac c u m u l at io n , m ea su r e d b y w a is t ci r c u m fe r e nc e , i s a r is k f a c t o r fo r c a r d i o vas c u la r d is ea s e a n d o t h e r d i se as e s ( e .g . , t y pe 2 d ia b et es , s l eep a pn e a, k n ee os t eo a rt h r it is ) re g ar d l es s i f t he in d i v id u al i s c on s i d e re d o b es e. W ais t c i rc um f e re nc e i s n ot a va l id m e as u re m e n t i n i nd iv i d u al s wi t h a B MI > 35 k g /m 2 . I n d i vid ua ls wi t h th e fo ll owi n g wa i s t c i rc um f e re nc e s a r e c on s i d e re d a t i nc re a s e d ri sk f o r c a r di o v as c u l ar an d o th e r di s e as es : a . A wa i s t c i rc um f e re nc e i n m e n > 40 in c he s (1 02 c m ) b . A wa i s t c i rc u m f e re nc e i n w om e n > 35 in c he s (8 8 c m ) B . M an a ge m en t . Di e t a nd e xe r c is e (l i fe st y l e m odi f ic a ti o ns ) a r e t h e r ec om m e nd e d f i r s t ap p r oa c h to we i g ht lo s s , as we l l as su s t a in ed we i g h t c on t ro l . Th ou gh i t s e em s r e l at i ve l y s im pl e to ea t a we l l - b al a nc ed di e t a nd e xe r c i s e r e gu la r l y, ti m e c o ns t ra i nt s a n d e as e o f a c c es s t o h ig h l y p ro c e s s ed fo o ds are h u rd le s t h at Am e r ic an s f a c e in th e f i g ht ag a in s t t he bu lg e . 1 . C a lo r i c re s t r ic t i on . To r e du ce we i g ht ( an d t h us B MI ) , e n er g y in t ak e s ho u ld be l e ss th an t he en e rg y e xp e n d ed . a . Th e ap p ro xi m a t e a du l t e n e rg y r e qu i re m e n ts , ba s ed on ac t ua l we i g h t , m a y b e r o u gh l y es t im at e d as f ol lo ws . A 1 20 lb . a c ti v e wo m a n wo u l d re q ui r e a pp r oxi m a t e l y 1 8 0 0 kc al / da y t o m ai n ta in h e r c u r r en t we i gh t . ( 1 ) B ed r id d en o r s e d en t ar y i n di vi d ua ls : 10 - 12 k c al / l b. ( 2 ) Mo d e r a te l y ac t i v e i ndi v i d ua ls ( wa l k i n g a t r e gu la r p ac e) : 13 k ca l /l b . ( 3 ) A ct i v e i n di v i du a ls : 1 5 k c a l /l b . ( 4 ) V e r y a c ti v e in di v i d ua ls : 20 k ca l /l b . b . To l os e a bo u t 0 .5 k g /we e k , a d e f ic i t o f 50 0 - 10 0 0 c a lo r i e s ( kc a l ) p e r d a y m u s t b e m e t . A sa f e ra t e o f w e i g h t l o ss is c on s id e r ed t o be 1 -2 l b . /w ee k . c . S e ver a l c o m m e rc ia l l y a v a i la b le we i g ht lo s s pr og r a m s (e . g. , W eig h t W atc h e rs a n d J e nn y C r a ig ) e xi s t t o da y . W hen c o m p a re d t o s e lf -h e lp we i g h t l os s p ro g ram s , s o m e
c om m e r c i a ll y a v a il ab l e pr o g r am s h a v e s h o wn e nha n c e d a n d s u s ta in e d we i g h t l os s , wh i c h m a y b e a tt r i bu t ab le t o t h e s o ci a l su p po r t pr o v i d ed . 2 . D i e ta r y F a t Ab s o r p t io n I nh i b i to r . C u rr e nt l y , t h e o n l y a v a i la bl e no np re s c r i pt i on a g e nt th a t i s F D A a p p ro v e d fo r we i g ht lo s s is o r l is t a t , a di e ta r y f at ab s o r pt i o n m o di f ie r . Di e ta r y m o d if ic a t i on s i n c o m b i na t io n wi th o rl is t a t c a n p r o du ce c l in i ca ll y m o de st we i g h t l os s ( ap pr o xi m a t e l y 5 % o f b a se li ne we i g h t ). O r li s ta t h as be e n a va i la b le in p re s c r ip ti o n f o r m ( Xe n i c a l ® ) s in ce 199 9 , a n d g ai n ed F D A a pp ro va l fo r n o n pr es c ri p ti o n s ta t us i n 2 0 07 un d er t he b ra nd na m e A l li ® . a . A ll i ® i s a v a il a bl e f o r in d i v id u al s 1 8 a nd ol d e r wh o a r e m i ld l y to m o de ra t e l y o ve r we i g h t ( BM I be tw e en 25 a n d 2 8 k g /m 2 ). P.648
b . N o np r es c r i pt i on do s i ng is 60 m g TI D ( as c om pa r e d t o 1 2 0 m g TI D f o r Xe n ic al ® ) d u r in g o r wi t h in 1 h ou r of e ac h f a t -c on t ai ni n g m ea l . Do s e - r el a t ed ef f ic ac y i s o b se r v e d wi t h o r li s t a t u p t o 30 0 -4 0 0 m g da i l y , b ut e f f ec ts pl at e au t he r ea f te r . c . O ns e t o f o r li s t a t t ak es a p p ro xi m a t el y 2 we e k s a n d s ta t is t ic al l y s i gn i fi c an t we i g ht l o ss h as b ee n o bs e r v ed in o be s e pa t ie n ts af t e r 3 m o nt hs . Th us in d i vid ua ls s ho u ld b e c o un s e l ed th a t we ig h t l os s m a y n o t b e s ig ni f ic a n t wi t h o r li s t a t a nd m a y t a k e s e ve r al m o nt hs f or no t ic e a bl e re su l ts . d . Th e us e o f o r li s t a t wi ll r e s u l t i n g as t r o i n te s ti na l a d ve r se ef f e ct s , i nc lud i ng so f t o r li q ui d s to o ls wh i c h m ay b e f at t y o r o il y i n a pp ea r a nc e , i nc r ea se d d e fe ca t i on , f e ca l u r g en c y, a n d a bd om i na l p a in . A d v e rs e e ff e ct s a re d i r e c t l y r el a te d t o t h e d o s e an d i n ve r se l y re l at e d t o t h e fa t c o n te n t o f t h e di e t . G a s t ro i nt es t in a l a d v er s e ef f e ct s m a y l e ss en o v e r t im e . e . P r esc r i pt i on do s e s o r li s ta t ha v e be en as so c i a te d wi t h d e cr e as ed ab so rp t i on of vi t a m i ns A , D, E , K, an d b e t a -c ar o t en e . H o we ve r , a t do s e s ≤ 1 80 m g / da y gi ve n fo r s h o rt pe r io d s o f t im e ( e .g . , 2- 3 m on t hs ) , re du c ed a bs o r pt i on of th e s e vi tam i ns h as n o t b e en ob s e r v e d . 3 . E xe r c is e c a n d ec r ea s e t he ap p et i te an d i nc r ea s e b od y m et a bo li sm . E xe r c is e a d ds on l y m o de s tl y t o i nit i a l we i g h t l os s bu t is t he k e y c om po n en t o f su s ta i n ed w e ig h t lo s s. C . D i e t a r y s u p p l e m en t s. I n 2 0 01 , re t ai l s al es of we i g h t lo s s s u pp le m e n ts i n t h e U n i t ed S ta t es we r e es tim a te d to be > $ 1. 3 bi l l ion . A m e r ic an s h a ve b e gun t o s ee k n o n pr es c ri p ti o n we i g h t lo s s p ro d uc ts fo r a va r i ety o f r ea s on s . 1 . S om e i nd i v i du al s m a y v i e w d i e ta r y s up pl em e nts as a q ui c k re s o l ut i on to t he g r o wi n g e p id em ic , b e c a us e th e o b ta in m e n t o f d esi r e d o r re d uc ed bo d y we ig h t wi t h l o ng - t e rm l i fe s t y le c h an ge s i s p e rc ei v e d a s d i ff ic ul t . Ma n y a d ve r ti se m e n ts o f we i g ht l o ss p r o du c t s g i v e i n fl a te d c l ai m s , o f fe r in g ra p id r e s ul ts wi t h l i t tl e t o n o m o d i fi c a t io n i n li f es t y le ha b it s . S om e p e o pl e v i e w d i e ta r y s u p pl e m e n ts a s n a tu r al an d , th e r e fo r e, m is t ak en l y be l ie v e th e y a r e s a fe to us e . 2 . W it h t h e im p le m e n ta t io n of t he D ie t a r y Su p pl em e nt H e al th a nd Ed u c a tio n Ac t of 1 9 9 4, m a nu f ac t ur e rs a re n o t r eq u i r ed t o d em o ns t r a t e p r o d uc t s a f e t y a n d e f fi c ac y b e f o r e m a rk e t in g s u pp le m en ts . In ad d it i on , t h e a d h e re n ce t o g o o d m anu f a c t u ri n g p r a c t ic e s i s n o t m a nd a to r y f o r m a n uf ac t u re r s o f d i et a r y s u pp l em en ts . The l ack o f
e vi d e nc e f o r p r od uc t s a fe t y a nd e ff ic ac y, c o u pl ed wi t h p o te n ti al de v i a ti o n f r o m g oo d m a nu f ac tu r i ng p ra c t ic es r a i s e s c o nc e r ns fo r h e al th c a re pr o v i de r s wh o a t tem p t t o m ak e a p p ro p ri a te r ec om m e nd a ti o ns t o p a ti e nt s se e k i n g n on p re sc r ip t io n we i gh t lo s s p r o du c ts . 3 . Th e U . S. F oo d a nd D ru g A dm in is t ra t io n (F D A ) f i l es a c ti on ag a in st m a nuf a c tu r e rs o f su pp l em en t s d et e rm ine d un s a f e, f al s e l y la be l ed , la b el ed wi t h m is l ea di ng cl a im s , a d ul t e ra t ed , or m i s b r an de d . 4 . Th e Fe d er a l Tr a d e Com m i s s io n (F TC ) t a k e s a ct i o n a ga in s t m a n uf ac t u rer s p r o vi di n g p r od uc t a d v e r tis i ng th a t i s m i sl e ad in g or m ak es un s u bs t an t ia t ed c la im s . 5 . N um e ro us s i ng l e - a nd m ul t ip l e- e nt i t y pr o du c ts a r e a vai la b le on th e m a rk e t t o da y, e a ch un d er t he s c ru t in y o f t he F D A a nd F TC . Th e m o s t c o m m on l y s e e n in g r ed i en ts i n we i g ht lo s s p r o du c t s c u r r e nt l y m a r k e t ed , o r ga ni z e d b y p u r po r t ed m ec h an i s m s o f a c ti o n, a re th e fo ll o wi n g : a . I nc r e as e e n e rg y e x p e n d i tu r e ( 1 ) E p he d r a. C o nt a in s s u p pl e m e n ts t h at we r e b an n e d b y t h e F D A i n Ap r i l 2 00 4 o wi n g t o u n re as o na bl e ris k s of il l ne ss o r in ju r y w h e n u se d a s l ab e le d . P r od u c t s f o r m u l at e d wi t h ep h ed r ine a lk al oi ds ( ep h ed r a , m a h u an g , s i d a c o r d if o li a , P i n el l ia ) we r e r e m o v ed im m e di a tel y , t h ou gh , un li k e o th e r di e t ar y s up p le m e n ts c u r ren t l y a va i la b le , e p he d r ac on t ain i ng s u p pl em en t s d id have c on vi n ci ng e v id e nc e fo r s h o r t t e r m we i g h t l os s . ( 2 ) B i t te r o r a ng e i s a n ext r a c t f r om th e p e el , fl o we r , le a f, an d fr u it o f t he S e v i l le o r a ng e . Ty p ic a l d os ag e is ab o ut 1 g / da y, s t a nd a rd i z e d t o 1 . 5% - 6 .0 % s y n ep h r in e , a s t im ul a ti n g a ge n t t ha t is c h em ic al l y s im i la r to ep he d r in e . Cu r r en t l y , t h er e a r e no d a t a t o s up po r t i t s e f fi c ac y a s a n a ge n t f o r we i g ht l os s . I f co m b i ne d wi t h o t h e r s t im ul a nt s s uc h as c a f fe in e , b i tt e r o r a ng e m a y b e c a rd i ot o xi c . ( 3 ) G u a r an a s ee d c on t ain s 2 . 5% - 7 % ca f f ei ne an d e xe r t s a d iu r e ti c a c t i on . E f f e ct i ve ne s s h as be e n d e m o ns t r at e d o nl y i n c om b in a ti on wi t h ep h ed r ine . To l e ra nc e a n d d e pe nd e nc e c an de v e l op wi t h c h r on ic us e. ( 4 ) C a f fe i ne is an F D A -ap p r o v ed p ro d uc t , e ff ic a c y o f t hi s a ge n t f o r we ig h t l os s h as b e e n d em on s t r a te d o n l y i n c om b in a ti on wi t h ep h ed r i n e , wh i ch ha s b ee n rem o v e d f r o m t he m a r k e t . To l e r anc e a n d d ep e nd e nc e ca n d e v e l op wi t h c h ro n ic u s e. P.649
b . M o d u la t e c a r bo h yd r a t e m et a b ol i sm ( 1 ) C h r om i u m, an es s e nt i a l m i n er a l, in c re as es ins u li n s en s i t i vit y , l ea n b od y m as s , a n d b as a l m e t ab o li c r a te a n d d ec r ea se s i ns ul i n blo o d l e v el s a n d b od y f a t. C h r o m i um i s u se d i n we i gh t l os s p ro d uc ts in t he fo r m o f c h ro m iu m p ic ol in a te , 20 0 -40 0 µ g /d a y, wi t h n o re p o rt e d s i g ni fi c a n t a d v e rs e e f f ec ts . Rh ab d om yo l ys i s a nd r en a l f ai l u re ha v e b e e n r ep o r te d wi t h t h e us e o f c h r om iu m p ic ol in a te i n d os es e xc e e d in g 1 00 0 µ g /d a y. Th o u g h wi d el y m a r k e t ed , t h e re ha v e be e n n o l a rge , we l l - de s i gn e d s tu di e s f o r th e u s e o f c h ro m i um in we i gh t lo s s . Th ou g h i ts e f f ic ac y f o r we i gh t l os s r em a ins u n ce r t ai n , a t l ea s t 1 15 pr o d uc ts m a rk e t ed fo r we ig h t l os s c on t ai n c h ro m i um . ( 2 ) G i n se n g, in t he fo r m o f Pa n a x g i ns en g , m a y im p r o v e g lu c o se to l e ra nc e , a cc o r di ng t o p r el im in a r y d a t a. Th o ug h g i ns en g i s f o u nd in at le as t 20 c om m e rc i al l y
a va i la b le we i g ht lo s s pr od u c t s , i t h as no de m o ns tr a t e d e ff ic ac y f o r we i gh t l o s s i n h u m a ns . c . E nh a nc e s a t ie t y ( 1 ) G u a r g u m, a f i be r der i v e d f ro m t he I nd ia n c lus t e r b ea n , h as be en de em e d r e l at i ve l y s a fe in do s e s o f 7 .5 - 30 . 0 g /d a y, ho we v e r , it ha s n o t d em on st r a te d ef f ic ac y f o r we i g ht lo s s i n at le as t 2 0 c li ni c a l t r i al s. A d v e rs e e f f ec ts in c l ud e a b do m i n al pa i n, f l a tu l en c e , a n d d ia r r he a . ( 2 ) G l u co m an n an ( A m o rp h o ph al l us k on j ac ) p u r po r t e dl y a bs o rb s wa t e r in t h e g u t , c o nt r i bu t in g t o e n ha nc e d s a ti e t y a n d t hu s d ec r eas e d c a l o ri c i nt ak e . P r e lim i na r y e vi d e nc e h as d em o ns t ra te d th a t g lu c o m a n na n (3 -4 g /d a y ) m a y b e we l l to le r a t ed an d e f f ic ac io us f or we i g h t l os s . H o we v e r , th is ag en t ca n ha ve a l a xa t i v e ef f ec t. ( 3 ) P s yl l i u m f o rm s a fi b ro u s m a s s wi t h a b ul k la x a t i v e e f f ec t b u t h as n o t d e m o ns t r at e d e f fi c a c y for we i g h t l os s . P o te n ti al ad v e r s e e f fe c t s a r e si g ni f ic a nt , i n cl ud i ng es op h ag e al obs t r uc ti o n a nd ne p h ro t o xi c i t y (i f s e ed s a r e c ru s h ed , c h e we d , o r g ro u nd , a pi gm e nt m ay b e de p os it e d i n t he r ena l tu b ul es ) . I f us ed , p a tie n ts s h ou l d b e i ns t ru c t e d t o no t c r u s h , c he w, o r g ro u nd t he s e ed s , a nd ad e qu at e fl u id s m us t be c o ns um ed . d . I nc r e as e fa t ox i da t i on o r r e du c e f a t s yn t h e s i s ( 1 ) L - C a rn i t in e i s s y n t hes i z e d i n t he li v e r , k id n e y, a nd b ra i n. I t is fu n da m e n t al l y i m po r t an t f o r f a t t y a c i d tra n s p o r t f o r e ne r g y p ro duc t io n . No t ri al s d em o ns t ra t e e f f ic ac y o f L -c a r ni t in e f or we i g h t l os s . ( 2 ) H yd r o x yc i t r i c a c i d (H C A) i s d e ri v e d fr o m t he r i nd o f t he b ri n dl e b e r r y, a t ro pi c a l f r u i t n at i v e to In d ia . I t is p u r po r t ed to in h ib i t m i t oc h on d ri a l c i t r at e l y a se , th e r eb y s u pp r es s i n g ac e t y l c oe nz y m e A a nd fa t t y ac id s yn t h es is . I n d os es o f 3 00 -3 , 0 00 m g /d a y, H C A h a s b ee n we l l t o le r a te d , wi t h ad ver s e e f fe c ts o f he ad a c h e a n d g a st r o in t es ti n al s y m p to m s r ep o r te d . E f fi ca c y of HC A r e m a i ns q u es ti o na bl e. ( 3 ) G r e e n t ea c o n ta in s a p o l y ph e no l , e pi ga l lo c a te c hi n -3 - g al la t e , b et t e r k n o wn a s E G C G . E a c h c u p (8 o z ) o f g re e n t ea p ro vi d es 1 0- 8 0 m g o f c a ff e in e , c o n t ri b u ti ng t o t h e te a 's di u r et ic ac ti o n a n d c en t r al ne r v o us s ys te m ( C N S ) s ti m u la t io n (e .g . , i n c re as ed he a r t r a te , in c r e a s e d b lo o d p r ess u r e, an xi e t y ) . G r e e n t e a h as d e m o ns t r at e d i nc r ea s e d f a t o xi d a ti on an d th e rm og e n e s is b u t l ac k s d a ta re g a rd i ng e f f ic ac y i n we i g h t l os s . ( 4 ) V i ta m i n B 5 h a s b ee n p os t ul a te d to in du c e we i g h t l os s ; ho we ve r , d at a a r e l a c k in g t o su pp o r t t hi s . ( 5 ) L ic o r i ce s a fe t y a nd e f f ic ac y f o r we i g h t l os s re m ai ns un cl e ar . R ep o r ted a d v e rs e e f f ec ts o f li c o r ic e i nc l ude ps e ud o al do s te r on is m , h y p e r t en s i on , an d h y p e rk a le m i a . ( 6 ) C o nj u g at e d l i n ol e ic a c i d ( C L A) i s a g ro u p o f t r a ns - fa t t y ac id s, wh i c h i s p u r po r t ed to al t e r b od y c o m po s i t io n b y i nc r ea s i n g l e an ti s s ue de p os it i on an d d e c re as in g t ri gl y c e ri d e up t ak e i n a d ip os e t is s ue . I n do s e s o f 1 . 4 -6 . 8 g /d ay , C L A m a y h a ve ef f ic ac y i n we i g h t lo s s , es pe ci a ll y in ob e s e p a t ie n ts . A d ve rs e ef f ec ts i nc l ud e m i ld to m o de r a te ga s t r o in t es t in a l s ym p t om s . C L A m a y in cr e as e i ns ul i n l e ve l s a nd i n su li n re s i s ta nc e . ( 7 ) C li n ic al t ri al s o f p yr u va t e , i n d os es o f 6- 4 4 g /d a y , ha v e d em on s t r a te d we a k e vi d e nc e o f i ts ef f ec t i v en e s s fo r we i gh t lo ss . Rep o r t ed ad ve r se ef f ec ts inc l ud e d i a r rh e a a nd au di b le ab do m in al so u nd s .
( 8 ) C a lc i um s u pp r es s e s p a r a th y r o id ho r m o n e a nd 1 , 25 - d ih yd r o xyv i t a m i n D t o re d uc e f a t s yn t he s i s a nd in c re as e f a t o xi d a t io n . O r a l d ose s o f c a lc iu m o bt a in ed th r o ug h b o t h d ie t (1 . 2 -1 . 3 g /d a y ) a n d s up p le m e n ta t io n ( 8 00 m g / da y ) h a ve p r od uc ed p os it i v e r e s ul ts in at le as t on e ran d om i z e d c o n t ro ll e d t r ia l ( n = 3 2 ). A l a r ge r ra n dom i z e d c o nt r o ll ed t ri a l is ne e de d t o s u bs ta n ti a te cu r r en t a d v e r t is in g . e . B l oc k d i e ta r y f a t a b so r p t i o n. C h i to s an , a c om m o n i n g re di e nt in “ fa t - tr a p pe r ” s u pp l em en ts , i s d e ri v e d f r o m t he e xo s k e l et o n o f s h el l fi s h . In do s e s o f 2 . 0- 4 . 5 g / da y, c h it os a n h as no t d em o ns t r a t ed c l in ic al l y s i g ni fi can t in c re as es in f ec al fa t e xc r e t i o n o r we i g h t l os s . Ad v e r s e e f f ec ts in c l u de na us e a, co n s t i pa t io n , a nd fl a tu l enc e . F u r t he r m o r e, i t is qu es t io n a bl e i f c hi t os an is s a fe i n i nd i v id u al s wi t h sh e ll f is h a l le r g ie s . P.650
f . I n c re a se w a te r e li m ina t i o n ( 1 ) D a nd e l io n (T a r ax ac um o f f ic i na le ) s e em s t o ha ve a d i u re t ic e f fe c t, bu t h as no t b e e n st u di e d f o r we i g h t lo s s in hu m a n s . A t l ea s t 1 5 di e ta r y su p pl em e nt s fo r we i g h t l o ss c on t ai n d a nd e li on . ( 2 ) C a sc a r a s t im u la t es pe r i s t al si s a n d e vac u at i on, a ll o wi n g F D A t o a pp r o ve t hi s a g e nt fo r us e a s a s ti m u la n t l a xa t i ve . H o we v e r , c a s c a r a h as n o t b ee n s t ud i ed in h u m a ns fo r we i g ht lo s s . g . M i s ce l la n e ou s . S p i r ul i n a (b lu e - gr e en al g ae ) c o n t ai ns ph e n y la la n in e , an a ge n t t h e o ri ze d t o i n hi bi t a p pe ti t e . S p i ru li n a wa s de c l a re d in e ff ec t i ve f o r we i gh t l o s s i n 1 9 8 1 b y th e F D A, an d n o p u bl is he d s t ud i es h a v e p r o v e n o t he r wi s e . A t l e as t 13 p r o du c ts fo r we i gh t l o s s c u r re n tl y o n t h e m a r k e t c o n t ai n s pi r ul i na .
II. SLEEP AIDS A. N o r m a l s le e p a n d s le e p re q u i re m en t s 1 . S le e p r eq u i re m e n ts va r y wi d e l y am o ng in di v i du a ls a n d c ha n ge th r o ug ho u t th e l if e c yc le . Th e u s u a l r a ng e of s le ep ti m e p er ni g ht is 5 - 1 0 h r , wi t h a n a v e r ag e o f ab ou t 7 . 5 h r . N e wb o rn s r e qu i re a c o ns id e r ab le am o un t o f s l ee p ti m e , u p t o 1 8 hr . A d o le sc e nt s t y p ic al l y do n o t b ec om e s l ee p y un t il a f t e r m i d ni g ht an d a wa k e n ve r y l a t e i n t he m o r ni ng ( if al lo we d ) , b ut r eq u ir e a t ot al o f 9 .5 h r o f s le e p. Th e typ i c al a d ul t r eq ui r es 7 -8 hr o f s l e ep t o f ee l a d eq u at el y r e s to r e d, bu t th is ti m e m ay d i m i n is h wi t h a g in g . 2 . P o l ys o m n o g r a p h y i s t h e p r e do m i na n t t o ol fo r c h a ra ct e ri zi n g s le ep ph ys i ol og y , t h o ug h g u id el i ne s f r om th e Am e ri c an Sl e ep D is o rd e r s A ss oc ia t io n d o n o t in d ic a te it a s u se f ul in t he di ag n os is an d m an a ge m e n t o f p at i e n t s wi t h i ns om ni a . U sin g p o l yso m n o g ra ph y , r es e ar c h er s h a v e i d en t if ie d fi ve s ta ge s o f s le e p, su bd i vi d ed in t o r a p id e y e m o v em en t ( R EM) s l e e p a n d n on - R E M s l e ep . a . N on - R E M s l e ep c o ns is t s o f f o ur st a ge s. E ac h s t ag e i s a pr o g re s s io n i nt o a d e e pe r s le e p; an d s t ag es 3 a nd 4 a r e c on si de r e d d e e p , re s t o r at i v e s le e p. I f ti m e s p en t i n s t ag es 3 a nd 4 o f s l ee p i s d im in is h ed ( as s e en wi t h ag i ng ) , t h en s l ee p q u al i t y is c om p ro m i s e d .
b . R E M s l e ep is c o ns id er e d s t ag e 5 o f sl e ep . Mo s t dr e am in g o cc u rs du r ing R E M s l ee p . I f a wo k e n wh i l e i n R E M s l e e p , d r ea m s m a y b e d es c ri b ed in v i v i d d et a i l. B . I n so m n ia 1 . D e f in i t io n . I ns om n ia is de f in e d as on e or m o r e o f th e f o ll o wi n g s le ep - r el a t ed c om p la i nt s : di f fi c ul t y in s l e ep in i ti a ti o n ( a rb i t ra r il y d e fi n ed as a de l a y o f > 3 0 m i n ), d i f fi cu l t y i n m ai n te n an c e o f s l ee p , s h o r te n ed du ra t i on of s l ee p , o r q u al i t y o f s l ee p t h a t r es u lt s i n a d v e rs e da y t i m e co ns e qu en c e s . 2 . E p id e mi o l og y. I n s om n i a i s t he m o s t co m m on s l ee p d is o rd e r i n t h e U n it e d St a te s , a f f ec t in g a pp r o xi m a te l y 3 5 % o f th e a du l t p op u la ti o n . Th o s e a ff ec t ed m o s t i nc l ud e wo m e n , th e l es s e du c a t ed o r u n em pl o y ed , s e pa r at e d o r di vo r ce d i nd i vi du al s , p a t ie n ts wi t h c h ro ni c m ed i c a l o r ps y c h i at r ic di s o rd e r s , an d s ub s ta nc e a b us e rs . E c o no m i c c o s ts o f in s o m n i a a r e e s t im a te d t o b e > $ 46 bi ll i on an n ua ll y i n t h e Un i te d S t a t es . Di r ec t c os ts in c lu d e p r es c ri p ti on an d n o np r e sc ri p ti o n m e d ic a ti on s , a s we l l as vi s i ts to a h ea l th c a r e p r ov i d e r . I n di r ec t c os ts in c lu d e a bs e nt e ei s m , d im in is h ed p r o du c ti v i t y , fa t ig ue - r el at e d a u to m o b il e c r as he s, a n d i nd u st r ia l a cc id e nt s . 3 . C la ss i fi c a t io n o f i ns om n ia b y d u r at i on . a . T r an s ie n t in s om n ia la s ts < 1 w ee k a n d is t y pi c al l y th e re s u l t o f a c u t e s i tu a ti o na l s t r es s o r c ir c ad ia n i s s ues s u c h as j e t l ag o r s h i f t wo r k . Th i s t yp e o f in s o m n i a i s o f t en se l f- l im it i ng . b . S h o r t -t e r m i n so m n ia l as t s 1 -4 w e ek s a n d is a t t r ib u ta bl e to s i tu a ti o nal s tr es s ( e . g ., ac u te pe r s o na l l os s ) , o f t en r el at e d t o wo r k a n d f am i l y l i fe o r t o m ed ic a l o r p s yc ho lo g ic al di s o r de r s . I f s h o r t- t e rm in so m n ia is n o t m an ag e d a pp r o pr i ate l y, it m a y p r o g re ss to c h r on ic in s om n ia be c a us e i n di v i du a ls be c o m e in c re as i ng l y an xi o u s an d f r u st r a te d a b ou t th e i na bi l it y t o s le e p. Th e r e a r e n o es ta b li s h e d p re d ic to rs t o d e t e rm in e i f s ho r t - te r m in s om ni a wi l l c o n ti n ue to b e c o m e ch r on ic in s o m n ia . c . C h r on i c i n so m ni a l as t s > 1 m o n th . P eo pl e wi th c h r o ni c i ns om ni a n e ed f u r th e r e va l u at io n be c a us e t h e c o n di t io n i s o f te n th e r es ul t of a m ed ic al di s or d e r (e . g . , s l ee p a p ne a , r es t le s s P.651 l e g s yn d ro m e , p r im a r y ins om n ia ) , p s y c h ia t r ic d is or d e r , o r s u bs ta nc e a b us e. U p to 4 0 % o f c h ro n ic i ns om n ia c as es a re c o r re l at e d wi t h ps y c hi a t ri c d is o rd e rs , p a r ti c ul a rl y d e p re ss io n . 4 . C la ss i fi c a t io n o f i ns om n ia ba s e d o n c au se a . P r i ma r y i n s o m n ia is th e m a in pa t ho l og ic al c o nd i t io n i n wh ic h a pa t i e n t e xp e r i e nc e s c o n ti n ue d i ns om n ia in th e a bs e nc e of a re l at e d m e d ic al o r ps y c h i at r ic c o nd i ti on . I ts p a th o ge n es is is un kn o wn , bu t th e co n di t io n i s t r e at a bl e. I dio p a th ic i n so m n i a is th e i n ab il i t y t o ob t ai n a d eq u at e s le e p, p os s i bl y s te m m in g fr om a m is a li gn e d c i r c a d ia n rh y th m . P s y c h o ph ys io l og ic in s o m ni a i s i nc r ea s e d wak e fu l ne s s a ss o ci at e d wi t h t he be d e n v i r on m e n t . b . S ec o n da r y i n s o m n ia i s m o re c o m m on th a n p rim a r y an d c an be a tt r ib u te d to t he f o l lo wi n g : ( 1 ) A dj us t m e n t i ns om ni a i s a s s oc ia t e d wi t h s i tu a tio n al s t r es s . ( 2 ) I na de q ua t e s l e ep h y gi e ne is as s o c i at e d wi t h lif e s t yle ha bi t s t ha t re d uc e t he a m ou n t o f q ua l it y s le ep , s uc h a s n o is e i n t he be dr o o m o r t h e us e o f c a f fe in e .
( 3 ) I ns om ni a o wi n g to a p s y c hi at r ic di s o r d er ( 4 ) I ns om ni a o wi n g to a m e di c a l c on d it io n , wh ic h m a y i n cl ud e re s tl es s l eg s yn d r om e, c h r on ic pa i n (a r t h ri t is ) , m ig r ai n es , o r c a n ce r ( 5 ) I ns om ni a o wi n g to s ub s ta nc e ab us e 5 . Tr e a tm en t a . N o np h a r ma c ol o gi c in t e r ve n t i on is in e xp e n siv e a n d m a y b e e f fe c ti v e . ( 1 ) Ma i n t ai n a r eg u la r s c h e d ul e a nd do no t na p ; av o i d s l ee pi n g i n l at e a f t er a po o r n i gh t ' s s le e p. ( 2 ) U se th e b e d o nl y f o r s l ee p ; a v o id r ea di n g o r wa t c h i ng t el e vis io n i n b ed . ( 3 ) I f u na b le to in i ti a te s le e p (o r g o b a c k t o s le e p) wi t h i n 2 0 m in , e n ga g e in a r e l a xi n g a c ti v i t y ( a wa y f ro m b e d ) u nt i l d ro ws y , a nd t he n re t u rn to be d . ( 4 ) A vo id e xe r c is e wi t hi n 3 - 4 h r of be d ti m e . ( 5 ) Mi n i m i z e o r a v o id c a ff e i ne af t e r n oo n . ( 6 ) Mi n i m i z e o r a v o id al c o h ol , to b acc o , o r s t im ul an t s . Ma n y p e o pl e b el i e ve a lc o ho l t o be an ag e nt f o r s l e ep i n du c ti on ; ho we v e r , a lc oh o l c an ac t a s a C N S s tim u la n t, t h e r eb y i nc r ea s i ng no c tur n a l a wa k e ni ng s . b . N o np r es c r i pt i on d ru g th e r ap y : I t h as be e n es t im a te d th a t 4 0% of pa t ien t s wi t h i n so m n i a s e l f -m ed ic a te wi t h e i th e r a lc o ho l o r n on p r es c ri pt i on m e di c a t io ns in an e f f o rt t o c o r r ec t t h e c on di t i on . Th e s a l es of s i ng l e- e n ti t y n on p re sc r ip t io n hy p n o t ics ( e . g ., di p he n h y dr a m i ne , d o xy l a m i n e) ha v e in c re as e d si nc e th a t es t im a te wa s m a de , b u t th e s al es of ni g ht t im e a na lg e si cs (n o np r es c r ip t i on h y pn o ti c p lu s a n an a lg e si c, t yp i ca l l y a c e t am in o ph e n ) h a v e s u rp as s ed th e s ing l e -e n ti t y p ro d uc ts . C ur re n t l y , d a ta s u pp o r ti ng t he s a fe t y a nd e f fi c a c y o f c om p le m e n ta r y t h e ra p y as s le e p a ids a re l a ck in g . ( 1 ) D i ph e n h yd r a m i n e , an e th a no l am i n e , bl o c ks hi s ta m i n e 1 an d m us ca r in ic r e c ep t or s , t hu s i nd u c i ng s e da t io n . D i ph e nh yd r am in e is m a rk e te d a s a n i ght t im e s l ee p a id as U ni s o m Sl ee p G e ls , Sl ee p in a l, C om po z , a nd S im pl y S l ee p . ( a ) D ip h en h y d r am in e m ay b e do s ed fo r s l ee p i ndu c ti o n a s 25 - 5 0 m g / n ig ht i n p a t ie n ts a g ed 13 an d o l de r . D os es > 5 0 m g s how n o ad d i ti o n al be n e fi t , b u t i n c re as ed ad v e r s e e ff ec ts . A n in i ti a l d os e o f 2 5 m g m a y b e re co m m en d ed f o r p a t ie n ts o v e r t he ag e o f 6 5 wi t h n o c o nt r ai n di c a t io n s t o t h e a ge n t. A d o s e o f 1 m g /k g /n ig h t ( n ot t o e xc ee d 50 m g ) m a y be re c om m e nd e d f o r p at i en ts ag ed 6 - 12 . D i p h en h y d ra m i n e is no t r e c om m e nd e d f o r s l e ep in d uc t io n i n p a ti e nt s y o un g e r t h an age 6. ( b ) Ad ve r s e e f f ec t s o f di p he n h y d ra m i n e a re a nt ic h o l in e r g ic , i nc l ud in g d ry m o u th , b l u r re d v is io n , c o n s t ip a tio n , a n d u r in a r y re t en t io n . D i ph e nh y d r am i ne us e s h o ul d b e a vo i d ed i n pa ti e n ts wi t h g l au c om a ( na r r o w- a n gl e ), b en i gn p ro st a ti c h yp e rtr o p h y , d e m e n ti a , o r c a rd io v a s c u l a r d is ea se . ( c ) Th e du r at i on of s e d ati o n f r om di p he nh y d r am i ne is 3 -6 h r. H o we ve r , th is m a y b e e xt e n d e d i n e l de r l y p a ti en t s o r th os e wi t h d el a yed m e t ab o li s m . ( d ) Th e us e o f d ip h en h yd r a m i ne f or t he al le v i a ti on o f i ns om ni a s ho u ld be l i m i te d t o 7 - 1 0 c o ns e cu t i ve ni g h ts . I f us e d l on g er t ha n rec om m e n de d , d ec r ea s e d e f f ic ac y m a y be no t e d a nd R E M s l e ep m a y b e s up p re s s ed . ( e ) D ip h en h y d r am in e i s a v a i la b le in c om b in a ti o n wi t h a s p i r in or ac e ta m i no p h en as a n i g h t t im e a na l g es i c. D at a a re a v ai l ab le t o s u p por t t he us e o f th es e a ge n ts in
c om b in a ti o n i f p ai n i s p re s en t . Ho we v e r , i n t he ab s en c e o f p ai n, t he ad d iti o n o f a n a n al g es ic s im p l y p r o v id es in c re as e d o pp o r tu ni t ies f or co m p li c at io n s a nd d r u g m is a d v en t u re s . P.652
( 2 ) D o x yl a m i n e , l ik e d i ph e n h y dr a m i ne , i s a n e t ha n ol a m i ne an t ih is t a m in e wh i c h i n du c es s le e p t h ro u gh the b lo c k ad e o f h is t am in e a n d m us c a r in ic r ec ep t o rs . Th e r e f o re , ad v e r s e ef f ec t s an d d u ra t io n o f s e da t io n a re s im il a r to di ph e nhyd r a m in e . Th e r e a re c u r r en t l y n o s tu d ie s d em o ns t ra t in g e n ha n c e d e f fi ca c y o r s a f e t y o f d o xyl a m i n e c o m p a r ed to d i ph e nh y d r am i ne . ( a ) D o xy l a m i ne is d os e d a s 2 5 m g /n i g ht . ( b ) D o xy l a m i ne is th e a c t i v e in g r ed ie n t i n U n is om N i g h t t im e Sl ee p Ai d Ta bl e ts . H o we ve r , i t s h ou l d b e n ot e d th a t U n is om Sl e ep G el s c on t ai n d i ph e nh y d r am in e . ( 3 ) M e l at o n in , a n oc tu r na l ne u ro h o rm on e s ec r et ed b y t he pi ne a l g l a n d, has a s l e ep p ha s e -s h i f ti n g e f fe c t on c i rc a di a n rh yt h m . R ec e nt t ri al s h a ve o bs e r ve d e f f ec t i v en es s o f m el a to nin f o r s l e ep on s e t i n pa ti en t s wi t h m i s a l ig ne d c i rc ad i an r h y t h m s at t r ib u ta bl e to s h i f t wo r k o r j e t la g . ( a ) Me l a t on i n p r od uc t io n d ec r e as es wi t h a g e, po s s i bl y a t tr i bu t in g t o s le e p d i so r de r s n o t ed in el de r l y pa t ie n ts . ( b ) Me l a t o ni n p r od uc t io n c an be de c re as e d b y t ob a c c o, al c oh ol , a n d c er ta i n m e di ca t io ns ( no ns t e ro ida l an t i- i nf l am m a to r y d r ugs , c a lc iu m c h a nn e l bl o c k e r s , s t e ro i ds , b en z o d ia z e p in es , an d f l uo xe t i n e ). ( c ) W hen e xo g e n ou s m ela t o ni n i s g i ve n i n th e ear l y e ve n i n g , th e c i r ca d ia n p ha se w i l l b e a d va nc e d . A l th ou g h t h is m a y be be n ef ic ia l fo r in di v i d ua ls wh o e xp e r ie nc e d i f fi cu l t y i n i n it i at i ng s l ee p , m el a to n in gi v e n i n t hi s m an n e r m a y wo r s e n t he p r ob le m o f in d i vid ua ls wh o c o m p la i n o f d i ff ic u lt y i n r e in i tia t i ng s l ee p a f te r a wa ke ni n g t o o e a r l y. ( d ) I f m el a to ni n i s g i ve n i n t h e m o rn i n g, t he c i rca d i an p ha s e i s d e la ye d , o f f er i ng t h e p os s i b il i t y th a t t he pa t i en t m a y be co m e s l ee pi e r e a r li e r a nd a wa k en ea r l ie r . At p r e se n t, it is un c l ea r if c o n t in ue d ad m i ni s tr a ti o n o f e xo g e no us m e la t on i n wi l l s u pp r es s e nd o ge no u s p ro d uc t io n . ( e ) Me l a t on i n m a y b e d os e d as 0 .3 - 5 m g d u r in g t h e da y o r a t n i g ht , de pe n di n g o n t h e d es i r ed ef f ec t . A ph y s i ol og ic do s e o f m e l at o nin is 0 .1 m g , a n i nt e rm e dia t e d os e i s 0 . 3 m g, an d a ph a rm ac o lo gi c d os e i s 3 m g . D os e s > 1 m g m a y im p r o ve s le e p e f f ic ie nc y b u t h a ve n o t d e m on s t r a te d th e a b i li ty t o p r o vi d e q u a li t y s l e e p r e s t o r a ti o n a s we l l as the i nt e rm e di a te do s e . ( f ) A t t ri b ut a bl e t o i t s s h or t h al f -l i fe ( 30 - 5 0 m i n ) , m e la t on in sh o ul d h a v e mi n i ma l , if a n y, r e s i d u al e f fe c ts t he f o l low i n g m o r ni n g . ( 4 ) V a le r i an r o o t, de r i v ed f r om Va l e ri an a o f fi ci n al i s , is c la s s i fi e d as ge n era l l y r e c og ni z e d a s s af e ( G R AS ) f o r f o od us e i n t he U ni t e d S t at es . In do s e s o f 6 0 0 m g / da y, v a l e r i an r oo t i s p u r po r t ed to in d uc e s ed at i o n t h ro u gh it s b lo c k ad e o f γ a m in o bu t y r ic ac id ( G A B A) b r ea kd o wn . A d v e rs e rea c ti o ns o f va le r ia n ro o t in c lu d e vi vi d d r ea m i ng . Fu r t he r re s ea r c h is n ec e s s ar y t o d e t e rm in e t h e sa f e t y a n d e f fi c ac y o f va le r i an ro o t a s a s le ep a id .
( 5 ) K a va , d e ri v e d fr o m Pi p e r m e t hy s ti cu m , is o n e o f th e m os t c om m o n d iet a r y s u pp l em en ts us ed in t he s el f -m a na g em en t o f an xi e t y . It is th e or i z e d t h at if i ns om ni a i s c au se d b y a s t a te of hy p e r a r ou s a l , t h en m a na ge m en t o f an xi e t y a n d n e rv o u s ne ss wi l l h el p i n du c e th e de s i re d s l ee p . ( a ) A t ypi c a l d os e o f k a va is 12 0 m g /d a y. ( b ) R e po r t ed ad v e r s e ef fe c ts of k a v a a re s i gn if ica n t , i nc lu d in g d ia r r h ea , e xt r a p yr a m i da l s i d e e f fec t s , an d h e pa t ot o xi c i t y. A r e ce n t F D A ad vi so r y ha s r e c o mm e nd e d a g ai n s t th e us e o f k a va b e ca u se o f t he r e po r t s o f he p a to t o x ic i t y, i n cl ud i ng he p at i ti s , c i r r ho s is , a nd li v e r fa i lu r e . ( 6 ) L - T r yp t o p h a n wa s ba n n ed i n 1 98 9 o wi n g to i t s a ss o c ia t i on w i t h e osi n o p hi l i am ya l g i a s yn d r o m e ; h o we v e r , it r em ai ns a v ai l ab le as a 5 00 - m g c a ps ul e . Th e s a fe t y a n d e f fi c a c y of L -t r y p t oph a n a s a s le e p a id ha s no t be e n s tu di e d a nd sh ou l d n o t b e r e c om m e nd e d a t t hi s t im e .
III. SMOKING CESSATION A. I n t r o d u c t io n . Mo r e tha n 40 0 ,0 0 0 d ea t hs a n nua l l y ar e at t r ib u ta bl e to dis e as es d i r ec tl y l in k ed to c i ga r e tte s m ok in g , i nc lu d in g a t he r o s c le r ot ic v a s c ul a r d is e a s e , l u ng c a nc e r, an d c h ro n ic o bs tr u c ti v e pu lm o na r y d is ea s e . I t is t he m os t pr e ve nta b le c o nt r i bu t or t o m o r bi d it y a n d m o rt a li t y in th e U ni te d S ta t es an d y et ne a rl y o n e t hi r d o f t he ad ul t po pu l at i on (a p p ro xi m a t el y 4 8 m il li o n P.653 a d ul t s ) c o n ti n ue s t o s m ok e . Th e r es ul t in g e c on om ic bu r d en is s t ar t li n g, es t im a te d a t $ 5 0 b il l io n a n nu al l y t o t re a t s m o k i ng - r el a t ed di s or d e rs an d $4 7 b il li o n f o r t h e l os s o f wa g e s an d p r o du c t i v i t y . B . P h ys i o l o g i c e f fe c t s o f ni c o t in e i n v o l v e t he CN S ( e . g. , en ha n c e d r e la x a t i on , i m p ro ve d a t te n ti o n) an d t h e c a rd i o vasc u la r s ys t em ( e. g . , e le v a t ed bl oo d pr e s s u r e, t a ch yc a rd i a ). Th e m an i fes t a ti on s o f s m o k i ng be c om e m o re p ro n ou nc ed as o n e a g es a n d m a y i nc l ud e a n y o r a l l o f t h e f ol l o wi n g: de e pe n in g o f th e v oi c e ( an unt o wa r d e f f ec t i n wo m e n ) ; a c o ns t a n t , h ac k i ng c o ug h ; y e l lo we d f i ng e rn a il s a nd su rr o u nd i ng s ki n fr om s u bs t an c e s f o un d in c i ga r e tt e s m o k e ; an d p re m a t ur e ag in g o f the s k in , m os t no t ic ea bl e o n th e fa c e. C . B e n e fi t s o f sm o ki n g c e s sa t i on a re e v id en t for b o th th e p a ti e nt an d s oc i et y. 1 . P at i en t a . D ec r ea s e d c a rb o n m on o xi d e le ve l s b . R es t o ra t io n o f o l fa c tor y a n d g us t a to r y se ns es wi t h i n da y s c . In c re as e d s e l f - re s p ec t, s en s e of ac co m p li sh m en t d . Im p r o v ed lu ng f un c t i on ( u p t o 3 0% ) wi t h in 2 -3 m o nt hs e . R ed u c t i on i n th e ri s k o f c o r on a r y he a r t d is ea s e ( 5 0% ) a f t er 1 y ea r . Af te r 2 y ea r s , t h e ri sk i s e qu i v a le n t t o in d i v id u al s wh o n e ve r s m o k ed . f . P a r al le l ri s k o f s t r ok e t o t ha t o f a no n s m ok er wi t h in 5- 1 5 y e a rs g . P r og r es s i v e de c l i ne in t h e r is k o f l u ng c a nc e r as nu m b e r o f ye ar s o f a bs t i n en ce i n c re as es . Ho we v e r , t h e r i s k wi l l n e v e r b e e q ui v a le n t to on e wh o n e v e r s m o k ed . 2 . S oc ie t y a . D ec r ea s e d he al t hc a re c os ts f or t re a tm e nt of dis e as es di r ec tl y l in k e d to s m o k i n g
b . D ec r e as ed wo r k a bs en t e ei s m o wi n g t o sm ok ing r el a t e d di s e as e c . C le an e r e n v i r on m e n t fr o m d ec r e as ed s ec o nd h an d s m o k e a nd c i ga r et t e re m ai ns ( e . g ., as he s o r bu t ts of c i g a re t t es ) i n p ub l ic p l ac es D . C o m p li c at i o ns o f s mo k i n g c es s at i o n. Sm o k in g is a n a d di c t i on an d , th e r e fo r e, n o t e as y t o g i v e u p . Ni c ot i n e wi t h d r a wa l s y m p t om s i n c l u de to b ac co c r a ving s , d e p re ss e d m o o d, in s o m ni a , i r r it a bi li t y, in a bi li t y t o c on c e n t ra t e , a n xi e t y , dec r e as ed h e a r t r a te , a n d i nc r ea s ed h un g er . In a 1 99 1 s t udy i n wh i c h in d i v id u al s t r ie d to st o p s m o k i n g wi t h o u t a id , a ll s y m p to m s o f ni c o t in e wi th d r a wa l re so l ve d wi t h i n 3 0 da ys , e xc e p t in c re as e d h un g e r, wh i c h p e rs is t ed pa s t t he 3 0 -d a y c es s at io n p e r iod . E . T a il o r e d i n te r ve n t i on s f or s m ok in g c es s a ti on sh o ul d b e o f fe r e d t o eve r y p a t ie n t wh o s m ok es . Th e U . S . Pu b li c He a lt h Se r v i c e en do r s es a n a p p ro ac h k no wn as t he 5 A s , d e v el o pe d i n 1 9 96 b y t h e Ag en c y fo r H ea l th C a r e Po li c y an d Re s ea rc h : 1 . As k p at ie n ts if t he y s m ok e . 2 . Ad vi s e p at i en ts wh o s m ok e to qu i t. 3 . As s e ss t he pa t ie n t 's wi l l i n gn es s t o q u it . 4 . As s i s t t h e p at i en t i n e f f o rt s t o q u it th r o ug h c ou n se li n g a nd / o r p ha r m a c o l og ic t h e r ap y. ( Th e c om bi n at i on o f c ou ns el i ng an d p h a rm ac o lo g ic t h e ra p y ha s pr o ve n to b e th e m os t s uc c e s s f ul m e th o d. ) 5 . Ar r a n g e fo ll o w- u p wi t h i n a s h o rt ti m e f ra m e. 6 . To as s e s s th e p a ti e nt ' s wi l l in gn e s s t o q u it , th e t r a ns th e o re t ic al m o de l of b eh a vi o r c h an g e m a y b e a us ef u l t o o l. Ac c or d in g t o th is m o d el , pa t ie n ts a r e i n o n e o f fi ve m o ti va t io n al s t ag es t o c ha n g e t he i r c ur r e nt be h a vi o r — th a t i s, to s t o p s m oki n g : a . P r e -c o n te m pl a t io n . Pa t i en t i s n o t r ea d y t o c h an g e c u rr e n t b eh a vio r . b . C o n te m pl a t io n . Pa t ien t is c o ns id e ri n g a c ha ng e in c u r re n t b eh a v i o r i n t h e f u tu r e b u t n o t a t t h e p r es en t tim e . c . P r ep a r a ti o n . P a ti e nt is ac t i v el y co ns i de r in g a c h an g e i n cu r r en t be ha vio r a nd is a c ti ve l y en g ag e d i n s e ek i n g m o re i n f or m a t io n . d . Ac t i o n . Pa t ie n t is ac tiv e l y a t t em pt i ng to c h an ge b eh a v i or o r h as c h an ge d b e h a vio r wi t hi n th e l as t 6 m o n th s e . M a i n te n an c e. P at i en t h as s u st a in e d ch a ng ed b e h a v io r fo r a t le as t 6 m o n t hs . P.654
7 . F or pa t ie n ts in th e p r ec o nt em p la t io n a n d c o n tem p la t io n s ta g es , t h e h eal t hc a r e p r o f ess i on al s h o ul d s ti ll a d v i s e th e p a ti e nt t o q ui t s m o k i ng an d re p ea t th e a ss e ssm e nt a t f ut u r e v i s it s . F o r p a ti e nt s i n t he c on t em p la t io n s ta g e, t he he a l th ca r e p r o f ess i on al s h o ul d a s s is t th e p a ti e nt b y of f e ri ng a r ef e r ra l fo r s m o k i n g- c e ss a ti o n c o un se l in g a nd / o r p ha r m a c ol o gi c t he r ap y . B e ha v io r m o d if ic a ti o n wo r k s b es t as a m u lt i di sc ip li n a r y a p pr o ac h , in v o l vi ng th e h e al t hc ar e p ro v i d e r, ph a rm ac is t , n u r s e , a n d d e nt is t . F . N i co t i ne - R e p la ce m en t T he r a p y 1 . O ve r vi ew . Ni c o t in e - rep l ac em e nt th e r ap y ( N R T) i s a s m o ki n g- c e ss a ti o n a i d u se d t o am el i or a t e ni c ot in e wi t h d r a wa l s y m p t om s b y p ro v i d in g a n on t o ba c co , co n t r o l le d r e l e as e a m ou n t of n ic ot i n e .
a . R es e ar c h h as d em o ns t r a t ed th a t t h e us e o f N RT i n i nd i v i du al s wh o s m ok e > 1 0 c i ga r e tt es a d a y ca n d ou b l e th e c h an c es o f s uc c e ss f u l s mo k in g ce ssa t i o n ; b ut i t i s m os t s uc c e s s fu l wh e n c om b in e d wi t h o th e r n onp h a rm ac ol o gi c m e a su r es , s uc h as c o un se l in g . b . C u r re n tl y , t h re e a v a ila b le do s ag e f o rm s o f N RT a r e a pp r o v e d b y th e FD A ( g um , l o ze n ge s , an d p a tc he s ) ; h o we v e r , n o ne is e f fe c t ive i f t h e p a ti e n t i s n o t m e n t al l y r e a d y t o q u i t . F u r th e rm o r e , N R T is n ot e f fe c t i ve f o r t he ce ss a t io n o f sm o k el e ss t o b a cc o (e . g. , c h e wi n g to b ac c o , c i ga rs , an d p ip es ) . 2 . S a fe t y. Th o u g h it is re c om m e nd e d b y t he U . S . P u b li c H e al t h S e r v ic e t ha t al l p e o pl e t r y i ng t o a bs ta i n fr o m s m o ki ng s h ou l d r ec ei v e p ha r m a c o t he r ap y s up p o r t, no t e ve r yo n e i s a n i de al c a nd i da t e . a . F or pa t ie n ts wi t h a c u te c a rd i o va s cu l a r d i se as e ( e. g ., s t r ok e , a cu t e m yo c a r di al i n f ar c ti o n, un s t a bl e a n gin a ) an d p r e g na n t o r b r ea s t f ee d i ng w o me n , a b so l u t e a b s t ai n me n t f ro m n i c oti n e sh o ul d be r ec o mm en d e d . H o we ve r , i f t he pat i e nt m ak e s a n in f o rm ed de c i s i o n , u nd e r t h e s u p e r vis ion o f a pr o vi de r , a r ap i dl y r e v e r s i b le p re pa r a ti o n is a d v is a bl e (e . g. , g u m o r l o z e n ge ) . b . I n r ec e nt s t u di es , N RT a p p e a r s t o b e s a f e i n p a t ie n t s w i t h s t a bl e c a r d i o vas c u la r d is ea s e. B l oo d p r es s u r e s ho ul d b e m o ni t o re d c lo se l y. c . Th e s al e o f N R T i s r es t r i c t ed t o t h os e o ve r ag e 18 . Th e re f o re ad o le sc e nt s d e si r in g s m o k i ng c e s s a tio n , s ho u ld c o ns ul t a m ed i ca l p r o vid e r . d . P a ti en t s wi t h as t h ma o r d e p re s si o n a r e i ns t r uc t ed t o c o ns u lt t he i r p h ys ic i an b e f o re th e u s e o f N R T. Th e le v e ls of c e r t ai n m ed ic a ti o ns u s ed fo r m a na gem e nt o f t h es e d is e as e s ta t es (e .g . , th e op h y ll i ne , i m i p ra m i n e ) m a y b e a l te r ed b y s m ok i ng c es s at io n . Th e n ic ot i ne fo u n d in N R T d o es no t a l te r t he se le v e ls . e . I t is r ec om m e nd e d t hat p a ti en t s d o n o t s m ok e w h il e u s i ng N R T b ec a us e th e p u r po s e o f N R T i s to al lev i a t e s ym pt om s wh il e we a n i n g f ro m c i g ar e t te s. A lt h o ug h s om e s t ud ie s h a v e i n di c a t e d t ha t th e c om bi n at i on m a y b e s af e , u n ti l f u r th e r r e s ea r ch i s c on d uc te d , c o n c o m i t an t u s e o f N R T a n d c i ga r e tt es sh ou l d n ot b e s e en a s p e rm is s i b le . f . P a ti e nt s a r e a d v is ed on t he la b el in g o f N R T p ro d uc ts n ot to c o m b in e t wo f o rm s o f N R T. H o we v e r , a f e w s m a l l s tu d ie s h a ve sh o wn co m bi n at io n s o f N R T t o be su p e ri o r t o ei t he r ag e nt al o ne . The r e f or e , s om e s p e c i al is ts in t he fi el d d o re co m m e n d c om b in a ti o n t he r ap y . H owe v e r , u n t il fu r t he r r es ea r c h is c o nd uc t ed in t he f o r m o f we l l - d e v e lo p ed , l a rg e tr ia l s , c o m b in a ti o n t he r a p y wi t h N R T s h o ul d b e d is co u r ag e d u n le ss p re s c r ib ed b y th e s up e r v is i ng m e di ca l p r ov i d e r . 3 . Ava i l a b l e f o r ms o f NR T a . N i co t i ne p ol a c ri l ex gu m r ec ei v e d F D A ap p r o va l fo r p re s c ri p ti o n s al es in 1 98 4 a n d n o np r es c r i pt i on s t a tu s i n 1 9 95 . ( 1 ) D o si n g . S o ld un de r th e t ra d e n am e N ic o r et t e , t h e g um is a v a i la bl e i n a 2 -m g d o s e f o r p eo p le wh o s m o k e < 25 c i ga r et t es da il y a n d a 4 - m g d os e f o r t h os e wh o s m o k e > 2 5 c ig a r et t es da i l y . Th e t y p ic al us a ge is 1 0 pi e ce s d a il y, wi t h a m a xi m um r e c om m e nd e d us a ge of 6 0 m g /d a y f o r u p t o 3 m o n t hs . Th e s t r en g t h o f g u m p u r c h as e d d oe s no t cha n g e ; i ns te a d, t he nu m be r o f p ie ce s u se d d ec r eas es o v e r t h e c ou r s e o f t r ea tm e nt (Ta b l e 31 - 1 ).
( 2 ) C h ew -a n d - pa r k m e th o d . Th e g um s h ou ld be c he we d s lo wl y, r e l ea s i ng a p e p pe r y , ti n gl in g s en s a t io n , a t wh i c h po in t th e g um sh ou l d b e “ p a rk ed ” b et we e n t h e c h ee k a nd t he gu m t o e nh a nc e b uc c a l a bs o r pt i on o f th e n ic o ti n e. ( 3 ) Ad ve r s e e f fe c t s m o s t c om m o nl y r e po r te d a r e s o re ja w a n d m ou t h , m ou t h u lc e rs , a n d d ys pe ps i a. P.655
Table 31-1. Recommended Scheduling of Nicotine Gum and Lozengesa Weeks
Dose
1-6
1 piece gum or 1 lozenge every 1-2 hr (at least 9/day)
7-9
1 piece gum or 1 lozenge every 2-4 hr
10-12
1 piece gum or 1 lozenge every 4-8 hr
a
The recommended scheduling of nicotine polacrilex gum (Nicorette) and lozenges (Commit) is identical. If nicotine is needed past the 12-week schedule, a medical provider should be consulted. ( 4 ) C o un s el i n g t i ps ( a ) S lo wl y c h e w t h e g um u n ti l a pe p pe r y , ti n gl in g s en s a t io n i s f e lt , th en pa r k t h e p o la c ri l e x g um be t we e n th e c h ee k a nd t he gu m . O n c e t h e p ep p e r y , t in g lin g s e ns at i on di s a p pe a rs , be g in t o sl o wl y c h e w t he g u m a ga i n u nt il t he s e nsa t i on r e t u rn s . Th e gu m s ho ul d b e p a rk e d i n a d i ff e r en t a r e a t h an be f or e . O nc e th e gu m l o os es th e a b il i t y to pr o du c e t he pe p pe r y , t in gl i ng s en s a t io n (a p p ro xi m a t ely 3 0 m i n ), d i sc a rd th e g um . ( b ) D o no t ea t o r d r i nk f o r 1 5 m i n b e fo r e us i ng n i c o ti n e g um be c au se it r e qu i re s a b as ic p H f o r p ro p e r r e le a s e an d a bs o r pt i on of th e ni c o t in e . ( c ) D o n o t us e o t h e r f o rm s o f N R T o r s m ok e whi l e u si ng t he gu m p r od uct , u nl es s o t h e r wi s e di r ec t ed b y a s u pe r v i si ng p ro v i d e r. ( d ) Th e gu m m a y b e c hewe d a t t he be gi n ni n g o f th e fi r s t da y o r at le as t 30 m i n a f t er t h e l as t c i ga r et t e wa s s m o k ed . b . N i co t i ne l oz en g es , c u r r e nt l y so ld on l y un d e r t h e tr a de na m e C om m i t , d e li v e r s n i co t in e i n to th e b uc c a l m uc o s a wh e n t h e i nd i v idu a l s uc k s o n t h e t ab l et , s im i la r to a c o ug h d r op . ( 1 ) D o si n g . C om m i t ha s a u ni qu e do s in g st r a t egy, b a s e d o n t h e t i m in g o f t h e f i r s t ci g a r et t e . I f t h e f i rs t c i ga r et t e i s c ra v e d wi th i n 3 0 m in of wa k in g , t he 4 -m g l o ze n ge m a y be r ec om m e n d ed . I f th e f i rs t c i ga r ett e c r a v i ng is a f t e r 3 0 m i n o f wa k i n g , t h e 2 -m g l o z en ge m a y b e re c o m m en d ed . Th e s t r e ng t h c h os e n w i l l no t
c h a ng e th r ou g ho u t t he c o u r s e of ce s s at i on ; i ns t ea d fe we r l o z e ng es wi l l be c o ns um ed ea c h da y d u rin g th e 1 2 -w ee k p ro p o sed s ch e d ul e ( Ta bl e 3 1 -1 ). ( 2 ) Ad ve r s e e f fe c t s. I f th e lo z e n ge is c on s u m e d t o o q u ic k l y o r s wa l lo we d ( r a t he r t h a n d is s o l v ed ) d ys p ep s ia m a y b e e xp e r i e nc ed . Ot h e r re po r t ed ad ve r se e ffe c ts i n cl ud e i ns o m n ia , na us ea , hi c c up s , co u gh i ng , h ea d ac h e, an d f l at u le nc e . ( 3 ) C o un s el i n g t i ps ( a ) Avo i d c h ew i ng o r b iti n g t h e l o zen g e. R a th e r s uc k o n t h e l o z en g e s l owl y , m o vi n g i t f ro m s id e t o s id e , u nt i l i t i s c om pl e te l y di s s ol v ed ( 2 0- 3 0 m i n ) . I f a cc id e nt a l l y s wa l l o we d , wa i t a t l e as t 1 h r b e fo r e u s i ng a no t her l o ze ng e . ( b ) D o no t us e o t h e r f o rm s o f N R T an d do n ot sm o k e c i g a re t te s wh i l e us i ng th is p r o du c t, un l es s o th e r wi s e d ir e c t e d b y a s up e r v is in g p ro vi de r . ( c ) Th e fi r s t lo z e n ge m ay b e t ak en at t he be gi n nin g of t he fi r s t da y o r a t le a st 30 m i n a f te r th e l as t c ig a re tt e wa s s m o k ed . ( d ) D o no t ta k e m o r e t ha n 20 l oz en g es p e r d a y o f ei th e r th e 2 -m g o r 4 -m g d os e . c . N ic o t i ne pa t c he s we re i nt r o du ce d i n 1 99 2 a n d a c q u i re d n on p r es c r i pt i on s ta t us n 1 9 9 6. C om pa r a ti v e s t u die s o f th e a v a i la bl e fo rm ul a t io ns of N R T h a v e re vea l ed t ha t m os t in di v i d ua ls p re f er th e pa tc h o v e r t he gu m or a p re s c r ip ti o n n ic o ti ne i n ha l e r. Th e p a tc h m us t b e p l ac ed o n a cl e an , d r y, a n d h a i r - f r ee a r ea (e . g ., s t om ac h , t h i gh , b ac k ), b ut no t o v er j oi n ts ( e. g ., an k l e s , k ne e s , el b o ws ) . Th e p at c h s h ou l d n e ve r be pl ac e d o v e r wou n ds o r o pe n a r ea s a nd c a ut i on m us t be us ed in t h e p a ti e nt wi t h s e v e re ps o ri as is and ec z e m a. Th e m os t c om m o n a d ve rs e e f fe c t o f t he p at c h e s i s s k i n i r r i t at i o n, bu t th is m a y b e r e du ce d b y r o ta t i ng th e p a tc h s it e . Two t r a de n a m e no n pr e s c ri p ti o n n ic o ti n e p at c h e s a re a v ai la b le : N ic o De r m C Q a nd N i c ot r o l. ( 1 ) N i co D e r m C Q m a y be wo r n f o r 1 6 -2 4 h r / d a y. P a t ie n ts wi t h e a rl y - m o rni n g c i ga r e tt e c r a v in gs m a y re q ui r e 2 4 - hr us e . H o we v e r , if in s o m n i a o r v i v id dr e a m i ng o cc u rs , th e p a tc h m a y be r em o v e d a f te r 1 6 h r . ( a ) D os i ng : Ni c o D e rm CQ i s a v a i la bl e i n th r ee str e n g th s : 21 - , 1 4 - , a n d 7 -m g p a t c he s . Th e pa t c h s h ou l d b e ta p e re d o ve r 2 - 4 m o n t hs , d e pe n di ng on th e s t a rt i ng d o se . ( i ) N ic o D e rm C Q 21 -m g p a tc h m a y be r ec om m e nd e d t o a n i n di v i d ua l wh o s m o ke s > 1 0 c i ga r e tt es / da y a nd t he n ta p e re d a s f ol l o ws : P.656
{ 1 } S t ep 1: 21 m g / da y f or 6 we e k s { 2 } S t ep 2: 14 m g / da y f or 2 we e k s { 3 } S t ep 3: 7 m g/ d a y fo r 2 we e k s ( i i ) Th os e wh o s m o k e < 1 0 c i ga r e tt es / da y m a y be g in wi t h th e Ni c o De r m C Q 1 4 - m g p a tc h a n d t ap e r a s f o ll ows : { 1 } S t ep 1: 14 m g / da y f or 6 we e k s { 2 } S t ep 2: 7 m g/ d a y fo r 2 we e k s ( 2 ) N ic o t ro l p a tc he s we r e f o rm e rl y a v a il ab l e o nl y a s a no n -t a pe r in g s i ng le 1 5 -m g d o se to be us e d o v e r a 6 we e k p er i od . Th e n e w N i c ot r ol p at c h es a re a v ai la b le in a s t ep p in g p a tt e r n s i m i l ar to N ic o de r m C Q a nd a re re c om m e nd e d t o b e wo r n f o r 16 h o u rs an d re m o v e d a t b ed t im e .
W eeks 1 - 6: S t ep 1 ( 1 5 m g ) W eeks 7 - 8: S t ep 2 ( 1 0 m g ) W eeks 9 - 10 : S te p 3 ( 5 m g ) P.657
STUDY QUESTIONS D i r e c t i on s : E a c h of t he q u es t io ns , s t at em e nt s , or i nc om p le t e s t a te m en ts c a n b e c o r re c tl y a ns we r e d o r c om p le t ed b y on e o f th e s ug g es t ed an s we r s o r p h r as es . C h o os e th e b e st an s we r . 1 . Al l o f t he f ol l ow i ng st a t e me n t s a bo u t di e ta r y s u p p l e m e nt s a r e t r ue e x ce p t w h ic h on e ? ( A ) Ma n u f a c t u r er s a r e no t r eq u ir e d t o d em on s t rat e p ro d uc t s af e t y a n d e f fi c ac y b e f o re m a rk e ti n g s u p pl em e nt s . ( B ) A d he r en c e t o g oo d m a n u fa c t u r in g p r ac ti c es i s m an d at o r y f or m a nu f ac tu r e rs o f d i e ta r y s u p pl em en t s . ( C ) Th e U . S . F o od an d Dr u g Ad m i n is t ra t io n (F D A ) f i le s a c t i on ag ai ns t s u pp l em e nt s d e t e rm in ed un s a f e . ( D ) Th e F ed e r al Tr a de Co m m is si o n ( F TC ) t ak es ac t io n a g ai ns t m an u fa c tu re r s wh o p r e se n t m i s l e ad in g p r o du c t a d v e r ti s i ng . V i e w A n s we r 1 . T h e a n sw e r i s B [ se e] . 2 . Al l o f th e f o ll ow i ng s ta t e me n ts a b o u t c h it o sa n a re t r ue e x ce p t w hi c h o n e? ( A ) I t i s a c om m o n i n g red i en t fo u nd in fa t - t ra p pe r s up p le m e n ts . ( B ) I t i s d e ri v e d f r om t he I n di a n cl us t e r b ea n . ( C ) I t s s a f e t y i s q ue s ti ona b le f o r in d i v id u al s wi t h s h el l fi s h al le r g ie s. ( D ) I t i s p u rp o r te d t o i n hib i t d i et a r y fa t ab s o r p ti on. V i e w A n s we r 2 . T h e a n sw e r i s B [ se e] . 3 . J a ne is 3 6 ye a r s o l d a nd w a n ts t o l o s e w ei g h t. H e r c u r r e nt b o d y m a s s i n de x ( BM I) i s 3 2 k g /m 2 , a n d h e r w a is t c i r c um f e r en c e i s 4 0 i n ch e s . S h e h a s l os t a m i ni m a l a mo u n t o f w e ig h t in t h e p a s t u s i ng f ad di e t s a nd n o np r e sc r i p t io n w e igh t l o ss p ro d u ct s bu t has b ee n u n a b le t o m ai n t ai n th e w e ig h t lo s s. Wh i c h o f th e f o ll ow i ng i s t r u e r e ga r d i n g J a n e? ( A ) B as e d o n h e r B MI , J a n e i s c o n s i de r e d o be se. ( B ) H e r wa i s t c i rc um f e ren c e o f 4 0 i nc he s i nc r ea s e s h e r ri sk fo r c a rd i o vasc u la r d i se as e . ( C ) A sa f e r a te o f we i g h t l os s f o r J an e wo u ld be 1 - 2 l b / we e k. ( D ) E xe r c i s e wi l l pr o v i de o n l y a m o de s t am o un t of we i g h t l os s b ut wi l l h e lp h e r m a in t ai n t h e we i g h t l os s . ( E ) A l l o f t h e a bo v e V i e w A n s we r 3 . T h e a n sw e r i s E [s e ea n da n d] . 4 . S i n c e t h e s u dd e n d ea t h o f h i s fa t h e r 2 w ee k s a g o, B o b ha s be e n u na b l e to s l ee p a t ni g h t . H e h as d i f fi c u lt y g o i n g t o s l ee p an d aw ak e n s e a r l y i n t h e mo r n in g , un a b le t o r e t u r n t o s l e ep . W h i c h o f th e fo l l ow in g w o ul d be t he co r r e c t c la s s i fi c at i o n o f B ob ' s cu r r e n t i n s om n i a?
( A ) t r an si e nt , pr im a r y in s o m ni a ( B ) s ho r t -t e rm , pr im a r y in s om ni a ( C ) t r a ns ie n t, s e c o nd a r y i n s o m n i a ( D ) s ho r t - te r m , s e c o nd a ry i n s o m n i a V i e w A n s we r 4 . T h e a n sw e r i s D [ se ea n d] .5 . W i ll i a m w o rk s th e sw i n g sh i f t a t t h e l oc a l m a nu f ac t u ri n g pl a n t. B a se d o n a re c o mm e nd a t io n f r om a f r i e n d a t w o r k, W il l i am w o ul d li ke t o t r y m e l a t o n i n t o hel p h im ge t t o s l ee p fa s te r . W hi c h o f t h e f o l low i n g i s t ru e r e g a r d in g Wi l l ia m 's us e o f me l a to n i n? ( A ) A n a p p ro p ri a te s t a r tin g do s e of m e la t on i n is 5 m g / ni g ht . ( B ) W ill ia m m a y e xp e r i en c e c o n ti n ue d d r o ws i ne s s t he fo ll o wi n g m o rn i ng o wi n g t o m e la t on in ' s l o ng ha l f -l i fe. ( C ) R e c e n t t r ia ls ha v e no t e d t he e ff ec t i ven es s o f m el a to n in in in di vi d ua ls p a r ti c i p a ti ng in s h if t wo r k . ( D ) A l l o f t h e a bo v e V i e w A n s we r 5 . T h e a n sw e r i s C [ se e] . 6 . W h ic h o f t h e f o l low i n g c o m pl e me n t a r y a l t e r n a ti ve m e d ic i ne s ( C AM ) h as b ee n ba n ne d be ca u se o f i ts a s s oc i a ti o n w it h eo s ino p h i li a - m ya l g i a s yn d r o m e ? ( A ) m el at o ni n (B) kava ( C ) L - t r y p to p ha n ( D ) va l e ri a n r o ot V i e w A n s we r 6 . T h e a n sw e r i s C [ se e] . 7 . S yl vi a is 3 3 ye a r s o l d a n d w is he s t o p u r ch a se a s le e p a i d f o r h e r r e ce n t bo u t o f in s o mn i a ( d u r a ti o n 2 days ) . S h e h a s li n ke d it t o a n o ve r w h el m in g am o un t o f s t re s s s h e h as b ee n u n der l a t e l y a t w o r k, t r yi n g t o me e t d ea d l i ne s , a nd h e r r e ce n t l a ck o f s l ee p i s no t he lp i n g . S h e h a s n o cu r r e n t m e di c al c o n di t i on s a n d ta ke s a m u l t i vi ta m i n d ai l y. Al l o f t h e f o l l ow i ng a re t r u e r e gar d i n g S yl vi a ' s t ak i n g d ip h e n h yd r a m i n e a nd dox yl a m i n e e x c ep t w h ic h on e ? ( A ) S yl v i a m a y be n ef i t f ro m d i ph e nh y d r am in e 5 0 m g u s e d n i gh t l y . ( B ) S yl v i a s h ou ld li m i t the us e o f di ph e nh y d r am i ne f o r i ns om ni a t o 1 0 c o ns ec u ti ve n i gh t s. ( C ) S yl v i a m a y be n ef i t f ro m d o xy l a m i ne 50 m g us e d ni gh t l y as n e ed e d. ( D ) S yl v i a m a y e xp e r i enc e a n ti c h o li n er g ic s id e ef f e c t s wi t h t he us e o f d ox y l a m i ne . V i e w A n s we r 7 . T h e a n sw e r i s C [ se ea n d] .P . 65 8
8 . J il l , a 22 - ye a r - o l d c ol l e g e s t ud e n t, ha s be e n e n co u r a ge d b y h e r h e al t h c a re p r o vi d e r t o s t o p s mo k in g . S he t el l s h e r d o c tor t h a t s h e w an t s t o qu i t b u t sh e d o e s n o t w an t t o g ai n w e ig h t r ig h t n ow o r to s a c r i fi c e h e r g r a de s as a r e su l t o f a n i na b il i t y t o c o n ce n t ra t e du r i n g t h e d a y. Ac c o r d i n g t o t he 5 As an d th e t r a n s t he o r e ti c al mo d e l o f c ha n ge , w h a t i s t h e n e x t s t e p J il l ' s h ea l t hca r e p r o vi d e r s ho u l d t ak e ? ( A ) Ji l l is in t he pr ec o n tem p la t io n s ta g e o f c ha n ge . H e r p r o v id e r s ho ul d rea ss e ss h e r wi l l i n gn es s t o q u it at t he n e xt v i s i t.
( B ) Ji l l is in t he c o nt em pl a t io n s ta g e o f c ha ng e . H e r p r o v id e r s h o ul d re as s es s h e r wi l l i n gn es s t o q u it at t he n e xt v i s i t. ( C ) J il l i s i n t he p re pa r a ti o n s ta g e o f c ha n ge . He r p r o v i de r s h ou ld r ea ss es s he r wi l l i n gn es s t o q u it at t he n e xt v i s i t. ( D ) J il l i s i n t he p re pa r a ti o n s ta g e o f c ha n ge . He r p r o v i de r s h ou ld of f e r h er c o un se l in g a nd / o r p ha r m a c ol o gi c t he r ap y f o r s m ok i ng c es s at i on . V i e w A n s we r 8 . T h e a n sw e r i s B [ se e] . 9 . Z a ck is 5 5 ye a r s o l d a nd w i sh es t o s t a r t t ak i n g n i co t i ne l o z en g es t o q u i t s mo k in g . Wh i c h o f th e fo l l ow i n g is i m p o r ta n t in t he r ec o mm e n da t i on a nd se l ec t i on o f ni c o ti n e l oz e n ge s ? ( A ) n um be r of c i ga r e t te s s m o k ed da il y ( B ) t im in g o f hi s f i rs t u r ge f o r a c ig a r et t e ( C ) c on c o m i t an t di s e as e s t a te s a nd th e r ap ie s ( D ) b o th th e n um b e r o f c i g a re t t es s m o k e d d ai l y an d c o nc om it a n t di s ea se s t a te s a nd t h e r ap ie s ( E ) b o th th e t im i ng of hi s f i rs t ur g e f o r a c i ga r et t e a n d co n c o m i t an t d is e as e s ta t es a n d t h e ra pi es V i e w A n s we r 9 . T h e a n sw e r i s E [s e e] . 1 0. Al l o f t h e f ol l ow i ng a re i mp o rt a n t c o u ns e l in g ti p s f o r t he u s e o f n ic o t in e re p l ac em e n t th e r ap i es ex c ep t w h ic h one? ( A ) D o no t e a t o r d r i nk wi t h in 15 m i n o f c he wi n g ni c ot i ne gu m . ( B ) Th e in i ti a l s ta r t o f n ic o ti n e r e pl ac em en t th e r ap y m a y be 30 m i n a f te r th e la s t c i ga r e tt e . ( C ) S k in ir r i ta t io n a s s oc ia t e d wi t h t he us e o f a pat c h m a y b e m in im i ze d b y r o t at i ng t h e p a tc h s it e . ( D ) A l l n ic o ti ne pa t c h es s h ou l d b e r em o ve d a nd re p l a c ed e v er y m o rn in g . V i e w A n s we r 1 0 . T he a nsw e r i s D [ se ea n d] .1 1 . We n d y, a 4 5 ye a r o l d f e m a le , i s s e ek i n g a d vic e ab o u t t h e u s e o f Al l i® f o r w e i g ht l os s . H e r c u r r e n t w e ig h t is 22 8 l b s a n d he r h e ig h t i s 5′ 6 ″ . At h e r l a s t p r o vi d e r vi si t , he r p r o vi d e r s u g ge s t ed sh e s e t a w ei g h t lo s s g oa l o f 2 p o un d s pe r w e ek t h ro u g h di e t an d e x e r ci s e. W en d y h a s t yp e 2 d i ab e t es an d h yp e r t e n s io n , b o t h o f w h ic h a r e w e ll c o n t r o ll e d. W hi c h o f t he f o l low i n g w o u l d b e ap p r o p ri at e in f o r ma t i on t o p r o vi d e W e n d y? ( A ) O r l is t at m a y as s i s t i n m od es t am ou n ts o f we i gh t lo ss , b u t n o ti c e ab l e r es u lt s m a y n o t b e e v i d en t fo r s e v e ral m o n th s . ( B ) O r l is t at is c o nt r ai n dic a te d i n i n di v i du a ls wi t h d i ab e te s m el li t us . ( C ) O r l is t a t is ta k e n a s 1 c ap s u l e t h re e tim e s d ai ly o n e h o u r a f te r a f at - c on t a in in g m e al . ( D ) O r l is t a t m a y r e du c e th e ab s o r p ti on o f f a t- s o l ub l e vit am i ns , t h us a m u lti vi t am i n s h ou l d b e t ak en wh e n n on p r es c ri pt i on o rl is t at is in i t ia t ed . V i e w A n s we r 1 1 . T he a nsw e r i s A [ se ea n d] .P . 65 9
ANSWERS AND EXPLANATIONS 1 . T he an sw e r is B [ s ee I . C ] .
Ma n u f a c tu r e rs of di e ta r y s up p le m e n ts ar e n o t r e qu i r ed t o d em on s t r a te p rod u c t s a fe t y a nd ef f ic ac y b ef o re m a r k e t in g , n o r a r e t hey r e q u ir e d t o a dh e r e t o go o d m a nu f ac tu r i ng p ra c t ic es . 2 . T he an sw e r is B [ s ee I . C . 5] . D e r i ve d f r om th e e xo s k e le t o n o f s he ll f is h , ch i to s an is pu r p or t ed t o b lo ck d ie t a r y fa t a b so r p ti on an d th us is a c om m o n i n g re di e nt f ou nd i n f at - t r ap p er s u p pl em e n ts . B e c au se it is de r i v ed f rom t he e xo s k e le t on of she l l fi s h , t h e s af e t y o f c h ito s an in i n di vi d ua ls wi t h s h el lf is h a l le r gi es r em ai ns in qu e s t io n . 3 . T he an sw e r is E [ s e e I . A . 1 a nd 2; I . B. 1 .b an d c ; I. B . 2 ]. A B MI > 3 0 k g /m 2 b u t < 4 0 k g /m 2 i s c o ns i de r ed o b es e , b ut no t m o r bi dl y o b es e . W om en wi t h a wa i s t c i rc u m fe r e nc e > 3 5 i n c h es ar e a t i nc r ea se d ri sk o f de ve l o pi ng c a r di o vas c u l ar di s e as e , a s we l l as t yp e 2 d i ab e tes , s l ee p a pn e a, a nd os teo a r t hr i ti s . I f Ja n e 's B MI h a d b ee n > 3 5 k g /m 2, he r wa i s t ci r c u m fe r e nc e m e as u r em en t wo u l d no t b e va li d f o r d e te r m i ni n g a n in c re as ed c a r di o va s c u l a r r is k . D i et an d e xe r c is e a r e t h e b e st ap p r oa c h to we i g h t l o s s . A r ea s o n ab l e we i gh t l o s s is 1 - 2 l b ./ we e k . Al t h ou gh e xe r c i s e is be n ef ic i al , i t a d ds a o nl y m od es t a m ou n t to th e we i gh t l os s ; i t h a s g r e a te r e f f ec t i n t h e m a in t e na nc e o f th e we i gh t lo s s . 4 . T he an sw e r is D [ s ee I I . B .3 an d 4 ] . Tr a n s i en t i ns om n ia is i ns o m ni a l as t in g < 1 we e k , a n d s ho r t - te r m i ns om ni a i s i n so m n i a la s ti ng f r om 1 to 4 we e ks . P r im a r y in som n ia is a pa t ho l og ic al con d i ti on in wh i c h th e pa ti e nt e xp e r ie n c e s c on t in ue d i ns om n ia i n t he ab s e nc e of a r e la t e d m e di ca l o r ps y c h i at r ic c on d i ti on . S ec on da r y i ns om n i a c a n b e a t tr i bu t ed to a v a r ie t y o f s i t ua ti o ns , e s p ec i al l y s i tu a ti o na l s t re ss , s uc h a s th e d ea t h o f a lo v e d on e . 5 . T he an sw e r is C [ s ee I I . B .5 . b. ( 3 ) ]. Me l a t o n in e ff ec t i v en es s fo r s l e ep on se t h as be e n o b s e r v e d i n re ce n t t r ia ls i n i n di vi d ua ls pa r t ic ip a ti ng i n s h if t wo r k . H o we v e r , m e la t on in is no t F D A a pp r o v e d f o r t h is pu r p os e. A n i ni t ia l s t a r t in g d os e o f m el a to n in i s 0 . 1- 0 .3 m g in th e e v en i ng f o r p a t ie n ts d es i r in g i m p r o ve d s l ee p o ns e t. D os es > 1 m g da i l y h a v e n o t b e en a bl e t o d e m o ns t r at e th e q ua l it y s l ee p re s t o r at io n s e en in 0 . 3 -m g d os es . Me l a to n in h as m i ni m a l , i f a n y , r e s i du a l e f f ec ts t he fo ll o wi n g m o rn i ng , o wi n g t o i ts s h o rt ha l f -l i fe o f 3 0 - 50 m i n . 6 . T he an sw e r is C [ s ee I I . B .5 . b. ( 6 ) ]. L - Tr yp t o p ha n wa s b a nn ed i n 1 98 9 b ec a us e o f i ts a s s o c i at i on wi t h eo s i no ph i li a m ya l gi a s y n d ro m e . H o wev e r , i t r em a in s a v a il a bl e f o r s a le as a 5 00 -m g c a ps u le . 7 . T he an sw e r is C [ s ee I I . B .5 . b. ( 1 ) a n d ( 2 ) ]. D i p h en h y d ra m i n e m a y be d os ed as 25 - 50 m g n i gh t l y f o r a s le ep ai d u s ed f o r up to 7 - 1 0 c on s e c u t i v e n ig h ts . Th e r ec om m en de d d os ag e fo r do xyl a m i n e is 25 m g n i gh t l y. B o t h d i ph en h y d r am in e an d do xyl a m i n e a re e th a no l am in e a n ti h is ta m i n es . Th e r e f o re , a n t ic ho li n e rg ic ef f ec ts m a y b e e xp e r i e nc e d wi t h th e us e o f e i th e r a ge n t . 8 . T he an sw e r is B [ s ee I I I . E] . J i ll i s i n t h e c o n te m pl at io n s t ag e , a s s h e i s c on si d e r in g a c h an g e i n t he fu t u r e, bu t s h e d oe s n o t f ee l t h at t his is th e ri gh t ti m e to be gi n a s m ok in g c es s a t io n pr o g r am . Th e r e f o re , J i ll ' s p r o v id e r s ho u ld r ea s s es s h er wi l l i n gn e s s t o q u it a t h e r n ext v i s i t , wh e n , i t i s h op ed t ha t J ill wi l l be re a d y to qu i t. 9 . T he an sw e r is E [ se e I I I . F. 3 .b ] .
Th e o n l y c u r re n tl y a v a il ab l e n ic o ti ne lo z e n ge is Co m m i t , wh i c h is un i qu e in i ts d o si n g s t r a te g y . D os in g is ba s e d on th e t im i ng of t h e fi rs t ur g e f o r a c i ga re t t e , ei t h er wi t h i n o r a ft e r 3 0 m in of wa k i n g u p . Co nc om i ta n t d i s e as e s t at es s h ou l d b e c o ns id e re d a s we l l. I f t he p at i en t h as h yp er t en s io n , h e wi l l n ee d t o b e m o n i to r ed m o r e cl os e l y wh i le us in g n ic o ti n e r e pl ac em en t the r a p y . I f he us es c e r ta in p r e sc ri p ti o n m e d ic a ti on s f o r a s th m a o r d ep r es s i on , hi s m ed ic a ti on m a y n ee d to be a d ju s te d wh e n h e s to ps s m o k i n g. 1 0 . Th e a n sw e r i s D [ s ee I I I. F . 3. a , b a n d c ]. N i c ot r o l n ic ot i ne pa tc h es a r e t o b e u s ed on l y du r in g th e d a y t im e f o r 1 6 h r a n d r e m o ved be f o re be d . N ic o D e r m C Q p a tc he s m a y b e wo r n fo r 24 h r i f e a rl y - m o rn i ng c r a vi ng s f o r c i g a re t te s ar e s t r o ng . If th e p a ti e nt d e v e l op s i ns om ni a o r v i vi d dr e am s f r o m N i c o D e rm C Q , h e or s he m a y b en e fi t f r om re m o v in g t h e p at c h b ef o re b ed , th us a l lo wi n g on l y 16 h r o f e x p o s u r e t o t h e n ic o ti ne . P.660
1 1 . Th e a n sw e r i s A [ s ee I . B .2 . a, b a nd c] . O r l i st a t m a y a l te r m e t abo l ic c o nt r o l, ne c e s s i ta ti ng a c ha n ge in di a be t es m e di ca t io n d o si n g r eg im e n, ho we v e r , o r li s t a t i s n ot c o nt r a in di c at e d i n p at i en ts wi t h dia b e te s . O r l i st a t i s d os ed as 1 c ap s ul e t h r ee ti m e s d ai l y wi t h a fa t - c o n ta in i ng m e al , b u t f o r o p t im al ef f ec ts , i t s h ou ld b e d os e d d u ri ng o r wi t hin 1 h o u r o f t he m e al no t a f t e r t he m e al . It is a d v is a bl e t o re c om m e nd a m ul ti vi t am in t o i nd i v i du al s wh o wi l l b e us in g d o se s o f o r li s t a t g r ea t e r t h a n 1 80 m g /d a y o r wh o wi l l b e u s i ng o rl is t a t f o r g r e a te r t h a n 2 - 3 m o n th s . H o we v e r , at in i ti a ti o n o f n on p res c ri p ti o n s t r e ng t h o r li s t at ( 6 0 m g TI D ) , a m u l ti v i t am in ha s n o t b e en ob se r v e d a s n ec es s ar y ; h o we ve r , i t wo ul d be a d vi sa b le i f th e i n di v i du al d oe s c o n ti n ue th e m e dic a ti o n p as t 2 - 3 m on t hs to r e c om m e nd a MV I .
32 OTC Agents for Fever, Pain, Cough, Cold, and Allergic Rhinitis J e n ni f e r D . S m i th G e r a l d E . S c hu m ac h e r
I. ANALGESIC, ANTI-INFLAMMATORY, AND ANTIPYRETIC AGENTS. O ve r - t h e -c o un t e r ( O TC ) a n al g es ic s a nd an t ip y r e tic s r e li e v e m il d t o m od e ra t e p a in a n d re du c e in f la m m a ti on a n d f e ve r. Th e s e ag e nt s a r e e f fe c ti ve fo r s om a ti c p a in ( e . g ., m u s c ul os k e l et a l pa i n i n t h e j oi n ts ; p ai n f r om he a da c h e , m y a lg ia , and d ys m en o r rh ea ; di s c om for t r es u lt i ng f ro m g en e ra l iz e d i nf l am m a ti o n ), bu t the y a r e n o t e f f ec t i v e i n r ed u c i ng di s c om f o rt f r om t h e vi s c e ra l o r g an s ( e .g . , s to m a c h , lu n gs , h e a r t) . S al ic y l at e s a nd no n s t e r oi da l a n ti - in f la m m a t o r y d ru gs ( N S A I Ds ) red u c e pa i n, i n f la m m at i on , a n d f e v e r, b u t a c e t am in o ph e n g en er a l l y i s e f fe c ti ve fo r on l y p a in an d f e ve r . A. P a t h o g e ne s is o f p a in . I nt e ns e s ti m u lu s (e . g., t is su e i n ju r y) r el ea s es s u bs ta n c e s t h a t s en s i t i z e p ai n r e c e pt o r s t o m ec ha n ic al , t h e rm a l, an d c he m i c a l s t im ula t i on . Th is t r i gg e rs pa i n r ec e pt o rs to s e n d p ai n i m p u ls es o v e r a ff e r en t n e r v e f i be r s to t he c e nt r a l n er v o u s s y s t em (C N S ) . 1 . Aw a r e ne ss o f p ai n o c c u rs in th e th al am u s. 2 . P ai n re c o gn i t io n an d l o c a li z a t i on oc cu r in th e c o rt e x. 3 . M e c ha n is m o f an a l ges i c , a n t i- i n f la mm a t o r y, a n d a n t i p yr e t i c a c t i on . Th e s e a g e nt s i nh i bi t (c en t ra l l y , p e r ip h e ra ll y , o r b o th ) th e b i os yn th e s i s o f va r i ou s p r o s t ag l a nd i ns , s u bs tan c es i n v o l v ed in th e de v e l op m en t o f p a in an d i n fla m m a ti o n a s we l l as in t he r eg ul a tio n of bo d y t em pe r a tu r e. B . S a l ic yl a t e s 1 . T he r a pe u t ic us e s. a . S al ic y l a te s a r e us e d to r el i e v e m i l d t o m od e ra te p ai n a n d r ed uc e i n fl am m a ti o n a n d f e ve r . b . A sp i ri n (a c e t y ls a li c y lic ac id ) , s p ec if ic al l y , is a ls o u s e d to r ed uc e t h e i nc i de nc e o f s om e fo r m s o f c a rd i o v as c u la r di s e as e . C u r r en t ev i d e nc e s up p o rt s a m o des t r e d uc t io n i n t h e r is k o f s t r o k e s i n wo m e n b u t n ote s l es s e f fe c t i n m e n . O n t h e o t he r h a n d, e v id e nc e s u p po r ts a s i gn i fi ca n t r e du c t i on in t he r is k o f m y oc a rd i al in f a rc t io n i n m e n a nd wo m en > 6 5 y e a r s b u t s ho ws l it t le ef fe c t o n y ou n ge r wo m en . c . Me n a nd wo m en wh o h a v e ha d a p re v i o us m yoc a r di al in f a rc ti o n, st a bl e a n d u n st a bl e a n gi na pe c to r is , o r c o ro n a r y a r t e r y b y p as s s u rg e r y, a r e c an di d ate s fo r a s pi r in us e . d . N o c on s e n s u s h as e m e r g ed on t he pr o ph y l ac t ic us e o f a s p i ri n i n h e al t hy a d u lt s . Th e r i sk s as s o c i a te d wi th as p i ri n u s e (s e e I . B. e .d ) m a y o u t we ig h th e b ene f i ts of it s wi d e s p r ea d u s e . 2 . M e c ha n is m o f ac t i on a . An a l g es i c a n d a n ti - in f l a mm a to r y a c t i o n s . Th e ac ti o n o f a s p i ri n re su lt s f ro m b o t h t he ac e t y l a nd th e s a l ic y l a te po r ti o ns of th e d r u g . A c t i on s o f o t he r s al i c yla t es
( e . g ., so di um s a li c y la t e , s a li c y ls al ic y l ic ac id , c ho li n e s al ic yl a te ) re su l t o nly f r o m t h e s a li c yla t e p o rt i on of th e a g e nt s . ( 1 ) Th e s e d ru gs in h i bi t c yc l o o x yg e n a s e , th e e nz ym e t h at is re sp o ns ib l e f o r th e f o r m a t io n o f p r ec u rs o rs o f p ro s t a gl a nd in s ( P G s ) a n d t h r om bo xa n e s f r om a r a ch id o ni c a c id ( Fi gu r e 3 2 - 1) . P.662
Figure 32-1. Inhibition of prostaglandin formation by aspirin, nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), and acetaminophen.
( 2 ) A na l ge s i a i s p r od uc ed m a i nl y b y b lo c ki n g the p e r ip h e ra l ge n e ra t i o n o f p ai n i m p u ls es m e di a te d b y pr o s ta g la nd i ns a n d o th e r c h em ic al s . A n a l ge s i a p ro b a bl y s ec o nd a ri l y in v o l v e s a red u c t i on in th e a wa r e n es s o f pa in in th e C N S . b . An t i p yr e t i c a c t i on . Th e p ri nc ip a l a nt i p y r et ic ac t io n o c c u rs in th e C N S . S a l ic y l a te s ac t on th e h y p o t ha la m i c h e at - r eg u la t in g c e nt e r t o pr o du ce pe ri p he r a l va s o di l at io n , wh ic h re s u lt s f ro m t he in h ib i ti on o f p r o s t a gl an d in s y n t h es is . c . An t i p l at e le t an d an t i th r o m b o ti c a c t io n s ( 1 ) An t i p l a te l e t. As p i ri n ( b u t n o t o th e r s al ic y l a te s , a c e t am in op h en , o r N S AI D s ) i r r e ve r s i b l y i n h i b i t s c yc l o ox yg e n a s e in p la t e le t s , wh ic h p r e v e nt s t h e fo r m at i on of t h e a g g re ga t in g a g en t thr o m bo xa n e A 2 . ( 2 ) An t i t h r o mb o t ic . A t lo w d o s es , a s p i ri n i n hi bi ts t hr om b o xa n e A 2 f o rm ati o n b u t h as a r el a ti v e l y s m al l e f fe c t o n p ro s t ac yc li n . Thi s re s u l ts in bl oc k i n g t he pl a tel e t a g g re g at i ng ag e nt th r om b o xa n e A 2 wh i le p re s e r vin g th e a c ti on o f t he ag g re g a ti on i n hi b it o r p r os t ac y c l i n ( p ro s ta g la n di n I 2 ; P G I 2 ) . 3 . Ad m i n is t r a t io n an d do s a ge a . F or a na l ge s ia o r a n tip yr e s i s i n ad u l t s, 32 5 -65 0 m g e v e r y 4 hr o r 6 50 -1 0 0 0 m g e ve r y 6 h r s h o ul d b e a dm i ni s t e r ed as n e ed e d. Th e m a xi m um da i l y d o s e is 40 0 0 m g f o r no lo n ge r th an 10 d ay s f o r p ai n o r 3 d a y s f o r f e v e r wi t h ou t c o ns ul t in g a p h ys ic ia n . b . C h i ld d os a ge de pe n ds on ag e . Th e d os ag es ar e 1 60 m g e v e r y 4 h r f or c h il d re n 2 - 4 ye ar s o f a g e a nd 400 - 4 80 m g e v e r y 4 h r f o r c h il d re n 9 - 1 2 y e a rs of age . S a l ic y l a te s s h o ul d b e g i ve n fo r no lo n ge r th an 5 da y s f o r p ai n, 3 d a ys f o r fe v e r , an d 2 d a ys f o r s o r e t h r oa t wit h o ut c o ns ul t in g a ph ys ic i a n .
c . Th e a n t i r he u ma t ic d os a g e f o r ad u l ts is 3 6 00 -4 5 0 0 m g da il y i n d i v id e d d o s e s. d . F o r p at ie n ts wi t h is c he m i c h ea r t d is e as e , a 32 5 - m g do s e is g i ve n d ai ly . E v e r y o t h e r d a y i s r ec om m e n de d fo r in di vi d ua ls wi t h s ta b l e o r u ns t ab le an g in a a n d e vo l vi n g m y oc a rd i al i n fa rc t io n . F o r p a ti en t s wi t h ou t cl in ic a ll y a pp a re n t i s c h e m i c h e a r t d is ea s e , th e h em o rr h a gi c c om pl ic a ti on s a s s o c i a t ed wi t h ro u ti n e as p ir i n u s e m a y ou t we i g h i ts be n ef i t, u n le s s i n di vi d ua ls ha v e e s ta b li s h e d r is k f ac t or s fo r a t h e ro sc le r o ti c di s ea s e . e . F or pa t ie n ts at r is k o f s t r ok e , a n 8 1- m g do s e is g i ve n d ai l y o r e ve r y ot he r d a y. A s d e sc r ib ed ea r l ie r (s ee I .B . 3 . d ), t he ri s k s m a y o u twe i g h t he be n ef i ts . f . An t i - i n f l am ma t o r y d o s a g es . Al t ho u gh an t ip y r e t ic an d a n al g es ic e f fe c ts s h ou l d a p p ea r wi t hi n th e f i rs t few d o s e s , th e a n ti - i nf l am m a to r y e f fe c t m a y t ak e 2 we e k s o r m o r e t o a pp e a r, e v en at h i gh do s es . Th e us u al an t i -i n fl am m a t o r y do s a g e o f as pi r i n i s 4 0 00 - 60 0 0 m g / d a y . Th e us u al an t i -i n fl am m a t ory d o s a g e o f i bu p r of e n is 1 2 0 0- 3 20 0 m g /d a y. P.663
4 . P r ec a u ti o n s a . H yp e r s e n s i ti vi t y t o a s p i ri n o cc ur s i n u p t o 0 . 5% o f t h e p op ul a ti o n. ( 1 ) A ll e rg ic r ea c ti on s r es u l t in g i n b r on c h oc o ns t ri ct i o n oc cu r m o s t f re q ue n tly i n p e o pl e wi t h n as a l p o l yp s . ( 2 ) C r o ss - r e ac t i vi t y wi t h o th e r N S AI D s o c c u rs in > 9 0 % o f p e op le . C ro s s - r ea c ti v i t y wi t h a ce t am in o ph e n oc c u r s i n 5 % o f p e op l e. b . C o n t ra i n di c a ti o ns . As p i ri n is c o n t ra in d ic at e d i n pa t ie n ts wi t h b le e di n g d is o r de rs o r p ep t ic u lc e rs . Al s o , a s p i r in s h ou l d n ot be gi v e n t o c h il d re n o r te e na ge r s wh o h a v e a vi r al il l ne s s , b ec a us e R e y e s y n d ro m e (i . e ., fa t ty l i ve r de g en e ra t io n a c c o m pa n ie d b y e nc e ph a lo pa t h y ) m a y o c c u r . c . P r eg n an c y. S a l i c y l a tes in c h r on ic hi g h d os es ar e r ec om m e n de d wi t h e xt r e m e c a ut i on du r in g th e l as t t ri m es te r of p re g na nc y b ec a us e o f : ( 1 ) P o te n ti al bl e ed in g p ro b le m s in th e m o th e r, f etu s , o r n e on a te ( 2 ) P r ol on g in g o r c om p lic a ti n g d el i v e r y d . G a s t r oi n t es t i na l ( G I) d i s t u rb a nc e s r es u lt in g f r o m t he in h ib i ti on o f t he g as t r ic p r o st a gl an d in s o c c ur in 1 0 % -2 0 % o f p eo p le at an a lg e s i c a nd an t ip y r e ti c d o s a g es . A n t i -i n fl am m a t o r y re g im e n s a f fe ct up t o 4 0% of p e o pl e. Th e s e ef f ec ts dec r e as e b y u s in g e n te r ic - c o a te d d os a g e f o rm s a nd b y ta k i n g s a l i c y la t es wi t h f o od o r la r g e d o se s o f a n ta c i ds . Bu f f ere d as pi r in p ro d uc ts c o nta i n i ns u ff ic i en t b u f fe rs t o c o un t e ra c t t he ad v e r s e G I e f f ec ts of as pi r in . e . C N S d is t u r ba n ce s s uc h a s t i nn i tu s , di z zi n es s , o r he a da c h e m a y o cc u r a t an t i i n f la m m at o r y do s e s i n s om e p a ti e nt s . f . S a li c yl i s m ( s a li c y la t e t o xi c i t y ) m a y oc c ur a t a nt i - in f la m m a to r y d os es . I n a d di t io n t o t he C N S d is t u rb a nc es ( s ee I . B. 4 .e ) , re s p i ra t o ry a l k a l os is , n au s ea , h y pe r t h er m i a , c o nf us i on , a n d c on v u ls ion s m a y oc c u r . 5 . S i gn i f ic a n t i n te r a c ti on s a . S al ic y l a te s p o te n ti a te t h e e f f ec t o f a n t ic o ag u la n t s a n d t h r om b o l yt i c a g e n t s. b . S al ic y l a te s p o te n ti a te ( a t an t i -i n fl am m a t or y d os e s ) t h e e f fe c t o f h yp o g l yc e m ic s .
c . S al ic y l at e s p ot e nt i at e t h e a d v e rs e g as t r oi n te s tin a l r e ac t io n r es u lt i ng f rom c h r on ic a l c oh o l o r N S AI D u s e . d . A sp i ri n m a y c om p et i tiv e l y i n hi bi t th e m e ta bo l is m o f z i d o vu d i ne , re s u l tin g in p o t en t ia t io n o f z id o v u di ne o r a s p i ri n to xi c i t y . e . C a f fe i ne t ak en in c o nju n c t i on wi t h s al ic yl a te s a p p ea rs t o e nh a nc e t he a n al g es ic e f f ec t . C . Ac e t a m i no p he n 1 . T he r a pe u t ic us e s. A c e t am i no p he n i s us e d t o re l ie ve m i ld t o m o d e ra t e p a in an d t o r ed uc e f e v e r . Gu i de li ne s fr om t he Am e ri c an C ol l eg e o f R he um a to l og y no w r e c om m e nd it as fi r s t - li ne t he r a p y f o r o s te oa r t h ri ti s o f th e k ne e a n d h ip . Be c au s e it h a s m i n im al an t i- i nf l am m a t o r y ac ti vi t y, i t ca n no t be us e d t o t r e at th e s we l l in g o r s t i ff n ess r es ul t in g f r om rh e um a to i d a r th r it is . 2 . M e c ha n is m o f ac t i on. Th e a na lg es ic an d a n tip y r e t ic ac ti o ns of ac et am i no p he n a r e th e s am e a s t ho s e f or a s p i ri n (s ee I . B. 2 .a an d b ) . 3 . Ad m i n is t r a t io n an d do s a ge . A v ai l ab l e d os ag e f o rm s a r e 3 25 m g an d 50 0 m g . A p r o lo n ge d -d os a ge - f o rm c a p le t of 65 0 m g i s a ls o ava i l ab l e. a . F or a na l ge s ia o r a n tip yr e s i s i n ad u l t s, th e do s ag e i s 5 00 - 1 00 0 m g t hr e e ti m e s d a il y a s n ee d ed . Th e m axi m u m da i l y d os e i s 4 0 00 m g f or no lo n ge r th a n 1 0 da y s fo r p a in o r 3 da y s fo r fe v e r wi t h o u t c o ns ul ti n g a ph y s ic i an . Fo r o s te oa r t h ri t is, 1 00 0 m g f o u r t im es da i l y i s r e c o m m e nd e d. b . F o r c hi l d r en ag e 6 ye a r s o r o l d e r, 32 5 m g i s a d m i ni s te r ed e v e r y 4- 6 hr a s n e e de d . Th e m a xi m u m da i l y do se is 1 6 00 m g fo r n o lo ng e r th an 5 d a y s f or p ai n , 3 d a ys fo r fe v e r , o r 2 d a y s f o r s o re t hr o at wi t h ou t c o n s u l ti ng a p h ys i c i a n. c . R ou t i ne u se . Ac e ta m in o p he n i s r ou t in e l y u se d i n p a ti e nt s wh o a r e ( 1 ) S en s i t i v e t o t h e G I dis t u rb a nc es c a us ed b y s al i c yla t es a n d N S A I D s ( 2 ) P r on e t o b l ee di n g d is o r d e rs ( 3 ) H yp e rs e ns it i v e t o s ali c y l at es 4 . P r ec a u ti o n s. a . P at i en ts wi t h ac ti v e alc o ho li sm , h e pa t ic d is e ase , o r v i r a l h ep a ti ti s a r e at r is k f r om c h r on ic ad m i ni s tr a ti o n o f a c e t am in o ph e n. To xi c i t y i s r a r e, bu t c h ro n ic d a ily i n g es ti o n o f 5 g or m o r e f o r l on g e r t h an 1 m on t h is li ke l y to r e su l t i n l i v e r d am ag e . A c u te d o se s o f 1 0 g o r m o r e a re h ep a to t o xi c . P.664
b . Ma n y O TC p r o d u c ts c o n t ai n a c e t am in o ph en in a d di t io n t o o t he r in g re d ie n ts . It is i m po r t an t t o c ou n s e l p a tie n ts t ha t t h e d ai l y do s a ge l im it s ci t ed in I . C .3 . a an d b a p pl y t o th e t o ta l a c e t am i n op h en c o ns um e d f r om a l l p r od uc t s d ai l y. 5 . S i gn i f ic a n t i n te r a c ti on s . Ac e ta m i n op he n m a y c om p et i ti v e l y in h ib i t t he m e ta b ol is m o f z id o vu d i ne , r es ul t in g i n p o te n ti a tio n of zi do vu d in e o r ac eta m i n o ph en t o xi c i t y. D . N S AI D s . C u r r en t l y , i bu p r o f e n, na p r o xe n , a nd k e t op r o f en a re t he on l y N S A I D s a va i la b le wi t h ou t a p re s c r i p ti o n. 1 . T he r a pe u t ic us e s. NS A I D s ar e u s ed to r el ie v e m i l d t o m od e ra t e p ai n a n d t o r e d uc e i n fl am m a t io n a nd f e v e r . O TC d r ug us e l a rg e l y fo cu s es o n t h e a na lg e s i c a nd
a n t ip yr e t ic i n di c a t io ns of t h es e a ge n ts . Ma xi m u m O TC d r u g d os ag e i s g ene r a ll y r e c om m e nd e d f o r os t eo ar t h r i ti s . 2 . M e c ha n is m o f ac t i on a . An a l g es i c a n d a n ti - in f l a mm a to r y a c t i o n s . NS A I D s i n hi b it p ro s t a gl and i n s yn t he s i s b o th pe r ip h e ral l y a nd c e nt r a ll y. Li k e s al i c y la t es , t h es e d r ug s i nh i bi t c yc lo o xy g e n a s e ( Fi g u re 3 2 - 1 ). N S A I Ds p ro d uc e an a lg e si a m ai nl y b y b lo c ki n g t h e p e r ip h e ra l g en e r at i on of p a in im pu ls e s t ha t a r e m e d ia t ed b y p ro s t a gl an d ins an d o t h e r ch em ic a ls . S e c o nda r i l y , a n al ge s i a p r o ba bl y i n v o l v es a r ed uc t io n i n th e a wa r e n e s s o f pa in in th e C N S . b . An t i p yr e t i c a c t i on . Th e p ri nc ip a l a nt i p y r et ic ac t io n i s c en t ra l . N S AI D s a c t o n t h e h yp o t ha l am ic h e at - r eg u la t i ng c e nt e r t o p r o du ce p e r i p h e ra l va s od il a ti o n, wh i c h r e s ul ts f ro m t h e i nh ib i ti on o f p r os ta g la n di n s y n the s is . 3 . Ad m i n is t r a t io n an d do s a ge . Th e a v a il a bl e O TC d o sa ge f or m s of ib u p ro f e n a r e a 2 0 0 -m g t a bl e t a nd a 1 00- m g p e r 5 - m L or a l su s pen s io n . N a p ro xe n s od i um O TC i s a va i la b le as a 2 20 -m g (20 0 m g o f na p ro xe n ) t a ble t . Ke t op r o fe n O TC i s s ol d in a 1 2 . 5 -m g t ab l et . a . F or a na l ge s ia o r a n tip yr e s i s i n ad u l t s, th e do s ag e o f ib u p r o fe n i s 20 0 - 40 0 m g e ve r y 4 - 6 h r as n e ed e d. Th e m a xi m um da il y d os e i s 1 20 0 m g f o r n o l on g er t h an 10 d a ys fo r pa in o r 3 d a y s fo r f e v e r wi t h o ut co ns u lt in g a p h ys i c i an . Fo r na p ro x e n s o d i um , t h e r ec om m e n de d do s e is 2 2 0 m g e v e r y 8 - 1 2 h r a s n ee d ed . Th e m a xi m um d a il y d os e i s 6 60 m g . Ket o p r o f en is re c om m e nd ed as 12 . 5 m g e v e r y 4 -6 hr a s n e e de d , wi t h a m a xi m um d a il y d os e o f 7 5 m g. The l im it a ti o ns o n t h e d u ra ti o n o f t r e a tm en t wi t h ou t c on s u lt i n g a p h y s i c i a n r ec om m e n d e d fo r ib up r o fe n a ls o a p pl y t o n a p ro xe n a n d k et o pr o fe n. b . F o r r h eu m a to i d a r t h ri t i s do s ag e i n ad u l ts , ib u p r o f en is re c o m m en de d to a m a xi m um da i l y d os a ge of 3 20 0 m g ( a dm in is t e re d o n a 4 - t o 6 - h r b as is ) , na p r o xe n s o d i um to a d ai l y m a xi m u m o f 11 00 m g ( di v i de d d o s e s e v e r y 8 -1 2 h r ) , a nd k e t o p ro f e n t o a m a xi m um o f 3 00 m g p e r d a y ( adm i ni st e r ed e v er y 4 - 6 h r ) . c . N ap r o xe n so d i um and k e to p r o fe n a r e n o t r e c o m m e nd e d f o r c h i ld r en < 1 2 y ea r s o f ag e . I b u p ro f e n is a v ai l ab l e as a s us pe ns i on for c hi ld r e n 2 - 11 y e a rs o f a g e . 4 . P r ec a u ti o n s a . N S A I Ds a re c o nt r a in dic a te d i n p a ti e nt s wi t h b le e d in g di s o r de r s o r pep t i c u l c e rs . b . N S A I Ds a re r ec om m en d e d wi t h e xt r e m e c a u tio n du r in g th e l as t t r im es t e r of p r e g n an c y b e c a u s e of : ( 1 ) P o te n ti al ad v e r s e ef fe c ts on fe t al bl o od fl o w ( 2 ) Th e po s s ib il i t y of p rol o ng i ng p re gn a nc y c . G I d i s tu r b a nc e s r es ult i n g f r om th e i nh i bi t io n of t h e g as t ri c p r os ta g la nd in s o c c u r i n 5% - 10 % o f pe op l e a t a n al g es ic an d a n ti p y r et ic d o s es . A nt i -i n fl am m a t o ry r e g im e ns ( i . e ., hi g he r do s e s ) a ff ec t u p t o 2 0 % o f p eo p le . Th e s e ef f ec ts de c re as e wh e n N S A I D s a re ta k e n wi t h fo o d o r la r ge do s e s o f a nt a c i ds . Ib u pr o f en i s o f te n p r e fe r r ed t o as pi r i n b y pa t ie n ts bec a us e i bu p ro f e n c a us es f e we r G I d is t ur b an c e s an d bl ee d in g e ve n ts . d . R e na l to x ic i t y d u r i n g c h r on ic ad m i ni s tr a ti o n is a si gn i fi c a n t c on ce r n a nd m a y o cc u r i n t h e f o rm of ne ph r o ti c s yn d ro m e , h y p e rk a l em ia , or in t e rs ti t ia l n ep h r it is .
5 . S i gn i f ic a n t i n te r a c ti on s a . N S A I Ds po t en t ia t e t h e e f f ec t o f a n t ic o ag u la n ts a nd t h r om b ol yt i c a g en t s . b . N S A I Ds po t e nt ia t e (a t a n ti - in f la m m a to r y d os es) t h e e f fe c t o f h yp o g l yc e m i cs . c . N S A I Ds po t en t ia t e t he a d v e rs e G I r e ac ti o ns res u lt i ng f ro m c h r o ni c a lc oh o l o r s a l ic yl a t e u s e . d . C a f fe i n e t ak en in c o nju n c t i on wi t h i b up r o fe n ap p e ar s t o e n h a nc e t h e an a lg e s i c e f f ec t . e . H yp e rs en s i t i v i t y to asp i r i n c a n oc c u r wi t h N SA I D u se . f . O TC l a b el i ng fo r th es e a g en ts c a u ti on s a g ai ns t u se o f co m b i ni ng N S A I Ds . P.665
II. THE COMMON COLD A. G e n e r a l 1 . Th e c om m o n c ol d i s ge n e ra l l y a m i ld an d s el f - li m it i ng vi ra l i n fe c ti on o f th e up p er r e s pi r at o r y t ra c t, th o ug h i t s e c o no m i c b u rd e n o f lo s t p r od uc t i v it y a n d e xp e n di t u re s i n s ym p to m r el i ef ha s a s i gn i fi c a n t im p ac t i n t h e U n i t ed S ta t es . 2 . R a th e r t h an t y pi c a l e pi d em io l og ic m e as u re s , t he p r e val en c e o f t he co m m o n c o l d i s e xp r e s s e d a s t h e n um b e r of in c i d en c e s p e r i ndi v i d ua l , p e r y e a r . Ad ul t s t y p i c a l l y e xp e r i e nc e 2 - 3 c ol ds pe r y e a r ; p r es c h o ol c h il d re n t yp i ca ll y e xp e r i e nc e 5 - 7 c ol ds pe r ye a r . C hi l dr e n < 5 y e a rs o l d wh o a t te n d d a y ca r e o r h a ve f r eq u en t i n te r ac ti o ns wi t h a n u m b e r o f o t he r c h il d re n m a y e xp e r ie nc e a s m any a s 12 c o ld s p e r y e a r . 3 . A pp r o xi m a te l y $2 bi ll io n is s pe n t e ac h yea r in t h e Un i te d S ta t es o n O TC c o ug h a n d c ol d m ed ic a ti o ns b y p a t ie n ts s ee k i n g s ym p t om r el ie f . 4 . Th e c om m o n c ol d a c c o u n ts fo r a p p ro xi m a t el y 2 6 m i ll io n d a y s o f s c h oo l ( p e op le a g e d 5 -1 7 y e ar s ) a nd 23 m il li o n d a y s o f wo r k m i ss e d a nn u al l y . B . E t i o lo g y 1 . Th e c o ro n a v i ru s e s , r es p i ra t or y s yn c yti al v i r us ( R S V ) , a nd rh i no v i r us es a r e th e m os t c o nt r i bu ti n g p a th oge n s o f t h e c o m m on co ld , a n d t he r hi n o v ir us is th e m os t f r e q ue n tl y as s o c i a te d p at h o ge n . O t h e r p at h og e ns i n v o l v ed in c l u de i n fl u enz a , p a r ai n fl u en z a , a n d a de no v i r u s e s . 2 . Th r e e ac c ep t ed ge ne ra l m o de s o f t r an sm is s i o n o f th e c om m o n c ol d e xi s t : s m al l p a r ti c l e ae r os ol s , la r g e-p a r ti c l e ae r os ol s, an d di re c t c on t ac t . D i r ec t c o n t ac t be t we e n t h e vi ru s a nd t he na s a l m uc o s a i s t h e m o s t p r e va l en t m ec h an is m o f t r a ns m i s s io n o f t h e rh i no v i r us . 3 . C ol ds oc c u r y e a r- r o und , bu t pe ak in c i de n c e s of t h e co m m on c o ld a re Se p t em be r , O c t o be r , a n d e a rl y s p r ing ( Ma r c h an d Ap r il ) . C . P a t h og e ne s is . Pa t hog e ni c e ve n ts of th e c om m o n c o l d ca u s e d b y t he r h i no vi r us b e gi n wh e n a s m a l l d os e o f v i ru s i s d ep os i te d i n to t he no se o r t h e e ye e i th e r b y d i r ec t c on t ac t o r b y a e r os o l t r an sm is s i on ( Fi g u re 3 2 . 2 ). 1 . Mu c o c i li a r y ac ti o n t r an s po r ts t he v i ru s t o th e a d e no id wh e r e th e v ir us i s a b le to a t t ac h t o t h e i nt r ac e ll ul ar a d he s i on m o le c u l e ( I CA M) r e c e p t or s o n l y m ph oe p i th el i al c e ll s. Th e r e, t he v i ru s b eg i ns to r ep li c at e , t r ig g er in g th e re l ea se of in f la m m a to r y
m e di a to r s , in c l u di ng hi s ta m in es , k in i ns , c e rt ai n pr o s ta g la nd i ns , a nd se v e ra l i n t er l eu k i ns ( e. g . , i nt e rl eu k in 1 [ I L- 1 ] , I L -6 , a n d IL - 8 ) . 2 . W it hi n 8 - 1 2 h r o f v i ra l e n t r y i n to t he no se o r eye , t h e i nf l am m a to r y m ed i a to r s a nd p a r as y m pa t he t ic n e r v o us s y s te m r e fl e x m e ch a ni s m s l ea d to na s a l c on g es ti o n , r h i no r r he a , s o re th r oa t , h e a da c h e , a nd s t im ul a tio n of c o ug h a n d s ne e z ing r e fl e xe s . 3 . C ol d s y m pt om s d ec l ine a nd th e ri sk of t ra ns m is s i o n o f t h e v i r us is m in im i z e d a f te r 3 d a ys o f i nf ec t io n . D . S ym p t o m s 1 . O nc e v i ra l c on t ac t h as b e en m a de , i n di vi d ua ls m a y be g in to no t ic e a s c r a t ch y t h r o at 1 -2 da y s a f t er c o nt a c t. 2 . A s o re t hr o at is fo l lo we d b y a t hi n , wa t e r y d is c h a r ge , k n o wn as rh i no r r he a , a n d s n ee zi n g. W it hi n 1 - 2 d a ys , th e t h in , wa t e r y di sc ha r g e m a y b ec om e th ic k an d p u r ul e nt . 3 . A d r y, n on p ro d uc ti v e c o ug h m a y de ve lo p b e t we e n d a y s 3 an d 5 , o f te n e vo l vi n g i n t o a p r o du c t i v e c ou g h. 4 . Th e ge ne r a l p ea k o f c o l d s y m p t om s is 2 -4 da y s , an d t h e m e d ia n d u ra t io n of t he c om m o n c ol d i s 7 - 13 da y s . 5 . Th e ph a rm ac is t m a y re c om m e nd s e l f- t r ea tm e nt f o r t h e f ol l o wi ng c o n di tio n s: r h i no r r he a , c on g es ti o n, c o u g h, he a da c h e , a nd s o re t h ro a t. P.666
Figure 32-2. Pathogenesis of the common cold.
E . N o n ph a r ma c o lo g ic t re a t me n t 1 . A de q ua t e f lu i d i nt ak e 2 . A de q ua t e r es t 3 . I nc re a s e d h um id i fi c a t io n 4 . N as al i r ri ga t io n F . P h a rm a co l og i c t re a tm e n t
1 . D ec o n ge s ta n t s, al s o k n o wn as s y m pa t ho m i m et i cs , a r e t h e p ri m ar y t r eat m en t fo r n a sa l c on g es ti o n. a . B ot h o r a l a nd to p ic al d e c o n ge st a nt s p r od uc e va s oc on s tr ic t io n b y s ti m u la t i ng α a d r en e r gi c r ec e pt o rs , the r e b y re d uc in g th e v ol um e o f bl oo d c i rc ul a te d t o t h e n as al m uc o sa an d d ec r ea s i n g m uc o s a l e de m a . b . O n l y un d e r t h e a d vi ce o f a me d i ca l p r o vi d e r, a nd w i t h e x t re m e c au ti o n s h ou l d d e co n ge s t a nt s b e re c omm e n de d to p at i e nt s w i th d i se a se st a t es t ha t a re s e n si t i ve t o a d r en e r g ic s t i mu l a ti o n , i nc lu di n g co r o na r y h ea r t d is e as e, h yp e r t en s i on , th y r o i d d is e a s e , d i ab e te s , n ar r o w- a n g le gl a uc om a , a nd di f fic u lt y i n u r i na t io n o wi n g to an en la r g ed p ro s ta t e gl a nd . c . P at i e nt s c u r r e n tl y t a k i n g m on o am in e o xi d a s e i n hi bi t o rs ( MA O I s ) o r w h o a r e w i t hi n 2 w e ek s of d is c on t i n ua t i o n s ho u l d a vo id t h e u s e o f o r a l a n d t op i c a l d e c on g es t a n ts o wi n g t o a n i nc r e as ed ef f ec t o n bl o od p re ss u re ( Ta b le 32 -1 ) . d . I n t ra n as a l d e co n ge s ta n t s c au s e lo ca l i z ed v as o c on s t r ic t io n b y b in d in g d i r ec tl y t o a d r en e r gi c r ec e pt o rs . If th e m e di ca t io n i s us e d a pp r o p ri a te l y , s ys te m i c s ide e f fe c t s s h ou l d b e m i ni m al . Ho we v e r , g i ven th e di f fi c u l t y of a dm in is t r at i on , s ys te m ic s i de e f f ec ts a re of t en s e e n wi t h t op ic al de c o n ge s ta n ts. Ta b l e 3 2 -2 p ro v i de s a dv i c e fo r p a t ie n t c o u ns el i ng on dev i c e s el ec t e d. P.667
Table 32-1. Available Topical and Oral Decongestants Agent
Oxymetazoli ne
Products
Comments/Coun Dosing Avoid Use In … seling Points Topical decongestants
Afrin; NeoSynephr ine 12 hr; Vicks Sinex 12 hr; Mucine x Full Force; and Mucine x Moistur e Smart
2-3 sprays q10-12h
Questionabl e use in hypertensio n or receiving MAOI May exacerbate: hyperthyroi dism, intraocular pressure, coronary heart disease, prostatic hypertrophy
Use for only 3-5 days owing to potential for rebound congestion (rhinitis medicamento sa) Oxymetazoli ne is long acting Adverse effects: cardiovascula r and CNS stimulation; burning;
stinging; sneezing Phenylephrin e
NeoSynephr ine; Vicks Sinex
2-3 gtt q4h
Xylometazoli ne discontinued, but generics available Naphazoline (previously sold as Otrivin) has been removed from market, but generics may still be available
Levmetamfet amine
Vicks Vapor Inhaler
6-12 years: 1 inhalati on, no more than every 2 hr 12+ years: 2 inhalati ons, no more than every 2 hr
Does not cause rhinitis medicamento sa within a 7day period; thus approved for up to 7-day use Lacks vasopressor effect; thus not contraindicat ed in patients with hypertension, thyroid disease, diabetes, narrow-angle glaucoma, or difficulty in urination owing to enlarged
prostate Oral decongestants Pseudoephedr ine
Sudafed ; Drixoral
2-6 years: 15 mg q4-6h 6-12 years: 30 mg q4-6h 12+ years: 60 mg q4-6h
Phenylephrin e
Sudafed PE
2-6y: 2.5 mg q4h 6-12y: 5 mg q4h 12 + y: 10 mg q4h
Hypertensio n May exacerbate: hyperthyroi dism, intraocular pressure, coronary heart disease, prostatic hypertrophy
Pseudoephed rine is absorbed well orally; however, phenylephrin e has low oral bioavailabilit y Adverse effects: cardiovascula r (↑ BP, arrhythmias, tachycardia) and CNS stimulation (restlessness, insomnia, anxiety, hallucination s) Concomitant use with TCA may affect BP (↑ or↓), depending on specific decongestant
BP, blood pressure; CNS, central nervous system; MAOI, monoamine oxidase inhibitor; TCA, tricyclic antidepressant. P.668
Table 32-2. Patient Counseling Information for Nasal Decongestants
Drops • •
•
•
Spray (Atomizer) Blow nose Squee ze rubber bulb on droppe r and withdr aw medic ation from bottle Reclin e on bed and hang head over side (prefer red) or tilt head back while standi ng or sitting Place drops into each nostril and gently tilt head from side to side to
• •
•
•
•
•
•
•
Blow nose Remove cap from spray containe r For best results, do not shake squeeze bottle Adminis ter one spray with head in upright position Sniff deeply while squeezin g bottle Wait 3-5 min, then blow nose Adminis ter another spray if necessar y Rinse spray tip with hot water, taking care not to allow water to
Metered-Dose Pump (Spray)
Inhalers • •
•
•
•
•
Blow nose Warm inhaler in hand to increa se volatil ity of medic ation Remo ve protect ive cap Inhale medic ated vapor in one nostril while closin g off other nostril ; repeat in other nostril Wipe inhaler clean after each use Replac e cap immed iately
• •
•
•
•
•
•
Blow nose. Remove protectiv e cap Prime metered pump by depressi ng several times (for first use), pointing away from face Hold bottle with thumb at base and nozzle between first and second fingers Insert pump gently into nose with head upright Depress pump complete ly, and sniff deeply Wait 3-5 min, then
•
•
distrib ute drug Keep head tilted back for severa l minute s after instilli ng drops Rinse droppe r with hot water
•
enter bottle Replace cap
•
Note: Inhale r loses its potenc y after 2-3 month s even though aroma may linger
•
•
•
blow nose Adminis ter another spray if necessar y Rinse spray tip with hot water, taking care not to allow water to enter bottle Replace cap
( 1 ) I nt r an a s a l d ec on g es ta n ts a v ai l ab l e in sp r a ys a n d d r op s i nc lu d e p he n yl e ph r i ne a n d t h e im i da z o li n es (o x y m e t a z ol i ne , n a ph a zo li ne , a n d xy l o m e ta z o li n e ). Xyl o m e t a z o li ne an d na ph a z o li n e, p re v i o us l y s ol d u n d e r th e t r a de na m e s o f O t r i v in a n d Pr i v i ne , re s p ec t i v el y , h a v e b ee n re m o ve d f rom t he m a rk e t, bu t s om e g e n er ic f o r m u l at io n s m a y b e a v ai l ab l e. ( 2 ) I nt r an a s a l d ec on g es ta n ts ap p r o ved b y th e U.S . F oo d a n d D r u g A dm i ni s t ra t io n ( F D A ) a re as fo l lo ws : ( a ) E ph e d ri ne ( to p ic al ) : 0 . 5 %, e v e r y 4- 6 h r ; n o t le ss t ha n ( NL T) a g e 6 yea r s ( b ) N a ph a z o li ne ( to p ic al ): 0 . 02 5% - 0 .0 5 %, e v e r y 4- 6 h r ; N L T a ge 12 y e a rs ( c ) P he n y l ep h ri n e ( t op ic a l ; Ne o - S y n ep h ri n e, N ost r i l ) ( i ) 0 .2 5 %- 1 %, e v e r y 4- 6 h r ; N L T a ge 6 ye a rs ( i i ) 0. 1 25 % , e v e r y 4 -6 h r; N L T a g e 2 y ea r s ( d ) Xyl o m e ta z o li n e ( t op ic a l ) ( i ) 0 .0 5 %, e v e r y 8 - 1 0 h r ; N L T a g e 2 y e a rs ( i i ) 0. 1 %, e v e r y 8- 1 0 h r ; N L T a g e 1 2 y e ar s ( e ) O xym e t a z o l i ne ( to pi c a l ; Af r i n, N eo - S y n e ph r ine 1 2 H o u r, N os t r il la , Mu ci n e x) ( i ) 0 .0 5 %, e v e r y 1 0 - 12 hr ; N L T a g e 6 y ea r s ( i i ) 0. 0 25 % , e v e r y 10 - 1 2 h r ; N L T a ge 2 ye a rs ( 3 ) S i de e ff e c ts . To pi c a l n as a l d ec on g es ta n ts m ay c a us e a te m p o r a r y b u rn i ng o r s t in g in g s en s a t io n wh e n u s ed an d m a y al so in c r ea s e n as al di s c ha r g e. ( 4 ) C o un s el i n g t i ps ( a ) P a ti en t s us i ng to p ic al n as al de c o n ge st a nt s s ho u ld be c a u ti o ne d t o l i mi t u se o f t h e p r od u c t t o 3 - 5 d a ys t o a v oi d r h in i ti s m e d ic am e nt os a , a wo r s en i ng of s y m pt om s
P.669 d i r ec tl y r e la t ed t o e xt e n de d us e a nd th e n d is c o n tin u a ti on o f t he p ro d uc t . Tr e a tm e nt o f t hi s c o n di t io n i s t o s l owl y wi t h d r a w t h e t o pi ca l d e c o n ge st a nt an d b e gi n o r a l d e co n ge s t a nt s . To p ic a l n o r m a l s al in e m a y al s o be us e d t o r e li e v e i r r it a ted n as al p a ss ag es . ( b ) To a v o id s p r ea d o f i nf e c ti on , pa t ie n ts s ho u ld b e c o un s e l ed no t to s h are t op ic a l n a sa l d ec o ng es t an ts wi t h o th e rs . ( 5 ) L e vme t a mf e t am i ne is an in h al e r i ng r e di en t th a t h as be e n d ee m e d b y t h e F D A a s s a fe an d e f fe c ti v e as a n as al de co n ge s t a nt . It i s c u r re n tl y f ou n d i n V ic k ' s V a po r i n ha l e rs . ( a ) D os i ng ( i ) A g es 1 2 y ea r s a nd old e r : 2 in h al a ti on s i n e ach n os t ri l n o m o re th a n e ve r y 2 h r ( i i ) A ge s 6 - 12 y e a rs : 1 in h al a ti o n i n e ac h n os t ri l n o m o r e t ha n e ve r y 2 hr ( b ) S i de e f fe c ts . L e v m eta m fe t am in e l ac k s a v a s op r e s s o r e ff ec t an d , t he r ef o r e , d oe s n o t n e ed to c a r r y t he wa r n i ng f or pa t ie n ts wi t h c ar d i ac c o nd i ti on s , h y p e rt en s io n , h yp e r t h y r oi di s m , d i ab e tes , or di f f ic ul t y in u ri na t i on o wi n g t o a n e n la r ge d pr o s ta t e g l an d . ( c ) C o un s el i n g t i ps ( i ) U n li k e th e i m i d a z ol ine s , l e v m e t am fe t am in e h as no t de m o ns t r at e d r e bou n d c o ng es t io n wi t hi n a 7 -d ay p e r i od ; t h us i t s us e i s a p p ro ve d fo r 7 d a ys r at he r t ha n c a r r y in g th e 3 - to 5 -d a y li m it . H o we ve r , t h e m an u fa c tu r e rs of t he pr o du c t v o l un t a ri l y p a ck ag e d t he p ro d uc t wit h in s tr uc t io ns t o se ek c o n s u l ta t io n wi t h a p r o vi de r i f s ym p to m s h a v e no t i m p ro v e d wi t h in 3 d a ys . ( i i ) O nc e o p en e d, na s a l in h al e rs s h ou l d b e d is c a rd e d a f te r 2 -3 m o nt hs bec a us e t h e a c ti ve in g r ed ie n t d is s i pat e s , e v e n wh e n t he pr o du c t i s t ig h tl y ca p pe d . ( i i i ) E ff ic ac y o f t h is p r o du c t m a y b e d im i ni s h e d in t h e p a ti en t wh o ha s se v e r e l y o b st r uc t ed na s a l p as s age s b ec a us e i ts us e r e qu ir e s t h e a bi li t y o f t h e m e di c at i on to b e de li ve r e d t o t h e n as al m uc os a . e . O r a l d e co n ge s t an t s a v a i la b le in th e U ni t ed St a t es in cl ud e p s e u do e phe d r in e a n d p h e n yle ph r i ne . ( 1 ) P he n y l p ro pa n ol am i ne, a c om m o n i n g re di e nt f ou n d i n we i gh t -l os s a n d c o l d p r o du c ts , wa s wi t h d r a wn f r om t he m a rk e t i n r ec en t y e a rs o wi ng t o a n i nc re a se d o cc u r r en c e of s t r ok e i n c e r t ai n po pu l at i on s ( es p ec i al l y wo m en ) . ( 2 ) P se ud o ep h ed r in e h as qu ic k l y b ec om e k no wn i n al l s ta t es an d c om m u ni t i es a s t h e k e y in g re d ie n t i n t he i l le g al m a nu f ac tu r i ng of m e th am p he t am in e b ec a us e o f th e s im p li ci t y o f t he di v e r s i on . Th e s a le of ps eu d oe ph e d ri n e h as b e en r es t ri cte d , p l ac in g i t be h in d p ha r m a c y c o unt e r s i n a ll s t a te s. ( 3 ) P he n y l ep h ri n e is no t a s e as i l y c o n v er t ed in t o m e th am p he t am in e a n d th u s is m o r e r ea d il y a v a il a bl e t o c on s u m er s wh o a r e s eek i ng r el ie f f ro m c o n ge st io n . ( 4 ) P se u d oe p he d r i ne ac t s di r ec tl y o n b o th α - and β - a dr e ne r g ic re ce p to r s , p r o du c i n g v a s oc on s t r ic t io n of r es pi r a to r y m u c o sa, r e la xa t i o n o f th e b r on c h i ol es , an d i n c re as ed he a r t r a te an d c on t r ac ti l it y. P se u do ep he d r in e a ls o e n te r s t h e CN S r e a di l y. ( a ) D os e ( i ) P a ti en t s 2 - 5 y e a rs of a g e : 1 5 m g e v e r y 4- 6 hr ; m a xi m um do se 60 m g /24 h r
( i i ) P at i en ts 6 -1 2 y ea r s o f ag e : 3 0 m g e v e r y 4 -6 h r ; m a xi m um d os e 1 20 m g / 2 4 h r ( i i i ) Pa t ie n ts > 1 2 y e a rs o f ag e : 3 0 -6 0 m g e v e r y 4 - 6 hr o r f o r s us ta i ne d re l ea s e 1 20 m g e v e r y 1 2 h r ; m a xi m um do s e 24 0 m g /2 4 h r ( b ) S id e e f f ec ts in c l ud e c e nt r a l n er v o u s s t im u la t io n ( re s tl es sn es s , in s om ni a , a n xi e t y, o r h a ll uc i na t io ns ) , h y p e r te ns i on , a n d p alp i t at i on s . ( c ) D r ug in t e ra c t i on s i nc lu d e MA O I s (s e e I I . F. 1 .c ) a n d t r ic y c l ic an t id e p re s s a nt s o wi n g t o a n i nc r ea s e d p re s s o r re s p o ns e. ( d ) C o u ns e li n g t i p s ( i ) N o ti f y a h e al t hc ar e p ro v i d e r i f s ym pt om s wo r s e n o r d o n ot im p ro ve wi th i n 7 da y s . ( i i ) Ta ke t he la s t do s e no l at e r t h an 4 -6 hr b ef o re b ed t im e o wi n g t o th e po t e nt i al fo r i n so m n i a. ( 5 ) O r a l p he n yl e p h r i n e is a m or e di r ec t a ct i ng s y m p at h om im et ic ag e nt t ha n p s eu d oe ph e d ri ne be c au s e i t a c t s o n α - a d re n e rg ic r e c e p to r s a nd ha s we ak a c ti on a t β - a d r en e r gi c r ec ep t o rs . Th i s s p ec i fi c i t y of ac t io n a l lo ws f o r m i n im i zed c a r di o vas c u l ar s i de P.670 e f f ec ts c o m p a re d to ps eu d o ep he d r in e , b ut s u c h e f f ec ts a re s t il l o f c o nc ern wh e n r e c om m e nd in g i t s us e i n p a ti e nt s wi t h co r o na r y he a r t d is e as e. Th o ug h d a ta is a va i la b le s u pp o r ti n g t he e f f ic ac y o f t o pi c a l p he n yl e p h ri n e, li t tl e i s a va il a ble t o s u pp o r t t he e ff ic ac y o f or a l p h en y l e ph r in e . W hen a dm i ni st e r ed or a ll y , ph en y l e p hr i ne i s m e ta bo l i z ed b y g u t h or m o ne s , al l o wi ng on l y 3 8% o f a 10 m g d os e o f p h e n yle ph r i ne to r ea c h th e na s a l p as s a g es . Ps eud o e p h ed r i ne , wh e n a dm in i s t e r ed o r a ll y, is ab le t o b y p as s t h es e g u t h o rm on es , al lowi n g a p pr o xi m a t el y 9 0% o f a p s eu d oe ph e d ri ne do s e to r e ac h n as al pa s s ag es . Th u s , o r al ph e n y le p hr i ne m a y h a ve a cl e an e r c a rd io v a s c ul a r p r o fi le t ha n o r al ps eu d oe p h ed r in e , b ut i ts b i oa v ai l ab i li t y r e d uc es it s e f fi c a c y s i gn if i c a n tl y . P he n y l ep h ri n e i s al s o an in g r ed ie n t f o und i n p r o du c ts fo r th e t r ea t m en t o f h em or r h oi ds an d op h t ha lm ic p re pa r a ti o ns fo r r el i ef f r o m r e dn es s o f t h e e y e . ( a ) D os e m a y be gi v e n ev e r y 4 h r , n o t t o e xc e e d s i x d o s e s wi t hi n 2 4 h r . ( i ) P a ti en t s 2 - 5 y e a rs of a g e : 2 .5 m g e v e r y 4 h r ( i i ) P at i en ts 6 -1 2 y ea r s o f ag e : 5 m g e v e r y 4 h r ( i i i ) Pa t ie n ts > 1 2 y e a rs o f ag e : 1 0 m g e v e r y 4 h r ( b ) S i de e f fe c ts m a y in c l u de in c re as e d h ea r t ra te a nd in so m n i a, th o ug h th e o cc u r r en c e of th e s e ef f ec t s a r e le s s th a n t ha t no te d wi t h o r a l ps e ud o ep hed r i ne . ( c ) D r ug in t e ra c t i on s i nc lu d e MA O I s (s e e I I . F. 1 .c ) a n d t r ic y cl ic an t id e p re s s a nt s o wi n g t o a n i nc r ea s e d p re s s o r re sp o ns e. ( d ) C o u ns e li n g t i p . N o t if y a h ea l th c a r e p r o vid e r i f s ym p to m s wo r s en or do n ot i m p ro ve wi t h in 7 d a ys . f . N a sa l s t ri ps ( B re a th e R i g h t ) a re i de a l i n p r e gn a n c y, c h i l d r e n , a nd i n t h e el d e r l y w h o t a ke nu m e r ou s m ed i c a ti o n s. ( 1 ) B an d ag e l ik e i n a pp ea r a nc e , n as al s t r ip s f un c t i o n t o p h ys i c a ll y o pe n th e na sa l p a ss ag es . ( 2 ) S om e s t ri ps a re a v ai la b le wi t h m e nt h ol . ( 3 ) Th e s t r ip s h ou ld b e pl a c e d b e t we e n t he b ri d ge a nd th e ti p o f t h e n os e.
( 4 ) A s t he s t r ip at t em p ts t o r es um e a fl a tt e ne d s ha p e , t he na r es a re pu ll ed i nt o a m o r e o pe ne d s t at e . g . D ec o ng es t io n a l te r na ti v e s (e . g. , C o ri ci di n H B P a n d i ts re l at e d l in e o f p ro d uc ts ) a r e m a rk e te d f o r p a ti e nts wh o a re un a bl e t o ta k e o r al o r t o pi ca l n as al d e co n ge s t a nt s . ( 1 ) C hl o r ph e ni r am in e , a n a n ti h is ta m i n e, is t ypi c a lly t h e in g re d ie n t f ou n d i n t h es e p r o du c ts . ( 2 ) A n ti hi s t a m i ne s a r e ad v a n t ag e ou s si nc e p a ti en t s m a y o n l y e xp e r i e nc e m i ni m a l s i de ef f ec ts ; ho we v e r , an t i hi s t am i ne s f ai l t o ta r ge t t he pr im a r y p ro bl e m , wh i c h is o b st r uc t io n o f th e n as a l p a s s ag es . 2 . An t i h i s ta m in e s a . O ve r vi ew . ( 1 ) F i rs t - g en e r a ti o n a n tih i s t am i ne s h a v e b ee n wid e l y us ed in c o ug h a n d c o l d p r e pa r a ti o ns f o r re li e f f ro m rh i no r r he a a nd sn e e zi n g , b ut ha v e no e ff ec t on n as al c o ng es t io n . ( a ) Th e s e ag e nt s a r e n ot F D A a pp r o ved f or us e in c h i ld r en ag e d 2 - 5 y e a rs wh o a re n o t u n de r th e s up e r v is i on o f a m e di ca l p r o vid e r fo r s u c h t re a tm en t . Ma n y p r o vi de r s a d vi se ag a in s t t re a ti n g c h i ld r e n f o r r hi n o r rh ea and s n e e zin g wi t h t h e c o m m o n c o l d o wi n g t o t he in c re as e d r is k o f a d v e rs e e f f ec ts . ( b ) Th e be s t ad v i c e t o a c a r eg i v e r s ee k i ng t re a tm e n t o f a r un n y n os e f o r a c hi l d < 6 ye a r s o f ag e i s t o s i m p l y l e t i t r u n i ts c o u rs e b ec a u s e th e c ol d i s a s e lf - lim i ti n g v i r al i n f ec ti o n. ( 2 ) S ec o n d- g e ne r a t io n a n t ih is t am in es ha v e no t d e m o ns t r at e d e f fi ca c y i n t h e c om m o n c ol d , a t t ri b ut a ble t o t h e l ack o f s u bs t an t ia l an t ic ho li n e rg ic ac ti v i t y o f th es e p r o du c ts a n d s h o ul d , t her e f o re , no t b e re c o m m end e d i n t h e p at i en t s ee k i ng r el i ef f r o m t he c o m m on c o ld ( Ta b le 32 - 6 ) . b . C om m o n n o np r es c ri p ti o n f i rs t - ge ne r a ti o n a nt i hi s ta m i n es ( 1 ) B r om ph e ni r am in e ( Dim e ta p p ) ( a ) P a ti en t s 6 -1 2 y e ar s of a ge : 2 m g e v e r y 4 - 6 h r ; m a xi m um do se 12 m g /24 h r ( b ) P a ti en t s > 1 2 y e ar s of a ge : 4 m g e v e r y 4 - 6 h r ; m a xi m um do se i2 4 m g/ 24 h r ( 2 ) C hl o r ph e ni r am in e ( Ch l o r - Tr im e to n , A c ti fe d ) i s t h e l ea s t s e d at i ng of t he f i rs t g e n er a ti o n a nt i hi s t am i nes an d i s c on si d er e d a d ru g of ch oi c e in p re g na ncy f o r r h i no r r he a a n d s ne e z in g . P.671
( a ) P a ti en t s 6 -1 2 y e ar s of a ge : 2 m g e v e r y 4 - 6 h r ; m a xi m um do se 12 m g /24 h r ( b ) P a ti en t s > 1 2 y e ar s of a ge : 4 m g e v e r y 4 - 6 h r ; m a xi m um do se 24 m g /24 h r ( 3 ) D ip h en h y d r am in e ( B en a d r y l ) ( a ) P a ti en t s 6 -1 2 y e ar s of a ge : 12 . 5- 2 5 m g e v e r y 4 - 6 hr ; m a xi m um do se 15 0 m g /2 4 hr ( b ) P a ti en t s > 1 2 y e ar s of a ge : 25 - 50 m g e v er y 4 -6 h r ; m a xi m u m d os e 3 0 0 m g /2 4 h r ( 4 ) D e xb r o m p h en i ra m i n e ( D r i xo r a l ) ( a ) P a ti en t s 6 -1 2 y e ar s of a ge : 1 m g e v e r y 4 - 6 h r ; m a xi m um do se 6 m g / 24 h r ( b ) P a ti en t s > 1 2 y e ar s of a ge : 2 m g e v e r y 4 - 6 h ou r s ; m a xi m u m d os e 1 2 m g / 2 4 h r
c . S id e e f f ec t s ( 1 ) O wi n g t o a nt ic h ol in e rg i c p r op e rt i es , f i rs t - ge ner a t io n an ti h is t am i n es m ay c a us e d r y m ou t h ( c o t t on m o ut h) , b lu r r ed v is i on , d i f fi cu l ty i n u ri n at io n , c on st i pa t io n , i r r i ta b il it y , a nd di z z i n es s . ( 2 ) P a ti en t s wi t h na r r o w- a n gl e g l au c o m a an d b e nig n p ro s t a ti c h yp e rt r o ph y s h ou l d a vo i d f i rs t - ge ne r a ti o n a nt i h is ta m i n es b ec a us e t h e a n ti ch o li ne r g ic a c ti v i ti e s m a y e xa c e r b a te th e i r c o n di t ion . ( 3 ) P a ti en t s t ak in g f i rs t -g e n er a ti o n a nt i hi s t am i nes t y p ic al l y e xp e r ie nc e s ed a t io n , s o c a ut i on s h ou l d b e t ak en d r i v i ng o r o pe r a ti ng he a vy m a c h in e r y un t il on e c an i de n ti f y h o w h e o r s h e wi l l r e ac t t o t he i n g re d ie n ts . ( 4 ) Th o ug h fi rs t - ge n e ra t io n an t ih is t am in es c a us e s e da t io n i n t h e a du l t p at ie n t , c h il d re n m a y e xp e r ie nc e p a r ad o xi c al C N S s t im ula t i on . 3 . E xp e c to r a n ts , a ls o k n o wn a s m uc ol yt ic ag e nts , wo r k t o l o os en s p u tu m a n d t hi n b r o nc hi a l s e c re t io ns b y ir r i t a ti ng t he ga st r ic m uco s a a nd s t im ul a ti n g s e c re t i on s o f t h e re sp i ra t o r y t ra c t . Th is in c re as es t he v o lu m e of t h e r es pi r a to r y f lu i d a nd t hi ns m uc u s. Th e r ef o re , it is lo g ic al t o us e e xp e c t o ra nt s on l y to t re a t a pr o du c ti v e co u gh . Th e o n l y a v a i la bl e e xp e c t o r a nt is g u ai f en es i n, app r o v e d f o r p a ti en t s a ge d 2 ye a rs a n d o ld e r . Cl in ic a l e f fi c ac y o f g u ai f en es in as an e xp e c t o r an t l ac k s de m o ns t r at e d d a t a. Th u s s o m e na m e br a n ds , s uc h a s R o bi t us sin , ha v e r em o ved gu a if e ne s in as t h e a c ti v e in g re d ie n t. a . D os in g ( 1 ) A du l ts ( a ) S yr u p: 20 0 - 40 0 m g ev e r y 4 h r ; m a xi m um d os e 2 .4 g /d a y ( b ) E xt e n d e d- r e le as e t a bl e t : 6 00 - 1 20 0 m g e v e r y 12 h r ; m a xi m u m d os e 2 . 4 g / d a y ( 2 ) P ed i at r ic ( a ) P a ti en t s 2 -5 y e a rs of a g e: 50 - 1 00 m g e v e r y 4 h r ; m a xi m um do se 30 0 m g /d a y ( b ) P a ti en t s 6 - 12 y e a rs of a ge : 10 0 -2 0 0 m g e v e r y 4 h r; m a xi m u m d os e 1 .2 g / da y b . S i de e ff e c ts . G ua i fe ne s in is g e ne r al l y we l l to le r a t ed , b u t s i d e e f fe ct s m a y i n cl ud e n a us ea an d v om it i n g, di z zi n es s , h ea d ac he , r as h, o r d ia r r he a . c . C ou n se l i ng t i ps ( 1 ) F or en h an c e d e f f ic ac y i n t he l o os en i ng of m uc us o r p hl e gm i n t h e l ung s , p a ti en t s s h ou l d d ri nk an am pl e am o un t o f wa t e r wh e n t ak i n g g ua i fe n es in . ( 2 ) I f s ym p t om s wo r s e n (d e v e l op m e n t o f f e ve r , r as h , o r u n r em it t in g h e ad ac h e ) o r n o i m p ro ve m e n t is no t ed in 7 d a ys , c o ns ul t a m e di c al p ro vi d e r. 4 . An t i t u s si ve s ar e re c om m e n de d f o r a no n p ro duc t i ve c ou g h. a . D e xt r o m et h o rp ha n , t ho u g h a re la t i ve o f m o rp hin e , i s a no nn a rc o ti c , h a vi n g n o a n al g es ic or ad d ic ti v e p ro p e r ti es , e xc e p t in o v er do s e. I t is co ns i de r ed eq ui p o te n t t o c o de i ne as a c o ug h s up pr e s s a nt , ho we v e r , d at a de m on st r a ti n g i ts e f f ic ac y a s a c o ug h s up p r es s a nt is l a c k i ng . Ba se d o n th is la ck o f da t a , c l i ni c i an s a r e r e c om m e nd in g a g ai ns t th e us e o f d e xt r o m et h o rph a n a s a c o ug h s up p re s s a n t , a nd m a n y m an u f ac tu r e rs ar e r e s po nd i ng b y ei th e r c han g in g th e a c t i v e i n g re di en t t o a f i r s t ge n e ra t io n a n ti hi s tam i ne , wh ic h h a s e ff ic ac y d a ta as a co u gh s u pp r es s a n t , o r b y a d di n g t he fi r s t g en e ra t i on an t ih is t am in e t o the d e xt r o m e t ho r p ha n -c on ta i ni n g p r o du c t.
( 1 ) D e xt r o m et h o rp ha n wo r k s c e n tr a ll y i n t he m e du l la t o i nc re a s e th e c ou gh t h r es h ol d . ( 2 ) D os i ng ( a ) P a ti en t s 2 -5 y e a rs of a g e: 2 .5 - 5 m g e v e r y 4 hr o r 7. 5 m g e v e r y 6 -8 h r ( o n e q u a r te r o f ad ul t do s e ) ; m a xi m u m d os e 30 m g /d a y ( b ) P a ti en t s 6 - 12 y e a rs of a ge : 5- 1 0 m g e v e r y 4 hr o r 15 m g e v e r y 6 - 8 h r ,; e xt e n d e d - re l ea s e fo r m 30 m g t wi c e d ai l y ( ha lf o f a d ul t do se ) ; m a xi m um 60 m g / da y ( c ) P a ti en t s > 1 2 y ea r s of a ge : 10 - 20 m g e v er y 4 h r o r 3 0 m g e v e r y 6 -8 h r, e xt e n d e d - re l ea s e fo r m is 6 0 m g t wi c e d a il y ; m a xi m um do se 1 20 m g /d a y P.672
( 3 ) A d ve rs e e f fe c t s a r e no t ge n e ra ll y s ee n a t t ypic a l d os es , b u t c o n s t ip a tio n , G I u p se t , a bd o m i na l d is c o m f o r t , a nd di zz i n e s s m a y o c c u r . ( 4 ) D e xt r o m et h o rp ha n s ho u ld no t be r ec om m e nd ed f o r p at i en ts t ak in g a n MA O I ( N a r d il o r P a rn a te ) o r wh o a r e wi t h i n 2 we ek s o f di s c o nt i nu a ti o n o f t he se ag e n ts b e ca us e th e c om bi na t io n m a y c a us e s er o to n e rg ic s y n d ro m e . ( 5 ) R e po r ts of ab us e o f d e xt r o m e th o r ph an in powd e r f o r m ( c a ps u le s ) f o r a eu p ho r ic e f f ec t h a v e re c e n tl y i nc re a s e d i n t h e a do l esc e nt p o p ul at i on in th e U ni t ed S t a t es . Th o u g h a d v e rs e e f fe c ts o f de xt r o m e t ho r ph a n a re g e ne r al l y be n ig n i n re com m e n de d d o se s, b ra i n d am ag e , s ei z u r e s , lo ss of c o ns c i ou s n e s s , i r r eg ul a r h e a rt be at , a nd d e a th ha v e be e n r e po r ted wi t h ab u se of th e d r u g. b . C o de in e i s a s c h e du l e C - V d r ug in a c o u gh s yr u p , th us it s s al e m a y b e r e s t ri ct e d i n s om e s t at es . ( 1 ) C o de in e , l ik e d e xt r om e th o r ph an , wo r k s c e n t ra l l y in th e m ed u ll a t o i nc r e a se th e c o ug h t h r es ho l d. ( 2 ) D os i ng of c o de i ne is n o t re c o m m en d ed fo r ch il d r en < t h e a ge of 6 y ea rs . ( a ) P a ti en t s 6 -1 2 y e ar s of a ge : 5- 1 0 m g e v e r y 4 -6 h r ; m a xi m um do se 60 m g / d a y ( b ) P a ti en t s > 1 2 y e ar s of a ge : 10 - 20 m g e v er y 4 -6 h r ; m a xi m u m d os e 1 2 0 m g /d a y ( 3 ) A d ve rs e e f fe c t s i nc lud e d ro ws i n es s , na us ea an d vom i ti n g, e xc i t em en t , a b do m i n al d i sc om fo r t , o r wo r s en in g/ a g g ra v a t io n o f c on s ti pa ti o n . A n o ve r d os e o f c od ei n e m a y c a us e d ea t h f r om re s pi r at o r y d ep r es si o n a nd c a r di o v a s c ul a r c ol la ps e . Ca ut i o n s h ou l d b e us e d i n r ec om m e nd i ng th is p ro du c t f o r p a t ie n ts wi t h p ul m o n a r y d i se as e o r s h o rt n es s o f b re a t h. c . Fi r st ge n er a ti o n a nt i his t am in es a re on e o f th e fe w a g e n ts us ed fo r c o ugh s u pp r es s i o n t ha t h a v e de m on s t r a te d e f fi c ac y . For t h is re as o n, m a n y c o ugh f o r m u l at io n s n o w c o n ta i n a fi r s t g en e ra t io n a n ti h is t am in e . ( 1 ) A s wi t h de xt r o m e th o rp h a n a nd c o de in e , f i rs t ge n e ra t io n a n ti h is ta m i n es e xh i b i t a n a n t it us si v e e ff ec t b y a c tin g c e nt r a ll y i n t he m e du ll a to s u pp r es s t h e co u gh t h r es ho l d. ( 2 ) Fi r s t g en e ra t io n a n ti hi s ta m i n es a r e n o t r ec om m e nd e d i n ch il d r en < 6 ye a r s o f a g e a s a n a nt i tu s s i v e . ( 3 ) A d ve rs e e f fe c t s i nc lud e s om n ol e nc e; s e da t io n; a nd an t ic ho l in e rg ic e ff ec t s, s u c h a s d r y m ou t h, bl u r re d v is i o n , d if f ic ul t y in u ri n at i on, a nd co ns t ip a ti on . d . C am p ho r an d m en t ho l a r e t h e o nl y F D A - ap p r ov e d t op i c a l a nt i tu s s i v es .
( 1 ) To p ic al oi n tm en t s c on t a in in g 4 . 7% - 5 .3 % c am p h o r o r 2 . 6% - 2 .8 % m en th o l a r e F D A a p p ro ve d fo r al le v i a ti o n o f c o ug h . L ik e wi s e, s t e am in h al an t s c o n ta i ni n g 6. 2 % c am p ho r o r 3 .2 % m en t hol a re a pp r o v ed fo r us e i n s t ea m v a p o ri ze r s . ( 2 ) Me n t h ol o r c am ph o r o i n tm en t m a y be ap pl i ed a s a th ic k l a y e r r u bb ed in t o th e t h r o at an d c he s t. A wa rm , dr y c lo t h m a y b e u sed t o c o v e r t he a re a . A p pli c at i on m a y b e r ep ea t ed up t o t h re e ti m es d a il y o r a s d i re c t e d b y s up e r vis in g p h y s i c i an . ( 3 ) A m e nt h ol an d c am ph o r pa tc h m a y be ap pl i ed t o t h e t h ro a t o r c he s t of p a ti en t s > 2 ye a rs o f a ge . I f th e p a ti e n t h as s en si t i v e s k i n, th e pa tc h m a y be ap p li ed t o c l ot h in g c o v e ri ng t he th ro a t o r c h es t , b ut t he pa tc h m a y no t a d he r e t o s om e t y pe s o f p o l yes t e r c l o th i ng . Cl o th in g s h ou l d b e l ef t l o os e s o t ha t v a po r s r ea c h t he n o s e an d m o ut h . Th e p at c h s h ou l d b e re m o ve d a n d a n e w p a tc h a p pl i ed , i f n e ed e d, u p to t h r e e t im es d a il y . ( 4 ) Me n t h ol o r c am ph o r s t ea m i nh a la n ts m a y be a d d ed di r ec tl y t o t h e wa te r ( 1 t a b le sp o on pe r 1 qu a r t of wa t e r ) in a h o t st e am va p o ri ze r , b o wl , o r b as in . V a p o rs s h ou l d b e b re a th e d i n. Th i s p r oc es s m a y b e r e pea t e d u p t o t h re e ti m e s da i l y or as d i r ec t ed b y s up e r v is i ng p r o v i de r . ( 5 ) I n 2 00 2 , t he F D A ru led t ha t al l t op ic a l o r i n ha la n t p r o du c t s c on t ai ni n g c am p ho r o r m e n th o l m u s t wa r n p at i e nt s t h at th e i r us e n e a r a fl a m e , i n h o t wa t e r , or i n a m ic r o wa v e o v e n m a y c aus e th e p r od uc t s t o s pl a tte r a nd c a us e se r i ou s b u rn s to th e u s e r. ( 6 ) Me n t h ol ( 5 -1 0 m g ) is a l s o ef f ec t i v e as an an t i tu s s i ve a va i la b le in or a l lo z e n g es o r co m p r es s e d ta bl e ts . Me n t h o l s t im ul a te s c ol d s e ns o r y re ce p to r s , p ro d uc i ng a s e ns at i on of c o ol n es s a nd a l oc a l a ne s t h et ic e ff ec t on th e re s p i ra t o r y p a s s a ge wa y s , t h us en g en d e ri ng a s oo th i ng , an t it us s i v e e ff ec t . 5 . I n t ra n as a l n o r ma l s al i n e , a v a il ab l e i n d r op s an d s p r a ys , m a y be us ed t o m o is t en n a sa l m em b ra ne s a n d as s is t in th e re m o va l o f e nc r us t ed se c re ti o ns . a . Typ i c al us e o f m os t i nt r a n as al no rm a l s al in e p ro d uc ts is 2 -3 s p ra ys in ea c h n o st r il as ne e de d . P.673
b . S om e p r od uc t s m a y be us e d a s a s p ra y wh e n h e ld up r i gh t , o r a s d r op s wh e n h el d u p si d e d o wn . c . In t r an as al n or m a l s al in e m a y be r ec om m e n de d f o r u s e in al l p a ti e nt s , in c lu di n g i n f an ts an d p r e gn an t wo m e n, un l es s di r ec t ed o the r wi s e b y a ph y s ic i an . 6 . L oc a l a ne s t he t i cs in t h e fo rm o f l o z en g es a n d s p ra y s m a y be us e fu l i n t h e a l le vi a ti o n o f a s o r e t h roa t . Mo u t h wa s he s h a v e be e n re co m m en d ed fo r use i n t he p a st ; ho we v e r , o wi n g t o lo c al i z e d ac t io n i n t h e o ra l c a vi t y , t h e p ha r y n g ea l wa l l m a y n o t b e a f f ec te d b y t h es e p r o du c ts . a . B ec au s e a s o re th r oa t i s t h e in i ti a l s ym p t om o f m an y o t he r i l ln es se s , c ar e sh o ul d b e ta ke n to r ec om m e nd p r o du c ts fo r s o re t hr o at a l le vi a ti o n o nl y t o p a ti ent s wh o h a ve c o nc u r re n t s y m p t om s o f t h e c om m o n c o l d. I f t he th r o at is re d a n d i nf l am e d, u n us u al l y pa in f ul , or ha s p e rs is t ed fo r s e ve r al day s , t he pa t ie n t s ho ul d b e r e f e rr e d t o a p r im a r y -c a re p ro v i de r f o r f u rt h e r e va lu a ti on .
b . Th r o a t s p r a y s c on t ai nin g ph e no l ( C h lo r as e pt ic ) a r e a p pr o ve d d o wn t o ag e 2 a nd t h os e c o nt ai n in g b e n z oc a i ne ( C ep a c o l ) a r e a pp r ove d d o wn t o a ge 3. c . Th r oa t lo z e ng e s , ap p ro v e d fo r pa t ie n ts ol de r th a n 2 y e a rs , m a y b e u s ed e v e r y 2 h r . C ou ns e l c a r e gi v e r s th a t l o z e ng es a re po t en t ia l c h ok in g h a za r ds i n you n g c h il d re n . 7 . An a l g es i cs a re oc c a s i o na l l y i n di c a t ed in th e tre a tm e nt o f co m m on c o ld s y m pt om s wh e n s o re th r o at , m y a l gia , an d /o r he a da ch e e xi s t. A s pi r in , a c e t am in o ph e n, i b up r o fe n , o r n a p ro xe n s o d iu m m a y b e re co m m end e d , wi t h co ns i de r at i on g i v e n t o p a t ie n t a ll e rg i es , c on c u r re n t m ed ic a ti o ns a n d d is ea s e s ta t es , a nd ag e . 8 . C o mb i na t i o n p r o du c ts a . N um e ro us p ro d uc ts a re a v a il ab l e t ha t c o nt a in va r i o us c om b in a ti on s o f a n t ih is t am in es , d ec o ng es t an t s , an a lg es ic s , e xp e c t o ra n ts , a n d a nt i tu ss i v es . C e rt a in p r o du c t n am e d es ig n at i on s h e lp id e nt i f y th e i ng r ed i en t s. ( 1 ) N ig h t ti m e an d P. M. u s u al l y s i gn i f y th a t t he p ro d uc t c o nt ai n s di p he n h yd r a m i ne , c h lo r ph e ni r am in e , o r d o x y l a m in e . ( 2 ) S in us us ua l l y s ig n if i es a d ec o ng es t an t (e . g. , p s eu d oe ph e d ri ne , ph e n yl e ph r i ne ) a n d /o r an an al g es ic (e . g. , ac e ta m i n op he n ) . ( 3 ) C o ug h u s u al l y s i gn i fie s th a t t he p ro d uc t c on ta i ns de xt r o m e th o r ph an , b u t s om e a l so c o nt a in gu a if e ne s i n i n c om bi n at i on wi t h d e xt r o m et h or p ha n . ( 4 ) N o nd r o ws y , A . M. , a nd d ay ti m e us u al l y i n di ca te t ha t th e p r od u ct c o nt a in s a d e co n ge s t a nt ( e. g . , ps e ud o e ph ed r i ne , p h en y l ep h ri n e ) a nd t y p ic al l y do es no t c o n ta in a n an t ih is t am in e . ( 5 ) A ll e rg y s ig ni f ie s t h at t h e p r o du c t c o n ta in s a n a n t ih is t am in e . ( 6 ) C ol d a n d f lu in d ic at e t h a t t h e p ro d uc t m a y c o nt a i n a n y c om bi n at i on of i n g re d ie n ts , i nc lu d in g a d e c o n ge st a nt , an t ih is t am i n e , c ou g h s up p re s s an t, a nd / o r a n t ip yr e t ic . b . C om b in a ti on p ro d uc ts m a y be us ef u l f o r si m p l ic i t y of do s i n g a nd ad h ere n c e if p a t ie n ts a r e e xp e r i e nc ing a v a ri e t y o f s y m p to m s t h a t c an be al le v i a te d b y o n e p r o du c t. Fo r e xa m pl e , i f a p at i en t h as a d r y , ha c ki n g , n on p ro d uc ti ve c o u gh , h e a da c h e , a nd na s a l c ong e s t i on , h e o r s h e m a y be n e fi t f r om a c om bi na t ion p r od uc t o f de xt r o m e t ho r ph a n, ac e t am i no p he n , a nd ps eu do e p he d ri n e. H o we v e r , it wo u l d b e a s h ot g un ap p r oa c h to r ec o m m e nd a p r od uc t c on t ai n in g a n a n ti h is ta m i n e an d e xp e c t o r an t i n c om bi n at io n wi t h o t he r in g re d ie n ts f o r th is pa t ie n t. c . D is ad v a n ta g es to c om b i na t io n p r o du c t s o cc u r wh e n p r e vi ou s l y t r ea t ed s y m p to m s r e s ol ve , b u t t h e p at i en t c o n t in ue s t o tr e at o th e r s ym p t om s wi t h t he s am e p r o du c t. Th i s ad ds un n ec es s a r y m e di c a t io n (s ) to th e re g im e n, in c re as i ng th e ri s k o f ad ve r s e e ve n ts . C om bi n at i on pr od u c t s c an al so be di f fi c u lt t o re c o m m en d wh e n s e le c ti n g t he a p p ro p r ia t e p ro d uc t f o r pa t i en ts wi t h c o e xi s ti n g m e d ic al c o n di ti o ns . 9 . C o mp l em e n ta r y t h e r a p y a . Zi n c gl u c o na t e 's e ff ec t s on th e d u r at io n or s e ve r i t y of t he c om m o n c ol d h a v e b e e n st u di e d. R es ul t s h av e b e en m i xe d , le n di n g to wh a t r em ai ns a c on t r ove r s i al s u bj ec t . ( 1 ) C u r re n t l it e r at u re de s c r i be s se v e r a l p os s i bl e m ec h an is m s b y wh ic h zin c m a y e xe r t i t s e f fe c t, bu t s uc h m ea ns r em ai n u nc l ea r .
( 2 ) D es p it e i ts c o n t ro v e rs i al us e, a n um be r o f z i nc p ro d uc ts ha v e be e n f o rm u la t ed , i n cl ud i ng ta b le ts , c a ps ule s , c he wi n g gu m s , l o zeng e s , na s al g e ls , n as a l s pr a ys , an d n a sa l s wa b s . P.674
( 3 ) I n st u di es s h o wi n g t he e f fi c a c y o f z i nc , f o rm ula t i on s we r e b eg u n wi t h i n 2 4 - 48 hr o f t he on s e t o f s y m p to m s . Lo z e n ge s a re r ec om m e n d ed e ver y 2 h r f o r t he d u r a ti on o f t h e c ol d , a nd t he na s a l s p r a y is r ec om m e nd e d f ou r t im es d a il y. ( 4 ) S id e e f fe c ts re p o rt e d wi t h p r od uc t s c o n ta i ni ng zi n c i nc lu d e n au se a , G I u p se t , a n d u n pl ea s a n t t as t e . b . V i ta m i n C . O nl y a s m a l l n um be r o f s t u di es hav e d em o ns t ra t ed t he ab ili t y o f vi t a m i n C ( d os e > 1 g p er d a y ) to r ed uc e t h e f r equ e nc y o r s e ve ri t y o f t he c om m o n c o ld . Th e c li ni c a l s ig n if ic a n c e of t he r es ul ts of t he s e s tu di e s r em ai ns qu es t io n ab le . c . Ec h in ac ea ha s b e en us e d as a p o pu la r r em ed y f o r th e c om m o n co l d s i nc e th e l a te 1 8 0 0s . U n f or t un a te l y , c ur r e n t l it e r at u r e d oe s n ot g i ve de f in i ti ve s u pp o r ti ve e v i de nc e f o r th e e f f ic ac y o f E c h i na c ea in th e p r e ve nt i on an d / o r t r ea tm e nt o f t he c om m o n c ol d . ( 1 ) O bs t ac l es i n s tu d y i ng e c h i na ce a l i e in t he fa c t t h a t t h re e d i ff e re n t s pe ci e s o f E c h in ac e a e xi s t , e ac h wit h a d if f e re n t p h y t oc he m ic a l co m p o s i ti o n. Th e c om p os it i on m a y f ur t h er be al t e re d , de p e nd in g o n th e p a rt o f th e pl an t us ed an d t h e t im e o f y e a r t h e p l an t i s h a r v es t ed . ( 2 ) C u r re n t l it e r at u re s u gg e s t s t h at f or ec hi n ac ea t o r et a in an im m u no s t im u l an t e f f ec t , i t s ho ul d n o t b e ta k en fo r lo n ge r th a n 2 -3 we e k s at a t im e . G . E xc l u s io ns t o s e l f -t r ea t m e n t o f t h e c om m o n c o l d 1 . F e ver > 1 0 1. 5 ° F 2 . C he s t p ai n 3 . S ho r t ne ss o f b re a th 4 . W or se n in g o f s y m pt om s o r d e v e lo pm e nt o f a dd i t io na l s y m pt om s 5 . C on c ur r e nt un d e rl y i ng c h ro n ic c a rd i op ul m o n a ry d i s e as e s 6 . A I D S o r c h ro n ic i m m un o s u p pr e s s an t t h e ra p y 7 . F ra i l p at i en ts o f a d v an c ed ag e
III. ALLERGIC RHINITIS A. I n t r o d u c t io n . Rh in i ti s i s a n i nf l am m a ti o n o f n as a l m e m b r a ne s, c h a ra c te r i ze d b y t h e fo u r c a r d in al s ym p tom s : n as al c o ng es t io n , r hi n o r rh e a, s n ee z i n g, an d n a s a l i t ch i ng . 1 . B et we e n 20 an d 40 m il l io n p e op le in t he U ni t ed S t a t e s a re a ff ec t ed b y a l le r g ic r h i ni t is : 1 0 -3 0 % o f t h e ad u l t p op ul a ti o n a nd 40 % o f c h il d r en . Al le r g ic rh in it i s t yp i ca l l y d e v e lo ps be f o re a g e 2 0, bu t it s f r eq u en cy i n c re as es wi t h ag e u n til a d ul t ho o d . 2 . Tr e a tm en t e xp e n di t ure s fo r a l le r gi c r h in i ti s a nd l os s o f p ro d uc t i vit y o wi n g to a b se nc e fr om wo r k or s c h o ol a re r ep o r te d t o b e s l i gh t l y o v e r $ 5 b il li o n. 3 . R is k f ac t or s f o r a ll e r gic r hi ni t is in cl ud e th e f o llo wi n g : a . F am i l y hi s to r y o f a to py b . H i gh e r s oc io ec on om ic c la s s
c . E xp o s u re to in d oo r a l le r g en s ( a ni m a ls an d d ust m i t es ) d . P os i ti v e al le r g y s k in pr i c k te s t 4 . A ll e rg ic r hi ni t is m a y be c l as s i f ie d a s s ea s o n al , p e r en ni a l, ep is o di c , o r o cc u pa t io n al . Se as o na l a n d p e re n ni al , o r a c om bi n a ti on o f t he t wo , a re the m o s t f r e q ue n t c l as s i f ic a ti on s . a . S ea so n al al le r g ic rh in it i s . S y m pt om s m a y o c c u r wi t h r e pe t it i v e a n d p r ed ic t ab l e s e as on a l s y m p t om s . b . P e re n ni al al l er g ic rh i ni t is . S y m p t om s pe r s i s t t hr o u gh o ut t he ye a r wi t h o ut r e ga r d t o ch an g es i n s e as on s . c . C om bi n at io n s e as on al a n d p e re nn i al al le r g ic rh i n i t is . S ym p to m s pe r s i s t t h r o ug ho u t t h e y e a r wi t h s e as on a l e xa c e r ba t io ns . B . E t i o lo g y. Th e r e a r e f iv e m ai n tr i gg e rs fo r al le rg i c r hi n it is : po ll e ns , m old s , d us t m i te s , a ni m a l a ll e rg e ns , a n d i ns ec t a l le r ge ns . The s e a ll e rg e ns tr i gg e r a n i m m u no gl o bu l in E (I g E ) m e di a te d i m m un ol o gi c a l r e a c t i on . P.675
1 . S ea so n al al le r g ic rh in it i s i s t yp ic al l y c a us ed b y p o ll en s a n d m o l ds . 2 . P e re n ni al al le r g ic rh i ni t is is t ypi c a ll y c au s e d by d u s t m i t es , m ol ds , a n d a n im al a l le r g en s . C . P a t h og e ne s is . Pa t ie nt s be c o m e s e ns it i z e d t o a l le r g en s; on su bs e qu ent e xp o s u r e , t he al l er g en s tr i g ge r a g en e ti c a ll y p r ede t e rm i ne d i m m un e r e s p on s e t ha t r e s ul ts in th e s y m pt om s o f al l er g ic rh i ni t is . A l le r gi c rh in i ti s m a y th en be c h a ra ct e ri z e d b y e a rl y - or l a te - ph as e re sp o ns es . 1 . E a rl y - p ha s e r es po ns e a . R ee xp o s u r e t o t h e a lle r g en t ri g ge r s m a s t c e l ls a n d e os in o ph il s t o g e ner a t e i n f la m m at o r y m e di a to r s (e . g . , P G D 2 an d l e uk ot r ien e s ) a nd r el ea se p re f o rm e d m e di a to r s ( e .g . , h is t am ine , t r y p ta se , c h y m a se , a nd k i n in og e na s e ) . b . G e ne r a ti o n a nd re l ea s e o f t h e i nf la m m a to r y m ed i a to r s r es ul t s i n i nc r ea s e d va s c ul a r p e rm ea bi l it y , m u c os al ed em a , a nd wa t e ry r h i n or r h ea . Di l at e d b loo d ves s el s c a us e s i n us oi d al fi ll i ng an d th e s ub s eq ue n t n as al c on g es ti o n. c . S en so r y n er v e s a r e s tim u la t ed , e n ge n de r in g a s e ns at i on of na s al i t c h , a n d t h us s n ee zi n g. 2 . La t e -p h as e r es p on s e ( a ) Ma s t - c e ll - d e ri v e d m ed i a to r s l ea d t o a m i g ra t io n an d a ct i va ti o n o f e os in o p hi ls , n e u t ro ph i ls , a nd ba s o p hil s , T l ym p ho c yt es , a nd m a c r op ha g es wi t h in th e na s al m uc o sa . b . D u ri n g t he 4 -8 h r a f ter a ll e r ge n e xp o s u r e, th ese c e l ls b ec om e ac ti v a t ed a n d r e l ea se in f la m m a to r y m ed i a to r s , p ro vi di n g r e oc c ur r e nc e o f in i ti al s ym p to m s , wi t h t h e p r e do m i n an t s y m pt om o f c on g es ti o n. D . S i g ns a nd s ym p t o m s. Th e f ou r c l as s ic s ym p to m s o f a ll e rg ic r hi ni t is i nc l ud e r h i no r r he a , n as al c o n ge s t i o n, s n ee zi n g, an d n a sal p ru r i tu s . N as a l p r ur i tu s i s t yp i ca l l y n o t a s y m p to m o f t he c om m o n c ol d . Be c a u se c h il d re n o f t en c a nno t ve r b a li z e t he s y m p to m s o f al l er g ic rh i ni t is , i t i s im p o rt a nt to r ec og n i z e t he si g ns . 1 . R ep e rc us s i o ns of na s a l pr u r it us in c l u de th e fol l o wi n g:
a . G o th ic a rc h , a s te a d y u p wa r d m o v e m e n t o f t h e u p pe r li p a nd t ee t h wh i c h m a y r e s ul t i n a n o v e r bi t e , as a r es u lt of t he “ al le r gi c s a l u te , ” c ha r ac t e ri z e d b y t h e c o ns ta n t u p wa r d ru b bi n g o f th e n os e wi t h t h e p alm o f t he ha n d. b . A ll e r gi c c re as e : a v is ib l e t r a ns v e rs e l in e a p pea r i ng be t we e n th e t i p a nd t he b r i dg e o f th e n os e , c au s e d b y c o ns ta n t r u bb in g . 2 . O p ht h al m i c c o n di t io ns p r es e nt in th e i n di v i d ua l wi t h a ll e r gi c r hi n it is in c lu d e a l le r g ic s hi n er s , a d a rk en i ng o f t he lo we r e y e l id a t t r ib u ta bl e to c h r on ic na s al o b st r uc t io n , a nd Mo r g a n l i ne s ( a ls o k no wn a s t he D e n n ie s i gn ) , wh ic h a r e s e en as p l ea t s u nd e r t h e e y es , run n in g p a r al le l to th e l o we r e y e li d m ar g in s . 3 . I nd i vid u al s wi t h al l e rgi c rh in i ti s m a y a ls o e xp e r i e nc e f a ti g ue , i r r it a bi li t y, a nd m a la is e . O wi n g t o t he s e s y m p to m s , a ll e r gi c r hi n iti s m a y be a co n t ri b ut i ng f a c to r to p o o r sc h oo l wo r k i n c hi ld re n af f li c t e d b y t hi s c on di t i o n. E . T r e at m en t . Th e p r im ar y g o a l i n t he t re a tm en t o f al l er g ic rh i ni t is i s t o co n t r ol th e s ym p to m s wi t h ou t a l te r ing t he pa t ie n t 's ab i li t y t o f u nc t io n . Tr ea t m e n t o pt io n s i nc lu d e e n vi r on m e n ta l c on t r ol , no n p re s c r ip t io n p h a rm ac ol o gi c t r e at m e n t, an d p r esc r i pt io n t r e a tm en t . Th is s ec t io n fo c us es on en v i r on m e n ta l c on t r ol an d n o np r es c r i pti o n t r e a tm en t ( Ta bl es 32 - 3 an d 32 - 4 ). 1 . Th e be s t t re a tm en t rem a in s a vo id a nc e o f t h e a l le r g en ( s) , on c e de t e rm i n ed , t h o ug h t h is i s s om et im es i m p r ac t ic al . En vi r o nm ent a l c on t r ol s d i re c t e d t o wa r d p a r ti c ul a r a ll e rg e ns c an b e th e fi rs t in i ti at i v e to wa r d re s o l ut i on of s ym p tom s . 2 . A nt i hi s t am i ne s , b ot h f ir s t a n d s ec on d g en e r at i on , a re th e m ai ns t a y of t re a tm e nt f o r al le r g ic rh in i ti s . a . Fi r s t- g en e ra t io n a n ti h is t am in es a re li m i t ed in co n t in uo u s t r ea tm e nt o f all e r gi c r h i ni t is o wi n g t o t he i r f r eq u e nt do si n g a nd re l at e d s ed a ti o n. Th e s e ag e nt s r e m ai n t h e l e as t e xp e n s i v e t r ea tm e nt op t io n a t th is ti m e ; h o we v e r , t hi s a s p ec t m us t be we i g h e d a ga i ns t t h e a bi lit y t o r em ai n a le r t fo r wo rk an d s ch o ol ac ti v i t ie s . ( 1 ) O wi n g t o t he i r l ip o ph il i c i t y , fi r s t - ge n e ra t io n a nt i h is ta m i n es e as i l y c r os s t h e b l oo d - b ra in ba r r ie r , c au s i n g s ig ni f ic an t s e da t io n . Th o u g h p a ti e nt s m a y n o t n o ti c e s e da t io n , s tu di es h a v e c le a r l y de m o ns t r at e d a red u c t i on in in t el le c tu al and m o t o r f u nc t io n i n p a ti e nt s t ak i ng f i rs t -g e ne r at i on an t ih i st a m i n es . P.676
Table 32-3. Environmental Control Measures for Indoor and Outdoor Allergens
Allergen Dust Mites
Environmental Control Measure Indoor Encase bedding or wash at least weekly in hot (130°F) water Remove carpets (especially in bedrooms) Remove upholstered furniture Remove stuffed animals from home that cannot be laundered
Animal Dander
Avoid pets with fur if established allergen
Some patients are allergic to long-haired dogs but are not affected by shorthaired breeds Cockroaches
Use of pesticides or professional extermination
Mold
Check houseplants often for mold growth; move outdoors if source of problem Use of HEPA filter Lower household humidity Vent food preparation areas and bathrooms Repair damp basements and crawl spaces Apply fungicide to obvious molded areas Outdoor
Pollen
Avoid outdoor activities when pollen counts are high
Close house and car windows HEPA filters HEPA, high-efficiency particulate air.
( 2 ) C hi l d re n a nd t he el der l y a r e m os t s us c e pt i bl e t o t he ad ve r s e ef f ec ts of a n t ih is t am in es ; th us th e y a r e a t i nc r e as ed r is k of e xp e r i e nc i ng ni g ht m a r es , a n xi e t y , r e s tl es sn es s , u nu s u a l e xc i te m e n t , o r i r r it a bi li t y . b . S ec o nd - ge n er a ti o n a nt i h is ta m i n es a r e a d va nt ag e o us b ec a us e o f t h ei r pr e f e re n ti a l p e r ip h e ra l H 1 - r ec ep t o r b in d in g . Th is a l lo ws f o r m in i m a l C N S e f fe ct s , m i n im a l s e da t i ve e f fe c t s , a nd m in i m a l a n ti c h ol i ne r gi c a c t iv i t y. 3 . O r a l d ec on ge s ta n ts a re e f fe c t i v e i n re li e vi ng s y m p t om s o f n as al c o n ges t io n b u t h a ve no ef f ec t o n o t he r s y m p to m s o f al le r g ic rh in i t is , s uc h as r hi n or r h ea , p r u ri t us , o r s n ee zi n g. a . B ec au s e t re a tm e nt of a l le r g ic rh in i ti s i s f o r e xt e n d ed pe r io ds of t im e, or a l d e co n ge s t a nt s s ho ul d b e u s e d fo r n a s a l c on ge s tio n r at h er t ha n t o pi c a l d e co n ge s t a nt s o wi n g to th e po t en t ia l f o r rh in i ti s m e di c a m e n to s a . b . Th e c om b in a ti o n o f a d e c o n ge st a nt an d a n a n ti h is t am in e h as p ro v e n t o b e a n o p t im al t re a tm en t re g im en f o r a ll e rg ic r hi ni t is . c . C on si d er a ti o n m u s t b e t a k e n i n to ac c o un t wh e n r e c o m m en d in g p r od uc t s c o nt a in in g ps eu do e ph e dr i n e t o a d ol es c e n ts a n d a d ul t s p a rt ic i pa t in g i n s po r t s p r o g ra m s , b ec a us e o f t he “ d op in g ” e f fe c t o f t h es e a ge n ts . 4 . O cu l a r a nt i hi s t am i ne s m a y be us e d f o r t he t re at m en t of op h th a lm ic c ond i t io ns a ss o ci at e d wi t h a ll e rg ic rh i ni t is , t h ou g h t he i r u se h a s b ee n c la ss i fi ed b y the F D A as l e ss th an e ff ec t i v e o wi n g t o a la ck of d at a d em o ns t r at i ng c l in ic al e ff ec t i v en e s s . a . C u r re n tl y t he r e a r e t h re e oc ul a r a n ti hi s ta m i ne s a v a i la bl e o n th e m a rk et : p h e ni r am in e , a nt a z o li n e, a n d k e t o ti f en . Ph e ni r am i n e a nd a nt a zo li ne a re on l y a va i la b le in c om b in a ti o n wi t h n a ph a zo li ne ( a d ec on g es t an t ) . K e to t i fe n ( Z adi t o r ) b e ca m e a v ai l ab le as a no n p re s c r ip t io n p r o du ct in 2 0 07 an d i s t he on l y a va i la b le o c ul a r a n ti hi s ta m i ne t ha t d o es n o t c on t ai n a de c on g es t an t . b . A vo id t he us e o f o c u lar a n ti hi s ta m i n es i n g la u co m a, as pu pi l d i la t io n m a y c au s e a n gl e -c l os u re gl au c o m a. c . Si d e e f fe c t s m a y i nc l ud e bu r ni n g, st i ng in g , i tc hi n g , f o re ig n bo d y s e ns at io n , d r y e ye , li d e d em a, an d p u pil d il a ti on . 5 . C r om ol y n s o di um ( e .g. , N as a lc r om ) i s b es t u s ed as a p r e ven t i v e m ea s ur e f o r t he s ym p to m s o f al le r g ic rh in i t is b u t m a y a ls o b e u sed as t re a tm e nt fo r al l s ym p to m s
e xc e p t n as al c o ng es t io n . H o we v e r , m a xi m um b e ne f i t, wh e n us ed as tr e a tm e nt , wi l l n o t b e s ee n fo r 1- 2 we e k s . W he n us e d f o r p r e v ent i o n, c r om o l y n s od iu m s ho u ld be i n i ti a te d a pp r o xi m a te l y 1 we e k b ef o re al l e rg en c on t ac t . P.677
P.678
Table 32-4. OTC Treatment of Allergic Rhinitis Agent
Avoid Use In Comments/Counse Product(s) Dosing … ling Points Nonsedating (second-generation) antihistamine
Loratadine
Claritin Alavert Tavist ND Triamini c AllerChe ws
2-6 year s: 5 mg q24h 6+ year s: 10 mg q24h
No anticholinergic activity Penetrates poorly into CNS; free of sedating effects at usual doses Liver/kidney disease may need lower dosage
Cetirizine
Zyrtec
2-5 year s: 2.55 mg qd 5+ year s: 510 mg qd
No anticholinergic activity May cause CNS depression Liver/kidney disease may need lower dosage
Sedating (first-generation) antihistamines Chlorpheniramin e
ChlorTrimeton
2-6 year
Narrowangle
Largest side effect is
Diphenhydramin e
, Actifed
s: 1mg q46h 6-12 year s: 2 mg q46h 12+ year s: 4 mg q46h
Benadryl
2-6 year s: 12.5 -25 mg q46h 12+ year
glaucoma MAOI use Prostatic hypertrop hy Use caution in emphyse ma and chronic bronchiti s
drowsiness, followed by typical anticholinergic side effects Phenindamine may cause nervousness and insomnia Children and elderly may experience paradoxical stimulation Older adults are likely to have CNS depressive side effects, including confusion and hypotension Photosensitizin g: Advise patients to wear sunscreen and protective clothing Chlorpheniram ine is least sedating and is antihistamine of choice during pregnancy
s: 2550 mg q46h Brompheniramin e
Dimetap p
6-12 year s: 2 mg q46h 12+ year s: 4 mg q46h
Phenindamine
Nolahist
6-12 year s: 12.5 mg q46h 12+ year s: 25m g q46h
Dexbromphenira mine
Drixoral
6-12 year s: 1 mg q46h 12+ year s: 2
mg q46h Ocular antihistamines (in combination with naphazoline) Pheniramine
Naphcon A Opcon-A Visine-A
1-2 gtt TIDQID
Antazoline
Vasocon A
1-2 gtt TIDQID
Narrowangle glaucoma : pupil dilation can cause angleclosure glaucoma
Side effects: burning, stinging, itching, foreign body sensation, dry eye, lid edema, and pupil dilation
Ocular Antihistamines Ketotifen
Zaditor
1-2 gtts BID
Narrowangle glaucoma : pupil dilation can cause angleclosure glaucoma
Side effects: burning, stinging, itching, foreign body sensation, dry eye, lid edema, and pupil dilation
Mast cell stabilizer Cromolyn sodium
Nasalcro m
6+ year s: 1 spra y in each nostr il 36 time s
Most efficacious if started before seasonal symptoms May take 3-7 days for initial response and 2-4 weeks for maximal response
daily
Side effects: sneezing, nasal stinging, burning Drug of choice in pregnancy for sneezing and rhinorrhea
CNS, central nervous system; MAOI, monoamine oxidase inhibitor.
P.679
a . C r om ol y n s o di um ha s a s h o r t d u ra t io n o f a c ti on a nd , th e re f o re , m us t be d os ed t h r e e t o f ou r ti m e s d ai l y . Th i s f re qu e nc y in d os ing m a y r e s u l t in di m i n is hed a d h er e nc e. b . C r om ol y n s o d iu m is ap p r o v ed f o r us e i n p a ti en t s 2 ye a rs o f a g e a nd old e r an d s h ou l d b e d os ed as o n e s p r a y i n e ac h n os t r il th r ee t o f o ur t im es d a il y. I t s h o ul d n o t b e us ed m o r e t ha n s i x t im es da i l y. A p ro v i d e r s ho u l d be c o ns u lt e d i f s y m p t om s wo r s e n o r n o im p ro v e m en t is s e en wi t h in 2 we e k s . c . A d ver s e e ff ec t s m a y in c lu d e a b r ie f s t in g in g o r s ne e zi ng di r ec t l y a f t er a d m i ni s t ra ti o n . d . C r om ol y n s o d iu m is c o n s i d er e d a p r e fe r r ed in it i a l d ru g o f c h oi c e du r in g p r e gn a nc y f o r r hi n o rr h ea a n d s n e e z in g . F . E xc l u si o ns t o s e lf - t re a t me n t of a ll e r g ic r h ini t i s 1 . S y m pt om s o f o t it is m ed i a o r s i nu s i ti s 2 . S y m pt om s t h at s u gg es t lo we r - r e sp i ra t o r y tr ac t p r o bl em s 3 . H is t o r y o f n o na l le r gi c r h i ni t is P.680
STUDY QUESTIONS D i r e c t i on s : E a c h of t he q u es t io ns , s t at em e nt s , or i nc om p le t e s t a te m en ts c a n b e c o r re c tl y a ns we r e d o r c om p le t ed b y on e o f th e s ug g es t ed an s we r s o r p h r as es . C h o os e th e b e st an s we r . 1 . W hi c h s t a te me n t c o nc e r n i ng t he us e of o ve r- t h e - co u n te r ( O TC ) a n a lg e s ic a g e n ts is t r u e? ( A ) A sp i r in is i n di c a t ed fo r m i ld t o m o d e ra t e a na lg e si a , i nf l am m a to r y d is ea s es , a n t ip yr e s i s , an d p r o ph y la xi s f o r p a ti e nt s wi t h is c h e m i c h ea r t d is e as e.
( B ) I b up r of e n is in d ic at ed f o r m i l d t o m od e ra t e an a lg e s i a, r ed uc t io n o f fev e r , a nd p r o ph y l a xi s f o r p at ie n ts wi t h i s c he m i c h e ar t di s ea s e b ut no t fo r in f la m m ato r y d i so r de r s . ( C ) A c et am i no p he n i s i nd i c a t ed fo r m i ld to m o de ra t e a n al g es ia bu t n o t f o r r e d uc ti o n o f f e ver an d ar t h ri t is . ( D ) N a p r o xe n s o di um is in d ic a te d f o r m il d t o m ode r a t e a na lg es i a, an t ip yr es is , an d p r o ph y l a xi s f o r p at ie n ts wi t h i s c he m i c h e ar t di sea s e. V i e w A n s we r 1 . T h e a n sw e r i s A [ se e] . 2 . W h ic h s t a t em e n t c on c e r ni n g dr u g i n t e r ac t i o ns w i t h o ve r - th e - c ou n t e r ( O TC ) a n a l ge s i c a ge n t s i s t r u e ? ( A ) A sp i r in po t en t ia t es th e ef f ec ts o f a nt i h y pe r ten s i v es , c a rd ia c g l yc o s i de s , a nd a n t ic oa g ul an t s . ( B ) I b up r of e n p ot e nt i at es t h e e f fe c t o f zi d o v ud i ne , h yp o gl y c em ic s , an d a m in o gl y c os id es . ( C ) A c et am i no p he n p o ten t i at es t he ef f ec t o f z id ov u d i n e. ( D ) F o r n a pr o xe n s od iu m , t h e O TC d o sa g e r ec om m e nd a ti o ns a r e s im il a r to t he p r e sc ri p ti o n d os ag e . V i e w A n s we r 2 . T h e a n sw e r i s C [ se e] . 3 . Al l o f th e f o ll ow i ng s ta t e me n ts c o n ce r n i ng c on t r a in d i ca t i o ns w i t h c h r on i c u s e o f o ve r - t he - c ou n t e r ( O TC ) a n a lg e s ic ag e n ts a re co r r e c t e x ce p t w h ic h o ne ? ( A ) A sp i r in , i b up r of e n, na p r o xe n so di u m , an d k eto p r o fe n a r e c on t ra i nd ic at e d i n p a t ie n ts wi t h b le e di n g d is o r de r s , pe p ti c u lc e r, and t he t hi r d t r im es te r o f pr e g na nc y . ( B ) A sp i r in , a c e t am in o phe n , a n d i bu p ro f en a re im p l i c a te d i n Re ye s ynd r om e . ( C ) A c et am i no p he n i s c on t r ai n di ca t ed in pa t ie n ts wi t h a c ti v e al co h ol is m , he p a ti c d i se as e , o r v i ra l h ep a ti t is . V i e w A n s we r 3 . T h e a n sw e r i s B [ se e] . 4 . W h ic h s t a t em e n t c on c e r ni n g d o s ag e r ec o mm e nd a t ion s f o r o ve r - t h e -c o u nt e r ( O TC ) a n a l ge s i c a ge n ts i s t r u e ? ( A ) A sp i r in fo r an al g es ia o r an t ip y r e s i s i n a du l ts is 32 5 - 65 0 m g e v e r y 4 h r o r 65 0 1 0 0 0 m g e v e r y 6 h r, wi t h a m a xi m u m d ai l y do se of 4 00 0 m g f o r n o l on g e r th a n 1 0 d a ys fo r pa in o r 3 d a y s fo r f e v e r wi t h o ut co ns u lt in g a p h ys i c i an ; th e a n ti rh e um a ti c d o sa g e f o r a du l ts i s 3 600 - 4 50 0 m g d ai l y in di v i de d do se s ; a nd pa t ie n ts wi t h i sc h em ic h e a rt di s e as e s h o ul d ta k e 32 5 m g d ai l y o r e ve r y ot h e r d a y . ( B ) I b up r of e n f o r a na l ges i a o r a n ti p y r es is in ad ult s is 3 0 0- 6 00 m g e v er y 6- 8 h r , wi t h a m a xi m u m d ai l y do s e o f 1 8 00 m g fo r n o l o ng e r th a n 1 0 d a y s f o r p ai n o r 3 d a ys f o r f e ve r wi t h ou t c o ns ul t in g a p h ys ic i an ; th e a n ti - in f l a m m a to r y d os ag e fo r adu l ts is 1 8 0 0- 3 60 0 m g d ai l y in div i d e d d os es . ( C ) A c et am i no p he n f o r an a lg e s i a o r a n ti p y r es is in a du l ts i s 3 25 m g e v e r y 8 - 1 2 h r , wi t h a m a xi m u m d ai l y dos e o f 20 00 m g fo r no lo ng e r th a n 1 0 d a ys f or pa in a nd 3 d a ys fo r fe v e r wi t h ou t c on s ul t in g a ph ys ic ia n ; p at ie n ts wi t h is c h em ic h e a rt d i s e as e t a ke 32 5 m g d ai l y o r e v er y o t h e r d a y . V i e w A n s we r 4 . T h e a n sw e r i s A [ se e] . 5 . W h ic h o f t h e f o l low i n g i s a n i n h a le r i ng r e d ie n t d e em e d s a f e a nd e f fe c ti ve a s a n as a l d e co n ge s t ant ? ( A ) o xym e t a z o l in e ( B ) p he n y l ep h ri n e ( C ) l e v m e t am fe t am in e ( D ) e p he d ri n e
V i e w A n s we r 5 . T h e a n sw e r i s C [ se e I I . F. 1 .a . ( 2 )] .6 . Al i c e i s 2 7 ye a r s o ld a n d in t he f i r st t r i me s te r o f he r p r eg n an c y. S h e n ee d s a r ec o mm e nd a ti o n f o r s n e ez i ng , r hi n o r r he a , an d n as a l i t ch i n g, w h ic h s t a r t ed 2 d a ys a g o . S he f e el s m i s e ra b le w i t h h e r s ym p t o m s, w h ic h w o r se n w h e n s h e c l ea n s t h e h o us e . He r c u r r e n t m e di c at i o ns i nc l u de c al c iu m c a r b on a te a nd d oc u sa t e s o di u m. W h ic h of t h e f ol l ow i ng w o u ld be t h e be s t re c om m en d a tio n f o r Al i c e' s s ym p t o m s ? ( A ) c hl o rp h en i ra m i n e ( B ) p se ud o ep h ed r in e ( C ) B r e at h e Ri gh t N as al S t r i ps ( D ) i n tr a na s a l c r om ol y n V i e w A n s we r 6 . T h e a n sw e r i s A [ se e] . P . 68 1
7 . J oh n i s a 4 8 ye a r o l d m a le i n te r s ta t e t ru c k dr i ve r w i t h a c h i ef c om pl a i n t o f a d r y, h a c k i n g c o ug h . He s t a te s th e c o u gh s ta r te d ye s t e r d a y, b u t h e h as n o t h a d a n y f e ve r , c h i l ls , so r e th r o a t , o r c on g es t i on . Hi s o nl y m e d i c a l c on d i tio n i s h yp e r t e n s i o n , w h i c h i s c o n t r o ll e d w i t h h yd r o c h l o r o t hi az i d e ( H C T Z ) . W h a t w ou l d b e t he b es t r ec om m en da t i o n f o r Jo h n 's co u g h? ( A ) d e xt r o m e t h or p ha n ( B ) c od ei n e ( C ) d ip h en h y d r am in e ( D ) g u ai fe n es in V i e w A n s we r 7 . T h e a n sw e r i s A [ se ea n d] .8 . T h e a p p r op r i a te d os e o f p s e ud o e ph e d r in e fo r a 3 - ye a r - o l d c h il d is ( A ) 2 . 5 m g q4 - 6h . ( B ) 5 m g q 4 -6 h . ( C ) 1 5 m g q 4 -6 h . ( D ) 3 0 m g q 4 -6 h . V i e w A n s we r 8 . T h e a n sw e r i s C [ se e I I . F. 1 .b . ( 1 ). ( a )] . Fo r q ue s t io n s 9 - 10: J B , a 4 2- y e a r - ol d wh i t e m a le , c om pl a in s o f a s c ra t c h y t h r oa t , n as al c o nge s ti o n, an d a co u gh th a t s ta r t ed 2 da y s ag o . W hen he c o ug hs , he br i ng s u p yel lo w- w h i t e p h le g m . H e h as h y pe r t ens i on an d d y s li p id em ia . 9 . W hi c h o f th e fo l l ow in g w o u ld b e t h e b es t r ec o m me n da t i on f o r J B ' s c o u gh ? ( A ) c od ei n e ( B ) d e xt r o m e t h or p ha n ( C ) d ip h en h y d r am in e ( D ) g u ai fe n es in V i e w A n s we r 9 . T h e a n sw e r i s D [ se e] . 1 0. W hi c h o f t he f o ll ow i n g w o u ld b e t h e mo s t a p p r op r i a te ove r - t h e - c o un t e r ( O TC ) p r o d u c t f o r J B ' s n a sa l c o n ge s t io n ? ( A ) p se ud o ep h ed r in e ( B ) p he n y l ep h ri n e ( C ) o xym e t a z o l in e ( D ) l e v m e t am fe t am in e
V i e w A n s we r 1 0 . T he a nsw e r i s D [ se ea n d] .1 1 . SO , a 22 - ye a r - o l d f em a le, a s k s f o r a r e co mm e n dat i o n f o r s ne ez i n g, w a t er y a n d i t c h y e ye s , a n d a r u n n y n o s e. S h e h as n o s ig n i fi c a n t m ed i ca l hi s t o r y. S h e is i n t h e m i ds t of f in a l ex am s a n d m u s t r e ma i n a l e r t. W h a t w ou l d b e th e be s t r e c om m en d a ti o n fo r SO ? ( A ) A l a v e rt ( B ) B e na d r y l ( C ) D i m e t ap p ( D ) D r i xo r a l V i e w A n s we r 1 1 . T he a nsw e r i s A [ se ea n d] .P . 68 2
ANSWERS AND EXPLANATIONS 1 . T he an sw e r is A [ s ee I . B ] . A s p ir i n is t he on l y an al ge s ic a g en t wi t h a n a p pr ov e d l ab el i ng fo r an a lg es ia , a n t ip yr e s i s , in f la m m at i on, a nd p ro p h yla xi s f o r is c h e m i c h ea r t d is e as e. 2 . T he an sw e r is C [ s ee I . C ] . A c e ta m i n op h en m a y c o m p e t it i v e l y i n hi bi t th e m eta b ol is m o f z id o v u di n e, re s ul t in g i n p o t en t ia t io n o f z id o v u di ne o r a c e t am in o ph e n t o xi c i t y . As fo r th e o t he r c h oi c es , O TC d o sa g e l e v el s a r e g en e ra l l y on e h al f th e p r es c ri pt i o n d os ag e ; as p i ri n i s no t c om m o n l y re c o g ni z e d t o i n t er a c t wi t h a n ti h y p e rt en s i v es o r c a r di ac gl yc os id e s; no r is a c et am i no p he n e xp e c t ed t o i n te r ac t wi t h a m i n og lyc o s i d es . 3 . T he an sw e r is B [ s ee I . B . 4. b ]. A s p ir i n is t he on l y an al ge s ic a g en t a s s oc i at e d wi t h t he de v e lo pm e nt o f Re y e s yn d r om e. 4 . T he an sw e r is A [ s ee I . B . 3; I . C. 3 ; I . D . 3] . Th e a sp i ri n do s a ge O TC r e c om m e nd a ti on s a r e c or r e c t; th e l e ve ls fo r ac eta m in o ph en a r e to o l o w, a nd f or ib u pr o f e n, to o h i gh . In ad di t io n , a ce t am in o ph e n d oe s n o t c ar r y a n isc h em ic h e a rt di s e as e p r op h y la xi s r e c o m m end a t io n . 5 . T he an sw e r is C [ s ee I I . F .1 . a. ( 2 )] . L e vm et am f e ta m i n e is an i n ha l e r i ng r ed i en t t h at ha s b e en de em e d b y t he F D A a s s a fe an d e f f ec ti v e as a na s al de c o n ge st a nt . It is c u r re n tl y f o un d i n Vi c k s V a p o r I n h al e r . O xy m e t a z o l i ne , e p h ed r in e , a nd ph e n y le ph r i n e a re to p ic al na s a l d e co n ge s t a nt s f o un d i n p u m p s a nd d ro ps , b u t n ot i n i nh a le rs . 6 . T he an sw e r is A [ s ee I I . F .2 . b. ( 2 ); I II . E . 5. d ]. R h i n or r h ea , s ne e z i ng , an d na s a l i tc h in g a r e s y m p t om s o f a l le r gi c r h in i ti s , d i f fe r e nt ia t e d f r om t h e c o m m o n c o l d b y t he na sa l i t ch in g . P se u do e ph e dr i ne a nd B r e a th e R ig h t N as a l S t r ip s a r e i n di ca t ed fo r na s al c o n ge s t i on , wh i c h s h e d o es no t h a ve . Bo t h c hl o rp h en i ram i ne an d i n t ra na s a l c r om o l y n s o d iu m a r e r ec om m e nd e d t r e a tm en t s f o r t he r el ie f o f s n ee z i n g a nd r hi no r r he a in p re gn a nc y . H o we v e r , th is p a t ie n t n ee ds r el ie f f ro m s y m pt om s n o w. C r om o l yn s o d iu m m a y b e u s e d f or t r e a tm en t , b u t wi l l ta k e 1- 2 we e k s f o r n ot ic e ab le s y m p to m im p r o v em en t . C h l o rp h en i ra m i n e wi l l p ro d uc e s y m pt om im p ro vem e nt wi t h in ho u rs . 7 . T he an sw e r is A [ s ee I I . F .3 an d 4 ] .
Th e c om pl a in t i s a dr y , ha c k i ng c o ug h , wa r r an t ing t he us e o f a n a n ti t us siv e r a t he r t h a n a n e xp e c t or a nt ( e. g. , g ua if e ne si n ) . D e xt r o m e t h o rp ha n , d ip h en h yd r am i ne , a n d c o de i ne ar e a l l a nt i tu s s iv e s us e d f o r r el i ef o f a dr y, h a c k in g c ou gh . H o wev e r , t he p a t ie n t i n q ue s t i on is a n i n t er s ta t e t r uc k d ri v e r and c o d ei n e a nd di ph e nh ydr a m in e wi l l b o th c a us e s ed a ti on . I n ad di t io n , c od ei n e m ay b e a l im it e d o p ti on du e t o i t s r e s t ri ct e d s a l e i n s o m e s t a t es an d t h e p ot e nt i al fo r al l e rg ic r ea c t i on s . D e xt r o m e t ho r p ha n h as m i n im al ad ve r se e ff ec t s wh e n u se d a t re co m m en de d do s e s a n d m a y p r o v i de s om e re l ie f . I t is a ls o p r u de n t to a d v is e t hi s p a ti en t th a t s y m pt om s o f t he c om m o n c ol d wi l l re s ol v e in ti m e wi t h ou t t re a tm e nt . 8 . T he an sw e r is C [ s ee I I . F .1 . b. ( 1 ). ( a ) ]. P s e ud o ep he d r in e s ho ul d b e d os e d a s 1 5 m g e v e ry 4 - 6 h r u p t o a m a xi m um o f 6 0 m g i n 24 h r f o r p at i en ts 2 -5 y e a r s o f ag e . P a ti en t s ag e d 6 - 12 y e a rs m a y be s a f e l y r e c om m e nd e d 3 0 m g e v er y 4 - 6 h r, wi t h a m a xi m um r ec om m e nd e d d os e o f 1 2 0 m g in 2 4 h r. Ps e ud o ep he d r in e i s n o t r ec o m m en de d fo r c h il d re n < 2 yea r s o f a ge, u nl es s u n d er m e di c a l a d v ic e . 9 . T he an sw e r is D [ s ee I I . F .3 ] . Th e p a ti e nt is e xp e r ie nc in g a p r od uc t i v e c o u gh , as no t ed b y th e y el l o w- wh i t e p h le g m . A n e xp e c to r a nt is t he be st ag e nt f or r el i ef o f a p ro du c ti v e c o ug h . Th e o n l y a va i la b le e xp e c to r an t i s g u ai f en e s i n , wh i c h wo r k s t o l oo s e n s pu t um a n d to t hi n b r o nc hi a l s e c re t io ns b y ir r i t a ti ng t he ga s t r ic m uc o s a a nd s t im ul a te s s ec r et i o ns o f t h e re sp i ra t o r y t ra c t . 1 0 . Th e a n sw e r i s D [ s ee I I .F . 1 .a an d b ] . P s e ud o ep he d r in e i s a n or a l d e c o ng es t a nt , wh e r ea s p h en y l e ph r in e c an be f o un d a s a n ac ti ve in g r ed ie n t i n o ra l an d t o pi c a l p r od uc t s fo r n as al c o ng es t io n . O xym e t a z o l in e a n d l e vm e t am f e ta m i ne a re to p ic al d ec o ng es t an t s . Ps e ud oe p h ed r in e , p h e n yle ph r i ne , a n d o xy m e t a z o li ne sh o ul d b e u s e d c au t io us l y in t he pa t ie n t wi t h h yp e r t en s i on o r d ia b et es , d es pi t e a de q ua t e c on t ro l , o wi n g to st im u la t io n o f a d r en e r gi c r ec e pt o rs . L ev m e t am f et am i ne la ck s a va s o p re s s o r e f fe ct an d , th e r e fo r e, d o es no t n e ed t o c a r r y th e wa r n in g fo r pa ti e n ts wi t h c a rd i ac c on d it i on s , h yp e r t en s i on , o r di a be t es . P.683
1 1 . Th e a n sw e r i s A [ s ee I I .F . 2 .b an d c ; I I I .E . 2 ]. Th e a c ti v e in g re d ie n t i n A l a v e r t i s l or a ta d in e , a s e c on d -g e ne r a ti on a nt ih ist a m i n e. B e n ad r y l , D im et a pp , a n d D r i xo r a l al l c on t ai n fi rs t- g e ne r a ti o n a nt i hi s t am i ne s a s t h e a c ti ve in g r ed ie n t . Th o u gh t he le as t e xp e ns i v e t r ea t m e n t o p ti on , th e u s e of f i rs t g e n er a ti o n a nt i hi s t am i nes is lim i te d o wi n g t o s i g ni f ic a nt s e da t io n . S t u di es h a v e c l ea r l y de m o ns t r at e d a re d uc t io n i n i n te ll ec t ua l an d m o to r fu n c t io n i n p a tie n ts t ak in g f i r s t - g en e ra t io n a n ti h is tam i ne s . S ec on d - ge ne r a ti on a nt i hi st am i ne s a r e a d va n t ag e ou s b e ca us e th ei r p re f er e nc e f o r p e r ip he r a l H 1 - r ec ep to r bi n di n g. Th is al l o ws fo r m i ni m al C N S e f f ec ts , s ed a ti v e e ffe c ts , a n d a nt ic h ol in e r gi c a c ti v i t y .
33 OTC Agents for Constipation, Diarrhea, Hemorrhoids, and Heartburn L a u r a K. W il l i f o rd Ow en s
I. CONSTIPATION A. G e n e r a l i nf o r m at i o n 1 . D e f in i t io n . Co ns t ip a tio n is d e fi n ed as a de c rea s e i n t he f re q ue nc y o f f e ca l e l im in a ti on an d i s c h a r ac t er i z e d b y t he pa s s a g e o f h a r d, d r y , a nd s om e ti m e s p ai n fu l s t oo ls . N o r m a l s to o l f r eq ue nc y r a n ge s f r om th r ee ti m e s d a il y t o t h r ee ti m e s p e r we e k . P a ti en t s m a y e xp e r i e nc e a bd om i na l b lo a ti ng , h e a da c h es , l o w b a c k p a in , an d /o r a s en s e of r ec ta l fu l ln es s f r om i nc om p let e e va c ua t io n o f fe c e s . 2 . E p id e mi o l og y a . Ag e . C on s ti pa t io n i s c o m m o n i n a ll ag e g r ou ps , h o we v e r ; th e re is a h i gh e r p r e v a le nc e i n p eop l e > 65 y e a rs o f ag e . b . G e n de r . W om e n s uf f er f r om co ns t ip a ti on m o r e o f t en th a n m e n . 3 . C a us es . C on s ti pa t io n c a n b e c au s e d b y m a n y fa c to r s , in c l u di n g t he f o l lo wi n g : a. Diet ( 1 ) I ns uf f ic ie n t d ie t a r y fib e r ( 2 ) I na de q ua t e f lu i d i nt ak e b . L ac k o f ex e r ci s e c . P oo r b ow el ha b i ts , s u c h as f ai lu r e t o re sp o nd t o th e d e fe ca t o r y u r g e or h u r r ie d b o we l s ( i .e . , i nc om p le t e e vac u a ti on ) d . M e d ic a t io n s , s u c h as n a rc o ti c a na l ge si cs , d iur e t ic s , o r a n ti ch ol i ne r gi c s ( e . g ., an t id e p re s s an ts , an t i h y pe r t en si ve s , an t ih is t a m i n es , p he n ot h ia z i n es , a n t is pa s m od ic s ). I n a dd it i o n, no n p re sc ri p ti o n m ed i c a t io ns s u ch as i r on s u pp l em en ts , c a lc iu m - or a lu m i n um -c o nt a in i ng an t ac i ds , n on p r es c r i pt i on N S A I D s , a n d h is ta m i n e -2 r ec e pt o r a n ta g on is ts (H 2 R A s ) (i . e ., r an i ti di n e) m a y c o nt r i bu t e t o c on s t i pa t ion . e . P r e gn a nc y i s a c om m o n c o nt r i bu t or t o c o ns t ipa t i on . Th e i nc r ea se d s i ze o f t he ut e ru s , h o rm on al c h an g es , i nt a ke of c a lc ium - an d i r on - c o n ta i ni ng p r e na t al v i t am in s , an d a r e d uc t io n i n p h y s i c a l a c t i v i t y a r e a l l c o ns i de r ed c o nt r i bu t in g f ac t o rs . f . O r g a n ic p r ob l em s , s uc h a s i n te st i na l o bs t r uc tio n , tu m o r , i n fl am m a t or y b o we l d is ea s e , d i v e r ti c u li t is , h y p o t h y ro i di s m , h y pe r g l yc e m i a , i r ri t ab l e b o we l s yn d r om e, c e r eb r o v as c u la r di s ea se , o r P ar ki n so n d is e as e 4 . P r ac t i t io n e r s s ho u l d q u e s ti o n t h e p a t ie n t a bo u t t he f o ll ow i ng : a . N o rm al s t o ol f re qu e nc y b . D u ra t io n o f th e c on s tip a t io n c . F re qu e nc y o f c on s t i pat i o n e pi s o d es d . E xe r c i s e ro u ti n e e . Am o un t of di e ta r y f ib er c on s u m e d a n d f lu i d i nta k e f . P r es e nc e o f o t he r s y m p t om s
g . C u r re n t m ed ic a ti on s h . Me d i c a t io ns us e d t o re l ie v e c o ns t ip a ti o n a nd th e i r e f fe c t i ve ne s s B . T r e a tm e nt 1 . N o np h a r ma c ol o gi c a l a . I nc re a s e i n t ak e o f f lu id s (a t l e as t e ig h t 8 - o z . s e r v i n gs of no nc a f fe in a ted f l u id s d ai l y ) a n d f ib e r (e .g . , wh o le - g r ai n b r ea ds a n d c e r ea ls , b e an s , p ru n es , r a i si ns , p e as , c ar r o ts , c or n ) . b . I nc r ea s e e xe r c is e t o in c r ea s e an d m ai n ta i n b owe l t o n e. P.685
c . B o we l t r ai n in g t o i nc r ea s e r e gu la r i t y (i . e. al l o win g r eg ul a r a n d a de qu a te t i m e f or de f ec a ti on ) . 2 . P ha r m ac o l og i ca l . The r a pe u ti c a ge n ts a re c l as si f ie d a cc o rd i ng to t he i r m ec h an is m o f a c t i on . R ef e r pa t ie n ts ta ki ng p re s cr i p ti o n m e d ic a ti on s t h at m i gh t c au s e c o ns t ip a ti o n t o th ei r p ro v i d er . La xa t i v e s sh o ul d n o t b e t ak en i f s ym p to m s o f ap pe n di c i t is a re p re s e n t ( i .e . n a us ea , v o m i t in g , o r a bd om i nal p a in ) . a . B u lk - f o r mi n g l a xa t i ve s . Th es e m ed ic a ti on s ar e n at u ra l o r s y n t h et ic p o l ysa cc ha r i de de r i v at i ve s th a t a ds o rb wa t e r t o s o f t en t he s t oo l a n d i n c re as e b ul k , wh i c h s tim u la t es p e r is ta ls is . Bu lk- f o r m i ng la xa t i ve s wo r k in b o t h t he s m al l a nd t he lar g e i n t es ti n es . Th e on s et o f ac ti o n o f t he s e a ge n ts i s s lo w ( 1 2 - 2 4 h r a nd up t o 72 h r ), wh i c h is wh y t h e y a r e b es t u s e d t o p r e ve n t c o ns t ip a ti o n r a the r t ha n t o tr e a t s e ve r e ac u te c o ns t ip a ti on . ( 1 ) Ad m i n is t r a t io n gu i de l i n es . Al l b ul k -f o rm i ng a g e nt s m u s t b e g i v en wi t h a t le as t 8 o z . of wa t e r to m in im i ze t h e p os si bl e es o ph a gu s , s t om ac h , s m al l i n t es ti n e, an d c ol o n o bs tr u c ti o n e xp e r i en c e d b y so m e p at i en ts . S om e b ul k f o r m i n g la xa t i v e s m a y c on t a in s u ga r , s o p a ti en t s wi t h d i ab e te s s ho ul d u se s u ga r - f re e p r o du c t s . ( 2 ) Ad ve r s e e f fe c t s. A bd o m i n al c r am pi n g a nd fla t u le nc e a r e t h e m o s t c om m o n a d v e rs e ef f ec ts e xp e r i e nc e d b y p at i en ts . ( 3 ) W a rn i n gs ( a ) B ul k -f o rm i ng ag en t s s h ou l d n ot be us ed if p ati e n ts h a ve a n o b st r uc t ing b o we l l es io n , i nt es t in a l s t r i c t u r es , o r C ro h n 's di s ea s e b ec au se t he y c a n m ak e th is s i tu a ti o n wo r s e a nd po s s ib l y r es ul t i n b o we l p er f o ra t io n . ( b ) D o n o t r ec om m en d s u g a r -f r e e b ul k -f o rm in g ag e n ts to pa t ie n ts wi t h p h e n ylk et o nu r ia . ( c ) P a ti en t s s h o ul d b e ad v i s ed no t to us e b ul k -f or m i ng l a xa t i ve s f o r m o re t h a n 1 we e k t o t r ea t c o ns t ip a ti o n; ho we ve r , t h e y c a n b e u s e d o n a lo ng - t er m b a si s f o r p r e v en t io n . ( 4 ) N a t u ra l bu l k -f o r m ing l a xa t i ve s ( a ) P s yl l i u m ( e . g. , Me t am uc i l, K on s y l - D, F ib e ra l l, P e r di em Fi b er G r a nu les ) . A d u l ts : 3 .5 g (1 ro u nd e d t e as p oo n ) i n 8 o z . o f wa te r o ne to th r e e t im es pe r d a y; ch il d r en : h a lf th e a du l t d os a ge on e t o th r ee ti m es p e r d a y
( b ) M a l t s o u p e xt r a c t ( e. g . , Ma l ts u pe x) . A d u l ts : 8 - 1 6 g (1 - 2 s co op s ) t wo t o f o u r t im es pe r da y ; c h i ldr e n : 1 6 g on e t o t wo ti m es pe r da y ( 5 ) S yn t h e t i c b u l k -f o r mi n g la x a ti ve s ( a ) M e t h yl c e l l u l o se ( e .g. , C i t ru c e l ). A du l ts : 1 - 2 g ( 1 ta b le sp o on ) o n e t o t h r e e t im es p e r d a y ; c h ild r e n : 0 .5 g o ne t o t h re e t i m e s p e r d a y ( b ) P o l yc a r b o p h i l (e . g ., K o n s y l F ib e r , F ib e r Co n , F i be r C o n Mi t r o l an ) . A d u l ts : 1 g ( 2 t a bl e ts ) o ne t o f o ur t im es p e r d a y ; c h il d re n : 0 . 5 g o n e t o t h r e e t im es p e r d a y . C alc i um p o l yc a r bo p hi l m a y im p a i r th e a bs o r pt io n o f t e t r ac yc li ne s i f t h e d r ug s a r e t ak e n c on cu r r en t l y. b . S a li n e a nd os m o ti c la x a t i ves wo r k b y c r ea t ing a n os m o t ic g ra di e nt t o p u ll wa t e r in t o t he s m al l a n d l a rg e i n te s ti ne s . Th i s in c re as e d vo l um e r es u lt s i n di s t e nt i on of t he i n te s ti n al lu m e n , c au s i n g in c rea s ed pe r is t al si s a nd b o we l m o t il i t y . Th es e l a xa t i v es al so in c re as e th e a c ti vi t y o f c ho le c ys t ok i nin p a nc r eo z y m i n , wh i c h i s a n en z y m e th a t i nc r ea ses t he s ec r e ti o n o f f lu i ds i n t o t he ga s tr o in t es ti n al ( G I ) t r ac t . Th e o ns e t o f a c t i on de p en ds on t he i n g re d ie n t a nd do s a g e f or m . R ec ta l f o rm u la t io ns (e . g . , e ne m a s , s u pp os i to r ie s ) h a v e a n on s et o f ac t io n o f 5- 3 0 m in , wh e r e as o r a l p r e pa r a ti o ns wo r k wi t hi n 3 - 6 h r . ( 1 ) Ad m i n is t r a t io n gu i de l i n es . Pa t ie n ts s ho u ld b e ad v i s e d t o c o ns um e 8 o z. o f wa t e r wi t h e ac h do s e t o p r e ven t po s s ib le d e h yd ra t io n . ( 2 ) Ad ve r s e e f fe c t s. D iar r h e a a nd ab d om in al c ram p in g a r e c om m o n a d ve r s e ef f ec ts . Le s s c om m o n a d ve rs e e f f ec ts inc l ud e e xc e s s i v e di u re si s, n a us e a, v o m i ti n g, an d de h y d r a ti on . ( 3 ) W a rn i n gs ( a ) P a ti en t s wi t h h y pe r t en s io n o r c o ng es t i v e h ea rt f ai l u re s h ou l d n ot r ec eiv e s a li ne la xa t i v e s on a p r ol o ng e d b as is o wi ng t o f lui d re t e nt io n f ro m s o d iu m a b so r p ti on . ( b ) P a ti en t s wi t h s e v e r e k i dn e y di s e as e s ho u ld no t us e p r od uc t s c o n ta i nin g m a gn es i um u n le s s a d v is e d b y a ph y s ic i an . ( 4 ) S a li n e l ax a t i ve s i nc lu d e s od i um a n d m a g ne siu m s al t s . As m u c h as 20% o f m a gn es i um m a y be abs o r be d f r om th es e p r o duc t s , wh i ch m a y l ea d t o h yp e r m a g ne s e m i a i n p a tie n ts wi t h p re e xi s t in g r e na l im pa i rm en t . Pr o du c ts i n cl ud e th e f o ll o wi n g : P.686
( a ) M a g ne s iu m c i t r a te (e . g . , Ma g n e si a Ci t r at e ) . A d u l ts : o ne f ul l b ot t le ; c h il d re n 6 - 1 2 y e a rs of age : on e th i rd to on e h a lf bo t t le . Ad v i s e p at ie n ts to r e f r ig e r at e t o i nc r e as e pa l a ta bi l it y a nd he l p p r e ve n t c r y s ta ll i z a ti o n. ( b ) M a g ne s i um h yd r o x i d e ( e. g . , P hi l li ps ' Mi l k of Ma g n e s ia , Ph i ll ip s C a p l et s, a nd F re el a x C a p l e ts ) . A d ul ts : 30 - 60 m L o r 2 -4 c a pl e ts da il y ; c h il d re n 6 - 1 2 y e a rs of age : 15 - 3 0 m L ; c hi l d re n 2 -5 y e a rs o f a ge : 5 - 15 m L ( c ) M a g ne s iu m s u l fa t e (e . g . , E ps om s a lt ) . Ad u lt s: 1 0 -3 0 g in 8 o z . of wa t e r ; c h il d re n 6 - 1 2 y e a rs of age : 5 -1 0 g
( d ) S o di u m p h os p ha t e (e . g . , F le e t P h os ph o - So da ) . A du l ts : 2 0 -4 5 m L; c h il d re n 6 - 1 2 y e a rs of age : 5 -2 0 m L ( 5 ) O s mo t i c l ax a t i ve s ( a ) G l yc e r i n i s a v ai l ab l e i n re c t a l p r od uc ts in su pp o si t o r y o r en em a f o rm ( e . g ., Fl e e t B ab y l a x) . ( i ) Th e on l y s a f e a nd ef fe c ti v e us e o f g l yc e r i n is r e c ta l . R e c t a l b ur n in g m a y o cc u r wi t h g l y c e r in p ro du c ts . I n ad di t io n t o th e os m o t ic ef f ec t , s o d iu m s t ea r a te in th e s e pr o du c ts c a n p r od uc e a lo c a l i r r i t a n t e f fe c t . ( i i ) A du l ts : 3 g i n s u p po s i t o r y fo r m o r 5 - 1 5 m L as a n en em a ; c hi ld r en ≥ 6 ye a r s o f ag e : 1 -1 . 5 g in s u pp os i to r y f o rm o r 2 -5 m L a s a n e n em a ( b ) L ac t u lo s e ( e .g . , Ch ro n ul a c , E nu lo s e) is a v ai la b le on l y b y p re s c r ip ti o n a n d i s us e d t o d ec r ea s e b l oo d a m m o ni a l e v el s i n h e p at ic en c e p ha lo p at h y . ( i ) I t m a y c au s e f la t ul en c e a nd c r am p in g a n d sh ou l d b e t ak e n wi t h f r ui t j u ic e , wa t e r , o r m i lk to inc r e as e t he pa l at a bi li t y. O n s e t o f a c t i on is 2 4 - 48 h r . ( i i ) A du l ts : 1 5 -3 0 m L o ne t o t wo ti m e s d a il y; c h il dr e n : 7 . 5 m L on c e d ai l y , u s ua ll y g i v e n a ft e r b r e ak f a s t ( c ) S o r bi t o l , a n o na bs o rb a bl e s u ga r , i s si m i l ar in e f fi c ac y t o l a c tu l os e, wh i c h ca n b e a dm in is t e re d o ra ll y ( 7 0% s o lu t io n ) o r r ec t al l y (2 5 % s ol ut i on) . ( i ) Th e ad ve r s e e f f ec t s a r e th e s am e a s f o r l ac tul o s e an d i nc l ud e f l a tu l en c e , c r am pi n g, and a bd om i na l p ai n o v e r the f i rs t f e w d a ys . ( i i ) A du l ts : 3 0 -1 5 0 m L o ra l l y (7 0 % s ol u ti on ) o r 1 20 m L r ec t al l y (2 5 % s o lu t io n ) ; c h il d r en 2 -1 1 ye a r s o f a ge : 15 m L o r al l y ( 7 0 % s o l ut i on ) o r 30 - 60 m L o f a r ec t al s o lu t io n (2 5 % ) ( d ) P o l ye t h yl e n e g l yc o l 3 3 50 (M i r a la x ). I n O c tob e r 20 06 , th e F D A s wi t c h ed Mi r a l a x t o O TC s t at us f or t he re l ie f o f oc c a s i o na l c on s ti pa t io n . I t c a n b e u s e d a s a n a lt e rna t i v e to ot h er os m o t ic l axa t i v e s a n d i t is ap p r o v ed f o r pa t ie n ts 1 7 y e ar s o f a g e o r ol de r . ( i ) I t h as be e n s h o wn t o b e m o r e e ff e c t i v e t h an lac t ul os e i n s ho r t - te r m t r ial s wi t h l es s a b do m i na l c r am p in g . Mi r a l a x t y p i c al l y p r o du ce s a bo we l m o vem e nt i n 1 t o 3 da y s . ( i i ) A du l t d os ag e : 1 7 g ( fi l l t o t o p i n wh i t e s ec t io n o f c a p) di s s ol ve d in an y 4 - 8 o z. o f b e v e ra g e ( wa t e r , ju ic e , c o l a, o r t ea ) and d ri n k o nc e d ai l y fo r up t o 7 d a y s . Th e be v e r ag e c a n b e c ol d, ho t , o r r oom t em pe r at u r e. ( i i i ) Ad ve r s e e ff e c ts : H i g h do s e s o f Mi r a la x c a n c a us e d ia r r he a , e xc e ss i ve s t oo l fr e qu e nc y , na us e a, b l oa t in g , c ra m p i ng , a n d f l a tu l en c e . ( i v) W a r n i ng s : D o no t rec om m e n d u s e in pa t ie n ts wi t h k id ne y d is e as e, d u r in g p r e gn an c y o r wh i le b r ea s t f ee d in g , o r i n p at i e nt s wi t h i r ri t ab l e b o wel s yn d r om e. c . S t im u la n t l a xa t i ve s . Th e s e m ed ic a ti o ns wo r k i n th e s m a ll an d l a rg e i n t es ti n es to s t im ul a te bo we l m ot i li t y ( i. e . , p ro p uls i ve p e r is ta l ti c ac t i vi t y ) a n d i nc r ea s e t he s ec r e tio n of fl u id s i nt o th e b o we l . Th e o r al pr e pa r a ti o ns u s ua ll y h a v e a n o ns e t o f a c ti on wi t h in 6 -1 2 h r ; rec t al p re p ar a ti o ns u s ua ll y h a ve an on s e t of ac ti o n wi t h i n 15 - 60 m i n . S t im ula n t l a xa t i v e s a r e e f fe c t i ve a s i n it i al dr u g t he r a p y to t r e at c o ns t ip a ti on b ut s ho u ld no t be us ed fo r m o re t h a n 1 we e k .
( 1 ) Ad m i n is t r a t io n gu i de l i n es . Pa t ie n ts wi t h u ndi a gn o s e d r ec t al bl e ed i ng o r si g ns o f i n te s ti na l o b s t r u c t i on s h ou l d n ot us e s t i m u l an t l a xa t i v e s . ( 2 ) Ad ve r s e e f fe c t s. A ll s t im ul a nt la xa t i v e s c a n c a u s e ab d om in al cr a m p i ng . E l e ct r ol y t e an d f l ui d d e fic i en c i es , e n te r ic lo ss of p r o t ei n , m a l ab s o r pt i on , a n d h yp ok a le m i a a r e a dd i t io na l p os si b le ad ve r s e e f f ec ts . Th e su p po s i t o r y f o r m m a y c au s e r ec ta l bu r n in g . ( 3 ) W a rn i n gs ( a ) C h ro n ic u s e o f s ti m u la n t l a xa t i v e s c an le a d t o c a t ha r t i c c o lo n , wh ic h r e s ul ts in a p oo r l y fu nc t io n in g c ol o n a nd r es em ble s th e s ym p t om s o f u l ce r a ti v e c o li ti s . H o we v e r , m os t c as e s o f c a t ha r ti c c ol o n we r e p ub li s he d b e f o re 19 60 , wh e n m o re t o xi c i ng r e di en t s ( e .g . , po d o ph yl li n ) we r e u s e d i n l a xa t i ve p r od uc ts . P.687
( b ) A no t h er is s u e s u rr o un d s t he po ss i bl e c ar ci n og e ni c i t y o f s ti m u l an t l a xa t i ve s . Ph en o lp h th al ei n wa s re m o v e d f ro m t he m a rk et as s u gg es t ed b y t h e U . S. Fo o d a nd D r ug A d m in is t ra t io n (F D A ) wh e n da t a o f c a rc in og e ni c t u m o r s a nd ge n et ic da m a g e i n ra ts we r e r ep o r ted . S ub se q ue n tl y , s e n na a n d t h e s t ru c tu r al l y s i m i la r pr o d uc ts al o e a nd c as c ara s a g r ad a a r e n o w c o ns id e re d c a te g or y 3 d ru g s ; m o r e d a ta ar e n e ede d to as se s s th ei r s a f et y . ( 4 ) An t h r a q u in o ne l ax a ti ve s i nc lu d e s e n na (s e nn o s i d es ) ( a ) M e l an o si s c o l i, wh i c h is a d a rk p i gm en t a ti on o f t he c o lo ni c m uc os a, c a n r e s ul t wi t h l on g - te r m us e o f an t hr a qu i no ne la xa t i ve s . Th is u s u a ll y d i sa p pe a rs 6 - 1 2 m o n th s a f t e r d is c o nt i nu i ng th e m e d i c a ti on . I t wa s p r e vi ou s l y t h ou g ht th a t m e la n os is d i d n ot r es ul t i n ad ve r s e c o ns eq u en c es ; h o we ve r , p at i en ts wi t h m e l an o s i s h a v e a t h r ee f old h ig he r r is k o f ca nc e r . ( b ) D is c o l o ra ti o n ( p in k / re d , y el l o w, o r b r o wn ) of th e u ri ne m a y oc cu r . ( c ) A dd i ti o na l a n th r aq u ino n e l a xa t i v e s ( c a s c a ra , ca s an t h ra no l , a nd al o e ) we r e r e m o v ed f ro m t he U . S . m a r k e t b ec a us e o f c a rc i no ge n ic it y c on c e r ns . ( d ) A n th r aq u in o ne pr o duc t s i nc lu de t he se n no s i de s ( e. g ., S en ok o t , E x- L a x, F l e tc he r ' s Ca s to r ia , Pe r di e m ), wh i c h a re c o ns id e re d to be po t en t an d c au s e a b d om in al c r am p in g . ( i ) S e nn os id es c a n a ls o b e c om b in e d wi t h do c u s a t e (s to o l so f t en e r ) f o r r e l ie f o f c o ns ti p at i on ( P er i - C o la ce , Se n ok o t- S ) . ( i i ) A du l ts : 1 2 -5 0 m g t wi c e d a il y; c h il d r en : 6 - 25 m g t wi ce da il y ( 5 ) B i sa c od yl ( e . g . , Du lc o la x, D o xi d a n , C o r re c tol ) is a d i ph e n yl m e t h a n e d e r i va t i ve . ( a ) Th e ta b le t f o rm u la t ion s o f bi sa c o d yl a r e e n te ri c c oa t ed , s o th e y s h ou ld n o t b e c r us he d o r c h e wed . A ls o, bi s a c od y l -c o n ta in i n g p ro d uc ts s h ou l d n ot b e ta ke n wi t hi n 1 h r o f i ng e s t i ng an t ac id s o r m il k . ( b ) A du l ts ( or a l ): is 5 - 1 5 m g d a il y ; c h il d r en ≥ 6 yea r s o f a g e ( o r al ) : 5 m g d a il y ; a du l ts ( re c t a l) : 10 m g (1 s u pp os i to r y ) ; c h il dr e n > 2 y ea r s o f a g e ( r e c ta l ): 5 m g ( 1 /2 s u pp os i to r y ) . ( 6 ) C a st o r o il ( e. g ., P u rg e ) ha s a n o ns et o f ac t ion wi t h i n 2 - 6 h r .
( a ) C as t o r o il wo r k s p ri m a r i l y a t th e s m a ll in t es t ine , wh i c h ca n re s u l t i n s t r on g c a th a rt ic e ff ec t s (e . g . , e xc e s s i v e f l ui d a nd e l ec t ro l y t e l os s ) . Th es e c a th a r ti c e f fe c t s c an le ad t o d eh yd r a ti o n. ( b ) C as t o r o il s h ou l d n ot b e u s e d i n p r e gn an t pa ti e n ts b ec a us e i t m a y i n du c e p re m a t u re la b o r. ( c ) A du l ts : 1 5 -6 0 m L ; c h il d r en 2 -1 2 y ea r s o f a ge : 5 - 1 5 m L d . E m ol l ie n t la xa t i ve s ac t as s u rf ac t a nt s b y al l owi n g a bs o r pt io n of wa t e r i n t o t he s t o ol , wh ic h m ak e s th e s of t en e d s to ol eas i e r t o p as s . Em o ll ie n t l a xa t i ve s h a v e a s low on s e t o f ac t i on ( 24 - 72 h r) , wh i c h i s wh y t h e y a r e n o t c o ns id e re d th e d r ug o f c h o ic e f o r s e ve re ac u te co n s t i pa t io n , a nd th e y a re m o r e us e fu l f o r p r e v e nt in g c o ns ti p at i on . ( 1 ) Ad m i n is t r a t io n gu i de l i n es . Th es e m e d ic a ti on s a r e p a r ti c u la r l y us e fu l i n p a t ie n ts wh o m us t a v o i d s t r ai ni n g t o p as s h a rd s to o ls , s uc h a s t ho s e wh o r e c en t l y h a d a m y o c a r dia l in f ar c ti on o r r ec t al s u rg e r y . H o we ve r , c l in ic al t r i al s e v a l ua ti n g e m o ll i en t s t o ol -s o f te ni n g l a xa t i v e s s ho w t h a t th es e p r o du c ts , wh e n c o m p a r ed t o p la c e b o, do no t af f ec t th e we i gh t o r wa t e r c o nt e nt o f t he s t o ol or t he f r eq u en c y o f s t oo l p ass i ng . ( 2 ) Ad ve r s e e f fe c t s. D iar r h e a a nd m i ld ab d om in al c ra m p i ng ar e p o te n ti a l a d ve r s e ef f ec ts . ( 3 ) W a rn i n gs . Us e s ho u ld b e a v o id e d i f n au s e a an d v om i ti n g, s ym p to m s of a p p en di c i t is , o r un de t e rm i ne d a b do m i na l p a in e xi s t . D oc us a te p ro d uc ts m a y f a ci l it a te th e s y s t em i c a bs o r pt i on of m i ne r al oi l , s o t he s e ag e nt s s ho u ld no t b e us ed c o nc u r re n tl y . ( 4 ) P r o du c t s. Em o ll ie n t la xa t i v e s a re sa l ts o f th e s u r fa c ta n t d oc u sa t e . Th e s e p r o du c t s c on t ai n in s ig ni f ic an t am ou n ts o f c a l c i um , s od i um , o r p o t ass i um , a n d t he r e a r e n o s pe c i f ic gu id e li n es f or t h e s e l ec ti o n o f a n y one p r o du c t. Th e p r o du c t s i nc l ud e ( a ) D o cu s a te so d iu m ( Co l ac e ) ( b ) D o cu s a te ca l ci u m (K a o pe c ta t e ) ( 5 ) D o sa g e i n fo r m a ti o n ( a ) A du l ts : 5 0 -3 0 0 m g p er d a y ; c hi l d re n ≥ 2 ye ar s o f ag e : 5 0- 1 50 m g pe r day ( b ) E ac h d os e m us t b e ta k en wi t h at le as t 8 o z . o f wa t e r . L iq u id p r e pa r a ti o ns s ho u ld be ta k en in f ru i t j ui ce o r i nf an t f or m u l a t o i nc r ea s e p a la t ab i li t y . e . L ub r i ca n t la x at i ve (m i n e ra l oi l ) . Mi n e ra l o i l wo r k s a t t he co lo n to i n c re as e wa t e r r e te n ti on i n th e s t oo l t o s of t en t he s t oo l . I t h as an on s e t of a c t i on o f 6 -8 h r wi t h o ral a dm in is t ra t io n a n d 5 - 15 m in a ft e r r ec t al a d m i ni s t ra ti o n . P.688
( 1 ) Ad m i n is t r a t io n gu i de l i n es
( a ) Mi n e r a l oi l s h ou ld be t a k e n o n a n e m p t y s t om a c h. B ec au s e o f p os s i ble a s pi r a ti on o f m i n er a l o il in t o th e l un gs , pa t ie n ts sh o ul d n o t t ak e m in e r al oil a t be d ti m e o r r ec l in e a f te r a dm in is t ra t io n . ( b ) A du l ts : 1 5 - 45 m L p e r d a y ; c h il d re n : 5 - 15 m L pe r d a y ( 2 ) Ad ve r s e e f fe c t s. Mi n e r al oi l p r od u ct s m a y ca u s e an a l s e e pa g e, wh i ch r e s ul ts in it c h i ng ( i. e . p ru r i tu s a n i) an d p e r ia na l d i s c om fo r t . ( 3 ) W a rn i n gs ( a ) Mi n e r a l oi l c a n d ec r ea s e a b so r p t i on o f f a t -so l u b le vi t a mi n s ( i .e . , vi t a m i ns A , D, E , a n d K ) , s o i t s ho u ld no t b e u s e d o n a c h r on ic ba s i s . ( b ) E ld e r l y , y o u ng , de bi l it a t ed , an d d y s ph a gi c p ati e n ts a r e a t th e g r ea t es t r i sk of l ip i d p n e um o ni t is f r om m in e r al oi l a sp i rat i o n. ( c ) E m o ll i en ts ( e. g . , d oc u s at e ) m a y in c r e as e t h e s y s t em ic a bs o r pt i on of m i ne r al oi l , wh i c h c an lea d to h ep a t ot o x ic i t y. ( d ) Mi n e r a l o il s h ou ld not b e g i ven t o p at i en ts wi t h r ec t al bl e ed in g o r a p p en di c i t is . ( e ) Mi n e r a l oi l s h ou ld not b e g i v en t o c h i ld r en < 6 y e a rs o f a ge . C . S p e ci a l p a ti e n t i ss ue s 1 . P ed i a t r ic pa t i en t s . Th e bo we l p at t e rn s o f p edi a t ri c p a ti en t s v a r y . D u rin g t h e fi rs t we e k s of li f e, in fa n ts pa ss ap p ro xi m a t el y f o u r s to o ls p e r d a y . As c h il d re n g e t o ld e r , a pp r oxi m a t e l y on e to th r e e s t oo l s a r e p ass e d p e r d a y. C o n s ti pa t io n s ho u ld be exp e c t e d i f th e r e is a d r as t i c c ha ng e fr o m a c hi l d 's b a se li n e b o we l fu nc t io n . a . N o np h a r ma c ol o gi c a l m e t h od s , s uc h as in c re as i ng th e a m o u nt o f f lu i d o r s u ga r in a c h i ld ' s f o rm ula i n y o u ng e r c hi ld r e n o r i n c re as in g th e b ul k c on te n t o f t he c h il d 's di e t ( f r ui t , fi b e r c er e al s , v e g et a bl es ), s ho ul d b e tr i ed be f o re m e di ca t io ns a re us ed . b . I f n o n ph a r ma c ol o g ica l me t h od s do n ot w o r k, r ec t al s t im u la t io n m a y b e u s ef u l. P ha r m a c o l og ic al a g e nt s t ha t c a n b e us e d f o r ac ut e re l ie f i nc l ud e g l yc e ri n s up po s i t o ri es and m a g ne si um la xa t i v e s . S t i m u l an t l a xa t i v e s s ho uld b e ad m i ni s te r ed as a l as t r es o r t, b ut en em as s h ou l d n o t b e us e d i n c h i ld re n < 2 y e ar s o f a g e a nd wi th e xt r e m e c au t io n i n c hi ld r e n 2 - 5 y e a rs o f a ge (s e e I . C . 4 ) . B u lk - fo r m i ng ag en t s a nd s t o ol s o f te ne r s c a n be us ed if t he c o ns ti p at i on do es no t nee d im m e di a te r el ie f . 2 . P r e gn a n t p a ti e n ts . Co n s t i pa t io n i n p r eg n an c y i s c om m o n a nd c a n b e th e r e s ul t o f c om p re s s io n o f t h e c ol o n b y t he en la r g ed u te r us , i n ge s ti on o f p r e na t al v i t am in s c o n ta in i ng i ro n a n d ca lc i um , an d th e i n fl u en ce of p r o ge s te r on e c an c a us e b o we l h y p om ot i li t y . P re gn a n t p at i en ts s h o ul d a voi d a n y p r ep a ra t io n t h a t m a y b e a bs o r be d s y s te m i ca lly ( e . g . , s ti m u la n t l a xa t i ve s ) , a n y pr e pa r a tio n th a t c an in t er f e re wi t h v i t am in ab so r p ti o n ( e .g. , m i ne r al oi l ) , o r a n y p re pa r a ti o n t h at c a n i nd uc e pr e m at u re la b o r ( e .g . , c as t o r o il ) . P re gn a nt pa t ie n ts s h o ul d u s e bu lk f orm i ng ag e nt s o r s t oo l s o f te ne r s . 3 . G e r i at r i c p a t ie n t s t end t o b e a t ri s k fo r c on s tip a t io n b ec a us e o f i n su f fi ci e nt di e ta r y ( f ib e r) a n d f lu id in g es ti o n, f ai lu r e to es ta b li s h a r e gu lar b o we l t im e h ab i t, an d a bu s e o f s ti m u l an t l a xa t i ves r es ul t in g i n a lo ss o f
s m o o th m u s c le to n e i n th e bo we l , wh i ch p ro m o t es c o ns t ip a ti on ( se e I . C . 5) . Th e s e c au s es s ho u ld be i n v e s t i ga t ed in ad d it io n to p ri m ar y d is ea s e s t a te s ( e . g ., h y po t h y r oi d is m ) and m e d ic at i on s ( e .g . , o pi at e s , a nt ic h ol in e r gi c s ) t h at m a y le a d t o c on s t i pa t io n i n e l de r l y p a ti e nt s . A ma j o r co n ce r n wi t h g e ri a tr i c p a t ie n ts i s t h e p os s i bl e lo s s o f f lu i d t ha t c a n b e in d uc e d b y ag g r ess i v e l a xa t i ve t r ea tm e nt ( e .g . , e n em as , h i gh - do s e sa l ine l a xa t i ves ) . G e ri a t ri c p a t ie n ts s ho u ld no t u s e s t im ul a nt la xa t i ve s on a c h r on ic ba s i s , an d p a ti en t s wi t h r e n al im pa i rm en t s ho u ld no t us e m a g ne s i um p r o d u c ts . Gl yc e ri n s u pp os i to r ie s o r or a ll y ad m in is t e re d l ac t ul os e m ay b e us e fu l f o r i ni t ia l t r e a tm en t o f c o ns ti p at i on a n d b ul k -f o rm in g a g en t s u se d to pr e ve n t c o ns ti p at i on . 4 . U se o f e n em as . E nem as a re us e fu l f o r e v a cua t i on of t he bo we l be f o re s u r ge r y, c h il d bi r th , an d fo r t he t re a tm en t of ac ut e c on s ti pa t io n th a t h as n ot r e s po nd e d t o o t he r m e dic a ti o ns (e . g. , bi s a co d y l s u pp os i to r ie s ) . a . A n e ne m a is i n s t il l ed in t o th e r ec t um , wo r k s loc a ll y , an d th e e ne m a f lu id d e t e rm in es th e m ec ha n is m o f e vac u at i on ( e. g ., s t im u la n t, os m o t ic ) . W hen a d m i ni s te r ed c o r r ec tl y , an e ne m a e v ac ua t es on l y t h e d is t al co lo n , s im il a r to a n o rm al bo we l m o v e m en t . Th is is a c c om pl is h ed b y h a vi ng th e p a ti e nt li e o n h i s o r h e r s id e wi t h t he k n e es tu c k e d t o wa r d t h e c h es t . W hil e in t hi s p o si t io n , 1 p i nt ( 50 0 m L ) o f en em a s ol u ti on s h o uld b e sl o wl y s q ue e z e d in to t h e re ct u m . Th is s h ou l d b e r et a in ed up t o 1 h r o r u n ti l d e fi n it e l o we r a b d om in al c r am p in g i s fe l t . A t th is po i nt , th e b owe l m o ve m e n t is r ea d y fo r e xp u l s i on . P.689
b . A l th ou g h a ll en em as c a u s e ab d om in al c r a m p ing , so m e m a y ha v e m o r e s e r io us ad ve r s e e f f ec t s t h a n o th e rs . So a p s ud s e n em as ca n c au s e m uc h r e c ta l i r r it a ti o n a nd ha v e b e en r ep o rt e d t o c au se a n a ph yl a xi s an d re ct a l g a n gr e ne . c . Th e p o pu la r s o di um ph o s p h at e e n em as (e . g. , F l e et ) a re v e r y ef f ec t i v e b u t h a ve r es ul t ed in h y pe r pho s ph a ta s e m i a , h yp oc al ce m ia ( te t an y ) , h yp o ka l em ia , m et a bo l ic a c id os is , a n d c ar d ia c d ea t h , u s u al l y o wi n g t o c o nd uc t io n a b no r m a li t ie s i n v e r y s m a ll c h il d r en . Th i s h as m ai n l y o c c u r re d in c h il d re n < 2 y ea r s o f a ge o r f ro m 2 to 5 y e a rs o f ag e wi t h p r e di s p os i ng f a c to r s. ( 1 ) Th e fa c t o rs in c l u de c h r o ni c r e na l d is e as e, ano r e c t a l m a l fo r m a t io ns , a n d /o r H ir s c hs p r un g d is e a s e , wh i c h al lo w p h o sph a t e b lo o d co nc e nt r a ti o ns t o be co m e a bn o rm al l y hig h an d p o ta s s iu m a nd cal c iu m t o b ec om e l o w, p r e di sp os i ng th e s e pa ti en t s t o c a rd ia c a r r h yt hm ias an d p o te n ti a ll y d ea t h. ( 2 ) Th e r ef o r e, t he us e o f e n em as i s h ig h l y d is c our a g ed in c h il d r en < 5 year s o f ag e . 5 . L ax a ti ve a b us e i s a te r m t o d e s c ri b e t he r ou t in e , c h ro n ic u s e o f l a xa t i ve s o n a da i l y b a s is ( e. g . , e ld e rl y p a ti en t s ) t o t he ad m i ni s tr a ti o n o f h i gh do s es s e v e ra l t im es d a il y b y pa t ie n ts wi t h a no r e xi a n e r vos a o r b u li m ia
f o r we i g ht c o n tr o l. E xc e s s i v e u s e o f l a xa t i v es c a n l e ad to e xc e s s i ve d i a r rh e a a nd v om i ti n g, re s ul t in g i n f l ui d a nd el ec t r o l y t e a bn o rm al i ti es . In a d di t io n to th e ri s k s t o pa t i en ts f ro m h yp ok a le m ia ( e .g . , m et a bo li c a lk al os is , c a r di ac c o nd uc t io n p r ob le m s ) , p a ti e nt s c an al s o d e v e l op os te om a la ci a , l ive r d i se as e , a nd c a t ha r ti c c o l on . C at h a rt ic c o lo n re s u l ts f ro m s up e r fi ci al u l ce r a ti on s i n t h e c o l on a s we l l as d am ag e t o t h e m us c u la r is m u co s a an d s u bm uc os a . Th i s r es u lt s i n a l os s o f t on e o f th e s m o ot h a n d s t ri at e d m us cl e a n d c au s e s p oo r bo we l fu n c t i on .
II. DIARRHEA A. G e n e r a l I nf o r m at i o n 1 . D e f in i t io n . Di a r rh e a is de f in e d as an in c re as e i n t h e f r eq u en c y an d l o os e ne s s o f s t oo ls c o m p a r ed t o o ne ' s n o rm al bowe l p a t te r n . Th e o ve ra l l we i g h t an d v ol um e o f the s to ol is in cr e as ed ( > 20 0 g o r m L/ d a y ) , a nd t he wa t e r c on t en t is i nc r e as e d to 60 % - 90 % . I n g en e ra l , d i ar r h ea r es ul ts wh e n s om e fa c t o r i m p a ir s t h e a b il i t y of th e i n te s ti ne t o a bs o r b wa t e r f ro m t h e s t oo l , wh ic h c au s e s e xc e s s wa t e r i n t he st o ol . 2 . C l as s i fi c at i o n. D ia r r he a c a n b e c l a s s if ie d ba s e d on m ec h an is m s or o r i gi n . a . C l as s i fi c at i o n b y m e c h a ni s m ( 1 ) O s mo t i c d i a r r he a o c c u rs wh e n a n on ab s o r b ab l e s ol u te pu ll s e xc e s s wa t e r i n to th e i n te s ti n al tr a c t. O sm o ti c d ia r r he a c e a se s wh e n t he pa t ie n t c o n ve rt s t o a fa s ti ng s t a te . ( a ) I ng es t io n o f l a rg e m ea l s o r c e rt a in osm o ti c s ub s ta nc e s ( e .g . , s or b it o l, g l yc e ri n ) c a n l e ad to di a rr h e a . ( b ) D is ac c h a r id as e d e fi c ie n c y wh i c h is a la c k of en z ym e s n e ed ed t o b r ea k d o wn d is ac c h a r id es in the g ut f or ab s or p ti o n ( e .g ., l ac t as e d ef ic i en c y) , r e s ul ts in an in c re as e i n o s m o ti c s ug a rs (i . e ., la c to s e, su c ro s e ) i n th e i n t es ti n al t ra c t . ( c ) Me d i c a t io ns t ha t c an i n du c e os m o t ic di a r rh ea i n c l u d e l ac t ul o s e an d m a gn es i um -c o nt ai n in g an t ac i ds a n d l a xa t i ve s . ( 2 ) S ec r e t o r y d i a r r h e a o c c u rs wh e n th e i n te st i na l wa l l i s d am ag e d, r e s ul ti n g i n a n i nc r ea s e d s ec r e ti on r at h e r t ha n a bs o r pt i on of el ec t r ol yt es i n t o t he in t es ti n al t ra c t. C o m m o n s ou r c e s i nc lu de ( a ) B a ct e r i al en d o t ox i ns ( e .g . , Esc h e ri ch ia c o li , V i b ri o c ho l e ra e , S hi g el la , S t a p hy lo c o c c us au r eu s ) ( b ) B a c te r i al i n fe c ti o n s ( e . g. , S hi ge l la , Sa l m on el l a ) ( c ) V i r al i n fe c ti o n s ( e .g. , r o ta v i r us , No r wa l k v i rus ) ( d ) P r o t oz oa l in f e c ti o ns ( e . g. , G ia r d ia l a m b li a , En t a m o eb a h is t ol y t ic a ) ( e ) M i s ce l la n eo u s c a use s . In fl a m m at o r y bo we l d i s e as e a n d m e d ic at i on s ( e . g ., p ro s ta gl a nd in s , a nt i b io t ic s , c o lc hi c i ne , c h em o th e r ap eu t ic ag e nt s ) ( 3 ) M o t i li t y d i s o r d e r s . D i a r r he a i n du ce d b y m o ti l it y d is o rd e rs r es ul ts f r om d e c re as e d c o n ta c t t im e o f t he fe ca l m as s wi t h t he i nt es t in a l wa l l , s o l es s wa t e r i s a bs o rb e d f r om th e fe c e s .
( a ) M o t i li t y d i s o r d e r s i nc l ud e i r r it a bl e b o we l s y nd r o m e , s c l e ro d er m a , d i ab e ti c n e ur o pa t h y , g as t r i c / i nt es t in a l r es ec t io n , a n d v ag o to m y . P.690
( b ) M e d ic a t io n s t h at c an i nd uc e m ot i li t y di s o r d er s in cl u de p a r as y m pa t ho m i m e t ic a ge n ts t ha t e n ha nc e t h e e ff e c ts o f ac et y l c h o li ne ( e . g ., m e t oc lo p ra m i d e, be t h an ec h ol ) , d ig i ta l is , q ui n id i ne , a n d a nt i bi o ti c s . ( i ) A n ti bi o ti c s c a us e d ia rr h e a b y c a us i ng in t es ti na l i r r i ta t io n , i nc r ea se d b o we l m o t il i t y , a nd al t e re d bo we l m i c ro bi a l f lo r a . ( i i ) Mo s t an t ib io t ic - in d uc e d di a r rh e a c a n b e m in im i ze d b y t ak in g t h e a gen t wi t h f o od . b . C l as s i fi c a ti o n b y o r i g i n ( 1 ) Ac u t e di a r r h ea ( us ua l l y s e lf - li m i t in g fo r 2 - 3 d a y s b u t m a y l as t up to 2 we e k s ) ( a ) I n fe c ti o n . M os t c o mm o n s o ur c e s i nc lu d e vi ra l an d b ac t e ri al , bu t p r o t o zoa l d ia r r he a a ls o oc c u r s . O r g an is m s i n cl ude t he f ol lo wi n g : ( i ) V i r us e s t h at c om m onl y c au s e di a r r he a a r e r o ta v i r u s e s a nd th e N or wa l k vi r u s . { a } R o t a vi r u se s u s u al l y a f f ec t c hi l dr e n < 2 ye a rs o f ag e . Th e v i r us h as an o n se t o f 1- 2 da y s a n d l as t s 5 - 8 d a ys . Pa t ie n ts us u a ll y h a v e v om it i ng an d a m i ld fe ve r , a n d m a y e xp e r i en c e s e v e r e d eh y d r a tio n . Th e re is u s u a ll y n o b l oo d o r pu s i n t h e s to ol . { b } Th e N o rw a lk vi r u s af f e c t s o ld e r c hi ld r e n a nd a d ul t s . I t h as an on s e t o f 1 - 2 da ys a n d l as ts 24 - 48 h r ( th e “2 4 -h r bu g ” ). A s wi t h r o t a vi ru se s , t he r e i s m i ld fe ve r bu t n o b l oo d or p us in th e s t oo l . ( i i ) B ac t e r ia . Mo s t ba c t er i a l d ia r r he a re s u l ts fr om c on s u m pt io n of c o nt am i na t ed wa t e r o r f oo d , wi t h a n o ns e t o f d ia rr h e a i n 8 hr t o s e ve r a l d a ys . Di a r rh e a c a us e d by t h e c o ns um pt i on of con t am i na t ed fo o d o r wa t e r t h a t o cc u rs i n a fo r e ig n c o u n t r y (e . g. , Me xi c o , t hi rd - wo r l d c o un t r ie s ) is r e f e r re d t o a s “t r a v el e r ' s d i ar r h ea . ” { a } T ox i g en i c b ac t e r ia . D i a r r he a c au s e d b y t o xi g e n ic E . c ol i, S t a p hy lo c o c c us au r eu s , V . c ho le r a e, an d Sh ig e lla r es u lt s f r om th e s ec r eto r y e f f ec ts o f e nt e ro t o xi n s re l ea s ed b y t h es e o r ga n is m s in th e s m a ll in t es ti ne . P a t i en ts us ua l l y e xp e r i en c e l a rg e - v ol um e s t oo ls t h a t a r e wa t e r y o r gr e as y. { b } I n va s i ve b a ct e r i a. Di a r r he a c au s e d b y i n v as iv e E . c o li , S hi ge l la , S a l m o ne l la , Ca mp y l o ba c t e r , a n d C l os t ri d iu m d if f ic i le re s ul ts f ro m m uc os al i n va si o n o f t he c o lo n . Thi s re s u l ts i n a d y s e n te r y - l i k e di a r rh ea , wh i ch is c h a ra ct e ri z e d b y a n e xt r e m e u r ge nc y t o d e fe c a t e, a bd om i na l c r am pi ng , t e n esm u s , fe v e r , c h il ls , a n d s m a ll - v o lu m e s t o ol s t h a t c on t ai n b lo o d o r p us . ( i i i ) P r ot o z o a . G . l a m bl ia , E nt a m o eb a h is t ol y ti c a, a nd C r yp t os po r id i u m c a us e e xp l o s i v e , fo u l- s m e l li n g, la r g e- v o l um e, wa t e r y s t oo ls . Th is i s t h ou gh t t o be ca us e d b y in v a s i o n o f th e s m a ll in t es ti n e, wh i ch c a us es da m a ge t o th e m ic r o v i ll i a nd , th e re f o re , d ec r e as es a b s o r pt i on of f l ui ds . Th is t ype o f d i a r rh e a c a n re s u l t i n l arg e fl u id lo s s es , a nd pa t i e n ts a re at r is k f o r
d e h yd ra t io n . Al th o ug h p ro t o z o an - in d uc ed di a r rh ea is s e l f- l im it i ng , i t m a y p e r si st fo r s e v e r al m o n ths , s o t h e ra p y s h ou l d b e c o ns id e re d to e ra di ca t e t h e o r g an is m . ( b ) D i e t -i n du c ed d ia r r he a . Di a r rh e a i nd uc e d b y f o o ds re su l ts f ro m f oo d a l le r g ie s , hi g h- f ib e r d i ets , fa t t y o r sp ic y f o od s , lar g e am ou n ts o f c a ff e in e , o r m i lk i n to l er a nc e . Th e bes t t re a tm en t i s p r e v en t ion , b y a v oi di n g t r ou b le s om e f o o ds . ( c ) D r u g -i n d uc e d d i a r r he a (s e e I I . A. 2 .a ) ( 2 ) C h r o ni c d i a r r he a (l as t s l on ge r th a n 2 we e k s ). I f a pa t ie n t s uf f e rs fr om d i a r rh e a f o r l on g p e ri o ds o f ti m e , o r f ro m r ec u r ren t ep is o de s o f d ia r r h ea , t h e fo ll o wi n g c au s e s m us t be c o ns id e re d : p r ot o z o a l o r ga n is m s , f oo d i n du c ed di a r rh ea ( e. g . , la c to s e in t ol e r an ce ) , i r r ita b le bo we l s yn d ro m e , m a la bs o rp t io n s y n d ro m es ( e. g . , c e l ia c sp r u e, di v e r t ic ul o s i s , s h o rt bo we l s yn d r om e ), in f la m m at o r y b o we l di s e as e , p an c re a ti c d is e as e, an d h yp e r t h y r oi di s m . B . P a t ie n t e va l u a t io n 1 . P ha r m a c i s t s wh o a r e c o ns ul t ed b y pa ti e n ts s ho u ld as k t he pa t ie n t f o r th e f o l lo wi n g i n fo r m a t io n b e fo r e re c o m m e nd in g a t he ra p y : a . A ge of t he pa t ie n t b . O n s e t a n d d u ra ti o n o f t h e d ia r r he a c . D esc r i pt i on of s t o ol (i .e . , f re qu e nc y , v o lu m e , b lo o d , p us , wa t e r y ) d . O t h er s ym p to m s ( e. g ., a b do m i n al c r am pi n g, f ev e r , n au s e a , vom it i ng , we i g h t lo s s ) e . Me d i c a t io ns r ec en t l y s t a r t ed o r m e d ic at i on s use d to r el ie v e t he di a r rh ea f . R e ce n t t r a v el ( wh e r e an d ho w l o n g a go ) g . Me d i c al hi s t o r y (h is t o ry o f G I di so r d er s ) P.691
2 . R e fe r r a l s t o a p h ys i c i a n s h ou ld be m a de b y th e ph a rm ac is t wh o e n co u nt e rs a p at i en t wi th d ia r r he a t h at m e e ts the f ol l o wi ng c ri t er i a: a . Y o un g e r t h a n 3 ye a r s o f a ge o r o l de r t ha n 60 ye a r s o f ag e ( wi t h m u lt i pl e m ed ic al p ro b le m s ) , p r e gn a nt o r b re a s t - f ee d in g p a ti e nt s , a nd p a t ie n ts wi t h HI V . b . B l o od o r m u cu s i n t he s t oo l s c . H i gh f e ve r (> 10 1 ° F or 3 8 ° C ) d . D e h yd r a t i o n o r w e i gh t l o ss > 5 % o f t o ta l b od y we i g h t ; s ig ns of d e h yd ra t io n — d r y m ou t h , s un k e n e y es , c r y in g wi th o u t t ea r s, d r y s k i n th a t i s n o t e l as ti c l ik e n o rm al s k i n e . D u r a ti o n o f di a r r h ea > 2 da ys f . V o mi t i n g C . T r e a tm e nt 1 . N o np h a r ma c ol o gi c a l a . F oo d / b re a st - f e ed i ng . I n th e p as t , t h e re wa s m u c h c o n t ro v e r s y re g a rd ing t h e d ec is i on to f ee d o r no t t o f ee d c hi l dr e n d u ri ng ac u te ep is o de s o f
d i a r rh e a. O r ig i na ll y , p are n ts we r e t ol d t h at c h il d re n s h ou l d n ot r ec ei v e foo d , m i lk p r o du c t s , o r b r ea s t-f e e d f o r 6 - 48 h r a ft e r t h e o ns e t o f d i ar r h ea . Pa r ent s we r e a l s o to l d t ha t i f c h ild r e n d id r ec ei v e fo o d , t he y s ho u ld r ec ei ve th e B R A T d i e t , wh ic h c on s i s ts o f b an an a s, r ic e, ap p les a uc e, a nd to as t . Th is d i e t d oe s n ot wo r k an d is de f ic ie n t i n c al o ri es , p ro t e in , a n d f a t. A ll pa t ie n ts s h ou l d r ec ei v e t he i r n o rm a l d ie t o r b re as t - fe e di ng d u ri ng bo u ts of di a r rh ea b e ca us e th es e d o n o t m a k e t he di a r rh e a wo r s e an d m a y ac t ua ll y i m p r o ve t h e c on d it i on . Fa t t y fo ods , fo o ds ri c h in s im p le su g a rs (c a n c a us e o sm o tic d i a r rh e a) , an d s pi c y fo ods (m a y c a us e G I u ps e t ) s h ou l d b e a v o id ed . C a f f ei n e -c on t ai ni n g b e v er a g es , wh ic h m a y wo r s en t he di a r rh e a, sh o ul d a ls o b e a voi d ed . b . F lu i d s. Th e m os t i m po r t a nt pa r t o f t re a ti ng ac u t e d i a rr h ea is th e r e p la ce m e n t o f l os t fl ui ds an d e l ec t ro l y t es . I f pa t ie n ts e xp e r i en c e m i ld to m o de r a te fl u id l o s s , f lu i d r e pl a c e m e n t c a n b e a c hi e ve d wi t h o r al - r eh y d r a tio n s o lu t io ns ( O R S ) . I f fl ui d lo s s is s e ve r e ( > 1 0 % l os s o f b od y we i g h t ) a nd / o r s e ve r e v o m i t in g p e rs is t s , t h en pa t ie n ts m a y ne e d i n t ra ve n ou s re h yd ra t io n b e f o re or a l m a i nt e na nc e f l u id s ca n b e a dm i ni st e re d . O R Ss ca n b e e as i l y m a de at ho m e ( Ta b le 33- 1 ) o r p u rc ha s e d re a d y - to - u s e (e . g ., P ed i al yt e , R e h yd r a -l y t e ) . Al l o f t h es e s ol u ti o ns a r e c on si d er e d eq ua l l y s a fe an d e f f ec t i v e b ut ha v e no e ffe c t o n t h e d u ra ti o n o f t he d ia r r he a . Th e s e c re t ory a n d a bs o rp t i v e m ec ha n is m s o f t h e b o we l fu nc t io n s ep a r at e l y, a nd t hi s a l lo ws t h es e O R S t o b e a b s o r be d d u r in g a c u t e ep i so d es o f d i a rr h ea , p r e ve n ti ng s e v e r e d eh y d r a t io n an d c om pl ic a ti on s . N o t e v e r y p a ti en t n e eds O R S . F o r a c h il d wi t ho u t e v i d en ce of de h yd r at i on ( s ee I I. B . 2. d ) , a dm in is t er 1 0 m L /k g o r 1/ 2 -1 c u p o f O R S f o r e a c h l o os e s too l . I f a ch i ld is vom i ti ng , a d m i ni s te r s m a l le r a m o un t s ( 1 - 2 t ea sp o on s fu l ) e ve r y 2 - 5 m in as to le r a te d . ( 1 ) F lu i d a n d e l ec t r o l yt e r e p la c em en t . Fl ui d a nd e le c t r o l y te th e r ap y is a i m e d a t re p la c i ng wh a t t h e b o d y h a s lo s t. D u ri ng t hi s s it u at i on , t h e p a t ie n t 's fl u id in pu t an d o u t pu t a s we ll as we i g ht s h ou l d b e m o n it o re d . The W orld H e al t h O r g an i z a tio n (W HO ) h as es ta b li sh ed g ui de l in es fo r o ra l r e p la ce m e n t t h e ra p y ( Tab l e 3 3 -1 ) . R ec om m e nd e d d os es a re gi ve n i n Ta ble 33-2. ( 2 ) F lu i d s t o b e a vo i d ed i nc lu d e h y p e rt o ni c f r ui t j u ic es a n d d r in k s (e . g. , a p pl e j u ic e, po wd e r e d d ri n k m i xe s , g el a ti n wa t e r), c ar b on a te d b e v e r ag es , a n d c af f ei n e -c on t ai ni n g b e v e r ag e s , wh i c h c a n m a k e d ia r r he a wo r se an d d o +
+
n o t c on t ai n n e ed e d e le c tr o l y t es ( i. e ., N a , K ). Ga t o r ad e d il u te d i n wa t e r ( 1 : 1 ) i s a de qu a te a nd pro v i d es th e n e c e s s a r y c om b in a ti on o f g lu co s e , s o di um , a n d p ot a s s iu m . 2 . P ha r m ac o l og i c . An t i d i a r r h ea l s m a y s e r ve t o p r e ve n t a n a t ta c k o f d i a r rh e a o r t o re li e v e e xi s t in g s ym pt om s . B as e d on t he F D A re vi e w o f a n t id ia r r he a l p r od uc ts , th r e e a ge n ts ha ve be e n P.692 i d en t i fi ed as c a te g o r y 1 (i . e ., s a f e a nd ef f ec t i v e ) in g r ed i en ts : ka o li n , b i s mu t h s u b sa l ic yl a t e , a n d l o p e ra m id e . I n Ap r il 2 0 03 , th e F D A
r e c la ss if i ed at t ap u lg i te an d po l yc a r bo p hi l p r od u cts f ro m c at e go r y 1 to c a te g o r y 3 be c a u s e of ins u f fi c i en t ef f ec ti ve n es s da t a . A n ti d ia r r he a l a ge n ts a r e c l as s i fi e d i n d if f e re n t c a te go r i es o n th e b as is o f t he i r c h em ic a l cl as s or p h a rm ac ol o gi c m e c ha ni s m o f ac t io n .
Table 33-1. Guidelines for Oral-Replacement Therapy Established by the World Health Organization (WHO) Ingredients
Dose
Sodium chloride (table salt)
90 mEq (1/2 teaspoon)
Potassium chloride (potassium salt)
20 mEq (1/4 teaspoon)
Sodium bicarbonate (baking soda)
30 mEq (1/2 teaspoon)
Glucose (sugar)
20 g (2 teaspoons)
Water
Enough to make 1 L of solution
Table 33-2. Guidelines for Fluid- and Electrolyte-Replacement Therapy
Age Group
Mild (2-3 stools/day)
Dose Moderate (4-5 stools/day)
> 5 years of age
2 L/first 4 hr, then replace ongoing losses
2-4 L/first 4 hr, then replace ongoing losses
< 5 years of age
50 mL/kg/first 4 hr, then 10 mL/kg or 1/2-1 cup per stool
100 mL/kg/4 hr, then 10 mL/kg or 1/2-1 cup per stool
a . An t i p e r is t a l ti c d ru g s ( 1 ) M e c ha n is m o f ac t i on . A n ti pe r is t al t ic d r u gs ac t b y s ti m ul at i ng µ op io id r e c ep t or s o n t h e c i r c u l a r a n d l on gi t ud i na l m us c u la t u r e o f t he s m al l a nd l a r ge in t es ti n es to no r m al i z e pe r is t al ti c i n te st i na l m o vem e nt s . Th e y s lo w i n t es ti n al m o ti li t y a nd af fe c t wa t e r a nd el ec t r ol y t e m o v em en t th r o ug h t h e b o we l . Lo p er a m i de is c on s id e re d t wo to t hr e e t im e s m o re po t en t th a n d i ph e no xy l a t e a nd 50 t im es m o r e p o te n t t ha n m o r p hi n e i n i ts ab il i t y to s lo w G I m o ti li t y . Lo p er am i de d o es no t a p p re c i a bl y p en e t r at e t h e c en t ra l n e r v ou s s ys t em ( C N S ) a nd th u s ha s a lo w r i s k f o r C N S si de e f fe c t s . L op e ra m i d e is
e f f ec t i v e i n ac u te , no ns pe c if ic di a r rh e a, t ra v e l e r 's di a r rh e a, an d c h ro n ic d i a r rh e a as s o c i a te d wi t h i n fl am m a t o r y b o we l di s ea s e . Th e f re qu e nc y o f b o we l m o v e m e n ts is d ec r e a s e d , a nd th e c on s i s ten c y o f s to ol s i s i nc re a sed . H o we ve r , r e p la c e m e n t o f f l ui ds ( th r o ug h O R S ) a nd d i e t a r y m an a ge m e n t a re s t il l t h e m a i n f oc us of t he r a p y fo r di a r rh e a. ( 2 ) C o n t ra i n di c at i o n. An t i pe r is t al ti c m ed ic a ti on s h a v e a l wa ys b ee n r e s t ri ct e d i n p at i en ts wi t h ac u te ba c te r ia l d i ar r h ea as so c i a t ed wi t h f e c a l l e uk oc yt e s , hi g h f e v e r, or b lo o d o r m uc us in th e st o o l b ec au s e of t he p o t en t ia l f o r t h es e d r ug s t o de c r e as e c le a ra nc e of t h e o rg a ni s m a n d e n h an c e s y s t em ic i n v as io n of t he or g an is m . Mo s t i n fo r m a t io n s ho ws t h at t h is is no t s ig n if ic a nt and p r ob ab l y wi l l c au s e n o h a r m . H o we ve r , th es e m e di ca t io ns s h ou l d n ot be us e d i n p at i en ts wi t h c o l i ti s ( po t en t ia l fo r th e d e ve l op m e n t o f t o xi c m eg a c o l on ) o r in c h il d re n < 6 y e a rs of ag e . ( 3 ) P r es c r i p ti o n a g en t s i n t h is c l as s in c l u de th e o p ia t e -r e la t ed ag e nt d i ph e no xy l a t e / a t ro p in e (e . g . , L om ot il ) . ( 4 ) N o np r e sc r i p t io n age n t s . L o pe r a mi d e ( e .g . , I m od iu m A - D ) p ro vi d es e f f ec t i v e c o n t ro l o f d i a rrh e a a s q ui c k l y as 1 h r a ft e r ad m i ni s t ra t io n . A n t i pe r is ta l ti c d r ug s s hou l d n o t b e us e d f o r m or e t h an 48 h r i n ac u t e d i a r rh e a. ( a ) Ad m i n is t r a t io n gu i de l i n es . Ad ul t s: 4 m g f ol lo we d b y 2 m g a f te r ea c h l o os e s to o l, no t to e xc e ed 1 6 m g / da y ; c h i ld r en : 1-2 m g up t o t h re e t im es pe r d a y, de p en d in g o n we i ght a nd ag e . ( b ) Ad ve r s e e f f ec t s. A t r e c om m e nd e d d os es , l ope r a m i de is ge ne r a ll y we l l t o l er a t ed . Si de e ff ec t s a re i nf r e qu en t an d c on si st p r i m a r il y o f a bd om i na l p a in , di s t e nt i on , o r di s c om f o rt ; dr o ws i ne s s ; d i z z i ne s s ; an d d r y m o u th . b . Ad s o r b e n ts . Th es e m e d ic a ti on s a r e n o t s e l ec ti v e a nd ad s o r b t o xi n s , b a ct e r ia , g as es , an d f l uid s . I n a d di t io n , a ds o rb ent s m a y ad s o r b d r u gs i n th e G I t r ac t . Th e y ar e n o t a bs o r be d s ys te m i ca ll y , s o th e y p r od uc e few a d ve r se e f f e c ts . Th es e p r od uc t s a r e gi v e n f o r s y m p t om a tic r el ie f an d a r e u s u al l y a d m i ni s te r ed in la r g e d os es im m e di a te l y f ol lo wi n g a l o os e s to ol . Th e y a re g e n er a ll y n ot e ff ec t i v e f or s e v e re ac ut e d i a rr h ea . ( 1 ) K a ol i n ( a ) Ad m i n is t r a t io n gu i de l i n es ( i ) A d ul ts an d c hi l dr e n 12 y e a rs o f a ge an d o ld e r ( o r al ) : 2 6 .2 g a f te r ea c h l o os e s to o l. ( i i ) C on t in u e t o t ak e e v er y 6 h r u n ti l s to o l is f ir m b u t n o t f o r m o re th a n 2 d a ys . ( i i i ) D o n ot e xc e ed 26 2 g i n 2 4 h r . ( b ) Ad ve r s e e f f ec t s. B ec a us e a c t i va te d k ao l in is i n er t an d i s n ot ab s or b ed s ys t em ic al l y , a d v e rs e e f fe c ts a re m i no r wi t h f e w p a t ie n ts e xp e r i e nc in g c o ns ti p at i on , b l oa t in g , an d fu l ln es s . P.693
( c ) W a rn i n gs . I t is re c om m e n de d t h at t hi s p r od uc t no t b e g i v e n wi t h i n 3 h r o f o th e r m e d ic at i on s b ec a u s e it m a y d ec r ea se the a bs o rp t io n o f o t he r o ral l y a d m i ni s te r ed m e di c a t io ns . c . M i sc e ll a ne o u s a ge n ts ( 1 ) B i sm u t h s ub s al i c yl a t e ( e .g . , P e pt o - Bi s m o l an d Ma a l o x To t a l S to m ac h R e l i ef ) . Bi s m ut h s al t s wo r k as ad s o r be n ts bu t a ls o a r e b el ie v e d to de c re as e s ec r e ti o n o f wa t e r in t o t he b o we l . I t i s e f fe ct i v e an d c a n r e du ce th e n um be r o f st o ol s b y 50 % . B is m uth p r ep a ra t io ns ha v e m o de r a t e e ff ec t i ve ne s s a g ai n st th e p r e v e nt i on an d t re a tm en t o f t ra ve l er ' s di a r rh e a a nd no ns p ec ifi c d i a r rh e a, bu t d os e s r eq ui r e d f o r r e li e f a r e la r g e an d m us t be ad m i ni s te r ed f r e q ue n tl y , s o th es e p r epa r a ti o ns m a y be in c o n ven i e n t . ( a ) Ad m i n is t r a t io n gu i de l i n es ( i ) A d ul ts : 2 t ab le t s o r 30 - 6 0 m L ( 52 4 m g ) e v e r y h o u r a s n ee d ed to a m a xi m um o f 8 d os es in a 2 4 - hr pe r i od ; c hi l dr e n > 2 ye a rs o f a ge : o n e t hi r d t o on e h a lf o f a du l t d os e. ( i i ) B ism u th s u bs al ic y l a te c a n p r e ve nt t ra ve l e r 's d i a r rh e a wh e n 2 t ab l et s a r e t a ke n fo u r t im es pe r da y . ( i i i ) Sh ak e th e s us pe ns io n we l l b e fo r e u se . ( b ) Ad ve r s e e f f ec t s m a y i nc l ud e h a rm le ss g ra yi sh c h a rc o al c o lo r in g o f s t oo ls o r t on g ue . R in gi ng i n t he ea r s ( i .e . ti nn i tus ) c a n o cc u r wi t h hi g h d o se s, es p ec ia ll y i f t h e pa t i en t i s s im ul ta n eo us l y ta k in g o t he r s a li c yla t e p r o du c ts . ( c ) W a rn i n gs / C o nt r a n dic a t i on s ( i ) P a ti en t s wi t h bl ac k o r b l oo d y s t oo ls s h o ul d n ot u s e th is p ro d uc t. ( i i ) B ism u th s u bs al ic y l a te s h o ul d n o t b e g i ven t o c h il d re n o r te e na g er s d u r in g o r af t e r r ec o v e r y fr o m c hi c k en p o x o r fl u b ec a us e o f t h e p os s i bl e a ss o ci at i on of s a li c y la t es wi t h R e y e 's s y nd r om e . ( i i i ) Pa t ie n ts wi t h d oc um e n t ed al le r g ie s t o s al ic y la t es s h o ul d n ot t ak e t hi s p r o du c t. ( i v) P a t ie n ts on an t ic oa gu l an t s s h o ul d b e m on i to re d c l o s el y i f t ak i ng th es e p r o du c ts . ( v) P r e g n an t o r br e as t - fee d in g p a ti e nt s s ho u ld not t ak e t h es e p r od uc t s. ( 2 ) L ac t o ba c il l us ( e. g . , B a c id , L ac t in e x) p r o du c ts a re in t en d ed to r ep la c e t h e n o rm a l b ac te r ia l fl o ra t ha t i s l os t d u r in g t h e a d m i ni s t ra ti o n o f o r al a n t ib io t ic s . H o we v e r , th er e is li t tl e i n fo r m a t io n t o s h o w t h at th es e pr o du c ts a r e us ef u l f o r a nt i bi o ti c - in d uc e d d ia r r he a ; wi t h t he i nc r ea se in bo we l o r g an is m s , p a ti e nt s c an e xp e r i e nc e fl a tu le nc e . Mo s t c li ni ci a ns d o n o t r e c om m e nd th e i r us e . ( 3 ) L ac t as e (e . g. , La c t A id , La c tr a s e , Da i r y E as e ) i s i n di c a t ed fo r in di v i d ual s wh o h a v e in s u f f ic ie n t am o u n ts o f la c t as e i n th e s m a ll in t es ti n e. La c to s e (a d i sa cc ha r id e p r es e nt in d a i r y pr o du c ts ) m us t b e b r o k e n d o wn t o g lu c o s e a n d g al a c t os e t o be fu ll y d i ge s t e d. I f i t i s n ot , l ac t o se d ra ws wa t e r i nt o t he G I t r ac t , a n d d ia r r he a res u lt s . L ac ta se is th e e n zy m e r es po ns i bl e f o r d i ge s ti ng la c to s e . Th e do s e is 1 -2 c a ps ul es t ak en wi t h m i lk or da i r y
p r o du c ts o r ad d ed to m i lk be f o re d ri nk in g . Ti t ra t io n of do se s t o h i gh e r l e ve ls m a y be r eq u i re d in s o m e pa t ie n ts . ( 4 ) An t i - i n f ec t i ve s. D e pe n di n g o n t h e su s p ec t ed o r ig i n o f t h e i nf ec t io us d i a r rh e a, p re s c r ip ti o n a nt i b io t ic s an d a n ti p r ot o z oa l m e di c a t io ns c a n b e u s e d t o e ra d ic at e t h e o r ga ni s m s a nd de c re as e th e d u ra t i on of s ym p to m s ( Ta ble 3 3 - 3 ). I f a nt i bi o ti c s a r e us e d t o p r e v en t t ra v e le r ' s d i ar r h ea , th e ra p y s h ou ld b e s t a rt e d 1 da y b ef o re a r r i v a l i n h ig h -i nc i de nc e r e g io ns an d c o nt in u ed un t i l 2 d a ys a ft e r d e pa r tu r e . I f d i ar r h ea ha s o cc ur r e d, a n t ib io t ic t re a tm en t s ho ul d l a st f or 3 d a y s . ( 5 ) An t i c h ol i n e rg i cs ( e .g . , at r op i ne , h yo s c y a m i ne ) d ec re a se bo we l m o t il it y , wh i c h r es ul ts in an in c rea s e o f f l ui d a bs o rp t io n f ro m th e i n te st i na l t r ac t a nd a d ec r ea s e in ab d om in al c r am pi n g. Th e se pr o du ct s ar e fo un d i n c om b in a ti o n wi t h ad s o r be n ts o r o pi a te s . H o we ve r , t h e am o un t o f a n t ic ho li n e rg ic fo u nd in m os t pr o du c ts i s n o t co ns i de r ed t o b e e no ug h to a l t er t he c o u rs e o f s e v e re ac u te di a r rh e a. Ad ve r s e e ff e c ts in cl ud e d r y m o ut h , b lu r r ed v i s i on , and t ac h yc a r di a . Th es e p r od u ct s s ho u ld no t b e u s ed i n pa t ie n ts wi t h n a r ro w- a n g le gl a uc om a .
III. HEMORRHOIDS A. G e n e r a l I nf o r m at i o n 1 . D e f in i t io n . He m o r r ho id s (a ls o k no wn a s p il e s) a r e de f in ed as a b no r m a l ly l a r g e, b u lg i ng , s y m pt om a ti c c lus t e rs of di la t ed bl o od ves s e ls , s u pp o r ti ng t is s u es , a nd o ve r l yi ng m u c o s u s P.694 m em b r an es . He m or r h oi ds c a n p r es en t in th e l o we r r ec t um (i n te r na l h em or r h o id s ) o r a n us ( e xt e r n al he m o r r hoi d s ). S im pl y , he m o r r ho i ds r e p r es e nt do wn wa r d d is p la ce m e n t o f an a l c u s h i on s t h at c on t a in a rt e ri o v e no us an as t o m o se s .
Table 33-3. Antibacterials Used For the Prophylaxis and Treatment of Traveler's Diarrhea Antibacterialsa
Prophylaxis doseb
Treatment dosec
Azithromycin
n/a
1000 mg po 1 × dose
Ciprofloxacind
500 mg once daily
500 mg twice daily
Levofloxacind
n/a
500 mg once daily
Norfloxacind
400 mg once daily
400 mg twice daily
Ofloxacind
n/a
200 mg twice daily
Rifaximin
200 mg once or twice daily
200 mg three times daily
a
Sulfonamides, neomycin, ampicillin, doxycycline, tetracycline, and TMPSMX are no longer recommended due to world-wide drug resistance. b
Prophylaxis should only be used for 2-3 weeks.
c
Antibiotics are used for a 3-day course.
d
Campylobacter species exhibit resistance to fluoroquinolones and should be considered in treatment. n/a, not applicable; po, by mouth. 2 . E p id e mi o l og y. H e m o rr h o id s a r e c om m o n, wi t h a p p ro xi m a t el y 1 0% - 25 % o f th e U . S . p op ul a ti o n a f fl ic t ed . Th e r is k o f d e ve lo pi n g he m o rr h oi ds in c re as es wi t h a d va nc i ng ag e a n d p ea k s in in d i vid ua ls 45 - 6 5 y ea r s o f a g e. Th e in ci de n c e o f h e m o r r ho i ds i n p r eg n an t wo m e n i s h ig h e r t ha n tha t o f n on p re g na n t wo m en o f s im il a r a g e . A l th o ug h t h e y a r e c o n s i d er e d a m in o r m ed ic a l p r o bl em , th e y m a y c au s e c o ns id e ra b le di s c om f or t a n d a n xi e t y . B . T yp e s o f h e m o r r ho id s a r e d e te r m i ne d b y t h ei r a n a to m i ca l p os i ti o n a nd va s c ul a r o r i gi n . 1 . A n i n te r n a l h em o r rh oid is an e xa g g e ra t ed v a sc u la r c us h io n wi t h a n e ng o r ge d i n t er n al he m o r r ho i da l p lexu s l o ca t e d a bo v e th e de n t at e l i ne an d c o ve re d wi t h a m uc o us m em b ra n e. 2 . A n e x te r n al h em or r h oi d is a di l at e d ve i n o f t he i n fe r io r he m o r r ho i da l p le xu s l o ca t ed be l o w t he de n ta te l in e a nd c o ve r ed wi t h s q u am o us e p it h el iu m . 3 . A m i xe d he m o r r ho i d ap p e ar s a s a b a gg y s we l lin g an d e xh i b i ts s im u lt a ne o us c h a ra ct e ri s ti c s o f in t er n al a nd e xt e r n al he m o r r ho id s . C . O r i g i n . A l th o ug h h e red i t y m a y p r ed is po se a pe r s on to he m o r r ho i ds , t he e xa c t c a us e is p ro b ab l y r el a ted t o a c q ui r e d f ac t or s . 1 . S it u at i on s t ha t r es ul t in i n c re a se d ve no u s p r es s u r e i n t he he m or r h oi da l pl e xu s ( e . g ., ch r on ic s t r ai n in g du r i ng de f ec a ti on ; s m a l l, h a r d s to o ls ; p r ol on g ed sit t i ng on t h e to il e t; oc c u p at i on s t ha t r ou t in el y r e qu i r e h ea v y l i f ti n g; pe l v ic t um o rs ; pr e g na nc y ) c a n t r an s fo rm an as y m pto m at ic he m o r r h oi d i nt o a p r o bl em . P re gn a nc y is th e m os t f r e q ue n t c a us e o f he m o rr h o id s i n wo m e n o f c hi l db e a ri n g a ge . 2 . Th e he m o r r ho id a l v e i ns a re pu s h e d d o wn wa r d d u r in g d e fe c a t io n o r s t r ai n in g ; wi t h i n c re as ed v e n ou s p r es s ur e , th e y d il a t e a nd be c om e en g o r ge d . O v e r t im e, t h e f i b e r s t h at an c h o r t h e he m o rr h oi d al ve in s t o t he ir u n de r l y in g m us c u la r c oa t s s t r e t c h, wh i c h r es ul ts in p r o l ap s e. D . S i g ns / s ym p t o m s
1 . Th e mo s t c om m o n s ig n /s y m p to m o f h em o r rh oi d s is p ai n le s s b l ee d in g o c c u r ri ng d u r in g a bo we l m o v e m ent . Th e bl oo d i s u su a ll y b ri g h t r e d a nd m a y be v i s ib l e o n t h e s t oo l , o n t h e t oi l et ti s s ue, o r c ol o r in g t h e wa t e r in t h e t oi l et . 2 . P r o la p se is th e s ec on d m os t c o mm o n s ig n /s y m p t om of he m o r r ho i ds . A t e m p o r ar y p r o tr u s i on m ay o c c u r du r in g d e fe c a t ion , an d i t m a y ne e d t o b e r e pl a ce d m a nu a ll y . A p e rm a ne n tl y p r ol a ps ed he m o r r h oi d m a y g i ve ri s e to c h r on ic , m o is t s o il in g o f th e u n de r we a r . Th e s e p a ti en t s m a y c om p l ai n o f a d ul l , ac h in g f ee l in g . P.695
3 . P ai n is u n us ua l u nl e s s t h r om b os i s i n v ol vi n g e xt e r n a l ti s s ue is pr es e nt , a nd th e n t h e p a in c a n b e e xc r u c i at i n g. 4 . D i sc o mf o r t , s o r e ne ss , p r u r it u s , sw e ll i n g, bu r n i n g , a nd se e pa g e m ay a l s o o cc u r wi t h h em o r rh oi d s . E . A p ro p er di a gn os is is i m po r t an t , b ec au s e t he r e a r e a nu m b e r o f c on d it io n s t ha t m a y p ro d uc e s y m p t om s th a t m im ic th os e o f he m or r h o id s . O t h e r c o nd i t i ons t ha t m a y m i m ic he m o r r ho i ds i nc l ud e th e fo ll o wi n g , wh i c h us u al l y r eq ui r e a ph y s ic ian ' s i n t er ve n t io n : 1 . A n a na l ab s ce s s, us ua l l y a S t ap hy l oc oc c u s in fe c ti o n 2 . C r yp t i t i s , wh i c h is in fl a m m at i on of t he c r y p ts (s m a l l i nd en t a ti on s a t th e m uc o cu t an eo us ju nc t io n ) 3 . A n a na l f is s u re , wh i c h is a s m a ll te a r i n t h e lin i ng o f t he an us 4 . A n a na l f is t u la , wh i c h i s a n a bn o rm a l co m m un ic a ti o n b et we e n t he m uc os a o f th e r e c tu m a nd t he s k i n a d jac e nt t o t he an us 5 . I n fl a mm a to r y b o w e l d i s ea s es 6 . A po l yp , wh i c h is a t um o r o f th e l a rg e i n te s t i ne 7 . C o lo r e c ta l c a nc e r F . I n te r n al h em or r h oi ds a r e gr a de d a n d cl as s i f ied i nt o o n e o f f o ur g ro u ps. 1 . A fi r s t - de g r ee h em or rh o id ( g ra d e 1 ) d oe s n o t d e s c en d o r p ro la ps e d u r in g s t r ai ni n g o n d e fe c a t io n . P a i nl es s b le e di n g is p res e nt . 2 . A s e co n d - de g r ee hem o r rh o id ( gr a de 2 ) d es c e n ds wi t h de f ec at i on bu t r e t u rn s s p on t an e ou s l y wi t h r el a xa t i on . Mi l d d is c o m fo r t a nd b le ed i ng a re p re s e n t. 3 . A th i r d - de g r ee he m o rr h o id ( g ra de 3 ) r e qu i re s m a nu a l r ep l ac em en t i n to t h e r e c tu m a f te r pr o la ps e ( wh i c h oc c u rs du r i ng de f eca t i on o r e xe r t i on r el a te d t o wo r k ) . P a i n , b le ed i ng , a n d d is c h a r ge o f m u c u s a r e p r ese n t . 4 . A fo u r t h - de g r ee he m o r r h oi d (g r ad e 4 ) is p e rm a n e nt l y p ro la ps e d a nd ca n n ot be m a ni p ul at e d m an ua l l y . Th r o m b os is of t en oc c u r s. G . T r e a tm e n t. Th e s y m pt o m s of he m o r r ho i ds a r e p r o du c e d b y a c y c le of e ve n ts : th e p r o t ru si o n o f t h e v a s c ul ar s ub m u co s a l c us hi o n t hr o u gh a t i gh t a n al c a na l , wh i c h b e co m e s f u r th e r c on ge s te d an d h y p e r t ro ph ic , wh ic h c au s es t h e c us hi on t o p r o t ru de f a r t he r . Al l t r ea t m e n ts o f h em o r rh o id s a im to b rea k th is c y c le , an d t h e y fa l l i n to a n u m b e r o f b r o ad gr o up s . 1 . F or f i r st - an d s e co n d- d e g r ee i n te r n al he m o r rh o id s t h at bl e ed m i ni m a lly, a c o ns e r vat i v e a p p ro ac h c a n us ua ll y b e t ak e n .
a . To r e du c e s t r a in i ng a n d d ow nw a r d p r e ss u r e o n th e h em o r rh oi d s , pa ti e n ts s h ou l d a v o id s t r ai ni n g w h e n d e fe c a t in g a n d a v o id si t ti n g o n t h e t oi le t lo ng e r th a n n e ce ss a r y (s ug g es t re m o v i n g a ll r ea d in g m at e ri al s fr om t he ba t h ro om ) . b . C o r r e ct i o n o f c o n st ip a t i on i s o f p a r am o u n t i m p o r ta n ce . Th is c a n b e a cc o m p li s h e d b y ea t in g a h ig h - fi be r di e t a nd in c re a s i n g wa t e r in t ak e a nd p h ys ic al a c ti vi t y. B ul k -f o rm in g l a xa t i v es , s uc h a s p s yll iu m , a n d s to ol s o f te n e rs , s uc h as d o cu sa t e , m a y b e h el p ful . c . S i tz b a t hs fo r 15 m i n , t h r ee to f ou r ti m e s a d ay , c a n so o th e th e a na l m u c os a. Te p i d wa t e r s ho u ld be us e d, an d p r o lo ng e d b a th in g s h ou l d b e a v o id ed . Ep s om s al t s ( m a gn es iu m s ul f at e ) a d de d to t he ba t h o r t h e a ppl i c a t io n o f a n i c e pa ck c an h el p r e d uc e t h e s we l li n g o f an e de m a t ou s o r c lo t t ed he m o rr h oi d . d . O TC h e m o r r ho i d al o in t m e nt s , c r e am s , f o ams , an d s u p po s i to r i es m a y a ls o h e lp r el i e v e s y m p t om s ( s e e I II . H ) . 2 . H i gh e r - g r ad e i n t e r nal h em o r r h o id s u s u a ll y re q ui r e p h y si ci a n e xp e r t is e a nd s p ec ia li ze d pr oc e du r es fo r t r ea tm e nt . a . S y m pt om a ti c g r ad es 2 o r 3 h em o r rh oi ds a re of te n be s t t re a t ed wi t h h e mo r r h o i d b a n d in g ( ru bb e r b a nd lig a t io n ) . Th i s p r oc ed u re is pe r f o rm ed th r o ug h a n a n os c o p e; a r u bb e r b an d l i ga t ur e i s p l ac ed on th e re c ta l m uc o s a a b o ve t h e h em o rr ho i d , we l l a b o ve t h e d en t a te l i ne to a v o i d e xc e s s i ve d is co m fo r t . Th e l ig a te d a r e a s l ou g hs of f in a few days. P.696
Table 33-4. Guide to Hemorrhoidal Therapy Based on Approved Indication for OTC Anorectal Drug Products Therapy
Burnin Discomfor Irritatio Itching Pain Sorenes Swellin g t n s g
Analgesic, anesthetic, antipruritic
Ye s
Yes
Astringent
Ye s
Yes
Keratolytic
Local anesthetic
Ye s
Ye s
Yes
Ye s
Ye s
Ye s
Ye s
Ye s
Yes
Ye s
Yes
Ye s
Protectant
Ye s
Yes
Yes
Ye s
Vasoconstrict or
Yes
Yes
Ye s
Ye s
Hydrocortiso ne
Yes
Ye s
Ye s
b . I n f ra r e d p h o to c oa g u la t i o n c an be us ed fo r g ra d e 2 he m o r r ho i ds ; i t i s le s s e f f ec t i v e t ha n b a nd in g wi t h l a rg e h e m o r r ho id s . I nf r a r ed li g ht is fo c u se d a t t h e b as e o f t he he m o r r ho id , th e r eb y d es t r o y in g th e v a ri c os i t y s ec o nd a r y to t he fo rm a ti o n o f a wh i t e co a gu l um . c . S cl e r o th e r ap y ( i n j e c t io n of a sc l er o s i ng ag e nt i n t o t he he m o r r ho i d ) o r c r yo t he r a p y ( “f r ee z i n g ” th e he m o r r ho i d) a re ol d e r t h e ra p ie s t ha t h a ve be en us e d. d . S u r g ic a l h em o r r h oi de c t o m y s h o u ld be un d e rt a k e n o n l y fo r gr a de s 3 or 4 h e m o r r ho i ds . W het he r t he p r oc ed u re is do ne t ra di t i on al l y o r wi t h a l as e r , m os t p a t ie n ts h a v e s ig n if ic a nt d is c o m fo r t a n d a p e ri o d o f po s to pe r a ti v e di sa b il i ty . 3 . A n e x te r n al , t h ro m b os e d h e mo r r h o i d c a n b e c om p le t el y e xc i s ed in an o f fi c e s e t ti ng , c l in ic , o r op e ra t in g r oo m . H . N o n p r es c r ip t i o n m ed i c a ti o n fo r he m o r r h oid a l an d o t h e r a n o re c t al d i s ea se s ( Ta b l e 3 3 - 4 ). Th e F D A ha s i d en t if i ed s e v e r al in g re d ie n ts as s a fe an d e f fec t i v e t o a l le vi a te bu r n in g , d is c om f o r t , i n fl am m a ti o n , i r ri t at io n , i t c h in g , p ai n , a nd s we l li n g. Th e s e p r o du c t s a r e s i m pl y p a ll ia t i v e ; t he y a r e n ot m ea n t t o c u re he m o r r hoi d s o r o t h e r a no r ec t al d is e as e . I f t he s e p ro d uc ts d o no t i m p ro ve s y m p to m s wi t hin 7 d a y s , a p h ys ic ia n s ho u ld be c o ns u lt e d. A p h y s ic ia n s ho uld a ls o b e co n s u lt e d i f b le e di n g, p r o la ps e , s ee p ag e o f f ec e s o r m u c u s, th r om b os is, o r s e v e re pa i n oc c ur s . P a t i en ts < 1 2 ye a rs o f ag e s ho ul d no t r el y o n s e l f -t r e at m e n t b u t s ho u ld s e ek m e di ca l a t t en t io n i m m e di a te l y . 1 . O i n tm e n ts o r c r e am s ve r s u s su p po s i to r i e s. G e n e r al l y , th e o in t m e n t o r c re am d o sa g e f o rm i s b el i e v ed t o be s u pe r i or t o a s up po s i t o r y , wh i ch m a y b ypas s t h e a f f ec t ed ar e a . P a ti en t s s h o ul d wa s h t he an o r ec tal a re a wi t h m il d s oa p a nd wa r m wa t e r a n d p at ( no t wi p e ) t h e a r e a d r y be f o re ap plyi n g a p r od uc t . A l te r n at iv e l y , p a t ie n ts c an us e a n O TC a n al - c l ea ns i ng pa d (e . g., Tu c ks ) . S o m e oi n tm en ts c o m e wi t h r e c ta l p ip es ( pi le pip e s ) t ha t a l lo w t h e pa t ien t t o in s er t an d a p pl y t he m e di ca t io n d i re c tl y i n t he r ec t um . Th e o pe ni n gs in t he r ec ta l p i pe al lo w t h e o in tm e nt t o co ve r l a r ge a re as of th e r ec ta l m uc os a u n re ac h a bl e wi t h t h e f in g e r. The r ec t al p i pe sh o ul d b e l ub r ic a ted b y s p r ea d in g o in t m e n t a r o un d th e t i p o f t he pi pe b ef o r e i n se r ti o n . S om e c li ni c i a ns ad v i s e a ga in s t t he us e o f t he re c ta l p ip e b e ca use t he an a l c a na l c ou l d b e t r au m a t i ze d if th e pi pe is no t i ns er t e d p r op e r l y .
2 . L oc a l a ne s t he t i cs wo r k b y bl oc k i ng ne r v e - im pu l s e t ra ns m i s s io n . Ag e nt s d ee m e d s a fe an d e f f ec ti v e in c l u de b en z o c a i ne 5% - 20 % (e. g . , L a na c a ne ) , pr am o xi n e 1 % ( e . g ., P r oc to F oa m ) , b en z y l a lc o ho l 1 % -4 % (e . g. , Tu c k s C l ea r G el ) , d i bu cai n e 0 . 25 % 1 % ( e. g ., N u pe rc a in a l) , d y c l on i ne 0. 5 %- 1 % ( e .g ., D y c l on e ) , li d oc ai n e 2 %- 5 % (e . g ., Xyl o c a i ne ) , an d t e t ra c a ine 0 .5 % - 1% (e . g ., P on t oc a i ne ) . a . Ad m i n is t r a t io n gu i d el i n e s. Lo c a l a n es th e ti c s s h ou l d b e us e d f o r s y m pt o m s of p a in , it c h i ng , b u r ni ng , dis c o m fo r t , a nd i rr i ta t io n in t he pe r i an al r eg i on or lo we r a n al c a na l (n o t i n t he r ec tu m ). Th e r ec t um c on t ai ns no s en s o r y p ai n re ce p to r s . Th e p r o du c ts s ho u ld no t b e ap p li e d t o a b ra d ed s ki n as t hi s wi l l i n cr e as e a bs o rp t i on s ys t em ic al l y . b . Ad ve r s e e f f ec t s. Th es e a g en t s m a y p r od uc e a h y p e rs en s i t i vit y r e ac tio n wi t h b u r ni n g a nd it c h i ng s im i la r t o t ha t of an o r ec ta l d i s e as e. S y s te m i c a bs o rp ti o n i s m i ni m a l u nl es s t h e p e ri an a l s k i n is ab r a de d . A s a r e s u l t o f i ts un i qu e c hem ic a l s t r uc t ur e , p r am o xi n e e xh i b i ts l i tt l e c ro s s -s e ns it i v it y c om p a re d t o t h e o th e r l oc a l a n es t he t ic s . P.697
c . Wa r n i ng s ( 1 ) A ll e rg ic r ea c ti on s m ay o c c u r in s om e p a ti e nt s. ( 2 ) A d vis e p a ti en t s n ot to us e p r e pa r a ti on s l on g er t h an 7 d a y s . 3 . V as o co n s t r ic t o r s d ec r e a s e m uc os a l p e rf us i on b y c au si n g a r te r io le c o ns t r ic ti o n i n th e a n o re c t a l a re a a f te r t op ic a l a pp li ca t io n . H o we v e r , b ec a us e b le e di ng i n t hi s a r e a m a y b e a s i gn o f m o r e s e ri o us di s e as e , v a s o c on s t r ic t o rs a r e n o t a ppr o v e d fo r c o nt r o l o f m i n o r b le ed i ng. F o r t em p or a r y r el ie f of i t c h i ng , d is co m fo r t , a nd ir r i t a ti on , t h es e a g en t s h a v e a l oc a l an es t he t ic e f f ec t o f u nk n o wn m e ch an is m . a . Ag e n t s d e em ed s a fe a n d e f fe c ti v e in cl ud e e ph e d ri n e s u l fa t e 0 . 1% - 1. 25 % in a q u eo us s o lu t io n , e pi nep h r in e H C l 0 .0 0 5% - 0. 0 1% i n a qu eo u s so l ut i on , an d p h e n yle ph r i ne H C l 0 .2 5% i n a qu eo u s s o l ut i on . Th e s e ag e nt s a r e p r es en t i n va ri o us o i n tm en ts ( e. g . , P a z o ) an d s u pp os i to r ie s (e . g. , Pr e p a ra t io n H ). b . Ad ve r s e e f f ec t s. To pi c al v as oc o ns t ri c to r s , at r e c om m e nd e d d os es , m ay c a us e n e r vo us n es s , t re m o r , s lee p le s s n es s , na us e a, an d l os s o f a p pe t it e . C a r di ac a r r h y t hm ia s , i r re g ul a r h ea r t r at e , a nd el e v a ti o n o f b l oo d p r es s u r e a r e p ot en t i al l y s e r io us ad v e r s e ef f ec ts , b u t l es s l ik el y a t re c o m m e n d ed do s e s. c . Wa r n i ng s /c o n t ra i n dic a t i on s a p pl y t o p eo p le wi t h c a rd i o v as c u la r di s ea s e, hi g h b l oo d p r es s u r e , h y p e rt h y r o i di s m , d ia b e te s, an d p ro s ta t e e nl a r ge m e n t b ec au s e o f t h e p o ss ib il i t y of s ys t em ic ab s o rp t io n . 4 . P r o te c t an t s p r o v id e a p h ys i c a l b a r r i e r , f o rm in g a p r ot ec t i v e c oa t in g ov e r s ki n o r m uc o us m em b ra n es , f o r t e m p o r ar y r e li e f o f i tc h ing , i r ri ta t io n , d is c o m f o r t, a n d b u r ni n g. Th e y p re v e n t i r ri t a ti o n o f a no r ec t al ti ss ue a nd p re v e n t wa t e r lo ss f r om t he s t r at um c o r ne um . P ro t ec t a n ts ar e o f t en th e b as es o r ve h ic le s f o r o t he r ag e n ts u s ed f o r an o re c ta l d is ea s e. P ro d uc ts in cl u de al um i nu m h y d r o xi d e ge l , c o co a b ut t e r , k a ol in , la no l in , h a r d f at , m i ne r al oi l , wh i t e p e t ro l at u m , p et r ol a tu m , g l yc e r in ( e xt e r n a l u s e o nl y ) , to p ic al s t a rc h , c od li ve r oi l , s h a rk li v e r o i l , a nd zi nc o xi d e . W hen p r o t ec ta n ts ar e i nc o r po ra t e d i nt o th e f o rm ul a ti o n o f an O TC p r o du ct , th e y s ho u ld
m ak e u p a t le as t 5 0 % o f t h e d os a ge un i t. I f t wo t o f o u r p r ot ec t an t s a re us ed , t he i r t o t al co nc en t r a ti on s h ou ld r e pr es e n t a t l ea s t 50 % o f th e wh o le p ro du c t. Lan o li n , a d e r i va ti v e of wo o l a lc o hol , m a y b e a ll e rg e ni c t o su s c e pt i bl e i n di v i du a ls . a . Ab s o r b e nt s ta k e up flu i ds th a t a r e o n o r s ec r et e d b y sk i n o r m uc ou s m e m b ra ne s . b . Ad s o r b e n ts at t ac h t o s ub s ta nc es s e cr e te d b y s ki n o r m u co us m em b r ane s . c . D em u lc e n ts c om b in e wi t h wa t e r t o f o rm a c ol lo i da l s ol u ti o n, wh i c h p rot e c ts t h e s ki n i n a wa y s im i la r to m uc u s . d . E m ol l ie n t s, wh i c h a re d e ri v e d f ro m a ni m a l o r ve g e ta bl e fa ts o r p e tr o le um p r o du c ts , s of t en o r p r ot ec t in t er n al o r e xt e r n al b od y s u r fa c e s . 5 . As t r i n g en t s l es s e n m u c us a n d o t he r s ec r e ti ons an d p r o te c t u nd e rl y i n g t i s s ue t h r o ug h a lo c a l a nd li m i te d p ro t ei n c oa gu l an t e f fe c t . A c t i on is l im i te d t o su r f ac e c e ll s, bu t as t ri ng e nt s p r ov i d e te m p o r ar y r e li e f o f it c hi n g, di sc om f o rt , i r r it a ti o n , a nd b u r ni n g. P r od uc ts c o ns i de r e d t o b e s a fe an d e f fec t i ve i nc lu d e ca l am in e 5% - 2 5% , wi t c h ha z e l 10 % -5 0 % ( ext e r n a l us e o n l y ) , a nd z in c o xi d e 5 % -2 5% . 6 . K e r at o l yt i c s c a us e de s qu am a ti o n a nd dé b ri de m en t o f th e s u rf ac e c el ls o f t he e p id e rm is an d p r o v i de tem p o ra r y r el i ef of di s c om fo r t an d i tc h in g . Th e o r et ic a ll y , k e r at o l y ti c s e xp o s e un d er l y i n g t is su e t o o t he r t her a p eu t ic ag en t s . P r od uc ts c o ns id e re d to be s a fe and e f fe c t i v e i nc l ud e a lu m in u m ch l o rh yd r o xy a l l a nt o in a t e ( a l cl o xa ) 0 .2 % - 2. 0 % a nd r e s o r c i no l 1 % - 3% . Re s or c i no l s ho ul d n o t b e u sed o n a n o p e n wo u n d o wi n g to th e p o te n ti a l f o r a s e ri o us hy p e r s en s i t i vit y r e ac ti o n. K e r a to l y t ic s a r e r es e r v ed f o r e xt e r n a l us e o n l y. 7 . An a l g es i cs , an e st h e ti c s , a nd a nt i p r u r i ti c s p ro v i d e t em p o ra r y r el i ef o f b u r ni ng , d i sc om fo r t , i tc h in g , p ai n , a n d s o r e ne s s . Th e F D A h a s r e de s i gn a t ed s e v e r al i n g re d ie n ts i n to t hi s c a t eg o r y t ha t we r e fo r m e r l y c l a s s if i ed as c o u n te r i r r i ta n t s . I n g r ed ie n ts c o ns id e re d to b e s a f e a nd e ff ec t i ve fo r e xt e r n al us e i n t h e a no r e c t a l a r e a i nc lu d e m e n th o l ( 0 .1 % - 1% ) , j u ni pe r t ar ( 1% -5 % ) , a n d ca m p h o r ( 0 .1 %- 3 % ) . Th e s e a g en t s s h o ul d n o t b e u s e d to t re a t i nt e r na l h em o r rh o id s. 8 . W ou n d -h e al i n g a ge n ts . Li v e y e as t c el l d e ri v a ti ve ( L YC D ; s k i n- r es p i ra to r y f a c to r ) , wh i c h i s a wa t e r -s o lu bl e e xt r a c t o f b re we r ' s y e a st , wa s p r es e nt in P r e p a ra t io n H i n t he pa s t . L YC D wa s r e m o v e d f r om t he li s t of sa f e a n d e ff e c t i ve a c ti ve in g r ed ie n ts b y th e F D A , wh i c h de t e rm in e d t h a t s tu d ie s h a ve n ot p rov e n t hi s a g e nt ef f ec t i v e. P r ep a ra ti o n H p r od uc ts ha v e b een r e fo r m u la t ed P.698 wi t h o u t L YC D . P r e p a ra t io n H O in tm e n t n o w co n ta i ns p ro t ec ta n ts (p e t ro l at u m , m i ne r al oi l , s h a rk li v e r oil , la n ol in , an d g l y ce r in ) an d th e v as oc o ns t ri c t o r p h e n yle ph r i ne . 9 . H yd r o c o r t i s o ne ( 0. 2 5%- 1 %) c a us e s v a s o co n s tr i c ti on , s t ab i li z a t io n o f l y s os o m a l m em b r an es , a n d a nt im i to t ic ac t i v it y . Th e s e ag e nt s ha ve th e p o te n ti a l t o re d uc e i t ch i ng , i n fl am m a t io n , a nd d is c om f o r t in t he an o rec t al a re a . U n ti l re c e n tl y, h yd r o co r ti s on e -c on t ai n ing h em o rr h oi d al pr o du c ts we r e a va i la b le b y pr es c rip t i on o n l y. As wi t h a n y s t e ro i d c og e ne r , h y d r oc o r ti s o n e m a y m as k t h e s ym p t om s o f b a ct e r ia l o r fu ng a l i nf ec ti o ns . H yd ro c o r t is on e c onc e nt r a ti o ns > 1% a re a v ai l ab l e b y p r e sc ri p ti o n o nl y .
IV. GASTROESOPHAGEAL REFLUX DISEASE (HEARTBURN) A. G e n e r a l i nf o r m at i o n 1 . D e f in i t io n . G as t ro es op h a ge al r ef l u x d is e as e (G E R D ) i s d e fi n ed as th e r e t r og r a de m o vem e nt o f g as t ri c c ont e n ts in t o t he es op h ag us ( i . e. , ga s t r oe s op ha g ea l r e f lu x) . G a s t r oe s o p ha ge a l r e fl u x i s g en e r al l y a b en ig n p hy s i o lo gi c al p r oc es s t h at o c c u rs in n o r m a l i nd i v i du al s m ul t ipl e ti m e s t h ro u gh o ut th e da y . H o we v e r , p at i en ts wi t h G E R D m a y e xp e r i en c e es op h age a l t is s u e d am a ge ( r ef lux e s o p h ag i ti s ) a nd / o r s ym p to m s of h e a r tb u rn wh e n th e a c i dic ga s t ri c c o n te n ts s t a y in p r ol on g ed c o nt a ct wi t h t h e e s op h ag us . 2 . E p id e mi o l og y. B e t we e n 30 % a n d 5 0% of th e p o p ul at i on ha s e xp e r i e n c e d o cc a si on a l e pi s o de s o f he a r t bu r n. Th e fo l lo wi n g ar e p re d is po s i n g f ac t or s fo r t hi s c o nd i ti on : a . Ag e . P at i en ts o f a n y ag e c a n e xp e r i e nc e h ea r tb u r n ; h o we v e r , t h is c o ndi t i on is m os t c om m o n i n p e op l e > 5 0 y e a rs o f a ge . b . G e n de r , m al e s a re m o r e l ik e l y to e xp e r ie nc e G E R D . c . P r eg n an c y. B e t we e n 3 0 % a n d 5 0% of p re gn a nt p a ti en t s e xp e r i en c e hea r t b ur n d u r in g th e c ou r s e of p reg n a nc y ; 25 % e xp e r i e nc ing d a i l y s ym p to m s . I t h a s b e e n s u gg es t ed t ha t h o rm on a l c ha n ge s a s we l l as th e in c r ea s e in in t ra - a bd om i na l p r e ss u re c o nt r ib u te t o t he h ig h i nc id e nc e o f h e ar tb u r n d u ri n g p re g na nc y . d . O b e si t y m a y c o r re la te t o h ea r t bu r n o wi n g to th e in c re as e i n i n tr a - ab dom i na l p r e ss u re or lo we r e s o p ha g e al s p hi nc t er ( L E S ) p re ss u r e. Th i s p re d is po si ng f ac t or c a n b e v o l un t a ri l y m o di f ie d (i . e ., we i g ht lo s s ) to re d uc e t h e p at i en t s r is k of h e a r tb u rn . 3 . S ym p t o m s . H e a rt b u rn ( p y r o s i s ) t yp ic al l y is d es c ri b ed as a bu r n in g s ens a ti o n o r p a in lo c a t e d in t he lo we r c he s t. Th e pa in m a y r adi a t e h ig he r in th e c h es t, i n t o t he b a ck , a n d in t o t h e t h ro a t o r ne c k . Be c a us e t h e p ai n m a y r ad i at e u p i n to the c h es t , h e a r tb u rn m a y b e c o n fu s e d wi t h p a in as so c i a te d wi t h m y o c a r di a l i nf a rc t ion ( s we a t i ng as s o c i a te d wi th s e v e r e , c ru s hi ng c h es t p a in s u gg es t s a m yo c a rd i al i n f ar c ti o n a nd m e di c a l a tt e n ti o n m u s t b e s o u gh t im m e d ia t el y ) . S y m p t om s u s ua ll y o cc u r s oo n a f t er m e al s an d wh e n l y i n g d o wn at be d t i m e; pa t ie n ts m a y be a wa k e n ed d u r in g th e n ig h t wi t h t he p a in . P ai n o n s wa l lo wi n g ( o d y n op ha g ia ) m a y s u gg e st s e ve r e m u c o s al d a m a ge i n th e e s o p ha g us . 4 . C o mp l ic a t io n s . P a ti en t s wi t h se v e r e , u nc on t ro l le d G E R D m a y s u f fe r bl e ed i ng f r o m es o ph a ge al ul c er s a n d p ul m on a r y c om p li c a ti o ns r es ul t in g f r om th e as p i ra ti o n o f r e f lu xe d m a te r ia l i n to t he u pp e r a i r wa y s an d l ung s . Pa ti e nt s wh o d es c ri be d if f ic ul t y s wa l l o wi n g (i .e . , d y s ph ag i a ) m a y h a ve a n e so p ha g e al s t r ic tu r e , c a nc e r , o r a m ot i li t y d i so r de r . 5 . C a us es . Th e r e is an im b al a nc e o f a gg r es s i v e f o r c e s ( p r om ot e t h e d e ve l op m en t o f G E R D ) a n d p r o te c t i v e for c es ( p re v e n t t he de ve l op m en t o f G E R D ) . Ag g re s s i v e fo r ce s i n cl ud e a c i d an d p ep s i n . Th e m os t im p o rt a nt p ro te c ti v e f or c e is p ro ba b l y th e L E S. Ma n y p a t i e nt s wi t h G E R D h a v e a we a k L E S . As a r es u lt , th e h ig h p r es s ur e in t he s t om ac h c r ea t es e n ou g h f o rc e to o ve rc om e t he we a k s q u ee ze o f t he L E S a n d a ll o ws
r e f lu x t o o c c u r . O t h er p ro t ec t i v e f o rc es in c l u de es o ph a ge al c l ea r a nc e, gas t r ic e m pt y i n g r a te , s al i v a , a nd es o ph a ge al m u co s a l de f e n s e. a . D r ug s t h at r ed uc e L ES t o ne in cl u de c a lc iu m c h a n ne l a n ta go n is ts (e . g ., n i fe d ip in e , ve r a p am il , di lt i a z em ) , n itr a t es , a n ti c h o li n er g ic a g e n ts ( e. g . , t r ic yc l ic a n t id ep r es s a n ts , a n ti h is ta m in es ) , a n d o r al c o nt r ac e pt i v es a nd es t ro ge n . b . F oo ds th a t r e du c e L ES t o ne in c l u de c h oc ol a te, f a tt y f o od s, on i on s, pe pp e r m i n t, a n d g a rl ic . c . Sm ok i ng (n ic o ti n e ) r ed u c e s L E S to ne . P.699
6 . P ha r m a c i s t s wh o a r e c o ns ul t ed b y pa ti e n ts s ho u ld as k f o r t h e f ol lo wi n g i n f or m at io n be f or e re c om m e n di n g a t h e ra p y: a . D u ra t io n a n d f r eq u en c y o f s y m p t om s b . S e ve ri t y o f t he pa i n an d s y m p to m s c . Ti m i ng o f t he s ym p tom s ( e s p ec ia l l y i n re la t ion t o m ea ls an d a t b e dt im e ) d . P r es en c e o f o th e r s ym p to m s ( na us ea , vom i ti ng , bl o od y s to ol s , we i g h t lo ss ) e . U se of al c o h ol o r t ob ac c o f . A m o u nt o f h ig h -f a t f o od s , c af f ei n e- c on t ai ni n g pr o d uc ts , c h oc ol a te , a n d to m at o b a se d f o od s c on s u m e d g . Me d i c at i on s us e d c u r re n t l y , i nc lu d in g n o np r es c r i p ti o n m e d ic a ti on s h . Me d i c a t io ns us e d t o re l ie v e he a r tb u r n a nd th ei r e ff ec t i ven es s 7 . P at i en ts wi t h th e fo ll owi n g s y m pt om s o r c on d iti o ns s h ou l d b e r e fe r r ed to a p h ys ic ia n f o r e v a l ua t io n r a t h er t ha n t r e at e d wi t h n o n pr es c ri p ti o n a ge n ts : a . S e ve re ab d om in al o r b a c k p a in b . U n e xp l ai n ed we i g ht los s c . C he st pa i n t ha t is i n dis t in g ui s h a bl e f r om is c h em ic pa i n d . D i ff ic u lt y o r p a in on s wa l l o wi n g e . P r es en c e o r h is to r y o f v o m i ti ng bl o od f . B l ack t ar r y b o we l m o ve m en ts ( if no t ta k i n g i ron o r b is m u t h s ub s a li c y la te ) g . C h il d re n < 12 y e a rs of a g e h . P os si bi l it y o f b ei n g p re g n an t i . S ym pt om s n o t r es p on di n g t o a n ta c i ds o r n on p re s c r i pt i on H 2 R As wi t h in 2 we e k s o r r e c ur r i ng s o on af t e r s to pp i ng B . T r e a tm e nt 1 . N o np h a r ma c ol o gi c a l i n t er v e n t io ns fo r G E R D a t t em p t t o r e du c e o r e lim i na t e d i e ta r y a nd li f es t y le fa c to r s t h at p ro m o t e r e fl u x. S p e ci f ic re c o m m en d at i on s i nc l ud e t h e fo ll o wi n g : a . E le va t e t h e h ea d o f t he b ed 6 -1 0 i nc he s wi t h bl o ck s . Th is po si t io n i m p ro v e s e s op h ag ea l c le a r an c e and r e du ce s t he du r a ti o n of r e fl u x. Tr y t o a vo i d j us t p r o pp in g a p at i en t ' s h ea d u p wi t h p i ll o ws b ec au se th is m a y wo r s e n s y m pt om s b y i nc r e as in g a b d om in al p re s s u re . b . E a t e v e ni ng m e al s a t le a s t 3 -5 h r b ef o r e g oi ng t o be d to al lo w a d e qu a te t im e fo r g a st r ic em p t y in g . c . A vo id fo o ds t h at r ed uc e L E S t o ne .
d . A vo id f oo ds th a t i r r it at e t he es op ha g us s uc h as t om at o - ba s e d p r od uc t s, c of f ee , c i t ru s j ui c e s , an d c a rb o na t e d b e v e ra g es ( wi t h o r wi t h o u t c a ff e in e ) . e . R ed u c e th e s i z e o f m ea l s . f . A vo i d l y i ng do wn f o r at l ea s t 2 h r af t e r m e a ls . g . S t op us e o f t o ba c c o pr o d uc ts . h . Li m i t a lc o ho l i n ta k e . i . Li m i t c a f fe in e -c o nt a in in g be v e r ag e s. j . L os e we i g h t i f a pp r o pr ia t e . k . A v o id we a r i ng ti g ht - f itt i n g c l o th i ng . 2 . P ha r m ac o l og i ca l . The m a n ag em e nt o f G E R D m a y be vi e we d as a st e pp e d -c a re a p p ro ac h , wi t h a nt ac i ds , n o np r es c ri p ti on H 2 R As , a n d n o nd r ug m e as u re s fo r m in g t h e b a si s f o r t he f ir s t s te p (Fi g u re 33 - 1 ) . Th e s e m e as u r e s m a y h el p a l le v i a te s ym p t om s i n pa t ie n ts wi t h m il d t o m o de r a te G E R D bu t c a nn o t b e e xp e c t e d t o h ea l d a m a g ed e s op h ag ea l m uc os a o r pr e v e n t c om pl ic a ti o ns . S te p s 2 a n d h ig h er us e p r es c ri p ti o ns t r en g th H 2 R As an d o t her p r es c ri p ti on m e di ca t io ns as we l l a s i nt e r ve nt i ons s u ch as s u r ge r y. a . An t a c i ds . An t ac id s a re b as ic c om p ou nd s t h at n e u t ra li ze ga s tr ic ac id , wh i c h i n c re as es th e p H o f r e fl uxe d g a s t ri c c on t en ts . As a r es u lt , th e r e fl u xe d c on t e nt s a r e n o t a s d am a gi ng to t he es o ph a ge al m u c o s a an d al k al i n i z a ti o n o f g as t ri c c o n t en ts i n c re as e L E S to n e. ( 1 ) A n ta c i ds ge ne r a ll y r el i e v e h ea r t bu r n wi t hi n 5 -1 5 m i n o f a dm in is t r at i on . A n t ac id s us p en s i o ns g e ne r al l y dis s o l v e m o re ea s i l y in gas t r ic a c i d a n d t h er e b y wo r k q u ic ke r . I n a d di t io n , s od iu m b ic a r bo na t e a n d m a gn e s i um h y d ro xi d e di s s o lv e q u ic k l y a t ga s tr ic p H a n d p r o v ide r a pi d r e li e f; ho we v e r , ca l ci um c a r bo na t e a n d alu m in um h yd r o xi d e di s s ol v e s l o wl y i n s t om ac h a c i d wi t h a l o ng e r tim e f ra m e fo r s ym p to m r e l ie f (1 0 - 30 m i n) . ( 2 ) Th e du r at i on of r el i ef r a n ge s f r om 1 t o 3 h r if t a ke n 1 h r a f te r m e al s ( du r a ti o n o f n e u t ra li z a t io n l as t s o nl y 2 0 - 40 m i n i f t ak e n wi t h ou t f oo d ). B ec au s e o f t he ir s ho r t d u r a ti on , pa t ie n ts m a y ne e d t o ta k e 4 -5 do s e s t hr o u gh o ut t he da y f o r a deq u a te s ym p to m r e li ef . A nt ac i ds wi l l n ot p ro v i d e s u s ta in ed n eu t r al i za ti on o f ac i d th r o ug h ou t t h e n i gh t . P.700
Figure 33-1. Step-wise progression of therapy for gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD.) ac, before meals; ANC, acid-neutralizing capacity; bid, twice daily; HS, bedtime; pc, after meals; qid, four times daily.
( 3 ) A du l ts : 4 0 -8 0 m E q a c i d - ne u t ra li z i n g c ap ac i t y (A N C ) t a k e n a s n ee d ed fo r s ym p to m s . I f n e c e s s a r y , t h es e d o se s m a y b e t i t rat e d to a sc he d ul e d r eg im e n , s uc h a s 4 0 - 80 m E q a f te r m e als an d a t be d ti m e . ( 4 ) S o di u m b i ca r b o na t e ( e . g. , Al k a- S e lt z e r , B rom o - S el t z e r ) s h o ul d b e us e d f o r o nl y s h o rt - t e rm re li e f o f s ym pt o m s . Be c a us e e ac h g r am o f so d iu m b ic a rb on a te c on t ai ns 1 2 m E q o f s o di um , i t i s c o n t r ai nd ic a te d i n p a ti e nts wi t h ed em a , c o n ge s ti ve h ea r t f a i lu r e, r en a l f ai l ur e , c ir rh o s i s , an d p a ti e nt s o n l ow- s a l t di e ts . I t is t h e o nly s y s t em ic a n t ac id a v ai l ab le an d c an t hu s a l te r s y s te m i c p H . ( 5 ) C a lc i um ca r b o na t e (e . g . , Tu m s ) is th e m os t po t e nt an t ac id in g r ed ie n t b u t m a y c a us e c on s t i pa t io n o r , l es s l ik el y, d ia r r he a . I t i s a g o od s o u rc e o f e le m e n ta l c a lc iu m . ( 6 ) Al u m i n um h yd r o x i d e ( e .g . , Am ph oj e l, A Lt e rn a G E L ) o f t en c a us es c on s ti p at i on a n d s ho u ld be a v oi de d in p at i en ts wi t h he m o r r hoi d s o r c on s ti pa t io n , wh i c h is c om m o n i n th e e ld e r l y . Al u m i nu m h yd r o xi d e h a s th e l o we s t ne u tr a li z i ng cap a c i t y o f a l l t h e a nt ac i ds . A l um in um ac c u m u la t io n c a n b e a p r o bl em i n pa ti e nt s wi t h c h ro n ic r e n al in s u f fi c i e nc y . ( 7 ) M a g ne s iu m h yd r o x i d e ( e. g . , Mi l k of Ma g n e s ia ) r a re l y is u s ed al on e fo r h e a r tb u rn be c a us e i t f req u e nt l y c a us es di a r rh ea . I f us ed in r en al f ai lu r e pa t i en ts , h yp e r m a g ne s e m i a c an oc c u r r ap id l y . ( 8 ) M a g ne s iu m - al u mi n um c o m b i na t io n a n ta ci ds ( e . g ., Ma a l o x, M y l a n t a ) pr o v i d e t h e h i gh e st A N C pe r v ol um e o f an t ac id an d a r e u s e d m os t f re q ue n tl y. Th e p r ed o m i n an t a d ve r s e ef f ec t o f th es e c o m bi n at io n s is di a r rh e a. ( 9 ) P a ti e n t i n f o rm a t io n ( a ) P a ti en t s wi t h r en al f ai l u re s h ou l d a v o id th e u s e o f a ll an t ac id s . P o ta s s iu m a n d m a gn es i um c on t en t of an t ac i ds s h ou ld be co ns ide r e d f o r p a ti en t s wi t h c ar d i ac d i se as e . ( b ) P a ti en t s s h o ul d n o t ta k e > 50 0 -6 0 0 m Eq A N C o f an t ac id pe r d a y . ( c ) P al a ta b il it y wi t h a nt ac i d l iq ui ds m a y b e i nc r eas e d wi t h r e fr i ge r a ti on ( do n ot f r e e ze ) . P.701
( d ) Ta b le t s m u s t b e c h ewe d t h o r ou g hl y t o ac h ie v e o pt im a l e ff e c t . ( e ) A n ta c i ds c a n i nt e r fe re wi t h t he ab s o r p ti on o f m a n y d r u gs . I n g e ne r al , a n t ac id s s h ou l d b e s p ac e d a t l ea s t 2 hr ap a r t f r om th e a dm i n is t ra t io n o f in t er a ct i ng d r u gs . Th i s is of t en qu i te di f fi c ul t to ac co m p l is h. Im p or t an t c l in ic a l i nt e ra c ti on s wit h a n t ac id s m a y o c c u r wi t h t h e fo ll o wi n g d r ug s : ( i ) Te t r ac y c li n e a nt i bi o tic s ( i i ) Q u in ol o ne an t ib io t ic s ( e . g. , c i pr o fl o xa c i n , le vo f l o xa c i n ) ( i i i ) Ir o n s up pl em e nt s ( i v) D i g o xi n b . Al g i n i c a ci d ( 1 ) M e c ha n is m o f ac t i on . A lg i ni c ac i d wo r k s b y r e a ct i ng wi t h s od i um b ic a r b o n a te a n d s al i v a t o fo rm a v is c o u s s o l ut i on of s od i um a l g i na t e . Th i s v i s c o us s o l u ti on f l o at s o n t h e s u r f ac e o f g a s t r ic co n te n ts s o t h at , wh e n r e f lu x o c c ur s , so d iu m a l gi n at e ra t he r th a n ac i d i s r e fl u xe d , an d i r r i ta t i on is m i ni m i z e d . ( 2 ) P a ti e n t i n f o rm a t io n ( a ) A lg i ni c- ac i d t ab l et s m us t be c h e we d to be eff e c ti v e an d s ho ul d be fo ll o we d b y a f u l l g la s s o f wa t e r s o t hat t h e v i sc ou s f o am c an f lo a t o n i t i n th e s to m a c h. ( b ) A lg i ni c -a c i d p r od uc t s wo r k b es t wh e n p at i en t s a r e i n t h e u p ri gh t po s i t io n . Th us t h es e p r o du c t s s ho ul d no t be t ak en at be d ti m e or j us t b e fo r e l y i n g d o wn . c . N on p r e sc r i p ti o n H 2 R As . Th e s e m e di ca t io ns in h ib i t g as t ri c a c i d s ec r eti o n b y c om p et i ti v e l y bl oc k i n g H 2 - r e c e p to r s o n t he pa r ie ta l c e ll . B y d ec r e as in g g as t r ic a c i d s ec r e ti o n, th e re f lu xe d m a t e ri a l is le s s da m a g in g t o t he es op ha g us . Th e on s et o f s ym p to m r e li ef wi t h H 2 RA s is 1- 2 h r , wh i ch is c on s id e ra b l y l o ng e r t h an an t ac i ds ; h o we ve r , t he du r a ti o n o f a c ti o n c a n l as t up to 10 h r . A ll H 2 R As ar e c o nt r ain d ic a te d i n c h il d re n < 12 y e a rs of a g e. N o np r es c r i pt i on H 2 R A s c a n b e u se d f o r re lie f o r p r e ve n ti on o f h ea r t bu r n. ( 1 ) C i me t i di n e ( T a ga met - H B ) ( a ) A du l ts (n o np r es c ri p tio n ) : 2 0 0 m g as ne ed e d fo r s ym p t om s , u p to t wi c e d a il y. C i m et i di n e 2 00 m g s up p re s s e s g as t ri c ac i d f o r a pp r o xi m a t el y 6 h r . ( b ) N o np r es c ri pt i on do s es o f c i m e t id i ne m a y im pa i r t he he p a ti c m e t ab o l is m an d t h us in c re as e s e ru m c onc e nt r a ti o ns a n d t he ph a rm ac o lo g ic al ef f ec ts of t he f ol l o wi ng d r u gs : ( i ) W arf a ri n ( i i ) P he n y t oi n ( i i i ) Th eo p h y ll in e ( 2 ) F am o t id i ne ( P ep c id -AC , P e p c i d C om p le t e , M a xi m um S t r en g t h P e pc i d - AC ) . U n l ik e c im et i di n e, fa m o t id i ne r a re l y im pa i rs he pa ti c m e ta bo l is m o f o th e r d ru g s ( a ) A du l ts (n o np r es c ri p tio n ) : 1 0 -2 0 m g a s n ee d ed f o r s ym pt om s , u p t o t wi c e d a il y; m a xi m um do s e 4 0 m g / day . P a t ie n ts wh o an t ic ip a te h ea r t bu r n o r i n di ge s ti on m a y t a ke 10 - 2 0 m g ( 1 t ab l et ) 1 h r b e fo r e e a ti ng ; m a xi m um o f 2 t a bl e ts wi t h in a 2 4 -h r p e r io d . F am o ti di n e 1 0 m g s u p p re s s es ac id s ec r e ti o n f o r 8 - 10 h r. ( b ) F am ot i di ne , c a lc iu m c a r bo na t e , m a g ne s i um hy d r o xi d e ( P e pc id C om pl et e ) . A c h e wa b le c om b in a ti o n o f a n H 2 R A a nd an an t ac id. ( 3 ) R a ni t i d in e (Z a n ta c 75 , Z an t ac 15 0 M ax i m um S t r e n g th ) .
( a ) A du l ts (n o np r es c ri p tio n ) : 7 5 -1 5 0 m g as ne e ded f o r s ym p t om s , up to t wi c e d ai l y; m a xi m um 15 0 m g /d a y ( b ) R a ni t id in e i n hi bi t s h ep a t ic m e ta bo l ism 5 -1 0 t im es le s s th a n c i m e t id i ne; t h e r ef o re , th e p o te n ti a l fo r d ru g i n te r ac t io ns is v er y s m al l. ( 4 ) N iz a t id i n e ( Ax i d - AR ) . A d ul ts : 75 m g a s n ee d ed f o r s y m p t om s , up to t wi c e d ai l y. N i z a t i di n e r a re l y im pa i rs h e pa t ic m e ta bo l is m o f ot h e r d r ug s . ( 5 ) Ad ve r s e e f fe c t s. The s e a ge n ts ar e e xt r e m e ly we l l t o le r a te d . Th e m os t c om m on a d ve r s e ef f ec ts r ep o r te d wi t h n on p r esc r i pt i on dos es a re he a da ch e , d ia r r he a , d i zzi n es s , a nd na us ea . d . P r e sc r i p ti o n H 2 R As . P a t i en ts wi t h m o de r at e to s e ve r e s ym pt om s a nd /o r e s op h ag ea l m uc os a l le s io n s r e qu i re hi g he r d o s e s o f H 2 R As th a n a re a v ai la b le o v e r t h e c ou n te r . U nl ik e p a ti en t s wi t h p ep t ic u lc e r d is ea s e, pa t ie n ts wi t h G E R D r e s p o nd b e st t o m u l ti pl e da il y d os es o f H 2 R A s r a th e r t h an t o s i ng le be d ti m e do s e s. e . P r o ki n e ti c a g en t s . Pa t i en ts wi t h m o de r a te to s e v e r e G E R D m a y b e ne fi t f ro m t h e a d di t io n o f th es e m ed ic at i o ns , wh ic h s ti m u l at e e s o p h ag ea l m o ti li t y an d i nc r e a s e L ES t o n e. P r ok in e ti c a ge n ts ar e a v a il ab l e o nl y b y p re s c r i pt io n . ( 1 ) M e t oc l o p ra m i de ( R eg l a n , g en e r i c) . Ad ve r s e e f f ec t s , s uc h as se da t ion , d e p re ss io n , a n d e xt r a p y r a m id al e ff ec t s , li m i t t h e u s ef u ln es s o f t h is a g en t f o r m a n y p a t ie n ts . P.702
( 2 ) C i sa p r i de ( P r op u l sid ) . Th e nu m e r ou s d r ug in t e r ac ti o ns wi t h t h is p r od u c t ha v e c a us ed t he m a nu f ac tu r e r t o v o lu n ta r il y r em o ve i t f r o m t he m a r k e t . P r o pu ls i d m a y s t il l b e o b ta i ne d t h ro u gh a n in v e st i ga t io n al l im i te d- a c c es s p r og r am . f . P r o t o n p um p in h i bi t or s . Th e se p re s c r ip ti o n -on l y a ge n ts (e xc e p t om epr a zo l e ) p r o vi de c o m p le t e a c i d s up p r es s i on b y in hi b it i ng th e h y d ro ge n - po t as s i um A TP a s e p u m p on th e s u r fa c e of th e pa r ie t al c e ll . Th e d u ra t i on of ac id s u pp r es s i on wi t h t he s e a g e nt s is ab o ut 3 d a y s . P r o t on p um p i nh ib i to r s ar e t he m o s t po t en t a n d ef f e ct i ve a g e nt s a v a il a bl e f o r r e li ev i n g s e ve r e G E R D s ym p to m s an d h e al i ng es op h ag e al l e si on s . I n J un e 2 0 03 , t he F D A s wi t c he d o m e p r a zo l e t o O TC s ta t us fo r th e p r e ve n ti on o f s y m p t om s o f f re q ue n t ( oc cu r r in g 2 o r m o r e d a y s p e r we e k ) h e a r tb u rn . Th e s e O TC d r ug s s ho ul d b e u s e d fo r no m o re t han 1 4 d a y s e ve r y 4 m o n ths , un le s s d i r ec t ed b y a ph y s ic ia n . ( 1 ) O m ep r a z o l e ( P r i l os ec a nd P r i l os ec O TC ) ( a ) Th i s d ru g m a y in hi b it h e pa t ic m e ta bo l ism an d t h us in c r e as e s er u m c o nc en t r at i on / ph a rm ac olo g ic ef f ec ts o f t he fo l lo wi n g d r ug s : p he n y t oi n , wa r f a r in , an d d i a ze pa m . ( b ) Ad ve r s e e f f ec t s. A lth o u gh ra r e , t he s e m a y i nc l ud e h e ad ac he , di a r rh e a , c o ns ti p at i on , o r di z z i n es s . ( 2 ) L an s op r a z o l e ( P r e va c i d ) h as n o c li n ic al l y s ig n i fi c a n t d r ug in t er ac t io ns . ( 3 ) P an t o p r az ol e ( P r ot on i x ) i s t h e o nl y p ro t on pu m p i nh ib i to r wi t h an or al a nd i n t ra ve n ou s f o rm u la ti o n. ( 4 ) R a be p r az o le ( Ac i p he x ) ( 5 ) E so m ep r a z o l e ( N e xiu m )
C . S p e ci a l p a ti e n t p o pul a t i o ns 1 . P ed i a t r ic pa t i en t s . G a s t ro es o ph a ge al r ef l u x oc c u r s c om m o nl y i n i nf a nts an d c h il d re n . S i gn s a nd s ym p t om s i n p ed i at r ic pa t ie nt s in cl ud e v om i ti ng , c h es t p ai n , i r r i ta b il it y , f ee d in g re f us a l , b e lc hi ng , an d a p ne a . S e r i ou s c om pl ic a ti on s ( e. g . , f a il u re t o t hr i ve , e s o p ha ge a l s tr ic t u re s ) c a n o c c u r i n i n fan t s a nd c h il d r en . a . An t a c i ds , wi t h o r wi t ho u t a l gi ni c a ci d , h a v e b ee n wi d e l y u s e d i n i n fa n ts a n d c h il d re n , b u t t he i r s af e t y h as no t be en c l e ar l y es ta b li s h e d. b . H 2 R As h a v e b e en us ed s a f el y i n c hi ld r e n u nd er t h e s u p e r v is io n o f h e al th c a re p r o vi de r s . H o we v e r , t he n o n pr es c ri p ti o n H 2 R A s ar e n ot ap p ro v e d fo r us e in ch i ld r en < 1 2 ye a rs o f a ge un l es s d i re c te d b y a ph ys ic ia n . 2 . P r e gn a n t p a ti e n ts . He a r t bu r n o c c ur s c om m o nl y d u ri n g p r eg n an c y b eca u s e of i n c re as ed ab d om in a l p res s u r e o wi n g to t he e xp an d in g u t e ru s , as we l l a s r e d uc ed L E S p re s s u re r es ul t in g f ro m h i gh c o nc en t r at i on s o f es t ro g en an d p r o ge ste r o ne . N e a r l y ha l f o f p r eg n an t wo m e n e xp e r i en ce G E RD , e s p ec i al l y du r in g t h e t h i rd t r i m e st e r . a . An t a c i ds a re ge ne r a lly c o ns id e r ed s a fe in p reg n a nc y as lo ng as c h r on ic hi g h d o se s a r e a v o id e d. I t is b e s t t o a v o id s o di um bi c a r b on a te be c au se of th e r i sk s o f s ys t em ic a lk a lo s i s a nd th e s o di um lo a d l ea di n g to e de m a an d we i gh t g a in. b . D a ta r eg a rd i ng th e s af e t y o f a l g i ni c a c id du r in g p re gn a nc y a re no t a va i la b le . c . C on t r o l le d da t a r e g ar d i n g th e s a fe t y o f H 2 RAs i n p r eg na n c y a r e l im it e d . P r e g na n t wo m e n s ee k i n g a no n p re s c r ip ti o n H 2 R A f o r G E R D sh ou l d b e d i rec t ed t o u s e a nt a c i ds , u nl e s s a ph y s ic i an ha s i ns t ru c te d he r o th e r wi s e. 3 . E l de r l y p a t i e n t s . An ta c id s a nd no n p re sc ri p ti on H 2 R A s m a y b e s af e l y us e d i n e l de r l y pa t ie n ts wi t h ou t a n y d os ag e a d ju st m e n ts . a . D os a ge re d uc ti o n o f pr e s c r ip t io n H 2 R As m a y be n ec es sa r y in el d e rl y pa t i en ts wi t h r e d uc ed r en a l f un c ti on . b . E ld e r l y p a ti e nt s a r e m o r e l ik e l y to be ta ki n g d ru g s t ha t in t er a ct wi t h a n ta c id s , H 2 R A s , o m e p r a z ol e , a nd/ o r c is a p ri de . c . El d e rl y p at i en ts a re als o m o re li ke l y to ha v e s ym p to m s o r c o n di t io ns tha t r eq u ir e r e f e r ra l t o a ph y s ic i an be f o r e b eg in n in g n o np r es c r i pt io n th e ra p y . P.703
STUDY QUESTIONS D i r e c t i on s fo r q ue s t io ns 1 - 20 : E a c h o f t he qu es t i o ns , s ta t em en t s , o r i nc o m pl e te s t a te m e n ts i n th is s ec t ion c a n b e c o r re c t l y a ns we r e d or co m p le t e d b y o ne o f th e s u gg es t ed an s we r s o r phr a s es . Ch oo s e t he be s t a n s we r . 1 . W hi c h l ax a t i ve s h o uld n o t b e u s ed t o t r e a t ac u t e c o ns t i pa t i o n b ec au s e o f i ts s l ow o ns e t o f ac t i on ? ( A ) g l yce r in ( B ) b is ac od y l s u p po s i t ory ( C ) p s yll iu m ( D ) m il k o f m ag ne s i a
V i e w A n s we r 1 . T h e a n sw e r i s C [ se e] . 2 . W h ic h i s n o t a r is k f a c to r f o r h yp e r p h o s p h a te m ia and d ea t h f r om so d i um ph o s p ha t e e ne m as w h en u s ed i n c h i l d re n ? ( A ) r e na l i ns u ff ic i en c y ( B ) H i rs c hs pr u ng di s e as e ( C ) a n or ec t al m a l fo rm a tio n s ( D ) c hi ld r e n 6 - 12 y e a rs of a ge V i e w A n s we r 2 . T h e a n sw e r i s D [ se e] . 3 . Al l o f th e f o ll ow i ng s ta t e me n ts a b o u t e mo l l ie n t s t o ol so f t e n e r l ax a t i ve s a r e t ru e ex c ep t w h ic h on e ? ( A ) Th e y a r e n o t g oo d f or a c u t e c on st i pa t io n . ( B ) Th e y a r e g oo d fo r pat i e nt s wh o s ho u ld no t s t ra i n b y p as s i ng a h a rd s to o l ( e . g. , p o st su r g ic al pa t ie n ts ) . ( C ) Th e y n e v e r h a v e b e en f ou n d t o b e b e tt e r t h an p l ac eb o f o r l o ng - te r m us e . ( D ) Th e y a r e m o re ef f ec ti v e t ha n p l ac eb o f o r l o ng- t e r m us e . V i e w A n s we r 3 . T h e a n sw e r i s D [ se e] . 4 . W h ic h o f t h e f o l low i n g s t a te me n t s a d e qu a t el y d e s c r i b es bu l k - f o rm i n g l ax a t i ve s? ( A ) c an c a us e d ia r r he a i f n o t t ak e n wi t h wa t e r ( B ) a r e d e ri v e d f r om po l ys ac c ha r id es an d re s e m b le f ib e r (b r an ) in m ec h an is m o f a c ti o n ( C ) o ns e t o f a c t i on in 4-8 h r ( D ) p r od uc e m uc h m o re c om p le t e e v a cu a ti on o f c o n s t i pa t io n t h an s t im ul an t p ro d uc ts V i e w A n s we r 4 . T h e a n sw e r i s B [ se e] . 5 . W h ic h o f t h e f o l low i n g s t a te me n t s a b o u t n o nd r u g th e r ap i es f o r ac u te d ia r r h ea i s n o t co r r e c t ? ( A ) B r e as t -f e ed i ng s h ou ld b e c o n ti n ue d a s n o rm al . ( B ) E ve n i f th e p a ti e nt is n o t v om it i ng , f o od s h ou ld b e wi t h h el d f o r 6 - 1 2 h r. ( C ) F l ui ds c a n b e g i v en to p at i en ts wh o e xp e r i en ce v o m i t in g , b u t s m al l a m o u n ts o f f l u id s h ou ld be us e d. ( D ) R e p la c e m e n t f lu i ds m a in l y c o ns is t o f wa t e r , s u ga r , p o ta s s iu m , s o d ium , an d b i ca r bo n at e . V i e w A n s we r 5 . T h e a n sw e r i s B [ se e] . 6 . W h ic h o f t h e f o l low i n g p r o d uct s s h o u ld n ot b e u se d to re p l en i s h l os t f l ui d s f r om a cu t e d i a r r he a ? ( A ) p ed i al y t e s ol u ti o n ( B ) K o ol - A id ( C ) G a t o ra d e ( h al f -s t r eng t h d i lu t ed wi t h wa t e r ) ( D ) Th e W orl d He a lt h O rg a ni z a t io n (W H O ) s ol u tio n V i e w A n s we r 6 . T h e a n sw e r i s B [ se e] . 7 . W h ic h o f t h e f o l low i n g s t a te me n t s a b o u t a ds o r b en t d r ug s u s e d f o r di a r r h ea is t r ue ? ( A ) u se f ul fo r t re a tm en t o f s e v e r e d ia r r he a ( B ) ve r y u ns a fe be c a us e n o t a bs o rb e d s ys t em ic a ll y ( C ) i n g en e r al , s m a ll do s e s n e ed e d t o r e li e v e d ia rr h e a ( D ) k ao li n n o w g e ne r a ll y r e c og ni z e d a s a s a fe a nd e f fe ct i ve O TC a n ti di a r rh e al ag e n t V i e w A n s we r 7 . T h e a n sw e r i s D [ se e] . 8 . W h ic h o f t h e f o l low i n g s t a te me n t s c o n ce r n i ng t r a ve le r ' s di a r r h e a i s t r u e ? ( A ) I t c an us u al l y b e a v o i d ed b y no t e a ti n g r a w ve g e ta bl e s , s e af o od , or eg g s wh e n t r a ve li n g t o t h i rd wo r l d c o u n t ri es .
( B ) I t c an be p re v e n te d by t a k in g o ne do s e o f a nt ib i o ti c 1 d a y be f o re a t r ip. ( C ) H e l ic ob ac t e r py l or i i s t h e p r im a r y p a th o ge n res p on si b le . ( D ) P h il l ip s ' Mi l k o f Ma g n e s i a i s us e d t o p r e v en t a n d t r e at th e c o nd i ti on . V i e w A n s we r 8 . T h e a n sw e r i s A [ se e] . E s ch e r ich i a co l i He l i co b ac t e r p y l o r i9 . Al l o f t h e fo l low i ng a ge n ts a r e c on s i de r e d c l o se t o i d ea l l a x a ti ve s ex ce p t ( A ) e m o ll i en t l a xa t i v e s . ( B ) b ul k -f o rm i ng la xa t i v e s . ( C ) f i be r . ( D ) s ti m u l an t l a xa t i v e s . V i e w A n s we r 9 . T h e a n sw e r i s D [ se e] . 1 0. A p a t ie n t su f f e r in g f r om ac u te i n f e c ti o us d ia r r h ea c aus e d b y S h i g e l l a c a n b e m a n ag e d i n a l l o f t he fo l l ow i ng w a ys e x c e p t w h ic h o n e? ( A ) N o t re a tm en t n ec e s s a r y b ec a us e si g ns an d s ym p t om s us u al l y r es ol v e i n 4 8 h r . ( B ) U s e g lu c o s e s o lu t io ns ( e. g . , so d a, ap p le ju ic e) t o s e tt l e t he st om ac h an d d e c re as e t h e n um be r of s t oo ls . ( C ) A vo i d f o od fo r at le as t 6 h r , t he n s lo wl y i n c rea s e f lu i d i nt ak e . ( D ) U s e a n ti bi o ti c s (e . g ., B a c tr im , do xyc yc l i n e ) f or 7 da ys . V i e w A n s we r 1 0 . T he a nsw e r i s B [ se e] . P . 70 4
1 1 . W h i ch l oc a l a ne s t he t i c s h o ul d b e us e d t o t r e a t s ym p t o m s o f p a in, i t c hi n g , b u r n i n g, an d di s co m f o rt i n pa t i en t s w it h an est a b l is h e d l i do ca i n e a l ler g y? ( A ) t e t ra c a in e ( B ) d ib uc a in e ( C ) p r am o xi n e ( D ) b e n z oc ai ne V i e w A n s we r 1 1 . T he a nsw e r i s C [ se e] . 1 2. Al l o f t h e f ol l ow i ng i te m s a r e p a r t o f a st a n da r d c o nse r va t i ve a p p r oa c h t o the t r e a tm e nt o f f i r s t - o r s e c on d d e g r ee h em o r r h oi d s e xc e p t ( A ) t o pi c a l a ne s th e ti c ( he m o rr h oi d al oi nt m en t ) . ( B ) s to o l s o f te n e r. ( C ) s it z b a th s . ( D ) r u bb e r b a nd li ga t io n . V i e w A n s we r 1 2 . T he a nsw e r i s D [ se e] . 1 3. W ha t i s t he m os t c o mm o n s i g n /s ym p t o m o f h e mo rr h o i d s? ( A ) b le e di ng ( B ) p ai n ( C ) s ee p ag e ( D ) p r u ri t us V i e w A n s we r 1 3 . T he a nsw e r i s A [ se e] . 1 4. W hi c h o f t he f o ll ow i n g a ge n ts i s d es i gn a t ed as a s a fe a n d e f f ec t i ve an a lg e sic , a ne s th e t ic , a n d a n t ipr u r i t i c b y t h e Fo o d a n d D ru g Ad mi n i s t r at i o n? ( A ) wi t c h h a z e l ( B ) j un i pe r ta r
( C ) h yd r oc o r ti s o ne ( D ) p h en y l ep h r in e V i e w A n s we r 1 4 . T he a nsw e r i s B [ se e] . 1 5. Al l o f t h e f ol l ow i ng va s o c o ns t r i c to r s a r e de e m ed sa f e a n d e f fe c t ive f o r t h e t e mp o r a r y r e l i e f of i t c h i ng an d sw e l l in g e xc e p t ( A ) e ph e d ri ne 0 .1 % -1 . 25% . ( B ) e pi n ep h ri n e 0 .0 0 5% -0 . 0 1% . ( C ) p h en y l p ro p an ol am i ne 1 % -1 0% . ( D ) p h en y l ep h r in e 0 . 25 %. V i e w A n s we r 1 5 . T he a nsw e r i s C [ se e] . 1 6. Al l o f t h e f ol l ow i ng s ym p t o m s a s s oc i a te d w i th ga s t r oe s o ph a ge a l re f l ux d is ea s e ( G E R D ) m a y b e t r e a t e d w i th n o n p r es c r i pt i o n a ge n t s e x ce p t ( A ) b u rn in g s e ns at i on loc a te d i n th e l o we r c h es t . ( B ) p ai n t h at is wo r s e a f te r m e a ls . ( C ) p ai n o r di f fi c u l t y wh en s wa l lo wi n g . ( D ) p ai n th a t is wo r s e o n l y i n g d o wn at be d ti m e . V i e w A n s we r 1 6 . T he a nsw e r i s C [ se ea n d] .1 7 . Wh i c h o f t he f ol l ow i ng i s a n a p p r o p r ia t e n o np h a rm ac o l o gi c al r ec o mm e n da ti o n f o r p a ti e n ts w i t h g a s t r oe s op h a ge a l r e f lux d i se as e ( G E R D ) ? ( A ) E a t l a rg e r b u t f e we r m e al s . ( B ) A vo i d m e a ls hi gh in p r o t ei n . ( C ) E a t e v e n in g m ea ls at l e as t 3 hr be f o re be d . ( D ) P r o p a pa ti e nt ' s he ad u p wi t h t wo p il lo ws a t n i gh t . V i e w A n s we r 1 7 . T he a nsw e r i s C [ se ea n d] .1 8 . Al l o f t he f ol l ow i ng s t a t em e n ts r eg a r d in g an t a c id u se in ga s t r oe s op h a ge a l re f l ux d is ea s e ( G E R D ) a r e co r r e c t e x ce p t w hi ch o n e? ( A ) Th e o ns et of s ym p tom r el ie f wi t h a n ta c i ds is 1 - 2 hr . ( B ) A n ta c i d s wi l l re l ie v e s y m p to m s fo r 1 - 3 h r . ( C ) S o di um bi c a r b on a te s h ou l d n ot be us ed in pat i e n t s wi t h e de m a , c on g es t i ve h ea r t f a i lu r e, o r t h os e o n l o w- s a l t d i et s ( D ) Th e m o s t f r eq u en t s id e ef f ec t o f al um in um m ag n es i um c om bi n at i on an ta c id s is d i a r rh e a. V i e w A n s we r 1 8 . T he a nsw e r i s A [ se e] . 1 9. Al l o f t h e f ol l ow i ng s ta t em e n ts r e g a r d in g us e o f n on p re s c r ip t i o n H 2 R As i n gas t r o e so p ha g ea l r e fl u x d i s ea s e ( G E R D ) a r e co r r e c t e xce p t w h ic h on e ? ( A ) Th e m o s t c o m m on adv e r s e e f f ec ts of no n pr esc r i pt io n H 2 R As ar e h e ada c he , d i a r rh e a, di z z i n es s , a nd n a us e a. ( B ) C i m e t id in e m a y in c r ea s e s e r um co nc e nt r a ti ons o f wa r f a r in , th e op h yll i ne , an d p h e n yto i n. ( C ) Th e o ns et o f s y m p t om r el ie f wi t h th es e a g en ts is 1- 2 h r . ( D ) N o n p re s c ri p ti o n H 2 RA s wi l l h e al s e v e r el y d am a ge d e s o p ha g ea l m uc os a . V i e w A n s we r 1 9 . T he a nsw e r i s D [ se ea n d] .2 0 . Al l o f t he f ol l ow i ng s t a t em e n ts r eg a r d in g us e o f n o np r e sc r i p t io n pr o d u c ts f o r g a s t ro e so ph a g ea l r e f l u x d i se a se ( G E R D ) in s pe c i al po p u la t i on s ar e c o r r ec t ex c ep t w h ic h o n e ? ( A ) N o np r es c ri p ti o n H 2 RA s a re no t a p p ro v e d f o r u s e i n ch i ld r en < 1 2 y ea rs o f a ge .
( B ) A n ta c i d s m a y b e s afe l y us e d i n p r eg na n t p a tie n ts as lo ng as c h r on ic h i gh do s es a r e a voi de d . ( C ) S o di um bi c a r b on a te is t he pr e fe r r e d a nt ac i d in p r eg na n t p a ti en t s . ( D ) D o s e s o f n o np r es c rip t i on H 2 R As do no t n e ed t o be re d uc ed in el d er l y p a ti e nt s . V i e w A n s we r 2 0 . T he a nsw e r i s C [ se e] . P . 70 5
D i r e c t i on s fo r q ue s t io ns 2 1 -2 3 : Th e qu e s t io n s a n d i nc om p le t e st a te m ent s in th is s ec t io n c a n b e c o r r ec t l y a n s we r e d o r c om pl e te d b y o n e o r m o re of t he s u g g es te d a n s we r s . C h oo s e th e a ns we r , A- E . 2 1 . W h i ch o f t h e f o l low in g d r u gs mo s t c o mm o nl y c a u s e s c o n st i p at i o n? I . a mp i ci l l in I I . na r c o t ic an a lg e si c s I I I . d ru g s p o ss es s i ng an t i c ho l i ne r g i c p r o pe r t ie s A i f I o n l y i s c o r re ct B i f II I on l y i s c o r r ec t C i f I a n d I I a r e c or r ec t D i f II a nd I II a re c o r re c t E i f I, I I, an d II I ar e c o r re c t V i e w A n s we r 2 1 . T he a nsw e r i s D [ se e] . 2 2. W hi c h o f t he f o ll ow i n g s t a t em e n ts ab o u t s t im ul a n t la xa t i ve s i s c o r r e ct ? I . T he y p r o d u c e a s to o l m o r e q u ic k l y t h a n a n y o t h e r t yp e o f l a x at i ve . I I . Th e y a r e a s so c ia t e d w i t h m o re a d ve r se e ff ec t s t ha n a n y o t h e r t yp e o f l a x a ti ve . I I I . Th e y w o r k b y i r r i t a t i n g t he l in i n g o f th e c o lo n w a l l t o in c r ea s e p e r is t a l si s a n d p ro d u ce a s t oo l . A i f I o n l y i s c o r re c t B i f II I on l y i s c o r r ec t C i f I a n d I I a r e c or r ec t D i f II a nd I II a re c o r re c t E i f I, I I, an d II I ar e c o r re c t V i e w A n s we r 2 2 . T he a nsw e r i s D [ se e] . 2 3. W he n s h o u ld a p a ti e n t e x p e ri e nc i n g d i a r r he a b e r e fe r r e d to a p h ys i c i a n b y a p h a r m a ci s t ? I . I f th e p a t ie n t h a s p u s o r b l oo d in t he s to o l . I I . I f t h e p a ti e n t a ls o suf f e r s f r om vo m i ti n g . I I I . If t he p at i e nt h as a fe ve r . A i f I o n l y i s c o r re c t B i f II I on l y i s c o r r ec t C i f I a n d I I a r e c or r ec t D i f II a nd I II a re c o r re c t E i f I, I I, an d II I ar e c o r re c t V i e w A n s we r 2 3 . T he a nsw e r i s E [s e e] . P . 70 6
ANSWERS AND EXPLANATIONS 1 . T he an sw e r is C [ s ee I . B . 2. a ]. G l yc e r in an d th e b is ac o dy l s up p os it o r y al l p r od u ce s to ol s i n 3 0 m in to a f ew h o u r s , wh e r e a s p s y ll i um , a b u lk - f o r m i ng la xa t i ve , p ro d uce s s t oo l i n 2 4 -7 2 h r in the sa m e m a nn e r a s a n o rm a l b ol us o f f oo d o r fi b e r. 2 . T he an sw e r is D [ s ee I . C . 4] . Th e p o pu la r s o di um ph os p ha t e e ne m a s ( e .g . , F l ee t ) a re v e r y ef f ec t i v e b ut h a ve r e s ul t ed in h y pe r ph os p ha t em i a, h y po c al c e m i a ( te t a n y ) , h y p ok al em i a, m et a b ol ic a c id os is , a n d c ar d ia c d ea t h u s u a ll y o wi n g t o c o nd u c t i on ab n or m a l it i es i n ve r y s m al l c h il d re n . Thi s h as m a in l y o c c u r re d i n c hi ld r e n < 2 y e a r s o f a g e o r b e t we e n 2 an d 5 ye a r s o f ag e wi t h p r ed is p o s i n g f ac to r s , s u c h as ch r o ni c r e na l d is e as e, ano r e c t a l m a lf o rm a ti o ns , a nd / o r H ir s c h s p r u ng di se as e . Th e u s e o f e ne m a s is hi g hl y d i sc ou r ag e d i n c hi ld r en < 5 y e ar s o f a g e. 3 . T he an sw e r is D [ s ee I . B . 2. d ]. Th e s e a g en t s h a v e a l o ng o ns et o f ac t io n (2 4 -4 8 h r ) ; th us t he y sh o ul d n e ve r b e u s ed fo r ac u te c o ns ti p at io n bu t s ho u ld be us ed m a i nl y f o r p a ti e nt s wh o s ho u ld no t s t r ai n t o p as s h a rd s t o ols ( e. g . , p r eg na n t p a ti en ts , po s t su r g ic al pa t ie n ts , p o s t m yo c ar d ia l i n fa rc t io n ) . H o we v e r , t h e y ha ve ne ve r b e en fo u nd to be m o r e e f f ec t i v e t h a n p la c e b o i n l on g -t e rm us e . 4 . T he an sw e r is B [ s ee I . B . 2. a ; I . B .2 . c] . S t i m u l an t p r od u c t s r es u lt i n a qu ic ke r , m o re c o m pl e t e, an d o f t en m o re v i ole n t e va c ua t io n o f th e b o we l t h a n d o t he bu lk - f o rm in g a g en ts . B ul k- f o rm in g a ge n ts a re d e ve l op ed f ro m c om pl e x s u ga r s , si m i la r to fi b e r, th a t p r o vi de bu lk to in c rea s e g a st r o in t es ti n al m o ti li t y a n d wa t e r a bs o rp t io n i n to t he bo we l . H o we v e r , pa t i en ts m us t dr i nk pl en t y o f wa t e r t o f ac il i ta t e t h e a bs orp t i on of wa t e r i n to t he bo we l , o r t h e y m a y b ec om e m or e c o n s t i pa t ed . 5 . T he an sw e r is B [ s ee I I . C .1 ] . Th e m os t i m p o r ta n t p a rt o f t re a ti n g ac u te di a r r hea is t he re p la c e m e n t o f lo s t f l ui ds . I f p at ie n ts e xp e r ie n c e m il d to m o de r a te fl u id lo s s , r e pl a c e m e n t c a n b e d o ne wi t h o r a l - re h y d ra t io n s ol u ti o ns . If f lu id lo s s is s e v e re (> 1 0% lo s s of bo d y we i gh t ) an d /o r s e ve r e v o m i t in g , t h en pat i e nt s m a y n e ed in t r a v eno u s r e h y d ra t io n b e fo r e or a l m a in t en a nc e f lu i ds c an be a dm in is t e re d . Th e r e ha s b e en m u ch c o nt r o v e rs y r e g a rd i ng th e d ec is i on to f e ed o r n ot f ee d c hi ld r en d u ri ng ac u te ep is od e s o f d i a r rh e a. R ec en t in f or m at i o n s h o ws t ha t c hi l d re n s h ou l d r em ai n o n th ei r no r m al di et o r b re as t - f ee di n g d u ri ng e p is o de s o f d ia r r he a ; t he s e d o n ot m a ke th e d i a rr h e a wo r se a n d m a y a c tu a ll y im p ro v e t he c o nd i ti o n. 6 . T he an sw e r is B [ s ee I I . C .1 . b ]. R e p l ac em en t fl ui ds f or dia r r h ea s h ou l d co n ta i n t he a pp r op r i at e a m o u nt o f +
+
-
e l ec t r ol y t es ( K , Na , C l , c it r a te ) a n d g lu c o s e per s pe c i f ie d a m o u nt o f wa t e r , a s f o u nd in c om m e r c i a ll y a va i la b le o ra l - re h y d ra t io n s o lu t io ns s u ch as Pe di a lyt e a nd R e h yd r a l y te . Th e W orl d H e a l th O r ga n i za ti on (W HO ) s o lu t io n , wh i c h c a n ea s il y b e m a de at ho m e , an d h al f -s t r en g th G a to r a de pr o v i de t he ne c e ss a r y el ec t r oly t e s an d g l uc os e t o re p le ni s h lo s t f l ui ds . Ko o l -A i d d oe s n ot c on t ai n p o ta s s iu m . C a rb o n at e d b e ve r ag e s a re lo w i n po ta s s i um , a nd s o m e a re too h i g h i n g lu c o s e.
7 . T he an sw e r is D [ s ee I I . C .2 . b ]. A d s o rb en t s a r e n ot ef f ec t i v e f or s e v e r e d ia r r he a b e c a us e th e y s im p l y c ann o t a ds o r b e n o ug h wa t e r a nd do no t r e v e r s e th e c au s e o f t he d i ar r h ea . L a r ge do se s m a y d e c re as e s y m pt om s . O f a l l t h e a ds o rb en t s , k a ol in is t he m os t ef f ec ti v e an d is n o w r e c og ni z e d b y t h e F D A as s a f e a nd ef f ec t i v e. A ll a d so r be n ts a re s a fe be c a u se th e y a r e no t a ds o r be d s y s te m i c al l y . 8 . T he an sw e r is A [ s ee I I . A .2 . b; I I . C. 2 ] . Tr a ve l e r ' s d i a rr h ea is pr im a r il y c a us e d b y ba c te r ia ( m a i nl y e nt e ro t o xi n E s c h e ri c h ia c o li ) . Pr o ph y l a xi s an d tre a tm e nt r eg im e ns i nc l ude o r al an ti b io t ic s ( fl u o roq u in o lo n es , s u lf o na m i d es , d o xy c y c l i ne ) a nd bi s m ut h s ub sa l ic yl a t e ( P ep t o - Bi s m ol ) . He l ic o ba c t e r p y lo r i is t he o rg an is m s ho wn t o co n t ri bu t e t o re f ra c to r y p ep t ic ul ce r d is e as e . P.707
9 . T he an sw e r is D [ s ee I . B . 2] . Th e i d ea l l a xa t i v e is n a tu r a l ( i .e . , s im il a r t o f o od) a n d p ro d uc es s t oo l o n a r e gu la r b a si s. Th e pr o du c t p ro d uc es s t o ol qu ic k l y ( i .e . , i n s e v e ra l h o u rs ) wi t ho u t ad v e r s e e f f ec ts . s uc h a s a bd om i na l c r am p in g o r th e f o rm at i o n o f a ha r d s to ol , wh i ch m a y b e d i f fi cu l t t o p as s . P r od uc ts s u c h as fi be r o r b ul k -f or m i ng ag en t s p r od uc e a s t oo l s im i la r to a b ol us of f oo d, wi t h o u t a d v e rs e e ff e ct s . E m o l li en t la xa t i v e s (i . e., s to o l s o f te ne r s ) p r od uc e s of t s t o o ls wi t ho u t d i ff ic u lt de fe c at i on . St im u la n ts pr o du c e a s t oo l q u ic k l y , bu t p a ti e nts o ft e n e xp e r i en ce s e ve re a bd om i na l c ra m p i ng an d ha r d s t oo ls . 1 0 . Th e a n sw e r i s B [ s ee I I . C; Ta b le 33 - 3 ] . G i vi n g h i gh l y os m o t ic s olu t i on s o f g lu co s e ( e .g . , s o d a , f r ui t j u ic e ) c a n re sul t in m o r e wa t e r a bs o r be d i n to th e in t es t in a l t r ac t a nd t hu s fu r t h er di a r rh e a. Ma n y c as es o f d i a r rh e a r es ol v e wi t h i n 48 h r wi t ho u t t r ea t m e n t. Pe o pl e wi t h d i ar r h ea c a n a v o i d f o od f o r at le as t 6 h r , t he n i nc r e a s e th e ir f lu id in t ak e s lo wl y . S e v e r e ca s e s o f i nf e c ti ou s d i a r rh e a c a n b e t r e at e d wi t h a n ti b io t ic s o r a nt i p ro t o z o al s , de p en d in g o n th e o r g an is m t h at c a us ed t he e pi s o d e. 1 1 . Th e a n sw e r i s C [ s ee I I I. H . 2 .b ] . B e c au se of i ts c he m i c a l ly d i s ti nc t s t ru c tu r e, p ra m o xi n e e xh i b i ts le s s c r os s s e ns it i v i t y c om p a re d t o th e ot h e r a ne s t h et ic s a nd s ho u ld be us ed in pa t ien t s wi t h a l i do ca i ne al l er g y . 1 2 . Th e a n sw e r i s D [ s ee I I I. G . 1 ] . A c on se r v a t i v e a pp r o ac h t o t re a tm en t i nc l ud es s i tz b a t hs , th e u se of st o ol s o f te ne r s t o p re ve n t s t ra in i ng wh en p as s i ng a s to ol , an d t he us e o f an an es t he t ic h e m o r r ho i da l p r ep a ra t ion . I f im p r o vem en t i s n o t s e en , m o re ag g r es s i v e th e r ap y m a y b e pu r su ed ( e .g . , r u bb e r b a n d li g at i on ) . 1 3 . Th e a n sw e r i s A [ s ee I I I. D . 1 ]. Th e m os t c om m o n s ig n /s y m p t om of he m o r r ho i ds is pa i nl es s b le e di ng oc cur r i n g d u r in g a bo we l m o v e m ent . 1 4 . Th e a n sw e r i s B [ s ee I I I. H . 7 ].
J u ni p er t ar , m e nt h ol , a nd c a m p h o r a r e t he on l y th r e e a ge n ts de em e d s a fe a nd e f f ec t i v e as an a lg es ic s , a n es t he t ic s , an d a n ti p ru ri t ic s b y t he F D A . Th e s e a g e nt s we r e f o r m e r l y c l as s i fi e d a s c ou n t er i r ri t an t s . 1 5 . Th e a n sw e r i s C [ s ee I I I. H . 3 .a ] . V a s oc on s t r ic t o rs d e em ed s a f e a nd e ff ec t i v e b y th e F D A a r e e ph e d ri ne HC l , e p in e ph r in e , a n d p he n y le p h ri n e. 1 6 . Th e a n sw e r i s C [ s ee I V . A .2 an d 3 ; I V . A . 6] . P a i n o n s wa l lo wi n g o ft e n s ug g es ts s e v e r e es o ph ag e al m u co s a l d am a ge , wh i c h wo u l d r eq u i re pr e s c ri p ti on m e d ic at i on s f o r h ea l ing . D i ff ic u lt y o n s wa l lo wi n g m a y i n di ca t e a n e s o p ha ge a l s t r i c t u r e, c a nc e r, o r m ot o r d is o r de r . Al l o f t h es e c on d i ti on s r e q ui r e d ia g no s i s a nd t rea t m e n t b y a h e al t hc a re pr o v i d e r. 1 7 . Th e a n sw e r i s C [ s ee I V . B .1 . a, b, c, d , e , f , g , h , i , j a n d k ]. P a t i en ts s h ou l d b e i ns t ruc t ed t o e at e v en i ng m e als a t l ea s t 3 h r b e fo r e g o in g to be d . Th i s al l o ws s u ff ic i en t t im e f o r g as t ri c e m p t yi ng , s o t ha t th e vol um e o f re f lu xe d m a te r i al wi l l b e s m al l e r a n d l es s i r ri t a ti ng t o t he e s op h ag us . 1 8 . Th e a n sw e r i s A [ s ee I V . B .2 . a] . O n e o f t he m a jo r ad v a n ta g es of an t ac id us e i n he a r t bu r n is i ts q u ic k on s e t o f ac t io n . Mo s t p a t ie n ts wi t h m il d G E R D wi l l e xp e r i e nc e r el i e f f r om a n ta c i ds wi t h in 5 - 1 5 m in of a d m i ni s t ra ti o n . 1 9 . Th e a n sw e r i s D [ s ee I V . B .2 .c an d d ] . N o n p r es c r ip t io n d os e s o f H 2 R A s a r e t o o l o w t o h ea l es op h ag ea l d am a ge . E s o ph a ge al m u c o s a l d am a ge is d i f fi cu lt t o h ea l a n d re qu i r es h i gh do se s o f H 2 R as , wh i c h a re a v ai la b le on l y b y p r es c ri p ti o n. A lt e rn a ti ve l y, p r ot o n p um p i nh i bi to r s , wh i c h c om p le t el y s u p p re s s ac id s e c re t io n , m a y b e u s ed t o h ea l e so p ha g ea l m uc os a l d a m a g e. 2 0 . Th e a n sw e r i s C [ s ee I V . C .2 ] . S o d iu m b ic a rb o na t e s h ou l d b e a v o i de d i n p r eg n an t pa t ie n ts be c a us e t h e h i gh s o di um lo a d m a y c au s e s y s t em ic a lk a lo si s, ed e m a , an d /o r we i g ht ga i n. P.708
2 1 . Th e a n sw e r i s D ( I I , I I I ) [s ee I . A. 3 .d ] . O p i a te a na lg es ic s ( e .g . , n a r c o t ic s ) an d d r ug s wi th a nt ic h ol in e r gi c p r op e rt ie s d e c re as e b o we l m o ti li t y , wh i c h r es ul ts in in c re as ed wa t e r ab s o r p ti o n f r om t h e i n t es ti n al t ra c t . Th is c a n c a us e a ha r de r , d r ie r st oo l , wh ic h re s u l ts i n c o ns ti p a ti on . A m p ic il li n i s o f te n p oo r l y a bs o r be d f r om th e i n te s t i n al t ra c t an d c an al t e r th e fl o r a o f t h e i n te s ti na l b o we l . Th is de s t ru ct i on of bo we l o rg a ni s m s c au se s i nc r ea s e d s ec r e ti o ns i n to t he bo we l, wh i c h re su l ts i n d i ar r h e a . 2 2 . Th e a n sw e r i s D ( I I , I I I ) [s ee I . B. 2 .c ] . S t i m u l an t l a xa t i v e s d o ha v e a q u ic k o ns et of ac t io n bu t n o t a n y qu ic k e r tha n th e s a li ne la xa t i v e s , wh i c h us u al l y wo r k i n 4 - 6 h r . The m e c h a ni s m of ac ti o n fo r s t im u la n t l a xa t i ve s i s t h at t he y i r ri ta t e th e l in i ng of th e c ol on wa l l , wh ic h i n c r e as es p e r is t al si s a n d p r od uc e s a s to o l. Th e s e l a xa t i v e s a re as s o cia t e d wi t h m o r e a d v e rs e e f f ec ts t h a n o th e r l a xa t i v e s . 2 3 . Th e a n sw e r i s E ( I , II , I I I) [s e e I I . B. 2 ].
P a t i en ts wi t h pu s o r b lo od i n t he st o ol , v om it i ng , o r f e ve r m a y b e s uf f e ri ng f r om s e ve r e b ac te r i al di a r rh ea a n d m a y l os e l a rg e a m ou n ts o f f lu i d, wh i c h c o ul d r e s u l t i n s e ve r e d eh y d r a ti on .
34 OTC Menstrual, Vaginal, and Contraceptive Agents L a u r a K. W il l i f o rd Ow en s
I. MENSTRUATION AND MENSTRUAL PRODUCTS A. I n t r o d u c t io n . M en s t ru a t i on is a p h ys i ol o gi c a l d is c h a r ge of bl o od , e n d om et r ia l c el l ul a r d eb ri s , a nd m u c u s t h ro u gh the va g in a o f a no n p re g nan t wo m a n an d i s a re s ul t o f t h e m on t hl y c y c l in g o f fe m al e re p ro d uc ti v e h o r m o ne s . Th e m e ns t ru al c y c l e e li m i n at es a m at ur e , un f e rt i li ze d e gg an d p r e pa r es t he en do m e t r ium f or t he po s s ib le im pl an t a ti o n o f a fe r t il i z ed egg t h e fo ll o wi n g m on t h. 1 . O n se t . Th e a v e r ag e ag e at wh i c h t he in i ti al m e n s t r u al c y c le oc cu r s i n U . S . wo m e n is 12 y e a rs . N o r m a l m en a rc h e ( in i ti al m e ns t r ua l c yc le ) c an o cc u r b e t we e n t h e a ge s o f 9 a nd 16 ye a rs . F ac t or s s u c h as ra ce , g e ne t ics , n u t ri t io n al s t a tu s , an d b od y m as s d et e rm i ne th e on s et . 2 . D u r a ti o n . Th e a ve r age d u ra t io n o f t h e m e n s t ru a l c yc l e i s 2 8 d a y s ( t he t i m e be t we e n th e o ns e t o f on e m en s t ru al fl o w a nd t he be g in ni n g o f t h e ne xt ) a n d t h e n o rm al ra n ge is 2 1 - 35 da y s . D a y 1 is th e f i rs t da y o f m en st r ua l f l o w, wh i c h c an la s t f o r 3- 7 d a ys ( a ve ra g e d ur a ti on o f f lo w i s 5 d a y s ) . 3 . P h ys i o l o g y. Th e m ens t r ua l c yc le re s u l ts f ro m a co m p l e x i n te r p la y o f h o r m o ne s p r od uc e d b y th e h y po t ha l am us , p it u it ar y g l a nd , a n d t he o va ri es ( h y p o t ha la m i c -p i tu i ta r y- ov a r i a n a xi s ) . B . M en s t r ua l a b n o rm a l it i e s 1 . D ys m e n o r r h e a is pa in f u l m e ns t r ua t io n . I t i s th e m os t c om m o n g yn e co l og ic pr o bl em in th e U ni t ed S ta t es . a . T yp e s ( 1 ) P r i ma r y d ys m e n o r r he a is p a in as s o c i at e d wi th m e ns t r ua t io n i n t h e a b se nc e o f i d en t if i ab l e pe l v i c d is ea s e . It is pr om p t e d b y in c re as e d l e vel s o f p r o st a gl an d in s i n t he m en s t ru a l f lu id s . ( 2 ) S ec o n da r y d ys m e n or r h e a is a s s oc ia t ed wi t h a n un d er l yi ng pe l vic d i so r de r . Po s s ib l e c a u s es in c l u de en d om et r io s i s , p e l v ic in f la m m at o r y d i se as e ( PI D ) , a n d o v a r ia n c y s ts . b . S ym p t o m s o f d ys m e no r r h ea a re p rim a r il y l o wer a b do m i na l c r am pi n g a nd c a n o f te n i nc lu d e n au s ea , v o m i t in g , di a r r he a , h ea d a c h e, an d d i z zi n ess . A b d om in a l c ra m p i ng us ua l l y be gi ns a t o ns et o f m e n s t r u al fl o w o r a f e w h o u rs be f o re on s e t . c . P ra c ti ti o ne r s s ho ul d qu e s t io n th e pa t i en t ab ou t t he fo ll o wi n g : ( 1 ) C u r re n t m e d ic a ti on s ( i n c l ud i ng o ve r t he c o un te r a n d he r ba ls ) ( 2 ) A ge ( 3 ) D u ra t io n o f d ys m e n o rr h e a ( 4 ) A de s c ri p ti o n o f t h e dy s m e no r r he a s y m p t om s ( 5 ) H is t o r y o f p e l v ic di s ea s e ( e nd om e t ri os is , PI D , o va r i an c y s ts , i n fe r t il i t y) ( 6 ) A ll e rg y t o a s p i ri n or n o ns t e ro id a l a nt i -i n fl am m a to r y d r ug ( N S A I D ) ( 7 ) B le e di ng di s o r d e r
( 8 ) E xe r c is e ro u ti n e d . T r ea t me n t ( 1 ) R e co mm e n da t i on o f t h e r ap y s h o u ld be ba s ed o n t he pa t ie n t 's a ss e ssm e nt o f t he de g ree o f p ai n . P a in as s o c i a ted wi t h d y s m en o r rh e a g e n er a ll y t ap e rs wi t h in 2 d a y s . P r ol o ng e d p ai n m a y b e a s s oc i at e d wi t h an u n d er l yi ng p ro bl em , an d p a t ie n ts s ho u ld be r ef e r re d to a p h ys i ci an . ( 2 ) N o np h a r ma c ol o g ic al r ec om m en da t io ns in cl ud e r es t, he a t , we a r i ng l o os e - fi t ti ng c l o th in g , a nd e xe r c is e . ( 3 ) Ag e n t s f o r t h e r e li e f o f d y s m en o r rh e a i nc lu de ( a ) An a l g es i cs a re us ed a s p r im a r y tr e at m e n t o f d ys m en o r rh ea an d fo r r e l ie f o f c r am p in g a s s oc ia t e d wi t h p re m e ns t r ua l s y n d r o m e ( P MS ; s ee I . B. 4] . A n a lg es ic P.710 t r e a tm en t p r o v i de s r e li e f f o r m il d t o m o de r at e s y m p to m s bu t wi l l p r ob ab l y n o t h e lp pa t ie n ts wi t h s ev e r e s y m p t om s . ( i ) N o ns t e r o id a l a n ti - i n fl a m ma t o r y d r u g s ( N S A I D s ) in h ib i t t he s y n t h es is a n d a ct i on of p ro s ta gl a nd i ns . Be c a us e p r os t ag l an d in s a r e r e sp on s i b le fo r t h e c r am pi n g o f d y s m e no r r h ea it m a ke s l og ic al s e n s e to r ec om m e nd N S A I D s to a p a ti en t . F o r wo m en wh o d o n ot re c ei v e r el ie f f ro m o v e r - th e - c o un t e r ( O TC ) a n al g es ic s , p re s c r ip t io n N S A I D s m a y p ro ve m o r e u s e f ul . { a } Ad m i n i s t ra t i on g ui de l i n es . Be gi n th e ra p y a t t h e o ns e t o f p a in ; t h e re is n o p ro ve n v al u e in be g inn i ng t he r ap y i n a n ti c i pa t io n of d ys m en o r rh e a.
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I b u p ro f en (e . g ., A d v il , Mi d o l C ra m p & Bo d y Ac h es , Mo t r i n I B ) : 2 00 m g e v e ry 4 - 6 hr ; m a xi m um 12 0 0 m g / d a y
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N a p r o xe n ( e .g . , A l e v e, Pa m p ri n A l l D a y) : 20 0 m g e v e r y 8 - 1 2 h r ; m a xi m u m 6 0 0 m g/ d a y
{ b } Ad ve r s e e f f ec t s . F r om a f e w d a y s o f u se , ad ve r s e e ff e ct s a r e l im it e d. C o m m o n a d v e rs e e f fe c t s a s s oc ia t e d wi t h N S A I Ds i nc l ud e u ps e t s to m a ch , vo m i ti n g, he a r tb u rn , ab do m in al pa i n, di a r rh e a, con s ti p at i on , a n d d i z zi ne ss . N S A I D s s h ou l d b e t ak en wi t h f o od t o d ec r ea s e adve r s e g as t r oi n te s t i na l ( GI ) e f f ec ts o r b le e di ng . { c } W a r ni n gs . Pa t ie n ts s h o ul d b e ad v i s e d t o u s e t h e l o we s t e f fe c ti v e do s e f o r th e s ho r t es t d u ra t io n n e e de d t o l es se n th e p o te n t ia l r is k f o r c a r di o vas c u l ar e v en t s . Pa t i en ts wi t h an al le r g y t o N S A I D s o r ac ti v e G I d i se as e s ho u ld no t ta k e a n y N S A I D s . ( i i ) Tr e a tm en t wi t h a s pi r i n o r a ce t a mi n o ph e n c an p r o ve o f b en e fi t fo r th e s ym p to m s a s s oc i at e d wi t h p ri m ar y d ys m e no r r he a , h o we v e r ; as pi r i n is no t a s p o t en t a s t h e o th e r N S AID s a nd ac et am i no ph e n is no t th o ug h t t o p r e ven t p r o st a gl an d in p ro du c ti on t o a g re a t e xt e n t , al t ho ug h it c a n b e h el p fu l fo r t r e a ti n g t he he a da c h e a nd b ac k a c h e t h at m a y oc c u r wi t h m e ns t ru a l c r am p in g .
( b ) D i u r et i c s a re r e co mm e n de d b y t h e U . S . F o od a nd D r ug A dm in is t r at ion ( F D A ) f o r us e i n e l im in a ti n g wa t e r d u ri ng p re m e ns t r ua l a n d m e ns t r ua l p e r io ds . W he n a dm in is t er e d ap p ro xi m a t el y 5 da y s be f o re m e ns es , d i ur e tic s h e lp r el i e v e b lo a ti ng , e xc es s wa t e r, cr am p s , an d t e ns io n . I nc l ud ed in t hi s c a te g o r y a r e a m m on i um c h lo r id e , c af f ei n e, an d pa m ab r om . ( i ) Am m o n i um ch l o r id e ( A q u a - Ba n ) is a n ac i d- f or m i ng s a lt of t en us e d in c om b in a ti o n wi t h c a f fe ine . { a } U p to 3 g o f a m m o ni um c h lo r i de ( N H 4 Cl ) pe r da y c an b e a dm in is t er e d in t h r e e d i v id ed do s e s f o r no l on ge r t ha n 6 da y s . { b } L a rg e r d os es a re of te n as s o ci a te d wi t h G I s ym p to m s . { c } A q ua - B an P lu s c o n tai n s b ot h a m m on i um c hl o ri d e a nd ca f fe i ne . ( i i ) C a f fe i ne ( e. g ., Mi d o l Me n s t r u al C om pl e te an d Me n s t r u al H ea d ac he , No D o z, V i v a r in ) , a xa n t h in e d e ri v a t i v e , p r om ot es di ur e s is b y i nh i bi ti n g t u bu lar r e a bs o rp t io n o f s o di um an d c h lo r id e . { a } Th e r ec o mm e nd e d do s a ge is 10 0 -2 0 0 m g e ve r y 3 - 4 h r . { b } S i de e f fe c ts as s o c i at e d wi t h c af f ei n e us e a r e G I d is t ur b an c e s a nd c e nt r a l n er v o u s s y s t em (C N S ) s t im ul a ti on . { c } P a ti en t s s h o ul d b e c o u ns e le d t o l im i t t he co ns um p ti o n o f c af f ei n e c o nt a in in g fo o ds o r be v er a g es wh i le t ak in g t h is pr o d uc t . ( i i i ) Pa m ab r o m ( e .g . , Mi d o l P MS , Mi d o l Te e n F o rm u la , Pa m p r in ) is a t h e op h yll i ne de r i v a ti v e of t e n u s e d i n c om bi na t io n wi t h a na l ge s i cs an d a n t ih is t am in es . Th e r ec om m e n de d d os a ge is 5 0 m g fo u r t im es da il y , n ot to e xc e e d 20 0 m g /d a y . 2 . Am e n o r r h ea i s t h e a bs e nc e o f m en s t r u at i on . Th e de v e l op m e n t o f p r im ar y o r se co n da r y am e no r r hea r e qu i re s p h y s i c i an e v alu a t i o n . 3 . I n te r m en s t r ua l p a i n a n d b l ee d i ng ge n e ra ll y o c c u r a t m i dc y cl e a n d m a y l a st f ro m s e v e ra l h ou r s to d a ys . P ai n i s o ft e n a ss o c ia t ed wi t h o v u l at i on ( m i tt e lsc hm e r z ) . Th e ra p y c on s i s ts o f no np r es c ri p ti o n a na l ge si cs . Pa t ie n ts wi t h p a in la s t i ng lo n ge r th a n 2 da y s s h ou ld be r efe r r e d t o a ph ys ic ia n . 4 . PM S a . S ym p t o m s ( e . g. , m a rk e d m o o d s wi n gs , fa ti g ue , ap p et i te ch an g es , b l oa t in g , b r ea s t t en d er ne s s , ir r i ta b il it y , f ee l in gs o f de p r ess i on ) be gi n 1 - 7 d a ys b e f or e th e o ns e t o f m en s e s . P.711
b . N o n ph a r ma c ol o g ic a l t h e ra p y in c l u de s r e gu la r e xe r c i s e , di et a r y m o di f ic at i on s , an d re d uc t i o n o f s t re s s fa c t o rs . Die t a r y m o di f ic at i on s i nc lud e a vo i di n g a lc oh o l a nd c a ff e i ne , wh ic h c a n in c re as e i r ri t ab i li t y, a n d c o ns um in g a ba l an c e d d ie t o f f r ui ts , v e ge t ab le s , a n d c om pl e x c a r bo h yd r at e s wh i l e a v o id in g s al t y f oo ds an d s im pl e s u ga rs ( c an e xa c e r ba t e f lu i d r e t e nt i on ) . P a ti e nt s e xp e r i e nc in g s ym pt om s a bn o rm a l t o t h ei r c yc le s h ou l d b e r ef e r re d t o a p h ys ic i an . c . P ha r m ac o lo g i ca l t re at m e n t . Th e ef f ic ac y a nd s a fe t y o f p ha r m a c o l og ic a l t r e a tm en t o f P MS a r e aim e d a t t h e p ro p os ed ca us es ( e .g . , a d r o p i n
p r o ge s te r on e c on c en t ra t io n s , hi g h l e vel s o f p r ol ac t in , el e va te d e s t r o ge n c o nc en t r at i on s , de f ic ie nc i e s o f vit am i ns A o r B 6 , or a n u n de r l yin g d is o rd e r ) a n d a r e n o t we l l s t ud i ed . A l t ho u gh c l in ic al t ri a ls do n ot s u pp o r t t h e e ff ic ac y o f vi t am in s A o r B 6 , b ot h h a v e b e en us ed f or t he t r e a tm en t o f P MS . ( 1 ) P r es c r i p ti o n d r u g p ro d u c ts t ha t h a ve b e en s t u d ie d i n t h e m a n ag em en t o f P MS i n c l u de be n z o di az e p i n es , m o n oa m i n e o xi d a se i n hi b it o rs ( MA O I s ) , t r i c yc l ic a n ti d ep r es s a n ts ( TC A s ) , a nd se le c ti v e s er o t o ni n r e up t ak e i nh i bi t or s ( S S R I s ) . F lu o xe t i n e ( u nde r t he b ra nd na m e S a ra fe m ) h as be e n a pp r o v e d fo r t h e tr e at m e n t o f p r em e ns t r ua l d ys ph o r ic d is o rd e r. ( 2 ) C o mb i na t i o n p r o du ct s a re m a r ke t ed fo r wo m e n wi t h P MS s ym pt o m s . Th e s e p r o du c t s c on t ai n a c et am i no p he n , p am ab ro m , a nd p yr il am i ne ( Mi do l a n d Pa m p r in ) . No n p re s c ri p t io n d iu r e ti c s s uc h a s p a m a b ro m a r e c om m o nl y u s ed to r ed uc e fl ui d a c c u m ul a ti on as so c i a te d wi th P MS . P a i n i s a n u n co m m on s ym p to m o f PMS , a n d t h e s e d at i ve e f fe c t o f a n a n ti h is ta m i n e ( p y r i l am in e ) i s u nl ik el y to p r o v id e r e li e f o f t h e em o ti o na l s y m p t om s a ss o ci at e d wi t h P MS . C o m b in a ti on p ro d uc ts s h oul d be r ec om m e nd e d o nl y wi t h c au t io n . ( 3 ) D ai l y ca l c iu m s u p ple m e n ta t i on ( eq ui va l en t to t he r ec om m e nd e d d ai ly c a lc iu m i nt ak e fo r wo m en o f r e p ro du c ti v e ag e ) ha s b e en s h o wn t o r e du c e t h e e m o t io n al an d p h y s i c a l s y m p to m s o f P MS . 5 . M e n o r r ha g ia is e xc e s s i v e m en s t ru al bl o od lo ss . ( Th e d e vel o pm en t of m e no r r ha g ia re q ui r es phy s i c i a n e v a lu a ti o n. ) Lo w h e m a t oc r it , l o w h e m o g lo bi n , a nd lo w s e ru m i r o n le v e l s m a y o cc u r. Tr e a t m e n t f o r m e no r r ha g ia is u s u a ll y an es t r og e n -p r og es t in c om b in a ti on ( i. e . , o r al c o nt r ac e pt i v e ) . C . T o xi c s h o ck s yn d r o m e ( T S S) is a r a re bu t s o m et im es f at a l il l ne s s oft e n a ss o ci at e d wi t h m e ns t r ua t i on . 1 . TS S c an be c a te g o ri z e d ei t he r as m en s tr u al or n o nm en s t r u al , wi t h a p p ro xi m a t el y t wo t h i rd s o f c as es as s o c i a te d wi th m e ns t r ua t io n . TS S i s k n o wn t o oc c u r in bo t h m e n a nd wo m en . 2 . Th e c o nd i ti on us ua l l y a f f ec ts wo m e n < 3 0 y ea rs o f a ge wh o us e t am p ons . W om en b e t we e n t h e a ges o f 1 5 a nd 19 y e a rs a r e a t th e h i gh es t ri s k . 3 . TS S i s c h a ra c te r i z ed b y a n a b r up t o ns e t ( 8 - 12 h r ) of fl u - li k e s ym p to m s ( e . g ., hi g h f e v e r , m y al gia , v o m i t in g , di a r r he a ). Ne u r ol o gi c s y m p t om s s u c h a s h e ad ac h e, ag i ta t io n , le t h a rg y, s e i z u re s, a nd c o n f us io n c an al s o oc cu r . 4 . TS S r es u lt s f r om an exo t o xi n p r o du c e d b y S t ap h y l oc oc cu s a u re us . 5 . Th e p ri m a r y r i s k f a c to r f o r TS S is th e u s e o f t a m p on s . A d di t io na l ri s k f a c to r s in c l u de ba r r ie r c o n t r ac ep t i v es (e . g. , di aph r a gm s , ce r v ic a l s po ng es ) . 6 . W he n TS S i s s us pe c te d , p a ti e nt s s ho ul d b e ho s pi t al i z ed im m e di a te l y . To l o we r t h e r is k o f TS S , wo m en s h ou l d us e l o we r - ab s o rb en c y ta m p o ns an d a l t er n a te th e u s e o f t am p o ns wi t h fe m i ni n e h y g ien e pa ds ; h o we ve r , t o l o we r t h e ri sk to ne a rl y z e r o , wo m en s h ou l d us e s an i ta ry p a ds in s te a d o f t a m p o ns . D . M en s t r ua l p ro d u ct s li k e f em in i ne h y gi e ne pa ds an d ta m p o ns a r e u s e d t o a b so r b m en s t r u al an d o th e r v a gi na l d is ch a r ge s .
1 . F em i ni n e h yg i e n e pad s a re a v ai l ab le in a wi d e va r i et y o f s i zes a n d a b so r be n c i es . Su p er o r m a xi p a ds m a y be us ed fo r t he he a vi es t m en st r u al f l o w ( u su a ll y oc c u r r in g on d a y 2 o f t he c yc l e) . Mi n i or li g ht pa d s a nd j u ni or o r t ee n p a ds a r e d es i gn ed f o r wo m e n wi t h sm al l e r a n at om y a n d/ o r l ig h te r f l o w. F r eq u en t c h an gi n g o f s a ni t a r y p a ds m i ni m i z e s th e o cc u rr e nc e o f u n pl e as an t od o rs an d h el p s m i n im i z e i r ri t at i on and ch a fi n g. 2 . T am p on s a r e i n tr a v a gi n al in s e r t s d es ig ne d to a b s o r b vag in a l d is c h a rge . Ma n y wo m e n pr e f er t am p o ns be ca us e th e y a re wo r n i n t er n al l y, wh ic h l e ss en s c ha f in g , o do r , bu l k i ne s s , a n d P.712 i r r i ta t io n . S u pe r ta m p o ns a r e d es i gn ed f or h ea vi er f l o w. Ju ni o r o r r eg ul a r t a m p o ns a r e d es i gn e d f or m od e ra t e t o l i gh t m en s t r u al f lo w. F r e qu e nt c h an g in g o f t am p on s wi ll m in im i z e t h e r is k s ass oc i a t e d wi t h TS S .
II. VAGINAL PRODUCTS A. V u l vo va g i n a l ca n d idi a s is 1 . G e ne r a l c o ns i de r a t i on s a . O c cu r r e n ce . Ap p ro xi m a te l y 75 % o f al l wo m e n wi l l e xp e r i en ce vu l v o va g i na l c an di d ia s i s ( y e a s t i nf e c t io n ) a t le as t o nc e , a nd 50 % wi l l h a v e a se co n d e pi s o d e. O n l y 5 % of wo m e n e xp e r i en c e r e cu r r en t i n fe c ti o ns (f o ur o r m o r e i n fe c t i on s wi t h i n a 1 - y ea r pe r io d ) . b . C a us e . C a nd i da al bi c a n s is r es po ns i bl e f o r u p t o 92 % o f i n fe ct i on s . I n f ec t io ns o wi n g t o C . gla b r a ta ar e i nc r e as in g . c . P r ed i sp o s in g fa c t o rs. A n ti b io t ics , or a l c on t rac e pt i v es co n ta i ni ng hi g hd o se es t ro g en , p r e gn an c y , d i ab e te s , p oo r po s t - bowe l m o ve m e n t h yg ie ne , a n d i m m un os u pp r es s i on i n c re as e t h e r is k f o r i nf ec t i o n . d . S ym p t o m s . C a n i nc lud e a t hi c k , wh i te , “c o tt a ge ch e es e -l ik e , ” n o nm a lo do r o us v ag i na l di s c h a rg e ; d y su r i a; v a gi na l b u r ni n g; an d p r u ri t us . 2 . P a ti e n t a ss e ss me n t a . P at i en ts s h o ul d b e q ue s ti o ne d a b ou t p r es e nc e o f s y m p to m s , m ed ic a ti on u s e, m e di c a l c o nd it i on s , a n d h is t o r y o f v a gi na l y ea s t i n fe c t i on s . b . Th e fo l lo wi n g p a ti e nt s s ho u ld be r ef e r re d to a p r i m a r y - c a r e p r o v id e r fo r d i ag n os is an d t r ea t m e n t: ( 1 ) Fi r s t e pi s o de o f s y m pt o m s ( 2 ) P r eg n an t ( 3 ) Yo u n ge r th a n 1 2 y e ar s of ag e ( 4 ) S ys te m i c s y m p t om s s u c h as f e v e r ( 5 ) H is t o r y o f re c u r r en t va g in a l ye a s t in f ec ti o ns ( 6 ) D is c h a rg e wi t h a fi s hy o d o r (i nd ic a te s b ac t e ria l v a gi no si s , m o s t o f te n c a us ed b y an ae r o bi c b ac t e r ia ) o r a th in , m a lo do r ou s p u r ul en t di s c ha r ge ( i n di ca t es of T ri c h o m o nas in f ec t io n ) 3 . P ha r m ac o l og i ca l t r ea t m e nt
a . N o np r e sc r i p t io n ag en t s a re re c om m e nd ed onl y f o r p a ti e nt s wh o h a v e h a d a p ri o r y e a s t in f ec ti on a nd wh o c a n p o te n ti al ly r e c og n i ze t he in f ec t io n a n d s el f -m e di c a t e. b . Th e c h oi c e of no n p re s c r i pt io n th e ra p y is ba se d o n p a ti e nt p re f e re nc e . c . A va il ab l e f o rm ul a ti on s i nc l ud e i n tr a va gi n al c r ea m s , s u pp os i to r ie s , a nd o i n tm en ts . d . E xt e r n a l v a g in a l c re am s c an be us ed in c o m b in a t io n wi t h i nt r a va gi na l p r o du c ts to t re a t v u l v a r s y m p to m s o f pr u r it us . e . I nt r a v ag i na l p r od u c t s a r e us ed at be d ti m e , wh e r e as th e e xt e r n a l c r ea m s c a n b e u s e d a n y ti m e of d a y . f . A va i la bl e n o np r es c ri p ti o n t h e ra pi es in c l u de th e a n ti f un g al ag e nt s G yn e L o t ri m i n a n d My c e l e x- T ( c l ot r im a z o le ) , Mo n is t at 3 a n d Mo n i s ta t 7 ( m ic o na z o le ) , Fe m s ta t 3 ( b u t oc on a zol e ) , a nd Mo n i s ta t 1 a nd V ag is t at 1 ( t i oc o na z o le ) . ( 1 ) G yn e - Lo t r im i n an d Mo n is t at 7 a r e u se d f o r 7 c o ns ec u ti v e da y s ; Mo n is t a t 3 a nd Fe m s t at 3 a r e us ed f o r 3 c on s ec ut i ve d a ys ; Mo n i s t at 1 a nd V ag is t at 1 a r e us ed fo r 1 d a y . ( 2 ) E f fi c a c y ra t es ap p ro ac h 8 0 % -9 0% . ( 3 ) Ma n y p r o du c ts a r e av a i l ab l e as a “c om bi na t ion p ac k ” in cl u di ng an i n t er n al c r e am o r s u pp os i t o r y an d c r ea m f o r e xt e r n a l u se . 4 . P a ti e n t c ou n se l i ng a . N o np h a r ma c ol o gi c a l ( 1 ) D r y v a g in al a re a we l l a f t er ba t hi n g wi t h a t o we l . ( 2 ) A vo id ti g ht o r d am p c l o t hi ng . ( 3 ) W ear c o tt o n u nd e r we a r . ( 4 ) U se un s c en t ed s o a p t o a v oi d i r r i ta ti o n. ( 5 ) A vo id do uc h in g . ( 6 ) D ec r ea s e c o ns um p ti on o f s uc r os e a nd s im p le s u ga r s. P.713
b . P h a rm a co l og i c al ( 1 ) C om p le t e t he c o u rs e o f t he r ap y e ve n i f s ym pto m s im p ro ve . ( 2 ) W as h v a g in al a re a wit h m i ld so ap be f o re ap p lic a ti o n. ( 3 ) R e us ab le ap p li c a t o rs s ho u ld be wa s he d wi t h s o ap an d wa t e r. ( 4 ) A vo id s e xu a l in t e rc our s e d u ri n g t he r a p y . ( 5 ) A vo id c o nd om s a n d di a ph r a gm u s e f o r 7 2 h r af t e r th e ra p y is c om p le t ed. ( 6 ) C o nt in u e u s e du r in g m e ns t ru a l p er i od . ( 7 ) A vo id t am po ns du r ing us e . ( 8 ) S an i ta r y p ad s c an be u s e d fo r l e ak ag e o f in t ra v a g i na l p r od uc t s. ( 9 ) S id e e f fe c ts c a n in c lu d e b u rn i ng o r i r ri t at i on . B . F e mi n i ne h yg i e n e p ro d u c ts . Th e re a re a v a r ie t y o f f em i ni n e h yg ie ne p r o du c ts a v a i la bl e fo r c le a ns i ng an d c on t r ol li n g o d o r a ss oc ia t ed wi t h n o rm a l va g i n al d is c ha r ge . Th es e p r od uc ts a re no t u s ed t o t re a t v ag in a l i nf ec t io ns .
1 . V ag i na l d ou c h e s ( S um m e r ' s E v e ) ir r i ga t e t he v a g in a a n d c an be us ed fo r c l ea ns i ng , f o r s oo t hi n g, a s a n a s t ri ng e nt , or t o p ro d uc e a m u c o l y t ic e f fe c t. 2 . V ag i na l s up po s i t o ri es ( B e t ad i ne - m e di c at e d su pp o s i t o ri es ) a r e u se d fo r s o ot h in g , t o r e li e v e m in or i r r it a ti o ns , a nd t o r ed u ce t he nu m b e r o f p a t ho g en ic m ic r oo r g an is m s .
III. OTC CONTRACEPTIVES A. I n t r o d u c t io n . Th e e f fi c a c y a n d p r e g na n c y r a t e s fo r v a ri o us m e an s o f c o nt r ac e pt i on de p en d g re a t l y o n th e d e g re e of co m p l ia n ce . Ta bl e 3 4 -1 l i st s r a ng es of p re g na nc y r a t e s r ep o r te d f o r a var i e t y of c o n t ra ce p ti v e s.
Table 34-1. Pregnancy Rates for Various Means of Contraception (%)a Typicalb
Method of Contraception
Lowestc
Oral contraceptives Combination (estrogen-progestin)
0.1-0.34
0.1
Progestin only
0.5-1.5
0.5
Multiparous
40
26
Nulliparous
20
9
12-14
3
Male condom with spermicide
4-6
1.8
Diaphragmd
20
6
Female condom
21
5
≤ 1-2
≤ 1-1.5
Mechanical/chemical Cervical capd
Male condom without spermicide
Intrauterine device
Levonorgestrel implants
≤1
≤1
Medroxyprogesterone injection
≤1
≤1
20-22
6
Rhythm (all types)
25
1-9
Vasectomy/tubal ligation
≤1
≤1
40-50
30
85
85
Spermicide alone Other
Withdrawal No contraception a
During first year of continuous use.
b
A typical couple who initiated a method that either was not always used correctly or was not used with every act of sexual intercourse, and who experienced an accidental pregnancy. c
The method of birth control was always used correctly with every act of sexual intercourse but the couple still experienced an accidental pregnancy. d
Used with spermicide.
Adapted with permission from Nonprescription Drug Therapy Guiding Patient Self-Care, 4th ed. St. Louis, MO, Wolters Kluwer Health, 2005. P.714
B . M e th o ds of c o n t ra c e pt i o n t ha t m a y m a k e us e o f no n p re s c r ip ti o n p r od uc t s o r d e vic es i nc l ud e t h e f ol l o wi n g: 1 . F e r ti l i t y a w a re n es s m e t h od s m ak e u se of inf o r m a t io n c on c e r n in g t h e m e ns t ru a l c y c l e t o d e te rm i ne th e d a y s wh e n i nt er c o ur s e is m os t li ke l y to r e s ul t i n a p re gn a nc y . Pe r i o d ic ab s t in e nc e i s a ls o re f e r re d t o a s t he r h yt h m m e t h o d , n a tu r a l f a m il y p l a n n i n g, o r o vul a t i o n d e te c ti o n m e t hod . Th e v a r i o us n a tu r al f am ily p l a nn in g m e th o ds a l low t h e p a ti en t to m o ni t o r t h e
n a t u ra l p h y s i ol o gi c a l s ign s th a t ca n , i n m an y wo m e n , p re d ic t t he f e rt il e p e r io d (p e ri o v u la t o r y p ha s e o f t h e m e ns t r ua l c y cl e ) , e n ab li n g t he c o up l e to a vo i d c oi t al e xp o s u r e a t t h a t t im e . Th e s e m e t ho ds a re ba s e d o n r e p r od uc t i v e a na t om y a nd p h ys i ol o g y a n d a r e a pp l ie d a cc o rd i ng to t he s ig ns a n d s y m pt om s n at u r al l y o c c u r ri n g i n t he m e ns t r ua l c y c le . a . C al cu l at i on s o f t h e p er i o d o f f e r ti li t y t ak e i n to a c c o un t th e s p e rm vi a b i l i t y i n t h e fe m a l e r ep r o du c ti ve t ra c t , wh i ch is es t im at e d t o a v e r ag e 2- 3 d a ys ( u p t o 5 d a y s ) , a nd t h e f e r t i le pe r i o d o f the o vu m , wh ic h i s e st im at e d t o be 24 h r. R ec e nt s t u die s i n di c a t e t ha t c o nc ep t io n is m os t l ik e l y t o o cc u r wh e n c ou p le s h a v e i nt e rc o u rs e d u ri ng a 6 - da y p er i o d e nd i ng on th e d a y of o vu l a ti on . C o nc e pt i o n is h i gh l y u n l i k e l y i f s e xu a l in t e r co u r se o cc u r s 6 o r m o r e d a ys b e f o r e o vu l a t i on o r t h e d a y a f t e r o vu l a t i on . b . D i sa d va n t ag e s t o t h e r h y t hm m e t ho d (b u t n ec e ss a r y t o e ns u re ef f ic acy ) i n cl ud e b o t h t he l on g p er i o d s o f ab s t in e nc e a n d t h e c h a r ti n g o f m e ns e s. Me t h o d s o f na t u ra l f am ily p l a nn in g an d p e ri o di c a b s t i ne nc e i nc l ud e t h e t e m p e r at u re m e t ho d , c a le n d ar m e t ho d , B il l in gs m e t h od , a n d s ym p t ot h e rm a l m e th o d. c . Te m pe r a t u re me t h od . B a s al b od y t e m p e r a t u re ( B B T) d e te rm i na t io n m ak e s us e o f a b as a l t he r m o me t e r , wh i c h c an be p u rc ha s e d wi t ho u t a p r e sc ri p ti o n. Th e th e rm om e te r c o ve rs t he r an ge o f t em pe r at u r e f r om 9 6 °F t o 1 0 0 ° F i n 0 .1 ° gr a da t io ns . ( 1 ) Th e s i gn i fi c a nc e o f ba s al te m p e r at u r e d et e rm i n a ti on li es in t he fa c t t ha t wi t h i n 24 h r p re c ed in g ov u l a t io n , t he r e i s a m o de r a t e d r o p i n t he ba s al t e m p e ra t u r e f ol l o we d b y a n o ti c ea b le r i se in t he b o d y t e m p e r a t u r e, u s ua ll y a b ou t 2 4 h r af t e r o v u l at i on . Th is ri s e is us u al l y m a in t ai ne d fo r th e r e m ai nd e r o f th e c y c l e an d is th ou g ht t o b e t he re s ul t o f th e t h e rm og e ni c p r o pe r t ie s o f p r o g es t e r on e , th e h o rm on e i n di c a t in g th e tr a ns it i on f ro m t he o vu l a to r y p ha s e to t he lut e a l p ha s e . Th e re f o re , ov u l a t io n i s m a r k e d b y t he t r a ns i ti o n o f t he f al li n g te m pe r a tu r e t o t h e r is i ng t e m p e r at u re . ( 2 ) F or m a n y wo m en , abs t i n en c e s h o ul d b e p r act i c e d fr om ap p r o xi m at e l y 5 d a ys a f t e r t h e o ns e t o f m e n se s u n t il 3 d a ys a f t e r t h e t r a n si t i on i n t e m p e ra t u r e. ( 3 ) B ec au s e t he ba s a l t em p e ra t ur e re f le c ts t h e am o un t o f he a t r a di at i on wh e n t h e b od y i s a t i ts m e t a bo li c l o w, t he t em pe ra t u r e s h o ul d b e t ak e n f i rs t t h i ng in th e m o rn in g (i . e ., b e fo r e a n y ac ti v i t y ) . The t he r m o m e t e r m a y b e p l ac e d u nd e r t he t on g ue , i n t h e r ec t um , o r in th e v a g i n a ( t he te m p e r at u re s h ou l d al wa y s b e ta k e n fr o m t h e s am e p la c e ) a n d s ho u ld be le f t u nd is t u rbe d f o r at le as t 5 m i n (m e rc ur y t h e rm om e te r ) . El ec t r on i c d ig i ta l t h er m o m et e rs a r e al so a v ai la b le th a t ha v e s h o r te r r ec o rd in g tim es ( 45 - 9 0 s e c ). I nf ec t ion , t e ns i on , a r es tl e s s n i gh t , o r an y t y p e o f e xc e s s i v e m o vem en t c a n ca u s e va r i a ti o ns in te m p e ra t u re r e a di ng s t h at do no t re f l e c t t h e B B T. d . Th e ca l en d a r m e th o d e s ti m a t es t h e p os s i bl e da y o f o v ul a ti on . Ab s t i n e n ce s h o ul d b e p ra c ti c e d d u r in g t h e p e ri od a r o un d o v u la t io n wh e n t h e r e m a y b e a fe r t il i z ab le e gg p re se n t. W he r ea s t h e c al e nd a r r h y t hm m e th o d wa s us e d f o r s e v e r a l d ec ad es , it ha s n o t b e e n p ro m o t ed as a
m e th o d o f n a tu r al fa m i l y p l an n in g f o r m an y y e a r s. A l t ho u gh wo m en wh o h a ve r eg ul a r m en s tr u al c y c l es a re ab l e t o u se th e c al e nd a r r h y t hm m e th o d s uc c ess f ul l y , wo m en wi th i r re g ul a r c yc l es , wo m en wh o a r e b r ea s t - f ee di n g, o r wo m e n wi t h po s tp o ned o v u la t io n c an n ot de p en d on th e c al e nd a r rh y t hm m e th o d. ( 1 ) F or a s pa n o f a p p r oxi m a t el y 1 ye a r , t h e p at ie n t re c o r ds he r m e ns t ru a ti o n d at es on a c a le n da r . ( 2 ) C al e nd a r c ha r t in g a llo ws t h e p a ti e nt to c a lc ula t e th e o ns e t a nd du r a tio n o f he r fe r t il e p e ri o d —t h e t im e du r in g wh ic h a v i abl e eg g i s a v a il ab l e f o r f e r t il i za ti on b y s p e rm . C a l c u la t io n o f th e fe r ti l e pe r i od r es ts on th r e e a ss u m p ti o ns : ( a ) O vu l a t i on oc c u rs on d a y 1 4 ( ± 2 d a ys ) b e f o r e t h e o n se t of t he n ex t m e n se s . ( b ) S p e rm r em a i n vi a b le f o r 2- 3 da ys . ( c ) T he o vu m s u r vi ve s fo r 2 4 h r . ( 3 ) Th e c a le nd a r i s t h en r e v i e we d t o d et e rm i ne the l en g th of he r s h o rt es t a n d l on g es t c y c le . ( a ) Th e pa t ie n t t he n s ub tr a c ts 18 da y s fr om t he nu m be r of da y s of he r s h o rt es t c y c le . Th is nu m b e r s h ou ld c o r r es po n d t o t h e f i rs t p os si b le fe r t il e d a y i n a n y g i v e n c y c l e —1 4 + 2 = 1 6 d a ys ; 16 + 2 = 18 d a ys ( vi ab il i t y of s p e rm ) ; s e e II I . B .1 . b. P.715
( b ) N e xt , t h e p at i en t s u bt r a c t s 1 1 d a ys f r om th e nu m be r of da y s of th e l o ng e st c y c l e. Th is nu m be r s h o ul d c o rr es p on d t o t h e l as t po s s ib le f er t il e d a y i n a n y g i v e n c y c l e —1 4 - 2 = 1 2 d a ys ; 12 - 1 = 1 1 d a ys ( v i a bi li t y o f o va ) ; s e e I I I. B . 1 .b . ( 4 ) Ab s t i n en c e s h o ul d be p r ac ti c e d f r om t he fi r st p os s i b le fe r t il e d a y t h r o ug h t h e l as t p os s i bl e f e r ti l e d a y . ( 5 ) E xa m pl e . As s um e the s h o r te s t n um be r o f da y s be t we e n t wo co ns ec u tive m e ns es i s 2 5 a n d t he lon g es t n um b e r o f d a ys b et we e n t wo c on s e c ut i v e m e ns es i s 3 2 . Th e n , 2 5 d a y s ( th e s ho r te s t c y cl e ) - 1 8 d a y s = 7 ( o r d a y 7 ), a n d 3 2 d a y s ( t he lo n ge s t c y c le ) - 1 1 d a y s = 21 (or d a y 21 ) . Th e re f o re , a b st i ne nc e s ho u ld be p ra c ti c e d fr o m d a y 7 th r o ug h an d i nc l ud in g d a y 21 o f e a ch c y c l e. e . Th e ce r vi c a l m uc u s (B i l l i n gs o r c e r vi c al se cr e t i o ns ) m e t ho d o f rh yt hm i s b as e d o n t he p ri nc i pl e t h a t t he no r m a l , t hi ck , c r e a m y wh i te v a gi n al m uc u s b e co m e s c le a r a nd te n ac i o us a ro un d th e t im e o f ov u l a t io n (m uc h l ik e a ra w e g g wh i te ) . ( 1 ) Th e wo m an s h ou l d wa t c h f or t hi s c h a ng e i n m u c us c o ns is te nc y a nd p r a ct ic e a bs t in e nc e a r oun d th e ti m e of o vul a ti o n. ( 2 ) Th e wo m an s h ou l d c o n s i d er he r s e l f f e r ti le fo r 3 - 4 d a y s a f te r th e p e ak c h an g e.
f . Th e s ym p t o t h e r m a l m e t h od , ra t he r th a n r e l y ing o n a s in g le ph ys io l og i ca l i n de x, u s e s s e v e r al in d ic e s to de t er m i n e t h e f e rt il e p e ri od . ( 1 ) Th e mo s t c o mm o n c a l en d a r c a lc u la t io ns an d c h an g es i n t h e c e r vi c al m uc u s a r e us ed to es t im at e t h e o n s e t o f th e fe r t i le p e rio d . ( 2 ) C h an ge s i n t h e m u c us o r b as al te m pe r at u r e ar e us e d t o e s t im a te th e en d of t he f e r t il e p e ri o d. ( 3 ) B ec au s e s e v e r al in d ic es ne e d t o b e m on i to r ed , t hi s m e t ho d i s m or e d if f i cu lt t o l e a rn t ha n t h e s i n gl e -i n de x m e t h od , bu t i t i s m o re e f f ec ti v e th a n t h e c e r v i c a l m uc us m e th o d ( i .e . , Bi ll in g s m et h o d ) a lo ne . 2 . S pe r m i ci d al a ge n ts ar e c o m p os e d o f a n a c t i ve s pe r m ic i d al ch e mi c a l, wh i c h i m m o bi li z e s o r k il ls s p e rm , an d a n i n e r t b as e (e .g . , fo am , c r ea m , j el l y, g el , ta b le t , o r su p po s i t o r y ) , wh i c h l oc a li z e s t he s p e rm ic id a l c h e m i c a l i n p r o xi m it y t o th e c e r vic a l o s . Th es e a ge n ts wo r k by d i s ru p ti n g t he sp e rm m e m b ra ne an d b y d ec r e asi n g t h e a b il i t y of s p e rm to m e ta bo l i z e f r uc t os e. Two f o r m s o f i ne r t b as es ( ge ls and f oa m s ) a c t a s a p h y s i c a l b a r ri e r a g ai n s t s p e rm . a . T he ac t i ve in g r e di e nt i nc lu d es no n ox yn o l - 9 . wh i c h is c o ns id e re d s a fe a n d e f f ec t i v e b y t he F D A. ( 1 ) Ad m i n is t r a t io n gu i de l i n es . Ap pl ic a to r s m a y b e p re f il le d b e fo r e u s e . ( 2 ) S i de e ff e c ts — f or e xa m pl e , s e ns a ti o n o f wa rm t h , r a re al l er g ic re ac t ion s (c o n ta c t d e r m a ti t i s wi t h r as h , s t in g in g , i tc h in g , a nd s we l l in g ) — a re m i ni m a l . I f a s us p ec te d r e a ct i on oc c u rs , o n e s hou l d b e i ns t r uc te d t o us e a n o th e r p r od uc t be c a us e t h e i ss ue m i gh t b e th e c on c e n t ra t io n of t he s p e rm i c i d e o r an a dd i ti ve s p ec if ic t o a gi v e n b r a nd . Th e re a re no s i gni f ic a nt di f fe r e nc es i n b i r th - d e fe c t r at es be t we e n us e rs an d n o n us er s . b . E f f ec t s a g ai n s t s ex ua l l y t r a n s m i t te d di s ea se s ( S T Ds ) . No n o xy n o l - 9 i s l e th a l t o s e le ct e d m i c ro b es i n th e l a bo r a to r y s e t ti n g a nd m a y h e lp in hi b it a v a ri et y o f s e xu a l l y t r a ns m i s s ib l e o rg a ni s m s , i nc l ud in g th os e re sp on s ib l e f o r g o no r r he a , c h l am y d i a l i n f ec ti o n, c a nd i di as is , g en i t al he r pe s , s yph i li s , t ric h om on i as is , a nd H I V / AID S . Th e r e h a ve be e n i nc on s i s t e nt re s ul ts in hu m a n s t ud ie s , h o we v e r . O n e c on ce r n re l a te s t o t h e fa ct th a t f r e qu en t us e o f s pe r m i c i de s c an c a us e v ul vo v a g in a l e pi t he li al d i s ru p ti on , wh i c h m a y inc r e as e su s c e pt i bi li t y t o H I V . I n a dd i ti o n, sp e r mic i d es m a y a l t er t he v a gi n al fl o ra and , t he r ef o r e, sh o u ld n o t b e r el i ed o n a l on e fo r S T D p r e ve n t i o n. c . D os a ge f o rm s . Co n t ra c e p ti ve s pe r m ic i d es , wh i c h a re a vai la b le in s ev e r a l f o r m s , o f fe r th e g r e at es t v a r i e t y wi t h in on e s pe c i f ic m e t ho d o f c on t r ac ep t ion ( Ta b le 3 4 - 2 ). ( 1 ) C r e am s , j e ll i es , a n d g e l s a re us ed wi t h a d iap h r ag m . Th e co nc en t r at io n of s p e rm ic id e i s l es s t ha n th e ne c e ss a r y 8% to be em p lo y e d a s a s i ng le c o n tr a c ep t i ve m e th o d. ( 2 ) F oa m s di s pe rs e b e t te r in t o t h e va g in a a n d o ve r t he c e r vic a l o pe ni n g bu t p ro vi d e l e ss l u b ri c a t io n t h an c r ea m s , je ll i es , a nd ge ls . Th e y us u al l y co n ta in a h igh e r c o nc en t r at i on of s p e rm ic i d e ( i .e . , th e o p t im a l c on c e n t ra t i on o f 8 % o r h i g h e r ) . B e c au se of v o lu m e di f f e re n c e s a m o ng b ra n ds , t he d os ag e a m o u nt s va r y . I f va g in al o r p en il e i r r it a ti o n d e v elo p s , an o th e r b r a nd s h ou ld b e t r ie d . ( a ) Th e c a n s h o ul d b e s ha k en v i go r ou sl y 2 0 t im es b e fo r e u se .
( b ) Th e fo am s h o ul d b e in s e rt e d i nt r a v a gi na l l y a bo u t t wo th i rd s t h e l en g th o f t he a p pl ic a to r , an d t h e c o n ten t s s ho ul d b e d is c ha r ged . ( c ) F oa m s h o ul d b e re app l ie d d u r in g p r ol o ng ed int e r co u rs e (i . e. , l as t in g > 1 h r ) a nd b e f o re e v e r y s ub s e q ue n t a c t o f i nt e rc o u rs e. P.716
Table 34-2. Spermicidesa Type (Product)
Comments
Film (VCF)
Inserted by the female directly over the cervix; insert not less than 15 min and not more than 3 hr before intercourse; contraceptive protection begins 5-15 min after insertion and remains effective no more than 3 hr
Foam (Ortho Options Delfen foam, VCF Vaginal Contraceptive foam)
Contraceptive protection is immediate; remains effective no more than 1 hr, additional dose is needed before any subsequent intercourse
Jellies, creams, gels (KY Plus Lubricating, Ortho Options Gynol II jelly, Ortho Options Conceptrol gel, Advantage-S)
Contraceptive protection is immediate; used alone remains effective no more than 1 hr; when used with diaphragm or cap, keep diaphragm or cap in place for at least 6 hr after last intercourse
Suppositories and tablets (Encare Insert)
Contraceptive protection begins 10-15 min after insertion; remains effective no more than 1 hr
a
The spermicidal agent in all listed products is nonoxynol-9.
Reprinted with permission from Hatcher RA. Contraceptive Technology 1994-1996, 16th ed. New York, Irvington, 1994:180. ( d ) To e ns u re ef f ic ac y , th e pa t ie n t s h o ul d wa i t a t l e as t 8 hr be f o re do uc h in g to a voi d d i lu t in g th e s pe r m i c i de ef f e c t o r “ f o rc in g ” s p e rm in t o th e c er v i x. ( 3 ) S u pp o si t o r i es an d fo a m in g ta b l et s . Th es e a g e nt s a r e b ot h s m a ll and c o n ven i en t . A l th o ug h s oli d at r oo m t em pe r a tu r e , s u pp os i to r ie s m el t a t bod y t e m p e r at u re , wh e r e as f oa m in g t a bl e ts e f f er ve s c e. ( a ) Th e ta b le ts s h ou l d be we t t e d b e fo r e i ns e rt i on, wh i c h m a y c r ea t e a s e ns a ti o n o f wa r m t h .
( b ) Th e ta b le t o r s u pp os it o r y s ho ul d b e i ns e r te d hi g h i n to th e v ag i na , 1 0 - 15 m i n b e f o re in t er c o u rs e . ( c ) I nt e rc o ur s e m u s t oc c u r wi t h i n 1 h r or t he do s e m u s t b e r e pe a te d . ( d ) A no t h er t ab le t or s u pp o s i t o r y s ho u ld be in se r te d be f o re ea ch r ep ea t ed a c t o f i n t er c ou rs e . ( e ) To e ns u re ef f ic ac y , th e pa t ie n t s h o ul d wa i t 6 -8 h r a f te r th e l a s t ac t o f i n t er c ou rs e b e f o re do uc hi n g. ( 4 ) F il m c om es as s m a ll p a p er - t hi n s he e ts (e . g ., V C F ) . I t is in s e r t ed on t he t ip of t h e fi ng e r i n to th e v ag i na a nd pl ac e d a t t he ce r vic a l o pe ni n g 5 - 15 m i n b efo r e i n t er c ou rs e . ( 5 ) S p on g e. Th i s f ai r l y po p ul a r p r o du c t wa s r em ov e d f r om th e m a rk et in th e m i d 1 9 9 0s b ec a us e o f c os t i s s u es re l at e d t o i ts m a nu fa c tu r e . Th e ne w o wn e r o f t h e To d a y s po n ge ( A ll en d al e P h a rm ac e ut ic a ls ) i s cu r re n t l y re m a r ke t in g t h is p ro d uc t . I t i s a do u gh n ut s h a pe d p oly u r e t h an e d e v ic e c on t ain i ng t he s p e rm ic id e n ono xy n o l - 9 ; i t i s i ns e r te d i n to th e v a gi na b ef o r e se xu a l i nt e rc o urs e . Ef f ic ac y is ap p ro xi m a t e l y c om p a ra bl e to th a t o f a c e r v i c al c a p. I t is be l ie v ed t o a c t as a c o n t ra ce p tive i n th r ee wa ys : ( 1 ) m e c h a ni c a ll y bl o c k in g t h e c e r vi ca l e n t ra n c e , (2 ) ab s o r bi n g se m e n , a n d ( 3 ) p r o vi di n g a s pe r m i c i d e. It c an re m ai n i n p la ce fo r 2 4 h r . C on c e r ns ar e a hig h e r r is k f o r TS S a nd a h ig h er p reg n a nc y r at e fo r wo m en wh o ha v e ne v e r gi v e n b i r th ( n u ll i pa r ou s wo m e n ) . 3 . C o nd o ms a re us ed t o p r e v e nt t ra ns m i s s io n o f s p e rm i n to th e va gi na . a . T yp e s . Th e y a r e m a de o f l at e x r u b b e r, p ro c e ss e d c o l la g en ou s l am b c ae c um s h ea t hs (l am bs k i n ) , o r po l y u r e th an e . ( 1 ) L at e x c on do m s m a y h e lp p re ve n t t h e t r an s m is si o n o f m an y S TD s . The y a r e u s ua ll y p ac k a g ed wi t h the f ol l o wi ng la b el “ wh e n us e d p r op e rl y , t he la t e x c o n d om m a y p re v e n t t h e t r an s m is s i o n o f m an y S TD s s u ch as s y ph il is , go no r r h ea , c hl am y d i a i n f ec ti o ns , g en i ta l h e r pes , an d AI D S . ” ( a ) La t e x a f f o rd s g r ea t e r e l as ti c i t y t ha n l am bs k i n , a n d l at e x c o nd o m s a r e m o r e li k el y t o r em ai n i n p la c e o n t he p e ni s . ( b ) A va r ie t y of t y p es a re a v a il ab l e ( e .g . , l ub r ic at e d , r i bb e d, c o lo r ed ) , i n c l u di n g s om e wi t h s pe r m i c i de ( c o n c e n t ra t io n m uc h l ess th a n t h at o f a v ag i na l s per m ic i de p r o du c t) . P.717 I t is do u bt f ul th a t s pe r m ic i de - lu b ri c at e d c o n do m s o f f er an y b e tt e r p r o te c t io n th a n p l ai n l a te x c o n d om s , a n d t h e y ha ve a sh o r te r s h elf l if e . Th er e i s a s t an d a rd s i ze , bu t s m a l le r an d l a rg e r v e rs ion s a r e a va i la bl e . ( i ) L at e x c o nd om s a r e a v a i la b le wi t h a pl a in en d o r wi t h a r es e r vo ir t ip (s o m et im es d e si g na t ed as “e n z ” ) . The r es e r v oi r ti p p r o v i de s ro o m f o r t he ej ac u la t e; howe ve r , a s p ac e m a y b e l e ft wh e n u s in g t h e p la in - e nd c o ndo m , wh ic h a cc om m o da t es t he fl ui d j u st as ef f ec ti v e l y . ( i i ) Th e p re l u b ri c a te d co n d o m h el ps pr e v e n t d ys p a re un i a i n a c ou p le wi th i n su f fi ci e nt na t u ra l l ub r ic a t i on . P re lu b r ic at i on de c r e a s e s t he r isk o f t ea r ing t he c o nd om . H o we v e r , t h e ext r a l u b r ic a ti on m a y b e exc e s s i v e , l es se ni n g s e xu a l
f u l fi ll m e n t f o r a c o up l e wh o ha v e ad e qu a te na t u ral l ub r ic at i on o r wh e n c o nt r a ce p ti ve f o am is al s o us ed . ( i i i ) L a te x r u b b e r m a y c au s e a n a ll e rg ic r ea ct i on . A n es t im a te d 1 % -2 % o f th e p o p ul at i on is s e ns it i z e d to n at u r al ru b be r la t e x, an d hi gh e r p e rc e nt a ge s ar e li k e l y f o r th os e f re qu e nt l y e xp os e d t o l a te x ( e . g . , h ea l thc a r e wo r k e rs ) . Th e m o s t c om m o n s ym p to m s a r e g e ni t al in fl a m m at i on wi t h re d ne ss , i t c h i ng , a n d b u rn in g . S om e ti m e s , a n t io xi d a n ts o r ac c e l e ra to r s u s e d d u r in g t h e m a nu f ac t u ri n g p ro c es s m a y b e th e c a us e o f t h e a ll e rg y . ( 2 ) L am b sk i n c o n do m s a r e no t c o ns id e r ed as e ff e c ti v e as l a te x c o n do m s ( a n d c a nn o t b e l ab e le d a s s u c h ) in p re v e n ti n g t he t r ans m i s s io n o f S TD s , i nc l udi n g AI D S . Th e l am bs k i n c on d om s ar e s t r uc t u re d t o c o ns is t o f m e m b r an es t ha t re v e al l a y er s o f f i b er s c r is s c ro s s in g i n v ar i o us pa t te r ns . Th is gi v es t he la m b sk in s t r en g th , b u t a ls o a l lo ws f o r a n o c c as io n al p o r e . Th e r e fo r e, la m b s k in m a y a ll o w H I V a nd he pa t i ti s B vi r u s , wh i c h a r e s m a ll e r t h a n s p e rm , to pa s s th r ou g h . ( a ) La m b s k i n h as l es s e la s ti c i t y t ha n l a te x, a n d la m bs k i n c on do m s m a y s li p of f th e p e ni s . ( b ) L am bs k i n a f fo r ds g rea t e r se n si t i vi t y t h a n la te x. ( c ) La m b s k i n co n do m s ar e m o r e e xp e n s i v e t ha n la t e x c o n do m s . ( 3 ) A po l yu r e t h a n e c o nd o m (e . g ., A va nt i , Tr o j an S u pr a ) i s a v a il a bl e f o r m e n a nd is m a rk e te d fo r i n di v i du a ls wh o a r e al le r g ic t o l a te x. S o m e e v id e nc e e xi s t s th a t s l ip pa g e a nd b re ak a ge ra t es m a y b e h ig h er t ha n f o r la t e x c on d om s . In c on t r as t to t h e l a te x c o n do m , p et r o le u m -b as e d p ro d uc ts wi l l n o t d e g ra de t he po l y u re th a n e. b . Ad va n t a g e s a nd d is ad va n t a g es . Th e r e la t i v e a c c e s s ib il i t y, e as e o f tr an s po r t , a n d l o w c os t m ak e c on do m s an a tt r ac t i ve m e t h od o f c on t ra c ep t io n . H o we v e r , t he c o it a l ac t m us t be i n te r r up t e d t o a pp l y t he c o nd om , an d o f te n o n e o r b o th p a r tn e rs c om p la i n o f a p a r ti al o r c o m pl e te de c re as e i n s ens a ti o n. c . U se ( 1 ) Th e fe m a l e e xt e r n al g e ni t al i a s h o ul d n o t b e to u c h e d wi t h t he e xp o s e d p e ni s, an d t h e vag i na s h ou l d n ot be p e ne t r at e d, un t il th e c on d om is u n r ol le d o n to t he e r ec t p e ni s . ( 2 ) Th e c o nd om s h ou l d be u n ro ll e d o nt o th e p en is a s f a r a s i t wi ll go . W it h t h e p la i ne n d c on d om , a s p ac e b et we e n t h e t ip of t he pe nis an d th e t i p o f t he c o n do m s ho u ld b e le f t t o c at c h t he ej ac ul a t e. ( 3 ) W it h e i th e r r es e r v o ir -t i p o r pl ai n - en d c on d om s , t h e t ip of t he c o nd om m u s t b e h e ld be t we e n th e th um b a n d i nd e x f i n g er t o a vo id t r a pp i ng ai r wh i le un r ol l in g th e c o nd om on t o t h e p en is . (Th e s pa c e wi l l d e cr e as e t h e l ik e li ho o d o f b o th r upt u r e s ec o nd a r y to p re s s u re an d r eg u rg i ta t io n o f th e e ja c ul a te on t o t he e xt e r n al g e ni t al i a. ) ( 4 ) P r op e r l ub r ic a ti o n t o m i ni m i z e th e p os s i b il i t y o f t ea r in g c an be en s u r ed b y us in g e i t he r a lu b r ic at e d c o n dom o r b y a pp l y in g K Y j el l y o r s p e rm ic id al c re am or j e ll y t o e i t he r th e c on d om o r th e wo m a n ' s g en i ta l ia . ( No te : P et r o le um je ll y [ V as e li n e ] s h o ul d n e ve r be us ed be c a us e it c au s e s d et e r io r at i on of t h e r u bb e r [ l at e x] a n d i s a po o r l u b ri ca n t .) S pe r m i c i d al fo a m , c r e am , o r je ll y is an e xc e l le n t a dj u nc ti v e c o nt r ac e pt i v e .
( 5 ) B e f o re t he pe n i s b ec o m es f la c ci d , i t m us t be wi t h d r a wn f ro m t h e v ag i na an d t h e c on d om ea s e d o f f. Th e co n d om s h ou ld be h an d le d wi t h s pe ci a l ca r e s o as no t t o lo s e it in t o t h e v a g in a o r s p il l a n y o f t he ej ac u la t o r y fl u id on t o t he e xt e r n a l g e ni t al i a. ( 6 ) A c o nd om s h ou l d n e ve r b e r eu s ed . ( 7 ) C o nd om s s h o ul d n o t b e s t o re d n e a r e xc e s s i ve h ea t . ( 8 ) I f t he c o n do m s h o ul d b r e ak o r le ak , s pe r m i c i de f oa m s ho ul d b e i m m e dia t e l y i n se r t ed v a gi na l l y . P.718
( 9 ) D o n o t b u y o r us e c on d om s t ha t ha v e pa ss ed t h e ir e xp i r a ti o n d at e . ( 1 0 ) Be s u r e t o s to r e c ond o m s i n a co ol , dr y p l ace , ou t of di r ec t s un l ig h t. Th e g l o v e c om p a rt m e n t o f a c a r i s n o t a go o d p la ce to st o re c o n do m s . Do no t s t o re c on d om s in p o ck et s , p u rs es , o r wa l let s fo r m o r e t ha n a fe w h o u r s . 4 . Th e fe m al e c o n do m (R e a l it y ) is a d i sp o sa b le p o l yu r e t h a n e s h ea t h t ha t fi t s i nt o t h e vag i na an d p r o vi d e s p r o t ec t i o n f r o m p r e gna n c y a n d S T D s . a . Th e s h ea t h r es em b le s a pl as t ic v a gi na l p o uc h a n d c on s i s ts o f a n in n e r r i n g , wh i c h is i ns e r te d i n to t he v a g in a n e ar t he c e r v i x m uc h l ik e a di a ph r ag m , wh e r e a s t h e ou t e r ri n g re m a in s ou t s i d e t he v a gi n a, c o ve r in g th e l a bi a . Th e co nd om is p r e lu b ri c at e d, an d a d di t io n al lu b r ic an t i s p r o v id ed f o r us e i f ne ed e d . Th e p o l yu re t ha n e s he a th i s st r o n g e r a n d p r ob ab l y l es s l ik e l y t o t e a r o r b re ak t ha n th e l a t e x s he a th o f m a l e c o nd o m s . I t s h ou ld be r em ov e d im m e d ia t el y a f te r i n te r c ou r se ( b e f or e th e wo m a n s t an ds up ) . It m a y b e i ns er t e d u p to 8 h r b e fo r e i nt e rc ou r s e. b . I f i t i s us e d p r op e rl y , it p r o v id es th e wo m an wi th a m e th od o f p r e ven t in g t h e t r a ns m i s s io n o f S TD s . Ho we v e r , wi t h t h e n ot e d pr e g na nc y f a il u re r at e ( Tab l e 3 4 -1 ) , i t is c e r ta in l y no t th a t r e li a bl e fo r d is e as e t r an s m is s i o n. I t h as no t b e en ver y p o p ul a r; s o m e wo m en c om p la in t ha t i t i n te r f e re s wi t h s en s at i on an d t h at it m ak es u n pl e as an t no is es du r ing us e . 5 . Th e di a ph r a g m is a c o n t r ac ep t i v e d e v ic e t ha t i s s el f - in se r t ed in t o t he v a g in a to b l oc k ac c es s o f s p e rm to t h e c er v i x. I t r e qu i r es a p r e sc ri p ti o n a nd m u s t be u se d i n c o nj u nc ti o n wi t h a n on p re s c r i pt i on s p e rm i c i d e t o s e al of f c r e vic es be t we en t he va g i n al wa l l a nd t he de v ic e . a . Th e di ap h r ag m is he l d i n p l ac e b y t he s p ri n g t en s i o n o f a wi r e r im e nc as e d b y r u b be r . W hen po s i t io n ed p r o pe r l y, t h e d ia ph r a gm f o rm s a fl e xi b l e d om e t o c o ve r t h e c e r vi x, t h e s id es p re s s ing a ga in s t t he v a gi n al m us c l e wa l l a nd th e p u bi c bo n e . b . Th e r e a r e f o u r t yp e s o f di a ph r ag m s : t h e c o il s p r i n g, t he f la t sp r i n g, t h e a r c i ng s p r i n g, an d a w i d e -s ea l r i m . Th e t o ne of v a gi n al m us cl es as we l l a s t he p o si t io n o f t h e u t e ru s a nd ad j ac en t o r g an s u su al l y d et e rm ine t he t yp e o f d ia p h ra gm n e ce s s a r y. c . Si ze s o f th e d ia p h ra gm r an g e f r om 5 0 to 95 m m in di am e te r , i n 5 - m m gr a d a ti on s . d. Use ( 1 ) Th e di ap h r ag m p lu s s p e rm ic id e c an be in s e r te d as l o ng as 6 h r b e fo re c o i tu s . Th e d e v ic e s h ou ld be le ft i n p la c e f or 6 -8 h r a f te r i n te r c o u rs e , b ut no lo n ge r t ha n 2 4 h r . A dd i ti on a l s p e rm ic i de i s r e qu i re d fo r re p ea t ed i n t er c ou rs e .
( 2 ) B e fo r e i ns e rt i ng th e d i ap h r ag m , 1 t e as po o nf ul ( a 2 - to 3 -i nc h r i bb o n) o f s p e rm ic id al c r e am or je l ly s h ou l d b e s pr e ad o ve r t h e i ns i de of t he ru b be r d o m e . ( 3 ) A ls o , s p e rm ic id e s h ou l d b e s p re ad a ro u nd the r im to pe r m i t a go o d se a l b e t we e n t h e d i ap h ra gm an d th e va g in a l wa l l . (F o r a d de d pr o t ec t io n , i t c an be ap pl ie d ou ts i de t h e d om e . ) e . P r o pe r ca r e ( 1 ) Th e di ap h r ag m s h o uld b e wa s h ed wi t h s o ap an d wa t e r , r i ns ed th o r ou gh l y , an d d r i ed wi t h a t o we l . ( 2 ) I t sh o ul d b e d us t ed wi t h c o rn st a rc h a n d k ep t in i ts or i gi na l c o nt ai n e r (a wa y f r o m h e a t ). 6 . Th e ce r vi c a l c ap is a p r e s c ri p ti o n r u bb e r d e vic e sm al l e r t ha n a di a ph r ag m th a t f i t s o ve r t h e c e r v i x l i k e a t h im bl e . I t i s m or e d i f fi cu l t t o fi t t h an t he di ap h r ag m . a . I t r em a in s e ff e c t i v e f or m o re th a n o ne ep is o de o f i n te r co u rs e , wi t ho u t ad d in g m o r e sp e rm ic id e . b . Th e c a p s h o ul d b e f i lle d on e t h i rd fu ll o f s p e rm ic i de c r e am o r je ll y; t he sp e rm ic i de i s th en ap p li ed t o t he r im . c . Th e c e r v ic al c a p m a y b e le f t i n p la ce f or a m a xi m um o f 48 hr an d s h ou ld b e l ef t i n p l ac e f o r a t l e as t 8 h r a fte r in t e rc ou r s e . P.719
STUDY QUESTIONS D i r e c t i on s fo r q ue s t io ns 1 - 8 : E ac h o f t h e q ue s tio n s , s t a te m e n ts , o r in c om p le t e s t a te m e n ts i n th is s ec t ion c a n b e c o r re c t l y a ns we r e d or co m p le t e d b y o ne o f th e s u gg es t ed an s we r s o r phr a s es . Ch oo s e t he be s t a n s we r . 1 . T he mo s t c o mm o n c au s e o f va g i na l ye a s t i n fe c t i on s is ( A ) C a nd i da al bi c an s . ( B ) C a nd i da gl a br a ta . ( C ) T r ic h o m on as . ( D ) a n ae r ob ic ba c te r ia . V i e w A n s we r 1 . T h e a n sw e r i s A [ se e] . a n di d a a lb i c an s C . g l a b r at a T r ic h om o n as 2 . T h e e f f i ca c y r a t e f o r n on p r e sc r i p t io n an t i f un g al a g e n ts f o r vag i n al ye a s t i n f ec t i on s is ( A ) 5 0% . ( B ) 6 0% . ( C ) 7 0 %. ( D ) 8 0 %. V i e w A n s we r 2 . T h e a n sw e r i s D [ se e] . 3 . W h ic h o f t h e f o l low i n g s t a te me n t s a b o u t n o np r e sc r i p t io n a n t i f un g al a ge n t s f o r va g i na l ye a s t i n f e c ti o n s i s i n c o r r ec t ? ( A ) F em s t a t 3 s h ou ld b e a p pl i ed in t r a v ag in a ll y f o r 3 c o ns ec u ti ve ni g ht s . ( B ) A n ti f un g al ag e nt s s ho u ld be c o n ti n ue d d u ri n g m e n s tr u a ti on . ( C ) Mo n i s t at 1 c on t ai ns m ic o na z o l e. ( D ) Th e c h o ic e o f f o rm ula t i on is b as e d o n p at i en t p r e fe r en c e.
V i e w A n s we r 3 . T h e a n sw e r i s C [ se e] . 4 . T h e b es t p r o du c t t o t r ea t vu l va r p r u r i t u s i n a w o ma n w i th a va g in a l ye a s t i n f ec ti o n is ( A ) e xt e r n a l m i c o n a z ol e ( Mo n i s t a t ). ( B ) e xt e r n a l m i c o n a z ol e a n d i n t ra v a gi n al m ic o na zo l e ( Mo n i s t at 7 co m bi na ti o n p ac k ). ( C ) i n tr a v a gi n al ti oc o na z o l e ( V a gi s t a t 1 ) ( D ) i n tr a v a gi n al bu t oc ona z o l e (F em st a t 3 ) . V i e w A n s we r 4 . T h e a n sw e r i s B [ se e] . 5 . A p a ti en t c om p la i n s o f va gi n a l ye a s t i n f e c ti o n s ym p t o m s . U nd e r w h ic h o f t he f o l l ow in g c i r c um s ta n ce s sh o u ld s h e b e r e fe r r e d t o a p hys i c i a n ? ( A ) Th e r e i s a hi s t o r y of r e c ur r e nt v a gi n al y e as t in f ec t io ns . ( B ) S h e is p re g na n t. ( C ) S h e i s < 1 2 y e ar s o f a g e . ( D ) A l l o f t h e a bo v e V i e w A n s we r 5 . T h e a n sw e r i s D [ se e] . 6 . Al l o f th e f o ll ow i ng s ta t e me n ts r e g a r d in g co n t r ac e p ti ve s a re c o r re c t e x ce p t w h i c h o n e? ( A ) U s in g t h e b as al te m pe r a t ur e m e th o d, in t e rc our s e s ho u ld be a voi d ed for a fu l l 6 d a ys a f t e r t he no t ed te m p e r a tu r e t r an si t io n . ( B ) I f a c o nd om s h o ul d br e a k o r l ea k , o ne c o ul d re c om m e nd im m e di a te ins e r ti o n o f a va g i n al s p er m i c i d e f oa m . ( C ) V a gi n al s p e rm ic id es m a y k i ll m a n y of th e c a us a ti ve ag e nt s o f s e xu a l l y t r a ns m i t te d d is e as es ( S TD s ) , bu t t h e y s h ou ld no t b e r el ie d o n a l on e f o r S TD p r e ve n ti on . ( D ) L a te x c o n do m s c a n be l ab el e d f o r t h e p re ve n ti o n o f H I V t r an s m is s i on . ( E ) N o no xy n o l - 9 is a s afe a nd ef f ec t i v e v a g in al sp e r m i c i de . V i e w A n s we r 6 . T h e a n sw e r i s A [ se e] . 7 . Al l o f th e f o ll ow i ng s ta t e me n ts c o n ce r n i ng t he va g i na l s p e r mi c i de s a r e c o r r e ct e x ce p t w hi c h o n e? ( A ) U s ed wi t h ou t a c o n do m o r di a ph r ag m , i t is r ec om m e n de d th a t t he no no xy n o l - 9 c o nc en t r at i on s h ou l d b e a t le as t 8% . ( B ) F oa m s p ro ba b l y d i s pe r s e t he s p e rm ic id e t h r ou g h ou t t h e va g in a l ca n al b e t te r t h a n c re am o r j el l y fo r m s . ( C ) D o uc h in g s ho u ld no t o c c u r fo r 6 - 8 h r af t e r t he l as t i n te r c o u rs e b ec a us e i t m a y d i lu t e t h e s p e rm ic i de ef fe c t o r e ve n fo r c e s p e rm in t o th e c er v i x. ( D ) E vi d en c e t o d at e s h ows n o d ef i ni te li nk be t we e n th es e a g en t s a nd bi r th d ef ec t s . ( E ) N o ne ; al l o f t h e s ta t em e nt s a r e c or r ec t . V i e w A n s we r 7 . T h e a n sw e r i s E [s e e] . 8 . Al l o f th e f o ll ow i ng s ta t e me n ts c o n ce r n i ng c on t r a ce p t io n o r c o n t r ac e pt i ve a ge n t s a r e c o r r e c t e xc e pt w h ic h one? ( A ) P r o ge s t e r on e i s a ppa r e n tl y r es p on si bl e f o r th e in c re as e i n b as al t em p e r a tu r e a f t e r o v u la t io n . ( B ) V as e li n e s h o ul d n o t b e us ed as a lu b r ic an t wit h la t e x c o nd om s . ( C ) U s in g a c o nd om al o ne is m o r e e f fe c t i v e a s a c o nt r ac e pt i v e th an t ak ing a c om b in a ti o n o ra l c on t r ac e p t i v e. ( D ) A cc o r di ng t o t he B il lin g s m e t ho d , v ag i na l m uc u s h as a n a pp ea r a nc e s im i la r to r a w e g g wh i t es at a ro und t he ti m e o f o vu la t io n .
( E ) S p e rm m a y be v i ab le f o r u p to 5 d a ys in t he fe m al e re p ro d uc ti ve t ra c t u n d er t he r i g ht co n di ti o ns . V i e w A n s we r 8 . T h e a n sw e r i s C [ se e] . P . 72 0
D i r e c t i on s fo r q ue s t io ns 9 - 10 : E a c h st a te m e n t in t hi s s ec ti o n is m o st c l os e l y r e l at e d t o o n e o f t h e f ol lo wi n g d ru g t y pe s. Th e d ru g t y pe s m a y b e u s ed m o r e th a n o n ce o r n ot a t al l . Ch o os e t he b es t a ns we r , A- E . 9 . T he p r im a r y n o n p r e s c r i p t i on p ha r m ac o lo g i ca l t r ea t m en t f o r p a in ass o c ia t e d w i t h d ys m e n o r r h e a A D i u r e t ic s B S a l ic y l at es C N o n st e r oi da l a n ti - in f lam m a t o r y dr u gs ( N S AI D s ) D N a r c ot ic an al g es ic s V i e w A n s we r 9 . T h e a n sw e r i s C [ se e] . 1 0. R e com m e nd e d b y t h e F o o d a n d D r u g Ad m i n i s t ra t i on ( FD A) f o r e l i m i na t i on o f w a te r b e fo r e a n d d u r i ng m e n s t ru a t io n A D i u r e t ic s B S a l ic y l at es C N o n st e r oi da l a n ti - in f lam m a t o r y dr u gs ( N S AI D s ) D N a r c ot ic an al g es ic s V i e w A n s we r 1 0 . T he a nsw e r i s A [ se e] . P . 72 1
ANSWERS AND EXPLANATIONS 1 . T he an sw e r is A [ s ee I I . A .1 . b] . C a n d id a a lb ic a ns re m a i ns t he m os t c om m o n c au se . I nf ec t io ns c a us ed b y C . g la b r at a a r e i n cr e as in g . T r ic ho m on a s a nd an a e ro bi c b ac t er i a c a us e o th e r t yp e s o f va g i n al i n f ec ti o ns . 2 . T he an sw e r is D [ s ee I I . A .3 . f . (2 ) ] . N o n p r es c r ip t io n a n ti f un ga l ag en t s ' e f fi ca c y r at es a p p ro ac h 8 0 % -9 0% . 3 . T he an sw e r is C [ s ee I I . A .3 . f ]. Mo n i s t a t 1 c o nt a in s t io c on a z o l e, a l on g -a c ti ng oi nt m en t . 4 . T he an sw e r is B [ s ee I I . A .3 . d] . E xt e r n a l c re am s c a n b e h e lp f ul f or t r ea ti n g e xt e r n a l i tc h in g . Th e v a gi n al y e a s t i n f ec ti o n s ti ll m us t be t rea t e d wi t h an in t r a vag i na l c r ea m . 5 . T he an sw e r is D [ s ee I I . A .2 . b] . A l l o f th es e p a ti e nt s s hou l d b e re f er r e d f o r d ia gno s is a n d t r ea t m e n t. 6 . T he an sw e r is A [ s ee I I I . B. 1 .c . ( 2) ] . I n t e rc ou r s e s h ou l d b e a vo i de d fo r a f ul l 3 da ys a ft e r th e n o te d te m p e ra t u re t r a ns i ti o n. A ll of th e o t her s ta t em e nt s a r e c o r r ec t . 7 . T he an sw e r is E [ s e e I I I . B. 2 ] . A l l th e s ta t em en t s a r e c or r e c t. 8 . T he an sw e r is C [ s ee Ta b l e 3 4 - 1] .
Th e m os t e f fe c ti v e c o nt ra c ep t i v e p r od uc t a va i la ble t od a y is th e c om bi n at io n o ra l c o nt r ac e pt i v e . A l l o f t h e o t h e r s t a te m en ts a re c o rr e c t. 9 . T he an sw e r is C [ s ee I . B . 1. d . (3 ) . (a ) ] . 1 0 . Th e a n sw e r i s A [ s ee I . B .1 . d. ( 3 ) .( b ) ]. N S A I D s a re ap p ro v e d b y t h e F D A fo r th e t re a tm en t o f p ri m a r y d ys m e no r rh e a . F o r p r e m e ns t r ua l a nd m e ns t ru a l r e li e f o f wa t e r r e te n tio n , b l oa t in g , a nd te ns i on, t h e F D A h a s a pp r o v e d O TC d i u r et i c s .
35 Herbal Medicines and Nutritional Supplements T e r e sa K l ep s e r
I. INTRODUCTION. Ma n y o f t h e d r u gs a v a i lab l e o n t h e m a r k e t ar e d er i v e d f ro m p la n ts . S om e o f t ho s e i n cl ud e a s pi r in , a t r op i ne , b e ll ad o nn a , c ap s a ic in , c a sc a r a, co lc hi c i n e, di g o xi n ( L a no xi n ) , e ph e d ri ne , e rg o t am in e , i pe c a c, op i um , p h y s o st i gm in e , p il oc a rpi n e , p o d op h y ll um , ps y l li um , qu i ni d in e , r es e r pi ne , s co po l am in e , s en n a, Ta xo l , t u b oc u ra r in e , v i n bl as t in e, a nd v i nc r is ti n e. H e rb p ro d uc ts a re al s o de r i v e d fr o m p l an t s; ho we v e r , t h es e pr o d uc ts a re no t c o ns id e re d d ru gs b y th e U. S . Foo d an d D r u g A dm in is t ra t io n (F D A ) . A. R e g u l a t i on s 1 . Th e Fe d e ra l Fo o d , D r u g , an d C os m et i c Ac t of 1 9 38 m a nd a te d p h ar m ac e ut ic a l c om p an i es t o te s t d ru gs f o r s a fe t y b ef o r e m a r ke t in g . 2 . Th e K e fa u ve r - H a r r is D r u g Am e n d me n t s o f 19 6 2 m an d at e d p ha r m a c eu t ic a l c om p an i es t o te s t d ru gs f o r ef f ic ac y b ef o r e m a r ket i n g. 3 . Th e D ie t a r y S u p p l e m e n t H ea l t h a n d E d uc a t io n Ac t o f 19 94 m a n da t ed t he f o l lo wi n g : a . D ie t a r y s u pp le m e n ts ar e n ot d ru gs o r f oo d . Th ey a r e in t en d ed to su pp l em e nt t he d i e t. b . H e rb s a r e c on s i d er e d d i e ta r y su p pl em en t s . c . D ie t a r y s u pp le m e n ts do n ot ha v e t o b e s ta nd a rd i ze d . d . Th e s ec r e ta r y o f He a lth a nd H um an S e r v ic es m a y r e m o v e a s up pl em e n t f r om t he m a rk e t o nl y wh e n i t h as b e e n s h o wn t o b e h a z a rd o us to he a lt h . e . D ie t a r y s u pp le m e n ts m a y m a k e c l ai m s o n l y reg a r di n g t he e ff ec t s o n str u c tu r e o r f u nc t io n o f th e b o d y . No c l ai m s re g ar d in g a pa r t ic u l a r d is ea se o r c on di t io n m a y be m a de . f . Th e f ol lo wi n g s t a te m en t is re q ui r ed on t he p rod u ct la b el : “ Th is p r o du c t h as no t b e e n e va lu a te d b y t he FD A . I t i s n o t i nt e nd ed t o d i ag n os e , t r ea t , c ur e , o r p r e ve n t. ” 4 . G e r ma n Fe d e ra l H ea lt h Ag e n c y a . I n 1 97 8 , t he G e rm a n F e d e ra l H e al t h Ag en c y es t ab l is he d Co m m is s i on E . b . C om m i s s io n E e v a lu a te s th e s af e t y an d e f fi c a cy o f h er b s t h ro ug h c li n ica l t ri al s a n d c as es pu bl is h ed in s c i en t if ic li t e ra t ur e . c . Th e r e a r e > 3 8 0 p ub l is h ed m o no g r ap hs on he rb s . B . H e r b s c o ns i de r e d u ns a f e f o r h um an c on s ump t i o n 1 . C a rc in o ge ni c h e rb s i nc l ud e b o ra g e, c a la m us , c o lt s fo o t, co m f r e y , l i fe ro o t , a nd s as s af r as . 2 . H ep a t ot o xi c he r bs in c lu d e c ha p ar r a l, ge r m a n der , k a v a , an d l i fe r oo t . 3 . H ig h d o s e s o f l ic o ri c e f o r lo n g p er i od s m a y c aus e p se u do a ld os t e ro ni s m , a c o nd i ti on t ha t m a y in c l ude h ea d ac he , l e th a rg y, s od i um an d wa t e r r e te n ti o n, h yp o ka l em ia , h i gh bl oo d p r e s s u re , h e ar t fa i lu r e, an d c a r di ac a rr es t . 4 . Ma h u an g m a y c a us e m y o c ar d ia l i n fa rc t io n , s t ro k es o r se i zu re s . 5 . P ok e ro o t m a y b e f a ta l i n c hi l dr e n.
6 . U n sa f e h e r bs ac c o r di n g t o t h e F D A. I n th e 19 9 0s , th e F D A ' s Ce n t er fo r F oo d S a f e t y an d A p pl i ed N ut r it i o n c re a te d t h e S p ec ia l N u t r i ti o na l A d v e rs e E v ent Mo n i t o r i ng S y s te m W eb s i te f or di e ta r y s up pl em en t s . U n fo r t un a te l y, b y 1 99 9 th e s i te wa s n o l o ng e r b e in g u pda t e d a nd th us wa s e ven tu a ll y d el e te d . Ac c o r di ng t o t he l a s t u p d at e f r om th a t W eb s i te , t he fo ll o wi n g d i et a r y s u p pl e m e n ts we r e c on si de r e d u n sa f e b y t he F D A : a . A r ni ca : m us c l e p a ra l ys is , de a th b . A m e r ic an an d Eu r o pea n m is t le t oe : s e i zur e s , c o m a c . B it t e rs we e t an d d e ad ly n i g ht sh a de : c a rd i ac toxi c i t y d . B lo o d ro o t: h y po t en s i on , c o m a P.723
e . B r oo m : de h y d r at i on f . C o m f r e y : c an c e r g . D u tc h a nd E ng l is h t onk a b e an : h e pa t o to xi c i t y h . H e li o tr o pe : h e pa t ot o xi c i t y i . H o rs e c he s tn u t: bl e ed in g j . Ji m s on we e d : a n ti c h ol in e r gi c , h al lu ci n at i on s k . K a va : h ep a to t o xi c it y l . Li l y o f t he v a ll e y : c a r dia c to xi c i t y m . Lo b el ia ( ni c o t in e ) : c om a , d ea t h n . Ma n d r ak e /m a y a pp le : s e v e r e g as t ro i nt es t in a l s ym p t om s o . Mo r n i n g g lo r y : ps y c hos is p . P e ri wi n k le : re n al a n d h e p at o to xi c i t y q . S na k er o ot : re s er p in e d e r i v a ti v e r . S p in d le t re e : s e i z u r es s . S t . Jo h n 's wo r t : dr u g in t e r ac ti o ns t . S we e t f la g : h al lu c i n at io n s , li v e r c a nc e r u . Tr u e j a la p : p u rg a ti v e c a th a r ti c v. W ah oo : s e i z ur e s w . W orm wo o d : s e i z ur e s , p a r al y s is x . Yo h im b e: r en al f ai lu r e, h y p e rt e ns io n
II. COMMONLY USED HERBS A. B l a c k co h o sh ( C im i ci f u g a ra c em os a ) 1 . C o mm i ss i on E in d ic at i o n s . P r em en s tr u al s y m p t om s , p ai n fu l o r d i f fi cu l t m e ns t ru a ti o n, an d n e u rov e g e t at i v e s ym pt om s (h ot f la s he s) c a us e d b y m en o p au s e 2 . M e c ha n is m o f ac t i on a . B la ck c o ho s h ha s e s t ro g e n- l ik e e f fe c t s t h at a re e xe r t e d b y a n u nk n o wn m ec h an is m , di f f e re n t f r om an es t r og en ic m e c h a nis m . b . I t d oe s n o t a pp e ar t o b i nd t o es t r og e n r ec e pt or s . N or do e s i t a pp e ar t o u p r e g ul a te es t ro g en - d ep end e n t g en es . c . I t d oe s n o t a ff ec t th e g r o wt h o f e s t r og e n -d e pen d e nt tu m o r s i n e xp e r i m e n t al a n im al s .
3 . E f f ic a c y a . U nc o nt r ol l ed as we l l as do u bl e -b l in d , r a nd om i ze d , p l ac eb o -c o nt r ol l ed c li n ic al t r i al s c om pa r ed bl a c k c oh o s h to ho r m o n e t he r a p y i n p e ri m e n op a us al an d p o st m e n op a us al wo m en wi t h n e u ro v e g et a ti ve m en o p au sa l s y m p t om s o f d if f e r en t d e g re es o f s e v e r i t y . Th e K u p pe r m a n m en o pa us a l i n de x a n d ps y c hi a t ri c c l in i c a l a nd s e lf - e va lu a ti on s c al es we r e s i gn i fi c a n tl y r ed uc e d a f t er 3 m on t hs o f t re a tm e n t wi t h b l ac k co h os h . V a gi na l -c y t o l og ic al pa r am e te r s a ls o i m p r o ved in re g a rd to e s t ro g en s t im ul a ti o n. B la c k c o ho s h wa s s h o wn t o b e s up e ri o r to pl ac e bo an d c om pa r a bl e to e s t ri ol , c o nj u ga t ed es t rog e ns , a n d e st r og e n -p r oge s te r o ne th e r ap y ( Ma h a dy) . b . B la ck c o ho s h m a y n ot b e e f f ec ti ve in p re m e n op a us a l b re as t c a nc e r s u rv i v o r s wi t h t a m o xi f e n - i nd uc ed h ot fla s he s ( J a co b s e n ). 4 . C o n t ra i n di c at i o ns / p re c a u ti o ns a . P r eg n an c y b . U nk n o wn if s u i ta bl e for p a ti e nt s f o r wh o m ho r m o n e - re p la ce m e n t t he r a p y i s c o nt r a in di c a t ed , s uc h a s e s tr o ge n - re c e p to r - p os it iv e b r e as t c an c e r c . C om m i s s io n E r ec om m e nd s t ha t le ng t h o f u s e s ho u ld no t e xc e e d 6 m on t hs . d . U se c a u ti on in li v e r dis e as e, su c h as he pa t i ti s a n d f u lm in an t li ve r fa il u re . 5 . D r u g i n t e ra c t io n s a . C is pl a ti n ( Pl a ti no l ) e f fi c ac y m a y b e r e du c e d . b . Th e o re t ic al l y , bl ac k c o h os h m a y i n t er ac t wi t h h e p at o to xi c d r ug s , s u ch a s a c et am i no p he n ( Ty l e n o l ), c ar b am a z ep i ne ( Te g re to l ) , a n d is o ni a z id ( N y d r az i d ) b e ca us e i t i s a n i nh i bi t o r o f c y t o c h r om e P 4 50 3 A4 ( C YP 3 4 A ) an d C YP 2 D6 i s oe n z ym es . 6 . S i de ef f e c ts a . O cc as i on al in t es ti n al p r o bl em s m a y o c c u r , su c h as na u se a a nd vo m i t ing ; we i g ht g a in is po s s ib l e. P.724
b . Li ve r t o xi c it y m a y o c c u r ; li v e r fu nc t io n t e s t s s ho u ld be m o ni t o re d p e r io di c al l y . c . La r g e d os es o f bl ac k c o ho s h m a y c a us e d i zz i ne ss , na us e a, s e v e r e h ead a c h es , s t i ff n ess , an d t r em bl i ng li m bs . d . D o es n o t s ee m t o i nc re a s e r isk o f e nd om e tr i al h yp e r pl as i a. 7 . D o sa g e. R em i fe m i n i s a s t a nd a rd i z e d p r od uc t th a t c on t ai ns 20 m g bl ac k c oh os h a n d i s t ak en t wi c e d ai l y . I t is s t an d a rd i ze d t o 1 m g o f 2 7 -d e o xya c t ei n p e r ta b le t . B . C h a s te t r ee be r r y ( V i t e x ag n us - c as t us ) 1 . C o mm i ss i on E in d ic at i o n s . D is o r de rs o f t he m e ns t ru a l c yc l e , b re a s t s we l l i ng , a n d p r em en s t ru al s ym p to m s 2 . M e c ha n is m o f ac t i on a . C ha s te t re e b e r r y bi nds t o d op am in e re c e p to r s a n d i nh i bi ts p ro l ac ti n s ec r e ti o n. b . O n e o f i ts in g r ed ie n ts , l i no le ic ac id , bi nd s t o es t r og e n r ec e pt o rs . c . I t i nc r ea s e s t he pi t ui ta r y g l an d 's p ro d uc ti o n o f l u te i ni z i ng ho r m o n e a nd i n hi bi t s f o l li cl e -s ti m u l at i ng ho r m o n e (F S H ) . 3 . E f f ic a c y. O n e r a n do m i z e d , d o ub l e- b li nd , pl ac eb o - c o n tr o ll e d, pa r al l el g ro u p s tu d y i n cl ud e d 1 70 wo m e n wi t h p r em en st r u al s yn d r om e ( S c h e l l en b er g ) . V i te x wa s g i ve n 2 0
m g d a il y f o r 3 c y c le s . S el f - as s e s s m e n t a nd c l in ic a l gl ob a l im p r ess i on s i gni f ic a nt l y i m p ro ve d . 4 . C o n t ra i n di c at i o ns / p re c a u ti o ns a . P r eg n an c y a n d l ac ta t io n b . W om en r ec ei v i ng ho rm o ne - r ep l ac em en t th e rap y 5 . D r u g i n t e ra c t io n s a . Th e o re t ic al l y , c ha s te tr e e be r r y m a y i nt e ra c t wi t h m e di ca t io ns t ha t i nc r ea s e d o p am in e rg ic ac ti v i t y , s uc h a s b r om oc r ip t in e ( Pa rl o de l ) a n d l e vod o pa . b . Th e o re t ic al l y , i t m a y in t e r ac t wi t h m e d ic at i on s t h a t d ec r ea se do p am in e rg i c a c ti vi t y, s u c h as t h e a n tip s y c ho ti c s . c . Th e o re t ic al l y , i t m a y in t e r ac t wi t h h or m o n e - rep l ac em e nt th e r ap y a nd or a l c o nt r ac e pt i v es . 6 . S i de ef f e c ts a . Mi l d ga s tr o in t es ti n al up s et b . S ki n r a s h c . I nc re a s e d m en s t r u al flo w 7 . D o sa g e. D os es de p end o n t he f or m u l at i on . Ty p i c a l d os e ra ng e o f c h as t e t re e b e r r y is 20 - 24 0 m g p e r da y . C . C r a n b e r r y ( V a c c i n i um m ac r o ca r p o n ) 1 . C o mm i ss i on E in d ic at i o n s . R ec u r re n t u r in a r y t r a c t in f ec t io ns 2 . M e c ha n is m o f ac t i on a . U r in a r y ac id i fi c a t io n b . B en zo i c a nd qu in ic ac i d s b r ea k d o wn an d f o rm h i pp u ri c a c i d ( b ac te r i os ta t ic ) . c . I nh ib i ti o n o f E s c h er ic hi a c o li ad he r e nc e t o e pi th e li a l c e l ls o f ur i na r y t r ac t d . C r an b e r r y j u ic e m a y s u p p re s s H el ic o ba ct e r p y lo r i i n fe c ti on . 3 . E f f ic a c y a . A q u as i - ra nd om i z e d, d o u bl e -b li n d, pl ac e bo - c on t r ol l ed s t u d y i nc l ud ed 15 3 wo m en wh o r e c ei v e d 3 0 0 m L o f c r a nb e r r y j u ic e d ai l y fo r 6 m o n th s (A v o r n e t al . ) . B a c te r iu r i a wi t h p yu r i a oc c u r r e d le s s o f t en i n th e c r an b er r y g ro u p (1 5% ) ve rs us pl a ce bo ( 2 8% ) . 4 . C o n t ra i n di c at i o ns a . B en i gn pr o s t a ti c h y p er p l as ia b . U r in a r y ob s tr u c t io n c . N ep h r ol i th ia s i s d . C r an b e r r y j u ic e c o n ta in s h i gh am ou n ts of s a li cy l i c a c i d a n d m a y t r ig g e r a n a l le r g ic re ac t io n i n p a ti en t s wi t h a n as p i ri n a ll e rgy o r a s t hm a . e . D is co n ti n ue 2 we e k s b e f o re s u r ge r y . f . U lc e rs , G E R D P.725
5 . D r u g i n t e ra c t io n s a . I nc re a s e d v it am i n B 1 2 a b s o r p ti on b . P o te n ti al t o e nh an c e e l im in a ti o n o f r e na ll y e x c r e te d d r u gs b y c ha ng i ng u ri n e p H c . C r an b e rr y j ui c e m a y in t e r ac t wi t h wa r f a r in , i n c r e a s i ng t he in t er n at i on a l n o r m a li ze d ra t io ( I N R ) .
d . Ma y i n h i bi t c y t oc h ro m e P 4 50 2 C9 . D ru g s t ha t a r e m e ta b ol i zed b y C YP 2 C 9 in c l u de a m it r ip t y l in e ( El a v il ) an d d i a z ep am ( V al iu m ). 6 . S i de ef f e c ts a . N au s ea , v om it i ng , d i ar r h e a b . N e ph r ol i th i as is 7 . D o sa g e. R ec om m e n de d do s e of c ra nb e r r y is 30 0 - 40 0 m g t wi c e d a il y us i n g a s t an d a rd i z ed p ro d uc t t o in c lu d e 1 1% - 12 % q u in ic a c id pe r do s e . Pa t ie n ts m a y al so t a ke 8 -1 6 o z . 1 00 % c r anb e r r y ju ic e d a il y. D r in k i ng l ot s o f f l ui ds is re c o m m e nd e d. D . D o n g q u ai ( A n ge l ic a s e ne n s is ) 1 . T r ad i t io n a l C h i ne s e M e d ic i ne i nd i ca t i on s . Me n s t r u a l d is or d e rs , a nem i a, c o ns ti p at i on , i ns om n ia , rh e um a ti sm , n eu r a lg ia , an d h y pe r t en s i o n 2 . M e c ha n is m o f ac t i on a . D on g qu ai is o n l y 1: 40 0 as a c ti v e as e s t ro ge n. H o we ve r , i t d oe s n o t ap p e ar t o p r o du c e an y c ha n ge s t o t h e o v a r i es o r va gi n al ti ss u e ( Mu r r a y ) . b . I t c on t ai ns s e v e n d if f er e n t c ou m a r in d er i va ti v es : o xy p e u ce d an in , os th o le , p s o ra le n , a ng e lo l , a ng e lic o ne , b e r ga p te n , a nd 7 -d e s m et h yl su be r os i n. Ma n y c o um a ri ns ha v e be e n s ho wn t o h a ve va s o d il a to r y a n d a nt is p as m o di c e f fe c t s . O ne of t h e c ou m a r i ns (o s t h ol e ) is a c en t r al n e r vo us s ys te m ( C N S ) s ti m u la n t . c . I t i nh ib i ts e xp e r im en t al l y i nd uc ed im m u n og lo b ul i n E ( I gE ) ti t e rs , s ug g es t i n g t ha t c om p on e nt s o f t h e p la n t m a y ha v e im m u n os up p res si ve ac t i vit y . d . I t i nh i bi ts p ro s t a gl a ndi n E 2 ( P G E 2 ) re l ea s e an d, t h er e fo r e , p os se s s es an a lg e s i c , a n t ip yr e t ic , a nd an t i -i n fla m m a to r y a c t i on s . e . I t h as a q ui ni d in e -t y p e e f f ec t, s o it m a y c o n t ro l t a c h y c a rd ia . f . I t n o rm al i z es u te r in e c o n t r ac ti o ns . g . I t h as an t ib io t ic ac ti v i ty a g a in s t g ra m -n e ga t i ve b a ct e r ia ( Ba c i l lu s dy s e n te r i ae , B . t y ph i , B . c o m m a , B . p a rat y ph i , a nd E s c he r ic hi a c o l i ) a nd ag a in s t g ra m -p os i ti ve b a ct e r ia (h em o l y ti c St r ep t oc oc c us t y p e A a n d B , C o r y ne b ac te r iu m d ip h th er i a e ). 3 . E f f ic a c y. A r a n d om i ze d , d o ub l e- b li nd , pl ac e bo - c on t ro l le d t r i al i n c l ud ed 7 1 p o st m e n op a us al wo m en ( m e an ag e , 5 2. 4 y ea r s ) wh o h a d F S H < 3 0 m I U /m L wi t h h o t f l as h es ( Hi r a ta et al . ) . W o m en r ec ei v e d 3 c a ps ul es o f d on g q ua i th r ee ti m es da i l y ( e q ui va l en t to 4. 5 g of do n g q u ai ro o t d ai l y ) o r p l a c eb o f o r 2 4 we e k s . D o ng q ua i d id n o t p r o du c e es t ro g en - li k e r es p on s e s i n e nd om e t ri a l t h ick n ess o r i n va g in al m a tu r a ti o n o r r e li e v e m en o p au s a l s y m p t om s . Th e s t ud y is cr i ti c i ze d fo r u s i n g d on g q u ai al o ne , b e c a us e i n Tr a d it i on a l C h in es e Me d ic i n e , d on g q u ai i s u s e d i n c om b in a ti o n wi t h fo u r o r m o r e o th e r h e rb s . 4 . C o n t ra i n di c at i o ns / p re c a u ti o ns a . P r eg n an c y (u t e ri ne s t im u la n t ) a nd la c t a ti o n b . D i ar r h ea c . H em o r rh a gi c d is ea s e ; d is c o n ti n ue 2 we e k s b efo r e s u rg e r y d . H yp e rm e no r r he a e . H yp o te ns i on f . D u r in g c ol ds o r f lu s g . A ll e r g y t o p a rs l e y 5 . D r u g i n t e ra c t io n s a . D on g qu ai in t e ra c t s wit h an t ic oa g ul a nt s , s u ch a s wa r f a ri n ( Co um a di n )
b . A n ti h y pe r t en s i v e s (h y p o t en s i o n) c . Th e o re t ic al l y , m a y in te r a c t wi t h ho rm o ne - r ep l ac em e nt t he r ap y. d . U nk n o wn if i t i nt e ra c ts wi t h ot h e r c a r di o v a sc ula r d ru gs s u ch as pr oc a ina m id e ( P r o n es t y l ) 6 . S i de ef f e c ts a . P ho t od e rm a ti t is m a y oc c u r in pe o pl e c ol le c ti ng t h e p la n t . b . B u rp i ng , f l at u le nc e , an d he a da c h e P.726
c . S af r o le , f o un d i n t h e oi l of do n g q ua i , is ca rc i no g e ni c a nd no t re c o m m en d e d f o r i n ge s ti on . d . Ma y s t i m u la t e b r ea s t c a nc e r c e l ls . 7 . D o sa g e. A v a ri e t y of d o s e s a r e s u g ge s te d . N o s t an da r d i zed p ro du c t is a v a i la b le . A c co r d in g t o t r a di t io na l C h i n es e m e d ic in e , d on g q u a i al o ne m a y n ot be eff e c ti ve . E . E c h in a ce a ( E c hi n ac ea p u r pu r e a , E . a n g us t i fo l i a ) 1 . C o mm i ss i on E in d ic at i o n s a . I nt e rn a l us e : s up p or t iv e t h e ra p y f or in f ec t io ns o f t he up pe r r es pi r a to r y tr a c t ( c o ld s) an d l o we r u r in a r y t r ac t b . E xt e r n a l u s e : l oc a l a pp l ic a ti on f or t he t re a tm en t o f h ar d - to - h ea l s up e rf ic i al wo u n d s a n d u lc e rs 2 . M e c ha n is m o f ac t i on. E c hi na c e a i nc r e as es the b od y ' s r es is ta nc e to ba c te r i a b y: a . C a ff e ic a c i d d e r i v at i v es , wh i ch in c l u de c ic h or ic a c i d , c hl o ro g en ic ac id , a n d c yn a r in , i nc r e as e p ha goc y t o s i s a nd s t im ul a te t he p r o du ct i on of im m u ne - po t e nt i at i ng s u bs ta n c e s s u c h as in t e rf e r o n, in t e rl eu ki ns , an d tu m o r n ec r os is f a c t o r . b . P ol ys ac c h a ri d es , s uc h as in u li n , s tim u la t e m ac r o ph ag e s a nd in hi b it h ya l u ro n id as e a c ti vi t y t o d ec r ea s e in f lam m a t io n . c . A lk yl am id es , s uc h a s e c hi n ac ei n , h a v e a l oc a l a n es t he t ic e f f ec t a nd in hi b i t h ya l u ro n id as e a c ti v i t y to d ec r e as e i nf l am m a ti o n. d . E ch in a c e a h as li t tl e or n o d i re c t b ac te r i oc id al o r b ac te r io s ta t ic p r o pe r tie s . 3 . E f f ic a c y. I n a r e v ie w o f 26 c o n tr o ll e d c l i ni ca l tr i a ls e v a l ua t in g e c h i na cea ' s ab il i t y t o st r en g th e n t h e b od y ' s o wn d e f en s e m e ch a ni sm s , it wa s fo u nd th a t 3 0 o f 3 4 e c hi n ac ea th e r ap ie s we re m o r e e f fe c ti ve c om p a re d to c o n tr o ls ( Me l ch a r t e t al . ) . 4 . C o n t ra i n di c at i o ns / p re c a u ti o ns a . E c h in ac e a is c o n t ra ind i c a t ed in in f ec ti o us a n d a u to im m u n e d is ea s e s s u c h as t u b e rc ul os is , l e uk os is , c o l la g en os is , m ul t ip l e s c le r o si s, A I D S , H I V , a n d lu p us . b . C a ut i on s h ou ld be us e d in pa t ie n ts wh o ar e a ll e r gi c t o m em be r s o f t h e r a g we e d f a m i l y. c . Th e ef f ec ts of ec hi n ac e a in p re gn a nc y, la c t a ti on , an d c hi l d re n a r e u nk no wn . C o m pa r is o n wi t h a c on t ro l gr o up s u gg e st e d n o i nc r e a s ed ri s k of m a jo r m a lf o rm a ti o ns i n 2 0 6 p reg n a nt wo m en ( G a ll o e t al . ) . d . Th e r ap y s ho ul d n o t e x c e ed 8 we e k s . Th e o re t ic a l l y, p r ol o ng e d us e o f ec h i na c ea m a y de p r es s t he im m u ne s y s te m , p os s i bl y t h ro u gh o ve rs t im ul a ti o n. 5 . D r u g i n t e ra c t io n s a . U nk n o wn if ec hi n ac ea i n te r ac ts wi t h im m u no s up p r es s a n ts
b . E ch in a c e a i nh i bi ts c y to c h ro m e P 45 0 1 A 2 . S om e d r ug s m e t ab o li z e d b y C YP 1 A 2 a r e c a ff e in e ( Ca fc i t ) a nd t h eo p h y ll in e . c . E ch in ac e a i nd uc es and i nh ib i ts C YP 3 A 4 . So m e d r ug s m e t ab o li ze d b y C YP 3 A 4 a r e m i da zo l am (V e rs e d ), it r ac o na z o l e ( S po r a no x) a n d f e xo f e n ad i ne ( Al l eg r a ) . 6 . S i de ef f e c ts a . N au s ea , v om it i ng , d i zz i n e s s , t i re d ne ss , a l le r gic r ea c ti on s , a nd an ap h y la xi s . b . Ma y i n t e r fe r e wi t h m a le f e rt i li t y. 7 . D o sa g e. Th e r e a r e a v a r i e t y of do s es re c o m m e n d ed . Th e m o s t c o m m on d os e is a s th e d r ie d p o wd e r , 1 g o r t wo 5 00 - m g c a ps ul es o r a ll y t h re e ti m e s d ai l y . R e c om m e nd e d t o u s e fo r 2 we e k s on l y du r in g a co l d . F . F e ve r f ew ( T a na ce t um p a r th e n iu m ) 1 . C o mm i ss i on E in d ic at i o n . Pr o ph y l a xi s o f m i g ra i ne he a da c h es 2 . M e c ha n is m o f ac t i on a . F e ver f e w i n hi bi ts t he re l ea s e o f 5 - h y d ro xy t r y p t a m in e (s er o to n in ) f ro m pl a t el e ts , wh i c h m a y b e t he s a m e m ec h an is m a s m e t h ys e rg i de m a l e a te ( S an se r t ) . b . I t i r r e v er s i b l y i n hi bi t s p r o s t a gl an d in s y n t h es is th r o ug h a di f f er e nt m e c ha n is m f r om t h a t o f t h e s al ic y l at e s . I t i n hi bi t s p ho s p h ol ip as e A 2 b y α - m e t h y le n e b ut y r o l ac t on es ( p a r th e no li d e a nd ep o xy a r t em o ri n ) . c . Th e r e is an an t i th r om b o t ic p o te n ti a l o wi n g t o a p ho s p h ol ip as e i n hi bi t ion t ha t p r e ve n ts th e r e le as e o f ar a c hi do n ic a ci d . P.727
d . I t i nh i bi ts po l y m o r p hon u c l e ar le uk oc yt e ( P MN ) d e g ra nu l at i on , wh ic h red u c e s P MN - i n d u c ed da m ag e t o t h e r h eu m a t oi d s y n o v ium . e . I t i nh ib i ts ph a go c y to s is o f h um an ne u t ro ph i ls , wh i c h m a y r ed u c e ti ss ue d am a ge f r o m o xy g e n r a di c a ls . f . I t i n hi bi ts m a s t c e ll r ele a s e of hi s ta m i ne . g . I t m a y h a v e c y t o to xi c a c ti v i t y a ga in s t h um an tum o r c el ls . h . I t m a y p os s e s s an t im ic r o bi al ac t i vit y . 3 . E f f ic a c y. A n e v a l u at ion o f f i ve t r i al s f o r t he ef fi c ac y o f f e v e rf e w i n th e p r e ve n ti on o f m i g ra in e s c o m p a r ed to p la c e b o wa s co n du ct ed ( C oc h r an e Da t ab as e o f S y s t em a ti c R e vi e ws ) . A v a ri e t y of do s es a n d d u ra t io ns we r e u se d . So m e t ri al s s ho we d th e n u m b e r a nd s e v e r i t y o f m i g ra in e a t t ack s a nd t he d e g re e o f v om it i ng we r e r e d uc ed wi t h f e ve r f e w. Th e du r at io n of a tt ac ks wa s u n al t er e d . O th e r t r ia ls s h o we d n o b e n ef i t. 4 . C o n t ra i n di c at i o ns / p re c a u ti o ns a . F e ver f e w s ho u ld be av o i d e d in p re g na nc y , la ct a t io n , a nd ch il d r en < 2 ye a r s o f age. b . C o nt r ai n di c a t ed in in di v i d ua ls wi t h al le r g ie s t o c h r y s a n th em um s . c . C on t r ai n di c a t ed in pa ti e n ts wi t h b le e di n g d is ord e r s . D is c o n ti nu e 2 we e k s b e fo r e s u r ge r y. 5 . D r u g i n t e ra c t io n s a . F e ver f e w m a y i n te r ac t wi t h a n ti c o ag u la n ts , i nc r e a s i ng t he ri s k of bl e ed in g .
b . F e ve rf e w m a y in hi b it th e fo l lo wi n g c y t o c h r om e P 4 5 0 i so en z y m e s : 1 A2 , 2 C 1 9 , 2 C 9 , a n d 3 A 4. 6 . S i de ef f e c ts a . G as t r ic d is c om fo r t o n o r a l c on su m p t io n b . C o nt ac t de rm a ti t is c . Mi n o r ul c e r a ti on s o f or a l m uc os a , i r ri t a ti on o f to n g ue , a n d s we l li ng o f l ip s m a y o cc u r wh e n f r es h l ea v e s a r e c h e we d . d . P al p it a ti o ns . e . P os t - fe v e r f e w s y nd r om e : d is c o n ti nu a ti o n o f f eve r f e w m a y p r od uc e m us c l e a nd j o in t s t if f ne s s an d a c l us t e r of ne r v o us s ys t em r ea c ti o ns ( re b ou nd o f m i g ra i ne s , a n xi e t y, a nd in s o m ni a ). 7 . D o sa g e. Th e u s ua l d os e o f fe ve r f e w i s 1 25 m g d a il y . A p r o du c t c o n ta in in g at l e as t 0 . 2% pa r t he n ol id e is r ec om m e nd e d. G . G a r l i c ( Al l i um sa t i vum ) 1 . C o mm i ss i on E in d ic at i o n s . S up p o rt di e ta r y m e a s u r es fo r th e tr e at m ent o f h yp e r li p op r o te in em i a a nd t o p r e v en t ag e - re la t ed c h a n g es i n t h e b lo o d ve s s e ls ( a r t e ri os c l e ro s i s ) 2 . M e c ha n is m o f ac t i on a . G a r li c in h ib i ts p l at e le t f u nc t io n b y i nt e r fe r in g wi t h t h r om bo xa n e s yn th es i s . b . I t i nc r ea s e s t h e l e v el s o f t wo an t io xi d a n t e n z ym es in t he bl oo d : c at a las e a n d g l u ta t hi on e p e r o xi d as e . c . O r g an ic di s u l fi de s f o un d in ga r li c o il in ac t i v at e t h e t hi o l e n z y m es s uc h a s c o en zym e A ( Co A ) a n d hy d r o xy m e t h yl g lu t a r y l ( HM G ) C o A r e d uc ta se . 3 . E f f ic a c y a . I n a m et a - an al y s is of e i gh t s t ud i es e va l ua t in g t h e e f f ec t o n b lo o d p r es su r e , t h e o ve r a ll po o le d d i ff e r en c e i n c ha n ge of s ys t ol ic bl o o d p re ss u re wa s 7 . 7 m m H g lo we r wi t h g a r li c t ha n wi t h p la c e b o ; d ia s t o li c b lo o d p re s s u r e wa s 5 .0 m m Hg lo we r wi t h g a r li c ( S il a g y et al . ) . b . I n a m e ta - an a l ys is o f f i v e s t u di es e v al ua t in g th e ef f ec t o n to t al s e ru m c h ol es t e ro l , p a t ie n ts we r e e xc l u d ed if t h e y we r e re c ei v i ng li pid - l o we r i ng dr u gs (W ars ha f s k y e t a l . ) . Th e o v e ra ll p oo le d to t a l c h o le st e r ol di f fe r en c e b et we e n ga r li c a n d pl ac e bo wa s - 2 3 m g /d L ( -2 9 t o -1 7 ). 4 . C o n t ra i n di c at i o ns / p re c a u ti o ns a . C au t io n i n d i ab e te s . Ga r l ic m a y in c re as e t h e r el e as e o f i ns u li n o r en ha nc e th e r e s po ns e t o i ns u li n . b . C a ut i on in pr e gn a nc y ( e m m e na go g ue an d a b o rt i f ac ie n t ) a nd la ct a ti o n c . C au t io n i n p e pt ic ul c er d is e as e a nd ga st r o es op h a ge al r ef l u x d . D is co n ti n ue 2 we e k s b e f o re s u r ge r y P.728
5 . D r u g i n t e ra c t io n s a . A nt ic o ag u la n ts (i nc r eas e d b le e di ng ) b . P r ot e as e i nh i bi t or s (de c r ea s e d e f fi ca c y) c . N on n uc le os i de r e v e rs e t r an s c r ip t as e i nh ib i to r s, s u c h as ne vi r a pi ne , ef av i r e n z
d . I nc r ea s e s am p ho t e ri c in B ( Fu n gi z o n e) ac t i v it y a g ai n s t C ry p to c oc c us neo f o r m a ns e . A nt i h y pe r t en s i v e s ( h yp o t en s i o n) f . A n ti d ia be t ic ag en t s ( hy p o g l y c e m i a ) g . Ma y i n h i bi t t h e f ol l o win g c y t o ch r om e P4 50 is oe n z ym e s : 2 C9 , 2 C1 9 , 3 A4 , 2 D6 , and 2E1. h . C a ut i on s h ou ld be us e d wi t h c o nt r ac ep t i v e m ed i c a t i o ns , c y c lo sp o ri n e, d i l ti a z em , a n d ve ra pa m i l . 6 . S i de ef f e c ts . G as t ro in t es t in a l d isc om f o rt ( he ar t b u rn , fl a tu l en c e ) , s we at i n g, li g ht h e a de dn es s , a ll e rg ic r eac t io ns , an d m en o r rh a gi a 7 . D o sa g e. B et we e n 0 .6 a n d 1 . 2 g d r i ed po wd e r (2 - 5 m g o f a l li c i n ) d ai l y or 2 - 4 g f r e sh ga r li c 8 . C o mm e nt s a . A ll ii n as e ( t he en z y m e t h a t c on v e r ts al li i n t o a ll i c i n ) is in ac t i v at e d b y ac id s . E n t e ri c -c oa t ed t ab le t s o r c ap s u l es al lo w m o r e a bs o r pt i on be ca us e t h e y pa s s t h ro ug h t h e s t om ac h a nd r el ea s e t h ei r c o nt e nt s i n t h e a lk a l in e m ed i um o f th e s m al l i n t es ti n e. b . O d o rl es s g a rl ic pr e pa ra t i on s m a y n o t c o n ta i n th e ac ti ve c o m p o un ds . H . G i n g e r ( Z i ng i b e r o f f ic i n a le ) 1 . C o mm i ss i on E in d ic at i o n s . D ys pe ps i a a nd p ro p h y l a xi s o f s y m pt om s of t r a vel s ic kn e s s 2 . M e c ha n is m o f ac t i on a . G i ng e r p r om ot e s s a li v a a nd ga st r ic ju ic e s ec r et i o n, wh i ch in c re as es pe ri s ta ls is a n d t h e t on e o f th e i n te s t i n al m us c l e . b . I t a c t s o n 5 - h y d ro xy t r y p t a m i n e 3 (5 - H T 3 ) r ec ep t o rs in th e i l eu m , si m i lar t o o n d an s e t ro n . c . I t h as p o s i ti v e in o t ro p ic ac t i v it y . d . I t i nh i bi ts th r om b o xa ne s y n th es is as a p ro s ta c yc l i n a go ni s t. 3 . E f f ic a c y. A d o u bl e - bl in d s t ud y i nc lu d ed 36 bl in d f ol de d s u bj e c ts wi t h hig h s us c ep ti b il i t y to m o ti o n s i c k n es s wh o we r e g i ven g i ng e r 9 4 0 m g , di m e nh y d r i na t e 1 00 m g , o r p l ac eb o f o r th e p re v e n t io n o f m o ti on si ck ne s s in d uc ed b y a t il t ed ro t a ti n g c h ai r . G in ge r s u bj ec t s r em a in e d in t he c h ai r an av e r a g e o f 5 . 5 m i n , d im e nh y d r i na t e 3 . 5 m in , an d p la c e b o 1 .5 m in . Th e g in g e r g r ou p to o k l on g er t o f ee l s ic k , bu t on ce s ic k , t he s e ns a ti on s o f na u s e a a n d vo m i t in g p r o gr e s s e d a t t h e s a m e r at e in a ll g r o up s ( Mo wr e y e t a l. ) . 4 . C o n t ra i n di c at i o ns / p re c a u ti o ns a . B le e di ng di s o r d er s . D is c o n ti n ue 2 we e k s b ef o re su r g er y b . I t i s c o n t ra in d ic at e d fo r g al ls t on e p ai n . c . I t is r ec om m e nd e d b y t h e Am e ri c a n Co l le ge o f O b s t et r ic i an s a nd G y n ec o l og is t s ( A C O G ) f o r us e i n p r eg na n c y < 1 7 we e k s o f g es ta t i on wi t h th e f o ll o wi n g ca u t io ns : g i ng e r i s a ut e ri n e r e la x a n t i n l o w d os e s a nd a ut e r in e s t im ul a nt in hi gh do s es . d . D i ab e te s ( h y p og l y c e m i a ) e . H ea r t c o nd i ti on s 5 . D r u g i n t e ra c t io n s a . A nt i pl a te l et s a nd an t ic o a g ul an t s ( in c re as e d b lee d i n g ) a . D ia b et ic ag e nt s (h y p og l y c em ia ) a . C al ci um c h a nn el bl oc k e rs ( h y po t en s i o n )
6 . S i de ef f e c ts ar e d e rm a t i ti s , he a r tb u r n, an d d i ar r h e a. 7 . D o sa g e ( f o r t ra ve l s ic k n es s ) . D a il y d os e is 2- 4 g . Two 5 0 0 - m g c a ps u le s ta k e n 3 0 m i n b ef o r e t r a v el , t h en 1 - 2 m o r e c ap s u l es e ver y 4 h r a s n ee d ed . Th e 10 0 0 m g s t an d a rd i z ed e xt r a c t i s eq u i v al e nt t o: a . 1 t e as po on f r es h g ra te d r hi z o m e b . 2 d r op p e rs l i qu id e xt r a c t ( 2 m L ) c . 2 t e as po on s s y r u p ( 1 0 m L ) d . 8 o u nc es g i ng e r a le , m a de wi t h re a l g in ge r e . 4 c up s g in ge r t ea (m ad e b y s t ee pi n g 1 / 2 t ea spo o n g r a te d g in g e r f o r 5 -1 0 m i n i n h o t wa t e r ) P.729
I . G i n kg o ( G i nk g o b i lo ba ) 1 . C o mm i ss i on E in d ic at i o n s a . Tr e a tm en t fo r c e r eb r al c i rc ul a to r y d is tu r b an c e s r e s u l ti n g in r ed uc e d f unc t io n al c a pa ci t y a nd v i gi la nc e ( ve r t ig o , t i nn i tu s, we a k en ed m e m o r y , a nd m o od s wi n g s a cc o m p an i ed b y a n xi e t y ) b . Tr e a tm e nt of pe r i ph e ra l ar t e ri a l c i r cu la t o r y di s t u r b an ce s uc h a s i n te r m it t e n t c l au di c at io n 2 . M e c ha n is m o f ac t i on a . G i nk go c o nt a in s f la v o n o id s (q ue r c e t in , k a em pfe r o l, a nd i s or h am ne t in ) a n d t e r p en oi ds ( gi nk g ol id es A , B , an d C a nd bi lo b al id e ) . b . F la vo n oi ds pr o v i de the a nt i o xi d a nt ac ti v i t y , r ed u c e c a pi ll a r y f ra g il i t y , an d i n c re as e t h e t h re s h o ld of b l oo d l os s f r om c a pi ll a ri e s . c . G i nk go li d es an t ag on i ze p la t el e t- a c t i v a ti n g f ac to r ( P A F ), wh i c h i nd uc es p l a te le t a g g re g at i on , th e d eg r a nu l a ti on o f n eu t r op hi ls , and t he p ro d uc ti o n o f o xyg e n r a d ic al s . d . B il o ba li d e p r ot ec t s n er v e c el ls . 3 . E f f ic a c y a . I n a re v i e w o f th e c li nic a l a nd ph a rm ac ol o gi c a l s t ud i es o n g i nk go an d c er e b r al i n su f fi ci e nc y , ei gh t we r e f o u nd to be o f g oo d q u ali t y ( K l ei jn e n ). S e ven of th e t ri al s s h o we d p os i ti v e e ff ec t s o f gi nk g o c o m pa r ed to pla c eb o . S y m p to m s o f c e re b r al i n su f fi ci e nc y e v al u at e d we r e d i f fi c u l ti es of c o nc en t r a ti o n a nd m em o r y , a b se n tm in d ed ne s s , c o nfu s io n , l ac k o f e ne r g y , t i re d n es s , de c r e as ed ph ys ic a l p e r f or m a n c e , d e pr e s s io n, a n xi e t y, di z z i n es s , t in n it u s , a nd he ad a c h es . b . F o r in t e rm it t e nt c l au dic a ti o n, t he r e we r e 1 5 c on t r ol l ed t ri a ls , 2 o f acc ep t a bl e q u al i t y ( R it t le r et al . ) . ( 1 ) O n e s ho we d a n in c rea s e i n wa l k in g d is t an ce (B a u e r e t a l .) — g in kg o , 1 12 - 2 22 m ; p l ac e bo , 1 4 5- 1 76 m . ( 2 ) Th e ot h er de m on s t r a te d am el io r a ti o n o f p ai n at r es t ( Sa u d re au e t a l. ) . Th e u s e o f gi nk g o s h o we d a d ec re a s e on a 1 00 - m m v is u al a n al og sc al e f o r p a in f ro m 6 1 to 3 0 m m ( p la c e b o 5 1 t o 3 9 m m ) . c . A ra n do m i z e d , d ou b le- b l in d , p la c e b o -c on t ro l led s tu d y in c l ud e d 2 02 pa ti e n ts wi t h e i t he r Al z h e im e r d is ea s e o r m u lt i -i n fa r c t d em en t ia . Th e s e pa t ie n ts we r e gi v e n
g i nk g o 4 0 m g th r e e t im es da i l y o r pl ac e bo fo r 1 ye a r . G in k g o h ad a s ta t is ti c al l y s i gn i fi ca n t im p r o v em en t b y a t le as t t wo p o in t s o r b e t te r on th e Al z h e im e r D i s ea s e A s se s s m e n t S c a l e — Co gn i t i v e ( a 7 0 -p o in t s ub sc al e ) c o m p ar e d t o p la c eb o ( 5 0 % ve r s us 29 % ) . G i nk g o s h owe d s t a ti s t ic a ll y si g ni f ic a n t i m p r o v em e nt on t he G e r i a t ri c E va l u a ti on b y R el a ti v e ' s R a t i ng In s t ru m e n t ( 37 % ve r s us 23 % ) . Th e r e wa s n o d i f fe r e nc e b et we e n gi nk g o an d p l ac eb o o n t h e Cl i ni c a l G lo ba l Im p re s s io n o f C ha n ge s ca l e ( L e Ba rs e t a l. ) . 4 . C o n t ra i n di c at i o ns / p re c a u ti o ns . a . E pi l ep s y . G i nk g ot o xi n m a y c a us e n e ur o t o xi c it y a n d s ei zu r es . b . B le e di n g di s or d e rs . Dis c o n ti n ue 2 we e k s b ef o re su r g er y c . D ia b et e s ( h y po g l y c e m i a ) d . I nf e r ti li t y . C au t io n i n d i f fi c u l t y c o nc ei v i ng . 4 . D r u g i n t e ra c t io n s a . G i nk go m a y p ot e nt i ate t he bl e ed in g pr o pe r t ies o f a nt i pl a te le t s— t he r e i s a c a se r e p o rt o f s p o nt a ne o us h y p h em a (b le e di n g f r om t he i ri s i n to th e a n te r i or cha m be r ) f r o m g in k g o a n d as p i ri n. b . A m i no g l yc o s i de s ( i nc re a s e d o t ot o xi c i t y) c . Th i a z id e (i nc r ea s e s b lo o d p r es s u r e ) d . Tr a zo d on e ( De s y r el ) (c om a ) e . S ei z u r e t h r es ho ld lo we r i ng d ru gs . f . A n ti co n v u ls an ts g . A n ti di a be t ic d r u gs (h y p o gl y c em i a) h . G i nk go m a y m i l dl y a ffe c t t h e c y t oc h ro m e P 45 0 i so e n z ym es 1 A 2 , 2 C 19 , 2 C 9 , 2 D 6 , and 3A4. 5 . S i de ef f e c ts a . G as t r ic d is t u rb a nc es , h e a da c h e , d i z z i ne s s , a nd ve r t ig o b . To xi c i n ge s t i on m a y pr o d uc e t o ni c -c lo ni c s ei z ur e s a n d l oss o f c o ns c i o us n es s c . S po n ta n eo us bl e ed in g P.730
6 . D o sa g e. R ec om m e n de d do s e is 4 0 m g t h r ee tim es da i l y wi t h m ea ls fo r a t le as t 46 we e k s . S ta n da r di z e d pr e p a ra t io ns th a t c on t ai n 6 % te r p en e l ac t on es an d 2 4 % g i nk g o f la v o n e g l yc os i des a re r ec om m e nd e d. J . As i a n g i n se n g ( P a nax g i ns e ng , P . q u in q ue fo l i u s ) 1 . C o mm i ss i on E in d ic at i o n s . To n ic to c o m b a t fe e li n gs o f la ss it u de an d d e bi l it y , l a ck o f en e rg y , a nd ab il i ty t o c o nc e nt r a te , a n d d ur i n g c on v a le sc e nc e 2 . M e c ha n is m o f ac t i on a . A t l ea s t 2 8 ac t i v e i ng re d ie n ts , k no wn a s g i ns en o s i d es , h a v e b ee n i d ent i f ie d . b . G i ns en g e f f ec ts v a r y wi t h e xt r a c t de r i v a ti ve , dr yi n g m e th o d, do se , du r at i o n o f t r e a tm en t , a nd a nim a l s pe c ie s t ha t wa s s t ud i ed . E a c h g in s e n os id e p r od uc es d i f fe r e nt ph a rm ac ol o gi c al e ff e c t s o n t h e c e n t ra l ne r vo u s s y s t em , c a r di o vas c u l a r s ys t em , a nd o th e r b od y s y s t em s . D if f e re n t g in s en o s i d es a r e c ap a bl e o f pr o d uc in g b i ol o gi c a l e f fe c ts i n d i rec t op po si t io n wi t h t h os e p r o du c e d b y o t he r s . F or e xa m p l e ,
t h e g i ns en os i de R b 1 ha s b e e n s h o wn t o h a v e a s up p r es s i v e ef f ec t o n t h e c e n t r al n e r vo us s y s t em , wh e re as R g 1 p r od uc es a s ti m u lat o r y e f fe ct . 3 . E f f ic a c y a . A ra n do m i z e d , d ou b le- b l in d , p la c e b o -c on t ro l led , c r o s s o v e r s t u d y i n c l ude d 50 m a le s p o rt s t e ac he r s wh o p e rf o rm ed a t r e ad m i ll e xe r c i s e t es t . V o lu n te e rs r e c e i v e d 2 g i ns e ng c a ps ul es ( G e ri a tr i c Ph a rm a to n ) d ai l y fo r 6 we e k s o r p la c eb o . V olu n t ee r s u s ed en e rg y m o re ef f ic ien t l y an d h a d g r ea t e r e ndu r a nc e wh il e ta k i n g gi n s e n g ( P i e r al is i e t a l . ). b . A c as e -c o nt r ol l ed s t ud y i nc l ud in g 19 87 pa i rs e va l u at e d g in s e ng ' s ef f ec t on va r i o us hu m a n c an c e r s . I n d i v id ua ls wh o t oo k g ins e ng ha d a s i gn i fi ca n t de c r ea s e d r i sk fo r c a nc e r c om pa r ed wi t h n on i nt ak e rs . Th e re m a y be a d os e - re s p o ns e r e l at i on sh i p; as th e f r e qu e nc y a nd du r a ti o n o f g in s en g u s e in c re as e d, t he r is k o f c a nc e r d ec r ea s e d . A c c o rd i ng t o c a nc e r s i te , g i ns e n g s ig ni f ic a nt l y r ed uc ed t h e r is k o f ca nc e r o f t h e l ip , o r al c a v i t y , a n d p ha r y n x; e s op h a gu s ; s t om ac h ; c ol on a n d r e c tu m ; li v e r ; p a nc r ea s ; lu n g ; a nd o v a ri es . Th e re wa s n o ri s k r ed uc t io n f o r c an c e r s o f t he fe m a l e b re a s t , u t er i n e c er v i x, u r i n a r y b l ad de r , an d t h y r o id gl an d ( Yun e t a l. ) . 4 . C o n t ra i n di c at i o ns / p re c a u ti o ns a . P r eg n an c y a n d l ac ta t io n b . C h il d re n c . A v o id in pa t ie n ts wi t h h y p e r t en si on , em ot i on al /p s y c ho lo g ic al im ba la nc es , h e a da c h es , h e a rt pa l pi t at i o ns , i ns om ni a , a st hm a , i n fl am m a t io n , o r i n fe c ti on s wi t h h i gh f e v e r. d . C a ut i on s h ou ld be us e d in pa t ie n ts wi t h a hi s to r y o f b l ee d in g . D is c o n tin u e 2 we e k s be f or e s u rg e r y e . D ia b et e s ( h y po g l y c e m i a ) f . S ch i zo ph r en i a g . C a ut i on s h ou ld be us e d in pa t ie n ts wi t h a hi s to r y o f b r e as t c an c e r . G ins e ng m a y s t im ul a te b re as t c a nc er c e ll s . 5 . D r u g i n t e ra c t io n s a . G i ns en g m a y i n te r ac t wi t h p h en e l z in e ( N a r di l ) , p r o du ci ng ha l lu c i n at io ns an d p s yc ho s i s . b . G i ns en g m a y de c re as e t he I N R o f wa r f a ri n ( Co u m a d in ) . c . G i ns en g m a y i n te r ac t wi t h s t im ul an t s, in c l u di ng c a f f ei ne ( C a fc it ) . d . G i ns en g m a y in t er a c t wi t h h y p o gl y c em ic s , c a us i ng h ypo g l yc em i a. e . I t is un k n o wn wh e t h e r g i ns en g i n te r ac ts wi t h ho r m on al t he r ap y, a n t ih yp e r te ns i v es , o r c a rd i ac m e di c a t io ns . f . I t m a y i n hi b it c y t o c h r om e P4 5 0 2 D 6. C a ut i on s h o ul d b e us ed wi t h d r u gs t ha t a r e m e ta b ol i z e d v i a c y t oc h rom e P4 5 0 2 D 6, s u ch as am i t ri p t y li ne ( E la vi l ) a nd fl u o xe t i ne ( P r o za c ). g . I t m a y i n te r f er e wi t h im m u n os up p r es s a nt s . 6 . S i de ef f e c ts a . N e r vou s n e s s a n d e xc it a t io n f o r th e f i rs t 4 da ys b . I na bi l it y t o c on c e n t ra te wi t h lo n g -t e rm us e c . D i ff us e m am m a r y n odu l a ri t y a nd v a gi na l b l ee di n g m a y b e c a us ed b y g in s en g ' s e s t ro g en - li k e ef f ec t i n wo m en .
P.731
d . H yp e r te ns i on , e u ph o ria , r es tl es s ne s s , n e r v ou s n e ss , i ns om ni a , s k i n e r up t i on s, e d em a , a nd di a r rh e a h a ve b ee n re po r t ed wi t h lo ng - t e rm gi ns en g us e wi t h a n a ve r a ge do s e o f 3 g gi ns e n g ro o t d ai l y . e . Ma y i n c r ea s e th e Q T in t e r v a l. 7 . D o sa g e. 1 -2 g c ru d e h e r b d ai l y o r 1 00 - 30 0 m g g in se n g e xt r a c t t h re e ti m es d a il y . S t a n da r di z e d p r o du c t s th a t c on t ai n a t le as t 4 % -5% g in s e n os id es ar e re com m e n de d . K . S i b e r ia n g i ns e n g ( E le u t h e ro c oc c us se n t ic os u s ) 1 . C o mm i ss i on E in d ic at i o n s . To n ic fo r fa t ig u e, c o n v al es c e nc e , d ec r ea s e d wo r k c a pa ci t y , o r di f f ic ul t y in c o nc en t r at i on 2 . M e c ha n is m o f ac t i on. A n im al r es ea r ch s u gg es t s t ha t Si b e ri an gi ns e ng m a y s t im ul a te t he h y po t ha lam ic - p it ui t a r y - ad r en a l c ort e x. I t m a y b i nd to p ro g es t in , m i ne r al oc o r ti c o i d, an d g lu c oc o rt ic o id r ec ep t or s . 3 . E f f ic a c y a . A ra n do m i z e d , d ou b le- b l in d , p la c e b o -c on t ro l led s tu d y e v al u at e d 2 0 h igh l y t r ai n ed d i st a nc e r u nn e rs wh o r ec e i v ed E . s en t ic os us e xt r a c t 6 0 d r op s d ai l y fo r 6 we e k s or p l ac e bo . Su bj e c t s u nd e rwe n t a m a xi m a l t r e ad m i ll t e s t an d a 10 K r ac e. N o s ig n if ic a nt d i f fe r e nc e wa s ob s er v e d b e t we e n t r ea t m e n t a nd p l ac e bo fo r he a rt r a te , ox yg e n c o ns um p ti on , e xp i r ed m in u t e v o l um e, v e n ti la t o r y e q u i va l en t fo r o xy g e n , o r r e s pi r at o r y e xc h a ng e r a tio ( D o wl i n g e t a l. ) . b . A ra n do m i z e d , p la c e bo c o n t ro l le d p r os pe c ti v e s t ud y e v a l ua t ed 96 s u bj ec t s wi t h c h r on ic , u n e xp l ai n ed fa t ig u e wh o re c e i v e d s ta nd ar d i z e d E . s e nt ic os u s 2 000 m g da i l y f o r 2 m o n th s . N o s t at is t ic a ll y s i g ni f ic an t d i ff e r enc e wa s o bs e r v e d ( H a r t z e t al . ) . 4 . C o n t ra i n di c at i o ns / p re c a u ti o ns a . N o t r ec om m e n de d i n p a t ie n ts wi t h f e b ri le s t a te s , h y p e r to ni c c ri s i s , o r m y o c ar d ia l i n f ar c ti o n b . D i ab e te s ( h y p og l y c e m i a ) c . B le e di ng di s o r d er s . D is c o n ti n ue 2 we e k s b ef o re s u r g er y d . C a rd i o v as c u la r c o nd i tio n s : h yp er t en s i o n, t ac h yc a r d i a . e . H o rm on e -s e ns it i v e c on d i ti on s . f . P s ych ia t r ic c o nd i ti on s : s c h i z op h r en ia , m a ni a 5 . D r u g i n t e ra c t io n s a . S e ru m l e v el s o f d ig o xi n ( L an o xi n ) m a y i nc re a se wh e n t ak en wi t h Si b er ia n g i ns e ng . b . B a rb i tu r a te s . H e xo b a rb i t al an d Si be r ia n gi ns eng i n c r ea s e s l ee p l a te nc y a n d d u r a ti on . c . S ib e ri a n g in s e n g m a y i n c re as e t h e r is k o f h yp og l y c em ia wi t h d i ab e ti c ag e n ts d . S ib e r ia n g in s e n g m a y i n t er a c t wi t h a n ti c oa gu l an t s a nd an t ip l at e le ts . e . Th e o re t ic al l y , Si b er i an g in s e n g m a y i nt e r ac t wi t h s ti m ul an t s , s u c h as c a f f ei n e. f . Th e o r et ic a ll y , S ib e ri a n g i ns en g m a y i n te r ac t wi th a nt i h ype r t en si ve s g . Ma y i n h i bi t t h e f ol l o win g c y t o ch r om e P4 50 is oe n z ym e s : 1 A2 , 2 C 9 , 2 D 6, a nd 3 A4 . 6 . S i de ef f e c ts a . Mi l d , tr a ns ie n t d ia r r hea , an d i ns om n ia
b . S ib e r ia n g in s e n g m a y l o we r b lo o d g lu co s e . c . Ta c h yc a r di a , h y p er t e ns i on , p a lp i ta t io ns . 7 . D o sa g e. Two c a ps u les ( ea c h ca ps ul e c o nt ai n in g 40 0 -5 0 0 m g o f p o wd er e d ro o t ) t h r e e t im es d a il y f o r a tot a l o f 2 - 3 g da i l y . S o li d c o n c e n t ra t ed e xt r a c t s t a nd a r di z e d o n el eu t h er os i de s B an d E 3 0 0- 4 00 m g da il y a r e re c o m m e nd e d. R ec om m en d e d n ot t o us e l on g e r t ha n 3 we ek s . L . M i l k t h i st l e ( S i l yb u m m a r ia n u m) 1 . C o mm i ss i on E in d ic at i o n s . C h r on ic i n fl am m a to r y l i v e r c on di t io ns an d c i r rh os i s 2 . M e c ha n is m o f ac t i on a . Mi l k th is t le p ro du c e s a n t io xi d a n ts , s uc h a s s i ly b i n . b . I t s ti m u l at es th e a c ti v it y o f R N A po l y m e r as e A. c . I t a lt e rs th e o u t er li v er m em b ra ne ce ll s t r uc t u re . 3 . E f f ic a c y. I n a n e v a l uat i o n o f 1 3 t r ia ls f or t he ef f i c a c y o f m il k t h is tl e i n th e t r e a tm en t o f al c o h ol ic a nd / o r h e pa t it is B o r C v i rus li v e r di s e as es , m il k t h is t le ha d n o s i gn i fi c a n t e f fe c t on ov e r a l l m or t al i t y , c om pl ic a t i on s o f l i v e r d is ea s e , or l i v e r h i st o lo g y ( C oc h ra ne D a ta b as e o f S y st em a ti c Re vi e ws ) . Li ve r - r el a te d m o rta l i t y wa s s i gn i fi ca n tl y r e du c e d wi th m i lk t hi s t le P.732 wh e n a l l t r ia ls we r e e v alu a t ed bu t wa s n o t s i g ni f ic a nt l y r ed uc e d wh e n on ly h i g h q u al i t y t ri al s we r e e v a lua t e d. 4 . C o n t ra i n di c at i o ns / p re c a u ti o ns a . A v o id in p re gn a nc y . b . A ll e r g y t o c h r y s a n th em um s c . H o rm on e -s e ns it i v e c an c e rs 5 . D r u g i n t e ra c t io n s a . Mi l k th is t le m a y in h ib it c y t oc h ro m e P 45 0 2 C 9 a n d 3 A 4 . b . Mi l k th is t le do es no t in t e r ac t wi t h in d in a v i r ( Cri xi va n ) . 6 . S i de ef f e c ts in c l ud e di a r r he a a n d o th e r g as t r oin t es t in a l r e ac ti o ns (n a us e a , d ys p ep s i a , f la t ul e nc e ) an d al le r g ic re ac t io ns 7 . D o sa g e. R ec om m e n de d do s e of m i lk th is t le is 2 0 0 -4 00 m g / da y d i v id e d i n to th r e e d o se s u s i ng a s ta n da r di z e d p ro du c t t ha t i n cl ud es 7 0 % -8 0 % si l y m a r i n. M . Saw p a lm e t to ( S e re no a r e pe n s) 1 . C o mm i ss i on E in d ic at i o n s . Tr e a tm e nt of m i c tu r i ti o n d if f ic ul t ie s a ss oc ia t e d wi t h b e ni g n p r os ta t ic h y pe r pla s ia 2 . M e c ha n is m o f ac t i on a . S a w p al m e t t o i nh ib i ts d i h y d ro t es t os te r o ne to an d r og e n r ec e pt o rs in p ros t a te c e ll s. b . I t m a y i n hi bi t te s t os t er o n e -5 - α - r e du ct as e , t h e e n z ym e re s p o ns ib l e f o r th e c o n ve rs io n o f te s t os t e ron e to di h y d r ot es t os t er o ne . 3 . E f f ic a c y. A r a n d om i ze d , m ul t ic en t e r s tu d y e va l ua t ed 1 06 9 m en wi t h m o d e ra t e b e ni g n p r os ta t ic h y pe r pla s ia wh o r ec ei v e d s a w pa l m e t to 16 0 m g t wi c e d a il y o r f i n as te r i de 5 m g da il y f o r 6 m o n th s. Th e r e wa s n o s ig n if ic a nt di f fe r e nc e b et we e n s a w p a lm e tt o a n d f in as t er i d e ( P r os c a r ) fo r th e p a ti e n ts ' s e lf - r a te d q ua l it y - o f - li f e s co r e a n d t he I nt e rn a ti on a l Pr os t a te S ym p t om s c o r e ( C ar r a ro e t a l. ) .
4 . C o n t ra i n di c at i o ns / p re c a u ti o ns a . A v o id in p re gn a nc y b . A vo id in c h il d r en c . D is co n ti n ue 2 we e k s b e f o re s u r ge r y 5 . D r u g i n t e ra c t io n s a . Th e o re t ic al l y , s a w p a lm e t to m a y in t e ra c t wi t h a n t ic oa g ul an t s o r a n ti pl at e l et s . b . Th e o re t ic al l y , s a w p a lm e t to m a y in t e ra c t wi t h c o nt r ac e pt i v e d r u gs o r ho r m on e r e p la ce m e n t t h e ra p y . 6 . S i de ef f e c ts a . I nt r ao p e ra t i v e h em o rrh a g e b . H e ad ac h e c . S to m ac h u ps et d . A cu t e h ep a ti t is a n d pa n c re a ti t is 7 . D o sa g e. R ec om m e n de d 1 -2 g s a w p a lm e t to o r 3 2 0 m g o f li p op h il ic e xt r a c t d ai l y, u s ua ll y g i v e n 1 60 m g t wi c e d a il y a nd ta ke n wi t h fo o d . P r o du c t s s ta n da r di ze d to c o nt a in 90 % f r e e a nd 7% e s te r if i ed fa t t y ac id s a re r ec om m e n de d . N . S t . Jo h n 's w o r t ( Hy pe r i c um p e r fo r a t um ) 1 . C o mm i ss i on E in d ic at i o n s . I n s u p po r t i v e t r eat m en t fo r an xi e t y a n d d ep r e s s io n 2 . M e c ha n is m o f ac t i on a . A c t i ve i ng r e di en t s i nc lu d e h y p e ri c i n , p se u do h yp e r i c in , qu e rc et i n, qu e rc it r i n , i s oq u er c i t r in , h y p e r os id e, r u ti n , a m e n to f la v o ne , hy p e r i n , h y p e rf o ri n , a dh ype r f o ri n , a n d xa n t ho n es . b . H yp e ri c i n , f l a v on oi d s , a n d xa n t h o ne s s ho w i n v i t r o i rr e v e rs i bl e m on o am i ne o xi d a s e i n hi bi t o r ( MA O I ) t y p e A an d B ac t i v it y . c . S t . Jo h n 's wo r t m a y i nh i bi t s e r ot o ni n r e up t ak e. d . S t . J oh n 's wo r t m a y i nh i bi t s yn a pt ic γ - a m i no b uty r i c ac id ( G A B A ) u p ta k e a n d G A B A - r e c ep t or bi n di n g. P.733
e . I t m a y r e du c e c y to k i ne e xp r e s s i on , s uc h a s i nte r l eu k i n 6 . Th is m a y be h e lp f ul in d e p re ss io n b e c a us e i n ter l e uk in s m a y i n du ce de pr e s s i on . 3 . E f f ic a c y. A n e v a l u at ion o f 3 7 t r ia ls f or t he ef f ica c y o f S t . J oh n ' s wo r t i n t h e t r e a tm en t o f de p re s s io n s h o we d th e h e rb m a y b e m o re ef f ec t i v e t ha n p l ac e b o f o r m i ld to m o de r a te de p re s s i on ( C oc h ra ne D a ta b as e o f S y s t em at ic R e vi e ws ) . S t . J o hn ' s wo r t m a y be as eff e c ti v e as o t he r an t id e pre s s a nt s f o r m il d t o m od er a t e d e p re ss io n . St . J o hn ' s wo r t m a y n ot be ef f ec t i v e f o r m a jo r de p re ss io n . 4 . C o n t ra i n di c at i o ns / p re c a u ti o ns a . C au t io n i n fa i r -s k i nn ed p e rs on s wh e n e xp o s ed t o br i gh t s un l ig h t b . C a ut i on in pr e gn a nc y ( e m m e na go g ue an d a b o rt i f ac ie n t ) c . N o n e ga ti v e in f lu e nc e o n g e ne r al pe r f o rm an c e o r th e a b il i t y to dr i ve a c a r o r o p e ra t e h ea v y m a c h in e ry h a s b e en re p o rt e d. d . P s yc h ia t r ic c on d it i on s s uc h a s b ip ol a r , sc h i z oph r e ni a m a y be e xa c e rb a te d . e . H yp o th y r o id is m f . A n es th es i a. S t . J o h n 's wo r t m a y c a us e c a rd io v a sc u la r c o ll ap s e .
g . I nf e r ti li t y . S t . J o h n 's wo r t m a y i nh ib i t o oc y t e fe r t il i z a ti o n a nd al t e r s p er m D N A . 5 . D r u g i n t e ra c t io n s a . A nt i de p re s s a nt s s uc h a s p a r o xe t i ne ( Pa xi l ) , s er t r a li n e ( Z ol o ft ) , a n d n efa z o d o ne h a ve be e n r e po r te d to c a u s e s e r ot o ni n s y n d ro m e wh e n t ak en wi t h St . J oh n ' s wo r t . b . A n ti r et r o v i ra l (p r o te as e i nh ib i to r s a nd no n nu c le o s i d e r e ve rs e t r an s c r ip ta s e i n hi b it o rs ) le v e ls m a y dec r e as e. c . S t . Jo h n 's wo r t m a y de c r ea s e th e e f f ic ac y o f ba r b it u r at es . d . S t . J oh n 's wo r t m a y i nc r e as e t he e ff ic ac y o f c lo p id o g re l ( P l a vi x) . e . C yc lo s p o ri n e ( S a nd im m u ne ) le v e ls m a y de c re as e . f . S t . J oh n ' s wo r t m a y i nt e r ac t wi t h o t he r dr u gs m e t a bo li z e d th r ou g h t he c y t o c h ro m e P 4 5 0 i so en z y m e s 1 A 2, 2C 9 , an d 3A 4 . g . D i go xi n ( L an o xi n ) le v e l s m a y d ec r ea s e . h . I ri n ot e c a n ( C a m p t os a r) a n d im a ti ni b ( G le e vec ) l e ve ls m a y de c re as e . i . Me t h a d on e ( D o lo p hi n e) l e v el s m a y de cr e as e . j . S t . J oh n 's wo r t m a y d ec r e as e t he e ff ic ac y o f om e p ra zo le ( P r il os ec ) . k . O r a l c o n t ra c e p ti v e s m a y h a v e a d ec re a s e d e f fe c t . l . S t . J oh n 's wo r t m a y d ec r e as e t he e ff ic ac y o f HM G c o e n z ym e r e du c t as e i n hi bi t o rs . m . Ta c ro l im us ( P ro g ra f ) l e v e ls m a y de c re as e . n . Th e o ph y l li n e l e v el s m a y d ec r e as e. o . Th e o re t ic al l y , S t. J o hn ' s wo r t m a y i nt e ra c t wi t h t he t ri p ta ns . p . V e ra p am il ( C al an , C ov e r a - H S , Is op t in , V er e lan ) le v e l s m a y d ec r ea se . q . S t . J oh n 's wo r t m a y de c r ea s e th e I N R o f wa r f ar i n ( Co u m a di n ) . r . S e r ot o ne r gi c Ag en t s , s uc h a s d e xt r o m et h o rp ha n , fe n fl u ra m i n e, na r co t ic s . 6 . F oo d in t e r ac t i on s a . O l de r s t ud i es s ug g es te d th a t S t . J oh n ' s wo r t w a s a n MA O I ( S u z u ki e t a l. ) . b . N e we r s tu di es s u gg e s t S t . J oh n ' s wo r t i s a wea k MA O I ( Mu l l e r e t a l. ) . c . O n e c a s e r ep o r t p ub l is h ed of MA O - t y p e f o o d in t e r ac ti o ns s uc h a s t yr am i ne c o nt a in in g fo o ds : c he es es , be e r, wi n e , h e r ri n g, an d y e as t . 7 . S i de ef f e c ts a . P ho t od e rm a ti t is b . G a s t r oi n te s ti na l i r r it a ti o ns c . A ll e rg ic r ea c t i on s d . Ti r e dn es s e . R es t le s s ne s s f . E l e vat e d t h y r oi d -s t im ul a t in g h o rm on e g . E le va t ed bl o od p re s s ur e h . Ma n i a or h y po m a n ia i . Ma y c a u s e in f er t il i t y 8 . D o sa g e. R ec om m e n de d 2 -4 g d ai l y in t wo t o th r e e d i v id e d d os es . St a nd a r di ze d p r o du c ts c on t ai n in g 0 . 4 -2 . 7 m g h y p e ri c i n /d a y o r 0 . 3 % h y p e ri c i n a r e r ec om m e n de d . P.734
O . V a l e r ia n ( Va l e ri a na o f f i c in a l is ) 1 . C o mm i ss i on E in d ic at i o n s . R es t le s s ne s s an d n e r v o us d is t u rb a nc e o f s l ee p
2 . M e c ha n is m o f ac t i on a . S e ve ra l a c t i v e c om p ou n ds ha v e be e n is o la t ed f r om v a le r i an an d g r ou pe d in t o t h r e e ca t eg o ri e s : v o la t il e o i l, v a le p ot r ia t es , a n d a lk a lo id s . I t i s b el ie v e d tha t t he s e da t i ve a c t i v i t y o f v a le ri a n i s s e c o n da r y t o t h e v a l ep o t ri a te s . b . V al e po t r ia t es , v a l e ra no n e 6 , k es s a n e d er i va ti v e s 3 a - f, va le r e ni c ac i d 5a , an d va l e r en a l 5 b h a v e b ee n re p o r te d t o p r ol o ng ba r bi tu r a t e- i nd uc e d s l e ep in g tim e . c . V al e re n ic a c i d 5 a ha s b e e n s h o wn t o p os se s s p e n to b ar b it a l -l ik e c en t ra l d e p re ss a nt ac ti v i t y r a th er t h an m u sc le re l a xa n t o r n e u ro le p ti c e f fe c t s . I t ha s a ls o b e e n sh o wn t o i nh i bi t t he e n z y m e t ha t tr i gg e rs the b r ea k d o wn o f G A B A . d . V al t r at e a n d is o v a lt r a te h a v e e xh i b i te d a n ti d epr e s s a nt p ro p er t ie s . e . D id r o v a lt r a te po s s es s e s a t ra n qu i li zi ng ab i li t y s i m i la r to th e b e n zod i a ze p in e s. 3 . E f f ic a c y. A d o u bl e - bl in d , ra n do m i z e d s tu d y inc l ud e d ei g h t vo l un t ee rs s u f fe r in g f r o m m i l d i ns om ni a wh o r e c ei v e d val e ri a n a qu e ou s e xt r a c t 45 0 m g o r 9 0 0 m g o r p l ac e bo at be d ti m e . Va l er i a n 4 50 m g s i gn i fi c a n tl y i m p r o ve d s l e ep qu al i t y , s l ee p l a t en c y, a nd s l ee p de p th c om pa r e d t o p la c e b o. Th e 90 0 -m g d os e o f fe r e d n o a d va n ta g e o v e r t h e 4 50 -m g d os e (L e at h wo o d e t a l . ) . 4 . C o n t ra i n di c at i o ns / p re c a u ti o ns . a . C au t io n wh i le d ri v i ng o r p er f o rm in g o t he r ta s k s r eq u ir i ng al e r tn es s a nd c o o rd in a ti o n is r ec om m en d e d. b . P r eg n an c y a n d l ac t at io n . 5 . D r u g i n t e ra c t io n s. a . C N S de p re s s a nt s . V ale r i an m a y p ot e nt i at e t h e s e da t i ve e f fe c t o f b ar b it ur a t es , b e n zo di a z ep i ne s , o pi at es , al c o ho l , o r o t he r se dat i v e s . b . V al e r ia n i nh i bi ts c y to c h r o m e P 45 0 3 A 4 . 6 . S i de ef f e c ts a . H ea d ac he s , h an g o v er , e xc i t a bi l it y , in s om ni a , un e as i ne s s , a nd c a r di ac d i st u r ba nc es b . H e pa t ot o xi c i t y c . To xi c i t y i nc lu d es a t a xi a , de c re as e d s e n si bi li t y , h y p o th e rm i a, ha l lu ci na t io n s , an d i n c re as ed m u s c le r el a xa t i o n d . P a ti en t s m a y e xp e r i e nc e a be n zo di a ze pi n e- l ik e wi t h d r a wa l ; s o d os es s ho u ld be t a p e re d d o wn s l o wl y . 7 . D o sa g e. D r ie d ro o t: 2- 3 g p e r c up , o n e t o t h ree t im es da il y. S t an d ar d i ze d to c o nt a in 0. 8 % -1 % v al e rem ic ac id s /d os e e xt r a c t : 40 0 - 90 0 m g 3 0 -6 0 m in be fo r e b e d ti m e .
III. OTHER DIETARY SUPPLEMENTS THAT ARE POTENTIALLY SAFE A. C h o n d r o i t i n 1 . N o na p p r o ve d i n di c a ti o n s . V is c o e la s t ic ag e nt i n op h th al m i c p r oc ed u r es an d th e t r e a tm en t o f os te o a rt h ri t is 2 . M e c ha n is m o f ac t i on a . I t co n c e n tr a te s i n c a rti l ag e , wh e re i t ca n b e u se d in th e s y n t he s i s o f n ew c a r ti la g in o us m a tr i x.
b . I t i nc r ea s e s t h e R N A s y n t he si s o f c ho n d ro c yt es , wh i ch m a y in c re as e the s yn t he s i s o f p r o te o gl y c an s a n d c ol la g en s. c . I t m a y i nh i bi t l e uk oc y te e la s t as e a c ti vi t y . Le uk o c y t e e la s ta s e is fo un d in h ig h c o nc en t r at i on s i n t he bl oo d an d s y n o v ia l f l ui d o f p a t ie n ts wi t h r h eu m a t ic d i s e as es . 3 . E f f ic a c y. A m u l ti c e n ter , d ou b le - bl in d , ra nd om i ze d s t ud y i nc l u d ed 15 8 3 p a t ie n ts wi t h s ym pt om a ti c k ne e os t eo a r th r i ti s wh o r ec e i ved g lu c o sa m i n e 1 50 0 m g d a il y , c h on d ro i ti n 1 2 00 m g d a ily , b o t h g lu c o sa m i n e a nd c ho n d ro i ti n , ce l ec o xi b 20 0 m g d a il y , o r p la c eb o f o r 2 4 we e k s . G lu c o s a m i n e a nd c ho n d ro i ti n s ul f at e a l one o r i n c om b in a ti o n di d no t s ig nif i c a n tl y r e du c e pa i n. Th e c om bi n at i on m a y b e h elp f u l i n a s u bg r ou p o f pa t ie n ts wi th m o d e ra t e- t o -s e v e re kne e pa in ( C le g g e t a l .) . P.735
4 . C o n t ra i n di c at i o ns / p re c a u ti o ns a . P r e v io us h y pe r s e ns i tiv i t y t o c h on d r oi ti n s ul f a te b . B le e di n g di s or d e rs c . U se c a ut i on be c a us e c h on d ro i ti n i s u s u al l y p ro d uc e d f r om b o v i ne c a r til a ge ( p o ss ib le t ra n s m i s s i on of m ad c o w d i s e as e ) d . P r eg n an c y a n d l ac t at io n e . U se c a ut i on in as th m a 5 . D r u g i n t e ra c t io n s a . Ma y i n t e ra c t wi t h he pa r i n b . Th e o re t ic al l y , m a y in te r a c t wi t h wa r f a ri n ( Co um a di n ) 6 . S i de ef f e c ts . Na us e a, e p ig as t r ic p a in , a n d h ead a c h e 7 . D o sa g e. R ec om m e n de d : 4 0 0 m g t hr e e t im es da i l y B . C o e nz ym e Q 1 0 ( u b i qu i n o ne o r u b i de c a re n on e ) 1 . N o na p p r o ve d i n di c a ti o n s . H e a rt f ai lu r e ( H F ) , h yp e r t en s i on , s t ab l e a ngi n a , ve n t r ic u la r a r r h y t hm ia s , c a nc e r, he a r t s u r g e r y , an d pe r io d on t al di s e as e 2 . M e c ha n is m o f ac t i on a . I t is a n a tu r al l y oc c u r ri n g c oe n z ym e t h at ha s a p r e do m i na n t r o le in o xi da t i ve p h os p ho r y l at i on an d s y nt h es is o f a de no s i n e t r ip ho s p h a te ( A TP ) , wh i ch is n e e de d f o r m us c l e c o nt r ac t io n a nd re l a xa t i on . b . I t m a y h a v e a n ti o xi d an t p ro p er t ie s . c . I t h as b e en s h o wn t o re d uc e m y o c a r di a l in j u r y f r o m is ch e m i a a nd t o r edu c e t o xi c m yo c ar d ia l d am ag e f ro m a n th r ac yc li n es , s uc h as d o xo r u b ic i n ( A d ri am yc in ). 3 . E f f ic a c y a . H ea r t f a il u r e . O n e r an d om i z e d, do u bl e -b li n d , p l ac e bo -c o nt r o ll ed , m u lt ic e nt e r s t ud y i nc lu d ed 64 1 p a ti en t s wi t h N e w Yo r k H e a r t A s s o c i a ti o n c l as s I I I o r IV c h ro ni c c o ng es t i v e h ea r t fa il u r e wh o we r e r e c ei vi n g c o n ve n t io na l tr e a tm en t , su c h a s d i go xi n ( L a no xi n ) , d iu r e ti c s , a ng io t e ns in - c o n v e r ti ng en z ym e ( A C E ) i nh ib i to r s , an d c al ci um c h an n el bl oc k e r s ( Mo r i s c o e t a l. ) . Pa t ie n ts r ec ei ve d c o en z ym e Q 1 0 2 m g /k g / d a y fo r 1 ye a r o r p la c eb o . Th e num b e r o f p at i en ts r eq u i ri ng h os pi t al i z a ti on s e c o n da r y t o c o ng es t i v e HF wa s le s s in t he c o en z y m e Q 1 0 g r oup ( n = 73 ) v e rs us pl ac e bo ( n = 1 1 8 ) ; si g ni fi c an c e : p < . 00 1 . Ep is o de s o f p ul m o n ar y e d em a a n d ca r d ia c as t h m a we r e r e d uc ed wi t h c o en z y m e Q 1 0 ( p < . 00 1 ) .
b . S t ud ie s s ug g es t t ha t th e r e i s a 2 0 -5 0 % r e du ct io n in s e r um l e v e ls o f c oe n zy m e Q 1 0 i n h y p e rc ho l es te r ol em ic pa t ie n ts af t e r a s t at in h as b e en in i ti a te d . Th e r e d uc ti o n i n c o en z y m e Q 1 0 c o nc e ntr a t io n i s b el i e ved t o b e do s e r e la t ed . Ho we v e r , i t i s s t il l u n ce r t ai n h o w m uc h s ta t in s a f f ec t m us c l e c o e n zy m e Q 1 0 c o nc e nt r a ti o ns . Mu s c l e c o en zym e Q 1 0 m a y a f fe c t s ta t in - in d uc ed m yo p a thy ( N a wa r s k as ) . c . S e ve ra l s tu d ie s h a v e e v a l u at e d t he ef f ec t o f c o e n z y m e Q 1 0 s u pp l em en ta t i on in p a t ie n ts ta k i ng s t a ti ns . W hen c o e n z y m e Q 1 0 i s gi v e n 30 - 30 0 m g p e r d a y, c o en z y m e Q 1 0 s er um c o nc e nt r a ti ons s i gn i fi c a n tl y e le va t e . Ho we v e r , t h is el e v a ti on has no t be en e va l u at e d t o s e e wh e t her i t c o r re la t es to de c re asi n g s ta t in - r el a te d s id e e ff e c ts ( N a wa r s k as ) . 4 . C o n t ra i n di c at i o ns / p re c a u ti o ns a . B il ia r y o bs t ru c ti o n b . D i ab e te s m e l li t us (h y po g l y c e m i a ) c . H ep a ti c i ns u ff ic i en c y d . R e na l i ns u ff ic i en c y e . H yp e r a nd h y p ot e ns ion f . P r e gn an c y an d l ac t at io n 5 . D r u g i n t e ra c t io n s a . H yp ol i pi d em ic a g en ts l o we r p la s m a c on c e n t ra t io n s o f c oe n z ym e Q 1 0 . b . O r a l h y p og l y c e m i c a ge n ts po t en t ia l l y i n hi bi t eff e c ts o f e xo g en o us ad m in i st r a ti o n. c . D o xo r u b ic in to xi c i t y m a y b e i nc r e as ed . d . A n ti h y pe r t en s i v e s (a dd i t i v e e ff e c t ) e . W ar f a ri n . C o en z y m e Q 1 0 is s t r uc t u ra ll y r e la t ed t o v it am i n K 2 s o m a y ha ve c o ag u la n t e ff ec t s . P.736
6 . S i de ef f e c ts a . R as h a n d g as t ro in t es ti n al di s tu r ba nc es , s uc h as na us e a , a no r e xi a , e p iga s t ri c p a in , an d d ia r r h ea b . E le va t io ns o f s e r um am i no t r an s f e ra s es h a v e oc cu r r e d wi t h r el a ti v e l y hig h o ra l d o se s. 7 . D o sa g e. D ep e nd s o n in d ic a ti on : 10 0 m g d ai l y , u p to 30 0 0 m g da i l y i n 2 -3 d i v id ed d o se s. C . G l u c os a mi n e 1 . N o na p p r o ve d i n di c a ti o n . Os t eo a r th r i ti s 2 . M e c ha n is m o f ac t i on a . G l uc os am in e e n ha nc es c a r ti l ag e p r o te og l y c an s y n t he si s . b . I t i nh i bi ts th e d e t er i o ra t i on of ca r ti l ag e s ec on da r y t o o s te o ar t h ri t is . c . I t m a i nt a in s a n e qu i li br i u m b et we e n c a r ti l ag e ca t a bo li c a n d a na bo l ic p ro c es se s . d . I t m a y h a v e a n a n ti - i nf l am m a t o r y a c ti o n u nl ik e c y c lo o xy g e n a se . 3 . E f f ic a c y. A d o u bl e - bl in d t ri al in cl u de d 4 0 p a ti en t s wi t h u ni la t e ra l o s t e oa r t h ri t is of t h e k ne e . Pa t ie n ts we r e g i v e n g lu c os am in e 5 00 m g th r ee ti m e s d ai l y o r ib u p ro f en 4 0 0 m g t h re e t im e s d ai l y f o r 8 we e k s . Pa i n s c o res de c re as e d f as t e r d ur i ng t he fi r s t
2 we e k s i n t he ib u pr o fe n g r o up th a n i n t he gl uc osa m in e g r ou p . No s i gn i fi c a n t d i f fe r e nc e i n s we l li ng wa s ob s e r ve d b e t we e n t h e t wo g r o u ps ( Va z) . 4 . C o n t ra i n di c at i o ns / p re c a u ti o ns a . H yp e rs en s i t i v i t y to gl uc os a m i ne o r sh e ll f is h b . D i ab e te s . G l uc os am ine m a y i m p ai r in s u li n s ec re t i on . c . P r eg n an c y a n d l ac ta t io n d . A st hm a 5 . D r u g i n t e ra c t io n s a . Fl u o xe t i ne ( P ro z a c ) m a y i nc r e as e g lu co s a m i n e s e ru m c on ce n t ra ti o ns . b . G l uc os am in e m a y in t er a c t wi t h a nt id i ab e ti c a ge n ts . c . G l uc os am in e m a y i n du c e r es is t an ce t o a nt im i to t ic c h em o th e ra p y ( et o po s id e V e P e si d ), do xo r u b i c i n ) . d . Th e o re t ic al l y , gl uc os am i ne m a y in t e ra c t wi t h wa r f a ri n . 6 . S i de ef f e c ts a . G as t r oi n te s ti na l s id e e f f ec ts s u ch as e p ig as t r ic pa i n a nd te n de r ne s s , he a r t bu r n, d i a r rh e a, an d n a us ea b . C e nt r al ne r v o us s ys t em s i de e ff ec t s su c h as dr o ws i n es s , he a da c h e , a nd i ns om ni a c . Lo n g -t e rm s i de ef f ec ts a r e u nk n o wn . d . E le va t ed bl o od gl uc os e 7 . D o sa g e. R ec om m e n de d : 5 0 0 m g t hr e e t im es da i l y D . M el a t on i n 1 . O r p h an d r ug s ta t u s. Tr e a t m en t o f c i rc a di an rh yt h m s le ep di s or d e rs i n b l in d p e o pl e wh o h a v e n o l ig h t p e rc e pt i on 2 . N o na p p r o ve d i n di c a ti o n s . J e t la g , in s om ni a , d e p re s s io n , a n d ca nc e r 3 . M e c ha n is m o f ac t i on a . I t is a h o rm on e m ad e f r o m s e r o to n in an d s ec r et e d b y t h e p in ea l g l an d . Me l a t o n in c o nt r o ls t h e p e ri od s o f s le e pi n es s a nd wa k e fu ln es s . b . I t m a y p os s e s s an t io xi d a n t p r op e rt i es . 4 . E f f ic a c y a . Je t la g . A r a nd om i z ed, p la c e b o -c on t r ol le d t r i al e v a l ua t ed th e e f f ec t o f m e la t on in i n 52 ai r c r a f t p er s on ne l . Me l a t o n in wa s gi v e n e i the r 5 m g d ai l y 3 d a y s b efo r e d e p ar t u re un t il 5 d a y s a ft e r a rr i va l ( e ar l y g ro u p ) o r 5 m g d ai l y up o n a r ri v al a nd fo r 3 a d di t io n al da y s (l a te g rou p ) . Th e l at e g r o up ha d s i gn i fi c a n tl y l es s je t l a g , f e we r o ve r a ll s l ee p d is t u rb a nc e s , a nd a f as t e r r ec o v e r y o f en e rg y c om pa r ed t o th e pl ac e bo g r o up an d th e e a rl y g r oup ( P e t ri e e t a l .) . b . I ns o mn i a . A m e ta - a na l y s is o n 1 7 ra n do m i z e d , d o ub le - b li nd , pl ac eb o -c o n t r ol le d t r i al s t h at e v al u at e d t he s l ee p e f fe c t o f m el at o ni n i n s ub j ec ts s h o we d th a t m e la t on in s i gn i fi ca n tl y d ec r ea s e d t im e to s l ee p o ns e t, in c rea s ed s l ee p e f fi ci e nc y , and i n c re as ed t ot a l s l e ep P.737 d u r a ti on c o m p a re d to pl ac e bo ( B r ze z in sk i e t a l . ). U n f o r tu n at e l y, m el a to ni n p r e pa r a ti o ns we r e v a ri e d a n d s tu d y de si g ns d i ff e re d .
c . C h il d r e n. Me l a t on i n m a y be e ff ec t i v e i n d ec re a si n g t he ti m e t o sl e ep o n s e t i n c h il d re n wi t h n eu r o de v e lo p m e n ta l d is a bi li t ie s. Me l a t on in do e s n ot im p ro v e t o t al s l ee p t im e o r ni g ht t im e awa k e n i ng s ( P hi l li ps et al. ) . 5 . C o n t ra i n di c at i o ns / p re c a u ti o ns a . A v o id in p re gn a nc y a nd l ac ta t io n b . Me l a t o ni n m a y a g gr a v a t e d e p re s s i v e s ym p t om s . c . Me l a t on i n m a y i nc r eas e th e i nc id e nc e o f s ei z ur e s . d . D i ab e te s ( h y p er g l y c em i a ) e . H yp e r te ns io n (e xa c e rb a t ed ) f . C a u ti on wh i l e d ri v i n g o r p er f o rm in g o t he r ta s k s r eq u ir i ng al e r tn es s a nd c o o rd in a ti o n. 6 . D r u g i n t e ra c t io n s a . V it am i n B 1 2 i n fl ue nc es m el a to n in s ec r e ti o n. Low l e ve l s o f vi ta m i n B 1 2 wi l l p r od uc e l o w l e ve ls of m e la t on i n. b . MA O I s m a y in c re as e m e la t on in s e r um c o nc en tr a t io n s . c . S el ec t i v e s er o to n in r eu p t ak e i nh i bi to r s m a y i nc r e a s e m e la t on in se r um c o nc en t r at i on s . d . β - B lo c k e rs m a y de c rea s e n oc t ur n al s ec r e ti o n o f m e l a t on i n. e . O t he r s e da t i v es m a y e xa c e r b a te th e s ed a ti v e e f f ec ts o f m e l at o ni n. f . Me l a t o ni n m a y i n te r ac t wi t h i m m un os u pp r es s a nt s . g . A n ti di a be t ic a g en ts m a y b e l es s e f fe c ti ve . h . A n ti c o ag u la n ts an d a nt i p la t el e ts (i nc r ea s e d e f fe c t ) i . C a ff e in e (t h eo r e ti c a ll y , e f fi c ac y o f m e l at o ni n m a y b e d e c r e as ed ) j . C o nt r ac e pt i v es ( th e o ret i c a l l y , e f fi ca c y o f m e la to n in m a y b e i nc r ea se d ) k . V e ra p am i l (i nc r e as ed m e la t on in e xc r e t io n ) 7 . S i de ef f e c ts a . S id e e f fe c ts i nc l ud e dr o ws i n es s , da y t i m e fa t igu e , h e ad ac h e, an d tr a ns ie n t d e p re ss io n . b . L on g -t e rm s i de e ff ec ts a re un k n o wn . 8 . D o sa g e. 0. 3 - 5 m g a t b e d ti m e P.738
STUDY QUESTIONS D i r e c t i on s fo r q ue s t io ns : E a c h o f th e q ue s ti on s , s ta t em en t s , o r i nc om ple t e s t a te m e n ts c an be c o r r ec t l y an s we r ed o r c om pl e te d b y on e o f th e s ug g es te d a n s we r s o r p h r as es . Ch oo s e t he b es t a n s we r . 1 . W hi c h o f th e fo l l ow in g h e rb s is kn ow n to ca u s e c an c e r? ( A ) c ha pa r r al ( B ) c om f re y ( C ) Ma h u a n g ( D ) l ic o ri c e ( E ) S t . J oh n ' s wo r t
V i e w A n s we r 1 . T h e a n sw e r i s B [ se e] . 2 . W h ic h o f t h e f o l low i n g i s a c o r r e c t s t a te me n t ? ( A ) D i e ta r y s u p pl em en t s m us t be p ro v e n s af e a n d e f f ec ti ve be f o re m a rk e tin g in th e U n i t ed S ta t es . ( B ) Th e f ol lo wi n g s t a te m e n t i s o p ti on a l f o r l ab el i ng o f h e rb a l p ro d uc ts : “ Thi s p r o du ct h a s n ot be e n e v a lu a te d b y t h e F D A . It is no t i n ten d e d t o d ia g no s e , t r e at , c u r e, o r p r e ve n t. ” ( C ) H e r bs m us t be s t an da r d i z ed t o b e c o ns i de r ed d i et a r y s u pp l em en ts . ( D ) D i e ta r y s u p pl em e nt m a nu f ac tu r e rs m a y c l a im t h a t t he i r p r od uc t s a ff e c t t h e s t r uc t ur e a n d f un c ti on o f t h e h um an bo d y . V i e w A n s we r 2 . T h e a n sw e r i s D [ se e] . 3 . T o m w o u l d l i ke t o t r y e c h i n a ce a t o p r e ve n t c o ld s a n d f lu s d u ri n g th e w in t e r mo n t h s. W hi c h o f t he f ol low in g s t a t em e n ts is t r ue a bou t e ch i n ac ea ? ( A ) I t i s c on t ra i nd ic a te d in p at i en ts al l e rg ic to pa rs l e y. ( B ) I t s ho u ld be ta k e n c on t i nu ou sl y o n l y f o r 3 m on t hs . ( C ) I t i s c on t r ai nd ic a te d in p at i en ts wi t h lu pu s a nd l eu k o s i s. ( D ) P r o lo n ge d u s e of ec h i na c ea wi l l u p re g ul a te th e im m u ne s y s t em . ( E ) S i de ef f ec ts in c l u de h e a da c h e , r as h , a nd di z z i n e s s . V i e w A n s we r 3 . T h e a n sw e r i s C [ se e] . 4 . M a r y h a s a f a mi l y h i s t o r y o f h e a r t d i s ea s e a n d w o n de r s if g a r l ic w o u ld be b en e f ic i a l t o he r . Wh i ch o f t he f o l l ow i ng s ta t em e n ts is c o r r e ct a bo u t g a r l ic ? ( A ) E n te r ic - c o a te d t a bl e ts r el e as e t he i r c on t en ts in t he st om ac h . ( B ) S i de ef f ec ts in c l u de h e a r tb u rn , fl a tu le nc e , a nd s we a ti n g . ( C ) Th e s a f e t y o f ga r li c in p r eg na nc y i s u nk no wn . ( D ) G a r l ic d o es n o t i n te ra c t wi t h wa r f a r in . V i e w A n s we r 4 . T h e a n sw e r i s B [ se e] . 5 . An 80 -ye a r - o l d m a n t a ke s w a rf a r i n f o r h i s m ec h an i ca l he a rt va l ve . H e w o ul d al s o li k e to t ak e th e fo l l ow ing h e r bs : As i a n g i ns e n g, f e ve r few , ga r l ic , an d d o n g q u ai . W hi c h o f t he t he s e he r b s m a y d e c r ea s e t h e e f fe c t i ve ne s s o f w a r f a ri n ? ( A ) A si a n g in s e n g ( B ) f e ve r fe w ( C ) m et r o ni da z o l e ( D ) g a rl ic ( E ) d on g q u ai V i e w A n s we r 5 . T h e a n sw e r i s A [ se e] . 6 . A 3 0 - ye a r - o ld f em a le i s 1 0 w ee k s p r e g n an t w i t h h e r s ec on d c hi l d . D u r i ng h e r f i rs t p r eg n a nc y, s h e be c am e d e p r es s ed a nd w a s s t ar t e d o n P r o z a c 2 0 m g eve r y d a y. S h e i s a l r ea dy b e g i nn i n g t o n o t ic e e a rl y s ym p t o m s o f d e p r ess i o n d u r i ng h e r s ec o nd p r e g n an c y. S h e w o u ld li k e to t r y S t . J o h n' s w or t f o r h e r d e p re s si o n . W h i c h o f t h e f ol l ow i ng s ta t em e n ts i s c o r r ec t r eg a r d in g S t . J oh n ' s w o r t ? ( A ) Th e s a f et y o f St . J o hn ' s wo r t in p re g na nc y is u n kn o wn . ( B ) S t . J oh n ' s wo r t i s n ot h e lp f ul in t re a ti ng m i ld d e p re s s io n . ( C ) S t . J o hn ' s wo r t m a y in t e r ac t wi t h se r o to ni n reu p t ak e i nh i bi to r s . ( D ) S t . J o hn ' s wo r t m a y in t e r ac t wi t h d ai r y p ro d uc t s li k e m il k a n d e gg s .
V i e w A n s we r 6 . T h e a n sw e r i s C [ se e] . 7 . A 6 5 - ye a r - o ld i s i n te r e s te d in t a k i ng g in k go . Wh i c h of t h e fo l l ow in g s t a te m en t s is c o r re c t re g a r di ng g i nk g o ? ( A ) Th e r e a r e n o c on t r ain d ic a ti on s wi t h g in k g o . ( B ) Th e r e i s a dr u g -h e rb i n t er a c t i on be t we e n g in k g o an d a s p i ri n . ( C ) To xi c e f f ec t s i nc lu de h y p e r te ns i on an d c a rd iac a r re s t . ( D ) Th e r e i s a d ru g -h e r b i n t er a c t i on be t we e n g in k g o an d p h en el z i n e. ( E ) G i nk g o is c o n tr a in d ic a t e d i n p at i en ts wi t h ga ll s t on e p a in . V i e w A n s we r 7 . T h e a n sw e r i s B [ se e] . P . 73 9
8 . A 2 0 - ye a r - o l d a t h l e tic m an w o u ld l ik e to t ake As i a n an d S ib e r ia n gin s e ng t o i n c r ea s e h i s p h ys i c a l st a m i na . H is gi r l f r i en d su g g es t e d t h a t h e a sk a p h a r ma c is t ab o u t t h e sa f e t y o f As i a n a n d S i ber i a n gi n se n g . W h ic h of t h e f o l l ow i ng s ta t em e n ts is c o r r e ct ? ( A ) S i be r ia n g i ns en g m ay i n t e ra c t wi t h ph e ne l z ine , wa r f a r in , a n d d ig o xi n . ( B ) A si a n g in s e n g is po te n t ia ll y h a rm f ul i n p a ti e nt s wi t h a u to im m u n e d is ea s es . ( C ) A s ia n a nd S ib e r ia n gi n s e n g a re t he s am e g i ns e ng bu t g r o wn i n d if f e ren t c o un t r ie s . ( D ) A s ia n a nd S ib e r ia n gi n s e n g s h o ul d b e a v o id ed i n p at i en ts wi t h h ype r te n si o n. V i e w A n s we r 8 . T h e a n sw e r i s D [ se e] . P . 74 0
ANSWERS AND EXPLANATIONS 1 . T he an sw e r is B [ s ee I . B . 1] . C o m f re y m a y b e c a rc in og e ni c . C h ap a r ra l m a y be h e pa t ot o xi c . H ig h d os es o f l ic o r ic e f o r lo n g p er i od s m a y c aus e p s e u do a ld os t e ro ni sm . Ma h u a n g m a y c au s e m y o c a r di al i n f ar c ti o n, s t r ok es , o r s ei z u r e s . S t . J o h n 's wo r t ha s m an y d r ug in t e ra c t i ons . 2 . T he an sw e r is D [ s ee I . A . 3] . Th e D i e ta r y S u pp l em en t H e a l th an d Ed uc a ti o n A c t o f 1 9 94 s t a te s t ha t d i eta r y s u pp l em en ts a re no t c ons i de r ed d ru gs o r f oo d . Sin c e d ie t a r y s up p le m e n ts a r e n o t r e g ul a te d a s d r ug s , t he i r s a fe t y an d e f f ic ac y a re n o t m an d at e d b y t he F DA . D i e ta r y s u pp l em en ts a re in t en d ed t o s up pl em e nt t he di e t, d o n o t h a ve t o b e s t an da r d i z ed , m a y m a k e c l ai m s re g a rd in g on l y th e e f f ec ts on s t ru c tu r e o r fu nc t io n o f th e b o d y. Th e f o l lo wi n g i s t h e c o r r ec t re q ui r e d l ab el i ng s t a te m en t : “ Th is pr o du c t h as n o t b e en e va l u at e d b y th e F D A. I t i s n o t i nt e nd e d t o d ia g nos e , t r ea t , c u re , o r p re v e nt . ” 3 . T he an sw e r is C [ s ee I I . E .4 ] . E c h in ac e a is c o nt r a in di c a t e d i n i nf ec t io us an d a ut o im m u n e d is ea se s s uc h a s t u b e rc ul os is , l e uk os is , c o l la g en os is , m ul t ip l e s c le r o si s, A I D S , H I V , a n d lu p us . C a u t io n s ho u ld be us ed in p at i en ts wh o a re al l e rgi c to m em b er s o f th e r a gwe e d f a m i l y. Th e ra p y s h o ul d no t e xc e e d 8 we ek s . Th e or e t ic al l y , p ro lo n ge d u s e o f e c hi n ac ea m a y de p r es s th e im m u ne s y s t em , p os s i b l y th r o ug h o v e r s t im ul at i o n. S id e e f f ec ts in c l u de na us e a, vo m it i ng , a l le r gi c r e ac ti o ns , an ap h yl a xi s , a n d i nt e rf e r e nc e wi t h m al e fe r ti l it y . 4 . T he an sw e r is B [ s ee I I . G . 4] .
G a r l ic s h ou l d b e a v o id e d i n p r e gn an c y be c a us e i t i s a n e m m en ag o gu e a n d a b o r ti f ac ie n t. I t m a y i nt er a c t wi t h a nt ic o ag ul a nt s , i nc r e as in g t h e r is k o f b le e di n g. S i d e e f fe c t s i nc l ud e g as tr o i nt e s t i na l d is c o m f o r t ( he a r t bu r n, f la t ul en c e ) , s we a t in g , l i gh t he a de d ne s s , a ll e r gic r ea c ti on s , a nd m e no r r ha g i a . E nt e ri c -c oa t ed t ab le t s o r c a ps ul es al l o w m o r e a bs o r p ti o n b ec au s e t he y p as s t h r ou gh t he s t om ac h a n d re le as e t h e ir co n te n ts i n th e a lk al i ne m e di um o f t he s m al l i n te s ti ne . 5 . T he an sw e r is A [ s ee I I .J . 5 ]. A s i an gi ns en g m a y de c re a s e th e I N R o f wa r f a ri n. F e v e r fe w, g a r li c , an d do n g q u ai m a y in c re as e th e I N R o f wa r f a r i n . Me t r o ni da z o l e m a y in c re as e th e I N R , bu t it is no t c o ns id e re d to be an he r b. 6 . T he an sw e r is C [ s ee I I . N .4 ] . S t . Jo h n 's wo r t is i n di c a te d in b y C om m is s i o n E fo r d ep r es s i on an d a n xi e ty . S t . J o hn ' s wo r t s h ou ld be a vo i de d i n p r e gn a nc y be c au s e i t i s a n em m e n ag o gue a nd a b o r ti f ac ie n t. S t . J o h n 's wo r t i n t e ra c t s wi t h m a n y m e di c a t io ns , i nc l ud i ng s e r o t on in r e u p ta ke in hi b it o rs . Fo od i n te r ac t io ns m a y b e s i m il a r to th os e o f th e MA O I s ( t yr a m in e -c on t ai n in g f o od s : c he es e , b ee r , wi n e, h e r r in g , a nd ye as t ) . 7 . T he an sw e r is B [ s ee I I . I .5 ] . C o n t r ai nd ic a ti o ns an d p re c au t io ns fo r gi nk g o i nc lu d e d ia b e te s , ep i le ps y, b l ee d in g d i so r de r s , a nd i n fe r t il i t y . G i n k g o m a y po t en ti a t e th e bl ee d in g p r o pe r ti es of a n t ip la t el e ts . Si d e e ff ec ts in c l u de ga s t r ic di s tu r ba n c e s, h ea da c h e , d i z z i ne s s , an d ve r t i g o. To xi c i ng es t io n m a y p ro d uc e t on ic - c l o ni c s ei z u r es an d l os s o f c o ns ci ou s n es s . 8 . T he an sw e r is D [ s ee I I .J . 4 ; I I . K. 4 ]. A s i an gi ns en g ' s c on t r ai nd i c a t io ns in c l u de pa t ie n ts wi t h h y pe r t en si on . As ia n gi ns e ng m a y in t e ra c t wi t h ph e ne lz i n e , p r o du c i ng ha l lu ci na t i on s a nd ps y c ho s i s ; m a y d ec r e as e t h e I N R o f wa r f ar i n; an d m a y in t e rf e r e wi t h im m un o s u p pr e s s an ts . Si b e ri an g in se n g 's c o nt r a in di c a t io ns / p re c a ut i o ns i nc l ud e h yp e r te ns ion . I t m a y i n te r ac t wi t h a n t ic oa g ul an t s a nd an t ihy p e r t e ns i ves a n d m a y i nh i bi t c y t o ch r om e P 4 50 is o e n zy m es . A s i an an d Si be r i an gi ns en g a re no t t h e s am e p la nt a nd a re no t o f th e s am e g en us .
36 Clinical Pharmacokinetics and Therapeutic Drug Monitoring G e r a l d E . S c hu m ac h e r
I. INTRODUCTION A. O b j e c t i ve s 1 . T he r a pe u t ic d r ug m on i t o r i ng ( TD M) i n a g ene r a l s en se is a b ou t u s i ng s e r um d r u g c o nc e nt r a ti on s ( S D Cs ) , p h ar m a c ok ine t ic s , a nd p h a rm ac o d y na m i c s to i nd i v i du a li ze an d o p ti m i z e p a t i e n t r es p on se s t o d r ug t h e r ap y. 2 . T DM ai m s to p ro m o t e o p t im um d r u g t r ea tm e nt b y m ai n ta i ni ng S D C wi t hi n a t h e ra p eu t i c ra n ge , abo v e wh i c h d r ug - in d uc ed t o xi c i t y oc c u r s t o o o ft e n a n d b el o w wh i c h th e d r ug is t oo of t en in e ff ec t i v e . B . D e f i ni t i o ns 1 . S pe ci f ic al l y , T DM i s a p r ac t ic e a pp l ie d t o a s m a l l g r ou p o f dr u gs i n wh ic h t h e r e is a d i re c t r el a ti on b e t we e n S D Cs an d p h arm ac o lo g ic al re sp o ns e , as we l l a s a n a r r o w r a ng e of c on c e n t ra ti o ns th a t a r e e f f ec ti v e an d s a fe an d fo r wh i c h S D C s a r e us e d i n c o nj u nc ti o n wi t h ot h e r m e a s u r es of c l in ic a l o b se r v a t io n t o a s s es s p at i e nt s t a tu s. 2 . C l in i ca l ph a r ma c ok i ne t i c s, a t e rm of t en us ed i n t er c ha ng e ab l y wi t h TD M, i s m or e g e ne r al l y th e ap pl ic a ti o n o f p h ar m ac ok i ne t ic p r i nc ip le s f o r th e r a t io n al de s i g n o f a n i nd iv i d u al i z e d d os ag e re g im e n . 3 . F or de f in i ti o ns o f th e te r m s us ed an d th e c on ce p ts ap p li c a b le i n ba si c a n d c li ni c a l p h a rm ac ok ine t ic s , se e Ch a pt e r 6 on p h a rm ac ok i ne ti cs . C . R a t i on a le a nd r ea s on s 1 . T he r a ti o na l e f o r TDM m a k e s t h re e a s s um p tio n s . a . Me a s u ri n g p at i en t S DC p r o v i de s a n o pp o r tu ni ty t o a dj us t f o r v a ri a ti o ns i n p a t ie n t p ha r m a c o k i n et ic s b y i nd i v i du al i z i ng d ru g d o s a g e. b . Th e S D C i s a be t te r pr e d ic t or o f p at i en t re s p on s e t ha n i s d os e . c . Th e r e is a g oo d re l at io n be t we e n S D Cs an d ph a r m a c o lo g ic al r es po ns e. 2 . R ea s o ns f o r m ea s u r in g S D C a . D r ug le v e ls a re us ed in c o n ju nc t io n wi t h o t he r c l i n ic al da t a t o a s s is t p r a ct i ti o ne rs in de t e rm in in g ho w a p a ti en t i s re s po n di n g. b . D r ug le v e l s p ro v i d e a b a s i s f o r i n di vi d u a li z in g p a ti e nt do s a g e r e gi m e ns . c . D r ug le v e ls as s i s t in de t e rm i ni ng if a c ha n ge in p a t ie n t - sp e ci f i c p h a rm ac ok i ne ti c s ha s o c c u r re d d u r in g a c o u rs e of t r ea t m e n t, ei t he r as a r e s ul t o f a c h a ng e i n p h ys i ol og ic a l s ta t e, a c ha nge i n d ie t , o r a d di t io n o f o t h e r d ru g s . d . A ss u ri ng d r ug c om p lia n c e is o ft e n c i t ed as a r e a s o n f o r m ea s u r in g S DC , b u t i t i s u n re l ia bl e fo r th is pu r p os e. I n t r ut h , a non c om pl i an t p a ti e nt m a y o u t wi t p ra c ti ti o ne r s b y m a n ip u la t in g p r ea p po i nt m e n t b e ha vi o r t o i n du c e an S D C t h a t is no n r ef l ec ti v e o f th e p a ti e nt ' s d r ug - t ak i n g b eh a vi o r. P.742
II. APPLYING CLINICAL PHARMACOKINETICS IN TDM A. W h a t t h e p r ac t i t io n er c o n t r ol s a n d d o es n o t c o n t r ol i n T D M 1 . Fi g u re 36 - 1 s ho ws t h e r e la t io n b e t we e n d os e ra t e o f dr u g a dm in is t e re d, p h a rm ac ok i ne ti c v a ri ab l es , S D C , a nd ph a rm ac o log i ca l r e sp on s e . 2 . N o te th a t t h e o nl y v a r ia b le s t h at t he pr a c t i ti on er c on t r ol s a r e t he am ou nt o f d ru g a dm i ni s t e re d a n d h o w o f t en it is gi v e n . Th e s e va r i ab le s m a y b e m a ni p ul at e d t o c om pe ns a t e fo r th e p a ti en t ' s p h arm ac o k i ne t ic a n d p h a rm ac o d y na m i c v a r ia bl e s ( i .e . , b io a va il ab i li t y, c l ea r an ce , s t ea d y- s ta t e S D C , p h ar m a c o l og ic a l r es p on s e ) , wh ic h th e p r ac ti t i o n e r d oe s n o t c o n t ro l , t o a c hi e v e s om e d es ig n at ed S D C t ha t yie l ds a ph a rm ac o l o g ic al re s p o ns e u s ua ll y o bs e r v e d wi t h i n th e d ru g 's c o m m on l y ac ce p t e d th e r ap eu t ic S D C r a n ge . B . T h e c o nc e pt o f t h e r ap e u t ic r a ng e 1 . F or m a n y d ru gs , a s pe c if ic s e r um c o nc en t r at io n r an ge c a n b e d es i gn at e d f o r ea ch d ru g t h at m a xi m i z e s e f f ec ti v e n ess a nd m i n im i zes to xi c i t y. Th e r a n ge o f S D C is c a ll ed th e t he r a pe u t ic r a ng e for t h e d r ug . 2 . Th e no ti o n o f a th e r ape u t ic ra n ge is m o re a p ro b a b il i s ti c c o nc e p t t h an a n ab so l ut e e n ti t y . It is pr o b ab l e t ha t th e m aj o ri t y o f pa ti e n ts wi l l s h o w e f f ec t i v e a nd s a fe r es pon s es wi t hi n th e t h e ra pe ut i c r a ng e . H o we v e r , a m i no r it y o f p a ti e nt s wi ll n e e d S D C ab o v e o r be l ow t h e u p pe r o r lo we r l im it s , r e s pe c t i v e l y , o f t h e t he r ap e u ti c r a ng e t o a ch i e v e a n ef f ec t i v e r es p on se . S i m il a rl y , a m i n o ri t y o f pa t i en ts wi l l n o t s ho w t o xi c i t y at S D C m o de s t l y a b o ve t h e t he r a pe u ti c r an g e , wh e r e as ot h e rs wi l l s h o w t o xi c i t y b e lo w t h e t h e r ap eu t ic ra n ge . 3 . Th e r ef o r e, TD M i s a bo u t in d i vi d ua l iz i ng pa t ie n t d os a ge r eg im e ns t o a c hi e v e S D C wi t hi n p a tie n t -s p ec if ic th e r ap e ut ic ra n g es f o r a d ru g . Mo r e o f t en t ha n n o t, a p a ti en t -s p ec if ic r an g e wi l l fa l l wi t h i n t he ge n e ra ll y s ta t ed t h e r ap eu t ic ra n ge . C . T h e c o nc e pt o f p o p ul a t i o n p ha r m ac o ki n e ti c va l u e s 1 . A p o p u la t i on p ha r m ac o k in e t ic va l u e o r pa r am e t e r re f er s t o th e m ean ( a v e r a ge ) v a lu e n o te d f or a gi v e n c oh o r t o f p eo p le ( e .g . , a du l ts 20 - 60 y e ar s o f ag e , p a ti en t s wi t h a de f i ne d ra ng e o f re n al im p a i rm en t ) . Us ua ll y , t hi s p o p ul at i on v a lu e i s n o rm a l i z ed on a we i gh t b as is ( e . g ., t he op h y l li n e v o l um e o f di s tr i bu t io n i n a du l t no r m al s o f 0 .5 L /k g ). W hen a p o pu l at io n pa r am et er i s s t a te d wi t ho u t d ef i ni ng th e ta r g et po p ul a ti on , it us u al l y r ef e rs to ad u lt s ; f u r t he r , wh e n t he v a lu e al s o is no t no rm a li ze d (e .g . , vo lu m e of di s t r i bu t io n o f t he op h y l li ne o f 3 5 L ) , i t us ua l l y re f e rs t o ad ul t s o f a v er a ge we i g ht ( a p p ro xi m a t el y 6 0 -8 0 k g ). 2 . H a rd l y an y o n e is a v e ra g e . I nd i vi du al va l ue s o f t h e p op u la t io n s tu d ie d ar e s um m e d to de t e rm in e a m e an v a lu e t h at is th e n re p o r te d a s t he p op u la t io n va l u e . In di v i d ua l i z in g p at i e nt do s a g e r e gi m e ns tak es t hi s i nt o a c c ou n t b y
a d ju s ti ng o bs er v e d pa ti en t - s p ec i fi c v a l ue s a nd r es p on se s t o e xp e c t ed p o p ul at i on m e as u re s . 3 . S o t he p ra c ti t io ne r s t ar t s th e d e te r m i na t io n o f a p at i en t -s p ec if ic do s a ge r e g im en b y as s um i ng th at t h e p at i en t b e ha ve s l ik e t he a v e ra g e m e m b e r o f h i s o r h e r p op u la t io n wi th r es p ec t t o P.743 p h a rm ac ok i ne ti c s , s e ru m l e v e l, an d e xp e c t e d r es p o ns e , a nd us es p o p ul at i on ph a rm ac ok i net i c p a ra m e t e rs to c a lc ul at e t he do s a ge r eg im e n n e e de d t o m ee t th e d es i re d S D C ob je c ti ve .
Figure 36-1. Pharmacokinetic factors influencing serum drug concentration and pharmacological response. Bioavailability is f, clearance is Cl, steady-state serum drug concentration is Css, D is dose, and τ is frequency of administration of dose.
4 . I f a f te r a dm i ni s t e r in g th e do s a g e r e gim e n u n ti l s t ea d y s t a te is re a c h ed , b a se d o n u s i n g p op ul a tio n v a lu es , th e p a ti en t is r e s po nd i ng ap p ro p r ia t el y , t h e n n o a dj us tm e nt in r eg i m e n i s n ec es s a r y . 5 . I f, ho we v e r , t h e s ta r tin g as s u m p ti o n o f u si n g a v e r a ge va lu e s t u rn s o ut t o b e in co r r ec t , b ec au s e t he p at i en t ' s r es p on s e is ei t h er s u b th e ra p eu t ic or t o xi c d ue t o p at i en t -s p ec i f ic ph a rm ac ok i ne t ic a n d/o r p ha rm a c o d yna m i c va l u es th a t a r e a t y p ic al fo r t he po p ul a ti on , th e p ra c ti t io n e r 's on l y op t io n ( e xc e p t f or c h an g in g t h e d r u g ) is t o m a n ip ul a te t he p r ac ti t io n er - c o n t ro ll e d i n pu t va r ia bl es , do s e a nd f r e q ue n c y, t o b r i ng the p ha r m a c o lo g ic al r e s po ns e wi t hi n t h e d es ir e d ra n ge . D . T i mi n g o f S D C me asu r e m en t s 1 . S D C s a r e s o m e t im es m e as u re d e a r l y i n a c o ur s e o f t h e r ap y, b e f o r e s t ea d y s t a te is re a c h ed , t o de t e rm in e p a ti e nt - s p ec i fi c p ha r m a c o ki n et ic p a r am e te r s , r at h er t ha n r e l y i ng on po p ul a ti on va lu e s . 2 . Mo r e c om m o nl y , S D Cs a re m e as u re d d u r i n g a s t e ad y- s t a t e d os a ge i n t e r va l (τ s s ) , b ec a us e th e ob je c ti v e is to de t e rm i n e i f t h e S D C is wi t h in a d e si r ed t he r ap e ut ic r an ge , a r a ng e t h at h as p r e v io u sl y b ee n d e te r m i n ed a l m o st in v a r i ab l y du r in g τ s s . 3 . B ec au s e S D C s a r e m os t c om m o n l y m ea s ur e d at s te a d y s t at e a n d r e f e re nc e d t o v al u es o b ta i ne d a t s t ea d y s t a te , it is ne ce s s a r y to wa i t af t e r s t a rt i ng d ru g a dm in is t r a ti o n u n ti l a t l e as t t h re e to f o u r as s um ed ha l f- l if e
( t 1 / 2 ) val ue s (8 8% - 9 4% of r e ac hi n g f ul l s te a d y s t at e ) s o th a t S D C wi l l b e m e as u re d d u ri n g a p e r iod wh e n s t e ad y s ta t e m a y b e a s s um e d, fo r cl in ic a l p u r po s e s , t o h a v e b e en re a c h e d o r a p pr o xi m a te d ( e . g ., ap p r o xi m at e l y 9 0 % o f st e ad y s ta t e o r g r ea t er ; s o f or a n as su m e d t 1 / 2 o f 6 h ou r s , wa i t 18 - 24 h o u rs af t e r i ni t ia ti n g d r ug t r ea tm e nt t o m e as u r e S D C ) . 4 . I f t he r e a r e n o c ha n ges in pa t ie n t r es p on se , the r e i s u s u a ll y n o n e ed to t a k e s u bs e qu e n t d a il y S D C m e as u r em e n ts , o nc e a n a p p ro p ri a te S D C ha s b e e n ac h ie v e d . O n l y if s o m et h in g o c c u rs th a t m ay b e e xp e c te d t o a l te r the p a t ie n t 's ph a rm ac ok i ne t ic v a lu es ( e .g . , c o - a dm in is t r at i on of an o th e r p o t en t ia ll y m od i f y in g d r ug , c h an g e i n p h ys i ol o gi ca l s t a te ) , a r e f r eq u en t m e as u re m e n ts n e c e s s a ry . 5 . I f a s t ea d y - s t a te S D C ( C s s ) is us e d a pp r op r ia t el y t o re l at e a pa t ie n t 's C s s t o a p op u la t io n o r pa t ie nt - s pe c i f ic th e ra p eu t ic ra ng e , th en i t is im po r t an t to n o t e wh e n du r i ng th e s tea d y - s ta t e d os ag e i n te r val ( τ s s ) t he C s s wa s m e as u re d i n s tu d ie s d ete r m in in g t h e t h er a pe u ti c r a n ge . In ot h e r wo r d s , i s t h e th e ra p eu t ic ra n ge the p r ac ti t io n er is us in g a s a ba s i s f o r i nd i v i du a li zin g r e g im en s b as e d o n C s s m e as u re d e a r l y ( a p p a r en t C m a x , s s ) , n e a r t he m i d p oi n t (a pp a r en t C a v g , s s ) , or ne a r t h e e nd ( ap pa r e n t C m i n , s s ) of τ s s ? 6 . E r r o r s i n i nt e r p re t at i on oc c u r wh e n C s s f o r a pa t i en t i s m ea su r ed a t a t i m e du r in g τ s s th a t i s m ar k e dl y d if f e re n t t ha n th e t i m e us ed f or es t ab li s hi ng t h e th e ra p eu t ic ra n ge [e .g . , m e as u ri ng C s s i n a pat i e nt 1 h ou r af t e r g i vin g a d o se on a q 12 h re gi m en wh e n t h e C s s f or t he r ef er e n c e d t h e ra pe u ti c r a nge wa s a c tu a ll y t ak en a t t he e n d o f τ s s ( C m i n , s s ) ] . 7 . E r r or s i n t im in g of C s s a r e o f g r e at e r c on c e r n fo r d ru gs wi t h a s h o r t t 1 / 2 t h a n f o r d r ug s wi t h a l ong t 1 / 2 . C s s f l uc tu a ti o n d u ri n g τ s s i s m uc h g re a t er in t h e fo rm e r t h an t he l a t ter c as e .
III. TDM DRUGS AND COMMON CHARACTERISTICS A. T D M d r u g s 1 . D r ug s f o r wh ic h TD M i s c o m m on l y us ed a re no te d in Ta b le 36 - 1, al o ng wi t h t h e p op u la t io n t h e rap e u ti c r a ng e . 2 . D r ug s f o r wh ic h TD M i s in f r eq u en t l y u s e d i n g en e r al s i t ua ti o ns , b u t p e r ha ps c o m m on l y us ed b y s pe ci a lt y p r ac t it i on e rs o r c l i ni cs , a r e n o te d i n Ta b l e 36 - 2 . B . C o m mo n c h a r ac t e r ist i c s o f T DM d r ug s . D r u gs t ha t q u al i f y f o r TD M h a ve , a s a m i ni m u m , t he f o ll o wi n g c ha r ac t e ri s t ic s i n c om m o n . P.744
Table 36-1. Drugs Often Monitored Using Serum Drug Concentrations
Drug
Therapeutic Range for Css
Amikacin
Cmax,ssa = 20-30 µg/mL; Cmin,ss <10 mcg/mL
Cyclosporine
Varies with transplanted organ, time after transplant, time of sampling during dosage interval, and method of analysis
Digoxin
0.8-2b ng/mL
Gentamicin
Cmax,ssa = 5-10 µg/mL; Cmin,ss <2 mcg/mL
Phenytoin
10-20 µcg/mL
Theophylline
5-20 µcg/mL
Tobramycin
Cmax,ssa = 5-10 µg/mL; Cmin,ss <2 mcg/mL
Vancomycin
Cmax,ssa = 30-50 µg/mL; Cmin,ss = 5-10 mcg/mL
a
End of 30- to 60-min infusion.
b
Levels for atrial fibrillation often exceed 2 ng/mL.
Table 36-2. Drugs Monitored Using Serum Drug Concentrations in Specialty Situations Amitriptyline Carbamazepine Indinavin Lidocaine Lithium
Methotrexate Nortriptyline Salicylates Valproic acid
1 . S D C is th e m os t p r ac ti c al in t er m e d ia t e e nd po in t t o b e us e d wh e n th e r e i s n o c le a r l y o bs e r v a bl e t h e r ap eu t ic or t o xi c e n d p o in t . 2 . S D C is a r ea s o n ab le p r o xy f o r d r u g c o nc e nt r at i o n a t t h e s i t e o f a c t i on . 3 . Th e ra n ge of t he r ap e ut i c a nd s a f e s e r um co nce n t r at i on s is na r r o w. 4 . Th e r e is no p re d ic ta b le d os e -r e sp on s e r el a ti o n. 5 . Th e ph a rm ac ol o gi c a l e f f ec t o bs e r v e d p e rs is ts f o r a r e la t i v el y l on g t im e. A c u te , s h or t , o r in t e rm i t te n t e f f ec ts ar e n o t we ll re g ul a te d b y u s i n g se r um d r u g l e v el s . 6 . A d r u g as s a y i s a v a il ab l e t h at is ac c u r at e , p r eci s e, s p ec i fi c, r ap id , an d r e l at i ve l y i n e xp e ns i v e .
IV. EQUATIONS FREQUENTLY USED IN TDM A. L i n e a r ph a r ma c ok i ne t i c d r u g c l ea r a nc e — no r m a l re n al f u nc t i on . L i ne a r c le a r an c e as s um es t ha t a p r op o r t i on a l c ha n g e in d os e l ea ds to t he s am e p ro p o r t io n al c h a ng e in S D C . I t al s o ass um e s th a t t 1 / 2 an d d r u g c l ea r an c e r em ai n c o ns t an t as t he do s e c h an g es . S e e I V. D f o r a n e xa m p le o f us in g s om e o f th e f o llo wi n g e qu a ti on s . 1 . E s ti m a ti n g d r u g c l ear a n c e ( C l ) :
wh e r e V is th e a p pa r e nt v o l u m e of di s tr i bu t io n o f d r u g . 2 . M a x im u m c on c en t r a ti o n ( C m a x , s s ) d u ri n g τ s s , wh e n a bs o r pt i on is a ss u m e d t o b e m uc h f as te r t ha n e li m i n at i on : P.745
wh e r e S is th e f ra c t i on of t h e d os ag e f o rm th a t i s t h e a c t i v e m oi e t y an d f is t h e b i oa v a il a bi li t y . 3 . M i n im u m c o nc e nt r a t io n ( C m i n , s s ) d u r in g τ s s , wh e n a bs o rp t io n i s a ss um e d t o be m u c h fa s te r th an eli m in a ti on :
4 . Ave r a g e c on c en t r a t io n r e su l t in g f r om i nt e rm i t t e nt a dm i ni s t r a ti o n ( C a v g , s s ) d u r in g τ s s :
wh e r e d os e /τ is th e a m ou n t o f dr u g a dm in is t e re d d u ri n g e ac h s el ec t ed uni t o f ti m e ( e .g . , h ou r s , m i nu t es ) . 5 . S t ea d y- s t a t e co n ce n tr a t i o n re s ul t i n g f r o m co n t i n uo u s a dm i n is t r a t io n ( C i n f , s s ) . F o r t h e s a m e do s e r a te ( do se / τ ), ( C a v g , s s ) f o r i n te rm i t te n t a d m i ni s t ra ti o n i s th e s am e as ( C i n f , s s ) fo r c o nt i nu o us ad m i n is t ra t io n :
B . L i ne a r ph a r ma c ok i ne t i c d r u g c l ea r a nc e — imp a i r e d r e na l f un c t io n 1 . E s ti m a ti n g c r ea t i n ine c le a r a nc e f r o m s e r um c r e a ti n i ne wh e n s e ru m c r e at i ni ne is as s um e d t o b e s t ab le , no t c ha n gi n g d a il y , a nd we i g ht is e xp r e s s ed b y th e p a ti e nt' s t o ta l we ig h t , u nl es s t ot a l we i gh t i s e qu a l t o o r m o r e t ha n 2 0 % o f i de a l (l e an ) bo d y we i g h t, in wh ic h c as e i d ea l we i g h t s h ou l d b e us e d i n t he c al c ul a ti on :
wh e r e C r s d en o te s s e r um c r e at i ni n e i n m g / dl . The f em al e v al u e is 85 % o f t h e e s ti m a t ed m a le v a lue i n ( 6 ) . 2 . E s ti m a ti n g p r o l on g ed d r u g t 1 / 2 o r r e du c ed dr u g C l as s oc i at e d w it h r e d u ce d C l c r :
wh e r e r i a n d n de no t e t he r e na l im p ai r ed a nd no rm a l co n di t io ns , r e s pe c t i v e l y ; F is th e f r ac t io n o f dr u g a dm in is t e red t ha t i s e li m i n at e d
u n ch a ng ed ( un m e t ab o li z e d ) ; a n d C l c r r ep r es e nt s c r e at i ni ne c l ea r a nc e i n m L /m in . Im po r t an t F v a l ue s fo r s om e c om m o n TDM d r u g s a re : a m in o gl y c os id es = 0 .9 8 , d i go xi n = 0 .9 8 , a nd va nc o m y c i n = 0 .9 5 . 3 . U s in g C a v g , s s a s a t a rg e t s o th a t C a v g , s s in t he r e n al im pa i re d p a ti e nt is m a in t ai ne d th e s am e a s C a v g , s s i n n o rm a ls :
4 . U s in g C m a x , s s a s a t a rg e t s o th a t C m a x , s s i n th e r e n al i m p a i re d i s m a in t ai ne d th e s am e a s C m a x , s s i n n o rm al s :
wh e r e d os e L is a l oa d in g d os e i n te n de d t o a c hi e ve t he s a m e C m a x , s s i n t h e r e n al im pa i re d a s i n t h e n o r m a l p a ti en t . C . N o n l in e a r p h a rm a cok i n e ti c d ru g c l e a ra n ce— n o r m al r e na l fu n c t io n. N o n l i ne a r c l ea r an c e as s u m es th a t a p r o po r ti o na l c ha n ge in do s e le a ds to a d i s p r op o r t i on a l c ha ng e i n S D C . I t a ls o ass um es t h a t t 1 / 2 a nd C l c ha n ge as t h e d os e c h an ge s a nd als o a s t h e am o un t o f dr u g i n t h e b od y f r om a g i ven d o se c h an g es . D ru gs e xh i bi t in g n o nl in e a r cl e a ran c e p r es en t a m u ch g re at e r c h al le n ge t ha n l in e ar c l ea r a nc e d r ug s b ec a us e t he a s s u m pt io n s i n t he la t te r c as e o f p ro po r t io n al c h an g es in do s e yi el d in g s am e p r o po r ti o na l c ha n ge s i n C s s a n d c o ns t an t C l a nd t 1 / 2 d o n o t a pp l y f o r n on lin e a r d r ug s . F o r n on li n ear d r u gs , i nc r e as es i n d os e l e ad to in c re as es in t 1 / 2 , d ec r e as es i n Cl , an d c h an g es i n C s s t ha t ar e exc e s s i ve c om pa r e d t o t he p r op o rt i on a te c h an g e in d o se . P.746
1 . E s ti m a ti n g d r u g c l ear a n c e :
wh e r e V m a x i s t he m a xi m u m a m o u nt o f d r ug th a t c a n b e e li m i na t e d p er uni t o f ti m e ( e .g . , d a y ) a n d K m i s t h e d r u g s e r um co nc e n t r at i on at wh i ch t he rat e o f el im i na t io n i s 5 0% of V m a x . 2 . E s ti m a ti n g C a v g , s s res u l t i ng f r om a g i ve n d os e / τ :
3 . E s ti m a ti n g d o se / τ nee d e d f o r a d es i r e d C a v g , s s :
D . An e x a mp l e o f ap p l yi n g so m e o f th e a b o ve e q u a ti o ns t o d e ve l op i ng a n d m o d i f yi n g d o s a ge re g i me n s 1 . A c om m o n d os a ge r egi m en fo r in t r a v en ou s (I V ) g e nt am ic i n is 1 .7 m g /k g q 8 h (a s a 3 0 -m i nu t e in f us i on ) . Re g im en s a r e us ua l l y ad ju s te d t o a c h i e v e C m a x , s s a n d C m i n , s s wi t h in 5 - 1 0 m c g /m L a nd le s s th a n 2 m cg / m L , r e s pe c t i v e l y . Do es th e ab o v e r eg im en m e e t t he ta r g e t c o nc e nt r a ti o n o b je c ti v e s i n n o rm al pa t ie n ts ? As su m e th e fo ll o wi n g po p ul a ti on pa r am e te rs i n no r m a ls : Cl = 0 . 09 L/ k g / h r , t 1 / 2 = 2 . 5 h r , V = 0 .2 5 L/ kg . Fo r I V a d m i ni s t ra ti o n , f = 1 , a nd S = 1 fo r th e d os a ge for m ( la be l a m o u nt r e p r es en t s t he ac t ua l a m o u n t o f g en t am ic in ) . 2 . I n n o r ma l s, us in g e q ua t i on s ( 2 ) a nd ( 3 ):
Th e s e v al u es fa ll wi t h in th e ta r g et c o nc en t r at i on ra n g es f o r t h e a ve r ag e p a t ie n t wi t h no r m a l re na l f u nc t io n . 3 . I n t h e r e n al im p a i re d, wh a t s h o ul d b e d o ne to m od i f y th e a b o v e r e gi m e n f o r a p at i en t wh o i s 6 0 ye a r s o ld , 7 0 k g , m a l e, wi t h a C r s o f 2 .5 m g / dl ? I n t h is pa t ie n t , i f t he ab o v e r e gi m en we r e us ed , t h e p r o lo n ge d t 1 / 2 wo u l d y ie ld C m a x , s s = 1 5 . 2 m c g /m L an d C m i n , s s = 8 .4 m c g/ m L , va l u es c l ea r l y ab o v e t h e t a r g et c o nc en t r at i on r ang e s . a . U si ng e qu a ti on ( 6 ) f o r e s ti m a t in g Cl c r i n t hi s pa t i en t :
b . Th e n u s i n g e qu a ti on (7 ) f o r es t im at i ng t 1 / 2 i n th i s p at i en t , a ss um in g F = 0 . 9 8 a nd ( C l c r ) n = 12 0 m L / m i n :
c . Th e n u s i ng eq u at i on (9 ) , fi r s t de t e rm in e a lo a di n g d os e ( D L ) to ac hi e v e t h e s am e C m a x , s s o f a pp ro xi m a t e l y 8 m c g/ m L as es t im a te d i n I V . D .2 f or a p a t ie n t wi t h no r m a l re na l f u nc t io n : DL = (Cmax,ss)(V)/(S)(f)
D L = ( 8 m c g /m L) ( 0 .2 5 L /k g ) / (1 ) ( 1 ) = 2 m g /k g N e xt , d e t e rm i ne f ra c t i on o f d ru g l os t d u r in g τ , a s s u m in g a τ r i of 24 ho u rs , a n d u si n g t he ( t 1 / 2 ) r i o f 9. 3 ho u rs es ti m at e d i n I V .D . 3 . b : F r a ct i on lo s t = 1 - 1 0
-0.3(τ/t
1/2
)
= 1 - 10
-0.3(24/9.3)
= 0.84
L a st l y, c a lc ul a te D p e r τ r i : P.747
D per τri
=
(DL)[1 - 10-0.3(τ/t1/2)]
=
(2 mg/kg)(0.84) = 1.7 mg/kg
Th u s , a D L of 2 m g / k g fo ll o we d b y 1 .7 m g /k g q 24 h i s e xp e c t ed to m a in t ai n l e ve ls in th is pa t ie n t s im il a r to th a t i n n o rm al s.
V. EFFECT OF PHYSIOLOGICAL ALTERATIONS ON PHARMACOKINETIC VARIABLES A. G e n e r a l co n s id e r a tio n s . I t i s a p pa r en t fr o m F i g ur e 3 6 - 1 a nd th e e q u at io n s i n S ec t io n I V , t h a t a n y c h an g es i n p h arm ac o k i ne t ic v a ri a bl es r e s ul t i n c ha n ge s i n C s s a n d p e rh a ps ph a rm ac odyn a m ic o u tc om es . Th is m a y n e ce ss it a t e c h a ng es in D / τ c o m p a re d to no rm a ls. F o r r e na l i m p ai r m e n t , q u a n ti t a t i ve e s t im a te s of r es u lt i ng c h an g es i n Cl a n d t 1 / 2 , c om p a re d t o n o r m a l v al ue s , a r e a v a ila b le us in g th e e q ua t io ns i n Se c t i on I V . F o r h ep a ti c , c a r di ac , p u lm on a r y , a n d o t h e r im p ai rm e nt s p o te n ti a l l y i nd uc i ng c h an g es i n n o r m a l p ha r m a c o k i n et ic v a r i a bl es , on l y qu a l it a t ive e s ti m a t es a re po s s ib le . B . R e n al i mp a i rm e n t, wh e n m a rk ed , re d uc es d r ug c l e a ra nc e f o r d r ug s p r i m a r il y d ep e nd en t on th e k i dn e y fo r el im i na ti o n. A s n o te d i n t h e e qu a ti on s i n S ec ti o n I V . B, ph y s i ol og i c a l m a rk er s l ik e s e ru m c r ea t in i ne an d c re a ti n ine c l ea r an c e a re us ed t o es t i m a t e t h e c h a ng es in C l a n d t 1 / 2 r es u lt i ng f ro m r e d uc t io ns in C r s a n d C l c r . C . H e p a ti c i m pa i r m en t e xe r t s a c om p le x i n f l ue nc e o n d r u g p h a rm ac ok i ne ti c s . Two p r o c es s es m a y b e a lt e r ed, b lo o d f lo w r a t e i n d e li v e r i ng dr u g t o t h e l i ve r a nd th e c ap ac i t y of enz ym e s to m e t ab ol i z e th e d r u g . I n g en e ra l te r m s , m o de r a te to se v e r e h ep at i c im p ai r m e n t is e xp e c ted
t o sl o w o v e r al l Cl an d p ro l on g t 1 / 2 f o r d r ug s h ig h ly d e p en d en t o n th e l i v e r f o r el im in a ti o n. D . C a r d i ac im p ai r m en t , wh e n s ub s ta n ti al , de c r e as es he p a ti c a nd re n al c l ea r an c e s , r e du c e s v o l um e o f di st r ib u ti o n, an d m a y s lo w a b s or p ti o n f o r s om e d r u gs . Th e e ff e c t of c om pr o m i se d p e rf us i on i s m os t c ri t ic al fo r d ru gs t h a t a r e b ot h h i gh l y de pe n d en t o n t h e l i v e r f o r c le a r an c e an d ef f ic ie n tl y m e ta b ol i z e d b y th e l i v e r i n no r m a l p a ti en t s . E . Ag i n g r es ul t s i n r ed uc t io ns in r en a l ( co ns is t en t l y ) an d h e pa t ic ( i n co ns is t en t l y ) c le a ra nc e s . Th e c l e ar a nc e o f d r ug s p r im a ri l y de p en d en t on t h e k id n e y d e c l in es b y ne a r l y 50 % a nd t he ha l f- l if e ne a r l y d o ub le s o v e r a 4 0 - 50 - ye a r p e ri o d f r om yo u n g a du l th oo d . On t he o t h e r h an d , so m e d ru gs p r i m a r il y d ep e nd en t on th e li v e r fo r c l ea r an c e sho w n o a ge - r el a te d c h an g es , wh il e o t he r s d o. C h an g es wi t h a g e i n a bs o r pt i on , vol um e o f d i st r ib u ti o n, a nd s e ru m pr o t ei n bi nd i ng of d ru gs s h o w n o c o ns is t en t p a t te rn . F . F r om a c l in ic al v i e wp oi n t , s er um p r o te i n b i n din g o f d r ug s b ec om es a n i m po r t an t i s s ue in TD M f o r d ru gs b ou nd m o r e t han 8 0% to s e r um pr o te i ns . B e c au se he p at ic an d re na l c l ea r an c e s , v o l um e o f d is t r ib u ti on , an d p h a rm ac ol o gi c a l re s p o ns e a r e m e d ia t ed b y th e f re e ( un bo u nd ) fo r m o f t h e d r u g i n s er um , in t er p a ti en t v a r ia t io ns in p ro t ei n bi n di n g n ot on l y r es ul t i n va r i a ti o ns in ph a rm ac ok in e t ic s in no r m a ls , b u t a ls o l os s o f s e ru m p r ot e ins d u r in g re n al an d h ep a ti c i m p a ir m en ts m a y r es ul t i n m o di f ie d d r ug cl ea r a nc e a n d p h ar m a c ol og ic a l r es p o ns e .
VI. THE TOTAL TESTING PROCESS APPLIED TO TDM A. D e f i n i n g th e to t a l t es t i n g p r o ce s s ( T T P ) 1 . TD M i n v o l v e s bo t h t h e l a bo r a to r y f or a na l y s i s an d c l in ic ia ns f o r i n t er p r et a ti o n o f S D C . TTP r e f e r s t o a ll as pe c ts o f t he s t ep s o f l a bo r at o ry t e s ti ng be g in ni n g wi t h a c l in ic al qu es t io n th a t is p r o m p t ed b y th e p a ti en t c l in ic ia n e nc o un t e r a nd c o n c l u di ng wi t h th e i m p act o f t h e t es t re s u l t o n p a t ie n t c a r e . 2 . TTP e m p ha s i z e s t ha t TD M i s a p ro ce s s i n v o l v in g a s e r i es o f s t ep s a nd i n t er r e la t ed ac ti v i t ie s a nd s h o ul d n o t b e vi e we d si m pl y as a n um e ri ca l valu e f o r an S D C . 3 . TTP f o c us es on id en t if y i n g a l l s te ps of th e TD M t e s t i n g p ro c es s , h i gh l ig h ti ng wh e r e v a ri a ti o ns an d e r r o rs c an oc cur , i nt e r pr e ti n g S D C r es ult s i n li gh t of th e s t ep s i n v olv e d , an d i m p r o vi ng th e c o n t ri b u ti on o f t es ti n g t o a c hi e v i ng de s i r ed pa t ie nt o u tc om es . P.748
B . C o m po n e nt s an d s t ep s i n T T P . Th e r e a r e 4 c o m po n en ts an d 1 1 s t ep s i n TTP . 1 . T he p re a na l yt i c a l c om p o ne n t c o ns is ts o f fo ur s te p s :
( 1 ) cl in ic a l q ue s t i on , (2 ) t e s t s e l ec te d , ( 3 ) t e st o rd e r ed , an d ( 4 ) s pe c i m e n c o ll ec t io n . 2 . T he an a l yt i c a l c o m po n e n t t h en fo ll o ws wi t h th r e e s te ps : ( 5 ) sa m p le p re p a re d , ( 6 ) a n al y s is p e r fo r m e d , a nd ( 7 ) re s ul t v e ri fi e d. 3 . T he po s t an a l yt i c a l co m p o ne n t t h en c o nc lu de s wi t h f o u r st e ps : (8 ) res u lt r e p o rt e d, ( 9 ) c l i ni c a l a ns we r , ( 1 0 ) ac ti o n t ak en , an d ( 11 ) e f f ec t o n p a ti en t c a r e. 4 . Th e th r ee c o m p o ne n ts a r e a f fe c te d b y t he f ou r th co m p o ne n t , t he r e g u l at o r y e n vi r o n m e n t wi t h i n wh ic h TD M i s p e rf o r m e d . C . C o n t r i bu t i on s o f T DM t o T T P 1 . TD M h a s t h e p ot e nt i al t o i m pr o ve m a n y o f th e s t ep s i n TTP : p r o vid i ng e d uc a ti o n, d ru g i n fo rm a tio n , i n te r p re t a ti on o f TD M r e s u l ts , ass e ss in g t h e a p p ro p r ia t en es s o f t h e TD M o r d e r , s c h ed ul i ng s pe c im en c o ll ec t io n , d e ve l op in g d r u g d os ag e g u id e li n es , a nd p ro v i di ng wr i t t e n a nd o ra l c o ns ul t at i on c o nc e rn i ng TD M r e s u l ts . 2 . Th e ph a rm ac is t ' s g re at e s t i n v ol v e m e n t i n TTP i s in s t e ps (2 ) as s es s i n g t h e a p p ro p ri a te n es s o f TD M f o r a g i v e n s i t ua t io n , ( 4 ) ti m i n g o f s p e cim e n c o ll ec t io n , a nd ( 9) c l in ic a l in t er p r et a ti o n o f TD M r e s ul ts .
VII. USING TEST PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS IN TDM A. R a t i o n a le a nd r ea s on s 1 . I n TD M, t h e S D C f u nc t i o ns l ik e a di a gn os t ic tes t to as s i s t in c l as s i f y in g p a t ie n t s ta t us . 2 . O n th e o ne ha n d, t he p a t ie n t 's S D C m a y be use d , i n c on j un ct i on wi t h a p o p ul at i on S D C c u to f f v al u e m ea s u r e f o r t h e d r ug, wh i c h a c t s a s a s e pa r a to r , t o c la s s i f y th e p a ti e nt as a m e m b e r o f e i t he r dr u g -i nd uc e d t o xi c ( p a ti e n t S D C > u p pe r c u to f f v a lu e ) o r t h e ra p eu t ic ( wi t h i n th e ra p eu t ic ra n ge) s u bp o pu la t io ns . 3 . A lt e r na t el y , t he pa ti e nt ' s S D C m a y c l as si f y t he p a ti e nt as pa r t o f th e t h e r ap eu t ic or s u b th e ra pe u t ic ( S D C < lo we r c ut o ff v a l ue ) s u bp o pu la t io ns . 4 . A lt h ou g h c l as s i f y i ng pa t i en ts in s u bp o pu l at i ons is th e m os t c om m o n u se o f S D C in TD M, a m o r e in f o rm e d a pp li c a t io n o f SD C i s t o u s e t he r es ul t to m o di f y t he c l in ic ia n ' s p r ob a bi l it y o f p a ti e nt st a tu s. Th i s i s t h e us e o f S D C a s p a r t o f a B a y es ia n a p p roa c h t o d ia g no st ic t es t i n te r p r et a ti o n. B . T e st p e r fo r m an c e c ha r a c t e ri s t ic s . Te s t p e r for m a nc e i nd ic es a re no t p e r f ec t c l a s s if ie r s o f p a tie n t s t at us an d s ho u ld neve r b e u s e d a s t h e s o l e m e as u re fo r de t e rm in in g h o w t h e p a ti en t is re ac t in g to t he dr u g. A nu m b e r o f t es t p e rf o rm a nc e i nd ic e s c ha r ac t e ri z e th e ac c ur a c y o f a d ia g no s ti c t es t t o a cc u r at e l y c la s s i f y p a ti en t s a s t o xi c , t h e ra pe u ti c , o r s u bt h e ra p eu ti c . F ou r o f t h es e i n di c e s a r e m o s t us e fu l i n i n te r p re t in g S D C. 1 . P os i t i ve p re d ic t i ve va l u e ( P P V ) a . C o mp a r i ng d r ug - i ndu c e d t o x ic ve r s us no n to x i c p a t ie n ts ( us i n g u pp e r S D C c u t o f f l e ve l ). P P V d e n ot es th e p r o po r t io n of p a ti en t s wi t h a p o si t i ve t e s t (p a ti e nt S D C > u ppe r c u t of f S D C ) wh o a r e in a d r u g- i nd uc e d t o xi c
c o nd i ti on . S o, th e v a lu e o f P P V re p re s e n ts th e p ro b a bi li t y o f a p os i ti ve t es t b e in g a c c u ra t e i n c la s s ify i n g th e p a ti e nt as to xi c . b . C o mp a r i ng t he r a pe u ti c ve r s u s s ub t h e ra p eu ti c p at i e nt s (u s i ng l ow er S D C c u t o f f l e ve l ). P P V d e n ot es th e p r o po r t io n of p a ti en t s wi t h a p o si t i ve t e s t (p a ti e nt S D C > l o wer c ut o f f S D C ) wh o a re r es p o n di n g a p p ro p r i a te l y. S o , th e v al u e o f P PV in th i s c a s e r ep r es e nt s t h e p r o ba b il i t y o f a p os it i ve t e s t b ei ng ac c u r a te in c la s s i f y in g th e p a ti en t as th e r ap e ut ic . 2 . N e ga t i ve p re d ic t i ve va l u e ( N P V ) a . C o mp a r i ng d r ug - i ndu c e d t o x ic ve r s us no n to x i c p a t ie n ts ( us i n g u pp e r S D C c u t o f f l e ve l ). N P V d e n ot es th e p r o po r t io n of p a ti en t s wi t h a n e ga t i ve t e s t (p a ti e nt S D C < u ppe r c u t of f S D C ) wh o a r e no t m a n if es t in g d r u gi n du c ed t ox i ci t y. S o , t he v a l u e o f N P V r ep r es e nts t he pr o ba b il i t y o f a n e g at i ve t es t be in g a c c ur a t e i n c la ss if yi n g t he p at i e nt as no n to xi c . P.749
b . C o mp a r i ng t he r a pe u ti c ve r s u s s ub t h e ra p eu ti c p at i e nt s (u s i ng l ow er S D C c u t o f f l e ve l ). N P V d e n ot es th e p r o po r t io n of p a ti en t s wi t h a n e ga t i ve t e s t (p a ti e nt S D C < l o wer c ut o f f S D C ) wh o a re s ub t h e r ap e u ti c . So , t h e va l u e o f N P V i n t hi s c as e r e pr es e n ts t h e p r ob a bil i t y of a n e ga ti ve t es t b ein g a cc u r at e i n c la s s i f y in g t he p at i en t a s s ub t he r ap e ut i c . 3 . P os i t i ve li k el i h oo d ra t i o ( PL R ) . In de f in in g co n di t io ns as + o r - ( as in + = t o xi c an d - = n e ga t i v e, o r + = th e r ap eu t ic an d - = s u b th e ra p eu t ic ) , P L R i s t h e p r o ba bi l it y t h at a + pa t i e n t h as a + t e s t d i v ide d b y th e p r ob a bi li t y t ha t a - p a t ie n t h as a + t es t (e. g . , t h e p r ob ab i li t y t ha t a t o x ic pa t ie n t h as an S DC > c ut o ff di v i d ed b y th e pr o b ab i li t y th a t a no n t ox ic p at i en t h as an S D C > c u to f f ) . Th e h ig h e r t h e PL R , t he mo r e di sc ri m i n ati n g t h e t es t . 4 . N e ga t i ve li k el i h oo d ra t i o ( NL R ) . N L R i s t he pr o b ab i li t y th a t a + p a t ie nt h a s a - t e s t di v i d ed b y th e p ro ba b il i t y th a t a - p at i e n t h as a - t es t . Th e l ow e r t he N L R , t he m o re d is c r im i na ti n g t h e t es t . 5 . I ll u s t ra t i n g t h e u se of P P V , N P V , P L R , a n d NL R . F o r t he o ph y l li n e, u s in g a te s t u pp e r c ut o ff o f 20 m c g / m L , P PV is 0.5 , N P V i s 0 . 95 , PL R is 6, a n d NL R is 0. 4 . a . F o r P P V , th is m e an s th a t th e p r op o r ti on o f p at ie n ts wi t h a p os it i v e te s t r e s ul t ( S D C > up pe r c u t of f ) wh o t r ul y h a ve t he o phy l l i ne - i nd uc ed t o xi c it y i s 5 0 % . F o r a n i nd i v id u al pa t i en t wi t h S D C > c u to f f , t h e p r ob a bi li t y o f t o xi c i ty is 0.5. b . F o r N P V, th is m e an s th a t th e p r op o r ti on o f p at ie n ts wi t h a n eg a ti ve te s t r e s ul t ( S D C < up pe r c u t of f ) wh o t r ul y a re no n to xi c i s 9 5% . Fo r an in di v i d ual p a t ie n t wi t h S D C < c ut o ff , t he p ro ba b il i t y o f no n to xi c i t y i s 0 .9 5 . c . F o r P L R , to xi c p at i en ts wi l l h a ve a po s i t i ve t es t r es u lt s i x t i m es m o re o f t en t ha n d o n on t o xi c pa t i en ts . d . F o r NL R , to xi c p a ti en ts wi l l h a ve a ne g at i ve tes t re s ul t 4 0% as of t en as wi l l n on t o xi c pa t ie n ts .
e . Th e se re s ul ts s u gg es t t h a t a n e ga t i v e t he o ph y ll i ne t es t r es u lt r ul es ou t t o xi c i t y ( 0 .9 5 ) a bo u t t wi c e as e ff ec t i v el y a s a p os it i v e t es t r u le s i n t o xi c it y ( 0 . 5 ) . A po s i t i v e t es t a p pe a r s t o b e u n re li a bl e a s a n in di ca t o r o f t o xi c i t y , bu t a n eg a ti v e te s t a pp e ar s to b e h ig hl y p r ed ic t i ve o f n o n to xi c i t y. Fu r t he r m o r e, t h e PL R s u g ge s t s t h at a p o s i t i v e S D C t es t i s s i x t i m es m o re li k e l y to c o m e f r o m a to xi c t ha n a no n toxi c p a t ie n t . O n th e o t he r h a n d, th e N L R im p li es t h a t i t i s c o ns i de r ab l y les s t h an on e -h a lf as li ke l y ( 0 . 4 ) t h a t a n e ga t i v e t es t c om e s f r om a to xi c c om pa r e d t o a no n to xi c p a ti ent . f . K n o wl e dg e o f t e s t pe r fo r m an ce c h a ra c t e ri s ti cs o f S D C m e as u re s p r o v ide s t h e p r ac t it i on e r wi t h a n in d e x o f t he us ef u ln es s of t h e S D C in c a t eg o ri z i ng p a t ie n ts . C . U s i n g a Ba ye s i a n a pp r o a c h. U si ng S D C in c o n ju n c t io n wi t h l ik el i ho od r a t io in f o rm a ti on en h an c e s th e a pp l ic at i on of t he S D C i n d e ci si on m a k i ng . A B a ye s ia n a p pr o ac h t o p ro b a bi li t y r e v is io n a l lo ws t h e p r ac t it i on e r t o m ak e a p r e t es t a s s es s m e n t o f pa t i en t s t at us , or d e r a d i ag n os t ic te st , an d u s e th e p r o ba b il i t y i n fo r m a t io n c o n t ai ne d i n th e t es t re s ul t t o re vi se th e a s s es s m en t o f st a tu s . 1 . Th e re l at i on be t we e n p r e t es t, t es t , a nd po st t es t as s es sm e nt is s ho wn i n t h e fo ll o wi n g e q ua t io n :
wh e r e p r e te s t r ef e rs to th e p re t es t o dd s o f t h e co n di t io n b e in g p r es e nt pr i o r t o ob t ai n in g t h e p at i en t ' s S D C a n d p os tt e st r ef e rs t o th e p os t t es t o dd s o f t h e c on d it i on be i ng pr es e n t a f t er le a r ni ng t he S DC . 2 . O d d s a re de f in e d as + r es u lt s d i vid e d b y - re s u l ts ( + /- ) . P r ob a bi l i t y i s d e f in ed as + r es u lt s d i v id e d b y t o ta l r e su lt s (+ / tot a l , wh e r e to t al is th e s um o f + a n d - re s u l ts ) . 3 . O d ds a r e c on v e r t ed t o p r o ba bi l it y a s f ol lo ws :
4 . P r ob a bi li t y is c o n v e rt ed t o o dd s a s f ol l o ws :
5 . A n e xa m p le o f a pp l y ing a Ba ye s i a n a pp r oa c h to m o d i f y i n g t he p ro b ab il it y o f pa t ie n t s ta t us . Us in g th e th e op h y l li ne t es t p e rfo r m an ce c h a ra c t e ri s ti c s n o t ed in V II . B . 5: P.750
a . A s s um e t ha t a p ra c ti t io n e r a s s es s e s b y vi su al i n sp ec t io n t h at t he p r o ba b il i t y o f th e op h y ll i ne - i nd uc e d t o xi c i t y i n a p a t i en t i s 0 . 25 ( th e p r et e s t p r o ba b il i t y ) . S h e o rd e rs a s e r um t he op h y l li ne c on c e n t r at i on ( S TC ) , an d u s es th e m ea s u r em e nt to r e v is e h e r a s s es sm en t o f to xi c i t y in t he pa t ie n t ( t h e p os t te s t p r ob ab i li t y ).
b . F u rt h er as s u m e th a t th e te s t p er f o rm an c e ch ar a c te r is t ics f or t he S TC a r e : PL R = 6 an d NL R = 0 . 4 . c . U si ng e qu a ti on s ( 1 3 ), ( 1 4 ) , a nd ( 15 ) , a p re t es t p r o ba b il i t y o f 0. 2 5 is th e s am e a s p r e te s t od ds o f t o xi c i t y o f 1 /3 [ 0. 2 5/ ( 1 - 0 . 2 5 )] , u s i n g e qu a ti o n (15). d . I f t h e S TC t e s t f or t he p a ti e nt c o m e s b ac k p os it i ve ( S TC > 20 m cg / m L ) , t h e n P L R = 6 i s us e d t o r e v i s e t he od ds o f t o xi c ity . I f t he S TC t es t i s n e g at i ve ( S TC ≤ 20 m c g /m L ) , t he n N L R = 0. 4 i s us e d. e . A s s um e t he pa t ie n t 's S T C = 22 m cg / m L , th en u s in g e q ua t io n ( 1 3 ) y i e lds ( 1 / 3 ) (6 ) = 2 . So , t h e p os tt e s t o dd s o f t o xi c i t y a r e 2 / 1 . Co n v e r ti ng t he s e odd s t o p ro b ab il i t y us in g e qu at i o n ( 1 4) : [2 / ( 1 + 2 ) ] = 0 .6 7 . Th e p o s tt e s t p r o b a bi l i t y o f t o x i c i t y i s 0 .6 7 . Th e p re t es t p r o ba b il i t y of 0. 2 5 h as ne a rl y t r i pl e d u s i ng t he S TC as f e e db ac k . f . A ss um e i ns t ea d t h at th e pa t ie n t 's S TC = 14 m c g /m L ; t h en us in g e qu a tio n ( 1 3 ) yie l ds (1 / 3 ) (0 . 4) = 0. 1 3 . S o , t h e p os t te st od ds o f t o xi c it y a r e 0 . 13 / 1. C o n ve r t in g t h es e o dd s to p r ob ab i li t y us in g e q ua ti o n ( 1 4 ): [ 0. 1 3/ ( 1 + 0. 1 3 )] = 0 . 1 2. T he po s t t es t p ro ba b i l i t y o f t o x i c i t y i s 0 . 12 . g . W hile a p os i ti v e S TC te s t n ea r l y t ri p le d t h e p r ob a bi l it y o f t o xi c i t y ab o v e, a n eg a ti v e te s t c u t s t he p r o ba b il i t y i n h a lf . Th is de m on s t r a te s t h e u s ef u ln es s o f u s i n g S D C i n c om bi n at i on wi t h p r ac t i t io n er as s e ss m e n t as a g u id e to qu a nt i f y in g t h e p r o ba b il i t y o f pa ti e nt s t at u s .
VIII. SUMMARY A. TD M a p p l ie s t o a s m al l nu m b e r o f d r ug s wi t h a n a r ro w r a n g e o f e f fe c ti ve a n d s af e S D C wh e r ei n op t im um d ru g t r e at m e n t i s p r om o te d b y m ai n ta in i ng S D C wi t h i n a p op ul a ti o n o r p at i en t -s pe c i f ic th e r ap e u ti c r a ng e , a bo v e wh i c h d r u g -i n du c e d t o xi c i t y oc c u r s t o o o f te n a n d b el o w wh i c h th e dr u g is t oo of te n i n e ff ec t i v e . B . A p ra c ti t io ne r in i ti a tes d ru g t r e at m e n t u s i ng a d os e ra t e t h at as s u m e s t h a t t h e p at i en t s ho ws m e a n p o pu la t io n v al u es for t h e p ha r m a c o k i n et ic va r i a bl es , e v en th o ug h i t i s e xp e c t ed th a t f e w p a ti e n ts wi l l e ve r p os s e ss th e m e an va lu e b e in g u s e d . I f t he r es ul t in g C s s an d / or p h ar m a c ol og ic a l r e s po ns e i s o th e r t h an exp e c t e d an d t h e p at i en t b e c o m e s a t ri s k f o r s u bt h e ra pe u ti c o r dr u g -in d uc e d t o xi c it y , i t i s li k e ly d u e to th e i n te r p at ie n t va r i a bi l it y i n p ha r m a c o k in e t ic v al u es a n d p ha r m ac o d y na m i c r es p on se t ha t c h a ra ct e ri z e s t h e n ee d fo r TD M; t h e r e f o re , th e do s e r a te is m o di fi e d t o p r o du c e a p a ti en t - s p ec i fic C s s th a t r e pr es e n ts t h e b es t t ra de o f f o f e f f ec t i v en es s a nd to xi c i ty . C . Ti m i ng of s am p li n g o f S D C i s c ri t ic al to r ed uc e e r ro r s i n i nt e r pr e t at io n o f t h e m ea s u r em e nt . S D C s h o ul d b e s am p le d a t s t ea d y s ta t e, a ft e r p o st a bs o rp t io n a n d p os td i s t r ib u ti o n e qu i li b ri um is ac hi e ve d , a nd a t im e d u r in g τ s s th a t m a t c h es th e ti m e a t wh i c h t he t he ra p e ut ic r an ge wa s e s ta b li sh e d.
D . Th e c h o ic e o f C m a x , s s , C m i n , s s , C a v g , s s , or C i n f , s s t o es t im at e d os a ge r e g im en s d ep e nd s o n t he t he r a pe u ti c r an g e o bj ec t i v e a nd , in th e l a tt e r c as e , i n tr a v e no us r a th e r t h a n i nt e rm i tt e nt ad m i n is t r a t io n . E . F o r t he r en a l -im p ai r ed p at i en t , t h e d os ag e red u c t i on fa c to r i s c al c u l ate d t o ac hi e v e , d ep e nd i ng on t he t he r ap e ut ic r an g e o b je c ti v e , a C m a x , s s o r C a v g , s s i n th e r e na l -i m p a ir e d pa t ie n t t ha t i s s im il ar t o th a t d es ir e d i f t h e p a t ie n t h ad no r m a l r e na l f u nc t io n . F . Th e TTP i s th e s y s tem a ti c s eq ue n c e of e v en ts in wh i c h TD M i s p r a c t ic e d f r o m i de n ti f ic at i on of t he n e ed fo r an S D C m e as ur e m en t , t o p r op e r t im i ng o f s am p le c o ll ec t io n , l ab o rat o r y a na l ys i s , in t e rp r e ta ti o n o f re s u l ts , a nd d os age r e g im en m o di f ic a ti on , i f in d ic a te d . G . Th e S D C m e as u r e is m o r e t ha n a nu m b e r u s ed t o r e la t e t he pa t ie n t 's va l u e t o a po p ul a ti o n t her a p eu t ic ra n ge . Th e S D C i s a fo r m o f d ia g no s t ic t e s t us e d ( 1 ) t o a s s is t i n c la s s i f yin g p a ti en t s t a tus an d (2 ) as fe ed b ac k t o r e v i s e p ra c ti t io ne r es t im a t es o f p at i en t s t at us . Th e r e fo r e, i t is im po r t an t to k n o w t h e p re d ic ti v e v a lue s a n d l ik el ih o od r at i os o f S D C te s ts . P.751
STUDY QUESTIONS D i r e c t i on s : E a c h of t he n u m b e re d i t em s o r i nc om p le t e s ta t em en ts in t his s ec t io n i s f o ll o we d b y a ns we r s o r b y c o m p l et i on s o f t he s t at e m e n t. S el ec t t h e o n e l et t e re d a ns we r o r c o m p l et i on th a t is b est i n e ac h c as e . 1 . D e f in e th e r ap e u ti c dr u g m on i t o r in g . W h a t is m ea n t b y t h e t e r m T DM ? ( A ) Th e us e o f d r u g s e r um c o nc e nt r a ti on m e as u re m en ts , fo r d ru gs in wh i c h th e r e is ( 1 ) a c o r re l a ti on be t we e n s e r um c o n c e n t ra t io n a nd r e s po ns e , as we l l a s (2 ) a n a rr o w r a n ge of e ff ec t iv e a n d s af e c o nc en t r at i on s , t o as s e s s pa t ie n t s ta t us as a n a dj u nc t to c l in ic al o b s e r v a t io n ( B ) Th e us e o f d r u g s e r um c o nc e nt r a ti on m e as u re m en ts t o d et e rm i ne p o p ul at i on v a lu es f or a dr u g ' s h al f - li f e va l ue ( C ) Th e us e o f dr u g s er um co nc e nt r a ti on m e as u re m en ts t o as s e ss t h e a c c u ra c y of t he dr u g c o nc en t r at i on ass a y ( D ) O b s er v i n g t h e e ff ec ts o f d ru g s in m a n ( E ) U s in g d r ug s e r um c on c en t r at i on m e as u re m e nt s to di f fe r e nt i at e e f f ec t i v e f r om i n ef f ec t i v e d r u gs V i e w A n s we r 1 . T h e a n sw e r i s A [ 1. B] . 2. T he t her a p e u ti c r an g e f o r t h e o ph yl l i n e i s o f t e n s ta t e d a s 1 0 -2 0 m cg /m L . W h a t d o es t h is me a n? ( A ) F i ft y p e rc en t o f pe o pl e ta k i n g t he o ph y l li n e s ho w a s a fe an d e f f ec t i v e r es p on s e wh e n t h e s e ru m d r ug c o nc en t ra t i on is b e t we e n 1 0 - 20 m c g/ m L . ( B ) Mo s t p eo p le ac hi e v e t h e d es i r ed re s po ns e t o th e o ph y l li n e, wi t h m i ni m u m a d v e rs e e f fe c t s wh e n t h e s e r um th e op hyl l i ne c o nc e nt r a ti on i s m ai n ta i ne d b e t we e n 10 - 2 0 m c g /m L . F e we r pa t ie n ts a re m a na g ed
e f f ec t i v el y a t < 10 m c g/ m L , bu t s om e m a y re s po nd q ui t e a p p ro p r ia t el y a t l o we r leve l s . Th e f r eq ue n c y o f ad v e r s e e f fe ct s i n c re as es as th e l e v el inc r e as es a b o v e t h e u pp e r l i m i t o f t h e t h e r ap eu t ic ra n ge , bu t a f e w p a t ie n ts a re m a na ged e f fe ct i ve l y, wi t h o u t a d v e rs i t y , a b o v e t h e ra n ge . ( C ) Twe n t y- f i v e p e r c e n t o f pe o pl e s ho w a n e ff ec ti v e r es p on s e to t h e op h y ll i ne at 1 0 m c g/m L , a nd 75 % s h o w a n e ff e c ti v e re s po ns e a t 20 mcg/mL. ( D ) Twi c e d a il y a dm in is t ra t i on of t he op h yl li ne , bu t n o t t h re e ti m e s d a il y , r e qu i re s t ha t s e r um d ru g c on ce n t ra t io ns s ta y wi t h i n 1 0 - 20 mcg/mL. ( E ) Th e o ph y l l in e s e ru m d r u g c on c e n t ra t io ns ou ts i d e o f t h e 1 0 -2 0 m c g / m L r an ge a re in e ff ec t i v e a nd / o r u ns a fe . V i e w A n s we r 2 . T h e a n sw e r i s B [] .3 . As s um e tha t f o r a d ig o x in , t h e t he r a pe u t ic r a ng e is c i te d a s C a v g , s s = 0 .8 -2 n g /m L. I f t h e p a t ie n t is a s s um e d t o h a ve an e sti m a t ed d ig o xi n t 1 / 2 o f 48 h o u rs , how l o ng w o u ld yo u w a it t o t a ke a s e r um d i go x in c on c en t r a t ion m ea s u re m en t , a n d w he n d u r i n g τ w ou l d yo u s c h e d u le i t ? ( A ) 2 8 d a y s , t he n 3 - 4 h ou r s a f te r t he do se is a dm i n is t er e d ( B ) 1 4 d a y s , t he n 6 - 8 h ou r s a f te r t he do se is a dm i n is t er e d ( C ) 7 da y s , t h en 10 - 14 ho u r s a ft e r th e d os e i s a dm i ni st e r ed ( D ) 3 da y s , t h en 1 -2 ho ur s af t e r t h e d os e is ad m in i s t e r ed ( E ) 1 da y , th e n 1 8 -2 2 h ou r s a f te r t he do se is a dm i n is t er e d V i e w A n s we r 3 . T h e a n sw e r i s C [] .4 . D if f e r en t i at e l i ne a r f ro m n o n l in e a r d r u g c l ea r a nc e . W h a t i s th e e f f ec t on T D M? ( A ) L in e ar d ru g c le a r an c e is fi r s t o rd e r , t h e C l a nd t 1 / 2 a re i n de p en d en t o f dr u g d os a g e , a nd p ro po r t io n al c ha n g e s i n d os e r e s ul t i n t h e s a m e p ro p or t i on a l c ha ng es in C s s . No n li n ea r dr u g c l ea r an c e is z e r o o rd e r , C l a nd t 1 / 2 c h an ge as dos e c ha n ge s ( o r a s t h e a m o u nt o f d r ug i n the b od y c ha ng es ) , a n d p ro p o r ti on a l ch a ng es i n do s e y i el d d is p ro p o rt io n a te c h an g es i n C s s . ( B ) L in e ar d ru g c le a r an c e p r es en ts f e we r s e ru m c o nc en t r at i on pe ak s a n d t r o ug hs du r in g th e do s ag e i n te r va l t h an do es n o nl in e a r d r ug c l ea r an c e . ( C ) L in e a r d r ug c l ea r an c e is z e r o o r de r , t h e C l an d t 1 / 2 a r e d e p en de n t o n d r ug do s ag e , a n d p r op o rt i on a l ch an g es in do s e do no t r e s ul t i n t h e s a m e p ro p or t i on a l c ha ng es in C s s . No n li n ea r dr u g c l ea r an c e is fi r s t o rd e r , a n d e q ua t io ns ar e n o t a v a i la b le to p re d ic t d r u g s er u m c o nc e nt r a ti on f r om th e d os e ra t e. ( D ) D r u gs wi t h l i ne a r c lea r a nc e h a v e s ho r t e r t 1 / 2 v a l u es th a n d r ug s wi t h n o nl in e a r c l e a ra nc e. ( E ) D r u gs wi t h l i ne a r c l ea r a nc e a r e a dm in is t e re d l e s s o f t en th a n d r u gs wi t h n o nl in e a r c l ea r a nc e . V i e w A n s we r 4 . T h e a n sw e r i s A [] .P . 75 2
5 . W ha t is t he po s i t i ve p r e d i ct i ve va l u e o f a d ia g n os t i c t e s t? ( A ) Th e f r ac ti o n o f p at i en t s wi t h a p os i ti v e ou t c om e wh o ha v e a p o s i t i v e t es t re s u l t ( B ) B e in g m o re th a n 5 0% c o r r ec t i n p r e di ct in g s u c c e ss o r fa i lu r e u p o n us i ng a d ru g re g im e n ( C ) Th e f r ac ti o n o f p a ti en t s wh o a c h i e v e a s uc c es s fu l r e sp on s e in u s in g a d ru g ( D ) Th e f r ac ti o n o f p a ti en t s wi t h a p os i ti v e t es t re s ul t wh o tu r n o u t t o h a v e a p os it i v e o u tc om e ( E ) Th e p ro b ab il i t y th a t k n o wl e d ge o f a d r u g s e r um co nc e nt r a ti on r e s ul ts in a s u c c es s fu l re s po ns e to t re a tm en t V i e w A n s we r 5 . T h e a n sw e r i s D [] .6 . A 7 0 - ye a r - o l d , 8 0 - kg ma l e, w i t h s e r um c r e a t in i ne of 3 m g /d L , i s s c he d u le d t o s ta r t t ob r a m yc i n t h e r a p y. W h a t re g i me n i s r ec o mm e n de d to ac h i e ve C m a x , s s w i th i n 5 - 10 m c g/ m L ( u s e th e m i d p oi n t o f 7. 5 m c g /m L f o r t h e c al c ul a t io n ) a nd C m i n , s s < 2 m c g /m L. T r y a q 24 h r e g i me n t o s ta r t a nd , i f u n s uc ce s s fu l in ac h i evi n g t h e ta r g e t c on c en tr a t i o n g o a ls , al t e r τ an d r ec a lc u l a te . As s um e in n o rma l s th e fo l l ow in g va l ues : t 1 / 2 = 2 . 5 h r, V = 0 .2 5 L / k g, F = 0 .9 8 , S = 1 , f = 1, C l c r = 1 20 m g / dL . ( A ) A lo a di n g d os e o f 1 .8- 2 . 0 m g/ k g f ol lo we d b y 1. 0 m g /k g q d ( B ) A lo a di n g d os e o f 1 .8- 2 . 0 m g/ k g f ol lo we d b y 1. 5 m g /k g q d ( C ) 2 . 0 m g / k g qd ( D ) 1 . 0 m g / k g qd ( E ) 0 . 5 m g /k g q d V i e w A n s we r 6 . T h e a n sw e r i s B [] .
D per τri
=
(DL)(fraction lost per τri)
=
(1.9 /kg)(0.78) = 1.5 /kg
P.753
ANSWERS AND EXPLANATIONS 1 . T he an sw e r is A [ 1 . B ].
2 . T he an sw e r is B [ I I . B] . 3 . T he an sw e r is C [ I I . D. 3 ] . I f t he pa t ie n t 's es ti m a t e d t 1 / 2 i s 4 8 h ou r s , 90 % o f s t ea d y st a te is e xp e ct e d t o be a c hi e v e d b et we e n 3 -4 t 1 / 2 i nt e r v a ls o r 6 -8 da y s i n t h is c as e . F o r c li ni c a l pu r p os es , we c h o os e 9 0% a tt a in m en t o f s t e ad y s ta t e a s t he m i ni m u m t im e t o e st im a te d r ug a cc u m u la t io n . A le v e l d ra wn a t 7 d a ys s ee m s re as o na b le . O nc e a τ s s ha s b e e n s e le ct e d, t he ti m e fo r s c h e d ul in g a le v e l s ho u ld c o r r es p on d wi t h t h e r e fe re n c e ti m e f o r th e th e ra p eu t ic ra n ge. I n t h is c as e , C a v g , s s wa s c i t ed as th e r e fe r e nc e t i m e , s o a m e as u re m e n t s c h ed ul e d f o r s om e ti m e n ea r th e m id p oi n t o f τ s s (a r o un d 1 2 h o u rs ) i s r e a so na b le . 4 . T he an sw e r is A [ I V .A , C ] . Th i s p re s e n ts c h al le n ge s i n TD M, b e c au se f or li ne a r dr u gs th e c li ni c i a n ca n e xp e c t a ch a ng e i n C s s p r op o rt io n al t o a c ha n ge in do se, b u t f o r n on li n ea r dr u gs t h is is no t true. 5 . T he an sw e r is D [ V I I .B . 1 ] . Th e p os i ti v e p re d ic ti v e v a l ue o f a d i ag n os ti c t es t i s a n i n de x o f h o w e f fe c ti ve t he t e s t is in c l as s i f y in g pa tie n ts c o r r ec tl y. F o r e xa m p l e , us i ng a C s s m e as u re f o r a g i ve n d r ug , k n o wi n g t ha t t h e p os i ti ve pr e di c t i v e va l ue is 0. 8 , g i v en a g r oup o f p a t ie n ts wi t h a C s s a b o ve t he t es t c ut o ff va lu e , 80 % of t he pa t ie n ts wi l l be a cc u r at e l y c la s s i fi ed as h a v i n g a p os i ti v e ou t c o m e . I f t he t es t i s b ei ng use d to c l as s i f y to xi c v e r s us n o nt o xi c p a ti en t s , 80 % o f the p at i en ts wi t h C s s a b o ve t he t es t c u to f f wi l l e xp e r i en c e d ru g - in d uc ed to xi c i t y . I f, ins t ea d , t h e t es t i s b ei n g us e d t o c l as s i f y ef f ec t i v e v e r s u s s u be f fe c ti ve r es po ns e i n p a ti e nt s , 8 0% of th e p a ti e n ts wi t h C s s a b o v e t he t es t c ut o ff wi l l e xp e r i en c e e ff ec t i ve r e s p o ns e. 6 . T he an sw e r is B [ I V .D . 3 ] . U s i ng th e eq ua t io n fo r es t im a ti ng C l c r in th is pa t ie n t fr om I V B 1 :
t h e n, us in g th e e qu a ti o n f o r es ti m a t in g t 1 / 2 i n t h is p a t ie n t f r om I V. B . 2:
Th e n , us in g e q ua t io n [ I V. D . 3 . b] , fi r s t de t e rm in e a l o ad in g d o se : ( D L ) to ach i e v e t h e d e si r ed C m a x , s s o f 7 . 5 m c g / m L : DL = (Cmax,ss)(V)/(S)(f) D L = ( 7. 5 m c g /m L ) (0 . 25 L / k g ) / ( 1 )( 1 ) = 1 .9 m g /k g Th e n , de t e rm in e f r ac t io n o f dr u g l os t d u ri n g τ , as s um i ng a τ r i o f 2 4 h r , a nd us i ng th e ( t 1 / 2 ) r i o f 1 0. 9 h r es ti m a te d ab o ve u si n g t he eq u at i o n i n I V . D .3 .c : f r a ct i on lo s t = 1 - 1 0
-0.3(24/10.9)
L a st l y, c a lc ul a te D p e r τ r i :
= 0 .7 8
D per τri
=
(DL)(fraction lost per τri)
=
(1.9 mg/kg)(0.78) = 1.5 mg/kg
Th u s , a D L of 1. 9 m g /k g f o l lo we d b y 1. 5 m g /k g q 24 h is e xp e c t e d t o a t ta in th e d e si r ed C m a x , s s a n d C m i n , s s l e v el s i n t h is p a ti e nt . O f c ou r s e , m a n y e s ti m a te s we r e m a de al o ng th e wa y ( C l c r , t 1 / 2 , V ) , so i f t he pa t ie nt ' s C m a x , s s a n d C m i n , s s v a ry f r o m wh a t h a s b ee n e xp e c t ed f r o m t he c a lc ul a ti o ns , i t is li k e l y du e to th e e s tim a t es be i ng a t va r ia nc e wi t h t h e ac t ua l v a lu e (s ) i n th e p a ti en t.
37 Drug Use in Special Patient Populations: Pediatric, Pregnant, and Geriatric M a r c ia L. B u ck J u l i e J . K e l se y
I. PEDIATRIC PHARMACOTHERAPY A. G e n e r a l co n s id e r a tio n s 1 . Mo s t ph a rm ac is t s in c o m m u ni t y an d h o s p i ta l se t t in gs p ro vi d e c a r e f o r c h il d re n . I n t h e Un i te d S ta t es , c hi ld re n m ak e u p ne a rl y o ne th i r d o f t h e t o ta l p op u la t io n . A l t h ou gh c h il d r en t y pi c a ll y r e q ui r e f e we r m e di c a t io n s t ha n a d ul ts b ec au se o f th ei r r e l at i ve go od he a lt h , a ppr o xi m a t e l y 3 0 % o f a ll p res c ri p ti o ns f i ll ed in co m m u n i t y p h a rm ac ie s a r e f o r p ed i at r i c p at i en ts . As a r es u lt , p h a r ma c is t s n ee d t o ha ve a b a s ic k now l e dg e o f pe di a t r i c p h a rm a co t h e ra p y t o a pp r o p r ia t e l y a s s e ss a nd m o n i to r d r u g t h e ra p y. 2 . P r o v id in g c a re f or c h ild r e n i s o ft e n a c h al le n ge. Th e r e i s l i mi t e d i n f o rm a t i on o n t h e se l ec t i on , do s i ng , an d m on i t o r in g of d r ug s i n t h is p o pu l at i on . I t is e s ti m a t ed t h a t o nl y 2 5% o f t he d rug s a v a i la bl e on th e m a rk e t in th e U ni t ed S ta t es c a r r y a Fo o d a n d D ru g Ad m i ni s tr a ti o n ( F D A ) a pp r o v ed in d ic at i on f o r us e i n p e di a t ri c p ati e n ts , a l t ho ug h ne a rl y 7 5% ha v e b ee n u s e d t o t re a t c h i ld r e n . A s a re s u l t, m o st pe d ia t r ic d o si n g is c o ns id e r ed of f -l a be l . Do s i n g i nf o rm a ti on t yp i ca ll y c om es d i r ec tl y f r o m c a s e r e p o rt s a n d s m al l c li ni c al t r ia ls pu bl is h ed in th e m e di c a l l i te r at u r e. I n a dd i t io n t o b e in g a b le to o bt ai n p e dia t r ic - s p ec i fi c d r ug i n f or m a t i on , p h a rm ac is ts m us t a l s o be f a m i l ia r wi t h d i ff e re n c e s i n pe di a t ri c p ha r m a co k i ne t ic s a nd ph a rm ac o d ynam ic s a s we l l a s t he un i qu e a s p ec t s of m e di c a t io n m on i to r in g an d c om pl i an ce in th is p o p ul at i on . B . P h a r ma c ok i ne t i c c on s i de r a t i on s 1 . U nl ik e th e r e la t i v el y s t a b le ph a rm ac ok in e ti c p ro f i le of m o s t d ru gs in adu l ts , c h il d re n ' s p h a rm ac o k ine t i c p a r am e t e rs ch a ng e d u r i n g m at u r a t io n f r om n eo n a te s i n t o ad o le s ce n t s ( Ta b le 3 7 - 1) . As a r es u lt , th e pe d ia t r ic po pu l at i on is a di v e r s e a nd d yn a m i c g r ou p . E ac h a s p e c t o f d ru g di sp os i ti on is a ff ec t ed , i n cl ud i ng ab s o r p ti o n , d i st r ib u ti o n, m e t ab ol is m , a n d e li m i na t io n . No n e of t h es e p ro c es s es is fu ll y m a tu r e a t b i r th , an d t h e y d e v e lo p at d if f e re n t r a te s o v e r th e f i rs t y e ar s o f l i fe . Th e s tu d y o f t h es e c h an ge s i s k n o wn a s d e v e lo pm e nt a l p ha r m a c ol o g y. 2 . D r u g a b so r p t i on . F o r m an y r o u te s o f a dm in is tr a t io n , t h e a bs o rp t io n o f a d r ug is m os t gr e a tl y al t e re d d u r in g in f an c y. Di f fe r e nc es in d r ug ab so r p ti on du r in g t h is p e r io d m a y af f ec t t h e c ho i c e of de l i v e r y m et h od , d o s e , o r m o ni t o ri ng . a . G a s t ro i n te s t in a l a b so r p t i o n. O r a l d ru g ab s o rp t i on is m os t g r ea t l y al t er e d du r in g t h e fi rs t y e a r o f l if e . S e ve r a l a s p ec ts o f a bs o rp ti on a r e a ge de pe n de n t , in cl u di n g g a st r ic p H , g as t ri c em p t yi n g t im e , i nt es t in a l m o t il it y, b il e s a lt p ro du c ti on , an d p a nc r ea t ic en z y m e fu nc t io n . ( 1 ) E l e va te d ga s t r ic p H . A t bi r t h, ga s t ri c p H i s e le v a t e d ( p H > 4 ) . Th i s r es u lt s f r om a r el a ti v e d ec re a s e i n gas t r ic a c i d p r o du c t i on an d a n o v e r a ll de c r e as e i n th e v o lu m e o f ga s tr ic s e c re t io ns . As a r es u lt , a c i d - la bi l e d r ugs su c h as p e ni c i ll i n G m a y h a v e a g r e a te r b i oa v a i la bi l it y i n n e o na t es t h an in ol d er i nf a n ts . Co n v e rs e l y , d r ug s t h a t a re
we a k a c i ds s uc h a s p h eno b a rb i ta l (L um in a l ) m a y n o t b e a s we ll ab s or b ed . To c om p en s a t e f o r t h is e f fec t , n e on a te s m a y r e qu i r e l a rg e r o r a l d os es o f th es e d r u gs t h a n o ld e r i n fa n ts t o p r od u c e th e d e s i r ed th e r ap eu t ic e ff ec t . Ac id pr o du c tio n ri s es s t ea d il y a f te r b i r th , re ac h i ng ad u lt le v e ls wi t h i n 2 m on t hs . P.755
Table 37-1. Age Definitions Age Group
Age
Newborn Preterm or premature
< 36 weeks' gestationa
Term
> 36 weeks' gestationa
Neonate
< 1 month
Infant
1 month-1 year
Child
1-11 years
Adolescent
12-16 years
a
Gestational age as measured from the time of the mother's last menstrual period. ( 2 ) P r o lo n g ed ga s t r ic em p t yi n g a n d i n t es t i na l m o t i l it y. Th e r a t e of pa s s a ge of d r u gs th r o ug h t h e g as t roi n t es ti n al t ra ct is al so im p o r t an t i n d e te r m i ni n g t he r a te an d e xt e n t o f t h ei r ab s o r p ti on . C oo r d in a ti on o f co n t rac t io ns wi t h in t he s t om ac h b eg in s t o i m p ro ve s h o rt l y af t e r b i rth , wh i l e i nt es t in a l p e ri s ta l s i s i nc r ea se s m o r e s lowl y , o ve r t h e fi rs t 4 m o n th s o f l i fe . A s a r es ul t of th is p ro l on g e d t r an s i t t im e , a bs o rpt i o n o f d r u gs m a y be s i gn i fi c a n tly s l o we d . ( a ) P r e te r m ne o na t es t yp i c a ll y h a ve m o r e de l aye d g a s t r i c em p t yi n g t i m e t ha n t e r m ne o na t e s, s o th a t c h an g es i n o r al ab s or p tio n m a y be m o st p ro n ou nc e d i n t h es e p a ti e nt s . ( b ) B r e as t - f ed i n fa n ts em p t y t h e i r s t om a ch s a pp r o x i ma t el y t w ic e a s fas t a s f o r m u la f e d i n fa n t s . Th e i nc r e as ed c a lo r ic de ns i ty o f f o rm ul a f e ed in g s d ela ys g a st r ic em p t y in g . ( 3 ) B i le sa l t a n d p a nc r ea t i c e nz ym e p r o d u c ti o n. Th e r a te of bi l e s a l t s yn t h es is i n p r e t er m a nd t e rm i n fa n ts i s r e du c e d t o ap p ro xi m at e l y 50 % o f ad ul t v a lu es .
D e c r ea s e d f a t a bs o rp t ion f r om e n te r a l f ee d in gs , a s we l l as d ec re a se d d r ug a b so r p ti on , c a n oc c u r . Fo r e xa m p le , wh e n l ip id - so l u b l e v i t am in D is a dm in i s t e r ed to n e o na t es , b io a v a il ab i li t y i s o n l y 3 0 % as c o m p a re d wi t h 7 0% in ad u lt s . Th e a b so r p ti on o f l ip id - s o l ub le d r ug s is fu r t he r r ed uc e d as a r e s u lt o f l o we r le v e l s o f p a nc r ea t ic en z y m e s . ( 4 ) O t he r fa c to r s a f fe c t i ng o r al dr u g a bs o rp t io n i nc l ud e re du c e d s p la nc hn ic bl o od f l o w i n th e 1 s t m o n th of li f e a n d r e du c e d a c t i v i t y o f in t es ti n al m e t ab ol ic en z ym e s ( a l te r i ng th e fi rs t - pa s s eff e c t) . In ad d it i on , n e on a te s l ac k n o rm al gu t m ic r of l o ra . A l t h ou gh ba c te r ia l c ol o niz a t i o n n o rm al l y occ u rs s h o r tl y a f te r bi r t h, it m a y b e s i gn i fi ca n tl y d el a y e d i n pr e t e rm ne on a t es wh o a r e b e in g c a re d f o r i n t h e s te r i le e n vi r on m e n t o f a n i n te ns i v e c a r e u n it . b . P e r cu t a ne o us ab s o rp t i o n ( 1 ) A bs o rp t io n o f d r u gs th r o ug h th e s k i n is en h anc e d i n i nf a nt s a nd y o u ng c hi l dr e n o wi n g t o b et t e r h y d r at i on o f th e e p id e rm is , g r ea t er p e r fu si on o f t he s u bc u ta n e ou s l a ye r , a n d t he la r ge r r at io o f t o ta l b o d y s u rf ac e ar e a to bo d y m a s s c om par e d to a d ul t s. ( 2 ) I n p re t e rm ne on a te s , t h e s t ra t um c o r ne um is al s o t hi n ne r , f u r th e r i nc r ea s in g t h e p o t en t ia l f o r t h e a bs o rp t io n of t op ic al p ro d uc ts . ( 3 ) Th i s r ou t e o f a dm i ni s t r a t io n s ho u ld be us ed wi t h c au t io n i n i n fa n ts an d y o u n g c h il d re n to a v oi d o v e r dos a ge . Th e re a re nu m e r ou s a c c o un ts of t o xi c it y re s ul t in g f r o m p e rc ut a ne o us a bs o rp t i on . F o r e xa m p l e, r ep ea t e d a pp li c at io n s o f t op ic a l h yd r o co r ti s on e c r ea m f o r d i ap e r r as h o r ec z e m a c a n p ro du c e a dr e na l a xi s s u pp r es s i o n a ft e r a s l it t le as 2 we ek s o f u s e in an i nf a nt . c . I n t ra m us c ul a r a b s o rp t i o n ( 1 ) Th e ab s o r p ti on o f d rug s a dm i ni s t e r ed b y th is ro u t e m a y b e re du c e d i n n e o na t es a s a r es ul t o f r ed uc ed blo o d f l o w t o sk e le t al m us c l es . I n a d di t io n , we a k or e r r at ic m us c l e c o nt r ac t io ns in ne o n at es m a y r es ul t in red u c e d d r ug di s t ri bu t io n . Th e s e f a c to r s m a y b e p a rt i al l y o f f s e t b y t h e h ig he r de ns i t y o f c ap i ll a ri es in s k e l et a l m us c l e d u r in g i n fa nc y , wh i c h i nc r e a s e s b lo od c i r c u la t io n . ( 2 ) I nt r am us c u l ar ad m i n is t r at i on of d ru gs is ge ner a l l y d is c ou r ag e d i n t he p e di a t ri c p o p ul at i on be c a us e o f the p ai n a s s oc ia t ed wi t h the i nj ec t io n a nd t he ri s k of n e r v e d a m a g e f r om i n ad v e r t en t i n je c t i on in t o n er v e t iss u e . P.756
( 3 ) Th i s r ou t e i s g en e ra l ly r e s e r v ed fo r t he ad m i nis t r at i on of v i t am in K , va c c i ne s , a n d o cc as io n al l y an t ib io ti c s wh e n i n t ra ve n ou s a c c es s i s n ot a vai l ab le . I f it i s us e d, t h e vol um e s h ou ld no t exc e e d 0 . 5 m L fo r in f an ts a n d you n ge r c h il d re n a nd 1 m L f o r o l de r ch il d re n . d . R e ct a l a d mi n is t r a t ion . A bs o rp t io n b y t h is ro ut e is fa i rl y r e li ab l e, e v e n f o r p r e t er m n eo n a te s . A dm in i s t r a ti o n m a y b e c om pl ic a te d i n i n fa n ts , h o we v e r , b y t he i n c re as ed nu m be r o f pu ls a ti l e c o n t ra c t i on s i n t h e r e c t um co m p a re d to ad ul t s , m a ki n g e xp u l s i on of a s u p po s i t or y m o r e l ik el y. e . P u lm o na r y a d m i n i s t ra t i o n . I nh al a ti o n o f m ed ic a ti o ns i s i nc r ea s i n gl y be i ng us e d i n in f an ts an d o l de r c h il dr e n to a v oi d s y s te m i c e xp o s u r e . W hile d e v el op m e n t al
c h an g es i n t h e p ul m o n a ry v a s c ul a tu r e a nd r es pi ra t o r y m e c h an ic s l ik el y a lt e r th e p h a rm ac ok i ne ti c s of d rug s g i v e n b y in h al a ti o n, lit t l e is k n o wn a bo u t t he ef f e c t s o f g r o wt h a nd m a tu r a ti o n on t hi s r o ut e o f d ru g a dm in i s t r a ti o n. 3 . D r u g d i s t ri b u t io n . G ro wt h a n d m at u ra t io n a f f ec t m a n y o f th e f ac t o rs tha t d e t e rm in e d r ug di s t r i bu t io n . Bo d y wa t e r c o nt e nt , f a t s t o re s , pl as m a p ro t ein c o nc en t r at i on s , o rg a n s iz e a n d p e rf us i on , h em o dy n a m ic s t ab il i t y , t is s ue pe r f us i on , a c id - ba s e ba l an c e , an d c e ll m em b r an e p e rm ea b il i t y a l l u n de r go si gn i fi can t c h an g es f r o m i nf a nc y t o a do l es c en c e. a . B o d y w a te r a nd f a t co n t e n t. To t al bo d y wa t e r c on t en t de c re as es wi t h in c r ea s i ng a g e . Th i s i s p ri m a r il y t h e r e s u l t o f a la r ge r e xt r a ce l lu l a r b od y wa t e r c o n ten t in n e o na t es a n d y o u ng in f an t s wh ic h d ec r e as es wi th a ge . Ap p r o xi m at e l y 8 0% o f a n e wb o r n ' s we ig h t i s b ody wa t e r . B y 1 y e a r o f a ge , t hi s v a l ue de c l in es t o 6 0 % , s im i la r to th a t o f a n a d ult . H i gh l y wa t e r -s ol u bl e c o m po u nd s, s u c h as g e nta m ic in ( G a r a m y c i n ), ha v e a l a rge r v o l um e o f d is t ri b ut i on i n ne on a t es t h an in ol d er c hi l dr e n . A s a r es u lt , la r ge r m i ll ig ra m p e r k il o gr am do s es ar e o ft e n n ee d ed to ac hi eve d es i r ed t h e r ap eu t ic c o nc en t r at i on s . Co n v e rs el y, b od y f a t i n c re as es wi t h a g e, f r om 1 % - 2% i n a p r et e rm ne o na t e t o 1 0% - 1 5% in a t e rm ne on a te a nd 20 % -2 5 % i n a 1 - y e a r - ol d . L i po p hi li c d r ug s , s u c h as d i a z ep am ( V al iu m ), ha ve a s m a ll e r v ol um e o f d is t r ib u ti o n i n in f an ts t ha n i n o ld e r c h i ld r e n a nd ad ul t s . b . P r o t ei n bi n d in g . A c i di c d r u gs b i nd to al b u mi n, wh i l e b as ic s u bs t an c e s b i nd p r i m a r il y t o α 1 - ac i d g l yc o p r o t e in ( A G P ) . Th e q ua n t it y o f t o ta l p l asm a p r ot e i ns , i n cl ud i ng bo t h o f t h es e s u b s t a nc es , i s r e du c e d i n n e on a te s a nd y o un g i n fa n ts . In a d di t io n , t h e s e r um al b um i n o f n e wb o r ns m a y hav e a r ed uc e d b in di n g a f fin i t y. Th es e t wo f a c to r s r es u lt in an in c r ea s e in th e fr e e f r ac tio n of m a n y d ru gs ( Ta bl e 3 7 - 2) . Th e i n c re as e i n t h e f r ee f ra c ti o n m a y re s u l t i n e nh a nce d ph a rm ac ol o gi c a l a c ti vi t y f o r a g i ve n d os e . T h e r e la t i ve d e c re a se i n s e ru m p rot e i n s m a y a l s o p r o d uc e i n c r ea s ed c om p et i t i on b y d r u g s a n d e n d og e nou s su b s ta n ce s , s u ch as b i l i r ub i n , f o r b i nd i n g s i te s . D r u gs t h a t a re hi g hl y b ou n d t o a l bu m i n , s u c h as th e s u lf o na m i d es , m a y d is p la c e b il i ru b in f ro m i ts bi nd i ng s i t es a n d a ll o w d e po s it i on in t h e b r a in , re f er r e d t o a s k e r ni c t e ru s . A s a re s ul t , t h es e d r u gs a r e c on si d e re d c o nt r a in di c a t ed in t he fi rs t 2 m o n th s o f l i fe . 4 . M e t ab o l is m . Th e m o s t s ig ni f ic an t re s e a rc h i n d e ve l op m e n ta l p ha r m a c ol o g y d u r in g th e p as t d ec a de ha s c om e i n t h e a r ea of dr u g m e ta b ol is m . D e ve l op m e n ta l c h a ng e s h a ve be e n i den t i f i ed f o r m a n y p h a s e I ( o xi d a t io n , r e du c t i on , h yd r o xyl a t i o n , a nd h y d rol y s is ) an d p h as e II (c o nju g a ti on ) r e ac t i on s . Th e m a tu r a ti o n o f m e t ab ol ic f un c t i on re s u l ts in th e ne ed f or ag e - re l a te d d os a ge al t er a ti o ns f or m a n y c om m o n th e ra p ie s a nd m a y e xp l a i n t h e i nc r ea se d r i sk fo r d r u g t o xi c i t y i n in f a nt s a nd yo u n g c hi l dr e n. a . Th e ac ti v i t y o f p ha s e I e nz ym e s , s uc h a s th e c yt o c h r o m e P 45 0 ( C Y P) e n z ym e s , c h a ng e s s i gn i f ic a n tl y d u r i n g m a t u ra t i o n. Th e pr i m ar y i so en z y m e du r in g t h e p r e na t al pe r i od , C YP 3 A 7, p ea k s s o on af t e r b i rt h a n d t h en de cl i ne s r ap i dly. Th i s e n zym e e xi s ts i n b a r el y m e as u ra bl e q u an t it i es i n a d ul ts . It m a y a pp e ar ear l y i n f e ta l l i f e t o d et o xi f y r e t i no ic ac i d, P.757
a p ot e nt i al r at o ge n . A ls o a t th e t im e o f bi r th , C YP 2 E 1 an d C YP 2 D 6 l e v e ls b e gi n to r i s e. E n z y m e s a s s oc ia t ed wi t h t he m e ta b ol is m o f m an y c om m o n d r ug s — CYP 3 A 4 , C YP 2 C 9 , a n d C YP 2 C 1 9— a p pe a r wi t hi n th e f i rs t we e k s of li f e, bu t th e ir leve l s i n c re as e s lo wl y . Th e l as t o f th e e n z ym es to de v e lo p , C YP 1 A 2 , is p re s e n t b y 1 - 3 m o nt hs o f l if e . Th e ac t i v it y o f th e se en z y m es do es no t ap pe a r to i n c r e as e i n a d ir e c t l i ne a r m an n e r wi t h ag e , b u t v a ri es o ve r t im e . B y 3 - 5 y e ar s o f a g e, m o s t pa t i en ts h a ve C YP i s o e n z y m e ac ti v i t y l e v el s s im il a r t o t h at o f a d ul ts .
Table 37-2. Protein-Bound Drugs with a High Free Fraction in Neonates Ampicillin (Principen)
Penicillin G (Pfizerpen)
Digoxin (Lanoxin)
Phenobarbital
Diazepam (Valium)
Phenytoin (Dilantin)
Lidocaine (Xylocaine)
Propranolol (Inderal)
Morphine (Duramorph)
Theophylline
Nafcillin (Nallpen) ( 1 ) Th e al t er e d p ha r m a c o k in e ti c p r of il e s o f d r ug s i n c hi l dr e n m a y , i n l a rg e p a r t, be e xp l a i n ed b y th es e d e v e lo p m e n ta l c ha n ge s i n t he C YP e n z y m e s ys t em . On e of t he m os t we l l s tu d ie d e n z y m e s i s C Y P1 A2 . Th i s e n zy m e i s n ea r l y no n e xi s te n t i n f e ta l l i ve r c el ls , an d a c t i v i t y is m in im a l i n n eo na t es . As a r es ul t , t h e r a te of m e ta b ol is m o f c a f fe in e i n th e n eo n at e is s l o w, r es u lt i ng i n an el i m in a ti on ha l f -l i fe of 40 -7 0 h r. E n zym e ac t i v it y i nc r ea s es b y 4 -6 m o nt hs o f a ge . W ithi n t h e f i rs t y ea r of li fe i t e xc e e d s a du l t v al ue s , p ro d uc i ng a c a f fe i ne ha l f -l if e o f a pp r o xi m at e l y 5 h r . I n f an ts r e c ei vi ng c a f fe i ne ( C al fc it ) f o r a pn e a o f p r em at u r i t y o r ch r on ic lu n g d is ea s e m u s t h a ve pe r io d ic a d ju s t m ent s in th ei r do se t o ac c o un t f or t he se c h an g es i n m e ta b ol is m a n d m ai n ta in t he r ap e ut ic s e ru m c on ce n t ra ti o ns . ( 2 ) G e ne t i c p o l ym o r p h i s m al s o pl a y s a s ig n if ic an t r ol e i n d e te r m i ni n g m et a b ol ic f u nc t io n i n c hi l d re n . R ec e n t s t ud ie s wi t h a to m o xe t i n e ( S t ra t t e ra ) h a v e s h own t h a t c h il d re n wi t h r e du c e d CYP 2 D 6 f u nc t io n (i . e. , poo r m e t ab o li z e rs ) ha d g r ea t e r i m p ro ve m e n t i n t he i r a t ten t i on de f ic it h y pe r ac t i vity d i so r d er ( A D H D ) s ym p to m s t ha n c h il d re n wh o we r e e xt e n s i v e m e ta bo l i z e rs , u si ng a s ta nd a r d we i g h t -b as e d d os e . Th e p o o r m et a bo li z e r s a ls o ha d an in c re as e d in ci d en c e o f a d v e rs e e f fe ct s a s a r e su l t o f h a vi n g hi g he r at om o xe t in e s e r um c on c e n t ra t io ns . ( 3 ) Al c o h o l d eh yd r o g e n a s e a c t i v i t y is o n l y 3 % - 4% o f a du l t v a l ue s a t b i r th a nd do es n o t a ch i e v e a du l t v a l ue s u n ti l a p pr o xi m a t el y 5 y ea r s o f a g e. B ec a us e o f th i s ,
n e wb o r n s h a v e a re d uc ed a bi li t y t o d et o xi f y b e n zy l a lc o ho l , a p r es e r va ti v e f ou n d i n m a n y i n je c t a bl e p r od u c t s . N e wb o r n s e xp o s ed r epe a t ed l y to t he s e p ro du c ts wi l l a cc u m u la t e b en z y l a lc oho l , wh ic h m a y le a d t o a po t e nt i al l y fa t al c o nd i ti o n r e f e r re d t o as “g a s p in g s y n d ro m e, ” wi t h m e t ab ol ic ac id o s is , re s pi r at o r y fa i lu r e , se iz u r e s , a nd c a r di o vas c u l ar c o ll a ps e. B e c au se of t hi s r is k , i t is r e c o m m en d ed th a t n eo na t es r e c ei ve pr e s e r v a ti v e - f r ee p r o du c t s o r th os e c on t ain i ng al t e rn a ti ve p re s e r v at i ve s . b . P h as e I I r ea c ti o n s ( c o n ju g at i on wi t h gl y c in e , g l uc u ro n id e , o r s ul f at e to f o rm m o r e wa t e r - s o lu b le c o m p o u nd s ) ha ve n ot be e n s t u d ie d a s e xt e n s i v e l y i n th e p e di a t ri c p op u la t io n . ( 1 ) G l u cu r o n id a t io n is g e n e ra l l y d e c r e a s e d i n n e o na t e s, c o m p a re d wi th o ld e r c h il d re n a n d a du l ts . Th e r a t e o f m e ta bo l is m in c rea s es wi t h i nc r ea si n g a ge. Th i s c an b e s e en in th e d e c r e as ing h al f -l i fe o f m o r p hi ne (D u r a m o r ph ) du r in g th e 1s t ye a r o f l i f e. Th e a v e r a ge ha l f -l ife i n a p r e te r m n eo na t e is 10 - 2 0 h r , c o m p a r ed to 4 - 1 3 h r i n a n e o na t e, 5 -1 0 h r i n i n fa nt s be t we e n 1 an d 3 m o n th s o f ag e , a nd 1 -8 hr in o l de r i n f an ts an d y ou n g c hi ld re n . ( 2 ) U nl ik e g l uc u ro ni d a ti on , s ul f a ti o n d e ve l o ps in u t e r o a n d i s w el l de ve lo p e d i n t h e ne o na t e . Th e v a r ia t io n in th e fu nc t io n o f t h es e t wo p h as e I I r e ac ti o ns c a n b e s e en wi t h th e d e v e lo pm en t a l c h a ng es in ac e ta m i no p h e n ( Tyl e no l ) m et a bo l is m . I n e a r l y i n f an c y , a c e t am in op h e n is c o n ve rt e d p r im ari l y t h ro u gh fo r m a t io n o f s u lf a te c o nj u ga t es ; b ut wi t h in c re a s i n g a ge , g l uc ur o ni d ati o n b ec om es t he pr e do m i n a te fo r m o f m e t ab ol is m . c . W hi le m os t of t he re c e n t re s e a rc h i n to pe d ia t ri c d r u g m e t ab o li sm h as fo c us ed on t h e d e ve lo pm e nt of e n z ym e fu nc t io n i n n eo n at e s , s e v e ra l n e w s t ud ie s h igh l ig h t a d di t io n al c h an g es i n m et a b ol ic fu nc t io n d u r in g ad o le s c e nc e. F or e xa m pl e, l op i na v i r ( m a rk e te d wi t h r i to n a v ir a s Ka l et r a ) p ha r m a c o k i ne t i c s u nd e r go es s i gn i fi c an t ag e a n d g e n de r - re l at e d c ha ng es a t t he ti m e of pu b e rt y . Lo p i n a vi r c le a r an ce in c rea s es b y m o r e t ha n 3 0 % i n b o ys af t e r a g e 1 2, c o m p a re d to g i rl s , wh i c h m a y re su l t in a n e ed t o ad j us t t h e r ec om m e n de d do s e . 5 . E l im i na t i on . D e v el o pm e nt o f r en a l f un c ti on is a c o m p l e x a n d d y n am ic p r o ce s s . N e p h r on s b eg in f or m i n g a s e a r l y a s t h e 9 th we e k o f ge s t a ti o n a nd a re c om p le t e b y 3 6 we e k s . Al t ho u gh th e fu n c t i on al u ni ts of t he k i dn e y s a r e p r es e nt , th ei r c a p ac i t y i s s i gn i fi ca n tl y r e du c e d a t b i r th . G lo m er u la r fi l tr a ti on r a te in ne o na t es i s a ppr o xi m a t e l y h a l f t ha t of ad u lt s . V al u es a re fu r t he r r ed uc e d in p r e t er m n eo n a te s . G l om e r u la r f i l t ra t io n r a te in c re as es ra p id l y du r i ng th e fi rs t 2 we e k s of li f e a nd t ypi c a l ly r e a c h es a d ul t va lu es b y 8 - 1 2 m on t hs o f a ge . Tu bu l ar se c r e t io n P.758 r a t e i s a ls o r e du c e d a t b ir t h to ap p r o xi m at e l y 2 0 % o f ad ul t c a pa c i t y , bu t m a t u r es b y 1 2 m o nt hs o f a ge . ( a ) I mm a tu r e r en a l f u n ct i o n r es u l ts i n s ig n i f ic an t a l te r a t io n s i n th e e l im i n a ti o n o f m an y d r u g s . P ha r m ac ok i ne t ic s t ud ie s f o r s e ve r a l d r ug s , in cl u di n g t he a m in o gl y c os id es an d v an c om y c in ( Va nc oc i n ), hav e s ho wn a d ir e c t c o r re la t i on b e t we e n c le a r an c e an d pa t i en t a g e. P r ol on g at i on o f t he ha l f- l if e s ho u ld be a n t ic ip a te d f o r a ll r en a ll y e l im in a te d d r ug s a dm in i s t e re d t o n e on a te s a nd is m o st p r o no u nc ed in p re t e rm ne o n at es .
( b ) T o a cc o u nt f o r th e re d u ce d a b i li t y o f a n e on a t e to el i m in a te t he s e d r u g s , l o n g e r d o si n g i n t e r va ls a r e o ft e n re q ui r e d . F ai lu r e to ac co un t fo r th e red u c t i on in r e n al f un c t i on m a y r es ul t i n d r u g ac cu m u l at i on and t o xi c i t y. C . P h a r ma c od yn a m i c co n s i de r a t io n s. U n li k e the r a pi dl y a c c el e ra t in g k no wl e d g e o f t h e p h a rm ac ok in e ti c c h an g es as s o ci a te d wi t h d ev e l o p m e nt , l i tt l e is kn o wn o f t h e p h a rm ac o d y na m i c c h a nge s a s s oc i at e d wi t h m a t ura t i on . P re li m i n a r y i n v es t ig a t io ns of wa r f a r i n ( Co um a di n ) p h ar m ac o d yna m i c s h a v e dem o ns t ra t ed a r e la t io ns hip b et we e n a n t ic oa g ul an t re s p o ns e a n d p a ti e nt ag e . O t h e r exa m p l e s i nc lu d e t he in c re a s e d i n ci de n c e of c e r ta i n a d ve r s e d ru g re ac t io ns in y ou n g er ch il d r en , s uc h a s h e p at o xi c i t y wi t h v al p ro ic ac id ( D ep ak e ne ) . Fu t ure r es e ar c h i n a ge - r el a ted p h a rm ac o d y na m i c c h a nge s i s n ee d ed to o pt im i ze t h e s af e a n d e f fe ct i v e us e o f dr u gs i n in f an ts an d c hi l d re n . D . P e d ia t r i c d r u g a dm in i s t r a ti o n a n d m o ni t o r in g . D r ug ad m i ni s tr a ti o n, i n cl ud i ng t h e s el ec t io n o f ag en t and d os e a s we l l as t h e p re p a ra t io n o f th e d os e a nd t h e r ap eu t ic dr u g m on it o ri n g a r e c om pl ic a te d i n t he p ed ia t r ic po pu l at i on . Ph a r m a ci s t s c a r in g f o r c hi ld r e n m u s t in c o rp o ra t e n o t o nl y t he c h a n ge s i n p ha rm a co k i ne ti c s an d p h a rm ac o d y na m i c s d es c r i b ed p re v i o us l y b u t a ls o t h e n ee d to c a r ef u ll y c he c k do s ag e c a lc ul a ti on s a n d, if ne c es s a r y , a lt e r a v a il a bl e d os a ge fo r m u l at i on s t o s ui t a n i n fa n t o r ch il d ' s n ee ds . 1 . Ac c u r a te d os a ge ca lc u l a ti o n s a r e c r i t ic a l i n t h e c a r e o f in f a n ts an d c h i ld r e n . P h a r m a c i s t s s ho ul d u s e p e di a t ri c d os in g i n fo r m a ti o n a va il a bl e i n g e ne r al d r u g r e f e re nc e s o r p ed i at r ic - s p e c i f ic re f e re nc es s u ch a s Th e Pe di a t ri c D o s a ge H a n db o ok ( L e xi - C o m p ), o r t h e H a r ri e t L a ne H an d bo ok ( Mo s b y) . To a c c ou n t f o r d if f e re n ce s i n p h a rm ac ok i ne ti c p a ra m et e r s , m o st pe d ia t r ic d os es a re ba s e d o n b o d y we ig h t . I n t h e c as e o f s om e d r u gs , s uc h as c h em o th e ra p y , do s e s a r e b as e d o n b od y s ur f a ce a re a ( B S A ) . Th i s v a l ue c a n b e d e te r m i n ed f ro m t he pa ti e n t 's he ig h t a n d we i g h t, u si n g e i t he r a n om og r am or t he f ol l o wi ng e qu a ti on :
Th e r e is no ab s o l ut e ru le f o r wh e n a do l esc e nt p ati e n ts s ho u ld s t a r t t o b e do s ed as a d ul t s. I n g en e ra l , a du l t d o s i n g g ui de l in es m a y be us e d i n p at i en ts we i g hin g m o r e t h a n 4 0 -5 0 k g o r wh e n t he c a lc u la t ed we i g ht - b as ed p ed ia t r ic do se e xc e ed s t h e s t an d a rd ad ul t do s e . 2 . T he ne e d t o c a l cu l a te p ed i a t r ic do s es i n t rod u c es a g r e a te r r is k f o r d o sa g e e r r o r s . D os in g e r r o rs h av e b e en fo u nd t o b e m o re c o m m on in m e di c at io n o r d e rs fo r c h il d re n th an in an y o t her p a ti e nt po p ul a ti on . Th e n e ed to c a lc ul a te in d i v id u al d o se s, al o ng wi t h po t en ti a l d ec im al e r ro r s a nd t ra n s c r ip t io n e r r o rs , i nc r ea s es th e p o t en t ia l f o r m is ta k e s . I n a d di t io n , t he r e i s o f te n a wi d e r an ge o f p at i en t ag e s a nd we i g h t s wi t h i n a s i ng le ho s pi t al o r c l in ic . I t is no t u nc om m o n to ha ve pa t ie n t d os e s va r y b y 1 0 - fo l d, as an in fa n t we i gh i ng 5 k g an d an a do le sc e nt we i g hi n g 50 kg m a y b e c a r ed fo r b y th e s am e h e al t hc a re pr o vi de r s. A ll c a lc u la t io ns s h ou l d b e d o u bl e c h ec ke d , a nd or d e rs o u ts i de of t he no rm a l p ed i atr i c d os a ge r an ge ve r if i ed wi t h t h e p r e sc ri b e r. 3 . D o sa g e f o r mu l a ti o n s m a y n e e d t o b e a l te r e d t o ma k e t h em us e f ul f or i n f a n ts a n d c h i ld r e n . B ec a us e yo u n g c h il d r en c a nn o t t y pi c al l y s wa l l o w t a bl e ts and
c a ps ul es , th es e s ol i d d os a ge fo r m u l at i on s m u s t o f t en be c o n ve r te d t o o ra l s o lu t io ns o r su sp e ns io ns . Se v e r a l c om p ou n di ng r es ou r c e s , i nc l ud in g Ex t e mpo r an e ou s F o r m u l at io n s ( A m e r ic an S o c ie t y o f H e al t h- S y s t em P ha r m a c i st s ) , a re a vail a bl e to p r o vi de ph a rm ac is t s wi t h f o rm u la t io ns th a t h a v e be e n t es t ed t o e ns u re dr ug s t ab i li t y. 4 . I n t ra ve n o us ( I V ) m edi c a t io n s m a y b e p r e p a re d as mo r e co n ce n t r a ted s o l u t io n s, be c au s e o f th e l im i t s o n f l u id ad m in i s t r a ti o n to in f a n ts and yo u n g c h i l d re n . W hil e a t y pi c a l a d ul t m a y re c ei ve up to 4 - 5 L o f I V fl ui d s p er da y , t h e t ot a l d a il y f l ui d r e qu i re m e n ts fo r a p r e te r m n eo na t e m ay b e as li t tl e a s 2 0 -5 0 m L . S pe ci a l e q ui p m e n t, s u c h as s y r i ng e pu m p s a nd P.759 m ic r o bo r e t ub i ng , i s u s ed t o e ns u re ac cu r a te de liv e r y o f d ru gs in sm al l f l ui d vo l u m e s. C u r re n tl y a v a ila b le s y r in ge pu m p s c an d e li v e r vo lu m e s a s s m al l a s 0 . 1 m L o ve r 1 h r . Mi c r ob o re I V tu b in g i s u s e d t o m in im i ze t he am ou n t o f d e ad s pa c e b e t we e n th e d el i v e r y de v i c e a nd th e p a ti e nt , fu r t he r im p ro vi n g t he ac cu r ac y o f d ru g d e li v e r y . P h ar m a c i s ts m u s t a ls o b e c ap a bl e o f as s e s s i ng l i te r a tu r e o n t he c om p at i bi li t y wi t h d ru gs a n d I V fl u id s b ec au s e ped i a tr ic p at ie n ts of t en ha v e l im it e d I V a c c es s , s o t h at m u l ti pl e s o lu t io ns m a y ne e d t o b e i n fu s e d th r ou g h t he s am e I V s i te . E . T h e ra p eu t i c d r u g m on i t o r i ng is of t en es s e n tia l to op t im i z in g d r ug t her a p y i n i n f an ts an d c hi l d re n . F o r m os t d r u gs , t he t he r ap eu t ic r an g es d e ve lo p ed for a n d us e d i n ad ul t s a r e a ls o a pp r opr i a te f o r m o n it o ri n g p ed ia t r ic pa t ie n ts . A p ot e nt i al c om p li ca t io n i n i n te r p re t in g s e r um d r u g c o nc e nt r at i o ns i s t h e p r es e nc e of e n d o ge n ou s s u b st a nc es , wh i c h m a y c ro s s - r ea c t wi t h a na l y t ic al d ru g a s sa y s . Th is h a s b ee n d em o ns t ra t ed fo r di g o xi n ( La n o xi n ) i n ne o n at es an d i n fa n ts , f o r wh o m e n d og en o us d i go xi n - l ik e r e a c t i v e s ub s ta nc es ( E DL R S ) m a y p r od uc e f a ls ely e l e v a te d s e r um d i go xi n c on c e n t rat i o ns . S t an d a rd as s a y t ec h ni q ue s ca n b e m od i fi ed t o e xc l u d e E DL R S as a c om p li c a t in g f ac t o r. F . P h a rm a ci s ts s ho u l d a l s o b e aw a r e o f d if f e re n c es i n a d ve r se d r ug r e a c t io n s b e tw e e n c hi l d r en an d ad u l t s . Mo s t o f t he ad v e rs e re ac t io n i n fo r m a t io n ava i l ab l e i n d r u g p r od uc t l a be l in g o r c i te d i n p h a rm ac y r ef e r en c es h a s b ee n o b ta in e d f r o m c l in ic al t ri a ls i n a d ul ts . As s e v e r al s t u di es ha ve de m on s t r a te d , t h e a d ve rs e r e ac ti o n p r o fi l e i n c h i ld r en m a y be s i g ni f ic an t l y d i ff e r en t fr o m t h at ob s er v e d i n o l de r su b je ct s . F o r e xa m pl e , s e v er e d e rm a to l og ic r ea c t i on s t o l am o t ri gi n e ( L am ic ta l ) , i nc lu d in g S t e ve ns - J o h ns on s y nd r om e , we r e i n fr e qu e nt du r in g p re m a r ke ti n g p ha se I II c li ni c a l t r i al s . W hen t h e d r ug wa s in t r od uc e d o nt o th e m ar k e t i n t he U ni t e d S t at es a n d b e g an to be us ed in c h ild r e n o f f -l ab e l, a h ig h e r ra t e o f de rm a to l og ic r ea c ti o ns wa s r e p o rt e d i n c h i ld r en . S ubs e qu e nt r es ea r c h r e vea le d th e i nc i de nc e o f s e v er e d e r m a t ol og ic r ea c ti on s to b e 0 .8 % i n c hi l dr e n c om p a re d t o 0 . 3% in ad u lt s. D i f f e re nc es s u c h as th es e f u rt h e r h ig hl i gh t th e n ee d fo r c l in ic al r es ea r c h in ch i ld r en . G . I n ad di t io n , p h a rm a cis t s sh o u ld t ak e a n a c t ive r o l e in p r om o t i ng me d i ca t i o n a d h e re n ce ( co m p li a nc e) i n ch i l d re n . S e v e r al s tu d ie s h a v e s ho wn c om p lia n ce r at es i n pe di a t ri c p a ti en t s t o be 3 0% - 70 % . I t i s s u rp r is in g th a t s om e o f t h e p oo re s t c om p li a nc e r a te s h a v e be e n a s s oc ia t ed wi t h c h r on i c d is ea s e s s uc h as as th m a,
e p il e ps y, an d d i ab e te s an d in c h il d re n re q ui r in g im m u n os up p r es s i v e th e rap y a f t er o r g an t ra n s p la n ta t io n . As in ad u lt s , co u ns el in g ab o u t m e d ic at i on ad h er e nc e s ho u ld i n cl ud e e f f o rt s t o i de n ti f y a n d o ve rc om e b a r ri e rs to t he r a p y , e du c a t io n a b ou t t he i m po r t an c e of m e di c a l m a n a ge m e n t, an d p r o gr am s t o i nc or p o ra t e m e d ic at io n r e g im en s i n to no rm a l d ail y t a s k s . W he n wo r k i ng wi t h f a m i li es o f yo u ng e r c h il d re n , p h a rm ac is ts s h ou l d a ls o e xp l o r e p ro b le m s wi t h do s ag e f o rm u la t io n ( t as t e o r t e xt u r e a ve r s io n ), a nd do s i ng f req u e nc y , pa r ti cu l a rl y wi t h m ed ic a ti o ns re q ui r in g a d m i ni s t ra ti o n a t s c h oo l o r d a y c a re . In ol de r c h il d r e n , p ha rm a c i s t s s ho uld b e a wa r e o f t he i r n ee d f o r a u to n om y , a nd wo r k wi t h t h e p at i e nt ' s fa m i l y to fo s te r the g oa l o f s e lf - ca r e . P h ar m ac is ts c a n s e r v e a v i t al ro l e i n im p r o v in g m ed ic a ti on ad he r e nc e i n p a t ie n ts o f al l a ge s .
II. DRUG USE IN PREGNANT PATIENTS. Mo s t wo m e n wo u l d l ik e to a v o id ph a rm ac ol o gi c th e r ap y d u ri n g p r eg na nc y i f a t al l p o ss ib l e. H o we v e r , > 8 0% o f wo m e n a r e e xp o s e d t o s u bs ta nc es , s uc h a s m e di c a t io n d u r in g th ei r p re gn a nc ie s . P r e e xi s t in g c on d it io n s an d ot h e r p ro b le m s oc c u rr i n g d u r in g th e p r eg n an c y m ay r e q u ir e c o nt in u at i on o r i n it i at io n of d ru g t h er a py . I n r ar e c i rc um s ta nc es , fe t al th e ra p y c a n be ad m i ni s te r ed t h r ou g h t he m o t he r . I t i s i m p o r ta n t t o un d e rs ta n d m a t e rn a l p h a rm ac ok i ne ti c c ha n ges , pl a c en t al d ru g t r a ns fer , e v e nt u al d i sp os i ti on o f t he d ru g , an d li m i t at i on s o f t he F D A c la ss i fi ca t io n s y s te m t o s a fe l y t r e a t p r eg na n t wo m e n . A. F e t a l de ve l o pm e n t. Th e e f f ec ts of d ru g t h er ap y i n p r e gn an c y de p en d l a r ge l y on t h e s t ag e o f fe t al d e v e lop m en t d u r in g wh ic h t h e e xp o s u r e o c c u rs . Pr e gn an c ie s a r e n o r m a ll y d a te d f r om th e f i r s t da y o f th e l as t m en st r u al c y cl e; ho we ve r , wh e n d i sc us si ng f et al de v e l opm e nt , fe r t il i z a ti on oc cu r s o n d a y 1 . 1 . We e ks 1 -2 . D ur i ng the f i rs t d a ys a f te r fe r ti l i z at i o n, th e z yg o te f or m s in t h e f a l lo pi a n t ub e . O v e r t h e n e xt f e w d a ys , di v i si o n of t h e zy g o t e e v e n tu al l y re s ul ts in t h e fo rm a ti o n o f t h e b la s t o c y s t , wh i ch t ra ve ls th ro u g h t he tu b e i nt o th e u te r u s . Th e b l as t oc y s t c o n ta i ns nu m e r o us t ype s o f re la t i v el y u n di f f e re n ti a te d t is s u es th a t wi l l u l t im at e l y b ec om e th e f et u s , t he pl ac e nt a , P.760 a n d t h e f e ta l m em br a ne s . S u pe r f ic ia l i m p la n ta t io n i n t h e e nd om e t ri um oc c u r s wi t hi n t h e fi rs t 5 d a ys . D u ri ng th e 2n d we ek , di f fe r en t ia ti o n b eg i ns an d t h e p la c en t a h as s t a rt e d t o f o rm . D ur i ng th e s e we e ks , th e re is a n “ a l l o r n o ne ” ph en om e non . W it h n o p l ac e nt a t o tr a ns f er s u bs t a nc es t o t he bl as t oc ys t , t h e re is n o s us ce p ti b il ity t o t e r a to g en s . E xp o s u re to e n v i r on m e n ta l a g en t s d ur i n g t hi s t im e wi l l h a ve ei t h er li t t le o r n o e ff ec t on th e e m b ry o o r wi l l d es t r o y m os t ce l ls le ad i ng to p re g na nc y t e r m i n at io n . 2 . We e ks 3 -8 . It is d u r ing t hi s t im e t h at t he pl ac en t a b ec om e s f ul l y fu nc t ion a l a nd o r g an o ge n es is o c c u rs . Th i s is t he m os t c r i ti ca l pe r i od o f d e v el op m e n t , wh e n t h e e m b r yo is m o s t s u s c ep t ib l e t o t e r at o ge ns . Al l m aj o r o r g an s y s t em s d e velo p s t r uc t ur a ll y d u ri ng t he s e we e k s . Al l a r e c om pl e te ly f o r m e d b y t h e e nd of th e 9t h we e k , wi t h th e e xc e p t i on o f th e c en t r al ne r v o us sy s t e m . Ma j o r c o ng e ni t al a n om a li es , s uc h a s c a rd ia c a b no rm al i ti e s , s p in a b i fi d a, an d l i m b d e fe c ts o c c u r d u ri n g t h is ti m e.
3 . We e ks 9 -3 8 (t h e f e t al p e r i od ) . A t t he 9t h we ek , th e e m b r yo is re f e r re d t o as a f e t us . De v e l op m e n t d u rin g th is ti m e is p ri m a r il y fu n c t i on al , wi t h o ve r a ll gro wt h o cc u r ri n g t h ro u gh o ut . The f e tu s m a y b e a t ri sk d ur i n g e xp o s u re t o p ot e nt ia l l y f e t o to xi c d ru g s o r v ir u s es . E xp o s u re to a d r ug is g e n er a ll y n ot as s o c i a te d wi t h m aj o r c o ng e ni t al m al f o rm a ti ons ; ho we ve r , m i n o r co n gen i t al an om al i es a n d f un c t i o na l d e f ec ts m a y oc c u r du r ing t hi s t im e . B . P l a ce n ta l t r an s fe r o f d r u g s. Th e pl ac en t a i s th e fu nc t io n al un i t b et we e n th e f e t al an d th e m at e rn a l b lo o d s up p l y . Th e r e i s n o m i xi n g of t he t wo s ys t em s , bu t e xc h a n g e o f n u tr i en ts , ox y g e n , a nd wa s te p ro d uc t s oc c u rs p ri m a r il y vi a pa s s i ve d i f fu si o n. Th is p ro c e s s is d ri v e n b y t h e c o nc e nt ra t i on g ra di e nt be t we e n th e t wo s ys t em s . Th e re a re a f ew s u b s ta nc es t ha t a r e a ct i v e l y t ra ns p o rt e d ac r os s t h e p l ac e nt a (e . g. , a m i n o a c id s ) ; d r ug s t ha t ar e s t r uc tu r a ll y si m i l a r t o t he s e c om p ou n ds wi l l a ls o b e t r a ns po r te d b y t h is m ec h an is m . 1 . P la c en t a l m e ta b ol i sm . Th e pl ac en t a p r od uc es a n um be r o f p re g na nc y - r e l at e d h o r m o ne s t h at a re m a in ly s e c re t ed in t o t he m a te rn a l c ir c ul a ti on . So m e o f t h e o t he r s u bs ta n c e s p r od uc ed b y t h e p l ac en t a a r e e n zy m es t ha t m et a bo l i ze d r ug s. A c om m o n e xa m p l e o f th is is p r e dn is o ne m e ta b ol is m , s o th at v e r y l i tt l e st e r oi d r e ac he s th e f e t us . 2 . F ac t o r s a f fe c t in g pl ac e n t al d r ug t r an s f e r. Fo r a d r ug t o c a us e a t e rat o g en ic o r p h a rm ac ol o gi c a l e f fe c t in t he em b r y o o r fe t us , i t m us t c r os s f r om th e m ate r n al c i rc u la ti o n t o t h e f e ta l c ir c u la ti o n o r ti ss ue s. G e ne r a ll y , t he p ri nc ip l es th a t a p pl y t o d r u g t r an s fe r ac ro s s an y l i pi d m em br a ne c a n b e a p pl i ed to pl ac e n ta l t r ans f e r o f a d r u g . Mo s t s u bs t an c e s ad m in is t e re d f o r t h er a pe ut i c p u rp os es ha ve , b y d es i gn , th e a b il i t y to c r os s t h e p la c en t a to th e f e tu s . Th e cr i tic a l f ac t or is wh e t he r th e r a t e a n d e xt e n t o f t r a ns fe r a re s u ff i c i e nt to c a us e s ig n if ic an t d ru g c on ce n t ra t io ns in t h e f e tu s . Th e r e a re m a n y fa c to r s th a t a f f ec t t h e r a te an d ext e n t o f pl ac e nt a l d r ug t ra n s f e r . ( a ) M o l ec u la r w e i gh t . Lo w m o l ec ul a r we i gh t d r ug s (< 50 0 D a) di f f us e f r ee l y ac r os s t h e p l ac en t a. D r ug s o f a h i gh e r m ol ec u la r we i gh t ( 5 0 0 -1 0 00 D a ) c ro s s l e s s ea s i l y. D r u g s c o m p o s e d o f v e r y l a r ge m o le c u l es (e . g. , hep a r in ) do no t c r os s t he pl a c e n ta l m em b r an es . ( b ) D r u g p K a . W eak l y ac i di c a nd we a k l y b as ic dr u g s t en d t o ra p id l y di f fus e a c ro s s t h e p l ac en t al m em b r an es . Io n i z ed c om p ou n ds d o n o t c ro ss th e p l ac en t a . ( c ) L ip i d s o lu b i li t y. Mo d e r a te l y li pi d -s ol u bl e d r ug s e as i l y d i f fu s e ac r o s s th e p l ac e nt al m e m b r an e s . I t i s i m p o r ta n t t o n o te th a t m a n y d r u gs th a t h a v e b ee n f o r m u l at e d f o r o ra l a dm in i s t r a ti o n a nd ar e d e s i gne d fo r op t im al li pi d m em b r a ne t r a ns f e r. ( d ) D r u g a b so r p t i on . D ur i n g p r eg n an c y, g as t ri c to n e a n d m o t il i t y a r e d ec re a s e d , wh i c h r es ul ts in de l a y ed g a s t r o in t es ti n al em pt y i ng t im e . Th i s t yp ic al l y doe s n o t a f f ec t d r ug a bs or p ti o n. Ho we v e r , n a us ea an d v om i t i ng , wh ic h a r e m os t c om m o n i n t h e fi rs t t ri m e s t e r b u t m ay c o n ti nu e th r ou g ho u t p re g n an c y, m a y a f fe c t a bs o r p ti o n . ( e ) D r u g d i s t ri b u t io n . Th e v o lu m e of di s tr i bu t io n i nc r e as es s ig n if ic a nt l y du r i ng p r e gn a nc y a nd in c r e as es wi t h a d v a nc in g g es t at i on a l a ge . Th e a l te r a ti on in vo l um e o f di s tr i bu t io n i s t he r es u l t o f a n i n c r e as ed pl as m a vol um e . To ta l b o d y flu i d ( i n t ra v a s c ul a r a n d e xt r a v a s c u la r v o lu m e ) i n c r e ase s , a s d oe s a di p os e t is s u e . Th e p l ac e nt a i ts e lf m a y a ls o b e a s i t e f o r d is t ri b ut i on . H y d r o p hi li c d r ug s wi ll ha v e a
h i gh e r v ol um e o f di s t r ib ut i o n l ea di n g t o l o we r pe ak le v e ls . Pl a sm a c o nc e ntr a t io n s o f d r u gs th a t a r e wi d e l y di s t r i bu t e d a re us ua l l y l o we r t h an th os e wi t h a s m al l v o l um e o f d i st r ib u ti o n. Th e r e fo r e, le s s d ru g i s a va il a bl e t o c r os s t h e p la c e n ta . ( f ) P l as m a p r o te i n b i n din g . P la c e n ta l t r an s fe r of a hi g hl y p la s m a -p r ot e in -b o u nd d r u g i s l es s li k e l y be c a us e o n l y th e f r e e d ru g c r os s e s t h e p la ce n ta . D ur i ng p r e gn a nc y , P.761 a r e du ct i on in th e l e v e ls o f t wo m a j o r d ru g - bi nd i ng p r ot e in s — a lb um i n a nd A G P — i s o b se r v e d . A di l ut io n al eff e c t oc cu r s wi t h a lb um in a n d o t he r pr o te i n c on c e nt r a t io ns , wh i c h ca n i nc r ea s e t he fr e e f ra c t i on of d ru gs . ( g ) P h ys i c a l c h a ra c t e r is t i c s o f th e p l ac e n ta . As a p r eg n an c y p r o g re s s es , th e p l ac e nt al m e m b r an e s b ec om e p r o g re s s i v el y t hi n ne r , r es ul t in g i n a de c r e as e i n d i f fu si o n d is ta nc e . Th e pl a c e n ta al so e xp a n ds , c au s in g a g re a te r s u r fa c e a r e a f o r t h e tr a ns fe r o f s u bs t an c es . ( h ) M a t e r na l ph a r ma c oki n e t ic c ha n ge s . Th e d ram a ti c i nc r ea s e in bl o od vo l um e t h a t o cc u rs p r im a ri l y du r in g th e fi rs t 30 we e ks of p r e gn a nc y e nh an ce s b l oo d fl o w t h r o ug h t h e k i d ne y s a n d l i v e r . D ru gs th a t a r e e xc r e t e d r e na ll y wi l l e xp e r i en c e a m o r e r ap i d c l e a ra nc e , w h i c h c o ul d d ec r e as e t he o ve r a ll e xp o s u r e ti m e of t h e d r u g t o t h e p l ac en t a. Me t a b ol is m o f s o m e d ru gs is i nc r ea s ed ; h o we v e r , t he el e va t e d l e vel s o f es t ro g en an d p r o ge s te r o ne p re s e n t d u ri n g t he p r e gn an c y c a n c om pe t iti ve l y i nh ib i t t h e m e ta bo l is m o f o th e r d r u gs . 3 . T e ra t o ge n ic d r ug s a . Te r a to g en s a r e d ef i ned as ag e nt s t h at in c re ase t he r is k o f o r c au s e a c o n g en it a l a n om a l y t o o c c u r . Th e s e d e fe c ts c an be s t r uc t u ral , fu n ct io n al , o r be h a v io ra l in n a t u re . W om e n m a y b lam e a s p ec i fi c e xp o s u re du r i ng t he i r p r eg na nc y a s t h e c au s e o f a f e ta l a n om al y ; ho we v e r , t he de f ec t m a y ha v e n o k no wn c a us e, as is th e c as e i n 3 % of al l b i r th s i n t he U ni t e d S t at es . b . I t m a y t a k e y e ar s o f exp o s u r e s t o a c t u al l y li nk a s p ec i fi c d r ug t o ce r t ai n d e fe c ts . A n i m a l s tu d ie s c a n o n l y s u gg es t po t en ti a l p r ob lem s i n h um an s b u t a r e o fte n th e o n l y s o u rc e o f i nf o rm a ti o n r eg a r di n g sa f e t y o f ag en t s d u r in g e a rl y p r eg n an c y . Th e d os e t h a t a ni m a ls o ft e n r ec ei v e e xc e e ds th e n o rm al hum a n d os e, wh i c h d im in is h e s t he a p pl ic a bi li t y o f t h es e d ata t o h um an s . c . Th e fe t us i s u na b le to m e ta bo l i z e o r e li m i n at e d r u gs as q u ick l y as th e m o th e r . S o m e su bs t an c es m a y be e xc r e t ed in t o t h e am n io t ic fl u id an d t h en r es o rb e d i n t h e f e t al in t es ti n es af t e r t he f l u id is s wa l l o we d . Th e r ef o r e , so m e d ru gs m a y h ave a l o ng e r e xp o s u r e t im e i n th e fe t us , wh e r ea s o th e rs a r e e li m i n at e d m or e ra pi d l y . c . B ec au s e f et a l o rg a n s y s t e m s d e v e lo p a t d i f fe re n t ti m e s , s p ec i fi c t e ra t og e ni c e f f ec ts de p en d m ai nl y on t he po i nt o f g es ta t io n wh e n t h e d r ug wa s in ge s t e d . d . Th e te r a to g en ic ra t e of s ub s t a nc es i n di c a t es ho w f r e q u en t l y a n om al i es o c c u r a n d o ve r wh a t e xp o s ur e p e r io d . Fo r e xa m p l e, on e of t h e m os t p o te n t k no wn te r a t og en s , t h a li do m i d e, ha d a t e ra to g e ni c r a te of 20 % wi t h a s i n gl e e xp o s u r e, ye t on l y o ne th i r d o f wo m e n wh o i ng es t ed th e d ru g g a v e b i rt h to af fe c te d i n fa n ts . O th e r a g en t s m a y i n c re as e t h e r a te of s p ec i f ic de f ec ts o v e r t he ge ne r a l p op u la t io n , b ut t he a b s o l ut e i n ci de n c e m a y be e xt r e m e l y l o w.
e . Th e F D A d e v el o pe d a c l as s i fi c a t io n s y s te m t h at g r ou ps d ru gs ac co r di n g t o th e d e g re e o f th e ir po t en t ia l r i s k du r in g p r e gn a nc y.
1
( 1 ) C a te g o r y A. A d e q u a te , we l l -c o nt r ol l ed s t ud i es in p re g na n t wo m e n h a ve n ot s h o wn an in c re as e d r is k o f f et al a bn o rm al i ti es . ( 2 ) C a te g o r y B . A n i m a l s t ud i es h a v e re v e a le d no e vi de nc e o f h a rm t o t he f e tu s ; h o we ve r , t he r e a r e n o ad e q ua t e a nd we l l -c on t r oll e d s tu d ie s i n p r eg na n t wo m e n . O r a n im al s t u di es ha v e s h own a n a d ve rs e e f fe ct , but a de q ua t e a nd we l l -c o ntr o l le d s t ud i es i n p r e gn an t wo m e n ha v e fa i le d t o d em o ns t r at e a r is k t o t he f et us . ( 3 ) C a te g o r y C . A n i m a l s t ud i es h a v e s h o wn an ad v e r s e e f fe c t an d t h e re a r e no a d e qu a te an d we ll - c o n t ro l le d s t ud ie s i n p r eg n an t wo m e n . O r n o a ni m a l s tu d ie s h a ve b e e n co n du c t e d, an d th er e a re no ad e qu a te an d we l l - c on t r ol l ed s t ud i es i n p r e gn an t wo m e n . ( 4 ) C a te g o r y D . S t u d i e s , a d eq u at e we l l- c on t ro l led o r o bs e r v a ti o na l , in p re g n an t wo m e n ha v e de m o n s t r a te d a r is k t o t h e f e tu s. H owe ve r , t h e be ne f i ts o f the r a p y m a y o u t we i g h t he po t en t ia l ris k . ( 5 ) C a te g o r y X . S t u d i es , a d eq u at e we l l- c on t ro l led o r o bs e r v a ti o na l , in an im a ls o r p r e gn a nt wo m e n h a v e d em o ns t ra t ed po s i t i ve e vi de n c e of f et a l a bn o rm al i tie s . Th e u s e o f t h e p r od uc t i s c ont r a in d ic a te d i n wo m e n wh o a re or m a y b ec om e p re g n an t . d . P r o b le ms w i t h t h e cu r r e n t s ys t e m . Th e cu r re n t s ys te m wa s c re a te d in 1 97 9 a n d h a s n ot be e n r e v is e d s i nc e i t s i nc ep t io n . W ith m an y a g en t s t he r e i s a p a uc i t y of h u m a n d a ta , d e s p it e th e f a c t t he d ru g m a y c a r r y a c a t eg o r y B ra t in g . Mo s t n e wl y m a rk e te d a g en ts wi l l P.762 b e pl ac e d i n c a t eg o r y C , a m i d o t he r ag e nt s wi t h li t t le da t a i n h um an s o r an i m a ls . Th i s is th e m os t d i ff ic u lt c a te g o r y to as s es s . A l tho u g h t he r e m a y b e c as e r e p o rt s o f d r u g e xp o s u re s , t he s e t en d to bi as in f o rm at i on towa r d f e t al r is k ; m os t pu bl i sh on l y o u tc om e s wi t h po t en t ia l d r u g - re la t ed e ff ec t s . Few d r u g s wi l l e v e r b e a s s ig n e d a c a te g o r y A s ta t us b e c a us e l a r ge , ra nd o m i ze d , we l l -c on t r ol le d tr i al s a r e ra r e l y c o nd uc t ed in p re g na n t wo m en . f . E x am p le s o f t e ra t o gen i c ag e n ts . ( 1 ) V i ta m i n A d e r i va t i ve s . D r ug s s uc h as is o t re tin o in ( Ac c ut a ne ) a n d e t ret i n at e ( Te g i s on ) a r e p o te n t t e rat o g en s i n h um an s . Th e s e a ge n ts s h ou ld be di s c on t i nu ed s e ve r al m o nt hs be f o re p re g n an c y. ( 2 ) W a r fa r i n ( C o um ad i n ) i s m os t t e ra t og e ni c i n t he f i rs t t r im es t e r ( we e k s 6- 9 ) , bu t c a n a ls o c au s e m a lf o rm at i o ns d u r in g t h e s e co n d a n d t h i rd t ri m e s t e rs as we l l . E a rl y e xp o s u r e i s as s oc ia t ed wi t h a pa t t er n of de f ec ts k n o wn as fe t al wa r f a r in sy n d r o m e . Th e s e d e fe c ts c an in c l u de h y p op l as ia of th e n o s e a n d e xt r e m it i es , c on g eni t a l h ea r t d i se as e , a nd s e i z u re s . Ce n t r al ne r v o us s y s t em ab n o rm al i ti es a re in c re ase d wi t h l a t er us e . H e pa r i ns m a y b e an ap p ro p r ia t e su bs t it u t e wh e n a nt ic o ag ul a ti on is n e ce ss a r y ; h o we v e r , th ey a r e no t a s e f fe c ti v e fo r p r e v e nt i ng th r om b os is in wo m e n wi t h a r t if ic i al he a r t v a l v es . ( 3 ) An d r o g e ni c a g e nt s c a n c a u s e vi ri l i z at i on of f e m a l e f e tu se s , c r e at i ng a m bi g uo us g e ni t al i a. Fi n as t er i de ( P ro p ec i a) c a n c au s e ge n ita l ab no r m a l it i es i n m al e o f f s p r in g . E s t r og e n a nd pr o ge s ti ns , f o r tu na t el y , d o n ot ha v e t hi s e f fe ct . Ma n y wo m e n c o n ti n ue
t o t ak e b ir t h c on t r ol pi ll s d u ri n g t h e f i rs t m o n th o r t wo a f t e r co n c e p ti on un ti l th e p r e gn a nc y is di s c o v e re d . ( 4 ) E t ha n o l. A lc oh o l c o ns um e d i n l a rg e a m o un t s f o r p ro lo n ge d p e ri o ds d ur i n g p r e gn a nc y ( > 4 - 5 d r in k s /d a y ) is kn o wn t o ca us e fe t a l a lc oh ol s y nd r om e (FA S ) . F e a tu r es of F A S i nc lu d e g r o wt h r es t r ic ti o n, c r a ni of a c i a l d y s m o rp h ol og y a nd c e n t ra l n e r vo us s y s t em m al f un c ti o ns , a l on g wi t h v a r i ou s o t h e r a bn o rm al i ti es . A t le a st 30 % o f wo m e n wh o a bu s e al c o h ol wi l l d e li v e r an in f ant a f fe ct e d b y F A S . Mo d e r a t e a l co h ol c o ns um pt i on ( 2 d r i nk s / d a y) c an al so le ad t o s im il a r d ef ec t s, al t ho u g h u s ua ll y n o t t he c o m p le t e s y n d ro m e . E v e n t ho u gh t h e m os t p r o bl em a ti c t im e is du r i ng t h e fi rs t 2 m o n th s o f p r eg n a nc y , m o de r at e d r i nk in g du r in g th e s ec on d t r im es t e r is a ss o ci at e d wi t h a n i nc rea s ed r at e o f s p on t an eo us ab o r ti o ns . ( 5 ) An t i n e op l as t i cs . Ma n y a g en t s in t hi s c l as s ar e as s o ci a te d wi t h f e ta l a n om a li es a f t e r f i rs t t r im es t e r c h em o t h e ra p y ad m i ni s t ra ti o n. G r o wt h r e s t ri ct i on of t en o c c u rs r e g a rd l es s o f t he ti m i n g o f e xp o s ur e . O wi n g t o t he m e ch a ni sm of ac ti o n of t h es e a g e nt s, m a n y a re em b r yo c id al . ( 6 ) An t i c o n vu ls a n ts . D ru g s s u c h as ph e n y to i n (D i l a nt in ) , v a lp r oi c ac i d (D e p ak e ne ) , a n d c a rb am a z e pi ne ( Te gr e t ol ) ha v e al l b e en as s oc i at e d wi t h f et a l a no m a lie s . H o we ve r , m a te r na l b e ne fi t f ro m t h es e a ge n ts o f t en o ut we i g hs t he ri s k to th e fe t us . A n t ic o n v ul s a n ts s h ou ld no t be s t o pp ed d ur i ng p reg n a nc y , bu t i f a p p ro p ri a te , t he y s h ou l d b e d is c o nt i nu ed s e v e r a l m on t hs b e fo r e f e rt i l i z a t i on . Va lp r o ic a c i d an d c a r ba m a z e p in e c an in c r ea s e t he r is k o f n eu r al t ub e de f ec ts ; wo m en ta ki ng t he s e a g e nt s s ho ul d re c e i v e f ol i c ac i d s u p pl em e nt a ti o n s t a rt i ng be f o re c o nc ep t ion . To xi c e p o xi d e ra d ic al s a r e t hou g h t t o b e t h e m e ch a ni sm o f t e ra t og en ic i t y wi t h s e v e r al of t h es e a g en t s . G e ne t ic a lt e r a ti o ns i n t h e e po xi d e h y d r o la s e en z ym e ac t i v ity c a n r e d uc e o r i n c r e as e t he s e v e r i t y of ab n o rm al i ti es . ( 7 ) I n fe c ti o n s. V i ra l i nf ec t io ns , s uc h a s ru be l la , c yt o m e g al o vi ru s , pa r vo v ir u s , c o xs a ck i e, an d v a ri c e ll a c a n b e a s s oc ia t ed wi t h gr o wt h r e s t r ic t io n , c on ge ni t a l a n om a li es , p r em a tu r e d el i v e r y , an d p o te n ti a l em br yo t o xi c i t y o r f e ta l d em ise . N ea r l y a l l m at e rn a l i nf ec t io ns ha v e b ee n t h ou g ht t o c a us e g r o wt h r es t ri c ti on . ( 8 ) C i ga r e t t e s mo k in g . C i g a re t t es c on t ai n m an y t o xi c a nd ca r c i no g en ic co m po u nd s i n ad di t io n to ni c o t in e . Ni c ot i ne is a po t en t v as oc o n s t r ic t in g a g en t c ap a ble o f r e d uc in g u t e ri n e b lo od f lo w a n d in c re as i ng ut e ri ne v a sc ul a r re s i s t a nc e . Sm ok i ng no t o n l y in c re as es th e ri s k of a gr o wt h r es t ri c te d f e tus bu t al s o in c r e as es th e r i sk of s p on t an e ou s a bo r t io ns , p r e m a t ur e d e li v e r y, pl ac e n t a l ab r up t io n , a nd p rem a tu r e r u p t ur e o f th e m em b ra n es . Sm al l i nc r e as es i n d e fe c ts of t he he a rt , li m b s an d fe e t , s ku l l, u ri n ar y s y s te m , abd o m e n , i nt es t in es , an d m us cl e s h a v e a ls o b ee n a s s o c i at e d wi t h c ig a r et t es . Sm ok in g m a y al so al t er t he ef f ec ts o f o th e r s ub st a nc es , pe r h ap s e n h an c i ng t o xi c it y o f b o th a ge n ts . 4 . O t h e r p r o b le ma t i c t he r a p ie s . So m e ag e nt s g iv e n d u ri ng p re g na nc y m a y r e s u l t i n p h a rm ac ol o gi c a l e f fe c ts t h a t a r e n ot ne c es s a ri l y to xi c , y e t ne e d t o b e c ons i de r ed wh e n m ed ic a ti o ns a r e g iv e n d u ri ng t he la t er we e k s o f p r e gn an c y. P.763
a . C e nt r a l n e r vo u s s ys t e m ( C N S ) d e p re s s io n m a y o cc u r wi t h b a rb it u r at es , t r a n qu il i z e rs , a n ti d ep r es s a nt s , a nd na r c o t ic s . Al so , an es t he t ic s a nd ot h e r a g e nt s c om m o n l y g i v e n d u ri n g la b o r m a y c au se s i g ni fi c an t C N S an d re s p i ra t o r y de p r es s i on i n ne wb o r n s ( e .g . , m a g ne s iu m s u l fa t e o r o p io i d an a l g e s i c s ) . b . N e on a t al b le e di n g . M a t e r na l i ng es t io n o f ag ent s s uc h a s n on s te r oi d al a n t ii n f la m m at o r y d ru gs ( N S AI D s ) an d a n ti c o ag u la n ts a t t he r ap e ut ic do s e s n ear t e rm m a y ca us e b l ee di n g p r obl e m s i n th e n e wb o r n. c . D r u g w it h d r aw al . H ab i t ua l m at e r na l u s e of bar b i tu r a te s , n ar c ot ic s, b e n zo di a z ep i ne s , al c oh ol , an d o t he r s u bs t an c e s o f a b us e m a y le a d t o wi t h d r a wa l s ym p to m s i n n e wb o r ns . d . C o ns t r i c ti o n o f t he du c t u s a r t e r io s us . Ma t e rn a l u s e of N S A I Ds in t he t h i rd t r i m e st e r m a y c a us e t he d u c t us a r te r io s u s t o c lo s e p r em at u re l y a nd c o ul d r e s ul t i n p u lm o na r y h y p er t en s i o n i n th e n e wb o r n .
III. DRUG EXCRETION IN BREAST MILK. To d a y, > 60 % o f wo m en c h oo s e t o b re as t - f ee d t he i r i n fa n ts . O f t h es e wo m e n, 90 % 9 5 % re c e i v e a m e di c a t ion d u ri ng t he fi r s t po s tp a rt u m we ek , m os t c om m o nl y f o r p a in c o nt r o l a ft e r d e li v e r y . I t is im po r t an t to un d er s ta nd t he p ri nc i pl es of d ru g e xc r e t i o n i n br e as t m il k a nd s p ec i fi c i n fo r m a t io n o n t h e v a r i o u s m e d ic at i on s t o m in im i z e ri s k s f r o m d r ug ef f ec ts in th e n u r s i ng in f an t . A. T r a n s f e r of d r u gs f ro m p la sm a to b r ea s t m il k . D r ug t ra ns f e r in t o b r ea s t m il k is g o ve r ne d b y m an y o f t h e s am e p r in ci p le s t ha t i n flu e nc e h um a n p la c e n ta l dr u g t r a ns f e r. 1 . Mo s t d ru gs c r os s i n to b r e as t m il k vi a p a s s i v e di f f us io n a l on g a c o nc en t ra t i on g r a di e nt f or m e d b y t h e un - i on i z e d d r ug c o nt e nt on e ac h s i d e o f t h e m e m br a n e . 2 . B r ea s t m i lk c o nt e nt s c h a n ge th r ou g ho u t a fe e di n g . C o lo s t r um , th e v e r y f i r st m i lk p r o du c e d , i s m u c h hi g her i n p r o te in t ha n m at u re m i l k a n d t he f at c o nt e n t is m i ni m a l . Ma t u r e m il k c o n s i s t s o f fo r e -m i lk a t th e b e gi nn i ng o f a f ee d in g a nd hi n d -m i l k a t t he e n d . Th e p ro t ei n a n d f at c o nt e nt in c re as e th r ou g ho u t th e n u rs in g s es s i on . Th e r e f o re d r u gs th a t p a rt i ti o n i nt o m o r e li p id s o lu t io ns wi l l h a v e th e h i gh es t c o nc ent r a t io n i n h i nd m i lk . 3 . A m il k t o p l as m a ra t io c an be de t e rm in e d f o r s p e c i f ic a g en ts wh e n bo t h b l oo d a n d m i lk c on c e n t ra t io ns a re k n o wn . Mo s t dr u gs h a ve a r a ti o < 1 ; lo we r n um b er s in di c at e t h a t l es s d ru g c r os s e s i nt o b re as t m il k . B ec a us e th e m i lk to pl as m a ra t io m a y c h an g e wi t h i n a f e ed i ng , t h e a v e r ag e b r e as t m i lk c o nc en t r at i on is u s u a ll y u s ed , i f a va i la b le . 4 . I t is po s s ib l e t o c al c u la t e th e d os e a n i n fa n t r ec e i v es i f th e b r e as t m i lk c o nc en t r at i on is k no wn . A t y p i c a l i nf a nt d ri nk s 1 50 m L / k g pe r da y . Mu l t i ply i n g th e a ve r a ge c o nc e nt r a ti on by t h e br e as t m il k v o l um e c on s u m ed wi l l g i v e t h e to t a l d ai l y e xp o s u r e . I t i s im p o rt a nt t o re m e m b e r th a t t hi s d ru g m us t no w b e in g es te d b y t h e i n f an t , s o t he bi o a v ai la b il i t y of t he d ru g i s c ri t ic al t o c a lc ul a te th e a c tu al da i l y do s e . D o s es < 1 0% of t he m a te r n al do s e on a m il li g ram pe r k i lo g ra m p e r d a y ba s is a r e p r e f er a bl e . 5 . S om e m ed ic a ti on s a r e n o t a bs o rb e d o r al l y , b u t m a y pa s s i n to b re as t m il k wh e n a d m i ni s te r ed in t r a v en o us l y t o t he m o t he r . A l th o ug h th e d r u g m a y n o t e nte r t he
i n f an t ' s b lo o d, it m a y h av e e f f ec ts on th e g as t r oin t es t in a l t r ac t . F o r e xa m p l e , t he b i oa va i la b il it y o f g e nt am ic i n is ne g li gi b le ; h o we v e r , i t m a y c au se di a r rh e a o r s t e ri li ze t he bo we l . B . D r u g f ac t o r s. Th e d ru g an d i ts en v i r o nm en t in f l ue nc e t h e r a te an d e x t e n t o f d r ug p a ss ag e i n to th e br e as t m i lk . 1 . M o l ec u la r w e i gh t . D ru g s we i g h in g < 20 0 Da cr o s s in t o m i lk ea s i l y. La rg e r m o le cu l es c an di s s ol v e in t he li p id m em b r an e o r p a s s th r ou g h s m al l p o r es . La r ge m o le cu l es , s u c h as in s u li n , d o n o t c ro s s in t o b r ea s t m il k . 2 . p H g r a d ie n t . H u m a n m i lk i s m or e a c i d ic th an p l as m a . a . W ea k ac i ds m a y di f fus e a c ro s s th e m em b ra n e a n d r em a in un - io n i z ed , a l lo wi n g fo r p a ss ag e b ac k i n to th e p la s m a . L o we r am o un ts of t h es e d r ug s wi ll c r os s th a n t h os e t h a t a r e we a k ba s e s . b . W eak b as es m a y di f fus e i n to t he br e as t m il k an d io ni z e , wh i c h ca us es d r u g t r a p pi ng . Th is c r e at es hig h e r l e vel s o f d r ug in t he b r ea s t m i lk ; t h es e d r ugs wi l l h a v e a m i lk t o pl a s m a r a ti o > 1 . Th i s e ff ec t th o ug h , is n o t u s u a ll y cl i ni c a ll y s ign i f ic an t , e s pe ci a ll y wh e n th e m a te r n al s e r um c o nc en t r at ion is ve r y lo w. P.764
3 . D r u g p K a . On l y t he un - i on i z e d f o rm o f a d r ug i s a b le to pa ss th r o ug h th e li pi d m em b r an e . 4 . P la s ma p r o te i n b i nd in g . Th e f r e e f r ac ti o n o f a d r ug is a va i la bl e to pas s i n to th e b r e as t m il k . I n g en e ra l , d r u gs wi t h h i gh pl as m a -p r o t ei n -b in d in g p r o pe r ti es t en d t o r e m ai n i n t h e pl a s m a a nd p as s in t o t h e m i lk in low c o n c en t ra t io n s . Mi l k p ro t e in s a nd l i pi ds al s o m a y b in d d r ugs wh e n th e y a re c r e at e d i n th e m am m a r y gl a nd s ; t h is m a y r e p r es en t an o th e r r o ut e o f en t r y, r at h er t ha n p as s i v e d i f fu s i on . 5 . L ip i d s o lu b i li t y. L i p i d s ol u bi li t y is ne c e s s a r y fo r a d r ug t o p as s in t o t he b r ea st m i lk . H i gh l y li p id -s o lu b le d r u gs (e . g. , di a zep am , V a l iu m ) m a y p as s i nt o the b r ea s t m i lk i n re la t i v el y h ig h a m o u n ts a n d, t he r e fo r e, m ay p r e s e n t a s i gn i fi ca n t do s e o f d r u g t o t h e n u rs in g i n fa nt . 6 . E q ui l i b ra t i on . S om e d r u gs m a y r ap i dl y e qu il ib r a t e b et we e n m a te r n a l p l as m a an d b r e as t m il k . Th e s e ag e nts wi l l d i ff u s e ac ro s s th e m em b r an e a s t he d ru g c o nc en t r at i on c h an g es in t he m a t er n al s y s t em . O t h e r ag en t s m a y n e ve r r e a c h an e q ui l ib r iu m b e t we e n m i lk a n d p la sm a. Th e s e d ru gs t e n d t o s lo wl y d i f f us e in t o b r e as t m i lk a n d wi l l re s po nd g rad u al l y t o ch a ng es in m a te r n al co nc en t r a ti on s . C . M a te r n al f ac t o r s. Ma t e r n al ph a rm ac ol o g y p l ays a s i gn i fi c a n t r ol e i n the r a te an d e xt e n t o f d r u g p as s a ge in t o b r e as t m i lk . Th e e xt e n t o f pl a s m a p ro t ei n b i ndi n g a nd c h an g es i n t h e m ot h er ' s a b il i t y to m e ta b ol i z e o r el i m i na t e t h e d ru g i n fl u enc e th e a m ou n t o f d r ug t ha t i s a va i la b le to pa s s in t o t he br e a s t m i lk . Eq ua l l y i m p o rt a n t a r e t h e m a te r na l d os e o f th e d r u g, th e d o s i ng sc he dul e or f r eq ue nc y, a nd th e r o u t e o f a d m i ni s t ra ti o n . D . D r u g s a f f ec t i ng h o rm o n al i n fl u en c e o f b rea s t mi l k p r o du c t io n . The p ri m ar y h o r m o ne r es po ns i bl e f o r c o nt r o ll in g b r e as t m i lk p ro d uc t io n i s p r ol ac t in . A de c r ea s e i n m i lk p r od u c t i on m a y re s ul t i n d im i ni sh ed we i gh t ga i n i n t he nu r s i n g i nfa n t , t h e n e e d f o r s u p pl em e nt a ti on , o r p r em at u r e c e ss a ti on o f b r ea s t - f ee d in g .
1 . D r u gs t ha t de c r ea s e s e r u m p r o la c t in l e ve ls . D r u gs s u ch as b r om oc r ip t i ne ha v e b e e n us e d t o s up p re s s la c ta t io n i n wo m en wh o c h o os e n o t t o b r ea s t- f ee d. Th i s p r a ct ic e h as lo n g b ee n ab a n do ne d b ec a us e m yoca r d ia l i n fa r ct i on s , s e i z u re s , a nd s t r ok e we r e a t t ri bu t ed t o i t s us e . O t h e r d r ug s i nc lu d e a . E r go t a lk a lo id s b . L -d o pa 2 . D r u gs t ha t i nc r e as e s e r u m p r o la c t in l e ve ls . Me t o c l op r am i de ( R eg la n) h as be e n u s ef u l t he r a pe u ti c a ll y t o e n h an c e m i lk p r od u c t i on. Th e f ol lo wi n g d ru gs a re k no wn t o i n c re as e s e ru m p ro l ac ti n l e v e ls , b u t t he y a r e n ot u s ed fo r th is p ur p os e. Th e se d ru gs i n cl ud e a . Me t h y l d op a ( Al d om et ) b . H a lo pe r i do l ( H a ld o l) c . P he n ot h ia z i ne s E . F ac t o r s t o as se s s . I n a s s es si n g t he s a f et y o f a n ag e nt du r in g b r e as t -fe e di n g, s e ve r al c o ns id e ra t io ns s h o ul d b e ad d re s s ed : 1 . I nh e re n t t o xi c i t y o f the d r ug 2 . D r ug s a f et y d a ta i n i n fa n ts 3 . Am o un t of d ru g i ng es te d 4 . D u ra t io n o f th e ra p y 5 . A ge of t he in f an t o r de g r ee o f p re m at u ri t y 6 . D r ug ph a rm ac ok i ne t ic s in t he m o th e r a n d c h il d F . F ac t o r s t o m i n im iz e d r u g ex p os u r e to t he i nf a n t . O ne of th e g o al s wh e n u s i n g m e di ca t io ns in th e b r e as t - f e ed i ng m o th e r i s t o m a i n ta in a n a tu r al , u n in t e rr u p t ed p a t te r n o f n u rs i ng . In m an y i ns t an c es , i t m a y b e po ss i bl e t o wi t hh o ld a d r ug wh e n it i s n o t e s s en t ia l o r d e la y t h e r ap y u nt i l a ft e r we a ni n g . O th e r f a c t o rs in c l ud e 1 . M e d ic a t io n s e le c t io n. W hen a s p ec i fi c p r od uc t i s b ei ng s e le c te d , i t is im p o rt a nt t o ch oo s e t he ag e nt th a t i s d is t ri b ut e d i nt o th e m il k th e l ea s t, if po s s ib l e. a . O t he r de s i r ab l e c ha r ac t e ri s t ic s i nc lu d e a s h or t h a lf - li f e , i na c t i ve m e ta bo l i te s , an d h i gh p ro t ei n b i nd in g . P.765
b . I n a dd i ti on , it is d e s i ra b le t o s e l ec t a ge n ts wi th l o we r pl as m a c o nc en t ra t i on s, wh i c h m a y i n v ol v e an al te r n a ti v e ro u te o f a dm in is t r a t io n . c . S in g le do s e s m a y b e p r e f er a bl e t o a lo n ge r the r a p y c o u rs e i f t he ag e nt i s c o nt r a in di c a t ed in b re as t- f e e di ng . Th is c a n a ll o w f o r th e m o th e r t o p um p an d di sc a rd h e r m il k f o r a de f in e d p er i o d o f t im e , o f te n 1 2 -2 4 h r , r at h er t ha n d is c o n ti nu e b re as t f e e di ng al t og e t he r . 2 . M a t e r na l d o se r e la t i ve t o in f a nt f ee d i ng . O ne o f th e g o al s o f d r ug do si n g i n l a ct a ti n g wo m e n i s m i nim a l i nf a nt e xp o su r e to the d r ug . I t is d es i r ab le to a d ju s t t he d o si n g a nd nu r s i ng s c hed u le s s o t ha t a d r ug do s e is ad m i n is te r e d a t t he ti m e o f o r i m m e di a te l y af t e r t he in fa n t ' s f ee d in g . Me d i c at i on s s ho u ld be do s e d b e for e t he i n f an t ' s l on g es t s l e ep . G . E x a mp l es o f d r u gs th a t r ea d i l y e n t e r b r e a st m i l k. Th es e a g en t s sh ou l d b e u s ed wi t h c a ut i on i n nu rs i n g m ot h e rs .
1 . N a r co t i cs , b a r b i tu r a te s , a n d b e nz o di az e p in es . C N S ac ti v e ag e nt s , s uc h a s d i a ze pa m , m a y h a v e a hy p n o t ic e f f ec t o n t h e n urs i ng in f an t . Th es e e ff e c ts a re r e l at e d t o t h e m a t e rn a l do s e. A lc oh o l co ns u m p ti on m a y h a v e a s im i la r ef fe c t . 2 . An t i d e p re s sa n t s a nd a n t i ps yc h o t i c s . Th e se c l ass e s o f d r ug s a pp e ar t o pa s s i n t o t he b re as t m il k ; h o we v e r , no se r io us ad ve r se e f f ec ts ha ve be en r ep o rt e d . Th e l o ng - t e rm b e ha v i o ra l e f fe c ts of c h r on ic e xp o su r e t o th es e d r u gs o n d e v e lo p in g n e wb o r n s a re un k no wn . 3 . An t i c h ol i n e rg i c c o mp o u n ds . Th es e d r ug s m a y r e su l t i n a d v e rs e C N S e f f ec ts i n t h e i n fa n t a nd m a y r e du c e m i lk vo lu m e in t he m o th e r . Di c y c l om in e ( Be n t y l) i s c o nt r a in di c a t ed in nu r s i ng m o t he r s b ec au s e i t m ay r e s ul t i n n e on a ta l a p nea .
IV. DRUG USE IN GERIATRIC PATIENTS. I n 20 0 0, m o r e t h an 12 % o f t he Am e ri ca n p o pu l at io n wa s > 6 5 y e a rs o f a ge , r e p r es en t in g m o re th a n 3 5 m i ll io n Am e ri c a ns . It is es t im at e d t ha t th r ee out o f e v e r y f o u r e l de r l y p e op l e a re ta k in g p r es c ri p ti on m e di c a t i on s. A nt ic i pa t ed t ot al d r u g u s ag e , i nc lu d in g n on p r es c ri p ti o n m e d ic at i on s , r ev e a l s t ha t 50 % o f a l l d rug s u se d i n t h e Un i te d S ta t es a r e u s e d b y th e g e ri a t ri c p op ula t i on . A. Ad ve r s e d r u g r ea c t io n s . G er i at r ic pa t ie n ts ar e a t i nc r ea se d ri sk f o r dr u g i n du c ed ad v e r s e ef f ec ts . I n c i de nc e o f ad v e r s e d ru g r ea ct i on s ( A D R s ) i n pa t i en ts o ve r t he ag e o f 65 is t wo t o th r ee t im es g r e at e r co m pa r ed t o yo u ng e r p a tie n ts . Th e r i sk is fi v e ti m e s h ig h e r in p eo pl e ap p ro ac h in g a ge 9 0. O n e i n f i v e o f a ll eld e r l y p a t ie n ts e xp e r i e nc es an A D R . I n s om e p a ti en t s, th e s e a re o v e rl oo ke d b e c a u se th e y m im ic t he c h ar a c t e ri s ti c s o f ot h er di s e a se s . 1 . F ac to r s t ha t ar e re s p on s ib le f o r t he hi g he r p r ev a l e nc e o f A D Rs in th e ge r i at r ic p o p ul at i on in c l u de po l y ph a r m a c y , p oo r r el a ti on shi p wi t h h e al t hc a re pr o v i de r s , m u lt i pl e d is ea s e s t a te s , in c r ea s i ng s e ve r i t y o f i l l ne s s , r ed uc ed d ru g e l im ina t i on , a n d i n c re as ed s e ns i ti v i t y t o dr u g ef f ec ts . a . S tu d ie s h a v e s ho wn th a t > 3 5% of ge r ia t r ic p at i e nt s l i v in g i n t h e c om m u n i t y u s e s i x o r m o r e m ed ic a ti o ns ; a p p ro xi m a t el y o ne ha l f o f pa t ie n ts re si d in g i n l on g - t er m c a r e f ac il i ti es us e f i v e o r m o re m e di ca t io ns . Pe o pl e 65 an d o ld e r u s e ap p ro xi m a t e l y 4 0 % o f th e d r ug s p r es c r ib e d a n d 5 0% of th e o ve r- t h e -c ou n t er ( O TC ) m ed ic a ti o ns t a ke n . b . P a ti en t s t ak in g m ul t ip le m e d ic at i on s h a v e a gre a t e r ch a nc e o f e xp e r i e nc i ng A D R s o wi n g t o d r ug - d ru g i n te ra c ti o ns a n d t he p ot e nt i al f o r o v e r l ap or s y ne r g y be t we e n a d ve r s e ef f ec t p r o fi le s . c . P at i en ts wi t h m u lt i pl e d i s e as e s t at es a re at hi gh e r ri s k of ha vi n g a d r u g- d i s e as e s t a te in t er ac t io n . d . I n a dd i ti on t o t he a fo re m en t io n ed ri sk fa c to rs fo r d e v el op i ng an A D R , i t i s d if f ic ul t t o p re d ic t h o w g e ri a t ri c pa t i en ts wi l l re sp o nd to an y g i v e n m e d ic a ti on o win g to a l t er e d p ha r m a c o k i n et ic a n d p h ar m a c od yn am ic p ro f i le s. e . A no t he r is s u e c om pl ic a t i ng ge r ia t r ic d r u g t he r ap y i s a dh e r en ce . Fa c t o rs t h a t h a ve b e e n sh o wn t o i nc r ea s e n o n ad he r e nc e i nc lu de po o r re l at i on sh i ps wi t h h ea l t hc a re p r o vi de r s , lo we r s oc i oe c o n om ic s t a tu s , li v i n g a lon e , p o l y ph a rm ac y , c o m p li c at e d d r u g r e gi m e ns , an d m ul tip l e c om o rb id i ti es . As m an y a s 6 0% o f g e ri a tr ic pat i e nt s d o n o t ta ke th e ir m e di c at io ns as p re s c ri b ed an d m a y s el f -m e di c a t e a s o ft e n as on ce a
we e k . I f p a ti en t s a re h os p i t al i z ed , th e ir p re s c r ib ed d r ug do s e s m a y r e p re se n t a s i gn i fi ca n t o v e r do s a g e or u n de r do sa g e, wh i c h cou l d c au se un i nt e nd ed e ffe c ts . f . E l de r l y p a ti e nt s c an ha v e d is ea s e s t h at m a k e a d h er i ng to d ru g t h e ra p y d i ff ic u lt . C o n d it i on s t ha t a f f ec t v is i o n , s u c h as m ac u la r deg e n er a ti o n o r c at a r ac t f or m a ti o n, c a n m a k e r ea d in g P.766 p r e sc ri p ti o n l ab e ls a n d m e di c a t io n i ns t r uc ti o ns tr o u bl es om e . He a ri n g l oss ca n p r e ve n t p at i en ts f ro m u nd e r s t a nd in g a n d h ea l th c a r e pr o fe ss i on al s f r om eff e c ti v e l y c om m u n ic at i ng m e di c a t io n in f o rm at i on an d p a ti en t in s tr uc t io ns . A r th r it is c a n a dd to t h e d i ff ic u lt y o f o p en i ng m e di c a t io n b o tt l es . I n t he s e i ns ta n c e s, p ro vi di n g p a t ie n ts wi t h m ed ic a ti o n o r “p il l ” b o xe s a nd wr i t t en m e di ca t i on li s t s m a y l im i t p ot en t i al b a r r ie r s t o p at i en t a d he re n c e . R ec og ni z i n g t he s e f a ct o rs , p h a rm ac is ts c an i nc r ea s e a d h er e nc e i n e ld e rl y p a tie n ts . 2 . P ha r m a c i s t s c an p ro v id e r ec om m e nd a ti o ns t o e l im in a te un n ec es s a r y dr u g th e ra p y a n d m on i to r m e di c a t io n p r o fi l es to a v oi d p o te n ti al d ru g - d ru g o r d r u g -d is eas e s t at e i n t er a ct i on s t ha t m a y p rov e h a rm f ul . E ff o r ts to op ti m i z e d r ug th e ra p y , in c l ud i ng s im p li f y i ng an d e m p lo y i ng m o r e c os t -e f f ec ti ve r egi m en s, m a y u lt im a te l y af fo r d be t te r p a t ie n t a dh e re nc e . B . P h a r ma c ok i ne t i cs . Ph a r m a c o ki n et ic pa r am e te r s m a y be al t er e d i n t he e l de r l y o wi n g t o a ge - r el a te d p h ys i ol og ic a l c h a ng es . S pe c i f i c ag e - re l at e d p h ys i ol og i c a l c h an g es a f f ec ti n g d ru g th e r ap y a r e g i v en in Ta b le 3 7 -3 . 1 . Ab s o r p t i on . Ph y s io l og i c a l c ha n ge s t ha t c a n al t e r a bs o rp t io n i n th e g e ri a t ri c p o p ul at i on in c l u de de la y e d ga s t r ic em p t y in g , d ec r e a s e d s pl an c hn ic bl oo d f l o w, e l e va te d g as t r ic p H , an d i m p a ir e d i nt e st in a l m o t ili t y . A l th ou g h t he r a te of d r u g a b so r p ti on m a y b e a lt e r ed i n s o m e pa t ie n ts , t h e ext e n t o f ab s o r p ti o n is r are l y a f f ec t ed . 2 . D i s t ri b u ti o n . S e v e r al a g e - re l at e d p h ys i ol og ic al c h a ng es m a y a ff e c t d rug d i st r ib u ti o n. a . E ld e rl y p a ti en t s h a v e a d ec r ea s e in to t al bo d y wa t e r , c au si ng wa t e r - s o lu b le d ru gs ( e . g ., ac e ta m i no p he n , Ty l e no l ) t o h a v e a s m al l er v o l u m e of di s tr i bu t io n . Pe a k c o nc en t r at i on s o f t h es e a g e nt s wi l l be hi g he r , a nd l oa di n g d os es m a y ne ed t o b e a d ju s te d t o i nc o r po r a te th i s c h a ng e . b . Th e v o lu m e of di s tr i but i o n o f l ip i d- s o l ub l e d ru gs ( e. g . , d ia ze p am , V a li um ; p r o p ra n ol ol , In d er a l ) is in c r ea s e d b ec a us e g e ri a tr i c p a ti e nt s t en d to ha ve a g r ea t er r a t io o f a di p os e t is s u e t o l e an m us c l e m as s . Th e se m e d ic at i on s m a y a cc um u la t e i n f a t s t o re s , in c re as i ng th ei r du r a ti o n o f a c t i on . c . A gi n g m a y a ls o a f fe c t t h e p h a rm ac ok in e ti c s o f d r u gs th a t a r e h ig hl y p r ot e i n b o u nd . F o r e xa m p l e, d rug s th a t a re hi g hl y b ou n d t o al b um in ( e. g ., wa r f a r in , C o u m a d in ; p h en y t o in , Dil a n ti n ) m a y h a v e a g re a te r f r ee c o nc en t r at i on bec a us e a l bu m i n c a n b e d ec r ea s ed i n t he el d e rl y wh o a r e c h r on ic al l y il l . d . Me d i c at i on s m a y h a v e a l te r e d bi n di n g a ff i ni t y in t he el d e rl y o r a lb um i n m a y e xp e r i e nc e a c h a ng e i n c o nf i gu r a ti on , wh i c h c a n a l s o lo we r b in d in g c ap ac i t y . C o m pe t it i on fo r ac id ic P.767
b i nd i ng s i te s c ou l d oc c u r wi t h a cc um ul a te d e n do ge n o us s ub s ta nc es , a l te r in g th e f r e e f r ac t io n o f dr u gs .
Table 37-3. Age-Related Physiological Changes Affecting Drug Therapy Factors
ChangeClinical Significance Pharmacokinetic
Gastrointestinal motility
↓
May affect the rate but not the extent of drug absorption
Gastric pH
↑
No significant change in drug absorption
Renal function
↓
Reduced elimination of renally excreted drugs
Serum albumin
↓
Decreased protein binding leading to an increased free fraction of drug
Phase I hepatic metabolism
↓
Potential accumulation of drugs metabolized by oxidation, reduction, or hydrolysis reactions
Body fat to lean muscle mass ratio
↑
Increased volume of distribution of fat-soluble drugs
Total body water
↓
Decreased volume of distribution of water-soluble drugs
Pharmacodynamic β-receptor sensitivity
↓
Potential diminished response to βblockers
Baroreceptor sensitivity
↓
Greater risk of orthostatic hypotension
Response to benzodiazepines and opioid analgesics
↑
Increased risk of adverse effects with typical doses
e . A lt h ou g h A G P c o nc e nt r a t io ns te n d t o i nc r ea s e wi t h a ge , th e i nc r e as e in t he c o nc en t r at i on s o f b as ic d r u gs (e . g ., li d oc ai ne , Xy l o c ai n e; p ro p ra n ol ol , Ind e r al ) th a t b i nd t o A G P a re us u al l y c l in ic al l y m e an i ng f ul on ly i n ac u te l y il l p at i en t s . 3 . R e na l e x c re t i on . P erh a ps th e b e st do cu m e n te d ag e - re l at e d p h ys i ol ogi c al c h an g e i s th e d ec li n e i n r e na l f un c ti o n, s p ec i fi c a ll y g lo m e r u la r fi l t ra t io n r a te a nd t h e tu bu l a r s ec r e ti o n r a te . a . I n p at i en ts wi t h ou t re na l d ys f un c ti on , it is e s tim a te d th a t t he r e i s a 5 0% d ec li ne in r e n al f un c t i on b y a g e 8 0. R e n al bl o od fl o w i s r e duc e d b y a pp r o xi m at e l y 1 0% e ac h d e ca d e o f l if e . b . S e ru m c re a ti n in e m a y n o t b e a go od p re d ic to r o f r en a l f un ct i on , a s c r ea t i ni ne p r o du c ti on al s o de c l i ne s wi t h a g e a nd lo we r a c t i vit y l e v e ls (s uc h a s t h e b ed r i dd e n o r d e bi l it a te d ) . c . Me d i c a t io ns p ri m a r il y e l im in a te d b y t h e k i d ne y s m a y h a v e i nc r ea s e d c o nc en t r at i on s o f b o th the ac t i v e d r ug an d i t s m e ta b ol i te s , p oss i bl y l ea d ing t o s u bs eq u en t a d v e rs e e f f ec t s . A ll re n al l y el im in a t ed d r ug s us e d i n g e ri a tr ic p a ti e nt s s h ou l d b e m o n it o re d fo r t h e n e ed fo r do se r ed uc ti o ns an d p o te n ti a l t o xi c ity. 4 . H e pa t i c m et a bo l i sm . A g e - r el a te d c ha n ge s a f fe c ti n g t he li v e r in c l u de a r e d uc ti o n i n he pa t ic bl oo d fl o w a nd a d ec l in e i n h e pa ti c m e t a bo li s m . a . P ha se I I r e ac ti o ns (g lu c u ro ni d at i on , a c e t y l a ti on , an d s ul f a ti on ) a re r el at i v e l y u n ch a ng ed in t he el de r l y. b . A re d uc ti o n i n p ha s e I r e ac t io ns ( o xi d a ti on , r ed u c t i on , a n d h yd r ol ys is ) c a n oc c ur . B e n zo di a z e pi n es a n d c er t a in a na lg es ic s , wh i c h de p e n d on ph as e I r ea c t i on s fo r m e ta b ol is m , r ep r es e nt s it u a ti o ns i n wh ic h c h an ges i n he p at ic m e t ab ol is m m a y be i m po r t an t . Th e el im i na t ion h al f -l i v e s o f t he s e a gen t s a r e p r ol on g ed an d m a y r e s u l t i n dr u g a c c um ul a ti on and p os s i bl e a d v e rs e e f fe c t s . c . Li ve r v o lu m e an d c el l m as s d ec r ea s e in t he eld e r l y . I t ap pe a rs t ha t t h is ch an g e i n s i z e e n ha nc es t he re d uc e d ac ti vi t y o f o xi d a t i ve an d de m e t h y la t io n m et a bo l is m . C o n j ug a ti on r ea c ti on s d o n o t a pp e a r t o b e a f fe c t ed b y li v e r m a ss . C . P h a r ma c od yn a m i c s 1 . G e r ia t ri c p a ti en t s c a n b e m o r e o r l es s r es p on siv e t o c e r ta in d ru gs , c om p a r ed t o yo u n g er pa t ie n ts . Re a s on s fo r th is m a y in cl u de al t e re d re ce p to r s e ns i ti vi ty , r e c ep t or
n u m b e r , o r re c e p to r re s po n s e . S tu di es ha v e sh o wn t ha t el de r l y pa t ie n ts m a y s ho w a d i m i ni s h e d r es p on s e t o β - b l oc k e r s . 2 . I n co n t ra s t , ge r ia t r ic pa t i en ts se em to ha v e an e xa g g e r a te d re sp o ns e t o a g en ts a f f ec t in g t h e C N S , na r c ot i c a na l ge s i c s , b en zo d iaz e p i n es , a nd wa r f a r in . Eld e r l y p a t ie n ts s ho u ld be m o ni to r e d c ar e f ul l y wh e n t ak in g th es e m e di c a ti o ns . I ni t i at i on of a n y o f t h es e t he r a pi es s h o ul d b e at lo we r d os es t h a n r ec om m e n de d f o r yo u n ge r p a t ie n ts . A v o i da nc e o f the s e d r ug s m a y n o t b e p os s i b le , b u t i f b e tt e r a l te rn a t i v es e xi s t t h e y s ho u ld be us ed f i rs t . D . D r u g t he r a p y c o n s i de r a t i on s 1 . D r ug t he r ap y i n g e ri a tr i c p a ti e nt s is in v o l v e d an d c a n b e v e r y c om pl e x b e c a us e o f a g e - re l at e d c h a ng es in ph a r m a c o ki n et ic s a nd ph ar m ac o d y na m i cs . 2 . A l ac k o f c li n ic al t ri al s d es i gn e d t o e v a lu a te t he s a f e t y a n d e f fi c a c y o f d r u g t h e r ap y i n t he el d er l y pop u la t io n i nc r e as es th e p ro b le m . 3 . Th e hi gh e r i nc id e nc e o f ad v e r s e e ff ec t s in g er ia t r ic pa t ie n ts m a y be in p a r t t h e r e s ul t o f th e c om pl e xi t y o f d ru g t h e ra p y an d t h e re l a ti v e la ck o f c l in ic al t ria l s i n t hi s p o p ul at i on . Ta bl e 3 7 - 4 l is t s s e v e r a l d ru g s a nd dos e s t ha t s ho u ld be a v oi de d in th e e l de r l y o wi n g t o h ig h e r r is k s of ad v e r s e e ff ec t s an d / o r l ack of e ff ic ac y . 4 . O wi n g to al t e ra t io ns in g ai t , b al a nc e, an d m obi l it y , f al ls an d c on s eq ue nt a d ve rs e e ve n ts a re f re q ue n t o c c ur r e nc e s in g er i at r ic pa t ien t s . a . Th e hi gh p re v a l en c e of o s t e op o ro s i s i n t h e e lde r l y r es ul t s i n a n i nc r ea se d i n ci de n c e of f ra c tu r es . Co m pl ic a ti on s a s s oc ia t ed wi t h f r a ct u re s , p a rt ic ul a rl y h i p f r a ct u r es , a r e s i g ni f ic an t c au s e s o f m o rb i di t y an d m o rt a li t y . b . Me d i c at i on s c a us i ng or t h os t at ic h yp ot e ns io n , dr o ws i n es s, di z zi n e ss , b lur r e d vi s i on , o r c o nf u s i on ha v e t h e p o te n ti al t o c a us e or wo r s e n p os t u ra l i ns t ab il i t y an d i n c re as e f a ll s i n t he el d er l y . P.768
P.769
Table 37-4. Target Drugs and Doses to Avoid in Geriatric Patients
Drug
Comments Analgesics
Pentazocine (Talwin)
Avoid; safer and more effective alternatives
Propoxyphene (Darvon)
Avoid; lack of efficacy (no more effective then acetaminophen and potential for accumulation and adverse narcotic effects
Meperidine (Demerol)
Avoid; safer and more effective alternatives Antidepressants
Amitriptyline (Elavil)
Avoid; anticholinergic adverse effects, increased risk of falls, and QT prolongation; use nortriptyline or desipramine as alternatives
Amitriptyline, perphenazine (Triavil)
Avoid; use separate antidepressant and antipsychotic agents in appropriate geriatric doses as necessary
Doxepin (Sinequan)
Avoid; safer and more effective alternatives Antiemetics
Trimethobenzamide (Tigan)
Avoid; more effective alternatives available Antihistamines
Sedating OTC agents, cold preparations
Avoid; potent anticholinergic effects
Hydroxyzine (Atarax)
Avoid; potent anticholinergic effects
Cyproheptadine (Periactin)
Avoid; potent anticholinergic effects
Chlorpheniramine (ChlorTrimeton)
Avoid; potent anticholinergic effects
Antihypertensives Hydrochlorothiazide (HydroDIURIL)
Doses > 25 mg/day should be avoided
Methyldopa (Aldomet)
Avoid; safer alternatives
Propranolol (Inderal)
Lipophilic nonselective β-blocker with increased potential for adverse effects; avoid; use a cardioselective β-blocker instead
Reserpine
Avoid; risk of adverse effects (e.g., sedation, depression) Antipsychotics
Haloperidol (Haldol)
Avoid unless indicated for psychotic disorder; use in small doses (1 mg); risk of sudden death in higher doses
Thioridazine
Avoid unless indicated for psychotic disorder Antispasmodics
Belladonna
Avoid long-term use; anticholinergic adverse effects
Dicyclomine (Bentyl)
Avoid long-term use; anticholinergic
adverse effects Hyoscyamine (Pyridium)
Avoid long-term use; anticholinergic adverse effects Decongestants
Oxymetazoline (Afrin)
Daily use for > 3 days should be avoided
Phenylephrine (NeoSynephrine)
Daily use for > 3 days should be avoided
Pseudoephedrine (Sudafed)
Avoid; anticholinergic effects and potential to raise blood pressure
Dementia treatments Isoxsuprine
Avoid; lack of efficacy H2-antagonists
Cimetidine (Tagamet)
Avoid; adverse CNS effects Hypoglycemic agents
Chlorpropamide (Diabinese)
Avoid; long half-life can cause prolonged hypoglycemic episodes and can induce SIADH Muscle relaxants
Carisoprodol (Soma)
Risk of adverse events greater than potential benefits; all use should be avoided
Cyclobenzaprine (Flexeril)
Risks of adverse events greater than
potential benefits Methocarbamol (Robaxin)
Risks of adverse events greater than potential benefits
Orphenadrine (Norflex)
Risks of adverse events greater than potential benefits NSAIDs
Indomethacin (Indocin)
Avoid; CNS adverse effects; use alternative NSAID
Phenylbutazone
Avoid; hematological adverse effects; use alternative NSAID
Non-cyclooxygenase selective NSAIDS
Avoid long-term use of naproxen, oxaprozin and piroxicam; increased risks of adverse effects Platelet inhibitors
Dipyridamole (Persantine)
Avoid; lack of efficacy and adverse effects (orthostatic hypotension) at high doses; aspirin is safer and more effective Sedative hypnotics
Long-acting benzodiazepines Chlordiazepoxide (Librium) Diazepam (Valium) Flurazepam (Dalmane)
Avoid; accumulation and increased risk of falls, sedation, and delirium
Short-acting benzodiazepines Alprazolam (Xanax) Oxazepam (Serax) Triazolam (Halcion)
Nightly use should be avoided; increased risk of falls, daytime sedation, and delirium
Meprobamate (Miltown)
All use should be avoided
Barbiturates
All use should be avoided; safer alternatives exist
CNS, central nervous system; NSAIDs, nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs; OCT, over the counter; SIADH, syndrome of inappropriate antidiuretic hormone secretion. Modified with permission from Fick DM, Cooper JW, Wade WE, et al. Updating the Beers criteria for potentially inappropriate medication use in older adults. Arch Int Med 2003;163:2716-2724. P.770
Table 37-5. Drugs and Drug Classes Possessing Anticholinergic Effects Antidiarrheal agents Diphenoxylate/atropine (Lomotil)
Propantheline (Pro-Banthine) Oxybutynin (XL formulation has fewer effects) (Ditropan)
Antiemetics/antivertigo agents Meclizine (Antivert) Scopolamine (Transderm scopolamine)
Tolterodine (Detrol) Class Ia antiarrhythmic agents Disopyramide (Norpace)
Trimethobenzamide (Tigan) Promethazine (Phenergan) Prochlorperazine
Quinidine Parkinson's agents Amantadine (Symmetrel)
(Compazine) Antihistamines, sedating types
Benztropine (Cogentin)
Antipsychotic agents
Procyclidine (Kemadrin)
Antispasmodics
Trihexyphenidyl
Belladonna alkaloids
Skeletal muscle relaxants
Clidinium bromide
Cyclobenzaprine (Flexeril)
Dicyclomine (Bentyl)
Orphenadrine (Norflex)
Hyoscyamine (Pyridium)
Tricyclic antidepressants
c . I t is we l l e s ta bl is h ed th a t m an y p s y ch oa c ti ve ag e n ts , e sp ec i al l y l o ng - ac t i n g b e n zo di a z ep i ne s , a re as s oc i at e d wi t h a n in c re as e d ri s k of f al ls in th e e l de r l y . I f a b e n zo di a z ep i ne m u s t be p r e s c ri b ed , l o w- d o se lo ra z e p am ( A ti va n ) o r o xa ze p am ( S e r a x) a r e be t te r c h oi c es be c a u s e of th e l ac k o f a c ti ve m e t ab ol i te s a nd th e i r m e ta b ol is m i n v ol v e s p has e II he p at ic r ea c t i on s on l y . 5 . G e r ia t ri c p a ti en t s t en d t o be s e ns it i v e to m e di c a t i on s t ha t po s s es s a nt ic h o li n e rg ic e f f ec ts . D r y m o ut h , u r in ar y r e t e nt i on , b l ur r y vi s ion , c o ns t ip a ti on , ta c h y c a rd i a , m em o r y im pa i rm e nt an d c o nf us i on a re t y pi c a l a n ti c ho li n e rg ic ad ve r se ef f ec t s a ss o ci at e d wi t h s e v e r a l c l as s e s o f d r ug s ( Ta b le 3 7 - 5 ). Th e s e ag e nt s c an a ls o i n du c e d el i ri um in s om e p e o pl e. a . W he n p os s i bl e , d r ug s wi t h a n ti ch o li n er g ic e f f ec t s s h ou ld be a v oi d ed in th e e l de r l y. In th os e i ns t a nc e s wh e n t h is i s n ot an opt i o n, th e l e as t a n ti ch o li ne r g ic ag en t s h ou l d b e c h os e n a nd in it i a te d a t th e l o we s t e f fe c t i v e do s e . Fo r e xa m pl e , if a t r i c yc l ic a n ti d ep r es s a n t is ne e de d , d es ip r am i ne (N o r p r am in ) an d n o r tr i pt yl i ne ( P a m el o r ) p os s es s l es s a n t ic ho li n e rg ic ac ti vi t y th a n a m i t ri p t y li n e ( E l a vil ) a n d i m ip r am in e ( To f ra ni l ) , a nd t he r e fo r e wo u ld be be tt e r in i ti al t he r ap e ut ic op ti o ns . b . F r eq ue n t m on i to r in g fo r a nd pa t ie n t a nd fa m i l y e d uc at i on on s i gn s a nd s ym p to m s o f po ss ib l e a nt ic h ol i ne r gi c a d v e rs e e f f ec ts i s a l wa y s wa r r a n te d wh e n t h ese d r ug s a r e pr es c ri b ed in th e e l de r l y . E . G e n e ra l p r in c ip l es . To a i d c li n ic ia ns in pr o v id i ng ap p r op r ia t e g e ri a t ric d ru g t h e r ap y, s o m e ge ne r a l pr i n c i pl es ha v e be e n d e v el o pe d . a . S ta r t wi t h a lo w d o s e , a n d t i t ra t e t he m e di c a t ion d os e s l o wl y.
b . O wi n g t o r ed u c e d r e na l an d h e pa ti c f u nc ti o n, th e ha l f -l i v es of m a n y dr ug s a r e p r o lo n ge d i n t h e e ld e rl y . S e l ec ti o n o f a ge n ts s h ou l d i n v ol ve c o ns i de r at i on o f th e s p ec if ic ph a rm ac ok i ne t ic s o f e ac h d r ug in th e g e ri a t ri c p o pu la t io n . c . R ap i d d os e e s c al a ti ons p re v e n t a t ta i nm en t o f th e op t im al th e r ap eu t ic res p on s e b e ca us e a s t e ad y - s ta t e c o nc en t r at i on of t he dr ug is no t re ac h ed an d i nc re a s e s t h e r i sk s f o r d e v el o pi n g a n AD R . d . Th e fe we s t nu m b e r o f d r u gs s ho u ld al wa y s b e u s ed to t re a t p a ti e nt s . e . A l wa y s e v al u at e p os s ib l e d r ug t o xi c it y . G e r ia t ric pa t ie n ts c a n h a v e a t y pic a l p r e se n ta t io ns of A D R s , wh i c h m a y m a n if es t a s CN S c ha n ge s ( e .g . , a l te r ed m e n ta l s t a tu s ). f . R e vi e w c on c o m i t an t m e d ic a ti on s a n d d is ea se s t o e v al u at e th e p os si bl e i n t er a ct i on s wi t h ne w d r ug s . g . R e ass es s t h e n ee d f or e ac h m ed ic a ti o n o n a re g ul a r b as is . P.771
STUDY QUESTIONS D i r e c t i on s fo r q ue s t io ns 1 - 14 : E a c h o f t he qu es t i o ns , s ta t em en t s , o r i nc o m pl e te s t a te m e n ts i n th is s ec t ion c a n b e c o r re c t l y a ns we r e d or c o m p le t e d b y o ne o f th e s u gg es t ed an s we r s o r phr a s es . Ch oo s e t he be s t a n s we r . F o r q ue s t io n s 1 - 4 : A H is a 1 . 2- k g f em al e b o rn pr e m at u re l y a t 3 0 we e k s o f g e st a ti o na l a g e. H e r m o th e r ha d a n i n fe c t i on wi t h a f e v er a t t he ti m e o f d el i v e r y . A H wa s a d m i t te d t o th e n eon a t al in t en si ve c a r e u ni t f o r p re s u m e d s ep s i s a nd p l ac ed on e m pi r ic an ti b io t ic th e ra py wi t h a m pi ci ll i n ( 5 0 m g /k g I V e v e r y 12 h r) an d ge n t am ic in ( 2 . 5 m g/ k g I V e v e r y 8 h r ). 1 . W hi c h o f th e fo l l ow in g va r i a bl e s w il l m o s t li k e l y b e u s e d to ca l c ula t e do s es f o r AH ' s a n t i bi o t ic s ? ( A ) h ei g ht ( B ) h ep a ti c f u nc ti o n ( C ) we i g h t (D) age ( E ) s er um c re a ti ni n e V i e w A n s we r 1 . T h e a n sw e r i s C [ se e] . 2 . Af t e r th e ad m i ni s t r at i o n o f fou r d o s es o f g e nt a mi c i n, a s e r u m c o nc e nt r a t i on ob t a i ne d 5 m in be f o r e t he n ex t d o s e w a s 2 . 5 µg /m L . Wh i c h o f t he f ol l ow i ng an sw e r s b e s t d es c r i be s t h e p h a r ma c ok i n et i c d i f f e re n c es ob s e r ve d i n p rem a t u r e n eo n a te s (c o mpa r e d to o l d e r c h i ld r e n a n d a d ult s ) t ha t mi g h t e x pl a in th i s va l ue ? ( A ) l a rg e r v ol um e o f d is tr i b ut i on , l o ng e r h al f - li f e ( B ) l a rg e r v ol um e o f d is tr i b ut i on , s h or t e r h al f - li f e ( C ) sm a ll e r v ol um e o f d is t r ib u ti o n, lo n ge r h a lf - li fe ( D ) sm a ll e r v ol um e o f d is t r ib u ti o n, s h o rt e r h al f - li fe ( E ) si m i l a r v o l um e o f d is t r i bu t io n , s ho r t er ha l f -l i fe V i e w A n s we r 2 . T h e a n sw e r i s A [ se e ; I . B .3 . d] .3 . Am p i c i l l in ma y e x h i b i t p h a r ma c ok i n et i c d i f f e re n c es i n AH b e c a us e o f i t s p ro t e in b in d i ng
c h a r ac t e r is t i cs . Wh i ch o f t h e f o l low i n g a n sw e rs b es t de s c r ib e s t h e e ff e c t of AH ' s a g e o n a mp i ci l l in p r o t e i n b i nd i n g? ( A ) i nc r ea s e d p r o te in bi nd i ng , r es ul ti n g i n a g r e ate r f r ee f ra ct i on ( B ) i nc r ea s e d p r o te in bi nd i ng , r es ul ti n g i n a re d uc e d f re e f r ac t io n ( C ) d ec r ea s ed pr o te i n b in d in g , re su l ti ng in a g r ea t e r f r e e f r ac ti o n ( D ) d ec r ea s ed pr o te i n b in d in g , re su l ti ng in a r e du c ed f re e f r ac t io n ( E ) d ec r ea s e d p r o te i n bin d in g , re su l ti ng in no si gn i f ic an t c ha n ge in f re e f ra c ti o n V i e w A n s we r 3 . T h e a n sw e r i s C [ se e] . 4 . As t he p h a r ma c is t p r o vi d in g s e r vi c e s f o r t he ne o na ta l i n te n si ve c a re u ni t , yo u e va l ua t e m ed i c at i o n o r d e r s a n d m a ke r ec o mm e n da ti o n s to t he me d ic a l t e am . W hi c h o f th e fo l l ow in g w o u ld b e t he mo s t a p p r op r i a te r e co m me n da t i o n f o r AH ' s c a r e ? ( A ) C h an g e t o o r al an t ib io t ic s f o r b e tt e r a bs o rp t ion . ( B ) D o ub l e -c he c k th e c alc u la t io ns to a v oi d d e c im a l er r o rs . ( C ) D i l ut e t h e g en t am ic in wi t h a la r ge r v o lu m e of IV f l ui ds to m a k e it ea s i e r t o m e as u re . ( D ) U s e a pe di a t ri c -s pe c if i c t h er a pe u ti c r a ng e f o r m o ni t o ri ng ge n ta m i c i n . ( E ) C h an g e t o s ul f am et ho xa z o l e a n d t r im et h op r im ( B ac t ri m ) f o r si n gl e -a ge n t a n t ib ac t e ri al c o v e r ag e . V i e w A n s we r 4 . T h e a n sw e r i s B [ se ea n d] .5 . You a r e c o un s el i n g t h e g r a n d mo t h e r o f a 3 - ye a r - o l d bo y w h o h as a p re s c r ip t i o n f o r a m o xi c i ll i n /c l a vu la n a te ( Au g m e n t i n) t o t r e a t un c o mp l i ca t ed o t i ti s m ed i a . W h ic h o f t h e f o l low i n g i s su e s w o ul d be le a s t l i ke l y t o a f f ec t me d ic a t io n ad h er e n c e ( c o m pl i an c e )? ( A ) l ac k o f e du c a t io n a bo u t th e m ed ic a ti on ( B ) c os t ( C ) d os i ng i n t er v a l (f r e qu e nc y ) ( D ) t as t e ( E ) a u to no m y V i e w A n s we r 5 . T h e a n sw e r i s E [s e e] . 6 . W h ic h o f t h e f o l low i n g m e d ic a t io n s i s s a fe t o u s e in t he t hi r d t r im e s te r o f p re g na n c y? ( A ) a ce t am in op h en ( B ) n on s te r oi d al an ti - i nf la m m a to r y d r ug s ( C ) wa r f a r i n ( D ) O xyC o n t i n ( E ) a sp i ri n V i e w A n s we r 6 . T h e a n sw e r i s A [ se ea n d -b , - d] .P. 7 7 2
7 . W hi c h o f th e fo l l ow in g me d i ca t i on s m a y h a ve t h e p ot e n ti a l t o ca us e f al l s i n a g e r i a t r ic pa t i en t ? ( A ) a m i t ri p t y li n e ( E la v i l ) ( B ) t r a z od o ne ( D es y r e l ) ( C ) a ce t am in o ph en wi t h c o de i ne ( D ) d ia ze p am ( E ) A l l o f t h e a bo v e
V i e w A n s we r 7 . T h e a n sw e r i s E [s e ea n d] . 8 . P l ac e n t al t r an s f e r o f a d r ug i s a f f e c te d b y a l l o f t he f ol l ow i n g c ha r a c te r i s t ic s e x c ep t ( A ) m ol ec ul a r we i gh t . ( B ) f e ta l g en d e r. ( C ) g es t at i on a l a ge . ( D ) l ip i d s o l ub il i t y of th e d r u g . ( E ) p la s m a p r ot e in bi n din g . V i e w A n s we r 8 . T h e a n sw e r i s B [ se e] . 9 . W h en se l e c ti n g a be nz o d ia z e p in e p r o d u c t f o r a w o ma n w h o h as ch r o n ic pa n i c d is o r d e r , a l l o f th e fo l l ow i n g d r ug p r o p e r t ie s a r e de s i ra b le f o r b re a s t- f e ed i n g h er 8 - m on t h - ol d in f a n t w ho w a s b o r n a t t e r m e xc e pt ( A ) h ep a ti c m et a bo li s m to i na c t i ve m e ta bo l it es . ( B ) a s h or t ha l f- l if e . ( C ) a r ap id on s e t of ac tio n . ( D ) h ig h l i pi d s ol u bi li t y . V i e w A n s we r 9 . T h e a n sw e r i s D [ se e] . 1 0. D r u g s a f e t y i n p r e g n a nc y o f a s p e ci f i c a ge n t c a n b e as s e ss e d b es t b y ( A ) t h e F D A c la s s i fi c a t ion s y s t em , es pe ci al l y ca te g o r y C d r u gs . ( B ) c as e r e po r ts . ( C ) p h ys i c i a n k n o wl e d ge. ( D ) d a ta b as es , s uc h as R E P R O TO X. V i e w A n s we r 1 0 . T he a nsw e r i s D [ se ea n d] . B ri g g 's D r u g s i n P re g na n cy an d L a c t at i o n. 1 1. W hi c h o f t h e f ol l ow i ng d r ug s is e x p ec t e d t o c a us e a n t i ch o l in e r g ic ad ve r s e e f f ec t s i n t he el d e r l y? ( A ) p r op o xy p h e n e ( Da r v o n ) ( B ) ci p r of l o xa c in ( C ip r o ) ( C ) a m i t ri p t y li n e ( E l a v il ) ( D ) p r op r a no lo l (I n de r al ) ( E ) ci m et id i ne ( Ta g am et ) V i e w A n s we r 1 1 . T he a nsw e r i s C [ se e] . 1 2. W hi c h o f t he f o ll ow i n g a n t i h yp e r t e n s i ve a g en ts s ho u l d b e a vo i d ed i n e l d e r l y p a t i e n t s ? ( A ) a m l od i pi ne ( N o r v as c ) 5 m g e v e r y d a y ( B ) a t en ol o l ( Te n o rm in ) 2 5 m g e v e r y d a y ( C ) b e na z e p ri l (L o te ns in ) 1 0 m g e v e r y d a y ( D ) h yd r oc hl o r ot h ia z i de (H y d r o D I U R I L ) 2 5 m g e v er y d a y ( E ) m et h y l do pa ( A ld om e t) 2 5 0 m g th r e e t im es a da y V i e w A n s we r 1 2 . T he a nsw e r i s E [s e e] . 1 3. Wh i c h o f t he f o ll ow i n g b e n zo d ia z e p i ne s i s e x pe c t e d t o c a us e th e l e ast a m ou n t o f ad ve r s e ef fe c t s i n t h e el d e r l y? ( A ) c hl o rd ia z e p o xi d e (L ib r i um ) ( B ) d ia z e p am ( Va li um ) ( C ) f l ur a z e pa m ( D a lm ane ) ( D ) o xa z e p a m ( Se r a x) ( E ) t em a z e pa m ( R es t o ri l)
V i e w A n s we r 1 3 . T he a nsw e r i s D [ se e] . 1 4. W hi c h o f t he f o ll ow i n g f ac t o rs i s as s oc i a te d w i th a n in c r e as e d r i s k o f n o n com p l ia n ce i n t h e e l de r l y? ( A ) p ol yp h a rm ac y ( B ) h yp e rt e ns io n ( C ) l i vin g wi t h a s p ou s e in a n is o la t ed en vi r on m en t ( D ) e xp e n s i v e m e d ic at i on s ( E ) g oo d re l at io n s h ip wi t h p h ys ic i an V i e w A n s we r 1 4 . T he a nsw e r i s A [ se e] . D i r e c ti o ns f o r qu e s ti o ns 15 - 1 6 : Th e q u es t io ns an d i nc om p le te s ta t em en ts in t hi s s e c ti o n c an be c o r r ec tl y a ns we r e d o r c om p le t ed b y on e o r m or e o f t h e su g ge s te d a nswe r s . C h o os e t he an s we r , A- E . 1 5 . Ac c o r di n g to t he p ri n c i pl e s o f d ru g e x c re t io n i n to t he b r ea s t m i lk , w h ic h c o m bi n a ti o n o f t he f ol low in g p r op e r t ie s w ou l d r e s u l t i n t h e h i gh e s t dr u g c o n ce n t r a ti o n i n b re a st m i l k? I . l ow m o l ec u la r w e ig h t, m o de r a te l y l i p o p h i li c I I . l ow p l as m a p r o te i n bo u n d , w e a kl y b a s i c I I I . hi g hl y p l a s m a p r o t ei n b ou n d , w e a kl y a c i d i c A i f I o n l y i s c o r re c t B i f II I on l y i s c o r r ec t C i f I a n d I I a r e c or r ec t D i f II a nd I II a re c o r re c t E i f I, I I, an d II I ar e c o r re c t V i e w A n s we r 1 5 . T he a nsw e r i s C [ se ea n d] .1 6 . F ol l ow i n g p r i nc i p le s o f t e r a t o ge n ic i t y, d r u g e xp o s u r e d u r in g t he f ol l ow i ng t im e s c o ul d c a us e f e t a l a b n o r ma l i ti e s? I . f i r s t 2 w ee ks o f g e s tat i o n I I . w e ek s 3 - 8 o f ge s ta t io n I I I . th e fe t a l p e r io d A i f I o n l y i s c o r re c t B i f II I on l y i s c o r r ec t C i f I a n d I I a r e c or r ec t D i f II a nd I II a re c o r re c t E i f I, I I, an d II I ar e c o r re c t V i e w A n s we r 1 6 . T he a nsw e r i s D [ se ea n d] .P . 77 3
ANSWERS AND EXPLANATIONS 1 . T he an sw e r is C [ s ee I . D . 1] . Mo s t p e di a t ri c d os es ar e b as e d o n b od y we i g h t . Th i s s i ng l e v a r i ab le in c or p o r at es g r o wt h a nd m a tu r a ti o n, wh i l e al l o wi n g a s im pl e c a l c u la t io n fo r do se . He i gh t is of t en d i f fi cu l t t o m ea s u r e a c c ur a t el y i n c hi ld r e n, an d the ca lc u la t io n o f b o d y s u rf a c e a re a i s t ypi ca ll y r es e r v e d f o r th o s e d ru gs wi t h n a r r o w th e r ap e ut ic in d ic es , s uc h a s c h em ot h e ra p y . 2 . T he an sw e r is A [ s ee I . B . 3. a ; I . B .3 . d] .
A m i no gl y c os i de s s u c h as ge n ta m i c i n e xh i b i t a lar g e r v ol um e o f di st r ib u tio n in n e o na t es b ec a us e o f t h ei r la r g er b od y wa t e r c o n te n t . Ne o na t es a ls o t y p i c a l l y ha ve a l o ng e r e l im in a ti on ha l f -l i fe as t he re s ul t o f h a v i n g r e d uc ed r en a l f un c ti on du r i ng t he f i r s t 6 m on t hs o f l i fe . 3 . T he an sw e r is C [ s ee I . B . 3. b ; Ta b l e 3 7 -2 ] . N e o n at es ha v e b ot h a r ed u c e d q u an t it y o f p la sm a p r ot e in s , as we l l a s a re d uc t io n i n t h e a f fi n it y o f a l bu m i n t o b i nd to o th e r su b s t a nc es . As a r es u lt , th e f r e e f ra c ti o n o f m a n y d r u gs , i nc lu d in g am p ic il li n , is in c re as e d. 4 . T he an sw e r is B [ s ee I . D . 1 a nd 2 ]. A l l p e di a t ri c o r de rs s h o ul d be c a r ef u ll y ch ec ke d fo r ca lc u la t io n e r r or s . E r ro r s a r e m o r e co m m on in t he pe di a t ri c p o pu la t io n a s t h e re s ul t o f we i gh t - ba s e d d os i ng an d t h e n e ed fo r m a t he m a t ic a l c a lc ul a ti on s . Th e us e o f t he or a l r o ut e wo u ld no t be a d vi sa b le i n th is pa t ie n t, b ec a us e o f t h e p ot e nt i al r e d uc ed d ru g a bs o rp t ion . L i ke wi s e , t h e di l ut i on of t h e d os e wi t h m o re I V f lui d or t he us e o f a s u lf a dr u g wo u ld n o t b e a p p ro p ri a te fo r t his pa t ie n t 's ag e . F i na ll y , th e th e r ap eu t ic ra n ge f or g e n ta m i c i n i s t he s a m e in p ed ia t r ic pa t ie n ts a s i n a d ul ts . 5 . T he an sw e r is E [ s e e I . G ] . W hile th e o t he r op t io ns a r e al l im p o rt a nt as pe c ts o f c o un s e li n g t o e nh a nc e m e di ca t io n a d he r en c e in c hi l dr e n , a ut o no m y (t h e a b i l i t y to p ro v i d e se l f -c are o r g i ve m e di ca t io ns in d ep en d en tl y ) wo u l d no t b e a c o ns ide r a ti o n f o r a 3- y e a r - ol d c h i ld . A u t o no m y b ec o m e s a m uc h m o re c r i ti ca l i s s ue in d e t e rm in in g a d he r en c e in a d ol e sc en c e . 6 . T he an sw e r is A [ s ee I I . B .3 . e. ( 1 ) a n d ( 2 ) ; I I .4a , b -c a n d d ] . A c e ta m i n op h en i s a s a fe a n d e f fe c t i v e a n al ge s i c t h a t c an be us ed in th e ra p e ut ic d o se s d u ri ng p re g na nc y . N S A I D s m a y in t er f e re wi t h t h e o ns e t o r p r og r es s o f l a bo r wh e n u s e d i n th e t h ir d tr im es t e r. N S A I Ds an d wa rf a r in , wh e n u s e d n e a r d el i v e r y, m a y ca us e b l ee di n g p r obl e m s i n th e n e wb o r n i nf an t . In ad d it io n , wa r f a ri n u s e i n t he t h i rd t ri m es te r m a y be as s oc i at e d wi t h f et a l C N S a b n or m a l it i es . O xyC o n t in us e i n t h e th i rd t ri m e s t e r m a y in d uc e n e on a ta l wi t hd r a wa l fo l lo wi n g d e li v e r y . 7 . T he an sw e r is E [ s e e I V . D . 4. b a n d c ]. Me d i c a t io ns th a t c an c a us e o r t ho s ta ti c h y p o te ns io n , d r o ws i ne ss , d i z z i n es s , bl u r re d vi s i on , o r c o nf u s i on ha v e t h e p o te n ti al t o c a us e fal l s i n g er i at r ic pa t ie n ts . Th u s al l o f t h e m ed ic a ti o ns l is t ed m a y p u t t h e p at i en t a t a f al l ri s k . 8 . T he an sw e r is B [ s ee I I . B .2 ] . F e t al ge n de r do es no t a ff e c t p la c e n ta l t r an s fe r of a d ru g . Th e m o le c u l a r we i gh t an d t h e l i pi d s ol ub i li t y of a d ru g g re a tl y i nf l ue nc e i ts ab i li t y t o c ro ss th e p l ac ent a l m em b r an es . Pl as m a p ro te i n b in d in g a f fe c ts th e am o un t o f f re e d r ug a v ai la b le t o c r os s t h e p la c e n ta . G es ta t i on al ag e i n fl u en c e s t he vo l um e o f d is t ri b ut i on o f t he dr u g a s we l l as t he th ic k n e s s o f t he pl ac en t al m e m b r an e s . 9 . T he an sw e r is D [ s ee I I I . C ; I I I. F . 1. a ]. W hen a n y d r u g is us ed by a n u rs in g m o th e r, i t is d e s i r ab l e t o h a v e t h e l eas t am ou n t o f ac t i v e d ru g a v ai la b le in t he m a t er n al c i rc u la t io n t o d if f us e i n to th e b r e as t m il k . A r a p id l y ac t in g ( f o r m a t e rn a l o ns e t o f a c t i on ) , ra pid l y e li m i na t ed ( i. e . , s h o rt h al f - li f e) d r u g wi t h i na c t i v e m e ta bo l i te s is op t im al . If th e dr u g i s h i gh l y l i pi d s ol u ble , it is m o r e li k el y t o p as s in t o b r e as t m il k .
1 0 . Th e a n sw e r i s D [ s ee I I . B. 3 .c an d d ] . Th e F D A c l as s i f ic at i on s y s t e m d oe s n ot as se s s ris k we ll in c a t eg o r y C d r ug s . C a t e go r y A an d to s om e e xt e n t c at e go r y B d ru gs h a ve be e n sh o wn t o b e s a f es t in p r e gn a nc y . C as e r e po r ts o f pr e gn a nc y e xp o s ur es t e nd t o b ia s d at a t o wa r d a d ve rs e o u tc om e s . Th e b es t s o u rc e o f in f or m a t io n i s f r om a v a i la bl e d a ta b as es , s uc h a s R E P R O TO X o r Te r i s , o r wi t h p u bl is h ed bo ok s suc h a s Br i gg ' s D ru gs in P re g n an c y a n d L ac t at i on . P.774
1 1 . Th e a n sw e r i s C [ s ee I V . D .5 . a; Ta b le 37 - 5 ]. Tr i c yc l ic a n ti d ep r es s a n ts a r e a n e s t a bl is h ed c a use o f a n ti ch ol i ne r gi c a d ver s e e f f ec ts in th e el de r l y . W h e n t h es e a ge n ts ar e i n di c at e d, no r t r ip t y l in e a nd d e si p ra m i n e a r e as s o c i at e d wi t h a lo we r i nc id e nce o f a n ti ch ol i ne r gi c A D R s an d a r e m o r e d es ir a bl e a l te r na t i ve s . 1 2 . Th e a n sw e r i s E [s ee I V ; Ta bl e 3 7 -4 ] . Th e u se o f m e t h y ld o pa s h o ul d b e a v oi de d i n e l der l y p a ti e nt s o wi n g to ri s k o f C N S a d ve r s e ef f ec ts an d h y po t e ns io n . 1 3 . Th e a n sw e r i s D [ s ee I V . D .4 .c ; Ta b le 37 - 4 ]. C h l o rd i a z ep o xi d e , d i a z ep a m , an d fl u ra z e p am s ho u ld b e a vo id ed in el d e rly p a t ie n ts o wi n g t o a c t i v e m et a bo li te s a n d l on g -e l im in a ti on h a l f- l i v es . O xa ze p a m r e pr e s en ts t h e s a fe s t al t e rn a ti v e bec a us e o f a r el a ti v e l y s h or t h al f -l i fe , ab se nc e o f ac t i ve m e ta b ol i te s , an d i t i s d ev o i d of ph as e I h ep a ti c m e ta b ol is m . 1 4 . Th e a n sw e r i s A [ s ee I V . A .1 . e] . L o we r s oc io ec o no m i c s ta t us , li v i ng al o ne , p o l y ph a r m a c y , c om pl ic a te d d ru g r e g im en s , p oo r re l at i on s h i ps wi t h h e al t hc a re p rovi d e r s , an d m ul t ip l e di s ea s e s ta t es a r e al l r is k f ac t o rs fo r n on c om pl i an c e in th e g e ri at r i c p op u la ti o n . 1 5 . Th e a n sw e r i s C ( I , II ) [ s e e I I I . B. 1 , 2 , 3 , 4 and 5 ] . H i g h -m ol ec u la r - we i g ht s u b s t a nc es ar e l es s l ik el y t o pa s s i n to b re as t m il k b e ca us e o f t h e ir si z e . D ru gs t ha t a r e h i gh l y pl as m a p ro t ei n bo u n d m a y r e ac h t he b re as t m il k o n l y in s m a l l am o un ts , be c au s e a l a rg e p o r ti on of t h e d ru g i s b ou n d t o t he m a t e rn a l p l as m a p ro t ei ns an d , t her e f o re , on l y a s m al l a m ou n t i s f r ee t o d if f us e i nt o b r e as t m i lk . A lo w- m o l ec ul a r - wei g h t, m o de r a te l y li po p hi l ic d ru g p as s e s e as il y i n to b r e as t m i lk . A d ru g t h a t h as a lo w d e g r e e o f p la sm a p r ot e i n b in di n g h as a si g ni fic a nt a m ou n t o f d r ug f re e to dif f u s e in t o b re a s t m i lk . A we a k l y b as ic dr u g m a y io n i ze a f te r r e a ch in g th e b r ea s t m i lk a n d t h e re f or e re m a i n t r ap p e d in t he m i lk . 1 6 . Th e a n sw e r i s D ( I I , I I I ) [s ee I I. A . 1, 2 a n d 3 ]. D u r i ng f ir s t 2 we e k s a f ter f e r ti li za t io n , t h e em b r yo is im pe r v i o us t o te r a tog e ns . An y e xp o s u r e d u ri n g t hi s t im e wi l l ha v e ei t he r no ef f ec t or t he em b r y o wi l l be d e s t r o ye d. D u r i ng t he r em ai ni n g we e k s o f t he p re g na nc y , t era t o ge ns m a y e xe r t e f fe c ts on t he f e t us . Te r at o ge ni c e f fe c ts a re no t a l wa y s s tr u c t u ra l in na t ur e ; t h e y c a n b e f u nc t io na l o r b eh a v io r a l. Th e r ef o re , e xp o s u r es d u r in g t h e f eta l pe r io d c an al so be p rob l em a ti c .
38 Clinical Laboratory Tests B yr o n D . M a y
I. GENERAL PRINCIPLES A. L a b o r a t o r y t e s t s a r e p e r fo r m e d f o r m ul t ip le pu r p os es , i nc l ud in g to di s c o v e r a d i se as e , c on fi r m o r d i f fer e n ti a t e a d i ag no s i s , s tag e o r c l as si f y a d is e as e, a n d m o ni t o r e ff ec t i v en e s s o f t h e r ap y. B . L a bo r a t o r y t e s t s a r e c l as s i fi e d a s s c r ee n ing o r d ia g no s t ic . Sc r ee ni n g t es t s a r e us ed in pa t ie n ts wi t h n o s ig ns o r s y m p t om s of a di s e as e ( e . g. , s e ru m c h ol es t e ro l f o r as s e s s in g c a rd io v a s c u l a r d is ea s e r is k) . D ia gno s ti c t es t s a re do n e i n pa t i en ts wi t h s ig ns a nd s y m p to m s o f di s e as e o r wi t h a n a bn o r m a l sc r e en in g te st . C . M on i t o r in g d r ug t he ra p y 1 . L ab o r a to r y t e s t r e s u lt s a re us e d t o i n ves ti g ate p ot e nt i al p ro bl em s wi th a p a t ie n t 's an a to m y or ph y s i ol og y . P h a rm ac is ts us ua l l y m o ni t or la b o ra t o r y te s ts to a . As s e ss t he t he r a p eut i c an d ad ve r s e e f f ec t s o f a d ru g (e . g ., m o ni t o rin g th e s e r um u r ic ac id le v e l a f te r al l op u ri n ol is a dm i ni s te r e d , c h ec k i n g f o r i nc r eas e d l i ve r f u nc t io n te s t v a lu es a ft e r a dm i ni st r a ti o n o f is o ni azi d ) b . D e te r m i ne t he p r op er d r u g do s e ( e .g . , a ss ess m e n t o f t h e s er um c re a ti n in e o r c r e at i ni ne c l ea r a nc e v a lu e be f o re us e o f a re n al ly e xc r e t e d dr u g ) c . As s e ss t he n ee d fo r a d d i t io n al o r a l t e rn a t e d r u g t he r a p y ( e . g . , as ses sm e nt of wh i t e b lo o d c e l l c o u nt aft e r an an t ib i ot ic is a dm i ni s te r e d) d . P r e ve n t t e s t m is i n te r p r e t a t io n r es u l ti n g f r om d r u g i n te r f e r e nc e ( e .g . , d e t e rm in a ti on o f a f a ls e -p o s i t i v e r es u lt fo r a u r ine g lu co s e te s t a f te r c e pha l os p or i n a d m i ni s t ra ti o n ) 2 . Th e se te s ts c an be exp e n si ve , a nd re q ue s ts fo r t he m m u s t b e b al a nc ed a ga in s t p o t en t ia l b en e fi t s f o r p ati e n ts a n d h o w t h e l ab o rat o r y t es t wi l l a f fe c t y o u r d e ci si o n r e g a rd i ng th e ra p y . G e ner a l l y , l ab t es ts s h ou ld b e o r d er e d o nl y i f t h e r es u lt s wi l l a f f ec t t h e d ec is io ns ab ou t t he m a na ge m en t o f the p at i en t . B . D e f i ni t i o n o f n o r m al va l u e s 1 . N o r ma l la b o ra t o r y t e s t r e su l t s f al l wi t hi n a pr e d e te rm i ne d ra ng e of va l ue s , a nd a b n o r ma l va lu e s f al l o ut s id e th a t r an g e. Th e no rm a l r a ng e o f a la b or a to ry t e s t is u s ua ll y d e te r m i ne d b y ap p l y in g s t at is t ic al m e t hod s to re s ul ts f ro m a re p re s en t at i v e s am p le of t he ge ne r a l p op u la t io n . Us ua l l y , t he m ea n ± 2 st a nd a rd de vi a ti on s i s t a ke n a s t h e n o rm al ra n ge . a . N o r ma l li m i ts ma y b e d e f i ne d s o mew h a t a r b it r a r i l y; t h u s v al u es o u ts id e th e n o r m a l r a ng e m a y no t n ec es s ar i l y i n di ca t e d is ea se o r t h e n ee d f o r tr e at m en t ( e. g . , a s ym pt om a ti c h y p e ru r ic em i a ). b . Ma n y f a c to r s ( e .g . , a ge , s e x, t i m e s i nc e l as t m e a l ) m us t b e t ak e n i nt o ac c o u nt wh e n e v a l ua t in g t es t re s u l ts . c . N o r ma l va l ue s a l so va r y a m o n g i ns t i t u ti o ns a n d m a y d e pe n d o n t he m e th o d u s ed to pe r f o rm th e t es t . d . Th e go al is no t to m ak e a ll la bo r a to r y v a l ue s no r m al ; re si st u rg es to do s om e th i ng in a c l i ni c a ll y s t ab l e p at i en t .
e . A t te m p ts ha v e b ee n m a d e i n re ce n t ye a rs to s ta n d ar d i z e t he p re s e n ta t io n of l a bo r a to r y d at a b y u s i n g t h e In t er n at i on a l S y s te m o f U ni ts ( S I u ni ts ) . C on tr o v e r s y s u r ro u nd s t h is i s s ue in th e U ni t ed S ta t es , a n d r es is t an ce t o a do p t t hi s s ys t em c o nt i nu es . Th e SI un i t o f m ea s u r e i s a m e th o d o f r e p o rt i ng c l in ic al la b o ra to r y d a ta in a s ta nd a r d m e t r ic fo rm a t. Th e b as ic u n it of m a ss f o r th e S I is th e m ol e . The m o l e is n o t i n fl u en c e d b y t he a dd i t io n o f e xc e s s we i g h t of s al t o r es te r fo r m u l at i on s . Te c h n ic al l y an d p h ar m a c o l og ic a ll y, t he m o le is m o r e m e an in g fu l th an t he g r a m b e ca us e e ac h p h y s io lo g ic a l r e ac ti o n oc cu r s o n a m o l e cu l ar le v e l . E f f o r ts to im pl em e nt th e S I s y s t e m b eg an in t he 19 7 0s , re s u l ti n g i n t he ado p t io n o f f u l l S I - t ra ns i ti on po l ic ie s b y a fe w m a jo r m e di ca l a n d p h ar m a c eu ti c al j o u rn a ls in th e 1 9 8 0s . R e lu c ta nc e P.776 t o us e t h is s y s te m b y m an y c li n ic ia ns in th e Un i ted S t at e s h as f o rc e d ch a ng e s i n t he p o li c i es b y s om e j o u rn als t o r ep o r t b o th c o n ven t io n al an d S I u ni ts o r t o r ep o r t t h e c o n ve rs io n f ac t o r b e t wee n th e t wo s ys t em s . I t is s t il l c o n t ro ve r s i a l wh i c h m e th o d s h ou l d b e us e d t o r e po r t c li n ic al la bo r a to r y v a l ues . Th e re a re a rg um e nt s fo r a nd a g ai n st th e u n i v e rs al c on v e r s io n t o t h e S I s y s t em . R ea d er s s ho ul d be awa r e t h a t s om e j o u rn al s r e po r t SI a n d /o r c o n ven t io n al u n its i n t he i r t e xt . P a r ti cu l ar a t t en ti o n s h ou l d b e p ai d t o t h e u nit s as s oc i at e d wi t h a re por t e d l a bo r at o r y va lu e , a nd ac c e s s t o a c on v e r s i on t ab le m ay b e ne c es s a r y to a v oi d c o nf us i on in th e i n te r p ret a t io n o f t h e d a ta . W he n a pp r op r ia t e , b o th c o n v en t io n al an d S I u ni ts wi l l b e re p o rte d in th is c h ap t e r. 2 . L ab o r a to r y e r r o r m u s t a l wa y s be c o ns id e r ed wh e n t e s t re s ul t s d o not c o r r e la t e w i t h e xp e c te d re s u lt s fo r a gi ve n p at i e nt . I f n ec es s ar y , t he t es t s h o ul d b e r e p ea t ed . C om m o n s ou rc e s o f la bo r a to r y e r ro r in c l u de s p oi l ed s p ec im en s , i n co m p l et e s pe c i m e ns , s p e c i m e ns ta k en at th e wr o n g t im e , f au l t y re a ge n ts , t e ch n ic al e rr o rs , i n c o r r ec t pr o c e du r es , a n d f ai l u re t o t ak e d i et o r m e d ic at io n in t o a cc o un t . 3 . D u ri n g h os pi t al ad m i s s i on o r r ou t in e p h y si c al e xa m i n a ti o n, a b a t te r y o f t e s ts is u s ua ll y g i v e n t o a ug m e n t t h e h is t or y a n d p h ys ic a l e xa m i n at i on . Ba si c t es ts m a y i n cl ud e a n el ec t ro c a r d iog r a m ( E C G ) , a ch es t x- r a y, a s e qu e nt ia l m ul t ip l e a n al yz e r ( S M A) p r o f i l e, el e c t ro l yt e t es t s , a c o m pl e te b loo d c ou n t ( C B C ) , a nd u r in a l ys i s . C . Q u a n t it a t i ve te s ts , qu a l i ta t i ve t es t s , a nd ana l yt i c a l p e r f o rm a nc e 1 . Te s ts wi t h n o rm al v a lu e s r e po r t ed i n ra n ge s ( i. e . , 3 . 5 -5 . 0 m Eq / L ) a r e c a l le d q u a n ti t a t i ve . 2 . Te s ts wi t h p os i ti v e ( + ) o r ne g at i v e (- ) ou t c o m es a re c a ll e d q ua l i ta t i ve . 3 . Th o se wi t h v a r y in g d eg r e es of po s i t i vit y ( e . g. , 1 + , 2 + , 3 + g l uc os e i n t h e u r in e ) a r e t e r m e d s e mi q ua n t i ta t i ve . 4 . Th e qu al i t y of a q ua n ti t a ti v e as s a y is m e as u red i n t e rm s o f a cc u r ac y ( a c c u r ac y is d e f in ed as th e e xt e n t t o wh i c h m e an m e as u re m en t is c l os e t o t h e t r ue v a lu e ) . P r e c i si o n re f er s t o th e re p r od uc i bi li t y o f t h e as sa y .
II. HEMATOLOGICAL TESTS.
B l o od co n ta in s t h r ee t y pe s o f fo r m e d e le m en ts : re d bl oo d c e ll s ( R B C s ), wh i t e b lo od c e ll s (W BCs ) , a n d p la t ele t s ( F ig u r e 3 8- 1 ) . A C B C i nc l ud es he m o g lo bi n ( Hb ) , h e m a t oc r it ( Hc t ) , t o ta l W B C s , to t al R B C s , m e an c e l l vol um e ( MC V ) , a n d pla t e le t c o un t .
Figure 38-1. Derivation of blood elements from stem cells. Cells located below the horizontal line are found in normal peripheral blood, with the exception of the late normoblasts.
P.777
A. R B C s ( e r yt h r o c yt e s ) 1 . Th e R B C co u n t, wh i c h r e po r ts th e n um b e r o f R B C s f ou n d i n a c ub ic m i l li m e t e r 3
( m m ) of wh o l e b lo o d, p ro v i d es an in d ir ec t es ti m at e o f t he bl o od ' s Hb c o nte n t . N o r m a l va lu e s a r e 3
a . 4 .3 - 5. 9 m il l io n /m m o f b l oo d f o r m en ( × 1 0 3
12
/ L)
b . 3 .5 - 5 .0 m il l io n /m m of b l oo d f o r wo m e n (× 10
12
/L)
2 . Th e H c t o r pa ck e d c el l vo l u me ( P C V ) m ea s u re s th e p e rc en t ag e b y vo lu m e o f p a ck ed R B C s i n a wh o le b l oo d s am p le af t e r c e n t rif u g at i on . Th e Hc t v al ue is us ua l l y t h r e e t im es th e Hb v a lu e ( s ee I I. A . 3 ) a nd is g i v e n a s a pe r ce n t o r f r ac t io n o f 1 ( 4 2% 5 2 % o r 0. 4 2- 0 .5 2 fo r m en ; 37 % - 47 % o r 0 . 37 - 0 .4 7 f o r wo m en ) . a . L ow Hc t v a lu es in di c at e s u c h c o nd i ti on s a s a ne m ia , o v e r h y d r at i on , o r b l oo d l os s . b . H i g h H c t v al u es i n di c a t e s uc h c on d it io n s as po l yc y t he m i a v e ra o r d ehy d r a t i on . 3 . Th e H b t e s t m e as u r es t h e g r am s o f H b c o nt a ine d in 10 0 m L ( 1 d L ) o r 1 L o f wh o l e b lo od an d p r o v i des an es t im at e o f th e o xy g e n -c a r r yin g c ap ac i t y of t h e R B Cs . Th e H b v a lu e de pe n ds on t he n um b e r o f R B C s an d th e a m o un t o f H b in e a c h R B C . a . N o r ma l va l ue s a r e 1 4- 1 8 g/ d L f o r m e n a n d 1 2 -1 6 g/ d L f o r wo m e n . b . L ow H b v a l ue s i nd ic at e an em i a. 4 . R B C i nd i ce s (a ls o k no wn a s Wi n t r o be in d i ces ) p ro vi d e im p o rt a nt in f or m a ti o n r e g a rd i ng R B C s i z e , H b c o nc en t r at i on , a n d H b we i gh t . Th e y ar e u s ed pr im a r il y t o c a te g o ri z e an em ia s , a lt ho u g h t he y m a y b e a f fe c te d b y a ve r a ge c e ll m e as u r e m e n ts . A p e ri p he r al bl o od s m ear c an p ro v i d e m o s t o f t he i n fo r m a t io n o b ta in e d t h ro u g h R B C i n di ce s . O b s e r v a t io ns of a s m ea r m a y s h o w va r i a ti o n i n R B C s h a pe ( p o i k il o c yt o s i s ) , as m i gh t oc c u r i n s ic k l e -c el l a ne m ia , o r it m a y sh o w a v a r i at i on in
R B C s i z e (a n is o c yt o s i s ) , a s m i g ht oc c u r i n a m i x e d an em i a ( f ol ic ac id and i ro n d e f ic ie nc y ) . a . M C V is th e ra t io of t he H c t t o t h e R B C co u nt . I t es s e n ti a ll y as se s s es av e r a g e R B C s i z e a n d r e fl ec ts any a n is oc yt o s i s .
( 1 ) L ow M C V i n di c a t es m i c r oc yt i c ( u n d er s i ze ) R B C s , as oc c u r s i n i ro n d e f ic ie nc y. ( 2 ) H i gh M C V i nd ic a te s m a c r oc yt i c ( o ve r s i z e ) RB C s , as oc c u r s i n a v it am i n B 1 2 o r f o l ic a c i d d e fi c i e nc y . ( 3 ) N o r ma l r an g e f o r M C V i s 9 0 ± 1 0. b . M e a n c el l he m og l o bin ( M C H b ) as se s s es th e a m ou n t o f Hb in an a v e ra g e R B C . ( 1 ) MC H b i s de fi n ed as :
( 2 ) N o r ma l r an g e f o r M C H i s 3 0 ± 4 . c . M e a n c el l he m og l ob in c o nc e nt r a t i on (M C H bC ) r e p re se n ts th e a ve r a ge c o nc en t r at i on of H b i n an a v e r ag e R B C, d ef in e d a s :
( 1 ) N o r ma l r an g e f o r M C H C i s 3 4 ± 3 . ( 2 ) L ow M C H b C i n di c a t es h yp o c h r o m i a (p a le R BC s r es ul t in g fr om de c re as e d H b c o nt e nt ) , a s o c c u rs i n i r on d ef ic i en c y . d . R e d b l oo d ce l l d i st r ib u t i o n w i d t h ( R D W ) i s a r e la t i v el y n e w i n de x o f R B C s . N o r m al l y , m os t R B Cs a re a pp r o xi m a te l y eq u al i n s i z e , s o t ha t o n l y o n e be l l -s ha p ed h i st o g ra m p ea k is ge n e ra t e d. D is e as e m a y c ha ng e th e s i z e o f s om e R B Cs — f o r e xa m p l e , t he g ra d ua l c ha n g e in s i z e of ne wl y p r od u c e d R B Cs in fo l ic a c i d o r i ro n d e f ic ie nc y . Th e di f fe r en c e i n s i ze be t we e n th e a bn o r m a l a nd t he le s s a b no r m al R B C s p ro d uc es ei t he r m o r e th a n o ne hi st o g ra m p e ak o r a b r o ad en i ng of t h e n o rm a l p e ak . Th is v a lu e i s us e d p r i m a r il y wi t h o th e r t es ts t o di ag n os e i r on - de f ic ien c y a n em i a. ( 1 ) An i n c r ea s ed R D W is f ou nd in f ac to r - de f ic ie nc y a ne m i a (e . g ., i ro n , f ola t e , vi t a m i n B 1 2 ) . ( 2 ) A n o r m a l R D W is f o un d in s uc h c o nd it i on s a s a n em i a o f c h r o ni c d is ea se . ( 3 ) Th e R D W i n de x i s n ev e r d ec r e as ed . P.778
5 . Th e r e ti c ul o c yt e c o u n t p r o v id es a m e as u r e of im m at u re R B C s ( r e ti c u lo c y t es ) , wh i c h co n ta in r em na n ts o f nu c l e a r m a t e ri al ( r et ic u l um ) . No r m a l R B Cs c i rc u l a te in t h e b l oo d f o r a b ou t 1 - 2 da y s in t hi s f o rm . He nc e , t h is t es t p r o v id es an in de x o f b o ne m a r ro w p r o d uc ti o n o f m at u r e R B Cs . a . R e ti c u lo c y t es n o rm a lly m a k e up 0. 1 % -2 . 4% of t h e to t al R B C c ou n t .
b . I nc r e as e d r e t i cu l oc yt e c ou n t o c c u rs wi t h s uch c o n di t io ns as h e m o l y tic an em i a, a c ut e b l oo d l os s , a nd res p on s e t o t he t re a tm en t o f a f ac t o r d ef ic i en c y (e .g . , an i r o n, vi t a m i n B 1 2 , o r fo l at e d e fi c ie nc y ) . P o l yc h r o m a s i a ( t h e t en d en c y to s t ai n wi t h a c i d ic o r b as ic d y e s ) n ot e d o n a p e ri ph e r al s m e a r l ab o ra t o r y r ep o r t us u al l y in di c a t es i n c re as ed r e ti c u lo c y t es . c . D ec r e as e d re t i cu l oc yt e c ou n t o c c u rs wi t h s uch c o n di t io ns as d r u g -i ndu c ed a p la s ti c a ne m i a . 6 . Th e e r yt h r o c yt e s e d im e n t at i o n r a t e ( E S R ) m e a s u r es th e ra t e o f R B C s e t tl in g o f wh o l e , un c o a gu la t e d bl oo d o v e r t im e, an d i t pr im a r i l y re f le c ts p l asm a c om p o s i t io n . Mo s t o f th e s e di m e n ta t ion e f fe c t r es ul ts f ro m a l ter a t io n s i n pl a s m a p ro t ei ns . a . N o r ma l E S R ra t es r an g e f r om 0 t o 2 0 m m / h r fo r m a l es a n d f r om 0 t o 30 m m / hr f o r fe m a l es . b . E S R va l ue s in c r ea s e wi t h a cu t e o r c h ro ni c i n fe c ti o n, ti ss u e n ec r os is or i n f ar c ti o n, we l l -e s ta bl is he d m a li gn a nc y, an d rh e um a to i d co l la ge n di s e as es . c . E S R va l ue s a r e u s e d t o ( 1 ) F ol lo w t h e c l in ic al c ou r s e o f a d is e as e ( 2 ) D em o ns t ra t e t he p res e nc e o f o c c ul t o r g an ic d i s e as e ( 3 ) D i ff e r en ti a te c o n di ti on s wi t h s im il a r s y m p t om a t o lo g y— f or e xa m p le , a ng i na p e ct o r is (n o c ha n ge in ES R v a l u e ) as op p os ed to a m y oc a rd ia l i n fa r c t i on (i n c re as e i n E S R v al u e) B . W B C s ( le u ko c yt e s ) 1 . Th e W B C c o un t r ep o rt s th e n um b e r o f W BC s in a c ub ic m i ll im e te r of wh o le bl o od . 3
a . N o r ma l va l ue s r a ng e f r o m 4 ,0 0 0 t o 1 1 ,0 0 0 W BC / m m . b . I nc r e as e d W B C co u nt ( l e uk o c yt o s i s ) u s u al l y s i gn al s i n fe ct i on ; i t m a y a l s o r es ul t f r o m l eu k e m i a , t is s u e n ec r os is o r a dm in is t r at i on o f c o r ti co s te r oi ds . It is m o s t o f te n f o u nd wi t h ba c te r i a l i n fec t i o n . c . D ec r e as e d W B C c oun t ( l eu k op e n ia ) i n di c a t es bo n e m a r r o w d e p re s s io n , wh ic h m a y r es ul t f ro m m e t as t ati c c a rc in om a , l ym ph om a , o r to xi c r e ac t io ns to su bs t an c e s s uc h a s a n ti n eo pl as t ic ag e n ts . 2 . Th e W B C d i f fe r e n t ia l e v a l ua t es th e d is t ri b u ti on a nd m o r ph ol o g y of th e f i ve m a jo r t yp e s o f W BC s : t he g r anu l o c yt e s ( n e u t r o p hi l s, b a s op h i ls , e o s in o p hi l s ) a n d t he n o n g r an u l oc yt e s ( l ym p h o c yt e s , m on o c yt e s ) . A c e rt a in pe r c e n ta g e o f ea c h t yp e m ak e s u p t he to t al W BC c o un t ( Ta bl e 3 8 -1 ) . a . N e ut r o p h il s m a y be m a tu r e o r im m a tu r e . Ma t u r e ne u tr o ph i ls a r e p o l ym o r p h o n u c l e a r l e uk o c yt e s ( P MN s ) , a ls o ref e r r ed t o as po l y s , se gm e n t ed n e u t ro ph i ls , o r s eg s ; im m a tu r e n e ut r o ph il s a r e re f e r re d to as ba n ds o r s t a bs . ( 1 ) C h em o ta x i s. N eu t r op h il s t h at p ha g oc yt i z e an d d eg r a de ma n y t yp e s o f p a r t i c le s s er v e as th e bo d y ' s fi r s t li n e o f d e fe nse wh e n ti s s u e is da m a g ed o r f o r ei gn m a te r i al g a in s e n tr y . Th ey c o ng r e ga t e a t s it es in re s po ns e to a s p ec i fi c s tim u lu s , t h r o ug h a pr o c e s s k no wn a s c he m o t a xi s .
Table 38-1. Normal Percentage Values for White Blood Cell (WBC) Differential
Cell Type Polymorphonuclear leukocytes Bands Lymphocytes
Normal Range of Values (%) 50-70 3-5 20-40
Monocytes
0-7
Eosinophils
0-5
Basophils
0-1
P.779
Table 38-2. Examples of Changes in Total White Blood Cell (WBC) Count and WBC Differential in Response to Bacterial Infection WBC Count With Bacterial Infection
Cell Type
Normal
Total WBCs
8,000 (100%)
15,500 (100%)
Polymorphonuclear leukocytes
60%
82%
Bands
3%
6%
Lymphocytes
30%
10%
Monocytes
4%
1%
Neutrophils
Eosinophils
2%
1%
Basophils
1%
0%
( 2 ) N e u t ro p h il i c l e uk o cyt o s i s . Th i s de sc ri b es a r e s po ns e t o a n a p p ro p ria t e s t im ul us in wh i c h t he to ta l ne u t ro ph i l co u nt in c rea s es , o f te n wi t h a n i nc r ea s e i n t he p e r ce n ta ge o f im m a t u re c e ll s ( a s h i f t t o th e l e f t ). Th i s m a y re p r es en t a sy s t e m i c b a ct e r ia l i nf e c t i on , s uc h a s p n eu m o n ia ( Ta bl e 3 8 -2 ) . ( a ) C e r t ai n vi r u se s (e . g., c hi c k en p o x, h e rp es zo s t e r ) , s om e ri c ke t t si a l d is e a se s ( e . g ., R oc k y Mo u n t ai n s po t t ed f e v er ) , s om e fu n g i, a nd s t re s s ( e .g . , p h y s ic a l e xe r c i s e, ac u te he m o r r ha g e o r he m o l y s i s , ac u te e m ot i on al st r es s ) m a y a ls o c au s e t h is r es po ns e . ( b ) O t h er c a us es in c l u de i n f l am ma t o r y d i s e a s e s ( e . g. , ac ut e rh e um at ic fe v e r , r h e um a to id a rt h r it is , a c ut e go u t ), h yp e r s e n s i t i vi ty r e a c t i o n s t o d r u gs , tis s u e n e c r os i s (e . g. , fr om m yo c a rd ia l i n fa r ct i on , b u r ns, c er t ai n c an c er s ) , m et ab o l i c d i s o r de r s (e . g. , u re m i a , d i ab e ti c k et o ac id os is ) , mye l o g e n o u s l e uk e mi a , an d us e of c e r t a in d r ug s (e . g ., ep in e p hr i ne , l i th i um ) . ( 3 ) N e u t ro p en i a , a d ec re a s e d n um b e r o f n eu t r oph i ls , m a y oc c u r wi t h a n o ve rw h el m i ng i nf e c ti o n o f a n y t yp e ( b o n e m a r ro w i s un a bl e t o k e ep up wi t h t h e d e m a n d) . It m a y a ls o o c c u r wi t h c e r ta i n vi r a l i n fe c t i on s (e . g. , m um ps , m e a sl es ) , wi t h i d i os yn c r a t i c d r ug r e a c t io n s , a nd as a r es ul t of ch em o th e ra p y. N eu tr o p en i a is 3
d e f in ed as an ab s o l ut e ne u t r op hi l c ou n t ( A N C ) o f < 1 00 0 c el ls / m m . S om e d e f in e 3
a b so l ut e n e ut r op e ni a a s a n A N C of < 5 00 ce ll s /m m . Th e A N C is c a lc ul a ted b y m u lt i pl yi ng t he pe r c e n t of n eu t r op h il s b y th e to t al W BC co u nt : W BC = 40 00 / m m
3
n e u t ro ph i ls = 6 0% A N C = 4 00 0 × 0. 6 = 2 400 c e l ls /m m
3
b . B a so p h il s s ta i n d ee p ly wi t h b l ue ba si c d y e . The i r fu nc t io n i n t h e ci r cu l at i o n is n o t c le a r l y u n de r s t o od ; in t he ti ss u es , t h e y a r e re f e r re d to as m a s t c el l s. ( 1 ) B a so p hi l i a, an in c rea s ed nu m b e r o f b as o ph i ls , m a y oc c u r wi t h c h ro nic m ye l og e no us le uk em ia (C ML ) a s we l l as ot h e r c on d i ti on s . ( 2 ) A de c r e as e i n b as oph i ls is g e ne r al l y no t ap pa r e n t b ec au se of t he s m a l l n um be r s o f t he s e c e ll s i n t he bl o od . c . E os i n op h i ls s t ai n d ee p r ed wi t h a ci d d y e an d a r e c la s s ic al l y as so c i a te d wi t h i m m u ne r ea c t i on s . E os i no p h i li a , a n i nc r ea s e d n um b e r o f e os in o ph il s , m ay o c c u r
wi t h s uc h c on d it i on s as a c u t e a ll e r g ic r ea c t io ns ( e .g . , a s th m a, h a y f e v e r , d r u g a l l e r g y) a n d p a r as i t ic in f e s ta t i o ns (e . g ., t ri c h i no s is , a m e bi as is ) . d . L ym p h o c yt e s p la y a d o m i n an t ro le in im m u nol o gi ca l a c ti v i t y an d a p pea r t o p r o du c e an t ib o di es . Th ey a r e c l as s i fi e d a s B l ym p h oc y t e s o r T l ym p ho c yte s ; T l ym p ho c y t es a r e f u r th e r d i v i de d i n to he l pe r - in d uc e r c e ll s ( T H 4 c el ls ) an d su p p re s s o r c e ll s ( T H 8 c e l ls ) . ( 1 ) L ym p h o c yt o s i s , a n in c r ea s e d n um b er o f l y m p h oc y t e s , us ua l l y a c c om p a ni e s a n o r m a l o r d ec r e as ed to ta l W BC c ou n t a nd is m os t c om m o n l y c au s ed b y vi r a l i n f e c ti o n . ( 2 ) L ym p h o p e n i a , a d ec r e a s e d n um b er o f l ym p ho c yt es , m a y r es ul t f r om s e ve r e d e b i li t a t in g il l ne s s, i mm u n o de f ic i e nc y, o r f r om AI D S , wh i c h h as a p r op e ns i t y to a t t ac k T H 4 c el ls . ( 3 ) At yp i c a l l ym p h o c yt e s (i . e ., T l y m ph oc yt e s in a s t at e o f i m m u ne ac tiv a t i o n ) a re c l as s ic a ll y as s oc ia t ed wi t h i n fe c ti o u s m on o n uc le o s is . P.780
e . M o n oc yt e s a r e p h ag oc y t i c c e l ls . M on o c yt o s i s , a n i nc r ea s e d n um b e r o f m o no c yt es , m a y o c c u r wi t h tu b e rc u l os i s ( T B ) , su b a cu t e b a c te r i a l e nd oc a r d i t is , a n d d u ri n g t he r ec o v e r y p h as e o f s om e a c u te in fe c t i on s . C . P l a te l e ts ( t h ro m b oc yt e s ) . Th es e a r e t he s m all e s t f or m e d e l em en t s in th e bl oo d , a n d t h e y a r e i n v o l v ed in b l o o d c l ot t i n g a nd v i ta l t o t he fo r m a t io n o f a hem os t a ti c p l ug a ft e r v as c u la r in ju r y . 3
1 . N o r ma l va l ue s f o r a p l a t el e t c o u nt a re 15 0 ,00 0 - 30 0 ,0 0 0/ m m (1 . 5 -3 . 0 × 10
11
/L ) .
2 . T h ro m b oc yt o p e n i a , a d ec r e as ed pl a te le t c o unt , ca n o c c u r wi t h a v a ri e ty o f c o nd i ti on s , s u c h as id i opa t h ic th r om bo c yt op en ic p u r pu r a o r , o c c as io n al l y, f r om su c h d r u gs as q u in id i ne an d s u l f on am id e s. 3
a . Th r om b oc y t o pe ni a i s m o d e ra t e wh e n t he pl a te l e t co u nt is < 1 00 , 00 0 /m m . 3
b . Th r o m b oc y t o pe ni a i s s e ve r e wh e n th e p la t el e t c ou n t i s < 5 0 ,0 0 0/ m m .
III. COMMON SERUM ENZYME TESTS. S m a ll am ou n ts o f en z y m e s (c a ta l ys t s ) c i r c u l at e in t he bl o od at al l t im e s an d a re r e l ea se d i n to t he bl oo d in l ar g e r q ua n ti t ie s wh e n t i s s ue da m a g e o c c u rs . Th u s s e r um e n zym e l e v e ls c a n b e us e d to a id i n t h e d ia g n osi s o f c e r ta i n d i se a se s . A. C r e a t i n e k i n as e ( C K ) 1 . C r ea t in e k in as e — fo r m e r l y k n o wn as c re a ti ne ph o sp h o k in as e ( C P K) — is f o u nd p r i m a r il y i n h ea r t m us c l e, s k e le t al m us c l e , a nd b ra i n t is su e . 2 . C K le v e ls ar e u s ed pr im a r il y t o a i d i n t h e d i agn o s is o f a c u te m yo c a r d i a l ( F i gu r e 3 8 - 2) o r s k el e t al m u sc l e d am a ge . H o we ve r , v i go r ou s e xe r c i se , a fa l l , o r d e e p in t r am us c u la r in j ec t i o ns c an c a us e s ig n if ic an t in c re as es in C K l e v e ls . 3 . Th e is o en z ym e s o f CK — C K - M M , f ou n d in s k ele t a l m u s c le ; C K - B B , f o un d in b ra in t i ss ue ; an d C K -M B , f o und i n h ea r t m us c l e —c an be us e d t o d i ff e re n ti a te t he so u rc e o f da m a g e. a . N o rm al l y , s e ru m C K le v e l s a r e v i r t ua ll y a ll t he C K - M M i so e nz ym e . b . I nc r ea s e in C K -M B lev e l s p r o v i de s a s en s i t i ve i n di c a t o r o f m y oc a rd i a l n e c ro si s.
Figure 38-2. The increase of serum creatine kinase (CK), lactate dehydrogenase (LDH), and aspartate aminotransferase (AST) levels after a myocardial infarction.
P.781
B . L a ct a t e d eh yd r o g e n a s e (L D H ) 1 . L D H c a ta l y z e s t he in te r c on v e r s i on o f l ac ta t e an d p yr u v at e a n d r e pr e s en t s a gr o up o f en zym e s p r es en t i n a lm os t al l m et a bo li z i n g c e ll s . 2 . Fi ve in d i v id u al is o en z ym e s m a ke up t he to t al L D H s e ru m le v e l . a . L D H 1 a nd L D H 2 a pp e ar p r im a ri l y in th e h e a rt . b . L D H 3 a p pe a rs p r im a ri ly i n t he l u ng s . c . L D H 4 a nd L D H 5 a pp e ar p r im a ri l y in th e l i v e r a nd s k el e ta l m us c l es . 3 . Th e di s t r ib u ti o n p at t e rn o f L D H is oe n zy m es m ay a i d i n d i ag no s i n g m y oc a r d ia l i n f ar c ti o n, he p at ic di s e as e , a nd lu n g d is ea s e . C . Al k a l i n e p h os p ha t ase ( AL P ) 1 . A L P is p ro d uc ed p ri m a r i l y i n th e l i ve r a nd bon e s . 2 . S e ru m A L P l e v e ls a r e p a r t i cu l a r l y s e n s i t i ve to p a r t ia l o r m il d bi l i a r y o b s t r uc t i o n —e it h e r e xt r a h e pa ti c (e . g. , c a us ed by a s to n e i n t he bi l e d uc t) o r i n t ra h ep a ti c , b ot h o f wh ic h c au s e l e v el s t o i nc r eas e . 3 . I nc r e as e d o s te o bl a s ti c ac t i vi t y, a s oc cu r s i n P a g e t d is ea se , h yp e r pa r a th y r o i di s m , o s te o m a l ac ia , a n d o th e rs , al s o i nc r ea s e s se r um A L P l e v e ls . D . As p a r t a t e a m in o t r ans f e r a se ( AS T ) 1 . A s p a rt a te am in o t ra ns fe r a s e — f or m e r l y k n o wn as se r u m g l u ta m ic - o xa l oa c e t ic t r a n s am i na s e ( S G O T ) —i s fo un d i n a nu m b e r o f or g a ns , p r im a ri l y in he a r t a n d l i ve r t i ss ue s a n d, to a l es s e r e xt e n t , i n s k el e ta l m us c le , ki dn e y t iss u e, an d p an c r ea t ic t i ss ue . 2 . D am a ge t o t h e h e a r t ( e . g ., f ro m m yo c a r d i a l in f a r c t io n ) re su l ts i n i nc re a se d A S T l e ve ls ab o ut 8 h r a f t er inj u r y ( Fi g u re 38 - 2 ). a . Le ve ls a re i nc r e as e d m a r k ed l y wi t h a c u t e h ep a t i t is ; t h e y a re i nc r e ase d mi l d l y wi t h c i r r h o si s a n d a fa t ty l i ve r . b . L e vel s a re al s o i nc r ea s e d wi t h p as s i ve c o nge s t i on o f t h e l i ve r , s uc h a s o cc u rs i n c o ng es t i v e h ea r t fa il u re ( C H F ) . E . Al a n i n e a m in o t r an s fe r a s e ( AL T )
1 . A la n in e a m i no t r an s f e ra s e —f o rm e rl y k no wn a s s e r u m g l u ta m ic - p yr u vi c t r a n s am i na s e ( S G P T ) — is f ou nd in t he li v e r , wi t h l e s s e r am o un ts in t he hea r t , s ke l et a l m u s c le s , a nd k id n e y . 2 . A lt h ou g h A L T v a l ue s a r e r el a t i ve l y s p e c i f i c fo r l i ve r ce l l d a ma g e, AL T i s le s s s e n si t i ve t ha n AS T , an d e xt e n s i v e o r s e v e r e li v e r d am a ge is n ec es s ar y be f o r e a b n or m a l l y i nc r e as ed le v e l s a r e p ro d uc ed . 3 . A L T al s o i nc r e as e s l es s co n s is t en t l y a n d l e ss m a rk e dl y t h a n AS T a f t e r a n a c u t e m yo c a r d i a l i n fa r ct i o n . F . C a r d ia c t r o p o ni n s ( I , T , an d C ) 1 . Tr o p on i ns a r e a r el at iv e l y n e w m e th o d t o i de n ti f y m y oc a r di al ce ll in ju r y a n d t hu s a ss is t in th e d i ag no s i s o f a c u t e m y oc a r di al in f a rc ti o n . Th e se t ro p on i ns m ay p o ss es s s u pe r io r s p ec i fi c i t y in s i tu a t io ns in wh i c h fa ls e - p os i ti v e el e v a ti o ns o f C K - MB a r e l i ke l y. 2 . Tr o p on i n T i s f o un d i n c a rd i ac a n d s k el e ta l m us cl e , t r op o ni n I is fo u nd o n l y in c a r di ac m us c l e , a nd t ro po n in C is p r es e nt in t wo is o fo r m s fo u nd in s k e l et al a nd c a r di ac m us c l e . Tr op o nin T h a s sh o wn p r og n os tic v a l u e i n u ns t ab l e a ng in a an d i n d e t ec ti n g m i n o r m y oc a rdi a l c el l i nj u r y wi t h g r e at er s en si t i v it y t h an C K - MB . 3 . Th e no rm a l v a l ue fo r tr o p on i n T i s < 0. 1 ng /m L a n d I i s < 1 .5 ng /m L . P.782
IV. LIVER FUNCTION TESTS A. L i ve r e n z ym e s 1 . L e ve ls o f c e r ta i n e nz ym e s ( e . g . , L D H , AL P , AS T, A L T) i n c r e as e w i th l i ve r d ys f u n c t i o n (s ee I II ) . 2 . Th e se en z ym e t e s t s in d i ca t e on l y t h a t t h e l ive r h a s be e n d am a ge d . Th e y d o n o t a ss es s t he li v e r ' s a b il i t y to f un ct i on . O th e r t e s t s pr o v i de in d ic at i on s o f l i v e r d ys f un c ti o n. B . S e r u m b i li r u b in 1 . B il i ru b in , a b re ak d o wn p r o du ct of H b , is t he p re d o mi n a nt p ig m en t i n bi l e . E f f e ct i ve b il i r ub in c o nj u ga t i on an d e xc r e t i on de p en d on he p a to b i li a r y f u n c t i o n a nd o n th e r at e of R B C t u r no ve r . 2 . S e ru m b il i ru b in l e v e ls a r e re p o rt e d as t o ta l bi l ir u b i n (c on j ug a te d a n d u n co n ju ga t ed ) an d a s d ir e c t b il i r u bi n (c on j ug a ted o nl y ) . a . B il i ru b in is re le a s e d by H b b r ea k d o wn a nd is bo u n d t o a lb um i n as wa t er - i ns o lu bl e i n d i r ec t bi l i r u bi n (u nc on j ug a te d bi li r ub i n ), wh i ch is no t fi l te r ed b y th e g lo m e ru lu s . b . U n co n j ug a t ed b il i r u bi n t r a v el s t o t he li v e r , wh e r e i t i s se p a ra t ed f ro m a l bu m i n , c o nj u ga t ed wi t h d i gl uc u ro n id e , a n d t he n a c t i v e l y s e c r e te d i n to t he bi le as c o n j ug a te d bi l i r u bi n (d ir e c t b il i ru b in ) , wh ic h i s f il t e re d b y t h e g lo m e r ul us ( F i gu r e 3 8 - 3 ). 3 . N o r ma l va l ue s o f t ota l se r u m b i l i ru b i n a r e 0. 1 - 1 .0 m g /d L (2 - 1 8 m m ol/ L ) ; o f d i r e c t b i l i ru b i n, 0. 0 - 0. 2 m g /d L (0 - 4 m m o l/ L ) . 4 . An i n c r ea se i n s e r um b i li r u b in r es ul t s in j au n d i ce f ro m b il i ru b in dep o s i t io n i n t h e ti ss ue s . Th e r e a r e t hr e e m a jo r c au s es o f i nc re a se d s e ru m b il i ru b in .
a . H em o l ys i s i n c r ea s e s t o t al bi li r u bi n ; d ir e c t bi li ru b in ( co nj u ga t ed ) is u sua l l y no r m a l o r sl ig h tl y i nc r ea s e d . U rin e c o lo r is n o rm al , an d no b il i ru bi n i s f o un d i n t h e u r in e .
Figure 38-3. Bilirubin metabolism.
P.783
b . B i l ia r y o b s t r u c t i on , wh i c h m a y b e i nt r ah e pa t ic ( as wi t h a c h lo r p ro m a z i n e r e a ct i on ) o r e xt r a h ep a ti c ( a s wi t h a b il i a r y s t on e ), i nc r e as es to t al bi li r ub i n a n d d i re c t b i li r u bi n; in t r ah e pa t ic c ho l es t as is (e . g. , f ro m c h l or p r om a zi ne ) m a y in c re ase d ir e ct b i li r u bi n a s we l l . U ri n e c o l o r is d ar k , a nd bi li r u b in is p re s e n t i n t he u ri n e. c . L i ve r c e l l n ec r o s is , as oc c u r s i n v i r al he p at i tis , m a y c a us e a n i nc r ea s e i n b ot h d i r ec t b il i r ub in ( be c a us e i n f la m m at i on c a us es s om e b i le s i nu s o id bl o c k age ) a nd i n di r ec t bi li r ub i n ( b ec au s e t he li v e r ' s a b il it y t o c on j ug a te is al t e re d ). U r in e c ol o r i s d a r k, an d b i li r ub in is p res e nt in t he ur i ne . C . S e r u m p r o te i n s 1 . P r i ma r y s e r u m p r o te in s m e as u re d a r e a l b um in a nd t he gl o b ul i ns ( i. e ., α , β , γ ) . a . Al b u m i n ( 4 .0 - 6. 0 g/ d L) m ai n ta in s s e ru m o nc ot ic p re s s u re an d s e r ves as a t r a ns p or t ag e nt . Be c a us e i t is p ri m a r il y m an u fa ctu r e d b y t he li ve r , l i ve r d is e as e c an d e c re as e a lb u m i n l e v el s . b . G l o bu l i ns ( 23 - 35 g /L ) f u nc t io n a s t r an s p o r t a ge n ts an d p l a y a r ol e i n c e r t ai n i m m u no lo g ic al m e c h an is m s . A de c re as e i n a lb u m i n le v e ls us ua ll y r e s u l ts in a c om p en s a t o r y i nc r e as e in g lo bu l in p ro du c ti on . 2 . N o r ma l va l ue s f o r t o ta l s e r um p r o te in le v e ls ar e 6 .0 - 8 .0 g/ d L ( 6 0- 8 0 g /L ) .
V. URINALYSIS. S t a n da r d u r in al y s is p ro v id e s b as ic i n fo r m a t io n reg a r di n g r e na l f u nc ti o n, ur i n a r y tr a ct d i se as e , a nd th e pr es e nc e o f c e r ta in s ys t em ic dis e as es . Co m p o ne n ts o f a s ta nd a r d u r i na l ys i s i nc lu d e a pp e ara n c e , p H , s p ec if ic g ra vi ty , p r o te i n l e v el , g l uc os e l e v e l , k e to n e l e v el , a n d m i c ro s c o pi c e xa m i na t io n . A. Ap p e a r a n ce . No r m a l u r i ne is cl e a r a nd r an ges in co lo r f ro m p a le ye l l ow to de e p g o l d . C h a ng e s i n c o l o r c a n r es u lt f ro m d r ug s , die t , or di se as e .
1 . A r ed co l o r m a y in di c a t e , a m o ng o th e r t hi n gs , t h e p r es en c e o f b lo od or p h e no lp h th a le in ( a l a xa t iv e ) . 2 . A b row n i s h ye l l ow co l o r m a y i nd ic a te th e p re s en ce o f co n ju ga t ed bi li r u bi n . 3 . O t h e r s h ad e s o f re d , o r a n ge , o r b r ow n m a y b e c a us ed b y in ge s ti on of va r i ou s d r u gs (e . g ., r if am p in ) . B. pH 1 . N o r ma l p H r a ng es f rom 4 .5 to 9 b ut is t y pi ca l ly a c i d ic ( ar o un d 6 ) . 2 . Al k a l in e p H m a y i n di c a t e s uc h c on d it io n s as alk a lo s i s , a P ro t e us in f ec ti o n , o r a c et a zo la m i d e us e . I t m a y a ls o re f le ct ch a ng es c a u s e d b y l ea v i n g t he u rin e s am p le a t r oo m t em p er a tu r e . C . S p e ci f i c g r a vi t y 1 . N o r ma l r an g e f o r s pec i fi c g r a v it y i s 1 .0 0 3 -1 . 03 5 ; i t i s u su a ll y b et we e n 1 . 0 10 an d 1 . 0 25 . 2 . S pe ci f ic g r a v i t y is i n flu e nc e d b y t he nu m b e r an d na t u re of so lu t e p a rt ic l es i n th e u r i ne . a . I nc r e as e d s pe c i fi c g ra vi t y m a y o c c u r wi t h s u c h c o n di t io ns as d i ab e te s m el l it us ( e xc e s s g lu c o s e i n t he ur i n e ) o r n e ph r os is (e xc e s s p ro t ei n i n t h e u r in e ). b . D e c re a se d s p ec i f ic gr a vi t y m a y o c c u r wi t h dia b e te s i ns ip i du s , wh i c h d e c re as es u r i ne c o nc en t r a ti on . c . S pe c i fi c g ra vi t y, f i x e d a t 1 . 01 0 (t h e s am e as p l as m a ) , o c c u rs wh e n t he k i d ne y s l o se th e i r p o we r to c o nc e n t r at e o r di lu t e . D . P r o t e in 1 . N o r ma l va l ue s f o r u r in e p ro t ei n a r e 5 0 -8 0 m g/2 4 h r b ec au s e th e g l om er u l a r m em b r an e p r e v en t s m o s t p r ot e in m o le c u l es i n t he b lo od f r om e n te r in g the u ri n e . 2 . P r o te i n u r ia oc c u rs wi t h m a n y c o nd i ti on s (e . g. , r e n al di s e as e , b la dd e r in f ec t io n , ve n o us c o ng es t io n , f e v er ) . a . Th e pr es e nc e o f a spe c i f ic p r o te i n c a n h e lp id e n ti f y a s pe ci f ic d is e ase s ta t e ( e . g ., B en c e J o n es p r o tei n m a y in d ic at e m ul t ip l e m y e l om a ). P.784
b . Mo s t o ft e n, t he pr o te in i n u ri n e is a lb u mi n . Alb u m i n ur i a m a y i nd ic a te a b n or m a l g l om e ru l a r p er m e a bi li t y . E . G l u c os e 1 . Th e no rm a l r e n al t h res h o l d f o r g lu co s e is a blo o d g lu c os e l e v el of ab ou t 18 0 m g /d L ; g l uc o se d oe s n ot n o r ma l l y a p p e a r i n u rin e as de t ec te d b y p op u la r t es ti n g m e th o ds . 2 . G l yc o s u r i a u s u a ll y i nd i c a t es d i ab e te s m el li t us ( D M) . Th e r e a r e c e rt a in l e s s c om m o n c a us es (e . g. , a l o we r e d re n al th r es h ol d fo r gl u co s e ) . F . K e t on e s 1 . K et o ne s d o no t no r ma l l y a p p e a r in u r in e . Th e y a r e e xc r e t e d wh e n t he b od y h as u s ed a v ai l ab le gl uc os e s t o r es an d b e gi ns to m e t ab o l i z e f at st o re s . 2 . Th e t h re e k e t on e b o di e s a r e β - h yd r o x yb u t yr i c a ci d (8 0 % ), ac e t oa ce ti c ac i d ( a b ou t 20 % ), an d a c et o ne ( a s m a ll pe r ce n ta g e) . S o m e c o m m e rc ia l t e st s (e . g . , A m e s
p r o du c ts ) m ea s u r e o n l y a c et o ac e ti c ac i d, bu t u sua l l y al l t h re e a r e e xc r e t ed i n p a r al l el pr o po r t io ns . 3 . K e to n u r ia us u al l y i n dic a te s u nc o nt r ol l ed D M, b u t it m a y a ls o o c c ur wi t h s t a r va ti on an d wi t h z e ro - o r lo w- c a r bo h y d r at e d i ets . G . E va l u a t io n . M i c ro s co p i c e x am i na t i on of c e nt r i f ug e d u ri n e se d im en t no r m al l y r e v e a ls 0- 1 R B C , 0 - 4 W B C s , an d o nl y a n o c c as io n al c a st pe r hi g h- p o we r f i el d (HPF). 1 . H em a t u r ia (i . e ., th e pr e s en c e of R B C s ) m a y i nd i c a t e s u c h c o n di ti o ns as t ra um a , a t um o r, o r a s y s t em ic b le e di n g d is o rd e r . I n wo m e n , a s i gn i fi ca n t n um be r o f s q u am o us ce l l s s u g ge s ts v a gi n al c o nt a m i na t io n ( m e ns t ru a ti on ) . 2 . C as t s (i . e. , pr o te i n c on g lo m er a ti o ns o u tl i ni ng th e s h ap e o f th e re na l tub u le s i n wh i c h th e y we r e f o rm ed ) m a y or m a y n ot be si g nif i c a n t . E xc e s s i v e nu m b er s of c e r ta i n t y p es of c a s t s i nd i c a t e r e na l d is ea s e . 3 . C r ys t a l s , wh i c h a re pH d e pe n de n t, m a y oc c u r n o r m a ll y i n a c i d o r a lk a lin e u ri ne . U r i c a ci d c r ys t a l s m a y fo r m i n a ci d u r in e ; p h os ph a t e c r ys t a l s m a y f o rm in a lk al in e u r i ne . 4 . B ac t e r i a d o n ot no r m a l l y ap pe a r i n u r in e . Th e f i nd i ng of 50 o r m o r e b ac t e ri a p e r H P F m a y i n di c a t e a u r ina r y t r ac t i n f ec ti o n ( U TI ) ; s m a l le r v a lu es m a y in d ic a t e u r e t hr a l c o n ta m i n at i on .
VI. COMMON RENAL FUNCTION TESTS A. I n t r o d u c t io n 1 . R en a l f un c ti on m a y b e a s s es s e d b y m ea s u r in g b l o o d u r e a n i t r og e n ( BU N ) a n d s e r u m c r ea t i n in e . R e na l f u nc t io n d ec r ea s e s wi t h a g e , wh i c h m us t b e t ak en i nt o a cc o un t wh e n i n te r p re t ing t es t v al u es . a . Th e se te s ts p r im a ri l y e v a l u at e g l om er u la r fu nc t i o n b y as s e ss in g t h e g lo m e r u la r f i l t r a t io n r a te ( G F R ) . b . I n m a n y r e na l di s ea se s , u r e a a nd c r e at i ni ne a cc u m u la t e i n t he bl o od b e ca us e t h e y a re no t e xc r e te d p ro p e rl y . c . Th e se te s ts a ls o a i d in d et e rm i ni ng d r ug d os ag e f or d ru gs e xc r e t ed th ro u g h t he k i dn e y s. 2 . Az o t e mi a d es c ri be s exc e s s i v e re t en t io n o f n i t ro g e no us wa s te p ro d uc ts ( B U N a n d c r e at i ni ne ) in th e b l oo d . Th e c li n ic al s y n d r om e r es u lt i ng f ro m d ec r ea s e d re n al f u nc t io n a n d a z o t em i a i s c al l ed u re m ia . a . R e na l a z ot e mi a re s u lt s f ro m r e na l d is ea s e , s uc h a s g lo m e r u lo ne p h ri t is a n d c h r on ic p y el on e ph r i ti s . b . P r e r en a l a z o t em i a res u lt s f r om s uc h c o nd i ti ons as s e ve r e d eh y d r a ti on , h e m o r r ha g ic s ho c k , a n d e xc e s s i ve p ro t ei n i n ta k e . c . P os t r e na l az o te m ia re s ul ts f ro m s uc h c on di t ion s a s u r e te r al o r u re t h ra l s t on es o r t u m o r s a nd p ro s t a ti c o bs t r u c t i on s. 3 . C l ea r a nc e — a t he o re t ic a l c o nc e p t d ef in e d a s th e v o lu m e of pl as m a f r om wh i c h a m e as u re d a m o u nt of s u bs t an c e c a n b e c om pl e te ly e l im i na t ed , o r c l ea r ed , i n t o t he u r i ne pe r un i t t im e —c an b e us ed to es t im at e g l om e r ul a r f un c ti on . P.785
B. BUN 1 . U r e a, an en d p r o du c t o f p ro t ei n m et a bo li s m , i s p r o du c e d i n t h e l i v er . F ro m th e re , i t t ra ve ls t hr o ug h th e b loo d an d i s e xc r e t ed b y the ki d ne ys . U re a i s f i l te re d a t t h e g l o me r u l us , wh e r e t h e tu b ul e s r ea bs o r b a pp r o xi m a te l y 40 % . Th us u n de r n o r m a l c o nd i ti on s , u r e a c le a r anc e is a b ou t 6 0 % o f t h e t ru e G F R . 2 . N o r ma l va l ue s f o r BU N r a n ge f ro m 8 m g /d L to 1 8 m g / dL ( 3 -6 . 5 m m ol /L ) . a . D ec r e as e d B U N l e ve ls oc c u r wi t h si g n if i ca n t l i ve r d i se a se . b . I nc r e as e d B U N l e ve ls m a y i nd ic a te r e na l di se a s e. H o we ve r , fa ct o rs o t h e r t ha n g l om e ru l a r f un c t i on ( e. g ., p r ot e in in t ak e, r ed uc e d r e n al bl oo d fl o w, b lo od in t he g a st r o in t es ti n al t ra c t ) r ea d il y a f fe c t B U N le ve ls , s om e ti m e s m ak in g i n te r pr e t a ti o n o f r e s ul ts di f fi c u l t . C . S e r u m c r ea t i n in e 1 . C r ea t in i ne ( C R ) , t he m e ta b ol ic b re ak do wn p r od u c t o f m u s c le c r e a ti ne p h os p ha t e, h a s a re l at i v e l y c on s ta n t l e v e l o f d ai l y p ro d uc ti o n . B l oo d l e v e ls va r y l i t tl e in a g i ve n i n di vi d ua l . 2 . C r ea t in i ne is e x c re t ed b y g lo m e r ul a r f il t r a ti on a n d t ub u la r s ec r e ti o n. Cr e a t i n in e c l e a ra n ce pa r a ll el s t he G F R wi t h i n a r an g e o f ± 1 0 % a n d is a m o r e s en si t i ve i n d i ca t o r o f r e na l d a mag e t ha n B U N le ve l s b ec a u se r en al im pa i rm e nt is a lm os t t h e o n l y c au s e o f a n i nc re a s e in th e s e ru m c re a tin i ne le v e l . 3 . N o r ma l va l ue s f o r ser u m c r ea t i ni n e r a ng e f ro m 0 . 6 t o 1 . 2 m g/ d L ( 50 t o 11 0 m m o l /L ) . a . V al u es v a r y wi t h t h e am o u n t o f m u sc l e m as s— a v a l ue of 1. 2 m g /d L in a m us c ul a r a th l et e m a y rep r e s e n t n o rm al re n al fu nc t io n , wh e re as t he s am e v a l u e i n a s m a l l, s e de n ta r y p e rs on wi t h l i tt l e m u sc l e m a s s m a y in d ic at e s ig n if ic a nt r e n al i m pa i rm en t . b . G e ne r a ll y , th e s e r u m c r e a t in i n e va l u e d o ub l es w i t h e a ch 50 % d e c r e as e i n G F R . F o r e xa m p l e, if a pa t i en t ' s n o rm al s e r um c re a t in in e i s 1 m g /d L , 1 m g / d L r e p r es en t s 1 00 % r e na l fu n c t i on , 2 m g / dL r ep r es en t s 5 0% f un c t i on , a n d 4 m g /d L r e p r es en t s 2 5% fu nc t io n . D . C r e a t in i n e c le a r an c e 1 . C r ea t in i ne c l ea r an c e , wh i c h r ep r es en t s t he r a te a t w hi c h c r e at i n in e is r e m o ve d f r o m t he b lo o d b y t h e ki d n e ys , r o u g h l y a p p ro xi m a te s t h e G F R . a . Th e v a lu e i s g i v en in u n i ts o f m il l il i te r s p er m in u t e, r ep r es e nt in g th e vo l um e o f b l oo d c le a r ed of c r e a ti nin e b y th e k id ne y p e r m inu t e . b . N o r ma l va l ue s f o r m en r a ng e f r om 75 to 12 5 m L /m in . 2 . C al cu l at i on r eq ui r es k n o wl e d ge o f u r i na r y c r e a t i n i ne ex c r et i o n ( us u all y o v e r 24 h r ) an d c o nc ur r e nt se r um c r ea t i n in e l e ve l s. C re a t i ni n e c l ea r a nc e i s ca l c u la t ed as f o l lo ws :
wh e r e C l C R is th e c r ea t ini n e c le a ra nc e i n m il l il it e rs pe r m i n u t e, C U is th e c o nc en t r at i on of c r e at i nin e in th e u r i ne , V is th e v o l u m e of u ri n e ( in m i ll il it e r s p e r m i nu t e o f u r in e f o rm e d ov e r t h e c ol le c t i on pe r io d ), a nd C C R is th e s e ru m c r e a ti n in e c o nc en t r at i on . 3 . S up p os e t he s e r um c re a t in in e c o nc en t ra t io n i s 1 m g / dL , a n d 1 44 0 m L of u r in e wa s c o ll ec t ed in 24 hr ( 14 4 0 m in ) fo r a u ri n e vo l um e o f 1 m L /m i n. Th e u rin e c o nt a in s 1 0 0 m g/ d L o f c r ea t in in e . C r e a t in in e c le a r an ce is c a l c u la t ed as :
4 . I nc om pl e te bl ad d e r em p t y in g a n d o th e r p r o bl em s m a y i n te r f e re wi t h o bt a i ni ng an a cc u r at e ti m e d u r in e s pec im e n. Th u s e s ti ma t i o ns o f c r e a ti n i ne cl e a ra nc e m a y be n e ce ss a r y . Th es e es t im at i o ns re q ui r e o nl y a s e rum c r e at i ni n e v a l ue . O ne e s ti m a t io n u s es th e m et h od of C o ck r o f t an d G au l t , wh ic h is ba s e d on bo d y we i g ht , a g e , a nd g e n de r . a . Th i s f o rm ul a p r o v id es a n es t i ma t ed va l u e, c a lc u la t ed fo r ma l es as :
b . F o r f em a le s , u s e 0. 8 5 o f th e val u e c a lc u la t ed fo r m a l es . P.786
c . E xa m pl e : A 2 0 - y ea r - ol d m a n we i g h in g 7 2 k g ha s a C C R of 1 .0 m g /d L ; th u s
5 . D e te r m i na t i on o f G FR . Th e m o d if i ed di e t i n re n al di s e a s e ( MD R D ) e qu a t io n i s c o ns id e re d a m o r e a c c u ra t e m ea su r em e nt o f G F R t h an o th e r e qu a ti o ns u s e d to e s ti m a t e r e na l f u nc ti o n (e . g . , C oc k c r o ft - G a ul t ) i n p a t ie n ts wi t h r e du ce d GF R a nd is u s ed in s t ag i ng r en al di s e a s e . Pa t ie n ts m us t ha ve a s e ru m c re a ti n in e c onc e nt r a ti o n. a . Th e MD R D e q u a ti on fo r m al e s is as fo ll o ws : G F R = 1 86 ( Pc r )
-1.154
× ag e
-0.203
wh e r e P c r i s s e r um c r e ati n in e . F o r f e ma l es , m ul t ip l y t he r es ul t b y 0 . 74 2 ; fo r Af r i c a n Am e r i c a n s , m u l ti pl y b y 1 . 2 10 . b . Th e MD R D h a s b e en v a l i da t ed in C a uc as ia ns , p a ti e nt s wi t h d ia be t ic k id n e y d i se as e , k i d ne y t r an s p l an t r ec ip i en ts , a n d A f r ic an A m e r ic a ns a n d A s i a ns wi t h n o n di ab e ti c k id ne y d is eas e . c . Th e MD R D e q u a ti on ha s n o t b ee n v al i da t ed in p a t ie n ts < 1 8 y e a rs of age , p r e gn a nt wo m e n, pa t ie n ts > 7 0 yea r s o f a ge , ot he r e th n ic g r ou p s, pa t ie n ts wi t h n o r m a l k id ne y f u nc ti o n wh o a re at an in c re as e d r is k f o r c h ro ni c k id ne y d is e a se , a n d p a t ie n ts wi t h n o rm al r ena l fu nc t io n .
d . Ma n y i n s t i tu t io ns a re r o u ti n el y r e po r t in g a n MD R D - d e r i v e d G F R es t im a t i on fo r p a t ie n ts a s a r ou ti n e c om p on e nt of a b lo o d c hem is t r y s t u d y . Th is val u e s h ou l d b e u s ed to as s i s t t he c l in ic ia n in s t ag i ng a p at i en t ' s d e g re e o f re n al d ys f u nc tio n an d i s n o t a su bs t it u te f or c r e a ti n in e c le a r an c e as e s ti m a t e d b y t he C oc kr o f t a nd G a u l t e q u at io n , wh ic h s ho u ld be us e d f o r d r ug do s i n g in r e na l im p ai r m e n t. Th e MD R D e s ti m a t e h as no t b e en ev a l u a te d f o r t h e p u rp os e o f dr u g d os in g .
VII. ELECTROLYTES A. S o d i u m ( Na ) 1 . S od i um i s t he m a jo r c a t i on of t he ex t r ac e l lu l ar f l ui d . S o di um al o ng wi th ch l o ri de ( C l ) , po t as s i um ( K ), an d wa t e r i s im p o rt a nt in t he r e g ul a ti o n o f o s m ot ic p res su r e a n d wa t e r b a la nc e b e t we e n in t r ac e ll ul a r a n d e xt r a c el lu l a r f lu i ds . No r m a l va l ue s a re 1 3 5 -1 4 7 m Eq / L o r m m o l /L . 2 . Th e s o di um c o nc en t r at i o n is de f in e d as t he ra ti o of s o di um t o wa t e r , n ot t h e a b so l ut e a m o u nt s o f e i the r . La b or a to r y t es t s f o r s o d iu m a r e u s e d m ai nl y to d et ec t d i st u r ba nc es in wa t e r b al a nc e a n d b od y os m o l al i ty . Th e k id n e ys a re th e m a j o r o r g an s o f s od i um a n d wa t e r ba l an c e . 3 . A n i nc r ea s e in s o di um c on c e n t ra t io n (h yp e r n a t r e m i a ) m a y i nd ic a te im p a i re d s o di um e xc r e ti o n o r d e hy d r a t i on . A d ec r ea s e in s o d i u m c on ce n t ra t io n ( h y p o na t r em ia ) m a y r e fle c t o v e r h y d ra t io n , a bn o rm a l so d iu m l oss , o r d ec re a s e d s o di um in t ak e. 4 . P at i en ts wi t h k i dn e y , h e a r t, o r p ul m o na r y d is ea s e m a y h a v e d i ff ic u lt y wi t h s od i um a n d wa t e r b al a nc e. In adu l ts , c h an ge s i n s od i um c o nc en t r at i on s m o s t o f ten r e fl ec t c h an g es i n wa t e r b al a nc e , no t s a lt im ba l an c e s . Th e r e fo r e, s o di u m co nc e nt r a t io n i s o f t en us ed as an in di c ato r o f f lu i d s ta t us , r a th e r t h a n sa l t i m b al a nc e. 5 . C on t r ol of s o d iu m b y th e bo d y is a cc om p li s h ed m ai n l y th r ou g h t he ho r m o n es a l do s te r on e a n d a nt i di u re t ic ho r m o n e ( A D H ) . a . A D H is re l ea s e d f r om t h e p i tu i ta r y g la n d in r es p o ns e t o s ig n al s f r om the h yp o t ha l am us . A D H ' s p re s en c e in th e d is t al t ub ul e s a nd c o ll ec t in g d uc t s o f t he k i dn e y c a us es th em t o be c om e m o r e p e rm e ab le to t he r ea bs o r pt io n of wa te r ; t h e r ef o re , c o nc en t r at i ng u r i ne . b . A ld os t e ro n e a f fe c t s t he d is ta l t u bu l a r r ea bs o r pt i o n o f s od iu m a s o pp os e d to wa t e r . A l do s t e r on e i s r e le a s e d f r om t he ad r en a l c o r t e x i n r es po ns e t o l o w s o di um , h i gh po t as s i um , l o w b l ood v o l um e, an d a n gi o te nsi n II . A ld os t er o ne c a us es t h e s p il li n g o f p o ta s s iu m f r om t he di st a l t ub u le s i nt o t h e u r i ne i n e xc h an ge f or s od i um r e a bs o rp t io n . 6 . H yp o n a t r e m ia is u s ua l l y re l at e d t o t o ta l b o d y d e pl e ti on o f s o d i u m —a s i n m i ne r al oc o r ti c o i d d ef ic i en c ie s , s o di um - wa s t in g ren a l d is ea s e, r ep la c e m ent o f f l ui d l o ss wi t h n o ns al in e s ol u ti o ns , g as t r oi n te s ti na l ( G I) l os se s , r en a l l oss es , o r l os s o f s o di um th r o ug h t h e s k in— o r t o P.787 d i lu t io n o f s e r um s od i um — a s i n c i rr h os is , C H F, ne p h ro si s , r e na l f ai l u re , exc e s s wa t e r i n ta k e , or s y nd r om e o f i na p p ro p ri a te an t id iu r e ti c h o rm on e ( SI A D H ) s ec r e ti o n.
7 . H yp e r n a t r e m ia us ua l ly r e s ul t s f r om a lo s s of fr e e wa t e r o r h ypo t on ic flu i d o r t h r o ug h e xc e s s i v e s o di um in t ak e . F r ee wa t e r l os s is m os t of t en as s o c i a ted wi t h d i ab e te s i ns i pi du s , b ut flu i d l os s ca n b e v ia t he GI t r ac t , r e na l , sk in , or r es p i ra t or y s ys t em s . E xc e s s s o di um i n ta k e ca n o c c u r t h ro u gh t he ad m i n is t ra t io n o f hyp e r t o ni c i n t ra ve n ou s (I V ) s ol u ti o ns , m i ne r al oc o r ti co id e xc es s , e xc e ss i v e s od i um i n ge s ti o n, o r a f t e r a dm in is t r at i on of d ru g s h ig h i n s od i um c on t en t ( e. g . , t ic a rc il li n , s od ium b i ca r bo n at e [] ) . B . P o t as s i um ( K ) 1 . P ot a s s iu m is th e m os t a b un d an t i n t r ac e l lu l a r c a ti o n ( i nt r ac el l ul a r f lu i d p o ta s s iu m a ve r a ge s 1 4 1 m Eq / L ). Ap p r o xi m a te l y 35 00 m Eq o f po t as s i um is c on t ai n ed i n t he b o d y of a 7 0 -k g a du l t . O n l y 1 0% of t he bo d y ' s p ot a s s iu m i s e xt r a c el l ul a r. N o r m al va l u es a re 3. 5 - 5. 0 m E q/L o r m m o l/ L . 2 . Th e s e ru m p o ta s s iu m c o nc en t r at i on is n o t a n ad e q ua t e m e as u r e o f t he t o t al bo d y p o t ass i um b e c a us e m os t o f th e b o d y' s p ot as s i u m i s i nt r ac e ll ul a r . F o rt u na te l y, t he c l in ic al s i gn s a n d s y m p to m s o f p ot as si um de f ic ien c y — m a l ai s e , c on f us io n , d i z zi n es s , e l ec t r oc ar d io g ra m (E C G ) c ha n ge s , m u s c le we a k ne ss , an d p ai n —c o r r el at e we l l wi t h s e r um c on c e n t ra t io ns . Th e s e r um p o ta ss iu m c onc e nt r a ti o n is bu f fe r e d b y t h e b od y a n d m a y b e “n o rm a l” de s p i t e t ot a l b od y p o ta s s ium lo ss . Po t as s i um de pl et i o n c a us e s a sh i f t o f i nt r ac e ll ul a r p ot a s s iu m t o t h e e xt r a c el l ul a r fl ui d to m a in t ai n p o tas si um c o nc en t r at i on s . Th e r e is a p p ro xi m a t el y a 10 0 m Eq t o ta l b od y p o ta s s iu m de f ic i t wh e n t h e s e ru m p o ta s s iu m c o nc e nt r a ti o n d ec r ea s e s b y 0 . 3 m E q /L . Th is m a y r es u l t i n m is i nt e r pr e ta t io n o f s e r um po t as s i um c o nc en t r at io n s as t he y r e la t e t o t o ta l bo d y p o t ass i um . 3 . Th e ro l e o r f u nc ti o n o f p o ta s s iu m i s i n t he m a int e n an ce of p ro p e r e le c t r ic a l c o nd uc t io n i n c a rd ia c a nd s k el e ta l m us cl es (m usc l e a nd ne r v e e xc i ta b il i t y) , i t e xe r t s a n in f lu en c e o n t he bo d y' s wa t e r ba l an ce ( in t ra c el l ul a r vol um e ) a nd pl a y s a r ol e i n a c id - ba s e eq u il ib r i um . 4 . P ot a s s iu m is r eg ul a ted b y : a . K id n e ys ( r en al f un c t i on ) b . A ld os t e ro n e c . A r te r ia l p H d . I ns ul in e . P ot a s s iu m i nt ak e f . S o di um de li v e r y t o d is t a l t u bu l es 5 . H yp o k a l e mi a c an oc c u r . Th e k id n e ys a re r es po n s i bl e fo r ap p ro xi m a t ely 9 0 % o f t h e d a il y p ot as s i um lo s s . O t h e r l os s e s o c c u r m a i nl y t h r ou g h t he G I s y s t em . E v e n i n s t a te s o f n o p o ta s s iu m in t ak e , t h e k i d ne y s s t il l exc r e t e u p t o 2 0 m E q o f po t as s i um d a il y . Th e r e fo r e , p ro l on ge d pe r io ds o f p ot as s i um d e p ri v a t io n c an r es ul t i n h yp o ka l em ia . H y po k al em i a c a n a ls o r es u lt f ro m po t as s i um lo s s th r o ug h vom i ti n g o r d i a r rh e a, na s o g as t ri c s uc t io n , l a xa t i v e ab us e , a nd b y di u r et ic us e ( m a n ni to l , t h i a zid es , o r lo o p d iu r et ic s ). E xc e s si ve m in e r al oco r t ic oi d ac ti v i t y an d g l uco s u ri a c an a l so r es ul t i n h y p ok a le m ia . P ot a ss iu m c a n b e s hi ft e d i n to c e ll s wi t h a lk al em i a a nd a f t e r a dm in is t r at i on of glu c os e a nd in su l in . 6 . H yp e r k a l e mi a m os t c o m m o nl y r es u lt s f r om dec r e as ed r en al el im i na t ion , e xc e s s i v e i nt ak e , o r fr om c e ll u la r b r e ak do wn ( t is s u e d a m a ge , he m o l ys i s, b u rn s ,
i n f ec ti o ns ) . Me t a b o li c a c i d os is m a y al s o r es ul t i n a s h i f t o f p ot a s s iu m e xt r a c el lu l a rl y a s h yd r o ge n i o ns m o v e in t o c el ls an d a r e e xc h a ng e d f o r p o ta s s iu m a nd s o d iu m i on s . A s a g en e r al gu id e li ne , fo r e v e r y 0. 1 u n it p H c han g e f r om 7. 4 , t h e p ot as siu m c o nc en t r at i on wi l l c ha n ge b y ab o ut 0 .6 m E q /L . If a p at i en t h as a p H of 7 .1 a n d a m e as u re d p o ta s s iu m o f 4 . 5 m E q /L , t h e ac t ua l p ot a s s iu m c on ce n t ra t io n wo u ld be 0 . 3 (u n it s l es s t ha n 7 . 4 ) × 0 .6 = 1 . 8 P o t as si um c o nc e nt r a ti on = 4 .5 - 1 . 8 = 2. 7 m E q/ L C o r r e ct i on of th e a c i d os is in t hi s si t ua t io n wi ll r es u lt in a d r am at ic de c re as e i n p o t ass i um u n le s s s u pp lem e nt a ti o n is in s ti t ut e d. P.788
C . C h l o r id e ( C l ) 1 . C hl o r id e i s t he m a jo r a n io n o f th e e xt r a c e ll u la r f l ui d a n d is im po r t an t i n t h e m a in t en a nc e o f a c i d -b as e b al an c e. A lt e ra t io n s in t h e s er u m ch l or i de c o nc e n t r at i on a r e ra r e l y a p ri m a r y i nd ic a to r of m a jo r m e di c a l p ro b le m s . C hl o ri de i ts el f i s n o t o f p r i m a r y di a gn os t ic s i gn ifi c an c e . It is u s ua ll y m eas u r ed to c o n fi rm t he s e ru m s od i um c o nc en t r at i on . Th e r e la t io n s h i p am o ng s o di um , ch l o ri d e, an d i s d es cr i be d b y t h e f o l lo wi n g : -
Cl + + R = Na
+
wh e r e R is t he an io n g a p. Th e n o rm a l va lu e f o r C l is 95 - 1 05 m E q /L o r m m o l/ L . 2 . H yp o c h l o r e mi a i s a de c r ea s e d c hl o ri d e co n c en t r a ti o n, an d i t i s o f te n a cc o m p an i ed b y m e ta bo li c a lk a lo si s o r a c i d os is c a u s e d b y o r ga n ic o r ot h er a ci ds . O t h e r c a us es i nc l ud e c h ro n ic r en al f ai lu r e , a d re na l in su f fi c i e nc y, fa s ti ng , p r o lo n ge d d i a r rh e a, s e v e r e v o m i t ing , an d d i u re t ic t h e ra p y . 3 . H yp e r c h l o r e mi a i s a n i nc r e as ed c h lo r id e c on ce n t r at i on th a t m a y i nd ic at e h yp e r ch lo r em ic m e t ab ol ic ac id os is . H y p e rc hl o rem i a i n t he ab s e nc e o f m e t a bo li c a c id os is is u n us ua l b ec au s e c h l o ri de r et e nt i on is o f t en ac co m p a ni ed b y s od i um an d wa t e r r e t en t io n . O t h e r c au s es i nc l ud e a cu t e r e na l f a il u re , de h y d ra t io n , a nd e xc e s s c h lo r id e a dm i ni s t r a ti o n. D . B i c a r bo n a te ( [ )/ c a rbo n d io x i de ( C O 2 ) c o n ten t 1 . Th e c a rb o n d io xi d e ( CO 2 ) c on t en t re p r es en ts th e s um o f t he bi c a r b on a te ( ) c o nc en t r at i on an d t h e c on c en t r at i on of C O 2 di ss ol v e d in th e s e ru m . Th e /C O 2 s ys t em i s t h e m o s t im p ort a n t b u ff e ri n g s ys t em t o m a in t ai n p H wi t h in ph y s io l og ic a l l i m i ts . Mo s t d is t u rb a nc es o f ac id - ba s e ba l an ce c an b e co n s i de r e d in t e rm s o f th is s ys t em . No r m a l v al ue s ar e 2 2- 2 8 m Eq / L o r m m o l /L . 2 . Th e re l at i on s h ip am o ng t hi s s ys te m is de f in e d a s fo ll o ws : +
+ H × H 2 C O 3 × H 2 O + CO 2 ( b i ca r bo n at e i o ns b i nd hy d r o g en io ns t o f o rm c a rb o n i c a ci d ) . C l in ic al l y , the se r um c o nc en t r at i on is m ea s u re d be c a us e a ci d - ba s e bal a nc e c an be in f e rr e d i f th e pa t ie n t h a s n o rm al pu lm on a r y f un c ti o n. 3 . H yp o b i c a r b on a t em i a i s u s u a ll y ca u s e d b y m e ta b ol ic ac id o s i s , r en al f ai l u r e, h yp e r ve n ti la t io n , s e v e re d i a r rh e a, d ra in a ge of in te s ti n al fl u id , a n d b y d ru gs s u c h as a c et a zo la m i d e. To xi c i t y c a us ed b y s a li c yla t es , m e t h an ol , an d e t h yle n e g ly c o l c an a l so de c re as e t h e l e v el .
4 . H yp e r b i c a r b on a t em ia is us ua l l y c au s ed b y a lk a lo si s, h y p o v en t il at i on , p u lm o na r y d i se as e , p e rs is te n t v om iti n g , e xc e ss in t ak e wi t h po o r re n al fu nc t io n , a nd di u r et ic s .
VIII. MINERALS A. C a l c i u m ( C a ) 1 . C al ci um pl a y s a n i m po r t a nt r ol e i n n e r v e im p ul s e t r an s m is s i on , m us cl e c o nt r ac t io n , p an c re a ti c in s ul in r el e as e, h y d ro g en i o n r el e as e f r om th e s t om ac h , a s a c o fa c to r fo r s om e e n z y m e r e ac ti o ns a n d b lo od c oa g ul a ti o n, an d m os t i m po r t a nt bo n e a n d t o ot h s t r uc tu r al in t eg r i t y . N or m a l to t al c a lc ium va lu es a re 8 .8 - 10 . 3 m g / d L o r 2 . 2 0 -2 . 56 m m o l /L . 2 . Th e to t al c a lc iu m c o n te n t o f no rm a l a du l ts i s 20 - 2 5 g /k g o f fa t - f re e t is su e , a n d a b o ut 44 % o f th is c a lc ium is i n th e b o d y s k e le t on. A p p ro xi m a t el y 1 % o f s k e l e ta l c a lc iu m is f re e l y e xc h a ng e a bl e wi t h t ha t o f th e ext r a c e l l ul a r f lu i d. Th e res e r v o ir o f c a lc iu m i n b on es m a in t ain s th e c on c e n t ra t io n o f c a l c i um in th e p l asm a c ons t an t . A b o u t 4 0% of t he c a lc ium in t he e xt r a c e ll u la r fl uid is bo u nd to pl as m a p rot e i ns ( e s pe c i al l y al b um in ) , 5 %- 1 5 % i s co m p l e xe d wi t h p h os p ha t e a nd c i t ra t e, an d 45 % 5 5 % i s i n t he un b ou n d, io n i z e d f o rm . Mo s t l ab o rat o r ie s m ea s u r e t h e t o ta l c a lc iu m c o nc en t r at i on ; h o we v e r , i t is th e f r e e, io ni z e d c a lc i um th a t is im po r t an t p h ys io l og ic al l y . Io ni z e d c a lc iu m l e vel s m a y b e ob t a in ed f r om t h e l ab o ra to r y . C l i ni c al l y , t h e m o s t im p or t a n t d et e rm i na n t o f i on iz e d ca lc i um i s t h e am o un t o f se r um p r o t ei n ( a lb um in ) a v ai l abl e fo r bi nd i ng . Th e n o rm a l s e r um c al ci um r an g e is f or P.789 a se r um al b um in of 4 g / dL . A g o od ap p r o xi m at i on i s t h at fo r e v e r y 1 g /d L d e c re as e i n al bu m i n , 0 . 8 g /d L s hou l d b e a d de d t o t h e c al c iu m l a bo r a to r y r es ul t . Do in g th is c o r re c ts th e t o ta l p l as m a c on c e n t ra t io n to re f le c t t h e a d di t io na l a m o u nt o f f r e e ( a c ti v e ) c a lc iu m . 3 . H yp o c a l c em i a us u al ly i m pl i es a de f ic ie nc y i n e i t he r th e p r od uc t io n o r re s po ns e t o pa r a th y r o id ho r m o n e (P TH ) o r v i t am i n D . P TH a b n or m a l it i es i nc l ud e h yp o p ar a th y r o i di s m , p s eu d o -h y p o pa r a th yr o id is m , o r h ypo m a g ne se m i a . V i ta m in D a b n or m a l it i es c an be c au s ed b y de cr e as ed nu t r iti o na l i n ta k e , de c re as ed a b so r p ti on o f vi t am in D , a de c r e as e i n p r o du c t i on , o r an in c re a s e in m e ta b ol is m . A dm i ni st r a ti on o f lo o p d iu r e ti c s c au s i n g d i ur e s i s ca n a ls o d ec r ea s e s e r um c a lc iu m . 4 . H yp e r c a l c em i a is an in c r ea s e d c al c i um c o nc en t r a ti o n, an d i t i s u s u al l y a ss o ci at e d wi t h m a l ig nan c y o r m et as t at ic di s ea s e s . O th e r c au s e s i nc lu d e h yp e r pa r a th y r o i di s m , P ag e t d is e as e, m i lk - al ka l i sy n d r o m e , g r a nu lo m a t ou s d is o r de rs , t h i a zid e d iu r e ti c s , e xc e s s i v e c al c i um in t ak e , o r v i t a m i n D i n to xi c a t io n . B . P h o sp h a te ( P O 4 ) 1 . P ho sp h at e i s a m a jo r in t r ac e ll ul a r a ni o n a nd is t h e s ou r c e o f p ho s p h at e f o r a d e no s i ne t ri p ho s p h at e (A TP ) a n d ph os p ho li p id s yn t h es is . S er u m c a lc i um a n d P O 4 a r e i n fl u en c e d b y m an y o f t he s am e fa c t o rs . It is u se f ul t o co ns i de r c a lc iu m a n d P O 4 t o g et h e r wh e n in t e rp r et in g la b re su l ts . N o rm a l PO 4 v a l u es a r e 2 . 5 -5 . 0 m g/ d L o r 0 . 8 0 -1 . 60 m m o l /L . 2 . H yp e r p h o s p ha t em i a a n d h yp o p h o s p ha t e mi a c a n oc c ur . Th e e xt r a c e llu l a r f lu i d c o nc en t r at i on of ph os p ha t e i s i nf l ue nc e d b y P TH , i nt e st in a l a bs o rp t io n , re n al
f u nc t io n , n u tr i ti o n, an d bo n e m et a bo li s m . H y p er ph o s p h at em i a is us ua l l y ca u s e d b y r e n al in s u f fi c i e nc y , al t hou g h i nc r ea se d v i ta m i n D o r p ho sp ha t e i n ta ke , h yp o p ar a th y r o i di s m , a nd h y p e r th y r o i di s m a r e a ls o ca us e s. H y p op h os ph a te m ia c a n o cc u r i n m al n ut r i ti on , es p e c i al l y wh e n an ab o li s m i s i nd uc e d, a ft e r a dm in is t r at i on of a l um in um - c o n ta i ni n g a nta c id s o r c al ci um ac e ta t e, i n c h ro n ic a lc o ho li c s , a nd i n s e pt ic pa t ie n ts . H y p er p ar a t h y r oi d ism an d i n s u f fi ci e n t v i t am in D in t ak e ca n a ls o i n du c e h y p op ho s ph a te m ia . C . M ag n es i um ( M g ) 1 . Ma g n es i um i s t h e s e c o n d m os t a b un da n t i n tr ac e ll ul a r a n d e xt r a c el l ul a r c a ti on . It i s a n a c ti v a t or o f n um e rou s e n z y m e s y s te m s th a t c o nt r o l c a r b oh yd r at e , f a t a n d e l ec t r ol y t e m et a bo l is m , p r o t ei n s y n th es is , ne r ve c o nd uc t io n , m us c u la r c on t r ac t il i t y , a s we l l as m e m b r an e t ran s po r t a n d i nt e gr i t y . No rm a l v a l ue s a r e 1 .6 - 2 .4 m E q / L o r 0 . 8 - 1. 2 0 m m ol / L. 2 . H yp o m a g n es e mi a a nd h yp e r m a g n e s em i a c an oc c u r . H yp o m a g n e s em i a i s f o un d m o r e o ft e n t ha n h y pe rm ag n es em i a. D ep l et i on of m a gn e s i um u su a ll y r es u lt s f ro m e xc e s s i v e l os s f ro m t h e G I t r ac t o r t he k i dn e y s . D e p l et i on c a n oc cu r f rom ei t he r p o o r i n te s t i na l a bs o rp t ion o r e xc e s s i v e G I fl ui d l os s . S i gn s a nd s y m p to m s i n c l ud e we a k n es s , m u s c le f as c ic u l a ti on s wi t h t r em o r, t et an y , a nd in c re as e d r e fl e xe s . D e c r ea s e d i n t ra c a r di ac m a gn es i um m a y m a ni f es t a s a n i nc re a s e d Q T i nte r va l wi t h a n in c re as ed r is k o f a r r hy t h m ia . H yp e r m a g n e s em i a i s m os t c om m o nl y ca u s e d b y i n c re as ed m a g ne s i um in ta k e i n t he se t ti n g o f r e na l in s u f fi ci e nc y . O t he r c au s es i n cl ud e e xc e s s m ag ne s i um in t ak e , h ep a ti t is , a nd A d d is on di s e a s e . Si gn s a n d s ym p to m s o f h y pe r m a gne s em ia in cl u de br a d yc a rd i a , f l u sh i ng , s we a t in g , n a us e a a nd vo m i ti n g, de c re as e d c a lc i u m l e vel , d ec r e as ed dee p - t en do n re f le xe s , f la c c i d p a r al ys is , i nc r e as ed pu ls e r a te an d Q R S i n te r va ls , r es p i ra t or y d is t r es s , and a s ys to le . P.790
STUDY QUESTIONS D i r e c t i on s fo r q ue s t io ns 1 - 16 : E a c h o f t he qu es t i o ns , s ta t em en t s , o r i nc o m pl e te s t a te m e n ts i n th is s ec t ion c a n b e c o r re c t l y a ns we r e d or co m p le t e d b y o ne o f th e s u gg es t ed an s we r s o r phr a s es . Ch oo s e t he be s t a n s we r . 1 . H em a t ol o g ic a l t e s ti ng o f a p a ti e n t w i t h AI D S i s m o s t l i ke l y t o s h o w w h ic h o f t h e f ol l ow i ng ab n o r ma li t i e s? ( A ) b as op h il ia ( B ) e os in o ph il i a ( C ) l ym ph o pe ni a ( D ) r e ti c ul oc y t os is ( E ) a g ra n ul oc y t os is V i e w A n s we r 1 . T h e a n sw e r i s C [ se e] . 2 . He m ato l o g ic a l s t ud i es a r e m os t l i k e l y t o s h ow a low r e ti c u l oc yt e c o u n t i n a p at i e n t w ho h as w h ic h of t h e f o l l ow i ng ab n o r ma l i ti e s? ( A ) a pl as t ic an em ia s e c on d a r y to c a nc e r c he m o t he r a p y
( B ) a cu t e h em ol y t ic an em i a s e c o n da r y t o q ui n id in e t re a tm en t ( C ) s e ve re bl ee d in g s ec o n d ar y t o a n a u to m o b il e a c c i de n t ( D ) i r on - d ef ic ie n c y a n em i a 1 we e k af t e r t r ea tm e nt wi t h f e r ro us s u l fa t e ( E ) m eg al o bl as t ic a n em ia o wi n g t o fo la t e d e fi c i en c y 1 we ek a ft e r t r ea t m en t wi t h fo l ic a c id V i e w A n s we r 2 . T h e a n sw e r i s A [ se e] . 3 . Al l o f th e f o ll ow i ng f i nd i n gs on a r o u t i n e u r i na l ys i s w o u ld b e c o ns i de r e d n o r m al e x ce p t w hi c h o n e? (A) pH: 6.5 ( B ) g lu c o s e : ne ga t i v e ( C ) k et o ne s : n eg a ti v e ( D ) wh i t e bl o od c e ll s (W B C s ) : 3 p er hi g h -p o we r fi e l d ( H P F ), n o c a st s ( E ) r e d b lo o d c e ll s ( R B Cs ) : 5 pe r H P F V i e w A n s we r 3 . T h e a n sw e r i s E [s e e V . B ; an d] .4. A 1 2 - ye a r - o l d b o y i s t r e a t e d f o r ot i t is me d i a w i th ce f a cl o r ( C ec l o r ). O n t h e 7 t h da y o f t h e r ap y, h e s p i ke s a f e ve r a n d d e ve l o ps a n u r t ic a r i al r as h o n hi s t r un k . W h ic h of t h e f o l l ow i ng la b o r a to r y t e s t s co u l d b es t co n f i rm t h e ph ys i c i a n ' s s us p i cio n o f a h yp e r s e n s i t i vi t y ( a l l e r gi c ) r ea c t io n ? ( A ) c om pl e te bl oo d c ou nt ( C B C ) an d d i f fe r en t ia l ( B ) s er um he m og lo b in ( Hb ) a nd re t ic ul oc y t e c o un t ( C ) l i ve r f u nc ti o n t es t p ro f i le ( D ) l ac t at e d e h y d ro g en as e (L D H ) is oe n z ym e p r o fi l e ( E ) r e d b lo o d c e ll ( R B C ) c o un t a n d s er um bi l ir u bin V i e w A n s we r 4 . T h e a n sw e r i s A [ se e] . 5 . An i nc re a s ed he m a to c r i t ( H c t ) i s a l i k e l y f i n d i n g i n a ll o f th e f o ll ow i ng i nd i vi d u als e xc e p t w h i ch o ne ? ( A ) a m a n wh o h as j us t re t u r ne d f r om a 3 - we e k sk i in g t r ip in t he C ol o ra d o R o ck i es ( B ) a wo m an wh o ha s p ol y c y t h em ia v e r a ( C ) a ho s p i ta li z e d pa ti e nt wh o m is ta ke n l y re c e i v ed 5 L o f i nt r a v en o us ( I V) d e xt r o s e 5 % in wa t e r ( D5W ) o v e r t h e l as t 24 hr ( D ) a m a n wh o h as be e n r e s c ue d fr om t he A ri z o na d es e rt af t e r s pe nd i ng 4 d a ys wi t h o u t wa t e r ( E ) a wo m an wh o ha s c hr o n ic ob st r uc t i v e p ul m o na r y d is e as e V i e w A n s we r 5 . T h e a n sw e r i s C [ se e] . 6 . A 2 9 - ye a r - o ld w h i t e m an is see n i n t h e e me r g en c y r o o m . H i s w h i te b lo o d c el l (W B C ) c o un t is 14 , 20 0 w i t h 80 % p o l ys . Al l o f t h e fo l l ow in g c on d i ti o n s c ou l d n or m a l l y p r o d u c e t h es e l ab o r a t o r y f i n d i ng s e x ce p t w hi c h o n e ? ( A ) a l o c a li z e d b ac t e ri al i n f ec ti o n o n t he t ip of the i nd e x f i n ge r ( B ) a cu t e b ac te r ia l p n eum o ni a c au s e d b y S t r ep t oc oc c us p n eu m o ni a e ( C ) a he a r t a tt a c k ( D ) a gu ns h ot wo u n d t o th e ab d om en wi t h a lo ss o f 2 p in t s o f b lo o d ( E ) a n a t ta c k of go u t V i e w A n s we r 6 . T h e a n sw e r i s A [ se e] . 7 . A 5 2 - ye a r - o ld ma l e c o ns t r u c tio n w o r ke r w h o d r i n ks “ f a i rl y h e a vi l y” w h en h e g e ts o f f w o rk i s s ee n i n t he e m e r ge n c y r o o m w i t h, a m o ng o t he r ab n o r ma l l a b o r at o r y r e s u l t s , a n in c r e as e d c r e a t in e k i n as e ( C K ) l eve l . Al l o f t h e f o ll ow i n g c i r c um s ta n ce s c o u ld ex p l a in t h i s in c r ea s e e xc e pt w h i c h o n e?
( A ) h e f el l a g ai ns t th e b um p e r o f h is c a r i n a dr u nk e n s tu p or an d b r u is ed hi s ri gh t s i de ( B ) h e i s s h o wi n g e v i d enc e o f s om e l i ve r d am a ge o wi n g to t he he a v y a lc oh o l i n ta ke ( C ) h e h as e xp e r i en c e d a h ea r t a t ta c k ( D ) h e re c e i v ed a n in t r am us c ul a r ( I M) i n je c ti o n a f e w h o u rs be f or e th e b loo d s am p le wa s d r a wn ( E ) h e p ul l ed a m u s c le th a t d a y wh e n li f ti ng a h ea v y c o nc r e te s l ab V i e w A n s we r 7 . T h e a n sw e r i s B [ se e] . P . 79 1
8 . A 4 5 - ye a r - o l d m a n w it h j a un d ic e h a s s p il l age o f bi l i r ub i n i n t o h i s ur i n e . Al l o f t h e f o l low i n g s t a te me n t s c o u ld ap p l y t o t h i s p a ti e n t e xc e p t w h i ch o n e ? ( A ) H i s t ot a l b il i ru b in is in c r ea s e d . ( B ) H i s d ir ec t bi li r u bi n i s i nc r e as ed . ( C ) H e m a y h a v e v i r al h ep a t it is . ( D ) H e m a y h a v e h em ol y t i c a ne m i a . ( E ) H e m a y ha v e c h ol e s ta t ic he p at i ti s . V i e w A n s we r 8 . T h e a n sw e r i s D [ se e] . F o r q u es ti o n s 9 - 11 : A 7 0 - y e ar - o ld b l ac k m a n we i gh i ng 15 4 l b . c om pl a in s o f c hr o ni c f a t ig u e. S e ve ra l l ab o r at or y t e s ts we r e p e r f or m e d wi t h t h e f o l lo wi n g re s u l ts :
blood urea nitrogen (BUN) aspartate aminotransferase (AST) white blood cell (WBC) count red blood cell (RBC) count
15 mg/dL within normal limits 7500/mm3 4.0 million/mm3
hematocrit (Hct)
29%
hemoglobin (Hb)
9.0 g/dL
9 . T hi s p a t ie n t 's me a n c e l l h e mo g lo b i n c o nc en t r a t i on ( M C Hb C ) i s ( A ) 2 7 .5 . ( B ) 2 8 .9 . ( C ) 3 1 .0 . ( D ) 3 3 .5 . ( E ) 3 5 .4 . V i e w A n s we r 9 . T h e a n sw e r i s C [ se e] . 1 0. H i s me a n c e l l vo l u me (M C V ) is ( A ) 6 1 .3 .
( B ) 7 2 .5 . ( C ) 7 7 .5 . ( D ) 9 0 .2 . ( E ) 9 3 .5 . V i e w A n s we r 1 0 . T he a nsw e r i s B [ se e] . 1 1. F r om t h e da t a p r o vi d e d a n d f r o m t he ca l cu l a t io n s in q u es t i on s 9 an d 10 , th i s pa t i en t is be s t d e scr i b e d a s ( A ) n o rm al e xc e p t f o r a s l i gh t l y in c r e as ed bl o od ur e a ni t ro g en ( B U N ) . ( B ) h a vin g n o rm oc h r om ic , m i c ro c y t ic a n em ia . ( C ) h a vi ng s ic k l e -c el l a ne m ia . ( D ) h a vi ng h y po c h r om ic , n o rm oc y t i c a ne m i a . ( E ) h a vin g fo li c a c i d d e fic i en c y . V i e w A n s we r 1 1 . T he a nsw e r i s B [ se e] . 1 2. Al l o f t h e f ol l ow i ng s ta t em e n ts a b o u t s o di u m ( N a ) a r e tr u e ex c ep t w h i ch on e ? ( A ) Th e n or m a l ra n ge fo r s od i um i s 1 35 - 1 47 m E q /L . ( B ) S o di um is th e m aj o r c a ti o n o f t h e e xt r a c el l ul ar f l ui d , a nd th e l a bo r a to ry t e s t is u s ed m a in l y to de t ec t d is t u r b an ce s i n wa t e r ba l anc e . ( C ) H yp o n at r em i a us u al ly r e s ul t s f r om t h e t o ta l bo d y d ep l et i on of s o di um o r t h ro ug h a d il u ti on a l e f fe c t . ( D ) C o n t ro l o f t h e s od ium c o nc e nt r a ti on is m a in ly t h r o ug h re g ul at i on of ar t e r ia l p H . V i e w A n s we r 1 2 . T he a nsw e r i s D [ se ea n d] .1 3 . A 5 3 - ye a r - o l d w o ma n w i th d i a be t e s m el l i t us is see n i n t h e e me r g en c y r o o m . H e r b l oo d gl u co s e i s 67 3 m g /d L a n d k e t on e s a r e p r e s en t i n h e r b l o od . A d i a gn o si s of d ia b e ti c k e t o ac i do s is ( D K A) i s m a d e. O t h e r i m po r t a n t l a b o r at o r y va l u e s a r e po t a s si u m o f 4 .8 m Eq / L, 4+ g lu c ose i n u r i n e, an d an a r te r ia l p H o f 7. 1 . Al l o f t h e fo l l ow i ng s t a t em e n ts ap p l y t o t h i s p a ti e n t e xc e p t w h i ch o n e ? ( A ) H e r p o t as s i um v al u e i s n o rm a l; th e r ef o re , no p o t as s i um s u pp le m e n ta t io n is l ik e l y t o be ne c e s s a r y . ( B ) H e r p o t as s i um v al u e s h ou l d b e co r r ec t ed o win g to he r ac id os is ; a co rr e c te d p o t ass i um wo u ld be 3 .0 m E q /L . ( C ) P o t as s i um s up p le m en t a ti o n s h o ul d b e i ns t it u te d be ca us e h e r t o ta l b o dy p o t ass i um i s d e pl et e d. ( D ) F ac t o rs af f ec ti n g p ota s s i um i n th is pa t ie n t i nc l u de gl yc os u ri a a n d a r te ri a l p H . V i e w A n s we r 1 3 . T he a nsw e r i s A [ se e] . P . 79 2
1 4 . A 5 0 - ye a r - o l d m a n p r e s en t s w i th b ic a r bo na t e o f 1 8 m Eq / L . Al l o f th e f o l l ow i ng co u l d b e a cau s e o f h is l ow b i ca r b o na t e le ve l ex c ep t ( A ) m et a bo li c a c i do s i s . ( B ) s al ic y l a te to xi c i t y . ( C ) d iu r e ti c t h er a p y . ( D ) d ia r r h ea . V i e w A n s we r 1 4 . T he a nsw e r i s C [ se ea n d] .1 5 . Al l o f t he f ol l ow i ng s t a t em e n ts ab o u t c al c iu m ( C a ) a nd p ho s p ho r us ( P O 4 ) a r e t r ue ex c ep t w h ic h one?
( A ) A n a lc o ho l ic wi t h a s e r u m a lb um in o f 2 g / dL an d a se r um t ot al c a lc i um o f 8. 0 m g /d L h as a c o rr e c t e d t ot a l c al c i um o f 9 .6 m g /d L . ( B ) C a lc iu m a nd P O 4 l e v e l s s h o ul d b e i n te r p re t ed t o ge t he r be ca us e m an y o f t he s am e fa c t o rs in f lu e nc e bo t h m in e r al s. ( C ) Me t a s t a ti c c a nc e r o f te n in du c es a de c re as e in s e r um c a lc iu m l e v el s ( D ) A p at i en t wi t h r e na l fa i lu r e m a y pr es e n t wi t h h yp o c a lc em i a a nd h yp e r ph o s p ha t em ia . V i e w A n s we r 1 5 . T he a nsw e r i s C [ se ea n d] .1 6 . Al l o f t he f ol l ow i ng a re i m p o r ta n t fu n c ti o n s o f m a g ne s iu m (M g ) e xc e p t ( A ) n e r v e c on du c ti on . ( B ) p ho s p h ol ip i d s y n th es i s . ( C ) m usc l e c on t ra c ti li t y . ( D ) c a rb oh y d r a te , fa t , a nd e le c t r o l y te m e ta b ol is m . V i e w A n s we r 1 6 . T he a nsw e r i s B [ se e] . D i r e c ti o ns f o r qu e s ti o ns 17 - 1 9 : Th e q u es t io ns an d i nc om p le te s ta t em en ts in t hi s se c ti o n c an be c o r r ec tl y a nswe r e d o r c om p le t ed b y on e o r m or e o f t h e su g ge s te d a nswe r s . C h o os e t he an s we r , A- E . 1 7 . Fa c to r s li k el y t o c au s e a n in c r ea s e i n th e b l o o d u r e a n i t r og e n ( BU N ) l e ve l i n c l ud e I . i n t ra m us c ul a r ( I M) i n je c t i on o f d i az ep a m ( V a li u m ) . I I . se ve r e l i ve r d i se a se . I I I . c h r o ni c k i d ne y d i s ea s e . A i f I o n l y i s c o r re c t B i f II I on l y i s c o r r ec t C i f I a n d I I a r e c or r ec t D i f II a nd I II a re c o r re c t E i f I, I I, an d II I ar e c o r re c t V i e w A n s we r 1 7 . T he a nsw e r i s B [ se e] . 1 8. A p a t ie n t w h o u n de r g o es se ru m e n z ym e t e s t i n g i s f o u nd t o ha ve a n i nc r e as e d a s p a r ta t e a m in o t r an s f er a s e ( AS T ) l e ve l . P os s ib l e u n de r l yi n g ca u se s of t h is ab n or m a l i t y i n c l u d e I . m et h yl d o p a - i nd u ce d h e p a ti t i s. I I . co n ge s t i ve he a r t f a i lu r e ( C H F ) . I I I . pn e um o ni a . A i f I o n l y i s c o r re c t B i f II I on l y i s c o r r ec t C i f I a n d I I a r e c or r ec t D i f II a nd I II a re c o r re c t E i f I, I I, an d II I ar e c o r re c t V i e w A n s we r 1 8 . T he a nsw e r i s C [ se e] . 1 9. S e r um e nz ym e t e s t s t ha t may a i d in t he d ia g no s is o f m yo c a r d i a l in f a r c ti o n in c l u de I . a lk a li n e p h os p ha t a se. I I . c re a t in e k i n as e ( C K ) . I I I . la c ta t e d e h yd r o g e n a s e (L D H ) . A i f I o n l y i s c o r re c t B i f II I on l y i s c o r r ec t C i f I a n d I I a r e c or r ec t
D i f II a nd I II a re c o r re c t E i f I, I I, an d II I ar e c o r re c t V i e w A n s we r 1 9 . T he a nsw e r i s D [ se ea n d] .P . 79 3
ANSWERS AND EXPLANATIONS 1 . T he an sw e r is C [ s ee I I . B .2 . d. ( 2 ) ]. V a l ua b le di ag n os t ic i n fo rm a ti o n c a n b e o b ta i ne d th r o ug h q u an t it a ti v e an d q u al i ta t i ve t e s ti ng o f t he c e ll s o f t h e b l oo d . A fi n di n g o f l ym ph o p en ia ( i. e . , d ec re a se d n um b e r o f l ym p ho c y t es ) s ug g es ts an a t ta c k o n th e i m m un e s y s t em o r s o m e un de r l yin g i m m u no d ef ic i en c y . A I D S a t t ac k s th e T H 4 p o pu la t io n of l ym p ho c y t es a n d th u s m a y r e s ul t i n l y m ph o pe ni a . 2 . T he an sw e r is A [ s ee I I . A .5 ] . Th e r e t ic ul oc y t e c o un t m e a s u r es th e a m o u nt o f c ir c u la ti n g im m at u re R B C s, wh i c h p r o vi de s i n fo rm a ti o n a bou t bo n e m a r r o w f u nc ti o n . A l o w r e ti c u l oc yt e c ou n t i s a l ik e l y f i n di ng in a p a ti en t wi t h a p la s ti c a ne m i a —a di so rd e r c h ar a ct e ri ze d b y a de f ic i en c y o f a l l c el lu l a r el em e n ts o f th e bl oo d o wi ng t o a l ac k o f he m a t op oi e ti c s te m c e l ls in b o n e m a r r o w. A v a r ie t y o f d ru gs ( e. g . , t ho s e us ed i n a nt ic a nc e r t he r a p y ) a n d o t he r a g e nt s p r od uc e m a r ro w a p la s i a . A h ig h r e ti c u l oc y t e c ou n t wo u l d l ik el y b e f o un d i n a p a t ie n t wi t h he m o l y t ic ane m ia o r ac u te bl o od lo ss o r in a p at i en t wh o ha s b e e n t r e a te d f o r a n i r on , v i ta m i n B 1 2 , or f ol a te de f ic ie nc y . 3 . T he an sw e r is E [ s e e V . B ; V . E, F a nd G ] . Mi c r o s c o p ic e xa m i n at i on o f th e u r in e s ed im e nt nor m a ll y s h o ws < 1 R B C an d f ro m 0 t o 4 W BC s p e r H P F . O the r n or m a l fi nd i ng s o n u r in a l y si s i nc lu d e a n ac i d pH ( i . e. , a r o un d 6 ) an d a n a bs e nc e o f g lu c o se an d k e to n es . 4 . T he an sw e r is A [ s ee I I . B .2 . c] . A n a ll e rg ic d ru g r e ac ti o n wi l l us u al l y p ro du c e an i n c r ea s e in th e e os i no p hil c o u nt ( e o si no p hi li a ) . Th i s c ou ld b e d et e rm i ne d b y o r der i n g a W BC d if f e re n ti al . 5 . T he an sw e r is C [ s ee I I . A .2 ] . O ve r h yd r a t io n wi t h a n e x c es s i n fu s i o n o f D 5W pro d uc es a l o w H c t . Th e oth e r s i tu a ti o ns d es c ri b ed in th e qu es t io n re s u l t i n i nc re a s e s o f t h e H c t. 6 . T he an sw e r is A [ s ee I I . B .2 . a] . Th e p a ti e nt ha s l eu k o c y to s is wi t h a n i nc r ea se d ne u t r op hi l c ou n t ( n eu t r oph i li a ) . A l o ca li ze d i n fe c ti on d oe s n o t n o rm a ll y r es ul t in an i n c re as e i n t h e t ot a l l eu ko c yt e c o un t o r ne u t ro p hi l c ou nt . Th e ot h e r si t ua t io ns giv e n i n t he qu es t io n c a n p r o du c e a n e u t ro ph i li c l eu k o c y to s i s . 7 . T he an sw e r is B [ s ee I I I . A] . B e c au se C K i s n o t p r es en t in th e l i v e r , a lc oh o li c l i v e r d am ag e wo u ld no t re s ul t i n a n i n c re as e i n t h e l e v el of th i s e n z y m e. C K i s p r es en t p ri m a r il y i n c ar d ia c a nd s k el e ta l m us c l e . Th e o th e r s it u at io n s d es c r i be d i n t h e q ues t io n c ou l d a ll r es ul t i n th e r el ea se o f in c re as e d am o un ts o f C K i n to t he bl oo ds t r ea m . 8 . T he an sw e r is D [ s ee I V . B ] . Th e p a ti e nt wi t h ja un d ic e ( d ep os i ti on o f b il i ru bi n i n t h e s k i n) us u al l y h a s a n in c re as e i n th e t o t al b i li r ub i n s e r um le v e l . S p il la g e o f b il i r ub i n i n to th e u r in e re q ui r es an
i n c re as ed le v e l o f di r ec t b i li r u bi n, wh i c h is li k e l y wi t h v i r a l h e pa t it is o r c ho l es t at ic h e p at i ti s . I n h em ol y t ic an e m i a , d ir e ct bi li r u bi n i s n o t u s u a ll y i nc r ea se d , an d t h e r ef o re , th e r e wo u l d be n o s p i ll ag e o f bi li r u bi n i n t o t he u ri n e. 9 . T he an sw e r is C [ s ee I I . A .4 . c] . 1 0 . Th e a n sw e r i s B [ s ee I I . A. 4 .a ] . 1 1 . Th e a n sw e r i s B [ s ee I I . A. 4 ; C I . B .2 ] . Th e MC H b C i s c al c u la t ed as f ol lo ws :
Th e m ea n c el l v ol um e (MC V ) i s c al c ul at e d a s f oll o ws :
P.794
Th e p a ti e nt de s c r ib e d i n t h e q u es ti o n is an em ic be c au s e hi s Hb is 9 ( no r m a l : 1 4 1 8 ) . Th e a ne m i a i s n o rm o c h ro m i c b ec au s e t he pat i e nt ' s MC H b C o f 31 is no r m al ( n o rm a l r a ng e : 3 1 -3 7 ), bu t t he an em ia is m ic r oc yt i c b ec au s e t he pa t ie n t 's MC V i s 7 2 . 5 ( n or m a l : 8 0 -1 0 0 ). Th e pa t ie n t 's B U N , 1 5 m g/d L , i s wi t hi n t h e n or m al ra n g e o f 1 0 - 20 m g / dL . 1 2 . Th e a n sw e r i s D [ s ee V I I . A. 1 ; V I I . A. 5 , 6 an d 7 ] . S o d iu m , t he m a jo r e xt r ac e ll ul a r c a ti on , i s m ea s ur e d m a in l y to as si st in the d e t e rm in a ti on o f f lu id s t at u s a nd wa t e r ba la nc e . Re g ul a ti o n o f s od i um i s m a i nl y t h r o ug h t h e k i d ne y s v ia A D H a n d a ld os t e ro n e. 1 3 . Th e a n sw e r i s A [ s ee V I I . B. 2 ; V I I . B. 4 ; V I I . B.6 ] . A “ n o rm al ” po t as s i um l e v e l in th e s e tt in g of m e ta bo l ic ac id os is , e s p e ci al l y i n a p a t ie n t wi t h D K A s h ou ld b e t re a te d a p pr o p ri a te l y. I f th e s e ru m p o ta s s iu m le v e l is c o r re c te d f o r t h e p at i en t 's ac id os is , th e c o r re c t e d l e v e l is 3 .0 m E q /L . Th is c o r re s po nd s t o a de p le t io n in to t al bo d y po t as si um s t o re s . O n ce t he ac ido s is a n d h yp e r gl y c em i a b eg in t o c o r r ec t wi t h a p p ro p ri a te t re a tm e nt , po t ass i um l e ve ls wi l l d e c re as e p r ec ip i to us l y un l es s s u p pl em e nt a ti o n is b e gu n . I t i s im p o rt a nt t o r e c o g ni ze t h a t a l a bo r a to r y v a l ue in t he “ no r m a l ” r a ng e m ay n o t ac tu a ll y b e n o rm al , e sp ec i al l y wh e n p o ta s s iu m i s i n v ol v e d . 1 4 . Th e a n sw e r i s C [ s ee V I I . D. 3 a n d 4 ] . L o w i s u s ua ll y f o un d i n pa t i en ts wi t h ac id os is o r re n al f ai lu r e a n d a ft e r h yp e r ve n ti la t io n o r s e v e re d ia r r he a . I n g en e r al , d i s t u rb a nc es i n a c i d - ba s e b a la n ce c a us e a lt e r at i on in th e s e r u m o r C O 2 c o n te n t . D iu r e ti c t h e ra p y c a n c au s e a n a l ka lo si s a n d a n i nc re a s e i n . 1 5 . Th e a n sw e r i s C [ s ee V I I I. A . 2, 3 a nd 4 ; B . 2] . Ma l i g n a nc y o r o t he r m e ta s ta t ic di s e as es a re m ost o f te n a s s oc ia t ed wi t h h yp e r ca lc em i a, no t h y p oc a lc em ia . Io ni z e d c al c i um is th e f r e e ac t i ve f o rm , a nd t hi s l e ve l i s i nc r ea s e d i n t h e s e t ti ng o f a l o w a l bu m i n . Th e r e f o re , t h e t o ta l c al ci u m l e v el m us t be ad ju s te d t o a c c o u n t f o r a n i nc r ea s e d i on i z e d c al c i um in th is se t ti n g . B o th m i ne r al s a r e i nf l ue nc e d b y m an y o f th e s am e f ac t o r s a nd th u s a re o ft e n in t e r pr e te d
t o g et h e r. R en a l f un c ti on i s o n e su c h f ac to r wh e r eb y a de c re as e i n re n al fun c ti o n ( i . e ., r en a l f ai lu r e ) c an re s ul t i n a lo w l e v e l o f c a lc i um a n d a h i gh le v e l o f P O 4 . 1 6 . Th e a n sw e r i s B [ s ee V I I I. C . 1 ]. Ma g n e s i um i s t he s e c o nd m o s t a bu n da n t in t r ac ell u la r an d e xt r a c e ll ul a r c at i o n. I t is a n ac ti va t o r o f n um e ro u s e n z y m e s ys te m s th a t c on t r ol ca r bo h y d r at e , f a t, an d e l ec t r ol y t e m et a bo l is m , p r o t ei n s y n th es is , ne r ve c o nd uc t io n , m us c u la r c on t r ac t il i t y , a s we l l as m e m b r an e t ran s po r t a n d i nt e gr i t y . P O 4 , o n t h e o th e r h a nd , i s im p o rt a nt f o r A TP a nd ph os p ho li p id s y n th es is . 1 7 . Th e a n sw e r i s B ( I I I) [ s e e V I. B . 2] . C h r o ni c k id n e y d is e as e c a n c a u s e an in cr e as e i n t h e B U N l e v el ; a he a v y p r o t ei n d ie t a n d b le e di n g i nt o t h e G I t r a c t a re o th e r f ac t o rs t ha t c a n p r od uc e th is fi n din g . Se v e r e l i ve r d is e as e c an p re v e nt t h e f o rm at i on of u re a an d , th e re f o re , i s l ik el y t o c au s e a d e c re as e i n t h e B U N le v e l . Al t ho u gh an I M i n je c t io n of di a ze pa m ( V a li um ) m a y c a us e a n i nc r ea s e in th e s e ru m C K o r A S T l e ve l , i t wo u l d h a v e n o e f fe ct on t he BUN. 1 8 . Th e a n sw e r i s C ( I , II ) [ s e e I I I . D] . A l u ng in f ec ti o n, s u c h as p n eu m o n ia , n o rm al l y wo u l d n o t ca us e a n i n c r e as e i n t he r e l ea se o f A S T, a n e n z y m e p r im a ri l y f ou nd in t he l i v e r a n d h ea r t . I n a c u t e h e pa t it is , a m a r ke d i nc r e as e o f A ST i s a l ik el y f i nd in g . AS T l e v e ls a ls o c an be in c rea s ed wi t h p a ss i ve c on ge s ti on o f t he l i v er , as o cc u rs in C H F. 1 9 . Th e a n sw e r i s D ( I I , I I I ) [s ee I II . A , B a nd C ] . U s u al l y , th e C K, a AL T, A S T, a n d L D H e n zy m e le v e l s a r e i nc re a se d a f te r a m yo c ar d ia l i n fa rc t io n . Alk a li ne ph o s p ha t as e i s n ot p r es en t i n c a rd i ac ti ss ue a nd , t h e r ef o re , wo u l d n ot be u s ef u l i n t he di a gn os is of a m yo c a r d ia l i nf a rc t io n .
39 Coronary Artery Disease Al a n H . M u tn i ck B a r b a r a Sz ym u s i a k - M u tn i c k
I. INTRODUCTION A. D e f i n i t i o n. C o r on a r y a r t e r y d i s e a se ( C AD ) is a g en e r al te r m t ha t re fe r s t o a n u m b e r o f d is e as es o t her t h an at h e ro sc le r os is , wh i c h c a us es a n ar r o wi n g o f t he m a jo r ep ic a rd i al c o ro n a ry a r t e r ie s . I sc h em i c h ear t d i s ea se ( I H D ) i s a fo rm o f h ea r t d i se as e wi t h p r im a r y m an i f es ta t io ns t ha t re su l t f ro m m y o c a r di a l is c h em i a o wi n g t o a t h e ro sc le r o ti c C A D . Th is t er m e nc om p ass es a sp e c t r um o f c o n di ti o ns , ran g in g f ro m t h e a s ym p t om at ic p re c l i ni c al ph as e t o a cu t e m y o c a r d ia l i n fa r c t i on an d s udd e n c a r di ac de a th , a n d is us e d th r o ug ho u t t h e ch a pte r . B . I n ci d e nc e 1 . I H D c o nt in u es to be the l ea di n g s i n gl e c au se of d ea t h i n t h e U n it e d S t at e s ( 2 3 1 .1 - 29 7 .9 de a th s p e r 1 0 0 ,0 0 0) ; c a nc e r is th e s e c on d l e ad in g c au s e o f d e a th ( 1 5 9 .1 - 22 8 .1 de a th s p e r 1 0 0 ,0 0 0) . 2 . E ac h y ea r m o re t ha n 5 m i l li on pa t ie n ts pr es e nt t o e m e r ge n c y ro om s wi t h c h es t d i sc om fo r t an d r e la t ed s y m p t om s , an d a p p ro xi m at e l y 1 .5 m il l io n a r e h os pit a l i zed fo r a c ut e c o ro n a r y s y n d ro m e s . Ea c h y e a r in t he U ni te d S ta t es , m o re th a n 1 m i ll io n p a t ie n ts s u ff e r a n a c u t e m y o c ar d ia l i n fa rc t io n ( MI ) . C . E c o no m ic s . B a s e d on m o d el s e va lu a ti n g t he c os t s as s oc ia t ed wi t h t he t r ea tm e nt o f Me d i c a r e p a ti e nt s wi th c o m m on I H D - r el a te d d ia g n o s is , i t h as be e n es t im a te d th a t t h e d i r ec t c o s ts o f ho s p i ta l i z a ti on a re > $ 15 bi l li on ye a r l y , wi t h a n a dd i ti on a l $ 4 .5 b i ll i on y e a rl y i n di a gn os ti c p r oc e du r es . D . C l i n ic a l g u id e l in e s. O wi n g t o th e c li n ic al , h um a ni s t ic , an d e co n om ic e f f ec t t h at I H D h as in th e U ni t ed S ta t es , e vid en c ed - ba s e d pr a c ti c e gu i de li n es h a ve ev o l v e d b a se d o n t h e d if f e re nc es i n t h e d ia g no si s a nd m an a g em en t o f I H D . Th e au t h o rs o f t h is ch ap t e r h a v e r e li e d h e a v il y o n t h e us e of th os e g u id el i ne s t o e ns u re th e m os t u p - t o- d at e re c o m m en d a tio n s b as ed on t he c l in ic al l i te r a tu r e . G u id e li ne s t ha t a re p e r ti n en t to da il y p h ar m ac y p r ac t ic e i nc lu de t he fo l lo wi n g : 1 . G i bb o ns RJ , Ab r am s J , C h a tt e rj e e K , D al e y J , D e e d wa n i a P C , D ou gl as J S , F e r g us on TB J r, F ih n S D, F r ak e r TD J r . , G ar d in J M, O ' R o u r k e R A , P as te rn a k R C , W illi am s S V . A C C /A H A 20 0 2 g ui d el i ne up da t e f o r m an a g e m e n t o f p a ti en t s wi t h c h r on ic s t ab l e a ng in a : a r e p o rt o f t he Am e r ic an Co l le g e o f Ca r di o lo g y / Am e r i ca n H e a r t As s o c i a ti on Ta s k F o r c e on P r ac ti ce G u id eli n es ( C om m i t te e t o Up d at e t he 1 9 9 9 G u id e li ne s f o r t h e Ma n a g e m en t o f Pa t ie n ts wi t h C h r o ni c S t ab l e A n gin a ) . 2 0 02 . J A m C o ll C a rd io l 2 0 03 ; 4 1 : 15 9 -1 6 8. A v a il a bl e a t w w w. a c c . o rg / qu al i t yan d s ci e nc e/ c l i ni c a l /g u id el i ne s /s t ab le / up d at e _i n de x. h t m . A d di ti o na l Up d at e d G u i d el i ne s b y F r ak e r TD J r. , Fi h n SD , wr i t i n g o n b eh a lf o f t he 2 00 2 Ch r o ni c S t ab le An g in a W rit in g Co m m it t ee . 20 07 c h ro n ic a n gi na f oc us ed u p d a t e o f th e A C C/ A H A 2 0 0 2 G u i d el i ne s f o r t he Ma n ag e m e n t o f Pa ti e n ts W ith C h r o ni c St a bl e An gi n a: a r e p or t of t h e Am e ri c a n Co l le ge o f C a r d io l og y / A m e r ic a n H ea r t As s o ci a ti o n Ta s k F o rc e o n P r a c ti ce G u id el i ne s W rit in g G r ou p to D e vel o p t he F o cu s e d Up d at e o f th e 2 0 0 2 G u i d el i ne s f o r t he Ma n ag e m e n t o f Pa ti e n ts W ith C h r o ni c St a bl e An gi n a. J A m C o l l
C a r d io l 2 0 07 ; 50 : 22 6 4 -7 4. A v a i la b le at h t t p :/ /c o nt e n t. o nl in e ja c c .o r g /c g i/ r ep r i nt / 50 / 23 / 22 64 . 2 . A nd e rs o n J L , Ad am s C , A n tm a n E M, e t a l. A CC / A H A 2 00 7 G ui d el in es fo r t he Ma n a g e m en t o f Pa t ie n ts W ith U n st a bl e An gi n a/ N on - S T- E l e va t io n My o c a r dia l I n f a rc ti o n A R ep o r t o f t he A m e r ic a n C o ll eg e o f Ca r d io l og y / A m e r ic a n H e a rt A s so c i a ti o n Ta s k F o rc e o n P ra c ti c e G u id el i ne s (W rit in g Co m m it t ee t o R evi s e th e 2 0 0 2 G u id e li ne s f o r t h e Ma n a g e m en t o f Pa t ie n ts W ith U n s t a bl e An gi n a/ N on - S TE l e va t io n My o c a r di al I nfa r c ti o n) D e ve lo pe d i n C ol l a b o r at i on wi t h th e A m e ri c an C o l l eg e o f Em e rg en c y Ph y s ic i an s, t he S oc ie t y f or C a r di o va s c ul a r A n gi o gra p h y an d I n t e r ven t io ns , an d t h e So c ie t y o f Th o r ac ic S u rg eo n s E n do r se d b y t he A m e r i c a n P.796 A s so c i a ti o n o f Ca r di o v as c u la r an d Pu lm on a r y R eh a bi l it a ti o n a nd th e So c ie t y f o r A c a de m i c E m e r g en c y Me d i c i ne . A v a il ab l e o nl in e a t h t t p :/ /c o nt e n t. o nl in e ja c c .o r g /c g i/ c o n te n t /s ho r t /j . jac c .2 00 7 . 02 . 01 3 v1 . 3 . Im p li ca ti o ns of R ec en t C l i ni c a l Tr ia ls f or t he Na t i on al C h ol es t er o l E d uc a t i on P r o g r am , A d ul t Tr e at m en t P an e l I I I G u id e li n es f or t h e C o o rd i na ti n g C o m m i t t ee of t h e Na t io n al C ho l es te r o l E d u c a t io n Pr o g ra m . S c o tt M. G r u n d y, Ja m e s I . C le e m a n , C . N o e l Ba i re y Me r z , H . B r y a n B re we r , J r , L ut h e r T. C l a r k, D on a ld B . Hu n ni ng h ak e , R i c ha r d C. P as t e rn ak , Sid n e y C . Sm it h , J r , N e il J. S t on e , J Am C ol l Ca r dio l 20 04 ; 4 4 : 72 0 -7 3 2. A v a il a bl e o nl i ne a t h tt p : // c o n te n t .o nl i n e ja c c . o rg /c g i/ r e pr i nt / 44/ 3 / 72 0 . 4 . N a ti on a l C h ol es t e ro l E d u c a t io n Pr o g ra m ( N C EP ) . Th i r d r e po r t o f th e Na t i on al C h o l es te r ol E du c a t io n P ro g r am ( N C E P ) : D e te c ti on , e v al u at i on , a n d t r ea tm e n t o f h i gh bl o od c h ol es t e ro l i n a d ul ts ( A du l t Tr e a tm e nt P a n el I II ) . Fi na l Re p o rt [N I H P u b li ca t io n 0 2 - 52 15 ] . Bet h es d a, MD : N a t i o na l I nst i t ut e s o f H e al t h , 2 00 2 . A va i l ab l e a t ww w. n h l b i . ni h .g o v / gu id e li n es /c h ol es t er o l/ a tp 3 fu l l .p d f. 5 . A nt m an E M, A n b e D T, A r m s t r on g PW , Ba t es ER , G r e e n L A , H a nd M, H o c hm an J S , Ku m h o l z H M, K u s h ne r F G , L am as G A , Mu l l an y C J , O r na t o J P , P ea r l e D L , S lo an MA , S m i t h S C J r . A C C / AH A g u id el i ne s f o r t h e m an a g em en t o f p a ti e nt s wi th S Te l e va ti on m y oc a rd ia l i n far c t io n : e xe c u ti ve s u m m ar y: a r ep o r t o f t h e A C C / AH A Ta s k F o r ce on P r ac ti c e G u id eli n es ( C om m i t te e t o Re v is e th e 1 99 9 G ui d el in es on t he Ma n a g e m en t o f Pa t ie n ts W ith A c u t e My o c a r di al I nf a r c t i on ) . J Am C ol l Ca r di o l 2 00 4 ; 4 4 : 67 1 -7 1 9. A v a il a bl e a t h t t p :/ / ww w. a c c . o rg / qu a li ty a n d s c ie nc e /c li n ic al / gu ide l in es / st em i /e xe c _ s um m / i n de x. h t m . 6 . A nt m an E M, H a n d M, A r m s t r o ng PW , e t al . 200 7 Fo cu se d U pd a te of t he A C C / A H A 2 0 0 4 G u id e li ne s f o r t h e Ma n a g e m en t o f Pa t ie n ts W ith S T- E l e va t io n My o c a r d ia l I n f a rc ti o n: a r e po r t o f the A m e r ic a n C o ll eg e o f Ca r d io l og y / A m e r ic a n H e a rt A s so c i a ti o n Ta s k F o rc e o n P ra c ti c e G u id el i ne s (W rit in g G ro u p t o R e vi e w N e w E vi d e nc e a n d U p da t e t he A C C / A H A 20 0 4 G u id e lin e s f o r t he Ma n a g em en t o f P at i en ts W ith S T- E l e v a t io n My o c a r d ia l I n fa r c ti on ) . J A m C o l l Ca r di o l 2 00 8 ;5 1 (2 ) J a nu a r y 15 . A va i l ab l e o nl in e a t ht t p :// c on t en t . on li n ej ac c . o r g/ c g i /c o nt e nt / f ul l/ j .j ac c .2 0 07 . 1 0. 0 01 7 . W . B r ia n G ib le r , C h ri s t o p he r P . C a nn o n, A nd r a L . Bl om k al ns , Do u gl as M. C h a r , B a r b a ra J . D r e w, J u dd E. H o ll a nd e r , A ll a n S . J a ffe , R ob e r t L . J es s e , L . K ri s ti n N e wb y, E . Ma g n u s O hm an , E r ic D . P e te r s o n , a nd C h a r le s V. P ol la c k . P ra ct i c a l
i m pl em en t a ti on o f t he gui d el i ne s f o r u ns t ab le an gi n a /n on - S T- s e gm en t e l e va t i on m yo c ar d ia l i n fa rc t io n i n th e em e rg en c y de p ar t m en t : a s c ie n ti f ic s t at em e nt f r om t he A m e ri c an H ea r t As s oc i ati o n Co u nc il on C li ni c a l Ca r d io l og y ( S ub c om m i tt e e o n Ac u te C a r d ia c Ca r e ) , C o un c i l on C a r di o vas c u l ar N u rs ing , a n d Q ua li t y o f Ca r e an d O u t c om es R es ea r c h In t er d i s c ip li n ar y W ork i ng G ro u p , i n C o ll a bo r at i on W ith t he S o c ie t y o f C h es t Pa in Ce n t e rs . C i rc u la t io n , Ma y 2 0 0 5; 11 1 :2 6 99 - 27 1 0. Av a i l ab l e a t h t t p :/ /c i rc . ah a jo u rn a ls .o rg / c g i /c i te m a p? i d= c i r c u l ati o na h a; 1 11 / 20 / 26 9 9. E . M a n i f es t a ti o ns 1 . An g i n a p e ct o r i s, an e p is o di c , r e ve rs ib le o xy g e n in s u f fi ci e nc y , is th e m o s t c om m o n fo r m o f I H D (s ee I I ) . 2 . Th e te r m a cu t e i s ch em i c (c o r o na r y) s yn d r o m e s d es c ri be s a g ro up of c li ni c a l s ym p to m s re p r es en t in g a c ut e m yo c a r di a l is c h em i a . Th e cl i ni c a l s ym pt om s in c l u de a c ut e m y o c a r di a l i nf a rc t io n , i nc l ud in g S T- s e g m e nt e le va t io n ( S TE MI ) , n o n- S Ts e gm en t e l e v a ti on ( N S TE MI ) , a n d un s ta bl e a n gin a ( U A ) ( s ee II I ) . F . E t i ol o g y. Th e p r oc es s es , s i ng l y o r in c o m b i nat i o n, th a t p r od uc e I H D i nc l ud e d e c re as e d bl o od fl o w t o t h e m y o c a r di um , in c r e ase d o xy g e n de m a n d, an d d e c re as e d o xyg e n a t i o n o f t h e bl o od. G e n e ra ll y, si g ni fi c an t IH D i s d e fi n ed vi a a ng io gr a p h y as a s t en os is t ha t i s ≥ 7 0% of t h e d ia m e t e r o f a t l e as t o n e m aj o r c or o na r y a r te ry s e gm e nt o r 5 0% of th e d i am et e r of t h e le f t m ai n c o ro n ar y a r t e r y. 1 . D ec r e as e d b l o od f low ( Fi gu r e 3 9 - 1) a . At h e r o s cl e r os i s , wi t h o r wi t h ou t c o ro n a r y th r om b os is , i s t he m o s t c o m m o n c a u se o f I H D . I n t h is c o nd i ti on , t h e c or o na r y a r te r ie s a re p r og r es s i v e l y na r r o wed b y s m o o th m u s c le c e ll p ro li fe r a ti o n a nd t he acc um u la t i on of li p id de po si t s ( pla q u e) a l on g th e i nn e r l i ni ng ( int i m a ) of t he ar t e ri es . P.797
Figure 39-1. Oxygen and other nutrients are borne to the myocardium through the two major coronary arteries (the left and right) and their tributaries. The hemodynamic consequences of ischemic heart disease depend on which of the coronary vessels are involved and what part of the myocardium those vessels supply.
b . C o r o na r y a r t e r y s p a s m , a s u st a in ed c o n t ra cti o n o f o n e o r m o re c o r ona r y a r t e ri es , c a n oc c u r s p on ta n e ou s l y o r b e i nd u ce d b y i r r i ta ti o n ( e .g . , b y c oro n a r y c a th e te r o r i nt im a l h em or r h a ge ) , e xp o s u r e t o t h e c o ld , a n d e r go t -d e r i v at i ve d r ug s . O n e lo n g -t e rm s t u d y d em o ns t ra t ed t ha t c o ro n ary s p as m wa s m o s t o ft e n a ss o ci at e d
wi t h a n a t y p ic al c h es t p ai n s y n d r om e a nd c i ga r e tte s m ok in g . Th es e sp a s m s c a n c a us e P r i n zm e ta l a n gi na a n d e v e n MI . V a r i an t ang i na ( P r in z m et a l a ng in a ) i s a fo r m o f un s ta bl e a n gi n a t ha t us u al l y oc c u rs sp o nt a ne ou s l y, i s ch a r ac te r i z ed b y t r a ns ie n t S T- s e g m e n t e le v a t io n , an d m os t c om m o n l y re s o lv e s wi t h o ut p ro g re s s io n t o MI . c . T r au m at i c i n j u r y, wh e t h e r b lu n t o r p en e t ra t ing , c a n i n te r fe r e wi t h m yoc a r di al b l oo d s u pp l y (e . g ., t he im p ac t o f a s t e er i ng wh ee l on th e c he s t c a us i ng a m y oc a rd i al c o nt us i on in wh i c h t he c a p il l a ri es he m o r r ha g e) . d . E m bo l ic e ve n ts , e v e n i n o th e r wi s e n o rm al c or o n a r y ves s e ls , c a n a br up t l y r es t ri ct t h e o xyg e n s u pp l y to th e m y o c a r di um . 2 . I nc r e as e d o x yg e n d e m a n d u s ua l l y i n t h e p r es e n ce o f a fi x ed r e st r i ct e d o x yg e n s u p pl y c a n oc c ur wi t h e xe r t i o n ( e .g . , e xe r c is e , s ho v e li n g s n o w) an d e m ot i on al s t r es s a s we l l a s u n de r c i rc um s ta nc es e xt e r n a l to th e c o ro n a r y a r t e ri a l b e d , wh i c h i nc r ea s e s s ym p at h et ic s t im u la t io n a nd t hu s h ea r t ra t e . S om e fa c to r s a f f ec t in g c ar d ia c wo r k l oad , an d th e re f o re m y o c ard i al o xyg e n s u p pl y a nd de m an d , a r e l is t e d in Ta b le 39 - 1 .
Table 39-1. Factors Affecting Cardiac Parameters That Control Myocardial Oxygen Demand Factor
Blood Heart Rate Pressure
Ejection Time
Ventricular Inotropic Volume Effect
Exercise
Increas e
Increas e
Decreas e
Increas e or decreas e
Increas e
Cold
Increas e
Increas e
—
—
—
Smoking
Increas e
Increas e
Increas e
—
Increas e
Nitroglycer in
Increas e
Decreas e
Decreas e
Decreas e
Increas e
β-blockers
Decreas e
Decreas e
Increas e
Increas e
Decreas e
P.798
a . D i as t o le . Un d e r n o rm a l c i rc um s t a nc es , a lm os t a l l o f t he o xy g e n is r em o ve d ( d u r in g d ia s to l e) f ro m t he a r te r ia l b l oo d a s i t p as s es t h ro ug h th e h ea r t . Th u s l it t le r e m ai ns to be e xt r a c te d if o xy g e n d em a nd in c r e as e s . To i nc r ea s e t he c o r on a r y
o xyg e n s u pp l y , bl oo d fl ow h a s t o i nc r ea s e . Th e no r m al re s p o ns e m ec ha nis m i s f o r t h e b l oo d v es s e ls , p a r ti c u l a rl y t h e c o r on a r y a rt e r i e s , t o d il a t e, th e r eb y i nc r e a si ng b l oo d fl o w. b . S ys t o l e . Th e t wo p h as es o f s y st o le — c o n tr a ct io n an d e j ec ti o n— s t ro ng ly i n f lu e nc e o xyg e n d e m a n d. ( 1 ) Th e co n t r ac t i le ( in o tr o p i c ) s t a te o f t h e h ea r t i n fl ue n c e s t he am ou n t o f o xyg e n i t r eq ui r es t o p er f o rm . ( 2 ) I nc r e as e s i n s ys t o l i c w a l l t e ns i o n, in f lu e nce d b y l e f t v e n t ri c u la r vo lu m e a nd s ys t ol ic p re s s u re , i nc r eas e o xy g e n d e m a nd . ( 3 ) L en g t he n in g o f e je ct i o n t im e ( i .e . , t h e d u ra ti o n o f s y s to l ic wa l l t en s io n pe r c a r di ac c y c le ) al s o in c rea s es o xy g e n d e m a n d. ( 4 ) C h an g es i n h ea r t r at e in f lu e nc e o xy g e n c on su m pt i on b y c h an gi n g t he e j ec ti o n time. 3 . R e du c ed b lo o d o x yg e n a t io n . Th e o xy g e n - c a rr y i n g c a pa ci t y o f t he bl oo d m a y be r e d uc ed , as o c c u rs in v ar i o us an em ia s o r h ypo xe m i a. G . R i s k fa c to r s fo r I H D a n d g o al s f o r s e co n da r y p r e ve n ti on ha v e b ee n u pd a t ed wi t h t h e re ce n tl y r e le as e d 2 00 7 Fo c u se d U pd a te of t he A C C / A H A 20 0 4 G u id e lin e s f o r t he Ma n a g e m en t o f Pa t ie n ts wi t h S T- E l e va t i on My o c ar d i al In f a rc t io n , a nd ar e p r o vi de d i n Ta b le 39 - 2. H . T h e ra p e ut i c c o ns i der a t i o ns . B ec au s e m o st IH D o cc u rs se c o nd a r y t o a t h e ro sc le r os is , wh ic h i s a lo n g -t e rm , c um ul a ti v e p r o ce s s , m ed ic al e ff o r ts f o c u s o n r e d uc in g ri s k fa c t o rs t hro u g h in d i vid u al pa t ie n t ed u c a t io n a n d m e d ia c am p a ig n s . O n c e m an i fe s ta ti o ns oc c u r , t re a tm en t ad d re s s es t h e ir s p ec i fi c va r i ab le s .
II. ANGINA PECTORIS A. D e f i n i t i o n. Th e te r m a n g i na pe c t o ri s i s a p pl ie d to v a r y i ng f or m s of t ra n si e nt c h es t d is c o m f o r t t h at a re a t t ri b ut a bl e t o i ns u f fi c i en t m yoc a rd ia l o xy g e n . 1 . A ng i na is a c l in ic a l s yn d r om e c ha r ac t er i z e d b y d is c o m fo r t i n t h e ch es t , j a w, s h ou l de r , b ac k , an d a r m s , wh i c h is u su a ll y a gg r av a t e d b y e xe r t i o n o r s t r es s a nd r e l ie ve d b y n i tr o gl y c e ri n . 2 . A ng i na c a n oc c u r in pa t i en ts wi t h v a l v ul a r h ear t d is ea s e , u n c o n tr o ll e d h yp e r t en s i on , as we l l as i n no nc a rd i ac o r g an s y s te m s su c h as th e c he s t wa l l , e s op h ag us , o r lu n gs . B . C o m mo n c a us e s . A t he r o s c le r ot ic le si o ns th a t p r o du c e a n a r ro wi n g of th e c o r on a r y ar t e ri es a re th e m aj o r c au s e o f a ng in a . H o we ve r , t a c h yc a rd i a, an e m i a , h yp e r t h y r oi di s m , h y p o ten s io n , a nd a rt e ri a l h yp o xe m i a c a n a ll c a us e a n o xy g e n i m ba la n c e . C . T yp e s 1 . S t ab l e ( c la s si c ) a n g in a a . I n t hi s m o s t c o m m o n fo r m , h as a m o r e p r ed ic ta b le pa t t e rn , wh ic h i s b ro u g ht on b y e xe r t i o n , e m o t io n al s t r es s , or a h ea v y m e al , wh i ch is us ua l l y re li e v e d b y re s t , n i t ro g l yc e r in , o r bo t h. b . F i ve co m p o ne n ts ar e u s ua ll y c on si d er e d : q ua lit y , l oc a ti o n, an d d u r at io n o f pa in ; f a c to r s p ro v o k i n g p ai n ; an d fa c to r s t ha t re l ie v e pa i n .
c . P ai n h as be e n r e fe r r ed t o a s “ s q u ee zi ng , ” “g r ip - l i k e, ” “ p re s s u re - li k e , ” “ s u ff o ca ti n g, ” an d “h e a v y, ” a nd is u s u a ll y r e fe r r ed t o as a di sc om f or t ra t h er t h an “ p a in . ” d . Th e an gi n al ep is o de ty p i c al l y la s t s f o r “m i n u tes ” an d i s u su al l y s u bs t e rn a l b u t h as a t en d en c y to r ad ia t e t o t h e n ec k , j a w, ep i ga st r i um , or a rm s. e . C ha r ac t e ri s t ic a ll y , t he d is c o m fo r t b ui l ds to a pe a k , r ad i at i ng to th e j a w, n ec k , s h ou l de r , a nd a rm s , an d t h e n s u b s i de s wi t ho u t r es i du al s e ns a ti o n. A ng in a i s n o r m a ll y r e la t ed to ph y s ic a l e xe r t i o n, an d t h e d is c om f o rt us u al l y s u bs id es q u ic k l y ( i . e ., in 3 -5 m i n ) wi t h r es t ; i f p r ec ip it a t ed b y e m o ti o na l s t r ess , th e e pi s od e t e nd s t o l a st lo n ge r (i . e ., ab o ut 10 m i n ) . f . S t ab l e a ng in a i s c ha r ac t e ri s t ic a ll y t he r es ul t of a f i xe d ob s tr u c t i on i n a co r o na r y artery. P.799
Table 39-2. Risk Factors for Ischemic Heart Disease and Guidelines for Their Modification, When Applicable I.
Risk Factors: Not necessarily modifiable Family history of ischemic heart disease Age and gender (i.e., prevalence is higher among men than among premenopausal women and increases for both genders with age) Chronic stress or type A personality (i.e., aggressive, ambitious, chronically impatient, competitive) Gout
II.
Secondary Preventive Goals: As recommended in the 2007 Smoking-Complete cessation, no exposure to environmental tobacco smoke. *Class 1 Recommendation Status of tobacco use should be asked about at every visit. Every tobacco user and family members who smoke should be advised to quit at every visit.
The tobacco user's willingness to quit should be assessed. The tobacco user should be assisted by counseling and developing a plan for quitting. Follow-up, referral to special programs, or pharmacotherapy (including nicotine replacement and pharmacological treatment) should be arranged. Exposure to environmental tobacco smoke at work and home should be avoided. Blood pressure control: Blood pressure should be reduced to less than 140/90 mm Hg or less than 130/90 mm Hg if chronic kidney disease or diabetes mellitus. *Class 1 Recommendation Initiate or maintain lifestyle modification (weight control, increased physical activity, alcohol moderation, decreased sodium intake, and increased emphasis on consumption of fresh fruits, vegetables, and low-fat dairy products). Add blood pressure medication, as tolerated, treating initially with β-adrenoreceptor blockers and/or ACE inhibitors. The addition of other blood pressure lowering drugs such as thiazides as needed to achieve the goal blood pressure. Blood Lipid management: Low density lipoprotein-cholesterol (LDL-C) levels should be less than 100 mg/dL. (If triglycerides are greater than or equal to 200 mg/dL, total cholesterol minus high density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-C) should be less than 130 mg/dL.) *Class I Recommendation Initiate dietary therapy in all patients; which includes reducing intake of saturated fats, (<7% of total calories), trans fatty acids and cholesterol (<200 mg/d). The addition of plant stanol/sterols (2 g/d) and/or viscous fiber (>10 g/d) to further lower LDL-C.
Promotion of daily physical activity and weight management. It may be reasonable to encourage the increase in the consumption of omega-3 fatty acids in the form of fish or in capsule form (1 g/d) for risk reduction. A fasting lipid profile should be assessed in all patients and within 24 hours of hospitalization for those with an acute cardiovascular or coronary event. Physical activity: Participate in 30 minutes of Physical Activity 7 days a week *Class 1 Recommendation It is recommended that all patients have a risk assessment with a physical activity history and/or an exercise test to guide prescription. All patients should be encouraged to participate in 30 to 60 minutes of moderate-intensity aerobic activity, (i.e., brisk walking) on most, preferably all, days of the week, supplemented by an increase in daily lifestyle activities (e.g., walking breaks at work, gardening, household work). Advise medically supervised programs for high-risk patients (e.g., recent acute coronary syndrome or revascularization, heart failure). Weight management: Body Mass Index (BMI) of 18.5 to 24.9 kg/m2 with waist circumference of less than 35 inches (women) and less than 40 inches (men) *Class 1 Recommendation Assessment of body mass index and/or waist circumference on each visit and consistently. Encourage weight maintenance/reduction through an appropriate balance of physical activity, caloric intake, and formal behavioral programs when indicated to maintain/achieve a body mass index between 18.5 and 24.9 kg/m2.
The initial goal of weight loss therapy should be to reduce body weight by approximately 10% from baseline. With success, further weight loss can be attempted if indicated. If waist circumference is greater than or equal to 35 inches in women and greater than or equal to 40 inches in men, it is useful to initiate lifestyle changes and consider treatment strategies for metabolic syndrome as indicated. Diabetes management: Achieve a glycosylated hemoglobin (HbA1c) level of less than 7% *Class 1 Recommendation It is recommended to initiate lifestyle and pharmacotherapy to achieve near-normal levels of HbA1c. Aggressive modification of other risk factors such as physical activity, weight management, blood pressure control, and cholesterol management, as recommended above is beneficial. Coordination of diabetic care with patient's primary care physician or endocrinologist is beneficial. *
Class I recommendation: The benefits of the intervention/treatment are much greater than the risk, and the procedure/treatment should be performed. P.800
2 . U n st a b le an g i na . ( See a ls o I I I. ) a . I n m a n y pa t ie n ts wh o e xp e r i e nc e u n s t a bl e a ngi n a , s y m p t om s wi l l b e c au s ed b y s i gn i fi ca n t c o r o na r y a r ter y d i s e as e . A n gi n a is c on s id e re d u ns t a bl e a nd r eq u i re s f u r t he r e v al ua t io n i f pa t ie n ts e xp e r i en c e ( 1 ) R es t a n gi n a, wh i c h us u al l y is p r o lo ng e d > 20 m i n o c cu r r in g wi t hi n a we e k o f p r e se n ta t io n ( 2 ) S e ve re ne w- o n s et ang i na r e fe rs t o a ng in a o f a t le as t C an a di an C a rd i ov a s c ul a r S o c ie t y C la s s i fi c a t io n ( C C S C ) t o c l as s I II se v e r ity , wi t h o ns e t wi t hi n 2 m on t hs o f i n i ti al p re s e n ta t io n ( 3 ) I nc r ea s i ng an g in a re fe r s t o p r e vi ou s l y d ia g nos e d a ng i na th a t is di s ti nc t l y m o re f r e q ue n t, lo n ge r i n d u r at io n , o r lo we r i n t h r es ho ld
( 4 ) D ec r ea s ed re s p o ns e t o r es t o r ni t ro g l yc e r in b . U ns t ab l e a ng in a p r e dic t s a h i gh e r s ho r t -t e rm r is k , r e pr es e nt s a p ro g re ss i v e c l in ic al en t i t y , m a y s ig n al i nc ip ie n t MI , is re f e r re d t o as a n a cu t e c or o na r y s yn d r om e, an d s h ou ld be r e po r te d p r om p tl y t o a p h y s ic ia n . 3 . An g i n a d e cu b i tu s (no c t u r na l an g i na ) a . Th i s a ng in a o c c u rs in t h e re c u m b e nt po si t io n an d i s n o t s pe ci f ic al l y re la t e d t o e i t he r re s t o r e xe r t i o n . b . G r a vi ta t io n al fo r c e s s h i f t f lu i ds wi t hi n th e b o dy wi t h a r es u lt a nt in c re as e i n ve n t r ic u la r v ol um e , wh ic h i nc r ea se s o xy g e n n ee ds an d p r o du c e s a ng i na de c ub i tu s , a n d wh ic h m a y in di c a t e c a r di ac de co m p e ns at i on . c . D iu r e ti c s al on e o r in c o m bi n at io n e f f ec ti v e l y r ed u ce le f t v en t ri c ul a r v o l um e a n d m a y ai d th e p a ti en t . d . N i t ra t es s uc h a s n it r og l y c e ri n m a y re li e ve th e p a r o xys m a l n oc tu r n al d ys p ne a a ss o ci at e d wi t h a ng in a de c ub i tu s b y r ed uc i ng p rel o a d , o wi n g t o ve n ou s p oo l in g , a nd i m p ro vi ng le f t v en t r ic ul a r d y s f un c t i on . 4 . P r i nz me t a l' s a n g in a (va s o s p as t i c o r va r i an t a n g i na ) a . C o ro n a r y a r t e r y s pa s m t ha t re du c es b l oo d f l ow p r e c i pi t at es t hi s a ng ina . Th e s p as m m a y b e s up e ri m po s ed on a c or o na r y a r te ry t h a t a l re a d y ha s a f i xe d o b st r uc t io n o wi n g to t hr om b i o r p la q ue f or m a t io n . b . I t u s u al l y oc c u r s a t r es t (i . e ., pa i n m a y d is r up t s le e p ) r a th e r t h an wi t h e xe r t i o n or e m ot i on al s t r es s , a nd us u a ll y r e so l ves wi t h ou t p ro g r es s i on t o a n ac u te MI . H o we v e r , i f th e a t t ac k P.801 i s p r ol o ng e d, MI , l i fe - t h re a t en in g v e nt r ic ul a r a r r hy t h m ia s , a nd s u dd e n c a rd i ac de a th c a n oc c ur . c . C ha r ac t e ri s t ic a ll y , an e l ec t r oc ar d io g ra m (E C G ) t a k e n d u ri n g a n a t ta ck re ve a ls a t r a ns i en t S T- s e gm e nt ele v a t i on , wh i c h re t u rn s t owa r d n o r m a l a f te r th e a cu t e a t t ack . d . C a lc iu m - c ha nn e l b lo c k e rs , ra t he r th a n β - b lo ck e r s , a r e m o s t e ff e ct i ve fo r t hi s f o rm o f an g in a . N i t ro g l yc e ri n m a y no t p ro v i de r el ie f , de p e nd in g o n th e c au se of va s o sp as m . D . P h ys i c a l ex a mi n a ti on is us u al l y no t re v e al i ng , es pe ci a ll y b et we e n a tta c k s . H o we ve r , t h e p a ti e nt ' s h is t o r y , ri sk f a c t o rs , a n d fu l l d es c ri p ti on o f a tt ac k s— p r e ci pi t a ti on pa t t er n , i n te n s i t y , du r at i on , re l ie v i ng f ac t or s —u s ua ll y p r o v e d i ag n os ti c . E . D i a gn o s ti c te s t re s ult s 1 . Th e E C G is n o rm al in 5 0 % o r m o re o f p at i en ts wi t h s t ab le an g in a p ec t or i s , a nd a n o r m a l r es t in g E C G d o es no t e xc l ud e s e ve re I HD . H o we ve r , a n E C G wi t h e vi de nc e o f le f t v en t r ic ul a r h y p e rt ro p h y o r S T- T- wa v e c h ang e s c o n si st e nt wi t h m yoc a r di al i sc h em ia fa v o r t he di ag no s is o f an gi n a p ec t or is . Th e p r es e nc e o f Q wa v es f ro m a p r e vi ou s MI m ak es th e di a gn o s i s o f I H D v e r y li kel y . A n E C G ob t ai ne d d u r in g c h es t p a in is ab n or m a l i n 5 0 % o f pa t ie n ts wi t h a n gi na wh o ha ve a n o rm al r es ti n g E C G . Th e S T s e gm e nt c a n b e e i t he r el e v a te d o r d e p res se d . 2 . S t r es s te s t in g (e x e rci s e E C G ) i s a we l l -e s t a bli s he d p r oc ed u r e, wh i c h a i ds th e d i ag n os is i n pa ti e n ts who h a v e n o rm al r es ti n g EC G s . Th e m os t c om m o n ly u s ed d e f in i ti on f or a p os i ti v e te s t i s a ≥ 1 -m m S T- s e gm e n t d e p re s s io n o r el e v a tio n fo r ≥
6 0 - 80 m s ec e i th e r d u ri n g o r af t e r e xe r c is e . E xe r c is e s t r ess te s ti n g is p re f er a b le t o o t h e r va r ia t io ns o f t he s tr e s s t es t ( p ha r m a co lo g ica l ) i n p a ti e nt s wh o a r e ab l e t o e xe r c i s e. 3 . P ha r m ac o l og i ca l st r e s s te s ti n g i s p e rf o rm e d i n s us pe c te d I H D p at i ent s wh e n t h e y a re no t ab le t o p er fo r m m o re th a n m o d e ra t e e xe r c i se du e to v a ri o us r e a so ns ( i . e ., se v e r e a r th r i ti s , p rio r in j u r y , r e du c e d e xe r c is e to le r a nc e as a r e su lt o f d e bi l it a ti n g i ll ne s s es , e t c . ) , o r i n p at i en ts wh o a re u n ab le t o i nc r ea s e th e he a r t ra t e. a . I nt r a v en o us di p y r id am o l e ( c or o na r y v a s od il a ti on ) , ad e no s i ne ( co r on a r y va s o di l at io n ) b y i nh i bi t ing c e l lu la r up t ak e a nd deg r a da t io n o f ad en os i ne in c r ea se c o r on a r y bl oo d fl o w, a nd h i gh - do s e do b ut a m i ne (2 0 - 4 0 µ g /k g /m i n ) i nc r e ase o xy g e n d e m a n d t h ro ug h i n c r e as e d he a r t r a te , s y s to l ic b lo o d p r es su r e , a nd m yo c a r d ia l c o nt r ac t il i t y c au s i n g a n in c r ea s e in m y o c a r d ia l b lo o d f l o w a r e a ll ab le t o in d uc e d e t ec ta b le c a r di ac is c h em i a i n co n ju nc t io n wi t h EC G t e s ti n g. b . S id e e f f ec ts oc c u r f o r e a c h of t he ag e nt s a nd in c lu d e d i p yr i d a m o l e (a ng i na , 1 8 % -4 2 %; a r rh y t hm i as , 2 % ; h e ad ac h e, 5% - 2 3% ; d i z z i n e s s, 5% - 2 1% ; n a us e a , 8 % 1 2 % ; a nd fl us h in g , 3 % ), a d e no s i ne (c h es t p ai n , 5 7 % ; h ea d ac he , 3 5 %; fl us h in g , 2 5 % ; sh o r tn es s o f b r e ath , 15 % ; a nd f ir s t- d eg r e e a t r io v e n t ri c u l a r [ A V ] h ear t b lo c k , 1 8 % ) , d ob u t am i ne ( p rem a tu r e ven t r ic ul a r b ea t s, 1 5 %; p re m a t u re at r ia l be a ts , 8% ; s u p ra ve n t ri c u la r ta c h y c ar d i a a nd no ns u st ai n ed v e n t ri c ul a r t ac h y ca r di a , 3% - 4 % ; n a us e a, 8% ; a n xi e t y , 6 %; h ea d ac he , 4 % ; a n d t r em o r , 4 % ). 4 . S t r es s p e r f us i o n i mag i n g wi t h t h al li um - 20 1 or t ec h ne t iu m -9 9m (
99m
Tc ) c an
d i ag n os e m ul ti v e s s e l d is e a s e , l oc a li ze d i s c he m i a, a nd m a y b e a bl e t o d e te r m in e m yo c ar d ia l v ia bi l it y . Th e a d de d e xp e n s e o f t h e t es t m ak es i t r es e r v ed f or p a t ie n ts wh o h a v e E C G ab n o rm ali t i es a t re s t. C o ro n ar y a rt e r io g r ap h y an d c a rd i ac c a th e te r i z a ti o n a re v e r y s p ec if ic an d s e ns it i ve b ut a r e a ls o i n vas i v e , e xp e n s i v e, an d r i sk y ( t he m o r ta l it y r a te is 1% - 2 %) ; th e r ef o re , th ey m u s t be us ed ju d ic io usl y wh e n t r yi n g t o c on f i rm s us p ec te d an gi n a a nd t o d if f e ren t i at e i ts o ri g in . 5 . V a ri ou s d r ug s c an ha v e a n e f fe c t on t he E C G an d s h ou l d b e c o ns i de r ed b e fo r e , d u r in g , a nd a ft e r a n e xe r c is e te s t is c a r ri e d o ut . E xa m p l e s i nc lu d e a . D ig o xi n p r od uc es ab no r m al e xe r c i s e- i nd uc e d S T d e p r es s i o n i n 2 5% - 40 % of a p p ar e nt l y he a lt h y , no r m a l s u bj ec ts wi t h o ut is c h em i a. b . β - ad r e ne r gi c b lo c k e rs m a y de la y t h e d e vel o pm e n t o f an ab no r m a l E C G i f pa t ie n ts r e c ei ve th em be f o re o r du r i ng a s t re ss te s t . If pos s i b le , th e ra p y s h ou l d be s l o wl y wi t h h e l d f r om t h e p a ti en t a t l e as t f o u r t o f i v e h al f -l i v e s b ef o r e t he e xe r c is e t e s t i ng . I f i t is no t po s s ib le t o wi t h d r a w t h e ra p y , t h e c li ni c i a n n ee d s t o r ec o gn i ze th a t th e t e s t m i g ht be le s s re l ia ble . c . A nt i h y pe r t en s i v e s s uc h as v a so d il at o rs c a n a l te r t he s t r es s t es t b y a lt er i n g t h e n o r m a l h em od y n a m i c r es p o ns e o f b l oo d p r es s u r e . I n a d di t io n , s ho r t -t e rm us e o f n i t ra t es c a n a t te n ua t e an g in a a n d S T- s e gm en t c h a n ge s as so c i a te d wi t h m yo c ar d ia l i sc h em ia . P.802
F . T r ea t me n t go a ls 1 . To p re v e n t MI a nd dea t h , t h er e b y i n cr e as in g a p a ti e nt ' s q u al i t y o f l i fe
2 . To r ed uc e s y m pt o m s o f an g in a a n d oc cu r r en ce o f i s c he m i a , wh i c h sh ou l d i m p r o ve a p at i en t ' s q ua li t y o f l if e 3 . To r em o v e o r re d uc e ri s k fa c t o rs 4 . Th e m a na ge m e n t o f an g in a p e c t o ri s i nc lu d es th e r ap i es a im e d a t r e ve rs i n g c a rd ia c r i sk fa c to r s . a . H yp e r l i p i d em i a, i f p re s en t , s ho ul d b e t re a te d. R e du c i n g c ho le s te r ol an d lo wd e ns i t y l i po p ro t ei n (L D L ) i s a s s oc ia t ed wi t h a r edu c ed r isk o f c a r di o v a sc ula r di s ea s e a n d i nc id e nc e o f i s c he m ic c a r di ac e v en t s , as de m o n s t r a te d b y s e v e ra l r ec e n t s t ud i es u s i n g β - h y d r o xy - β - m e th y l g lu t ar yl - c o e n z y m e A ( H MG - C o A ) r e d u c ta s e i n hi b it o rs . Th e N C E P h as pu b li s h e d u pd a te d g uid e li n es fo r t re a tm en t o f h i gh bl o od c h ol es t e ro l ( A d ul t Tr e atm e nt P an e l I I I ). ( 1 ) To t a l c h o le s t e ro l i s no l on ge r t he pr im a r y t ar ge t o f t r ea tm e nt ; L DL c h ole s te r o l is n o w t h e pr im a r y ta r g et . ( 2 ) C u r re n t r ec om m e n dat i o ns i nc l ud e t h e co m p l eti o n o f a li p op r ot e in p ro f ile — t o ta l c h ol es t e ro l , L D L c h o le s te r o l, hi g h -d e ns it y l ip o pr ot e i n ( H D L ) c ho l es te r o l, an d t r i gl y c e ri d es — as th e p r ef e r r ed in i ti a l t es t , r a th e r t h a n sc r ee n in g f o r t o ta l c h ol es t e ro l a n d H DL al o ne . ( 3 ) P e rs on s a r e c a t eg o r iz e d i nt o o n e o f f o u r le v e ls o f r is k , t o i de n ti f y g ro up - s pe c i f ic t r e a tm en t m o da li t ie s : ( 1 ) h i gh - r isk , es ta b li s h ed IH D o r I H D ri s k eq ui v a l ent s ( d i ab e te s , n on c o r on a r y fo r m s of a th e ro sc le r o ti c di s ea se ) ; (2 ) m o de r at e ly h i gh - r is k , m u lt i pl e ( m o r e th an t wo ) r i s k fa c to r s a nd a ca lc u la t e d 1 0 - y ea r ri s k of 10 %- 2 0 % ; ( 3 ) m o d e r a te ri s k , m ul t ip l e (m o r e t ha n t wo ) r i sk fa c t or s an d a ca lc ul a te d 1 0 - ye a r ri s k of 1 0 % ; a nd ( 4) lo w e r - ri s k , z e r o t o o ne r is k f ac to r . ( 4 ) A ll in di v i d ua ls wi t h IH D o r I H D ri s k eq ui v a l ent s ha ve be e n ca ll e d “ h igh r is k , ” an d t h e tr e at m e n t g o al s is to h a v e L D L -c h ol es t e ro l (LD L - C ) l e v el s < 1 0 0 m g/ dL . O t he r r e c om m e nd a ti on s a r e a s f o ll o ws : ( a ) I f b as el i ne L DL - C is < 1 00 m g / dL (g o al of t rea t m e n t ), pa t ie n ts wi t h I HD s h ou ld b e gi ve n i ns t r uc ti o ns o n d i e t a nd e xe r c is e a nd hav e l e v e ls m on i to r e d a nnu a ll y. Th o u g h t h e g ui d el in es s u g g es t a n o pt i on a l g oa l o f o b t ai n in g a n L D L - C o f < 70 m g /d L . ( b ) I f b as el i ne L DL - C is ≥ 1 0 0 m g/ d L, an L DL - l o we r i ng d ru g s ho u ld be s t ar t e d a l on g wi t h t h e ra p eu t ic l i fe s t y l e c ha n ge s ( TL C s ) . L i fe st yl e - r el a te d ri s k f ac t o rs inc l ud e t h i ng s su c h as ob es i t y , ph y s ic a l i na c t i vi t y, e l e v ate d t ri gl yc e ri d e, lo w- H D L - C , o r m e ta b ol ic s y n d r om e. ( c ) A du l t Tr e a t m e n t P a ne l II I di d n o t m a n da t e L DL - l o we r i ng dr u gs fo r pa t ie n ts wi t h b a se li n e L D L - C l e v el s be t we e n 10 0 a n d 1 29 m g /d L bu t s ug g es t ed in t en s if yi n g l i f es t yle an d th e o p ti on a l u s e o f d ru g th e ra p ie s t o l o we r L D L t o < 10 0 m g/d L . H o we ve r , i f th e p a ti e nt ha d el e v a te d t r i gl y c er i de s o r lo w h i g h- d en s i t y li p op r o t ei n c h ol es t e ro l ( H D L - C ) , a dr u g s h ou ld be s t a r te d t ha t t ar g et s t h es e a bn o rm a l i ti es — fo r e xa m p l e , n ic ot i ni c ac i d or f i b ri c ac i d i f t he pa t ie n t h as el e v a te d t ri gl yc e ri de s (> 20 0 m g /d L ) o r lo w H D L l e v els ( < 4 0 m g/ d L ). I f t r ig l y ce r i de s a r e ≥ 5 00 m g /d L , c o ns id e r f i b ra t e o r ni ac in be f o re LD L - l o we r i ng th e r ap y . ( 5 ) F or m o de r a te l y hi g h ri s k pa t ie n ts , t h e r ec om m e n d ed L DL - C go al is < 13 0 m g /d L , b u t a go a l o f < 10 0 m g/ dL is an op t io n al go al , bas e d o n r ec e nt c l in ic a l t r ia l
e vi d e nc e. In ad d it i on , a re c om m e nd a ti o n t o i ni t ia te TL C s wh e n th e p a ti en t h as an L D L - C ≥ 13 0 m g/ d L. ( 6 ) F or m o de r a te r is k pa ti e n ts , t h e r ec om m e n de d L D L - C go a l is < 1 30 m g /d L . In a d di t io n , a r ec om m e nd a ti o n t o i n it i at e TL C wh e n t h e p a ti e nt ha s a n L D L -C ≥ 1 6 0 m g /d L . ( 7 ) F or lo we r r i s k p a ti e nts , th e re c o m m en d ed L DL- C g o al is < 16 0 m g /d L , b u t a g ai n , a r ec om m e n da t io n t o i n iti a t e TL C f o r t h os e p at i ent s wi t h a n L D L ≥ 1 9 0 m g /d L . ( 8 ) Th e me t ab o l ic s yn d r o m e i s c l o s e l y li nk ed t o in s ul in r es is t an ce , wh e n th e n o r m a l a c t i on s o f i ns ul i n a r e i m p ai r e d. E xc e s s bod y f a t a n d p h ys ic a l i na ct iv i t y p r o m o t e t he de v e l op m e nt o f t h e s y n dr om e ; h o we v e r , s om e i nd i vid u al s m ay b e p r e di sp os e d g en e ti c a l l y . P a t i en ts wi t h th r ee o r m o r e of th e fo ll o wi n g c ha ra c te r is t ic s a r e re f e r re d t o a s h a v in g t h e m et a bo li c s yn d ro m e a n d sh o ul d b e t r e at e d ac co r d in gl y: a b d om in al ob es i t y , t r i gl y c e r id es > 1 50 m g / dL , H DL l e vel s o f < 40 m g /d L for m en an d 5 0 m g /d L fo r wo m en , b l oo d p re s s u re re a di n gs ≥ 13 0 / 85 m m Hg , a n d a fa s ti n g s e ru m g l uc os e l e v e l ≥ 11 0 m g /dL . P.803
G . I n d i vi d ua l d r u g c l ass e s 1 . B i le ac i d s e qu e s t ra nt r e s i ns a . M e c ha n is m o f ac t i on. Th e s e i ns ol ub l e, no n abs o r ba bl e , a ni o n -e xc h a n ge r es i ns b i nd bi l e ac i ds wi t hi n th e i n te s ti ne s . B il e a c i ds a re s y n th es i z e d f r om c ho l es t e ro l . b . I nd i ca t i o ns . Th es e ag e n ts h a ve be en s h o wn to b e s a f e a nd e ff ec t i v e in l o we r in g L D L - C es pe c i a ll y i n p at ie n ts wi t h m o de s t l y el e vat e d l e v e ls , i n p r im a r y p r ev e n t i on , i n yo u n g a d ul t m en , a n d p os t m e no p au s a l wo m e n . Th e y a r e e ff e ct i ve i n c om b i na t io n wi t h o t he r ag e nt s . c . C u r r e nt l y a va i l a b l e ag e n t s i nc lu de t he fo l lo wi n g : ( 1 ) C h ol es t y r am in e ( Q ues t r an ) : 2 - 8 g b y m o ut h i n t wo d a il y d os es ( 2 ) C ol e s t ip o l ( C o le s t i d ): 2 - 1 6 g b y m ou t h i n o ne o r t wo d ai l y do s e s ( 3 ) C ol e s e v e la m (W elC ho l ) : 6 - 7 t a bl e ts (6 25 m g / ta b le t ) b y m ou t h i n o ne da i l y do s e d . P r e ca u t io n s a n d m on i t o r i ng e f fe c ts ( 1 ) Th e s e r es in s a re t ak e n ju s t be f o re m e al s a nd p r es e nt pa l at a bi li t y p ro bl e m s i n p a t ie n ts . ( 2 ) G as t r oi n te s ti na l ( G I ) i n t ol e ra nc e , e sp ec ia l l y co n s t i pa t io n , f la t ul e nc e, an d d ys p ep s i a a r e f r e qu en t . ( 3 ) A bs o rp t io n o f m an y ot h e r d r ug s c an be af f ec te d . O th e r d r ug s s ho u ld be t ak en 1 h r b ef o re o r 4 - 6 h r a f te r r e s in s . 2 . S t a ti n s o r HM G - C o A r e d u c ta s e i n hi b i to r s a . M e c ha n is m o f ac t i on. Th e s e a ge n ts i n hi bi t the e n z y m e H MG - C o A a n d r e d uc e c h ol es t e ro l p r od uc t io n . b . I nd i ca t i o ns . Th es e ag e n ts a r e e f f ec ti v e in lowe r i n g L D L l e vel s , wh i l e i n c re as in g H D L l e v el s a nd lo we r i n g t r i gl y c e ri d e l e vel s . Th e y a r e pr im a r il y us e d t o l o we r L D L c h ol es t e ro l l e v el s . c . C u r r e nt l y a va i l a b l e ag e n t s i nc lu de t he fo l lo wi n g : ( 1 ) A t or v a s ta t in ( Li pi t o r) : 1 0 - 80 m g b y m ou t h d ai ly
( 2 ) Fl u v a s t a ti n (L es c o l ) : 2 0 - 80 m g b y m ou t h a t b ed t im e ( 3 ) Lo va s ta t in ( Me v a c o r , v a r i o us ) : 1 0 -8 0 m g b y m o u t h i n t he e v en i ng ( 4 ) P r a v as t at in ( P r a v ac ho l ) : 1 0 -8 0 m g b y m o u th d a il y ( 5 ) R os u v as t a ti n ( C r es t or ) : 5 -4 0 m g b y m o u th d ail y ( 6 ) S im v a s t a ti n (Z oc o r , v a r i ou s ): 5 -8 0 m g b y m o ut h in th e e v en in g d . P r e ca u t io n s a n d m on i t o r i ng e f fe c ts ( 1 ) G I ad v e r s e ef f ec ts a re l es s f re q ue n tl y s ee n t ha n wi t h o t he r cl as s e s o f a g e nt s. H e a d ac he an d d y s pe ps i a f r e qu e nt l y oc c u r a n d s ho u ld be e va lu a te d , t he n fo l lo we d u p in 6 -8 we e k s , a nd t hen a t e ac h f o ll o w- u p v is i t t h e r ea f te r . ( 2 ) Th e s e ag e nt s c a n el ev a t e li v e r fu nc t io n te st s— a l an i ne am in o t ra ns f er as e ( AL T) a n d a sp a r ta t e am i no t r ans f e ra s e ( A S T) , wh i c h r equ i r es i n it i al e val u at i on , th e n a f te r a p p ro xi m a t el y 1 2 we ek s o f t he r ap y , t he n a n nu al l y t h e re a ft e r . ( 3 ) Th o ug h th e i nc id e nc e o f m y o p at h y is be li e v e d t o be lo w ( 0 . 0 8% ) fo r lo v a s ta t in a n d s im v a s t a ti n , e le v a t ion s o f c r e at in e k i na s e ( CK ) > 10 ti m e s t h e u pp e r li m it of n o r m a l h a v e b ee n re p o rte d wi t h p r a v as t a ti n , wi t h s i m il a r p o te n ti al f or t he o t h e r m em b e rs o f th e g r ou p . Mo s t r e c e n tl y , c e r i v as ta t in ( B a yc ol ) wa s vol u nt a r il y r e m o v e d f r o m t he m a r k e t o wi n g to t h e r e po r t ed de a th s o f 31 p at i en ts f ro m rh ab d om y o l y s is wh i l e r ec ei v i n g t he d ru g a l on e o r in co m b in a ti o n wi t h g em f ib r o z i l ( Lo p id ) . C o n se q ue n tl y , r ou t in e m o n i to r in g i s n ec es sa r y i n a l l p at i en ts , a s f o ll o ws : ( a ) E va lu a te m u s c le s y m p t om s a nd c h ec k C K b efo r e s t a rt i ng th e r ap y , e val u a te in 61 2 we e k s af t e r s ta r ti n g th e r ap y , a nd th e n a t e ac h f o ll o w- u p v is i t. ( b ) P a ti en t s p r es en t in g wi t h m us cl e s o re ne s s , ten d e rn es s , o r p a in s h ou ld h a v e a C K m e as u re m e n t o n p r es en ta t i on , t o m in im i ze th e d ev e l o p o f m y o p at hi e s . ( c ) C o nc ur r e nt t he r ap y w i t h o t he r ag e nt s, in c l u di ng c y cl os p or i ne , m ac r ol i de a n t ib io t ic s , a z ol e a n ti f ung a ls , n i ac in , fi b ra t es , o r n e f a zod o ne , m a y in c r e ase t he r isk . 3 . F ib r i c a c id de r i va t i ve s a . M e c ha n is m o f ac t i on. Th e s e a ge n ts a r e p r esu m ed to in h ib i t c h o le s t e ro l s yn t he s i s a n d l o we r L DL- C . Th e y a r e e f fe c ti ve at l o we r i ng t ri g l yc e r id es . In so m e p a t ie n ts , t h e y m od es t l y lo we r L D L - C an d ra is e HD L - C . b . P r e ca u t io n s a n d m on i t o r i ng e f fe c ts ( 1 ) G I ef f ec ts a re th e m os t c om m o n l y e xp e r i e nc ed a d ve rs e e f fe c t . ( 2 ) Th e s e ag e nt s c a n el ev a t e li v e r fu nc t io n te st s ; r o u ti n e m on i to r in g s ho u ld b e c a r ri e d o ut . P.804
( 3 ) U se wi t h s t at i ns c a n le a d t o e l e v at e d C K , an d m o ni t o ri ng is ne ce s s a r y t o id e nt i f y m yo p at h ie s o r rh a bd om y o l y s is . c . C u r r e nt l y a va i l a b l e ag e n t s i nc lu de t he fo l lo wi n g : ( 1 ) F en o fi b ra t e ( Tr i c or , va r i ou s ): 14 5 - 16 0 m g b y m o ut h d a il y ( 2 ) G em f ib r o z i l ( Lo p id , va r i ou s ): 60 0 m g b y m o u th t wi c e d ai l y 4 . N i ac i n a . M e c ha n is m o f ac t i on. N u m e r ou s s tu d ie s h a v e d em o ns t ra t ed t he ro l e of n ia c i n i n t h e l o we r i ng o f L D L - C a nd t r ig l y c e r id es t hr o ug h va r i ou s m ec ha ni s m s s uc h a s p a r ti c i p a ti on in ti s s u e r es p i ra ti o n o xi d a t io n - re d uc t i o n r e ac ti o ns , wh i c h d ec r e a s e s
h e p at ic L DL an d v e r y l ow- d e n s i t y l i po p ro t ei n ( VLD L ) p r od uc t io n ; i nh ib i ti on o f a d ip o se ti s s ue li p ol y s is , d e c re as e d h ep a ti c t r ig l yc e r id e e st e ri f ic a ti on , an d i nc r e as es i n li po p r ot e in l i pa s e ac t iv i t y . Ta b l e 3 9 -3 p re s e n ts s e ve ra l a g en ts an d th ei r e f f ec ts on l i po p r ot e in s . b . I nd i ca t i o ns . Ni ac i n is v a l u ab le in t r ea ti n g p a tie n ts wi t h el e va te d t o ta l c h ol es t e ro l a n d l o w L D L - C l e v e ls . I t i s u s e d i n c om bi n at i on the r a p y. c . C u r r e nt l y a va i l a b l e ag e n t s i nc lu de t he fo l lo wi n g : ( 1 ) N ia c i n c o nt r ol l ed r el ea s e ( N i as pa n ) : 1 00 0 -2 0 00 m g b y m o ut h a t be d ti m e ( 2 ) N ia c i n c o nt r ol l ed r el ea s e ( S lo - N i ac in ) : 1 - 2 g r am s b y m o u th a t b ed t im e ( 3 ) N ia c i n i m m ed i at e re le a s e ( V ar i ou s ): 10 0 0 -2 00 0 m g b y m ou t h 2 - 3 t im es da i l y. d . P r e ca u t io n s ( 1 ) A d ve rs e G I e ff ec t s a re e xp e r i en c e d wi t h t h e us e o f ni ac in . ( 2 ) P a ti en t s m a y e xp e r i en c e f lu sh i ng an d i tc h y s ki n , wh ic h m a y be r ed uc ed wi t h t he a d m i ni s t ra ti o n o f 3 2 5 m g a s p i ri n ab ou t 30 m i n b efo r e th e d os e . ( 3 ) C as es o f s e v e r e l i v e r t o xi c i t y ha v e be e n r e po rt e d . L i v e r f un c ti on t es ts s h ou l d b e p e r f or m e d i n p a ti e nt s rec e i v in g t h is d r u g.
Table 39-3. Selected Agents and Their Effects on Lipoproteins Class/Agent
Lipid/Lipoprotein Effects Daily Dose
Adverse Drug Effects
HMG-CoA reductase inhibitors (statins)
LDL: 18%55% reduction HDL: 5%15% increase TG: 7%-30% reduction
Lovastatin: 1080 mg Pravastatin: 2040 mg Simvastatin: 580 mg Fluvastatin: 2080 mg Atorvastatin: 1080 mg Rosuvastatin: 540 mg
Myopathy, increased liver enzymes
Bile acid sequestrants
LDL: 15%30% reduction HDL: 3%-5% increase TG: No change or increase
Cholestyramine: 4-16 g Colestipol: 5-20 g Colesevelam: 2.6-3.8 g
GI distress, constipation, decreased absorption of other drugs
Nicotinic acid
LDL: 5%25% reduction HDL: 15%-
Immediaterelease: 1.5-3 g Extended-
Flushing, hyperglycemia, hyperuricemia
Fibric acids
35% increase TG: 20%-50% reduction
release: 1-2 g Sustainedrelease: 1-2 g
(or gout), upperGI distress, hepatotoxicity
LDL: 5%20% reduction HDL: 10%20% increase TG: 20%-50% reduction
Gemfibrozil: 600 mg twice daily Fenofibrate: 145-160 mg Clofibrate: 1000 mg twice daily
Dyspepsia, gallstones, myopathy, unexplained non-CHD deaths in WHO study
CHD, coronary heart disease; GI, gastrointestinal; HDL, high-density lipoprotein; HMG-CoA, β-hydroxy-β-methylglutaryl-coenzyme A; LDL, low-density lipoprotein; TG, triglycerides; WHO, World Health Organization. Adapted from Grundy SM, Becher D, Clark LT et al. Third Report of the National Cholesterol Education Program (NCEP): Detection, Evaluation, and Treatment of High Blood Cholesterol in Adults (Adult Treatment Panel III) [NIH Publication No. 01-3670]. Washington DC, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, May 2001. Available at: www.nhlbi.nih.gov/guidelines/cholesterol/atp3xsum.pdf. P.805
5 . E ze t im i b e ( Z et i a ) a . M e c ha n is m o f ac t i on. F i rs t i n a ne w c l as s o f li p id - l o we r in g c om po u nd s a p p ro v e d b y t h e U. S . Fo o d a nd D ru g A dm in is t ra t io n (F D A ) , wh i c h wo r k s b y s e le c t i ve l y i n hi b it i ng th e i n te s ti na l ab s o rp t io n o f c ho l es te r o l a n d re la t ed ph y t o s t e r ol s , wi t h a r e s ul t an t d ec r e as e i n i nte s ti n al c h ol es t e ro l d el i v e r e d to th e l i ve r , d ec r ea s e d he p at ic c h ol es t e ro l s to r es , a n d an i nc r ea s e in th e c le a r anc e o f c h ol es t e ro l f r om the b lo od . E ze t i m i b e h as d em o ns t ra t e d t he ab i li t y t o r ed uc e t o t al c h ol es t er o l, L D L- C , a p ol i po p ro t ei n B , a nd t rig l y c e ri de le ve ls wh i l e i nc r e as in g H DL le v e ls in pa t i en ts wi t h h yp e r ch ol e s t e ro l em ia . b . I nd i ca t i o ns . E z e tim i be as ad j un c t i v e th e ra p y a l on g wi t h d i et a r y m e as ur e s , a lo n e i n pa t ie n ts wi t h p r im a r y h e t e ro z yg o us fa m i l ia l a nd n on f am il ia l h yp e rc h ol es t e ro l em ia , o r in co m b i na t io n wi t h t he H MG - C o A r e d u ct as e i nh i bi t o rs i n h o m o z y g o us fa m il ia l h yp e r ch ol e s t e ro l em ia . c . D o se . No r m a l d os i ng r e c om m e nd a ti on s a r e a 1 0 - m g do s e gi v e n o nc e d a il y. d . P r e ca u t io n s. A s m o no t h e ra p y , s t ud ie s t o d a te h a v e n o t r e v e al e d si g ni fi c an t s id e e f f ec ts ab o v e th os e s een wi t h pl ac e bo ad m i n is t ra t i on . Ho we ve r , wh e n us e d in
c om b in a ti o n wi t h H MG - C o A r ed u ct as e i n hi bi t o rs , r e p o rt s h a v e d es c ri b ed an i n c re as ed in c i d en c e ( app r o xi m a t el y 1 .4 % ) i n t h e e l e v a ti on o f l i v e r t r an s am i na s e l e ve ls ( th r ee t im es th e up p e r l im it o f n or m al ) a s c om p a re d t o th e i nc id e nc e o f 0. 4 % wi t h H M G - C o A a g en t s us e d al on e . 6 . C o mb i na t i o n p r o du c ts a . E z e ti m i b e/ s i m v as t at i n ( V y t o r i n) us es th e i n di vid u al cl as s p r op e r ti es of th e H MG C o A r e du c t as e i n hi bi t o rs ( s im v a s t a ti n ) t o re du c e c h ol es t e ro l p r od uc t io n wit h t he a b so r p ti on - i nh ib i ti n g p rop e r ti e s o f e ze ti m i b e t o t a r g e t c ho l es te r ol wi t h t wo d i ff e r in g m ec h an is m s , wh ic h m ig ht a id in im p ro vi ng pa t ie n t c om pl i an c e . ( 1 ) A va il a bl e p r od uc t i s s u pp li e d a s 1 0/ 1 0, 10 / 20, 1 0 /4 0 , 1 0/ 8 0 co m b i na t io n s o f e ze t im i be an d s im v a s t a tin , r es pe c ti v e l y , a n d t he d a il y r e c o m m en de d do s e i s 1 ta bl e t b y m ou t h e v e r y e v e ni n g. ( 2 ) S id e e f fe c ts re f le c t th e ad di t i v e s id e e f fe c t p ro p e r ti es of e z e tim i be and s im va s ta t in an d wa r r an t c o ns id e ra t io n wh e n o c c ur r i n g d u ri ng t he r ap y . b . L o vas ta t in / ni ac i n ( A d vi c o r) is a p ro d uc t t h at inc o r po r at e s t he ac ti o ns of t h e H MG C o A r e du c t as e i n hi bi t o r lo v a s ta t in wi t h an e xt e n de d r el ea s e ni ac i n co m pon e n t i nt o a s i ng le p ro d uc t , us i ng di f fe r i ng m e ch an is m s , wh i ch m i g ht ai d i n i m p r o vin g p a t ie n t c om p li a nc e. ( 1 ) A va il a bl e p r od uc t i s s u pp li e d a s 2 0/ 5 00 , 2 0 /75 0 , 2 0 /1 0 00 s u st a in ed - r el e as e t a b le t c om bi n at i on s o f l ov a s t a ti n a nd ni ac i n, r es pe c ti v e l y . Th e re c o m m en de d da il y d o se is 1 - 2 t a bl e ts b y m o u t h a t b ed t im e . ( 2 ) S id e e f fe c ts re f le c t th e ad di t i v e s id e e f fe c t p ro p e r ti es fo r bo t h l o v as tat i n a n d n i ac in an d wa r r a nt c o ns id e r a ti on du r i ng th e ra p y . c . Am l od i pi ne / a to r v a s t a tin ( C a du e t ) is a c o m bi na ti o n p r od uc t th a t i nc o rp o ra t es t he a c ti o ns o f th e d i h y d ro p y ri d in e c al ci um c h a nn el blo c k e r a m l o di pi n e wi t h t he l ip id l o we r i n g p r op e rt i es of the H MG - C o A r e d u ct as e i nh i bi t o r a to r v a s ta t in . Th e c a lc iu m c h an n el bl oc k e r of f e rs no b en e fi t fo r l i pi d l o we r i n g b ut r ep r es e nt s a p o te nt i a ll y b e n ef ic ia l p r o du c t f or a p a t ie n t wi t h co e xi s t in g d i s e as e s ta t es , s uc h a s I HD a n d h yp e r t en s i on , fo r wh i c h th e us e o f a c a lc iu m ch a nn e l b lo ck e r wo ul d be wa r r a n t ed . ( 1 ) A va il a bl e p r od uc t i s s u pp li e d a s 2 0/ 5 00 , 2 0 /75 0 , a n d 2 0/ 1 00 0 t a bl e ts , wh i c h c o ns is t o f 2 0 m g o f l o v as t a t in an d 5 0 0, 75 0 , o r 1 00 0 m g o f an e xt e n de d re le a se fo r m o f ni ac i n. Th e re c o m m e nd e d d ai l y d os e is 1 -2 ta bl e ts b y m o ut h a t be d ti m e. ( 2 ) S id e e f fe c ts re f le c t th e ad di t i v e s id e e f fe c t p ro p e r ti es fo r bo t h am l od ipi n e a nd a t o r vas t a ti n a nd wa r r a n t c o ns id e ra t io n d u r in g t h era p y . d . A sp i ri n , b uf f e re d /p r a va s ta t in ( P r a v ig a rd P A C ) is a c om bi na t io n p r o du ct t h a t i n co r po r a te s t h e ac t io ns o f t he H MG - C o A r e d uc t as e i n hi bi t o r p r a vas ta t in wi t h t h e a n t ip la t el e t p r op e r ti es of a s p i ri n . Th is p r o du c t is n o lo ng e r a v a i la bl e i n the U . S . ( 1 ) A va il a bl e p r od uc t i s s u pp li e d a s 8 1/ 2 0, 81 / 40, 8 1 /8 0 , 3 25 / 20 , 3 2 5/ 4 0, a n d 3 2 5/ 8 0 t a b le t c om bi n at i on s o f bu f f e re d a s p i ri n a n d p r a va s ta t in , re s p e ct i ve l y. Th e r e c om m e nd e d d ai l y do s e i s 1 ta bl e t b y m o u th d ai ly. ( 2 ) S id e e f fe c ts re f le c t th e ad di t i v e s id e e f fe c t p ro p e r ti es fo r bo t h as p i ri n a n d p r a va s t a ti n a n d wa r r a n t c o ns id e ra t io n d u r in g t h era p y . e . O m e g a -3 - ac id e th y l es t e rs (L o va z a ) i s t h e f i rs t F D A - ap p r o ved om eg a 3- f a t t y ac id , wh i c h is i n di c a t ed fo r pat i e nt s wi t h e le v a t ed le ve l s o f t r ig l y ce r id es ( > 5 00 m g /d L ) .
( 1 ) A va il a bl e p r od uc t i s s u pp li e d a s a 1 - g c ap su le ; t he re c o m m e nd ed da i ly d o se is 4 c a ps ul es b y m o ut h d a il y i n on e - t wo do s e s . P.806
( 2 ) S id e e f fe c ts th a t h a ve b ee n re po r t ed in cl u de b u r pi n g, in f ec t io n , f lu - li k e s ym p to m s , u ps e t s to m a c h , c h an g e i n o ne ' s s en se o f ta s t e , b ac k p ai n , a nd r a s h. f . H yp e r t e n s i o n. Tr e a tm e n t o f h y pe r t en s i on ac c or d i ng t o t he J o in t N at i ona l C o n f e re nc e VI I gu id e li nes ha s re ce i ved a c la s s I r e c om m e nd a ti on b as ed on d at a f r o m m u l ti p le r an do m i z ed c l i ni c a l t r ia ls wi t h la r ge n um be r s o f p a ti en t s ( A, h ig h ) a n d s h ou l d b e c o n t ro ll e d. C las s I r ec om m e nd a ti o ns a re b as ed on e vid e nc e o r g e n er a l a g r ee m e n t t h at a g i v en pr o c ed u re o r t r ea tm e nt is u s ef u l a nd ef f ec t i v e ( se e C h a pt e r 41). g . S m ok i ng s h ou l d b e s to p p ed i f at al l p os s i b le an d ha s r ec e i ved a c l as s I r e c om m e nd a ti on b as ed on d at a d e r i v ed f ro m a l im i t e d n um be r of r an do m i ze d t ri al s wi t h s m a ll nu m b e rs o f p at i e nt s ( B , i n te r m e d ia t e ). ( 1 ) Tr a ns d e rm al us e o f ni c ot i ne - c o n ta in i ng pa tc he s h as b ec om e o ne s t r ate g y f o r a i di n g t he c e s s at i on of s m ok i ng . P ro d uc ts s uc h as N ic o t ro l , H a bi t ro l , Ni c oD e r m , a nd o t h e rs a r e a v a il a bl e i n va r y i n g s t re n gt hs to we a n p a ti e nt s o f f t he us e o f ci g a re t t es o ve r a n 8 - t o 1 2 - we e k p er i o d, us i ng de s c en di n g do s e s . ( 2 ) N ic o ti ne g um (o r al nic o ti n e p ol ac r il e x c h e wi ng p ie c e s ) is a v ai l ab le in 2 - m g o r 4 m g p i ec es . Ni c o r e tt e i s us u al l y us ed fo r 3 m on t hs t o ai d i n c ess a ti o n o f s m ok i ng . ( 3 ) B up r o pi on is a p re s c ri p t io n a n ti de p r es s a nt , wh i ch is a ls o m a rk e te d u nd e r th e b r a nd na m e o f Z y b an as a n ai d t o s m o ki ng c e ss a ti o n . ( 4 ) V a re ni c l i ne ( C ha n ti x) i s a re c e n tl y a p pr o ve d pr o d u c t , wh i c h wo r k s a s ag o ni z e r s a n d b lo c k s a lp h a -4 - be t a -2 n ic ot i ni c ac e t y lc ho l in e r e c ep t or s i n t h e b r ai n t o r e d uc e t h e c r a v in g f o r n ic o ti n e. Th e r a p y is s t a r te d wi t h a d os e o f 0. 5 m g b y m o u th d ai l y fo r 3 d a ys , fo l lo we d b y 0. 5 m g ta bl e ts t wi ce da i l y for 4 da ys , t h en 1 m g t wi ce d ai l y t h e r ea f te r fo r 12 we e k s , wh i c h ca n b e g i v en f or an a dd i ti on a l 1 2 we e k s i f s uc c ess f ul . h . O b e si t y s h o ul d b e red u c e d t h r ou g h di e t a n d an a pp r op r i at e e xe r c i s e pr o g r am i n p a t ie n ts wi t h h y p e r te ns ion , h y pe r l ip id em i a, o r d iab e t es m el l it us an d h as re c ei ve d a c l as s I re c o m m en d at i on b a s e d o n e xp e r t c o n s e ns u s a s t h e p ri m ar y b as is (C , l o w) . H . T h e ra p e ut i c a g en t s 1 . R ec e nt e v id e nc e -b as ed g ui de l in es ha ve p ro v i de d r ec om m e nd a ti o ns f o r t h e t r e a tm en t o f pa t ie n ts wi th c h r o ni c s ta bl e a n gi na . ( S e e I D. 1 . F r ak e r , TD e t . a l ) . R e c om m e nd a ti o ns u s e fo u r l e v e ls of r ec om m e nda t i on s : C la ss I ( e vi de nc e d e m o ns t r at es t ha t t h e b en e f it of t he ef f ec t /t r e at m e n t i s m uc h g r ea t er [ >> >] t h an th e r i sk an d s ho u ld be pe r f orm e d/ u ti l i z ed ) ; Cl as s I I a (e vi d e nc e d em on st r a te s th a t th e b e n ef i t o f t h e e ff ec t / t re a tm e nt is gr e at e r [> > ] t ha n t h e r is k a nd i t is r ea s o na b le t o p e r f or m o r ut il i z e th e t r ea t m e n t ); C l as s I Ib ( e v id en c e d em on s tr a te s t h at t he b en e fi t o f t he ef f ec t /t r e at m e n t is g r e at e r t h an o r e qu al t o [ ≥ ] r is k as so c i a te d wi t h t h e e f f ec t /t r e at m e n t , a nd add i t io na l s t ud ie s wo u ld be h e lp f ul ) ; a n d C l ass I II (e vi d e nc e d e m o ns t r at es t ha t t h e r is k as s o c i a te d wi t h t h e e ffe c t /t r ea t m e n t is g re a te r th a n o r e q u al to [ ≥ ] t he be n ef i t , a n d s ho u ld no t b e u t il i z ed o r a dm i ni s t e re d ) . A d di ti o na l l y ,
t h e re co m m en d at i on s i nc l u de 3 l e v el s o f e v i d en c e, b as ed on t he a vai la b il i ty f r o m t h e l i te r a tu r e a nd in c l u de L e v el A - hi gh le ve l , m u lt i p le po pu l at i on s s tu di e d, L e vel B l i m i t ed po pu l at i on s s tu die d , a n d L e vel C - v e r y li m it e d p o pu l at io n s t ud i ed . Fo r t he p u r po s e s o f th is re v i e w, we h a v e o nl y i nc lu d ed the o v e r al l Cl as s r ec om m en d a ti on f o r th e re s p ec t i v e t h er a pi e s . 2 . N i t r a te s ( e . g. , ni t r o g lyc e r i n ) a . M e c ha n is m o f ac t i on ( 1 ) Th e pr im a r y v a lu e o f n i t ra t es is v en o us di la t ion , wh i c h r ed uc e s le f t vent r i c u la r vo l u m e ( pr e lo a d) an d m y o c a rd ia l wa l l t en s i o n, dec r e as in g o xy g e n r e q ui r em e nt s ( d e m a nd ) . ( 2 ) N i tr a t es m a y al s o re du c e a r te r io l a r r es is t an ce, h el p in g r e du c e a ft e rl o ad , wh i ch d e c re as es m y o c ar d ia l o x y g e n de m a n d. ( 3 ) B y r ed u c i ng p re s s u re i n c a rd i ac t is s u e s , ni t r ate s a ls o fa ci li t a te c o ll a te ra l c i rc u la ti o n , wh i c h i nc r eas es bl o od di st r i bu t io n t o i s c h em ic a r e as . ( 4 ) P ha r m a c o l og ic al e ff ec t s h a v e b ee n s ho wn t o im p r o v e e xe r c is e to le r a nc e , p r ol o ng t h e ti m e to on s e t o f an gin a , a n d t he ap p ea r a nc e o f S T- s eg m e n t d ep r es s i on d u ri ng e xe r c i s e t es t in g . b . I nd i ca t i o ns ( 1 ) A cu t e a tt a c k s of a ng in a pe c t o r is c an be m a nag e d wi t h s ub li n gu al , t ra ns m u c os al ( N i t r ol i ng u al s p ra y o r buc c a l ta bl e ts ) , o r i n t ra v e no u s d el i v e r y . ( 2 ) I nd ic a ti on s i nc lu d e t he p r e v en t io n o f a n ti c i p ate d at t ac k s , u s i ng t ab le t s ( o r al o r b u cc al ) or t r an s d e rm al pa s te o r p at c he s . S ub li n gu a l n i tr a te s ( Ni t ro s ta t ) c a n be us ed b e f o re ea t in g , s e xu a l ac ti v i t y , o r a k n o wn st r es sfu l e v en t . P.807
( 3 ) N i tr a t es a r e u s e d i n tr e a tm e nt of s t a bl e a n gi na . Th e y m a y n o t b e e ff e c t i v e as a s i ng le ag e n t f o r t r ea tm en t o f P r in z m e ta l a ng i na , a l t ho ug h s om e s t ud ie s ha ve s h o wn n i t ra t es to p re v e n t o r re v e r s e v a so s p a sm a t va r y in g do se s . I nt r a v e no us nit r o gl y c e ri n i s u se d i n th e i m m ed ia t e t r e at m e n t o f u ns t ab l e an g i n a a n d i s us e d f o r l ong - t e rm t h e r ap eu t ic re l ie f . ( 4 ) N i tr a t es u s e d i n c om b i na t io n wi t h β -a d re n e rg ic bl o c k e r s h a v e b e en s ho wn t o b e m o r e e ff e c t i v e t h an ni t r at e s o r β -a d r en e rg ic bl ock e rs us ed al o ne . c . C h oi c e o f p re p a ra t i on s ho ul d b e b as e d o n o ns e t o f a c ti on , du r at i on of a c ti on , a n d p a ti e nt c om p li a nc e a n d p r e fe r en c e be c a u se a l l n i tr a te s h a v e t h e s am e m ec h an is m o f a c t i on . d . P r e ca u t io n s a n d m on i t o r i ng e f fe c ts ( 1 ) To m a xi m i z e th e th e ra p e ut ic ef f ec t , p a ti en t s sh o ul d th o ro u gh l y un d er s ta n d t h e u s e o f t h ei r s p ec if ic do s a g e f o rm s ( e .g . , s ub l in gua l ta b le ts , t ra ns de r m a l pa t c h es o r p a st es , ta b le ts , c a ps ul es ) . ( 2 ) B lo o d p r es s u r e a nd he a r t ra t e sh o ul d b e m on it o r e d b ec au s e al l n i tr a tes ca n i n c re as e h ea r t ra t e wh il e l o we r i ng bl o od p re s s u re. ( 3 ) P r el oa d re d uc ti o n c an b e as s ess e d t h ro u gh re d uc t io n o f p u lm on a r y sy m p t om s s uc h a s s ho r t ne s s o f b rea t h , p a ro xy s m a l no ct u r na l d ys p ne a , o r d ys pn e a . ( 4 ) N i tr a t e- i nd uc e d h ea da c he s a r e t he m o s t c o m m o n s i d e e f fe ct .
( a ) P a ti en t s s h o ul d b e wa r n ed o f t he na t u re , s udd e n ne s s , a nd po t en t ia l st r e n gt h o f t h es e h e ad ac h es to m i nim i z e th e a n xi e t y t ha t m ig h t o t he r wi s e o cc u r . ( b ) C om p li an c e c a n b e en h a nc ed if th e p a ti e nt und e r st a nd s t ha t th e e f fe c t i s t r a ns i en t a n d t ha t th e h ea d ac h es u s u a ll y d is ap p ea r wi t h co n ti nu e d t he r a py. ( c ) A ce t am in op h en in g es t e d 1 5 - 30 m i n b ef o re ni t ra t e a d m i ni s t r a ti o n m a y pr e v e n t t h e h e a da c h e . e . E f f ec t i ve th e r a p y s h o u l d r e s u l t in f e we r an gi na l at t ac k s wi t ho u t i nd uc in g s i gn i fi ca n t a d v e rs e e f fe c t s (e . g ., po s tu r al h ypo t en s io n , h y p o xi a ) . If m a xi m a l d os es a r e re ac h ed an d th e p a tie n t s t il l e xp e r i e nc es a t t ac k s , a d di t io na l a g en t s s ho u ld be a d m i ni s te r ed . f . N i t r a te t o le r a nc e i s a m a jo r pr o bl em wi t h th e lo n g - te rm us e o f n i t ro g l yc e r i n a nd l o ng - ac t in g n i t ra t es . Se v e r a l a ge n ts s uc h a s A C E i n hi bi t o rs (s ul f h y d r yl -c on t a in in g d r u gs ) , a c e t y lc y s t ei n e, an d di u re t ic s h a v e b ee n sh o wn t o re ve r s e ni t r at e to l e ra nc e b y i nc r e as in g t h e a v a il abi l it y o f s ul f h y d r y l r a di c a ls . H o we ve r , p r ac t ic al c o ns id e ra t io ns s u g ge s t th a t l es s f r eq u en t ad m i nis t r at i on ( 8- 1 2 h r o f ni t ra te - f r ee i n t er va l s ) is ef f ec ti v e wi t h o u t i nt r o du c i ng ad d it i ona l ag en t s. 3 . β - Ad r e n e rg i c b l oc k e rs . B as ed on t he re c en tl y r e le a s e d 2 00 7 Fo c u s e d g u id e l i n es f o r pa t ie n ts wi t h Ch r o ni c S t a bl e An gi n a, a Cl as s 1 A r ec om m e n da t io n s ta te s th a t i t is b e n ef ic ia l to s t a rt an d c on t i nu e b e ta - bl oc k e r t he ra p y i nd e fi ni t el y i n a ll pa ti e n ts wh o h a ve ha d MI , ac u te c o r on a r y s y nd r om e , o r l e f t ven t r ic ul a r d y s f un c t i on wi th o r wi t h o u t h e a rt f ai lu r e s y m p t om s , u nl es s c o n t ra i nd ic a te d . a . M e c ha n is m o f ac t i on. β - B l oc k e rs r ed uc e o xy g e n de m a n d, bo t h a t re s t a n d d u ri n g e xe r t i o n , b y d ec r ea s i n g th e he a r t r a te an d m y o car d i al c o n tr ac t il i t y, wh ic h a l s o d e c re as es a rt e ri a l b lo o d p r e s s u re . b . I nd i ca t i o ns ( 1 ) Th e s e ag e nt s r e du c e t h e f r eq u en c y an d s e ve ri t y o f e xe r t i o na l a n gi n a th a t i s n o t c o nt r o ll ed b y ni t ra t es . ( 2 ) N i tr a t es h a v e b e en c o m bi n ed wi t h c al c i um ant a g on is ts , wh e n s lo w- r e le a s e d i h yd ro p y r i di ne s ( e . g. , fe l od i pi n e- P l en di l , a m l od ip i ne - N o r v as c ) a r e p r ef e rr e d o ver d i l ti a zem ( C ar d i z em ) o r v e r a p am il ( C al a n ). I f p at ie n ts ne e d t o re c e i v e a βa d r en e r gi c b lo c k e r a lo ng wi t h v e r a pa m i l o r di l ti a ze m o wi n g to t he ad d ed ef f e c t s , t h e y ha v e t he po t en t ia l to i nd uc e b r ad y c a rd i a, AV h e ar t bl oc k, an d fa t ig ue . c . P r ec a u ti o n s a nd m oni t o r i n g e f f ec t s ( 1 ) D os es s h ou l d b e i nc re a s e d u n ti l t h e a ng i na l ep i s o d es h a ve b e en r ed uce d o r u nt il u n ac ce p ta b le s i de ef f ec ts oc c u r . ( 2 ) β - B lo c k e rs s h ou ld be a v o i de d i n Pr i n z m e t al an g in a (c au s e d b y c o ro n ar y va s o sp as m ) b ec au s e th ey i n c re as e c o ro n a r y re sis t an c e a nd m a y in d uc e va s os pa s m . ( 3 ) A st hm a i s a re l at i v e c o nt r a in di c a t io n b ec a us e a l l β - bl o ck er s i nc r ea s e a i r wa y r e s is ta nc e a n d h a v e t h e p o t en t ia l t o i n du c e b ro nch o s p as m i n s us c e pt i bl e p a t ie n ts . ( 4 ) P a ti en t s wi t h di a be t es an d o t he r s p r ed is p os ed t o h yp og l yc em ia s h ou ld b e wa r n e d t ha t β -b l oc k e rs m as k t ac h y c ar d ia , wh i c h i s a k e y s i gn o f d e v el op in g h yp o g l yc em i a. ( 5 ) P a ti en t s s h o ul d b e m o n i to r ed f or e xc e s s i v e ne g a ti v e in o t ro pi c e f fe c ts . F i nd i ng s s uc h a s f a ti g ue , s ho r t nes s o f b r e at h , e de m a , a n d p a r o xy s m al no c tu r na l dys p n ea m a y si gn a l
P.808 d e ve l op in g c a rd i ac d ec om p en s a t io n , wh i c h a ls o in c r e a s e s t he m e t ab ol ic d e m a n ds o f t h e h e a rt . ( 6 ) S ud d en c e s s at i on of β - b l oc k e r th e ra p y m a y t ri g ge r a wi t hd r a wa l s y n d ro m e t ha t c a n e xa c e r ba t e a ng i na l a t t ac k s (e s p ec i al l y in pa ti e n ts wi t h I H D ) o r c a u se MI . d . C h o ic e o f p re p a r at i on s . Al l β -b l ock e rs a re li k e l y t o b e e qu a ll y e f fe c t i ve f o r s t ab l e ( e xe r t i on a l ) a ng ina . F or f ur t he r r e vie w o f β - a d r en e r gi c b lo ck er s , s e e C ha p te r 4 0 . Fo r a li s t o f a ge n ts an d do s e s , s e e Ta bl e 3 9 -4 . 4 . C a lc i um - c ha n ne l bl oc k e r s a . M e c ha n is m o f ac t i on. Two a c t i on s a r e m o s t pe r t in e n t in t he t re a tm en t o f an g in a . ( 1 ) Th e s e ag e nt s p r e v ent a nd r e ve rs e c o r o na r y sp a s m b y i nh i bi t in g c al ci um in f lu x i n t o va s c ul a r s m o o th m us c l e a n d m yoc a rd i al m usc l e. Th i s r es ul t s i n i nc rea s ed bl o od f l o w, wh i c h e n ha nc es m y o c a rd ia l o xyg e n s u pp l y . ( 2 ) C al ci u m - c h a nn e l b lo c k e rs de c re as e c o ro n a r y va s c ul a r r es is t an c e an d in c r ea s e c o r on a r y bl oo d fl o w, r es u l t in g i n i nc r ea se d o xy g e n su p pl y . ( 3 ) C al ci u m - c h a nn e l b lo c k e rs de c re as e s y s te m i c va s c ul a r r es is t an c e an d a r t e ri a l p r e ss u re ; i n a d di ti o n, t he y d ec r e as e i no t r op ic ef fe c ts , re s u l ti ng in de c re as e d m yo c ar d ia l o xy g e n d em an d . b . I nd i ca t i o ns ( 1 ) C al ci u m - c h a nn e l b lo c k e rs a re us ed in s t a bl e (e xe r t i o n al ) an g in a t h at is n o t c o nt r o ll ed b y ni t ra t es and β - b lo ck e rs a n d i n p at i en t s f o r wh om β - bl oc k e r th e r ap y i s i n ad vi s ab le . C om bi na t ion t he r a p y — wi t h n i t ra t es , β - b l ock e rs , o r bo t h —m ay b e m o s t e f f ec t i v e. ( 2 ) Th e s e ag e nt s , al o ne o r wi t h a n it r a te , ar e p a rt i cu l ar l y va l ua bl e i n t h e tr e a tm e nt o f P r in zm et a l a ng in a . The y a r e c on si d e re d t h e d ru g of ch oi c e in t re a tm e nt o f an gi n a a t r es t . c . I nd i vi d u al ag e n ts ( 1 ) D i l ti az e m ( C a r d iz em) a n d ve r ap am i l ( Ca l an ) ( a ) Th e s e d ru gs pr o du c e n e ga t i ve i no t r op ic ef f ec ts , an d p a ti en t s m u s t b e m o ni t o re d c l os el y f o r s i g ns of de v e lo p in g c a rd i ac d e c o m p ens a ti o n ( i .e . , f a ti g ue , s ho rt n es s o f b r e a th , e d em a, pa r o xy s m a l n oc tu r n al d ys p ne a ) . W hen c o a dm in is t e re d wi th β b l oc ke r s o r o t he r ag en t s t h a t p r od uc e n e ga t i v e i no t r o pi c e ff ec t s ( e .g . , d is o p yr a m i de , q u in i di n e, p ro c a in am i de , f l ec ai n id e ), t he ne g at i v e e f f ec ts ar e a d di t i v e. ( b ) P a ti en t s s h o ul d b e m o n i to r ed f or si gn s o f d e ve l op i ng b ra d y a r rh yt h m i as an d h e a rt b l oc k b ec au s e t he s e ag en t s h a v e n e ga ti v e ch r o no t r o p i c e ff ec t s . ( c ) V e ra p am il f re qu e nt l y c a us es c o ns ti p at i on , wh ic h m us t b e tr e at e d a s n ee d e d t o p r e ve n t s tr a in in g a t s t oo l, wh i c h c ou l d c a us e a n in c r ea s e d o xyg e n d em a nd ( V al s a l va m a ne u ve r ) . V e ra p am il is n o t r ec o m m en de d i n p a ti e n ts wi t h s ick s i nu s s y nd r o m e s, A V n o da l d is ea s e , or h ea r t fa i lu r e ( H F ) . ( 2 ) N i f ed i p in e (P r o c a rd ia ) ( a ) Th i s c a lc i um -c h an ne l b l oc k e r i s b el i e v ed to po s s e s s t h e g r ea t es t d eg re e of n e g at i ve i n ot r op ic e ff ec ts c o m p a re d to th e n e we r s ec on d - ge n er a ti o n m e m b e r s o f t h is g ro u p, am lo d ip in e (N o r v a s c ) an d fe lo d ip in e ( P l e nd il ) ; N if e di pi n e 1 0 m g (c he we d o r s wa l lo we d ) ha s b e en u s ed to t re a t Pr i n z m e t al a n gi n a o r re f r ac to r y s pas m i n
p a t ie n ts wh o ar e n o t h y po t e ns i v e. C o nt r o ve rs y s til l e xi s ts ab ou t th e u se o f s ho r t a c ti n g, r ap i d- r e le as e a gen t s s uc h as ni f ed i pi n e in p a ti e nt s wi t h I H D . ( b ) B ec a us e n if e di pi n e in c r ea s e s t he he a r t r a te s om e wh a t , i t c an p ro d uc e t a ch yc a rd i a, wh i c h wo u ld i nc r ea s e o xyg e n de m an d . Co a dm in is t r at i on of a β - b lo ck e r s h ou l d p re v e n t re fl e x t a c h y c a r di a . ( c ) I ts p o t en t p e ri p he r al d i la t o r y ef f ec ts c a n d ec re a s e c o r on a r y pe r f us io n a n d p r o du c e e xc e s s i v e h y p o te n s i o n, wh i ch c a n a gg r av a t e m yoc a rd ia l i sc he m ia . ( d ) D i zz i n es s , li gh t - he a de d n es s , an d l o we r e xt r em i t y ed em a a r e t h e m o s t c om m o n a d ve r s e ef f ec ts , bu t t h es e t en d to di sa pp e a r wi t h t i m e o r d os e a dj us t m e n t. ( 3 ) Am l o d i pi n e ( N o r va sc ) , f el o d ip i ne ( P le n d il ) , i s r a di p i ne ( D yn a c i r c ) , n i c a r di p i ne ( C a rd e ne ) , a n d ni s ol d i pi n e ( S u l a r ) a r e s ec o nd - ge n e ra t io n d i h yd ro p y r i di ne de r i v a ti v e , c a lc iu m -c ha n ne l b lo c ke r s . Th e y h a v e b e en us ed e f f ec t i v el y as on c e - o r twi c e - a - da y a ge n ts o wi n g t o th ei r lo n g ac t i vi t y . B ec a us e o f t h e p o te n t n eg a ti v e in o t ro p ic ef f ec ts o f t he s e ag en t s , t he y a r e n ot r ec om m e n d ed i n p a t ie n ts wi t h HF ( am lo d ip i ne ha s b e en s h o wn to h a v e le ss ne ga t i v e p o te nt i a l i n H F t h a n o th e r m em be r s o f th e c l as s ) . 5 . An t i p l a te l e t a ge n t s a . As p i r i n : B a s e d o n t h e r e c e n tl y r e le as e d 2 00 7 F o cu s e d G ui d el in es f or p a t ie n ts wi t h C h r o ni c S t ab l e A n gin a , a C la s s I A r ec om m en d a ti on s t a te s t h at as pi r in s h o ul d b e s t a rt e d a t 7 5 t o 1 6 2 m g p e r d a y an d c on t in u ed i nd e fi ni t el y i n a ll pa t ien t s u nl es s c o nt r a in di c a t ed . P.809
Table 39-4. Selected Agents and Their Doses in the Treatment of Coronary Artery Disease Class/Agent
Dose/Dosage Schedule Comments Nitrates
Nitroglycerin sublingual tablets (Nitrostat)
0.3-0.6 mg up to 1.5 mg
Short-term effects: 1-7 min
Nitroglycerin spray (Nitrolingual)
0.4 mg as needed
Similar to sublingual tablets
Nitroglycerin transdermal (NitroDur)
0.2-0.8 mg/hr every 12 hr
Remove patch for 8-12 hr to reduce tolerance
Nitroglycerin
5-200 µg/min
Short acting requiring
intravenous infusion (Various)
continuous infusion and monitoring
Isosorbide mononitrate (Imdur, ISMO, Monoket, Various)
10-40 mg daily in 2 doses
Also available as extended release product for single daily dosing
Isosorbide dinitrate SL
2.5-10 mg SL every 2-3 hours
For Acute angina attacks
Isosorbide dinitrate oral tablets (Various)
5-80 mg, 2-3 times daily
Longer acting up to 8 hr
Isosorbide dinitrate slow-release tablets (Dilatrate-SR)
40 mg once or twice daily
Duration of activity up to 8 hr
β-adrenergic blockers Propranolol (Inderal, Various)
20-80 mg twice daily
Possesses both β1- and β2blocker effects
Metoprolol (Lopressor, Various)
50-200 mg twice daily
Possesses β1-blocker effects
Atenolol (Tenormin, Various)
50-200 mg/day
Possesses β1-blocker effects
Nadolol (Corgard, Various)
40-80 mg/day
Possesses both β1- and β2blocker effects
Timolol (Blocadren, Various)
10 mg twice daily
Possesses both β1- and β2blocker effects
Acebutolol (Sectral, Various)
200-600 mg twice daily
Possesses β1-blocker effects
Betaxolol (Kerlone, Various)
10-20 mg/day
Possesses β1-blocker effects
Bisoprolol (Zebeta, Various)
10 mg/day
Possesses β1-blocker effects
Esmolol (intravenous) (Brevibloc, Various)
50-300 µg/kg/min
Possesses β1-blocker effects
Labetalol (Trandate, Various)
200-600 mg twice daily
Possesses both α1-, β1-, and β2-blocker effects
Pindolol (Visken, Various)
2.5-7.5 mg three times daily
Possesses both β1- and β2blocker effects
Carvedilol (Coreg, Various)
25 mg twice daily
Possesses both α1- β1-, and β2-blocker effects
Penbutolol (Levatol)
Possesses both β1- and β2blocker effects Calcium-channel blockers
Dihydropyridine derivatives Nifedipine (Procardia, Various)
Immediate release; 30-90 mg daily
Short duration of action of 46 hr
Amlodipine (Norvasc, Various)
5-10 mg once daily
Long duration of action
Felodipine (Plendil, Various)
5-10 mg once daily
Long duration of action
Isradipine (Dynacirc, Various)
2.5-10 mg twice daily
Intermediate duration of action
Nicardipine (Cardene, Various)
20-40 mg three times daily
Short duration of action
Nisoldipine (Sular)
20-40 mg once daily
Short duration of action
Miscellaneous Diltiazem (Cardizem, Various)
Immediate release: 30-80 mg four times daily
Short duration of action; important consideration necessary owing to hypotension, bradycardia, and edema
Slow release: 120-320 mg once daily
Long duration of action; important consideration necessary owing to hypotension, bradycardia, and edema
Immediate release: 80-160 mg three times daily
Short duration of action; important consideration necessary owing to hypotension, bradycardia, edema, myocardial depression, and heart failure
Slow release: 120-480 mg once daily
Long duration of action; important consideration necessary owing to hypotension, bradycardia, edema, myocardial depression, and heart failure
Class/Agent Verapamil (Calan, Various)
P.810
b . T ic l o pi d i ne ( Ti c li d ) is a t h ie no p y r i di ne de r i vat i v e t ha t i n hi bi ts pl a te l et a g g re g at i on in d uc ed b y a d e no s i ne di p ho s p h at e . H o we v e r , u n li ke as pi r in , i t ha s n o t b e e n sh o wn t o d ec r ea s e a d v e r s e c a r di o v as cu l ar e ve n ts in pa t ie n ts wi t h s ta b le a n gi n a a nd ha s b ee n a s s o c ia t ed wi t h th r om bo t ic th r o m b oc yt o pe n ic p u rp u ra o n a n i n f re q ue n t b as is . c . C l op i d og r e l (P l a vi x ) is al s o a t h ie no p yr i di ne de r i va ti v e r el a te d to ti c l o pi d in e , b u t i t po ss es s e s a nt i th r om b ot i c e f fe c t s t h at a re g re a te r t ha n t h os e o f t ic l op id in e . C l o p id og r e l is a t he r a peu t ic op t io n i n t h os e a ng in a pa t ie n ts wh o c a n n ot t a k e as pi r i n b e ca us e o f c o nt r ai n di c a ti o ns . Do s es o f 7 5 m g d a il y a r e re c o m m en d ed to pr e ve n t t h e d e ve l op m e n t o f a c u t e c or o n a r y s y n d ro m es . d . B as e d o n t he r ec en t l y r e le a s e d 2 00 7 Fo c u s e d G u i d el i ne s f o r p at i en ts wi t h C h r o ni c St a bl e An gi n a, a C l as s I B r ec om m e nd a ti on s ta t es th a t t he us e o f wa r f a r i n i n c o nj u nc ti o n wi t h as pi r in a n d /o r c l op id o g re l i s as so c ia t ed wi t h a n i nc r e as ed r is k o f b l ee d in g a n d s h o ul d b e m o ni t o re d c lo s e l y . 6 . AC E i n h i bi t o r s : B as ed o n t he r ec en t l y re l ea s ed 2 00 7 F oc u s e d g ui d el ine s fo r p a t ie n ts wi t h Ch r on ic S ta b le A ng i na , th e f o ll o wi ng r ec om m e n da t io ns ha v e b e en m a de fo r A C E In hi b it o rs . a . C la ss 1 A r ec om m e n dat i o n s ta t es t h a t A C E in hib i t or s s ho u ld be s t a rt e d a n d c o nt i nu e d i nd e fi ni t el y i n a l l p a ti en t s wi t h le f t v e n tr i c ul a r e je c t i on f ra c t i on ≤ 4 0 % a n d i n th os e wi t h h y p e r te ns ion , di a be t es , o r c h ro n ic k i d n e y di se as e u n le ss c o nt r a in di c a t ed . b . C l ass I B r e c o m m en dat i o n t ha t A C E i nh i bi t o rs s h ou l d b e st a r te d a n d c on t i nu ed i n de f in i te l y in pa t ie n ts wh o a re no t l o we r r is k ( lowe r r i s k d ef i ne d a s t h ose wi t h n o r m a l l ef t v e nt r ic u la r e je c ti o n f r ac ti o n i n wh o m c a r d io va s c ul a r ri s k fa ct o rs a re we l l c o nt r o ll ed an d re v a s c ul ar i z a t io n ha s b ee n p e r fo rm e d ), un l es s c o n tr a in d ic a t e d. c . C la ss I Ia re c om m e nd at i o n t ha t i t is re as o na bl e t o us e A C E in hi b it o rs am o ng l o we r - r i s k p a ti e nt s wi t h m i ld l y re d uc ed o r n o rm al l e ft v e n t ri c u la r ej ec t io n f r a ct i on in wh o m c ar d io v a s c ul a r ri s k f ac to r s a r e we l l c o nt r o ll e d a nd r e v as cu l ar i z a ti on h as b e en p e r f or m e d . d . C u r re n t g ui d el in es do n o t s ug g es t wh ic h a g en t t o us e , a nd it is a n ti c i p ate d th a t o n g oi ng t ri a ls wi t h a dd i tio n al ag e n ts wi l l p ro vi d e a d di t io n al in f o rm at i on reg a r di n g d o si n g r eg im e ns a n d p o te n t ia l d i ff e re n ce s t ha t m ig h t e xi s t am o ng th e c la s s o f d ru g s . 7 . An g i o t en s i n R e ce p t or B l o c ke r s ( AR B s ) : B a s e d on th e re c e n tl y r e le as e d 20 0 7 F o cu se d g u id e li ne s f o r pa t i en ts wi t h C h ro ni c St ab l e An gi n a, t hr e e n e w r e c om m e nd a ti on s h a v e be e n m ad e f o r t h e u s e of A R B s in pa t ie n ts wi t h c hr o n ic s t ab l e a ng i na . a . C la ss I A r ec om m e n dat i o n t ha t A R Bs a re re c om m e n de d f o r p a ti e nt s wh o ha v e h yp e r t en s i on , ha v e in di c a t i on s f o r b ut a re in t ol e ra n t o f A C E i nh i bi t o rs , h av e h e a rt f a i lu r e, o r h a v e h ad a m yo c a rd ia l i n fa r ct i on wi t h l e f t v e nt r ic ul a r e j ec ti o n f ra c ti o n ≤40%. b . C l as s I Ib r ec om m e nd at i o n t ha t A R Bs m a y b e c o n si d er e d i n co m b i na t ion wi t h A C E i n hi b it o rs fo r he a r t f ai l u re d ue to le f t ven t r ic ul a r s y s t ol ic d ys f un c ti on . P.811
c . C la ss I A r ec om m e n dat i o n t ha t al do s te r on e b l oc k a d e is r ec om m e n de d fo r us e i n p o st - MI p a t ie n ts wi t h ou t s i gn i fi c a n t r e na l d y s fu nc t i o n o r h y p e rk al e m i a wh o a r e a l r ea d y r ec ei v i n g t he r a pe u t ic d os e s o f a n A C E inh i b i t o r a nd a b e ta bl oc ker , h a v e a l e f t ve n t ri c u l a r e je c t i on fr a c ti o n ≤ 4 0% , a n d h a v e e i t he r di ab e te s o r h e a rt fa i lu r e . 8 . C h el a t io n Th e r ap y: B a s ed on th e re c e n tl y r e lea s ed 20 0 7 F oc us ed G u ide l in es f o r p a t ie n ts wi t h Ch r on ic S ta b le A ng i na , a c l as s I I I C r e co m m en d at i on s t a te d t h a t C h e l at i on th e ra p y ( in t r a ve n o us i n fu si o ns o f et h y le n e di am in e t e t ra ac e ti c ac i d o r E D TA ) i s no t re c o m m e nde d fo r th e tr e a tm en t o f ch r o ni c a ng i na o r a r te r io s c l e ro ti c c a r di o vas c u l ar di s e as e an d m a y be h ar m fu l b ec au s e o f i ts po t en t ia l t o c au s e h yp o ca lc em i a. C la s s I II C s t at es t ha t t h e r is k i s g re a t e r t ha n t h e b en e fi t a nd s h o ul d not be used.
III. ACUTE CORONARY SYNDROME (ACS) A. D e f i n i t i o n. A C S i s a re l a ti v e l y ne w t e r m t h at ha s b e en in t r od uc e d in t o th e m e di ca l l i te r at u r e t o d es c r i be an y p at t e rn of c l in i c a l s y m p t om s t ha t re f le ct s th e d e ve l op m e n t o f a c u t e MI ( F i gu r e 3 9 -2 ) . Th is c a teg o r y i nc lu de s t h e s ym p t om s r e la t ed t o S T- s eg m e n t e le v a t ed m y o c ar d ia l i n fa rc t io n ( STE MI ) , n o n - S T- s eg m e n t e l e va te d m yo c ar d ia l i n fa rc t io n ( NS TE MI ) , a n d u n s t a bl e a ng i na . B . I n ci d e nc e . I t h as be en es t im a te d t h at ne a rl y 8 m il li o n p a ti en t s s e e n i n e m e rg en c y de p ar t m e n ts e a c h y e a r i n t he U ni t ed S t a t es ar e s ee n fo r c h es t p ai n , a nd t h a t u p t o 5 m i ll io n o f the s e p at i en ts a re ad m i t t ed t o t h e h os pi t al . Mo r e th a n 1 . 5 m i ll io n o f th e p a ti e nt s a dm i tt e d t o t h e h os pi t al a re a dm it t ed wi t h an A C S (3 3 0 ,0 0 0 wi t h S TE MI , a n d 1 . 24 m il l io n wi t h U A a nd N S TE MI ) . C . C l as s i f ic at i on of pa t ien t s p r es en t in g wi t h p r es u m ed A C S i s c ri t ic al t o th e a p p ro p r ia t e d et e rm in a ti on o f p r og n os is a s we ll as c li n ic al in t er ve n ti o ns . I n A C S o wi n g t o S TE MI a n d N S TE MI , a p o r ti o n o f t h e c a rd i ac m us c l e s u ff e rs a s ev e r e a nd p r o lo n ge d re s t r ic t io n o f o xy g e n a t e d c o ro n a r y b l oo d . In th e m aj o ri t y o f p a ti e n ts , t h e c a us e is a n oc c l us i v e o r n e a r -o c c lu si ve t hr om b us o v e r l y i ng or ad j ac en t to a r u pt u re d a t h e ro sc le r o ti c pl a qu e . Th i s r es u lt s i n ce l lu l ar is c h e m i a , t is su e i nj u r y, a n d t i s s ue n e c ro s i s . A bo u t 1 . 5 m i ll io n pe o pl e s uf f e r a n A MI e a ch y e a r. U A is b e li e ved t o i n di ca t ed a n im p en di n g A MI , a n d t he go a l o f t r eat m en t is t o p r e v e nt t he d e ve l op m e n t o f t he A MI .
Figure 39-2. Evolutionary progression of ACSs. As atherosclerosis (most common cause of ischemic heart disease) advances, the reduction in myocardial perfusion results in the development of the ACS owing to either unstable angina, NSTEMI, or STEMI. The thrombi, which form in unstable angina, NSTEMI, STEMI, are rich in both fibrin and platelets. [Adapted from Vanscoy G. Integrating new fibrinolytic findings into AMI reperfusion and combination therapy: 2002 and beyond. Paper presented at the meeting of the Delaware Valley Chapter of the Pennsylvania Society of Health-Systems Pharmacists, March 7, 2002.] P.812
1 . S T EM I . A c o nd i ti o n t ha t r eq u ir es im m e di a te r ep e r f us io n t h er a p y , i f p os s i bl e t h r o ug h e i th e r t h ro m b o l ys is o r p e rc ut a ne o us c o ron a r y i nt e r v e nt io n ( P C I) a . Th e i n t ro d uc ti o n o f t h ro m bo l y si s o r P C I f o r t he m a na g em en t o f S TE MI h a s d e m o ns t r at e d a bi li t y t o re m o v e t he o ff e nd in g th r om b us fr o m t he af f ec t ed co r o na r y artery. b . D am a ge to t he m y o c ar d i al ti s s u e is no t ro u ti n el y r e ve r s i bl e , a s i n t he c a s e o f a n gi n a p ec t or is , o wi n g to p ot e nt i al de a th of m yoc a r di al ti ss u e i f r e pe r fu s io n do es n o t ta ke pl ac e e a rl y e nou g h . 2 . U A a n d N S T EM I . S im il a r c o nd i ti on s f o r wh ic h th e r e i s n o e vi de nc e s howi n g t h e b e n ef i t t o p a ti en t s o f r e pe r f us i on th e ra p y . S pe c i f ic gu i de li n es ha v e be en de ve l o pe d f o r th e d i ag n os is a n d m an a g em en t o f th es e c on d it i o ns . Up to 25 % o f pa t ien t s wh o h a ve bo t h N S TE MI a n d el e v a t ed c a r di ac en z ym e s e ve n tu a ll y d e v el o p Q - w a ve MI ; t h e re m a i ni ng pa t ie n ts de v e l o p n on - Q - wa v e MI . P a t i en ts wi t h U A c a r r y a 1 0 % -2 0 % r i sk of p ro g r es s i on to an MI i f u n t re a te d ; t r ea t m en t ha s b ee n s h o wn to r ed u ce th e r i sk to 5% - 7 %. D . D i a g no s is . Th e E C G i s a t th e c en t e r o f t h e d ec is i on pa t h wa y f o r t h e e va l ua t io n a n d m an a ge m e n t o f p a tie n ts wi t h A C S a n d is con f i rm e d wi t h s e r ia l c a rd ia c m a rk e rs i n > 9 0% of pa t en t s p r es e n t in g wi t h si g ni f ic an t ST- s e g m e n t e le v a t io n . P at i e nt s wh o p r e se n t wi t h o ut S T- s eg m e n t e l e v at i on a re c o ns ide r e d t o h a v e e i th e r U A or N S TE MI ; t h e fi na l d i ag no s i s i s m ad e la t e r, af t e r t he p re s e nc e o r ab s e nc e o f s e r ia l ca r d ia c m a rk e rs is d e te r m i n ed . 1 . D i ag n os t i c t e s t r e su lt s . Th e d e v e lo pm e nt o f a n A C S i s a l i fe - t h re a te ni n g e m e rg en c y ; d i ag n os is i s p r e s u m e d —a n d t r ea t m e nt i s i n s ti t ut e d —b as e d o n t h e p a t ie n t 's c om p la i nt s a nd t h e re su l ts o f an im m e dia t e 1 2 - le ad E C G . La bo r at o r y t es ts a n d f u r th e r d ia g no s ti c t es t s c a n ru l e o ut o r p ro v id e c o nf i rm a ti o n a nd he lp i d en t if y t h e l oc a le an d e xt e n t o f m y o c ar d ia l d am ag e .
2 . S e r ia l 1 2 - le a d E C G . A b n o rm al i ti es m a y b e a bs e nt o r i nc on cl us i ve d u r in g th e fi rs t f e w h o u rs a ft e r p r es en t at i o n o f t h e A C S an d m a y n o t a id t he di ag n os is i n a b o ut 15 % o f t he c as es . W he n p re s e n t , c ha r ac t er is t ic fi n di ng s s ho w p r o g r es s i v e c h an g es . a . Fi r s t, S T- s eg m e n t e lev a t i o n ( i nj u r y c u r re n t ) a pp e a rs in th e l e ad s, r ef l ec t i n g t he i n ju r e d a re a . Pe ak e d u pri g h t o r i n v e r te d T wa v e s u s ua ll y i nd ic a t e ac u te m y o c a r di al i n ju r y, t he ea r l y s t ag es of a t ra ns m u r al Q - wa v e M I . P e rs is t en t S T de p r es s io n m a y a l so in di c a t e a no n - Q - wa v e MI . b . Q wa v e s de v e l op i ng (in d ic a ti ng n ec ro s i s ) i s g en e r a l l y di a gn os t ic o f an MI , b u t c a n b e s ee n i n o t he r c ond i t io ns . c . U ne q ui v o c a l d i ag n os is c a n b e m ad e o n l y i n t he p r es en c e of al l t h r ee a b n or m a l it i es . Ho we v e r , t h e m an i fe s ta t io ns de p en d o n th e a r e a o f i nj u r y . F o r e xa m p l e , i n n on - Q - wa v e i n f ar c ti o n, on l y S T- s eg m e n t d e p re ss io n m a y a p pe a r . d . Th e m os t s e ri o us ar r hy t h m ic c om p li ca t io n o f an ac u te MI i s ve nt r ic ul a r f i b ri l la t io n , wh i c h m a y oc c u r wi t h ou t wa r n i n g . e . V en t r ic ul a r p r em at u r e b e a ts ( V P Bs ) a r e t h e m os t c om m o n l y e nc o un t e red a r r h y t hm ia s a n d m a y r e qu i r e t r ea t m e n t. 3 . C a r di a c e nz ym e s a . C r e at i n e k in a se - h ea rt m u sc l e ( C K - MB ) i s fi r s t e le v a t ed 3 -1 2 h r af t e r th e on s e t o f pa i n, pe ak s i n 2 4 h r , a n d re t ur n s t o b as el i ne in 4 8 -7 2 h r . O th e r c on di t io n s e le v a t e t h e C K - MB e n z y m e b u t do n ot de m o n s t r a te th e t yp i ca l p a tt e r n o f r is e a n d f a l l as s e en in an MI . U n t il r ec en t l y , C K - MB h a d b ee n the p ri n c i pa l s e ru m c ar d iac m a r k e r u s ed in th e e v a l ua t io n o f A C S . b . C a r d ia c t r o p o ni n I ( c Tn I ) a n d c a r di a c t r o p oni n T (c Tn T) a r e e ve n m or e s e ns it i v e th an MB - C K . T h e y r e pr e s e n t a p o we r f u l t o ol fo r r is k s t r a ti f ic at i on a nd ha ve g r e a te r s e ns it i v i t y a n d s p e c i f ic it y t h an C K - MB . H o we ve r , t h e y do p ro v i de a l o w s e ns it i v i t y in th e e a rl y ph a s e s o f a n MI ( < 6 h r a ft e r s y m p to m o ns e t) an d r e q ui r e r e p ea t m e as u re m e n ts a t 8 - 1 2 h r , i f n e ga t i v e. Le v e l s i nc r ea s e 3 -1 2 h r a f t er t h e o ns et o f pa i n, pe ak a t 2 4 -4 8 h r, a nd r et u r n t o b as el i ne o v e r 5 -1 4 da y s . c . L ac t a te de h yd r o g e n as e ( L D H ) is f ol lo we d f o r i t s c ha r ac t er is t ic pa t te r ns o f r is e a n d f a ll . Th e r a ti o o f L D H 1 : L D H 2 i s h el p fu l i n d i ag n os i ng an MI . L D H as sa y s a re b e in g re p la c e d b y c Tn T a s s a y s . 4 . C a r di a c i ma g i ng . As c a r di ac en zy m e s as s a ys i m p ro v e , t h e u s e of no n in v a s i ve c a r di ac im ag in g te c h ni q ue s a r e n o t i nd ic a te d fo r in i t ia l d ia g no s i s o f a n MI . Te s t s i n cl ud e
99m
Tc - p y r o p ho s ph a t e s c in t ig r a ph y, m y oc ar d i al pe r f us io n i m a gi n g,
r a d io n uc le o ti de v e n t ri c u lo g r ap h y, t wo - d im en si on al e c h oc a rd io g r ap h y , a n d c o r on a r y a n gi o g ra p h y . P.813
E . S i g ns an d s ym p t o m s 1 . R ec e nt e v id e nc e -b as ed c l i ni c a l g ui d el in e s in d ic a te a c la ss I r ec om m e nd a t io n f o r p a t ie n ts wi t h s us pe c te d A C S wi t h c he s t di sc om f or t a t r es t fo r lo n ge r th an 2 0 m i n; h e m o d yn am ic i ns t ab i li t y o r r ec en t s y n c op e o r p r es yn c op e s ho ul d b e s t r ong l y c o ns id e re d fo r i m m e di a te r e fe r r al to an em e rg e nc y d ep a r tm en t or sp ec i ali z e d c h es t p a in un i t . Th e fo r em os t c h a r ac t er is t ic of A C S i s pe r s is te n t, se v e r e c he s t pa i n o r
p r e ss u re , c om m o nl y d es c r i be d a s c ru s h i ng , s qu ee zi n g , o r h e a v y ( li ke n ed t o ha v i n g a n el ep h an t s i tt i ng on the c h es t ) . Th e p ai n g e ne ra l l y be gi ns in t he c h es t a n d , l ik e a n gi n a, m a y r a di a te to the l ef t a r m , t he ab d om en , b ac k , n eck , ja w, o r te e th . Th e o n se t o f pa in ge n e ra ll y oc c u r s a t re st o r wi t h no rm a l d ai l y ac ti v i t ie s ; i t is n o t c om m o n l y a s s oc i at e d wi t h e xe r t i o n. 2 . O t he r c o m m on c om p lai n ts in cl u de a s e ns e of im p en d i n g d oo m , s we a ti ng , na us e a, vo m i ti n g, an d d i f fi c u lt y br e a t hi ng . In s om e pa ti e nts , fa i nt in g an d s ud de n de a t h m a y b e th e i n it i al pr es e nt a ti on o f A C S . 3 . O bs e r v a bl e f i nd in gs inc l ud e e xt r e m e a n xi e t y, re s tl es s , a gi t at e d b eh a vio r , an d a s he n p a ll o r. 4 . S om e p a ti en t s , pa r t ic u l a rl y t h os e wi t h di a be t es o r t he el d e rl y , m a y e xp e r i en c e o n l y m i ld or in d ig es t io n -li k e p ai n o r a c l i ni c a ll y si le n t MI , wh i c h m a y o n l y m a ni f es t i n wo r s e n i ng he a rt f ai lu r e , lo s s o f c o ns c i o us ne ss , ac u te c o n fu s i o n, d y s p ne a , a s u dd e n d r o p i n b lo o d p r es s u r e, o r a l e th al a r rh yt hm i a. F . O ve r a l l t re a t me n t g oa l s in AC S 1 . To r el i e v e c h es t pa in a n d a n xi e t y 2 . To r ed uc e c a rd i ac wo rk l oa d a n d st a bi li z e c a r dia c rh yt h m 3 . To p re v e n t / re du c e m yo c a rd ia l d am a ge b y l im i tin g th e a r e a a ff e ct e d a nd p r e se r vi ng pu m p f un c t i on 4 . To p re v e n t o r ar r es t c o m pl ic a ti on s , su c h as le th a l a r r h yth m i as , A MI , H F, o r s u dd e n d ea t h 5 . To r eo p en ( or r ep e r fus e ) c lo se d c o ro n a r y v es s e l s wi t h t hr o m b ol y t i c d rug s a n d/ o r P C I i f i nd ic a te d G . T r e a tm e n t o f U A a n d N S T E M I 1 . A nt i - is c h em ic th e ra p y a . C u r re n t e v i de nc e - ba s e d c l in ic al gu i de li n es i n di c at e c la ss I r ec om m en da t i on s f o r t h e fo ll o wi n g t h e ra pe u ti c i n te r v e n ti o ns i n p a ti e nt s wi t h U A o r N S TE MI : ( 1 ) B ed r es t wi t h c on t in uo u s E C G m on it o r in g f o r is c h e m i a a nd a r rh yt hm i a d e t ec ti o n i n pa t ie n ts wi t h o ng o in g r e s t p ai n . ( 2 ) P a ti en t s wi t h U A / N STE MI wi t h o ng o in g i s c hem ic di s c om f o rt s h ou l d r ec e i ve S L N i t r o gl y c e ri n ( N TG ) 0 . 4 m g e v e r y 5 m i nu t es × 3 d o s e s, a ft e r wh ic h ti m e re a ss es s f o r p o t en t ia l n ee d fo r i n t ra v e n o us n i t ro gl yc e ri n . I n t ra v e n o us N TG i s i nd ic a ted i n t he fi r s t 4 8 h i n p at i en ts wi t h U A /N S TE MI f o r t r e at m e n t o f p e rs is t en t i s c h em ia , h ea r t fa i lu r e , o r h yp er t e ns io n . ( 3 ) S up p le m e n ta l o xy g e n f o r p a ti e nt s wi t h c yan o s i s o r r es pi r at o r y di s tr e s s a n d c o nt i nu e d n ee d f o r s up p le m en t al o xy g e n in th e pre s e n c e o f h y p o xe m ia . ( 4 ) A sp i ri n i n d os es of 16 2 - 32 5 m g ( c he wa b l e ) s h o ul d b e gi ve n t o p a ti e nts wi t h U A / N S TE MI a s s o o n as p o s s ib l e, if t he pa t ie n t ha s n o t a l re a d y ta k e n . ( 5 ) A n o r al β - ad r en e r gi c b l oc k e r s h ou ld b e a dm in is t e re d wi t hi n t h e f i rs t 2 4 h o u rs t o a l l p a ti en t s wi t h o ut c o n t ra i nd ic a ti o ns . I n t ra v e n ous β - ad r e ne r gi c b lo ck e rs s h ou l d o nl y b e us ed fo r s p ec i fi c i nd ic a ti o ns a n d n ot as r ou t ine t he r a p y. ( 6 ) I n p at i en ts wi t h c o nt in u in g o r f re q ue n tl y r ec u rr i n g is c he m i a wh e n β - adr e n e rg ic b l oc ke r s a r e c o n t ra in d ic a t e d, a n on - d ih yd r op y r i din e c a lc iu m a nt a go n is t ( i .e . , d i l ti a zem or v e r ap am i l ) is r ec om m e nd e d a s in i ti a l t h e ra p y in th e a b se nc e o f s e ve r e l e f t ve n t ri c u l a r d y s fu nc t io n o r o th e r c on t r ai nd ic a ti o ns . In pa t ie n ts p r es e nt in g wi t h
l e f t ve n t ri c u l a r d y s fu nc t io n , c u r re n t e vi de nc e s hows t h a t th es e a g en ts m i gh t wo r s en t h e c li n ic al s t a tu s . ( 7 ) A n A C E in h ib i to r s h ou l d b e a dm in is t e re d o r a lly wi t h i n t he fi r st 24 h t o p a t ie n ts wi t h p u lm on a r y c o ng es t io n o r l ef t v en t r ic ul a r e jec t io n fr ac t io n ≤ 40 % i n t he a bs en c e o f h ypo t en s i o n ( s y s t o li c b l oo d p r es s u r e l es s t h an 1 0 0 m m H g o r l es s t h an 3 0 m m H g b e lo w b a s el in e ) o r k n o wn c o n t ra i nd ic a ti on s . A n A R B m a y be us ed fo r A CE i n hi bi t o r i n t ol e ra n t p a ti en t s . P.814
2 . T he r a pe u t ic ag e n ts . Ta b l e 39 - 4 l is ts s e le ct e d a g en ts an d d o s i ng r eg im e ns . a . N i t r a te s ( e . g. , ni t r o g lyc e r i n ) . ( S e e II . H . ) b . M o r p h in e . Re c e n t g uid e li n es fo r U A / N S TE MI a n d S TE MI f r o m 20 0 7 h a ve s ta t ed t h a t m or p hi n e is s t il l c ons i de r ed a Cl as s I re c om m e nd a ti o n in p at ie n ts wi th S TE MI , h o we ve r , i n U A / N S TE MI p a t ie n ts i t m ig h t i nc r ea s e t he r at e o f ad v e r s e e ve n ts , an d h a s b ee n d o wn g r ad e d f ro m a C la s s I r e c o m m en da t i on to a Cl as s I I a. H o we ve r , in t h e a bs e nc e o f c on t r ai ndi c at i on s, m o r ph i ne s u lf a te ca n b e a d m i ni s t e r ed to p a ti e nt s i f th e r e is un c o n t ro l le d i s c h em ic p a in de s p i te th e u s e o f N TG p r o v id ed ad di t i on al t h e r ap y is us ed t o t r ea t th e un d er l y i ng is c h em ia . ( 1 ) M e c ha n is m o f ac t i on . Mo r p h i ne c a us es v e no u s p oo li n g a nd r ed uc es p r el o ad , c a r di ac wo r k lo ad , an d o x y g e n c o ns um p ti on . Mo r p h i ne s h o ul d b e a dm in is t er e d i n t ra ve n ou s l y , s ta r ti n g w i t h 2 m g an d t i t ra t in g a t 5 - t o 1 5 -m in in t er v a ls u nt i l t h e p ai n i s re li e v e d o r to xi c i t y bec om e s e v i de n t. ( 2 ) I nd i ca t i o ns . Mo r p hi ne s u l fa t e i s a re as o na bl e c ho ic e fo r m yo c a r di a l pa i n a nd a n xi e t y i n d os e s o f 1 - 5 m g IV e v e r y 5 -3 0 m in u tes as ne e de d , b as ed on le v e l of p a t ie n t p ai n a n d bl o od pr e s s u r e. ( 3 ) P r ec a u t io n s a nd m on i t o r i ng e f fe c ts ( a ) B ec au s e m o r ph i ne inc r e as es p e r ip he r a l va s od i la t io n a n d d ec r ea s e s pe r i ph e r al r e s is ta nc e , i t c an p ro du c e o r th os t at ic h yp ot e ns ion a nd fa i nt i ng . ( b ) P a ti en t s s h o ul d b e m o n i to r ed f or h ypo t e ns io n a n d s i g ns o f r es pi r at o r y d e p re ss io n . ( c ) Mo r p h i ne ha s a v ag om im e ti c e f fe c t t ha t c an pr o d uc e b r ad y a r r h y t hm ia s. I f E C G m o ni t o ri ng r e v ea ls e xc e s s b ra d yc a r d ia , i t s ho u ld b e r e v er s ed b y a dm i ni s te r i ng a t r o pi ne ( 0. 5 - 1 m g ) . ( d ) N a us ea an d v om it i ng m a y oc c u r , e s p ec ia l l y wi t h i n i t ia l d o s e s , an d p a tie n ts m u s t b e p ro t ec te d a g ai ns t a s pi r a ti o n o f s to m a c h co n ten t s . ( e ) S e ve re c o ns t ip a ti on is a p o te n ti al p ro b le m wi t h o ng oi n g m or p hi n e a dm i n is t ra t io n . Th e p a ti e nt m a y n ee d t o u s e a Va ls a l v a m a n eu v er wh i l e s t r ai ni n g a t t h e s to o l , wh i c h c a n p r od uc e b r ad y c a rd i a o r c a n o v e r lo a d t he c a rd i ac s y s t em a n d t r ig g er c a r di ac a r r es t . Do c us at e (1 00 m g t wi c e d ai l y ) is a us e fu l p r o ph y l ac t ic . c . O x yg e n i s r eq u i re d a t 2 - 4 L /m i n v i a n as a l c ann u la in an y p a ti e nt wh o h a s c h e st p a in an d wh o m a y be is c h e m i c . Mi l d h y po xe m i a is co m m on in ac ut e MI p at i e nt s . I n c re as i ng th e o xy g e n c o n t en t o f th e b l oo d , t hu s i m p r o vi ng o xy g e n a ti o n o f t he m yo c ar d iu m , is a t op p rio r i t y as c o nt in u in g h y p o xi a ra p id l y in c re as es m y oc a r di al d a m a g e.
d . T h r om b ol yt i c a g e n ts h a v e n o t d em o ns t ra t ed b e n ef ic ia l c li n ic al ou tc om es in t he a b se nc e o f S TE MI . S t u d ie s c a r ri ed o ut to da t e h ave f a il e d t o s ho w b e n ef i t wi t h u s in g t h r om bo l y t ic s in UA v e r s us s t an d ar d th e rap y t o pr e ve n t MI . I n ad d it i o n, t h r om b ol y t ic ag e nt s a c t ua l l y in c r e as ed t he ri sk of MI i n s uc h p a ti en t s . Th er e f o re , b a se d o n c u r re n t e v i de nc e - ba s e d g ui d el i ne s, th ro m bo l y t ic a g en t s a re no t r e c om m e nd e d in t he m an a g em en t o f A C S wi t ho ut S T- s e gm en t el e v a ti on . 3 . An t i p l a te l e t a nd a nt ic o a gu l a t io n th e r ap y. T a b le 39 - 5 l is t s s e l ec te d a g e nt s a nd d o si n g r eg im e ns . a . C u r re n t e v i de nc e - ba s e d c l in ic al gu i de li n es i n di c at e c la ss I r ec om m en da t i on s f o r t h e fo ll o wi n g t h e ra pe u ti c i n te r v e n ti o ns i n p a ti e nt s wi t h U A o r N S TE MI : ( 1 ) A n ti pl a te l et th e r ap y s h o ul d b e i n it i at e d p r om ptl y . A s pi r in s h ou ld be a dm i ni s t e r ed a s s oo n as p os s i b le af t er p r es en t a ti on an d c o nt in u e d in d e fi ni t el y. ( 2 ) C lo p id o gr e l s h o ul d be a dm in is t e re d t o h os p ita l i z ed pa t ie n ts wh o a re u n a bl e t o t a ke as pi r i n b ec au s e of h y p e r s e ns i ti v i t y o r m a j o r g as t r oi n te s t i na l i n to le r an c e. ( 3 ) I n h os pi t al i z ed pa t ie nt s fo r wh o m a n e a rl y n oni n t er v e n t io na l a p p ro ac h is p l an n ed , c l op id o g re l s hou l d b e a d de d t o a s p i ri n as so on as po ss ib l e o n a dm is s i o n a n d a dm i ni s t e re d fo r a t le a s t 1 m on t h a nd id e al l y u p to 1 ye a r . ( 4 ) I n p at i en ts f or wh o m a p e rc ut a ne o us c o ro n ar y i n te r v e n ti o n ( c a r di ac c a th e te r i z a ti o n) is pl an ne d , c lo p id o gr e l sh o ul d be s ta r te d wi t h a lo a di ng d o s e of 3 0 0 -6 0 0 m g f ol lo we d b y 7 5 m g d a il y f o r a t l ea s t on e m o nt h b u t i de a ll y u p to 1 y ea r i n pa t ie n ts wh o a r e n o t at h ig h ri sk fo r b l ee d in g , o r a n i nt r a ven o us G l y cop r o t ei n I I b / II I a i nh i bi t or ( G P I Ib / II I a ) . A b c i xi m a b i s i nd ic a te d on l y if t he r e is no ap pr e c ia bl e d e la y t o a n gi o gr a ph y a nd P C I is l ik el y t o b e p e r fo r m ed ; o t he r wi s e , I V ep ti f i ba t id e o r t i r o fi ba n i s t h e p r ef e r re d c ho ic e o f G P II b / II I a i nhi b i to r . I n p a ti e nt s u na b le t o ta ke c l op id o g re l , t ic lo p id in e , 5 0 0 m g l oa d f o ll o we d b y 2 5 0 m g o r al l y da il y i s a n a l t er n a ti v e . ( 5 ) I n p at i en ts t ak in g c lop i do g r el in wh o m e le c t i ve c o r o na r y a r te r y b y p as s g r a ft i ng ( C A B G ) i s p la n ne d , t he d r u g s ho ul d b e wi t h he ld f o r 5 -7 da y s . P.815
P.816
P.817
Table 39-5. Select Antiplatelet/anticoagulant Agents Used in the Treatment of STEMI Patients
Class/Agent Aspirin*
Dosing Level of Evidence Regimen (Guidelines) Oral antiplatelets/anticoagulants For Acute STEMI patients: 162 mg should be chewed by patients who have not taken aspirin before presentation with STEMI.
Class I
For all post-PCI STEMI stented patients:
Clopidogrel (Plavix)
1.
162-325 mg daily for at least 1 month after bare-metal stent implantation, 3 months after sirolimus-eluting stent, and 6 months after paclitaxel-eluting stent, and then indefinitely at doses of 75-132 mg daily.
Class IIa
2.
In patients where there is concern of bleeding, 75 to 162 mg (lowerdose) aspirin is reasonable during the initial period after stent implantation.
Class IIa
1.
75 mg orally daily added to ASA in STEMI patients.
Class I-Post STEMI patients
2.
Treatment should be at least 14 days.
Class I-Post STEMI patients
3.
Loading dose of 300
Class IIa-Post
4.
mg orally (patients <75 years who receive fibrinolytic therapy or who do not receive reperfusion therapy)
STEMI patients
75 mg orally per day, long-term maintenance therapy (e.g., 1 year) (regardless of whether they undergo reperfusion with fibrinolytic therapy).
Class IIa-Post STEMI patients
For all post-PCI STEMI stented patients: 5.
Receive a drug-eluting stent (DES), clopidogrel 75 mg daily should be given for at least 12 months if patients are not at high risk of bleeding.
Class I
6.
Receive a bare metal stent (BMS), clopidogrel should be given for a minimum of 1 month and ideally up to 12 months (unless the patient is at increased risk of bleeding; then it should be given for a minimum of 2 weeks).
Class I
7.
For patients taking clopidogrel for whom CABG is planned, if possible, the drug should be withheld for
Class I
at least 5 days, and preferably for 7, unless the urgency for revascularization outweighs the risks of bleeding. Warfarin
1.
Managing warfarin to INR = 2.0 to 3.0 in post-STEMI patients Use of warfarin in conjunction with aspirin and/or clopidogrel is associated with increased risk of bleeding and should be monitored closely.
2.
In patients requiring warfarin, clopidogrel, and aspirin therapy, an INR of 2 to 2.5 is recommended with low dose aspirin (75 to 81 mg) and a 75 mg dose of clopidogrel.
Class I-Post-STEMI patients
Parenteral antiplatelets/anticoagulants Heparin (UFH)
1.
Bolus of 60 U/kg, maximum 4000 U IV followed by an initial infusion 12 U/kg per hour, (maximum of 1000 U/h) in patient at high risk for systemic emboli (large or anterior MI, atrial fibrillation, previous embolus, known LV thrombus, or cardiogenic shock.
Class I-Post STEMI
2.
IV or SQ UFH or with subcutaneous LMWH for at least 48 hours. In patients whose clinical condition necessitates prolonged bedrest and/or minimized activities, it is reasonable that treatment be continued until the patient is ambulatory.
3.
SQ UFH, 7,500 units to 12,500 units twice daily for prophylaxis for deep venous thrombosis (DVT) until completely ambulatory, may be useful, but the effectiveness of such a strategy is not well established in the contemporary era of routine aspirin use and early mobilization.
Class IIa-PostSTEMI and not undergoing reperfusion, and no contraindications.
Class IIb
For STEMI patients receiving PCI: 4.
Bolus of 70-100 U/kg, and maintenance to target 1.5-2 times aPTT, if no GP IIb/IIIa previously given. However, if a GP IIb/IIIa has been given previously, 5070 U/kg bolus, and maintenance to target, as above.
Class I
Enoxaparin (Lovenox)
Patients undergoing reperfusion with fibrinolytics: For patients less than 75 years of age: 1.
30 mg intravenous bolus, followed in 15 minutes by 1.0 mg/kg SQ every 12 hours (serum creatinine <2.5 mg per dL in men and 2.0 mg per dL in women).
Class I-Post-STEMI
For patients ≥75 years of age, 2.
Fondaparinux (Arixtra)
0.75 mg/kg SQ every 12 hours. (No loading dose) Maintenance doses with enoxaparin should continue for the duration of the index hospitalization, up to 8 days. Regardless of age, if the creatinine clearance (using the Cockroft-Gault formula) during the course of treatment is estimated to be less than 30 mL per minute, the subcutaneous regimen is 1.0 mg per kg every 24 hours.
Class I-Post-STEMI
Patients undergoing reperfusion with fibrinolytics: 1.
2.5 mg IV, followed
Class I-Post STEMI
by 2.5 mg SQ once daily. (serum creatinine is less than 3.0 mg per dL) 2.
Bivalirudin (Angiomax)
Class I-Post STEMI
Patients undergoing PCI:
1.
Abciximab (Reopro)
Maintenance doses with fondaparinux should be continued for the duration of the index hospitalization, up to 8 days.
Initial IV bolus dose of 0.75 mg/kg, followed by 1.75 mg/kg/hour infusion for the duration of the procedure.
0.25 mg/kg IV bolus followed by infusion of 0.125 mcg/kg/min for 12-24 hours
Class I-Post STEMI
Class IIa, for use in addition to aspirin and heparin in STEMI patients for whom catheterization and PCI are planned just before PCI Class III, in STEMI patients for whom PCI is not planned
Eptifibatide (Integrilin)
180 mcg/kg IV bolus followed by infusion of 2.0 mcg/kg/minute for 72-96 hours.
Tirofiban (Aggrestat)
0.4 mcg/kg/minute for 30 minutes followed by infusion of
Class I, for use in addition to aspirin and heparin in STEMI patients for whom catheterization and PCI are planned,
0.1 mcg/kg/minute for 48-96 hours.
*
and in patients just before PCI. Class IIa, in addition to aspirin and a LMWH or UFH in STEMI patients without continuing ischemia who have no other high-risk features and for whom PCI is not planned. Class IIb, in addition to aspirin and LMWH or UFH in STEMI patients without continuing ischemia who have no other high-risk features and for whom PCI is not planned.
Assuming no aspirin resistance, allergy, or increased risk of bleeding.
aPTT, activated partial thromboplastin time; CABG, coronary artery bypass graft; IV, intravenous; PCI, percutaneous coronary intervention; SQ, subcutaneously. P.818
( 6 ) A n ti c o ag u la n t t he r a py s h ou l d b e a dd e d t o a n ti p la t e l e t t h er a p y i n U A / NS TE MI p a t ie n ts a s s oo n a s p os s i b le a ft e r p r es en t a ti on . Fo r p at i en ts in wh o m a n in va s i v e s t r at e g y i s s el ec t ed , re g im e ns wi t h e st a bl is h ed eff i ca c y wi t h a hi g h l e vel of e vi d e nc e i nc lu de en o xa p a r i n a nd he p a ri n , a nd tho s e wi t h a l es s e r le v e l o f e s ta b li sh e d e v i de nc e i nc l u de bi va l i ru di n a n d f on da p a ri n u x. F o r p a ti en t s i n wh o m a c o ns e r vat i v e s t r at e g y i s s e le c t e d, r eg im e ns u si n g e i th e r e n o xa p a ri n o r hep a r in o r f o n da p ar i nu x c a n be ut il iz e d . I n p at i en ts in wh o m a co ns e r v a ti ve s t r at e g y i s s e le ct e d a nd wh o ha v e an i nc r ea s e d ri s k o f b l ee di n g , f on d ap a ri n u x i s p r efe r a bl e . ( 7 ) A pl at e le t g l y c op r ot e in I I b/ I I Ia an t ag on is t s h ou l d b e a dm in is t e re d , i n ad d i ti on t o a s pi r in an d h e pa r in , to pa t i en ts f or wh o m c a th e ter i za t io n an d P C I a re pl ann e d . Th e a g e nt m a y al s o b e a dm ini s te r e d j us t b ef o r e P C I .
b . C u r re n t e v i de nc e - ba s e d c l in ic al gu i de li n es i n di c at e a cl as s I I a r ec om m e n d at io n f o r th e fo ll o wi n g t h e ra peu t ic in t e r ven t io ns in pa t i e n ts wi t h U A o r N S TE MI : ( 1 ) F or pa t ie n ts in wh o m a n i n it i al c o ns e r v at i v e s t r a t eg y is s e le c te d a n d wh o ha ve r e c ur r e nt is c h em ic di s c om f o rt wi t h c l op id o g re l , AS A , a nd an t ic oa g ul an t the r a p y , i t i s a cc e pt a bl e t o a d d a G P II b / I II a a n ta g on is t b e f or e d i ag n os ti c a n gi og r a ph y. ( 2 ) F or pa t ie n ts in wh o m a n i n it i al i n v a si ve s t r at eg y i s s el ec t ed , i t i s re aso n a bl e t o i n i ti a te an t ip la t el e t t he r ap y wi t h b o th c l op id o g re l ( l o ad i ng do s e fo l lo we d by d a i l y m a in t en a nc e d os e ) a nd a n in t r a ven ou s G P I I b/ I I Ia i nh ib i to r . Ab ci xi m a b i s i n di c a t ed o n l y if th e r e is no ap p r ec i a bl e d e la y t o a n gi og r a ph y a n d P C I is l ik e l y t o be p e r f or m e d ; o t he r wi s e , I V e p ti f ib a ti d e o r t i ro f ib a n is t he pr e fe r r e d c h o ic e o f G P I I b / II I a i nh i bi t or . ( 3 ) F or pa t ie n ts in wh o m a n i n it i al i n v a si ve s t r at eg y i s s el ec t ed , i t i s re aso n a bl e t o o m it ad m i n is t ra t io n o f a n i n t ra v e n ou s G P I Ib / I II a a n t ag o ni s t be f o re di ag n os t ic a n gi o g ra p h y i f b i v a li r ud in is s e le c te d a s t he an t ic o ag u la n t a nd at le as t 30 0 m g o f c l op id o g re l wa s a dm in is te r e d a t l e as t 6 h e ar l ie r th a n p la n ne d c a th e te r i z a ti o n o r PCI. c . C u r re n t e v i de nc e - ba s e d c l in ic al p ra c ti ce gu id el i ne s i nd ic a te a c la ss II b r e c om m e nd a ti on f o r t he f o l lo wi n g th e ra p eu t ic i n te r v e n t io n i n p a ti en t s wi t h U A o r N S TE MI : E p t i f ib a ti de o r ti r o fi b an , i n a d di t io n t o as p i ri n a nd L MW H o r U F H, t o p a t ie n ts wi t ho u t c on t in uin g is c h em ia wh o ha ve no o th e r h i gh - r isk f ea t ur es an d fo r wh o m P C I is n o t p la n ne d. d . C u r re n t e v i de nc e - ba s e d c l in ic al p ra c ti ce gu id el i ne s i nd ic a te a c la ss II I r e c om m e nd a ti on f o r t he f o l lo wi n g th e ra p eu t ic i n te r v e n t io ns in pa t ie n ts wit h U A or N S TE MI : ( 1 ) Th e ri s k s as s oc ia t ed wi t h p a r en t e ra ll y a dm in ist e r e d t h ro m b ol y t i c t he r ap y i n p a t ie n ts wi t ho u t a c u t e STE MI a r e m uc h g re a t er th a n t h e b en e fi ts an d s h ou l d n o t b e u s ed . ( 2 ) Th e ri s k s as s oc ia t ed wi t h t h e a dm in is t r at i on of a bc i xi m ab in pa t ie n ts fo r wh o m P C I i s n ot pl a nn ed a re m u c h g r ea t e r t ha n t h e b ene f i ts an d s ho ul d n o t b e us e d. H. STEMI 1 . O f th e m o re th a n 1 .5 m i ll io n p a ti e nt s a dm i tt e d t o ho s p i ta ls wi t h a cu t e co r o na r y s yn d r om es ( A C S ) e ac h y e a r , m o re th a n 3 00 , 00 0 o f t he m wi l l be di ag n os ed wi t h S TE MI . A p p r o xi m a te l y 90 % of t ho s e di ag n os ed wi t h S TE MI wi l l h a ve c om p l e te o cc l us io n o f th e i n fa r c t - re l a te d a r t er y b y a th om bu s . 2 . W he n t h e le s i o n r u pt ur e s , i t t r ig g e rs th e r e le as e o f a de n os in e d i ph os pha t e ( A D P ), s e r ot o ni ns , a n d t h ro m b oxa n e A 2 , wh i c h l ea ds to p l a te le t ag g re g at i on an d t h e f o r m a t io n o f th e p r im a r y c l ot . Th r om bo p la s t i n, r ele a se d f r om t he i n ju r ed v e s s e l i n i ti a te s t he c l ot t in g c as c a de , a n d t he r es ul t in g fib r i n, t r ap s r ed bl o od ce lls ( R B C s ) , p l a te le t s , an d p l as m a p ro t e in to f or m a n i n tr a lu m i n al t hr om b us . Th e s u b se q u en t c lo t d i ss ol u ti on is c a us ed b y t h e c on ve r si o n o f p la s m in o g en to pl as m i n , wh i c h i s m e di a te d b y p la s m in o gen ac t i v a to r s. 3 . A c c or d in g t o u p da t ed m a na g em en t g u id el i ne s ( s e e I . D .6 . ) , a ll pa t ie n ts wi t h S TE MI s h o ul d re c e i v e e it h e r p r im a r y pe rc u ta n eou s c o ro n a r y i n te r v e n ti on ( P C I ) , wi t h i n 90 m i nu t es o f fi r s t m ed ic a l c o n ta c t ( C l as s IA r e c o m m en d at i on ) o r fib r i no l yt ic t h e r ap y wi t h i n 3 0 m i n ut es o f h os pi t al pr e s e n ta t ion i f t he y c an n ot be t ra nsf e r r ed t o a
P C I c en t e r a nd un de r g o P C I wi t h i n 9 0 m in of fi r s t m ed ic a l c o n ta c t, un l es s f i b ri n ol y t ic t he r ap y i s c on t r ai n di ca t ed ( C la s s I B ) r e c om m e nd a ti on . 4 . I t is be y o n d t h e r ea lm o f th is te xt t o e xp a n d o n t h e c li ni c a l i m p li c at i on s f o r p r i m a r y P C I , f ac il i ta t ed P C I , a nd re s c u e P C I , a s d e s c r ib ed in t he m os t rec e nt 20 0 7 F o cu se d S TE MI g u i de l ine s . Co ns e qu en t l y th e re vi e w wi l l f oc us st r ic t l y o n t h e p h a rm ac ol o gi c a ge n ts rec om m e n de d fo r u s e in t he S TE MI p a t i e n t p op ul a tio n , wh ic h i n cl ud e ; f i br i no l y t ic s , ana l ge s i c s , a n ti c o a gu l an ts , t h ie n op yr i di n es , a n ti pl a te l e ts , A C E i n hi b it o rs , A R Bs , a n d β -a d r en e r gi c r ec e pt o r b lo c k e rs P.819 a s e i th e r p r im a r y t re a tm e n t o r s e c o nd a r y p re v e n ti ve a nd lo n g- t e rm m a na ge m en t , a s d i sc us se d i n t h e g ui de l ine s . a . F ib r i n ol yt i c s . A dm i nis t r at i on of t hr o m b ol y t i c ag e n ts c a us es t h e t h ro m bu s c lo t to b e l ys e d wh e n ad m i n is ter e d ea r l y a f t er s ym p t om o n s e t (< 6 -1 2 h r ) an d t o r e s to r e b l oo d fl o w. Th e c o n v e rs io n of pl as m i n og e n t o p las m i n p r om o te s f i br i no l y s is an d b r e ak do wn o f th e c lo t . ( 1 ) I nd i ca t i o ns ( a ) Th r om b ol y t ic a ge n ts we r e u s ed in pa t ie n ts wi th S TE MI wi t h c he s t p ai n < 6 - 12 h r. S u cc es s fu l e a rl y r e pe r f us i on ha s b ee n s ho wn t o r e d uc e i n fa r ct s i ze , i m p ro v e ve n t r ic u la r fu nc t io n , a nd i m p ro v e m o r ta li t y. H o we v e r , b en e fi ts m a y b e s een i n p a t ie n ts u s i n g t h ro m b o l yt i c t h er a p y a s l a te as 1 2 h r a ft e r p a in s t a rt s . ( b ) I nt r a v e no us ad m i n is tr a t io n of a r ec om b in an t ti s s u e -p la sm in o ge n a c ti v a t o r (t - P A ) s uc h a s a l te pl a s e ( Ac t i va s e ), a r ec om b in a nt pl as m i no g en ac ti va t o r ( r - P A ) s uc h a s r e t e pl as e ( R e t a v as e ), o r t e n ec te p la s e ( TN K a s e ) , m a y r es t or e b l oo d f l o w in a n o cc l ud e d a r te r y i f a dm in is t e re d wi t hi n 1 2 h r of an a cu t e MI , al t ho u gh < 6 h r is o p t im al . Th e g oa l o f tr e at m en t of S TE MI p a t i en t s i s to i n it i at e th r om bo l y t ic t h e ra p y wi t h i n 30 - 60 m i n o f a r r i va l in an em e rg en c y r oo m . ( i ) t - P A i s r el a ti v e l y f ib r in s p ec i fi c a nd is ab le t o l y s e c lo t s wi t h o ut de p le t in g f i b ri n og e n, an d TN K a s e h a s a n e v e n g r ea t e r f ib r in s p ec i fi c i t y . S t re p to ki n as e a c ti va t es th e fi b ri no l y t ic s y s t em a n d h as a g re a ter l ik el i ho o d o f c au s i ng s ys t em ic e f f ec ts t ha n t - P A . Th is ef f e c t m a y r es ul t in a g rea t e r d e gr e e o f s y s te m i c b l ee d in g c om p a re d wi t h t - P A , r - PA , a nd TN K . ( i i ) Th o ug h wh ic h a g en t— t - P A , r - P A, an d TN K — is be s t is s t il l c on t r o v e rs ia l , m os t s t ud i es h a v e s h o wn th a t e a c h ag e nt , wh e n u s e d ea r l y , c a n r e op e n ( r ep e r fus e ) o cc l ud e d c o r o na r y a r te r ie s a n d r e du c e m o r ta l it y fr o m S TE MI . H o we v e r , c o ns id e ra t io ns s u c h as ea s e o f u s e , o ns e t o f a c tio n , i nc i de nc e o f b l ee d , an d c os t a r e i m po r ta n t f ac t o rs i n d e t e rm in in g wh ic h a g en t t o us e f o r a g i v e n h os pi ta l an d p a t ie n t. ( 2 ) I nd i vi d u al a ge n ts ( a ) Al t e p l as e ( Ac t i va se ) ( i ) Ab s o l u te c on t r a in d ic a t i on s to t - PA in cl u de a c ti v e in t e rn a l b le ed i ng ; r e c en t c e r eb r o v as c u la r ac c i de nt ( C V A ) ; i n t ra c ra ni a l n eop l a s m ; an e u r ys m ; p re g na n c y ; a r t e ri o v e no us m a l fo rm a tio n s ; r ec en t ( wi t hi n 2 m on t hs ) in t r ac r an ia l s u rg e ry, s p in al s u r ge r y, o r t r au m a ; a n d s e v e r e u nc on t r ol le d h y pe r t e ns io n , b le ed i ng di a the s is , o r h e m o r r ha g ic o p ht h al m i c c o nd i ti on s .
( i i ) A f ro n t - l oa de d r eg im e n — an acc e le r a te d i n fu s io n t h at c o ns is ts o f a to t a l d os e o f 1 0 0 m g o r l es s t h at is g iv e n o v e r 1 . 5 h r —m a y be m o re be n ef ic i al . Th e i ni ti a l d os e o f 1 5 m g i s g i v en as an I V b o lu s , 1 - 2 m i n , wh i l e a n i n f us io n i s b eg u n t o: ( a ) I nf us e t- P A at t he ra te o f 0 . 75 m g /k g o ve r 3 0 m i n ( n ot to e xc e e d 5 0 m g ) ( b ) F ol lo we d b y t - P A i n fus e d a t 0 . 5 m g / k g o v e r 6 0 m in ( no t to e xc e ed 35 m g ) ( i i i ) An al t e rn a te do s i n g r e g im en is ba s e d o n t h e p a t ie n t 's we i g ht . ( a ) D o sa g e f o r pa t i en t s > 65 k g. A to t al of 10 0 m g o f t - PA is ge n er a ll y a d m i ni s te r ed t o a ll p a ti en t s wh o we i gh > 6 5 k g ov e r a 3 -h r pe r io d . Th o u gh m a n y r e g im en s h a v e b e en us ed , ge n e ra ll y s pe ak in g , 6 -1 0 m g o f t - PA is gi ve n as an I V b o lu s o v e r 1 -2 m i n, fo l lowe d b y t h e re m a in i ng in fu s io n ra t es o v e r th e n e xt 3 h r: a 5 4 - 60 - m g I V i n fu s i on o ve r t he 1s t h r , a 20 - m g I V i n fu si o n o ve r t h e 2 nd h r, a nd a 2 0 m g IV in f us io n o v e r t he 3 r d hr . ( b ) D o sa g e f o r pa t i en t s < 65 k g. A d o s e of 1. 2 5 m g /k g i s g i v en o ve r a 3 -h r p er i od , wi t h 1 0 % o f t h e t ot a l d os e g i v en in i ti al l y as a b ol u s d os e o ver 1 -2 m i n. ( b ) R e t ep l as e ( Re t a va se ) ( i ) Ab s o l u te c on t r a in d ic a t i on s to re t ep l as e a r e s im i la r to th os e fo r t- P A , t h ou g h a d di t io n al c a ut i on a r y s t at e m e n ts a re gi v e n f o r p at i e nt s wi t h s e ve r e l y i m p ai r e d r e na l f u nc t io n o r li v e r fu nc t io n. ( i i ) D o si n g is in i ti a te d wi t h t h e i nt r a v e no us ad m in i s t r a ti o n o f 1 0 U o v e r a 2 - m in p e r io d , a nd t he n r e pe a ted a f te r 3 0 m in , if th e r e ar e n o c o m p l ic at i on s. P.820
( c ) T en e ct e p la se ( T N K as e ) ( i ) Ab s o l u te c on t r a in d ic a t i on s to te n ec te p la s e a r e s im il a r to th os e f o r t-P A a n d r P A wi t h t he f ol lo wi n g add i t io n : us e wi t h c au t io n in p at i en ts r ec en t l y re ce ivi n g a g l yc op r o te in I Ib / I II a a g en t , pr e gn a nt pa t ie n ts , e ld e r l y pa t ie n ts , p at i en t s wi t h e n d oc ar d it is , an d p a ti en ts wi t h s e v e r e l i ver di s e as e . ( i i ) Te n ec te p la s e is ap p ro v e d fo r us e i n a cu t e t r ea t m e n t o f MI a t d os es o f 3 0 - 50 m g ( b a se d o n t h e p at i en t ' s we i g h t ) as a s i ng l e I V b ol u s o v e r 1 0 - 15 s ec . R ap id r a te of a d m i ni s t ra ti o n , f ib r in s p ec i fi c i t y , fe we r b l ee di n g co m pl ic a ti on s c om pa r e d to t - P A , a n d s up e ri o r it y o v e r t- P A i n l a te - t r ea t ed pa t ie n ts m ak e te ne c te p la se a li k el y c a nd i da t e t o r e pl ac e t - PA a s t h e a ge n t o f c ho ic e i n S TE MI . ( 3 ) Ad j u n c ti ve f i b r in o l ys i s th e r a p y. Th e r e c e nt ly r e l e as ed 20 0 7 F oc us ed G u i d el i ne s f o r S T- s e gm en t el e v a te d MI d is cu s s the us e o f an al g es ia , β -a dr e n e rg ic r e c ep t or bl o c k er s , a nt ic oa g ul a nt s , a nd th i en o p y rid i ne s , i n S TE MI p a t i e n ts b as e d o n t h e q u al i t y o f a v ai la b le lit e r a tu r e f o r t h ei r us e. ( a ) A na l ge s i a ( i ) Mo r p h i ne s u lf a te in do s es o f 2 -4 m g I V in in c re m en ts o f 2 - 8 m g I V , r epe a t ed in 5 1 5 m i nu t e i nt e r v a ls i s t he a na lg e s i c o f c h o ic e f o r t h e m an ag em e n t o f p ai n d u e t o S TE MI ( C l a s s I C ) ( i i ) P at i en ts t ak in g N S AID s wi t h th e e xc e p t i on of a s pi r in , be f or e b e in g t r ea t e d f o r S TE MI s h o ul d s t op ta k i ng t he m d ue t o i nc r ea s e d r i s k of m o r t al it y , r ei n fa r ct i o n, h yp e r t en s i on , he a r t f ai lur e , an d m y o ca r di a l r up t ur e as s o ci a te d wi t h t h ei r u s e ( C l ass IC)
( b ) As p i r i n a dm i ni s t e r ed ( 1 6 0- 3 25 m g ) d u r in g a c u t e th r om bo l y t i c th e ra p y h a s b ee n s h o wn t o a ff ec t th r om b oly s i s p os i ti ve l y b y p r e v e nt i n g p la t el e t a gg r eg a ti o n a n d h as r e d uc ed po s ti n fa r c t m o r ta l i t y . D o se s o f a s p i ri n , 75 - 1 62 m g da il y h a v e b e en r e c om m e nd e d f o r l on g -t er m us e a t h os p it al di s c ha r g e . O t h er ag e n ts i nc l ud e t i cl o pi di n e ( Ti c li d ), a nd c l o pi d og r el ( P la v i x) . ( c ) β - Ad r e n e r gi c b l o ck er s ( i ) O r a l β - b lo c k e r t he r a py s h ou l d b e g i v en du r in g t h e f i rs t 2 4 h o u rs t o S TE MI p a t ie n ts n o t h a v in g (a ) s ig n s o f h ea r t fa il u r e, ( b ) e v i d e nc e o f a l o w o u t pu t s t at e , ( c ) i n c re as ed r is k f o r c a r di og e ni c s ho c k , o r ot h e r con t r ai n di ca t io ns t o r ec ei v in g β b l oc ke r s ( C l as s I B ) . ( i i ) P at i en ts wh o m a y i nit i a ll y p re s en t wi t h c on t rai n di ca t io ns t o r ec e i vin g β - b l oc k e r s d u r in g th e i ni t ia l 2 4 h o urs o f t he i r S TE MI s h ou l d b e r ee v a lu a te d fo r re ce i vi n g s uc h t h e r ap y as a s ec on d ar y p r e v e n ti v e m e as u re ( C las s I C ) . ( i i i ) Pa t ie n ts wi t h m od e ra t e o r s e ve r e l ef t v e nt r icu l a r f ai l u re s h ou ld r ec ei ve β b l oc ke r th e r ap y as a s ec o n d ar y p r e v en t i ve m ea su r e , b u t wi t h a g r ad u al do s e e sc a la t io n t i t ra t io n ( Cl as s I B ) . ( i v) I t is re a s o na b le to ad m in is t e r a n I V β -b l ock er t o a S TE MI p a t i e nt at th e ti m e o f p r e se n ta t io n i f t h e y ha v e h y p e r te ns i on an d d o n o t h a v e a n y o f t he ab o ve c o nt r a in di c a t io ns t o r ec ei v i n g t h em ( Cl as s I I a ). ( v) I V β - b lo c k e rs s h ou ld n o t b e u s e d i n S TE MI p a t i e nt s wh o h a v e a n y o f th e ab o ve m e nt i on e d c o n t ra in d ic at io n s t o t h ei r u s e as th e ris k i s m u c h g re a te r th a n o r e qu al t o t h e ir b en e fi t i n t h es e p ati e n ts ( Cl as s I I I A ). ( d ) An t i c o ag u l an t s ( i ) P a ti en t s wh o u nd e r go r e p er f us io n wi t h f i b ri no lyt i c s sh o ul d re c e i v e a n tic o ag u la n t t h e r ap y f o r a t l ea s t 4 8 ho u r s , an d i d ea ll y t h ro u gho u t th e h os pi t al i z a ti o n, up t o 8 d a ys ( Cl as s I C ) . ( i i ) P at i en ts wh o r ec ei v e a n ti c o a gu l an ts fo r m o r e t h a n 4 8 h ou r s sh o ul d re c e i v e an a g e nt ot h e r t ha n u n f ra c t io n a te d h e pa r in ( U F H ) d ue t o t h e i nc re a se d r is k o f h e pa r in i n du c ed th r om bo c y t op e nia wi t h i ts p r ol o ng e d us e ( C l a s s IA ) . ( i i i ) An t ic oa g ul a nt r eg im e n s wi t h es t ab li s he d e f fic ac y i n S TE MI i n c l u de :
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— U n f r ac t io n at e d h ep a ri n ( U F H ) : In i ti al I V b o lu s of 6 0 u ni t s p er k g (m a xi m u m 4 , 0 00 un i ts ) f o ll o we d b y a n I V i nf us i on of 1 2 u ni ts / k g / ho u r ( m a xi m u m o f 1 , 0 00 un i ts /h o u r) in i ti a ll y . Th e d os e sh o ul d b e a dj u s te d to m a in t ai n a n a c ti v a t ed pa r t ia l t h r om bop l as t in ti m e ( a P TT) o f 1 .5 - 2 ti m e s c on t ro l ( Cl as s IC).
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— E n o xa p a r i n: A n i ni t ia l 3 0 m g I V b ol us , f o ll o we d i n 1 5 m in u te s b y a s u bc ut a ne o us i n je c t i on of 1 m g /k g e v e r y 1 2 h ou rs ( a s s um in g s e ru m c r e at i ni ne is l e s s t h an 2 .5 m g / dL in m e n , 2 .0 m g /d L in wo m en in pa t ie n ts l e s s th an P.821
7 5 y e a rs o f ag e ). F or pa ti e n ts 7 5 y ea r s o f a g e a nd o ld e r , t he I V b ol us do s e
i s e l im in a te d a nd t he pa ti e n t is gi v e n a s u bc u ta ne o us do se o f 0 .7 5 m g p er k g e v e r y 1 2 h o u rs . C A U TI O N : I n a l l p at i en ts , i f th e c r e a ti n in e c le a r an c e is e s ti m a t ed t o b e l es s t han 3 0 m L pe r m i nu t e, t he d o s i n g r eg im e n s h o ul d be c h an g ed to 1 m g p er k g e v e r y 2 4 h o u rs . Th e c u r re n t g u id el i ne s r ec om m e nd t h e u s e o f m a i nt e na nc e d o s i n g o f e no xa p a r i n f o r t h e d u ra t io n o f h o s p i ta li z a t io n , u p t o a m a xi m um o f 8 d a y s ( C l as s I A ) .
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— F o n da pa r i nu x: A n i ni t ia l do s e of 2 .5 m g i n t ra ven o us l y an d s ub s e q ue n t s u bc ut a ne o us i n je c t i on s o f 2 .5 m g g i v e n o nc e d ail y ( a ss um in g s e ru m c r e at i ni ne is l e s s t h an 3 .0 m g / dL ) . Th e c u rr e nt gui d el i ne s, as in th e c as e o f e n o xa p a r in , re c o m m en d t h e u s e o f m a i nt e na nc e d o s i n g o f f on d ap a ri n u x f o r t h e d u r at i on of ho s p i ta l i za t i on , u p to a m a xi m u m o f 8 d a ys ( C l as s I B ) .
( i v) A n t ic o ag ul a nt s h a v e a ls o b e en s h o wn t o b e e f f ec t i v e i n S TE MI p a t i en t s p r io r to u n d er g oi n g P C I , wi t h t he f o ll o wi n g d os i ng re c o m m e nd a ti o ns :
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— U F H : F o r p ri o r t r e at m en t , ad m i ni s te r a d di t io n al b o lu s es o f U F H a s n ee de d t o s u pp o r t t h e p ro c e d u re, b u t t ak e i nt o a cc o un t wh e t he r ot h er ag e n ts s uc h a s G P I I b / II I a r ec e pt o r a n tag o ni s ts ( Cl as s I C ) . Bi v a l ir u d in ca n a ls o b e u s e d in p a t ie n ts p r e v i ou s l y t r ea te d wi t h U F H ( C l as s I C ) .
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— E n o xa p a r i n ( Lo v e n o x) : F o r p r i or t re a tm en t , i f the l as t s ub cu t an e ou s d ose o f en o xa p a r in wa s gi v e n wi t h i n th e p r e v i ou s 8 h ou r s , n o a dd i ti o na l d r ug is n e e de d ; h o we v e r , i f th e la s t d os e wa s a dm in is t e re d 8 -1 2 h ou r s e a rl ie r , an i n t ra v e n ou s d os e o f 0 . 3 m g /k g s ho ul d be gi ve n (C l a s s I B) .
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— F o n da pa r i nu x ( A r i xt r a ) : F o r p r io r t re a tm en t , a dm i ni s t e r a d di ti o na l i n t ra v e n ou s t r e at m e n t wi t h an an t ic oa g ul a nt po s se s s i ng an t i -I I a a c t i vi t y , bu t t a k e in t o a c c ou n t wh e t h er G P I I b /I I Ia r ec ep t o r a nta g o ni s t s h a v e b ee n a d m i ni s te r ed ( C la s s I C ). H o we v e r , d u e t o t h e r is k o f c a th e te r th r om b os is , f o n da p ar i nu x i s no t r ec om m e n de d a s t h e so l e a nt i c o a gu la n t t o s up p o rt PC I a n d re qu i r es t h e a dd i ti on o f a no t he r an t ic oa g ul an t wi t h an t i- I I a ac t i vit y ( C l a s s II I C ) .
( v) A n t i c o ag u la n ts (n o n-U F H r e gi m e ns ) ha v e al so b ee n re c o m m en d ed fo r p a ti e nt s wi t h S TE MI wh o d o n ot un d e rg o re p er f us i on th e rap y f o r th e d u ra t io n o f th e i n it i al h o sp i ta li z a t io n ( Cl as s I I a) . D o s i ng r eg im e ns t h at c a n b e u s e d i nc lu d e e noxa p a r i n o r f o n da p ar i nu x i n t he s a m e d os in g re gi m e ns as in t h os e p a ti e nt s re c e i v in g f i b ri n ol y t ic ( s e e i v ab o v e ) . ( e ) T hi e no p yr i d i n e s ( i ) C l op id o g re l ( P l a v i x) s h o ul d b e ad de d to as pi r in i n S TE MI p a t i e n ts re gar d l es s o f wh e t h e r th e y un d e rg o rep e r f us io n wi t h f ib r in o l y tic s o r do no t re c e i v e re per f u s i o n ( C l a ss IB ) . D os es o f 75 m g b y m ou t h d ai l y s h ou ld b e a dm in is t e re d . Tr e a tm e nt s h ou l d c o n ti n ue fo r at lea s t 1 4 d a y s ( C l as s I B ) . ( i i ) P at i en ts r ec ei v i n g c lo p id o g re l ( P l a v i x) wh o a re p l a nn i ng on un d e rg oi ng C A B G s h ou l d di s c o nt i nu e t h er ap y 5 - 7 d a y s p r io r to th e s u r ge r y, un l ess th e ur g en c y o f t he p r o ce du r e o u t we i gh s t h e r i s k s o f e xc e ss bl e ed in g ( C l as s I B ) .
( i i i ) Pa t ie n ts le s s t h an 75 y e a rs r ec ei vi n g f ib r in o ly t i c th e ra p y o r wh o d o no t r ec ei v e r e p e rf us i on th e r ap y , i t is r e as o na bl e to ad m i ni s ter a n o r al c l op i do g re l l o ad i ng do s e o f 30 0 m g . ( N o d a ta a re a v a i la b le to gu i de de ci sio n m ak i ng r eg a rd i ng an o r a l l o ad i ng do s e in pa t ie n ts ≥ 7 5 y e a rs o f ag e . ) ( C la s s I Ia ) . ( i v) L o ng - t e rm m ai n te n an c e t he r a p y (e . g. , 1 y e a r) wi t h c l o pi d og r el ( 75 m g p e r d a y o r a ll y) c a n b e u s ef ul in S TE MI p a t i en t s r eg a r dl es s o f wh e th e r th e y un de rg o r e p e rf us i on wi t h fi b ri n ol y t i c t h er a p y o r do no t re c e i v e r ep e rf u si on th e r ap y ( C l a s s IIa). ( 4 ) S ec on d a r y P re v e n ti on a nd Lo n g- Te r m Ma n a ge m en t : ( a ) Ta bl e 3 9 -2 p ro v i d es a c om b in a ti o n o f r is k f ac t or s as we l l a s d is ea s e - bas e d r ec om m e n da t io ns , wh i ch ha v e b e e n in c or p o ra t ed in t o th e r ec en t l y u p da t ed 20 07 F o c us ed G u id e li ne s f or S TE MI p a t ie n ts . A d di t io n al l y , t he g ui de l in es in cl u de re co m m e nd a ti o ns m ad e fo r s e le c t p h a rm ac ol o gi c a ge n ts wh i c h in c l ud e as pi r in , c lo pi d o g r e l, wa r f a r in , A C E i nh i bi t o rs , a n gi o te n s i n r ec e pt o r b l oc k e r s , a ld os t er o ne bl oc ka d e , a nd β - bl oc k e r s, an d i n fl u en za va c ci n at i on . ( a ) As p i r i n ( i ) F o r a ll p o s t - P C I S TEMI p a t i e n ts re ce i vin g a s t e n t ( b a re m e ta l , si r o li m u s , p a cl i ta xe l ) , wi t h o ut c o n tra i nd ic a ti o ns to as pi r in , sh o ul d re c e i v e a s pi r in 162 t o 3 25 m g d a il y f o r 1 - 6 m o n th s d e p en di n g o n t he t y p e o f s t en t u s e d . A f t e r t he P.822 i n i ti al 1 -6 m o nt hs a m ai nt e n an c e do s e o f as p ir i n s h ou l d b e co n ti n ue d a t a d os e o f 7 5 to 16 2 m g d ai l y , in de fi n i te l y ( Cl a s s I B ) . ( i i ) In t ho s e pa t ie n ts wh e r e th e re is c o nc e rn fo r a h ig h ri s k o f b l ee d in g , do s es o f a s pi r in , 75 m g t o 1 6 2 m g d a il y is r ea s o n ab le du r in g th e i n it i al pe r io d a n d a f t e r s te n t i m pl an t a ti on ( C la s s II a ) . ( b ) C l o pi d o g re l ( Pl a vi x ) ( i ) F o r a ll p o s t - P C I p a ti en t s wh o re c e i v e a d ru g -el u t in g s te n t ( si r o lim u s, pa c li t a xe l ) , c l op id o g re l 7 5 m g d ai l y s h o ul d b e gi v e n f o r a t l e as t 12 m o nt hs i f p at ie n ts a r e no t a t h i gh r is k o f b le e di ng ( C la s s I B ) . ( i i ) Fo r po s t- P C I pa t ie n ts r ec ei v i n g a b a r e m e t al s t en t c l op id o g re l s ho ul d b e gi v e n f o r a m i n im um o f 1 m o n th a nd id e al l y u p to 12 m o n t hs (u n le s s th e p a ti en t i s a t i n c re as ed r is k o f b le e di ng ; t he n i t s ho u ld be gi v en f o r a m in im um o f 2 wee k s ) ( C la ss IB). ( i i i ) Fo r a l l S TE MI p a t i e nt s no t u n de r go i ng s t en t ing ( m e d ic al th e ra p y al o ne o r P TC A wi t h o u t s t en t in g ) , t r ea tm e n t wi t h c lo pi d og r el sh oul d c o nt i nu e f o r a t l e as t 14 d a ys ( C l a ss IB ) . ( i v) L o ng - t e rm m ai n te n an c e t he r a p y (e . g. , 1 y e a r) wi t h c l o pi d og r el ( 75 m g p e r d a y o r a ll y) is r ea s o n ab le in S TE MI p a t i en t s r eg a r dl es s o f wh e th e r th e y un de rg o r e p e rf us i on wi t h fi b ri n ol y t i c t h er a p y o r do no t re c e i v e r ep e rf u si on th e r ap y ( C l a s s IIa). ( c ) W a r fa r i n ( i ) Ma n a g in g wa r f a ri n t o a n I N R = 2 .0 to 3. 0 i n p os t - S TE MI p a t i en t s wh e n c l in ic al l y i n di ca t ed ( e .g . , a t ri a l f ib ri l la t io n , l ef t ve nt r ic u la r th r o m b us ) an d p a ro xys m a l or c h r on ic at r ia l fi b ri ll a ti o n o r f lu t te r , i s r e co m m en de d ( C la s s I A) .
( i i ) U s e of wa r f a r in in c on j un c ti on wi t h as pi r in and / o r c lo p id og r e l is as s o c i a t ed wi t h i n c re as ed r is k o f b le e di ng a nd s h ou l d b e m o n it o re d c l os el y ( C l as s I B ) . ( i i i ) Pa t ie n ts re q ui r in g wa r f a ri n , c lo pi d og r el , an d a s pi r in t he r ap y, an I N R o f 2 t o 2 . 5 i s re co m m en d ed wi t h l ow- d o s e as pi r in ( 75 to 81 m g ) a n d a 7 5 m g d os e o f c l op id o g re l ( I C ) . ( d ) AC E I n h i b i to r s (s e e Ta b l e 41 - 4 f o r l is t i ng o f a va i l a bl e a g en t s ) ( i ) A C E in hi b it o rs s h ou l d b e s t ar t ed a nd c o nt i nu ed i nd e fi ni t el y i n a ll pa t ien t s r e c o ve ri ng f ro m S TE MI wi t h L V E F ≤ 40 % a nd in th o se pa t ie n ts wi t h h y p e rt e ns i on , d i ab e te s , o r c h ro ni c k id ne y d is e as e , u nl es s c o n t ra i nd ic a te d ( Cl as s I A ) . ( i i ) A C E i n hi bi t o rs s h ou ld b e s ta r te d an d c on t in ue d in d e f in i te l y in pa t ie n ts r e c o ve ri ng f ro m S TE MI wh o a r e no t l o we r r is k ( lo we r r i s k de f in e d as t hos e wi t h n o r m a l L V E F i n wh om c ar d i o v as cu la r r is k f ac to r s a r e we l l c on t r ol le d a n d r e v a sc u la r i z a ti on ha s b ee n pe r f or m e d ) , u nl es s c on t r ai n di ca t ed ( C la s s I B ). ( i i i ) Am on g l o we r r is k p at i e nt s r ec o ve r in g f r om STE MI ( i . e . , t h os e wi t h n or m a l L V E F i n wh o m c ar d io v a s c ul a r ri s k f ac to r s a r e we l l c o nt ro l le d a n d r e v as c ul a ri za t io n ha s b e e n p er f o rm ed ) us e o f A C E i n hi bi t o rs i s r e as ona b le ( C la s s I Ia ) . ( e ) An g i o t en s i n R e ce p to r B l o ck e r s ( AR B s ) ( s ee Ta b l e 4 1 -4 f o r l i st i n g o f a va i l a b le ag e n ts ( i ) A R B s a r e r ec om m e n de d in pa t ie n ts wh o ar e i nt o l er a n t o f A C E in h ib i to rs an d h a ve h a d a n S TE MI wi t h L V E F ≤ 4 0 % o r h a ve h e a rt f ai lu r e ( Cl a s s I A ) . ( i i ) A R B th e ra p y is be ne fi c ia l i n o t he r p a ti e nt s who a r e A C E - in h ib i to r i n to le r a n t a nd h a ve h y pe r t en s i o n ( C l as s I B ) . ( i i i ) C on s i de r i ng us e i n c o m bi n at io n wi t h A C E i nhi b i to rs in s ys t ol ic d ys f u nc t io n h e a rt f a i lu r e m a y b e re as o na ble ( C l as s I Ib ) . ( f ) Al d o s t e r on e B lo c ki ng Ag e n t s ( S pi r o n ol a c ton e - Al d a c t on e , Ep l e re n on e - I ns p r a ) ( i ) U se o f a ld os t e ro ne blo c k a de in po s t- S TE MI p a t i en ts wi t h ou t s i gn i fi ca nt r e na l d ys f un c ti o n o r h y p e rk al em i a is r ec om m e nd e d i n pa t i e n ts wh o a re al r e ad y re c ei v i n g t h e r ap eu t ic do s e s o f a n A C E i n hi bi t o r a nd be t a bl o c k e r, ha v e an L V EF o f ≤ 4 0 % a n d h a ve ei t he r di ab e te s o r h e a r t f ai lu r e ( Cl as s I A ) . ( g ) β - Ad r e n e r gi c B lo c ke r s ( i ) I t i s b en e fi c i al t o s t a rt a nd c o n ti nu e β -b l ock e r t h e r ap y i nd e fi ni t el y i n a ll p a ti e nt s wh o h a v e ha d a n S TE MI , a c u t e c o ro na r y s y n dr o m e , o r l ef t ve nt r ic ul a r d y s fu n c t i on wi t h o r wi t h ou t he a rt f ai lu r e s y m p to m s , u nl es s c on t r ai n di c a t ed ( C la s s I A ). P.823
( h ) I n fl u e nz a V a cc i ne (F l u vi r i n , F l uM i s t, V a r iou s ) ( i ) P a ti en t s wi t h c a r di o va s c u la r di se as e s ho u ld ha ve a n a nn u al in f lu en z a v a c c i n at i on ( C l a ss IB ) . I . C o mp l i ca t i on s . MI p o te n t ia t es m an y c om pl ic a tio n s ; t he m os t c om m o n of t h es e i n cl ud e th e f o ll o wi n g : 1 . L et h a l a r r h yt h m i a s . S e e C ha p te r 40 fo r a d eta i le d d is cu s s i on . 2 . H ea r t f a il u r e . S ee C ha p t e r 4 2 f o r a d e ta i le d d is c u ss i on . a . Le f t v en t r ic ul a r f ai l u re c au s e s p u lm on a r y c o nge s ti o n. D iu r e ti c s , e s p ec ia l l y f u r os em i de , h e lp re d uc e t h e c on g es ti o n.
b . A C E in hi b it o rs , β -a d r en e r gi c b lo ck e rs , a n gi o ten s in r ec ep t o r bl o ck er s , an d di r ec t a c ti n g a ld os t e ro ne an t a go n is ts pl a y a k e y ro l e i n t h e tr e at m e n t o f h e a rt fa il u r e. 3 . C a r di o g en i c s h oc k a . I n t hi s l if e - th r ea t en i ng c om pl ic a ti o n, c a r di ac out p u t i s d ec re a s e d a nd pul m on a r y a r t e r y an d p ul m on a r y c ap i ll a r y we d g e p r ess u r es a r e i n cr e as ed . Th is t y pi c a l l y occ u rs wh e n t h e a r ea of in f a rc tio n e xc e ed s 4 0% o f m u s cl e m as s a nd c o m p e ns at or y m ec h an is m s on l y s t r ai n th e al r ea d y co m p r om is ed m y o c a r di um . b . V as o pr es s or s : f o r e xa m p le , n o r ep in e ph r in e (Le vo p h e d ) , e pi n ep h ri n e (A d r e na l in ) , d o p am in e ( h ig h d os es ) , a n d v as op r es s i n ( Pi t re s s i n , v a ri o us ) -e n ha nc e b l oo d p r e ss u re th r ou g h β - a d ren e r gi c s ti m u l at i on an d V1 r e c e pt o rs ( vas o p re ss in) a n d m a y b e in di ca t e d, as p e r A CLS p r o to co l . c . I no t ro p ic d r u gs — fo r exa m p l e , e p in e ph r in e , d op a m i n e ( m i dd l e d os es ) , d o b ut am i ne , i s op r o te r en o l ( Is u p re l ), an d di go xi n ( L a no xi n ) — a re r a pi dl y a ct i ng ag en t s us e d t o i n c re as e m y oc a r di al c o n tr a c ti li t y a nd im p ro v e c a rd i ac ou t pu t . d . V as o di la t o rs — fo r e xa m p le , n i t ro p ru s s id e ( Ni p ri d e ) — re du c e p re l oa d ; t he y l o we r p u lm o na r y c a pi l la r y we d g e p re s s u re b y d i la ti n g ve i n s an d re du c e a ft e r lo ad b y d e c re as in g re s i s ta nc e t o l e ft v e n t ri cu la r ej ec t io n . e . A dd i ti o na l t r ea t m e n t m a y in c l u de in va s i v e p roc e du r es s uc h as i n t ra - aor t i c b al lo o n p u m p i ng . P.824
STUDY QUESTIONS D i r e c t i on s fo r q ue s t io ns 1 - 16 : E a c h o f t he qu es t i o ns , s ta t em en t s , o r i nc o m pl e te s t a te m e n ts i n th is s ec t ion c a n b e c o r re c t l y a ns we r e d or co m p le t e d b y o ne o f th e s u gg es t ed an s we r s o r phr a s es . Ch oo s e t he be s t a n s we r . 1 . E xe r t i o n- i n du c ed a ng i n a , w h i ch i s r e l ie ve d b y r e s t , n i t r o g l yc e r i n , o r b o t h, i s r e f e r r e d t o as ( A ) P r i n zm e ta l a n gi na . ( B ) u ns t ab le an g in a . ( C ) s ta b le an g in a . ( D ) va r i an t an gi n a. ( E ) p r ei n fa r c t i on an gi n a. V i e w A n s we r 1 . T h e a n sw e r i s C [ se ea n d] .2 . M yo c a r d ia l o x yg e n d e m a nd i s i n c r ea s ed b y a l l o f t h e f o l l ow i ng f ac t o r s e xc e pt ( A ) e xe r c is e . ( B ) sm ok i ng . ( C ) c ol d t em p e ra t u re s . ( D ) i so p ro t e re n ol . ( E ) m et o pr o lo l . V i e w A n s we r 2 . T h e a n sw e r i s E [s e e] . 3 . W h ic h o f t h e f o l low i n g a g en t s u s e d i n P r in z m e ta l an g in a ha s sp a sm o l yt i c a c ti o n s , w h i ch i nc r e as e co r o n a r y b l o o d s u pp l y? ( A ) n it r o gl y c e ri n
( B ) d il t ia z e m ( C ) t im o lo l ( D ) i so so r bi d e m o n on i t rat e ( E ) p r op r an o lo l V i e w A n s we r 3 . T h e a n sw e r i s B [ se e] . 4 . Pa t ie n ts w i t h a n g in a p e c to r i s r e c e i vi n g p r o p ra n o lo l pl u s di l t ia ze m m u s t b e m o n i to r e d fo r w h i ch adve r s e d r u g e f f e c t? ( A ) d ec r ea s e d c a rd i ac ou t p ut ( B ) d ec r ea s e d h e a rt r at e ( C ) i nc r ea s e d h e a rt r at e ( D ) B o t h A an d B ( E ) B o th A an d C V i e w A n s we r 4 . T h e a n sw e r i s D [ se e] . 5 . T h e d eve l o p m en t o f i s ch em i c p a i n o c c u rs w h e n t h e d em a nd f o r ox yg e n e x ce e ds th e su p p l y. D e t e r m i n a n ts o f o x yg e n d e ma n d i n c lu d e a l l o f t he f ol l ow i ng c ho i c es ex c ep t w h ic h on e? ( A ) c on t ra c ti le s t a te o f th e he a r t ( B ) m yoc a r di al ej ec t io n ti m e ( C ) l e ft v e n tr ic u la r v o lu m e ( D ) r i gh t at r ia l p r es s u r e ( E ) s ys to li c p r es s u r e V i e w A n s we r 5 . T h e a n sw e r i s D [ se e] . 6 . M yo p a t h y i s a n a d ve r se e f fe c t o f a l l t he f ol l ow i ng ag e n ts e x ce p t ( A ) l o vas t at i n. ( B ) si m v as t a ti n. ( C ) p r a vas t at i n. ( D ) g em f ib r o z il . ( E ) c ol es t ip ol . V i e w A n s we r 6 . T h e a n sw e r i s E [s e e] . 7 . W h ic h o f t h e f o l low i n g w ou l d n o t r e p r e se n t c u r r e n t t h e rap e u t ic o pt i o ns i n p a ti en t s p re s en t i n g w i t h a c ut e c o r o n a r y s yn d r o m e ( AC S ) w ho a re c la ss i f i ed as h a vi n g n o n- S T - se g men t e l e va t e d m yo c a r d i a l i n fa r c t i on ( N S T EM I ) ? ( A ) s ub li n gu al ni t r og l y c er i n ( B ) β - a d re ne r g ic b l oc k e rs ( C ) a sp i ri n ( D ) m o rp hi n e ( E ) t e ne c t e pl as e V i e w A n s we r 7 . T h e a n sw e r i s E [s e e] . P . 82 5
D i r e c t i on s fo r q ue s t io ns 8 - 9 : Th e qu es t io ns and i nc om pl e te s t a te m e n ts i n t h is s ec t io n c a n b e c o r r ec t l y a n s we r e d o r c om pl e te d b y o n e o r m o re of t he s u g g es te d a n s we r s . C h oo s e th e a ns we r , A- E . F o r q ue s t io n s 8 - 9 : A 55- y e a r - o ld m a n a r ri v e s i n t h e e m e r g en c y ro om o f th e lo ca l h o sp i ta l a p pr o xi m a te l y 6 h r af t e r d e v el o pi ng c h es t p ai n wi t h t h e s i g ns a n d s ym pt om s o f an ac u te S T- s eg m e n t e l e v a te d m yo c a r di al in f ar c t io n ( S TE MI ) . Th i s i s th e s ec o nd
s uc h a t t ac k wi t h in t he las t 4 m o n th s , a nd th e p a tie n t h as no t al t er e d h is l if e s t y le to e l im in a te im po r t an t ri s k fa c to r s . P r e v io us t he r ap y i nc l ud ed a t h r om bo l yt ic a g e nt ( n a m e un k n o wn ) , a b lo od t hi n ne r , a n d d ai l y as pi ri n . 8 . W hi c h o f th e fo l l ow in g a ge n ts s ho u l d b e r ec o m me n de d du r i n g t h e a c u t e m yo c a r d i a l in f a r c ti o n to h e lp p r e ve nt s ud d en d e a t h? I . a te n o lo l I I . me t o p ro l o l I I I . a s p i ri n A i f I o n l y i s c o r re c t B i f II I on l y i s c o r r ec t C i f I a n d I I a r e c or r ec t D i f II a nd I II a re c o r re c t E i f I, I I, an d II I ar e c o r re c t V i e w A n s we r 8 . T h e a n sw e r i s E [s e e] . 9 . W h ic h o f t h e f o l low i n g i s c o n si d e r ed a c om p o nen t o f a c u te co r o n a r y s yn d r o m e ( AC S ) ? I . u ns t a bl e a n g in a I I . no n - S T -s e gm e n t e leva t e d m yo c a r d i a l i n fa r ct i o n ( N S TE M I ) I I I . ST - s eg m en t el e va t ed m yo c a r d i a l i n fa r c t i on ( S T E M I ) A i f I o n l y i s c o r re c t B i f II I on l y i s c o r r ec t C i f I a n d I I a r e c or r ec t D i f II a nd I II a re c o r re c t E i f I, I I, an d II I ar e c o r re c t V i e w A n s we r 9 . T h e a n sw e r i s E [s e e] . D i r ec t i o ns f o r qu e s ti o ns 10 - 1 4 : E a c h o f t he fo ll o wi n g d es c ri p tio n s is m o s t c l os el y r e la te d to on e o f th e f o ll o wi ng d r ug s. Th e d es c ri p ti o ns m a y be u s e d m o re t ha n o nc e o r n o t a t a ll . C ho os e th e be s t a n s we r , A- E . 1 0 . ti r o f i ba n ( A ) I n hi bi t io n o f i n te s ti nal a bs o rp t io n o f c ho l es te ro l ( B ) L o we r i ng of lo w- d e n s i t y l ip o pr o te i ns (L D L s ) , tr i g l y c e r id es , a n d i nc r ea s e d hi gh d e ns i t y l i po p ro t ei n ( H DL ) a l on g wi t h a nt i - in fl am m a t o r y ef f ec ts ( C ) R e c o m m en d at i on s f or t h is a g en t h a v e be en su b s t a nt i al l y e xp a n de d b eyo n d an a l t er n a ti v e fo r as pi r in - in to l e ra n t p a ti en t s , du e t o re c en t tr i al s d em on s tr a ti ng i ts b e n ef i t i n s e l ec t A C S p ati e n ts . ( D ) R e c o m m en d ed fo r ac u t e c o ro n a r y s y n d ro m e (A C S ) p a ti en t s wh o c an no t t ol e ra t e a s pi r in ( E ) R e c o m m en d ed o v e r u n f r ac ti o na t ed he pa r i n (U F H ) a s a n a nt ic o ag u la nt i n p a t ie n ts wi t h u ns t ab l e an g in a ( U A ) o r n o n -S T- s eg m en t e l e v at e d m y oc a r dia l i n f ar c ti o n ( N S TE MI ) V i e w A n s we r 1 0 . T he a nsw e r i s C [ se e] . 1 1. e no x ap a r i n ( A ) I n hi bi t io n o f i n te s ti nal a bs o rp t io n o f c ho l es te ro l ( B ) L o we r i ng of lo w- d e n s i t y l ip o pr o te i ns (L D L s ) , tr i g l y c e r id es , a n d i nc r ea s e d hi gh d e ns i t y l i po p ro t ei n ( H DL ) a l on g wi t h a nt i - in fl am m a t o r y ef f ec ts
( C ) R e c o m m en d at i on s f or t h is a g en t h a v e be en s u b st a nt i al l y e xp a n de d b ey o n d an a l t er n a ti v e fo r as pi r in - in to l e ra n t p a ti en t s , du e t o re c en t tr i al s d em on s tr a ti ng i ts b e n ef i t i n s e l ec t A C S p ati e n ts . ( D ) R e c o m m en d ed fo r ac u t e c o ro n a r y s y n d ro m e (A C S ) p a ti en t s wh o c an no t t ol e ra t e a s pi r in ( E ) R e co m m en d ed o v e r u n f r ac ti o na t ed he pa r i n (U F H ) a s a n a nt ic o ag u la nt i n p a t ie n ts wi t h u ns t ab l e an g in a ( U A ) o r n o n -S T- s eg m en t e l e v at e d m y oc a r dia l i n f ar c ti o n ( N S TE MI ) V i e w A n s we r 1 1 . T he a nsw e r i s E [s e e] . 1 2. si m vas t a t i n ( A ) I n hi bi t io n o f i n te s ti nal a bs o rp t io n o f c ho l es te ro l ( B ) L o we r i ng of lo w- d e n s i t y l ip o pr o te i ns (L D L s ) , tr i g l y c e r id es , a n d i nc r ea s e d hi gh d e ns i t y l i po p ro t ei n ( H DL ) a l on g wi t h a nt i - in fl am m a t o r y ef f ec ts ( C ) R e c o m m en d at i on s f or t h is a g en t h a v e be en su b s t a nt i al l y e xp a n de d b eyo n d an a l t er n a ti v e fo r as pi r in - in to l e ra n t p a ti en t s , du e t o re c en t tr i al s d em on s tr a ti ng i ts b e n ef i t i n s e l ec t A C S p ati e n ts . ( D ) R e co m m en d ed fo r ac u t e c o ro n a r y s y n d ro m e (A C S ) p a ti en t s wh o c an no t t ol e ra t e a s pi r in ( E ) R e c o m m en d ed o v e r u n f r ac ti o na t ed he pa r i n (U F H ) a s a n a nt ic o ag u la nt i n p a t ie n ts wi t h u ns t ab l e an g in a ( U A ) o r n o n -S T- s eg m en t e l e v at e d m y oc a r dia l i n f ar c ti o n ( N S TE MI ) V i e w A n s we r 1 2 . T he a nsw e r i s B [ se e] . 1 3. c lo p i do g r e l ( A ) I n hi bi t io n o f i n te s ti nal a bs o rp t io n o f c ho l es te ro l ( B ) L o we r i ng of lo w- d e n s i t y l ip o pr o te i ns (L D L s ) , tr i g l y c e r id es , a n d i nc r ea s e d hi gh d e ns i t y l i po p ro t ei n ( H DL ) a l on g wi t h a nt i - in fl am m a t o r y ef f ec ts ( C ) R e c o m m en d at i on s f or t h is a g en t h a v e be en su b s t a nt i al l y e xp a n de d b ey o n d an a l t er n a ti v e fo r as pi r in - in to l e ra n t p a ti en t s , du e t o re c en t tr i al s d em on s tr a ti ng i ts b e n ef i t i n s e l ec t A C S p ati e n ts . ( D ) R e c o m m en d ed fo r ac u t e c o ro n a r y s y n d ro m e (A C S ) p a ti en t s wh o c an no t t ol e ra t e a s pi r in ( E ) R e c o m m en d ed o v e r u n f r ac ti o na t ed he pa r i n (U F H ) a s a n a nt ic o ag u la nt i n p a t ie n ts wi t h u ns t ab l e an g in a ( U A ) o r n o n -S T- s eg m en t e l e v at e d m y oc a r dia l i n f ar c ti o n ( N S TE MI ) V i e w A n s we r 1 3 . T he a nsw e r i s D [ se e I I I . H. 3 .e] . 14 . ez e ti m i be ( A ) I n hi bi t io n o f i n te s ti nal a bs o rp t io n o f c ho l es te ro l ( B ) L o we r i ng of lo w- d e n s i t y l ip o pr o te i ns (L D L s ) , tr i g l y c e r id es , a n d i nc r ea s e d hi gh d e ns i t y l i po p ro t ei n ( H DL ) a l on g wi t h a nt i - in fl am m a t o r y ef f ec ts ( C ) R e c o m m en d at i on s f or t h is a g en t h a v e be en su b s t a nt i al l y e xp a n de d b eyo n d an a l t er n a ti v e fo r as pi r in - in to l e ra n t p a ti en t s , du e t o re c en t tr i al s d em on s tr a ti ng i ts b e n ef i t i n s e l ec t A C S p ati e n ts . ( D ) R e c o m m en d ed fo r ac u t e c o ro n a r y s y n d ro m e (A C S ) p a ti en t s wh o c an no t t ol e ra t e a s pi r in ( E ) R e c o m m en d ed o v e r u n f r ac ti o na t ed he pa r i n (U F H ) a s a n a nt ic o ag u la nt i n p a t ie n ts wi t h u ns t ab l e an g in a ( U A ) o r n o n -S T- s eg m en t e l e v at e d m y oc a r dia l i n f ar c ti o n ( N S TE MI ) V i e w A n s we r 1 4 . T he a nsw e r i s A [ se e] . P . 82 6
ANSWERS AND EXPLANATIONS 1 . T he an sw e r is C [ s ee I I . C .1 . a , b , c , d , e an d f ]. C l a ss ic , o r s t ab l e, an g ina r e fe r s t o t h e s y nd r om e i n wh ic h p h y s ic al ac ti v i ty o r e m ot i on al e xc e s s c a us es c he s t d isc om f o rt , wh i ch m a y s p r ea d to th e a r m s , l e gs , n e ck , a n d s o fo r t h. Th i s t y p e o f a ng in a i s r e li e v ed p r om pt l y ( wi t h in 1 -1 0 m i ns ) wi t h r e s t, ni t r og l y c e r in , o r b oth . 2 . T he an sw e r is E [ s e e I . F .2 ; Ta bl e 3 9 - 1] . O wi n g t o th e β -a d r en e rg ic bl oc k i n g e f fe c t s o f m e to p r ol o l ( e .g . , d ec r ea s e d h e a r t r a te , d e c re as e d bl o od p re s s u re , de c re as e d i no t r op ic eff e c t) , th e r e is a n et de c re a s e in m yo c ar d ia l o xy g e n d em an d . Th is i s t h e d i re c t op po s i t e o f th e e f fe c ts s e en wi t h t h e β - a g on is t is op r o te r en o l. E xe r c i s e , ci g a re t te s m oki n g , a nd e xp o s u r e t o c old t e m p e r at u re s h a v e a l l b ee n s h o wn t o i nc re a s e m yo c a rd ia l o xy g e n d e m a nd . 3 . T he an sw e r is B [ s ee I I . H .4 . c] . C a l ci um - c h a nn el bl oc k i ng a ge n ts s uc h a s d il t ia z em h a v e be e n s ho wn t o be ca p ab l e o f r e ve rs in g s pa s m an d , t h e r ef o re , in c r e as in g c o ro n a r y bl oo d fl o w i n Pr i n zm e ta l a n gi n a. Th e c a lc iu m -c han n el bl oc k er s h a ve p r o ve n be n ef i t i n t he t re a tm en t o f P r i n zm et al an g in a , a s y nd r o m e be li e ve d d ue m o re t o a s p as ti c e v e n t t ha n t o a f i xe d c o r on a r y oc c l us io n . 4 . T he an sw e r is D [ s ee I I . H .4 . c. ( 1 ) .( a ) ; I I . H .3 . b.( 2 ) ] . B e c au se p ro p ra n ol ol ( a β - a d r en e r gi c b lo ck er ) and d i l t ia ze m ( a c al ci um - c ha n n el b l oc ke r ) b o t h r ed uc e h e ar t r a te ( a n eg a ti ve c h r ono t r o pi c e ff ec t ) an d r e du ce c a r d ia c c o nt r ac t il i t y (n e ga t i v e i no t r o pi c e ff ec t ) , p a ti e nt s re c ei v i n g b ot h d r ug s m ust b e m o ni t o re d f o r s ig ns of dec om p en s a t io n ( re du c e d c a r di ac ou t pu t ) a n d b r a d ya r rh y t hm i as . 5 . T he an sw e r is D [ s ee I . F .2 ] . A s wi t h m os t m us c l es in t h e b o d y, t h e c o n t ra c ti le f o r c e of t he he a r t d ic ta t es t he a m ou n t o f o xy g e n t h at t he h ea r t n e ed s t o p e rf o rm e f fi ci e nt l y . C on s e q ue n tly , a s c o nt r ac t il i t y d ec r e as es , th e o xy g e n ne e ds o f th e h e a r t i nc re a s e . As c on t ra c ti l it y c o nt i nu es to de c re as e , th e v o lu m e of f lu id in t he l e f t v e n t ri c l e i nc r e as es owi n g t o p o o r m us c l e p e rf o rm an c e a nd in c re as in g te ns io n wi t h i n th e ven t ri c l e , re s u l t in g i n a d di t io n al o xy g e n r eq u ire m en ts . As th e am ou n t of t e ns io n wi t hi n t h e v e n t ri c le i n c re as es pe r c a r di ac c y c l e, t he r e is ag a in an add e d re qu i r em en t f o r o xy g e n b y t he h e a r t m u s c le . 6 . T he an sw e r is E [ s e e I I . G . 2. d . (3 ) ] . M y o p a t h y is an ad v e r s e e f f ec t o f a l l t he H MG - C o A r e du c ta s e in h ib it o rs ( lo v a s ta t in , s im va s ta t in , p r a v as t a ti n, a t o r v as t at in , fl u v as t a ti n , a n d r os u vas t a ti n ), an d th e c om b in a ti o n o f t he f ib r ic a c id de r i v a ti ve s ( g em fi b ro zi l , f e no f ib r a te , a n d c l of i b ra t e ) h a s b ee n s ho wn t o in c rea s e t he c re a ti ne k i na se le v e l s a nd p re di s po s e pat i e nt s t o m yo p at h ie s a nd r ha b do m y o l y s is . 7 . T he an sw e r is E [ s e e I I I . G .2 . d ]. Te n e c te p la s e is c o ns id e re d a t is s u e p la sm in o ge n a c ti v a t o r wh i c h c on ve r ts p l as m i n og en t o p la s m in , t h us p ro m o t in g f i b ri no l ys i s . Ho we v e r , t he m o s t r ec e nt
n a t io na l g u id e li ne s f o r t he t r ea tm e nt o f U A an d NS TE MI d o n o t i nc lu de t he us e o f f i b ri n ol y t ic s a s p a rt o f t he m a n ag em e nt o f p at ie n ts wi t h U A o r N S TE MI . Th e y a r e p r i m a r il y i nd ic a te d f o r p at i e nt s wi t h S TE MI . 8 . T he an sw e r is E ( I , II, a nd I II ) [s e e I I I. H . 3 .b -c] . Th e m os t re c e n tl y i nt r o du c ed gu i de li n es fo r th e tr e a tm e nt of S TE MI p a t i en t s i nc lu d e t h e u se o f o r al b e t a- b lo c k e r t h e ra p y in i ti a te d wi t hi n th e f i rs t 24 ho u rs , a s su m in g t h at t h e r e a re no c o n t ra in d ic a t i on s f o r t he i r u s e ( he a rt f ai l u re , h e a rt bl oc k, as th m a, e tc . ). A d d i ti on a ll y , t he gu id e li ne s a d d t ha t it is a c c e pt ab l e t o a dm i ni s t e r a n I V be t a b l oc ke r to S TE MI p a t i e nts wh o a re al s o h y p er t ens i v e a s s um i ng th a t t he r e a r e n o c o nt r a in di c a t io ns f or t he ir u s e , a s l is t ed ab o ve . As p i ri n c on t in ue s t o b e a v e r y i m po r t an t p a r t o f t he in i tia l th e r ap y f o r S TE MI p a t i e n ts . Th e m o s t r ec en t gu i de l in es p r o vi de a Cl as s I re c om m e nd a ti o n f o r t he ad m i n is t r at i on of as pi r i n as ea rl y a s p o ss ib l e, pe n di ng no c o nt r a in d ic a ti on s i n a do se o f 16 2 - 32 5 m g. 9 . T he an sw e r is E ( I , II, I I I ) [ s e e I . E .2 ] . D u r i ng r ec en t y e a rs , t he re h as b e en an a tt em p t t o l i nk t h e va r i ou s c l i ni ca l s y m p to m s o f I H D i n to k e y c a t eg o r ies , ba s e d o n t h e p r es en t at i o n a nd s ym p to m s a t the t im e o f e va l u at io n . A C S r e fe r s to t ho s e si t ua t io ns th a t r ef l ec t an ac ut e i sc he m i c ev e n t an d i n cl ud e s U A , N S TE MI , a n d S TE MI . C l i n ic al gu i del i ne s h a ve i nc o rp o r at e d tr e a tm e nt m o da li t ie s b as e d o n t he s e t h re e p r es e nt a ti o ns ; U A a n d N S TE MI h a v e s im il a r r e c om m e nd e d t he r ap i es a n d S TE MI , h a s d if f e re n t t r e at m e n t g ui d el in e s. S ta b le a n gi n a is n ot c o ns id e re d o n e o f t h e A C S bu t re p re s en ts t he s t a rt i ng po i nt f o r th e p r o g re ss io n o f at h er os c le r o s i s , r es ul t in g i n I H D . P.827
1 0 . Th e a n sw e r i s C [ s ee I I I. H . 4 .d ] . Ti r o f i ba n i s a n a n ti pl a te le t t ha t i s r e fe r r ed t o as a g l yc o p ro t ei n I I b/ I I I , a re c ep t o r a n t ag o ni s t . Th is c l as s o f d r u gs wo r ks to p re v e n t p l a te le t ag g re g at i on b y in h ib i ti n g t h e i n te r ac t io n b e t we e n th e p ri m a r y bi n di n g si t e of p la t el e ts an d h as be e n s h o wn t o b e ef f ec t i v e i n t he p re v en t i on of t hr om b os is . 1 1 . Th e a n sw e r i s E [s ee I I I. G . 3 .b . ( 2 ); Ta b le 39 -5 ] . E n o xa p a r i n is an e xa m ple o f a L MW H. A s a g r o up , t he m a jo r a d va n ta ge of t h es e d r u gs o v e r t he m o r e t r adi t i on al he p a ri n i s t ha t the y e xh i b i t a m o r e p r ed ic ta b le a n t ic oa g ul an t re s p o ns e . O wi n g t o th e i r l o we r m o le c u l a r we ig h t a n d d ec rea s ed b i nd i ng to pl as m a p ro t ein s , t h e y h a ve b e t te r bi oav a i l ab i li t y t ha n h ep a r in . In a dd i ti on , t h e ir d ec re a s e i n p l as m a p r o te i n bi n di n g a nd bi ndi n g t o t h e e nd o th e li um re s ul ts in h a l f- l i ves th a t a r e 2 -4 t im es lo n ge r th a n t ha t of h e p ar i n. C u r re n t c l i ni c a l p r a c t ic e g u id e li n es re c o m m en d en o xa p a r i n o ve r h e pa r in in p at i en ts wi t h U A o r N STE MI , u n le ss C A B G is p l an n ed wi t h i n 24 h r. 1 2 . Th e a n sw e r i s B [ s ee I I . G .2 . b] . S i m vas t a ti n i s o ne of th e f i v e c u r re n tl y a v a il a bl e H M G - C o A r e d uc t as e i nh ib i t or s t h at h a ve be e n s h o wn t o s ig ni f ic a nt l y r ed uc e L D L l e vel s a n d n on f at a l MI o r C H D ( 3 0 % 4 0 % re du c ti on ) . R ec en t s t ud i es h a ve de m o ns t r ate d th a t i n fl am m a ti o n i s an im p o rt a nt m ec h an is m i n v ol v e d i n AC S a n d t ha t s t a ti ns e xe r t a n i m p o r ta n t a nt i - in fl a m m a to r y e f f ec t wi t hi n c o ro n ar y a r te r i es (i n de p en de n t o f t he i r c h ol es t er o l -l o we r i ng e f f ec ts ) .
1 3 . Th e a n sw e r i s D [ s ee I I I. H . 3 .e ] . Th e m os t re c e n tl y i nt r o du c ed gu i de li n es fo r th e tr e a tm e nt of A C S ha s i nc o r p o ra t ed r e c en t t r i al s , wh i c h ha v e s ho wn t h e v al u e o f c l o pid o g re l i n va ri o us p a ti e nt p o p ul at i on s wi t h A C S . It i s n o l o ng e r v ie we d as m e r e l y as a n a l te r na t i v e t o a s p i ri n i n th os e wh o c a n ' t t ak e as p i ri n, b ut r at h er an “ ad d- o n ” th e ra p y f or pa t ie n ts r e c ei vi ng a s pi r in wh o s u f fe r f ro m A C S . 1 4 . Th e a n sw e r i s A [ s ee I I . G .5 . a] . E ze t i m i b e is th e fi r s t in a n e w c l a ss o f l i pi d -l o we r i n g c om po un d s a pp r o v ed b y t he F D A , wh i c h r e du c e s c h o le s te r o l l e vel s v i a a di f fe re n t m ec ha n is m o f ac t io n. B y s e le ct i v e l y b l oc k i ng th e in t es t in a l a bs o rp t io n o f c h o le s te r ol , i t is a b le to s t o p o n e o f t h e m aj o r p a th wa y s r e s po n s i bl e fo r i n c r e as in g a v a i l a b le c h ol es t e ro l wi t hi n t h e b od y. E ze t i m i b e h as d em o ns t ra t e d t he ab i li t y t o r ed uc e t o t al c h ol es t er o l, L D L, a p ol i po p ro t ei n B , a nd t rig l y c e ri de le ve ls wh i l e i nc r e as in g H DL le v e ls in pa t i en ts wi t h h yp e r ch ol e s t e ro l em ia . Sim v a s ta t in ha s r ec e nt l y be e n i nc o rp o r at e d i nt o a c om b in a ti o n p ro d uc t wi t h e z e t im ib e ( V y to r i n) , wh ic h u s e s t h e i nd i v id u al c la ss p r o pe r t ie s o f t h e H MG - C o A r ed u ct as e i n hi bi t o rs (s im v a s ta t in ) to r ed uc e ch o le s te r ol p r o du c ti on wi t h th e a bs or p t io n - in hi b it i ng p ro pe r t ie s o f e zet im i be to ta r g et c h ol es t e ro l wi t h t wo d i ff er e n t m ec ha n is m s , wh i c h m i gh t a ls o a i d i n im p ro v in g pa t ie n t c om p li a nc e wi t h t ak in g th e m e di c a t io n .
40 Cardiac Arrhythmias Al a n H . M u tn i ck
I. INTRODUCTION. S u d de n d e a th f ro m c a r dia c c au s es i s b el i e v ed to a cc o un t fo r ap p ro xi m a t ely 5 0 % o f a l l d ea t hs f ro m c a r d io v as c u l a r ca us es , wi t h th e m a j o r it y o f s ud d en de a ths be i ng c a us ed b y ac ut e v en t r ic ul a r ta c h ya r r h yt hm ia s . Th is wo u l d a pp e a r t o c re a te g r e at e r n e e d f o r t he k n o wl e dg e n e c e s s a r y to ap p ro p r ia t el y u s e an t ia r r h y t hm ics f or t h is h i gh r i sk pa t ie n t p op u la t io n . H o we v e r , p r e v i ou s l y c ond u c t e d s tu di e s h a ve ca s t d o ub t o n t h e tr u e p la c e of a nt ia r r hy t h m ic s i n t he t re a tm en t a n d p r e v en t io n o f c a r di ac a r r h y t hm ia s . S t ud i es s uc h as t he C a rd ia c Ar r h y t hm i a S u pp r es si on Tr i a l ( CA S T) h a v e d e m o ns t r at e d t ha t c e r ta in c l as s e s o f a n ti a r rh yt hm ic s i nc r ea s e d m o rt a li t y i n pa t ie n ts t r e a te d wi t h a n ti a r rh y t hm i c s as c om p a re d t o p l ac eb o . Si nc e t h e r e le as e o f t h e d a ta f r o m t he C A S T t r i al , s ubs e qu e nt st u di es ha ve c on f i rm e d t he fi n di ng t ha t c e r ta i n a n t ia r r h y th m i c s do po s s e s s “ p ro a r rh yt h m i c” e ff ec t s wh e n us ed in j ud ic io us l y . C o n se q ue n tl y , t he us e o f t r i al an d e r r o r t o d et e rm i n e a n ti a r rh yt hm ic t he r apy h a s g i ve n wa y t o a n e r a o f ou t c o m e - b as ed an t ia r r h y th m ic d r u g d ec is io n m ak in g . B y u n d er s ta nd i ng th e c a us es o f a r rh yt h m i as an d b ein g a wa r e o f d r u g- d r ug an d d ru g t a r g et in t e ra c t i on s , we ar e m o r e l ik el y t o u n de r sta n d t h e k e y c on s i d er a ti on s to m a xi m i z e th e ra p eu t ic s t ra t e gi es wh i l e m i ni m i z i n g d r u g- i nd uc e d t o xi c it i es . A. D e f i n i t i o n. C a rd i ac ar r h y t h m i as a re de v i a ti ons f ro m t h e n o rm al he a rt be a t p a t te r n . Th e y i nc lu d e a bn o r m a li t i es o f i mp u l se f o r m a t io n , s uc h a s h ea rt r a te , r h y t h m , o r s it e o f i m p u ls e o ri g in , a n d c o nd u c ti on d i s tu r b an c es , wh i ch di s r up t t h e n o r m a l s eq ue n c e of at r i al a nd v e nt r ic u la r a c ti v a t io n . B . E l e ct r o p h ys i o l o g y 1 . C o nd u c ti o n s ys t e m a . Tw o e l ec t r i ca l s e q uen c e s t ha t c a us e t he he ar t ch am b e rs to fi ll wi t h blo o d a n d c o nt r ac t ar e i n it i at e d b y t h e c on d uc ti o n s ys te m o f t h e h ea r t . ( 1 ) I mp u ls e fo r m a ti o n , th e fi r s t se qu e nc e , t ak es p l ac e wh e n a n e le c t r ic a l i m pu ls e i s g e n er a te d a u to m at ic al l y . ( 2 ) I mp u ls e t ra n sm i ss i on , t he s ec o nd se qu e nc e , o c c u rs on ce th e i m p u ls e h as be e n g e n er a te d , s ig na l in g t h e h e a r t t o c o n t ra c t. b . F ou r m ai n s t r u c tu r e s c om po s ed of ti s s ue t ha t c an ge n e ra t e o r c on d uc t e l ec t ri ca l i m pu ls es m ak e up th e c on d uc t io n s y s te m o f t h e he a r t . ( 1 ) Th e si n oa t r i a l ( S A) n o d e , i n t he wa l l o f th e ri g h t a t ri um , c on t ai ns c e lls t ha t s p on t an e ou s l y i ni t ia t e an ac t io n p o te n ti a l. S e r vin g as th e m ai n p ac em ak e r o f t he h e a r t, th e S A n od e i n it i at e s 6 0 -1 0 0 b ea ts / m i n . ( a ) Im p ul s e s g en e ra t ed b y t h e SA no d e t r ig g e r at r i al c o n t ra c t i on . ( b ) Im p ul s e s t r a v el t hr o ug h in t e rn od a l t r ac ts — t he a n te r i or t ra c t, m i dd l e t ra c t (W enc ke b ac h b un d le ) , po s te r i or t ra c t ( Th o r el bun d le ) , an d a n te r io r in t er at r i al t ra c t ( B a c hm an n 's bu n dl e ) (F ig u r e 4 0 -1 ) . ( 2 ) A t t h e a t r i o ve nt r i c ula r ( AV ) n o d e , s i t ua t ed in t he lo we r i n te r a t ri al s ep t um , th e i m pu ls es a re de la y e d br ie f l y t o p er m i t c om p le t io n o f at r ia l c on t r ac ti o n b efo r e ve n t r ic u la r c o nt r ac t io n be g in s .
( 3 ) A t t h e b u nd l e o f H is— m us c l e fi be r s a r is in g f ro m th e AV ju nc t io n — im pu l s e s t r a ve l a l on g t h e l ef t a n d r i g ht b un dl e b r a nc he s , loc a te d o n e i th e r s id e o f th e i n t ra ve n t ri c u l a r s e p tu m . ( 4 ) Th e im pu ls es r ea c h th e P u rk i n je f ib e r s , a d i ff u s e ne t wo r k e xt e n di n g fr o m t h e b u n dl e b r an c h es an d e nd i ng in t he v e nt r ic u la r e nd o c a r di a l s u r f ac es . Ve n tr i c ul a r c o nt r ac t io n t h en oc c u r s . c . L at e n t p ac e ma k e rs . Th e A V j un c t i on , b u nd l e o f H is , a n d P u rk in j e f ib e rs a re l a t en t p ac em a k e rs ; th e y c o nt a in c e ll s c a p ab l e o f g e n er a ti n g im p ul s e s. H owe ve r , t h es e re g io ns ha v e a s l owe r f i r i ng r at e th a n t he SA n o de . Co n s e qu e nt l y, th e S A n o d e p re d om in a te s e xc e p t wh e n i t is d e p re s s ed o r in j u re d , wh i c h is k n o wn as o ve r d r i ve s u p p re s si o n . 2 . M yo c a r d i a l ac t i on p ot e n t i al . Be f o re c a r di ac co n t r ac ti o n ca n ta ke pl ac e , c a r di ac c e ll s m u s t d ep ol a r i z e a nd r e po la r i z e . P.829
Figure 40-1. Electrical pathways of the heart. AV, atrioventricular; SA, sinoatrial.
a . D e po l a r iz a ti o n a nd re p o la r i za t i o n r es ul t f rom c h an g es i n th e e le c t ric a l p ot e nt i al a c r oss t he c e ll m em b r ane , c a us e d b y th e e xc h a ng e of s o di um an d p o t as s i u m i on s . b . Ac t i o n po t e nt i a l, wh ic h re f le c t s t h is e l ec t ri c a l a c ti vi t y , h a s f i v e p ha s e s ( F i gu r e 4 0 - 2 ). ( 1 ) P ha s e 0 ( r ap i d d e pol a r i z a t i on ) ta k es p l ac e as so di um io ns e nt e r t h e c e ll t h r o ug h f as t c h an ne ls ; the c e l l m e m b r a ne ' s e le c t ri c al c h a rg e c ha n ge s f r om ne g at i v e t o po si t i v e . ( 2 ) P ha s e 1 (e a r l y r a p i d r e p o la r i za t i on ) . As fa s t s od i um c ha n ne ls cl os e a n d p o t ass i um i o ns l e a v e t h e c el l , t he c e ll r ap i dl y r e p o l a ri z e s ( i .e . , re t ur n s t o r e s ti n g p o t en t ia l ). ( 3 ) P ha s e 2 ( pl a te a u ). Ca l c i um io ns en t e r t he ce ll t h ro u gh s l o w c h a nn e ls wh i l e p o t ass i um i o ns e xi t . As th e c e ll m em b r an e 's el e c tr i c al a c ti v i t y t em po r a ri l y s t ab i li z e s, t h e a c ti on po t en t ia l re ac h e s a p l at e au ( re p r es en te d b y th e n o tc h a t t h e be g in n in g o f t h is ph as e i n Fi gu r e 4 0 -2) .
Figure 40-2. Myocardial action potential curve. This curve represents ventricular depolarizationrepolarization. Phases: 0, rapid depolarization; 1, early rapid repolarization; 2, plateau; 3, final rapid repolarization; 4, slow depolarization.
P.830
( 4 ) P ha s e 3 ( fi n a l r a p id r e p o l a ri z at i o n ). P ot as s iu m i o ns a r e p um p ed ou t o f t he c e ll a s th e c el l r a pi d l y c om ple t es r ep o la r i zat i on an d re s um es i t s i ni t ia l n eg a ti v i t y . ( 5 ) P ha s e 4 (s l ow de p o la r i z at i o n ). Th e c el l re t u rn s to it s r es t in g s t at e wi th p o t ass i um i o ns i n s i de the c e l l a nd s o di um an d c al c i u m i on s o ut si d e. c . D u ri n g b ot h d e po la r i za t i on an d re po l a ri z a t io n , a c e ll ' s a b il i t y t o i n it i at e a n a c ti on p o t en t ia l v a ri es . ( 1 ) Th e c e ll c a nn o t r es po n d t o a n y st im u lu s d u rin g th e a b s ol u t e r e f r ac to r y p e r i o d ( b e gi n ni ng du r i ng ph as e 1 a nd en d in g a t t h e s ta r t o f ph as e 3 ) . ( 2 ) A c e ll ' s a bi l it y t o r e s p o n d t o s ti m u li in c re as es a s r e po l ar i za ti o n co n ti nu e s. D u r i ng t he r el a t i ve r ef r ac t o r y p e r i o d , wh i ch oc cu r s d u ri n g p ha se 3 , t he c e l l c an r e s po nd t o a s t ro n g s ti m u l us . ( 3 ) W hen t h e c e l l h as b ee n c om p le t el y r e po la r i zed , it ca n a g ai n r es p on d fu l l y to s t im ul i . d . C e ll s i n di f f e re n t c a r dia c re g io ns de p ol a ri z e at d i f fe r e nt s p ee ds , de pe n di n g o n wh e t h e r fa s t o r s lo w c h an n el s p r ed om i na t e. ( 1 ) S od i um fl o ws th r o ugh f as t c ha n ne ls ; c al c i um f l o ws t h ro ug h s lo w c h a nn e ls . ( 2 ) W her e f as t c ha n ne ls d o m i n at e (e . g. , i n c a rd i ac m u s c le c e ll s ), de p ol a riz a t i o n o cc u rs qu ic k l y . W her e s lo w c h a nn e ls d om i na t e ( e. g . , i n t h e e le c t r ic a l c e ll s o f th e S A n o d e a nd A V j un c ti on ) , de p ol a r i zat i on oc c u rs sl owl y . 3 . E le c t r oc a r d io g r a ph y. Th e e le c tr ic a l ac t i v i t y oc cu r r in g d u r in g d e po la r i za t i on r e p ol a ri z a t io n c a n b e t r an s m i t te d t h ro u gh el ec t r od e s a t ta c h e d t o t he bo d y a n d t r a ns f o rm ed b y a n e l e ct r o c a r d io g r a ph ( E C G ) m ac h i ne in t o a s e r ie s o f wa v e f o r m s ( E C G wa v e f o r m ) . Fi gu r e 4 0 - 3 s ho ws a no rm a l E CG wa ve f o r m . a . Th e P w a ve r e fl ec t s at r i al de p ol a ri za t io n . b . Th e P R in t e r va l re p res e nt s t h e s p r e ad of t he im p ul se f ro m t h e a t ri a t h ro u g h t he P u r ki n je fi b e rs . c . Th e Q R S co m pl e x r e fl e c t s v en t ri c ul a r d ep ol a r iz a t i o n. ( P ha s e O )
d . Th e S T s eg m en t r ep re s en ts p ha s e 2 o f t he ac t i o n p ot e nt i al — th e ab s o lu t e r e f r ac t o r y p e ri o d ( p ar t of v e n t r ic ul a r r e po l ar i z a ti on ) . e . Th e T w a ve s h o ws p ha s e 3 o f th e a c ti on po t ent i a l— v e n t ri c u l a r r ep o la r iz a t i o n. C . C l a ss i f ic a t io n . Ar r h y th m ia s g en e ra l l y a r e c la s s i fi e d b y o ri gi n (i . e. , s u p ra ve n t ri c u la r o r v e n t ri c ul a r ). 1 . S u p ra ve n t r i cu l a r a r r h yt h m i a s s te m f r om e n ha n c e d a u to m a t ic it y o f the S A no d e ( o r an o th e r p ac em a k e r re g io n , a b o v e t he bu n dl e o f H is ) or f ro m r e en t r y c o n d uc ti o n. 2 . V en t r i c ul a r a r r h yt h m i a s o c c u r b el o w t h e b u nd l e o f Hi s , wh e n an ec t op i c ( a b no r m a l ) p ac em ak e r t ri g ge r s a v e nt r ic ul a r c on tr a c ti o n b ef o re t he S A n od e fi r es ( e . g ., f ro m a c o nd uc t io n d i s t u r ba nc e o r v e nt r ic ul ar i r r it a bi li t y ) . 3 . S pe c ia l no t e a . T o rs a de s d e po i n te s h a s r ec e i v ed in c re as e d a t t en t io n d u r in g r ec e nt y e a r s as a m a jo r pr o a rr h y t hm ic e v en t , wh i ch ha s b ee n re p ort e d wi t h a n ti a r rh yt hm ic dr u g t h e r ap y. I t is de f in e d as a p ol y m o rp hi c v en t r ic ul ar t ac h y c ar d ia wi t h a t wi s ti n g Q R S c om p le x m o r p ho lo g y , wh i c h s o m e t im es oc c u rs wi t h d ru gs th a t p r ol o ng v en t r ic ul a r r e p ol a ri z a t io n ( Q T i nt e r va l wi d e ni ng ) . Th ou g h i ni ti a l r e po r ts o f t o rs ad es de p oi n te s c e nt e r ed a ro un d a n ti a r rhy t h m ic dr u gs (q u in i di ne ) , t o da y > 50 d ru gs , b o th a n t ia r r h y th m i c a g en ts and o th e r c la s s es of d ru gs s uc h a s a n ti bi o ti c s , h a v e b e en s h o wn t o a ff ec t th e d u r ati o n o f t h e Q T in t e r v al and h a v e b ee n a s s oc ia t ed wi t h t h is a r r h y t hm ia . b . A W eb s it e d e v o t ed to p r o v i di ng ed uc a ti o n a nd r e se a rc h o n d r ug - i nd uc e d a r r h y t hm ia s , es p ec ia l l y th o s e du e t o p r o lo ng a ti o n o f th e Q T i nt e r v a l o n t he e l ec t r oc ar d io g ra m (E C G ) , P.831 i s a va i la bl e . Th e s i t e, h ttp : / / ww w. t o r s a d es .o r g /m ed i c a l -p r os / d ru g -l is t s/ d rug l i st s .h tm , i s c u rr e nt l y m ai n t ai ne d b y D r . R a y m o n d W oos le y.
Figure 40-3. Normal ECG waveform.
c . W oo s l e y an d c ol le a gue s h a v e es ta b li s h ed t he I n t e rn a ti o na l Re gi s tr y f o r D r u g I n d uc ed A r rh y t h m i as , to wh i c h on e c an s u bm i t a s us p ec t ed “d r u g -i nd uc e d a r r h yt hm ia e ve n t . ” Th e r eg is t r y al s o p r o v i de s a l is t o f d ru gs r e p o rt e d t o p r ol o ng th e Q T i n t e r v a l o r ca us e to rs a de s d e p oin t es ( ww w. To r s a d es .o r g ). F o ur d ru g l is ts we r e c re a t ed
b a se d o n t h e r e la t i v e r is k o f i nd uc in g to r s a de s de p oi n te s ( Td P ) o r a pr o lo n g ed Q T i n t er va l . d . I t i s b e y on d t h e i nt e nti o n o f t h is c h ap t er t o p r ov i d e a co m p r e he ns i v e l is t i n g, as d o n e o n D r . W oos le y ' s we b s i t e. H o we ve r , th e fo ur c at e go r ie s o f d r u g li s ts i nc l ud e t h e fo ll o wi n g wi t h s e l ec t e xa m p l es . i . Li s t 1 : D ru gs th a t a r e g e n er a ll y ac ce p t ed b y au t h o ri ti e s t o h a ve a ri s k o f ca us in g To r s a d es d e Po i nt es ; i . e. , am i od a ro n e ( C o rd a r one ® ) , B ep r i di l ( V as co r ® ) , c h lo r p ro m a z i n e ( Th o r a z in e ® ) , c la r i th r om y c in ( Bi axi n ® ) , d i s o p yr am i de ( N o rp a c e ® ) , d o f et i li de ( Ti k o s y n ® ) , e ry t h r o m yc i n ( E r y t h r oc in ® ), h al o pe r id o l ( H a ld ol ® ) , ib u t il id e ( C o r v e r t ® ) , m e th ad o ne (D o l o ph in e ® ) , p e nt am i di ne ( N e bu P en t ® ) , p im o z i de ( O r a p ® ) , p r o ca in am i de ( P ro n es t y l® ) , a nd q ui ni d in e ® ) ( Q u in a gl u te ® ) . i i . Li st 2 : D r u gs t h a t in s o m e r e po r ts ha v e be e n as so c i a te d wi t h To rs a de s d e P o i n te s a nd / o r Q T p r o lon g a ti on , bu t a t th is ti m e l a c k s ub s ta n ti al e v id e nce f o r c a us in g To rs a de s d e P o in t es ; i. e ., am an t ad i ne ( Sy m m e tr e l ® ) , a zi th r om y c in ( Z i t hr o m a x® ) , d o l as et r o n ( A n z e m e t ® ) , f os p he n y t oi n ( C er e b y x® ) , g a t i fl o xa c i n ( Te q u i n ® ) , g ra n is e tr o n (K y t r i l ® ) , i s ra d ip in e ( D y na C i r c ® ), m o xi f l o xa c i n (Av e l o x® ) , n i ca r di p in e ( C a r de n e ® ), o n d an s e t ro n ( Zo f ra n ® ) , ri s pe r id o ne ( R is pe r da l ® ) , d a lm e te r ol ( S er e v e n t ® ), a n d v o ri co na z o l e ( V f en d® ) . i i i . L is t 3: D r ug s t o b e av o i d e d f o r us e i n p a ti e nts wi t h di ag n os es or su s pe c te d c o ng e ni t al l o ng Q T s y n dr o m e. ( D r ug s o n L is ts 1,2 , an d 4 a re al so in c l u ded h e re . ) i . e ., al b ut e r ol ( P ro v e n ti l® ) , a m i od a r on e ( Co r da r on e ® ) , a zi t h ro m yc i n ( Z i th ro m a x® ) , b e p ri d il ( Va s c o r ® ) , c l a ri th r o m yc i n ( B ia xi n ® ) , d is op y r a m id e ( N o r pa ce ® ) , do b u ta m i n e ( D o b u t re x® ) , d o f e ti li d e (Ti k o s y n ® ) , d ol as e t ro n (An z e m et ® ) , do p am in e ( I n tr o p in ® ) , e r y t h r om y c in ( E r y t h ro c i n® ) , f l ec ai ni d e ( Ta m bo c o r® ) , f os p he n yt oi n ( Ce r eby x® ) , g a t if l o xa c in ( Te q ui n ® ) , gr a n is e tr o n ( K y t r i l ® ), is r ad i pi n e ( D y n a C i rc ® ) , l e vof l o xa c i n ( L e va qu i n ® ) , m e t ha d on e ( D o l op hi n e ® ) , m o xi f l o xa c i n ( A v e lo x® ) , o n d a ns et ro n ( Z o f r an ® ) , p r oc a in am id e ( P r o ne s t y l ® ), s a lm e te r ol ( S e re ve n t ® ) , s o t al o l ( Be t a pa c e ® ) , a n d vo ri c o na z o l e ( V f en d® ) . i v. L i st 4: D r ug s t h at , i n s om e re p o rt s , ha v e b ee n we a k l y as s o c i a te d wi t h To r s a d es d e P oi n te s a nd / o r Q T p r o l on g at i on bu t th a t a r e un l ik el y t o b e a r isk f o r To r s ad es de P o i n te s wh e n us ed in us u a l r e c o m m en de d do s a ge s , a nd in pa t ie n ts wi t h ou t o th e r r i sk fa c to r (e . g ., c o nc om it a n t Q T p ro l on gi n g d r ug s, b r ad y c a rd i a, el ec t r ol yt e d i st u r ba nc es , c on g en i ta l l o ng Q T s y n d ro m e , c o nco m it a nt d ru gs th a t i nh i bi t m e ta b ol is m ). i. e . , am i t ri pt y l i n e ( E la v i l ® ) , a m o xa p i n e ( As e nd in ® ) , c i p ro fl o xa c in ( C i p r o ® ) , c i t al o pr am ( C el e xa ® ) , d o xe p i n ( Si ne q ua n ® ) , fl uc o na zo le ( D if l uc a n ® ) , i n t ra c on a z ol e ( Sp o ra n o x® ) , k et oc o na zo l e ( N i z o ral ® ) , s e r t ra l in e ( Z ol o f t ® ), a n d t r i m e t ho p ri m -s ul f am et h oxa z o l e ( B a c t ri m ® ). D . C a u se s 1 . P r ec i p i ta t i ng ca u se s. A r r h y t hm ia s r es u lt f ro m v a r i o us c on d it i on s , in cl ud i ng a . H ea r t di s e as e — fo r e x a m pl e , i nf ec t io n , c or o na ry a r t e r y di se as e ( C A D ) , v a l v u l a r h e a r t d is ea s e , rh e um at ic h e a rt di se as e , i sc he m i c h e a r t d is ea se b . My o c a r d ia l i n fa r c t i on ( MI ) c . To xi c d os es o f c a r di oa c ti v e d ru gs ( e. g . , d ig i tal i s p re p a ra t io ns ) d . I nc r ea s e d s y m pa t he t ic t on e e . D ec r ea s e d pa r as y m pat h e ti c t o ne
f . V a ga l s ti m u l at i on (e . g ., s t ra in i ng at s t o ol ) g . I nc r ea s e d o xy g e n d em a nd ( e. g ., f r om s t re s s , e xe r c i s e, f e ver ) h . Me t a b o li c di s tu r ba nc es i . C o r p ul m on al e j . S ys te m i c h y p e r te ns io n k . H yp e rk al em i a/ h y p ok ale m ia l . C h r on ic ob s t r uc t i v e p ul m on a r y di s e as e ( C O P D )— f o r e xa m pl e , ch r o ni c br o n c h i ti s, e m ph ys em a P.832
Figure 40-4. Reentry arrhythmias. A. Two waves of excitation going in opposite directions. B. A unidirectional wave of excitation. C. Reexcitation of tissue in a slow conduction area.
m . Th yr o i d d is o rd e rs n . D r ug t he r ap y ( b o th ant i a r rh y t h m i c a nd no n -a n tia r r h y t hm ic d ru gs ) 2 . M e c ha n is m s o f a r r h yt h m i as . Ab n o rm al i m p u ls e fo rm a ti o n, ab n o rm al im p ul s e c o nd uc t io n , o r a c o m b ina t i on of bo t h m a y g i v e ris e to ar r h y t hm ia s . a . Ab n o r m a l i mp u l se f or m a t i on m a y s te m f r om : ( 1 ) D e pr es s ed au t om at ic i t y , as in es c a pe be a ts an d b ra d y ca r di a ( 2 ) I nc r ea s e d a u to m a t ic ity , a s i n p r em a tu r e b ea t s, t a c h y c a rd ia , an d e xt r a s y s t o le ( 3 ) D e po la r i z a ti on a nd t ri g ge r e d ac t i vi t y, l ea d in g t o su st a in ed ec t op ic fi r i ng b . Ab n o r m a l i mp u l se co n d u ct i o n r es u lt s f r om : ( 1 ) A c o nd uc t io n b lo c k or d el a y ( 2 ) R e en t r y o c c u rs wh e n a n i m p u ls e is r e ro u te d th r o ug h c e r ta in r eg io n s in wh i c h i t h a s a l re ad y t r a v e le d . Th u s th e i m p ul s e de p ol a ri z e s th e s am e t is su e m o re t h an on c e , p r o du c i n g a n a dd i ti o na l im p ul s e ( Fi g ur es 40 - 4 a nd 4 0 -5 ) . Re e nt r y si t es inc l ud e t h e S A a n d A V no de s a s we l l as v a r io us ac ce s s o r y pa t h wa y s i n t he at r i a a nd v e n t r ic l es ( F i gu r e 4 0 - 6) . Fo r re e n try t o oc cu r , th e f o ll o wi n g c o nd i ti on s m us t e xi s t :
Figure 40-5. Ventricular reentry: a branched Purkinje fiber joining ventricular muscle. The dark area represents the site of a unidirectional block. In this depolarization region, the impulse heading toward the atrioventricular node continues upward, whereas the impulse traveling toward the muscle is blocked. Because retrograde conduction in branch B is slow, cells in branch A have time to recover and respond to the reentrant impulse.
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Figure 40-6. Reentry sites. AV, atrioventricular; SA, sinoatrial.
( a ) Ma r k e dl y s ho r t en ed re f r ac t o ri ne ss o r a s lo w c o n d uc ti o n a re a th a t a ll ows a n a d e qu a te de la y s o t ha t de p ol a r i z at i on r ec ur s ( b ) U n id i re c t i on a l c o n duc t io n E . P a t ho p h ys i o l o g y. A r r h y t h m i as m a y d ec r ea s e c a r di ac ou t pu t , r e du c e blo o d p r e ss u re , a n d d is ru p t p er f u s i o n o f v i t al o rg a ns . Sp e ci f ic p a th o ph ys io l og ica l c o ns eq u en c e s d ep e nd on t he a r rh yt hm i a p r es en t. F . C l i ni c al e va lu a t i on 1 . P h ys i c a l f i n di n g s. A lt h o ug h s om e a r r h y th m i as a re si le n t, m o s t p ro d uc e si g ns a n d s ym pt om s . O n l y an E C G c a n d e fi ni t i v el y i den t i f y an ar r h yt hm ia . H o we v e r , p h ys ic al fi n di n gs m a y s ug g es t wh i ch ar r h yt hm ia is p re se n t ; t he y a ls o y i e ld i n f or m at io n ab ou t th e p at i e nt ' s c li n ic al s t a tu s a nd m a y he lp id e nt i f y as s oc ia t e d c om p li ca t io ns . S ig n s a nd s ym p t o m s t h at t yp ic all y a c c om p an y a r rh yt h m i as in c l u de a . C he s t p ai n b . A n xi e t y a nd c o nf u s i on ( f r om r ed uc e d b ra i n p e rfu s io n )
c . D ys pn e a d . S ki n p al l o r o r c y a no s is e . A bn o rm al p ul s e ra t e , rh y t h m , o r a m p li t ud e f . R e du c e d b l oo d p r es s ur e g . P al p it a ti o ns h . S yn co p e i . W eakn es s j . C o n vul s i o ns k . H yp o te ns i on l . D ec r e as ed u ri na r y o utp u t 2 . D i ag n os t i c t e s t r e su lt s a . A n E C G c an id en t i f y a s pe c i f ic ar r h yt hm ia ; us ua l l y , a 12 - le a d E C G i s us e d . b . E l ec t r o ph ys i o l o g i ca l ( E P ) t es t i ng . Th is in t r ac a r di ac pr o c e du r e d e te rm i ne s t he l o ca t io n o f P.834 e c to p ic fo c i an d b y p as s tr a c ts an d m a y h e lp as s es s t h e ra pe u ti c r es p on s e t o a n t ia r r h y th m i c d r ug t he ra p y . I t a ls o c an de t er m i ne t he ne e d f o r a pa c e m ak e r o r s u r gi ca l i n te r v e nt i on . ( 1 ) I nt r ac a rd i ac c a th e te rs an d p a ci ng wi r e s a r e pl a ce d t r a ns v e no us l y o r t r a ns a r te r ia l l y . ( 2 ) Th e he a rt is di v i de d in t o i m a g in a r y s ec t io ns , a n d e ac h s ec t io n i s st im u l a te d u n ti l a n a rr h y t hm ia is in du c ed. Th e s e c t i on in wh i c h t he a r rh y t h m i a o c c u rs i s i de n t if i ed as t h e o r i gi n o f t h e ec t op ic f o c i . c . H i s b u nd l e s t ud y, a t y p e o f EP t es ti n g, ca n l oc a te t he or i gi n o f a he a r t b l oc k o r r e e n tr y p a tt e r n. d . L ab o r a to r y f i n d i n g s . S o m e a r rh yt h m i as r es ul t f r om el ec t r ol yt e ab no r m a l i ti es — m os t c om m o n l y , h y p e rk al e m i a a nd h y p oc al c e m i a . ( 1 ) A s e ru m p o ta s s iu m le v e l > 5 m E q /L r ef le c ts h yp e r ka le m i a ; a s e r um c a l c i um le v e l < 4 .5 m Eq / L s i g ni f ie s h yp o c a lc em i a, an d s e ru m m a gn es i um l e v e ls < 2 .5 m E q /L s i gn i f y h y p om a gn es em i a. ( 2 ) A n E C G t r ac in g m a y s u gg es t an el ec t ro l yt e ab n o rm al i t y. F o r e xa m p l e, p r ol o ng e d Q R S c om p le xe s , t en t ed T wa v e s , an d l e ng t he n ed P R i n te r va ls m a y s i gn a l h yp e r ka le m i a ; p r ol o ng ed Q T i n t e r v a ls a n d f la t t ene d , o r in ve r t ed , T wa v e s s u gg es t h yp o ca lc em i a. G . T r e a tm e n t o b je c t i ves 1 . T e rm i na t e o r su p p res s t he a r r h yt h m i a i f i t c a u s e s h em od yn am ic co m p r o m i s e or d i st u r bi ng s ym p to m s . 2 . M a i n ta i n a de q u at e ca r d i ac o u tp u t a n d t i ss ue p e r fu s i on . 3 . C o r r ec t o r m a in t a in fl u i d b a la n ce ( so m e ar r hy t h m ia s c au se h y pe r vo l em i a ).
II. THERAPY. D u r i ng r ec en t y e a rs , s e v e r a l p r om in e nt na t io n al or g a ni z a t io ns ha ve f o rm ali ze d a s t r uc t ur e wh i c h pr om u lga t es t he di ss em in a ti on of “ c l i ni c a l p r ac t ic e g ui de li n es , ” wh i c h fo c us o n “ E v id en c e - b as ed p ra c ti ce . ” Th e ove r a l l p u rp os e b e in g t o ut i li ze
a va i la b le li t e ra t ur e to qua n t if y , in cl in ic a l t e rm s , th e s t r en g th o f e v i de nc e a n d t h e q u al i t y of s u c h e v id e nc e, i n o r d er t o d e vel op a s ta n d ar d o f pr a ct ic e f o r s uc h c li n ic al e n t it i es . E v i d en c e - b as ed p r ac t ic e g oe s b e yon d dru g th e r ap y a nd in c l ud e s d i ag n os ti c c r i te r ia , s c re e ni ng p ro g ra m s , us e o f l ab o r at o r y tes t s , et c . Th e A m e r ic an Co l le g e o f C a r d io l og y i n c o l la b or a tio n wi t h th e Am er ic a n H ea r t As so c i a ti o n a nd E u rop e a n S o c ie t y o f C a r di ol o g y h av e e s ta bl is h ed a r o ut i ne s t an d a rd fo r th e e v a l ua t io n , d e ve l op m e n t, ap p r o v al , a n d s ub se q ue n t d is t ri b uti o n o f s uc h p r ac t ic e g ui de l in es f o r a wi d e a r r a y of c a r di ac s i tu a t io ns . Si nc e th e p ub l ic a t i on of t he m os t re c e n t e d i ti on o f t h is t e xt ; t wo s e t s o f g uid e li n es h a v e be en de ve lo p e d in t he a re a o f Ca r di a c A r r h yt h m i as , a n d i nc lu de t h e f ol l o wi n g: A C C / A H A / E S C 2 00 6 G uid e li n es fo r th e Ma n a ge m e n t o f Pa t ie n ts wi t h A tr i al F i b ri l la t io n wh ic h c an be f o un d o n li ne a t h t t p :/ /c i rc . ah a jo u rn a ls .o rg / c g i /c on t en t / fu l l/ 1 14 / 7/ 70 0 . A C C / A H A / E S C G u id e li nes f or t he Ma n a g em en t o f P a t ie n ts wi t h Ve n t ri c u lar A r r h yt h m i as an d t h e P r ev e n t i on of S ud d en C a rd ia c D ea t h, wh i c h ca n b e fo u n d o n li n e a t h t t p :/ / ww w. a m e r i c a nh e a rt . o r g/ d o wn l oa d ab le / he a r t/ 1 1 5 6 9 43 33 6 54 7 V A_ P G _F I N A L 8_ 2 8 . p df An t i a r r h yt h m i c ag e n ts , d i r ec tl y o r in di r ec t l y , a l te r t he du r a ti on o f t he m yo c a rd ia l a c ti o n p ot e nt i al . Mo s t a nt i a r rh y t h m i c s fa ll in t o o ne o f f o ur c l as se s , de p end i ng on t h e ir sp ec i fi c e f fe c t s o n th e he a r t 's el ec t ri c al a c tiv i t y ( Ta b l e 4 0 - 1) . A. C l a s s I a n t ia r r h yt h m i c s 1 . I nd i ca t i o ns a . C l as s I A d r u g s ( 1 ) Q u i ni d i ne is u s e d to t r e a t a nd p re v e n t ac u te a n d c h ro ni c v en t r ic ul a r an d s u p ra ve n t ri c u la r a rr h y t hm i as , e s p ec ia l l y p a r o xy s m a l s u p r a v en t ri c ul a r t ac h yc a r di as ( P S V Ts ) , p re m a t u re v e n tr i c ul a r co n t ra c ti on s ( P VC s ) , pr em a tu r e a t r ia l c ont r a c t i on s ( P A C s ) , a n d v e n t ri c u l ar ta c h y c a r di a . ( 2 ) P r o ca i na m id e i s u s ed f o r t he s a m e a rr h yt hm ia s fo r wh i c h qu in i di ne is g i v e n . I t i s u se d m o re f re q ue n tl y th a n q ui n id i ne be c a us e i t c an be ad m i n is te r e d i nt ra ve n o us l y a n d i n s us ta i ne d - re l ea s e o r al p re p a ra t io ns . Q ui nid i ne po s es a d de d c on ce rn wh e n u s ed in t r a v en o us l y b ec au s e o f i nc r ea s e d c a rd i o va s c u la r ef f ec ts ( i. e ., h ypo t e ns io n , s yn c op e , m y oc a rd i al de pr e s s i on ) . ( 3 ) D i so p yr a m i d e m a y be us e d a s a n al t e rn a ti v e t o qu i ni di n e o r p r oc a in am i de fo r t r e a ti n g v e n t ri c u la r a r rh y t h m i as ( e. g . , P V C s , m o de r a t e ve n t ri cu la r t ac h yc ar d i a ). P.835
Table 40-1. Williams's Classification of Antiarrhythmic Drugs Currently Available in the United States
Class IA (fastchannel blockers)
Action
Drugs
Moderate depression of conduction, prolongation of repolarization, which results in an increase in the QRS interval and an increase in the QT interval
Disopyramide (Norpace), procainamide (Pronestyl), quinidine
IB
Modest depression of conduction, shortening of repolarization, which results in a decrease in the QT interval
Lidocaine (Xylocaine), mexiletine (Mexitil), phenytoin (Dilantin),
IC
Strong depression of conduction, with mild or no effect on repolarization, which results in a very large increase in the QRS interval
Flecainide (Tambocor), propafenone (Rythmol)
II (βblockers)
β-adrenergic blockers slow sinus as well as AV nodal conduction, which results in a decrease in heart rate and a prolongation in the PR interval (atrial depolarization)
Propranolol (Inderal), esmolol (Brevibloc), acebutolol (Sectral)a
III
Prolongation of repolarization, which results in prolongation of the QT interval
Amiodarone (Cordarone), sotalolb (Betapace), ibutilide (Corvert), dofetilide (Tikosyn)
Calcium-channel blockade in calcium-dependent channels, which results in reduced heart rate and an increase in the PR interval
Verapamil (Calan), diltiazem (Cardizem)
IV (slowchannel blockers)
Other
Adenosine (Adenocard), atropine, digoxin (Lanoxin), magnesium
a
Singh BN, Vaughan Williams EM. Classification of antiarrhythmic drugs. In: Sandoe E, Flensted-Jensen E, Olesen KH, eds. Symposium on Cardiac Arrhythmias. Sodertalige: AB Astra, 1970. b
Sotalol is a β-adrenergic blocker that prolongs the action potential of phase 3 and is classified as type III.
b . C l as s I B d r u gs ( 1 ) L id o ca i n e is us ed the r a pe u ti c a l l y fo r ven t r ic ul a r a r r h yt hm ia s ( es p ec ia ll y P V C s a n d ven t r ic ul a r t ac h y c a rd i a ) t h at r es ul t f r om ac u te MI a n d op en - h ea r t s u rg e r y . C o n t r o ve rs y s t i ll e xi s t s as t o t he be n ef i ts of li do ca i ne wh e n us ed p ro ph yl ac t ic al l y in p a t ie n ts wi t h a c u t e MI t o p r e v e nt ve n tr ic u la r fi b ri ll a t io n . A r ec en t a n al ys is s h o we d a n in c re as e i n t h e n um be r o f d ea t hs i n p a ti e nt s re c ei v i n g li d oc ai n e d u ri ng a n a cu t e MI a s c om pa r e d t o p la c eb o . Ma n y f e el th a t i ts c u rr e n t u s e p ro p h y la ct ic a ll y p os t - MI i s n o l o ng e r j us t if ie d . ( 2 ) P he n yt o i n i s m os t c om m o n l y u s e d to t re a t d igi t a li s - i nd uc e d v e n t ri cu l ar a n d s u p ra ve n t ri c u la r a rr h y t hm i as . I t i s a ls o g i v en t o s u pp r es s v e n t ri c u l a r a r rhy t h m ia s a ss o ci at e d wi t h ac u te MI , o pe n - he a rt s u r ge r y, o r v e n t r ic u la r a r r h y t hm ia s th a t a r e r e f r ac t o r y t o l i do c a i ne or p r oc a in am id e , b u t i ts e f fi c ac y is le ss s ig n if ic a nt fo r t he se i n di ca t io ns t ha n i t i s f o r d i gi t al is - i nd uc ed a r rh y t hm i as . ( 3 ) M e x il e t in e i s c lo s e l y r e la t e d t o l id oc ai n e, s t ru c tu r a ll y wi t h m o di f ic at i on s , wh ic h r e d uc e f i rs t - pa s s l i v e r m e t a bo li sm , m ak in g o r a l th e r ap y p os si bl e . I t i s m os t c om m o n l y u s ed to t re a t p a t ie n ts i n wh o m a c la s s I a ge n t h as fa il e d a nd is m o de r a te l y ef f ec ti v e i n s u p p re s s in g v e nt r ic ul a r ec t op y, a lt h ou gh c o m p a rab l e t o q u in i di n e. c . C l as s I C d r u gs ( 1 ) F le c ai n i de s u pp r es s e s P V Cs an d ven t r ic ul a r t a ch y c a rd i a; it m a y b e us e d t o t r ea t s om e a r r h y t hm ia s t ha t a re r e f ra ct o r y to o th e r a gen t s . F le ca i ni de is re se r v e d fo r p a t ie n ts wi t h r e f ra c to r y lif e - t h re a te ni n g v e n t ri c u l ar a r r h yt hm i a s wh o d o n ot h a v e C A D . I t ha s a ls o b ee n s ho wn t o b e e ff ec t i ve i n t he t r ea tm e nt o f s u p r a v en tr i c ul a r a r r h y t hm ia s . ( 2 ) P r o pa f e no n e a ls o s up p r es s e s P V C s a nd v e n tr i c ul a r t ac h y c a r di a a n d ha s b e en u s ed s u c c es s f ul l y f or t rea t i ng s us t ai n ed ve n tr ic u la r t ac h yc a r di a wh e n t he a r r h yt hm ia i s l i fe P.836 t h r e at e ni ng . It ha s a ls o b e e n s h o wn t o b e e f fe c tiv e i n th e t r ea t m e n t o f s u p ra ve n t ri c u la r a rr h y t hm i as .
( 3 ) M o r i c iz in e i s a di f fi c u l t a n ti a r rh y t h m i c t o c l a s s i f y ba s e d o n t h e f ac t tha t it ha s p r o pe r t ie s o f a ll t hr e e c la s s I a n ti a r rh y t h m i c g r oup s . Be c a us e i t p r ol o ng s th e Q R S i n t er va l l ik e o t h er c l as s IC a g en t s, it ha s b ee n c las si f ie d a s a c l ass I C a g en t t h r o ug ho u t t h is d is c u s s ion . Mo r i c i z in e i s e f fe ct i ve f o r s up p r es s i ng P V Cs an d m a y o f f e r so m e b en e fi ts o v e r o t h e r a ge n ts b ec a us e o f a l o we r in ci de nc e of p roa r r h y t hm ic e f f ec ts . 2 . M e c ha n is m o f ac t i on. A s a c l as s , al l o f t h e ag e n ts wo r k b y b lo ck in g th e r ap id i n wa r d s o di u m c u r r en t an d th e r eb y s l o w d o wn t he r a te of r is e o f t h e c a r d ia c ti s s ue ' s a c ti o n p ot e nt i al . Ho we v e r , t ho u gh th is is a si m i l ar e f f ec t f o r a ll c l as s I a g en t s , d i f fe r e nc es i n E P e ff e c t s h a d l ed to a s ub c l as s i f ic a t i on of t he c l ass I a g en ts in t o t h r e e su bs e ts ( I A, I B , a nd I C ) , b as e d o n t he s e EP e f fe c ts . a . C l as s I A d r u g s m o der a t el y r e du c e t he de p ol ar i za t io n ra t e a nd p ro l on g r e p ol a ri z a t io n ( re f r ac to r y p e ri o d ). b . C l as s I B d r u gs s h o rte n r ep ol a ri za t i on ( re f r ac to r y p e ri o d ); th e y a ls o we a k l y a f f ec t t h e re p ol a ri z a t io n ra t e. c . C l as s I C d r u gs s t r ong l y d ep r es s d ep o la r i z at io n bu t h a ve a n eg li g i b le e f f ec t o n t h e d u r at i on of r ep ol a r i za t i on o r r e fr ac t o ri n es s . 3 . Ad m i n is t r a t io n an d do s a ge a . Q u i ni d i ne is a dm i ni s te r e d o r al l y , u su a ll y i n 3 -4 d ai l y do s e s o f 2 0 0- 4 00 m g a s a r a p id - r el e as e s u l fa t e s al t ( 8 3 % q ui ni d in e ). H o we ve r , s u s t ai n ed - r el e as e p ro d uc ts in t h e fo rm o f a g l uc on a te (6 2 % q ui n id i ne ) s al t in dos es o f 3 24 - 64 8 m g , wh i c h c o r re s po nd s t o 3 0 0 -6 00 m g o f th e s ul f at e s al t , m a y b e g i v e n e v e r y 12 h r . ( I n s p ec ia l c i rc um s ta nc es , i t h a s b ee n gi v e n i n t ra v e no u sl y or i n t ra m u sc ul a rl y wi t h c au t i on . ) To a c hi e v e a n e f fe c ti v e pl as m a c on c en t ra t io n ra p id l y, a l o ad i ng do s e of 60 0 -1 0 0 0 m g m a y be ad m i n is te r e d i n d o s e s o f 2 0 0 m g e ve r y 2 h r to a m a xi m um o f 10 00 m g , or a 5 - 8 m g /k g i nt r a v e no us inf u s i o n ca n b e g i v e n a t a r a t e o f 0 . 3 m g/ kg / m i n . b . P r o ca i na m i de ( P r on es t yl ) i s a va il ab l e f o r o r al, i nt r a v e no us , or in t r am us cu l a r u s e. ( 1 ) F or ac u t e t h e ra p y, i n t r a v e no us ad m i ni s t ra t ion is p re f e rr e d. ( a ) I nt e rm i tt e nt in t r a v en ou s a dm i ni s t r a ti o n c a l ls fo r t he ad m i n is t ra t io n o f a n i n t ra ve n ou s d os e o f 3 - 6 m g /k g i n fu si on ( up t o 1 00 m g ) o ve r 2 - 4 m i n , r e pea t e d e ve r y 5 - 1 0 m in un t il th e a r r h y th m ia is a b ol is he d , s id e ef f e ct s o c c ur , o r 1 g ha s b e e n gi v e n . Th e u su a l e f fe c t i v e d os e i s 5 00 - 1 00 0 m g. ( b ) R a pi d i n tr a v e no us adm i ni s t r a ti on ca ll s f o r i n fus i o n of 1 -1 . 5 g a t a r a te o f 20 - 5 0 m g /m in . ( c ) O nc e th e a r r h y t hm i a i s te rm i na t ed , 1 . 5 -5 m g /m i n is gi v e n a s a c o nt i nuo u s i n f us io n . ( 2 ) F or l on g - t e rm t he r ap y, o r a l a dm in is t r at io n i s u s e d . Th e us u al da il y do s ag e i s 5 0 m g /k g i n d i v id e d d os es gi v e n e v e r y 6 h r as a s us ta i ne d - r el ea se p ro d uc t o r 3 - 6 g d a il y . ( a ) C a ps ul es an d t a bl e ts ( P r o ne s t y l) a v ai l ab l e as 2 5 0, 37 5 , a nd 50 0 m g g ive n i n 4 - 6 d i vi de d d o s e s ( b ) S us t ai n ed - r el ea s e t ab l e ts ( P ro ca nb i d ) a v a il abl e as 5 0 0 a nd 10 0 0 m g gi v e n in 12 h r d os es c . D i so p yr a m i d e ( N o rp ac e , N o rp a ce C R ) i s a v a i la b le in o ra l f o rm .
( 1 ) U su a ll y , 30 0 -4 0 0 m g i s g i v e n as a l oa d in g d os e t o a t ta i n a n e ff ec t i v e pl a sm a l e ve l r a pi d l y . ( 2 ) F or m a in t en a nc e t h era p y , do s es o f 4 0 0 -8 0 0 m g / d a y a r e g i ve n i n 4 d os e s e v e r y 6 h r ( no n -s us t ai n ed - r el e as e c a ps u le ) o r in 2 d os es e v e r y 1 2 h r (s us t ai n ed - re l ea s e c a ps ul e ) . d . L id o ca i n e ( X yl o c a i n e) m a y b e ad m i ni s te r ed int r a ve n ou s l y o r i n t ra m u sc u l a rl y. ( 1 ) A n i nt r a v e no us lo a din g do s e r ap id l y ac hi e v e s a t he r ap e ut ic pl as m a lev e l . ( a ) I ni ti a ll y , 1 -1 . 5 m g/ k g ( 1 0 0 m g) is ad m i ni s te r ed. ( b ) A s ec o nd in j ec ti o n o f h a lf th e i n it i al do s e m a y b e re q ui r ed 5 m i n l a te r , u p to a m a xi m um o f 3 00 m g . ( 2 ) C o nt in u ou s i n tr a v e nou s i n fu si o n o f 2 - 4 m g/ m in p r od uc es an ef f ec t i v e p l as m a l e ve l i n 7 - 10 h r. ( 3 ) I n a n em e r ge nc y , an i n t ra m us c u la r i n je c t i on ra p id l y ac hi e v e s a n e f fe c ti ve p la s m a l e ve l . Th e us ua l d os a ge i s 3 0 0 -4 00 m g in je c te d in t o th e d el t oi d m us c l e . e . P he n yt o i n ( D i l a nt i n ) i s g i v e n o r al l y or in in t e rm i tt e n t in t r a v en o us do s es . ( 1 ) F or o ra l a dm i ni s t r a ti on , a l oa d in g d os e o f 1 g is di v i d ed o v e r t he fi r s t 24 h r ; f o r t h e n e xt 2 d a ys , 30 0 -5 0 0 m g /d a y is a dm i ni st e r ed . Th e m ai n te na nc e d o s a ge is 30 0 4 0 0 m g/ d a y . P.837
( 2 ) F or in t e rm it t en t in t rav e n o us ad m i n is t ra t io n , 10 0 m g i s g i v en e v e r y 5 m i n a t a r a t e n o t e xc e e di n g 2 5 -5 0 m g /m in , u n ti l t h e a r rh y t h m ia di s a p pe a rs , a d ve rs e e f fe c t s d e ve l op , o r 1 g h as be e n g i v e n. Th e us ua l e f fe c tive d os a ge is 70 0 m g. f . M e x i le t i ne is a dm i ni s te r e d o r al l y an d s ho u ld be i ni t ia t ed in th e h os p it a l s e tt i ng . ( 1 ) A l o ad i ng do s e of 400 m g f ol lo we d b y m a i nt en a nc e d os a ge in 8 h r . ( 2 ) I f t hi s f a il s t o c on t ro l t h e a r r h yth m i a , t h e d os a g e m a y b e i n cr e as ed to 4 0 0 m g e ve r y 8 h r. ( A lt e r na ti v e l y , d os es m a y be gi v e n e ve r y 1 2 h r . ) ( 3 ) N o rm al m a in t en a nc e d o s e s a r e 2 00 - 30 0 m g ev e r y 8 h r . g . F le c ai n i de ( Ta m bo c or ) i s a dm in is t e re d o r al l y a n d s ho u ld be in i ti at e d in t he h o sp i ta l s et t in g . ( 1 ) I ni ti a l d os ag e i s 5 0 m g e v e r y 12 h r, an d th e do s ag e m a y be in c r e as ed i n t wi ce d a il y i nc r em en t s o f 5 0 m g e v e r y 4 d a ys t o a m a xi m um o f 3 00 m g /d a y. ( 2 ) Th e us ua l m ai n te na nc e d os e i s 1 0 0 m g e ve r y 1 2 h r . h . P r o pa f e no n e ( R yt h m o l , R yt h m o l S R ) i s a dm in i s t e r ed or a ll y a nd s h ou ld b e i n i ti a te d i n t h e h os pi t al s e t t in g . ( 1 ) I ni ti a l d os ag e i s 1 50 m g e v e r y 8 hr an d c a n be i nc r ea se d e ve r y 3 - 4 d ays t o t h e d e si r ed t he r ap e ut ic e ff ec t o r s id e e f f ec ts . ( 2 ) Th e us ua l m ai n te na nc e d os e i s 1 5 0- 2 00 m g ev e r y 8 h r , ( R y t h m o l ) o r ev e r y 1 2 h o u r ( R yt h m o l S R ) u p t o a m a xi m u m o f 9 0 0 m g / day . 4 . P r ec a u ti o n s a nd m oni t o r i n g e f f ec t s. N o t e : P ro a r r h y th m i a ( th e a bi l it y to ca us e a n a rr h y t hm ia ) is th e m os t im po r ta n t r is k a s s oc iat e d wi t h t h e us e o f an t ia rr h yt h m i c d r u g t h er a p y . Br a d y a r rh y t h m i as an d v e nt r ic ul a r t ac h y a r r h y th m i as , s uc h a s t o r s a d es d e po in t es , c an oc c u r . Th e s e of t en t ak e p la ce dur i n g t h e in i ti a ti o n o f a n tia r r h yt hm ic
d r u g t r ea t m e n t a nd s h oul d be c o ns id e re d wh e n de c is i o n m ak e rs c ho o se be t we e n o u t pa t ie n t a nd in p at ie n t in i t ia t io n o f a n ti a r rh y t h m ic t he r ap y. a . Q u in id i ne ( 1 ) Th i s d ru g i s c on t r ai nd i c a t ed in pa t ie n ts wi t h ( a ) C om p le t e A V bl oc k un l es s a v e nt r ic ul a r p ac em ak e r i s i n p la ce ( b ) Ma r k e d p r ol o ng a ti o n o f t he Q T i n te r v a l o r p r o lo n g ed Q T s yn d ro m e be c a u s e ve n t r ic u la r ta c h y a r r h y t hm i a ( t o rs ad es de po i nt es ) m a y a r is e , r es u lt i ng in q u in i di n e s yn c op e ( i .e . , s y n c o pe or s ud d en de a th ) ( 2 ) A n i nc r ea s e of 5 0% or m o re in th e d u ra t io n o f t h e Q R S c om pl e x n e c es s i t a te s d o sa g e r ed u c t i on . ( 3 ) Q u in id i ne ha s a na r ro w t h e r a pe u ti c i nd e x. Th e r a pe u ti c s e ru m l e v el s ar e in t he r a n ge o f 2 -6 µ g /m L , d epe n di n g o n t h e s p ec i fi c i t y o f th e a s s a y. To xi c i t y m a y c au s e a c ut e c a rd i ac e f f ec ts , s uc h a s p r on o un c e d s lo wi n g o f c on du c ti on in al l h ea r t r e g io ns ; th is , i n tu r n, m ay l e a d t o S A bl oc k o r ar re s t , v e n t ri c u la r t ac h yc a rd i a , o r a s ys to le . ( 4 ) Th e E C G s h ou ld b e m o ni t o re d d u ri n g q ui ni d in e th e r a p y t o d e te ct s i gns o f c a r di o to xi c i t y . To c o un t er a c t q ui n id in e -i n du ce d ve n t ri c ul a r t ac h y a r rh yt h m ia s , c a te ch o la m i n es , g lu c a g on , o r s o d iu m l ac ta t e m a y b e g i ve n. ( 5 ) I n p at i en ts r ec ei v i n g q u in i di n e f o r a t ri al t ac h ya r r h y t hm ia s , va g ol yt ic e ff e c ts m a y i n c re as e i m p ul s e c o n du c t i o n a t t h e A V no de , re s u l t i n g i n a n a cc el e ra t ed v e n t r ic u la r r e s po ns e . To p r e v en t th is , ag en t s t ha t s l o w A V no d al co n du c t i on (e . g ., v er a p am il , d i go xi n ) m a y be ad m i ni s te r e d . ( 6 ) Th e do s a g e s h o ul d be r e du c e d i n e ld e r l y p a tie n ts ( > 6 0 y ea r s o ld ) a nd i n p a t ie n ts wi t h h ep a ti c d y s f u nc t io n o r c o ng es t i ve he a r t f a il u re ( C H F ) . ( 7 ) E m b ol is m m a y o c c u r o n r es to r a ti on o f n o rm al s i nu s r h y t hm af t e r p r ol ong e d a t r ia l f i b ri l la t io n . To p r e v en t o r m in im i z e t h is c om p li c a t io n , a n ti c o a gu l an ts m a y b e a d m i ni s te r ed be f o re qu i ni d in e th e ra p y be g in s. ( 8 ) Q u in id i ne m a y c a us e c in c h o ni s m a t hi gh s e r um c o nc e nt r a ti on s , m a n ife s te d b y t i n ni t us , h ea r i ng l o s s , b lu r r e d v i si o n, an d g a s t r oi n t es t in a l ( G I ) di st u rb a nc e s . I n s e ve r e c a s e s , n au s e a , vo m it i ng , d i ar r h ea , h e ad ac h e, c o n fu si o n, de li r i um , p h o to p ho bi a , d ip l op ia , an d ps y c ho s i s m a y o c c u r. ( 9 ) G I re a c t io n s a re t he m os t c om m o n a d v e rs e rea c ti o ns to qu in i di n e. A bou t 30 % o f p a t ie n ts e xp e r i e nc e d ia r rh e a ; n au se a a n d vo m i t ing m a y a ls o o c c u r. A r is ing a lm os t i m m e di a te l y af t e r t he f ir s t d os e , t he s e s ym p to m s s om e ti m e s wa r r an t di s c on t i nu in g t h e d r u g. H o we v e r , al um i n um h y d ro xi d e o r u s e of t h e p ol yg a la ct u r on a te s a l t m a y r e v e r s e t hi s . ( 1 0 ) H yp er s en s i ti v i t y r e ac t io ns in c l u de an a ph y l a xi s , t h ro m b o c y to p en ia , res p i ra t or y d i st r es s , a nd v as c u l a r c ol l ap s e . P.838
b . P r o ca i na m i de ( P r on es t yl ) ( 1 ) Th i s d ru g i s c on t r ai nd i c a t ed in pa t ie n ts wi t h h yp e r se ns i ti v i t y t o p ro c ai n e a nd r e l at e d d r ug s , m y as th e nia g r a v is , s ec on d - o r th i rd - d eg r e e A V bl oc k wi t h n o
p a ce m a k e r , a hi s to r y o f p r o c a in am i de - in d uc ed s ys t em ic lu pu s e r yt h em at os us ( S L E ), p r o lo n ge d Q T s y n dr om e , o r to r s a d es d e p o in t es . ( 2 ) A n i nc r ea s e of 5 0% or m o re in th e d u ra t io n o f t h e Q R S c om pl e x n e c es s i t a te s d o sa g e r ed u c t i on . ( 3 ) P r oc ai n am id e h as a n a r r o w t h er a pe u ti c i nd e x. Th e r a pe u ti c s e r um le v el s a r e r e p o rt e d i n t he r an g e o f 4 - 1 0 µg /m L . N -a c e t yl p r oc a in am i de ( N A P A ) l e v el s o f 15 - 25 µ g / m L a re c o ns i de r ed the r a pe u ti c . Th e ac ti v e m et a b ol i te , N A P A p oss e ss es di f f er i ng p h a rm ac ol o gi c a l c a rd io v a s c u la r ef f ec ts , a n d s er um l e v e ls ne e d t o b e e v a lu a t ed i n de p en d en t l y o f pr oc a ina m id e . To xi c i t y m a y c a us e a cu t e c a rd ia c e f fe c ts ( e . g ., p r o no u nc ed s l o wi n g o f c o n d uc ti o n i n al l h e a rt r eg i o n s ) , wh i c h, in t ur n , m a y l e ad to S A b lo c k o r a r re s t, v e n tri c ul a r t ac h y ca r d ia , o r as y s t o le . ( 4 ) H ig h s e ru m p r oc ai n am i de le ve ls m a y in d uc e ve n t r ic u la r a r r h y t hm ia s (e . g . , P V C s, ve n t r ic u la r ta c h y c a rd ia or f i b ri ll a ti on ) . Th e E C G s h o ul d b e m o ni t or e d c o n tin u o us l y t o d e t ec t t h es e p r ob le m s . C a t e c h ol am i ne s , gl uc a go n , o r s o di um la ct a t e m ay b e a d m i ni s te r ed t o c o u nt e r ac t th es e a r r h y t hm ia s . ( 5 ) H yp o te ns i on m a y oc c u r wi t h r ap id in t r a ven o us a dm i n i s t r a ti o n. ( 6 ) G I ef f ec ts a re le s s c om m o n th an wi t h qu i ni di ne t he r a p y. ( 7 ) H yp e rs e ns it i v i t y re ac t i o ns a r e t h e m o s t s e ve re a d v e rs e e f fe ct s o f p r oca i na m i d e. Th e s e re ac t io ns in c l u de d r u g f e ve r , a g ra nu l oc y t os is , an d a n SL E - li k e s ynd r o m e . ( a ) A n S L E - li k e s y n d r om e is m a ni f es t ed b y fa ti g ue , a rt h r al gi a , m ya lg ia , an d lo wg r a de f e v e r. ( b ) A n ti nu c l e a r a nt i bo d y t i t e r is po s i t i v e i n 5 0% - 80 % of pa t ie n ts re c ei v i ng p r o ca in am i de . H o we v e r , o n l y 20 % -3 0 % o f t h es e pa t i en ts de v e l op s y m p to m s o f t he S L E - l ik e s y nd r om e . ( c ) D r ug di s c on t in u at i on u s ua ll y i s n ec es s a r y wh e n s ym p t om at ic S L E -l ik e s y n d r om e o cc u rs . ( 8 ) Th e do s a g e s h o ul d be r e du c e d a n d gi v e n o ver 6 h r t o p at i en t s wi t h r en a l o r h e p at ic im pa i rm en t , a s th e d ru g h al f - li f e is in c rea s ed in th es e p a ti e nt s . ( 9 ) Lo we r d os e s m a y b e n e e de d i n p a ti en t s wi t h C H F t o a d ju st f or t he lo we r vo l um e o f di s tr i bu t io n . ( 1 0 ) Em bo l is m m a y oc c ur o n re s t o r at io n of no r m al s i n us rh yt h m a ft e r p r olo n g ed a t r ia l fi b ri ll a ti o n. A n a n tic o ag u la n t is f re q ue n tl y ad m in is t e re d b e fo r e p r oc ai n am id e t h e r ap y b eg in s t o p r e v e nt t hi s c om pl ic a ti o n. c . D i so p yr a m i d e ( N o rp ac e ) ( 1 ) Th i s d ru g m a y c a us e m a rk e d h em od yn am ic c om p r om is e a nd v e nt r ic u lar d ys f un c ti o n. I t is c o nt r a in d ic a te d i n p a ti e nt s wi t h c a rd i og en ic s h oc k o r s ec o nd - or t h i rd - d eg r ee A V b l oc k wi t h no pa ce m ak er . ( 2 ) D is o p y ra m i d e s ho ul d b e a v o i de d o r us ed wi t h e xt r e m e c a ut i on i n pa ti en t s wi t h C H F . I t s ho u ld al s o be us e d c a u ti o us l y i n p a ti e nts wi t h u ri na r y t r ac t d is o rd e r s, m ya s th e ni a g r a v is , a nd re n al o r h ep a ti c d y s fu nc t io n . ( 3 ) I n p at i en ts r ec ei v i n g t h is d ru g f o r a t r ia l t ac h ya r r h yt hm ia s , v a g ol y t ic e ff e c ts m a y i n c re as e i m p ul s e c o n du c t i o n a t t h e A V no de , re s u l t i n g i n a n a cc el e ra t ed v e n t r ic u la r r e s po ns e . To p r e v en t th is , ag en t s t ha t s l o w A V no d al co n du c t i on (e . g ., v er a p am il , d i go xi n ) m a y be gi v e n .
( 4 ) A n ti c h ol i ne r gi c e f fe c ts o f t hi s d r ug in cl ud e dr y m ou t h , c o ns t ip a ti o n, u rin a r y h e si t an c y or r et e nt i on , an d bl u r re d v is io n . ( 5 ) Th e r ap e ut ic pl as m a le v e l s r a ng e f r om 2 t o 4 µ g / m L. d . L id o ca i n e ( L id o ca i n e) ( 1 ) Th i s d ru g m a y c a us e h e m o d y n am ic c om p ro m i se i n p at i en ts wi t h s e v e r e c a rd i ac d ys f un c ti o n. G e ne r al l y , ho we v e r , i t ha s f e w u n to wa r d c a rd i o v as c u la r ef f ec ts . ( 2 ) Li d oc ai n e s h o ul d b e u s ed c a u ti ou s l y a nd in re d uc e d d os ag e i n p a ti ent s wi t h C H F o r r en a l o r h e pa t ic i m p a ir m e nt . ( 3 ) C e nt r al ne r v o us s ys te m ( C N S ) r e ac ti o ns a r e th e m os t p ro no u nc ed ad ve r s e e f f ec ts o f li d oc ai n e. Th es e re ac t io ns m a y r a ng e fr o m l ig h th e ad e dn es s a nd r e s tl es sn es s t o c on f us ion , t re m o r s , st u po r , a n d c o n v u ls i on s. ( 4 ) Ti n ni t us , b lu r r e d v i s io n , a n d a na p h yla xi s h a ve b ee n re po r t ed . ( 5 ) P la s m a l id oc a in e l e ve l s o f 1 . 5- 6 .5 µ g /m L a r e t h e r ap eu t ic . ( 6 ) Li d oc ai n e 's m e ta b ol i te s — gl yc in e xy l i d i de an d m o no e th y l g l yc i ne xyl i d i d e— m a y h a ve ne u ro t o xi c as we l l a s a n ti a r rh y t h m i c e f fe c t s . P.839
e . P he n yt o i n ( D i l a nt i n ) ( 1 ) Th i s d ru g i s c on t r ai nd i c a t ed in pa t ie n ts wi t h si n us b ra d y ca r di a o r he a rt b lo c k . ( 2 ) P he n y t oi n m us t b e us e d c a u ti o us l y i n p a ti e nts wi t h he a r t f ai lu r e ( HF ) , r e n al or h e p at ic im pa i rm en t , m y oc a r di al in s u f fi ci e nc y , r es p i r at o r y de p r es s i on , o r h yp o t en s i o n. ( 3 ) D u ri n g ac u te t he r ap y , t hi s d r ug m a y ca u s e CN S r e ac t io ns ( e. g . , d ro w s i ne s s , ve r t i g o, n y s t a gm us , a t a xi a , n a us ea ) . Ca r d io t o xi c it y a l s o m a y oc c u r , e sp eci a ll y wi t h f a s t i nt r a v en o us in f us io n r a t es . ( 4 ) C h ro n ic p h en y t o in m a y l e ad to v e st i bu la r an d c e re b el la r ef f ec ts , be hav i o r a l c h an g es , G I di s t re s s , g ing i v a l h yp e rp l as ia , m eg a lo b la s ti c a ne m i a , a nd os te o m a l ac ia . ( 5 ) H yp e rs e ns it i v i t y re ac t i o ns m a y be m a ni f es te d b y l i v e r, s k in , a n d h em at o l og ic al p r o bl em s . ( a ) To xi c h e pa t it is m a y oc c u r . ( b ) S k i n re ac t io ns in c l ude e xf o l i at i v e d e rm a ti t is , S t e ve ns - J o h ns on s ynd r om e , s ca r l at i ni f or m o r m o rb i ll if o r m r as h , S L E , t o xi c ep id e r m a l n ec r ol ys is , e os i no p hi l ia , a n d e r yt h em a m u l ti f o rm e. ( c ) H em a to l og ic al r ea c t io n s i nc lu d e a gr a nu l oc yt os is , m e ga lo b la s t ic an e m ia , l e uk o pe ni a , t h ro m b o c y top e ni a , a n d p an c y to p en ia. ( 6 ) Th e r ap e ut ic pl as m a p h e n y to i n l e vel s r an g e f ro m 1 0 to 18 µ g/ m L. f . M e x i le t i ne (M e xi t i l ) ( 1 ) Th i s d ru g i s c on t r ai nd i c a t ed in pa t ie n ts wi t h ca r d io g en ic s h oc k o r s ec on d - or t h i rd - d eg r ee A V b l oc k wi t h no pa c e m ak er . ( 2 ) Tr e m o r is an ea r l y s ig n of m e xi l e t in e to xi c i t y . D i zz i n e s s , a ta xi a , a n d nys t a gm us i n di ca t e a n i nc r ea s i n g p la s m a d r u g c o nc e n tr a ti o n. ( 3 ) H yp o te ns i on , b r a d yc a r d ia , an d wi de n ed Q R S c om p le xe s m a y d e v e lo p d u r in g m e xi l e t in e t h e ra p y . ( 4 ) A d ve rs e G I e ff ec t s i nc l ud e n a us ea an d vom it in g .
( 5 ) Th e r ap e ut ic s e r um l ev e l s ra n ge f ro m 0 .5 0 to 2 . 0 µ g/ m L . g . F le c ai n i de ( Ta m bo c or ) ( 1 ) Th i s d ru g i s c on t r ai nd i c a t ed in pa t ie n ts wi t h ca r d io g en ic s h oc k o r s ec on d - or t h i rd - d eg r ee A V b l oc k wi t h no pa ce m ak er . ( 2 ) Th e E C G s h ou ld b e m o ni t o re d d u ri n g f le c a i nid e th e r ap y b ec au se t hi s d r u g m a y e xa c e r b a te e xi s ti n g a r rhy t h m ia s o r pr ec i pi t at e n ew o n e s . F l ec ai ni d e wa s s h o wn in t h e C A S T s t u d y to in c rea s e m o r t al i t y i n p a ti e nt s wi t h a s ym p t om at ic v e n t ric u la r a r r h y t hm ia s a n d, th e r ef or e , s h ou l d b e r es e r v ed fo r p at i en ts wi t h l i fe - t h rea t e ni ng ve n t r ic u la r a r r h y t hm ia s th a t a r e re f ra c to r y t o o t he r d ru gs . ( 3 ) Th i s d ru g h a s a s ig n if i c a n t n eg a ti v e in o t ro p ic e f f ec t a n d m a y b r in g o n o r wo r s e n C H F a n d c a r di om y o p a thy . ( 4 ) A d ve rs e C N S e f fe c t s ( e . g ., di z zi n es s , h ea d ac h e , tr em o r ) a n d G I ef f ec ts ( e. g . , n a us e a, ab d om in al pa i n ) m a y occ u r . ( 5 ) B lu r r ed v i s i on an d d y s p ne a h a ve b e en r ep o rt ed . ( 6 ) Th e r ap e ut ic s e r um l ev e l s re c o m m en d ed fo r fle c ai ni d e a r e b et we e n 0 .2 a nd 1. 0 µ g / m L. h . P r o pa f e no n e ( R yt h m o l ) , R yt h m o l ( S R ) ( 1 ) Th i s d ru g , l ik e o t he r a n t ia r r h yth m i c a g en ts , m a y c au s e n e w o r wo r se ne d a r r h y t hm ia s . S uc h p r o ar rh y t h m i c p r op e r ti es r an ge f r om an in c re as e d f r eq ue n c y o f P V C s t o t he de v e l op m e nt o f s e v e re ve nt r ic u la r tac h y c ar d ia , v en t r ic ul a r f i br i l la t io n , a n d t o rs a de s d e p oi n te s . Th i s pr o a rr h y t hm ic ef f ec t h as be en un d e r d isc u ss i on fo r t h e c la ss I C a ge n ts ; th us , wh e n us e d, th e s e ag ent s s h ou ld be m o ni t o re d c l o s e l y . Th e f i nd i ng s f r om th e C AS T s t u d y m us t be we i g he d ag ai n s t th e b e ne f it s of u s i ng t h es e a g en t s f o r t r ea t in g s ig n if ic a nt v e n tr ic u la r arr h y t h m i as . ( 2 ) D i zz i n es s is a s i d e e ff e c t t ha t h a s b ee n r e po r te d in as m an y a s 1 0% - 15 % of p a t ie n ts ta k i ng t he d ru g . ( 3 ) O t he r as s o c i a te d s ide e f fe c t s i nc lu d e vo m i t ing , a m et a ll ic b i t te r ta s t e i n th e m o ut h , c on s t i pa t io n , h ead a c h e , a nd ne w o r wo r s en i ng C H F an d a s t hm a . ( 4 ) Th e r ap e ut ic s e r um l ev e l s re c o m m en d ed fo r p ro p a fe n on e a r e b et we e n 0 . 0 6 a nd 1 . 0 µ g/ m L . 5 . S i gn i f ic a n t i n te r a c ti on s a . Q u i ni d i ne ( 1 ) Q u in id i ne m a y i nc re as e s e ru m l e v el s o f d i g oxi n a nd i n c r e as e t h e e ff ec t s of d i g i t al i s o n t he he a r t, wi t h a r es u lt a nt in c re as e i n t o xi c i t y. P.840
( 2 ) S e ve re o rt h os ta t ic h yp o t en s i o n m a y o c c u r wi t h co nc o m i ta n t a dm i ni s t ra t i on of va s o d i l at o r s (e . g. , ni t r og l yc e r i n ) . ( 3 ) P he n yt o i n , r i f am p i n ( R i f a d in ) , an d b a r b it u r at e s m a y an t ag o ni ze qu i ni d in e a c ti vi t y a nd re d uc e i ts the r a pe u ti c e f fi ca c y . ( 4 ) N i f ed i p in e (P r o c a rd ia ) m a y r e du ce pl as m a qu i ni d in e l e v e ls . ( 5 ) An t a c i ds , s o d iu m b ic a r b o na t e ( N e u t ), an d so d i u m a ce t az o la m id e (D i a m ox ) m a y in c re as e p l as m a q u in i di n e l e v el s , po s s i bl y r es u lt i ng in to xi c i t y.
( 6 ) Q u in id i ne m a y p ro d uc e a d di t i ve h yp op r o th r om b in em ic ef f ec ts wi t h cou m a r i n a n t ic oa g ul an t s . b . Am i o d a r on e ( Co r d a ro n e ) a n d c im e t id i n e ( T ag a m e t) m a y i nc r ea se pl as m a p r o ca in am i de le v e ls , p o s s i bl y l ea di n g t o d r ug t o xi c i t y. c . P he n yt o i n a c c el e r at es di s o p yr am i de m e ta b ol is m , p os s i bl y r e du ci ng i ts t h e r ap eu t ic ef f ic ac y . d . L id o ca i n e ( 1 ) P he n yt o i n m a y in c r ea s e t he ca r di o de p re ss a nt e f fe c t s o f l i do c a in e . ( 2 ) β - B lo c ke r s (c la s s II a n t ia r r h y th m i cs ) m a y r edu c e l id oc ai n e m et a bo li s m , po s s ib l y l e ad i ng to d ru g to xi c i t y . e . P he n yt o i n ( 1 ) Th e ri s k of ph e n y to i n t o xi c i t y in c re as es wi t h c o n c o m i t an t a dm i ni s t r a ti on o f d i a ze p am ( Va l i um ) , a n t ih i s t am i ne s , i s on i az i d (N yd r a z i d ) , c h lo r a mp h en i c o l ( C h l o r o m yc e t i n ) , c im e t id i n e (T a ga me t ) , s a l ic yl a t e s , s ul f i so x az o le ( G an t r i s i n ), a m i od a r o ne ( C o r da r o ne) , a nd va l p r oa t e ( D e p aco n ) . ( 2 ) C a r ba m az ep i n e ( T egr e t o l ) m a y en h an ce ph en yt o i n m e t ab o li sm a n d th u s r e du ce p l as m a ph e n y to i n l e v el s a n d t h e ra pe u ti c e f fi ca c y . ( P h en yt o i n h as t h e s am e e f fe c t on c a r ba m a z e p in e .) f . M e x i le t i ne (M e xi t i l ). P h e n o ba r b i ta l , ri f a mp i n ( N yd r a z i d ) , an d ph e n yt o i n ( D i l a n t in ) re d uc e p la s m a m e xi l e t i ne le ve ls an d m a y de c re as e th e ra p eu t ic e ff ic ac y. B . C l a ss I I a n ti a r r h yt h m i c s 1 . I nd i ca t i o ns . Th es e d ru g s —β - a d re n e r gi c b l o ck e r s — ar e u s ed m a in l y to t r ea t s ys t em ic h y p e r te ns i on . A m o ng th e d r u gs i n t h is c l as s , p ro p ra n ol ol , e sm ol o l , a nd a c eb u to l ol ar e a p p ro v e d f o r an t ia r r h y th m i c u s e . a . P r o p ra n o lo l - ( In d e ra l ) m a y be gi v e n t o : ( 1 ) C o nt r ol s u p ra v e n t ri c ul a r a r r h y t hm ia s ( e .g . , a t ri a l f i br i ll a ti on o r f lu t t er , P S V Ts ) ( 2 ) Tr e a t t ac h y a r rh y t h m ia s c au s ed b y c a te ch ol am i ne s t im ul a ti o n ( e .g . , i n h yp e r t h y r oi di s m , d u ri n g a n es t he si a ) ( 3 ) S up p r es s s e v e r e v ent r i c u la r a r rh y t hm i as i n p r o l o n ge d Q T s yn d r o m e ( 4 ) Tr e a t d ig i ta l is -i n du c ed v e n t ri cu l ar a r rh y t hm i as ( 5 ) Te r m i n at e c e r ta in v en t r ic ul a r a r r h yt hm ia s ( e .g . , P V Cs in pa t ie n ts wi t ho u t s t r uc t ur a l h ea r t d is e as e ) b . E sm o l ol ( B r e vi b lo c ) is us ed t o t r ea t s up r a v e ntr i c ul a r t ac h y c a r di as ; it po ss e ss es a sh o r t ( 9 -m i n) ha l f -l i fe a n d h as be e n us e d t o c on t r ol t he ve nt r ic u la r re s po n se to a t r ia l fi b ri ll a ti o n o r f l ut t er d u ri n g o r a f te r s u r ge r y . 2 . M e c ha n is m o f ac t i on. C l as s I I a n ti a r rh yt h m i cs r ed uc e s y m pa t he t ic s t im u la t io n o f t h e h e a rt , d e c r e as in g i m p u ls e c on d uc ti o n t h ro u gh t he A V n o de an d l e ng th e ni n g t h e r e f r ac t o r y p e ri o d. A dd i ti on a ll y , t hi s c la s s o f an ti a rr h y t h m i c s s l o w t he s i nu s r h yt hm wi t h o u t s ig n if ic a nt l y c h an g in g th e Q T o r Q R S i n te r v a l s, r es ul t in g i n a re du c ed he a r t r a t e a n d a d ec r e as e i n m y o c a r di al o xyg e n d em and . 3 . Ad m i n is t r a t io n an d do s a ge a . P r o p ra n o lo l m a y be gi v e n in t r a v en ou s l y o r or al l y wh e n us ed as an a n t ia r r h y th m i c .
( 1 ) E m e r ge nc y t h er a p y c a l ls fo r s l o w i nt r a v e no us a dm i ni s t r a ti o n o f 1 - 3 m g d i lu t ed in 5 0 m L d e xt r o s e 5 % i n wa t e r o r no r m a l s al in e s olu t i on . Th is d o se is i n fu se d s l o wl y ( n o fa st e r th an 1 m g/ m i n) . A s e c o nd do s e o f 1 - 3 m g m a y be gi v e n 2 m i n la t e r . ( 2 ) F or o ra l t h e ra p y , 1 0 -8 0 m g /d a y is gi v e n i n 3 -4 d os es . ( Ho we v e r , 1 00 0 m g o r m o r e m a y b e r e qu i re d for r e s i s t a nt v e n tr ic u la r ar rh yt h m i as . ) b . E sm o l ol is gi v e n i n tr av e n o us l y. A l oa d in g d os e o f 5 00 µ g /k g /m i n i s i n fu s ed o v e r 1 m i n , f ol l o we d b y a 4 -m i n m a in t en an c e i nf us i on o f 50 µ g /k g/ m i n . I f a sa t is f ac t o r y r e s po ns e i s n ot ac hi e v e d wi t h i n 5 m i n , t he lo a di ng d os e is r ep e at e d a nd fo l lo we d b y a m a i nt e na nc e i n fu s i o n o f 10 0 µ g/ k g / m i n. P.841
4 . P r ec a u ti o n s a nd m oni t o r i n g e f f ec t s a . P r o p ra n o lo l ( In d e ra l ) ( 1 ) Th i s d ru g i s c on t r ai nd i c a t ed in pa t ie n ts wi t h si n us b ra d y ca r di a , s ec ond - o r t h ir d d e g re e A V b lo c k , c a rd iog e ni c s ho ck , s e v e re H F , o r as t hm a . ( 2 ) Th e β - bl oc k i ng e ff ec ts o f t hi s d r ug m a y le a d to m a r k e d h y p o te n s i on , e xa c e r b a ti on o f C H F an d l e ft v e n t ri c u la r fa i lu r e , or c a rd ia c a r r es t . ( 3 ) B lo o d p r es s u r e, he a rt r a te , an d t h e E C G s h o ul d be m o ni t o re d d u ri n g int r a v e n ou s i n f us io n . ( 4 ) E m b ol is m m a y o c c u r u p o n r es t o ra ti o n o f n o rm a l s i nu s r h y t hm af t e r su s t a i ne d a t r ia l fi b ri ll a ti o n. A n a n tic o ag u la n t m a y b e g i v en b e f o re pr o p ra n ol ol th e r ap y b e gi ns t o p re ve n t t hi s c om pl ic a ti o n . ( 5 ) P r op r an o lo l m a y d e p re s s A V no de c o nd u ct io n a n d v en t r ic ul a r p ac em ake r a c ti vi t y, r es ul t in g i n AV b l oc k o r a s y st o le . ( 6 ) Th i s d ru g m a y m as k th e s i gn s a nd s ym p to m s o f h ypo g l y ce m i a . I t a ls o m a y m a sk s i gn s o f s ho c k . ( 7 ) F at i gu e , le t h ar g y , in c r e a s e d a i r wa y r e s i s t a nc e, a nd sk in ra s h h a v e b een r e p o rt e d. ( 8 ) N a us ea , v om i ti ng , a nd d ia r r he a m a y oc c u r . ( 9 ) S ud d en wi t h d ra wa l o f p r o pr a no l ol m a y le a d t o a c ut e MI , a r r h y th m i as , or a n gi na i n c a r di ac pa t ie n ts . D r u g t h e ra p y is d is c on t in ue d b y t a pe r i ng th e d os e o v er 4 - 7 d a ys . b . E sm o l ol ( B r e vi b lo c ) ( 1 ) Th i s d ru g i s c on t r ai nd i c a t ed in pa t ie n ts wi t h se v e r e C H F o r s i nu s b r ady c a r d ia . ( 2 ) H yp o te ns i on oc c u rs in a pp r o xi m a te l y 30 % o f p a t ie n ts re ce i vi ng es m o lo l . Th is e f f ec t c an be r e v e rs ed by r e d uc i ng th e d os a ge o r s t op pi n g t he in f us io n . ( 3 ) Th i s d ru g i s f o r s ho r t- t e r m us e o n l y a n d s h o uld b e r e pl ac ed b y a l on g -a c ti n g a n t ia r r h y th m i c o nc e t h e p a t ie n t 's he a r t s ta bi l i zes . ( 4 ) D i zz i n es s , he ad ac h e, f a ti g ue , an d a gi t a ti on m a y o c c u r . ( 5 ) O t he r ad v e r s e e ff ec ts in c l u de na us e a, vo m i tin g , a n d b r on c h os p asm . 5 . S i gn i f ic a n t i n te r a c ti on s a . P r o p ra n o lo l ( 1 ) S e ve re v a s o c o ns t r ic tio n m a y oc c u r wi t h c on c om i ta n t e p in e ph r i n e a dm in i s t r a ti o n. ( 2 ) D i g it a l is pr e pa r a ti ons c a n c au s e e xc e ss i v e br a d y c a rd ia .
( 3 ) C a lc i um - c ha n ne l blo c k e rs — f o r e xa m p le , d i lt i a ze m ( Ca r d iz e m) an d ve r a p a m il ( C a l a n ) —a nd o th e r n eg at i v e i no t r o p ic an d c h r on o t r o p ic d r ug s —s uc h as d i s o p yr a m i d e ( N o r p ac e) a n d q u in i d in e —a d d t o t h e m yo c a r di a l d ep r es san t e ff ec t s o f p ro p ra n ol o l. b . E sm o l ol . M o r p hi n e (M S C o n ti n ) m a y ra is e p la s m a e s m ol o l l e v el s. C . C l a ss I II an t i a r r h yt h m i c s 1 . I nd i ca t i o ns a . Am i o d a r on e ( Co r d a ro n e ) i s g i ven t o c o n t ro l m a li gn a nt v e n t ri c u la r a rrh y t h m i as a n d h as m o s t r ec en t l y wit h i n t he ne w a d va n c e d c a r d i a c l if e s u pp o rt ( A C LS ) g u id e li n es b e en r ec om m e n d ed i n th e t r e at m e n t of v e n t ri c u l a r f ib r il l at i on an d p u ls el e s s v en t r ic ul a r t ac h y c a r di a , a nd m a y be us e d p ro ph y l ac t ic al l y ag a ins t bo t h a t r ia l a n d v e n t ri c u l a r t ac h y c a r di a a nd f ib r il la t io n . U n l ik e m os t o t he r an t ia r rh yt h m i cs , wi t h t h e e xc e p t io n o f th e β - a d re n e rg ic bl oc k e r s , a m io d ar o ne ha s b ee n s ho wn t o r e d uc e a r r h y th m i c d e at hs in pa t ie n ts af t e r a n MI . b . S o ta l o l ( B e t ap a ce ) i s u s e d to t re a t s u p r a v en t ri c ul a r a nd v e n tr ic u la r t a ch ya r r h y t hm ia s . S o ta lol a nt a go ni z e s b o th β 1 - an d β 2 - a d re n er g ic re ce p to r s , b ut a l so p ro lo n gs th e p ha s e 3 ac t io n p o te n ti a l. I t is th i s p r op e rt y t h at di s ti ng ui s he s i t f r o m o th e r β -a d re n e rg ic b l oc k e r s a nd is th e r e as o n wh y i t is c la s s i fi ed as a t yp e I I I a n t ia r r h y th m i c d r ug r at he r t ha n a t y p e I I a ge n t (β - a d r en e r gi c b lo ck er ) . c . I bu t i l id e ( Co r ve r t ) is u s ed in th e c on v e r s i o n of a t ri a l f ib r il l at i on an d f l ut t e r o f r e c en t o ns e t ( d u ra t io n < 3 0 da y s ) . d . D o f et i l id e (T i k os yn ) i s a v ai l ab le in t he U ni t ed S t a t es un de r r es t ri c t e d ac ce s s in t h e tr e at m e n t o f a t r ia l f i br i l la t io n /f l ut t e r. 2 . M e c ha n is m o f ac t i on. C l as s I I I a nt i a rr h yt hm ic d r u gs p r ol o ng th e re f r act o r y p e r io d a n d ac t io n p o te n tia l ; t h e y ha ve no ef f ec t on m y oc a rd i al c o nt r ac t il i ty o r c o nd uc t io n t im e . P.842
3 . Ad m i n is t r a t io n an d do s a ge a . Am i o d a r on e ( Co r d a ro n e ) A v ai l ab le f or bo t h or a l a n d i nt r a v e no us us e a n d s ho u ld o n l y be in i ti a te d i n t h e ho s pi t al s e t ti ng . Am io d a ro n e ha s b ee n i nc o r po r at ed i nt o t h e m os t re c en t A CL S ( 20 05) g ui d el i ne s a nd r ec om m e n d ed b y t h e e xp e r t pa ne l m em b e rs a s th e f i rs t -c h oi c e an t ia rr h y t h m i c f o r s ho c k - re f r ac t o r y v e n t ri c u l a r f i b ri l la t io n / v en t r ic ul a r t ac h y c ar d ia . ( 1 ) I t is a v ai l ab l e f o r o ra l u s e ; 80 0 -1 6 00 m g e v e r y 1 2 h r is g i v e n f o r 7 - 14 da y s , th e n 2 0 0 -4 0 0 m g da i l y th e re a ft e r . ( 2 ) O r a l t r ea tm e nt is us ed t o s up p re s s v e nt r ic u la r a n d s u p r a v en t r ic ul a r a r rh yt h m i as b u t c an t ak e d a y s o r wee k s t o t ak e e f fe c t. O r al do s es o f 10 0 -6 0 0 m g / da y ( u s ua ll y 3 0 0 -4 0 0 m g / da y ) f o r m ain t e na nc e t h e ra p y in v e ntr i c ul a r t ac h yc a r di a a n d 10 0 - 20 0 m g /d a y f o r m a i nt e na nc e t h e r ap y f o r su p r a ven t r ic u l a r t ac h y ca r d ia s a re gi v e n . ( 3 ) I nt r a v e no us fo r m u la t io n is a va i la bl e fo r t re a tm e n t a n d p r op h y la xi s o f rec u r re n t ve n t r ic u la r fi b ri ll a ti o n o r h e m o d yn am ic al l y un s t a bl e ve nt r ic u la r ta c h yc a rd ia i n r e f r ac t o r y p a ti e nt s .
( 4 ) Th e in t ra v e n ou s f o rm i s r a pi dl y d is t r ib u te d t h ro u g ho u t t he bo d y. R ec om m e n de d d o se s i nc lu d e a ra pi d l oa d in g i n fu si o n o f 1 5 0 m g o v e r 10 m i n, f ol lo we d by a s lo w i n f us io n o f 1 m g /m i n f o r 6 h r (3 60 m g ) , a n d t he n a m a i nt e na nc e i n fu s i o n o f 0 .5 m g /m in f or t he re m ai nd er o f th e 2 4 -h r pe r io d . P a ti e n ts u su a ll y r ec e i v e 2 - 4 d a y s o f i n f us io ns be f o re c o n v e rs i o n t o o r al f o rm . H o we v e r , a m ai n te n an c e in f us ion c a n b e c o nt i nu e d f o r 2 -3 we e k s . b . S o ta l o l ( B e t ap a ce ) i s a v a i la bl e c om m e r c i al l y a s a n o r a l t ab l et , a n d t he r a p y s h ou l d b e i ni ti a te d wi t hi n t h e h os pi t al s e t ti n g. N o rm a l d os in g o f 8 0 m g t wi ce d ai l y i n i ti al l y an d i nc r e as in g do s es a t 2 - t o 3 - da y i nt e rva l s to a m a xi m u m d os e o f 64 0 m g /d a y, gi v e n i n 2 - 3 d os e s th r ou g ho u t t he da y . c . I bu t i l id e ( Co r ve r t ) is a v a i la b le on l y fo r in j ec tio n in a 0 .1 - m g /m L , 1 0 -m L v i a l. N o r m al do s e s f o r t h e c on v e r s io n o f re ce n t -o ns e t a t r ia l fi b ri ll a ti o n t o n o rm a l s i nu s r h y t h m is a d os e o f 1 m g ( 0 . 01 m g /k g f o r t h os e < 6 0 k g ) o v e r 10 m i n, wi t h a r e pe a t d o se in 10 m i n i f t h e a r rh y t h m i a d o es no t e n d. d . D o f et i l id e (T i k os yn ) i s a v ai l ab le o nl y f o r o ra l a d m i ni s t ra ti o n i n 0 .1 2 5 -, 0 . 25 - , a n d 0 . 5 -m g c ap s u l es u n de r th e t ra d e n am e o f Tik os y n a nd s h ou l d o nl y b e i ni ti a t ed in a h o sp i ta l s et t in g wi t h t r ain e d p e rs on n el an d t h e eq u ip m en t n ec es s a r y t o pr o vi d e c o nt i nu o us c a rd i ac m on i to r i ng du r in g i n it i at i on of t h e r ap y . ( 1 ) A no rm a l d os e f o r t he c o n v e rs i on of r ec en t - on s et a tr i al fi b ri l la t io n t o n o r m a l s i nu s r h y t hm is 0 . 5 m g twi c e d ai l y fo r pa t ie n ts wi t h c r e at i ni n e c l e ar a nc e va l ue s > 60 m L /m in ; do s e s a r e r ed u c e d 50 % (0 . 25 m g ) f o r t h os e wi t h c r ea t in in e c le a r an c e va l u es of 40 - 6 0 m L / m i n , a n d d os es a re r ed uc e d an a dd i ti on a l 5 0% ( 0. 1 25 m g ) f o r t h os e wi t h c r ea t in in e c lea r a nc e v al ue s o f 2 0 - 40 m L /m in . ( 2 ) Ma i n t en a nc e t h er a p y i s b as ed on t he E C G ; wit h do s e s b ei n g r e du c e d wi t h Q Tc p r o lo n ga t io n e xc e e d in g 1 5 % o f th e b as el i ne v a lue . A n y pa ti e n t d e v el op i ng a Q Tc i n t er va l e xc e ed in g 5 0 0 m s e c s ho u ld ha v e th e r apy d i s c on t in u ed im m e di a te l y . ( 3 ) D o fe t il id e s ho u ld no t b e gi v e n t o th os e wi t h c re a t in in e c le a r an c e va lu es < 2 0 m L /m in . 4 . P r ec a u ti o n s a nd m oni t o r i n g e f f ec t s a . Am i o d a r on e ( Co r d a ro n e ) ( 1 ) Li f e -t h r ea t en in g p u lm o n a r y to xi c i t y m a y o c c ur d u r i n g a m i o da r on e th e rap y , e s pe ci a ll y in p at ie n ts r ec e i v i ng > 4 0 0 m g / da y. B as e li ne as we l l a s r o ut i ne p u lm o na r y f u nc t io n te s t s r e v e al r el ev a n t pu lm o na r y c h a ng es . ( 2 ) Mo s t pa t ie n ts de v e lop c o r n ea l m ic ro d ep os i ts 1 - 4 m o nt hs a ft e r a m i od ar o n e t h e r ap y b eg in s . H o we v e r , t hi s re ac t io n r a r el y c a us es v i s u al di s tu r ba nc e , bu t t he p a t ie n t s h o ul d b e m on i tor e d wi t h ro u ti ne op h t ha lm o l o gi c al e xa m i n a ti on s . ( 3 ) B lo o d p r es s u r e a nd he a r t ra t e a nd r h y th m s hou l d b e m on i to r ed f or h y po t e ns io n a n d b r ad y a r r h y t hm ia s . ( 4 ) P a ti en t s s h o ul d b e m o n i to r ed r ou t in el y f o r t h e p os si b le de ve l op m e n t o f h e pa t ic d ys f un c ti o n, th y r o i d d is or d e rs ( e .g . , h y p e rt h yr o id is m , h y p ot h yr o id is m ) , and p h o to se ns i ti v i t y . ( 5 ) C N S r ea c t i on s i nc lu de f a ti gu e , m al ai se , pe r iph e r al ne u r op a th y , an d e xt r a p yr a m i da l e f fe c t s . ( 6 ) N a us ea an d v om it i ng h a v e b e en r ep o r te d .
( 7 ) Th i s d ru g h a s a n e xt r e m el y l on g h al f - li f e ( u p to 6 0 d a y s ) . Th e ra p eu t ic r e s po ns e m a y be de l a y ed f or we e k s a ft e r o r al th e r ap y b eg in s ; a d v e rs e r e ac ti o ns m a y p e rs is t u p to 4 m on t hs a f t er t he ra p y e nd s . P.843
b . S o ta l o l ( B e t ap a ce ) ( 1 ) S id e e f fe c ts o f th is dr u g ar e d i r ec tl y r e la t ed to β - b lo ck ad e a n d p ro l ong a t io n o f r e p ol a ri z a t io n . ( 2 ) Tr a ns i en t h y p o t en s i on , b ra d yc a r d ia , m y o ca r dia l de p re ss io n , a nd b ro nc h o sp as m h a ve al l b e en as s oc i at e d wi t h t h is d r ug . ( 3 ) Th i s d ru g c a r ri es al l th e c o nt r a in di ca t io ns as s o c i a t ed wi t h o t he r β - bl oc k e rs al o ng wi t h t h os e o wi n g to it s e le c t ro p h ys i ol og ic p ro p e rt i e s . c . I bu t i l id e ( Co r ve r t ) ( 1 ) I nf us i on s h ou ld b e dis c o n ti n ue d a s s oo n a s t he a t ri al a r rh y t hm i a is t erm i na t ed o r i f su st a in ed o r n on s u s ta in e d v en t r ic ul a r a r r h y th m ia o r m a rk ed Q T p r o lo ng at i o n is d o cu m e n te d . ( 2 ) C o nt in u ou s E C G m oni t o ri n g is r eq u ir e d f o r a t l e as t 4 h r a f te r di sc on t inu i ng t he i n f us io n o r un t il th e Q T in t e r v a l r e tu r ns to ba s e l in e . d . D o f et i l id e (T i k os yn ) ( 1 ) P a ti en t s n ee d t o b e m o ni t o re d c lo s e l y fo r th e s ub s e q ue n t d e v el o pm ent o f ve n t r ic u la r a r r h y t hm ia s wi t h i nc r e as in g d os es of d o f et i li de o r wi t h d ec li nin g r en al s t a tu s. I n c l in ic a l t r ia ls , v e n t r ic u la r ta c h yc a rd ia s , i nc l ud in g to r s a de s d e po i n te s , a re t h e m os t f r e qu e nt l y oc c ur r i n g a r rh y t h m i as du e t o d o f et i li de . ( 2 ) H yp ok a le m i a a nd t hos e s i tu a ti on s t h at m i gh t c a us e h yp o te ns io n wi l l pr e d is po se a p at i en t to pr o lo n ga t io n o f th e Q T i nt e r v a l, wh i c h co u ld pu t a do f e ti li d e pa t i en t a t r i sk fo r to xi c a r r h y t hm ia s . 5 . S i gn i f ic a n t i n te r a c ti on s a . Am i o d a r on e ( 1 ) A m i od a r on e m a y i nc re a s e th e p l as m a l e ve ls of q u in i d in e , p r o ca i n am id e , d i l t i az em , d i g i ta l is , a n d f l e ca i n id e . ( 2 ) I t m a y i nc r ea s e t he ph a r m a c o lo g ic al ef f ec t o f β - b l oc k e rs , ca l ci u m -c ha n n el b l o ck e r s , a nd w a r f a ri n . ( 3 ) S pe c i al no t e : A m io da r o ne ha s b e en re p o rt e d t o ha v e nu m e r ou s d r ug -d r u g i n t er a ct i on s am o ng al l c a t e go r ie s o f d r ug s . To avo i d th e d e v e lo pm e nt o f a s i gn i fi ca n t d r ug - d ru g i n te r a c t i on a t ho r ou g h p a tie n t m ed ic a ti o n p r of il e s ho u ld be c a r ri e d o ut f or e ac h p at ie n t h a v i ng am io d ar o ne th e r ap y i ni t ia t ed , as we l l a s e ac h t i m e a p a ti en t c u r re n tl y re c ei v i n g am i od a ro n e is gi v e n an ad d it io n al d ru g . b . S o ta l o l ( 1 ) S o ta lo l m us t b e u s e d c au t io us l y in t ho s e pa t ie n ts r ec ei vi n g a ge n ts wi th c a r di ac de p r es s a nt p ro p er t i es . ( 2 ) A ge n ts s uc h a s s ot a lo l , wh ic h p r o lo ng t he Q T i n te r va l , m a y i nd uc e m al i gn a nt a r r h y t hm ia s wh e n us e d in c o m b i na t io n wi t h o th e r t yp e I A a nt i a rr h y t hm ic s , e s p ec i al l y i n th e p r es e nc e o f l o w po t as s i um le v e ls .
c . I bu t i l id e s ho u ld be a vo i de d wi t h o t he r ag en t s th a t p r o lo ng r ep o la r i z at i on o r wi t h i n 4 h r o f a dm i ni s t r a ti o n . d . D o f et i l id e s h ou ld be a v o i d ed i n pa ti e n ts wh o h a ve h y po k a l em ia o r p ree xi s t i n g Q T p r o lo n ga t io n . D . C l a ss I V a n t ia r r h yt h m i c s 1 . I nd i ca t i o ns a . C a lc i um - c ha n ne l bl oc k e r s ( e .g . , v e ra pa m i l , C a l a n; di l ti a zem , C ar d i ze m ) a r e u s ed m a in l y to t re a t a n d p r e v e n t su p r a ven t ri c ul a r a r r h yt hm ia s . ( 1 ) Th e y a r e f ir s t -l in e a ge n ts f or t he s u pp r es s i o n o f P S V Ts s t em m i ng f ro m A V n od a l r e e n tr y. ( 2 ) Th e y c a n ra p id l y c o ntr o l th e ven t r ic ul a r r es p on s e t o a t ri a l f lu t t er an d fib r i ll a ti on . b . O t h er c a lc iu m -c ha n nel b lo c k e rs a va i la bl e i nc l ud e n i c a r di p in e , n if e di pi ne , be p r id il , a m lo di p in e , a nd fe l od i pin e , b u t t h es e a ge n ts h a ve p ri m ar i l y b e en us ed in t h e t r e a tm en t o f an gi n a p ec to r i s a nd h ype r t en s i on . Fo r in f o rm a ti on on t he s e a g e nt s , se e C h a p te r s 3 9 a nd 41 . 2 . M e c ha n is m o f ac t i on. C l as s I V a n ti a r r h y th m i c s a re c a lc iu m -c ha n ne l b lo c k e rs . Th e y i n h ib i t A V no de c on d uc t io n b y d ep r es s i n g th e S A a n d A V no de s , wh e r e c a lc iu m c h an n el s p re d om in a te . P.844
3 . Ad m i n is t r a t io n an d do s a ge a . To co n t ro l a t ri a l a r rh y t h m i as , v e r ap am il us ua l ly i s ad m i ni s te r ed in t r a v en o us l y . A d o se of 2 .5 - 10 m g is g i ve n o v e r a t l ea s t 2 m in and m a y b e re pe a te d i n 3 0 m i n, if n e ce ss a r y . A 5 -1 0 m g /h r c on t in u ou s i nt r a v e no us i n f us io n h as al so be e n us e d i n t r e a ti n g a r rh y t h m i as . b . To p r e v en t P S V Ts , v er a p am il m a y b e g i v en o ra l l y in fo u r d ai l y do s es of 8 0 -1 2 0 m g e ac h . c . To co n t ro l a t ri a l a r rh y t h m i as , di lt i a z em us ua ll y i s a dm in is t e re d i n t ra ve no u s l y . A d o se of 20 m g ( 0. 2 5 m g /k g ) i s g i v en o v e r 2 m in . If a n a de q ua t e r es p on s e is no t o b t ai ne d , a s ec o nd do s e o f 25 m g (0 . 35 m g /k g ) is ad m i n is te r e d a ft e r 1 5 m i n. A 5 - 1 5 m g /h r in t r a v en o us c on t inu o us in f us io n h as al s o be e n u s e d i n t r e at i ng ar r hyt h m ia s . 4 . P r ec a u ti o n s a nd m oni t o r i n g e f f ec t s a . V e ra p am i l a n d d il t ia z em a re c o n tr a in di c at e d in p a t ie n ts wi t h AV bl o ck ; le f t ve n t r ic u la r d y s f un c t i on ; s e v e r e h y p ot e ns io n ; c onc om i ta n t , i nt r a ven o us β -b l oc k e r s ; a n d a t r ia l f ib r i ll at i on wi t h a n a c c es so r y A V pa t h wa y . b . Th e se d ru gs m us t be u s ed c a u ti ou s l y i n p a ti ent s wi t h C H F, s i c k s in us s y n d r o m e , MI , a n d h ep a ti c o r re na l i m pa i rm en t . c . B ec au s e o f t he ne g at iv e c h ro n ot r o pi c e ff e c t , ve r a pa m i l a n d d il t ia ze m m us t be u s ed c a u ti ou s l y i n p a ti ent s wh o ha ve s l o w h ea r t ra t es o r wh o a r e r ec e i v ing d ig i ta li s g l yc os id es . d . Th e E C G ( es pe c i al l y th e R R in t er va l ) s ho u ld be m o n it o r ed du r in g t h e rap y . e . P at i en ts > 6 0 y ea r s o ld s h o ul d re ce i ve re du ced d os ag es an d s lo we r i n je c ti o n r a t es . f . C o ns t ip a ti on an d n a us e a ha v e be e n r e po r te d wi t h v e ra p am il .
5 . S i gn i f ic a n t i n te r a c ti on s a . C on c om it a nt ad m i n is t ra t i on of β -b l o ck e r s o r d is o p yr a m i d e m a y p re c i p it a t e h ea r t f a i lu r e. b . Q u i ni d i ne m a y i nc re as e th e r is k o f c al ci um - c ha n n el b l oc ke r - i n du c e d hyp o t e ns io n . c . V e ra p am i l m a y in c re as e s e ru m d i go x i n c o nc en t r a ti o ns , a nd di l ti a z em m a y do t he s am e to a l es s e r e xt e n t . d . R i f am p in m a y e nh a nc e t he m e t ab ol is m o f c al ciu m -c h an n el b l oc k e rs , wi th a r e s ul t an t d ec r e as e i n p ha r m ac ol og ic a l e f fe ct . e . V e ra p am i l a n d d il t ia z em m a y i nh ib i t t h eo p h yl l i n e m e t ab ol is m a nd m a y r e q ui r e r e d uc t io ns in th e op h y ll i ne d os ag e . f . D i lt i a z em a n d v e r a pam i l i nh ib i t t he m e t ab ol is m o f c yc l o s p o r i n e ( G eng r a f ) an d m a y r eq u ir e re d uc ti o ns in c y c l os p or i ne do s a g es . E . U n c la s si f i ed an t i a r rh yt h m i c s 1 . At r o p i n e a . I nd i ca t i o ns . At r o pi ne i s th e ra p eu t ic f o r s y m pt om a ti c s in us b ra d yc a r di a a n d j u nc t io na l rh y t h m . b . M e c ha n is m o f ac t i o n. A n a n ti c h o li n er g ic , a t r op i ne bl oc k s v a ga l e f f ec ts o n th e S A n o d e, p ro m o t in g c on d uc ti o n t h r ou gh t he A V n od e a n d i nc r ea s i n g t he he a r t r a t e. c . Ad m i n is t r a t io n an d do s a ge . Fo r an ti a r r h y th m ic us e , a t ro pi n e i s a dm in is t e re d i n a d os e o f 0 . 4 -1 m g b y i ntr a v e n ou s p us h ; t he d os e i s g i ven e v e r y 5 m i n t o a m a xi m um o f 2 m g . d . P r e ca u t io n s a n d m on i t o r i ng e f fe c ts ( 1 ) Th i rs t an d d r y m o u th a r e th e m os t c om m o n a dve r s e e f f ec ts of at r o pi ne. ( 2 ) C N S r ea c t i on s ( e .g . , r e s tl es s n es s , h ea d ac he , d i so r ie n ta t io n , d i zz i ne s s ) m a y o cc u r wi t h d os es o v e r 5 m g . ( 3 ) Ta c h yc a r di a a nd op ht h a lm ic d is t u rb a nc es (e .g . , m yd r ia si s , b lu r r ed v is i o n , p h o to p ho bi a ) m a y oc c u r wi t h d os e s o f 1 m g o r m o r e . ( 4 ) I ni ti a l d os es m a y in du c e a re f le x b r a d y c a rd ia o wi n g t o i nc om pl e te s u pp r e ss io n o f va g a l i m p ul s es . 2 . Ad e n o si n e ( Ad e n o c ar d ) a . I nd i ca t i o ns . Ad en o s in e is i n di ca t ed fo r th e c on v e r s io n o f a c u t e s up r a ve n t ri c ul a r t a ch yc a rd i a t o n o rm al s in u s r h y t hm . b . M e c ha n is m o f ac t i o n. A d en os i ne is a na t u ra lly o c c u r r in g n uc l eo s i de , wh i c h is n o r m a ll y p r es en t i n a l l c e l ls of th e bo d y . I t ha s be e n s ho wn t o : ( 1 ) S lo w c o nd u c t i on th r ou g h t h e A V no d e ( 2 ) I nt e r ru p t r e en t r y pa t hwa y s t h r o ug h th e A V n ode ( 3 ) R es t o re no r m a l s in us r h y t hm in pa t ie n ts wi t h P S V Ts c . Ad m i n is t r a t io n an d do s a ge . Fo r an ti a r r h y th m ic e ff ec t s , ad e no si ne is gi ve n as a r a p id bo l us i n t ra v e n ou s in j ec t io n i n a 6 -m g d os e o v e r 1 -2 s e c. I f t h e f i rs t d o s e do es n o t e l im in a te th e a r r h y t hm i a wi t h i n 1 - 2 m i n , t he do s e sh o ul d b e i nc r e as ed t o 12 m g a n d a g ai n g i v en as a r a pi d in t ra ve n ou s d os e . A n a d d i t io n al 12 - m g do s e m a y b e r e p ea t ed i f n ec es s a r y . P.845
d . P r e ca u t io n s a n d m on i t o r i ng e f fe c ts ( 1 ) Th e ef f ec ts of ad e nos i ne a re an t ag on i z e d b y m e th yl xa n t h i ne s , s u ch as c a f fe i ne a n d t h eo p h y ll in e . The o ph y l l in e h as b ee n s uc c ess f ul l y us ed f or t r ea t in g ad e n os in e i n du c ed s i de ef f ec ts , s uc h as h yp ot e ns io n , s we a tin g , a n d p al pi t a ti on s . I f s id e ef f ec ts a r e en co un t e re d , a gg r es s i v e th e ra p y is no t re qu i re d be ca us e o f th e u l t ra -s h o r t h a lf l i f e o f t he d ru g (1 0 s ec or l es s ). ( 2 ) Th e m a in s i de ef f ec t a s s o c i at e d wi t h a de no s in e us e i n u p t o 1 8% o f pa t i en ts is f a ci a l f lu s h i ng , b u t t hi s ef f e c t is n o rm a ll y ve r y s ho r t - li v e d . ( 3 ) O t he r s i de e ff ec ts as s oc i at e d wi t h a de no si n e u s e i nc lu d e s h o r tn es s o f b r e at h , c h es t p r es s u r e , n au s e a , h e a da c h e , a nd a m e t al l ic t as te . e . Ad d i t i o na l u s e. A de no s in e h as be e n us e d as a n ad ju n ct i v e a g en t i n pa t i en ts u n d er g oi n g v a r io us t y p es o f p ha r m a c o lo g ic al s t re ss t es ti n g ( e .g . , wi t h t ha l li um ) . In t h is si t ua t io n , a de no s i n e i s g i v en as a c o n ti n uo us i n fu s i o n o ve r a pe r io d of 4 - 6 m i n a n d i s a bl e t o p r o v i de a fo r m o f e xe r c i s e t ol e ra nce t es t i n p a ti e nt s n ot a ble t o e xe r t t h em s e l v e s o wi n g t o a g e, f a ti gu e , a n d va r io u s o th e r ph ys ic al ha n di c a ps . P.846
STUDY QUESTIONS D i r e c t i on s : E a c h of t he q u es t io ns , s t at em e nt s , or i nc om p le t e s t a te m en ts c a n b e c o r re c tl y a ns we r e d o r c om p le t ed b y on e o f th e s ug g es t ed an s we r s o r p h r as es . C h o os e th e b e st an s we r . 1 . S t r o ng an t i ch o l in e r gi c e f fe c ts l im i t th e a n t ia r r h yt h m i c u s e o f ( A ) q ui n id in e . ( B ) p r oc ai n am id e . ( C ) t oc a in id e . ( D ) f l ec ai ni d e. ( E ) d is op y r a m i d e. V i e w A n s we r 1 . T h e a n sw e r i s E [s e e] . 2 . A p r o n o u n ce d sl ow i n g o f p h as e 0 o f t h e m yo c a r d i a l a c ti on p o te n t ia l r es u l ts i n a p r o l o n ga t i on o f e i th e r a t r i a l d e p o la r i z a t i on ca u si n g a p r o lo n g ed P w a ve o n t h e el e c t ro c a r di o g ra m (E C G ) o r ve n t r i c u l a r d ep o l a ri z at io n ca u s in g a p r o lo n ge d Q R S c o m pl e x c ha r a c ter i z e d b y w h ic h cl a ss o f a n ti a r r hyt h m i c s ? ( A ) t yp e I ( B ) t yp e I I ( C ) t yp e II I ( D ) t yp e I V ( E ) t yp e V V i e w A n s we r 2 . T h e a n sw e r i s A [ se e] . 3 . W h ic h o f t h e f o l low i n g t yp e I I I a n t i a r r h yt h m i c s h as bee n r e po r t e d a s c au s i ng t h e to r s a de s d e p o i nt es t yp e o f ve n t r i c u l a r t a ch yc a r d i a? ( A ) l id oc a in e ( B ) a m i od a r on e ( C ) q ui n id i ne
( D ) f l ec ai ni d e ( E ) d il t ia z e m V i e w A n s we r 3 . T h e a n sw e r i s B [ se e] . 4 . A p a ti en t r e ce i vi n g a c la ss I a n t i a r r h yt h m i c a g en t on a ch r o n ic ba s is co m pl a i n s o f fa t i gu e , l ow - g ra d e fe ve r , a n d jo i n t p a in su g g es t ive o f s ys t e m i c l u p us e ryt h e m a t o s u s ( S L E ) . T he p a ti e n t i s mo s t li k el y r e c e i vi n g ( A ) l id oc a in e . ( B ) p r oc ai n am id e . ( C ) q ui n id i ne . ( D ) f l ec ai ni d e. ( E ) p r op r an o lo l . V i e w A n s we r 4 . T h e a n sw e r i s B [ se e] . 5 . Cl a ss IA a n t i a r r h yt h m i c s d o a ll o f t h e f ol l ow i ng t o t h e c a rd i a c c e ll ' s a c ti o n p o t ent i a l e x ce p t ( A ) sl o w t h e ra t e o f r is e f o r ph as e 0 o f d ep ol a ri za t i on . ( B ) d el a y t he fa s t - c h a nne l c o nd uc t an c e o f s o d ium io ns . ( C ) p r ol o ng ph as es 2 a nd 3 o f re p ol a ri z a t io n . ( D ) i nh i bi t th e s lo w- c h ann e l c on d uc ta nc e o f c a lc iu m i o ns . ( E ) p r ol on g th e re f ra c to ry p e r i od of th e a c ti o n p ot e n ti a l. V i e w A n s we r 5 . T h e a n sw e r i s D [ se e] . 6 . W h ic h o f t h e f o l low i n g d r u gs is a c l a ss I V a n t ia r r h yt h m i c t h a t i s p ri m a r il y i n d i c at e d f o r t h e t r e a tm e n t o f s u p r a ve n t r ic u la r t ac h ya r r h yt h m i a s ? ( A ) i bu t il id e ( B ) m e xi l et i ne ( C ) ve r a pa m i l ( D ) q ui n id i ne ( E ) p r op r an o lo l V i e w A n s we r 6 . T h e a n sw e r i s C [ se e] . 7 . W h ic h o f t h e f o l low i n g a g en t s w as i n vo l ve d i n th e AR R E S T t r i a l a nd f o r w hi c h e vi d e nc e - ba s ed p r ac t i ce ju s t i f ie s i t s a d d i t io n a s a f i r st - l i ne a g e n t w i t h i n t h e 2 00 5 AC L S g u id e l in e s? ( A ) l id oc a in e ( B ) d il t ia z e m ( C ) b r e t y li um ( D ) a m i o da r on e ( E ) d o fe ti l id e V i e w A n s we r 7 . T h e a n sw e r i s D [ se e] . p 8 . W hi c h o f t he f o ll ow i n g d r u gs i s a c l a ss I II an t i a r r h yt h m i c a g en t t ha t is e f fe c t i ve i n t h e a cu t e m a na g em en t o f a t r i a l f i b r i ll a t io n o r a t r ia l f l ut t e r of r e ce n t o n se t ? ( A ) p r op r an o lo l ( B ) d o fe ti l id e ( C ) m et o p ro lo l ( D ) d is o p y ra m i d e ( E ) d il t ia z e m V i e w A n s we r 8 . T h e a n sw e r i s B [ se e] . P . 84 7
9 . Al l o f t he f ol l ow i ng pr o b l e ms r ep r e se n t c o nc e r n s w h e n p a t ie n t s a re s t a r te d o n am i o da r o n e e xc e pt ( A ) e xt r e m el y l on g e l im ina t i on ha l f- l if e . ( B ) n ee d fo r m ul t ip l e d ai ly d o s e s . ( C ) d e ve lo pm en t of h y per t h y r o id is m o r h y po t h y r oid i s m . ( D ) d e ve lo pm en t of pu lm o n a r y fi b ro s i s . ( E ) i nt e r ac ti o ns wi t h o t he r a nt i ar r h y t hm ic dr u gs . V i e w A n s we r 9 . T h e a n sw e r i s B [ se e] . P . 84 8
ANSWERS AND EXPLANATIONS 1 . T he an sw e r is E [ s e e I I . A .4 . c . ( 4 )] . D i s op yr a m i d e h as a n ti c ho l in e r gi c ac t io ns ab o ut on e te n th t he po t en c y o f a t r o pi ne . E f f e ct s i nc lu d e d r y m o uth , c o ns t ip a ti on , ur i na r y re t e nt i on , a n d b lu r r ed v is io n . Th e r e f o re , it c a nn o t b e us e d i n p at i en ts wi t h gl auc om a o r wi t h c o nd i ti on s c a us in g u r i na r y r e te n ti o n. Mo r e ov e r , d is op y r a m i d e h as a n e g at i v e i n ot r op ic e ff ec t a n d m us t , t h e r ef o re , be us ed wi t h gr e a t c au t io n , i f a t a ll , in p a t ie n ts wi t h p r ee xi s t i ng ve n t r ic u la r fa il u r e. 2 . T he an sw e r is A [ s ee I I . A .2 ] . Th e c la s s I a n ti a r rh y t hm ic s ( f as t -c h an n el b l oc k e rs ) s l o w i m p ul se c o nd u c t io n b y d e p re ss in g th e f l o w o f s o d iu m i on s i n to c e ll s d u ri n g p ha s e 0 o f th e a c t i on p o te n ti a l. C l a ss II an t ia r r h y t hm ic s d e c re as e i m p ul s e c o n duc t io n th r ou g h t he A V n o de a nd l e ng t he n th e re f ra c to r y pe r i od t hr o ug h t h ei r di r ec t e f f ec ts on th e s y m pa t het i c n e r vo us s y s t em . Cl as s I II a n ti a r rh yt hm ic s p r ol o ng t h e r e f ra c to r y pe r i od and ac t io n p o t en t ia l a nd h a v e n o e ffe c t o n c on d uc ti o n t im e th r o ug h ou t th e AV a nd SA n o de s. C l a ss I V a nt i ar r h y t hm ic s wo r k d i re c t l y on lo w- c h an n el io n c o nd uc t io n , wh i c h i s m or e l i ke l y to t ak e p la c e du r ing p ha s e 2 ( p la t ea u ) , wh e n c a lc i um i o ns e n te r t he c e ll t h r o ug h s lo w c h an n el s . C u r r e n t c l as s i f ic at i on of a n t ia r r h y th m i cs do es no t i nc l ud e a g r o up o f c l as s V a ge n ts . 3 . T he an sw e r is B [ s ee I . C . 3; Ta b le 40 - 1 ] . To r s a d es d e p o in t es i s a f o rm o f ve n t ri cu l ar t ac hya r r h yt h m i a c ha r ac t e ri z ed b y e l ec t r oc ar d io g ra p hi c c han g es , wh i c h in cl ud e a m a r k e d l y pr o lo n ge d Q T i nte r va l . Th is p o t en t ia ll y f a ta l re ac t io n h a s n o w b ee n re p o rt e d fo r b ot h a n ti a r rh y t h m i c s an d no n a n t ia r r h y th m i c s . An t ia r r hy t h m ic s , wh i ch h a v e b een r e po r te d to c a us e t o rs a d es de p o in t s, in c l u de am io d ar on e , d is o p yr am id e , d of e ti li d e , f le ca i ni de , ib u ti li d e, p r o ca in am i de , q u in id i ne , a n d s o t al o l. I n a dd i ti on , d r u g cl as s e s s uc h as a nt i b io t ics ( e . g ., e r y t hr om y c in , le v of l o xa c i n, m o xi f l o xa c i n , pe n t am id in e , s pa r f lo xa c i n) , a lo n g wi t h o t he r ag e nt s ( s uc h a s , d ol as e t ro n , f el b am a te , fl u o xe t i ne , fo sp h en y t oi n , i n da p am id e , is r a di pi n e, p a r o xe t i ne , s um a t ri p ta n , a n d t am o xi f e n ) h a ve b e en r e po r te d t o be ab l e t o c au s e ei t her a p ro lo n ga t io n i n t h e Q T i n t e r va l a nd / o r i nd uc e t o r sa d es d e po in t es ( Ta b le 40 - 1 ). O f t h e a ge n ts li st e d, on ly a m io d a ro ne is a cl as s II I a n t ia r r h y th m i c . 4 . T he an sw e r is B [ s ee I I . A .4 . b. ( 7 ) ].
Th e p a ti e nt ' s c om pl a in ts a r e t y p ic a l o f a S LE - l ik e h yp e rs e ns it i v i t y re ac t ion t o p r o ca in am i de . S y m p t om s o f an SL E - li k e s y nd r om e i nc l u de f at i gu e , a r th r alg i a , m ya l gi a , a l o w- g r a de f e ve r , an d a po s i t i v e a n ti nuc l ea r an t ib od y t i te r . Th e p a t ie n t 's s ym p to m s s h ou ld s u bs ide i f p r oc ai n am id e t h er a py i s s t op p ed an d a n a l te rn a t i v e a n t ia r r h y th m i c a g en t i s gi v e n in s t e ad . 5 . T he an sw e r is D [ s ee I I . A .2 ] . C l a ss I A a nt i ar r h y t hm ic a g e nt s d el a y ph as e 0 o f d e p ol a ri za t io n . F as t -c han n el c o nd uc t io n o f s o di um and p ha s e s 2 an d 3 of r ep ol a r i z at i on a re al so s l o wed . Th e ne t e f f ec t i s t o e xt e n d th e ref r a c t o r y pe r i od of m y o c ar d i al ti s s u e. C la s s I A a n t ia r r h y th m i c a g en ts do n o t i nh i bi t t h e s l o w- c h an n el c o n du ct a nc e o f c al ci u m i on s — t h a t i s a n ac t io n o f c la s s I V ag e nt s s uc h a s v e r a pa m il . 6 . T he an sw e r is C [ s ee I I . D .1 . a ]. O f t h e a ge n ts li s t e d, v e ra p am il is a c a lc i um -c h ann e l b lo c k e r a nd r ep r es e nt s th e c l as s I V a n ti a r rh y t h m i c s . V e r ap a m i l h as be en us ed f o r i ts di r ec t -a c ti ng e ffe c ts on i m pu ls e c on d uc ti o n t h rou g h ou t t h e h ea r t . Thu s ve r a pa m i l i s u s e d t o t r e at a n d p r e ve n t s u p r a v en t ri c ul a r a r r h y t hm ia s . I bu t il i de is a c l as s I I I a g en t , q ui ni d in e is a c l as s I A d r ug , m e xi l e t in e i s a c l as s I B a ge n t , a nd p r o p ra n ol ol , a β - ad r e ne rg i c b l oc ke r , i s c l a s s I I . Me xi l e t i ne , q u in id i ne , a n d p r op r a no l ol ar e al l a ls o e f fec t i v e f o r s u p ra ve n t ri c u la r a rr h y t hm i as , a nd ib u ti l id e i s i ndi c at e d f o r t he t r ea tm e nt o f a tr i al f i b ri l la t io n /f l ut t e r o f r ec en t on s e t . 7 . T he an sw e r is D [ s ee I I . C .3 . a ]. I n t he A R R E S T t r ia l , 4 4% o f a m i od a r on e -t r e at e d p a ti e nt s ver s us 3 4 % o f p l ac e bo t r e a te d p a ti e nt s s ur v i v e d t o ho s p i ta l a dm is s i on ( p = 0 .0 3 ) a f te r s h ock - r e f ra c to r y c a r di ac ar r es t . Th e b en ef i t wa s c on s i s te n tl y o bs er v e d i n a ll m aj o r s ub g r oup s , r e g a rd l es s o f t he p re s e nt i n g c a r d ia c - a r r es t r h y t hm . As a r es u lt of t he t ri al, e v i de nc e o f it s f i nd in g s we r e c i t ed wi t h i n th e A C L S 20 00 Gu i de l in es , d e sc ri b in g t h e l ac k o f s im i la r d a ta f o r o th e r a n ti a r r h y th m i c s , a n d t he ag re e m e n t b y t he e xp e r t p an e l t h at t h e y wo u l d c on s i de r am io d a ro n e as a f i rs t - li ne ag e n t f o r s u c h p at i en ts . L id o c a i ne a n d b r e t y li um ar e th e o nly o t h e r a ge n ts li s t e d, wh i c h h a ve b ee n u s e d i n thi s p a ti e nt p o p ul at i on fo r v e n tr ic u lar t ac h y a r r h y th m i as . H o we v e r , th e d a t a h a v e b ee n l ac k i n g as t o t he i r e f fi c a c y c om pa r ed t o p la c e b o. P.849
8 . T he an sw e r is B [ s ee I I . C .1 . d ]. D o f e ti l id e , i bu t il id e , a m io d a ro n e, an d s o ta lo l a r e c la s s II I an t ia r r h y th m i c a g e nt s. C l a ss II I ag en t s , wh i c h pr o l on g th e r e f ra c to r y pe r io d an d m y o ca r di al ac t ion p o t en t ia l , a r e us e d t o t r ea t v e n tr ic u la r ar r h y t hm ias . H o we v e r , d o fe t il i de and i bu t il id e a r e ap p ro v e d a s t y p e II I a g e nt s i nd ic a te d f o r th e c o n v e rs io n f r om at r i al fi br i l la t io n a n d f l ut t e r o f r e c e n t o ns e t t o n or m a l s in us r h y t hm . P ro p r an ol o l, al o ng wi th o th e r β b l oc ke r s , is a c l as s I I a nt i a r rh y t h m i c ; m e t op r ol ol is no t ro u ti n el y u s e d i n t he t r e a tm en t o f a rr h y t hm ia s ; a nd di so p y r am i de an d d i l ti a z em ar e c l as s Ia a nd c l as s I V a n t ia r r h y th m i c s , re s p ec t iv e l y . 9 . T he an sw e r is B [ s ee I I . C .3 . a ; I I . C .4 . a; I I. C . 5 .a ] .
A m i od a ro n e, li k e ib u ti li de a nd s o ta l ol , i s a c l as s I I I an t ia r r h y th m i c a g en t a n d a c t s b y p r o lo n gi ng r ep o la r i z a ti on o f c a rd i ac c el ls . Am i od ar o n e i s g i v en or a ll y , o ft en i n o nc e a - d a y or t wi c e -a - da y m ain t e na nc e d os a ge . Be c a us e o f it s v e r y l on g e l im ina t i on ha l fl i f e, th e r ap e ut ic r es po ns e m a y b e d el a y e d f o r wee k s . Th e r ef o re , an in it i al l o ad in g p h as e i s o f te n a d v is a bl e. Th i s re qu i r es h os p it a li za t i on wi t h c lo s e m o ni t o rin g fo r d e si r ed e ff ec t s , un t o wa rd r e ac ti o ns , a nd ad j us tm e n ts in do sa g e. A m i od a ro n e m a y i n c re as e t h e p la s m a l e v el s o f qu in i di ne , pr o c a in am i de , d i lt i a z em , a nd di g it a l is . D u r i ng t he r ap y wi t h am i od a r on e , p a ti en t s m a y d eve l o p h yp o th yr o i di s m o r h yp e r t h y r oi di s m , p u lm ona r y d is o rd e rs , he pa t ic d ys f un c ti on , an d v a ri ou s o th e r u n wa n t e d e f fe c t s . B ec a us e o f am io da r o ne ' s e xt r e m e l y l o ng ha l f -l if e , a d ve rs e r e a ct i on s m a y p e rs is t f o r m on t hs af t e r t he r a p y e nd s .
41 Hypertension Al a n H . M u tn i ck
I. GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS A. D e f i n i t i o n. H yp e r t e n s i o n i s b lo od p re s s u re ele v a t e d e no u gh to pe r f us e t is su es a n d o r ga ns . E le v a t ed s y s t em ic bl oo d p r es s u r e i s u su a ll y d ef i ne d a s a s ys t o l ic r e a di n g ≥ 14 0 m m H g and a d i as to l ic re a di ng ≥ 90 m m H g ( ≥ 14 0 /9 0 ) . Th e “ S e v e n th R e p o r t o f t h e J o i nt N a ti on a l Co m m it t ee on D e te c ti o n , E va l ua t io n , a nd Tr ea t m e n t o f H i g h Bl oo d P re s s u re ” (J N C - 7 ) a dd e d a “p r eh y p e rt e ns i on ” c a te g o r y , wh i c h i nc l ud es i n di vi d ua ls wi t h s y s t ol ic b l oo d p r es s u r e re a di ng s o f 12 0 - 13 9 o r d i as t ol ic b lo o d p r e ss u re re a di n gs o f 8 0 -8 9 m m Hg ; th is c a te g o r y i s n o w i nc lu d ed in c o n tem p o ra r y m a na g em en t s t ra t eg i es . B . C l a ss i f ic a t io n of h y pe r t e ns io n i s sh o wn i n Ta b l e 4 1 -1 . Th e t a bl e re f lec t s t he r e c om m e nd a ti on s o f th e J N C - 7 . C . Th e r e la t i o ns h ip b etw e en el e va t e d b l oo d p r e s s u re an d ca r d i o vas cu l a r d i s ea s e wa s a dd r es s e d in t he J N C -7 , wh i ch fo r m a l i zes th e fa ct t ha t t h e h ig h e r t h e b l oo d p r es s u r e , t h e g re at e r th e c ha n c e of a m yoc a r d ia l i n fa r ct i on ( MI ) , h ea r t fa i lu r e ( H F ) , st r ok e , o r k id n e y di s ea s e . Ta bl e 4 1 - 2 p ro v id e s c a r d io va s c ul a r ri s k fa c to r s a n d /o r li fe s t y le fa c to r s th a t a f f ec t t h e p ro g no s i s a n d t r e at m e n t o f h y p e r ten s io n a n d t h e va ri o us t y p e s o f t a rge t - o rg a n d am ag e a ss oc ia t e d wi t h h yp er t en si o n. D . I n ci d e nc e . H yp e r t e n s i o n i s th e m o s t c om mo n ca r d i o va sc u la r d is or d e r . A p p r o xi m a te l y 43 m il l io n A m e ri c a ns ha v e bl o od pr e ss u r e m e as u r em en ts > 1 4 0/ 9 0. Th i s nu m b e r t r a ns la t es to a lm os t 2 5% o f t he ad u lt p op u la t io n . Th e in c i d enc e i n c re as es wi t h a g e —t h at i s , 6 0% - 71 % o f p e op l e > 6 0 y e a rs o f a ge ha v e h yp e r t en s i on , ac c o r di ng t o da t a o b ta in e d f r om the Th i r d Na t io n al H ea l th a n d N u t r i ti o n E xa m i n at i on Sur v e y ( N H A N E S I I I ) . 1 . P r i ma r y ( o r e s s en t i al) h yp e r t e n s i o n, in wh i c h n o s pe c i f ic c a us e c an be i d en t i fi ed , c o ns ti t u te s > 9 0 % o f a l l ca s e s o f s y s tem ic h ype r t en s i o n. Th e av e r a g e a ge o f on se t is a b ou t 3 5 y ea rs . 2 . S ec o n da r y h yp e r t e n si o n , re s u l ti ng f r om a n i de n t if i ab le ca us e , s u c h as r e n al d i se as e o r ad r en a l h y p e rf u nc t io n , a cc ou n ts fo r the r em a in in g 2 % - 5% of c as es o f s ys t em ic h y p e r te ns i on . Th i s t y p e u su al l y de v e l ops be t we e n th e a g es o f 30 a nd 50 . E . P h ys i o l o g y B l o o d p re s su r e = ( s t r ok e v o l um e × he a rt r at e ) × t o t al pe r ip h e ra l v asc u la r r e s is ta nc e ( TP R ) A l t e ri n g a n y o f th e fa c t o rs on t he ri g ht s i de o f t he b l oo d p r es su r e e qu a ti o n r e s u l ts i n a ch a ng e i n b l oo d p r es s u r e , a s s ho wn i n F i gu r e 4 1 - 1 . 1 . S ym p a t h e t i c ne r vo u s s ys t e m . B a r o r ec e pt o r s ( p r es s u r e r e c e p to rs ) in th e c a r ot i ds a n d a o rt ic a rc h r e s po nd t o ch a ng es in blo o d p r es s u r e a nd in f lu e nc e a r t e ri o la r di la t io n a n d a r te r i ol a r c on s t r ic t io n . W hen s ti m u la t ed t o c o ns t r ic tio n , th e c o nt r ac t il e f o rc e s t re n gth e ns , i nc r e as in g t h e h ear t r a te an d a u gm en t in g pe r i ph e r al r e s is ta nc e , t h us i nc r e as in g c a r di ac ou t pu t . I f p r es s u r e re m a i ns e l e v at e d, t h e b a r o re ce p to r s r es e t a t t he h ig he r le ve ls an d s o su s ta i n t he h y pe r t en si o n. L i t tl e e vi d e nc e s u g ge s t s t h at ep i ne p h ri ne an d no r ep i nep h r i n e h a ve a cl ea r r ol e i n th e
c a us e o f h y p e r te ns io n . Ho we v e r , m an y o f th e d r ug s u se d to t re a t h y p e rt en s io n l o we r b l oo d p r es s u r e b y b lo c k in g th e s ym pa t he t ic n e r vo u s s ys t em . 2 . R e ni n - an g i ot e ns i n -a ld o s t e ro n e s ys t e m . S y m p a t he t ic s t im ul a ti on , re na l ar t e r y h yp o t en s i o n, an d d ec r e as e d s o d iu m d el i v e r y to th e d i st a l t ub u le s s ti m u lat e t he r e l ea se o f r en i n b y t he k id n e y ( ju xt a g l om e ru l ar a pp a r a tu s o f t h e ki d ne y) . Re n in ( an e n zym e ) re ac t s wi t h c i rc u l a ti ng s u bs t r at e , a ng i ote n si n og en t o p ro d uc e a ng i o te ns in I ( a we a k v as oc o ns t ri c t o r ). W ith in t he pu lm on a r y en d o th el i um i s a n ot h er enz ym e , r e f e r re d t o a s a n gi o te ns in - c on v e r ti n g e n zy m e ( AC E ) , wh i c h i s a bl e t o h y dr o l y ze t he d e ca p ep t id e a ng i ot e ns in I t o f o rm th e o c t a pe p ti de a ng io t e ns in II ( a p ot e nt n a tu r al va s o co ns t ri c to r ) . A n gi o ten s in I I h as s e v e ra l i m p o rt a n t f u nc ti o ns i n t h e r e gu l a ti on o f f l u id vo lu m e : P.851
Table 41-1. Classification of Hypertension for Adults ≥ 18 Years of Age
Systol ic Classificat(mm ion Hg)a
Diastoli Lifestyle c (mm ModificatWithout Compelling Hg)a ion Indication
With Compellin g Indication s
Norm al
< 1 2 0
a n d
< 80
Enco urag e
Prehy perte nsion
1 2 0 1 3 9
o r
8089
Yes
No antihypertensive drug indicated, unless presence of a compelling indicationb requiring use of drug therapy
Drug( s) for comp elling indica tions
Stage 1 hyper tensio n
1 4 0 1
o r
9099
Yes
Thiazide-type diuretics for most; may consider ACE inhibitor, ARB, βblocker, CCB, or
Drug( s) for comp elling indica
5 9
Stage 2 hyper tensio n
≥ 1 6 0
o r
≥ 10 0
Yes
combination
tions; other antihy perten sive drugs (diure tics, ACE inhibi tor, ARB, βblock er, CCB) as neede d
Two-drug combination for most (usually thiazide-type diuretic and ACE inhibitor, ARB, βblocker, or CCB)
Drug( s) for comp elling indica tions; other antihy perten sive drugs (diure tics, ACE inhibi tor, ARB, βblock er, CCB) as neede d
ACE, angiotensin-converting enzyme; ARB, angiotensin-receptor blocker; CCB, calcium-channel blocker. a Treatment is determined by the patient's highest blood pressure category. b
Selected drug therapies have been identified from clinical trials to possess positive clinical outcomes for specific clinical situations and represent compelling indication for their use. Compelling indications (and drug therapies): heart failure (diuretics, β-blockers, ACE inhibitors, ARB, aldosterone antagonists), postmyocardial infarction (β-blockers, ACE inhibitors, and aldosterone antagonists), high coronary disease risk (diuretic, β-blocker, ACE inhibitors, CCB), diabetes (diuretic, β-blockers, ACE inhibitors, ARB, CCB), chronic kidney disease (ACE inhibitors, ARB), and recurrent stroke prevention (diuretic, ACE inhibitors). Based on Joint National Committee on Detection, Evaluation, and Treatment of High Blood Pressure. The seventh report of the Joint National Committee on Detection, Evaluation, and Treatment of High Blood Pressure: The JNC-7 report [Special communication; Clinician's Corner]. JAMA 2003;289:25602572. P.852
Table 41-2. Cardiovascular and/or Lifestyle Risk Factors for Consideration in the Management of Hypertension Hypertension Cigarette smoking Obesity (BMI ≥ 30) Physical inactivity Dyslipidemia (as a component of the metabolic syndrome) Diabetes mellitus (as a component of the metabolic syndrome) Microalbuminuria or estimated glomerular filtration rate < 60 mL/min
Age (> 55 years for men; > 65 years for women) Family history of premature cardiovascular disease (men < 55 years; women < 65 years) BMI, body mass index (calculated as weight in kilograms divided by the square of height in meters). Based on Joint National Committee on Detection, Evaluation, and Treatment of High Blood Pressure. The seventh report of the Joint National Committee on Detection, Evaluation, and Treatment of High Blood Pressure: The JNC-7 report [Special communication; Clinician's Corner]. JAMA 2003;289:25602572. a . I t s ti m u la t es th e re le as e o f al do s te r on e fr om th e ad r en a l g la n d ( z o na g l om e ru l os a ), wh i c h r es u l ts in in c re as e d s o d iu m r e a bs o rp t io n , f lu i d v o l um e , an d b l oo d p r es s u r e . b . I t c on s t r ic ts r es is t an c e v e s s el s , wh i c h i nc r ea s e s p e r ip he r a l v a sc ul a r res is t an c e a n d a r t er i al p re s s u re . c . I t s ti m u la t es th e re le as e o f v as o p re s s in , o r an ti d iu r e ti c h o rm on e ( A D H ), f r om t he p o st e r io r p i tu i ta r y , wh i c h a c ts wi t hi n th e k id ne ys to i nc r ea s e fl u id re t en t io n.
Figure 41-1. Blood pressure regulation: the determinants of blood pressure as they relate to cardiac output and total peripheral resistance. Angiotensin II, a potent vasopressor, not only increases total peripheral resistance but also, by stimulating aldosterone release, leads to an increase in plasma volume, venous return, stroke volume, and ultimately an increase in cardiac output.
P.853
d . I t s ti m u l at es c a r di ac hy p e r t r op h y a nd v as c u l a r h yp e r t ro p h y . e . I t f ac il i ta t es no r ep i nep h r in e re le a s e f ro m s y m p a t he t ic n e r v e e n di ng s an d in hi b it s n o r ep i ne p hr i ne r eu p ta k e b y n e r ve e nd i ng s , wh i c h e n h a nc es s ym p at h et ic fu n ct i on .
3 . M o s ai c th e o r y c e n t e rs a ro u nd th e fa c t th a t m u l t ip le f ac to r s , r at h e r t han o ne f a c to r a l on e , a r e r es p ons i bl e f o r s us ta i ni n g h y p er t e ns i on . Th e i nt e r ac ti o ns am on g t h e s ym pa t he t ic n e r v o us s y s te m , r en i n -a ng i ot e ns i n - al d os te r o ne s y s t em , an d p o t en t ia l d e fe c t s i n s od iu m tr a ns po r t wi t hi n a n d o u ts i de th e c el l m a y al l p l a y a r o le i n lo ng - t e rm h y p e r te ns i on . A dd i ti o na l f ac t o rs c ont r i bu t in g to th e d e v e lo pm e n t i n cl ud e g e ne t ic s , en d ot he l ia l d y s f un c t i on , a n d n eu r o va s c ul a r a no m a l ie s . O t h e r va s o ac ti v e s u bs t an c e s th a t a r e i n vo l ved in th e m a i n te na n c e of no r m a l b loo d p r e ss u re ha v e al s o be e n i d en t if i ed ; t h es e i nc lu d e n i t ri c o xi d e ( vas o di la t ing f ac t or ) , e n d ot h el in ( v as o c o ns t ri c t o r pe p ti d e) , br a d yk i ni n (p o t en t v as o di la t o r i na ct iv a t e d b y A C E ) , a nd at r i al n a t ri u r et i c p ep t id e (n a tu r al l y oc c u r r i ng di u re t ic ) . 4 . F lu i d vo lu m e r e g ul a ti o n . I n c r ea se d f lu i d vo lu m e i nc r e as es ven o us sy s t e m d i st e nt i on an d v en o us ret u r n , a f fe ct i ng c a r di ac ou t p ut an d ti ss ue pe r f us ion . Th e s e c h an g es a l t e r vas c u la r r e s i s ta n ce , i nc r e as in g th e bl oo d pr es s ur e . F . C o mp l i ca t i on s . U n t rea t e d s ys t em ic h y p er t en s io n , re g ar d le s s of c a us e , r e s ul ts in i n f la m m at i on an d n ec r os i s o f th e a r t er i ol es , n a r r owi n g o f th e b lo o d ve s s e ls , an d r e s t ri ct i on of th e bl oo d f lo w t o m aj o r b od y o r ga ns ( Ta b l e 4 1 -3 ) . W hen bl o od f lo w i s s e ve r el y c o m p r om is e d, ta r g e t- o r ga n d am a ge en su e s . 1 . C a r di a c e f f ec t s a . Le f t v en t r ic ul a r h y p e rtr o p h y (c a rd i ac re m o d el ing ) c o m p e ns at es f o r t he in c r ea se d c a r di ac wo r k lo ad . S ig ns a n d s y m pt om s o f h e ar t fa i lu r e o c c u r, an d th e i nc r e a s e d o xyg e n r e q ui r em e nt s o f th e en la r g ed he a r t m a y pr o d uc e a ng i na pe c to r is .
Table 41-3. Target-Organ Damage Associated with Hypertension Organ/System and Findings
Basis of Findings Cardiovascular
Blood pressure persistently ≥ 140 mm Hg systolic and/or ≥ 90 mm Hg diastolic
Constricted arterioles, causing abnormal resistance to blood flow
Angina pain
Insufficient blood flow to coronary vasculature
Left ventricular hypertrophy/dyspnea on exertion
Heart failure
Edema of extremities
Decrease in blood supply Neurological
Severe occipital headaches with nausea and vomiting, drowsiness, anxiety, and mental impairment
Vessel damage within brain characteristic of dizziness, severe mental impairment, hypertension, resulting in transient ischemic attacks or strokes Renal
Polyuria, nocturia, and diminished ability to concentrate urine; protein and red blood cells in urine; elevated serum creatinine
Arteriolar nephrosclerosis (hardening of arterioles within kidney)
Ocular Retinal hemorrhage and exudates
Damage to arterioles that supply retina
Peripheral vascular
Absence of pulses in extremities with or without intermittent claudication; development of aneurysm
Based on Joint National Committee on Detection, Evaluation, and Treatment of High Blood Pressure. The seventh report of the Joint National Committee on Detection, Evaluation, and Treatment of High Blood Pressure: The JNC-7 report [Special communication; Clinician's Corner]. JAMA 2003;289:25602572. P.854
b . H yp e r te ns i on c a n b e c a us ed b y ac c e le r a te d at h e r os c l er o si s. A th e r om at o us l e si on s i n t h e c o r o na r y ar t e r ie s l ea d to de c re as ed b l oo d f l o w, r es ul t in g i n a n gi n a p e ct o r is . MI a n d s u dd e n d e a th m a y e ns ue . 2 . R e na l e f f ec t s a . D ec r ea s e d bl oo d f l o w l e ad s t o a n i nc r e as e i n re n in - a ld os t e ro ne s e c re t io n , wh ic h h e ig h te n s t he r ea bs o rp t io n of s o di um an d wa t e r a n d i nc r ea se s b l oo d v ol um e . b . A cc el e ra t ed a th e ro s c le r o s i s d ec r ea se s t he o xy g e n s up p l y, l ea d in g t o ren a l p a r en c h y m a l d am ag e wi th d ec r ea s e d f i lt r a ti on c ap a bi l it y a nd t o a z o te m i a . Th e a t h e ro sc le r os is al s o de c r e a s e s b lo od f lo w t o t he r e n al a rt e r io le s , l ea di n g t o n e p hr os c l e r os is a n d, ul t im a te l y , re n al fa i lu r e ( acu t e a s we ll as c h r on ic ) .
3 . C e r eb r a l e f f ec t s . D ec r e a s e d b lo o d f lo w, d e c rea s ed o xy g e n su p pl y, an d we a k e n ed bl o od v es s e l wa l l s le a d t o t r an si e nt isc h e m ic a t t ack s , c e r e br a l t h r om b os es , a nd t he de v e l op m en t o f a n eu r y sm s wi t h h em o r r ha ge . Th e re a r e a l t er a ti o ns i n m o bi li t y , we a k n es s a nd pa r a l ys is , an d m em o r y de f ic i ts . 4 . R e t in a l e f fe c t s. D ec re a s e d b l oo d f l o w wi t h r eti n al va s c ul a r s c l e ro s i s an d i n c re as ed a r te r io la r p re s s u r e wi t h t he ap pe a r an ce o f e xu d a t es an d h em o rr h a ge r e s ul t i n v is ua l d e fe c t s (e . g . , bl u r r ed vis i on , s po ts , bl in d ne ss ) .
II. SECONDARY HYPERTENSION A. C l i n i c a l e va l ua t i o n. B e c au s e m o s t pa t ie n ts pr e s en t in g wi t h h ig h b lo od p r ess u r e h a ve p ri m a r y r a th e r t ha n s ec on d a r y h yp e r te ns i on, e xt e n s i ve sc r ee n in g i s u n wa r r a n te d . A t ho r ou g h h is t o r y a n d p h ys i c a l e xa m i n a t io n f o ll o we d b y a n e va l u at io n o f co m m on la bo r a to r y t es t s s h o ul d ru le ou t m os t c a us es of s e co nd a r y h ype r t e ns io n . P a t i en t a g e ( p ri m a r y h y pe r t e ns io n i s n or m al l y s ee n be t we e n 3 0 a n d 5 5 y e a r s o f a g e ) , su d de n o ns e t o f wo r s en in g o f h y pe r t en s i on, a nd bl o od p re s s u re el ev a t i o ns n o t r e s po nd i ng to t re a tm e nt a r e fi n di ng s c on s i s t e nt wi t h s ec on d a r y h y p e r te ns io n . If a s ec o nd a r y c a us e i s n ot fo u n d, th e p a ti e nt is c o ns i d e re d to ha ve ess e nt i al ( p r im a r y) h yp e r t en s i on . 1 . A p a ti e nt ' s hi s t o r y a n d o t he r p h ys i c a l f i n di ng s s u gg es t an un d er l y i ng ca us e of h yp e r t en s i on . Th es e i nc lu d e t h e f ol l o wi n g: a . W ei gh t g a in , m oo n fa c e , t ru nc a l o be s i t y , os te op o r os is , p u r pl e s t ri ae , hir s u ti s m , h yp o ka l em ia , d i ab e te s , an d in c re as ed pl a s m a co rt i s o l m a y s i gn al C us h in g s yn d r om e. b . W eigh t lo s s , e pi s o d ic f l us h in g , d ia ph o r es is , i nc r e as ed u ri na r y c at ec h ola m in es , h e a da c h es , i n te r m i t te n t h y p e r t en s i on , t re m o r s , an d pa lp i ta t io ns s u g ge s t p h e oc hr o m o c y to m a . c . S te r o id or es t r og en int a k e , in cl ud i ng o ra l c on t ra c ep t i v es , n o ns te r oi d al a n t ii n f la m m at o r y d ru gs ( N S AI D s ) , n as a l d ec on g es ta n ts , t ri c yc l ic a n ti d ep r es s a nt s , a p p et i te s u pp r es s a n ts , c y c l os p o ri ne , e r yth r op o ie ti n , a n d m o n oa m i n e o xi d as e ( MA O ) i n hi b it o rs , s u gg es ts d ru g- i n du c e d h y p e r te ns i on . d . R e pe a te d u r in a r y t ra c t i nf e c t io n s , el e va te d s e ru m c r ea t in i ne le v e ls , n oc t u r ia , h e m a t u ri a , a nd pa in on ur i n at i ng m a y si g ni f y r en al i n v ol ve m e n t ( e .g . , c h ron i c k i d ne y d i se as e ) . e . A bd om i na l b r ui ts , r ec e n t o ns e t , a nd acc e le r a te d h y pe r t en s i o n in d ic at e r e n al a r t e r y s t en os is ( e .g . , r e no v a s c u la r di s e as e ) . f . Mu s c le c ra m p s , we a k ne s s , e xc e ss u r in a ti o n, and is o la t ed h y po k a l em ia m a y s u gg es t pr im a r y al d os te ro n is m . g . S le e p a pn e a, c o a rc ta ti o n o f t h e a o rt a , t h y r oi d d i s e as e , a nd pa r a th y r o id d is e as e h a ve be e n i nc lu de d b y th e J N C - 7 as a d di t io na l s e c on d ar y c au se s o f h y p er t e ns i on . 2 . L ab o r a to r y f i n d i n g s a . B lo o d u re a n i t ro g en (B U N ) a n d c re a ti n in e e lev a t i o n s s u gg es t re na l d is e a se . b . I nc r ea s e d u r in a r y e xc r e t io n of c a te c ho la m i n e o r i ts m e ta bo l it es ( e. g . , va n i ll yl m a n de l ic a c i d , m e t a ne p hr i ne ) c o nf i rm s p he o c h r om oc y t om a . c . S e ru m p ot as s i um e v a lu a t io n re v e al i ng h y po k a le m ia s u gg es t s p ri m a r y a l do s te r on is m o r C us hi ng s y nd r om e .
3 . D i ag n os t i c t e s ts a . R en a l a r te r io g r ap h y , ul t r as o un d , o r r e na l ven og r a p h y m a y s ho w e vi d e nc e o f re n al a r t e r y s t en os is . b . E le c tr o c a r di o gr a ph y (E C G ) m a y r e v ea l l e ft v en t r ic ul a r h yp e r t ro p h y o r is ch e m i a. P.855
B . C a u se 1 . P r i ma r y a l d o s t e r on i sm . H y p e rs ec r e ti on o f al do s te r o ne b y th e a d re n al c o r te x i n c re as es di s t a l t ub u la r s o di um r et e nt i on , e xp a n d i n g t he bl oo d v o lu m e , wh i c h i n c re as es to t al pe r ip h e ral r es is t an c e . 2 . P he o c h ro m oc yt o m a . A t um o r o f th e a d re n al m e d ul l a s ti m u la t es h y pe r se c r et i on of e p in e ph r in e a n d n o re p ine p h ri n e, wh i ch r es ul t s i n i n c r e as ed to t al pe r ip h e ra l r e s is ta nc e . 3 . R e na l a r t e r y s t e n o s i s . D ec r ea s e d re n al ti s s ue p e rf us i on ac ti v a t es th e r e ni n a n gi o te n s i n -a ld o s t e ro n e s y s t em (s ee I . E. 2 ) . C . T r e a tm e nt . S ec on da ry h y p e r t en s i o n r e qu i re s tr e a tm e nt of t he un d er l yin g c a us e ( e . g ., su r gi c a l i n te r v e n tio n ac c o m p an i ed b y s u ppl e m e n ta r y co n t ro l o f h y pe r t e ns i v e e f f ec ts ; s e e I I I. B ) .
III. ESSENTIAL (PRIMARY) HYPERTENSION A. C l i n i c a l e va l ua t i o n re q ui r es a t h or o ug h h is t or y a n d p h ys i c a l e xa m i n ati o n f o l lo we d b y a c ar e fu l a na l y s is o f c om m o n l a bo r a to r y t e s t r es ul ts . 1 . O b j ec t i ve s a . To r ul e o u t u nc om m o n s ec on d a r y c a us es o f h yp e r t en s i on b . To d et e rm i ne th e p r es e n c e an d e xt e n t o f t a rg et - o r ga n d am a ge c . To d et e rm in e th e p r es e n c e of o th e r c ar d io v a sc u l a r r is k f ac t o rs i n a d di t io n to hi g h b l oo d p r es s u r e d . To r e du ce m o r bi di t y an d m o r ta li t y t h ro u gh m u lti p le s t r a te gi e s t ha t re d uce b lo od p r e ss u re th r ou g h l if es t y le m o d if ic a ti o ns wi t h o r wi t h ou t p h a rm ac ol og ic a l t re a tm e nt wi t h m in im a l s i d e e f fe c t s . 2 . P r e di s po s i ng f ac t o r s a . F am i l y h i s t o r y o f e s s e n t ia l h y p e r te ns io n , s t rok e , a nd p re m a t u re c a r dia c d is e as e b . P a ti e n t h i s to r y o f i n te r m it t en t e l e v at i on s i n b lo o d p r es su r e c . R ac i a l p r e di s po s i ti on . H y p e r te ns i on is m o re c om m o n a m on g A f r ic an A m e ri c an s t h a n wh i t e s . d . O b e si t y. W ei gh t r ed uc t io n h as be e n s ho wn t o r e d uc e b lo o d p r es s u r e i n a la r g e p r o po r t io n o f h y p e r te ns i ve p at i en ts wh o a re > 1 0% a bo v e id e al bo d y we i gh t . e . S mo k i ng , re s u l ti n g i n v a s o c o ns t ri c ti on an d a c tiv a t i o n o f t h e s ym p a th e tic ne r v o us s ys t em , i s a m aj o r r is k fa c to r fo r ca r di o v as cu l a r d i s e as e . f . S t r ess g . H i gh di e ta r y in t ak e o f s a tu r a te d f a ts o r s o d iu m h . S ed e nt a r y li f es t y l e i . D i ab e te s m e l li t us j . H yp e r li pi d em ia
k . Ma j o r r is k fa c to r s ac c o r d in g to th e J N C - 7 i nc lud e s m o k i n g, di a be t es m el l it u s , ag e ( > 5 5 f o r m e n ; > 65 fo r wo m en ) , f am i l y h is t o r y of c a r di o v as c u l ar di s e as e , a n d d ys l ip id e m i a. l . Ta r g e t- o r ga n d am a ge /c l in ic al c a r di o v as c u l a r d is e as e a c c or d in g t o th e JN C - 7 i n cl ud e s h ea r t d is ea s e (e . g . , le f t v en t r ic ul a r h ype r t r op h y , an gi n a, p ri o r MI , h ea r t f a i lu r e ), s t r ok e o r t ra ns ien t is c h em ic at t ac k s , n eph r o pa t h y, p e ri p he r al a r ter y d i se as e , a nd r et i no pa t h y. 3 . P h ys i c a l f i n di n g s a . S e ri al bl o od p re s s u re r e a di n gs ≥ 1 4 0/ 9 0 s h o uld b e o bt a in e d o n a t l ea st t wo o cc a si on s b e fo r e s pe c i fic t he r ap y i s b eg un , un les s t h e i ni t ia l b lo o d p re s su r e l e v e ls a r e m a rk e dl y el e v a t ed (i .e . , > 2 10 m m Hg s y s t ol ic ; > 12 0 m m H g d i as to li c , o r bo t h ) o r a re as s o c i a te d wi t h t ar g e t -o r g an da m a g e. A s in g l e el e v a t ed re a di n g is a n i n su f fi ci e nt ba s i s f o r a dia g n os is . b . E ss en t ia l h y p e r te ns ion us u al l y do es no t be c om e c li n ic al l y e v id en t — o th e r th a n t h r o ug h s e ri al bl o od pr es s u r e e le va t io ns — un t il vas c u l a r c h a ng es af f ec t the h ea r t , b r a in , k i dn e y s , o r oc u la r f u n di . c . E xa m i na t io n o f th e o c u l a r f u nd i is va l ua bl e ; t he i r c o nd i ti on c a n i nd ic a te t he d u r a ti on an d s e v e ri t y o f t h e h y p e r te ns i on . ( 1 ) E a r l y s t a g e s . Ha r d , s h in y d ep os i ts ; t i n y h em o r r h ag es ; an d e le v a t ed ar t e r ia l b l oo d p r es s u r e o c c u r . P.856
( 2 ) L at e s t a ge s . C o t to n -wo o l p a tc he s , e xu d a t es , r e t in a l e de m a , pa pi l le dem a c au s ed b y i sc he m i a a n d c ap il l ary i n s u f f ic ie nc y , he m o r r ha g e s , a n d m i c ro a ne u r ys m s b ec om e e vi d e nt . 4 . U n t re a te d h y p e r te ns ion i nc r ea se s t he li k e l ih ood o f t h e d e v el op m e n t o f n u m e r ou s o r g an p ro b le m s , wh ic h in c lu d e le f t ven t r ic ul a r f a il u r e, MI , r e n al fa i lu r e , c er e b r al h e m o r r ha g e o r i n fa r c t i on, a nd s e v e r e c ha ng e s i n t h e re t in a o f th e e y e . B . T r e a tm e nt ( Ta b le s 4 1- 4 a nd 41 - 5; F ig u re 41 - 2) 1 . G e ne r a l p r i n ci p le s . Tr e a tm e nt p ri m a r il y a im s to l o we r bl oo d p r es s u r e to wa r d “ n o rm a l ” wi t h m i ni m a l s id e ef f ec ts an d to pr e v e nt o r re v e r s e o rg an d am ag e . C u r r e n tl y , th e r e is no c ur e f o r P.857 p r i m a r y h y p er t en s i o n. Tr e a t in g s ys to li c a nd di a s to l ic bl oo d p r es s u r es t o ta r g e ts t h at a r e < 1 40 / 90 m m Hg is as s o c i a te d wi t h a de c re ase i n c a r d io v a sc ul a r c om pl i c a t io ns . F o r pa t ie n ts wi t h h y p e r ten s io n wh o h a v e d i ab e te s o r r en al di s e as e , t h e b lo o d p r e ss u re go al r ec om m e nd e d b y t he J N C -7 is 1 3 0 /8 0 m m Hg .
Table 41-4. Common Antihypertensive Drugs
I.
Diuretics A.
Thiazide diuretics Chlorothiazide (Diuril) Chlorthalidone (Hygroton) Hydrochlorothiazide (HydroDIURIL) Indapamide (Lozol) Methyclothiazide (Enduron) Metolazone (Zaroxolyn)
B.
Loop diuretics Bumetanide (Bumex) Ethacrynic acid (Edecrin) Furosemide (Lasix) Torsemide (Demadex)
C.
Potassium-sparing diuretics Amiloride (Midamor) Eplerenone (Inspra) Spironolactone (Aldactone)
Triamterene (Dyrenium) II.
Vasodilators (direct acting) Diazoxide (Proglycem) Hydralazine (Various) Minoxidil (Loniten) Nitroprusside (Nitropress)
III.
Angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitors Benazepril (Lotensin) Captopril (Capoten) Enalapril (Vasotec) Enalaprilat (IV) (Vasotec) Fosinopril (Monopril) Lisinopril (Prinivil, Zestril) Moexipril (Univasc) Perindopril (Aceon) Quinapril (Accupril) Ramipril (Altace)
Trandolapril (Mavik) IV.
Angiotensin II receptor antagonists Candesartan cilexetil (Atacand) Eprosartan (Teveten) Irbesartan (Avapro) Losartan (Cozaar) Olmesartan (Benicar) Telmisartan (Micardis) Valsartan (Diovan)
V.
Renin inhibitors Aliskiren (Tekturna)
VI.
Sympatholytics A.
β-Adrenergic blocking agents Acebutolol (Sectral) Atenolol (Tenormin) Betaxolol (Kerlone) Bisoprolol (Zebeta)
Carvedilol (Coreg) Labetalol (Normodyne, Trandate) Metoprolol (Lopressor, Toprol XL) Nadolol (Corgard) Nebivolol (Bystolic) Penbutolol (Levatol) Pindolol (Visken) Propranolol (Inderal) Timolol (Various) B.
Centrally acting α-agonists Clonidine (Catapres) Guanabenz (Various) Guanfacine (Tenex) Methyldopa (Various)
C.
Postganglionic adrenergic neuron blockers Reserpine (various)
D.
α-Adrenergic blocking agents
Doxazosin (Cardura) Prazosin (Minipress) Terazosin (Hytrin) E.
Calcium-channel blockers 1.
Benzodiazepine derivatives Diltiazem (Cardizem, Dilacor, Tiazac)
2.
Diphenylalkylamine derivatives Verapamil (Isoptin, Calan)
3.
Dihydropyridines Amlodipine (Norvasc) Felodipine (Plendil) Isradipine (DynaCirc CR) Nicardipine (Cardene) Nifedipine (Procardia XL, Adalat CC) Nisoldipine (Sular)
Table 41-5. Common Combination Products for Hypertension
I.
Diuretics Hydrochlorothiazide—spironolactone (Aldactazide) Hydrochlorothiazide—triamterene (Dyazide, Maxzide) Hydrochlorothiazide—amiloride (Moduretic)
II.
Diuretics—β-adrenergic blockers Bendroflumethiazide—nadolol (Corzide) Chlorthalidone—atenolol (Tenoretic) Hydrochlorothiazide—propranolol (Inderide) Hydrochlorothiazide—metoprolol (Lopressor HCT) Hydrochlorothiazide—bisoprolol (Ziac)
III.
Diuretics—angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitors Hydrochlorothiazide—captopril (Capozide) Hydrochlorothiazide—benazepril (Lotensin HCT) Hydrochlorothiazide—lisinopril (Prinzide, Zestoretic) Hydrochlorothiazide—enalapril (Vaseretic) Hydrochlorothiazide—fosinopril (Monopril HCT) Hydrochlorothiazide—moexipril (Uniretic)
Hydrochlorothiazide—quinapril (Accuretic) IV.
Diuretics—angiotensin II receptor antagonists Hydrochlorothiazide—losartan (Hyzaar) Hydrochlorothiazide—irbesartan (Avalide) Hydrochlorothiazide—valsartan (Diovan HCT) Hydrochlorothiazide—telmisartan (Micardis HCT) Hydrochlorothiazide—candesartan (Atacand HCT) Hydrochlorothiazide—eprosartan (Teveten HCT) Hydrochlorothiazide—olmesartan (Benicar HCT)
V.
Angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitors—Calciumchannel blockers Enalapril—felodipine (Lexxel) Trandolapril—verapamil (Tarka) Benazepril—amlodipine (Lotrel)
VI.
Angiotensin II receptor antagonists-Calcium channel blockers Olmesartan—amlodipine (Azor) Valsartan—amlodipine (Exforge)
VII.
Other
Hydrochlorothiazide—hydralazine (Apresazide) Hydrochlorothiazide—methyldopa (Various) Polythiazide-prazosin (Minizide) Amlodipine—atorvastatin (Caduet)
a . C a nd i da t e s f o r t re a tm e n t ( 1 ) A ll pa t ie n ts wi t h a dia s to l ic p r es s u r e o f > 9 0 m m Hg , a s ys t ol ic p re s su r e of > 1 40 m m Hg , o r a c o m bi na t io n o f bo t h sh o ul d r e c e i v e an t i h ype r t en si ve d ru g t h era p y. ( 2 ) F or t ho s e pa t ie n ts wit h a d ia s to li c p r es s u r e o f 8 0 - 89 m m H g or a s y s tol i c p r e ss u re of 12 0 -1 3 9 m m H g ( p r eh y p e rt e ns io n ) , n o d r u g t r ea tm e nt is i n di c at e d u n le ss t h e p a ti e nt ha s a c om p ell i ng in d ic at i on . Ho we v e r , l i fe st yl e m o di fi c a t io n s s u c h as we i g h t r ed uc t io n , d ie t a r y s od i um re d uc ti o n, in c rea s ed ph ys ic al ac t i vit y , an d m o de r a ti on o f a lc oh ol c on s um pt i on s h ou l d b e i ni tia t e d. b . N o ns p ec i f ic me a su r es . B ef o r e i ni t ia ti n g a n ti hyp e r t e ns i v e d r ug th e ra p y , p a ti en t s a r e en co u ra g ed to el im i na t e o r m i ni m i z e c o nt r o ll ab l e r is k f ac t o rs (s e e I I I. A. 2 ) . c . P ha r m ac o l og i ca l t r ea t m e nt . Th e re co m m en da t i on s o f t h e J N C -7 s u g ge s t t h at r e c en t c li n ic al t ri al s h a ve d em on s t r a te d th a t m o st h y p e rt e ns i v e p a ti en t s wi l l r e qu i re t wo o r m or e a n ti h y p e rt e ns i v e d r u gs . P.858
Figure 41-2. Algorithm for the treatment of hypertension. ACE, angiotensin-converting enzyme; ARB, angiotensin-receptor blocker; CCB, calcium-channel blocker. [Based on the recommendations from the Seventh Report of the Joint National Committee on Detection, Evaluation, and Treatment of High Blood Pressure (JNC-7).]
( 1 ) Th i a z id e d i u re ti c s s ho u ld be t he in i ti al c h oi ce o f th e ra p y b ec au s e th e y h a v e d e m o ns t r at e d a re d uc ti on i n m o r bi d it y a n d m o r t ali t y wh e n us e d as in i ti al m o no t he r ap y . Th e y h a v e b e en s h o wn t o l o we r m or b i di t y a nd m o r ta li t y r a tes , ha v e s h o wn ad e qu a te lo n g- t e rm s a f et y d a ta , a n d h a v e d e m o ns t r at e d p at i en t to le r a bi l it y. ( 2 ) Th i a z id e d i u re ti c s s ho u ld be c o ns i de r ed in i ti al a g e n ts fo r tr e a tm en t u nl e s s th e re a r e c om p el li n g i nd ic a ti ons f or o th e r m ed ic a ti on s . ( 3 ) A ge n ts s uc h a s A C E i n hi b it o rs , a n gi o te ns i n -r ec e pt o r b l oc k e rs , β -b l ock e r s , a nd c a lc iu m -c ha n ne l b lo c k e rs ha v e al l b e en r ec om m en d e d f o r p at i en ts wh o can n o t r e c ei ve a t hi a z i de di u re t ic o r i n co m bi na t io n wi t h a t hi a zi de di u re t ic fo r ade q u at e c o nt r o l o f b lo o d p re s s u re. Th i s m a y i nc l ud e t h e us e o f A C E i n hi bi t o rs i n h yp e r t en s i v e pa t ie n ts h av i n g s y s t ol ic d ys f un c ti o n a f t er a m y oc a r di al in f a rc t io n , a d i ab e ti c n e ph r op a th y p a ti e n t wh o m i g ht be n ef i t f ro m a n A C E i nh i bi t or in c o m bi n at io n wi t h a di u r et ic , o r a p a tie n t wi t h HF . d . M o n i to r i n g g u i de l in es . S pe ci f ic m o ni to r i ng gui d el i ne s f o r t h e v a r io us dr u g c a te g o ri es a re ou tl i ne d in I I I. B . 2, 3 , 4 , 5 , 6 an d 7. P.859
( 1 ) B lo o d p r es s u r e s h o uld b e m o n it o r ed ro u ti n el y t o de t e rm in e t h e t he r a peu t ic r e s po ns e a n d t o e nc ou r ag e pa t ie n t c o m p l ia nc e . ( 2 ) C li n ic ia ns m u s t be ale r t to in d ic at i on s o f a d ver s e d r ug e ff ec t s . Ma n y p a t i en ts do n o t l i nk s id e e f f ec ts to d ru g th e r ap y o r a r e e m b a r ra s s e d t o d is cu s s th em , es p ec ia ll y e f f ec ts r el a te d t o s e xu a l f u nc t io n o r ef f ec ts t ha t ap p e ar la t e i n t h er a p y . e . P a ti e n t c om p l ia n ce ( 1 ) B ec au s e h y p er t en s i on is us ua l l y a s ym p to m l es s d is ea s e, ho w t h e pa t ie n t “f e el s ” d o es no t re f le c t t he bl o od p r es s u r e l e v el . I n fa c t , t h e p a ti en t m a y ac t ua ll y r e p or t “ f e el i ng no r m a l ” wi t h a n e l e v a te d b l oo d p r es su r e a n d “a bn o rm a l” du r i ng a h yp o t en s i v e ep is o de be c a u s e of t he li gh t - he a de dn e s s a ss oc i at e d wi t h a s u d d en d r o p i n b lo o d p r es s u r e. B e c au s e es se n ti al h ype rt e ns i on r eq ui r es a l if e lo ng d r ug r e g im en , i t is e xt r e m e l y d i f fi c u l t b ut ne c es s a r y to i m p r es s o n p a ti en t s t he n e e d f o r c om p li a nc e wi t h t he i r t her a p eu t ic re g im en . ( 2 ) R ec o gn i z in g th e s e rio u s n es s o f t h e c on s e qu en c es o f no nc om p li an ce is k e y . P a t i en ts s h ou l d b e t ol d th a t p r o lo ng e d, un t r ea t ed h yp e r te ns i on , k no wn a s t h e “s il e nt k i ll e r, ” c a n a f fe c t t he hea r t , b r a in , k id n e ys , an d o c ul a r f u nd i . 2 . D i u re t i cs a . T hi az i d e d i u re t i cs and t he i r d e ri va t i v es a re c ur r e n tl y r e co m m en de d a s i n i ti al t h e r ap y f o r h y p e rt e ns io n. J N C - V II r ec om m e nd s i ni t i at i ng th e ra p y wi t h a l ow d o s e ( 1 2 . 5 m g of h y d ro c h l o ro th i a z id e ( H yd ro D I U R I L o r i t s e qu i v al e nt ) , i nc r e as in g th e d o se if ne c e s s a r y , a n d no t e xc e e di ng a d os e o f 50 m g o f h y d r oc hl o ro t hi a zi d e o r i t s e q ui va l en t . ( 1 ) Ac t i o n s. A nt i h y pe r t en s i v e e f fe c t s a r e p r od uc e d b y d i r ec tl y d il a ti n g t he a r te r io l es a n d re du c i n g t he t ot a l f lu i d v ol um e . Th i a z i de di ur e t ic s i nc r ea s e th e fo ll owi n g : ( a ) U r in a r y e xc r e ti o n o f s o di um an d wa t e r b y in h ib i t in g s od iu m a n d c h l or id e r e a bs o rp t io n i n t h e d is ta l c on v o l ut e d ( r e na l ) t ub u l e s ( b ) U r in a r y e xc r e t io n o f p o t as s i um a n d , t o a l es s e r e xt e n t , b ic a rb o na t e
( c ) Th e ef f ec ti v e n es s o f o t h e r a nt i h ype r te n si v e ag e n ts b y p r e v en t in g re e xp a ns i on of e xt r a c e l lu la r an d p l as m a v o l um es ( 2 ) S i gn i f ic a n t i n te r a c tio n s . N S AI D s , s uc h a s t he n o w c om m o n o v e r - th e -c o un t e r f o r m s o f ib up r o fe n ( Ad v i l, Mo t r i n ) , i n te r ac t to di m in i s h th e a n ti h y p e rt e ns i ve e f fe c t s o f t he th i a z id e d iu r e ti c s . ( 3 ) P r ec a u t io n s a nd m on i t o r i ng e f fe c ts +
( a ) P o ta s s iu m i on ( K ) de p le t io n m a y r eq ui r e s upp l em e nt a ti on , in c re as ed d i e ta r y i n t ak e, o r t he us e o f a po t as s i um - s p a r in g d iu r e tic s u ch as s pi r o no la c to n e ( A l d ac to n e ). ( b ) U r ic ac id r et e nt i on m a y o c c u r ; t hi s is po t en t ial l y s i g ni f ic an t i n p a ti e nt s wh o a r e p r e di sp os e d t o g o ut an d r e l at e d d is o rd e rs . ( c ) B lo o d g lu c o s e le v e ls m a y in c re as e , wh ic h m ay b e s i gn i fi ca n t i n p a ti ent s wi t h d i ab e te s . ( d ) C a lc iu m l e v el s m a y in c r ea s e be ca us e o f th e p o t en t i a l f o r re t ai ni n g cal c iu m i on s . ( e ) P a ti en t s wi t h k n o wn a l le r g ie s t o s ul f a- t y p e d ru g s sh o ul d b e q u es ti o ned t o d e t e rm in e t h e s i g ni fi c anc e o f th e a l le r g y. ( f ) O t h e r c o m m on e ff ec ts in c l u de fa t ig u e, he a dac h e, pa l pi t at i on s , r as h , v e r t ig o , a n d t r a ns i to r y im p ot e nc e. ( g ) H yp e r li pi d em ia , i nc l ud i ng h yp e r t r i g l yc e r i d e mi a , h y pe r c h ol es t e ro l em ia, i n c re as ed lo w- d e n s i t y li po p r o te in ( L DL ) c h ol es t e ro l , a n d d ec r ea se d h ig h - de n s i t y l i po p r ot e in ( H D L ) c h o le s te r o l, m u s t be e v al u a te d ro u t in el y t o p r e v e nt an add e d ri sk f o r c o r on a r y ar t e r y di s e as e . ( h ) F lu id lo s s es m u s t be e v a l u at e d a nd m o ni t or e d t o pr e v e nt d eh y d r at i on , p o s t u r al h yp o t en s i o n, an d e v e n hy p o v o l em ic s h oc k. ( i ) A l te r at i on s i n f lu i ds an d el ec t r ol yt es ( e. g . , h ypo k al em i a, h y po m a g ne s em i a, h yp e r ca lc em i a) m a y p r ed i s p os e p a ti e nt s t o c a rd ia c i r r i ta bi l it y , wi t h a r es ul t a nt i n c re as e i n c a rd ia c a r r h yt h m i as . E C G ) i s p e r fo rm e d r ou t in el y t o d e te c t a nd p r e v en t t h e d e ve lo pm e nt of li f e -th r e a te ni n g a r rh y t h m i as . ( 4 ) U s ua l e f f ec t i ve d ose s ( a ) C h lo r o t h ia z id e ( Di u ri l ) : 2 5 0 -5 0 0 m g d ai l y or twi c e d ai l y ( b ) C h l o r th a li d o ne ( H yg r o t o n ) : 1 2 .5 - 2 5 m g da i l y ( c ) H yd r o c h l o r o t h ia z i d e ( H yd r o D I U R I L ) : 1 2 . 5 - 5 0 m g d ai l y ( d ) I n da pa m i de ( Lo z o l ) : 1 . 25 - 2 .5 m g d a il y ( e ) M e t h yc l o t h i a z i de ( En d u r o n ) : 2 .5 - 5 .0 m g d a ily ( f ) M e t o la z on e (Z a r ox o lyn ) : 2 . 5 - 5 . 0 m g d ai l y P.860
b . L oo p ( hi g h -c e il i n g ) di u r e t i cs ( 1 ) I nd i ca t i o ns . Th es e ag e n ts a r e i n di c a t ed wh en p at i en ts a re un a bl e t o t o l er a t e t h i a zid es , e xp e r i e nc e a lo s s o f t hi a zi de ef f ec t i v en e s s , o r ha ve im pa i re d re n al f u nc t io n (c le a ra n c e < 3 0 m L /m in ) . ( 2 ) Ac t i o n s. F ur os em i de ( L as i x) , e t ha c r y ni c a c i d ( E d e c r i n ), bu m e t an i de (B u m e x) , a n d t o rs em i de ( D em ad e x) a c t p ri m a r il y i n t h e as c e n di n g l oo p o f H en le ; hen c e t he y a r e c a ll ed “ lo o p” di u r et ic s . B y ac ti n g wi t h i n t he l oo p of H e nl e, t he y d ec r eas e s od i um
r e a bs o rp t io n . Th e i r a c ti on is m o r e i nt e ns e b u t o f s h o rt e r d u ra t io n (1 - 4 h r ) t h a n t ha t o f t he th i a z id es ; t h e y m ay a l s o be m o r e e xp e n s i ve . ( 3 ) S i gn i f ic a n t i n te r a c tio n s . As wi t h t h e t hi a z i des , th e a n ti h yp e rt e ns i v e ef f e ct of l o op di u r et ic s m a y b e d im i ni s h e d b y N S AI D s . ( 4 ) P r ec a u t io n s a nd m on i t o r i ng e f fe c ts . Lo op di u r et ic s h a ve t h e s am e ef f e c t s a s t h i a zid es (s e e I I I. B . 2. a ) , i n ad di t io n to th e f o ll o wi n g : ( a ) Lo o p d iu r e ti c s h a v e a c om pl e x i n f lu e nc e o n r en a l h em o d y na m i c s ; t h us p a t ie n ts m us t be m o ni t o re d c lo s el y f o r s ig ns o f h y p o vol em i a . ( b ) B ec a us e t he s e ag e nts s h ou l d b e u s e d c au t io us l y in pa t ie n ts wi t h e p is od i c o r c h r on ic re n al im pa i rm en t, B U N a nd s e r um c r ea t ini n e l e v el s s ho u ld be c h ec k e d r o u ti n el y . ( c ) Tr a ns i en t d e af n es s ha s b e en r ep o r te d . I f t h e p a t ie n t is t ak in g a po t en ti a ll y o t o to xi c d r ug ( e. g . , a n am i no gl y c os i de an t ib io t ic ), a no t he r c l as s o f d iu r e tic ( e. g . , a t h i a zid e d iu r e ti c ) s h o ul d b e s u bs ti t u te d . ( 5 ) U s ua l e f f ec t i ve d ose s ( a ) B u me t an i d e ( B u me x) : 0 . 5 - 2 .0 m g da il y ( b ) E t ha c r yn i c a c id ( E de c r i n ) : 2 5 -1 00 m g da il y ( c ) F u ro s em i de ( La s i x) : 2 0 - 80 m g d a il y ( d ) T o rs e mi d e ( D e ma d ex ) : 2 . 5 - 10 m g da il y c . P o ta s si u m -s p a ri n g di u r e t i cs ( 1 ) I nd i ca t i o ns . Th e d iu re t ic s i n t h is g r ou p —s p i ron o la c to n e ( A ld ac t on e ) , am i lo r id e ( Mi d a m o r ) , a nd t ri am t e ren e ( D y r e ni um ) — a re i n di c a t e d f o r p at i en ts in wh o m p o t ass i um l os s i s s i g ni f ic a nt an d s u pp le m e n ta t ion i s no t fe as i bl e . Th e se a g e nt s a r e o f t en us ed in c o m b in a ti on wi t h a t h ia z i de di u r et ic b ec a us e t h e y p o te n ti a te t h e e f f ec ts o f t he th i a z id e wh i le m i ni m i zi n g p ot as si um lo ss . Sp i r o no l ac t o ne i s p a r ti c ul a rl y us e fu l i n p a tie n ts wi t h h ype r al d os te r o n i s m , a s i t h as di r ec t a n ta g o ni s t ic e f f ec ts on al d os te r o ne (al d os t e ro ne - r ec e pt o r b lo c k e r ) . E p le r e n on e (I ns p ra ) , is a n o th e r a ld os t e ro n e -r ec e p t o r b lo c k e r r ec en t l y app r o v e d b y t he U . S . F oo d a n d D r u g A d m in is t ra t io n (F D A ) t hat , s i m i la r to sp i ro n ol ac t on e , b l oc k s a ld o s t e ro n e bi n di n g a t t h e m in e r al oc o rt ic o id r ec e p t o r. B ot h o f th es e a g en t s h a v e b e en us ed in h yp e r t en s i on , an d h a v e a n in c re as ed le ve l o f use i n t he t re a tm en t of H F ( s e e C h a p te r 42 ) . ( 2 ) Ac t i o n s. P ot a s s iu m -s p a ri ng di u r et ic s a c h ie ve t h ei r di u re t ic ef f ec ts di f fe r e n tl y a n d l es s p ot e nt l y t ha n t he t hi a z i de s a nd lo o p d iu re t ic s . Th e i r m os t p e rt i nen t s h a re d f e a tu r e i s t ha t th e y p ro m o t e p o ta ss iu m re t en t io n . ( 3 ) S i gn i f ic a n t i n te r a c tio n s . Co a dm in is t ra t io n wi t h AC E i n h i bi t o r s o r po ta s s iu m s u p p le me n t s s i g ni f ic an tl y i nc r e as es th e r is k o f hyp e r k al em ia . ( 4 ) P r ec a u t io n s a nd m on i t o r i ng e f fe c ts ( a ) P o ta s s iu m - s pa r in g d iu r e ti c s s h ou l d b e a v o id ed i n p at i en ts wi t h ac ut e re n al f a i lu r e a nd us ed wi t h c au t i on in pa t ie n ts wi t h i m p a i re d re n al fu nc t io n (m o n i to r s e ru m c r e at i ni ne ) be c a us e th e y c an r et a in po t as si um . ( b ) T r i am t e re n e s ho ul d n o t b e u s e d i n p a ti e nt s wi t h a hi s to r y o f k i d ne y st o n es o r h e p at ic di s e as e .
( c ) H yp e r k a l e mi a i s a m a j o r r is k , r eq u i ri ng r ou t ine m o n it o ri n g o f s e ru m e le c t ro l yt es . B U N a n d s er um c re a ti ni ne l e v el s s h o ul d b e c he c k e d r ou t in el y t o s ig n al i n ci p ie n t e xc e s s p o ta s s iu m r e te n tio n an d i m p ai r e d r e na l f un c ti o n. ( 5 ) U s ua l e f f ec t i ve d ose s ( a ) Am i l o r i de (M i d am o r) : 5 - 1 0 m g da il y ( b ) S p i r on o la c t on e ( Al da c t o ne ) : 2 5 - 10 0 m g d ai ly a n d 1 0 0 -4 0 0 m g da il y to t r ea t h yp e r al d os te r o ni s m ( c ) T r ia m t e re n e ( D yr e n i u m ) : 5 0 - 10 0 m g d ai l y ( d ) E p le r e n on e (I n sp r a ): 5 0 - 1 0 0 m g d ai l y d . C o mb i n at i o n p r o du c ts . S e v e ra l p r od uc t s co m b i ne a t h ia z i de a nd a p ota ss i u m s p a ri ng di u r et ic . P.861
( 1 ) Al d a c t az id e : 2 5 m g s p i ro no l ac to n e p lu s 2 5 m g h y d r oc h lo r o th ia z i d e (o n e t o t wo t a b le ts da i l y ) ( 2 ) Al d a c t az id e - 50 : 5 0 m g s pi r o no la c to ne pl u s 5 0 m g h y d r oc h lo r o th ia z id e ( on e t a b le t d a il y ) ( 3 ) M o d u r et i c : 5 m g a m il o r id e p l us 5 0 m g h y d r och l o ro t hi a z i de ( on e t o t wo t a bl e ts d a il y ) ( 4 ) D ya z i d e : 3 7 .5 m g t ria m te r e ne pl us 25 m g h y d r o ch lo r o th i a z id e ( o ne to t wo c a ps ul es da i l y ) ( 5 ) M a xz i de : 7 5 m g tr i am t e re n e p lu s 5 0 m g h yd ro c hl o ro t hi a z i de ( on e h al f t o on e t a b le t d a il y ) ( 6 ) M a xz i de - 2 5 : 37 . 5 t r ia m te r e ne pl us 25 m g h y d r o c h lo r o th i a z id e 3 . S ym p a t h o l yt i c s a . β - Ad r e n e rg i c b l oc k e rs ( 1 ) I nd i ca t i o ns . β - Bl oc k e r s a r e p a r ti c u la r l y ef f ec t i v e in pa t ie n ts wi t h ra pid r es t in g h e a r t r a te s ( i .e . , a t ri a l f ib r i ll a ti on , pa r o xys m a l s up r a ve n tr ic u la r ta c h yc a rd ia ) o r c om p el li n g i nd ic a ti o ns s u c h as h ea r t f a il u re , p os t - MI , h i g h c or o na r y d is eas e ri s k , a n d d ia b e te s . ( 2 ) Ac t i o n s. P r op os e d m e c ha n is m s o f a ct i on in clu d e t h e f ol l o wi n g: ( a ) S ti m u l at i on of r en i n s e c r et i on is b l ock e d. ( b ) C a r di ac c o nt r ac t il i t y is de c re as e d, t hu s d im in is h i n g c a rd ia c o u tp u t. ( c ) S ym pa t he t ic o u tp u t is de c re as e d c en t ra l l y. ( d ) R e du c t i on in he a r t r at e de c re as es c a r di ac ou tp u t . ( e ) β - B lo c k e r ac t io n m a y c om bi n e a ll of t he ab o ve m e c h a ni s m s. ( 3 ) E p id e mi o l og y. Yo u n g ( < 4 5 yea r s ) wh i t e s wi t h h ig h c a rd ia c o u tp u t, hig h he a r t r a t e a n d n or m al v as c u l ar r e s i s t a nc e r es p on d b es t t o β -b l oc k e r th e ra p y. ( 4 ) P r ec a u t io n s a nd m on i t o r i ng e f fe c ts ( a ) P a ti en t s m u s t b e m on i t or e d f o r s ig ns an d s ym p to m s of ca r d i ac de c om p e ns a t io n ( i . e ., r ed uc t io n i n c a rd iac ou t pu t ) o wi n g t o t he fac t th a t d ec r ea s e d m y o car d i al c o nt r ac t il i t y c an t ri g ge r c o m pe ns a to r y m e c ha ni s m s , le ad i ng to H F (s ee C ha p t e r 4 1) . ( b ) E C G s s ho u ld be m o ni t o re d ro u ti n el y b ec au s e a l l β -b lo ck e rs c a n d ec r ea s e e l ec t ri c al c o nd uc t io n wi th i n t h e h ea r t a n d ca us e b r a d ya r rh yt hm i as .
( c ) R el a ti v e c a r di os e le c ti v i t y i s d os e d ep en d en t a n d i s l os t a s d os ag es ar e i n c re as ed . Th e r ef o re , no β - b l oc ke r i s t o t al l y s a f e i n p a t ie n t s w i t h b r o n c ho s pa s t ic d is ea se — f o r e xa m p l e as t hm a an d c h r on ic ob st r uc t i v e pu l m o n ar y d i se as e ( C O P D ) . ( d ) A b ru p t s to p pa ge in β- b l oc k e r th e ra p y pu t s t he p a ti e nt a t r is k f o r a w i thd r aw a l s yn d r o m e t h at m a y p ro du c e ( i ) E xa c e r b at e d a ng in a l a t t ac k s , p a rt ic u la r l y in pa t i en ts wi t h c o r on a r y ar te r y d is e as e ( i i ) Myo c a r d ia l i n fa r c t i on ( i i i ) A l if e - th r e at e ni ng r eb o u nd of bl o od pr es s ur e t o le ve ls e xc e e di ng p re t re a tm e nt r e a di n gs ( e ) β - B lo c k e r t he r a p y s ho u ld be us e d wi t h c a u ti on i n p at i en ts wi t h th e f o llo wi n g c o nd i ti on s : ( i ) D i a be t es . β - Bl oc k e r s c a n m a s k h y po g l yc em ic s ym p to m s , s uc h as t ac hy c a r d ia . ( i i ) R a yn a u d p h e n om e no n o r pe r i p he r a l va s c ula r d i se a se . Va s o c o ns t r ic t io n c an o cc u r a n d, in p re di s po s ed p at i en ts , m i gh t re su l t in a c li n ic al l y s i gn i fi ca n t p r o bl em . ( i i i ) N eu r o l og i ca l di s o rd e r s . Se v e r al β - bl oc k e r s e n te r th e c e nt r al ne r v o us s ys t em ( C N S ) , p ot e nt i at i ng r el a te d s i de ef f ec ts ( e. g . , f at ig u e , l et h a rg y , po o r m em o r y , we a k n es s , o r m en t al de pr e s s i on ) . ( f ) I m p o te nc e a n d d ec r ea s ed li bi d o m a y r e s u l t i n r e d uc ed pa t ie n t c o m p l ian c e. ( 5 ) S i gn i f ic a n t i n te r a c tio n s . β - Ad r en e rg ic bl oc ke r s i n te r ac t wi t h n um e rou s a g en t s, r e q ui r in g c a ut i ou s s e l ec ti o n , a dm in is t r at io n , a n d m o ni t o ri ng . ( 6 ) β - B lo c ke r t e rm s ( a ) R e la t i ve ca r d i os e lec t i ve a ct i vi t y. R e l a t i ve to p r op r an o lo l , β - bl oc k ers ha v e a g r e a te r te nd e nc y t o o c c up y t h e β 1 - r ec ep t o r i n t he h e a rt , ra t he r th a n t he β 2 - r e ce p to r s i n th e l u ng s . ( b ) I n t r in s ic s ym p a t h o m i m e ti c a c t i vi t y. Th e s e a g en ts ha v e t he ab il i t y to r el e as e c a te ch o la m i n es a n d t o m a i n ta in a s at is f ac t or y h ea r t r at e . I n t ri ns ic s ym pa th o m i m e t ic a c ti vi t y m a y a ls o p r e v en t b r o nc ho c o ns t r ic ti o n a nd o t he r di r ec t β -b l ock i ng a c ti o ns . P.862
( 7 ) S pe c i f ic ag e n ts ( a ) P r o p ra n o lo l ( In d e ra l) wa s t h e f i rs t β - a d re ne rg i c b lo ck in g a g en t s ho wn t o b lo c k b o t h β 1 - a n d β 2 - r ec ep t o rs . Th e u s ua l da i l y d o s e r a n g e is 40 - 1 60 m g . I t is a vai l ab le b o t h as a r a pi d -a c ti n g p ro d uc t a n d a l o ng - ac t in g p r o du c t ( I nd e ra l - LA ) ; th e u s u a l d a il y d os e ra ng e i s 6 0 -18 0 m g . ( b ) M e t o p r ol o l ( L o p re s so r ) wa s t he fi r s t β - a dr e ne r g ic bl oc k i ng ag e nt t o sh o w r e l at i ve c a rd i os el ec t i v e b l oc k i n g ac t i vit y , wi t h r e la t i v e l y l es s b lo c k a de of th e β 2 r e c ep t or s i n t h e l un g whe n c om p a re d t o p r o pr a no l ol . Th e u s ua l da i l y d o s e is 5 0 1 0 0 m g. A s us t ai n ed - r ele a s e fo r m o f t h e d r ug is n o w a v a i l ab le , as t h e s uc ci n at e s al t ( To p r o l XL ) , wh ic h re q ui re s l es s f r e qu en t do si ng , ( d a il y v e r s u s o nc e o r t wic e d a il y f o r im m e di a te - r el e as e m e t o p ro lo l ) . ( c ) N a do l o l ( C o r g a rd ) wa s th e f i rs t β -a d re n e rg ic b l oc k i n g a ge n t t ha t a l l o we d on c e d a il y d os in g . I t bl oc k s b ot h β 1 - a nd β 2 - re c e p t or s s i m il a r t o p r op r a no lo l . Th e u su a l d a i l y d o s e i s 4 0 -1 2 0 m g.
( d ) At e n o l o l ( T en o r m in ) wa s t h e f i rs t β -a d re n er gi c b l ock i ng ag e nt to co m b i ne on c ed a il y d os in g (n a do l ol ) wit h r el a ti ve c a r di os el ec t i ve b lo c k in g a c t i v i t y (m e top r o lo l ) . Th e u s ua l da i l y d o s e i s 2 5 - 10 0 m g . ( e ) T im o lo l ( B lo c ad r e n ) wa s t h e f i rs t β -a d re n er gi c b l ock i ng ag e nt s h o wn t o be e f f ec t i v e a ft e r a n a c u t e MI t o p r e v e n t s u d de n d ea t h . I t b l oc k s b o th β 1 - a nd β 2 r e c ep t or s . Th e u su a l d a il y d o s e i s 2 0 -4 0 m g. ( f ) P i n do l o l ( V i sk e n) wa s t he fi r s t β - ad r en e r gi c bl o ck in g a g en t s ho wn t o ha v e h ig h i n t ri ns ic s ym p a th om im e tic ac t i v it y. Th e us u al d ail y d o s e i s 1 0 -4 0 m g. ( g ) L ab e t al o l ( T r a nd a t e) wa s t h e f i rs t β -a d re n er gi c b l ock i ng ag e nt s h o wn t o p o ss es s b ot h α - a n d β - ad r e ne r g ic b l ock i ng ac ti v it y . Th e u s ua l d a i l y d o s e is 20 0 8 0 0 m g. La b et a lo l i s a ls o e f fe c t i v e f o r tr e at i ng hy p e r t e ns i ve c ri si s ( Ta b l e 4 1 - 6) . ( h ) Ac e b u t ol o l ( Se c t ra l ) wa s t h e f i rs t β -a d re n er gi c b l ock i ng ag e nt th a t c om b in e d e f f ic ac y wi t h on c e - d ai l y d o s i n g ( na d ol ol ) , po ss es s i ng in t ri n s i c s y m p a th om i m et ic a c ti vi t y ( pi n do l ol ) a n d h av i n g r el a ti ve c a rd i os el ec t i v e bl oc k i n g ac t i v i t y (m et o p r ol ol ) . Th e u s ua l da i l y d o s e i s 2 0 0 -8 0 0 m g . ( i ) E sm o l ol ( B r e vi b l oc ) wa s t h e f i rs t β -a d r en e rg ic bl oc k i n g a ge n t t o h a v e a n u l t ra s ho r t d u ra t io n o f ac ti o n . Th i s a ge n t i s n ot us e d r ou t in el y i n t r ea t in g h yp e r t en s i on o wi n g t o i ts d u r at i on of ac ti o n a nd th e ne e d f o r i nt r a ve no us a d m i ni s t ra ti o n . H o we v e r , i t h a s b ee n u s e d f o r h y pe r t e ns io n a nd o r t ac h y c ar d i a d u r in g a n d a f te r s u rg ic a l p r oc e du r es . Th e u s ua l d o s e is 1 50 - 30 0 µg / k g /m i n up to 3 0 0 µg / k g /m i n i nt r a v e nou s l y . ( j ) B e t ax o lo l ( K e rl o ne ) is a β -a d re n er g ic b l oc k e r t h a t p oss es s e s re la t i ve c a r di os el ec t i v e b lo c k i ng a c ti v i t y si m i l ar t o m e t op ro l ol bu t ha s a h a lf - li f e t ha t al l o ws f o r on ce - d ai l y d o s i ng . The u su a l d a i l y d o s e is 5 -2 0 m g . ( k ) P en b u t ol o l ( L e va t ol ) i s a β -a d r en e rg ic bl oc k in g ag e nt th a t h as we a k in t r in s i c s ym p at h om i m et ic ac ti v i ty l i k e pi n do lo l a n d a ll o ws f or on c e- d ai l y do s i n g. Th e u s ua l d a i l y d o s e i s 1 0 -2 0 m g. ( l ) B i s op r o l ol ( Ze b e ta ) is a β -a d re n er g ic b l oc k i ng a ge n t t ha t is c a rd i os el e c ti v e an d h a s n o i nt r i ns ic s y m pa t ho m im et ic ac t i v it y. I t a ll ows f o r o nc e -d ai l y do s i n g, a n d t he u s u al d ai l y d o s e is 2 . 5 -1 0 m g . ( m ) C a r ve d il o l ( Co r e g ) is a β -a d re n er g ic b l oc k i ng a ge n t t ha t ha s β - b lo ck i n g p r o pe r t ie s a s we l l as α - bl o c k in g p r op e r ti es , wi t h a r es u lt a nt v a s o di l at i on . Th e d r u g i s a dm i ni s t e r ed t wi c e da il y wi t h a s t a rt i ng do s e of 6 . 25 m g ti t r at e d a t 7 - to 1 4 - da y i n t er va l s t o a d o s e of 25 m g t wi c e da il y . U s ua l dai l y d o s e s a re 12 . 5- 5 0 m g d ai l y . ( n ) N e bi vo l o l ( B ys t o l i c ) i s a β -a d r en e rg ic bl oc k in g ag e nt th a t h as c a r di os e le ct i ve β 1 b lo ck in g te nd e nc ie s , s im i la r to s e v e r al ot h er ag e n ts i n th e c la s s . I n it ia l r e p or t s a l so s u gg es t th a t n eb i v ol o l h as vas o di l at o r y pr o pe r t ie s t h r ou gh i ts re le a s e o f n it r ic o xi d e . N e bi v o l ol is a dm in i s t e r ed in a s i n gl e d ai l y d os e o f 5 m g wi t h do se t i t r at i on r e q ui r e d b as ed on th e r ap e u ti c r es p on s e . b . P e r ip h e r al α 1 -a d r e ner g i c bl o ck e r s — fo r e xa m p l e , p r a zos in ( Mi n i p re s s ), t e ra zo s i n ( H yt r i n ) , a n d d o xa z o s in (C a r d u ra ) ( 1 ) I nd i ca t i o ns . Th is g r ou p of d ru gs is a v ai la b le fo r h y p er t e ns i ve p at i en ts wh o h a ve n o t re sp o nd e d t o i ni t ia l an t i h y pe r t en si v e th e r ap y. ( 2 ) Ac t i o n s. Th e α 1 -b l oc k e rs ( in di r ec t vas o di la t o rs ) bl oc k t h e p er i ph e ra l p o st s yn ap t ic α 1 -a d re n e rg i c r ec e pt o r , ca us i ng v as o di la t io n o f bo t h a r te r ies an d v ei n s.
A l s o, th e i nc i de nc e o f ref l e x t a c h yc a r di a i s l o we r wi t h t h es e a g en ts th a n w i t h t h e va s o di l at o r h y d r al a z i ne . Th e s e h em o d yna m i c c han g es r e ve rs e t he ab n o rm a l i ti es in h yp e r t en s i on a nd pr es e rv e o r g an pe r f us io n . R ece n t s t ud ie s h a ve a ls o s ho wn t h a t t h es e a g en t s h a v e n o a dv e r s e e f f ec t o n s er um li pi d s a nd ot h e r c a r di a c r is k f ac to r s . P.863
Table 41-6. Rapid-Acting Parenteral Antihypertensive Agents for Hypertensive Crisis Drug
Dose/Route
Onset ofDuration Action of ActionComments Vasodilators
Sodium nitroprusside (Nitropress)
0.3-10 mg/kg/min as IV infusion
0.51 min
1-2 min
Immediate effect, very short duration; nausea, vomiting, muscle twitching, sweating, thiocyanate and cyanide intoxication
Nicardipine hydrochloride (Cardene)
5-15 mg/hr IV
< 515 min
1-4 hr
Intermediate onset and duration; tachycardia may occur, headache, flushing, local phlebitis
Fenoldopam mesylate (Corlopam)
0.1-0.3 µg/kg/min as IV infusion
<5 min
30 min
Intermediate onset and duration; action on dopamine D1receptors (dilation of renal/mesenteric vessels might be preferred over nitroprusside for longterm or with renal dysfunction; tachycardia, headache, nausea, flushing
Nitroglycerin
5-200 µg/min (0.3-6.0
2-5 min
3-5 min
Useful in coronary artery disease; headache, vomiting,
mg/hr) as IV infusion
methemoglobinemia, tolerance with prolonged use
Enalaprilat (Vasotec IV)
0.625-1.25 mg every 6 hr IV
1530 min
4-6 hr
Useful in HF, but avoid in renal impairment; precipitous fall in blood pressure in high-renin states
Hydralazine
10-40 mg IV/IM
1020 min
3-8 hr
Afterload reduction through arteriole dilation resulting in increased cardiac output; tachycardia, flushing headache, vomiting, aggravation of preexisting angina
Diazoxide (Proglycem)
1-3 mg/kg over 30 sec as IV bolus, repeated every 5-15 min, or 1030 mg/min infusion
2-4 min
3-12 hr
Useful in hypertensive encephalopathy, malignant hypertension, and eclampsia; flushing, nausea, tachycardia, and chest pain
Adrenergic inhibitors Labetalol hydrochloride (Various)
40-80 mg IV bolus every 10 min, or 0.5-2.0 mg/min IV infusion
510 min
3-6 hr
Contraindicated in HF, bronchospastic patients, or bradycardia; predictable hypotensive effect; vomiting, scalp tingling, burning in throat, heart block, orthostatic hypotension
Esmolol (Brevibloc)
250-500 µg/kg/min for 2 min, then 50100 µg/kg/min for 4 min; may repeat if needed
1-2 min
1020 min
β-Adrenergic blocker with ultra-short duration of effect; primary use in perioperative situation owing to short duration and quick onset; hypotension, nausea
Phentolamine
5-15 mg IV
1-2 min
3-10 min
α-Adrenergic blocker causing peripheral dilation; tachycardia, flushing, headache
HF, heart failure; IM, intramuscular; IV, intravenous. P.864
( 3 ) P r ec a u t io n s a nd m on i t o r i ng e f fe c ts ( a ) F i rs t - d os e p h e no men o n . A s y nc o pa l e pi so d e m a y oc c u r wi t hi n 3 0 - 90 m i n o f t h e f i r s t do s e ; s im i la r l y a s s oc i at e d a r e p os tu r al h y p ote n si o n, na us e a, di zz i n ess , h e a da c h e , p al pi t a ti on s , a n d s we a t in g . To m in im iz e t h es e e f fe c ts , t h e f i rst d os e s h ou l d b e li m i t ed t o a s m a ll do s e ( 1 m g ) an d a dm i ni st e r ed j u s t be f o re bed t im e . ( b ) A dd i ti o na l a d v e rs e e ff e c ts i nc l ud e d ia r r he a , we i gh t ga in , pe r ip h e ra l e de m a, d r y m o ut h , u r in a r y u rg en c y , c o ns ti p at i on , a n d p r ia pi s m . D o xa z o s in in do s e s of 2 - 8 m g /d a y wa s on e o f th e t re a tm e nt a rm s i n t he r ec en t A nt i h y pe r t en s i v e an d L i pi d L o we r i n g Tr e a t m e n t t o Pr e v e n t He a r t A t t ack Tr i a l ( A L L H A T) , an d t h e t r ea tm e nt wa s d i s c on t in u ed pr em a t ur e ly o wi n g t o a n a p pa r en t 25 % i n c re as e i n t h e i nc ide n c e of c om b in e d c a r di o v a s c ul a r d is e as e o ut c om es t h an p a t ie n ts i n th e c on t r ol g ro u p r e c ei vi ng t he di u re t ic c hlo r t h al id o ne . Th e a dd e d ri sk f or H F , s t ro k e , a n d c o r o na r y h e a r t d is ea s e we r e th e m a jo r ou tc om es a ff ec t ed i n t h e d o xa zo s in a rm . ( 4 ) T he a ve r ag e da i l y d o s e s a r e ( a ) P r az o si n (M i ni p r e ss) : 2 - 2 0 m g ( b ) T e ra z os i n ( H yt r i n ) : 1 - 2 0 m g ( c ) D o xa z o s i n( C a r d u ra ): 1 - 1 6 m g c . C e nt r a l l y a c t i ve α - a go n i s ts ha v e be e n u s e d in t he pa s t as al t e rn a ti ves t o i ni ti a l a n t ih yp e r te ns i v es , b u t t he i r u s e i n m i ld t o m o d e rat e h ype r t en si o n h as b e en r e du ce d p r i m a r il y o wi n g t o o t he r a v a i la b le ag e nt s . Th e y ac t pr im a r il y wi t h i n t he CN S o n α 2 r e c ep t or s t o d ec r e as e s ym p at h et ic ou t f lo w t o t he c a r di o v as c u l ar s ys t em . ( 1 ) M e t h yl d o p a ( Al d o m e t )
( a ) Ac t i o n s. Me t h y l d op a d ec r e as es to t al pe r ip h era l re s i s ta nc e t h r ou g h t he a b o v e m ec h an is m wh i l e h a v i ng l i t tl e e f fe c t o n c a r d ia c o ut p u t o r h e a rt r at e (e xc e pt i n o ld e r p a t ie n ts ) . ( b ) P r e ca u t io n s a n d m on i t o r i ng e f fe c ts ( i ) C om m o n u n to wa r d e f fe c ts in c l ud e o r t ho s ta t ic h y p o t en si o n, fl u id ac c u m u l a ti on ( in t h e a bs e nc e o f a di u re t ic ) , a nd r eb ou n d h yp e rt e ns i on on ab r up t wi t h d ra wa l . S e d a ti on is a c o m m on f in d in g u p on in i ti a ti n g t he ra p y a nd wh e n i nc r e as in g d os es ; h o we ve r , t he s e d at i v e e ff e c t us u al l y de c re as es wi t h c on t in u ed th e r ap y. ( i i ) Fe ve r an d o t he r fl u - lik e s y m pt om s o c c as io n al ly o c c u r an d m a y re p re s en t he p at ic d ys f un c ti o n, wh i c h s h ou ld b e m o n it o r ed b y l i v e r fu n c t i on te s ts . ( i i i ) A p os i ti v e C oo m b s te s t d e v el o ps i n 2 5 % o f pa t i en ts wi t h c h r on ic us e ( > 6 m o nt hs ) . Le s s t h an 1% of t h es e p at i en ts de ve l op a h em ol y t ic an em i a. ( R ed b lo od c e ll s, he m o g lo bi n , a n d blo o d c ou n t i nd ic es s h ou l d b e c he c k e d. ) Th e a n em ia is r e v e r si b le b y di s c on t in uin g th e d r u g. ( i v) O t h e r e f f ec ts in c l ude d r y m o u th , s ub t l y d e cre a s e d m en t al ac ti v i t y , s le e p d i st u r ba nc es , d e p re s s ion , im po t en c e , an d l ac t at io n in ei t he r ge nd e r . ( c ) Th e us u al d ai l y d o s e is 25 0 m g -1 . 0 g P.865
( 2 ) C l on i d in e ( Ca t a p re s) ( a ) I nd i ca t i o ns . Cl o ni di ne is e ff ec t i v e i n p at i en ts wi t h r e n al im pa i rm en t , a lt h o ug h t h e y m a y r e qu i re a r e du c e d do s e o r a l o ng e r d os in g in t e r v al . ( b ) Ac t i o n s. C l on id i ne s ti m ul a te s α 2 - r ec ep t o rs c en t r al l y, de c re as in g v as om o to r to n e a n d h e ar t ra t e . ( c ) P r ec a u t io n s a nd m on i t o r i ng e f fe c ts ( i ) I nt r a v e no us ad m i n is t ra t i on c a us es an i n it i al pa r a d o xi c a l i nc r e as e i n p re s s u r e ( d i as t ol ic an d s y s to li c ) th a t i s f ol l o we d b y a p ro l o n g ed dr o p. A s wi t h m e th y l d o pa , a b r up t wi t h d ra wa l c a n c au s e r e bo un d h y pe r te n s i on . ( i i ) S ed a ti on a nd dr y m ou t h a r e c om m o n b u t us ua l l y di s a pp e a r wi t h c o n tin u e d t h e r ap y. ( i i i ) Cl o ni d in e h as a t en de n c y to c a us e o r wo r s e n d e p re s s io n , a nd it he i ght e ns t he d e p re ss a nt ef f ec ts o f a lc o h ol an d ot h er s e da t in g s u bs ta n c e s. ( d ) Th e us u a l d ai l y d o s e is 0 .1 - 0. 8 m g . ( e ) P a ti en t c om p li an c e is a m a jo r is s u e f o r m os t hy p e r t e ns i ve p at i en ts . The r ec e nt l y r e l ea se d o nc e - we e k l y p at c h ( C a t ap r es - TTS ) , wh i c h p r o vi de s 0 .1 - 0 .3 m g pe r 2 4 h r , m a y im p ro v e c o m p li a nc e. ( 3 ) G u a na b en z ( W yt e n s i n ) an d gu a n fa c in e (T e ne x ) ( a ) I nd i ca t i o ns . Th es e ag e n ts a r e re co m m en d ed a s a d ju nc t i v e t he r a p y wi th o th e r a n t ih yp e r te ns i v es fo r add i t i v e e ff e ct s wh e n in i ti a l t h e ra p y ha s f a il ed . ( b ) Ac t i o n s. G u an a be n z a n d g ua n fa ci n e a re c e n tr a l l y a c ti ve α 2 - ag on is t s th a t h a v e a c ti o ns s im il a r t o c lo n id in e . ( c ) P r ec a u t io n s a nd m on i t o r i ng e f fe c ts . Th es e a g e nt s s ho ul d b e u s e d c a u t io us l y wi t h o t he r s e da t in g m ed ic a ti o ns a n d i n p at i en ts wi t h s e ve re c o r on a r y in su ff i c i e nc y ,
r e c en t MI , c e r e br o v a s c ula r ac c i d en t ( C V A ), an d he p a ti c o r re na l d is e as e . S i d e e f f ec ts in c l u de s e da t io n , d r y m o u t h, di z zi n es s , an d r ed uc ed h ea r t r a te . ( d ) Th e us u a l d ai l y d o s e s a re 4- 8 m g i n t wo d o s e s fo r g u an a be n z an d 1 -3 m g in o n e d os e f o r g u an f ac in e . d . P o st g a ng l i on i c a d r en e r g i c n eu r o n bl o ck e r s. Th i s c la s s o f an t ih y p e r te n s i v e d r u gs is b es t a v oi de d u nl e s s i t i s n ec es s a r y t o t re a t s e ve re r ef r ac t o r y h y p e r t en si on t h a t i s u nr es p on s i v e t o al l ot h er m e di c at io n s , be c a u se ag e nt s i n t hi s c la ss a r e p o o rl y t o le r at e d b y m o s t p a t ie n ts . ( 1 ) R e se r p in e ( a ) G e ne r a l c o ns i d e ra t io n s . Be c a us e o f th e h igh i nc id en c e o f a d ve rs e ef f e c t s , o t h e r a ge n ts a r e u s u a ll y c h os en fi r s t. W he n us e d, r e s e r pi n e is gi v e n i n l ow d o s e s a n d i n c on j un c t i on wi t h ot h e r a n ti h yp er t en si ve a ge n ts . R es e rp in e i n v e r y lo w d o s es ( 0 . 0 5 m g ) c om b in e d wi t h a di u r et ic s uc h as c hl o ro t h ia z i de ( 50 - 1 00 m g ) m a y b e a n a l t er n a ti v e to t ra d it i on al d o s e s o f 0 . 05 - 0 .2 5 m g/ da y . ( b ) Ac t i o n s. R es e r pi ne a c ts c e nt r a ll y as we l l a s p e r ip h e ra ll y b y d ep le t in g c a te ch o la m i n e s to r es i n t h e b r a in an d i n t h e p er ip h e ra l a d r en e rg ic s ys t em . ( c ) P r ec a u t io n s a nd m on i t o r i ng e f fe c ts ( i ) A hi s t o r y of de p r es s i on is a c on t ra i nd ic a ti o n f or r e s e r pi n e. E ve n l o w d os es , s uc h a s 0 . 25 m g / da y , c a n t r igg e r a r an g e o f p s yc h ic res p on se s , f r om n i gh tm a r es t o s u ic id e a t te m p t s . D r ug - in d uc e d d ep r es s i on m a y li n ge r f or m o n th s a f te r the l as t d o se . ( i i ) P ep t ic u lc e r i s a ls o a c on t r ai n di ca t io n f o r u si ng r es e rp i ne . E v en a s in gle d os e t e n ds to in c r e as e g as t ri c a c i d s ec r e ti on . ( i i i ) C om m o n a d v e rs e e f fe c ts in cl ud e d r o ws i ne ss , d i zz i n ess , we a k n es s , l eth a r g y, m em o r y im pa i rm e nt , s lee p di s t u r ba nc es , a n d we i g h t g a in . Na s al c o ng es t io n is a ls o c om m o n b u t m a y d e c r e as e wi t h c on t in u ed th e ra py. ( d ) Th e us u a l d ai l y d o s e o f re s e rp i ne is 0. 1 - 0. 25 m g . 4 . AC E i n h i bi t o r s a . G e ne r a l c o ns i de r a t i on s . Th e A C E i nh ib i to r s —b e n a zep r il ( Lo t en si n ), c ap t o p ri l ( C a p o te n ) , e na la p r il ( Vas o te c ) , f os in o pr i l ( Mo n o pr i l ) , l is in o pr i l ( Z es t ri l ), m o e xi p r i l ( U n i va s c ) , p e ri nd o p ri l ( Ac e on ) , q u in ap r i l ( A c c up r il ) , r am i p r il ( Al t ac e ), an d t r a n do la p ri l ( Ma v i k ) — a re a r ap i dl y g ro wi n g g ro u p o f d ru gs . Th e He a r t O u tc o m es P r e ve n ti o n E v a l ua t io n ( HO P E ) p r o je ct de m o ns t r ate d s u bs t an ti a l cl i ni c a l b en e f it s i n p a t ie n ts re c e i v i ng ra m i p ri l , wh ic h c ou l d n ot be e xp l ai n ed th r o ug h i ts bl o od p r es s u r e l o we r i n g e f fe c t s a lo n e. Su b s e q ue n tl y, s t u di es , s im i la r to H O P E ha v e be en c om p le t ed , to da t e, wh i c h h a v e d em on s tr a te d th e b e ne f it o f A C E in hi b it o rs in t he t r e a tm en t o f h y pe r t en s i on a nd p re v e n ti on o f c a r di a c e ve nt s , r e na l d is ea s e e t c . P.866
b . I nd i ca t i o ns . P re v i ou s g u id el i ne s u se d A C E inh i bi t o rs as f i rs t - l i ne al t e rn a t i v es fo r t r e a ti n g h y p er t en s i o n i n p a t ie n ts u n ab l e t o t ol e r at e t hi a zid es o r β - b lo ck e rs . H o we ve r , J N C - 7 re c o m m e n d at io n s h a v e i de n ti f ied sp ec i fi c p a ti en t po pu l at i o ns th a t h a ve c o m p el l in g i nd ic a tio n s — s u ch as di a be t es , p o s t m yoc a rd i al in f a rc ti on , hi g h c o r on a r y di s e as e ri s k , c h r o ni c k id ne y d is e as e, an d r ec ur r e nt s t r ok e p r e ve n t io n — fo r
wh i c h th e A C E i nh i bi t o rs a r e i n di ca t ed in th e t r e at m en t of h ype r t en si o n o r p r e h ype r t en s i o n. Th i s h as be e n p r im ar i l y b e ca use o f s tu d ie s d oc um en t ing t he i r c l in ic al e ff ic ac y a s we l l a s m in im a l e f fe c t on pa t ie n ts ' a bi li t ie s t o m ai n ta in n o rm al f u nc t io n . c . Ac t i o n s ( 1 ) Th e s e ag e nt s i nh ib i t t h e c on ve r s i o n o f a ng i ote n s i n I ( a we a k v as oc o ns t r ic to r ) to a n gi o te n s i n I I (a po t en t v a s o c o ns t ri c to r ) , wh ic h de c r ea s e s t he a v ai l ab il i t y o f a n gi o te n s i n I I . ( 2 ) A C E i n hi b it o rs in di r ec t l y in hi b it fl u id v o lu m e in c r ea s e s wh e n in t e rf e r ing wi t h a n gi o te n s i n I I b y i nh i bi t in g an gi o t en s i n I I -s t im ul a t e d re l ea se of al d os te r on e , wh ic h p r o m o t es s od i um a n d wa t e r r et e nt i on . Th e n et e ffe c t a pp e a rs to be a d ec re a s e in f l u id vo lu m e , a l on g wi t h p e r ip h e ra l v a s od il a ti o n. d . S i gn i f ic a n t i n te r a c t io n s ( 1 ) Th e an t ih y p e rt e ns i v e e f f ec t o f A C E i nh ib i to r s m a y be di m i n is he d b y N S AI D s ( e . g ., o v e r -t h e -c ou n te r fo r m s of ib u p ro f en ) . ( 2 ) P o ta s s iu m - s pa r in g d iu r e ti c s in c re as e s e ru m po t as si um le ve ls wh e n use d wi t h A C E i n hi bi t o rs , a nd po t as s i um le v e ls ne e d t o b e c l os el y m o n it o r ed in th es e p at i en ts . e . P r ec a u ti o n s a nd m oni t o r i n g e f f ec t s ( 1 ) N e ut r op e ni a i s r a re bu t s e r io us ; th e re is an inc r e as ed in c i de n ce in pa tie n ts wi t h r e n al in s u f fi c i e nc y o r a u to i m m un e d is e as e. ( 2 ) P r ot e in u ri a o c c u rs , pa r t ic ul a r l y i n p a ti e nt s wi th a h is t o r y o f r en al di s e as e . U r i n a r y pr o te i ns s h ou ld b e m o ni t o re d r e gu l ar l y . ( 3 ) S e ru m p ot a s s iu m l e ve l s s h o ul d b e m on i to r ed r e g ul a rl y f o r h y p e rk a le m ia . Th e m ec h an is m o f a c t i on te nd s to in c r e as e p o ta ss iu m l e v e ls s om e wh a t . P a ti e nt s wi t h r e n al im pa i rm e nt a re at in c r ea s e d ri s k . ( 4 ) R e na l i ns u ff ic ie n c y c a n oc c u r i n p a ti e nt s wi t h p r e di sp os in g fa c t o rs , s uc h a s r e n al st e no s i s , an d wh e n A C E i nh i bi t or s a r e a dm in i s t e r ed wi t h t h ia z i d e d iu r e ti cs . R e n a l f un c ti on s h ou l d b e m on i to r e d ( e .g . , t h ro u gh m on i to r in g l e v e ls of s e ru m c r e at i ni ne an d B U N ) . ( 5 ) A dr y c ou g h m a y o c c u r b ut di sa p pe a rs wi t h in a f e w d a ys a f te r th e A C E i n hi bi t o r i s d is co n ti n ue d . A l l A C E i n hi b it o rs ha ve t he po t ent i a l t o c a u s e th is s i de ef fe c t , b ut s wi t c hi n g t o a n a l te r na t iv e a g en t m a y im p ro ve the s y m p t om s . ( 6 ) O t he r un t o wa r d e f f ec t s in c l ud e ra s h es , an al te r e d s en se of t as te ( d ys g e us i a) , ve r t i g o, he a da c h e , f a ti gue , fi r s t- d os e h yp o te ns io n, a nd m i no r ga s t r o in t es tin a l d i st u r ba nc es . f . S p ec i f ic a ge n ts ( 1 ) C a p to p r i l ( C a po t e n ). Th e o r ig in a l A C E in h ib i to r is gi v e n i ni t ia l l y a s a 1 2 . 5 -2 5 m g d os e th r ee ti m es d a ily a n d i s i nc r ea s e d to a us u a l d a il y d o s e o f 2 5 -10 0 m g i n t wo o r t h re e d os e s . In i ti al d os e is us ua l l y l o we r i f p a t ie n t is on di u r et ic s t o a v o i d i n i ti al h y po t en s i v e r es pon s e. ( 2 ) E na l a p ri l ( Va s o te c ) is a p r od r u g, wh i c h is ra pi d l y c o n v e rt e d t o i ts ac tive m e ta b ol i te , e n al ap r i la t . In i t ia l d os es a re 5. 0 m g da i l y , wi t h a us u al d ai l y d o s e o f 5 4 0 m g i n o n e t o t wo d os e s . I n a d di t io n , t he en a lap r i la t fo r m ( V as o te c I V ) o f t he dr u g h a s b ee n u s e d e f f ec ti v e ly f o r t re a ti n g a c u t e h y p er t e ns i v e c r is is ( Ta bl e 4 1 -6 ) .
( 3 ) L is i n op r i l (Z e st r i l ) is a l on g - ac ti n g a na lo g o f e n al ap r i l, gi v e n i n it ia l l y a s a 5 -1 0 m g d a il y d os e a nd ad j us te d to a u s ua l da i l y d o s e o f 1 0 -4 0 m g i n o ne do se . ( 4 ) B en a z e p ri l ( L ot e ns in ), f os i no p ri l ( Mo n op r il ) , m o e xi p r i l ( Un i vas c ), pe r i nd o p ri l ( A c e on ) , q ui n ap r il ( Ac c up r i l ), r am ip r il ( Al t ac e ) , an d t ra n do la p r il ( Ma v i k ) ha ve as t h e ir m a jo r be n ef i t a l o ng e r du r at i on of ac t io n , wh i c h in m a n y p a ti e nt s m ay r e s ul t i n o n ce - da i l y d os i ng an d i m p r o v e d c om pl ia n ce . Ave r a g e d a i l y d o s e s f or t he s e a ge n ts are ( a ) B e na z e p r i l ( L o te n sin ) : 1 0 - 4 0 m g in on e to two d o s es ( b ) F os i n op r i l (M on o p r il ) : 1 0 - 4 0 m g in on e do se ( c ) M o e xi p r i l ( U n i va sc ) : 7 . 5 -3 0 m g i n o ne do se ( d ) P e r in d o p r il ( Ac e o n ): 4 - 8 m g i n o ne to t wo do s es ( e ) Q u i na p r i l ( Ac c u p r i l ): 1 0 - 8 0 m g i n o ne do s e ( f ) R a m ip r i l ( Al t a ce ) : 2 .5 - 2 0 m g i n o ne do se ( g ) T r an d o la p r i l ( M a vi k ): 1 - 4 m g i n o ne do s e P.867
( 5 ) F ur t he r s t u d y o f th es e a ge n ts c o nt in u es , a n d t h e ir us e i n o t he r c a r di ova s c ul a r as we l l a s n on c a r di o v a s c ula r di s ea s e s co n ti n ue s t o e xp a n d . 5 . An g i o t en s i n I I t yp e I r e c e p to r a nt a g on i s ts a . I nd i ca t i o ns . Th is c la s s o f d ru g s h as b e en on e o f t he fa st e s t g ro wi n g gro u ps of d r u gs fo r th e tr e at m e n t of h y p e rt e ns io n . Cu r r en t l y, s e v en ag e nt s a r e a v a ila b le : c a nd es a r ta n c il e xe t i l ( A ta c an d ) , e p ro s a r ta n ( Te v e t e n ), i rb es a rt a n ( A v a p ro l ) , l os a r ta n ( C o za a r ) , o lm es a r ta n ( Be n ic a r ), t el m i sa r ta n ( Mi c a r d is ) , a nd va ls a r ta n ( D io v a n ) . b . Ac t i o n s. Th i s c l as s o f d r u gs wo r ks b y b l ock i ng t h e b in d in g o f a n gi o te ns i n II t o t h e a n gi o te ns i n I I r e c e p to r s . B y b lo ck in g th e re cep t o r s it e , t h es e a ge n ts i nh i bi t th e va s o co ns t ri c to r ef f ec ts of a ng i ot e ns in I I as we l l as p re ve n t t h e r el e as e o f a l do s te r on e o wi n g t o a ng i o te ns in I I f r om th e a d re n al gl a nd s . Th e s e t wo p r o pe r t ie s o f a n gi o te n s i n I I h a v e b e en s ho wn t o be im po r t an t c a u s e s f o r d e v el o pi n g h yp e r t en s i on . C l i ni c al l y , a ng i ot e ns in r ec e pt o r b l ock e rs ap p ea r to b e e qu a ll y e ff ec t i v e f o r t h e t r e a tm en t o f h y pe r t en s i on as A C E in hi b it o rs . c . P r ec a u ti o n s a nd m oni t o r i n g e f f ec t s ( 1 ) S im il a r t o A C E i nh ib i to r s , i nc r ea se s i n se r um p o t ass i um l e ve ls c a n occ u r , e s pe ci a ll y in p at ie n ts r ec e i v i ng po t as s i um - s p a ri n g d i ur e ti c s . W hen us ed alo n e , h yp e r ka le m i a h a s n ot bee n r ep o rt e d t o b e s e v e re e n ou g h t o r e qu i re s t o ppi n g i ts u s e. H o we v e r , as i n p a tie n ts r ec ei vi n g A C E in h ibi t o rs , p o ta ss iu m l e v el s ne e d t o b e m o ni t o re d c lo s e l y in th os e wi t h co m p r om is ed r en al f un c ti on . ( 2 ) R e na l f u nc ti o n is an im p o rt a nt c o ns id e r at i on fo r p at i en ts r ec ei vi ng a ngi o t en s i n r e c ep t or bl o c k er s (A R B s ) . S im il a r to A C E i nh i bi t or s , d e c l in i ng re n al fu nc t io n o r a c ut e re n al fa i lu r e wi l l r es u lt in el e v a te d s e ru m p o t as si um le ve ls , o wi n g to t he k i dn e y s i na b il it y t o e xc r e t e po t as s i um . B U N a n d se r u m c re a ti ni n e l e vel s sh o ul d b e m o ni t o re d t o p r e v e nt th e d e v e lo pm e nt of h y p er k al e m i a . d . D o sa g e g u id e l in e s f or t h e a va il a bl e a ge n ts are as f ol lo ws : ( 1 ) C a nd e sa r t a n c i le xe ti l ( At a c a n d) : 8 - 3 2 m g i n o n e t o t wo d os e s ( 2 ) E p r os a r t an ( Te ve t e n) : 4 0 0 - 8 00 m g i n o n e t o two d o s es
( 3 ) I r be s a r ta n ( Ava p r o ) : 1 5 0 -3 00 m g in on e d os e ( 4 ) L os a r t an ( C oz aa r ) : 2 5 - 10 0 m g i n o ne t o t wo d o s e s ( 5 ) O l me s a r ta n ( Be n i car ) : 2 0 - 4 0 m g i n o ne do s e ( 6 ) T el m is a r t an (M i ca r di s ) : 2 0 - 80 m g i n o n e d os e ( 7 ) V a ls a r ta n ( D io va n ) : 8 0 - 32 0 m g i n o ne - t wo d os es e . C u r r e nt s ta t u s ( 1 ) Ma n y a u t ho r i ti es be lie v e t ha t in th e t r e at m e n t o f h ype r te n si on , th e re do n ot a p p ea r to be s i gn i fi c a n t d i f fe r e nc es b e t we e n A C E i n hi bi t o rs a n d a ng i ot en s in r e c ep t or bl o c k er s . ( 2 ) F am il ia r i t y a n d c o s t m i gh t we l l p r o v id e t h e ba s is o f th e s el ec t io n o f on e ag e nt o ve r a no t he r at th is t im e. ( 3 ) A ng i ot e ns in r ec ep t or b l oc k e r s h a v e f ou n d u s e i n s pe ci a l h yp e rt e ns i v e p o p ul at i on s wi t h c o m p e lli n g i nd ic a ti o ns , s uc h a s d i ab e te s , H F , a n d c h r o nic k i dn e y d i se as e , e s p ec ia l l y i n p at i e nt s wh o c an n ot to l e ra te a n A C E in h ib i to r . 6 . C a lc i um - c ha n ne l bl oc k e r s a . I nd i ca t i o ns . Th e c a lc iu m -c h an n el b l oc k e rs a re c on s i d e re d a l te r n a t i ve dr u g s f o r t h e i n it i al t re a tm en t o f hy p e r t e ns io n i n s el ec t p a ti e n t p op ul a ti o ns th a t a r e u n ab le t o t a ke β - ad r e ne r gi c - re c e p to r bl o c k er s , s u c h as pa t ie n ts wi t h a h ig h c o ro na ry d i s e as e r i sk o r d ia be t es m e ll i tu s wh o a l so ha v e b ro nc h os p a s t ic di s e a se or R a y n au d di se as e . C u r r e n tl y , ei g ht ag e nt s —a m lo di p in e ( No r v a s c ) , d ilt i a z em ( C a rd i zem ) , fe lo di p in e ( P l e nd il ) , i s ra d ip in e ( D y na C i r c C R ) , ni ca r di p in e (C a r d e ne ) , n i fe di p in e ( P ro c a rd ia ) , n i so ld i pi n e ( S ul a r ) , a nd v e r a p am il ( C al a n ) a re a va i la b le . b . Ac t i o n s ( 1 ) C al ci u m - c h a nn e l b lo c k e rs in h ib i t t he in f lu x o f c a l c iu m t h ro u gh s l o w c ha n n el s in va s c ul a r s m oo t h m us c l e a n d c au se r el a xa t i o n. Low- r e n i n h y pe r t en si v e , bla ck , an d e l de r l y pa t ie n ts re s p o nd we l l t o th es e a ge n ts . ( 2 ) A lt h ou g h t he c a lc iu m - c h an ne l b l ock e rs sh a re a si m i l ar m e c h a ni s m o f ac t io n , e a ch ag e nt p ro d uc es d i ffe r e n t d eg r ee s o f s y s te m ic an d c o ro n a r y a r t e ri al va s o di l at io n , s in o at r ia l (S A ) a nd a tr i o ven t r ic ul a r ( A V ) n od a l d ep r es si on , an d a d e c re as e i n m y oc a r di al c o n t r ac ti li t y . c . S i gn i f ic a n t i n te r a c ti on s . β- Ad r e n e r g i c b l oc ke r s , wh e n u s e d wi t h c al c i u m c h an n el bl oc k e r s , m a y ha v e a n a dd i ti ve ef f ec t o n i n du c i ng H F a n d b r ad y ca r d ia . E l e ct r ic al c o n du c t i on to th e A V n o de m a y be f ur t he r d ep r es s e d wh e n p at i en t s a r e g i ve n a g en ts s u c h as v e ra p am il o r d il t ia z e m a lo ng wi t h β - bl oc k e r s . P.868
d . P r e ca u t io n s a n d m on i t o r i ng e f fe c ts ( 1 ) D il t ia z e m a nd v e r ap am i l m u s t b e us e d wi t h e xt r e m e c a u ti on o r n ot a t al l i n p a t ie n ts wi t h c on d uc ti v e d i s t u r ba nc es in v o l v i ng the S A o r A V no de , s uc h as s e co n do r t hi r d -d e gr e e A V bl oc k , s ic k s i nu s s yn d ro m e , an d di gi t al is t o xi c it y. ( 2 ) N i fe di p in e u s e ha s be e n a s s oc ia t ed wi t h fl ush i ng , he a da c h e , a nd pe r ip h e ra l e d em a ; t he pa t ie n t m a y fi n d t h es e t r ou b le s o m e an d th us m a y b ec om e n onc om p li a nt . U s i ng th e s us t ai n ed - r el ea s e p r od uc t o nc e d a il y ha s b e en sh o wn t o e f fe c t ive l y r e d uc e t h es e e f fe c t s .
( 3 ) V e ra p am il u s e h as be e n a s s oc ia t ed wi t h a s ig n i fi c a n t d eg r ee o f c o ns ti p a ti on , wh i c h m u s t be t re a te d to p r e v e nt st o ol s t r ai ni n g an d no nc om p li an ce . e . S pe c i fi c ag e n ts ( 1 ) D i l ti az e m ( C a r d iz em) . Th e r el e as e o f s e ver a l e xt e n d e d - re le as e p r o duc t s ( C a r d i zem C D , Ca r di z e m - L A , D il ac o r XR , Ti a za c ) h a s r e du c e d t h e f r eq u enc y o f d a il y d o se s i n t he t r ea tm e nt of h y p e r te ns i on . A s i n gl e da i l y do s e of 12 0 - 54 0 m g i s e f f ec t i v e f o r t r ea t in g m ild t o m od e ra t e h yp e rt e ns io n . Di l ti a z em al r e ad y h as p ro v e n e f f ic ac y as an an t ia r r h y th m ic a n d a n a nt i an g in al a g e nt . ( 2 ) N i f ed i p in e (P r o c a rd ia ) . Th e re l ea s e of on ce -d a il y s us ta i ne d - re l ea se p r e pa r a ti o ns ( Pr o c a r di a XL , A d a l at C C ) h a s m a de t hi s a ge n t e f fe c ti v e as a o nc e d a il y t h e ra p y fo r lo ng - t e rm t re a tm en t of h ype r t ens i on . A p r e v io us l y r ep o r te d lo ng li s t o f si de e ff ec t s h as b e en r e d uc ed wi t h th e s us t ai ne d - r el e as e p ro d uc t a t a s i ng le da i l y d o se of 30 - 9 0 m g . Im m ed i a te - r el ea s e n if e di pi n e h a s b ee n re p or t ed t o cau s e i sc h em ic e v e n ts , a n d t h e c u r re n t r ec om m e n da t io n i s t o a v o i d i ts u s e i f a t al l p o ss ib l e. ( 3 ) V e ra p am i l ( Ca l an ) . Th i s d ru g i s s i m i l a r t o d ilt i a zem in it s a c t i on s ( t hou g h wi t h m o r e p ot e nt ef f ec ts on ele c t ri c a l c on d uc ti o n d ep re s s i on ) . Su s t a in e d- r e le as e p r o du c ts ( Ca l an S R , I s op t i n S R , C o ve ra - H S , Ve re l an ) a t d os es o f 12 0 -4 80 m g da i l y h a ve be e n s h o wn t o b e ef f i c a c i ou s f o r l on g - te r m m a na g em en t o f m il d to m o de r a te h yp e r t en s i on , wh i l e s i d e e f f ec ts s u c h as d i z zi n es s , c o ns ti p at i on , a n d h ypo t e ns io n a r e re d uc ed . ( 4 ) A m l od i pi ne ( N o r v as c ), i s r a di pi n e ( D yn a C i rc ) , fe l od i pi n e ( P le n di l ), ni c a rd i pi n e ( C a r d en e S R ), an d ni s o ld i pi n e ( S ul a r ) a r e s ec ond - g e n e r at i on c a lc iu m - c ha n n el b l oc ke r s . Th e s e ag en t s h a v e be e n d e vel o pe d t o p r o du ce m o r e s el ec t i ve e f f ec ts on s p ec if ic t ar g et t is s u es tha n th e fi rs t - ge n e ra ti o n ag e n ts d i lt i a z em , n i fe di p in e , a n d ve r a p am il . Th es e a g en ts a r e c he m i ca l l y s im il a r to n if e di pi n e a nd a re r ef er r e d to as d i h yd ro p y r i di ne de r i v a ti v e s . Th e d ai l y do se r an ges a re ( a ) Am l o d i pi n e ( N o r va sc ) : 2 . 5 - 10 . 0 m g in o ne do s e ( b ) I s ra d i pi n e ( D yn a C i r c ) : 2 . 5 - 10 m g i n o n e t o two d o s es ( c ) F el o d ip i ne ( P le n d il ): 2 . 5 - 2 0 m g i n o ne do se ( d ) N i ca r d i pi n e ( C a r d ene S R ) : 6 0 - 12 0 m g a s a n e xt e n d e d - re l ea se p ro du c t t wi c e d a il y ( e ) N i so l d ip i ne ( S u la r ) : 1 0 - 40 m g in on e d os e 7 . V as o d il a t o rs . Th es e d r u gs ar e us ed as s ec ond - l in e a g en ts in pa t i e n ts r e f r ac t o r y t o in i ti al t he r ap y wi t h d iur e t ic s , β - bl oc k e r s , A C E in h ib i to r s , A R B s, o r c al ciu m c h an n el bl oc k e r s . V as odi l a to rs di r ec t l y re l a x p e r ip h e ra l vas c u la r s m oo t h m us cl e — a r t e ri a l, v e no us , o r b ot h . Th e d i re ct v a s o di l at o rs s h ou l d n ot be us ed al o ne o wi n g t o i n c re as es in pl as m a r en in ac t i v i t y , c ar d ia c o ut p ut, a nd he a r t r a te . a . H yd r a l a z i ne ( Ap r e s o li n e ) ( 1 ) Ac t i o n s. H y d r al a z i ne d i re c tl y r e la xe s a r te r io le s , d ec r ea si n g s y s t em ic v a s c ul a r r e s is ta nc e . I t i s a ls o u s ed i nt r a v e no us l y o r in t r am u s c u la r l y in m a na gi n g h yp e r t en s i v e c r is is . ( 2 ) P r ec a u t io n s a nd m on i t o r i ng e f fe c ts
( a ) B ec au s e h y d ra l a z in e t r i gg e rs c o m p e ns at o r y r ea c ti o n s th a t co u nt e r ac t i ts a n t ih yp e r te ns i v e e f fe c ts , i t i s m os t u s e f ul wh e n c o m bi n ed wi t h a β - bl oc k er , c e n t ra l α - a g o ni s t , or di u r et ic as a l at t e r -s te p a g en t . ( b ) R e fl e x t a c h yc a r di a i s c om m o n a n d s h o ul d b e c o ns id e re d b e f or e i n it i at in g t h e r ap y. ( c ) H yd r al a z i ne m a y in du c e a ng i na , e sp ec i al l y in p a ti e nt s wi t h co r o na r y ar t e r y d i se as e a n d t ho s e no t rec e i v in g a β - bl oc k e r . ( d ) D r u g- i nd uc e d s y s t em i c l u pu s e r yt he m a t os us (S L E ) m a y oc c u r . ( i ) B as e li ne an d s e ri al c o m pl e te bl oo d c o un ts ( CB C s ) wi t h an t in uc le a r a nt i b od y t i t e rs s ho u ld be fo l lo we d r o u ti n el y t o d et ec t S L E. ( i i ) S lo w a c et y l a t or s o f th i s d r ug ha ve an in c re as e d in c i de n c e of S L E. The i r ri s k m a y b e r ed uc ed b y ad m i n is ter i n g d os es of < 2 00 m g / da y . P.869
( i i i ) Fa t ig ue , m a la is e , l ow- g r a d e f e ver , an d j oi n t a c he s m a y s ig n al S LE . ( e ) O t he r ad v e r s e e ff ec ts m a y i nc lu de h ea da ch e , p e ri p he r al n eu r op a th y , n a us e a, vo m i ti n g, fl u id r et e nt i on , a n d p os tu r a l h yp ot e ns ion . ( 3 ) Th e us u al d ai l y d o s e is 25 - 1 00 m g . b . M i n ox i d il ( 1 ) Ac t i o n s. A m o re po te n t v as o di la t o r t ha n h y d ra l a zin e , m in o xi d i l r e la xe s a rt e r io la r s m o o th m u s c le di r ec t l y , d e c re as in g p e r ip he r a l r es is t an c e . I t al s o d ec re a s e s re n al va s c ul a r r es is t an c e wh i le p r es er vi n g r e na l b lo o d f l o w. E f f ec ti ve in m o s t pa t i en ts , m i no xi d i l i s c om m o nl y us e d to t re a t p a ti en t s wi t h s e v e r e h y p e rt e ns io n t h at h as be e n r e f r ac t o r y t o c o n v en t io nal d ru g re g im en s. ( 2 ) P r ec a u t io n s a nd m on i t o r i ng e f fe c ts ( a ) P e ri ph e r al di la t io n res u lt s i n a re f le x a c t i v a ti on o f t h e s y m p a th e ti c n ervo u s s ys t em a n d a n i nc r ea s e in h ea r t ra t e, c a r di ac ou tp u t , a nd r en i n s e c re t io n . ( b ) B ec a us e t hi s a ge n t pr o m ot es s o di um an d wa te r r e te n ti on , pa r ti c u l a rl y i n th e p r e se nc e o f re n al i m pa i rm e nt , pa t ie n ts s ho u ld be m on i to r e d f o r f lu i d ac c um u la t io n a n d s ig ns of c a r di ac de c o m pe ns a ti o n. A dm in is t e ri n g m in o xi d i l a lo ng wi t h a s ym p at h ol y t ic ag e nt an d a p ot e nt di u r et ic ( e. g ., f ur o s em id e ) m i n im i z es i nc re a se d s ym p at h et ic s t im ul a ti o n a n d f l ui d r e t en ti o n. ( c ) H yp e r tr ic h os is (i . e ., e xc e s s i ve h ai r g r o wt h ) is a co m m on s i de ef f ec t , pa r t ic ul a r l y i f th e d r u g is c o n ti nu e d fo r > 4 we e k s . ( 3 ) Th e us u al d ai l y d o s e is 2 .5 - 80 m g . c . N i t r op r u s si d e ( 1 ) Ac t i o n s. A d i r ec t -a c ti n g p e ri p he r al di l at o r , t his ag e nt ha s p o te n t e f fe cts on bo t h t h e a r t e ri al an d v en o us s y s t e m s . I t i s u su al l y us ed o nl y i n s h o r t -t e rm em er g e nc y t r e a tm en t o f ac ut e h y p e rt e ns i v e c r is is , wh e n a rap i d e f fe c t is r eq ui r e d. O ns e t o f a c ti o n is al m o s t i ns ta n tan e o us a n d is m a xi m a l i n 1 - 2 m i n. N it r o p ru s s id e i s a d m i ni s te r ed in t r a v en o us l y wi t h c o nt i nu o us b l ood p r ess u r e m o n it o ri n g. ( 2 ) P r ec a u t io n s a nd m on i t o r i ng e f fe c ts . To p rev e n t ac u te h ypo t en si v e ep i s o d es , i n i ti al do s e s s ho ul d be ve r y l o w, f ol l o we d b y s lo w t i t ra t io n u p wa r d un t il the d es i re d e f f ec t i s a c h ie v e d .
( a ) O nc e th e s ol u ti o n is p r e pa r e d, it s h ou l d b e p ro t ec t ed f ro m l ig h t . C o lo r c h an g es a r e a si g na l t h at r ep la c em e nt is ne ed e d. ( b ) Th i oc y a n at e t o xi c i t y m a y de v e l op wi t h lo ng - t er m t re a tm en t — pa r t ic ul a rly i n p a t ie n ts wi t h r e du c e d ren a l a c t i v i t y — bu t c a n b e tr e a t ed wi t h h em o di al y s is . S ym p t om s m a y i nc lu d e fa t i gu e , a no r e xi a , di so r ien t a ti o n, na us e a, ps y c ho ti c b e h a vio r , o r m us c l e s pas m s . ( c ) C ya n id e t o xi c i t y c a n o c c u r ( ra r el y ) wi t h lo n g -te r m , h ig h -d os e ad m i ni s tra t i on . I t m a y p re s e n t a s a lt e re d c o n s c io us n es s , c o n vul si on s , t ac h yp ne a , o r e ve n co m a. ( 3 ) Th e us u al d os e i s 0 .3 - 1 0 µg /k g /m in as a co n ti n uo u s in t r a v en o us i n fu sio n . d . D i az o xi d e ( P r o g l yc e m ) ( 1 ) I nd i ca t i o ns . Di a z o xi d e e xe r t s a di r ec t a c t i on o n th e a r t e ri ol es bu t ha s l i tt l e e f f ec t o n v en o us c a pa c i ty . I t is us ed in t r a v en ou s ly i n t he em er g en c y t re a tm e nt o f a c ut e h y p e r te ns i v e c r is is . ( 2 ) Ad m i n is t r a t io n ( a ) B ec au s e t he an t ih y pe r t e ns i v e e ff e c t of di a zoxi d e i n c re as es wi t h th e s p e e d o f i n f us io n , r ec e nt r ec om m e n d at io n s s u g ge st t ha t th e do s e be ad m i n is te r e d o v e r 30 s ec an d , i f n ec es s ar y , r ep e a t d os es gi ve n e ve r y 5 - 1 5 m in . ( 3 ) P r ec a u t io n s a nd m on i t o r i ng e f fe c ts ( a ) D ia z o xi d e i s c l os e l y re l a te d t o th e t h ia z i de s c h e m i c a ll y ; t he r e fo r e , p at ie n ts wi t h t h i a zid e s en s i t i v it y c r os s - r e ac t to di a z o xi d e . In pa t i en ts wi t h im pa i re d c e re b r al o r c a r di ac fu nc t io n , t h e r is k s m a y o ut we i g h t h e b en ef i t s o f d ia zo xi d e a dm in is tr a t io n . ( b ) D i a z o xi d e a ls o p r od uc es t r an s i en t h y pe r gl yc em i a, r eq ui r i ng c a ut i on if a d m i ni s te r ed t o p at i en ts wi t h d i ab e te s . ( c ) H yp o te ns i v e re ac t io ns m a y b e s e v e r e . ( d ) U n li k e th e t h ia z i d es , t h is ag e nt p ro m o t es s o diu m a n d wa t e r r et e nt i on , p o t en t ia t in g e d em a. 8 . R e ni n In h i bi t o r s a . I nd i ca t i o ns . Al is k i r en ( Te k t u rn a ) i s t he fi r s t o f t h is ne w c l as s o f d r ug s r e c en t l y a p p ro ve d b y t h e F D A fo r t h e t r ea t m e n t o f h y p e rt en s io n . P.870
b . Ac t i o n s. U n li k e an gi ot e ns i n c o n ve r ti n g e n z ym e ( A C E ) i n hi b it o rs an d an g io t en s i n I I r ec ep t o r b lo c k e rs ( A RB s ) , wh ic h ac t d u ri ng t he l a te r s t ag es o f t he r en i na n gi o te n s i n s y s te m t o r ed u c e an g io t en s i n I I (s ee E . 2 ) , a l is k i re n wo r ks di r ec t l y on t h e e n zy m e re ni n , t o re du c e t he e ve nt u al pr o du c ti o n o f a n gi o te ns i n I I . c . Al i s k i re n , i s a v a il a bl e i n 1 5 0 a nd 30 0 m g t ab l et s . Th e us u al st a r ti ng dos e i s 1 50 m g d a il y , an d fo r th os e wh o d o no t re sp o nd t he d o s e c a n b e i nc r ea s e d to 3 00 m g d a il y . D os e s g re a te r t hen 3 00 m g h a v e no t b e en s h o wn t o o ff e r a d di t io na l b l oo d p r e ss u re l o we r i n g e ff e c ts . d . S i gn i f ic a n t i n te r a c t io n s . F u r os em id e s er u m le v e l s h a ve b ee n re p or t ed t o b e r e d uc ed s i gn i fi c a n tl y wh e n ad m i ni s te r ed in pa t ien t s r e c e i v in g a l is k i re n . Th i s m i g ht r e s ul t i n a di m i ni s h e d p ha r m ac ol og ic e ff ec t f ro m fu r o se m i de . e . P r ec a u ti o n s a nd m oni t o r i n g e f f ec t s
U n l ik e t h e A C E in h ib i to rs an d A R Bs , wh ic h h a ve t h e p o te n ti a l t o i nc r ea s e s e r um p o t ass i um l e v e ls , p a ti en ts r ec ei vi n g a li s k ir e n h a ve n ot sh o wn si g ni fi c an t in c r ea s e s i n po t as s i um a s c om pa r ed t o p a ti en t s s tu di es r ec e i v i ng pl ac e bo . H o we v e r, i n a p o p ul at i on of di a be t ic p at i e nt s r ec e i v in g b o th A CE i n hi bi t o rs o r A R Bs in co m bi n at io n wi t h a l is k i r en c l os e m o n it o r in g of s e r um e l ec t ro l yt e s a nd r en a l f un c ti on is r e q ui r e d d u e t o a n i nc r e as ed f re qu e nc y o f e le v a t e d s e r um p o ta s s iu m l e v el s .
IV. HYPERTENSIVE EMERGENCIES A. D e f i n i t i o n. A h y p e r ten s i v e em e r ge nc y is a s ev e r e e le v a t io n o f b l oo d pr e s s u r e ( i . e ., > 2 0 0 m m H g s y s t ol i c o r > 14 0 m m H g d i as to l ic ) th a t d em an ds r ed uc t i o n — e i t he r i m m e di at e ( wi t hi n m i nu t es ) o r p ro m p t ( wi t hin h ou r s ) t o p r e ven t o r lim i t t a rg e t o r g an da m a g e. 1 . C on d it i on s r e qu i ri n g im m e d ia t e r e du ct i on in c lu d e h yp e r te ns i v e e nc e pha l op a th y , a c ut e l e f t v e n t ri c u la r f ai lu r e wi t h p u lm on a r y ed em a , e cl am ps ia , di s s ec ti ng a o rt ic a n e ur y s m , ac u te MI , s t rok e , a nd in t r ac r an ia l h em o r r h ag e . 2 . C on d it i on s r e qu i ri n g pr o m pt r ed uc t io n i nc lu d e m a li gn a nt o r a c c el e ra t ed h yp e r t en s i on . B . T r e a tm e nt 1 . Th e r ed u c ti o n i n bl oo d p r es s u re m us t be g ra d u al ( e .g . , a 1 5 -m m Hg d ec r e as e i n m e an a rt e ri a l p r es s u re o v e r t h e 1 s t h r) r a th e r t h a n p r ec ip i to us to a v oi d c om p r om is in g p e r fu s i on o f c r i ti ca l o r g an s, pa r t ic u l a rl y c er e b ra l p e rf u si on. 2 . S pe c i fi c ag e n ts us ed i n h y p e r te ns i v e c r is is a re sh o wn i n Ta bl e 4 1 -6 . P.871
STUDY QUESTIONS D i r e c t i on s fo r q ue s t io ns 1 - 6 : E ac h o f t h e q ue s tio n s , s t a te m e n ts , o r in c om p le t e s t a te m e n ts i n th is s ec t ion c a n b e c o r re c t l y a ns we r e d or co m p le t e d b y o ne o f th e s u gg es t ed an s we r s o r phr a s es . Ch oo s e t he be s t a n s we r . 1 . W hi c h o f th e fo l l ow in g a ge n ts r e p re s en t s a r e l a t i ve l y n e w c la s s o f d r u g s u s e d i n t re a t in g h yp e r t e n s io n ? ( A ) t r an d ol a pr i l ( Ma v i k ) ( B ) c ar v e d il ol ( C o re g ) ( C ) i r be s a r t an ( A v a p ro ) ( D ) m oe xi p r i l ( Un i v as c ) ( E ) n im od i pi ne ( N im o to p) V i e w A n s we r 1 . T h e a n sw e r i s C [ se e] . 2 . Re f l ex t a c h yc a r d i a , h e ad a ch e , a n d p o s t u ra l h yp o t e n s i o n ar e a d ve r se e f fe c ts t ha t l i m i t t h e u s e o f w hi c h of t h e f o l l ow i ng an t i h yp e r t e n s i ve a ge n t s? ( A ) p r a z os in ( Mi n i p re s s ) ( B ) c ap t op r il ( C ap o te n ) ( C ) m et h y l do p a ( A ld om e t) ( D ) g u an ab e n z (W y te ns in ) ( E ) h yd r al a z i ne ( Ap r es o lin e )
V i e w A n s we r 2 . T h e a n sw e r i s E [s e e] . 3 . A 6 5 - ye a r - o l d m a n p r es e n ts w it h s t a g e I h yp e r t e n s i o n. He h as d ia b e te s m e ll i t us a n d c h r o ni c k i d ne y d i s e a s e a nd i s i n to l e ra n t to l is i n op ri l . Wh i c h o f th e fo l l ow in g a ge n ts w o u ld b e a n a p p r o p r ia t e s el e c ti o n fo r i n i ti a l t re a tm e n t i n th i s pa t i en t ba s ed on t he g u i d el i ne s f r om t he “ Se ve n t h R ep o r t o f t h e J oi n t N a t io n al C o mm i t te e o n D e t e c t io n , E va l u a ti o n , a n d T re a tm e n t o f H ig h B l o o d P re s su r e ” ( J N C -7 ) ? ( A ) c hl o ro t hi a z i de ( Di u r il) ( B ) p r op r an o lo l (I n de r al ) ( C ) n i tr o p ru s s id e ( Ni p ri de ) ( D ) c an d es a rt a n ( A t ac and ) ( E ) cl o ni d in e ( C a t ap r es ) V i e w A n s we r 3 . T h e a n sw e r i s D [ se e] . 4 . A p a ti en t w i t h s t a ge I h yp e r t e n s i o n w ho h as b r o n c ho s pa s t ic ai rw a y d i s ea s e a n d w h o i s no nc o m pl i a nt w o ul d be be s t t re a t ed w i t h w h i c h o f th e fo l l ow i ng β - bl o ck i n g a ge n t s? ( A ) t im ol o l ( B lo c ad r en ) ( B ) p en b ut o lo l ( L e v a to l ) ( C ) e sm ol o l ( B r e v ib lo c ) ( D ) a ce b ut o lo l ( S ec t r al ) ( E ) p r op r an o lo l (I n de r al ) V i e w A n s we r 4 . T h e a n sw e r i s D [ se ea n d] .5 . L o ng - s t a nd i ng h yp e r t e n s i on l e a ds t o t i ss u e d a ma g e i n al l o f t h e f o ll ow i n g o r g a n s e xc e pt t he ( A ) h ea r t . ( B ) l un gs . ( C ) k id n e ys . ( D ) b r ai n . ( E ) e ye s . V i e w A n s we r 5 . T h e a n sw e r i s B [ se e] . 6 . Ac c o rdi n g t o t h e “ Se ve n t h Rep o r t o f t h e J o in t N a ti o na l Co m m i tt e e o n De t e c ti o n, E va l u a t io n , a n d T r e a tm e n t o f H i g h B l oo d P r es s u re ” (J N C - 7 ) , w hi c h o f t he f oll ow in g a g en t s i s su i t abl e as i n i t i al t he r a p y f o r t r e a t i n g s ta g e I h yp e r t e n s i on ( a ss u mi n g n o c o m pe ll i n g i n d i ca t i on s fo r a no t h e r t yp e o f d r u g ) ? ( A ) c hl o ro t hi a z i de ( Di u r il) ( B ) l ab e ta l ol ( Tr a nd a te ) ( C ) a t en ol o l ( Te n o rm in ) ( D ) p r op r a no lo l (I n de r al ) ( E ) b is op r ol o l ( Z eb e ta ) V i e w A n s we r 6 . T h e a n sw e r i s A [ se e] . D i r e c ti o ns f o r qu e s ti o ns 7 -9 : Th e q u es t io ns an d i nc om p le te s ta t em en ts in t hi s se c ti o n c an be c o r r ec tl y a ns we r e d o r c om p le t ed b y on e o r m or e o f t h e su g ge s te d a ns we r s . C h o os e t he an s we r , A- E . 7 . A p a t i en t t r ea t e d w i th a sp i r o no l ac t o ne sh ou l d be mo n i t o re d r eg u la r l y f o r a l t e r ed p la s ma le ve l s of I . p o ta s si u m. I I . se r u m c r ea t i n in e . I I I . bl o od u r ea n it r o g en ( B U N ) . A i f I o n l y i s c o r re c t
B i f II I on l y i s c o r r ec t C i f I a n d I I a r e c or r ec t D i f II a nd I II a re c o r re c t E i f I, I I, an d II I ar e c o r re c t V i e w A n s we r 7 . T h e a n sw e r i s E [s e e] . 8 . B e f o r e a n t i h yp e r t e n s i ve t h e r ap y b e g i ns , s e co n da r y c a u s e s o f h yp e r t e n s i o n s ho u l d b e r ul e d o u t . L a bor a t o r y f i n d i ng s th a t s u gg e s t an u n de r l yi n g c a us e of h yp e r t e n s i o n i n c lu d e I . a d e c re a se d s e r um po t a s si u m l e ve l . I I . an i nc r e as e d u r i na r y c a t ec h ol a mi n e l e ve l . I I I . a n in c r ea s ed b lo o d c o r t i so l le ve l . A i f I o n l y i s c o r re c t B i f II I on l y i s c o r r ec t C i f I a n d I I a r e c or r ec t D i f II a nd I II a re c o r re c t E i f I, I I, an d II I ar e c o r re c t V i e w A n s we r 8 . T h e a n sw e r i s E [s e e] . P . 87 2
9 . I n a n o t h e rw is e h e al th y a d u l t w i th s ta g e I h yp e r t e ns i o n, ap p r o p r ia t e i n i t ia l a n t i h yp e r t e n s i ve t h e r ap y w o u ld be I . c hl o r t ha l i do n e ( D i u r i l) I I . me t o p ro l o l ( L o p re s so r ) I I I . bi s op r o l ol ( Ze b e ta ) A i f I o n l y i s c o r re c t B i f II I on l y i s c o r r ec t C i f I a n d I I a r e c or r ec t D i f II a nd I II a re c o r re c t E i f I, I I, an d II I ar e c o r re c t V i e w A n s we r 9 . T h e a n sw e r i s A [ se e] . D i r e c ti o ns f o r qu e s ti o ns 10 - 1 4 : E a c h l i st of ad v e r s e e ff ec t s i n t h is s e c t i on is m os t c lo s e l y as s o ci a t ed wi t h o n e o f t he f o l lo wi n g a n ti h y p e rt e ns i ve a ge n ts . Th e a ge n ts m ay b e us e d m o r e t h an on ce o r n o t a t a l l . C h oo s e th e be s t a ns we r , A- E . 1 0 . th i o c ya n a t e i n t ox i ca t i o n , h yp o t e n s i o n , a nd c o n vu ls i o ns ( A) c l o ni d in e ( Ca t ap r es ) ( B ) o lm es a r ta n ( B e ni c a r ) ( C ) n i tr o p ru s s id e ( Ni p ri de ) ( D ) p r a zos in ( Mi n i p re s s ) ( E ) p r op r an o lo l (I n de r al ) V i e w A n s we r 1 0 . T he a nsw e r i s C [ se e] . 1 1. b r ad yc a r d ia , b r on c ho s pa s m, a n d c a r d ia c d e co m pe n sa t i o n ( A) c l o ni d in e ( Ca t ap r es ) ( B ) o lm es a r ta n ( B e ni c a r ) ( C ) n i tr o p ru s s id e ( Ni p ri de ) ( D ) p r a zos in ( Mi n i p re s s ) ( E ) p r op r an o lo l (I n de r al )
V i e w A n s we r 1 1 . T he a nsw e r i s E [s e e] . 1 2. an g i oe d e ma , c o u gh , h yp e r k a l e m ia , ( A) c l o ni d in e ( Ca t ap r es ) ( B ) o lm es a r ta n ( B e ni c a r ) ( C ) n i tr o p ru s s id e ( Ni p ri de ) ( D ) p r a zos in ( Mi n i p re s s ) ( E ) p r op r an o lo l (I n de r al ) V i e w A n s we r 1 2 . T he a nsw e r i s B [ se e] . 1 3. r e bo un d h yp e r t e n s i o n , d r y m o u t h, d r ow si n es s ( A) c l o ni d in e ( Ca t ap r es ) ( B ) o lm es a r ta n ( B e ni c a r ) ( C ) n i tr o p ru s s id e ( Ni p ri de ) ( D ) p r a zos in ( Mi n i p re s s ) ( E ) p r op r an o lo l (I n de r al ) V i e w A n s we r 1 3 . T he a nsw e r i s A [ se e] . 1 4. f i r st - do s e s yn c o p e , po s t u ra l h yp o t e n s i o n , a n d p al p it a t i o ns ( A) c l o ni d in e ( Ca t ap r es ) ( B ) o lm es a r ta n ( B e ni c a r ) ( C ) n i tr o p ru s s id e ( Ni p ri de ) ( D ) p r a zos in ( Mi n i p re s s ) ( E ) p r op r an o lo l (I n de r al ) V i e w A n s we r 1 4 . T he a nsw e r i s D [ se e] . D i r e c ti o ns f o r qu e s ti o ns 15 - 1 9 : E a c h d es c r i pt i on li s t e d in t hi s s ec ti o n is m o s t c l os e l y a ss oc i at e d wi t h o ne o f th e f o l lo wi n g β -a d r en e rg ic blo c k i ng ag e nt s . Th e ag e nt s m a y be us ed m o r e t h an o nc e o r n o t a t al l. C h oo s e th e bes t a ns we r , A- E . 1 5 . a β -b l o ck e r w i th i n tr i n s i c s ym p a t h o m i m et ic a c ti vi t y ( A) e s m ol o l ( B r e v ib lo c ) ( B ) l ab e ta l ol ( Tr a nd a te ) ( C ) b is o pr o lo l ( Z eb e t a) ( D ) n a do lo l ( Co r ga r d ) ( E ) p in d ol ol ( V is k e n ) V i e w A n s we r 1 5 . T he a nsw e r i s E [s e ea n d] . 1 6. a β - b l oc k e r t h a t a ls o bl oc k s α - a d r e ne r g i c r e ce p t o rs ( A) e s m ol o l ( B r e v ib lo c ) ( B ) l ab e ta l ol ( Tr a nd a te ) ( C ) b is o pr o lo l ( Z eb e t a) ( D ) n a do lo l ( Co r ga r d ) ( E ) p in d ol ol ( V is k e n ) V i e w A n s we r 1 6 . T he a nsw e r i s B [ se ea n d] .1 7 . a β - b l oc k e r w it h an u l t r a sh o r t du r a t i on o f ac t i o n ( A) e s m ol o l ( B r e v ib lo c ) ( B ) l ab e ta l ol ( Tr a nd a te ) ( C ) b is o pr o lo l ( Z eb e t a) ( D ) n a do lo l ( Co r ga r d ) ( E ) p in d ol ol ( V is k e n )
V i e w A n s we r 1 7 . T he a nsw e r i s A [ se ea n d] .1 8 . a β - b l oc k e r w it h a l o ng d u r a t i on o f a c ti o n a n d n o n se l ec t i ve b lo c ki n g a c t i vi t y ( A) e s m ol o l ( B r e v ib lo c ) ( B ) l ab e ta l ol ( Tr a nd a te ) ( C ) b is o pr o lo l ( Z eb e t a) ( D ) n a do lo l ( Co r ga r d ) ( E ) p in d ol ol ( V is k e n ) V i e w A n s we r 1 8 . T he a nsw e r i s D [ se ea n d] .1 9 . a β - b l oc k e r w it h r el a t i ve c a r d i os e le c t i ve b l oc k i ng a c ti vi t y ( A) e s m ol o l ( B r e v ib lo c ) ( B ) l ab e ta l ol ( Tr a nd a te ) ( C ) b is o pr o lo l ( Z eb e t a) ( D ) n a do lo l ( Co r ga r d ) ( E ) p in d ol ol ( V is k e n ) V i e w A n s we r 1 9 . T he a nsw e r i s C [ se ea n d] .P . 87 3
ANSWERS AND EXPLANATIONS 1 . T he an sw e r is C [ s ee I I I . B. 5 .a ] . I r b es a r ta n i s o ne of t he re l a ti v e l y ne w c l as s e s o f d r u gs us ed in th e tr e at m e n t o f h yp e r t en s i on r e fe r r ed to a s a n a n gi o te ns i n I I re cep t o r a n ta g on is t , wh i c h b lo ck s t h e p r o du c ti on o f a ng io t en s in I I a n d c o ns e qu e nt l y it s e f f ec ts as a po we r f u l va s o co ns t ri c to r an d s ti m u l an t fo r al d os te r on e re le a se . Tr a nd o la p ri l a n d m o e xi p r i l a r e A C E i nh i bi t o rs ; c ar v e d il o l is a β- a d re n er g ic b l oc k i n g a ge n t; an d n im o d ip i ne is a c a lc iu m -c ha n ne l b lo c k e r. 2 . T he an sw e r is E [ s e e I I I . B. 7 .a ] . H yd r a l a z i ne i s a v a s o di la t o r t h at wo r k s b y di r ec t ly r e l a xi n g ar t e ri o le s , th er e b y r e d uc in g p e r ip he r a l v a s c u l a r r es is t an c e. I ts e f fe ct i ve n es s as an an t ih y p e rt e ns i v e a g e nt is c om p ro m i s e d , ho we v e r , b y t h e c o m p e ns a t o r y r ea c t i on s i t t r ig g e rs ( e. g . , r e f le x t a c h y c ar d ia ) an d by i t s o t he r ad v e r s e ef f ec ts ( e. g . , h ea d ac he , p os t ur a l h yp o t en s i o n, na us e a, pal p i ta t io ns ) . F o r tu n at el y , th e un wa n t e d e f fe ct s o f hyd r a l a z in e a r e m i ni m i z e d wh en i t is u s ed in c om b in a ti o n wi t h a di u r et ic ag e nt an d a β- b l oc k e r . Th u s h y d ra l a z in e i s m o s t e f f ec ti v e as a s u p pl em en t a l a nt i h y pe r t en si ve d rug i n c om b in a ti o n wi t h fi r s t - l ine t he r a p y . 3 . T he an sw e r is D [ s ee I I I . B. 5 .e . ( 3 )] . C a n d es a rt a n, an an g io t en s in I I r ec ep t o r b lo c k e r, wh i c h ac ts b y bl oc ki ng th e bi nd i ng o f an g io t en s i n I I to th e an g io t en s i n II r ec ep t o rs . B y b l oc k i n g t he r ec ep t o r s i te , th is c l as s o f d r ug s i nh ib i ts the v a s o c on s t r ic t o r e ff ec t s o f an gi o te ns i n I I a n d p re v e n ts t he r e l ea se o f a ld os t er o ne owi n g t o a n gi o te ns i n I I f r om t he ad r en a l g la nd s . J N C - 7 g u id e li n es c al l f o r t h e u s e o f d iu r e ti c s i n th e i ni t ia l t re a tm en t o f h y pe r t ens i on , u n le s s t h e p a ti e nt ha s c om pe ll in g in di c a t io n s t ha t h a v e b e e n s h o wn t o b en e fi t f ro m th e u se o f sp ec i fi c c l as s e s o f d r ug s . Th is p a ti e nt ha s d ia be t es an d c h ro n ic k id n e y d i s e as e a n d i s u na b le to to l e ra t e t h e A C E in h ib i to r li si no p r i l , t h er e f or e , a n A R B wo u l d b e a n a cc e pt a bl e a l te r na t i v e f or t h is p a ti e nt r at h e r t ha n a β - bl oc k e r ( pr o p ra n ol ol) o r
d i u re t ic (c hl o r ot h ia z i de ) . N i t r op r us s i d e a nd c l on id i n e a r e n o t i nd ic a te d f o r t h e i n it i al t r e a tm en t o f h y pe r t en s i on . 4 . T he an sw e r is D [ s ee I I I . B. 3 .a . ( 7 ). ( a ) , ( b ) , ( c ), ( d ) , (e ) , (f ) , (g ) , (h ) - (i ) , ( j ) , (k ) , ( l ) a n d (m ) ]. Th e β - a d re n e rg ic bl oc k i ng a ge n ts c o nt in u e t o d em o ns t ra t e e f fe c t i ve ne s s i n th e t r e a tm en t o f h y pe r t en s i on . A m aj o r f e a tu r e o f s om e o f th es e a g en ts is the i r re l at i ve s e le ct i v i t y fo r β 1 - re c e p tor s ( in th e h e ar t ) ra t he r tha n fo r β 2 - re c e p to r s ( i n t he l un g ) , wh i c h p ro v i d es a d v a nt a ge s i n th e t r ea t m e n t o f c er t a in p at ie n ts ( e. g ., t ho se wi t h b r o nc ho s pa s t ic ai r wa y o r C O P D ) . O f t he β - bl oc k er s li st e d, ac eb u t ol ol is l es s l ik el y t h a n t he r es t t o b l oc k β 2 -r e c ep t or s b ec a us e o f i ts r e l at i v e c a rd i os el ec t i v e -b l oc k i n g a c ti vi t y. Ac e bu t ol o l al s o h a s a l o ng du r a ti on o f ac t i o n, wh i ch co ul d b e he lpf u l i n t h e n o nc om p li an t pa t ie n t b y r e q ui r in g fe we r d os es per d a y. Pe n bu t ol ol h as wea k i n t ri ns ic s ym p a th om im e tic ac t i v it y l ik e p in d ol ol bu t l ac k s re la t i v e c a rd io s e le c ti vi t y , d e sp i te it s l on g d u r at i on o f ac t io n . E s m ol ol b y na tu r e of it s c on t in uo u s i nt ra v e n o us i n f us io n wo u ld no t l e nd it s el f to c h r on ic am bu l at or y t h e r ap y. Ti m ol ol is a lo n g -a c ti ng β - b l oc ke r an d l ac k s th e re l a ti v e c a r di os el ec t i v e pr o p e rt i es th a t ac e bu t ol ol p o ss es s e s . 5 . T he an sw e r is B [ s ee I . F ; Ta bl e 4 1 -3 ] . L e f t u n tr e at e d, h y p er t ens i on c a n b e l et h al be c a us e o f it s p r og r es si ve l y de s t ru c ti v e e f f ec ts on m a jo r o rg an s , s uc h a s t h e h ea r t , k i d neys , a nd b ra in . Th e e y e s a l s o s u f fe r d a m a g e; th e l u ng s , h o wev e r , d o n ot . E nd - o rg a n da m ag e c au s e d b y h yp e r te n s i o n i n c l ud e s le f t v en t r ic ul a r h y p e r t ro p h y , h e ar t fa i lu re , an g in a p ec t o ri s , m yoca r d ia l i n f ar c ti o n, r en al in s u f f ic ie n c y c a us ed b y a t he r os cl e r ot ic le si o ns , n e ph r os c l e r os is , c e r eb r al an e ur y s m a nd he m o rr h ag e , r e ti n al he m or r h a g e , a n d p ap i ll ed em a . 6 . T he an sw e r is A [ s ee I I I . B. 2 .a ] . Th i a zi d e d iu r e ti c s ar e c on s id e re d th e f i rs t -l i ne t rea t m e n t c ho ic e f o r h y p e r te n si o n a n d s ho u ld be us ed al one o r i n c om bi n at i on wi t h o t h e r a nt i h ype r te n s i v e s , i f n e ce ss a r y . β - Bl oc k e r s s u c h as la b et a lo l , a te n ol ol , bi so p r ol ol , n i fe d ip in e , a n d p r o p ra n ol ol a re no lo n ger c on s i d er e d i ni t ia l a g en ts f or t re a ti n g h yp e rt e ns io n . β b l oc ke r s h a v e s ho wn p os i ti v e c l in ic a l o ut c o m e s in p at i en ts wi t h he a r t f ai lu r e , p os t m yo c ar d ia l i n fa rc t io n , h ig h c o r on a r y di se as e ri s k , a nd di a be t es (c om pe l lin g i n di ca t io ns ) an d wo u ld be ac c e p t ab le op t io ns f or p a t ie n ts p r es e nt i ng wi t h p r e h ype r t en s i o n o r h y p er t e ns i on wi t h a co m p el l ing i nd ic a ti on . 7 . T he an sw e r is E ( I , II, I I I ) [ s e e I I I . B. 2 .c . (4 ) ] . S p i r on o la c t o ne is a di r ec t - a c t i ng al d os te r on e - r ec e p t o r b lo c k e r a nd de cr e as es i ts e f f ec ts on s o di um an d wa t e r re t en t io n . H o we v e r , a b en e fi t o f s p ir o no l ac ton e is i t s p o t ass i um -s p a ri ng e ff ec t, t h ro u gh th e e xc h a n ge of s od iu m f o r p o ta s s iu m in t he k i dn e y . Pa t ie n ts wi t h re du c ed r en al f un c t i on an d a c ut e re n al fa i lu r e ( e vi de n c e d b y e l e va ti on s i n s e ru m c re at i n in e ) l os e t h ei r a b il it y to e xc r e t e p o ta s s iu m , and t hi s n e e ds t o b e m o ni to r e d wh e n p a ti e nt s a r e s ta r te d o n s p i ro no l ac to n e. B U N a n d c r e at i ni ne a re go o d i nd i re c t i nd ic a to r s o f re na l fu n c ti o n. P.874
8 . T he an sw e r is E ( I , II, I I I ) [ s e e I I . A .2 ] .
L o w s e r um p o ta s s i um l ev e l s i n a h ype r t en s i ve pat i e n t su gg es t p rim a r y a l do s te r on is m . E l e v at e d u r i na r y c a t ec h ol am in es su g g es t a p h eo ch r om oc y t o m a; o t h e r si g ns a n d s y m p t om s o f t hi s t um o r i nc lu d e we i gh t lo ss , e pi s o d ic fl us hi n g , a nd s we a t i ng . El e v a te d s e rum c o r ti s o l l e v e ls s u gg es t C u s hi ng s y nd r om e ; t he p a t ie n t is a l so li ke l y to ha v e a r o un d (m o on ) fa ce an d t r u nc a l o be s i t y . S ec on da r y hy p e r t e ns io n r e q ui r es t re a tm en t of th e u n de r l yin g c au s e; s u pp le m en t a r y a n ti h y p e rt e ns iv e d r u g t h e r ap y m a y a ls o b e n eed e d . 9 . T he an sw e r is A ( I ) [s e e I II . B .2 . a ]. Th i a zi d e d iu r e ti c s s uc h as c h lo r t ha l id on e a r e n o w c on si d e re d , b as ed on the J N C - 7, f i r s t - li n e t h er a p y fo r h y pe r t e ns io n , b ar r i ng an y com p el li n g i nd ic a ti on s s uch as he a r t f a i lu r e, di a be t es , c h ro ni c k id n e y d is e as e , o r p os t -MI , wh e n o th e r a n ti h yp e rt e ns i v e a g e nt s wo u l d b e i n di c a t ed . β - A d re ne r g ic b l oc k e rs , s uc h as m e t op r ol o l a nd b i so p ro l ol , a r e n o l o ng e r i n di c a t ed as i n it i al an t i hy p e r t e ns i ve a ge n ts fo r t re a t in g h yp e r t en s i on . 1 0 . Th e a n sw e r i s C [ s ee I I I. B . 7. c . (2 ) ] . 1 1 . Th e a n sw e r i s E [s ee I I I. B . 3. a . (4 ) ] . 1 2 . Th e a n sw e r i s B [ s ee I I I. B . 5. c . (2 ) ] . 1 3 . Th e a n sw e r i s A [ s ee I I I. B . 3. c . (2 ) . (c ) ] . 1 4 . Th e a n sw e r i s D [ s ee I I I. B . 3. b . (3 ) . ( a) ] . Th e g o al of t re a tm en t in h y p e r t en s i on is to lo we r b l oo d p r es s u r e to wa r d no r m al wi t h m i ni m a l s id e e f fe c ts . A l l a n t ih y p e r te ns i v e d r ug s c a n c a us e a d v e rs e e f fe c ts . Th e p r i m a r y pu r p os e o f t h e J N C - 7 g ui d el in es is to ack n o wl e dg e t h e l on g - te rm b e ne f it s o f d i u re t ic s i n t he t re a tm ent o f h y p e r te ns i on . 1 5 . Th e a n sw e r i s E [s ee I I I. B . 3. a . (7 ) . ( a) , ( b) , (c ) , ( d ) , ( e ) , ( f ) , ( g ) , ( h ) -( i ), ( j ) , ( k ), ( l ) an d (m ) ]. 1 6 . Th e a n sw e r i s B [ s ee I I I. B . 3. a . (7 ) . ( a) , ( b) , (c ) , ( d ) , ( e ) , ( f ) , ( g ) , ( h ) -( i ), ( j ) , ( k ), ( l ) an d (m ) ]. 1 7 . Th e a n sw e r i s A [ s ee I I I. B . 3. a . (7 ) . ( a) , ( b) , (c ) , ( d ) , ( e ) , ( f ) , ( g ) , ( h ) -( i ), ( j ) , ( k ), ( l ) an d (m ) ]. 1 8 . Th e a n sw e r i s D [ s ee I I I. B . 3. a . (7 ) . ( a) , ( b) , (c ) , ( d ) , ( e ) , ( f ) , ( g ) , ( h ) -( i ), ( j ) , ( k ), ( l ) an d (m ) ]. 1 9 . Th e a n sw e r i s C [ s ee I I I. B . 3. a . (7 ) . ( a) , ( b) , (c ) , ( d ) , ( e ) , ( f ) , ( g ) , ( h ) -( i ), ( j ) , ( k ), ( l ) an d (m ) ]. Th e β - a d re n e rg ic bl oc k i ng a ge n ts a r e v al u ab le f or m an a gi ng h ype r t en s i o n a n d a r e u s ed as i n it i al an t ih y p e r te n s i v e s . Th e β - bl oc k e r s a r e s y m pa t he t ic an t ag oni s ts . Th e y a c t b y b lo c k in g v a ri ou s re c ep t o rs o f th e s ym pa t he t ic ne r vo us s ys t em . The y d i f fe r i n t h e ir se l ec ti v i t y f or t he s e s y m pa t he t ic re ce p to r s . F o r e xa m pl e , β 1 - bl oc k e rs ha v e r e l at i ve c a rd i os el ec t i v e a c ti v i t y — t h at is , t h e y b l oc k β 1 - r ec ep t o rs (i n th e he a r t ) r a th e r t h a n β 2 - r ec ep t o rs (i n b r on c hi al sm oo t h m u sc l e) an d , th e re f o re , a r e h i gh l y u s ef u l a n t ih yp e r te ns i v e a g en ts . I n t ri ns ic s ym p at h om im eti c a c ti v i t y al so ap p ea r s to r e du c e t h e p r o bl em of b ro nc h oc o n s t r ic t io n ; m o r e o ve r, d ru g s wi t h t hi s p r op e rt y c an a ls o m a in t ai n a s a ti s fa c t o r y he a r t ra t e.
42 Heart Failure Al a n H . M u tn i ck
I. INTRODUCTION A. D e f i n i t i o n. H ea r t f ai lu r e ( H F ) i s a c om pl e x c l in i c a l s y n d ro m e th a t c an r e s ul t f r o m a n y c a rd i ac d is o r der t h at im pa i rs th e a b il i t y o f t he ve nt r ic le t o d el i ver a d eq ua t e q u a nt i ti es of bl o od to t he m e ta bo l i zin g t is su es du ri n g n o rm al ac t i vit y o r a t r e s t. Th e c o nd i ti on in t he pa s t ha s b e en r ef e r re d to as “c ong e st i ve h e a rt f ai lu r e ,” o wi n g t o t h e e d e ma t o us s ta t e c o m m o n l y p ro du ce d b y t h e f lu id b ack u p r es u lt i ng in s ho r t n es s o f b r e a th , f a ti g ue , l im i ta t ion o f e xe r c i se to l er a nc e, a n d f l ui d r e t en ti o n. F lu id r e t en t io n m a y le a d t o p ul m o n a r y an d pe r ip h e ra l e de m a . Mo r e r e c en t l y, b ec a us e a ll p a t ie n ts d o no t n ec e s s ar i l y p r es en t wi t h fl u id o ver l oa d a t th e in i ti al o r f ol l o w- u p e v a l ua t io ns , t h e te rm “ he a r t f ai l ur e ” is us ed t o m o r e a d eq ua t el y r e f le ct t he c l in ic al s ynd r o m e . B . M o r ta l i t y r a t e . A p p r oxi m a t e l y 30 0 ,0 0 0 p at i en ts di e a s a re s ul t o f th e di r e c t o r i n di r ec t c o ns eq u en c e s o f H F e ac h y e a r , a nd t he nu m be r of de a th s o wi n g to H F ( p r im a r y o r s e c o n da r y c au s es ) h as in c re as e d s tea d il y , d es pi t e t r ea tm e nt a d v a nc es . Th e r i sk o f de a th is 5 % -1 0 % a n nu al l y in pa t ie n ts wi t h m il d s y m p t om s a nd i s a s h ig h a s 3 0 % -4 0% in pa t ie n ts wi t h a d v a nc ed di s e a se m a ni f e s ta t io ns . C . I n ci d e nc e o f H F . H F is a c om m o n m e d ic al c o nd i t io n t h at af f ec ts al m o s t 5 m i ll io n p e o pl e i n t he U n it e d S t ate s , wi t h > 5 0 0, 0 00 ne w c a s es d i ag n os ed ea c h yea r . B e t we e n 1. 5 % a nd 2. 0 % o f t he po pu l at i on ha s H F, a nd t he in ci de nc e i nc r ea s es to 6 % - 10 % i n p a ti e nt s o ld er t h an ag e 6 5 . H F m a k e s u p 2 0 % o f a ll ho s p i ta l i za t i on s i n p a t ie n ts > 6 5 y e a rs of age . H F i s t he o nl y m a j or ca r d io va s c ul a r d is o r de r tha t is i n c re as in g i n i nc i de nc e an d p re v a le nc e . Du r in g the l as t 1 0 yea r s , th e r e h as be e n a d r a m a t ic i nc r ea s e i n t he n u m b e r o f h os p it a li z a t ion s , p r im a ri l y o wi ng t o H F ( 5 0 0, 0 00 i n 19 91 t o m o r e t h en 1 m i ll io n , c ur r e nt l y ) . Th e re a so ns f or t he in c r e as ed n um b e rs o f h o sp i ta l a dm is s i o ns a r e li s te d i n Ta bl e 4 2 -1 . D . C o s t o f H F . Th e t ot a l c os ts ( di r ec t a n d i nd i re c t ) f o r t he t r ea tm e nt of HF i n t he U n i t ed S ta t es du r in g 2 0 05 we r e a pp r o xi m a te l y $27 . 9 b i ll io n . Cu r r en t l y i n th e U ni t ed S t a t es , m o re th a n $ 2. 9 bi l li o n is s p en t an nu a ll y on d r ug s us e d i n t he t re a tm e nt o f HF. E . C a u se s 1 . A lt h ou g h t he di s e as e o c c u rs m o s t c o m m on l y am o ng th e e l de r l y (8 0 % of p a ti en t s h o sp i ta li z e d wi t h H F a re > 6 5 y e a rs o f a ge ) , i t m ay a p p ea r at an y a ge as a c o ns eq u en c e of un d e rl y in g c a r di o v as c u l ar di s e a se . 2 . Th e r e c u r r e nt l y is n o s i ng le di a gn os t ic te s t f o r H F , an d t h e c li ni c a l d i ag n os is is n o r m a ll y b as ed on p at ien t hi s to r y an d ph y s ic al exa m i n a t io n . 3 . H F s ho u ld no t b e c ons i de r ed an in d ep e nd en t d i ag n os is be c a us e i t i s s u pe r im po s ed on an un de r l y i ng c a us e . a . C o ro n a r y a r t e r y d is e as e ( C A D ) is t he c a us e o f H F i n a bo u t t wo t h ir ds of p a ti en t s wi t h l e f t v e n t ri c u la r s ys to l ic d ys f un c ti on . b . Th e r em ai ni n g t hi r d o f p a ti e nt s h a v e a no ni s c he m ic c au s e o f s y s t o li c dy s f u nc t io n o wi n g t o o th e r c au s e s o f m y o c a r di a l s tr es s , wh i c h i nc lu de d t ra um a , d is eas e , o r o t h e r a bn o rm al s t a te s ( e. g . , p ul m on a r y e m bo li s m , i nf e c t io n , a n em ia , p r egn a nc y,
d r u g u se o r a bu s e , f l ui d o v e r l oa d , a r r h y th m i a , valv u l a r he a rt di s e a se , c a r di om y o p at hi e s , c o ng en i t al he a rt di s ea se ) . 4 . Th e N e w Yo r k H ea r t As s o c i a ti o n ( N YH A ) d e v e lo p e d a c la s s if ic a ti o n s y st e m , st i ll u s ed to d a y to qu a nt i f y the f un c ti on a l l im it a ti o ns of H F pa t ie n ts . Th e N YH A c la s s es a r e as f o ll o ws : a . C la ss I : D e g re e o f e f fo r t ne c e ss a r y to el ic i t HF s y m p t om s e qu al s t h ose t ha t wo u ld l i m i t n o rm al in d i v id ua ls . b . C l as s I I: D e gr e e o f e f fo r t ne c e ss a r y to el ic i t HF s y m p t om s oc c u r s wi t h o r d in a r y e xe r t i o n . P.876
Table 42-1. Causes for Increased Hospitalization Rates of Heart Failure Aging of the population in the United States Rising incidence of chronic heart failure Improved treatment results obtained for myocardial infarction, coronary artery bypass surgery, and stenting Unavoidable progression of heart disease in an aging population Incomplete treatment of heart failure in the hospital setting Poor application of guidelines for treatment Noncompliance with diet and drug therapy Adapted with permission from Hobbs RE. Guidelines for the diagnosis and management of heart failure. Am J Ther 2004;11:467-472. c . C la ss I II : D eg r ee of e ff o r t n ec e s s ar y t o e l ic it HF s y m p t om s oc c u r s wi t h l e ss - th a no r d in a r y e xe r t i on . d . C l as s I V . D e g re e o f e ff o r t n ec e s s ar y t o e l ic it HF s ym p t om s oc cu r s wh i le a t r es t . 5 . A c r it ic is m o f th e N YH A c la s s i fi c a ti o n is i ts d ep e n de nc e o n s ub j ec ti v e a ss e ssm e nt s b y t he c l in ic a l p r ac ti t io n er , wh i ch ch a n ge s f r eq u en tl y a n d m i g h t n ot a cc u r at e l y re f le c t di f f er en t t re a tm en t op t io ns ba s e d on th e d e g re e o f s ym p t om s . C o n se q ue n tl y , m o r e r ec en t l y , th e “ A C C/ A H A G u ide l in es f o r t he E va lu a ti on a n d Ma n a g e m en t o f C hr o ni c H e a r t F a il u re ” of f e re d n ew c l a s s i fi c a t io n s c h em e th a t d e pi c ts H F as an e v ol v i ng c l i ni c a l e n ti t y an d d e tai l s a p r o gr es si o n b as ed o n ri sk
f a c to r s a nd s t r uc tu r a l c ha n g es , wh i c h m a y b e a s ym p t om a ti c o r s y m pt om at i c . W ith in t h is cl as s i f ic at i on , s pe c i fi c tr e at m e n ts c a n b e t a rge t e d a t e ac h s ta g e t o a f fe c t m o r bi di t y a nd m o r ta li t y (Ta b l e 42 - 2 ). Th e i n t ro d uc t io n o f th e f o u r s ta ge s o f H F a r e n o t i n te n de d t o re p la c e th e N YH A c la ss i fi c a t io n bu t r at h e r t o c om pl em en t i t . F . F o rm s of H F . A s m ent i o ne d , H F is a c o m p le x s yn d r om e a nd ha s b ee n d e sc r ib ed i n v a ri o us wa y s . Th e c a rd i na l m an i fe s ta t io ns of HF a r e d y s pn ea an d fa t ig ue , wh i c h m a y li m i t e xe r c i s e t ol e ran c e, r es ul t i n fl ui d re t en ti o n , a nd le ad t o p ul m o n ar y c o ng es t io n a n d p e ri ph e ra l ed em a . H o we ve r , t he f o l lo wi n g s ec t io ns p ro v i de se v e r a l wa ys t h a t h a v e be en us ed t o d es c ri be t he pa t ho ph ys i ol o g y a n d t he s ym p to m at o lo g y i n vo l ve d in t he c o nd i ti o n. Th o u gh t he te r m s l o w - ou t p ut v e r s u s h ig h -o u tp u t a n d l e ft s i de d ve rs us ri g ht - s i de d a r e no t ro u ti ne l y us e d in t h e c li ni c a l s e tt in g , t h ei r u s e he r e i s to he lp c o n v e y im po r ta n t e d uc at i on a l as p ec ts o f H F a n d a r e p re se n t ed o n l y fo r t h e p u r po s e of s i m p li f y i ng t he di s c us si o n o f t he pa t h op h y si o lo g y an d s ym p to m a t ol o g y . 1 . L ow -o u t p ut ve r s u s hi g h - o ut p u t f a i lu r e a . I f m e t ab o li c d em an ds a r e wi t h in no rm a l l im it s b u t th e h ea r t i s u n ab le to m e e t t h em , th e f a il u re is de s i gn a t ed l ow o u t pu t ( th e m o s t c om m o n t y p e ) . b . I f m et a bo li c d em an d s i n c re as e ( e . g. , h y p e r th yr o i di s m , a n em ia ) an d t h e h e a r t is u n a bl e t o m ee t th em , t h e f a il u re is de s i g na t ed hig h o u tp u t . C o m p a re d to l o w- o u t pu t f a i lu r e, c o r r ec ti o n o f t h e u n d er l y i ng c a us e o f h ig h- o u t pu t f a il u re is pa r am ou n t a s t h e i n i ti al t re a tm en t m o da li t y . 2 . L ef t - s id e d ve r s u s ri gh t - s i de d fa i l u re a . G e ne r a l s ym p t o m a t ol o g y. Th e s i gn s a nd s ym p t om s o f H F us u al l y re s ul t f ro m t h e e f f ec ts o f bl o od ba c k in g u p be hi n d t h e f ai li n g v e nt r i c l e (e xc e p t i n H F o wi ng t o i n c re as ed bo d y d em an ds ) . b . L ef t -s i de d a nd r ig h t -s id e d HF do n ot r ou t in el y e xi s t a s s e p a ra t e e nt i ti es ; h o we ve r , t he us e o f s epa r a t e t e rm s be s t i ll us t ra te s th e s ys te m i c c o ns e que n ce s . c . Th i s p ro g r es s i on oc c ur s be c a us e th e c a rd io v as c u l a r s ys t em is a cl os ed s ys t em ( F i gu r e 4 2 - 1) ; th us , o v er t im e , ri gh t -s i de d f a il u re c a us es l e f t -s id ed f ai lu r e a n d vic e ve r s a . d . L e ft - s id e d f a i lu r e . I f b l oo d c a nn o t b e a de qu a te l y p um pe d f r om t he l e f t v e n t r ic l e t o t he pe r ip h er a l c i r c u l ati o n a nd i t ac cu m u l at es wi t h in th e l e ft ve n t ri c l e, t he p at i en t i s l ik e l y t o e xh i bi t s ig n s o f l ef t - s id e d H F . As th e f l u id po r ti o n o f t h e b lo od b ac ks up i n t o t he pu lm o na r y a l v eol i th e re s u l t is t he de ve lop m en t o f pu lm on a r y ed em a th a t c a n p r es en t a s , s h o r tn es s o f b re a th , d ys p ne a o n e xe r t i o n an d a th i rd he a rt s ou nd . e . R i gh t - s id e d f a i lu r e . W hen b lo od is no t p um pe d f ro m t he r ig h t ve n t ri cle , t he fl ui d p o r ti o n o f t h e b lo o d b ac k s up t hr o ug h ou t th e b od y ( e . g. , in th e v ei ns , l i ve r , l e gs , b o we l s ) , p r od uc in g s y s tem ic ed em a . Su c h s i gn s wo u l d i nc lu de e v id e nc e o f el e v a te d p r e ss u re s i n t he v e no us s y s t em (e . g. , pe r ip h e ra l e d em a , j ug ul a r v en o us di s te ns i on ) . P.877
Table 42-2. Stages of Heart Failure (HF) Based on Evolution and Progression of Clinical Findings
Stage
Description
Examples
A
Patients at high risk of developing HF because of the presence of conditions that are strongly associated with the condition; such patients have no identified structural or functional abnormalities of the pericardium, myocardium, or cardiac valves and have never shown signs or symptoms of HF
Hypertension, atherosclerotic disease, diabetes mellitus, obesity, metabolic syndrome, history of cardiotoxic drug therapy or alcohol abuse, personal history of rheumatic fever, family history of cardiomyopathy
B
Patients who have developed structural heart disease that is strongly associated with the development of HF but who have never shown signs or symptoms of the condition
Left ventricular remodeling, including left ventricular hypertrophy or low ejection fraction; asymptomatic valvular disease; previous myocardial infarction
C
Patients who have current or prior symptoms of HF associated with underlying structural heart disease
Known structural heart disease, dyspnea or fatigue, reduced exercise tolerance
D
Patients with refractory HF who require specialized interventions
Patients with marked symptoms at rest despite maximal medical therapy (are frequently hospitalized for HF and cannot be safely discharged from the hospital, patients in the hospital awaiting heart transplantation, patients at home receiving continuous intravenous support for symptom relief or being supported with a mechanical circulatory assist device, patients in a hospice setting for the management of HF)
Adapted from Hunt SA, Abraham WT, Chin MH, et al. ACC/AHA 2005 guidelines for the diagnosis and management of chronic heart failure in the adult. A report of the American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association Task Force on Practice Guidelines (Writing Committee to
Update the 2001 Guidelines for the Evaluation and Management of Heart Failure). J Am Coll Cardiol 2005;46:1-82.
3 . D ia s to li c v e rs us S y s t ol i c D y s f un c t i on ( a ) D ia s to li c d y s fu n c t io n r e f e rs to an in a bi li t y f o r th e v e nt r ic l es t o fi ll wi t h b l oo d d u r in g d i as to l e, o r v e n t ric u la r re l a xa t i on . U nd e r n o r m al c i rc um s t a nc es , b l oo d r et u rn s t o t he ri g ht s i de o f t he he a r t f r om ei t he r th e u p per a n d l o we r bo d y (s u pe r io r ve n a c a va a n d i nf e r io r v e na c a v a , r es pe c ti ve l y) o r le f t s id e o f th e h e ar t f ro m t he l un gs ( vi a t he pu lm o na r y v e i n, l e f t a t ri a , a nd m i t ra l v al ve ) . A n i na bi l it y f o r t h e r es p ec ti v e ve n t r ic l e( s ) t o a c c om m od a t e t he bl o od th a t i s r e tu r n in g to i t wi l l r e s u lt in a b ac k u p o f bl o od in th os e a r e as wh e r e i t o r ig i na t ed f ro m . ( b ) Th e in a bi li t y o f t he v e n t ri c l e (s ) to ac c o m m oda t e th e b lo o d b ei n g p re se n t ed to i t i s re f e rr e d t o a s n on c o mp l ia nc e , a n d oc cu r s d ue t o s t i ff n es s oc c u r r in g wi th i n t h e ve n t r ic u la r wa l ls . St i ff n es s c an r es ul t f r om cl in ic a l s i tu a ti o ns s uc h a s h y pe r t e ns io n , a o r ti c s te n os is , d i ab e te s , m y oc a r di al in f a rc ti o n, an d c a r di ac isc h em ia . ( c ) K e y to th e d i ag n os is o f di as t ol ic he a r t f ai l u re a r e th r ee c o n di ti o ns : (i ) p r e s e nc e o f si gn s o r s y m pt o m s o f h e a r t f ai lu r e ; ( i i) p re s e nc e o f n o rm al o r s l i gh t l y red u ce d L V e j ec t io n f r ac t io n ( EF >5 0% ) ; an d (i ii ) th e p r es e nc e o f i nc r ea s e d d i as to l ic fi l li n g p r e ss u re . ( d ) S y s to l ic d y s f un c t i on r e f e rs to an im pa i re d deg r e e o f v en t r ic ul a r c on t ra c ti o n r e s ul ti n g i n a de c r e as e in c a r d ia c i no t ro p y ( co n t ra c ti l it y) a nd c a r di ac s t r ok e v ol um e ( s e e I I . Pa t ho ph y s i ol og y ) . Th i s s e ts i n m o ti on a s er i e s o f co m pe ns a to r y m ec h an is m s wi t h t h e p u rp os e b e in g to i nc r ea s e th e a b il i t y o f th e he a r t t o d el i ve r b lo o d t o th e b o d y ( in c r e as e s t ro k e v ol u m e ) , b u t wh i c h h a v e a n e g at i v e e f fe c t b y in c re as i ng p l as m a v o lu m e ( p re lo a d ), a nd pu lm o na r y c a p il la ry we d g e p r es su r e. P a ti en t s wi t h s ys t ol ic d ys f un c ti on u nl ik e th os e wi t h d ia s t o li c dy s f u nc t io n h a v e l o we r t he n no r m a l c a r di ac ej ec t io n f r ac t io ns ( E F < 40 % ) , d ue t o s t r ok e v ol um e re d uc ti o ns a l on g wi t h i n c re as es in en d d ia s to lic v o lu m e s . P.878
Figure 42-1. An overview of blood flow through the cardiovascular system.
( e ) Th e r ap e ut ic op t io ns m a y o v e rl a p b et we e n di as t ol ic an d s y s to l ic p a ti e nt s ; h o we ve r , t r ea t m e n t o f u nd e r l y in g p a th o ph ys io l og ic p ro c e ss es c a n r es u lt in d i ff e r en t t h e r ap eu t ic s t r at e gi es bet we e n t h e t wo cl i ni c a l e nt i t ie s . ( f ) I no t r op ic ag e nt s , p re lo a d re du ci n g a nd af t e rl oa d r ed uc in g a g en t s, an d d i u re t ic s a r e ut il i z e d t o re v e r s e the c o ns e qu e nc es of s ys t ol i c d ys fu nc t io n , i .e . , r e duc e d c a r di ac ou t pu t d u e t o d ec r e as ed m y o c ar d ia l c on tr a c ti li t y. H o we v e r , A C E in h ib i to r s , A R B s , be t a a dr e ne r gi c bl o c k e rs h a ve a ls o b e en in c lu d ed i n re c e n t t h e ra pe u t ic g u id e li n es f o r u s e in pa t ie n ts wi t h s y s t ol ic d ys f unc t io n . ( g ) A C E in hi b it o rs , A R Bs , a nd be t a a d re n e rg ic blo c k e rs r ep r es e nt th e b a ck b on e o f c u r re n t t r e at m e n t o pt i ons r ec om m e nd e d f o r p a ti en t s wi t h d ia st o li c d y s fu nc t io n . H o we ve r , p a ti e n ts i d en ti fi e d wi t h s i g ns a n d s y m p to m s s u g ge st i ve o f fl ui d a cc u m u la t io n a n d r e du c ed c a r d ia c e je c t i on f ra c t i on s h a v e s h o wn be n ef i t f ro m th e u s e o f d iu r e ti c s to de c rea s e f lu i d r e te n ti o n, an d in o t r op ic ag en t s s u c h as d i go xi n t o r e d uc e h os pi t al i z a ti o ns . 4 . P r o g re s si ve n a tu r e of H F a . I nj u r y to th e m y o c a r diu m o r s t r es s p la c e d o n i t i s g en e r al l y re q ui r ed bef o r e t h e d e ve l op m e n t o f l ef t v e nt ri c ul a r d y s fu nc t io n . b . Th e p ri m a r y p re s e n ta ti o n f o r t h e as s oc ia t ed s ig n s a nd s ym p to m s of H F i s a c h an g e i n t he s h ap e a n d s t ru c tu r e o f t h e l ef t ve ntr i c l e , wh e re i t d il a te s a nd / o r h yp e r t ro p hi es in t o m or e o f a s ph e ri c a l s ha p e, r efe r r e d t o a s ca r d ia c r em od e li n g. S u c h ch a ng es in th e s h ap e P.879 o f t he he a rt r es ul t i n a l ter e d s t r ess e s o n t he c a r dia c wa l ls o wi n g t o si ze as we l l as s t r uc t ur a l c h a ng es , wh i c h a ls o l en d t h em s e l ves to a lt e r ed bl oo d fl o w t h rou g h t h e va r i o us he a r t c h am b e rs .
Table 42-3. Substances That May Exacerbate Heart Failure
Promote Sodium Retention
Produce Osmotic Effect Decrease Contractility
Androgens
Albumin
Corticosteroids
Glucose
Diazoxide
Mannitol
β-adrenergic blockers
Estrogens
Saline
Licorice
Urea
Select calcium channel blockers (e.g., diltiazem, nifedipine, verapamil)
Lithium carbonate NSAIDs
Antiarrhythmic agents (e.g., disopyramide, flecainide, quinidine)
Direct cardiotoxins (e.g., doxorubicin, ethanol, cocaine, amphetamines)
Tricyclic antidepressants NSAIDs, nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs. G . T r e a tm e n t g oa l s . H F r e q ui r es a t wo - p r on g ed t h e r ap eu t ic ap p ro ac h , t he o v e r al l g o al s o f wh i c h ar e 1 . T o r e mo ve o r mi t i ga te t h e u n de r l yi n g c a u s es o r r is k fa c t o rs — f o r e xa m pl e , b y e l im in a ti n g i ng es t io n o f c e r ta i n d ru g s o r o t he r s ub s ta nc e s t ha t c a n p ro d uc e o r e xa c e r b a te H F o r b y c o r re c ti n g a n a ne m i c s y n dr om e , wh ic h c an in c re as e c a r di ac d e m a n ds ( Ta bl e 4 2 -3 ) . In a dd i ti on , m o di f y r is k f ac t o rs th a t c a n c a us e c a rd i ac in ju r y b y t r e at i ng h y pe r t en s i o n a n d d ia b e te s ; m a na g in g a t h e ro s c le r o ti c di s ea s e ; a n d c o nt r o ll in g s m o k i ng , al c oh o l , a nd il li ci t d r u g us e . 2 . T o r e l ie ve t h e s ym p t o m s a n d i m p r o ve p u mp f u n c ti o n b y: a . R ed u c i ng m e t ab ol ic de m an ds th r o ug h re st , re la xa t i o n , a n d p ha r m a c e u ti c al c o nt r o ls b . R e du c i ng f lu id v o lu m e e xc e s s t h ro u gh di e ta r y a n d p h ar m a c eu ti c al c o ntr o l s c . A dm in is t e ri ng a c om bin a t io n o f d i u re ti c s , a n gi ot e n s i n -c on v e r t in g e n zy m e i n hi b it o rs ( A C E Is ) β -a d r en e r gi c b lo ck e rs , a n d a ngi o t en si n - re c e p to r bl oc k e rs ( A R Bs ) d . P r om o ti ng pa t ie n t c om p li an c e a nd s e lf - r eg u lat i o n t h ro u gh ed uc a ti on e . S el ec t in g a p pr o p ri a te p a t ie n ts fo r c a rd i ac tr a ns p l a n ta t io n 3 . D u ri n g r ec e nt y e a rs , s e v e r a l s et s o f g u id el i ne s h a ve b e en de v e l op e d f or t h e t r e a tm en t o f H F . Mo s t r ec e nt l y , a p an el o f l ea di ng p h ys ic i an s a nd r es ea r ch e r s i n t he f i e ld of H F p r o v id e d r ec om m e n da t io ns . Se e wi t hi n t h e f ol l o wi n g ci t a ti on : Hu n t S A,
A b r a ha m W T, C h in MH , e t al . A C C / A H A 2 00 5 g u id e li n es fo r th e d i ag no si s a n d m a na g em en t o f c h ro n ic h e a r t f ai lu r e i n t h e a du l t. A r e po r t o f th e Am er ic an C o ll e ge o f C a rd i ol og y / A m er ic a n H e a r t As so c i a ti on Ta s k F o r ce on P r ac ti c e G u id eli n es (W ri ti n g C o m m it t ee to Up d a te th e 2 0 01 G u id el i ne s fo r th e E val ua t io n a nd Ma n a g e m en t o f H ea r t F ai l u re ) . J Am C ol l Ca r di o l 2 0 0 5; 4 6: 1 -8 2 ; a v a il a bl e a t c o nt e nt . on l in ej a c c .o r g /c g i / re p r in t /4 6 /6 / e1 . 4 . Th e se gu id e li ne s re p re s en t th e m os t u p -t o - da te s ta nd a r ds fo r th e p r e ve n t io n , d i ag n os is , a n d t r ea tm e nt o f H F ( Ta b l e 4 2- 4 ) . a . Th e gu id e li ne s f oc us o n fo u r s ta g es in th e d e ve l op m en t o f H F; st a ge s A a n d B i n cl ud e p a ti e nt s a t ri s k fo r H F a n d s ta g es C a nd D i nc l ud e p a ti e nt s wh o ha ve d e ve l op ed H F . b . P a ra m o u nt t o t he ne w g u id el i ne s is t he r ol e t ha t A C E Is o r A R B s a nd β -a d r en e r gi c b l oc ke r s p la y , ba s e d o n e v i d e nc e- b as ed p ra c ti ce. c . Tr e a tm en t of pa t ie n ts wi t h r e f r ac to r y e nd - s t a ge H F ( s t a ge D ) s ho u ld in c lu d e t h e p r i m a r y t he r ap e ut ic ag e nt s th a t a r e us e d f o r s ta ge s A , B , a n d C . H o we ve r, l ac k o f a n acc e p ta bl e re s p o ns e wi l l r e qu i re s p ec i al i z ed no n p ha rm a co lo g ic m od a li ti e s , s u ch a s m ec h an ic al c i rc u la t o ry s u pp o r t , t r an sp la n ta t ion , an d e n d -o f -l i fe c a r e f or t h os e e xh i b i t in g n o b e ne f it .
II. PATHOPHYSIOLOGY. H F a nd de c re as e d c ar d ia c o u tp u t t r ig g e r a c om ple x s c h em e o f c om p en s a to r y m ec h an is m s de s i gn e d t o n o rm a li z e c a rd i ac ou t put ( c a r d ia c o ut p ut = s t ro k e v o l um e × h e a r t r a te ) . Th e p ri n c i pa l m an i fe s ta t io n o f p r og r es s i on in c a r di ac d ys f un c tio n is a c h an g e i n t he ge om e t r y o f t he l e f t ve n t ri cl e , r es ul t i ng in v e nt r ic ul a r d i la ti on a nd h yp e r t ro p h y , wi t h a re s u lt a n t i nc r ea se in a m or e sp h e ri ca l s ha p e — re f er r e d t o as c a r di ac re m o d el i ng . Th is r e s u l ts i n i nc r e as es i n ve n t ri c ul a r wa l l te ns i on , de p r es si on i n m ec h an ic a l p er f o rm anc e , a nd r et e n ti on o f n orm a l ca r d ia c f lu i d, wh i ch wo r s e n th e r e m od el i ng p ro c e s s . P.880
P.881
Table 42-4. Approach to Heart Failure (HF)a
At Risk for Heart Failure Stage A Stage B
Stage C
Heart Failure Stage D
Patien ts
Patients at high risk of developing HF because of presence of conditions that are strongly associated with developmen t of condition; such patients have no identified structural or functional abnormalitie s of the pericardium, myocardium , or cardiac valves and have never shown signs or symptoms of HF
Patients who have developed structural heart disease that is strongly associated with developme nt of HF but who have never shown signs or symptoms of the condition
Patients who have structural heart disease with current or prior symptoms of HF
Patients with refractory HF who require specialized interventions
Goals
Treat hypertensio n
Same as stage A
Same as stage A
Same as stages A and C
Dietary salt restriction
Decision concerning appropriate level of care
Encourage smoking cessation Treat lipid disorders
Encourage regular exercise Discourage alcohol intake, illicit drug use Control metabolic syndrome Drugs
ACEIs to prevent HF in patients at high risk who have a history of atherosclero tic vascular disease, diabetes mellitus, or hypertensio n
ACEIs in patients with reduced ejection fractions and no symptoms of HF, even without previous MI
ACEIs and β-blockers, with one proven to reduce mortality (bisoprolol, carvedilol, and sustainedrelease metoprolol for all stable patients) with current or prior symptoms of HF and reduced LVEF
Referral to an HF program with expertise in the management of refractory HF
ARBs, as with ACEIs, though evidence not as strong
β-Blockers and ACEIs in all patients with recent or remote history of MI ARBs
ARBs in patients with current or prior symptoms of HF and reduced LVEF who cannot
Drug therapy not considered, instead consideratio n is given for transplantati on, when applicable
should be administer ed to postMI patients without HF who cannot tolerate ACEIs and have low LVEF, though evidence not as strong. β-Blockers for all patients without MI who have reduced LVEF with no HF symptoms, though evidence not as strong.
tolerate ACEIs Diuretics and salt restriction in patients with current or prior symptoms of HF and reduced LVEF who have evidence of fluid retention, though evidence not as strong Addition of an aldosterone antagonist in select patients with moderately severe to severe HF symptoms and reduced LVEF who can be carefully monitored for renal function and potassium concentratio ns, though evidence not as strong. Current evidence favors combination of
Continuous intravenous infusion of a positive inotropic agent for palliation of symptoms, though evidence not strong
hydralazine and a nitrate in patients with reduced LVEF and persistent symptoms already receiving ACEIs and β-blockers ACEIs, angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors; ARBs, angiotensinreceptor blockers; LVEF, left ventricular ejection fraction; MI, myocardial infarction. a
The guidelines listed here are definitive, based on available evidence, and are not intended to reflect the entire set of guidelines with less-thansubstantial evidence. A complete set of usage guidelines is available at content.onlinejacc.org/cgi/reprint/46/6/e1. Adapted from Hunt SA, Abraham WT, Chin MH, et al. ACC/AHA 2005 guidelines for the diagnosis and management of chronic heart failure in the adult. A report of the American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association Task Force on Practice Guidelines (Writing Committee to Update the 2001 Guidelines for the Evaluation and Management of Heart Failure). J Am Coll Cardiol 2005;46:1-82. P.882
A. C o m p e n sa t i o n. Th es e m e c h a ni s m s a re s h o wn i n F ig u re 42 - 2 . 1 . S ym p a t h e t i c r es p o nse s . In ad e qu a te c a r di ac ou t p ut s t im u la t es re f le x ( n o r ep i ne ph r i ne an d e pin e p hr i ne ) ac ti v a t io n o f th e s y m p at h et ic ne r v o us s y s t em a n d a n in c re as e i n c ir c ul at i ng c a t ec h ol am in es . Th e he a r t ra t e i nc re a se s , an d b l oo d fl o w i s re di s t ri bu t ed t o e ns u re p e rf us i on of th e m os t vi t a l o rg a ns ( th e b r ai n a nd t he h e a r t) . 2 . H o r mo n a l s t im u la t i on . Th e r ed is t ri b ut i on of bl o od f lo w r e s ul ts in r ed uc e d r e na l p e r f us io n , wh i c h d ec r ea s e s th e g lo m e r u la r fi l tr a tio n r at e ( G F R ). R ed uc t ion i n G F R r e s ul ts in : a . S od i um a n d wa t e r r ete n t io n b . A ct i va ti o n o f t h e r en i n- a n gi o te ns i n -a ld os t e ro n e s y s te m , wh i c h f u rt h e r en h a nc es s o di um r et e nt i on an d t h us v o lu m e e xp a n s i on
3 . C o nc e n t ri c c a r d ia c hyp e r t r o p h y d e s c ri b es a m ec h an is m t h at th ic ke n s c a rd i ac wa l l s , p r o v i di ng la r g er c o n t r ac ti l e ce ll s a n d d im in i s h in g th e c ap ac i t y of th e c a v i t y in a n at t em p t t o p r ec ip i ta t e e xp u l s io n a t l o we r vo l um es ( v e n tr ic u la r re m o d eli n g ; s e e II). 4 . F r an k - S ta r l i ng me c ha n i sm . Th e p r em is e o f th i s r es p on se is th a t i nc re a s e d f i be r d i la t io n h e ig h te ns th e c on t r ac t il e f o rc e , wh i c h t h en i nc r ea s e s t he en e r g y re l ea s ed . a . W it hi n p h y s i o lo g ic al l im i ts , t h e h ea r t p um ps al l t h e b lo o d i t r ec e i ves wi th o u t a l lo wi n g e xc e s s i v e ac c um u la t io n wi t hi n t h e ve i ns o r c a r di ac c h am be r s. b . A s b lo od v o lu m e in c rea s es , t h e v a r i ou s c a r d iac ch am b er s d il a te (s t r e tch ) a nd e n la r g e i n a n a t te m p t t o a c c o m m od a te th e e xc e s s f lu id . c . A s t he s e s t r e tc he d m us c l es c o n t ra ct , th e c on t ra c ti l e f o rc e i nc r ea s e s i n p r o po r t io n t o t he i r d is te n ti o n. Th e n t h e e xt e n d e d f ib e rs s n ap b ac k (a s a ru bb e r b a nd wo u l d ) , e xp e l l i ng th e e xt r a f l ui d in t o th e a r te r i es . d . A dd i ti o na l e v i de n c e s u g g es ts th a t t he r el e as e o f c yto ki n es (e . g. , tu m o r n ec r os is f a c to r ) o c c u rs i n c o nc e rt wi t h e le va t ed le v e ls o f c i r c ul at i ng no r e pi ne p h ri ne, a n gi o te n s i n I I , a ld os t e ron e , e n do t he li n , a n d v a sop r e s s in , wh ic h m a y al l p la y a r ol e i n ad ve r s e l y af f ec t in g t he h ea r t s t ru c tu r e, r es ul t in g in de p re ss e d p er f o rm a n ce . B . D e c om p en s a ti o n . O v e r t im e, t he c om p en s a t o ry m e c h a ni s m s be co m e exh a u s t e d a n d i nc r ea s i n gl y i ne f fe c ti v e , en t e ri n g a vic io us sp i r al of de c om pe ns a ti on i n wh i c h t h e m ec ha n is m s s u rp as s t h ei r li m i ts an d b ec om e s e lf - d ef e at i ng — as th e y wo r k h a r de r , th e y on l y e xh a us t t h e s ys t em ' s c ap ac i t y to r es p on d . 1 . A s t he s t r ai n c on t in u es , to t al pe r ip h e ra l r es is ta n c e an d a f te r l oa d i nc r ea s e, t h e r eb y d ec r ea s i ng t he pe r c en t ag e o f b l oo d e je c te d pe r un i t o f t im e . A f te rl o ad is d e t e rm in ed b y th e a m o un t o f c o n t ra c t i le fo r c e nee d e d t o o v e rc om e i n t ra v e n t ri c ul a r p r e ss u re an d e je c t t he blo o d . a . Af t e r l o a d is t he te ns io n in v e nt r ic u la r m us c l es d u ri n g c on t ra c ti on . In t he l ef t ve n t r ic l e, th is t en s i on is d e t e rm in ed b y th e a m o un t o f f o rc e n ee d ed to o ve r c om e p r e ss u re i n th e a o r ta . Aft e r lo a d ( a ls o k n o wn a s in t r a v e nt r ic ul a r s y s to l ic pr e s s u r e) is s om e ti m e s u s e d t o d e s c ri b e t h e am o un t o f fo r c e n e e de d i n t h e r ig h t v en t ri c le to o ve r c om e p r es s u r e i n t he p ul m o n ar y a r t er y . b . P r e lo a d i s t he fo r c e exe r t e d o n t h e ven t ri c u l a r m us c l e a t t h e e nd o f d ias t ol e , wh i c h de t e rm in es th e d eg r e e o f m us c l e f ib e r s t ret c h . Th i s c o n c e p t is al s o k no wn a s ve n t r ic u la r e n d -d ia s to li c p r e s s u re . P re lo a d is a ke y f a c t o r i n c on t r ac ti l it y b e ca us e t h e m o re th e s e m us c l es a r e s t r et c h e d i n d ia st o le , t h e m or e p o we r f u ll y t hey c o n t ra ct i n s ys t ol e . 2 . A s t he fl u id v o lu m e e xp a n ds , s o d o t he de m a nd s o n a n a l r ea d y e xh a us t e d p um p , a l lo wi n g in c re as e d v o l um e to re m a i n i n t he v e n tr i c l e . 3 . Th e re s u l ti n g f lu i d b ac k u p ( f r om th e l e ft v e nt r ic l e in t o t he lu n gs ; f r om the r ig h t ve n t r ic l e i nt o p e ri p he r al c i rc u la ti o n ) p r od uc es th e s ig ns an d s y m pt om s o f H F .
III. CLINICAL EVALUATION. A s se s s m e n t o f f l ui d s ta tu s a n d l ef t v e nt r ic ul a r e je c ti o n f r ac ti o n ( us u al l y < 4 0 % i n p a t ie n ts wi t h HF ( Ta b le 4 2 - 4 ). A. F l u i d ac c um u la t i o n b e h i nd t he le f t ve n t r ic le 1 . S i gn s a n d s ym p t o m s
a . D ys pn e a P.883
Figure 42-2. Compensatory mechanisms in heart failure.
P.884
( 1 ) A s H F pr o g re s s es , t he am o un t o f ef f o rt r eq u ire d to t ri g ge r ex e r t io n al d ys p n e a l e ss en s. ( 2 ) B o t h p a r ox ys m a l n o c t u r n al d ys p n e a a n d o rt h o p ne a re s u l t f r om v o lum e p o ol in g i n th e re c u m b e nt po s i t ion a nd c a n b e r e li e v ed b y p r o pp in g u p th e p a ti en t wi t h p i ll o ws o r h a v in g th e p a ti e n t s i t u p r ig h t. ( O r t ho pne a is o f t en ga ug e d b y t he n um be r o f pi l lo ws t he pa t ie n t n ee d s t o s le ep c o m f o r ta b l y. ) b . D r y, wh e e z i ng c o ug h c . E xe r t i o na l f a ti g ue an d we a k n es s d . N oc t u ri a . E d em at o us fl u id s t h at ac c u m u la t e d ur i n g t h e d a y m ig r a te f rom d e p en de n t a r ea s wh e n th e pa t ie n t is in a r ec um be n t p os i ti o n a nd r en al per f u si o n i n c re as es . 2 . P h ys i c a l f i n di n g s a . R al es ( o r c ra c k le s ) i nd i c a t e t he m o v e m e n t o f a i r th r ou g h f lu i d -f il l ed pas s a g es . b . Ta c h y c a r di a i s a n e a rly c o m p e ns at o r y r es po ns e d et ec t ed t h ro ug h a n i nc r e as ed p u ls e ra t e. c . S 3 ven t ri c ul a r g al lo p is a v ib r at i on p ro du c ed by r a p i d f il li n g o f t h e l ef t ve n t r ic l e e a r l y i n di as t ol e . d . S 4 a t r ia l g al l op is a v ib r a ti o n p r od uc e d b y in c re a se d re s i s t a nc e t o s udd e n , f o r ce f ul ej ec t io n o f a t r ia l b l oo d i n l a te di as t ol e ; i t d o es n o t v a r y wi t h i ns pir a t io n i n l e f t -s id e d f ai lu r e a n d is m o r e c o m m on in di as t ol ic d y sf u nc ti o n. 3 . D i ag n os t i c t e s t r e su lt s a . C a rd i om eg al y ( h ea r t en l a rg em e nt ) , l e f t v e n t ri c u l a r h y p e rt r o ph y , an d p ul m on a r y c o ng es t io n m a y be e v id en c ed b y c h es t r a di og r a ph , el ec t r oc a rd io g r am ( EC G ) , a n d
r e d uc t io n i n l e ft v e nt r ic u la r f un ct i on v i a e c h oc a rd io g r ap h y an d ra d io n uc li de ve n t r ic u lo g ra p h y . b . A rm - t o -t o ng u e c i r c u la ti o n t im e i s p r ol on g ed . c . Tr a ns u da t i v e p le u ra l ef f u s i on m a y b e su g ge s ted b y r ad i og r ap h a n d c o n fi r m ed b y a n al ys is of as pi r a te d p l eu r a l f lu i d. B . F l u id ac c um u la t i o n b e h i nd t he r i gh t si d e o f t h e he a r t 1 . S i gn s a n d s ym p t o m s a . C om pl a in ts b y th e p a tie n t o f ti g ht n es s an d s we ll i ng ( e. g . , “ My r i n g is to o t i gh t , ” “ M y s k i n f ee ls to o ti gh t ” ) s ug g es t e d em a. b . N a us ea , v om i ti ng , ano r e xi a , b lo a ti ng , or ab d om i na l p ai n o n e xe r t i o n m a y r e f le c t h e p at ic an d v is c e r al en go r g em en t , re su l ti ng f r om v e n o us pr es s ur e e l e vat io n . 2 . P h ys i c a l f i n di n g s a . Ju gu l a r v e i n d is te n ti on r e fl ec ts in c re as e d ve no u s p r es s u r e a nd is a car d i na l s ig n of HF. b . S 3 ven t r ic ul a r g al l op (s e e I I I. A . 2 .c ) . c . S 4 a t ri a l g al lo p i n te ns if i es on in s p i r at i on i n ri g ht - s id e d f ai lu r e . d . H e pa t om eg al y ( a te n de r , en l ar g ed li v e r ) i s r e v e a le d wh e n p us hi n g o n th e ed g e o f t h e l i ve r re s u l ts i n a fl u id r e fl u x i n t o t he ju g ul a r ve i n s , c a us i ng bu lg i ng (po s it i ve h e p at oj u gu l ar r e fl u x) . e . B il a te r al le g e d em a is a n e a r l y s ig n o f ri g ht - s id e d HF ; pi t ti n g a nk le ede m a s i g na ls m o r e a d v an c e d H F. H o we v e r , ed em a i s c om m o n t o m a n y di s o r de r s, an d a p a t te r n o f a ss o ci at e d f in d in gs , s uc h as c o nc u r re n t n ec k v e in d is te n ti o n, is re q ui r ed f o r d i f fe r e nt ia l d i ag n os is . 3 . L ab o r a to r y f i n d i n g s . E l e va t e d l e ve l s o f he p at i c en z ym e s — f o r e xa m pl e , a l an in e a m in o t ra ns f er a s e ( AL T) — r e f le c t h ep a ti c c o n ge s ti o n . 4 . E va l ua t i o n o f n a t r i u re t i c p e p ti d es . Me a s u rem e nt o f B - t y p e n at r iu r e tic pe p ti d e ( B N P ) h as be en s u g ge s te d in th e e v a l ua t io n o f pa t i en ts p re s e n ti n g i n t he a c ut e c a re s e t ti ng wh e n a di a gn os is o f H F is un c er t ai n . E l e va t e d l e vel s o f B N P h a ve b e e n a ss o ci at e d wi t h a re du c tio n in th e l e ft v e n t ri c u la r e j ec t io n f r ac t io n (L V E F ) a s we l l as i n le f t ve n t ri c u l a r h y p er t ro p h y , a c ut e m y o ca r di al i n f a rc t io n , a nd is c h em ia , t h o ug h t h e y a re no t s p ec if ic fo r H F a nd c a n o c c u r i n p at ie n ts wi t h ob st r uc t i v e l ung d is ea se , a n d p ul m on a r y e m bo li .
IV. THERAPY A. B e d r e s t 1 . Ad va n t a g es a . B ed r es t d ec r e as es m et a b ol ic ne e ds , wh i c h r e du c es c a rd i ac wo r k l o ad . b . R e du c e d wo r k l o ad , i n t u r n , r e du c e s p ul se r at e a n d d y s pn e a. c . B ed r es t a ls o h e lp s d ec r e as e e xc e s s fl u id vo lum e b y p r om o ti ng di u r es is . P.885
2 . D i sa d va n t ag es . P h ys ic a l ac t i v i t y (e xc e p t d u r ing ac u te de c om pe ns a ti on) s ho u ld b e en co u ra g ed t o a v o id p h y s ic al de co n di t io ni n g a n d e xe r c i se in t ol e ra nc e. Th e r is k o f ve no u s s t as is in c re as e s wi t h b e dr es t an d c an r e s ul t i n t h r om bo em b ol ism .
A n t i em bo li s m s t oc k i ng s h e lp m i ni m i z e t hi s r is k , as do pa s s i ve o r ac ti v e leg e xe r c i s es , wh e n t he pa t ie n t ' s c o n di t io n p e rm i ts . 3 . P r o g re s si ve a mb u l ati o n s h ou l d f ol lo w a d e qua t e b e d re s t . B. Dietary controls 1 . C o ns u mi n g s m al l bu t f r e q ue n t m e al s ( fo u r t o s i x d a il y) t ha t ar e l o w i n c al o ri e s a n d re si du e p r o v i de no u ri s hm en t wi t ho u t u n du l y in c r ea si ng m e t ab ol ic d em a n ds . 2 . M o d e ra t e s o d iu m re st r i c t i o n al o ng wi t h da il y m e as u re m e n ts o f we i g ht h e lp m a xi m i z e th e l o we s t a nd s a fe s t do s e s o f d i ur e ti c s , a p ri m a r y t o ol i n re d uc i ng c e nt r a l vo l u m e in H F . a . R en a l f un c ti on s h o ul d b e e v a l ua t ed to as s e s s s o di u m c o ns e r vat i on if s e v e r e s o di um r es t ri c t i on is c ont e m p l at e d. b . Mo d e r a te s o di um r es tr i c ti on ( 2 -4 g o f d ie t a r y s o d iu m /d a y ) c a n b e ac h iev e d wi t h r e l at i ve ea s e b y l im i ti ng t h e a d di t io n o f s al t du r i ng c o ok i ng an d a t th e t a ble . c . Th e pa ti e n t s h o ul d b e a d v is e d a bo u t m ed ic a ti on s a n d c om m o n p ro d uc ts t h a t c o nt a in s o di um an d c au t io n e d a bo u t t he i r u s e ( e.g . , an t ac id s , so di um bi c ar b o na t e o r b a ki n g s o d a, c o m m er c i a l d i et fo o d p r od uc t s , wa t er s of t en e rs ) . Ta bl e 4 2 - 3 li s ts ot h er s u bs ta n c e s t ha t pr om o te s od i um re t en t io n . C . D r u g - r e la t e d c on s i de r a t i on s . Th e ra pe u ti c i nt e r v e n ti o ns m ig h t im p r o ve c a r d ia c p e r f or m a n c e i n th e f o ll owi n g wa y s : 1 . D r ug s m a y i nc r e as e th e c a r di ac ej ec t io n f r ac t io n b y d i r ec tl y s ti m u la t ing c a r d ia c c o nt r ac t il i t y . Th e us e o f p o s i t i v e i no t r op ic ag en t s s uc h a s d op am i ne , d o but a m i n e, a n d m il r in o ne c a n p r od uc e i m m ed i at e b e ne f it s ; ho we v e r , t h e l on g - te r m b en e f it ha s n o t b e en ap p re c i a te d , a nd i n s o m e c a se s m a y a ctu a ll y i nc r ea s e m o r bi d it y a n d m o r ta li t y. 2 . D r ug s m a y i nc r e as e th e ej ec t io n f r ac t io n b y de c r ea s i ng t he im pe d an ce t o ej ec ti o n t h r o ug h r e la xa t i o n o f p e ri p he r a l b lo od ve s s el s . Th e us e o f vas od il a t or s s u c h as h yd r a la z i n e a nd ot h e r a rt e r ia l d i la t o rs m a y pr o duc e s ho r t - te r m b en e fi t b u t d o n o t n e ce ss a ri l y p ro du c e c l in ic a l b en e fi ts in t he lo ng te r m . 3 . D r ug s m a y i m p r o v e t he e je c t i on f ra c t i on b y af fe c ti n g t he ca r di ac r em ode l in g p r o ce s s . Ne u ro h o rm on al a n ta g on is ts s u c h as A CE I s , β -a d re n e rg ic re ce p to r bl o c k er s , A R B s , an d v as od il a to r g ro wt h i n hi bi t o rs s uc h a s ni t r a te s m a y n o t p r od uc e im m e d ia t e b e n ef i ts , b u t l on g -t e rm us e m ig h t i m p r o v e c li ni c a l s t at us an d d ec r e as e f u tu r e c a r di ac e v en ts . 4 . A C E Is , A R Bs , d i ur e ti c s , an d β -a d re n er g ic bl ock e rs us ua l l y fo rm t he bas ic c o r e o f t r e a tm en t fo r H F. D . AC E I s 1 . R ec e nt gu i de li n es re c o m m e nd th e u s e o f A C E Is in al l p a ti e nt s wi t h H F o wi n g t o l e f t ve n t ri c u l a r s y s t o li c dy s f u nc t io n u nl e s s t h e p ati e n ts h a v e a c o n t ra in d ic a t i on to t h e ir us e o r ha v e de m o ns t r at e d i nt o le r an ce t o t he i r u s e. C u r re n tl y, A C E Is a r e c o ns id e re d th e f i rs t - li ne a g e nt s i n t he t re a tm e nt o f H F a n d h a ve b ee n s ho wn t o h a ve a b en e fi c i al e ff ec t on c a rd i ac r em od el i ng . 2 . R el a ti v e c o n t ra in d ic at io n s i nc lu d e h is to r y o f i n to l e ra nc e o r ad v e r se r ea c t i o ns , s e r um p o ta s s iu m > 5. 5 m E q /L , s e ru m c r ea t in in e l e ve ls > 3 m g/ d L, s ym p to m at ic h yp o t en s i o n, s e v e r e r e na l ar t e r y s t en os is , an d pr e g na nc y .
3 . A C E Is ha v e be e n s h own t o r e du c e s ym p to m s , i m p ro v e c l in ic al st a tu s, en h a nc e t h e o ve r a ll qu al i t y of li f e, a nd r ed uc e d e at h a s we l l a s t he r is k o f d ea t h or h o sp i ta li z a t io n i n m il d , m o d e ra t e , a nd s e ve r e H F p a t ie n ts wi t h o r wi t h ou t c o r on a r y a r t e r y di s e as e . 4 . Th e y i nh ib i t t he e n z ym e re s p o ns ib le f o r t he c o n v e r si on o f a ng io t en si n I ( a we ak va s o co ns t ri c to r ) to an gi ot e ns i n I I (a po t en t vas oc o n st r ic t o r ). Th is ac t io n s i g ni f ic an t l y d e c re as es to t al pe r i ph e ra l re s i s ta nc e , wh i c h a id s i n re d uc in g a f te r lo a d. 5 . I nh ib i ti n g t he p ro d uc tio n of an g io t en s i n I I in t erf e r es wi t h s t im ul a ti on o f a l do s te r on e re l ea s e , th us in d ir e ct l y r ed uc in g re t en t i on of s o di um an d wa te r , wh i ch d e c re as es v e no us r et u r n a n d p r el oa d . P.886
6 . I n p at i en ts wi t h a hi s to r y o f fl ui d re t en t io n o r wh o p r e se n t wi t h f lu id r et e n ti o n, a d i u re t ic c a n b e a dd ed t o a n A C E I . A C E Is a re al s o i n di ca t ed fo r pa t ie n ts wi t h le f t ve n t r ic u la r d y s f un c t i on wi t h ou t s y m pt om s o f H F. 7 . A C E Is a re in di c a t ed fo r t he lo n g- t e rm m a na gem e nt o f c h r o ni c H F a n d a r e g e n er a ll y r ec om m e n de d i n c om b in a ti on wi t h a β -a d r en e r gi c b lo ck e r a nd di u r et ic . 8 . A ll A C E Is th a t h a v e be e n s tu d ie d i n t h e t r ea tm e n t o f H F h a v e s ho wn b en e f it . Th e s e le ct i on of ag e nt an d do s e s h o ul d b e b as e d o n c u r re n tl y a v a il a bl e l a rg e -s c a l e s t ud i es i n wh i c h ta r ge t do s es o f A C E Is —c a p to p ri l ( C a p ot e n ), en a la p ri l ( V as o te c ) , l i si no p r il (Z e s t r il ) , p e r in do p r il ( Ac e on ) , ra m i p ri l ( Al t ac e ) , a nd t ra n do la p r il (Ma vi k ) — a r e di f fe r en t f ro m t ho s e u s ed to t re a t h y p e r te ns ion . Ta b le 42 - 5 p r o vid es a c om p a ra t i v e r e v i e w o f AC E I s c u r re n tl y u se d i n t he t r ea tm e nt o f H F .
Table 42-5. Comparative Doses of Select Agents Used in the Treatment of Heart Failure (HF) Drug
Initial Daily Dose(s) Loop diuretics
Maximal Total Daily Dose
Bumetanide (Bumex)
0.5-1 mg once or twice
10 mg
Furosemide (Lasix)
20-40 mg once or twice
600 mg
Torsemide (Demadex)
10-20 mg once
200 mg
Thiazide diuretics Chlorthalidone (Hygroton)
12.5-25 mg once
200 mg
Chlorothiazide (Diuril)
250-500 mg once or twice
2000 mg
Hydrochlorothiazide (Hydrodiuril)
25 mg once or twice
200 mg
Metolazone (Zaroxolyn)
2.5 mg once
20 mg
Potassium-sparing diuretics Amiloride (Midamor)
5 mg once
20 mg
Spironolactone (Aldactone)
12.5-25 mg once
50 mg
Triamterene (Dyrenium)
50-75 mg twice
300 mg
ACEIs Captopril (Captoten)
6.25 mg three times
450 mg
Enalapril (Vasotec)
2.5 mg twice
40 mg
Fosinopril (Monopril)
5-10 mg once
80 mg
Lisinopril (Zestril)
2.5-5 mg once
40 mg
Perindopril (Aceon)
2 mg once
32 mg
Quinapril (Accupril)
5 mg twice
40 mg
Ramipril (Altace)
1.25-2.5 mg once
10 mg
Trandolapril (Mavik)
1 mg once
4 mg
Angiotensin II receptor blockers Candesartan (Atacand)
4-8 mg once
32 mg
Losartan (Cozaar)
25-50 mg once
100 mg
Valsartan (Avapro)
20-40 mg twice
320 mg
Aldosterone antagonists Spironolactone (Aldactone)
12.5 mg once
50 mg
Eplerenone (Inspra)
25 mg once
50 mg
β-Adrenergic receptor blockers Bisoprolol (Zebeta)
1.25 mg once
Carvedilol(Coreg)
3.125 mg twice
Metoprolol succinate (Toprol XL) (extended release)
12.5-25 mg once
10 mg 50 mg; 100 mg for patients > 85 kg 200 mg
P.887
9 . C om m o n s id e e f fe c ts to b e m o n it o r ed in c l ud e hy p o t e ns io n (p a ti en t s sh ou l d b e we l l h yd r a te d b e fo r e i ni t ia t i on of A C E Is ) , d i z zi n es s , re d uc ed r en a l f un c t i on ( i n cr e as ed s e r um c r ea t ini n e o f 0 . 5 m g/ d L o r m o re r e q ui r es re as s e s s m e n t ), c ou g h, a n d p o ta s s iu m r e te n ti o n ( i f po t as s i um l e v e ls a r e h i gh wi t h o ut s u pp l em en ta t i on , d i sc on t in u e t he A C E I f o r s e v e ra l d a y s a nd t he n t ry t o r es t a rt at lo we r d os e ) . 1 0 . An g io ed em a i s a li f e-t h r e at e ni ng s i de e ff ec t of A C E I s t ha t ha s b ee n rep o r t ed to o cc u r i n < 1% o f p at i en ts . I t h as be e n r e po r t ed to o cc u r a t a m o r e f r e qu en t r a t e i n b l ac k p at i en ts , an d t h e s u s pi c i o n o f t he r ea c ti on wo u l d j us ti f y t he a v oi d anc e o f A C E I s i n s uc h p a ti e nt s . E . AR B s 1 . Th e ne we s t i n th e c las s o f d r u gs u s e d to t re a t H F t ha t h a s b ee n a pp r ov e d f o r u se i n th e t r e at m e n t o f m il d to m o d e ra t e h y p e rt e ns io n. H o we v e r , t hi s c la s s o f d r u gs is n o w c o ns id e r ed a r e as ona b le al t e rn a ti ve t o t he use o f A C E I s .
2 . C u r re n tl y a v a il a bl e a ge n ts in cl u de c a nd es a r tan c i l e xe t i l ( A t ac an d ) , e pro s a rt a n ( Te ve t e n ) , i r be s ar t an ( Av a p r o ) , l os a r ta n ( C o z a a r) , o lm es a rt a n ( B en ic a r ) , t e lm is a r ta n ( Mi c a r d is ) , a n d v al s a r ta n ( D i o v a n ) a nd in it i al s t ud i e s o n s e v e r a l o f t h e a gen t s h a v e s h o wn po t en t ia l b e ne f it s f o r tr e at i ng H F . 3 . C u r re n t g ui d el in es s ug g es t th a t A C E I s s h o ul d b e p re f er r e d o v e r t h e A R B s . H o we ve r , A R B s m a y b e u s ed in pa t ie n ts wh o in it ia l l y re s po nd e d t o A C EI s a n d a r e i n t ol e ra n t t o t h em . F . β - Ad r e n e r gi c b l o ck i ng a ge n t s 1 . U nl ik e A C E Is , wh i c h s t r i c t l y wo r k b y b l oc k i ng th e ef f ec ts o f t he r en in - an g io t en s i n s ys t em , β -a d re n er g ic b l oc k e r s i n te r fe r e wi t h t h e s y m p a th e ti c n e r vou s s y s te m — th a t i s , n o re p in ep h r in e -i n du c e d pe r ip h e ra l v as oc on s t ri c ti o n, no r e pi ne p h ri ne - ind u c e d s o di um e xc r e ti o n b y t he k i dn e y , n o r ep in e ph r in e - in d u c e d c a r di a c h y p e rt r op h y, n o r ep i ne p hr i ne in du c ed a r r h y t hm ia ge n e ra t io n , no r e p i n ep h ri n e -i nd uc e d h yp o ka l em ia , o r no r ep i ne p h ri n e -i nd uc e d c e l l d eat h ( ap o pt os is ) th r o ug h i nc r e as ed s t r es s o wi n g t o n o r ep in ep h r in e s t im ul a ti on . 2 . β - A d re ne r g ic b l oc k e rs , s pe c i f ic al l y, b is o pr o lo l ( Z e b et a ) , s u s ta in e d -r e lea s e m e to p r ol ol ( To p r ol XL ) , a n d c a r v ed il o l ( C o r eg ) , ha v e b ee n s ho wn t o de c rea s e t he r i sk of de a th o r h os pi t al iz a t i o n as we l l a s i m p r o ve t he cl in ic a l s ta t us o f HF p a ti en t s . H o we ve r , d o s e s f o r o th er s el ec t β -a d r en e rg ic bl oc k e r s h a v e b e en i n cl ud ed i n t he c u r re n t g ui d el i ne s b as ed o n re p or t ed e xp e r i en c e ( Ta b l e 4 2 - 5 ). 3 . C u r re n t g ui d el in es r ec o m m e nd th e u s e o f β - a d re n e rg ic bl oc k e r s i n a ll pa t i en ts wi t h s t ab le H F a s a r es ult o f l e ft ve n tr ic u la r d ys f un c ti o n, un l ess t he y h a ve a c o nt r a in di c a t io n to th e ir u s e o r a r e u n ab le t o t ol er a t e t h ei r ef f ec ts o wi n g to h yp o t en s i o n, b ra d y c a r dia , b ro nc h os pa s m , a n d t he l ik e. 4 . β - ad r e ne r gi c b lo c k e rs a r e g e ne r al l y us ed in con j un c ti on wi t h di u re t ic s , A C E I s , o r A R B s . β - Ad r e ne r gi c b lo c k e rs s h ou l d n ot be t ak en wi t h o u t d iu r e ti c s i n p a tie n ts wi t h a c u r re n t o r re c e n t h is t o r y o f fl u id r et e nt i on to a v oid i ts de v e lo pm e nt an d to m ai n ta i n s o di um ba l an c e . 5 . S id e e f fe c ts o f β - ad r en e r gi c b lo ck e rs m a y oc c u r d ur i ng th e e a r l y d a y s o f t he r ap y b u t d o n o t g en e r al l y pr ev e n t t he i r l on g - te rm us e ; a n d p r og r es si on o f t he d i se as e m a y be r ed uc e d, e v e n i f s y m p to m s o f th e d is e as e h a v e n o t r e s p on d ed to βa d r en e r gi c b lo c k e r t he r ap y . Th e r a p y s h ou ld be ini t i at e d wi t h lo w d o se s a nd t it r a te d u p wa r d s l o wl y a s t o le r ate d . 6 . P at i en ts s h o ul d b e m on i t or e d f o r s ig ns of fl u id r e t e nt i on b y h a vi ng pa t ien t s we ig h t h em s e l v e s d ai l y an d r e po r t an y s i g ni f ic an t i nc r e as es , wh i ch m i gh t wa r r a nt i n c re as es in di u re t ic d o s e s o r r ed uc t io ns in th e do s e o f t h e β - a dr e ne r gi c b l oc k e r . I n a d di t io n , f a ti g ue , h y p o ten s io n , b r ad yc a rd ia , an d h e a r t b lo ck a r e re po r t ed s i de s e f f ec ts , wh i c h s h ou l d b e m o ni t o re d t o e ns u r e a ppr o p r ia t e a t te n ti on an d m a na g em en t . 7 . S tu d ie s s up po r t th e us e o f β - ad r en e rg ic bl o ck e r s i n p a ti e nt s wi t h st a ge C he a r t f a i lu r e —a n d n ot in th e ac u te m a na g em en t of pa t ie n ts , as i n a n i n te ns i ve c a r e u ni t ( I C U ) . P a ti en t s s h o ul d ha v e n o o r m in im a l e v i den c e o f f l ui d r e te n ti o n a nd h a v e n o r e c en t e v i d en c e fo r th e us e o f an in t ra v e n ou s i no tr o p ic ag en t . I n a d di t io n , β a d r en e r gi c b lo c k e rs s hou l d b e c on si d er e d i n p at ie n ts wh o d e v el op H F p os t m yo c ar d ia l i n fa rc t io n i f th e y a r e a bl e t o t o le r a te th e ne g at i ve i n ot r op ic e ffe c ts .
P.888
8 . I ni ti a ti o n o f β -a d re n erg i c b lo ck e rs s ho u ld no t be u nd e r ta ke n u n ti l t h e pa t i en t i s s t ab l e wi t h o ut f lu id o v e rlo a d o r h y po t en s i o n, an d o n c o nc om it a n t m e d ic at io n s, wh i c h i n cl ud e d i u re t ic s an d /o r A C E I s or A R B s. 9 . P at i en t e d uc a ti on is an im p o rt a nt as pe c t f o r i ni t i at i ng β -a d r en e rg ic bl oc k e r s t h e r ap y, an d p a ti e nt s n ee d to be in f o rm ed th a t t he y m ig h t n o t se e p os i ti v e e f f ec ts f o r s e ve r al m o nt hs a ft e r o b t ai ni n g t he t a rg e t d osa g e o f th e a ge n t . G . D i u r e t ic s 1 . D iu r e ti c s s h ou ld be p re s c r i be d f o r a ll pa t ie n ts wi t h s y m pt om s o f H F wh o h a v e e vi d e nc e o f o r wh o h a v e e xp e r i e nc ed f lu id r et e nt io n be c a us e th es e d r ug s a r e th e o n l y on es th a t c an c o r r ec t fl ui d re t en t io n . Di u re t ic s a r e g en e r al l y be st us e d in c o nj u nc ti o n wi t h an A C EI , A R B , a n d/ o r β -a d re n e rg i c b lo ck e r. 2 . D iu r e ti c s ha v e be en s h o wn t o c a us e a re d uc tio n in ju gu l a r ve n ou s p r es s u r es , p u lm o na r y c o n ge s t i on , pe r i ph e r al e d em a , a nd bod y we i g h t i n s h or t - te r m s t u d ie s a nd h a ve be e n s h o wn t o i m p ro v e c a r d ia c f un c ti on an d e xe r c i s e t ol e ra nc e i n i n t er m ed ia t e -t e rm s t u di es . 3 . Th e go al o f di u r et ic t he r a p y is t o re d uc e a nd eve n t u al l y el im in a te si gn s a n d s ym p to m s o f fl u id re t en t io n as a ss es s e d b y j ug u la r ve n ou s d is te ns i on (J VD ) , p e r ip h e ra l e de m a , or bo th . S lo w t i t r a ti on up wa r d in d os es m a y be ne c e ss ar y t o m i ni m i ze h y po t en s i o n a nd s h o ul d b e c on t in u ed un t i l f lu id r e te n ti on is el im i n a te d . 4 . B od y we i g h t i s a n e f fec t i v e m et h od of m o ni t o rin g fl u id lo ss es a n d is bes t do ne on a d ai l y ba s i s b y t he pa t ie n t . 5 . P at i en ts wh o e xp e r i enc e d i u re t ic re si s t a nc e o r t o l er a nc e t o t h ei r ef f ec ts m ig h t n e e d in t r a v en o us ad m i nis t r at i on , a c o m b in a ti o n of t wo a g en ts wi t h di f fe r ing m ec h an is m s ( fu r os em id e a n d m e t ol a z o ne ) o r t he a d di t io n o f ag e nt s su c h a s d o p am in e o r d o bu t am in e, wh i c h i nc r ea s e r en a l b lo o d f l o w. F ur t he r m o r e , eva l u a ti on o f pa t ie n t d r ug p ro f il es m a y id e nt i f y th e a d di t io n o f s o di um - r et a in in g a g en t s s uc h as n o ns t e ro id a l a nt i -i n fl am m a to r y d r ug s ( N S A I D s) . 6 . A ll di u re t ic s i nc re a s e u r i ne v o lu m e an d s o di um e xc r e t i on bu t di f fe r i n the i r p h a rm ac ol o gi c a l p r op e r tie s . 7 . S el e c t D i u r e ti c C la sse s a . T hi az i d e d i u re t i cs inc l ud e c hl o ro t hi a z i de ( D iur i l ) , h yd r oc hl o ro t hi a z i de ( H yd r o D I U R I L ) , c h l o rt h ali d on e ( H yg ro t on ) , a n d i nd a p am id e ( L o zol ) . Th e y a r e e f f ec t i v e a nd c om m o n l y u s ed in H F , sp ec i fi c a l l y in p at i en ts wi t h h y pe r t ens i on , b u t t h e y de p le t e p ot a s s iu m s t o r es in th e p r oc es s . Th es e a g en t s a re r el a ti v e l y we a k b e ca us e th e y ar e a b le to i nc r e as e t he f ra c ti on a l exc r e t i o n o f s o di um to on ly 5 % - 1 0% o f t he fi l te r ed lo a d. H o we v e r , th e y h a v e b ee n s ho wn t o lo s e t he i r e f fe c t i ve n es s i n H F p a ti en t s wi t h m o de r at e l y im pa i re d re n al fu nc t io n (c r ea t in i ne c l ea r an c e < 3 0 m L /m in ) . b . L oo p di u r e t ic s i nc lu de f u ro s e m i d e ( L as i x) , e tha c r yn ic a ci d ( Ed ec r in ) , bu m et a ni d e ( B u m e x) , a nd to r s e m i d e ( D e m ad e x) a n d h a ve b eco m e t he p re f e r re d d iu r e tic s . Th e y h a ve th e a b il i t y to in c r e as e s od i um e xc r e t i on t o 20 % - 25 % o f th e f i lt e r ed l oa d an d t o m a in t ai n t h ei r e f f ic ac y un t i l r en a l f un c ti on is s e ve r e l y i m pa i re d (c re a ti n ine c l e a ra nc e
< 5 m L /m in ) pl us ha v e the a dd e d a d v an t ag e o f red u ci n g v e n ou s r e tu r n i nde p e nd en t o f di u r es is . I n a dd i ti o n, fu r o s e m i de ' s a c ti o n is m or e in t e ns e, m a k i ng it us ef u l a s a r a p id - ac t in g i n t ra v e no u s a g e nt in r e ver s i n g a cu t e p u lm o na r y ed em a , o wi n g t o i t s d i r ec t d il a ti n g e f fe c t s o n p u lm o na r y v a sc ul a tu r e (s e e Ta b l e 4 2 -5 fo r do s i ng ) . c . P o ta s si u m -s p a ri n g di u r e t i cs i n c l ud e a m i l or i de ( Mi d a m or ) , s pi r o no la c to n e ( A l d ac to n e ) a nd t ri am t e re n e ( D yr en iu m ) a nd m a y h e lp a v oi d t h e i nc id e nc e o f h yp o ka l em ia . Ho we v e r , th e y a ls o p os s e s s a we a k e r di u r et ic e ff ec t th a n t he o th e r d i u re t ic s . As t he nu m b e r o f H F p at i en t s r ec ei vi n g A C E I s o r A R Bs co n ti nu es t o i n c re as e , f e we r pa t ie n ts m a y r eq u ir e s u pp le m e n ta l p o t as s i um th e ra p y . 8 . Al d o s t e ro n e a n ta g o ni s t s . S p ir o no l ac to n e ( A lda c to n e ), is a p ot as s i um -s p a ri ng d i u re t ic , b u t wa s t he fi r s t a l do s t e r on e a n ta go n is t a v a i la b le fo r c l in ic a l us e i n t h e U n i t ed S ta t es , wh e n i t ha d be e n s h o wn t o h a v e di r e c t bl oc k i n g e ff e c t s o n t h e a c ti o ns o f al do s te r on e . R e s ul t s f r om a la r ge st ud y, t h e R a nd om i z e d A l dac t on e E va l u a ti on S t ud y ( R A L ES ) , r e v e al ed t ha t t h e a ddi t i on of lo w d o s e s (1 2 .5 -2 5 m g d a il y ) o f s pi r on o la c t o ne to p at i en ts wi t h c l ass I V s ym p to m s ( N YH A ) t ak in g A C E I s r e d uc ed t he ri s k of de a th a n d h os pi t al i z a ti o n. P.889
a . C u r re n t g ui d el in es r ec o m m e nd th a t s pi r on o la cto n e b e c on si d e re d i n p a ti e n ts wi t h s t ag e C h e ar t fa i lu r e —a s a d d -o n t h er a p y to A C E Is o r A R B s a n d a β -a d re ne r g ic b l oc ke r — wh o c a n b e c los e l y m on i to r e d f o r c h a nge s i n re n al fu nc t io n a n d p o t as s i um l e ve ls . b . P a ti en t s r ec e i v in g s pir o n ol ac t on e s h ou ld ha ve s e ru m p o ta s s iu m l e vel s e v a l u at e d a n d re du c e d to < 5 . 0 m m o l / L a lo ng wi t h a s e r um c r e at i ni ne le v e l < 2 .5 m g/ d L b e fo r e i n i ti a ti on o f t he r ap y . P o ta s s i um l e v e ls s h ou ld be r o u ti n el y m on i to r ed to p re v e n t th e s u bs eq u en t d e v e lo pm e nt o f h y pe r k a le m i a . c . E pl e re n on e (I ns p r a) wa s th e s ec on d a l do s t e r on e r ec ep t o r a nt a go ni s t in t r o du c e d a n d i s cu r r e nt l y in di c a t ed i n t he t re a tm en t of h y pe r t e ns io n a nd in po s t - MI p a t ie n ts wi t h H F . H . V a s od i la t o r s 1 . Th e se ag en t s r e du c e p u lm o na r y c o n ge s t i on and i nc r e a s e c a r di ac ou t put b y r e d uc in g p r e lo ad an d /o r a f t e rl o ad . Ho we v e r , a t t he cu r r en t ti m e , th e re a re n o l a r ge s ca l e t r ia ls s u pp o r ti ng t he us e o f v as o di la t o rs (n i tr a t es o r h yd r al a zin e ) a l on e in th e t r e a tm en t o f H F . 2 . I nd i vid u al ag e nt s a . N i t r op r u s si d e ( N i p r ide ) is ad m i ni s te r ed in t r a ve n o us l y i n d os es o f 0 .3 -1 0 µ g / k g/ m i n t o p r o v i de po te n t d i la t io n o f b o th a rt e rie s a n d ve i ns . b . H yd r a l a z i ne ( Ap r e s o li n e ) . Thi s a r t er i ol e d il a tor d ec r ea s es a f te r l oa d a nd i n c re as es c a r di ac ou t pu t i n p a ti e nt s wi t h H F . c . P r az o si n (M i ni p r es s ). Th i s α -a d r en e rg ic bl oc k e r ac t s as a b al a nc ed a r t e ri o v e no us di l at o r . d . N i t r a te s . V e no us di la ti o n b y n it r a te s i nc r ea se s v e n o us po ol i ng , wh ic h de c r ea se s p r e lo a d.
( 1 ) Th e i r a r te r ia l e f f ec ts s e em to r es ul t i n d ec r eas e d a f te r lo a d wi t h co n ti nu e d t h e r ap y. ( 2 ) N i tr a t es a r e a v a il a bl e i n m an y f o rm s a nd do s es . B ec au se in di vi d ua l rea c ti o ns to t h es e a g en t s v a r y wi d e l y, d os ag e s h a v e t o b e a dju s te d ; b u t, in ge n e ra l, t he y a r e h i gh e r fo r H F t ha n fo r a ng i na . Ta b le 42 - 6 p r o vid es e xa m pl e s o f n it r a te dos es t ha t h a ve be e n us e d i n H F . e . C o mb i na t i o n t h e ra p y. H y d r a la zi n e h as b e en us e d wi t h is os o rb i de di ni tr a t e ( I s o rd il ) to r ed uc e a f t er lo a d (o r wi t h n i tr o gl y c e ri n t o re d uc e p r el oa d ) fo r tre a t in g c h r on ic H F . ( 1 ) Th e c om b in a ti on o f th e s e t wo a ge n ts — h y dr a la z i n e a n d is os o r bi de di ni t r a te ( B i D i l ) s h o ul d n o t b e us ed as in i ti a l t he r ap y o ve r A C E I s , A R Bs , o r β -a d r ene r g ic b l oc ke r s , bu t c o ul d b e c o n s i d er e d i n p at i en ts wh o h a ve p e rs is te n t s y m p to m s de s pi te t h e u se o f t he s e ag e nt s . ( 2 ) A re c e n tl y c om pl e te d t r i al de m o ns t r at e d t ha t th e ad di t io n o f is os o rb id e d i ni t ra t e a n d h yd r al a z i ne to s t a nda r d m e di c a l t h er a p y c o ns is t in g o f A C E Is a n d β - ad r e ne r g ic b l oc ke r s c a n b e e f f ec ti v e i n b l ac k pa t ie n ts wi t h NYH A f u n c t io na l c la ss II I o r I V h e a rt f a i lu r e. ( 3 ) S ug g es te d d o s i ng r eg i m e ns in cl u de h ydr a la z in e 50 - 1 0 0 m g f o u r t im es d a il y a nd i s os o rb id e d i ni t r at e 1 0 -40 m g t hr e e t im es da il y . I . D i g it a l is g l yc o s i d e s 1 . D ig i ta l is , s pe c i f ic al l y d i go xi n , c on t in u es t o p l ay a r o le in th e tr e at m e n t o f H F , b ut o n g oi ng e v al u at i on s h a ve a lt e r ed i t s p la ce in th e l o ng - t er m m an ag e m e n t o f H F . I t h a s b ee n s ho wn t o be eff e c ti v e as a sh o rt - t e rm th e r ap y i n i m p r o vin g s ym p t om s , q u al i t y of li f e, an d e xe r c is e to le r a nc e i n p at i en ts wi t h m il d to m o de r at e HF . I t i s n o w r e c om m e nd e d as ad d - on t h e ra p y in c o nj u nc ti o n wi t h d i ur e ti c s , A C E Is o r AR B s , an d a β - a dr e ne r g ic b l oc k e r to im p r o ve t he s ym p to m s a n d c li ni c a l s t at us o f p ati e n ts wi t h HF.
Table 42-6. Examples of Nitrates That Have Been Used in Heart Failure Form of Nitrate
Typical Dose
Dosing Interval
Intravenous nitroglycerin
5-200 µg/min
Continuous infusion
Nitroglycerin buccal tablets
1-3 mg
4-6 hr
Nitroglycerin capsules (sustained release)
6.5-19.5 mg
4-6 hr
Nitroglycerin ointment
1-3 inches
4-6 hr
Sublingual nitroglycerin
0.4 mg
1-2 hr
Oral isosorbide dinitrate
10-60 mg
4-6 hr
Sublingual isosorbide dinitrate
5-10 mg
4 hr
P.890
2 . D ig o xi n ( L an o xi n ) ha d p r e v i ou s l y b ee n re c o m m e n d ed i n pa ti e n ts wi t h H F wh o h ad r a p id a tr i al fi b ri l la t io n t o c o nt r o l t he v e n tr ic u la r rat e . H o we ve r , β -a d r en e rg ic b l oc ke r s h a v e b ee n s hown t o i m p r o v e s u r v i val an d m a y be m o r e e f fe c ti ve i n c o nt r o ll in g t h e r a te al o ne . C u r re n t g ui d el in es sug g es t u s e o f a lt e r na t i ve a g e nt s f o r ve n t r ic u la r ra t e c on t ro l ra t h e r t ha n d i go xi n . 3 . D ig o xi n c an be us ed ea r l y t o r e du c e s y m p to m s i n H F p at i en ts wh o ha v e b e en s t a rt e d o n A C E I s o r β -a dr e n e rg ic bl oc k e r s b ut hav e n o t yet r es po n de d t o t h em . 4 . Lo n g -t e rm t ri al s o f s ele c t p a ti en t s wi t h H F h a ve d em on st r a te d th a t t r eat m en t wi t h d i go xi n h a d l it t le e ff ec t on s h o r t -t e rm m o r ta l it y b ut r e du c e d t h e r is k o f d e at h an d h o sp i ta li z a t io n . 5 . T he r a pe u t ic e f fe c ts a . P os i t i ve in o t r o pi c e f fe c t s we r e p r e vio us l y f el t t o pr o v i de m o st of t he be n e fi ts t h r o ug h i nc r ea s e d c a rd i ac ou t pu t , d ec r e as ed c a r di a c f il li n g p r es s u r e, de c re a s e d ve n o us an d c ap i ll a r y pr es s u r e , i nc r ea s e d re n al b lo o d f l o w, an d d e c r e as ed h e a rt size. b . R ec e nt e v id e nc e s ug ge s ts th a t d ig i ta li s a ct s by f u r t he r i ng th e a c ti va t ion o f n e u ro h o rm on al s ys t em s r a t h er t ha n a s a p os i ti v e i n ot r o pi c a ge n t. Th is r es u lt s i n d e ac t i vat i on of r en i n- a ngi o t en s i n -a l do st e r on e c om p e n s a t io n , wh i c h p r om o t es d i u re si s , r ed u c e s f lu id v o l um e , d ec r ea se s r e na l s o d i um r ea bs o rp t io n , a nd d i m i ni s h e s e de m a . c . N e ga t i ve ch r o n ot r o p ic e f fe c t s oc cu r f ro m t h e e f f ec t o f d i gi t al is on th e s i no a t ri al ( S A ) n od e wh e n g i v en in d os es t ha t p r o du ce hi gh t o t al b o d y s t o re s ( e .g . , 1 5 - 18 µ g / k g) . 6 . C h oi c e o f a g e nt . A ll o f t he di gi t al is gl yc os id es ha ve s i m i la r p ro p e r t ie s ; h o we ve r , d i go xi n i s t h e m o s t c o m m o nl y us e d p r ep a ra t io n in t he U ni t ed S t at es . a . D ig o xi n is a v ai l ab l e i n t a bl e t, in j ec ti o n, el i xi r , a n d c ap s u l e f o rm s . b . C a lc ul a ti on o f d os es m us t fa c to r i n th e d i ff e ren c es i n s y s te m i c a v a il a bil i t y am on g t h es e fo r m s . F o r e xa m p le , di g o xi n s o lu t io n i n c ap s ul es is m o re bi o a v ai lab l e t h an
d i go xi n t a bl e ts ; th e re f o re , 0 .1 25 - m g ta b le t s a re e q ui va l en t to 0. 1 -m g c aps u le s. I n t h e m aj o ri t y o f p a ti en t s , t h e d os a ge of di g o xi n s ho u ld be t he eq u i v al en t of 0 . 12 5 0 . 2 5 m g da i l y o f th e t a ble t f or m u l at i on . 7 . D o sa g e a nd a dm i ni s tr a t i o n . Th e r an g e b et we e n th e r ap eu t ic an d t o xi c d o se s is e xt r e m e l y na r r o w. Th e r e i s n o m ag ic th r es h ol d l eve l f o r d ig o xi n t he r ap y , bu t s e r um c o nc en t r at i on s o f 0 . 8- 1 .0 n g /m L h a ve b e en as s oc ia t e d wi t h t he r ap e ut ic r es p o ns e a n d m in im al t o xi c it y . a . R a pi d di g i ta l iz a t io n . Th o u g h n o t r o ut i ne l y ne c e s s a r y in t he t re a tm en t of H F , i n t h is m e t ho d , t he ef f ec ts ( a n d s te a d y -s t at e l e v e ls ) a r e a c h i e v ed wi t h in 24 h r , bu t th e a c tu a l a dm in is t r at i on ra te is us ua l l y s lo w a n d de li v e r e d i n d i vid e d d os es . b . S l ow d i g i ta l iz a ti o n . F o r th e a v e r a ge H F p a tie n t , o r al ad m i ni s t ra t io n o f m a in t en a nc e d os es s h oul d ac hi e v e s te a d y -s t a te le v e l s i n 7 - 8 d a ys ( 3 -4 we e k s i n a p a t ie n t wi t h r en a l d y s fu nc t io n ) . 8 . P r ec a u ti o n s a nd m oni t o r i n g e f f ec t s a . P o ta s si u m s ee m s t o a n t ag o ni ze di gi t al is p re pa r a ti o ns . ( 1 ) D ec r ea s ed po t as s i um l e v e ls fa vo r d i go xi n b i nd i ng t o c a r d ia c c e l ls a n d i nc r e as e i t s e f fe c t , th us in c re as i ng t he li ke l ih oo d o f di gi t ali s to xi c i t y . Th is an t ag on is m i s p a r ti c ul a rl y s i g ni f ic an t for t h e H F pa t ie n t wh o is re c ei v i n g a d i ur e ti c ( m a ny o f wh i c h d e c re as e p o ta s s iu m l e v el s ) . ( 2 ) C o n v er s el y , in c re as ed p ot as si um le ve l s se em t o de c r e as e d ig o xi n b ind i ng an d d e c re as e i ts e ff ec t . Th is i s l ik e l y i n p a ti e nt s t ak i ng p ot as s i um o r a n A C E I o r A R B ( wh i c h in c re as e p o ta s s ium r ea bs o r pt io n ) . b . C a lc i um io ns ac t s y ne r g is ti c al l y wi t h d i go xi n , a n d i nc r ea s e d l e v e ls i n cre a s e th e f o r ce of m y oc a rd ia l c on t ra c ti o n. A t e xc e s si ve le v el s , a r r h yth m i as an d s ys to l ic s t an ds t il l c an de v e l op . c . M a g ne s iu m l e v e ls a r e i n v e rs e l y re la t ed t o d ig oxi n a c t i vi t y. A s m ag n es ium le ve ls d e c re as e , t he p re d is po s it i o n t o t o xi c i t y i nc r e as es a n d, wi t h in r ea so n , v ic e v e r s a . d . S e r um d ig o xi n le ve l s ( 1 ) I n ca r di a c gl y c os i de th e r ap y , t he pa t ie n t 's cl ini c al s t a te is t h e m o s t p r ac t ic al b a r om e te r o f a s u c c es s fu l re g im en . H o we v e r , s ho u ld qu e st i on s a ri s e as to c om p li a nc e, ab s o r p ti o n, o r a d r ug - d r ug i n te r ac t ion , se r um di go xi n l e ve ls m a y be h e lp f ul . ( 2 ) A f te r or a l i ng es t io n of d ig o xi n , s e r um l e v e ls ris e ra p id l y , t h en d ro p s har p l y as t h e d r u g e nt e rs th e m y o c a r d iu m a nd o th e r t is su es. Th e r e fo r e , a m e an in g ful e va l u at io n re q ui r es a d ete r m in a ti on o f t he r el a ti on s hi p b e t we e n s e r um di go xi n l e v e ls a n d m y o c a r di al t is s u e l ev e l s . P.891
( 3 ) Th e m os t m e an in g fu l r e s u l ts a r e o b ta i ne d i f se r u m s a m p l es a r e t ak e n a f t e r s t ea d y s t a te ha s b e en rea c he d a n d 6 - 8 h r a f te r an o r al do se (3 - 4 h r af t e r a n i n t ra ve n ou s d os e ) . e . R e na l fu n c ti o n s t u die s . Be c a us e th e k id n e y is t he pr im a r y m e t ab ol ic ro u t e f o r d i g o xi n , r e na l f u nc ti o n s t u d ie s su c h as s e r um c re a t in in e l e ve ls a i d t he ev a l u a ti on o f e l im in a ti o n k i n et ic s f o r di g o xi n .
9 . D ig i ta l is to xi c i t y is a fa i r l y c om m o n o cc u r re nc e b ec a us e o f t h e n a rr o w t h e r ap e ut ic r a n ge an d c a n b e f at a l in a s ig n if ic a nt pe r c e n ta ge o f p a ti en t s e xp e r i en c i ng a to xi c r e a ct i on . a . R i sk o f t o xi c i t y i n c r ea s es wi t h c oa dm i ni s t r a tio n of qu i ni di n e, ve r a p am i l ( C al an ) , i t r ac o na z o le ( S po r an o x) , e r y t h r om y ci n ( E r yth r oc in ) , c l a ri t hr om y c i n ( B ia xi n ) , p r o pa f en o ne ( R y t hm ol ) , s p i ro no l ac to n e ( A l da ct o ne ) , an d a m i o da r on e ( Co rd a r on e ) a n d i s i nf l ue nc e d b y th e e l ec t r ol yt e (h y p ok a le m i a, h y p om ag n es em ia ) ef f ec t s d e sc r ib ed p re v i o us l y . b . S i gn s of t ox i c it y i n c lu d e ( 1 ) A no r e xi a , a c o m m o n a n d e a rl y s ig n ( 2 ) F at i gu e , h ea da c h e , an d m a la is e ( 3 ) N a us ea an d v om it i ng ( 4 ) Me n t a l c on f us io n a n d d is o ri e n ta ti o n ( 5 ) A lt e r at i on s i n v i s u a l p e r c e p ti on ( e. g . , b lu r r in g, y e l lo wi n g , a ha l o e f fe c t) ( 6 ) C a rd i ac e f f ec ts : ( a ) P r em at u r e v e n t ri c u l ar c on t r ac ti o ns a n d v e n t ric u la r ta c h y c a rd i a a nd fi br i l la t io n ( b ) S A an d a t ri o v e n tr ic u la r ( A V ) b l ock ( c ) A t ri a l t ac h y c a r di a wi th A V bl oc k c . T r ea t me n t o f t ox i c it y ( 1 ) D ig i ta l is i s d is c o n ti nue d im m e di a te l y , a s i s a ny p o t as si um - de p le t in g d iu r e ti c . ( 2 ) I f t he pa t ie n t i s h y p ok a le m i c , po t as si um s u ppl e m e n ts a r e a dm i ni s t e r ed a nd s e r um l e v e ls a r e m on i to re d to a v oi d h yp e rk a le m ia t h ro u gh o v e rc om pe ns at i o n. H o we ve r , p o t as s i um s upp l em e nt s a r e co n t ra i nd ica t e d i n a p a ti e nt wi t h s ev e r e A V b l oc k. ( 3 ) A r r h y th m i as a re t re a te d wi t h l i do c a i ne ( Xy l o c ai n e ) ( us u al l y a 1 00 - m g bo l us , f o l lo we d b y in f us io n a t 2- 4 m g /m i n ) o r p h en yt o in ( D i l an t in ) ( as a sl o w i n tra ve n o us i n f us io n o f 2 5 - 50 m g /m in, t o a m a xi m um o f 1 .0 g ). ( 4 ) C h ol es t y r am in e ( Q ues t r an ) , wh ic h b i nd s t o d ig i t al i s gl y c os id es , m a y he l p p r e ven t a b so r p ti on an d re a bs o rpt i o n o f d ig i ta li s i n t h e b il e . ( 5 ) P a ti en t s wi t h v e r y hig h s e r um d i go xi n l e v el s ( s uc h a s t h os e r es u lt i ng f r o m a s u ic id al o v e rd os e ) m a y be n e fi t f r om t he us e o f p ur i f ie d d i go xi n - s p ec if ic Fab f r a gm e nt an t ib o di es ( D igi b in d ) . O n e via l (3 8 m g ) wi l l b in d 0 . 6 m g o f d ig i tal i s . Th e d o sa g e is c a lc ul a te d b as e d on th e e s ti m a t ed to t al b o d y s t o re of di gi t al is . J . C a lc i um - c ha n ne l bl oc k e r s 1 . O wi n g to t he la c k o f ev i d e nc e s up p o rt i ng ef f ica c y , c a lc iu m -c ha nn e l b loc ke r s s h ou l d n ot be us ed f or th e t re a tm en t o f H F . C u r re n t g u id el i ne s l is t c al c i um c h an n el b l oc ke r s as a c la s s II I rec om m e n da t io n , wh i c h s ta t es : “ C al ci um -c h an n el bl o ck in g d r u gs ar e no t i nd ic a t ed a s ro u ti n e t r ea tm e nt f or H F i n p a ti en t s wi t h cu r r en t o r p r io r s ym p to m s o f H F a nd r edu c ed L V EF . ” 2 . C al ci um c h a nn el bl oc k e rs ha ve be e n l is te d a s o n e o f t h re e c la ss es o f d r u gs ( wi t h a n t ia r r h y th m i c s an d N S AI D s ) th a t c a n e xa c e rb a te H F a nd s h ou l d b e a v o ide d in m os t p a t ie n ts . K . I n o t r op i c a ge n t s h a ve b ee n u s e d i n t h e e m e rg e nc y t r ea t m e n t o f p at i en t s wi t h H F . H o we v e r , lo n g -t e rm o r a l t h er a p y wi t h t h es e ag e n ts h a s n ot im p ro ve d s ym p to m s
o r cl in ic a l s ta t us , a nd h as be e n r e po r t ed to in c rea s e m o r t al i t y , e s p ec i al l y i n pa t ie n ts wi t h a d v a nc ed H F . 1 . C u r re n t g ui d el in es p rov i d e a c l as s I I I re c o m m en d a ti on , wh i c h s t a te s : “ Lo n g - te rm u s e o f a n i n fu s i on o f a po s it i v e i n ot r o pi c d ru g m ay b e ha r m fu l a nd is no t r e c om m e nd e d f o r p at i en ts wi t h c u r re n t o r pr i o r s ym p to m s of H F a n d r e du c e d L V EF , e xc e p t as pa ll i at i on fo r pa t i en ts wi t h en d -s t ag e d i s e as e wh o c an n ot be s t ab i li ze d wi t h s t an d ar d m ed ic a l t re a tm e nt . ” 2 . D op a m i ne ( in t r a v en ous ) a . L ow d o se s o f 2- 5 µ g/k g /m in st im u la t e s p ec i fi c d o pa m i n e r ec ep t o rs wi th i n t h e k i dn e y to in c re as e re n al b l oo d fl o w a n d t hu s i nc re a s e u ri ne ou t pu t . b . M o d e ra t e d o se s of 5 -1 0 µ g /k g/ m i n i nc r e as e ca r d ia c o u tp u t ( po si t i v e i no t r o pi c e f f ec t ) i n HF pa t ie n ts . P.892
c . H i gh d os e s ( 1 ) A s d os es a r e ra is ed a b o v e 1 0 µg / k g /m i n, α pe r i ph e r al a c ti v i t y in c re as e s , r e s ul ti n g i n i nc r ea s e d t o ta l pe r ip h er a l r es is t an c e a n d p ul m on a r y p r es s u r es . ( 2 ) W hen t h e i nf us i on e xc e ed s 8 - 9 µ g /k g /m in , th e p a ti e nt sh ou l d b e m o n ito r e d f o r t a ch yc a rd i a. I f t he in f us io n is s lo we d o r i n te r r up te d , th e a d v e rs e e f fe c t sho u ld d i sa p pe a r, as do p am in e h a s a v e r y s h o rt ha l f -l if e i n p l as m a . 3 . D ob u t am i n e ( i nt r a v e no u s ) a . P at i en ts wh o a r e u nr es p on s i ve t o, o r a d v e rs ely a f f ec t ed b y, d o pa m i ne m a y b e n ef i t f r om d o bu t am in e i n do s e s o f 5 - 20 µ g /k g/ m i n . b . A l th ou g h d ob u ta m i n e r e s em bl es do p am i n e c hem ic a ll y, it s a c t i on s d if f e r s om e wh a t . F o r e xa m p l e, d o bu t am in e d o es n o t d i re c tl y a f fe c t r en a l r ec e pt or s an d , t h e r ef o re , do es no t a c t as a r e na l vas od i la t or . I t in c r ea s e s u r in a r y ou t pu t o n l y t h r o ug h i nc r ea s e d c a rd i ac ou t pu t . c . S e ri ou s a r r h y th m i a s ar e a p o te n ti a l oc cu r r en c e, a l t h ou g h l es s li k e l y t o o cc u r th an wi t h d o pa m i n e. S lo wi n g o r in t e r ru p ti n g t he in f us io n us ua ll y r e ve r s e s t hi s e f f ec t , a s i t d o es fo r do p am in e . d . D o bu t am in e a n d d op am i ne ha v e be e n us e d t og e t he r to t re a t c ar d io g eni c s ho c k , b u t s im il a r u s e in H F h as y e t t o b e a c c ep t ed . 4 . I na m r i no n e ( in t r a v en ou s ) i s r e fe r r ed t o as no ng l yc os id e , n on s ym p a th om im e ti c i n o tr o pi c a ge n ts . a . A b i p y r id in e d e r i v at i v e, i na m ri no n e h as bo t h a p o s i t i v e i no t r op ic ef f ec t a n d a va s o di l at in g ef f ec t . b . B y i nh ib i ti n g p ho s p h od i es t e ra se lo c a t ed s p ec ifi c al l y in th e c a rd i ac c el ls , i t i n c re as es th e a m o u nt o f c y c li c a de n os in e m on o ph o sp h at e (c A MP ) . c . I na m r i no n e h as b e en u s ed in pa t ie n ts wi t h HF t h a t h a ve b ee n re f r ac to ry t o t r e a tm en t wi t h o t he r in o tr o p ic ag en t s . d . E f fe c ti v e re g im en s h av e u s e d l o ad i ng in t ra ve no u s i nf us i on s o f 0 . 75 m g/ k g o ve r 23 m i n fo ll o we d b y m ai n ten a nc e i n fu si o ns o f 5- 1 0 µ g / k g/ m i n . e . P r ec a u ti o n s a nd m oni t o r i n g e f f ec t s
( 1 ) I na m r i no n e is un s ta ble i n d e xt r o se s o lu t io ns an d s h ou l d b e a dd ed t o s a l in e s o lu t io ns in s t e ad . Be c a us e o f fl ui d ba la nc e c on c e r n s , th is ca n b e a po t ent i a l p r o bl em in pa t ie n ts wi t h H F . ( 2 ) B ec au s e o f t he pe r i ph e r al di l at i ng pr o pe r t ie s , p a ti e nt s s ho ul d b e m o nit o r e d f o r h yp o t en s i o n. ( 3 ) Th r om b oc y t o pe ni a h as oc c u r r ed an d i s d os e de p e nd en t an d a s ym p to m a t ic . ( 4 ) V en t r ic ul a r r a te s m a y i nc r e as e i n p at i en ts wi t h a t ri al f lu t te r o r f ib r il la t io n . 5 . M i l r i no n e ( P r i ma c o r ), i n t r a ve no u s, is s im i la r t o i n am r in o ne . I t po s s es s es bo t h i n o tr o pi c a nd v a s o di l at o ry p r o p er t ie s . a . Th i s a ge n t h as b e en us e d as sh o r t- t e rm m a na ge m en t to t re a t p at i en ts wi t h H F. b . Mo s t m i l ri n on e p a ti en ts in c l in ic a l t r ia ls ha v e al s o b ee n re c e i v in g d i go xi n a nd d i u re t ic s . c . E f fe ct i v e d os i ng r eg im e n s h a ve u s e d a lo ad i ng d os e o f 50 µ g /k g a dm in is t e re d s l o wl y o v e r 1 0 m in u te s in t r a v e no us l y , fo ll o we d by m a in t en a nc e d os es of 0 . 3 75 µ g / k g/ m i n b y c on t in uo us i n f us io n , b as ed on th e c li n ic al s t a tu s o f t h e p at i en t . d . P r e ca u t io n s a n d m on i t o r i ng e f fe c ts ( 1 ) R e na l im p ai r m e n t s i gn i f ic an t l y p r ol o ng s t h e e li m in a ti on r at e o f m i lr i no ne , an d i n f us io ns ne e d t o b e r e du c ed ac c o r di n gl y. ( 2 ) Mo n i t o ri n g is ne c e s s a r y f o r t h e p o te n ti al a r rhyt h m ia s o c c u rr i ng in H F , wh i c h m a y b e in c re as ed b y d ru gs s u c h as m i l ri n on e a nd o the r i n o t ro p ic a g en ts . ( 3 ) B lo o d p r es s u r e a nd he a r t ra t e sh o ul d b e m on it o r e d wh e n ad m i ni s te r ing m i lr i no n e, o wi n g t o i ts va s od il a to r y e f fe c ts a n d i ts po t en t ia l to i n du c e a r rh yt h m i as . ( 4 ) A dd i ti o na l s id e e f fe c ts in c l u de m i ld to m o de r at e he a da c h e , t r em o r, and t h r om b oc y t op e ni a . 6 . N es i r i t id e ( Na t r e co r ) i s a r ec om bi n an t f o rm o f h u m a n B N P, wh i c h is a na t u r al l y o cc u r ri n g h o rm on e s ec r et e d b y t h e ve n t ri cl es . It is t he fi r s t o f t hi s d r ug c la ss t o b e co m e a v ai l ab le f or hum a n us e i n th e Un i te d Sta t es . a . N es i ri t id e i s a pp r o v e d f o r th e i n tr a v e no us t re a tm e nt o f p at i en ts wi t h acu t e l y d e co m p e ns at e d H F as s oc i at e d wi t h sh o r tn es s o f b r e a th at r es t o r wi t h m in i m a l a c ti vi t y. b . N es i ri t id e b i nd s t o n a tr i u r et ic pe p ti d e r ec e pt o rs in bl o od v es s el s , r es ul ti n g i n i n c re as ed p ro d uc ti o n o f c y c li c g ua n os in e m on o ph o s p h at e (c G MP ) i n t a rge t ti s s u es , wh i c h m e di a te s P.893 va s o di l at io n . I n H F, ne s ir i t id e re d uc es p u lm on a r y c ap i ll a r y we d ge p re ss u re a nd s ys t em ic v as c u l ar r es is ta n c e . c . I ni ti a l t r ea tm e n t in v o l v e s a bo l us d o se of 2 µ g /k g fo ll o we d b y a c o n ti n uo u s i n t ra ve n ou s i n fu s i on o f 0. 0 1 µ g/ k g / m i n t o a m a xi m um do se o f 0 .0 3 µ g/ k g /m i n. d . Mo n i t o ri n g f o r h y p ot en s io n , e le v a t ed s e r um c re a t in in e , h ea d ac he , na us e a, an d d i zzi n es s is t he k e y t o s u c c e s s fu l u s e . C on co m i ta n t u se o f A C E I s m a y i nc r e as e t he r i sk of s ym p to m a t ic h y pot e ns i on (s y s t ol ic bl oo d pr e s s u r e < 9 0 m m H g a n d s yn c o p e) . e . N es i ri t id e h as be e n s ho wn t o im p ro v e s ym p to m s in t he s e tt i ng of ac u te H F , b ut t h e e f f ec t o n m or b id i t y an d m o r ta li t y h as n o t y et b e e n p ro ve n . At th is po in t in ti m e ,
o wi n g t o l ac k o f p i v ot a l s t u d ie s d em on s tr a ti n g i ts b e n ef i t, ne s i r i ti de ' s us e a s i n t er m i t t en t o r c o nt i nu o us ou t pa t ie n t t r ea t m e n t is n o t r ec o m m en de d . L . P a ti e n t e d uc a ti o n 1 . P at i en ts s h o ul d b e m ad e a wa r e o f th e i m p o rt a nc e o f ta ki n g t he i r m ed ic at i o ns e xa c t l y a s p r es c r i be d a nd s h o ul d b e a d v is e d t o wa t c h f or si gn s o f to xi c i t y . 2 . P at i en ts s h o ul d b e e du c at e d o n t he n ee d f o r l if e s t y le m o di f ic at i on s t hat wi l l ha ve a p os it i v e e f f ec t o n r e duc i ng H F d e v el o pm en t and r e du c i ng H F s ym pt om s , i nc lu d in g d a il y we i g h t m on i to r in g , f l u id m a na ge m en t , so d ium r es t ri c ti on , e a r l y i n te rve n t i on if s ym p to m s a p pe a r , c o m p li a nc e wi t h t he t r ea tm e nt p l an , m o di f ic at i on of al c o h ol i n t ak e, e xe r c is e , a nd s t re s s r ed uc t io n . 3 . Th e pa ti e n t s h o ul d u nd e r s t a nd th e n e ed fo r r eg u la r c h ec k u ps an d b e ab l e t o r e c og ni z e s ym p to m s th a t r e q ui r e im m e d ia t e p h y sic i an no t if ic a ti o n —f o r e xa m p le , a n u n us u al l y i r r e gu la r pu ls e r a t e, pa l pi t at i on s, sh o rtn e s s o f b re a th , s wo l l en a n k l es , vi s u al di s t u r ba nc es , o r we i gh t ga in e xc e e di ng 3 -5 l b i n 1 we e k . 4 . Th e pa ti e n t n ee ds to b e ed uc a te d a b ou t d r u gs s uc h a s c a lc i um c h an nel b lo ck e rs ; N S A I D s , wh ic h m a y c a us e a p r o bl em in H F b y r e ta i ni n g f lu i d; an d s od i um . I n a d di t io n , t h e p at i en t n e ed s to be in f or m e d of th e p o t en t ia l d an g e rs o f us e o f o ve r t h e -c o un t e r m e d ic at i on s t h a t m ig h t al s o p re d is pos e h im o r h e r t o HF s ym p t om s a nd l o ss o f s y m p to m c o n t ro l . A t ho r o ug h re v i e w o f a l l m ed ic a ti o ns (b o th p re sc r i p ti o n a nd o ve r - t he - c o u nt e r ) s ho u ld b e c a r ri ed ou t as fr e qu en t l y as po ss ib le t o e ns u re c om p li a nc e wi t h t he t re at m en t re g im en . P.894
STUDY QUESTIONS D i r e c t i on s fo r q ue s t io ns 1 - 8 : E ac h o f t h e q ue s tio n s , s t a te m e n ts , o r in c om p le t e s t a te m e n ts i n th is s ec t ion c a n b e c o r re c t l y a ns we r e d or c o m p le t e d b y o ne o f th e s u gg es t ed an s we r s o r phr a s es . Ch oo s e t he be s t a n s we r . 1 . W hi c h o f th e fo l l ow in g c om b in a t io n s o f d r ug s , w h en us e d t o ge t h e r, p a r t i cu l a r l y i n b l a c k p at i e n t s, r e du c e b o th p r elo a d a n d a f t e r lo a d a n gio t e n si n c o n ve r t i n g e nz ym e a n d m i g ht p r o vi d e a n a l te rn a t i ve t o AC E I s i n pa t ie n t s w ho a r e i n to l e ra n t o f t he m ? ( A ) n it r o gl y c e ri n ( N i t ro s ta t ) an d i s o s o r bi d e d in i t ra t e (I so r d il ) ( B ) h yd r al a z i ne ( Ap r es o lin e ) an d i so s o r bi d e d in i tra t e ( C ) d il t ia z e m ( C a r di z e m ) a n d v e r a pa m i l ( C a la n ) ( D ) p r a zos in ( Mi n i p re s s ) a n d a n gi o te ns in I I ( E ) h yd r al a z i ne an d m eth y l d o pa ( Al d om et ) V i e w A n s we r 1 . T h e a n sw e r i s B [ se e] . 2 . W h en sp i r o n o la c to n e ( Al d a c t on e ) i s u se d i n a p a ti e n t w i th h ea r t f a il u r e ( H F ) , i t w o r ks t h r ou g h w ha t p rim a r y m e c ha n is m ? ( A ) p os i ti v e i n ot r o pi c e f fe c t ( B ) p os i ti v e c h ro n ot r o pi c e f f ec t ( C ) a ld o s t e ro n e a nt a go n is m ( D ) n e ga ti v e i no t ro p ic e f fe c t
( E ) a ng i ot e ns in I I bl o c k ad e V i e w A n s we r 2 . T h e a n sw e r i s C [ se e] . F o r q u es ti o n s 3 - 4 : A 60 - y e a r -o l d h yp e r t en s i v e wo m an is c u r r e nt l y be i ng t re a te d wit h ni t r og l yc e r in , c a r ve di lo l , f u r os em i de , n i fe d ip in e (P r o c ar d ia ) , ra m i p ri l , as p ir i n , a n d di g o xi n . Sh e i s a d m i t te d wi t h a di a gn os is of s t a ge C h ea r t fa il u r e. 3 . W hi c h a ge n t is mo s t l i k e l y t o b e d i sc o n ti n ued i n th i s p a t ie n t ? ( A ) n if e di p in e ( B ) c ar v e d il ol ( C ) a sp i ri n ( D ) d ig o xi n ( E ) f u ro s e m i d e V i e w A n s we r 3 . T h e a n sw e r i s A [ se ea n d] .4 . W h ic h o f t h e f o l low i n g b e st r e p r e se n t s t h e g o al s o f t h e r ap y f o r t h i s p at i e nt ? ( A ) Tr e a t un de r l y i ng c a us es s u c h as h ype r te n si on , c i ga r e tt e s m o k i n g, li pid d i so r de r s . ( B ) D i sc ou r ag e th e u s e of a lc oh o l i nt ak e , i ll ic i t d ru g us e, an d d i et a r y s a l t in t ak e . ( C ) C o n t ro l t h e m e t ab o lic s y nd r om e . ( D ) A l l o f t h e a bo v e . ( E ) N o ne o f t he ab o v e . V i e w A n s we r 4 . T h e a n sw e r i s D [ se e] . 5 . Be c au se o f p ro ve n be n e fi c ia l e f f e c ts on ca r d i ac r emo d e l in g , a pa r t i cu l a r g r o u p o f a ge n t s i s n ow ind i c a te d a s f i r s t - l in e th e r a p y i n H F p a t i en t s . W h ic h o f t he fo l l ow i ng i s a re p r e se n ta t i ve o f t h i s g ro u p o f d r ug s ? ( A ) h yd r oc hl o ro t hi a z i de (H y d r o D I U R I L ) ( B ) l is in o pr i l ( Z es t ri l ) ( C ) l os a r ta n ( C o z a a r ) ( D ) c a r ved il o l ( A t ac an d ) ( E ) f u ro s e m i d e ( L as i x) V i e w A n s we r 5 . T h e a n sw e r i s B [ se e6 . Wh i ch o f t h e fo l l ow in g st a t em e nt s i s n o t c o r re c t , a s i t r ela t e s t o t he cu r r e n t s t a tu s o f h e a r t f a il u r e ( H F ) i n t h e U n i t e d St a t es ? ( A ) H F is th e o ne c a r di ov a s c ul a r d is o rd e r t ha t is i n c re as in g i n i nc i de nc e an d p r e va le nc e . ( B ) Me d i c a ti on c o s t s f o r t r e a ti n g H F i n th e Un i te d S t a te s a p pr o ac he s $ 38 b i ll i on . ( C ) P a t ie n ts wi t h a d v an c e d di s e as e h a v e a 30 % -4 0 % ri sk o f d e at h an nu a ll y . ( D ) C u r r en t fi g ur es r e v ea l ap p ro xi m a t el y 5 m i ll ion p eo pl e i n th e Un i te d Sta t es wh o s u f fe r fr o m H F . ( E ) A p p ro xi m a t el y 5 00 , 00 0 pe o pl e e ac h yea r ar e d i ag n os ed wi t h H F i n t h e U n i te d S t a t es . V i e w A n s we r 6 . T h e a n sw e r i s B [ se ea n d] .P . 89 5
7 . I f t r e a ti n g a pa t i en t w i t h H F , w hi c h o f t he fo l l ow i ng d os a ge s o f d op a m in e w o ul d be us e d t o el i ci t i t s p os i t i ve i n o t r op i c e ff e c t s? ( A ) 2 . 0 µ g /k g /m in
( B ) 5 - 10 µ g /k g/ m i n ( C ) 1 0 -2 0 µ g/ k g / m i n ( D ) 4 0 µg / k g /m i n ( E ) 4 0 m g/ k g /m i n V i e w A n s we r 7 . T h e a n sw e r i s B [ se e] . 8 . T h e u se o f a n g io t e ns i n -c o n ver t i n g e n z ym e i n h i b i t o rs ( AC E I s ) i n h ea r t f ai l u r e ( H F ) c e n t e rs a ro u n d w h a t p h a r ma c o lo g ic e f fe c t? ( A ) d i re ct r ed uc t io n i n ren i n l e v el s wi t h a re s u l ta nt d ec r ea se in an g io t en s in I I a n d a l do s te r on e l e v e ls ( B ) i nd i re c t r e du c t i on in a n gi o te n s i n I I a n d a ld os te r o ne le v e ls o wi n g t o i nhi b i ti on o f a n gi o te n s i n -c on v e r t in g en z y m e ( C ) d i re c t r ed u c t io n i n a ld o s t e r on e s ec r et i on an d a n gi o te n si n I p ro du c ti on b y i n hi b it i ng an gi o te n s i n -c on v e r t i ng en zy m e ( D ) i nc r ea s e in a ft e rl o ad o wi n g to an in d i re ct de cr e a se in an gi o te ns i n I I as we l l a s a d e c re as e i n p r el o ad o win g to an in d i re c t r ed uc t io n in al do s te r on e s ec r e tio n ( E ) i nh i bi ti o n o f t h e a ng io t e ns in I I r ec e pt o r , wh i c h r es u lt s i n r e du c e d a n gio t e ns in I I l e ve ls an d re du c ed s ec re t i on of al d os te r o ne V i e w A n s we r 8 . T h e a n sw e r i s B [ se ea n d] . Di r e c ti o n s fo r q ue s ti o n s 9 -1 2: Th e q u es ti o ns a n d i nc om p l e te s t a te m e n ts i n t h is s ec t io n c a n b e co r r ec t l y a n s we r e d o r co m p l et e d b y o ne o r m o r e o f th e s ug g es t ed an s we r s . Ch o os e t he an s we r , A- E . 9 . W hi c h o f th e fo l l ow in g h a ve b e en sh ow n t o b e ef f e ct i ve i n t h e a cut e m a n ag e me n t o f di g i ta l is t o xi c i t y? I . c ho l es t yr a m i n e r e si n ( Q u e s t r an ) I I . Fa b f r ag me n t a n t i bod y ( D i g i b i n d ) I I I . po t as s i um ad m in i s tr a t i o n A i f I o n l y i s c o r re c t B i f II I on l y i s c o r r ec t C i f I a n d I I a r e c or r ec t D i f II a nd I II a re c o r re c t E i f I, I I, an d II I ar e c o r re c t V i e w A n s we r 9 . T h e a n sw e r i s E [s e e] . 1 0. S i tu a ti o n s th a t p r e di s p os e a d i g i t al i s -t r e a te d pa t ie n t t o t ox i c it y i n c l u d e I . h yp e r c a l c e m ia . I I . h yp e r k a l e m i a. I I I . h yp e r m a g n e se m ia . A i f I o n l y i s c o r re c t B i f II I on l y i s c o r r ec t C i f I a n d I I a r e c or r ec t D i f II a nd I II a re c o r re c t E i f I, I I, an d II I ar e c o r re c t V i e w A n s we r 1 0 . T he a nsw e r i s A [ se ea n d] .1 1 . Co r r e c t s t a t em e nt s a b o ut d o b u ta m i ne in c l ud e w hi c h o f t h e f o ll ow i n g? I . D o se s o f 5 -2 0 µg / k g/m i n ha ve b ee n a s so c ia te d w i t h a po s i ti ve i n o t ro p i c e f f ec t i n t r e at i n g t h e p a ti e n t w i t h h ea r t f ai l u r e ( H F ) .
I I . P at i e n ts r ec e i vi n g do b u t am i ne s ho u l d b e mo n i t o r ed f o r i n c re a se s in p e r i p he r a l vas c u la r r esi s t a nc e . I I I . D ob u t am i ne is c on si d e r e d a n o n gl yc o s i d e , n o n s ym p a t h o m i me t i c -po s i t i ve i n o t r o pi c a g e nt . A i f I o n l y i s c o r re c t B i f II I on l y i s c o r r ec t C i f I a n d I I a r e c or r ec t D i f II a nd I II a re c o r re c t E i f I, I I, an d II I ar e c o r re c t V i e w A n s we r 1 1 . T he a nsw e r i s A [ se e] . 1 2. W hi c h s t a te m en t s a c cu r a t el y d e s c ri b e h e a r t ( H F ) c l as s i f ic a t io n s t a ge A? I . P a ti e n ts h a ve a hi g h r i s k f o r H F w i t ho u t s t r uc t u r a l h e a r t d is e as e o r s ym p t o m s I I . P at i e n ts ne e d t o r ece i ve AC E I s o r AR B s I I I . Pa t i en t s s h ou l d b e tr e a t e d f o r an y u n d e r l yi n g ca u se s th a t w o ul d be r e s p o ns i bl e fo r c au s ing H F A i f I o n l y i s c o r re c t B i f II I on l y i s c o r r ec t C i f I a n d I I a r e c or r ec t D i f II a nd I II a re c o r re c t E i f I, I I, an d II I ar e c o r re c t V i e w A n s we r 1 2 . T he a nsw e r i s E [s e e] . P . 89 6
ANSWERS AND EXPLANATIONS 1 . T he an sw e r is B [ s ee I V . H . 2. e ] . Th e v e n o us di la t in g p r ope r t ie s o f i s o s o r b id e d in i tr a t e (p r el o ad ) i n c on j un ct i o n wi t h t h e a r t e ri ol a r d il a ti n g e f fe c ts of h yd ra l a z in e ( a f ter l o ad ) m ak e th is c om b ina t i on e f f ec t i v e i n r ed u c i ng bo th p r el oa d a n d a f te r lo a d. R e c en t gu id e li ne s s ug g es t th a t t he c om b in a ti o n o f t he v a s od i la t o rs h y dr a la zi n e a nd i s o s o rb id e d i ni t r at e s ho ul d no t b e c o ns id e re d a s i ni t ia l th e ra p y o v e r A C E Is b u t h as b e e n s h o wn t o b e e f fe c tiv e , p a r ti c ul a rl y i n b la c k p a tie n ts wh e n ad de d to s t and a r d t h er a p y fo r H F . 2 . T he an sw e r is C [ s ee I V . G . 8 ]. S p i r on o la c t o ne wa s th e fi r s t a ld os t e ro ne an t a go nis t a vai la b le fo r c l in ic al us e i n th e U n i t ed S ta t es . I n th e c om p le t ed R A L E S t r ia l , sp ir o n ol ac t on e , g i v en in 12 .5 - t o 2 5 -m g d a il y d os es to H F p a ti e nts wi t h c l as s I V s y m pt om s wh o we r e t ak in g A C EI s, r e du c e d t h e ri sk o f de a th an d h os p i t al i z a ti on . It is a we a k d i u re t ic bu t a ls o wo r k s as a d i re c t a n t ag o ni s t to t he ac ti o ns o f al do s te r on e , wh i c h ha s d em o ns t ra t ed be n ef i t i n H F p a t ie n ts wi t h m od e ra t el y t o s e v e r e s y m p t om s . 3 . T he an sw e r is A [ s ee I V . J . 1 a n d 2 ] . B e c au se th e y h a v e t he po t e nt i al to p ro d uc e n eg at i v e in o t ro pi c e f fe c ts , c alc i um c h an n el bl oc k e r s s u c h as ni f ed i pi ne ha v e b ee n id e n ti f ie d a s o ne of t hr e e g r o up s o f d r u gs to a v oi d i n m os t HF p a ti en t s . B es id es c a lc iu m c ha n ne l b l oc k e rs ,
a n t ia r r h y th m i c s , a n d N SA I D s s h ou ld b e a vo id ed in m o s t H F pa t ie n ts o wi n g t o t h ei r a b il i t y to in d uc e H F s y m p t om s . 4 . T he an sw e r is D [ s ee Ta b l e 4 2 - 4] . Th e u p da t ed c l as s i fi c a t ion s y s t em wa s in t r od uc e d wi t h t h e n e wl y es t a bl is he d g u id e li n es t o d e m o ns t ra te t he p ro g re s s i ve n a tu r e o f H F a nd t o p ro v i d e a c o n t in uu m o f go a ls a n d t r ea t m e n t op t i on s as i t p ro g r ess e s . S t a g e C r ep r es e nt s t h e fi r s t s ta ge i n wh i ch th e p a ti e nt p re s e n ts wi t h s t r uc t ur a l h ea r t d is e as e a s we l l as c u r ren t o r p r io r s ym p to m s o f H F . I ni t ia l go a ls fo r ea r li e r s ta g es rem a in im po r t an t g o al s f o r s t ag e C , b u t th e “ r es t r ic ti o n i n d iet a r y s al t ” is a dd ed t o a ll o f t he pr e v i ou s g oa ls . 5 . T he an sw e r is B [ s ee I V . D . 1] A C E I s ha v e s h o wn an abi l it y t o h a ve a p os it i ve e ff e c t o n c a r di a c r em od e lin g , wh ic h i s b e li e v ed t o b e t he un de r l y i ng c h an g e t ha t r es ult s in th e i nc r ea s ed s t r ess es an d p a t ho lo g ic e v en ts t ha t ev e n t u al l y c a us e t h e s y m p t om s a ss oc ia t ed wi t h HF . R ec e nt s t ud i es h a v e s h o wn th e p o s i t i v e b en e fi ts f or e ac h o f t h e A C E Is us e d in HF p a ti en t s , a n d t o da y t he y r e p re s e n t t h e i ni t ia l t h e ra p y fo r HF p a ti en t s. 6 . T he an sw e r is B [ s ee I . B , C a nd D ] . Th e a c tu al c o s t s i n v ol v ed i n t he t re a tm en t of H F , i nc l ud in g m ed ic a l c ar e , h o m e h e al t h c a re , m ed ic a ti o n c os t s , an d h os p it a li z a t ion co s ts , r e po r t ed in 20 05 we r e a p p ro xi m a t el y $ 27 . 9 b il l io n . Me d ic a ti o n c o s ts a l on e a re a b it le ss b u t a r e s t il l r e p o rt e d t o b e m o re th a n $ 2 .9 bi l li on an n ua ll y. 7 . T he an sw e r is B [ s ee I V . K . 2. b ]. D o p am i ne ha s s h o wn g re a t v e rs a ti li t y in i ts e f fe ct s . At do se s o f 2 - 5 µg / k g/ m in , i t i n c re as es r en al bl o od fl ow t h r o u g h i ts do pa m i n e rg i c e f fe c t s . A t d os es o f 5- 1 0 µ g / k g/ m i n , i t i nc r ea s e s c a r d ia c o u tp u t t h ro u gh i t s β - a d re n e rg ic s t im ul a ti n g e f f ec t. A t d o se s o f 1 0 -2 0 µ g/ k g / m in , it in c re as es p er i ph e ra l v a s c u la r r es is ta n c e th r ou g h i ts β a d r en e r gi c s tim u la t in g e ff e c ts . Th e r e i s n o s pe ci f ic c u t of f fo r an y o f t h es e e f f ec ts , s o c lo se t it r a ti on is r eq uir e d to p ro v i de f o r in d i v idu a l r e sp on se . 8 . T he an sw e r is B [ s ee I V . D . 4 a nd 5; F ig u re 42 -2 ] . B y d i r ec t l y i n hi bi t in g th e a n gi o te n s i n -c on v e r t in g e n z ym e , p ro du c ti on o f a ng i o te ns in I I is r ed uc ed , as i s a ng i ot e ns i n I I -m ed i at e d s ec re ti o n o f a l do s t e r on e f r om th e a d r en a l g la nd . Th es e e f fe c ts a re be li e v e d t o h a ve a b e ne f ic ia l e f fe c t o n th e p r e ve n ti on o f c a r di a c r em o de li n g, wh i c h h as b e en s h o wn t o h a v e a de t r im e nt a l e f f ec t o n c a rd i ac f u nc ti on . 9 . T he an sw e r is E ( I , II, I I I ) [ s e e I V . I .9 .c . ( 5 )] . C h o l es t y r am in e re s i n h as be e n u s e d i n t h e ac u te s i tu a ti on t o d ec re a se the a b so r p ti on o f d ig o xi n wi t h i n t h e g as t ro i nt es t in a l tr a c t. Th i s r es ul t s i n l o wer d ig o xi n l e ve ls if t he re s i n i s a dm i n is t er e d b e fo r e a ll th e di g o xi n ha s b e en ab so r bed . P o t as si um ad m i n is t ra t ion h as b e en s h o wn t o b e e f f ec t i v e i n p ro t ec t in g t he m yo c ar d iu m f r om th e t o xi c e f f ec ts of di g o xi n wh i le t o xi c le v e ls re t u rn t o no r m al . F a b f r a gm e nt an t ib o d y , t h ou gh e xp e n s i v e , ha s b ee n sh o wn t o be ef f ec ti v e in th e m a na g em en t o f v e r y hi gh s e r um di g o xi n le v e ls , by wh i c h 4 0 m g of d ru g i s a b le to b i nd 0 .6 m g o f di gi t al is . P.897
1 0 . Th e a n sw e r i s A ( I ) [ s ee I V .I . 8 .a , b an d c ] . C a l ci um io ns ac t s y n e rg is t ic al l y wi t h di gi t al is . Th e r e f or e , wh e n h y p e rc al c e m ia o cc u rs , di gi t al is e xe r t s an a dd e d p ha rm a co lo g ic al e f f ec t o n t h e h ea r t . Th i s m a y p r e se n t i ts el f a s t o xi c a rr h y t h m i as , c a rd i ac s t an ds t il l , a nd e ven de a th . El eva t e d p o t ass i um l e v e ls or el e va t e d m a g ne s i um le v e ls s e e m t o a id in t he pr e v e nti o n o f d i gi t al is - i nd uc ed t o xi c it y . Th e r e is b u il di n g e v i de nc e th a t d ig i ta li s p r ep a ra ti o ns ne e d c a lc iu m i on s t o wo r k , and c o ns e qu e nt l y lo w c a lc iu m l e v e ls m a y ne g at e t he p h a rm ac ol o gi c a l p o te n tia l of di g o xi n . 1 1 . Th e a n sw e r i s A ( I ) [ s ee I V . K. 3 .a ] . D o b u ta m i n e i n d os es o f 5 - 2 0 µg /k g /m in is an in o tr o p ic ag en t th a t is us e fu l i n t h e t r e a tm en t o f H F . D o bu t am i ne do es no t h a ve th e v e r s a ti li t y t ha t do pa m i n e o f f er s , l a ck in g c om pa r a bl e e f fe c t s on re n al bl o od fl o w a nd p e ri ph e r al v as cu l a r r esi s ta nc e . R a t h e r, do b ut am i ne ha s a p e ri ph e r al di la t in g e f fec t th a t o f fe r s a b e ne f it to p a ti e nt s wh o h a v e r ed uc e d c a r d iac ou t pu t du e t o e l e v at e d p e r ip h e ra l r es is t an c e. 1 2 . Th e a n sw e r i s E ( I , II , I I I) [s e e Ta b l e 4 2 -4 ] . Th e r e ce n t g ui d el in es f or t h e d ia g no si s a nd m a nag e m e n t o f c h ro ni c h ea r t f a i lu r e r e c og ni z e f ou r s t ag es in t h e p r o gr e s s io n o f HF , an d ea ch s t a ge i s a ss oc iat e d wi t h c l in ic al f in di n gs , g oa ls o f t r e at m e n t , a nd m e di c a t i o n s t ha t s h ou ld b e co ns id e r ed . S t a g e A r ep r es en t s p at i en t s wh o a r e m e re l y at r isk f or he a r t f ai l u re o wi n g t o u n d er l yi ng ri s k fa c to r s s u c h as h y p er t en s i o n, h yp e r li p id em ia , an d sm ok i ng . A C E Is a r e re co g ni z e d fo r th ei r b e n ef ic ia l e f f ec ts in c a r di a c r em o de li n g a nd ha v e b e en r e c om m e nd e d as fi r s t - l ine t he r a p y f o r s el ec t pa t ie n ts wi t h s t ag e A h ea r t fa i lu r e .
43 Thromboembolic Diseases J a m es B . G r o c e I I I
I. Definition. V e n ou s t h r om bo em b ol ic d i s e as e ( V TE D ) oc c u rs wh e n o n e o r m o re of t he e l em en ts o f V i r ch ow ' s t r i a d a re pr e s en t , r es u lt i ng in de ep v e n o us th r om bo si s ( D VT) a n d / o r p u lm o na r y em bo l is m ( P E) . A. V a s c ul a r i nj u r y B . V e no us s t as is C . H yp e r c o a gu la b le s t a te ( i .e . , d ec r ea se d p r o te in C , p ro t ei n S , or an t i th ro m bi n )
II. Incidence. I t is es ti m a t ed t ha t th e an n u al i nc i de nc e o f V TE e v e n ts e xc e e ds 6 0 0, 0 00 a n d t h e n u m b e r o f V TE - as s o c i a te d de a th s is 29 6 , 37 0 a nn u al l y .
III. Risk Factors for VTE A. P a t i e n t s p ec i f i c a nd t h o s e a ss o ci a t ed w i t h m e d ic a l i l l ne ss a nd su rg i c a l p r o c e du r e s 1 . S u rg e r y 2 . Tr a um a (m aj o r o r l o we r e xt r e m it y ) 3 . Im m o b il it y o r pa r es is 4 . Ma l i g na nc y 5 . C an c er t he r ap y ( h o rm o n al , c h em ot h e ra p y o r ra d io t he r a p y) 6 . P r e v io us V TE 7 . I nc re a s i ng ag e (> 40 y e a r s o f ag e ) 8 . P r eg n an c y a n d t he pos t pa r t um pe r io d 9 . E s t r og e n -c on t ai ni n g or a l c o nt r ac e pt i ves o r h o rm o ne - r ep l ac em en t th e rap y 1 0 . Se l ec ti v e es t ro g en - re c ep t o r m o d ul a to r s 1 1 . Ac u te m e di c a l i ll n es s 1 2 . He a r t o r re s p i ra t o r y fa i lu r e 1 3 . In fl a m m at o r y bo we l d i s e as e 1 4 . Ne p h ro t ic s y n d ro m e 1 5 . Mye l o p r ol i fe r at i v e d is o r de r s , i. e . , di s ea se s i n wh i c h m al i gn a nt (c a nc e r) b o ne m a r ro w c e l ls m ul t ip l y and s p r e ad to t he bl oo d . 1 6 . Pa r o xy s m a l n oc t ur n al h em og lo b in u ri a 1 7 . O be s i t y 1 8 . Sm ok in g 1 9 . Va r ic os e v ei ns 2 0 . Ce n t ra l v en o us c a the t e ri z a t i on 2 1 . In he r i te d o r ac qu i re d t h r om bo p hi li a (e . g. , de f ic i en c y o f an t it h r om bi n , pr o t ei n C , o r p ro t ei n S, ac t i v at e d p ro t e in C re s i s ta nc e , a nt i ph o sp h ol ip i d a nt i bo d y , l up u s a n t ic oa g ul an t ) P.899
IV. Prevention and Treatment A. N o n p h a r m ac o lo g i c pr e ve n t i o n . Me c h a ni c a l m e th o ds o f p ro ph yl a xi s a r e r e c om m e nd e d, p ri m a r il y i n pa t ie n ts wh o a r e a t hig h ri s k of bl e ed i ng , a n d m a y i n cl ud e e x t e rn a l p n eu ma t i c c o mp r e ss i o n, g r adu a t e d c om p r es s i on s toc k i ng s or ve n o u s fo o t pu m ps . The s e d e vic es in c r ea s e ve n o u s o u t f low a nd / o r r ed u c e s t a s is wi t h in th e l e g v e in s . B . P h a r ma c ol o g ic p re ve n t i on . V TE D c an be pre v e n t ed b y c o un t er a ct i ng i nc r ea s e d b l oo d c o ag ul a bi li t y wi t h u n f r a c ti o na t e d h e pa r i n ( U F H ) ( se e V. A ) , o ra l a n t i co a gu l a nt t h e ra p y w i t h a vi t am i n K a n ta g on i s t s u c h a s w a r f a r in (s e e V . B ), l ow m o le c ul a r w ei g h t he p a r i n ( LM W H ) (s ee V . C) , o r a s yn t h e t i c p en t a sa c c ha r i de (see V.D).
V. Pharmacologic Agents. N e w r e c o m m en da t io ns fo r t r ea tm e nt o f V TE D h av e b e en p ro m u lg a t ed th at s ug ge s t a h i e ra r ch ic a l a pp r oa c h t o s e le c t i on of ph a rm ac o log i c a ge n ts fo r m a na gi n g V TE D . Th e s e re c o m m en d at i on s a r e l is t e d in Ta b le 43 - 1 a n d e ac h o f th e re co m m e n d ed p h a rm ac ol o gi c a ge n ts are d is c us s ed in th e f o ll o wi n g s ec ti o ns .
Table 43-1. Guidelines for Initial Treatment of Venous Thromboembolic Disease Clinical situation Confirmed acute DVT of the leg High suspicion of DVT of the leg Selection
Recommended treatment SC LMWH, IV UFH, or SC UFH anticoagulants while awaiting the outcome of diagnostic tests
Treatment options
IV UFH
Continuous infusion Using weight-based dosing protocol, adjust dosage to prolong aPTT to a range that corresponds to a plasma heparin level of 0.3-0.7 units/mL antifactor Xa activity by amidolytic antifactor Xa assay If therapeutic levels of aPTT are not reached despite large daily doses of UFH, measure antifactor Xa levels for dosage guidance
SC UFH
An alternative to IV UFH Initial dose 35,000 units/24 hr, then maintain aPTT within therapeutic range
SC LMWH
Recommended initial treatment once or twice a day over UFH (as outpatient therapy if possible, as inpatient
therapy if necessary) Routine monitoring with antifactor Xa levels not recommended Further recommendations Once UFH therapy commences, check aPTT or antifactor Xa heparin level at 6 hr for UFH and adjust to maintain aPTT corresponding to therapeutic antifactor Xa heparin level of 0.3-0.7 units/mL Antifactor Xa heparin levels not recommended for LMWH therapy Platelet count should be checked daily while on UFH or LMWM Warfarin therapy should be commenced on day 1; adjust daily dosing based on PT/INR Stop unfractionated heparin or LMWH after 5 days overlap with warfarin (minimally), when INR is stable and > 2.0 Anticoagulate (warfarin) for 6-12 months (depending on patient and disease state) aPTT, activated partial thromboplastin time; INR, international normalized ratio; IV, intravenous; LMWH, low molecular weight heparin; PT, prothrombin time; SC, subcutaneous; UFH, unfractionated heparin. Adapted with permission from Buller HR, Agnelli G, Hull R, et al. Antithrombotic therapy for venous thromboembolic disease. Paper presented at the Seventh ACCP Conference on Antithrombotic and Thrombolytic Therapy. Chest 2004;126(Suppl):401s-428s. P.900
A. U n f r a c t i o na t e d h e par i n 1 . I nd i ca t i o ns . Pa t ie n ts wi t h p r o ve n V TE D m a y re c ei v e c o nc om i ta n t U F H f o r ac ut e t r e a tm en t a n d wa r f a r i n th e r ap y a c u t el y, f ol lo we d b y wa r f a r i n t h e ra p y fo r co n t in ue d p r e ve n ti on o f r ec u r re nc e o f V TE D ( Ta b le 43 . 1 ) , un l es s c o n t ra i nd ic a ti on s to wa r f a r in ( e . g ., p re g na nc y ) a r e p res e nt .
2 . M e c ha n is m o f ac t i on. Th e m a j or m e c h an is m b y wh i c h he pa r i n b lo ck s c o ag u l a ti o n i s b y c at a l y z i ng th e i n hi bi t i on of th r om b in . U F H ac t s as an an t ic oa g ul a nt b y c a ta l yzi n g t he i na c t i va t io n o f th r o mb i n (f a c to r II a ) , a c t i va te d f ac t o r X (f a c t o r X a ) , an d a c t i va te d fa c t or I X ( f ac t o r I Xa ) b y a n t i t h r o m b in . 3 . P ha r m ac o k in e t ic s . Th e m ec h an is m s of he p a rin c l e a ra nc e a r e c om pl e x. a . H ep a r in bi nd s t o a num b e r o f p la s m a p r ot e in s o t h e r t ha n a n ti t h ro m b in , wh i c h c om p et e s wi t h an t it h r om b i n h ep a r in bi nd i ng . b . U F H i s c le a re d b y r a pi d - ph as e (c el l ul a r ) e lim i na t i on fo l lo we d b y a m o r e g r a du al ( r e n al ) c l ea r an c e , wh i c h c a n b es t b e e xp l a i ne d b y a c om b in a t io n of sa t u ra b l e a n d n o n sa t u r a bl e fi r s t - o rd er k i n e ti c m o de l s . c . W he n a dm in is t e re d i n f i xe d d os e s, th e a n ti c o ag u la n t re s p on s e t o U F H v a r i e s a m on g p a ti e nt s a nd wi t h in t he s a m e pa t ie n t ( i .e . , i n t er p a ti en t an d i nt r a pa t ie n t va r i a bi l it y ) . Th is v a r ia b il it y i s c au se d b y d i ff e re n c e s i n p a ti e nt s ' p l as m a c o nc en t r at i on s o f h ep a r in - n eu t r al i z in g pr o te i ns an d r at es of h ep a ri n c le a ra n c e . 4 . Ad m i n is t r a t io n an d do s a ge a . U F H ' s t he r a pe u ti c e f fe c t i s h as te n ed b y a d m i ni s t ra t io n o f a l oa d i ng dos e , wh ic h m a y be em p i r ic a l l y s e l e c t e d (e . g. , 5 0 00 - u ni ts bol u s g i v en in t r a v en ou s l y ) o r i n di vi d ua li z e d b y t h e p a tie n t ' s d o si n g w ei g h t. ( 1 ) Th e we i gh t - ba s e d a pp r o ac h h as r es ul t ed in the us e o f lo ad i ng do s e s va r yi n g f r o m 7 0 t o 1 00 u ni ts /k g . ( 2 ) I n so m e in s ta nc es , the i nd ic a ti on f o r wh i c h h ep a r in t he r ap y is be i ng in it i a te d i s c o ns id e re d , wi t h 7 0 u ni ts / k g b ei n g us e d f o r a ll th ro m bo t ic i n di ca t io ns ot h er t h an s us p ec t ed or p ro v e d p u lm o na r y em b ol is m , f or wh i c h u p t o 1 00 un i ts /k g m a y b e u s ed . b . V a r ia b le a pp r o ac h es t o c o nt i nu ou s d os i ng hav e b e en em pl o ye d. ( 1 ) E mp i r i c d o si n g o f 10 0 0 u n i ts / h r m a y be us ed b ut m a y r es u lt in s u bt he r a pe u ti c o r su p ra t h er a pe u ti c o ut c o m es (i . e. , an ac ti v a t ed p a r ti a l t h ro m b o pl as t in tim e b e lo w o r a bo ve th e ta r ge t ed r an g e ) . ( 2 ) A no t he r ap p ro a c h to c o nt i nu o us d os i ng in c l ude s c om m e nc i ng wi t h a fixe d d o s e ( o t h er t ha n t h e em p i ri c do s e o f 1 00 0 u n it s /h r ) . One s u ch a pp r oa ch m a y s ee a n i ni t ia l l o ad i ng do s e f ol lo we d b y 3 2 ,0 0 0 u ni ts / 24 h r b y con t i nu ou s i n fu s i o n. ( 3 ) Ye t a no t he r a p p ro ac h v a l id a te d i n t h e m e d ic a l an d p h ar m a ce u ti c al l i te r a t ur e u s es a w e i gh t - b as e d d os i n g n o mo g r am f o r c o m m e nc in g UF H t he r a p y t ha t va r ie s b e t we e n 1 5 a n d 2 5 u ni ts / k g /h r . ( a ) Lo we r d os e s a re us ed i ni t ia ll y f o r m os t t h ro m b o t ic i n di ca t io ns ot h e r t ha n p u lm o na r y em bo l is m . ( b ) P ul m o n a r y e m b o li s m r e q ui r es m o r e a gg r es si v e t he r a p y (i . e. , up to 25 u n i ts /k g /h r ) b as e d o n t he c on s i d e ra t io n t h at t he c le a r an c e o f h ep a ri n m a y b e i n c re as ed , th us ne c e s s i ta t i ng an in c re as ed do s e. ( 4 ) I ni t i al h ep a r i n w e i gh t - b a se d d o si n g n o m ogr a m s a n d s u bs e qu e n t ad j u s tm e n t p r o t o c ol s h a v e b e en dev e l o p ed to as si st th e i n iti a l we ig h t -b as e d d os in g e f f o rt s . S u c h p r ot oc o ls s ho u ld be d e v el o pe d f o r a s p ec if ic a P TT r e a ge n t ( Ta b l es 4 3 - 2 a nd 4 3 - 3 ). 5 . M o n i to r i n g t h e e f f ec ts o f U F H. Th e an t ic oa gul a n t e ff e c t s o f UF H a re us u al l y m o ni t o re d b y t he a PT T . Th e a P TT s h o ul d b e ob ta i n ed a t b a se l in e b e fo re c om m e n c i ng t he r ap y a nd t h en m on i t o re d 6 h r a f te r c o m m en ci n g h ep a ri n th e r ap y .
S u b se q ue n t d os in g a dj us t m e n ts a r e b as e d o n t he r es u lt s o f t h is a n d a dd it i o na l a P TTs . a . Th e aP TT r a t i o us ed to d et e rm i ne th e ra p eu t ic e f f ec t i s m e a s u r ed b y div i d i ng t he o b se r v e d a P TT b y t h e m e a n o f th e n o rm al la b or at o r y c on t ro l a P TT. b . Tr a d it i on a ll y , it wa s tau g h t t ha t fo r m a n y a P TT r e a ge n ts , a t he r ap e ut ic e f f ec t wa s a c hi e v e d wi t h an a PT T ra t i o of 1 .5 - 2. 5 . c . H o we v e r , be c a us e a PTT r e a g e n ts m a y v a r y i n t h e ir s e ns i ti v i t y , it is in ap p r o p r i at e t o u se t he sa m e a P TT ra t i o (i . e ., 1. 5 - 2. 5 ) fo r a ll r e a ge n t s. Th e th e ra p eu t ic r an g e f o r ea ch a P TT r e a ge n t s h o ul d b e c a li b ra t ed to be e q ui v a le n t t o a he p a ri n le v e l of 0 . 2 - 0. 4 u n it s/ m L b y wh o le b lo od ( p ro t am in e t i t ra t io n ) or t o a n a n ti f a ct o r Xa l e ve l ( i . e . , p la s ma he p a r in l eve l ) o f 0. 3 - 0. 7 u n i ts / m L c o l l ec t ed a t t h e 6 t h h r fo r U F H . P.901
Table 43-2. Weight-Based Nomogram aPTT
Dose
Initial dose
80 units/kg bolus, then 18 units/kg/hr
< 35 sec
80 units/kg bolus, then 4 units/kg/hr
35-45 sec
40 units/kg bolus, then 2 units/kg/hr
46-70 seca
No change
71-90 sec
Decrease infusion rate by 2 units/kg/hr
90 sec
Hold infusion 1 hr, then decrease infusion rate by 3 units/kg/hr
a
This therapeutic range corresponds to antifactor Xa activity of 0.3-0.7 units/mL. The therapeutic range at any institution should be established by correlation with antifactor Xa levels in the range of 0.3-0.7 units/mL. Adapted with permission from Hirsch J, Raschke R. Heparin and lowmolecular-weight heparin. Paper presented at the Seventh ACCP Conference on Antithrombotic and Thrombolytic Therapy. Chest 2004;126(Suppl):188s203s. B . O r a l an t i co a g ul a n ts—w a r fa r i n 1 . I nd i ca t i o ns
a . W ar f a ri n i s p r o v en ef fe c ti v e in t he : ( 1 ) P r im a r y a n d s e c o n dar y p r e v e n ti o n o f V TE D ( 2 ) P r e v en t io n o f s y s te m i c a r t e ri al em bo l ism in pa t i en ts wi t h ti s s ue an d m e c ha n ic al p r o st h et ic he a r t v a l v e s or a t r ia l f ib r i ll at i on ( 3 ) P r e v en t io n o f a c ut e m y o c ar d ia l i n fa rc t io n ( MI ) i n p a ti en t s wi t h pe r i ph er a l a r t e ri al d i se as e ( 4 ) P r e v en t io n o f s t r ok e, r e c u r r en t i n fa r c ti on , an d d e at h i n p a ti e nt s wi t h ac u te MI b . W arf a ri n m a y al s o be u s ed in pa t ie n ts wi t h v alv u l a r he a rt di s e a s e to p re v e n t s ys t em ic a r t e ri al em bo l is m , al t ho ug h i t s e ff ec t i v en e s s h a s n e ve r b ee n d em o ns t ra t ed b y a r an d om i z ed c l in ic al t r i al . 2 . M e c ha n is m o f ac t i on a . O r a l a nt ic o ag ul a nt s ( e. g . , wa r f a ri n ) a r e v i t am in K a nt a go n is ts , p r od u c i ng t he i r a n t ic oa g ul an t ef f ec t b y in t e r f e r in g w i t h t h e c yc l i c i n te r c on ve r s i o n o f vit a m i n K a n d i ts 2, 3 -e p o xi d e ( vi t a m i n K e po x id e ) . b . I nh ib i ti o n o f t h is p r oc e s s le a ds to th e d e pl e ti on o f v it am i n K H 2 a n d r e su l t s in t he p r o d u c ti o n P.902 o f h em o s ta t i ca l l y d e f e c t i ve , vi t a m in K - d ep e nde n t co a gu l a nt p r o te i ns o r c l o t ti n g f a c t o r s ( p r o th r o m bi n o r f a c t o rs I I, V I I, I X, a nd X ) .
Table 43-3. Heparin Dosage Adjustment Protocola Patient's Repeat Bolus aPTT (sec)b Dose (units)
Stop Infusion (min)
Change Rate of Infusion (mL/hr)c [units/24 hr]
Timing of Next aPPT
< 50
5000
0
+3 [2880]
6 hr
50-59
0
0
+3 [2880]
6 hr
60-85d
0
0
0
Next morning
86-95
0
0
-2 [-1920]
Next morning
96-120
0
30
-2 [-1920]
6 hr
> 120
0
60
-4 [-3840]
6 hr
aPTT, activated partial thromboplastin time.
a
Starting dose of 5000 units intravenous IV bolus followed by 32,000 units/24 hr as a continuous infusion. First aPTT performed 6 hr after the bolus injection; dosage adjustments are made according to protocol and the aPTT is repeated as indicated in the far-right column. b
The normal range for aPTT with Dade Actin FS reagent is 27-35 sec; the range may vary, depending on the sensitivity of the reagent. c
Concentration of heparin equal to 40 units/mL.
d
A therapeutic range of 60-85 sec is equivalent to a heparin level of 0.2-0.4 units/mL by whole blood protamine titration or 0.3-0.7 units/mL as a plasma antifactor Xa level. The therapeutic range varies with the responsiveness of the aPTT reagent to heparin. Adapted with permission from Hirsch J, Raschke R. Heparin and lowmolecular-weight heparin. Paper presented at the Seventh ACCP Conference on Antithrombotic and Thrombolytic Therapy. Chest 2004;126(Suppl):188s203s. c . Th e se v i ta m i n K -d ep en d e nt c o ag u la n t p ro t ei n s o r c l ot t in g fa c t o rs ( fa c tor s V I I, I X, X, a n d I I, r es pe c ti v e l y ) de c li ne o ve r 6 - 96 h r. 3 . P ha r m ac o k in e t ic s a . W ar f a ri n i s a r ac em i c m i x tu r e of r ou gh l y eq u al am o un ts o f t wo o p ti ca lly a c t i v e i s om e rs : t h e R an d S fo rm s . b . W arf a ri n i s r a pi dl y a bs o r be d f r om th e g as t r oi nt e s ti na l t r ac t an d re ac hes m a xi m a l b l oo d c o nc en t r at io n s in h e al t h y v o lu n te e rs in 90 m i n. c . D o se r es p o ns e t o war f a r in is i n fl u en ce d b y: ( 1 ) P ha r m a c o k i n et ic f ac to r s (i . e. , d i f fe r en ce s i n ab s o rp t io n a nd m e t ab ol ic c l ea r an c e ) ( 2 ) P ha r m a c o d y n am ic fac t o rs (i . e. , di f fe r e nc es i n t h e h em os t at ic r es po ns e t o g i v en c o nc en t r at i on s o f wa r f ar in ) ( 3 ) Te c hn ic al f ac to r s —f or e xa m p l e, in ac cu r ac i es in p r ot h ro m b i n t im e ( P T) a n d i n t er n a ti on a l n or m al i z ed r a t io ( I N R ) t e st in g an d re p o r ti ng ( 4 ) P a ti en t -s p ec if ic f ac tor s — f o r e xa m p le , d i et ( inc r e as ed in t ak e o f g r ee n , l e a f y ve g e t ab l es ) , p oo r pa t ie nt c om pl ia nc e (m is se d d os es , s e lf - m e d ic at i on , a lc o h ol c o ns um p ti on ) , p o o r c o m m u ni c a t io n b e t we e n p at ie n t a n d p h y si ci an ( un di sc l os ed us e o f d ru gs th a t m a y i n te r ac t wi t h wa r f a r in ) ( Ta b le 43 - 4 ) 4 . Ad m i n is t r a t io n an d do s a ge a . Wa r f a r i n, a c ou m a r in c om p ou n d, is th e m os t wi d el y u se d o r al an t ic oa gu l an t in N o r t h Am e ri c a . Al t ho u gh i t i s p r im a ri l y ad m in i s ter e d o r al l y, a n i nj ec t ab le p r e pa r a ti o n is a v ai l ab le in t he U ni t ed S t at es . b . C om m e nc e o r a l a nt ic oa g ul a nt t he r ap y wi t h t he a n t i ci p a te d da i l y m a i n t e n a nc e d o s e o f w a r fa r i n , wh i c h c an be v a r ia b le .
Table 43-4. Factors that May Potentiate or Inhibit Warfarin Effects Factor Drugs
Potentiate Anticoagulant Effect
Inhibit Anticoagulant Effect
Phenylbutazone
Cholestyramine
Metronidazole
Barbiturates
Sulfinpyrazone
Rifampin
Trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole
Griseofulvin
Disulfiram
Carbamazepine
Amiodarone Erythromycin Anabolic steroids Clofibrate Cimetidine Omeprazole Thyroxine Ketoconazole Isoniazid Fluconazole Piroxicam
Tamoxifen Quinidine Vitamin E (large doses) Phenytoin Penicillin Other
Low vitamin K intake
High vitamin K intake
Reduced vitamin K absorption
Alcohol (acute use)
Liver disease Hypermetabolic states (e.g., thyrotoxicosis) Alcohol (chronic use) Adapted with permission from Ansell J, Hirsh J, Poller L, et al. The pharmacology and management of the vitamin K antagonists. Paper presented at the Seventh ACCP Conference on Antithrombotic and Thrombolytic Therapy. Chest 2004;126:204S-233S. P.903
Table 43-5. Practical Oral Anticoagulation Dosing
Day
Rapid Anticoagulation
Anticoagulationa
1
5-10 mg
5 mg
2
5-10 mg
5 mg
3
2.5-7.5 mg (adjust based on INR)b
5 mg (adjust based on INR)b
a
Rapid anticoagulation is not required or there is a risk of bleeding.
b
Adjust dosage based on INR until the INR is stable and therapeutic.
Adapted with permission from Ansell J, Hirsh J, Poller L, et al. The pharmacology and management of the vitamin K antagonists. Paper presented at the Seventh ACCP Conference on Antithrombotic and Thrombolytic Therapy. Chest 2004;126: 204S-233S. c . T he in i t i al d os e o f w a r f a r i n th e r ap y c a n b e fl e x i bl e . ( Ta b l e 4 3- 5 ) ( 1 ) P a ti en t -s p ec if ic pa r am e te r s u s e d t o d e te r m i ne t he in i ti a l d os e o f wa r f a r i n i nc lu d e t h e p a ti e nt ' s we i gh t (e . g ., o be s i t y , c o nc u r re n t us e o f i n te r ac t in g d r u gs k nown t o i n hi b it t he an t ic oa gu l an t e f f ec t o f wa r f a ri n , a nd t he d es i re d r a pi d a n ti c o a gu l an t e f f ec t ) . ( 2 ) B as ed on t he s e pa t ien t - s p ec i fi c p a ra m e t e rs , s o m e c l i ni c i an s m a y u s e a l ar g e r i n i ti al do s e o f wa r f a r in (e . g . , 7 .5 - 10 m g ) , wh ic h s h o ul d n o t b e m is c o ns t rue d as a l o ad i ng do s e . d . Th e in i ti al do s e o f wa r f a r in s h o ul d b e o ve r l a p pe d w i t h UF H , LM W H o r a p e n t as a cc h a ri d e f o r 5 - 7 d a ys ( Ta b l e 43 - 1 ). e . Th e du r a t io n o f w a r fa r i n t he r a p y d e p e n ds on e ac h p at i en t ' s i nd ic a tio n ( s ) f o r us e ( Ta b l e 4 3 - 6 ). f . R e ve r s a l o f w a r fa r i n e f f e c ts m a y be ne c es s a ry o wi n g t o a n e le v a t e d IN R o r c om p li ca t io ns as s o c i a ted wi t h o ra l a n ti co a gu la n t t h e ra p y ( Ta b le 43 - 7 ). 5 . M o n i to r i n g w a r f a r i n th e r a p y. P T a n d I N R m oni t o ri n g a r e us u al l y pe r f orm e d d ai l y o n c om m e n c i ng o ra l a n tic o ag u la n t t he r ap y ( e . g. , wa r f a r i n ) , u n ti l su c h t im e t h a t t he I N R h as be e n f ou n d t o be t he r a pe u ti c . a . La b o ra t or y m on i to r in g i s p e rf o rm e d b y m e as u rin g th e PT f o r c a lc u la ti o n o f th e INR. ( 1 ) Th e P T is r es p o ns i ve t o de p r es s io n of t h r ee o f t h e f ou r v i ta m i n K -de p e nd en t p r o co ag u la n t c l ot t i n g f ac t o r s (p r o t h r om b i n o r fa c t o r s I I , V I I , a nd X ) . ( 2 ) Th e c om m o n c om m e rc i al P T r e ag en t s va r y m ar k e dl y i n t he i r r es p on s i v e n es s t o c o um a ri n -i n du c e d re du c ti o n i n c lo t ti n g f ac t or s ; t he r e f or e , P T r es ul ts r ep o rt e d u si n g d i f fe r e nt r ea ge n ts a re not i nt e rc h an g ea bl e a m o n g l a bo r a to r ie s .
b . Th e p ro bl em o f v a r ia bi l it y i n re s p on s i v e n es s o f P T r e a g en ts ha s b e en ove r c om e b y t h e i n tr o du c ti on o f a s t a n da r di z e d te s t k n o wn a s th e I N R . ( 1 ) Th e I N R i s e qu al t o:
Table 43-6. Duration of Warfarin Therapya Duration
Indications
3-6 months
First event with reversibleb or time-limited risk factor
≥ 6 months
Idiopathic venous thromboembolism, first event
12 months to lifetime
First eventc with cancer (until resolved), anticardiolipin antibody, antithrombin deficiency Recurrent event, idiopathic or with throbophilia
a
See Table 43-4 for factors that may influence warfarin effects. All recommendations are subject to modification by individual characteristics, including patient preference, age, comorbidity, and likelihood of recurrence. b
Reversible or time-limited risk factors: surgery, trauma, immobilization, estrogen use. c
Proper duration of therapy is unclear in first event with homozygous factor V Leiden, homocystinemia, deficiency of protein C or S or multiple thrombophilias and in recurrent events with reversible risk factors. Adapted with permission from Buller HR, Agnelli G, Hull R, et al. Antithrombotic therapy for venous thromboembolic disease. Paper presented at the Seventh ACCP Conference on Antithrombotic and Thrombolytic Therapy. Chest 2004;126(Suppl):401s-28s. P.904
Table 43-7. Guidelines for Reversal of Warfarin Effects
Clinical Situation
Guidelines
INR > therapeutic range but < 5.0; no clinically significant bleeding, rapid reversal not indicated for reasons of surgical intervention INR significantly above therapeutic range
Lower the dose or omit the next dose; resume warfarin therapy at a lower dose when the INR approaches desired range
INR minimally above therapeutic range
Dose reduction may not be necessary
INR > 5.0 but < 9.0; no clinically significant bleeding No additional risk factors for bleeding
Omit the next dose or two of warfarin; monitor INR more frequently; resume warfarin therapy at a lower does when the INR is in therapeutic range
Increased risk of bleeding
Omit the next dose of warfarin; give vitamin K1 (1.0-2.5 mg orally)
More rapid reversal needed before urgent surgery or dental extraction
Give vitamin K1 (2-4 mg orally); closely monitor INR; repeat dose of vitamin K1 if INR not substantially reduced by 2448 hr
INR > 9.0; no clinically significant bleeding
Give vitamin K1 (3-5 mg orally); closely monitor INR; repeat dose of vitamin K1 if INR not substantially reduced by 2448 hr
INR > 20.0; serious bleeding, major warfarin overdose requiring very rapid reversal of anticoagulant effect
Give vitamin K1 (10 mg by slow intravenous infusion) with fresh frozen plasma transfusion or prothrombin complex concentrate, depending on urgency; vitamin K1 injections may be
needed every 12 hr Life-threatening bleeding, serious warfarin overdose
Give prothrombin complex concentrate with vitamin K1 (10 mg by slow intravenous infusion); repeat if necessary, depending on INR
Continuing warfarin therapy indicated after high doses of vitamin K1
Give heparin until the effects of vitamin K1 have been reversed and patient is responsive to warfarin
INR, international normalized ratio. Adapted with permission from Ansell J, Hirsh J, Poller L, et al. The pharmacology and management of the vitamin K antagonists. Paper presented at the Seventh ACCP Conference on Antithrombotic and Thrombolytic Therapy. Chest 2004;126:204S-233S. wh e r e I S I (i n te r na t io n al s e ns it i v i t y in de x) i s a m ea s u re of th e re sp o ns i v ene s s o f a g i ve n t h r om bo pl as t in t o re d uc t io n o f th e v it am i n K- d e pe n de n t c oa gu l at i on fa c to r s . Th e l ow e r t he I SI , th e mo r e r e sp o ns i ve t he r e ag e n t a n d t he cl os e r t h e d e r i v ed I N R wi l l b e t o th e o bs e r v ed PT r a t i o . ( 2 ) G u id el i ne s o f t h e A m e r i c a n Co ll e ge of C h es t P h y s ic i an s ( A C C P ) C on fe r e nc e o n A n t i th r om bo t ic an d Th r om b ol y t ic Th e r ap y r ec om m e nd t wo le ve l s o f t he r ap e u ti c i n t en si t y : a l es s - in t en s e r a n ge co r r es po n di ng t o a n I N R o f 2 . 0 -3 . 0 , a nd a m o r ei n t en se r an ge c o r r es po nd i ng t o a n I N R of 2 .5 - 3 .5. Th e r an g e co r r es p on ds t o th e i n di ca t io n ( Ta bl e 4 3 -8 ) . ( 3 ) O nc e th e d es i re d th er a p eu t ic I N R h as be e n ac h ie ve d f o r 2 c o ns ec u ti v e d a ys , ( e . g ., f or c o nc om i ta n t h ep a r in pl us wa r f a r in o v e rla p th e r ap y) f ol lo w- u p I NR m o ni t o ri ng c a n b e p e rf o rm e d ac c or d in g t o th e f o llo wi n g p ro t oc ol : ( a ) W eek 1 : m o n it o r I N R t wo o r t h re e ti m e s ( b ) W eek 2 : m on i to r I N R t wo t i m e s ( c ) W eek s 3 - 6 : m o n it o r IN R o n c e a we e k ( d ) W eek s 7 - 1 4: m o ni t o r I N R o nc e e v e r y 2 we e k s ( e ) W eek 1 5 t o e nd o f t he r a p y : m on i to r I N R o nc e e v e r y 4 we e k s (i f I N R do s e r e s po ns i v e ne s s re m a i ns s t ab l e; if d os e a dj us tm en t i s ne ce s s a r y , a m o re fr e q ue n t m o ni t o ri ng s c he du l e is em p lo y e d u n ti l s ta b le do s e r es p on s i v e n es s is ac hie v e d ) P.905
Table 43-8. Recommended Therapeutic Goal and Range for Oral Anticoagulant
Therapy INR Indication
Goal
Range
Prophylaxis of venous thrombosis (high-risk surgery)
2.5
2.0-3.0
Treatment of venous thrombosis
2.5
2.0-3.0
Treatment of pulmonary embolism
2.5
2.0-3.0
Prevention of systemic embolism
2.5
2.0-3.0
Tissue heart valves
2.5
2.0-3.0
Anterior myocardial infarction (to prevent systemic embolism)
2.5
2.0-3.0
Anterior myocardial infarction (to prevent recurrent infarction)
3.0
2.5-3.5
Valvular heart disease
2.5
2.0-3.0
Atrial fibrillation
2.5
2.0-3.0
Mechanical prosthetic valves (high risk)
3.0
2.5-3.5
Adapted with permission from Ansell J, Hirsh J, Poller L, et al. The pharmacology and management of the vitamin K antagonists. Paper presented at the Seventh ACCP Conference on Antithrombotic and Thrombolytic Therapy. Chest 2004;126:204S-233S. c . U po n c om m e nc i ng o ral a nt ic o ag ul a nt t he r ap y, p r o l o n ga t i on o f t h e P T /I N R d o es n o t o cc u r u n ti l d ep l et i on o f t he vi ta m i n K -d ep e nde n t p r oc o ag ul a nt c l o tt i ng f a c t o rs o cc u rs . Th is de l a y i s va r i a b l e o ve r 2 -4 da ys . D u r i n g t hi s d el a y , if ac t i v e ve n o us t h r om b os is i s p r es en t , e it h e r UF H o r L MW H is c on c om it a nt l y co m m en c e d t o a d e qu a te l y an t ic oa gu l ate t he pa t ie n t wh il e a wa i t in g th e th e ra p eu t ic e f f ec t o f wa r f a r i n . C . L ow mo l ec u l a r w e i gh t h ep a r i n 1 . I nd i ca t i o ns
a . L MW H i n di c a t io ns v a ry b y m a nu f ac tu r e r . b . E ac h o f th e L MW H s ha v e b ee n e va l ua t ed in a l a r ge nu m b e r o f ra n do m ize d c l i ni c a l t r i al s a n d h a v e b ee n p r ov e n t o b e s af e a n d e f fi cac i ou s f o r t h e p r e ve n t io n a n d t r e a t me n t of ve n o us t h ro m b oe m b ol i sm . c . To d at e , d if f e re n t L MW Hs ha ve be e n e va lu a ted f o r t he i r ro le in : ( 1 ) P r e v en t io n o f v e no us t h r om bo si s ( 2 ) Tr e a tm en t of V TE D ( 3 ) Ma n a g em en t of un s t ab l e a ng i na pe c to r is /n o n -Q wa ve MI 2 . C h em i st r y. L MW Hs a re f r ag m e n ts of s t an d a rd c om m e r c i a l- g r ad e h e pa r in p r o du c e d b y e i th e r c he m i c al or e n z ym a t ic de po l ym e r i z at i on . L MW H s a r e a p p ro xi m a t el y o ne t hi r d th e s i z e o f he pa r i n. Li ke h e p a r in , wh i ch ha s a m ea n m o l ec u la r w e i gh t o f 1 5 ,0 0 0 Da ( r an ge 30 0 0 -3 0 ,00 0 D a ), LM W H s a r e h e t e ro ge n eo us in s i z e wi t h a m ea n mo l ec u la r w ei g h t o f 4 00 0 -5 0 00 D a ( ra n g e 1 0 0 0- 1 0, 0 00 D a ). 3 . Me c h an is m o f a c ti on a . L MW Hs ac hi e v e th ei r m a j o r a n t ic o ag u la n t e f fe c t b y b i n d i n g t o a n ti t hr o m b i n t h r o ug h a un iq u e p en t as a c c h a ri de s e q ue nc e t h at e n ha nc es t he ab il i t y o f a n t it h r om bi n t o in a c ti va t e f ac t o r II a ( th r o m bi n ) a n d fa c t o r X a . ( 1 ) H e pa r in an d L M W Hs c a t a l yz e t h e in a c ti va t i on o f fa c t o r I I a ( t h r om b in ) b y b i n d in g t o a n ti t h r om b in t h r o ug h t he un i q ue pe n t a sa cc h a r id e s e qu e nc e an d t o t h r o m b in t o f o r m a te r na r y c o m p l e x . A m i ni m um ch ai n l e ng t h o f 1 8 s acc h a ri de s ( i n cl ud i ng th e p e nt as ac c h a r id e s eq u en c e ) is re q ui r e d f o r t e rn a r y co m p le x f o r m a t io n . ( a ) V i rt u al l y al l h ep a r in m o le c u l es c on t ai n a t l e as t 1 8 s ac c h a r id e u ni t s . ( b ) O n l y 20 % -5 0 % o f t he d i ff e r en t L MW Hs c on t ain f r ag m e n ts wi t h 1 8 o r m o r e s ac c ha r id e u ni t s . ( c ) Th e r ef o r e, co m pa r e d w i th h ep a r in , w h ic h has a n a n t if a c to r X a t o ant i f a c to r I I a bi n d in g a f f i ni t y r a t i o o f ap p r ox i ma t e l y 1 :1 , t h e v ar i ou s c om m e rc i al L M W H s h a ve a n a n t if a c to r X a to a n t if a c to r I Ia b in d in g a f f i n i t y r a t i o va r yi n g f r o m 2 :1 up t o 4 :1 , de p en di n g o n t hei r m o le c ul a r s i z e di s tr i but i o n ( Ta b le 43 - 9 ) . ( 2 ) I n co n t ra s t , in ac t i v at io n of f ac to r Xa b y an t i th ro m bi n d o es n o t r e qu i re bi n di n g o f t h e h e pa r in m o le c u l es to t h e c lo t ti n g e n zy m e . The r e f or e , i na c ti v a t io n o f fa c to r Xa is P.906 a c hi e ve d b y s m al l m ol ec u l a r we i g h t h ep a r in f ra gm e nt s p r o vid e d t ha t th e y c on t ai n t h e h i gh - a ff i ni t y pe n ta s ac c h a r id e .
Table 43-9. Pharmacokinetic and Pharmacodynamic Parameters of Different Low Molecular Weight Heparins (LMWHs)
LMWH
Average Molecular HalfBrand Name Weight Bioavailability Life
Xa:IIa BindingAffinity Ratio
Dalteparin
Fragmin
6000 Da
87%
3-5 hr
2.7:1
Enoxaparin
Lovenox
4500 Da
92%
4.5 hr
3.8:1
Tinzaparin
Innohep
6500 Da
87%
3.9 hr
2.8:1
b . Th e an t i t h ro m b ot i c an d h em o r r h ag i c e f fe c t s o f he pa r i n h a v e b ee n c om p a re d wi t h L MW Hs i n a v a r ie t y o f ex p e r im e n ta l a n im a l m o d el s . ( 1 ) W hen c om pa r ed on a g r a v im e t ri c b as is , L M WH s a r e s a id t o c au s e d ec r e a se d p o t en t ia l f o r h e mo r r h a gic e p is o de s . ( 2 ) Th e s e di f fe r en c es i n t h e re l at i v e a n ti t h ro m b o ti c to he m o r r ha gi c ra ti o s a m on g t h es e p o l y s a c c ha r id es c o u ld be e xp l a in e d b y t he o bs e r v a ti o n t ha t LM W Hs h a ve le ss i n h i bi t o r y e f f e c t s o n pla t e l et f u nc t i on an d v as c u la r pe rm e ab i li t y . 4 . P ha r m ac o k in e t ic s . Th e pl as m a r ec o v e ri es and p ha r m a co k i n et ic s o f LMW H s d if f e r f r o m h ep a ri n b e c a us e o f d i f fe r e nc es i n t h e b in d ing p r op e rt i es o f th e t wo s u l f at e d p o l ysa cc ha r i de s t o p la s m a p r o te i ns a n d e nd o th el i al ce ll s . a . L MW Hs bi n d m u c h le s s a v id l y t o h ep a ri n -b i nd in g p ro t ei ns th a n h ep a ri n, a p r o pe r t y t ha t c on t r ib u te s t o th e s up e ri o r b i oa va il ab i li t y o f L MW H s a t l o w do s es a n d t h e ir m o r e p r ed ic t ab l e an t ic o ag ul a ti o n e f fe c t . b . L MW Hs d o n ot bi n d t o e n do t he li a l c e l ls i n c ul tu r e , a p ro pe r t y t ha t c o uld ac c o u n t f o r th e i r l on ge r pl as m a ha l f -l i fe an d th ei r do se - in d e p en de n t c le a ra nc e . P ri n c i pa l l y , t h e re n al ro u te c l ea r s LMW H s ; t he r ef o r e, th e bio l og ic ha l f -l i fe of L MW Hs is i n c re as ed in pa t ie n ts wi th r e na l f ai l u re . 5 . Ad m i n is t r a t io n an d do s a ge a . D os in g of L MW Hs is di s e as e -s t a te a nd p ro d uc t s pe c i fi c ; d i ff e re n t d os es a re a d m i ni s te r ed ba s e d on th e in di c a t io n fo r us e a nd t h e m an u fa c t u r er o f t he s p ec if ic L MW H . Ta b l e 4 3- 1 0 s hows m a n uf ac t u re r ' s s ug g es t ed , U . S. F oo d a n d D r ug A d m in is t ra t io n (F D A ) app r o v e d d os in g fo r s p ec if ic i n d ic at i on s . D . S yn t h e t i c p en t as a cch a r i d e 1 . I nd i ca t i o ns a . S yn t h e t i c p e n ta s ac ch a r i d e [ fo n da p a ri nu x ( A r i xt r a ) ] i s i nd ic a te d f o r : ( 1 ) Th r om b op r o ph y l a xi s a g ai n s t D V T/ P E a ft e r ( a ) H ip f r ac tu r e s u rg e r y ( b ) H i p f r ac tu r e s u rg e r y ; e xt e n d e d p r o ph y l a xi s ( c ) K ne e - re p la c e m e n t s ur g e r y
( d ) H i p- r e pl ac em e nt s u rg e r y ( e ) A bd om i na l s u rg e r y ( 2 ) Tr e a tm en t of ( a ) A cu t e D V T ( b ) A cu t e P E 2 . C h em i st r y. S y n t h e t i c p e n ta s a c c ha r i de is a s e le c ti ve f ac t o r Xa i nh i b i to r . Th e m o le cu l ar we i g ht o f t he s y n t he t ic pe n ta s a c c ha r i de p r od uc t i s 1 72 8 Da . 3 . M e c ha n is m o f ac t i on a . Th e an ti t h ro m b o ti c a c ti v i t y o f f o nd a pa r in u x i s th e r es ul t o f a n ti t h ro m b i n- m e di a te d s e le ct i v e i n hi bi t io n o f fac t o r Xa . N e u t ra li z a t io n of f ac t o r Xa i n te r r up t s t he b l oo d c o ag u la ti o n c as c a de an d t h us in hi b it s t h ro m b i n f or m a ti o n a nd th r om b us d e ve l op m e n t. b . F on d ap a ri n u x d o es n ot i na c ti va t e t h ro m b in ( ac ti v a t e d f ac t or I I ) a nd ha s n o k n o wn e f f ec t o n p l at e le t f u nc ti on . 4 . P ha r m ac o k in e t ic s a . A f te r s u bc ut a ne o us ad m in is t r at io n , t h e d r ug is c om pl e te l y bi o a v ai l ab le , a n d s t ea d y - s ta t e p ea k p la s m a l e v el s a r e ac h ie v e d i n a p p ro xi m a t el y 3 h r a ft e r a d m i ni s t ra ti o n o f t h e d os e . P.907
Table 43-10. FDA-Approved Dosing of Low Molecular Weight Heparin (LMWH) Based on Disease State Approved Labeling and Dosinga
Dalteparin
Enoxaparin
Tinzaparin
Hipreplacement surgery prophylaxis
5000 units q.d. for 5-10 days
30 mg every 12 hr, or 40 mg q.d. for 710 days
n/a
Extended hipreplacement prophylaxis
n/a
40 mg q.d. for 3 weeks
n/a
Kneereplacement surgery prophylaxis
n/a
30 mg every 12 hr for 7-10 days
n/a
General
2500 units q.d.
40 mg q.d. for 7-10
n/a
surgery prophylaxis
or 5000 units qd (high risk) for 5-10 days
days
Acute medically ill prophylaxis
5000 units q.d. for 12-14 days
40 mg q.d. for 6-14 days
n/a
Treatment of DVT with or without PE
n/a
As a bridge to warfarin until stable INR: 1 mg/kg every 12 h (outpatient treatment permitted) or 1.5 mg/kg every 24 h (inpatient only)
As a bridge to warfarin until stable INR: 175 units/kg every 24 hr
Unstable angina and NSTEMI
120 units/kg every 12 hr for 5-8 days plus aspirin indefinitely
1 mg/kg every 12 hr for 2-8 days plus aspirin indefinitely
n/a
DVT, deep-vein thrombosis; INR, international normalized ratio; n/a, not applicable; NSTEMI, non-ST-segment elevated myocardial infarction; PE, pulmonary embolism. Adapted with permission from Rihn T, Vanscoy GJ. Low molecular weight heparin: Formulary drug class reviews. Pharm Ther 2001:26;486-492. b . Th e el im in a ti o n h al f -l if e is 17 - 21 h r, en a bl in g o n c e - da i l y d os i ng . c . Th e dr u g d oe s n o t s ee m to be m e ta b ol i z ed and a pp e ar s i n t h e u ri n e i n a c ti v e f o r m a nd is re n al l y el im in a t ed . 5 . Ad m i n is t r a t io n an d do s a ge a . F on da p a ri nu x m u s t n ot b e a dm in is t e re d i n t ra m u s c u la r l y . b . F o r p r o p h yl a x i s a ga in s t V T E, t he dr u g s ho uld n ot be us ed in pa t ie n ts wi t h b od y we i g h t < 5 0 k g b ec au s e th e in c i de n ce of m a jo r ble e d i n g wa s f ou n d t o d oub l e i n t h is p a t ie n t p op ul a ti o n d u ri ng c li n ic al t ri al s . c . F o r p r o p h yl a x i s a ga in s t V T E a u s u a l d o se o f 2 . 5 m g s ub c u ta n eo u s l y o n ce d a i l y f o r 5 - 9 d a ys i s r e c o m m e nd e d f o r a l l p r o phyl a x i s i n d ic a t io n s . Th e i n i ti al d o se s h ou l d b e s ta r te d 6- 8 h r a f te r s u r ge r y wh e n h e m o s t a s i s is es ta b li s h ed .
d . F o r t r e a tm e n t o f e s t ab l is he d V TE , ad m i ni s te r a o nc e -d ai l y su bc u ta n eou s d os e as f o l lo ws : ( 1 ) P a ti en t s wi t h bo d y we i gh t be t we e n 5 0 a n d 1 00 kg : 7. 5 m g ( 2 ) P a ti en t s wi t h bo d y we i gh t < 5 0 k g: 5 m g ( 2 ) P a ti en t s wi t h bo d y we i gh t > 1 00 k g : 1 0 m g 6 . C a ut i o ns a . C o n t ra i n di c at i o ns ( 1 ) S e ve re r en al im pa i rm e n t ( 2 ) P a ti en t s we i g hi n g < 5 0 k g wh e n u s e d f o r p r op h y l a xi s ( 3 ) P a ti en t s wi t h ac ti v e m a jo r bl ee d in g ( 4 ) B ac t er i al en d oc ar d it is ( 5 ) Th r om b oc y t o pe ni a a s s oc i at e d wi t h p os it i v e i n vi t r o te s t f o r a nt i pl a te le t a n t ib od y i n th e p r es e nc e o f f o nd ap a r in u x ( 6 ) K no wn h y p e rs e ns i ti v it y t o fo n da p a ri nu x P.908
b . P r e ca u t io n s ( 1 ) C o nd it i on s o r p r oc e du r e s t ha t m a y en h an c e th e ri s k of se v e r e b le e di ng ( e .g . , t r a um a , h em op h il ia , ga s tr o i nt e s t i na l u lc e ra t io n , co n c u r r en t us e o f a nt i pl a te l e t a g e nt s, hi s to r y o f c e r e b ro v a s c u la r he m o r r ha g e, se v e r e un c o n t ro ll e d h y p e rt e ns i on ) ( 2 ) R e na l im p ai r m e n t ( 3 ) H e pa r in - in d uc ed th r om b oc y t o pe ni a ( 4 ) N e ur a xi a l an es t he s i a a n d i nd we l l in g e p id u ra l c a th e te r us e ( 5 ) E ld e rl y p a ti en t s ( 6 ) P r eg n an c y c a te go r y B a n d l ac ta t in g (t h e d r ug i s e xc r e t e d in t o b r ea s t m i lk ) ( 7 ) P r ot am i ne is in e f fe c ti ve a s a n a n ti do t e P.909
STUDY QUESTIONS D i r e c t i on s fo r q ue s t io ns 1 - 4 : E ac h o f t h e q ue s tio n s , s t a te m e n ts , o r in c om p le t e s t a te m e n ts i n th is s ec t ion c a n b e c o r re c t l y a ns we r e d or co m p le t e d b y o ne o f th e s u gg es t ed an s we r s o r phr a s es . Ch oo s e t he be s t a n s we r . 1 . A 6 7 - ye a r - o l d m a n w h o w e i gh s 1 0 0 k g ( 2 12 lb ) a nd i s 6 0 i n . t a ll p r es e n t s t o h i s ph ys i c i a n af t e r a t ra n s a tl a n ti c fl i g ht c om pl a i n in g of p ai n a n d sw el l i n g o f h i s r ig h t low e r ex t r e mi ty. T h e p a t i en t ha d t ot a l k n ee a r t h ro p la s t y 2 w ee k s b e f o r e h i s t r a ve l . Hi s me d i ca l hi s t o r y r e ve a l s th a t he h as an ej e c ti o n fr a c t i on o f 1 5 %, h e i s i n r em i ss i on f o r n on - H o d gk i n l ym p h o m a , a n d h e h as h ad a p r e vi o u s m yo c a r d i a l in f a r c ti o n . H i s m ot h e r , f a t he r , a n d s i s te r a r e d ea d a s a r es u l t of s t r o k e, p ul m on a r y e m b o l i sm , an d c h i ld b i r t h, re s p ec t i ve l y. G i ve n t h i s p a t i en t ' s h i s t o r y, h e i s m os t li k el y s u f f e r i n g f r om w h ic h o f t he f o ll ow i n g? ( A ) r u pt u r ed B ak er c ys t ( B ) d ee p v en o us th r om bo s is o f th e l o we r e xt r e m it y
( C ) t o r n m e d ia l m en is c us ( D ) s ep t ic a r t h ri t is V i e w A n s we r 1 . T h e a n sw e r i s B [ se ea n d] .2 . P rop h yl a x i s a ga i ns t ve n ous t h r o m b oe m bo l ic d is e ase ( V T E D ) m a y i n c l u d e ( A ) n on p ha r m a c o lo g ic al p r o ph y l a xi s . ( B ) p ha r m a c o l og ic al p rop h y l a xi s . ( C ) n o np ha r m a c o l og ic al a n d p h ar m a c ol og ic a l p rop h y l a xi s . ( D ) n ei t he r no n ph a rm ac ol o gi c a l a n d p ha r m a c o l og ic a l p r op h y la xi s V i e w A n s we r 2 . T h e a n sw e r i s C [ se ea n d] .3 . Un fr a c t i on a t ed he p a r in b ind s t o a n ti t h r om b i n I I I a n d i n a c ti va t e s c l o tt i n g f a ct o r ( s ) ( A ) Xa ( B ) I Xa (C) IIa ( D ) A l l o f t h e a bo v e ( E ) N o ne o f t he ab o v e V i e w A n s we r 3 . T h e a n sw e r i s D [ se e] . 4 . I n i ti a t io n o f u n f r ac t i on a t ed h e p a r in t he r a p y f o r t h e p a t ie n t de sc r i b ed i n qu e s t io n 1 w o u ld b es t be a ch i e ve d with ( A ) 5 00 0 U l oa d in g d os e f o l lo we d b y 10 0 0 U / h r ( B ) 5 00 0 U l oa d in g d os e f o l lo we d b y 18 0 0 U / h r ( C ) 8 0 00 U l o ad in g d o s e f o ll o we d b y 1 8 00 U / hr ( D ) 1 0 00 U l o ad in g d o s e f o ll o we d b y 1 0 00 U / hr V i e w A n s we r 4 . T h e a n sw e r i s C [ se e] . D i r e c ti o ns f o r qu e s ti o ns 5 -1 1 : Th e q u es t io ns an d i nc om p le te s ta t em en ts in t hi s se c ti o n c an be c o r r ec tl y a ns we r e d o r c om p le t ed b y on e o r m or e o f t h e s u g ge s te d a ns we r s . C h o os e t he an s we r , A- E . D i r e c t i on s fo r q ue s t io ns 5 - 10 : U p o n c on f ir m at ion o f d ia g no si s, t he at t end i ng p h ys ic ia n a s k s y o u , t h e p h a rm ac is t , t o c om m e nc e l o w m o l ec ul a r we i gh t he p a ri n t h e r ap y f o r t he pa t ie n t de s c r i be d i n q ue s ti on 1 ab o v e . Th e f o ll o wi n g q ue s t i o ns p e r t ai n t o y ou r ph a rm ac e u t ic al c a r e f o r t hi s p a tie n t . 5 . W he n c h o os i ng a n FD A- a p p r o ve d l ow m ol e cu l a r w e ig h t h e pa r i n to tr e a t t hi s p a t i en t , yo u w ou l d a d mi n i s te r I . e no x ap a r i n 1 m g /k g /do s e s u bc u t an e o us l y q 1 2 h r. I I . en o xa p a r in 1. 5 m g /kg / d o se su b cu t a ne o us l y q 2 4 h r . I I I . ti n za p a ri n 17 5 I U / k g/ d o se s ub c u ta n eo u sl y q 2 4 h r . A i f I o n l y i s c o r re c t B i f II I on l y i s c o r r ec t C i f I a n d I I a r e c or r ec t D i f II a nd I II a re c o r re c t E i f I, I I, an d II I ar e c o r re c t V i e w A n s we r 5 . T h e a n sw e r i s E (I , I I, I II ) [ s e e] . 6. W h ic h of t he f o ll ow i ng t e s t s a r e u s ed t o m o ni to r h e pa r i n a n t i th r o m bot i c t he r a p y? I . i n te r n a ti o n al no r m a liz e d ra t i o I I . ac t i va t ed p a r ti a l t h ro m b o pl a st i n ti m e I I I . he p a ri n a s sa y A i f I o n l y i s c o r re c t
B i f II I on l y i s c o r r ec t C i f I a n d I I a r e c or r ec t D i f II a nd I II a re c o r re c t E i f I, I I, an d II I ar e c o r re c t V i e w A n s we r 6 . T h e a n sw e r i s D ( II , II I ) [ s e ea n d] . P . 9 10
7 . A p a t i en t t o b e c omm e n ce d o n o ra l an t i co ag u l a nt t he r a p y f o r D V T w o ul d be treated with: I . o r al a n ti c oa g ul a n t t he r a p y w i t h w a r fa r i n fo r a g oa l in t e r na t i o na l n o rm a l iz e d ratio (INR) of 2-3. I I . o ra l an t i co a gu l a n t t he r a p y w i t h w a r fa r i n fo r a g oa l I N R o f 2. 5 - 3. 5 . I I I . o ra l a n t ic o a gu l an t th e r a p y w i t h a s pi r i n fo r a g oa l I N R o f 2 -3 . A i f I o n l y i s c o r re c t B i f II I on l y i s c o r r ec t C i f I a n d I I a r e c or r ec t D i f II a nd I II a re c o r re c t E i f I, I I, an d II I ar e c o r re c t V i e w A n s we r 7 . T h e a n sw e r i s A ( I ) [ se e an d] .8 . A p a t i e n t on o r al a n t i co a gu l a nt t h e ra p y i s c om m en c ed o n s ul f am e t h ox az o le - t r i me t h opr i m , d o u b le - s t re n g t h tw i c e d a i l y. O n e m a y e x p e c t to s ee t he i n te r n a ti o na l n o r m a li z e d r at i o I . i nc r e as e . I I . de c r ea s e. I I I . r em a in un c ha n g ed . A i f I o n l y i s c o r re c t B i f II I on l y i s c o r r ec t C i f I a n d I I a r e c or r ec t D i f II a nd I II a re c o r re c t E i f I, I I, an d II I ar e c o r re c t V i e w A n s we r 8 . T h e a n sw e r i s A ( I ) [ se e] .9 . I f a p a t i en t ha s a n in t e r na t io n a l n o r m a li z e d r at i o (I N R ) > 2 0 a n d a c ti ve b le e d ing t h a t i s c l in i ca l l y s i g n i f i c an t ( i . e . , h em a t u ri a ) , t h e p ha r m a ci s t s h ou l d I . h ol d t he d r ug t he r a p y. I I . ad m in i s te r vi t a m in K. I I I . a d m in i s te r f r es h f r oz e n p l as m a. A i f I o n l y i s c o r re c t B i f II I on l y i s c o r r ec t C i f I a n d I I a r e c or r ec t D i f II a nd I II a re c o r re c t E i f I, I I, an d II I ar e c o r re c t V i e w A n s we r 9 . T h e a n sw e r i s E (I , I I, I II ) [ s e e] . 10 . C o mp a r ed t o u n f r a c ti o na t e d h e pa r i n , l ow m ol e cu l a r w ei g h t h e p a r in s h a ve I . p r e fe r e n ti a l b i nd i n g af f i n i t y t o f a c t o r X a re l a ti ve t o I Ia ( t h ro m b in ) . I I . sh o r t e r h a l f -l i ve s .
I I I . do s e- d e pe n de n t re na l c le a r an c e. A i f I o n l y i s c o r re c t B i f II I on l y i s c o r r ec t C i f I a n d I I a r e c or r ec t D i f II a nd I II a re c o r re c t E i f I, I I, an d II I ar e c o r re c t V i e w A n s we r 1 0 . T he a nsw e r i s A ( I ) [ se e] .i n d ep en d e n t1 1 . An 87 - ye a r - o l d w o ma n w ho w e i gh s 4 9 .0 k g ( 1 08 l b) a nd is 66 in t a l l h as su s t ai n ed a hi p f r a c t u r e r e q ui r i n g o p en r e d u ct i o n w i t h in t e r na l f i x a ti o n ( O R I F ) su r g e r y. S h e h a s a d oc u me n t ed se r u m c re a t i ne va l ue r e co r d ed in t h e c h a r t a nd i n t h e la b o r a to r y r e s u l ts as 4 .3 m g %. T h e o r t h op e di c s u r g eo n as k s yo u , t h e p ha r m ac i st , a b ou t t h e ap p r o p r ia t e f o n da pa r i n u x d os i n g f o r t hi s pa t i e n t t o p r e ve n t ve n ous t h r o m b oe m bo l is m a f t e r t h e s u r g e r y. W h i c h o f th e f o ll ow i ng a r e c o n t r ai n d ic a t io n s t o the u se o f f o n da p a ri n u x in t h i s p a ti e n t? I . p a ti e n t w e i gh s < 5 0 kg I I . pa t i en t ha s s e ve r e re n a l i m pa i r me n t I I I . pa t ie n t is el d e r l y A i f I o n l y i s c o r re c t B i f II I on l y i s c o r r ec t C i f I a n d I I a r e c or r ec t D i f II a nd I II a re c o r re c t E i f I, I I, an d II I ar e c o r re c t V i e w A n s we r 1 1 . T he a nsw e r i s C ( I, I I ) [ se e an d] .p r e c au t i o n P. 9 11
ANSWERS AND EXPLANATIONS 1 . T he an sw e r is B [ s ee I . A , B a nd C ] . Th e p a ti e nt ha s t h e c l as s ic t ri a d o f r is k f ac t o rs pr e d is po si n g h im to D V T in j u r y ( r e ce n t k ne e a r t hr o pl as ty ) , v e n o us s t as is ( tr a ns at l a nt ic t ra ve l ) , a nd h y pe rc o ag u la bl e s t a te ( fa m i l y hi s t o r y of v e n o us t h r om bo em b ol ic dis e as e ). Th e pa ti e n t h as o t h e r r is k f a c to r s as we l l , i nc lu d in g a g e > 40 , re c e n t s u r g ery , o n c o lo g ic d is e as e ( t hou g h i n r e m iss i on ) , c on g es ti v e he a r t f a il u re , pr e v i ou s m yo c a rd ia l i n fa r c t i on wi t h lo w e j e c t i on f r a ct i on , a n d o be s i t y . 2 . T he an sw e r is C [ s ee I V . A an d B] . P r o p h yla xi s o f V TE D c a n i n v o l v e a n o np h ar m ac olo g ic a l ap p r oa c h , a ph a rm ac o lo g ic al a p p ro ac h , o r a c o m b i na t io n of no n ph a rm ac o lo gi c a l an d p h ar m a co l og ic a l a p p ro ac h es . Th e m e t ho d o f pr o ph yl a xi s us ed is de t e rm i ne d b as ed o n t he p a t ie n t 's d e g re e o f ri s k . Fo r e xa m p l e , a p a ti e nt a t hi g h t o e xt r e m e l y hi g h r is k f o r de v e l o pm en t o f V TE D r e qu i r es n o np ha r m ac ol og ic a l a nd ph a rm ac o lo g ic al pr o ph yl a xi s . 3 . T he an sw e r is D [ s ee V . A . 2 ]. U n f r ac t io n at e d h ep a ri n ac t s as an an t ic oa g ul a nt b y c a ta l y z i n g t he in ac t i va t i on of f a c to r II a , f ac t o r Xa , a nd f a c t o r I Xa b y a n ti th r om bi n II I . 4 . T he an sw e r is C [ s ee V . A . 4 .b . (4 ) ] .
S e ve r a l n om og r am s f o r d o s i n g c o n ti n uo us in f us io n un f r ac ti o na t ed he p ar in e xi s t in t h e m ed ic a l a nd ph a rm ac e ut ic a l l it e ra t u re . Th e lo a d i n g d os e i s t yp ic al l y 7 0 - 10 0 u n i ts /k g . I n t hi s c as e, t he p at i en t we i gh s 1 00 kg ( 2 1 2 l b ) a nd th e l o ad i ng d o se is 8 0 u n i ts /k g . Ma i n t e na nc e do s es o f 15 - 25 un i ts /k g /h r a r e t y p ic a ll y us e d . I n t his c a s e , t h e m ai n te n an c e do s e is 1 8 u n it s /k g/ h r . 5 . T he an sw e r is E ( I , II, I I I ) [ s e e Ta bl e 4 3 -1 0 ] . P r i m a r y l it e r at u r e r e v ea ls ap p r op r ia t e r a nd om i z ed p r os pe c t i ve tr i al s e xa m i ni ng t he r o l e o f L MW H c o m p a re d t o un f r ac ti o na t ed he p a rin . F ro m t h es e t r ia ls , e vid e nc e o f e f f ic ac y a nd s a fe t y f o r en o xa p a r i n a nd ti n z a pa r in a t th e t r e at m e n t d os es li s te d e xi s t s an d h as be e n a ppr o v e d b y F D A f o r t r ea tm e n t o f es ta b li s h ed V TE . 6 . T he an sw e r is D (I I , II I ) [s e e V . A .5 . a , b a n d c ]. U n f r ac t io n at e d h ep a ri n m a y be ap p r op r ia t el y m on i t or e d b y e it h er t he ac tiva t e d p a r ti a l t h ro m b o pl as t in tim e (a P TT) o r h e pa r in ass a y . B ec au s e di f fe r e nt lab o r a to r ie s u s e a P TT r e a g en ts wi t h d i f fe r e nt s e ns it i vi ti es , the a P TT r a n g e a nd it s c orr e s po nd i ng r a t io m u s t be c o r r el a te d t o a h ep a r in le ve l o f 0 . 2 -0 . 4 u n it s /m L b y wh o l e -b lo o d ( p r o ta m i n e t i tr a ti o n ) as s a y o r 0. 3 - 0. 7 u n it s /m L b y p l asm a - am id ol y t i c as s ay. Th e s a fe t y a nd ef f ic ac y o f LMW H c a nn o t b e r e li ab l y e va l u at e d b y a P TT d e t erm i na t io ns . L MW H s af e t y an d e f fi c a c y c a n b e e v a l ua t ed b y he p a ri n a s s a y. Be c a us e of t h e r e l ia b il it y o f d os e re s p o ns i v e ne s s s e en wi t h L MW H t h e ra p y, th e n e ed to pe r f o rm h e p ar i n as s a y s is c o nt r ov e r s i al . 7 . T he an sw e r is A ( I ) [s e e V . B. 5 .a an d b ; Ta b le 4 3 - 8 ]. O r a l an t ic oa g ul a nt th e r ap y i s m on i to r ed b y m e as u r i n g t he P T. Th e P T is re s po ns i v e t o de p r es s i on of t hr e e o f t h e f o ur v i t am in K -d e pen d e nt p ro co a gu la n t c l o t tin g fa c to r s ( p r o th r om b in or f ac to r s II , V I I, an d X) . Th e se r es p e ct i v e c lo t t in g f ac t o rs ta k e a p p ro xi m a t el y 9 6 h r to be d ep le t e d, at wh i c h t im e t he P T s ho ul d be s u ff ic i e n t t o a r r i ve a t an I N R o f 2 . 0 -3. 0 f or pa t ie n ts wi t h D V T ( b y a p pr o p ri a te l y c o n v e rti n g t h e P T r a t io t o t he po we r o f th e I S I ) . Pa t ie n ts wi t h m ec ha n ic al p ro s th e ti c h ea r t va l ve s h a ve I N R s ta r g et e d i n t he 2 .5 -3 . 5 ra n ge . As pi r in t he r apy i s no t m on i to r ed b y I NR d e t e rm in a ti on s . 8 . T he an sw e r is A ( I ) [s e e Ta b le 43 - 4 ]. O r a l an t ic oa g ul a nt th e r ap y wi t h wa r f a r i n m a y b e c om p li ca t ed b y m y r i ad dr u g - d ru g i n t er a ct i on s o wi n g t o th e h i gh l y p ro t ei n -b o un d s tat e o f wa r f a r in . Su c h d ru g i n t er a ct i on s m a y p o te n tia t e (p r ol o ng ) P T: I N R r at io , in h ib i t ( s h o r te n ) t he a n t ic oa g ul an t ef f ec t o f wa r f a ri n , o r h a ve no ef f ec t o n th e a ct i on s o f wa r f ar in . S u l f am et h o xa z o l e - tr im e th o p ri m a nd o th e r a nt i bi ot i c s ha ve th e p o te n ti a l t o a u gm en t t h e a n ti c o a gu l an t e f fe c t o f wa r f a r in b y e l im in a ti ng b ac te r i al fl o ra an d , t h er e b y , p r o du c i n g v i t am in K de fic i en c y . 9 . T he an sw e r is E ( I , II, I I I ) [ s e e Ta bl e 4 3 -7 ] . P h a r m a c i s t s m a y b e c al le d on to o ff e r a d v ic e re ga r d in g re ve r sa l o f wa r f a ri n th e r ap y o r m a y b e e m p o we r e d us i n g Ph a rm ac y a nd Th e r ap e u ti c s C om m i tt e e o r Me d i ca l B o a r d a pp r o v e d p r ot oc o ls t o r e ve rs e wa r f ar i n 's e ff e c t. In al l i ns t an ce s , t he p h a rm ac is t m us t c r it ic a lly a n d c li n ic al l y e v al u at e t h e s i tu a ti on an d c om m un i ca t e wi t h t h e p h ys i c i a n r e ga r di n g m a na g em en t i s s ue s . A ne e d f o r i m m ed i at e s u rg er y o r i n va si v e p ro c e d ur es wi l l a l wa y s h as t en th e u r g enc y o f wa r f a ri n r e v e rs a l. In t he s e t ti ng o f ac t i v e b le e di ng , it s c li ni c al s ig n if ic a n c e m u s t b e d em on s t r a te d b y
c o ns ul t at i on wi t h th e p a ti e n t 's ph y s ic ia n . I f t h e IN R i s > 20 an d th e p a ti en t ha s a c ti ve bl e ed i ng th a t is c li n ic al l y s i gn i fi ca n t , t he ph a r m a c i s t m u s t ho l d d rug t he r a p y, c o ns id e r t h e m o s t a pp r op r i at e do se an d r o u te of vi t a m i n K d el i v e r y , a n d ad m in is t e r f r e sh f ro z e n p l as m a to re p le t e t h e v i t am in K - de pe n d en t c lo t ti n g f ac t o rs . P.912
1 0 . Th e a n sw e r i s A ( I ) [ s ee V . C .3 . a .( 1 ) ; V . C . 4. b] . U F H h as an Xa : I I a b in din g - a ff i ni t y r at i o o f a pp r oxi m a t e l y 1 :1 , a n d t he va ri o us c om m e r c i a l L MW H s h a v e Xa : I I a bi nd i ng - a ff i ni t y r at i os o f 2 :1 up to 4 :1 , d e pe n di n g o n t h e ir m o le c ul a r s i z e di s tri b u ti on . Th is in c re as e d b i n di n g a f fi ni t y f o r f ac t or Xa r e l a ti ve t o f ac to r I Ia ( th r om bi n ) is s a id t o ac c o u nt f or t he i m p ro v e d a bi l it y o f L MW H s t o c a ta l yze in a c t i v a ti on o f th r o m b in ; th e s m a ll e r f r ag m en ts c a n no t b i nd to thr o m bi n a n d , t he r e fo r e , r e ta i n t he i r a b il i t y to in ac t i v at e f ac t o r Xa . L MW H s h a v e l on g e r h al f l i ve s t ha n u n f ra c ti on a te d h e pa r in . L MW Hs ar e c lea r e d p r im a ri l y vi a t he k i dn e ys , a n d t h e ir bi o lo g ic h a lf - li f e is i n c re as ed in pa t ie n ts wi th r e na l f ai l u re in de p en de n t o f do s e . 1 1 . Th e a n sw e r i s C ( I , II ) [ s e e V. D . 5 .b ; V. D . 6 .a . (1 ) a nd (2 ) ] . Th e s yn t he t ic p e nt as a c c h a r id e fo nd a pa r in u x i s co n t r ai nd ic a te d i n p a ti e nts wh o h a v e s e ve r e r e na l im p ai r m e n t a n d wh o we i gh < 5 0 k g. C a l c u l at i on of th e p a ti e nt ' s e s ti m a t ed c re a ti ni n e c l ea r a nc e b y t he C r oc kc of t -G a u l t m et h od r e v ea ls an e s ti m a t ed c l ea r an c e o f a pp r o xi m a te l y 8 .5 m L /m i n, wh i ch wo u ld be d ef in e d a s s e v e re r e na l i m pa i rm en t . He r s t a te d we i g h t is 4 9 k g . Th u s t h is pa t ie n t 's s e v e r e r e na l im p ai r m e n t a n d l o w we i g h t c on s ti t ute c o n t ra i nd ic a ti on s t o the us e o f fo n da p ar i nu x. F o n da p ar i nu x i s r ec om m e n d ed fo r us e wi t h p re c au t i on in th e e l de r l y p a ti en t p o p ul at i on .
44 Infectious Diseases P a u l F. S ou n e y An t h o n y E . Z i m m e r ma nn L i n d a M . S p oo n e r
I. Principles of Anti-Infective Therapy A. D e f i n i t i o n. A nt i -i n fe c ti v e a ge n ts tr e a t in f ec t io n b y s up p re ss in g o r d e st r o yi ng th e c au s a t i v e m ic r oo r ga n is m s —b a ct e ri a , m y c ob ac t e ri a , f un g i, p r o t o zoa , o r v i r us es . A n ti - i nf ec t i v e a g en ts de r i v ed f r om n a tu r a l s u bs t an c es a r e c a ll ed a nt i b io t i cs ; t h o s e p ro du c ed f ro m s yn th e t ic s ub s ta nc es a re c a lle d a n t i mi c r o bi a ls . Th es e two t e r m s a re n o w us e d in t e rc h an ge a bl y. B . I n d ic a ti o n s. C on f i rm t h e p r es e nc e o f i n fe c t i on b y c om pl e ti ng a c a re f ul h i st o r y an d p h y s i c a l e xa m i na t io n , se a rc h in g f o r si g ns an d s y m pt om s o f i n f ec ti o n as we l l a s p r ed is p os in g f a c t o rs . An t i -i nfe c ti v e ag e nt s s ho u ld be u s ed on l y wh e n 1 . A s ig n if ic a nt in f ec t io n h a s b ee n d i ag no s ed or is s t r o ng l y s us p ec te d 2 . A n e s t a bl is he d i n di c a ti o n f o r p r op h y l ac ti c t h e ra p y e xi s t s C . G r a m st a i n, mi c r o bio l o g ic a l c u l tu r i n g, an d s u s ce p t ib i l i t y t e s t s s h ou l d b e pe r f or m e d be f or e a n ti- i n fe c ti v e th e r ap y is in i ti a t e d. Te s t m a t e ri a ls m us t b e ob t ai n ed b y a m e t ho d t h a t a vo id s c o n ta m i n at io n of t he s p ec im en b y the p a t ie n t 's o wn fl o r a. 1 . G r a m s t ai n . Pe r f or m ed o n a ll s p ec im en s e xc e p t bl o od c u lt u r es , t h e g ra m s t ai n h e lp s i de n ti f y t he c a u s e of in f ec t io n i m m ed ia t e l y. B y d e te r m i ni n g i f th e c a us at i v e ag en t i s g r am p o s i t i v e o r g r am ne g at i ve , t he te st al l o ws a b et t er c h oi ce of d ru g th e ra p y , pa r t ic ul a r l y wh e n a n a n ti - i n f ec t i v e r e gi m e n m us t b e gi n wi t h ou t d e la y . a . G r a m -p o si t i ve m i c r o or g a ni s m s s ta in b lu e o r pu r p l e . b . G r a m -n e ga t i ve m i c r oo r g an is m s s t ai n r ed o r ro s e - pi n k . c . F un g i m a y a ls o b e i de n t if i ed b y g r am s t ai n . 2 . M i c r o bi o lo g i ca l c u l tur e s . To id en t i f y th e s pe c i f ic ca us a ti ve ag en t , s p ec im en s o f b o d y f l ui ds o r in f ec te d ti s s ue a re c ol l ec t ed fo r an a l ys is . 3 . S us c ep t i b il i t y t e s t s . D i f f e re n t s t ra in s o f t h e sa m e p at h og e ni c s p ec i es m a y ha v e wi d e l y v a r y i ng s us c e p ti bi l it y t o a pa r t ic u l a r a n ti - in f ec ti v e ag e nt . S u sc e pt i bi li t y t es ts de t e rm i ne m ic r o bi al s u sc ep t ibi l it y t o a gi ve n d r u g a nd t h us ca n b e u s e d t o p r e di c t wh e th e r t h e d ru g wi l l c om b at t he in f ec ti o n e f f ec t i v el y . a . M i c r o di l u ti o n m e th od . Th e d ru g i s d il ut e d s er i a ll y i n va r i ou s m e d ia c o nt a in in g th e t es t m ic r oo r g an is m . ( 1 ) Th e lo we s t d r u g c o nc e n t r at i on th a t p r e v en ts m ic r o bi al g ro wt h a f te r 182 4 h r o f i nc ub a ti o n is c a ll e d t h e m in i m um in h i bi to r y c o n c e n t r a t io n (M I C) . ( 2 ) Th e lo we s t d r u g co nc e n t r at i on th a t r e du c e s ba c te r i al de ns i t y b y 9 9 .9% i s c al l ed th e m i n im u m ba c t e r ic i da l co n ce n t r a tio n ( M B C ). ( 3 ) B r e ak p oi n t c o nc en t ra t i on s o f a n ti bi o ti c s ar e u s ed to ch a ra c te r i ze a n t ib io t ic ac ti v i t y : Th e i nt e r p re t i v e c at e go r ie s a r e s u sc e p ti b l e, mo d e ra t e ly
s u s ce p t ib l e ( i n te r m e di at e ) , an d re s is t a nt . Th es e co nc e n tr a ti o ns a r e d e t e rm in ed b y c o ns id e rin g ph a rm ac ok i ne ti c s , s er u m a n d t is su e c o nc en t r at i on s f ol l o wi n g n o r m a l d os es , a n d t he po p u l at i o n d i st r i b u ti o n of MI C s o f a gr o up o f b ac ter i a fo r a g i ven dr u g. b . K i r b y- B a u e r d i sk di f fu s i o n t e ch n iq u e . Th i s te s t i s l es s e xp e ns i ve bu t l e ss re li a bl e t h an t he m ic r o di lu t io n m e th od ; ho we v e r , it p ro vi d es q u al i ta t iv e s us c ep ti b il i t y i n fo r m a t io n. ( 1 ) Fi l te r pa p e r di s k s im p r e gn a te d wi t h s pe c i f ic dr u g qu an t i ti es ar e p l ac ed o n th e s u rf a c e of ag a r p la t es s t r e ak ed wi t h a m i cr o o r ga n is m c u lt u r e. A f te r 1 8 h r, th e s i z e o f P.914 a cl e a r i nh ib i ti o n z o n e is d e te r m i n ed ; d r ug ac t i vity a g a in st t he te s t s t r a in is t h e n co r r el a te d to z o ne s i z e . ( 2 ) Th e Ki r b y - B a ue r te c hn i qu e d o es no t re li a bl y pr e d ic t t h e ra pe u ti c e f f ec t i v en es s a ga i ns t c ert a i n m i c ro o rg a ni sm s ( e .g. , S t ap hy lo c oc c us au r e us , S h i ge l la ) . D . C h o i ce o f a ge n t . A n a n t i- i nf e ct i v e a g en t s ho ul d be c h os en on t he ba s is o f it s p h ar m a c ol og ic a l p ro p e r ti es an d s pe ct r um o f a c ti v i t y as we l l a s o n va r i o us ho s t ( pa t ie n t ) f ac t o rs ( Fi gu r e 4 4 -1 ) . 1 . P ha r m ac o l og i ca l p rop e r t i es in cl u de th e d r u g 's ab i li t y t o r ea ch t he i n f ec ti o n s i t e a nd t o a tt a in a d es i r ed le ve l i n t h e ta r g e t t iss u e. 2 . S pe c t r um o f a c ti vi t y. To t r e a t a n i nf ec t io us dis e as e e f fe ct i v e l y , a n a n ti i n f ec ti ve d ru g m us t b e ac t i v e a ga i ns t t h e ca us a tiv e p a th o ge n . S us c ep t ib ili t y t e s ti ng o r c l i ni c a l e xp e r ie n c e in t re a ti n g a g i ve n in f ec t io n m a y s u gg es t the e f f ec t i v en es s o f a pa r ti c u l a r d r ug . 3 . P a ti e n t f a ct o r s . S e lec t io n o f an an t i- i nf ec t i v e d r u g r e gi m e n m us t t ak e va r i o us pa t ie n t f ac t or s i nt o ac c o u nt to de t e rm in e wh i c h t y p e o f d r ug s h ou ld b e ad m i ni s te r ed , th e c o rr e c t d r ug do sa g e a nd adm i ni s t r a ti on r ou t e , a nd th e p o t en t ia l f o r a d v e rs e d r ug e f fe c t s . a . I mm u no l o gi c al s ta t us . A p a ti e nt wi t h im pa i red im m u n e m e c h a ni s m s m a y r e q ui r e a d ru g t h at r ap id ly d e s t ro ys p a th o ge ns ( i.e . , ba c te r i c id a l a g en t ) r a t h er t ha n o ne t ha t m e re l y s u p p re ss es a p at h oge n ' s g r o wt h o r r ep r o du c t io n ( i . e ., ba c t e r io s ta t i c a gen t ) . b . P r e se n ce o f a fo r e i gn b o d y. Th e e f fe c ti v e nes s o f a n ti - in f ec t i v e t he r ap y i s re d uc ed in pa t ie n ts who h a v e p r os th e ti c j oi n ts o r va l ves , c a rd i ac p a ce m a k e r s , an d v a ri o us i n te r n al s h un ts . c . Ag e . A d r u g 's ph a rm ac ok i ne t ic p r o pe r ti e s m a y v a r y wi d e l y i n p a ti en t s of d i f fe r e nt ag es . In v e r y y o u n g a nd v e r y ol d p a ti e nt s , d r ug m e t ab ol is m a n d e xc r e t i o n c o m m on l y de c re a s e . El d e rl y p at ie n ts als o h a v e an i n cr e as ed r is k o f su f fe r in g o t o to xi c i t y wh e n re ce i v in g c e r ta in an ti b io t ic s . d . U n de r l yi n g d i s ea s e ( 1 ) P r ee xi s t i ng ki d n e y o r l i ve r d is e as e i nc r ea s es t he ri sk of ne p h ro t o xi c it y o r h ep a to t o xi c it y d u ri n g th e ad m i ni s t ra t io n o f s om e a nt i ba c t e r ia l d r ug s.
( 2 ) P a ti en t s wi t h ce n t r al n e r vo u s s ys t e m ( C N S ) d i s o r de r s m a y s u f fe r n e u ro t o xi c i t y (m ot o r s ei z u r e s ) du r i ng pe ni c i l li n t h e r a p y . ( 3 ) P a ti en t s wi t h ne u r om u s cu l a r d i so r d e r s ( e .g . , m y a s th en i a g r a v is ) a re a t i n c re as ed r is k f o r d e v el op i ng ne u r om us cu la r bl ock a d e du r in g a m in o gl y c os id e o r p o l y m y xi n B t h er a p y. e . H i s to r y o f d r u g a ll e rg y o r a d ve r s e d r u g re ac t i o ns . Pa t ie n ts wh o have h a d p r e v io us al l e rg ic or o t h e r u nt o wa r d re a c t io n s t o a p ar t ic ul a r a n ti b io ti c h a ve a h ig h er r is k o f e xp e r i en c i n g t he s a m e r ea c ti o n d u ri n g s u bs e qu e nt a d m i ni s t ra ti o n o f t h at d ru g . E xc e p t i n li f e - th r ea t en i ng s i t ua t io ns , p a ti e nt s wh o h a v e ha d s e ri o us a l le r g ic re ac t io n s t o p en ic ill i n , f o r e xa m p le , s ho u ld n o t re ce i v e t h e d r ug ag ai n . f . P r e g na n c y a n d l a c ta ti o n . Be c a us e d r u g t he r ap y d u r in g p r eg n an c y a n d l a ct a ti o n c a n c au s e u n wa n t ed ef f ec ts , th e m ot h er ' s n ee d f o r t h e a nt i bi o tic m us t be we i g he d a ga i ns t t h e d r ug ' s p o te n ti a l h arm . ( 1 ) P r eg n an c y c an in c rea s e t he r is k o f a d v e rs e dr u g ef f ec ts fo r bo t h m ot he r a n d f e tu s . A ls o , p la s m a d r u g c on c e n t ra t io ns te n d t o de c r e as e i n p r eg n an t wo m e n , re d uc in g a d ru g 's t he r ap e ut ic e ff ec t i ven es s . ( 2 ) Mo s t d ru gs , i nc l ud i ng a n ti b io t ics , ap pe a r i n t he b r ea s t m i lk o f nu r s i ng m o th e rs an d m a y c a us e a d v e r s e ef f ec ts in in f an ts . Fo r e xa m pl e , s u lf o na m i d es m a y l e ad to t o xi c bi li r ub i n a c c um ula t i on in a n e wb o rn ' s br a in . g . G e n et i c t r a i ts ( 1 ) S ul f on am i de s m a y c au s e h em ol y t ic a ne m i a i n p a t ie n ts wi t h g lu c o s e- 6 p h os p ha t e d eh y d r og e na s e ( G 6 P D ) d e fi c i e nc y . ( 2 ) P a ti en t s wh o r a pi dl y m e ta b ol i z e d r ug s (i .e . , ra p id ac e t y la t o rs ) m a y d e ve l op he pa t i ti s wh e n re c ei v i n g t he an t it u be r c u la r d ru g i s o n ia zi d . E . E m p i ri c th e r ap y. I n s e r i ou s o r l i fe - t h re a te ni n g d is e as e, an t i -i n fe c t i v e t h e r ap y m u s t b eg in be f o re t he in f ec t in g o r ga n is m h a s b ee n i d en t if i ed . I n t h is ca s e , th e c ho ic e o f d r u g ( o r d r u gs ) i s b as ed o n c l in ic al e xp e r i en ce , s u gg es t in g t h at a p a r ti c ul a r a g en t i s e f fe c ti v e in a g i v e n s e t t in g . P.915
Figure 44-1. Approach to management of infection.
P.916
1 . A b ro a d -s p ec t r u m a nt i b i o t ic us ua ll y i s t he m o s t a pp r o p ri at e c h oi c e un t i l t h e s pe c i f ic or g an is m h as be e n d et e rm i ne d . 2 . I n al l c as es , cu l t u re sp e c im e ns mu s t b e ob t ai n e d b e fo r e t h er a p y b e gi n s. F . M u l t i pl e a n t ib i o t ic t he r a p y. A c o m b in a ti on o f d r u gs s h ou ld b e gi ve n o n l y wh e n c li n ic al e xp e r ie n c e ha s s ho wn s uc h t he r a p y to be m o r e e f fe c t i ve t h a n si n gl e -a g en t th e ra py i n a p a rt ic u la r s e t ti ng . A m ul t ip le - a ge n t r e gi m en c a n i nc r ea s e th e ri s k of to xi c d r u g e ff e c t s a nd , i n a f e w c as es , m a y re su l t in d r u g a n ta go n is m a nd s ub s eq u en t t h e ra p eu ti c i n ef f e c t i v e ne s s . I n di c a t io ns f o r m u lt i pl e -a g en t th e ra py i n c l u de 1 . N ee d f o r i n c re a se d an t i b i o ti c e f f ec t i ve n es s . Th e s yn e r g i s t i c ( i n te n si fi e d ) e f fe c t of t wo o r m o re ag e nt s m a y a llo w a d o sa ge r ed uc t io n or a f a s te r o r en h an c e d d r u g e f f ec t . 2 . T r ea t me n t o f a n i n fec t i o n c a us ed b y m u l t i p l e p a th o ge n s ( e . g. , i n t ra a b d om in al in f ec ti o n ) 3 . P r e ve n ti o n o f p r ol i f er a t i o n o f d r ug - r e si s ta n t o r g a ni s ms ( e. g . , d ur i ng t r e a tm en t o f tu b e rc ul os is ) G . D u r a t i on o f a n t i- i n f ec t i ve t h e ra p y. To a c h ie ve t he t he r ap e ut ic go a l, a n t i- i nf e c t i v e t h e ra p y m us t c o nt i nu e f o r a s u f fi c i en t du r a ti o n. 1 . Ac u t e un c om p l ic a te d i n f ec t i o n. Tr e a tm en t g en e r al l y s h ou l d co n ti n ue u n t il th e p a ti e nt ha s b een a fe b r il e a nd as ym pt om a t i c f or a t l ea s t 72 h r. 2 . C h r o ni c i n f ec t i on ( e.g . , en do c a r d it is , o s te om ye l i t is ) . Tr e a tm e nt m a y r e q ui r e a lo n ge r d u r at i on ( 4 - 6 we ek s ) wi t h f ol lo w- u p c u lt u r e a na l y se s t o a ss e ss t h e ra p eu ti c e f fe c t i v e n es s . H . M on i t o r in g t he r a pe ut i c e ff e c ti ve n e ss . To as s es s t h e p at i en t ' s r e s po ns e t o a n ti - in f ec t i ve t he r a p y, a pp r o pr i at e sp e c i m e ns s h ou l d b e c u lt u r ed an d t h e f ol l o wi ng p a ra m e t er s m on i to r ed .
1 . F e ve r c u r ve . An im por t a n t as s es s m e n t t o ol , t he f e v e r c ur v e m a y b e a r e l ia b le i n di c a t io n o f re s p o ns e t o th e ra p y. D ef e r ve s c e nc e u su al l y in d ic at es f a vo r a bl e r e s p on s e . 2 . W hi t e b l o od ce l l ( W BC ) c o u nt . In t he i n it i al s ta g e o f i n fe c ti on , th e n e u t ro ph i l c o u nt f ro m a p e r ip h e ra l b lo o d sm ea r m a y r is e a bo v e no r m a l ( n e u tr o ph il i a ), an d i m m at u r e n e ut r op h il fo r m s ( “ba n ds ” ) m a y ap p ea r ( “l e ft s h if t ” ) . I n p a ti en t s wh o ar e el d e rl y, de b il i ta t ed , o r s u ff e ri n g o v e r wh e lm i ng i n f ec ti o n, t he W BC c o u nt m a y be no r m a l o r s ub n or m a l. 3 . R a di o g r ap h ic f i nd i n gs . Sm a ll ef f us io ns , ab s ce s s e s , o r c a vi t ie s t h at a p p ea r o n ra d io g ra p hs in d ic a te th e fo c u s o f i n fec t i o n . 4 . P ai n an d i n f la m ma t i on ( as e v id e nc ed b y s we l li n g , e r yt he m a , a n d t e n de r ne s s ) m a y oc c u r wh e n t h e i nf ec t io n i s s up er f i c i al o r wi t h i n a j o in t o r b o n e, al s o in di c at i ng a po s s i bl e f oc u s o f i nf ec t io n . 5 . E r yt h r o c yt e s e d i m e nt a t i o n r a t e ( E S R o r “ sed r a t e” ) . L a rg e e l e vat i ons i n E S R a r e a s s oc ia t ed wi t h a c u t e o r c h ro n ic i n fe c t i o n, pa r t ic ul a rl y e n d oc ar d it is , c h r on ic os te o m y el i ti s , an d i n t ra - ab do m in al in f ec t io ns . A n o r m a l E S R d oe s n ot e xc l ud e i n fe c t i on ; m o re of te n , E S R i s el e v a t ed as a r e s ul t o f n o ni n fe c t i ou s c a u s e s s uc h as c o ll a ge n v a s c ul a r d is ea se . 6 . S e r um co m pl e me n t co n c en t r a t io n s , p a rt ic ul ar l y t h e C 3 c om p on e nt , a re o f t en r ed uc e d i n s e r i ou s i n f ec ti o ns b ec a us e o f c on s um pt i on du r in g th e h os t d e f en se p ro c e s s . I . L ac k o f t he r a pe u t ic ef f e c t i ve ne s s. W he n a n an t i bi o ti c d ru g re g im en f a i ls , o th e r d r u gs s ho u ld n o t b e a d de d i n di sc ri m i na t e l y o r th e re g im en o t h e r wi s e c h an g ed . I n s te a d , t he s i t ua t io n s ho ul d b e re as se s s e d a nd d i ag n os ti c e f fo r t s in t e ns if i e d. C au s es o f th e ra p eut i c i ne f fe c ti v e n es s in cl u de t h e fo ll o wi n g : 1 . M i s di a g no s is . Th e i s o l a te d o r ga n ism m a y h a ve b ee n m is id e nt i fi ed b y th e l a bo r a to r y o r m a y no t b e t h e c au s a t i v e a ge n t f o r in f ec t io n (e . g. , th e p a ti e nt m a y ha v e a n u ns us pe c t ed i nf ec t io n ) . 2 . I mp r o pe r d r u g r e g ime n . Th e d r ug do s a g e , a dm i ni s t r a ti on r ou t e , d os ing f r e q ue nc y , o r d u ra t io n o f t h e ra p y m a y b e i na de q ua t e o r in a pp r op r ia t e . 3 . I na p p r op r i a te ch o i ce o f a nt i b io t i c a ge n t . A s d i s c us se d i n I . D , p a ti en t f a c to r s a nd th e p h ar m ac o l og ic a l p r op e r ti es an d s p e c t r um o f ac t i vit y o f a g i ve n d r ug m u s t be c o ns i d e re d wh e n p la n ni ng ant i - in f ec t i v e d r ug th e ra p y . P.917
4 . M i c r o bi a l r e s is t an c e. B y a c qu i ri n g r es is t an c e t o a s pe c i f ic a n ti b io t ic , m ic r o or g an is m s c a n s u r v i v e i n t he d ru g ' s p re s en c e . Ma n y g o n oc oc c a l s t r ai ns , fo r i n s t a nc e, now r e s i s t p en ic il l in . D ru g r e s is ta nc e i s p a rt ic u la r l y c om m o n i n g e og r a ph ic al a r e as in wh i c h a s p e ci fi c d r u g h as b e en us ed e xc e s s i v el y ( an d pe r ha ps im p ro p er l y) . 5 . U n r ea l is t i c e x pe c ta t io n s . An t ib io t ic s a re in e f fe c ti v e in ce r ta i n c i rc um s ta nc es .
a . P at i en ts wi t h c o nd i ti on s th a t r eq u i re su r g i ca l d r a i n ag e f r e qu e nt l y c a nn o t b e c u r ed b y a n ti - in f ec t i ve d r ug s u nt i l t he d ra in ha s b e en r em o v ed . Fo r e xa m p l e , t he p re s e nc e of n ec r ot ic t is s u e o r p us in p at i en ts wi t h pn e um on ia , e m p yem a, o r r e na l c al c ul i i s a c o m m on c a us e o f a n t i b io t ic fa i lu r e. b . F e ve r s ho u ld no t b e tre a t ed wi t h a n ti - i nf ec t i v e d r u gs un le s s in f ec ti o n ha s b e e n id e n ti fi e d a s t he c au s e. A lt h ou g h f e ve r f r equ e n tl y s i g ni f ie s i nf ec t io n, i t s om e ti m e s s te m s f ro m no n in f ec t io us c o nd i ti o ns (e . g . , d ru g re ac t io ns , p h le b it is , ne op l as m s , m et a b ol ic di s o r de r s , a r th r it i s ) . Th es e c on d it io n s d o n o t re sp o nd to an t ib i ot ic s . O ne e xc e p ti o n t o t hi s p o si t io n i s n eu t r op en ic c a nc e r p at i en ts ; s uc h p at i e nt s wi t h n o s i g ns o r s y m p to m s of in f ec ti o n o t her t h a n f e v e r a r e wi d e l y t rea t e d wi t h an t im ic r ob i al ag e n ts . 6 . I n fe c ti o n b y t w o o r m o r e t yp e s o f m ic r o o r ga n i sm s . I f n o t d e te c t e d i n i ti al l y, a n ad di t io n al c au s e o f i n fe c t i on m a y le a d t o t h er a pe u ti c f ai l u re . J . An t i m i c ro b i al p r op h yl a x is f o r s u r ge r y 1 . D e f in i t io n . An t ib io t ic p r o ph y l a xi s is a sh o r t c ou r s e o f a nt i bi o ti c a d m i ni s te r ed be f o re th e re is c l in ic a l e v i de nc e o f i n f ec t io n . 2 . G e ne r a l c o ns i de r a t i on s a . T im i ng . Th e a n ti b io t ic s ho u ld be ad m i n is te r ed t o en s u r e t h a t a pp r op r ia te a n t ib io t ic le v e ls a re a v ail a bl e a t th e s it e of c o nt am i na t io n b e fo r e t h e i n ci si on . In i ti a ti o n o f p r op h y l a xi s is o f t en at in d uc t i o n o f a ne s th es ia , wi t h in 1 h r o r ju s t be f o re th e s ur g i c a l i nc is io n . Th i s e ns ur e s p e ak s e ru m a nd t i ss ue an t ib i ot ic le v e ls . b . D u r a ti o n . P r o ph y l a xi s s ho u ld be m a in t ai n ed for t h e d u ra t io n o f s u rg e r y . L o n g su r gi c a l p r oc e du r es ( e. g . , > 3 h r ) m a y r e qui r e a d di t io n al do s e s. Th er e i s l i tt l e e v i de nc e t o s u ppo r t c o nt i nu a ti o n o f p r op hyl a xi s b e y o nd 24 h r. c . An t i b i o ti c sp ec t r u m s h ou l d b e a pp r op r ia t e f or t h e us u al pa t ho g en s . ( 1 ) I n g en e ra l , f i r s t -g e ne r a t i on c ep h al o sp o r i ns ( e . g. , c e fa z o l in ) ar e th e d r u gs of c h oi c e f or m o s t p r o c e du r es an d p a ti e nt s . Th e s e a ge n ts ha v e an a p p ro p r ia t e s p ec t r um , a l o w f r e q ue nc y o f s id e e f fe c ts , a f a v or a bl e h a lf - li fe , a n d a lo w c o s t . ( 2 ) V an c om yc i n i s a s u i ta b le al t e rn a ti v e in pe n ic il l in - s e ns i ti v e pa t ie n ts and i n s i tu a ti o ns i n wh ic h m et h ic i ll in - r es is t an t S. au r eu s i s a c o nc e rn . d . R o u te o f a dm i n is t r a ti o n . I n t ra v e n ou s ( I V ) o r in t r am us cu l a r ( I M) r o u t es a r e pr e fe r r e d t o g ua r an te e go o d s e r um an d t is s ue l e v el s a t t h e t im e o f i n ci si on .
II. Antibacterial Agents A. D e f i n i t i o n a nd c la ss if i c a t io n . Us ed to t re a t i nf e c ti on s c au s e d b y b a c t e ri a , a n ti ba c te r ia l ag e n ts fa ll in t o s e v er a l m a j o r c at e go r ie s : a m i no g l yc o s i d e s , c a r ba p e ne m s, ce p ha l o sp o r in s , e r yt h r o m yc i n s , p e n ic i l l in s (i nc lu d in g v ar i o us s u bg r ou ps ) , s u l f ona m i de s , t e t r ac yc l i n e s , f l u o r o qu i n ol o n es , m e t ro n i d az ol e (s ee V . C .2 . b ), u r i n a r y t r a c t a n t i se p t ic s , a n d m i sc e ll a ne o u s a n ti- i n f e ct i ve s ( Ta bl e 4 4 -1 ) . B . Am i n o g l yc o s i d e s . The s e d r ug s, c o n ta in i ng am i no s u ga r s , a re us ed p r i m a r il y i n i nf ec t io ns c au s ed b y gr am - n eg a ti v e en t e r ob ac t e ri a a nd in
s us p ec t ed s e ps is . Th e y h a v e li t tl e a c ti v i t y ag a in st a na e r ob ic an d f ac u lt a tiv e o r g an is m s . Th e t o xi c po te n t ia l o f t h es e d r ug s l im it s th e ir us e . Ma j o r a m in o gl y c os id es in c l ud e a m ik a ci n ( Am i k in ) , g e nt a m i ci n ( G a ra m yc i n ) , k a n am yc i n , n e om yc i n , n e t i lm i c in , s t r e p to m yc i n , a nd t ob r a m yc i n ( N e b c in ) . 1 . M e c ha n is m o f ac t i on. A m i n og l y c o s i d es a r e ba c t e r ic i da l ; t h e y in hi b it b a ct e r ia l p r ot e in s y n t h es i s b y b in d in g t o a n d im pe d in g th e f u nc ti o n o f t h e 3 0 S ri b os om al s u bu n it . (S o m e am i no gl y c os i de s al s o b in d t o th e 5 0 S r i b os om al s u bu n it . ) Th ei r m ec ha n is m o f ac t io n i s n o t fu ll y k no wn . P.918
P.919
P.920
P.921
P.922
P.923
Table 44-1. Some Important Parameters of Anti-Infective Drugs
Agent
Common Elimination Administrat Dosage Range Route Half-Life ion Route (Adults)
Aminoglycosides Amikacin
Renal
2-3 hr
IV, IM
15 mg/kg/da y, (once daily dose)
Gentamicin
Renal
2 hr
IV, IM
3 mg/kg/da
y (standard dose); 6-7 mg/kg/da y (once daily dose) Kanamycin
Renal
2-4 hr
Oral, IV
15 mg/kg every 812 hr
Neomycin
Renal
2-3 hr
Oral, topical
50-100 mg/kg/da y (oral); 10-15 mg/day (topical)
Netilmicin
Renal
2-7 hr
IV, IM
3-6 mg/kg/da y
Streptomycin
Renal
2-3 hr
IM
15 mg/kg/da ya
Tobramycin
Renal
2-5 hr
IV, IM
3 mg/kg/da y (standard dose); 6-7 mg/kg/da y, (once daily dose)
Renal
1 hr
IV
500 mg every 8 hr
Carbapenems Doripenem
Imipenem
Renal
1 hr
IV
250 mg-1 g every 6 hr
Ertapenem
Renal
4 hr
IV, IM
1 g/day
Meropenem
Renal
1.5 hr
IV, IM
0.5-2 g every 8 hr
Cefadroxil
Renal
1.5 hr
Oral
1-2 g/day
Cefazolin
Renal
1.4-2.2 hr
IV
250 mg-1 g every 8 hr
Cephalexi n
Renal
0.9 1.3 hr
Oral
250-500 mg every 6 hr
Cephapirin
Renal (H)
0.6-0.8 hr
IV, IM
500 mg-2 g every 46 hr
Cephradin e
Renal
1.3 hr
Oral, IV
250-500 mg every 6 hr
Renal (H)
0.8 hr
Oral
250-500 mg every 8 hr
Cephalosporins First-generation
Second-generation Cefaclor
Cefmetazo le
Renal
72 min
IV
2 g every 6-12 hr
Cefotetan
Renal
2.8-4.6 hr
IV, IM
1-2 g every 12 hr
Cefoxitin
Renal
0.8 hr
IV
1-2 g every 6-8 hr
Cefprozil
Renal
78 min
Oral
250-500 mg every 12-24 hr
Cefuroxim e
Renal
1.5-2.2 hr
IV, IM
750 mg1.5 g every 8 hr
Loracarbef
Renal
1 hr
Oral
200 mg every 12 hr or 400 mg/day
Cefixime
Renal
3-4 hr
Oral
400 mg/day
Cefdinir
Renal
1.7-1.8 hr
Oral
300 mg every 12 hr
Cefoperaz one
Hepatic
1.6-2.4 hr
IV
2-4 g every 12 hr
Cefotaxim e
Renal (H)
1.5 hr
IV
1-2 g every 6-8
Third-generation
hr Cefpodoxi me
Renal
2.5 hr
Oral
100-400 mg every 12 hr
Ceftazidim e
Renal
1.8 hr
IV, IM
1-2 g every 812 hr
Ceftibuten
Renal
2.5 hr
Oral
400 mg/day
Ceftizoxi me
Renal
1.7 hr
IV
1-2 g every 812 hr
Ceftriaxon e
Renal
8 hr
IV, IM
1-2 g/day
Renal
2-2.3 hr
IV, IM
1-2 g every 812 hr
Fourth-generation Cefepime
Erythromycins and other macrolides Azithromycin
Hepatic
68 hr
Oral
250 mg/day
Clarithromycin
Renal
3-7 hr
Oral
250-500 mg every 12 hr
Dirithromycin
Hepatic
8 hr
Oral
500 mg/day
Erythromycin base estolate, ethylsuccinate, and stearate
Hepatic
1.2-2.6 hr
Erythromycin gluceptate and lactobionate
Oral
250-500 mg every 6 hr
IV
0.5-2 g every 6 hr
Natural penicillins Penicillin G
Renal (H)
0.5 hr
Oral, IV, IM
200,000500,000 U every 6-8 hr
Penicillin V
Renal
1 hr
Oral
500 mg-2 g/day
Penicillin G procaine
Renal
24-60 hr
IM
300,000600,000 U/day
Penicillin G benzathine
Renal
24-60 hr
IM
300,000600,000 U/day
Penicillinase-resistant penicillins Cloxacillin
Renal (H)
0.5 hr
Oral
250-500 mg every 6 hr
Dicloxacillin
Renal (H)
0.5-0.9 hr
Oral
500 mg-1 g/day
Methicillin
Renal (H)
0.5-1 hr
IV, IM
1-2 g every 4-6 hr
Nafcillin
Hepatic (R)
0.5 hr
Oral, IV, IM
0.25-2 g every 6 hr
Oxacillin
Renal (H)
0.5 hr
Oral, IV, IM
500 mg-2 g every 46 hr 500875 mg every 12 hr
Amoxicillin
Renal (H)
0.9-2.3 hr
Oral
250-500 mg every 8 hr
Amoxicillin/clavula nic acid
Renal
1 hr
Oral
250-500 mg every 8 hr
Ampicillin
Renal (H)
0.8-1.5 hr
Oral, IV, IM
250 mg-2 g every 46 hr
Ampicillin/sulbacta m
Renal
1-1.8 hr
IV, IM
1.5-3 g every 6 hr
Aminopenicillins
Extended-spectrum penicillins Mezlocillin
Renal (H)
0.6-1.2 hr
IV, IM
1-3 g every 4-6 hr
Piperacillin
Renal (H)
0.8-1.4 hr
IV, IM
1-1.5 mg/kg every 612 hr
Piperacillin/tazobact
Renal
0.7-1.2
IV
3.375 g
am
hr
every 6 hr
Ticarcillin
Renal
0.9-1.5 hr
IV, IM
1-3 g every 4-6 hr
Ticarcillin/clavulani c acid
Renal
1-1.5 hr
IV
3.1 g every 4-6 hr
Sulfacytine
Renal
4-4.5 hr
Oral
250 mg every 6 hr
Sulfadiazine
Renal (H)
6 hr
Oral, IV
2-4 g/day
Sulfamethoxazole
Hepatic (R)
9-11 hr
Oral
1-3 g/day
Sulfisoxazole
Renal (H)
3-7 hr
Oral, IV
2-8 g/day
Sulfamethizole
Renal
—
Oral
0.5-1 g every 6-8 hr
Demeclocycline
Renal
10-17 hr
Oral
300 mg-1 g/day
Doxycycline
Hepatic
14-25 hr
Oral, IV
100-200 mg every 12 hr
Sulfonamides
Tetracyclines
Minocycline
Hepatic
12-15 hr
Oral, IV
100-200 mg every 12 hr
Oxytetracycline
Renal
6-12 hr
Oral, IM
250-500 mg every 6 hr 250500 mg q.i.d. or 300 mg/day in 1 or 2 divided doses
Tetracyclineb
Renal
6-12 hr
Oral, IV, IM
1-2 g/day
Ciprofloxacin
Renal (H)
5-6 hr
IV
200-600 mg every 12 hr
Enoxacin
Renal (H)
3-6 hr
Oral
200 mg/day400 mg every 12 hr
Gemifloxacin
Fecal (R)
4-12 hr
Oral
320 mg once daily
Lomefloxacin
Renal
6.357.77 hr
Oral
400 mg/day
Levofloxacin
Renal
8 hr
IV, Oral
250-500 mg every 24 hr
Fluoroquinolones
Moxifloxacin
Hepatic
12 hr
Oral
400 mg once daily
Ofloxacin
Renal
5-7.5 hr
Oral
100 mg/day400 mg
Cinoxacin
Renal
1-1.5 hr
Oral
250 mg every 6 hr or 500 mg every 12 hr
Fosfomycin
Renal/fec al
5.7 hr
Oral
One packet (3 g) in 90120 mL water × 1 dose
Methenamine hippurate and mandelate
Renal
1-3 hr
Oral
0.5-2 g q.i.d.
Nalidixic acid
Renal
8 hr
Oral
4 g/day
Nitrofurantoin
Renal
0.3-1 hr
Oral
5-7 mg/kg/da y
Norfloxacin
Hepatic
3-4 hr
Oral
400 b.i.d.
50-84 hr
Oral
750 mg b.i.d. × 21 days
Urinary tract antiseptics
Miscellaneous anti-infectives Atovaquone
Fecal
Aztreonam
Renal
1.7 hr
Oral, IV
50-100 mg/kg/da y
Clindamycin
Hepatic
2-4 hr
Oral, IM, IV
300-900 mg every 6-8 hr
Clofazimine
Hepatic
70 days
Oral
50-100 mg/day
Dapsone
Hepatic (R)
28 hr
Oral
50-100 mg/day
Daptomycin
Renal
8 hr
IV
4 mg/kg/da y
Lincomycin
Hepatic (R)
4.4-6.4 hr
IV, IM
600 mg-1 g every 812 hr
Linezolid
Renal
4-6 hr
Oral, IV
600 mg every 12 hr
Mupirocin
Renal
19-35 min
Topical
Apply every 812 hr
Quinupristin/dalfopr istin
Hepatic
1 hr/0.40.5 hr
IV
7.5 mg/kg every 8 hr
Rifaximin
Fecal
6 hrs
Oral
200 mg t.i.d.
Spectinomycin
Renal
1.2-2.8 hr
IM
2-4 g (single
dose) Telithromycin
Hepatic (R)
10 hr
Oral
800 mg/day
Tigecycline
Biliary (R)
42 hr
IV
100 mg load, 50 mg every 12 hr
Trimethoprim
Renal (H)
8-15 hr
Oral
100-200 mg/day
Vancomycin
Renal
6-8 hr
Oral, IV
500 mg every 6 hr
Amphotericin B
Unknow n
24 hr
IV
1-1.5 mg/kg/da y
Anidulafungin
Fecal (R)
40-50 hr
IV
Candidem ia: 200 mg day 1, then 100 mg/day
Antifungal agents
Esophage al candidiasi s: 100 mg day 1, then 50 mg/day Caspofungin
Hepatic
9-11 hr
IV
70 mg on day 1, then 50 mg q.d.
Fluconazole
Renal
22-37 hr
IV, Oral
100-800 mg/day
Flucytosine
Renal
6 hr
Oral
50-150 mg/kg/da y
Griseofulvin
Hepatic (R)
9-24 hr
Oral
300-375 mg/day
Itraconazole
Hepatic
24-42 hr
Oral
200-600 mg/day
Ketoconazole
Hepatic/f ecal
3.3 hr
Oral
200-400 mg/day b.i.d
Micafungin
Hepatic
11-17 hr
IV
Esophage al candidiasi s: 150 mg/day HSCT prophylas is: 50 mg/day
Miconazole
Hepatic
20-24 hr
Oral
200-400 mg/day
Nystatin
Fecal
—
Oral
500,0001,000,000 U t.i.d.
Posaconazole
Fecal/ren al
35 hrs
Oral
200 mg t.i.d.
Terbinafine
Hepatic
11-16
Oral
250
(R)
hr
Hepatic
6 hr
IV, Oral
IV: 6 mg/kg every 12 hr × 2 doses, then 4 mg/kg every 12 h; oral: 200 mg every 12 h for > 40 kg, 100 mg every 12 h for < 40 kg
Atovaquone
Hepatic
67 hr
Oral
750 mg b.i.d.
Chloroquine
Renal/fec al
72-120 hr
IM, Oral
Depends on disease
Diloxanide
Renal
—
IM
500 mg t.i.d.
Eflornithine
Renal
3 hr
IV
100 mg/kg/do se every 6 hr
Fansidar
Renal
100231 hr
Oral
1 tablet every week
Halofantrine
Hepatic
3-4
Oral
500 mg
Voriconazole
mg/day
Antiprotozoal agents
days
every 6 hr × 3 doses; repeat in 7 days
Renal
72-120 hr
Oral
310 mg every week
Iodoquinol
Fecal
—
Oral
650 mg t.i.d. for 20 days
Mefloquine
Hepatic
15-33 days
Oral
1250 mg single dose
Metronidazole
Hepatic (R)
6-14 hr
Oral, IV
250-500 mg every 6-8 hr
Nitazoxanide
Hepatic
1-1.6 hr
Oral
100-200 mg b.i.d. based on age
Paromomycin
Fecal
—
Oral
25-35 mg/kg/da y
Pentamidine
Renal
6-9 hr
IM, IV, inhalati on
IV, IM: 34 mg/kg every day; inhalation : 300 mg every 4
Hydroxychloro quine
weeks Primaquine
Hepatic
3.7-9.6 hr
Oral
15 mg (base)/da y
Pyrimethamine
Renal
111 hr
Oral
25 mg every week
5 days
Oral
100 mg/day
Quinacrine
Quinine
Renal
12 hr
Oral
325 mg b.i.d.
Tinidazole
Hepatic (R)
13.2 hr
Oral
2 g q.d. × 1-3 days
Aminosalicylic acid
Renal
1 hr
Oral
150 mg/kg daily (maximu m 12 g/day)
Capreomycin
Renal
4-6 hr
IM
15 mg/kg/da y to 1 g/day maximum
Cycloserine
Renal
10 hr
Oral
15-20 mg/kg (maximu m1 g/day)
Antitubercular agents
Ethambutol
Hepatic
3.3 hr
Oral
15-25 mg/kg/da y
Ethionamide
Hepatic
3 hr
Oral
500 mg-1 g/day
Isoniazid
Hepatic
1-4 hr
Oral, IV
5-10 mg/kg daily (maximu m dose = 300 mg)
Pyrazinamide
Hepatic
9-10 hr
Oral
15-30 mg/kg daily (maximu m2 g/day)
Rifampin
Hepatic
2-3 hr
Oral, IV
10 mg/kg (up to 600 mg) q.d.
Rifabutin
Hepatic
45 hr
Oral
300 mg q.d.
Rifepentine
Hepatic
13.9 hr (active metabo lite \13.4 hr)
Oral
600 mg every 3 days
Hepatic
1.5 hr
Oral
300 mg b.i.d. or 600 mg
Antiviral agents Abacavir
every day Adefovir
Renal
7.5 hr
Oral
10 mg every day
Acyclovir
Renal
2.2 hr
Oral, IV, topical
IV: 5-10 mg/kg every 8 hr; oral: 200-800 mg 3-5 × daily (dependin g upon indication )
Amantadine
Renal
17 hr
Oral
100 mg b.i.d. or 200 mg every day
Amprenavir
Hepatic
7-10 hr
Oral
1200 mg b.i.d. (caps)
Atazanavir
Hepatic
7 hr
Oral
400 mg every day
Cidofovir
Renal
6.5 hr
IV
5 mg/kg week × 2 (induction ); 5 mg/kg every 2 weeks (maintena nce)
Darunavir
Hepatic
15 hr
Oral
600 mg plus 100
mg ritonavir b.i.d. Delavirdine
Hepatic (R)
2-11 hr
Oral
400 mg t.i.d.
Didanosine
Renal
1.5 hr
Oral
≥ 60 kg: 400 mg every day (EC caps); < 60 kg: 250 mg every day (EC caps)
Emtricitabine
Renal
10 hr
Oral
200 mg every day (caps)
Enfuvirtide
n/a
3.8 hr
SC
90 mg b.i.d.
Entecavir
Renal
128149 hr
Oral
0.5 mg every day, or 1 mg every day in patients with lamivudin e resistance
Efavirenz
Hepatic
40-55 hr
Oral
600 mg at bedtime
Famciclovir
Renal
2-2.3 hr
Oral
250-500 mg every 8-12 hr
Fosamprenavir
Hepatic
7.7 hr
Oral
1400 mg b.i.d.
Foscarnet
Renal
3-6 hr
IV
90 mg/kg every 12 hr × 1421 days (CMV induction) ; 90 mg/kg every day (CMV maintena nce)
Ganciclovir
Renal
2.9 hr
IV
5 mg/kg every 12 hr (induction ) × 14-21 days; 5 mg/kg every day (maintena nce)
4.8 hr
Oral
1000 mg t.i.d. (after induction)
Indinavir
Hepatic
1.4-2.2 hr
Oral
800 mg every 8 hr
Lamivudine
Renal
3-7 hr
Oral
150 mg b.i.d. or 300 mg daily
Lopinavir/ritonavir
Hepatic
4.4-6.1 hr
Oral
200 mg/50 mg
per tab (2 tablets b.i.d.) Maraviroc
Hepatic
14-18 hr
Oral
150-600 mg b.i.d., dependin g upon concomit ant medicatio ns
Nelfinavir
Hepatic
3.5-5 hr
Oral
1250 mg b.i.d.
Nevirapine
Renal (H)
25-30 hr
Oral
200 mg every day × 14 days, then 200 mg b.i.d.
Oseltamivir
Renal
6-10 hr
Oral
75 mg b.i.d. (treatment ); 75 mg every day (prophyla xis)
Raeltegravir
Hepatic
9 hr
Oral
400 mg b.i.d.
Ribavirin
Renal
298 hr
Oral
800-1200 mg daily, divided into 2 doses
Rimantadine
Renal
25 hr
Oral
100 mg
b.i.d. Ritonavir
Hepatic
3-5 hr
Oral
100-400 mg daily, divided in 1 or 2 doses (as booster agent with other PIs)
Saquinavir
Hepatic
13 hr
Oral
1000 mg (Invirase) plus 100 mg ritonavir b.i.d.
Stavudine
Renal
1.5 hr
Oral
≥ 60 kg: 40 mg every 12 hr; < 60 kg: 30 mg every 12 hr
Telbivudine
Renal
40-49 hr
Oral
600 mg every day
Tenofovir
Renal
10-14 hr
Oral
300 mg daily
Tipranavir
Hepatic
6 hr
Oral
500 mg plus 200 mg ritonavir b.i.d.
Valacyclovir
Renal
2.5-3.6 hr
Oral
0.5-1 g every day
or b.i.d. or t.i.d. Valganciclovir
Renal
4 hr
Oral
900 mg b.i.d. × 21 days (induction ), 900 mg every day (maintena nce)
Zalcitabine
Renal
1-3 hr
Oral
0.75 mg t.i.d.
Zanamivir
Renal
2.5-5.1 hr
Inhalati on (Diskha ler)
2 inhalation s (10 mg) b.i.d. (treatment ); 10 mg every day (prophyla xis)
Zidovudine
Renal (H)
1.5-3.1 hr
Oral
300 mg b.i.d.
IV
2 mg/kg over 1 hr, then 1 mg/kg/hr until cord clamping (intrapart um perinatal prophylax is for pregnant women)
Anthelmintics Albendazole
Hepatic
8-12 hr
Oral
400-800 mg daily
Diethylcarbamazine
Renal
8 hr
Oral
25 mg/day for 3 days, then 50 mg/day for 5 days, then 100 mg/day for 3 days, then 150 mg/day for 12 days
Ivermectin
Hepatic
16-35 hr
Oral
150-200 mcg/kg × 1 dose
Mebendazole
Hepatic
8 hr
Oral
100 mg b.i.d. × 3 consecuti ve days
Praziquantel
Hepatic
0.8-3 hr
Oral
60-75 mg/kg in 3 divided doses on the same day
Pyrantel
Hepatic
—
Oral
11 mg/kg (maximu m = 1 g) as a
single dose Thiabendazole
Hepatic
—
Oral
Dose based upon weight chart in prescribin g informati on, 100 lb: 1 g b.i.d. 125 lb: 1.25 g b.i.d. > 150 lb: 1.5 g b.i.d.
CMV, cytomegalovirus; EC cap, enteric-coated capsule; H, additional significant hepatic elimination; HSCT, hematopoietic stem cell transplant; IM, intramuscular; IV, intravenous; PIs, protease inhibitors R, additional significant renal elimination; SC, subcutaneous. a
Dosage applies to infections other than tuberculosis; for tuberculosis, dosage is 1 g/day. b
Intravenous agent withdrawn from U.S. market.
P.924
2 . S pe c t r um o f a c ti vi t y a . S t r ep t o m yc i n i s ac ti v e a ga in s t b ot h g r am - p os it i ve an d g r am - n eg a ti v e b a ct e r ia . Ho we v e r , wi d e s p r ea d r e s i s t a nc e t o t hi s d r u g h as re st r ic t ed it s us e t o t he or g an is m s th a t c au s e p la g ue an d t u la r em ia , g ra m -p os i ti v e s t r ep t oc oc c i (g i v e n i n c om b in a ti on wi t h pe n ic il li n ), a nd My c o ba c t e r iu m t u b e rc ul os is ( gi v e n i n c om b in a ti on wi t h ot h e r a nt it u b e rc ul a r a g e n ts , a s d e sc r ib ed in V I . C. 2 ) . b . Am i k a ci n , k a na m yc i n , g en t am i c in , to b r a m yc i n , n e om yc i n , a nd n e t i lm i c in a re ac ti v e aga i ns t m an y g r am - ne g at i ve b ac te r i a ( e .g . , P r o te us , S e r r a ti a , a nd Ps e ud o m on a s o r ga ni sm s ).
( 1 ) G e n ta m ic i n i s ac t i v e a g ai ns t s om e St a ph yl oc o cc u s s t r a in s ; it is m o r e a c ti ve t ha n t o b ra m yc i n ag a in s t S e r ra t ia o rg a ni sm s . ( 2 ) Am i k a ci n i s t h e b ro ad e s t s p ec t r um a m i n og l y c o s id e wi t h a ct i v i t y a g ai ns t m os t ae r ob ic g ra m -n eg a ti v e b ac il li as we l l a s m an y a n ae r ob ic g ra m n e g at i ve b ac t e ri al s t r ai ns t ha t re si st ge n ta m i ci n a n d t o b ra m yc i n. I t is al so a c ti ve ag a in s t M. t u b e rc u l os is an d My c ob ac t e ri um a v iu m - i n t ra c e ll u la r e ( MA I ) . ( 3 ) T ob r a m yc i n m a y b e m o r e ac t i v e a ga i ns t P s eu d o m o na s a e ru gi n os a t ha n g e n ta m i c i n . ( 4 ) N e t il m ic i n m a y b e ac t i v e a ga i ns t g en t am ic in -r e s is ta n t o r ga ni s m s; i t a p p ea rs t o b e l es s o to t oxi c t h a n o t he r am i n og l y co s i d es . ( 5 ) N e om yc i n , i n a dd i ti on t o i ts ac ti v i t y a ga in s t s u c h g r am - ne ga t i v e o r g an is m s as Es c h e ri c h ia c o l i a nd K le bs ie l la pn eu m o n i ae , i s ac t i v e a ga i ns t s e ve r al gr a m - p os it i v e o rg a ni s m s ( e .g . , S. au r e us ) . P . a e r ug in o s a an d m os t s t r ep t oc oc c i ar e n o w n eo m y c i n re si s ta n t. 3 . T he r a pe u t ic us e s a . S t r ep t o m yc i n i s us ed t o t re a t p la gu e , t u la r em ia , ac u te br u c e ll os is ( gi v e n i n c om b in a ti on wi t h te t r ac y c li n e ), ba c te r ia l e nd o ca r d it is c a us e d b y S t r e p to c o c c us v i ri d an s (g i v e n i n c om bi n at i on wi th p en ic il l in ) , a n d t u b e rc ul os is ( gi v e n i n c om b in a ti on wi t h ot h e r a nt it u b e rc ul a r a ge n ts , a s d e sc r ib ed in V I . C. 2 ) . b . G e n ta m ic i n , t o b ra m yc i n , a m ik a ci n , a nd n et i lm i c in a re t he r ap e ut ic fo r s e r io us gr a m - n eg a ti v e ba c il la r y i nf e c t io n s ( e .g . , t h os e c a us ed b y E n t e ro b ac t er , S er r a ti a , Kl e bs ie l la , a n d P . ae r ug i no s a ), pn e um on ia ( gi ve n in c om b in a ti o n wi t h a c ep ha l os p or i n o r p e ni c i ll i n) , m e ni n gi ti s , c o m p l ic at e d u r i na r y t r ac t i n fe c t i on s , o s te om ye l it is , ba c t e r em ia , an d p e r it o ni ti s . c . N e om yc i n i s u s e d f o r p r e op e r at i v e b o we l s t e ri li z a t i on ; h e pa t ic c om a (as a d ju n ct i v e t h e ra p y ) ; a n d, i n t o pi ca l f o rm , fo r s k i n a n d m uc ou s m em br a ne i n f ec ti o ns (e . g. , bu r ns ) . 4 . P r ec a u ti o n s a nd m oni t o r i n g e f f ec t s. A m i no g lyc o s i d es c a n c a us e s e r io us ad v e r s e ef f ec ts . To p r e v e n t o r m in im i ze su c h p r ob le m s , b l oo d d r ug c o nc en t r at i on s a nd bl o od u r ea ni t ro g en ( B U N ) an d s e r um c r ea t in i ne l e vel s s h ou l d b e m o n it o re d d u r in g th e r ap y. a . O t o t ox i ci t y. A m i n og l yc os i de s c an c a us e v e s tib u la r o r a ud i to r y d am age . Th e r e la t i v e o t ot o xi c i t y is as fo l lo ws : s t r ep t om y c in = k a n am y c in > a m i k ac in = g en t am ic in = to b ra m y ci n > n e t il m i ci n ( 1 ) G e nt am ic i n a nd s t r ept o m y c i n c au s e p ri m a r il y ve s t i b u la r d am ag e ( m a ni f es te d b y t in n it u s , v e r t i g o, an d a t a xi a ) . Su c h d am ag e m a y be bi la t e ra l a n d i r r e v e rs ib le . ( 2 ) A m i k a c i n , k a n am y c i n, a nd ne om y c i n ca us e m a i nl y a u di t o r y d a m ag e ( h e a ri n g lo s s ) . ( 3 ) To b r am y c in c a n r es u lt i n b ot h v es t ib u la r a n d au d i to r y d am ag e . b . N e ph r o t o xi c i t y. B e c au s e am i no g l yc os i de s ac c u m ul a te in th e p r o xi m a l t u b ul e , m i l d r en a l d y s fu nc t io n d e v e lo ps in up to 25 % of pa t ie n ts re c ei v i ng
t h es e d r u gs fo r s e v e ra l da y s o r m or e . Us ua l l y , t his ad v e r s e e ff ec t i s r e v e r si b le . Us e o f o n c e -d a il y a dm in is t r a ti on ( O DA ) h as be e n r ep o r te d i n th e l i t er a tu r e to be as e f fe c tiv e a n d l es s n ep h ro t o xi c t h a n t r ad i ti o na l d os in g . ( 1 ) N e om y c i n i s t h e m o s t n e ph r o to xi c am i no gl yc os i de ; s t re p to m y ci n i s t he l e as t n e ph r o to xi c . G e nt am ic i n a nd to b r am y c i n a re n ep h ro t o xi c to a p p ro xi m a t el y t h e s a m e d e g re e . ( 2 ) R i sk f ac t o r s f o r i nc re a s e d n e ph r o to xi c e ff e c ts in c l u de th e fo ll o wi n g : ( a ) P r ee xi s t i ng r en al di s e a s e ( b ) P r e v io us o r p r ol on g ed am i no gl y c os i de th e r apy ( c ) C o nc ur r e nt ad m i n is t ra t i on of an o th e r n e ph r o to xi c d r u g ( d ) Im p ai r ed r en a l f lo w u n r e la t ed t o r en a l d is ea se ( e . g. , f ro m h y p ot e ns io n , s e ve r e h ep a ti c d is ea s e ) P.925
( 3 ) Tr o u gh le v e ls > 2 µ g/m L fo r g e nt a m i c i n a nd t ob r a m yc i n a nd > 1 0 µg /m L f o r am ik ac in a re as s o c i at e d wi t h n ep h r ot o xi c i t y . c . N e u ro m us c u la r b lo ck a d e. Th i s p ro b le m m a y a r i s e i n pa ti e n ts re ce i ving h i gh - d os e am i no g l yc os i de t he r a p y . ( 1 ) R i sk f ac t o r s f o r n eu ro m us c u la r bl oc k a d e i nc lu d e t h e f ol l o wi n g: ( a ) C o nc ur r e nt ad m i n is t ra t i on of a n eu r om us c u l a r b l oc k i ng ag e nt o r a n a n es t he t ic ( b ) P r ee xi s t i ng h y po c al c e m ia o r m yas t he ni a g r a vi s ( c ) I nt r ap e r it o ne al o r r a pi d I V d r ug ad m i ni s tr a ti o n ( 2 ) A pn e a a nd r es pi r at o ry d e p r es s i on m a y b e r e ve r s ed wi t h a dm i ni s t r a ti on o f ca lc iu m o r a n a n ti c ho li n es t e ra s e . d . H yp e r s e n s i ti vi t y a n d l o c al r ea c t io n s a r e r a re a d ve rs e e f fe c t s o f a m in o gl y c os id es . e . T he r a pe u t ic l e ve ls ( 1 ) G e nt am ic i n a nd to b r am y c in pe a k a t 6 - 10 µ g/ m L f o r t r ad i ti o na l d os in g ; wh e n u s i n g t he O D A m e th o d , t he pe ak is 16 - 20 µg / m L o r 8 - 10 ti m e s t h e MI C o f t a r g et e d b ac t er i a. Th e i r t ro u gh l e ve l i s 0 .5- 1 . 5 µg / m L fo r t ra d it io n al o r o nc e- d ai l y r eg im en s . ( 2 ) A m i k a c i n p ea k s at 25- 3 0 µ g/ m L . Th e t r o ug h l ev e l is 5 -8 µ g /m L. 5 . S i gn i f ic a n t i n te r a c ti on s a . I V l o o p d i u re t i cs c a n r e s u l t i n i nc r ea se d o t ot oxi c i t y . b . O t h e r a m in o g l yc o s i d e s , c e p ha l o th i n, c is p la ti n , am p ho t e r ic i n B , a nd m e t h ox yf l u r a n e c a n c aus e i nc r e as ed ne p hr o to xi c i t y wh e n g i v e n c o nc u r re n tl y wi t h s t r ep t om y c in . C . C a r b a pe n em s . Th e s e a g en ts a re β - la ct am s t ha t co n ta in a f us e d β l a ct am r in g a n d a 5 - m e m b e r ed r in g s y s te m t ha t dif f e rs f ro m p e ni c i ll in s i n b e in g u n s a t ur a te d a n d c o n t ai ni n g a c a rb o n a to m i n s t e ad of a s ul f ur a to m . Th e c la s s ha s a b r o ad e r s p ec t ru m o f a c t i vi t y th a n d o m os t β -l ac t am s . F o r m e r l y k n o wn as th i ena m y c i n , i m ip e ne m ( P r ima x i n ) wa s t he fi r s t c a r ba pe n em c om p ou nd in t r o du c e d i n t h e U n it e d S t a t es , f o ll o we d b y
m e r o pe n em (M e r r e m) an d , m os t re c e n tl y , e r ta pe n e m ( I n va nz ) a n d d o r i p en e m ( D o r i ba x ) . Be c au s e it is in hi b it e d b y r e n al di p ep t id as es , i m ip en em m u s t be c o m b in e d wi t h c i la s ta t i n s od ium , a d ip ep t id as e i n hi bi t or ( c il a st a ti n i s n ot r eq u ir ed wi t h t he ot h e rs b ec a us e t he s e a re no t s e ns it i v e t o r e n al di p ep t id as e ) . 1 . M e c ha n is m o f ac t i on. C a r ba p en em s a r e b ac te r i c i da l , i nh i bi ti n g b a ct e r ia l c el l wa l l s y nt h es is . 2 . S pe c t r um o f a c ti vi t y. Th e s e d r ug s h a ve t h e br o a de s t s p ec t r um of al l βl a ct am an t ib i ot ic s . Th e gr o u p i s ac t i v e a ga i ns t m o s t g r am - po s i t i ve co c c i ( i n cl ud i ng m a n y e n te r oc o c c i ) , g r am - ne ga t i v e r o ds ( i n cl u di ng m a n y P . a e r ug i no s a s t r ai ns ) , a n d a n a er o be s . Th i s c l as s ha s g o od ac ti v i t y a ga i ns t m a n y b a c t e ri a l s tr a in s t ha t r es is t o t he r an t ib io t ic s. E r t ap e ne m h as a n a r r o we r s p ec t ru m o f a c ti v i t y t h an th e o t he r c a r ba p e ne m s . I t h as li t tl e o r n o a c ti vi t y a ga in s t P . a e r ug in o s a an d Ac in e to b ac te r . Th e s e β -l ac t am an t ib io t ics r e s is t d es t ru c ti on b y m os t β -l a c t am as es . 3 . T he r a pe u t ic us e s. C ar b a pe n em s a re m o st v a lu e d i n t h e t r ea tm e nt o f s e ve r e i nf ec t io ns c a us e d b y d r ug - r es is t an t o r g an is m s s us c ep ti b le to t he se a g e nt s. Th e s e ag e nt s a re e f fe c t i v e a g ai ns t u r i na ry t r a c t a nd lo we r r e s pi r at o r y in f ec ti o ns , i nt r a - ab d om in a l a nd g yne co l og ic a l i nf ec t io ns , an d s ki n , s of t - ti s s ue , bo ne , an d jo in t in f ec ti o ns . 4 . P r ec a u ti o n s a nd m oni t o r i n g e f f ec t s a . C a rb a pe n em s m a y c au s e n au se a , v om it i ng , d ia r r h ea , a n d p s eu d om em b ra no us c o li ti s . b . S ei zu r es , di z z i n es s , an d h y po t en s i o n m a y d e ve l op ; s e i zu re s a pp e ar les s f r e q ue n tl y wi t h m e r op e ne m o r e rt a pe n em (1 . 5% o f pa t ie n ts re c ei v i ng i m ip en em v e r s u s 0 .5 % of t h os e r ec ei v i n g m er o pen e m o r e r t ap e ne m ) . c . P at i en ts wh o a r e al l e rg i c t o p en ic i ll in o r ce p hal o s p o ri ns m a y s u f f er c r os s -s en s i t i v it y r e ac t io ns du r i ng c a r ba pe n em th er a p y . D . C e p ha l o sp o r i ns . Th es e a g en t s a re kn o wn as β - l a c ta m a n t ib i o ti c s b e ca us e th ei r c h em ic al s t r u c t u r e co ns is t s o f a β -la c ta m r i ng ad j oi ne d to a t h i a zol id i ne r in g . C e ph alo s po r in s g en e r al l y a re c la ss i fi e d i n f ou r m a jo r g r o up s b as e d m a i nl y o n t h e ir s p ec t r um o f ac ti v i t y ( Ta b l e 4 4 -2 ) . 1 . M e c ha n is m o f ac t i on. C e ph a lo sp o ri n s a re b ac t e r i ci d a l ; t he y i nh ib i t b a ct e r ia l c el l wa l l s y nt h es is , re d uc in g c el l wa l l s ta b il i t y an d t h us c au si n g m em b r an e l y s is . P.926
Table 44-2. Classification of Cephalosporins
First Generation Cefadroxil (Duricef, Ultracef)a Cefazolin (Ancef, Kefzol) Cephalexin (Keflex)a Cephapirin (Cefadyl) Cephradine (Anspor, Velosef)a
Second Generation Cefaclor (Ceclor)a Cefmetazole (Zefazone) Cefotetan (Cefotan)b Cefoxitin (Mefoxin) Cefuroxime(Zinacef) Cefuroxime axetil (Ceftin)a Cefprozil (Cefzil)a Loracarbef (Lorabid)a
a
Oral agent.
b
Discontinued in the U.S. market 2005.
Fourth Third Generation Generation Cefdinir (Omnicef)a Cefixime (Suprax)a Cefoperazone (Cefobid) Cefotaxime (Claforan) Cefpodoxime proxetil (Vantin)a Ceftazidime (Fortex, Tazicef, Tazidime) Ceftibuten (Cedax)a Ceftizoxime (Cefizox) Ceftriaxone (Rocephin) Cefditoren (Spectracef)a
Cefepime (Maxipime)
2 . S pe c t r um o f a c ti vi t y a . F i rs t - g en e r a ti o n c eph a lo s po r in s a r e ac t i v e ag a in s t m o s t g r am -p os i ti ve c oc ci ( e xc e p t e nt e r oc oc c i ) as we l l a s e nt e r ic a e r ob i c g r am -n e ga t i ve b ac il l i ( e . g ., E . c ol i , K . p n eu m on i ae , P ro t eu s m i ra bi l is ) . b . S ec o n d -g e ne r a t io n c e p h al os po r i ns a r e a c t i v e a g ai ns t th e o r ga n ism s c o ve r ed b y fi rs t - ge n e ra t io n c e ph a lo s p o ri ns an d ha ve e xt e n d ed g ra m n e g at i ve c o v e ra g e, in c l ud i ng β - la c ta m a s e - p ro d uc i n g s t ra i ns o f H ae m o ph i lu s i n f lu en za e . c . T hi r d - ge n e r at i o n c e ph a lo s po r in s h a v e wi de r ac t i v i t y a g ai ns t m os t g r am n e g at i ve b ac t e ri a , f o r e xa m pl e , E n te r o ba c t e r , C i tr o b ac t er , S er r a ti a , P r o vi d en c i a , Ne is s e r ia , a n d Ha e m o ph il u s o rg a nis m s , i nc l ud in g β -l ac t am as e p r o du c i n g s t ra in s . d . F ou r t h - ge n e r at i o n c ep h al o s p o ri ns in cl u de ce fe p i me (M a xi p i me ) , wh ic h i s th e f i rs t m em be r of t his g ro u p t o b e m ar k e t e d. H o we ve r , i t s d es ig n at i on a s a f ou r th - g en e ra t io n c e p h al os po r i n is de b at a ble . C e fe pi m e is hi gh l y
r e s is ta n t t o β -l ac t am as es an d h a s a l o w p r op e ns it y f o r s e le c t i on of β l a ct am - r es is t an t m u ta n t s t r ai ns . It s h o ws e v id e nce o f g r ea t e r ac t i v i t y ve rs u s g r a m - p os it i v e c oc c i , En te r o ba c te r ia c e a e, an d Pse u d o m on as th a n t hi r d g e n er a ti o n c e p ha l os po r in s . e . E ac h g en e r at i on of c ep h al o s p o ri n h as sh if t ed to wa r d i nc r ea se d g r am n e g at i ve a c t i v i t y bu t h as l os t ac ti v i t y t o wa r d g r am - p os it i ve o r ga n is m s . F o u r th - ge n e ra t io n a ge n ts ha v e im p ro v e d a c ti v i t y t o wa r d g r am -p o si ti ve o r g an is m s o v e r t hi r d -g e ne r a ti o n a ge n ts . 3 . T he r a pe u t ic us e s a . F i rs t - g en e r a ti o n c eph a lo s po r in s c o m m o nl y a re a dm in is t e re d t o t r e at s e r io us Kl e bs ie l la in f ec tio n s a nd g ra m -p os i ti ve an d s om e g r am - n eg a ti v e i n f ec ti o ns i n p a ti e nt s wi th m i l d p en ic il l in al le r g y . Th e s e a g en t s al s o a re u s ed wi d e l y i n p e ri o pe r at i v e p ro p h yla xi s . Fo r m os t ot h er in d ic at i on s, t he y a r e no t t h e p r ef e r re d d r ug s . b . S ec o n d -g e ne r a t io n c e p h al os po r i ns a r e val u ab l e i n t h e t r ea tm e nt o f u r i na r y t r ac t i n fe c t i on s re s ul t in g f r om E . c ol i o r ga n is m s , a cu t e o ti t is m e dia , s i nu si t is , a nd go n oc oc c al d is ea se c a us ed b y or g an i s m s t ha t re si st o th e r a g e nt s. ( 1 ) C e fa c l o r ( C e cl o r ) i s u s ef u l i n o ti t is m e di a a nd si n us it is in pa t ie n ts wh o a r e al le r gi c t o a m p ic i ll in a n d a m o xi c i ll i n. C e f p ro z i l ( C e fz i l ) a nd lo r a ca r b ef ( L o r a b id ) ar e s ec o nd - gen e r a ti on c e ph a lo sp o ri n s t h a t c an be a d m i ni s te r ed t wi c e da i l y b u t o f fe r no im p o rt a nt s p ec t ru m d i ff e re n c e s. ( 2 ) C e f ox i t in (M e f ox i n ) is t he r ap e ut ic f or m i xe d ae r o bi c -a n ae r ob ic i n f ec ti o ns , s uc h as in t r a -a b d om in al in f ec ti o n. Th e c e f o te t an ( C e fo t a n ) s p ec t ru m i s s i m i la r bu t th i s a ge n t c a n b e gi v e n twi c e d ai l y. ( 3 ) C e f u ro x im e (Z i na c e f) i s c o m m o nl y a dm in is t ere d fo r ou t pa t ie n t c om m u n it y - a c q u i re d p neu m on i a. c . T hi r d - ge n e r at i o n c e ph a lo s po r in s p en e t ra t e t he c e r e br o s p in a l f lu i d ( C SF ) a n d t h us a r e v al u ab le in t h e tr e at m e n t o f m en i ng it i s c au s e d b y su c h o r g an is m s as m en i ng oc oc c i , pn eu m o c oc c i , H . in f lu e n za e , a n d e n te r ic g ram n e g at i ve b ac i ll i. P.927
( 1 ) Th e s e ag e nt s a ls o a re us e d t o t r e at s e ps is of u n k n o wn o r ig in in i m m u no s u p pr e s s ed pa t ien t s a nd t o t r ea t fe v e r i n n e u t ro pe n ic i m m u no s u p pr e s s ed pa t ien t s ( g i v en in c o m b in a ti on wi t h an am in o gl yc os ide ) . ( 2 ) Th i r d -g en e r at i on c e ph a lo s po r in s a r e us e fu l i n i n fe c ti on s c au se d b y m an y o r g an is m s r es is ta n t t o o ld e r c e ph al os p o ri ns . ( 3 ) Th e s e ag e nt s a r e f r eq u e nt l y ad m i ni s te r ed as e m pi r i c th e ra p y f o r li f e t h r e at e ni ng in f ec t io n i n wh i c h r es is ta n t o r ga n is m s a re th e m os t l ik e l y c aus e . ( 4 ) I ni ti a l t he r a p y o f m i xe d ba c t e r ia l i n fe c t i on s ( e. g . , s ep s i s ) co m m o nl y i n vo l ves th i r d- g en e r at io n c ep h al os p or i ns . d . Th e f ou r t h - ge n e ra t i on a ge n t , ce f ep im e , is app r o ve d f o r t r e at m e n t o f u r i na r y t r ac t i n fe c t i on s , u n c o m p l ic at e d sk in an d s k i n s t r uc tu r e i n fe c t i on s,
p n e um on ia , an d e m p i ri c u s e i n f eb r il e ne u tr o pe n ic p a t ie n ts . Ce f ep im e h a s a s p ec t ru m o f a c t i v i t y s im i la r t o t hi r d -g e ne r a ti on age n ts bu t is m o re r es is ta nt t o so m e β - la c t am as es . 4 . P r ec a u ti o n s a nd m oni t o r i n g e f f ec t s a . B ec au s e al l c ep h al os p o r in s ( e xc e p t c ef o pe r a zo n e ) a r e e li m i na t e d r en al l y , d o se s m us t b e a dj us t ed f o r pa t ie n ts wi t h re na l i m p a i rm en t . b . C r os s -s en s i t i v it y wi t h p e ni c i l li n h as be e n r ep o rt e d i n u p to 10 % o f p a t ie n ts re c e i v i ng c e ph alo s po r in s . Mo r e r e c e n t i nfo r m at i on i n di c a t es th a t t r u e c r os s - r e ac ti v i t y is ra r e . c . C ep h al os p o ri ns c a n c a u s e h y pe r se ns i ti v i t y r eac t io n s s i m i la r to t ho s e r e s ul ti n g f r om pe ni c i l li n (s e e I I . E. 1 .e . ( 1 )) . Ma n i f es t a ti on s i nc lu d e f e v e r , m ac u lo p ap ul a r ra s h , a n ap h y l a xi s , a n d h em ol yt i c a n em i a. d . O t h er ad v e r s e e ff ec t s i n c l ud e n a us ea , vom i ti n g, d ia r r he a , s up e ri n fe c ti on , n e p hr o to xi c i t y , an d Cl os tr i d iu m d if f ic il e -i n du ce d c o l i ti s; wi t h c e fo p er a z o ne, c e fm e ta z o le , an d c ef o te ta n ( an d f o rm e rl y m o xa l ac t am an d c ef am a nd o le ) , b l ee d in g d i at h es es m a y o c c u r . B l ee d in g c an be re v e r s ed b y vi ta m i n K a d m i ni s t ra ti o n . e . C ep h al os p o ri ns m a y c a u s e fa ls e - po s i t i ve g l yc os u r ia re s u l ts on te s ts u s in g t h e c o p pe r r ed uc t ion m e t ho d . f . C e f t ri a xo n e n o w c o nt ra i nd ic a te d i n n e wb o r ns re c ei v i n g c o nc u r re n t a d m i ni s t ra ti o n o f c al c i um - c o nt a in in g s ol u ti o ns o r p r o du c ts d u e t o r is k o f f a t al p re c i pi t a ti on in lu n gs an d k id n e y s . N e w wa r n i n g a dd e d a ls o s ta t in g t h a t c ef t r ia xo n e a nd I V c a l c i um - c o n ta in i ng s o lu t ion s s ho u ld no t b e a d m i ni s te r ed wi t h in 48 ho u r s o f e ac h o t he r . 5 . S i gn i f ic a n t i n te r a c ti on s a . P r o be n ec i d m a y i m p ai r t he e xc r e ti o n o f c ep ha lo s po r in s ( e xc e p t c e f ta zi di m e ) , c a us in g i nc r e a s e d c ep h al os po r i n l eve l s a n d p os s i bl e t o xi c i ty. b . Al c o h o l c o ns u mp t i on m a y re su l t i n a d is u lf i ra m - t y pe r ea c t i on in pa t ien t s r e c ei vi ng c e fm e ta z o l e, c e f o te t an , an d c ef o pe r a z on e . c . Am i n o g l yc o s i d e s o r l o o p d i u r e ti c s m a y c au s e a dd i ti v e to xi c i t y wh e n a d m i ni s te r ed wi t h c e ph a lo t h in . d . P la sm a c on c e n t ra t io ns o f c e f ac lo r e xt e n de d - rel e as e t a bl e ts , c ef d in i r, an d c e fp o do xi m e m a y b e r e du c ed b y c o ad m i ni s tr a ti o n wi t h a n ta c i ds . e . H 2 -a n t ag o n is t s m a y re d uc e p l as m a l e v e ls o f ce f p od o xi m e a n d c e fu r o xi m e . f . I r o n s u pp l em e n ts an d i r o n - f o r ti f i ed f oo d s re du c e a bs o rp t io n o f c e fd in ir b y 8 0 % a nd 30 % , r es p ec t i v e l y . E . E r yt h r o m yc i n s . Th e c h em ic al s t r uc t ur e o f th es e m ac r ol i de an t ib io t ic s is c h a ra ct e ri z e d b y a la c ton e ri n g t o wh ic h s ug a rs a r e at t ac he d . E r y t h r om yc i n b a se an d t h e e s t o la t e, eth y l s uc ci na t e , a nd s t ea r at e sa l ts a r e g i v e n o ra l l y ; e r y t h r om y c in la c t o bi o na te a nd gl uc e pt a te a re gi v e n pa r en t e ra l l y. 1 . M e c ha n is m o f ac t i on. E r y t h r om y c in s m a y b e b a c t e ri c i da l o r b a c t e ri o s ta t i c ; t he y b ind t o t h e 5 0 S r ib os om a l s u b u ni t , i nh ib i ti n g b ac te r ia l p r o t ei n s y n th es is .
2 . S pe c t r um o f a c ti vi t y. E r y t h r om y c in s a r e a ct i ve a ga in s t m a n y g ra m p o si t i ve o r ga ni s m s , in c l ud i ng s t r e pt oc oc ci ( e. g . , S t r e p to c o cc us p n e u m on ia e ) , a nd C o ry ne b ac t e ri u m an d Ne is s e r ia s p ec i es as we l l as s o m e s t r ai ns of My c o pl as m a , Le g io n el l a, T re p on e m a , an d B or d e te ll a . S om e S . a u r eu s s t ra i ns t h at r es is t p e ni c i ll i n G a r e s u s c ep t ib l e t o e r y t h r om yc i ns . 3 . T he r a pe u t ic us e s a . E r yt h ro m y c i ns ar e th e p r e fe r r ed d ru gs fo r th e tr e a tm e nt of My c o pl as m a p n e u m on ia e a n d C a mp y lo b ac t e r i nf ec t io ns , Le gi on n ai r es di se as e , c h la m y di a l in f ec t io ns , d ip h t he r ia , an d p e rt u s s is . P.928
b . I n p at i en ts wi t h pe ni c il l in al l er g y , e r yth r om y c ins a re im po r t an t a l t er n a ti v e s i n t he t re a tm e nt o f p ne um oc oc c a l pn e um o ni a , S . a u r eu s i n f ec ti o ns , s y p hi li s , a nd g o n or r h ea . c . E r yt h ro m y c i ns m a y be g i v e n p r op h y la c ti ca ll y be f o r e d en t al pr oc e du r es t o p r e ve n t b ac te r i al e n do c ar d i ti s . 4 . P r ec a u ti o n s a nd m oni t o r i n g p a r am e te r s a . G as t r oi n te s ti na l ( G I) di s t re s s (e . g ., na us e a, v om i ti n g, di a r rh e a, e p ig a st r ic di s c om fo r t ) m a y o c c u r wi t h a ll er yt h r om y c in f or m s an d a r e t h e m os t c om m o n a d v e rs e e ff e c ts . b . A ll e r gi c r ea c ti on s (r a re ) m a y p r es en t a s s k i n er u p ti o ns , f e ve r , a nd e o si n op hi l ia . c . C ho l es t at ic he p at i ti s m a y a ri se in pa t ie n ts t rea t e d f o r 1 we e k o r l on g er wi t h e r yt h r om y c i n es to l ate ; s ym p to m s us ua ll y d is a p p ea r wi t hi n a f e w d a y s a f t e r d r ug th e r ap y e nd s . Th e r e h a ve b ee n i n fr e que n t re p or t s o f h e p at o to xi c i t y wi t h ot h e r s al t s o f e r y t h ro m yc i n . d . I M i n j ec ti o ns o f m o re t h a n 1 00 m g p r o du ce s ev e r e p ai n p e rs is ti n g f o r h o u rs . e . Tr a ns i en t h e a ri ng im pa i r m e n t m a y d e vel o p wi t h h ig h -d os e e r y t h r om y c in t h e r ap y. 5 . S i gn i f ic a n t i n te r a c ti on s a . E r yt h ro m y c i n i nh i bi ts th e he p at ic m e ta b ol is m of t h e op h yl l i n e , r e su l ti n g i n to xi c a c c um ul a ti on . b . E r yt h ro m y c i n i n te r f er es wi t h th e m e ta bo l ism o f d i g o xi n , c o r t ic o s te r o i ds , c a r b am az e p in e , c yc l o s p o r i n , a nd l o va s ta t i n, po s s i bl y p ot e nt i at i ng th e e f f ec t a n d t o xi c i t y o f th es e d r u gs . c . C l a ri t h r o m yc i n ( B i a xi n ) m a y p ot e nt i at e o r a l an t i c oa g u la n ts ( m o ni t o r p r o t hr om b in ti m e ) , i nc r ea s e c yc l o s p o r i n e l e v e ls wi t h i nc r ea s e d to xi c i t y , a n d i nc r ea s e d ig o x in and t h eo p h yl l i n e l e v e ls . d . C o -a d m i ni s t r a ti o n o f c l a r it h r om y c i n a n d c is a p ri d e m a y in c re as e ri sk o f s e r io us c a r di ac ar r h y t hm i a s ; c o ad m i n is t ra t io n i s co n t r ai nd ic a te d . e . S ud d en de a th s h a v e be e n re po r t ed wh e n c la r i th r o m yc i n wa s a dd ed t o o n g oi ng p im oz i de t he r ap y ; c o -a dm in is t r at i on is c o nt r a in di c a t ed . 6 . Al t e r n a t i ve s t o e r yt h r o m yc i n
a . C l a ri t h r o m yc i n , a z i thr o m yc i n ( Z i t h r om a x ), an d d i ri t h r om yc i n ( D yn a b a c ) a r e s em is y n th e t ic m ac r ol i de an t ib io t ic s . Th e se e xp e n s i v e bu t we l l - t o le r a te d a l te r na t i v es t o e r yt h ro m yc i n a r e a dm i ni s t e r ed on c e da il y . ( 1 ) C l a r it h r o m yc i n ( a ) S pe c t r um o f a c t i vi t y. C l a ri t h ro m yc i n is m o r e a c ti v e t ha n e r y t h ro m yc i n a g ai n st s t ap h y l oc oc c i and s tr e pt o co c c i. In ad d it i on t o a ct i v i t y a g ai ns t ot h er o r g an is m s c o v e r ed b y e ry t h r o m yc i n , i t is al so ac ti v e i n v i t r o a ga i ns t MA I , T o x o p la s m a g on d ii , a n d C r y p to sp o r id iu m s pp . ( b ) T he r a pe u t ic u se s . Th i s a ge n t is in d ic at e d f o r t h e p r e v en t io n o f My c o b a c t e ri u m av iu m c om p le x ( MA C ) i n f ec t io n an d is u se f ul in o ti ti s m edi a , s i nu si t is , m y c o p la s m al pn e um o ni a , a nd ph a r yng i ti s . Cl a ri t h ro m yc i n is al s o u s ed wi t h pr o to n p um p in h ib i to r s ( P P Is ) f or H el ic o b ac t e r py l o ri e r a di c a t ion . ( 2 ) Az i t h r o m yc i n ( a ) S pe c t r um o f a c t i vi t y. A z i t h ro m y ci n i s l es s ac t i v e t ha n e r y t h ro m yc i n a g ai n st g ra m - p os i ti v e c oc c i bu t m o r e ac t i v e a ga in s t H. in f lu e n za e a n d o th e r g r a m - n eg a ti v e o rg a ni s m s . A z i th r om yc in c o nc en t ra t es wi t h in c e ll s , a nd t i ss ue le v e ls a re hi g he r th a n s e ru m l e v el s. ( b ) T he r a pe u t ic u se s . Th i s a ge n t is us e fu l i n n on g o no c o c c al u re t hr i ti s c a us ed b y c h la m y di a , l owe r r e s p ir a to r y t r ac t i n fec t io ns , ( MA C ) i n f ec ti o n an d p r o ph y l a xi s , ph a r y ng i ti s , p e l v ic i n fl am m a t o r y d is ea s e, an d l e gi o nn ai r es ' d i se as e . A z i t h ro m y c i n i s a l s o in di c a t e d f o r p ed ia t ri c u s e . ( 3 ) D i r i t h ro m yc i n i s in d ic a te d fo r th e t r e at m e n t of a cu t e e xa c e r ba t io ns of c h r on ic br o nc hi t is , p h ar y n g i ti s a nd to ns i ll i ti s ca u s e d b y S tr e pt oc o c c us p y og e ne s , an d u nc o m p lic a te d s ki n a n d s k in st r uc t u r e i n fe c t i on s c au se d by S . a u re us . F . P e ni c il l i ns 1 . N a tu r a l p e n ic i ll i n s. As wi t h c e ph a lo s p o ri ns and a ll ot h er p en ic il li n s, n a t u ra l p en ic i ll in s a r e β -l a c t am an t ib i ot ic s . A m o ng t he m o st im po r t an t a n t ib io t ic s , na t u ra l p e ni c i l li ns a re th e p r e fe r r ed dr u g s i n t he t re a tm en t of m a n y i n fe c ti ou s d is e as es . a . Ava i l a b l e a g en t s ( 1 ) P en i c il l i n G s o d iu m a n d p o ta s s iu m s al ts c a n b e ad m i ni s te r ed o ra l l y, i n t ra ve n ou s l y , o r i n t ra m us c u l a rl y. P.929
( 2 ) P en i c il l i n V ( P en - V ee K ) , a s o l ub le d ru g f o rm , i s a dm in is t er e d o r al l y. ( 3 ) P en i c il l i n G p r o ca i ne a nd pe n i ci l l in G be n z a t h i ne a re r ep os i to r y d ru g f o r m s . Ad m i ni s te r ed in t ra m us c u la r l y , th es e i ns olu b l e s a l ts a l lo w s l o w d r ug a b so r p ti on f ro m t h e i nj ec t i o n s i t e a nd t hu s h a v e a l o ng e r d u ra t io n o f a c ti on ( 1 2 - 24 h r) . b . M e c ha n is m o f ac t i o n. P e ni c i ll i ns a r e b a c te r i ci d a l ; t h e y i n hi bi t ba c t e ria l c e ll wa l l s y n th e s i s in a m a nn e r s im il a r t o t h at of t h e c ep ha l os po r in s . c . S pe c t r um o f a c ti vi t y
( 1 ) N a tu r al pe n ic il li ns a re h ig hl y a c t i v e a g ai ns t gr a m -p o si ti ve c o c c i a nd a g ai n st s om e gr am - n eg at i v e c o c c i. ( 2 ) P en ic i ll in G is 5 - 1 0 t im es m o r e a ct i ve t h an pen i c i ll i n V ag a in s t g ra m n e g at i ve o r ga n is m s a n d s om e a n ae r o bi c o rg a ni s m s . ( 3 ) B ec au s e n at u ra l p e nic i ll in s a r e r e ad il y h yd r oly ze d b y p e ni ci ll i na se s ( βl a ct am as e s ) , th e y a re ine f f ec t i v e a ga in s t S . a u r eu s a n d o th e r o r g an is m s t h a t r es is t pe ni c i l li n . d . T he r a pe u t ic u se s ( 1 ) P en ic i ll in G is th e p re f e r re d a g en t fo r al l i nf ec t io ns c a us e d b y pe n ic il li n s us c ep ti b le S . p ne u m o nia e o rg an is m s , i nc l ud in g ( a ) P ne um o ni a ( b ) A r t hr i ti s ( c ) Me n i n gi t is ( d ) P e ri t on i ti s ( e ) P e ri c a r di t is ( f ) O s t eo m y el i ti s ( g ) Ma s t o id i ti s ( 2 ) P en ic i ll in s G a nd V ar e hi g hl y e f fe c t i v e a g ai ns t ot h er s t r e pt oc oc ca l i n f ec ti o ns , s uc h as ph a r yn g i ti s , ot i ti s m ed ia , s i nus i ti s , a nd ba c t e r em i a . ( 3 ) P en ic i ll in G is th e p re f e r re d a g en t i n g o no c o c c a l i nf ec t io ns , s yp h il is , a n t h ra x, a c ti n om y c os is , g a s g an g re n e , a nd Li st e ri a in f ec ti o ns . ( 4 ) A dm in is t e re d wh e n an o r al pe ni c i l li n is n ee ded , pe n ic il li n V is m o st u s ef u l i n s k in , s o f t- t is s ue , an d m il d re sp i ra t o r y in f ec t io ns . ( 5 ) P en ic i ll in G p ro c a i ne i s e f f ec ti ve ag a in s t s y ph il i s a nd un c o m p li c at e d g o n or r h ea . ( 6 ) U se d t o tr e a t s y ph i li s i n fe c ti on s o u ts id e t h e CN S , p en ic i ll in G b e n za th i ne al s o is e f fe c ti v e a ga in s t g r ou p A β -h em o l y ti c s t re p to c o cc al i n f ec ti o ns . ( 7 ) P en ic i ll in s G a nd V m a y b e u s ed pr o ph yl ac t ic al l y t o p r e v en t s t r ep t oc oc c a l i n fe c t i on , rh e um a ti c f e ve r , a nd ne on a t al go n or r h ea o p h th al m i a . Pa t ie n ts wi th v a l v u la r he a rt di se a s e m a y r ec ei ve t he se d ru gs p r e op e r at i v e l y . ( 8 ) Th e r e is em e rg i ng r es is t an c e t o p en ic il l in G by S . p n eu m o ni a e i n so m e a r e as of th e U ni t ed S ta te s . Th e a lt e rn a ti v e t he r ap y i s van c o m yc i n . e . P r ec a u ti o n s a nd m oni t o r i n g e f f ec t s ( 1 ) H yp e r s e n s i ti vi t y r e a c t i o ns . Th es e o cc u r i n up t o 1 0% o f p at i en ts r e c ei vi ng pe n ic il li n . Ma n if e s ta t io ns ra n ge f ro m m il d r as h t o a n ap h y l a xi s . ( a ) Th e ra s h m a y b e u r tic a r ia l, v e si cu l ar , bu ll o us, s c a rl a ti n if o rm , o r m ac u lo p ap ul a r . R a r el y , th r o m b op e ni c p u rp u ra dev e l o p s . ( b ) A na p h y la xi s i s a l i fe -t h r e at e ni ng r ea c t i on th a t m os t c om m o nl y o c c u rs wi t h p a r en t e ra l a dm in is t ra t i on . Si g ns a n d s ym p t om s i nc lu d e s e ve r e h yp o t en s i o n, b ro nc h oc ons t r ic ti o n, na us e a , v o m i t in g , a b do m i n al pa in , a n d e xt r e m e we a k ne s s . ( c ) O t he r m a ni f es t at i on s o f h y pe r se ns i ti v i t y r ea c tio n s i nc lu d e f e v e r, e o si n op hi l ia , a n gi oe d em a , an d s e ru m s ick n es s .
( d ) B e fo r e p en ic i ll in t he ra p y b eg i ns , t he p at ie n t ' s h i s t o r y s h ou ld be e va l u at e d f o r r ea c ti o ns to p en ic il l in . A p os it i v e h is t o r y pl ac es th e p a ti e nt a t h e ig h te n ed r is k f or a s ubs e qu e nt r ea ct i on . In m os t c as es , s uc h p at i en ts s h ou l d r ec ei v e a s ub s t i tut e an t ib i ot ic . ( Ho we ve r , h y p e r s e ns i ti vi t y r ea ct i ons m a y oc c u r e v en in pa t ien t s wi t h a n e ga t i ve h is tor y . ) ( 2 ) O t h e r a d ve r s e e f fe ct s o f n at u r al pe ni c i l li ns in c lu d e G I di st r es s ( e .g . , n a us e a, di a r rh e a ), bo n e m a r ro w s u p pr e ss io n ( e .g. , i m p ai r ed pl a te le t a g g re g at i on , a g r an ul oc y t o s is ) , a nd su pe r i nf ec t io n. W ith hi gh - d os e t he r a p y, s e i zu re s m a y o c c u r, pa r ti c ul a rl y i n p at i en t s wi t h re n al im pa i rm e nt . f . S i g ni f i ca n t i n t e ra c t ion s ( 1 ) P r o be n ec i d i nc r ea s es bl o od le ve ls of na t u ra l p e ni ci l li ns an d m a y be g i ve n c on c u r r en t l y fo r th is pu r p os e. P.930
( 2 ) A n ti bi o ti c a nt a go n is m o c c u rs wh e n e r yt h r o m yc i n s , t e t ra c yc l i n e s , o r c h l o r am p he n ic o l i s g i v en wi t h i n 1 h r of t he ad m in i s t r a ti o n o f p en i c il l in . Th e c l in ic al s i gn i fi c a nc e o f s u c h a nt a go n is m is no t c le a r . ( 3 ) W it h p e ni c i ll in G p ro c a i ne an d be n z a th in e , p r ec a ut i on m us t be us ed in p a t ie n ts wi t h a hi s t o r y of h y p e rs e ns it i vi t y re ac t ion s to pe ni c i l li ns be ca us e p r o lo n ge d re ac t io ns m a y o c c u r . I nt r a vas cu l a r i nj ec t io n s ho u ld be a v oi d ed . P r o c ai ne h y pe r s e ns i ti v i ty i s a c o n t ra in d ic a ti on t o t h e u se of p ro ca i ne p e ni ci l li n G . ( 4 ) P a re n te r al p ro d uc ts c o n t ai n e i th e r p o ta s s iu m (1 . 7 m E q /m i l li on u ni ts ) or s o di um ( 2 m Eq /m i ll io n un i ts ) . 2 . P en i c il l i na se - r e s is t an t p en i c il l i ns . Th es e p en i c i ll i ns a r e n o t h y d r ol y z e d b y s t ap h y l oc oc c a l p en ic ill i na s e s ( β -l ac t am as es ) . Th e s e a g en t s in cl u de m e t h ic i l li n , n a fc i l li n , an d th e is o xa z o l yl p e n i c il l i n s —c l ox a ci l l in , d i c l ox a ci l l in ( D yn a p e n ) , a nd o xa c il l i n. a . M e c ha n is m o f ac t i on ( s ee I I. E . 1. b ) b . S p ec t r u m o f a c t i vi t y. B e c a us e th es e p e ni c i ll ins r es is t p e ni c i ll in a s e s , t h e y a re ac ti v e a ga in s t s t a p h y lo c o cc i t h at p ro du c e t he s e en z ym e s . c . T he r a pe u t ic us e s ( 1 ) P en ic i ll in as e - re s i s ta nt p en ic i ll in s a r e u s e d s ole l y i n s ta ph yl oc o c c al i n f ec ti o ns re s u l ti n g f r om o r g an is m s th a t r es is t na tu r a l p en ic i ll in s . ( 2 ) Th e s e ag e nt s a r e l es s po t en t th a n n at u r al pen i c i ll i ns a g ai ns t o r g an is m s s us c ep ti b le to na t u ra l p en i c i ll i ns a n d t hu s m ak e po o r s u bs ti t ut e s i n t he t r e a tm en t o f in f ec ti o ns c a u s e d b y t h es e o rg a ni s m s . ( 3 ) N a fc i l li n is e xc r e t e d b y t h e l i v e r a nd th u s m ay b e us e fu l i n t r ea t in g s t ap h yl oc oc c a l i n fe c t i ons in pa t ie n ts wi t h re n al im p ai r m e n t. ( 4 ) O x ac i l li n , c l ox a ci l l in , a nd di c l ox ac i l li n ar e m os t va lu ab l e i n l on g - te rm t h e r ap y o f s er i ou s s ta p hy l o c oc c a l i nf e ct io n s ( e .g ., e nd oc a r di t is , o s te om y e l it is ) an d i n t h e t r e at m e n t o f m in o r s ta ph y l o c o c c al in f ec ti o ns of th e s ki n a n d s of t ti s s ue s . d . P r e ca u t io n s a n d m on i t o r i ng e f fe c ts
( 1 ) A s wi t h al l p e ni c i ll i ns , t h e p en ic il l in as e - re s i s ta n t g r o up c a n c a us e h yp e r se ns i ti v i t y r ea c t i ons (s e e I I . E. 1 .e . ( 1 ) ). ( 2 ) Me t h i c i ll i n m a y c au s e n e ph r o to xi c i t y an d i n te rs t i ti al ne p hr i ti s . ( 3 ) O xa c i l li n m a y b e h e pa t o to xi c . ( 4 ) C om p le t e c ro s s - re s i s t a nc e e xi s t s a m o n g t h e p e ni ci l li na s e- r es is t an t p e ni ci l li ns . e . S i gn i f ic a n t i n te r a c ti on s . P r ob e ne c i d in c re as e s b l oo d l e ve ls o f th es e p e ni ci l li ns an d m a y be giv e n c o n c u r r en t l y f o r th a t p u r po s e . 3 . Am i n o pe n i ci l l in s . Th is pe n ic il li n g r o up in cl ud es t he s em is yn t he t ic a g e nt s a mp i c il l i n a nd am o x ic i l li n ( Am o x il ) . Bec a us e o f t h ei r wi d e r a n t ib ac t e ri al s p ec t ru m , th e s e d ru gs a re al s o k n own a s b r oa d - sp e c t ru m p e n ic i l l in s . a . M e c ha n is m o f ac t i on ( s ee I I. E . 1. b ) b . S p ec t r u m o f a c t i vi t y. A m in o pe ni c i l li ns ha v e a s p ec t ru m t h at is s im il a r to b u t b r o ad e r t ha n th a t o f t h e n a tu r a l a nd pe ni c i l li na s e -r e si st a nt pe n ic il li ns . E a s il y d es t ro y e d b y s ta ph y l o c o c c al pe n ic il li n as es , a m i no p en ic il l in s a r e i n e ff ec t i v e a ga i ns t m os t s t ap h y l oc oc c a l o r ga n is m s . A ga in s t m o s t b ac te r ia s e ns it i v e to pe ni c i l li n G , a m in o pe ni ci l li ns ar e s li gh t l y le s s ef f ec ti v e t ha n th i s a g e nt . c . T he r a pe u t ic us e s. Am i no p en ic il li n s a re us ed t o t re a t g on o c o cc al i n f ec ti o ns , u pp e r re s p i rat o r y i nf ec t io ns , un co m p l ic a te d u r i na r y t r ac t i n f ec ti o ns , a nd o ti t is m ed i a c au se d b y s us c e pt i ble o r ga ni s m s. ( 1 ) F or in f ec t io ns r es ul tin g f ro m p en ic i ll in - r es is t an t o rg a ni s m s , am p ic i l li n m a y be gi v e n i n c om b in at i o n wi t h s u lb ac t am ( U nas yn ) . ( 2 ) Am o x i ci l l in is l e s s ef f e c t i v e t h an am pi c i l li n ag a in s t sh i ge ll o s i s . ( 3 ) Am o x i ci l l in is m o re e f f ec t i v e a ga in s t S . a u r eu s , Kl eb s i e ll a , a nd B a c te r oi d es f ra gi l is i n fe c t i o ns wh e n a dm in is t e re d i n c om b in a ti on wi t h c l a vul a ni c ac i d— am o xi c il l in / po t as s i um c l a v ul a na te ( Au g m e n ti n ) b e c a us e c l a vul a ni c ac i d i na c t i v a te s p e ni ci ll i na se s . d . P r e ca u t io n s a n d m on i t o r i ng e f fe c ts ( 1 ) H yp e rs e ns it i v i t y re ac t i o ns m a y oc c u r (s ee I I. E. 1 . e .( 1 ) ) . ( 2 ) D ia r r h ea i s m os t c om m o n wi t h am pi ci l li n . ( 3 ) I n a dd i ti on t o t he u rt ic a r ia l h y p e rs en s i t i v it y r as h s ee n wi t h a ll p e ni ci l li ns , a m p ic i ll in and am o xi c i ll in f re q ue n tl y ca u s e a g en e r al i z ed e r y t h em a to us , m ac u lo p ap u la r r as h. ( Th is oc c u r s i n 5% - 10 % o f pa ti e nt s r e c ei vi ng am pi c i l li n .) e . S i gn i f ic a n t i n te r a c ti on s (s e e I I . E. 2 .e ) P.931
4 . E x te n de d - sp e ct r u m p e n ic i l l in s . Th e s e ag e nts ha v e t he wi d es t a n t ib ac t e ri al s p ec t ru m o f a l l p en ic il l in s . A ls o ca l le d an t i ps e ud o m on a l p e n ic i l l in s , t hi s g r ou p i nc l ud es th e c a r b ox yp e n i c i l l in ( e. g . , t i ca r c il l i n ) a n d t h e u r e id o pe n i ci l l ins ( e .g . , m ez l oc i l li n , p i pe r a c i ll i n ). a . M e c ha n is m o f ac t i on ( s ee I I. E . 1. b )
b . S p ec t r u m o f a c t i vi t y. Th e s e d r ug s h a ve a s p ec t r um s im il a r t o th a t o f th e a m in o pe ni c i l li ns bu t a ls o a r e e f fe c ti v e ag ai n st K le b si el l a a nd E nt e r ob ac t er s p p. , s om e B. f r ag il is o rg a ni s m s , an d i n do l e- p os it i ve P r ot e us a n d P s e ud o m o na s o r ga ni s m s . ( 1 ) T ic a r ci l l in is ac ti v e a g ai n s t P . a e ru gi n os a . Co m bi n ed wi t h c la vu l an ic a c id ( Ti m en t i n ), t ic ar c i l lin h as e n ha nc e d ac t i v i t y a g ai n s t o rg an i s m s th a t r e s is t t ic a rc il li n al on e . ( 2 ) P i pe r a ci l l in is m o re a c ti v e t ha n t ic a rc il l in aga i ns t Ps eu d o m on as o r g an is m s . ( 3 ) P i pe r a ci l l in an d t az o b a c ta m (Z o s yn ) . Ta zo b a c t am is a β - l ac ta m a s e i n hi b it o r t h at e xp a n ds the s p ec t r um of ac ti v i t y t o i n c l ud e s om e o r ga n is m s n o t s en s i t i v e t o p i pe r ac ill i n a lo n e ( i f r es is t an c e is t h e r es u lt o f β - l ac ta m a s e p r o du c ti on ) , i nc l ud i ng s t ra i ns of s t a ph y l oc oc c i , Ha e m o p hi lu s , B ac t e ro id es, a n d En t e ro ba c te r ia c e a e. G e n e ra l l y , t a z o ba c t am d o es no t e n ha nc e a c ti v i ty a g ai n st Ps e ud o m o na s . c . T he r a pe u t ic us e s. E x t e n de d -s pe c t ru m p en ic il li n s a r e us e d m a i nl y t o t r e a t s e r i ou s i nf ec t io ns c a u s e d b y g r am - ne ga t i v e o r g an is m s ( e. g ., s e ps is ; p n e um on ia ; i n f ec ti o ns o f t h e a bd om e n, bo n e , a nd s o ft ti ss u es ) . P i p e ra ci ll i n/ t a z o ba c t am is e ff ec t i v e i n t h e t r ea tm en t o f n os oc om ia l p n e um on ia . d . P r e ca u t io n s a n d m on i t o r i ng e f fe c ts ( 1 ) H yp e rs e ns it i v i t y re ac t i o ns m a y oc c u r (s ee I I. E. 1 . e .( 1 ) ) . ( 2 ) Ti c ar c i l li n m a y c au s e h y p ok a le m i a . ( 3 ) Th e hi gh s o di um c o n te n t o f ti ca r ci ll i n m a y p os e a d a ng e r t o p a ti e nt s wi t h h e a rt fa i lu r e ( H F ) . ( 4 ) A ll in hi b it pl a te l et agg r e ga t io n , wh ic h m a y res u lt in bl e ed in g . e . S i gn i f ic a n t i n te r a c ti on s (s e e I I . E. 2 .e ) G . S u l f o na m id e s. D e ri v a t i v es o f s u l fa n il am id e , th e s e ag e nt s we r e t h e f i rs t d r u gs to p re v e n t a nd c u re h um an ba c te r ia l i n fe ct io n s uc c ess f ul l y . Al t ho u gh t h e ir cu r r en t u s ef u ln es s is li m i t ed b y th e i n t ro du c ti o n o f m o re ef f ec t i v e a n t ib io t ic s a nd th e e m e rg e nc e o f re s i s ta n t b ac te ri a l s t ra in s , s u l fo n am id es r e m ai n t h e d ru g s o f c h o ic e fo r c e r ta in in f ec t io ns . Th e m aj o r su l fo n am id es a r e su l f ad i az i ne , s u l fam e t h ox az o le , su l f is o xaz o l e, an d s u l fa m et h iz o le . 1 . M e c ha n is m o f ac t i on. S u lf o na m i d es a r e b a c te r i o s ta t i c ; t he y s up p re s s b a ct e r ia l g r o wt h b y t r i gge r i ng a m ec ha ni sm th a t b l oc k s fo li c a c i d s y n th e si s , t h e r eb y f o rc in g b ac t e ri a t o s y nt h es i ze t he i r o wn f o l ic ac id . 2 . S pe c t r um o f a c ti vi t y. S u l fo n am id es a re br o ad- s p ec t ru m a ge n ts wi t h a c ti vi t y a ga in s t m a n y g ram - p os it i ve o r ga n is m s (e .g . , S . py o ge n es , S . p n e u m on ia e ) a n d c e r t ai n g r am - ne g at i v e or g an is m s ( e. g . , H . in f lu en za e , E . c o li , P. m i r ab il is ) . Th e y a l s o a re ef f ec ti ve a ga in s t c er t ai n s t r ai ns of C h l a m yd i a t r ac ho m a t is , N o c a rd i a, Ac t in o m y c es , a n d Ba c i ll us an t h ra ci s . 3 . T he r a pe u t ic us e s a . S ul f on am i de s m o s t o fte n a re us ed to t re a t u r ina r y t r ac t i n f ec ti o ns c au se d b y E . co li , in c l ud i ng ac u te a nd c h r on ic c y s t it is , an d c h r on ic up p er u ri n ar y t r a ct in f ec t io ns .
b . Th e se ag e nt s h a v e v al u e i n t h e t r ea tm e nt o f no c a rd io s i s , t r ac ho m a and i n cl us io n c o nj un c ti v i ti s , a n d d e rm a ti t is h e rp e ti f o rm is . c . S u lf a d ia z i n e m a y b e a d m i ni s te r ed in co m b in at i o n wi t h p yr im et h am in e t o t r e a t t o xo p l as m o s i s . d . S u l fa me t h ox az o l e m a y b e g i v e n i n c o m bi na t io n wi t h tr im e th o p ri m ( B a c t r i m ) t o t r ea t s uc h in f ec t io ns as P ne u m oc y s ti s c a ri ni i p n eu m o n ia , S h i ge l la en t e ri ti s , S e r ra ti a s e ps is , u r in a r y t ra c t inf e c ti on s , r es pi r a to r y i n f ec ti o ns , a nd go n oc oc c a l ur e t hr i ti s ( s e e II . J . 7 .c ). I t i s t h e d ru g o f c h oi c e i n th e t r e at m e n t o f St e not r o p ho m o na s m al t op hi l ia. e . S u lf i s ox az o le is s om e t im es us ed in c o m b i na tio n wi t h e r y t h r om yc in e t h y ls uc c i n a te to t re a t ac u te o ti ti s m ed i a c a us e d b y H . i nf l ue n za e o r g an is m s . F o r th e i ni t ia l t r e at m e n t o f u nc om p li c at e d u r i na r y t ra c t i n f ec ti o ns , s ul f is o xa z o l e m a y be gi ve n i n c om b in at i o n wi t h ph e na zo p y r i di ne f o r r el ie f of s y m p to m s o f p a in , b u r ni ng , or u rg e nc y . f . P r o ph y l ac t ic s ul f on am id e th e r ap y h as b e en us ed s u c c es s fu ll y t o p r e ven t s t r ep t oc oc c a l i n fe c t i on s a n d rh eu m a t ic fe ve r r ec ur r e nc e s. 4 . P r ec a u ti o n s a nd m oni t o r i n g e f f ec t s a . S ul f on am i de s m a y c au s e b lo o d d y s c r as ia s ( e .g . , he m o l yt ic a n em ia — p a r ti c ul a rl y i n p at i en ts wi t h G 6 P D d ef ic i en c y, a pla s ti c a ne m i a , t h r om b oc y t op e ni a , a g ra nu l oc y t os is , an d e os i no phi l ia ) . P.932
b . H yp e rs e ns it i v i t y re ac t io n s t o s ul f on am id e s p rob a bl y r e su l t f r om s e ns it i z a ti o n a nd m o s t c o m m o nl y i n v ol ve th e s k in a nd m uc o us m em b r an es . Ma n i f e s ta t io ns in c l u de va r i ou s t yp es o f s k in r as h, e xf o l i at i v e de rm a ti t is , an d p h o to se ns i ti v i t y . D r ug fev e r a n d se r um s i c k ne s s a l s o m a y de ve l op . c . C r ys ta l lu r ia an d h em at u r ia m a y o cc ur , po ss ib l y l e ad in g to u ri na r y t r ac t o b st r uc t io n . ( A d eq ua t e f lu i d i n ta k e an d u r in e a lk al i ni z a t io n c an p re ve n t o r m i ni m i ze th is r is k . ) Su l fon a m i d es s ho u ld be us ed c a ut i ou sl y i n p at i en ts wi t h r e n al im pa i rm e nt . d . Li f e -t h r ea t en i ng he pa ti t is c a us ed b y d ru g t o xi c it y o r s e ns i ti z a t io n i s a r a r e a d v e rs e e f f ec t . S ig ns an d s ym pt om s i nc lu d e h e a da c h e , n au s e a , vo m i ti n g, an d j a un di c e. e . A I D S p a ti en t s h a v e i nc r e as ed f re q ue nc y o f c uta n e ou s h y p e rs en s i t i v it y r e a ct i on s t o s ul f am et h o xa z o l e . 5 . S i gn i f ic a n t i n te r a c ti on s . Su l fo n am id es m a y po t e nt i at e th e e f fe ct s o f p h e n yt o i n , o r a l an t i co ag u l a nt s , a n d s ul f o n yl u r e a s . H . T e t r ac yc l i n e s . Th e s e b r o ad -s p ec t ru m a g en ts a r e ef f ec ti ve a ga in s t c e r ta i n b ac te r ia l s t r ai ns t h a t r es is t ot h e r a nt i bi ot ic s . N o ne t he l es s , th e y a re t h e p r e fe r r ed d ru gs in onl y a f e w s i t ua t io ns . Th e m a jo r te t r ac yc l i ne s i nc lud e d e m ec l oc yc l i n e ( D ec l om yc i n ) , d o x yc yc l i n e ( V i b r a m yc i n ) , m i n o c yc l i n e ( M i n oc i n ), an d c h l o r te t ra c yc l i n e . 1 . M e c ha n is m o f ac t i on. Te t r a c yc l in es a re ba c te r i o s ta t i c ; t he y i nh i bi t b a ct e r ia l p r ot e in s y n t h es i s b y b in d in g t o th e 3 0 S r i b os om al s u bu n it .
2 . S pe c t r um o f a c ti vi t y. Te t r a c yc l in e s a re ac t i v e a g ai ns t g r am - n eg a ti v e a n d g r am - po s i t i v e o r ga n is m s , s pi r oc h et es , My c opl a s m a a nd C hl a m yd i a o r g an is m s , ri c k et t s i al s pe c ie s , an d c e r ta in p ro t o zo a . a . P se ud o m o na s a nd P r ot e us o rg a ni sm s a re no w r e s is ta n t t o t e t ra c yc l in es. Ma n y c o l i fo r m b ac t er i a, p n e um oc occ i , s ta p h y lo co c c i , s t re p to co c c i , a nd S h i ge l la s t r ai ns a re in c re a s i n gl y r es is t an t . b . C r os s -r e s i s t a nc e wi t h in t he t et r ac y c li n e g ro u p is e xt e n si ve . 3 . T he r a pe u t ic us e s a . Te t r ac y c li ne s a r e t h e a g e nt s o f c ho ic e i n ri c k et t s ia l ( R o c k y Mo u n t ai n s p ot t ed f e v e r) , c h la m y dia l , a n d m yc o pl a s m al i n fec t i o ns ; am eb ia si s ; a nd b a ci ll a r y in f ec ti o ns (e . g ., c ho l e ra , b r uc el l os is , t u la r e m i a , so m e S al m o n el la a n d Sh ig e ll a i n fe c t i on s ). b . Te t r ac y c li n es a r e u s e fu l al t er n at i v e s t o p en ic il li n in th e t r e at m e n t o f a n t h ra x, s y p h il is , go no r rh e a , L y m e di s ea s e , n oc ar d i os is , a n d H . i n fl u en za e r e s pi r at o r y in f ec ti o ns . c . O r a l o r t o pi c a l t e t ra c yc l in e m a y b e a dm i ni st e r ed as a t r ea t m e n t f o r a c ne . d . D o x yc yc l i n e i s h ig h l y e f f ec ti ve in th e p r o ph yl axi s o f “ t ra v e l e r 's di a r rh ea ” ( c om m o n l y c au s e d b y E. c ol i ) . B ec a us e t he d ru g i s e xc r e t e d m ai nl y i n t h e f e ce s , i t is t he s a fe s t t e tr a c y c l i ne fo r th e tr e at m en t o f e xt r a r e na l i n fe c ti ons i n pa t ie n ts wi t h r e na l i m p a i rm en t . e . D em e cl o c yc l i n e i s u s e d c om m o n l y as a n a d jun c ti ve ag e nt t o t r ea t th e s yn d r o m e o f in a p p ro p r ia t e an t i di u r e t ic ho r m o ne ( S I AD H ) s ec r e ti on . 4 . P r ec a u ti o n s a nd m oni t o r i n g e f f ec t s a . G I di s t r es s ( e .g . , d ia r rh e a , a bd om i na l d is co m f or t , na us e a, a no r e xi a ) is a c om m o n a d v e rs e ef f ec t o f t et r ac yc li ne s . Th i s p r ob l em c a n b e m i n im i z ed by a d m i ni s te r in g th e d r ug wi t h f o od o r t em po r a ri l y de c r ea si ng t he do sa g e. b . S ki n r a s h , u r t ic ar i a, an d ge n er a li ze d e xf o l i a ti v e d e rm at i ti s s i g ni f y a h yp e r se ns i ti v i t y r ea c t i on. R a r el y, a ng io e de m a and a na p h y la xi s oc cu r . c . C r os s - s en s i t i v it y wi t h in t he t et r ac y c li n e g ro u p is co m m on . d . P ho t o to xi c r e ac ti o ns (s e v e r e s k in le si o ns ) c an d e v e l op wi t h e xp o s u r e t o s u nl ig h t . Th i s r e ac ti o n is m os t c om m o n wi t h d em e c lo c y cl in e a n d d o xyc y c l i n e . e . Te t r ac y c li ne s m a y c a us e h e pa t ot o xi c i t y, p a r ti c u l a rl y i n p r eg n an t wo m en . Ma n i f e s ta t io ns in c l u de jau n di c e, ac id os is , a n d f a tt y l i v e r i n fi l t ra t io n . f . R e na l l y i m p a ir e d p at i en t s m a y e xp e r i e nc e a s i gn i f i c an t i nc r e as e i n B U N s ec o nd a r y to c a t ab ol ic ef f e c t s o f t e t ra c y cl in es . g . Te t r ac y c li n es m a y in du c e p e rm an e nt to o th di s c o lo r a ti on , to o th en am e l d e f ec ts , a n d r e ta r de d b on e g ro wt h i n i nf a nt s a nd c h il d re n . h . U se o f o ut d at e d a nd de g r ad e d t e tr a c yc l in es c an l ea d t o re n al tu b ul a r d ys f un c ti o n, po s s ib l y r es u l t in g i n r e na l f a il u re . i . Mi n o c y c l i ne c a n c a us e v e s t ib ul a r t o xi c i t y ( e. g ., a t a xi a , di zz i n es s, na us ea , vo m i ti n g ). j . I V t e t ra c y c l in es a re i r ri t a ti n g a nd m a y c a us e ph l eb i ti s . P.933
5 . S i gn i f ic a n t i n te r a c ti on s a . D a i r y p r o d u c t s an d ot h e r f o od s , i r o n p r e pa r at i o n s , a nd an t ac i d s a nd l a x a ti ve s c o nt a in in g a l um i nu m , ca lc iu m , o r m ag ne s iu m ca n c a u s e r e du ced t e t r ac yc li ne ab s o r p ti o n. A b s o rp ti o n o f d o xy c y c l i ne is no t i n hi b it e d b y t he se f a c to r s. b . M e t h ox yf l u r a n e m a y e xa c e r b a te th e te t ra c y c l in e s ' n e ph r ot o xi c e ff ec t s. c . B a r bi t u r a te s a n d p hen yt o i n d e c re as e th e a n tib i o ti c e ff e ct i v e ne ss o f t e t r ac yc li ne s . d . D em ec l oc y c l i ne an t ago n i z es th e a c ti on o f a n tid i u r e t ic ho r m o ne ( AD H ) a n d m a y b e gi v e n a s a di u r et ic in pa t ie n ts wi t h S IA D H . I . F lu o r o q ui n o lo n es a re a g en ts r el a te d t o na li d i xi c a c i d —s e e I I .I . 1 .c ; I I . 2 .c . (1 ) ; II . 4. c .( 1 ) — an d i nc l ud e c i p r of l o xa c in (C i p r o ) , e n o xa c in ( P e n e t re x ) , l o me f l ox a cin ( M a x aq u i n ), n o r fl o xac i n ( N o ro x i n) , o fl o xa c in ( F l o x in ) , m o xi f l ox a ci n (A ve l o x ) , le vo f l o xa c in (L e va q u i n) , an d g e m i fl o xa c in ( F ac t i ve ) . Th e y a r e ba c te r ic id al f o r g r o wi n g b ac t e ri a . 1 . M e c ha n is m o f ac t i on. F lu o r oq ui n ol o ne s i nh ib it D N A g yr as e . 2 . S pe c t r um o f a c ti vi t y. F l uo r oq u in o lo ne s a r e h ig h l y ac ti ve ag a in s t e nt e ri c g r a m - n eg a ti v e ba c i l li , Sal m o n el l a, S hi g el la , C a mpy l ob ac t e r, H ae m o p hi l us , a n d Ne is s e r i a. a . C i p r of l o xa c in ha s a c ti v i t y a ga i ns t P . ae r ug i nos a , b u t t he f l u or o qu i no lo n es as a g ro u p h a ve v a ri a bl e a c t i v i ty a g a in s t no n - P . a e r ug i no s a . Ci p r of l o xa c in is ac t i v e a ga in s t s o m e a n a er o be s; i t h as m o de r a te ac ti v i t y a ga in s t M. t u b e rc u lo s i s. b . G r am - p os it i v e o r g an is m s a r e l es s s u sc ep t ib l e th a n g r am - ne g at i v e o r g an is m s bu t u s u a ll y a re s e ns i ti v e , e xc e pt f or En t e r oc oc c us f ae c a li s a n d m e th ic i ll in - r es is t an t s t aph y l o c o cc i. c . O f l ox a ci n ha s t he g rea t es t ac ti vi t y a ga in s t C h la m y d ia . 3 . T he r a pe u t ic us e s ( Ta b l e 4 4 -3 ) a . N o r fl o xa c in is i n di c a t ed f o r t he o ra l t r e at m e n t o f u ri n ar y t r ac t i n fe c ti ons , u n co m p l ic at e d g on oc oc c a l in f ec ti o ns , a nd p ro s ta ti t i s . b . C i pr o fl o xa c i n, o fl o xa c in , an d l e v o fl o xa c i n a r e ava i l ab l e o r al l y an d i n t ra ve n ou s l y . C i p ro f lo xa c i n is ap p r o v ed fo r us e in u ri n a r y tr a ct in f ec ti o ns ; l o we r r e s p i ra t o r y i n fe c t i on s ; s in us i ti s; bo n e, jo i nt , a n d s k in s t r uc t u re i n f ec ti o ns ; e m p i ri c us e in f eb r il e n e u tr o pe n ic p a ti e n ts ; t y p h oi d f e ve r ; u r e t hr a l a nd c e r v ic a l g ono c oc c a l i nf e c t io n s ; an d in f ec t io us di a r rh e a. O f l o xa c i n i s a pp r o v e d f or u s e in lo we r r e sp i ra t o ry i n f ec t io ns , u nc om p li c a te d g o n oc oc c a l a nd c h la m y di a l c er v i c i t is an d u r e th r it is , s k i n a n d sk in s t r uc t u re i n f ec ti o ns , p r os t at i ti s , and u ri n a r y tr a c t in f ec ti o ns . c . Lo m e f lo xa c i n , l e v o fl o xa c in , a n d e no xa c i n a r e ap p r o v ed f o r t he t re a tm ent o f u ri n ar y t r ac t i n fe c ti ons . Lo m e f lo xa c i n , m o xi f l oxa c i n , an d l e v o fl o xa c i n ar e a l so us ed in lo we r r e s p i ra t o r y in f ec ti o ns . d . Mo xi f l o xa c i n i s a pp r o ve d fo r th e tr e a tm en t o f co m pl ic a te d i n t ra a b d om in al in f ec ti o ns bu t s ho u ld no t b e u s ed fo r u r i na r y t r ac t i n fe ct i on s .
4 . P r ec a u ti o n s a nd m oni t o r i n g e f f ec t s a . O cc as i on al ad v e r s e e ff e c ts i nc l ud e n au s ea , d y s p ep s i a , h ea d ac he , d i zzi n es s , in s om ni a , c a rd i ac Q T p r o lo ng a ti o n, a rth r o pa t h y, t e nd o ni t is , C NS e f f ec ts , ph o to s e ns i ti v i t y , a n d h y p og l y ce m i a .
Table 44-3. Quinolone Agents Classified by Generation Agent Firstgeneration
Cinoxacin (Cinoxacin, Cinobac)
Spectrum of Coverage
Site of Infection
Gram negatives
Urinary tract
Gram negatives
Urinary tract
Enoxacin (Penetrex) Nalidixic acid (NegGram) Norfloxacin (Noroxin) Secondgeneration
Thirdgeneration
Lomefloxacin (Maxaquin) Ciprofloxacin (Cipro)
Systemic, urinary tract
Ofloxacin (Floxin)
Systemic, urinary tract
Levofloxacin (Levaquin)
Gram negatives
Systemic, urinary tract
Moxifloxacin (Avelox)
Atypicals
Systemic only
P.934
b . I nf r e qu en t ad v e r s e ef fe c ts in cl ud e ra sh , ur t ic a ri a , l e uk op e ni a, a nd e l e v a te d l i v e r e n z y m es . C r y s t a ll u ri a o cc u rs wi t h h i gh do s es a t a lk a li n e pH .
c . Th e F D A h as a d de d a b l ac k b o x wa r n i n g a b ou t t h e i nc r e as ed ri sk of d e ve l op in g te nd i ni t is a nd t en d on r up t ur e i n p a ti en t s t ak i ng th is cl as s o f m e di ca t io ns . 5 . S i gn i f ic a n t i n te r a c ti on s a . C ip r o fl o xa c i n h as b e en s h o wn t o i nc r ea s e t h eo p h yl l i n e le ve ls . V ar i ab le e f f ec ts on t he op h y l li ne le v e l s h a v e b ee n re p or t ed f r om o t he r m e m b e rs of t h e g r o up . I n p a ti e nt s req u i ri n g f lu o ro q ui n ol on es , t h eo p h y ll in e l e ve ls s h oul d b e m o ni t o re d . b . An t a c i ds an d s u c ra l fa t e an d d i v al e nt o r t r i v ale n t c a ti on s s uc h a s i ro n s i gn i fi ca n tl y d ec r ea s e the a bs o rp t io n o f f l uo r oq u in o lo n es . c . Fl u o ro q ui no l on es m a y i nc r e as e p r ot h ro m b i n t im es in pa t ie n ts re c ei vi ng w a r f a ri n . d . C o nc u rr e nt us e wi t h no n s t e ro i d al an t i - in f l amm a t o r y d r u g s ( N S A I D s ) m a y in c re as e th e r is k o f C N S s t im ul a ti on ( s e i z u res ) . e . Fl u o ro q ui no l on es m a y p r o du c e p ro lo n ge d Q T in t e r v a l wh e n ad m i ni s te re d wi t h c i sa p r i de an d a n t iar r h yt h m i c a g e n ts . So m e f l uo r o qu in o lo ne s (i . e. , g a t if l o xa c in , m o xi f l o xa c in ) s h o ul d b e a vo id e d i n p a t ie n ts wi t h k no wn p r o lo n ga t io n o f th e Q TC i n t er v a l , wi t h u nc o r re ct ed h y p oc al c e m i a , o r wh o a r e re ce i v i ng c l as s I A o r c la s s II I an t ia r r h y th m i c d r u gs . f . S om e fl uo r o qu in o lo nes ha v e b ee n r e po r t ed to e n h an c e th e e f f ec ts o f or a l a n t ic oa g ul an t s . g . H yp e r gl y c em ia an d h y p o gl y c em i a h a v e b ee n rep o r t ed in pa t ie n ts r e c ei vi ng qu i no lo n es an d a n a n ti d ia be t ic ag e nt . Bl o od gl uc o s e m o ni t or i ng i s r e c om m e nd e d in s u c h pat i e nt s . h . D i da no s i n e s ho ul d b e a d m i ni s te r ed a t l ea st 4 hr a f te r ga t if l o xa c in . J . U r i na r y t r a c t a n t i se pt i c s . C o nc en t r at i ng in the r e na l t u bu le s a nd b l ad d e r, t he s e ag en t s e xe r t lo c a l a n ti b ac te r ia l e f fe c ts ; m os t d o n o t a c h ie v e b l oo d l e v e ls hi gh en o ug h t o t re a t s ys t em ic in f ec tio n s. H o we v e r , so m e ne w q u in o lo n e d er i v a ti v e s , s uc h a s c ip r o fl o xa c in an d of l o xa c i n, a re va lu a bl e i n t h e tr e at m e n t o f c e rt a in in f ec t io ns ou t si de t he u rin a r y t r ac t ( s e e II . H . 3. b ) . 1 . M e c ha n is m o f ac t i on a . M e t he n am i n e is h y d ro l y z e d to am m o ni a an d fo r m al de h yd e i n ac i di c u r i ne ; fo r m a ld e h y de is an t i ba c t e r ia l a ga i ns t g r am - p o si ti ve a nd gr a m n e g at i ve o r ga n is m s . Ma n d e li c a nd hi p pu r ic ac id s , wi t h wh i c h m et h en am i ne i s c om bi n ed , p r o v i de s u pp l em e nt a r y an t ib ac t e ri al a c ti o n. b . N i t r o fu r a n t oi n i s b a ct e r i o s ta t i c ; in hi g h co n c e n t r at i on s, it m a y b e b a c t e ri c i da l . P r es um a bly , i t di s ru p ts b ac t e ri a l e nz ym e s y s te m s . c . Q u i no l o ne s . N a l id i xic a ci d an d i ts an a lo gs an d de r i v a ti v e s —o x ol i n ic a c i d , n o r fl o xa c i n, c in ox a c in , ci p r o f lo x ac i n, and o th e rs — in t e r fe r e wi t h D N A g yr a s e a nd i n hi b it D N A s y n t he si s d u ri n g b ac t e ri al r ep l ic at i on . d . F os f o m yc i n t r o m e t ha m i ne is ba c t e ri ci d al in th e u ri ne a t t he r ap e ut ic d o se s. Th e ba c t e r ic id al a c ti o n is be c a u se of it s in a c t i v a ti o n o f t h e e n zy m e e n ol p yr u v y l t r an s f e ra s e, t h e r eb y b lo ck in g t h e c o nd e ns a ti o n o f u r id in e d i ph o sp ha t e - N -a c e t y l gl uc os a m i ne wi t h p- e no l p y ru v a t e , o ne o f t he fi r s t ste p s i n ba ct e r ia l c el l wa l l s y nth e s i s .
2 . S pe c t r um o f a c ti vi t y a . M e t he n am i n e is ac ti v e a ga in s t b ot h g r am - p os it i ve an d g r am - n eg a ti v e o r g an is m s ( e. g ., E n te r oba c te r , Kl e bs ie ll a , Pr o te us , P . a e ru gi n os a, S . a u r eu s ). b . N i t r o fu r a n t oi n i s a c t iv e a g ai ns t m a n y g r am - po s it i ve a n d g r am - ne ga t i ve o r g an is m s , i nc l ud in g s om e s t ra i ns of E . c ol i, S . a u r eu s , P r o te us , E n t e ro b ac t er , an d Kl eb s ie l la . c . Q u i no l o ne s ( s ee II . H ) ( 1 ) N a li d i xi c a c id an d ox o l i ni c a c i d a re ac t i v e ag a in s t m o s t g r am -n e ga t iv e o r g an is m s th a t c au s e u rin a r y t r ac t i n fe c t i on s , in c lu d in g P . m i r ab i li s , E . c oli , K l e bs ie l la , a n d E n te r ob ac t e r o r ga ni sm s . Th e se d ru g s a r e n ot e ff ec t i ve a g ai n st Ps e ud o m o na s o rg a ni s m s . ( 2 ) N o r f lo x ac i n i s ac t i v e a g ai ns t E. co li , E nt e ro ba c te r , Kl e bs ie ll a , Pr o te us , P . a e ru gi n os a , S . a u r eu s , C i t ro b ac t er , an d s om e S t r e p to c o cc us or g an is m s . ( 3 ) C i no x ac i n i s ac t i v e ag a in s t E . c ol i , Kl eb si e ll a , P . m i r ab i li s, P ro t e us v u lg a ri s , P r o te us m o r gan i i , S e r ra t ia , a n d C i t ro b ac t e r o r ga ni sm s . 3 . T he r a pe u t ic us e s a . M e t he n am i n e a nd ni tr o f u r a n t oi n a r e u s e d to p r e v e n t a nd t re a t u r in a r y t r a ct in f ec t io ns . P.935
b . Q u i no l o ne s a r e a dm in i s t e r ed to t re a t u r in a r y t r a ct in f ec t io ns ; s om e a ls o a r e us ed in s uc h d is e as es as os te om ye l it is an d res p i ra t or y t r ac t i n fe c ti on s. c . F os f om yc i n i s i n di c a te d fo r t re a tm en t of un com p li c a t ed u ri na r y t r ac t i n f ec ti o n ( ac u te c ys t it is ) i n wo m en ca us ed b y s u s c e pt i bl e s t ra i ns o f E . co l i o r E . f a ec al is . 4 . P r ec a u ti o n s a nd m oni t o r i n g e f f ec t s a . M e t he n am i n e m a y c au s e n au s e a , vom it i ng , an d di a r rh e a; in hi g h d os e s , i t m a y l ea d t o u r in a r y t rac t ir r i ta t io n (e . g. , d y s u ri a, f r eq u en c y, h em a tu r ia , a l bu m i n u ri a ). S k i n r a s h a l s o m a y de v e l op . b . N i t r o fu r a n t oi n m a y c a u s e v a r io us ad ve r s e ef fe c ts . ( 1 ) G I di s t r es s ( e .g . , n a us e a, v o m i t in g , d ia r r he a ) i s re la t i vel y c om m o n . ( 2 ) H yp e rs e ns it i v i t y re ac t i o ns to ni t ro f u ra n to i n m a y i n v o l v e t he s k in , l u ngs , b l oo d , o r l i v e r ; m an i fe s t at i o ns i nc l ud e f e v e r , c hi l ls , he pa t i ti s, ja u nd ic e , l e uk o pe ni a , h em ol y t i c a ne m ia , g r a nu lo c yt op e ni a, a n d p n eu m o ni t is . ( 3 ) A d ve rs e C N S e f fe c t s i n c l ud e h e ad ac h e, v e r ti go , an d d i zz i n es s. P o l yn eu r o pa t h y m a y de v e l op wi t h hi g h d os es o r in p a t i en ts wi t h r en al i m pa i rm en t . c . Q u i no l o ne s ( 1 ) N a li d i xi c a c id an d ox o l i ni c a c i d m a y c au s e n a us e a, v o m i ti n g, a b d om in al pa i n, u rt ic a ri a, p r u ri t us , sk i n r as h , f e ve r , eo s i n op hi l ia , a n d C N S e f f ec ts , s uc h a s h ea d ac he , di z z i n es s , c o n fu s i o n, v e r t i g o, d ro ws i n es s , an d we a k n es s .
( 2 ) C i no x ac i n m a y i n du c e n au s e a , v o m it in g , d ia r rh e a , h ea d ac he , i ns om n ia, s ki n ra s h , pr u r it us , a n d u r t ic a ri a . 5 . S i gn i f ic a n t i n te r a c ti on s a . Th e ef f ec ts of m e t he na m in e a r e i nh i bi t ed b y a lk a l i ni z i n g a g en t s a n d ar e a n t ag o ni z e d b y a ce t az o la m i de . b . N i t ro f ur a nt o in ab s o r p ti o n i s d ec r ea se d b y m agn e s iu m - co n t ai n i ng a n t a ci d s. N i tr o fu r a nt o in b l oo d l e v e ls ar e i nc r e as e d an d u r in e l e v e ls d e c re as e d b y su l f i np yr a z o n e a nd p ro b e ne c id , le a di n g t o i nc r ea s e d to xi c i t y a n d re du c e d th e ra p eu t ic e f f ec t i v en es s . c . Q u i no l o ne s ( 1 ) C in o xa c i n u r in e l e v e ls a re de c re as e d b y p r obe n e ci d , re du c i n g t h e r ap eu t ic ef f ec ti v e n es s . ( 2 ) N o r fl o xa c in is re n de re d le s s e f f ec ti v e b y an t ac i d s . K . M is c el l a ne o us an t i ba c t e r ia l a g e nt s 1 . Az t r e o na m ( Az ac t a m) . Th i s a ge n t wa s t he f ir s t c om m e rc i al l y a v a i la b le m o no b ac ta m ( m o n oc y c lic β - la c ta m co m p o un d ) . I t r e se m b l es th e a m in o gl y c os id es in it s e ff i c a c y ag ai n st m a n y g r am - n eg a ti v e or g an is m s bu t d o es no t c a us e n ep h ro t oxi c i t y o r o to t o xi c it y . O t he r a d van t ag es of t hi s d rug i n cl ud e i t s a bi li t y t o p r es e r v e t he bo d y ' s n o rm a l gr a m -p o si ti ve an d a n a er o bi c f lo r a , ac t i v i t y a g ai n s t m a n y ge n ta m i c i n- r e si s ta n t o r ga ni s m s, and l a ck o f c r os s -a ll e r ge ni c i ty wi t h p e ni c i l li n . a . M e c ha n is m o f ac t i on. A z t r e on am is ba c te r i c id a l ; i t i n hi b it s b ac t er i al c e ll wa l l s y n th e s i s . b . S p ec t r u m o f a c t i vi t y. Th i s dr u g is ac t i v e a ga in s t m an y g r am -n e ga t i ve o r g an is m s , i nc l ud in g En te r o ba c te r an d P . ae r ug i no s a. c . T he r a pe u t ic us e s. A z t r e o na m is th e r ap e ut ic for u r in a r y t ra c t i nf ec t io ns , s e pt ic em i a, s k in in f ec ti on s , l o we r r es pi r a to r y t r ac t in f ec ti o ns , a nd in t r a a b d om in al in f ec ti o ns re s u l t in g f r om g ra m - n eg a ti v e o r ga ni s m s. I nc re a s e d i n ci de n c e of P . a e ru g in os a re s i s ta n t t o a zt r eo n am ha v e be e n r e po r t ed . d . P r e ca u t io n s a n d m on i t o r i ng e f fe c ts ( 1 ) A zt r eo n am s om e ti m es c a us es na us e a, v o m i t in g , a n d d ia r r he a . ( 2 ) Li ve r en z y m e s m a y in c r ea s e t ra ns i en t l y d u ri ng a zt r eo n am th e ra p y. ( 3 ) Th i s d ru g m a y in d uc e s k i n r a sh . 2 . C h lo r a m ph e ni c o l. A n i t ro b en z e n e d e ri v a t i ve, t h is d ru g h as b ro a d ac t i vi t y a g ai n st r ic k e tt s i a as we l l a s m an y g r am -p o si ti ve a n d g r am - ne g at i v e o r g an is m s . It al s o is e f f ec t i v e a ga i ns t m an y am p ic i ll in - r es is t an t s t ra i ns o f H . i n f lu en za e . a . M e c ha n is m o f ac t i on. C h lo r am p he ni c ol i s p r im a r il y b ac t e r io s t at i c , a l t ho ug h i t m a y be ba c ter i c i d al ag a in s t a f e w b act e r ia l s t r ai ns . b . S p ec t r u m o f a c t i vi t y. Th i s ag en t i s a c t i v e a g ai n st r ic k e t ts ia an d a wi d e r a n ge o f b ac te r ia , in c l ud in g H . i n fl ue n za e , S a l m on e ll a ty ph i , N e iss e r ia m e n i n gi ti d is , Bo r de t el la p e r t us s is , C lo s t r id i u m , B. f r ag i li s , S . p y o g en es , an d S . p ne u m o ni ae . P.936
c . T he r a pe u t ic us e s. B ec a us e o f i ts t o xi c s id e e ff e c ts , c hl o ra m p h en ic ol is u s ed on l y to s u p pr es s i nf e c ti on s t h at c a nn o t b e tr e a t ed ef f ec ti v e l y wi t h o t h e r a nt i bi o ti c s . S uc h i nf e c ti on s t yp ic a ll y i nc lu de ( 1 ) Ty p h o id f e v e r ( 2 ) Me n i n go c o c c al in f ec ti o ns in c e ph a lo s p o ri n -a l le r g ic pa t ie n ts ( 3 ) S e ri ou s H . in f lu e n za e i n fe c ti on s , p ar t ic ul a r l y in ce p ha l os po r in - al l e rg ic p a t ie n ts ( 4 ) A na e r ob ic in f ec ti o ns ( e . g ., t ho s e o ri gi n at i ng in t he pe l vis o r i nt es t in e s ) ( 5 ) A na e r ob ic or m i xe d in f ec t io ns o f t he C N S ( 6 ) R ic k e t ts ia l i n fe c ti on s i n p r e gn an t pa t ie n ts , t e tr a c y c l i ne - al l er g ic p a ti e nts , a n d re na l l y i m p a ir e d p a tie n ts d . P r e ca u t io n s a n d m on i t o r i ng e f fe c ts ( 1 ) C hl o r am ph e ni c o l c an c au s e b on e m ar r o w s u pp r e ss io n ( d os e - re la t ed ) wi t h r e su l ti n g p an c y to p en i a ; r a re l y , th e d r ug le a ds t o a pl as t ic a n em ia ( no t r e l at e d t o d os e ) . ( 2 ) H yp e rs e ns it i v i t y re ac t i o ns m a y in c l ud e s ki n ras h a n d, in e xt r e m el y r a re c as e s, an g io ed em a o r an a p h y la xi s . ( 3 ) C hl o r am ph e ni c o l t h era p y m a y l ea d to g ra y b ab y s y n d ro m e in ne o na t es ( e s pe c i al l y p re m a t u re in fa n ts ) . Th is da ng e r ou s r ea c ti o n, wh i c h s t em s p a r tly f r o m i na d eq ua t e l i v e r d eto xi f i c a ti o n o f t h e d ru g , i s m an i fe s te d b y vo m i t in g , g r a y c yan os is , r ap id an d i r r eg u la r re s p i r at i on s, va s om ot o r c ol l ap se , a n d in s om e c as es de a th . e . S i gn i f ic a n t i n te r a c ti on s ( 1 ) C hl o r am ph e ni c o l i nh ib i ts t he m e ta b ol is m o f ph e n yt o i n , t o lb u t am i de , c h l o r p r op a mi d e, an d dic u m a ro l , l e ad in g to pr o lo n g ed ac ti o n a nd i n t en si f ie d e f fe c t o f t he s e d r ug s . ( 2 ) P he n o ba r b i ta l s h o rte n s c h l o ra m p h en ic ol ' s ha l f -l i fe , th e re b y r ed u c i ng i t s t h e r ap eu t ic ef f ec ti v e n es s . ( 3 ) P en i c il l i ns c a n c au s e a nt i bi o ti c a nt a go ni s m . ( 4 ) Ac e t a mi n o ph e n e le v a t es c h lo r am p he ni c ol l e ve l s a nd m a y c a us e t o xi c i t y. 3 . C l in d am yc i n ( C l e o cin ) . Th i s a ge n t h as e s s ent i a ll y r ep l ac ed li nc om y c in , t h e d r u g f r om wh ic h i t is d e r i v ed . It is us ed to t rea t sk in , re s p i ra t o r y tr a c t , a n d s of t - ti s s u e i nf ec t io ns c a us e d b y s t a ph yl oc occ i , p ne um oc o c c i, an d s t r ep t oc oc c i . a . M e c ha n is m o f ac t i on. C l in d am y ci n i s b a c te r io s t a t ic ; i t bi nd s t o t h e 50 S r i b os om al s u bu n it , th e reb y s up p r es s i ng ba c te r ia l p r o te i n s ynt h es is . b . S p ec t r u m o f a c t i vi t y. Th i s ag en t i s a ct i ve a g ai n s t m o s t g ra m -p os i ti ve a n d m an y a na e r ob ic or ga n is m s , i nc lu d in g B. f ra gi l is . c . T he r a pe u t ic us e s. B ec a us e o f i ts m a rk e d t o xi c i t y, c l in d am y c in is u s e d o n l y ag ai n s t in f ec ti o ns fo r wh i c h i t h as pr o v e n t o b e th e m os t e f fe ct i ve d ru g . Typ i c a l l y , s uc h i nf ec t io ns in c l u de ab d om in al an d f e m a l e g en i to u ri n a r y t r act i n f ec ti o ns c au s ed b y B. fr a g il is .
d . P r e ca u t io n s a n d m on i t o r i ng e f fe c ts ( 1 ) C li n da m y c i n m a y c aus e ra s h , na us ea , vom i ti ng , di a r rh e a, an d p s eu d om em b ra no us c o li ti s a s e v i de n c e d b y f e v e r, a b d o m i n al p a in , a n d b l oo d y s t o ol s . ( 2 ) B lo o d d y s c r as ia s ( e .g . , eo s i no p hi li a , t h ro m boc y t o pe n ia , l e uk op e ni a ) m a y o cc u r . e . S i gn i f ic a n t i n te r a c ti on s . C li nd am y c in m a y p ote n t ia t e t he e ff ec t s o f n e u r o mu s cu l a r b l oc k i ng a ge n t s . 4 . D a ps o ne . A m em be r o f t he s u lf o ne c l as s , th is d r u g is th e p r im a r y ag en t i n th e t r e at m e n t o f a l l f o rm s o f l e pr o s y . a . M e c ha n is m o f ac t i on. D a ps o ne is b a c te r i os ta t i c f o r My c ob ac t e ri u m l e p ra e ; i ts m ec h an is m o f a c ti on p ro b ab l y re s em ble s th a t o f t h e s u lf o na m i d es . b . S p ec t r u m o f a c t i vi t y. Th i s dr u g is ac t i v e a ga in s t M. l ep r ae ; ho we v e r , d r u g r es is t a nc e d e v el ops in up t o 4 0% of pa t ie n ts . D ap s o n e a ls o h as s om e a c ti vi t y a ga in s t P . c a ri n ii o r g an is m s a n d t he m a lar i a l p a ra s i t e P l as m o di u m. c . T he r a pe u t ic us e s ( 1 ) D a ps on e i s t he d ru g o f c h oi c e f or t r ea t in g l epr o s y . ( 2 ) Th i s a ge n t m a y b e u s e d to t re a t d e rm a ti ti s h e rp e t if o rm is , a s k in d i so r de r . ( 3 ) Ma l o p r im , a d a ps on e- p y r i m e t ha m i n e p r od uc t , i s val u ab le in t he p r o ph y l a xi s an d t re a tm en t o f m a l ar i a. ( 4 ) D a ps on e , wi t h o r wi t h o u t t r im et h op r im , i s u sed f o r p r op h y la xi s o f P. c a r in ii pn e um on ia in pa t ie n ts wi t h A I D S. d . P r e ca u t io n s a n d m on i t o r i ng e f fe c ts ( 1 ) H em o l y ti c a ne m i a c an oc c u r wi t h da il y d os es > 2 00 m g . O th e r a d v e rs e h e m a t ol o gi c a l e f fe c t s i nc l u de m e t he m o g lo bi n em ia a n d l eu k o p en ia . P.937
( 2 ) N a us ea , v om i ti ng , a nd a no r e xi a m a y d e vel o p. ( 3 ) A d ve rs e C N S e f fe c t s i n c l ud e h e ad ac h e, di zz i ne ss , ne r vo us n es s , l e t ha r g y , p a re s th es i as , an d ps y c ho s i s . ( 4 ) D a ps on e o c c as io n al ly r e s ul t s in a p o te n ti al l y l e t h a l m on on u cl eo s i s -l ik e s yn d r om e. ( 5 ) P a ra d o xi c al l y , t h is d ru g s om e ti m e s e xa c e r b ate s l e p ro s y . ( 6 ) O t he r ad v e r s e e ff ec ts in c l u de s k i n ra s h , pe r ip h e ra l n e u ro pa t h y , b l ur re d vi s i on , ti nn i tu s , h ep a ti ti s , a nd c h ol es t a ti c j au nd i c e . e . S i gn i f ic a n t i n te r a c ti on s . P r ob e ne c i d el e va t es b l oo d l e vel s o f d a ps on e, p o ss ib l y r es ul t in g i n t o xi c i t y . 5 . C l o fa z i m i ne i s p h en az i n e d y e wi t h a nt im yc oba c te r i al an d a n ti i n f la m m at o r y ac ti v i t y . a . M e c ha n is m o f ac t i on. C l o fa zi m i ne ap p ea r s t o b i nd p re f er e nt i al l y to m yc o ba c t e ri a l D N A , in hib i t in g r e pl ic a ti o n a nd gr owt h . I t is ba c t e ri c i da l a g ai n st M. l e p ra e , a nd it a p pe a rs to be b ac t e r ios t a t ic ag a in st MA I .
b . S p ec t r u m o f a c t i vi t y. C l o fa z i m i n e is ac t i ve a ga i ns t v a ri o us m yc o ba c t e ri a , i nc lu d in g M. l e p r a e , M. t u b e rc u lo sis , an d MA I . c . T he r a pe u t ic us e s. C lo f a z im i ne is u s e d to t re at l ep r os y a nd a v ar i et y o f a t yp ic a l My c o b ac te r iu m in f ec t io ns . d . P r e ca u t io n s a n d m on i t o r i ng e f fe c ts ( 1 ) P ig m e n ta t io n (p in k t o b r o wn i s h ) occ u rs in 75% - 1 00 % o f pa t ie n ts wi t hin a f e w we e k s . Th is s k i n d is c o lo r a ti on ha s l ed t o s e v e r e de p re s s io n (a n d s u ic id e ) . ( 2 ) U r in e , s we a t , a nd o the r b od y f lu i ds m a y be dis c o l o re d . ( 3 ) O t he r ef f ec ts in c l u de i c h t h y os is an d d r y n es s o f sk in (8 % - 28 % ) , r as h an d p r u r it us ( 1% - 5% ) , an d G I i n to l er a nc e ( e .g . , a b dom i na l /e pi g as t ri c p ai n , d i a r rh e a, na us e a, v o m i tin g ) i n 40 % -5 0 % o f p at i en t s . C l of a zim i ne s h ou l d b e t a ke n wi t h f o od . 6 . D a pt o m yc i n ( C u b i c i n) i s a u n iq u e li p op e pt i de a n t ib io t ic wi t h c li n ic al a c ti vi t y i n t he t re a tm en t o f r es is ta n t g r am - po s i t i ve i nf ec t io ns . a . M e c ha n is m o f ac t i on. D a p to m yc i n is ba c te r ic id a l ; u nl ik e o t he r a n t ib io t ic s , it bi n ds to the b ac te r i al c e ll m em b ra ne , c a us in g d e po l ar i z a ti on o f t he m em b r an e p o te n tia l le ad i ng to in h ib i ti on o f R N A , D N A , an d p r o te in s yn t he s i s . b . S p ec t r u m o f a c t i vi t y. Th i s dr u g is ac t i v e a ga in s t van c o m yc i n s us c ep ti b le E . f a ec iu m an d S . a u re us ( in c l ud i ng m e th ic i ll in - r es is t an t s t r ai ns ) as we l l as o th e r a e r ob ic g ra m -p os i ti ve bac t e ri a . c . T he r a pe u t ic us e s. D ap t om y c in is in di c a t ed f o r t h e t r ea t m e n t o f c om p li ca t ed s k i n an d s k in s tr u c t u re in f ec t io ns and S . a u r eu s b ac t er em i a. I t i s n o t i nd ic a te d fo r th e t re a tm e nt o f p ne um o ni a. d . P r e ca u t io n s a n d m on i t o r i ng e f fe c ts ( 1 ) R e po r te d s id e e f f ec ts a r e g e ne r al l y m i ld an d s e l f -l im i ti n g a nd in cl ud e c o ns ti p at i on , a b no r m a l l iv e r f u nc ti o n t es ts , an d re n al f ai lu r e . ( 2 ) C as es o f m y al g ia and / o r m us c l e we ak n es s , exa c e r b a t io ns of m y as th en i a g r a vi s, an d i nc r e as es i n c r e at i ne ph os p ho k i na s e ( C P K ) h a ve b ee n re p o rt ed . 7 . L in ez o l id ( Z yvo x ) i s a s y n th e ti c o xa zo l i di n one t ha t ha s cl i ni c a l u s e in t h e tr e at m e n t o f i n fe c ti on s c au s ed b y a e r ob ic gra m - po s i t i ve b ac te r i a. a . M e c ha n is m o f ac t i on. L in e z o li d i s b ac te r i os tat i c a ga i ns t E n t er oc o cc i an d S t a p hy lo c o c c i, an d b a c te r i c i da l a g ai ns t St r e pt oc o c c i . L in e zo li d b in d s t o th e 2 3 S ri b os om al R N A of t he 5 0 S s u b un i t a nd th us in h ib i ts p ro t ei n s y n th es is . b . S p ec t r u m o f a c t i vi t y. Th e d r ug is a c ti v e ag ai ns t va nc om yc i n - r es is ta n t E n t e ro c oc c us f ae c i u m an d S . a u re us (m e th ic i ll in- s us ce p ti b le an d -r es is t an t s t r ai ns ) as we l l as o th e r a e r ob ic g ra m -p os i ti ve bac t e ri a . c . T he r a pe u t ic us e s. Lin e z o li d i s i nd ic a te d fo r t re a tm e nt o f i nf ec t io ns c a us ed b y v a nc o -m y c i n - re s is ta n t E. fa ec i u m , n os o c om ia l p n eu m o ni a c au s e d b y m e th ic il l in -s u s c ep t ib le a nd - re s i s ta n t s tr a in s o f S . a u re us , c om m u n it ya c qu i re d p n eu m o n ia c a us e d b y p en ic il li n -s us c ep ti b le s t r ai n s o f S . p n e u m on ia e , a nd s k in and s k in s t r uc t u re in f ec ti o ns o wi n g t o t h es e o r g an is m s . d . P r e ca u t io n s a n d m on i t o r i ng e f fe c ts
( 1 ) S a fe t y da t a a r e l im it ed . A d v e rs e e f fe c t s g en e ra l l y ar e m in o r (e . g. , g a st r o in t es ti n al c om p la int s , h e ad ac h e, r as h ). ( 2 ) Th r om b oc y t o pe ni a o r a s i gn i fi ca n t r e du ct i on in p la t el e t co u nt ha s b e en r e p o rt e d ( 2 .4 % ) a n d is re l a te d t o d u r at i on of th e ra p y. Mo n i t o r p la t el e ts i n p a t ie n ts wi t h r is k o f b l eed i ng , p re e xi s t in g t h ro m bo c y t op e ni a , p la t el e t d i so r de r s ( i nc lu di n g t ho s e P.938 c a us ed b y c o nc u rr e nt m e d ic a ti on s ) a nd in pa t ie nt s re c ei v i ng li n e zol id l a st i ng lo ng e r th an 2 wee k s . ( 3 ) Mye l o s u pp r es s i on o wi n g t o d i re c t b on e m a r row s u p p r es si on ha s b ee n r e p o rt e d r a r el y . e . S i gn i f ic a n t i n te r a c ti on s . Pa t ie n ts r ec ei v i ng c on c om it a nt t he r ap y wi t h a d r en e r gi c o r s e ro t on e rgi c a g en ts o r c on s u m i ng m o r e t ha n 1 0 0 m g o f t yr a m in e a da y m a y e xp e r i e nc e a n e nh a nc em en t o f t he dr u g 's e ff ec t o r s e r ot o ni n s y n d ro m e . 8 . Q u i nu p r i st i n /d a l fo p r is t i n ( S yn e r c i d ) is a n in tr a v e n ou s s t re p to g r am in a n t ib io t ic c om p os ed of two c h e m i ca ll y d is ti n c t c om p ou n ds . a . M e c ha n is m o f ac t i on. Q u i nu p ri s ti n b in ds t o t he 5 0 S su b un i t, an d d a l fo p ri s ti n b in ds ti g ht l y t o t he 70 S ri b os om al pa rt i c l e . b . S p ec t r u m o f a c t i vi t y. S y n e r ci d h as ac ti vi t y a ga i ns t St a ph yl oc oc c i s p p ., i n cl ud i ng r es is ta n t s t ra ins . Th is c o m b in a ti o n h as b e t te r ac ti v i t y a ga in s t E . f a ec i u m th an E n te r oc oc c u s fa ec al is an d i s a ls o ac t i v e a ga i ns t s om e g r am n e g at i ve o r ga n is m s a n d a n a er o be s ; ac t i v it y h as n o t b e en s h o wn ag a in s t E n t e ro b ac t er i ac ea e . c . T he r a pe u t ic us e s. I t is us ed f o r t r ea tm e nt o f va n c o m yc i n - re s i s t a nt E . f a ec i u m ( V R EF ) ba c t e r em i a a nd s k i n a n d sk i n s t ru c tu r e i n fe c t i on s c au s e d b y S . a ur e us a n d S . py og e n es . d . P r e ca u t io n s a n d m on i t o r i ng e f fe c ts ( 1 ) R e po r te d s id e e f f ec ts a r e g e ne r al l y m i ld an d in f us i on r el a te d : p ai n , e r y t h em a , o r i t c h in g a t th e in f us io n s it e ; i nc r ea se s i n p u ls e a nd di as t ol ic p r e ss u re ; h e ad ac h e; na us e a o r vom i ti ng ; a n d d ia rr h e a . I t m a y i nc r e as e l i ve r f u nc t io n te s t s s li gh t l y . ( 2 ) D r ug in t e ra c t i on s a r e a r es ul t o f c y t o ch r om e P 4 5 0 3 A 4 i nh i bi t io n . P o t e nt i al dr u g i nt e r ac ti on s i nc l ud e c yc l o s p o r i n , n i f e d ip i ne , an d m i d az o la m . ( 3 ) C o nc om it a nt us e o f m e di c a t io ns th a t m a y p ro l on g Q Tc in t e r val s h ou ld b e a vo i d ed . ( 4 ) Mi l d t o li f e -t h r ea t en ing ps e ud om em b r an ou s c ol i ti s h as be e n r e po r te d . 9 . R i f ax i mi n . I s a s em i -s y n t h e ti c a n ti bi o ti c t h at is s t ru c tu r al l y r el a te d t o r i f am yc in . a . M e c ha n is m o f ac t i on. I t i n hi bi t s b ac te r i al R NA s yn t he si s b y bi n di ng to t h e b e ta - s u b un i t o f b ac te r i al D N A - de p en d en t R NA p o l ym e r as e.
b . S p ec t r u m o f a c t i vi t y. Th i s no n -s y s te m i c a l l y ab s o rb ed d ru g h as ac t i v ity a g ai n st bo t h e nt e r ot o xi g e n ic an d e n te r oa g g re g at iv e s t r ai ns of Es ch e r ic hi a c o li . c . T he r a pe u t ic us e s. R if a xi m i n i s u se d i n t h e t r ea t m e n t o f Tr a v e le r ' s d i a r rh e a wi t h no n in v a s i v e s tr a in s o f E. c o li . Hi g h r e s is ta nc e ra t es h a v e b e e n r ep o r te d a f t er 5 d ay s o f t r e at m e n t . d . P r e ca u t io n s a n d m on i t o r i ng e f fe c ts . B ec aus e o f it s l im it e d s y st em ic a b so r p ti on , ad v e r s e ef f ec t s a r e f e w b u t in cl u de c o n s t i pa t io n , v o m i t in g , f l a tu l en c e an d h e ad ac he. 1 0 . Sp e c ti n om yc i n . A n a m in oc yc li t ol ag e nt r el a te d to t he am in og l y co s i d es , t h is an t ib i ot ic is u s ef u l ag a in s t p en ic il l in - r es is ta nt s t ra in s o f g o no r r he a . a . M e c ha n is m o f ac t i on. S p ec ti n om y c in is b a c ter i o s t a ti c ; i t s el ec t i v el y i n hi b it s p r ot e in s y nt h es is b y b in d in g t o th e 3 0 S r i b o s o m a l s ub u ni t . b . S p ec t r u m o f a c t i vi t y. Th i s ag en t i s a ct i ve a g ai n s t v a r io us g ra m -n eg a tiv e o r g an is m s . c . T he r a pe u t ic us e s. S pe c ti n om y c i n i s u se d o n l y t o t re a t g on oc oc ca l i n f ec ti o ns i n p a ti e nt s wi th p en ic il l in al le r g y o r wh e n s uc h i n fe c ti on st em s f r o m p en ic il l in as e -p r o duc i ng go n oc oc c i ( P P N G ) . d . P r e ca u t io n s a n d m on i t o r i ng e f fe c ts . B ec aus e s pe c ti n om yc i n i s g i v en o n l y as a s i ng l e -d os e I M i n je c t i on , i t c au s es f e w a d v e r s e ef f ec ts . N au se a , vo m i ti n g, u rt ic a r ia , c hi ll s , d i z z i ne ss , a n d i ns om ni a oc cu r r a re l y . 1 1 . Te l i th r o m yc i n ( K e t ek ) is th e fi rs t of a n e w c la s s o f a nt im ic r o bi al s c a ll ed t he k e to l id es . It is a n o r a l s e m i s y n th e ti c de r i v a ti ve o f e r y t h ro m yc i n. a . M e c ha n is m o f ac t i on. Te l i th r om yc in m a y b e ba c te r ic i da l o r b a ct e r io s t a ti c ; i t i nh ib i ts b a c t e r ia l p r ot e in s y n t h es i s . b . S p ec t r u m o f a c t i vi t y. Th i s dr u g is ac t i v e a ga in s t m an y a e ro bi c a nd a n a er o bi c g r am - po s i ti v e o r g an is m s , i nc l ud in g m ult i d ru g - re s i s t a nt S . p n e u m on ia e , s om e g r am - n e ga t i ve o r ga n is m s a s we l l a s a t y pi c al p a th o gen s . c . T he r a pe u t ic us e s. Te l i t hr om yc i n is in di c at e d fo r t he t re a tm en t of m i ld to m o de r a te c om m u n it y - a c qu i r ed pn e um on i a o nl y . Th e F D A r em o v e d t h e p r e vi ou s 2 ap p ro v e d i n dic a ti o ns a n d a dd e d a b l ac k b o x wa r n i n g . P.939
d . P r e ca u t io n s a n d m on i t o r i ng e f fe c ts ( 1 ) G I ef f ec ts ( in c l ud i ng d i a r rh e a, na us e a, an d v om i ti n g) we r e t he m os t c om m o n s id e ef f ec ts fo l lo we d b y d i z zi ne s s an d v is u al di st u r ba nc es (s uc h a s d i pl o pi a a n d b lu r r ed an d a b no r m a l vis io n ); s e r io us li v e r to xi c i t y h as b e en r e p o rt e d. ( 2 ) C r os s -s en s i t i v it y wi t h t h e o t he r m ac r ol i de s occ u rs . ( 3 ) C o nc om it a nt us e o f dr u g s o r c on d it io n s t ha t m a y p r o lo ng t he Q Tc i n t er va l s h ou ld be a v oi de d . ( 4 ) C o nt r ai n di c a t ed in pat i e nt s wi t h m yas t he ni a g ra v i s , h ep a ti t is , o r j a un d ic e. e . S i gn i f ic a n t i n te r a c ti on s
( 1 ) C o -a dm i ni s t r a ti o n o f t e l it h ro m yc i n wi t h e it h e r c is a p ri de o r p im o z id e i s c o nt r a in di c a t ed . ( 2 ) C o nc om it a nt ad m i n is t r a t io n o f d r u gs m e ta bo l iz e d b y c yto c hr om e P4 5 0 3 A 4 in pa t ie n ts wi t h t e li th r o m yc i n s h o ul d b e c lo se l y m o n it o r ed . ( 3 ) P a ti en t s o n b ep r id il , m es o r id a z in e , t e r fe n ad ine , t hi o ri da zi n e , o r zi p r a si do n e s h o ul d n o t be p r es c r ib e d t el i th r om y c in o wi n g t o th e h ig h p o t en t ia l f o r t o xi c i t y . ( 4 ) T hi s a g e nt h as a h ig h p o te n t ia l to i n te r a ct w i th ma n y d r u g s . C he ck p r o d u c t i n fo r m a ti o n fo r t h e m o s t c u r r en t in t e ra c t i on i n fo r m at i o n. 1 2 . Ti g ec yc l i n e ( T yg a c i l ) . A n i nt r a v e no us gl y c y lc yc li n e a nt i bi o ti c d e ve l op ed as a s e m i s y n th e t ic a n al o gu e o f t e t ra c yc l i n e wi t h a b r o ad s p ec t ru m o f a c t i v i t y . a . M e c ha n is m o f ac t i on. Ti g e c yc l in e i s b ac te r io st a t ic ; i t i n hi bi t s b ac te r ia l p r o t ei n s y n th es is b y r e ve r s ib l y bi nd i ng to t he 30S r i bo so m e s u b un i t. b . S p ec t r u m o f a c t i vi t y. Th e d r ug is a c ti v e ag ai ns t va nc om yc i n -s us c ep t ibl e E . f ae c al is , m et h ic il li n - res is t an t S . e pi d er m i d is , an d S . a u re us (m e th ic i ll ins us c ep ti b le an d - re s i s t an t s t r ai ns ) as we l l a s s om e g r am - ne g a ti v e ae r obe s a n d a n ae r ob es . c . T he r a pe u t ic us e s. Ti g e c y c l in e i s i nd ic a te d f o r t h e t r ea t m e n t o f c om p li ca t ed in t r a- a bd om i n al in f ec t io ns c a us ed b y E . c o li , v a nc om y ci n s us c ep ti b le E . f a ec al is , S . a u re us (m e th ic i ll in - s us c e p ti b le s t r ai ns on l y) an d B . f r ag i li s . A ls o i nd ic a ted f o r t he t re a tm e nt of c om p li c a t ed s k i n a n d s k i n s t r uc t ur e i n fe c ti on s c au s e d b y E . f ae c a l is ( van com y c in - s u sc ep t ib l e s t ra ins ) , S . p yo ge n es a n d S . au r eu s (m et h ic il li n -s us ce p ti b le a nd - re s i s ta n t s tr a in s ). d . P r e ca u t io n s a n d m on i t o r i ng e f fe c ts . ( 1 ) S a fe t y da t a a r e l im it ed . S id e e f fe c ts a r e g e ne ra l l y m i ld wi t h G I d i st u r ba nc es — f or e xa m pl e , n a us ea ( 22 % -3 5 %) an d vom i ti n g ( 1 3% - 19 % )— t h e m os t c om m o nl y r e por t e d . Th e m e c h a ni s m o f th e se r ea c t i on s is u n ce r t ai n . ( 2 ) Ma y c a us e pe rm a ne nt d is c o lo r a ti o n o f t he t eet h s i m i la r to t he t e t r ac yc li ne s . ( 3 ) C a ut io n i n p a ti e nt s wi t h a hi s t o r y o f h yp e rs ens i ti vi t y r ea c ti on s t o t e t r ac yc li ne s . ( 4 ) P ho t o to xi c r ea c ti o ns , p a nc r ea t it is , a n d i nc r eas es in B U N m a y oc c u r . e . S i gn i f ic a n t i n te r a c ti on s . C lo se l y m o ni t o r t he p r o t hr om b in ti m e o r i n t er n a ti on a l s e ns i ti v i t y in d e x ( I N R ) i n p a ti en t s on wa r f a r in d ur i ng c o nc om it a nt a dm i n is t ra t io n of ti g ec yc li ne . 1 3 . T ri m e th o p r im . A s ub s ti t u te d p y r im i di n e, t ri m e t h op r im i s m os t c om m on l y c om b in e d wi t h s u l fa m e t ho xa z o l e ( a s u lf o na m i d e d i s c u s s e d i n I I . F) in a p r e pa r a ti o n c a l le d c ot r im o xa z o l e . H o we v e r , i t m ay b e us e d al o ne f or c e r tai n u r i na r y t r ac t i n fe c t i on s . a . M e c ha n is m o f ac t i on. Tr i m e th op r im in hi b it s d ih y d r o f ol a te re d uc t as e, t h us bl oc k i n g b ac t er i al s y n t h es is o f f ol ic ac id . b . S p ec t r u m o f a c t i vi t y
( 1 ) Tr i m e t ho p r im i s a c t i ve a ga in s t m o s t g r am -n e ga t i ve a n d g r am - po s i ti v e o r g an is m s . Ho we v e r , d r ug r es is t an ce m a y d e v el op wh e n t hi s d ru g i s u s e d a l on e . ( 2 ) Tr i m e t ho p r im -s ul f am e t h o xa z o l e i s a ct i v e a g ain s t a va ri e t y of o rg a ni s m s , i n cl ud i ng S . p ne u m o ni a e, N . m e ni n gi t id is , a n d C or y n eb ac t e ri u m di ph t he r i ae ; s om e s t r ai ns of S . a u re us , S ta p hy lo c o cc us e p id er m i d i s , P . m i r a bi li s , E n t e ro b ac t er , S al m o ne l la , S hi g el la , Se r r a ti a , a nd K l eb si el l a s p p . ; a nd E . c o li . ( 3 ) Th e t ri m e t ho p ri m -s ul fa m et h o xa z o l e c om bi n at io n is s y n e rg is t ic ; m an y o r g an is m s r es is ta n t t o on e c om p on e nt a re s u s c ep t i bl e t o t h e c om bi na t io n. c . T he r a pe u t ic us e s ( 1 ) Tr i m e t ho p r im m a y be u s e d a l on e o r in c om b ina t i on wi t h s u lf am e th o xa z o l e t o t r eat u nc om pl ic a te d u r i na r y tr a c t i nf ec t io ns ca us e d b y E . c ol i, P . m i ra bi l is , a nd K l e bs ie l la an d En t er o ba ct e r o rg an is m s . ( 2 ) Tr i m e t ho p r im -s ul f am e t h o xa z o l e i s t he r a pe u tic f or ac u te go n oc oc c a l u r e t hr i ti s , ac u te e xa c e rba t i on of c h r on ic b ro nc h it i s , s h ig el l os is , a nd S a l m o ne l la in f ec ti o ns . P.940
( 3 ) Tr i m e t ho p r im -s ul f am e t h o xa z o l e m a y be gi v e n a s p r op h y l ac ti c o r s u pp r es s i v e th e r ap y i n P. c ar i ni i p ne u m o ni a . I t i s t h e d r u g o f c ho ic e f o r t he t r e a tm en t o f S te n ot r op h om o n a s m a l to p hi li a i n fe c tio n s . d . P r e ca u t io n s a n d m on i t o r i ng e f fe c ts ( 1 ) Mo s t ad v e r s e e ff ec t s i n v o l v e t h e s k in ( po ss ib ly f r o m s en s i t i zat i on ) . Th e s e i nc l ud e ra s h , p r u rit u s , a nd e xf o l ia t i v e d e rm a t i ti s. ( 2 ) R a re l y , t ri m e t ho p ri m -s u lf am e th o xa z o l e c a us es bl o od d ys c ra s i a s ( e .g . , a c ut e h em o l y ti c a n em ia , l e uk o pe ni a , t h ro m b o c y top e ni a , m e th em o gl o bi ne m i a , a g ra n ul o c y to s i s , a pl as ti c a ne m ia ) . ( 3 ) A d ve rs e G I e ff ec t s i nc l ud in g n a us ea , v om i ti n g, a nd ep i ga s t r ic di st r es s g l os si t is m a y oc c u r . ( 4 ) N e on a te s m a y d e v el op k e r n ic te r us . ( 5 ) P a ti en t s wi t h A I D S s o m et im es s u f fe r fe ve r , ra s h, m a la is e , a nd p a nc yt o pe n ia du r in g t r im e t h op r im th e ra p y . 1 4 . Va n co m yc i n . Th i s g ly c o p ep t id e d es t r o ys m o s t g r am - po s i t i ve o r ga ni s m s . a . M e c ha n is m o f ac t i on. V a nc om yc in is b a c te r ic i d a l ; it in h ib i ts b a ct e ri al c e ll wa l l s y n th e s i s . b . S p ec t r u m o f a c t i vi t y. Th i s dr u g is ac t i v e a ga in s t m os t g r am - po s i t i ve o r g an is m s , i nc l ud in g m e th i c i ll i n- r es is t an t s t r ai ns o f S . a u re us an d E n t e ro c oc c i . c . T he r a pe u t ic us e s. V an c om y c in us ua ll y i s r es er ve d f o r s e r i ou s i nf ec t i o ns , e s pe ci a ll y t ho s e c a us ed b y m e th ic il l in - r es is ta n t s t a p h ylo c o cc i . I t i s p a r ti c ul a rl y us e fu l i n p a tie n ts wh o a re al l e rg ic to p e ni ci l li n o r c e ph a lo s p o ri ns . Ty p i c a l u s es i nc l ud e e n do ca r di t is , os te om y e l it is , an d s t ap h yl oc oc c a l p ne um o ni a .
( 1 ) O r a l v a nc om y c in is va l ua b le in th e tr e at m en t o f an t ib i ot ic - in d uc ed p s eu d om em b ra no us c o li ti s c au s e d b y C . di f f ic il e o r S . a u r eu s e nt e r oc ol it is . B e c au se v a nc om y c in is n o t a bs o r be d a f te r o ra l ad m in is t r at io n , i t i s n o t u s ef u l f o r s y s t em ic in f ec t i o ns . B e ca us e o f re s i s t an c e, t he C en t e rs fo r D i s ea se C o nt r ol an d P rev e n t i on ( C D C ) re c o m m en d va nc om yc in as th e s ec o nd c h oi c e t o m e t r oni d a z ol e fo r C . d if f ic il e i n fe c ti o ns . ( 2 ) B ec au s e 1 g p ro v i des ad e qu a te bl o od le v e ls f o r 7 -1 0 d a y s, I V va n c om y c in is p a r ti c u la r ly u s e fu l i n t h e t r ea tm e nt o f an ep h r ic p a ti e nt s wi th g r a m - p os it i v e b a c t e ri a l in f ec t io ns . d . P r e ca u t io n s a n d m on i t o r i ng e f fe c ts ( 1 ) O t o to xi c i t y m a y a ri s e; n ep h r ot o xi c i t y i s ra r e bu t c a n o c c u r wi t h hi g h d o se s. ( 2 ) V an c o m y c i n m a y c a us e h y p e rs e ns it i v i t y re a c t io n s , m a ni f es t ed b y s uc h s ym p to m s a s a n ap h y la xi s an d s ki n ra s h . ( 3 ) Th e r ap e ut ic le v e ls pea k a t 20 - 40 µ g /m L. Th e tr o u gh is < 1 5 µ g /m L . ( 4 ) R e d m a n ' s s y nd r om e m a y oc c u r . Th is i s f ac i al f l us hi n g a nd h y po t en si on o wi n g t o t oo r ap i d i nf us io n of t he dr u g. I nf us i on s h ou l d b e o v e r a m i ni m um o f 60 m i n f o r a 1- g d o s e . ( 5 ) I V s ol u ti on s a r e v e r y i r r i ta t in g t o th e v ei n . e . V an c om yc i n - r e s i s ta nt e n t e ro c oc c i . A fe w s t ra i ns of va nc om y c in r e s is ta n t e nt e r oc oc c i ar e s us c e p ti bl e to te ic o pl an i n ( in v e s ti g at i on al b y H o e ch s t Ma r i o n R ou s s el) , l in e z ol i d ( Z y vo x) , o r qu i n u p r is ti n /d a lf o pr is t in ( S yn e r c i d ) . Th e s e a ge n ts m a y b e us e fu l fo r m ul t ip l e -d r u g- r es is t an t E . f a ec i u m .
III. Systemic Antifungal Agents A. D e f i n i t i o n. Th es e age n ts t re a t s y s te m i c a nd lo c al fu n ga l (m yc o t ic ) i n f ec ti o ns — di s e as es th at r es is t t re a tm en t wi t h a nt i b ac te r i al d r u gs . B . Am p h o t e r i ci n B ( F u ng i z on e ) . Th i s p ol ye n e an t i fu n ga l a n ti bi o ti c i s t h e r ap eu t ic fo r v a r io us fu n g al i n fe c ti on s t h at f re qu e n tl y p r o v ed fa t al be f o re t h e d r u g b ec am e a v a il a bl e . I t is u se d i nc r e as in gly i n t he em pi r ic tr e at m ent o f se ve r el y i m m un oc om pr o m is ed pa t ie n ts i n c e rt ai n c l in ic al s i t ua t io ns . 1 . M e c ha n is m o f ac t i on. A m p h o te r ic in B i s b ot h f u n g is t a t ic in c l in ic al l y o b t ai ne d c o nc en t r at io n s a n d m a y b e fu n gi ci da l i n t h e p r es en c e o f s us c ep ti b le o rg a ni s m s . It b i nd s t o s te r ol s i n t h e fu n g al c el l m em b ra n e, t h e r eb y i nc r ea s i ng m e m b r a ne pe r m e a bi li t y a nd pe r m it t in g l ea k ag e o f i n t ra c el lu l ar c o n te n ts . O th e r m ec h an is m s m a y be i n v o l v e d as we l l . P.941
2 . S pe c t r um o f a c ti vi t y. A m ph o te r ic in B is a b roa d - s p ec t r um a n ti f un g al a g e nt wi t h a c ti v i t y ag a ins t As p er g il lu s , B l as to m y c es , C an d id a s pp . ( a l bi ca ns , k r us e i t r op ic ali s , a nd gl a b ra t a) , C ry p toc oc c us , C o cc id io i de s, H i s to p la s m a , P a ra c o c c idi o id es , P hy c o m y c e te s ( m u c o r) , an d Sp o ro t h ri x . I t i s
a l so us ef u l a ga i ns t s om e p r o to z o a s uc h a s L ei shm a n i a , N a eg l er i a, an d A c a nt h a m oe b a. 3 . T he r a pe u t ic us e s. Am p ho t e ri c i n B is th e m ost e f fe ct i v e a n ti f un g al ag en t i n th e t r e at m e n t o f s y s tem ic f un ga l i n fe c ti on s , esp e c i al l y in i m m u no c o m p r om is e d p ati e n ts . a . I t is t he t re a tm en t o f c h o ic e f o r p u lm on a r y As pe r g il l us i n fe ct i on s ; B l a st o m y c es in f ec ti o ns , wh i c h a re li f e- t h re a te n ing wi t h A I D S o r C N S i n vo l vem e nt ; d e ep - o rg a n i n fe c ti on s wi t h C a nd i da ; C o cc i di oi d es i n fe c ti on s wi t h s e v e re pu lm o na r y i nv o l v e m en t o r wi t h di s s em i na t ed no nm e ni ng e al i m m u no c o m p e te n t o r i m m u no c o m p r om is e d p at i en t s ; a ll C ry p to c o c c us i n f ec ti o ns ; d is s e m i na t ed H i s to p la s m a i nf e ct i on s in vo l vi n g C N S o r i m m u no s u p pr e s s ed pa t ien t s ; Ma l a ss e zi a f u r f u r f un g em i a; pu lm o na r y an d e xt r a p u l m o na r y P h y c o my c e te s (m uc or m y co s i s ); Pe n ic il l iu m m a r n ef f ei ; a n d e xt r a c u t an e ou s S p o ro t hri x . b . Th i s a ge n t m a y b e u s e d to t re a t c occ i di oi d al ar t h r i ti s . c . To p ic al p re p ar a ti o ns ar e gi v e n to e ra di ca t e c uta n e ou s a nd m uc o cu t an eo us c a n di di as is . d . I t m a y b e u s e d a s e m p i r ic th e ra p y in f eb r il e , ne u t r op en ic pa t ie n ts . e . I t is us ed as s e c o nd a ry p r o p h yla xi s o f f u ng al in f ec t io ns in H I V -p o si ti ve p a t ie n ts , g ua r d in g a ga i ns t re c ur r e nc e o f i nf e c t ion . f . I t m a y be us ed pr o ph y la c ti c a l l y i n n e ut r o pe ni c ca n c e r pa t ie n ts a n d b on e m a r ro w t r a n s p la n t o r s o lid - o r ga n t r a ns pl a nt pa t ien t s t o re du c e t he in ci d enc e o f A sp e rg il l us a n d C a nd id a in f ec ti o ns . 4 . P r ec a u ti o n s a nd m oni t o r i n g e f f ec t s. B ec au s e a m p h ot e r ic in B c an c a us e m an y s e r io u s a d ve r s e e ff e c t s, i t s h o ul d b e a dm i ni s t e r ed in a h os pi ta l s e t ti ng — a t l ea s t d ur i ng th e in i ti al t he r ap e ut ic s t ag e . Th e a d ve rs e e f fe c t s a r e di vi de d i n to in f us io n r e a c t i on s a nd ot h e rs . a . I nf us i on re a c t io n s oc c u r wh i l e t h e d ru g i s b ei ng a dm in is t e re d a nd in c l ud e f e ve r , s h ak in g c hi ll s , h y po t e ns io n , a no r e xi a , na us e a , v om i ti ng , he ad ac h e , d ys p ne a , a nd t ac h y pn e a. P r e m e di c at io n wi t h a ce ta m in o ph en an d d i ph e nh y d r am i ne ha s b ee n he lp f ul in p ro p h y la xi n g a g a in s t i nf us i on r e a ct i on s . In a dd it i on , h y d r o c o r ti so n e 1 0 -5 0 m g m a y b e a d de d t o th e i n f us io n a s p r op h y la xi s ag a in s t i nf us i on - r el a te d re a c t i on s . Me p e r i di ne 25 -5 0 m g IV is ef f ec t i v e t r ea tm e n t o f ac ti v e sh ak in g c hi ll s / ri go r s . Me p e r i di n e is a l so ef f ec t i v e i n p ro p h y la xi s o f ri g o rs . b . N e ph r o to xi c i t y f re q uen t l y oc c u r s. D os ag e a d jus t m e n t o r d r ug d i sc on t in u at i on or c h an gi n g t o a li p os om al am pho t e ri ci n B p r od uc t m a y be n e ce ss a r y a s re na l i m p a ir m e nt p ro g re s s es . c . E le ct r o l y te ab n o rm al i ti e s , in c l u di ng h y p ok al em i a , h y p om a gn es em i a, and h yp o ca lc em i a, a re c om m o n . Mo n i to r an d re pl ac e e l ec t r ol y t es as ne ed e d. d . N o rm oc y t ic , no r m o c h ro m ic a n em ia wi l l d e ve lop o v e r l o ng - te r m u s e (1 0 we e k s ) . Mo n i to r he m a t oc r i t pe r io d ic al l y. e . B r on c h os p as m , wh e e zi n g , a nd an a ph y l a xi s or a n a ph y l ac t oi d r e ac ti o ns h a ve oc c u r r ed . A t es t d os e o f 1 m g o f am p ho t er ic i n B i s o f te n a dm in is t e red b e f o re in f us io n o f l a rg e q u a nt i ti es of t he dr u g.
f . P h le bi t is or t hr o m b op hl e bi t is is re po r t ed wi t h c o n ve n ti o na l a m p ho t e ri c in B . H e pa r i n ( 50 0 - 10 0 0 U ) c an be ad d ed t o t he in fu s io n t o a i d i n p r e ven t ion . g . C N S e ff ec ts in c l u de he a d ac he , p e ri p he r al ne ur o p a th y , m a la is e , d e p re ss io n , s ei z u r e , m ya s th e ni a , a nd ha l lu c i na t io n s . h . E le va t ed li v e r t ra ns am i na s e s , as p ar t a te am ino t r a ns fe r as e ( AS T) , a la ni n e a m in o t ra ns f er a s e ( AL T) , a l k a li n e p ho s p h at as e , b ili r u bi n , γ g l u ta m y lt r a ns fe r as e ( G GT) , a n d l ac t a te de h y d ro ge n as e (L D H ) m a y oc c u r . i . A m p h ot e ri c i n B p a re n te r a l u s e s h ou ld be m i xe d o nl y i n d e xt r o s e 5% in wa t e r ( D 5W ) a n d s h o ul d b e p ro t ec te d fr om li g ht . 5 . S i gn i f ic a n t i n te r a c ti on s . O t he r n e ph r o to xi c d ru g s ( am i no gl y c os i de s, c a p re om y c in , c ol is t in , c is p la t in , c y c lo s p o ri n e, m et h o xyf l u r a n e, pe n ta m i d ine , p o l ym yxi n B , an d v an c om y c in ) m a y c a us e a d di t iv e n e ph r o to xi c i t y . 6 . Am p ho t e ri c i n B li p id c o m pl e x ( A b e lc e t) , am ph ot e r ic in B c h ol es t e ro l s u lf a te c o m p le x ( A m p h o te c ) , a nd li p os om al am pho t e ri c i n B ( A m Bi s o m e ) o f f e r a lt e r na t i v e f o rm ul a ti o ns of am ph o te r ic i n B for t h e t r ea tm e n t o f s e ve r e f u n ga l i n fe c t i on s i n p at i en t s wh o a r e i n to le r a nt of o r wh o s e di se a s e i s r e f r ac t o r y t o c o n v en t io nal t r ea tm e nt . P.942
C . E c h in o ca n d in s . Th r ee ec h in oc a nd in s a r e a ppr o v e d in th e U S: c a ps of u ng i n ( C a nc id as ) , m ic a fu n gi n ( Myc a m i n e ) an d a n id u la f un g in ( E ra xi s ) . Th e s e a g en t s h a v e a b r oa d s p ec t ru m o f a c ti v i t y ag a in s t C a nd i da s p ec ie s wi t h m ic a fu ng i n a nd an i du l a fu ng i n h a v in g s im il a r MI C s t h a t ar e g e ne r al l y l o we r t h an th e MI C o f c ap s of u ng i n. 1 . M e c ha n is m o f ac t i on. C a s p o fu n gi n wo r k s b y c a us in g f u ng a l c e l l wa l l l ys is . B y be i ng a n on c o m p e t it i v e i n hi bi t o r o f β ( 1 ,3 ) s yn th as e , wh i c h is an e ss e nt i al c om p on e nt o f fu n g al c el l wa l l s yn th es is , i t c au s e s o s m ot ic i n st a bi li t y wi t h i n t he f ung u s a nd fu n ga l c el l wa l l ly s i s . 2 . S pe c t r um o f a c ti vi t y. E c hi n oc an di n s h a v e f ung i c i da l a c ti v i t y ag a in s t C a n d id a s pe c i es an d f u ng i s t a ti c a c t i vi t y a g ai ns t A s p e rg il l us s pe c i es . Al l t h r e e a ge n ts i n t h is c l as s ap p ea r to ha v e go o d ac t i vi t y i n v it r o f o r m os t i s ol a te s o f Ca n di da s p ec i e s , in c l u di ng t ho s e th a t a r e ei t he r Am ph o te r ic i n-B o r f lu co n a z ol e a nd i tr a c on a z o l e- r es is t an t , s uc h as C . g l ab r a ta . 3 . T he r a pe u t ic us e s. A ll t h r ee ag e nt s a r e i nd ic a te d fo r th e tr e a tm en t o f e s op h ag ea l c an d id i as is a . C as p of u nf i n a nd an idu l a fu ng i n a r e a ls o i nd ic at e d fo r th e t r e at m e n t o f c a nd i de m i a a nd o th e r i nfe c ti o ns c a us ed b y Ca n did a s p ec ie s , in c l u di n g i n t ra b do m i n al ab s c es s e s a n d p e ri t on i ti s . b . C as p of u ng i n m a y a ls o b e u s e d fo r th e t r e at m en t o f c a n di da l p l eu r al s p ac e i nf e c t io n s , em pi r ic t r e at m e n t o f p r es um e d fu n g al i n fe c ti on s i n n e u t ro pe n ic p a ti e nt s , a nd t r ea tm e nt o f i n v as i ve as p e rg il l os is i n p a ti e nt s r e f r ac t o r y t o o r in t ol e ra nt o f o t he r an t if u ng al s ( i .e. , am p ho t er ic i n B , i t r ac o na z o le ) .
c . Mi c a f un gi n i s i nd ic a ted f o r t he p ro p h y la xi s o f c a n di d al in f ec ti o ns i n p a t ie n ts i n de r go i ng he m a t o po ie t ic s t em c e ll t ra ns p l a n ta t io n ( H S C T) . 4 . P r ec a u ti o n s a nd m oni t o r i n g e f f ec t s. A lt h ou gh t hi s c la s s h as ad v e r s e e ve n ts as s o c i a te d wi t h i ts us e , t he o v e ra l l t o xi c ity p r o f il e i s s i g ni f ic an t l y b e t te r th a n t ha t of am pho t e ri c i n B . a . I nf us i on v e in c om p li c at i o ns (n o t d ef i ne d b y m an u f ac tu r e r ) a nd t h r om b op hl e bi t is h a v e be e n s ee n o n i n fu s i o n o f c as p of u ng i n. b . H em a to l og ic al de c re as es in he m o g lo b in an d he m at oc r i t m a y o cc u r; h o we ve r , t he in c i d en c e do e s n ot di f f er f r om t h at of h a vin g a f un ga l d is e as e . c . H ea d ac he m a y oc c u r . d . S li g ht de c re as es in s er u m p o ta s s iu m m a y o cc ur , b ut no wh e r e ne a r t h e m a gn i tu d e o f t ha t c a us ed b y am ph o t er ic i n B . e . A no r e xi a , na us e a, v om i ti n g, an d d i ar r h ea ha v e oc c u r r e d. f . R a r e i nc r ea s e s i n s e r um c r e at i ni n e; ho we ve r , th e r e h a v e b e en no r e p o rt e d c as es o f ne ph ro t o xi c i t y. g . P os si bl e s li g ht in c re as es in s e r um am in o tr a ns f e r as es h . A ll e r gi c r ea c ti on s o c c u r in < 5 % o f p a ti e nt s a nd a na p h y la xi s i n < 2 % o f p a t ie n ts . i . P r eg n an c y c a te g or y C e m b r y ot o xi c r ea c ti on s ha v e oc c ur r e d i n a ni m a ls . 5 . S i gn i f ic a n t i n te r a c ti on s a . W he n c y c l os p o ri ne is c om b in e d wi t h ca s p o fu ng i n , c l i ni c a ll y s ig ni f ic an t r i s es i n AL T we r e o bs e r ve d . Se r um t ra ns am i na s es s h ou l d b e m on it o r ed , an d t h is co m b in a ti o n s h o ul d b e a v oi d ed in pa t ie n ts wit h p re e xi s t in g l i v e r d i se as e . b . W hen u s e d i n c om bi na t i on , c a rb am a z e pi n e, ne l f in a v i r, ne vi r a pi ne , p h e n yto i n, an d ri f am pi n in c r ea s e s t he cl ea r a nc e o f c a sp o fu n gi n. H i gh e r d o se s o f c as po f un g in ( 70 m g e v e r y da y ) sh o ul d b e c o ns id e re d wh e n t h is c om b in a ti o n is ad m i ni s ter e d . c . Ta c ro l im us c le a r an c e wi l l b e i nc r ea se d wh e n th e c o m b in a ti o n is us ed ; m o ni t o r t ac r ol im us s e r um le v e ls c l os el y . D . F l uc yt o s i n e ( An c o b on ) . Th i s f lu o ri n at e d p yr im i di ne us u al l y i s g i v e n in c om b in a ti o n wi t h am ph o te r i c i n B . 1 . M e c ha n is m o f ac t i on. F lu c y t os in e p e ne t r at es f u n ga l c el ls an d i s c o n ve rt e d t o f l uo r ou r ac il, a m e ta b ol ic an t ag on is t . I n c o r po r a te d i n to th e RN A o f t he fu n ga l c el l , f lu c y tos i ne c a us es de f ec ti ve p ro t e in s yn t he si s . I t i s e it he r f u n g is t a t ic o r f u ng i c id al , d ep en d in g o n t h e c on c e n t r at i on of th e d r u g. 2 . S pe c t r um o f a c ti vi t y. Th i s dr u g is p ri m a r il y a c t i v e ag a in s t C r yp t oc oc c us a n d Ca n di da . It is m os t c o m m o nl y us e d i n c on ju nc t io n wi t h a m p h ot e ri ci n B . F u n ga l r e s i s t a nc e a ga ins t fl uc y t o si ne al o ne ha s b e e n we l l do cu m e n te d . F l uc yt o s i ne m a y a ls o p os s e s s s o m e ac ti vi t y ag a in s t c h ro m o m yc os is an d s om e s t r ai ns of As p e rg il lu s (i n vit r o t e s t in g on l y ) . P.943
3 . T he r a pe u t ic us e s. F lu c y t os in e i s a dj u nc ti v e l y u se d wi t h a m p h ot e ri c i n B f o r s e ve r e s y s t em ic in f ec t i o ns (e . g. , s e pt ic em i a, en d oc a rd i ti s , p ul m o na r y a n d u r in a r y t ra c t i nf ec t ion s , m en in g it is ) . Us e o f flu c y t os in e al on e i s n o t r e c om m e nd e d. 4 . P r ec a u ti o n s a nd m oni t o r i n g e f f ec t s a . F re q ue n t a d v e rs e e f fec t s i nc lu de G I in t ol e ra nce wi t h na u s e a , v o m i t in g , a n d d ia r r h ea . b . O cc as i on al ad v e r s e re a c t i on s a r e m o r e s e ve re a nd i n c l u de m a r ro w s u pp r es s i o n wi t h le uk o pe n ia o r t h ro m b o c y to p en ia ( d o s e r el a te d , e sp ec i all y wi t h r e n al fa il u r e o r c on c u r r e nt am ph o t er ic i n B use ) . C on f us io n , r as h , h e p at i ti s , en t e ro c o l it is , he a d ac he , a n d p ho t os en s it i v i t y r ea c ti on s c an al so o cc u r . c . R a re r ea c t i on s i nc lu de h al lu c i n at i on s , bl o od dy s c r as ia s wi t h a g r an u lo c y to s i s a n d p anc y t o pe n ia , fa t al he pa t i ti s , a na p h yla xi s , an d an em ia . d . F lu c y to s i n e m a y c au s e a m a rk ed l y f al s e el e vat i o n o f s er um c re a ti ni n e if a n Ek t ac he m a n al y z e r is u s e d . 5 . S i gn i f ic a n t i n te r a c ti on s . Be n ef ic i al d ru g i n te ra c ti o ns o c c u r wi t h f l uc yt o si ne . Fl uc y t o s i ne h a s d em on s tr a te d s yn e rg y wi t h a m ph o t e ri c i n B a n d fl u co n az o le ag a in s t C r y p to c o cc us an d Ca n did a s p p. E . G r i s e of u l vi n (F u l vi c in ) . P r od uc e d f r om Pe n ic il l iu m g r is eo f ul vi n Di e rc kx , t h is d ru g i s d ep os i te d i n t h e s k i n , b ou nd t o k e r a tin . 1 . M e c ha n is m o f ac t i on. Th i s a g en t i s f u n gi s ta ti c ; i t in h ib i ts f u ng a l ce l l a c ti vi t y b y in t e rf e ri n g wi th m i t o ti c s p i nd le s t r uc t u re . I ts m ec h an is m o f a ct io n i s s im il a r t o c ol c h ic i ne . 2 . S pe c t r um o f a c ti vi t y. G r i s eo f ul v i n i s ac t i ve a ga i ns t v a ri o us s t ra i ns o f Mi c r o s p o ru m , E pi de r m o ph y to n , a nd T ri c h o ph y to n . 3 . T he r a pe u t ic us e s. G ri s eo f ul vi n i s e f fe c t i v e i n t i n ea in f ec ti o ns o f th e s ki n , h ai r , a n d n ai ls ( in c lu d in g a t hl e te ' s fo o t, jo c k i t c h , a n d r in g wo r m ) c a us ed b y Mi c r os p or u m , E p i de r m o p hy to n , a nd T ric h op hy t on . a . G e ne r al l y , th is ag e nt is gi v e n o n l y fo r i n fe c ti o ns t ha t d o n o t r es p on d t o t o p ic al an t if u ng al ag e nt s . b . G r is e of u l v in is a v a i la bl e on l y in or a l f o rm . c . I t p os s e s s es v as o di la to r y a c ti vi t y an d m a y be u s ed in R a y na u d d is ea se . d . I t m a y b e u s e d to t re at g ou t . 4 . P r ec a u ti o n s a nd m oni t o r i n g e f f ec t s a . G r is e of u l v in ra r e l y re s u l ts in se r io us ad v e r se ef f e ct s . H o we v e r , t he f o l lo wi n g p r o bl em s h a v e b e e n r ep o r te d . ( 1 ) C o m m o n : h ea d ac he , f a t ig u e, co n fu s i on , im pa ir e d pe r fo r m a nc e , s y nc o pe , a n d l e th a rg y , wh i c h g ene r a ll y r es o l ve wi t h c o n ti nu e d u s e ( 2 ) O cc as i on al : l e uk op e ni a , n e ut r o pe ni a , a nd g ran u lo c yt op e ni a ( 3 ) R a re : s e r um s ic k n es s , an gi o ed em a , u r ti ca r ia , e r y t h em a , a nd h e p at o to xi c i t y b . Th e do s a g e d ep en d s o n th e p a r ti c l e s i z e o f t he p r od uc t : 2 50 m g of u l t ra m i c ro s i z e ( Fu l v ic i n P / G ) i s e qu i v al e nt in t her a p eu t ic ef f ec ts to 50 0 m g o f m i cr os i z e ( Fu l v ic in U /F ) .
5 . S i gn i f ic a n t i n te r a c ti on s a . G r is e of u l v in m a y in c rea s e t he m e t ab ol is m o f w a r f a r i n , l ea di n g t o d e c re as e d p ro t h ro m b i n t im e . b . B a r b it u r a te s m a y r edu c e g r is eo f ul v i n a bs o rp t io n . c . Al c o h o l c on s um p t i on m a y c au s e t ac h yc a r di a a n d f lu s h i ng . d . O r a l c o n t ra c ep t i ve s m a y c a us e a m e n o rr h ea o r in c re as e d b r ea k t h r oug h b l ee d in g . F . I mi d az o le s . Th e s u bs t i t ut e d im i da zo l e d er i va tiv e s ke t o co n az o le ( N i z o r al ) , m i c on az o le (M o n is t a t ), f lu c o na zo l e (D i f l u ca n ) , i t r a co n az o le ( S p o r a n ox ) , vo r ic o n az ol e ( V f en d ) a n d p os a co na z o le ( N ox a f il ) ar e va l u a bl e i n t he t r ea tm e nt o f a wi d e ra n ge o f s y st em ic f un ga l i n fe c ti on s . 1 . M e c ha n is m o f ac t i on. I m i d a zol es in hi b it st e rol s yn th es is in fu n ga l c el l m em b r an es an d i nc r ea s e c el l wa l l p e rm ea bi l it y ; th i s , in tu r n , m ak es th e ce l l m o r e vu l ne r ab l e t o o s m ot i c p r es s u r e. Th e s e ag e nt s ar e fu n g is t a t ic . 2 . S pe c t r um o f a c ti vi t y. Th e s e a ge n ts a re ac ti ve a g ai ns t m an y f u ng i , i n cl ud i ng y e as ts , d e rm a to p h y t es , a c t i no m y c e t es , a n d s om e P hy c o my ce t es. P.944
3 . T he r a pe u t ic us e s a . K e to c o na z o l e , a n o ral a ge n t, su c c es s f ul l y t rea t s m an y f un g al in f ec ti on s t h a t p r e v io us l y y i el d ed on l y t o p a re n te r al ag e nt s . ( 1 ) I t is t he r ap e ut ic f or s y s t e m i c a nd va gi n al c a nd i di as is , m uc oc a nd i di as is , c a nd i du r ia , o r a l t h ru s h , h i s t o pl as m o s i s , co c c id i oid o m y co s i s , c h r om om y c o s i s , d e rm at op h y t os is ( ti n ea ) , a n d p a ra c oc ci di o id om y c os is . ( 2 ) B ec au s e k e t oc on a z o le is s l o w a ct i ng an d re qui r e s a l o ng du r at i on of t h e r ap y ( u p t o 6 m on t hs f o r s om e c h ro n ic i n fe c ti on s ) , i t i s l es s e ff ec t i v e t h a n o th e r a n ti f un g al age n ts f or t he t re a tm en t o f s e ve r e a nd ac ut e s ys t em i c i n f ec ti o ns . b . M i c on a z o l e, p ri m a r il y a dm i ni s t e r ed as a t op ic a l ag en t , Th e p a re n te r al f o r m h as be en di s c on t inu e d i n t h e U n it e d S t a te s. I t wa s a r el a ti v e l y t o xi c f o r m u l at io n wh i c h ha s b ee n r ep la c e d b y o t he r m em b e rs o f th is c l ass ( e .g . , f l uc o na z o l e) . ( 1 ) To p ic al m i c o na z o l e is hi g hl y e f fe c t i v e i n vul v o va g i na l c an di d ia s i s , r i n g wo r m , a nd ot h er s k in i n fe c ti on s . c . F lu c on a z o l e. A v a il a ble i n o r al a n d p a re n te r al fo r m s , fl uc o na zo l e c a n be u s ed ag a in s t s ys t em ic an d C N S i n fe c ti o ns i n vo l vi n g C ry pt oc oc c us a n d C a n d id a . C a nd i da or o pha r y n g ea l i n fe c ti on an d es o ph a gi ti s m a y al s o b e t r e a te d wi t h f lu c on a z ol e . A s pe r gi l lu s , C oc ci d io id es , an d Hi st o pl as m a ha v e d e m o ns t r at e d i n v i t r o s en s it i v i t y. d . I t r ac o na z ol e i s a v a il ab l e a s a n o r al ag en t wi t h a c ti v i t y ag a in s t s ys t em ic a n d i n vas i v e p u lm on a r y a s pe r gi l lo si s wi t h o ut t he h e m a t ol o gi c a l t o xi c i t y o f a m ph o te r ic in B . O th e r de e p m y c ot ic in f ec ti o ns s u s c e pt i bl e t o i t r ac on a zo le i n cl ud e b l as t om y c o s i s , c o c c i di oi d om y c os is , c r yp to c o c c o s i s , an d h i st o pl as m o s i s .
e . V o r ic o na z ol e . V o r ic on a zo l e is a vai l ab le as bot h an in t r a ven o us a n d a n o r a l a ge n t f o r t h e t r ea tm e n t o f fu n ga l i n fe ct i on s in vo l vi n g in va s i v e a s pe r gi l lo s i s , S c e do sp o ri u m a pi os p er m u m , a nd Fu s a ri u m s p p. , i n c l ud i ng t h os e s p ec ie s t ha t a r e ref r a c t o r y t o o th e r t h e ra p y . f . P o sa c on az o l e. A v a il ab l e a s a n o r al s us p en si on i nd ic a te d f o r t h e p r e ve n ti on o f i n v as i v e i nf e c ti on s c au s e d b y A s per g i ll us an d Ca n di d a s p ec ie s i n p at i en ts r ec eiv i n g H S C T o r wi t h n e ut ro p e ni s. P os ac on a zo le m a y a l so be us ed to t r ea t i n va s i v e f un g al in f ec ti o ns i n p a ti e nt s wh o h a v e p r e vi ou s l y f a il ed o r a r e in t o le r an t to ot h e r a nt i fu ng a ls . 4 . P r ec a u ti o n s a nd m oni t o r i n g e f f ec t s a . K e to c o na z o l e m a y c au s e n au s e a , vom it i ng , d ia r r h ea , a b do m i n al pa in , a n d c on s ti pa t io n . R a r el y , i t l e ad s t o h e ad ac he , diz z i n e s s , g y ne co m a s ti a , a n d f a ta l h e pa t ot o xi c i t y . b . F lu c o na z o l e c om m o nly c a us es G I d is t u rb a nc es ( e. g . , n au s e a , v o m i t in g, e p ig a st r ic pa in , di a r rh ea) . R e v e rs i bl e e l e vat i on s i n se r um am in o t ra ns f e ra s e , e xf o l i a t i v e s k in r ea c ti on s , a nd he a da ch es ha v e be e n re po r t ed . c . I t r ac o na z o l e m a y c aus e n a us ea , v om i ti n g, h y pe r t r ig l y ce r i de m i a , h yp o ka l em ia , ra s h , a n d e l e v a ti on s i n l i v e r e n z ym e s . d . V o r ic o n az ol e . Vi s u al d i s t u r ba nc es , fe v e r , ra sh, vo m it i ng , n a us ea , d i a r rh e a, he a da c h e , s e ps is , pe r ip h er a l e de m a , ab d om i na l p ai n , a nd r e s pi r at o r y di s o r d er s ra re l y oc c u r r e d. Li v e r fu nc t i o n te s t a bn o rm al i ti es have o cc u r r ed . e . P os a co n az o le . Mo s t c om m o n a d ve rs e e ven ts h a v e be e n n au se a a n d h e a da c h e . R as h , d r y s k in , t as te di st u r ba nc es , abd o m i n al p a in , d i z zi n es s , h yp o ka l em ia , t h r om bo c y to p e ni a, a nd fl us h in g c an o c c u r . P os ac o na z o le can c a us e a bn o rm a li ti es in liv e r f u nc ti o n a nd ha s b een as s o c i a t ed wi t h p r o lo n ga t io n o f th e Q T int e r v a l . 5 . S i gn i f ic a n t i n te r a c ti on s a . B ot h k e t oc o na z ol e a nd m ic o na z ol e m a y en h an c e t he an t ic oa g ul a nt e f f ec t o f w a r fa r i n . b . K e t oc o na z o l e m a y a nt a g on i ze t h e a nt i bi o ti c e ff e c ts o f am p ho t e r ic i n B. c . F lu c on a z o l e h as b e en s h o wn t o e l e v at e s e rum le v e ls o f p he n yt o i n , c yc l o s p o r i n e, w a r f a r in , a n d s u lf o n yl u r e a s . C o nc u r re n t h e pa ti c e n z ym e i n du c er s , s u c h as r i fa mp i n , h a ve re s u l te d i n i ncr e a s e d e li m i n at i on of bo th f l uc o na z o l e a nd it r ac on az o l e . d . C o ad m i ni s tr a ti o n o f i tr a c o na z ol e o r ke t o co n az o l e wi t h as t e mi zo l e o r t e r f e n ad i ne m a y r es ul t in i nc r ea se d a st em i zo le or t e r fe n ad in e l e ve ls , p o ss ib l y le a di ng t o li f e -th r e a te ni n g d y s rh y t h m i as a n d d ea t h. e . B ot h k e t oc o na z ol e a nd i t r ac o n az ol e n e ed th e p r es e nc e o f s to m a c h ac i d f o r ad e qu a te ab s o r p ti on . U s e wi t h a nt a c i ds , H 2 - b lo ck e rs , or p ro t on pu m p i n hi b it o rs is c o nt r ai n di c at e d . f . C o nc om i ta n t us e o f i m i d a z ol e a n ti f un g al ag e nts wi t h ci s ap r i d e m a y r e s u l t i n in cr e as ed c o nc e nt r a tio n s o f c is ap r id e , wh ic h ha s b e en as so c i a te d wi t h a d ve r s e c a r di ac e v en ts s u c h as t o rs ad es de po i nte s l e ad in g to s u dd e n d e a th .
P.945
g . V o r ic o n az ol e . C y to c hr o m e P 4 50 2 C1 9 i s t he m a jo r en z ym e i n v o l v ed in m e ta b ol is m . V o ri c o n a z ole i nh ib i ts c y t o ch r om e P 45 0 2 C1 9 , 2 C 9 , a nd 3 A4 . A n y m ed ic a ti o n t ha t is m e t a bo li ze d v i a t he se r ou te s m a y be af f ec t ed , a n d m o ni t o ri ng o f bl o od le v e ls ( if ap p r op r ia t e ) o r c li n ic a l s i g ns a n d s ym p t om s i s n e ce ss a r y wh e n t ak i ng c o n c o m i t an t m ed ic a ti o ns . h . P o sa c on az o le s e r um l e v e ls a re re d uc ed b y c on c u rr e nt a dm i n is t ra t io n wi t h c im e ti di n e, ph e n y to in o r ri f bu t in ; a v o i d co nc om m i t an t us e i f p os s i bl e . P o s ac on a z o le m a y in c rea s e c o n ce n tr a ti o ns o f c yc l os po r in e , t ac r ol im u s , r i f ab u ti n , m id a z ol a m , and p he n yt oi n ; d os ag e a d ju s tm en t s m a y b e re qu i r ed . ( 1 ) F oo d i nc r ea s e s t h e or a l b i oa va i la bi l it y; t ak e po s a c on a zo le wi t h a f ul l m e al o r li q ui d n u t ri t io na l s up p le m e n t G . N ys t a t i n ( M yc o s t a t i n ) . A po l y e ne an t ib io t ic , ny s t a t in ha s a c he m i ca l s t r uc t ur e s im il a r t o th a t o f am ph o te r ic i n B . 1 . M e c ha n is m o f ac t i on. N y s t a ti n i s f u ng i c id a l a n d fu n g is t a ti c ; b in d in g t o s t e ro ls in th e fu ng a l c el l m em b r an e , i t i nc r ea s e s m em b r an e p e rm ea b il i t y a n d p e rm i ts l e ak ag e o f in t r ac e ll ul a r c on t en ts . 2 . S pe c t r um o f a c ti vi t y. N y s t a ti n i s a c t i v e p r im a ri l y a ga in s t C a nd i da s p p. 3 . T he r a pe u t ic us e s a . Th i s d ru g i s u s e d p r im a r i l y a s a to p ic al ag e nt in v a g in al a nd or a l C a nd id a i n f ec ti o ns . b . O r a l n y s ta t in is t h e ra pe u t ic fo r C an di d a i nf ec t io n s o f t h e G I t ra c t, e s pe ci a ll y o ra l a n d es o ph a g ea l i nf e ct io n s ; be c a us e th e d r ug is no t re ad i l y a b so r be d , i t m ai n ta i ns go o d l oc al ac t i v it y . 4 . P r ec a u ti o n s a nd m oni t o r i n g e f f ec t s. O r a l n y st a t in oc ca s i on a ll y c a u s es G I d is t r es s ( e .g . , n au s e a, v o m it i ng , d ia r r h ea ) . Rar e l y , h ype r s e ns i ti vi t y r e a ct i on s oc c u r . H . T e r b in a f in e (L a mi s il ) i s a s yn t he t ic al l y la m i n e wi t h s t ru c t u r e a nd a c ti vi t y r el a te d to na f ti f in e . 1 . M e c ha n is m o f ac t i on. Te r b i na f in e i nh i bi ts s q ua l en e m o no o xy g e n a se , l e ad i ng to an in t e r ru p ti on o f f u ng al s t e ro l b i os yn th e s i s . Te r b in a fi n e m a y be f u n g ic i d al o r f u ng i s ta t ic , de p en d in g o n d r ug con c en t r at i on an d s pe ci es . 2 . S pe c t r um o f a c ti vi t y. Te r b i na f in e h a s ac t i v it y a g ai n st de r m a t op h yt ic f u n gi ( T ri c h op hy t on , Mi c ro s po r u m , a n d E p id e r m oph y to n ) , f il am e nt o us fu n gi ( A s p er g il lu s ), a nd di m o rp h ic fu n gi ( Bl as t o m yc es ). I t m a y al s o po ss es s s om e a c ti vi t y a ga in s t y e as t s . 3 . T he r a pe u t ic us e s a . O r a l t e rb in a fi n e is us ef u l a g ai ns t i n fe c ti on s o f th e to e na il an d fi ng e r na il ( o n yc ho m yc o s i s , ti n ea un g ui u m ) . Ti m e to c u r e is r e d uc ed o ve r i m i da zo l e a n t if u ng al s f o r t h es e i nd ic a ti o ns . I t i s u se f ul in pat i e nt s wh o m a y n o t t o l er a t e t he ad v e r s e ef f ec t pr o fi l e o f i m i da z o l e a nt i f un g al s . b . I t i s al s o us e d i n t in e a c ap i ti s a nd t in ea co r po r is in f ec t io ns .
4 . P r ec a u ti o n s a nd m oni t o r i n g e f f ec t s. A d v e rs e e f f ec ts i n cl ud e ta s t e o r o c ul a r d is t ur b an c e s , s y m p t om a ti c h ep a to b il ia r y dy s f u nc t io n , d ec r ea s e in l ym p ho c y t e c o u nt an d n eu t r o pe ni a , a nd s e r io us s k i n r e ac ti o ns .
IV. Topical Antifungal Agents A. D e f i n i t i o n. Th es e age n ts a re fo r t op ic al us e fo r f un g al i n f ec ti o ns . B . Am p h o t e r i ci n B ( F u ng i z on e ) i s a v a il a bl e a s a 3 % c r ea m o r l o ti o n o r an o r a l s us pe ns io n th a t is no t ab s o r b ed th r o ug h t h e G I t r ac t . 1 . M e c ha n is m o f ac t i on. S e e I I I. B . 1 . 2 . S pe c t r um o f a c ti vi t y. S e e I I I . B. 2 . 3 . T he r a pe u t ic us e s. Am p ho t e ri c i n B is us ed fo r o r o ph a r yng e al c a nd i di as is , c u ta n eo us an d m uc oc u tan e o us c an d id al in f ec t io ns , or as a l oc al ir r i ga n t fo r t h e b l ad d er an d i n t ra p leu r a l o r i n t ra p er i to n ea l a re a s . P.946
4 . P r ec a u ti o n s a nd m oni t o r i n g e f f ec t s. C om p are d wi t h s y s te m i c a d m i ni s t ra ti o n , t he to p ic a l fo r m u la t io n s h a v e r el at i ve l y lo w t o xi c i t y. a . D r y s k in an d l oc a l i r ri ta t i on wi t h e r y t h em a , p ru ri t us , or bu r n in g , a lo ng wi t h m il d s k i n d is c o lo r a tio n , h as oc cu r r ed wi t h the l ot i on an d c r ea m . b . R as h a n d G I e ff ec t s (e . g . , n au se a , vo m i t in g , s t e a to r r he a , d ia r r he a ) te nd t o oc cu r wi t h t h e s us pe ns i on . In ad di t io n , t h er e ha v e b ee n c as e r e po r ts o f u r t ic a ri a , a ng i oe d em a, St e v e ns - J o h ns on s ynd r om e , an d to xi c e pi de r m a l n e c ro l ys i s . C . B u t e na f i ne (M e n ta x ) i s a s y nt h et ic be n z yl am in e r el a te d t o t h e a ll yl am i n e a n t if u ng al ag e n ts (n a ft i fin e , te r bi n af i ne ) . 1 . M e c ha n is m o f ac t i on. B u te n af i ne al t e rs fu ng al m e m b r a ne pe rm e ab i li t y a n d g r o wt h in hi b it i on , i n te r f e re s wi t h s te r ol bi os y n t h es is b y a ll o wi n g s q ua l en e t o a c c um ul a te wi t h i n th e c el l , a nd m a y b e fu n gi c i d al i n c e r ta in c o nc en t r at i on s a ga i ns t s u s c e pt i bl e o r ga n is m s s uc h a s t h e d e rm at o ph y t es . 2 . S pe c t r um o f a c ti vi t y. B u t en a fi n e is ac ti v e a gai n st T ri c h o ph y t o n r u b ru m , T r i ch o ph y t o n m e n ta g r oph y te s , Mi c r o sp o r u m c an is , S po r ot h r ix s c h en c k ii , a n d yea s ts i nc l ud in g Can d id a p a r ap s i lo s i s a n d C. a lb ic a ns . 3 . T he r a pe u t ic us e s. Th e 1 % c re am is us ed in de r m at o ph y t os es , in cl ud i ng t i n ea c o r po r is , t i ne a c r uri s , a nd ti n ea pe d is . 4 . P r ec a u ti o n s a nd m oni t o r i n g e f f ec t s. I f cl i ni c al im p ro ve m en t o f fu ng a l i n f ec ti o n d oe s n ot im p rov e a f t er t he t re a tm en t p er i o d, t he di a gn os is s h ou ld b e r ee va lu a te d . D . B u t o co n az o le (M yc e l e x ) i s a n a z o l e a nt i fu n gal c re am a v ai l ab le f or va g i n al u s e. 1 . M e c ha n is m o f ac t i on. B u to c on a zol e h as f un gis t a ti c ac t i vit y a g ai ns t s us c ep ti b le o rg a ni s m s . Th e d ru g i n te r fe r es wi t h m e m b ra ne pe r m e a bi li t y , s ec o nd a r y m e ta b ol ic ef fe c ts , a n d g r o wt h i n hi bi t io n . Bu t oc on a z o le c o n ta in s a n t ib ac t e ri al e ff ec ts a ga in s t s om e g r am -p o s i ti v e o r g an is m s .
2 . S pe c t r um o f a c ti vi t y. B u t oc on a zo le is a c ti v e a g ai n s t de r m a t op h y t es ( T r i ch op hy t on c o nc e nt r ic u m , T . m en t ag r o ph y t es , T . r ub r u m , Tr ic h op hy t on t o ns u r an s , E pi d er m o p hy to n fl oc co s u m , M. c a n is , Mi c r o s p o ru m gy ps e u m ) , ye a s ts ( C . a lb ic a ns , C. gl a b ra t a ), an d s om e g r am - p o si ti ve o rg a ni s m s ( S . a u r eu s , E . fa ec al is , an d S . p y o ge n es ) . 3 . T he r a pe u t ic us e s. A 2 % c r e am i s u se d f o r vulv o va g i n al c a nd id i as is a n d c om p li ca t ed , re c u r r en t vu l v o v a g in al ca nd i di as is . 4 . P r ec a u ti o n s a nd m oni t o r i n g e f f ec t s a . V ul v o v a g in al bu r n in g a n d i tc h in g a r e t h e m o s t c om m o n ; h o we v e r , th e i r i n ci de n c e i s l o w. H e ad a c h e ; i t c h in g o f fi n ge rs ; ur i n a r y f r eq u en c y a n d b u r ni n g; an d v ul v o v a g ina l di s c ha r ge , ir r i ta t io n , s o r e ne s s , s t in gi n g, od o r , a n d s we l l in g r a r el y oc c u r. b . B u to co n a z ol e m a y d am a ge bi r t h- c o n t ro l d e v ice s s uc h a s c on do m s an d d i ap h r ag m s , l ea d in g t o in a d eq ua t e p r ot e ct io n . Co n s i d er al t e rn a ti v e m e tho d s o f bi r t h c o n t ro l . c . Ta m po n u s e s h ou l d be a v o id e d wi t h th e us e of b u to c o na z o l e. E . C i c lo p i r ox ( Lo p r o x ) is a s y n th e ti c a n ti f un ga l a g e nt th a t i s ch em ic a ll y u n r el a te d to an y o th e r an t i fu n ga l a ge n t . Th e e tha n ol a m i ne c o n ta in e d i n c ic l op i ro x a p p e a rs to enh a nc e e p id e rm al pe n et r at i o n . 1 . M e c ha n is m o f ac t i on. C i c l op i r o x c au s e s i n tr ac e ll ul a r d e pl e ti on o f am in o a c id s a nd io ns ne c e s s a ry f o r no r m a l c el l ul a r f un c t i o n. 2 . S pe c t r um o f a c ti vi t y. C i c l o pi r o x i s a c ti v e ag ain s t d e rm a to ph yt e s , ye a s ts , s om e g r am - po s i ti v e a nd g ra m - n eg a ti v e ba c te r i a, My c o pl as m a , a nd T r i ch o m o na s v a g in al is . S p e c i f ic al l y , c ic lo p ir o x h a s a c ti v i t y ag a in st T . m e n t a g ro ph y te s , T . r u b ru m , E . fl oc c o s u m , M. c an i s , M. f u r f u r, an d C . a l bi ca n s . 3 . T he r a pe u t ic us e s. C ic l op i ro x i s us e d t op ic a ll y f o r th e t r ea t m e n t o f t i nea p e di s , t in e a c ru r is , ti ne a c o rp o ri s , t in e a ve r s i c o l or ( f r om Ma l a ss e zi a ) , a n d c u ta n eo us c a nd i di as is (m o ni li as is ) f ro m C. al b ica n s . P.947
4 . P r ec a u ti o n s a nd m oni t o r i n g e f f ec t s. Lo c al i r ri t a ti o n m a n if es t ed b y e r y t h em a , p r u ri t us , b u rn in g , b l is te r in g , s we l l in g , a n d o o zi ng ha s oc cu r r e d. I f t h is oc c u r s , c ic l op i ro x s h o u ld be di sc o nt i nu ed . F . C l i oq u i no l (f o rm e rl y io d oc h lo r h yd ro xy q u i n ) is a t op ic a l a nt i fu n ga l i n a 3 % oi n tm en t th a t c a n b e u s ed al o ne or in c o m b ina t i on wi t h h y d r oc o r ti so ne . 1 . M e c ha n is m o f ac t i on. U n k n o wn 2 . S pe c t r um o f a c ti vi t y. I t is a c ti v e ag ai n s t de r m a t o ph y t ic f un gi . 3 . T he r a pe u t ic us e s. I t is us ed t op ic al l y ag a in s t th e fo l lo wi n g : a . Ti n ea pe d is a n d t in e a c r u ri s ( r i ng wo r m in f ec ti on s ) b . P r e vio us l y us ed t o t r ea t di a pe r ra s h ; ho we v e r , i t is n o l o ng e r r e c om m e nd e d, an d u s e in c h i ld r en < 2 y e a rs o f ag e i s c on t r ai n di ca t ed 4 . P r ec a u ti o n s a nd m oni t o r i n g e f f ec t s a . Lo ca l i r r i ta ti o n, r as h , a n d s en s i t i vit y r e ac t io ns a r e c om m o n .
b . S ys te m i c a bs o rp t io n af t e r to pi ca l a p pl ic a ti on m a y o c c u r . c . H ig h d o s e s o f c l i oq u ino l o v e r l on g p e ri o ds o f tim e h a v e b e en as so c i a ted wi t h o cu l ot o xi c / n eu r ot o xi c e ff ec t s, in c l u di ng op t ic n e u ri ti s , o pt ic a tr o ph y, a n d s ub ac u te m y el oo p ti c n e u ro pa t h y . G . C l o t r i ma z o l e (L o t r imi n ) is an a z ol e a n ti f un ga l a g en t th a t is an i m id a zol e d e r i v at i v e . I t is r el a te d t o o t he r a z ol e a n t if u ng al ag e n ts s uc h as b u t o co n az o le , ec o na z o le , ke t o co n az o le , m i c ona z o le , o x ic o n az ol e , s u l co n az o le , an d t i o con a z ol e . 1 . M e c ha n is m o f ac t i on. C l o tr im a zo le al t e rs fu ng a l c el l m em b ra ne p e r m e ab i li t y b y bi nd i ng wi t h p h os ph o li pi ds in t he m em b ra n e. 2 . S pe c t r um o f a c ti vi t y. I t is a c ti v e ag ai n s t y e as t s , d e rm a to p h y te s ( T . r u b r u m , T . m en t a gr o ph y te s , E. fl oc co s u m , M. c a ni s ) , a nd s o m e gr am p o si t i ve b ac te r i a. A t h ig he r c o nc e nt r a ti o ns , c l o t rim a z o le in hi b it s M. f u r fu r , A s p e rg il l us f u m i ga t us , C. a lb ic a ns , a nd s o m e s t ra i ns of S . a u re us , S . p y og e ne s , P r ot e us v ul g ar i s , a nd S al m o n el la . A t ve r y h i gh c o nc en t r at i on s, c l ot r im a z o le ha s a n e f fec t on S po r ot h r ix , C r y pt oc o cc u s, C ep h al os p or i u m , F u sa r i u m , a nd T . v a g in ali s . 3 . T he r a pe u t ic us e s a . Th e l o z e ng es , wh i c h ar e a dm in is t er e d 5 ti m e s p e r da y , a re us ef u l i n t r e a ti n g o ro p ha r y n g ea l c a n di d ia s i s . L o zen ge s a r e a l s o u se d fo r pr im a r y p r o ph yl a xi s o f m u c o c ut an e o us c an d id ia s i s i n HI V- i n fe c te d i n fa n ts o r c h il d re n wi t h s e v e re im m u n os u pp r es s i on . b . Th e c r e am , l ot i on , o r s o lu t io n i s us e d t o t r e at d e r m a t op h yt os es , s u pe r f ic ia l m y c o s e s , a nd c u ta ne o us c a nd id i as is . c . I nt r a v ag i na l d os a ge for m s a r e us e fu l i n tr e at i ng v u l vo v a gi n al c a nd id i as i s . 4 . P r ec a u ti o n s a nd m oni t o r i n g e f f ec t s a . C u ta n eo us re a c t io n s wi t h t o pi ca l a dm i ni s t r a ti on m a y i nc lu d e b li st e r in g , e r y t h em a , e de m a , pr u r itu s , b u rn i ng , s ti n gi n g, pee l i n g , s k i n f is s u r es , a n d g e n er a l i r ri t at i on . b . Th e v a gi n al ta bl e ts a re as s o ci a t ed wi t h m il d bu r n i n g , s k i n r as h , i tc hi n g, vu l v a l ir r i ta t io n , l o we r abd o m i n al c r am ps , b l oa t ing , sl ig h t c ra m p i ng , v a gi na l s o r en es s d u ri ng in t e rc our s e , a nd an in c re as e i n ur i n a r y fr e qu e nc y . c . C r os s - s en s i t i z at i on oc c u rs wi t h im i d a z ol e ; h o we ve r , it is un p re d ic ta b le . d . A bn o rm a l l i v er f un c t i on t es ts ( el e v a te d A S T) ha v e oc c ur r e d i n p at i en ts t a ki n g t he lo z e n ge s . H . E c o na z o l e ( S p ec t az ol e ) is a n a zo l e a nt i fu n ga l a g en t th a t is an i m id a zol e d e r i v at i v e . 1 . M e c ha n is m o f ac t i on. E c on a zol e a l te r s c el l m e m b ra ne s a n d in c re as e s p e r m e ab i li t y ( li k e m a n y o t h e r a z o le ag en t s ). 2 . S pe c t r um o f a c ti vi t y. E c on a zo le is a c ti ve ag ain s t d e rm a to ph y t e s , ye a s ts , s om e g r am - po s i ti v e b ac te r i a, an d T . v a gin a li s . 3 . T he r a pe u t ic us e s a . Th e 1% to pi c al c r ea m , l o ti o n, o r s o l ut i on is u s ef u l i n t r e at i ng d e r m a t op h y t os es an d c ut a n eo us ca nd i di as is ( ti nea c o r p or is a nd ti ne a c r u ri s ).
b . E co n a z ol e i s al s o us ed t o t r ea t pi t y r ia s i s (t in ea ) ve r s i c o lo r ( M. f u r f u r) . P.948
4 . P r ec a u ti o n s a nd m oni t o r i n g e f f ec t s. I n g en e ra l , t h e re is a lo w i n ci de n c e of to xi c i t y . Top i c a ll y , a p a ti e nt m a y e xp e r ie nc e b u r ni ng , s t in g ing s e ns at i on s , p ru r i tu s , an d e r y t h em a ( a f te r 2 - 4 d a ys ) . I . G e n t ia n vi o le t i s a d ye t ha t po ss es s e s t he ab ili t y t o k il l f u ng i , y e as t s , a n d s om e g r am - po s i t i v e b a c t e r ia . 1 . M e c ha n is m o f ac t i on. N o ne k n o wn 2 . S pe c t r um o f a c ti vi t y. G e n t ia n v io le t is a c ti v e a g ai n st C an d id a , E p i de r m o p hy to n , C ry pt oc oc c us , T r ic ho p hy to n , an d s om e S ta ph yl o co c c us s p p. 3 . T he r a pe u t ic us e s. I t is us ed t o t r ea t c u ta n eo us C . a l bi c a ns in f ec ti o ns ( m o ni li a o r th r us h ) . 4 . P r ec a u ti o n s a nd m oni t o r i n g e f f ec t s a . G e nt i an v i ol e t m a y c au s e i r ri t a ti on o r se n s i ti v it y r e a c t io n s o r p os si bl y u l ce r a ti on o f t he m u c o us m em b ra n es . I f th e s ol u tio n is s wa l l o we d , e s op h ag i ti s , la r y n gi t is , or t r ac h ei t is m a y occ u r . b . S ki n t a tt o oi n g m a y o c c u r i f g e nt i an v i ol e t is app l ie d to gr a nu l at i on ti s s ue . c . G e nt i an v i ol e t s h o ul d n o t b e u s e d i n a r e as o f e xt e n s i v e ul ce r at i on . d . Th i s d r ug i s a d y e a nd wi l l s ta in c l o th in g . J . K e to c o na z o l e ( N i z o r a l ) is a n i m i d a zol e -d e r i ve d an t if u ng al d ru g th a t is a va i la b le to p ic al l y as a c r e a m a nd a s h am p oo . 1 . M e c ha n is m o f ac t i on. S e e I I I. E . 1 . 2 . S pe c t r um o f a c ti vi t y. S e e I I I . E. 2 . 3 . T he r a pe u t ic us e s a . Th e 2% to pi c al c r ea m i s u s e d i n tr e at i ng ti n ea c o r po r is , t i ne a c r ur is , and t i n ea pe di s c au s e d b y t he d e rm at o ph y t es ( E . f l oc c os u m , T . m e n ta g ro p hy te s , a n d T . ru b r u m ) . b . I t i s us e d f o r c u t an e ou s c an d id i as is . c . Th e 2% to pi c al c r ea m o r 2 % s h am p oo m a y be u s ed in t re a ti n g t in e a ve r s ic o lo r ( M. f u r fu r ) . Sel e ni um - b as ed s h am po os m a y al so be us e fu l i n t h is area. d . Th e 2% to p ic al c r e am i s u s e f ul ag ai ns t s e bo r rh e ic de r m a t it is . Th e 2 % s h am po o i s u s e f ul i n re du c in g s c a li n g c a us e d b y d a n dr u f f. e . W he n c om bi ne d wi t h a s te r oi d , ke t oc o na z o le is us e fu l i n t r ea t in g th e f o l lo wi n g : a t op ic de r m a t it i s , di a pe r r as h, ec ze m a , f o ll ic u li ti s , im p et i go , i n t er t r ig o , l ic he n oi d d e rm a ti t is , a n d ps o ri as is . f . A n o p ht h al m i c s u s p e ns i on c a n b e e xt e m p or a ne o us l y p re pa r e d t o t r ea t f u n ga l k e ra t it is . 4 . P r ec a u ti o n s a nd m oni t o r i n g e f f ec t s a . R ea c ti o ns f r om t he 2% t op ic a l c re am in c l u de l o c a l i r r it a ti o n, p ru r it us , a n d s t in g in g . C o nt a c t de r m a ti t is is p o s s ib le an d o c c u rs wi t h ot h e r im id a z o le d e r i va ti v e s .
b . Th e 2% s h am po o m a y l e ad to in c re as e d h ai r l os s , i r ri t at i on , a b no r m a l h a i r t e xt u r e , s c a lp pu s tu le s , d r y s k in , p r u ri t us , a nd o il in es s o r dr yn e s s o f h a i r a nd s c al p . I t m a y i n a d di t io n s t r ai gh t en o th e rwi s e c ur l y ha i r . K . M ic o na z ol e (M o ni s tat ) i s a n im i da zo le - d er i v ed a nt i fu n ga l d r ug t ha t i s a va i la b le to p ic al l y as a 2% a e ro s o l , 2 % a er o s o l po wd e r , 2 % c re am , a ki t , 2 % po wd e r a nd 2% ti nc tu r e , 2 % vag i na l c re a m , an d 10 0 m g a nd 20 0 m g va g i n al s u pp os i to r ie s . 1 . M e c ha n is m o f ac t i on. S e e I I I. E . 1 . 2 . S pe c t r um o f a c ti vi t y. S e e I I I . E. 2 . 3 . T he r a pe u t ic us e s. Mi c o na z o l e is ad v a n ta g eo us o ve r o t he r a g en t s s u c h a s n ys t at i n a nd to l na f ta te i n t ha t i t s ac t i v i t y c o v er s de r m a t op h yt es as we l l a s C an di d a. a . To p ic al us e i s e ff ec t i ve a ga in s t t in e a p ed is , ti ne a c r u ri s , a nd ti n ea c o r po r is c a us ed b y d e rm a t o ph y t e s ( T . m e n ta g r oph y te s , T . ru b ru m , an d E . f l oc co su m ) . b . I t i s al s o e ff ec t i v e a g ai n s t ti n ea v e rs ic o lo r f ro m M. f u r f u r . c . Li ke o th e r im i da z o l e de r i v a ti v e s , i t i s us e fu l i n t r e a ti n g c u t an e ou s f un g al i n f ec ti o ns . d . Th e v a gi n al c r ea m a nd v a g in al su p po s i t or i es ar e e ff ec t i ve i n t r e at in g vu l v o va g i na l c an di d ia s i s . P.949
4 . P r ec a u ti o n s a nd m oni t o r i n g p a r am e te r s a . To p ic al c r e am s h a v e c a us ed lo ca l i r r it a ti o n a nd b u rn in g . b . V ag i na l p r ep a r at i on s h a v e le d t o v ul vo v a g in a l b u r n i n g, it c hi ng , i r r i ta t ion , p e l vic c r am ps , v a gi na l bu r n in g , h ea d ac he , h i v e s, a n d s k in r as h . c . I f vu l v o v a gi n al c a nd id ia s is p e rs is t s f o r l on ge r th a n 3 da y s , s ee k f u r th e r m e di ca l a t te n ti o n. d . Ta m po ns s h ou l d b e av o i d e d in p at ie n ts us in g v a g i n a l s u pp os i to r ie s o r c r e am ; s an i ta r y pa d s s ho u ld be s u bs t it u te d . e . V ag i na l s up po s i t o ri es a r e m a nu f ac tu r e d f r om a ve g e ta b le oi l b as e t h at m a y in t e ra c t wi t h la t e x pr o d uc ts . A v oi d u si n g d iap h r ag m s o r c o n do m s c o nc u r re n tl y wi t h s u pp os i t o ri es . S ee k a n a lt e r na t iv e f o rm o f b ir t h c on t r ol . L . N a f t if i n e ( N a f ti n ) i s a s y n t he t ic a l l y la m i ne s i m i l a r t o t e r bi na f in e . I t i s a va i la b le as a 1 % t op ic al c r ea m a nd a 1 % t o pi c a l g e l . 1 . M e c ha n is m o f ac t i on. N a f ti f in e i s f u n gi s ta t i c a n d i nt e r fe r es wi t h s t ero l b i os yn t he s i s b y ac c u m u la t i ng s q ua l en e i n t h e f ung a l c el l . N a f ti fi n e a ls o p o ss es s e s s o m e lo c a l a nt i - in f la m m a to r y ac t i v it y. 2 . S pe c t r um o f a c ti vi t y a . N a ft i fi n e is ac ti v e a gai n s t T . m e n ta g r op hy t es , T . r ub r u m , T. to n s u r an s , T r i ch o ph y t o n v e r r uc os um , T r i c h op hy t o n v i ol a ceu m , E . fl oc co s u m , Mi c r o s p o ru m a ud ou i ni i , M. c a n i s , an d M. g yp s e um .
b . C . a l bi c a ns , C an di d a k r us e i, C an d id a p a ra p s i lo s is , a nd C a nd id a t r o pi c al is ar e a f f ec te d b y n a f ti fi n e; ho we ve r , t h e co n c e n t ra t io ns of na f t if in e va r y f o r C a nd id a k il li n g, d e p en di n g o n t he s p ec ies . c . I n vi t r o ac t i v it y h as bee n de m o ns t r at e d a ga i ns t A s pe r gi l lu s f la vu s a n d A s p e rg il l us f u m i ga t us . Ot h e rs in c l u de S po r ot h r ix s c h e nc k i i, C r yp t oc oc c u s n e o fo r m a ns , Pe t r ie ll i di um b o y d i i, B la s t o m y c es de r m a t i ti di s , a nd H i s to p la s m a c ap s u la t u m . 3 . T he r a pe u t ic us e s. N af t i fi n e is ac t i v e a ga i ns t de r m at o ph y t os es a nd c u ta n eo us c a nd i di as is . a . I t is al s o us e d t o t r ea t t i ne a c r u ri s, ti n ea pe d is , t in e a c or p o ri s , an d ti nea m a nu s ( T . m en t ag r op hy te s , T . ru b ru m , T . v e rr u c os u m , T. v i ol ac e u m , E. f l oc co su m , o r M. c an is ) . b . I t i s al s o us e fu l i n t r ea t i ng ti n ea un g ui um (o n yc h om yc os is ) . 4 . P r ec a u ti o n s a nd m oni t o r i n g e f f ec t s. Tr a n s i en t bu r n in g a nd s t i ng in g M . N ys t a t i n ( M yc o s t a t i n ) . A po l y e ne an t ib io t ic , ny s t a t in ha s a c he m i ca l s t r uc t ur e s im il a r t o th a t o f am ph o te r ic i n B . It is av a i l ab l e as a n o ra l s us p en s i o n, t ab le t , l o z en g e , t op ic a l c re am , oi ntm e nt , to p ic al po wd e r , and va g i n al ta bl e t . 1 . M e c ha n is m o f ac t i on. N y s t a ti n i s f u ng i c id a l a n d fu n g is t a ti c ; b in d in g t o s t e ro ls in th e fu ng a l c el l m em b r an e , i t i nc r ea s e s m em b r an e p e rm ea b il i t y a n d p e rm i ts l e ak ag e o f in t r ac e ll ul a r c on t en ts . 2 . S pe c t r um o f a c ti vi t y. N y s t a ti n i s a c t i v e p r im a ri l y a ga in s t C a nd i da s p p. 3 . T he r a pe u t ic us e s. Th i s d r u g is us ed p ri m a r il y a s a t op ic al ag e nt in va g i n al a n d o r al C an d id a i n fe c ti on s . 4 . P r ec a u ti o n s a nd m oni t o r i n g e f f ec t s. I r ri t at i on h as oc c u r r ed in e xt r e m e l y r a re in s t a nc es . N . O x i c on az o l e ( O x is t a t) i s a n im i da zo l e- d e ri v e d a n ti f un g al d ru g t h at is a va i la b le as a 1 % t op ic al c r ea m o r 1 % to pi ca l l o tio n . 1 . M e c ha n is m o f ac t i on. S e e I I I. E . 1 . 2 . S pe c t r um o f a c ti vi t y. S e e I I I . E. 2 . 3 . T he r a pe u t ic us e s a . Th e 1% c r ea m o r l o ti on is us e fu l i n t r ea t in g ti ne a c r u ri s , t in e a c o r p or is , t i n ea m a nu s , an d ti ne a pe d is f ro m d e rm at o ph y t e s. b . O xi c o n a z ol e i s a ls o e ff e c ti v e ag ai ns t ti n ea v e rs ic o lo r c a us ed b y M. f u r f u r. 4 . P r ec a u ti o n s a nd m oni t o r i n g e f f ec t s. A d v e rs e e f f ec ts ar e ra r e a nd a re c o nf i ne d t o l oc a l i r ri t a ti on . P.950
O . S u l c on az o le ( E xe l der m ) is an im id a zo le - de r i ve d an t if u ng al d ru g th a t is a va i la b le as a 1 % t op ic al c r ea m a nd a 1 % t o pi c a l s o lu t io n . 1 . M e c ha n is m o f ac t i on ( s ee I II . E .1 ) . Th e a n ti bac t e ri al e ff ec t s e xe r t e d b y s u lc on a zo le ar e th o ug h t t o be t he re s ul t o f a di r ec t ph y s ic oc he m i ca l e f fe c t
o n th e d es t r uc t io n o f u ns a t u r at e d f at t y ac i ds p r es e n t i n b ac t e ri a l c e ll m em b r an es . 2 . S pe c t r um o f a c ti vi t y a . S ul c o n a z ol e h as ac ti v it y a g ai ns t de r m a t op h yt es , in c l ud i ng E . f lo cc os u m, M. a u d o u in ii , M. c a ni s , M. g y p s eu m , T . m e n ta g ro p hy t es , T . ru b r u m , T . t o ns u r an s , an d T. v i ol ac e u m . I t a ls o h as ac ti v i t y a g ai n st M. f u r f u r. b . S ul co n a z ol e a ls o h as a c ti v i t y a ga in s t se l ec te d g r a m - p os it i ve a e r ob es (S . a u r eu s , S . e p id e r m id is , S t a p hy lo c o c c us s a p ro phy t ic us , E. f ae ca li s , Mi c r o c oc c u s l u te us , a n d B a c il lu s s ub t il is ) a n d a na e r ob es ( C lo s tr i di u m and P r o p io n ib ac t er i u m a c ne s , C l os t ri d iu m p e rf r in g en s, C l os t ri d iu m t e ta ni , an d C l o s t r i di u m bo t ul in u m ) . 3 . T he r a pe u t ic us e s a . Th e 1% to pi c al c r ea m o r 1 % t op ic a l s o l ut io n i s u s ef u l i n t r ea t in g t i ne a c o r po r is a n d t in e a c ru r is . b . Th e 1% to p ic al c r e am h as be e n s tu di e d f o r u s e a ga i n s t t in e a p ed is ; the s o lu t io n h as no t b e en e va l ua t ed f o r t hi s i nd ic a ti on . c . Th e 1% c r ea m i s us e fu l ag ai ns t ti n ea ve rs ic o lo r ( M. f u r f u r ). d . Th e r e i s n ot an ap p rov e d i nd ic a ti o n f o r cu t an eo u s c a n di d ia s i s ; ho we v e r , s u lc on a zo le 1% is a s e f fe c ti v e as m ic o na zo l e 2 % o r c l ot r im a z o le 1% in t r e a ti n g c u t an e ou s c a n did i as is . e . S ul c o n a z ol e i s us e fu l i n t re a ti ng in f ec t io ns c a us e d b y b ac te r ia su c h as i m pe t ig o ( S . py og e ne s ) a n d e c t h y m a ( S . a u re us ). 4 . P r ec a u ti o n s a nd m oni t o r i n g e f f ec t s. A d v e rs e r e ac t io ns in cl u de lo ca l e f f ec ts s u c h as b u r ni ng a n d i r r it a ti o n, sk in ed em a , d r yne ss , s c a li n g, f i ss u ri n g, c r ac k i n g, ge n er a l i z ed r ed pa p ul es , a n d s e v e r e ec z e m a. P . T e r bi n a fi n e ( L am i s il AT ) i s a s y n th e ti c a ll y l am i ne a v ai la b le as a 1 % c r e am wi t h s t ru c t u r e a nd a c ti v i t y r el a te d t o n a f ti fin e . 1 . M e c ha n is m o f ac t i on. Te r b i na f in e i nh i bi ts s q ua l en e m o no o xy g e n a s e , l e ad i ng to an in t e r ru p ti on o f f u ng al s t e ro l b i os yn th e s i s . Te r b in a fi n e m a y be f u n g ic i d al o r f u ng i s ta t ic , de p en d in g o n d r ug con c en t r at i on an d s pe ci es . 2 . S pe c t r um o f a c ti vi t y. Te r b i na f in e h a s ac t i v it y a g ai n st de r m a t op h yt ic f u n gi ( T ri c h op hy t on , Mi c ro s po r u m , a n d E p id e r m oph y to n ) , f il am e nt o us fu n gi ( A s p er g il lu s ), a nd di m o rp h ic fu n gi ( Bl as t o m yc es ). I t m a y al s o po ss es s s om e a c ti vi t y a ga in s t y e as t s . 3 . T he r a pe u t ic us e s. I t is us e fu l f o r t i ne a p e di s , t i n ea c o r po r is , a nd t in ea c r u ri s . 4 . P r ec a u ti o n s a nd m oni t o r i n g e f f ec t s. I t c an ca u s e lo c a l i r r it a ti o n. Q . T e r c on az o l e ( T e ra z ol - 7 ) is a n i m i d a zol e -d e ri v e d an t if u ng al d ru g th a t is a va i la b le as a 0 .4 % a n d 0 . 8 % v a g in al c re am an d a n 8 0 - m g v a gi na l s u pp os i to r y . 1 . M e c ha n is m o f ac t i on. I t i s f u n gi c i da l a g ai ns t C . a lb ic an s . L ik e o th e r i m id a zol e a g en t s , te r c o na z o l e a l te r s c e l lu la r m em b r an es , re s u l ti n g in i n c re as ed m e m b r an e p e rm e ab il i t y . 2 . S pe c t r um o f a c ti vi t y. I t is a c ti v e ag ai n s t de r m a t o ph y t e s ; ye as ts ; a n d, a t h i gh co nc e nt r a ti on s , g r am - p os it i ve a n d g r am -n e ga t i v e b ac t e ri a .
3 . T he r a pe u t ic us e s a r e f o r c om pl ic a te d a n d u nc o m pl ic a te d vul v o va g in al c a nd i di as is . 4 . P r ec a u ti o n s a nd m oni t o r i n g e f f ec t s. A d v e rs e r e ac t io ns in cl u de bu r ni ng , p r u r it us , ir r i ta t io n , h ea d ac h e, bo d y p ai n, a nd pa in o f fe m a l e g en i ta li a . R . T i oc o n az ol e ( Va g is ta t - 1 ) i s a n im i da zo l e- d e ri v e d an t if u ng al d ru g th a t i s a va i la b le as a 6 .5 % v ag in a l o in t m e n t. 1 . M e c ha n is m o f ac t i on. Ti o c on a zol e i s f u n gi c id a l ag ai ns t C . a lb ic a ns . L i ke ot h e r im i da z o le ag en t s , t io c o n a z ol e a l te r s c e l lu l a r m e m b r a ne s, r e s ul ti n g i n i nc r ea s e d m e m b ra ne pe r m e a bi li t y . P.951
2 . S pe c t r um o f a c ti vi t y a . A c t i vi t y a g ai ns t fu ng i in c lu d es m os t s t ra i ns o f C a n d id a a nd t he d e r m a t op h y t es . Th er e i s a l s o ac ti v i t y a ga in s t A spe r g il l us a n d C . n e o fo r m a ns . b . Ti o co n a z ol e i s ac t i v e a g ai n s t th e fo ll o wi n g a e ro b i c g ra m - p os it i ve b a ct e r ia : G ar d ne r el l a v ag i na l is , Co r yn eb a ct e ri u m m i n u ti s s i m u m , E. f ae c a li s , S . a u re us , S . e pi de r m i dis , an d s om e S t r ep t oc oc c i s p p . G ra m -n e ga ti v e b a ct e r ia : i t i s a c t i v e a g ain s t H. py lo r i , H a e m op h ilu s d uc r ey i , Mo r a x e ll a c a ta r r ha l is , Ne is s e r ia gon o r r ho e ae , a n d N . m e ni ng i t id is . c . O t he r o rg an is m s th a t ti o c o n a zol e h as ac ti v i t y ag a in s t a r e T . v ag in a li s , L y mp ho g r an ul o m a v en e re u m , an d C hl a m yd ia t ra c h o m a t is . 3 . T he r a pe u t ic us e s. Ti o c on a z o le is u se d fo r s im p le an d c om pl ic a te d vu l v o va g i na l c an di d ia s i s . O t h e r u s e s h a v e b e en exp l o r e d ; ho we ve r , t op ic al c r e am s f or us e i n t h os e s c e n a ri os a re no t a v a i lab l e i n t h e U n it e d S t a te s . 4 . P r ec a u ti o n s a nd m oni t o r i n g e f f ec t s. Lo c al i r ri t a ti o n h as b e en m a ni f es te d a s v ul v o v a g in a l b u rn i ng , vag i ni t is , a nd p r ur i tu s . S . T o ln a f ta t e (T i na c t i n) i s a v a il a bl e t o pi ca ll y a s a 1 % a e ro so l , 1 % p o wd er , 1 % c r e am , a nd 1% s o lu t io n . 1 . M e c ha n is m o f ac t i on. I t m a y di st o r t h yp ha e an d s t un t m y c el i al gr o wt h i n s us c ep ti b le fu n gi . 2 . S pe c t r um o f a c ti vi t y. To l n a ft a te m a y b e e it h er f u n g is t a ti c o r f un g ic i da l t o t he fo ll o wi n g o r g an is m s : M. g y ps e u m , M. c a n is , M. a u do u in ii , Mi c r o s p o ru m ja p on ic u m , T . r ub r u m , T. m e nt a g ro ph y te s , T r ic ho p hy to n s ch o en l ei ni i , T . t o ns u ra ns , E . f lo cc os u m , As pe r g ill u s n ig e r , C . a l bi c a ns , C . n e o fo r m a ns , a n d A . fu m ig a t us . 3 . T he r a pe u t ic us e s. To l n a ft a te is us ed fo r de r m a t o ph y t o s e s a nd ti n ea ve r s ic o lo r . 4 . P r ec a u ti o n s a nd m oni t o r i n g e f f ec t s. Th e r e m a y b e s li g ht lo ca l i r r i ta t io n .
V. Antiprotozoal Agents
A. C l a s s i f ic a t io n . Th es e d r ug s f al l i n to t wo m a in c a t eg o r ie s : an t i ma l a r ia l a g e n ts , u s e d to t re a t m al a r ia in f ec ti o n, an d a m ebi c i d es an d t r i c h om o n ac i de s , u s e d t o t re a t a m e bi c a n d t ri c ho m on a l in f ec t io ns . B . An t i m a l a r ia l a g en t s . S t i ll a l ea d in g c au se o f ill n es s a nd de a th in t r o pi c al an d s ub t ro p ic al c o un t r ie s, m a la r ia r es ul ts f ro m i n fe ct i on b y a n y of f o u r s pe c i es o f t he p ro t oz o a l ge n us Pl as m o d iu m . A n t im a la r ia l a ge n ts a re s e le ct i v e l y a c ti v e du r in g d i f fe r e nt ph as es o f t he pr o t o z o an li f e c y cl e . Ma j o r a n t im al a ri a l d ru gs in c l u de c h lo r o q ui n e ( Ar a l e n ) , h a l o fa n t r in e ( Ha l f an ) , h yd r o x yc h l o r o q u i ne ( P la q u en i l ) , p r i ma q ui n e , pyr i m e t h a m i n e ( D a r a p rim ) , q u i n in e , a nd me f l o qu i ne ( L a r ia m ). I n a dd i ti on , two c o m bi na t io n b r a nd s ar e a va i la b le : s ul f ad o xi n e plu s p y r i m e t ha m i n e ( F an s id a r ) a n d a to v a q uo n e p lus p r o gu a ni l ( Ma l a r o n e) . 1 . M e c ha n is m o f ac t i on a . C h lo r o q u in e a n d h yd r o x yc h l o r o q u i ne bi n d t o a n d a lt e r t h e p r op e r ti es o f m ic r o bi al an d m am m a li an D N A . b . Th e m ec h an is m o f a c ti o n o f p r i m aq u i ne , q u i nin e , Fa n si d a r , a nd m e f l oq u i ne is u nk n o wn . c . P yr i m e t h a mi n e i m p ede s fo li c a ci d r e du c ti on by i n h ib i ti ng t he en z y m e d i h yd ro f ol a te r ed uc t as e . 2 . S pe c t r um o f a c ti vi t y a . C h lo r o q u in e a n d h yd r o x yc h l o r o q u i ne a re s up p r es s i v e bl oo d s c h iz o n ti c id a l a ge n ts an d a re ac ti ve ag a in s t t he a s e xu a l e r y t h ro c y t e f o rm s o f P la s m od i u m v iv ax an d P l as m o d iu m f al c i p ar u m a n d g am e to c yt es o f P . v iv ax , P la s m od iu m m a l a ri a e , a nd P la s m od iu m o v a l e . b . P r i ma q u in e , a c u ra t i ve a ge n t, is ac ti v e ag a in s t l i ve r f o rm s o f P . v iv ax a n d P. ov al e a n d t he p rim a r y e xo e r y t h r oc y t e f o rm s o f P. f al ci pa r u m . c . P yr i m e t h a mi n e i s ac ti v e a ga in s t c h l o ro qu i ne - re s is ta n t s t ra in s o f P . f a lc i pa r u m an d s om e s tra i ns of P . v iv ax . d . Q u i ni n e , a g e ne r al i z ed p r ot o pl as m i c p oi s o n , is t o xi c t o a wi d e r a ng e o f o r g an is m s . In m a la r ia , thi s d r u g h as b o th s u pp r es s i v e a n d c ur a ti ve ac t io n a g ai n st c h lo r oq u in e - re s is t an t s t r ai ns . P.952
e . F an s id a r (s ul f ad o xi n e p l us p y r i m e t ha m i n e) is a b lo od s ch iz o n t ic i da l a g e nt th a t i s ac t i v e a ga in s t t h e e r y t h ro c y ti c f o rm s o f s u sc ep t ib l e p la s m odi a . I t is al so ac ti v e a ga i ns t T. g on d ii . f . M a l a r on e (a t o v aq u on e p l us p r o gu an i l ) is ac ti v e a g ai ns t th e e r y t h ro c y t ic a n d e xo e r y t h r o c y ti c f o rm s o f P la s m o di u m s p p. g . M e f l oq u i ne is a bl o od s c h iz on t i ci d a l a ge n t t ha t is ac ti ve ag a in s t P . f a lc i pa r u m (b o th c h lo r o qu i ne - s u sc e pt ib l e a nd - r es is t an t s t r ai ns ) an d P. v iv ax . h . H a lo f a n t ri n e i s a b l ood s c hi z o n ti c i d al ag e nt ac t i v e ag a in st P . f a lc ip a rum a n d P. v i v a x . 3 . T he r a pe u t ic us e s
a . C h lo r o q u in e i s t he p re f e r re d a g en t u s ed to s up p r es s m a l a ri a s y m p t om s a n d t o te rm i na t e a c u t e m a l a ri a a t ta c k s r es u lt i ng fr o m P. f al ci pa r u m an d P. m a l a r ia e i n fe c ti on s . ( 1 ) I t is m o r e p o te n t a nd l e s s to xi c t ha n q u in in e . ( 2 ) E xc e p t wh e r e d r ug - r es is t an t P . f al ci p a ru m s t ra i ns a re pr e va le n t, c h lo r oq u in e i s t he m o s t u s ef u l a nt im a la r ia l a g en t. b . H yd r o x yc h l o r o q u i n e i s u s e d a s a n a l te r na t i v e t o c h lo r oq u in e i n p a ti en ts wh o c a nn o t t o le r at e c hl or o q ui n e o r wh e n c h l o ro qu i ne is un a v a il ab l e. c . P r i ma q ui n e i s us e d to c u r e re la p s e s o f P . v iva x a n d P . ov al e m al a ri a a n d t o p re ve n t m al a ri a i n e xp o s ed pe r s o ns r et u r ni ng fr o m re gi o ns wh e r e m al a ri a i s e n de m i c . d . P yr i m e t h a m in e i s e f fe c ti v e in t he pr e ve n ti on a n d t r e at m e n t o f c h lo r oq u in e - re s i s t a n t s t ra i ns of P . f a lc ip a ru m . I t is no w u s e d a lm os t e xc l u s i v el y i n c om bi na t ion wi t h a s ul f on am id e o r s u lf o ne . e . Q u i ni n e ( 1 ) Q u in in e s u lf a te , a n or a l fo r m , is th e ra p eu t ic fo r ac u te m a la r ia c a us e d b y c h lo r oq u in e - re s i s t a n t s t ra i ns . ( 2 ) Q u in in e di h y d ro c h l or id e , a pa r e nt e ra l fo r m , is u s ed in s e ve r e c a s es o f c h lo r oq u in e - re s i s t a n t m al a r ia . (I t is a v a i la bl e o n l y f r om t he C D C . ) ( 3 ) Q u in in e i s a lm os t a l wa y s gi v e n i n c om b in a ti on wi t h a no t he r an t im al a ri al a g e nt . f . F a ns i da r ( 1 ) F an s i da r is u s ed fo r th e s u pp r es s i o n o r p r op hy l a xi s o f c h lo r oq u in e r e s is ta n t P . fa lc i pa r u m m a l a ri a . ( 2 ) I t h as be en us ed f o r th e p ro ph y l a xi s o f P . c a rin i i i n fe ct i on s i n A I D S p a t ie n ts u n ab l e t o t ol e r at e c o t ri m o xa z o l e ( t r im et ho p r im -s u lf am e th o xa z o l e ). g . M e f l oq u i ne is i n di c a te d fo r th e tr e a tm en t o f ac u te m a la r i a a nd th e p r e ve n ti on o f P . fa lc ip a ru m a n d P . v iv ax in f ec ti on s . h . H a lo f a n t ri n e i s i nd ic at e d fo r tr e at m en t o f m al ar i a i n a d ul ts wh o c a n t o l er a t e o ra l m ed ic a ti o n a n d wh o h a v e m il d to m od e r a te m a la r ia ( ≥ 1 0 0, 0 00 3
p a r as i te s / m m ) c au s e d by P . f a lc ip a ru m o r P . vi va x . i . M a l a r on e ( 1 ) P r op h y l a xi s o f P . f al c i p a ru m m al a ri a , i nc lu di ng a r ea s wh e r e c h lo r oq u in e r e s is ta nc e h as be e n r e po r t e d. ( 2 ) Tr e a tm en t of ac u te , un c om pl ic a te d P. f al ci pa ru m m al a r ia . Th is c om b in a ti o n h as b e en s ho wn t o b e e ff ec t i v e i n r eg i o n s wh e r e t he d ru gs c h lo r oq u in e , h al o fa n t ri ne, m ef l oq ui n e, an d a m o d ia q u i n e m a y h a ve u n ac ce p ta b le fa i lu r e r a tes , pr e s u m a bl y b ec a us e of d r ug r es is ta nc e . 4 . P r ec a u ti o n s a nd m oni t o r i n g e f f ec t s a . C h lo r o q u in e a n d h yd r o x yc h l o r o q u i ne ( 1 ) B ec au s e t he s e d ru gs c on c e n t ra t e i n t h e li v e r , t h e y s h ou ld be us e d c a ut i ou s l y i n p at i en ts wi t h h ep a ti c d is ea s e . ( 2 ) C hl o r oq ui n e m us t b e a d m i ni s te r ed wi t h e xt r em e c au t io n i n p a ti e nt s wit h n e u ro l og ic al , he m a t ol o gic a l, o r se v e r e G I d is o rd er s .
( 3 ) V is ua l d is t u rb a nc es , h e a da c h e , s k in r as h, a nd G I di s tr es s h a v e b e en r e p o rt e d. b . P r i ma q u in e ( 1 ) Th i s a ge n t is c o n tr a in d ic a te d i n p a ti e nt s wi t h r h e um at o id ar t h ri t is a n d l u pu s e r y t h em at os u s a nd i n t h os e r ec e i v in g o t he r p o t en t ia ll y h em ol yt i c d r u gs or b on e m ar r o w s up p r es s a n ts . ( 2 ) P r im aq ui n e m a y c au s e a g ra nu l oc yt os is , g r a nul o c y to p en i a, an d m il d a n em i a. In pa t ie n ts wi t h G 6 P D d e fi c i e nc y, i t m a y c a us e h em ol yt i c a ne m i a . ( 3 ) A bd om i na l c r am ps , na u s e a , v o m i t in g , a nd e pig a st r ic di s t r es s s om et im e s o cc u r . c . P yr i m e t h a mi n e ( 1 ) I n h ig h d os es , th is dru g m a y c a us e a g r an ul oc y t o s is , m eg a lo bl a st ic a n em i a, ap la s ti c a ne m i a , a n d t h ro m b oc y t o pe n ia . P.953
( 2 ) E r yt he m a m u l ti f or m e ( S t e v e ns - J o h ns on s y n d ro m e ), na us e a, v o m i t in g , a n d a n or e xi a m a y d e v e lop d u ri ng p y r im et h am in e th e r a p y. d . Q u i ni n e ( 1 ) Q u in in e i s c on t r ai nd ic a te d i n p a ti e nt s wi t h G 6P D d e fi c i e nc y, ti n ni t us , a n d o p ti c n eu r i ti s . ( 2 ) Q u in in e o v er d os e o r h y p e r s e ns i ti v i t y r ea ct i ons m a y b e f a ta l . Ma n i f e s ta t io ns o f q ui ni ne p oi s o ni n g i nc lu d e v i s ua l an d h e ar i ng d i st u r ba nc es ; G I s y m p t om s ( e .g . , n a us ea , v om i tin g ) ; h o t, f lu s h ed sk in ; h e a da c h e ; f e v e r; s y nc ope ; c o n fu si on ; s h al lo w, t he n de p re s s e d, r es pi r at i on s ; a n d c a rd io v a s c u la r c ol l ap s e. ( 3 ) Q u in in e m us t b e u s ed c a u ti o us l y i n p a ti e nt s wi t h a t r ia l f i b ri ll a ti on . ( 4 ) R e na l d am ag e a n d an u r ia ha v e be e n r e po r t ed . e . F an s id a r ( 1 ) S e ve re , s om e ti m e s fa t a l, h y pe r s e ns i ti v i t y r eac t io ns ha v e oc cu r r ed . In m os t c as es , de a th r es ul te d f ro m s e v er e c u ta n eo us r ea c ti on s , in c l u di n g e r y t h em a m ul t if o rm e , S te v e n s -J oh ns o n s ynd r om e , an d to xi c e pi de r m a l n e c ro l ys i s . ( 2 ) A d ve rs e h em a to lo g ic a l an d h e pa ti c e f fe c ts a s s ee n wi t h s ul f on am i de s h a ve be e n r e po r te d . f . M e f l o qu i ne ( 1 ) C o nc om it a nt us e o f m e fl o qu in e wi t h q u in in e , q u in i d i n e, o r β - a dr e ne r gic b l oc ka d e m a y p r od uc e e le c t ro c a r di o g ra p hi c a bn o rm a li t ie s o r c a rd ia c a r r es t. ( 2 ) C o nc om it a nt us e o f m e fl o qu in e a n d q ui n in e o r c h l or o qu i ne m a y in c rea s e t h e ri sk o f c o n v ul s i o ns . g . H a lo f a n t ri n e ( 1 ) D o n o t a dm in is t e r wi t h d r ug s kn o wn t o p r ol o ng t he Q Tc i nt e r v al ; i n t er a ct i on wi t h m ef l oq u in e fu r t he r pr o lo n gs th e Q Tc i n t e r v al . ( 2 ) A s e v e nf o ld in c r e as e i n p e ak p l asm a l e ve l a nd t h re e fo l d i nc re as e i n th e a r e a u nd e r t h e c ur v e ( AU C ) o c c u r re d wh e n g i v en wi t h hi g h -f a t f oo d . Si m i l a r
i n c re as es oc c u r wh e n d os es a re ad m i n is te r e d 2 hr a f te r a m e a l. A dm in is t er h a lo f an t r in e o n a n e m p t y s t om ac h. h . M a l a r on e ( 1 ) C o nc om it a nt ad m i n is t r a t io n wi t h t e tr a c yc l in e h a s b ee n a ss oc ia t ed wi t h 4 0 % re du c ti on in pl as m a c on c e n t ra t io ns o f a to vaq u o n e . Si m i la r l y , c o nc u r re n t r i fa m p in is k no wn t o r ed uc e a t o v a qu on e l e ve ls b y 5 0 %. ( 2 ) Ta k e m a l ar o ne wi t h fo o d o r m il k . C . Am e b i c i de s a n d t r i ch o m o na c id e s. Th es e age n ts a re cr uc i al in th e t r e a tm en t o f am eb ia s i s , g i a rd i as is , a nd t ri ch om on i as es — t he m os t c om m on p r o t o zoa l i n fe c t i on s i n t he U n it e d S t a te s. Th e m ajo r am e bi ci de s i nc lu d e d i l o xa n id e , i o d oq u i no l ( Y o d o xi n ) , m e t r on i da z ol e ( F la g yl ) , n i t a z ox a n ide ( Al i n i a ) , pa r o m om yc i n ( H u m a t in ) , qu i na c r i ne , an d t in i d az ol e (T i n da m ax ) . 1 . M e c ha n is m o f ac t i on a . D i lo x an i d e, a d ic hl o ro a c e t am id e d e ri v a t i v e , is a m eb i c id a l ; i ts m ec h an is m o f a c t i on is un k no wn . ( N o t a v a i la bl e co m m e rc i al l y bu t c an be c om p ou n de d b y P a no r am a C om po un d in g Ph a rm a c y , V an N u y s , C A — pe r Me d i c a l L e tt e r 8 / 04 . ) b . M e t r o ni d az o le is a s yn t h et ic c o m p o un d wi t h d ir e c t a me b ic i d al an d t r i c h om o n ac i da l a c ti on ; i t wo r k s at bo t h i n te s t i na l an d e xt r a i n t es ti n al s i te s . I t s m ec ha n is m o f ac t io n in v o l v e s d is r up t io n o f th e h e li ca l s t ru ct u r e o f D N A. c . N i t az ox a ni d e i s d es ign a t ed b y th e U. S . Fo o d a n d D ru g Ad m i ni s tr a ti o n ( F D A ) as an o rp h an dr u g. I ts an t ip r o to zo a l ac t i v i ty i s be li e ve d t o b e t h e r e s ul t o f i n te r f e re nc e wi th t he p y r u v a te : f e r re d o xi n o xi d o r ed uc t as e ( PF O R ) e n zym e - de p en de n t e le c tr o n t ra ns f e r r ea c ti on es se n t i a l f o r e n er g y m e ta b ol is m . d . Q u i na c r i ne is a n a c rid i ne de r i v a ti v e t ha t i n hi bi t s D N A m e t ab o li s m . e . I od o q ui n o l is a l um ina l or c o n ta c t am e bi c i de th a t i s e f fe ct i v e ag ai ns t th e t r o p ho zo i te s o f E n ta m o eb a hi s t o ly ti c a lo ca t ed in t h e l um e n o f t h e l ar g e i n t es ti n e. f . P a r om o m yc i n i s a p oo r l y a bs or b ed am eb ic i dal am i no gl y c os i de wh o s e m ec h an is m o f a c t i on pa ra l le ls o th e r a m i no g l yc os id e s ( i .e . , p r ot e in s y nt h esi s i n hi b it o r ) . I t i s a ls o e f fe c t i v e ag a in s t en t e ri c b ac te r i a S a l m on e ll a a nd S h i ge l la . g . T in i d az ol e pr ec is e m e c ha n is m of ac t io n i s u nk n o wn . 2 . S pe c t r um o f a c ti vi t y a n d th e r a pe u t ic us e s a . D i lo x an i d e P.954
( 1 ) Th i s d ru g i s u s e d t o tr e a t a s y m p t om at ic c a r r ier s of am e bi c a nd G ia r di a c ys ts . ( 2 ) D il o xa n i d e is th e r ap eu t ic f or in v a s i v e a nd e xt r a i n te s t i na l a m e bi a s i s ( g i ve n i n c om bi na t io n wi th a s y s te m i c o r m i xe d am e bi c i d e) . ( 3 ) D il o xa n i d e is no t e f f ec t i v e a s s i n gl e -a g en t th er a p y f o r e xt r a i n te st i na l a m eb i as is .
b . M e t r o ni d az o le ( 1 ) Th i s a ge n t is th e p r e fe r r e d d r ug in am eb ic d ys e n t e r y , g ia r di as is , an d t r i c h om o ni as is . ( 2 ) Me t r o n id a z o le al s o is a c ti v e ag ai ns t al l a na e ro b ic c oc c i a nd gr am n e g at i ve a n ae r ob ic ba c i ll i . ( 3 ) Th i s a ge n t is th e t re at m en t of c h oi c e b y th e CD C f o r th e t r e at m e n t o f C . d i f fi ci l e c o li t is in f ec ti o ns o wi n g to t he em e rg in g us e o f br o ad - s p ec t r um a n t ib io t ic s . Th is t he r ap y i s c os t - ef f ec ti v e . c . Q u i na c r in e i s u s e f ul in t he t re a tm en t of gi a r dia s is a n d t ap e wo r m s ( s e e V I I I . H .2 ) . d . I od o q ui n o l is in d ic at ed f o r t r ea tm e n t o f i nt es t in a l a m e bi a s i s . I t is ac ti ve a g ai n st th e p r o to z o a E. h i s t o ly ti c a . e . N i t az ox a ni d e i s i nd ic a t e d f o r t r ea t m e n t o f d iar r h e a c a u s e d b y C r y p to sp o r id iu m p a rv u m a n d Gi a r di a l a m bl i a i n chi l d re n . f . P a r om o m yc i n i s in di c a t e d f o r ac u t e a nd c h ro ni c i n te s ti na l a m e b ia s i s ; it i s n o t u s e f ul fo r e xt r a i nte s ti n al am eb ia si s b ec a us e i t i s n o t a bs o rb e d. P a r o m o m yc i n h as b e en u s ed fo r D ie n ta m o e ba f ra g il is , Ta e ni a s ag in a ta , D i p yl i di u m c a ni nu m , a nd H y m e n ol ep is na n a. g . T in i d az ol e i s a s e c o nd - g en e r at i on s y n t he t ic nit r o im id a zo le ac t i v e a ga ins t t r i c h om o ni as is , G ia r di a du o d en al is / G . l a m b li a , a nd E . h is t ol y ti c a . 3 . P r ec a u ti o n s a nd m oni t o r i n g e f f ec t s a . D i lo x an i d e r a re l y c a us es s e r io us ad v e r se e ff ec t s . V om it i ng , fl at u le nc e , a n d p r u ri t us h a v e be en re p o r te d . b . M e t r o ni d az o le ( 1 ) Th e m os t c om m o n a dv e r s e e f f ec ts of th is d ru g a r e n a us ea , e p ig as t r ic d i st r es s , a nd di a r rh ea . ( 2 ) Me t r o n id a z o le is c a rc i n og e ni c i n m i ce a nd s h ou l d n o t b e us e d u n n ec es s a r il y . ( 3 ) H e ad ac he , v om i ti n g, m e ta l li c t as t e, an d s to m a t i ti s h a ve b ee n re p o rt ed . ( 4 ) O cc as i on al l y , ne u ro lo g ic al r ea c ti on s ( e .g . , a ta xi a , p e r ip he r a l n e u ro p at h y , s e i z u re s ) d ev e l o p . ( 5 ) A di s u lf i r am - t y pe r eac t io n m a y oc c u r wi t h c onc u r re n t e t ha n ol u s e. c . Q u i na c r in e . Se e VI I I .H . 4 . ( 1 ) Th i s d ru g fr e qu e nt l y c a us es di z z i n es s , he a dac h e, na u se a , a nd v om i tin g . N e r vo u sn es s a nd s e i z u re s a ls o h a v e be en r ep o r te d . ( 2 ) Q u in ac r in e s h ou ld not b e t ak e n i n c o m b i na t ion wi t h p ri m a q ui ne be c aus e t h is m a y i nc r ea s e pr im aq u in e to xi c i t y. ( 3 ) Q u in ac r in e s h ou ld be a dm i ni s t e r ed wi t h e xt r e m e c au t io n i n p a ti e nt s wit h p s o ri as is be c a us e i t m a y c au s e m a r ke d e xa c e r b at i o n o f t hi s d is e as e. d . I od o q ui n o l m a y p r odu c e o pt ic ne u r it is o r a t rop h y o r p e ri p he r al n e u ro p at h y wi t h hi g h- d os e , l on g - te r m us e . Pr o te in - b ou n d i od in e l e ve ls m a y b e in c re as ed d ur i ng t re at m en t an d m a y i n te r f e re wi t h t h e r e s u lt s o f th yr o id t e s ts f o r 6 m o n th s a f te r tr e a tm e nt . Io do q ui n ol s h ou l d n o t b e us e d i n p a t ie n ts wh o ar e h y p e rs e n s i t i v e t o 8 - h y d ro xy - q u i n o l o n e ( e .g . , i o do qu i no l ,
i o do c hl o rh y d r o xy q u i n ) o r i o di ne - c o n ta i ni ng ag e n ts o r i n p at i en ts wi t h h e p at ic di s o r de r s . e . P a r om o m yc i n m a y c au s e n au s e a , c ra m pi ng , an d di a r rh e a a t h ig h d os es ( > 3 g / da y ) . I na d v e r te n t a b s o r p ti on t hr o ug h u lc e ra t i v e b o we l le s i o ns m a y r e s ul t i n o t ot o xi c i t y o r r en a l d am a ge . f . N i t az o xa n id e m a y c a us e a b do m i n al pa in , di a r rh e a , v o m i t in g , h ea d ac he, f l a tu l en c e , fe v e r , e y e di s c o lo r a ti on , rh i ni t is , a nd d i s c ol o re d u r i ne . g . T in i d az ol e m a y p ro d uc e m e ta ll ic t as te , n a us ea, a no r e xi a , d ys p ep s i a , vo m i ti n g, we a k ne s s , d i z z i n es s , an d h e ad ac h e. D . P e n ta m i di n e i se t h i on a t e (P e n ta m 3 0 0 ) is an a r om a ti c d ia m i d e a n t ip r o to z o al ag e nt . It c a n be ad m i ni s te r ed in t r am us c ul a rl y , in t r a v en o us ly , o r b y in h al a ti on . 1 . M e c ha n is m o f ac t i on i s n o t f ul l y un d er s to o d, b u t i n v it r o s t ud ie s i nd ic a t e i n t er f e re nc e wi t h n uc l ea r m e ta bo l is m an d i n hi bi t ion o f D N A, R N A , p h os p ho li p id , a n d p r ot e in s y n th es is . 2 . T he r a pe u t ic us e s a . P en t am id i ne is i n di c a te d fo r th e p r e v e nt i on and t r ea tm e nt o f i nf ec t io ns c a us ed b y P . c a r i ni i. P.955
b . U n la be l ed us es i n c l ude t r ea tm e nt o f t r yp an os om i as i s , v isc e r al l e is hm a ni as is , a n d b ab es i os is . 3 . P r ec a u ti o n s a nd m oni t o r i n g e f f ec t s a . N ep h r ot o xi c i t y , b r o nc h o s p as m , a nd c o ug h a r e t h e m os t c om m o n e ff e cts p r o du c e d b y i n t ra v e no u s o r in h al ed pe n ta m i d in e . b . S e ve re h y po t en s i o n m a y o c c u r a f te r a p a re n te ra l do s e of pe n ta m i d in e . C a r d io r es p i ra t or y a r r es t c a n oc c ur a ft e r a s i ng le r a p id in f us io n o f th e d r ug . c . P ai n , e r y t he m a , an d te n d er n es s m a y o cc ur a fte r a n I M a d m i n is t ra t io n of t h e d r u g. Th is c a n b e m in i m i z e d b y us i ng th e Z- t ra c k t ec hn i qu e o f d r ug a d m i ni s t ra ti o n . P hl e bi t is m a y oc cu r fo l lo wi n g I V ad m in is t r at io n . d . H yp o gl y c em ia m a y oc c u r wi t h i ni t ia l a dm in is t ra t i on of d ru g v ia th e I V, I M, o r in h al a ti o na l r o ut e . Af te r t he pa t ie n t h as be en o n th e d r u g f o r a p e r io d o f t i m e , h y pe r gl y c em ia wi l l r e s ul t . Th e e ff ec t of th e d r u g m a y a c tu al l y in d uc e a r e v e r si b le in s u li n - de p end e n t d ia b et es m e ll i tu s. e . Le uk o pe n ia an d t h r om b o c y to p en i a, wh i c h ca n b e s e v e r e, oc c u r o cc a si on a ll y . f . P e nt am i di ne m a y r es u lt i n e le v a t ed li ve r fu nc t ion t es ts , A S T, an d AL T. g . G I ef f ec ts c a n a ls o o c c u r , i nc lu d in g n au s e a , vo m it i ng , a b do m i na l d i sc om fo r t , p ai n , d ia r r h ea , an d d y s g eu s i a . h . N e ur o lo g ic al ef f ec ts c a n oc c u r wi t h p a re n te r al a d m i ni s t ra ti o n a nd m a y i n cl ud e d i z z i n es s , t re m o rs , c o nf us i on , a n xi e t y , i ns o m ni a , a nd s e i z u re s. i . H y p oc a lc em ia an d f e v e r h a v e a ls o b ee n re po r te d an d m a y be s e v e r e a t times.
E . At o va q u o n e (M ep r o n) i s a h yd r o xyn a p h t ho q uin o n e in i ti a ll y s yn th es i zed a s a n a n ti m a l a ri al d ru g . 1 . M e c ha n is m o f ac t i on. A t o v a qu on e b l oc k s m ito c ho n dr i al el ec t r on t r a ns p or t at c o m p le x I I I o f t he re s p i r at o r y c h ai n o f p ro t o z oa , re s u l ti n g i n i n hi b it i on of p y r im id in e s y n t h es is . 2 . S pe c t r um o f a c ti vi t y. I t is a c ti v e ag ai n s t P . c ar i n ii , T. go n di i, C . p a rv um , P . f al ci p a ru m , Is os p o ri dia , an d Mi c r os po r i di a. 3 . T he r a pe u t ic us e s. A to v a q u on e i s us e d f o r s ec o nd - li n e t r ea tm e nt o f m il d t o m o de r a te P . c a ri ni i p ne u m o n ia i n p a ti e nt s i n to le r a n t o f co t r im o xa z o l e o r o t h e r su l fo n am id es o r wh o a re no n re s p o ns i ve t o c o t ri m o xa zo l e . 4 . P r ec a u ti o n s a nd m oni t o r i n g e f f ec t s a . O r a l a bs or p ti o n s i g ni f ic a nt l y in c re as es wh e n ad m in is t e re d wi t h f oo d ( e s pe c i al l y a h ig h - fa t m ea l ) . b . R as h , n au s e a , d ia r r h ea , he a da ch e , f e ve r , a bd om i na l p ai n , d i zz i ne ss , a nd e l e va te d l i v e r f u nc ti o n t es t s c o m m on l y a re r ep o r te d . 5 . S i gn i f ic a n t i n te r a c ti on s . A to va q uo ne is hi gh l y b o un d t o p l asm a p r o te i n. I t sh o ul d b e u s e d wi t h c au t i on wh e n a dm i ni s t e r ed wi t h o t he r h i gh l y p ro t ei nb o u nd dr u gs wi t h a na r r ow t h e r a p eu t ic ra n ge . F . E f l o rn i t h in e H C l ( O r ni d yl ) . Th i s is an I V a n ti pr o t o zo al ag en t . I t s ac t i v i ty h a s b ee n a t t ri b ut e d t o t he i nh ib i ti o n o f t h e e n zy m e o r ni t hi ne de ca r b o xy l a s e . 1 . M e c ha n is m o f ac t i on. Th i s i s a s pe c i f ic , e n zy m e - ac ti v a t ed , i r r e ve rs ib le i n hi b it o r o f o r n it h in e d ec a r b o xy l a s e . 2 . S pe c t r um o f a c ti vi t y a n d th e r a pe u t ic us e s. E f l o rn i th i ne is a c ti ve in th e t r e a tm en t o f th e m en i ngo e nc e ph al i ti c s ta g e o f T ry p an os o m a b r uc e i g a m b i en s e (s le e pi n g s i c k n es s ) . 3 . P r ec a u ti o n s a nd m oni t o r i n g e f f ec t s a . Mye l o s up p r es s i on is th e m os t f re q ue n t s e r io u s s id e e f f ec t. b . S ei zu r es oc c u r i n ab ou t 8% o f t r ea t ed pa t ie n ts . c . C as es of he a r in g i m pa i r m e n t h a ve b ee n re po rt e d .
VI. Antitubercular Agents A. D e f i n i t i o n a nd c la ss if i c a t io n . D ru gs us ed to tr e a t t u be r c u lo si s s up p res s o r ki ll t he s l o w- g r o wi n g m y c o ba ct e ri a th a t ca us e t h is di s e as e . A n t i tu b er c ul a r a ge n ts fa ll i nt o t wo m a in c a te g o ri es : fi r s t - li n e P.956 a n d s ec on d -l i ne d ru gs . Be c au s e t he c a us at i ve o rg a ni s m s t en d to de ve l op r e s is ta nc e to an y s i n gl e d r u g , c o m b i na t io n d r ug th e r ap y h as be c o m e s t an d a rd in th e t r e at m e nt o f t u be r c u lo s i s . 1 . Th e in c i de n ce of tu b er c u lo s i s i n t he U ni t ed S ta t es is in cr e as in g o wi n g t o s h if t s i n p op ul a ti o ns c ons i de r ed t o b e e nd em ic for t u be r c u lo s i s , t he r is e in H I V - p os i ti v e pa t ie n ts , a nd d r ug re si s ta nc e . 2 . A ge n ts c h os en fo r t her a p y m u s t e r a di ca t e m yc o b ac t e ri um . F i rs t - li ne a g e nt s a v a il a bl e i nc lu d e i s on ia zi d , e t ha m b u to l , p yr a z i n am id e , r i fa m p i n, r i f ab u ti n , a n d r if a pe n ti n e. C o m bi n a ti o n c h em o t he r a p y i s e s s e n ti a l. A ge nt s
s h o wi n g t he lo we s t in c i de n c e of r es is t an c e (i s on ia z i d , ri f am pi n ) a r e us u al ly u s ed in c om b in a ti o n wi t h p y r a z i n am id e o r et h am bu t o l . 3 . C ho ic e of th e r ap y d epe n ds on m a n y pa t ie n t a nd d is ea s e fa c to r s ( e .g . , d u r a ti on o f t he r ap y n e ede d , l ik e li ho o d o f d r ug r es i s ta nc e , a nd H I V s t at us ) . 4 . T r ea t me n t c h o ic e s ba s e d o n C D C re c om m en d a t io n s ( Ta b l e 4 4 -4 ) . B . F i r s t -l i ne . Th es e d r ug s , i s o ni a z i d, e th am bu t ol, r i fa m p i n, r if a bu t in , r i f ap e n ti ne , an d p y r a z i nam i de us ua ll y o f fe r th e g re a t es t e f fe c ti ve ne s s wi t h t h e l e as t t o xi c i t y ; t h e y a re s u c c es s fu l i n m o s t t ube r c ul os is pa t ie n ts . A t le as t t h r e e t o f ou r d ru g c om bin a t io ns a re re c om m e nd ed . Th e C D C re co m m e nd s d a il y t r e at m e n t wi t h is o ni a z i d , r i fa m p in , p yr a z in am i de , a n d e th am b ut o l f o r t h e i n it i al ph as e o f 2 m on t hs , fo ll o we d b y a co n tin u a ti on p ha s e of is on i a zi d a n d ri f am pi n f o r 4 - 5 m o nt h s ( Ta b l e 4 4 -4 ) . 1 . E t ha m bu t o l ( M ya m b u t o l ) is a s ynt h et ic wa t e r -b a se d c om po u nd . a . M e c ha n is m o f ac t i on. Th i s d r ug is ba c te r i o s ta t i c . I ts p re ci s e m ec h an is m o f a c t i on is un k no wn ; h o we v e r , it ha s d e m o ns t r at e d ac t i v i t y o nl y a g ai n st s u s c ep t ib le ba c te r i a a c t i v e l y u n de r go i ng c e ll di vi si on . b . S p ec t r u m o f a c t i vi t y a n d th e r a pe u t ic us e s. E t h am b ut o l is ac ti v e a g ai n st m a n y M. t u be r c ul o s i s s tr a in s a s we l l as m a n y o t he r m yc o ba c t e r ia l s p ec ie s . H o we v e r , d ru g re s is ta nc e de ve lo ps f ai r l y r a pi d l y wh e n i t i s u se d a l on e . I n m os t c as es , e th a m b u to l i s g i v en ad j un c t i v e l y in co m b in a ti o n wi t h i s on ia zi d o r r if am p in fo r t u b e rc ul os is . I t is a ls o us e fu l i n c om bi n at i on wi t h o t h e r a ge n ts s uc h a s c l ar i t h ro m yc i n o r a z it h ro m yc i n a nd r if a bu t in i n t re a tin g MA C .
Table 44-4. Treatment for Active Tuberculosis Initial Phase Rank Agent 1
Dosage
Continuation Phase Agent Dosage
INH
7 days a week × 8 weeks
INH/RIF
7 days a week × 18 weeks
RIF
or
or
PZA
5 days a week × 8 weeks
5 days a week × 18 weeks
EMB 2
INH RIF
7 days a week × 2 weeks, then 2 times a week × 6 weeks
INH/RIF
2 times a week × 18 weeks
3
PZA
or
EMP
5 days a week × 2 weeks, then 2 times a week × 6 weeks
INH
3 times a week × 8 weeks
INH/RIF
3 times a week × 19 weeks
INH
7 days a week × 8 weeks
INH/RIF
7 days a week × 31 weeks
RIF
or
or
EMP
5 days a week × 8 weeks
5 days a week × 31 weeks
RIF PZA EMB 4
or 2 times a week × 31 weeks EMB, ethambutol; INH, isoniazid; PZA, pyrazinamide; RIF, rifampin. Adapted with permission from CDC guidelines for treatment of tuberculosis 2003. MMWR 2003; 52 (RR11); 1-77. P.957
c . P r ec a u ti o n s a nd m oni t o r i n g e f f ec t s. R a re l y , e t h am bu t ol c a us es s uc h a d ve r s e ef f ec ts as re v e rs i bl e d os e - re l at e d ( = 1 5 m g /k g /d a y ) op t ic n e ur i ti s, d r u g f e v e r , a bd om i na l p ai n , h e ad ac h e, di z zi n es s , a n d c on f us io n . L i v e r f u nc t io n te s t s s ho ul d b e p e r io d ic al l y m o ni t or e d . Vi s ua l t es t in g a n d r e na l f u nc t io n ( re du c e d os e wi t h im pa i rm e nt ) s h ou ld als o b e m on i to r e d. 2 . I so n ia z id ( N yd r a z i d ) i s a h y d ra zi d e o f i s o ni c ot i n ic a c i d . The m a in s ta y o f a n t it u be r c u la r th e r ap y , th i s d r ug s h ou ld be in cl ud e d (i f t o le r a te d ) i n a ll t h e r ap eu t ic re g im en s . a . M e c ha n is m o f ac t i on. I s o n ia z i d i s b ac t e r io s ta t i c f o r re st i ng ba c i ll i a nd b a c t e ri c i da l f o r ra pi d l y d i v i di n g o r ga ni s m s . I ts m e c ha n ism of ac t io n i s n ot f u l l y k no wn ; t h e d r ug pr ob a bl y d is r up t s b ac te r i al c e ll wa l l s yn th e si s b y i n hi b it i ng m y c ol ic ac id s y n t h es is . b . S p ec t r u m o f a c t i vi t y. I s on ia zi d h as ac t i v it y o nl y a g ai ns t o r g an is m s i n t h e g e nu s My c o b ac te r i um . Mo r e s p ec i fi c a ll y , i t ha s d em o ns t ra t ed ac t i vit y a g ai n st M. t u b er c ul os is , My c o b a ct e ri u m bo v i s , a nd s e l ec t s t ra in s o f My c o b a c t e ri u m k a ns as i i. c . T he r a pe u t ic us e s ( 1 ) Th e m os t wi d el y u s ed a nt i tu b e rc ul a r a ge n t, is o ni a z i d s h o ul d b e g i ven i n c om b in a ti o n wi t h ot h e r an t i tu b e rc ul a r d r ug s ( s u ch a s r i fa m p i n, e th am bu t ol , a n d p yr a z i na m i d e ) t o p r ev e n t d ru g re s i s t a nc e i n tu b e rc ul os is . ( 2 ) T r ea t me n t of l at e n t i n f e c ti o n ( p r e v io us l y r efe r r e d t o a s p r e v en t i ve t h e r ap y o f c he m o p ro p h y la xi s ) . I so ni a zi d m a y b e ad m i n is t e re d a lo n e f o r u p t o 1 yea r i n a d ul ts o r c hil d r en wh o ha v e a p os i ti v e t ub e rc u li n t es t re s u l t bu t l a ck a c ti v e le s i on s . d . P r e ca u t io n s a n d m on i t o r i ng e f fe c ts ( 1 ) Th e m os t c om m o n a dv e r s e e f f ec ts of is on ia zid a r e s k in r as h, f e ve r, j a un d ic e, a nd pe r ip h er a l n e u ri t is . ( 2 ) H e pa ti t is , a n o c c as i on a l r e ac t io n , c a n b e s e ve r e an d , i n so m e c a s e s , f a t al . Th e ri s k o f h e pa t it is in c re as es wi t h th e p a tie n t ' s a ge an d ri s e s wi t h a l co h ol a b us e . Mo n i t o r l iv e r f u nc ti o n t es ts . ( 3 ) B lo o d d y s c r as ia s ( e .g . , ag r an u lo c yto si s , a pl as t ic or he m ol y t ic an em i a, t h r om b oc y t op e ni a ) m a y o c c u r . Mo n i to r c om pl e te b l oo d c o un t ( C B C ) r o u ti n el y . ( 4 ) A d ve rs e G I e ff ec t s i nc l ud e n a us ea , vom i ti ng , a n d e pi g as t ri c d is t re s s . ( 5 ) C N S to xi c i t y m a y r e s u l t f r om p y r id o xi n e de f ic ie n c y . Si gn s a nd s ym p tom s i n cl ud e i ns o m n ia , re s tl es s n es s , h y pe r r e fl e xi a , and co n v u ls io ns . P y r id o xi n e 1 5 - 50 m g / da y s h o ul d b e a d m i ni s te r ed t o p at i en ts t a k i n g is o ni a zi d t o m i ni m i ze th e p e ri p he r al n e u ro p at h y as s o c i a te d wi t h i ts us e (e s p ec i al l y i n p a t ie n ts wi t h d ia b et e s , HI V , u re m i a , a lc oh o li s m , m a ln u t ri ti o n, p re g na nc y , o r s e i zu re di s o r de r ) . e . S i gn i f ic a n t i n te r a c ti on s ( 1 ) W it h c on c u r r en t ph en yt o i n t h e r ap y, b lo od leve l s o f bo t h p he n y t oi n an d i s on ia zi d m a y in c re as e , p o s s ib l y c a us in g to xi c i t y. ( 2 ) Al u m i n um - co n t ai n i ng a n ta c i ds m a y r ed uc e is o ni a z i d a bs or p ti o n. ( 3 ) C o nc ur r e nt ca r b am az e p in e t h e ra p y m a y in c re a s e th e ri sk of he p at i ti s .
( 4 ) U se of is on i a z id wi t h o t h e r a nt i tu b er c u l a r a gen t s , su c h as c y c lo s er i ne o r e t h io na m i d e, m a y c au s e a d di t i v e n e r vou s s ys te m e f f ec ts . ( 5 ) Th e r e is t he po t en t ia l f o r th e s e ro t on in s y nd r om e to e xi s t wh e n is on i a zi d i s u se d i n c om bi n at i on wi t h s el ec t i v e s er o t on in r eu p t ak e i nh i bi to r s o r i n p a t ie n ts ta k i ng m e pe r i din e . Is on ia z i d h as b ee n sh o wn t o ha ve s om e m o no am i ne o xi d as e ( MA O ) i n hi b it i ng ac ti v i t y . 3 . R i f am p in ( R im a c ta n e) i s a c om pl e x m a c ro c yc li c a g en t . a . M e c ha n is m o f ac t i on. Th i s d r ug is ba c te r i c ida l ; i t im pa i rs ba c t e r ia l RN A s yn t he s i s b y b in d in g t o D N A - d e p en de n t R N A p olym e r as e . b . S p ec t r u m o f a c t i vi t y. R i f am pi n h as ac t i v it y a ga i ns t m os t m yc ob ac t e ri al s t r ai ns . In ad di t io n , r i fam p in ha s ac t i vi t y a g ai ns t m an y o t he r or g an is m s , i n cl ud i ng N . m en i ng i ti di s , S . au r eu s , H . i n fl u en za e , Le g io n el la pn e u m op hil a , a n d C. t r ac ho m a t is . c . T he r a pe u t ic us e s ( 1 ) I n r ec om m e n de d c om b i na t io ns f o r t r ea tm e nt of a c t i v e t u be r c u l os is ( 2 ) P r op h y l ac ti c r i fa m p i n i s e f fe ct i ve wh e n a dm in is t e re d t o c a r ri e rs of N . m e n i n gi ti d is d is e as e a nd c he m o p r op h yl a xi s o f p at i e nt s wi t h H . in fl u en za e t yp e b o r ga n is m s . ( 3 ) R i fa m p in m a y b e u s ed i n c o m b i na t io n wi t h d ap s on e f o r t h e t r ea t m e n t o f l e p ro s y. d . P r e ca u t io n s a n d m on i t o r i ng e f fe c ts ( 1 ) S e ri ou s h e pa t ot o xi c i ty m a y r es u lt f ro m r i fa m p in t he r a p y . L i v e r f un c ti on t e s ts s ho u ld be r ou t in el y c on d uc t ed . P.958
( 2 ) I n r a re c a s e s , t hi s d ru g in du c es a n i n fl u en z a -l i k e s y n d r om e. ( 3 ) O t he r ad v e r s e e ff ec ts in c l u de s k i n ra s h , dr o ws i ne s s , h e ad ac he , fa t ig ue , c o nf us i on , n a us ea , v om i ti n g , a nd ab d om in al pa i n. ( 4 ) R i fa m p in c o lo r s u r in e, s we a t , t e ar s , sa l i v a, and f ec es o ra ng e re d . e . S i gn i f ic a n t i n te r a c ti on s ( 1 ) R i fa m p in in d uc es hep a t ic m ic r os om al c yto ch ro m e P 4 5 0 is oe n zy m es an d t h us m a y d ec r ea s e th e th e r ap e ut ic e ff ec t i v en es s o f co r t i co s t e ro i d s, w a r f a ri n , o r a l c o n t ra c ep t i ve s , qu i n id i ne , di g i to x i n , p r o te a se i nh i b it o rs ( P I s ) , n o n nu c le o si d e reve r s e t r a ns c r i p ta se i nhi b i t o r s, ke t o co n az o le , ve r a p a m il , me t ha d o ne , o r a l an t i di a be t i c a g en ts , c yc l o s p o r i n e , d ap s on e , c h l o r am p he n ic o l , a nd ba r b i t u r at e s . ( 2 ) P r o be n ec i d m a y i nc re a s e bl o od le v e ls of r if am p in . ( 3 ) Am i n o sa l ic yl i c a c i d m a y im pa i r a bs o r pt io n of r i f am pi n s ec on d a r y t o b e n to ni t e , a n e xc i p ie n t us e d i n p r ep a ra t io n o f a m in o s a li c y li c g r an u le s . f . Th e ne we r r i f am y c i n s , r i f a b u t in (M yc o b u t i n ) an d r i fa p e nt i n e ( P r i f t in ) m a y be s u bs t it u te d fo r rif a m p i n i n sp ec i al s i tu a ti on s , e . g. , i n to l e ra nc e o r s e r io us dr u g i nt e r ac ti o ns .
4 . R i f ab u t in (M yc o b u t i n) i s a n a nt im y c o ba c t e ri a l a g en t th a t is sim i la r to r i f am pi n , wi t h ac t i v i t y a ga i ns t b o th t ub e rc ul a r a nd n on t ub e rc ul a r m yc o ba c t e ri a l, an d o f f ers no c l ea r ad va n ta g e o ve r r i fa m p in . a . M e c ha n is m o f ac t i on. I n a d di ti o n t o i ts an t im yc o ba ct e r ia l a ct i v i t y a g ai n st tu b e rc ul a r a nd no n t ub e rc ul a r m y c ob ac t e ri a l , r i fa bu t in ha s b ee n r e p o rt e d t o i nh i bi t re v e r s e t r an s c r ip t as e a nd bl oc k t he in v i t ro in f ec ti vi t y a n d re pl ic a ti o n o f HI V . b . T he r a pe u t ic u se s . R if a b ut i n is in d ic at e d f o r th e p re ve n ti on o f d i ss em in a te d MA I c om ple x d i s e as e i n p at i en t s wi t h ad va n c e d HI V i n f ec ti o ns . c . P r ec a u ti o n s a nd m oni t o r i n g e f f ec t s. Th e us e o f ri f ab u ti n h as r es ul t ed i n m i ld el e v a ti on o f li v e r e n z y m e s a nd th r om b oc y to p e ni a. d . S i gn i f ic a n t i n te r a c t io n s ( 1 ) R i fa bu t in an t ag o ni z es an d p o te n ti a ll y n eg a tes t he im m u ne r es po ns e m e di a te d b y t he ba c i l lu s C a l m e t te - G u é ri n ( B C G ) v a c c i n e. ( 2 ) R i fa bu t in m a y i nc r eas e th e c le a ra nc e o f dr u gs b y in du ci n g h ep a ti c m ic r os om a l e n z y m e s , b ut d oe s s o t o a le s s er e xt e n t th an r if am p in . Th e c o nc en t r at i on s o f t h e f ol lo wi n g d ru g s m a y b e r e du c ed wh i l e t ak in g ri f ab u ti n : c yc l o s p o r i n e, z i d o vu d in e , p re d n is o ne , di g i to xi n , qu i n id i n e, k e t o co n az o le , p r o t ea s e i n h ib i t o r s, p r op r a n ol o l, p h en yt o i n , s u l f on yl u r e a s , an d w a r fa r i n . Se r um c y c lo s po r ine l e v el s s h o ul d b e m o ni t o re d i n p a ti en t s r ec e i v i ng bo t h a g en ts . 5 . R i f ap e n ti n e ( P r i f t in ) is a l on g - ac ti n g r i fa m yc i n- d e r i v at i v e a n d h as a s im i la r p r o fi l e o f m i c ro b io l og ic a l ac t i v i t y to ri f am p i n . I t i s us u al l y a d m i ni s te r ed on c e o r t wi c e we e kl y. a . M e c ha n is m o f ac t i on. R i f ap en t in e i s b ac t e ri c id a l a ga i ns t i n t ra c e ll u la r a n d e xt r a c e ll ul a r M. t u ber c u lo s i s a t t he r a pe u ti c l eve l s . b . S p ec t r u m o f a c t i vi t y a n d th e r a pe u t ic us e s. In d ic a te d f o r t r e at m e n t o f p r i m a r y t ub e rc ul os is . R ifa p e nt in e s h ou ld al wa y s b e us ed in c o nj u nc ti o n wi t h ≥ 1 o th e r a n ti t ub e rc ul os is d ru g t o wh i c h th e i s o l at e is s us c e p ti b le . c . P r ec a u ti o n s a nd m oni t o r i n g e f f ec t s. R i fa p en ti n e i nd uc e s c y t oc hr o m e P 4 5 0 i so en z y m e s 3 A 4 an d 2 C8 / 9 r es p on si b le fo r i n ac ti v a t io n o f c e r ta in c a lc iu m c h a nn e l b lo c k ing a ge n ts ( v e ra p am il , d il t ia z e m , n i fe di p in e ) , a n t if u ng al s (k et oc o na z o le , fl u c o na z o l e, i tr ac o na z o l e ), s u l fo n yl ur e a a n t id ia b et ic ag e n ts , m e th a d on e , c o r t ic os te r o id s, c a r di ac gl y c os id es , c e r tai n a n t ia r r h y th m i c a g en ts ( dis o p y r am id e , m e xi l e t i ne , q u in i di n e, to c a i ni d e) , q u in i ne , d a ps on e , c hl o ram p he n ic ol , c la r i th r om y c in , do xyc yc l i n e , f l u or o qu i no lo n es , t r a ns c ri p t as e i nh ib i to r c yc l os por i n , t ac r o li m u s, an d wa r f a r i n . Co nc om i ta n t u s e o f r i fa p en t in e wi t h t he se d r ug s m a y d ec r ea s e p l as m a c o nc en t r at i on s an d do s a g e a dj us tm e nt s m a y be r eq u ir e d . 6 . P yr a z i n a mi d e is a p y r a z i n e a n al og o f n ic ot i nam i de . a . M e c ha n is m o f ac t i on. Th i s d r ug is ba c te r i c ida l an d /o r ba c t e ri o s ta t i c, d e p en di n g o n t he c e ll c on c en t r at i on ac hi e v e d. b . S p ec t r u m o f a c t i vi t y a n d th e r a pe u t ic us e s. P y r a z i n a m i de is a h ig hl y s p ec if ic ag e nt an d ha s ac t i v i t y o n l y a g ai ns t M. t ub e r cu lo si s . P y r a z i n am i de
i s u se d a s a p ri m a r y ag en t wi t h is on ia z i d a n d r i fam p in fo r at le as t 2 m o n ths , f o l lo we d b y is on i a z id and r i fa m p in . c . P r ec a u ti o n s a nd m oni t o r i n g e f f ec t s. Th i s a gen t m a y r es u lt in h e p at o to xi c i t y an d , ra r ely , h e pa t ic ne c ro s i s r es u lt i n g i n d ea t h. A no r e xi a , n a us e a, v o m i ti n g, m a la is e , an d fe v e r ha ve P.959 b e e n r ep o r te d . H y p e r u ri c e m ia m a y r es ul t i n g o ut y e xa c e r b at i on s . B o th l i ver f u nc t io n te s t s a nd u ri c ac i d l e v el s s h o ul d ro u ti ne l y b e m o ni t o re d . C . S e c on d - li n e a g en t s . Th e s e a g en t s in c l u de am i n os al ic y l ic ac id ( P as e r ) , c a p re om y c in ( C ap a s ta t ) , c y c lo s e r in e ( Se r o m yc i n ) , e th i on am i de ( T re c at o rS C ) , q ui n ol on es ( c i p ro f loxa c i n , o fl o xa c in , le v o f lo xa c in , s pa r f lo xa c i n ) , s t r ep t om y c in an d k an am y c i n . Se c o nd - l in e d r ug s a r e m a in l y s u bs ti t ut e d o r a d d ed to p re f er r e d t he r ap y o wi n g t o in t ol e r an ce o r d ru g re s i s ta nc e . Th e s e a g e nt s a r e l es s e ff ec t i v e, m or e to xi c , an d a r e u sed i n c o m b i na t io n wi t h p r i m a r y ag e nt s . 1 . M e c ha n is m o f ac t i on a . Am i n o sa l ic yl i c a c i d is b ac t e r io s ta t i c ; i t p r oba b l y in hi b it s t h e e n z y m es r e s po ns ib l e f o r f ol ic ac id s y n t he s i s . b . C yc l o s e r i n e c a n b e ba c t e r io s t at i c o r ba c te r ic i d a l, de p en di n g o n i ts c o nc en t r at i on at t he in f ec t io n s i te ; i t i m p a ir s a m in o ac id us e, t he r eb y i n hi b it i ng ba c t e r ia l c el l w a l l s y n th es is . c . Th e m ec h an is m o f a c ti o n o f c ap r e om yc i n (b a c te r i o s ta t i c ), et h io n am id e ( b a c te r i c id a l ), an d p y r az i n a m i d e ( b ac t e r ic i da l ) is un kn o wn . 2 . S pe c t r um o f a c ti vi t y a n d th e r a pe u t ic us e s. S e c on d -l i ne an t it u be r c u la r a g e nt s a r e ac t i v e a ga i ns t v a r i ou s m i c ro o r ga ni sm s , i n cl ud i ng M. t u b e rc ul os is . Th es e a gen t s g en e r al l y ar e re se r v ed f o r p at i en ts wi t h e xt e n s i v e e xt r a pu lm o na ry o r d r ug - r es is ta n t d is e as e o r fo r pa t ie n ts wh o n e e d r e tr e at m en t . Th e s e d r u gs a r e a lm os t a l wa ys a dm i ni s t e r ed in c om b in a ti o n. 3 . P r ec a u ti o n s a nd m oni t o r i n g e f f ec t s a . A d ve rs e e f fe c t s o f a mi n o sa l i c yl i c a c i d i nc l ude l eu ko p en ia , a g r an u lo c y to p en i a, th r om b oc y t o pe ni a , h em ol y t i c a n em ia , m on o nu c l e os is l i ke s yn d r om e, m a la is e , jo i n t p ai n , f e v e r, an d s ki n r a sh . b . C a p re o m yc i n a n d st r e p t o m yc i n a r e ot o to xi c a n d n e ph r ot o xi c ; th e y s h ou l d n ot be ad m i n is te re d to g et h e r. c . C yc l o s e r i n e m a y c a us e a d v e rs e C N S e f fe c ts , i n cl ud i ng he a da ch e , s u ic id al an d ps y c h o ti c t en d e nc ie s, h y pe r i r ri t ab il i ty , c o nf us i on , p a r an oi a , a n d n e r v ou s ne s s . d . E t h io n am i de m a y i ndu c e n au s e a , v om it i ng , o rt h os t a ti c h y p ot e ns io n , m e ta l li c t as t e, ep i ga s t r ic d is t r es s , an d p e ri p he r al n e u ro pa t h y. e . S t r ep t o m yc i n . S e e II .B . 3 . D . Al t e r n a t i ve ag e n ts 1 . R i f at e r . A c o m b i na t ion o f r i fa m p i n 1 20 m g , i s on i a z id 50 m g , a n d p yr a zi n am id e 3 0 0 m g in o n e t a bl e t is us ed in pa t ie n ts e xp e c te d t o h a ve l ow
c om p li a nc e wi t h t ub e rc ulo s is d r u g t he r a p y . O n e di s a d va n ta g e is t ha t m any p a t ie n ts a r e re qu i r ed to ta k e as m a n y as 5- 6 ta ble t s d ai l y , wh i ch m a y r e d uc e c om pl ia n c e . 2 . Q u i no l o ne s . C i p ro f loxa c i n a nd le v o f lo xa c i n a re us e d i n t ub e rc u lo s i s t h e r ap y. Le v o f lo xa c i n i s p r e f er r e d o wi n g t o i nc r ea s ed s e r um c on c en t ra t ion s . L e vo f lo xa c i n i s u s u al l y us e d i n co m b i na t io n wi t h o t h e r t ub e rc ul o s i s a ge n ts f o r ac ti v e t r ea tm e nt . Fo r p r o ph y l a xi s , le vo f lo xa c i n i s c om bi ne d wi t h p yr a zi n am id e . 3 . M a c r ol i d es . Cl a ri t h rom y c in an d a z i t h ro m y ci n h a v e s h o wn li m i t ed ac t i vi t y a g ai n st M. t u b er c ul os is .
VII. Antiviral Agents A. D e f i n i t i o n. Th es e dr ug s tr e at v i r al in f ec ti o ns by a f f ec t in g v i ra l r e p li ca t io n . B ec a us e v ir us es la c k in d ep en d en t m et a b ol ic ac ti v i t y a nd c a n r e p li ca t e o nl y wi t h i n l i v ing h os t c el ls , a n ti vi r al age n ts t en d t o i n ju r e h os t a s we l l a s v i r a l c e l ls . A l th ou g h m os t a n ti v i r al d ru gs a r e ac ti ve ag a in s t ei t he r D N A o r R N A v i r us es , s om e (e . g. , ad e fo v i r , ri ba vir i n ) a r e a c t i ve a g ai ns t b o t h. B . D N A vi r u s e s . C u r re n tl y a p p ro ve d a n ti v i r al th e ra p ie s a g ai ns t t h e H e r p es v i r id a e f am il y o f D N A v i r u s e s —h e r pe s s im p le x v i r u s 1 a nd 2 ( H SV - 1 , H S V - 2 ) , v a ri c e l la - z o s t e r v i r u s ( VZ V ) , c y t om e ga lov i r u s ( C MV ) — a r e vi r u s t a t i c a nd a rr e s t D NA s y n t he s i s b y in h ib i ti ng v i r a l D N A p ol y m e ra s e . Ma n y o f t h es e a g en t s a re p r od r ug s a nd r eq u ir e vi r a l a nd ho s t c e l lu la r e n zym e s ( e .g . , t h y m i di ne , de o xyg u a n os i ne k i na s e ) t o p ho s p h o r y la t e t he m i n t o t he ac t i v e t r ip ho s pha t e fo rm be f o re e xe r t i ng t h e ir a nt i v i ra l a c ti v i t y . H e n ce , a c o m m on m e c h an i s m o f re si s ta nc e i s a de f ic i en c y o r P.960 s t r uc t ur a l a lt e ra t io n i n v ir a l th y m id in e k i na s e ( Tab l e 4 4 -5 ) . So m e o f t he s e a g e nt s a ls o d em on s tr a te a c ti v i t y ag a in s t R N A v i ru s es , i nc lu d in g h e pa t it is C a n d HI V .
Table 44-5. Activity of Various Anti-DNA Viral Agents
Agent
HSV-1 HSV-2 VZV CMV Influenza Influenza A B
Acyclovira
+
+
+
—
—
—
Amantadine
—
—
—
—
+
—
Cidofovir
—
—
—
+
—
—
Famciclovir
+
+
+
—
—
—
Foscarnet
+
+
+
+
—
—
Ganciclovira
—
—
—
+
—
—
Oseltamivir
—
—
—
—
+
+
Rimantadine
—
—
—
—
+
—
Valacyclovira
+
+
+
—
—
—
Valganciclovira
—
—
—
+
—
—
Zanamivir
—
—
—
—
+
+
HSV, herpes simplex virus, VZV, varicella-zoster virus; CMV, cytomegalovirus. a
Requires activation into triphosphate form. 1 . Ac yc l o vi r ( Z o v i r a x) i s a s y nt h et ic ac y c li c a na lo g of gu a no s i n e wi t h a c ti vi t y a ga in s t v a r i ou s he r p es vi ru s es . a . M e c ha n is m o f ac t i on. A c y c l o v i r m on o ph os ph at e is ph os ph o r y l at e d t o th e t r i ph o sp ha t e , wh e r e it bec om e s in c or p o ra t ed in t o vi r a l D N A a n d i nh ib i ts vi r a l re p li c a t io n . b . S p ec t r u m o f a c t i vi t y. Th i s ag en t i s a ct i ve a g ai n s t he r p es vi ru se s , p a r ti c ul a rl y H S V - 1 , H S V -2 , V Z V , a nd c h ic k e np o x ( v a r i ce l la ) . c . T he r a pe u t ic us e s
( 1 ) A c yc l o v ir is us ed to tr e a t i ni t ia l a n d r ec u r re n t H S V - 1 a nd H S V -2 i n f ec ti o ns a n d f o r a c u t e tr e a tm e nt of he r p es zos t er ( s hi ng l es ) a n d c h ick e np o x. I t is al s o us e d o ra ll y f o r l on g - te r m s u p p re ss io n o f ge ni t al H SV i n f ec ti o ns . ( 2 ) Th i s a ge n t is a v ai l ab le i n t op ic a l, o ra l , a nd I V f o r m s . To pi ca l a c yc l o v i r i s a p pl i ed di r ec t l y o n h e r pes le s i o ns i n re c u r r en t her p e s l ab ia l is (c ol d s o re s ). I t is no t re c o m m en d ed for u s e on ge n it a l h er p es le s io ns du e t o p o o r e f f ic ac y . ( 3 ) A c yc l o v ir m a y b e a dm i ni s t e r ed i n t ra v e n ou sl y i n t h e t r ea t m e n t o f i ni t ial a n d re cu r r en t m uc oc u ta ne o us H S V i n fe c ti on an d V Z V i nf ec t io n i n i m m u no c o m p r om is e d p ati e n ts , a s we l l as i n th e t re a tm e nt o f H S V in f ec ti o ns t h a t a r e d is s e m i na t ed o r a f f ec t t h e c en t ra l n e r v o us s ys t em . d . P r e ca u t io n s a n d m on i t o r i ng e f fe c ts ( 1 ) O r a l ac y c lo v i r m a y ind u c e na us e a, vo m i t in g , d i a r rh e a, an d h e ad ac h e. ( 2 ) I V a dm i ni s t r a ti on m ay c a us e d os e - de pe n de n t r e n al i m p a i rm en t , c r ys t al li n e n ep h ro p at h y , n e u ro l og ic al e ff ec t s ( e .g ., l et h a rg y , c o n fu si o n, t r e m o r s, ag i ta t io n , s ei z ur e s , c om a, ob t un d at i on ) , h y p o te n s i on , ra sh , it c h in g , a n d p hl e bi t is a t th e i n je c t i o n s i t e. ( 3 ) Lo ca l d is c om fo r t a n d p r u r it us m a y r es u lt f ro m t o p ic al ad m i ni s t ra ti o n. ( 4 ) A c yc l o v ir is r em o v ed b y h em o di a l ys is . D os es s h ou l d b e a dj us t ed in r e n al im pa i rm e nt an d h em o di al y s is . e . S i gn i f ic a n t i n te r a c ti on s . P r ob e ne c i d r ed uc e s t h e r e na l c le a ra nc e of a c ycl o vi r , r es u lt i ng in inc r e as es i n a c yc l o v i r h al f- l i fe an d s e ru m c o nc en t r at i on . 2 . Ad e f o vi r d i pi vo x i l ( He p s e r a ) is a p h os ph on a te n uc le o ti d e a na lo g wi t h a c ti vi t y a ga in s t v a r i ou s D N A a n d R N A vi r us es . a . M e c ha n is m o f ac t i on. A d ef o vi r i s p ho s p h o r y lat e d to th e a c ti v e d i ph o sp ha t e f o rm b y c el lu l a r k i n as es . I t is th en inc o r po r at e d i nt o v i ra l D NA , r e s ul ti n g i n t e rm in a ti o n of r e pl ic a ti on . b . S p ec t r u m o f a c t i vi t y a n d th e r a pe u t ic us e s ( 1 ) A de f o v i r is ac t i v e a ga i ns t h e pa t it is B v i ru s ( in c lu di n g l am i v ud i ne r e s is ta n t s t ra in s ), he r p es v i r us es , a n d H I V . ( 2 ) H o we v e r , ad e fo v i r is a p p ro v e d fo r us e o nl y f or t r e at m e n t o f c h ro ni c h e p at i ti s B in f ec ti o n i n ad u l ts wi t h e v i de n c e of ac t i v e vi r al r ep li c a t io n wi t h p e r si st e nt l y el e v a te d l i v er f u nc ti o n t es ts o r h is to lo g ic al l y ac t i ve d is ea s e . P.961
c . P r ec a u ti o n s a nd m oni t o r i n g e f f ec t s ( 1 ) S e ve re ac u te he pa t i tis e xa c e rb a ti o ns h a ve occ u r re d i n p a ti e nt s wh o d i sc on t in u e t he r ap y ( b l ac k bo x w a r ni n g ). I f t h era p y is di sc o nt in u ed , l i v e r f u nc t io n te s t s m us t b e m o n i to r ed c l os el y . ( 2 ) N e ph r ot o xi c i t y ha s be e n re po r t ed wi t h ad e fo v i r , es pe c i a ll y in p at ie n ts wi t h u n de r l y in g re n al d ys f u nc t io n o r th o s e ta k i n g c o nc om it a nt n ep h ro t o xi ns ( b l a ck b ox w a r ni n g ).
( 3 ) O t he r ad v e r s e e ff ec ts in c l u de r as h, G I di st u rb a nc es , he ad ac h e, an d we a k n es s . ( 4 ) D os e a d ju s t m e n t i s re q ui r e d f o r r e na l i ns u ff ic i e nc y. 3 . Am a n t ad i n e ( S ym m e t r e l ) is a s yn th e ti c t r ic y cl ic am in e wi t h a un iq u e c h em ic al s t r uc t ur e s im il ar t o ri m a n ta d in e . I t i s e ffe c ti ve ag a in s t in f lu e n z a A vi r a l i n fe c ti on . a . M e c ha n is m o f ac t i on. A m a n t ad in e i n hi bi t s r epl i c a t io n o f t h e i nf l ue n za A vi r u s b y i nt e r fe r in g wi t h v i r a l a t t ac hm en t a n d u nc o a t in g . b . S p ec t r u m o f a c t i vi t y a n d th e r a pe u t ic us e s ( 1 ) D u e t o i nc r ea s i ng r a te s o f re si s ta nc e , a m a n tad i ne is no lo ng e r r e c om m e nd e d f o r p ro p h yl a xi s o r t r e at m e n t o f i n flu e n z a A v i r us . ( 2 ) Th i s d ru g m a y al s o be us e d t o t r e at pa r k i ns oni s m as we l l a s d r ug i n du c ed e xt r a p y r am id a l s y m p to m s . c . P r ec a u ti o n s a nd m oni t o r i n g e f f ec t s ( 1 ) Th e m os t pr o no u nc ed a d v e rs e e f fe c t s o f a m an t a di ne a re a ta xi a , n i gh t m a r es , a n d i ns om nia . O t he r C N S ef f ec ts in c lu d e d e pr es s i o n , c o nf us i on , d i z z i n es s , fa t ig u e , a n xi e t y, an d h e ad ac h e. E ld e rl y p a ti en t s m ay b e at in c re as e d r is k o f CN S a d v e rs e re ac t io ns . Pa t i en ts wi t h a h is to r y o f s e i zu re s o r p s y c h ia t r ic di s o rd e rs s h ou ld be m o ni to r e d c lo se l y du r in g t h e r ap y. ( 2 ) A n ti c h ol i ne r gi c r e ac tio n s ( e .g . , d r y m o u th , bl ur r e d vis io n ) h a v e b e en r e p o rt e d. ( 3 ) D os a ge ad ju s tm en t is ne e de d f o r p a ti e nt s wi th im p ai r ed r en al f un c t i on. 4 . C i do f o vi r ( V i st i d e) is a s y nt h et ic ac yc li c p u ri ne n uc le os i de ph os p ho na te d e r i va ti v e . a . M e c ha n is m o f ac t i on. C i do f o v i r d ip h os ph a te s u p p re ss es C MV r e p l ic at io n b y s el ec t i v e i nh i bi t io n o f v i r a l D N A s y n th es is . b . S p ec t r u m o f a c t i vi t y. I n v i t ro ac ti vi t y h as b e en d em on s t r a te d a g ai ns t C MV , V Z V , E p s te i n - Ba r r v i r u s ( EB V ) , a n d H S V - 1 a n d H S V -2 . Co n t ro ll e d c l in ic al s t u di es a re lim i ted t o p a ti en t s wi t h A I D S an d C MV r e t i ni t is . c . T he r a pe u t ic us e i n c lu d es th e tr e a tm en t , b ut n o t th e c ur e of , C MV r e t in i ti s i n p a ti en t s wi t h A I D S . d . P r e ca u t io n s a n d m on i t o r i ng e f fe c ts ( 1 ) A vo id us in g th is dr u g i n p a ti e nt s wi t h s e r um cr e a ti n in e > 1 .5 m g /d L o r c r e at i ni ne c l ea r a nc e ( C rC l ) ≤ 55 m L /m i n o r i n p a ti e n ts wh o ar e re c e i v i ng (o r h a ve r ec ei v e d i n t h e p as t 7 da y s ) n e ph r ot o xi c a ge n ts . ( 2 ) C id o fo v i r is c o nt r ai n di c at e d i n p at i en ts wi t h a h i s t o r y of se v e r e h yp e r se ns i ti v i t y t o p ro b en e c i d o r s u lf a -c o nt ai n in g m ed ic a ti o ns . ( 3 ) Th e do s e - li m i t in g t o xi c it y o f c id o fo v i r is n e p hr o t o x ic i t y; n e u t r o p en i a, p e r ip h e ra l n eu r o pa t h y , an d di a r rh e a a re c o m m on a d v e r s e ef f ec ts . ( 4 ) P r ob e ne c i d m us t b e a d m i ni s te r ed be f o re an d a f t e r e ac h c i d o fo vi r d os e. Th e p a ti e nt m u s t be h y d ra t e d wi t h 1 L of no r m a l s a l in e b e fo r e i n fu s i n g. C i d o fo vi r is a v a i la bl e o n ly i n I V f o rm . 5 . E n te c a vi r ( Ba r a c lu d e) i s a c a rb oc y c li c a na l og o f gu an os i ne us ed f or t r e a tm en t o f c h r on ic he pa t i ti s B in f ec t io n .
a . M e c ha n is m o f ac t i on. O n c e ph o s p ho r yl a te d to t he ac t i v e t r ip ho s ph a te f o r m , en t ec a v i r i nh i bi ts he p a ti t is B vi r a l p ol ym er as e a n d u lt im a te l y ha l ts h e p at i ti s B D N A s y n t he s is . b . S p ec t r u m o f a c t i vi t y. E n t ec a vi r e xh i b i ts a c ti v it y a g ai ns t he pa t i ti s B vi r u s , i nc lu d in g l am i v ud in e - r es is ta n t s t ra i ns . D e ve l op m en t o f H I V r es is t anc e t o nu cl e os id e re v e r s e t ran s c r i pt as e i n hi bi t o rs i s p o s s i bl e i f e n te c a v i r is u s ed wi t h ou t an ti r e t ro v i ra l t re a tm en t i n H I V a nd h e p at i ti s B v i r us c o i n f ec ti o n. c . T he r a pe u t ic us e s ( 1 ) E n te c a v i r i s a pp r o v ed f o r t r ea tm e n t o f c h r o nic he p at i ti s B in f ec t io n i n a d ul t s wi t h e v id e nc e o f ac t i v e v ir a l r e pl ic a ti on an d p e rs is te n t e le v a t io ns in l i ve r fu nc t io n t es t s o r h is t o l og ic al l y ac t i v e d is ea s e . ( 2 ) I t is e ff ec t i v e f o r p a tie n ts wh o h a v e f ai l ed t rea t m e n t wi t h l am i v ud in e o wi n g t o r es is t an c e de v e l o pm e nt . P.962
( 3 ) E n te ca v i r i s n o t r ec om m e n de d f o r u se in pa t ie n ts wi t h he p at i ti s B v i r us i n f ec ti o n wh o a r e c o - i nf ec t ed wi t h H I V a nd a re not r ec e i vin g a n ti r e tr o vi r al t h e r ap y. d . P r e ca u t io n s a n d m on i t o r i ng e f fe c ts ( 1 ) S e ve re ac u te e xa c e rb a t io ns of he p at i ti s B h ave b e en ob se r ve d i n p a t ie n ts wh o di s c on t in ue t h e ra p y, n e ce s s it a ti n g c l o s e m o ni t o ri ng ( b la ck b o x w a r ni n g ). ( 2 ) C om m o n a d v e rs e e f fe c ts in c l ud e d i zz i n es s, fa t i gu e , h ea d ac he , a n d n a us e a. ( 3 ) D os e a d ju s t m e n t i s re q ui r e d f o r r e na l i ns u ff ici e nc y . ( 4 ) C o un s e l p a ti en t s t o ta k e e nt e c a v i r o n a n e m pt y s t om ac h . 6 . F am c ic l o vi r ( Fa m vi r ) i s a pr o d ru g o f th e a n ti v i r a l a ge n t p en c i c l o v i r . a . M e c ha n is m o f ac t i on. F am c i cl o vi r i s r ap i dl y ph o s p h or yl a te d i n vi ru s i n f ec te d c el ls b y v i r al thy m i d in e k in as e t o p e nc ic l o v i r m o no ph os p ha t e . P e n ci cl o v i r is a c om pe t iti v e i nh ib i to r of vi r al D N A p o l ym e r as e a nd p re v e n ts vi r a l re p li c a t io n b y i nh ib it i o n o f h e rp es vi r us D N A s yn t he si s. b . S p ec t r u m o f a c t i vi t y a n d th e r a pe u t ic us e s ( 1 ) F am c ic l o v ir ha s a c t i vi t y a ga i ns t H S V- 1 , H S V-2 , an d VZ V . Th e d r ug is i n di ca t ed f o r m a n ag em en t o f ac u te he r p es z os t er ( s hi n gl es ) a n d o r al an d g e ni t al he r p es . ( 2 ) Th e r ap y m us t b e p r om p tl y i ni t ia t ed as s o on as he r p es zos t e r is d i ag n os ed ( wi t h in 48 - 7 2 h r ) , at a d os e o f 5 0 0 m g e v e r y 8 h r f o r 7 d a y s . c . P r ec a u ti o n s a nd m oni t o r i n g e f f ec t s ( 1 ) C o mm o n a d ve r se e ve n t s i nc lu d e f a ti gu e , G I c om p la i nt s ( n au s e a , d i a r rh e a, v om i ti n g, c o ns ti p a ti on ) , a n d a no r e xi a . He a d ac he is a ls o c om m o nl y r e p o rt e d. ( 2 ) D os e a d ju s t m e n t i s ne c es s a r y in pa t ie n ts wi t h r e n al d ys f un c ti on . F a m c ic lo v i r is re m o v e d by h e m o d ia l ys i s .
7 . F os c a rn e t (F o sc a vi r ) i s a s yn t he t ic p y ro p ho sph a t e a na l og th a t d i re ct l y i n hi b it s e n z y m es i n v o l v ed i n v i r al D N A s y nt h es is wi t h o u t i nc o r po r a ti on in to vi r a l D N A . I t i s a br o ad - s p e c t r um an t i vi ra l a ge n t an d is a n o p ti o n i n c a se s o f ac yc lo v i r or ga nc ic l o v ir r e s i s t a nc e. a . M e c ha n is m o f ac t i on ( 1 ) V i ra l D N A r e pl ic a ti on r e q ui r es th e a dd i ti o n o f d e o xyn u c l eo s i d e t r i ph o sp ha t es at t he en d o f th e D N A s t ra n d b y DN A p o l ym e r as e a nd th e s u bs eq u en t c le a v a ge of p y r o p ho s ph a te f ro m t he n e wl y a t t ac h ed nu cl eo t ide . F o sc a rn e t b in ds no nc o m p e t it i v e l y to D N A p o l ym er a s e t o f o rm an in ac t i ve c om p le x a n d p re v e n ts p yr o p ho s p h at e c l ea v a ge . Vi r a l D N A c h a in el on g at i on i s th us te r m i na t ed . ( 2 ) F osc a r ne t i s a ls o a c t iv e a g ai ns t H I V. I t is a n on c om pe t it i v e , r e ve rs i bl e i n hi b it o r o f H I V r e v e rs e tr a n s c ri p ta s e, th e e n z ym e r es p on si bl e fo r c o n ve rt i ng v i r al R N A t o vi r a l D N A . b . S p ec t r u m o f a c t i vi t y a n d th e r a pe u t ic us e s. Fo sc a r ne t h as in v i t ro a c ti vi t y a ga in s t H S V - 1 an d H S V - 2, C MV , V Z V , EB V D N A p ol ym e ra s e s , i n f lu en za p ol y m er as e , an d H I V r e v e rs e tr a ns c r i pt a s e . Th e ra p eu t ic al l y , the d r u g i s us e d t o t r ea t C MV d is e as e as we l l a s a c yc l o vi r- r es is t an t H S V a n d V Z V i nf ec t io ns . ( 1 ) F osc a r ne t i s a n a lt e rn a t i v e t o g an c i c l o v i r a n d v a l g an c i c l o v i r f o r t r e a tm en t o f C MV i n f ec t io n in im m u no co m p r om ise d pa t ie n ts . F os ca r n et c a us es l e s s h em a to l og ic t o xi c i t y th a n g an c i c l o v i r i n p a ti e nt s wh o h a ve r e c ei ve d a ll o ge n ei c s t e m c el l t r a ns pl a nt s . A n i ni t i a l in du c ti on t he r ap y l as ts 2 - 3 we e k s . Ma i n te n an c e t h e r ap y is ne e de d t o p r ev e n t r el a ps e. ( 2 ) F osc a r ne t i s i nd ic a ted f o r t he t re a tm e nt of acy c l o v i r - re s i s ta n t m uc o cu t an eo us H S V in im m u n oc om p ro m i se d p a tie n ts . It is no t , h o we ve r , a c u r e f o r H S V in f ec ti o ns . ( 3 ) F osc a r ne t i s a bl e t o c r os s t h e b lo od - b ra i n b ar r i e r . c . P r ec a u ti o n s a nd m oni t o r i n g e f f ec t s ( 1 ) I V f os c a r n et is hi gh l y n e p h ro t o xi c , c au s i n g ac u te t ub ul a r n ec r os is . The i n ci de n c e of ac ut e re n al f a i lu r e c an be m a rk e dl y re d uc e d i f a de q ua t e h yd r a t io n a nd da i l y m on it o r in g of s e r um c r ea t in i ne a nd B U N ar e m ai n ta i ne d t h r o ug ho u t t h er a p y . ( 2 ) O t he r c o m m on ad v e rs e e f f ec ts in c l ud e e l ec t ro l y t e a b no r m a li t ie s ( e .g . , h yp o ca lc em i a, h y po m a gn e s e m i a , h y p op h os ph a tem i a a nd h yp e r ph o s p ha t em ia , h y po k al em i a) , an em ia , fe v e r, h ea d ac he , a n d s ei z u r es . ( 3 ) D os e a d ju s t m e n t f o r r e n al d y sf u nc ti o n is r eq ui r e d. F osc a r ne t i s r em o ve d b y h em o di a l ys is . ( 4 ) F osc a r ne t m us t b e ad m in is t e re d u s i ng an in fu s io n p um p o v e r at le as t 1 . 5 - 2 h r . D o n o t a dm in is te r t he d ru g a s a n I V bo lus . P.963
d . S i gn i f ic a n t i n te r a c t io n s
( 1 ) C o nc om it a nt ne p h ro to xi n s ( am i no gl yc os i de s , a m ph o te r ic in B , e tc . ) i n c re as e t h e r is k o f r e na l t o xi c i t y . ( 2 ) F osc a r ne t i s e xc l u si v e l y e li m i na t ed b y gl om e ru l a r f il t r at i on ; c on c ur r e nt n e p hr o to xi c a g en ts s h oul d be a voi d ed wh e n e v er p o ss i b l e. 8 . G a nc i c lo vi r ( C yt o ve n e ) is a s yn th e ti c p u ri ne nu c le os i de an al o g t ha t is a p p ro ve d fo r th e t r e at m en t an d p r o ph y l a xi s of C M V i n fe c t i on s i n i m m u no c o m p r om is e d p ati e n ts (e . g. , H I V -p os i ti ve p a t i e n ts , t r an s pl an t r e c ip ie n ts ) . a . M e c ha n is m o f ac t i on. A f t er co n v e rs i on to ga nc ic l o v i r t r ip ho s p h at e , g a nc ic l o v ir is in c o r po r a te d in t o vi r al D N A , wh i c h i n hi b it s v ir a l D N A p o l ym e r as e , t he r e b y t e rm i na t in g v ir a l r e pl ic a ti on. b . S p ec t r u m o f a c t i vi t y. G a n c i cl o v i r h as in v i t ro a c ti vi t y a ga in s t H S V - 1 an d H S V - 2 , V Z V, E B V , a nd CMV ( o wi n g t o i ts en ha n ce d ab il i t y to pe n et r a te ho s t c e ll s ). c . T he r a pe u t ic us e s. I t is in d ic at e d f o r t r ea t m e n t o f C MV r e t i ni ti s i n p a t ie n ts wi t h HI V / A I D S . It i s al s o us e d f o r p r op h yla xi s o f C MV i n f ec ti o n i n H I V - p os i ti v e pa t ie n ts (s ec o nd a r y p ro ph yl a xi s ) and t r an sp l an t re c i pi e nt s a t r i sk fo r C MV d i s ea s e . ( 1 ) C o n v er s i o n i nt o th e tr i p ho s p h at e fo r m is g re at e r in in f ec te d h os t c e ll s, e ve n th o ug h d r u g p en e tra t i on oc c u rs in bo t h u ni nf e c te d a nd in f ec t ed c e ll s . ( 2 ) I nh ib i to r y c o n c e n tr a tio n s f o r t he vi r al D N A po ly m e r as e a r e l o we r t ha n t h os e fo r th e h os t c el l ul ar p ol y m e ra s e. ( 3 ) I t is a v ai l ab l e in o ra l a n d I V fo r m u l at i on s as we l l a s a n i nt r a oc ul a r i m pl an t . Al t ho u gh th e o ra l fo r m u la t io n i s a pp r o v ed f o r p r e ven t io n a n d m a in t en a nc e t r ea tm e nt of C MV , i t s po o r b io a v a il ab i l i t y h as l im i te d i ts us e . V a l ga nc ic l o v i r h as b ec om e th e d r ug of ch o ic e f or t h es e i nd ic a ti o ns , o wi ng t o it s m a rk ed l y im p ro v e d b i oa v a il a bi li t y . d . P r e ca u t io n s a n d m on i t o r i ng e f fe c ts ( 1 ) G a nc ic lo v i r ha s a bl ac k bo x w a r ni n g c on c e r ni n g i nc r ea se d p o te n ti a l fo r n e u t ro pe n ia , a n em ia , a nd t h ro m b oc y t o pe n ia . It is a l s o te r at o ge n ic , c a rc i no ge n ic , a n d m u t age n ic . ( 2 ) A d ve rs e e f fe c t s c om m o nl y i nc lu d e f e v e r, r ash , an d G I d is t ur b an c e s . P h l eb i ti s a nd pa i n m a y oc c u r a t t he s i te o f i nf us i on . ( 3 ) B ec au s e g an c i c l o v i r is c l ea r e d b y gl om e r ul a r fi l t ra t io n a n d t ub u la r s ec r e ti o n, r en al f un c t i on a n d a d eq ua t e h y d r a ti on s h ou l d b e m o n it o re d . D o s es s h ou ld be a dj us t ed i n c a se s o f re n al i m pa ir m e nt an d h em o di al ys is . ( 4 ) S ol u ti o ns o f ga nc ic lov i r a r e e xt r e m e l y a lk a li ne . A v o id di r ec t c on t ac t wi t h s ki n . e . S i gn i f ic a n t i n te r a c ti on s ( 1 ) P r o be n ec i d m a y i nc re a s e ga nc ic l o vir co nc e ntr a t io n s a nd po s s ib l y t o xi c i t y. ( 2 ) U se of z i d o vu d in e , az a t hi o p r in e , o r m yc o p h e n o la t e m o f e ti l i n c om b in a ti o n wi t h ga nc ic lo v i r m a y r es u lt in ne u t rop e ni a ; c a re f ul m o ni t or i ng o f ne u t ro p hi l c ou n t is r eq u i re d wh e n t h es e a re t ak e n co n c u r r en t l y wi t h g a nc ic l o v ir .
( 3 ) I mi p en e m -c i la s ta t i n i n c om bi n at i on wi t h g a nc ic l o vi r m a y i nc r ea se th e p o t en t ia l f o r s ei z u r es . 9 . O s el t a mi vi r ( T am i f l u) i s p ha r m a c o l og ic al l y s im i la r to z a na m i v i r bu t s t r uc t ur a ll y d if f e re n t. B oth o f t h es e a ge n ts a r e i n a c l as s k no wn a s t h e n e u ra m i n id as e i n hi bi t o rs a n d h a ve a u n iq u e m e ch a ni s m of ac t io n . a . M e c ha n is m o f ac t i on. O s el t am i v i r is a p r od r ug t ha t m us t be h y dr o l y zed t o os el t am i v i r c a r b o xy l a te i n v i v o t o e xe r t i ts an t iv i r a l a c ti vi t y. It is a p ot en t s e le ct i v e i n hi bi t o r o f t h e i n f lu en za v i r us en z ym e , n e u ra m i n id as e . I nh i bi t ion o f t hi s e n z y m e p re v e n ts v i r a l re p li c a t io n a nd s p r ea d to o th e r h os t c el ls . b . S p ec t r u m o f a c t i vi t y. Th i s ag en t i s a ct i ve a g ai n s t bo t h i n fl ue n z a A a nd B vi r u se s . c . T he r a pe u t ic us e s ( 1 ) I t is ap p r o v ed fo r th e s y m pt om a ti c t r ea t m e n t o f in f lu e n z a A an d B i n f ec ti o ns i n p a ti e nt s 1 ye a r of ag e a n d o ld e r wh o p r es e nt wi t h s y m p to m s wi t h i n 48 h r. ( 2 ) O se l ta m i v i r ha s b ee n s ho wn t o de c re as e t h e d u r a ti on o f s y m p t om s b y 1 2 d a ys i f t ak en wi t h in 48 h r of on se t of vi r al s y m pt o m s . ( 3 ) I t is al s o ap p r o v ed for t h e p r op h yla xi s o f i n fl ue n za in f ec ti o ns i n p a ti e nt s 1 ye a r o f a g e a nd ol d e r. N o t e : Th e i nf l ue n za v i rus v a cc in e i s s ti ll th e go ld s t an d a rd fo r p ro ph y l a xi s . ( 4 ) O se l ta m i v i r de m o ns t ra t es s o m e ac ti v i t y a ga ins t s t r ai ns of a via n i n f lu en za , m ak i ng it a p os s i b le op t io n f o r t r e at m en t an d p r o ph yl a xi s . P.964
d . P r e ca u t io n s a n d m on i t o r i ng e f fe c ts ( 1 ) Th e m os t c om m o n a dv e r s e e f f ec ts ar e n a us ea a n d vo m i t in g . Th er e h a v e b e e n p os t m ar k e t in g re po r t s o f s el f -i n ju r y a nd del i r iu m ( m o s tl y in J a p an ) a m on g p e di a tr ic pa t ie n ts . C l os e m on i to r in g f o r a bn o r m a l b eh a v i o r is r e c om m e nd e d. ( 2 ) D os a ge ad ju s tm en ts a r e re q ui r ed f or pa t ie n ts wi t h i m p a i re d r e na l f u nc t io n . ( 3 ) C r os s -r es is t an c e b etwe e n o s e l ta m i vi r an d z an a m i v i r ha s b ee n re po r t ed . 1 0 . R ib a vi r i n ( Re b e to l , C o p e g us ) is a s y n t h et ic n u c l e os id e a na l og . a . M e c ha n is m o f ac t i on. R i ba v i r i n m a y i nh i bi t RN A a n d D N A s yn th es is by d e pl e ti n g i nt r ac e ll ul a r n uc l eo t id e re se r v e s. b . S p ec t r u m o f a c t i vi t y. Th i s ag en t i s a ct i ve i n vi t r o a g ai ns t a b ro ad s p ec t ru m o f D N A a nd R NA v i r u s e s , in cl u di n g in f lue n z a A a n d B , R S V , h e r pe s s im pl e x, a n d h epa t i ti s C vi r us . c . T he r a pe u t ic us e s. Th e a e ro so li z e d fo r m o f r i ba v i r i n is n o lo n ge r r e c om m e nd e d f o r t r ea tm e n t o f R S V i n i n fa n ts a nd c h i ld r en , o wi ng t o i n co ns is t en t c li n ic al be ne f i ts ob se r v e d i n c li ni c a l t r i al s . C om bi n at i on t h e r ap y wi t h o ra l ri ba v i r in a nd s u bc u ta ne o us i n ter f e r on - α is e ff ec t i v e i n t r e a tm en t o f c h r on ic he pa t i ti s C . d . P r e ca u t io n s a n d m on i t o r i ng e f fe c ts
( 1 ) C om m o n a d v e rs e e f fe c ts of o ra l ri ba v i r in in clu d e h em o l yti c a ne m i a a nd G I d is t u rb a nc es . He m o g lo b in an d he m a t oc ri t s h ou l d b e m on i to r ed c a r ef u lly , e s pe ci a ll y d ur i ng th e fi rs t 4 we e k s o f t re a tm en t . ( 2 ) R ib a v i r in is t e r at o ge ni c ; i ts us e is c o n t ra in d ic a t e d i n p r eg na nc y. ( 3 ) R ib a v i r in s h ou ld b e av o i d e d in p at ie n ts wi t h a C r C l < 5 0 m L/ m i n . ( 4 ) R ib a v i r in s h ou ld n e ve r b e us e d as m o no t he r ap y i n tr e at m e n t o f c h ro n ic h e p at i ti s C . 1 1 . R im a nt a d in e (F l um ad i n e ) i s a s y n t he ti c a n ti v i r a l a ge n t a nd an α - m e t hy l d e r i va ti v e of am an t ad i ne t h a t bl o c k s t he ea r l y s t ep i n t he r ep li c at io n o f the i n f lu en za A v i ru s . a . M e c ha n is m o f ac t i on. R i m a n ta di n e i nh i bi ts the e a rl y v i r al r ep li c at i on c yc le , po s s ib l y in hi b it i ng t h e u nc oa t in g o f th e v i ru s . I t h a s t he s am e m ec h an is m o f a c t i on an d s pe c t ru m o f ac t i vi t y a s a m an t ad i ne . b . S p ec t r u m o f a c t i vi t y a n d th e r a pe u t ic us e s ( 1 ) D u e t o i nc r ea s i ng r a te s o f re si s ta nc e , r im a nt ad i ne is no lo ng e r r e c om m e nd e d f o r p ro p h yl a xi s o r t r e at m e n t o f i n flu e n z a A v i r us . ( 2 ) I nf l ue n z a v ac c i na t io n i s t h e m e t ho d o f c h oi c e f o r p re ve n ti on o f i nf l ue nza i n f ec ti o n. c . P r ec a u ti o n s a nd m oni t o r i n g e f f ec t s ( 1 ) R im a nt a di ne m a y i nc r e a s e th e i nc i de nc e o f se i zu r e i n p a ti en t s wi t h s e i zu re di s o r de r . ( 2 ) Th e m os t f re qu e nt adv e r s e re ac t io ns in c l u de G I d is t u rb a nc e ( e .g . , n a us e a, v o m i ti n g, an o r exi a ) a n d C N S to xi c i t y ( e.g . , i n s o m n ia , di z zi n es s , h e a da c h e ), wh i c h a r e les s t h an th os e o b s e r ve d wi t h a m a n ta d in e . ( 3 ) D os e re du c ti o ns a r e r e c om m e nd e d in p at ie n ts wi t h he p at ic o r r en a l d ys f un c ti o n. 1 2 . Te l bi vu d i n e ( T yz e k a ) i s a s yn t he t ic th y m id ine n uc le os i de an al o g us ed f o r t re a tm en t of c h r on ic h e p at i ti s B in f ec ti o n. a . M e c ha n is m o f ac t i on. Te l b i v ud i ne is p h os ph or y l a t e d i nt o t h e ac t i v e t r i ph o sp ha t e f o rm th a t i nh i bi t s h ep a ti t is B vi r a l DN A p o l ym e r as e, wi t h u l t im at e t e rm i na t io n o f th e D N A c h ai n a nd in h ib i ti o n o f v i ra l re pl ic a ti o n. b . S p ec t r u m o f a c t i vi t y. ( 1 ) Te l bi v u d in e e xh i b i ts a c ti v i t y a ga in s t h ep a ti t is B v i r us bu t no t H IV . ( 2 ) Th e r e is a h ig h i nc i de n c e of c ro s s - re s i s ta nc e b e t we e n l am i v ud i ne r e s is ta n t h ep a ti t is B v ir us an d te lb i vu di n e. c . T he r a pe u t ic us e s. ( 1 ) Te l bi v u d in e i s i nd ic a te d fo r t re a tm en t of c h r oni c h e pa t it is B i n fe c ti on in a d ul t s wi t h ac t i v e v i r a l re p li c a t io n a n d p e rs is te n t e l e v at i on s i n l i v e r f un c t io n t e s ts o r hi s t o lo gi c al l y a c t i v e di s e as e . ( 2 ) W hen c om pa r ed wi t h l a m i v u di n e, t el bi vu d in e pr o d uc e d a g r ea t e r vi r o l og ic r es po ns e i n c ont r o ll e d c l i ni c a l t r i al s. d . P r e ca u t io n s a n d m on i t o r i ng e f fe c ts . ( 1 ) Th e r e is a b l ac k b o x w a rn i n g r e ga r di n g se v er e e xa c e r ba t io ns of h e p at i ti s B in pa t ie n ts d is c o n ti n ui n g t he r ap y , r e qu i r in g c lo s e m o ni t o ri n g. P.965
( 2 ) C om m o n a d v e rs e e f fe c ts in c l ud e e l e v at i on s in c re a ti n e p ho s p h ok in as e , h e a da c h e , f at i gu e , n au s e a , a n d vo m i t in g . ( 3 ) D os a ge ad ju s tm en t is r eq u ir e d i n p at i en ts wi t h r e na l i ns u ff ic i en c y . ( 4 ) Ma y b e t ak en wi t h o ut r e g ar d to m e al s. 1 3 . Va l ac yc l o vi r ( V a l t r ex ) is th e L - v a l y l e s te r p ro d r ug o f t he an t i vi ra l a ge n t a c ycl o vi r . a . M e c ha n is m o f ac t i on. V a la c y cl o vi r is r ap i dl y c o n ve rt e d t o a c yc l o vi r. A c yc lo v i r is s el e c t i v e f o r t h e t h ym i d in e k in as e e nz y m e , b eg in n in g t h e c o n ve rs io n o f a c y c l o v i r to ac y c lo v i r t ri p ho sp h at e , s t op pi n g t he r ep l ic at i on o f h e r pe s v ir a l D N A . b . S p ec t r u m o f a c t i vi t y a n d th e r a pe u t ic us e s ( 1 ) V al ac y c lo v i r is a c ti v e a g ai ns t H S V -1 , H S V -2 , a n d VZ V . ( 2 ) Th i s a ge n t is us ed f or t h e ac u te t r ea tm e nt of h e r pe s z os te r (s h in gl e s ) , h e r pe s l ab i al is (c o ld s o re s ) , a nd ge n it a l h er p es in im m u n oc om pe t en t ad ult s . I t is al so ef f ec t i v e f o r s up p r es s i on o f r ec u r re n t ep i s o d es o f g e ni t al he r pes in i m m u no c o m p e te n t a nd HI V - i n fe ct e d p eo pl e as wel l as re d uc ti o n o f t r a ns m i s s io n o f ge ni t al he r p es . ( 3 ) A d van t ag e s o v e r a c yc l o v i r in c l u de o ra l d os i ng o f o nl y o nc e t o th r ee t i m e s d ai l y an d a t t ai nm en t o f hi g he r pl as m a c o nc e n t r at i on s t ha n o r al a c ycl o vi r . A di s a d v a n ta ge is t ha t t h e re is n o IV f or m a v ai l ab le . c . P r ec a u ti o n s a nd m oni t o r i n g e f f ec t s ( 1 ) V al ac y c lo v i r ha s c aus e d t h ro m b o ti c t h ro m b o cy t o p e ni c p u rp u ra / he m o l yt i c u r e m i c s y nd r om e i n i m m u n oc om p r om i s ed i n di v i du a ls , i nc l ud in g th os e wi th a d va nc e d H I V an d t r an s p l an t r ec ip ie n ts . ( 2 ) B eg i n t he r a p y wi t hi n 7 2 h r o f h e rp es zo s t e r r as h o ns e t . ( 3 ) Mo s t c o m m on l y r ep o rt e d a d v e rs e re ac t io ns a re m i l d a nd in c l ud e n a us ea , h e a da c h e , a nd v om i ti n g. D o s ag e a dj us t m e n t is ne e d ed i n pa ti e n ts wi t h r e n al d y s f u nc ti o n. 1 4 . Va l ga n c ic l o vi r ( Va lc yt e ) i s t he L- v a l y l es te r p r o dr u g o f t h e a nt i vi r al a g e nt ga nc ic l o v ir . a . M e c ha n is m o f ac t i on. V a lg a nc ic lo v i r i s c on v er t e d i n vi vo t o g an c i c l o v ir . A f t e r c on v e r s i o n t o t h e ac t i v e f o rm , g a nc ic lo v i r t rip h os p ha t e, ga nc ic l o v i r is i n co r po r a te d i n to v i r al DN A , wh i c h i nh i bi ts v i r al D N A p o l y m e r as e, t he r eby t e r m i n at in g v i ra l re pl ic a tio n . b . S p ec t r u m o f a c t i vi t y a n d th e r a pe u t ic us e s ( 1 ) F or in v i t ro ac t i v it y , s e e V II . B . 8. b . ( 2 ) V al g an c i c l o v i r i s in d ic a te d fo r th e t r e at m e n t of C MV r e t i n i ti s in p at ie n ts wi t h A I D S a nd fo r p re v en t i on of C MV a f t e r t r a ns p l an t a ti on o f k i d ne y , he ar t , a n d k id n e y pa nc r ea s . I t is no t in di ca t ed f or li v e r tr a n s p la n t r e ci pi e nt s , d ue t o a n in c re as ed r is k o f t is s u e - in v a si v e C MV a s co m p a r ed wi t h ga nc ic l o v ir . ( 3 ) Th e m a rk e dl y im p ro v e d bi oa va i la b il it y o f v al ga n ci c l o vi r o v e r or a l g a nc ic l o v ir ha s re s u l te d i n th e wi d es p re a d us e o f v a l g an c i c l o v i r f o r t r e a tm en t a n d p r e v en t ion o f C MV d is e as e.
c . P r ec a u ti o n s a nd m oni t o r i n g e f f ec t s ( 1 ) S am e b l ac k b o x w a rn i n g s as f or ga n c i c l o v i r. ( 2 ) D os es s h ou l d b e a dju s te d i n c as es of r en a l im p ai r m e n t. D o n o t us e in h e m o d ia l y s i s p at i en ts ; ga n c i c l o vi r m us t b e u s e d . ( 3 ) O n l y a v a i la b le or a ll y . D o no t s u bs ti t u te do se s o f o ra l val g an c i c l o v i r 1 :1 f o r o ra l g an c i c l o v i r ; t he y a r e n o t e qu i v a le n t. ( 4 ) A po t en ti a l c ar c i n og en a nd te r a to g en ; c om m on a d v e rs e e f fe ct s a r e t he s am e a s f o r g a nc ic lo v i r . ( 5 ) I f t he t ab le t is b r ok e n, a v o id co n ta ct wi t h s ki n o wi n g t o t e ra t og e ni c a nd c a rc i no ge n ic p o t en ti a l. ( 6 ) B e a wa r e o f t he po t en t i al fo r e rr o rs as a r es ult o f t h e l oo k -a li k e an d s o un d -a l ik e n am es of v a lg a nc ic l o v ir an d val a c yc lo v i r . d . S i gn i f ic a n t i n te r a c t io n s . Sa m e as fo r g a nc ic l o vi r ; s ee V I I. B . 8. e . 1 5 . Za n am i vi r ( R el e nz a ) i s t h e f i rs t o f a c l ass o f a n t i v ir a l a ge n ts c a ll ed n e u ra m i n id as e i n hi bi t o rs a p p ro ve d b y t he F D A f or t h e t r ea tm e n t o f i nf l ue nza A a n d B in f ec ti o ns i n a du l ts an d c hi l d re n a t l e as t 7 y e a rs of ag e . I t i s a ls o i n di ca t ed f o r p re v e n ti o n o f in f lu e n za i n a du l ts a nd c h i ld r en a t l ea s t 5 y e a rs o f ag e . a . M e c ha n is m o f ac t i on. Z a na m i v i r i n hi bi t s r ep l ic a ti o n o f t h e i nf l ue n z a A a n d B vi r us es b y s e le c t i ve i nh ib i ti o n o f t h e i nf lu e nz a vi r u s n eu r am i ni da se e n zym e . b . S p ec t r u m o f a c t i vi t y. Th i s ag en t i s a ct i ve a g ai n s t bo t h t h e i nf l ue n za A a n d B vi r us es . It de m o ns t r a t es a c ti v i t y ag a in s t a vi a n i n fl ue n za i n a n im al s t ud i es . P.966
c . T he r a pe u t ic us e s ( 1 ) I t is ap p r o v ed fo r th e t r e at m e n t o f u nc om p li c at e d i n fl u en za A a n d B i n f ec ti o n f o r p at i en ts wh o h a v e b ee n s y m pt om a tic f or < 4 8 h r . It is a ls o i n di ca t ed f o r i nf lu e n z a p ro p h y l a xi s . ( 2 ) Z an am i v i r is ap p r o v ed f o r o r al in ha l at i on us e o n l y , u s i n g t he D is kh a le r d e vi ce p ro v i de d b y t h e m a nu f ac tu r e r . ( 3 ) Z an am i v i r m a y b e c on s id e re d fo r p r e v e nt i on o r t r ea tm e nt o f a v i an i n f lu en za . ( 4 ) S ho wn t o de c re as e du r a ti o n o f s ym pt om s b y a p p ro xi m a t el y 1 . 5 d a ys if t a ke n wi t hi n 4 8 h r o f o ns e t o f v i r al s ym p to m s . d . P r e ca u t io n s a n d m on i t o r i ng e f fe c ts ( 1 ) Th e us e o f z an am i v i r i s g en e r al l y no t re co m m e n d ed i n pa ti e n ts wi t h a h i st o r y of as t hm a o r c h ron i c o bs t ru c ti v e pu lm on a ry d i s e as e , o wi n g to th e r i sk of b ro nc h os pa s m and ac u te de c l i ne in lu n g fu n c t i on . ( 2 ) Th e m os t c om m o n a dv e r s e e f f ec ts we r e m il d a n d i nc lu d ed di a r rh e a, n a us e a, an d v om i ti ng . Th e in c i de n c e of th e se wa s no di f f er e nt t ha n p l ac e bo .
( 3 ) D o n o t p un c t u r e t he R o t a di s k bl is t er un t il im m e di a te l y be f o re a d m i ni s te r in g th e d os e to e ns u re fu l l d os ag e . Ma n u a l de xt e r i t y r e qu i r ed fo r t h is de vi c e . C . R N A vi r u s e s ( H I V ) 1 . C u r re n tl y , s i x c l as s e s o f an t i re t r o v ir a l a ge n ts ar e a pp r o v ed . Th es e d r ugs a r e ac ti v e ag a in s t H I V an d in c l ud e th e n uc l eo s i de r e v e rs e t r a ns c r i pt as e i n hi b it o rs ( N R TI s ) a b ac avi r , d i d a no s in e , e m t r ic it a b i ne , la m i vu di n e , s t a vu d i ne , z a lc i t ab i ne , a n d z i do vu d i n e ; t he nu cl e o ti de r e v e rs e t r a ns c ri p ta s e in hi b it o r ( Nt R TI ) t e n o f o vi r di s op r ox i l f um a r at e ; t h e n o n nu c l eo s i d e r e v e rs e t ra n s c r ip t as e i nh ib i to r s ( NN R TI s ) d e la vi r d i n e , e f a vi r e nz , ne vi r a p i ne an d e t ra vi r i n e ; a nd t he pro t e as e i nh i bi to r s ( P I s ) a m p r en a vi r , a ta z a n a vi r , d a r u na vi r , f o sa m p re n avi r , i n d i na vi r , l o p i na vi r / r i t o na vi r , n e lfi n a vi r , r i t on a vi r , sa q ui na vi r , a n d t i p ra n a vi r ; t h e f u si o n i nh ib i to r en f u vi r t id e ; t h e e n t r y i n hi b it o r ma r a vi r o c ; a n d t h e i n t eg r as e i nh i bi t or r a l te gr a vi r . 2 . Th e se ag en t s a r e v i r us t a ti c a nd re q ui r e l i fe lo ng t he r a p y. Th e y a r e c u r re n tl y a p pr o v e d f o r us e i n v a ri o us c om bi n at i on s k no wn a s p o te n t c om b in a ti o n a nt i re t r o v i ral t he r a p y . a . A pp r o pr i at e c om bi n at io n s i nc lu d e t ho s e t ha t ha ve d em on s tr a te d e f f ic ac y a n d s af e t y in c o nt r o ll ed c l in ic al t ri a ls ( Ta bl e 4 4 -6) . b . Mo n o t h er a p y wi t h a n y s in g le an t ir e t ro v i r a l a gen t i s un ac ce p ta bl e i n th e t r e a tm en t o f H I V i nf e c t i on o wi n g t o ra p id de v e lo pm e nt o f v i r al r es is t an ce . +
c . B ef o r e d es ig ni n g a t rea t m e n t p la n , a m i ni m u m o f t wo C D 4 c e ll c o un t s a n d o n e H I V R N A l e v e l (v i r a l l o ad ) s h ou l d b e o bta i n e d to c o nf i rm th e i n it ia l m e as u re m e n ts a n d d et e rm i ne if t re a tm en t s h ou ld b e i n i ti a te d . A f te r s t a r ti ng t h e r ap y, r ep e at th es e m e a s u r em e nt s i n 2 - 8 we e k s , fo ll o we d b y e ve r y 3 - 4 m o nt hs t he r ea f t er . d . A m i ni m u m o f 1 .0 - l og 1 0 c op ie s /m L d ec li ne in H IV R N A l e vel s s ho ul d be s e en af t e r t h e f i rs t 2 - 8 we e k s o f th e r ap y f o r c l i ni c a l re s po ns e ; a s ub se q uen t d e c re as e t o u n de t ec t ab le l e v el s sh o ul d b e a c h i eve d b y 1 6- 2 4 we e k s. 3 . R e ve r se t r a ns c r ip t a se i n hi b i to r s a re c l as s i fie d as e i th e r n uc l eo si de s o r n u cl e ot id e s . Th es e a g ent s ar e c om p et i ti ve in hi b ito r s o f re v e r se t r a ns c ri p ta s e , wh i c h l e ads t o c h a in te r m i na t io n wh e n i nc o rp o r at e d i nt o t he vi r a l D N A c ha i n. Th e y a re i na c t i v e u n ti l p h os ph o ry l a t e d b y hu m an c e ll ul a r k i na se s i nt o th e a c t i v e tri p ho s ph a te m e ta b ol i te . Ea c h a ge n t h as a c o r re s po nd i ng th r e e- l et te r ac r on y m as we l l a s a b r a nd na m e . W it h t he e xc e p t i on of ab a c a v i r , ea c h a ge n t i n t hi s c la s s of a n ti r et r o v i ra ls r eq u ir e s d o sa g e a dj us tm e nt in pat i e nt s wi t h r en a l d ys fu nc t i o n. Al l a ge n t s i n th i s c l a ss ha ve a bl a ck bo x w a r ni n g c o nc e r n in g t he p o t en t i a l f o r d e ve l o pm e n t o f la c t ic ac i d os i s a n d s e ve r e h e pa t o m eg a l y w i t h s t e a to s is . a . Ab a c a vi r ( AB C ; Z i a g e n ) is a s ynt h et ic c a r bo cy c l ic nu c l e os id e a n al og i n di ca t ed f o r t he t re a tm en t o f b ot h a d ul t a n d p ed ia t r ic pa t ie n ts wi t h HI V . ( 1 ) M e c ha n is m o f ac t i on . S ee V I I. C . 3 .
( 2 ) S pe c t r um o f a c t i vi t y a n d th e r ap e u ti c u s es . A b a c a vi r i s a p pr o ve d f o r u s e i n a du l ts a n d c hi ld r en ≥ 3 m on t hs o f ag e o nl y i n c om bi n at i on wi t h o t her a n t ir e t ro v i r a l a ge n ts . ( a ) A ba c a v i r is a v a i la b le a l on e o r co - fo r m u l at e d as a c om bi na t io n ta bl e t wi t h l am i v u di n e a nd z i dov u d i n e ( Tr i z i v i r ) wh i c h is d os e d t wi c e d a il y . ( b ) A ba c a v ir is al s o a v ai la b le in a c om bi n at io n tab l e t wi t h la m i v u d in e ( E p zi c om ) wh ic h i s d os ed o nc e d ai l y . ( 3 ) P r ec a u t io n s a nd m on i t o r i ng e f fe c ts . A ba c av i r h as a b l ac k b o x w a r ni n g f o r a li f e -t h re a te n in g h y p e rs e ns i ti v i t y r ea c ti o n t ha t c a n l ea d t o d e a th . It oc c u rs in ap p r oxi m a t e l y 5% o f p at i en ts ta k in g t h is d r u g, t y pi c al l y wi t h i n th e fi rs t 6 we e k s of t h er a p y. Th is re ac t io n in v o l v e s r es p i ra t or y s ym p to m s , f e v e r , r as h , an d G I c om pl a in ts . R ee xp o s u re fo l lo wi n g th es e s ym p to m s c a n m i m i c a nap h y l a xi s an d m a y re s ul t in d ea t h. Th e r ef o r e, r e c ha ll e ng e i s c o n t ra i nd ic a te d . A Me d i c at i on G uid e de s c r ib in g th is re a ct io n s h ou l d b e d is pe ns e d wi t h e ac h n e w p r es c r i pt i on a n d re f il l o f a ba c a vir *
c o nt a in in g pr o du c t s . Th e H L A - B 5 7 01 s c re e ni ng te s t s ho ul d b e u s ed pr i o r t o i n i ti a ti ng t he r ap y t o re duc e th e r is k o f th is re a ct ion . P.967
Table 44-6. Department of Health and Human Services Guidelines for the Use of Antiviral Agents in HIV-1-Infected Adults and Adolescents When to begin treatment Treat any patient with history of AIDS defining illness Treat any patients with CD4+ cell count < 200/mm3 or between 200350/mm3 Treat patients who are pregnant, have HIV-associated nephropathy or those co-infected with hepatitis B virus (when treatment for hepatitis B is indicated). Note: The optimal time to start treatment in patients with CD4+ cell count > 350/mm3 is not well defined. Regimen selection Selection of a treatment regimen should be individualized for each patient based on adverse effect profiles, drug interactions, comorbidities, pill burden, etc. Preferred and alternative treatment regimens in previously
untreated patients are as follows: To select an antiretroviral regimen, select one component from Column A and one from Column B: Column A (NNRTI or PI Options)
Column B (Dual NRTI Options)
Preferr ed Compo nents
NNRT I Efavir enza
o r
PI Atazanavir or ritonavir Fosamprenavi r + ritonavir (b.i.d.) Lopinavir/rito navir (b.i.d.)
Preferr ed Compo nents
Tenofovir/em tricitabine or abacavir/lami vudine
Alterna tive to Preferr ed Compo nents
NNRT I Nevira pineb
o r
PI Atazanavir Fosamprenavi r Fosamprenavi r/ritonavir (once daily) Lopinavir/rito navir (once daily) Saquinavir + ritonavir
Alterna tive to Preferr ed Compo nents
Zidovudine/la mivudine or didanosine + (emtricitabine or lamivudine)
Agents or combinations that should not be offered at any time All monotherapies 2-NRTI regimens Abacavir + tenofovir + lamivudine as a triple NRTI regimen Tenofovir + didanosine + lamivudine as a triple NRTI regimen
Saquinavir as the sole PI in a PI-based regimen Zidovudine + stavudine Didanosine + stavudine Lamivudine + emtricitabine Atazanavir + indinavir 2-NNRTI combination Monitoring Before initiating drug therapy, must obtain CD4+ cell count and plasma HIV RNA levels plus complete blood count, chemistry, lipid profile, liver enzymes, and genotypic resistance testing If HIV RNA does not reach undetectable levels (< 50 copies/mL) by 16-24 weeks, perform resistance testing, compliance assessment, and consider a regimen change NNRTI, nonnucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitor; NRTI, nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitor; PI, protease inhibitor. a
Cannot be used in the first trimester of pregnancy or in women who wish to conceive or are not using effective contraception. b
Should not be initiated in women with pre-nevirapine CD4+ cell counts > 250/mm3 or men with pre-nevirapine CD4+ cell counts > 400/mm3 owing to high incidence of hepatic adverse effects. P.968
( 4 ) S i gn i f ic a n t i n te r a c tio n s . Al c o ho l i nc r e as es ab a c a v i r ' s A U C b y 4 1% . b . D i da n o si n e ( d d I ; V i de x ) , a s yn t h et ic pu r in e an a lo g , i nh i bi ts H I V r e p li ca t io n a n d h as a lo ng e r i n t ra c e l lu la r ha l f -l i fe ( > 2 0 h r ) t h an z i do v u di ne ( 7 h r ).
( 1 ) M e c ha n is m o f ac t i on . S ee V I I. C . 3 . ( 2 ) S pe c t r um o f a c t i vi t y a n d th e r ap e u ti c u s es . D i d a no s i ne is ap p ro v e d fo r t h e tr e at m e n t o f a d ul ts an d c h il d re n o n l y i n c om bin a t io n wi t h o th e r a n t ir e t ro v i r a l a ge n ts . ( 3 ) P r ec a u t io n s a nd m on i t o r i ng e f fe c ts ( a ) D id a no s i n e c a n c a us e r e v e rs ib l e p e ri ph e r al ne u r op a th y a n d ac u te , p o t en t ia ll y l e th al pa nc r ea t i ti s ( b la c k b o x w a r n i ng ) . S e ru m t r ig l y ce r id es s h ou l d b e m o n it o re d , a nd d id an o si ne s h ou l d b e wi t h h e l d wh e n in i ti a ti ng p o t en t ia l p an c re a ti t is - in du c in g a g en ts ( e. g . , I V p en t am i di ne , s u lf o na m i d es) . Tr a n s i en tl y e l e v at e d s e ru m a m y la s e m a y n ot r e fle c t p an c re a ti t is . ( b ) O t h er ad v e r s e e ff ec ts in c l u de he a da c h es , d i ar r h e a, na u s e a , a nd h yp e r u ri c e m i a (b ec a us e d i da n os in e i s c at a l yz e d to u ri c a ci d ) . ( c ) D id a no s i n e is a v ai l abl e in an en t e ri c co a te d ca p s u l e o r b u ff e re d or a l t a b le t f o rm u la t io n t o p r ev e n t de g r ad a ti on a t ac i dic p H . I t m us t b e t ak e n on a n em pt y s to m a c h . ( d ) D o n o t u s e in c om b ina t i on wi t h s t a vud in e or z a l c i t ab in e b e ca us e o f a d di t i ve p o te n ti al f or t o xi c i t y . ( e ) D o n o t us e th e c om bin a t io n re gi m e n o f di da n os i ne a n d t e no f o v i r i n t r e a tm en t na ï v e pa t ie n ts , o wi n g t o h ig h ra t es o f ear l y vi r o lo g ic fa il u re . ( 4 ) S i gn i f ic a n t i n te r a c tio n s . Pa nc r ea t it is - i nd uc in g d ru gs , a l co h o l, an d t h o s e k now n t o c a us e p e r i p he r a l n e u r op a t h y s h ou l d n ot be us ed wi t h d i da n os in e . Ri ba v i r i n s ho u ld no t be c o - ad m i ni s ter e d wi t h d i da no s i n e. c . E m t ri c i ta b i ne ( FT C ; E m t r i va ) is a s yn th e ti c nu c le os i de an al o g s t r uc t ur a ll y r el a te d to lam i v u di n e wi t h ac ti v i t y a ga i ns t H I V i nf ec t io n . ( 1 ) M e c ha n is m o f ac t i on . S ee V I I. C . 3 . ( 2 ) S pe c t r um o f a c t i vi t y a n d th e r ap e u ti c u s es . E m t r ic it a bi ne is in di c a t ed f o r us e i n H I V - in f ec t ed ad u l ts a n d ch i ld r en in c om b in a ti on wi t h ot h e r a n t ir e t ro v i r a l a ge n ts . I t is a v ai l ab le b y it se l f o r as a c om bi na t io n ta bl e t wit h t e n of o vi r ( Tr u v a da ) a n d a s a c o m b in a ti o n t ab l et wi t h t e no f o v i r a nd e fa v i re n z ( A t r i pl a ) . A l th ou g h i t d em o ns t ra t es ac ti v i t y a ga ins t he pa t i ti s B vi r us , i t i s n o t a p p ro v e d f o r u s e in tr e a tm e nt of t hi s i nf ec t io n. ( 3 ) P r ec a u t io n s a nd m on i t o r i ng e f fe c ts ( a ) A d ve rs e e f fe c t s m os t c om m o nl y o bs e r v e d in cl i ni c a l tr i al s we r e m i l dm o de r a te an d i nc lu d e h ea d ac h e, r as h, di a r rh e a, a n d n a us ea . H yp e r p i gm en t at i on of the p al m s o r s o le s m a y o c c u r . ( b ) S e ri o us a c u t e e xa c e rb a t io ns of he p at i ti s B h av e b e en do c u m e n te d i n H I V / h ep a ti t is B c o -i n fe c te d pa t ie n ts wh o di s c on t in u e d t he r ap y wi t h e m t ri ci t ab in e ( bl a ck bo x w a rn i n g ); t he r ef o r e, li v e r f un ct i on te s ts s ho u ld b e m o ni t o re d f o r s e v e ra l m on t hs a ft e r d is c o n ti n ua t ion . ( 4 ) S i gn i f ic a n t i n te r a c tio n s . No n e h a v e b ee n i de n t if i ed . d . L am i vu d i ne (3 T C ; E p i vi r ) i s a s yn t h et ic nu c l eo s id e a n al og wi t h ac ti vi ty a g ai n st H I V a nd he p a ti tis B v i ru s . ( 1 ) M e c ha n is m o f ac t i on . S ee V I I. C . 3 . ( 2 ) S pe c t r um o f a c t i vi t y a n d th e r ap e u ti c u s es . L a m i v u d in e i s in d ic a te d fo r u s e i n H I V - po s i t i v e a du l ts an d c hi l d re n > 3 m o n ths o f a ge in c om b in a ti on
wi t h o t he r an t i re t r o v ir a l a g e nt s . I t is al s o us e d i n a lo we r d os a ge fo r th e t r e a tm en t o f c h r on ic he pa t i ti s B in pa t ie n ts wi t h ac t i v e l i v e r i nf l am m a ti o n a n d e vi d en c e of he p at i tis B v i ra l re pl ic a ti o n. ( a ) La m i v u d in e i s a v a il ab l e a lo n e o r wi t hi n a t wi c e d a i l y c om b in a ti o n t ab let c o nt a in in g l am i v u di n e, z id o v u d in e a nd ab a c a vi r (Tr i zi vi r ) . ( b ) L am i v ud in e i s a ls o av a i l ab l e as a c om bi n at i on t ab l et wi t h ab ac a v i r ( E p zi c om ) a nd z i do v u d ine ( C om b i v i r) . P.969
( 3 ) P r ec a u t io n s a nd m on i t o r i ng e f fe c ts ( a ) R e po r te d a d v e rs e rea c ti o ns a r e m in o r a n d inc l ud e h e ad ac he , fa t ig u e, a n d G I r e ac ti o ns s uc h a s n a us ea , vom i ti ng , an d di a r r he a . C N S t o xi c it y i n cl ud e s n eu r op a th y , di z z i n e s s , a n d in s om ni a . L ab t es t a b no r m a li t ie s s uch a s n e ut r o pe ni a a n d e le v a t i on s i n l i v er e n z ym e s ha v e a ls o b ee n re p or t ed . ( b ) D o n o t u s e in c om b ina t i on wi t h z al c i t ab i ne o wi n g t o a n ta g on is m o f e f f ec ts . ( c ) La m i v u d in e h as t he s a m e b l ac k b o x w a r n i ng r e g a rd i ng ac ut e e xa c e r b a ti on s o f h e pa t it is B as e m t r ic i ta b in e ( s ee V I I . C .3 . c ). ( 4 ) S i gn i f ic a n t i n te r a c tio n s . Co - ad m i n is t ra t io n wi t h c o t r i mo x az ol e re s ul t s i n in cr e as ed la m i v u d in e le v e l s . N o d os e a d ju s t m en t is re q ui r ed . e . S t a vu di n e ( d 4 T ; Z e ri t) i s a s yn t he t ic th y m id ine n uc le os i de an al o g t ha t i s a c ti ve ag a in s t H I V . ( 1 ) M e c ha n is m o f ac t i on . S ee V I I. C . 3 . ( 2 ) S pe c t r um o f a c t i vi t y a n d th e r ap e u ti c u s es . S t a v u d in e i s i nd ic a te d f or u s e i n c o m b i na t io n wi t h o t h e r a nt i re t r o v i ra l a ge n ts in ad u lt s a nd c h il d r en o f a l l a ge s . ( 3 ) P r ec a u t io n s a nd m on i t o r i ng e f fe c ts ( a ) Th e m a jo r to xi c i t y wi t h s ta v u di n e is a d os e re la t e d b ut r e ve rs ib le p e r ip h e ra l n eu r o pa t h y o c c u r ri n g i n u p t o 2 1% o f pa t i en ts . ( b ) O t h er ad v e r s e e ff ec ts in c l u de he a da ch e , r ash , di a r rh e a, na us e a , a nd vo m i ti n g. ( c ) F at a l e pi s o de s o f p an c r ea t it is ha v e be e n r e po r t e d. ( 4 ) S i gn i f ic a n t i n te r a c tio n s . Do no t u s e i n c o m bi n a ti on wi t h z i do vu d in e or za l c it a bi ne . f . T e no f o vi r d is o p r ox i l f u m a r a te ( T DF ; V i r e a d ) i s a n a c yc l ic nu cl e os id e p h os p ho na t e d ie s te r an al o g ( n u cl e o ti d e ) wi t h an ti v i r a l ac t i vi t y a g ai ns t H IV a n d h e pa t it is B v i ru s . ( 1 ) M e c ha n is m o f ac t i on . Te n o fo v i r (a p ro d r ug ) i s ra pi d l y h ydr o l yz e d b y p l as m a es te r as es t o t eno f o v i r , wi t h s u bs e qu en t c o n v e r si on t o t he ac t i v e t e n of o vi r d i ph os ph a te . No t e : Nt R TI s a re ac ti v e as t h e d ip h os ph a te , u n li ke t h e N R TI s , wh i c h r e qu i re c on v e r s i o n t o t h e t r ip hos p ha t e. ( 2 ) S pe c t r um o f a c t i vi t y a n d th e r ap e u ti c u s es . Te n o f o vi r i s a pp r o v e d f or u s e i n c o m b i na t io n wi t h o t h e r a nt i re t r o v i ra l a ge n ts f or t he t re a tm en t o f H IV i n ad ul t s . I t is al s o a v ai la b le as a o nc e d ai l y co m b i na t io n ta bl e t c on t ai ni ng
t e n of o vi r a n d em t r ic it a bin e ( Tr u va da ) an d te no f ov i r , em t r ic it a bi n e, an d e f a vi r en z ( A t ri p la ) . ( 3 ) P r ec a u t io n s a nd m on i t o r i ng e f fe c ts ( a ) Mi n o r ad v e r s e ef f ec ts ha v e b ee n r e po r t ed in c l in ic al t ri a ls . Th es e i n cl ud e c om p la in t s o f d iar r h e a, vo m i t in g , a nd na us e a. ( b ) A dd i ti o na l a d v e rs e e ff e c ts o bs e r ve d d u ri ng pos t m a r k e ti n g s ur v e i ll a nc e i n cl ud e a c ut e re na l fa il u re a nd de c re as es in bo n e m in e r al d e ns i t y . ( c ) Te n o fo v i r h a s t he s am e bl a ck bo x w a r ni n g th a t e m tr ic i ta b in e h as fo r p a t ie n ts wi t h c on c o m i t ant h ep a ti t is B ( s ee V II . C . 3. c ) . ( d ) D os e a d ju s t m e n t i s re q ui r e d f o r r e na l i ns u ff ici e nc y . ( 4 ) S i gn i f ic a n t i n te r a c tio n s ( a ) Te n o fo v i r i nc r e as es d i d a no s in e s e ru m c on cen t r a ti o ns , n ec es s i t at i ng a d o se r ed uc t io n o f d i da n os i ne . ( b ) Te n o fo v i r de c re as es s e r um c on ce n t ra t io ns o f a t a za n a vi r . W hen th es e 2 a g e nt s a r e us e d t og e th er , r i to n a vir m u s t be ad d ed t o t h e r eg im e n. g . Z al c i ta b i ne ( dd C ; H i vi d ) is a s yn th e ti c p y r im idi n e n uc le o s i de an a lo g ue t h a t i s ac t i v e a ga i ns t HIV . ( 1 ) M e c ha n is m o f ac t i on . S ee V I I. C . 3 . ( 2 ) S pe c t r um o f a c t i vi t y a n d th e r ap e u ti c u s es . Z a lc i ta b in e i s n o l on ge r r e c om m e nd e d as a c om po n e nt of in i ti a l co m b i na t io n th e r ap y o f HI V o wi n g t o i t s s e ve re ad v e r s e ef f ec t p r o fi le . Th e m an u fa c tu re r di sc o nt i nu ed i ts p r o du c ti on in 20 0 6. ( 3 ) P r ec a u t io n s a nd m on i t o r i ng e f fe c ts ( a ) Th e m a jo r c li n ic al to x i c it y o f zal c i t ab i ne i s p e ri p he r a l n eu r op a th y , wh i c h o cc u rs in up t o 3 5% of pa t i en ts an d m a y be po t en t i al l y di sa bl i ng . ( b ) O t h er ad v e r s e e ff ec ts in c l u de pa nc r e at i ti s, s to m at i ti s , ca r di om y o p a th y , a n d h yp e rs e ns it i v i t y re ac t i o ns . ( c ) D o n o t us e i n c om bi na t i on wi t h l am i v u di n e, s ta v u d i ne , o r z i do vu di n e. ( 4 ) S i gn i f ic a n t i n te r a c tio n s ( a ) D r ug s t h at ha v e t he p o t en t ia l t o c au s e pe r i phe r a l n eu r o pa t h y s ho u ld be a vo i d ed . Th es e i nc lu d e c h l o r am p he n ic o l , c is p la t i n , d a ps o ne , di d an o s in e , d i s u l fi r a m, h yd r a l a z i n e, i s on i az i d, me t r o n id azo l e , n i t r o fu r a n t oi n , p h e n yt o i n , r i b a vi r i n , a nd vi n c r i s ti n e. P.970
( b ) Z al c i t ab in e tr e a tm en t s ho u ld be in t e rr u pt e d w h e n a d ru g wi t h t he p o t en t ia l t o c au s e pa n c re a t it is is i n it i at e d ( i .e . , pe n t a mi d in e ) . ( c ) D o n o t t ak e wi t h m a gn e s i um - , c al ci um - , o r al um i nu m -c on t ai ni n g a n t ac id s . ( d ) C i me t i di n e a n d p r o be n e ci d m a y in c re as e z alc i ta b in e l e v el s , c a us i ng i n c re as ed z a lc i ta bi n e t o xi c it y . h . Z id o vu d i ne ( AZ T ; R e t r o vi r ) i s a s yn t h et ic th y m i di ne an a lo g . Th i s a gen t wa s t h e f i rs t a v a i la b le dru g fo r th e tr e a tm en t o f HI V i nf ec t io n . ( 1 ) M e c ha n is m o f ac t i on . S ee V I I. C . 3 .
( 2 ) S pe c t r um o f a c t i vi t y a n d th e r ap e u ti c u s es ( a ) Zi d o v ud i ne is i n di c a te d in th e tr e at m e n t o f a du l ts an d c hi l d re n > 6 we e k s of ag e f o r th e t r eat m en t of H I V . ( b ) I t i s i nd ic a te d f o r t h e p r e v e nt i on of m a t er n al - fe t a l H I V t ra ns m i ss io n . ( c ) Zi d o v ud i ne is a v a i la bl e as o r a l c a ps u le s , t ab le t s , a nd s o lu t io n a s we l l a s a n I V s ol ut i on . ( d ) O r a l z i d o v ud i ne is a ls o a v a i la bl e as a c o - fo rm u la t io n wi t h l am i v ud in e ( C o m bi v i r ) a n d wi t h la m iv u d i n e a nd ab ac a vi r ( Tr i zi v i r ) . ( 3 ) P r ec a u t io n s a nd m on i t o r i ng e f fe c ts ( a ) Zi d o v ud i ne c a n c au s e s e v e r e b o ne m a r r o w su p p re s s io n , i nc lu d in g m ac r oc yt i c a ne m i a a nd ne u t r op en i a a f te r th e f i rs t f e w we e k s to m o nt h s o f t h e r ap y. Th e ri s k is i nc r ea s ed in pa t ie n ts wi t h p r ee xi s t i n g b on e m a r ro w s u pp r es s i o n o r wh o a r e ta k in g c on c o m i t an t m e di ca t i o n s t ha t c a us e b on e m a r ro w s u p pr e s s io n . ( b ) E r yt h ro p oi e ti n c an be c on s i d e re d a s a n a dj u nc t i v e t h er a p y i n pa ti e n ts wi t h zi d o v u di n e- i nd uc e d a n em i a, in c as e s f o r wh i c h i t c a nn o t b e d i sc on t in u ed . ( c ) O t he r ad v e r s e e ff ec ts in c l u de he a da ch e , m a la i s e , s ei z u r es , an xi e t y, f e ve r , a n d r as h . ( d ) P r ol o ng ed us e m a y le a d t o s y m pt om a ti c m y op a t h y . ( 4 ) S i gn i f ic a n t i n te r a c tio n s ( a ) C o t r im o xa z ol e , a t o va q u o ne , va lp r o i c a ci d , m e t h ad o ne , a n d p r o b e ne c id m a y i nc r ea s e z i d o v ud i ne c o nc en t r at io n s , ca us i ng i n c r e as ed r i sk of z i do v u d in e to xi c i ty . ( b ) O t h er c yt o t o x i c d r ug s , s uc h a s g a nc i cl o vi r , d a ps o n e, an d in t e r fe r on α , c an c a us e a dd i ti v e bon e m a r ro w s u p p re ss io n . ( c ) R ib a v i r in , ri f ab u ti n , an d ri f am pi n m a y de c re as e l e v el s o f zid o vud i ne . 4 . N o nn u c le o si d e r e ve r s e t r an s c r ip t as e in h i bi to r s . Th e N N R TI c l as s b i nd s d i re c tl y t o a nd p rod u c e s a no nc om pe t i ti v e in h ib i ti o n o f t h e H I V r e v e r s e t r an s c r ip t as e, lea d in g to c h ai n t e rm i na t ion . Th e s e ag en t s a r e i n di ca t ed f o r us e i n a d ul ts an d p e di a t ri c p at i en ts in c o m b i na t io n wi t h e it h er N R TI s o r po s s ib l y P Is . Ef a v i r e n z i s c on si de r e d a p r e f er r e d N N R TI , wh e r ea s t h e o t he r s a r e c u r r e nt l y re c om m e nd e d as al t e rn a ti ve s . N N R TI - ba s ed r e g im en s p r o v id e p o te n t a n t i v ir a l a c t i v i t y wi t h l es s pi l l b ur d en t ha n m an y P I b a se d re gi m e n s . A ll N NR TI s m a y c a us e r a s h a nd h e pa t o to x ic i t y; p a t i e nt s s h ou l d b e m o n it o re d c los e l y fo r th es e a d ve rs e e ff e c ts . a . D e la vi r d i n e ( R e sc r i pt o r ) ( 1 ) M e c ha n is m o f ac t i on . S ee V I I. C . 3 . ( 2 ) S pe c t r um o f a c t i vi t y a n d th e r ap e u ti c u s es . D e l a v i rd i ne is a p p ro v e d f o r us e i n a du l ts i n th e t re a tm e nt o f H I V i n c om b in a t io n wi t h o th e r a n t ir e t ro v i r a l a ge n ts . I ts u s e h as fa ll e n o ut o f f a vo r o wi n g t o i ts t h re e t im es d a il y d os in g s c h e du le . ( 3 ) P r ec au t io ns an d m oni t o ri n g e f fe ct s ( a ) I n cl i ni c a l t r ia ls , 4. 3% o f p a ti en t s d is c o nt i nue d de la v i r d in e b ec a us e o f r a s h. C as es of S t e v en s -J o hn s o n s yn d ro m e ha v e b e e n r ep o r te d .
( b ) O t h er ad v e r s e e ff ec ts in c l u de he a da ch e a n d n a us e a. ( 4 ) S i gn i f ic a n t i n te r a c tio n s ( a ) Th e c o nc en t r at i on s of t h e f ol lo wi n g m e di c a t ion s a r e g r e at l y in c re as ed b y d e la vi r d in e a nd m u s t be a v o i d ed : a l p r az ol a m, m id a z ol a m, t r ia z ol a m, s i m va s ta t i n , l o va s ta t i n, r i f a b u ti n , a nd c is a p ri de . ( b ) D ec r e as ed de la v i r d ine c o nc e n tr a ti o ns re su l t wh e n i t i s a dm in is t e re d wi t h S t . J oh n ' s w o r t , c a r b am a z e p i ne , p h en o b a rb i ta l , ph e n yt o i n , o r r i f am pi n . C o n co m i t an t us e s h o ul d b e a v oi d ed . ( c ) B ec au s e d el a v i rd in e r e q ui r es an ac id ic G I t rac t fo r op t im al ab s o r p ti on, i t s u se is c on t r ai n di c a t ed wi t h p r o to n pu m p i n hib i t o r s a n d H 2 - r ec e p to r a n t a go n is t s . b . E f a vi r e nz ( Su s t i va ) ( 1 ) M e c ha n is m o f ac t i on . S ee V I I. C . 3 . P.971
( 2 ) S pe c t r um o f a c t i vi t y a n d th e r ap e u ti c u s es . E f a v i r en z i s a pp r o v e d f or u s e i n c o m b i na t io n wi t h o t h e r a nt i re t r o v i ra l a ge n ts f or t he t re a tm en t o f H IV i n f ec ti o n i n a du l ts a n d pe d ia t r ic pa ti e n ts ( ≥ 3 year s of ag e ) . I ts ad v a n t ag e o ve r o th e r N N R TI s i s o nc e - da il y d os in g . I t i s a vai l ab l e a lo ne o r a s a c om b in a ti o n t ab l et wi t h te n o fo v i r an d e m t r ic i ta bi ne ( A t ri p la ) . ( 3 ) P r ec a u t io n s a nd m on i t o r i ng e f fe c ts ( a ) Mo s t c o m m on ad v e r s e e f fe c t s a r e C N S - r e la t ed ( 5 2% ) , i nc lu d in g i n so m n i a, di z z i n es s , d rows i n e s s , n i gh tm a re s , a nd h a l lu c i n at i on s , n e ce ss it a ti n g b ed t im e d os i ng to m i ni m i z e t he se eff e c ts . Th e s e e ff ec t s t yp i ca l l y s ub s i d e a f te r 2-4 we e k s o f t r ea t m e n t. ( b ) O wi n g t o i ts te r a to gen i c e f fe c t s , e fa v i r en z s ho u ld be a v o id ed in t he fi rs t t r i m e st e r o f p r e gn a nc y an d in wo m en o f c h il d be ar i n g p o te n ti al wh o wi s h to c o nc ei ve . ( c ) O t he r ad v e r s e e ff ec ts in c l u de r as h, in c re as ed t r an s a m i n as es , a nd G I d i st u r ba nc es . ( 4 ) S i gn i f ic a n t i n te r a c tio n s ( a ) E f a v ir e n z i n du c e s a nd i nh ib i ts th e c y t oc h r om e P 4 50 3 A4 is oe n z y m e s ys t em . I t s h ou ld no t be u s ed c o nc om i ta n tl y wi t h c i s ap r i d e, mi d az o la m , t r i a z ol a m, o r e r g ot d e riva t i ve s . ( b ) S t . J o hn ' s w o r t d ec re a s e s e f a vir e n z c o nc en tr a t io n s a nd s h ou ld be a vo i d ed . ( c ) E f a v ir e n z d e c r e as es m e t h ad o ne c o nc en t r at i on s b y 6 0% ; pa t ie n ts s hou l d b e m o ni t o re d f o r o pi a te wi t h d r a wa l a nd ha ve th e ir d os es ti t r a te d a cc o r di ng l y . c . E t r a vi r i ne ( In t e le n ce ) ( 1 ) M e c ha n is m o f ac t i on . S ee V I I. C . 3 . ( 2 ) S pe c t r um o f a c t i vi t y a n d th e r ap e u ti c u s es . E t r a v i r in e i s i nd ic a te d f or u s e i n c o m b i na t io n wi t h a t le as t t wo ad d it i on al an t i re t r o vi ra l a g en ts in t r e a tm en t - e xp e r ie nc e d ad u l ts wh o de m o ns t r at e v ir a l re p li c a t io n a nd
d o cu m e n te d re s i s t a nc e to o th e r N N R TI s . I t i s n ot f o r u s e in t re a tm e nt - na ïve p a t ie n ts . ( 3 ) P r ec a u t io n s a nd m on i t o r i ng e f fe c ts . ( a ) A d ve rs e e f fe c t s i nc lud e na us e a a nd r as h. ( b ) S in c e f oo d i nc r ea s e s t h e a bs o rp t io n o f et r a v i ri n e b y 5 0% , i t s h ou ld be t a ke n fo ll o wi n g a m e al . ( 4 ) S i gn i f ic a n t i n te r a c tio n s . ( a ) E t ra v i r i ne i n du c e s a nd i nh ib i ts a v a r i et y o f c yto c h ro m e P 45 0 i s oe n z ym es . I t s h ou ld n ot b e u s e d c on co m i t an t l y wi t h c a r b am az e pi n e, p h e n ob a r b it a l , p he n yt o i n , un b o os t e d P I s, a ta z a n a vi r / r i t on a vi r , f o s a mp r e na vi r / r i t o na vi r , t i p r an a vi r / r i t on a vi r , o r o t h e r N N R TI s . ( b ) S t . J o hn ' s w o r t a nd r i f a m pi n de c re as e e t r a v ir i n e c on c e n t ra ti o ns an d s h ou l d b e a v o id ed . ( c ) E t ra vi r i ne m a y de c rea s e s e r um c o nc e nt r a ti ons o f m et h a do n e ; p at i en ts s h ou l d b e m o n it o re d c los e l y . d . N e vi r a p in e ( Vi r a mu ne ) wa s t he fi r s t N N R TI ap p r o ved f o r us e b y t h e FD A f o r th e tr e at m en t o f H I V in f ec t io n . ( 1 ) M e c ha n is m o f ac t i on . S ee V I I. C . 3 . ( 2 ) S pe c t r um o f a c t i vi t y a n d th e r ap e u ti c u s es . N e vi r a pi n e is in d ic at e d in c om b in a ti o n wi t h ot h e r an t i re t r o vi ra ls in ad u lt and p ed ia t r ic ( ≥ 2 m o nt hs ol d ) H I V p a ti en t s . ( 3 ) P r ec a u t io n s a nd m on i t o r i ng e f fe c ts ( a ) N e vi ra p in e h as th e h ig h es t i nc i de nc e o f S te v en s -J o hn s o n s yn d ro m e o f a l l N N R TI s . ( b ) S y m pt om a ti c h ep a ti t is , in c l ud i ng fa t al he p at ic n ec r os is , ha s b ee n o b se r v e d wi t h n e v i ra pi n e ( b l ac k bo x w a rn i n g) . Th e f re q ue nc y o f t h is +
a d ve r se ef f ec t i s i nc r ea s e d in wo m en wi t h pr e - nevi r a p in e C D 4 c o un t s > 3
+
3
2 5 0 c e ll s /m m a n d m en w i t h C D 4 co u n ts > 4 0 0 c e l ls / mm . N e vi r a p in e s h o u ld n ot b e i n it i a te d i n t h es e p a t ie n ts . ( c ) O t he r ad v e r s e e ff ec ts in c l u de fe v e r , na us ea , a n d h e ad ac he . ( d ) To d ec r ea s e th e fr e qu e nc y o f a d ve rs e e f fe c ts , a 2- we e k do se es c a la t io n i s re q ui r ed . ( 4 ) S i gn i f ic a n t i n te r a c tio n s ( a ) N e vi ra p in e i nd u c e s c y t o c h ro m e P 45 0 3 A 4 , r es u lt i ng in de c re as ed c o nc en t r at i on s o f c as p of u n g i n, ke t o co n az o le , itr a c o na z ol e , o r a l c o n t r ac e p ti ve s , a n d p r ot e a se i nh i b i to r s . P.972
( b ) U se o f r i f am p i n a nd S t . J oh n ' s w o r t s h ou l d b e a v oi d ed , a s t h e y d e c re as e t h e s e r um c o nc e nt r a ti o ns o f ne v i r ap i ne. ( c ) M e t ha d o ne c o nc en t ra t i on s d ec r ea s e s i gn i fi c an t l y wi t h ne v i r ap i ne , o f t en n e ce ss it a ti n g a d o s e in c re a s e . 5 . P r o te a se i nh i b it o r s . Th e P I s c om pe t it i ve l y i nh i bi t th e v i ra l p r ot e as e e n zym e , p r e v en t in g th e e n z y m e f ro m c l e a v in g t he g ag an d g a g- p ol
p o l yp ro t ei ns ne c es s a r y fo r v i r io n p r o du c t i on . PI s a r e us ed in c om b in a ti on wi t h o t he r an t i re t r o v ir a l a g e nt s , in c l u di n g o th e r P I s , t o s up p r ess H I V r e p li ca t io n . A l l o f t h e P Is a r e c y t oc h ro m e P 45 0 i nh i bi t o rs ; ri t on a vi r is t he m os t po t en t i n hi bi t o r. A ll P I s a r e c on t r ai nd ic a te d wi t h n um e r ou s d r ug s, i n cl ud i ng si m va s ta t i n , lo va s t a t i n, r i fa m p in , c i sa p r i d e, p im oz i de , m i d az o la m , t r i az o la m , e r g o t s, a nd S t. J oh n 's w o r t . Co nc om i ta n t t he r ap y wi t h a n ti e pi le p ti c d r ug s , e r e c t il e d ys f un c ti on d ru g s , an d a z o le an t i fu ng a ls m us t be un d er t ak en wi t h c au t io n . O wi n g t o t h e wi d e a rr a y o f d r ug i n t er a ct i on s wi t h P Is , a lwa y s a s se s s m e di c a t io n p r o fi l es c a re f ul l y f or d rug i n t er a ct i on s b ef o re in i ti at i o n. a . Am p r e n a vi r ( Ag e n e ras e ) ( 1 ) M e c ha n is m o f ac t i on . S ee V I I. C . 5 . ( 2 ) S pe c t r um o f a c t i vi t y a n d th e r ap e u ti c u s es . A m p r en a vi r is no lo n ge r r e c om m e nd e d f o r us e i n t r e a tm en t re g im en s f o r H I V d ue to i ts d i sc on t in u at i on i n l a te 20 0 7 . ( 3 ) P r ec a u t io n s a nd m on i t o r i ng e f fe c ts . ( a ) U se of t he o ra l s ol ut io n in p re gn a nt wo m e n, c h i ld r e n < 4 ye a rs ol d , a nd p a t ie n ts wi t h h ep a ti c o r re n al in su f f ic ie nc y is c o n tr a i nd ic a te d o wi n g to t he p r o p yle n e g l yc o l v e h ic le ( b l a ck b ox w a r ni n g ). ( b ) B ec a us e am p r en a v i r i s a s u l fo na m i d e, t he po te n t ia l f o r c r os s - s e ns i ti v i ty t o o th e r s u l fo n am id es e xi s ts . ( c ) A d ve rs e e f fe c t s i nc lud e h y pe r li p id em ia , h y pe rg l yc e m ia , fa t m a ld is t ri b ut i on , ra s h , and G I di s tu r ba nc es . ( d ) D os a ge ad j us tm en t is r eq u ir e d f o r h ep a ti c i ns u f fi c i en c y. ( 4 ) S i gn i f ic a n t i n te r a c tio n s (s ee V I I. C . 5 ) . A m p re n a v i r d ec r ea s e s m e t h ad o ne c o nc en t r at i on s , p os s i bl y r e qu i ri n g a m e th a do n e d os e i nc r ea se t o p re ve n t wi t h d r a wa l . b . At a z a na vi r ( R e ya t a z ) ( 1 ) M e c ha n is m o f ac t i on . S ee V I I. C . 5 . ( 2 ) S pe c t r um o f a c t i vi t y a n d th e r ap e u ti c u s es . A t a z a n a vi r is a c o m po nen t o f p re f e rr e d a nd al t e rn a ti v e P I - ba s e d re gi m e n s f or H I V . It is do se d o nc e d a il y . ( 3 ) P r ec a u t io n s a nd m on i t o r i ng e f fe c ts . ( a ) A t a z an a v i r m a y p r ol on g th e P R i n te r va l a nd po ss i bl y c a u s e fi r s t - de g r ee A V b lo c k . El ec t r oc a rd io gr a m ( E C G ) s ho ul d b e m on i t or e d . ( b ) O t h er ad v e r s e e ff ec ts in c l u de fa t m a ld is t ri b uti o n , h y p e rg l yc e m i a , a nd i n di r ec t h y pe r bi li r u bi ne m i a . I n c o nt r as t to th e o t he r P Is , at a za na v i r ap pe ar s t o be de v o i d o f e f fe c ts on l ip id s . ( c ) D os e a d ju s t m e n t i s re q ui r e d f o r h ep a ti c i ns uff i ci e nc y . ( 4 ) S i gn i f ic a n t i n te r a c tio n s (s ee V I I. C . 5 ) . A t a z an a v i r i s t h e m o s t p r o bl em a ti c o f a ll P Is in t e r m s o f d ru g i n te r ac ti o ns . ( a ) I f us e d i n c om bi na t ion wi t h e fa vi r e n z o r t en of o vi r , l o w- d o se ri t on a v i r m us t be ad m i ni s te r ed c on c om it a nt l y. ( b ) B ec a us e a ta z a n a v i r re q ui r es an ac id ic G I t ra c t f o r o p ti m a l a bs o rp t io n , c o nc om it a nt us e o f p ro to n p um p in h i bi t o r s is c o n t r ai nd ic a te d . I f o t he r ac i d
s u pp r es s a n ts ar e u s e d wi t h a t a zan a vi r , t he d os es m us t b e s ep a r at e d b y as m uc h ti m e as p os s i b le ( up t o 1 2 h r a p a rt ) . c . D a r un a vi r ( P r ez i s ta ) ( 1 ) M e c ha n is m o f ac t i on . S ee V I I. C . 5 ( 2 ) S pe c t r um o f a c t i vi t y a n d th e r ap e u ti c u s es . D a r u n a v ir is th e n e we s t P I t o r ec ei ve F D A a p pr o v a l f o r th e tr e at m en t o f H I V. I t s us e i s l im i te d t o h i ghl y t r e a tm en t - e xp e r ie nc e d pa t i en ts o r p at i en ts wi t h H I V r es is t a nc e m u t at i ons . ( 3 ) P r ec a u t io n s a nd m on i t o r i ng e f fe c ts ( a ) D a ru n a v i r m u s t b e c o- a d m i ni s te r ed wi t h ri t on avi r ( b ) B ec a us e d a ru na v i r c o n t ai ns a s u l fo n am id e m o i e t y , c ro s s - r ea c ti v i t y m a y o cc u r i n s ul f a -a ll e r gi c p at i e nt s . ( c ) A d ve rs e e f fe c t s i nc lud e na us e a, in c re as e d am y l as e , h ep a t ot o xi c i t y , h yp e r li p id em ia , h y pe r gl y c em i a, an d ra s h . ( 4 ) S i gn i f ic a n t i n te r a c tio n s . Se e VI I . C .5 . d . F os a mp r e na vi r ( L e xiva ) ( 1 ) M e c ha n is m o f ac t i on . S ee V I I. C . 5 . F os am p re n a v i r i s t he p ro d ru g o f a m p re na v i r . P.973
( 2 ) S pe c t r um o f a c t i vi t y a n d th e r ap e u ti c u s es . F o s a m p r e na v i r ha s l ar g el y r e p la ce d a m p r e na v i r be c a u s e of i ts i m p r o v e d d osi n g c on v e n ie nc e . I t i s r e c om m e nd e d as on e o f t h e p r e fe r r ed c o m p on e nts in P I -b as e d r e gi m e ns fo r i n i ti al t re a tm en t of H I V . ( 3 ) P r ec a u t io n s a nd m on i t o r i ng e f fe c ts ( a ) F os am p re na v i r m a y be d os ed on c e da i l y i n t r ea t m e n t n a ï v e p at i en ts . PI e xp e r i e nc e d p a ti en t s r equ i r e t wi c e d a il y d os in g . In m o s t c a se s , f o sa m p r e na v i r i s a dm i ni s t e r e d wi t h lo w d o s e r it o na v i r . ( b ) A d ve rs e e f fe c ts a r e th e s am e a s t h os e wi t h am p r en a vi r ( se e V I I . C . 5. a . (3 ) . b , c an d d ). ( 4 ) S i gn i f ic a n t i n te r a c tio n s (s ee V I I. C . 3 ) . I f u sed i n co m b i na t io n wi t h e f a vi r e nz , fo s a m p r e na v ir m us t b e a dm i ni s t e re d wi t h a bo o s t e r d os e o f r i t on a vi r . e . I nd i na vi r ( C r i x i va n ) ( 1 ) M e c ha n is m o f ac t i on . S ee V I I. C . 5 . ( 2 ) S pe c t r um o f a c t i vi t y a n d th e r ap e u ti c u s es . I n d in a vi r , in co m b i na ti o n wi t h r i t on a v i r , is no lo n ge r r ec om m e n de d a s p a rt o f r eg im e n f o r p at i en ts r e c ei vi ng in i ti a l t r ea tm e nt f o r HI V du e t o a hi g h i nc i de nc e o f n e ph r ol i th i as is . ( 3 ) P r ec a u t io n s a nd m on i t o r i ng e f fe c ts ( a ) B ec au s e in d in a v i r m ay c a us e n e ph r o l i th i as i s ( k id n e y s t on es ) , p a ti en ts s h ou l d b e i ns t ru c t e d t o dr i n k a t l ea s t 1 .5 L o f wa te r d ai l y to p re ve n t t hi s a d ve r s e ef f ec t . ( b ) I nd i na v i r c an c a us e in d i r e ct h yp e r b i l i r u b i n em i a . Co m b in a ti o n t he r a py wi t h a t a z a na v i r i s n o t r ec om m e n de d o wi n g to t he p o te n ti a l f o r a dd i ti v e e f f ec ts .
( c ) O t he r ad v e r s e e ff ec ts in c l u de h y pe r gl yc em i a, h yp e r li pi d em ia , f a t m a ld is t ri b ut i on , h e ad ac he , an d G I i n to le r a nc e. ( d ) D os e a d ju s t m e n t i s re q ui r e d f o r h ep a ti c i ns uff i c i e nc y. ( 4 ) S i gn i f ic a n t i n te r a c tio n s (s ee V I I. C . 5 ) . V i ta m in C in do s es > 1 g da il y d e c re as es in di n a v i r c o n c e n t r at i on s. C au t io n p a ti en t s n o t t o e xc e e d t h e r e c om m e nd e d d ai l y al lowa n c e f or vi t am in C . f . L o pi n a vi r / r i to n a vi r ( Ka l e t r a ) ( 1 ) M e c ha n is m o f ac t i on . S ee V I I. C . 5 . ( 2 ) S pe c t r um o f a c t i vi t y a n d th e r ap e u ti c u s es . Th i s p ro d uc t is a vai l ab l e a s a co - f or m u l at i on of lop i na v i r wi t h a “ bo o st e r ” d o s e of r it o na v i r , wh ic h i n hi b it s l op i na v i r m e ta b ol i s m a n d r es u lt s i n h ig h er s e ru m c o nc e n tr a ti o ns . L o pi n a v i r/ r i to n a v ir is a pr e f e r re d PI us ed in in i ti a l P I - b as ed r eg im en s o wi n g t o it s p o te nc y a nd c o n v en i en t do si n g. ( 3 ) P r ec a u t io n s a nd m on i t o r i ng e f fe c ts ( a ) Lo p in a v i r /r i to n a v i r wa s re c e n tl y r e fo r m u l at e d a s a f il m - c o a te d ta bl e t t ha t d o es no t re q ui r e r e f ri g era t i on . I t is a ls o a va i la bl e a s a n o r al s o lu t io n c o nt a in in g 42 % a lc oh o l. ( b ) A d ve rs e e f fe c ts i nc l ud e G I i n to l er a nc e , h y p e rli p id em i a, h y pe r g l yc em i a, f a t m a ld is t ri b ut i on , a n d pa n c re a ti t is . ( 4 ) S i gn i f ic a n t i n te r a c tio n s . Se e VI I . C .5 . ( a ) Lo p in a v i r /r i to n a v i r d ec r e as es m e t ha d o ne c o nc e nt r a ti o ns , p os s i bl y n e ce ss it a ti n g a m e th a don e do s e in c re as e t o p r e ve n t o p ia t e wi t h d r a wa l . ( b ) C o nc om it a nt ad m i n is t r a t io n wi t h vo r i c o na z ole is c o n tr a in d ic at e d b e ca us e o f th e ri s k o f dec r e as ed v o r ic on a zol e ef fi c ac y . ( c ) D os i ng v a ri es d ue to d r u g i n te r ac ti o ns wi t h c on c om it a nt us e o f e f a vi r en z , ne v i r a pi ne , fos am p r en a vi r , o r n el f in a v ir . B e s u re to c h ec k a p p ro p r ia t e r e fe r en c e s fo r p ro p e r d os in g . g . N e l fi n a vi r ( V i ra c ep t ) ( 1 ) M e c ha n is m o f ac t i on . S ee V I I. C . 5 . ( 2 ) S pe c t r um o f a c t i vi t y a n d th e r ap e u ti c u s es . N e l f in a v i r i s a p os s i b le c om p on e nt o f a n al t e rn a ti v e P I - ba s e d re gi m e n fo r i n it i al t re a tm en t o f a d ul ts wi t h H I V i nf ec t io n . U n li k e t he o th e r P I s , it is ne v e r us e d i n c o m b i na t io n wi t h r i t on a vi r . I t i s n o t g en e ral l y r ec om m e n de d d u e t o i n f er i o r vi r ol o gi c e f fi ca c y. ( 3 ) P r ec a u t io n s a nd m on i t o r i ng e f fe c ts ( a ) D ia r r h ea i s c om m o nly r e p o r te d wi t h n el f in a v i r. Th i s c an of t en be m a na g ed wi t h a n ti d ia r r he a ls . ( b ) O t h er ad v e r s e e ff ec ts a re s im i la r to th o s e wi th l op in a v i r / ri t on a v i r . ( c ) U se c a u ti on wi t h l o ok - a l ik e, s o u nd - al ik e n am es ( ne l fi n a vir an d n e vi r ap i ne ) . ( 4 ) S i gn i f ic a n t i n te r a c tio n s (s ee V I I. C . 5 . ) N e lf i na v i r d ec re a se s m et h a don e c o nc en t r at i on s , ne c e s s i ta t i ng in c re as ed m o ni t o rin g an d d os e a d ju s t m e n t i f i n di ca t ed . h . R i t on a vi r ( N o r vi r ) ( 1 ) M e c ha n is m o f ac t i on . S ee V I I. C . 5 . P.974
( 2 ) S pe c t r um o f a c t i vi t y a n d th e r ap e u ti c u s es . R i t o na v i r is ra r el y u se d a s t h e s ol e PI in a PI - ba s ed r e gi m en o wi ng t o i ts poo r t ol e ra b il i t y a n d h ig h pi l l b u r de n wh e n a dm in is t e re d in fu l l d os es . A l te r n ati ve l y, it is us ed in lo w d o se s a s a p h ar m ac ok ine t ic bo os t in g a g en t wi t h o t h e r P Is . B ec au se it is s uc h a p ot e nt c y t o c h r om e 4 50 en z ym e in hi b it o r , ri t o na v i r m a rk ed l y i n c re as es th e s e ru m c onc e nt r a ti o ns o f ot h er P Is , r e s ul ti n g i n h ig h er c o nc en t r at i on s wi t h im p ro v e d v i r al s u pp r es s i on . ( 3 ) P r ec a u t io n s a nd m on i t o r i ng e f fe c ts ( a ) C a ps ul es s h ou ld b e re f r ig e r at e d b ef o r e d is pen s in g . C a ps ul es t he n m ay b e s t o re d a t ro om t em per a t u re f or up t o 3 0 d a ys . ( b ) O r a l s o l ut i on s h ou l d n o t be r ef r i ge r at e d. ( c ) A d ve rs e e f fe c t s i nc lud e G I i n to l er a nc e , c i r c um o r al pa r es th e si as , h y p e r li p id em ia , h y pe r gl y c em i a, f at m a ld is t r ib u ti on , in c re as e d l i v er f un c t i on t e s ts , a nd t as te pe r v e r s io n . ( 4 ) S i gn i f ic a n t i n te r a c tio n s (s ee V I I. C . 5 ) . Ma n y d r u g i n te r ac ti o ns o c c u r wi t h r i t on a v i r b ec a us e i t i s s uc h a po t en t i n hi bi t o r o f s o m an y c yt oc h ro m e P 4 5 0 i so en z y m e s . A l wa y s r ef e r t o pr o pe r re s ou rc e s to as s es s f o r d r ug i n t er a ct i on s . i . S a qu i na vi r ( I n vi r a se ) ( 1 ) M e c ha n is m o f ac t i on . S ee V I I. C . 5 . ( 2 ) S pe c t r um o f a c t i vi t y a n d th e r ap e u ti c u s es . U s e of s a qu i na v i r wi t h out b o os t e r d os es o f ri t on a v ir i s n ot r ec om m e nd e d b ec a us e o f t h e p oo r b i oa va i la b il it y o f s aq u in av i r . ( 3 ) P r ec a u t io n s a nd m on i t o r i ng e f fe c ts ( a ) S aq u in a v i r i s a v a il ab le as a h a rd ge l c ap su l e a n d t a bl e t ( I n v i ra se ) an d wa s p r e v i ou s l y a v a il a bl e a s a s o f t g el c a ps ul e ( Fo r t o v as e ) . Th e v a r io us d o sa g e f o rm s a re n ot b io e q u i va le n t a n d c a n no t b e us ed in t e rc ha n ge ab l y. ( b ) Th e s o f t g el c a ps ul e f o r m u l at io n i s n o l on g e r m a nu f ac tu r e d ( e ff ec t i v e F e b r ua r y 20 0 6 ). ( c ) A d ve rs e e f fe c t s a r e s i m il a r t o l op i na v i r / ri t on a vi r . ( 4 ) S i gn i f ic a n t i n te r a c tio n s . Se e VI I . C .5 . j . T ip r a n a vi r ( Ap t i v us ) ( 1 ) M e c ha n is m o f ac t i on . S ee V I I. C . 5 . ( 2 ) S pe c t r um o f a c t i vi t y a n d th e r ap e u ti c u s es . Th e u se o f t ip r an a vi r i s l i m i t ed to hi g hl y t r ea tm en t - e xp e r i en c e d p a ti e nt s wi t h H I V wh o a r e r es is t an t t o o th e r P I s as we l l a s t o o t he r c l as s e s o f a nt i r et ro v i r a ls . ( 3 ) P r ec a u t io n s a nd m on i t o r i ng e f fe c ts . ( a ) O wi n g t o t he po o r b ioa v a i la b il i t y o f ti p ra n a v i r, i t m u st be c o a d m i ni s te r ed wi t h ri t on av i r . ( b ) C a ps ul es m u s t be r efr i g e ra t ed . O nc e d is pe nse d , th e y ar e s t ab l e a t r oo m t e m p e r at u re f o r u p t o 6 0 d a y s .
( c ) Ti p r an a v i r h as be e n a s s o c i at e d wi t h c l i ni c a l h e p at i ti s a nd fa t al he p at ic d e co m p e ns at i on ( bl a ck b o x w a r ni n g ). Li v e r f unc t io n te s t s s ho ul d b e m o ni t o re d c lo s e l y , e s p ec i a ll y i n p a ti en t s wi t h un de r l yi ng li v e r di s e as e . ( d ) R a r el y , th e r e h a v e be e n re po r t s o f f a ta l a nd n o n fa t al in t r ac ra n ia l h e m o r r ha g e wi t h t ip r an av i r ( b l ac k b o x w a rn i ng ) . ( e ) B ec au s e t he s t r uc t ure o f t ip r a na vi r c o nt a in s a s u l f on am i d e m o i et y, c r os s - re ac t i v it y m a y o c c u r in s u l fa - al l er g ic pa ti en t s . ( f ) O t h e r a d v e rs e e f fe c t s i nc l ud e ra s h , h y p e rl i pi de m ia , h yp e r gl y c em ia , a nd f a t m a ld is t ri b ut i on . ( 4 ) S i gn i f ic a n t i n te r a c tio n s (s ee V I I. C . 5 ) . L op e ra m id e m a y d e cr e as e t i p ra n a v i r c o n c e n tr a ti o ns . 6 . F us i on i nh i b i to r s . Enf u vi r t i d e ( T- 2 0 ; F uz e on ) i s t h e f i rs t a nd on l y m em b e r o f t hi s c la s s o f a n t ir e t ro v i r a ls . a . M e c ha n is m o f ac t i on. E n fu v i r t id e i n hi bi t s t he e n t r y of H I V i n to C D 4
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c e l ls b y i n t e r f e r i n g w i th t h e f u s io n o f vi r a l a nd c e ll u la r me m b r an e s. b . S p ec t r u m o f a c t i vi t y a n d th e r a pe u t ic us e s. E n f u v i r ti de is pr im a r il y u s ed in hi g hl y t r ea tm e nt -e xp e r i e nc e d p a ti en t s wi t h e xt e n si v e vi r al r e s is ta nc e . I t i s n o t r ec om m e n de d f o r u s e as in i tia l th e r ap y i n t r ea tm e nt n a i ve p a ti e nt s , as it ha s n o t b e en s t ud i ed in th is p o p ul at i on . c . P r ec a u ti o n s a nd m oni t o r i n g e f f ec t s ( 1 ) E n fu v i r ti d e is in j ec ted s u bc u t an eo us l y t wi c e d a il y . L oc al in je c ti on si t e r e a ct i on s oc c u r in al m o s t a ll pa t ie n ts , i nc lu d in g pa i n , r e dn es s, p ru r i tu s , an d n o d ul es . P.975
( 2 ) O t he r ad v e r s e e ff ec ts in c l u de h y pe r s e ns i ti v i ty r e a c ti on s a nd in c re as ed r a t e o f b ac t e ri a l p ne um on i a . ( 3 ) N o d os e a d ju s t m e n t is ne c e ss a r y fo r r en al im p a i rm en t . d . S i gn i f ic a n t i n te r a c t io n s . Th e re ar e n o s ig n if ic a nt d ru g i n te r ac t io ns wi t h e n f u vi rt i de . 7 . E n t r y i n h i b i t o r . M a r avi r o c ( S e lz e n t r y) i s t h e f i r st an d o n l y m em b er o f t h is cl as s o f a n ti r et r o v i ral t he r a p y . a . M e c ha n is m o f ac t i on. Ma r a v i r o c i s a c h em ok in e r ec ep t o r 5 ( C C R5 ) c o r ec ep t o r a nt a go ni s t. I t b i nd s t o t h e C C R 5 re c ep t o r o n t h e C D 4 c e ll m em b r an e , p r e v en t in g en t r y o f t h e v i r us in t o t he c e ll . b . S p ec t r u m o f a c t i vi t y a n d th e r a pe u t ic us e s. Ma r a v i r o c is us ed al o ng wi t h o t he r an t i re t r o v ir a ls o n l y i n h i gh l y t re a tm en t -e xp e r i e nc e d a du l t p at i ent s wh o a r e in f ec te d wi t h HIV t h at bi n ds to th e C C R 5 r e c e p to r . c . P r ec a u ti o n s a nd m oni t o r i n g e f f ec t s. ( 1 ) H e pa t o t ox i ci t y wa s o b s e r v e d d u ri n g cl i ni ca l t r i al s wi t h m a r a v i r oc (b l ac k b o x w a r ni n g ). Th i s m a y b e p re ce de d b y a s y s t em i c a l le r gi c r e ac ti o n. P a t i en ts s h ou l d b e e v a lua t e d im m e d ia t el y i f e it h er o cc u rs . ( 2 ) U se c a u ti on in pa t ie nt s wi t h l i ve r d is ea s e o r c a r d io v a sc ul a r ri sk fa c t o rs .
( 3 ) A d ve rs e e f fe c t s i nc lud e c o ug h , r as h , f e v e r , m u s c u lo sk el e ta l s ym pt om s , d i zzi n es s , a nd ab do m i n al p ai n . ( 4 ) N o t r ec om m e n de d f o r u s e in pa t ie n ts wi t h re na l in s u f fi c i e nc y un l es s no a l t er n a ti v e op t io n i s a v a il a bl e . d . S i gn i f ic a n t i n te r a c t io n s . ( 1 ) D os i ng fo r m a r a v ir oc v a r i e s d ep en d in g u p on c o n co m i t an t m ed ic a ti o ns t h a t i nt e r ac t : ( a ) W hen u s e d wi t h c y t oc h r om e P 4 50 in hi b it o rs , s uc h a s PI s (e x ce p t t i p r a na vi r / r i t o n a vi r ) , d el a vi r d i n e, k et o c on az o le, i t r a co n az o le , a n d c l a r i t h ro m yc i n , a d m i n is t e r m a r a v ir o c 1 50 m g t wi c e d a il y . ( b ) W hen u s e d wi t h c y t oc h r om e P 4 50 in du c e r s ( s u c h as c a rb a ma ze p in e , p h e n ob a r b it a l , p he n yt o i n , e fa vi r e nz , an d r i fa mp i n ) wi t h ou t a s t r on g c yt o ch r om e P4 50 in h ib i to r , ad m i ni s te r m a r a vir oc 6 0 0 m g t wi c e d a il y . ( c ) W hen u s e d wi t h o th er m ed ic a ti o ns , i nc lu d in g t i p ra n a vi r/ r i to n a v ir , n e vi r ap i ne , N R TI s , a nd en f u v i r ti d e, ad m i ni s te r m ar a vi r oc 30 0 m g t wi c e d a il y . ( 2 ) C o nc om it a nt ad m i n is t r a t io n wi t h S t . J o h n' s w o r t is n ot r ec om m e nd e d d u e t o re d uc ti o n i n m a r av i r o c s e ru m co n c e n tr a ti on s . 8 . I n te g r as e i n h ib i t o r . R a l t e g ra vi r ( I s en t r e ss ) i s th e f i rs t a n d o nl y m e m b e r o f t hi s c l as s o f a n ti r e tr o vi r a l t he r a p y. a . M e c ha n is m o f ac t i on. R a l te g ra v i r in hi b it s t h e v i r a l e n zy m e i n te g r as e, t h e r eb y p r e v en t in g t h e in s e rt i on of H I V g e ne ti c m a te r i al i n to t he C D 4 c ell g e n om e a nd ha l ti ng t he v i r a l re p li c a t io n p r oc es s. b . S p ec t r u m o f a c t i vi t y a n d th e r a pe u t ic us e s. R a l t eg r a v i r is us e d a lo ng wi t h o t he r an t i re t r o v ir a ls o n l y i n t r e at m e n t -e xp e r i e n ce d a d ul t p a ti e nt s wh o d e m o ns t r at e re s i s t a nt s t ra i ns of H I V . c . P r ec a u ti o n s a nd m oni t o r i n g e f f ec t s. ( 1 ) S in c e el e v a ti o ns i n c r e a ti n e k in as e , a lo ng wi t h m y op a th y a n d r h a bd om y o l y s is , m a y o c c u r wi t h r a lt e g ra v i r , u se wi t h c au t io n i n p a ti e nt s wh o a r e r ec ei v i ng c o nc om i ta n t m ed ic a ti on s t h at m a y ca us e t h es e a d ve rs e e f f ec ts . ( 2 ) Th e m os t c om m o n a dv e r s e e f f ec ts i n c l ud e n au s ea , d i a rr h ea , h e ad ac he , a n d f e ve r . d . S i gn i f ic a n t i n te r a c t io n s . Ri f a mp i n d ec r ea s es t he s e r um c on c e n t ra t ion o f r al t eg r a v i r a nd s h ou l d b e u s e d wi t h c au t io n .
VIII. Anthelmintics A. D e f i n i t i o n. Th es e dr ug s a r e u s e d to ri d th e b od y o f wo r m s ( he l m in t h s). Th e s e a g en t s m a y a c t loc a ll y t o r i d t he G I t ra c t of wo r m s o r wo r k s ys t em ic al l y to e ra d ic at e wo r m s th a t a r e i n v ad in g o r g an s o r t is su es . B . M eb e nd a z o l e ( V e r mox ) is a s yn th e ti c b en z i m id a z o l e- d e ri v a t i v e a n t he lm in t ic . 1 . M e c ha n is m o f ac t i on. Me b e n d a z ol e i n te r f er e s wi t h r e p ro d uc ti o n a nd s u r vi va l o f h el m i n th s b y in h ib i ti n g t he f or m a t io n of m i c ro t ub u le s a nd
i r r e ve rs i bl y b lo c k in g g lu c o s e u pt a k e , t h e re b y de ple t i ng gl yc og e n s t o r es i n t h e h e lm in t h. 2 . S pe c t r um o f a c ti vi t y. Me b e n d a z o le is a c ti v e ag a in s t v a r i ou s n em at o des t h a t a r e p at h og e ni c t o hu m an s , in c l u di n g A nc yl os t o m a d uo d en a le (c om m o n h o ok wo r m ) , As c a r is l u mb r i c o id es P.976 ( r o u nd wo r m ) , Ca p il la r i a p h il i pp in e ns is ( Ph i li pp i ne t h re a d wo r m ) , E nt e ro b iu s v e r m ic u la r is (p i n wo r m ) , N e c a to r a m e r ic a nu s ( A m e r i c a n h oo k wo r m ) , a nd T r i ch u ri s t r ic hi u r a ( wh i pwo r m ) . 3 . T he r a pe u t ic us e s. M e b e nd a z ol e i s u se d f o r th e t re a tm en t o f s i ng le o r m i xe d i nf ec t io ns wi t h th e h e lm in t hs l is t ed in V I II .B . 2 . Im m o bi li z a t io n a n d s u bs eq u en t d e at h o f he lm i nt hs a re s l o w, wi t h com p le t e G I c l ea r a nc e u p to 3 d a ys a f t e r t he r ap y . 4 . P r ec a u ti o n s a nd m oni t o r i n g e f f ec t s a . I n ca s e s o f m as s i v e inf e c ti on , ab do m i n al pa in , n a us e a, an d d i ar r h ea a ss o ci at e d wi t h e xp u l s i on o f o r ga n ism s m a y re s ul t . b . My e l o s u pp r es s i on ( neu t r o pe ni a a n d t h ro m b oc y t o p en ia ) ca n o cc u r wi t h h i gh do s es (4 0 -5 0 m g /k g/ d a y ) . c . I f t he pa t ie n t i s n ot c ur e d i n 3 we e ks , re t r ea t m e n t i s n ec es sa r y . 5 . S i gn i f ic a n t i n te r a c ti on s . Ag e nt s t h at m a y r e du c e t he se r um c o nc en t r at i on s a nd s u bs e q u en t e f fi ca c y of m e ben d a z o le i n c l ud e c a r ba m a z e p in e a nd ph e ny t o i n . C . Al b e n d az o le ( Al b e nz a ) is a s yn th e ti c b en z i m id a z o l e- d e ri v a t i v e a n t he lm in t ic . 1 . M e c ha n is m o f ac t i on. S e e V I I I. B . 1 . 2 . S pe c t r um o f a c ti vi t y. A l b en da z o l e is ac t i ve ag a in s t T ae n ia s o li u m ( por k t a p e wo r m ) a nd Ec h in oc oc c u s g r an u lo s u s ( d og tap e wo r m ) . 3 . T he r a pe u t ic us e s. A lb e n da z o le is us ed to t rea t pa r e nc h ym a l n e u ro c y s t ic e rc os is in c om b in a ti on wi t h c o r ti co s ter o i ds as we l l as c ys t ic h yd a t id di s e as e (b e fo r e a n d a f te r s u r gi c a l re m o v a l of th e di se as e ). 4 . P r ec a u ti o n s a nd m oni t o r i n g e f f ec t s a . Th e dr u g s h o ul d b e ad m in is t e re d wi t h a f a t t y m e al to ac hi e ve o p ti m a l a b so r p ti on . b . H e pa t ot o xi c i t y oc c u rs i n 16 % o f p a ti e nt s ; li v e r f u nc t io n te st s e v e r y 2 we e k s ar e re c o m m en d ed wh i l e ta k i n g a lb e nd a z ole . c . R a re l y , l e uk op e ni a , t hr o m bo c yto p en i a, g ra nu l oc y t o p e n ia , p a nc y t o pe ni a , a n d a g ra n ul oc y t o s i s oc c u r . A C B C s ho u ld be c h ec k e d e ve r y 2 we e ks wh i le t a ki n g a lb e nd a z ol e . D . D i e t h yl c a r b a m az i n e c i t r a t e ( H e t r az an ) 1 . M e c ha n is m o f ac t i on. D i e th yl ca r ba m a z i n e ci t ra t e i s a s y n t he t ic or g an ic c om p ou n d h ig hl y s pe c i f ic f or s e ve r al c o m m on par a s it es . 2 . S pe c t r um o f a c ti vi t y. Th i s ag en t i s a ct i ve a g ai n s t W u c he r e ri a b an c ro f ti , O n c h oc e rc a v o lv u lu s , B ru g ia m a la yi , Ma n s on e ll a p e r s t a ns , Ma n s o n el la o zza r d i , A s c a r is l u m b r ic o i de s , a nd Lo a l o a.
3 . T he r a pe u t ic us e s. D ie t h y lc a r ba m a z i n e ci t r at e i s u s e d f o r t h e t r ea tm e nt o f B an c ro f t 's f il a ri as is , on c ho c e r c i as is , a s c a ri as is , an d l oi as is . It is a va i la b le di r ec t l y fr om t he m a n uf ac t u re r fo r co m pa s s i on a te us e o nl y. 4 . P r ec a u ti o n s a nd m oni t o r i n g e f f ec t s a . P at i en ts t r ea t ed fo r W . b an c ro f ti in f ec t io n o f ten p r es en t wi t h h ea d ac he a n d g e ne r al m a la is e . S ev e r e a ll e rg ic ph e no m e na i n c on j un c t i on wi t h a sk in r a s h h a v e b ee n re po r t ed. b . P a ti en t s t r ea t ed fo r on c ho c e r ci as is p re s e n t wi t h p ru r i tu s , fa ci a l e de m a, a n d s ys te m i c s y m p t om s s ec o nd a r y to t he in f la m m a to r y r es p on se c a us e d b y p a t ho g en de a th (k n o wn a s a M a z z o t ti r ea c t io n ) . S e v e r e re ac t io ns m a y be n o t ed af t e r a s in g le do s e. F o r t hi s re as o n, i ve rm ec t in is us ed to t re a t o n ch oc e rc i as is . c . C hi l d re n wh o a r e u nde r n ou r is h ed or a re su f fe ri n g f r om de b il it a ti n g a sc a r ia s i s i nf ec t io n m a y e xp e r i e nc e g i dd i ne s s , m a l a i s e , na us e a, an d vo m i ti n g a f te r tr e at m en t . O t h e r d r ug s a r e a v a il a ble t o t r ea t As ca r is ( m e be nd a z o le an d a l be nd a z o l e) . E . P yr a n t e l ( P i n - R id ) is a p y r im i di ne - d er i v a ti ve an t h el m i n ti c. 1 . M e c ha n is m o f ac t i on. P y r a n te l i s a de po l a ri z in g ne u ro m u sc u la r b l oc k in g a g e nt th a t c au s e s a s p as t ic pa r al ys is of th e h e lm i nt h . 2 . S pe c t r um o f a c ti vi t y. P y r a n t el is a c ti v e ag ai ns t A . l u m b ri co id es ( r o u nd wo r m ) , E. v e r m i c ul a r is (p i n wo r m ), A . d uo de n al e (h o ok wo r m ) , N . a m e r i ca nu s (h oo k wo r m ), a n d T r ic ho st r o ng y l us o rie n t al is ( ha i r wo r m ). 3 . T he r a pe u t ic us e s. P y r a n t el i s u se d f o r th e t r ea t m e n t o f ro un d wo r m , p i n wo r m , a nd ho ok wo r m i n f ec ti o ns . P.977
4 . P r ec a u ti o n s a nd m oni t o r i n g e f f ec t s a . Mo s t c o m m on l y re p o rte d r ea ct i on s i nc lu de an or e xi a , n a us ea , v om i ti ng , d i a r rh e a, he a da c h e , a nd r a s h . b . A s i ng le do s e m a y b e m i xe d wi t h f oo d , m i lk , j u ic e , o r ta k e n o n a n e m p t y s t om ac h . F . T hi a be n d az ol e (M i n te z o l) , a p y r a zi no is oq u ino l in e d e r i vat i v e , i s a s yn t he t ic he t e ro c yc l ic a nt h e lm in t ic . 1 . M e c ha n is m o f ac t i on i s n o t kn o wn p r ec is el y . Th i a b en d a zol e i s s ho wn t o i n hi b it t he he lm in t h -s pe c i f ic en z ym e , f u m a r at e red u ct as e . Th ia be n da z o l e a l s o de m o ns t r at es an t i -in f l am m a to r y , a nt ip y r e t ic , a n d a na l ge s i c e ff e c t s . 2 . S pe c t r um o f a c ti vi t y. I t is a c ti v e ag ai n s t m os t i n te s ti na l n em a to d es , i n cl ud i ng A nc y l os t o m a br a zi l i e ns e (d o g a nd c a t ho o k wo r m ), A . d uo d en a le ( h o ok wo r m ) , A. lu m b r ic oid e s ( r ou n d wo r m ), E . v e rm i c u la r is (p i n wo r m ), N . a m e r i ca nu s (h oo k wo r m ), S t r o ng yl oi d es s t e rc o ra lis ( th r e ad wo r m ) , T . t r i c h iu r a ( wh i p wo r m ), T . s p i ra li s , a nd To x o c a r a c a n is an d T ox o c a r a ca t i ( d o g a nd c a t ro u nd wo r m s ) . 3 . T he r a pe u t ic us e s. Th i a be n da z o l e is us ed f or th e t re a tm en t o f s t r on g yl oi di as is ( th r e ad wo r m i n fe c t i on ) , c u ta ne o us la r va m i g ra ns (c r e ep ing
e r u p ti on ) , a n d v i s c e ra l l ar v a m ig r an s . I t i s us e d f or t h e t r ea tm e n t o f u n ci n ar i as is (h o ok wo r m ), N . a m e ri c a n us , A . du ode n al e , t r ic h ur i as is ( wh i p wo r m ) , an d as c a ri as is ( la r ge r ou n d wo r m ) wh e n m o re s p ec if ic t he r apy i s u n a vai la b le o r f u rt h e r t r e a tm en t i s r e qu i re d wi th a s ec o nd ag en t . 4 . P r ec a u ti o n s a nd m oni t o r i n g e f f ec t s a . A d ve rs e e f fe c t s o f t h ia b e nd a zol e a r e u s u a ll y m i ld an d t r a ns ie n t, o cc u r ri n g 3 - 4 h r a f te r the d r ug ha s b ee n a dm i ni st e r e d a nd la s t i ng fo r 2 -8 h r . b . Mo s t c o m m on r ea c t i on s i nc l ud e a n or e xi a , na us e a, v o m i t in g , a nd d i zzi n es s . c . G i dd in e s s , s e i z u r es , ve r t ig o , p a re s th es ia s , a nd p s y c h ic di st u r ba nc es m a y a l so occ u r , b u t l es s f re qu e n tl y . d . I f h y p e rs en s i t i v it y d e ve l op s , t he d ru g s ho u ld be d isc o nt i nu e d. E r yt he m a m u lt i fo r m e (i n c l ud i ng S tev e n s -J o hn s o n s yn d ro m e ) h as be e n r e po r t ed . 5 . S i gn i f ic a n t i n te r a c ti on s . Se r um xa n t h in e l e v el s (t h eo p h y ll in e a n d c a f fe in e ) m a y i n c r e as e. G . I ve r m e c ti n ( S t ro m ect o l ) 1 . M e c ha n is m o f ac t i on. I v e r m e c t i n p ot e nt i at es th e in hi b it o r y e ff ec ts o f γ a m in o bu t y r ic ac id ( G A B A) i n v a ri ou s n em a to d es an d a rt h ro p od s , r es ul t in g i n p a r al ys is an d d e at h o f the o r ga ni s m s . 2 . S pe c t r um o f a c ti vi t y. Th i s ag en t i s a ct i ve a g ai n s t S . s te r c o r al is ( i n te s ti n al fo r m s o n l y ) a nd O . v o lv ul us ( im m a t ur e f o r m s o n l y) . I t i s a ls o u s ef u l f o r t r ea t m e n t o f i nf e c ti on s wi t h A . l u m b r ic oi d es , E. v e r m i c u la r is , M. o zza r d i , T . t ri c h iu r a , a nd W . ba nc r o ft i . 3 . T he r a pe u t ic us e s a . I v e rm ec t in is u s e f ul f or t r e at m e n t o f i n fe ct i on s wi t h t h e p a ra s i t es li s t e d i n V I I I . G . 2. b . Two s t u di e s d em on s t ra t e d t ha t i v er m e c ti n wa s m o re ef f ec t i v e t ha n a l be n da z o l e f o r t r ea tm e nt o f s t ro n g y lo id i as is . c . I v e rm ec t in is o f t en fa v o r e d o ve r di et h y l c a r ba m a zi n e c it r a te o wi n g t o i ts l e ss s e v e re ad v e r s e e ff ec t pr o fi l e. 4 . P r ec a u ti o n s a nd m oni t o r i n g e f f ec t s, a . Ma y c a us e a M a z z o t ti r e a c ti o n (s ee V II I . D .4 . b) t h at is le s s s e ve re t ha n wi t h d i et h y lc a r ba m a z i n e c i t ra t e. b . R e po r ts of s e r io us and p os s i bl y f a ta l e nc e ph alo p a th y h a ve o cc u rr e d i n p a t ie n ts wi t h c on c o m i t ant L . l oa in f ec t io n c . O t he r ad v e r s e ef f ec ts i n c l ud e e d em a , d i z zi ne s s , he ad a c h e , r as h , a nd G I d i st u r ba nc es . d . C o un s e l p a ti en t s t o t ak e i v e r m e c ti n wi t h wa t e r . H . P r a zi q u an t e l ( B i l t r ic id e ) 1 . M e c ha n is m o f ac t i on. P r a z i qu a nt el in c re as es c e ll m em b r an e p e r m e ab i li t y in s u s c ep t ibl e he lm in t hs , wi t h l os s o f i n t ra ce ll u la r c a lc iu m a nd p a r al ys is of th e i r m u s c ula t u r e. V ac uo li z a t io n an d d is i nt e g ra ti o n o f t h e s ch is t os om e t e gu m e n t r es u lt , fo ll o we d b y at t ac hm e n t o f ph ag oc y t e s t o t h e p a r as i te an d d ea t h . P.978
2 . S pe c t r um o f a c ti vi t y. P r a z i qu a n te l is ac t i v e ag a in s t t r em at o de s ( f lu kes ) , i n cl ud i ng al l Sc hi s t os o ma s p p . a nd C l on o rc hi s s in e ns is , O pi s t h o rc hi s v iv e r ri n i, F as c i ol a h ep a tic a (l i v e r f l uk es ) , P a r ag on i m u s u te r o bi la t e ra li s , P a r a go n i m us we s te r m a ni ( l un g fl uk es ) , Me t a go n im u s yo k o g a wa i , F a sc io l op s i s b us k i , a n d H e t e r op hy es he t e ro p hy es ( in t es ti n al fl uk es ) . 3 . T he r a pe u t ic us e s. P ra z i q u an t el i s a ct i ve i n tre a t in g a ll t y p es o f s ch is t os om i as is t h at a re p a t ho g en ic to hu m a ns ; c l o no r c h i as is a n d o p is t ho r c h ia s i s ( Ch in es e a n d s o u th e as t As ia n l i ve r f lu k e s ); m a n y ot h e r t yp e s o f i n fe c ti on s i n v ol v i n g i n te s t i na l , li v e r , an d lu n g f l uk es ; a nd c es t od i as is ( ta pe wo r m ) in f ec t io ns . 4 . P r ec a u ti o n s a nd m oni t o r i n g e f f ec t s a . Tr e a tm en t of oc ul a r c y s t i c e r c o si s is co n tr a in dic a te d b e c a us e p a ra s i t e d e st r uc t io n wi t hi n th e e y e s m a y c a us e i r r ep a ra b le l es io ns . b . I n g en e ra l , a d v e rs e e ff e c ts a r e g e ne r al l y m i ld a n d we l l t ol e ra t ed . It is d i f fi cu l t t o d i ff e re n ti a te be t we e n e ff ec ts ca us e d by t h e pr a zi qu a nt e l v e r sus e f f ec ts de m o ns t r a te d b y d y i n g p a ra si t es . c . Th e m os t c om m o n s ide e f fe c t s a r e t r an s i e nt an d m a y in c l u de m a la is e , h e a da c h e , d i z z i ne s s , a nd a bd om i na l d is co m f o r t. d . P r a ziq u an t el m a y im pa i r a c ti vi t ie s t ha t re q ui r e m en t al al e r tn es s . P.979
STUDY QUESTIONS D i r e c t i on s fo r q ue s t io ns 1 - 12 : E a c h o f t he qu es t i o ns , s ta t em en t s , o r i n co m p l et e s ta t em e nt s i n t h is s ec t io n c an be c o r re c tl y a ns we r e d or c om p le t ed b y on e o f th e s u gg es t ed an s we r s o r phr a s es . Ch oo s e t he be s t a n s we r . 1 . I so n ia z id is a p r i ma r y a n t i t u b e r c u la r ag e n t th a t ( A ) r e qu i re s p y r i do xi n e s u p pl e m e n ta ti o n . ( B ) m a y d is c o l or t he te a rs , s a li va , u r in e , o r fe c e s o r a ng e re d . ( C ) c au s e s o c u la r c o m p lic a ti o ns th a t a r e r e v e rs ib le i f t he d ru g i s d i s c on t in u ed . ( D ) m a y b e o t o to xi c a nd n e p hr o to xi c . ( E ) s ho ul d n e v e r b e u s ed b ec au se o f h ep a to t o xi c po t en t ia l . V i e w A n s we r 1 . T h e a n sw e r i s A [ se e V . B . 2. d . (5 )] .2 . Al l o f t h e f o l l ow i ng f ac t o r s m a y i n c r e as e th e r is k o f ne ph r o t o x ic i t y f r o m g e n t am i ci n th e r a p y e x c e p t w h ic h on e ? ( A ) a ge > 7 0 y ea r s ( B ) p r ol on g ed c o u rs es of g e nt am ic i n t he r a p y ( C ) c on c u r r en t am ph o te ri c in B t h e ra p y ( D ) t r o ug h g en t am ic in leve l s < 2 m g/ m L ( E ) c on c u r r en t c is pl a ti n th e r ap y
V i e w A n s we r 2 . T h e a n sw e r i s D [ se e] . 3 . I n w h ich o f t he f ol l ow i ng g r o u p s d o a l l f o u r d ru gs w a r r a n t c a r ef u l m o ni to r i n g fo r d r u g - re l a te d s e iz u r e s i n h i gh - r i s k pa t i e n ts ? ( A ) p en ic i ll in G , i m i p en em , am ph o te r ic in B , m et ro n i d a z o le ( B ) p en ic i ll in G , c hl o r am p h e ni c o l, t et r ac y c li n e, va n c o m yc i n ( C ) i m i pe n em , t e t ra c y c l in e , v an c om y ci n , s ul fa d iazi n e ( D ) c y c l o s e r in e , m e t r on id a z o l e, v a nc om y c in , s ul fa d i a z i n e ( E ) m et r on i da z o l e, im ip en e m , do xyc yc l i n e , e r y t h ro m y ci n V i e w A n s we r 3 . T h e a n sw e r i s A [ se e I I . E. 1 . e. ( 2 ); I I . J. 5 .d . ( 2 );] . 4 . AC i s a 3 4 - ye a r - o l d m a le ad m i t t ed w i t h a di a gn o s is o f pe r i t on i t is . C ul t u r es a r e p os i t i ve fo r B ac t e ro i d es f r a gi l i s, E n te r o coc c u s f a ec a li s , a n d S t a p h yl o co c cu s a u r e us. W h ic h of t he f o ll ow i ng w o u l d b e t h e b e st i ni ti a l t h e r a p y t o r e c o m me n d ? ( A ) t el i th r om y c in ( B ) q ui n up r is ti n /d a lf o p ri st i n ( C ) t i ge c yc l in e ( D ) t r im e th o pr im / s u l fa m et h o xa z o l e ( E ) k an am y c in V i e w A n s we r 4 . T h e a n sw e r i s C [ se e] . 5 . T J i s a 4 5 - ye a r - o l d f e m a le p r e s en t i n g w i t h a n E nte r o b ac t e r a e r o ge n es bac t e r e mi a w i th a l ow - g r ad e f e ve r ( 1 01 . 6 °F ) . Th e m os t a pp r o p r ia t e m a na g em e n t o f he r f e ve r w o uld be to ( A ) g i v e a c e t am in op h en 1 0 0 0 m g o ra ll y e ve r y 6 hr . ( B ) g i v e a s p i ri n 6 5 0 m g o r a ll y e v e r y 4 h r . ( C ) g i v e a l te r na t in g d os es o f as p ir i n a nd ac e ta m in o p he n e v e r y 4 h r . ( D ) wi t h h o ld an t ip y r e ti c s a n d us e th e f e ve r c u r v e t o m o ni t o r h e r r e s po ns e t o a n ti b io t ic the r a p y. ( E ) u s e te p id wa t e r b a ths t o r ed u c e th e f e v e r . V i e w A n s we r 5 . T h e a n sw e r i s D [ se e] . 6 . B C h as a n up p e r r e s p i r at o r y i n f e c t i on . Tw o ye a r s a g o , s h e e xp er i e n ce d an ep i s od e o f b r o n c ho s pa s m a f te r p en i c i ll i n th e r ap y. C u r r e n t c u l tu r e s a r e p o s it i ve fo r a s t r ai n o f S t r e pt o c oc cu s p ne u mo n ia e th a t i s s e n si t i ve t o a l l o f th e f o l l ow i ng d r ug s . W h ic h o f t he s e d r u gs w o u ld b e t he b es t c h o ic e fo r th i s p a t i en t ? ( A ) a m o xi c i ll i n/ c l a v u la nat e ( B ) t el i th r om y c in ( C ) a m p ic il l in ( D ) c ef ac l o r ( E ) l o ra c a r be f V i e w A n s we r 6 . T h e a n sw e r i s B [ se e I I . K . 1 2] . 7 . Al l o f t h e f o l l ow i ng d r ug s a r e app r o p r i a te t he r a p ie s f o r a l ow e r u r i n a r y t r a c t i n f e c ti o n ow i n g t o Ps eu d o m on a s a e ru g i no s a e x c ep t ( A ) n o rf l o xa c in . ( B ) t r im e th op r im - s u l fa m et h o xa zo l e . ( C ) c ip r o fl o xa c in .
( D ) t o b ra m yc i n. ( E ) m et h en am in e m an d ela t e . V i e w A n s we r 7 . T h e a n sw e r i s B [ se ea n d] .P . ae ru g i n os a .8 . B T i s a 4 3 - ye a r - o l d f e m a le se en b y h e r p r i m a r y- c a r e p h ys i c i a n f o r a m il d s t a p h yl o c o c c a l c e ll u l it is o n th e a r m . W h ic h of t h e f ol l ow i ng r e gi m en s w o ul d be ap p r o p r ia t e or a l t h e ra p y? ( A ) d ic lo xa c i l li n 1 25 m g e v e r y 6 h r ( B ) v a n c o m yc i n 2 50 m g e v e r y 6 h r ( C ) m et h ic il li n 5 0 0 m g e ve r y 6 h r ( D ) c ef a z o li n 1 g e v e r y 8 h r ( E ) p en ic i ll in V 5 0 0 m g ev e r y 6 h r V i e w A n s we r 8 . T h e a n sw e r i s A [ se e] . P . 98 0
9 . R C is a 3 3 - ye a r - o l d m a l e w i t h a h is t o r y o f H I V f o r 10 ye a r s w h o now p r e s en t s w i th My c o b a ct e r i u m a v iu m -i n t r ac e l lul a r e (M AI ) . W h ic h o f t he f o l l ow i ng d r ug s ha s d em o n s t ra t e d i n vi t r o a c tivi t y a g a i n s t M AI ? ( A ) d ap t om y c in ( B ) c l a r it h r om y c i n ( C ) e r y t h ro m y c i n b as e ( D ) c lo xa c i ll i n ( E ) m i n oc y c li ne V i e w A n s we r 9 . T h e a n sw e r i s B [ se e I I . D .6 . a -b] .T o x o pl a sm a g o n d ii C r y p t os p o r id i um1 0 . Al l o f t h e f o l low i n g s t a t em e n ts r e g a r d in g pe n t am i di n e i s e t hi o n at e a r e t r ue exc e p t w hi c h o n e? ( A ) I t i s i nd ic a te d fo r tr ea t m e n t o r p r o ph yl a xi s of i n f ec ti o n o wi n g t o P n e u m oc y s ti s c a ri ni i . ( B ) I t m a y be ad m i ni s te re d in t r am us c u la r l y, i n tr ave n o us l y , or b y i n ha l at i on . ( C ) I t ha s n o c l i ni c a ll y s ig n i fi c a n t e f fe c t on s e r um g l uc os e. ( D ) I t i s e f fe c ti v e in th e tr e a tm e nt of le is hm a ni as is . V i e w A n s we r 1 0 . T he a nsw e r i s C [ se e] . P . ca r i ni i .1 1 . R E i s a 23 ye a r - o l d m a l e w i t h a h is t o r y o f i n f l u en za A i n fe c t i on s . An o ut b r e ak o f i n f l u en z a A h a s j u s t b ee n r e po r t e d i n h i s c o mm u n i t y, a n d h e is e x h ib i t i ng i ni t i al s ym p t o m s o f t he i n fe c ti o n . Wh i c h a g en t w o ul d be t he m o s t u s e fu l to t r ea t R E? ( A ) c i d o fo v i r ( B ) f am c i c l o v i r ( C ) o s e l ta m i v i r ( D ) f os c a r n et ( E ) r i ba v i r in V i e w A n s we r 1 1 . T he a nsw e r i s C [ se e] . 1 2. D r . Jon e s re q u es t s yo u r h e l p i n p re s c ri b i ng a p ro t e a se in h i bi t o r fo r h is p a t ie n t . He ha s h e a r d t h a t no t al l ag e n ts a re th e sa m e a nd as k s f o r yo u r r e co m me n da t i on a s
t o w h i ch a ge n t w ou l d be l ea s t l i ke l y t o c a u se th e pa t i e nt ' s c h ol e s te r ol t o i n c re a se . W h ic h ag en t w o u l d yo u r e c o m men d ? ( A ) s aq ui n a v i r ( B ) r i to n a v i r ( C ) i nd i na v i r ( D ) n el f in a v i r ( E ) a t a z an a v i r V i e w A n s we r 1 2 . T he a nsw e r i s E [s e e] . D i r ec t i o ns f o r qu e s ti o ns 1 3 - 14 : Th e q u es ti o ns and i nc om pl e te s t a te m e n ts i n t h is s ec t io n c an be co r r ec t l y a n s we r e d o r c om pl e te d b y o n e o r m o re of t he s u g g es te d a ns we r s . C ho os e th e a n s we r , A- E . 1 3 . D r ug s us u al l y a c t i v e a ga i n st p en i ci l l in a se -p r o d u ci n g St a p hy l oc o cc u s a u r e us i nc l u de w h ic h of t h e fo l l ow in g ? ( I ) p i pe r a ci l l in - t az o ba c ta m ( I I ) am o xi c i ll i n -c l a vu la na t e ( I I I ) na f ci l l in A i f I o n l y i s c o r re c t B i f II I on l y i s c o r r ec t C i f I a n d I I a r e c or r ec t D i f II a nd I II a re c o r re c t E i f I, I I, an d II I ar e c o r re c t V i e w A n s we r 1 3 . T he a nsw e r i s E (I , I I, I II ) [ s e ea nd ] . S . a u r e us 1 4. An t i vi r a l a g e n ts t ha t a re ac t i ve ag a i ns t c yt o m e g a l o vi r u s ( C M V ) i n c lu d e w h i c h of t h e f o l l ow i ng ? ( I ) g an c ic l o vi r ( I I ) f os c a rn e t ( I I I ) a c yc l o vi r A i f I o n l y i s c o r re c t B i f II I on l y i s c o r r ec t C i f I a n d I I a r e c or r ec t D i f II a nd I II a re c o r re c t E i f I, I I, an d II I ar e c o r re c t V i e w A n s we r 1 4 . T he a nsw e r i s C ( I a nd I I ) [ s ee an d] . D i r ec t i on s fo r q u e s ti o ns 15 - 1 7 : E ac h d e s c r ip t io n l is t ed in th is s ec t io n i s m os t c lo s e l y as s o c i a te d wi t h o n e o f th e f o ll o wi n g d r u gs . Th e d ru gs m a y be us e d m o r e th an on c e or n o t a t a l l . C h oo s e th e be s t a ns we r , A- E . 1 5 . It ma y b e a d m in i s ter e d o nc e p e r da y f o r t h e t r e a tm e nt o f u r i n a r y t r a c t i n f e c ti o ns . A c l o f a z im in e B i t r ac on a z o le C l om e fl o xa c i n D n e om y c in V i e w A n s we r 1 5 . T he a nsw e r i s C [ se e] . 1 6. I t m a y c a us e pi n k t o b r ow n i sh s k i n p i gm e n ta t i on w i t h in a few w e e ks o f i n it i a ti o n o f t h e ra p y. A c l o f a z im in e
B i t r ac on a z o le C l om e fl o xa c i n D n e om y c in V i e w A n s we r 1 6 . T he a nsw e r i s A [ se e I I .J . 9] . My c o b ac t e r iu m 17 . C o a d m in i s t ra t i o n w i t h a s te m iz o l e o r te r f e na d i ne m a y l e a d t o l i f e- t h r ea t en i n g c a r d ia c d ys r h yt h m i a s . A c l o f a z im in e B i t r ac on a z o le C l om e fl o xa c i n D n e om y c in V i e w A n s we r 1 7 . T he a nsw e r i s B [ se e] . P . 98 1
ANSWERS AND EXPLANATIONS 1 . T he an sw e r is A [ s ee V . B . 2 .d . (5 ) ] . I s on i a zid in c re as es th e exc r e t i o n o f p yr i d o xi n e , w h i c h c a n l ea d t o p e r ip he ra l n e u ri t is , p a r ti c u la r l y in po o r l y no u ri s h e d p at i en ts . P y r i d o xi n e (a f or m o f v ita m in B 6 ) d e f ic ie nc y m a y c au s e c on v u l s i o ns a s we ll as th e n e u ri t is , i n v ol vi n g s y n o via l t e n de r ne s s an d s we l l in g . Tr e a t m e n t wi t h t he v i t am i n c a n re ve r s e th e n e u ri t is an d p r e ve n t o r c u re th e s ei z ur e s . 2 . T he an sw e r is D [ s ee I I . B .4 . b] . Tr o u g h s e ru m l e v el s < 2 m g /m L a r e c on s i de r e d ap p r op r i at e f o r g e nt am ic in a nd a re r e c om m e nd e d t o m i n im i ze t he r is k o f t o xi c i t y f r om t h is am in og l y co s i d e. B ec a us e a m in o gl y c os id es ac c um ul a t e i n t he p ro xi m a l t u bu le o f t h e ki d ne y , ne p h ro to xi c i t y c an o cc u r . 3 . T he an sw e r is A [ s ee I I . E .1 . e. ( 2 ) ; I I .J . 5. d . (2 ) ; I I I . B .4 . b; I V . C .3 .c ] . S e i zu r es ha v e be e n a tt r ib u t ed to t he us e o f p en ic i l li n G , im i pe n em , a m p hot e r ic in B , a n d m et r o ni da z o l e. S ei z u r e s a re es p ec ia ll y l ik el y wi t h h ig h d os e s in p at ien t s wi t h a h i st o r y of s e i z u re s a n d in p at i en ts wi t h im pa i re d d r u g e li m i n at i on . 4 . T he an sw e r is C [ s ee I I . K .1 3 ]. A l t h ou gh ac t i v e a ga in s t v a r i o us gr a m - p os it i ve a nd n eg a ti v e o rg an is m s , tig e c yc l in e i s o n l y ag e nt ap p ro v e d fo r t h e tr e at m e n t o f i n t ra - abd o m i n al i n fe c ti on s c au s ed b y t he se o r g an is m s . 5 . T he an sw e r is D [ s ee I . H . 1 ] . Th e f e ve r c u r v e i s us e fu l f o r m on i to r i ng a p at i en t 's r es po ns e to an t im ic ro bi a l t h e r ap y. A nt i p y r et ic s c an b e u s e d to r ed uc e h ig h f e v e r in pa t ie n ts a t ri s k fo r c om p li ca t io ns ( e. g ., s e i zu r e s ) o r , in s o m e c a s e s , t o m a k e th e p a ti e nt m o r e c om f o rt a bl e . 6 . T he an sw e r is B [ s ee I I . K . 1 2] . A m o xi c i ll in an d a m p ic i ll in a r e a ll p e ni c i ll i ns an d s h ou l d b e a v o id ed in pa ti e n ts wi t h h i st o ri e s o f h y p e rs en s i t iv i t y t o ot h e r p en ic il l in c om p ou n ds . A l th o ug h t h e ri sk o f c r os s - re ac t i v it y wi t h c e ph a lo s po r in s ( e .g . , c ef ac lo r , lo r ac a rb e f ) is no w c on s id e re d l o w, m os t c li n ic ia ns a v oid t he us e o f th es e a ge n ts in pa t ie n ts wi t h h is t o rie s o f t y pe I h yp e r se ns i ti v i t y r ea c t i ons ( e. g . , a na p h y la xi s , b ron c ho s p as m , g ia n t h i v es ) .
7 . T he an sw e r is B [ s ee I I . E .4 ; II . H . 3. a a n d b ; I I .I . 2 . a; I I. I .3 . a ; I I .J .7 ] . N o r f l o xa c in , c ip r o fl o xa c in , t ob r am y c in , a n d m e t he n am i ne m a nd el a te ac hie v e u r in e c o nc en t r at i on s h ig h e n ou g h t o tr e at u ri n ar y t r ac t i n fe c ti on s c au se d b y P . a e r ug i no s a . Tr im e th o p rim - s u l fa m e t ho xa zo l e is no t us e fu l f o r t r e at in g i n fec t io n c a us ed b y th is o rg an is m , a l th o ug h t h e c o m b i na t ion i s us e fu l f o r t r e at in g c e r t ai n o t h e r u ri n a r y t r ac t in f ec tio n s . 8 . T he an sw e r is A [ s ee I I . C ; I I . E . 1 .c . (3 ) ; II . E .2 .b ; I I. J .8 ] . A l t h ou gh v a nc om y c in , m e t h ic il li n , a nd ce f a z ol in h a v e e xc e ll e nt ac ti vi t y ag a in s t s t ap h yl oc oc c i , t h e y ar e no t e ff ec t i v e o r al l y fo r s y s t e m i c i n fe c t i on s . V an c om y c in is p r e sc ri b ed o ra ll y f o r i n fec t io ns li m i t ed to t he ga s tr o i nt e st i na l t r ac t , b ut bec a us e i t i s p o o rl y a bs o rb e d o r al l y , i t i s n o t e ff ec t i ve f o r s y s tem ic in f ec t io ns . Mo s t h os p i t al - a n d c om m u n it y - a c q u i re d s ta ph y l o c o cc i a r e c u r r e nt l y re s i s ta n t t o p e ni c i ll i n. Thu s o f th e d r u gs li s t e d, th e m os t a pp r o p ri a te d ru g f o r o r al t he r a p y of st a ph yl oc oc ca l c e ll ul i ti s is d i cl o xa c il l in . 9 . T he an sw e r is B [ s ee I I . D .6 . a -b ] . C l a r i th r om y c in , a n a l te r na t i v e to er y t h r om yc in , h as de m o n st r a te d i n v it r o ac t i vi t y a g ai n st MA I . C l a ri t h ro m yc i n is al so us ed ag a in s t T o x o p la s m a g on d ii an d C r y p to sp o r id iu m s pp . , an d it is m o re ac t i v e t ha n e r y t h r om yc in ag a in s t s t ap h y l oc oc ci a n d s t re p to c o c c i . V a nc om y c in an d c lo xa c i l li n a r e u s e d to t re a t s ta ph y l o c oc ci an d s t r ep t oc oc c i , b u t h as no d e m o ns t r at e d ac t i vi t y ver s us MA I . 1 0 . Th e a n sw e r i s C [ s ee I V . D ]. P e n t am id in e i s e t hi o na t e i s i n di c a t ed fo r bo t h t r eat m en t an d p r op h yl a xi s o f i n fe c ti on f r o m P . c a ri n ii . I t c a n b e a d m i ni s te r ed in t r am us cul a r l y , i n tr a ve no us l y, o r by i n ha l at i on . In ha l at i on m ay p r o d uc e b r on ch os p as m . B l oo d g l uc os e s h o ul d be c a r ef u ll y m o n it o re d b e c au s e p en t am id i ne m a y p ro d uc e e i th e r h y p e rg l y c em i a o r h yp o g l yc em i a. P.982
1 1 . Th e a n sw e r i s C [ s ee V I I . B. 9 ]. C i d o fo vi r , f a m c ic lo v i r , a nd f os c a r ne t ha v e li t tl e o r n o i n v i v o a c t i v i t y ag ai ns t i n f lu en za A . Ri b a v i ri n h as s o m e ac ti vi t y b ut is a s e c on d -l i ne ag e nt fo r in f lu e n z a A a n d i s m a i nl y i nd ic a te d fo r t r ea tm e nt o f h ep a ti ti s C i n c om bi n at i on wi t h i n te r f e ro n . O s e l ta m i v i r i s a n a g en t th a t d em o ns t ra t es ac ti vi ty a g a in st in f lu e n za A and B . It is i n di ca t ed f o r t he p ro ph y la xi s a n d t r ea t m e n t o f i nf lu e n z a i n fe c t i on s. 1 2 . Th e a n sw e r i s E [s ee V I I . C. 5 .b . ( 3 ). ( b ) ]. Th e m aj o ri t y o f p r ot e as e i n hi bi t o rs c a us e h yp e rl ip i de m i a . At a z a na v i r do es no t c a us e t h is ad ve r s e e ff ec t a n d m a y be p re f e r re d i n c er ta i n c li ni c a l s i tu a ti on s . 1 3 . Th e a n sw e r i s E ( I , II , I I I) [s e e I I . E. 2 , 3 an d 4] . P i p e ra ci ll i n a nd am o xi c il li n ea c h in c l u de a β - la c ta m as e i n hi bi t o r . Th e s e c om b in a ti o ns o f fe r ac t i v it y a g ai ns t S . a u re us s im il a r to th a t o f t h e p en ic i ll in a se r e s is ta n t p en ic i ll in s , s u c h as na f c i ll i n. 1 4 . Th e a n sw e r i s C ( I an d I I) [s e e V I I . B. 1; V I I. B. 7 an d 8 ] . O n l y g a nc ic lo v i r a n d f os c a r ne t a r e a c t i v e a g ai ns t C MV i n f e c ti o ns . Th e s e a g e nt s a r e vi r u s ta t ic a n d a r r es t D N A s y n t he si s b y in h ib i ti ng v i r a l D N A p ol ym e ra s e . F o sc a rn e t i s
a b r oa d -s pe c tr um a nt i v i ra l ag en t an d i s us e d i n pa t i en ts wi t h ga nc ic lo v i r re s is ta nc e . A c yc lo v i r is n o t c li ni c a l l y u s e f ul f or t he t re a tm en t o f C MV i n f ec t io ns be c a us e C MV i s r e l at i ve l y re s i s ta n t t o a c y c l o v i r i n v it r o . 1 5 . Th e a n sw e r i s C [ s ee I I . H. 3 .c ] . L o m e f lo xa c i n m a y be adm i ni s t e r ed da il y f o r t r ea ti n g u r in a r y t ra ct in f ec t ion s . E n o xa c i n i s a no t he r fl u oro q ui n ol o ne us ed to t re a t u r in a r y t ra c t i nf ec t io ns . C o m pa r e d t o o th e r f lu o r oq ui n ol o nes , ne i th e r l om ef l o xa c in no r e no xa c i n i m p r o v es the s p ec t r um o f ac t i v it y . 1 6 . Th e a n sw e r i s A [ s ee I I .J . 9 ] . B e c au se c l of a z im i ne c o nt a i ns p h en a zi ne d y e, it c a n c a us e p in k t o b r o wn sk i n p i gm e nt a ti on . Th is c h ang e in pi gm en t a ti on oc c u rs in 75 % - 10 0% o f p at i ent s ta k i n g c l of a zim i ne , a n d i t o c c u rs wi t h in a f e w we e k s o f th e in i ti a ti on o f t he r ap y . Th e d i sc ol o ra t io n o f s k i n h as r e p or t ed l y le d to s e v e r e d e p re s s io n a n d e ve n s ui c id e i n s om e p a ti e nt s . C l of a z im in e is u s e d i n th e t r e at m en t o f le p r os y a nd s e ve r al a t y p ic al My c o b a c t e ri u m in f ec t io ns . 1 7 . Th e a n sw e r i s B [ s ee I I I. E . 5. d ] . A d m in is t ra t io n o f it r ac o na z o l e o r k e to c o n a zol e wit h as t em i z ol e o r te r f en adi n e m a y i n c re as e t h e l e v el of as te m i z ol e o r te r f en ad i ne , wh i c h ca n l ea d to l i fe - t h re a t en in g d ys r h yt hm ia s a nd d ea t h. I t r ac on a z o le , wh i c h is an im i da z o le , is a f un gi s ta t ic ag e nt . S p e ci f ic al l y , i t r ac on a z ole c a n b e ta ke n o r al l y t o tr e a t a s p e r gi ll os is in f ec tio n s a nd o t h e r d ee p f u ng al in f ec t io n s , s u c h as b l as t om yc os is , c oc ci d io id om y c os is , c r yp t oc oc c o s i s , an d h is to p la s m os is .
44 Infectious Diseases P a u l F. S ou n e y An t h o n y E . Z i m m e r ma nn L i n d a M . S p oo n e r
I. Principles of Anti-Infective Therapy A . D e f in it i on . An t i -i n fe c t iv e a g en t s t r ea t i n fe c t i on b y s up p r es s i ng o r d e st r o yi ng th e c au s a t i v e m ic r oo r ga n is m s —b a ct e ri a , m y c ob ac t e ri a , f un g i, p r o t o zoa , o r v i r us es . A n ti - i nf ec t i v e a g en ts de r i v ed f r om n a tu r a l s u bs t an c es a r e c a ll ed an t ib i ot ic s ; t ho s e p r od uc e d f r om s y n t he t ic s u bs t an ce s a r e c a l led a n t im ic r ob ia ls . Th es e t w o t e rm s a re no w u s e d i nte r c ha ng e ab l y. B . I nd ic a ti o ns . Co n fi r m th e p re s e nc e o f i n fe c ti on b y c om pl e ti n g a c a re f ul h i st o r y an d p h y s i c a l e xa m i na t io n , se a rc h in g f o r si g ns an d s y m pt om s o f i n f ec ti o n as we l l a s p r ed is p os in g f a c t o rs . An t i -i nfe c ti v e ag e nt s s ho u ld be u s ed on l y wh e n 1 . A s ig n if ic a nt in f ec t io n h a s b ee n d i ag no s ed or is s t r o ng l y s us p ec te d 2 . A n e s t a bl is he d i n di c a ti o n f o r p r op h y l ac ti c t h e ra p y e xi s t s C . G r a m s ta i n, m ic r o bi olo g ic al cu l tu r in g , a nd s u sc e pt i bi li t y t es ts s h ou l d be p e r f or m e d b e f or e a n ti - in fe c ti v e t he r ap y i s i ni ti a ted . Te s t m a t e ri a ls m us t be o b t ai ne d b y a m e th o d t ha t a v oi ds c o n ta m i n at io n o f t he s p ec im en b y th e p a t ie n t 's o wn fl o r a. 1 . G r am s t ai n . Pe r fo r m ed o n a ll s p ec im en s e xc e p t bl o od c u lt u r es , t h e g ra m s t ai n h e lp s i de n ti f y t he c a u s e of in f ec t io n i m m ed ia t e l y. B y d e te r m i ni n g i f th e c a us at i v e ag en t i s g r am p o s i t i v e o r g r am ne g at i ve , t he te s t al l o ws a b et t er c h oi ce of d ru g th e ra p y , pa r t ic ul a r l y wh e n a n a n ti - i n f ec t i v e r e gi m e n m us t b e gi n wi t h ou t d e la y . a . G r am - po s i t i v e m ic r oo rg a ni s m s s ta in bl u e o r p ur p l e. b . G r am - ne g a ti v e m ic r oor g a ni s m s s ta in r ed o r r os e - p in k . c . Fu n gi m a y al s o be id en t i fi e d b y g ra m s ta in . 2 . Mi c r o bi ol o gi c a l c ul t u re s . To i d en ti f y t he s p ec i fi c c au sa t i ve a g en t , s p ec im en s o f b o d y f l ui ds o r in f ec te d ti s s ue a re c ol l ec t ed fo r an a l ys is . 3 . S us ce p ti bi l it y t es ts . Di f f e re n t s tr a in s o f t h e s am e p a th o ge n ic s pe c i es m a y h a ve wi d e l y v a r y in g s us c e p t ib il i t y to a p a rt ic u la r a n t i- i nf e ct i v e a g en t . S u sc e pt i bi li t y t es ts de t e rm i ne m ic r o bi al s u sc ep t ibi l it y t o a gi ve n d r u g a nd t h us ca n b e u s e d t o p r e di c t wh e th e r t h e d ru g wi l l c om b at t he in f ec ti o n e f f ec t i v el y . a . Mi c r o di lu t io n m e th o d. Th e d r u g is di lu t ed se r ia l l y i n v a ri o us m ed i a c o nt a in in g th e t es t m ic r oo r g an is m . ( 1 ) Th e lo we s t d r u g c o nc e n t r at i on th a t p r e v en ts m ic r o bi al g ro wt h a f te r 182 4 h r o f i nc ub a ti o n is c a ll e d t h e m i n im um i n hi bi t or y c o nc en t r at i on ( MI C ) . ( 2 ) Th e lo we s t d r u g c o nc e n t r at i on th a t r e du c e s ba c te r i al de ns i t y b y 9 9 .9% i s c al l ed th e m in im um bac t e ri c i d al c o nc en t r at io n (MB C ) .
( 3 ) B r ea k p o in t c on c e n t rat i o ns o f an t ib io t ic s a re us e d t o c ha r ac t er i z e a n t ib io t ic ac ti v i t y : Th e i nt e r p re t i v e c at e go r ie s a r e s us ce p ti bl e , m od e ra t el y s us c ep ti b le ( in t er m ed ia te ) , an d re s i s t a nt . Th es e c o nc en t r at i on s a r e d e t e rm in ed b y c o ns id e rin g ph a rm ac ok i ne ti c s , s er u m a n d t is su e c o nc en t r at i on s f ol l o wi n g n o r m a l d os es , a n d t he po p u l a ti o n d is t ri b ut i on of MI C s o f a gr o up o f b ac ter i a fo r a g i v en dr u g. b . K i rb y - B a ue r di s k d i f fus i on te ch n iq u e. Th is t es t i s l es s e xp e n si ve bu t l es s r e l ia b le th a n t he m ic r o di lu t i on m e th o d; ho we ve r , it p r o vid es qu a li t at i v e s us c ep ti b il i t y i n fo r m a t io n. ( 1 ) Fi l te r pa p e r di s k s im p r e gn a te d wi t h s pe ci f ic dr u g qu an t i ti es ar e p l ac ed o n th e s u rf a c e of ag a r p la t es s t r e ak ed wi t h a m i cr o o r ga n is m c u lt u r e. A f te r 1 8 h r, th e s i z e o f P.914 a cl e a r i nh ib i ti o n z o n e is d e te r m i n ed ; d r ug ac t i vity a g a in st t he te s t s t r a in is t h e n co r r el a te d to z o ne s i z e . ( 2 ) Th e Ki r b y - B a ue r te c hn i qu e d o es no t re li a bl y pr e d ic t t h e ra pe u ti c e f f ec t i v en es s a ga i ns t c ert a i n m i c ro o rg a ni sm s ( e .g. , S t ap h y lo c oc c us au r e us , S h i ge l la ) . D . C h o ic e o f a ge n t . A n an t i -i n fe c ti v e ag e nt s h ou ld b e c h o s e n o n t h e b as is o f it s p h ar m a c ol og ic a l p ro p e r ti es an d s pe ct r um o f a c ti vi t y as we l l a s o n va r i o us ho s t ( pa t ie n t ) f ac t o rs ( Fi gu r e 4 4 -1 ) . 1 . P ha r m a c o l og ic al p ro pe r t ie s i nc l ud e t h e d ru g ' s a b il i t y to r ea c h th e i n f ec ti o n s i t e a nd t o a tt a in a d es i r ed le ve l i n t h e ta r g e t t iss u e. 2 . S pe c tr um o f ac t i v it y . To t r e a t a n i n fe c t i ou s d is e a s e ef f ec t i vel y , an an t i i n f ec ti ve d ru g m us t b e ac t i v e a ga i ns t t h e c a us a tiv e p a th o ge n . S us c ep t ib ili t y t e s ti ng o r c l i ni c a l e xp e r ie n c e in t re a ti n g a g i ve n in f ec t io n m a y s u gg es t the e f f ec t i v en es s o f a pa r ti c u l a r d r ug . 3 . P at i en t fa c t o rs . Se l ec ti o n o f a n a n ti - in f ec t i v e dr u g re g im en m u st ta ke va r i o us pa t ie n t f ac t or s i nt o ac c o u nt to de t e rm in e wh i c h t y p e o f d r ug s h ou ld b e ad m i ni s te r ed , th e c o rr e c t d r ug do sa g e a nd adm i ni s t r a ti on r ou t e , a nd th e p o t en t ia l f o r a d v e rs e d r ug e f fe c t s . a . Im m u n ol og ic a l s ta t us . A p at i en t wi t h i m p ai r e d im m u n e m e c ha ni sm s m a y r e q ui r e a d ru g t h at r ap id ly d e s t ro ys p a th o ge ns ( i.e . , ba c t e ri c i d al ag e nt ) r a t h er t ha n o ne t ha t m e re l y s u p p re ss es a p at h oge n ' s g r o wt h o r r ep r o du c t io n ( i . e ., ba c te r io s t a ti c a g ent ) . b . P r es en c e of a f o r ei gn b o d y . Th e e f fe c ti ve ne s s o f an t i -i n fe ct i v e th e ra p y i s r e d uc ed in pa t ie n ts wh o h a v e p ro st h et ic jo i nt s o r v a l v e s , c a rd ia c p a ce m a k e r s , an d v a ri o us i n te r n al s h un ts . c . A ge . A d r ug ' s p ha r m ac ok i ne t ic p r o pe r ti e s m a y va r y wi d e l y i n p a ti en t s of d i f fe r e nt ag es . In v e r y y o u n g a nd v e r y ol d p a ti e nt s , d r ug m e t ab ol is m a n d e xc r e t i o n c o m m on l y de c re a s e . El d e rl y p at ie n ts als o h a v e an i n cr e as ed r is k o f su f fe r in g o t o to xi c i t y wh e n re ce i v in g c e r ta in an ti b io t ic s . d . U nd e r l y in g d is e as e
( 1 ) P r ee xi s t i ng k i dn e y o r l i v e r d is e as e i nc re a s e s t h e ri sk o f ne p hr o to xi c i t y o r h ep a to t o xi c it y d u ri n g th e ad m i ni s t ra t io n o f s om e a nt i ba ct e r ia l d r ug s . ( 2 ) P a ti en t s wi t h c e n tr a l n e r v o us s y s t em ( C N S ) d is o r de r s m a y s uf f e r n e u ro t o xi c i t y (m ot o r s ei z u r e s ) du r i ng pe ni c i l li n t h e r a p y . ( 3 ) P a ti en t s wi t h ne u r om u s c u la r di s o r de r s ( e .g . , m y a s th e ni a g r a v is ) a r e at i n c re as ed r is k f o r d e v el op i ng ne u r om us cu la r bl ock a d e du r in g a m in o gl y c os id e o r p o l y m y xi n B t h er a p y. e . H is t o r y o f d r u g a ll e rg y o r ad v e r s e d ru g r e ac t ion s . Pa ti e nt s wh o h a v e ha d p r e vi ou s a ll e r gi c o r o t her u n to wa r d r ea c ti on s t o a p a r ti c u l ar an t ib i ot ic ha ve a h ig he r r is k o f e xp e r i enc i ng th e s am e re ac t io n du r i ng su bs eq u en t a d m i ni s t ra ti o n o f t h at d ru g . E xc e p t i n li f e - th r ea t en i ng s i t ua t io ns , p a ti e nt s wh o h a v e ha d s e ri o us a l le r g ic re ac t io n s t o p en ic ill i n , f o r e xa m p le , s ho u ld n o t re ce i v e t h e d r ug ag ai n . f . P r eg n an c y a n d l ac t at ion . B ec au s e d ru g th e ra p y d u ri n g p r eg n an c y a n d l a ct a ti o n c a n c au s e u n wa n t ed ef f ec ts , th e m ot h er ' s n ee d f o r t h e a nt i bi o tic m us t be we i g he d a ga i ns t t h e d r ug ' s p o te n ti a l h arm . ( 1 ) P r eg n an c y c an in c rea s e t he r is k o f a d v e rs e dr u g ef f ec ts fo r bo t h m ot he r a n d f e tu s . A ls o , p la s m a d r u g c on c e n t ra t io ns te n d t o de c r e as e i n p r eg n an t wo m e n , re d uc in g a d ru g 's t he r ap e ut ic e ff ec t i ven es s . ( 2 ) Mo s t d ru gs , i nc l ud i ng a n ti b io t ics , ap pe a r i n t he b r ea s t m i lk o f nu r s i ng m o th e rs an d m a y c a us e a d v e r s e ef f ec ts in in f an ts . Fo r e xa m pl e , s u lf o na m i d es m a y l e ad to t o xi c bi li r ub i n a c c um ula t i on in a n e wb o rn ' s br a in . g . G e ne t ic tr a it s ( 1 ) S ul f on am i de s m a y c au s e h em ol y t ic a ne m i a i n p a t i e n ts wi t h g lu c o s e- 6 p h os p ha t e d eh y d r og e na s e ( G 6 P D ) d e fi ci e nc y . ( 2 ) P a ti en t s wh o r a pi dl y m e ta b ol i z e d r ug s (i .e . , ra p id ac e t yla t o rs ) m a y d e ve l op he pa t i ti s wh e n re c ei v i n g t he an t it u be r c u la r d ru g i s o n ia zi d . E . E m p i ri c t h e ra p y . In s er i o us or li f e -t h r ea t en in g d i se as e , a nt i - in f ec ti v e t h e r ap y m u s t b eg in be f o re t he in f ec t in g o r ga n ism h a s b ee n i d en t if i ed . I n t h is ca se , th e c ho ic e o f d r u g ( o r d r u gs ) i s b as ed o n c l in ic al e xp e r i en ce , s u gg es t in g t h at a p a r ti c ul a r a g en t i s e f fe c ti v e in a g i v e n s e t t in g . P.915
Figure 44-1. Approach to management of infection.
P.916
1 . A b r o ad - s p ec t r um a n tib i o ti c us u al l y is th e m os t a p p ro p ri a te c h oi ce un t il t h e s pe c i f ic or g an is m h as be e n d et e rm i ne d . 2 . I n al l c as es , c u lt u re s p e c i m e ns m u s t be ob t ai ne d be f o re th e ra p y b eg in s . F . Mu l t i pl e a n ti b io t ic th er a p y . A c om bi n at i on of dr u g s sh o ul d b e g i v e n o nly wh e n c li n ic al e xp e r ie nc e h as s h o wn s u ch t he r ap y t o be m o re e ff ec t i v e t h an s i ng le - a ge n t t he r a p y i n a p a r ti c u l ar s e t ti n g. A m ul t i p le - ag e nt r eg im e n c a n i n c re as e t h e r is k o f t o xi c d r u g e ff ec t s a nd , i n a f ew c a s es , m a y r es ul t i n d r u g a n ta go n is m a nd s ub s eq u en t t h e ra p eu ti c i n ef f e c t i v e ne ss . I n di c a t io ns f o r m u lt i pl e -a g en t th e ra py i n c l u de 1 . N ee d fo r i n c r e as ed ant i b io t ic e f fe c ti v e n ess . The s y ne r g is ti c ( i nt e ns if i ed) e f f ec t o f t wo o r m o r e a ge n ts m a y a ll o w a do s a g e r e d uc ti o n o r a fa s te r o r e n h an c e d d r ug e ff ec t . 2 . Tr e a tm en t of an in f ec ti o n c au s e d b y m ul ti p le pa t h og e ns (e . g. , i n t ra a b d om in al in f ec ti o n ) 3 . P r e ven t io n o f p r o li f er at i o n o f d r ug - r es is t an t o r ga n is m s (e . g ., du r in g t r e a tm en t o f tu b e rc ul os is ) G . D u r a ti o n o f a n ti - in f ec ti v e t he r a p y. To a ch i e ve th e th e r ap eu t ic go al , an t ii n f ec ti ve t he r ap y m us t c o n t in ue f o r a s uf f ic ie n t du r a ti o n . 1 . A cu t e u nc om pl ic a te d in f ec t io n . Tr ea t m e n t g ene r a ll y s ho ul d c on t in u e un t i l t h e p a ti e nt ha s b ee n af eb r i le an d a s ym p t om at ic fo r a t l ea s t 72 h r . 2 . C h ro n ic i n fe c ti on ( e. g ., e nd oc a r di t is , o s t e om y el i ti s ) . Tr e a tm e nt m a y r e q ui r e a lo n ge r d u r at i on ( 4 - 6 we ek s ) wi t h f ol lo w- u p c u lt u r e a na l y se s t o a ss e ss t h e ra p eu ti c e f fe c t i v e n es s . H . Mo n i t o r in g t h e ra p eu tic e ff ec t i ven es s . To a ss es s t h e p at i en t ' s r es p on s e t o an t i -i n fe c t i v e th e ra p y , a p p ro p ri a te s p ec im en s s h ou l d b e cu l tu r ed an d th e f o l lo wi n g p a r am et e rs m on i t or e d .
1 . F e ver c u r v e . An im po rt a n t a s s es s m en t t o ol , the f e v e r c ur v e m a y b e a r e l ia b le i n di c a t io n o f re s p o ns e t o th e ra p y. D ef e r ve s c e nc e u su al l y in d ic at es f a vo r a bl e r e s p on s e . 2 . W hi te bl o od c e ll (W BC ) c ou n t . I n t he in i ti a l s ta g e o f i n fe c ti on , th e n e u t ro ph i l c o u nt f ro m a p e r ip h e ra l b lo o d s m ea r m a y r is e a bo v e no r m a l ( n e u tr o ph il i a ), an d i m m at u r e n e ut r op h il fo r m s ( “ba n ds ” ) m a y ap p ea r ( “l e ft s h if t ” ) . I n p a ti en t s wh o ar e el d e rl y, de b il i ta t ed , o r s u ff e ri n g o v e r wh e lm i ng i n f ec ti o n, t he W BC c o u nt m a y be no r m a l o r s ub n or m a l. 3 . R ad i og r ap h ic fi nd i ng s . S m al l e f fu s i o ns , a bs ce s s e s , o r ca v i t ie s t ha t a p p ea r o n ra d io g ra p hs in d ic a te th e fo c u s o f i n fec t i o n . 4 . P ai n a n d i nf l am m a ti o n ( a s e v i de nc e d b y s we l lin g , e r yt h em a , a nd t e n de r ne s s ) m a y oc c u r wh e n t h e i nf ec t io n i s s up er f i c i al o r wi t h i n a j o in t o r b o n e, al s o in di c at i ng a po s s i bl e f oc u s o f i nf ec t io n . 5 . E r yt h ro c y t e s e d im en t at i o n r a te ( E S R o r “s e d r at e ” ) . L a rg e e l e va ti on s i n E S R a r e a s s oc ia t ed wi t h a c u t e o r c h ro n ic i n fe c ti on , pa r t ic ul a rl y e n d oc ar d it is , c h r on ic os te o m y el i ti s, an d i n t ra - ab do m in al in f ec t io ns . A n o r m a l E S R d oe s n ot e xc l ud e i n fe c t i on ; m o re of te n , E S R i s el e v a t ed as a r e s ul t o f n o ni n fe c t i ou s c a u s e s s uc h as c o ll a ge n v a s c ul a r d is ea se . 6 . S e ru m c o m p l em en t c on c en t r at i on s , pa r t ic ul a rl y t h e C3 c om p on e nt , ar e o f t en r ed uc e d i n s e r i ou s i n f ec ti o ns b ec a us e o f c on s um pt i on du r in g th e h os t d e f en se p ro c e s s . I . L ack o f t he r ap e ut ic e ffe c ti v e n es s. W he n a n a nti b io t ic dr u g r e gi m e n f a il s , o t h e r d ru g s s h o ul d n o t be a dd e d i nd is c r im i na t el y o r t he r eg im en o th e r wi se c h an g ed . I n s t e ad , t h e s i tu a t io n s ho u ld be re as s es se d a n d d ia g no st ic e ff or t s i n t en si f ie d . C a us es of the r a pe u ti c i ne f f ec ti ve n es s i nc l ud e t h e f ol l o wi n g: 1 . Mi s d ia g no s i s . Th e is ola t e d o r ga ni sm m a y ha v e b e en m is i de n ti f ie d b y t he l a bo r a to r y o r m a y no t b e t h e c au s a t i v e a ge n t f o r in f ec t io n (e . g. , th e p a ti e nt m a y ha v e a n u ns us pe c t ed i nf ec t io n ) . 2 . Im p ro p e r d r ug re g im en . Th e dr u g d os ag e , a dm i n is t ra t io n ro u te , do si ng f r e q ue nc y , o r d u ra t io n o f t h e ra p y m a y b e i na de q ua t e o r in a pp r op r ia t e . 3 . I na pp r o pr i at e c h oi c e o f an t ib i ot ic ag e nt . As dis c u ss e d i n I . D , p at i en t f a c to r s a nd th e p h ar m ac o l og ic a l p r op e r ti es an d sp e c t r um o f ac t i v it y o f a g i ve n d r ug m u s t be c o ns i d e re d wh e n p la n ni ng ant i - in f ec t i v e d r ug th e ra p y . P.917
4 . Mi c r o bi al r es is t an c e . B y a c qu i ri n g r es is t an c e to a s pe c i f ic an t ib io t ic , m ic r o or g an is m s c a n s u r v i v e i n t he d ru g ' s p re s en ce . Ma n y g o n oc oc c a l s t r ai ns , fo r i n s t a nc e, now r e s i s t p en ic il l in . D ru g r e s is ta nc e i s p a rt ic u la r l y c om m o n i n g e og r a ph ic al a r e as in wh i c h a s p e ci fi c d r u g h as b e en us ed e xc e s s i v el y ( an d pe r ha ps im p ro p er l y ) . 5 . U n re a li s t ic e xp e c ta t ion s . An ti b io t ic s a re in e f fec t i v e i n c er t ai n c i rc um s ta nc es . a . P at i en ts wi t h c o nd i ti on s th a t r eq u i re s u r gi ca l d r a in a ge f re q ue n tl y ca n no t b e c u r ed b y a n ti - in f ec t i ve d r ug s u nt i l t he d ra in ha s b e en r em o v ed . Fo r
e xa m p l e , t he p re s e nc e of n ec r ot ic t is s u e o r p us in p at i en ts wi t h pn e um on ia , e m p yem a, o r r e na l c al c ul i i s a c o m m on c a us e o f a n t i b io t ic fa i lu r e. b . F e ver s h o ul d n o t b e t re a t ed wi t h a n ti - i nf ec t i v e d r u gs un le s s in f ec ti o n ha s b e e n id e n ti fi e d a s t he c au s e. A lt h ou g h f e ve r f r equ e n tl y s i g ni f ie s i nf ec t io n, i t s om e ti m e s s te m s f ro m no n in f ec t io us c o nd i ti o ns (e . g . , d ru g re ac t io ns , p h le b it is , ne op l as m s , m et a b ol ic di s o r de r s , a r th r it i s ) . Th es e c on d it io n s d o n o t re sp o nd to an t ib i ot ic s . O ne e xc e p ti o n t o t hi s p o si t io n i s n eu t r op en ic c a nc e r p at i en ts ; s uc h p at i e nt s wi t h n o s i g ns o r s ym p to m s of in f ec ti o n o t her t h a n f e v e r a r e wi d e l y t rea t e d wi t h an t im ic r ob i al ag e n ts . 6 . I nf ec t io n b y t wo o r m or e t y p es of m ic r o or g an ism s . I f n o t d et ec t ed i n i ti al l y, a n ad di t io n al c au s e o f i n fe c t i on m a y le a d t o t h er a pe u ti c f ai l u re . J . A nt im ic r ob i al pr o ph y l axi s f o r s u r ge r y 1 . D e fi ni t io n . A n ti b io t ic pr o p h y la xi s i s a s ho r t c o ur s e o f a n ti b io t ic a d m i ni s te r ed be f o re th e re is c l in ic a l e v i de nc e o f i n f ec t io n . 2 . G e ne r al c o ns id e r at i ons a . Ti m i n g. Th e an t ib io t ic s h ou l d b e a dm in is t er e d to e ns u re th a t a pp r o pr i ate a n t ib io t ic le v e ls a re a v ail a bl e a t th e s it e of c o nt am i na t io n b e fo r e t h e i n ci si on . In i ti a ti o n o f p r op h y l a xi s is o f t en at in d uc t i o n o f a ne s th es ia , wi t h in 1 h r o r ju s t be f o re th e s ur g i c a l i nc is io n . Th i s e ns ur e s p e ak s e ru m a nd t i s s ue an t ib i ot ic le v e ls . b . D u ra t io n . P r o ph y l a xi s s h ou l d b e m a i nt a in ed f or t h e d u ra t io n o f s u rg e r y. L o n g su r gi c a l p r oc e du r es ( e. g . , > 3 h r ) m a y r e qui r e a d di t io n al do s e s. Th er e i s l i tt l e e v i de nc e t o s u ppo r t c o nt i nu a ti o n o f p r op hyl a xi s b e y o nd 24 h r. c . A nt ib i ot ic s p ec t r um s ho u ld be a pp r op r ia t e f o r th e us ua l p a th o ge ns . ( 1 ) I n g en e ra l , f i rs t -g e ner a t io n c e ph al os p o ri ns ( e.g . , c e fa zo l in ) a r e th e d r u gs of c h oi c e f or m o s t p r o c e du r es an d p a ti e nt s . Th e s e a ge n ts ha v e an a p p ro p r ia t e s p ec t r um , a l o w f r e q ue nc y o f s id e e f fe c ts , a f a v or a bl e h a lf - li fe , a n d a lo w c o s t . ( 2 ) V an c o m y c i n i s a s ui ta b le al t e rn a ti v e in pe n ic il l in - s e ns i ti v e pa t ie n ts and i n s i tu a ti o ns i n wh ic h m et h ic i ll in - r es is t an t S. au r eu s i s a c o nc e rn . d . R ou t e o f a dm i ni s t r a ti on . I nt r a v en o us ( I V) o r i ntr a m usc u la r ( I M) r o u te s ar e p r e f er r e d t o g ua r a nt e e go o d s e ru m a nd ti s s ue leve l s a t th e t im e o f in c i s io n .
II. Antibacterial Agents A . D e f in it i on an d c la s s i fic a ti o n. U se d t o tr e at in f ec t io ns c a us e d b y ba c te r ia , a n t ib ac t e ri al ag e nt s f a ll in t o s e v e ra l m aj o r c at e go r i e s : am in o gl y c os id es , c a r ba pe n em s , c e ph a lo s po r i ns , e r y t h r om yc i ns , pen i c i l l i ns (i nc l ud in g v a ri o us s u bg r ou p s ) , s u lf o na m i des , te t r ac yc l i ne s , f lu o ro q ui n ol o ne s, m e t r on id a z o le ( s e e V . C . 2. b ) , u ri n a r y t ra c t a n ti se p ti c s , a nd m i sc e l la n eo us an t i -i n fe ct i v es ( Ta b l e 4 4 - 1 ). B . A m i n og l y c o s i d es . Th es e d r u gs , c on t ai ni n g am in o s u ga r s , a re us ed p r i m a r il y i n i nf ec t io ns c au s ed b y gr am - n eg a ti v e en t e r ob ac t e ri a a nd in s us p ec t ed s e ps is . Th e y h a v e li t tl e a c ti v i t y ag a in st a na e r ob ic an d f ac u lt a tiv e o r g an is m s . Th e t o xi c po te n t ia l o f t h es e d r ug s l im it s th e ir us e . Ma j o r
a m in o gl y c os id es in c l ud e a m i k a c i n ( Am ik in ) , g e nta m ic in ( G a ra m y ci n ), k a na m yc i n , n eo m yc i n, ne t i lm ic in , s t re p to m y c i n , a n d t o b ra m yc i n ( N e bc in ). 1 . Me c h an is m o f a c ti on . A m i no gl y c os i de s a re ba c t e r i c id a l; t he y i nh ib i t b a ct e r ia l p r ot e in s y n t h es i s b y b in d in g t o a n d im pe d in g th e f u nc ti o n o f t h e 3 0 S ri b os om al s u bu n it . (S o m e am i no gl y c os i de s al s o b in d t o th e 5 0 S r i b os om al s u bu n it . ) Th ei r m ec ha n is m o f ac t io n i s n o t fu ll y k no wn . P.918
P.919
P.920
P.921
P.922
P.923
Table 44-1. Some Important Parameters of Anti-Infective Drugs
Agent
Common Elimination Administrat Dosage Range Route Half-Life ion Route (Adults)
Aminoglycosides Amikacin
Renal
2-3 hr
IV, IM
15 mg/kg/da y, (once daily dose)
Gentamicin
Renal
2 hr
IV, IM
3 mg/kg/da y (standard dose); 6-7
mg/kg/da y (once daily dose) Kanamycin
Renal
2-4 hr
Oral, IV
15 mg/kg every 812 hr
Neomycin
Renal
2-3 hr
Oral, topical
50-100 mg/kg/da y (oral); 10-15 mg/day (topical)
Netilmicin
Renal
2-7 hr
IV, IM
3-6 mg/kg/da y
Streptomycin
Renal
2-3 hr
IM
15 mg/kg/da ya
Tobramycin
Renal
2-5 hr
IV, IM
3 mg/kg/da y (standard dose); 6-7 mg/kg/da y, (once daily dose)
Doripenem
Renal
1 hr
IV
500 mg every 8 hr
Imipenem
Renal
1 hr
IV
250 mg-1
Carbapenems
g every 6 hr Ertapenem
Renal
4 hr
IV, IM
1 g/day
Meropenem
Renal
1.5 hr
IV, IM
0.5-2 g every 8 hr
Cefadroxil
Renal
1.5 hr
Oral
1-2 g/day
Cefazolin
Renal
1.4-2.2 hr
IV
250 mg-1 g every 8 hr
Cephalexi n
Renal
0.9 1.3 hr
Oral
250-500 mg every 6 hr
Cephapirin
Renal (H)
0.6-0.8 hr
IV, IM
500 mg-2 g every 46 hr
Cephradin e
Renal
1.3 hr
Oral, IV
250-500 mg every 6 hr
Cefaclor
Renal (H)
0.8 hr
Oral
250-500 mg every 8 hr
Cefmetazo
Renal
72 min
IV
2 g every
Cephalosporins First-generation
Second-generation
le
6-12 hr
Cefotetan
Renal
2.8-4.6 hr
IV, IM
1-2 g every 12 hr
Cefoxitin
Renal
0.8 hr
IV
1-2 g every 6-8 hr
Cefprozil
Renal
78 min
Oral
250-500 mg every 12-24 hr
Cefuroxim e
Renal
1.5-2.2 hr
IV, IM
750 mg1.5 g every 8 hr
Loracarbef
Renal
1 hr
Oral
200 mg every 12 hr or 400 mg/day
Cefixime
Renal
3-4 hr
Oral
400 mg/day
Cefdinir
Renal
1.7-1.8 hr
Oral
300 mg every 12 hr
Cefoperaz one
Hepatic
1.6-2.4 hr
IV
2-4 g every 12 hr
Cefotaxim e
Renal (H)
1.5 hr
IV
1-2 g every 6-8 hr
Third-generation
Cefpodoxi me
Renal
2.5 hr
Oral
100-400 mg every 12 hr
Ceftazidim e
Renal
1.8 hr
IV, IM
1-2 g every 812 hr
Ceftibuten
Renal
2.5 hr
Oral
400 mg/day
Ceftizoxi me
Renal
1.7 hr
IV
1-2 g every 812 hr
Ceftriaxon e
Renal
8 hr
IV, IM
1-2 g/day
Renal
2-2.3 hr
IV, IM
1-2 g every 812 hr
Fourth-generation Cefepime
Erythromycins and other macrolides Azithromycin
Hepatic
68 hr
Oral
250 mg/day
Clarithromycin
Renal
3-7 hr
Oral
250-500 mg every 12 hr
Dirithromycin
Hepatic
8 hr
Oral
500 mg/day
Erythromycin base estolate,
Hepatic
1.2-2.6 hr
Oral
250-500 mg every
ethylsuccinate, and stearate
6 hr
Erythromycin gluceptate and lactobionate
IV
0.5-2 g every 6 hr
Natural penicillins Penicillin G
Renal (H)
0.5 hr
Oral, IV, IM
200,000500,000 U every 6-8 hr
Penicillin V
Renal
1 hr
Oral
500 mg-2 g/day
Penicillin G procaine
Renal
24-60 hr
IM
300,000600,000 U/day
Penicillin G benzathine
Renal
24-60 hr
IM
300,000600,000 U/day
Penicillinase-resistant penicillins Cloxacillin
Renal (H)
0.5 hr
Oral
250-500 mg every 6 hr
Dicloxacillin
Renal (H)
0.5-0.9 hr
Oral
500 mg-1 g/day
Methicillin
Renal (H)
0.5-1 hr
IV, IM
1-2 g every 4-6 hr
Nafcillin
Hepatic (R)
0.5 hr
Oral, IV, IM
0.25-2 g every 6 hr
Oxacillin
Renal (H)
0.5 hr
Oral, IV, IM
500 mg-2 g every 46 hr 500875 mg every 12 hr
Amoxicillin
Renal (H)
0.9-2.3 hr
Oral
250-500 mg every 8 hr
Amoxicillin/clavula nic acid
Renal
1 hr
Oral
250-500 mg every 8 hr
Ampicillin
Renal (H)
0.8-1.5 hr
Oral, IV, IM
250 mg-2 g every 46 hr
Ampicillin/sulbacta m
Renal
1-1.8 hr
IV, IM
1.5-3 g every 6 hr
Aminopenicillins
Extended-spectrum penicillins Mezlocillin
Renal (H)
0.6-1.2 hr
IV, IM
1-3 g every 4-6 hr
Piperacillin
Renal (H)
0.8-1.4 hr
IV, IM
1-1.5 mg/kg every 612 hr
Piperacillin/tazobact
Renal
0.7-1.2
IV
3.375 g
am
hr
every 6 hr
Ticarcillin
Renal
0.9-1.5 hr
IV, IM
1-3 g every 4-6 hr
Ticarcillin/clavulani c acid
Renal
1-1.5 hr
IV
3.1 g every 4-6 hr
Sulfacytine
Renal
4-4.5 hr
Oral
250 mg every 6 hr
Sulfadiazine
Renal (H)
6 hr
Oral, IV
2-4 g/day
Sulfamethoxazole
Hepatic (R)
9-11 hr
Oral
1-3 g/day
Sulfisoxazole
Renal (H)
3-7 hr
Oral, IV
2-8 g/day
Sulfamethizole
Renal
—
Oral
0.5-1 g every 6-8 hr
Demeclocycline
Renal
10-17 hr
Oral
300 mg-1 g/day
Doxycycline
Hepatic
14-25 hr
Oral, IV
100-200 mg every 12 hr
Sulfonamides
Tetracyclines
Minocycline
Hepatic
12-15 hr
Oral, IV
100-200 mg every 12 hr
Oxytetracycline
Renal
6-12 hr
Oral, IM
250-500 mg every 6 hr 250500 mg q.i.d. or 300 mg/day in 1 or 2 divided doses
Tetracyclineb
Renal
6-12 hr
Oral, IV, IM
1-2 g/day
Ciprofloxacin
Renal (H)
5-6 hr
IV
200-600 mg every 12 hr
Enoxacin
Renal (H)
3-6 hr
Oral
200 mg/day400 mg every 12 hr
Gemifloxacin
Fecal (R)
4-12 hr
Oral
320 mg once daily
Lomefloxacin
Renal
6.357.77 hr
Oral
400 mg/day
Levofloxacin
Renal
8 hr
IV, Oral
250-500 mg every 24 hr
Fluoroquinolones
Moxifloxacin
Hepatic
12 hr
Oral
400 mg once daily
Ofloxacin
Renal
5-7.5 hr
Oral
100 mg/day400 mg
Cinoxacin
Renal
1-1.5 hr
Oral
250 mg every 6 hr or 500 mg every 12 hr
Fosfomycin
Renal/fec al
5.7 hr
Oral
One packet (3 g) in 90120 mL water × 1 dose
Methenamine hippurate and mandelate
Renal
1-3 hr
Oral
0.5-2 g q.i.d.
Nalidixic acid
Renal
8 hr
Oral
4 g/day
Nitrofurantoin
Renal
0.3-1 hr
Oral
5-7 mg/kg/da y
Norfloxacin
Hepatic
3-4 hr
Oral
400 b.i.d.
50-84 hr
Oral
750 mg b.i.d. × 21 days
Urinary tract antiseptics
Miscellaneous anti-infectives Atovaquone
Fecal
Aztreonam
Renal
1.7 hr
Oral, IV
50-100 mg/kg/da y
Clindamycin
Hepatic
2-4 hr
Oral, IM, IV
300-900 mg every 6-8 hr
Clofazimine
Hepatic
70 days
Oral
50-100 mg/day
Dapsone
Hepatic (R)
28 hr
Oral
50-100 mg/day
Daptomycin
Renal
8 hr
IV
4 mg/kg/da y
Lincomycin
Hepatic (R)
4.4-6.4 hr
IV, IM
600 mg-1 g every 812 hr
Linezolid
Renal
4-6 hr
Oral, IV
600 mg every 12 hr
Mupirocin
Renal
19-35 min
Topical
Apply every 812 hr
Quinupristin/dalfopr istin
Hepatic
1 hr/0.40.5 hr
IV
7.5 mg/kg every 8 hr
Rifaximin
Fecal
6 hrs
Oral
200 mg t.i.d.
Spectinomycin
Renal
1.2-2.8 hr
IM
2-4 g (single
dose) Telithromycin
Hepatic (R)
10 hr
Oral
800 mg/day
Tigecycline
Biliary (R)
42 hr
IV
100 mg load, 50 mg every 12 hr
Trimethoprim
Renal (H)
8-15 hr
Oral
100-200 mg/day
Vancomycin
Renal
6-8 hr
Oral, IV
500 mg every 6 hr
Amphotericin B
Unknow n
24 hr
IV
1-1.5 mg/kg/da y
Anidulafungin
Fecal (R)
40-50 hr
IV
Candidem ia: 200 mg day 1, then 100 mg/day
Antifungal agents
Esophage al candidiasi s: 100 mg day 1, then 50 mg/day Caspofungin
Hepatic
9-11 hr
IV
70 mg on day 1, then 50 mg q.d.
Fluconazole
Renal
22-37 hr
IV, Oral
100-800 mg/day
Flucytosine
Renal
6 hr
Oral
50-150 mg/kg/da y
Griseofulvin
Hepatic (R)
9-24 hr
Oral
300-375 mg/day
Itraconazole
Hepatic
24-42 hr
Oral
200-600 mg/day
Ketoconazole
Hepatic/f ecal
3.3 hr
Oral
200-400 mg/day b.i.d
Micafungin
Hepatic
11-17 hr
IV
Esophage al candidiasi s: 150 mg/day HSCT prophylas is: 50 mg/day
Miconazole
Hepatic
20-24 hr
Oral
200-400 mg/day
Nystatin
Fecal
—
Oral
500,0001,000,000 U t.i.d.
Posaconazole
Fecal/ren al
35 hrs
Oral
200 mg t.i.d.
Terbinafine
Hepatic
11-16
Oral
250
(R)
hr
Hepatic
6 hr
IV, Oral
IV: 6 mg/kg every 12 hr × 2 doses, then 4 mg/kg every 12 h; oral: 200 mg every 12 h for > 40 kg, 100 mg every 12 h for < 40 kg
Atovaquone
Hepatic
67 hr
Oral
750 mg b.i.d.
Chloroquine
Renal/fec al
72-120 hr
IM, Oral
Depends on disease
Diloxanide
Renal
—
IM
500 mg t.i.d.
Eflornithine
Renal
3 hr
IV
100 mg/kg/do se every 6 hr
Fansidar
Renal
100231 hr
Oral
1 tablet every week
Halofantrine
Hepatic
3-4
Oral
500 mg
Voriconazole
mg/day
Antiprotozoal agents
days
every 6 hr × 3 doses; repeat in 7 days
Renal
72-120 hr
Oral
310 mg every week
Iodoquinol
Fecal
—
Oral
650 mg t.i.d. for 20 days
Mefloquine
Hepatic
15-33 days
Oral
1250 mg single dose
Metronidazole
Hepatic (R)
6-14 hr
Oral, IV
250-500 mg every 6-8 hr
Nitazoxanide
Hepatic
1-1.6 hr
Oral
100-200 mg b.i.d. based on age
Paromomycin
Fecal
—
Oral
25-35 mg/kg/da y
Pentamidine
Renal
6-9 hr
IM, IV, inhalati on
IV, IM: 34 mg/kg every day; inhalation : 300 mg every 4
Hydroxychloro quine
weeks Primaquine
Hepatic
3.7-9.6 hr
Oral
15 mg (base)/da y
Pyrimethamine
Renal
111 hr
Oral
25 mg every week
5 days
Oral
100 mg/day
Quinacrine
Quinine
Renal
12 hr
Oral
325 mg b.i.d.
Tinidazole
Hepatic (R)
13.2 hr
Oral
2 g q.d. × 1-3 days
Aminosalicylic acid
Renal
1 hr
Oral
150 mg/kg daily (maximu m 12 g/day)
Capreomycin
Renal
4-6 hr
IM
15 mg/kg/da y to 1 g/day maximum
Cycloserine
Renal
10 hr
Oral
15-20 mg/kg (maximu m1 g/day)
Antitubercular agents
Ethambutol
Hepatic
3.3 hr
Oral
15-25 mg/kg/da y
Ethionamide
Hepatic
3 hr
Oral
500 mg-1 g/day
Isoniazid
Hepatic
1-4 hr
Oral, IV
5-10 mg/kg daily (maximu m dose = 300 mg)
Pyrazinamide
Hepatic
9-10 hr
Oral
15-30 mg/kg daily (maximu m2 g/day)
Rifampin
Hepatic
2-3 hr
Oral, IV
10 mg/kg (up to 600 mg) q.d.
Rifabutin
Hepatic
45 hr
Oral
300 mg q.d.
Rifepentine
Hepatic
13.9 hr (active metabo lite \13.4 hr)
Oral
600 mg every 3 days
Hepatic
1.5 hr
Oral
300 mg b.i.d. or 600 mg
Antiviral agents Abacavir
every day Adefovir
Renal
7.5 hr
Oral
10 mg every day
Acyclovir
Renal
2.2 hr
Oral, IV, topical
IV: 5-10 mg/kg every 8 hr; oral: 200-800 mg 3-5 × daily (dependin g upon indication )
Amantadine
Renal
17 hr
Oral
100 mg b.i.d. or 200 mg every day
Amprenavir
Hepatic
7-10 hr
Oral
1200 mg b.i.d. (caps)
Atazanavir
Hepatic
7 hr
Oral
400 mg every day
Cidofovir
Renal
6.5 hr
IV
5 mg/kg week × 2 (induction ); 5 mg/kg every 2 weeks (maintena nce)
Darunavir
Hepatic
15 hr
Oral
600 mg plus 100
mg ritonavir b.i.d. Delavirdine
Hepatic (R)
2-11 hr
Oral
400 mg t.i.d.
Didanosine
Renal
1.5 hr
Oral
≥ 60 kg: 400 mg every day (EC caps); < 60 kg: 250 mg every day (EC caps)
Emtricitabine
Renal
10 hr
Oral
200 mg every day (caps)
Enfuvirtide
n/a
3.8 hr
SC
90 mg b.i.d.
Entecavir
Renal
128149 hr
Oral
0.5 mg every day, or 1 mg every day in patients with lamivudin e resistance
Efavirenz
Hepatic
40-55 hr
Oral
600 mg at bedtime
Famciclovir
Renal
2-2.3 hr
Oral
250-500 mg every 8-12 hr
Fosamprenavir
Hepatic
7.7 hr
Oral
1400 mg b.i.d.
Foscarnet
Renal
3-6 hr
IV
90 mg/kg every 12 hr × 1421 days (CMV induction) ; 90 mg/kg every day (CMV maintena nce)
Ganciclovir
Renal
2.9 hr
IV
5 mg/kg every 12 hr (induction ) × 14-21 days; 5 mg/kg every day (maintena nce)
4.8 hr
Oral
1000 mg t.i.d. (after induction)
Indinavir
Hepatic
1.4-2.2 hr
Oral
800 mg every 8 hr
Lamivudine
Renal
3-7 hr
Oral
150 mg b.i.d. or 300 mg daily
Lopinavir/ritonavir
Hepatic
4.4-6.1 hr
Oral
200 mg/50 mg
per tab (2 tablets b.i.d.) Maraviroc
Hepatic
14-18 hr
Oral
150-600 mg b.i.d., dependin g upon concomit ant medicatio ns
Nelfinavir
Hepatic
3.5-5 hr
Oral
1250 mg b.i.d.
Nevirapine
Renal (H)
25-30 hr
Oral
200 mg every day × 14 days, then 200 mg b.i.d.
Oseltamivir
Renal
6-10 hr
Oral
75 mg b.i.d. (treatment ); 75 mg every day (prophyla xis)
Raeltegravir
Hepatic
9 hr
Oral
400 mg b.i.d.
Ribavirin
Renal
298 hr
Oral
800-1200 mg daily, divided into 2 doses
Rimantadine
Renal
25 hr
Oral
100 mg
b.i.d. Ritonavir
Hepatic
3-5 hr
Oral
100-400 mg daily, divided in 1 or 2 doses (as booster agent with other PIs)
Saquinavir
Hepatic
13 hr
Oral
1000 mg (Invirase) plus 100 mg ritonavir b.i.d.
Stavudine
Renal
1.5 hr
Oral
≥ 60 kg: 40 mg every 12 hr; < 60 kg: 30 mg every 12 hr
Telbivudine
Renal
40-49 hr
Oral
600 mg every day
Tenofovir
Renal
10-14 hr
Oral
300 mg daily
Tipranavir
Hepatic
6 hr
Oral
500 mg plus 200 mg ritonavir b.i.d.
Valacyclovir
Renal
2.5-3.6 hr
Oral
0.5-1 g every day
or b.i.d. or t.i.d. Valganciclovir
Renal
4 hr
Oral
900 mg b.i.d. × 21 days (induction ), 900 mg every day (maintena nce)
Zalcitabine
Renal
1-3 hr
Oral
0.75 mg t.i.d.
Zanamivir
Renal
2.5-5.1 hr
Inhalati on (Diskha ler)
2 inhalation s (10 mg) b.i.d. (treatment ); 10 mg every day (prophyla xis)
Zidovudine
Renal (H)
1.5-3.1 hr
Oral
300 mg b.i.d.
IV
2 mg/kg over 1 hr, then 1 mg/kg/hr until cord clamping (intrapart um perinatal prophylax is for pregnant women)
Anthelmintics Albendazole
Hepatic
8-12 hr
Oral
400-800 mg daily
Diethylcarbamazine
Renal
8 hr
Oral
25 mg/day for 3 days, then 50 mg/day for 5 days, then 100 mg/day for 3 days, then 150 mg/day for 12 days
Ivermectin
Hepatic
16-35 hr
Oral
150-200 mcg/kg × 1 dose
Mebendazole
Hepatic
8 hr
Oral
100 mg b.i.d. × 3 consecuti ve days
Praziquantel
Hepatic
0.8-3 hr
Oral
60-75 mg/kg in 3 divided doses on the same day
Pyrantel
Hepatic
—
Oral
11 mg/kg (maximu m = 1 g) as a
single dose Thiabendazole
Hepatic
—
Oral
Dose based upon weight chart in prescribin g informati on, 100 lb: 1 g b.i.d. 125 lb: 1.25 g b.i.d. > 150 lb: 1.5 g b.i.d.
CMV, cytomegalovirus; EC cap, enteric-coated capsule; H, additional significant hepatic elimination; HSCT, hematopoietic stem cell transplant; IM, intramuscular; IV, intravenous; PIs, protease inhibitors R, additional significant renal elimination; SC, subcutaneous. a
Dosage applies to infections other than tuberculosis; for tuberculosis, dosage is 1 g/day. b
Intravenous agent withdrawn from U.S. market.
P.924
2 . S pe c tr um o f ac t i v it y a . S t re p to m y c i n i s ac t i v e a g ai ns t b o th g ra m -p os i tiv e a n d g r am - ne ga t i v e b a ct e r ia . Ho we v e r , wi d e s p r ea d r e s i s t a nc e t o t hi s d r u g h as re st r ic t ed it s us e t o t he or g an is m s th a t c au s e p la g ue an d t u la r em ia , g ra m -p os i ti v e s t r ep t oc oc c i (g i v e n i n c om b in a ti on wi t h pe n ic il li n ), a nd My c o b a c t e r iu m t u b e rc ul os is ( gi v e n i n c om b in a ti on wi t h ot h e r a nt it u b e rc ul a r a ge n ts , a s d e sc r ib ed in V I . C. 2 ) . b . Am ik a c i n , k a n am y c i n , g e n ta m i c i n , t ob r am yc in , n e om y c in , a n d n e ti lm ic in a r e ac ti v e ag a in s t m a n y g r a m - n eg a ti v e ba c te r ia (e . g . , P r o te us , Se r r at i a, a n d Ps eu d om on as o rg ani s m s ).
( 1 ) G e nt am ic i n is ac t i v e a g ai n s t s om e S ta ph yl o coc c u s s t ra i ns ; i t i s m o r e a c ti ve t ha n t o b ra m yc i n ag a in s t S e r ra t ia o rg a ni sm s . ( 2 ) A m i k a c i n i s t he b ro ad e s t s p ec t r um a m i n og l y c o s id e wi t h a ct i vi t y a g ai ns t m os t ae r ob ic g ra m -n eg a ti v e b ac il li as we l l a s m an y a n ae r ob ic g ra m n e g at i ve b ac t e ri al s t r ai ns t ha t re si st ge n ta m i ci n a n d t o b ra m yc i n. I t is al so a c ti ve ag a in s t M. t u b e rc u l os is an d My c o b ac t e ri um a v iu m -i n t ra c e ll u la r e ( MA I ) . ( 3 ) To b r am y c in m a y be m o r e ac t i v e a ga i ns t P s eu d om o na s a e ru gi n os a t ha n g e n ta m i c i n . ( 4 ) N e ti lm ic in m a y b e ac ti v e a ga in s t g en t am ic in - re s is ta n t o r ga n ism s ; i t a p p ea rs t o b e l es s o to t oxi c t h a n o t he r am i n og l y co s i d es . ( 5 ) N e om y c i n , i n a dd i ti on t o i ts ac ti vi t y a ga in s t s u c h g r am - ne ga t i v e o r g an is m s as Es c h e ri c h ia c o l i a nd K le bs ie l la pn eu m o n i ae , i s ac t i v e a ga i ns t s e ve r al gr a m - p os it i v e o rg a ni s m s ( e .g . , S. au r e us ) . P . a e r ug in o s a an d m os t s t r ep t oc oc c i ar e n o w n eo m y c i n re si s ta n t. 3 . Th e r ap e ut ic us es a . S t re p to m y c i n i s us e d to t r ea t p l ag u e, tu l a re m i a, a c u t e b ru c el lo si s ( g i ven i n c om b in a ti on wi t h te t r ac y c li n e ), ba c te r ia l e nd o ca r d it is c a us e d b y S t r e p to c o c c us v i ri d an s (g i v e n i n c om bi n at i on wi th p en ic il l in ) , a n d t u b e rc ul os is ( gi v e n i n c om b in a ti on wi t h ot h e r a nt it u b e rc ul a r a ge n ts , a s d e sc r ib ed in V I . C. 2 ) . b . G e nt am ic i n, t ob r am y c in , am ik ac in , an d n e ti lm ic i n ar e th e ra p eu t ic fo r s e r io us gr a m - n eg a ti v e ba c il la r y i nf e c t io n s ( e .g . , t h os e c a us ed b y E n t e ro b ac t er , S er r a ti a , Kl e bs ie l la , a n d P . ae r ug i no s a ), pn e um on ia ( gi ve n in c om b in a ti o n wi t h a c ep ha l os p or i n o r p e ni c i ll i n) , m e ni n gi ti s , c o m p l ic at e d u r i na r y t r ac t i n fe c t i on s , o s te om ye l it is , ba c t e r em ia , an d p e r it o ni ti s . c . N eo m y c i n is us e d f o r p r e op e r at i ve b o we l s t e ri li z a t i on ; h e pa t ic c om a (as a d ju n ct i v e t h e ra p y ) ; a n d, i n t o pi ca l f o rm , fo r s k i n a n d m uc ou s m em br a ne i n f ec ti o ns (e . g. , bu r ns ) . 4 . P r ec au t io ns an d m on i to r i ng e ff ec ts . Am i no gl yc o s i d es c a n c au s e s e r io us a d ve r s e ef f ec ts . To p re v e n t o r m i ni m i z e s u c h pr ob l em s, bl o od d ru g c o nc en t r at i on s a nd bl o od u r ea ni t ro g en ( B U N ) an d s e r um c r ea t in i ne l e vel s s h ou l d b e m o n it o re d d u r in g th e r ap y. a . O t o to xi c i t y . Am in o gl y c o s id es c a n c au s e ves t ibu l a r o r a u di t o r y d am a ge . Th e r e la t i v e o t ot o xi c i t y is as fo l lo ws : s t r ep t om y c in = k a n am y c in > a m i k ac in = g en t am ic in = to b ra m y ci n > n e t il m i ci n ( 1 ) G e nt am ic i n a nd s t r ept o m y c i n c au s e p ri m a r il y v e s t ib u la r da m a ge ( m a ni f es te d b y t in n it u s , v e r t i g o, an d a t a xi a ) . Su c h d am ag e m a y be bi la t e ra l a n d i r r e v e rs ib le . ( 2 ) A m i k a c i n , k a n am y c i n, a nd ne om y c i n ca us e m a i nl y a ud i to r y d am ag e ( h e a ri n g lo s s ) . ( 3 ) To b r am y c in c a n r es u lt i n b ot h v es t ib u la r a n d au d i to r y d am ag e . b . N ep h r ot o xi c i t y . Be c a us e a m i n og l y co s i d es a c c um u la t e i n t he p ro xi m a l t u b ul e , m i l d r en a l d y s fu nc t io n d e v e lo ps in up to 25 % of pa t ie n ts re c ei v i ng
t h es e d r u gs fo r s e v e ra l da y s o r m or e . Us ua l l y , t his ad v e r s e e ff ec t i s r e v e r si b le . Us e o f o n c e -d a il y a dm in is t r a ti on ( O DA ) h as be e n r ep o r te d i n th e l i t er a tu r e to be as e f fe c tiv e a n d l es s n ep h ro t o xi c t h a n t r ad i ti o na l d os in g . ( 1 ) N e om y c i n i s t h e m o s t n e ph r o to xi c am i no gl yc os i de ; s t re p to m y ci n i s t he l e as t n e ph r o to xi c . G e nt am ic i n a nd to b r am y c i n a re n ep h ro t o xi c to a p p ro xi m a t el y t h e s a m e d e g re e . ( 2 ) R is k f ac t o rs f o r i nc r ea s ed ne p hr o t o xi c e f fe c ts i nc l ud e t h e f ol l o wi n g: ( a ) P r ee xi s t i ng r en al di s e a s e ( b ) P r e vio us o r p r ol on g ed am i no gl y c os i de th e r apy ( c ) C on c u r r en t ad m i ni s tra t i on of an o th e r n e ph r o to xi c d r u g ( d ) Im p ai r ed r en al f lo w u n r e la t ed t o r en a l d is ea se ( e . g. , f ro m h y p ot e ns io n , s e ve r e h ep a ti c d is ea s e ) P.925
( 3 ) Tr o u gh le v e ls > 2 µ g/m L fo r g e nt a m i c i n a nd t ob r a m yc i n a nd > 1 0 µg /m L f o r am ik ac in a re as s o c i at e d wi t h n ep h r ot o xi c i t y . c . N eu r om us c u l ar bl oc k ad e . Th is pr o bl em m a y a ris e i n p a ti e nt s r e ce i vin g h i gh - d os e am i no g l yc os i de t he r a p y . ( 1 ) R is k f ac t o rs f o r n e u ro m us c u la r bl oc ka d e i nc lu d e t h e f ol l o wi n g: ( a ) C o nc ur r e nt ad m i n is t ra t i on of a n eu r om us c u l a r b l oc k i ng ag e nt o r a n a n es t he t ic ( b ) P r ee xi s t i ng h y po c a lc e m ia o r m yas t he ni a g r a vi s ( c ) In t r ap e ri t on e al o r r api d I V d r ug ad m i ni s tr a ti o n ( 2 ) A pn e a a nd r es pi r at o ry d e p r es s i on m a y b e r e ve r s e d wi t h a dm i ni s t r a ti on o f ca lc iu m o r a n a n ti c ho li n es t e ra s e . d . H yp e rs en s i t i v i t y a n d lo c al r ea ct i on s a r e r a re ad v e r s e e f fe c t s o f a m in o gl y c os id es . e . Th e r ap e ut ic le v e ls ( 1 ) G e nt am ic i n a nd to b r am y c in pe a k a t 6 - 10 µ g/ m L f o r t r ad i ti o na l d os in g ; wh e n u s i n g t he O D A m e th o d , t he pe ak is 16 - 20 µg / m L o r 8 - 10 ti m e s t h e MI C o f t a r g et e d b ac t er i a. Th e i r t ro u gh l e ve l i s 0 .5- 1 . 5 µg / m L fo r t ra d it io n al o r o nc e- d ai l y r eg im en s . ( 2 ) A m i k a c i n p ea k s at 25- 3 0 µ g/ m L . Th e t r o ug h l ev e l is 5 -8 µ g /m L. 5 . S ig n if ic a nt in t e ra c t i ons a . I V l oo p d i u re t ic s c a n re s ul t i n i nc r e as ed ot o to x i c it y. b . O t he r am in o gl y c os id es , c e ph al o th i n, ci sp la t in , a m p h ot e r ic in B , a nd m e th o xyf l u r a n e c a n c a us e i nc r ea s e d n e ph r ot o xi c it y wh e n g i ve n co nc u r re nt l y wi t h s t r ep t om y c i n . C . C a r ba p en em s . Th e s e a g e nt s a r e β - l ac ta m s th at c on t ai n a fu se d β -l ac t am r i n g a nd a 5 -m em b e re d ri n g s y s te m t ha t di f fe r s f ro m p e ni c i ll i ns i n b e in g u n sa t u ra t ed an d c on t ai n in g a c a r b on at om in s te ad o f a s u lf u r a t om . Th e c l as s ha s a b ro ad e r s pec t r um o f ac ti v i t y t ha n d o m os t β -l a c t am s . F o rm er ly k n o wn as th i en am y c in , im i pe n em (P r im a xi n ) wa s t h e f i rs t c a rb a pe ne m c om p ou n d i nt r od u c e d i n t h e Un i te d S ta t es , f ol l o we d b y m e ro p en em
( Me r r e m ) a nd , m os t re c en t l y , er t ap e ne m ( I n v an z ) a n d d o ri pe n em ( Do r i ba x) . B e c au se it is i n hi b it e d by r e n a l d ip ep t id as es , im ip e n em m us t b e c om bi n ed wi t h c il as t a ti n s od iu m , a d i pe p ti d as e i nh i bi t or ( ci la s ta t in is no t re qu i r ed wi t h t h e o t he r s b ec au s e t he s e a r e n ot s e ns i ti v e to r en a l d ip e pt i da se ) . 1 . Me c h an is m o f a c ti on . C a r b a pe ne m s ar e ba c t e ri c id al , in hi b it i ng ba c t e ri al c e ll wa l l s y n th e s i s . 2 . S pe c tr um o f ac t i v it y . Th e s e d r u gs h a ve th e b ro a d es t s pe c t r um of al l β l a ct am an t ib i ot ic s . Th e gr o u p i s ac t i v e a ga i ns t m o s t g r am - po s i t i ve co c c i ( i n cl ud i ng m a n y e n te r oc o c c i ) , g r am - ne ga t i v e r o ds ( i n cl u di ng m a n y P . a e r ug i no s a s t r ai ns ) , a n d a n a er o be s . Th i s c l as s ha s g o od ac ti vi t y a ga i ns t m a n y b a c t e ri a l s tr a in s t ha t r es is t o t he r an t ib io t ic s. E r t ap e ne m h as a n a r r o we r s p ec t ru m o f a c ti v i t y t h an th e o t he r c a r ba p e ne m s . I t h as li t tl e o r n o a c ti vi t y a ga in s t P . a e r ug in o s a an d Ac in e to b ac te r . Th e s e β -l ac t am an t ib io t ics r e s is t d es t ru c ti on b y m os t β -l a c t am as es . 3 . Th e r ap e ut ic us es . Ca rb a p en em s a r e m o s t va l ue d in th e tr e at m e n t o f s e ve r e i nf ec t io ns c a us e d b y d r ug - r es is t an t o r g an is m s s us c ep ti b le to t he se a g e nt s. Th e s e ag e nt s a re e f fe c t i v e a g ai ns t u r i na ry t r a c t a nd lo we r r e s pi r at o r y in f ec ti o ns , i nt r a - ab d om in a l a nd g yne co l og ic a l i nf ec t io ns , an d s ki n , s of t - ti s s ue , bo ne , an d jo in t in f ec ti o ns . 4 . P r ec au t io ns an d m on i to r i ng e ff ec ts a . C a rb a pe n em s m a y c au s e n au se a , v om it i ng , d ia r r h ea , a n d p s eu d om em b ra no us c o li ti s . b . S ei zu r es , d i z z i n es s , an d h y po t en s i o n m a y d e ve l op ; s e i zu re s a pp e ar les s f r e q ue n tl y wi t h m e r op e ne m o r e rt a pe n em (1 . 5% o f pa t ie n ts re c ei v i ng i m ip en em v e r s u s 0 .5 % of t h os e r ec ei v i n g m er o pen e m o r e r t ap e ne m ) . c . P at ie n ts wh o a re al le rg i c t o p en ic i ll in o r c e p ha l o s p o ri ns m a y su f f er c ros s s e ns it i v i t y re a c t io n s d ur in g c a r ba pe n em th e ra p y. D . C e p ha lo s p o r in s . Th e s e a ge n ts a r e k no wn a s β- l a c t am an t ib i ot ic s b e ca us e th ei r c h em ic al s t r u c t u r e co ns is t s o f a β -la c ta m r i ng ad j oi ne d to a t h i a zol id i ne r in g . C e ph alo s po r in s g en e r al l y a re c la ss i fi e d i n f ou r m a jo r g r o up s b as e d m a i nl y o n t h e ir s p ec t r um o f ac ti v i t y ( Ta b l e 4 4 -2 ) . 1 . Me c h an is m o f a c ti on . C e p h al os p or i ns a r e b ac te r i c i da l ; t he y i n hi bi t b a ct e r ia l c el l wa l l s y nt h es is , re d uc in g c el l wa l l s ta b il i t y an d t h us c au si n g m em b r an e l y s is . P.926
Table 44-2. Classification of Cephalosporins
First Generation Cefadroxil (Duricef, Ultracef)a Cefazolin (Ancef, Kefzol) Cephalexin (Keflex)a Cephapirin (Cefadyl) Cephradine (Anspor, Velosef)a
Second Generation Cefaclor (Ceclor)a Cefmetazole (Zefazone) Cefotetan (Cefotan)b Cefoxitin (Mefoxin) Cefuroxime(Zinacef) Cefuroxime axetil (Ceftin)a Cefprozil (Cefzil)a Loracarbef (Lorabid)a
a
Oral agent.
b
Discontinued in the U.S. market 2005.
Fourth Third Generation Generation Cefdinir (Omnicef)a Cefixime (Suprax)a Cefoperazone (Cefobid) Cefotaxime (Claforan) Cefpodoxime proxetil (Vantin)a Ceftazidime (Fortex, Tazicef, Tazidime) Ceftibuten (Cedax)a Ceftizoxime (Cefizox) Ceftriaxone (Rocephin) Cefditoren (Spectracef)a
Cefepime (Maxipime)
2 . S pe c tr um o f ac t i v it y a . Fi r s t- g en e ra t io n c e pha l os p or i ns a r e a c ti ve aga i n s t m os t g r am - po s i t i ve c oc ci ( e xc e p t e nt e r oc oc c i ) as we l l a s e nt e r ic a e r ob i c g r am -n e ga t i ve b ac il l i ( e . g ., E . c ol i , K . p n eu m on i ae , P ro t eu s m i ra bi l is ) . b . S ec on d - ge ne r a ti o n c ep h al o s p o ri ns a re ac ti ve a g ai n s t th e o r g an is m s c o ve r ed b y fi rs t - ge n e ra t io n c e ph a lo s p o ri ns an d ha ve e xt e n d ed g ra m n e g at i ve c o v e ra g e, in c l ud i ng β - la c ta m a s e - p ro d uc i n g s t ra i ns o f H ae m o ph i lu s i n f lu en za e . c . Th i rd - g en e ra t io n c ep ha l os p or i ns h a v e wi d e r a c t i v i t y a ga in s t m o s t g ra m n e g at i ve b ac t e ri a , f o r e xa m pl e , E n te r o ba c t e r , C i tr o b ac t er , S er r a ti a , P r o vi d en c i a , Ne is s e r ia , a n d Ha em o ph il u s o rg a nis m s , i nc l ud in g β -l ac t am as e p r o du c i n g s t ra in s . d . F ou r th - g en e ra t io n c eph a lo s po r in s i nc lu d e c e f ep i m e ( Ma xi p i m e ) , wh ic h is t h e fi rs t m em b e r o f t hi s g r o up t o b e m a r k e t ed . Ho we v e r , i t s d es ig na t io n as a f ou r t h -g en e r at i on c e pha l os p or i n is de b at a bl e . Ce f e pi m e is h i gh l y r es is tan t
t o β - la ct a m a s e s a nd ha s a lo w p r o p en s i t y f or se le c ti o n o f β -l ac t am - re s i s ta n t m u ta n t s t ra in s . I t s ho ws e v i d e nc e o f g r ea t e r ac t i vi t y ve r s us g r am - po s i t i ve c oc ci , E nt e ro b ac t er i ac eae , an d Ps eu d om on as t han t hi r d -g e ne r a ti on c e ph a lo s p o ri ns . e . E ac h g en e r at i on of c ep h al o s p o ri n h as sh if t ed to wa r d i nc r ea se d g r am n e g at i ve a c t i v i t y bu t h as l os t ac ti v i t y t o wa r d g r am - p os it i ve o r ga n is m s . F o u r th - ge n e ra t io n a ge n ts ha v e im p ro v e d a c ti v i t y t o wa r d g r am -p o si ti ve o r g an is m s o v e r t hi r d -g e ne r a ti o n a ge n ts . 3 . Th e r ap e ut ic us es a . Fi r s t- g en e ra t io n c e pha l os p or i ns c om m o nl y a r e a dm i ni s t e r ed to t re a t s e r io us Kl e bs ie l la in f ec tio n s a nd g ra m -p os i ti ve an d s om e g r am - n eg a ti v e i n f ec ti o ns i n p a ti e nt s wi th m i l d p en ic il l in al le r g y . Th e s e a g en t s al s o a re u s ed wi d e l y i n p e ri o pe r at i v e p ro p h yla xi s . Fo r m os t ot h er in d ic at i on s, t he y a r e no t t h e p r ef e r re d d r ug s . b . S ec on d - ge ne r a ti o n c ep h al o s p o ri ns a re v a lu a ble i n t he t re a tm en t of u r i na r y t r ac t i n fe c t i on s re s ul t in g f r om E . c ol i o r ga n is m s , a cu t e o ti t is m e dia , s i nu si t is , a nd go n oc oc c al d is ea se c a us ed b y or g an i s m s t ha t re si st o th e r a g e nt s. ( 1 ) C e fa c l o r ( C e c l o r ) is us e fu l i n o t it is m e di a a n d s i nu s i t is i n p a ti e nt s wh o a r e al le r gi c t o a m p ic i ll in a n d a m o xi c i ll i n. C e fp r o z il ( C e f z il ) an d l o ra c a r b ef ( L o r ab i d) a re s e c o nd - g en e r a ti on ce ph a lo s p o ri n s t h a t c an be ad m i ni s te r ed t wi c e da i l y b u t o f fe r no im p o rt a nt s p ec t ru m d i ff e re n c e s. ( 2 ) C e fo xi t i n ( Me f o xi n ) i s t h e ra p eu t ic f o r m i xe d aer o b ic - an a er o bi c i n f ec ti o ns , s uc h as in t r a -a b d om in al in f ec ti o n. Th e c e fo t et a n ( C e fo t an ) s p ec t ru m i s s i m i la r bu t th i s a ge n t c a n b e gi v e n twi c e d ai l y. ( 3 ) C e fu r o xi m e ( Z in ac e f ) i s c om m o nl y a dm in is t e re d fo r ou t pa t ie n t c om m u n it y - a c q u i re d p neu m on i a. c . Th i rd - g en e ra t io n c ep ha l os p or i ns p e ne t r at e th e c e re b ro s pi na l f l ui d ( C SF) a n d t h us a r e v al u ab le in t h e tr e at m e n t o f m en i ng it i s c au s e d b y su c h o r g an is m s as m en i ng oc oc c i , pn eu m o c oc c i , H . in f lu e n z a e, an d e n te r ic g ram n e g at i ve b ac i ll i. P.927
( 1 ) Th e s e ag e nt s a ls o a re us e d t o t r e at s e ps is of u n k n o wn o r ig in in i m m u no s u p pr e s s ed pa t ien t s a nd t o t r ea t fe v e r i n n e u t ro pe n ic i m m u no s u p pr e s s ed pa t ien t s ( g i v en in c o m b in a ti on wi t h an am in o gl yc os ide ) . ( 2 ) Th i r d -g en e r at i on c e ph a lo s po r in s a r e us e fu l i n i n fe c ti on s c au se d b y m an y o r g an is m s r es is ta n t t o o ld e r c e ph al os p o ri ns . ( 3 ) Th e s e ag e nt s a r e f r eq u e nt l y ad m i ni s te r ed as e m pi r ic th e ra p y f o r li f e t h r e at e ni ng in f ec t io n i n wh i c h r es is ta n t o r ga n is m s a re th e m os t l ik e l y c aus e . ( 4 ) I ni ti a l t he r a p y o f m i xe d ba c t e r ia l i n fe c t i on s ( e. g . , s ep s i s ) co m m o nl y i n vo l ves th i r d- g en e r at io n c ep h al os p or i ns . d . Th e fo u r th - ge n e ra ti o n a g e nt , c e fe pi m e , is a p p ro v e d fo r t re a tm en t of u r i na r y t r ac t i n fe c t i on s , u n c o m p l ic at e d sk in an d s k i n s t r uc tu r e i n fe c t i on s,
p n e um on ia , an d e m p i ri c u s e i n f eb r il e ne u tr o pe n ic p a t ie n ts . Ce f ep im e h a s a s p ec t ru m o f a c t i v i t y s im i la r t o t hi r d -g e ne r a ti on age n ts bu t is m o re r es is ta nt t o so m e β - la c t am as es . 4 . P r ec au t io ns an d m on i to r i ng e ff ec ts a . B ec au s e al l c ep h al os p o r in s ( e xc e p t c ef o pe r a zo n e ) a r e e li m i na t e d r en al l y , d o se s m us t b e a dj us t ed f o r pa t ie n ts wi t h re na l i m p a i rm en t . b . C r os s - s en s i t i v it y wi t h p e ni c i l li n h as be e n r ep o rt e d i n u p to 10 % o f p a t ie n ts re c e i v i ng c e ph alo s po r in s . Mo r e r e c e n t i nfo r m at i on i n di c a t es th a t t r u e c r os s - r e ac ti v i t y is ra r e . c . C ep h al os po r i ns c an c a u s e h y pe r se ns i ti v i t y r eac t i o ns s i m i la r to t ho s e r e s ul ti n g f r om pe ni c i l li n (s e e I I . E. 1 .e . ( 1 )) . Ma n i f es t a ti on s i nc lu d e f e v e r , m ac u lo p ap ul a r ra s h , a n ap h y l a xi s , a n d h em ol yt i c a n em i a. d . O t he r ad v e r s e ef f ec ts i n c l ud e n a us ea , vom i ti n g, d ia r r he a , s up e ri n fe c ti on , n e p hr o to xi c i t y , an d Cl os tr i d iu m d if f ic il e -i n du ce d c o l i ti s; wi t h c e fo p er a z o ne, c e fm e ta z o le , an d c ef o te ta n ( an d f o rm e rl y m o xa l ac t am an d c ef am a nd o le ) , b l ee d in g d i at h es es m a y o c c u r . B l ee d in g c an be re v e r s ed b y vi ta m i n K a d m i ni s t ra ti o n . e . C ep h al os p o ri ns m a y c a u s e fa ls e - po s i t i ve g l yc os u r ia re s u l ts on te s ts u s in g t h e c o p pe r r ed uc t ion m e t ho d . f . C e ft r i a xo n e n o w c on t ra i nd ic a te d i n n e wb o r ns re c ei v i n g co nc u r re n t a d m i ni s t ra ti o n o f c al c i um - c o nt a in in g s ol u ti o ns o r p r o du c ts d u e t o r is k o f f a t al p re c i pi t a ti on in lu n gs an d k id n e y s . N e w wa r n i n g a dd e d a ls o s ta t in g t h a t c ef t r ia xo n e a nd I V c a l c i um - c o n ta in i ng s o lu t ion s s ho u ld no t b e a d m i ni s te r ed wi t h in 48 ho u r s o f e ac h o t he r . 5 . S ig n if ic a nt in t e ra c t i ons a . P r ob e ne c i d m a y i m p a ir t h e e xc r e t io n o f c e ph alo s po r in s ( e xc e p t c e f ta zi di m e ) , c a us in g i nc r e a s e d c ep h al os po r i n l eve l s a n d p os s i bl e t o xi c i ty. b . A lc oh o l c o ns um p ti o n m a y r es ul t i n a di su l fi r am - t y p e r e ac ti o n i n p at i ent s r e c ei vi ng c e fm e ta z o l e, c e f o te t an , an d c ef o pe r a z on e . c . Am in o gl y c os id es o r l oo p di u re t ic s m a y c au s e ad d i ti v e to xi c i t y wh e n a d m i ni s te r ed wi t h c e ph a lo t h in . d . P la sm a c on c e n t ra ti o ns o f c e f ac lo r e xt e n de d - rel e as e t a bl e ts , c ef d in i r, an d c e fp o do xi m e m a y b e r e du c ed b y c o ad m i ni s tr a ti o n wi t h a n ta c i ds . e . H 2 -a n ta g on is t s m a y r ed u c e pl as m a le v e ls o f cef p o do xi m e an d c e fu r o xi m e . f . I r on s u pp le m e n ts an d ir o n - fo r t if i ed fo o ds re d uc e a bs o rp t io n o f c e fd in i r b y 8 0 % a n d 3 0% , re s p ec t i ve l y . E . E r yt h r om y c i ns . Th e c h e m i c a l s t ru c tu r e o f t h ese m a c ro l id e a n ti bi o ti c s i s c h a ra ct e ri z e d b y a la c ton e ri n g t o wh ic h s ug a rs a r e at t ac he d . E r y t h r om yc i n b a se an d t h e e s t o la t e, eth y l s uc ci na t e , a nd s t ea r at e sa l ts a r e g i v e n o ra l l y ; e r y t h r om y c in la c t o bi o na te a nd gl uc e pt a te a re gi v e n pa r en t e ra l l y. 1 . Me c h an is m o f a c ti on . E r y t h r o m yc i ns m a y be ba c te r ic i da l o r b a ct e r io s t a ti c ; t he y b in d t o t he 50 S ri b os om al s u bu n i t, in h ib i ti ng ba c te r ia l p r o t ei n s y n th es is .
2 . S pe c tr um o f ac t i v it y . E r y t h r o m yc i ns a r e a c ti ve a g ai ns t m an y g r am p o si t i ve o r ga ni s m s , in c l ud i ng s t r e pt oc oc ci ( e. g . , S t r e p to c o cc us p n e um on ia e ) , a nd C o r y ne b ac t e ri um an d Ne is s e r ia s p ec i es as we l l as s o m e s t r ai ns of My c o p l as m a , Le g io n el l a, Tr e p on em a , an d B or d e te ll a . S om e S . a u r eu s s t ra i ns t h at r es is t p e ni c i ll i n G a r e s u s c ep t ib l e t o e r y t h r om yc i ns . 3 . Th e r ap e ut ic us es a . E r yt h ro m y c i ns ar e th e p r e fe r r ed d ru gs fo r th e tr e a tm e nt of My c o p l as m a p n e um on ia e a n d C a m p y lo b ac t e r i nf ec t io ns , Le gi on n ai r es di se as e , c h la m y di a l in f ec t io ns , d ip h t he r ia , an d p e rt u s s is . P.928
b . I n p at i en ts wi t h pe ni c il l in al l er g y , e r yth r om y c i ns a re im po r t an t a l t er n a ti v e s i n t he t re a tm e nt o f p ne um oc oc c a l pn e um o ni a , S . a u r eu s i n f ec ti o ns , s y p hi li s , a nd g o n or r h ea . c . E r yt hr o m yc i ns m a y be g i v e n p r op h y la c ti ca ll y be f o r e d en t al pr oc e du r es t o p r e ve n t b ac te r i al e n do c ar d i ti s . 4 . P r ec au t io ns an d m on i to r i ng pa r am e te r s a . G as t r oi n te s ti na l ( G I) di s t re s s (e . g ., na us e a, v om i ti n g, di a r rh e a, e p ig a st r ic di s c om fo r t ) m a y o c c u r wi t h a ll er yt h r om y c in f or m s an d a r e t h e m os t c om m o n a d v e rs e e ff e c ts . b . A ll e rg ic r ea c t i on s ( r a re ) m a y p r es en t a s s k i n er u p ti o ns , f e ve r , a nd e o si n op hi l ia . c . C ho le s ta t ic h e pa t it is m a y a ri se in pa t ie n ts t rea t e d f o r 1 we e k o r l on g er wi t h e r yt h r om y c i n es to l ate ; s ym p to m s us ua ll y d is a p p ea r wi t hi n a f e w d a y s a f t e r d r ug th e r ap y e nd s . Th e r e h a ve b ee n i n fr e que n t re p or t s o f h e p at o to xi c i t y wi t h ot h e r s al t s o f e r y t h ro m yc i n . d . I M i n je c ti on s o f m o re th a n 1 0 0 m g p ro d uc e se v e r e pa in pe r si st i ng fo r h o u rs . e . Tr a ns i en t h e a ri ng im pa i r m e n t m a y d e vel o p wi t h h i g h -d os e e r y t h r om y c in t h e r ap y. 5 . S ig n if ic a nt in t e ra c t i ons a . E r yt h ro m y c i n i nh i bi ts th e he p at ic m e ta b ol is m of t h eo ph y l l in e , r es u lt in g in t o xi c a cc um ul a ti o n. b . E r yt h ro m y c i n i nt e r fe r es wi t h th e m e ta bo l ism o f d i go xi n , c o rt ic os t e ro id s , c a r ba m a z e p in e , c y c l os po r i n, a nd l o v a s t a ti n , p os s i bl y p ot e nt i at i ng th e e f fe c t a n d t o xi c i t y of t he s e dr ug s . c . C la r it h r om y c i n ( Bi a xi n ) m a y p o t en ti a te o ra l a n ti c oa g ul an t s ( m o ni t o r p r o t hr om b in ti m e ) , i nc r ea s e c y c l os p or i ne le ve ls wi t h i nc r e as ed to xi c i t y, an d i n c re as e d ig o xi n a nd th eo p h y ll i ne le ve ls . d . C o -a dm i ni s t r a ti o n o f c l a r it h r om y c i n a n d c i s ap r id e m a y in c re as e ri sk of s e r io us c a r di ac ar r h y t hm i a s ; c o ad m i n is t ra t io n i s co n t r ai nd ic a te d . e . S ud d en de a th s h a v e be e n re po r t ed wh e n c la r i th r o m yc i n wa s a dd ed t o o n g oi ng pi m o z i d e t he r a py ; c o - ad m i ni s tr a ti o n is c o n t r ai nd ic a te d . 6 . A lt e r na t i v es to er y t h r om y c in
a . C la r i th r om y c in , a z i t h ro m y c i n (Z i th r om a x) , a n d d i r it h r om yc i n ( D y na b ac ) a r e s em is y n t he t ic m ac r o li d e a n ti bi o ti cs . Th es e e x p e ns i v e b u t we l l - t ol e ra t ed a l t er n a ti v e s t o e r y t h ro m yc i n a r e a dm in is t er e d o nc e d ai l y . ( 1 ) C la r i th r om y c in ( a ) S pe c tr um o f ac t i v i t y . C l a r i th r om y c in i s m o re ac t i ve t h an er y t h r om y c in a g ai n st s t ap h y l oc oc c i and s tr e pt o co c c i. In ad d it i on t o a ct i v i t y a g ai ns t ot h er o r g an is m s c o v e r ed b y e ry t h r o m yc i n , i t is al so ac ti v e i n v i t r o a ga i ns t MA I , To xo p l a s m a g on d ii , a n d C r y p t o s p o r id iu m s pp . ( b ) Th e r ap e ut ic us es . Thi s a g en t i s i nd ic a te d fo r th e p re ve n ti on o f M y c o b a c t e ri um a v iu m c om p le x ( MA C ) i n f ec t io n an d is u se f ul in o ti ti s m edi a , s i nu si t is , m y c o p la s m al pn e um o ni a , a nd ph a r yng i ti s . Cl a ri t h ro m yc i n is al s o u s ed wi t h pr o to n p um p in h ib i to r s ( P P Is ) f or H el ic o b ac t e r p yl o ri e r a di c a t ion . ( 2 ) A zi t hr om y c in ( a ) S pe c tr um o f ac t i v i t y . A z i t h r om y c in is l es s a c t iv e t h an e r y t hr om yc i n a g ai n st g ra m - p os i ti v e c oc c i bu t m o r e ac t i v e a ga in s t H. in f lu e n zae an d o th e r g r a m - n eg a ti v e o rg a ni s m s . A z i th r om yc in c o nc en t ra t es wi t h in c e ll s , a nd t i ss ue le v e ls a re hi g he r th a n s e ru m l e v el s. ( b ) Th e r ap e ut ic us es . Thi s a g en t i s u s e f ul in no ng o n oc oc c a l u r et h ri t is c a us ed b y c h la m y di a , l owe r r e s p ir a to r y t r ac t i n fec t io ns , ( MA C ) i n f ec ti o n an d p r o ph y l a xi s , ph a r y ng i ti s , p e l v ic i n fl am m a t o r y d is ea s e, an d l e gi o nn ai r es ' d i se as e . A z i t h ro m y c i n i s a l s o in di c a t e d f o r p ed ia t ri c u s e . ( 3 ) D i ri t h ro m yc i n is in d ic a t e d f o r t he t r ea tm e nt of a c u t e e xa c e r ba t io ns o f c h r on ic br o nc hi t is , p h ar y n g i ti s a nd to ns i ll i ti s ca u s e d b y S tr e pt oc o c c us p yo g e ne s , an d u nc o m p lic a te d s ki n a n d s k in st r uc t u r e i n fe c t i on s c au se d by S . a u re us . F . P en ic i ll in s 1 . N a tu r al pe n ic il li ns . As wi t h c ep h al os po r i ns a n d a l l o th e r p e ni c i ll in s , n a t u ra l p en ic i ll in s a r e β -l a c t am an t ib i ot ic s . A m o ng t he m o st im po r t an t a n t ib io t ic s , na t u ra l p e ni c i l li ns a re th e p r e fe r r ed dr u g s i n t he t re a tm en t of m a n y i n fe c ti ou s d is e as es . a . A va il a bl e a ge n ts ( 1 ) P en ic i ll in G s o di um an d po t as s i um s a lt s ca n be a dm in is t e re d o r al l y, i n t ra ve n ou s l y , o r i n t ra m us c u l a rl y. P.929
( 2 ) P en ic i ll in V ( Pe n - Ve e K ) , a s ol ub l e d r ug fo r m , i s a dm in is t e re d o r al l y. ( 3 ) P en ic i ll in G p ro c a i ne a n d p e ni ci ll i n G b en z a t hi n e a re re p os it o r y d ru g f o r m s . Ad m i ni s te r ed in t ra m us c u la r l y , th es e i ns olu b l e s a l ts a l lo w s l o w d r ug a b so r p ti on f ro m t h e i nj ec t i o n s i t e a nd t hu s h a v e a l o ng e r d u ra t io n o f a c ti on ( 1 2 - 24 h r) . b . Me c h an is m o f a c ti on . P e n ic il l in s a re b ac te r ic ida l ; t h e y i n hi b it ba c te r ia l c e ll wa l l s y n th e s i s in a m a nn e r s im il a r t o t h at of t h e c ep ha l os po r in s . c . S pe ct r um of ac t i v it y
( 1 ) N a tu r al pe n ic il li ns a re h ig hl y a c t i v e a g ai ns t g r a m -p o si ti ve c o c c i a nd a g ai n st s om e gr am - n eg at i v e c o c c i. ( 2 ) P en ic i ll in G is 5 - 1 0 t im es m o r e a ct i ve t h an pen i c i ll i n V ag a in s t g ra m n e g at i ve o r ga n is m s a n d s om e a n ae r o bi c o rg a ni s m s . ( 3 ) B ec au s e n at u ra l p e nic i ll in s a r e r e ad il y h yd r oly ze d b y p e ni ci ll i na se s ( βl a ct am as e s ) , th e y a re ine f f ec t i v e a ga in s t S . a u r eu s a n d o th e r o r g an is m s t h a t r es is t pe ni c i l li n . d . Th e r ap e ut ic us es ( 1 ) P en ic i ll in G is th e p re f e r re d a g en t fo r al l i nf ec t io ns c a us e d b y pe n ic il li n s us c ep ti b le S . p ne um o nia e o rg an is m s , i nc l ud in g ( a ) P ne um o ni a ( b ) A r th r i ti s ( c ) Me n i ng i ti s ( d ) P e ri t on i ti s ( e ) P e ri c a r di t is ( f ) O s te om y e l it is ( g ) Ma s t o id i ti s ( 2 ) P en ic i ll in s G a nd V ar e hi g hl y e f fe c t i v e a g ai ns t ot h er s t r e pt oc oc ca l i n f ec ti o ns , s uc h as ph a r yn g i ti s , ot i ti s m ed ia , s i nus i ti s , a nd ba c t e r em i a . ( 3 ) P en ic i ll in G is th e p re f e r re d a g en t i n g o no c o c c a l i nf ec t io ns , s yp h il is , a n t h ra x, a c ti n om y c os is , g a s g an g re n e , a nd Li st e ri a in f ec ti o ns . ( 4 ) A dm in is t e re d wh e n an o r al pe ni c i l li n is n ee ded , pe n ic il li n V is m o st u s ef u l i n s k in , s o f t- t is s ue , an d m il d re sp i ra t o r y in f ec t io ns . ( 5 ) P en ic i ll in G p ro c a i ne i s e f f ec ti ve ag a in s t s y ph il i s a nd un c o m p li c at e d g o n or r h ea . ( 6 ) U s e d t o tr e a t s y ph i li s i n fe c ti on s o u ts id e t h e CN S , p en ic i ll in G b e n za th i ne al s o is e f fe c ti v e a ga in s t g r ou p A β -h em o l y ti c s t re p to c o cc al i n f ec ti o ns . ( 7 ) P en ic i ll in s G a nd V m a y b e u s ed pr o ph yl ac t ic al l y t o p r e v en t s t r ep t oc oc c a l i n fe c t i on , rh e um a ti c f e ve r , a nd ne on a t al go n or r h ea o p h th al m i a . Pa t ie n ts wi th v a l v u la r he a rt di se a s e m a y r ec ei ve t he se d ru gs p r e op e r at i v e l y . ( 8 ) Th e r e is em e rg i ng r es is t an c e t o p en ic il l in G by S . p n eu m o ni a e i n so m e a r e as of th e U ni t ed S ta te s . Th e a lt e rn a ti v e t he r ap y i s van c o m yc i n . e . P r ec au t io ns an d m on i to r i ng e ff ec ts ( 1 ) H yp e rs e ns it i v i t y re ac t i o ns . Th es e oc c u r in up t o 10 % o f pa t ie n ts r e c ei vi ng pe n ic il li n . Ma n if e s ta t io ns ra n ge f ro m m il d r as h t o a n ap h y l a xi s . ( a ) Th e ra s h m a y b e u r tic a r ia l, v e si cu l ar , bu ll o us, s c a rl a ti n if o rm , o r m ac u lo p ap ul a r . R a r el y , th r o m b op e ni c p u rp u ra dev e l o p s . ( b ) A na p h y la xi s is a l i fe -t h r e at e ni ng r ea c t i on th a t m os t c om m o nl y o c c u rs wi t h p a r en t e ra l a dm in is t ra t i on . Si g ns a n d s ym p t om s i nc lu d e s e ve r e h yp o t en s i o n, b ro nc h oc ons t r ic ti o n, na us e a , v o m i t in g , a b do m i n al pa in , a n d e xt r e m e we a k ne s s . ( c ) O t he r m a ni f es ta t io ns o f h y pe r se ns i ti v i t y r ea c tio n s i nc lu d e f e v e r, e o si n op hi l ia , a n gi oe d em a , an d s e ru m s ick n es s .
( d ) B e fo r e p en ic il l in th e ra p y b eg i ns , t he p at ie n t ' s h is t o r y s h ou ld be e va l u at e d f o r r ea c ti o ns to p en ic il l in . A p os it i v e h is t o r y pl ac es th e p a ti e nt a t h e ig h te n ed r is k f or a s ubs e qu e nt r ea ct i on . In m os t c as es , s uc h p at i en ts s h ou l d r ec ei v e a s ub s t i tut e an t ib i ot ic . ( Ho we ve r , h y p e r s e ns i ti vi t y r ea ct i ons m a y oc c u r e v en in pa t ien t s wi t h a n e ga t i ve h is tor y . ) ( 2 ) O t he r ad v e r s e e ff ec ts o f n at u ra l p e ni c i ll i ns i nc l ud e G I d is t re s s (e . g ., n a us e a, di a r rh e a ), bo n e m a r ro w s u p pr e ss io n ( e .g. , i m p ai r ed pl a te le t a g g re g at i on , a g r an ul oc y t o s is ) , a nd su pe r i nf ec t io n. W ith hi gh - d os e t he r a p y, s e i zu re s m a y o c c u r, pa r ti c ul a rl y i n p at i en t s wi t h re n al im pa i rm e nt . f . S ig n if ic a nt in t e ra c t i ons ( 1 ) P r ob e ne c i d i nc r ea s es bl o od le ve ls of na t u ra l p e ni ci l li ns an d m a y be g i ve n c on c u r r en t l y fo r th is pu r p os e. P.930
( 2 ) A n ti bi o ti c a nt a go n is m o c c u rs wh e n e r yt h r om y ci n s , t et r ac y c li ne s , o r c h lo r am ph e ni c o l i s g i v en wi t h i n 1 h r o f t h e a dm in is t r at i on of pe n ic il li n . Th e c l in ic al s i gn i fi c a nc e o f s u c h a nt a go n is m is no t c le a r . ( 3 ) W it h p e ni c i ll in G p ro c a i ne an d be n z a th in e , p r ec a ut i on m us t be us ed in p a t ie n ts wi t h a hi s t o r y of h y p e rs e ns it i vi t y re ac t ion s to pe ni c i l li ns be ca us e p r o lo n ge d re ac t io ns m a y o c c u r . I nt r a vas cu l a r i nj ec t io n s ho u ld be a v oi d ed . P r o c ai ne h y pe r s e ns i ti v i ty i s a c o n t ra in d ic a ti on t o t h e u se of p ro ca i ne p e ni ci l li n G . ( 4 ) P a re n te r al p ro d uc ts c o n t ai n e i th e r p o ta s s iu m (1 . 7 m E q /m i l li on u ni ts ) or s o di um ( 2 m Eq /m i ll io n un i ts ) . 2 . P en ic i ll in as e - re s i s ta n t p e ni c i ll i ns . Th es e p en ic il l in s a r e n ot h y d ro l y z e d b y s t ap h yl oc oc c a l p en ic i ll ina s es ( β -l ac t am as es ) . The s e a ge n ts i n c l ud e m e th ic i ll in , na fc il l in , a n d t h e i s o xa z o l y l p en ic i ll ins — c l o xa c i ll in , di cl o xa c il li n ( D yn a p e n) , an d o xa c i ll i n. a . Me c h an is m o f a c ti on (s e e I I . E. 1 .b ) b . S pe c tr um o f ac t i v it y . B e c au s e th e se pe ni c i l li ns r es is t p e ni c i ll in a s e s , the y a r e ac ti v e ag a in s t s t a phy l o c oc c i th a t p r od uc e t he s e e n z ym es . c . Th e ra p eu t ic u s es ( 1 ) P en ic i ll in as e - re s i s ta nt p en ic i ll in s a r e u s e d s o le l y i n s ta ph yl oc o c c al i n f ec ti o ns re s u l ti n g f r om o r g an is m s th a t r es is t na tu r a l p en ic i ll in s . ( 2 ) Th e s e ag e nt s a r e l es s po t en t th a n n at u r al pen i c i ll i ns a g ai ns t o r g an is m s s us c ep ti b le to na t u ra l p en i c i ll i ns a n d t hu s m ak e po o r s u bs ti t ut e s i n t he t r e a tm en t o f in f ec ti o ns c a u s e d b y t h es e o rg a ni s m s . ( 3 ) N a fc il li n i s e xc r e t e d b y t h e l i ve r a nd th u s m ay b e us e fu l i n t r ea t in g s t ap h yl oc oc c a l i n fe c t i ons in pa t ie n ts wi t h re n al im p ai r m e n t. ( 4 ) O xa c i l li n , c l o xa c i ll in , a n d d ic lo xa c i l li n a r e m os t va l ua b le in lo ng - t e rm t h e r ap y o f s er i ou s s ta p hy l o c oc c a l i nf e ct io n s ( e .g ., e nd oc a r di t is , o s te om y e l it is ) an d i n t h e t r e at m e n t o f m in o r s ta ph y l o c o c c al in f ec ti o ns of th e s ki n a n d s of t ti s s ue s . d . P r ec au t io ns an d m on i to r i ng e ff ec ts
( 1 ) A s wi t h al l p e ni c i ll i ns , t h e p en ic il l in as e - re s i s ta n t g r o up c a n c a us e h yp e r se ns i ti v i t y r ea c t i ons (s e e I I . E. 1 .e . ( 1 ) ). ( 2 ) Me t h i c i ll i n m a y c au s e n e ph r o to xi c i t y an d i n te rs t i ti al ne p hr i ti s . ( 3 ) O xa c i l li n m a y b e h e pa t o to xi c . ( 4 ) C om p le t e c ro s s - re s i s t a nc e e xi s t s a m o n g t h e p e ni ci l li na s e- r es is t an t p e ni ci l li ns . e . S ig n if ic a nt in t e ra c t i ons . P ro b en ec i d i nc re a s e s b l oo d l e ve ls of th es e p e ni ci l li ns an d m a y be giv e n c o n c u r r en t l y f o r th a t p u r po s e . 3 . Am i no p en ic il l in s . Th is p e ni c i ll i n g r ou p i nc lu d es t h e s em is yn th e ti c a ge n ts a m pi ci ll i n a nd am o xi c il lin ( A m o xi l ) . B ec a us e o f th e i r wi d e r an t ib ac t e ri al s p ec t ru m , t he s e d ru gs a re a ls o k n o wn a s b r oa d -s p e c t r um pe n ic il li ns . a . Me c h an is m o f a c ti on (s e e I I . E. 1 .b ) b . S pe c tr um o f ac t i v it y . A m i no pe n ic il li ns ha v e a s p ec t ru m t h at is s im il a r to b u t b r o ad e r t ha n th a t o f t h e n a tu r a l a nd pe ni c i l li na s e -r e si st a nt pe n ic il li ns . E a s il y d es t ro y e d b y s ta ph y l o c o c c al pe n ic il li n as es , a m i no p en ic il l in s a r e i n e ff ec t i v e a ga i ns t m os t s t ap h y l oc oc c a l o r ga n is m s . A ga in s t m o s t b ac te r ia s e ns it i v e to pe ni c i l li n G , a m in o pe ni ci l li ns ar e s li gh t l y le s s ef f ec ti v e t ha n th i s a g e nt . c . Th e ra p eu t ic u s es . A m in o p en ic il li n s a re us e d t o t r e at go n oc oc c a l i n f ec ti o ns , u pp e r re s p i rat o r y i nf ec t io ns , un co m p l ic a te d u r i na r y t r ac t i n f ec ti o ns , a nd o ti t is m ed i a c au se d b y s us c e pt i ble o r ga ni s m s. ( 1 ) F or in f ec t io ns r es ul tin g f ro m p en ic i ll in - r es is t an t o rg a ni s m s , am pi ci ll i n m a y be gi v e n i n c om b in at i o n wi t h s u lb ac t am ( U nas yn ) . ( 2 ) A m o xi c i ll i n is le s s e f fe c ti v e t ha n a m p ic il l in a ga i ns t s hi g el lo s i s . ( 3 ) A m o xi c i ll i n is m o r e e ff e c ti v e ag ai ns t S . a u re us , K l eb s i e ll a, a nd B a c te r oi d es f ra gi l is i n fe c t i o ns wh e n a dm in is t e re d i n c om b in a ti on wi t h c l a vul a ni c ac i d— am o xi c il l in / po t as s i um c l a v ul a na te ( A ug m en ti n ) b ec a us e c l a vul a ni c ac i d i na c t i v a te s p e ni ci ll i na se s . d . P r ec au t io ns an d m on i to r i ng e ff ec ts ( 1 ) H y p e rs e ns it i v i t y re ac t i o ns m a y oc c u r (s ee I I. E. 1 . e .( 1 ) ) . ( 2 ) D ia r r h ea i s m os t c om m o n wi t h am pi ci l li n . ( 3 ) I n a dd i ti on t o t he u rt ic a r ia l h y p e rs en s i t i v it y r as h s ee n wi t h a ll p e ni ci l li ns , a m p ic i ll in and am o xi c i ll in f re q ue n tl y ca u s e a g en e r al i z ed e r y t h em a to us , m ac u lo p ap u la r r as h. ( Th is oc c u r s i n 5% - 10 % o f pa ti e nt s r e c ei vi ng am pi c i l li n .) e . S ig n if ic a nt in t e ra c t i ons (s e e I I . E. 2 .e ) P.931
4 . E xt e n d ed - s p ec t r um p en i c i ll i ns . Th es e a ge n ts ha v e t he wi d e st a n t ib ac t e ri al s p ec t ru m o f a l l p en ic il l in s . A ls o ca l le d an t ip s e u do m o na l p e ni ci l li ns , th is gr o up inc l ud es th e c a rb o xy p e n i c il l in ( e. g . , t ic a rc il li n ) a n d t h e u r e id op e ni c i ll i ns (e . g. , m e z l oc i ll in , p i pe r ac il l in ) . a . Me c h an is m o f a c ti on (s e e I I . E. 1 .b )
b . S pe c tr um o f ac t i v it y . Th e s e d r u gs h a ve a sp ec t r um s im il a r t o th a t o f th e a m in o pe ni c i l li ns bu t a ls o a r e e f fe c ti v e ag ai n st K le b si el l a a nd E nt e r ob ac t er s p p. , s om e B. f r ag il is o rg a ni s m s , an d i n do l e- p os it i ve P r ot e us a n d P s e ud om o na s o r ga ni s m s . ( 1 ) Ti c ar c i l li n i s ac t i v e ag a in s t P . a e r ug in o s a . Com b in e d wi t h c l a vul a ni c a c id ( Ti m e n ti n ) , t ic a rc il lin h as e n ha nc e d ac t i v i t y a g ai n s t o rg an is m s th a t r e s is t t ic a rc il li n al on e . ( 2 ) P ip e ra c i l li n i s m o r e ac t i v e t h an ti ca r ci ll i n a g a in s t Ps eu do m o n as o r g an is m s . ( 3 ) P ip e ra c i l li n a n d t a z ob a c t am ( Zo s y n ) . Ta zo b ac t am is a β - la ct am a s e i n hi b it o r t h at e xp a n ds the s p ec t r um of ac ti v i t y t o i n c l ud e s om e o r ga n is m s n o t s en s i t i v e t o p i pe r ac ill i n a lo n e ( i f r es is t an c e is t h e r es u lt o f β - l ac ta m a s e p r o du c ti on ) , i nc l ud i ng s t ra i ns of s t a ph y l oc oc c i , Ha e m o p hi lu s , B ac t e ro id es, a n d En t e ro ba c te r ia c e a e. G e n e ra l l y , t a z o ba c t am d o es no t e n ha nc e a c ti v i ty a g ai n st Ps e ud om o na s . c . Th e ra p eu t ic u s es . E xt e n d ed -s p ec t ru m p en ic i ll in s a r e u s e d m ai n l y to t rea t s e r io us in f ec ti o ns c au s ed b y g ra m -n e ga t i ve o rg an i s m s ( e. g . , s e ps is ; p n e um on ia ; i n f ec ti o ns o f t h e a bd om e n, bo n e , a nd s o ft ti ss u es ) . P i p e ra ci ll i n/ t a z o ba c t am is e ff ec t i v e i n t h e t r ea tm en t o f n os oc om ia l p n e um on ia . d . P r ec au t io ns an d m on i to r i ng e ff ec ts ( 1 ) H y p e rs e ns it i v i t y re ac t i o ns m a y oc c u r (s ee I I. E. 1 . e .( 1 ) ) . ( 2 ) Ti c ar c i l li n m a y c au s e h y p ok a le m i a . ( 3 ) Th e hi gh s o di um c o n te n t o f ti ca r ci ll i n m a y p os e a d a ng e r t o p a ti e nt s wi t h h e a rt fa i lu r e ( H F ) . ( 4 ) A ll in hi b it pl a te l et agg r e ga t io n , wh ic h m a y res u lt in bl e ed in g . e . S ig n if ic a nt in t e ra c t i ons (s e e I I . E. 2 .e ) G . S u l fo n am id es . De r i v at i v e s o f s ul f an i la m i de , the s e a ge n ts we r e th e f i rs t d r u gs to p re v e n t a nd c u re h um an ba c te r ia l i n fe ct io n s uc c ess f ul l y . Al t ho u gh t h e ir cu r r en t u s ef u ln es s is li m i t ed b y th e i n t ro du c ti o n o f m o re ef f ec t i v e a n t ib io t ic s a nd th e e m e rg e nc e o f re s i s ta n t b ac te ri a l s t ra in s , s u l fo n am id es r e m ai n t h e d ru g s o f c h o ic e fo r c e r ta in in f ec t io ns . Th e m aj o r su l fo n am id es a r e s u lf a di a z in e , s ul f am e t h o xa z o l e , s ul fi s o xa zo l e , an d s ul f am e th i zol e . 1 . Me c h an is m o f a c ti on . S u l f on am id es a re ba c te r io s ta t ic ; t h e y s u pp r es s b a ct e r ia l g r o wt h b y t r i gge r i ng a m ec ha ni sm th a t b l oc k s fo li c a c i d s y n th e si s , t h e r eb y f o rc in g b ac t e ri a t o s y nt h es i ze t he i r o wn f o l ic ac id . 2 . S pe c tr um o f ac t i v it y . S u l f on am id es a re b ro a d-s p ec t ru m a ge n ts wi t h a c ti vi t y a ga in s t m a n y g ram - p os it i ve o r ga n is m s (e .g . , S . p yo ge n es , S . p n e um on ia e ) a n d c e r t ai n g r am - ne g at i v e or g an is m s ( e. g . , H . in f lu en za e , E. c o li , P. m i r ab il is ) . Th e y a l s o a re ef f ec ti ve a ga in s t c er t ai n s t r ai ns of C h l am yd i a t r ac ho m a t is , N o c a rd i a, Ac t in om y c es , a n d Ba c i ll us an t h ra ci s . 3 . Th e r ap e ut ic us es a . S ul f on am i de s m o s t o fte n a re us ed to t re a t u r ina r y t r ac t i n f ec ti o ns c au se d b y E . co li , in c l ud i ng ac u te a nd c h r on ic c y s t it is , an d c h r on ic up p er u ri n ar y t r a ct in f ec t io ns .
b . Th e se ag en t s h a v e v a l u e i n t h e t r ea tm e nt o f no c a rd io s i s , t r ac ho m a and i n cl us io n c o nj un c ti v i ti s , a n d d e rm a ti t is h e rp e ti f o rm is . c . S ul fa d ia z i n e m a y b e ad m in is t e re d i n c om bi na t io n wi t h p y r i m e t ha m i n e to t r e a t t o xo p l as m o s i s . d . S ul f am et h o xa z o l e m ay b e gi v e n i n c om bi n at i on wi t h t ri m e t ho p r im ( B a c t ri m ) t o t r ea t s uc h i nf e c ti on s a s P n eu m o c ys t is c a r in ii p ne um on i a, S h i ge l la en t e ri ti s , S e r ra ti a s e ps is , u r in a r y t ra c t inf e c ti on s , r es pi r a to r y i n f ec ti o ns , a nd go n oc oc c a l ur e t hr i ti s ( s e e II . J . 7 .c ). I t i s t h e d ru g o f c h oi c e i n th e t r e at m e n t o f St e not r o p ho m o na s m al t op hi l ia. e . S ul f is o xa z o l e i s s om eti m es u se d i n c om bi n a ti on wi t h e r y t hr om y c i n e t h y ls uc c i n a te to t re a t ac u te o ti ti s m ed i a c a us e d b y H . i nf l ue n z a e o r g an is m s . F o r th e i ni t ia l t r e at m e n t o f u nc om p li c at e d u r i na r y t ra c t i n f ec ti o ns , s ul f is o xa z o l e m a y be gi ve n i n c om b in at i o n wi t h ph e na zo p y r i di ne f o r r el ie f of s y m p to m s o f p a in , b u r ni ng , or u rg e nc y . f . P r op h y l ac ti c s ul f on am id e th e r ap y h as b e en us ed s u cc es s fu ll y t o p r e ven t s t r ep t oc oc c a l i n fe c t i on s a n d rh eu m a t ic fe ve r r ec ur r e nc e s. 4 . P r ec au t io ns an d m on i to r i ng e ff ec ts a . S ul f on am i de s m a y c au s e b lo o d d y s c r as ia s ( e .g . , he m o l yt ic a n em ia — p a r ti c ul a rl y i n p at i en ts wi t h G 6 P D d ef ic i en c y, a pla s ti c a ne m i a , t h r om b oc y t op e ni a , a g ra nu l oc y t os is , an d e os i no phi l ia ) . P.932
b . H yp e rs en s i t i v i t y re ac t io n s t o s ul f on am id e s p rob a bl y r e su l t f r om s e ns it i z a ti o n a nd m o s t c o m m o nl y i n v ol ve th e s k in a nd m uc o us m em b r an es . Ma n i f e s ta t io ns in c l u de va r i ou s t yp es o f s k in r as h, e xf o l i at i v e de rm a ti t is , an d p h o to se ns i ti v i t y . D r ug fev e r a n d se r um s i c k ne s s a l s o m a y de ve l op . c . C r ys ta ll u ri a a n d h em at u r ia m a y o cc ur , po ss ib l y l e ad in g to u ri na r y t r ac t o b st r uc t io n . ( A d eq ua t e f lu i d i n ta k e an d u r in e a lk al i ni z a t io n c an p re ve n t o r m i ni m i ze th is r is k . ) Su l fon a m i d es s ho u ld be us ed c a ut i ou sl y i n p at i en ts wi t h r e n al im pa i rm e nt . d . Li f e -t h r ea t en in g h e pa ti t is c a us ed b y d ru g t o xi c i t y o r s e ns i ti z a t io n i s a r a r e a d v e rs e e f f ec t . S ig ns an d s ym pt om s i nc lu d e h e a da c h e , n au s e a , vo m i ti n g, an d j a un di c e. e . A I D S p a ti en t s h a v e i nc r e as ed f re q ue nc y o f c uta n e ou s h y p e rs en s i t i v it y r e a ct i on s t o s ul f am et h o xa z o l e . 5 . S ig n if ic a nt in t e ra c t i ons . S ul fo n am id es m a y p ote n t ia t e t he e ff ec t s o f p h e n yto i n, o ra l a n ti c o agu l an t s , an d s ul f on y l u r eas . H . Te t r a c y c l in es . Th es e b r o ad - s p ec t r um a g en t s ar e e ff ec t i ve a g ai ns t c e rt ai n b a ct e r ia l s t ra in s t h at r es i s t o t he r a n ti b io t ics . N one t h el es s , t he y a r e t he p r e f er r e d d r ug s i n o nl y a f e w s i tu a ti o ns . Th e m a jo r t et r ac y c li n es i nc l ud e d e m e cl oc y c li n e ( D ec l om y c i n ) , d o xy c y c l i ne ( Vi b r am y c i n ) , m in o c yc l in e ( Mi n o c i n ), an d c hl o r te t r ac y c li n e. 1 . Me c h an is m o f a c ti on . Te t r a c yc l i ne s a r e b ac te r io s ta t ic ; t h e y i n hi b it b a ct e r ia l p r ot e in s y n t h es i s b y b in d in g t o th e 3 0 S r i b os om al s u bu n it .
2 . S pe c tr um o f ac t i v it y . Te t r a c y cl i ne s a r e ac t i v e a g ai n st g ra m - n eg a ti v e an d g r a m - p os it i v e o r g an is m s , s pi r oc he t es , My c o p la s m a a n d C h la m y di a o r g an is m s , ri c k et t s i al s pe c ie s , an d c e r ta in p ro t o zo a . a . P se ud om o na s a nd P r ot e us o rg a ni sm s a re no w r e s is ta n t t o t e t ra c yc l in es. Ma n y c o l i fo r m b ac t er i a, p n e um oc occ i , s ta p h y lo co c c i , s t re p to co c c i , a nd S h i ge l la s t r ai ns a re in c re a s i n gl y r es is t an t . b . C r os s - r es is t an c e wi t h in t he t et r ac y c li n e g ro u p i s e xt e n si ve . 3 . Th e r ap e ut ic us es a . Te t r ac y c li ne s a r e t h e a g e nt s o f c ho ic e i n ri c k et t s ia l ( R o c k y Mo u n t ai n s p ot t ed f e v e r) , c h la m y dia l , a n d m yc o pl a s m al i n fec t i o ns ; am eb ia si s ; a nd b a ci ll a r y in f ec ti o ns (e . g ., c ho l e ra , b r uc el l os is , t u la r e m i a , so m e S al m o n el la a n d Sh ig e ll a i n fe c t i on s ). b . Te t r ac y c li ne s a r e u s e fu l al t er n at i v e s t o p en ic il li n in th e t r e at m e n t o f a n t h ra x, s y p h il is , go no r rh e a , L y m e di s ea s e , n oc ar d i os is , a n d H . i n fl u en zae r e s pi r at o r y in f ec ti o ns . c . O r al o r t op ic a l t et r ac y c l in e m a y b e a dm i ni st e r ed as a t r ea t m e n t f o r a c ne . d . D o xyc y c l i ne is hi gh l y e f f ec t i v e i n t he p ro p h ylaxi s o f “ t ra v e l e r 's di a r rh ea ” ( c om m o n l y c au s e d b y E. c ol i ) . B ec a us e t he d ru g i s e xc r e t e d m ai nl y i n t h e f e ce s , i t is t he s a fe s t t e tr a c y c l i ne fo r th e tr e at m en t o f e xt r a r e na l i n fe c ti ons i n pa t ie n ts wi t h r e na l i m p a i rm en t . e . D em ec l oc y c l i ne is u s ed c o m m on l y as an ad j unc t i v e a ge n t t o tr e at t he s yn d r om e o f i na p p ro p ri a te a nt i di u re t ic ho rm o ne (S I A D H ) s ec re t io n . 4 . P r ec au t io ns an d m on i to r i ng e ff ec ts a . G I di s t r es s ( e .g . , d ia r rh e a , a bd om i na l d is co m f or t , na us e a, a no r e xi a ) is a c om m o n a d v e rs e ef f ec t o f t et r ac yc li ne s . Th i s p r ob l em c a n b e m i n im i z ed by a d m i ni s te r in g th e d r ug wi t h f o od o r t em po r a ri l y de c r ea si ng t he do sa g e. b . S ki n r as h , u r ti c a r i a, an d ge n er a li ze d e xf o l i a ti v e d e rm at i ti s s i g ni f y a h yp e r se ns i ti v i t y r ea c t i on. R a r el y, a ng io e de m a and a na p h y la xi s oc cu r . c . C r oss - s e ns i ti v i t y wi t h in t he t et r ac y c li n e g ro u p is co m m on . d . P ho t ot o xi c r ea c ti on s (s e v e r e s k in le si o ns ) c an d e v e l op wi t h e xp o s u r e t o s u nl ig h t . Th i s r e ac ti o n is m os t c om m o n wi t h d em e c lo c y cl in e a n d d o xyc y c l i n e . e . Te t r ac y c li ne s m a y c a us e h e pa t ot o xi c i t y, p a r ti c u l a rl y i n p r eg n an t wo m en . Ma n i f e s ta t io ns in c l u de jau n di c e, ac id os is , a n d f a tt y l i v e r i n fi l t ra t io n . f . R e na ll y i m p ai r e d p at i en t s m a y e xp e r i e nc e a s i gn i f ic an t i nc r e as e i n B U N s ec o nd a r y to c a t ab ol ic ef f e c t s o f t e t ra c y cl in es . g . Te t r ac y c li ne s m a y i n du c e p e rm an e nt to o th di s c o lo r a ti on , to o th en am e l d e f ec ts , a n d r e ta r de d b on e g ro wt h i n i nf a nt s a nd c h il d re n . h . U se of ou t da t ed an d de g r ad e d t e tr a c yc l in es c an l ea d t o re n al tu b ul a r d ys f un c ti o n, po s s ib l y r es u l t in g i n r e na l f a il u re . i . Mi n o c y c l in e c an c a us e v e s t ib ul a r t o xi c i t y ( e. g ., a t a xi a , di zz i n es s, na us ea , vo m i ti n g ). j . I V t e t ra c yc l in es a re ir r it a t in g a n d m a y c au s e phl e bi t is . P.933
5 . S ig n if ic a nt in t e ra c t i ons a . D ai r y p r od uc t s a nd oth e r fo o ds , i r on p re pa r a tio n s , an d a n ta c i d s a nd l a xa t i ve s c o nt ai n in g a l um i nu m , ca lc iu m , o r m ag ne s iu m ca n c a us e r e du ced t e t r ac yc li ne ab s o r p ti o n. A b s o rp ti o n o f d o xy c y c l i ne is no t i n hi b it e d b y t he se f a c to r s. b . Me t h o xy f l u r a n e m a y exa c e r b a t e t he t et r ac y c li ne s ' ne p hr o to xi c e f fe c ts . c . B ar b it u r at es an d p h eny t o i n d ec r e as e t he an t ib io t ic e ff ec t i v en es s o f t e t r ac yc li ne s . d . D em ec l oc y c l i ne an t ago n i z es th e a c ti on o f a nt id i u re t ic ho rm o ne ( A D H ) a n d m a y b e gi v e n a s a di u r et ic in pa t ie n ts wi t h S IA D H . I . F lu o ro q ui no l on es a re a g e nt s r e la t ed to na l id i xi c ac id — s e e II . I .1 .c ; I I . 2 .c . (1 ) ; II . 4. c .( 1 ) — an d i nc l ud e c ip r o fl o xa c in ( C ip r o ) , e no xa c i n ( Pe n et r e x) , l o m e f lo xa c i n ( Ma xa q u i n ), n o rf l o xa c in ( N o ro xi n ) , of l o xa c i n ( F lo xi n ) , m o xi f l o xa c i n ( A v e l o x) , l ev o f l o xa c i n ( L e vaq u in ) , an d ge m i f lo xa c i n (F ac t i v e) . Th e y a r e ba c te r ic id al f o r g r o wi n g b ac t e ri a . 1 . Me c h an is m o f a c ti on . F l u or o qu i no lo n es i n hi bi t D N A g yr a se . 2 . S pe c tr um o f ac t i v it y . F l u or o qu i no lo n es a r e h i gh l y ac t i v e a ga i ns t e n te r ic g r a m - n eg a ti v e ba c i l li , Sal m on el l a, S hi g el la , C am py l o b ac t e r, H ae m o p hi l us , a n d Ne is s e r i a. a . C ip r o fl o xa c i n h as a c tiv i t y a g ai ns t P . a e ru gi n os a , bu t th e f l uo r oq u in o lo ne s a s a g ro u p h a v e v a r i ab le a c ti v i t y ag a in st no n - P . ae r u gi n os a. C ip r o fl o xa c i n i s a c ti ve ag ai ns t s om e an a e ro b es ; i t h as m o de r a te ac t i vi t y a g ai ns t M. t u b e rc ul os is . b . G r am - po s i t i v e o r ga n is m s a r e l es s s u sc ep t ib l e th a n g r am - ne g at i v e o r g an is m s bu t u s u a ll y a re s e ns i ti v e , e xc e pt f or En t e r oc oc c us f ae c a li s a n d m e th ic i ll in - r es is t an t s t aph y l o c o cc i. c . O f lo xa c i n h as th e g r ea t es t ac ti v i t y a ga in s t C h la m y d ia . 3 . Th e r ap e ut ic us es ( Tab l e 4 4 -3 ) a . N o r fl o xa c in is i n di c a t ed f o r t he o ra l t r e at m e n t o f u ri n ar y t r ac t i n fe c ti ons , u n co m p l ic at e d g on oc oc c a l in f ec ti o ns , a nd p ro s ta ti t i s . b . C ip r o fl o xa c i n, o fl o xa c in , an d l e v o fl o xa c i n a r e a va i l ab l e o r al l y an d i n t ra ve n ou s l y . C i p ro f lo xa c i n is ap p r o v ed fo r us e in u ri n a r y tr a ct in f ec ti o ns ; l o we r r e s p i ra t o r y i n fe c t i on s ; s in us i ti s; bo n e, jo i nt , a n d s k in s t r uc t u re i n f ec ti o ns ; e m p i ri c us e in f eb r il e n e u tr o pe n ic p a ti e n ts ; t y p h oi d f e ve r ; u r e t hr a l a nd c e r v ic a l g ono c oc c a l i nf e c t io n s ; an d in f ec t io us di a r rh e a. O f l o xa c i n i s a pp r o v e d f or u s e in lo we r r e sp i ra t o ry i n f ec t io ns , u nc om p li c a te d g o n oc oc c a l a nd c h la m y di a l c er v i c i t is an d u r e th r it is , s k i n a n d sk in s t r uc t u re i n f ec ti o ns , p r os t at i ti s , and u ri n a r y tr a c t in f ec ti o ns . c . Lo m e f lo xa c i n , l e v of l o xa c in , a n d e no xa c i n a r e ap p r o v ed f o r t he t re a tm ent o f u ri n ar y t r ac t i n fe c ti ons . Lo m e f lo xa c i n , m o xi f l oxa c i n , an d l e v o fl o xa c i n ar e a l so us ed in lo we r r e s p i ra t o r y in f ec ti o ns . d . Mo xi f l o xa c i n i s a pp r o ve d fo r th e tr e a tm en t o f co m pl ic a te d i n t ra a b d om in al in f ec ti o ns bu t s ho u ld no t b e u s ed fo r u r i na r y t r ac t i n fe ct i on s .
4 . P r ec au t io ns an d m on i to r i ng e ff ec ts a . O cc as i on al ad v e r s e e ff e c ts i nc l ud e n au s ea , d y s p ep s i a , h ea d ac he , d i zzi n es s , in s om ni a , c a rd i ac Q T p r o lo ng a ti o n, a rth r o pa t h y, t e nd o ni t is , C NS e f f ec ts , ph o to s e ns i ti v i t y , a n d h y p og l y ce m i a .
Table 44-3. Quinolone Agents Classified by Generation Agent Firstgeneration
Cinoxacin (Cinoxacin, Cinobac)
Spectrum of Coverage
Site of Infection
Gram negatives
Urinary tract
Gram negatives
Urinary tract
Enoxacin (Penetrex) Nalidixic acid (NegGram) Norfloxacin (Noroxin) Secondgeneration
Thirdgeneration
Lomefloxacin (Maxaquin) Ciprofloxacin (Cipro)
Systemic, urinary tract
Ofloxacin (Floxin)
Systemic, urinary tract
Levofloxacin (Levaquin)
Gram negatives
Systemic, urinary tract
Moxifloxacin (Avelox)
Atypicals
Systemic only
P.934
b . I nf r eq u en t a d v e rs e e f fe c ts in cl ud e ra sh , ur t ic a ri a , l e uk op e ni a, a nd e l e v a te d l i v e r e n z y m es . C r y s t a ll u ri a o cc u rs wi t h h i gh do s es a t a lk a li n e pH .
c . Th e F D A ha s a d de d a b l ac k b o x wa r n i n g a b ou t t h e i nc r e as ed ri sk of d e ve l op in g te nd i ni t is a nd t en d on r up t ur e i n p a ti en t s t ak i ng th is cl as s o f m e di ca t io ns . 5 . S ig n if ic a nt in t e ra c t i ons a . C ip r o fl o xa c i n h as b e en s h o wn t o i nc r ea s e t heo p h y ll i ne le ve ls . Va r i ab le e f f ec ts on t he op h y l li ne le v e l s h a v e b ee n re p or t ed f r om o t he r m e m b e rs of t h e g r o up . I n p a ti e nt s req u i ri n g f lu o ro q ui n ol on es , t h eo p h y ll in e l e ve ls s h oul d b e m o ni t o re d . b . A nt a c i ds an d s uc r al f ate a nd di v a l en t o r t ri v a le nt c at i on s su c h as ir o n s i gn i fi ca n tl y d ec r ea s e the a bs o rp t io n o f f l uo r oq u in o lo n es . c . Fl u or o qu i no lo n es m a y i nc r e as e p r ot h ro m b i n t im es in pa t ie n ts re c ei vi ng wa r f a r i n . d . C on c ur r e nt us e wi t h no n s t e r oi da l a n ti - in f la m m a t o r y d ru gs ( N S A I Ds ) m ay i n c re as e t h e r is k o f C N S s t im ul a ti on (s e i z u re s ). e . Fl u o ro q ui no l on es m a y p r o du c e p ro lo n ge d Q T in t e r v a l wh e n ad m i ni s te re d wi t h c is ap r i de an d a n ti a rr h y t h m i c a ge n ts . So m e flu o r oq u in ol o ne s ( i .e . , g a t if l o xa c in , m o xi f l o xa c in ) s h o ul d b e a vo id e d i n p a t ie n ts wi t h k no wn p r o lo n ga t io n o f th e Q TC i n t er v a l , wi t h u nc o r re ct ed h y p oc al c e m i a , o r wh o a r e re ce i v i ng c l as s I A o r c la s s II I an t ia r r h y th m i c d r u gs . f . S om e f l uo r oq u in ol o ne s h a v e b e en r ep o r te d t o en h a nc e t he ef f ec ts o f o ra l a n t ic oa g ul an t s . g . H yp e rg l y c e m i a a n d h y p o gl y c em i a h a v e b ee n rep o r t e d in pa t ie n ts r e c ei vi ng qu i no lo n es an d a n a n ti d ia be t ic ag e nt . Bl o od gl uc o s e m o ni t or i ng i s r e c om m e nd e d in s u c h pat i e nt s . h . D id a no s i n e s h o ul d b e a d m i ni s te r ed a t l ea st 4 hr a f te r ga t if l o xa c in . J . U ri n a r y tr a c t an t is ep t ic s . C o nc en t r at i ng in th e r e n al t ub ul es an d b l ad d er , t h es e a g en t s e xe r t l oc al a n t ib ac t e ri al e ff ec ts ; m os t do no t a c h i e v e b lo o d l e ve ls hi gh e no ug h to t rea t s ys t em ic in f ec ti o ns . H o we v e r , s om e n e w q u in o lo n e d er i v a ti v e s , s uc h a s c ip r o fl o xa c in an d of l o xa c i n, a re va lu a bl e i n t h e tr e at m e n t o f c e rt a in in f ec t io ns ou t si de t he u rin a r y t r ac t ( s e e II . H . 3. b ) . 1 . Me c h an is m o f a c ti on a . Me t h e na m i n e is h y d rol y z e d t o a m m on ia a nd for m a ld eh y d e i n a ci d ic u r in e ; f o r m a l de h y de is an t ib ac te r i al ag a in s t g ra m -p os i tiv e a n d g r am - ne ga t i v e o r g an is m s . Ma n d el ic an d h i pp u ri c a ci ds , wi t h wh ic h m e th en a m i ne is c om b in e d, p ro v i de s u p ple m en t a r y a n ti b ac te r i al ac t io n . b . N i tr o fu r a nt o in is b ac t er i o s t a ti c ; in hi g h co nc e n tr a t io n s, it m a y b e b a ct e r ic id al . P re s u m a b l y, i t d is r up t s b ac te r i al e n z ym e s ys t em s. c . Q ui n ol o ne s . N al i di xi c a c id an d i ts an a lo gs an d d e ri v a t i v es — o xo l i ni c a c id , n o r fl o xa c i n , c i n o xa c in , c ip r o fl o xa c i n , a nd ot h e rs— i n t er f e re wi t h D N A g yr a s e a n d i nh i bi t D N A s y n t he s is du r i ng ba c t e ri a l r e pl ic at i o n. d . F os fo m y c i n t r om e th am i ne is b ac t e ri ci d al i n the u ri n e a t t h e ra pe u ti c d o se s. Th e ba c t e r ic id al a c ti o n is be c a u se of it s in a c t i v a ti o n o f t h e e n zy m e e n ol p yr u v y l t r an s f e ra s e, t h e r eb y b lo ck in g t h e c o nd e ns a ti o n o f u r id in e d i ph o sp ha t e - N -a c e t y l gl uc os a m i ne wi t h p- e no l p y ru v a t e , o ne o f t he fi r s t ste p s i n ba ct e r ia l c el l wa l l s y nth e s i s .
2 . S pe c tr um o f ac t i v it y a . Me t h e na m i n e is ac t i v e a g ai ns t b o th g ra m -p os i tiv e a n d g r am - ne ga t i v e o r g an is m s ( e. g ., E n te r oba c te r , Kl e bs ie ll a , Pr o te us , P . a e ru gi n os a, S . a u r eu s ). b . N i tr o fu r a nt o in is a c ti v e a ga in s t m a n y g ra m -p os i ti ve an d g r am - n eg a ti v e o r g an is m s , i nc l ud in g s om e s t ra i ns of E . c ol i, S . a u r eu s , P r o te us , E n t e ro b ac t er , an d Kl eb s ie l la . c . Q ui n ol o ne s ( s e e I I . H ) ( 1 ) N al i di xi c ac i d a nd o xo l in ic ac id a re ac t i v e a ga i ns t m os t g r am - ne g at i ve o r g an is m s th a t c au s e u rin a r y t r ac t i n fe c t i on s , in c lu d in g P . m i r ab i li s , E . c oli , K l e bs ie l la , a n d E n te r ob ac t e r o r ga ni sm s . Th e se d ru g s a r e n ot e ff ec t i ve a g ai n st Ps e ud om o na s o rg a ni s m s . ( 2 ) N o r fl o xa c in is ac ti v e a g ai n s t E . c ol i, E n te r ob ac t e r, K le bs i el la , P ro t eu s , P . a e ru gi n os a , S . a u r eu s , C i t ro b ac t er , an d s om e S t r e p to c o cc us or g an is m s . ( 3 ) C in o xa c i n i s ac t i v e ag a in s t E . c ol i , Kl eb si e ll a , P . m i r ab i li s, P ro t e us vu l g a ri s , P r o te us m o r gan i i , S e r ra t ia , a n d C i t ro b ac t e r o r ga ni sm s . 3 . Th e r ap e ut ic us es a . Me t h e na m i n e a nd ni t ro f u r an t oi n a r e us e d t o p re v e n t a n d t r ea t ur i na r y t r a ct in f ec t io ns . P.935
b . Q u in ol o ne s a r e a dm ini s te r e d t o t r ea t ur i na r y t ra c t i n fe ct i on s ; so m e al s o a r e us ed in s uc h d is e as es as os te om ye l it is an d res p i ra t or y t r ac t i n fe c ti on s. c . Fo sf o m yc i n is in di c at ed f o r t r ea tm e n t o f u nc om p l ic a te d u r in a r y t ra c t i n f ec ti o n ( ac u te c ys t it is ) i n wo m en ca us ed b y s u s c e pt i bl e s t ra i ns o f E . co l i o r E . f a ec al is . 4 . P r ec au t io ns an d m on i to r i ng e ff ec ts a . Me t h e na m i n e m a y c aus e n a us ea , v om i ti n g, and d ia r r he a ; i n h ig h d os es , i t m a y l ea d t o u r in a r y t rac t ir r i ta t io n (e . g. , d y s u ri a, f r eq u en c y, h em a tu r ia , a l bu m i n u ri a ). S k i n r a s h a l s o m a y de v e l op . b . N i tr o fu r a nt o in m a y c au s e v a r i ou s a d v e rs e e f fec t s . ( 1 ) G I di s t r es s ( e .g . , n a us e a, v o m i t in g , d ia r r he a ) i s re la t i vel y c om m o n . ( 2 ) H y p e rs e ns it i v i t y re ac t i o ns to ni t ro f u ra n to i n m a y i n v o l v e t he s k in , l u ngs , b l oo d , o r l i v e r ; m an i fe s t at i o ns i nc l ud e f e v e r , c hi l ls , he pa t i ti s, ja u nd ic e , l e uk o pe ni a , h em ol y t i c a ne m ia , g r a nu lo c yt op e ni a, a n d p n eu m o ni t is . ( 3 ) A d ve rs e C N S e f fe c t s i n c l ud e h e ad ac h e, v e r ti go , an d d i zz i n es s. P o l yn eu r o pa t h y m a y de v e l op wi t h hi g h d os es o r in p a t i en ts wi t h r en al i m pa i rm en t . c . Q ui n ol o ne s ( 1 ) N al i di xi c ac i d a nd o xo l in ic ac id m a y ca u s e nau s ea , v om i ti ng , ab do m i na l p a in , u rt ic a ri a , p r u ri t us , s k i n ra sh , fe v e r , e os i no ph i li a , a nd C N S ef f ec ts , s uc h a s h e ad ac h e, di z z i n e s s , c on f us io n , ve r t ig o , d r o ws i ne s s , a n d we a k n es s .
( 2 ) C in o xa c i n m a y i n du c e n au s e a , v o m it in g , d ia r rh e a , h ea d ac he , i ns om n ia, s ki n ra s h , pr u r it us , a n d u r t ic a ri a . 5 . S ig n if ic a nt in t e ra c t i ons a . Th e ef f ec ts of m e t he na m in e a r e i nh i bi t ed b y a lk a li ni z i n g a ge n ts an d a re a n t ag o ni z e d b y ac e ta z o la m id e . b . N i tr o fu r a nt o in ab s o r p ti o n i s d ec r ea se d b y m a gn e s i um - c o n ta in i ng a n t ac id s . N i t ro f ur a nt o in b l oo d l e v e ls ar e i nc r e as e d an d u r in e l e v e ls d e c re as e d b y s u lf i np y r a z o n e a n d p ro b en ec i d, le ad i ng t o i nc r ea s e d t o xi c i ty a n d re du c e d th e ra p eu t ic e f f ec t i v en es s . c . Q ui n ol o ne s ( 1 ) C in o xa c i n u r in e l e v e ls a re de c re as e d b y p ro be n e c i d, r ed uc in g t h e r ap eu t ic ef f ec ti v e n es s . ( 2 ) N o r fl o xa c in is re n de re d le s s e f f ec ti v e b y an t ac i ds . K . Mi s c el l an e ou s a nt i ba c t e r ia l a g en t s 1 . A zt r eo n am ( A z ac t am ) . Th i s ag en t wa s th e f i rs t c om m e r c i a ll y a v a il ab l e m o no b ac ta m ( m o n oc y c lic β - la c ta m co m p o un d ) . I t r e se m b l es th e a m in o gl y c os id es in it s e ff i c a c y ag ai n st m a n y g r am - n eg a ti v e or g an is m s bu t d o es no t c a us e n ep h ro t oxi c i t y o r o to t o xi c it y . O t he r a d van t ag es of t hi s d rug i n cl ud e i t s a bi li t y t o p r es e r v e t he bo d y ' s n o rm a l gr a m -p o si ti ve an d a n a er o bi c f lo r a , ac t i v i t y a g ai n s t m a n y ge n ta m i c i n- r e si s ta n t o r ga ni s m s, and l a ck o f c r os s -a ll e r ge ni c i ty wi t h p e ni c i l li n . a . Me c h an is m o f a c ti on . A z t r e o n am i s b ac t er ic i dal ; it in h ib i ts b ac t e ri a l ce ll wa l l s yn th e s i s . b . S pe c tr um o f ac t i v it y . Th i s d ru g i s ac t i v e a g ai ns t m a n y g r am - ne g at i v e o r g an is m s , i nc l ud in g En te r o ba c te r an d P . ae r ug i no s a . c . Th e ra p eu t ic u s es . A z t r e o na m i s t he r a pe u ti c f or u r in a r y t ra c t i nf ec t io ns , s e pt ic em i a, s k in in f ec ti on s , l o we r r es pi r a to r y t r ac t in f ec ti o ns , a nd in t r a a b d om in al in f ec ti o ns re s u l t in g f r om g ra m - n eg a ti v e o r ga ni s m s. I nc re a s e d i n ci de n c e of P . a e ru g in os a re s i s ta n t t o a zt r eo n am ha v e be e n r e po r t ed . d . P r ec au t io ns an d m on i to r i ng e ff ec ts ( 1 ) A zt r eo n am s om e ti m es c a us es na us e a, v o m i t in g , a n d d ia r r he a . ( 2 ) Li ve r en z y m e s m a y in c r ea s e t ra ns i en t l y d u ri ng a zt r eo n am th e ra p y. ( 3 ) Th i s d ru g m a y in d uc e s k i n r a sh . 2 . C hl o r am ph e ni c o l. A nit r o b en z e ne d er i v a ti ve , thi s d r u g h as b r o ad ac ti vi ty a g ai n st r ic k e tt s i a as we l l a s m an y g r am -p o si ti ve a n d g r am - ne g at i v e o r g an is m s . It al s o is e f f ec t i v e a ga i ns t m an y am p ic i ll in - r es is t an t s t ra i ns o f H . i n f lu en za e . a . Me c h an is m o f a c ti on . C h l o ra m p h en ic o l is p ri m a r i l y b a ct e ri os t a ti c , a l t ho ug h i t m a y be ba c ter i c i d al ag a in s t a f e w b act e r ia l s t r ai ns . b . S pe c tr um o f ac t i v it y . Th i s ag e nt is ac ti v e ag a in s t r ic k et ts i a a nd a wi d e r a n ge o f b ac te r ia , in c l ud in g H . i n fl ue n za e, S al m on e ll a t y ph i , N e iss e r ia m e ni n gi ti d is , Bo r de t el la p e r t us s is , C lo s t r id i um , B. f r ag i li s , S . p y o g en es , an d S . p ne um o ni ae . P.936
c . Th e ra p eu t ic u s es . B ec a u s e of i ts t o xi c si d e e ffe c ts , c hl o r am ph en ic o l is u s ed on l y to s u p pr es s i nf e c ti on s t h at c a nn o t b e tr e a t ed ef f ec ti v e l y wi t h o t h e r a nt i bi o ti c s . S uc h i nf e c ti on s t yp ic a ll y i nc lu de ( 1 ) Typ h o id f e v e r ( 2 ) Me n i n go c o c c al in f ec ti o ns in c e ph a lo s p o ri n -a l le r g ic pa t ie n ts ( 3 ) S e ri ou s H . in f lu e n z ae i n fe c ti on s , p ar t ic ul a r l y in ce p ha l os po r in - al l e rg ic p a t ie n ts ( 4 ) A na e r ob ic in f ec ti o ns ( e . g ., t ho s e o ri gi n at i ng i n t he pe l vis o r i nt es t in e s ) ( 5 ) A na e r ob ic or m i xe d in f ec t io ns o f t he C N S ( 6 ) R ic k e t ts ia l i n fe c ti on s i n p r e gn an t pa t ie n ts , t e tr a c y c l i ne - al l er g ic p a ti e nts , a n d re na l l y i m p a ir e d p a tie n ts d . P r ec au t io ns an d m on i to r i ng e ff ec ts ( 1 ) C hl o r am ph e ni c o l c an c au s e b on e m ar r o w s u pp r e ss i o n ( d os e - re la t ed ) wi t h r e su l ti n g p an c y to p en i a ; r a re l y , th e d r ug le a ds t o a pl as t ic a n em ia ( no t r e l at e d t o d os e ) . ( 2 ) H y p e rs e ns it i v i t y re ac t i o ns m a y in c l ud e s ki n ras h a n d, in e xt r e m el y r a re c as e s, an g io ed em a o r an a p h y la xi s . ( 3 ) C hl o r am ph e ni c o l t h era p y m a y l ea d to g ra y b ab y s y n d ro m e in ne o na t es ( e s pe c i al l y p re m a t u re in fa n ts ) . Th is da ng e r ou s r ea c ti o n, wh i c h s t em s p a r tly f r o m i na d eq ua t e l i v e r d eto xi f i c a ti o n o f t h e d ru g , i s m an i fe s te d b y vo m i t in g , g r a y c yan os is , r ap id an d i r r eg u la r re s p i r at i on s, va s om ot o r c ol l ap se , a n d in s om e c as es de a th . e . S ig n if ic a nt in t e ra c t i ons ( 1 ) C hl o r am ph e ni c o l i nh ib i ts t he m e ta b ol is m o f ph e n y t oi n , t ol b ut am i de , c h lo r p ro p am id e , a nd di c u m a ro l , le a di n g t o p r ol ong e d a c t i on an d i n te ns i fi ed e f f ec t o f th es e d r ug s . ( 2 ) P he n ob a rb i ta l s ho r t en s c hl o r am ph e ni co l 's ha lf - l i fe , t h e re b y r ed uc in g i ts t h e r ap eu t ic ef f ec ti v e n es s . ( 3 ) P en ic i ll in s c an c a us e a n ti b io t ic a n ta g on is m . ( 4 ) A ce t am in op h en el e v at e s c hl o ra m p h en ic ol le v e l s a n d m a y c au s e to xi c i ty. 3 . C li n da m y c i n ( C l eo c i n ). Th i s a g en t h as es se n tia l l y re p la ce d l i nc om y ci n , t h e d r u g f r om wh ic h i t is d e r i v ed . It is us ed to t rea t sk in , re s p i ra t o r y tr a c t , a n d s of t - ti s s u e i nf ec t io ns c a us e d b y s t a ph yl oc occ i , p ne um oc o c c i, an d s t r ep t oc oc c i . a . Me c h an is m o f a c ti on . C l i n da m yc i n is ba c te r io s t a t ic ; i t b i nd s t o t h e 5 0 S r i b os om al s u bu n it , th e reb y s up p r es s i ng ba c te r ia l p r o te i n s ynt h es is . b . S pe c tr um o f ac t i v it y . Th i s ag e nt is ac ti ve ag a in s t m os t g r am - po s i t i ve an d m a n y a n ae r o bi c o rg a ni s m s , i nc lu di n g B . f ra gi l is . c . Th e ra p eu t ic u s es . B ec a u s e of i ts m a rk ed to xi c it y , c li n da m yc i n is us ed o n l y ag ai n s t in f ec ti o ns fo r wh i c h i t h as pr o v e n t o b e th e m os t e f fe ct i ve d ru g . Typ i c a l l y , s uc h i nf ec t io ns in c l u de ab d om in al an d f e m a l e g en i to u ri n a r y t r act i n f ec ti o ns c au s ed b y B. fr a g il is . d . P r ec au t io ns an d m on i to r i ng e ff ec ts
( 1 ) C li n da m y c i n m a y c aus e ra s h , na us ea , vom i ti ng , di a r rh e a, an d p s eu d om em b ra no us c o li ti s a s e v i de n c e d b y f e v e r, a b d o m i n al p a in , a n d b l oo d y s t o ol s . ( 2 ) B lo o d d y s c r as ia s ( e .g . , eo s i no p hi li a , t h ro m boc y t o pe n ia , l e uk op e ni a ) m a y o cc u r . e . S ig n if ic a nt in t e ra c t i ons . C li nd am y c i n m a y p o ten t i at e t h e e f fe c t s o f n e u ro m u s c u la r b l oc k i ng a g e nt s . 4 . D ap s on e . A m em b e r of t h e s u l fo n e c l as s , t hi s d r u g i s t he p ri m a r y a ge nt i n th e t r e at m e n t o f a l l f o rm s o f l e pr o s y . a . Me c h an is m o f a c ti on . D a p s o n e is ba c te r io s ta tic f or My c o b a c te r iu m l e p ra e ; i ts m ec h an is m o f a c ti on p ro b ab l y re s em ble s th a t o f t h e s u lf o na m i d es . b . S pe c tr um o f ac t i v it y . Th i s d ru g i s ac t i v e a g ai ns t M. l e p ra e ; h o we v e r , d ru g r e s is ta nc e d e v e lo ps in up t o 4 0% o f p at i en ts . D ap s on e a ls o h as s o m e a c ti vi t y a ga in s t P . c a ri n ii o r g an is m s a n d t he m a lar i a l p a ra s i t e P l as m o di um . c . Th e ra p eu t ic u s es ( 1 ) D a ps on e i s t he d ru g o f c h oi c e f or t r ea t in g l epr o s y . ( 2 ) Th i s a ge n t m a y b e u s e d to t re a t d e rm a ti ti s h e rp e t if o rm is , a s k in d i so r de r . ( 3 ) Ma l o p r im , a d a ps on e- p y r i m e t ha m i n e p r od uc t , i s v al u ab le in t he p r o ph y l a xi s an d t re a tm en t o f m a l ar i a. ( 4 ) D a ps on e , wi t h o r wi t h o u t t r im et h op r im , i s u sed f o r p r op h y la xi s o f P. c a r in ii pn e um on ia in pa t ie n ts wi t h A I D S. d . P r ec au t io ns an d m on i to r i ng e ff ec ts ( 1 ) H em o l y ti c a ne m i a c an oc c u r wi t h da il y d os es > 2 00 m g . O th e r a d v e rs e h e m a t ol o gi c a l e f fe c t s i nc l u de m e t he m o g lo bi n em ia a n d l eu k o p en ia . P.937
( 2 ) N a us ea , v om i ti ng , a nd a no r e xi a m a y d e vel o p. ( 3 ) A d ve rs e C N S e f fe c t s i n c l ud e h e ad ac h e, di zz i ne ss , ne r vo us n es s , l e t ha r g y , p a re s th es i as , an d ps y c ho s i s . ( 4 ) D a ps on e o c c as io n al ly r e s ul t s in a p o te n ti al l y l e t ha l m on on u cl eo s i s -l ik e s yn d r om e. ( 5 ) P a ra d o xi c al l y , t h is d ru g s om e ti m e s e xa c e r b ate s l e p ro s y . ( 6 ) O t he r ad v e r s e e ff ec ts in c l u de s k i n ra s h , pe r ip h e ra l n e u ro pa t h y , b l ur re d vi s i on , ti nn i tu s , h ep a ti ti s , a nd c h ol es t a ti c j au nd i c e . e . S ig n if ic a nt in t e ra c t i ons . P ro b en ec i d e le va t es bl o od le v e ls o f d ap s o n e, p o ss ib l y r es ul t in g i n t o xi c i t y . 5 . C lo f a z im in e i s p he n a zi n e d y e wi t h a n ti m yc o b ac t e ri al a nd an t ii n f la m m at o r y ac ti v i t y . a . Me c h an is m o f a c ti on . C l o f a z im in e a p pe a rs to bi n d p r e fe r en t ia ll y t o m yc o ba c t e ri a l D N A , in hib i t in g r e pl ic a ti o n a nd gr owt h . I t is ba c t e r ic id al a g ai n st M. l e p ra e , a nd it a p pe a rs to be ba c te r io s ta t ic ag a in st MA I .
b . S pe c tr um o f ac t i v it y . C l o f a z im in e i s ac t i ve a ga i ns t v a ri o us m yc ob ac t e ri a , i n cl ud i ng M. l e p ra e , M. t u b e rc ul os is , an d MA I . c . Th e ra p eu t ic u s es . C l of a z i m i n e is us ed t o t r ea t l e p ro s y an d a v a r ie t y of a t yp ic a l My c o b a c te r iu m in f ec t io ns . d . P r ec au t io ns an d m on i to r i ng e ff ec ts ( 1 ) P ig m e n ta t io n (p in k t o b r o wn i s h ) occ u rs in 75% - 1 00 % o f pa t ie n ts wi t hin a f e w we e k s . Th is s k i n d is c o lo r a ti on ha s l ed t o s e v e r e de p re s s io n (a n d s u ic id e ) . ( 2 ) U r in e , s we a t , a nd o the r b od y f lu i ds m a y be dis c o l o re d . ( 3 ) O t he r ef f ec ts in c l u de i c h t h y os is an d d r y n es s o f sk in (8 % - 28 % ) , r as h an d p r u r it us ( 1% - 5% ) , an d G I i n to l er a nc e ( e .g . , a b dom i na l /e pi g as t ri c p ai n , d i a r rh e a, na us e a, v o m i tin g ) i n 40 % -5 0 % o f p at i en t s . C l of a zim i ne s h ou l d b e t a ke n wi t h f o od . 6 . D ap t om y c in ( C ub ic i n) i s a un i qu e l ip o pe p ti d e an t i bi o ti c wi t h cl in ic a l a c ti vi t y i n t he t re a tm en t o f r es is ta n t g r am - po s i t i ve i nf ec t io ns . a . Me c h an is m o f a c ti on . D a p t om yc in is b ac t e ri c i da l ; u n li k e ot h e r a nt ib i ot ic s , i t bi n ds t o th e b ac t e ri al c e l l m em b ra ne , c a us in g de p ol a r i z at i on of t he m em b r an e p o te n ti al le a di n g t o i n hi bi t io n o f R N A , D N A , a n d p ro t ei n s yn t he s i s . b . S pe c tr um o f ac t i v it y . Th i s d ru g i s ac t i v e a g ai ns t va nc om yc i n -s us c ep t ibl e E . f ae ci u m a nd S . a u re us ( in c l u di ng m e t hi c i ll i n- re s is ta n t s t ra in s ) a s we l l a s o t h e r a er o bi c g r am - po s i ti v e b ac te r i a. c . Th e ra p eu t ic u s es . D ap t om y c in is in di c a t ed f o r t h e t r ea t m e n t o f c om p li ca t ed s k i n an d s k in s tr u c t u re in f ec t io ns and S . a u r eu s b ac t er em i a. I t i s n o t i nd ic a te d fo r th e t re a tm e nt o f p ne um o ni a. d . P r ec au t io ns an d m on i to r i ng e ff ec ts ( 1 ) R e po r te d s id e e f f ec ts a r e g e ne r al l y m i ld an d s e l f -l im i ti n g a nd in cl ud e c o ns ti p at i on , a b no r m a l l iv e r f u nc ti o n t es ts , an d re n al f ai lu r e . ( 2 ) C as es o f m y al g ia and / o r m us c l e we ak n es s , exa c e r b a t io ns of m y as th en i a g r a vi s, an d i nc r e as es i n c r e at i ne ph os p ho k i na s e ( C P K ) h a ve b ee n re p o rt ed . 7 . Li n e z ol id ( Z y v o x) i s a s y n t he t ic o xa z o l i di no n e th a t h as c l in ic a l us e i n the t r e a tm en t o f in f ec ti o ns c a u s e d b y a e ro b ic g r am - po s it i ve b ac t e ri a . a . Me c h an is m o f a c ti on . L i ne z o l id is b a ct e ri os t a tic ag a in s t E n te r oc oc c i and S t a p h ylo c o c c i, an d b a c te r i c i da l a g ai ns t St r e pt oc o c c i . L in e zo li d b in d s t o th e 2 3 S ri b os om al R N A of t he 5 0 S s u b un i t a nd th us in h ib i ts p ro t ei n s y n th es is . b . S pe c tr um o f ac t i v it y . Th e d r u g is ac ti v e a ga ins t va nc om yc i n - r es is ta n t E n t e ro c oc c us f ae c i um an d S . a u re us (m e th ic i ll in- s us ce p ti b le an d -r es is t an t s t r ai ns ) as we l l as o th e r a e r ob ic g ra m -p os i ti ve bac t e ri a . c . Th e ra p eu t ic u s es . L ine z o l id is in di c a t ed f o r t r ea t m e n t o f i n fe c t i on s c a us ed b y v a nc o -m y c i n - re s is ta n t E. fa ec i um , n os o c om ia l p n eu m o ni a c au s e d b y m e th ic il l in -s u s c ep t ib le a nd - re s i s ta n t s tr a in s o f S . a u re us , c om m u n it ya c qu i re d p n eu m o n ia c a us e d b y p en ic il li n -s us c ep ti b le s t r ai n s o f S . p n e um on ia e , a nd s k in and s k in s t r uc t u re in f ec ti o ns o wi n g t o t h es e o r g an is m s . d . P r ec au t io ns an d m on i to r i ng e ff ec ts
( 1 ) S a fe t y da t a a r e l im it ed . A d v e rs e e f fe c t s g en e ra l l y ar e m in o r (e . g. , g a st r o in t es ti n al c om p la int s , h e ad ac h e, r as h ). ( 2 ) Th r om b oc y t o pe ni a o r a s i gn i fi ca n t r e du ct i on in p la t el e t co u nt ha s b e en r e p o rt e d ( 2 .4 % ) a n d is re l a te d t o d u r at i on of th e ra p y. Mo n i t o r p la t el e ts i n p a t ie n ts wi t h r is k o f b l eed i ng , p re e xi s t in g t h ro m bo c y t op e ni a , p la t el e t d i so r de r s ( i nc lu di n g t ho s e P.938 c a us ed b y c o nc u rr e nt m e d ic a ti on s ) a nd in pa t ie nt s re c ei v i ng li n e zol id l a st i ng lo ng e r th an 2 wee k s . ( 3 ) Mye l o s u pp r es s i on o wi n g t o d i re c t b on e m a r row s u p p r es si on ha s b ee n r e p o rt e d r a r el y . e . S ig n if ic a nt in t e ra c t i ons . P at ie n ts r ec ei v i ng c o nc om i ta n t t h er a p y wi t h a d r en e r gi c o r s e ro t on e rgi c a g en ts o r c on s u m i ng m o r e t ha n 1 0 0 m g o f t yr a m in e a da y m a y e xp e r i e nc e a n e nh a nc em en t o f t he dr u g 's e ff ec t o r s e r ot o ni n s y n d ro m e . 8 . Q u in u pr is t in / da l fo p ri s ti n ( S y ne r c i d ) i s a n i nt r a ve n o us s t re p to g r am in a n t ib io t ic c om p os ed of two c h e m i ca ll y d is ti n c t c om p ou n ds . a . Me c h an is m o f a c ti on . Q u i n up r is t in bi nd s t o th e 5 0 S s ub u ni t , a nd d a l fo p ri s ti n b in ds ti g ht l y t o t he 70 S ri b os om al pa rt i c l e . b . S pe c tr um o f ac t i v it y . S y n e r c id ha s ac t i vit y a ga i ns t St a ph yl oc oc c i s p p ., i n cl ud i ng r es is ta n t s t ra ins . Th is c o m b in a ti o n h as b e t te r ac ti v i t y a ga in s t E . f a ec i um th an E n te r oc oc c u s fa ec al is an d i s a ls o ac t i v e a ga i ns t s om e g r am n e g at i ve o r ga n is m s a n d a n a er o be s ; ac t i v it y h as n o t b e en s h o wn ag a in s t E n t e ro b ac t er i ac ea e . c . Th e ra p eu t ic u s es . I t i s u s e d fo r t re a tm en t o f van c om yc in - r es is ta n t E . f a ec i um ( V R EF ) ba c t e r em i a a nd s k i n a n d sk i n s t ru c tu r e i n fe c t i on s c au s e d b y S . a ur e us a n d S . p y og e n es . d . P r ec au t io ns an d m on i to r i ng e ff ec ts ( 1 ) R e po r te d s id e e f f ec ts a r e g e ne r al l y m i ld an d in f us i on r el a te d : p ai n , e r y t h em a , o r i t c h in g a t th e in f us io n s it e ; i nc r ea se s i n p u ls e a nd di as t ol ic p r e ss u re ; h e ad ac h e; na us e a o r vom i ti ng ; a n d d ia rr h e a . I t m a y i nc r e as e l i ve r f u nc t io n te s t s s li gh t l y . ( 2 ) D r ug in t e ra c t i on s a r e a r es ul t o f c y t o ch r om e P 4 5 0 3 A 4 i nh i bi t io n . P o t e nt i al dr u g i nt e r ac ti on s i nc l ud e c y c lo s p o ri n , ni f e di pi n e, an d m id a z o la m . ( 3 ) C o nc om it a nt us e o f m e di c a t io ns th a t m a y p ro l on g Q Tc in t e r val s h ou ld b e a vo i d ed . ( 4 ) Mi l d t o li f e -t h r ea t en ing ps e ud om em b r an ou s c ol i ti s h as be e n r e po r te d . 9 . R i fa xi m i n . Is a s em i -s y n t h e ti c a n ti bi o ti c t h at is s t ru c tu r al l y r el a te d t o r i f am yc in . a . Me c h an is m o f a c ti on . I t in h ib i ts b a c t e ri a l R N A s yn t he si s b y b in d in g t o th e b e t a -s ub un i t o f b ac t e ri al D N A - d e pe n de n t R N A pol y m e r as e. b . S pe c tr um o f ac t i v it y . Th i s no n -s y s t em ic al l y abs o r be d d r ug ha s a c t i v i t y a g ai n st bo t h e nt e r ot o xi g e n ic an d e n te r oa g g re g at iv e s t r ai ns of Es ch e r ic hi a c o li .
c . Th e ra p eu t ic u s es . R i fa xi m i n is u se d i n th e t r ea t m e n t o f Tr a v e le r ' s d i a r rh e a wi t h no n in v a s i v e s tr a in s o f E. c o li . Hi g h r e s is ta nc e ra t es h a v e b e e n r ep o r te d a f t er 5 d ay s o f t r e at m e n t . d . P r ec au t io ns an d m on i to r i ng e ff ec ts . B ec au s e of i t s li m i t ed s ys t em ic a b so r p ti on , ad v e r s e ef f ec t s a r e f e w b u t in cl u de c o n s t i pa t io n , v o m i t in g , f l a tu l en c e an d h e ad ac he. 1 0 . Sp ec t in om y c in . A n am i no c y c l it o l a ge n t r e la t ed t o t h e am i no gl y c os id e s, t h is an t ib i ot ic is u s ef u l ag a in s t p en ic il l in - r es is ta nt s t ra in s o f g o no r r he a . a . Me c h an is m o f a c ti on . S p e c t i no m yc i n is ba c te r io s ta t ic ; i t s el ec t i v el y i n hi b it s p r ot e in s y nt h es is b y b in d in g t o th e 3 0 S r i b o s o m a l s ub u ni t . b . S pe c tr um o f ac t i v it y . Th i s ag e nt is ac ti ve ag a in s t va ri ou s g r am - ne g at i ve o r g an is m s . c . Th e ra p eu t ic u s es . S p ec t in om yc in is us ed on l y to t r ea t g o no co c c al i n f ec ti o ns i n p a ti e nt s wi th p en ic il l in al le r g y o r wh e n s uc h i n fe c ti on st em s f r o m p en ic il l in as e -p r o duc i ng go n oc oc c i ( P P N G ) . d . P r ec au t io ns an d m on i to r i ng e ff ec ts . B ec au s e s p e c t i no m yc i n is gi ve n onl y a s a si ng l e -d os e I M i n j ec t i o n, it ca us es f e w a d ve rs e e f f ec ts . Na us e a, vo m i ti n g, u rt ic a r ia , c hi ll s , d i z z i ne ss , a n d i ns om ni a oc cu r r a re l y . 1 1 . Te li t h ro m yc i n ( K e te k ) i s t he f ir s t o f a ne w c l as s o f a n ti m i c ro bi a ls c al l ed t h e k e to li d es . I t i s a n o ra l s em is yn t he t ic de r i v a tive o f er yt h r om y c in . a . Me c h an is m o f a c ti on . Te l i t h ro m yc i n m a y b e bac t e ri ci d al or ba c te r io s ta tic ; i t in h ib it s b ac t e ri al p ro t ei n s y n t he si s . b . S pe c tr um o f ac t i v it y . Th i s d ru g i s ac t i v e a g ai ns t m a n y a e r ob ic an d a n a er o bi c g r am - po s i ti v e o r g an is m s , i nc l ud in g m ult i d ru g - re s i s t a nt S . p n e um on ia e , s om e g r am - n e ga t i ve o r ga n is m s a s we l l a s a t y pi c al p a th o gen s . c . Th e ra p eu t ic u s es . Te l it h r om y c in is i n di c a t ed f or t h e t r ea tm e n t o f m i l d t o m o de r a te c om m u n it y - a c qu i r ed pn e um on i a o nl y . Th e F D A r em o v e d t h e p r e vi ou s 2 ap p ro v e d i n dic a ti o ns a n d a dd e d a b l ac k b o x wa r n i n g . P.939
d . P r ec au t io ns an d m on i to r i ng e ff ec ts ( 1 ) G I ef f ec ts ( in c l ud i ng d i a r rh e a, na us e a, an d v om i ti n g) we r e t he m os t c om m o n s id e ef f ec ts fo l lo we d b y d i z zi ne s s an d v is u al di st u r ba nc es (s uc h a s d i pl o pi a a n d b lu r r ed an d a b no r m a l vis io n ); s e r io us li v e r to xi c i t y h as b e en r e p o rt e d. ( 2 ) C r os s -s en s i t i v it y wi t h t h e o t he r m ac r ol i de s occ u rs . ( 3 ) C o nc om it a nt us e o f dr u g s o r c on d it io n s t ha t m a y p r o lo ng t he Q Tc i n t er va l s h ou ld be a v oi de d . ( 4 ) C o nt r ai n di c a t ed in pat i e nt s wi t h m yas t he ni a g ra v i s , h ep a ti t is , o r j a un d ic e. e . S ig n if ic a nt in t e ra c t i ons ( 1 ) C o -a dm i ni s t r a ti o n o f t e l it h ro m yc i n wi t h e it h e r c is a p ri de o r p im o z id e i s c o nt r a in di c a t ed .
( 2 ) C o nc om it a nt ad m i n is t r a t io n o f d r u gs m e ta bo l iz e d b y c yto c hr om e P4 5 0 3 A 4 in pa t ie n ts wi t h t e li th r o m yc i n s h o ul d b e c lo se l y m o n it o r ed . ( 3 ) P a ti en t s o n b ep r id il , m es o r id a z in e , t e r fe n ad ine , t hi o ri da zi n e , o r zi p r a si do n e s h o ul d n o t be p r es c r ib e d t el i th r om y c in o wi n g t o th e h ig h p o t en t ia l f o r t o xi c i t y . ( 4 ) Th i s a ge n t h as a hi gh p ot e nt i al to in t e ra c t wi t h m a n y d ru gs . C he c k p r o du c t i nf o rm a ti on f o r th e m os t c u r re n t i n te r ac tio n in f o rm at i on . 1 2 . Ti ge c y c l in e ( Ty g a c i l ). A n i n t ra v e n ou s g l yc ylc yc l in e a n ti bi o ti c d e v el o ped a s a se m i s y nt h et ic an a log u e o f te t ra c yc l i ne wi t h a b r oa d s pe c t r um of a c ti vi t y. a . Me c h an is m o f a c ti on . Ti g e c y c l i ne is b ac t e ri os ta t ic ; i t in hi b it s b ac t e ri al p r o t ei n s y n th es is b y r e ve r s ib l y bi nd i ng to t he 30S r i bo so m e s u b un i t. b . S pe c tr um o f ac t i v it y . Th e d r u g is ac ti v e a ga ins t va nc om yc i n -s us c ep t ibl e E . f ae c al is , m et h ic il li n - res is t an t S . e pi d er m i d is , an d S . a u re us (m e th ic i ll ins us c ep ti b le an d - re s i s t an t s t r ai ns ) as we l l a s s om e g r am - ne g a ti v e ae r obe s a n d a n ae r ob es . c . Th e ra p eu t ic u s es . Ti ge c y c l i ne is i n di c a t ed fo r t h e tr e at m e n t o f c om p li ca t ed in t r a- a bd om i n al in f ec t io ns c a us ed b y E . c o li , v a nc om y ci n s us c ep ti b le E . f a ec al is , S . a u re us (m e th ic i ll in - s us c e p ti b le s t r ai ns on l y) an d B . f r ag i li s . A ls o i nd ic a ted f o r t he t re a tm e nt of c om p li c a t ed s ki n a n d s k i n s t r uc t ur e i n fe c ti on s c au s e d b y E . f ae c a l is ( van com y c in - s u sc ep t ib l e s t ra ins ) , S . p yo ge n es a n d S . au r eu s (m et h ic il li n -s us ce p ti b le a nd - re s i s ta n t s tr a in s ). d . P r ec au t io ns an d m on i to r i ng e ff ec ts . ( 1 ) S a fe t y da t a a r e l im it ed . S id e e f fe c ts a r e g e ne ra l l y m i ld wi t h G I d i st u r ba nc es — f or e xa m pl e , n a us ea ( 22 % -3 5 %) an d vom i ti n g ( 1 3% - 19 % )— t h e m os t c om m o nl y r e por t e d . Th e m e c h a ni s m o f th e se r ea c t i on s is u n ce r t ai n . ( 2 ) Ma y c a us e pe rm a ne nt d is c o lo r a ti o n o f t he t eet h s i m i la r to t he t e t r ac yc li ne s . ( 3 ) C a ut io n i n p a ti e nt s wi t h a hi s t o r y o f h yp e rs ens i ti vi t y r ea c ti on s t o t e t r ac yc li ne s . ( 4 ) P ho t o to xi c r ea c ti o ns , p a nc r ea t it is , a n d i nc r eas es in B U N m a y oc c u r . e . S ig n if ic a nt in t e ra c t i ons . C lo s e l y m o ni t o r t he p ro t h r om bi n t im e o r i n t er n a ti on a l s e ns i ti v i t y in d e x ( I N R ) i n p a ti en t s on wa r f a r in d ur i ng c o nc om it a nt a dm i n is t ra t io n of ti g ec yc li ne . 1 3 . Tr im e th o p ri m . A s ubs t i tu t ed p y ri m i d in e , t r im et h o p ri m is m os t c om m o n ly c om b in e d wi t h s u l fa m e t ho xa z o l e ( a s u lf o na m i d e d i s c u s s e d i n I I . F) in a p r e pa r a ti o n c a l le d c ot r im o xa z o l e . H o we v e r , i t m ay b e us e d al o ne f or c e r tai n u r i na r y t r ac t i n fe c t i on s . a . Me c h an is m o f a c ti on . Tr i m e t ho p ri m i nh i bi ts di hy d r o f o la t e r ed u ct as e , t hus b l oc ki n g b ac te r ia l s y n t hes is o f f ol ic ac id . b . S pe c tr um o f ac t i v it y ( 1 ) Tr i m e t ho p r im i s a c t i ve a ga in s t m o s t g r am -n e ga t i ve a n d g r am - po s i ti v e o r g an is m s . Ho we v e r , d r ug r es is t an ce m a y d e v el op wh e n t hi s d ru g i s u s e d a l on e .
( 2 ) Tr i m e t ho p r im -s ul f am e t h o xa z o l e i s a ct i v e a g ain s t a va ri e t y of o rg a ni s m s , i n cl ud i ng S . p ne um o ni a e, N . m e ni n gi t id is , a n d C or yn e b ac t e ri um di ph t he r i ae ; s om e s t r ai ns of S . a u re us , S ta p h ylo c o cc us e p id er m i di s , P . m i r a bi li s , E n t e ro b ac t er , S al m o ne l la , S hi g el la , Se r r a ti a , a nd K l eb si el l a s p p . ; a nd E . c o li . ( 3 ) Th e t ri m e t ho p ri m -s ul fa m et h o xa z o l e c om bi n at io n i s s y n e rg is t ic ; m an y o r g an is m s r es is ta n t t o on e c om p on e nt a re s u s c ep t i bl e t o t h e c om bi na t io n. c . Th e ra p eu t ic u s es ( 1 ) Tr i m e t ho p r im m a y be u s e d a l on e o r in c om b ina t i on wi t h s u lf am e th o xa z o l e t o t r eat u nc om pl ic a te d u r i na r y tr a c t i nf ec t io ns ca us e d b y E . c ol i, P . m i ra bi l is , a nd K l e bs ie l la an d En t er o ba c t e r o rg an is m s . ( 2 ) Tr i m e t ho p r im -s ul f am e t h o xa z o l e i s t he r a pe u tic f or ac u te go n oc oc c a l u r e t hr i ti s , ac u te e xa c e rba t i on of c h r on ic b ro nc h it i s , s h ig el l os is , a nd S a l m o ne l la in f ec ti o ns . P.940
( 3 ) Tr i m e t ho p r im -s ul f am e t h o xa z o l e m a y be gi v e n a s p r op h y l ac ti c o r s u pp r es s i v e th e r ap y i n P. c ar i ni i p ne u m o ni a . I t i s t h e d r u g o f c ho ic e f o r t he t r e a tm en t o f S te n ot r op h om o na s m a l to p hi li a i n fe c tio n s . d . P r ec au t io ns an d m on i to r i ng e ff ec ts ( 1 ) Mo s t ad v e r s e e ff ec t s i n v o l v e t h e s k in ( po ss ib ly f r o m s en s i t i zat i on ) . Th e s e i nc l ud e ra s h , p r u rit u s , a nd e xf o l ia t i v e d e rm a t i ti s. ( 2 ) R a re l y , t ri m e t ho p ri m -s u lf am e th o xa z o l e c a us es bl o od d ys c ra s i a s ( e .g . , a c ut e h em o l y ti c a n em ia , l e uk o pe ni a , t h ro m b o c y top e ni a , m e th em o gl o bi ne m i a , a g ra n ul o c y to s i s , a pl as ti c a ne m ia ) . ( 3 ) A d ve rs e G I e ff ec t s i nc l ud in g n a us ea , v om i ti n g, a nd ep i ga s t r ic di st r es s g l os si t is m a y oc c u r . ( 4 ) N e on a te s m a y d e v el op k e r n ic te r us . ( 5 ) P a ti en t s wi t h A I D S s o m et im es s u f fe r fe ve r , ra s h, m a la is e , a nd p a nc yt o pe n ia du r in g t r im e t h op r im th e ra p y . 1 4 . Va nc om y c in . Th is gly c o p ep t id e d es t r o ys m o s t g r am - po s i t i ve o r ga ni s m s . a . Me c h an is m o f a c ti on . V a n c o m yc i n is ba c te r ic ida l ; i t i n hi bi t s b ac te r i al c el l wa l l s yn th e s i s . b . S pe c tr um o f ac t i v it y . Th i s d ru g i s ac t i v e a g ai ns t m os t gr am - p os it i ve o r g an is m s , i nc l ud in g m e th i c i ll i n- r es is t an t s t r ai ns o f S . a u re us an d E n t e ro c oc c i . c . Th e ra p eu t ic u s es . V a nc om y c i n us u al l y i s re s e rve d f o r s er i ou s i nf ec t io ns , e s pe ci a ll y t ho s e c a us ed b y m e th ic il l in - r es is ta n t s t a p h ylo c o cc i . I t i s p a r ti c ul a rl y us e fu l i n p a tie n ts wh o a re al l e rg ic to p e ni ci l li n o r c e ph a lo s p o ri ns . Ty p i c a l u s es i nc l ud e e n do ca r di t is , os te om y e l it is , an d s t ap h yl oc oc c a l p ne um o ni a . ( 1 ) O r a l v a nc om y c in is va l ua b le in th e tr e at m en t o f an t ib i ot ic - in d uc ed p s eu d om em b ra no us c o li ti s c au s e d b y C . di f f ic il e o r S . a u r eu s e nt e r oc ol it is . B e c au se v a nc om y c in is n o t a bs o r be d a f te r o ra l ad m in is t r at io n , i t i s n o t
u s ef u l f o r s y s t em ic in f ec t i o ns . B e ca us e o f re s i s t an c e, t he C en t e rs fo r D i s ea se C o nt r ol an d P rev e n t i on ( C D C ) re c o m m en d va nc om yc in as th e s ec o nd c h oi c e t o m e t r oni d a z ol e fo r C . d if f ic il e i n fe c ti o ns . ( 2 ) B ec au s e 1 g p ro v i des ad e qu a te bl o od le v e ls f o r 7 -1 0 d a y s, I V va n c om y c in is p a r ti c u la r ly u s e fu l i n t h e t r ea tm e nt o f an ep h r ic p a ti e nt s wi th g r a m - p os it i v e b a c t e ri a l in f ec t io ns . d . P r ec au t io ns an d m on i to r i ng e ff ec ts ( 1 ) O t o to xi c i t y m a y a ri s e; n ep h r ot o xi c i t y i s ra r e bu t c a n o c c u r wi t h hi g h d o se s. ( 2 ) V an c o m y c i n m a y c a us e h y p e rs e ns it i v i t y re a c t io n s , m a ni f es t ed b y s uc h s ym p to m s a s a n ap h y la xi s an d s ki n ra s h . ( 3 ) Th e r ap e ut ic le v e ls pea k a t 20 - 40 µ g /m L. Th e tr o u gh is < 1 5 µ g /m L . ( 4 ) R e d m a n ' s s y nd r om e m a y oc c u r . Th is i s f ac i al f l us hi n g a nd h y po t en si on o wi n g t o t oo r ap i d i nf us io n of t he dr u g. I nf us i on s h ou l d b e o v e r a m i ni m um o f 60 m i n f o r a 1- g d o s e . ( 5 ) I V s ol u ti on s a r e v e r y i r r i ta t in g t o th e v ei n . e . V an co m y c i n - re s i s t a nt e n t e ro co c c i. A fe w s t r ai ns o f va nc om y c i n- r es is t ant e n t e ro co c c i a r e s u s c ep t ib l e t o t e ic op l an in ( in v e s ti g a ti on a l b y H o ec hs t Ma r i o n R o us s e l ) , li n e z ol id ( Z y v o x) , o r q ui n up r is t in / d al f op r is ti n ( S yne r c i d ) . Th e s e a g en t s m a y b e u s e f u l f o r m u l ti p le - d ru g - re s i s ta n t E . fa ec i um .
III. Systemic Antifungal Agents A . D e f in it i on . Th es e a g en t s t r ea t s y s t em ic a n d l oc a l f un g al (m yc o ti c) i n f ec ti o ns — di s e as es th at r es is t t re a tm en t wi t h a nt i b ac te r i al d r u gs . B . A m p h ot e r ic in B (F u ngi z o n e ) . Th i s p ol ye n e a nt if u n ga l a n ti bi o ti c i s t h e r ap eu t ic fo r v a r io us fu n g al i n fe c ti on s t h at f re qu e n tl y p r o v ed fa t al be f o re t h e d r u g b ec am e a v a il a bl e . I t is u se d i nc r e as in gly i n t he em pi r ic tr e at m ent o f se ve r el y i m m un oc om pr o m is ed pa t ie n ts i n c e rt ai n c l in ic al s i t ua t io ns . 1 . Me c h an is m o f a c ti on . A m p ho t e ri ci n B is bo t h fu n gi s ta t ic i n c li n ic al l y o b t ai ne d c o nc en t r at io n s a n d m a y b e fu n gi ci da l i n t h e p r es en c e o f s us c ep ti b le o rg a ni s m s . It b i nd s t o s te r ol s i n t h e fu n g al c el l m em b ra n e, t h e r eb y i nc r ea s i ng m e m b r a ne pe r m e a bi li t y a nd pe r m it t in g l ea k ag e o f i n t ra c el lu l ar c o n te n ts . O th e r m ec h an is m s m a y be i n v o l v e d as we l l . P.941
2 . S pe c tr um o f ac t i v it y . A m p ho t e ri ci n B is a b ro ad - s pe c t r um an t if u ng a l a g e nt wi t h a c ti v i t y ag a ins t As p er g il lu s , B l as to m yc es , C an d id a s pp . ( a l bi ca ns , k r us e i t r op ic ali s , a nd gl a b ra t a) , C r y p toc oc c us , C o cc id io i de s, H i s to p la s m a , P a ra c o c c idi o id es , P h yc om y c e te s ( m u c o r) , an d Sp o ro t h ri x. I t i s a l so us ef u l a ga i ns t s om e p r o to z o a s uc h a s L ei shm a ni a , N a eg l er i a, an d A c a nt h am oe b a. 3 . Th e r ap e ut ic us es . Am p h o te r ic in B i s t h e m o s t e f f ec t i v e a nt i fu n ga l a ge nt i n th e t r e at m e n t o f s y s tem ic f un ga l i n fe c ti on s , esp e c i al l y in i m m u no c o m p r om is e d p ati e n ts .
a . I t is t he t re a tm en t o f c h o ic e f o r p u lm on a r y As pe r g il l us i n fe ct i on s ; B l a st om y c es in f ec ti o ns , wh i c h a re li f e- t h re a te n ing wi t h A I D S o r C N S i n vo l vem e nt ; d e ep - o rg a n i n fe c ti on s wi t h C a nd i da ; C o cc i di oi d es i n fe c ti on s wi t h s e v e re pu lm o na r y i nv o l v e m en t o r wi t h di s s em i na t ed no nm e ni ng e al i m m u no c o m p e te n t o r i m m u no c o m p r om is e d p at i en t s ; a ll C r yp to c o c c us i n f ec ti o ns ; d is s e m i na t ed H i s to p la sm a i nf e ct i on s in v o l vi n g C N S o r i m m u no s u p pr e s s ed pa t ien t s ; Ma l a ss e zi a f u rf u r f un g em i a; pu lm o na r y an d e xt r a p u l m o na r y P h y c om yc e te s (m uc or m y co s i s ); Pe n ic il l iu m m a r n ef f ei ; a n d e xt r a c u t an e ou s S p o ro t hri x. b . Th i s a ge n t m a y b e u s e d to t re a t c occ i di oi d al ar t h r i ti s . c . To p ic al pr e pa r a ti on s ar e gi v e n to e ra di ca t e c uta n e ou s a nd m uc o cu t an eo us c a n di di as is . d . I t m a y b e u s e d a s e m p i r ic th e ra p y in f eb r il e , ne u t r op en ic pa t ie n ts . e . I t is us ed as s e c o nd a ry p r o p h yla xi s o f f u ng al in f ec t io ns in H I V -p o si ti ve p a t ie n ts , g ua r d in g a ga i ns t re c ur r e nc e o f i nf e c t ion . f . I t m a y b e u s e d p r o ph y la c ti c a l l y i n n e ut r o pe ni c c a n c e r pa t ie n ts a n d b on e m a r ro w t r a n s p la n t o r s o lid - o r ga n t r a ns pl a nt pa t ien t s t o re du c e t he in ci d enc e o f A sp e rg il l us a n d C a nd id a in f ec ti o ns . 4 . P r ec au t io ns an d m on i to r i ng e ff ec ts . B ec au s e am p ho t e ri c i n B c a n c au s e m a n y s e ri o us a d v e rs e e ff e c ts , i t s ho ul d be ad m i ni s te r e d i n a h os p it a l s e t ti ng — a t l ea s t d ur i ng th e in i ti al t he r ap e ut ic s t ag e . Th e a d ve rs e e f fe c t s a r e di vi de d i n to in f us io n r e a c t i on s a nd ot h e rs . a . I nf us i on re a c t io n s oc c u r wh i l e t h e d ru g i s b ei ng a dm in is t e re d a nd in c l ud e f e ve r , s h ak in g c hi ll s , h y po t e ns io n , a no r e xi a , na us e a , v om i ti ng , he ad ac h e , d ys p ne a , a nd t ac h y pn e a. P r e m e di c at io n wi t h a ce ta m in o ph en an d d i ph e nh y d r am i ne ha s b ee n he lp f ul in p ro p h y la xi n g a g a in s t i nf us i on r e a ct i on s . In a dd it i on , h y d r o c o r ti so n e 1 0 -5 0 m g m a y b e a d de d t o th e i n f us io n a s p r op h y la xi s ag a in s t i nf us i on - r el a te d re a c t i on s . Me p e r i di ne 25 -5 0 m g IV is ef f ec t i v e t r ea tm e n t o f ac ti v e sh ak in g c hi ll s / ri go r s . Me p e r i di n e is a l so ef f ec t i v e i n p ro p h y la xi s o f ri g o rs . b . N ep h r ot o xi c i t y f re q uen t l y oc c u r s. D os ag e a d jus t m e n t o r d r ug d i sc on t in u at i on or c h an gi n g t o a li p os om al am pho t e ri ci n B p r od uc t m a y be n e ce ss a r y a s re na l i m p a ir m e nt p ro g re s s es . c . El e ct r ol y t e ab no r m a l it ie s , i nc lu d in g h yp ok a le m ia , h y po m a g ne s e m i a , a nd h yp o ca lc em i a, a re c om m o n . Mo n i to r an d re pl ac e e l ec t r ol y t es as ne ed e d. d . N o rm oc y t ic , no rm oc h ro m ic a n em ia wi l l d e ve lop o v e r l o ng - te r m u s e (1 0 we e k s ) . Mo n i to r he m a t oc r i t pe r io d ic al l y. e . B r on c h os p as m , wh e e zi n g , a nd an a ph y l a xi s or a n a ph y l ac t oi d r e ac ti o ns h a ve oc c u r r ed . A t es t d os e o f 1 m g o f am p ho t er ic i n B i s o f te n a dm in is t e red b e f o re in f us io n o f l a rg e q u a nt i ti es of t he dr u g. f . P hl e bi t is o r th r om b op hl e bi t is is re po r t ed wi t h c o n ve n ti o na l a m p ho t e ri c in B . H e pa r i n ( 50 0 - 10 0 0 U ) c an be ad d ed t o t he in fu s io n t o a i d i n p r e ven t ion . g . C N S ef f ec ts in c l u de he a d ac he , p e ri p he r al ne ur o p a th y , m a la is e , d e p re ss io n , s ei z u r e , m ya s th e ni a , a nd ha l lu c i na t io n s .
h . E le va t ed li v e r t ra ns am i n as es , a s pa r ta t e a m i no tr a n s f e ra s e ( A S T) , al a ni ne a m in o t ra ns f er a s e ( AL T) , a l k a li n e p ho s p h at as e , b ili r u bi n , γ g l u ta m y lt r a ns fe r as e ( G GT) , a n d l ac t a te de h y d ro ge n as e (L D H ) m a y oc c u r . i . Am p ho t e ri c i n B p ar e nte r a l u s e s h ou ld be m i xe d o n l y i n d e xt r o s e 5% in wa t e r ( D 5W ) a n d s h o ul d b e p ro t ec te d fr om li g ht . 5 . S ig n if ic a nt in t e ra c t i ons . O t he r n e ph r o to xi c d r ug s (a m i n og l y co s i d es , c a p re om y c in , c ol is t in , c is p la t in , c y c lo s p o ri n e, m et h o xyf l u r a n e, pe n ta m i d ine , p o l ym yxi n B , an d v an c om y c in ) m a y c a us e a d di t iv e n e ph r o to xi c i t y . 6 . Am p ho t e ri c i n B li p id c o m pl e x ( A b e lc e t) , am ph ot e r ic in B c h ol es t e ro l s u lf a te c o m p le x ( A m p h o te c ) , a nd li p os om al am pho t e ri c i n B ( A m Bi s o m e ) o f f e r a lt e r na t i v e f o rm ul a ti o ns of am ph o te r ic i n B for t h e t r ea tm e n t o f s e ve r e f u n ga l i n fe c t i on s i n p at i en t s wh o a r e i n to le r a nt of o r wh o s e di se a s e i s r e f r ac t o r y t o c o n v en t io nal t r ea tm e nt . P.942
C . E c hi no c a n di ns . Th r ee e c h i no c a n di ns a re ap p ro v e d in th e U S : c a ps of u ng i n ( C a nc id as ) , m ic a fu n gi n ( Myc a m i n e ) an d a n id u la f un g in ( E ra xi s ) . Th e s e a g en t s h a v e a b r oa d s p ec t ru m o f a c ti v i t y ag a in s t C a nd i da s p ec ie s wi t h m ic a fu ng i n a nd an i du l a fu ng i n h a v in g s im il a r MI C s t h a t ar e g e ne r al l y l o we r t h an th e MI C o f c ap s of u ng i n. 1 . Me c h an is m o f a c ti on . C a s po f un g in wo r k s b y c au s in g f u ng a l c e ll wa l l l ys is . B y be i ng a n on c o m p e t it i v e i n hi bi t o r o f β ( 1 ,3 ) s yn th as e , wh i c h is an e ss e nt i al c om p on e nt o f fu n g al c el l wa l l s yn th es is , i t c au s e s o s m ot ic i n st a bi li t y wi t h i n t he f ung u s a nd fu n ga l c el l wa l l ly s i s . 2 . S pe c tr um o f ac t i v it y . E c h in oc a nd in s h a v e f u ngi c id al ac t i v it y a ga i ns t C a n d id a s pe c i es an d f u ng i s t a ti c a c t i vi t y a g ai ns t A s p e rg il l us s pe c i es . Al l t h r e e a ge n ts i n t h is c l as s ap p ea r to ha v e go o d ac t i vi t y i n v it r o f o r m os t i s ol a te s o f Ca n di da s p ec i e s , in c l u di ng t ho s e th a t a r e ei t he r Am ph o te r ic i n-B o r f lu co n a z ol e a nd i tr a c on a z o l e- r es is t an t , s uc h as C . g l ab r a ta . 3 . Th e r ap e ut ic us es . Al l t h r e e a ge n ts a r e i n di c a te d fo r th e tr e a tm en t o f e s op h ag ea l c an d id i as is a . C as p of u nf i n a nd an idu l a fu ng i n a r e a ls o i nd ic at e d fo r th e t r e at m e n t o f c a nd i de m i a a nd o th e r i nfe c ti o ns c a us ed b y Ca n did a s p ec ie s , in c l u di n g i n t ra b do m i n al ab s c es s e s a n d p e ri t on i ti s . b . C as p of u ng in m a y a ls o b e u s e d fo r th e t r e at m en t o f c a n di da l p l eu r al s p ac e i nf e c t io n s , em pi r ic t r e at m e n t o f p r es um e d fu n g al i n fe c ti on s i n n e u t ro pe n ic p a ti e nt s , a nd t r ea tm e nt o f i n v as i ve as p e rg il l os is i n p a ti e nt s r e f r ac t o r y t o o r in t ol e ra nt o f o t he r an t if u ng al s ( i .e. , am p ho t er ic i n B , i t r ac o na z o le ) . c . Mi c a fu n gi n i s i nd ic a ted f o r t he p ro p h y la xi s o f c a n di d al in f ec ti o ns i n p a t ie n ts i n de r go i ng he m a t o po ie t ic s t em c e ll t ra ns p l a n ta t io n ( H S C T) . 4 . P r ec au t io ns an d m on i to r i ng e ff ec ts . A lt h ou gh th i s c l as s h as ad v e r s e e ve n ts as s o c i a te d wi t h i ts us e , t he o v e ra l l t o xi c ity p r o f il e i s s i g ni f ic an t l y b e t te r th a n t ha t of am pho t e ri c i n B .
a . I nf us i on v e in c om p li c at i o ns (n o t d ef i ne d b y m an u f ac tu r e r ) a nd t h r om b op hl e bi t is h a v e be e n s ee n o n i n fu s i o n o f c as p of u ng i n. b . H em a to lo g ic al de c re as es in he m o g lo b in an d he m at o c r i t m a y o cc u r; h o we ve r , t he in c i d en c e do e s n ot di f f er f r om t h at of h a vin g a f un ga l d is e as e . c . H ea d ac he m a y oc c u r . d . S li g ht de c re as es in s er u m p o ta s s iu m m a y o cc ur , b ut no wh e r e ne a r t h e m a gn i tu d e o f t ha t c a us ed b y am ph o t er ic i n B . e . A no r e xi a , na us e a, v om i ti n g, an d d i ar r h ea ha v e oc c u r r e d. f . R a r e in c re as e s in s e r um c r e at i ni n e; ho we ve r , th e r e h a v e b e en no r e p o rt e d c as es o f ne ph ro t o xi c i t y. g . P os si bl e s li g ht in c re as es in s e r um am in o tr a ns f e r as es h . A ll e rg ic r ea c t i on s o c c u r in < 5 % o f p a ti e nt s a nd a na p h y la xi s i n < 2 % o f p a t ie n ts . i . P r eg na n c y c at e go r y C e m b r y ot o xi c r ea c ti on s ha v e oc c ur r e d i n a ni m a ls . 5 . S ig n if ic a nt in t e ra c t i ons a . W he n c y c l os p o ri ne is c om b in e d wi t h ca s p o fu ng i n , c l i ni c a ll y s ig ni f ic an t r i s es i n AL T we r e o bs e r ve d . Se r um t ra ns am i na s es s h ou l d b e m on it o r ed , an d t h is co m b in a ti o n s h o ul d b e a v oi d ed in pa t ie n ts wit h p re e xi s t in g l i v e r d i se as e . b . W he n u s e d i n c om bi na t i on , c a rb am a z e pi n e, ne l f in a v i r, ne vi r a pi ne , p h e n yto i n, an d ri f am pi n in c r ea s e s t he cl ea r a nc e o f c a sp o fu n gi n. H i gh e r d o se s o f c as po f un g in ( 70 m g e v e r y da y ) sh o ul d b e c o ns id e re d wh e n t h is c om b in a ti o n is ad m i ni s ter e d . c . Ta c ro li m u s c le a ra nc e wi l l b e i nc r ea se d wh e n th e c om b in a ti o n is us ed ; m o ni t o r t ac r ol im us s e r um le v e ls c l os el y . D . F l uc y t os in e ( An c o b on) . Th i s f lu o r in a te d p yr i m id i ne us u al l y i s g i v e n i n c om b in a ti o n wi t h am ph o te r i c i n B . 1 . Me c h an is m o f a c ti on . F l uc y t o s i ne pe n et r a te s fu n g al c el ls a nd i s c o n ve rt e d t o f l uo r ou r ac il, a m e ta b ol ic an t ag on is t . I n c o r po r a te d i n to th e RN A o f t he fu n ga l c el l , f lu c y tos i ne c a us es de f ec ti ve p ro t e in s yn t he si s . I t i s e it he r f u n gi st a ti c o r fu ng ic i da l , d e p en di n g o n t he co nc en t r a ti o n o f t he d ru g . 2 . S pe c tr um o f ac t i v it y . Th i s d ru g i s p r im ar i l y a c ti v e a ga in s t C r yp t oc oc c us a n d Ca n di da . It is m os t c o m m o nl y us e d i n c on ju nc t io n wi t h a m p h ot e ri ci n B . F u n ga l r e s i s t a nc e a ga ins t fl uc y t o si ne al o ne ha s b e e n we l l do cu m e n te d . F l uc yt o s i ne m a y a ls o p os s e s s s o m e ac ti vi t y ag a in s t c h ro m o m yc os is an d s om e s t r ai ns of As p e rg il lu s (i n vit r o t e s t in g on l y ) . P.943
3 . Th e r ap e ut ic us es . F l uc y t o s i ne is ad ju n ct i vel y u s ed wi t h am ph o te r ic in B f o r s e ve r e s y s t em ic in f ec t i o ns (e . g. , s e pt ic em i a, en d oc a rd i ti s , p ul m o na r y a n d u r in a r y t ra c t i nf ec t ion s , m en in g it is ) . Us e o f flu c y t os in e al on e i s n o t r e c om m e nd e d. 4 . P r ec au t io ns an d m on i to r i ng e ff ec ts
a . F re q ue n t a d v e rs e e f fec t s i nc lu de G I in t ol e ra nce wi t h na u s e a , v o m i t in g , a n d d ia r r h ea . b . O cc as i on al ad v e r s e r ea c ti o ns a r e m o re s e ve r e a n d i nc lu d e m ar r o w s u pp r es s i o n wi t h le uk o pe n ia o r t h ro m b o c y to p en ia ( d o s e r el a te d , e sp ec i all y wi t h r e n al fa il u r e o r c on c u r r e nt am ph o t er ic i n B use ) . C on f us io n , r as h , h e p at i ti s , en t e ro c o l it is , he a d ac he , a n d p ho t os en s it i v i t y r ea c ti on s c an al so o cc u r . c . R a re re a c t io n s in c l u de h a ll uc in a ti o ns , b lo o d d y s c ra s i as wi t h a g r an u lo c y to s i s a n d p anc y t o pe n ia , fa t al he pa t i ti s , a na p h yla xi s , an d an em ia . d . Fl u c y to s i n e m a y c au s e a m a rk ed l y f al s e el e vat i o n o f s er um c re a ti ni n e if a n Ek t ac he m a n al y z e r is u s e d . 5 . S ig n if ic a nt in t e ra c t i ons . B en e fi c i al d ru g i n te r ac t io ns oc c u r wi t h f l uc yt o si ne . Fl uc y t o s i ne h a s d em on s tr a te d s yn e rg y wi t h a m p h ot e ri ci n B an d f l uc o na z o l e a ga in s t C r y pt o c o c c us an d Ca n di d a s p p . E . G r i se o fu l v in ( Fu l v ic i n ). P r o du c e d f r om P en ic il l i u m g r is e of u l vin D ie r c k x, t h is d ru g i s d ep os i te d i n t h e s k i n , b ou nd t o k e r a tin . 1 . Me c h an is m o f a c ti on . Th i s ag e nt is fu n gi s t a ti c; i t i n hi bi t s f un g al c e ll a c ti vi t y b y in t e rf e ri n g wi th m i t o ti c s p i nd le s t r uc t u re . I ts m ec h an is m o f a ct io n i s s im il a r t o c ol c h ic i ne . 2 . S pe c tr um o f ac t i v it y . G r i s eo f ul v i n i s a ct i ve a ga i ns t v a ri o us s t ra i ns o f Mi c r o s p o ru m , E pi de r m o ph y t o n , a nd Tr i c h o ph yt o n . 3 . Th e r ap e ut ic us es . G ris e of u l v in is e f f ec ti ve in ti n ea in f ec t io ns of t he s kin , h a i r, a nd na il s ( i nc lu di n g a t hl e te ' s fo o t, jo c k i t c h , a n d ri ng wo r m ) c a us ed by Mi c r o s p o ru m , E pi de r m o ph y t o n , a nd Tr i c h o ph yt o n . a . G e ne r al l y , th is ag e nt is gi v e n o n l y fo r i n fe c ti o ns t ha t d o n o t r es p on d t o t o p ic al an t if u ng al ag e nt s . b . G r is e of u l v in i s a v a i la bl e on l y in or a l f o rm . c . It po s s es s e s v as od il a to r y a c ti vi t y an d m a y be u s ed in R a y na u d d is ea se . d . I t m a y b e u s e d t o tr e at g ou t . 4 . P r ec au t io ns an d m on i to r i ng e ff ec ts a . G r is e of u l v in ra r e l y re s u l ts in se r io us ad v e r se ef f e ct s . H o we v e r , t he f o l lo wi n g p r o bl em s h a v e b e e n r ep o r te d . ( 1 ) C om m o n : h ea d ac he , f a t ig u e, co n fu s i on , im pa ir e d pe r fo r m a nc e , s y nc o pe , a n d l e th a rg y , wh i c h g ene r a ll y r es o l ve wi t h c o n ti nu e d u s e ( 2 ) O cc as i on al : l e uk op e ni a , n e ut r o pe ni a , a nd g ran u l o c yt op e ni a ( 3 ) R a re : s e r um s ic k n es s , an gi o ed em a , u r ti ca r ia , e r y t h em a , a nd h e p at o to xi c i t y b . Th e do s a ge de p en ds o n th e p a r ti c l e s i z e o f t he p r od uc t : 2 50 m g of u l t ra m i c ro s i z e ( Fu l v ic i n P / G ) i s e qu i v al e nt in t her a p eu t ic ef f ec ts to 50 0 m g o f m i cr os i z e ( Fu l v ic in U /F ) . 5 . S ig n if ic a nt in t e ra c t i ons a . G r is e of u l v in m a y in c rea s e t he m e t ab ol is m o f wa r f a ri n , l ea d in g t o d e c re as e d p ro t h ro m b i n t im e . b . B a rb i tu r at e s m a y r e duc e g r is e of u l v in ab so r p ti on . c . Al c oh ol c o ns um p ti on m a y c a us e t a c h y c ar d ia an d fl us h in g .
d . O r a l c o n t ra c e p ti v e s m a y c au s e am e no r r he a o r i n c re as ed b re ak t h ro u gh b l ee d in g . F . Im i da z o l es . Th e s u bs ti t u te d i m i d a z ol e d e ri va t iv e s k e t oc on a z o le ( N i zo ra l ) , m ic o na z o l e ( Mo n i s ta t ) , f lu c on a z o le ( D if lu c an ) , i t ra c on a z o le ( Sp o r an o x) , vo r i c on a z ol e ( Vf e nd ) and p os ac on a zo le ( N o xa f i l ) a r e val u ab le in t he t r e a tm en t o f a wi d e r an ge o f s y s te m i c f un g al in f ec t io ns . 1 . Me c h an is m o f a c ti on . I m id a z o le s i nh ib i t s te r ol s yn t he si s i n f u ng al c e ll m em b r an es an d i nc r ea s e c el l wa l l p e rm ea bi l it y ; th i s , in tu r n , m ak es th e ce l l m o r e vu l ne r ab l e t o o s m ot i c p r es s u r e. Th e s e ag e nt s ar e fu ng is t a ti c. 2 . S pe c tr um o f ac t i v it y . Th e s e a g en t s a re ac t i v e a g ai n s t m a n y fu n gi , i n cl ud i ng y e as ts , d e rm a to p h y t es , a c t i no m y c e t es , a n d s om e P h y c om y ce t es. P.944
3 . Th e r ap e ut ic us es a . K et o c o na z o l e, an o ra l a g en t , s uc c es s fu ll y t r e at s m a n y fu ng a l i nf ec t io ns t h a t p r e v io us l y y i el d ed on l y t o p a re n te r al ag e nt s . ( 1 ) I t is t he r ap e ut ic f or s y s t e m i c a nd va gi n al c a nd i di as is , m uc oc a nd i di as is , c a nd i du r ia , o r a l t h ru s h , h i s t o pl as m o s i s , co c c id i oid o m y co s i s , c h r om om y c o s i s , d e rm at op h y t os is ( ti n ea ) , a n d p a ra c oc ci di o id om y c os is . ( 2 ) B ec au s e k e t oc on a z o le is s l o w a ct i ng an d re qui r e s a l o ng du r at i on of t h e r ap y ( u p t o 6 m on t hs f o r s om e c h ro n ic i n fe c ti on s ) , i t i s l es s e ff ec t i v e t h a n o th e r a n ti f un g al age n ts f or t he t re a tm en t o f s e ve r e a nd ac ut e s ys t em i c i n f ec ti o ns . b . Mi c o na z o l e, p ri m a r il y a d m i ni s te r ed as a t op ic al a ge n t, Th e pa r en t e ra l f o r m h as be en di s c on t inu e d i n t h e U n it e d S t a te s. I t wa s a r el a ti v e l y t o xi c f o r m u l at io n wh i c h ha s b ee n r ep la c e d b y o t he r m em b e rs o f th is c l ass ( e .g . , f l uc o na z o l e) . ( 1 ) To p ic al m i c o na z o l e is hi g hl y e f fe c t i v e i n vul v o va g i na l c an di d ia s i s , r i n g wo r m , a nd ot h er s k in i n fe c ti on s . c . Fl uc o na z o le . A v a il ab le i n o r al a n d p a re n te r al fo r m s , fl uc o na zo le c a n be u s ed ag a in s t s ys t em ic an d C N S i n fe c ti o ns i n vo l vi n g C r ypt oc oc c us a n d C a n d id a . C a nd i da or o pha r y n g ea l i n fe c ti on an d es o ph a gi ti s m a y al s o be t r e a te d wi t h f lu c on a z ol e . A s pe r gi l lu s , C oc ci d io id es , an d Hi st o pl as m a ha v e d e m o ns t r at e d i n v i t r o s en s it i v i t y. d . I t ra co na z o l e i s a v a il ab l e a s a n o r al ag en t wi t h a c ti v i t y ag a in st s ys t em ic a n d i n vas i v e p u lm on a r y a s pe r gi l lo si s wi t h o ut t he h e m a t ol o gi c a l t o xi c i t y o f a m ph o te r ic in B . O th e r de e p m y c ot ic in f ec ti o ns s u s c e pt i bl e t o i t r ac on a zo le i n cl ud e b l as t om y c o s i s , c o c c i di oi d om y c os is , c r yp to c o c c o s i s , an d h i st o pl as m o s i s . e . V o ri co n a z ol e . V o ri c o na z o l e i s a va il a bl e a s b oth a n i nt r a ve no us an d a n o r a l a ge n t f o r t h e t r ea tm e n t o f fu n ga l i n fe ct i on s in vo l vi n g in va s i v e a s pe r gi l lo s i s , S c e do s p o ri u m a pi os p er m u m , a nd Fu s a ri um s p p. , i n c l ud i ng t h os e s p ec ie s t ha t a r e ref r a c t o r y t o o th e r t h e ra p y .
f . P os ac o na z o le . A v a il abl e as a n o r a l su s p e ns io n i n di c a t ed fo r th e p r e ve n ti on o f i n v as i v e i nf e c ti on s c au s e d b y A s per g i ll us an d Ca n di d a s p ec ie s i n p at i en ts r ec eiv i n g H S C T o r wi t h n e ut ro p e ni s. P os ac on a zo le m a y a l so be us ed to t r ea t i n va s i v e f un g al in f ec ti o ns i n p a ti e nt s wh o h a v e p r e vi ou s l y f a il ed o r a r e in t o le r an t to ot h e r a nt i fu ng a ls . 4 . P r ec au t io ns an d m on i to r i ng e ff ec ts a . K et o c o na z o l e m a y c au s e n au s e a , vom it i ng , d ia r r h ea , a b do m i n al pa in , a n d c on s ti pa t io n . R a r el y , i t l e ad s t o h e ad ac he , diz z i n e s s , g y ne co m a s ti a , a n d f a ta l h e pa t ot o xi c i t y . b . Fl u c o na z o l e c o m m o nly c a us es G I d is t u rb a nc es ( e. g . , n au s e a , v o m i t in g, e p ig a st r ic pa in , di a r rh ea) . R e v e rs i bl e e l e vat i on s i n se r um am in o t ra ns f e ra s e , e xf o l i a t i v e s k in r ea c ti on s , a nd he a da ch es ha v e be e n re po r t ed . c . It r ac o na z o l e m a y c au s e n au s e a , vo m it in g , h ype r t r ig l y c e r i de m i a , h yp o ka l em ia , ra s h , a n d e l e v a ti on s i n l i v e r e n z ym e s . d . V o ri co n a z ol e . V is ua l di s tu r b an ce s , f e v er , r as h, vo m i ti ng , na us ea , d i a r rh e a, he a da c h e , s e ps is , pe r ip h er a l e de m a , ab d om i na l p ai n , a nd r e s pi r at o r y di s o r d er s ra re l y oc c u r r e d. Li v e r fu nc t i o n te s t a bn o rm al i ti es have o cc u r r ed . e . P os ac on a z o le . Mo s t c o m m o n a d ve rs e e v e n ts ha ve b ee n n a us ea an d h e a da c h e . R as h , d r y s k in , t as te di st u r ba nc es , abd o m i n al p a in , d i z zi n es s , h yp o ka l em ia , t h r om bo c y to p e ni a, a nd fl us h in g c an o c c u r . P os ac o na z o le can c a us e a bn o rm a li ti es in liv e r f u nc ti o n a nd ha s b een as s o c i a t ed wi t h p r o lo n ga t io n o f th e Q T int e r v a l . 5 . S ig n if ic a nt in t e ra c t i ons a . B ot h k e to c o n a z ol e a nd m i c o n a z ol e m a y en ha nc e th e a n ti co ag u la n t e f fec t o f wa r f a r in . b . K et o c o na z o l e m a y a n ta g o ni z e th e a n ti b io ti c e f fe c ts of am ph o te r ic i n B . c . Fl uc o na z o le ha s b e en s ho wn t o el e va te se r um l e v e ls o f ph en y t o in , c yc lo s po r in e , wa r f a r i n, an d s u lf o n y lu r ea s . C o nc u rr e n t h e pa t ic e n z ym e i n du c er s , s u c h as ri f am pi n , h a v e re s u l te d i n i nc r ea s ed el im in a ti o n o f b o th f l uc o na z o l e a nd it r ac on az o l e . d . C oa d m i ni s t r a ti o n o f i t ra c on a z o le or k e t oc on a z ol e wi t h a s te m i z o le o r t e r f en a di ne m a y r es u lt in i nc r e as ed as te m i z o l e o r t e r fe n ad i ne le v e ls , p o ss ib l y le a di ng t o li f e -th r e a te ni n g d y s rh y t h m i as a n d d ea t h. e . B ot h k e to c o n a z ol e a nd i t ra co n a zol e n ee d th e p r e s e nc e o f s t om ac h ac id f o r ad e qu a te ab s o r p ti on . U s e wi t h a nt a c i ds , H 2 - b lo ck e rs , or p ro t on pu m p i n hi b it o rs is c o nt r ai n di c at e d . f . C o nc om it a nt us e o f i m id a z o l e a nt i fu n ga l a ge n ts wi t h c is ap r id e m a y re s ult i n in cr e as ed c o nc e nt r a tio n s o f c is ap r id e , wh ic h ha s b e en as so c i a te d wi t h a d ve r s e c a r di ac e v en ts s u c h as t o rs ad es de po i nte s l e ad in g to s u dd e n d e a th . P.945
g . V o ri co n a z ol e . C y t o c h ro m e P 4 50 2 C1 9 i s t h e m a j o r e n zy m e i n vol v e d i n m e ta b ol is m . V o ri c o n a z ole i nh ib i ts c y t o ch r om e P 45 0 2 C1 9 , 2 C 9 , a nd 3 A4 . A n y m ed ic a ti o n t ha t is m e t a bo li ze d v i a t he se r ou te s m a y be af f ec t ed , a n d m o ni t o ri ng o f bl o od le v e ls ( if ap p r op r ia t e ) o r c li n ic a l s i g ns a n d s ym p t om s i s n e ce ss a r y wh e n t ak i ng c o n c o m i t an t m ed ic a ti o ns . h . P os ac on a z o le s e r um le v e l s a r e r e du c e d b y con c u rr e nt a dm i n is t ra t io n wi t h c im e ti di n e, ph e n y to in o r ri f bu t in ; a v o i d co nc om m i t an t us e i f p os s i bl e . P o s ac on a z o le m a y in c rea s e c o n ce n tr a ti o ns o f c yc l os po r in e , t ac r ol im u s , r i f ab u ti n , m id a z ol a m , and p he n yt oi n ; d os ag e a d ju s tm en t s m a y b e re qu i r ed . ( 1 ) F oo d i nc r ea s e s t h e or a l b i oa va i la bi l it y; t ak e po s ac on a zo le wi t h a f ul l m e al o r li q ui d n u t ri t io na l s up p le m e n t G . N y s t a ti n ( My c o s ta t in ) . A p ol y e n e a nt i bi o ti c , n ys t a ti n h as a c h em ic a l s t r uc t ur e s im il a r t o th a t o f am ph o te r ic i n B . 1 . Me c h an is m o f a c ti on . N y s t a t in is fu ng ic i da l a nd f un g is ta t ic ; b i nd in g to s t e ro ls in th e fu ng a l c el l m em b r an e , i t i nc r ea s e s m em b r an e p e rm ea b il i t y a n d p e rm i ts l e ak ag e o f in t r ac e ll ul a r c on t en ts . 2 . S pe c tr um o f ac t i v it y . N y s t a t in is a c ti v e p rim a r il y a g ai ns t C an di d a s p p . 3 . Th e r ap e ut ic us es a . Th i s d ru g i s u s e d p r im a r i l y a s a to p ic al ag e nt in v a g in al a nd or a l C a nd id a i n f ec ti o ns . b . O r a l n y s t a ti n i s t h e ra pe u t ic fo r C an di d a i nf ec t io n s o f t h e G I t ra c t, e s pe ci a ll y o ra l a n d es o ph a g ea l i nf e ct io n s ; be c a us e th e d r ug is no t re ad i l y a b so r be d , i t m ai n ta i ns go o d l oc al ac t i v it y . 4 . P r ec au t io ns an d m on i to r i ng e ff ec ts . O r al n y st a ti n oc c as i on a ll y c a us es GI d i st r es s ( e .g . , n a us ea , vo m it i ng , d i ar r h ea ) . Ra r ely , h y p e r s e ns i ti vi t y r e a ct i on s oc c u r . H . Te r b i na f in e (L am is il ) is a s y n th e ti c a ll y l am i ne wi t h s t r uc tu r e a nd ac t i vity r e l at e d t o n a ft i fi n e. 1 . Me c h an is m o f a c ti on . Te r b i n af i ne in h ib it s s qu al e ne m o n oo xy g e n a s e, l e ad i ng to an in t e r ru p ti on o f f u ng al s t e ro l b i os yn th e s i s . Te r b in a fi n e m a y be f u n gi ci da l o r f un gi s ta ti c , d e p en di n g o n d r ug c o nc e n t r at i on an d s pe c i es . 2 . S pe c tr um o f ac t i v it y . Te r b i n af i ne ha s a ct i v i t y a g ai n st de r m a t op h yt ic fun g i ( Tr i c h op h y t on , Mi c r os p o ru m , a nd E pi d e rm op h yt on) , f i l am e nt o us fu ng i ( A s p er g il lu s ), a nd di m o rp h ic fu n gi ( Bl as t om yc es ). I t m a y al s o po ss es s s om e a c ti vi t y a ga in s t y e as t s . 3 . Th e r ap e ut ic us es a . O r a l t e rb in a fi n e is us ef u l a g ai ns t i n fe c ti on s o f th e to e na il an d fi ng e r na il ( o n yc ho m yc o s i s , ti n ea un g ui u m ) . Ti m e to c u r e is r e d uc ed o ve r i m i da zo l e a n t if u ng al s f o r t h es e i nd ic a ti o ns . I t i s u se f ul in pat i e nt s wh o m a y n o t t o l er a t e t he ad v e r s e ef f ec t pr o fi l e o f i m i da z o l e a nt i f un g al s . b . I t is al s o us e d in t in ea c ap i ti s a nd t in ea c o r po r is in f ec t io ns . 4 . P r ec au t io ns an d m on i to r i ng e ff ec ts . A d v e rs e e ff e c ts i nc l ud e t as t e o r o c ul a r d is t ur b an c e s , s y m p t om a ti c h ep a to b il ia r y dy s f u nc t io n , d ec r ea s e in l ym p ho c y t e c o u nt an d n eu t r o pe ni a , a nd s e r io us s k i n r e ac ti o ns .
IV. Topical Antifungal Agents A . D e f in it i on . Th es e a g en t s a r e f o r t o pi ca l u s e for f u ng a l in f ec t io ns . B . A m p h ot e r ic in B (F u ngi z o n e ) i s a v a il ab l e as a 3 % c r e am o r lo t io n o r a n o r a l s us pe ns io n th a t is no t ab s o r b ed th r o ug h t h e G I t r ac t . 1 . Me c h an is m o f a c ti on . S e e II I . B .1 . 2 . S pe c tr um o f ac t i v it y . S e e II I . B .2 . 3 . Th e r ap e ut ic us es . Am p h o te r ic in B i s u s e d f o r o r o ph a r yn ge al c a n di di as i s , c u ta n eo us an d m uc oc u tan e o us c an d id al in f ec t io ns , or as a l oc al ir r i ga n t fo r t h e b l ad d er an d i n t ra p leu r a l o r i n t ra p er i to n ea l a re a s . P.946
4 . P r ec au t io ns an d m on i to r i ng e ff ec ts . C om pa r e d wi t h s y s te m i c a d m i ni s t ra ti o n , t he to p ic a l fo r m u la t io n s h a v e r el at i ve l y lo w t o xi c i t y. a . D r y s k in an d l oc a l i r ri ta t i on wi t h e r y t h em a , p ru ri t us , or bu r n in g , a lo ng wi t h m il d s k i n d is c o lo r a tio n , h as oc cu r r ed wi t h the l ot i on an d c r ea m . b . R as h a n d G I ef f ec ts (e . g . , n au se a , vo m i t in g , s t e a to r r he a , d ia r r he a ) te nd t o oc cu r wi t h t h e s us pe ns i on . In ad di t io n , t h er e ha v e b ee n c as e r e po r ts o f u r t ic a ri a , a ng i oe d em a, St e v e ns - J o h ns on s ynd r om e , an d to xi c e pi de r m a l n e c ro l ys i s . C . B u t en a fi ne ( Me n t a x) i s a s y n th e ti c b en z yl a m i ne r el a t ed to th e a l l y la m i ne a n t if u ng al ag e n ts (n a ft i fin e , te r bi n af i ne ) . 1 . Me c h an is m o f a c ti on . B u t e na f in e a l te rs f un g al m em b r an e p e rm ea b il i t y a n d g r o wt h in hi b it i on , i n te r f e re s wi t h s te r ol bi os y n t h es is b y a ll o wi n g s q ua l en e t o a c c um ul a te wi t h i n th e c el l , a nd m a y b e fu n gi c i d al i n c e r ta in c o nc en t r at i on s a ga i ns t s u s c e pt i bl e o r ga n is m s s uc h a s t h e d e rm at o ph y t es . 2 . S pe c tr um o f ac t i v it y . B u t e na f in e i s ac t i ve a ga in s t Tr ic ho p h yt on ru b r um , Tr i c h o ph y t o n m e n ta g r oph y t e s , Mi c r o s p o r um c an is , S po r ot h r i x s c h en c k ii , a n d yea s ts i nc l ud in g Can d id a p a r ap s i lo s i s a n d C. a l b ic a ns . 3 . Th e r ap e ut ic us es . Th e 1 % c r ea m is us e d i n d erm a to p h y to s es , i nc lu d in g t i n ea c o r po r is , t i ne a c r uri s , a nd ti n ea pe d is . 4 . P r ec au t io ns an d m on i to r i ng e ff ec ts . I f cl in ic a l im p r o v em en t o f fu n ga l i n f ec ti o n d oe s n ot im p rov e a f t er t he t re a tm en t p er i o d, t he di a gn os is s h ou ld b e r ee va lu a te d . D . B u t oc on a z o le ( My c e l ex) i s a n a z o l e a n ti fu n ga l c r e am a va i la bl e fo r va g i n al u s e. 1 . Me c h an is m o f a c ti on . B u t oc o na zo l e h as f u ng is t a t ic ac ti vi t y ag a in s t s us c ep ti b le o rg a ni s m s . Th e d ru g i n te r fe r es wi t h m e m b ra ne pe r m e a bi li t y , s ec o nd a r y m e ta b ol ic ef fe c ts , a n d g r o wt h i n hi bi t io n . Bu t oc on a z o le c o n ta in s a n t ib ac t e ri al e ff ec ts a ga in s t s om e g r am -p o s i ti v e o r g an is m s . 2 . S pe c tr um o f ac t i v it y . B u t oc o na zo l e is ac ti v e ag a in s t d e rm at o ph y t es ( Tr i c h op h y t on c o nc e nt r ic u m , T. m en t ag r o ph y t es , T. r u b r um , Tr ic h op h y t on t o ns u r an s , E pi d er m op h y to n fl oc co s um , M. c a n is , Mi c r o s p o ru m g y ps e um ) ,
ye a s ts ( C . a lb ic a ns , C. gl a b ra t a ), an d s om e g r am - p o si ti ve o rg a ni s m s ( S . a u r eu s , E . fa ec al is , an d S . p y o ge n es ) . 3 . Th e r ap e ut ic us es . A 2% c re am is u s ed fo r v u l vo va g i na l c an di d ia si s a nd c om p li ca t ed , re c u r r en t vu l v o v a g in al ca nd i di as is . 4 . P r ec au t io ns an d m on i to r i ng e ff ec ts a . V ul vo v a g in al bu r n in g a n d i tc h in g a r e t h e m o s t c om m o n ; h o we v e r , th e i r i n ci de n c e i s l o w. H e ad a c h e ; i t c h in g o f fi n ge rs ; ur i n a r y f r eq u en c y a n d b u r ni n g; an d v ul v o v a g ina l di s c ha r ge , ir r i ta t io n , s o r e ne s s , s t in gi n g, od o r , a n d s we l l in g r a r el y oc c u r. b . B ut o c o na z o l e m a y d am a ge bi r t h- c o n t ro l d e v ice s s uc h a s c on do m s an d d i ap h r ag m s , l ea d in g t o in a d eq ua t e p r ot e ct io n . Co n s i d er al t e rn a ti v e m e tho d s o f bi r t h c o n t ro l . c . Ta m p o n us e s ho u ld be a v o id e d wi t h th e us e of b u to co na z o l e. E . C i c l op i ro x ( L o p r o x) i s a s y n th e ti c a nt i fu n ga l a ge n t th a t is c h em ic al l y u n r el a te d to an y o th e r an t i fu n ga l a ge n t . Th e e tha n ol a m i ne c o n ta in e d i n c ic l op i ro x a p p e a rs to enh a nc e e p id e rm al pe n et r at i o n . 1 . Me c h an is m o f a c ti on . C i c lo p ir o x c a us es in t r ac e l l u l a r d ep le t io n o f am ino a c id s a nd io ns ne c e s s a ry f o r no r m a l c el l ul a r f un c t i o n. 2 . S pe c tr um o f ac t i v it y . C i c lo p ir o x i s ac ti v e ag a in s t d e rm a to ph y t e s , y e ast s , s om e g r am - p os it i v e a n d g r a m - n eg a ti v e ba c te r ia , M y c o p l as m a , a n d Tr i c h om o na s v a g in al is . S p e c i f ic al l y , c ic lo p ir o x h a s a c ti v i t y ag a in st T. m e nt a g ro ph y t e s , T. r u b ru m , E . fl oc c o s u m , M. c an i s , M. f u r f u r, an d C . a l bi ca n s . 3 . Th e r ap e ut ic us es . Ci c lo p i ro x i s us e d t op ic a ll y fo r t he t re a tm en t of ti n ea p e di s , t in e a c ru r is , ti ne a c o rp o ri s , t in e a ve r s i c o l or ( f r om Ma l a ss e zia ) , a n d c u ta n eo us c a nd i di as is (m o ni li as is ) f ro m C. al b ica n s . P.947
4 . P r ec au t io ns an d m on i to r i ng e ff ec ts . Lo c a l i r r it at i o n m a n if es t ed b y e r y t h em a , p r u ri t us , b u rn in g , b l is te r in g , s we l l in g , a n d o o zi ng ha s oc cu r r e d. I f t h is oc c u r s , c ic l op i ro x s h o u ld be di sc o nt i nu ed . F . C li o qu i no l ( f o rm e rl y i od o c h l or h y d r o xy q u i n ) i s a t o pi ca l a n ti f un g al in a 3% o i n tm en t th a t c a n b e u s ed a lo ne o r i n c om bi na t ion wi t h h yd ro c o r t is on e . 1 . Me c h an is m o f a c ti on . U n k no wn 2 . S pe c tr um o f ac t i v it y . It i s ac t i v e a ga i ns t d e rm at o p h y ti c f u ng i . 3 . Th e r ap e ut ic us es . I t is u s e d to pi c a l l y a g ai ns t th e fo l lo wi n g : a . Ti n ea pe d is a n d t in e a c r u ri s ( r i ng wo r m in f ec ti on s ) b . P r e vio us l y us ed t o t r ea t di a pe r ra s h ; ho we v e r , i t is n o l o ng e r r e c om m e nd e d, an d u s e in c h i ld r en < 2 y e a rs o f ag e i s c on t r ai n di ca t ed 4 . P r ec au t io ns an d m on i to r i ng e ff ec ts a . Lo ca l i r r i ta ti o n, r as h , a n d s en s i t i vit y r e ac t io ns a r e c om m o n . b . S ys te m i c a bs o rp t io n af t e r to pi ca l a p pl ic a ti on m a y o c c u r .
c . H ig h d os es of c l io q ui no l o v e r l on g p e ri o ds o f ti m e h a v e b e en as so c i a ted wi t h o cu l ot o xi c / n eu r ot o xi c e ff ec t s, in c l u di ng op t ic n e u ri ti s , o pt ic a tr o ph y, a n d s ub ac u te m y el oo p ti c n e u ro pa t h y . G . C l o t ri m a z o l e ( L ot r im in ) is an a z ol e a n ti f un g al a g e nt th a t i s a n im i da z o le d e r i va ti v e . I t is re la t ed to o th e r a z o l e a nt i fu n ga l a g e nt s s uc h as b u t oc on a z o le , e c o n a z ol e, k et oc o na zo l e, m ic o na zo l e , o xi c o na zo l e, s u lc on a zo le , a n d t io c o n az o l e . 1 . Me c h an is m o f a c ti on . C l o t r im a zol e a l te rs f un ga l c e ll m em b r an e p e r m e ab i li t y b y bi nd i ng wi t h p h os ph o li pi ds in t he m em b ra n e. 2 . S pe c tr um o f ac t i v it y . It i s ac t i v e a ga i ns t y ea s t s, d e rm at o ph yt e s ( T. r u b r um , T. m en t a gr o ph y te s , E. fl oc co s um , M. c a ni s ) , a nd s o m e gr am p o si t i ve b ac te r i a. A t h ig he r c o nc e nt r a ti o ns , c l o t rim a z o le in hi b it s M. f u r fu r , A s p e rg il l us f um i ga t us , C. a lb ic a ns , a nd s o m e s t ra i ns of S . a u re us , S . p yo g e ne s , P r ot e us v ul g ar i s , a nd S al m o n el la . A t ve r y h i gh c o nc en t r at i on s, c l ot r im a z o le ha s a n e f fec t on S po r ot h r i x, C r y p t oc o c c u s, C ep h al os p or i um , F u sa r i um , a nd T. v a g in ali s . 3 . Th e r ap e ut ic us es a . Th e l o z e ng es , wh i c h ar e a dm in is t er e d 5 ti m e s p e r da y , a re us ef u l i n t r e a ti n g o ro p ha r y n g ea l c a n di d ia s i s . L o zen ge s a r e a l s o u se d fo r pr im a r y p r o ph yl a xi s o f m u c o c ut an e o us c an d id ia s i s i n HI V- i n fe c te d i n fa n ts o r c h il d re n wi t h s e v e re im m u n os u pp r es s i on . b . Th e c r ea m , l ot i on , o r s o lu t io n i s us e d t o t r e at d e r m a t op h yt os es , s u pe r f ic ia l m y c o s e s , a nd c u ta ne o us c a nd id i as is . c . In t r a v ag in a l d os ag e for m s a r e us e fu l i n tr e at i ng v u l vo v a gi n al c a nd id i as i s . 4 . P r ec au t io ns an d m on i to r i ng e ff ec ts a . C u ta n eo us re a c t io n s wi t h t o pi ca l a dm i ni s t r a ti on m a y i nc lu d e b li st e r in g , e r y t h em a , e de m a , pr u r itu s , b u rn i ng , s ti n gi n g, pee l i n g , s k i n f is s u r es , a n d g e n er a l i r ri t at i on . b . Th e v a gi na l ta bl e ts are as s o ci a t ed wi t h m il d bu r n in g , sk i n r as h , i tc hi n g, vu l v a l ir r i ta t io n , l o we r abd o m i n al c r am ps , b l oa t ing , sl ig h t c ra m p i ng , v a gi na l s o r en es s d u ri ng in t e rc our s e , a nd an in c re as e i n ur i n a r y fr e qu e nc y . c . C r oss - s e ns i ti z a t io n o c c u rs wi t h im i d a z ol e ; h o we v e r , it is un p re d ic ta b le . d . A bn o rm al li v e r fu n c t i on t es ts ( el e v a te d A S T) ha v e oc c ur r e d i n p at i en ts t a ki n g t he lo z e n ge s . H . E c on a z ol e ( Sp ec t a z ole ) is an a z ol e a n ti f un g al a g e nt th a t i s a n im i da z o le d e r i va ti v e . 1 . Me c h an is m o f a c ti on . E c o na z o l e al t e rs c e ll m em b r an es an d i nc r ea s e s p e r m e ab i li t y ( li k e m a n y o t h e r a z o le ag en t s ). 2 . S pe c tr um o f ac t i v it y . E c o na z o l e is ac ti ve ag a in s t d e rm a to ph y t e s, y e as t s , s om e g r am - p os it i v e b ac te r i a, a nd T. v a gi n al is . 3 . Th e r ap e ut ic us es a . Th e 1% to pi c al c r ea m , l o ti o n, o r s o l ut i on is u s ef u l i n t r e at i ng d e r m a t op h y t os es an d c ut a n eo us ca nd i di as is ( ti nea c o r p or is a nd ti ne a c r u ri s ). b . E co na z o l e is al s o us ed t o t r ea t pi t y r ia s i s (t in ea ) ve r s i c o lo r ( M. f u r f u r) .
P.948
4 . P r ec au t io ns an d m on i to r i ng e ff ec ts . In ge n e ra l , t h e re is a lo w i n ci d en ce o f t o xi c it y . To p ic al l y , a pa t i en t m a y e xp e r ie nc e bu r n in g , s ti n gi ng s e ns at i on s , p ru r i tu s , an d e r y t h em a ( a f te r 2 - 4 d a ys ) . I . G e n ti an v i ol e t i s a d y e t h a t p os s es se s t h e a bi lit y t o k i ll fu n gi , y ea s ts , an d s om e g r am - p os it i v e b ac te r i a. 1 . Me c h an is m o f a c ti on . N o n e k no wn 2 . S pe c tr um o f ac t i v it y . G e n t ia n v i ol et is ac ti v e ag a in s t C a nd i da , E p i de r m o p h y to n , C r y pt oc oc c us , Tr i c ho p h y to n , an d s om e S ta ph yl o co c c us s p p. 3 . Th e r ap e ut ic us es . I t is u s e d to t re a t c u t an e ou s C . a lb ic an s i n fe ct i on s ( m o ni li a o r th r us h ) . 4 . P r ec au t io ns an d m on i to r i ng e ff ec ts a . G e nt i an v i ol e t m a y c au s e i r ri t a ti on o r se n s i ti v it y r e a c t io n s o r p os si bl y u l ce r a ti on o f t he m u c o us m em b ra n es . I f th e s ol u tio n is s wa l l o we d , e s op h ag i ti s , la r y n gi t is , or t r ac h ei t is m a y occ u r . b . S ki n t a tt o oi ng m a y oc c u r i f g e nt i an v i ol e t is app l ie d to gr a nu l at i on ti s s ue . c . G en t ia n v io l et s h ou l d n o t b e u s e d i n a r e as o f e xt e n s i ve ul c e r at i on . d . Th i s d ru g i s a d y e a nd wi l l s ta in c l o th in g . J . K et oc o na z o le ( N i z o ra l) i s a n im i da zo l e- d e ri v e d a n ti f un g al d ru g t h at is a va i la b le to p ic al l y as a c r e a m a nd a s h am p oo . 1 . Me c h an is m o f a c ti on . S e e II I . E .1 . 2 . S pe c tr um o f ac t i v it y . S e e II I . E .2 . 3 . Th e r ap e ut ic us es a . Th e 2% to pi c al c r ea m i s u s e d i n tr e at i ng ti n ea c o r po r is , t i ne a c r ur is , and t i n ea pe di s c au s e d b y t he d e rm at o ph y t es ( E . f l oc c os u m , T. m e n ta g ro p h y te s , a n d T. ru b r um ) . b . I t is us ed f o r c u t an e ou s c an d id i as is . c . Th e 2 % t o pi c a l c r ea m o r 2 % sh am p oo m a y be u s ed in t re a ti n g t in e a ve r s ic o lo r ( M. f u r fu r ) . Sel e ni um - b as ed s h am po os m a y al so be us e fu l i n t h is area. d . Th e 2% to pi c al c r ea m i s u s e f ul ag a in st s e b or r he i c d e rm at i ti s . Th e 2% s h am po o i s u s e f ul i n re du c in g s c a li n g c a us e d b y d a n dr u f f. e . W he n c om bi ne d wi t h a s te r oi d , ke t oc o na z o le is us e fu l i n t r ea t in g th e f o l lo wi n g : a t op ic de r m a t it i s , di a pe r r as h, ec ze m a , f o ll ic u li ti s , im p et i go , i n t er t r ig o , l ic he n oi d d e rm a ti t is , a n d ps o ri as is . f . A n o ph t h alm ic s u s p e ns i on c a n b e e xt e m p or a ne o us l y p re pa r e d t o t r ea t f u n ga l k e ra t it is . 4 . P r ec au t io ns an d m on i to r i ng e ff ec ts a . R ea c ti o ns f r om t he 2% t op ic a l c re am in c l u de l o c a l i r r it a ti o n, p ru r it us , a n d s t in g in g . C o nt a c t de r m a ti t is is p o s s ib le an d o c c u rs wi t h ot h e r im id a z o le d e r i va ti v e s .
b . Th e 2% s h am po o m a y l e ad to in c re as e d h ai r l os s , i r ri t at i on , a b no r m a l h a i r t e xt u r e , s c a lp pu s tu le s , d r y s k in , p r u ri t us , a nd o il in es s o r dr yn e s s o f h a i r a nd s c al p . I t m a y i n a d di t io n s t r ai gh t en o th e rwi s e c ur l y ha i r . K . Mi c o n a z ol e ( Mo n is t at ) i s a n i m i da zo l e -d e ri v e d a n t if u ng al d ru g th a t is a va i la b le to p ic al l y as a 2% a e ro s o l , 2 % a er o s o l po wd e r , 2 % c re am , a ki t , 2 % po wd e r a nd 2% ti nc tu r e , 2 % vag i na l c re a m , an d 10 0 m g a nd 20 0 m g va g i n al s u pp os i to r ie s . 1 . Me c h an is m o f a c ti on . S e e II I . E .1 . 2 . S pe c tr um o f ac t i v it y . S e e II I . E .2 . 3 . Th e r ap e ut ic us es . Mi c o n a z o le i s a d v a nt a ge o us o v e r ot h e r a ge n ts s uc h a s n ys t a ti n a nd t ol na f t at e i n t h a t i ts a c ti v i t y c o ve r s de r m at o ph yt es as we l l a s C a n d id a . a . To p ic al us e i s e ff ec t i ve a ga in s t t in e a p ed is , ti ne a c r u ri s , a nd ti n ea c o r po r is c a us ed b y d e rm a t o ph y t e s ( T. m e n ta g r oph y t e s , T. r u b ru m , an d E . f l oc co su m ) . b . I t is al s o e ff ec t i v e a gai n s t ti n ea v e rs ic o lo r f ro m M. f u r f u r . c . Li ke ot h er im id a z o le de r i v a ti v e s , i t i s us e fu l i n t r e a ti n g c u t an e ou s f un g al i n f ec ti o ns . d . Th e v a gi na l c r ea m a nd v a g in al su p po s i t or i es ar e e ff ec t i ve i n t r e at in g vu l v o va g i na l c an di d ia s i s . P.949
4 . P r ec au t io ns an d m on i to r i ng pa r am e te r s a . To p ic al c r e am s h a v e c a us ed lo ca l i r r it a ti o n a nd b u rn in g . b . V ag i na l p r ep a ra t io ns h a v e le d t o v ul vo v a g in a l b u r ni n g, it c hi ng , i r r i ta t ion , p e l vic c r am ps , v a gi na l bu r n in g , h ea d ac he , h i v e s, a n d s k in r as h . c . If vu l v o v a gi na l c an d id ia s is p e rs is t s f o r l on ge r th a n 3 da y s , s ee k f u r th e r m e di ca l a t te n ti o n. d . Ta m po ns s h ou l d b e av o i d e d in p at ie n ts us in g v a g i n al s u pp os i to r ie s o r c r e am ; s an i ta r y pa d s s ho u ld be s u bs t it u te d . e . V ag i na l s up po s i t o ri es a r e m a nu f ac tu r e d f r om a ve g e ta b le oi l b as e t h at m a y in t e ra c t wi t h la t e x pr o d uc ts . A v oi d u si n g d iap h r ag m s o r c o n do m s c o nc u r re n tl y wi t h s u pp os i t o ri es . S ee k a n a lt e r na t iv e f o rm o f b ir t h c on t r ol . L . N a ft i fi n e ( N a ft i n ) is a s y n t he t ic al l y la m i n e si m il a r to te r b in a fi ne . It is a va i la b le as a 1 % t op ic al c r ea m a nd a 1 % t o pi c a l g e l . 1 . Me c h an is m o f a c ti on . N a f t i fi ne is fu n gi s t a ti c an d in t e rf e re s wi t h s te r ol b i os yn t he s i s b y ac c u m u la t i ng s q ua l en e i n t h e f ung a l c el l . N a f ti fi n e a ls o p o ss es s e s s o m e lo c a l a nt i - in f la m m a to r y ac t i v it y. 2 . S pe c tr um o f ac t i v it y a . N a ft i fi n e is ac ti v e a gai n s t T. m e n ta g r op h y t es , T. r u b r um , T. to n s u r an s , Tr i c h o ph y t o n v e r r uc os um , Tr i c h op h y t o n v i ol a ceu m , E . fl oc co s u m , Mi c r o s p o ru m a ud ou i ni i , M. c a n i s , an d M. g yp s e um .
b . C . a l bi c a ns , Ca n di d a k r us e i, C an d id a p a ra p s i lo s i s , a nd C a nd id a t r o pi c al is ar e a f f ec te d b y n a f ti fi n e; ho we ve r , t h e co n c e n t ra t io ns of na f t if in e va r y f o r C a nd id a k il li n g, d e p en di n g o n t he s p ec ies . c . In vi t ro ac t i v it y h as bee n de m o ns t r at e d a ga i ns t A s pe r gi l lu s f la vu s a n d A s p e rg il l us f um i ga t us . Ot h e rs in c l u de S po r ot h r i x s c h e nc k i i, C r yp t oc oc c u s n e o fo r m a ns , Pe t r ie ll i di um bo y d i i, B la s t o m yc es de r m a t i ti di s , a nd H i s to p la s m a c ap s u la t um . 3 . Th e r ap e ut ic us es . Na ft i f in e i s a c t i ve a g ai ns t de r m at o ph y t os es a nd c u ta n eo us c a nd i di as is . a . I t is al s o us e d t o t r ea t t i ne a c r u ri s, ti n ea pe d is , t in e a c or p o ri s , an d ti nea m a nu s ( T. m en t ag r op h y te s , T. ru b ru m , T. v e r r u c os um , T. v i ol ac e um , E. f l oc co su m , o r M. c an is ) . b . I t is al s o us e fu l i n t r ea t i ng ti n ea un g ui um (o n yc h om yc os is ) . 4 . P r ec au t io ns an d m on i to r i ng e ff ec ts . Tr a ns i en t b u r ni n g a nd s t in g in g M. N ys t a t i n ( My c o s t at in ) . A p ol y e n e a nt i bi o ti c , n ys t a ti n h as a c h em ic a l s t r uc t ur e s im il a r t o th a t o f am ph o te r ic i n B . It is av a i l ab l e as a n o ra l s us p en s i o n, t ab le t , l o z en g e , t op ic a l c re am , oi ntm e nt , to p ic al po wd e r , and va g i n al ta bl e t . 1 . Me c h an is m o f a c ti on . N y s t a t in is fu ng ic i da l a nd f un g is ta t ic ; b i nd in g to s t e ro ls in th e fu ng a l c el l m em b r an e , i t i nc r ea s e s m em b r an e p e rm ea b il i t y a n d p e rm i ts l e ak ag e o f in t r ac e ll ul a r c on t en ts . 2 . S pe c tr um o f ac t i v it y . N y s t a t in is a c ti v e p rim a r il y a g ai ns t C an di d a s p p . 3 . Th e r ap e ut ic us es . Th is d ru g i s u s e d p r im a ri l y a s a t op ic al ag e nt in va g i n al a n d o r al C an d id a i n fe c ti on s . 4 . P r ec au t io ns an d m on i to r i ng e ff ec ts . I r ri t at io n ha s o c c u r re d i n e xt r e m e l y r a r e i ns t an c es . N . O xi c o n a z o le ( O xi s t a t ) i s a n i m i da zo l e -d e ri v e d a n t if u ng al d ru g th a t is a va i la b le as a 1 % t op ic al c r ea m o r 1 % to pi ca l l o tio n . 1 . Me c h an is m o f a c ti on . S e e II I . E .1 . 2 . S pe c tr um o f ac t i v it y . S e e II I . E .2 . 3 . Th e r ap e ut ic us es a . Th e 1% c r ea m o r l o ti on is us e fu l i n t r ea t in g ti ne a c r u ri s , t in e a c o r p or is , t i n ea m a nu s , an d ti ne a pe d is f ro m d e rm at o ph y t e s. b . O xi c o n a z ol e i s a ls o e ff e c ti v e ag ai ns t ti n ea v e rs ic o lo r c a us ed b y M. f u r f u r. 4 . P r ec au t io ns an d m on i to r i ng e ff ec ts . A d v e rs e e ff e c ts a r e ra r e a nd a re c o nf i ne d t o l oc a l i r ri t a ti on . P.950
O . S u lc o na z o l e ( E xe l d e rm ) is a n i m i d a zol e -d e r i ve d a n t if u ng al d ru g th a t is a va i la b le as a 1 % t op ic al c r ea m a nd a 1 % t o pi c a l s o lu t io n . 1 . Me c h an is m o f a c ti on (s e e I I I. E . 1 ). Th e an t ib ac te r i al ef f ec ts e xe r t e d b y s u lc on a zo le ar e th o ug h t t o be t he re s ul t o f a di r ec t ph y s ic oc he m i ca l e f fe c t
o n th e d es t r uc t io n o f u ns a t u r at e d f at t y ac i ds p r es e n t i n b ac t e ri a l c e ll m em b r an es . 2 . S pe c tr um o f ac t i v it y a . S ul co n a z ol e h as ac ti v it y a g ai ns t de r m a t op h yt es , in c l ud i ng E . f lo cc os um , M. a u d o u in ii , M. c a ni s , M. g y p s e u m , T. m e n ta g ro p h yt es , T. ru b r um , T. t o ns u r an s , an d T. v i ol ac e u m . I t a ls o h as ac ti v i t y a g ai n st M. f u r f u r. b . S ul co n a z ol e a ls o h as a c ti v i t y a ga in s t se l ec te d g r a m - p os it i ve a e r ob es (S . a u r eu s , S . e p id e rm id is , S t a p h y lo c o c c us s a p ro phy t i c us , E. f ae ca li s , Mi c r o c oc c u s l u te us , a n d B a c il lu s s ub t il is ) a n d a na e r ob es ( C lo s tr i di um and P r o p io n ib ac t er i um a c ne s , C l os t ri d iu m p e rf r in g en s, C l os t ri d iu m t e ta ni , an d C l o s t r i di um bo t ul in um ) . 3 . Th e r ap e ut ic us es a . Th e 1% to pi c al c r ea m o r 1 % t op ic a l s o l ut io n i s u s ef u l i n t r ea t in g t i ne a c o r po r is a n d t in e a c ru r is . b . Th e 1% to pi c al c r ea m h a s b ee n s t ud ie d fo r u s e a g ai ns t ti ne a p e di s; t he s o lu t io n h as no t b e en e va l ua t ed f o r t hi s i nd ic a ti on . c . Th e 1 % c r ea m is us e fu l ag ai ns t ti n ea ve rs ic o lo r ( M. f u r f u r ). d . Th e r e is no t an ap p rov e d i nd ic a ti o n f o r cu t an eo u s c a n di d ia s i s ; ho we v e r , s u lc on a zo le 1% is a s e f fe c ti v e as m ic o na zo l e 2 % o r c l ot r im a z o le 1% in t r e a ti n g c u t an e ou s c a n did i as is . e . S ul co n a z ol e i s us e fu l i n t re a ti ng in f ec t io ns c a us e d b y b ac te r ia su c h as i m pe t ig o ( S . p y og e ne s ) a n d e c t h y m a ( S . a u re us ). 4 . P r ec au t io ns an d m on i to r i ng e ff ec ts . A d v e rs e r ea c ti o ns i nc l ud e l oc a l e f f ec ts s u c h as b u r ni ng a n d i r r it a ti o n, sk in ed em a , d r yne ss , s c a li n g, f i ss u ri n g, c r ac k i n g, ge n er a l i z ed r ed pa p ul es , a n d s e v e r e ec z e m a. P . Te r b i na f in e ( L am is il AT) i s a s y n th e ti c a ll y l am in e a v ai la b le as a 1 % c r e am wi t h s t ru c t u r e a nd a c ti v i t y r el a te d t o n a f ti fin e . 1 . Me c h an is m o f a c ti on . Te r b i n af i ne in h ib it s s qu al e ne m o n oo xy g e n a s e, l e ad i ng to an in t e r ru p ti on o f f u ng al s t e ro l b i os yn th e s i s . Te r b in a fi n e m a y be f u n gi ci da l o r f un gi s ta ti c , d e p en di n g o n d r ug c o nc e n t r at i on an d s pe c i es . 2 . S pe c tr um o f ac t i v it y . Te r b i n af i ne ha s a ct i v i t y a g ai n st de r m a t op h yt ic fun g i ( Tr i c h op h y t on , Mi c r os p o ru m , a nd E pi d e rm op h yt on) , f i l am e nt o us fu ng i ( A s p er g il lu s ), a nd di m o rp h ic fu n gi ( Bl as t om yc es ). I t m a y al s o po ss es s s om e a c ti vi t y a ga in s t y e as t s . 3 . Th e r ap e ut ic us es . I t is u s e f ul f or t in ea pe d is , t in e a c o rp o ri s , a nd ti n ea c r u ri s . 4 . P r ec au t io ns an d m on i to r i ng e ff ec ts . I t ca n c au s e l oc al ir r i ta t io n . Q . Te r c o na z o l e ( Te r a z o l- 7 ) is an im id a zol e - de r i ve d an t if u ng al d ru g th a t is a va i la b le as a 0 .4 % a n d 0 . 8 % v a g in al c re am an d a n 8 0 - m g v a gi na l s u pp os i to r y . 1 . Me c h an is m o f a c ti on . I t is fu n gi c i d al a g ai ns t C. a lb ic a ns . L ik e o t he r i m id a zol e a g en t s , te r c o na z o l e a l te r s c e l lu la r m em b r an es , re s u l ti n g in i n c re as ed m e m b r an e p e rm e ab il i t y . 2 . S pe c tr um o f ac t i v it y . It i s ac t i v e a ga i ns t d e rm at o p h y te s ; y e as t s ; an d , a t h i gh co nc e nt r a ti on s , g r am - p os it i ve a n d g r am -n e ga t i v e b ac t e ri a .
3 . Th e r ap e ut ic us es ar e f o r c om p li c a t ed an d u nco m pl ic a te d v ul v o v a g in al c a nd i di as is . 4 . P r ec au t io ns an d m on i to r i ng e ff ec ts . A d v e rs e r ea c ti o ns i nc l ud e b u rn i ng , p r u r it us , ir r i ta t io n , h ea d ac h e, bo d y p ai n, a nd pa in o f fe m a l e g en i ta li a . R . Ti o c on a z ol e ( Va g is ta t- 1 ) is an im id a zol e - de r i ve d an t if u ng al d ru g th a t is a va i la b le as a 6 .5 % v ag in a l o in t m e n t. 1 . Me c h an is m o f a c ti on . Ti o c o na zo l e is fu n gi c i d al a g ai ns t C . a lb ic an s . L ike o t h e r im id a z o le ag e nt s , ti o c o n a z ol e a l te rs c e ll u lar m em b ra ne s , r es u lt i ng in i n c re as ed m e m b r an e p e rm e ab il i t y . P.951
2 . S pe c tr um o f ac t i v it y a . A ct i vi t y a g ai ns t fu ng i in c lu d es m os t s t ra i ns o f C a n d id a a nd t he d e r m a t op h y t es . Th er e i s a l s o ac ti v i t y a ga in s t A s pe r g il l us a n d C . n e o fo r m a ns . b . Ti o co na z o l e is ac t i v e a g ai n s t th e fo ll o wi n g a e ro b ic g ra m - p os it i ve b a ct e r ia : G ar d ne r el l a v ag i na l is , Co r yn eb a ct e ri um m i n u ti s s im um , E. f ae c a li s , S . a u re us , S . e pi de r m i dis , an d s om e S t r ep t oc oc c i s p p . G ra m -n e ga ti v e b a ct e r ia : i t i s a c t i v e a g ain s t H. p y lo r i , H a em op h il u s d uc r e yi , Mo r a xe l l a c a ta r r ha l is , Ne is s e r ia gon o r r ho e ae , a n d N . m e ni ng i t id is . c . O t he r o r g an is m s th a t ti o c o n a zol e h as ac ti v i t y ag a in s t a r e T. v a g in a li s , L ym p ho g r an ul om a v en e re u m , an d C hl am yd ia t ra c h o m a t is . 3 . Th e r ap e ut ic us es . Ti oc o na z o l e is us ed f or si m p l e a nd co m p li c at e d vu l v o va g i na l c an di d ia s i s . O t h e r u s e s h a v e b e en exp l o r e d ; ho we ve r , t op ic al c r e am s f or us e i n t h os e s c e n a ri os a re no t a v a i lab l e i n t h e U n it e d S t a te s . 4 . P r ec au t io ns an d m on i to r i ng e ff ec ts . Lo c a l i r r it at i o n h as b e en m a ni f es t ed a s vul vo v a g in a l b u rn in g , v a g i ni t is , a n d p r ur i tu s . S . To l n af t a te ( Ti na c ti n ) is a v ai l ab le t op ic al l y as a 1 % a e r os ol , 1 % p o wd e r , 1 % c r e am , a nd 1% s o lu t io n . 1 . Me c h an is m o f a c ti on . I t m a y d is to r t h y ph ae and s tu n t m yc e li a l g ro wt h in s us c ep ti b le fu n gi . 2 . S pe c tr um o f ac t i v it y . To l n a f ta t e m a y b e e i th e r f u ng is t a ti c o r f u ng ic id a l t o t h e fo ll o wi n g o r ga n is m s : M. g y p s e u m , M. c a ni s , M . a ud o ui ni i , Mi c ro s po r um j a po n ic um , T. ru b r um , T. m en t ag r o ph y t es , Tr i ch op h y t o n s c h oe nl e in ii , T. t o ns u r an s , E . f l oc c os u m , A s pe r gi l lu s n ig e r , C . al bi c an s, C . n e of o rm a ns , an d A . f um ig a tu s . 3 . Th e r ap e ut ic us es . To ln a f ta t e i s us e d f o r d e rm a t o ph yt o s e s a nd ti n ea ve r s ic o lo r . 4 . P r ec au t io ns an d m on i to r i ng e ff ec ts . Th e r e m a y b e s li g ht lo ca l i r r it a ti o n.
V. Antiprotozoal Agents A . C l as s i f ic at i on . Th es e d r u gs fa l l in t o t wo m ai n c a te g o ri es : a n ti m a l ar i al a g e nt s, us e d t o t r ea t m ala r i a i nf e c t io n , a n d am e bic i de s a nd t r i c h om o na c i de s , us e d to t r ea t a m e b ic a n d t r ic hom o na l i n fe c t i on s.
B . A n ti m a l a ri al ag e nt s . St i ll a l ea d in g c au s e o f i l ln e s s a n d d ea t h i n t r op ica l a n d s ub t r op ic al c o u nt r ies , m a la r ia r es ul ts f ro m i nf e c ti on b y an y o f f o ur s p ec ie s o f t h e p r ot o z o al g e n us Pl as m o d iu m . A nt im a la r ia l a g en ts a re s e le ct i v e l y a c ti v e du r in g d i f fe r e nt ph as es o f t he pr o t o z o an li f e c y cl e . Ma j o r a n t im al a ri a l d ru gs in c l u de c h l o ro qu i ne ( A ra l en ) , ha l o fa n t ri ne ( H al f an ) , h yd r o xyc h l o r oq u in e ( Pl aq u e ni l ), p ri m a qu i ne , p y r im e th am i ne ( D a ra p ri m ), q u in i ne , a n d m ef lo q ui n e ( L a r ia m ). In ad d it i on , t wo co m b i na t io n b r an d s a re a va i la b le : s ul f ad o xi n e plu s p y r i m e t ha m i n e ( F an s id a r ) a n d a to v a q uo n e p lus p r o gu a ni l ( Ma l a r o n e) . 1 . Me c h an is m o f a c ti on a . C hl o r oq ui n e a nd h y d ro xy c h l o r o q ui ne bi n d t o an d a l t e r t he p ro pe r t ie s o f m ic r o bi al an d m am m a li an D N A . b . Th e m ec h an is m o f a c ti o n o f p r im a qu in e , q ui n ine , F an s i da r , a n d m e fl o qu in e i s u nk n o wn . c . P yr im e th am in e i m p e de s fo li c a c i d r e du c ti on by i n h ib i ti ng t he en z ym e d i h yd ro f ol a te r ed uc t as e . 2 . S pe c tr um o f ac t i v it y a . C hl o r oq ui n e a nd h y d ro xy c h l o r o q ui ne a re s u ppr e ss i v e b l oo d s c h i z on t ic id a l a g e nt s a nd a re ac ti v e aga i ns t th e a s e xu a l e r y t hr oc y t e fo r m s o f P la s m od ium vi va x a n d P l as m o d iu m f al c ip a ru m a nd ga m e t oc y t es o f P . v i v a x, P l as m o d ium m a la r ia e , a nd P la s m od i um o v al e . b . P r im aq ui n e, a c u ra t i ve a ge n t, is ac ti v e ag a in s t l i ve r f o rm s o f P . v i v a x a n d P . o va le an d th e p r im a r y e xo e r y t h r o c y t e f o rm s o f P . f al c i p a ru m . c . P yr im e th am in e i s a c t iv e a g ai ns t c hl o r oq ui n e - re s i s ta n t s t ra in s o f P . f a lc i pa r um an d s om e s tra i ns of P . v i v a x. d . Q u in in e , a ge n er a li z ed p r ot o pl as m i c p oi s o n , is t o xi c t o a wi d e r a ng e o f o r g an is m s . In m a la r ia , thi s d r u g h as b o th s u pp r es s i v e a n d c ur a ti ve ac t io n a g ai n st c h lo r oq u in e - re s is t an t s t r ai ns . P.952
e . F an si da r (s u lf a do xi n e p l us p y r im et h am in e ) is a b l oo d s c h i z on t ic id a l a gen t t h a t i s ac t i v e a ga i ns t t h e e r y t h r oc y t ic fo r m s o f s us c e p ti b le pl as m o d ia . I t is a l so ac ti v e a ga i ns t T. g on d ii . f . Ma l a r o ne ( at o v a qu o ne p l us p r o gu an i l ) is ac ti v e a g ai ns t th e e r y t h ro c y t ic a n d e xo e r y t h r o c y ti c f o rm s o f P la s m o di um s p p. g . Me f l o qu i ne is a bl o od s c h i z o nt ic i da l a g en t t h at i s a c t i ve a g ai ns t P. f a lc i pa r um (b o th c h lo r o qu i ne - s u sc e pt ib l e a nd - r es is t an t s t r ai ns ) an d P. vi va x. h . H al o fa n t ri n e is a b lo od s c hi z o n ti c i d al ag e nt ac t i v e ag a in st P . f a lc ip a rum a n d P. v i v a x. 3 . Th e r ap e ut ic us es a . C hl o r oq ui n e is t he p ref e r r ed ag e nt us e d t o s u pp r e ss m al a ri a s ym pt o m s a n d t o te rm i na t e a c u t e m a l a ri a a t ta c k s r es u lt i ng fr o m P. f al ci pa r um an d P. m a la r ia e i n fe c ti on s .
( 1 ) I t is m o r e p o te n t a nd l e s s to xi c t ha n q u in in e . ( 2 ) E xc e p t wh e r e d r ug - r es is t an t P . f al ci p a ru m s t ra i ns a re pr e va le n t, c h lo r oq u in e i s t he m o s t u s ef u l a nt im a la r ia l a g en t. b . H yd r o xy c h l o ro q ui n e is u s e d a s a n a l te r na t i ve to c h l o ro qu i ne in pa t ie n ts wh o c a nn o t t o le r at e c hl or o q ui n e o r wh e n c h l o ro qu i ne is un a v a il ab l e. c . P ri m a q ui ne is us ed to c u r e r el a ps es of P . v i v a x a n d P . o va l e m al a ri a a nd t o p re ve n t m al a ri a i n e xp o s ed pe r s o ns r et u r ni ng fr o m re gi o ns wh e r e m al a ri a i s e n de m i c . d . P yr im e th am i ne is e f f ec t i v e i n t h e p re ve n ti o n an d t re a tm en t o f c h lo r oq u in e - re s i s t a n t s t ra i ns of P . f a lc ip a ru m . I t is no w u s e d a lm os t e xc l u s i v el y i n c om bi na t ion wi t h a s ul f on am id e o r s u lf o ne . e . Q u in in e ( 1 ) Q u in in e s u lf a te , a n or a l fo r m , is th e ra p eu t ic fo r ac u te m a la r ia c a us e d b y c h lo r oq u in e - re s i s t a n t s t ra i ns . ( 2 ) Q u in in e di h y d ro c h l or id e , a pa r e nt e ra l fo r m , is u s ed in s e ve r e c a s es o f c h lo r oq u in e - re s i s t a n t m al a r ia . (I t is a v a i la bl e o n l y f r om t he C D C . ) ( 3 ) Q u in in e i s a lm os t a l wa y s gi v e n i n c om b in a ti on wi t h a no t he r an t im al a ri al a g e nt . f . F an si d ar ( 1 ) F an s i da r is u s ed fo r th e s u pp r es s i o n o r p r op hy l a xi s o f c h lo r oq u in e r e s is ta n t P . fa lc i pa r um m a l a ri a . ( 2 ) I t h as be en us ed f o r th e p ro ph y l a xi s o f P . c a rin i i i n fe ct i on s i n A I D S p a t ie n ts u n ab l e t o t ol e r at e c o t ri m o xa z o l e ( t r im et ho p r im -s u lf am e th o xa z o l e ). g . Me f l o qu i ne is i n di c a t ed f o r t he t re a tm e nt of ac u t e m al a ri a an d t h e p r e ve n ti on o f P . fa lc ip a ru m a n d P . v i v a x i n f ec ti on s . h . H al o fa n t ri n e is in d ic ate d fo r t re a tm en t of m a la ri a in ad ul t s wh o ca n t o l er a t e o ra l m ed ic a ti o n a n d wh o h a v e m il d to m od e r a te m a la r ia ( ≥ 1 0 0, 0 00 3
p a r as i te s / m m ) c au s e d by P . f a lc ip a ru m o r P . vi va x. i . Ma l a r on e ( 1 ) P r op h y l a xi s o f P . f al c i p a ru m m al a ri a , i nc lu di ng a r ea s wh e r e c h lo r oq u in e r e s is ta nc e h as be e n r e po r t e d. ( 2 ) Tr e a tm en t of ac u te , un c om pl ic a te d P. f al ci pa ru m m al a r ia . Th is c om b in a ti o n h as b e en s ho wn t o b e e ff ec t i v e i n r eg i o n s wh e r e t he d ru gs c h lo r oq u in e , h al o fa n t ri ne, m ef l oq ui n e, an d a m o d ia q u i n e m a y h a ve u n ac ce p ta b le fa i lu r e r a tes , pr e s u m a bl y b ec a us e of d r ug r es is ta nc e . 4 . P r ec au t io ns an d m on i to r i ng e ff ec ts a . C hl o r oq ui n e a nd h y d ro xy c h l o r o q ui ne ( 1 ) B ec au s e t he s e d ru gs c on c e n t ra t e i n t h e li v e r , t h e y s h ou ld be us e d c a ut i ou s l y i n p at i en ts wi t h h ep a ti c d is ea s e . ( 2 ) C hl o r oq ui n e m us t b e a d m i ni s te r ed wi t h e xt r em e c au t io n i n p a ti e nt s wit h n e u ro l og ic al , he m a t ol o gic a l, o r se v e r e G I d is o rd er s . ( 3 ) V is ua l d is t u rb a nc es , h e a da c h e , s k in r as h, a nd G I di s tr es s h a v e b e en r e p o rt e d. b . P r im aq ui n e
( 1 ) Th i s a ge n t is c o n tr a in d ic a te d i n p a ti e nt s wi t h r h e um at o id ar t h ri t is a n d l u pu s e r y t h em at os u s a nd i n t h os e r ec e i v in g o t he r p o t en t ia ll y h em ol yt i c d r u gs or b on e m ar r o w s up p r es s a n ts . ( 2 ) P r im aq ui n e m a y c au s e a g ra nu l oc yt os is , g r a nul o c y to p en i a, an d m il d a n em i a. In pa t ie n ts wi t h G 6 P D d e fi c i e nc y, i t m a y c a us e h em ol yt i c a ne m i a . ( 3 ) A bd om i na l c r am ps , na u s e a , v o m i t in g , a nd e pig a st r ic di s t r es s s om et im e s o cc u r . c . P yr im e th am in e ( 1 ) I n h ig h d os es , th is dru g m a y c a us e a g r an ul oc y t o s is , m eg a lo bl a st ic a n em i a, ap la s ti c a ne m i a , a n d t h ro m b oc y t o pe n ia . P.953
( 2 ) E r yt he m a m u l ti f or m e ( S t e v e ns - J o h ns on s y n d ro m e ), na us e a, v o m i t in g , a n d a n or e xi a m a y d e v e lop d u ri ng p y r im et h am in e th e r a p y. d . Q u in in e ( 1 ) Q u in in e i s c on t r ai nd ic a te d i n p a ti e nt s wi t h G 6P D d e fi c i e nc y, ti n ni t us , a n d o p ti c n eu r i ti s . ( 2 ) Q u in in e o v er d os e o r h y p e r s e ns i ti v i t y r ea ct i ons m a y b e f a ta l . Ma n i f e s ta t io ns o f q ui ni ne p oi s o ni n g i nc lu d e v i s ua l an d h e ar i ng d i st u r ba nc es ; G I s y m p t om s ( e .g . , n a us ea , v om i tin g ) ; h o t, f lu s h ed sk in ; h e a da c h e ; f e v e r; s y nc ope ; c o n fu si on ; s h al lo w, t he n de p re s s e d, r es pi r at i on s ; a n d c a rd io v a s c u la r c ol l ap s e. ( 3 ) Q u in in e m us t b e u s ed c a u ti o us l y i n p a ti e nt s wi t h a t r ia l f i b ri ll a ti on . ( 4 ) R e na l d am ag e a n d an u r ia ha v e be e n r e po r t ed . e . F an si da r ( 1 ) S e ve re , s om e ti m e s fa t a l, h y pe r s e ns i ti v i t y r eac t io ns ha v e oc cu r r ed . In m os t c as es , de a th r es ul te d f ro m s e v er e c u ta n eo us r ea c ti on s , in c l u di n g e r y t h em a m ul t if o rm e , S te v e n s -J oh ns o n s ynd r om e , an d to xi c e pi de r m a l n e c ro l ys i s . ( 2 ) A d ve rs e h em a to lo g ic a l an d h e pa ti c e f fe c ts a s s ee n wi t h s ul f on am i de s h a ve be e n r e po r te d . f . Me f l o q ui ne ( 1 ) C o nc om it a nt us e o f m e fl o qu in e wi t h q u in in e , q u i n i di n e, o r β - a dr e ne r gic b l oc ka d e m a y p r od uc e e le c t ro c a r di o g ra p hi c a bn o rm a li t ie s o r c a rd ia c a r r es t. ( 2 ) C o nc om it a nt us e o f m e fl o qu in e a n d q ui n in e o r c h l or o qu i ne m a y in c rea s e t h e ri sk o f c o n v ul s i o ns . g . H al o fa n t ri n e ( 1 ) D o n o t a dm in is t e r wi t h d r ug s kn o wn t o p r ol o ng t he Q Tc i nt e r v al ; i n t er a ct i on wi t h m ef l oq u in e fu r t he r pr o lo n gs th e Q Tc i n t e r v al . ( 2 ) A s e v e nf o ld in c r e as e i n p e ak p l asm a l e ve l a nd t h re e fo l d i nc re as e i n th e a r e a u nd e r t h e c ur v e ( AU C ) o c c u r re d wh e n g i v en wi t h hi g h -f a t f oo d . Si m i l a r i n c re as es oc c u r wh e n d os es a re ad m i n is te r e d 2 hr a f te r a m e a l. A dm in is t er h a lo f an t r in e o n a n e m p t y s t om ac h. h . Ma l a r o ne
( 1 ) C o nc om it a nt ad m i n is t r a t io n wi t h t e tr a c yc l in e h a s b ee n a ss oc ia t ed wi t h 4 0 % re du c ti on in pl as m a c on c e n t ra t io ns o f a to vaq u o n e . Si m i la r l y , c o nc u r re n t r i fa m p in is k no wn t o r ed uc e a t o v a qu on e l e ve ls b y 5 0 %. ( 2 ) Ta k e m a l ar o ne wi t h fo o d o r m il k . C . A m eb ic id es an d t ri c ho m on ac i de s . Th e se ag ent s ar e c r uc ia l i n t h e t r e a tm en t o f am eb ia s i s , g i a rd i as is , a nd t ri ch om on i as es — t he m os t c om m on p r o t o zoa l i n fe c t i on s i n t he U n it e d S t a te s. Th e m ajo r am e bi ci de s i nc lu d e d i lo xa n i d e , i od o qu in o l ( Yo d o xi n ) , m e t ro ni d a z ol e (F l a g y l) , ni t a z o xa n i de ( A l i ni a ), p ar om om y c i n ( Hu m at i n ), qu i na cr i ne , a n d t i n id a z ol e ( Ti nd am a x) . 1 . Me c h an is m o f a c ti on a . D il o xa n i d e, a d ic hl o roa c et am i de de r i v a ti ve , i s a m eb ic i da l; i ts m ec ha n ism o f ac t io n i s u nk no wn . ( No t a v ai l ab le co m m e rc ia lly b u t c a n b e co m p o un d ed b y P a n o ra m a C om po u nd in g P ha r m a c y , V a n N u y s , C A — p e r Me d ic al L et t e r 8 / 0 4. ) b . Me t r o n id a z o le is a s yn t h et ic co m p o un d wi t h d ir e c t am e bi ci d al an d t r i ch om o na c i da l a c ti on ; it wo r k s a t b o t h in t es t in al a n d e xt r a i n te s ti na l s it e s . I t s m ec ha n is m o f ac t io n in v o l v e s d is r up t io n o f th e h e li ca l s t ru ct u r e o f D N A. c . N it a z o xa n i d e is de s i gn a t ed b y th e U. S . Fo o d a n d D ru g Ad m i ni s tr a ti o n ( F D A ) as an o rp h an dr u g. I ts an t ip r o to zo a l ac t i v i ty i s be li e ve d t o b e t h e r e s ul t o f i n te r f e re nc e wi th t he p y r u v a te : f e r re d o xi n o xi d o r ed uc t as e ( PF O R ) e n zym e - de p en de n t e le c tr o n t ra ns f e r r ea c ti on es se n t i a l f o r e n er g y m e ta b ol is m . d . Q u in ac r in e i s a n a c ri di n e d e ri va t i ve t h at in hi b i ts D N A m e ta b ol is m . e . I od oq u in ol is a l um in al o r c on t ac t a m e bi c i d e t ha t is ef f ec ti v e a ga in s t t he t r o p ho zo i te s o f E n ta m oeb a hi s t o l yti c a lo ca t ed in t h e l um e n o f t h e l ar g e i n t es ti n e. f . P a ro m o m y c i n i s a p o o rl y a bs o r be d a m e bi c i d al am i n o gl y c os i de wh o s e m ec h an is m o f a c t i on pa ra l le ls o th e r a m i no g l yc os id e s ( i .e . , p r ot e in s y nt h esi s i n hi b it o r ) . I t i s a ls o e f fe c t i v e ag a in s t en t e ri c b ac te r i a S a lm on e ll a a nd S h i ge l la . g . Ti n id a z o le pr e c i s e m ec h an is m o f a c t i on is u nk n o wn . 2 . S pe c tr um o f ac t i v it y an d th e r ap eu t ic us es a . D il o xa n i d e P.954
( 1 ) Th i s d ru g i s u s e d t o tr e a t a s y m p t om at ic c a r r ier s of am e bi c a nd G ia r di a c ys ts . ( 2 ) D il o xa n i d e is th e r ap eu t ic f or in v a s i v e a nd e xt r a i n te s t i na l a m e bi a s i s ( g i ve n i n c om bi na t io n wi th a s y s te m i c o r m i xe d am e bi c i d e) . ( 3 ) D il o xa n i d e is no t e f f ec t i v e a s s i n gl e -a g en t th er a p y f o r e xt r a i n te st i na l a m eb i as is . b . Me t r o n id a z o le ( 1 ) Th i s a ge n t is th e p r e fe r r e d d r ug in am eb ic d ys e n t e r y , g ia r di as is , an d t r i c h om o ni as is .
( 2 ) Me t r o n id a z o le al s o is a c ti v e ag ai ns t al l a na e ro b ic c oc c i a nd gr am n e g at i ve a n ae r ob ic ba c i ll i . ( 3 ) Th i s a ge n t is th e t re at m en t of c h oi c e b y th e CD C f o r th e t r e at m e n t o f C . d i f fi ci l e c o li t is in f ec ti o ns o wi n g to t he em e rg in g us e o f br o ad - s p ec t r um a n t ib io t ic s . Th is t he r ap y i s c os t - ef f ec ti v e . c . Q ui n ac r in e i s us e fu l i n t h e t r ea t m e n t o f g ia r di as is an d ta pe wo r m s (s ee V I I I . H .2 ) . d . I od oq u in ol is in di c a t ed f o r t r ea tm e n t o f i nt es t in a l a m e bi a s i s . I t is ac ti ve a g ai n st th e p r o to z o a E. h i s t o l y ti c a . e . N i ta zo xa n i d e i s in d ic at e d fo r tr e at m en t o f d i a rrh e a c au s e d b y C r yp t o s p o r id iu m p a r v um a n d Gi a r di a l am bl i a i n chi l d re n . f . P a ro m o m y c i n i s i nd ic at e d fo r a cu t e a n d c h r on ic i n te s ti na l a m e b ia s i s; it is n o t u se f ul f or e xt r a i n te s ti n al am eb i as is b e c a us e it i s n ot ab s o r b ed . P a r o m o m yc i n h as b e en u s ed fo r D ie n ta m o e ba f ra g il is , Ta e ni a s ag in a ta , D i p yl i di um c a ni nu m , a nd H y m e n ol ep is na n a. g . Ti n id a z o le is a s e c o nd- g e ne r a ti o n s y n th e ti c n itr o i m i da zo l e ac t i v e a ga i ns t t r i c h om o ni as is , G ia r di a du o d en al is / G . l a m b li a , a nd E . h is t ol y t i c a . 3 . P r ec au t io ns an d m on i to r i ng e ff ec ts a . D il o xa n i d e r a re l y c a us e s s e ri o us a d v e rs e e f f ec t s . Vo m i t in g , f la t ul e nc e, a n d p r u ri t us h a v e be en re p o r te d . b . Me t r o n id a z o le ( 1 ) Th e m os t c om m o n a dv e r s e e f f ec ts of th is d ru g a r e n a us ea , e p ig as t r ic d i st r es s , a nd di a r rh ea . ( 2 ) Me t r o n id a z o le is c a rc i n og e ni c i n m i ce a nd s h ou l d n o t b e us e d u n n ec es s a r il y . ( 3 ) H e ad ac he , v om i ti n g, m e ta l li c t as t e, an d s to m a t i ti s h a ve b ee n re p o rt ed . ( 4 ) O cc as i on al l y , ne u ro lo g ic al r ea c ti on s ( e .g . , a ta xi a , p e r ip he r a l n e u ro p at h y , s e i z u re s ) d ev e l o p . ( 5 ) A di s u lf i r am - t y pe r eac t io n m a y oc c u r wi t h c onc u r re n t e t ha n ol u s e. c . Q ui n ac r in e . S e e V I I I. H. 4 . ( 1 ) Th i s d ru g fr e qu e nt l y c a us es di z z i n es s , he a dac h e, na u se a , a nd v om i tin g . N e r vo u sn es s a nd s e i z u re s a ls o h a v e be en r ep o r te d . ( 2 ) Q u in ac r in e s h ou ld not b e t ak e n i n c o m b i na t ion wi t h p ri m a q ui ne be c aus e t h is m a y i nc r ea s e pr im aq u in e to xi c i t y. ( 3 ) Q u in ac r in e s h ou ld be a dm i ni s t e r ed wi t h e xt r e m e c au t io n i n p a ti e nt s wit h p s o ri as is be c a us e i t m a y c au s e m a r ke d e xa c e r b at i o n o f t hi s d is e as e. d . I od oq u in ol m a y p r od uc e o p ti c n eu r i ti s o r a t r oph y o r pe r ip h e ra l n e u ro p at h y wi t h hi g h- d os e , l on g - te r m us e . Pr o te in - b ou n d i od in e l e ve ls m a y b e in c re as ed d ur i ng t re at m en t an d m a y i n te r f e re wi t h t h e r e s u lt s o f th yr o id t e s ts f o r 6 m o n th s a f te r tr e a tm e nt . Io do q ui n ol s h ou l d n o t b e us e d i n p a t ie n ts wh o ar e h y p e rs e n s i t i v e t o 8 - h y d ro xy - q u i n o l o n e ( e .g . , i o do qu i no l , i o do c hl o rh y d r o xy q u i n ) o r i o di ne - c o n ta i ni ng ag e n ts o r i n p at i en ts wi t h h e p at ic di s o r de r s .
e . P a ro m o m y c i n m a y c aus e n a us ea , c r am pi n g, and d ia r r he a a t h i gh do s e s ( > 3 g / da y ) . I na d v e r te n t a b s o r p ti on t hr o ug h u lc e ra t i v e b o we l le s i o ns m a y r e s ul t i n o t ot o xi c i t y o r r en a l d am a ge . f . N i ta zo xa n i d e m a y c a us e a b do m i n al pa in , di a r rh e a , v o m i t in g , h ea d ac he, f l a tu l en c e , fe v e r , e y e di s c o lo r a ti on , rh i ni t is , a nd d i s c ol o re d u r i ne . g . Ti n id a z o le m a y p ro d uc e m e ta ll ic t as te , n a us ea, a no r e xi a , d ys p ep s i a , vo m i ti n g, we a k ne s s , d i z z i n es s , an d h e ad ac h e. D . P e n ta m i di n e is e th i ona t e ( Pe n ta m 3 00 ) is a n ar o m at ic di am i de a n t ip r o to z o al ag e nt . It c a n be ad m i ni s te r ed in t r am us c ul a rl y , in t r a v en o us ly , o r b y in h al a ti on . 1 . Me c h an is m o f a c ti on is no t fu ll y u n de r st o od , bu t in v i t ro st u di es in di c a te i n t er f e re nc e wi t h n uc l ea r m e ta bo l is m an d i n hi bi t ion o f D N A, R N A , p h os p ho li p id , a n d p r ot e in s y n th es is . 2 . Th e r ap e ut ic us es a . P en t am id i ne is i n di c a te d fo r th e p r e v e nt i on and t r ea tm e nt o f i nf ec t io ns c a us ed b y P . c a r i ni i. P.955
b . U nl a be l ed us es i nc l ude t r ea tm e nt o f t r yp an os om i a s is , v isc e r al l e is hm a ni as is , a n d b ab es i os is . 3 . P r ec au t io ns an d m on i to r i ng e ff ec ts a . N ep h r ot o xi c i t y , b r o nc h o s p as m , a nd c o ug h a r e t h e m os t c om m o n e ff e cts p r o du c e d b y i n t ra v e no u s o r in h al ed pe n ta m i d in e . b . S e ve re h y po t en s i o n m a y o c c u r a f te r a p a re n te ra l do s e of pe n ta m i d in e . C a r d io r es p i ra t or y a r r es t c a n oc c ur a ft e r a s i ng le r a p id in f us io n o f th e d r ug . c . P ai n, e r y t he m a , a n d te n d er n es s m a y o cc ur a fte r a n I M a d m i n is t ra t io n of t h e d r u g. Th is c a n b e m in i m i z e d b y us i ng th e Z- t ra c k t ec hn i qu e o f d r ug a d m i ni s t ra ti o n . P hl e bi t is m a y oc cu r fo l lo wi n g I V ad m in is t r at io n . d . H yp o gl y c em ia m a y oc c u r wi t h i ni t ia l a dm in is t ra t i on of d ru g v ia th e I V, I M, o r in h al a ti o na l r o ut e . Af te r t he pa t ie n t h as be en o n th e d r u g f o r a p e r io d o f t i m e , h y pe r gl y c em ia wi l l r e s ul t . Th e e ff ec t of th e d r u g m a y a c tu al l y in d uc e a r e v e r si b le in s u li n - de p end e n t d ia b et es m e ll i tu s. e . Le uk o pe n ia an d t h r om b o c y to p en i a, wh i c h ca n b e s e v e r e, oc c u r o cc a si on a ll y . f . P en t am id i ne m a y r es ult i n e le va t ed li v e r fu nc t ion t es ts , A S T, an d AL T. g . G I ef f ec ts c a n a ls o o c c u r , i nc lu d in g n au s e a , vo m it i ng , a b do m i na l d i sc om fo r t , p ai n , d ia r r h ea , an d d y s g eu s i a . h . N eu r o lo gi c a l e f f ec ts c a n oc c u r wi t h p a re n te r al a d m i ni s t ra ti o n a nd m a y i n cl ud e d i z z i n es s , t re m o rs , c o nf us i on , a n xi e t y , i ns o m ni a , a nd s e i z u re s. i . H yp oc al c em ia an d f e ve r h a v e a ls o b ee n re po r te d a n d m a y be s e v e r e a t times. E . A t o v aq u on e ( Me p r on ) i s a h y d ro xyn a p h t h oq u ino n e i ni t ia l l y s yn t he s i ze d a s a n a n ti m a l a ri al d ru g .
1 . Me c h an is m o f a c ti on . A t o v a q uo n e b lo ck s m i t oc h o n dr i al el ec t r on t ra ns por t a t co m p le x I I I o f th e r es p i r at o r y c h ai n o f p ro t o z oa , r es ul t in g i n i nh i bi t io n o f p yr i m id in e s y n t he s i s . 2 . S pe c tr um o f ac t i v it y . It i s ac t i v e a ga i ns t P . c a rin i i , T. g on d ii , C . p a r vum , P . f al ci p a ru m , Is os p o ri dia , an d Mi c r os po r i di a. 3 . Th e r ap e ut ic us es . At ov a q u o ne is u s e d fo r s eco n d -l i ne t re a tm en t o f m i ld t o m o de r a te P . c a ri ni i p ne u m o n ia i n p a ti e nt s i n to le r a n t o f co t r im o xa z o l e o r o t h e r su l fo n am id es o r wh o a re no n re s p o ns i ve t o c o t ri m o xa zo l e . 4 . P r ec au t io ns an d m on i to r i ng e ff ec ts a . O r a l a bs or p ti o n s i g ni f ic a nt l y in c re as es wh e n ad m in is t e re d wi t h f oo d ( e s pe c i al l y a h ig h - fa t m ea l ) . b . R as h , n au s e a , d ia r r hea , he a da c h e , f e v e r , a bd om i na l p ai n , d i z zi ne s s , a nd e l e va te d l i v e r f u nc ti o n t es t s c o m m on l y a re r ep o r te d . 5 . S ig n if ic a nt in t e ra c t i ons . A to v a q uo ne is hi gh l y b o u nd to pl as m a p ro t ei n . I t s h ou l d b e us e d wi t h c a u ti o n wh e n a dm in is t er e d wi t h o t he r hi g hl y p ro t ei n b o u nd dr u gs wi t h a na r r ow t h e r a p eu t ic ra n ge . F . E f lo r ni t hi ne H C l ( O rn id y l ) . Th is is an I V a nt i p ro t o z o al ag e nt . It s a c t i v i ty h a s b ee n a t t ri b ut e d t o t he i nh ib i ti o n o f t h e e n zy m e o r ni t hi ne de ca r b o xy l a s e . 1 . Me c h an is m o f a c ti on . Th i s is a s p ec i fi c, en zy m e - a c t i v a te d , i r re ve r s i b le i n hi b it o r o f o r n it h in e d ec a r b o xy l a s e . 2 . S pe c tr um o f ac t i v it y an d th e r ap eu t ic us es . Ef lor n i th i ne is a c ti ve in th e t r e a tm en t o f th e m en i ngo e nc e ph al i ti c s ta g e o f Tr yp a n os om a b r uc e i g a m b i en s e (s le e pi n g s i c k n es s ) . 3 . P r ec au t io ns an d m on i to r i ng e ff ec ts a . My e l o s up p r es s i on is th e m os t f re q ue n t s e r io u s s id e e f f ec t. b . S ei zu r es oc c u r i n a b ou t 8% o f t r ea t ed pa t ie n ts . c . C as es of he a ri n g im p ai r m en t h a ve b e en r ep o rte d .
VI. Antitubercular Agents A . D e f in it i on an d c la s s i fic a ti o n. D r ug s u s e d t o tr ea t t ub e rc ul os is s u pp r es s o r ki ll t he s l o w- g r o wi n g m y c o ba ct e ri a th a t ca us e t h is di s e as e . A n t i tu b er c ul a r a ge n ts fa ll i nt o t wo m a in c a te g o ri es : fi r s t - li n e P.956 a n d s ec on d -l i ne d ru gs . Be c au s e t he c a us at i ve o rg a ni s m s t en d to de ve l op r e s is ta nc e to an y s i n gl e d r u g , c o m b i na t io n d r ug th e r ap y h as be c o m e s t an d a rd in th e t r e at m e nt o f t u be r c u lo s i s . 1 . Th e i n c i de nc e o f tu b erc u lo s i s i n t he U ni t ed S t at e s i s i nc re a s i ng o wi n g to s h if t s i n p op ul a ti o ns c ons i de r ed t o b e e nd em ic for t u be r c u lo s i s , t he r is e in H I V - p os i ti v e pa t ie n ts , a nd d r ug re si s ta nc e . 2 . A ge n ts c h os en fo r th er a p y m u s t e ra d ic at e m y co b ac t e ri um . F i rs t - li ne a g e nt s a v a il a bl e i nc lu d e i s on ia zi d , e t ha m b u to l , p yr a z i n am id e , r i fa m p i n, r i f ab u ti n , a n d r if a pe n ti n e. C o m b in a ti o n c he m o t he ra p y is es se n ti al . A ge n ts s h o wi n g t he lo we s t in c i de n c e of r es is t an c e (i s on ia z i d , ri f am pi n ) a r e us u al ly u s ed in c om b in a ti o n wi t h p y r a z i n am id e o r et h am bu t o l .
3 . C ho ic e of th e r ap y d epe n ds on m a n y pa t ie n t a nd d i s ea s e fa c to r s ( e .g . , d u r a ti on o f t he r ap y n e ede d , l ik e li ho o d o f d r ug r es i s ta nc e , a nd H I V s t at us ) . 4 . Tr e a tm en t c h oi c e s b as e d o n C D C r ec om m e n da t i on s ( Ta b l e 4 4- 4 ) . B . F i rs t -l i ne . Th es e d r ugs , is on ia z i d , e t ha m b u to l , r i f am pi n , r i fa bu t in , r i f ap e n ti ne , an d p y r a z i nam i de us ua ll y o f fe r th e g re a t es t e f fe c ti ve ne s s wi t h t h e l e as t t o xi c i t y ; t h e y a re s u c c es s fu l i n m o s t t ube r c ul os is pa t ie n ts . A t le as t t h r e e t o f ou r d ru g c om bin a t io ns a re re c om m e nd ed . Th e C D C re co m m e nd s d a il y t r e at m e n t wi t h is o ni a z i d , r i fa m p in , p yr a z in am i de , a n d e th am b ut o l f o r t h e i n it i al ph as e o f 2 m on t hs , fo ll o we d b y a co n tin u a ti on p ha s e of is on i a zi d a n d ri f am pi n f o r 4 - 5 m o nt h s ( Ta b l e 4 4 -4 ) . 1 . E th a m b u to l ( My a m b u to l ) i s a s yn t he t ic wa t e r - ba s ed c o m p ou n d. a . Me c h an is m o f a c ti on . Th i s d ru g i s b ac te r i os ta t ic . It s p r ec is e m ec ha n is m o f ac t io n i s u nk no wn ; h owe v e r , i t h as d em o ns t ra te d ac ti v i t y o nl y a ga in s t s us c ep ti b le ba c te r ia ac tiv e l y u n de r go i ng ce ll di v is i on . b . S pe c tr um o f ac t i v it y an d th e r ap eu t ic us es . Et ha m bu t ol is a c ti v e ag ai ns t m a n y M. t u be r c u l os is s t ra i ns as we l l a s m a n y ot he r m y co ba c te r ia l s pe ci es . H o we ve r , d r u g r es is t an c e d e v el o ps f a i rl y r ap i dl y wh e n i t i s u se d a lo n e . I n m os t c as es , et h am bu t ol is gi v e n a d ju nc t i v el y i n c o m bi n at io n wi t h i so n ia z id o r r i fa m p in f or t ub e rc ul os is . It is al s o us ef u l i n c o m bi n at io n wi t h o t he r a g e nt s s uc h as c l a ri t h rom y c in o r a z i t hr om y c in a nd r i fa b ut in in t re a ti n g MA C .
Table 44-4. Treatment for Active Tuberculosis Initial Phase Rank Agent 1
Dosage
Continuation Phase Agent Dosage
INH
7 days a week × 8 weeks
INH/RIF
7 days a week × 18 weeks
RIF
or
or
PZA
5 days a week × 8 weeks
5 days a week × 18 weeks
EMB 2
INH RIF
7 days a week × 2 weeks, then 2 times a week × 6 weeks
PZA
or
INH/RIF
2 times a week × 18 weeks
3
EMP
5 days a week × 2 weeks, then 2 times a week × 6 weeks
INH
3 times a week × 8 weeks
INH/RIF
3 times a week × 19 weeks
INH
7 days a week × 8 weeks
INH/RIF
7 days a week × 31 weeks
RIF
or
or
EMP
5 days a week × 8 weeks
5 days a week × 31 weeks
RIF PZA EMB 4
or 2 times a week × 31 weeks EMB, ethambutol; INH, isoniazid; PZA, pyrazinamide; RIF, rifampin. Adapted with permission from CDC guidelines for treatment of tuberculosis 2003. MMWR 2003; 52 (RR11); 1-77. P.957
c . P re ca u ti o ns a n d m on i to r i ng e ff ec ts . R a re l y , e t ha m bu t ol c a us es s uc h a d ve r s e ef f ec ts as re v e rs i bl e d os e - re l at e d ( = 1 5 m g /k g /d a y ) op t ic n e ur i ti s, d r u g f e v e r , a bd om i na l p ai n , h e ad ac h e, di z zi n es s , a n d c on f us io n . L i v e r
f u nc t io n te s t s s ho ul d b e p e r io d ic al l y m o ni t or e d . Vi s ua l t es t in g a n d r e na l f u nc t io n ( re du c e d os e wi t h im pa i rm e nt ) s h ou ld als o b e m on i to r e d. 2 . Is o ni a z id ( N y d r a z id ) is a h y d r a zid e o f is on ic o ti n ic ac id . Th e m ai ns t a y of a n t it u be r c u la r th e r ap y , th i s d r ug s h ou ld be in cl ud e d (i f t o le r a te d ) i n a ll t h e r ap eu t ic re g im en s . a . Me c h an is m o f a c ti on . I s on i a z id is b ac t e ri os t a tic f or r es ti n g b ac il l i a nd b a ct e r ic id al f or r ap i dl y d iv i d i ng o rg a ni s m s . It s m ec h an is m o f a ct i on is n o t f u l l y k no wn ; t h e d r ug pr ob a bl y d is r up t s b ac te r i al c e ll wa l l s yn th e si s b y i n hi b it i ng m y c ol ic ac id s y n t h es is . b . S pe c tr um o f ac t i v it y . Is o ni a z i d h as a c ti vi t y on ly a g a in s t o rg a ni s m s in th e g e n us My c o b ac t e ri um . Mo r e s p ec if ic a ll y , it ha s de m on s t r a te d a c ti v i t y a g ai n st M. t u b er c ul os is , M y c o b a ct e ri um bo v i s , a nd s e l ec t s t ra in s o f M y c o b a c t e ri um k a ns as i i. c . Th e ra p eu t ic u s es ( 1 ) Th e m os t wi d el y u s ed a nt i tu b e rc ul a r a ge n t, is o ni a z i d s h o ul d b e g i ven i n c om b in a ti o n wi t h ot h e r an t i tu b e rc ul a r d r ug s ( su c h a s r i fa m p i n, e th am bu t ol , a n d p yr a z i na m i d e ) t o p r ev e n t d ru g re s i s t a nc e i n tu b e rc ul os is . ( 2 ) Tr e a tm en t of la t en t in f ec t io n (p r e vio u s l y r e fer r e d to as p r e ve nt i v e t h e r ap y o f c he m o p ro p h y la xi s ) . I so ni a zi d m a y b e ad m i n is t e re d a lo n e f o r u p t o 1 yea r i n a d ul ts o r c hil d r en wh o ha v e a p os i ti v e t ub e rc u li n t es t re s u l t bu t l a ck a c ti v e le s i on s . d . P r ec au t io ns an d m on i to r i ng e ff ec ts ( 1 ) Th e m os t c om m o n a dv e r s e e f f ec ts of is on ia zid a r e s k in r as h, f e ve r, j a un d ic e, a nd pe r ip h er a l n e u ri t is . ( 2 ) H e pa ti t is , a n o c c as i on a l r e ac t io n , c a n b e s e ve r e an d , i n so m e c a s e s , f a t al . Th e ri s k o f h e pa t it is in c re as es wi t h th e p a tie n t ' s a ge an d ri s e s wi t h a l co h ol a b us e . Mo n i t o r l iv e r f u nc ti o n t es ts . ( 3 ) B lo o d d y s c r as ia s ( e .g . , ag r an u lo c yto si s , a pl as t ic or he m ol y t ic an em i a, t h r om b oc y t op e ni a ) m a y o c c u r . Mo n i to r c om pl e te b l oo d c o un t ( C B C ) r o u ti n el y . ( 4 ) A d ve rs e G I e ff ec t s i nc l ud e n a us ea , vom i ti ng , a n d e pi g as t ri c d is t re s s . ( 5 ) C N S to xi c i t y m a y r e s u l t f r om p y r id o xi n e de f ic ie n c y. Si gn s a nd s ym p tom s i n c l ud e i ns o m n ia , re s tl es s n es s , h y pe r r e fl e xi a , and co n v u ls io ns . P y r id o xi n e 1 5 - 50 m g / da y s h o ul d b e a d m i ni s te r ed t o p at i en ts t a k i n g is o ni a zi d t o m i ni m i ze th e p e ri p he r al n e u ro p at h y as s o c i a te d wi t h i ts us e (e s p ec i al l y i n p a t ie n ts wi t h d ia b et e s , HI V , u re m i a , a lc oh o li s m , m a ln u t ri ti o n, p re g na nc y , o r s e i zu re di s o r de r ) . e . S ig n if ic a nt in t e ra c t i ons ( 1 ) W it h c on c u r r en t ph eny t o i n th e ra p y , bl oo d l e vel s o f bo t h p he n yt oi n a n d i s on ia zi d m a y in c re as e , p o s s ib l y c a us in g to xi c i t y. ( 2 ) A lu m i n um -c o nt a in in g a n ta c i ds m a y r e du ce is on i a z id ab s or p ti o n. ( 3 ) C o nc ur r e nt c a r ba m a z e p in e th e ra p y m a y i nc r ea s e t he r is k o f h ep a ti t is . ( 4 ) U s e of is on i a z id wi t h o t h e r a nt i tu b er c u l a r a gen t s , su c h as c y c lo s er i ne o r e t h io na m i d e, m a y c au s e a d di t i v e n e r vou s s ys te m e f f ec ts .
( 5 ) Th e r e is t he po t en t ia l f o r th e s e ro t on in s y nd r om e to e xi s t wh e n is on i a zi d i s u se d i n c om bi n at i on wi t h s el ec t i v e s er o t on in r eu p t ak e i nh i bi to r s o r i n p a t ie n ts ta k i ng m e pe r i din e . Is on ia z i d h as b ee n sh o wn t o ha ve s om e m o no am i ne o xi d as e ( MA O ) i n hi b it i ng ac ti v i t y . 3 . R i fa m p in ( R im ac t an e ) i s a c o m p le x m a c r oc y c l ic a g en t . a . Me c h an is m o f a c ti on . Th i s d ru g i s b ac te r ic i da l ; i t i m p a i rs b ac t e ri al R N A s yn t he s i s b y b in d in g t o D N A - d e p en de n t R N A p olym e r as e . b . S pe c tr um o f ac t i v it y . R i f am p in ha s a c t i v i t y a ga i ns t m os t m yc ob ac t e ri al s t r ai ns . In ad di t io n , r i fam p in ha s ac t i v i t y a g ai ns t m an y o t he r or g an is m s , i n cl ud i ng N . m en i ng i ti di s , S . au r eu s , H . i n fl u en z ae , Le g io n el la pn e um op hil a , a n d C. t r ac ho m a t is . c . Th e ra p eu t ic u s es ( 1 ) I n r ec om m e n de d c om b i na t io ns f o r t r ea tm e nt of a c t i v e t u be r c u l os is ( 2 ) P r op h y l ac ti c r i fa m p i n i s e f fe c t i v e wh e n a dm in is t e re d t o c a r ri e rs of N . m e ni n gi ti d is d is e as e a nd c he m o p r op h yl a xi s o f p at i e n t s wi t h H . in fl u en za e t yp e b o r ga n is m s . ( 3 ) R i fa m p in m a y b e u s ed i n c o m b i na t io n wi t h d ap s on e f o r t h e t r ea t m e n t o f l e p ro s y. d . P r ec au t io ns an d m on i to r i ng e ff ec ts ( 1 ) S e ri ou s h e pa t ot o xi c i ty m a y r es u lt f ro m r i fa m p in t he r a p y . L i v e r f un c ti on t e s ts s ho u ld be r ou t in el y c on d uc t ed . P.958
( 2 ) I n r a re c a s e s , t hi s d ru g in du c es a n i n fl u en z a -l i k e s y n d r om e. ( 3 ) O t he r ad v e r s e e ff ec ts in c l u de s k i n ra s h , dr o ws i ne s s , h e ad ac he , fa t ig ue , c o nf us i on , n a us ea , v om i ti n g , a nd ab d om in al pa i n. ( 4 ) R i fa m p in c o lo r s u r in e, s we a t , t e ar s , sa l i v a, and f ec es o ra ng e re d . e . S ig n if ic a nt in t e ra c t i ons ( 1 ) R i fa m p in in d uc es hep a t ic m ic r os om al c yto ch ro m e P 4 50 is oe n zy m es an d t h us m a y d ec r ea s e th e th e r ap e ut ic e ff ec t i ven es s o f c o r ti co s t e r oi ds , wa r f a r i n , o r al c o n tr ac e p ti v e s , q ui n id in e , d ig i to xi n , p r ot e as e i nh i bi t or s ( P I s ) , n o n nu c l eo s i d e r e v e rs e t ra n s c r ip t as e i nh ib i to r s, ke t oc o na z o l e, v e r ap am i l, m e th a do n e, o ra l a n ti di a be t ic ag e nt s , c yc l os p or i ne, d ap s o n e, c h lo r am ph e ni c o l , a nd bar b i tu r a te s . ( 2 ) P r ob e ne c i d m a y i nc re a s e bl o od le v e ls of r if am p i n . ( 3 ) A m i no s a l ic y l ic a c i d m a y i m p a i r a bs or p ti o n o f ri f am p in s ec o nd a r y to b e n to ni t e , a n e xc i p ie n t us e d i n p r ep a ra t io n o f a m in o s a li c y li c g r an u le s . f . Th e ne we r r i f am y c i ns , r i f ab u ti n ( My c o b u ti n ) a nd r i f ap e nt in e ( P ri f ti n ) m a y b e s u bs ti t u te d f o r ri f am pi n in s p ec ia l s it u at i on s, e . g . , in t ol e r an ce o r s e r i ou s d r u g i n te r ac ti o ns . 4 . R i fa bu t in ( My c o b u t in ) i s a n a n ti m y co b ac te r ia l ag e n t t ha t is s im il a r t o r i f am pi n , wi t h ac t i v i t y a ga i ns t b o th t ub e rc ul a r a nd n on t ub e rc ul a r m yc o ba c t e ri a l, an d o f f ers no c l ea r ad va n ta g e o ve r r i fa m p in .
a . Me c h an is m o f a c ti on . I n ad d it i on to it s a n ti m yc o b ac t e ri al ac t i v it y a ga i ns t t u b e rc ul a r a nd no n tu b e rc u la r m yc ob ac t e ri a l, r if ab u t in ha s b ee n re po r t ed t o i n hi b it r e v e rs e t r an s c r ip ta s e a nd bl oc k t h e i n vi t ro i nf ec t i v i t y a n d r ep l ic at io n of HIV. b . Th e r ap e ut ic us es . Ri fa b u ti n i s i nd ic a te d f o r t he p r e ven t io n o f d i ss em in a te d MA I c om ple x d i s e as e i n p at i en t s wi t h ad va n c e d HI V i n f ec ti o ns . c . P re ca u ti o ns a n d m on i to r i ng e ff ec ts . Th e u s e o f r i f ab u ti n h as r es ul t ed in m i ld el e v a ti on o f l i v er enz y m e s an d t h r om bo c y to pe n i a . d . S ig n if ic a nt in t e ra c t i ons ( 1 ) R i fa bu t in an t ag o ni z es an d p o te n ti a ll y n eg a tes t he im m u ne r es po ns e m e di a te d b y t he ba c i l lu s C a l m e t te - G u é ri n ( B C G ) v a c c i n e. ( 2 ) R i fa bu t in m a y i nc r eas e th e c le a ra nc e o f dr u gs b y in du ci n g h ep a ti c m ic r os om a l e n z y m e s , b ut d oe s s o t o a le s s er e xt e n t th an r if am p in . Th e c o nc en t r at i on s o f t h e f ol lo wi n g d ru g s m a y b e r e du c ed wh i l e t ak in g ri f ab u ti n : c yc lo s po r in e , z i d o v ud i ne, p r ed n is on e , d ig i to xi n , qu i ni d in e , k e t oc o na z o le , p r o t ea se in hi b it o rs , p r o pr a n ol o l, ph e n yto i n, su l fon y l u r ea s , a nd wa r f a ri n . S e r u m c y c l os po r i ne l e v el s s ho u ld be m o ni t o re d in p a t i en ts r ec ei v i n g b ot h a g e nt s. 5 . R i fa pe n ti n e ( P r i ft in ) is a lo n g -a c t i ng ri f am y c in -d e r i v a ti v e an d h as a s im i la r p r o fi l e o f m i c ro b io l og ic a l ac t i v i t y to ri f am p i n . I t i s us u al l y a d m i ni s te r ed on c e o r t wi c e we e kl y. a . Me c h an is m o f a c ti on . R i f a pe n ti n e is ba c t e r ic ida l ag ai ns t in t r ac el lu l ar an d e xt r a c e l lu la r M. t u b er c ulo s is a t th e ra p eu t ic l e ve ls . b . S pe c tr um o f ac t i v it y an d th e r ap eu t ic us es . I n dic a te d fo r t re a tm en t o f p r i m a r y t ub e rc ul os is . R ifa p e nt in e s h ou ld al wa y s b e us ed in c o nj u nc ti o n wi t h ≥ 1 o th e r a n ti t ub e rc ul os is d ru g t o wh i c h th e i s o l at e is s us c e p ti b le . c . P re ca u ti o ns a n d m on i to r i ng e ff ec ts . R if a pe n ti ne i nd uc es c y to c h r om e P 4 5 0 i so en z y m e s 3 A 4 an d 2 C8 / 9 r es p on si b le fo r i n ac ti v a t io n o f c e r ta in c a lc iu m c h a nn e l b lo c k ing a ge n ts ( v e ra p am il , d il t ia z e m , n i fe di p in e ) , a n t if u ng al s (k et oc o na z o le , fl u c o na z o l e, i tr ac o na z o l e ), s u l fo n yl ur e a a n t id ia b et ic ag e n ts , m e th a d on e , c o r t ic os te r o id s, c a r di ac gl y c os id es , c e r tai n a n t ia r r h y th m i c a g en ts ( dis o p y r am id e , m e xi l e t i ne , q u in i di n e, to c a i ni d e) , q u in i ne , d a ps on e , c hl o ram p he n ic ol , c la r i th r om y c in , do xyc yc l i n e , f l u or o qu i no lo n es , t r a ns c ri p t as e i nh ib i to r c yc l os por i n , t ac r o li m u s, an d wa r f a r i n . Co nc om i ta n t u s e o f r i fa p en t in e wi t h t he se d r ug s m a y d ec r ea s e p l as m a c o nc en t r at i on s an d do s a g e a dj us tm e nt s m a y be r eq u ir e d . 6 . P yr a z i na m i d e is a p y ra z i n e a n al og o f n ic ot i nam i d e . a . Me c h an is m o f a c ti on . Th i s d ru g i s b ac te r ic i da l a n d /o r ba c t e ri o s t a ti c, d e p en di n g o n t he c e ll c on c en t r at i on ac hi e v e d. b . S pe c tr um o f ac t i v it y an d th e r ap eu t ic us es . P y ra z i n am i de i s a hi g hl y s p ec if ic ag e nt an d ha s ac t i v i t y o n l y a g ai ns t M. t ub e r cu lo si s . P y r a z i n am i de i s u se d a s a p ri m a r y ag en t wi t h is on ia z i d a n d r i fam p in fo r at le as t 2 m o n ths , f o l lo we d b y is on i a z id and r i fa m p in .
c . P re ca u ti o ns a n d m on i to r i ng e ff ec ts . Th is ag e nt m a y re s ul t i n h e p at o to xi c i t y an d , ra r ely , h e pa t ic ne c ro s i s r es u lt i n g i n d ea t h. A no r e xi a , n a us e a, v o m i ti n g, m a la is e , an d fe v e r ha ve P.959 b e e n r ep o r te d . H y p e r u ri c e m ia m a y r es ul t i n g o ut y e xa c e r b at i on s . B o th l i ver f u nc t io n te s t s a nd u ri c ac i d l e v el s s h o ul d ro u ti ne l y b e m o ni t o re d . C . S e co nd - l in e a ge n ts . Th e s e ag e nt s i nc lu d e am in o s a li c y li c a c i d ( Pa s e r ) , c a p re om y c in ( C ap as t at ) , c y c lo s e r in e ( Se r om y c in ), e t hi on am i de ( Tr e c a t or S C ) , q ui n ol on es ( c i p ro f loxa c i n , o fl o xa c in , le v o f lo x a c in , s pa r f lo xa c i n ) , s t r ep t om y c in an d k an am y c i n . Se c o nd - l in e d r ug s a r e m a in l y s u bs ti t ut e d o r a d d ed to p re f er r e d t he r ap y o wi n g t o in t ol e r an ce o r d ru g re s i s ta nc e . Th e s e a g e nt s a r e l es s e ff ec t i v e, m or e to xi c , an d a r e u sed i n c o m b i na t io n wi t h p r i m a r y ag e nt s . 1 . Me c h an is m o f a c ti on a . Am i no s a l ic y l ic a c i d i s b a c t e r io s t a ti c ; i t p r ob ab ly i n h ib i ts th e e n z y m es r e s po ns ib l e f o r f ol ic ac id s y n t he s i s . b . C yc lo s e r in e c a n b e b ac t e ri os t at ic o r b ac t er ic i da l , d e pe n di ng on it s c o nc en t r at i on at t he in f ec t io n s i te ; i t i m p a ir s a m in o ac id us e, t he r eb y i n hi b it i ng ba c t e r ia l c el l w a l l s y n th es is . c . Th e m ec ha n is m o f ac ti o n o f c ap r e om yc i n (b ac te r i os t at ic ) , e t hi o na m i de ( b a ct e ri c i d al ) , a n d p y r a z in a m i d e ( ba c te r ic id a l) is u n k n o wn . 2 . S pe c tr um o f ac t i v it y an d th e r ap eu t ic us es . Se c o n d -l i ne an t it u be r c u la r a g e nt s a r e ac t i v e a ga i ns t v a r i ou s m i c ro o r ga ni sm s , i n cl ud i ng M. t u b e rc ul os is . Th es e a gen t s g en e r al l y ar e re se r v ed f o r p at i en ts wi t h e xt e n s i v e e xt r a pu lm o na ry o r d r ug - r es is ta n t d is e as e o r fo r pa t ie n ts wh o n e e d r e tr e at m en t . Th e s e d r u gs a r e a lm os t a l wa ys a dm i ni s t e r ed in c om b in a ti o n. 3 . P r ec au t io ns an d m on i to r i ng e ff ec ts a . A d ve rs e e f fe c t s o f a m in o s a li c yli c a c i d i nc l ud e l e u ko p en ia , a g r an u lo c y to p en i a, th r om b oc y t o pe ni a , h em ol y t i c a n em ia , m on o nu c l e os is l i ke s yn d r om e, m a la is e , jo i n t p ai n , f e v e r, an d s ki n r a sh . b . C ap r e om y c i n a n d s t rep t om y c in a re o to t o xi c a nd n ep h ro t o xi c ; th e y s h oul d n o t b e a dm i ni s t e r ed to g et h e r . c . C ycl os e r in e m a y c a us e a d v e rs e C N S e ff ec t s , in c lu di n g h ea d ac he , s u ic id al an d ps y c h o ti c t en d e nc ie s, h y pe r i r ri t ab il i ty , c o nf us i on , p a r an oi a , a n d n e r v ou s ne s s . d . E th i on am i de m a y in d uc e n a us ea , vom i ti n g, o rth o s t a ti c h yp o te ns i on , m e ta l li c t as t e, ep i ga s t r ic d is t r es s , an d p e ri p he r al n e u ro pa t h y. e . S t re p to m y c i n . S e e I I .B . 3 . D . A l t er n at i v e a g en t s 1 . R i fa t er . A c om bi n at i on o f ri f am pi n 1 2 0 m g , is oni a z i d 5 0 m g, an d p yr a zi n am id e 3 0 0 m g in o n e t a bl e t is us ed in pa t ie n ts e xp e c te d t o h a ve l ow c om p li a nc e wi t h t ub e rc ulo s is d r u g t he r a p y . O n e di s a d v a n ta g e is th a t m an y
p a t ie n ts a r e re qu i r ed to ta k e as m a n y as 5- 6 ta ble t s d ai l y , wh i ch m a y r e d uc e c om pl ia n c e . 2 . Q u in ol o ne s . C i pr o fl o xa c in an d l e v o fl o xa c i n a re u se d i n tu be r c u l os is t h e r ap y. Le v o f lo xa c i n i s p r e f er r e d o wi n g t o i nc r ea s ed s e r um c on c en t ra t ion s . L e vo f lo xa c i n i s u s u al l y us e d i n co m b i na t io n wi t h o t h e r t ub e rc ul o s i s a ge n ts f o r ac ti v e t r ea tm e nt . Fo r p r o ph y l a xi s , le vo f lo xa c i n i s c om bi ne d wi t h p yr a zi n am id e . 3 . Ma c r o li d es . C l a ri t h rom y c in an d a z i t h ro m y ci n h a ve s h o wn li m i t ed ac t i vi t y a g ai n st M. t u b er c ul os is .
VII. Antiviral Agents A . D e f in it i on . Th es e d r ugs t re a t v ir a l i nf ec t io n s b y a f f ec ti n g v i r al r e p li ca t io n . B ec a us e v ir us es la c k in d ep en d en t m et a b ol ic ac ti v i t y a nd c a n r e p li ca t e o nl y wi t h i n l i v ing h os t c el ls , a n ti vi r al age n ts t en d t o i n ju r e h os t a s we l l a s v i r a l c e l ls . A l th ou g h m os t a n ti v i r al d ru gs a r e ac ti ve ag a in s t ei t he r D N A o r R N A v i r us es , s om e (e . g. , ad e fo v i r , ri ba vir i n ) a r e a c t i ve a g ai ns t b o t h. B . D N A v i r us es . C ur r e nt ly a p p r o ved an t i v i ra l t h era p ie s a g ai ns t t h e H e r p es v i r id a e f am il y o f D N A v i r u s e s —h e r pe s s im p le x v i r u s 1 a nd 2 ( H SV - 1 , H S V - 2 ) , v a ri c e l la - z o s t e r v i r u s ( VZ V ) , c y t om e ga lov i r u s ( C MV ) — a r e v i ru s t at i c a n d a r r es t D N A s y n th es is b y in hi b it i ng v i r al D N A p o l y m e r as e . Ma n y o f t hes e a g e nt s a r e p r od r ug s a nd r e q ui r e v i r a l a nd ho s t c e l l u l a r e n z y m e s ( e . g. , t h ym id i ne , d e o xy g u a n os in e k i na s e ) to ph os p ho r y la t e th em in t o t he ac ti v e t r i ph o sp ha t e f o rm be f o re e xe r t i n g t h ei r an t i v ir a l ac t i v i t y . H e nc e , a c om m on m ec h an is m o f re s i s t a nc e i s a de fi c ie nc y o r P.960 s t r uc t ur a l a lt e ra t io n i n v ir a l th y m id in e k i na s e ( Tab l e 4 4 -5 ) . So m e o f t he s e a g e nt s a ls o d em on s tr a te a c ti v i t y ag a in s t R N A v i ru s es , i nc lu d in g h e pa t it is C a n d HI V .
Table 44-5. Activity of Various Anti-DNA Viral Agents Agent
HSV-1 HSV-2 VZV CMV Influenza Influenza A B
Acyclovira
+
+
+
—
—
—
Amantadine
—
—
—
—
+
—
Cidofovir
—
—
—
+
—
—
Famciclovir
+
+
+
—
—
—
Foscarnet
+
+
+
+
—
—
Ganciclovira
—
—
—
+
—
—
Oseltamivir
—
—
—
—
+
+
Rimantadine
—
—
—
—
+
—
Valacyclovira
+
+
+
—
—
—
Valganciclovira
—
—
—
+
—
—
Zanamivir
—
—
—
—
+
+
HSV, herpes simplex virus, VZV, varicella-zoster virus; CMV, cytomegalovirus. a
Requires activation into triphosphate form. 1 . A c yc l o v ir ( Zo v i r a x) i s a s y n th e ti c ac yc li c a n al og o f g ua n os in e wi t h a c ti vi t y a ga in s t v a r i ou s he r p es vi ru s es . a . Me c h an is m o f a c ti on . A c y c lo v i r m o no p ho s p h ate is ph os p ho r y l a te d t o the t r i ph o sp ha t e , wh e r e it bec om e s in c or p o ra t ed in t o vi r a l D N A a n d i nh ib i ts vi r a l re p li c a t io n . b . S pe c tr um o f ac t i v it y . Th i s ag e nt is ac ti ve ag a in s t h e rp es vi r us es , p a r ti c ul a rl y H S V - 1 , H S V -2 , V Z V , a nd c h ic k e np o x ( v a r i ce l la ) . c . Th e ra p eu t ic u s es ( 1 ) A c yc l o v ir is us ed to tr e a t i ni t ia l a n d r ec u r re n t H S V - 1 a nd H S V -2 i n f ec ti o ns a n d f o r a c u t e tr e a tm e nt of he r p es zos t er ( s hi ng l es ) a n d c h ick e np o x. I t is al s o us e d o ra ll y f o r l on g - te r m s u p p re ss io n o f ge ni t al H SV i n f ec ti o ns . ( 2 ) Th i s a ge n t is a v ai l ab le i n t op ic a l, o ra l , a nd I V f o r m s . To pi ca l a c yc l o v i r i s a p pl i ed di r ec t l y o n h e r pes le s i o ns i n re c u r r en t her p e s l ab ia l is (c ol d s o re s ). I t is no t re c o m m en d ed for u s e on ge n it a l h er p es le s io ns du e t o p o o r e f f ic ac y . ( 3 ) A c yc l o v ir m a y b e a dm i ni s t e r ed i n t ra v e n ou sl y i n t h e t r ea t m e n t o f i ni t ial a n d re cu r r en t m uc oc u ta ne o us H S V i n fe c ti on an d V Z V i nf ec t io n i n
i m m u no c o m p r om is e d p ati e n ts , a s we l l as i n th e t re a tm e nt o f H S V in f ec ti o ns t h a t a r e d is s e m i na t ed o r a f f ec t t h e c en t ra l n e r v o us s ys t em . d . P r ec au t io ns an d m on i to r i ng e ff ec ts ( 1 ) O r a l ac y c lo v i r m a y ind u c e na us e a, vo m i t in g , d i a r rh e a, an d h e ad ac h e. ( 2 ) I V a dm i ni s t r a ti on m ay c a us e d os e - de pe n de n t r e n a l i m p a i rm en t , c r ys t al li n e n ep h ro p at h y , n e u ro l og ic al e ff ec t s ( e .g ., l et h a rg y , c o n fu si o n, t r e m o r s, ag i ta t io n , s ei z ur e s , c om a, ob t un d at i on ) , h y p o te n s i on , ra sh , it c h in g , a n d p hl e bi t is a t th e i n je c t i o n s i t e. ( 3 ) Lo ca l d is c om fo r t a n d p r u r it us m a y r es u lt f ro m t o p ic al ad m i ni s t ra ti o n. ( 4 ) A c yc l o v ir is r em o v ed b y h em o di a l ys is . D os es s h ou l d b e a dj us t ed in r e n al im pa i rm e nt an d h em o di al y s is . e . S ig n if ic a nt in t e ra c t i ons . P ro b en ec i d r ed u ce s t he r e na l c le a ra nc e o f a c ycl o vi r , r es u lt i ng in inc r e as es i n a c yc l o v i r h al f- l i fe an d s e ru m c o nc en t r at i on . 2 . A de f o v i r d ip i v o xi l ( H ep s e ra ) i s a ph os p ho na t e n u cl e ot id e an al o g wi t h a c ti vi t y a ga in s t v a r i ou s D N A a n d R N A vi r us es . a . Me c h an is m o f a c ti on . A d e f o v ir is ph os p ho r y l ate d to t he ac ti v e d i ph o sp ha t e f o rm b y c el lu l a r k i n as es . I t is th en inc o r po r at e d i nt o v i ra l D NA , r e s ul ti n g i n t e rm in a ti o n of r e pl ic a ti on . b . S pe c tr um o f ac t i v it y an d th e r ap eu t ic us es ( 1 ) A de f o v i r is ac t i v e a ga i ns t h e pa t it is B v i ru s ( in c lu di n g l am i v ud i ne r e s is ta n t s t ra in s ), he r p es v i r us es , a n d H I V . ( 2 ) H o we v e r , ad e fo v i r is a p p ro v e d fo r us e o nl y f or t r e at m e n t o f c h ro ni c h e p at i ti s B in f ec ti o n i n ad u l ts wi t h e v i de n c e of ac t i v e vi r al r ep li c a t io n wi t h p e r si st e nt l y el e v a te d l i v er f u nc ti o n t es ts o r h is to lo g ic al l y ac t i ve d is ea s e . P.961
c . P re ca u ti o ns a n d m on i to r i ng e ff ec ts ( 1 ) S e ve re ac u te he pa t i tis e xa c e rb a ti o ns h a ve occ u r re d i n p a ti e nt s wh o d i sc on t in u e t he r ap y ( b lac k b o x wa r n i n g ) . I f th e rap y i s d is c o n ti nu e d, li v e r f u nc t io n te s t s m us t b e m o n i to r ed c l os el y . ( 2 ) N e ph r ot o xi c i t y ha s be e n re po r t ed wi t h ad e fo v i r , es pe c i a ll y in p at ie n ts wi t h u n de r l y in g re n al d ys f u nc t io n o r th o s e ta k i n g c o nc om it a nt n ep h ro t o xi ns ( b l ac k b o x wa r n i n g ) . ( 3 ) O t he r ad v e r s e e ff ec ts in c l u de r as h, G I di st u rb a nc es , he ad ac h e, an d we a k n es s . ( 4 ) D os e a d ju s t m e n t i s re q ui r e d f o r r e na l i ns u ff ic i e nc y. 3 . Am a n ta di n e ( S y m m e t re l ) i s a s yn t he t ic t ri c yc l ic am in e wi t h a un iq u e c h em ic al s t r uc t ur e s im il ar t o ri m a n ta d in e . I t i s e ffe c ti ve ag a in s t in f lu e n z a A vi r a l i n fe c ti on . a . Me c h an is m o f a c ti on . A m a nt a di ne in h ib i ts re p lic a ti o n o f t h e i nf l ue n za A vi r u s b y i nt e r fe r in g wi t h v i r a l a t t ac hm en t a n d u nc o a t in g . b . S pe c tr um o f ac t i v it y an d th e r ap eu t ic us es
( 1 ) D u e t o i nc r ea s i ng r a te s o f re si s ta nc e , a m a n tad i ne is no lo ng e r r e c om m e nd e d f o r p ro p h yl a xi s o r t r e at m e n t o f i n flu e n z a A v i r us . ( 2 ) Th i s d ru g m a y al s o be us e d t o t r e at pa r k i ns oni s m as we l l a s d r ug i n du c ed e xt r a p y r am id a l s y m p to m s . c . P re ca u ti o ns a n d m on i to r i ng e ff ec ts ( 1 ) Th e m os t pr o no u nc ed a d v e rs e e f fe c t s o f a m an t a di ne a re a ta xi a , n i gh t m a r es , a n d i ns om nia . O t he r C N S ef f ec ts in c lu d e d e pr es s i o n , c o nf us i on , d i z z i n es s , fa t ig u e , a n xi e t y, an d h e ad ac h e. E ld e rl y p a ti en t s m ay b e at in c re as e d r is k o f CN S a d v e rs e re ac t io ns . Pa t i en ts wi t h a h is to r y o f s e i zu re s o r p s y c h ia t r ic di s o rd e rs s h ou ld be m o ni to r e d c lo se l y du r in g t h e r ap y. ( 2 ) A n ti c h ol i ne r gi c r e ac tio n s ( e .g . , d r y m o u th , bl ur r e d vis io n ) h a v e b e en r e p o rt e d. ( 3 ) D os a ge ad ju s tm en t is ne e de d f o r p a ti e nt s wi th i m p ai r ed r en al f un c t i on. 4 . C id o fo v i r ( V is ti d e) is a s y n th e ti c ac yc li c p u ri ne n uc le os i de ph os p ho na te d e r i va ti v e . a . Me c h an is m o f a c ti on . C i d o fo vi r di ph os p ha t e s up p r es se s C MV r e p l ic a ti on b y s el ec t i v e i nh i bi t io n o f v i r a l D N A s y n th es is . b . S pe c tr um o f ac t i v it y . In v i t r o ac t i vi t y h as be e n d e m o ns t r at e d a ga i ns t C MV , V Z V , E p s te i n - Ba r r v i r u s ( EB V ) , a n d H S V - 1 a n d H S V -2 . Co n t ro ll e d c l in ic al s t u di es a re lim i ted t o p a ti en t s wi t h A I D S an d C MV r e t i ni t is . c . Th e ra p eu t ic u s e i nc lud e s t he t re a tm e nt , b u t no t t he c u re o f, C MV r e t i ni t is i n pa t ie n ts wi t h AI D S . d . P r ec au t io ns an d m on i to r i ng e ff ec ts ( 1 ) A vo id us in g th is dr u g i n p a ti e nt s wi t h s e r um cr e a ti n in e > 1 .5 m g /d L o r c r e at i ni ne c l ea r a nc e ( C rC l ) ≤ 55 m L /m i n o r i n p a ti e n ts wh o ar e re c e i v i ng (o r h a ve r ec ei v e d i n t h e p as t 7 da y s ) n e ph r ot o xi c a ge n ts . ( 2 ) C id o fo v i r is c o nt r ai n di c at e d i n p at i en ts wi t h a h i s t o r y of se v e r e h yp e r se ns i ti v i t y t o p ro b en e c i d o r s u lf a -c o nt ai n in g m ed ic a ti o ns . ( 3 ) Th e do s e - li m i t in g t o xi c it y o f c id o fo v i r is n e ph ro t o xi c i t y ; n e ut r o pe ni a , p e r ip h e ra l n eu r o pa t h y , an d di a r rh e a a re c o m m on a d v e r s e ef f ec ts . ( 4 ) P r ob e ne c i d m us t b e a d m i ni s te r ed be f o re an d a f t e r e ac h c i d o fo vi r d os e. Th e p a ti e nt m u s t be h y d ra t e d wi t h 1 L of no r m a l s a l in e b e fo r e i n fu s i n g. C i d o fo vi r is a v a i la bl e o n ly i n I V f o rm . 5 . E nt e c a v i r ( Ba r ac lu d e ) i s a c a r bo c y cl ic an al o g of g ua n os in e u s e d fo r t r e a tm en t o f c h r on ic he pa t i ti s B in f ec t io n . a . Me c h an is m o f a c ti on . O n c e p h os ph o r y la t ed t o t h e a c ti v e t ri ph o sp ha t e f o r m , en t ec a v i r i nh i bi ts he p a ti t is B vi r a l p ol ym er as e a n d u lt im a te l y ha l ts h e p at i ti s B D N A s y n t he s is . b . S pe c tr um o f ac t i v it y . E n t ec a v i r e xh i b i ts ac ti v i ty a g a in st he p at i ti s B v i r us , i n cl ud i ng la m i v u d in e - re s is t an t s t r ai ns . D e vel op m en t o f H I V re si s ta nc e t o n u cl e os id e r e v e rs e tr a ns c r i pt as e i n hi bi t o rs i s p oss i bl e i f e n te c a v i r is u s e d wi t h o u t a n ti r e t ro v i r al t rea t m e n t i n HI V an d h e pa t it i s B v i r us c o -i n fe c ti on . c . Th e ra p eu t ic u s es
( 1 ) E n te c a v i r i s a pp r o v ed f o r t r ea tm e n t o f c h r o nic he p at i ti s B in f ec t io n i n a d ul t s wi t h e v id e nc e o f ac t i v e v ir a l r e pl ic a ti on an d p e rs is te n t e le v a t io ns in l i ve r fu nc t io n t es t s o r h is t o l og ic al l y ac t i v e d is ea s e . ( 2 ) I t is e ff ec t i v e f o r p a tie n ts wh o h a v e f ai l ed t rea t m e n t wi t h l am i v ud in e o wi n g t o r es is t an c e de v e l o pm e nt . P.962
( 3 ) E n te ca v i r i s n o t r ec om m e n de d f o r u se in pa t ie n ts wi t h he p at i ti s B v i r us i n f ec ti o n wh o a r e c o - i nf ec t ed wi t h H I V a nd a re not r ec e i vin g a n ti r e tr o vi r al t h e r ap y. d . P r ec au t io ns an d m on i to r i ng e ff ec ts ( 1 ) S e ve re ac u te e xa c e rb a t io ns of he p at i ti s B h ave b e en ob se r ve d i n p a t ie n ts wh o di s c on t in ue t h e ra p y, n e ce s s it a ti n g c l o s e m o ni t o ri ng ( bl ac k bo x wa r n i n g ) . ( 2 ) C om m o n a d v e rs e e f fe c ts in c l ud e d i zz i n es s, fa t i gu e , h ea d ac he , a n d n a us e a. ( 3 ) D os e a d ju s t m e n t i s re q ui r e d f o r r e na l i ns u ff ici e nc y . ( 4 ) C o un s e l p a ti en t s t o ta k e e nt e c a v i r o n a n e m pt y s t om ac h . 6 . F am c ic l o v ir ( Fa m v i r ) is a p r od r u g o f t he an t i v i ra l ag en t pe nc ic l o v ir . a . Me c h an is m o f a c ti on . F a m c ic lo vi r is ra p id l y pho s ph o r y la t ed in vi r us i n f ec te d c el ls b y v i r al thy m i d in e k in as e t o p e nc ic l o v i r m o no ph os p ha t e . P e n ci cl o v i r is a c om pe t iti v e i nh ib i to r of vi r al D N A p o l ym e r as e a nd p re v e n ts vi r a l re p li c a t io n b y i nh ib it i o n o f h e rp es vi r us D N A s yn t he si s. b . S pe c tr um o f ac t i v it y an d th e r ap eu t ic us es ( 1 ) F am c ic l o v ir ha s a c t i vi t y a ga i ns t H S V- 1 , H S V-2 , an d VZ V . Th e d r ug is i n di ca t ed f o r m a n ag em en t o f ac u te he r p es z os t er ( s hi n gl es ) a n d o r al an d g e ni t al he r p es . ( 2 ) Th e r ap y m us t b e p r om p tl y i ni t ia t ed as s o on as he r p es zos t e r is d i ag n os ed ( wi t h in 48 - 7 2 h r ) , at a d os e o f 5 0 0 m g e v e r y 8 h r f o r 7 d a y s . c . P re ca u ti o ns a n d m on i to r i ng e ff ec ts ( 1 ) C om m o n a d v e rs e e v en t s i nc lu d e f a ti gu e , G I c o m pl ai n ts ( na us ea , d i a r rh e a, v om i ti n g, c o ns ti p a ti on ) , a n d a no r e xi a . He a d ac he is a ls o c om m o nl y r e p o rt e d. ( 2 ) D os e a d ju s t m e n t i s ne c es s a r y in pa t ie n ts wi t h r e n al d ys f un c ti on . F a m c ic lo v i r is re m o v e d by h e m o d ia l ys i s . 7 . F os c a r ne t (F os c a v i r ) is a s y n th e ti c p y r o ph os p ha t e a n al o g t ha t d i r ec tl y i n hi b it s e n z y m es i n v o l v ed i n v i r al D N A s y nt h es is wi t h o u t i nc o r po r a ti on in to vi r a l D N A . I t i s a br o ad - s p e c t r um an t i vi ra l a ge n t an d is a n o p ti o n i n c a se s o f ac yc lo v i r or ga nc ic l o v ir r e s i s t a nc e. a . Me c h an is m o f a c ti on ( 1 ) V i ra l D N A r e pl ic a ti on r e q ui r es th e a dd i ti o n o f d e o xyn u c l eo s i d e t r i ph o sp ha t es at t he en d o f th e D N A s t ra n d b y DN A p o l ym e r as e a nd th e s u bs eq u en t c le a v a ge of p y r o p ho s ph a te f ro m t he n e wl y a t t ac h ed nu cl eo t ide . F o sc a rn e t b in ds no nc o m p e t it i v e l y to D N A p o l ym er a s e t o f o rm an in ac t i ve
c om p le x a n d p re v e n ts p yr o p ho s p h at e c l ea v a ge . Vi r a l D N A c h a in el on g at i on i s th us te r m i na t ed . ( 2 ) F osc a r ne t i s a ls o a c t iv e a g ai ns t H I V. I t is a n on c om pe t it i v e , r e ve rs i bl e i n hi b it o r o f H I V r e v e rs e tr a n s c ri p ta s e, th e e n z ym e r es p on si bl e fo r c o n ve rt i ng v i r al R N A t o vi r a l D N A . b . S pe c tr um o f ac t i v it y an d th e r ap eu t ic us es . F osc a r ne t h as in v i t ro ac t i v ity a g ai n st H S V - 1 a nd H S V -2 , C MV , V Z V , E B V D N A p o l y m e r as es , i n fl u en za p o l ym e r as e , a nd H I V r e v e r s e t r an s c r ip t as e. Th e ra p e ut ic al l y , th e d r u g is u s ed to t re a t C MV d is e as e a s we ll as ac y c lo v i r - re s is ta n t H S V a nd V Z V i n f ec ti o ns . ( 1 ) F osc a r ne t i s a n a lt e rn a t i v e t o g an c i c l o v i r a n d v a l g an c i c l o v i r f o r t r e a tm en t o f C MV i n f ec t io n in im m u no co m p r om ise d pa t ie n ts . F os ca r n et c a us es l e s s h em a to l og ic t o xi c i t y th a n g an c i c l o v i r i n p a ti e nt s wh o h a ve r e c ei ve d a ll o ge n ei c s t e m c el l t r a ns pl a nt s . A n i ni t i a l in du c ti on t he r ap y l as ts 2 - 3 we e k s . Ma i n te n an c e t h e r ap y is ne e de d t o p r ev e n t r el a ps e. ( 2 ) F osc a r ne t i s i nd ic a ted f o r t he t re a tm e nt of acy c l o v i r - re s i s ta n t m uc o cu t an eo us H S V in im m u n oc om p ro m i se d p a tie n ts . It is no t , h o we ve r , a c u r e f o r H S V in f ec ti o ns . ( 3 ) F osc a r ne t i s a bl e t o c r os s t h e b lo od - b ra i n b ar r i e r . c . P re ca u ti o ns a n d m on i to r i ng e ff ec ts ( 1 ) I V f os c a r n et is hi gh l y n e ph r o to xi c , c a us in g a c u t e tu bu l a r n ec ro si s . Th e i n ci de n c e of ac ut e re n al f a i lu r e c an be m a rk e dl y re d uc e d i f a de q ua t e h yd r a t io n a nd da i l y m on it o r in g of s e r um c r ea t in i ne a nd B U N ar e m ai n ta i ne d t h r o ug ho u t t h er a p y . ( 2 ) O t he r c o m m on ad v e rs e e f f ec ts in c l ud e e l ec t ro l y t e a b no r m a li t ie s ( e .g . , h yp o ca lc em i a, h y po m a gn e s e m i a , h y p op h os ph a tem i a a nd h yp e r ph o s p ha t em ia , h y po k al em i a) , an em ia , fe v e r, h ea d ac he , a n d s ei z u r es . ( 3 ) D os e a d ju s t m e n t f o r r e n al d y sf u nc ti o n is r eq ui r e d. F osc a r ne t i s r em o ve d b y h em o di a l ys is . ( 4 ) F osc a r ne t m us t b e ad m in is t e re d u s i ng an in fu s io n p um p o v e r at le as t 1 . 5 - 2 h r . D o n o t a dm in is te r t he d ru g a s a n I V bo lus . P.963
d . S ig n if ic a nt in t e ra c t i ons ( 1 ) C o nc om it a nt ne p h ro to xi n s ( am i no gl yc os i de s , a m ph o te r ic in B , e tc . ) i n c re as e t h e r is k o f r e na l t o xi c i t y . ( 2 ) F osc a r ne t i s e xc l u si v e l y e li m i na t ed b y gl om e ru l a r f il t r at i on ; c on c ur r e nt n e p hr o to xi c a g en ts s h oul d be a voi d ed wh e n e v er p o ss i b l e. 8 . G a nc ic lo v i r ( C y t o v en e) i s a s yn t he t ic p u r in e n uc l eo s i d e a na lo g th a t is a p p ro ve d fo r th e t r e at m en t an d p r o ph y l a xi s of C M V i n fe c t i on s i n i m m u no c o m p r om is e d p ati e n ts (e . g. , H I V -p os i ti ve p a t i e n ts , t r an s pl an t r e c ip ie n ts ) .
a . Me c h an is m o f a c ti on . A f t e r c on v e r s i o n t o g an c ic l o v i r t r ip ho s p h at e , g a nc ic l o v ir is in c o r po r a te d in t o vi r al D N A , wh i c h i n hi b it s v ir a l D N A p o l ym e r as e , t he r e b y t e rm i na t in g v ir a l r e pl ic a ti on. b . S pe c tr um o f ac t i v it y . G a n c ic lo v i r h as in v i t ro ac t i v i t y a g ai ns t H S V -1 and H S V - 2 , V Z V, E B V , a nd CMV ( o wi n g t o i ts en ha n ce d ab il i t y to pe n et r a te ho s t c e ll s ). c . Th e ra p eu t ic u s es . I t i s i n di c a t ed fo r t re a tm en t o f C MV r e t i ni t is i n pa ti e nt s wi t h H I V / A I D S . I t i s a ls o u s ed fo r p ro p h y la xi s o f C MV i n f e c t io n i n HI V p o si t i ve p at i en ts ( s e c o nda r y p r op h yl a xi s ) a n d t r ans p la n t r ec i pi en t s a t r is k f o r C MV d i s e a s e . ( 1 ) C o n v er s i o n i nt o th e tr i p ho s p h at e fo r m is g re at e r in in f ec te d h os t c e ll s, e ve n th o ug h d r u g p en e tra t i on oc c u rs in bo t h u ni nf e c te d a nd in f ec t ed c e ll s . ( 2 ) I nh ib i to r y c o n c e n tr a tio n s f o r t he vi r al D N A po ly m e r as e a r e l o we r t ha n t h os e fo r th e h os t c el l ul ar p ol y m e ra s e. ( 3 ) I t is a v ai l ab l e in o ra l a n d I V fo r m u l at i on s as we l l a s a n i nt r a oc ul a r i m pl an t . Al t ho u gh th e o ra l fo r m u la t io n i s a pp r o v ed f o r p r e ven t io n a n d m a in t en a nc e t r ea tm e nt of C MV , i t s po o r b io a v a il ab i l i t y h as l im i te d i ts us e . V a l ga nc ic l o v i r h as b ec om e th e d r ug of ch o ic e f or t h es e i nd ic a ti o ns , o wi ng t o it s m a rk ed l y im p ro v e d b i oa v a il a bi li t y . d . P r ec au t io ns an d m on i to r i ng e ff ec ts ( 1 ) G a nc ic lo v i r ha s a b l ac k b o x wa r n i n g c o nc e rn in g in c re as ed p ot e nt ia l for n e u t ro pe n ia , a n em ia , a nd t h ro m b oc y t o pe n ia . It is a l s o te r at o ge n ic , c a rc i no ge n ic , a n d m u t age n ic . ( 2 ) A d ve rs e e f fe c t s c om m o nl y i nc lu d e f e v e r, r ash , an d G I d is t ur b an c e s . P h l eb i ti s a nd pa i n m a y oc c u r a t t he s i te o f i nf us i on . ( 3 ) B ec au s e g an c i c l o v i r is c l ea r e d b y gl om e r ul a r fi l t ra t io n a n d t ub u la r s ec r e ti o n, r en al f un c t i on a n d a d eq ua t e h y d r a ti on s h ou l d b e m o n it o re d . D o s es s h ou ld be a dj us t ed i n c a se s o f re n al i m pa ir m e nt an d h em o di al ys is . ( 4 ) S ol u ti o ns o f ga nc ic lov i r a r e e xt r e m e l y a lk a li ne . A v o id di r ec t c on t ac t wi t h s ki n . e . S ig n if ic a nt in t e ra c t i ons ( 1 ) P r ob e ne c i d m a y i nc re a s e ga nc ic l o vir co nc e ntr a t i o n s a nd po s s ib l y t o xi c i t y. ( 2 ) U s e of z i do v u d in e , az a t h i op r in e , o r m y c op h en o la t e m of e ti l i n c om b in a ti o n wi t h ga nc ic lo v i r m a y r es u lt in ne u t rop e ni a ; c a re f ul m o ni t or i ng o f ne u t ro p hi l c ou n t is r eq u i re d wh e n t h es e a re t ak e n co n c u r r en t l y wi t h g a nc ic l o v ir . ( 3 ) Im i pe ne m -c il as t a ti n in c o m b i na t io n wi t h g an c ic l o v i r m a y i nc r ea s e th e p o t en t ia l f o r s ei z u r es . 9 . O se l ta m i v i r ( Ta m i f lu ) is ph a rm ac o lo gi c al l y s im il a r to z a na m i v i r bu t s t r uc t ur a ll y d if f e re n t. B oth o f t h es e a ge n ts a r e i n a c l as s k no wn a s t h e n e u ra m i n id as e i n hi bi t o rs a n d h a ve a u n iq u e m e ch a ni s m of ac t io n . a . Me c h an is m o f a c ti on . O s e l ta m i v i r i s a p ro d ru g t h a t m us t b e h y d r ol y ze d t o o s el t am i v i r c a r bo xy l a t e in v i v o t o e xe r t i ts an t i v ira l ac ti vi t y. I t is a p ot e nt
s e le ct i v e i n hi bi t o r o f t h e i n f lu en za v i r us en z ym e , n e u ra m i n id as e . I nh i bi t ion o f t hi s e n z y m e p re v e n ts v i r a l re p li c a t io n a nd s p r ea d to o th e r h os t c el ls . b . S pe c tr um o f ac t i v it y . Th i s ag e nt is ac ti ve ag a in s t b o th in f lu en z a A an d B vi r u s es . c . Th e ra p eu t ic u s es ( 1 ) I t is ap p r o v ed fo r th e s y m pt om a ti c t r ea t m e n t o f in f lu e n z a A an d B i n f ec ti o ns i n p a ti e nt s 1 ye a r of ag e a n d o ld e r wh o p r es e nt wi t h s y m p to m s wi t h i n 48 h r. ( 2 ) O se l ta m i v i r ha s b ee n s ho wn t o de c re as e t h e d u r a ti on o f s y m p t om s b y 1 2 d a ys i f t ak en wi t h in 48 h r of on se t of vi r al s y m pt o m s . ( 3 ) I t is al s o ap p r o v ed for t h e p r op h yla xi s o f i n fl ue n za in f ec ti o ns i n p a ti e nt s 1 ye a r o f a g e a nd ol d e r. N o t e : Th e i nf l ue n za v i rus v a cc in e i s s ti ll th e go ld s t an d a rd fo r p ro ph y l a xi s . ( 4 ) O se l ta m i v i r de m o ns t ra t es s o m e ac ti v i t y a ga ins t s t r ai ns of a via n i n f lu en za , m ak i ng it a p os s i b le op t io n f o r t r e at m en t an d p r o ph yl a xi s . P.964
d . P r ec au t io ns an d m on i to r i ng e ff ec ts ( 1 ) Th e m os t c om m o n a dv e r s e e f f ec ts ar e n a us ea a n d vo m i t in g . Th er e h a v e b e e n p os t m ar k e t in g re po r t s o f s el f -i n ju r y a nd del i r iu m ( m o s tl y in J a p an ) a m on g p e di a tr ic pa t ie n ts . C l os e m on i to r in g f o r a bn o r m a l b eh a v i o r is r e c om m e nd e d. ( 2 ) D os a ge ad ju s tm en ts a r e re q ui r ed f or pa t ie n ts wi t h i m p a i re d r e na l f u nc t io n . ( 3 ) C r os s -r es is t an c e b etwe e n o s e l ta m i vi r an d z an a m i v i r ha s b ee n re po r t ed . 1 0 . Ri b a v i ri n ( R e be t ol , Co p e gu s) is a s yn th e ti c nu c le os i de an al o g. a . Me c h an is m o f a c ti on . R i b a v i ri n m a y in hi b it R NA a n d D N A s ynt h es is b y d e pl e ti n g i nt r ac e ll ul a r n uc l eo t id e re se r v e s. b . S pe c tr um o f ac t i v it y . Th i s ag e nt is ac ti ve in v it r o ag a in s t a b r oa d s p ec t ru m o f D N A a nd R NA v i r u s e s , in cl u di n g in f lue n z a A a n d B , R S V , h e r pe s s im pl e x, a n d h epa t i ti s C vi r us . c . Th e ra p eu t ic u s es . Th e a e r os ol i z ed f or m o f ri b avi r i n i s n o l on g e r r e c om m e nd e d f o r t r ea tm e n t o f R S V i n i n fa n ts a nd c h i ld r en , o wi ng t o i n co ns is t en t c li n ic al be ne f i ts ob se r v e d i n c li ni c a l t r i al s . C om bi n at i on t h e r ap y wi t h o ra l ri ba v i r in a nd s u bc u ta ne o us i n ter f e r on - α is e ff ec t i v e i n t r e a tm en t o f c h r on ic he pa t i ti s C . d . P r ec au t io ns an d m on i to r i ng e ff ec ts ( 1 ) C om m o n a d v e rs e e f fe c ts of o ra l ri ba v i r in in clu d e h em o l yti c a ne m i a a nd G I d is t u rb a nc es . He m o g lo b in an d he m a t oc ri t s h ou l d b e m on i to r ed c a r ef u lly , e s pe ci a ll y d ur i ng th e fi rs t 4 we e k s o f t re a tm en t . ( 2 ) R ib a v i r in is t e r at o ge ni c ; i ts us e is c o n t ra in d i c a t e d i n p r eg na nc y. ( 3 ) R ib a v i r in s h ou ld b e av o i d e d in p at ie n ts wi t h a C r C l < 5 0 m L/ m i n . ( 4 ) R ib a v i r in s h ou ld n e ve r b e us e d as m o no t he r ap y i n tr e at m e n t o f c h ro n ic h e p at i ti s C .
1 1 . Ri m a n ta d in e (F l um ad i ne ) is a s y nt h e ti c a nt i vi r a l a ge n t a nd an α - m e t hy l d e r i va ti v e of am an t ad i ne t h a t bl o c k s t he ea r l y s t ep i n t he r ep li c at io n o f the i n f lu en za A v i ru s . a . Me c h an is m o f a c ti on . R i m an t ad i ne in hi b it s t h e e a r l y vi ra l re p li ca ti o n c yc le , po s s ib l y in hi b it i ng t h e u nc oa t in g o f th e v i ru s . I t h a s t he s am e m ec h an is m o f a c t i on an d s pe c t ru m o f ac t i vi t y a s a m an t ad i ne . b . S pe c tr um o f ac t i v it y an d th e r ap eu t ic us es ( 1 ) D u e t o i nc r ea s i ng r a te s o f re si s ta nc e , r im a nt ad i ne is no lo ng e r r e c om m e nd e d f o r p ro p h yl a xi s o r t r e at m e n t o f i n flu e n z a A v i r us . ( 2 ) I nf l ue n z a v ac c i na t io n i s t h e m e t ho d o f c h oi c e f o r p re ve n ti on o f i nf l ue nza i n f ec ti o n. c . P re ca u ti o ns a n d m on i to r i ng e ff ec ts ( 1 ) R im a nt a di ne m a y i nc r e a s e th e i nc i de nc e o f se i zu r e i n p a ti en t s wi t h s e i zu re di s o r de r . ( 2 ) Th e m os t f re qu e nt adv e r s e re ac t io ns in c l u de G I d is t u rb a nc e ( e .g . , n a us e a, v o m i ti n g, an o r exi a ) a n d C N S to xi c i t y ( e.g . , i n s o m n ia , di z zi n es s , h e a da c h e ), wh i c h a r e les s t h an th os e o b s e r ve d wi t h a m a n ta d in e . ( 3 ) D os e re du c ti o ns a r e r e c om m e nd e d in p at ie n ts wi t h he p at ic o r r en a l d ys f un c ti o n. 1 2 . Te lb i v u di ne ( Ty z e k a ) i s a s yn t he t ic th y m id i ne n u c l e os id e a na l og us ed f o r t re a tm en t of c h r on ic h e p at i ti s B in f ec ti o n. a . Me c h an is m o f a c ti on . Te l b i v u di n e is ph o sp ho r y l a t ed in t o t he ac t i v e t r i ph o sp ha t e f o rm th a t i nh i bi t s h ep a ti t is B vi r a l DN A p o l ym e r as e, wi t h u l t im at e t e rm i na t io n o f th e D N A c h ai n a nd in h ib i ti o n o f v i ra l re pl ic a ti o n. b . S pe c tr um o f ac t i v it y . ( 1 ) Te l bi v u d in e e xh i b i ts a c ti v i t y a ga in s t h ep a ti t is B v i r us bu t no t H IV . ( 2 ) Th e r e is a h ig h i nc i de n c e of c ro s s - re s i s ta nc e b e t we e n l am i v ud i ne r e s is ta n t h ep a ti t is B v ir us an d te lb i vu di n e. c . Th e ra p eu t ic u s es . ( 1 ) Te l bi v u d in e i s i nd ic a te d fo r t re a tm en t of c h r oni c h e pa t it is B i n fe c ti on in a d ul t s wi t h ac t i v e v i r a l re p li c a t io n a n d p e rs is te n t e l e v at i on s i n l i v e r f un c t io n t e s ts o r hi s t o lo gi c al l y a c t i v e di s e as e . ( 2 ) W hen c om pa r ed wi t h l a m i v u di n e, t el bi vu d in e pr o d uc ed a g r ea t e r vi r o l og ic r es po ns e i n c ont r o ll e d c l i ni c a l t r i al s. d . P r ec au t io ns an d m on i to r i ng e ff ec ts . ( 1 ) Th e r e is a b la c k bo x wa r n i n g re g a rd in g s e v e re e xa c e r ba t io ns of h e p at i ti s B in pa t ie n ts d is c o n ti n ui n g t he r ap y , r e qu i r in g c lo s e m o ni t o ri n g. P.965
( 2 ) C om m o n a d v e rs e e f fe c ts in c l ud e e l e v at i on s in c re a ti n e p ho s p h ok in as e , h e a da c h e , f at i gu e , n au s e a , a n d vo m i t in g . ( 3 ) D os a ge ad ju s tm en t is r eq u ir e d i n p at i en ts wi t h r e na l i ns u ff ic i en c y . ( 4 ) Ma y b e t ak en wi t h o ut r e g ar d to m e al s.
1 3 . Va l ac y c l o v i r ( Va lt r e x) i s t he L - v al y l es t er p rod r u g o f t h e a nt i v i r al ag en t a c ycl o vi r . a . Me c h an is m o f a c ti on . V a l ac y c lo vi r i s ra pi d l y c on ve r t e d t o a c yc l o v ir . A c yc lo v i r is s el e c t i v e f o r t h e t h ym i d in e k in as e e nz y m e , b eg in n in g t h e c o n ve rs io n o f a c y c l o v i r to ac y c lo v i r t ri p ho sp h at e , s t op pi n g t he r ep l ic at i on o f h e r pe s v ir a l D N A . b . S pe c tr um o f ac t i v it y an d th e r ap eu t ic us es ( 1 ) V al ac y c lo v i r is a c ti v e a g ai ns t H S V -1 , H S V -2 , a n d VZ V . ( 2 ) Th i s a ge n t is us ed f or t h e ac u te t r ea tm e nt of h e r pe s z os te r (s h in gl e s ) , h e r pe s l ab i al is (c o ld s o re s ) , a nd ge n it a l h er p es in im m u n oc om pe t en t ad ult s . I t is al so ef f ec t i v e f o r s up p r es s i on o f r ec u r re n t ep i s o d es o f g e ni t al he r pes in i m m u no c o m p e te n t a nd HI V - i n fe ct e d p eo pl e as wel l as re d uc ti o n o f t r a ns m i s s io n o f ge ni t al he r p es . ( 3 ) A d van t ag e s o v e r a c yc l o v i r in c l u de o ra l d os i ng o f o nl y o nc e t o th r ee t i m e s d ai l y an d a t t ai nm en t o f hi g he r pl as m a c o nc e n t r at i on s t ha n o r al a c ycl o vi r . A di s a d v a n ta ge is t ha t t h e re is n o IV f or m a v ai l ab le . c . P re ca u ti o ns a n d m on i to r i ng e ff ec ts ( 1 ) V al ac y c lo v i r ha s c aus e d t h ro m b o ti c t h ro m b o cy t o p e ni c p u rp u ra / he m o l yt i c u r e m i c s y nd r om e i n i m m u n oc om p r om i s ed i n di v i du a ls , i nc l ud in g th os e wi th a d va nc e d H I V an d t r an s p l an t r ec ip ie n ts . ( 2 ) B eg i n t he r a p y wi t hi n 7 2 h r o f h e rp es zo s t e r r as h o ns e t . ( 3 ) Mo s t c o m m on l y r ep o rt e d a d v e rs e re ac t io ns a re m i l d a nd in c l ud e n a us ea , h e a da c h e , a nd v om i ti n g. D o s ag e a dj us t m e n t is ne e d ed i n pa ti e n ts wi t h r e n al d y s f u nc ti o n. 1 4 . Va l ga nc ic lo v i r ( V al c yt e ) is th e L - v a l y l e s t e r p ro d r ug o f t he an t i vi ra l a g e nt ga nc ic l o v ir . a . Me c h an is m o f a c ti on . V a l ga nc ic l o vi r is c o n ve rte d in vi vo to ga nc ic lo v i r . A f t e r c on v e r s i o n t o t h e ac t i v e f o rm , g a nc ic lo v i r t rip h os p ha t e, ga nc ic l o v i r is i n co r po r a te d i n to v i r al DN A , wh i c h i nh i bi ts v i r al D N A p o l y m e r as e, t he r eby t e r m i n at in g v i ra l re pl ic a tio n . b . S pe c tr um o f ac t i v it y an d th e r ap eu t ic us es ( 1 ) F or in v i t ro ac t i v it y , s e e V II . B . 8. b . ( 2 ) V al g an c i c l o v i r i s in d ic a te d fo r th e t r e at m e n t of C MV r e t i n i ti s in p at ie n ts wi t h A I D S a nd fo r p re v en t i on of C MV a f t e r t r a ns p l an t a ti on o f k i d ne y , he ar t , a n d k id n e y pa nc r ea s . I t is no t in di ca t ed f or li v e r tr a n s p la n t r e ci pi e nt s , d ue t o a n in c re as ed r is k o f t is s u e - in v a si v e C MV a s co m p a r ed wi t h ga nc ic l o v ir . ( 3 ) Th e m a rk e dl y im p ro v e d bi oa va i la b il it y o f v al ga n ci cl o vi r o v e r or a l g a nc ic l o v ir ha s re s u l te d i n th e wi d es p re a d us e o f v a l g an c i c l o v i r f o r t r e a tm en t a n d p r e v en t ion o f C MV d is e as e. c . P re ca u ti o ns a n d m on i to r i ng e ff ec ts ( 1 ) S am e b la c k bo x wa r n i n gs as fo r g a nc ic lo v i r . ( 2 ) D os es s h ou l d b e a dju s te d i n c as es of r en a l im p ai r m e n t. D o n o t us e in h e m o d ia l y s i s p at i en ts ; ga n c i c l o vi r m us t b e u s e d . ( 3 ) O n l y a v a i la b le or a ll y . D o no t s u bs ti t u te do se s o f o ra l val g an c i c l o v i r 1 :1 f o r o ra l g an c i c l o v i r ; t he y a r e n o t e qu i v a le n t.
( 4 ) A po t en ti a l c ar c i n og en a nd te r a to g en ; c om m on a d v e rs e e f fe ct s a r e t he s am e a s f o r g a nc ic lo v i r . ( 5 ) I f t he t ab le t is b r ok e n, a v o id co n ta ct wi t h s ki n o wi n g t o t e ra t og e ni c a nd c a rc i no ge n ic p o t en ti a l. ( 6 ) B e a wa r e o f t he po t en t i al fo r e rr o rs as a r es ult o f t h e l oo k -a li k e an d s o un d -a l ik e n am es of v a lg a nc ic l o v ir an d val a c yc lo v i r . d . S ig n if ic a nt in t e ra c t i ons . S am e as fo r ga nc ic l o vi r ; s e e V I I . B. 8 .e . 1 5 . Za na m i v i r ( R el en z a ) i s th e f i rs t o f a c l as s o f a n t i vir a l a ge n ts c a ll ed n e u ra m i n id as e i n hi bi t o rs a p p ro ve d b y t he F D A f or t h e t r ea tm e n t o f i nf l ue nza A a n d B in f ec ti o ns i n a du l ts an d c hi l d re n a t l e as t 7 y e a rs of ag e . I t i s a ls o i n di ca t ed f o r p re v e n ti o n o f in f lu e n za i n a du l ts a nd c h i ld r en a t l ea s t 5 y e a rs o f ag e . a . Me c h an is m o f a c ti on . Z a n am i v i r in h ib i ts re p li c a t i on of t he i n fl u en z a A a n d B vi r u se s b y s e l ec ti v e inh i bi t io n o f th e i n fl u en za vi r u s n e ur a m i ni d as e e n zym e . b . S pe c tr um o f ac t i v it y . Th i s ag e nt is ac ti ve ag a in s t b o th th e i n fl u en za A a n d B vi r us es . It de m o ns t r a t es a c ti v i t y ag a in s t a vi a n i n fl ue n za i n a n im al s t ud i es . P.966
c . Th e ra p eu t ic u s es ( 1 ) I t is ap p r o v ed fo r th e t r e at m e n t o f u nc om p li c at e d i n fl u en za A a n d B i n f ec ti o n f o r p at i en ts wh o h a v e b ee n s y m pt om a tic f or < 4 8 h r . It is a ls o i n di ca t ed f o r i nf lu e n z a p ro p h y l a xi s . ( 2 ) Z an am i v i r is ap p r o v ed f o r o r al in ha l at i on us e o n l y , u s i n g t he D is kh a le r d e vi ce p ro v i de d b y t h e m a nu f ac tu r e r . ( 3 ) Z an am i v i r m a y b e c on s id e re d fo r p r e v e nt i on o r t r ea tm e nt o f a v i an i n f lu en za . ( 4 ) S ho wn t o de c re as e du r a ti o n o f s ym pt om s b y a p p ro xi m a t el y 1 . 5 d a ys if t a ke n wi t hi n 4 8 h r o f o ns e t o f v i r al s ym p to m s . d . P r ec au t io ns an d m on i to r i ng e ff ec ts ( 1 ) Th e us e o f z an am i v i r i s g en e r al l y no t re co m m e n d ed i n pa ti e n ts wi t h a h i st o r y of as t hm a o r c h ron i c o bs t ru c ti v e pu lm on a ry d i s e as e , o wi n g to th e r i sk of b ro nc h os pa s m and ac u te de c l i ne in lu n g fu n c t i on . ( 2 ) Th e m os t c om m o n a dv e r s e e f f ec ts we r e m il d a n d i nc lu d ed di a r rh e a, n a us e a, an d v om i ti ng . Th e in c i de n c e of th e se wa s no di f f er e nt t ha n p l ac e bo . ( 3 ) D o n o t p un c t u r e t he R o t a di s k bl is t er un t il im m e di a te l y be f o re a d m i ni s te r in g th e d os e to e ns u re fu l l d os ag e . Ma n u a l de xt e r i t y r e qu i r ed fo r t h is de vi c e . C . R N A v i r us es ( H I V ) 1 . C u r re n tl y , s i x c l as s e s o f an t i re t r o v ir a l a ge n ts ar e a pp r o v ed . Th es e d r ugs a r e ac ti v e ag a in s t H I V an d in c l ud e th e n uc l eo s i de r e v e rs e t r a ns c r i pt as e i n hi b it o rs ( N R TI s ) a b ac av i r , d id a no s i ne , em t ri ci t ab i ne , la m i v u di n e,
s t a vud i ne , z al c i t ab i ne , an d z i do vu d in e ; t he nu cl eo t i de r e v er s e t r an sc ri p t as e i n hi b it o r ( Nt R TI ) t e no f o v ir d is o pr o xi l f um a ra t e; t he n on n uc le os id e re v e r s e t r a ns c ri p ta s e in hi b it o rs (N N R TI s ) d e la vi r di n e, e fav i r e n z, ne vi r a pi ne an d e t r a vi ri n e; an d th e p r o tea s e i nh ib i to r s ( P I s ) am p re n a vi r , a ta z a n a vi r, d a r un a v i r , f os am p re n a v i r, i nd i na v i r , l op i na vi r / ri t o n a v i r , n e lf in a v i r , r i to n a v ir , s a qu i na v i r , a nd t ip r an a v ir ; t he f us io n i nh i bi t o r e n fu vi r t id e ; t h e e nt r y i nh i bi to r m a r a vir o c ; an d t h e i nt e gr a s e i nh ib i to r r al t eg r a v i r. 2 . Th e se ag en t s a r e v i r us t a ti c a nd re q ui r e l i fe lo ng t he r a p y. Th e y a r e c u r re n tl y a p pr o v e d f o r us e i n v a ri o us c om bi n at i on s k no wn a s p o te n t c om b in a ti o n a nt i re t r o v i ral t he r a p y . a . A pp r o pr i at e c om bi n at io n s i nc lu d e t ho s e t ha t ha ve d em on s tr a te d e f f ic ac y a n d s af e t y in c o nt r o ll ed c l in ic al t ri a ls ( Ta bl e 4 4 -6) . b . Mo n o t he r a p y wi t h a n y s in g le an t ir e t ro v i r a l a gen t is un ac ce p ta bl e i n th e t r e a tm en t o f H I V i nf e c t i on o wi n g t o ra p id de v e lo pm e nt o f v i r al r es is t an ce . +
c . B ef o re de s i g ni n g a t r ea t m e n t p la n , a m i ni m u m o f t wo C D 4 c e ll c o un t s a n d o n e H I V R N A l e v e l (v i r a l l o ad ) s h ou l d b e o bta i n e d to c o nf i rm th e i n it ia l m e as u re m e n ts a n d d et e rm i ne if t re a tm en t s h ou ld b e i n i ti a te d . A f te r s t a r ti ng t h e r ap y, r ep e at th es e m e a s u r em e nt s i n 2 - 8 we e k s , fo ll o we d b y e ve r y 3 - 4 m o nt hs t he r ea f t er . d . A m in im um o f 1 .0 - lo g 1 0 c op ie s /m L d ec li ne in H IV R N A l e vel s s ho ul d be s e en af t e r t h e f i rs t 2 - 8 we e k s o f th e r ap y f o r c l i ni c a l re s po ns e ; a s ub se q uen t d e c re as e t o u n de t ec t ab le l e v el s sh o ul d b e a c h i eve d b y 1 6- 2 4 we e k s. 3 . R e ve rs e t r a ns c r ip t as e i n hi bi t o rs a r e c la s s i fi ed a s e i th e r n uc l eo si de s o r n u cl e ot id e s . Th es e a g ent s ar e c om p et i ti ve in hi b ito r s o f re v e r se t r a ns c ri p ta s e , wh i c h l e ads t o c h a in te r m i na t io n wh e n i nc o rp o r at e d i nt o t he vi r a l D N A c ha i n. Th e y a re i na c t i v e u n ti l p h os ph o ry l a t e d b y hu m an c e ll ul a r k i na se s i nt o th e a c t i v e tri p ho s ph a te m e ta b ol i te . Ea c h a ge n t h as a c o r re s po nd i ng th r e e- l et te r ac r on y m as we l l a s a b r a nd na m e . W it h t he e xc e p t i on of ab a c a v i r , ea c h a ge n t i n t hi s c la s s of a n ti r et r o v i ra ls r eq u ir e s d o sa g e a dj us tm e nt in pat i e nt s wi t h r en a l d ys fu nc t i o n. A ll ag e nt s i n t hi s c l as s ha v e a b l ac k bo x w a r n in g c on ce r n in g t h e p ot e n ti a l f o r d e v el o pm en t of l a ct ic ac id os is an d s e v e re h ep a to m e g al y wi t h s t ea t os is . a . A ba ca v i r ( A B C ; Z ia g en ) is a s yn th e ti c c a r b oc yc l ic n uc l eo s i d e a na lo g i n di ca t ed f o r t he t re a tm en t o f b ot h a d ul t a n d p ed ia t r ic pa t ie n ts wi t h HI V . ( 1 ) Me c h a ni s m o f a c ti on . S e e VI I . C .3 . ( 2 ) S pe c tr um o f ac t i v i t y a n d t h e ra pe u ti c u s e s. A ba c a vi r is ap p r o ved fo r us e i n ad ul t s a nd c h il d re n ≥ 3 m o n th s o f a g e o nl y i n c om b in a ti o n wi t h ot h e r a n t ir e t ro v i r a l a ge n ts . ( a ) A ba c a v i r is a v a i la b le a l on e o r co - fo r m u l at e d as a c om bi na t io n ta bl e t wi t h l am i v u di n e a nd z i dov u d i n e ( Tr i z i v i r ) wh i c h is d os e d t wi c e d a il y . ( b ) A ba c a v i r is a ls o a v a i la b le in a c om bi n at io n tab l e t wi t h la m i v u d in e ( E p zi c om ) wh ic h i s d os ed o nc e d ai l y . ( 3 ) P r ec au t io ns an d m oni t o ri n g e f fe c t s . A b ac a vir h a s a b l ac k b o x wa r n i n g f o r a l if e - th r ea t en i ng h y pe r s en s i t i v it y r e ac ti o n t hat c an le ad t o d ea t h. I t o cc u rs in ap p r o xi m at e l y 5 % of pa t ie n ts ta ki n g t his d ru g , t y p ic al l y wi t h i n th e
f i r s t 6 we ek s o f t h e ra p y . Th i s r ea ct i on in vo l ves r es p i ra t or y s ym p t om s, f e ve r , r a s h, an d G I c om pl ai n ts . R e e xp o s u re f ol lo wi n g the s e s y m p t om s ca n m im ic a n a ph y l a xi s an d m a y re s u l t i n d e at h . Th e r e fo r e , re c ha ll e ng e i s c o nt r a in di c a t ed . A Me d ic a t i on G ui d e d es c r i bi n g th i s r e ac ti o n s h o ul d b e d i sp e ns ed wi t h e ac h n e w p r es c ri p ti on an d re f il l o f a b ac a v i r- c on t ai ni n g *
p r o du c ts . Th e H L A - B 570 1 s c re e ni ng t es t s ho ul d b e u s e d p r i or t o i ni t ia ti ng t h e r ap y t o r e du c e th e ri s k o f t hi s r e ac ti o n. P.967
Table 44-6. Department of Health and Human Services Guidelines for the Use of Antiviral Agents in HIV-1-Infected Adults and Adolescents When to begin treatment Treat any patient with history of AIDS defining illness Treat any patients with CD4+ cell count < 200/mm3 or between 200350/mm3 Treat patients who are pregnant, have HIV-associated nephropathy or those co-infected with hepatitis B virus (when treatment for hepatitis B is indicated). Note: The optimal time to start treatment in patients with CD4+ cell count > 350/mm3 is not well defined. Regimen selection Selection of a treatment regimen should be individualized for each patient based on adverse effect profiles, drug interactions, comorbidities, pill burden, etc. Preferred and alternative treatment regimens in previously untreated patients are as follows: To select an antiretroviral regimen, select one component from Column A and one from Column B: Column A (NNRTI or PI Options)
Preferr
NNRT
o
PI
Column B (Dual NRTI Options) Preferr
Tenofovir/em
ed Compo nents
I Efavir enza
r
Atazanavir or ritonavir Fosamprenavi r + ritonavir (b.i.d.) Lopinavir/rito navir (b.i.d.)
ed Compo nents
tricitabine or abacavir/lami vudine
Alterna tive to Preferr ed Compo nents
NNRT I Nevira pineb
o r
PI Atazanavir Fosamprenavi r Fosamprenavi r/ritonavir (once daily) Lopinavir/rito navir (once daily) Saquinavir + ritonavir
Alterna tive to Preferr ed Compo nents
Zidovudine/la mivudine or didanosine + (emtricitabine or lamivudine)
Agents or combinations that should not be offered at any time All monotherapies 2-NRTI regimens Abacavir + tenofovir + lamivudine as a triple NRTI regimen Tenofovir + didanosine + lamivudine as a triple NRTI regimen Saquinavir as the sole PI in a PI-based regimen Zidovudine + stavudine Didanosine + stavudine Lamivudine + emtricitabine
Atazanavir + indinavir 2-NNRTI combination Monitoring Before initiating drug therapy, must obtain CD4+ cell count and plasma HIV RNA levels plus complete blood count, chemistry, lipid profile, liver enzymes, and genotypic resistance testing If HIV RNA does not reach undetectable levels (< 50 copies/mL) by 16-24 weeks, perform resistance testing, compliance assessment, and consider a regimen change NNRTI, nonnucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitor; NRTI, nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitor; PI, protease inhibitor. a
Cannot be used in the first trimester of pregnancy or in women who wish to conceive or are not using effective contraception. b
Should not be initiated in women with pre-nevirapine CD4+ cell counts > 250/mm3 or men with pre-nevirapine CD4+ cell counts > 400/mm3 owing to high incidence of hepatic adverse effects. P.968
( 4 ) S ig n if ic a nt in t e ra c t i on s . Al c o ho l i nc r e as es a ba c a v i r 's A U C b y 4 1 %. b . D id a no s i n e ( d dI ; Vi d ex) , a s y n t h et ic pu r i ne ana l og , in hi b it s HI V r e p li ca t io n a n d h as a lo ng e r i n t ra c e l lu la r ha l f -l i fe ( > 2 0 h r ) t h an z i do v u di ne ( 7 h r ). ( 1 ) Me c h a ni s m o f a c ti on . S e e VI I . C .3 . ( 2 ) S pe c tr um o f ac t i v i t y a n d t h e ra pe u ti c u s e s. D id a n os in e i s a pp r o v ed f or t h e tr e at m e n t o f a d ul ts an d c h il d re n o n l y i n c om bin a t io n wi t h o th e r a n t ir e t ro v i r a l a ge n ts . ( 3 ) P r ec au t io ns an d m oni t o ri n g e f fe c t s ( a ) D id a no s i n e c a n c a us e r e v e rs ib l e p e ri ph e r al ne u r op a th y a n d ac u te , p o t en t ia ll y l e th al pa nc r ea t i ti s ( b la ck b o x wa r n i n g) . S e r um t r i gl y c er i de s s h ou l d b e m o n it o re d , a nd d id an o si ne s h ou l d b e wi t h h e l d wh e n in i ti a ti ng p o t en t ia l p an c re a ti t is - in du c in g a g en ts ( e. g . , I V p en t am i di ne , s u lf o na m i d es) . Tr a n s i en tl y e l e v at e d s e ru m a m y la s e m a y n ot r e fle c t p an c re a ti t is .
( b ) O t he r ad v e r s e e ff ec ts in c l u de he a da c h es , d i ar r h e a, na u s e a , a nd h yp e r u ri c e m i a (b ec a us e d i da n os in e i s c at a l yz e d to u ri c a ci d ) . ( c ) D id a no s i ne is a v ai la bl e in an en t e ri c co a te d ca p s u l e o r b u ff e re d or a l t a b le t f o rm u la t io n t o p r ev e n t de g r ad a ti on a t ac i dic p H . I t m us t b e t ak e n on a n em pt y s to m a c h . ( d ) D o n o t us e i n c om bi na t i on wi t h s t a vud in e or z a l c i t ab in e b e ca us e o f a d di t i ve p o te n ti al f or t o xi c i t y . ( e ) D o n o t us e th e c om bin a t io n re gi m e n o f di da n os i n e an d t e no f o v i r i n t r e a tm en t na ï v e pa t ie n ts , o wi n g t o h ig h ra t es o f ear l y vi r o lo g ic fa il u re . ( 4 ) S ig n if ic a nt in t e ra c t i on s . Pa nc r ea t it is - i nd uc in g d r u gs , a lc oh o l, an d th ose k n o wn t o c a us e p e r ip he ra l ne u ro p at h y s h o ul d n o t b e u s e d wi t h d id a no si n e. R i b a vi ri n s ho u ld no t b e c o - a dm in is t e re d wi t h d id an o si n e. c . Em t r ic it a bi ne ( F TC ; Em t r i v a ) is a s yn th e ti c n uc l eo s i d e a na lo g s t ru c tu ra l l y r e l at e d t o l am i v u di ne wi t h ac t i v i t y a g ai ns t H I V in fe c ti o n. ( 1 ) Me c h a ni s m o f a c ti on . S e e VI I . C .3 . ( 2 ) S pe c tr um o f ac t i v i t y a n d t h e ra pe u ti c u s e s. Em t r ic it a bi ne is in di ca t ed f o r u s e i n H I V - in f ec te d ad ul ts an d c hi l d re n i n c om bi na t i on wi t h o t he r a n t ir e t ro v i r a l a ge n ts . I t is a v ai l ab le b y it se l f o r as a c om bi na t io n ta bl e t wit h t e n of o vi r ( Tr u v a da ) a n d a s a c o m b in a ti o n t ab l et wi t h t e no f o v i r a nd e fa v i re n z ( A t r i pl a ) . A l th ou g h i t d em o ns t ra t es ac ti v i t y a ga ins t he pa t i ti s B vi r us , i t i s n o t a p p ro v e d f o r u s e in tr e a tm e nt of t hi s i nf ec t io n. ( 3 ) P r ec au t io ns an d m oni t o ri n g e f fe c t s ( a ) A d ve rs e e f fe c t s m os t c om m o nl y o bs e r v e d in cl i ni c a l tr i al s we r e m i l dm o de r a te an d i nc lu d e h ea d ac h e, r as h, di a r rh e a, a n d n a us ea . H yp e r p i gm en t at i on of the p al m s o r s o le s m a y o c c u r . ( b ) S e ri ou s a c u t e e xa c e rb a t io ns of he p at i ti s B h av e b e en do c u m e n te d i n H I V / h ep a ti t is B c o -i n fe c te d pa t ie n ts wh o di s c on t in u e d t he r ap y wi t h e m t ri ci t ab in e (b l ac k bo x wa r n i n g ) ; t h er e fo r e , l i ve r f u nc t io n t es t s sh o ul d b e m o ni t o re d f o r s e v e ra l m on t hs a ft e r d is c o n ti n ua t ion . ( 4 ) S ig n if ic a nt in t e ra c t i on s . No n e h a v e b ee n i de nt i f ie d . d . La m i v u d in e (3 TC ; E p iv i r ) i s a s yn t he t ic n uc l eos i de an al o g wi t h ac t i vit y a g ai n st H I V a nd he p a ti tis B v i ru s . ( 1 ) Me c h a ni s m o f a c ti on . S e e VI I . C .3 . ( 2 ) S pe c tr um o f ac t i v i t y a n d t h e ra pe u ti c u se s . Lam i vu di n e is in di c a t e d f o r u s e i n H I V - po s i t i v e a du l ts an d c hi l d re n > 3 m o n ths o f a ge in c om b in a ti on wi t h o t he r an t i re t r o v ir a l a g e nt s . I t is al s o us e d i n a lo we r d os a ge fo r th e t r e a tm en t o f c h r on ic he pa t i ti s B in pa t ie n ts wi t h ac t i v e l i v e r i nf l am m a ti o n a n d e vi d en c e of he p at i tis B v i ra l re pl ic a ti o n. ( a ) La m i v u d in e i s a v a il ab l e a lo n e o r wi t hi n a t wi c e d ai l y c om b in a ti o n t ab let c o nt a in in g l am i v u di n e, z id o v u d in e a nd ab a c a vi r (Tr i zi vi r ) . ( b ) La m i v u d in e i s a ls o av a i l ab l e as a c om bi n at i on t ab l et wi t h ab ac a v i r ( E p zi c om ) a nd z i do v u d ine ( C om b i v i r) . P.969
( 3 ) P r ec au t io ns an d m oni t o ri n g e f fe c t s ( a ) R e po r te d a d v e rs e rea c ti o ns a r e m in o r a n d inc l ud e h e ad ac he , fa t ig u e, a n d G I r e ac ti o ns s uc h a s n a us ea , vom i ti ng , an d di a r r he a . C N S t o xi c it y i n cl ud e s n eu r op a th y , di z z i n e s s , a n d in s om ni a . L ab t es t a b no r m a li t ie s s uch a s n e ut r o pe ni a a n d e le v a t i on s i n l i v er e n z ym e s ha v e a ls o b ee n re p or t ed . ( b ) D o n o t us e i n c om bi na t i on wi t h z al c i t ab i ne o wi n g t o a n ta g on is m o f e f f ec ts . ( c ) La m i v u di n e h as th e s a m e b la ck b o x wa r n i n g re g a rd i ng ac ut e e xa c e r b a ti on s o f h e pa t it is B as e m t r ic i ta b in e ( s ee V I I . C .3 . c ). ( 4 ) S ig n if ic a nt in t e ra c t i on s . Co - ad m i n is t ra t io n wi th c o t r im o xa zo l e re s u l ts in i n c re as ed la m i v u d in e l e ve l s . N o d os e a d ju s t m e n t i s re q ui r ed . e . S ta vu d in e (d 4 T; Z er i t ) i s a s yn t he t ic th y m id i ne n u c l e os id e a na l og th a t is a c ti ve ag a in s t H I V . ( 1 ) Me c h a ni s m o f a c ti on . S e e VI I . C .3 . ( 2 ) S pe c tr um o f ac t i v i t y a n d t h e ra pe u ti c u s e s. S ta v u d i ne i s i n di c a t ed fo r u s e i n c om b in a ti on wi t h ot h er a n ti r e tr o v i r al ag en t s i n a d ul t s a nd c h il d re n o f al l a g es . ( 3 ) P r ec au t io ns an d m oni t o ri n g e f fe c t s ( a ) Th e m a jo r to xi c i t y wi t h s ta v u di n e is a d os e re la t e d b ut r e ve rs ib le p e r ip h e ra l n eu r o pa t h y o c c u r ri n g i n u p t o 2 1% o f pa t i en ts . ( b ) O t he r ad v e r s e e ff ec ts in c l u de he a da ch e , r ash , di a r rh e a, na us e a , a nd vo m i ti n g. ( c ) Fa t al ep is o de s o f p anc r e at i ti s h a v e b ee n re p ort e d . ( 4 ) S ig n if ic a nt in t e ra c t i on s . Do no t u se in c o m b i na t i on wi t h z id o v u di n e o r za l c it a bi ne . f . Te n o fo v i r di s o p ro xi l f um a r at e ( TD F ; Vi r ea d ) i s a n ac y cl ic n uc le os id e p h os p ho na t e d ie s te r an al o g ( n uc le o ti d e ) wi t h an t iv i r a l a c ti vi t y ag a in s t H I V a n d h e pa t it is B v i ru s . ( 1 ) Me c h a ni s m o f a c ti on . Te n o f o vi r ( a p r od r u g ) is r a pi d l y h ydr o l yz e d b y p l as m a es te r as es t o t eno f o v i r , wi t h s u bs e qu en t c o n v e r si on t o t he ac t i v e t e n of o vi r d i ph os ph a te . No t e : Nt R TI s a re ac ti v e as t h e d ip h os ph a te , u n li ke t h e N R TI s , wh i c h r e qu i re c on v e r s i o n t o t h e t r ip hos p ha t e. ( 2 ) S pe c tr um o f ac t i v i t y a n d t h e ra pe u ti c u s e s. Te n o f o vi r is ap p ro v e d fo r us e i n c om b in a ti on wi t h ot h er a n ti r e tr o v i r al ag en t s f or t h e t r ea tm e n t o f H I V in a d ul t s. I t is al s o a v ai l ab le as a o nc e d ai l y co m b i na t i on ta b le t c on t ai n in g t e n of o vi r a n d em t r ic it a bin e ( Tr u va da ) an d te no f ov i r , em t r ic it a bi n e, an d e f a vi r en z ( A t ri p la ) . ( 3 ) P r ec au t io ns an d m oni t o ri n g e f fe c t s ( a ) Mi n o r ad v e r s e ef f ec ts ha v e b ee n r e po r t ed in c l i n ic al t ri a ls . Th es e i n cl ud e c om p la in t s o f d iar r h e a, vo m i t in g , a nd na us e a. ( b ) A dd i ti o na l a d v e rs e e ff e c ts o bs e r ve d d u ri ng pos t m a r k e ti n g s ur v e i ll a nc e i n cl ud e a c ut e re na l fa il u re a nd de c re as es in bo n e m in e r al d e ns i t y . ( c ) Te n of o v i r h as th e s am e b l ac k bo x wa r n i n g t ha t em t ri c i t ab i ne ha s f o r p a t ie n ts wi t h c on c o m i t ant h ep a ti t is B ( s ee V II . C . 3. c ) . ( d ) D os e a d ju s t m e n t i s re q ui r e d f o r r e na l i ns u ff ici e nc y .
( 4 ) S ig n if ic a nt in t e ra c t i on s ( a ) Te n o fo v i r i nc r e as es d i da n os in e s e ru m c on cen t r a ti o ns , n ec es s i t at i ng a d o se r ed uc t io n o f d i da n os i ne . ( b ) Te n o fo v i r d e c r e as es s e r um c on ce n t ra t io ns o f a t a z a na vi r . W hen th e se 2 a g e nt s a r e us e d t og e th er , r i to n a vir m u s t be ad d ed t o t h e r eg im e n. g . Z al ci ta b in e (d d C ; H i v id ) is a s yn th e ti c p y r im i di n e nu cl e os id e a na l og u e t h a t i s ac t i v e a ga i ns t HIV . ( 1 ) Me c h a ni s m o f a c ti on . S e e VI I . C .3 . ( 2 ) S pe c tr um o f ac t i v i t y a n d t h e ra pe u ti c u s e s. Z al c it a bi ne is no lo ng e r r e c om m e nd e d as a c om po n e nt of in i ti a l co m b i na t io n th e r ap y o f HI V o wi n g t o i t s s e ve re ad v e r s e ef f ec t p r o fi le . Th e m an u fa c tu re r di sc o nt i nu ed i ts p r o du c ti on in 20 0 6. ( 3 ) P r ec au t io ns an d m oni t o ri n g e f fe c t s ( a ) Th e m a jo r c li n ic al to x i c it y o f zal c i t ab i ne i s p e ri p he r a l n eu r op a th y , wh i c h o cc u rs in up t o 3 5% of pa t i en ts an d m a y be po t en t i al l y di sa bl i ng . ( b ) O t he r ad v e r s e e ff ec ts in c l u de pa nc r e at i ti s, s to m at i ti s , ca r di om y o p a th y , a n d h yp e rs e ns it i v i t y re ac t i o ns . ( c ) D o n ot us e i n c om bi na t i on wi t h l am i v u di n e, s ta v u d i ne , o r z i do vu di n e. ( 4 ) S ig n if ic a nt in t e ra c t i on s ( a ) D r ug s t h at ha v e t he p o t en t ia l t o c au s e pe r i phe r a l n eu r o pa t h y s ho u ld be a vo i d ed . Th es e i nc lu d e c h l o ra m p h en ic o l, c is p la t in, d ap s o n e, di d an os i ne , d i su l fi r am , h y d r al a z i ne , is o ni a z i d, m e t ro n id a z ol e , n i t ro f u ra n to in , ph en y t o in , r i b a vi ri n , a nd v i nc r is ti n e. P.970
( b ) Z al ci t ab in e t r e at m e n t s ho u ld be in t e rr u pt e d w h e n a d ru g wi t h t he p o t en t ia l t o c au s e pa n c re a t it is is i n it i at e d ( i .e . , pe n t am id in e ) . ( c ) D o n ot t ak e wi t h m a gn e s i um - , c al ci um - , o r al um i nu m -c on t ai ni n g a n t ac id s . ( d ) C im e ti di n e a nd p ro b en e c i d m a y i nc r e as e z a l c it a b in e l e v el s , c a us i ng i n c re as ed z a lc i ta bi n e t o xi c it y . h . Zi d o v ud i ne ( A Z T; R et ro v i r ) is a s yn th e ti c t h y m id i ne an a lo g . Th i s a ge n t wa s t h e f i rs t a v a i la b le dru g fo r th e tr e a tm en t o f HI V i nf ec t io n . ( 1 ) Me c h a ni s m o f a c ti on . S e e VI I . C .3 . ( 2 ) S pe c tr um o f ac t i v i t y a n d t h e ra pe u ti c u s e s ( a ) Zi d o v ud i ne is i n di c a te d in th e tr e at m e n t o f a du l ts an d c hi l d re n > 6 we e k s of ag e f o r th e t r eat m en t of H I V . ( b ) I t is in d ic at e d f o r t h e p r e v e nt i on of m a t er n al - fe t a l H I V t ra ns m i ss io n . ( c ) Zi d o v ud in e i s a v a il a bl e as o r a l c a ps u le s , t ab le t s , a nd s o lu t io n a s we l l a s a n I V s ol ut i on . ( d ) O r a l z i d o v ud in e i s a ls o a v a i la bl e as a c o - fo rm u la t io n wi t h l am i v ud in e ( C o m bi v i r ) a n d wi t h la m iv u d i n e a nd ab ac a vi r ( Tr i zi v i r ) . ( 3 ) P r ec au t io ns an d m oni t o ri n g e f fe c t s
( a ) Zi d o v ud i ne c a n c au s e s e v e r e b o ne m a r r o w su p p re s s io n , i nc lu d in g m ac r oc yt i c a ne m i a a nd ne u t r op en i a a f te r th e f i rs t f e w we e k s to m o nt h s o f t h e r ap y. Th e ri s k is i nc r ea s ed in pa t ie n ts wi t h p r ee xi s t i n g b on e m a r ro w s u pp r es s i o n o r wh o a r e ta k in g c on c o m i t an t m e di ca t i o n s t ha t c a us e b on e m a r ro w s u p pr e s s io n . ( b ) E r yt h ro p oi e ti n c an be c on s i d e re d a s a n a dj u nc t i v e t h er a p y i n pa ti e n ts wi t h zi d o v u di n e- i nd uc e d a n em i a, in c as e s f o r wh i c h i t c a nn o t b e d i sc on t in u ed . ( c ) O t he r ad v e r s e ef f ec ts i nc l ud e h e ad ac he , m a la is e , s ei z u r es , a n xi e t y, f e ve r , a n d r as h . ( d ) P r ol on g ed us e m a y le a d t o s y m pt om a ti c m y op a t h y . ( 4 ) S ig n if ic a nt in t e ra c t i on s ( a ) C o t ri m o xa z o l e , at o v aq u o ne , v al p ro ic ac id , m et h a do n e, an d p r ob e ne c i d m a y in c re as e z id o v u di n e c on c e n t ra t io ns , c a us in g i nc r e as ed ri sk of zi d o vu d in e t o xi c i t y . ( b ) O t he r c y to t o xi c dr u gs , s uc h as ga nc ic l o v i r, dap s on e , a nd in t e rf e r on - α , c a n ca u s e ad di t i v e b on e m a r ro w s u p pr e s s io n . ( c ) R ib a v i ri n , r i fa b ut i n, an d ri f am pi n m a y de c re as e l e v el s o f zid o vud i ne . 4 . N on n uc le os i de r e v e rs e t r an s c r ip t as e i nh ib i to r s. Th e N N R TI c la s s bi nd s d i r ec tl y t o a n d p r od uc es a n on c o m p e ti t i v e i nh i bi tio n of t he H I V r e v e rs e t r a ns c ri p ta s e , l e ad in g to c h ai n t e rm i na t io n . Th e s e a g en ts a re in d ic at e d f o r u s e i n a du l ts a n d p ed i at ri c p a ti e nt s i n c om bi na t ion wi t h ei t he r N R TI s or p o ss ib l y P Is . Ef a v i r en z is c o ns id e r ed a p r ef e r re d N N R TI , wh e r e a s t h e o t h e rs a r e c u rr e nt l y r ec om m e n de d a s a lt e r na t i v es . N N R TI - b a se d re g im en s p r o vi de po t en t an t i v ir a l ac t i v i t y wi t h l es s p il l b u rde n th a n m a n y P I -b a se d r e g im en s . A ll N N R TI s m a y c au s e r as h a n d h ep a to t o xi c i t y; p a ti e nt s s ho ul d b e m o ni t o re d c lo s e l y fo r t h es e a d v e rs e e f f ec ts . a . D el a v i r di ne ( R es c ri p tor ) ( 1 ) Me c h a ni s m o f a c ti on . S e e VI I . C .3 . ( 2 ) S pe c tr um o f ac t i v i t y a n d t h e ra pe u ti c u s e s. De l a v i rd i ne is a p p ro ve d f or u s e i n a du l ts i n th e t r ea tm e nt o f H I V i n c om bi n a tio n wi t h o t he r an t i re t r o v ira l a g e nt s. I ts us e h as fa ll en o ut o f f a v o r o wi n g t o i ts t hr e e t im es da il y d os i ng s ch e du l e. ( 3 ) P r ec au t io ns an d m oni t o ri n g e f fe ct s ( a ) I n cl i ni c a l t r ia ls , 4. 3% o f p a ti en t s d is c o nt i nue d de la v i r d in e b ec a us e o f r a s h. C as es of S t e v en s -J o hn s o n s yn d ro m e ha v e b e e n r ep o r te d . ( b ) O t he r ad v e r s e e ff ec ts in c l u de he a da ch e a n d n a us e a. ( 4 ) S ig n if ic a nt in t e ra c t i on s ( a ) Th e c o nc en t r at i on s of t h e f ol lo wi n g m e di c a t ion s a r e g r e at l y in c re as ed b y d e la vi r d in e a nd m u s t be a v o i d ed : a l pr a z o la m , m id a zo l am , t r ia zo l am , s im va s ta t in , l o v as t a ti n , ri f a bu t in , a n d c i s a p r id e . ( b ) D ec r ea s ed de la v i r di ne c o nc e n tr a ti o ns re s u l t wh e n i t i s a dm in is t e re d wi t h S t . Jo h n 's wo r t , c a rb am az e p i n e, ph e no ba r b it a l, ph e n y t oi n , o r ri f am pi n . C o n co m i t an t us e s h o ul d b e a v oi d ed .
( c ) B ec au s e de l a v ir d in e r e q ui r es an ac id ic G I t rac t fo r op t im al ab s o r p ti on, i t s u se is c on t r ai n di c a t ed wi t h p ro t on pu m p in h ibi t o rs an d H 2 - r ec e pt o r a n t ag o ni s t s . b . E fa vi r e n z ( Su s t i v a ) ( 1 ) Me c h a ni s m o f a c ti on . S e e VI I . C .3 . P.971
( 2 ) S pe c tr um o f ac t i v i t y a n d t h e ra pe u ti c u s e s. E fa v i r e n z is a p p ro v e d f o r us e i n c om b in a ti on wi t h ot h er a n ti r e tr o v i r al ag en t s f or t h e t r ea tm e n t o f H I V i n f ec ti o n i n a du l ts a n d pe d ia t r ic pa ti e n ts ( ≥ 3 year s of ag e ) . I ts ad v a n t ag e o ve r o th e r N N R TI s i s o nc e - da il y d os in g . I t i s a vai l ab l e a lo ne o r a s a c om b in a ti o n t ab l et wi t h te n o fo v i r an d e m t r ic i ta bi ne ( A t ri p la ) . ( 3 ) P r ec au t io ns an d m oni t o ri n g e f fe c t s ( a ) Mo s t c o m m on ad v e r s e e f fe c t s a r e C N S - r e la t ed ( 5 2% ) , i nc lu d in g i n so m n i a, di z z i n es s , d rows i n e s s , n i gh tm a re s , a nd h a l lu c i n at i on s , n e ce ss it a ti n g b ed t im e d os i ng to m i ni m i z e t he se eff e c ts . Th e s e e ff ec t s t yp i ca l l y s ub s i d e a f te r 2-4 we e k s o f t r ea t m e n t. ( b ) O wi n g t o i ts te r at o gen i c e f fe c t s , e fa v i r en z s ho u ld be a v o id ed in t he fi rs t t r i m e st e r o f p r e gn a nc y an d in wo m en o f c h il d be ar i n g p o te n ti al wh o wi s h to c o nc ei ve . ( c ) O t he r ad v e r s e ef f ec ts i nc l ud e ra sh , i nc r ea s ed t r a ns am i na s e s , an d G I d i st u r ba nc es . ( 4 ) S ig n if ic a nt in t e ra c t i on s ( a ) E f a v ir e n z i n du c e s a nd i nh ib i ts th e c y t oc h r om e P 4 50 3 A4 is oe n z y m e s ys t em . I t s h ou ld no t be u s ed c o nc om i ta n tl y wi t h c is a p ri de , m i da z o la m , t r i a zol a m , o r e rg o t d e ri v a t i v es . ( b ) S t . J o h n 's wo r t d ec rea s es e f a v i re n z co nc e nt ra t i on s a nd s h ou l d b e a vo i d ed . ( c ) E fa v i r en z d ec r ea s es m e th a do n e c o nc e nt r a ti on s b y 6 0% ; pa t ie n ts s hou l d b e m o ni t o re d f o r o pi a te wi t h d r a wa l a nd ha ve th e ir d os es ti t r a te d a cc o r di ng l y . c . E t ra vi r in e (I n te l en c e ) ( 1 ) Me c h a ni s m o f a c ti on . S e e VI I . C .3 . ( 2 ) S pe c tr um o f ac t i v i t y a n d t h e ra pe u ti c u s e s . E tr a v i r i ne is i n di c a t ed fo r u s e i n c om b in a ti on wi t h at lea s t t wo a d di t io na l a n ti r e tr o v i r a l a ge n ts i n t r e a tm en t - e xp e r ie nc e d ad u l ts wh o de m o ns t r at e v ir a l re p li c a t io n a nd d o cu m e n te d re s i s t a nc e to o th e r N N R TI s . I t i s n ot f o r u s e in t re a tm e nt - na ïve p a t ie n ts . ( 3 ) P r ec au t io ns an d m oni t o ri n g e f fe c t s . ( a ) A d ve rs e e f fe c t s i nc lud e na us e a a nd r as h. ( b ) S in c e f oo d i nc r ea s e s t h e a bs o rp t io n o f et r a v i ri n e b y 5 0% , i t s h ou ld be t a ke n fo ll o wi n g a m e al . ( 4 ) S ig n if ic a nt in t e ra c t i on s .
( a ) E t ra v i r i ne i n du c e s a nd i nh ib i ts a v a r i et y o f c y to c h ro m e P 45 0 i s oe n z ym es . I t s h ou ld n ot b e u s e d c on co m i t an t l y wi t h c a rb am a z e pi n e, p h e no ba r b it al , ph e n y to i n, u nb o os te d P Is , a t a z an av i r / r i t on a v i r, f o sa m p r e na v i r / ri t on a v i r , t i p ra n a v i r/ r i to n a vir , or o th e r N N R TI s . ( b ) S t . J o h n 's wo r t a nd rif a m p i n d ec r ea s e et r a v i rin e c o nc en t r at i on s a nd s h ou l d b e a v o id ed . ( c ) E t ra v i r in e m a y de c r ea s e s e r um c o nc e nt r a ti ons o f m e t ha d on e ; p at i en ts s h ou l d b e m o n it o re d c los e l y . d . N e vi ra p in e (V i r am un e) wa s t h e f i rs t N N R TI a pp r o v e d f o r u se b y th e F DA f o r th e tr e at m en t o f H I V in f ec t io n . ( 1 ) Me c h a ni s m o f a c ti on . S e e VI I . C .3 . ( 2 ) S pe c tr um o f ac t i v i t y a n d t h e ra pe u ti c u s e s. Ne v i r a pi n e is in d ic at e d i n c om b in a ti o n wi t h ot h e r an t i re t r o vi ra ls in ad u lt and p ed ia t r ic ( ≥ 2 m o nt hs ol d ) H I V p a ti en t s . ( 3 ) P r ec au t io ns an d m oni t o ri n g e f fe c t s ( a ) N e vi ra p in e h as th e h ig h es t i nc i de nc e o f S te v en s -J o hn s o n s yn d ro m e o f a l l N N R TI s . ( b ) S ym pt om a ti c h ep a ti t is , in c l ud i ng fa t al he p at ic n ec r os is , ha s b ee n o b se r v e d wi t h n e v i ra pi n e ( b la c k bo x wa r n i n g ). The f r eq u en c y o f th is +
a d ve r se ef f ec t i s i nc r ea s e d in wo m en wi t h pr e - nevi r a p in e C D 4 c o u n ts > 3
+
3
2 5 0 c el ls /m m a nd m e n wi t h C D 4 c ou n ts > 40 0 c e ll s / m m . N e vi r ap i ne s h ou l d n ot be in i ti a te d i n t h es e p a ti en t s . ( c ) O t he r ad v e r s e ef f ec ts i nc l ud e f e v e r , n au se a , an d he a da c h e . ( d ) To d ec r ea s e th e f r e qu e nc y o f a d ve rs e e f fe c ts , a 2- we e k do se es c a la t io n i s re q ui r ed . ( 4 ) S ig n if ic a nt in t e ra c t i on s ( a ) N e vi ra p in e i nd u c e s c y t o c h ro m e P 45 0 3 A 4 , r es u lt i ng in de c re as ed c o nc en t r at i on s o f c as po fu n gi n , k et oc o na zo l e, it r ac o na zo l e, o ra l c o nt r ac e pt i v es , an d p r o te a s e in hi b it o rs . P.972
( b ) U s e of r if am p in an d S t . J o h n 's wo r t s h ou l d be a v o id e d, as th e y de c rea s e t h e s e ru m c on c e n t ra ti o ns o f n e vir a pi n e. ( c ) Me t h a do n e c o nc e nt r at i o ns d ec r e as e s i g ni f ic ant l y wi t h n e v ir a pi n e, of t e n n e ce ss it a ti n g a d o s e in c re a s e . 5 . P r ot e as e i nh ib i to r s . Th e P Is c om p et i ti v e l y in h ib i t t h e vi r a l p r ot e as e e n zym e , p r e v en t in g th e e n z y m e f ro m c l e a v in g t he g ag an d g a g- p ol p o l yp ro t ei ns ne c es s a r y fo r v i r io n p r o du c t i on . PI s a r e us ed in c om b in a ti on wi t h o t he r an t i re t r o v ir a l a g e nt s , in c l u di n g o th e r P I s , t o s up p r ess H I V r e p li ca t io n . A l l o f t h e P Is a r e c y t oc h ro m e P 45 0 i nh i bi t o rs ; ri t on a vi r is t he m os t po t en t i n hi bi t o r. A ll P I s a r e c on t r ai nd ic a te d wi t h n um e r ou s d r ug s, i n cl ud i ng s im v a s ta t in , l ov a s t a ti n , r i fa m p in , c is a p ri d e , p im o zid e , m i d a z ol am , t r i a zol a m , e rg o ts , a nd S t. J oh n 's wo r t . C on c om i t an t t he r ap y wi t h a n t ie pi l ep t ic d r u gs , e r ec ti l e d y s fu nc t io n d r u gs , a nd a z o le an t if u ng a ls m us t
b e un d er t ak e n wi t h c a u tio n . O wi n g t o th e wi d e a rr a y o f d r u g i nt e r ac ti o ns wi t h P I s , a l wa y s as s es s m e di c a t io n p r o fi le s c ar e fu l l y fo r d ru g i n te r ac ti o ns b e f o re in it i at i on . a . Am p r en a v i r ( A g en e ra s e ) ( 1 ) Me c h a ni s m o f a c ti on . S e e VI I . C .5 . ( 2 ) S pe c tr um o f ac t i v i t y a n d t h e ra pe u ti c u s e s. Am p r en a v i r is no lo n ge r r e c om m e nd e d f o r us e i n t r e a tm en t re g im en s f o r H I V d ue to i ts d i sc on t in u at i on i n l a te 20 0 7 . ( 3 ) P r ec au t io ns an d m oni t o ri n g e f fe c t s . ( a ) U s e of t he o ra l s ol ut io n in p re gn a nt wo m e n, c h i ld r e n < 4 ye a rs ol d , a nd p a t ie n ts wi t h h ep a ti c o r re n al in su f f ic ie nc y is c o n tr a i nd ic a te d o wi n g to t he p r o p yle n e g l yc o l v e h ic le ( b l ac k b o x wa r n i n g ) . ( b ) B ec au s e am p re n a v i r i s a s u l fo na m i d e, t he po te n t ia l f o r c r oss - s e ns i ti v i ty t o o th e r s u l fo n am id es e xi s ts . ( c ) A d ver s e e ff ec t s i nc lud e h y pe r li p id em ia , h y pe rg l yc em ia , fa t m a ld is t ri b ut i on , ra s h , and G I di s tu r ba nc es . ( d ) D os a ge ad ju s tm en t is r eq u ir e d f o r h ep a ti c i ns u f fi c i en c y. ( 4 ) S ig n if ic a nt in t e ra c t i on s (s ee V I I. C . 5 ). A m p r ena vi r d ec re a s e s m e t ha d on e c o nc en t r at i on s , po s s ib l y r e q ui r in g a m e t ha d on e do s e i nc r ea se to p re ve n t wi t h d r a wa l . b . A ta za n a v i r ( R e y a ta z ) ( 1 ) Me c h a ni s m o f a c ti on . S e e VI I . C .5 . ( 2 ) S pe c tr um o f ac t i v i t y a n d t h e ra pe u ti c u se s . A ta z a n a v i r i s a c om po n en t o f p r e f er r e d a nd al t er n a ti v e P I - b as ed r eg im en s f o r H I V . I t i s d os ed on c e da il y . ( 3 ) P r ec au t io ns an d m oni t o ri n g e f fe c t s . ( a ) A t a z an a v i r m a y p r ol on g th e P R i n te r va l a nd po ss i bl y c a u s e fi r s t - de g r ee A V b lo c k . El ec t r oc a rd io gr a m ( E C G ) s ho ul d b e m on i t or e d . ( b ) O t he r ad v e r s e e ff ec ts in c l u de fa t m a ld is t ri b uti o n , h y p e rg l yc e m i a , a nd i n di r ec t h y pe r bi li r u bi ne m i a . I n c o nt r as t to th e o t he r P Is , at a za na v i r ap pe ar s t o be de v o i d o f e f fe c ts on l ip id s . ( c ) D os e a dj us t m e n t is re q ui r e d f o r h ep a ti c i ns uff i ci e nc y . ( 4 ) S ig n if ic a nt in t e ra c t i on s (s ee V I I. C . 5 ). A t a z ana vi r is th e m os t p r o bl em a t ic o f al l PI s i n t e rm s o f d r ug i nt e r ac ti o ns . ( a ) I f us e d i n c om bi na t ion wi t h e fa v i r en z o r te no fo vi r , lo w- d o s e r i to na v i r m us t be ad m i ni s te r ed c on c om it a nt l y. ( b ) B ec au s e a ta z a n a v ir re q ui r es an ac id ic G I t ra c t f o r o p ti m a l a bs o rp t io n , c o nc om it a nt us e o f p r o ton p um p i nh ib i to r s i s c o n tr a i nd ic a te d . I f o t he r ac id s u pp r es s a n ts ar e u s e d wi t h a t a zan a vi r , t he d os es m us t b e s ep a r at e d b y as m uc h ti m e as p os s i b le ( up t o 1 2 h r a p a rt ) . c . D a ru na v i r ( P re z i s ta ) ( 1 ) Me c h a ni s m o f a c ti on . S e e VI I . C .5 ( 2 ) S pe c tr um o f ac t i v i t y a n d t h e ra pe u ti c u s e s. Da r u na v i r is th e n e we s t P I t o r e c ei ve F D A a pp r o v a l f o r t h e t r ea t m e n t o f HI V . It s u se is li m i te d to hi gh l y t r e a tm en t - e xp e r ie nc e d pa t i en ts o r p at i en ts wi t h H I V r es is t a nc e m u t at i ons . ( 3 ) P r ec au t io ns an d m oni t o ri n g e f fe c t s
( a ) D a ru n a v i r m u s t b e c o- a d m i ni s te r ed wi t h ri t on avi r ( b ) B ec au s e d ar u na v i r c o n t ai ns a s u l fo n am id e m o i e t y , c ro s s - r ea c ti v i t y m a y o cc u r i n s ul f a -a ll e r gi c p at i e nt s . ( c ) A d ver s e e ff ec t s i nc lud e na us e a, in c re as e d am y l as e , h ep a t ot o xi c i t y , h yp e r li p id em ia , h y pe r gl y c em i a, an d ra s h . ( 4 ) S ig n if ic a nt in t e ra c t i on s . Se e V I I . C .5 . d . F os am pr e na v i r ( Le xi v a ) ( 1 ) Me c h a ni s m o f a c ti on . S e e VI I . C .5 . Fo s a m p r e na v i r is th e p r o dr u g o f a m p re na v i r . P.973
( 2 ) S pe c tr um o f ac t i v i t y a n d t h e ra pe u ti c u s e s. F os am p r en a v i r h as la r ge l y r e p la ce d a m p r e na v i r be c a u s e of i ts i m p r o v e d d osi n g c on v e n ie nc e . I t i s r e c om m e nd e d as on e o f t h e p r e fe r r ed c o m p on e nts in P I -b as e d r e gi m e ns fo r i n i ti al t re a tm en t of H I V . ( 3 ) P r ec au t io ns an d m oni t o ri n g e f fe ct s ( a ) F os am p re na v i r m a y be d os ed on c e da i l y i n t r ea t m e n t n a ï v e p at i en ts . PI e xp e r i e nc e d p a ti en t s r equ i r e t wi c e d a il y d os in g . In m o s t c a se s , f o sa m p r e na v i r i s a dm i ni s t e r e d wi t h lo w d o s e r it o na v i r . ( b ) A d ve rs e e f fe c t s a r e th e s am e a s t h os e wi t h am p r en a vi r ( se e V I I . C . 5. a . (3 ) . b , c an d d ). ( 4 ) S ig n if ic a nt in t e ra c t i on s (s ee V I I. C . 3 ). I f u se d i n c om b in a ti on wi t h e f a vi r en z , fo s am pr e na v i r m us t b e a dm i ni s t e r ed wi t h a b oo s te r do se of r i t on a vi r . e . I nd in a v i r ( C ri xi v a n ) ( 1 ) Me c h a ni s m o f a c ti on . S e e VI I . C .5 . ( 2 ) S pe c tr um o f ac t i v i t y a n d t h e ra pe u ti c u s e s. I nd i na v i r , i n c om b in a ti on wi t h r i t on a vi r , i s n o l on ge r r ec om m e n de d a s p a rt o f r eg i m e n f o r p a ti e nt s r e c ei vi ng in i ti a l t r ea tm e nt f o r HI V du e t o a hi g h i nc i de nc e o f n e ph r ol i th i as is . ( 3 ) P r ec au t io ns an d m oni t o ri n g e f fe c t s ( a ) B ec au s e in d in a v i r m ay c a us e n e ph r ol i th ia s i s (k i dn e y s t o ne s ) , pa t ie n ts s h ou l d b e i ns t ru c t e d t o dr i n k a t l ea s t 1 .5 L o f wa te r d ai l y to p re ve n t t hi s a d ve r s e ef f ec t . ( b ) I nd in a v i r c an c a us e in d i re c t h yp e rb il i ru b in em ia . C om bi n at i on th e r ap y wi t h a t a z a na v i r i s n o t r ec om m e n de d o wi n g to t he p o te n ti a l f o r a dd i ti v e e f f ec ts . ( c ) O t he r ad v e r s e ef f ec ts i nc l ud e h yp e rg l yc em i a , h y p e r li p id em ia , fa t m a ld is t ri b ut i on , h e ad ac he , an d G I i n to le r a nc e. ( d ) D os e a d ju s t m e n t i s re q ui r e d f o r h ep a ti c i ns uff i c i e nc y. ( 4 ) S ig n if ic a nt in t e ra c t i on s (s ee V I I. C . 5 ). V i ta m i n C i n d os es > 1 g d ai l y d e c re as es in di n a v i r c o n c e n t r at i on s. C au t io n p a ti en t s n o t t o e xc e e d t h e r e c om m e nd e d d ai l y al lowa n c e f or vi t am in C . f . L op in a v i r / ri t on a v i r ( K ale t r a ) ( 1 ) Me c h a ni s m o f a c ti on . S e e VI I . C .5 .
( 2 ) S pe c tr um o f ac t i v i t y a n d t h e ra pe u ti c u s e s. Th i s p r o du ct is a v a i la b le as a c o - fo r m u la t io n o f lo pi n a vi r wi t h a “ b oo st e r ” d os e o f r it o na vi r , wh ic h i n hi bi ts l o pi n a vi r m e t ab o li s m a n d r e s u l ts i n h i gh e r s e ru m c o nc en t r at i on s. L o pi n a v i r/ r i to n a v ir is a pr e f e r re d PI us ed in in i ti a l P I - b as ed r eg im en s o wi n g t o it s p o te nc y a nd c o n v en i en t do si n g. ( 3 ) P r ec au t io ns an d m oni t o ri n g e f fe c t s ( a ) Lo p in a v i r /r i to n a v i r wa s re c e n tl y r e fo r m u l at e d a s a f il m - c o a te d ta bl e t t ha t d o es no t re q ui r e r e f ri g era t i on . I t is a ls o a va i la bl e a s a n o r al s o lu t io n c o nt a in in g 42 % a lc oh o l. ( b ) A d ve rs e e f fe c t s i nc lud e G I i n to l er a nc e , h y p e rli p id em i a, h y pe r g l yc em i a, f a t m a ld is t ri b ut i on , a n d pa n c re a ti t is . ( 4 ) S ig n if ic a nt in t e ra c t i on s . Se e V I I . C .5 . ( a ) Lo p in a v i r /r i to n a v i r d ec r e as es m e th ad o ne c o nce n t r at i on s , po s s ib l y n e ce ss it a ti n g a m e th a don e do s e in c re as e t o p r e ve n t o p ia t e wi t h d r a wa l . ( b ) C o nc om it a nt ad m i n is t r a t io n wi t h v o r ic o na z o l e i s c on t ra i nd ic a te d b e ca us e o f th e ri s k o f dec r e as ed v o r ic on a zol e ef fi c ac y . ( c ) D os in g v a ri es du e t o d r u g i n te r ac ti o ns wi t h c on c om it a nt us e o f e f a vi r en z , ne v i r a pi ne , fos am p r en a vi r , o r n el f in a v ir . B e s u re to c h ec k a p p ro p r ia t e r e fe r en c e s fo r p ro p e r d os in g . g . N el f in a v i r ( Vi r ac ep t ) ( 1 ) Me c h a ni s m o f a c ti on . S e e VI I . C .5 . ( 2 ) S pe c tr um o f ac t i v i t y a n d t h e ra pe u ti c u s e s. Ne l f in a v i r is a p os s i b le c om p on e nt o f a n al t e rn a ti v e P I - ba s e d re gi m e n fo r i n it i al t re a tm en t o f a d ul ts wi t h H I V i nf ec t io n . U n li k e t he o th e r P I s , it is ne v e r us e d i n c o m b i na t io n wi t h r i t on a vi r . I t i s n o t g en e ral l y r ec om m e n de d d u e t o i n f er i o r vi r ol o gi c e f fi ca c y. ( 3 ) P r ec au t io ns an d m oni t o ri n g e f fe c t s ( a ) D ia r r h ea i s c om m o nly r e p o r te d wi t h n el f in a v i r. Th i s c an of t en be m a na g ed wi t h a n ti d ia r r he a ls . ( b ) O t he r ad v e r s e e ff ec ts a re s im i la r to th o s e wi th l op in a v i r / ri t on a v i r . ( c ) Us e c a ut i on wi t h l o ok - a l ik e, s o u nd - al ik e n am es ( ne l fi n a vir an d n e vi r ap i ne ) . ( 4 ) S ig n if ic a nt in t e ra c t i on s (s ee V I I. C . 5 .) N e lf in av i r d ec r ea s es m e th ad o ne c o nc en t r at i on s , ne c e s s i ta t i ng in c re as ed m o ni t o rin g an d d os e a d ju s t m e n t i f i n di ca t ed . h . R i to na v i r ( N o r v i r) ( 1 ) Me c h a ni s m o f a c ti on . S e e VI I . C .5 . P.974
( 2 ) S pe c tr um o f ac t i v i t y a n d t h e ra pe u ti c u s e s. R it o n a v i r is r ar e l y u s ed as t h e s ol e PI in a PI - ba s ed r e gi m en o wi ng t o i ts poo r t ol e ra b il i t y a n d h ig h pi l l b u r de n wh e n a dm in is t e re d in fu l l d os es . A l te r n ati ve l y, it is us ed in lo w d o se s a s a p h ar m ac ok ine t ic bo os t in g a g en t wi t h o t h e r P Is . B ec au se it is s uc h a p ot e nt c y t o c h r om e 4 50 en z ym e in hi b it o r , ri t o na v i r m a rk ed l y
i n c re as es th e s e ru m c onc e nt r a ti o ns o f ot h er P Is , r e s ul ti n g i n h ig h er c o nc en t r at i on s wi t h im p ro v e d v i r al s u pp r es s i on . ( 3 ) P r ec au t io ns an d m oni t o ri n g e f fe c t s ( a ) C a ps ul es s h ou ld b e re f r ig e r at e d b ef o r e d is pen s i n g . C a ps ul es t he n m ay b e s t o re d a t ro om t em per a t u re f or up t o 3 0 d a ys . ( b ) O r a l s o l ut i on s h ou ld n o t b e re f r ig e ra t ed . ( c ) A d ver s e e ff ec t s i nc lud e G I i n to l er a nc e , c i r c um o r al pa r es th e si as , h y p e r li p id em ia , h y pe r gl y c em i a, f at m a ld is t r ib u ti on , in c re as e d l i v er f un c t i on t e s ts , a nd t as te pe r v e r s io n . ( 4 ) S ig n if ic a nt in t e ra c t i on s (s ee V I I. C . 5 ). Ma n y d r u g i n t er ac t io ns oc c u r wi t h r i t on a vi r b ec a us e i t i s s uc h a po t en t in hi b it o r o f s o m a n y c yto c hr om e P4 50 i s oe n z ym es . Al wa y s r e fer t o p r o pe r re s o u rc es t o a s s e s s f o r d r u g i n t er a ct i on s . i . S aq u in a v i r ( I n v i ra s e ) ( 1 ) Me c h a ni s m o f a c ti on . S e e VI I . C .5 . ( 2 ) S pe c tr um o f ac t i v i t y a n d t h e ra pe u ti c u s e s. U se o f s aq ui n a v i r wi t h o ut b o os t e r d os es o f ri t on a v ir i s n ot r ec om m e nd e d b ec a us e o f t h e p oo r b i oa va i la b il it y o f s aq u in av i r . ( 3 ) P r ec au t io ns an d m oni t o ri n g e f fe c t s ( a ) S aq u in a v i r i s a v a il ab le as a h a rd ge l c ap su l e a n d t a bl e t ( I n v i ra se ) an d wa s p r e v i ou s l y a v a il a bl e a s a s o f t g el c a ps ul e ( Fo r t o v as e ) . Th e v a r io us d o sa g e f o rm s a re no t bi oe q ui v a l en t an d c an no t be us e d i nt e rc h an g ea bl y. ( b ) Th e s o ft g el c a ps ul e f o r m u l at io n i s n o l on g e r m a nu f ac tu r e d ( e ff ec t i v e F e b r ua r y 20 0 6 ). ( c ) A d ver s e e ff ec t s a r e s i m il a r t o l op i na v i r / ri t on a vi r . ( 4 ) S ig n if ic a nt in t e ra c t i on s . Se e V I I . C .5 . j . Ti p r an a v i r ( A p ti v u s ) ( 1 ) Me c h a ni s m o f a c ti on . S e e VI I . C .5 . ( 2 ) S pe c tr um o f ac t i v i t y a n d t h e ra pe u ti c u s e s. Th e us e o f ti p ra n a vi r is l i m i t ed to hi g hl y t r ea tm en t - e xp e r i en c e d p a ti e nt s wi t h H I V wh o a r e r es is t an t t o o th e r P I s as we l l a s t o o t he r c l as s e s o f a nt i r et ro v i r a ls . ( 3 ) P r ec au t io ns an d m oni t o ri n g e f fe c t s . ( a ) O wi n g t o t he po o r b ioa v a i la b il i t y o f ti p ra n a v i r, i t m u st be c o a d m i ni s te r ed wi t h ri t on av i r . ( b ) C a ps ul es m us t be re fr i g e ra t ed . O nc e d is pe nse d , th e y ar e s t ab l e a t r oo m t e m p e r at u re f o r u p t o 6 0 d a y s . ( c ) Ti p ra n a v i r h as b e en a s s o c i at e d wi t h cl i ni c a l h e p at i ti s a nd fa t al he p at ic d e co m p e ns at i on ( bl ac k bo x wa r n i n g ) . L i ver f un ct io n te s ts s ho u ld be m o ni t o re d c lo s e l y , e s p ec i a ll y i n p a ti en t s wi t h un de r l yi ng li v e r di s e as e . ( d ) R a re l y , th e re ha v e be e n re po r t s o f f a ta l a nd n o n fa t al in t r ac ra n ia l h e m o r r ha g e wi t h t ip r an av i r ( b la ck bo x wa r n i n g) . ( e ) B ec au s e t he s t r uc t ure o f t ip r a na vi r c o nt a in s a s ul f on am i de m o ie t y , c r os s - re ac t i v it y m a y o c c u r in s u l fa - al l er g ic pa ti en t s . ( f ) O t h er ad v e r s e e ff ec t s i nc l ud e ra s h , h y p e rl i pi de m ia , h yp e r gl y c em ia , a nd f a t m a ld is t ri b ut i on .
( 4 ) S ig n if ic a nt in t e ra c t i on s (s ee V I I. C . 5 ). Lo p e ram i de m a y de c re as e t i p ra n a v i r c o n c e n tr a ti o ns . 6 . F us io n i nh i bi t or s . E n fu v i r t id e ( T- 2 0; F u zeo n ) is t he fi r s t an d o n l y m em b e r o f t hi s c l as s o f a n ti r e tr o vi r a ls . +
a . Me c h an is m o f a c ti on . E n f u v i r ti de in h ib i ts th e en t r y o f HI V in t o C D 4 c e ll s b y i n te r f e ri ng wi t h th e fus i on of v i r al an d c el l ul a r m em b r an es . b . S pe c tr um o f ac t i v it y an d th e r ap eu t ic us es . En fu v i r t id e i s p r im a ri l y us ed i n h i gh l y t r ea tm e nt - e xp e r i en c ed pa t ie n ts wi t h e xt e n s i v e v i ra l re s i s t a nc e. I t is n o t re co m m en d ed fo r us e as in i ti a l t he r ap y i n t r ea t m e n t -n a i v e p at i en ts , as i t h a s n ot be e n s tu d ie d i n th i s p op ul a ti o n. c . P re ca u ti o ns a n d m on i to r i ng e ff ec ts ( 1 ) E n fu v i r ti d e is in j ec ted s u bc u t an eo us l y t wi c e d a il y . L oc al in je c ti on si t e r e a ct i on s oc c u r in al m o s t a ll pa t ie n ts , i nc lu d in g pa i n , r e dn es s, p ru r i tu s , an d n o d ul es . P.975
( 2 ) O t he r ad v e r s e e ff ec ts in c l u de h y pe r s e ns i ti v i ty r e a c ti on s a nd in c re as ed r a t e o f b ac t e ri a l p ne um on i a . ( 3 ) N o d os e a d ju s t m e n t is ne c e ss a r y fo r r en al im p a i rm en t . d . S ig n if ic a nt in t e ra c t i ons . Th e re a re no s i gn i fi can t d ru g i n te r ac t io ns wi t h e n f u vi rt i de . 7 . E nt r y i nh i bi t or . Ma r a v i r o c ( Se l z en t r y) is th e f i rst a nd on l y m e m b e r o f t h is c l as s o f a nt i re t r o v i ra l t he r a p y . a . Me c h an is m o f a c ti on . Ma r a v i r o c is a ch em o k i ne r ec e pt o r 5 ( C C R 5 ) c o r ec ep t o r a nt a go ni s t. I t b i nd s t o t h e C C R 5 re c ep t o r o n t h e C D 4 c e ll m em b r an e , p r e v en t in g en t r y o f t h e v i r us in t o t he c e ll . b . S pe c tr um o f ac t i v it y an d th e r ap eu t ic us es . Ma r a v i r o c is us ed al o ng wi t h o t h e r a nt i re t r o v i ra ls on l y i n h i gh l y t re a tm en t - e xp e r i e nc ed ad u lt pa t ie n ts wh o a r e i n f ec te d wi t h HI V th at b in ds t o t he C C R 5 re c ep t o r . c . P re ca u ti o ns a n d m on i to r i ng e ff ec ts . ( 1 ) H e pa t ot o xi c i t y wa s ob s e r v ed du r in g c li n ic al t ri a ls wi t h m a ra vi r oc ( bl ac k b o x wa r n i n g) . Th is m a y b e p re c e de d b y a s y s t em i c a l le r gi c r e ac ti o n. P a t i en ts s h ou l d b e e v a lua t e d im m e d ia t el y i f e it h er o cc u rs . ( 2 ) U s e c a u ti on in pa t ie nt s wi t h l i ve r d is ea s e o r c a r d io v a sc ul a r ri sk fa c t o rs . ( 3 ) A d ve rs e e f fe c t s i nc lud e c o ug h , r as h , f e v e r , m u s c u lo sk el e ta l s ym pt om s , d i zzi n es s , a nd ab do m i n al p ai n . ( 4 ) N o t r ec om m e n de d f o r u s e in pa t ie n ts wi t h re na l in su f fi c i e nc y un l es s no a l t er n a ti v e op t io n i s a v a il a bl e . d . S ig n if ic a nt in t e ra c t i ons . ( 1 ) D os i ng fo r m a r a v ir oc v a r i e s d ep en d in g u p on c o n c o m i t an t m ed ic a ti o ns t h a t i nt e r ac t : ( a ) W hen u s e d wi t h c y t oc h r om e P 4 50 in hi b it o rs , s uc h a s PI s ( e xc e p t t i p ra n a v i r/ r i to n a v ir ) , d e lav i r d i ne , k e to co n a z ol e , i t ra c on a z o le , a n d c l a ri th r om y c in , ad m i ni s ter m a ra v i r oc 15 0 m g t wi ce d ai l y .
( b ) W hen u s e d wi t h c y t oc h r om e P 4 50 in du c e r s ( s u c h as c a r ba m a z e p in e , p h e no ba r b it al , ph e n y to i n, e f a v ir e n z , a n d r i fa m p in) wi t h o u t a s t r on g c yt o ch r om e P4 50 in h ib i to r , ad m i ni s te r m a r a vir oc 6 0 0 m g t wi c e d a il y . ( c ) W he n us e d wi t h o th er m ed ic a ti o ns , i nc lu d in g t i p ra n a vi r/ r i to n a v ir , n e vi r ap i ne , N R TI s , a nd en f u v i r ti d e, ad m i ni s te r m ar a vi r oc 30 0 m g t wi c e d a il y . ( 2 ) C o nc om it a nt ad m i n is t r a t io n wi t h S t . J oh n ' s wo r t is n o t r e co m m en de d d u e t o re d uc ti o n i n m a r av i r o c s e ru m co n c e n tr a ti on s . 8 . I nt e gr as e i n hi b it o r . R al t e gr a v i r (I s e n t re ss ) i s t he f i rs t a nd on l y m e m b e r o f t h is cl as s o f a n ti r et r o v i ral t he r a p y . a . Me c h an is m o f a c ti on . R a l t eg r a v i r i nh i bi ts th e vi r a l e n z y m e i nt e gr a s e , t h e r eb y p r e v en t in g t h e in s e rt i on of H I V g e ne ti c m a te r i al i n to t he C D 4 c ell g e n om e a nd ha l ti ng t he v i r a l re p li c a t io n p r oc es s. b . S pe c tr um o f ac t i v it y an d th e r ap eu t ic us es . Ra lt e g r a v ir is us ed al on g wi t h o t h e r a nt i re t r o v i ra ls on l y i n t r e at m e n t -e xp e r i e nc ed a du l t p at i en ts wh o d e m o ns t r at e re s i s t a nt s t ra i ns of H I V . c . P re ca u ti o ns a n d m on i to r i ng e ff ec ts . ( 1 ) S in c e el e v a ti o ns i n c r e a ti n e k in as e , a lo ng wi t h m y op a th y a n d r h a bd om y o l y s is , m a y o c c u r wi t h r a lt e g ra v i r , u se wi t h c au t io n i n p a ti e nt s wh o a r e r ec ei v i ng c o nc om i ta n t m ed ic a ti on s t h at m a y ca us e t h es e a d ve rs e e f f ec ts . ( 2 ) Th e m os t c om m o n a dv e r s e e f f ec ts i n c l ud e n au s ea , d i a rr h ea , h e ad ac he , a n d f e ve r . d . S ig n if ic a nt in t e ra c t i ons . R if am p in de c re as es the s e r um c o nc en t r a ti on o f r a l te g r a v i r a nd s h ou ld be u s e d wi t h c au t io n .
VIII. Anthelmintics A . D e f in it i on . Th es e d r ugs a re us ed t o r id t he bo dy o f wo r m s ( h el m i n th s ). Th e s e a g en t s m a y a c t loc a ll y t o r i d t he G I t ra c t of wo r m s o r wo r k s ys t em ic al l y to e ra d ic at e wo r m s th a t a r e i n v ad in g o r g an s o r t is su es . B . Me b e n d a z ol e ( Ve rm o x) i s a s yn t he t ic b e n z im ida z o l e -d e r i v at i v e a n t he lm in t ic . 1 . Me c h an is m o f a c ti on . Me b e n d a z o le in t e rf e r es wi t h r e p ro d uc t io n a nd s u r vi va l o f h el m i n th s b y in h ib i ti n g t he f or m a t io n of m i c ro t ub u le s a nd i r r e ve rs i bl y b lo c k in g g lu c o s e u pt a k e , t h e re b y de ple t i ng gl yc og e n s t o r es i n t h e h e lm in t h. 2 . S pe c tr um o f ac t i v it y . Me b e n d a z o le is ac ti v e ag a in s t v a r i ou s n em at o des t h a t a r e p at h og e ni c t o hu m an s , in c l u di n g A nc yl os t om a d uo d en a le (c om m o n h o ok wo r m ) , As c a r is l um b r i c o id es P.976 ( r o u nd wo r m ) , Ca p il la r i a p h il i pp in e ns is ( Ph i li pp i ne t h re a d wo r m ) , E nt e ro b iu s ve r m ic u la r is (p i n wo r m ) , N e c a to r a m e r ic a nu s ( A m e r i c a n h oo k wo r m ) , a nd Tr i c h u ri s t r ic hi u r a ( wh i pwo r m ) .
3 . Th e r ap e ut ic us es . Me b e n da z o le is us ed fo r the t r ea tm e nt o f s i n gl e o r m i xe d i nf ec t io ns wi t h th e h e lm in t hs l is t ed in V I II .B . 2 . Im m o bi li z a t io n a n d s u bs eq u en t d e at h o f he lm i nt hs a re s l o w, wi t h com p le t e G I c l ea r a nc e u p to 3 d a ys a f t e r t he r ap y . 4 . P r ec au t io ns an d m on i to r i ng e ff ec ts a . I n ca s e s o f m as s i v e inf e c ti on , ab do m i n al pa in , n a us e a, an d d i ar r h ea a ss o ci at e d wi t h e xp u l s i on o f o r ga n ism s m a y re s ul t . b . My e l o s up p r es s i on ( neu t r o pe ni a a n d t h ro m b oc y t o p en ia ) ca n o cc u r wi t h h i gh do s es (4 0 -5 0 m g /k g/ d a y ) . c . If t he pa t ie n t is no t c ur e d i n 3 we e ks , re t r ea t m e n t i s n ec es sa r y . 5 . S ig n if ic a nt in t e ra c t i ons . A ge n ts t h at m a y r e du ce t he se r um c o nc en t r at i on s a nd s u bs e q u en t e f fi ca c y of m e ben d a z o le i n c l ud e c a r ba m a z e p in e a nd ph e ny t o i n . C . A l be n da z o l e ( A lb e n z a) i s a s yn t he t ic b e n z im ida z o l e -d e r i v at i v e a n t he lm in t ic . 1 . Me c h an is m o f a c ti on . S e e V II I . B .1 . 2 . S pe c tr um o f ac t i v it y . A l b en d a zol e i s a c t i ve a ga i ns t Ta en i a so l iu m ( p ork t a p e wo r m ) a nd Ec h in oc oc c u s g r an u lo s u s ( d og tap e wo r m ) . 3 . Th e r ap e ut ic us es . Al be n d a z ol e i s us e d t o t r ea t p a r en c h y m al n e u ro c y s t ic e rc os is in c om b in a ti on wi t h c o r ti co s ter o i ds as we l l as c ys t ic h yd a t id di s e as e (b e fo r e a n d a f te r s u r gi c a l re m o v a l of th e di se as e ). 4 . P r ec au t io ns an d m on i to r i ng e ff ec ts a . Th e dr u g s h o ul d b e ad m in is t e re d wi t h a f a t t y m e al to ac hi e ve o p ti m a l a b so r p ti on . b . H ep a t ot o xi c i t y o c c u rs i n 16 % o f p a ti e nt s ; li v e r f u nc t io n te st s e v e r y 2 we e k s ar e re c o m m en d ed wh i l e ta k i n g a lb e nd a z ole . c . R a re l y , l e uk op en i a, t hr o m bo c yto p en i a, g ra nu l oc y t o pe n ia , p a nc y t o pe ni a , a n d a g ra n ul oc y t o s i s oc c u r . A C B C s ho u ld be c h ec k e d e ve r y 2 we e ks wh i le t a ki n g a lb e nd a z ol e . D . D i e th y l c a r ba m a z in e c it r a t e ( H e t ra z a n ) 1 . Me c h an is m o f a c ti on . D i e t h y lc a rb am a zi ne c i t rat e is a s yn th e ti c o rg a ni c c om p ou n d h ig hl y s pe c i f ic f or s e ve r al c o m m on par a s it es . 2 . S pe c tr um o f ac t i v it y . Th i s ag e nt is ac ti ve ag a in s t W uc h er e r ia ba nc r o ft i, O n c h oc e rc a v o l v u lu s , B ru g ia m a la yi , Ma n s on e ll a p e r s t a ns , Ma n s o n el la o zza r d i , As c a r is l um b r ic o i de s , a nd Lo a l o a. 3 . Th e r ap e ut ic us es . Di et h y l c a r b am a z in e c it r a te is us ed f o r t he t re a tm en t o f B a n c ro f t 's fi l a ri as is , o nc h o c e r c i as is , a sc a ri as is , a n d l oi as is . I t is a v ai l ab le d i r ec tl y f r om th e m a nu f ac t u re r fo r c om p as s i on a te u s e on l y. 4 . P r ec au t io ns an d m on i to r i ng e ff ec ts a . P at i en ts t r ea t ed fo r W . b an c ro f ti in f ec t io n o f ten p r es en t wi t h h ea d ac he a n d g e ne r al m a la is e . S ev e r e a ll e rg ic ph e no m e na i n c on j un c t i on wi t h a sk in r a s h h a v e b ee n re po r t ed. b . P at i en ts t r ea t ed fo r on c ho c e r ci as is p re s e n t wi t h p ru r i tu s , fa ci a l e de m a, a n d s ys te m i c s y m p t om s s ec o nd a r y to t he in f la m m a to r y r es p on se c a us e d b y p a t ho g en de a th (k n o wn a s a Ma z z o t t i r e ac ti o n ). S e ve r e re ac t io n s m a y b e
n o t ed af t e r a s in g le do s e. F o r t hi s re as o n, i ve rm ec t in is us ed to t re a t o n ch oc e rc i as is . c . C hi ld r e n wh o a r e u nde r n ou r is h ed or a re su f fe ri n g f r om de b il it a ti n g a sc a r ia s i s i nf ec t io n m a y e xp e r i e nc e g i dd i ne s s , m a l a i s e , na us e a, an d vo m i ti n g a f te r tr e at m en t . O t h e r d r ug s a r e a v a il a ble t o t r ea t As ca r is ( m e be nd a z o le an d a l be nd a z o l e) . E . P yr a n te l ( Pi n - Ri d ) i s a p y r im i di ne - d er i v a ti ve an t h el m i n ti c. 1 . Me c h an is m o f a c ti on . P y r a n t el is a d ep ol a r i zing n eu r om us c u l ar bl oc k i ng a g e nt th a t c au s e s a s p as t ic pa r al ys is of th e h e lm i nt h . 2 . S pe c tr um o f ac t i v it y . P y r a n t el is ac ti v e ag a in s t A . lu m b r ic oi d es ( r o u nd wo r m ) , E. v e r m i c ul a r is (p i n wo r m ), A . d uo de n al e (h o ok wo r m ) , N . a m e ri ca nu s (h oo k wo r m ), a n d Tr i c ho st r o ng y l us o rie n t a l is ( ha i r wo r m ). 3 . Th e r ap e ut ic us es . P y ra n t el is u s e d fo r th e t r e at m en t of r ou nd wo r m , p i n wo r m , a nd ho ok wo r m i n f ec ti o ns . P.977
4 . P r ec au t io ns an d m on i to r i ng e ff ec ts a . Mo s t c o m m on l y re p o rte d r ea ct i on s i nc lu de an or e xi a , n a us ea , v om i ti ng , d i a r rh e a, he a da c h e , a nd r a s h . b . A s in g le do s e m a y b e m i xe d wi t h f oo d , m i lk , j u ic e , o r ta k e n o n a n e m p t y s t om ac h . F . Th i ab e nd a z o le ( Mi n t ez o l ) , a p y r a zi no is o qu in o li n e d e ri va t i ve , is a s yn t he t ic he t e ro c yc l ic a nt h e lm in t ic . 1 . Me c h an is m o f a c ti on is no t k n o wn p re c i s e l y . Th i ab e nd a zo le is s ho wn t o i n hi b it t he he lm in t h -s pe c i f ic en z ym e , f u m a r at e red u ct as e . Th ia be n da z o l e a l s o de m o ns t r at es an t i -in f l am m a to r y , a nt ip y r e t ic , a n d a na l ge s i c e ff e c t s . 2 . S pe c tr um o f ac t i v it y . It i s ac t i v e a ga i ns t m os t in t es t in a l n em at o de s, i n cl ud i ng A nc y l os t om a br a z i l ie ns e (d o g a nd c a t ho o k wo r m ), A . d uo d en a le ( h o ok wo r m ) , A. lu m b r ic oid e s ( r ou n d wo r m ), E . v e rm ic u la r is (p i n wo r m ), N . a m e ri ca nu s (h oo k wo r m ), S t r o ng yl oi d es s t e rc o ra lis ( th r e ad wo r m ) , T. t r i c h iu r a ( wh i p wo r m ), T. s p i ra li s , a nd To xo c a r a c a n is an d To xo c a r a c a t i ( d o g a nd c a t ro u nd wo r m s ) . 3 . Th e r ap e ut ic us es . Th ia b e nd a zol e i s u s e d f o r th e t re a tm en t o f s t r on g yl oi di as is ( th r e ad wo r m i n fe c t i on ) , c u ta ne o us la r va m i g ra ns (c r e ep ing e r u p ti on ) , a n d v i s c e ra l l ar v a m ig r an s . I t i s us e d f or t h e t r ea tm e n t o f u n ci n ar i as is (h o ok wo r m ), N . am e ri c a n us , A . du ode n al e , t r ic h ur i as is ( wh i p wo r m ) , an d as c a ri as is ( la r ge r ou n d wo r m ) wh e n m o re s p ec if ic t he r apy i s u n a vai la b le o r f u rt h e r t r e a tm en t i s r e qu i re d wi th a s ec o nd ag en t . 4 . P r ec au t io ns an d m on i to r i ng e ff ec ts a . A d ve rs e e f fe c t s o f t h ia b e nd a zol e a r e u s u a ll y m i ld an d t r a ns ie n t, o cc u r ri n g 3 - 4 h r a f te r the d r ug ha s b ee n a dm i ni st e r e d a nd la s t i ng fo r 2 -8 h r . b . Mo s t c o m m on re a c t i on s i nc l ud e a n or e xi a , na us e a, v o m i t in g , a nd d i zzi n es s .
c . G id d in es s , s e i z u re s , v e r t ig o , p a re s th es ia s , a nd p s y c h ic di st u r ba nc es m a y a l so occ u r , b u t l es s f re qu e n tl y . d . I f h y p e rs en s i t i v it y d e ve l op s , t he d ru g s ho u ld be d isc o nt i nu e d. E r yt he m a m u lt i fo r m e (i n c l ud i ng S tev e n s -J o hn s o n s yn d ro m e ) h as be e n r e po r t ed . 5 . S ig n if ic a nt in t e ra c t i ons . S er um xa n t h in e l e v e ls ( t h eo p h y ll in e a n d c a f fe in e ) m a y i n c r e as e. G . I ve r m ec ti n (S t r om ec to l ) 1 . Me c h an is m o f a c ti on . I v e r m ec ti n po t en ti a t es t he i nh ib i to r y e f fe c t s o f γ a m in o bu t y r ic ac id ( G A B A) i n v a ri ou s n em a to d es an d a rt h ro p od s , r es ul t in g i n p a r al ys is an d d e at h o f the o r ga ni s m s . 2 . S pe c tr um o f ac t i v it y . Th i s ag e nt is ac ti ve ag a in s t S. s t e rc o ra li s (i nt e st in a l f o r m s o n l y ) a n d O . v o l v ul u s ( im m a t u re fo r m s o n l y) . I t i s a ls o u se f ul fo r t r e a tm en t o f in f ec ti o ns wi t h A. lu m b r ic o id es , E. v e r m ic ul a ri s, M. o z za r d i , T. t r i c h iu r a , a nd W . b an c ro ft i . 3 . Th e r ap e ut ic us es a . I ve rm ec t in is u s e f ul f or t r e at m e n t o f i n fe ct i on s wi t h t h e p a ra s i t es li s t e d i n V I I I . G . 2. b . Two s t u di es de m o n s t ra t e d t ha t i v er m e c ti n wa s m o re ef f ec t i v e t ha n a l be n da z o l e f o r t r ea tm e nt o f s t ro n g y lo id i as is . c . I ve rm ec ti n i s o f te n f a v o r e d o ve r di et h y l c a r ba m a z i n e c it r a te o wi n g t o i ts l e ss s e v e re ad v e r s e e ff ec t pr o fi l e. 4 . P r ec au t io ns an d m on i to r i ng e ff ec ts , a . Ma y c a us e a Ma z z o t t i r e a c t i on (s e e V I II . D . 4. b ) t h a t i s le ss se v e r e t ha n wi t h d i et h y lc a r ba m a z i n e c i t ra t e. b . R ep o r ts of s e r io us and p os s i bl y f a ta l e nc e ph alo p a th y h a ve o cc u rr e d i n p a t ie n ts wi t h c on c o m i t ant L . l oa in f ec t io n c . O t he r a d v e rs e ef f ec ts i n c l ud e e d em a , d i z zi ne s s , he ad a c h e , r as h , a nd G I d i st u r ba nc es . d . C ou n s e l p a ti en t s t o t ak e i v e r m e c ti n wi t h wa t e r . H . P r a zi qu a nt e l ( B il t r ic ide ) 1 . Me c h an is m o f a c ti on . P r a z i q ua n te l i nc r e as es c e l l m em b ra ne pe r m e a bi lit y i n s us ce p ti b le he lm i nt hs , wi t h l os s o f i nt r ac e ll ul a r c al c i um an d p a r al y s is o f t h e ir m u s c ul a tu r e . V ac u ol i z a t io n a nd di s i n te g r at i on o f t h e s c hi s to s o m e t e g um en t re s u l t, f ol lo we d b y a tt ac hm e nt o f p ha go c yt es to t he pa r as it e and d e a th . P.978
2 . S pe c tr um o f ac t i v it y . P r a z i q ua n te l i s a c t i v e a ga i ns t tr em a to d es ( fl uk es ), i n cl ud i ng al l Sc hi s t os om a s p p . a nd C l on o rc hi s s in e n s is , O pi s t h o rc hi s vi ve r r i n i, F as c i ol a h ep a tic a (l i v e r f l uk es ) , P a r ag on i m u s u te r o bi la t e ra li s , P a r a go n im us we s te r m a ni ( l un g fl uk es ) , Me t a go n im us y o k o g a wa i , F a sc io l op s i s b us k i , a n d H e t e r op h yes he t e ro p h y es ( in t es ti n al fl uk es ) . 3 . Th e r ap e ut ic us es . P raz i q u a nt el is ac ti v e in t rea t i ng al l t yp es o f s ch is t os om i as is t h at a re p a t ho g en ic to hu m a ns ; c l o no r c h i as is a n d
o p is t ho r c h ia s i s ( Ch in es e a n d s o u th e as t As ia n l i ve r f lu k e s ); m a n y ot h e r t yp e s o f i n fe c ti on s i n v ol v i n g i n te s t i na l , li v e r , an d lu n g f l uk es ; a nd c es t od i as is ( ta pe wo r m ) in f ec t io ns . 4 . P r ec au t io ns an d m on i to r i ng e ff ec ts a . Tr e a tm en t of oc ul a r c y s t i c e r c o si s is co n tr a in dic a te d b e c a us e p a ra s i t e d e st r uc t io n wi t hi n th e e y e s m a y c a us e i r r ep a ra b le l es io ns . b . I n g en e ra l , a d v e rs e e ff e c ts a r e g e ne r al l y m i ld a n d we l l t ol e ra t ed . It is d i f fi cu l t t o d i ff e re n ti a te be t we e n e ff ec ts ca us e d by t h e pr a zi qu a nt e l v e r sus e f f ec ts de m o ns t r a te d b y d y i n g p a ra si t es . c . Th e m os t c om m o n s ide e f fe c t s a r e t r an s i e nt an d m a y in c l u de m a la is e , h e a da c h e , d i z z i ne s s , a nd a bd om i na l d is co m f o r t. d . P r a ziq u an t el m a y im pa i r a c ti vi t ie s t ha t re q ui r e m en t al al e r tn es s . P.979
STUDY QUESTIONS D i r e ct i on s f o r q ue s t i on s 1 - 1 2 : E ac h o f th e q ue s tio n s , s t a te m e n ts , o r i n co m p l et e s ta t em e nt s i n t h is s ec t io n c an be c o r re c tl y a ns we r e d or c om p le t ed b y on e o f t h e s u gg es t ed an s we r s o r phr a s es . Ch oo s e t he be s t a n s we r . 1 . I so n ia z id is a p r i ma r y a n t i t u b e r c u la r ag e n t th a t ( A ) r e qu i re s p y r i do xi n e s u p pl e m e n ta ti o n . ( B ) m a y d is c o l or t he te a rs , s a li va , u r in e , o r fe c e s o r a ng e re d . ( C ) c au s e s o c u la r c o m p lic a ti o ns th a t a r e r e v e rs ib le i f t he d ru g i s d i s c on t in u ed . ( D ) m a y b e o t o to xi c a nd n e p hr o to xi c . ( E ) s ho ul d n e v e r b e u s ed b ec au se o f h ep a to t o xi c po t en t ia l . V i e w A n s we r 1 . T h e a ns we r is A [ se e V . B . 2. d . (5 ) ] .2 . Al l o f t he f o l l ow i ng f ac t o r s m a y i n c r e as e th e r is k o f ne ph r o t o x ic i t y f r o m g e n t am i ci n th e r a p y e x c e p t w h ic h on e ? ( A ) a ge > 7 0 y ea r s ( B ) p r ol on g ed c o u rs es of g e nt am ic i n t he r a p y ( C ) c on c u r r en t am ph o te ri c in B t h e ra p y ( D ) t r o ug h g en t am ic in leve l s < 2 m g/ m L ( E ) c on c u r r en t c is pl a ti n th e r ap y V i e w A n s we r 2 . T h e a ns we r is D [ se e II . B . 4. b ] .m gm L 3 . In w h ic h o f t h e f ol l ow i ng g r ou p s do a l l f o u r d r u g s w a r r a nt c a r e fu l m o n i to r i n g f o r d r u g - r e la t e d s ei z u re s in h i gh - r i sk p at i e nt s ? ( A ) p en ic i ll in G , i m i p en em , am ph o te r ic in B , m et ro n i d a z o le ( B ) p en ic i ll in G , c hl o r am p h e ni c o l, t et r ac y c li n e, va n c o m yc i n ( C ) i m i pe n em , t e t ra c y c l in e , v an c om y ci n , s ul fa d iazi n e ( D ) c y c l o s e r in e , m e t r on id a z o l e, v a nc om y c in , s ul fa d i a z i n e ( E ) m et r on i da z o l e, im ip en e m , do xyc yc l i n e , e r y t h ro m y ci n
V i e w A n s we r 3 . T h e a ns we r is A [ se e I I . E. 1 . e. ( 2 ) ; I I . J .5 . d .( 2 ) ;I I I . B .4 . b] . 4 . AC i s a 3 4 - ye a r - o l d m ale a dm i t t ed w i t h a d i a g no s is o f p e r i to n i ti s. C u l t u re s a r e po s i ti ve f o r B a c te r o i de s f ra g i li s, E n t e r o co c cu s fa e ca l is , a n d S ta p h yl o c o c c u s a ur e u s . W h ic h o f t h e f o l l ow i ng w o u ld be t he b e s t i n i t ia l th e r ap y t o r e c o mm e nd ? ( A ) t el i th r om y c in ( B ) q ui n up r is ti n /d a lf o p ri st i n ( C ) t i ge c yc l in e ( D ) t r im e th o pr im / s u l fa m et h o xa z o l e ( E ) k an am y c in V i e w A n s we r 4 . T h e a ns we r is C [ se e II . K . 13 ] .5 . TJ i s a 4 5- ye a r - o l d f e m a le p re s en t i ng w i t h a n E n te r o b ac t e r a e r og en e s b a c te r e mi a w i th a l ow -g r a de f e ve r (1 0 1. 6 °F ) . T he mo s t a p p r op r i a te m an a ge m en t o f h e r f e ve r w ou l d b e to ( A ) g i v e a c e t am in op h en 1 0 0 0 m g o ra ll y e ve r y 6 hr . ( B ) g i v e a s p i ri n 6 5 0 m g o r a ll y e v e r y 4 h r . ( C ) g i v e a l te r na t in g d os es o f as p ir i n a nd ac e ta m in o p he n e v e r y 4 h r . ( D ) wi t h h o ld an t ip y r e ti c s a n d us e th e f e ve r c u r v e t o m o ni t o r h e r r e s po ns e t o a n ti b io t ic the r a p y. ( E ) u s e te p id wa t e r b a ths t o r ed u c e th e f e v e r . V i e w A n s we r 5 . T h e a ns we r is D [ se e I. H . 1 ]. 6 . B C h a s a n up p e r r e s p i r at o r y i n f e c t i on . Tw o ye a r s a g o , s h e e xp er i e n ce d an ep i s od e o f b r o n c ho s pa s m a f te r p en i c i ll i n th e r ap y. C u r r e n t c u l tu r e s a r e p o s it i ve fo r a s t r ai n o f S t r e pt o c oc cu s p ne u mo n ia e th a t i s s e n si t i ve t o a l l o f th e f o l l ow i ng d r ug s . W h ic h o f t he s e d r u gs w o u ld b e t he b es t c h o ic e fo r th i s p a t i en t ? ( A ) a m o xi c i ll i n/ c l a v u la nat e ( B ) t el i th r om y c in ( C ) a m p ic il l in ( D ) c ef ac l o r ( E ) l o ra c a r be f V i e w A n s we r 6 . T h e a ns we r is B [ se e I I . K . 1 2 ]. 7 . A l l o f th e fo l l ow in g d r u g s a r e a p p r op r i a t e th e r a p ie s fo r a l ow e r u r in a r y t r a c t i n f ec t i o n ow in g t o P s eu d om o na s a e r u gi n os a e x ce p t ( A ) n o rf l o xa c in . ( B ) t r im e th op r im - s u l fa m et h o xa zo l e . ( C ) c ip r o fl o xa c in . ( D ) t o b ra m yc i n. ( E ) m et h en am in e m an d ela t e . V i e w A n s we r 7 . T h e a ns we r is B [ s e eI I . E .4 I I . H. 3 .a a n db II . I . 2. a I I. I .3 . a ]. P . ae r u g ino s a .8 . B T i s a 43 ye a r - o l d f e m al e s e en by h e r p r i m a r y- c a r e p h ys i c ia n f o r a m i l d s t a p h yl o c o c c a l c e ll u l it is o n th e a r m . W h ic h of t h e f ol l ow i ng r e gi m en s w o ul d be ap p r o p r ia t e or a l t h e ra p y? ( A ) d ic lo xa c i l li n 1 25 m g e v e r y 6 h r
( B ) v a n c o m yc i n 2 50 m g e v e r y 6 h r ( C ) m et h ic il li n 5 0 0 m g e ve r y 6 h r ( D ) c ef a z o li n 1 g e v e r y 8 h r ( E ) p en ic i ll in V 5 0 0 m g ev e r y 6 h r V i e w A n s we r 8 . T h e a ns we r is A [ se e II . C ] . P. 9 80
9 . R C is a 3 3 - ye a r - o l d m a l e w i t h a h is t o r y o f H I V f o r 10 ye a r s w h o now p r e s en t s w i th M yc o b a c t e r i u m a vi u m -i n t r ac e l lul a r e (M AI ) . W h ic h o f t he f o l l ow i ng d r ug s ha s d em o n s t ra t e d i n vi t r o a c tivi t y a g a i n s t M AI ? ( A ) d ap t om y c in ( B ) c l a r it h r om y c i n ( C ) e r y t h ro m y c i n b as e ( D ) c lo xa c i ll i n ( E ) m i n oc y c li ne V i e w A n s we r 9 . T h e a ns we r is B [ se e I I . D .6 . a -b ] . To x o p la sm a g o n d ii C r yp t o s p o r i d i um1 0 . Al l o f t h e f o l low i n g s t a t em e n ts r e g a r d in g pe n t am i di n e i s e t hi o n at e a r e t r ue exc e p t w hi c h o n e? ( A ) I t i s i nd ic a te d fo r tr ea t m e n t o r p r o ph yl a xi s of i n f ec ti o n o wi n g t o P n e um oc y s ti s c a ri ni i . ( B ) I t m a y be ad m i ni s te re d in t r am us c u la r l y, i n tr ave n o us l y , or b y i n ha l at i on . ( C ) I t ha s n o c l i ni c a ll y s ig n i fi c a n t e f fe c t on s e r um g l uc os e. ( D ) I t i s e f fe c ti v e in th e tr e a tm e nt of le is hm a ni as is . V i e w A n s we r 1 0 . T he an s w e r is C [ se e I V. D ] . P . c a ri n i i .1 1 . R E i s a 2 3 ye a r - o l d m a l e w i t h a h is t o r y o f i n f l u en za A i n fe c t i on s . An o ut b r e ak o f i n f l u en z a A h a s j u s t b ee n r e po r t e d i n h i s c o mm u n i t y, a n d h e is e x h ib i t i ng i ni t i al s ym p t o m s o f t he i n fe c ti o n . Wh i c h a g en t w o ul d be t he m o s t u s e fu l to t r ea t R E? ( A ) c i d o fo v i r ( B ) f am c i c l o v i r ( C ) o s e l ta m i v i r ( D ) f os c a r n et ( E ) r i ba v i r in V i e w A n s we r 1 1 . T he an s w e r is C [ se e V II . B . 9] . 12 . D r . J o ne s r e q u es t s yo u r h e l p i n pr e s c r i bi n g a p r ot e as e in h i b i to r f o r h i s p a t ie n t . H e h as h ea r d th a t n o t al l a ge n t s a r e t h e s am e a n d a s ks f o r yo u r r e c o mm e nd a t io n as t o w h ic h ag e nt w o u ld b e le a s t l i ke l y t o c a u s e th e p a t i en t ' s c h ol e st e r o l t o i n c r ea s e. Wh i c h a ge n t w o ul d yo u r e c o m m e nd ? ( A ) s aq ui n a v i r ( B ) r i to n a v i r ( C ) i nd i na v i r ( D ) n el f in a v i r ( E ) a t a z an a v i r
V i e w A n s we r 1 2 . T he an s w e r is E [ se e V II . C . 5. b . (3 ). ( b ) ] . Di r ec t io ns f or q u es t io ns 13 - 1 4: Th e q ue s ti o ns a n d i nc om pl e te st a t em en t s i n t hi s s ec ti o n c a n b e c or r ec t l y a n s we re d o r c o m p l et e d b y on e o r m o r e o f t h e s ug ge s ted a n s we r s . C h oo s e th e a ns we r , A - E . 1 3 . D r ug s us u al l y a c t i v e a ga i n st p en i ci l l in a se -p r o d u ci n g S t a p h yl o c o c c u s a u r e us i n c lu d e w h i c h o f th e fol l ow i n g? ( I ) p i pe r a ci l l in - t az o ba c ta m ( I I ) am o xi c i ll i n -c l a vu la na t e ( I I I ) na f ci l l in A i f I o nl y is c o r r ec t B i f II I o n l y i s c o rr ec t C i f I a nd I I a r e c o r r ec t D i f II an d II I ar e c o r re c t E i f I, I I, an d I I I a r e c o r re c t V i e w A n s we r 1 3 . T he an s w e r is E ( I, I I, I I I) [ se e II .E . 2 3 an d 4 ]. S . a u r e us 1 4. An t i vi r a l a gen t s t ha t a re ac t i ve ag a in s t c yt o m e g a l o vi r u s ( C M V ) i n c lu d e w h i c h o f th e fol l ow i n g? ( I ) g an c ic l o vi r ( I I ) f os c a rn e t ( I I I ) a c yc l o vi r A i f I o nl y is c o r r ec t B i f II I o n l y i s c o rr ec t C i f I a nd I I a r e c o r r ec t D i f II an d II I ar e c o r re c t E i f I, I I, an d I I I a r e c o r re c t V i e w A n s we r 1 4 . T he an s w e r is C ( I a n d I I ) [s ee V II . B . 1 V I I . B .7 a nd 8 ] . Di r ec t io ns f o r q u es ti o ns 15 - 17 : Eac h d es c ri p ti o n l i st e d i n t hi s s ec ti o n is m o s t c lo se l y ass o ci at e d wit h on e o f th e f o ll o wi n g d r u gs . Th e d r ug s m a y b e u s e d m o re t ha n o nc e o r n o t a t a ll . C ho os e th e b e st an s we r , A - E . 1 5 . It ma y b e a d m in i s ter e d o nc e p e r da y f o r t h e t r e a tm e nt o f u r i n a r y t r a c t in f e ct i o ns . A c lo f a z im in e B i t r ac on a z o le C l om e fl o xa c i n D n e om y c in V i e w A n s we r 1 5 . T he an s w e r is C [ se e I I. H . 3. c ] .1 6 . I t ma y c a u s e pi n k t o b r ow n is h s k i n p i gm en t a t i on w i t h in a f ew w ee k s o f i ni t i at i o n o f t h e r a p y. A c lo f a z im in e B i t r ac on a z o le C l om e fl o xa c i n D n e om y c in
V i e w A n s we r 1 6 . T he an s w e r is A [ se e I I . J. 9 ]. M yc o b a c te r i um 1 7. C o a d m in i s t ra t i o n w i t h a s te m iz o l e o r te r f e na d i ne m a y l e a d t o l i f et h r e a t en i ng ca r d i ac d ys r h yt h m i a s . A c lo f a z im in e B i t r ac on a z o le C l om e fl o xa c i n D n e om y c in V i e w A n s we r 1 7 . T he an s w e r is B [ se e II I . E .5 . d] . P .9 8 1
ANSWERS AND EXPLANATIONS 1 . Th e an s we r is A [ s e e V . B . 2 .d . ( 5 )] . I s on i a zid in c re as es th e exc r e t i o n o f p yr i d o xi n e , w h i c h c a n l ea d t o p e r ip h e ra l n eu r i ti s , pa r t ic u la r l y i n po o rl y n ou r is h e d pa t ie n ts . P y ri d o xi n e (a f o r m o f v it am i n B 6 ) d e fi c ie n c y m a y c a us e c on v u ls io n s as we l l as t h e n e u ri t is , i n v ol v i n g s y n o v ia l te n de r ne s s an d s we l l in g . Tr e at m e n t wi t h t he vi t a m i n c an r e v e rs e t he n e u ri t is an d p r e v en t or c u r e th e s ei z u r es . 2 . Th e an s we r is D [ s e e I I . B . 4. b ]. Tr o u g h s e ru m l e v el s < 2 m g /m L a r e c on s i de r e d ap p r op r i at e f o r g e nt am ic in a n d a r e r e c o m m en de d to m in im i z e t h e r is k o f t o xi c i t y f ro m t hi s a m in o gl y c os id e . B ec a us e am i no gl yc os i de s ac c um u la t e i n t he p ro xi m a l t u b ul e o f th e k id ne y , n eph r o t o xi c it y c an oc c u r . 3 . Th e an s we r is A [ s e e II . E . 1 .e . ( 2) ; II . J. 5 .d . ( 2 ); I II . B . 4 .b ; I V . C . 3. c ]. S e i zu r es ha v e be e n a tt r ib u t ed to t he us e o f p en ic i l li n G , im i pe n em , a m ph o te r ic in B , a n d m e tr o n id a z o le . Se i zu r es a r e e s p ec i al l y li k e l y wi t h h ig h d o se s i n p at i en ts wi t h a h i s t o r y of s e i z u re s a n d in p at i en ts wi t h im pa i re d d r u g e li m i n at i on . 4 . Th e an s we r is C [ s e e I I . K . 13 ] . A l t h ou gh ac t i v e a ga in s t v a r i o us gr a m - p os it i ve a nd n eg a ti v e o rg an is m s , t i g ec ycl i ne is o n l y a g en t a p p ro v e d fo r th e t r e at m en t o f in t r a -a b do m i na l i n f ec ti o ns c au s ed b y t h es e o r g an is m s . 5 . Th e an s we r is D [ s e e I . H . 1] . Th e f e ve r c u r v e i s us e fu l f o r m on i to r i ng a p at i en t 's r es po ns e to a n t im ic r ob ia l t h e ra p y . Ant i p y r e ti c s c a n b e us e d t o r e d uc e h ig h f e v e r i n p a t ie n ts a t ri s k fo r c om p li c at i on s ( e .g . , s ei zu r es ) o r , in s om e c as es , to m ak e th e p a ti en t m o r e c o m fo r t ab l e. 6 . Th e an s we r is B [ s e e II . K . 12 ] . A m o xi c i ll in an d a m p ic i ll in a r e a ll p e ni c i ll i ns an d s h ou l d b e a v o id ed in p a t ie n ts wi t h h is t o ri es of h y p e rs e ns it i v i t y to ot h e r p e ni c i ll i n co m p o un ds . A l t h ou gh t he ri s k of c r o s s - r ea c ti v i t y wi t h c e ph al os p o ri ns (e . g ., c e f ac lo r , l o r ac a rb e f ) is no w c o ns id e r ed lo w, m os t c l in ic ia ns a voi d th e u se of t he s e a g e nt s i n p at i en ts wi t h hi s to r ie s o f t y pe I h y p e rs en s it i v i t y re ac t io ns ( e .g . , a n a ph y l a xi s , b r o nc ho s p as m , g ia n t h i v es ) . 7 . Th e an s we r is B [ s e e II . E . 4 ; I I . H. 3 .a a nd b; I I. I .2 . a ; I I . I. 3 .a ; II . J. 7 ].
N o r f l o xa c in , c ip r o fl o xa c in , t ob r am y c in , a n d m e t he n am i ne m a nd el a te ac hie v e u r i ne c o nc en t r a ti on s h igh e no u gh to t re a t u r in a r y t r ac t in f ec ti o ns c au s e d b y P . a e ru gi n os a . Tr i m et h op r i m - s u l fa m e t ho xa zo l e i s n o t u s e f ul fo r t re a ti ng i n f ec ti o n c a us e d b y t hi s o r g an is m , a lt h ou gh t he c o m bi n at io n i s u se f ul fo r t r e a ti n g c e r t ai n o t he r ur in a r y t r ac t i n fe c t i on s . 8 . Th e an s we r is A [ s e e II . C ; I I. E . 1 . c. ( 3 ) ; I I . E. 2 .b; I I .J . 8] . A l t h ou gh v a nc om y c in , m e t h ic il li n , a nd ce f a z ol in h a v e e xc e ll e nt ac ti vi t y a g ai n st s t ap h y l oc oc c i , t he y a r e n o t e f fe ct i v e o r a lly f o r s ys t em ic in f ec ti o ns . V a n co m yc i n is p re s c r ib ed o r al l y fo r in f ec ti o ns l im i t e d t o t h e g as t ro in t es t ina l t r a ct , bu t b ec a us e i t i s po o r l y ab s o r be d o r a ll y, it i s n o t e f fe ct i v e fo r s ys t em ic i n fe c ti on s . Mo s t h os pi t al - an d c om m u ni ty- a c q ui r ed st a ph yl oc oc c i a r e c u r re n tl y r es is t an t to p e ni c i ll i n. Th u s o f t he dr u g s li s te d , t he m o st a p p ro p r ia t e d ru g fo r or a l t h e ra p y of s t a ph yl oc oc c a l c e ll ul i ti s is di cl o xa c i ll in . 9 . Th e an s we r is B [ s e e II . D . 6 .a - b ]. C l a r i th r om y c in , a n a l te r na t i v e to er y t h r om yc in , h as de m o n st r a te d i n v it r o a c ti vi t y a ga in s t MA I . C l ar i t h ro m y ci n i s a ls o us e d a g ai n s t To xo p l a s m a g ond i i a n d C r ypt os p o ri di um s p p. , a nd i t is m o re ac ti v e th a n e r y t h r om y c i n a g ai ns t s t ap h yl oc oc c i an d s t re p to c oc c i . Va nc om y c in an d c l o xa c il li n a r e u s e d to t r e a t s ta ph y l o c o c c i a nd s t r e p to co c c i , b ut ha s n o de m on st r a te d a c ti v i t y ve r s us MA I . 1 0 . Th e a ns we r i s C [s e e I V . D ] . P e n t am id in e i s e t hi o na t e i s i n di c a t ed fo r bo t h t r eat m en t an d p r op h yl a xi s o f i n f ec ti o n f r om P . c a r in i i. I t c a n b e a dm i ni st e r ed i nt r a m u s c ul a rl y , i n t ra ve n ou s l y , o r b y i nh al a t io n . I nh a la t io n m a y p ro d uc e b r on c ho s p as m . B l o od gl uc os e s h ou ld be c a re f ul l y m o ni t o re d b ec a u se pe n ta m i d in e m a y p r o du c e ei t he r h y pe r g l yc e m ia o r h y p og l y c e m i a . P.982
1 1 . Th e a ns we r i s C [s e e V I I . B .9 ] . C i d o fo vi r , f a m c ic lo v i r , a nd f os c a r ne t ha v e li t tl e o r n o i n v i v o a c t i v i t y ag ai ns t i n f lu en za A . Ri b a v i ri n h as s o m e ac ti vi t y b ut is a s e c on d -l i ne ag e nt fo r i n f lu en za A an d i s m a i nly i n d ic at e d f o r t r ea t m e n t o f he pa t i ti s C in c om b in a ti o n wi t h in t e rf e ro n . Os e lt am i v i r i s a n a gen t t ha t d em o ns t ra t es a c ti vi t y a ga in s t i nf l ue n z a A a nd B . I t i s i nd ic a te d fo r t he p ro ph yl a xi s a nd t r e a tm en t o f in f lu en z a inf e c ti on s . 1 2 . Th e a ns we r i s E [s ee V I I . C .5 . b .( 3 ) . (b ) ] . Th e m aj o ri t y o f p r ot e as e i n hi bi t o rs c a us e h yp e rl ip i de m i a . At a z a na v i r do es n o t c au s e t hi s a d v e rs e ef f e c t an d m a y be pr e fe r re d in c e r ta i n c l i ni c a l s i tu a ti o ns . 1 3 . Th e a ns we r i s E ( I, I I, I I I ) [ s e e I I . E .2 , 3 an d 4 ]. P i p e ra ci ll i n a nd am o xi c il li n ea c h in c l u de a β - la c ta m as e i n hi bi t o r . Th e s e c om b in a ti o ns o f fe r ac t i v it y a g ai ns t S . a u re us s im il a r to th a t o f t h e p e ni ci l li na s e- r es is t an t pe n ic il l in s, s u ch as n a fc il li n . 1 4 . Th e a ns we r i s C ( I an d I I) [s e e V I I . B. 1; V I I. B. 7 an d 8 ] .
O n l y g a nc ic lo v i r a n d f os c a r ne t a r e a c t i ve a g ai ns t C MV i n f e c ti o ns . Th e s e a g e nt s a r e v i r us t at ic an d a r r es t D N A s y n th e s i s b y i n hi bi t in g v i ra l D N A p o l ym e r as e . F os c a r ne t is a b r oa d -s p ec t ru m a nt i vi r a l a ge n t a nd is us ed in p a t ie n ts wi t h g an c i c l o v i r r e s is ta nc e . A c y c l o v i r i s n o t c li n ic al l y us ef u l f o r th e t r e a tm en t o f C MV i n f ec t io n s b ec au s e C MV i s r el at i ve l y r es is ta n t t o a c y c l ov i r i n v i t ro . 1 5 . Th e a ns we r i s C [s e e I I . H .3 . c ] . L o m e f lo xa c i n m a y be adm i ni s t e r ed da il y f o r t r ea ti n g u r in a r y t ra ct in f ec t ion s . E n o xa c i n i s a no t he r fl u oro q ui n ol o ne us ed to t re a t u r in a r y t ra c t i nf ec t io ns . C o m pa r e d t o o th e r f l uo ro q ui n ol o ne s, ne i th e r l om e f l o xa c in no r en o xa c i n i m p ro ve s t he s p ec t r um of a c t i v i t y . 1 6 . Th e a ns we r i s A [s ee I I .J . 9] . B e c au se c l of a z im i ne c o nt a i ns p h en a zi ne d y e, it c a n c a us e p in k t o b r o wn s ki n p i gm en t at i on . Th is c h a n ge i n pi gm en t a ti on oc c u r s i n 7 5% - 1 00 % o f p a t ie n ts ta k i ng c l o fa z i m in e , a n d i t o c c u rs wi t hi n a f e w we e k s o f t h e i n i ti a ti on o f t he r ap y . Th e d is c o l o ra t io n o f s k i n h as r ep o r te dl y l ed t o s e ve re d e p re ss io n a n d e v e n s uic i de in s om e p a ti e nt s . C lo f a z im i ne is u s e d i n th e t r e a tm en t o f le p ro s y an d s e v e ra l a t yp ic al My c o b ac t e ri um in f ec ti o ns . 1 7 . Th e a ns we r i s B [s ee I I I . E. 5 .d ] . A d m in is t ra t io n o f it r ac o na z o l e o r k e to c o n a zol e wit h as t em i z ol e o r t e r f en a di ne m a y i nc r ea s e t he le ve l o f as te m i zo l e o r te r f en a di ne , wh i ch c an l e ad t o l if e - th r ea t en i ng dy s r h y t h m i as an d d e at h . It r a c o n a zol e , wh i c h is an i m id a zol e , i s a f u ng is t a tic ag e nt . S pe c i f ic al l y, i t r ac o na zo l e c a n b e ta k e n o r a ll y t o t r e at as pe r gi l los is in f ec t io ns an d o t he r d e e p f un g al i n f ec ti o ns , s uc h a s b l as to m y c o s i s , c o c c i di oi d om y c os is , c r y p to c oc c o si s, an d h i st o pl as m o s i s .
55 Thyroid Disease John E . Ja no sik
I. PHYSIOLOGY A. T hyr oi d horm one r eg ula t ion 1. The t hyr o id gla nd s ynt hes izes , st or e s, and s ecre t es horm one s t hat ar e im p ort a nt t o g r owt h, d eve lop m ent, a nd t he m et ab olic r at e. Thes e ho rm ones are t hyr ox ine (T 4 ) and t r iio dot hyr o nine (T 3 ). 2. The t hyr o id gla nd a ls o s ec ret es ca lci t oni n, wh ic h r e duc es bloo d c alci um ion co nc ent r at ion. 3. Thyr oid hor m o ne s ecr et ion and t r ansp ort ar e co nt r olled by t hy r oid - st im ulat ing hor m one (t hyr o tro pin; TS H ). TS H is r elea se d b y t he a nt er io r pit ui t ar y gla nd, w hic h is t r ig ge re d by t hy r ot r op in- r e lea si ng horm one (T RH) , s ec r et ed f r om t he hypo t ha la m us . a. The pro c ess pr od uce s inc r ea s ed leve ls of t hyr oid hor m o ne ( cir cula t ing f r e e T 4 and f re e T 3 ), whic h, i n t ur n, signa ls t he pit uit a r y to st o p r e le as ing TS H ( nega t ive f ee dba ck ). b. Co nve r se ly, lo w bloo d le ve ls o f fr e e horm o ne trigg er p it u it ar y r e le as e of TSH , whic h st im ula t e s t he t hyr o id g la nd t o secr et e T 4 and T 3 u nt i l f r e e horm o ne le ve ls r et ur n t o norm a l. At t his p oi nt , t he pit uit ar y gland c e as es t o r elea s e TS H , whic h com p le t es t he fee db ack loo p ( Fig ur e 55- 1) . c. This hom e ost at ic m ec ha nism a tt em pt s to ma int ai n t he leve l of cir cu la t ing t hyr o id ho rm o ne wit hin a na r r ow r ange . B. B io sy nt he si s ( F igur e 55 - 2) 1. E ss ent ia l t o s ynt he s is of t hyr o id horm one s is d ie t ar y io d i ne , red uc e d t o inor ga nic iodi de, whic h t he t hyr oid ac t ive ly ext r a ct s fr om t he plasm a t hr o ug h iod ide tr a pp ing ( iodi de pum p) . S ome of t his iod id e is s t or ed wit h in t he c ollo id; s om e dif f use s i nt o t he lum e n of t hyr oid f o llic les .
Figure 55-1. Thyroid hormone regulation loop. This carefully balanced hormone regulation system uses both positive (stimulating) and negative (inhibiting) feedback to maintain homeostasis. Disruption of any of these elements can produce serious consequences, such as myxedema crisis (under availability of thyroid hormone) or thyroid storm (overabundance of thyroid hormone). T3, triiodothyronine; T4, thyroxine; TRH, thyroid-releasing hormone; TSH, thyroid-stimulating hormone.
P. 11 99
Figure 55-2. Biosynthesis of thyroid hormones. The major products are thyroxine (T4) and triiodothyronine (T3). These are formed in the follicle cells of the thyroid gland by iodination of tyrosine residues. Monoiodotyrosine and diiodotyrosine residues are formed first. These then react to form T3 and T4.
P. 12 00
2. Io dide is oxid ized by p er o xida se and bo und t o tyr os y l r e sidues wit h in t he t hyr og lo b u lin m olec ule in a pr o cess c al led or ga nif ica t ion. a. The synt he s is b eg ins w it h io d id e bind i ng t o t yro si ne , fo rm ing m onoiod ot y r osi ne ( MI T) . b. MIT t he n binds a no t he r io d ide t o f orm d iiod ot yro sine ( D IT ). c. The n, slo w ly, a co upli ng r ea ct ion b ind s MI T a nd D IT, pr o duci ng T 3 a nd T 4 . C. H orm one tra nspo r t 1. Aft er TSH st im ula t io n o f t he t hyr oid g la nd, T 3 and T 4 a r e c le aved f rom t hyr og lo b u lin and re le as ed int o t he c ir cula t io n. 2. W he n in t he cir cu la t io n, t hyr oid horm o ne is tr ans po r t ed bo und t o se ve r al pla s ma pr ot eins , a pr o cess t hat a. He lp s pr ot ect t he horm o ne f rom pr em at ur e m eta bo lis m and e xcr e t io n b. Pr o lo ng s it s ha lf - lif e in t he cir cu la t ion c. Allo ws t he t hyr o id ho rm o ne t o r eac h it s s it e of ac t ion 3. Most t hyr oid hor m o ne is t r a ns por ted b y t hyr o xine- b ind i ng glo buli n ( TB G) . P rea lbum in a nd a lb um in als o se r ve a s c ar rier s. D. H orm one m eta b olism 1. P er ip he r al co nve r s ion of T 4 t o T 3 o cc ur s in t he pit u it a r y gla nd , li ve r , a nd k idneys and a cc ount s f or a bo ut 8 0% of T 3 ge ne r at ion. 2. De iod ina t ion ac count s f or m os t horm o ne de gra da t io n. The m aj or st e ps in t h is pr o cess a re s ho wn in F ig ur e 55- 3. 3. De io d ina t ed ho rm ones a re e xc r e ted in f ec e s a nd uri ne .
4. Mino r no nd e iod i na t io n p at hwa ys o f m et a bo lism inc lud e co nj uga t io n wit h su lf a t e and g lucur on id e, d eam ina t io n, and d ecar b oxy la t io n.
Figure 55-3. Thyroxine metabolism—major steps in the primary and alternative deiodination pathways.
P. 12 01
E. H orm o ne f unc t io n. Alt ho ug h t he ef f ect s of t hyr oid horm o ne s a r e k nown, t he ba sic m echan is m s pr od uc ing t he se ef f ect s elud e p r ec is e d ef init io n; how ever , t he y se em t o act iva t e t he m esse ng er RN A (m RN A) tr ans cr ipt io n pr o ce ss a nd c an prom ot e pr ot ein s ynt hes is or ( in e xce ss ive am ount s) p r ot e in c at a bo lis m . T hyr o id horm one s af fe ct t he fo llo w ing: 1. Gr o wt h and d eve lop m ent 2. Ca lo r ig e n ic s b y inc r ea s ing t he r at e of b asa l m et a bo lism 3. Ca r diovas c ular s ys t em by incr e as ing t he m et abo lic r a t e, which incr e as es b lo od f low , car diac o ut p ut , and hea rt r at e (m a y be r elate d in p ar t to a n inc r e as ed t is s ue se ns it iv it y t o cat echo lam ine s) 4. The ce nt ral ne r vo us s ys t em (CNS) b y inc r e as ing or dim inis h ing c er e br at io n 5. Musc ulat ur e by ca using a f i ne t remo r 6. S lee p by induc i ng f at igued wak ef ulne ss wit h hyp ert hyr oid is m or som no lenc e wit h hypo t hyr o id ism 7. L ip id m et a bo lis m by s t im ulat ing lip id m ob ili za t io n a nd de gra dat io n F. T hyr o id f unc t ion st udie s ( Tab le 55 - 1) 1. S er um t ota l t hyr o xine (T T 4 ) a. This t es t pr o vide s t he m ost d ir ect r ef le ct ion o f t hyr o id f unct io n by ind ica t ing ho rm o ne a va ila b i lit y t o t is sue s. Tota l ( f r ee and b ou nd ) T 4 is de t erm ined b y r ad ioim m uno as s ay, whic h is s ens it ive and r a pid. b. C hange s in t hyr o id g lo bu lin co nce nt r a t io n, p art ic ula r ly TB G, which incr e as e s dur ing p re gna nc y, alt er t he t ot a l c once nt r at ion of T 4 and m a y pr o duce a m is lea di ng hig h o r lo w te st r es ult . c. Ho we ve r , t hes e c hange s in TB G d o not aff e ct the c once nt r a t ion of f r ee T 4 . The r ef or e , t o clar if y t hyr o id f unc t io n, eit he r pr ot ein- b ind ing ( T 3 up t ak e t es t) o r fr e e T 4 m us t b e m eas ur ed.
d. An e leva t ed TT 4 leve l ind ica t es hyp er t hyr oid is m ; a decr e as ed TT 4 le ve l, hypo t hyr o id ism . H o we ve r, t he TT 4 le ve l in a e ut hyr o id pa t ie nt ca n b e a lt e r ed b y ot her f a ct or s, s uc h as pr e gnanc y o r f e br ile i llnes s es ( whic h e le vat e t he TT 4 ) , ne phr ot ic s ynd r om e or c ir r hos is ( wh ic h lo we r it ) , a nd var io us d r ug s ( Ta ble 55 - 2) . 2. S er um t ota l t r ii odot hy r oni ne (TT 3 ) a. This s ens it ive and h ig h ly s pe cif ic t es t m e as ur es t ota l ( fr e e and b ound ) T 3 . b. Se r um T 3 and T 4 usua l ly r is e a nd f all t o ge t he r; howe ver , hype r t hyr oid is m com mo nl y ca us es a disp r oport ionat e r is e in T 3 , and t he TT 3 c an r is e b efo r e t he TT 4 le ve l. Ther e f o r e, TT 3 is use f u l f o r ear ly de t ect io n or t o r ule out hyp er t hyr o id is m . Ma ny o f t he s ymp toms a ss ociat e d wit h hype r t hyr o id ism a r e t he r es ult of t he ele va t e d TT 3 . c. This t es t m ay not b e d ia gnos t ic a l ly s ign if ic a nt f o r hyp ot hyr oid is m , in whic h TT 3 le ve ls m a y f al l but s ta y wit hi n t he no rm a l r a ng e. The T T 3 m ay b e low i n o nl y 5 0% of pa t ient s wit h h yp ot hyr o id is m .
Table 55-1. Test Results in Thyroid Disorders Thyroid Function Test
Hypothyroidism
Hyperthyroidism
Serum resin triiodothyronine uptake (RT3U)
↓
(< 35%)
↑
(> 45%)
Serum total thyroxine (TT4)
↓
(< 5 µg/dL)
↑
(> 12 µg/dLl)
Serum total triiodothyronine (TT3)
↓
(< 80 ng/dL)
↑
(> 180 ng/dLl)
Free thyroxine index (FTI)
↓
(< 5.5)
↑
(< 10.5)
Serum thyrotropin (TSH) assaya
↑
(> 4.5 µU/mL)
↓
(< 0.4 µU/mL)b
↑
, increased levels;
↓
, decreased levels.
a
In clinical practice the third-generation test is commonly used with sensitivity to detect 0.01-0.02 mIU/L. b
Fourth-generation assays detect 0.001-0.002 mIU/L.
P. 12 02
P. 12 03
Table 55-2. Effects of Drugs on Thyroid Function Tests
Drug
Resin T3 Free Serum Uptak Thyroxin Serum Serum T4 e e Index T3 TSH Comment
pAminosalicylic acid
↓
n/ d
↓
n/ d
↑a
Aminoglutethim ide (Cytadren)
↑
n/ d
n/d
n/ d
↑
Amiodaroneb
↑
n/ d
n/d
↓
↑q
Inhibits peripheral conversion of T4 to T3
Anabolic steroids and androgens
↓
↑
0
↓a
n/ d
Decreased serum TBG
Antithyroid drugs (propylthiouraci l or methimazole)
↓
↓
↓
↓
0 or ↑
TSH may increase if patient becomes hypothyroid
Asparaginase (Elspar)
↑
↑
n/d
↓a
↑a
Decreased serum TBG
Barbiturates
↓c
n/ d
↓
n/ d
n/ d
Stimulates T4 metabolism
Calcium carbonated
↓
n/ d
n/d
0
↑
Subclinical signs of hypothyroidis
Antithyroid effect, rarely, with longterm use
m; separate time of ingestion of calcium and levothyroxine Ciprofloxacine
↓
n/ d
n/d
↓
↑
Clinical signs of hypothyroidis m; separate administratio n by 6 hr.
Contraceptives, oral
↑
↓
0
↑
0
TBG usually increased
Corticosteroids
0 or ↓
0 or ↑
0 or ↓
↓
↓
Usual doses decrease TBG; high doses may increase TBG
Danazol (Danocrine)
↓
↑
0p
↓
0 or ↓
Decreased serum TBG
Estrogens and SERMsg
↑
↓
0
↑
0
Increased serum TBG
Ethionamide (Trecator-SC)
↓
n/ d
↓a
n/ d
↑a
Antithyroid effect
Fluorouracil (Adrucil)
↑
↓
n/d
↑
0
Patients clinically euthyroid; TBG increased
Heparin, IV
↑h
0 or
↑a
0
n/ d
FTI is increased
↑
with some measures
Hypoglycemics (sulfonylureas)
0i
0i
0i
n/ d
n/ d
Iodides, inorganic
0
0
0
n/ d
n/ d
Iodides, organic
0
0
0
n/ d
n/ d
Levodopa and levodopacarbid opa (Sinemet, Parcopa)
0
0
0
0
↓j
Levothyroxine (Levothroid, Levoxyl, Synthroid, Unithroid)
↑sk ,l
↑ or 0 or ↓k,
0 or ↑k,l
↑ or 0 k,
↑ or 0k
Liothyronine (Cytomel)
↓k
0 or ↓k
↓k
l
l
↑ or ↓k,
0k
l
Liotrix (Thyrolar)
0k or ↓s
0k
0k
0 k,
0k
Lithium carbonate (Eskalith, Lithobid)
0 or ↓
0 or ↓
0 or ↓
0 or ↓
0 or ↑
Methadone (Dolophine)
↑s
↓
0
↑
0
l
Increased serum TBG
Mitotane (Lysodren)
↓
0
0a
n/ d
n/ d
Nitroprusside (Nitropress)
↓
n/ d
n/d
n/ d
n/ d
Clinical hypothyroidis m
Oxyphenbutazo ne and phenylbutazone (Butazolidin)
0 or ↓
↑
↓
n/ d
↑a
May compete with T4 for TBG binding, rarely, overt hypothyroidis m and goiter may occur
Perphenazine (Trilafon)
↑
↓
↓
↑
0a
Phenytoin (Dilantin)
↓
0 or ↑s
0 or ↓s
↓
0
Propranolol (Inderal)
0 or ↑m
0n
n/d
↓o
0
Raloxifeneg (Evista)
↑
↓
0
↑
0
Resorcinol (excessive topical use)
↓
↓
↓
↓
↑
Salicylates (large doses)
↓
↑S
↓a
↓
0a
Stimulates T4 metabolism and may compete with T4 for TBG binding
Increased serum TBG
Compete with T4 for TBG binding
Tamoxifeng
a
↑
↓
0
↑
0
Increased serum TBG
Effect deduced, not based on reported clinical evidence.
b
Data from Rae P, Farrar J, Beckett G, Toft A. Assessment of thyroid status in elderly people. Br Med J 1993;307:177-180. c
Patients requiring thyroid-replacement therapy have decreased serum thyroxine when barbiturates are given. d
Data from Singh N, Singh P, Hershman JM. Effect of calcium carbonate on the adsorption of levothyroxine. JAMA 2000;283:2822-2825. e
Data from Cooper JG, HarboeK, Frost SK, Skadberg O. Ciprofloxacin interacts with thyroid replacement therapy. Br Med J 2005;330:1002. f
May increase slightly but usually remains in the normal range.
g
Data from Siraj ES, Gupta MK, Reddy SK. Raloxifene causing malabsorption of levothyroxine. Arch Intern Med 2003;163:1367-1370. h
T4 assay by competitive protein binding is spuriously increased, but T4 radioimmunoassay is probably not affected. Free thyroxine measured by dialysis may be increased. i
May occasionally decrease serum T4 and increase resin T3 uptake.
j
Slight decrease in euthyroid patients; but in long-standing hypothyroid patients, levodopa considerably decreases the elevated TSH. k
In a patient on adequate doses for thyroid replacement.
l
Increased T4, FTI, and T3 tend to return to normal after several months of therapy with levothyroxine. After liothyronine, T3 may be elevated 2 hr after a dose and depressed 24 hr after a dose. m
Increased T4 levels are reported in one study, but not in others.
n
With short-term propranolol in hyperthyroid patients.
o
In euthyroid patients, the decreased serum T3 returns to normal with continued propranolol therapy. p
Free thyroxine index may increase slightly but usually remains in the normal range.
q
Data from Batcher EL, Tang XT, Singh BN, et al. Thyroid Function Abnormalities during Amiodarone Therapy for Persistent Atrial Fibrillation. Am J Med 2007;120:880-885. FTI, free thyroxine index; IV, intravenous; n/d, no data; s, slight effect; SC, subcutaneous; SERMs, selective estrogen receptor modulators; T3, triiodothyronine; T4, thyroxine; TBG, thyroxinebinding globulin; TSH, thyroid-stimulating hormone; 0, no effect; ↑, increased; ↓, decreased.
P. 12 04
d. If t he r e is a n ab no rm alit y in b ind i ng pr ot eins , th is t est can y ie ld t he sam e m islea ding r es ult s a s t he TT 4 r ea ding s. O t he r f acto r s aff ec t ing t e st r es ult s inc lude pr e gnancy ( wh ic h inc r ea se s TT 3 le ve ls) , ma ln ut r it io n o r he pa t ic or r enal dise as e ( whic h lo wer TT 3 le ve ls ) , or var io us d r ug s ( Tab le 55 - 2) . 3. Re si n t r iio dot hyr o ni ne upt a k e (RT 3 U ) a. This t es t clar if ie s whet he r ab no rm al T 4 le ve ls ar e t he r e s ult of a t hyr o id diso r de r or t o ab no rm alit ie s in t he bi nd ing p r ot e ins b ec aus e it eval ua t es t he b ind i ng ca pa cit y of TB G. b. If an ab no rm al am ount ( high or low) o f t hyr oid horm one is pre se nt in t he bloo d, t he R T 3 U r es ult s c ha ng e in t he sa m e d ir ect ion as t he a lt e r ed le ve l— e levat e d in hype r t hyr o id ism , dec re as ed in hypo t hyr o id ism . c. Ho we ve r , if ab no rma lit ie s i n b ind ing p r ot eins unde r lie t he a bnorm a l le ve ls of TT 4 , TT 3 , o r b ot h, t he R T 3 U r e sult s cha nge in t he o pposit e d ir ec t ion —d ec r ea s ing a s TB G inc r ea se s , incr e as ing a s TBG d ecr e as es. d. Se ver a l d r ug s c an c ause s pur io us cha ng es in t he R T 3 U ( Ta ble 5 5-2 ). 4. S er um t hyr ot r o pin (TSH ) a ssa ys a. This t es t is t he m ost se nsit i ve t e st f or de t ec t ing t he hyp ot hyr o id st at e be ca use t he hyp ot ha la m ic - pit uit ar y axis c om p ensat es ver y q uick ly f or even s lig ht d ec rea s es in c ir c u lat i ng f r ee horm o ne by r e lea s ing m ore TS H. The TSH leve ls m a y be elevat e d even be f or e lo w c ir c ulat ing le ve ls of TT 4 a r e d et ec t ab le by diag no s t ic t est ing. b. The ea r ly TS H ass ay us ed r a dio im m uno as sa y (R IA) m e t ho do lo gy. The se ns it i vit y of t he as sa y ha s im pr o ve d s inc e, m o vi ng t o t he us e of m o no clo na l ant ib od ies in t he lat e 1 98 0s. N om enclat ur e e st ab lis he d b y t he Am er ic an Th yr o id As so c iat io n ( AT A) ha s c la ss if ied t he im pr ovem e nt in se ns it i vit y b as e d o n t he low er lim it of de te ct ion. The new c la ss if ica t io n f ollows a ge ne r at iona l f orma t , as s ho wn in Ta b le 5 5- 3. c. The cur r ent (t hir d - ge ne r at ion) s er um TSH as say ( leve l o f det ect ion 0. 0 1 - 0. 02 m IU/ L) us es m onoc lo na l a nt ibo d ie s r ef er r ed t o as im m uno r ad iom e tr ic o r im m unom et r ic ( IMA) m et ho do lo gy ( inst e ad of t he o lde r r a dio im m unoa s sa y
t ec hn iq ue s) a nd d em ons t rat es gr eat er s ensit iv it y in t he d ete ct ion o f t hyr o id d is ea s e t ha n o ld er t e st s. d. This a ss ay is usua l ly us ed t o diag no se t hyr o id dis e as e a nd m onit o r pat ie nt s r ec eiv ing r ep lac em e nt t he r ap y t o co nt r o l o ve r tr eatm ent . ( Ove r tr eatm en t —TSH < 0 .4 m IU/ L—m ay c ontr ib ut e t o exc es si ve bo ne dem iner a lizat ion ( r ed uc e d b one d ens it y) , ele ct r oc ar d io gr am [ECG ] c hange s, at r ia l f ibr i lla t io n, o r elevat io n of liver f unct io n t est s. ) e. The IMA t e c hn iq ue is ve r y se ns it i ve . The f our t h- g ener at io n I MA c an de t ect TSH le ve ls i n t he r ange of 0.0 01- 0. 00 2 m IU/ L . f . The t h ir d - ge ne r at ion IM A a s sa ys m ay a ls o d et ec t s ub cli nica l t hyr o id dise as e ( TSH = 0. 1-0 . 45 m IU / L). Tr eatm ent of subc li nic a l hyp ot h yr o id is m is co nt r o vers ia l be c ause t he r e is ins uf f ic ient e vide nc e t o in d ica t e a b enef it. g. TSH le ve ls m ay a ls o b e inf lue nc ed by p syc hiat ric il lnes s. S om e st ud ie s o f ho sp it a lized pa t ie nt s have r ep ort e d a bnor ma lly h igh o r lo w TS H le ve ls in ot her wise eut hyr oid p at ient s . C ur r e nt f ind ing s in H IV -po sit iv e p at ient s ar e unce r t a in; ho weve r , aut oimm une t hyr o id dis e as e a ppea rs t o b e m or e pr e va le nt i n t he se pa t ie nt s . h. Ef f ect s of dr ugs on t he s erum TS H ar e s ho wn in Tab le s 5 5- 2 a nd 55- 4. 5. F r ee t hy r oxi ne ind ex ( FT I ) a. This is not a s ep ar at e t es t b ut r at her a n est im at ion o f t he fr e e T 4 le ve l t hr oug h a mat hem at ic al i nt e r pr et at ion o f t he r e lat ions hip be twe en R T 3 U and ser um T 4 leve ls.
Table 55-3. Serum Thyroid-Stimulating Hormone Assay Nomenclature Generation
Lower Level of Detection
First (RIA method)
1-2 mIU/L
Second
0.1-0.2 mIU/L
Third
0.01-0.02 mIU/L
Fourth
0.001-0.002 mIU/L
P. 12 05
P. 12 06
P. 12 07
Table 55-4. Medications Influencing Thyroid-Stimulating Hormone (TSH) Levels
Agent Amioda rone
Potential Clinical Thyroid Mechanisms Effect(s) Iodine effects (see Iodine below)
Clinical or subclinic al hypothyr oidism; subclinic al hyperthy roidism infreque ntly
Effect on TSH Hypothy roidism is usually detected during the first 3 months after starting therapy; continue to detect patients at 6 months. Overt hypothyr oidism (TSH >10 µU/mL) has been observed at 6 months. Mild elevatio ns (TSH 4.510µU/m L) have been observed at 12 months.
Effect on Other Thyroid Function Tests Comments Incre ased total T4 level s
The large iodine load with the administ ration of amiodar one is the primary contribut or to the drug interacti on. Regions where patients have adequate intake of iodine in their diet have been associate d with higher rates of hypothyr oidism. Biochem ical changes in thyroid
Subclini cal hyperthy roidism (TSH <0.35µU /mL) has been observed occasion ally
Calciu m carbona te
function noted in a majority of patients on therapy, requirin g frequent monitori ng
Direct inhibition of T4 to T3 conversio n
Incre ased free T4 level s
Direct toxic effects on thyroid
Incre ased rever se T3 level s
Induction of thyroid autoimmu nity
Hyperth yroidism
Adsorptio n of levothyrox ine to calcium in acid environme nt
Subclini cal hypothyr oidism
Decr eased total and free T3 Elevatio n
Decr ease free T4 and total T4
Ciprofl oxacin
Decreases absorption of levothyrox ine
Hypothy roidism
Elevatio n
Decr eased thyro id horm one level s
Clinical hypothyr oidism detected
Cortico steroids
Central suppressio n of TSH release
Minimal or none
Suppress ion
Usua lly withi n norm al range , altho ugh total T4 , free T4 , T3 reduc ed, and rever se T3 incre ased from basel ine
Compen satory mechani sms lead to normaliz ation of TSH levels with chronic exposure
Reduction of thyroid iodine uptake Inhibition of T4 to T3 conversio n
Reduction of thyroidbin ding globulin levels Dopami ne and dopami ne agonists
Central suppressio n of TSH release
Minimal or none
Suppress ion
Nor mal or decre ased horm one level s
Prolonge d use of dopamin e in high doses may potentiat e the low thyroxin e state of critical illness
Dopami ne antagon ists
Release of central TSH inhibition
Minimal or none
Elevatio n
Usua lly norm al
Effects not well characte rized
Iodine
Inhibition of iodine uptake and organificat ion
Clinical or subclinic al hypothyr oidism
Elevatio n
Decr eased thyro id horm one level s
Clinical hypothyr oidism most common in those with underlyi ng organific ation defects, such as autoimm une thyroidit is or previous
radioiodi ne therapy; iodineinduced hyperthy roidism is generall y confined to those with iodine deficien cy or autoimm une thyroid disease Impairme nt of thyroid hormone Inhibition of T4 to T3 conversio n
Hyperth yroidism
Suppress ion
Eleva ted thyro id horm one level s
Hypothy roidism (silent
Elevatio n
Decr eased thyro
Induction of thyroid autoimmu nity Interfer on
Unclear; likely owing to
No apparent direct
immunom odulating properties and stimulatio n of autoimmu nity
Lithium salts
Inhibition of iodothyro nine biosynthes is
thyroiditi s, Graves disease)
id horm one level s
Hyperth yroidism (with or without autoantib odies)
Suppress ion
Incre ased thyro id horm one level s
Clinical or subclinic al hypothyr oidism
Elevatio n
Nor mal or decre ased thyro id horm one level s
influenc e on TSH secretion : pretreat ment detectabl e antimicr osomal antibodi es may represen t a risk factor for interfero ninduced thyroid disease
Some sources recomm end thyroid function testing at 6month intervals while on therapy
Reduction of thyroid iodine concentrat ion Suppressi on of thyroid hormone release Induction of thyroid autoimmu nity Radiogr aphic contrast media
Iodine effects (See Iodine above)
Minimal or none
Elevatio n
Direct inhibition of T4 to T3 conversio n
Raloxif ene
Malabsorp tion; mechanis m unknown
Nor mal or decre ased thyro id horm one level s
Alteratio ns are maximal 3-4 days after administ ration and may persist for up to 2 weeks
Eleva tion of rever se T3 level s Hypothy roidism
Elevatio n
Decr eased thyro id horm one
Clinical hypothyr oidism detected
level s Somato statin and analogs
Central suppressio n of TSH release
Minimal or none
Suppress ion
Usua lly norm al
Effects not well characte rized
T3, triiodothyronine; T4, thyroxine.
P. 12 08
b. F TI va l ue s a r e ele vat e d in h yp er t hyr oid is m , when TB G is lo w, and de cr e as ed in hypo t hyr o id ism , whe n TB G is eleva t ed . c. E ff ect s of dr ugs on F TI ar e s hown in Ta ble 5 5- 2 . G. St rat e gie s a nd c ost co nside ra t ions f o r t est ing 1. The m ost f r equent ly us ed and l ea st e xp ensiv e t est s f or s cr ee ni ng ar e t he TT 4 and t he R T 3 U, whic h ar e us ed t o ca lc ulat e t he F TI . A ser um TSH a s sa y ma y als o be us ed , but at an add it io na l c os t ( F ig ur e 55- 4) . 2. Thyr oid d is ea se scr een ing f o r t he ot her wis e gene r al ly he a lt hy po pu la t io n has be en show n t o no t be co st -ef f ect ive b as ed on t he ra t e of de tect io n and c os t as so ciat e d w it h m assive s cr e ening. Ho we ve r , wit h i nc r ea se d us e a nd im pr ovem e nt s in t ec hno log y, c o sts have b ee n f al ling ( F igur e 55 -5) . 3. The m ost app r op r ia t e ta r get po pul a t ion fo r scre en ing inc l ud es e lde r ly pa t ie nt s ho sp it a lized f o r exac e r bat io ns of chr on ic dise as es or who ar e c oinc id ent a l ly dia g nos ed wit h a c hr o nic P. 12 09 dis ea s e— f or e xam ple, co ng es t ive he ar t f a il ur e (CH F) , r he um at oid a rt hr it is —m ent a l st at us c ha ng es , o r ps ychos o cial p r ob le m s.
Figure 55-4. Algorithm for using a sensitive thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) assay as a single test of thyroid function. The algorithm assumes a clinically intact hypothalamic-pituitary axis, absence of medications known to influence TSH or other thyroid indices, and generally good physical and psychiatric health. The TSH assay should meet the American Thyroid Association criteria for a sensitive assay and/or have a known functional sensitivity limit at the secondgeneration (0.1 mIU/L) level or greater. Close follow-up, clinical observation for signs and symptoms of hyperthyroidism or hypothyroidism and repeated TSH determinations at intervals of 6 to 12 months. T3, trirodothyronine; T4, thyroxine. Figure 55-5. Algorithm for the use of sensitive thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) testing in patients with nonthyroidal illness (NTI). The TSH assay should meet the American Thyroid Association criteria for a sensitive assay and/or have a known functional sensitivity limit at the second-generation (0.1 mIU/L) level or greater. Medications known to alter TSH levels (i.e., corticosteroids, dopamine) must be considered when interpreting results.
4. The AT A r ec omm e nd s a fr e e t hyr oxine ( FT 4 ) a nd a se ns it i ve TS H as s ay as t he pr im ar y lab or at or y t e st s f or d ia gnos ing t hyro id dis e as e. The s ens it ive TS H as sa y is us ef u l i n d et e ct ing p at ie nt s at r is k of r ec eiving an exc es s am ount of t hyr o xine a s r ep lac em e nt t he rap y.
II. HYPOTHYROIDISM. The inab ilit y of t he t hyr oid g la nd t o supp ly suf f ic ie nt t hyr oid hor m o ne r e sult s in va r yi ng de gr ees o f hyp ot hyr o id is m f r om m ild, c li nic a lly ins ig n if ic ant f o rm s t o t he lif e t hr e ate ning e xt r em e, m yxed em a com a. A. C la ssif ica t io n 1. P rima r y hyp ot hy r oid ism is t he r es ult of a. G land d est r uct ion or d ysf unc t io n ca us ed b y d is ea se o r m ed ic al t he r ap ies ( e. g. , r ad iat ion, s ur g ic a l pr o ce dur es) b. F ail ur e of t he gland t o d evelop or c ong en it al in com pe t ence ( i. e. , c ret inism ) 2. S ec ond ar y hy pot hyr o idism is t he r e sult o f a pit uit ar y d iso r de r t hat inh ib it s TSH se cre t io n. The t hyr o id gla nd is norm a l b ut lac k s app r opr ia t e s t im ula t io n b y TS H.
3. T ert ia r y hyp ot hy r oid ism re f er s t o a co nd it io n in whic h t he p it uit ar y- t hyr o id axis is int ac t , b ut t he hypo t ha la m us la ck s t he a bil it y t o s e cr et e TRH t o st im ulat e t he pit u it a r y. 4. S ubc linica l hy po t hy ro idism r ef er s t o pat ie nt s wit ho ut c linic a l s ym pt om s , a no rm a l F T 4 , a nd elevat ed TS H leve ls . C ur r e nt ly t he r e is i ns uf f ic ie nt e vide nc e t o supp or t t r eatm ent be c ause c onse quence s of no nt re atm e nt ar e m inim a l. B. Ca uses 1. Ha shim ot o t hy ro idi ti s, w hic h is a c hr o nic lymp ho c yt ic t hyr oid it is t ha t is co ns id er e d t o b e a n a ut o im m une diso r der 2. T r ea tme nt of hy per t hy ro idism , s uc h a s r ad io ac t ive iod ine t her a py, s ub t ot al t hyr oide ct om y, or a dm inis t r a t io n o f ant it hyr o id a ge nt s P. 12 10
3. S ur gica l ex cision 4. G o it er (e nlar g em e nt of t he t hyr oid g la nd ) a. E ndem ic g oit e r res ult s f rom ina de quat e int ak e of d ie t ar y iod ine . Th is is c om m on in r e gions w it h io d ine- d ep le t ed s oil and i n a r ea s of e nd em ic m a lnut r it io n. b. Sp ora dic go iter c an f o llo w inge s t io n o f ce rt a in dr ugs or f oo ds cont aining pr og oitr in ( L-5 - vi ny l- 2 - t hioo xa zo lid o ne) , which is inac t ive and c onver t e d b y hydr o lys is t o g oit r in. ( 1) G o it r ins inh ib it o xida t io n o f io di ne t o iod id e a nd pr e vent io d id e fr om b ind ing t o t hyr og lo b u lin, t her e by dec r ea sing t hyr o id hor m o ne pro duc t io n. ( 2) Pr o go it r in has b ee n iso la t ed in ca bb ag e, ka le , pe anut s, b r us s els spr o ut s, m ust ar d , r ut ab ag a, k o hlr a bi, s pinac h, ca ulif lowe r , and ho r ser ad is h. ( 3) G o itr oge nic dr ugs inc lud e p r op ylt hio ur ac il ( P TU ) , iod id es , pheny lb ut a zo ne , co ba lt , a nd lit hi um . c. L ess c om m on ca uses inc l ud e a cut e ( us ua lly t ra um at ic ) and suba cut e t hyr oid it is , no du les , nod ular g oit er , a nd t hyr o id c ance r . C. S ig ns a nd sym pt om s 1. E ar ly c lin ic a l f ea t ur e s tend t o b e som ewhat va gue: let har g y, fat igue, f org etf ulnes s , se nsit ivit y t o co ld, une xp la ined we ight g ain, a nd c onst ipa t io n. 2. P r ogr essive ly, t he c ha r ac t er is t ic f eat ur es of m yxed em a eme r ge : dr y, f la k y, ine la st ic s k in; co ar s e ha ir ; s lo wed s peec h a nd t hought ; hoa r se ne s s; p uf f y fac e, ha nd s, a nd f eet; eyel id dr o op ; he ar ing lo ss ; m e nor r ha gia ; d ec r eas ed lib id o; a nd slo w r e t ur n of de ep t e nd on r ef le xes ( e sp ec ia lly in t he Ach illes t endo n). If unt r e at e d, m yxed em a com a w ill de ve lo p. D. La bo ra t or y f inding s ( Tab le 55 - 1) E. Tr eatm e nt g oa l is r ep la cem ent t her a py us ing o r al ag ent s ( Ta ble 5 5- 5) .
Table 55-5. Thyroid Replacement Preparations
Preparation (Trade Names) Advantage
Disadvantage Comments
Source
Desiccated thyroid (Thyroid USP, Thyroid Strong, Armour Thyroid, Thyrar, S-PT)
Low cost
Some preparation s have unpredicta ble results; inconsisten t T3:T4 ratio T3 increases adverse effects
Contains T3; some brands are standardized by iodine contenta
Porcine , bovine, or ovine thyroid glands
Liothyronine (Cytomel)
Predictabl e results; useful for myxedema crisis
Lacks T4
Usually reserved for myxedema crisis
Synthet ic
Liotrix (Thyrolar)
Standardiz ed formulatio n
T3 increases adverse effects; expensive
Fixed T3:T4 ratio of 1:4; metabolism of T4 to T3 renders T3 component unnecessary
Synthet ic
Levothyroxi neb (Levothroid, Synthroid, Levoxyl, Unithroid)
Predictabl e results, intravenou s preparatio n available
Expensive
Agent of choice; does not contain T3; all preparations may be interchangea ble
Synthet ic
a
Iodine content and T 3:T4 ratio vary with species.
b
Generic formulations manufactured by Pharmaceuticals Basics for Geneva Generics and Rugby have been shown to be bioequivalent to Synthroid and Levoxyl. (Dong BJ, Hauck WW, Gambertoglio JG, et al. Bioequivalence of generic and brand-name levothyroxine products in the treatment of hypothyroidism. JAMA 1997;277:1205-1213.) T3, triiodothyronine; T4, thyroxine.
P. 12 11
F. T hera pe ut ic a g ent s 1. De si cc at e d t hyr oid pr e pa rat io ns a. At one t im e t he ag ent o f cho ice , d es ic ca t e d t hy r oid ( Arm o ur Thyr oid) has f a lle n out of f avor sinc e s t and ar d ized synt he t ic le vo t hyr o xine pr e pa r at ions have be com e ava ilab le . b. De sicc a t ed t hyr o id pr e pa r at ions a r e no t co ns id er e d bio eq ui va le nt ; t he y have ev ide nce d var y ing am ount s of a ct ive s ub st a nc e s. Alt ho ug h t hey m et es t ab lis hed U ni t ed St at es P h ar ma co pei a (USP ) cr it er ia fo r io di ne co nt e nt , var ia t io n i n a ct iv it y was no t e d. The c ont ent a ss ay, while s pe cif ic f or iod ine, w as unab le t o sp ec if y t he r at io of T 3 t o T 4 , and t his r a t io va r ie s wit h t he an im al s our ce. Po r cine gla nd pr e par at ions ha ve a hig he r T 3 t o T 4 ra t io t han t hos e f r om ovine and b ovine s our c es . 2. F ixe d-ra t io li ot r ix (T hy r ola r ) pre pa rat io ns. In an eff or t t o s tanda r dize t he T 3 t o T 4 r at io, subs t a nc es t hat m im ic gla nd ular c ont e nt w er e de ve lo pe d. H owe ve r, t he T 3 com po ne nt p r ove d unnec es s ar y ( be cause T 4 is me t ab olized t o T 3 ) a nd even dis ad va nt ag eo us b ecause of T 3 - ind uc ed a d ve r se ef f ect s ( e. g., tr em o r, he ad ac he, pa lp it at ions, dia r r he a) . 3. L evot hyr ox ine a. P r ed ic t ab le r es ult s a nd la c k of T 3 - ind uc ed s ide e ff ec t s ha ve m a de le vo t hyr o xine ( Le vo t hr o id , S ynt hr o id, Le vo xy l) t he ag ent o f choi ce . b. The t hr ee m aj or bra nd s o f le vo t h yr o xi ne pr e pa r at ions ( Le vo t hr o id , S ynt hr o id, Le vo xy l) have be en com pa red f or b ioe qu iva le nc e and w er e show n t o be e quiva le nt in p at ient s wit h hyp ot h yr o id is m . c. Re c ent s t ud ie s in p at ie nt s w it h hypo t hyr o id ism have com par ed bra nd a nd ge ne r ic f orm ulat ions of levot hyr o xine, wh ic h i nc lude S ynt hr oid, L evo xy l, a nd g ener ic f orm ulat ions m a nuf a ct ur ed b y P ha rm ac eut ic al B as ic s and s o ld by Geneva G ener ic and R ugb y. B io eq uiva le nc e has b ee n d em o ns tr at ed wit h t hes e f orm ulat ions. H owe ve r, when s wit c hi ng f orm ula t io ns , it is r ec omm end ed t o mo nit or t he pa t ie nt
clo s e ly b ec ause t her e m ay b e s om e ind i vid ua l p at ie nt var iab ilit y a m ong f orm ulat io ns ( Fig ur e 55 - 6) .
Figure 55-6. Algorithm for management of patients on levothyroxine therapy. TSH, tyroidstimulating hormone.
P. 12 12
d. The a vera ge a d ult m a i nt e na nce d os e is 7 5- 1 50 µg/ d ay. The do se r ange has be en show n t o be 1. 5- 1. 7 µg/k g/ da y or a n aver a ge of 1. 6 µg /k g/ day f or ot he r wis e he a lt h y ad ult s. e. E l derl y o r chr onica lly ill pa t ie nt s r eq uir e a n a ver a ge do se of 50 - 10 0 µg/ da y, whic h is 25 - 50 µg/ d ay le ss t han ot he rw is e hea lt h y a dult s o f t he s am e he ig ht a nd weig ht . f . Th yr o xi ne le ve ls r et ur n t o no rm a l wit hi n a fe w we ek s. C lin ic a l im pr o vem ent b eg ins in 2 we ek s wit h f ull r e so lut io n o f s igns and s ym ptom s of hyp ot hyr oid is m by 3 - 6 mo nt hs of t he r ap y. g. TSH le ve ls b eg in t o d ecr eas e a ft er st art ing t hy r oid r e plac em e nt . TSH rem ains ele va t e d f or s om e t im e aft e r T 4 leve ls r et ur n t o norm a l. Ge ne r all y, TSH leve ls r et ur n t o norm a l af t er a m inim um of 6 -8 week s, b ut ma y co nt inue t o f a ll over 6 - 12 m ont hs ( Fig ur e 55 - 6) . G. Pr eca ut ions a nd m oni t or ing ef f ect s 1. Adult p at ient s w it h a h is t or y of c ard iac d is ea se and eld er l y p at ie nt s should be gi n t he r ap y w it h lo wer d os es ( e .g. , 25 µg/ d ay of levo t hyr oxine) . Af t e r 2- 4 we ek s, t he do se shou ld be inc r ea se d g r ad ua lly t o an ind i vid u all y a dj us t ed m a int ena nce do se ( us ua lly < 10 0 µ g d aily) . 2. P at ient s s hould be ob ser ved on in it ia t io n o f t her a py fo r pos sib le ca r dia c com p lica t ions, such a s a ng ina, p alp it at ions, o r ar r hyt hm ias . 3. S er um t hyr oid le ve ls s hou ld b e mo nit or e d, pa rt ic ular ly T 4 , se ns it i ve TS H and R T 3 U leve ls, a nd t he F TI. S er um t hyr o xi ne t es ts rem a in ele vat e d d ur ing t he f ir st f ew mo nt hs of tr eatm ent e ve n w it h t he pr e sence of cl inica l s ym pt oms. S er um t hyr o xine t est s do no t pr ed ic t t he c lin ic a l st a te . Te st ing is u nnec es sa r y un le ss noncom pliance is susp ec t e d.
4. It is r ec omm e nd ed t o m onit o r t he s ensit ive TS H t est 2- 6 m ont hs a ft er t he la st do se chang e. H o we ve r, t his t est c ont in ue s t o c hange f or up t o 1 year . Tes t ing e ar ly ma y res ult in ove r t r eatm ent. R ef er t o F ig ur e 55 - 6 f o r t he m a na gem ent of pa t ie nt s o n le vot hyr oxine t he r ap y. 5. L evot hyr o xine a dm inis t r a t io n, p ar t icu la r ly lo ng - t erm t hera py, c an induc e t hyr ot o xic os is ; T 4 leve ls c an r is e even t houg h t he d os ag e r em ains unc ha ng ed . Mo nit or f or c lin ic a l s igns of t hyr oid d ise as e . 6. Ac ce le rat ed bo ne loss ha s b ee n as so ciat e d wit h over t r eatm ent . P a t ie nt s r ec eiv ing r ep lac em e nt t he r ap y wit h lo w TS H va lues m ay have lowe r b one m iner a l de ns it y be ca use exc es s ho rmo ne a cc eler at es t he r a te of rem od el ing ( r at e of r ep or p t ion > r ate of f or mat io n) a nd m ay c ontr ib ut e to an inc r ea se d inc id e nce of no nt r a um at ic fr act ur e. 7. Dr ug int era ct io ns a. C hole st y ram ine (Q uest ra n) a nd co le st ip ol (Co le st id ) , bile ac id se ques t r a nts , ca n c ont r ib ut e to a decr eas e in t hy ro xine b io ava i lab ilit y whe n a dm inis t e r ed co nc om it ant ly. B ile a c id s e ques t rant s sho uld be adm in is t er e d at lea st 6 hr aft er o r al t hyr o xine t o r e duce t he pot e nt ial f or t his c lin ic a l ly sign if ic ant d r ug int er a ct ion. b. Ca lci um ca r bo na te (O s-C al, Tum s) ca n r educ e t hyro xine b ioa va ilab ilit y b y ad so rpt ion in an ac id en v ir onm ent . The se sho uld be a dm inis t er e d se par at e ly t o avo id int e r act io n. c. E str og ens (E st r ace , P r em ar in) a nd s elec t ive e s t rog en rec ept or m od ulat o r s (SER Ms ) t amo xif e n ( N o lvad e x) o r r alo xif e ne (E vis t a) m a y c o ntr ibut e t o lo we r le ve ls of F T 4 a nd elevat e d TSH leve ls, r eq uir ing an incr e as e in le vo t hyr o xine d os e . d. Ra lox if ene ha s bee n shown t o ca us e m ala bs o rpt io n of levot hyr oxine w hen c oadm inist e r ed r es u lt ing in hypo t hyr oid is m . Ab s or ptio n s t ud ie s dem o ns tr at ed t hat se pa rat ing adm inist r at io n t im es b y ~ 12 hr f or t he t wo m ed ic at ions p r eve nt s t he int e r ac t ion. e. C i pr of lo xa cin (C ip r o) ha s b ee n r ep or te d t o int e r act wit h levot h yr o xine whe n given t o ge t he r, r e sult ing in ele vat e d TSH a nd r educe d F T 4 a nd FT 3 leve ls . Adm in is t r a t ion o f t he d r ug s s e pa r at e ly, wit h a 6 - hr int er va l, r e sult e d i n r a pid no rm a liza t io n o f t he t hyr oid f unc t io n t es t s. H. Myxed em a coma is a lif e - t hre at ening c om p lic a t ion w it h a high m or ta lit y r a t e. 1. It is m ost comm on in e lde r ly pa t ie nt s wit h p r ee xist i ng , a lt houg h us ua lly und ia gnos e d, hyp ot hyr o id is m . 2. P re ci pita t ing f a ct or s inc lude a lco ho l, se dat ive , or nar c ot ic us e; o ver use of ant it h yr o id ag ent s; abr up t d is co nt i nuat io n of t hyr oid hor m o ne t he r ap y; inf ec t io n; e xpo sur e t o cold t em per at ur e s; a nd ia t ro ge nic ins ult owi ng t o ra diat ion t her a py or t hyr oid s ur g er y. P. 12 13
3. The pat ie nt us ua lly d ec lines f r om pr of ound le t h ar g y to c om a , hyp ot herm ia , a nd a sig nif ic ant d ecr ea se in r es p ir at or y r at e, p ote nt ia l ly le ad ing t o r espir at o r y f ailur e as t he cr isis p r ogr ess es. H ypom et a bo lism p r od uc es a f lu id and e le ct r o lyt e im ba la nc e
t ha t le ad s t o f l uid r e tent io n a nd hyp o nat r em ia . Car d iac eff ec t s inc lude de cr e as ed he ar t r at e and c ontr a ct i lit y, d ec r ea s ing c ar d ia c o ut p ut . 4. T r ea tme nt co ns is t s of r a pid r est or at io n o f T 3 and T 4 le ve ls t o norm a l. a. A lo ad ing do s e o f le vot hyr o xi ne 40 0 - 5 00 µg is g iven as a n i nt r a ve no us ( IV ) bo lus. Lio t hyr o nine ( C yt om el) , 25 µg, is t he n g ive n or a lly e ve r y 6 hr . b. Tr eatm ent is c ont inue d u nt i l im pr ovem e nt is no t ed. The n liot h yro ni ne is dis c ont inue d, a nd le vo t h yr o xi ne is chang ed t o t he ora l p r ep ar at io n. A m ai nt e na nc e do se is t hen de t erm ine d ( s ee II. F. 3) .
III. HYPERTHYROIDISM is t he ove r ab unda nc e o f t hyro id horm one. T hy r oto xic osi s is t he ge ne r al t erm ap plied t o over a ct ivit y of t he t hyr oid g la nd . A. Gra ves di se a se ( d if f use to xic go it er) 1. The m ost comm on f orm of hyp er t hyr o id is m , Gr aves d is ea se occ ur s pr im ar ily, but no t exc lus ive l y, in you ng w om en. 2. The ba sis of t his d is ea se is an a ut oim m une d iso r de r in whic h ant ib od ies b ind t o and a ct iva t e TSH r ec ept or s , r e sult ing in t he o ve r pr o duct ion o f t hyr o id ho r mo ne . a. The se ant ib od ie s ar e term e d l ong -a c t ing t hy r oid st im ula t ors ( LATS) b ec a us e t he ir d ur a t io n o f act ion e xt e nd s b eyond t ha t o f TS H. As TS H is only m im ic k ed , no t over a bund ant , neit he r tes t ing f or TSH nor att em pts t o inf lue nce it a r e pr o duct ive . b. Ant ib od y t it e r s oft e n a r e ele vat e d in p at ient s wit h G r aves d is ea se. 3. S i gns a nd symp t om s char a ct er is t ic o f Gr ave s d is ea se inc lud e a. D if f us e ly en la r ge d nont ende r g oit e r b. Ne r vo usnes s, ir r it a bi lit y, a nxie t y, and i ns om nia c. He at int o le r anc e a nd pr o f use s weat ing d. W eight lo ss d espit e inc r ea se d ap pet it e e. Tr em or and m usc le we ak ne ss f . P a lpit at io ns a nd t a chyca r dia g. E xo pht ha lm os, s ta r e, a nd lid lag ( slow upp er lid clos ing) h. D iar r hea i. Thr ill or br uit o ve r t he t hyr o id j . P er io r bit a l e dem a B. P lum me r disea se ( t ox ic nod ula r go it er) 1. This f orm of t hy r ot oxic osis is les s commo n t ha n Gr aves dise as e. It s unde r ly ing ca us e rem ai ns unk no wn, but it s inc ide nc e is hig he st in pa t ie nt s > 50 ye ar s of age , and it ar ise s us ua lly f r om a long - s t andi ng no nt o xi c go it e r. 2. The t hyr o t oxic os is is a r es ult of one or m or e a de no m at o us nod ule s aut onom o us ly se cre t ing e xce ss ive t hyr oid hor m o ne , whic h s up pr e s se s t he r es t of t he g la nd . S ca nn ing c o nf ir m s t he d ia gnos is if it ind ica t es t hat ac t iv it y and iod ine upt a k e ar e co nf i ne d t o t he nod ular m a ss , unles s TSH is int r o duc ed . 3. S i gns a nd symp t om s are es se nt ial ly t he s am e as fo r G r aves d is ea se exc e p t t hat one o r m or e no du la r m as ses ar e f o und, r at her t han d if f use gland u la r en la r gem e nt , and o pht ha lm opa t hy is usua ll y ab se nt . Car dia c ab no rm a lit ie s ( e. g. , CH F, t ac hyar r hyt hm ia s ) ar e comm only s ee n wit h P lumm e r dise as e. C. Le ss c om m o n f o rm s of hyp ert hyr oi di sm
1. J od ba sed ow p he no m e no n is a n o ve r pr o duc t io n o f t hyr o id ho r m one f o llow ing a sudd en, la r ge incr e as e in iod ine i ng es t io n— t hr o ug h eit he r a s ud de n rever s al of an iod ine- d ef ic ie nt diet o r t he int r o duct ion of iod id e o r io di ne in co nt ra st ag ent s or dr ugs ( e.g ., t he ant ia r r hyt hm ic a ge nt am io dar one). P. 12 14
2. Fa ct it ious hyp er t hyr oid ism o ccur s w it h ab us ive i ng es t io n o f t hyr oid - r ep la cem ent ag ent s, us ua lly in a m isg uide d e ff or t t o lo se weight . D iag no sis is a id ed by t he ab se nc e of g la nd ula r s wel ling a nd of exop ht ha lm os and t he la ck of auto im m une ac t iv it y f o und in G ra ve s dis ea s e. 3. S ubc linica l hy pe r t hy ro idism r ef ers t o pat ie nt s wit ho ut c li nic a l s ym pt om s, a no rm a l F T 4 a nd FT 3 and TSH leve ls b elow t he low er lim it s of no rma l ( < 0. 4 m IU/ L) . C ur r e nt ly t he r e is ins uf f ic ient ev id enc e t o s up po r t tr eatm e nt bec aus e c ons eq ue nc es of nont r ea tm ent a re m inim a l. D. La bo ra t or y f inding s ( Tab le 55 - 1) E. Tr eatm e nt g oa l. S ym ptom at ic re lief is p r ovid e d unt il de f in it ive t r ea tm ent c an be ef fe ct ed. F. T hera pe ut ic a g ent s 1. β - Ad r energ ic bloc k ing ag ent s— pr opr anolo l a. P r opr anolo l ( I nd er a l) r ed uce s s ome of t he p er ipher a l m anif e st at ions ( e .g. , t ac hyc ar d ia, sweat ing , s ever e t r em or , ner vo us ne s s) o f hyp er t hyr oid is m . b. In ad dit io n t o pr ovid ing s ym pt om at ic r elie f , propr a no lo l inhib it s t he pe r ip he r al co nver s io n o f T 4 t o T 3 . 2. Ant it hy r oid a g ent s— pr opylt hiour a c il (PT U) and m e t him a z ol e (T apa zole ) a. Ac t ion. The se agent s m ay he lp at t ain r em iss io n t hr o ug h d ir e ct int er f e rence wit h t hyr oid hor m o ne synt he s is. B ot h a ge nt s in hib it io did e o xida t io n a nd io do t h io ur ac il co up ling. In a dd it io n, P TU ( but not m et him azole) d im in is he s p er ipher a l d e io d ina t io n of T 4 t o T 3 . b. T hera pe ut ic uses o f t he s e dr ug s inc lude ( 1) D ef ini t ive t r ea tme nt in whic h r em is s ion is a ch ie ve d ( 2) Adj unct ive ther a py wit h r ad io ac t ive iod ine u nt i l t he r a diat ion t ak e s ef f ect ( 3) P re op era ti ve pre pa ra t ion to es t ablish and ma int ai n a eut hyr o id st at e unt il de f init ive s ur ge r y c an be perf orm ed c. Do sa ge s ( 1) P ro py lt hio ur a c il (a ) F or a dult s, t he in it ia l d os e is 3 00- 45 0 µg /da y in t hr e e d iv id ed do se s ( i. e. , 1 0 015 0 µ g e ve r y 8 hr) . Adu lt p at ie nt s w it h se ve r e dis e as e m a y r e quir e as m uch as 6 00 12 00 µg/ da y init ia lly. ( b) The init ia l do s e is c ont in ue d f or a bo ut 2 m o nths ; t he n a m a int enance do s e of 10 0- 150 µg/ da y is give n, a s a s ing le d os e o r d iv id e d int o t wo do ses . ( c) Ma int ena nce t he r ap y is co nt inued f or ap pro xim at e ly 1 ye ar , t he n g rad ua lly dis c ont inue d o ve r 1- 2 m o nt hs w hile t he pa t ie nt is m o nit or e d f or s ig ns of r ec ur re nt hype r t hyr o id ism . The pa t ie nt ma y r em a in in r em is sio n f o r se ver a l yea r s. A r ec ur r ent
ep iso de o f hyp er t hyr o id is m is m os t lik e ly t o o ccur wit h in 3 - 6 m ont hs of d r ug dis c ont inua t io n. ( d) If hype r t hyr oid ism r e cur s aft e r dr ug t he r ap y is st op pe d, t he ag ent s ho uld b e r est art e d and a lt er na t ive t he r ap y s hou ld be co ns id er e d (e .g ., t hyr o id gla nd a blat io n or r em oval) . ( 2) Me t him a zol e (a ) The in it ia l d os e r a ng e is 5-6 0 µ g/ d ay in t hr ee di vide d d os es, d ep ending on dis ea s e s eve rit y. Af te r 2 m ont hs o f t her ap y, a ma int enanc e d os e of 5 -30 µg/ d ay is init ia t ed . ( b) Maint e na nc e t he r ap y is co nt inued f or ap pr o xi m at e ly 1 ye a r at wh ic h t im e t he dr ug is g r ad ua lly d is co nt inued , us ua ll y o ver 1 - 2 mo nt hs . d. Pr e ca ut io ns a nd m onit or ing ef f ec t s ( 1) S er um t hyr oid leve ls a nd t he F TI s ho uld b e m o nit or e d f or a r et ur n t o no rma l. ( 2) G o it e r size s ho uld d ec r ea se wit h r e duce d ho rmo ne o ut p ut. ( 3) The inc id enc e o f a d ve r se ef f ect s is < 1% wit h P TU a nd < 3% wit h m et him a zole . The a dver s e eff ect s ar e sim i lar f or t he t wo ag ent s. (a ) The m ost b ot her s om e are de rm ato logi c rea ction s ( e . g. , r as h, ur t ica r ia , pr ur it us, hair lo ss , sk in p ig m e nt at ion) . Ot her s inc l ud e hea da che, dr o wsine ss , pa r est he sia, na us ea , vom it ing , ver t igo , ne ur it is , lo ss o f ta st e , ar t hr a lg ia , and m yalgia. ( b) S e ve r e a dver se ef f ec t s— agr anu loc yt os is , g ranulo c yt o pe nia, t hr omb oc yt op enia , dr ug fe ver , hep at it is , a nd hypo pr o t hr om bine m ia —oc c ur les s f req ue nt l y. Pat ient s r ec eiv ing m et h im azole who ar e > 4 0 ye ar s old a nd ar e r e ce iv ing d os es abo ve 40 µg/ da y a r e at i nc r ea se d r is k o f d evelop ing a gr a nu loc yt os is . P at ie nt s r e ce iv ing P. 12 15 P TU w ho are > 4 0 ye ars o ld ar e at inc r ea s ed r is k o f d evelop ing a gr a nu loc yt os is , b ut no do se as s oc ia t io n has b ee n e st a blis he d. 3. Ra dioa c t ive io dine (R A I) a. Ac t ion. The t hyr oid g la nd pick s up t he r a dio ac ti ve elem ent iod ine - 13 1 (
13 1
I) as it
wou ld r eg ula r io d i ne . The r a dioa ct ivit y subs eq uen t ly de st r o ys s ome o f t he c ells t ha t wou ld ot her wise c once nt r at e io d ine a nd p r od uc e T 4 , t hus de cr ea sing t hyr o id ho rm o ne pr od uc t io n. b. Ad va nta ges ( 1) H ig h c ur e rat e—a lm ost 1 00% f or pa t ie nt s wit h G r a ve s dis ea s e a nd only s lig ht l y les s f or p at ient s wit h P lum m er d is ea s e ( 2) Avoid s s ur g ica l r isks—s uc h as ad ve rs e r e act io n t o a ne st he t ic s, hypo pa r at hyr oid is m , ne r ve p alsy, b lee di ng , and ho ar s enes s ( 3) L ess e xp ensi ve— avo ids c ost o f ho sp it a liza t io n c. D i sa dva nta ge s ( 1) R isk of de la ye d h ypo t hyr o id is m ( 2) S l ig ht , t ho ug h u nd oc um e nt e d, r is k of g enet ic d am age ( 3) Mult ip le do se s, whic h m ay b e r e quir e d, m a y de la y t her a pe ut ic eff ica cy f or a long pe r iod (m any m ont hs or a year ).
d. D o sa ge. A d os e of 8 0- 1 00 m C i of
131
I p er e st im at ed gram of t hyr oid g la nd is
r ec omm ende d. S ome pr oto co ls use lo wer d os age s, b ut t he s e m a y b e les s ef f ect ive, r eq uir i ng r etr e at me nt . W he n t he do se is hig her , t he r e is a pot e nt ial r isk t hat hypo t hyr o id ism wi ll d eve lop . e. P re ca ut io ns a nd m onit or ing ef f ect s ( 1) R a dioio d i ne t he r ap y ge ne r ally is r eser ve d f or pa t ie nt s p ast t he c hild be ar i ng ye ar s be c ause ef f ect s on f ut ur e of fsp r ing a r e not k nown. ( 2) R e sp ons e t o
131
I is har d t o ga ug e, a nd p at ient s m ust be m onit o r ed ear ly f o r
r ec ur re nc e of hyp er t hyr oid is m , a nd la t er f or hyp ot hyr oid is m , whic h m a y d eve lop even 20 yea r s o r m ore a ft er t he r ap y. 4. S ubt ota l thyr o ide ct omy . P ar t ia l r em oval of t he t hyr o id gla nd m ay be ind ic at e d if dr ug t hera py f a ils o r r ad io ac t ive iod ine is und es ir a ble. This is a dif f ic ult pr o ced ur e , but t he s uc c es s r at e is high and t he cur e r ap id. Ris k s inc l ud e t ho se m ent io ne d i n III. F. 3. b. (2), pr ecip it at ing t hyr o id s t orm , and p er ma ne nt po st op era t ive hypo t hyr o id ism . The r is k of ind uc ing t hyr oid s t orm c an b e m in im ize d b y o bt a in ing a eut hyr oid s t at e t hr oug h use of ant it hyr o id ag ent s ( se e III. F . 2) o r pr opr anolo l ( s e e III. F. 1). G. C om pl ica t ions 1. Hy po t hy ro idi sm m ay occ ur iat rog enic a ll y o r , it ha s b ee n pr o po se d, as a na t ur a l se quel t o G r a ves dise as e. 2. T hy ro id st orm (t hyr ot o xic cr isi s) is a sudd en exa ce r ba t io n o f hyp er t hyr o id ism ca us ed by r a pid r e le as e ( lea ka ge) of t hyr o id ho rmo ne . It is inva r ia b ly f a tal if not t r ea t ed r ap id ly. In t his c r is is , unc he c k e d hyp er m et ab olis m lea ds u lt im a tely t o de hydr a t io n, s hoc k, and d eat h. a. P re ci pita t ing f a ct or s inc lude t hyr o id t r aum a or s ur ger y, R AI t her a py, inf ec t ion, and s ud de n dis c ont inua t ion o f ant it h yr oid t he r a py. b. C ha ra ct er ist ic s. It is c ha r ac t er ized by a TT 4 le ve l of 25 - 30 µg /dl, r ap id ly r is ing f ever , t ac hyc ar d ia dis p r op or t ionat e t o t he f e ve r , and une xp la ined , p r onounc ed r est le ss ne s s a nd t r emor. c. T r ea tme nt ( 1) PT U, in d os es o f 150- 250 µ g o ral ly ever y 6 hr , is t he pr e fer re d ag ent be cause P TU b lo ck s pe r ip he r al de iod inat io n of T 4 t o T 3 , whe r ea s m et him a zole d oe s not . H owe ve r, if ne ce s sar y, met hi ma zo le, 15 m g o r ally ever y 6 hr , ca n be us ed inst ea d. ( 2) P ro pra nolo l, in d os es o f 20- 200 mg or all y e ver y 6 hr o r 1- 3 m g int r avenous l y ever y 4- 6 hr , s ho uld b e a dm inis t er e d un les s co nt raind ica t ed ( e .g., if t he pa t ie nt has CH F) . ( 3) P ota ssi um iod ide, in do s es of 50 - 10 0 m g ever y 1 2 hr, is g iven ( af ter P TU ) t o m inim ize int r at hyr oid a l io d ine up t ak e. ( 4) O t her s upp or t ive t her a py inc l ud es r ehydr a t ion, c oo ling , ant ib io t ic s, r e st, and se da t io n. P. 12 16
STUDY QUESTIONS
D ir ect ions f or quest ions 1 - 16: E a ch of t he questio ns, st a tem e nt s , or inco m plet e st at em e nt s in t h is s ec t io n c an b e corr e ct ly answ e r ed o r com plet e d b y one of t he sugg es t ed a ns wers or phr as es. C ho os e t he be st a ns we r . 1. W ha t is t he co rre ct f orm ula t o use f or ca l cul at ing t he f r e e t hyr ox ine inde x ( FT I) ? ( A) T 4 × R T 3 U /m ea n s er um R T 3 U (B ) T 3 × T 3 /m ean s er um R T 3 U (C ) T 3 × R T 3 U / me an s er um R T 3 U (D ) T 4 × R T 3 U × m e an ser um R T 3 U (E ) T 3 × R T 3 U × m e an se r um R T 3 U V ie w Answe r 1. The answe r i s A[ se e I.F. 15] . 2. Wha t is t he ne ce ssa r y pr ec ur sor be si des di eta ry io dine r e qui re d f or thy r ox ine bio sy nt he si s? ( A) tr iiod ot hyro ni ne ( T 3 ) (B ) t hr eo nine (C ) t yr os ine (D ) t hyr o tr op in ( t hyr o id- s t im ula t ing hor m one ) (E ) t hyr o xi ne - b ind i ng g lob uli n ( TB G ) V ie w Answe r 2. The answe r i s C[ se e] .3. A ll of t he f ollow ing co ndi t ions a re ca use s of hype rt hy r oid ism e xc ept ( A) G r ave s d is ea se . (B ) H a shim ot o t hyro id it is . (C ) toxic m ult inod ular g oit er . (D ) tr iiod ot hyr o ni ne t oxic o s is . (E ) P lum m er d is ea se . V ie w Answe r 3. The answe r i s B[ se eand 4. W hich of t he f o llow i ng pr epara t ions is used t o a t ta i n rem issio n of t hy r ot o xic osis? ( A) pr o pra nolo l (B ) liot r ix (C ) le vo t hyr o xine (D ) pro pylt h io ur a ci l (E ) de s icc at ed t hyr o id V ie w Answe r 4. The answ er i s D[ se eand] . 5. T he thyr oi d gl a nd no rma lly se cr et e s w hic h of t he f ollow ing sub st a nce s int o t he ser um ? ( A) t hyr o tr op in- r elea s ing ho r m o ne ( TRH) (B ) t hyr o tr op in ( t hyr o id -s t im ula t ing hor m o ne ) (C ) di iod ot hyr on ine ( D IT) (D ) t hyr o glo bu li n (E ) t hyr o xi ne ( T 4 ) V ie w Answe r 5. The answe r i s E[ s ee] . 6. All of t he f ollow ing co nd it ion s a re ca use s of hypo t hy r oidi sm e xc ept ( A) endem ic go it e r. (B ) s ur g ic al e xc is io n. (C ) H as him ot o t hyr o id it is . (D ) go it r in- induc ed iod ine d ef icie ncy. (E ) G r ave s d is ea se .
V ie w Answe r 6. The answe r i s E[ s ee] . 7. C omm on t est s to m oni to r pa t ient s re ce iving r epl a c em ent t he ra p y f o r hy pot hyr o idism inc l ud e a ll of t he f ollow ing ex ce pt ( A) t hyr o tr op in ( TS H ) st im ulat io n t es t. (B ) s er um TSH as sa y. (C ) fr ee t hyr o xine inde x ( FTI ) . (D ) r es in t r iiod ot hyr o ni ne up t ak e (R T 3 U) . (E ) to t al t hyr oxine ( TT 4 ) . V ie w Answe r 7. The answe r i s A[ se e] .8. W hi ch of t he f o llow ing pa ir s of pr epara t ions ha s be en st udie d f o r bioe quiva le nc e? ( A) Le voxyl—T hyr olar (B ) t hyr o glob uli n (C ) Le vo t hr oid —S ynt hr o id (D ) C yt om e l—S ynt hro id (E ) de s icc at ed t hyr o id —Ar m o ur Thyr oid V ie w Answe r 8. The answe r i s C[ se eand] . 9. T he in hib it io n of p it uita ry t hyr o t ropi n sec re t ion is co nt r ol led by w hic h of t he f ol l ow ing? ( A) fr e e t hyr o xine ( T 4 ) (B ) t hyr o id - r ele as ing hor m o ne ( TR H ) (C ) fr ee t hyr o xine inde x ( FTI ) (D ) r evers e tr iiod ot hyr o ni ne ( r T 3 ) (E ) to t al t hyr oxine ( TT 4 ) V ie w Answe r 9. The answe r i s A[ se e] .10. W hic h of t he f ollow ing a g ent s ha s be en show n t o int era ct w i t h ora l t hyr ox ine (T 4 ) re pla cem ent t he rap y? ( A) pr o pylt hio ur a c il (B ) c ho les t yr am ine (C ) t hyr o tr op in (D ) le vo t hyr o xine (E ) lo va s t at in V ie w Answe r 10 . T he answ er i s B [ s ee] .P. 12 17
11 . W ha t la b orat or y t e st s a re cur rent ly r ecomme nd ed by t he Ame r ica n T hy r oid Assoc ia t io n t o dia gnose t hyr oi d di se a se? ( A) res in t r iiod ot hyr on ine upt ak e (R T 3 U ) and t ot a l t hyr o xine ( TT 4 ) (B ) t hyr o tr op in ( TS H ) and f r ee t hyr o xi ne inde x ( F TI) (C ) tot al t hyr oxine ( T T 4 ) a nd s ensit ive TS H a ss ay (D ) fr ee T 4 and s ens it ive TS H a ssa y (E ) fr e e T 4 and R T 3 U V ie w Answe r 11 . T he answ er i s D [ s ee] . 1 2. W hat p at ie nt p opulat i on sho uld be sc re ened f or t hyr o id d ise a se? ( A) ho s pit ali ze d p at ient s (B ) elde r ly pa t ie nt s wit h c hr on ic dis e as e (C ) elde r ly ho sp it a lized p at ient s (D ) co lleg e s t ud ent s
(E ) wome n > 2 0 ye ar s old V ie w Answe r 12 . T he answ er i s B [ s ee] . 1 3. W hat is t he a ve ra ge re pla cem ent dose of le vo t hy r oxi ne f or a n ot her w ise he a lt hy a dul t ? ( A) 25- 50 µ g/ d ay (B ) 50- 10 0 µg / da y (C ) 75- 15 0 µ g/ da y (D ) 10 0- 2 00 µg / day (E ) 20 0- 4 00 µ g/d ay V ie w Answe r 13 . T he answ er i s C [ s ee] . 1 4. W hat f a ct ors a f f ect t he opt im a l re pla cem ent dose of le vo t hy r oxi ne ? ( A) ag e, he ig ht , a nd we ig ht (B ) dur at ion o f hyp ot hyr o id is m (C ) pre tr eatm e nt t hyr oid- s t im ulat ing ho r m one ( TSH) leve l (D ) pre se nce of chr onic ill ne ss (E ) Al l of t he ab ove V ie w Answe r 14 . T he answ er i s E [ se e] . 1 5. W hich of t he va l ues r e pr esent s t he low er level of det ect io n f or t he f our t h - ge ne ra t ion sensit i ve T SH a ssa y a s est a bl ished by t he Am er ica n T hy r oid Asso cia t ion? ( A) 0. 5-5 m IU / L (B ) 1- 2 m IU /L (C ) 0. 0 1-0 . 02 m IU / L (D ) 0. 0 01- 0. 00 2 m IU/ L (E ) 0. 00 01- 0. 0 00 2 m IU / L V ie w Answe r 15 . T he answ er i s D [ s eea nd] .1 6. In w hich of t he f ollow ing clin ica l pre se nt a t ions s ho uld t he TSH a ssa y b e use d? ( A) po pula t io n s c r ee ning f or t hyr oid d is ea se (B ) s cr e ening hos pit a l ize d pa t ie nt s (C ) pat ie nt s r e ce iv ing t h yro id r ep la cem ent a ft er 6 - 8 week s of t her a py (D ) pat ie nt s who a r e H IV pos it i ve (E ) s cr e ening p at ient s wit h ps ych ia t r ic illn es s V ie w Answe r 16 . T he answ er i s C [ s ee] .D ir e ct i ons f or q ue st io n 1 7: The ques t io n i n t h is se ct io n c an b e c or r ect ly answe r ed or com plet e d b y one o r m or e of t he sugg est e d a ns we r s. C ho os e t he ans wer, A-E. 17 . A 62- yea r- old w om a n w it h a 5 -yea r hist o r y of w ell ma na ge d hyp ot hy r oid ism wa s rec entl y sta rt e d o n ra lox if ene 6 0 mg da ily in t he m or ning f or t he pr event ion of p ostme no pa usa l o st e opo r osis. Her t hyr oi d di se a se ha d be en w ell cont r olle d o n 1 50 µg le vo t hy ro xine (S ynt hr oi d) da ily in t he mo r ning. He r TS H ha s r em a ine d w it hin t he norm a l ra nge w hile on tr ea tm e nt. Her m ost re ce nt T SH of 2 . 5 m IU/ L a nd norm a l FT 4 va lue s w her e not ed la st year. S he pr e se nt s t oda y wi t h a n e levat e d TSH 1 5. 5 m IU / L af t er 4 mo nt hs of ra lo xif e ne t he ra p y a nd sy m pt om s of hy po t hy ro idi sm . W ha t cha nge in ther a py w oul d be b est f or t his pat i ent ? ( I) r ep ea t t he TSH t est a nd FT 4 T est s ( II) incr ea se t he do se of levot hyr ox ine t o 20 0 µg da il y ( III) sw it ch t he do sing o f t he ra lo xif e ne t o t he eveni ng
A if I onl y is c orr e ct B if II I only is c o rr ect C if I a nd II ar e co rr ect D if II a nd III ar e c or r ect E if I , II, a nd III a re co rr ect V ie w Answe r 17 . T he answ er i s B ( I II) [ s ee an d] .P. 12 18
D ir ect ions f or quest ion 18 : The q ue st ion in t h is se ct ion c an be c orr ect ly a ns we r ed by one o f t he s ugg es t ed ans wer s. C hoo se t he b est a ns wer . 18 . A 69- yea r- old w om a n w it h hyp er te nsio n a nd hypo t hy r oidi sm is be ing t reat e d fo r a w ound inf ect ion. In t he pa st, she w a s m a inta i ne d on 12 5 µg levot hyr ox ine ( Le vo xy l) da ily w it h a norm a l T SH of 2. 0 m IU /L . Af t er 6 w e ek s of t reatm e nt w it h ora l ci prof lo xa cin (5 00 m g tw ice a da y) she c om pla ins of f at ig ue a nd se ns it iv it y t o co ld. Her ser um TSH l evel wa s 14 m IU/ L a nd FT 4 w a s be low nor m a l. W hat is t he b est m a nagem ent f or t his p at ie nt . ( A) incr e as e t he do se of le vot h yr o xi ne (B ) s wit c h t he pat ie nt f r om Levo xy l t o S ynt hr o id (C ) disc ont in ue le vo t hyr o xi ne unt il t he wo und is h ea le d (D ) co nt inue t he r ap y w it hout any cha nge s (E ) s epar at e t he adm inist r at io n of c ip r of lo xac in and le vo t hyr o xine b y at lea st 6 hr V ie w Answe r 18 . T he answ er i s E [ se ea ndD ir ec t ion s f o r que sti on 19 : The ques t io ns in t his se ct ion ca n be corr ect ly a ns we r ed or comp le t ed b y o ne or m or e of t he sugg est e d a ns we r s. C ho os e t he ans wer, A-E. 19 . W hich of t he f ollow ing a g ent s ha ve b ee n sho w n to i nt e ra ct w it h o ra l t hyr o xine (T 4 ) r ep la c em e nt t hera p y? ( I) at e no lol ( II) ca lc ium car bo na t e ( III) c ipr of loxa ci n ( IV) le vo t hy ro xine (V ) ra lo xif ene A if I onl y is c orr e ct B if IV only is c o rr ect C if I a nd IV ar e cor rec t D if I, II, II I, a nd IV ar e c orr e ct E if I I, III, a nd V ar e cor r ec t V ie w Answe r 19 . T he answ er i s E ( I, III, V) [ s ee and] .2 0. W ha t is t he ef f ec t of a mio da r one t he rap y o n t hyr oi d f unct i on? ( A) P at ie nt s wit h u nd er lyi ng t hyr o id d ysf unc t io n a r e at a n inc r e as e r isk of de ve lo p ing h ypo t hyr o id is m wit hin 6 m ont hs o f t he r ap y (B ) P at ie nt s wit ho ut unde r lyi ng t hyr o id dysf unct io n r out ine ly d evelop subc li nic a l hype r t hyr o id ism wit h am io da r one t hera py (C ) Am io da r one i nt e r act s dir ec t ly wit h c ir c ulat i ng se r um t hyr otr o pin (D ) Am io da r one has no ef fe ct on t hyr o id f unct io n. (E ) N o ne of t he above
V ie w Answe r 20 . T he answ er i s A [ a nd] .P .1 21 9
ANSWERS AND EXPLANATIONS 1. T he a nsw er is A [ s ee I .F. 15 ]. The FTI is a m at hem at ic al int er p ret at io n o f t he r e la t io ns hip b et w ee n t he r R T 3 U a nd T 4 le ve ls , c om p ar e d to t he m e an po pula t io n va l ue f or R T 3 U . The FTI is c alcu la t ed us ing r e port ed values f o r TT 4 and R T 3 U. The no r m al FTI va lue i n e ut h yr oid p at ie nt s is 5. 5 - 12 . 2. T he a nsw er is C [ see I.B]. B io synt he s is o f t hyr o id ho r m ones be gins wit h iod i de bind ing t o t yr os ine, w hic h f orm s MI T. MI T bi nd s a no t her io dide at om t o f or m D IT. W hen MIT a nd D IT are f orm ed , a co up ling r e ac t io n oc cur s , whic h p r od uc es T 3 , T 4 , re ve r se tr i iod ot hyr on ine ( r T 3 ) , and ot her b y-p r oduct s. 3. T he a nsw er is B [ s ee II.B. 1; II I. A a nd B] H as him ot o t hyr o id it is ( chr on ic lym phoc yt ic t hyr o id it is ) is a c a us e of hyp ot hyr oid is m . The inc ide nc e of H as him o t o t hyr oid it is is 1% - 2% , and it incr e as es wit h a ge . It is mor e com mo n in wom e n t han in m en and m or e comm on in w hit es t han in blac k s. The r e ma y be a f am il ia l t ende ncy. Pa t ie nt s wit h H as him ot o t hyr oid it is ha ve ele vat ed t it e r s o f a nt ibo die s t o t hyr og lo bu lin: A t it er < 1 :32 is s ee n in > 85 % of pat ient s . Two va r ia nt s of H as him ot o t hyr o id it is ha ve b ee n d es crib ed : gland f ibr o sis a nd id io pa t hic t hyr oid a t r op hy, whic h is m os t lik e ly an e xt e ns io n o f Ha shim ot o t hyro id it is . 4. T he a nsw er is D [ s ee III. F .1 and 2 ]. In h ype r t hyr o id p at ient s, r em is s ion o f t hyr o t oxic os is is a ch ie ve d wit h P TU b y t wo me cha nis m s: ( 1) int e r f er ence of iod inat ion of t he t yr os yl r es id ue s, ult im ate ly r ed uc ing p r od uc t io n o f T 4 and ( 2) inhib it io n of perip he r al c o nver s io n o f T 4 t o T 3 . Pr opr anolo l is com mo nly us ed as a n a dj unct to P TU fo r s ym pt om at ic m anag em e nt of hype r t hyr o id ism . 5. T he a nsw er is E [ s ee I. A. 1]. The m aj or c omp ounds se cr et e d b y t he t hyr o id gla nd, a ft er it s st im ulat io n by t hyr ot r o pin, are T 3 a nd T 4 . W hen r elea se d fr om t he t hyr oid , T 3 and T 4 ar e t r ansp or te d by plasm a p r ot eins —nam ely TB G, t hy r oxine- b ind ing p r ea lb um in, a nd alb um in. 6. T he a nsw er is E [ s ee II.B; III. A. 1]. Gr aves dise as e ( dif f us e toxic go it e r ) is t he m ost com m on form o f hyp er t hyr oid is m . It oc cur s mos t of ten in wom e n in t he 3r d and 4t h deca de s of lif e . The re is a ge ne t ic and f am ilia l p r ed is po s it io n. The c au se is li nk ed t o an aut oim m une r e ac t io n b et wee n im m unog lob ul in G ( IgG) and t he t hyr oid. 7. T he a nsw er is A [ s ee II.G. 3 ]. The TS H st im ulat io n t est m e as ur e s t hyr oid t iss ue r e sp ons e to exo ge no us TS H . It is no t comm only us e d t o m onit o r t hyr o id -r e plac em e nt t he r ap y. It m ay b e us ef ul in t he init ia l d iag no s is o f hyp ot h yr oid is m . 8. T he a nsw er is C [ s ee II. F. 3. b an d c] .
Ma ny b r ands o f le vo t hyr o xine ar e cur r ent ly a va ila ble. B ot h ge ne r ic a nd t rad e nam e pr e par at ions ha ve be en st ud ied , wit h a n em phas is o n L evot hr o id a nd S ynt hr o id . The im po rt ance o f bioe qu iva le nce be com es a ppar e nt w he n p at ie nt s ha ve r ece ived dif f er e nt b r ands of le vo t hyr o xi ne and ha ve exhib it ed change s in t he r ap eut ic r es po ns e t o equ iva le nt r ep la cem ent dos es. 9. T he a nsw er is A [ s ee I. A. 3. a] . An i nc r ea s e in t he b lo od le ve l o f t hyr o id ho rm one ( s ee c ir c ula t ing f ree T 4 a nd fr e e T 3 ) s igna ls t he pit uit ar y t o sto p r ele as ing TS H. The fr e e f r ac t io n o f T 4 is availab le t o bind a t t he p it u it a r y r ec ept ors . 10 . T he a nsw er is B [ se e II. G. 7] . E ut hyr oid p at ie nt s r e ce iv ing o r al r ep la cem ent t hera py ha ve b ec om e hyp ot hyr o id af te r c oncom it a nt a dm inis t r a t io n o f bile ac id se qu es tr a nt t he r ap y. It ap pea rs t hat bio ava i la b il it y is r ed uc ed a s a r e sult o f adm inis t er i ng t he se a ge nts at clos e dosing int e r va ls . It is r ec om m e nd ed t hat at le as t 6 hr pa ss b ef or e a dm inis t r at io n o f a bile ac id se ques tr a nt . I t wo uld b e p r ef er ab le to se le ct a no t her nonb i le a c id se ques t r ant whe n c li nic a l ly po ss ib le . 11 . T he a nsw er is D [ se e I. G. 4]. The f re e T 4 and t he ( t hir d- g ener at io n) TS H a ssa y s hou ld be us ed only f o r t he dia g nos is o f pat ie nt s m o st lik ely t o ha ve t hyr oid d ise as e ba sed o n clinica l pr e se nt at io n a nd r e lat ive r is k ( e. g. , a ge , s ex, fam ily h is t or y) , not f or p op ulat io n sc r ee ning . The t hir d - ge ne r at ion TS H as say is a ls o m or e com m o nly use d t o m o nit or r ep lac em e nt t he rap y and to m inim ize o ver t r e atm ent and t he co rr espo nd ing r isk o f ac ce le r at ed bone los s . P. 12 20
12 . T he a nsw er is B [ se e I. G. 3]. C ost ver s us benef it is c r it ic a l t o t he dec is ion of choo si ng t o sc r ee n ent ir e po pu lat io ns. B eca us e t he fr eq ue nc y of de tec t io n ha s b ee n p rove n t o b e hig he r in eld er l y p at ient s ( 2% - 5%) w it h chr on ic dise as e, t he re lat i ve m inor c os ts a ss oc ia t ed t o o bta in R T 3 U and TT 4 t o c alc ulat e a FTI ar e wo rt h t he co st . A s er um TS H ass ay ca n b e r e ser ved f or pa t ie nt s wit h a n a bno rm a l F TI. Ano t h er c onside r at ion is t o us e t he se ns it ive TS H as s ay f or diag no s is i n p la ce of t he s er um TSH as sa y at a hig her co st but wit hout t he ne ce ss it y o f r et est ing. I f pa t ie nt s a dm it t ed t o t he ho s pit a l f or a n ac ut e il lne ss we r e s cr ee ne d a nd t he re s ult s we r e m islea din g , t he y m ay be pr e sc r ib ed inap pr o pr ia t e t he r ap y be ca us e ac ut e il lne s s m a y be as soc iat ed wit h t he t em p or a r y eff e ct s c aus ing a bnorm al t est r e sult s . 13 . T he a nsw er is C [ se e II. F. 3. d] . The a ve r ag e a dult m a int ena nc e d os e is 7 5 -1 50 µ g/ d ay, wh ic h ha s b ee n s hown t o be 1. 5- 1.7 µg /k g/ d ay. The do se is usua l ly adj us t ed in inc r em e nt s of 25 - 50 µg/ d ay eve r y 4 we ek s . The t ot a l d ail y d os e us ed to be 100 -20 0 µ g/ day, whic h r es ult ed in over t re atm e nt af t er t he int r o duc t ion o f t he s ensit ive TS H a ssa y. E ld er ly o r chr on ic a ll y i ll p at ient s r eq uir e a n a ver ag e dose of 50 - 10 0 µ g/ da y, w hic h is 25 - 50 µg/ da y les s t ha n o t her wise he alt hy a du lt s of t he sam e he ig ht a nd weight . 14 . T he a nsw er is E [ se e II . F. 3. e] .
E ld er ly o r chr onic a l ly ill pa t ie nt s r eq uir e a n aver age dos e o f 5 0- 1 00 µg /da y, which is 25 - 50 µg / da y les s t ha n ot her wise he alt hy a du lt s of t he s am e he ig ht a nd we ight . B ec aus e t he aver a ge dos e f or r ep la cem ent t her a py is b et we en 1. 5 a nd 1 .7 µg/ kg /da y, weight af f ec ts t he t o tal da ily d os e. 15 . T he a nsw er is D [ se e I. F .4 . e a nd f ]. The Am er ic an Th yr o id As so c iat io n ha s es tab lis he d st a nda r d nom e nc la t ur e t ha t ind ic at e s each t echno lo g ic a l im p ro vem e nt a nd t he a bi lit y t o de t ect lowe r le ve ls of TS H us ing m onoc lo na l a nt ibo d ies . As t he s ens it iv it y o f t he a ssay im pr ove s, t he low er le ve l o f d ete ct ion is r e por t ed as a r ange in m ill i- I nt er nat iona l U nit s p er lit e r . The m ost s ens it ive t est is c ur re nt ly t he fo ur t h - ge ne r at ion IM A, w it h a re por t ed lo we r le ve l of de t ec t io n of 0 . 00 1-0 . 002 m IU /L . In us ua l c lin ic a l pr a ct ice t he t hir d ge ne r at ion IM A is m os t comm o nly us ed , wit h s ensit iv it y in t he r ang e of 0. 01 - 0. 0 2 m IU/ L. 16 . T he a nsw er is C [ se e I. F .4 . g; I I. 6; Fig ur e 55 -6] . The c ur r e nt t hir d- ge ner a t ion TS H ass ay is not ind ic at e d f or use in hos p it ali ze d pa t ient s who a re not susp ect e d t o have t hyr oid d is ea se. St udies h ave ind ic at e d t hat ab no rm a ll y h ig h o r lo w TS H le ve ls ar e det e ct e d in e ut hyr oid hos p it a l ized pa t ie nt s . P syc hiat r ic il ln es s m a y als o inf lue nc e TSH leve ls. 17 . T he a nsw er is B (I I I ) [ s ee II.G .7 ; Tab les 5 5- 2 an d 5 5- 4] . The p at ient is m ost lik e ly e xp er ie nc ing a d rug int er a ct ion be t we en r alo xif e ne and le vot hyr oxine. T he b es t c ho ic e is t o s ep ar at e t he m ed ic at io ns b y at lea st 12 hr. A r ep eat of t he TS H as s ay wil l o nly c onf ir m t he r es ult s, w hic h ar e sign if ic a nt ly ele va t e d. I nc r ea sing t he d os e of le vot hyr o xine m ay r e sult i n o ve r t r e atm e nt. 18 . T he a nsw er is E [ se e II .G. 7; Ta ble s 55- 2 a nd 55- 4 ] This p at ient is m o st lik ely e xp er ienc i ng a d r ug int e r act io n b et w ee n levot h yro xine and c ip r of lo xac in whe n t ak en c oncom it a nt ly. T he r e is no be ne f it t o s wit c h ing t o anot her br and of levot hyr o xine o r incr e as ing t he do se . The be st so lut io n is t o se pa rat e t he d oses o f c ipr o f lo xac in by 6 hr . 19 . T he a nsw er is E (I , I II , V ) [ s ee II.G. 7 ; Tab les 5 5- 2 an d 5 5-4] . P at ient s r ec eivi ng or a l r e pla c em ent t her a py who t ak e c a lci um car bonat e co nc om it ant ly ha ve b ee n s ho wn t o e xpe r ie nc e d ec r eas ed fr ee T 4 and to t al T 4 leve ls t ha t r es ult e d in a n e le va t ed TS H . The m e c ha nism a pp ea r s t o b e a ds or pt ion of le vot hyr oxine t o c alcium c ar b onat e at ac id pH lev els, which m ay r e duce bio ava i la b il it y. It is r e com m ende d t o s ep ar a te t he t im e of inge st io n of ea ch pr o duc t t o r e duce t he c hance of t his i nt e r act io n. C ip r of lo xac in and R a lo xif e ne ha ve a lso be en show n t o int er a ct wit h le vo t h yr o xi ne whe n adm inist e r ed t o get he r. Se pa rat e adm inist r a t io n t im es by 6 hr f or c ip r of lo xac in and by 12 hr f or r a lo xif ene. 20 . T he a nsw er is A [ Tab le s 5 5-2 and 55 - 4]. P at ient s r ec eivi ng am io da r one t he r ap y a r e at r isk o f de velo p i ng hyp ot h yr o id is m es pe ciall y if t her e is unde r ly ing t hyr o id dise as e . Am io da r one d eliver s hig h le ve ls of iod ine t o t he s ystem cont r ib ut ing t o s ub c lin ic a l or c lin ic a l hypo t hyr o id ism m o r e of te n. S ub cl in ic a l h ype r t hyr oid is m has be en obs erved r ar ely. S om e pat ie nt s wit ho ut unde r lyi ng t hyr o id d is e as e m a y e xpe r ie nc e c ha ng es in t hyr o id f unc t io n wh ile pa t ient s wit h u nd er ly ing d is ea s e a r e m or e lik ely to pr e s ent wit h h yp ot hyr o id is m .
P at ient s shou ld be m onit o r ed clos ely f or t hyr oid f u nc t io n whe n b eg inn ing am io da r one t he r ap y.
56 Renal Failure Andr ew L. W il son
I. ACUTE RENAL FAI LURE A. D ef init io n. Acut e r enal f ai lur e ( AR F) is t he s ud de n, pot ent ia lly r e ve r sib le int e r r up t io n of k id ne y f unct ion, r e sult ing in r e t e nt ion of nit r o ge no us wa st e p r od uc t s in b od y f lu ids . B. C la ssif ica t io n a nd et io logy. AR F is c la ss if ied ac cor ding t o it s c ause. 1. P rer ena l AR F st ems f r om im pair e d renal pe r f us io n, w hic h ma y r es ult fr om : a. Re duc ed art e r ia l b lo od vo lum e [e . g. , de hyd ra t io n, hem or r hag e, vom it ing, dia r r he a, ot her g ast r o int es t ina l ( G I) f lu id lo ss ] b. Ur ina r y los se s f r om e xce ss ive diur es is c. De c rea sed ca r dia c out put [e . g. , fr om co ng es t iv e he art f a ilur e (C H F) or per ica r dia l t am p onad e] d. Re na l va sc ul ar o bst r uct ion ( e. g ., st eno sis) e. S ever e hyp ot e ns io n 2. Int rar e na l AR F ( int r insic or par e nchym a l ARF ) r ef lec t s st ruc t ur a l k id ne y dam age r e sult ing f r om a ny o f t he fo llo w ing c o nd it io ns . a. Ac ut e t ub ula r ne cr osis ( ATN ), t he le ad ing c aus e o f AR F, m ay b e as so ciat e d wit h: ( 1) E xp os ur e t o ne phr ot o xic am inog lyco side s, anes t he t ic s , pe st ic ide s , or gan ic met a ls, and r a diop aq ue c ontr ast m at er ia ls ( 2) Is c hem ic inj ur y ( e. g., s ur ger y, cir cu lat or y co ll ap se , sever e hyp ot e ns io n) ( 3) P igm e nt ( e. g ., hem olys is , m yog lob in ur ia) b. Ac ut e g lo m er ulo nep hr it is c. Tub ular o bst r uc t ion, as fr om hem olyt ic r e act io ns or ur ic a cid cr yst a ls d. Ac ut e inf lam m at ion ( e. g., ac ut e t ubu lo i nt e r st it ia l nep hr it is , pa pi lla r y ne cr o sis) e. Re nal va sc ul it is f . Maligna nt hyp er t e ns io n g. Ra diat io n ne phr it is 3. P ost r e na l AR F r es ult s fr om o bst r uct ion of ur i ne f lo w anywhe r e a lo ng t he ur ina r y t r ac t. C a us e s of p ostr enal AR F inc lud e: a. Ur et er al ob str uc t ion, a s f r om c alcu li, ur ic a cid c r ys t a ls , or t hr om bi b. B lad de r obs tr uc t io n, as fr om ca lc uli, t hr om bi, tum or s, or inf ec t io n c. Ur et hr al ob str uc t ion, a s f r om s tr ic t ur es , t um o rs, or pro sta t ic hyp er tr o phy d. E xt r ins ic ob st ruc t io n, a s f rom hem at om a, inf la mm ato r y b owel dis e as e, or ac cide nt a l s ur g ic a l lig at ion C. Pa t hop hy si o log y. AR F pr og res s es in t hr ee phas es. 1. Init ia t ing pha se a. The in it ia t ing p ha s e is d ef ine d a s t he t im e bet we en t he re na l ins ult and t he p oint at whic h e xt r ar e na l f a c tors no lo ng er rever s e t he dam ag e c a us ed by t he o bs tr uct ion or o t he r c ause of AR F. Th is phas e m a y no t b e well- d ef ine d cli nica lly and ma y es ca pe no t ic e or d ia gnos is .
b. Ur ine o ut p ut m ay d rop m ark edly t o 40 0 mL /d ay or les s ( olig ur ia ). In som e pa t ient s , urine out p ut f alls b elow 1 00 m L/ da y (a nur ia ). O lig ur ia m ay las t on ly ho ur s or a s long a s 4- 6 week s. H owe ver , it ha s been sho wn t hat 40 %- 5 0% o f AR F p at ient s ar e no t olig ur ic o r anur ic. c. N it ro ge no us w a st e p r oduct s acc um ulat e in t he b lo od . ( 1) Az ot em ia r ef le c t s ur ea acc um ula t io n d ue t o im pa ir e d g lo me r ular f i lt r a t io n a nd co nc ent r at ing c ap ac it y. ( 2) S er um c r eat inine co nc ent r a t ion, s ulf at e , p ho sp ha t e , and or ga nic ac id le ve ls clim b r a pidly. d. The se r um so dium co nce nt ra t ion f alls be lo w no rm al f rom int r a ce ll ula r f lu id sh if t ing and d ilut io n. P. 12 22
e. Hy pe rka lem ia oc c urs d ue t o t he ac c um ulat io n of or gan ic ac id s (m et ab olic ac ido s is ) . If p ot a ss ium int ak e is no t res tr ict e d o r b od y p ot as sium is not rem ove d, hype rk a lem ia r e s ult s. W it hout t r eat me nt , hyp erk alem ia m ay le ad t o ne ur om us cula r de pr ess io n a nd pa r alys is , im p air ed car diac c onduct ion, a rr hyt hm ias , r es p ir at or y m uscle p ar a lys is, c ard ia c ar r est, and ult im at e ly de at h. 2. Ma int e na nc e p ha se a. This p ha se b eg ins whe n ur i ne out p ut r ise s ab ove 5 00 m L/ da y—t ypic a l ly af t er se ve r al da ys o f olig ur ia . A r ise in ur i ne out p ut o r a “diur e t ic r es po ns e ” m ay no t be se en in no n- o lig ur ic p at ient s . Incr e as ed ur ina r y o ut put d oe s not signa l r ec over y o f r enal f unct io n. b. Ur ine out put r ise s in i nc r em e nts of se ver a l m il lilit er s t o 30 0- 5 00 m L/ da y. U r ine out put m ay d ouble f r om da y t o d ay in t he i nit ia l r ec ove r y p er iod . c. Azo t em ia a nd as s oc ia t ed la bo r at or y f ind ings m ay p er s is t unt i l ur i ne out p ut r ea ches 10 00- 2 000 m L/ da y. d. The m aint e na nc e p ha s e c ar r ies a r isk o f f lu id and ele c t r olyt e ab no rm al it ie s, G I ble ed ing, inf e ct ion, a nd r es pir ato r y f ai lur e . 3. Re co ve r y p ha se . D ur ing t he r eco ver y phas e, rena l f unc t io n g r ad ua lly r e t ur ns t o no rm a l. Mo st r ecove r ed r enal f unc t io n a pp ea rs in t he f ir s t 2 weeks ; how ever , r ec over y of r enal f unc t io n m a y c ont in ue f o r a ye ar. R es id ua l im p air m e nt m ay per sist ind ef i nit e ly. D. C linica l e va lua t ion 1. P hysic a l f indings. In it ia lly, AR F c aus es azot em ia and, in 50 % -6 0% of c as es , olig ur ia. Lat er, ele c t r olyt e ab no rm alit ie s and o t he r sever e s ys t em ic e ff ect s occ ur . a. Ur ine o ut p ut t ypica lly is low , f r om 20- 50 0 m L /d ay. C omp le t e anur ia is r a r e. b. S i gns a nd sy mp t om s of hype r ka lem ia, r e sult i ng f r om m e tab ol ic ac id os is and r ed uc ed po ta ss ium excr e t io n by im pa ir e d k id ne ys, inc lude : ( 1) N e ur om usc ula r de pr e ssion ( e. g. , p ar e st he sias , m us c le weak nes s, pa r alys is ) ( 2) D iar r hea and abd om ina l d is t ent io n ( 3) S low o r ir r e gula r pu ls e ( 4) E lec t roc ar diog r ap hic c ha ng es wit h p ot e nt ial c a r diac ar r es t
c. Ur em ia, ca us ed by e xc e ss ive n it r o ge no us wa st e re t ent io n, lea ds to nause a, vo m it ing, dia r r he a, edem a , co nf us io n, f a t ig ue , neur om usc ular ir r it a bil it y, and com a. d. Meta bo lic ac ido sis, a comm on com plic at io n of AR F, is evid e nce d b y: ( 1) D et er ior at io n o f m ent a l s t at us , obt und at io n, com a, and let har g y ( 2) D e pr e ss e d c ar d ia c c o ntr a ct ilit y a nd d ec r ea se d va sc ular r e sist ance , le ad ing t o hypo t ensio n, p ulm o na r y ed em a, and ve nt r icu lar f ibr i lla t io n ( 3) N a us ea a nd vom it i ng ( 4) R e sp ir a t or y a bnorm a lit ies ( e. g. , hype r ve nt i la t ion, K us sm a ul' s r es pir a t io n) e. Hy pe rphosp ha t em ia ar ise s f rom d ec r ea se d phos phat e e xc r et ion. It is ge ne r ally no t se en in AR F . ( 1) As s er um phos p ha t e r ise s, hypo c alc e m ia r esult s fr om t he f o rm at ion of ins o l ub le ca lc ium p ho s phat e com ple xes . ( 2) The sig ns a nd s ym pt om s r e lat e to r es ult a nt hyp oc a lc em ia and me t asta t ic s oft t is sue c alc if ic at ion. ( 3) Ma nif es t at ions o f hyp oc a lc em ia inc l ud e: (a ) N e ur om usc ula r ir r it ab ilit y, cr am ps, s pa sm s, a nd tet a ny ( b) H ypo t ens ion ( c) S of t-t iss ue c alc if ica t io n ( d) Ment a l s t at us change s ( e. g ., c onf usion, m oo d c hange s, los s of int e lle c t and mem or y) ( e) H ype r ac t ive de ep -t e nd on r ef le xes a nd Tr o us se au's a nd C hvo st ek ' s signs (f ) Abd om ina l c r am p s ( g) St r ido r and dysp ne a f . H yp ona tr em ia re sult s fr om dil ut ion and i nt r a va s cu la r f lu id sh if t s dur ing t he diur et ic phas e of AR F. P hys ica l f ind ing s inc lude le t ha r gy, we ak nes s, se iz ur e s, co gnit ive im pa irm ent, a nd p os sible r e duct ion in le ve l o f co nsc io us ne ss . g. Int ra va scula r volum e de plet io n, s ug ge st ing p re r ena l fa ilur e, m a y c a us e: ( 1) F lat j ug ular veno us pu ls es when t he p at ient lie s supine ( 2) O rt hos t at ic chang es in b loo d p r es sur e and p ul se ( 3) P o or sk in t ur g or and dr y m uc ous m em br a ne s P. 12 23
h. Ot her f indings sugg es t ing pr ere na l f a il ur e inc lude : ( 1) An a bd om ina l br u it , pos s ibl y ind ic at ing r ena l ar t er y st e no s is ( 2) Incr e as ed par ado xus , s ug ge st ing pe r ic ar d ia l t am p onad e ( 3) Incr e as ed j ug ula r venous pr es s ur e, p ulm o na r y r ale s , and a t hir d he ar t so und, sig na ling CH F i. P o st r ena l f a ilur e c aus ed by o bst r uc te d ur inar y f lo w m a y m a nif es t it s e lf in: ( 1) A supr a pubic o r f la nk m ass ( 2) B lad de r dist e nt ion ( 3) C o st overt e br a l a ng le t end er nes s ( 4) Pr o st ate enla r gem ent 2. D ia gnost ic test result s
a. Ur ina ly sis i nc lude s a n e xam inat io n of se dim e nt ; id ent if ica t io n o f pr ot e ins, gluco s e, k et ones , b loo d, and nit r it es ; a nd m ea surem e nt of ur inar y pH and ur ine sp ec if ic g r avit y ( c once nt r at ion) or o sm o la lit y ( d ilu t io n) . P r ior adm inist r a t io n o f f lui ds , d iur e t ic s , and c hange s in ur inar y p H m ay conf ound a cc ur a t e dia gnos is , usi ng ur ina l ys is . ( 1) U r inar y se dim e nt e xa mi nat i on (a ) F ew c as ts and f orm e d e le m ent s ar e f ound in pr e r ena l AR F . ( b) P igm ent e d c ellu lar c a sts a nd r enal t ub ular e pi t he lia l c e l ls ap pe ar wit h ATN . ( c) R e d b lo od ce ll and w hit e b loo d ce ll c a st s g ener a lly r ef lec t inf lam m at o r y dise as e. ( d) L ar g e num b er s of br o ad whit e ce ll c a st s s ug ge st chr onic r ena l f a ilur e. ( 2) The pr e se nc e of b lo od in t he ur ine ( hem a t ur ia) or p r ot e ins ( p r ot ei nur ia ) ind ic at e s r enal dysf unct io n. ( 3) U r ine- spe cif ic gra vi t y r a ng es fr om 1. 0 10 - 1. 01 6 in AR F. ( 4) U r ine o sm ola lit y t ypica lly r is es in p r er e na l AR F d ue t o inc r ea s ed sec r et ion of ant id i ur e t ic horm one. b. Mea sur em e nt of ur ine sod i um and cr eat ini ne level s c an he lp c las s if y AR F . ( 1) In pr er ena l ARF, t he ur ine cr e at ini ne co nc ent r a t io n i ncr e a ses, and ur ine so dium le ve l de cr ea ses. ( 2) In int ra r ena l AR F r e sult i ng f r om ATN , t he ur ine cr eat in ine c once nt r a t io n dec r ea se s, and t he ur ine so dium le ve l i ncr e a ses. c. Cr eat ini ne c lea ra nce , an inde x of t he glome rula r f iltrat i on ra te (G FR ), a llows es t im at ion o f t he num b er of f unc t io ning ne phr ons; de cr e as ed c rea t in ine c le ar a nc e ind ic at e s r enal dysf unct io n. A t im ed ur ine co lle c t ion s ho uld b e use d t o c a lcu la t e GFR in a cut e r enal f ail ur e . d. B lo od chem ist ry pr ovid es an inde x of re na l e xc r et or y f unc t io n a nd b od y chem is tr y st at us. Find i ng s t yp ic a l of ARF inc lude : ( 1) Incr e as ed b lo od ur ea nit r o ge n (BUN) ( 2) Incr e as ed s er um cr eat in ine c once nt ra t io n ( 3) P o ssib le incr e as e in he m oglob in and hem a tocr it va lues due t o d ehydr at ion ( 4) Ab norm al se r um e le ct r olyt e va lues (a ) S er um p ot as sium level ab ove 5 m Eq /L ( b) S er um p ho sp hate le ve l a bo ve 2. 6 m Eq/ L ( 4. 8 m g/ dl) ( c) S er um c a lc ium leve l be lo w 4 m E q/ L ( 8.5 m g/ dl) , ref lec t ing h ypo ca lc em ia . ( The se r um c alci um le vel m ust be cor re lat e d wit h t he ser um album i n le ve l. Ea ch r is e or f all of 1 g/ dl of ser um a lb um in be yo nd it s norm a l ra ng e is r e s po ns ib le f or a co rr es po nd ing i nc r ea se or de cre as e in se r um calci um o f ap pr o xim at e ly 0 . 8 m g/ dl. A be low -no rm a l s er um album in leve l m ay r e sult i n a de cep t ive ly lo w s er um ca lc ium le ve l. ) ( d) S er um s od ium le ve l b elow 1 35 m Eq/ L, ref le c t ing h yp onat r em ia ( 5) Ab norm al art er ia l b lo od ga s va lue s [ pH b elow 7. 3 5, bic ar b ona t e c onc ent r at ion -
(H CO 3) be lo w 22 ], r ef le ct ing m et abo lic a cido sis e. Re na l f a ilur e ind ex (R FI ) is t he r at io of ur ine s o dium co nc e ntr a t io n t o t he ur ine t o-s er um cr e at ini ne r at io. The R F I he lp s de t erm ine t he et iolog y o f AR F . Typ ic all y, t he R FI is les s t ha n 1 in p r ere na l AR F or ac ut e g lom er ulo nep hr it is ( a c aus e of
int r a r enal AR F ) . The R FI is gr eat e r t ha n 2 in p os tr enal AR F and in o t he r int r a r enal ca us es of AR F . f . E le ctr oca rd iog rap hy (ECG) m ay s ho w e vide nc e of hyp erk a lem ia — t ha t is , ta ll, pe ak ed T w aves ; wide ning QRS c om p le xe s; p rolonge d P R int er va l, p rog res sing t o de cr eas ed amp lit ud e a nd disa pp ea r ing P wave s; a nd, ult im at ely, ve nt ric u la r f ibr i lla t io n a nd c ar d iac ar r es t. P. 12 24
g. Ra dio gra p hic f indings ( 1) U ltra so und m ay d et ec t up pe r ur ina r y t r ac t o bs t r uct ion. ( 2) K id ne y, ur et e r, o r bla dder ra d iogra phy ma y r evea l: (a ) U r ina r y t rac t c alc u li ( b) E nla r ge d k id ne ys , s ug ge s t ing ATN ( c) As ym metr ic a l k idneys , s ug ge st ing un ila t e r al rena l a r t er y d is ea se, ur et er al ob str uct ion, o r chr onic p ye lo ne p hr it is ( 3) Ra dio nuclid e sca n m a y revea l: (a ) B i la t er a l d if f e rence s in re nal p er f us io n, s ug ges t ing s er ious r e nal d is ea se ( b) B i lat e r al dif f ere nce s in d ye e xc r et ion, s ug ge st ing p ar e nc hym a l dise as e or ob str uct ion a s t he ca us e of AR F ( c) D if f us e, slow, de ns e ra dion uc lide up t ak e, sugg es t ing ATN ( d) P at c hy or ab se nt r ad ion uc lide up t ak e, po ss ib ly ind ic a t ing s ever e , a cut e glo m er ulo ne phr it is ( 4) C omp ut e d t omo gra phy ( CT ) sc a n m ay pr o vid e b et te r vis ua lizat io n of an ob str uct ion. h. Re na l bio psy m a y be perf orm ed in s e lec t e d p at ient s whe n o t her te st r es ult s are inc onc lus ive. E. Tr eatm e nt o bj e ct ives 1. Co rr ect r e vers ib le c a us es of ARF , pr e vent ing o r m inim izi ng f ur t he r r enal dam ag e or c om p lic at io ns. a. D isc ont in ue nep hr o t oxic dr ug s; r em ove ot her nep hr ot o xi ns t hro ugh dia lys is or ga str ic lavag e f or p oiso ning s. b. Tr eat unde r ly ing inf e ct io n. c. Rem ove any ur inar y t r a ct ob st r uc t io ns . 2. Co rr ect a nd m aint a in pr o per f lu id and ele c t r olyt e ba la nc e. Mat c h f luid, ele ct r olyt e , and nit r og en int ak es t o ur ine out put . 3. Tr ea t bo dy c hem is t r y alt er at io ns , es p ec ia lly hy p erk alem ia and m e tab ol ic ac id os is , whe n p r es ent . Tr ea tm ent m a y inc lude r enal d ia lys is. 4. Im pr ove ur ine out put . 5. Tr ea t s ys t em ic ma nif es t a t io ns of AR F. F. T hera py 1. Co nser va t ive ma na geme nt a lo ne m ay s uff ice in unc om pl ic at e d AR F. a. F luid m a na gem ent
( 1) F luid i nt ak e s ho uld m at ch f lu id lo ss es . S e nsib l e lo sse s ( i. e . , ur ine, st o ol, t ub e dr a ina ge ) and inse n sib le l o sse s ( i. e. , sk in, r espi r ato r y t r ac t) o f 5 00 - 1000 m L/ d ay shou ld be inc lude d in f luid b a lance c alc u lat io ns. ( 2) V o lum e o ve r lo ad sho uld be a vo id ed to m inim i ze t he r is k of hype r tens io n a nd CH F. ( 3) The pa t ie nt s hou ld be weighed da ily t o de t ermi ne f lu id vo lum e st at us . b. D ieta ry m ea sur es ( 1) B e cause cat a bo lis m acc om p anie s r e na l f a ilur e, t he pat ie nt shou ld r ec eive a hig h- ca lor ie, low -pr ot e in die t . S uch a die t helps t o: (a ) R e duce r e na l wo rk loa d b y decr eas ing p r od uc t io n of e nd p rod uc t s of pr ot ein ca t abol is m t ha t t he k id ne ys c an no t e xc r et e ( b) P re ve nt k et o ac ido s is ( c) Al le via t e m anif e st at io ns o f ur em ia ( e. g. , nause a, vom it ing, co nf us io n, fa t ig ue ) ( 2) If ed em a or hyp er t ensio n is pr e se nt , sod ium int ak e s ho uld b e r e st r ic t ed . ( 3) P ot a ss ium int ak e m ust be lim it ed in m os t p at ient s. Fr uit s , ve get a ble s , and s a lt subs t it ut e s c ont a ini ng po t ass ium s hould be lim it ed or a void ed . 2. Ma na geme nt of bo dy chem istr y a lt era t ions a. T r ea tme nt of hy per ka lem ia ( 1) D ia ly sis m ay b e use d t o t r ea t ac ut e, l if e - t hr e at e ni ng hyp er k alem ia (se e II. F.7 ). ( 2) Ca lci um chlor id e or ca lci um gluco na t e (a ) Me cha ni sm of a cti on a nd t he ra p eut ic ef f ects. Calc ium c hlor id e or c alcium gluco nat e r ep la ce s a nd m a int a ins bo dy ca lc ium , count e r ac t ing t he ca rdiac ef f ect s of ac ut e hyp erk alem ia . P. 12 25
( b) Adm inist ra t ion a nd d osa ge. W hen us ed t o r eve r se hype rk alem ia - ind uc e d ca r dio t o xic it y, c a lc ium c hlor ide is give n i nt r a ve no us ly, a s 5 - 1 0 m L of a 1 0% solut io n ( 1.4 m Eq C a 2 + /m L) adm inist er e d o ve r 2 m inut es . D oses of up t o 20 m L of a 10 % so lut io n a r e s afe when give n slo w ly. Ano t he r 10 - 20 m L of a 10% s olut io n p la ce d i n a lar g er f lui d vo l um e and adm inis t e r ed slowl y m a y fol low t he in it ia l d os e. C alc ium gluco nat e is adm inist er e d a s 1 0 m L of a 10% so lu t ion ( 1 g) o ver 2 - 5 m inut es . This ma y be rep eat e d a se cond t im e. ( c) P re ca ut io ns a nd m onit or ing ef f ect s ( i) Int ravenous ( IV ) c alcium is c ont r aind ic at e d in p at ient s wit h ve nt r ic ula r f ib r ill at io n or r e na l c alcu li. ( ii) The i nf us io n r at e s ho uld not exc ee d 0 . 5 m L /m in. Pa t ie nt s s ho uld r em a in r ec um b ent fo r ab out 15 m inut es aft er inf us io n. ( iii) The ECG s ho uld b e m o nit or e d d ur ing c alc ium gl uc o nat e t her a py. ( iv) C a lc ium gluc onat e s ho uld not b e m ixe d w it h so lut ions co nt ain ing s od ium bic ar b ona t e bec aus e t his c an le ad t o p r ec ip it a t io n. ( v) Ad ve r se ef f ect s inc l ud e hypo t ens io n, t ing l ing s ensa t io ns , a nd r enal ca lc ul us f orm at io n. ( d) S ig nif i ca nt int era ct io ns. C alc ium m ay c aus e i nc r ea se d d ig it a lis t o xic it y w he n adm inist e r ed c oncur r ent ly w it h d ig it al is pr e pa rat ions.
( 3) S o dium bicar bo na t e m a y be give n a s an em er ge nc y m ea sur e f or s ever e hype rk a lem ia o r m et ab olic a c ido s is . (a ) Me cha ni sm of a ct i on a nd t he ra p eut ic ef f ect. IV so dium b ic ar b onat e r esto r es bic ar b ona t e t hat t he r e na l t ubu le s c an no t re ab sorb f r om t he g lom er ula r f ilt r a t e and inc r ea s es art er ia l p H. This r e sult s in a sh if t of p ota ss ium int o c e lls and r ed uc es se r um p ot a ss ium c once nt ra t io n. ( b) O nse t of a ct io n is 1 5- 3 0 m inut es . ( c) Adm i nist ra t io n a nd dosa ge ( i) So dium bica r bo na te is adm inist e r ed int r a ve no us ly. ( ii) The d os a ge is ca lc ulat e d a s f ol lo ws: -
-
[ 50% of b od y weight (k g)] × [ d es ir e d ar ter ial b ic ar b ona t e (HC O 3) - act ua l H C O 3] One am p ule ( 5 0 m Eq) m ay b e g ive n int r ave no us ly over 5 m inut e s . ( d) P re ca ut io ns a nd m onit or ing ef f ect s ( i) To avo id s o dium and f luid o ver lo ad , s od ium bic ar b ona te m ust be give n ca ut io us ly. H alf of t he pa t ie nt ' s b ic ar b onat e d ef ici t is rep la ce d o ver t he f ir s t 12 ho ur s of t he r ap y. ( ii) S o dium bica r bo na t e m ay pr e c ipit at e c alcium salt s i n IV so lut io ns and shou ld no t be m ixed in t he sam e inf us io n f lu id . ( iii) Ar t er ia l b lo od ga s va lue s and s er um e lec t r o ly t e levels s ho uld b e mo nit or e d clo s e ly d ur ing so dium bica r bo na te t he r ap y. ( 4) R e gular insuli n w i t h dex tr ose (a ) Me cha ni sm of a ct i on a nd t he ra p eut ic ef f ect. The insu lin c ause s a n int r a c ell ula r s hif t of pot ass ium . The c om b ina t io n of ins ul in w it h de xt r o s e d ep os it s po t assium wit h g lyc og en in t he live r , r ed uc ing t he ser um pot as sium . ( b) O nse t of a ct io n is 1 5- 3 0 m inut es . ( c) Adm i nist ra t io n a nd dosa ge. R eg ular ins uli n ( 1 0 unit s in 50 0 m L of 10% de xt r o se ) is a dm in is t er e d int r aveno us l y o ver 6 0 mi nut es . ( d) P re ca ut io ns a nd m onit or ing ef f ect s ( i) The s er um g luc o se le ve l s ho uld b e m o nit or e d d ur i ng t he r ap y. ( ii) The p at ient s ho uld b e a sse sse d f or s igns and s ym pt om s of f luid ove r loa d. ( 5) S o dium pol yst yr ene sulf ona t e (SPS) (a ) Me cha ni sm of a ct i on. SPS is a p ota s sium -r em o vi ng r es in t hat e xcha nge s so dium io ns f o r pot ass ium ions in t he int es t ine (1 g of SPS e xcha nge s 0.5 - 1 m E q/ L of p ota s sium ). The SPS is dist r ibut ed t hro ughout t he int e st i ne s a nd e xc r et ed in t he f ec es . ( b) T hera pe ut ic ef f e ct . Adm inis t e r ed as a n a dj unct ive t r e atm e nt f or hyp erk alem ia, SPS r educ es po t ass ium leve ls in t he ser um a nd ot he r bod y f l uids . ( c) O nse t of a ct io n o f o rall y adm inist e r ed SPS is 2 ho ur s ; ef f ect s are see n in 1 ho ur whe n SP S is adm in is t er e d a s a r et ent io n en em a. P. 12 26
( d) Adm inist ra t ion a nd d osa ge
( i) SPS is us ua lly a dm in is t e re d or a lly, a lt ho ugh it m a y b e give n t hr oug h a na so ga str ic t ub e. The o r al d os e is 15 - 30 g in a s us p ensio n of 7 0% sor b it o l, adm inist e r ed eve r y 4 -6 ho ur s unt il t he d es ir ed t her a pe ut ic e ff ect is ac hie ved . ( ii) W he n or al or nas oga st r ic a dm inis t r a t io n is not p oss ib le d ue t o na use a, vom it ing, or p ar a lyt ic ile us , S PS m a y b e give n b y r e te nt ion enem a . The r e ct al do se is 30 - 50 g in 1 00 m L of s or bit o l a s a warm em uls io n, a dm inis t er ed de ep int o t he sigm o id co lon ever y 6 ho ur s . Adm in is t r at ion m a y be do ne wit h a r ubb er t ube t hat is t ap ed in p lac e or via a F oley ca t het er wit h a ba llo on inf la t ed dist a l t o t he a nal s p hinc t er . ( e) P re ca ut io ns a nd m onit or ing ef f ect s ( i) The p at ient 's s er um elec t r olyt e le ve ls s ho uld b e m o nit or e d c lo se ly dur ing S PS t he r ap y. Sod ium , chlo r id e, b ic ar b onat e , a nd pH shou ld be m onit o r ed in ad dit io n t o po t assium . ( ii) SPS t he r apy us ua ll y c ont in ue s unt il t he se r um p ot as sium leve l dr o ps t o bet wee n 4 a nd 5 mE q/L . ( iii) The pa t ie nt s hou ld b e as ses se d r e gula r ly f or sig ns o f pot a ss ium de plet io n, inc lud ing ir r it a b i lit y, c onf us io n, ca r diac ar r hyt hm ia s , ECG c ha nge s, a nd m usc le weak nes s . ( iv) S PS e xc hange s s o dium f or pot ass ium , s o so di um o ve r lo ad m ay o cc ur d uri ng t he r ap y. Pat ient s wit h hyp er t e ns io n o r CH F shou ld be c los e ly m o nit or e d. ( v) F or o r al adm inist r a t io n, SPS s hou ld be m ixed on ly wit h wa t er or s or b it o l. Or a ng e j uice , whic h has a hig h po t as sium c ont e nt , s hould no t be use d b eca us e it dec r ease s t he eff ec t ivenes s of t he SPS . Fo r rect a l a dm in is t r at ion, SP S s ho uld b e m ixe d o nly wit h wat er a nd sor bit ol, never wit h m ine r al o il. ( vi) Ad ve r se ef f e ct s o f SPS inc l ud e c ons t ipa t io n, f ec al im pa ct io n w it h r e ct al adm inist r a t io n, na us ea , vom it i ng , and dia r r he a. ( vii) S PS s hou ld no t be us e d a s t he so le ag ent in t he t r eatm ent of se ve r e hype rk a lem ia; ot her age nt s o r t hera pies shou ld be use d in c onj unc t io n w it h t his ag ent . (f ) S ignif ica nt int e ra ct ions. Ma gnes ium hydr o xid e and ot her nona bs orb ab le ca t io nd onat i ng la xa t ives and ant ac id s m a y decr e as e t he ef f ec t ivenes s of pot as sium e xcha nge by S PS a nd m ay c ause s yst em ic a lk alos is . b. T reat me nt of m eta bol ic a cid osis. S od ium bica r bo na t e ma y be give n if t he ar te r ial pH is be lo w 7.3 5 [ se e I. F.2 . a. ( 3)]. c. T r ea tme nt of hy per pho sp ha t em ia ( 1) IV ca lcium is f ir s t- li ne t he r ap y for s e ve re lif e - t hr e at en ing h yp er p ho sp ha t em ia. C alc ium r ed uc e s t he ser um p ho s phor us c onc ent r at ion by c he la t io n. ( 2) O ra l ca lc ium sa lt s bi nd diet a r y p hos phor us in t he G I tr a ct . ( 3) S e ve la mer is a no n- io nic po lym er t hat b inds d iet a r y phos phor us in t he G I tr a ct. ( 4) D ia ly sis m ay b e use d t o t r ea t ac ut e, l if e - t hr e at e ni ng hyp er p ho sp ha t em ia ac com pa nied by ac ut e hypo ca lc em ia ( s ee II. F. 7). It is also pe rf orm ed whe n vo lum e over loa d is p r es ent. ( 5) Alum inum hyd r oxi de ( an alum in um -c ont aini ng ant ac id ) (a ) Me cha ni sm of a ct i on a nd t he ra p eut ic ef f ect. Alum in um b inds e xc es s phos phat e in t he i nt e st ine , t her e by red ucing phos phat e c once nt r at io n. ( b) O nse t of a ct io n is 6 - 12 hour s.
( c) Adm i nist ra t io n a nd dosa ge. Alum inum hydr oxide is a dm in is t er e d or al ly as a t ab let or s usp ensio n. Fo r t he tr e at me nt of hype r phos phat em ia , 0. 5- 2 or 1 5-3 0 m L o f susp ens ion is adm in is t er e d t hr ee or f our t im e s daily w it h m eals . ( d) P re ca ut io ns a nd m onit or ing ef f ect s ( i) Alum in um hyd r o xid e m a y c a us e c o ns t ip at ion and a no r exia . ( ii) S er um p ho sp ha t e le ve ls shou ld be m onit o r ed be c ause alum in um hydr o xide ca n ca us e p ho s phat e de plet ion. ( iii) Alum in um hydr o xide ca n c a us e c alci um r e sorpt ion and bo ne dem iner a lizat ion. d. T reat me nt of hy poca l cemia. Imm ediat e t re atm e nt is nec e ss ar y if t he pat ie nt ha s se ve r e hypo ca lc em ia , a s e vide nc e d b y t et a ny. ( 1) Ca lci um gluco na t e [ s e e I. F. 2. a. ( 2) ] (a ) Me cha ni sm of a ct i on a nd t he ra p eut ic ef f ect. This d r ug r ep la ce s and m a int ains bo dy ca lc ium , r ais ing t he s er um ca lc ium leve l im m ed ia t ely. P. 12 27
( b) Adm inist ra t ion a nd d osa ge. W hen us ed t o r eve r se hypo c alc em ia, c a lc ium gluco nat e is adm inist er e d int r a ve no us ly in a do sage of 1 - 2 g o ver a pe r io d of 1 0 m inut es , f o llowe d b y a s lo w inf us io n ( o ve r 6 - 8 hour s ) of a n ad dit iona l 1 g . ( c) P re ca ut io ns, m onit or ing ef f ect s, a nd sig nif i ca nt int era ct io ns [ se e I. F. 2. a. ( 2). ( c), ( d) ] ( 2) O ra l ca lc ium sa lt s. C a lci um c ar b onat e, c hlor i de , gluc o nat e, o r la ct at e m ay be given b y m o ut h when or a l i nt a ke is p erm itt ed or if t he pat ient ha s relat ive ly m i ld hypo ca lc em ia . The us ua l a du lt d os age is 4- 6 g/ day g ive n in t hr ee or f o ur divid ed do se s. e. T r ea tme nt of hy po na t rem ia ( 1) Mo der at e or as ym p t om at ic hyp onat r em ia m ay r eq uir e o nly f l uid re st ri ct io n. ( 2) S o dium chlor id e m ay b e g ive n f o r se ver e sym pt om a t ic hypo na t r em ia ( i. e. , a se r um s od ium leve l b e lo w 1 20 m Eq/ L). (a ) Me cha ni sm of a ct i on a nd t he ra p eut ic ef f ect. S od ium c hlor ide r ep la ce s a nd ma int a ins s od ium a nd c hlor id e c onc ent r at ion, t here by inc r ea sing e xt r ac e llu lar t onic it y. ( b) Adm inist ra t ion a nd d osa ge ( i) A 3% or 5% so dium c hlor id e so lut io n m ay b e adm inis t e r ed by s low IV inf us ion. The am o unt of s olut io n ne ed ed is ca lc ulat e d f r om t he f ollow i ng eq ua t io n: (N orm a l s er um so dium le ve l - ac t ua l s er um s od ium level) × t ot a l b od y w at e r ( ii) Typ ica lly, 4 00 m L or le s s is a dm inis t e r ed . ( c) P re ca ut io ns a nd m onit or ing ef f ect s ( i) H yper t onic so dium c hlor ide m us t be a dm in is t ere d ve r y s lo wly t o avoid c ir c ulat o r y over loa d, p ulm o na r y ed em a, or ce ntr a l p ont ine d em yelinat ion. ( ii) S er um e le ct r o lyt e leve ls m ust be m onit o r ed fre quent ly dur ing t he ra py. ( iii) E xc es si ve inf us io n m a y ca us e hype r na t r em ia a nd ot he r ser io us e lec t r o lyt e ab no rm a lit ies a nd m ay wor se n e xis t ing a cido sis. I nf us io n r ate s shou ld no t e xc ee d 0. 5 m Eq/ kg / hr. 3. Ma na geme nt of sy st em ic m a nif e st a t ions
a. T r ea tme nt of f luid o ve rl oa d a nd e dem a. As wat er and so dium a cc um ula t e in e xt r ac ellu lar f lui d d ur i ng AR F , f lu id over loa d a nd ed em a m ay occ ur . D iur e t ics a nd do pam ine m ay be g iven t o red uc e f luid vo lum e exce s s a nd e dema. Tr ea tm ent s ho uld be init ia t ed as s oo n as po ss ib le af t er o lig ur ia b eg ins. Ma nnit ol o r a loop di ur et i c ma y be us ed ; t hia zide di ur e t ic s a r e avoide d in r e na l f a ilur e b ec a us e t he y a r e ine f f e ct ive when cr e at ini ne clea r ance is le ss t han 25 m L /m in, and t hey m a y wor s en t he pat ie nt ' s cli nica l s t at us . ( 1) St e p 1 . L oop ( hi gh- c ei li ng ) diur et ic s. The s e a ge nt s inc lud e f ur osem ide , bum eta ni de , t or sem ide a nd et hac ry ni c a cid. Loo p d iur et ics ar e m or e p ote nt and f ast er- ac t ing t han t h iaz id e d iur et ics . (a ) Me cha ni sm of a ct i on a nd t he ra p eut ic ef f ects. Lo op diur e t ic s inh ib it s od ium and c hlor id e r ea bs or pt io n a t t he loo p o f H e nle, p rom ot ing w at e r exc r et ion. ( b) O nse t of a ct io n f or an or al do se is 1 ho ur ; s eve r al m inut es f or a n IV do se. D ur at io n o f a ct ion f or an or a l d o se is 6- 8 ho ur s; 2- 3 hour s f or a n IV d ose. ( c) Adm i nist ra t io n a nd dosa ge ( i) Furo se m ide, t he m ost c om mo nly use d lo op di ur e t ic , usua ll y is adm inist e r ed int r a veno us ly i n p at ient s wit h AR F t o ha st e n t he the r ap eut ic e f fect . The d os e is t it r a ted t o t he pa t ie nt 's ne ed s; t he us ua l init ia l do s e is 1 -1. 5 m g/ k g. If t he f ir s t d os e do es no t pr od uc e a ur ine o ut p ut of 1 0- 1 5 mL wit hin 2 0- 3 0 m inut es , a dose of 2- 3 mg/k g is a dm inis t e r ed; if t he desir ed r es po nse st ill do es no t o cc ur, a d os e of 3 - 6 mg/k g is a dm inis t e r ed 20- 30 m inut e s aft er t he s eco nd do se. ( ii) B um eta nide m ay be g ive n t o p at ient s who a re unr e s po ns ive o r alle r g ic t o f ur o sem ide. The us ua l d os a ge , adm inis t er e d i nt r ave no us ly o r int r am usc ular ly in t he t r ea tm ent of AR F, is 0. 5- 1 m g/ d ay; howe ver , s ome pat ie nt s m a y r e quir e up t o 20 mg/ d ay. A s e co nd or t hir d d os e m a y be give n a t int e rva ls of 2 - 3 ho ur s . W he n bum et a nid e is give n o r ally, t he do s ag e is 0. 5- 2 mg/ da y, rep eat ed up to t wo t im e s, if ne ce ss ar y, at int e r va ls of 2- 3 ho ur s . ( iii) E t ha c r ynic a cid is le ss co m mo nly used t o tr eat AR F bec ause ot ot o xic it y ( som et im es ir r eve rsib le ) is as s oc ia t ed wit h it s us e. It m ay be given int r avenous l y ( slo w ly o ve r s ever a l m in ut e s ) in a d ose of 5 0- 1 00 m g. The us ua l or a l d os a ge is 50 20 0 m g/ da y; som e p at ient s m ay r eq uir e up t o 2 00 m g t wic e d ai ly. Et hac r ynic a cid ca n b e s a fely g iven t o pat ie nt s who m a y have a su lf o na m ide P. 12 28 aller g y, whic h wou ld pr e clud e t hem fr om t her a py wit h f ur o sem ide o r t ors em ide . ( iv) T or sem ide m ay a ls o b e g ive n t o pat ie nt s unr e sp onsi ve t o or a ller g ic t o f ur o sem ide. The us ua l d os e is 20 m g, adm inist e r ed int r ave no us ly. D o ses ma y be inc r ea s ed by d oubli ng up t o 20 0 m g; 1 0- 2 0 m g of t ors em ide is eq uipo t ent t o 40 m g of f ur os em ide or 1 m g bum et a nide . To r sem id e o ffe r s b et t er b io ava i lab ilit y com pa r ed t o o t he r lo op d iur e t ic s ; ho we ve r , it is co ns id er a bly m o re e xp ens ive. ( d) P re ca ut io ns a nd m onit or ing ef f ect s ( i) Lo op diur e t ic s m us t be use d ca ut ious ly b ec aus e t hey m ay c aus e o ve r diur e sis lea d i ng t o ort hos t at ic hypo t ens ion, f luid a nd e lec t r olyt e ab norm al it ie s , inc lud i ng vo lum e deplet io n and de hydr a t io n, h ypo ca lc em ia , hyp ok alem ia , hyp oc hlor em ia,
hypo na t r em ia, hypo m agnes em ia, a nd tr a ns ie nt oto t oxic it y, e sp ec ia lly w it h r a pid IV inj ect io n. ( ii) S er um e le ct r o lyt e leve ls sho u ld be m onit o r ed f r eq ue nt ly and t he pa t ie nt as se ss e d r egu la r ly f or s ig ns a nd sym pt om s of ele c t rolyt e ab no rm alit ie s. ( iii) B loo d p r es s ur e and p ulse r a te s hou ld b e as se ss e d d ur ing d iur e t ic t he r ap y. ( iv) G I r ea ct ions i nc lude ab dom ina l p ai n a nd d is c omf ort, d ia r r he a (w it h f ur o sem id e and e t ha cr yn ic ac id ) , and na us ea ( wit h b um et anide ) . ( v) B loo d g luco se le ve ls s ho uld b e m o nit or e d in d ia be t ic pa t ie nt s r e ce iv ing lo op diur et ics b ec ause t hes e ag ent s ma y ca us e hype r gl yc em ia a nd im pa ir e d g luco s e t ole r anc e. ( vi) P at ient s w ho ar e al le rg ic t o sulf o na m id es m ay b e hyp er s ens it ive t o b um et anid e and f ur os em ide. ( vii) F ur o sem id e a nd et ha cr ynic ac id ma y ca us e ag r anuloc yt os is . ( e) S i gni f i ca nt int era ct io ns ( i) Am ino gly co sid e a nt ib iot ic s ma y pot ent ia t e oto t oxic it y whe n adm in is t er e d wit h any loo p d iur et ic. ( ii) N onst e r oida l a nt i - inf la mma t or y dr ug s (N S AID s) m ay ham p er t he d iur et ic r es po ns e t o f ur os em ide and bum et a nide ; pr ob enec id m a y ham p er t he diur e t ic r es po ns e t o b um e t anid e. ( iii) E t hacr ynic a c id m a y pot ent ia t e t he ant ic oa gu la nt e ff ect s of w a rf a r in. ( 2) St e p 2 . Ma nnit ol, a n osm ot ic d iur et ic, is a non- r ea bs or b ab le po lysa c char ide . (a ) Me cha ni sm of a ct i on a nd t he ra p eut ic ef f ect. Ma nn it o l incr e as e s t he osm ot ic pr e ss ur e of t he g lom er ular f i lt r a t e; f luid f r om int ers t it ia l sp ac e s is d r aw n int o bloo d ve ss els, expa nd ing p la sm a vo lum e a nd m aint a ini ng or inc r ea s ing t he ur ine f low. This d r ug m a y b e g ive n t o pr e ve nt AR F in hig h - r is k p at ient s, such a s t ho se unde r go ing s ur g er y or suf fe r ing f r om se ve r e t r aum a o r hem olyt ic t r ansf us ion r ea ct ions. ( b) O nse t of a ct io n is 1 5- 3 0 m inut es . D ur at ion o f act io n is 3 - 4 ho ur s . ( c) Adm i nist ra t io n a nd dosa ge. Ma nn it o l is a va il ab le i n s o lut ions, r anging f r om 5% -25% . For t he t r e at me nt of o lig ur ic AR F or t he pr eve nt io n of ARF, t he us ual init ia l do s e is 1 2. 5 -25 g , adm inis t er e d int r a ve no us ly; t he ma xim um d ai ly do sa ge is 10 0 g, adm in is t er e d int r a veno us ly. T he exa ct c o nc ent r at ion o f t he s olut io n is de t erm ined b y t he pa t ie nt ' s f luid r e quir e m e nt s. ( d) P re ca ut io ns a nd m onit or ing ef f ect s ( i) Mannit ol is co nt r a ind ica t ed in pa t ie nt s wit h a nur ia , pulm o na r y e dem a or co ng es t io n, se ve r e d ehydr a t io n, a nd int r a cr a nia l hem or r ha ge (exc ep t d ur ing cr a niot om y) . ( ii) Mannit ol m ay ca use or w or sen pu lm o na r y edem a a nd c ir c ulat o r y o ver lo ad . If sig ns a nd sym pt om s of t he se pr ob lem s d evelop , the inf us io n shou ld be st oppe d. ( iii) Ot her a dve r se ef f ect s of ma nn it o l i nc lud e f lu id a nd e lec tr o lyt e a bnorm a lit ies , wat er int o xic at io n, hea da che, co nf us io n, b lur r e d vis io n, t hir st , na us ea , a nd vo m it ing. ( iv) V it a l s igns , ur i ne out put , d aily weig ht , c ar d iop ulm onar y st at us, and s er um a nd ur ine so dium and pot as sium leve ls s hou ld b e m o nit or e d d ur ing m annit o l t he r ap y. ( v) Ma nn it o l s o lut io ns wit h u nd is so lved cr ys tals shou ld no t be a dm inis t er e d.
4. D ia ly sis. If t he ab ove str at e gie s f ai l, hem o dia lys is o r p er it onea l d ia l ys is m ay b e ne ce ss ar y in AR F p at ient s w ho de ve lo p a nur ia , ac ut e f lu id o ve r lo ad , s ever e hype rk a lem ia, me ta bo lic ac id os is , o r a BUN le ve l ab ove 1 00 m g/ dl. For a d is cuss io n of d ia lys is , s ee II. F. 7. P. 12 29
II. CHRONIC KIDNEY DI SEASE A. D ef init io n. C hr o nic k id ne y d is ea se ( CKD ) is t he pr og res sive , ir r e ver s ib le de t er ior at ion o f r enal f unc t io n. U s uall y r e s ult i ng fr om long - s t a nd ing d is ea se , CKD som et im e s der ives f r om AR F t ha t do es not r es po nd to t rea tm ent. B. C la ssif ica t io n a nd pat hop hy sio log y 1. CK D is d ef ine d a s k id ne y da m ag e o r G FR <60 m L/m in/ 1. 7 3 m 2 f or ≥3 m ont hs . K id ne y d am a ge is d ef ine d a s pat ho log ic al ab no r m alit ie s o r m ark er s of d am a ge, inc lud ing ab no rm alit ie s i n b lo od or ur ine t e s ts o r im a ging st ud ies . CK D ha s r ec ent ly be en r ec la ss if ied as st ages I-V t o d enot e t he se ve r it y o f r enal im pa irm e nt. Ge ner a lly, CKD , if lef t unt r e at ed, p r ogr ess es at a p r ed ic t ab le , s t ea dy r at e f r om st a ge I t hr ough s t age V. a. S ta ge 1 is def ined as k id ne y d am a ge wit h a no rm al or inc r ea se d G FR . The co rr es po nd ing G FR in s t ag e I CKD is us ua lly >9 0 m L/m in/ 1. 7 3 m2 . b. Sta ge 2 is def ined as k id ne y d am age or a m ild ly d ec r ea se d G FR ( 6 0- 8 9 mL/m in/ 1. 7 3 m 2). c. S ta ge 3 sign if ie s m od era t e r e duc t io ns in G FR (3 0 - 5 9 mL/m in/ 1. 73 m 2). d. Sta ge 4 co nnot e s a GFR of 15- 29 m L/ m in/ 1 .7 3 m 2. e. S ta ge 5 is k idne y f a ilur e o r a G FR of <15 m L/min/ 1 . 73 m 2. 2. As CK D pr ogr es se s, ne phr on de st r uc t io n wor s ens , le ad ing t o de t er ior a t io n i n t he k id ne ys' f ilt r at io n, r ea bsor pt io n, and e nd oc r ine f unct io ns. 3. Re nal f unct io n t ypic a l ly do es not d im in is h unt il a bo ut 7 5% of k id ne y t iss ue is dam age d. U lt im at e ly, t he k idne ys be c om e shr unk e n, f ib r ot ic m a ss e s. C. Et io log y. C a use s o f CKD in a d ult s incl ude : 1. D iab et ic nep hro pa t hy 2. H yp er t e ns io n 3. G lom erulo ne phr it is 4. P olyc ys t ic k id ne y d is ea se 5. L ong- st a nd ing vas c ula r dise as e ( e.g ., r e na l a r ter y st enos is ) 6. L ong- st a nd ing o bs tr uc t ive ur o pa t hy ( e . g. , r enal ca lc ul i) 7. E xp os ur e t o ne phr ot oxic ag ent s D. C linica l e va lua t ion 1. P hysic a l f indings. S igns a nd s ym pt om s , whic h va ry wide ly, do not a pp ear unt il r enal i ns uf f ic ie nc y p r og r es s es t o r enal f ai lur e . a. Meta b olic a b no rma lit ie s inc lude lo ss of t he ab il it y t o m a int ai n s od ium , po t assium , a nd wat er hom eost a sis, lea ding t o hyp o na t r em ia or hyp er nat r em ia, ba se d o n r e la t ive so dium or wat er int ak e . H ype rka le m ia is u ncom mo n unt il e nd st a ge dise as e. Flu id ove r loa d, ed em a, and CH F ma y b ec om e a pr oblem unles s f luid
int a k e is c lo se ly m anag ed . As re na l f a ilur e p r ogr ess es, t he ina b i lit y t o exc r et e ac id and m a int ain buf f e r ca pac it y le ad s t o m e t ab ol ic ac id os is ( see I .D. 1. b, d, g, h). C alc ium and phos phat e m et ab olism is a lt e r ed due t o hype r pa rat hyr o id is m. b. Ne ur ol ogi ca l m a nif esta t io ns inc lud e s ho r t a ttent io n s p an, lo ss of m em or y, and lis t le ss ne s s. As C KD p rog r es ses , t hes e a dva nc e t o c onf us io n, st upo r, s eizur es , a nd com a. N e urom us c ular f ind ing s inc lude p er ip he r a l ne ur o pa t hy; p ai n, it ch ing, and a bur ning se ns at ion, p art ic u lar l y i n t he f eet a nd le gs . P a t ie nt s m ay a pp ea r int o xic at e d. If dia lys is is no t st art e d af te r t hes e ab no rm a lit ies o cc ur, m oto r invo l ve m ent beg ins , inc lud ing los s of d ee p-t endo n r ef le xe s , weak ne ss , a nd f ina l ly, quad r ip leg ia. c. Ca r dio va sc ula r pr oblem s inc l ud e a r ter ial hyp e r tens io n, p er ipher a l ed em a, CHF , and p ulm o na r y ed em a . U rem ic per ica r dit is is now i nc r ea si ng ly inf r eq ue nt a s a r e sult of e ar ly d ia lys is. d. G I ma nif e sta t ions i nc lude hicc up s, anor e xia, na us ea , vom it i ng , c onst ipa t io n, st om at it is , and an unp lea sa nt t ast e in t he m out h. CKD p at ient s ha ve a n inc r ea se d inc id e nce of ulce r s, pa nc r eat it is, and d iver t icu lo s is . P. 12 30
e. Re sp ir at o ry pr oblem s inc lude dys pnea whe n CH F is p r es e nt , pulm onar y e dema, ple ur it ic pa in, and ur em ic p le ur it is . f . Int e gum e nta r y f inding s t ypica lly inc lud e p ale ye l low is h, d r y, scaly s k in; se ver e it c hing; ur em ic fr ost ; ecc hym ose s; pur pur a; and br it t le na ils and ha ir . g. Musc uloske le t a l c ha ng es r ange fr om mus cle a nd bo ne p ain t o pat ho lo g ica l f r ac t ur es and c a lc if ic at io ns in t he br a in, he ar t, eyes , j oint s , and ve ss els. Sof t -t is sue ca lc if ic at ion and r ena l os t eo dys t rop hy m ay o cc ur . h. Hem at ol ogi ca l dist ur ba nc es inc lud e a nem ia . The sig ns a nd s ym pt om s of anem ia ar is e fr om lack o f e po et in a lf a and r ed uc ed lif e s pa n of r e d b lo od cells, inc lud i ng : ( 1) P a llor o f t he sk in, na il b ed s, pa lm s, co nj unct i va e, and m ucosa ( 2) Ab norm al br uis ing o r ec c hym os es , a nd ur em ic blee ding due t o p lat e le t ina ct ivat io n ( 3) D ys pnea and a ng ina p ec t o r is ( 4) E xt r em e f at ig ue 2. D ia gnost ic test result s a. Cr eat ini ne c lea ra nce m ay r ange f r om 0- 9 0 m L/m in, r ef lec t ing r ena l im pa irm ent. b. B lo od t est s t yp ic a ll y s how: ( 1) E levat ed BUN a nd s er um cr eat ini ne co nc e nt r at io n ( 2) R e duce d ar t er ia l p H and b ic ar b onat e c onc ent rat ion ( 3) R e duce d ser um c alci um le ve l ( 4) Incr e as ed s er um pot a ss ium and p ho s phate le ve ls ( 5) P o ssib le r ed uc t ion in t he se r um so dium le ve l ( 6) N orm oc hr om ic , no rm oc yt ic anem ia ( hem a t oc r it 2 0% - 30%) c. Ur ina ly sis m a y re vea l g lyco sur ia , pr o te inur ia , er yt hr oc yt es, le uk oc yt es , a nd ca sts . S pecif ic gr a vit y is f ixed at 1. 0 10.
d. Ra dio gra p hic f indings. K id ne y, ur e t er, and b la dd er ra diog r ap hy, IV pyelog r ap hy, r enal sc an, r ena l ar t er io gr a phy, and ne phr otom ogr ap hy m ay b e p erf orm ed. Typ ic al ly, t hes e t e st s r evea l sm all k idneys ( le ss than 8 cm in le ng t h) . E. Tr eatm e nt o bj e ct ives 1. Im pr ove pat ie nt c omf ort a nd p r olo ng lif e. 2. Tr ea t s ys t em ic ma nif es t a t io ns of CKD . 3. Co rr ect b od y chem istr y a bnorm a lit ies . F. T hera py . Manag eme nt of t he CKD p at ient is g ener a lly c onse r vat ive . D ie t ar y me as ur es and f luid r e s tr ic t io n r e lie ve s om e sym pt om s of C KD a nd m ay incr e as e pa t ient c om f ort a nd pr o lo ng lif e unt i l d ia l ys is or r ena l t r ansp la nt a t io n is r e quir e d o r ava ilab le ( se e I . F. 1. a, b). 1. T r ea tme nt of ed em a . Ang iot e nsi n- c on ve r t ing enz ym e ( ACE ) inh ibit o r s a nd diure t ic s m a y b e g ive n t o m anag e e dem a a nd CHF and t o inc r ea se ur ine o ut p ut . a. AC E inhib i t or s— ca pt opr il, e na la pr il, li si nop ri l, f osino pr il — ar e wid el y us ed t o de lay p r og r ession of CKD b ec aus e t hey help p r eser ve renal f unct io n and t yp ic a l ly ca us e f ewe r ad vers e e ff e ct s t han o t he r ant ih yp er t ens ive ag ent s (se e C ha pt er 39). The y a lso de cr e ase pr ot einur ia and nep hr o t ic s yn dr om e. b. D iur et ic s. An osm ot ic d iur et ic, a lo op d iur e t ic , o r a t hia z ide - lik e diur et ic m a y be given. ( 1) O sm o t ic a nd lo op diur e t ics. S ee I. F. 3. a. ( 1), ( 2) f o r inf o rm at io n on t he use of t he se dr ug s in r e na l f a ilur e. ( 2) T hia zid e- li ke diur et ic s. Met ola z one is t he m o st comm only us ed t hia z id e diur et ic in C KD . (a ) Me cha ni sm of a ct i on a nd t he ra p eut ic ef f ect. Met olazone r e duc es t he b od y' s f lui d a nd s od ium vo lum e by d ecr ea sing s od ium r eab s orp t io n i n t he d is t a l c on vo lut ed t ub ule, t her e by inc r ea sing ur i na r y e xcr e t io n o f f lu i d and s odium . ( b) Adm inist ra t ion a nd d osa ge. Met olazo ne is give n o r al ly at 5 - 20 m g/ da y; t he do se is t it r a te d t o t he p at ient 's nee ds . D ue t o it s long ha lf - lif e , m et ola zo ne m a y b e given e ve r y ot her d ay. F ur o sem id e a nd m et o la zo ne act s yne r gist ica lly. C om bina t io n us e is c omm o n, and m e tolazo ne s hou ld be adm ini st er ed 30 m inut es be for e f ur o sem ide t o ac h ieve t he op t im a l d iure t ic e ff ect. ( c) P re ca ut io ns a nd m onit or ing ef f ect s ( i) Met o la zo ne s ho uld not b e g ive n t o pa t ie nt s wit h h ype r se ns it ivit y t o s ulf onam id e de r ivat ive s, i nc lud ing t hiaz ide s . P. 12 31
( ii) To avo id no ct ur ia , t he d aily do se should be g iven in t he m or ning. ( iii) Met ola zone m a y c aus e hem at olog ic a l r ea ct ions, s uch as a gra nu lo c yt o sis , ap las t ic a ne m ia, and t hr om b oc yt op enia . ( iv) F lu id vo lum e de plet io n, hyp ok alem ia , hyp er ur ic em ia , hyp er g lyce m ia, and im pa ir ed g luc o se toler a nc e ma y oc cur d ur ing m eto la zo ne t her ap y. ( v) Met olazo ne m a y ca us e hype r se ns it ivit y r e act io ns, inc lud ing va sc ul it is a nd pneum o nit is . ( d) S ig nif i ca nt int era ct io ns
( i) D ia zo xid e m a y pot ent ia t e t he ant ih yp er t e ns ive , hype r glyc e m ic, and hype r ur ice m ic ef f ect s of m e tolazo ne. ( ii) C ol est ipo l and c ho lest yra m ine de cre as e t he a bs orp t io n o f m et ola zone. 2. T r ea tme nt of hy per t ensio n. Ant i hy pe r t ensi ve a ge nt s m ay be nee de d if bloo d pr e ss ur e bec om e s d ange rous ly hig h as a r es ult of e dem a and t he hig h r en in le ve ls t ha t oc c ur in CK D. Ant ih ype rt ensi ve t he r ap y should be in it iat e d i n t he lowe s t ef fe ct ive d os e a nd t it r ate d a c cor ding t o t he pat ie nt ' s ne ed s. a. AC E inhib i t or s— ca pt opr il, e na la pr il, li si nop ri l, f osino pr il — as a bo ve in II. F . 1.a ( se e a ls o C ha pt er 39 ). b. D ihyd r opyr idine ca lcium -c ha nnel b loc ke r s, inc lud i ng am Lodip ine and f elo dipi ne , ha ve s im ila r ef f ec ts and ma y be us e d i ns t ea d of AC E in hib it or s . c. β - Adr e ne rg ic block er s, inc lud i ng pr op ra nolo l and at e nol ol, r educe b loo d pr e ss ur e t hr ough var io us m ec han ism s ( see C hapter 39 ). d. Ot her a nt ihype r tensi ve a ge nt s a re som e t im e s use d in t he t rea tm ent of CK D, inc lud ing α- a dr e ne r gic dr ug s, clo nid i ne , and va so di la t or s , s uc h as hy dra la z ine ( se e C hap t er 39 ). 3. T r ea tme nt of hy per pho sp ha t em ia invo lves ad m inist rat io n of a p ho sp ha t e binde r , such as a lum inum hydr o xide o r ca lc ium c ar bo na t e ( se e I. F.2 .c). 4. T r ea tme nt of hy po ca lcem ia a. Ora l ca lc ium sa lt s [ s ee I. F. 2. d .( 2) ] b. V itam in D ( 1) Me cha ni sm of a ct i on a nd t he ra p eut ic ef f ect. V it am in D p romo t es int e st ina l ca lc ium a nd pho sp ha t e a bso rpt ion and ut il iz at io n and, t hus, inc r ea s es t he s er um ca lc ium c onc ent rat ion. ( 2) C hoic e of a gent . Fo r t he t re atm ent of hypo ca lc em ia in C KD and ot her r e na l dis or d er s, ca l cit r io l ( vit a m in D 3, t he ac t ive f o rm o f vit am in D ) is t he pr ef er r ed vit am in D s up plem ent b ec aus e of it s gr eat er ef f ica cy a nd r elat ive ly shor t dur at ion of ac t io n. Ot he r sing le- e nt it y pr e par at ions inc lude di hydr o t ac hys t e r ol, er g oc alcif er o l, and c alc if ed io l. N e wer vit am in D a na log ue s inc lud e do xer c alc if er o l a nd pa r ic alc it ol. ( 3) Adm i nist ra t io n a nd dosa ge. C alc it r io l is gi ve n o r al ly or via IV; t he dose is t it r a ted t o t he pa t ie nt 's ne ed s ( 0. 5 - 1 m g / da y m a y be ef fect ive ) . ( 4) P re ca ut io ns a nd m onit or ing ef f ect s (a ) V it am in D a dm inis t r at io n m a y be da ng er o us in pat ie nt s wit h r e na l f a il ur e and m ust be use d wit h e xt r em e ca ut ion. ( b) V it am in D t o xic it y m ay ca us e a w ide r ang e of s ig ns and s ym pt om s, inc lud ing he ad ac he , dizz ines s , at a xia , co nvu ls io ns, ps yc hos is , s of t- t iss ue c alcif ic at io n, co nj unc t ivit is , phot o phob ia , t in nit us , nause a, diarr hea , pr ur it us, and m usc le and bo ne pa in. ( c) V it am in D has a na r r ow t he rap eut ic inde x, ne ce s sit at ing f r eq ue nt m easur em e nt of B UN and se r um ur ine c alc i um a nd po tas s ium le ve ls. 5. T r ea tme nt of ot her syst em ic m a nif estat io ns of C KD a. T r ea tme nt of a nem ia inc l ud es adm in is t r at ion of ir on ( e. g. , f err o us s ulf at e) , fo la t e supp le m e nt s, a nd e po et in a lf a . ( 1) S e ver e anem ia m ay war r ant tr a ns f usion w it h pa ck e d re d blo od c ells.
( 2) E p oe t in a lf a st im ula t es t he pr o duct ion of r ed ce ll pr o ge nit or s and t he pro duct ion of hem o glob in. It also acc eler a tes t he r e le as e of re t ic uloc yt es f rom t he bo ne mar r ow. (a ) An in it ia l d os e of ep oet in alf a is 5 0 - 1 00 U/k g int r a venous l y o r s ub cut ane o usly t hr e e t im es a week. The d os e ma y be adj ust e d up war d t o elic it t he d es ir e d r es po ns e. ( b) E p oet in alf a w ork s b est in p at ie nt s wit h a hema t o cr it be lo w 30% . D ur ing t he init ia l t r eatm e nt , t he hem ato cr it inc re as e s 1% -3. 5% in a 2 - week per io d. The t a rge t P. 12 32 he m at o cr it is 33% - 35 %. Maint e na nc e d os es ar e t it r at ed base d on hem at o cr it af t er t his leve l is r ea ched . ( c) E p oe t in a lf a t he r ap y shou ld be t em p or ar ily s t op pe d if hem a toc r it e xce ed s 36%. Add it iona l s id e e ff e ct s inc lude hype r t ens ion in up t o 25% of pat ie nt s . H e adac he a nd ma la is e ha ve be en r ep ort e d. ( d) The ef fe ct s o f e po et in a lf a ar e d epende nt o n a r ead y supp ly of ir on f o r he m oglob in sy nt he s is. P at ient s w ho do no t r esp ond shou ld ha ve ir o n st o r es chec k ed. Th is inc lude s se r um ir on, to t al ir on - bi nd ing c ap ac it y, tr a ns f err in sa t ur at io n, and s er um f e rr it in. Ir o n s upp lem e nt at io n s hou ld be incr e as ed as ind ic at e d. ( 3) D ar be poeit in is a new ep oe t in alf a a na lo gue. I t s a dva nt a ge is a pr o lo ng ed pla sm a ha lf - l if e , t hus al low i ng it t o b e a dm inis t e r ed once week ly or biw ee k ly. ( 4) Int r ave no us ir o n p r od uc t s m ay b e g ive n t o r eple t e ir on st o r es. This r o ut e is pr ef err e d t o o r al supp le m e nt at ion due t o lo w or al bio ava ila b il it y and GI int oler a nc e. Ir on de xt r an is com m only us e d; howe ver , it is as soc ia t ed wit h hyp ot e ns io n and anap hy la xis . N e wer ir o n p r od uc t s inc l ud e s od ium f err ic g luco na t e and ir on sucr o s e, whic h ar e bet t er t oler at ed a nd ca n be inf us ed m ore ra pid ly c om par ed t o ir o n de xt r a n. P at ient s wit h s ever e ir o n d ef ic ienc y m ay r e ce ive up t o a t ot al of 1 g of an ir on p re pa r at ion o ve r s ever a l d ays. The r a te of i nf us ion de pe nd s on t he pr ep ar at io n us ed . b. T reat me nt of G I di st urb a nce s ( 1) Ant ie m et ics help c ont r ol na us ea a nd vom it ing . ( 2) D o cus at e s od ium o r m et hy lc e ll ulos e m a y b e us ed t o pre ve nt co ns t ip at ion. ( 3) E nem as ma y be give n t o rem ove blo od fr om t he G I t r ac t. c. T r ea tme nt of sk in pr ob lem s. An ant ip r ur it ic ag ent , s uc h as diphen hydr am ine, ma y be us ed t o al le via t e it c hi ng . 6. Ma na geme nt of bo dy chem istr y a bno rma lit ies ( s e e I. F. 2 ) 7. D ia ly sis. W he n CKD p rog res ses t o end- st ag e rena l dis e as e a nd no lo ng er r es po nd s t o cons er vat ive m ea sur es, long - t e rm dial ys is or r e nal t r ansp la nt a t io n is ne ce ss ar y t o p rolo ng lif e. a. Hem odi a ly sis is t he p r ef err e d d ia lys is m et ho d f or p at ient s wit h a r educ ed pe r it one al m em br a ne , hyp er c at abo lism , o r ac ut e h ype rk a lem ia. ( 1) This t e chniq ue i nvo lve s s h unt ing o f t he p at ien t 's bloo d t hr o ug h a dialys is mem br a ne co nt ain ing unit f o r dif f us io n, o smo s is , and ult r a f ilt r at ion. The blo od is t he n r e t ur ne d t o t he pat ient 's c ir cu la t io n.
( 2) V a scula r ac ce ss m a y be ob t aine d v ia an a r ter ioveno us f is t ula o r an ext e r na l shunt . ( 3) The pr o cedur e t ak es o nly 3 - 8 hour s ; m ost pat ient s ne ed t hr e e tr eatm ent s a week . W it h p rop er t rain ing, p at ient s ca n per form hem odia lys is at hom e. ( 4) The pa t ie nt r e ceive s hep ar i n d ur i ng he m od ia lys is t o pr e ve nt clot t ing . ( 5) V ar io us c om p lic at ions m a y ar is e , inc l ud ing c lo t t ing o f t he hem of ilt e r , he m or r ha ge, hep at it is , a nem ia, se pt icem ia, car diovas c ula r pr o blem s, a ir emb olis m , r ap id s hif t s in f lu id and e le ct r o lyt e ba lanc e, it chin g, naus ea , vom it i ng , he ad ac he, se izur e s, a nd a lum inum ost eo dys tr op hy. b. Pe r it onea l dia ly sis is t he pr ef err e d d ia lys is m e t ho d f o r p at ient s w it h blee d ing dis or d er s a nd c ar d iova sc ular d is ea se . ( 1) The pe r it o ne um is use d as a s em iperm ea ble m embr ane . A p las t ic c at he t er ins er t ed int o t he pe r it o ne um pr ovid es ac c es s f or t he dia lys at e , whic h d r aws f lu id s, was t es , a nd elec tr o lyt es acr o ss t he p er it onea l m embr a ne by osm osis a nd dif f us io n. ( 2) P er it o ne al d ia lys is ca n b e car r ie d o ut in t hr e e d if f e r ent m od es. (a ) Int erm it te nt per it onea l dia ly si s is a n a ut om at ic cycl ing m o de la st i ng 8 - 1 0 ho ur s , per f orm ed t hr ee t im es a week . Th is m od e a llo ws nig ht t im e tr eatm ent a nd is ap pr opr ia t e f or work ing p at ient s. ( b) C o nt inuo u s a m bul a t or y pe r it onea l di a ly sis is p er fo rm ed da ily f o r 24 hour s wit h f our exc ha ng es d ail y. The p at ient c an r em a in act ive d ur i ng t he tr e atm e nt . ( c) C o nt inuo u s c yc lic pe r it onea l dia ly sis m ay be use d if t he ot her t wo m o de s f a il t o im pr ove cr e at ini ne c lea r ance . D ia lys is t ak es p lac e at nig ht ; t he la s t exc ha ng e is r eta ined in t he per it o ne a l ca vit y d ur ing t he d ay, t he n d r ai ne d t hat evening. ( 3) Ad va nta ge s o f per it o ne al d ia lys is inc lude a la ck of ser io us c om plic at ions, r ete nt io n of no rm a l f luid a nd elec t r olyt e b ala nce , sim plic it y, r ed uc ed cos t, p at ient ind ep ende nc e , and a r e duce d ne ed ( or no ne ed ) for hep ar in ad m inis t r a t io n. ( 4) C omp lica t io ns of pe rit onea l d ia lys is inc lude hype r gl yc em ia, c ons t ipa t io n, and inf lam m at ion o r inf ec t io n a t t he c a t het er s it e. Als o, t his m et ho d c ar r ies a hig h r isk o f pe r it on it is. P. 12 33
8. Re na l t ra nsp la nta t i on. This sur gica l p ro c ed ur e al low s s om e pat ie nt s wit h end st a ge r ena l d ise as e t o l ive norm a l a nd , in m any c a se s, long er live s . a. H i st oc om pat ib ilit y m ust be t est ed t o m inim ize t he r is k of t ransp la nt rej ect ion and f a ilur e. H um a n leuk o cyt e ant ig en (H L A) t ype , m ixe d lym phoc yt e r e act ivit y, a nd blo od gr o up t ype s ar e det erm ine d t o a ss es s hist o c om pat ib il it y. b. Re na l t r a ns p la nt m a t er ial m a y be ob t aine d f rom a liv ing d onor o r a ca da ver . c. T hr ee t y pes of gra f t rej ect io n c an o cc ur . ( 1) H y pera c ut e ( im media t e) rej e ct io n r e sult s in g raf t los s wit h in m inut es t o ho ur s af te r tr a ns plant at io n. (a ) Ac ut e ur ine f low ce ss at ion a nd blu is h or m o tt le d k id ne y d is c olo r at ion ar e int r a op era t ive sig ns o f hyp er a cut e r ej ect io n. ( b) P o st oper at ive m a nif es t at ions inc lude k idne y e nlar g em ent , f e ver, a nur ia , lo c al pa in, so dium r et ent io n, a nd hyp er t e ns io n.
( c) Tr eatm ent f o r hype r ac ut e r ej ect ion is im m ed ia t e nep hr ect om y. ( 2) Ac ut e r ej e ct i on m a y oc cur 4 - 60 da ys af t er tr ans p la nt a t io n. ( 3) C hr oni c r e jec t ion occ ur s m or e t han 60 da ys a f te r tr ans pla nt at io n. (a ) S igns and s ym p toms inc lud e low- g r ad e fever , incr e as ed pr ot e inur ia , a zo t em ia , hype r t ension, o lig ur ia , we ig ht g ain, a nd e dem a. ( b) Tr e at me nt m ay inc l ud e a lk ylat i ng ag ent s , cyc los p or ine, ant ilym phoc yt e g lo bu lin, and c ort ico s t er o id s. In s om e cas es, nep hr e ct om y is ne c e ss a r y. d. C omp licat io ns inc lude : ( 1) Inf ec t ion, diab et e s, he pa t it is, a nd le uk o pe nia , r e sult ing f rom imm uno s up pr e ss ive t he r ap y ( 2) H ype rt e ns io n, r e sult i ng f r om var ious ca us e s ( 3) C a nc er (e.g ., lym phoma , c ut a neo us m aligna nc ies , hea d a nd ne ck c anc er, le uk em ia , co lo n c a nc er ) ( 4) P a nc r eat it is and m e nt a l a nd emot io na l d is or d er s ( e. g. , suic ida l t e nde nc ies , se ve r e d ep re ss io n, b rought o n b y ste r oid t he rap y) P. 12 34
STUDY QUESTIONS D ir ect ions: E ac h o f t he num b er e d it em s or incom ple t e sta t eme nts in t his s ect io n is f ollowe d by answ er s or by com plet io ns o f t he s ta tem e nt. S elec t t he o ne le t t er e d answe r or com ple t io n t ha t is be st in ea ch ca s e. Quest io ns 1- 5 A 4 8- yea r- old b la ck m an has a h is t or y of m ild t o s ever e hype r t ension. H is hyp er t ensio n ha s b ee n po or ly c ont r o lle d w it h e na la pr il and hydr o chlo r ot h ia zi de . O n p r io r vis it s, his b lo od pr ess ur e cont r ol ha s va r ie d a nd se em s t o cor res po nd wit h a la ck o f c om plia nc e wi t h his t re atm e nt reg im en. The pa t ient s t at es t hat he oc casiona l ly f or g et s his p il ls or doe s no t t ake t hem when he is f ee ling “ o k ay. ” The pa t ient 's h is t or y d oe s not inc lude d iab et e s m ell it us o r hea r t dis ea s e. H e com p le t ed a 1 4- d ay cour s e o f c lar it hr om yc in f o r an up pe r r e sp ir a tor y inf e c t io n in t he p ast m o nt h and ha s r et ur ne d t o t he c li nic f o r f ollo w - up r evie w o f t he inf e c t io n a nd his h ype r t ensio n t he r ap y. On t his vis it , t he p at ient c om p lai ns of dizz ines s, los s of ener g y, inc r e as ed f req uency of ur inat io n, and e dem a of t he low er e xt rem it ies . H is p hys ica l e xam inat io n r evea ls an over we ig ht ma n wit h a s ta nd ing b lo od pr e ss ure of 17 5/ 10 0 m m Hg, m oder at e ed em a of t he ank les , a nd a s light t hir d hea r t sound . L ab or at or y r e sult s inc l ud e blo od ur ea nit r og en (BUN ) of 4 5 m g/ dl, s er um cr eat ini ne co nc e nt r a t io n o f 3. 7 m g / dl, se r um c alci um o f 5. 3 m g /m L, s er um p ot ass ium of 6. 3 m g/m L, a nd a hem at ocr it of 25 . S e r um ir o n, t ota l ir on - b i nd ing c ap ac it y, t ra ns fe r r in sa t ur at io n, and s er um fe rr it in ar e no rm al. Micr o sco pic ur ine a nd c hem ica l a na ly se s r evea l m ild p r ot e in ur ia a nd a sp ec if ic g r avit y o f 1. 01 0. 1. T he hi st or y , physica l e xa minat i on, la b o rat ory va lues, a nd curr e nt signs a nd sy m pt om s sug ge st t hat t he pat ie nt ha s w hich of t he f o llow ing c ondit io ns? ( A) Ac ut e r e na l f a ilur e b r ought o n b y a nep hr o t o xi c dr ug (c lar it hr o m yc in, e na lap r il) (B ) Ac ut e r e na l f a ilur e r e s ult i ng f rom r enal ob st r uc t ion b y a k idne y s t one
(C ) Ac ut e r ena l f a ilur e p r ec ip it a t ed by s eve r e d ehyd r at ion (D ) C hr o nic r ena l f ail ur e r es ult ing f r om hyp ert e ns io n V ie w Answe r 1. The answe r i s D[] . 2. T r eatm ent of t he pa t ient ' s f l uid re t ent ion a nd e dema should beg in w it h a ll of the f ollow ing EXCE PT ( A) res tr ict ion of f luid i nt a k e (B ) t hera py wit h f ur os em ide or m e tolazo ne (C ) tr eatm ent o f hyp er t e ns io n us ing a β - b lock er or a ng iot ensi n- c on ve r t ing e nz ym e inh ib it o r (D ) digit a lis g lyco s ide t her a py if co ng es t ive he ar t f a ilur e is pr ese nt (E ) hem od ia lys is V ie w Answe r 2. The answe r i s E[] . 3. T he mo st li ke ly ca use of t he a nem ia se en i n t hi s p at ie nt i s ( A) ur i na r y blo od lo ss (B ) vit a m in B 1 2 def ic ie nc y (C ) ir o n d ef icie ncy (D ) de cr e ase d r ed ce ll l if e sp an and a d ef icie ncy of ep oet in a lf a V ie w Answe r 3. The answe r i s D[] . 4. T his pa t i ent' s sym pt om s seem ed t o a ppea r sudd enl y a nd ma y re sult f r om his hi st or y of unco nt r ol led hy per te nsio n. W hich st a t em e nt be st desc ri bes hype rt ensio n? ( A) A m aj or ca us e of c hr onic r enal f ai lur e (B ) A m aj or ca us e of a cut e renal f ai lur e (C ) A m aj or ca us e of b ot h c hr o nic a nd a cut e re na l f a il ur e (D ) O nly s e en in pa t ie nt s whos e r e na l f a il ur e ha s c a us ed exc es sive f lu id r et ent io n V ie w Answe r 4. The answe r i s A[] . 5. W hen sho ul d p er it o ne a l d ia l ysi s o r hem o dia lysis be consi der e d t o tr ea t t hi s p a t ient ' s r ena l f a ilur e? ( A) As s oo n as po ss ib le t o pr eve nt f ur t her c om p lic a t ions r es ult ing f r om de c rea sed r enal f unct io n (B ) O nl y whe n r e na l f unc t io n ha s d ec r eas ed t o a p oi nt w he r e f luid a nd e lec t r olyt e st at us c anno t be m a int aine d us i ng co ns er va t ive m e as ur e s (C ) O n a n int erm it te nt basis a s t he s it uat ion dem ands (D ) O nly if t he p at ient is a k idney t r ans pla nt ca nd id at e V ie w Answe r 5. The answe r i s B[] . 6. Ac ut e re na l f a ilur e ( AR F) ma y be ca use d b y a ll of t he f ol low ing EX CEPT ( A) ac ut e t ub ula r nec r os is ( ATN ) due t o dr ug t hera py ( e. g., am inog lyco side s, co nt r a st m ed ia) (B ) s ever e hyp ot e ns io n o r c ir c ula t or y c olla ps e (C ) de cr e ase d c ar d ia c out put , a s f r om c onge st ive hea r t f a ilur e (D ) hem olys is and m yo glo bi nur ia (E ) hyp er k alem ia V ie w Answe r 6. The answe r i s E[ a nd] . P. 12 35
7. L if e- t hr ea t ening ca rd ia c a r rhyt hm ia s due t o hy pe r ka l em ia should b e t re a te d wi t h ( A) c alc ium chlo r id e o r ca lc ium gluc o nat e int r ave no us ly
(B ) digo xi n o r ot he r dig it a lis p r ep ara t io ns (C ) lo op diur e t ic s t o r a pid ly e lim inat e pot a ss ium (D ) so dium p olys t yr ene s ulf onat e (SP S) V ie w Answe r 7. The answe r i s A[] . 8. Alum inum hydr o xid e i s u se d t o tr ea t hyp er p hosp ha t em ia a ssoc ia te d w i th r ena l f ailu r e. C hr onic u se of a lum inum hyd r ox ide m ay ca use a ll of t he f ollow ing co nd it ions E XCEPT ( A) phos p ha t e d ep le t io n (B ) c alc ium r es orp t io n and b one d em ine r ali za t io n (C ) anor e xia a nd c onst ipa t io n (D ) f lu id r et e nt ion V ie w Answe r 8. The answe r i s D[ an d] .9 . T he diure t ic of c ho ice f or t he init ia l t r eatm ent of a pa t ie nt w it h either a cut e or chr oni c r e na l f a il ur e ( AR F, CKD ) w ho se creat i ni ne c lea ra nce is bel ow 25 mL /m in is ( A) hyd r oc hlor o t hia z id e (B ) bum et a nide (C ) f ur os em id e (D ) et ha cr ynic a cid V ie w Answe r 9. The answe r i s C[] . 1 0. E poet in a lfa is used comm only t o t reat t he a nem ia a sso cia t ed w it h c hr o nic r ena l f a ilure (CKD ) . W hich of t he f ollow ing co ndit i ons lim it s t he ef f e ct i ve ne ss of e po et in a lf a ? ( A) A p at ient 's alle r gy t o e p oe t in alf a (B ) D e ple t io n o f ir on st or es, r e quir i ng or a l o r pa r ent er a l s upp lem e nt a t io n (C ) The i ne f f ec t ive ne ss o f ep oet in a lf a, as 30% of pat ie nt s do not re s po nd (D ) The a ne m ia of c hr onic r enal f ai lur e is not d ue t o a lac k of e po et in a lf a , s o ep oe t in alf a wi ll not am el io ra t e. V ie w Answe r 10 . T he answ er i s B [ ] .P. 1 23 6
ANSWERS AND EXPLANATIONS 1. T he a nsw er is D [ II.D . 1]. The f luid and e le c t r olyt e st at us of t he pat ie nt d esc r ibe d in t he ca s e, comb ined w it h t he ur i ne - sp ec if ic g r avit y, lac k of c r yst a ls or cast s in t he ur ine, and t he com pla int of f at igue, s ugg est c hr o nic r e na l f a ilur e re s ult ing f rom unco nt r olled hype r t e ns io n o r an unk nown c ause . The ant ib iot ic t he r ap y ( c la r it hr om yc in) a nd a nt ihype r t ens ive d r ug ( enala pr i l) a r e not ne phr ot o xic, and t he pa t ient 's b lo od pr e ss ure a nd f lu id st a t us do no t ind ic a t e a pr er ena l c ause . 2. T he a nsw er is E [ II. F. 1, 2] . All of t hes e m ea sur es ar e ind ica t e d a s i nit ia l t her a py f or t he t r e atm e nt o f e dem a a nd f lui d r e tent io n due t o c hr o nic r e na l f a ilur e exce pt he m od ia l ys is , whic h s ho uld b e r es er ved unt il m or e co nse r va t ive m e as ur es ar e t r ied . 3. T he a nsw er is D [ II.D . 1. h]. The r e is no evid e nce o f fr ank bloo d los s. The d ecr ea sed hema t ocr it and t he clin ica l sig ns ind ica t e t he anem ia o f c hr o nic r e na l f a ilur e due t o t he s hor t e ne d r e d b lo od ce ll l if e sp an. De cr e as ed epo et i n a lf a is t he c ause.
4. T he a nsw er is A [ II.C . 2]. S ys t em ic long- s t a nd ing h ig h b loo d pr e ss ur e is t he s eco nd m ost com m o n c aus e of chr on ic r enal f ai lur e (CKD ). O nly m a lig na nt hype r t ens io n c an ca use ac ut e r e na l f ail ur e ( AR F), whic h is not c ommo n. H ig h b lo od pre ss ur e is c omm o n aft e r subs t ant ia l r e na l d am a ge ha s occur r ed in b ot h CKD a nd AR F, b ut it d oes not occur as t he f irst or o nly m a nif e s t at ion. 5. T he a nsw er is B [ II. F .7]. D ial ys is s ho uld b e c ons ide r ed when t he p at ient 's r enal f unc t io n has de cr ea se d t o a po int whe r e c o ns er vat ive m ea s ur es ar e ine f f e ct ive . Pe r it o ne al dia lys is and he m odia lys is ha ve a ss oc ia t ed c om p lic at ions and m or bid it y, s o int erm it t e nt or e ar ly us e o f t hes e t he rap ie s is not ind ic at e d. Pa t ient s can be m aint a ined on dia lys is f or e xt ende d p er iod s, so e lig ib i lit y f o r tr ans pla nt is no t r e quir ed . 6. T he a nsw er is E [I .B . 1- 3 ]. H yp erk alem ia is a sign of ac ut e and chr onic r enal f ailur e, r e sult ing f r om t he de cr eas ed re na l f u nc t io n a nd c ha ng es in ac id - ba se b ala nce . 7. T he a nsw er is A [ I. F. 2. a] . Int r a veno us c alc ium c hlor id e or g luco na t e is us ed t o t r ea t pot a ss ium - ind uc e d ar r hyt hm ia s. D igo xi n is not ind ic at ed . L o op d iur e t ic s and s od ium po lyst yr e ne su lf o na t e (S PS) d o no t ha ve a sign if ic a nt e no ug h ef fe ct on po t ass ium in a s ho rt pe r iod t o t r ea t a lif e- t hr eat ening a r r hyt hm ia. SPS and loo p d iur e t ic s , along wit h dia lys is, ma y be co nsid er e d t o r em ove pot as sium i n t he sh or t t erm , pr eve nt ing t he r ec ur re nc e of arr hyt hm ias . 8. T he a nsw er is D [ I. F. 2. c. ( 5). ( d) .( i) , ( ii) an d ( iii) ] . C omm on ef f ec ts of t he s us t aine d us e o f alum inum - c ont a ini ng ant a cid s inc lude phos phat e de plet ion, c alc ium r es or pt ion, bo ne dem iner a lizat io n, a no r ex ia , and co ns t ip at io n. Fluid r e t ent io n d oe s no t r es ult fr om t he use of ant ac id s c o nt a in ing alum inum hyd r oxid e. 9. T he a nsw er is C [ I. F. 3. a. ( 1). ( c) ]. Fur o s em id e is t he di ur e t ic of c hoic e f or t he in it ia l t r eat me nt of a p at ient wit h e it her ac ut e or chr onic r ena l f ai lure ( AR F, CK D ) whos e c r eat in ine c le ar a nc e is be low 25 mL/m in. A t hia zide di ur e t ic ha s lit t le e f f ect at a crea t in ine c le ar anc e b elow 2 5 mL/m in. B um eta nide , t or sem ide, a nd et hac r ynic a cid a r e ap pr o pr ia t e only if t he pa t ient is a lle r g ic t o f ur osem ide or if r epe ate d d os e s o f f ur os em ide ar e inef f e c t ive. 10 . T he a nsw er is B [ I I. F. 5. a. ( 2) .( d) ]. E poet in a lf a is w id el y us ed and h ig hly e f fe ct ive in tr eat ing t he anem ia a ss oc ia t ed wit h chr on ic r enal f a ilur e (CK D) . Fe w r epo rt s of pa t ient s r ef rac tor y t o ep oet in a lf a t he r ap y ha ve ap pe ar e d in m edica l lit er a t ur e. H o we ve r , t he d ep le t io n o f ir o n st o res will no t al low t he f orm at io n of r e d blo od cells, even in t he p r es ence of ap pr opr iat e am ount s of e po et in a lf a . All CK D p at ient s rec e ivi ng ep oe t in a lf a r eq uir e s om e ir on supp le m e nt a t io n, and m o st pa t ie nt s r e quir e pa r ent era l ir on t o a c hie ve s uf f icie nt supp lie s t o c ont in ue d evelop i ng he m og lo bin o ve r t he t erm of t he ir il lnes s.
57 Cancer Chemotherapy Jud y C ha se Ila Ma ew a l
I. PRINCIPLES OF ONCOLOGY. The t erm canc er r ef e rs t o a het e rog eneo us g roup o f d is ea se s ca us ed by a n im pa irm ent o f t he norm a l f unc t io ni ng of ge ne s, w hic h le ad s t o g enet ic d am a ge. A. C ha ra ct er ist ic s o f ca nc er c ell s. C a nce r ce lls a r e a ls o r ef er r ed t o as t umo r s, or ne op lasm s. Tum or s ar ise fr om a s ing le a bnor m a l c ell, wh ic h c ont inue s t o d iv id e ind ef i nit e ly. U nc ont r ol led gr o wt h, abil it y t o inva de loc a l t is s ue s, and a bi lit y t o sp r ead, or m eta st a size , a r e c ha r ac t er is t ic s o f canc er c ells . 1. Ca r cinog enesi s. The m ec hanis m of how ca nc er s o cc ur is t ho ug ht t o b e a m ult ist a ge , m ult if a c t or ia l p r oc e ss t hat invo l ve s bo t h g enet ic and e nv ir o nm e nt a l f act ors . a. Init ia t ion. The f ir st ste p invo lves t he e xp os ur e o f no rm al ce lls t o a ca rcino ge n, pr o ducing ge ne t ic dam ag e t o a ce ll. b. Pr omo t ion. The en vir onm e nt be com es a lt er ed t o allow p r ef er e nt ial g r ow t h of m ut a ted ce lls o ve r norm a l c ells. The m ut ate d c e lls bec om e ca nc er o us . c. P ro gr e ssio n. Incr e as ed pro lif er a t io n o f c ance r c ells a llows f or inva sio n int o loc al t is sue a nd m et ast as is . 2. T yp es of ca ncer . Tum or s c an be be nign or ma lig na nt . Be nig n t um or s ar e ge ne r all y s lo w g r owi ng , res em b le no rm al ce lls , a re loc al ized , and a re no t ha rm f ul. Ma lig na nt t um ors oft en pr o lif er at e m or e r a pidly, have an at yp ic a l ap pe ar anc e, invad e and d est ro y s ur ro und ing t is s ue s, and a re ha rm f ul if le f t unt r e at ed . Maligna nt ca nc er s a re f ur t her c at eg or ize d b y t he lo ca t io n f rom wher e t he t um or c ells ar ise . a. S olid t um or s. Ca rc inom a s ar e t um ors of ep it helia l ce lls . The se inc l ud e s pe cif ic t is sue c anc er s ( e. g. , lung, co lo n, b r ea st ). Sa r coma s inc lude t um o rs of c onnec t ive t is sue s uch as b one ( e .g. , ost e os ar c om a) or m uscle ( e . g. , le io m yos a r com a). b. Hem at ol ogi ca l m alig na nc ies. Lym phom a s are t umo r s of t he lym phat ic s ystem and inc lud e H od gk in and no n- H o dgk in lym phoma s. Le uk em ia s a r e t um ors of bloo df orm ing e lem ent s and ar e c la ss if ied as a cut e or chr on ic, m ye lo id o r lym phoid. B. Inc id enc e. C ance r is t he sec ond lea d ing ca use of dea t h in t he U nit e d S tat es . The lif et im e p r obab ilit y o f d evelop ing c ance r is > 30 %. The e st im at e d inc id e nce s of ne w ca nce r s a nd c ancer -r elat e d d eat hs b y sit e are give n i n F igur e 5 7- 1. The m ost com mo n ca nc er s a re b r eas t, pro s tat e, lung, a nd colo r ec t a l. The le ad ing c ause of ca nc er d eat h is lu ng ca nc e r . C. Ca use. Ma ny f a ct or s ha ve be en im p lic a t ed in t he o rig in o f c ance r. S om e o f t hes e f act ors a r e a s f ol low s: 1. V ir use s, inc lud i ng E p st e in- B ar r vir us (EBV ), hep at it is B vir us ( HB V) , a nd hum an pa pil lom a vir us ( HPV ) 2. E nvi r onm enta l a nd occ upa t iona l ex posur e s, s uch as io ni zi ng and u lt r a v io let r ad iat ion and e xpo sur e t o c hem ic als, i nc lud ing vi ny l c hlor id e, be nzene, and as be st o s 3. L if est yl e f a ct o rs, s uc h as high- f at , lo w- f ib er d ie t s and t o ba cco and et hano l us e
4. Medica t io ns, inc lud ing a lk yla t ing a ge nt s a nd imm uno supp r es sant s 5. Ge ne t ic f ac t or s, inc lud ing in he r it e d m ut at ions, c a nc er - c aus ing g enes ( onco ge ne s), and d efe ct ive t um or -s upp r esso r g enes D. D et ect ion and d ia g no si s ar e cr it ic a l f o r t he app r opr iat e t re atm e nt of c a nc er. E ar l ier d et ect io n m a y im pr o ve re sp onse t o t r ea tment . P. 12 38
Figure 57-1. Cancer incidence and deaths. Leading cancer sites for estimated new cases and deaths by gender in the United States, 2007 estimates. aExcludes basal and squamous cell skin cancers and in situ carcinomas except urinary bladder. [Adapted with permission from Jemal A, Murray T, Ward E, et al. Cancer statistics, 2007. CA Cancer J Clin 2007;57:43-66.]
1. W ar ning si gns of ca nc er ha ve be en o ut line d b y t he Am e r ic an C anc er S oc iet y. a. C hange in b owe l o r blad de r ha bit s b. A s or e t hat does not hea l c. U nus ua l ble ed ing o r disc har g e d. T hic k ening o r lum p in t he b r east or e ls ewher e e. Indige st ion o r dif f ic ult y s wa llo w ing f . O bvio us c ha ng e i n a wa rt or mo le g. Na gg ing c ough o r ho ar s enes s 2. G uide line s f or scr ee ning a s ym pt om at ic pe op le for t he pr ese nce of ca nc er ha ve be en es tab lished by t he Am er ic a n C a nc er S oc ie t y , t he N at io na l C a nc er Ins t it ut e , and t he U .S. P r event ive H ea lt h S er vic e s Tas k For ce . B e ca us e m any c anc er s do not pr o duce signs or s ymp toms unt i l t hey have b ec om e la r ge , t he g oa l o f s cr e ening is t o de t ect c ance rs ea r ly, when t he d ise as e is cur ab le , and t o re duc e m or t alit y. The dif f er e nt s et s o f g uide lines var y sl ig ht ly in t heir r ec om m e nd at ions f or a ge and f r eq ue nc y of s cr ee ni ng pr o ce dur es. Tab le 57 - 1 prov id es t he Am er ic an C a nc er S oc ie t y's r ec omm end at io ns f or s cr e ening. 3. T um or m a rk er s are b ioc hem ic al ind ic a t or s of the p r es ence of ne op la st ic pr o lif e r at ion de t ec te d in s er um , p lasm a, or ot her b od y f lu ids . The se t um o r m ark er s ma y be us ed in it ia ll y a s sc r ee ning t e st s, to r e ve al f urt her inf orm at ion a f t er a bnor ma l t est r e sult s , o r to mo nit or t he ef f ica c y o f t her a py. E leva t ed le ve ls of t he se m ark e rs ar e no t de f in it i ve f or t he pr e s ence of P. 12 39
ca nc er b ec a us e leve ls c a n b e e le va t ed in o t he r be nig n and m a lig na nt co nd it io ns, and f a ls e- p os it ive r es ult s do oc c ur . E xa m ples of som e c omm o nl y use d m ark er s inc lude
Table 57-1. American Cancer Society's Recommendations for the Early Detection of Cancera Cancer Site
Population
Breast
Women
Colorectal
Prostate
Cervix a
Men and Women
Men
Women
Starting Tests or Procedures Age 20+
Breast self-examination
20+
Clinical breast examination
40+
Mammography
50+
Fecal occult blood test or fecal immunochemical test
50+
Flexible sigmoidoscopy
50+
Colonoscopy
50+
Double-contrast barium enema
50+
Digital rectal examination
50+
Prostate-specific antigen
18+
Pap (Papanicolaou) test
In average-risk, asymptomatic people.
Adapted with permission from Smith RA, Cokkinides V, Eyre HJ, et al. American Cancer Society guidelines for the early detection of cancer. CA Cancer J Clin 2005;55:31-44. a. Ca r c ino em b r yo nic ant ig en ( CE A) f or c olor e cta l c a nc er b. α - Fe t op r ot e in ( AF P ) fo r he pa t oc el lu la r c a rcino ma c. P r os t at e- s pecif ic ant ig en ( PS A) f or pr ost at e canc e r
4. T um or b iop sy . The d ef init ive t e s t f or t he pr es ence of ca nc e rous c ells is a b io ps y and p at holog ic al e xam inat ion of t he biop sy s peci m en. Se ve r al t ype s o f pr oc ed ur e s ar e us ed in t he p at holog ic al ana lys is of t um or s , inc lud ing e va lua t ing t he mor pholog ic a l f ea t ur es ( ap pe ar a nc e) of t he t is sue a nd c ells , lo ok ing f o r c ell - sur f ac e mark er s, and cyt o ge ne t ic eval ua t io n f o r s pe cif ic c hr om o s om al ab no rm alit ie s. 5. Im a ging st udi es, s uc h a s x- r a ys , C T s ca ns , MR I, and p os it r o n- em is sion t om o gr a phy (P E T) , ma y be us e d t o a id i n t he diag no s is o r lo ca t io n o f a t um or and to mo nit or re s po ns e t o t r eat me nt . 6. Ot her la borat or y t e st s com m only us ed f o r ca nc e r diag no s is i nc lude com ple t e blo od c ount s (CBC s) a nd b loo d c hem is t r ie s. A CB C m ea sur es t he leve ls of t he t hr e e ba sic b lo od ce lls —w hit e c el ls , red c ells, a nd p lat ele t s . a. The CBC w ill of t e n inc lude an AN C ( ab so lut e ne ut r o phil c o unt ) whic h m ea s ur es t he ab so lut e num b er of neut r o phils in yo ur whit e b lo od co unt . The AN C is ca lc ulat e d by m ult ip l yi ng t he whit e bloo d c ount (W BC ) × t ot al ne ut r op hi ls ( se gm e nt e d ne ut r o ph ils % + se gm ent e d b ands %) × 1 0 = AN C. S e gm e nt ed neut r o phils a re o ft en lis t ed as “ p olys ” and se gm e nt e d ba nd s ar e im m atur e “ p olys . ” E. Sta ging is t he cat egor izi ng of pa t ient s ac c or d ing t o t he e xt ent of t he ir d is ea se . The s t age of t he dis e as e is us ed t o d et erm ine pr ognos is and t re atm ent . Tw o dif f er e nt s ta ging sys t em s ar e wid e ly em ployed f or t he s t ag ing o f neo pla s ms . 1. T N M cla ssif ica t io n a. T ind ic a t es t um or s ize a nd is c la ss if ie d f r om 0 t o 4, w it h 0 ind ic at ing t he ab s ence of t um or . b. N ind ic at e s t he pre se nce and e xt ent o f r eg io na l lym ph nod e s pr e ad a nd is cla s sif ied f r om 0 t o 3, wit h 0 ind ic a t ing no r e gion al lym p h nod e invo l ve m ent a nd 3 ind ic at i ng e xt e ns ive i nvo lve m e nt . c. M ind ic at e s t he pr ese nc e of dis t a nt m et ast a se s and is b e cla s sif ied a s 0 ( fo r ab se nc e) o r 1 (f or pr ese nc e of d is t ant m et ast a ses) . d. F or e xa m ple, T2N 1 M0 ind ic at e s a m o der ate - size t um or wit h l im it e d nod al dise as e and no d is t ant m e t as ta se s. 2. AJCC st a ging, de ve lo pe d b y t he Am e r ica n Jo in t C omm it t ee on C a nc er, clas sif ie s ca nc er s a s st a ges 0- IV . An as signed TN M t r a nsla t e s int o a st a ge. A hig h num b er ind ic at e s lar g er t um o rs w it h ext ens ive nod al invo l ve m ent a nd / or m et as t asis. Ge ner a lly, h ig h num be r s als o ind ic a t e a wo rse pro gnos is . The r e a r e s p ec if ic s t ag ing cr it er ia f or ea ch t um or t yp e. P. 12 40
F. S ur viva l de pe nd s o n t he t um or t ype , t he ext en t of dise as e, and t he t he rap y r ec eive d. Alt houg h som e p at ient s are f re e o f a ll d et e ct ab le dis e as e, not al l pa t ie nt s ar e cur ed. O nco lo gis t s pr ef er t o us e t he term c om ple t e respon se or rem issio n t o ind ic at e a pat ie nt w it h no ev id ence of dise as e af te r tr e atm e nt . This is no t a s yno nym f or c ur e. F or s om e s low - gr o wing t um or s, t hes e dis ea s e- fr e e p eriod s ma y ext e nd f or 10 - 15 ye ar s aft er t he in it ia l r em is sio n. H owever , a num b er o f pat ie nt s who ha ve ac hie ved com plet e r em iss io n m a y r e la ps e.
II. CELL LIFE CYCLE. K no wle dg e o f t he c e ll l if e cyc le a nd c el l c yc le k ine t ic s is es se nt ial t o t he unde r st a nd ing o f t he a ct iv it y of chem ot he r a p y agent s in t he t r eatm ent o f c ancer ( Fig ur e 57 - 2) . A. P ha ses of t he c ell cy cle 1. M p ha se , or mit o si s, is t he phas e i n w hic h t he ce ll d iv id es int o t wo da ug ht e r ce lls . 2. G 1 p ha se , or postm itot ic ga p, is whe n R N A a nd t he p r ot e ins r e quir e d f or t he sp ec ia lized f unc t io ns of t he c ell ar e s ynt he s ized in pr e par at ion f or DN A s ynt hes is . 3. S pha se is t he p has e i n wh ic h D N A s ynt hes is and r e pl ic at ion oc cur s . 4. G 2 p ha se , or t he pr em it ot ic or p ost sy nt het ic ga p, is t he phas e in w hich R N A and t he e nzym es to po is om er a s e I a nd II ar e pr o duc ed t o pr ep ar e f or dupl ic at ion of t he ce ll. 5. G 0 p ha se , or re sti ng pha se , is t he phas e i n wh ic h t he ce ll is no t c omm itt e d t o div is io n. C ells i n t h is pha se are ge ne r al ly no t s ensit ive t o c hem ot her apy. S om e of t he se cells m a y ree nt e r t he a ct ive ly d ivid ing ce ll c ycle. I n a pr oce s s c alle d re cr uitm ent , som e c hem ot he r ap y r eg im ens ar e de signed t o enha nc e t his r e ent r y by k il ling a la r ge num ber of act ive ly d iv id ing c el ls . B. C e ll gr ow t h k ine t ics. S e vera l t e rm s d es cr ibe c ell gr o wt h k ine t ic s . 1. Ce ll g r ow t h f rac ti on is t he pr o port io n of c ells in t he t um or d iv id i ng or p r epar ing t o d iv id e. As t he t um or enla r ge s, t he ce ll gr o wt h fr act io n de cr e as es b ec ause a lar g er pr op ort io n o f ce lls m a y no t be ab le t o ob tai n a de quat e nut r ient s a nd b loo d supp ly f or re plic at io n. 2. Ce ll c yc le t im e is t he aver a ge t im e for a c ell t hat ha s j ust c om p let ed m it os is t o gr o w and a ga in di vide and a ga in pa s s t hr oug h m it os is . C el l c yc le t im e is s pe cif ic f or ea ch ind iv id ua l t um or .
Figure 57-2. The cell cycle. The cell growth cycle, emphasizing the relationship between proliferating cell populations. [Reprinted with permission from Lenhard RE Jr., Osteen RT, Gansler T, et al., eds. The American Cancer Society's Clinical Oncology. Atlanta, American Cancer Society, 2001.]
P. 12 41
Figure 57-3. The gompertzian growth curve. During the early stages of its development, a tumor grows exponentially. But as a tumor enlarges, its growth slows. By the time a tumor becomes large enough to cause symptoms and be clinically detectable, the majority of its growth has already occurred and is no longer exponential. [Reprinted with permission from Lenhard MJ Jr., et al., eds. The American Cancer Society's Clinical Oncology. Atlanta, American Cancer Society, 2001.]
3. T um or d oub ling t im e is t he t im e f or t he t um o r t o do ub le in s ize . As t he t um or ge t s lar g er, it s do ub ling t im e g et s longe r be ca us e it c ont a ins a sm a lle r pr op or t ion of ac t ive ly d iv id i ng c ells o w ing t o re st r ict ions of s pac e, nut r ie nt a va ila b i lit y, a nd bloo d supp ly. 4. The gomp ert z ia n grow t h c ur ve il lust r a t es t hes e ce ll g r ow t h c onc ept s ( Fig ur e 5 73) . C. T um or ce ll b ur de n is t he num ber of t um o r ce ll s in t he b od y. 1. B ec ause o f t he la r ge num be r of cells r e quir e d t o pr od uc e sym ptom s a nd b e 9
cli nica lly de t e ct a ble ( a pp r oxim at ely 1 0 c e lls ) , t he t um or ma y be in t he p lat e au phas e o f t he g row t h c urve by t he t im e it is det e cte d. 2. The ce ll k ill hyp ot he si s s t at es t hat a c er t a in pe r ce nt age of t um or c ells w ill be k il le d w it h e ac h co ur s e of c anc er c hem ot her ap y. a. As t um or ce lls a re k ill ed , ce lls in G 0 m a y b e rec r uit ed int o G 1 , r es ult ing in t um or r eg rowt h. b. Thus r e pe at ed cyc les o f c hem ot her apy a re r e qu ir e d t o ac hieve a c omp le t e r es po ns e o r r em iss io n ( Fig ur e 57- 4) . c. The per c ent ag e of c el ls k i lle d d ep ends o n t he chem ot he r ap y do se. 3. In t heo r y, t he t um or b ur d en wo uld ne ver re ac h ab so lut e ze r o b ec ause o nly a 4
pe r ce nt age o f ce lls a r e k il led w it h e ac h c ycle. L ess t han 10 ce lls m a y d ep end on elim i na t io n b y t he ho s t 's im m une s yst em . D. C hem ot he r ap eut ic ag ent s m ay b e c la ss if ied acc or ding t o t he ir r e lia nce on ce ll cy cle kinet i cs f or t he ir c yt o t o xic e ff e ct. C om b inat io ns o f c hem ot her a py age nt s t hat ar e act ive in d if f e r ent p ha se s of t he ce ll cyc le may r es ult in a g r ea t er ce ll k ill. A ce ll cycle c la ss if ica t io n o f s om e comm only us e d c hem ot her a pe ut ic ag ent s is give n i n II. D .1 . a, b, c a nd d. 1. P ha se- spe cif ic a ge nt s ar e m ost act ive a ga inst c ells t hat a re in a s pecif ic phas e of t he ce ll c yc le. The se a ge nt s a re m o st ef f ect ive a ga ins t t um ors wit h a high g r owt h f r ac t io n. The or e t ic a lly, by a dm in is t er i ng t hes e age nt s a s co nt i nuous int r a veno us inf us io ns or b y m ult ip le r e pe at ed dos e s, it m ay in c r ease t he l ik e lihoo d of hit t i ng t he maj o r it y of ce lls in t he s pe c if ic p ha se at any o ne tim e . The r ef or e, t he se age nt s ar e als o co ns id er e d s c he dule -d ep end ent ag ent s. E xam p le s ar e a s f ollow s:
P. 12 42
Figure 57-4. Chemotherapy and tumor cell survival. Relationship between tumor cell survival and chemotherapy administration. The exponential relationship between chemotherapy drug dose and tumor cell survival dictates that a constant proportion, not number, of tumor cells is killed with each cycle of treatment. In this example, each cycle of drug administration results in 99.9% (3 log) cell kill, and 1 log of cell regrowth occurs between cycles. The broken line indicates what would occur if the last cycle of therapy were omitted. Despite complete clinical remission of disease, the tumor would ultimately recur. [Reprinted with permission from Lenhard MJ Jr., et al., eds. The American Cancer Society's Clinical Oncology. Atlanta, American Cancer Society, 2001.] a. M p ha se: m it ot ic inh ib it or s (e . g., vi nc a a lk aloid s, t axa ne s) b. G 1 p ha se: a sp ar a gina se , pr ed niso ne c. S phas e: ant im et ab olit es d. G 2 p ha se: b le om yc in, e t opos id e 2. P ha se- non sp ec if ic age nt s ar e eff ect ive whi le ce lls a r e in t he a ct ive c yc le b ut d o no t r eq uir e t hat t he c ell be in a par t ic ula r p ha se . Thes e ag ent s ge ne r ally show m or e ac t iv it y ag ai ns t s lo w- gr o wing t um or s. The y m a y be adm inist er ed as s ing le b o lus do se s b eca us e t he ir a ct ivit y is i nd ep ende nt of t he ce ll cyc le. The s e d r ug s ar e als o co ns id er e d d os e- d ep end ent ag ent s. E xam p le s ar e a lk ylat ing ag ent s and a nt it um or ant ib iot ics . 3. Ce ll c yc le -nonsp ec if ic a ge nt s a r e ef f ect ive in al l pha se s, inc lud i ng G 0 . E xa m ples ar e c arm ust ine , lo m us t ine, a nd r adia t io n.
III. CHEMOTHERAPY A. O bj e ct i ve s o f chem ot hera py 1. A cure m a y b e s o ug ht w it h ag gr ess ive t he r ap y f or a pr o lo ng ed pe r io d of t im e t o er a dic at e a ll d is ea s e. For leuk em ias , t his c ur a t ive a ppr oa c h m a y co ns is t of r em is sion induct ion, a tt em p t ing t he ma xim al ce ll kil l, f o llo we d b y c o ns ol ida t io n t he r ap y t o er ad ic at e all c lin ic a l ly unde t ec t able dis e as e and to lo we r t he t um or c ell 3
bur de n b elow 1 0 , at whic h le ve l ho s t im m unolog ic al de f ense s ma y k e ep t he c ells in co nt r o l. 2. If t he goa l is pa llia t ion, c hem ot her a py m ay b e g iven t o de cr e as e t um or s ize, co nt r o l g r owt h, a nd r ed uce sym pt om s. P a lliat ive t he r ap y is us ua lly g iven w he n com p le t e er a dic a t io n o f t he t um or is c o ns id er e d unl ik e ly or t he pat ie nt r ef use s ag gr ess ive t he r ap y.
P. 12 43
3. Ad j uva nt c hemo t her apy is g ive n af t er m or e d efi nit i ve t her a py, s uc h as sur ge r y, t o e lim ina t e a ny r em a in ing d is ea se or unde t ect e d m ic rome t ast as is. 4. Ne oa dj uva nt c hem ot he r ap y is g ive n t o de cr e as e t he t um or b ur d en bef or e de f init ive t he r ap y, s uch as s ur g er y or r ad ia t io n. 5. S a lva g e c hem ot her a py is g ive n as a n att em pt t o g et a pat ient int o r em is sion, af te r pr e vio us t he r ap ie s have f aile d. B. C hem ot hera p y d osing m ay be b ased on bo dy w ei ght , bo dy s urf a ce ar ea (BS A) , or a r ea unde r t he c onc ent r at ion ver s us t im e cur ve ( AUC) . BS A is m os t f re que nt ly us ed be ca us e it p rovid es a n a cc ur at e com pa r is on of ac t iv it y a nd t oxic it y a cr oss sp ec ie s. I n a dd it ion, BS A cor relat e s wit h ca rdiac o ut p ut , which de t erm ine s re na l a nd he pa t ic bloo d f low a nd t hus af f ect s dr ug e lim ina t io n. C. D osing a dj ustm ent s m a y be r eq uir ed f or k id ne y or liver d ys f unc t io n t o p r event t oxic it y. D. C om b ina t ion chem ot hera py is us ua lly m or e ef f ec t ive t ha n si ng le - a ge nt t he rap y. 1. W he n com bin ing c hem ot he r ap y a ge nt s, f act ors t o c onside r inc lude a. Ant it um o r act iv it y b. D if fer e nt m ec ha nism s of act io n c. Min im a lly o ve r lap p ing t oxic it ies 2. The r ea s ons f o r a dm inis t er i ng com bina t io n c he m ot her a py inc lude : a. O verc om ing or pre ve nt i ng r es is t a nc e b. C yt ot oxic it y t o r est ing and d iv id i ng ce lls c. B ioc hem ic al en ha nc em e nt of ef f ect d. Re sc ue of norm al c ells 3. Do si ng a nd sc hed uli ng o f com bi na t io n r e gim ens a r e im por t ant be c ause t hey ar e de sig ned t o a llow r e co ver y of no rm al c e lls . The se r eg im ens ge ne r al ly ar e give n a s shor t c o ur s es of t he r apy in cyc le s. 4. Ac r onym s of te n a r e us ed t o designat e c hem other a py r e gim e ns . F or e xam ple, C MF r ef er s t o a c omb inat io n of cyc lop ho s pham id e, m et hot re xa t e , and f luo r our ac il us ed in t he tr e atm e nt of b rea st ca nc e r. E. Administ ra t ion 1. Ro ut e s o f a dm in is t r at ion var y, a lt ho ugh int r avenous ( IV ) a dm inis t r at ion is em ployed m os t c omm o nl y. 2. Ot her adm inist r at io n t ec hn iq ue s i nc lude or a l, sub c ut a ne o us, int r at hec al, int r a ar te r ial, int r ap er it onea l, i nt r a ves ic a l, co nt inuo us IV inf us io n, bo lus IV inf us io n, a nd he pa t ic ar te r y inf us io n. 3. Dr ugs t hat m ay be g ive n i nt ra t heca l ly ar e me thot r e xat e and c yt ar a bine . D r ugs shou ld no t be a dm inis t er e d b y t he int r at he ca l r o ute wit ho ut s p ec if ic inf o rm at io n supp or t ing int r at hec al adm in is t r at ion. Dea t hs hav e occ ur r e d when v incr is t ine and ot her d r ug s ha ve be en adm in is t er e d by t he int r a t he ca l r o ut e . C a ut ion s ho uld b e us ed in t he p rep ar a t io n a nd de live r y o f d r ug s t o be us ed in t his m a nner .
4. P r od uct s wit h dif f ere nt f orm ula t io ns , inc l ud ing lipo so m al or peg ylat e d a ge nt s ( e.g ., lipo som al do xo r ub ic in, pe gf ilg r as t im ) , ar e bei ng us e d t o dec r ease fr e quency of a dm in is t r at io n a nd / or re duc e t o xic it ie s. F. Re sp on se t o c hem o t he rapy is d ef ine d i n a nu m ber of ways and d oe s no t a lwa ys co rr elat e wit h pa t ie nt sur vi va l. 1. Com plet e r e sp onse ( CR) ind ica t es d is ap pe ar anc e o f a ll c li nic a l, gr o ss, a nd m icro sc opic d is ea se . 2. P art ia l r espo nse (PR ) ind ic at es a > 5 0% r ed uct ion in t um o r size , la s t ing a r ea so na ble p er io d of t im e. S om e evid ence o f dise as e r em ains a f ter t he r ap y. 3. Re sp on se ra te (RR ) is d ef ine d a s C R + PR. 4. S ta bl e d ise a se ind ic at e s t um or t ha t neit he r gro ws no r s hr ink s s ig nif ic ant ly ( < 25 % c hange in si ze ) . P. 12 44
5. P ro gr e ssio n or no re sp onse aft e r t her a py is def ine d b y a > 25% inc r ea s e in t um o r size or t he appe ar a nc e of ne w le s ions . G. Fa ct ors a f f ect ing r esponse t o chem ot hera p y 1. T um or c ell he t erog eneit y . L ar g e t um or s have c om p le t ed m ult ip le ce ll d iv is io ns , r es ult ing in s ever a l m ut at ions a nd g enet ica lly d ive r s e c ells . 2. Dr ug r e sist a nce . The G oldi e-C o ldm a n hy po the si s s t at e s t ha t ge net ic c ha ng es ar e as so c iat ed wit h dr ug r es is t ance , a nd t he pr obab ilit y o f r esist a nce incr e as es as t um o r size incr e as es. The hyp ot hes is as s um e s t ha t at t he t im e of dia gno sis, m o st t um o rs pos s es s r es is t ant c lone s. The m os t we ll -s tud ied m ec ha nism o f res is t a nc e invo l ve s t he mdr (m ult idr ug r e sist a nc e ) ge ne , whic h c od es f o r m em b rane - b ound Pglyc op r ot e in. P - g lyco pr o tein s er ve s a s a c ha nne l t hr ough whic h c ell ula r t o xi ns ( i. e . , chem o t he r ap eut ic ag ent s ) m ay b e e xc r e t ed f rom the c ell. 3. Do se int ensit y is de f ined as a spec if ic do se de live r ed over a s pe cif ic pe r io d of t im e. Occ as io na lly, t he f ull do s e c anno t b e g iven or a c yc le is d ela yed owi ng t o com p lica t io ns or t oxic it ies . S ubo pt im a l d ose s hav e res ult ed in r ed uc ed r e sp onse r ate s a nd s ur viva l. D ose densi t y in vo lve s s ho r t e ning t he us ua l i nt e r val b et wee n do se s t o m a xim ize t he d r ug ef f ect s on t he t um or g r owt h k inet ics . 4. P at ie nt - spe cif ic f a ct or s s uc h a s po or f unct io n al st a t us , im p air ed or g an f unc t io n, or c oncom it a nt dis e as es m ay c om p r om is e ho w a chem ot he r ap y r eg im en is g ive n and af fe ct ho w t he p at ient r e sponds to t rea tm ent.
IV. CLASSIFICATION OF CHEMOTHERAPEUTIC AGENTS A. Alk yla t ing a gent s w er e t he f ir s t g roup o f a nt ine op la st ic a ge nt s. The p rot o t yp e of t his c la ss is m ec hlor e t ham ine, or nit r oge n m usta r d, whic h w as res ear c he d a s a chem ic al wa r far e ag ent. A lk yla t ing a ge nt s c a us e c r oss - link i ng and ab no rm a l b ase pa ir ing o f DN A str a nds , whic h in hib it r ep lic at io n o f t he DN A. Th is m ec ha nism is k nown as a lky la t ion. Thes e ar e phas e- nons pe cif ic ag ents. E xam ples of alk yla t ing ag ent s a nd t heir t oxic it ies ar e list e d i n Tab le 57 - 2. B. Mos t of t he a nt it um or a nt ibi ot ic s a re obt a ine d fr om org anis m s o f t he St r ep t o my c es g enus . Thes e ag ents m ay ac t b y eit he r alk yla t ion (m it om yc in) or
int e rc a lat io n. Int e r ca la t io n is t he p r oc ess b y whic h t he dr ug slide s b et wee n D N A ba se pa ir s and inh ib it s DN A s ynt hes is . The se ar e p ha se - no ns p ec if ic a ge nt s . E xa m ples of ant it um or a nt ib iot ic s and t he ir t o xic it ies a r e lis t ed in Ta b le 5 7- 2. C. Ant im eta b olit e s ar e st r uc t ur a l a na lo gs of na t ur a lly o cc urr ing s ub st r at e s f o r bio che m ica l r e act io ns . The y i nh ib it DN A synt he s is b y act ing a s f als e subs t it ut io ns i n t he pro duc t ion o f nuc le ic a cids . The se ar e S p ha se - s pecif ic ag ent s . E xam p le s of ant im eta bo lit es and t he ir t o xic it ie s a r e l is t ed in Ta ble 5 7- 2. D. Mit ot ic inhib it or s. The v inca a lk a lo id s a r r es t c el l d iv is io n by p r event ing m icro t ub ule f orm at ion. The t axa ne s p r om ot e m icro t ubu le a s sem bly a nd st ab iliza t io n, t hus p r ohib it ing ce ll d iv is io n. T he se are M p ha se -sp ec if ic ag ent s. E xam ples of t he s e ag ent s a nd t heir t oxic it ies ar e list e d i n Tab le 57 - 2. E. To po isom e ra se i nhi bit o rs inhib it t he enz ym e s t opo is om er as e I or I I. The t op ois om er ase s a r e ne ce ss a r y f or DN A rep lic a t io n a nd RN A t r ansc r ip t io n. The s e a r e G 2 phas e-s pe c if ic a ge nt s. E xa mp le s o f t hes e agent s and t he ir t o xic it ies a r e l ist ed in Tab le 57 - 2. F. E nzym es. As par ag inas e is an enzym e t ha t c ause s t he degr ada t io n of t he es se nt ia l am ino a c id as pa r ag ine t o as part ic a cid a nd amm o nia ( Tab le 57 - 2). U nlik e no rm a l c el ls , t umo r c ells lac k t he abil it y t o synt he size as par ag ine. This is a G 1 phas e- s pec if ic a ge nt . G. Pr ote in t yr osine k ina se inhib it o r s. Ima t in ib m es ylat e is a se le ct ive t yr os ine k inas e inhib it o r t hat c aus es ap opt o sis or arr e st of gro wt h in ce lls e xp r es si ng t he B cr - Abl onco pr o tein ( Tab le 57 - 2). B cr - Abl is t he pr o duc t of a s pec if ic c hr om osom a l ab no rm a lit y ( P hilad e lp h ia c hr om os om e), whic h is pr e se nt in virt ua lly a l l p at ient s wit h chr on ic m ye lo ge no us le uk em ia (C ML ). It is t he f ir st app roved a nt ine op las t ic ag ent designed t o ha ve ta r get ed enzym e act iv it y. E r lot inib is a s ele ct ive in hib it or of ep ide rm al gr o wt h fac to r rec ept or (EG FR ) t yr o s ine k ina s e. E G FR is a c ell sur f a ce r ec ept or t ha t is ove r expr e ss e d i n c ert a in s olid t u m or s . The bi nd ing of t he EG FR r ec ept or t o it s lig a nd a ct iva t e s t yr o sine k ina se , wh ic h t hen s t im ulat e s ce ll pr o lif e r at ion and gr ow t h of t he t um o r. E r lo t in ib bl ock s t he t yr o sine k ina se s igna l ing ca sc ade and inh ib it s c a nc er ce ll g r owt h. The se a ge nt s ar e a ls o k no wn as t a rge ted ag ent s bec a us e t he y a ff e ct sp ec if ic r e ce pt ors t o induce ca nce r ce ll de at h. P. 12 45
P. 12 46
P. 12 47
Table 57-2. Cancer Chemotherapeutic Agents by Mechanism of Action and Toxicities
Drug
Toxicities
Alkylating agents Altretamine (hexamethylmelamine)
Nausea and vomiting, myelosuppression, paresthesias, CNS toxicity
Busulfan
Myelosuppression, pulmonary fibrosis, aplastic anemia, skin hyperpigmentation
Carmustine (BCNU)
Delayed myelosuppression, nausea and vomiting, hepatotoxicity
Chlorambucil
Myelosuppression, pulmonary fibrosis, hyperuricemia
Carboplatin
Myelosuppression, nausea and vomiting, peripheral neuropathy, ototoxicity
Cisplatin
Nephrotoxicity, nausea and vomiting, peripheral neuropathy, myelosuppression, ototoxicity
Cyclophosphamide
Myelosuppression, hemorrhagic cystitis, immunosuppression, alopecia, stomatitis, SIADH
Dacarbazine (DTIC)
Myelosuppression, nausea and vomiting, flulike syndrome, hepatotoxicity, alopecia, flushing
Estramustine
Myelosuppression, ischemic heart disease, thrombophlebitis, hepatotoxicity, nausea and vomiting
Ifosfamide
Myelosuppression, hemorrhagic cystitis, somnolence, confusion
Lomustine (CCNU)
Delayed myelosuppression, nausea and vomiting, hepatotoxicity, neurotoxicity
Mechlorethamine
Myelosuppression, nausea and vomiting, phlebitis, gonadal dysfunction
Melphalan
Myelosuppression, anorexia, nausea and vomiting, gonadal dysfunction
Oxaliplatin
Sensory peripheral neuropathy, nausea and vomiting, diarrhea, mucositis, transaminase elevations, alopecia
Procarbazine
Myelosuppression, nausea and vomiting, lethargy, depression, paresthesias, headache, flulike syndrome
Streptozocin
Renal toxicity, nausea and vomiting, diarrhea, altered glucose metabolism, liver dysfunction
Temozolomide
Myelosuppression, nausea and vomiting, fatigue, headache, peripheral edema
Thiotepa
Myelosuppression, nausea and vomiting, mucositis, skin rashes
Antitumor antibiotics Bleomycin
Pneumonitis, pulmonary fibrosis, fever, anaphylaxis, hyperpigmentation, alopecia
Dactinomycin
Stomatitis, myelosuppression, anorexia, nausea and vomiting, diarrhea, alopecia
Daunorubicin
Myelosuppression, cardiotoxicity, stomatitis, alopecia, nausea and vomiting
Doxorubicin
Myelosuppression, cardiotoxicity, stomatitis, alopecia, nausea and vomiting
Epirubicin
Myelosuppression, nausea and vomiting, cardiotoxicity, alopecia
Idarubicin
Myelosuppression, nausea and vomiting, stomatitis, alopecia, cardiotoxicity
Mitomycin C
Myelosuppression, nausea and vomiting, anorexia, alopecia, stomatitis
Mitoxantrone
Myelosuppression, cardiotoxicity, alopecia, stomatitis, nausea and vomiting
Valrubicin
Urinary frequency, dysuria, hematuria, bladder spasm, incontinence, cystitis (For intravesical bladder administration)
Antimetabolites Azacytidine
Myelosuppression, nausea and vomiting, diarrhea, constipation, injection site pain, muscle aches, fatigue, edema, dizziness
Capecitabine
Diarrhea, stomatitis, nausea and vomiting, hand-foot syndrome, myelosuppression
Cladribine (2Cda)
Myelosuppression, fever, rash
Cytarabine (Ara-C)
Myelosuppression, nausea and vomiting, diarrhea, stomatitis, hepatotoxicity, fever, conjunctivitis, CNS toxicity
Decitabine
Myelosuppression, petechiae, fatigue, diarrhea, constipation, hyperglycemia, myalgias/arthralgias, rash, edema
Fludarabine
Myelosuppression, nausea and vomiting, fever, malaise, pulmonary infiltrates
Floxuridine
Hepatotoxicity, gastritis, mucositis
5-Fluorouracil
Stomatitis, myelosuppression, diarrhea, nausea and vomiting, cerebellar ataxia
Gemcitabine
Myelosuppression, fever, flu-like syndrome, rash, mild nausea and vomiting
Hydroxyurea
Myelosuppression, mild nausea and vomiting, rash
6-Mercaptopurine
Myelosuppression, nausea and vomiting, anorexia, diarrhea, cholestasis
Methotrexate
Mucositis, myelosuppression, pulmonary fibrosis, hepatotoxicity, nephrotoxicity, diarrhea, skin erythema
Nelarabine
Neurologic toxicities disorders, somnolence, hypoesthesia, and seizures), thrombocytopenia, anemia, and neutropenia, fatigue, and nausea
Pemetrexed
Myelosuppression, edema, fatigue, nausea and vomiting, diarrhea, mucositis, skin rash
Pentostatin
Nephrotoxicity, CNS depression, myelosuppression, nausea and vomiting, conjunctivitis
6-Thioguanine
Myelosuppression, hepatotoxicity, stomatitis
Mitotic inhibitors
Docetaxel
Myelosuppression, fluid retention, hypersensitivity, paresthesias, rash alopecia
Ixabepilone
Peripheral sensory neuropathy, neutropenia, fatigue, myalgia, arthralgia, stomatitis, hypersensitivity reactions, anorexia
Paclitaxel
Myelosuppression, peripheral neuropathy, alopecia, mucositis, anaphylaxis, dyspnea
Vinblastine
Myelosuppression, paralytic ileus, alopecia, nausea, stomatitis
Vincristine
Peripheral neuropathy, paralytic ileus, SIADH
Vinorelbine
Peripheral neuropathy, myelosuppression, nausea and vomiting, hepatic dysfunction
Topoisomerase inhibitors Etoposide
Myelosuppression, nausea and vomiting, diarrhea, fever, hypotension with infusion, alopecia
Irinotecan
Myelosuppression, diarrhea, nausea and vomiting, anorexia
Teniposide
Myelosuppression, nausea and vomiting, alopecia, hepatotoxicity, hypotension with infusion
Topotecan
Myelosuppression, fever, flulike syndrome, nausea and vomiting
Enzymes
Asparaginase
Allergic reactions, nausea and vomiting, liver dysfunction, CNS depression, hyperglycemia
Pegasparaginase
Hypersensitivity reactions, hepatotoxicity, fever, nausea and vomiting
Protein tyrosine kinase inhibitors Dasatinib
Pleural and pericardial effusions, diarrhea, myelosuppresion, gastrointestinal hemorrhage, rash
Erlotinib (OSI-774)
Acneiform rash, diarrhea, nausea, pruritus, fatigue, eye irritation
Imatinib mesylate (STI-571)
Myelosuppression, hepatotoxicity, fluid retention, nausea, diarrhea
Lapatinib
Diarrhea, rash, nausea, fatigue, anemia, left ventricular and liver dysfunction
Nilotinib
Rash, headache, nausea, fatigue, thrombocytopenia, neutropenia
Sorafenib
Hand-and-foot syndrome, fatigue, hypertension, rash/desquamation, diarrhea
Sunitinib
Hand-and-foot syndrome, skin and hair discoloration, fatigue, diarrhea, hypothyroidism, hypertension, left ventricular dysfunction, mucositis/stomatitis, nausea
Temsirolimus
Hyperglycemia, hypophosphatemia, anemia, hypertriglyceridemia, rash, diarrhea, mucositis/stomatitis
Histone deacetylase inhibitors Vorinostat
Thrombocytopenia, anemia, diarrhea, nausea/vomiting, hyperglycemia
Miscellaneous Tretinoin (all-trans retinoic acid, ATRA)
Leukocytosis, arrhythmias, headache, nausea and vomiting, scaling of skin, ATRA syndrome (fever, dyspnea, weight gain, pulmonary infiltrates)
Arsenic trioxide
Arrhythmias, hyperleukocytosis, nausea and vomiting, diarrhea, abdominal pain, APL differentiation syndrome (fever, dyspnea, weight gain, pulmonary infiltrates)
Bexarotene (Targretin R)
Hyperlipidemia, pancreatitis, hypothyroidism, hypercalcemia, leukopenia, peripheral edema, rash
Bortezomib (Velcade R)
Fatigue, peripheral neuropathy, myelosuppression, hypotension, arthralgias, diarrhea, nausea and vomiting, headache, fever
Lenalidomide
Myelosuppression, thromboembolic events, bacterial infection, fatigue, diarrhea
Thalidomide
Fatigue; headache; numbness in hands, feet, arms, and legs; constipation; increased risk for thrombotic events
Hormonal agents Adrenocorticoids
Fluid retention, hyperglycemia, hypertension, infection
Dexamethasone Methylprednisolone Prednisone Estrogens
Fluid retention, feminization, uterine bleeding, nausea and vomiting, thrombophlebitis
Diethylstilbestrol Estradiol Progestins
Weight gain, fluid retention, feminization, cardiovascular effects
Medroxyprogesterone Megestrol acetate Antiestrogens
Hot flashes, nausea and vomiting, altered menses
Fulvestrant Tamoxifen Toremifene Estrogen agonist/antagonist Raloxifene
Hot flashes, arthralgias, flu-like syndrome
Aromatase Inhibitors
Rash, electrolytes disturbance, drowsiness,
nausea, anorexia Aminoglutethimide Anastrozole Exemestane Letrozole Androgens Testosterone
Masculinization, amenorrhea, gynecomastia, nausea, water retention, changes in libido, skin hypersensitivity, hepatotoxicity
Methyltestosterone Fluoxymesterone Antiandrogens Bicalutamide
Hot flashes, decreased libido, impotence, diarrhea, nausea and vomiting, gynecomastia, hepatotoxicity
Flutamide Nilutamide LHRH Analogs
Hot flashes, menstrual irregularity, sexual dysfunction, edema
Leuprolide Goserelin LHRH antagonist
Hypersensitivity reactions, hypotension,
Abarelix
syncope, hot flashes, breast enlargement, prolongation of QT interval
APL, acute promyelocytic leukemia; ATRA, all-trans-retinoic acid; CNS, central nervous system; LHRH, luteinizing hormone-releasing hormone; SIADH, syndrome of inappropriate antidiuretic hormone.
P. 12 48
H. Ot her m isce lla neo us ag ent s ar e list e d in Tab le 57- 2. 1. T r et inoi n (a ll- t r an s r e t ino ic a c id; ATR A) is a r et ino id d er i ve d f r om vit am in A, us ed f or a s pe c if ic f orm of a c ut e le uk em ia, k no wn as a cut e pr om ye loc yt ic le uk em ia ( AP L ), t o he lp ce lls d if f e r ent ia t e int o f unc t io na lly m at ur e ce lls . 2. Ar senic t ri oxi de is an ant ineo p las t ic ar s e nic c om p ound us ed f o r AP L t hat ma y ind uc e se le ct ive ap op t os is of AP L c el ls . 3. Be xa rot e ne is a s e lec t ive r et ino id X r e ce pt o r (R XR ) lig a nd us ed f or c ut aneo us T ce ll lym p hom a. Act iva t io n o f t he r et ino id r e ce pt ors le ad s t o r egu la t io n o f ge ne e xpr e ss io n a nd a po pto sis. 4. Bo rt ez om ib is a p rot eo som e inh ib it or us ed in pa t ie nt s wit h m ult ip le m ye lo ma . a. P r ot e os om e s are enzym e com ple xes t ha t ar e re s po ns ib le f or d egr ad ing p r ot e ins t ha t c ont r ol t he c ell cyc le . b. Bo rt e zom ib is sp ec if ic i n t hat it int e r f er e s wit h t he d egr ad at ion of nuc lea r f act or κβ (N F- κ β). N F- κβ is r ele as ed f r om it s in hib it or y pa r t ne r pr ote in and m o ve s to t he nuc le us. W he n t he in hib it or y pa r t ne r d oes not degr a de be cause of t he act ion of bo rt ezom ib, N F- κβ is pr event ed f rom t r ans cr ib ing t he ge ne s t ha t pr om ot e c ancer gr o wt h. 5. T ha lidom i de a nd Le no lidom i de ar e im m unomo du la t or y a ge nt s wit h a var ie t y of me cha nis m s of ac t io n. The y w ork a s a ng io ge ne s is inh ib it or s by int e r f er ing w it h t he gr o wt h o f new blo od ves se ls nee de d f or t um or g r owt h a nd sur viva l. The y inhib it t he pr o duct ion of t um or ne cr o s is fac to r α ( TN F -α ) produc t io n, c aus es oxid at i ve d am age t o DN A, a nd he lp st im ula t e hum an T c ells . They c an be use d a s tr eatm ent f or m ult ip le m yelo m a i n c om b inat io n wit h de xam et ha so ne . I. H orm ones a re a clas s of het ero ge ne ous c omp ounds t ha t have a var iet y o f ef f ect s on ce lls . Tab le 57 - 2 list s s om e of t he m ost c ommo nl y us ed ho rm onal ag ent s in ca nc er t he r ap y.
J. B i olog ica l r e sp onse m odif ie r s a lt e r or enha nc e t he pat ie nt ' s im m une s ys t em to f ight c anc er o r t o les s en t he s id e e ff ect s of t he c ance r tr e atm e nt . E xam ples a r e given in Ta b le 5 7- 3. P. 12 49
Table 57-3. Biological Agents Used in Oncology Agent
Indications
Toxicity
Cytokine Interferon-α -2a, -2b (RoferonAR, Intron A)
Malignant melanoma, chronic myelogenous leukemia, hairy-cell leukemia, Kaposi sarcoma, chronic hepatitis B and C, follicular lymphoma
Flulike syndrome, anorexia, depression, fatigue
Interleukin 2 (aldesleukin, Proleukin)
Renal cell carcinoma, malignant melanoma
Chills, fever, dyspnea, pulmonary congestion, edema, nephrotoxicity, hypotension, mental status changes, anemia, thrombocytopenia, diarrhea, nausea and vomiting
Interleukin 11 (oprelvekin, Neumega)
Thrombocytopenia
Fluid retention, peripheral edema, dyspnea, tachycardia, atrial arrhythmias, dizziness, blurred vision
Filgrastim (GCSF, Neupogen)
Decrease incidence/duration of neutropenia, hematopoietic stem-cell mobilization
Bone pain, fever, malaise
Pegfilgrastim (Neulasta)
Decrease incidence/duration of neutropenia
Bone pain, fever, malaise
Sargramostim (GM-CSF, Leukine)
Acceleration of myeloid recovery, BMT failure or engraftment delay, induction for acute myelogenous leukemia, hematopoietic stem cell mobilization, myeloid reconstitution after BMT
Bone pain, arthralgia/myalgia, chills, fever, rash, firstdose reaction (hypotension, tachycardia, dyspnea)
Epoetin α (erythropoietin, Epogen, Procrit)
Anemia associated with chronic renal failure, cancer chemotherapy or HIV treatments, reduction of blood transfusions in surgery patients
Hypertension, headache, arthralgias
Darbepoetin α (Aranesp)
Anemia associated with chronic renal failure, chronic renal insufficiency, cancerand chemotherapyassociated anemia
Hypertension, myalgia, headache, fever, tachycardia, nausea
Monoclonal antibody Alemtuzumab (Campath R)
B cell chronic lymphocytic leukemia
Infusion-related fevers, chills, rash, hypotension, shortness of breath, nausea and vomiting, opportunistic infections, neutropenia, thrombocytopenia
Bevacizumab (Avastin R)
Metastatic colorectal cancer, non-small cell lung cancer (nonsquamous)
Hypertension, proteinuria, GI perforation, thrombotic events, impaired wound healing
Cetuximab (Erbitux R)
Metastatic colorectal cancer
Acneiform rash, infusion related reactions, fatigue,
nausea and vomiting, diarrhea Gemtuzumab ozogamicin (Mylotarg R)
Acute myeloid leukemia
Infusion-related fever, chills, nausea and vomiting, headache, hypotension, myelosuppression, hepatotoxicity, hypersensitivity
Ibritumomab tiuxetan (Zevalin R)
Non-Hodgkin lymphoma
Infusion-related fevers, chills, rigors, hypersensitivity, hypotension, myelosuppression
Panitumumab
EGFR-expressing, metastatic colorectal carcinoma with disease progression on or following fluoropyrimidine-, oxaliplatin-, and irinotecan-containing chemotherapy regimens.
Transient acneiform skin rash, erythema, dry skin, skin fissures/exfoliation, diarrhea
Rituximab (Rituxan R)
Non-Hodgkin lymphoma
Hypersensitivity, infusion-related fevers, chills, rigors, hypotension
Tositumomab (Bexxar R)
Non-Hodgkin lymphoma
Hypersensitivity reactions, fever, chills, myelosuppression, especially thrombocytopenia, rash, nausea and vomiting, diarrhea
Trastuzumab (Herceptin R)
Breast cancer
Infusion-related fevers, chills, cardiac
dysfunction including dyspnea, cough, peripheral edema, nausea and vomiting, hypersensitivity, hypotension, diarrhea Immunotoxin Denileukin diftitox (Ontak R)
Cutaneous T cell lymphoma
Acute hypersensitivity, including hypotension, dyspnea, rash, chest pain, tachycardia, vascular leak syndrome, dizziness, nausea and vomiting, diarrhea
BMT, bone marrow transplant; G-CSF, granulocyte colony-stimulating factor; GI, gastrointestinal; GM-CSF, granulocyte-macrophage colonystimulating factor. P. 12 50
1. Cy t ok ine s ar e so lub le f a ct o rs se cr ete d o r re lea s ed by c ells t ha t af f ec t t he ac t iv it y of ot her ce lls and / or t he s e cr e t ing c e ll it se lf . The s e a ge nt s g ener a lly a ct as r eg ula t o ry o r hem at o po ie t ic gr o wt h fa ct o rs . 2. Mo noc lona l a nt i bod ies ar e r e com bi na nt a nt ib o dies de s igned t o id ent if y c ance r sp ec if ic a nt ige ns , b ind t o t he a nt ige ns on t he p at i ent 's c ancer cells, and a llo w t he pa t ient 's imm une syst em t o e lim ina t e t hos e ce lls. a. S om e mo noc lona l ant ib od ie s a r e be ing c onj ug at ed t o a nt it umo r a ge nt s or r ad ioiso t op es ( e. g., gem t uzum a b o zog am ic in, ib r it um om a b t iuxet a n) t o help t a r get cyt ot oxic t he r ap y t o t he t um o r cells. b. Ano t he r exam p le of a m o no clona l a nt ibo dy is b evac iz um a b, which t ar g et s a nd inh ib it s va s cu la r endo t he lia l g r owt h f act or (V EG F). VEG F is an im po rt a nt r e gula t or of t he gr o wt h and s ur viva l of blo od ves se ls k no wn a s angiog enes is . B e va c izum ab work s by in hib it i ng ang iog enes is and, t he r efo r e, inh ib it ing t he bloo d s upp ly t o t he t um o r. c. Ot her m onoc lo na l ant ib od ie s a r e lis t ed in Ta ble 5 7- 3 . 3. Im m unot o xins. D e nile uk in dif t it o x is a f usio n pr o tei n c omp os e d of dipht her ia t oxin and i nt e r le uk in 2 ( IL- 2) . It is d es ig ne d t o d ir ec t t he cyt o cida l ac t ion of dip ht he r ia t o xin t o c el ls wit h t he IL - 2 r ec ep t or on t he ir s ur f ac e. This f orm of t her apy
is ab le t o b yp as s t he nee d f o r a f unc t io ning im m une s ys t em , whic h m ay b e d ef ect ive in m a ny c ance r p at ient s.
V. TOXICITIES OF CHEMOTHERAPY AGENTS. C hem ot her a pe ut ic a ge nt s ar e mo st t o xic t o r ap id ly pr o lif er a t ing c el ls . The t iss ues mo st comm only af f ec t ed ar e t hos e of t he m uc ous mem br a ne s , P. 12 51 sk in, ha ir , g astr o int es t ina l ( G I) t r act, and b one ma r r ow. O f t hes e, bo ne m ar r o w t oxic it y c an be t he m ost l if e - t hr e at e ni ng . A. B one m a rrow supp r essio n is t he m o st c om mon do se - lim it ing s ide ef f e ct of ca nc er t he r ap y. 1. Com plicat io ns a. Inf ect ions. W hit e bloo d cel ls ar e m os t aff ect e d o wing t o t heir sho rt lif e s pa n ( 6 12 hr ). ( 1) A sign if ic ant d ec r ea se in t he wh it e bloo d c e ll c ount , par t ic ular l y a ne ut r op hil 3
co unt < 50 0/mm ( ne ut r o pe nia ), pre disp os es t he pa t ient t o d evelopm e nt of s er ious inf e c t io ns . ( 2) The us ua l s ig ns a nd sym pt om s of inf e ct ion m ay b e a bs e nt , a nd f e ve r m a y b e t he on ly ind ic at o r (f e br ile ne ut r op enia) . ( 3) C o lony- st im ula t ing f ac t or s—f or exa m p le , gra nuloc yt e co lony- st im ula t ing f ac tor (G-CS F ) a nd gra nulo cy t e-m ac r opha g e c ol ony - st im ula t ing f a ct or (G M CS F) —m ay be use d t o st im u la t e neut r op hi l p r od uc t io n a nd le s se n t he de gr e e a nd dur at ion of neut r o pe nia . b. B le ed ing . P lat e le t s have an int erm e diat e lif e s pa n o f 5 -10 da ys. D ecr ea sed pla t elet s ( t hrom bocyt o pe nia ) ca n als o oc cur f rom c hem ot her a py, wh ic h c an le ad t o ble ed ing a nd m ay r e quir e pla t elet tr ansf us ions . c. Anem ia and f at ig ue se co nd ar y t o c ance r c hem ot her a py m ay a ls o o cc ur . It ge ne r all y d oe s no t occ ur as quic k ly a s ot her b one m arr o w t oxic it ies b ec ause of t he lo ng l if e sp an o f r ed bloo d c e lls ( ab out 1 20 da ys). H um a n r ec om bina nt er yt hr opo iet in ( e. g. , ep oet in α, da r bepo et in α ) may b e use d t o inc r ea se he m oglob in, de cr e as e tr ans f us io n r e qu ir em e nt s, and d ec rea s e f a t ig ue . 2. The t im e cour se of m ye los upp r es sion va r ie s w it h t he c he m ot her a py r eg im e n. I n ge ne r al, t he ons et of m yelo s up pr e ss io n is 7 - 10 days aft e r t he c hem ot he r ap y has be en adm inist e r ed. The lo wes t point o f t he c ount s, ca lle d t he na dir, is usua l ly r ea ched in 10 - 14 da ys. R ec ove ry of count s usua l ly oc cur s in 2 - 3 week s. 3. A pat ie nt ' s c o unt s m ust be s uf f icie nt ly r ec over ed bef or e r ece iv ing s ub s eq ue nt chem o t he r ap y cycles . G e ne r ally, t he ne ut r op hil c o unt m ust be > 1, 500/ mm 3 a nd t he pla t elet co unt > 1 00, 000 /mm 3 bef ore t he p at ient re ce ives ad dit io na l c he m ot her a py. 4. The ext e nt o f m yelos up pr e ss io n is r ela t ed to t he c hem ot he ra py a gent s us ed and doses g ive n. Dr ug s t ha t c an ca use se ver e m ye lo supp r es s ion inc l ud e c ar m ust ine, cyt ar a bine , d auno r ub ic in, do xo r ub ic in, and p ac lit axe l. 5. S om e chem ot he r ap y ag ents ca us e lit t le o r no m yelo s up pr e ss io n. The s e inc lud e as pa rag inas e, b le om yci n, a nd vincr is t ine . B. D erm a t olo gica l t o xi city
1. Al ope cia is t he los s of ha ir as s oc ia t ed wit h c hem ot her a py. N o t a ll a ge nt s c aus e alo pe c ia, a nd hair los s m ay be p art ial or c om p let e. C hemo t her apy ag ent s t hat com mo nl y ca us e a lo pe cia i nc lude cyc lop ho s pham id e, d oxo r ub ic in, m ec hlor e t ham ine , and p ac lit a xe l. 2. Dr ugs ass ociat e d wit h ne cr o sis o f t iss ue ar e c al led ve sica nt s. Lo ca l ne cr o sis ma y res ult f r om ext ra va sat io n o f ves ic ant c hem other a py dr ug s o uts id e t he ve in dur ing t he ir adm inist r at io n. V es ic ant a ge nt s inc lud e d ac t ino m yc in, da unor ub ic i n, do xo r ub ic in, id ar ub ic in, m ec hlor e t ham ine, m it om yci n, v inb las t ine, v inc r ist ine , a nd vinor e lb ine. a. Most ve sica nt ext r ava sa t io ns pr o duc e im m ed iat e pa in or b ur ni ng. Howe ver , a de laye d r e ac t io n m a y oc cur ho ur s or we ek s lat e r. S ign if ica nt t iss ue i nj ur y, inc l ud i ng ulc er a t io n or nec r os is , m a y r equir e plas t ic s ur g ery int er ve nt io n. b. The tr ea tme nt of e xt r avas at ions va r ie s, d ep endi ng on t he ve sic a nt . H eat or co ld pa ck s and c hem ic als s uc h as hya luro nida se o r dim et hyl su lf o xide ( D MSO ) m ay b e us ed . 3. Ca nce r chem ot he r ap y ca n als o ca us e sk in c ha nge s suc h a s dr yne ss and se ns it iv it y t o s un lig ht . E xam ples a re f luo r our ac il and m et ho t rexa t e. C. G I t o xic it ie s ar e f r eq ue nt l y e xp er ie nce d by pat ie nt s r e ce iv ing c hem ot her a py. 1. Na usea and vom it i ng ar e oft e n t he m os t d is t res s ing t o xic it ies fr om t he p at ient 's pe r spect ive. H owe ver, t his s id e e f fect c an g ener ally b e p r event e d, or bet t er co nt r o lle d, wit h t he use of cur r ent ly a va ila b le a nt i em et ic s. a. S ever e vom it i ng ca n r es ult in de hydr a t io n, ele c t r olyt e im b ala nc e s, a nd es op ha ge al t ear s and m a y c a us e t he pa t ie nt t o d is co nt i nue t he r ap y. P. 12 52
b. Na us e a a nd vom it ing m ay be a c ut e , d ela ye d, o r a nt ic ipa t or y in na t ur e . Ant iem e t ic s s hou ld be us ed pr o phyla ct ica lly t o pre ve nt t he occ ur r e nc e of naus ea and vom it ing , p art icu la r ly wit h che m o t he ra pe ut ic a ge nt s t hat ha ve a hig h em et og enic r is k. c. Tab le 57 -4 lis t s c om m only use d c he mo t he ra peut i c a ge nt s and t he ir em e t og enic po t ent ia l o n a sc a le of 1- 5. ( 1) The em et og enic po t ent ia l o f c om b inat io ns o f che m ot her a py ag ent s c an be es t im at ed by id ent if y ing t he m os t emet o ge nic a gent i n t he com bina t io n. ( 2) The co nt ribut io n o f t he o t her a ge nt s can t hen be eva luat e d b y us ing t he f ollow i ng gu id e li ne s: (a ) L evel 1 a ge nt s do no t co nt r ibut e t o t he em e t og en ic it y of t he re gim e n. ( b) Ad di ng one o r m or e le ve l 2 a ge nt s inc r ea se s t he em et og enic it y t o one level hig he r t han t he m ost em eto ge nic ag ent in t he c om b ina t io n. ( b) Ad di ng le ve l 3 or 4 a ge nt s incr e as e s t he leve l of em et og enic it y by o ne le ve l p er ag ent . d. The oc curr e nc e of nause a a nd vom it ing is inf lu ence d by t he e m et oge nic it y o f t he chem o t he r ap eut ic ag ent or c om bina t io n o f a ge nt s, t he chem o t he r apeut ic d os e, t he met hod of adm inist r a t io n, a nd ind i vid ua l pa t ient c ha r ac t er is t ic s.
2. S t om at it i s is a ge ne r alized inf la mm at io n o f t he o ral m uc os a or ot her ar eas of t he GI t rac t. B ec aus e o f t he ra pid t ur no ver o f e pit he lia l c ells i n t he G I tr a ct, t his is a com mo n sit e o f t o xic it y. a. S i gns a nd sy m pt om s inc lud e e r yt hem a, pain, d r ynes s of t he m out h, bur ni ng or t ing li ng of t he lip s, ulc e r at ions, a nd b lee di ng . b. C hem o t he r ap y ag ent s asso c iat e d wit h s t om at it is inc lud e ca pe cit ab ine, f luor o ur a c il, and me t hotr e xat e . c. T im e c ourse. St omat it is us ua lly a pp ea rs wit hi n a we ek af t er t he off e nding a ge nt is adm inist e r ed , a nd res olve s in 10 - 14 da ys . d. C o nseq uence s of s t omat it is inc lude inf ec t io n o f t he ulc er a t e d ar ea s, inab ilit y t o ea t, pa in r eq uir ing o pio id ana lge sics , a nd subs e quent de c r ease s in c hem ot he r ap y do se s.
Table 57-4. Emetogenic Potential of Cancer Chemotherapeutic Agents Level 5: Very Highly Emetogenic Carmustine > 250 mg/m2 Cisplatin ≥ 50 mg/m2 Cyclophosp hamide ≥ 1500 mg/m2 Dacarbazine Mechloretha mine Streptozocin
Level 3: Level 4: Highly Moderately Emetogenic Emetogenic Carmustine ≤ 250 mg/m2 Cisplatin < 50 mg/m2 Cyclophosp hamide 7501500 mg/m2 Cytarabine > 1000 mg/m2 Dactinomyci n Doxorubicin > 60 mg/m2 Lomustine Melphalan (intravenous > 50 mg/m2) Methotrexat e > 1000 mg/m2 Procarbazin e Temozolomi de Thiotepa ≥ 15 mg/m2
Carboplatin Cyclophosp hamide ≤ 750 mg/m2 Cytarabine < 1000 mg/m2 Daunorubici n Doxorubicin ≤ 60 mg/m2 Idarubicin Ifosfamide Methotrexat e 250-1000 mg/m2 Mitoxantron e Temozolami de Melphalan > 50 mg/m2
Level 1: Level 2: LowVery Low Emetic Risk Emetic Risk Docetax el Etoposid e Fluorour acil Gemcita bine Irinoteca n Methotr exate 50-250 mg/m2 Mitomy cin Paclitax el Thiotepa < 15 mg/m2 Topotec an Pemetre xed
Asparagi nase Bleomyc in Capecita bine Chloram bucil Dasatini b Decitabi ne Erlotinib Gemtuzu mab Hydroxy urea Lenalido mide Methotre xate ≤50mg/ m2 Melphal an (oral) Nelarabi ne Rituxima b
Sorafeni b Sunitinib Thalido mide Thiogua nine Trastuzu mab Vinblasti ne Vincristi ne Vinorelb ine P. 12 53
e. T opi ca l a nd lo ca l a na lge sic s i n t he f orm of mo ut hr inse s a r e commo nly us ed and ca n he lp wit h m o ut h a nd t hr o at pa in. 3. Ot her G I t oxic it ies inc l ud e d ia rr hea ( e.g ., ir ino t e ca n, f luo r our ac il) , co nst ipa t ion ( e.g ., vincr is t ine ) , a nor ex ia , and ta st e c ha nge s. D. T um or lysis sy nd r om e (T LS) ma y oc cur in hem at olo gica l m a lig na nc ie s s uch as le uk em ia and lym p hom a, in w h ic h t he r e is a hig h tum or c el l b ur d en or r a pidly gr o wing t um or s. O wing t o t he sp ont a ne ous lys is o f ce lls f r om tr e atm e nt w it h chem o t he r ap y, ce ll lys is c ause s r ele as e of int r a c ell ular p r od uc t s, inc lud ing ur ic ac id, pot as s ium , and p ho sp ha t e , whic h c an le ad t o renal f ail ur e and ca rdiac ar r hyt hm ia s. This m a y be pre ve nt ed by givi ng int r aveno us hydr a t io n, by alk a lin iz ing t he ur i ne , and by givi ng ag ent s such a s a llo pur in ol o r ra sbur ica se (E lit ek ) t o de cr eas e ur ic a cid. E. H ype rca l cem ia m a y o cc ur in pa t ie nt s wit h s ol id or hem a t olog ic m alig na nc ies and ca n o ft e n b e t he pr ese nt ing s ign o f m aligna ncy. T he m aj or caus e of hyp er c alcem ia is inc r e as ed os t eoc la st ic b one r es orp t io n, w hic h is ge ne r all y ca us ed by t he r ele as e of p ara t hyr o id ho rm o ne- re lat ed pr ot ein ( P THrP ) by t he t um or c el ls . C omm o n pr e se nt ing sym pt om s inc lud e m ent a l s tat us chang e s , fat igue and m usc le weak ne ss, po lyur ia , p olyd ips ia , na use a a nd vom it i ng . Tr e atme nt inc lude s ag gr ess ive hydr a t io n wit h no rm al sa line, c a lc iur ic t he r ap y wh ic h co ns is t s of c a lcit on in, and bis pho sp ho na t es s uc h as pam idr o nat e ( Ar e dia ) o r zo le dr o nic a cid ( Z om e t a). F. C hills and f e ve r m ay o cc ur aft er t he a dm inis t r a t io n o f s om e chem o t he rap y and bio lo g ic a l ag ent s . Th is f e ve r ge ne ral ly ca n be dif fer e nt iat e d f rom f e ve r o wing t o inf e c t io n b ec ause o f it s t em por al r ela t io ns hip t o che m ot her a py adm in is t r at ion. Th is r ea ct ion is com m only as s oc ia t ed wit h bleo m yc in, c yt a r ab ine m o no clona l ant ib od ies , and IL - 2.
G. P ulm o na r y t o xic it y is ge ne r all y ir r ever s ib le and m a y be f at al. 1. S i gns a nd sy m pt om s ar e s ho r t ne ss of bre at h, no np r od uc t ive c o ug h, a nd lo w gr a de f eve r. In som e c ase s, t he r isk of p ulm o na r y t oxic it y inc r ea se s a s t he cum ula t ive do se of t he dr ug inc r e as es ( e. g., ble om ycin) . 2. C hemo t hera pe ut ic a ge nt s a sso cia t e d wit h p ulm onar y t o xic it y i nc lude b le om yc in, busu lf a n, c a rm ust ine, a nd m it om yc in. H. Ca rd ia c t ox ic ity ma y m anif e st a s an ac ut e o r c hr o nic p r ob lem. 1. Ac ut e cha nge s a r e ge ne r ally t r ansie nt elec t r oc ar d io gr a ph ab norm alit ie s t ha t m ay no t be c lin ic a ll y s ig nif ic a nt . 2. C hr oni c car d ia c t ox ici t y is ir r ever s ib le co ng e s t ive he ar t f a ilur e . R isk f a ct o r s inc lude che st ir r ad ia t io n a nd hig h cum ulat ive do se s of c ar dio t oxic c he m ot her a py. 3. C hemo t hera py ag ent s t ha t ar e a sso ciat e d w it h chr on ic ca r diot o xic it y inc lude da unor ub ic in, d oxor ub ic in, e pir ub ic i n, ida r ub ic in, and m it oxa nt r one . D ex ra zoxa ne is a c ar d io pr ot ect ive ag ent t hat m a y be us ed wit h d oxor ub ic i n t o help pr e vent or les s en it s to xic e f f ect s t o t he hea rt . I. H y per sensit i vit y r ea ct io ns m ay o cc ur w it h any c hem ot he r ap y ag ent . Lif e t hr e ate ning r ea ct ions , inc lud i ng an ap hy la xis, ap pe ar t o b e m or e c omm o n w it h as pa rag inas e, c ar bo pla t in, c is p la t in, e t op os id e, pac lit a xe l, and t enip os id e. J. Ne ur o t oxi cit y m ay o cc ur wit h sys t em ic o r int r at he ca l c he m ot her a py. 1. V inc r is t ine is as so ciat e d w it h a ut onom i c a nd pe r ipher a l ne uro pa t hies . P at ie nt s ma y expe r ie nc e g ait dist ur b ance s, num bnes s a nd t ing ling o f hands and f eet, a nd los s of d ee p-t endo n r e f le xes . Int r at hec al adm in is t r at ion of vinc r is t ine r e sult s in f at al ne ur o t o xic it y. 2. P er iphera l ne ur o pa thy and ot ot ox ic it y a re comm on do se- lim it ing t o xic it ie s o f cis p lat i n. S enso ry neur op at hie s, ca us ing t i ng ling o r num bing of t he hands and f eet, ma y be ass oc ia t ed wit h c ap ec it a bine , oxa lip lat i n, and p ac lit a xe l. 3. H igh do s es of cyt a rab ine m ay p r od uc e c ere be lla r tox icit y t hat m a nif es t s in it ia lly as lo ss of eye- hand co or d inat ion and m a y pr ogr e ss t o com a. P. 12 54
4. Ara chno idit i s has be en ass oc ia t ed wit h int r a t he ca l a dm inis t r a t io n o f c yt a r ab ine and m et ho t rexa t e. K. H emor rhag ic cy st it is is a blad de r t oxic it y t hat is se en m ost c om m o nly a f t er adm inist r a t io n o f c yc lo p hos p ha m ide and if osf am ide . Ac r ole in, a m e tab ol it e of t he se ag ent s, is t ho ug ht t o c aus e a c hem ica l ir r it a t io n o f t he b lad de r m ucosa , r e sult ing in ble ed ing. P revent ive m e as ur es inc l ud e a gg r es s ive hyd r at ion w it h s ub se quent f r eq ue nt ur inat io n, a nd t he adm inis t r at ion of t he ur o pro t ecta nt m es na . Mesna ac ts by bi nd ing t o acr ole in a nd pr e vent ing it fr om cont a ct ing t he b lad de r m uc o sa. L. Re na l t ox ic it y m a y ma nif es t b y e le vat io ns in s er um cr eat ini ne and b lo od ur e a nit r o ge n (BUN) as well as e le ct r o lyt e a bno rma lit ie s . N e phr ot oxic it y is as s oc ia t ed wit h cisp la t in, if o sf am id e, m et ho t r e xa t e, and s tr e pt o zo c in. Int r a venous h ydr a t io n is us ed t o pr o tect t he k id ne ys f r om t he nep hr o t oxic e f fect s o f cisp la t in. O smot ic diur es is w it h m a nn it o l m ay a ls o help r e duce t he inc ide nce of cis p lat i n ne phr ot o xic it y.
M. H epat ot oxi cit y m ay m a nif es t as e leva t ed live r f unc t io n t e st s, j aund ic e, o r he pa t it is . Asp ar agina se , c yt a rab ine, m er ca pt op ur ine , and m e t ho tr e xa t e ar e k now n t o ca us e hep at ic toxic it y. N. S eco nda r y m a ligna ncie s, such a s s ol id t um ors, lym p hom as, a nd le uk em ias , m ay oc cur m any ye ar s a ft er chem ot he r ap y or r a diat ion . Ant ineo p la st ic ag ent s k nown to po ss ess a hig h c ar c inog en ic r is k inc lude c yc lo p hos pham ide , et o pos id e, m e lpha la n, and m e chlo r et ham ine. O. C hem ot he ra py m a y ca us e i nf ert i lit y, which m ay b e t em po rar y or pe rm anent . C yc lo phos pham ide , chlo r am b uc il, m ec hlor e t ha m ine , m elpha lan, and pr o ca r ba zi ne ar e as so c iat ed wit h a sig nif ic a nt inc ide nc e of inf e r t ilit y in m a le s a nd f em ale s .
VI. OTHER THERAPEUTIC MODALITIES A. S urg er y m ay b e d ia gnos t ic ( biop sy, e xp lo r at o ry lap ar o t om y, se co nd - lo ok ) or t he r ap eut ic (t um or deb ulk ing or r em oval) . S ur ge r y is o ft e n c omb ined wit h chem o t he r ap y and/ o r r ad ia t io n. B. Ra dia t ion t he ra py in vo lves h igh d os es of io ni z ing r a diat ion d ir ec t ed at t he ca nc er o us t iss ue . R a diat io n m a y be com bi ne d w it h sur ge r y and/ or c hem ot her a py. D ependi ng on t he a r ea of t he body b eing ir r ad ia t ed , a dver se r eac t ions m ay inc lude st om at it is , na use a a nd vom it i ng , diar r hea , a nd m ye lo supp r es s io n. C. H ema top oiet ic st em - cell tra nspl a nta t ion in vo lves int r a ve no us inf us io n of st em ce lls f r om a c om p at ib le d onor t o a r ec ip ie nt f o llow ing hig h- d os e chem o t he r ap y. It is us ed f or tr eatm ent of dise as es i nvo lv ing t he bo ne m arr o w o r im m une syst em a nd to allow f o r a dm in is t r at ion of hig h - do se chemo t her apy or r ad iat ion f o r t um or s res is t ant t o s ta nd ar d do ses . St em ce lls c an b e o bta ined fr om bo ne m arr o w or per ipher a l blo od . 1. In a ut olo go us t r ans pla nt s, s t em ce lls a r e obt a ined f rom t he pat ie nt , pre ser ved , and lat e r r einf use d int o t he s ame p at ient . Allo gene ic t r a nsp lant s invo lve t w o se pa rat e ind i vid ua ls . C e lls a r e o bt a ined f r om a ma t ched donor a nd t hen inf us ed int o a s epar at e pat ie nt . 2. Tr ansp la nt - r e la t ed com pl ic at ions i nc lude he pa t ic venoo cc lus ive d ise as e (VOD ), ac ut e and chr on ic gr aft vers us hos t d is ea se (G VHD ) , inf ec t io n, and p ulm o nar y com p lica t io ns . P. 12 55
STUDY QUESTIONS D ir ect ions f or quest ions 1 - 14: E a ch of t he questio ns, st a tem e nt s , or inco m plet e st at em e nt s in t h is s ec t io n c an b e corr e ct ly answ e r ed o r com plet e d b y one of t he sugg es t ed a ns wers or phr as es. C ho os e t he be st a ns we r . 1. T he t op f our m o st c omm onl y d ia g nose d c a nc er s incl ude a ll of t he f ol low ing ex ce pt ( A) lu ng . (B ) pr o st ate . (C ) co lo n a nd r e ct um . (D ) t hyr o id.
(E ) br e ast . V ie w Answe r 1. The answe r i s D[ se e] .2. W hi ch st a t em ent r egar d ing pha se spe ci f ic c hem ot he ra peut ic a ge nt s is cor re ct ? They ( A) ar e m ost ef fe ct ive in o ne phas e o f t he ce ll c yc le. (B ) ar e e ff ect ive in a ll phas e s o f t he c el l c yc le . (C ) are only e f f ect ive in G 0 phas e. (D ) inc l ud e t he a lk ylat i ng ag ent s . (E ) inc l ud e t he ant it um or a nt ibio t ic s . V ie w Answe r 2. The answe r i s A[ se eand] . 3. B od y sur f a ce ar ea (B S A) is use d i n c a lc ula t ing chem ot hera py do se s b eca use ( A) BS A is an ind ica t or of t um or ce ll m ass. (B ) BS A c or r e lat e s wit h c ar d iac o ut p ut . (C ) BS A co rr elat e s wit h ga st r oint e st ina l t r a ns it t i m e. (D ) t he N at io na l C a nc er Ins t it ut e r eq uir es t ha t BS A b e use d. (E ) t he U. S. Fo od a nd D r ug Adm in ist r at ion ( FD A) r eq uire s t ha t BS A b e use d. V ie w Answe r 3. The answe r i s B[ se e] .4. T he ra t io na le f or com bina t io n che m ot he ra p y i ncl ude s a ll of t he f ol low ing e xcep t ( A) bioc he m ic al en ha nc em e nt of eff e ct . (B ) res c ue of no rm al c e lls . (C ) over c om ing or pr e ve nt i ng r es is t a nc e. (D ) bioc he m ic al n ul lif ica t io n o f ef fec t. (E ) c yt ot oxic t o bo t h r est ing and d iv id i ng ce lls. V ie w Answe r 4. The answe r i s D[ se e] .5. A ll of t he f ollow ing chem ot hera py a ge nt s ca n be a dm inist e r ed int ra t he ca lly ex cept ( A) m et hot r exat e . (B ) c yt ar ab ine. (C ) hyd r oc ort iso ne . (D ) t hiot e pa . (E ) vinc r is t ine. V ie w Answe r 5. The answe r i s E[ s ee] . 6. W hich of t he f o llow i ng che m ot he ra p eut ic a ge nt s is cla ssif ie d a s a n a lk yla t ing ag ent ? ( A) c yc lo phos pham ide (B ) et op os id e (C ) m ec hlor e t ham ine (D ) pa clit a xe l (E ) c yc lo phos pham ide and m e chlo r et ham ine V ie w Answe r 6. The answe r i s E[ s ee IV .A. 1] . 7. W hic h of t he f ol low ing che m ot he ra p y a ge nt s a ct s by int e r ca la t io n? ( A) vinc r is t ine (B ) pa c lit a xe l (C ) do xor ub ic in (D ) vi nc r is t ine a nd p ac lit a xe l (E ) to pot ec an V ie w Answe r 7. The answe r i s C[ se e IV .B. 1] .8 . How do a nt im eta b olit e s ex ert t heir c yt o toxi c ef f ec t?
( A) in hib it i ng DN A s ynt he s is b y s lid ing be t wee n D N A b as e p air s (B ) in hib it i ng RN A s ynt he s is b y s lid ing be t wee n R N A b as e p air s (C ) act ing as f alse m et ab olit es in t he m ic r o t ub ule s (D ) act ing as f alse s ub st it ut io ns in t he pr o duct ion o f nuc le ic a cids (E ) pr om ot ing m ic r ot ubule as s em bly and s t ab il izat io n V ie w Answe r 8. The answe r i s D[ se e] .9. A ll of t he f ollow ing chem ot hera py a ge nt s w or k t hr o ugh af f e ct i ng m ic rot ubul e f unct i on ex ce pt ( A) do cet a xe l. (B ) vinb la st i ne . (C ) m it o xa nt r o ne. (D ) vi nc r is t ine. (E ) vino r elb ine . V ie w Answe r 9. The answe r i s C[ se e] .10. H orm ona l a g ent s t hat a re use f ul in t he t r eatm ent of ca nce r include ( A) tamo xif e n. (B ) pr e dnis o ne. (C ) f lut am ide . (D ) tamo xif en a nd f lut am ide . (E ) tamo xif e n, p r ed niso ne , a nd f lut am id e. V ie w Answe r 10 . T he answ er i s E [ se e] .P . 12 56
11 . W hen do es t he ne ut r op hil na dir a ssoc ia te d w it h chem ot hera py a g ent s gener a lly oc cur ? ( A) dur ing a dm inis t r a t io n o f t he c hem ot he r ap y (B ) 1- 2 d ays af te r t her apy (C ) 10- 14 d ays aft e r t her a py (D ) 1 mo nt h a ft er t he r ap y (E ) when t he p lat e le t c ount b eg ins t o r ise V ie w Answe r 11 . T he answ er i s C [ s ee] . 1 2. S t om at i t is i s c ha ra ct e r iz ed by a ll of t he f ol low ing sig ns a nd sy mp t om s ex ce pt ( A) he ad ac he. (B ) er yt hem a . (C ) blee ding. (D ) ulce r at ions. (E ) dr ynes s of m o ut h. V ie w Answe r 12 . T he answ er i s A [ s ee] . 1 3. W hi ch of t he f o llow ing st a tem ent s d escr ib es he m or r ha gic cy st it i s? It ( A) is c ause d b y exc r et io n of t um or ce ll b r eak do wn p r od uc t s. (B ) is as s oc ia t ed wit h if os f am ide or c yclop ho sp ha m ide a dm in is t r at ion. (C ) is ca use d b y t he adm inis t r at ion of m es na . (D ) ca n be pr e ve nt ed or t r eat ed wit h a cr o le in. (E ) c an be t r eat ed wit h gr a nu lo c yt e c o lony- st im u la t ing f a c t or (G -C S F). V ie w Answe r 13 . T he answ er i s B [ s ee V. J] .1 4. All of t he f ollow ing che m ot he ra p y a ge nt s ar e ve si ca nt s ex ce pt
( A) do xor ub ic in. (B ) m ec hlor e t ham ine. (C ) vi nc r is t ine. (D ) m et hot re xat e . (E ) id ar ubic in. V ie w Answe r 14 . T he answ er i s D [ s ee] .D ir e ct i ons f or q ue st io ns 15 - 19: E ac h ag ent in t his s e ct ion is m ost c lo se ly as s oc ia t ed wit h one o f t he f ollow i ng ad ve r se ef f ect s. E a ch ef fect is use d only once . Cho os e t he be st answe r, A-E . 15 . V incr ist i ne A car diot o xic it y B hype r s ensit iv it y C diar r hea D ga st roint e st i na l hem or r hag e E c onst ipa t io n V ie w Answe r 15 . T he answ er i s E [ se e] . 1 6. Ir ino t eca n A car diot o xic it y B hype r s ensit iv it y C diar r hea D ga st roint e st i na l hem or r hag e E c onst ipa t io n V ie w Answe r 16 . T he answ er i s C [ s ee] . 1 7. D oxo rub ici n A car diot o xic it y B hype r s ensit iv it y C diar r hea D ga st roint e st i na l hem or r hag e E c onst ipa t io n V ie w Answe r 17 . T he answ er i s A [ s ee] . 1 8. P ac lita xe l A car diot o xic it y B hype r s ensit iv it y C diar r hea D ga st roint e st i na l hem or r hag e E c onst ipa t io n V ie w Answe r 18 . T he answ er i s B [ s ee] . 1 9. B leomy ci n A car diot o xic it y B hype r s ensit iv it y C diar r hea D ga st roint e st i na l hem or r hag e E c onst ipa t io n V ie w Answe r 19 . T he answ er i s D [ s ee] .D ir e ct i ons f or q ue st io ns 20 - 24: E ac h of t he ques t io ns , s tat em ents , or inco m ple t e st at eme nt s in t h is s ec t io n c an b e co rr ect ly a ns wer e d o r com p le t ed by one of t he sugg es te d a ns we r s or phr ase s. C ho os e t he be st a ns we r. For q ue st io ns 20 - 22: P . A. is a 60 - ye ar- o ld m an who has r ecent ly b ee n d ia gnos ed wit h st a ge IIB lu ng ca nc e r . Af t er his ca se was e valuat ed , it was de cide d t ha t he
wou ld unde r go sur gica l r e se ct io n o f t he pr im ar y tum or a nd t hen r ece ive chem o t he r ap y wit h ca r bo plat in a nd do c et a xe l. 20 . W ha t t ype of chem ot hera p y i s P . A. rec ei vin g? ( A) adj uva nt (B ) s alva ge (C ) ne oa dj uvant V ie w Answe r 20 . T he answ er i s A [ s ee] . 2 1. W hat side ef f e ct s w ould you counsel P . A. a bo ut ? ( A) na use a a nd vom it i ng (B ) per ip he r a l ne ur o pa t hy (C ) hem or r hag ic cys t it is (D ) A a nd B (E ) B a nd C V ie w Answe r 21 . T he answ er i s D [ s ee] . 2 2. P . A. re ce ive d ca r b opl at in a nd doc eta xe l a nd ha s a n a ppo intm e nt in cli nic 1 w e ek a f ter c om ple t ing che m ot he ra p y to chec k his C BC a nd ele ct r o lyte s. H is WBC = 2. 7, P oly s = 1 2% , a nd Ba nds = 2% . W ha t is P. A.' s ANC ? ( A) 32 4 (B ) 54 (C ) 37 8 (D ) 27 00 V ie w Answe r 22 . T he answ er i s C [ s ee I.C . 6] .P . 1257
23 . If P. A. ha s r e cur renc e of his l u ng ca nc er a ft er t hera py w it h car b oplat in a nd doc eta xe l, w hich ta rg ete d a ge nt m ay be c onsid e r ed f or sec ond - line t hera py? ( A) do xor ub ic in (B ) bus ulf an (C ) cyc lo phos pham id e (D ) er lot inib (E ) bleom yc in V ie w Answe r 23 . T he answ er i s D [ s ee] . 2 4. W hat side ef f e ct s a re a ssoc ia t ed w it h er lot inib use ? ( A) Ac ne if o rm r as h (B ) D ia r r he a (C ) P e r ipher a l ne ur op at hy (D ) A a nd B (E ) H ype rt ens io n V ie w Answe r 24 . T he answ er i s D [ s ee] .P. 12 58
ANSWERS AND EXPLANATIONS 1. T he a nsw er is D [ s ee I.B].
Pr ost at e c anc er is t he m ost c omm on c ance r in m en , b r ea st ca nc er is t he m ost com mo n ca nc er in w om en, f o llowe d b y lung, t he n c o lon a nd r ec t um f or b ot h m e n a nd wom e n. 2. T he a nsw er is A [ s ee II.D. 1 , 2 an d 3]. P ha se -s pe cif ic ag ent s are m os t a ct ive in one sp ec if ic p ha se of t he cel l c yc le . Thes e ag ent s have no act ivit y a ga inst ce lls in G 0 , t he r es t ing p ha se . E xa m p le s of p ha se sp ec if ic a ge nt s inc lud e t he m it ot ic inhib it o r s, as pa r ag inas e, t he ant im et ab olit e s, a nd et o poside . 3. T he a nsw er is B [ s ee III.B ] . BS A c or rela t e s wit h c a rdia c out put , wh ic h de t erm ines r e na l a nd he pa t ic b loo d f low and t hus a ff ect s dr ug elim ina t io n. 4. T he a nsw er is D [ s ee III.D . 2]. C om b ina t io n c hem ot he r ap y has b ee n d eve lop ed to ha ve m axim a l c yt ot o xic it y t o t um o r ce lls a nd m in im al t oxic it y t o no rm al ce lls . T he dr ugs ar e d os ed and sc he dule d such t hat m a xim al c e ll k ill oc c ur s , while s pa r ing n orm al ce lls a s m uc h as po ss ib le. C om b ina t io n r e gim ens o ft e n c ont a in ag ent s w it h dif f er e nt sp ect r ums o f to xic it y. 5. T he a nsw er is E [ s ee III.E .3]. Int r a t he c all y a dm inis t e r ed vinc r is t ine is f at a l. All s yr i ng e s o f vi nc r is t ine m ust be lab e led “ Fat al if g iven int r at hec a lly. Fo r int r ave no us use only. ” 6. T he a nsw er is E [ s ee IV.A . 1] . C yc lo phos pham ide and m e chlo r et ham i ne ar e nit r og en m us t ar ds, a subg r oup of t he alk y lat i ng ag ent s . E to po s ide is a t opoisom era se II in h ib it or , and pac lit a xe l is a m it ot ic i nh ib it o r . 7. T he a nsw er is C [ s ee IV .B . 1]. D oxor ub ic i n is a n a nt it um or ant ib io t ic t hat inh ib it s DN A s ynt hes is by int e r ca lat io n. V incr ist i ne and p ac lit axe l ar e m it ot ic in hib it o r s t ha t a ct o n m icr o t ubule as sem bly. Top ot ec an in hib it s t o po is om er as e I. 8. T he a nsw er is D [ s ee IV .C] . Ant im et abo lit e s ar e st r uc t ur a l a na lo gs o f na t ur a ll y o cc urr ing s ub st r a te s f or bio che m ica l r e act io ns . The y i nh ib it DN A synt he s is b y act ing a s f als e subs t it ut io ns i n t he pro duc t ion o f DN A. 9. T he a nsw er is C [ s ee IV .D] . D ocet a xel is a ta xa ne, whic h work s by prom ot ing m ic rot ubu le as sem bly and st a bilizat ion, r es ult ing i n inh ib it io n o f cell di vis io n. V incr ist ine , v inb la st i ne , a nd vinor e lb ine a r e vinca a lk a lo id s, w hic h wor k b y pr eve nt ing m icr o t ubu le f orm a t ion. Mit o xa nt r o ne is an a nt it um or ant ib iot ic, which wo r ks by DN A int er c alat io n. 10 . T he a nsw er is E [ se e V I; Ta ble 5 7-2 ]. Tam o xif en is a n a nt ies t r ogen use d in t he t r ea tm ent o f br e ast c anc er. P r ed niso ne is us ed f or it s ant ilym pho cyt ic pr op er t ie s in t he t r e atm e nt o f non- H odgk in lym phom a . Flut am ide is an ant ia nd r og en use d in t he t r eatm ent of pr o st at e c ance r. 11 . T he a nsw er is C [ se e V. A. 2] . B one m ar row suppr es s ion, p ar t icu la r ly of t he ne ut r o phils, us ua lly is t he m o st pr of ound 10 - 14 d ays a ft er c hem ot her a py. 12 . T he a nsw er is A [ se e V. C. 2] .
St om a t it is, or m uco sit is , is an inf la m m at ion of t he m uc ous mem br a ne s , par t ic ular l y t he ora l m uco sa. Alt ho ug h t he sym pt om s ge ne r ally ar e lim it ed t o t he m out h and t hr o at, st om at it is m ay aff ect a ny p ar t of t he g as tro int es t ina l t r act , p ot e nt ia l ly ca us ing d ia r r he a a nd anal f is s ur e s. P. 12 59
13 . T he a nsw er is B [ se e V. J]. H em or r ha gic c ys t it is r es ult s f r om ir r it at ion of t he li ning of t he bla dd er by acr ole in, a met a bo lit e of if o sf am id e a nd cyc lo phos pham id e. Mes na m ay be use d to ina c t i va t e t he acr ole in, t hus p r event ing he m or r ha gic cyst it is . 14 . T he a nsw er is D [ se e V. B. 2] . V es ic ant c hem ot hera py a ge nt s m ay c aus e loc al ne cr osis if ext r a va s at e d o ut sid e t he ve in. D oxo r ub ic i n, ida r ub ic in, m ec hlor e t ham ine , and v inc r is t ine a r e all c las sif ie d a s ve s ica nt s . 15 . T he a nsw er is E [ se e V .C. 3; V.E -G] . 16 . T he a nsw er is C [ se e V. C. 3; V.E -G] . 17 . T he a nsw er is A [ se e V. C. 3; V.E -G] . 18 . T he a nsw er is B [ se e V. C. 3; V.E -G] . 19 . T he a nsw er is D [ se e V. C. 3; V.E -G] . C ar d iot oxic it y is as s oc ia t ed wit h c um ulat ive d os es of do xo r ub ic in and o t her ant it um o r a nt ib io t ic s . H ype r se ns it i vit y f r om pac lit a xe l m a y be t he r esult o f it s Cr em o phor d iluent . S e ver e diar r hea , r eq uir ing t r eat me nt wit h at r op ine , is a ss oc ia t ed wit h ir inot e c an. P ulm onar y t o xic it y is as so ciat e d wit h cum ulat ive do se s of ble om ycin. S ever e c onst ipa t io n a nd p ar a lyt ic ile us is a ssoc ia t ed wit h t he us e o f vinc r is t ine . 20 . T he a nsw er is A [ se e III . A. 3 ]. R eceivi ng chem ot he r ap y af te r p ot e nt ia ll y cur at ive sur g er y is k no wn a s adj uva nt chem o t he r ap y. 21 . T he a nsw er is D [ se e Tab le 57 -2]. N ause a a nd vom it ing a re c omm o n s id e ef fe cts o f c ar b op lat in and d oc eta xe l. Pr em e dica t io ns w it h a nt i- na us ea m ed ic at ions a r e given b ef o r e t he se chemo t her apy ag ent s ar e give n. P er ip he r al ne ur o pa t hy c an c omm o nly b e s ee n wit h do ce t a xe l. P at ient s ne ed to be co uns e le d a bo ut t his and f o llo wed up o n t his a dver s e event on r out ine c lin ic vis it s. If le f t unt r e at ed se ver e, disa bl ing ne ur op at hy ca n r e sult . H em or r ha gic c ys t it is is an ad ver s e e ve nt of som e o f t he a lk ylat i ng ag ent s inc lud i ng if os f am ide and cyc lop ho s p ham id e, b ut no t c ar b opla t in. 22 . T he a nsw er is C [ se e I. C . 6]. The AN C is ca lc ulat e d b y m ult ip l ying t he W B C × the t o tal ne ut r o ph ils ( s egm ent ed ne ut r o ph il% + segm e nt e d ba nd %) × 1 0. 2. 7 × ( 1 2% + 2%) × 10 = 37 8. 23 . T he a nsw er is D [ se e IV .G ]. Er lo t inib is a n ag ent t ar get ed f or t he ep id erm a l g rowt h f acto r r ece pt o r t yr os ine k inas e . B usulf a n a nd c yc lo phos p ham ide ar e alk yla t ing a ge nt s t hat ar e no n ce ll c yc le sp ec if ic. B leom yc in a nd do xo r ub ic in ar e ant it um or a nt ib iot ics t hat int e r c ala t e wit h DN A a nd ar e p ha se no n- s p ec if ic a ge nt s .
24 . T he a nsw er is D [ se e Tab le 57 -2]. Er lo t inib c a n c aus e a cnie f orm r a sh, d ia r rhe a, nau se a, pr ur it is, f at ig ue, a nd eye ir r it a t io n.
58 Pain Management Ala n F. Ka ul
I. INTRODUCTION A. D ef init io ns 1. P a in is an unp lea sa nt se ns or y a nd em ot io na l e xp er ie nce t hat is a s sociat e d w it h ac t ua l o r po t ent ia l t iss ue d am a ge or des cr ib ed in t erm s of suc h d am a ge. It is a subj e c t ive, ind iv id ua l e xp er ie nc e t ha t has phys ic a l, p sycho log ic a l, and s ocia l de t erm inant s . Ther e is no o bj e ct ive m e a s ur em ent o f pa in. In t he U nit e d S t at e s alo ne , r ecur r ent o r per sist e nt pa in is expe r ie nc ed by m o r e t ha n 7 5 m il lio n ind iv id ua ls. 2. Ac ut e pa in las t s > 3 0 da ys a nd oc cur s aft er musc le st r ains and t iss ue inj ur y, such as tr a um a or sur ge r y. The p ai n is us ua l ly s e lf - lim it ing, de cre as ing w it h t im e a s t he inj ur y hea ls . It is d es cr ibe d as a l inea r pr o cess, w it h a b eg in ning and a n e nd . Inc r ea se d aut onom ic ner vous sys t em act iv it y of t en ac com pa nies ac ut e p ain, c a us ing t ac hyc ar d ia, t ac hyp ne a, hype r t ensio n, diap ho r es is , a nd m ydr ia sis. I nc r ea se d an xiet y als o m a y occ ur . 3. C hr oni c pa in is pe r sist ent or e piso dic pa in of a dur at ion o r int ens it y t ha t ad ve r se ly af f ect s t he f unc t io n o r we ll- b ei ng of t he pat ie nt and c an pe rs is t af t er t he r es olut io n of a n inj ur y. S om e d ef ine it a s las t ing mor e t ha n 6 m o nt hs. a. C hr oni c nonma ligna nt pa in m a y be a c omp lica t io n o f ac ut e inj ur y in whic h t he he a li ng pr o ces s d oes no t occ ur a s expe ct ed or ma y be ca us e d b y a d is ea se suc h a s a r heum at o lo gic a l d iso r de r (e. g., os teo ar t hr it is, r he um at oid a rt hr i t is , f ib r om yalgia ) . b. The elde r ly ar e m or e lik ely t o e xpe r ie nce c hr o nic p ai n b ec aus e of t he inc r ea se d pr e va le nc e o f d eg ener at ive d is or d ers in t h is ag e g r oup. c. The pa in is co nst a nt , does not im p rove wit h t im e , a nd is de scr ib ed as a c yc lic pr o cess ( vic ious cir c le) . d. Com pa r ed t o ac ut e p ain, t her e is no lo nge r autonom ic ner vo us sys t em st im ula t io n so t he p at ient m ay not a pp ea r to be in pa in. Inst e ad , t he pat ient m a y b e d epr e ssed ; suf f er ins o m nia , we ight los s, a nd sexua l d ysf u nc t io n; and m a y no t be ab le t o c o pe wit h t he norm al ac t iv it ies of da ily li vi ng , inc lud ing f am ily and j ob -r elat e d a ct iv it ie s. 4. C hr oni c ca nce r pa in o cc ur s in 6 0% - 9 0% of pat ie nt s wit h c a nc er . It s char a cte r is t ic s are s im ila r to t ho se o f chr o nic no n ma ligna nt pa in. In ad dit io n t o de pr ess io n, p r om ine nt c har a ct er is t ic s ar e fea r, a ng er, a nd a go ny. The ca us e of chr on ic ca nc e r pa in ca n b e r ela t ed t o t he t um or or cance r t her a py o r ca n b e id ios ync r at ic . Tum o r ca us e s of p ain inc lud e b one met a st a s is, com pr e ss io n of ner ve st r uct ur e s, oc clus io n o f bloo d ves sels, o bstr uct ion o f bo wel, or inf ilt r a t io n o f s oft t is sue. 5. Br ea kt hr o ugh pa in is t he int erm it t ent , t r a ns it o r y inc r ea s e in p a in t hat oc cur s at a gr e at e r int ens it y over b as e line c hr o nic pa in. It m ay have t em por al c ha r act er ist ics , pr e cip it a t ing f act ors , a nd pr e dict a bilit y. 6. Ne ur o pa t hic pa in is a r es ult o f an inj ur y o r m alf unc t io n o f t he ner vous sys tem . E xc lud i ng pa t ie nt s wit h a pr o gre s sive pe r ip he r al ne ur o pa t hy o r ne ur o pa t hic pa in as so ciat e d w it h a c anc er les io n, t iss ue d am a ge is no t ong oing. Neur op at hic p ain is
de scr ib ed as a ching, t hr obbi ng , bur ning , s ho ot ing , s t ing ing and t e nd er nes s or se ns it iv it y o f t he sk in. B. Pr incip le s of m a na geme nt 1. Com pr ehensive pa i n a sses sm ent s ho uld d et erm ine t he c ha r act er is t ic s of t he pa t ient 's p ain c om p lai nt , cl inica l s t at us , and pa in ma nag em ent his t or y. a. Ass es sm ent of t he pa in c om pla int s ho uld i nc lud e chr onolog y a nd s ym pt om at olog y of t he pr e se nt ing com pla int s uc h as inf orm a t io n a bo ut onse t, loc at ion, int ens it y, dur at ion, qua l it y, dist r ibut io n, p rovo ca t ive f act or s , t em po r al qual it ie s, se ve r it y, a nd pa in h is t o r y. b. As s es sme nt of c linica l s t at us should inc lud e t he e xt ent of unde r ly ing t r a um a or dis ea s e. Als o, t he pa t ie nt ' s p hys ic a l, ps yc ho lo g ica l, a nd s oc ia l c ond it ions sho u ld be de t erm ined . P. 12 61
c. Ass es sm ent of pa in ma na gem ent his t or y inc l ud es dr ug aller g ie s, a na lg es ic r es po ns e, onse t , d ur at io n, a nd s id e e ff ect s. 2. Ap pr opr ia t e pa in ma na geme nt tar get s shou ld be est a blis hed . a. The pr im ar y pa in m anag em e nt g oa l is t o im pr ove pa t ie nt c omf ort . b. F or a cut e pa in m a nag em ent , im pr ove d c omf ort c an a id t he he al ing a nd r ehab ilit at io n pr o ce ss . c. F or c hro nic pa in, t he spe cif ic obj ec t ive s a r e t o b r eak t he pa in c yc le ( i. e . , er as e pa in m em or y) a nd m inim ize b r eakt hr ough p ain. d. Ot her t ar g et s fo r c hr o nic p ain m ana gem e nt inc lude im p r ovem e nt of g enera l we llbe ing , s le ep , out lo ok , self - est eem , act ivit ie s o f d ail y l iv ing , s up po rt , a nd m ob ilit y. 3. Individ ua li ze d pa in m a na gem ent r egime ns s ho uld b e d et erm ined and init iat e d pr ompt ly. a. The opt im a l a na lge s ic r eg im en, inc l ud ing d os e, do sing int er va l, and mo de of adm inist r a t io n, s hou ld be se le ct ed. b. Ad dit io na l p ha rm a c olo gica l a dj unct s a nd no np ha rm ac olog ic a l t he r ap ie s s ho uld b e ad de d if ne ed ed . c. The m ost com m o n r e gim e ns f o r a cut e p ain i nc lude int erm it t ent (as nee de d) do sing , pa t ie nt - c ont r o lle d a na lg es ia (PC A) , or e pidur al inf us ions w it h na r c ot ic o r no nnar c ot ic a ge nt s. d. Alt ho ug h t he pr a ct ic e is c ont r o ve rsia l and o ft en not i n t he be st int er e st s of pa t ient s , narc ot ic us e is of ten m in im ized o r avoide d f o r c hr o nic nonm al ig nant p ain. P ain m a na gem ent spec ia list s a re c ha ng ing t h is s ub op t im al pr act ic e. N o nna r co t ic ana lg es ic s and nonp harm a co lo gica l m anag eme nt us ua lly a r e m a xim ized . e. F or c hro nic ca nc er pa in, an ind iv id ua lize d a r ound - t he - cloc k analg es ic r e gim e n is es t ab lis hed , us ing a lo ng - ac t ing ana lg es ic . An int e rm itt ent , a s-ne ed ed r eg im en f o r br e ak t hr o ug h pa in, us ing a shor t - ac t ing a na lg es ic , is also d et erm ine d. 4. Mo nit or ing t he pa in m a nag em ent r egim e n and r ea sse ssm ent of t he pat ie nt ' s pa in s hou ld oc cur on a co nt inuo us , t im e ly ba sis. Any c ha ng es i n ana lge sic, do se, do sing int er val, or m et ho d of a dm inis t r a t io n s ho ul d b e not ed in t he pa t ie nt 's m ed ica l r ec or d and c ar r ied o ut in a t im e ly f as hio n.
II. ANALGESICS A. N onna r co ti c a na lge sic s inc lude as p ir in; ot he r sa lic y la t es ; a cet am ino phen; no ns t er o id a l ant i- inf la m mat or y d r ug s (NS AI D s) ; se le ct i ve , c yc lo o xyg ena se 2 (C O X2) in hib it or s ; d ise as e-m od if y ing a nt ir he um at ic dr ugs (D MAR Ds ); a nd t um or - nec r os is f act or α ( TN F-α ) in hib it o r s ( Tab le 58 - 1). As pir i n p r od uc t s, ac et am ino phen, and s om e low -d os e NS AI D s s uch as ib upr o f en, k et o pr o fen, a nd na pr o xe n so di um ar e a vailab le as over- t he - co unt er (O TC ) pr od uc ts . 1. Mecha nism of act ion. S a lic ylat e s and NS AID s ar e pr ost ag la nd in in hib it o r s a nd pr e ve nt p eripher a l noc ic ep t io n b y va s oa ct ive sub st a nc es s uc h as pr o st ag la nd ins and b r ad yk in ins. Mo s t NS AI D s inh ib it b ot h CO X- 1, whic h p r od uc e s pr ost a gla nd ins t ha t ar e b elie ved t o be c yt o pr ot e ct ive of t he s tom a ch lin ing, a nd CO X - 2, whic h pr o duce s p ro st a gland ins r es po ns ib le f or p ain a nd inf la m m at ion. S e lec t ive CO X- 2 inh ib it o r s l ik e c elec oxib do no t in hib it CO X- 1 . Ad al im um ab, et a ne r ce pt, and inf l ixim ab act b y bind i ng or c apt ur ing e xc e ss TN F - α, one o f t he d om ina nt c yt ok ines , or p r ot e ins, t ha t play a n im p ort a nt r ole in t he i nf la mm at or y r es ponse . The exac t me cha nis m of act io n of lef lunom id e, a n ove l dr ug us ed t o t r eat r he um a to id a rt hr it is , is no t com plet e ly k now n b ut it is t hought t o in hib it p yr im id ine s ynt hes is . 2. T he ra pe ut ic ef f ec t s a. The per ip he r a ll y ac t ing, non na r c ot ic a na lg es ic s have se ver a l ef f ect s in co m m on. The s e e ff ect s d ist ing uis h t hes e age nt s f r om nar cot ic a nalg es ic s. ( 1) The y a r e a nt ipyr e t ic . ( 2) The y a r e a nt i- inf la m mat or y ( e xce pt a c et am ino phe n) . ( 3) The r e is a c eil ing e f fec t t o t he a na lg es ia . ( 4) The y d o no t ca us e toler a nc e. ( 5) The y d o no t ca us e phys ic al or ps yc ho lo g ica l d ep ende nc e . b. The eff ica c y o f nonna r co t ic s is com pa r ed t o aspir in. Most dr ug s ar e c om par ab le t o a sp ir i n; howe ver , s e ve r al NS AID s have shown a supe r io r ef f ect t o 650 mg of as pir i n. P. 12 62
Table 58-1. Nonnarcotic Oral Analgesics and Nonsteroidal Anti-Inflammatory Drugs (NSAIDs)
Drug
Adult Dose Range (mg)
Dosing Maximum Interval (hr) Dose/Day (mg)
Para-aminophenol derivatives Acetaminophen (Tylenol)
325-1000
4-6
4000
Aspirin
325-1000
4-6
4000
Choline magnesium trisalicylate (Trilisate)
1000-1500
12
Diflunisal (Dolobid)
250-1000
8-12
1500
Salsalate (Disalcid)
500-1000
8
3000
Fenoprofen (Nalfon)
200
4-6
3200
Flurbiprofen (Ansaid)
50-100
6-12
300
Ibuprofen (Motrin)
300-800
6-8
3200
Ketoprofen (Orudis)
12.5-75
6-8
300
Naproxen (Naprosyn)
200-500
12
1250
Naproxen sodium (Anaprox)
275-550
12
1375
Oxaprozin (Daypro)
600-1200
12
1200
Salicylates
3000
Arylpropionic acid derivatives
Heteroaryl acetic acid derivatives
Diclofenac (Voltaren)
25-75
6-12
Ketorolac (intramuscular) (Toradol)
15-60
6
10
4-6
40
200-600
6-8
1800
200-400
6-12
1200
25-50
8-12
200
150-200
12
400
50-100
4-6
400
250
6
1000
1000
12-24
2000
20
24
120
Ketorolac (oral) Tolmetin (Tolectin)
200
Indole and indene acetic acid derivatives Etodolac (Lodine) Indomethacin (Indocin) Sulindac (Clinoril)
Anthranilic acid derivatives (fenamates) Meclofenamate Mefenamic acid (Ponstel) Alkanone derivatives Nabumetone (Relafen) Enolic acid derivatives (oxicams) Piroxicam (Feldene) Cyclooxygenase 2 (COX2) selective inhibitors
20
Celecoxib (Celebrex)
100-200
12-24
400
Disease-modifying antirheumatic drugs (DMARDs) Leflunomide (Arava)
20
20a
24
Biological response modifiers (tumor necrosis factor α inhibitors) Adalimumab (Humira)
40 SC injection
Every other week
TBD
Etanercept (Enbrel)
25 SC injection
Once weekly
50 SC injection
Infliximab (Remicade)
3/kg IV. infusion
Every 4-6 weeks
10/kg
a
Excludes loading dose of 100 mg/day for 3 days.
IV, intravenous; SC, subcutaneous; TBD, to be determined. ( 1) D if lun is a l ( 50 0 mg ) ( 2) Ib up r ofe n ( 200- 400 m g) ( 3) N a pr o xen so di um ( 5 50 m g) ( 4) K et o pr of en ( 25- 50 m g) c. The ne we r clas se s of d r ug s, in ge ne r al, ha ve n ot be en com pa r ed t o as pir in. P. 12 63
3. C l inic a l use a. Ge ne r al ly, t he nonna r co t ic a na lge s ics a r e use d ora lly t o m anag e m ild t o m o de r at e pa in. ( 1) The y a r e p ar t ic ula r ly s uit ed f or a c ut e pa in of sk elet a l m usc le ( ort ho pe dic ) o r or a l ( de nt a l) or ig i n. ( 2) The y a r e us ed t o tr eat p ain a nd inf lam m at io n a ss oc ia t e d wit h o s t eoart hr it is a nd r he um at oid a rt hr it is . ( 3) The y a r e us ed in chr on ic pa in and ca n have an ad dit ive e f f e ct wit h na r co t ic ana lg es ic s . ( 4) The y a ls o m a y be eff ect ive in m a na ging pa in owi ng t o bone m et ast as es.
b. The NS AI D k et or ola c is adm inist e r ed int r am us cu la r ly and is us ef u l in m od era t e t o se ve r e p ain, pa r t ic ula r ly in c as es in wh ic h nar c ot i cs ar e und es ir a b le ( e .g., wit h dr ug ad dic t s , exc es s ive nar c ot ic s e da t io n, r esp ir a t or y d ep r es s ion) . c. The NS AID diclof e na l e po la m ine is ava i la b le as a t o pic al pa t c h ( F le ct o r P at ch ® ) f or t r eat me nt of str a ins, sp r ains , and co nt us io ns . O ne pat c h is a pp lied t o t he m ost pa inf u l a r ea t wice a da y (s hou ld no t be ap pl ied t o dam ag ed or no n- int a ct sk in) . d. Pa t ie nt s m a y va r y in t he ir r es ponse and t oler anc e t o nonna r co t ic a na lge sics . If a pa t ient d oe s no t r es po nd t o t he m a xim um t her a peut ic d os e , t hen an alt er nat e NS AID shou ld be tr ie d. L ik ewise , if a p at ient e xp er ie nce s s id e eff ect s w it h one d r ug , t hen anot her a ge nt shou ld be t r ie d. e. S ever a l d r ug s ( e. g ., d if lu nisa l, c ho line ma gne sium tr is a lic ylat e , nap ro xen, ce lec o xib, lef lu nom id e, et a ne rce pt , inf lixim ab , a nd a d alim um a b) have lo ng ha lf - li ve s and, t here f or e, m a y be adm inist er e d les s f re que ntl y. f . The c os t of nonna r co t ic a na lge s ics is h ig hly var iab le a nd s ho uld b e c ons ide r ed whe n a n ag ent is se le ct ed . P harm a cot he r ap y wit h t he CO X - 2 i nh ib it or c e lec o xib , t he ne wer D MAR Ds lik e lef l unom id e o r TN F -α inhib it o r s is s ig nif ic a nt ly m or e exp ens i ve t ha n o ld er a ge nt s. 4. Ad ve r se ef f e ct s a. Ga str o int e st ina l (G I) ef f e ct s. Most no nnar c ot i c a na lg es ic s ca us e G I sym pt om s se co nd ar y t o pr os tag la nd in i nh ib it io n. At norm al do s es, ac et am inop he n and c ho li ne ma gnes ium t r is al ic ylat e pr o duce m inim al G I ups et . B eca us e of t heir m ec ha nism of ac t io n, t he CO X- 2 in hib it o r s ha ve a G I toxic it y s im ila r t o plac eb o. Ada lim um ab, et a ne r cept , inf lix im a b, a nd le f lu no m ide have b ee n a s so ciat e d w it h G I s ide ef f ec ts inc lud ing na us ea , a bd om inal pa in, dys pe ps ia , co nst ipa t io n, vom it ing, hem at oc he zia, int e s t ina l o bd uct ion, int es t ina l pe r f ora t io n, pa nc r ea t it is, p er it onit is, p ept ic u lc er , a nd dia r r he a. ( 1) The m ost c omm on G I s ym pt om is dys pe ps ia , but u lc er a t ion, b le ed ing , o r pe rf or at io n c an o cc ur . ( 2) P at ie nt s m ost pr e dis p os ed to se ve r e G I ef f ec ts inc lud e t he e ld er ly, p at ient s wit h a his t or y o f ulce r s o r c hr o nic d is ea se , a nd t hos e w ho sm oke o r us e a lc ohol. ( 3) To m in im ize G I ef f ect s, t he lo we st p os s ib le a na lg es ic do s e s ho uld b e us ed. Asp ir i n, a va ilab le a s ent er ic- c oat e d p rod uc t s, m ay m in im ize G I up set . C om bina t io n t he r ap y w it h a G I “pr ot ec t a nt” ( e. g. , ant a cid, H 2 - ant ag on is t , s uc r alf at e, m is op ros to l) ma y be ne ed ed. b. Hem at ol ogi ca l eff e ct s. Mo st no nnar c ot ic a na lg es ic s inh ib it p lat ele t a ggr eg at ion. The e ff ect is pr od uc ed b y r e vers ib le i nh ib it io n o f p r ost ag la nd in synt he t as e. As pir i n is an ir r eve r sible inhi b it o r . Ace t am ino phen and c h oli ne m ag ne si um tr isa lic ylat e la ck ant ip lat e le t ef f ec ts . TN F- α inh ib it or s have b ee n as so c iat ed wit h anem ia, aplas t ic anem ia , le uk op en ia , neut r op enia , pa nc yt op enia , and t hr om bo cyt open ia . L ef lunom id e ha s b ee n a s so ciat e d w it h anem ia a nd ec chym o s is . ( 1) The eff e ct of t he NS AID s cor relat e s t o t he pr ese nc e of a n eff e ct ive s er um co nc ent r at ion. ( 2) U s e of a nt ico ag ula nt s (e. g., hep ar in, w ar f ar in [C oum ad in] is r elat i ve ly co nt r a ind ic a t ed in com bina t io n w it h a sp ir i n o r NSAID s.
c. Re na l ef f ec t s. NS AID s c an pr od uc e r e na l d ysf u nc t io n. E t aner ce pt has not be en shown t o af f ec t r ena l f unc t io n. ( 1) The m ec ha nism o f NS AID - ind uce d r enal dysf unct io n inc lude s pr o st a gland in inh ib it io n, int er s t it ia l nep hr it is , im p air e d r enin se cr e t io n, and e nhance d t ub ular wat er / sod ium r e abs orp t io n. ( 2) Ma ny r is k f ac t or s have be en im pl ic at e d, inc lud i ng co ng es t ive he ar t f ail ur e (C HF), c hr onic r ena l f ai lur e (CR F), c ir r ho s is, de hydr a t io n, diur et ic us e, and at her o sc le r ot ic d is ea s e in e lde r ly p at ie nt s. P. 12 64
( 3) R e na l d ys f unc t io n is c omm o nl y m a nif es t ed a s a br up t onse t o lig ur ia w it h so dium / wat er r et e nt ion. The e f fe ct r ever s es a ft er dis c ont inua t io n o f t he NS AID . d. Ma ligna ncie s a nd lym p hop r olif e rat ive d isor de r s Age nt s t hat blo c k TN F m a y aff e ct ho st def ens es ag ai ns t m al ig na nc ie s b ec aus e TNF me diat e s inf lam m at io n a nd m od ulat e s c e llu la r im m une r e sp ons e. L ym p hom as have oc cur r ed m or e fr e quent ly in pa t ie nt s r e ce iv ing TN F- b loc k ing a ge nt s t han in co nt r ols . e. Inf ect ions. O pp ort unist ic a nd s er ious i nf e ct ion s lea di ng t o s e ps is and de at h ha ve be en as soc iat ed wit h le f lu no m ide and t he TN F - block ing ag ent s . f . Misc el la neou s ef f ect s ( 1) E ve n i n norm a l do s es, a cet am ino phen ca n ca us e hep at oto xic it y in p at ient s wit h liver d is ea se or chr onic alco ho lism . H e pat ot oxic it y has also be en r ep or t ed wit h t he us e o f a ll NS AID s inc lud ing t he C O X- 2 s e lec t ive inh ib it o r s. Lef lu no m ide and inf l ixim ab ha ve a ls o b ee n s hown t o ca us e tr an sie nt e leva t ions in liver f unct io n t est s such as a spart at e am ino t r ansf er as e ( AS T) —s er um glut a m ic - oxa loa ce t ic t r ansam inas e (S G O T)—a nd a lan ine am inot r a ns f e ras e ( ALT) —s er um glut am ic -p yr uv ic t r ansam inas e (S GP T) ( 2) S om e p at ient s exh ib it ac ut e hyp er s e ns it iv it y re ac t io ns t o as p ir in. Man if e st at io ns inc lude eit he r a r hin it is o r ast hm a pr es ent at io n o r a tr ue al ler g ic r ea ct io n ( e . g. , ur t ica r ia, whe als, hypo t ens io n, s ho ck , s ync op e). A c r os s- s ens it iv it y t o ot he r NS AI D s ma y de ve lo p. ( 3) S om e NS AID s p r od uc e ce ntr a l ner vo us sys t em (C NS) e ff ect s, inc lud ing im p air ed me nt at ion, he ad ac hes , and att e nt ion de f ic it dis or d er . ( 4) L ef lunom id e has r e ce ived a bla ck box w a r ning b ecause of it s C a teg or y X pr e gnancy wa r ning . It has also b ee n a ss oc ia t e d wit h w e ig ht los s , alop ec ia , r as h, and a nem ia. ( 5) TN F- b loc k ing a ge nt s have b ee n as sociat e d wit h r eact ions at t he inj ect io n s it e and a ut o ant ib od y pr o duct ion. ( 6) As of Ap r il 20 05 , t he U .S . Fo od and Dr ug Adm inist r a t io n ( FD A) iss ued a b la c k box w ar ning f or ce le co xib, a s ele c t ive C O X - 2 inh ib it or , be ca us e if it s l ink t o an inc r ea s ed r is k f or c ar d io va s cu lar event s ( he art at ta ck a nd st r ok e) This i nc r ea se d r isk has be en dem o ns t r at ed t o b e a dr ug c las s eff ec t fo r al l NS AID s, exc lud ing as pir i n. C ele c oxib is also co nt ra ind ica t ed in pa t ie nt s wit h su lf o na m ide al ler g y. 5. Dr ug int era ct io ns. S a lic y lat e s ha ve t wo c lin ic all y s ig nif ic ant dr ug int er a ct ions.
a. Ora l a nt ic oa g ula nt s. As pir in shou ld be c ar ef ul ly mo nit or e d, if use d, in ant ic oa gu lat ed pa t ie nt s b ec ause it inh ib it s plat e le t f unc t io n a nd ca n ca us e ga str i c m ucos al dam ag e. This c an s ig nif ica nt l y inc r ea s e the r isk o f blee di ng in ant ic oa gu lat ed pa t ie nt s . Also , d os es of > 3 g/ da y of a sp ir i n p r od uc es hypo pr o t hr om bine m ia. C ho line m a gnes ium tr is a l ic y la t e or a ce tam ino phe n c an be us ed if a nonna r co t ic is nee de d in a n a nt ico ag ulat e d p at ient . b. Met hot r exa te. S al ic ylat e s m a y enha nc e t he t oxic it y o f m et hot re xat e . The pr ima r y me cha nis m is b lock ag e of m et ho t rexa t e r e na l t ubu la r se cr et io n by s alicy la t es . The r es ult ant m et hot rexat e t o xic it y has b ee n r epo rt e d a s p anc yt o pe nia o r hep at ot oxic it y. S alic y la t e s s ho uld b e a void ed in p at ie nt s r e c eiv in g m e t ho tr e xa t e. c. T NF- b locking a ge nt s. Anak inr a (K ine r et ), a r ec om bina nt int e r le uk in 1 ( I L - 1) r ec ept or a nt ag onis t , has be en ob ser ved t o ca us e an incr e as ed r is k of se r io us inf e c t io ns as neut r op enia whe n us ed co nc om it ant ly wit h e t aner c ept in p at ient s wit h r he um at oid a rt hr it is . C ons eq ue nt l y, it s us e is not r ec omm e nd ed co ncom it ant ly w it h any TN F- b lo ck ing a ge nt . B. Na rc ot i c a na lge sic s i nc lude t he o pio id dr ugs (Tab le 5 8- 2) . B ec ause of t he ir ab us e p ot e nt ia l, op io id s a r e c la s sif ied a s cont r o lle d dr ug s. S p ec ial r eg ulat io ns co nt r o l t heir pr esc r ib ing. 1. Mecha nism of act ion a. E nd og enous o piat e s af fo r d t he bo dy self - pa in- r elie v ing m e chan ism s. The s e endo ge no us pe pt ide s inc lude t he e nd or p hi ns , e nk ep ha lins, and d yno r phins . b. E xo ge no us op ia t es ar e c la ss if ied as a go nist s (s t im ulat e op ia t e r ec ept ors ), ant ag on is t s ( dis plac e ag onis t s f r om o pia t e r ec ep tor s) , a nd m ixed o pia t e s (a go nist ant ag on is t or pa rt ia l ag on is t a ct ions) . c. Op ia t e re c ept or s a re lo c at ed in t he br a in and s pi na l c or d . S e ve ral t ype s of o piat e r ec ept or s have b ee n ide nt if ie d, inc lud ing µ, κ, δ , σ, and ε . d. St im ulat io n of µ r ece pt o rs pr o duce s t he cha r act er ist ic nar c ot ic (m orp hi ne - lik e) ef fe ct s. ( 1) Ana lge s ia ( 2) Mio sis ( 3) E upho ria ( 4) R e sp ir a t or y d ep res s ion ( 5) S e da t io n P. 12 65
Table 58-2. Some Commonly Used Opioid Analgesics
Parenteral Dose (mg)a
Oral Dose (mg)a
Duration (hr)
Morphine
10
60
4-7
Morphine (CR) (MS Contin)
n/a
n/a
12-24
Hydromorphone (Dilaudid)
1.3
7.5
4-6
Oxymorphone (Numorphan)
1
—
4-6
Levorphanol (LevoDromoran)
2
4
4-7
Methadone (Dolophine)
10
20
4-6
Meperidine (Demerol)
75
300
3-6
Fentanyl (Sublimaze)
0.1
—
1-2
Fentanyl transdermal (Duragesic)
n/a
n/a
48-72
Codeine
130
200
4-6
Hydrocodoneb
—
5-10
4-5
Dihydrocodeineb
—
32
4-5
Oxycodoneb
—
5-10
4-5
n/a
12-24
65-100
4-6
Drug
Oxycodone (CR) (OxyContin) Propoxyphene (Darvon)
—
Nalbuphine (Nubain)
10
—
4-6
Butorphanol (Stadol)
2
—
4-6
Dezocine (Dalgan)
10
—
4-7
a
Doses equivalent to 10 mg intramuscular or subcutaneous morphine
b
Doses for moderate pain not necessarily equivalent to 10 mg morphine.
CR, controlled release; n/a, not applicable. ( 6) P hys ica l d ep ende nc e ( 7) Br a dyc ar d ia e. The sp ecif ic me c ha nism (c ent r al and s p ina l) o f o piat e ag onis t is alt er a t io n of t he ef fe ct s o f noc ic ep t ive ne ur o t r ansm it ter s, p ossib ly nor e pi ne phr ine o r se rot o nin. 2. C l inic a l use a. Op io id ana lg es ic s ar e us ed f o r t he m a na gem ent of m od er a te t o s ever e p ain ( ac ut e or chr onic pa in) of som at ic o r vis ce r al or ig in. b. The us e of narc ot ic s s hou ld b e ind iv id ua lized f o r ea ch pat ie nt . The o pt im al ana lg es ic d os e var ies f r om pat ie nt t o p at ient . E a ch a na lg es ic r eg im en s ho uld b e t it r a ted by inc r ea sing t he do s e up t o t he a ppe ar a nc e of lim it ing a dve r se ef f ect s. C ha ng ing t o anot he r analge s ic s ho uld o c cur only af t er a n a deq ua t e t her a peut ic t r ia l. c. The ap pr o pr iat e r o ut e of adm inist r a t io n s ho u ld be se le cte d f or e ac h pat ie nt . ( 1) O ra l a dm i nist ra t io n is t he pr e ferr e d r o ut e, p ar t icu la r ly f or pa t ie nt s wit h c hr o nic, st a ble p ain. Co nt r olled - r elea se m or p hine and o xy c od one t ab let s a r e a vailab le f or co nve n ie nc e i n c ont r o lling co nt i nuo us p ai n, pa rt ic ula r ly in t hos e p at ient s wit h ca nc er . ( 2) Int ram uscula r a nd subc ut a neo us a dm i nist r at io n a r e ver y c omm o nly use d in t he po st oper at ive p er iod . Fluc t ua t io ns in a bs or pt io n m a y o ccur , p ar t ic u lar l y i n eld er l y o r c ac he ct ic pat ie nt s . ( 3) Int ra venous ( IV ) b olus a dm inist ra t ion ha s t he m ost r a pid, p r ed ic t ab le onse t of ef fe ct . ( 4) IV inf usio n is use d t o t it r at e p ain r e lie f r ap id ly, pa rt ic u lar ly i n p at ient s wit h unst a ble c hr o nic p ain. Mo r ph ine is m o st comm only us ed , of ten wit h s upp lem e nt a l IV bo lus d os es f o r br e ak t hr ough pa in. A m echan ic a l inf us io n d ev ic e is ne ce ss ar y. ( 5) IV PC A is m ost of t en us ed f o r ac ut e p os to pe rat ive pa in. It pr od uc e s p rom p t ana lg es ia w it h m in im al side ef f ect s beca us e sm a ll d os es ( e. g. , 1- 2 m g mor p hine) ar e de liver e d at fr e que nt int e r va ls ( e. g. , e ver y 10 m in) . It a llows pa t ie nt co nt r o l of pa in m a na gem ent . Mo r phine a nd m ep er id ine a r e the m ost c omm o nly use d a ge nt s. A me cha nic a l inf us io n d ev ic e and p r op er ly t r ain ed p at ie nt and s t aff a r e nec es sar y.
( 6) E p idura l a nd int rat he ca l a dm ini st r at i on ar e us ed f or ac ut e p ost o per at ive pa in and e ar ly m a na gem ent of chr onic c ance r pa in. All dr ugs use d ep idur a l ly or int r a t hec al ly m us t be p res er vat ive f r e e b eca us e of t he neur ot oxic it y of par abens a nd be nz yl a lco ho l whe n adm in is t er e d via t hes e r o ut es . Int r at hec al do s es ar e ge ner a lly 1/ 1 0 of t he c or res po nd ing d r ug 's ep id ur a l d os e. P. 12 66
Table 58-3. Epidurally Administered Preservative-Free Opioids: Intermittent Dosing
Dose (mg)
Onset of Action (min)
Time to Peak Effect (min)
Duration of Action (hr)
Morphine
5-10
25
60
12-24
Fentanyl
0.1
5-10
20
6
Meperidine
50100
5-10
15-30
7
1
10-15
20
12
0.3
30
40-60
8-9
Drug
Hydromorphone Buprenorphine (Subutex)
(a ) L ow o piat e d os es s t im ulat e s pina l op ia t e r e c ep t or s a nd r ed uc e t he am o unt o f na r co t ic r ea c hing t he br a in. Th is r es ult s in de la ye d or m inim al ef fe ct s s uch as se da t io n, naus ea , and res pira t or y d epr es s io n. The op ia t e d is t r ib ut ion t hat c aus es such ef f ec t s depe nd s on t he s it e of s p ina l i nj ec t ion, wa t er so lub il it y of t he op ia t e, and vo lum e inf us ed . For e xa m ple , aft er lum b ar adm inis t r at io n o f a m or e wat er so lub le op ia t e (m or phine) , s e ve r e r es pir a t or y d epr es s ion c an be o bs er ved 12 - 2 4 hr af te r in it ia l d os ing. ( b) L oc al side eff e ct s of int r a t he c al o piat e a dm inis t rat ion ar e it c h ing a nd ur i na r y r ete nt io n. D e pe nd ing o n t he o piat e use d a nd t he t yp e o f p ain b eing t r eat ed, int e rm it t e nt do se s or c ont in uo us inf us ions ( v ia a me cha nic a l inf us io n d ev ic e ) ca n b e us ed ( Ta bles 58 -3 a nd 5 8- 4). ( 7) R e cta l a dm ini st r at i on is an alt er nat i ve f or pat ie nt s una b le t o t ak e or a l na r co t ic s. Gener a lly, p oo r ab sor pt ion r e su lt s in an u nr e lia b le a na lge s ic r es po ns e. It is an unac c ep t ab le r out e of a dm in is t r at ion f o r m an y pa t ient s .
( 8) T ra nsde rma l a dm ini st r a t i on is an alt er nat ive f or pat ie nt s wit h c hr o nic p ai n w ho ar e unab le t o t ak e or al na r cot ic s . A c ontr o lle d - r e le as e p atc h is avai la b le f o r f ent anyl. S low o ns et req uir es ad dit io na l a na lge sia w he n s t art ing t r e atm e nt . The dur at ion of a na lg es ia is 48 - 72 hr pe r pat c h. A slow r ed uc t io n o f ef f ec t f o llows r em ova l o f t he p at c h a nd r e quir e s 2 4 -3 6 hr of m on it o r ing. d. Pa t ie nt s who ha ve c hr o nic p ain o r ac ut e p ain t hat is co ns t ant t hr ougho ut t he da y shou ld r ec eive r eg ular ly s che du led ( ar o und - t he - clock ) d ose s of nar cot ics . ( 1) L ong- act ing op ia t es ( e .g., co nt rolled - r ele as e m or p hine and o xyc od one) a r e pr ef er able. ( 2) A supp le m e nt give n a s ne ed ed m ay be nec es sar y t o ma nag e b r eakt hr o ug h p ai n, f or whic h shor t -a ct ing o pia t e s ( e. g. , im m ed ia t e- r e le as e m or phine, hydr om or p ho ne ) ar e pr ef er a ble. If f re quent sup ple m ents ar e r eq uir ed , t hen t he ar ound - t he - cloc k r eg im en sho uld be a dj ust ed base d on m orp hine eq ui va lent s ( Ta ble 5 8- 2) . e. Alt ho ugh t he ana lge sia a nd s id e e f f ec ts of op ia t es are q ua lit a t ive l y s im ilar , ind iv id ua l pa t ie nt s m a y r e spo nd dif f er e nt l y. Ana lg es ic s ele c t ion is b as ed on: ( 1) P at ie nt 's pa st a nalg es ia e xp er ie nc e ( 2) N e ed f o r a ra pid o ns e t of ef fe c t ( 3) Pr e fe r ence f or a long ( or s ho r t) dur at ion o f ac tio n ( 4) Pr e fe r ence f or a p art icu la r m ode of d eliver y ( 5) Pr e fe r ence f or a p art icu la r do s ag e f o rm (a ) C o nt ro lled - r ele as e m or p hine or o xyc od one f o r a lo ng dur at ion of act io n ( 8 - 12 hr ) ma y be pr e fe rab le t o o piat e s w it h long ha lf - li ve s ( e. g. , m et ha do ne , le vo r phano l) , whic h ca n ac cum ulat e and c a us e o ver d ose s ym ptom s (e . g., r esp ir at or y de pre s sio n) .
Table 58-4. Epidurally Administered Preservative-Free Opioids: Continuous Infusion Drug
Initial Bolus Dose Infusion Concentration (mg) (mg/mL)
Rate (mg/hr)
Morphine
2
0.05-0.25
0.2-1.5
Fentanyl
0.05-0.1
0.005-0.025
0.020.15
Meperidine
50-100
10-20
5-20
0.5-1
0.02-0.05
0.150.3
Hydromorphone
P. 12 67
( b) Tr a ns d erm al f e nt a nyl c an b e use d f or p at ient s who a re una ble t o s wallow.
( c) R e ct al s upp os it o r ie s c an b e use d f or p at ient s who a r e una b le t o s wallow. The y ar e avai lab le f or mo r phine, hydr om or p ho ne , an d oxym o r phone. ( d) C o nc ent r at ed hyd r om or p ho ne inj ect ion ( 10 m g/ mL ) c an be use d f or c ac he ct ic pa t ient s who r equ ir e subc ut aneo us inj ec t ions a nd in pa t ie nt s whos e inj ect io n vo lum es m us t be m in im ized . ( 6) Indi vid ua l s e ns it iv it y t o s ide e ff ec t s, whic h inc lude s naus ea , euphor ia, s ed at ion, and r e sp ir at or y dep r es sion (a ) P ar t ia l a go nist s or m ixed ag onis t - ant a go nis t s m ay be pr efe r ab le f or ac ut e pain ma na gem ent in p at ient s a t r isk f or r espir at o r y de pr e ss io n s ec o nd ar y t o op ia t e ag on ist s. The s e a ge nt s s ho uld not be us ed in pa t ie nt s who ha ve r ece ived chr on ic do se s of opiat e s bec a us e w it hdr aw al sym pt om s will oc cur . ( b) E p id ur a l a dm in is t r at ion m ay be pr ef e rab le f or cr it ic a ll y i ll p at ient s at r isk f o r r es pir a to r y d ep r es s io n s ec ond ar y t o syst em ic narc ot ic a dm inis t r a t io n. 3. Ad ve r se ef f e ct s. All nar c ot ics can pr oduc e a var ie t y of side eff ec t s t ha t r ange f r om b ot her s ome to lif e- t hr ea tening. a. Co nst ipa t ion oc c ur s as a res ult o f de cre ase d int e st ina l t o ne a nd pe r is t alsis. The r e is a p at ient var ia bi lit y, b ut ge ne r all y m o st pa t ie nt s e xp er ie nce co nst ipa t io n af te r s evera l d ays of t he r ap y. Const ipa t io n m a y be mo re bo t he r som e wit h ce rt a in t yp es of op ia t es ( e. g. , co de ine) . I t m ay oc c ur s ooner a nd be m o re pr ob lem at ic in ho sp it a lized or be dr id de n pa t ie nt s or in pa t ie nt s who have r ec eive d a ne st he sia o r dr ugs wit h a nt ic ho li ne r gic e f f ects . P ro phy la xis w it h a la xa t ive/ st o ol so ft e ne r com b inat io n ( e. g., b is ac o dy l/ d oc us at e (G e nt la x- S) a nd diet a r y co uns e li ng ar e war r a nt ed f or pat ient s who ne ed c hr o nic o piat e t her a py. b. Na usea and vom it ing o ccur owing t o ce nt ra l stim u la t io n o f t he c hem or ec ept or t r igg er zo ne . It is m or e pro ble m at ic w it h one - t ime o r int erm it t ent par ent er al do sing f or a cut e pa in. O cc asiona ll y, pa t ient s r eq uir e c onc om it a nt t he r ap y wit h an ant ie m et ic ( e. g., hydr o xy z ine, p r oc hlor p er a zi ne ) ; howe ve r , t hes e a gent s m a y ad d t o t he se dat ive ef fe c ts of o piat e s. c. S eda t io n is a do se-r elat e d eff e ct but som e t im es is e nhance d by co ncom it ant use of o t he r dr ug s w it h se da t ing e ff e ct s ( e. g. , be nzod ia ze pi ne s, ant ie m et ic s ). Most chr on ic pa in pa t ie nt s b ec om e t oler a nt t o t his ef fec t, b ut occa s iona l ly t he ad dit io n o f a CNS st im ula nt , s uc h a s de xt ro amp he t am ine or met hylp hen ida t e, is ne ed ed . ( 1) P at ie nt s s ta rt ing t her a py wit h nar c o t ic s s ho uld b e war ned ab out d r iv ing o r op er at ing m a chiner y. ( 2) S e da t io n m a y be a sig n of e xce ss ive do sing or a cc um ula t io n. H owe ve r , sed at ion shou ld no t be conf us e d wit h p hys io log ic a l s le ep in p at ie nt s who ha ve pa in - co nt r ol dif f ic u lt ies . P at ie nt s in p a in o ft en de velo p ins o m nia . W he n pain is b r ought und er co nt r o l b y ap pr o pr ia t e na r cot ic t it r at ion, t he p at ient in it ia lly m ay s le ep f or se ve r al ho ur s . d. Re sp ir at o ry d epr e ssion is t he m ost ser io us ad ver s e e ff e ct a c com pa ny ing na r co t ic ove r dose . R e sp ir a t or y d epr es sion m ay be a sign of an exc es sive do s e, ac cum ulat io n of long ha lf - lived o pia t es ( e. g. , m ethad one , le vo r pha no l) , or ac cum ulat io n of a ct ive m o r phine m et ab olit es in r e na l f a ilur e p at ient s .
( 1) R e sp ir a t or y r at e s hou ld be car ef ull y m o nit or e d in p at ie nt s rec eivi ng IV or ep id ur al op ia t es , in neo na t es , in e lde r ly pa t ie nt s, a nd in pa t ie nt s r e ce iv ing o t her dr ugs t hat c aus e r e sp ir a tor y d ep r es sion. ( 2) The op ia t e a nt a go nist s, nalo xo ne and na lm e fene , are adm in is t er e d int r a veno us l y t o r e ve rs e lif e- t hr e at e ni ng r es pir at or y de pr e ss io n. U se of na lo xo ne or nalm ef e ne (R eve x) in a n o p iat e - de pe nd ent pat ie nt ( e.g ., a c hr o nic c anc er p ain p at ient ) ca n pr e cip it a t e op iat e wit hd r awa l. e. Ant icholi ne rg ic ef f ect s, suc h a s dr y m out h and ur inar y r et ent io n, c an b e bo t he r som e f or som e pa t ie nt s . f . H yp er sen sit i vit y r eact ions , suc h a s it c hing o wing t o his t am ine r elea se , c a n occur se co nd ar y t o op ia t e us e, p art ic ula r ly wit h e pid ur a l o r int r at he ca l a dm in is t r at ion. W hea ls som et im es oc c ur at t he s it e of m or p hine inj ect io n. Thes e r e act io ns d o not r ep res ent tr ue a lle r gy. g. CNS exci ta t io n, s uc h as m yoc lon us a nd ot he r se izur e - lik e act iv it y, c an be pr o duce d wit h t he us e of m e per id ine in r e na l f a ilu r e. The se s ym pt om s have a ls o be en ob ser ved in pa t ie nt s wit h nor m a l r enal f unc t io ns who r e ce ive hig h d os e s of me per id ine ( e . g. , < 8 00 m g/ da y of int r am us cula r me per id ine) . The ac c um ula t io n o f t he m et abo lit e norm e per id i ne is t he c ause . P. 12 68
4. Dr ug int era ct io ns a. Na r cot ics ha ve a dd it ive C NS d ep r es s ant e ff ects when us ed in c om bi na t io n wit h ot her d r ug s t ha t a ls o a re CN S de pr essa nt s ( e. g. , alco ho l, a ne s t he t ic s, ant id ep r es sa nt s, a nt ihist am ines , ba r bit ur a te s, benzod ia ze p ines , p he no t hia z ines ) . b. Na r co t ic s , par t ic u lar l y m e per id ine , c an cause sever e r ea ct ions suc h a s e xc it at ion, s weat ing, r igid it y, a nd hyp er t e ns io n in p at ient s r ec eiving mo noam ine o xida s e ( MAO) inh ib it o r s. Me per id ine s ho uld b e avo id ed and ot her nar c ot ic s st ar t ed at lowe r do ses in pa t ie nt s b eing t r eat ed wit h MAO inh ib it o r s. 5. T ole ra nce m ea ns t hat inc r ea si ng do se s of op iat e a r e nee de d to m a int ain ana lg es ia . To le r ance usua ll y de ve lop s t o t he anal ge sic, s eda t ive, a nd e up ho r ic ef fe ct s o f o pio id s, but no t t o t he p up illar y - co nst r ic t ing and c o ns t ip at i ng ef f e ct s. Th is is us ua lly o bs er ved as a de cr ea sing dur at ion of ana lg es ia in c hr o nic p ain p at ie nt s. The a dd it io n o f a n N S AID m a y he lp de lay o r pr o vi de adeq ua t e analge s ia in t o le ra nt pa t ient s . 6. De pe nd ence . The us e o f op ia t es f o r c hr o nic p ai n m a y r e sult in ph ys ic a l de pe nd ence , s uc h t ha t t he a br upt d is c ont in ua t ion o f t he o piat e r es ult s in t he de ve lo pm ent o f wit hd r awa l s ym pt om s. a. W it hdra wa l s ym p t om s inc l ud e a nxie t y, ir r it ab i lit y, i ns om nia, ch il ls, sa livat io n, r hinor r hea , d iap hor e sis , naus ea , vom it ing , G I c r am p ing a nd diar r hea , and piloe r ec t io n. ( 1) The ap pe ar a nc e and int e ns it y o f wit hdr a wa l s ym pt om s var y ac c or d ing t o t he ha lf - lif e o f t he opiat e . Fo r e xam ple, t he wit hdr a wal sym pt om s aft er d is co nt inuat ion of c hr o nic m et had one m a y t ak e s eve r al da ys t o de ve lo p a nd m ay b e les s int ense t ha n t ho se of w it hdr a wal f rom m or phine o wing t o it s s ho r te r ha lf - lif e.
( 2) The de ve lo pm e nt o f t o le r ance m ay b e a sso cia t e d wit h w it hdr a wal sym pt om s. ( 3) The us e of nalo xo ne o r a par t ia l a go nis t - a nt a go nist such as p ent azo ci ne in a pa t ient r e ce iv ing c hr o nic op iat e t her a py pr od uc es ac ut e w it hdr a wal. b. The de ve lo pm e nt of p hys ica l d ep ende nc e se en in c hr o nic p a in p at ie nt s is not t he sam e as ps yc ho lo g ica l d ep ende nc e o r add ic t ion . Also , t he dr ug- s eek ing be ha vior ob se r ve d in m a ny a cut e pa in pa t ie nt s ( i. e . , f r om po s t oper at ive p ai n) is not a s ig n o f ad dic t io n, but r at he r a nee d f or a de quat e p ain r e lie f . St ud ies s ug ge st t ha t t he ad dic t ive r ate s f or long- t e rm t re atm e nt of nonca nc e r pa in ar e lo w in pa t ie nt s wit ho ut a pr io r his t o r y o f a dd ic t io n. T he analge s ic ne ed s o f t his t ype of pat ient s ho uld b e r ea ss es s ed and us ua lly nec es sit at e s incr e as ing t he do se of op iat e, c ha ng ing t o a lo nge r dur at ion d r ug , c ha ng ing t o a P C A, or add ing an a na lg es ic adj unc t . C. Tra ma do l (U ltra m) is an or a l, ce nt r a lly a ct ing ana lge sic w it h w ea k o piat e ac t iv it y. It has not b ee n pla c ed in a c ontr o lle d d r ug s ched ule. 1. Mecha nism of act ion a. Tr am ado l is a synt he t ic am i no cyc lohe xa no l t hat b inds t o op iat e r e ce pt or s, inh ib it ing nor e pi ne phr ine a nd se ro t onin. b. The analge s ic e ff e ct s a re part ia ll y ant ag on ized by nalo xo ne. 2. C l inic a l use a. Tr am ado l is use d f or m o de r at e to m oder at ely s e ve r e p ain. b. The r ec om m e nd ed dos ag e is 5 0-1 00 m g e ver y 4- 6 hr , up t o a ma xim um of 40 0 mg/ d ay. c. At m axim um do sa ge, tr am ad ol ap pe ars no m ore ef f ec t ive t ha n ac etam inop he nco de ine c om b inat io ns . 3. Ad ve r se ef f e ct s a. G I ef f e ct s inc l ud e na use a, co ns t ip at ion, a nd dry m out h. b. CNS ef f ect s inc l ud e d izzi ne ss , hea da che , se da t io n, and s eizur es ( o ve rdo se). c. D ia phor e sis 4. Dr ug int era ct io ns a. Tr am ado l c an incr e as e t he s ed at ive ef f e ct of alco ho l a nd hyp not ic s. b. Tr am ado l in hib it s m o no am ine upt ak e a nd s ho uld not b e us ed wit h MAO i nh ib it or s . c. Tr am ado l use d wit h se le ct i ve se r ot onin r eupt ake in hib it or s (SSR I s) a nd ot he r ag ent s t ha t incr e as e ser ot o ne r gic act iv it y c an ca us e “ ser ot o nin s y nd r om e, ” whic h is char a cte r ized b y ir r it a b il it y, an xiet y, C NS e xc it a t io n, a nd m yoc lo nus. D. Adj uva nt a na lge si cs Adj uvant a na lge sics a r e d r ug s who se in it ia l F D A a pp r ove d ind ica t io n was f or a co nd it io n ot her t han p ain. O t her cla s se s o f dr ug s af fe ct no no piat e pa in pa t hways and m a y b e us ef ul i n c er t a in t ype s of p ain ( e . g. , ne ur o pa t hic pa in) . Thes e d r ug s of te n a r e us ed wit h o t he r analge sics a nd som e ma y he lp m a na ge narc ot ic s id e ef fe ct s ( Tab le 58 - 5) . P. 12 69
Table 58-5. Analgesic Adjuncts
Class
Drugs
Indications
Tricyclic antidepressants
Amitriptyline (Elavil), desipramine (Norpramin), doxepin (Sinequan), imipramine (Tofranil)
Neurogenic pain; chronic pain complicated by depression or insomnia
Anticonvulsants
Gabapentin (Neurontin), pregabalin (Lyrica), carbamazepine (Tegretol), clonazepam (Klonopin), phenytoin (Dilantin), valproate (Depakote),
Lancinating neurogenic pain (e.g., trigeminal neuralgia, phantom limb pain, post-trauma neurogenic pain)
Neuroleptics
Fluphenazine (Prolixin), haloperidol (Haldol), prochlorperazine (Compazine)
Refractory neurogenic pain; pain complicated by delirium or nausea (prochlorperazine)
Corticosteroid
Dexamethasone (Decadron)
Pain from neural infiltration; pain associated with bony metastases
Antihistamine
Hydroxyzine (Atarax, Vistaril)
Pain complicated by anxiety or nausea
Benzodiazepines
Alprazolam (Xanax), lorazepam (Ativan)
Pain complicated by anxiety or muscle spasm
Amphetamines
Dextroamphetamine (Dexedrine), methylphenidate (Ritalin)
For excessive opiateinduced sedation in chronic pain patients
1. Ne ur o pa t hic pa in a ge nt s inc lude a nt ico nvulsa nt s ( e. g., ga ba pe nt in, p r ega ba lin, lam ot r ig ine , c arb am a ze pi ne ) , s ys t em ic loc al anes thet ic a ge nt s— for e xam p le, 5% lid oc a ine ( Lid od er m) p at ch—a nd t r ic ycl ic ant id ep r es sa nt s— suc h a s, am itr ipt y line , no r t r ipt yl ine , a nd de sipr am ine . G a ba pe nt in a nd s ys t em ic loc al anes t het ic a ge nt s a re co ns id er e d f ir st- l ine t her a py in t r e at ing po ly ne ur o pa t hies . a. Mecha nism of act ion. ( 1) G a bape nt i n a nd pr e gab alin m a y r e lieve ne ur op at hic p ain by t he pr esyna pt ic bind i ng of t he α- 2- δ s ubunit of vo lt a ge - se ns it i ve ca lc ium channe ls .
( 2) Pr e ga ba li n m a y a ls o m o dula t e t he r elea se of the s enso r y ne ur o pe pt id e subs t anc e P . ( 3) L am ot r ig ine and ca rbam azep ine a r e b el ie ve d t o b loc k so dium c ha nne ls at t he sit e o f ect o pic d is char g e of d am a ge d ner ve s. ( 4) The us e of loc al anes t het ic s al low s f o r lo ca l p ai n r e lie f wit ho ut s yst em ic t o xic it y, sp ec if ica lly by b ind ing t o t he so dium c ha nne ls i n t he d am age d ne r ve s. ( 1) It is hypo t hes ized t ha t TC As obt ain t he ir analg e sic e ff e ct s a s a r esu lt of sod ium chan ne l b loc k ad e a t t he s it e of ect o pic d is char g e in t he pe r ip he r al ne r ve s. ( 6) Al l o f t hes e a ge nt s ar e r e com m ende d to a id in t he r e duct ion of ne ur o na l hype r exc it ab ilit y, whe t her it is pe r ip he r all y o r cent r ally. b. C li nic a l use ( 1) D at a ar e avai la b le t o give gu id a nce on wh ic h a ge nt s t o us e t o tr eat ne ur op at hic pa in, but t hey do no t p red ic t whic h a ge nt w ill pr o vide r elief f or e ac h ind iv id ua l pa t ient 's p ain. ( 2) Typ ic a ll y, a tr ea tm ent a l gor it hm m ay rec omme nd : (a ) F ir st li ne ( i) G ab ap ent in ( ii) Pr e ga ba lin ( iii) 5% lid oc a ine pa t ches ( iv) TC As ( b) S e co nd line ( i) Ot he r a nt ico nv ulsa nt s ( lam ot r ig ine or c ar bamazep ine) ( ii) O t her a nt ide pr e ss ant s ( bupr op ion, c it a lo pr am , par oxet i ne , ven la f a xine, im ipr am ine) ( c) O t her ( i) Cap s aic in, c lo nid ine P. 12 70
c. Ad ve r se ef f e ct s. t he mo st com m on ad ver s e e vent s a sso ciat e d w it h ant ic o nvu ls a nt s ar e dizz ines s, he ad ac he s, and drow si ne ss . L am ot r igi ne ha s be en as so ciat e d w it h t he de velop me nt of S t evens - Jo hns on syndr om e (SJS ). It is r ec omm ende d t ha t la m otr ig ine be t it r at ed up e ve ry 2 w eeks t o m inim ize t he oc cur r ence o f S JS. E. Misce lla neo us a g ent s 1. Ca psa ic in, a c omp onent of r ed pep per s, ca us e s t he r ele as e of s ubst anc e P fr om se ns or y ner ve f ibe r s, r es ult ing i n p r olo nge d c ut a ne ous pa in t r ansm iss io n, his t am i ne r ele as e, and er yt hem a b ec aus e o f r e f lex vas o d ilat io n. R ep eat e d loc al ap plica t io n de ple t es t he per ipher a l s ens or y C - ner ve f ibe r of subs t a nc e P , r es ult ing i n p ai n inh ib it io n. Top ic a l ca ps a ici n c r e am 0. 02 5% or 0. 075 % ha s been sho wn t o be usef ul in t r eat ing j o int pa in and t ende r ne ss in p at ient s w it h ar t hr it is. O t he r us es m a y inc lude t r eat ing dia be t ic ne ur alg ia , r ef lex s ym p at he t ic dys t r op hy, tr igem ina l ne ur a lg ia, not alg ia pa r est het ica , ps or ias is a nd ps or a le n ( P ) , and long- wa ve ult r a v io let r adiat io n ( UV A) ind uc e d sk in p a in, a nd p os t he r pe t ic neur alg ia . L oc al
t oxic it y m ay inc l ud e b ur n ing, st ing ing , e r yt hem a, p r ur it us , a nd supe rf ic ia l s k in ulc er s . 2. G luco sa m i ne sulf a te a nd c ho ndr o it in sul f a te ha ve b ee n use d wit h incr e as ing f r eq ue nc y in t he tr eatm e nt of d eg ener at ive j oint d is ea se . G luc os am ine su lf a t e ap pe ar s t o act a s a s ub str a te f or and s t im ula nt t o t he b io synt he s is o f gluco s am inog lyca ns a nd hya lur o nic a cid f o r f o rm ing p r ot e og lyca ns f o und in t he st r uct ur a l m at r ix of j oint s . C hondr o it in s ulf at e pr ov ide s ad dit io na l subs t r at es f o r t he f orm at io n o f he alt hy j o int m at r i x. S ho r t - te rm side ef fect s as soc iat ed wit h gluco s am ine i nc lude G I pr ob lem s, dr ows ines s , sk in r e act io ns , a nd he ad ac he . Fur t he r r es ear c h is nee de d t o val id at e t he ir r o le s. F. N o npharm a col ogica l pa in m a na g em e nt . Ot he r t he r ap eut ic m od alit ies f or p ain ma na gem ent inc lud e c o gnit ive be ha vior a l int er ve nt io ns a nd phys ica l m et ho ds. The s e m o da lit ies ar e a ppr opr iat e fo r int er e s t ed pa t ie nt s , p at ient s expe r ie nc ing an xiet y wit h t he ir pa in, pat ie nt s who have inco m p le t e r elief f r om a na lge s ic t he r ap y, and p at ient s who ne ed t o avoid o r r e duce analge s ic us e ( e . g., t ho s e wit h c hr onic no nm al ig na nt p ai n) . 1. Co gnit ive be ha vi or a l int e rve nt ion s inc lude ed uc a t ion a nd inst r uct ion, s im ple r ela xat io n, biof e ed ba ck , a nd hyp no s is. 2. P hysic a l m et hod s inc lude ac upu nc t ur e , p hys ic a l t her a py, comp r es s ion g love s, or t hot ic d evic es , heat a nd co ld ap pl ic at ions, m assa ge , exe r cise , res t, im m ob iliza t io n, a nd tr a ns cut ane ous e le ct r ica l ner ve st im u la t io n ( TENS ). P. 12 71
STUDY QUESTIONS D ir ect ions f or quest ions 1 - 7: E ac h of t he q ue s t ions , st at em ent s, or i nc om p le t e st at em e nt s in t h is s ec t io n c an b e corr e ct ly answ e r ed o r com plet e d b y one of t he sugg es t ed a ns wers or phr as es. C ho os e t he be st a ns we r . 1. An em a cia t ed 69- yea r- o ld m a n w it h ad va nc ed ino pe ra bl e t hr oa t ca nce r is ho spit a liz ed f or pa in m a na gem ent. He is r e ce ivi ng a m or p hine so lut io n ( 40 m g ora ll y) e ve r y 3 hr f o r pa in. H e com pla ins o f dy sp ha g ia a nd t he f r eq ue nc y w it h w hic h he m ust tak e m or phi ne . An a pp r opr ia t e a na lge sic a lter nat ive f or t hi s pat i ent w oul d be ( A) c ha ng ing t o a c o ntr o lle d- r e le as e or al m or p hi ne . (B ) incr e as ing t he do se of t he or al m or phine s o lut io n. (C ) chang ing t o int r am usc ular m et ha do ne . (D ) chang ing t o t r ansd erma l f e nt any l. (E ) de cr easing t he f r equency o f or a l m or phine a dm in is t r at ion. V ie w Answe r 1. The answe r i s D[ se e] .For q ue st io ns 2- 3: A 5 2- ye ar- o ld wom a n wit h a d iag no s is of o va r ia n c a nc er pr ese nt s wit h c om p la i nt s of pa in. H er pa in w as r ea so nab ly we l l c ont r ol led wit h t wo c apsu le s o f o xyc od one e ver y 4 hr unt i l 2 we ek s ag o, at whic h po int she w as ho sp it a lize d f o r pa in c ont r ol. S he wa s pla c ed on m ep er id ine ( 7 5 m g) ever y 3 hr but s t ill co m plained a bo ut pai n. H er m e per idi ne do sa ge was inc r ea se d t o 1 00 m g e ver y 2 hr .
2. At t his do sa ge of m ep er id ine , t he pat ie nt is lik ely t o ex peri enc e ( A) exc e llent p ain r e lie f . (B ) res p ir at or y de pr e ssio n. (C ) wors e ning r enal f unct io n. (D ) m yo clon ic se iz ur e s . (E ) exc es s ive s ed at ion. V ie w Answe r 2. The answe r i s D[ se e] .3. A n a ppro pr ia t e nex t st e p i n t hi s pat i ent ' s t hera py w ould b e t o ( A) ad d a nonst er o ida l a nt i- inf la mm at or y d r ug (NSAID ) . (B ) disc ont in ue t he m e per id ine a nd co nve r t he r t o a c o nt r o lle d - r e le as e or al mor phine o r oxyc od one. (C ) co nt inue t he pr ese nt m ep er idine d os a ge because she will eve nt ua ll y g et r elief . (D ) de cr e ase t he m ep er idi ne do se t o avo id s id e eff e ct s. (E ) c onside r hypnos is o r r ela xat io n t ec hniq ue s. V ie w Answe r 3. The answe r i s B[ se e] .4. A 20- year - o ld vict i m of a mot or ve hic le a cc ide nt i s 3 da ys po st sur ge r y f or ort hope dic a nd i nt e rna l inj ur ies. H e ha s be en in se ve r e pa in a nd w a s p la c ed on a re gim e n of int ra m usc ul a r mo rp hine (5 -1 0 m g) e ver y 4 hr a s ne ed ed f or pa in. A pa in consult a nt sta rt s t he pat i ent w it h a 20-m g int ra venous m or phine lo adi ng dose a nd t he n b eg ins a cont inuo u s int r a venous m or phine inf u si o n w i th a s- nee ded m or phine bo ost er s. About 2 hr a f t er t his r e gim en is st a rt ed, t he pa t ie nt is a sle ep. T he nur se is conce r ne d a nd ca lls t he phy si cia n. T he physici a n sho uld ( A) c all f or a psyc hia t r ic c onsu lt . (B ) adm inis t er nalo xo ne. (C ) exa m ine t he p at ient and r e c onf irm t he d os age and m o nit or i ng pa r am et ers . (D ) ad d a n inj ect ab le no nst e r oida l ant i- inf lam m at or y dr ug ( NS AID ). (E ) ad d an am p he t am ine . V ie w Answe r 4. The answe r i s C[ se e] .P.1 27 2
5. P ot ent ia l a d ve r se eff e ct s a ssoci a t e d w it h a spir in i ncl ude a ll of t he f ol low ing ex ce pt ( A) ga str oint e st i na l u lc er a t io n. (B ) rena l dys f unc t io n. (C ) enha nc e d m et ho t r exa t e t o xic it y. (D ) car diac ar r hyt hm ias . (E ) hyp er s ensit iv it y as t hm a. V ie w Answe r 5. The answe r i s D[ se e] .6. A ll of t he f ollow ing f a ct s a r e tr ue a bo ut non st e ro ida l a nt i- inf lamm at or y d r ugs (NS A ID s) exce pt w hi ch one ? ( A) They a r e a nt ipyr et ic. (B ) Ther e is a ce ili ng ef f ec t t o t he ir a na lg es ia . (C ) They c an ca use t oler a nc e. (D ) They d o not c a us e d ep ende nce . (E ) They a r e a nt i- inf la mm at or y.
V ie w Answe r 6. The answe r i s C[ se e] .7. W hi ch of t he f o llow ing na r c ot ic s ha s t he lo nge st dur a t ion of ef f ect ? ( A) m et had one (B ) c ontr ol led - r elea se m or p hi ne (C ) le vo r pha no l (D ) tr ans de rma l f ent anyl (E ) dihydr om or p ho ne V ie w Answe r 7. The answe r i s D[ se e] .D ir ect ions f o r quest ion s 8 - 10: The ques t io ns and inc o m p le t e s ta t em e nt s in t h is se c t ion c an be c orr e ct ly answe r ed or com p le t ed b y o ne or m or e of t he s ug ge st e d answe r s. C hoo se t he a ns wer, A-E . 8. Ag ent s t hat a r e sa f e t o use in a pat i ent w it h b lee ding p r obl em s i nc lud e ( I) choli ne m a gne si um tr isa lic yla t e ( II) a cet am ino phen ( III) k et or o la c A if I onl y is c orr e ct B if II I only is c o rr ect C if I a nd II ar e co rr ect D if II a nd III ar e c or r ect E if I , II, a nd III a re co rr ect V ie w Answe r 8. The answe r i s C( I, I I) [ se e] . 9. W hi ch of t he f ol low ing d rugs bind or ca pt ur e ex ce ss TN F- α? ( I) ada lim uma b ( II) et a ne r ce pt ( III) lef lunom ide A if I onl y is c orr e ct B if II I only is c o rr ect C if I a nd II ar e co rr ect D if II a nd III ar e c or r ect E if I , II, a nd III a re co rr ect V ie w Answe r 9. The answe r i s C( I, I I) [ se e] . 10. Lef lunom ide ha s bee n a ssoc ia t ed w it h ( I) dia r r hea . ( II) a l ope cia. ( III) a nem ia . A if I onl y is c orr e ct B if II I only is c o rr ect C if I a nd II ar e co rr ect D if II a nd III ar e c or r ect E if I , II, a nd III a re co rr ect V ie w Answe r 10 . T he answ er i s E ( I, II, III) [ see] .P. 1 27 3
ANSWERS AND EXPLANATIONS 1. T he a nsw er is D [ s ee II.B. 2. c .( 8) ] .
P at ient s wit h t hro at ca nc e r of t en ca nnot tak e ora l ana lge s ics . The pa t ie nt de sc r ib ed in t he ques t io n is als o ha vi ng pa in d if f ic ult ies wit h a n e ver y 3 - hr r eg im e n. Tr ans de rm a l f e nt anyl is a g oo d alt er nat ive be ca use , af t er t it r at ion, e xc el le nt ana lg es ia c an be pr o duc ed wit hout using or a l o r pa r ent era l a ge nt s. Als o, t he f r eq ue nc y of a na lg es ic us e m ay be d ecr ease d whe n t it r at ion has oc c ur re d. 2. T he a nsw er is D [ s ee II.B. 3. g ]. 3. T he a nsw er is B [ s ee II.B. 2. c .( 1) ; II.B. 2.d .( 1)] . Myo c lon ic se iz ur e s c an o cc ur aft e r f r e quent , hig h- do s e m e per id ine ow ing t o t he ac cum ulat io n of t he met a bo lit e , norm e per id ine . Bo t h o xyc od one and m epe r id ine ha ve sho r t dur at ions of eff e ct . In t he chr onic pa in pat ie nt , an aro und - t he - cloc k r eg im en, using a cont r olle d- r e lea s ed ora l m o rphine , wo uld b e a n ap pro pr ia t e alt e r nat ive . W it h t it r at ion, t he pat ie nt s ho uld ha ve go od pa in r el ief wit h an eve r y 8 t o 1 2- hr r egim e n. 4. T he a nsw er is C [ s ee II.B. 3. c ]. A pa t ie nt suf f e r ing f rom pa in ca nnot slee p p r op er ly. W hen t he pa in is a de quat e ly co nt r o lle d, t he pat ie nt m ay slee p init ia l ly f or ma ny ho ur s. Th is us ua lly is not over s ed at ion ow ing t o t he narc ot ic. Thes e p at ient s shou ld be m onit o r ed clos el y ( e.g ., r e sp ir a t or y r at e) , a nd ot he r s ed at ing dr ugs s ho uld b e e lim ina t ed . U s ua lly, no ot her int e r ve nt io n is nee de d. 5. T he a nsw er is D [ s ee II. A. 4] . Asp ir i n has s ever a l a dver s e eff e ct s a nd dr ug int er a ct ions . H owe ver, c a rdia c ar r hyt hm ia s ar e not induce d b y as pir in. 6. T he a nsw er is C [ s ee II. A. 2] . U nlik e t he o piat e s, NS AID us e is no t ass oc ia t ed wit h t he d eve lopm ent of t oler a nc e. 7. T he a nsw er is D [ s ee Ta ble 5 8- 2]. Tr ans de rm a l f e nt anyl is a c o ntr o lle d - r e le as e d os age f orm t ha t is ef f ec t ive f or up t o a 72 - hr per iod . All of t he ot he r dr ugs list e d i n t he ques t io n a r e eff ect ive f o r per io ds of 1- 8 hr . 8. T he a nsw er is C ( I, II ) [ se e I I. A. 4 .b] . U nlik e as p ir in and N S AID s, a cet am ino phen a nd cho l ine m ag ne s ium t r isa lic y la t e lac k ant ip lat e le t ef f ec ts . Ther e f ore , t hey a r e s af e t o use fo r pat ie nt s wit h b le ed ing pr o blem s. 9. T he a nsw er is C ( I, II ) [ se e I I. A. 1 ]. Ada lim um ab, et anerc ept , a nd inf lixim a b a ct by bind ing o r ca pt ur ing exce s s TN F - α, one o f t he dom ina nt c yt ok ines or pr ot eins t ha t p la y a n im po rt ant r o le in t he inf lam m at or y r es p onse . The exac t m echan is m of a c t io n o f le f lu no m ide , a no ve l d r ug us ed t o t r eat r heum a to id art hr it is , is not com plet e ly k nown b ut it is t hought t o inhib it pyr im id ine s ynt hes is . 10 . T he a nsw er is E (I , I I, II I) [ see II. A. 4. a; II. A. 4. d.( 4) ]. Le f luno m ide ha s been as soc ia t ed wit h we ight los s , d ia r r he a, na us ea , a lop ec ia , r ash, anem ia , and tr ansient e le vat io ns in liver f unct ion t est s.
59 Nutrition and the Hospitalized Patient R ober t A. Q uer c ia K evin P . K eat ing
I. NUTRITIONAL PROBLEMS IN HOSPITALIZED PATIENTS A. Inc id enc e. It has been e st im at e d t hat 30 % - 50% o f p at ient s adm itt e d t o hos pit als ha ve som e d egr e e of m alnut r it ion. As m any as 75% of p at ient s unde r go a de t er ior at ion o f nut r it io na l st a t us wh ile hos pit a l ize d. B. D ef init io ns 1. Ma lnut r it ion is a p at ho log ic a l st a t e, r es ult ing f r om a r elat ive or a bs o lut e de f ic ie nc y o r exc es s of o ne o r m ore es s ent ia l nut r ie nt s. 2. Ma ra sm us is a c hr o nic d is ea se t hat d eve lo ps over mo nt hs or ye ar s as a r es ult o f a d ef icie ncy in t ot al ca lor ic int a k e. D e plet ion of fat st or es a nd sk e let al p r ot ein oc cur s t o m e et met a bo lic nee ds . Mar a sm ic p at ien t s ar e ge ne ral ly no t hype rm et a bo lic a nd ar e ab le t o pr e ser ve t heir vis c er a l p rot e in c om pa rtm ent as de t erm ined b y m e as ur em ent s of se r um a lb um in, pr e album in, and t r ansf e rr in. a. Mar asm us is a wel l- ad ap te d f orm of m aln ut r it io n, a nd d espit e a c ac he ct ic ap pe ar a nc e, im m unoc om p et e nc e, wound hea ling, a nd t he a bilit y t o ha nd le s ho r t t erm st r es s are gener a lly we ll p r es er ve d. b. N utr it io na l supp or t in t he se pa t ie nt s s ho uld b e init ia t ed ca ut ious l y be ca us e ag gr ess ive r e plet io n ca n r es ult in se ver e met a bo lic dist ur b ance s, such a s hypo k a lem ia a nd hyp op ho sp hat em ia. 3. Kw a shior k or is a n ac ut e pr o ces s t ha t can de ve lo p wit hi n we ek s and is as so ciat e d w it h visc er a l p r ote in de plet io n and im pa ir ed im m une f unc t io n. It is t he r es ult of p oor p r ot e in int ak e w it h ad eq ua te t o s light ly inad eq ua t e c alor ic i nt ak e ; t h us pa t ient s us ua ll y a pp ea r we ll nour is he d. A h yp erm e t ab olic st a te ( e. g ., tr a um a, inf e c t io n) c om b ined wit h pr o t ein d ep r ivat ion c an r ap id ly de ve lo p int o a s eve r e k washio r k o r m alnut r it ion char a c t er ize d b y hypo a lb um ine m ia, ed em a, and im pa ir ed ce llu la r im m une f unct ion. a. In hos pit ali ze d pa t ient s , t he d evelopm ent of k was hio r k or has b ee n im p lica t ed in po or wo und he a li ng , ga str oint e st i na l ( G I) b le ed ing , a nd s epsis. b. Ag gre s sive nut r it io na l supp or t t o re plet e pr ot e in st o res a nd de cr e ase m or b id it y and m or tal it y is ind ic at ed whe n t he diag no sis o f k was hior k or is m ad e. 4. Mix ed m ara sm ic kw a shior ko r is a se ve r e f orm o f pr o te in - ca lor ie m a lnut r it io n t ha t us uall y d eve lop s whe n a m ara sm ic pat ie nt is s ubj e ct ed t o a n ac ut e hype rm et a bo lic s t res s, s uc h a s t raum a, s ur ger y, or inf e ct ion. a. This c ondit io n r e su lt s in d ep let ion of f at st o res , sk ele t al m us c le p ro t ein, a nd vis c er a l p r ote in. b. Be c ause of t he m ark e d imm une dys f unc t ion t ha t deve lo ps in t his s t at e, vig or o us nut r it io na l s upp or t is ind ic at e d.
II. NUTRITIONAL ASSESSMENT AND METABOLI C REQUIREMENTS
A. N ut r iti ona l a sses sm e nt . The m ost c omm only use d t o ols f or nut r it io na l as se ssm ent ar e a s f ollow s: 1. S ubje ct i ve glo ba l a sse ssm ent (SG A) r e lies he av ily o n t he pat ie nt ' s h is t or y. a. S G A t ak es int o a ccount : P. 12 75
( 1) R e ce nt weight c ha ng e ( 2) D iet his t or y ( 3) Typ e a nd le ng t h of s ym pt om s af f ect ing nut r it io na l st a t us ( e. g. , na use a, vom it ing, dia r r he a) ( 4) F unct io na l st at us ( 5) Met ab olic dem a nd s of t he cur r ent d is ea se pr oc es s ( 6) G ro ss p hys ica l s ig ns (a ) St at us o f s ub c ut a ne ous f at ( b) E vid e nce o f m uscle w as t ing ( c) Pr e s ence or abse nc e of e dem a a nd a sc it e s b. Pa t ie nt s ar e t he n c la ss if ied as being we ll no ur i shed or mo der at ely o r se vere ly ma lno ur is he d. 2. Mini N utr it iona l Asse ssm ent ( MN A) s im ila r t o t he SG A, valida t ed in elde r ly pa t ient s a. MN A t ak es int o ac c ount : ( 1) L os s of a pp et it e ( 2) W eight lo ss ( 3) Mo bil it y ( 4) P s ycholog ic a l/ p hys ic a l st r e ss ( 5) N e ur o- ps ycholog ic a l p r ob lem s ( 6) B MI b. Pa t ie nt is t he n as se ss e d a s be ing a t no or inc r e as ed nut r it iona l r is k. If at inc r ea s ed r is k a f ull n ut r it io na l a ss es sm ent is und er tak e n 3. V i sc era l P r ot e in Mar ker s ( VP M) can be ind ica t ors of pro t e in de ple t io n if r es ult s ar e subnorm a l. a. Most comm only us ed VP M ar e: ( 1) Alb um in ( 2) Pr e album in ( t r anst hyr et in) ( 3) Tr ansf er r in ( 4) R et ino l- b ind i ng pr ot ein 4. T ota l lym p hoc yt e c ount —a n ind ic at o r of im m une c om pe t ence —s ubnorm al le ve ls ca n b e a n ind ic at o r o f m alnut r it io n. 5. Ant hr op om orp hic s— sk in- f o ld m e as ur em ent s a. V alues < 5t h pe rc ent ile c an be ind ic a t or s of f at and p r ot ein d ep let ion b. Most c ommo nl y us ed : ( 1) Tr ic ep s ( 2) B ice ps ( 3) S ubs c ap ular
( 4) S upr a il iac 6. Mult if a ct or ia l Pr o gno st i c Indic a t ors a. P r og no st ic N utr it io na l I nde x ( P N I) is d er ive d f rom a f orm ula t ha t at t em pt s t o quant if y a pa t ient 's r isk of de ve lo ping op er at ive c om p lica t io ns ba se d on a va riet y of mark er s of nut r it io na l s t a t us inc lud ing: ( 1) V isc er a l p r ot ein m ark e rs ( 2) Ant hr op om or phic s ( 3) Im m une com pet enc e b. Pr o gnost ic Inf la m m at or y N ut r it io na l I nde x ( P IN I) is s im ilar t o t he P N I b ut a dd s t he inf lam m at or y m ark er s a lp ha 1 a cid g lyc op r ot e in and c - rea ct ive p r ot e in. 7. Bo dy com posit io n a na l ysis a s se ss es nut r it io na l s t at us by m ea sur ing and com pa r ing t he r at io s of var ious bo dy com partm ent s. a. B i oel ect ri ca l im pe da nc e. The r es is t a nc e t o a n e le ct r ica l c urr e nt is us ed t o ca lc ula t e lea n bo dy m as s. The e quip m ent is r elat i ve ly ine xpe ns ive a nd e as y t o use. The r e sult s are inac c ur a t e in c r it ica lly il l p at ie nt s a nd p at ient s w it h f lu id a nd ele ct r olyt e ab no rm al it ie s. b. D ua l- e ne r gy x- ra y a bsor pt iom et ry (DEX A) . The d if f e r ent ia l a t t e nuat io n of x- r a ys is us ed t o m ea sur e f at a nd le an bo dy m ass . The eq uipm ent is e xp e ns ive, a nd r es ult s a r e af fe ct ed by hyd r at ion st at us. c. T ota l bo dy pot a ssi um e st im at es le an bo dy m as s by using a w ho le b od y co unt e r t o m eas ur e a po t as s ium iso t op e co nc ent r at ed in le an t is sue . Th is m et hod of body com po sit io n a na lys is is im p ract ic a l and avai lab le at only a f e w c ent er s. P. 12 76
d. T ota l bod y w ate r est im a t es le an bo dy m a ss f rom de ut er ium t ot al b od y wat er me as ur em ents . Th is t e chniq ue is c lin ic a l ly im pr a ct ic al. e. In vi vo ne ut r on a ct iva t ion a na l ysi s. U nlik e ot he r t ec hniq ue s , t his a nalys is div id es t he b od y int o s ever a l c omp art me nt s. This t ec hn iq ue r eq uir es a s ig nif ic ant do se of rad iat io n and is ava i lab le at on ly a f e w r ese arc h ce nt e rs . 8. T est s of physiolo gic a l f unc t ion a t t em pt t o quant it a t e ma ln ut r it io n b as ed o n t he de cr eas e in m usc le s tr engt h c ause d by am ino ac id m ob iliza t io n. a. Ma xim um volunt a r y g ri p st r engt h is m e as ur ed wit h is ok inet ic d y na m om et r y. The r es ult s c or re la t e wel l t o t ot a l b od y pro t ein. This t es t r eq uir es p at ie nt co oper at io n. b. E l ect ri ca l st im ula t i on of t he ul na r ner ve me as ur es co nt r act ile f u nc t io n o f t he ad duct o r po ll ic is m usc le . This t e chnique d oe s no t r equ ir e vo lunt a r y p at ient e f fort and is i ne xp ens i ve and ea sy to do . It s pr og no st ic re liab ilit y is s t il l u nd er e va luat io n. B. Meta bo lic re quir em ent s 1. E ner gy r e quir em ent s ar e de term ined a s nonpr ot e in ca l or ies ( NP C s). It is im po rt ant to avo id e xce ss c alor ie s t o m inim ize co m pl ic at ions o f nut r ient de live r y a nd t o o pt im ize n ut r ie nt m eta bo lism . E ne r gy req uir em e nt s c an be de t erm ine d b y t he f ollow i ng t hr e e met hod s. a. Indir e ct ca l or im et r y or m ea sur ed ener gy e xpendit ur e ( MEE) is t he m ost ac cur ate m et ho d of d ete rm ini ng c alo r ic r eq uir em ent s .
( 1) O xyge n ( O 2 ) c ons um pt ion a nd ca r bo n d io xide (C O 2 ) p rod uc t io n a r e me as ur ed dir e ct ly. ( 2) E ner g y expe nd it ur e is r ela t e d d ir ect ly t o o xyge n co ns um pt io n a nd is c alc u lat ed f r om t hes e m ea sur em e nt s. ( 3) A r es pir at or y q uot ie nt (RQ ) c an also be obt a ine d f r om a n ME E a nd is de f ined as t he r at io o f t he am ount of C O 2 pr oduce d t o t hat of O 2 co ns um ed d ur ing t he c our s e of o xida t io n of b od y f ue ls . The o xida t io n of c ar b ohydr a te r e s ult s in a n R Q of 1. 0 —t hat is, as m uc h CO 2 is pro duc ed as O 2 is c onsum ed. T he oxid at io n of f at p rod uc e s sig nif ic ant ly le ss CO 2 a nd r e sult s in an R Q of 0. 7. N orm al m ixed sub str a te oxid at ion r es ult s i n a n R Q of 0. 8 -0.9 . ( 4) The pr o vis io n of e xce ss c ar b ohydr a t e c alor ies ca use s t he ir c onve r sion t o fat ( lip og enes is ) . Lipo ge ne sis p r od uce s s ig nif ic ant ly m or e c arb on dio xid e t han o xid at ion do es . Th is c an r es ult in an RQ > 1. 0, wh ic h is co ns is t ent wit h o ver f e ed ing. The de t erm inat io n of RQ c an, t here f or e, ind ica t e pa tt er ns of s ubst r at e use . b. E st im at ed e ne r gy ex pe ndi t ur e (EEE) f ir st r equir es t he calcu la t io n o f t he ba sa l ene r gy ex pe nd it ur e (BEE) f rom t he H a rr is- B enedi ct e qua t io n; t he B EE is t he n m ult ip lied by a pp r opr iat e str es s and ac t iv it y f a ctor s . ( 1) Me n: BE E = 66. 5 + [ 1 3. 8 × weight (k g) ] + [ 5 × he ig ht (cm )] - [ 6. 8 × ag e ( ye ars )] ( 2) W om en: BE E = 65 5 + [ 9. 6 × weight (k g) ] + [ 1.8 × heig ht ( cm )] - [ 4.7 × age ( ye ar s) ] ( 3) St r e ss f a ct or s: unc om p lic at e d sur ger y 1. 0 0- 1. 05, per it onit is 1 . 05- 1.2 5, and se ps is or m ult ip le t r a um a 1. 2 5- 1 .5 ( 4) Act ivit y f a ct or s: b edr es t 0. 95- 1. 10 and am bula t io n 1 . 10 - 1. 30 c. S imp le nom o gram . The le as t acc ur a te m et hod of es t im at ing c alor ic r eq uir e m ent s , t his t ec hn iq ue is ba se d on t he p at ie nt 's weight in k ilo gr a ms . It is us ef u l whe n t he o t he r m et ho ds canno t be use d. Pat ient s wit h m ild t o m od er at e de gr ees of st re s s r equir e ap pr o xim at e ly 25 - 30 k ca l/ k g/ da y, w he r ea s t he se ver e ly st re ss ed pat ient ( e. g. , a p at ient wit h m aj or b ur ns ) m ay r eq uir e 3 5 k cal/ k g/ da y or mor e. 2. P rot ein ( ni t ro ge n) r e qui rem ent s c an be det erm ined by a num ber of tec hn iq ue s, but nit r og en ba la nc e de t erm inat ions and nom o gr am s a pp ea r to be t he m o st pr a ct ica l. a. N it ro ge n ba la nc e t echniq ue s. The pr a c t it io ne r det erm ine s t he p at ie nt 's nit r og en out put and de ve lo ps a nut r it io na l s upp or t pr ogr am in w h ic h t he pr o tei n a dm inis t e r ed r es ult s i n a nit r og en input t hat e xce ed s los s es. ( 1) N it r og en ba la nc e = 2 4- hr nit r og en int ak e - 24 -hr n it r o ge n out put . ( 2) A 24- hr nit r o ge n i nt a ke = 24- hr t ot a l p r ot e in int ak e ÷ 6. 25 (ap pr o xim ate ly 16 % of pr ot ein is c om pos ed of nit r og en) . ( 3) A 24- hr nit r o ge n o ut put = [ 24 - hr ur ine ur ea nit r og en (UUN) × 1 . 25 + 2, wher e 1. 2 5 a cc o unt s for non- UUN los se s ( e.g ., am m onia , cr e at ini ne ) and 2 acc ount s f or no n- ur ine n it r og en lo s se s ( e. g. , sk in, fe c es). To t al ur ina r y nit r og en ( TUN ) de t erm inat io ns P. 12 77 ar e cur r ent ly a va ila b le in s om e ce nt ers . B eca us e TU N is a m or e a cc ur at e m et hod o f
as se ss ing ur inar y n it r o ge n los se s, it s ho uld b e us ed whe n avai lab le in pla c e o f a 24 - hr UU N × 1 .2 5 when c alc u lat i ng a nit r o ge n ba lanc e. ( 4) A po sit ive n it r o ge n b ala nce of 3- 6 g is t he go al. ( 5) This m et ho d c annot b e us ed in r enall y im pa ir ed p at ient s. b. N omo gra m met ho d. This m e t ho d e s t im at e s pro t ein ne ed s b as ed o n lea n b od y weig ht . Pr ot ein r e qu ir em e nt s a re 1. 5- 2. 0 g pr ot ein/k g/ da y f o r hos pit al ize d pa t ie nt s . c. No np ro t ei n ca lo ri e t o nit r o gen (NPC : N) ra t io. An NPC :N r at io of 1 25- 15 0: 1 ge ne r all y has b ee n r ec om m ende d f or t he m ild ly t o m o der ate ly s t r es sed pa t ie nt t o ac hie ve o pt im a l nit r o ge n r et e nt ion and pr o t ein s ynt hes is . In t he s evere ly st r es se d pa t ient , s ome st ud ie s i nd ic at e t hat r at io s as lo w as 8 5: 1 m ay b e e ff ect ive . 3. E ssent ia l f a tt y ac ids (E FA s) a r e t ho se po ly un sa t ur at e d f att y a cids t hat c annot be synt he si ze d b y hum ans. E FAs a ff ect im m une re sp onse s by inf lue nc ing ener g y pr o duct ion, eico sa noid s ynt he s is, and c ell m embrane f lu id it y. The y also af fect le ve ls of a r ac hido nic a cid i n l ym p ho cyt es — espe cial ly mo noc yt e s , m ac rop ha ge s , and po lym or phonuc le ar ne ut r o ph ils (P MNs ). L ino le ic ac id , a n om eg a- 6 po ly unsa t ur at e d f att y a cid (P U FA) , is t he pr i nc ip al E FA f or hum a ns . α -Lino le n ic ac id , a n om eg a- 3 PU FA, also c anno t be s ynt hes ized in vi vo ; it s m et ab olic s ig nif ic ance in hum ans co nt i nues t o be in ve st iga t ed . It m ight b e a c ondit i ona l ly es se nt ia l f att y a cid. a. De f ic ie nc y st a t es o f linole ic a c id a r e char act er ize d b y d ia r r he a, d erma t it is, and ha ir lo ss . b. The cur r ent ly a va ila b le lip id em uls io ns have a h ig h li no le ic a c id c ont e nt . c. P r ovid ing 4%- 7 % of a p at ient 's ca lo r ic r eq uir em ent s as li no le ic ac id f rom l ip id em uls io n pr e ve nt s t he de ve lo pm ent of e ssent ia l f a t t y ac id de f ic ie nc y. 4. V itam ins a r e e sse nt ia l f or p rop er s ubs t rat e m et ab olis m . Ac ce pt e d d ai ly allowa nc es f or or a l a dm inis t r a t io n ha ve be en est ablis hed . T he FD A r e ce nt ly a ppr oved a new m ul t ivit a m in pr epara t i on f or ad ult s r ec ei vi ng p a rent era l nut r it io n (P N ). a. V itam in A (f at so lub le) . No rm al st or es c a n las t up t o 1 ye ar b ut ar e rap id ly de ple t ed b y s tr e ss. V it am in A ha s e s se nt ia l f unct i ons in v is io n, gr o wt h, and r ep rod uc t io n. R ec omm end ed or a l int a ke is 25 00 - 50 00 IU / da y. T he r ec omm ended re quir em ent is 33 00 IU /da y in PN f orm ulat io ns. b. V itam in D (f at so lub le) . In c onj unc t io n w it h p ar a t horm one and c alcit on in, vit am in D he lp s r e gula t e c a lc ium a nd phos p ho r ous hom e os t a sis. R ec omm e nd ed or a l int a k e is 10 0- 4 00 IU / day. T he PN r eq uir em ent is 2 00 IU/ da y. c. V itam in E (f at s olub le) a pp ea rs t o f unct ion as a n a nt io xid a nt , in hib it ing t he o xida t io n of fr e e unsa t ur a t e d f att y ac id s . Rec omme nd ed d aily o r al a l low ance s a r e 12 - 15 IU / day. T he re quir em ent in PN f orm ulat ions is 10 IU/ da y. The p r ese nc e of po lyu nsa t ur a t ed f att y ac id s inc r ea s es t he re quir e me nt f or vit am in E , whic h ne ed s t o be co ns id er e d w it h t he us e of lip id syst em PN. d. V itam in K (f at so lub le) p lays an es s ent ia l r o le in t he synt he s is o f c lo t t ing f a c t or s. The s ug ge st ed or a l int a ke is 0. 7 -2 . 0 m g/ da y. T he r e comm e nde d P N r eq uir eme nt i s 15 0 µ g/da y. e. V itam in B 1 (t hia m ine; wa ter s olub le ) f unc t io ns as a co enzym e in t he phos phog luco na t e p at hwa y and a s a s tr uc t ur al com po ne nt of ner vo us sys tem mem br a ne s. The d eve lopm ent of it s def ic ie nc y st a t e ( i. e ., a cut e p er nic io us b er ib er i
wit h hig h out put c ar d ia c fa il ur e ) is wel l d es cr ibe d i n p at ient s on PN re ce iv ing ina de quat e t hia m ine r ep la cem ent . A pr o longe d de f ic ienc y s t at e c an c ause W er nic k e ence pha lop at hy. R ec om m e nd ed dose s are 0. 5 m g/ 10 00 ora l c a lor ies / da y and 6 mg /da y in PN f orm ula t ions. f . V ita mi n B 2 ( r ib of la vin; wa t er s o lub le ) f unc t io ns as a coenz ym e in o xid at ive phos phor y la t io n. E ss ent ia lly, no int r a ce ll ula r s t ore s ar e m aint a ine d. O ral r eq uir e m ent s ar e 1. 3 -1 . 7 m g/ da y. T he r equi rem ent in P N f orm ulat io ns i s 3 . 6 mg /da y. g. V itam in B 3 ( nia cin; wat er s o lub le ) f unc t io ns as a co enzym e in o xid at ive phos phor y la t io n a nd bios ynt het ic p at hwa ys . P e lla gr a is t he w ell - de sc r ib ed de f ic ie nc y s t a t e. Or a l r e quir em ent s ar e 14 .5 - 1 9. 8 m g/ da y. T he r e comm ende d P N re quir em ent is 40 m g/ day . h. V itam in B 5 ( pa nt ot henic a ci d; wat er so lub le ) . T he f unc t io na l f o rm of vit am in B 5 is co enzym e A, whic h is e ss e nt ia l t o a ll a c ylat io n re act ions. O ra l r e quir em ent s ar e 5- 1 0 m g /da y. Int r a venous ( IV ) re quir em e nts ar e 10 - 2 9 mg /d ay. i. V ita m in B 6 ( p yr id ox ine ; wa ter s olub le ) f unc t io ns as a co enzym e in a var iet y o f enzym at ic p at hwa ys . De f ic ie nc y st a t es a r e a cce nt ua t ed by som e m ed ic at ions, inc lud ing P. 12 78 iso niaz id , pe nic i lla m ine , a nd cyc los e r ine . Or a l r e qu ir em e nt s a r e 1. 5 - 2.0 m g/ d ay. T he r ec om m ende d PN re quir em e nt is 6. 0 m g/ day . j . V ita m in B 7 (b iot i n; wat er so lub le ) f unc t io ns in ca r bo xylat ion r ea ct ions. It is synt he s ize d b y i nt e s t ina l f lor a ; t here f or e, d ef icie n cy s t at e s ar e r ar e. T he re quir em ent in PN f orm ulat io ns i s 60 µg / da y. k. V itam in B 9 (f oli c a cid; wat er s olub le ) is in vo lv ed in a var iet y o f bios ynt het ic r ea ct ions a nd am ino ac id c onve r sio ns. Folat e cofa ct or s ar e nec es s ar y f or pur ine and p yr im id ine ( DN A) s ynt hes is . St or e s us ua lly la st 3 - 6 m ont hs ; howe ver , r a pid de ple t io n is s e en wit h m et a bo lic s t r ess . D ef ic ie nc y of vit am in B 1 2 ca use s d ef ic ienc y in f ola t e . A m e ga lob la st ic a nem ia is clas s ic in t he def ic ie nc y st at e. D ef icie ncy o f f olic a c id in a p r eg na nt m ot he r c an c ause ne ur a l t ub e d ef ect s in t he f et us . Or al r eq uir e m ent s ar e 20 0- 4 00 µ g/d ay. T he re comme nd ed r equir em e nt in PN f orm ula t ions is 6 00 µg/ da y. l. V ita m in B 1 2 ( c ya no co ba lam in; wat e r s olub le) ha s a var ie t y of met a bo lic and bio sy nt he t ic f unc t io ns . B e ca us e of lar g e st o r es , def icie ncy s t at e s ca n t ak e ye ars t o de ve lo p. Me ga lob la st ic ( per nic io us ) a nem ia is o ne m anif e s t at ion of de f ic ienc y. Ano t her m anif e s t at ion of de f ic ie nc y is p er ipher a l neur op at hy be ca us e B 1 2 is r es po ns ib le f or b io sy nt he s is o f t he ins ulat io n shee t o n ner ves c alled m yeli n. O r a l r eq uir e m ent s ar e 2 µ g/ da y. T he req uir em e nt i n PN f orm ula t ions i s 5 . 0 µ g/ day . 5. T ra ce m inera l def icie nc y m a y de ve lo p d ur i ng PN b ec aus e of r ed uce d int a k e , inc r ea s ed us e, de cr e as ed p lasm a bind i ng , or incr e as ed exc r et ion. a. Ir o n is nec es s ar y f or hem og lo bin a nd m yo glo bi n p r od uc t ion and is a nec es sar y co f ac t or in a var iet y o f enzym a t ic r ea ct ions . D ef icie ncy is c la ss ic al ly de m onst ra t ed by a hypo chr om ic , m ic ro cyt ic a nem ia a s wel l a s by t he de velo pm e nt of im m une
de f ic ie nc y. O ra l r e quir e m ents ar e 16 - 18 m g/d ay. IV r eq uir em e nt s ar e 0 .5 - 1. 0 mg/ d ay. b. Z inc is ne ce s sa r y f or D N A a nd RN A s ynt hes is a nd is a nec e ss ar y c of a ct or in a va r ie t y o f e nzym at ic r e act io ns . Zinc d ef ic ie nc y r es ult s in im pa ir ed wo und he a li ng , gr o wt h r et a rda t io n, hair lo ss , d erm a t it is , d ia r r he a, a no r exia , a nd gluc os e int o le r ance . Pa t ie nt s at high r is k f or d ev e lop ing z inc de f ic ie nc y a r e t ho se wit h lo ng t erm st ero id t her a py, m alab so r pt ion s yndr om es, f ist ula s, s e ps is , and maj o r s ur g er y. Or al r e quir e m ent s ar e 10- 15 m g/ da y. IV r equ ir em e nt s ar e 3 . 0- 5. 0 m g/ da y. c. Co pp er is nec es s ar y fo r hem e s ynt hes is , e lec t ro n t r a ns p or t, and wo und he ali ng . D ef icie nc y t hat d eve lop s dur ing PN us ua lly m anif e st s as anem ia , le uk o pe nia , a nd ne ut r o pe nia. O r a l r equ ir em e nt s ar e 30 µg/k g/ d ay. Int ra veno us r eq uir e m e nt s a re 0. 5- 1.5 m g/ da y. d. Ma nga ne se is in vo lved in pr o te in s ynt he s is a nd po ss ib ly g l uc os e us e. Or al r eq uir e m ent s ar e 0. 7 -2 2 m g/ da y. Int ra ve nou s r e quir em ent s a re 150 -3 00 µg/ da y. e. S ele ni um is im por tant in a nt io xid a nt r eact ions . D ef icienc y d ur ing P N has be en as so ciat e d w it h m us cle p ai n a nd c ar d iom yop at hy. Int ra ve no us r eq uir em ent s ar e 4 060 µg / da y. f . Iod ine is a com po ne nt of t he t hyr oid hor m o ne s. D ef icienc y m anif e s t s as a goit er . R ecom m e nd ed int ak e is 1 µ g/k g/ da y. g. C hr om ium is im p ort ant in gl uc os e us e a nd pote nt iat e s t he eff ect of ins u lin. S igns of d ef icienc y inc l ud e h ype r glyc em ia an d ab no rm al gluc os e t o le r ance . O r a l r eq uir e m ent s ar e 70- 80 µg/ d ay. Int r ave no us ( IV) m a int ena nc e r e quir em e nt s a re 0. 1 4- 0. 2 µ g/ k g/ da y ( 10- 15 µg/ d ay). S ugge st e d I V r eq uir eme nt s f or d ef ic ie nc y a nd se ve r e gl uc o se int ole r a nc e ar e 15 0- 2 00 µg /da y. h. Mol ybd enum is e ss ent ia l t o xant hi ne o xid as e. O ral r eq uir e m ent s ar e 2. 0 µg/ kg /da y.
III. METHODS OF SUPPORT A. PN is als o ca lle d t ota l pa re nt e ra l nut r it io n (T PN) a nd hy pe ra lime nta t ion. It is us ed t o me et t he p at ient 's nut r it iona l r eq uir e m ent s whe n t he ent era l r o ut e c anno t ac com plish t h is . 1. Indic at i ons. W he n t he ent era l r o ut e c anno t b e use d be ca us e o f d ysf unc t io n o r dis ea s e st at es ( e. g. , a c ut e pa ncr e at it is , inf la mm at or y bowe l d is ea se , c om p le t e bo wel ob str uc t ion) , P N is inst it ut e d. 2. Init ia t ion of PN s ho uld b e und er t ak en wit h in 1- 3 da ys in m o der at e ly t o se ve rely ma lno ur is he d p at ient s whe n t he inad eq ua cy o f ent er al s upp or t is a nt ic ipa t ed f or mor e t ha n 5 - 7 P. 12 79 da ys . In he alt hy o r m ild ly m alno ur is he d pa t ient s , PN s hou ld be in it ia t ed wit hin 5 - 7 da ys if e nt era l s up po r t has no t b ee n init iat e d. 3. Ro ut e s of a dm inist r at io n a. A ce ntra l ve no us ro ut e is us e d wit h h ype r t onic PN f orm ulat ions ( i. e. , de xt r o s e co nc ent r at ions > 10%) . Mo st comm only, de xt r os e c o nc ent r at ions of 2 5% a r e us ed ce nt r a lly, a nd t he o sm o la r it y exc ee ds 20 00 m Osm / L. S uc h h ig hl y o sm o la r so lut io ns
m ust be inf us e d int o a lar g e- d iam et er ce nt r al ve in (e. g. , s up er ior vena ca va ) , wher e t he y a r e r ap idl y d il ut e d b y hig h f lo w r at e s. b. A p er ip he r a l venou s r out e ca n b e us ed whe n t he de xt r os e c o nc ent rat ion is 1 0% or le s s. ( 1) S o lut io ns w it h 1 0% d ext r os e, am ino ac id s, e le ct ro lyt e s, a nd t ra ce m iner a ls ha ve a re sult i ng osm olar it y o f 90 0- 1 000 m Osm /L . H ig he r o sm o lar it y is as so c iat e d wit h a hig he r inc ide nc e o f t hr om b op hleb it is . ( 2) The m aj or r e ason f or us e of t he ce ntr a l veno u s PN r at her t han t he p er ipher a l r out e is t he de ve lo pm e nt of t hr om b op hleb it is . Mai nt a in ing t he o smo la lit y o f t he pe r ipher a l P N so lut io n < 90 0 mOsm /k g a nd p r ef erab ly be t we en 60 0 a nd 8 00 mOsm /k g wit h int r aveno us l ip id em uls io n adm inist e r ed c oncur r ent ly o ve r 24 hr m inim ize s t he inc ide nc e o f t hr om b op hleb it is . Also , t he d evelopm ent of ne w pe r ipher a l f i ne bo r e c at he t er s m a de fr om p olyur et ha ne or s ilico ne has be en s ho wn t o be sign if ic ant ly le s s t hr om b ogenic . In ad dit io n, t he us e of low - d os e hep ar in ( 1 un it /m L) and hydr oc o rt is one ( 5 m g/ L) d eli ve r ed in t he P N so lut io ns has be en s ho wn t o p r ot e ct ag ains t t hr om bop hleb it is . ( 3) G ly ce ryl tri nit r a te p at c he s ( 5 m g ), when ap pl ie d o ve r t he ar ea wher e t he t ip o f t he cat het e r is exp ec t ed t o lie , have b ee n shown to sign if ica nt ly r e duc e p er ip her a l PN inf us io n f ail ur e c ause d b y phleb it is. W it h t he us e o f t his ne w c at het er t echno lo gy and new t ec hn iq ue s f o r inf us io n, it is now f ea sibl e to adm in is t er p er ipher a l PN in se lec t e d p at ient s f or s hort -t erm t her a py ( 7 -10 da ys ) wit h a lo w inc ide nc e of pe r ipher a l ve i n t hr om b op hleb it is . 4. NP C so ur c es a. De xtr o se m ono hy dr a t e is t he form o f de xt r ose us ed f o r par ent er a l adm inist r a t io n. I t yie lds 3. 4 k ca l/ g . It is t he com po ne nt in PN f orm ulas t ha t co nt r ibut es t he m ost to osmo la r it y. It is availab le com m er c ia lly in co nc e nt r a t io ns up t o 7 0% . b. Int ra venous lip id s ar e c omm erc ia lly a va ila b le a s 1 0% or 20% em uls io ns de r ived f r om s oybe an o il ( I nt r a lip id ) or a c om bina t io n o f soybe an o il a nd s aff lowe r oil ( Lip os yn I I ) . ( 1) B ot h t he 10% and 20 % em ulsio ns a r e is ot o nic ( 2 80 and 3 40 m Osm /L, r es pect ive ly) and ca n b e adm inist e r ed via t he pe r ip he r al ve in w it h a low inc id ence of p hleb it is ; t hes e em ulsio ns pr o vide 1. 1 and 2.0 kc a l/ m L, r espe ct ive ly. T he y co nt a in 1. 2% eg g yo lk phos phol ip ids as t he em ulsif yi ng ag ent a nd 2.2 5% - 2. 5% glyc er o l t o m ak e t he em uls io ns is os m ot ic. ( 2) L ipid em uls io ns c an b e g iven as p art o f t he d ai ly N PC re quir e m ent or 2 - 3 t im es pe r week to pr eve nt es se nt ial f at t y acid d ef icie ncy. B o t h t ype s o f lip id em uls io n co nt a in pa rt ic le s o f 0. 4-0 . 5 µm , wh ic h p r eve nt s t he use of 0. 22 µm bact er ial r ete nt io n f ilt er s . 5. P rot ein ( ni t ro ge n) sourc e. S ynt he t ic cr y sta lline a m ino a cid s ar e cur r ent ly us ed as t he nit r o ge n s o ur c e in P N f orm ula t io ns . a. T he se f orm ula t ions a r e a va ila ble comme rcia lly w it ho ut e lec tr oly tes a nd dex tr ose i n c onc ent r at io ns of 5. 5% (T ra va sol) , 8. 5% (T ra va sol) , 10% ( Am i nosy n II, T ra va so l) , 1 5% . ( Am inosy n II, C li ni so l) a nd 20% (Pr osol) . b. The se f o rm ula t io ns y ie ld 4 k ca l/ g .
c. The se solut io ns g ener a lly c ont ai n a m ixt ur e of f r ee ess ent ia l a nd no ne s se nt ia l L am ino a cids . d. Sp ec ia lize d am ino a cid f o rm ula t io ns a r e a va ila b le f or s pecif ic dise as e st at es. 6. S yst em s of PN a. G luco se sy ste m PN ( 1) D ef ini t ion. The g luco se s ys t em PN is a par ent er al f orm ulat ion in whic h de xt r os e is us ed exc lus ive l y as t he NP C so ur c e. N it r o ge n is pr o vide d a s cr yst all ine am i no ac ids . E lec t ro lyt es , vit am ins , a nd t ra ce m iner a ls ar e ad de d t o t he f orm ulat ion a s ne ed ed . P. 12 80
( 2) Adm i nist ra t io n. The gl uc os e s yst em PN formu la t ions us ua lly have de xt r o se co nc ent r at ions of 2 5% o r gr eat er a nd m ust b e adm inist e r ed by t he c e ntr a l veno us r out e. The s e f orm ulat io ns a r e a ls o r e fe rr ed to as t wo - in- o ne f o rm ula t io ns b ec ause t he de xt r os e a nd am ino ac id s ar e us ua ll y m ixe d in o ne co nt ainer w it h elec t r olyt e s , vit am ins, and t ra c e m iner a ls . (a ) B e cause of t he hig h de xt r os e co nc ent r a t ion, in it ia l adm inist r a t io n s ho u ld b e at low ho ur ly r a t es ( e. g., 50 m L/ hr ) a nd incr e as ed g rad ua lly ove r 24 hr t o a vo id hype r glyc em ia ( > 20 0 m g/ dL) . ( b) To a vo id r ea ct ive h yp og lyce m ia ( < 7 0 m g/ dL ), d is co nt i nuat io n shou ld be gr ad ua l over s eve ral ho ur s . ( c) L ipid em uls io ns s ho uld b e a dm inist e r ed f or esse nt ia l f a tt y a cid r ep la cem e nt in a d ose t ha t pr o vide s 4% - 7% of r e quir ed c alor ie s as lino le ic a c id. This c a n b e ac com plished b y t he adm inist r at io n o f 2 50 m L of 2 0% o r 500 m L of 10 % em uls io n, t wo t o t hr ee t im e s week ly. b. L ipid sy st em PN ( 1) D ef ini t ion. The l ip i d s yst em PN is a par e nt er al f orm ula t io n in wh ic h lip id is adm inist e r ed da ily t o p rovid e a subs t a nt ial pr o po rt io n o f t he NP C. N it r og en is pr o vide d a s c r ysta ll ine am ino ac id s. E le ctr o ly t e s, v it am ins, and t ra ce m iner a ls ar e ad de d t o t he f orm ulat ion as nee de d. ( 2) Adm i nist ra t io n. The lip id sys t em P N is adm inis t er e d p er ipher a lly whe n t he de xt r o se conce nt r at ion is le ss t han or equal t o 10% and c ent ral ly whe n t he de xt r os e co nc ent r at ion is m or e t han 1 0%. (a ) P i ggy ba ck m et hod. The s ol ut ion w it h am i no ac id s, d ext r o se, e le ct r o lyt es , tr a ce m ine r als, a nd vit am ins is inf use d c onc ur r e nt l y wit h a s ep ar at e bot t le of lip id em uls io n t hr o ug h a Y sit e o n t he int r avenous adm inist r a t io n se t . ( b) T ota l nut r ie nt a dm ixt ur e ( TN A) met ho d— t hre e- in- o ne , al l- in- one. Lip id s, am ino ac ids , d ext r o se, e lec t r o lyt es , tr ace m iner a ls , and vit am ins ar e m ixed in one co nt a iner a nd adm inis t er e d b y t he cent r al or p er ipher a l r o ut e , d ep ending on de xt r o se conce nt r at ion. ( i) Adva nta g es inc l ud e s im pl if ica t io n o f adm inis t r at ion and d ec r e as ed tr aini ng t im e f or hom e PN p at ient s .
( ii) D isa d va nta ges inc lud e t he inab ilit y t o ins pe ct f or p ar t icu la t e m a tt er in t he op aq ue adm ixt ur e , t he ina b il it y t o us e 0. 22 - µm bact er ia l r e t ent io n f i lt e r s, a nd st a bilit y p r ob lem s. ( iii) B e ca use t he pr esence of lip id em u ls ion in TN As ob sc ur e t he pr esenc e of a pr e cip it a t e and m a y pr ese nt a lif e - t hr eat e ning ha za r d t o p at ient s, t he U .S . Fo od and Dr ug Adm i nist r a t io n ( FD A) s ug ge st s t ha t t he p ig gyba ck m et ho d b e us ed t o adm inist e r lip id em uls ion. If a TN A is d eem ed m ed ic a ll y ne ce ss ar y, t hen s pe cif ic adm i xt ur e gu ide li ne s r e com m ende d b y t he FD A sho uld b e f o llo we d. Als o, a pa rt ic le f ilt e r ( i. e . , 1. 2 µ) s ho uld b e us ed wit h TN A adm in ist rat ion. ( c) L ipid do sa ge ( i) Lip id c alo r ie s shou ld no t exc ee d 6 0% o f t o tal da ily c alor ie s, inc lud i ng pr o tein ca lor ies . ( ii) Maxim um do sa ge of lip id s f or adu lt s is 2. 5 g/kg / d ay. ( iii) B a se li ne and w eek ly s er um t r ig lyce r id es m us t b e m o nit or e d in p at ient s on lip id syst em PN . ( 3) Ad ve r se ef f ect s of lip id s a r e uncom mo n. The m o st fr eq ue nt ad ve rse e ff ect s inc lude f eve r, c hil ls , se ns a t io n o f warmt h, c hest pain, b ack p ain, vom it ing, and ur t ica r ia ( over a ll inc id e nce < 1% ). S e ve r e hypo xe m ia ha s b ee n r ep or te d w it h r ap id inf us io n o f lip id em uls ion. 7. Ad dit ive s a. E l ect roly t es. PN f orm ulat io ns m us t inc l ud e a de quat e amo unt s of so dium , ma gnes ium , c alc ium , c hlo r id e, p ot as sium , p ho s phor us, and a cet at e. The int r a c ell ula r “ a na bo lic ” elec t ro lyt es —p ot ass ium , m ag nes ium , and p ho sp ha t e—ar e es se nt ia l f or pr ot ein s ynt hes is . R eq uir em e nt s vary wid e l y, de pe nd ing o n a pat ie nt 's f lui d a nd e lec t r o lyt e los se s; r enal, he pa t ic , a nd endo c r ine s t at us ; ac id - ba se ba la nce ; m et ab olic r at e; a nd t yp e of P N fo rm ula use d. The elec t r o lyt e c om p os it ion of t he PN fo rm ula m ust be adj us te d t o m eet t he ne ed s o f t he i nd iv id ua l pa t ie nt . b. V itam ins a nd t ra ce m ine ra ls. V it am ins ar e us ua ll y a dd ed t o PN s o lut io ns in t he f orm P. 12 81 of c omm e rcia ll y a va ilab le m ult i vit am in p re par at io ns . C ur r ent ly, t her e is a new ad ult m ult ip le v it a m in i nf us io n f or m ula avai la b le ( Inf uv it e Ad ult , MV I- Ad ult ) t hat m e et s t he r ec ent ly am e nd ed r eq uir em e nt s o f t he FD A f or adult p ar e nt er al m ult ivit am ins . ( 1) The ne w FD A req uir em e nts ar e b ased o n t he pr io r m ult iv it am i n f orm ulat ion r ec omm ende d by t he N utr it io n Ad viso r y Gr o up o f t he D e par tm ent of Fo od s and N ut r it io n o f t he Am er ic an Med ic a l As so ciat ion ( N AG - AMA) but wit h inc r ea se d do sa ges of vit a m ins B 1 , B 6 , C, and f o lic a cid a nd t he a dd it ion of vit am in K. ( 2) The FD A als o ap pr o ve d t he sam e m ult ivit am in f orm ula t io n w it ho ut vit am in K ( MV I- 12; m ult iv it a m in inf us ion w it ho ut v it am in K ) fo r t hos e p at ient s who r ec e ive war fa r in- t yp e ant ic oa gu la nt t her apy. B ec ause of st ab ilit y p r ob lem s, o ne via l of Inf u vit e Ad u lt a nd MV I- Adu lt c ont ai ns v it am ins A, D, E, B 1 , B 2 , B 3 , B 5 , B 6 , and K . MV I- 12 cont ai ns t he s am e vit am ins in one v ia l w it ho ut vit am in K. The s ec ond via l f o r bo t h pr ep ar at io ns c ont ai ns v it a m ins B 1 2 , b io t in, and f olic a c id.
( 3) Tr ac e m ine r als m ay be add ed ind i vid ua ll y o r as a c omm er c ia lly a va ila b le m ult ie le m ent p rep ara t io n. P r ec is e r e quir em e nt s f or t ra c e m iner a ls have ye t t o b e de t erm ined . c. Insu li n ma y be r eq uir ed f or pat ie nt s r ece iv ing PN f orm ulat ions ( es pe ciall y gluco s e s yst em PN) t o m aint a in bloo d g luco se le v els < 20 0 m g / dL . If ins ul in is r eq uir e d, it is b est p r ovid ed by t he a dd it io n of a n ap p r opr iat e am o unt o f r eg ular ins ul in t o t he PN f orm ulat io n at t he t im e of a dm ixt ur e. Alt ho ugh a sm a ll a m ount of ins ul in ( 5- 1 0 U pe r bag) m a y be ad so r be d t o t he co nt ainer a nd t ubing , s uc h los se s ca n b e o ver c om e by a ppr opr ia t e t it r at ion of t he do s e. The ad dit io n o f ins uli n t o t he PN f orm ula t io n ha s t he ad va nt a ge of chang es in t he r a te of PN inf us io n b eing aut om at ic all y a c com pa nie d by ap pr o pr iat e c ha ng es in t he r a te of ins uli n i nf us io n. d. Misce lla neo us dr ug s. A num b er of m ed ic at ion s ha ve be en s uc ce ssf ully a dm ixe d wit h PN fo rm ulat ions f o r c ont in uo us inf us io n. The H 2 - r ece pt or a nt a go nist s a r e t he mo st comm on dr ugs use d in t his wa y. The r o ut i ne ad dit io n o f m ed ic at ions t o P N f orm ulat ions r em ains c ont r ove rs ia l b ec aus e of: ( 1) Q uest ion s o f sta bili t y o ve r t he wide r ange o f PN c omp onent c onc ent r at ions ( 2) P o ssib le t he ra p euti c ina d eq ua c y or t o xic it y se c onda r y t o PN rat e c ha ng es and los s of p eak and t rough le ve ls ( 3) Incr e as ed pot e nt ia l f or w a st e wit h d os e change s 8. Com plicat io ns w it h t he us e o f PN c a n b e s er ious and p ote n t ia l ly lif e - t hr eat ening but ca n be avoide d b y car ef ul m a na gem ent . C om plica t io ns c an be divide d i nt o me cha nic a l, inf ec t ious, a nd m et ab olic. a. Mecha nica l c om pl ic at io ns g ener a lly r e la t e t o the c e nt r a l veno us ca t he te r or it s pla ce m ent a nd inc lud e p ne um ot ho r ax, c at het er o cc lus ion, a nd ve no us t hr om b os is . b. Inf ect ious c om p lic a t io ns us ua lly a r e r e la t ed t o t he c ent r al ve nous c at he t er. This liner e lat ed se ps is is s ec onda r y t o m ult ip le c at hete r m anip ulat io ns, c ont am ina t io n dur ing inse r t io n, or c ont am ina t io n d ur ing r o ut ine m a int ena nce . H ype r glyc em ia a nd IV lip id s also ha ve b ee n im p lic a t ed . Maint a in ing b loo d s uga r s < 200 mg/ d L has bee n shown t o sign if ic a nt ly r e duce s ept ic com pl ic at ions in c er t a in s ub se t s of p at ient s . c. Meta b olic c om pl ic at ions a r e t he m ost c om m on. The se inc l ud e hype r glyc em ia , hypo glyc em ia , hyp ok alem ia , hyp om a gnes em ia, hy po phos phat em ia , m et abo lic ac ido s is , r es pir ato r y ac id os is , pr er enal azo t em ia , a nd zi nc de f ic ie nc y. A t r a ns ie nt se lf - lim it ed hep at ic d ys f unc t io n is a ls o se en wit h lo ng - t erm P N. B. E nt era l nut ri t ion (EN ). U se of t he G I tr a ct t o ac hie ve t o t al nut r it iona l supp or t or pa rt ia l s up po r t in co m bina t io n wit h t he pa r ent er a l r o ut e s ho uld b e at t empt e d whe ne ve r po s sible in t he f a ce of inad eq ua t e or a l int ak e. Theo r et ica l a dva nt a ge s inc lude m aint e na nc e o f norm a l d ige s t io n, a bs or pt io n, and g ut m uc os al bar r ie r f unct io n. 1. Co nt ra ind ica t ions t o EN inc lude c om plet e int e st ina l o bs t r uc t io n, hig h- o ut put int e s t ina l f ist ula s , se vere ac ut e p ancr e at it is , s ever e a cut e inf lam m at or y bo we l dis ea s e, a nd s ever e diar r hea . 2. Ro ut e s of a dm inist r at io n. Tub e f eedings c an be a dm inis t er e d via nas og as tr ic , na so duod ena l, na soj ej una l, g as tr os t om y, a nd j ej uno st om y t ub es . 3. E N f orm ula t ions ca n b e c la s sif ied as b eing st a nda r d ( c om p le t e) or m od ular .
a. S ta nda r d f orm ula s ge ne r ally c o nt a in ca r bo hyd r a te s, f at s , vit am ins, t r ac e m ine r als, a nd a nit r og en so ur c e. They a r e f ur t her c la ss if ied ac c ord ing t o t he ir nit r o ge n so ur c e. P. 12 82
( 1) Monom eri c f o rm ulas co nt ain c r ys t a lline am ino a cids a s t he ir nit r og en s our ce. The s e f orm ulas ar e us uall y ma rk et ed c omm er ciall y f or s pe c if ic ind ica t io ns ( e. g., ile us , pa ncr e at it is , he pa t ic c om a ). ( 2) S hor t- c ha i n p ept i de f orm ula s c ont a in d ip ep t id es and tr ip ep t id es fr om hydr o lyze d p r ot ein o r de no vo s ynt hes is as t heir nit r og en so ur c e. They a r e c ur r e nt ly mark et e d f or t he m et ab olic a ll y st r ess e d p at ient . ( 3) P o lyme r ic f orm ulas c ont ain e it her i nt a ct pr ot ei ns or pr ot ein h yd r ol ys at es as t he ir n it r o ge n s our ce. Most pat ie nt s c an be m anag ed wit h t hes e f orm ula s. b. Mod ula r f orm ula s co ns is t o f se par at e m o dule s o f spe cif ic nut r ie nt s t hat ca n b e com b ined or adm inist e r ed s ep ar a tely. They ar e us e d f or s up plem ent a l use or t o cust om des ign a n E N f orm ula t o meet a s pec if ic c lin ic a l s it ua t io n. ( 1) Ca r bohyd ra te m od ules dif f er in t he t ype of c ar bo hydr a t e pr e se nt ( e. g. , po lys a cc ha r id es , d is ac char ide s, mo no s ac char ide s) . ( 2) P ro t ein m od ules c ont ain e it her int a ct pr ot ein, h yd r ol yze d p r ot e in, or cr yst all ine am ino a cids . ( 3) Fat m odule s c ont a in e it her long- c ha in t r ig lyce r id es ( LC Ts ) pr e par ed fr om ve ge t ab le oi ls or m e dium - chai n t rigl yc er ide s ( MCTs ) pre pa red fr om co co nut o il. MC Ts ar e m or e wat er s olub le and m or e e as il y a bs o r bed t han L C Ts . (B ypa ssing t he int e s t ina l lac t ea l a nd lym phat ic syst em , MC Ts ar e tr ansp ort ed dir ect ly t o t he po rt a l syst em .) MC Ts ar e, ho weve r, r elat i ve ly e xpe ns ive and c ont a in no es se nt ia l f at t y ac ids . 4. Com plicat io ns. The t wo m o st c om m on com pli ca t io ns o f EN ar e dia r r he a a nd im pr ope r t ube pla c em ent. a. D iar r hea in p at ient s r eceivi ng E N is usua l ly se c onda r y t o c oncom it a nt adm inist r a t io n o f m ed ic at ion ( e. g., ant ib iot ics a nd sor bit ol- co nt a in ing liqu ids ) . Inf e ct ious ca us es s ho uld b e e lim i na t ed ( e. g., C lost ri di u m di ff ic il e) , af ter whic h ant id iar r hea l m e dic a t ions m ay be b enef icia l. R ed uc ing t he r at e or co nc ent r at ion m ay als o be ef f ect ive. b. A f ee ding t ub e imp r ope r ly pla ce d int o t he tr acheo br o nc h ia l t r ee c an ha ve dis as t r o us conse quenc es . Tube f e ed ings shou ld ne ver b e init iat e d wit hout r ad iolog ic a l ve r if ic at ion o f t ub e po sit ion. c. Aspira t ion
IV. MONITORING SUPPORT A. PN. In a dd it ion t o a ppr o pr ia t e ge ne r al m e dica l a nd nur s ing c ar e, p at ie nt s r ec eiv ing PN in it ia ll y r e qu ir e da ily a nd week ly lab or at o r y m o nit or ing t o a s se ss nut r it io na l p r og r es s and m e tab ol ic st at us. 1. E l ect roly t es
a. Init ia ll y, pota ssium , sod ium , a nd chlor id e s hou ld be det erm ine d dail y. P ot a ssium is use d int r a ce llu la r ly; t hus hyp ok alem ia is no t a n unc omm o n f ind ing. b. Ca lci um , m ag ne si um, and p ho sp ha t e are p r im ar i ly int r ac el lular e le ct r o lyt es , se r um leve ls o f whic h b ec om e de plet e d d uring pr o t e in sy nt he s is . S er um leve ls ge ne r all y d o no t f all a s r a pidl y a s pot as sium ; t he ref or e, m o nit or i ng t wo t o t hr ee t im es a week is r ec omm e nd ed in it ia lly u nt i l t he p at ient is s t ab ili ze d, t he n we ek ly t he r eaf t er . c. B i ca rb onat e shou ld be m onit o r ed t o ass ess acid - ba se ba la nc e. H yp erc hlor e m ic met a bo lic ac id os is m ay d evelop in pa t ie nt s o n PN . Th is im ba la nc e ca n b e cor r ec te d by pr o vid i ng t he pot a ss ium and s odium as ace tat e (c onver t e d to b ic ar b onate in t he se r um ) r at he r t han as t he c hlor ide sa lt . Aft e r in it ia l c or r ect ion, p rovis io n o f one ha lf t he so dium a nd pot a ss ium r eq uir em ent s as t he acet at e sa lt a nd one ha lf a s t he ch lor ide s alt m a y be be ne f ic ia l. 2. S er um g luc ose s ho uld b e m o nit or e d d ai ly, pa rt ic u lar l y i n c ent r a l g luc os e syst em s . Maint a in ing a blo od gl uc os e co nc entr a t io n b et w ee n 100 - 20 0 m g/ dL is ge ne r all y r e c omm ende d. 3. W ei ght s o bt a ined on a d ai ly or e ver y ot he r da y ba sis t r ack o pt im um le an b od y weig ht ga in of 0. 2 5- 0 .50 lb / da y. W e ig ht g ai n i n e xc e ss of 0. 5 lb / d ay ge ne r ally ind ic at e s f lu id o ver lo ad o r f at de posit io n. 4. V i sc era l pr ot eins ( e . g. , album in, pr e alb um in, t ra nsf er r in) ar e im p ort a nt ind ic at o r s of t he ad eq ua cy of nut r it io na l supp or t . P. 12 83
a. Al bum in is us ef ul in t he in it ia l a ss es sme nt of nut r it io na l s t a t us , b ut it s lo ng ha lf lif e ( 18 -21 d ays) l im it s it s ut ilit y as a s hort -t e rm m ark er of nut r it io na l r e plet ion. b. Pr ea lb um in ha s a s ho r t half - lif e ( 2- 3 da ys) a nd is a m or e se nsit ive a nd ea r ly ind ic at o r of t he a de quac y of nut r it io na l s up po r t. It s s er um value is f alse ly ele vat e d in r e na l f a il ur e . c. T ra nsf err in has an int erm e diat e ha lf - l if e ( 7- 10 d ays ) , whic h m ak es week ly mo nit or i ng us ef ul. Tr a ns f err in m a y be f alse ly ele v at e d in ir on - de f ic ie nc y s t at es. d. Re t ino l- bindi ng p r ot ei n has an ult r a -s hort hal f - lif e ( 1 2 hr s ). Va lue s ar e af f ect ed by inj ur y a nd m et abo lic s tr es s. 5. S er um c r ea t inine a nd bl ood ur e a nit r oge n (BUN ) s ho uld b e o bt ained a t le as t week ly. E vide nc e o f r e na l im p airm ent m ay r eq uir e mo dif ic at io n of t he PN f orm ula. E le va t io n o f t he B UN in t he a bs enc e of r ena l im pair m e nt ma y be s econda r y t o t he PN f orm ula ( e. g. , exce s s nit r o ge n, low NPC :N rat io) a nd ap pr o pr iat e adj ust me nt s ne ed t o b e m ad e. 6. L ive r f unct io n t e st s—a sp ar t at e am ino t r ansf era se ( AS T) , a lan ine am inot r a ns f e ras e ( ALT) , alk a line phos phat a s e, lac t at e d ehyd r og enas e ( LDH ) , and bil ir ub in—r e quir e ba se line a nd p er io dic m o nit or i ng be ca us e of p ot ent ia l t o xic it y f r om t he PN f orm ulat io n ( i. e . , fa tt y inf ilt r a t io n o f t he l iv er ). Abnorm a l li ve r f unc t io n st udies m ay nec essit at e c ha ng es in t he P N f orm ula t io n. 7. S er um tr ig lyc er id es s ho uld b e m e as ur e d f or a ba se li ne and w eek ly t her e af t er f o r pa t ient s on lip id s ys t em PN. It is no t ne c essar y t o mo nit or t r ig lyc e r ide s on a we ek ly
ba sis f or pat ie nt s r e ce iv ing l ip i ds t wo to t hr e e t im es p er we ek f o r ess ent ia l f a tt y ac id r ep lac em e nt . 8. A 24- hr UUN shou ld be obt aine d w eek ly t o d ete rm ine n it r og en b ala nce f or pa t ient s in w ho m nit r og en r e quir em e nt s a re unc e rt ain. T he se ar e usual ly hig hl y st re ss ed, s eve rely i ll, o r inj ur ed pa t ie nt s in a n int e ns ive c ar e unit ( ICU ) s ett ing . 9. S er um ir o n leve ls s ho uld b e o bt ained we ek ly t o det erm ine de f ic ie nc y a nd t o allow a pp r op r ia t e int e r pr et a t io n o f s er um t ransf er rin le ve ls . B. EN g ene ra ll y r e quir e s les s int ense la bo r at or y m onit o ri ng . S p ec if ic lab or a t or y gu ide lines f or m onit o r ing EN supp ort va r y fr om ins t it ut io n t o ins t it ut io n.
V. SUPPORT OF SPECIFIC STATES A. C ondit i ona lly esse nt ia l nut r ient s 1. G lutam ine. B ec ause of it s ins t ab ilit y, glut am ine is cur r ent ly not a com p onent o f com mer c ial ly ava i lab le st anda r d P N am ino ac id so lut io ns and is f ound in f r ee f orm in r e la t ive l y f e w E N f orm ula s. A r elat i ve de f ic ie nc y ha s b ee n shown t o oc c ur in cr it ic a l i llnes s. It is k no wn t o b e us ed as a pr im ary f uel s o ur c e b y ent ero cyt e s a nd ma y exer t a t ro phic e f f ec t o n t he gut m uco sa. It is m o st wid ely use d a s a P N com po ne nt f or b one m a rr ow tr ansp la nt p at ient s and shor t g ut syndr ome . G lut a m ine co nt a in ing d ipe pt ide s t ha t ar e st ab le and hig hl y s ol ub le ar e b e ing i nves t ig at e d as a so ur c e o f g lut am ine in P N . At pr ese nt , glut a m ine m ust b e a dd ed t o t he PN so lut io n at t he t im e of c om p ound ing. I nc r ea si ng ev id enc e s up po r ts glut am ine supp le m e nt a t io n in cr it ic a l i llnes s, ho weve r opt im um r o ut e, t im ing a nd do s ing have ye t to be de f in it ive ly de t erm ine d. 2. Ar g inine ha s b ee n s hown e xp er im e nt a lly a nd cl inica lly t o enhance im m une f unct io n. EN f orm ulas e nr ic hed wit h a rg in ine a r e a va ilab le c omm er cial ly. R ece nt ly t he eff ic ac y o f e xo ge no us ly a dm in is t er e d ar g ini ne t o s ubs et s of c r it ic a l ly ill pa t ie nt s ha s c om e int o ques t io n. Op t im um do sing in ot her pa t ie nt p op ulat ions is s t il l unde t erm ined . 3. Ant iox ida nt f o rm ula t ions. O xid a nt pro duc t io n o cc ur s a s pa rt of t he norm al inf lam m at or y r es p onse and ha s b ee n im plica t e d in r e pe rf us io n i nj u r y. The b od y als o pr o duce s a nt io xid a nt d efe ns es t o lim it oxid ant d am a ge t o he alt hy t is s ue . Thes e de f ense s rely o n a de quat e int a k e of die t a r y nut r ient s , s uc h a s t he s ulf ur - c ont ai ning am ino a cids , vit a m in E , vit am in C , se le ni um , a nd zi nc . S e ver a l inves t ig at o r s bel ie ve pr o vis io n of t hes e nut r ie nt s s ho uld b e a n ea r ly pr io r it y in c r it ic al ly ill pa t ie nt s . Opt im um dos es r em a in co nt r o ver s ia l. 4. T yr osine, c yst eine, and ta ur ine a r e e it her abse nt or pr es ent in lo w co nc ent r at ions in com mer c ial ly ava i la b le P N f ormulas . The y a r e b el ie ve d t o b e co nd it io na lly e ss ent ia l am ino a cids by s om e in ve st iga t or s. P. 12 84
5. Om e ga- 3 p oly unsa t urat e d f a t ty a ci ds ar e derived f r om f is h o ils a nd ar e cur r ent ly f o und in s om e EN f orm ulat ions. The s e fa t t y ac id s ha ve be en s ho wn e xpe r im ent ally t o enha nc e im m une r esp ons e, pr ote c t ag ains t t um or g rowt h, a nd inh ib it s om e of t he pr o inf la mm at or y e ff ect s of ome ga - 6 f att y a cids . In ad dit io n, t he y
ha ve be en s ho wn t o lowe r car diovas c ular r is k f acto r s by de cr e asing p la t e let ac t ivat io n, lo wer i ng bloo d p r es sur e, and r ed uc ing t r iglyc er id es . H o we ve r, we llco nt r o lle d cli nica l t r ia ls in hum ans are ne ed ed t o co nf ir m t he b enef icia l e f f e ct s of im m unom od ulat io n s ee n in a nim a l m o de ls. B. N ut r iti ona l sup por t f o r rena l f a ilure . The go al of nut r it io na l s up po r t in a cut e r enal f ail ur e ( AR F) is to me et t he pat ient 's NPC re qu ir em ent s whi le m inim i zing vo lum e, p rot e in lo ad , and p ot ent ia l elec t r o lyt e imb ala nce . 1. P N f orm ula t ions us ed in AR F ar e lo w- nit r og en, high- c a lo r ic de ns it y f o rm ulas ( e.g ., 2 % am ino a cid/ 4 7% d ext r o se ), r es ult ing in NPC:N r at io s of a ppr oxim at ely 50 0: 1. 2. Com mer cia l r e na l f a il ur e f orm ula t ions ( e . g. , N ep hr Am ine , R e nAm in, Am ino s yn R F) , c ont a ini ng pr im ar ily e s se nt ia l am ino a cids , have s hown no c lin ic a l ad va nt a ge over les s e xpe ns ive, low- c o nc ent r at ion s t anda r d am ino a cid f o rm ulat ions. 3. S ta nda r d gluco se sy st e m f orm ula t ions ( 4 . 25% am ino ac id / 25 % de xt r os e) c a n ge ne r all y b e us ed in r enal f ai lur e p at ient s w ho are be ing d ia ly ze d o n a r e gula r ba sis . This f o rm ulat ion is pa rt ic ular ly use f ul in se ver e ly m a lno ur is he d p at ient s be ca us e it can pr o vide ad eq ua t e pr ot ein t o a tt ain p os it i ve n it r og en b ala nc e , which is no t po ss ib le wit h r e na l f a ilur e P N. 4. Mo nit or ing tra nsf er r in is a m o re s e ns it ive and a cc ur at e vis ce r al pr o t ein m a rker com pa r ed t o alb um in a nd pr e album in f or ass ess in g nut r it io na l p r og r es s in t he se pa t ient s . 5. E nt era l f o rm ulat io ns t hat a re low in n it r o ge n and c alor ie d ense ( 1. 7 -2 . 0 NPC/m L ) ar e ava ila b le f o r pa t ie nt s wit h r e na l f a il ur e . C. N ut r iti ona l sup por t f o r he pa ti c f a ilure . P at ie nt s wit h he pa t ic f ai lur e have alt e r ed pr ot e in m et abo lis m , r esu lt ing in de cr e as ed s er um leve ls of br anc he d - c ha in am ino a cids ( i. e . , leuc i ne , is ole uc ine , va line ) and i nc r ea se d levels of ar om a t ic am ino a cids ( i. e . , p he ny la la nine, t yr o s ine , tr ypt opha n) , m et hio n ine, a nd glut am ine. A s im ila r am ino ac id pr of ile c an exis t i n t he c e r ebr os pina l f lu id ( CS F) and is t ho ug ht t o c ont r ib ut e to he pat ic e nc ep ha lo pa t hy. F luid a nd elec t ro lyt e d is t ur b anc es are f r eq ue nt ly a s so ciat e d wit h he pa t ic f ailur e a s w ell. 1. P N f orm ula t ions enr ic he d in b r anched - chai n a m ino a cids (36 %) and low in ar omat ic am ino ac id s ( e. g ., H e pat Am ine ) im pr o ve m ent a l s t at us in pa t ie nt s wit h alt e r ed s er um am ino ac id pro f ile s and hep at ic ence pha lop at hy. Howe ver , st udies ha ve no t d em o ns t r at e d def in it ive cli nica l d if f e rence s in m o r bidit y a nd m ort a lit y w it h t he se exp ens i ve f or m ula t io ns com pa red t o st andar d f orm ulas . 2. Ad eq ua t e NP C wit h a 20- 40 g/ da y pr ot ein lo ad ( e. g. , 2% am ino ac id / 25 % de xt r o se ) is a n a lt e r na t ive ap pr o ac h t o t he us e o f hep at ic f a ilur e am ino a c id f orm ulat ions. P r ot ein lo ad c an be lib er a li ze d s lo w ly as lo ng a s m e nt a l s ta t us doe s no t det er ior at e. 3. E N f orm ula t ions (e. g ., H e pat ic - Aid II) e nr ic hed wit h b r anched - c ha in am ino a c ids and low in a r om at ic am ino ac id s a r e c omm er cial ly avai lab le f or pat ie nt s wit h hep at ic f ail ur e . D. N ut r iti ona l sup por t f o r respir a t ory fa ilur e. The t ype and am ount of s ubs tr at e adm inist e r ed as NP C can ha ve a n e f fect o n a p at ient 's vent ila t or y s t at us . Ove rf ee ding wit h r es ult a nt l ipo ge nes is and i nc r ea se d ca rbo n d io xide pr o duct ion c an
be a c aus e o f r e sp ir at or y ac id os is a nd / or inc r ea sed m inut e ve nt i la t io n a nd , t he r efo r e, shou ld be avo ide d. E ven in t he pre s ence of ap pro pr iat e am o unt s of N PC adm inist e r ed as c ar b ohydr a t e, t he no rm al ca rbo n dio xi de lo ad ge ne r at ed by glyc o lys is m ay be exc es s ive f o r t he p at ient wit h u nd e r ly ing pu lm onar y dys f unc t io n— f or e xam ple, c hr onic ob str uc t ive p ulm o nar y dise as e (COPD ). 1. P N lipi d syst em f orm ulat io ns ( e. g. , 4. 25% ami no ac id / 15 % de xt r os e wit h da ily lip id em uls io n) , whe r e t he lip id c om po ne nt co ns t it ut e s 40%- 5 0% of t he t ot a l NPC , ma y be be ne f ic ia l in r ed ucing t he vent ila t or y d em a nd s i n r e sp ir a tor y f a ilur e pat ie nt s be ca us e lip o lys is ge ne r at es les s ca rbo n dio xide t han g l yc ol ys is . 2. E N f orm ula t ions co nt a in ing s im ila r am o unt s of f at ca n b e pr e par ed f r om st a nd ar d EN f orm ula s wit h t he use of lip id m od ule s ( i. e . , MC T oil, cor n oil) . More exp ens ive com mer c ial pu lm ona ry f orm ulas ar e a lso a va ila b l e. P. 12 85
3. Ox epa, a lo w- c ar b ohyd r at e e nt er al f or m ula co nt ain ing a nt io xid a nt s , eic os a pe nt a enoic a c id, and γ - lino le n ic ac id , is c ur r e nt ly a va il ab le f or adu lt r es pir a to r y d is t res s syndr om e ( ARDS ). It m od ulat e s t he phos phol ip id f a t t y acid com po sit io n o f inf la mm a tor y c ell m em b r anes, decr ea s es t he s ynt hes is of t he pr o inf lam m at or y eico s ano id s of lung i nj ur y, and att e nuat e s endot oxin - induce d inc r ea s es in pu lm onar y m ic ro va sc ular p r ot ein p er m ea bilit y. L im it e d st udies ha ve shown s om e im pr o vem ent in c ar d io pu lm onar y hem od ynam ics a nd res pir at or y ga s e xcha nge in AR DS . E. N ut rit iona l sup por t f o r ca r dia c f a ilur e. The go al in t he s e p at ient s is t o m e et met a bo lic ne ed s whi le r es tr ic t ing f luid a nd so di um int a k e . 1. P N f orm ula t ions t ha t pr o vide p r ot e in and c alor ies in as high a co nc ent r at io n a s po ss ib le is t he go al of nut r it io na l t he r ap y. This c a n b e a cc omp lished w it h b ot h ce nt r a l g luco se or lip id sys t em PN f orm ula t io ns ( e. g ., 5% am ino ac id/ 35% de xt r o se; 7% am ino ac id / 21 % de xt r os e/ 2 0% l ip id em uls io n) . 2. S er um e lec tr oly t e mo nit o ri ng and a dj ust m ent ar e im per at ive in c a r dia c f ailur e pa t ient s r ec e ivi ng PN , par t ic ula r ly whe n po t ent d iur et ic s ar e use d c onc ur r e nt ly. 3. E N f orm ula t ions wit h high nut r ie nt d ens it y ar e ava ila b le f o r ora l s up p lem e nt a t io n or t ube f e ed ing s . Inf us io n o f ent er al t ub e f ee dings s ho uld b eg in at o ne t hir d t o one ha lf t he st re ng t h, wit h a gr ad ual i nc r ea s e in c once nt r at io n, whi le m a int ai ni ng a s lo w inf us io n r a t e (3 0-5 0 mL/ hr ) t o avoid r a pid inc re ase s in f l uid lo ad , c ar d ia c o ut put, he ar t r at e, and m yoc ar dia l o xyg en co ns um pt io n. F. N utr it iona l sup po rt i n pa ncr ea t it is. S e ve re ac ut e pa ncre at it is is a hype r cat ab olic st at e t hat wit ho ut nut r it io na l s upp or t re nd er s t he pa t ie nt a po or sur gica l c and id at e a nd at incr e as ed r is k of inf e ct ion. The go al of nut r it io na l s up po r t in s e ve r e a cut e pa nc re at it is is t o r es t t he p ancr e as b y l im it ing e xoc r ine s t im ula t io n while p r ov id ing a de quat e nut r it ion. 1. P N is ge ne r ally f avo r ed over EN t o ac hie ve t his g oa l in t he e ar ly phas es of pa nc r ea t it is. L ip id sys t em P N ha s be en show n t o be s af e a nd eff ect ive w he n adm inist e r ed t o t he s e p at ient s, pr o vide d t her e is no c onc ur r e nt hype r lip ide m ia ; in f act , it m ay be val ua b le in t he p at ient wit h r e ca lc it r a nt hype r glyc em ia .
2. E N, using chem ic al ly de f ined ( elem e nt a l) , low - fa t f orm ulas adm inist e r ed int o t he j ej unum , r e sult s in m in im al pa nc r ea t ic st im u lat io n and ha s bee n us ed saf e ly in t he se pa t ient s . G. N ut r it io na l supp or t in st r e ss/ cr it i ca l ca r e. In hype rm et a bo lic c r it ic al ly ill pa t ient s , alt er a t io ns in s ub st r at e us e, t he develop me nt of c o nd it io na l n ut r ie nt de f ic ie nc ies , a nd m od ulat io n of t he im m une r e spons e p r ovid e t he rat iona le f o r sp ec if ic n ut r it io na l f o rm ula t io ns . 1. In cr it ica l il lne ss , br anc he d- c ha in am ino ac ids ( i. e. , iso le uc ine, le uc ine , va li ne ) ar e r ele as e d fr om sk e le t al m us cle f or pr ot e in synt he s is a nd as a n e ne r gy s ub st r at e. PN f orm ula t io ns e nr ic hed in br a nc he d - c ha in am ino ac id s ( 4 5% )— for exam p le, Fr eAm ine H BC , B r a nc hAm in, Am ino s yn - H BC— ha ve b ee n m a de avai la b le wit h t he r at io na le t hat , b eing t he pr efe rr ed f uel so ur c e in this p at ient po pula t io n, it wo uld enha nc e p r ot ein s ynt he s is, de cr e as e pr ot ein c at ab olism , a nd im pr ove t he pat ie nt 's cli nica l o ut c om e. H o wever , t he se m o re e xp ens ive b ranched - cha in a m ino a cid f orm ulat ions ha ve no t b ee n s hown t o f avor ably i nf l ue nc e c li nic a l out c om es in cr it ic a ll y i ll p at ient s. 2. E nt er al f orm ula t ions ar e curr e nt ly b e ing pr o duce d ( e.g ., Im p ac t, Pe r at ive) wit h va r io us am o unt s of t he co nd it iona ll y e s se nt ia l n ut r ient s of cr it ic al i llnes s and im m unom od ulat o r y subs tr a tes ( e. g. , om e ga - 3 p olyu ns at ur a t ed f at t y ac id s, ar ginine , glut am ine ) . C li nic a l s t ud ie s o f t he a bilit y o f t he s e f o rm ulas t o im pr o ve o utc ome s in cr it ic a l i llnes s ha ve be en m ixed . 3. Hy pe rgly cem ia a nd insul in r e si st a nce are c omm on o cc urr e nce s in c r it ica lly il l pa t ient s . R ece nt da ta invo lvi ng m ec ha nica lly ve nt ila t ed p at ient s in t he sur gica l int e ns ive ca r e unit who r e ce ived int ens ive ins uli n t her a py to m aint a in b loo d g luco se le ve ls b et wee n 80 and 1 10 m g/ dL showe d a s ig nif ic a nt r ed uc t io n i n m o rt alit y w hen com pa r ed t o mo r e co nve nt io na l t her a py o f m aint a in ing b loo d gluco s e leve ls b et we en 18 0 a nd 20 0 mg / dL. The gr e at est r e duct ion in m or t a lit y wa s as soc iat e d wit h de at hs ca us ed by m ult ip le or g an fa ilur e wit h a p r oven s ep t ic f oc us. The s e d at a po int o ut t he im po rt a nc e of st r iv ing f o r a t ig ht g luco s e c ontr o l in c r it ic a l ly ill pa t ie nt s on PN while a vo id ing t he c om plica t io ns of hypo gl yc em ia. P. 12 86
4. The rm al inj ur y is one of t he m ost hyp erm et ab olic co nd it io ns o bs er ved in t he cr it ic a l c a re s et t ing . a. Met ho ds f or est im at ing t he ca lo r ie r eq uir em ents in t his p at ient p op ula t io n ar e co nf l ic t ing o w ing t o dif f er e nce s in b ia s a nd p r ec is io n. O ne of t he m or e a c cur at e unb ia se d me t hod s re por t ed f or est im at ing ener g y re quir e m ent s in t he rm al inj ur y is K ca l = ( 10 00 k ca l × BS A) + ( 2 5 × %BS AB ) whe r e B S A is b od y sur f ac e ar ea a nd BS AB is b ody sur f ac e ar e a b ur ned . b. Pr ot e in r eq uir em ent s in t he rm ally i nj ur e d p at ient s are high at 2 -2. 5 g/k g/ d ay be ca us e of t he sign if ic a nt d egr ee of ca t ab ol is m as so ciat e d wit h t his i nj ur y. c. The incr e as ed d erm a l lo ss e s of nit r og en fr om the ir b ur n wo unds r e nd er s t he use of t he co nve nt io na l n it r o ge n b alance f o rm ula s les s acc ur a t e in a ss e ss ing n it r o ge n r eq uir e m ent s es pe cial ly w it h t he rm al inj ur ies > 4 0% o f BS A. The UUN p lus t he
ins ens ib le los s f ac t or ca n d if f er s ig nif ica nt l y f r om t o tal nit r og en lo ss e s in t h is pa t ient p op ulat ion. H. N ut r iti ona l sup por t in pr egna nc y. N ut r it io na l s up po r t in p r eg na nc y ca n ha ve a sig nif ic ant a ff ect o n f et a l o ut c om e. W eight ga in t hr o ug ho ut pr e gnancy is t he pr im a r y ind ic at o r of t he a de quac y of t he nut r it iona l s t a t e of m ot he r and child . A weig ht ga in of 1 1.5 - 16 . 0 k g s ho uld b e t he de sir ed goal in wom e n wit h no rm a l p r ep r eg na nc y bo dy ma ss ind e x. PN and E N ha ve b ot h be en use d s ucc es sf ul ly dur ing p re gna nc y, wit h bo t h m o da lit ies dem onst r at ing ad eq ua t e mat er na l we ig ht g ai n, a ppr opr ia t e f et a l gr o wt h, and t erm de li ve r y. The c alor ie s r eq uire d to a chie ve a pp r opr ia t e we ig ht g ain t hr o ug ho ut t he ent ir e pr egnanc y p er t he W or ld Healt h O r g anizat io n r ec omm enda t io ns a r e a n ad dit iona l 30 0 k c al/ da y a bo ve t he e s t im at ed ba sa l e ne r gy e xpe nd it ur e ( b ased o n t he pr e gr a vid we ig ht ) d ur ing al l t r im e st er s. The r ec omm ende d da ily p r ot e in int ak e d ur ing a norm al p r eg na nc y is ap pr o xim at e ly 1 g/k g/ d ay. This am ount rep r es ent s t he no rm al r ecomm e nd ed dail y a llo wa nc e f or f em a les p lus a n a dd it iona l 10 g/ d ay. In pr eg na nt p at ient s wit h m od er at e t o s eve r e st re ss, b ot h c alor ie s and p r ot e in r eq uir em e nt s nee d t o b e a dj ust ed in t he s am e ma nner as fo r ot her hype rm et abo lic nonpr e gna nt pa t ie nt s. 1. P N gluc os e syst em a nd lip id sys t em f orm ulat io ns c an b ot h be use d s ucc ess f ul ly t o m eet t he nut r ie nt re quir em ent s of pr eg nant pa t ie nt s . P N is m ost c om m o nly use d dur ing p re gna nc y i n p at ient s wit h s ever e hyp er emes is gr a vida r um . 2. E ss ent ia l f a t t y ac id s (E FAs) ar e r e quir e d b y bot h m ot her a nd fe t us . The y a r e ne ce ss ar y f o r pr ost ag la nd in sy nt he s is a nd no rm al f et a l l ip id d eve lopm ent . The pr o vis io n of a t le as t 4 . 5- 7. 0% of c alor ie r e quir eme nt s a s E FAs has b ee n e st im at ed t o m eet t he m inim um r e quir em e nt s d ur ing pr e gnanc y. 3. The da ily vita m in r e qui rem ent s i n a no rm al pre gnanc y b as ed o n t he 1 99 9 die t ar y r ef er e nc e int ak es (DR I ) ca n b e me t wit h t he par ent era l v it am in inf us io n Inf u vit e Ad u lt a nd MV I- Adu lt . If MV I- 12 is use d a s t he par e nt er al vit am in pr e par at ion, an ad dit io na l 6 5 ug o f vit am in K ne ed s t o b e ad ded t o t he dai ly PN f orm ulat ion t o m eet t he dail y DR I r e quir em e nt s . 4. P r ea lbum in ap pe ars t o be t he p r ef er r ed b ioc hem ic al m ark er t o a ss e ss pr ot e in st at us in p r eg na nc y be ca us e alb um i n is f a ls e ly d ep r ess ed and t r ansf err in is f a ls e ly ele va t e d in p r eg na nt p at ient s . 5. E N m ay be use f ul dur ing p r eg na ncy f o r pa t ie nt s wit h les s s e ve r e hype r em es is gr a vida r um . The com po sit io n o f po lym er ic f orm ulas s ho uld b e a de quat e f o r m eet ing t he nut r it iona l r eq uir em ent s of mo st pr egnant p at ient s. 6. B loo d g luco s e le ve ls s ho uld b e k e pt a t a ppr oxim at ely 1 00 m g/ dL dur ing p r olo ng ed co nt i nuous P N or EN inf us io n be ca us e chr on ic all y e le vat e d m a ter nal gl uc os e leve ls ca n r e sult in f eta l a no m alies , inc re as e d r isk of m is ca rr ia ge s, a nd st illb ir t h. I. N ut r it i ona l sup por t in inf lamm ato ry bow el disea se ( IBD ). IBD is a ss ociat e d wit h weig ht lo ss , hyp oa lb um inem ia, a nem ia , elec tr olyt e im b alance , and vit am in/ m iner a l d ef ic ie nc ie s ( e spe ciall y z inc ) 1. P N ha s no r ole a s pr im ar y t he r ap y 2. P N ha s a r o le wit h hig h out p ut f ist u la e 3. P olym er ic a nd e lem e nt a l e nt er al fo rm ula s seem e qual ly t oler a t ed. P. 12 87
J. N utr it iona l suppo r t in sho r t bow e l syndr om e (SBS) . A lo s s of bowe l f r om r es ec t io n o r dysf unc t io n c an r es ult in r e duce d abso r pt ion of f luid, e le ct r olyt e s, ma cr o a nd m ic r onut r ient s. S pe c if ic d ef icie nc ie s are relat e d t o t he r e gions of los t ab so rpt ion ( e.g ., f re e wate r a nd ir o n d ef icie ncy a r e a ss oc ia t ed wit h j ej una l los s, vit am in B 1 2, b ile s alt and f at s olub le vit am in d ef ic ie nc y ar e ass oc ia t ed wit h i lea l los s ) . C om p lica t io ns inc lud e d ehyd r at ion; we ig ht l os s; def ic ie nc ies o f elec t r olyt es , m ine r al and t ra c e e lem e nt s; m et ab olic bo ne d is ea se ; c ho le l it h ias is ; nep hr o lit h ia s is; ga str ic a cid hype r se cr et io n and D - lac t ic ac id os is . Int es t ina l ad ap ta t io n b eg ins t o oc cur af t er r e s ect io n a nd is p r om ot ed by e nt e r al fee di ng . 1. P N no t unc om m o nly r e qu ir e d f or t he s ho r t te rm, and is us ua lly r e qu ir e d fo r t he lo ng t erm in m as s ive sm al l bo we l r e se ct ion. 2. H yp er s ecr et ion o f gast r ic ac id shou ld be tr e at ed w it h H 2- b lo ck er s. 3. D- lac t ic a cid os is is c aus ed by f erme nt at ion of an incr e as ed c arb ohyd r at e lo ad de liver e d t o t he c o lon. Tr ea tm ent is aim ed at de cre as ing e nt er a l c ar b ohyd r at es . 4. F at so lub le vit am ins sho u ld be m onit o r ed a nd rep la ce d. 5. S t oo l vol um e shou ld be m onit o r ed and t r eat ed wit h a nt i - d ia r r he al ag ent s if gr e at e r t han 2 l it e rs /d ay. 6. Or a l c alci um a nd m ag ne si um s up plem ent at io n nee de d w he n e nt e r al f ee ding ac hie ved . 7. Int e st ina l a da pt at io n i n p at ient s wit h m as sive re se ct ion m ay be ha st e ne d/ im pr o ve d b y t he pr ovis ion o f glut a m ine (e nt e r al and/ o r p ar e nt er al) r ec om b ina nt hum an gr o wt h ho rm one a nd high - ca r bo hyd r at e , lo w- f at f eed s. K. N ut r iti ona l sup por t in ba r iat r ic sur ge r y. B ar iat r ic s ur g er ies ar e d iv ide d i nt o r est r ic t ive ( ve r t ic al ba nd ed ga st r op las t ie s and s il as t ic r ing ver t ic al g as t r o pla s t ie s), r est r ic t ive/ m a la bs or pt ive (R oux- e n- Y ga st r ic bypa ss ) a nd m alab so r pt ive pr o c ed ur es ( bil iop anc r ea t ic di ve r sio n) . S inc e r e st rict ive p r oc ed ur e s r eta in t he use of t he ent ir e ga str o int es t ina l t r ac t, nut r it io na l d ef ic ie nc ies ar e le ss c omm o n t han in m alab so r pt ive pr o cedur es . The pr im a r y nut r ie nt s a ff ect e d b y bariat r ic sur ge r y inc lude : 1. Ir o n— one of t he m ost fr e quent d ef ic ie nc ie s af te r ba r ia t r ic s ur g er y. Oc cur s in bo t h r est r ic t ive a nd m alab so r pt ive p r oc ed ur e s. D ef ic ie ncy is s ec onda r y t o r ed uc ed ar e as of a bs or pt io n in t he sm a ll b ow el w it h m ala bs o r pt ive pr o ce dur es a nd r ed uc e d pr o duct ion of hydr o chlo r ic ac id in t he s tom a ch fo r bot h t yp es o f bar ia t r ic pr o cedur es . The r es ult is a red uc t io n in ir on r ed uc ed t o t he a bs or b ab le f err o us st at e. Pr eve nt io n/ t r ea tm ent is wit h or al ir o n s upp l em e nt at io n c om b ined wit h a sc or b ic t o a cidif y t he st om ac h and f a c ilit at e ab sor pt ion. 2. V it am in B 12 de f ic ie nc y— com m on af t er g ast r ic b yp as s sur ge r y. Ab so r pt ion is de pe nd ent on int r ins ic f ac tor pr o duce d in t he par iet a l c e lls of t he s t om ach and hydr o chlo r ic ac id is r eq uir ed t o cle ave vit am in B 1 2 f r om p rot e in f oo dst uf fs in t he st om ac h. P reva le nc e a ft er R oux- e n- Y pr o cedur e is est im a ted at 12% t o 3 3%. Pr event io n/ t r eatm ent : or al B 12 f o rm ula t io ns o f 350 - 1000 m cg / da y or m o nt hly inj ect io ns of 20 00 m cg in t hos e pat ient s who d o not re spo nd to t he or a l supp le m e nt s.
3. F olat e def ic ie nc y— le ss fr e quent t han B 1 2 d ef icie ncy. F ola t e ab sor pt ion oc c ur s pr ef er e nt iall y i n t he pro xim a l i nt e st ine s but wit h a da pt at io n a f t er ga st r ic bypa ss sur ge r y a bso rpt ion ca n oc cur t hr oughout t he s m all b owe l. P r event io n/ t r e at me nt : 1 mg f o lat e P O /da y. 4. Thiam ine d ef icie ncy—u nco mm o n. S ee n wit h po st op er at ive h ype r em es is synd r om e s. Pr eve nt io n: 50- 10 0 mg IV or IM t hia m ine a t 6 weeks p ost op in p at ie nt s wit h hype r em e sis. 5. Z inc— de pe nd s o n f at ab sor pt ion. D ef ic ie nc y o bs e rve d wit h m a la bs or p t ive sur ge r y. S t and ar d da ily s up plem ent a t ion o f zinc is re comm ende d a ft er ma la bs or pt ive sur ge r y. 6. S ele ni um d ef icie ncy and a l if e- t hr e at e ni ng ca r diom yop at hy ha ve be en r e por ted in pa t ient s af t er m a lab s or p t ive s ur ge r y. S up plem enta t io n o f s ele ni um at 40 - 80m c g/ d ay is r ec om m ende d in pa t ie nt s und er g oing ma la bs orp t ive ba r iat r ic sur ge r y. 7. F at so lub le vit am ins ( A, D , E,K) — Mala bs o rpt ive ba r ia t r ic sur ger y r es ult s in a h igh inc id e nce of vit am in A, D and K de f ic ie nc y w it h alt er e d c alci um m e t ab ol is m ( vit am in E, t o a les s er e xt ent ) . Pa t ie nt s und er g oing m a la bs or pt ive sur ge r y r eq uir e lo ng - t erm annua l m e as ur em ent s of f at- s o lub le nut r ie nt s . The r e is no pr o ve n r e gim en f or vit am in s up p le m ent at ion af t er m a la bs or pt ive s ur ge r y b ut lif e - lo ng da ily supp le m e nt a t io n of f at s olub le vit am ins ha s b ee n r ec omm e nd ed at t he f ollo w ing do sa ges: 10, 00 0 IU vit am in A; 12 00 IU vit am in D ; 3 00 m cg vit am in K , and 18 00 m g ca lc ium c it r at e. P. 12 88
VI. TECHNICAL ASPECTS OF PN PREPARATIONS A. PN f orm ula p rep ar at io n is pe r form e d a se pt ica lly i n t he pharm a cy und er a la m ina r f low ho od t hat f ilt e r s t he air , r em o vi ng air bo r ne pa r t ic le s a nd m ic r oor ga nism s. B. C om pat ib ilit y of t he va r io us c om p onent s of P N f or m ula t io ns is de t erm ine d b y se ve r al f act or s, inc lud i ng t he ir c onc ent r at io n, s olut io n pH , t em per at ur e, and t he or d er of adm ixt ur e. The m ost comm on c om pat ib il it y co nc er n is in r e gar d t o t he ad dit io n of ca lc ium a nd p ho sp ha t e sa lt s to PN s olut io ns. C. Aft e r a dm ixt ur e o f t he var ious com po ne nt s , t he PN s olut io n shou ld be vi sua lly inspe ct e d f o r pr e cipit at e or pa rt ic ulat e m att er . Af t er lab eli ng and f ina l c hec k ing , t he PN s olut io n sho u ld be refr ige r at ed unt il d e l iver y to t he nur s ing u nit . D. A st at is t ic a ll y va lid , c ont inuo us st e r ilit y t est ing pr ogram s ho uld b e an esse nt ia l com po ne nt o f q ua lit y c ont r ol in pr e pa r ing P N so lu t io ns .
VII. HOME PARENTERAL NUTRITI ON (HPN) ha s b ec om e a wid e ly a cc ep t e d a nd us ef ul t ec hn iq ue f o r pr o vis io n of c omp le t e nut r it io na l r e qu ir em e nt s in t he ho m e s et t ing. W hen us ed ap pro pr iat e ly, t his m od alit y be ne f it s t he pat ient m ed ic al ly and p syc ho lo g ic a l ly , wit h a de cre as ed cost t o t he he a lt hc ar e sys tem . A. Ind ic at io ns f or H PN inc l ud e s hor t b owe l s ynd r om e, s ever e inf la mm at or y b owe l dis ea s e, r a diat ion ent er it is , ent er oc ut a neo us f is t ulae , a nd se le ct e d ma ligna nc ies .
B. Ca ndida t e sele ct io n r e quir e s a m ult id is c ip li na r y a ppr oa ch t o det e rm ine if t he pa t ient a nd f am ily ca n as sum e t he r es po ns ib ilit y and t ra in ing nee de d f o r s af e and succ es s f ul HPN. C. Adm inist r a t ion. HPN is inf us ed t hr ough a c e ntr a l veno us S ilas t ic ca t hete r ( e. g., H ic km a n, B r ovia c) , w hic h al low s f o r pr o lo ng ed PN wit h lo w clot t ing and inf ec t io n r ate s. The PN so lut io n is g ener a lly inf use d o ve r a 12 - t o 15- hr p er iod at nig ht . Th is t yp e of c ycli ng pr o gram allo ws t he pa t ie nt t o b e f r ee f r om t he inf us io n p um p dur ing t he da y, al low i ng f or a m o re norm a l lif es t yle . D. C linica l m onit or ing a nd f ollo w- up ar e d one per iod ic all y, d ep end ing on t he nee ds of t he ind iv id ua l p at ie nt . Lo ng -t e rm HPN p at ient s ge ne r all y ar e se en by t he phys ic ia n o n a m ont hly ba sis a f t er init ia l s t ab ili za t io n.
VIII. MISCELLANEOUS A. S o lubl e f ib er is pr es e nt in s om e c omm erc ia lly a va ila b le E N f orm ula s. This f ibe r is f erm e nt e d b y no rm al lar g e int e s t ina l f lor a t o shor t - chain f a t t y ac id s t ha t are use d by co lo no c yt e s as a f ue l s our ce . Thes e short -chain f a tt y ac id s a ls o se em t o have a t r op hic e ff ect o n t he la r ge int es t ina l m uc os a. B. Gr ow t h f ac tor s. The us e of r ecom binant h um an g r owt h horm o ne , ins u lin - lik e gr o wt h f act or , and a na bo lic s t er o id s, in com bina t ion wit h nut r it io na l s up po r t t o im pr o ve nit r og en b ala nc e and re duc e hos pit al le n gt h o f st ay in s elec t pat ie nt po pu lat io ns, is cur r ent ly u nd er inves t ig at ion. To d at e, r ec omb inant g r owt h horm one (H um a tr op e) is a vailab le f or nut r it io na l s up po r t in c hildr e n w it h cys t ic f ib r os is , s ic k le ce ll a ne m ia , and t ha las s em ia and in ad u lt s wit h A IDS -r e la t ed ca c he xia. O xa nd r o lo ne is a s ynt het ic a na bo lic s t ero id wit h F D A a pp r oval f or inc r ea si ng we ig ht g ain in pa t ient s wit h c hr o nic i nf e ct ion, m aj or s urg er y, a nd s evere t ra um a . It a ls o has es t ab lis hed eff ica cy i n a lc o ho lic c ir r hos is ( im p r oved s ur viva l and l iver f unc t io n) , bur ns ( im pro ved nit r og en ba la nc e, wound hea ling, a nd we ight g ain) , a nd in AID S ca che xia ( im pr oved weight g ain) . U s ua l d os e is 2.5 - 20 m g or a lly ( 80 m g in a lc oho l ic cir r ho sis ) in d iv ide d d os e s d ai ly f or up t o 4 we ek s. P. 12 89
STUDY QUESTIONS D ir ect ions: E ac h o f t he q ue s t io ns , st at em ent s , or inc o m p le t e s t at em e nt s in t h is se ct ion ca n be co rr ect ly a ns we r ed or c omp le t ed by o ne of t he sug ge st e d a nswe rs or phr as es. C hoo se t he b est ans wer . 1. A 32- year- ol d w e ll- no ur is he d m a n invol ved in a m ot or ve hic le a ccid ent w a s a dm itt e d t o t he sur gic a l int e ns i ve ca r e unit w i th m ult i ple long b one f ra ct ur e s a nd a bdom ina l inj ur ies w it h no nut r it i ona l sup p or t f o r 4 da y s. T his pa t ie nt is mo st li ke ly ( A) s uff e r ing f r om m od er at e t o s e ve re k wa shio r k or m aln ut r it io n. (B ) at lo w r isk f or hos pit al- ac qu ir e d inf e ct ion and ot her c omp lica t io ns . (C ) no t s uf f er ing f r om p r ot e in or c a lor ie m a lnut r it ion. (D ) suf fe r ing f r om se ver e m ar a sm us ma ln ut r it io n. (E ) no t a c andid at e f or ag gr e ssive nut r it io na l supp ort .
V ie w Answe r 1. The answe r i s A[ se e] .2. A pa t ient in the int e nsi ve ca re uni t on a vent ila t o r w a s pla ce d o n a gl uc ose s yst em pa r ent era l nut r it ion (PN ) f orm ula t ion providi ng 2 04 0 kca l/ day a nd 9 8 g pro t ei n/ da y. A m ea sur ed ener gy ex pendit ur e ( MEE ) of 2 03 8 kca l a nd a r e sp ira tor y q uot i ent (RQ ) of 1. 1 w ere sub se q ue nt ly o bta ine d. W hic h of t he f ol low ing is c or r ect ba se d o n t his inf orm a t ion? ( A) The pa t ient is r e ce iv ing a de quat e g luc o se ca lo r ie s, a nd a n a dj ustm ent in t he pr o gr am is no t ne c es sar y. (B ) The da ily pr o t ein i nt a k e has t o be de cr ea se d t o re duce t he p at ient 's RQ. (C ) The P N f orm ula t io n s ho uld b e swit ched t o a l ipid s yst em fo rm ula t io n t o re duce t he car bo n dio xide lo ad . (D ) The p at ient is r e t aining o xyg e n f r om t he gluc o s e ca lo r ies in t he P N f orm ula t io n. (E ) Lipid e m uls io n s ho u ld be ad ded t o t he c ur r ent PN f orm ulat io n t o enha nc e lip og e nes is . V ie w Answe r 2. The answe r i sC [ s ee] .3. T ota l nut r ient a dm ixt ur e (T N A) ( A) is m or e c om p lic at e d to adm inis t e r f or home p ar e nt e r al nut r it ion ( PN) pat ient s . (B ) s ho uld b e f i lt e re d wit h a 1 .2 -µ f i lt e r . (C ) co ns is t s of gluc os e, am ino a cids , e le ct r o lyt es , a nd tr a ce m iner a ls m i xe d in one co nt a iner . (D ) is t he m et ho d re comm ende d b y t he U.S . Fo od and D r ug Adm inist r a t io n ( FD A) t o adm inist e r lip id s ys t em P N. (E ) c an be visua l ized f or pa rt ic ulat e m att e r . V ie w Answe r 3. The answe r i s B[ se e III.A . 6. b. (2) (b) .(i ii) ] . 4 . T he ca lor ie re quir em ent s of a mo de rat e ly hyp erm eta bo lic ho spi t a liz ed pa t ient a re be st est ima t ed by usi ng t he ( A) nom ogr am m et ho d. (B ) nit r og en b ala nc e m et hod. (C ) est im a t ed e ne r gy exp e nd it ur e (EEE) met hod . (D ) pro gnos t ic nut r it io na l inde x ( PN I). (E ) s ubj ec t ive glob a l a s se ssm ent m et ho d. V ie w Answe r 4. The answ er i s C[ se e] .5. L ipid syst em pa r ent era l nut r it ion (PN ) ( A) c an be adm inis t er e d b y per iphe ra l ve i n if t he g luco se c once nt r at io n is les s t ha n 15 %. (B ) req uir es d ail y s e rum tr ig lyc er id e mo nit or ing . (C ) is co nt r aind ica t e d in p at ient s w it h e le vat e d c arb on d io xid e le ve l s. (D ) r eq uir es da ily l ip i d a dm in is t r at ion t o pr o vide a p or t ion o f t he p at ient 's no np r ot ein ca lor ie r e qu ir em ent s. (E ) c an be adm inis t er e d wit h a m axim um lip id do sag e of 4. 5 g/k g/ day. V ie w Answe r 5. The answe r i s D[ se e] .6. C omme rci a l par e nt era l nut r it io n (PN ) f orm ula t io ns f or hype rm eta bol ic c r it ica lly ill pat i ents ( A) ar e e nr ic hed in br a nc he d- c hain am ino ac id s a nd c ont ai n low c o nc ent r at ions of ar omat ic am ino ac id s . (B ) c ont ain p r im ar i ly es se nt ia l am ino ac id s.
(C ) ha ve not d em o ns tr at ed a po sit ive c lin ic a l out c om e be ne f it in t h is pa t ie nt po pu lat io n. (D ) are t he pr efe rr ed PN f orm ula t io n use d i n t his c lin ic a l s e t t ing. (E ) ar e e nr ic hed wit h ar g in ine t o enhance im m une f unct ion. V ie w Answe r 6. The answe r i s C[ se e] .7. W hi ch of t he f o llow ing m et hod s of par e nt e ra l nut r it io na l supp or t w ould b e mo st a pp ro pr ia t e i n a se ve r ely pr ot ein ca l or ie ma lnour i s he d pa t ie nt w it h a cute r e na l fa il ur e? ( A) 2% am ino a cid/ 4 7% d ext r os e. (B ) 4. 25% am ino acid/ 2 5% d ext r o se. (C ) 4% ess ent ia l a m ino a cid/ 4 7% d ext r os e. (D ) 4. 2 5% am ino a cid/ 2 5% d ext r os e wit h d ia l ys is on a reg ular b as is . (E ) 2% am ino a cid/ 4 7% d ext r os e/ 20% lip id em uls i on. V ie w Answe r 7. The answe r i s D[ se e] .P.1 29 0
8. W hic h of t he f ol low ing stat em ent s r egar d ing t he m oni to r ing of nut r it io na l sup po rt is tr ue? ( A) P re album in is not t he opt im a l m ark er t o fol low f or s hor t -t e rm nut r it iona l pr o gr e ss. (B ) Tr a ns f er r in is f alse ly de pr e ss e d in p at ie nt s w it h ir o n d ef ic ienc y. (C ) Alb um in is f a ls el y e le va t ed in r ena l f a ilur e. (D ) A p os it i ve nit r og en ba la nc e of 3 -6 g of nit r og en d ail y is o pt im al. (E ) A we ig ht ga in of 1. 5- 2 lb / d ay ind ic a t es opt im al le an b od y w eig ht ga in. V ie w Answe r 8. The answe r i s D[ se e] .9. P at ie nt s w it h end- st age liver disea se ( A) ge ne r ally ha ve inc r ea se d leve ls o f br anched - cha in am ino a cids and de cre as ed le ve ls o f a r om at ic am ino ac id s. (B ) s ho uld b e p lac e d o n a lo w - br anched cha in, hig h ar omat ic am ino ac id s pa r ent er a l nut r it io n ( PN) s olut io n. (C ) ca n t oler a t e 2 0- 4 0 g p rot e in/ da y wit h a 2 % st anda r d am ino a cid P N so lut io n. (D ) r eq uir e g lut am ine- e nr ic hed am ino ac id s olut io ns . (E ) c an t oler a t e st a nd ar d gluc os e sys t em fo rm ulatio ns 4 . 25% am ino ac id / 25 % de xt r o se wit h r e gula r dia lys is . V ie w Answe r 9. The answe r i s C[ se e] .For q ue st io ns 10 - 12: A 67- ye ar- o ld whit e f em ale p res ent ed t o t he at te nd ing p hys ic ia n wit h a 3 -m ont h hist o r y of pr o gr e ss ive d if f icu lt y s wal low ing and a 1 0-k g weight lo ss . S he is curr ent ly 1 60 cm t all and weig hs 5 0 k g. S he has j ust unde r go ne a dis t a l e so phag ec t om y a nd pr o xim al ga str e ct om y f or dis t a l e so phag ea l c ance r. At t he tim e o f sur ger y, s he ha d a f eed ing j ej unos t om y t ube inse r t ed . 10 . T he d iet ic ia ns w ho a r e a de pt at usi ng t he Ha r r is- Be ne dic t eq ua t ion ha ve gone hom e f or t he da y, a nd t he sur ge on ca lls yo u f or your be st g ue ss a t w hat t he hour ly g oa l rat e f or t his pa t i ent shoul d be usi ng isot o nic ent era l f orm ula , w hic h pr o vid es 0. 85 no npr o t ein ca lor ie s ( NPC s) / m L. Your a nsw er sho uld be ( A) 65 m L/ hr. (B ) 75 m L/ hr.
(C ) 85 m L/ hr. (D ) 95 m L/ hr. (E ) 50 m L/ hr. V ie w Answe r 10 . T he answ er i s B [ s ee] . 1 1. T he ent era l f orm ula t io n t he sur g eo n ha s se lec t ed is enri ched w it h f ish o ils . H e is hop ing t hi s a d dit ive w ill ( A) pr e vent diar r hea . (B ) pr e vent derm at it is . (C ) pre vent hyp er gl yc e m ia. (D ) im pr o ve imm une f unc t io n. (E ) im pr ove neur olog ic al f unct io n. V ie w Answe r 11 . T he answ er i s D [ s ee V. A. 5] . 1 2. O n t he 5t h p ost op era t i ve day , t he f e ed ing j ej uno st o my t ub e b ec om es c log ged a nd unu sa ble . T he pa t ie nt wi ll be NPO a n a d dit io na l 5 da y s to e nsur e t he int e gr it y of her sur gic a l a na st om osi s. T he m ost a p pr op riat e co ur se a t thi s t im e is ( A) st art t he pa t ie nt on a lip id- b as ed pe r ip he r al pa r ent era l n ut r it io n p r og ram. (B ) k eep t he pat ie nt NP O and w it hout pa r ent er al n ut r it io na l s up po r t . (C ) ha ve a ce nt r al ve no us c at hete r ins er t e d, a nd in it iat e a l ip id - b as ed p are nt e r al nut r it io n pr o gr am. (D ) st art t he pa t ie nt o n a g luco se - ba se d per ip he r al p ar e nt er a l nut r it iona l pr o gr am . (E ) ha ve a cent r al ve no us c at het er ins er t e d, and s t art t he p at ient on a hig h br a nc he d- c ha in am ino ac id pa r ent er a l p rog ram . V ie w Answe r 12 . T he answ er i s A [ s ee] . F or quest ion s 1 3- 1 4: R J is a 2 8ye ar - o ld pr egnant woma n. S he is in t he 9 t h week of her pr e gnancy a nd is diag no se d wit h hype r em e sis g ra vida r um . H er pr e gr a vid weig ht was 5 7 k g, and her he ig ht is 5 f t., 5 in. S he has lo s t 7 k g (12 .3%) d ur i ng he r pr eg na nc y. S he wa s p la ce d on a ce nt r a l g luco se PN p ro gram. 13 . W hich one of t he f ol low ing r e pr esent s t he b est est im at e of he r da i ly ca l or ic re quir em ent s? ( A) 16 75 k ca l (B ) 17 90 k ca l (C ) 22 61 k ca l (D ) 20 62 k ca l (E ) 19 25 k ca l V ie w Answe r 13 . T he answ er i s A [ s ee] . 1 4. MV I- 12 is used a s t he par e nt e ra l vit a min pr e pa rat io n in t he PN f orm ula t i on. W hich of t he f o llow i ng vit a m i n( s) ne ed t o be sup ple m e nt e d in t he da ily PN f orm ulat io n t o m ee t t he da i ly r e quir em ent s d ur ing pr e gna ncy ? ( A) vit a m in K (B ) t hiam ine (B 1 ) (C ) fol ic ac id (D ) A a nd C (E ) pyr id o xine ( B 6 ) V ie w Answe r 14 . T he answ er i s A [ s ee] .P. 12 91
For q ue st io ns 15 - 17: A 5 5- year o ld ma le wit h m ult ip le t r aum at ic i nj ur ie s a nd t ype II dia be t es was adm it te d t o t he s ur gic al IC U . H e was plac ed on m ec han ic a l ve nt ilat io n and in it iat e d o n gluc os e s yst em PN. Af te r 3 d ays of PN t her a py his bloo d g luco se le ve ls ha ve r ange d f r om 2 50 t o 285 m g/ dL ove r t he p ast 2 4 hr wit h 8 0 U of ins ul in/ L in h is P N f orm ulat ion. H e is on no o t he r ins u lin s up plem ent at io n a t t his t im e. 15 . T he nut r it io na l supp or t se r vic e re com me nd s a n insu li n dr ip w it h t he g oa l of a chie vi ng a blo od glucose level of ( A) 18 0- 2 25 m g/ dL. (B ) 20 0- 2 15 m g/ dL. (C ) 80- 11 0 mg /d L. (D ) 65- 10 0 mg /d L. (E ) 70- 10 5 m g/ d L. V ie w Answe r 15 . T he answ er i s C [ s ee] . 1 6. W hat p ar ent era l tra c e m inera l t hera py m ay be a n ef f ect i ve a dj unct if t he ins ul in dr ip f a il s t o a c hie ve t he gluco se l evel g oa l? ( A) 20- 40 m g zinc / da y (B ) 15 0- 2 00 µ g c hr om ium/ da y (C ) 0. 5 - 1. 5m g copp er / da y (D ) 15 0- 4 00m cg m anga nes e/d ay (E ) 40- 60 µ g s elen ium / d ay V ie w Answe r 16 . T he answ er i s B [ s ee] . 1 7. Appr opr ia t e insu li n c ont r ol in t his pa t ient se tt ing ha s b ee n sho w n t o pr ovide w hi ch of t he f o llow ing c linica l out c om es? ( A) de cr ease d lengt h o f t im e on t he vent ilat o r (B ) s ign if ica nt r e duc t io n i n m ort alit y (C ) de cr e ase d d ur a t io n o f P N t he r ap y (D ) a d ecr e ase in m u lt ip le or g an f a ilur e w it h a p r oven s ep t ic f oc us (E ) B a nd D V ie w Answe r 17 . T he answ er i s E [ se e] . F or questio ns 18 - 19: A 3 5 yea r o ld f em a le w it h se ver e mo rb id o be s it y (B MI = 51 k g/ m2 ) of m ore t ha n 12 ye ars ' d ur at io n and r ef r ac t or y t o c onvent io na l ob es it y t r eat me nt was e nt er ed int o a b ar iat r ic s ur g er y pr o gr am. The p at ient und er we nt a R o ux- e n Y- p r oc e dur e wit ho ut any m aj o r po st op er at ive c om p lic a t ions . 18 . T he pat ie nt w a s r e-a dm itt ed t o t he hospit a l t hr e e m o nt hs a f t er di sc ha rg e wi t h int ole ra nce to solid a nd l iquid f oods a nd p er sist e nt hyp er em e sis. S he a lso pr esent ed w it h g enera liz ed pa ra t he si a , a tax is a nd m enta l c onf usio n. W hic h of t he f ollow ing nut ri ent s i s m ost like ly def icie nt in t hi s p a t ie nt ? ( A) S e le nium (B ) V it am in D (C ) C alci um (D ) Th ia m ine (E ) V it am in E V ie w Answe r 18 . T he answ er i s D [ s ee] . 1 9. T his pa t ie nt sho uld b e p la ce d on w hic h of the f ollow ing nut ri en t supp le m ent at io ns t o p re vent pot e nt ia l ca rd iom y opa t hy .
( A) Fo la t e ( 1 m g/ da y) (B ) V it am in B 1 2 ( 350 -10 00 m c g/ d ay) (C ) S e len ium ( 40- 80 m cg) (D ) V it am in A ( 1 0, 0 00 IU / day) (E ) V it am in K ( 3 00 m cg/ d ay) V ie w Answe r 19 . T he answ er i s C [ s ee] .P. 12 92
ANSWERS AND EXPLANATIONS 1. T he a nsw er is A [ s ee I.B. 3]. A hyp erm et ab olic st a te ( e. g ., tr a um a, inf ec t io n) com bine d wit h p r ot e in de pr iva t io n ca n r a pidly d eve lop int o a s ever e k was hior k or m a ln ut r it io n c ha r ac t er ized by hypo alb um ine m ia, edem a , and im pa ir ed c ell u lar imm une f unc t io n. 2. T he a nsw er is C [ see V.D .1 ]. E ve n in t he pr ese nc e of ap pr o pr ia t e am o unt s of N PC s adm inist e r ed a s ca r bo hydr a te , t he norm al c ar b on dio xid e lo ad g ener at ed by g lyco lys is m a y be e xce ss ive f or t he pat ie nt w it h unde r ly ing p ulm o na r y dysf unc t io n. PN lip id s yst em f orm ulat ions, in whic h t he lip id c om p onent c onst it ut e s 40%- 5 0% of t he t ot a l NP Cs, ma y be be ne f ic ia l in r e ducing t he vent ila t or y d em a nd s i n r e sp ir a tor y f a ilur e pat ie nt s be ca us e lip o lys is ge ne r at es les s ca rbo n dio xide t han g l yc ol ys is . 3. T he a nsw er is B [ s ee III. A. 6. b.( 2)( b) .( ii i) ] . A pa r t ic le f ilt er ( i. e. , 1. 2 µ) should be us e d wit h T N A a dm in is t r at ion. 4. T he a nsw er is C [ s ee II.B. 1] . E ne r gy r e quir em e nt s a r e d et erm ined as nonpr o t ein c a lor ies by ind ir ec t c alor im etr y, es t im at ed ener g y expe nd it ur e, a nd t he s im p le no m ogr am m et ho d. The nom og r am met hod is t he le as t a cc ur at e m et hod of es t im at ing c alor ic r e quir em ent s. 5. T he a nsw er is D [ s ee III. A. 6. b.( 1)] . The lip id s ys t em PN is a f or m ula t io n i n wh ic h l ip id is a dm in is t e r ed da ily t o pr o vide a subs t ant ia l p or t ion of t he NPC s. 6. T he a nsw er is C [ s ee V.G .1 ]. PN f orm ula t io ns e nr ic hed in br a nc he d - c ha in am ino ac id s have be en m ad e a vailab le wit h t he r at iona le t ha t , be ing t he pr ef er re d f ue l s our ce in t h is pa t ie nt p op ulat ion, it wou ld en ha nc e p r ot ein s ynt hes is , de cr e ase pr ot ein c a t ab olism , a nd im pr ove t he pa t ient 's c lin ic a l out com e. H owe ver, t he se m or e exp ens i ve br a nc hed - chain am ino ac id f orm ulat ions ha ve not b ee n s hown t o f avor ably inf l ue nc e cli nica l o ut c om es in cr it ic a ll y i ll p at ient s. 7. T he a nsw er is D [ s ee V.B .3 ]. St anda r d gluc os e s yst em f orm ula t io ns ( 4. 25% am ino a cid/ 2 5% d ext r o se) c an ge ne r all y b e us ed in r enal f ai lur e p at ient s w ho are be ing d ia ly ze d o n a r e gula r ba sis . This f o rm ulat ion is pa rt ic ular ly use f ul in se ver e ly m a lno ur is he d p at ient s be ca us e it can pr o vide ad eq ua t e pr ot ein t o a tt ain p os it i ve n it r og en b ala nce , which is no t po ss ib le wit h r e na l f a ilur e P N. 8. T he a nsw er is D [ s ee II.B. 2. a .( 4) ]. A po s it ive nit ro ge n ba la nc e o f 3- 6 g is t he g oa l.
9. T he a nsw er is C [ s ee V.C .2 ]. Ade quat e NP Cs w it h a 20- 40 g/ d ay pr ot e in loa d ( e. g. , 2% am ino a cid/ 2 5% d ext r o se) is an alt er nat i ve ap pr o ac h t o t he us e of hep at ic f ai lur e am ino ac id f or m ula t io ns . 10 . T he a nsw er is B [ se e II. B. 1. c] . U se t he nom o gr am of 3 0 k cal/ kg t o det e rm ine t he NP C s/ d ay, a nd d iv ide t hat b y t he NPC s/m L o f t he e nt era l f o rm ula to de t erm ine t he vo l um e of f orm ula p er d ay, w hic h is div id ed by 2 4 hr t o yie ld t he hour ly g oa l r at e. 11 . T he a nsw er is D [ se e V. A. 5 ]. Ome ga- 3 po ly unsa t ur a t ed f at t y ac id s ar e der ived f r om f is h o ils a nd ar e cur r ent ly f ound in som e e nt era l f o rm ula t io ns . The se f at t y ac id s have be en show n e xpe r im ent ally t o enha nc e im m une r esp onse . 12 . T he a nsw er is A [ se e III . A. 3 .b]. W it h t he us e of new ca t he t er t ec hno log y a nd new t e c hn ique s f o r inf us io n, it is now f ea sible t o adm inist er per ip her a l PN in s e lec t e d pat ient s f or s hor t - te rm t her apy ( 710 da ys) wit h a lo w inc ide nc e of p er ipher a l ve in thr om b op hleb it is . This m et ho d of PN a dm in is t r at ion avo ids t he p ot ent ia l of mor e ser io us c om pl ic at ions a s so ciat e d wit h ce nt r a l ve no us r out e adm inist r a t io n. P. 12 93
13 . T he a nsw er is A [ se e V. H] . The e st im at e d b as al ener g y expe nd it ur e is ca lc ul a t ed usi ng t he pr eg ravid we ight in t he H arr is- B ened ic t eq ua t io n. An ad dit io na l 30 0 k c al/ da y is a dd ed t o t he b as al ener g y e xpe nd it ur e t o pr o vide t he r e quir e d c alor ie s per da y dur ing p r eg na nc y. 14 . T he a nsw er is A [ se e V. H. 3] . An a dd it iona l 65 µg of vit am in K nee ds t o be a dd ed to t he da ily P N f orm ula t io n whe n MV I- 12 is use d as t he par ent er al vit am in pr e pa r at io n t o m eet t he dai ly r eq uir em ent s dur ing p re gna nc y. 15 . T he a nsw er is C [ se e V. G. 3]. R ecent d at a in vo lv ing c r it ica lly ill, m ec hanic a ll y v ent ilat e d p at ient s in t he s ur g ic a l int e ns ive ca r e unit ind ica t e int e ns ive ins u lin t he r ap y t o m a int ai n b lo od gluc os e le ve ls b et wee n 80 and 1 10 m g/ dL. 16 . T he a nsw er is B [ se e II. B. 5. g] . S ug ge st ed IV r e quir e m ent s o f c hr om ium f or def ici ency a nd se ver e gluc os e int o le r ance a re 150 -20 0 µ g/ da y. 17 . T he a nsw er is E [ se e V .G. 3] . The g r eat est r educt ion in m ort a lit y i n p at ient s m a int ai ne d o n t ight i ns uli n c ont r o l was as s oc ia t ed de at hs owing t o m ult ip le o r ga n f ail ur e wit h a pr o ve n se pt ic f o c us. 18 . T he a nsw er is D [ se e V. K. 4] . Thiam ine de f ic ienc y is not com mo n aft er bar ia t r ic s ur g er y b ut is s e en in pa t ie nt s wit h po st- o per at ive h yp er em es is s yndr om es. 19 . T he a nsw er is C [ se e V. K. 6] . S elen ium d ef ic ienc y a nd a l if e t hr eat ening c ar d io m yopat hy ha ve b ee n r e port e d in pa t ient s af t er m a lab s or p t ive s ur ge r y. S up plem enta t io n o f s ele ni um at 40 - 80 m cg/ day is r ec om m ende d in pa t ie nt s und er g oing ma la bs orp t ive sur ge r y.
60 Immunosuppressive Agents in Organ Transplantation Da vid I. Min
I. ORGAN TRANSPLANTATION A. D ef init io n: R e plac em e nt of a d is ea se d vit a l o r ga n w it h a v ia b le o r ga n f r om a liv ing o r ca da ver d onor . S olid or g an tr ans pla nt a t io n ha s b ec ome t he t he ra py of cho ic e f or ma ny p at ient s wit h end - o r ga n f ail ur e ( i. e . , hea rt , live r , lu ng, a nd k idne y dis ea s e) . H o we ve r, it ge ne r ally r eq uir e s im m unosup pr e s sio n t o o verc om e t he im m unolo g ica l b ar r ier b et we en donor a nd r ec ip ie nt , exce pt in syng e n ic ( i. e . , t w ins ) or a ut o lo go us t r a ns plant at ion. B. C la ssif ica t io n 1. S olid or ga n t ra nspla nta t ion a. L if e- sa ving t ra nsp la nt at io n ( e .g. , he ar t , he ar t -l ung, lung, and l iver t r ansp la nt a t io n) . The r e is no alt er nat i ve lif e - s us t aini ng m et hod ava ila b le b. N o n- lif e- sa vi ng t ra nspla nt a t ion ( i. e ., k id ne y, p anc r ea s, and c or nea t r ansp la nt a t io n) . The r e ar e alt er nat ive lif e - s us t ai ni ng m et hod s a vailab le , suc h a s dia lys is o r e xt e r na l i ns uli n inj e c t ion. In t hes e c a se s, tr ansp la nt a t io n will im pr o ve t he pa t ient 's q ua lit y o f lif e o r lo ng - t erm s ur viva l s ig nif ica nt l y. 2. Hem at o poiet ic st em ce ll ( bone m ar row) tra nspl a nt a t ion is use d m a in ly f or he m at o log ic a l m aligna ncy o r ap la st ic a nem ia .
II. GRAFT REJECTION A. Tra nspla nt im m unolo gy (se e C ha pt er 8) 1. Gra f t r ej e ct i on. The b od y' s im m une s ys t em r ec og ni ze s t he al lo gr af t ( tr a ns plant ed or g an) as a f or e ig n a nt ige n, a nd it init ia t es t he imm une r e sp onse to r em o ve or de str o y t he tr a ns plant ed gr aft . This r e act io n is ca lle d “ r ej e ct ion. ” The de gr e e of t he r ea ct ion de pe nd s on t he genet ic s im ilar it ies o r dif f ere nc es bet wee n t he or ga n of t he do no r and t he im m une s yst em of t he r ecip ie nt . 2. H i st oc om pat ib ilit y . The a nt ige n de t erm ining t he com pa t ibi lit y b et we en t he d onor and t he re c ip ient is c alled a hi st ocom pat i bilit y a nt ig en, t he g ene b eing lo ca t ed on chr om osom e 6 . In m any tr ansp la nt s ( e .g., bo ne mar r o w or k idney t r a ns plant ) , t his his t o com pa t ib ilit y m at ching is a n im por tant f a ct or f o r d et erm ini ng t he lo ng - t e rm sur vi va l o f t he gr af t . How ever , mor e se le ct ive , po te nt im m uno s up pr e ss io n m a y alle v ia t e t he im por t anc e o f t is s ue m at c hing be t ween do no r a nd r ec ip ie nt ( e xc e pt ion: in he m at op oiet ic s t em ce ll t r ansp la nt a t io n, t he t is s ue m at c hi ng is st ill im port ant ). 3. Ot her f a ct o r s. Ano t he r gr o up o f s ub sta nc e s t hat also plays an im po rt ant r o le is t he AB O b lood gro up sy st em of r ed blo od c ells. The d onor a nd r e cip ie nt m us t be AB O- c om p at ib le ; ot he r wis e, im m ed iat e gr af t destruc t io n o cc urs . S om e pat ie nt s m ay ha ve pr e f orme d ant ib od y f o r uns pe cif ie d d onor s bec ause of m ult ip le b lo od t r ansf us ions or o t he r r eas on. In t his ca se , p at ient s ma y destr o y t he tr a ns plant ed or g an im m ed ia t ely. To d et ect t he pr ef o rm ed ant ib od y, t he r ecip ie nt 's se r um wi ll b e t est ed im m e dia t e ly be f or e t he t r a ns p lant a t ion ( c r os s -mat c h) . B. Ty pe s of gra f t r ej e ct i on
1. T yp es of graf t r ej ect ion a c cor ding t o t he t im e c ourse a. Hy pe rac ut e r ej e ct io n. Im me diat e d est r uct ion ( wit h in m inut es o r ho ur s ) o f t he t r ansp la nt o r ga n by a pr ef orm e d a nt ibo dy o r com plem ent s ys t em . To da y, t his is e xt r em e ly r ar e. It oc cur s only in an AB O -m ism at ched or g an or a c r oss-m at c h po sit ive ( p r ef orm ed ant ib od y) or g an. Ther e is no a de quat e tr e atm e nt availab le . P. 12 95
b. Ac ut e r eje ct i on o ccur s wit h in a f e w d ays t o s eve r al mo nt hs af t er t ra nsp la nt a t io n. It is m ed ia t ed m ainly b y T - lym phoc yt e ( a cut e ce llu la r r ej ect io n) , b ut oc c as io na lly, it is me diat e d by ant ib od y ( ant ib od y m ediat e d r ej e ctio n) and t his r ej ec t ion ca n b e r ever s ib le by st er o ids or ant ib od y t he r ap y such as m ur om o na b/C D 3 o r ant it hym o c yt e glo b u lin ( a cut e c e llu lar r ej ect ion) o r int r aveno us imm unog lo bu lin ( IV IG ) (a nt ibo dy me diat e d r ej ect ion) . c. C hr oni c r ej ect ion oc c ur s s evera l m o nt hs t o s eve r al ye ar s af t er t r ansp la nt a t io n. The e xa ct m ec ha nism o f t his r ea ct ion is unk no wn, b ut it is t ho ug ht t o be m e dia t e d by B- lym phoc yt e ( a nt ibo dy) , a nd t her e is no a de quat e tr eatm e nt a vailab le. 2. Gra f t ve r su s ho st , ho st ver sus gr a f t. In m ost s olid o r ga n t ransp la nt s , r ej ec t ion oc cur s as t he hos t im m une sys t em rej ects or at t ack s t he t ransp la nt o r ga n ( ho st ve r sus gr aft ). Ho weve r , in he m at o po ie t ic s t em c ell ( b one m ar row) t r ansp la nt , t he ho st is g ene r ally im m une d ef icie nt and t he t r ansp la nt e d gr af t is im m une com pe t ent, whic h at tr a ct s ho st t is sues ( gr aft ve r sus ho st) .
III. PROPHYLAXIS AND TREATMENT OF GRAFT REJECTION (Table 60-1) A. Ca lcineur i n in hib it or s ®
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1. Cy cl ospor ine (N e ora l , Sa ndimm une , G e ng ra f , ot her s) a. Mecha nism of act ion. C yclos po r ine b ind s an int r ac el lu lar r e c ept or , c yclop hi l in e. This c om p le x inh ib it s ca lc ine ur in, an int r ac el lular p ho s phat a se , whic h i nvo l ve s ac t ivat io n of t he prom ot er r egio n f or t he ge ne - enco di ng cyt ok ine , s uc h a s int e r le uk in- 2. This r e s ult s in inhib it ing T -c e ll a ct iva t io n i n t he ear ly st ag e o f im m une r es po ns e t o a f o reig n ant ig en suc h a s a gra ft. b. D o sing a nd mo nit o r ing . C yclos po r ine p ha rm ac ok inet ics is u np r ed ic t ab le, and ma ny f a ct or s s uc h a s ag e, t im e af te r tr ans pla nt , dif f er e nt or a l f orm ulat io n ( N eor al
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or Sa nd im m une ), or d r ug s af f ect it . Or a l b io ava i lab il it y is ab out 30% . G ener a ll y, 8 mg/k g/ d ay of or a l c yclos po r ine a s t wo d iv id ed do se s is us ed in s olid o r ga n t r ansp la nt a t io n a nd a dj ust ed ac cor ding t o t he b loo d leve ls. S er um cr eat in ine s ho uld be m onit o r ed wit h t he b loo d leve ls of c yclos po r in e. The bloo d leve ls a r e us ef u l in t he cl in ica l m o nit or ing. c. S i de ef f ect s. N e phro t ox ici ty is t he maj o r side eff ec t. Ne ur o t oxic it y a nd he pa t ot o xic it y ar e also comm on. H ir s ut is m and g ing iva l hyp er p las ia ar e a ls o cum be rsom e s id e e ff e ct s. N um er o us d r ug int er a ct io ns ha ve b ee n r e por t ed ( Ta ble 60 - 2) . ®
2. T ac rolim us ( Pr o graf ) a. Mecha nism of act ion. It is ver y s im ilar to c yc lo sp or ine ( III. A. 1. a ).
b. D o sing a nd mo nit o r ing . Ta cro lim us pharm a cok ine t ic s is a ls o va r ia b le , a nd or a l bio ava i la b il it y is ab out 2 5%. B loo d leve ls a r e us efu l i n c lin ic a l mo nit or ing . c. S i de ef f ect s. N e phro t ox ici ty is t he maj o r side eff ec t. Ne ur o t oxic it y a nd po stt ra nsp la nt d ia be t es ar e m or e c omm o n t han w it h c yclo s po r ine . B. Ant im eta b olit e s ®
1. Aza t hio pr ine ( Im ura n ) a. Mecha nism of act ion. It is c onver t e d t o 6-m erc ap t op ur i ne in t he b od y a nd is a no ns pe c if ic pur ine s ynt hes is in hib it o r . It int e r f er es wit h DN A and R N A s ynt hes is so t ha t it m a y r ed uc e b ot h cel l- m ed ia t ed and hum or al im m une res po ns e s. b. D o sa ge a nd m onit or ing. An init ia l do se of 3- 5 m g/k g /da y is adm inist e r ed pr e oper at ive ly. Imm e diat e ly af t e r t r a ns plant at ion, t he d os e is us ua lly t a per ed to a ma int ena nc e d os e of 1 - 3 m g/k g/ d ay or t it r at ed t o t he p at ient 's whit e blo od c ell (W BC ) co unt . The W B C c ount is ge ne r ally m a int ai ne d g r eat er t ha n 3 00 0/ mm 3 . c. S i de ef f ect s. B o ne ma rr ow sup pr essi on ( le uk o pe nia, t hr om boc yt op enia ) is t he maj o r side ef f ect . In a dd it io n, xa nt h ine o xida se in hib it o r a llo pur ino l i nh ib it s azat h io pr ine m e ta bo lism . W he n t hes e dr ugs ar e use d co nc ur r e nt ly, t he aza t hiop r ine do se shou ld be re duce d b y 80%. O t he r wis e, t he pat ient m ay de velo p se ve r e le uk o pe nia d ue t o aza t hiop r i ne ove r do se. ®
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2. Myco phe no lic a c id (C e llC ept , Myf ort ic ) a. Mecha nism of act ion. Two f orm s a re a vailab le . Myc op he nola t e m of et il (C ellce pt ® ) is a pro dr ug , whic h is c onve r t e d t o m yco phen o l ic ac id in t he bo dy, whic h is t he ac t ive f orm . Myf o rt ic
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is an ent er ic f orm ulatio n of m yc op he no lic a cid. I n t he
bo dy, m yc o pheno lic ac id inh ib it s de no vo p ur ine sy nt he s is p at hwa y b y in hib it ing ino s i ne de hyd r og enas e. As a r e sult , it in hib it s DN A a nd RN A s y nt hes is in t he im m une c el ls such a s lym p ho cyt e s. P. 12 96
Table 60-1. Current Immunosuppressive Agents Used in Organ Transplantation Classification Drug Calcineur in inhibitors
Cyclosporine( Neoral®, Sandimmune® )
Usual Initial Dose 8 mg/kg/day
Major Side Effects Nephrotoxi city
Neurotoxic ity Tacrolimus (Prograft®)
0.1-0.3 mg/kg/day
Monitoring Blood concentr ations and serum creatinin e concentr ations
Antimeta bolites
Azathioprine (Imuran®)
1.5-3 mg/kg/day
Bone marrow suppressio n
WBC count
Mycophenolat e mofetil (Cellcept®)
1 g twice daily
Same as above
Same as above
Mycophenolic acid sodium (Myfortic®)
720 mg twice daily
Methotrexate (Rheumatrex® )
15 mg/m2 on day 1, 10 mg/m2/day on days 3, 6, and 11
Same as above
Same as above
mTOR inhibitor
Sirolimus (Rapamune®)
6-15 mg loading dose and 2-5 mg once daily
Hyperlipid emia, leukopenia and thrombocyt openia
Blood concentr ations and WBC, platelet, and lipid profile
Alkylatin g agent
Cyclophospha mide (Cytoxan®)
3-4 mg/kg/day for 4 days, followed by reduction to 1 mg/kg/day for treatment of rejection
Hemorrhag ic cystitis
WBC count
Antibody products
Corticoste roids
Muromonab/C D3 (Orthoclone OKT3 ®)
5 mg daily for 7-14 days
Cytokine release syndromes (flu-like syndrome)
Signs and symptom s, CD3 + cell count
Antithymocyt e globulin (Atgam®, Thymoglobuli n®)
15-20 mg/kg/day for 7-14 days (Atgam) or 1.5 mg/kg/day for 7-14 days (Thymogl obulin)
Leukopeni a and thrombocyt openia
T-cell count
Daclizumab (Zenapax®)
1 mg/kg (max. 100 mg), on day 0, and every 2 weeks for a total of 5 doses
No significant side effects reported
No special monitori ng required
Basiliximab (Simulect®)
For adults, 2 doses of 20 mg each (day 0 and day 4)
No significant side effects reported
No special monitori ng required
Prednisone (Deltasone®) or methylprednis olone (Solumedrol®)
500 mg IV on the day of surgery and rapidly tapering to 10 mg daily at 1
Fluid retention, psychosis, cataracts, osteonecro sis
Signs and symptom s
month
P. 12 97
Table 60-2. Major Drug Interactions of Cyclosporine and Tacrolimus with Other Drugs and Their Management Drugs
Mechanism
Antiepileptic drugs Phenytoin Phenobarbital
Effects
Increased metabolism by inducing cytochrome P450 enzyme
Cyclosporine or tacrolimus trough levels drop within 48 hr after initiation of these drugs
Increase cyclosporine dose or tacrolimus with frequent monitoring of blood levels. Valproic acid does not interfere cyclosporin or tacrolimus levels
Same as above
Same as above
Increase cyclosporine dose or tacrolimus with frequent monitoring of blood levels.
Carbamazepine
Rifampin or rifabutin
Nevirapine, efavirenz
Management
St. John's Wort
Same as above
Same as above
Avoid St. John's wort
Azole antifungal agents
Inhibition of liver cytochrome P450 enzyme by these drugs
Significant increase of cyclosporine or tacrolimus levels
Reduce cyclosporine or tacrolimus dose with frequent monitoring of levels
Inhibition of liver and GI cytochrome P450 enzyme
Increase AUC (×2) and cyclosporine or tacrolimus trough levels (×2-3)
Same as above.
Same as above
Same as above
Reduce cyclosporine or tacrolimus dose, or use nifedipine or isradipine
Same as above
Same as above
Reduce cyclosporine or tacrolimus dose
Ketoconazole Fluconazole Itraconazole Voriconazole Macrolide antibiotics
Erythromycin Clarithromycin Calcium-channel blockers Verapamil Diltiazem Nicardipine Antiviral agents
Indinavir Ritonavir
Saquinavir Grapefruit juice
Inhibition of GI cytochrome P450 enzyme
Increase AUC and peak concentrations of cyclosporine and possibly tacrolimus, and increase variability of blood levels
Avoid grapefruit juice
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b. D o sing a nd mo nit o r ing . A d os e of 2 g/ da y (C ellce pt ) o r 1440 m g/ da y ®
( Myf o rt ic ) is adm inist e r ed as t w o d iv ide d do se s. The W BC a nd G I s ym pt om s s ho uld be m onit o r ed . c. S i de ef f ect s. B o ne ma rr ow sup pr essi on ( le uk o pe nia, t hr om boc yt op enia ) is t he maj o r side ef f ect , a s in a zat h io pr ine. In a dd it io n, G I s id e eff e ct s a re m or e c omm o n t ha n w it h azat h io pr ine. 3. Met hot r exa te. Th is ag ent is use d m a in ly in a ut oim m une dise as e and p revent ing gr af t ver s us host dise as e in he m ato po ie t ic st em cell t r ans pla nt pat ie nt s . a. Mecha nism of act ion. It p r event s dihydr o f ol ic ac id f r om c o nver t ing t o t etr a hyd ro f o lic ac id b y i nh ib it ing t he e nzym e d ihyd r of o la t e re duc t as e. As a re s ult , DN A a nd pr o te in s ynt hes is a r e inh ib it ed . P. 12 98
b. D o sing a nd mo nit o r ing . D osa ge reg im e ns in B MT p at ient s us ua lly c ons ist of 15 mg/m 2/ da y o n da y 1 af t er t r ansp la nt a nd 10 m g/ m2/ d ay o n days 3, 6, a nd 11 wit h ot her a ge nt s s uc h as c yc lo sp or i ne . c. S i de ef f ect s. B o ne ma rr ow sup pr essi on ( le uk o pe nia, t hr om boc yt op enia ) is t he maj o r side ef f ect as in a zat h iop r ine. I n a dd it ion, diar r hea and m uco s it is a r e com mo n. C. m TOR (m amma r ia n Ta rget of Ra pa my ci n) inhib it or is t he alk ylat i ng ag ent ma in ly us ed f o r B MT p at ient s . R ar ely is it us ed a s a s ub st it ut e a ge nt f or azat h io pr ine in so lid or g an t r a ns plant at ion. ®
1. S ir olim us ( Ra pa m une ) a. Mecha nism of act ion. S ir o lim us binds int r a ce llu la r r ecep to r, FK B P- 12 ( FK bind i ng pr ot ein- 1 2) . This c omp le x inh ib it s t he m TOR , whic h is a k e y reg ulat o r y k inas e . Th is r es ult s in inh ib it ing T - ce ll ac t ivat io n in a lat e r s tag e o f imm une r es po ns e t o f or eign ant ig en s uc h a s a gr af t. b. D o sing a nd mo nit o r ing . A d os e of 2- 10 m g/ day is a dm inis t e r ed as a once -da il y do se . U s ua lly, a lo ad ing d os e of 6 - 15 m g w it h a ma int ena nce do s e of 2 - 5 m g once
da ily is us e d. B loo d levels ar e us ef ul i n c lin ic a l m on it o r ing . The se r um l ip id p r of ile , WBC co unt , a nd G I s ym pt oms s ho uld b e mo nit or e d. c. S i de ef f ect s. H y per lipid em ia is t he m aj or s id e eff ect . In ad dit ion, le uk o pe nia , t hr om bo cyt ope nia , a nd G I s id e e ff ect s are c om m on. D. Alk yla t ing a gent . C y clo phosp ha m i de is t he alk y la t ing a ge nt m ain ly us e d f or he m at o po iet ic st em ce ll t r ansp la nt pa t ie nt s . Ra r ely, it is use d a s a s ub s t it ut e age nt f or a za t hiop r ine i n s ol id or g an t r ans pla nt at io n. 1. Mecha nism of act ion. It is c onver t e d t o t he a ct ive m et abol it e phos phor am id e m ust ar d in t he li ve r , whic h i nh ib it s t he cr os s - li nk ing o f DN A, le ad ing t o cell de at h. 2. Do si ng a nd m oni to r ing . D ose s of c yclop ho sp ham ide up to 3- 4 m g /kg /da y for 4 da ys f o llo wed by a red uc t io n t o 1 m g/ k g/ da y t o t r ea t gr aft r ej e ct ion. The do sa ge 3
shou ld be t it r at ed to m aint a in a W BC c o unt gre at er t han 4 00 0/mm . 3. S i de ef f ect s. H emo rr ha gic cy st it i s a nd bo ne ma rr ow sup pr essio n (le uk o pe nia, t hr om bo cyt ope nia ) . In ad dit io n, naus ea , vom it i ng , and dia r r he a ar e comm on. E. Ant ibod y prod uc ts ®
1. Murom ona b C D 3 (Or t hoc lone OKT 3 ) is t he f ir st t he r ap eut ic m ous e m o no clona l ant ib od y p r od uc ed fo r us e in hum a ns. a. Mecha nism of act ion. OK T3 is a m ouse IgG 2α im m unog lo bu lin t hat b inds t o t he CD 3 st r uct ur e on T- lym p ho cyt es . O nc e OK T3 is bo und t o t he CD 3 r e gion of T cells, t he y los e t he ant ig en r ec o gnit io n f unct io n and c a nnot init iat e t he rej ect ion pr o ces s. b. D o sing a nd mo nit o r ing . The d os a ge is 5 m g /day int r aveno us ly f or 7 - 14 d ays f or pr e ve nt io n or t r eatm ent of r ej e ct io n. The C D3 + lym p ho cyt e co unt s ar e m onit o r ed, 3
and it is de sir ab le t ha t CD + c ell be m aint a ined at les s t ha n 30/m m . Gener a lly, pr eme dica t io ns s uc h as ac et am inop he n, dip he nh y dr am ine and cor t ic os te r oid ar e r eq uir e d t o re duce t he inf us ion r elat e d s id e ef f ect s ( i. e. , f eve r , chil ls) . c. S i de ef f ect s. W it h t he f ir st f e w d os es, t he pat ie nt w ill de ve lo p s ever e f lu- lik e sym pt om s s uch as fe ver , c hi lls , nause a, vom it ing, and hea da che . The OK T3 st im ula t es T ce lls , a nd t hes e s ym pt om s ar e ca us ed by a br upt r ele as e of c yt ok ines such as int e r le uk in- 1 , t um or - nec ros is f act or- a , and int e r le uk in- 6 fr om op s onized T ce lls ( c yt ok ine r elea se s yndr om e). It r eq uir es p rem e dic at ions such a s ac et am ino phe n, d ip he nhyd r am ine , and c ort ic os t ero id s t o r e duce t hes e sid e ef f ec ts be f or e OK T3 inj ect ion. ®
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2. Ant it hym oc yte glo bul in ( T hym o glo bul in , Atga m ) a. Mecha nism of act ion. It is a pur if ied po lyc lona l im m unog lob ul in f r om ra bb it s ®
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( Thym og lo bu lin ) or hors es ( At gam ), whic h bi nd s t o t he hum a n T c ells. H owe ve r, it ma y ha ve c r os s- r eac t ivit y a ga inst t he r ed bloo d ce lls , p lat e le t s , and g r anuloc yt es . b. D o sing a nd mo nit o r ing . The d os a ge is 1. 5 m g/k g ( Thym o glob uli n ® ) or 15 - 20 mg/k g ( At gam ® ) inf us io n da il y t hr oug h a ce nt r al l ine f o r 7 -1 4 da ys f or pr e vent io n o r t r ea tm ent of r ej ect io n. T he T- l ym p ho cyt e co unt s ar e m onit o r ed a nd m aint a ine d les s 3
t ha n 1 00 /mm . G ener a ll y, p r eme dica t io ns s uc h a s ac et am inop he n, dip he nh ydr am ine and c ort ico s t er o id ar e r eq uir ed t o red uc e t he inf us io n r e lat ed side eff ect s ( i. e ., f ever , chills) . F or t he inf us io n o f t hes e dr ugs , t he c ent r a l veno us l ine is a pr ef er r ed r out e r at her t han pe r ip he r al ve in. P. 12 99
c. S i de ef f ect s. Ant it h ym oc yt e g lob ul in m a y ca us e fever , chills, er yt hem a, le uk o pe nia, t hr om bo cyt ope nia , a nd anap hy la ct ic rea ct ion or s e r um s ick nes s . ®
3. Da cl izum ab ( Zena pax ) a. Mecha nism of act ion. It is a m olec ular ly e ng ine er e d hum a nized im m unog lob ul in ac t ive a ga inst int er le uk in- 2 r e ce pt or (C D 25, or Ta c) t hat bind s t o b loc k t he int e r le uk in- 2 r e ce pt or o n t he surf a ce of act ivat ed T- lym phoc yt es , t hus p r event ing Tce ll a ct ivat io n and p r ol if e ra t io n. b. D o sing a nd mo nit o r ing . It is ind ic at e d o nl y f or t he pr eve nt io n of ac ut e r ej ect io n. The usua l r ec om m e nd ed do sa ge is 1 m g/k g (ma x. 10 0 mg ) wit hin 2 4 hour s po stt ra nsp la nt a t io n a nd ever y 2 week s up t o 8 week s ( a to t a l of 5 d os e s) . c. S i de ef f ect s. B a sed on r es ult s of c li nic a l t r ia ls , no s pe cif ic s af et y m onit o r ing is r eq uir e d w it h da cl iz um ab. ®
4. Ba si lixi ma b (S im ule ct ) a. Mecha nism of act ion. It is a c him er ic (m ur ine / hum a n) m onoc lo na l a nt ib od y ( IgG 1), pr o duc ed by r e com bina nt DN A t e chno lo g y , t hat b inds t o block t he int e r le uk in- 2 r e ce pt or o n t he surf a ce of act ivat ed T lym phoc yt es , a nd as a r es ult , it pr e ve nt s T-lym p ho cyt e ac t iva t io n, t hus p r event ing a c ut e r ej ec t io ns . b. D o sing a nd mo nit o r ing . It is ind ic at e d o nl y f or t he pr eve nt io n of ac ut e r ej ect io n. The usua l r ec om m e nd ed do sa ge f or t he adult p at ient is 2 dose s of 20 mg e ac h a t da y 0 and da y 4 a ft er k id ne y t r ans pla nt at io n. N o sp ec ia l m onit o r ing is r e qu ir e d. c. S i de ef f ect s. B a sed on r es ult s of c li nic a l t r ia ls , no c yt ok ine r e le as e s ynd r om es ha ve be en not ice d. 5. Ot her a nt ib ody a ge nt s ®
®
Ale m t uzum a b (Cam pa t h- 1H ) or r et u xim ab (R it u xa n ) ar e ind ic at e d f or hem at olog ic ma lig ana nc y a nd not a ppr ove d f o r t he o rga n tr ansp la nt a t io n, b ut are oc c as io na lly us ed in t he o rga n tr a ns p lant a t io n f o r pr e vent io n o f ac ut e r ej e ct ion or int r a c t ab le ant ib od y m e dia t e d rej e ct ion. ®
F. C ort ico st e r oids. P re dniso ne (D elt as one ) a nd m et hylp r ednisolo ne ®
(S olum ed rol ) ar e t he m aj or c o rt ic os t er o id pro duc t s us ed f or t r ansp la nt p at ient s . 1. Mecha nism s of a ct io n. C or t ic o st er oids ha ve m ult ip le pharm a co lo gic a l ef fect s in va r io us ce lls . Co rt ic o st er oids bind w it h int r ac e llu lar gluc oc ort ico id r ec ep tor s, w hic h r es ult s i n a lt e r ing DN A and RN A tr a ns la t io n. As a r e sult , c or t ic ost ero id s ca us e a r ap id a nd p rof o und d ro p in c ir c ulat ing T lym phoc yt es. The y ha ve po t ent a nt iinf lam m at or y ef f ect s by in hib it ing ar a c hid on ic a cid re lea s e a nd m acr op ha ge phag oc yt o s is . 2. Do si ng a nd m oni to r ing . They a r e use d in bo t h p reve nt ing and t r e at ing g ra ft r ej e ct ion a nd ac ut e g raft ve rsus ho st dis e as e. I n g ener a l, p r op hy la c t ic do se s in so lid or g an tr a ns plant at io n ar e in t he r a ng e o f 1 - 2 m g /k g/d ay and tap er e d over mo nt hs t o 0. 1- 0. 3 m g /kg / da y. In t he c as e of tr e at me nt , t he d osag e is 50 0 m g of met hylpr e dn iso lo ne IV f or 3 - 5 d ays or 1- 2 m g/k g/d ay o f o ral p r ed niso ne, wh ic h shou ld be t aper ed r ap idl y. 3. S i de ef f ect s. In t he lo ng- t e rm , co rt ic o st er oids c ause m ore t ro ub ling s id e e ff e ct s. The y inc lude p syc ho log ic a l dis t ur ba nc es ( i. e., e uphor ia , d ep res sion) , adr e na l a xis
supp r es sion, hyp er t e ns io n, so dium a nd wat er r e tent io n, m yo pa t hy, im p air ed wound he a li ng , incr e as ed a pp et it e, os teo por os is , hyp er g lycem ia , and c at ar a ct s.
IV. COMPLICATIONS OF IMMUNOSUPPRESSION A. Inf e ct i ons 1. R i sk . Tr a ns pla nt p at ient s have a h ig h r isk of ac qu ir i ng an inf ec t io n d ue t o pat ie nt f act ors s uc h as diab et es m ell it us, hep at it is , or urem ia . In ad dit ion, im m unos up pr e ss ive ag ent s ca n c aus e var ious effe ct s, such as leuk o pe nia, lym p ho pe nia, o r T- ce ll d ys f unc t io n, whic h in hib it a de quat e imm une r es ponse to t he inf e c t io n. 2. T im e c ourse. The r isk of inf ec t io n is g r eat est dur ing t he f ir st 3 m o nt hs aft er t r ansp la nt a t io n, w he n h ig he r do se s of im m unos uppr e ss io n ar e us ed , a nd again a f t er a rej ec t ion ep is od e is tr e at ed. Th is r is k cor r ela t e s w it h t he ove r all le ve l o f im m unos up pr e ss io n. 3. T yp es of inf ec t ions i nc lude ba ct er ia l, f unga l, v ir a l, a nd pr o tozo an. P. 13 00
4. P re ve nt i on a. T r ime t ho pr im - sulf a m et ho xa zo le (B ac tr im
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and ot her s ). O ne s ing le- o r do ub le -
st re ng t h t ab le t da ily f o r 6 mo nt hs s ign if ica nt l y r e duc es P n eu mo cyst is c ari nii pneum o nia a nd b ac t er ia l ur inar y t r a ct inf ec t io n. A f t er 6 m o nt hs, t hr e e t im es a week is ef f ect ive. b. He r pe s a nd C yt ome ga lovir us ( C MV ) i nf ect ion. Or a l a cyc lov ir ( 2 00 m g bid f or no rm a l r e na l r e na l f u nc t io n, wit h do s es adj ust e d ac co r id n t o r e na l f u nc t io n) f or he r pe s pr op hyla xis. Fo r C MV pr op hyla xi s, va r io us pro phyxis c an be use d. H igh do se s of acyc lo vir ( 80 0 m g qid f or no rm al renal f unc t io n, wit h d os e s a dj ust ed ac cor ding t o renal f unct io n) , ora l g anc ic lov ir ( 1 g t id f or no rma l r e na l f unct io n, wit h ®
do se s a dj ust ed a cc ord ing t o re na l f u nc t io n) , va lg anc ic lov ir ( V a lc yt e ) 90 0 m g da il y, or hig h- t it er C MV im m unog lo b ul in ar e eff ect ive i n r e duc ing t he inc id e nce of C MV inf e c t io n a nd inva s i ve C MV d is ea se . c. Ny st a t in so lut io n, c lot r im a zo le tr o che or f luc ona z ole r ed uc es or al ca nd id ia s is ( t hr ush) . B. Inc r ea se d r isk of m a l igna nc y 1. Ca use. Cont in uo us im m uno supp r es s ion int er f er e s w it h no rm a l im m une sur ve illa nce and f unct io n f o r m aligna ncy. In a dd it io n, som e of t he im m unos up pr e ss ive dr ugs m ay b e d ir e ct ly c a rc ino ge nic o r act iva t e o nc og en ic v ir us , such as E p st ein- B a rr vir us (E BV ). 2. C ha ra ct er ist ic s. Canc er s t ha t o cc ur m ost fr e quent ly in t he g ener a l p op ula t io n ( e.g ., lung , b r ea st , co lo n) a r e no t incr e as ed amo ng tr a ns plant p at ie nt s. Howe ve r , va r io us ca nc e r s unc o mm o n in t he ge ne r al po pula t io n ar e oft en m or e pr evalent in t r ansp la nt p at ient s : lym phom a s, sq uam ous c el l c ar c inom a s of t he lip and sk in, K apos i' s s arc oma, ot he r s ar c om a. 3. P ost t ra nspla nt lym phopr o lif era t ive di se a ses (PT LD s). The inc id e nce of lym p hom a a pp ear s t o c or relat e wit h t he int e ns it y of im m unos upp re ssion. It is
es pe ciall y w e ll do cum ent ed t hat T- c ell sp ec if ic a ge nt s, inc lud i ng O K T3 , cyclos po r ine, a nd t acr o lim us, incr e as e t he inc ide nc e o f lym phop r ol if e r at ive dis ea s es . 4. T r ea tme nt . In c as e of no nv it a l o r ga n t r a ns p lan t , imm uno supp r ess io n s ho ul d b e r ed uc ed or st o pp ed . If EBV -r e la t ed lym phom a occur s , acyclov ir o r ga ncic lo vir t he r ap y a ppe ars t o be ef f ec t ive; t he B - c ell- sp ec if i c mo no c lona l ant ib od y, r it u xim a b ®
(R it u xa n ) , is a ls o use d. C. H ypert e nsio n. Many im m unos up pr e ssive ag en t s ca us e hype r tens io n. C yc lo sp or ine and t ac r olim us c lea r ly incr e as e t he ar t er ia l b lo od pr ess ur e a nd st er oids m ay e xa ce r ba te hype r t ens ion a f t er tr ansp la nt a t io n f r om f lu id and so dium r ete nt io n. Tr e atm e nt us ua lly r e quir es t he us e o f m ult ip le ag ent s, inc lud i ng di ur e t ic s and c alc ium - cha nne l b lo ck er s. D. P o stt ra nsp la nt dia bet es m el lit us. Many im m unos up pr e s sive ag ent s incr e as e blo od gl uc os e leve ls . Cort ic os t er o id s, c yclos po r in e a nd t a cr o lim us inc r ea s e b lo od gluco s e. S om e pa t ie nt s d evelop a new onset diabet e s af t er tr a ns p lant a t io n, whic h inc r ea s es m or b id it y, m or t a lit y a nd r e duce s gr af t and pa t ie nt s ur viva ls . C ar ef ul mo nit or i ng of blo od gluc o se and p at ient c ouns el li ng a r e es se nt ia l. P. 13 01
STUDY QUESTIONS D ir ect ions: E ac h o f t he num b er e d it em s or incom p le t e sta t eme nts in t his s ect io n is f ollowe d b y answ er s or b y com plet io n of t he st at em ent . S e le ct t he one let t e red answe r or com ple t io n t ha t is be st in ea ch ca s e. 1. S . M. , a 38- year - ol d, r e ce ive d her li ving r e la te d k idney t ra nsp la nt 2 m o nt hs a go. At her c lini c vi si t t oda y, she c om pla ined of t ir e dne ss, sho rt ne s s of br eat h a nd peda l edem a . H e r se r um cr eat ini ne a nd B UN show e d t he f o llow i ng: ser um cr ea t ine 2 . 2 m g / dL , BUN 43 mg/ dL (1 . 2 m g/ dL and 2 4 mg /dL 4 w eeks a g o) a nd ta c ro lim us le ve l s 3 ng /m L (t hera pe ut ic ra nge 5-1 5 ng/m L ). S he w a s d ia g no se d a s a c ut e gra ft r ej e ct io n. S he w a s a dm it ted t o the ho spit a l a nd w a s t reat e d by t hym o glob uli n. W hic h of t he f oll ow ing r egar d ing t hym oglo buli n i s ( a re) tr ue? I. It is a hor se se rum a ga inst hum a n B cells. II. It is a n IL - 2 r ece pt o r a nta go nist a ga i nst hum a n T - ce lls. III. It i s a ra b bit imm unog lob uli n a ga inst hum an T -c ell s. ( A) I o nl y (B ) III o nly (C ) I a nd II (D ) II a nd III (E ) I, II and I II V ie w Answe r 1. The answe r i s B[ III E 2] . 2. Af t er 7 - da y c our se of t hym o glob uli n t her ap y, S.T' s r e na l f unct io n im pr o ve d b y t hym og lob uli n t reatm e nt . H er t hym ogl obuli n w a s co mp let ed and he r blo od ta cr olim us le ve l wa s 8 ng/m L . S he w a s d isc ha r ge d t o he r hom e . S e ve ra l day s l at e r, she devel ope d d ia b et ic c om a a nd se iz ur es. H er se iz ur e s w e re cont ro lle d by IV
dia zepa m a nd t he loca l physicia n w a nt e d to sta r t phenyt o in 2 00 m g da ily a s a ma int e na nc e t hera py. W hich is (a r e) ap pr op r ia te a d vi ce ( s) upon t his pr escr ip t ion? ( A) P henyt o in wil l r e duce t acr o lim us m et ab olis m, so plea se r e duce t he t a cro lim us do se by 1 00% and c he ck c yclos po r ine le ve l t w ic e a week . (B ) P henyt o in wil l incr e as e t acr o lim us m et ab olis m, so plea se s wit c h t ac r olim us t o cyclos po r ine. (C ) P henyt o in wil l incr e as e t acr ol im us m et ab olism , so plea se sw it c h p he yt oin t o va lpr o ic a cid . (D ) P henyt o in wil l no t a ff ect t ac r olim us m eta bo lism , so co nt i nue s am e d os e of t acr ol im us . (E ) P henyt o in wil l r e duce t acr o lim us m et ab olis m , so plea se m o nit o r t acr o lim us leve l mor e fr eq ue nt l y. V ie w Answe r 2. The answe r i s C[] . 3. S ix m ont h la t er, her re na l f unct io n wa s goo d w i th crea t i nine 1 . 6 m g/ dL a nd B UN 28 m g/ dL. T oday he r BP wa s 16 0/ 105 . W hic h of t he f ollow ing m ed ica t ion ( s) cont r ibut e( s) t o her hyp er t e nsio n? I. Ta cr o lim us II. P r e dni so ne III. My cop he no la t e m of et il ( A) I o nl y (B ) III o nly (C ) I a nd II (D ) II a nd III (E ) I, II and I II V ie w Answe r 3. The answe r i s C[] . 4. T he p hy sic i a n a sk ed you w he t he r a n ®
imm unosup pr es sa nt , da cliz um a b ( Z ena pa x ) is usef ul in t r ea t ing t hi s pa t ient' s a cut e re j ect io n. W hic h of t he f ol low ing is a n a ppr o pr ia t e r e sp onse? ( A) It is a hum anized Ig G pr o duc t ag ains t IL - 2 r e cep t or a nd it is us ef u l o nl y i n pr e ve nt i ng ac ut e r ej ect ion. (B ) It is a use f ul ag ent t o tr eat r ej e ct ion, but c he st x-r a y and m o nit or i ng of p at ient 's f lui d s t at us ar e r e quir e d b ef or e t his t her a py. (C ) It is use f u l, b ut pat ient 's we ig ht g ain s ho uld b e les s t ha n 3% f rom t he dr y we ig ht be f or e t he r apy (D ) It is a chim er al IgG w it h sp ec if ic it y a ga inst IL -2 rec e pt or and it is use f ul on ly f o r pr e ve nt io n of r ej e ct ion. (E ) It is a hum anized hor s e s erum a ga ins t T - ce lls a nd it is a new a ge nt us ef ul f or pr e ve nt io n and t rea tm ent of r ej e ct io n. V ie w Answe r 4. The answe r i s D[] . 5. All of t he f ol low ing a re cor rec t re ga rding inf ec t ion prop hy la x is in a n o rga n tra nsp la nt pa t ient EX CEPT ( A) Tr im et hop r im e- s ulf am et ho xa zo le f o r P n eu mocyt i s car i nii p ne um o nia p r op hy la xis (B ) N yst at in f o r f ung a l i nf e c t ion (C ) O r al ac yclo v ir f o r he r pe s sim p le x (D ) C lo t r im azo le tr oc he f or or a l t hr us h (E ) Le vof lo xac in f or ur inar y t r a ct inf ec t io n
V ie w Answe r 5. The answe r i s E[] .P . 13 02
6. A 16- year- ol d gi rl w ho ha d r ec ei ve d he r tra nspla nt 2 yea r s a go com pla ine d of ha i r gr ow t h on he r f ac e a nd did no t w a nt t o ta ke he r m ed ica t ions a ny m or e. W hich of t he f o llow ing i s (a re) li ke ly ca use of her p r obl em ? ( A) c yc lo sp or ine (B ) ta cro lim us (C ) pre dnis o ne (D ) azat hio pr i ne (E ) m yc opheno lic ac id V ie w Answe r 6. The answe r i s A[] .P. 13 03
ANSWERS AND EXPLANATIONS 1. T he a nsw er is B [ III E 2] . Thym og lo bu lin is an a nt ibo dy f r om r ab bit agains t t he hum a n t hym o cyt es. Th is dr ug ca n b e us ed as a r ej ec t io n p r event io n a ge nt or a tr e atm e nt agent f o r on - go ing r ej e ct ion. T he do se f or r ej ect io n t r e at me nt is 1. 5 m g/k g da il y f o r 7 - 10 da ys . At gam is a hor s e ant ib od y a ga inst t he hum an t hym o cyt es . D a c liz um a b ( Zenop ax) o r ba sil ixim ab (S im ule ct ) is an m onoc lo na l a nt ibo d y ag ai ns t an IL -2 r e c ep t or. 2. T he a nsw er is C [ Ta ble 5 8- 2] . P he nyt o in is a p ot e nt cyt o chr om e P 4 50 enzym e ind uc e r, whic h inc r e as e s t a cr olim us met a bo lis m . W he n ta cr olim us is us ed concur r ent ly wit h p he nyt o in, it is nec es s ar y to inc r ea s e t a cr olim us do se b y 5 00 % in or d er t o m a int ain t he t her a pe ut ic leve ls , which is ve r y co st ly. V alpr o ic ac id is anot he r ant ie pilep t ic ag ent , whic h do es no t int e ra ct wit h t acr ol im us . S o it is a goo d alt er nat ive f or phen yt o in in t his c a se . 3. T he a nsw er is C [ III. A. 1, F]. Tac r o lim us a nd pr e dnis one inc r e as e t he blo od p res sur e. Ta cr o lim us (P r ogr af ® ) pr omot e s t he va soc onst r ict ion and ca us es r e na l d ys f unc t io n, w hic h co nt r ibut es t o ®
hype r t ension. Pr e dnis one ( D elt a s one ) incr e as e s f lui d a nd so dium r et ent io n, whic h ®
co nt r ibut es to hyp er t e ns io n. Myc op he no lat e m of eti l ( C e llc ep t ) is an a nt ime t abo lit e inh ib it ing D N A s ynt hes is and c el l p r olif er at io n. It s side eff ec t s inc lude le uk op enia and t hr om b oc yt op enia and d oe s no t c ause hyp er te ns io n. 4. T he a nsw er is D [ III. E . 4. c] . ®
D ac liz um ab ( Zenap ax ) is a hum a nized m o noc lon al ant ib od y t ha t dir ect s t o t he int e r le uk in- 2 ( IL - 2) r ec ep t or on t he T ce lls . The bi nd ing s it e of t his a nt ibo dy ( 10 %) is or ig inat e d f r om m ous e, b ut t he o t he r par t is hum anize d Ig G ( 90%) . Int er leuk i n- 2 is T- c ell gr o wt h f ac to r, whic h in it iat e s T - ce ll pr o lif e r at ion. T he ba si lixim ab o ps onizes t his IL - 2 rec ept or, whic h pr e vent s T- ce ll gr o wt h and p r ol if e r at ion, whic h is e ss ent ia l f or t he gra ft r ej ect io n pr o ce ss . U nlik e OK T3 o r ant it h ym ocyt e glob uli n, it d oe s not show a ny s er ious sid e ef f ect s, s o it d oes no t req uir e p r em e dica t io ns s uc h a s ac et om ino phe n, d ip he nhyd r am ine , and c ort ic os t ero id s be f or e it s adm inis t r at ion. 5. T he a nsw er is E [ IV . A] .
All e xce pt f or levof lo xac in ar e c orr e ct . Le vo f lo xac in is a br oa d s pect r um o ral qu ino lo ne ant ib io t ic , whic h is not a pp rop r ia t e f or a lo ng t er m pr ophylac t ic r eg im en. 6. T he a nsw er is A [ III. A. 1] . Fac ia l ha ir gr o wt h ( hir s ut is m) is on e o f t he c um b er som e s id e e ff ects of cyclos po r ine, w hic h m a y disc our ag e t he pat ie nt 's com plia nce .
61 Outcomes Research and Pharmacoeconomics P et e r K. W ong Ala n H . Mut nic k
I. GENERAL CONCEPTS A. O ut c om es r esea rch (OR ) is t he st udy o f hea lt hca r e int e r ve nt ions ( tr eatm ent m odal it ie s such a s dr ug t her a pies , s ur g er y, a nd pa lliat ive t he r ap y) , ca r e d eliver y pr o c esse s, and he alt hc ar e qual it y t ha t a r e e va luat e d t o m eas ur e t he e xt ent to which op t im a l a nd de sir ab le out com es can be r ea ched . N orm all y, t he pur po se of OR is t o ass ess t he value of a pr ogr am or t her a py in q ue st io n. 1. The E c onom ic, C lini ca l , H um a nist ic Out come (E CHO) m ode l pr ovid es a fr am ework for c ompr ehe ns ive e va luat io n of o utcom es. Thr e e a rea s of out com es id ent if ied by K o zm a and R ee de r ( 199 8) a r e e co nom ic out com e s, cli nica l o ut c om e s, and hum a nist ic o ut com e s. 2. O ut come s re se ar c h m e t hod olo gie s i nc lude r et r os pe ct ive c ha r t r evie w, pr o spect ive c li nica l t r ia ls , o bs er vat iona l st ud ies , a nd c om put e r m od eling st udies . 3. E xa mp les of out c om e s m ea sur es a. E co nom ic out com es inc lud e a c quis it io n c o st s ass oc ia t ed wit h c ar e, lab or co sts a ss ocia t e d wit h c a r e, c ost s t o tr eat adver s e dr ug r e ac t ions, c osts of t r ea tm ent f a ilur e, co sts o f hos pit al re adm is sion, a nd co st s o f em er g ency r oom and c lin ic v is it s . b. C linica l o ut c om e s inc lude le ng t h of hos p it al s t ay, a dver s e dr ug re act io ns , ho sp it a l r e adm iss io n, and d eat h. c. H um an is t ic out c om e s inc lude pa t ie nt sa t is f act io n, f unct iona l st at us as me as ur ed by a va lid at ed inst r um ent , a nd qual it y - of - lif e as se ssm e nt . B. P ha rm ac oeco nom ic s (P E) , a divis io n of hea lt h e co nom ics , is d es ig ne d t o p r ovid e d ec is io n m ak er s wit h inf orm at io n a bo ut t he value of t he dif f ere nt pharm aco t he r ap ie s. Acc o rding t o B ootm an, To wns e nd , McG han ( 2 006), P E r es ear ch id ent if ies , m ea s ur es, a nd c om par es t he co s ts ( res our ces co ns um e d) a nd c onse quenc es ( cl in ic a l, ec onom ic , a nd hum anis t ic ) of pharm ace ut ica l p r od uc t s and s er vic e s.
II. COST A. D ef init io ns 1. T ota l co st . All e xpe ns es t hat ar e dir ec t ly and ind ir e ct ly ne ce ss ar y t o pr o vide a pr od uc t o r ser vic e 2. Avera ge co st . The a ve r ag e co st pe r un it o f o utp ut (t ot a l c ost d iv id ed by quant it y) 3. F ixe d c ost . C o st s t hat do no t var y wit h t he quant it y of out put f or a short r un pr o duct ion ( e. g. , r ent , f ixt ur es , f ixe d s alar y, dep r ec ia t io n, a dm inis t r a t ive co sts )
4. V ar ia ble co st . C ost s t ha t var y wit h t he leve l of out put ( e. g., wag es , supp lie s) 5. Ma r gina l cost . The e xt r a co st of p rod uc ing o ne e xt ra unit of o ut put 6. Incr eme nta l c ost. Ad dit io na l co s t s w he n c om par ing one a lt e r na t ive t o anot her 7. D i re ct cost. Co s ts dir e ct ly r ela t e d to pro d uc in g/ pr ovid ing a sp ec if ic quant it y of se r vice s or o ut p ut ( e. g. , s alar y, d r ug cos t and supp ly c os t f or t he pro vis io n of pharm ac y s er vic es ) P. 13 05
8. Indir e ct c ost. C ost s t hat are allo ca t ed t o t he ar ea (s) t ha t pr o duce /pr o vide a sp ec if ic q ua nt it y of s e r vic e s o r o ut p ut ( e. g. , o ve r he ad co st) 9. Al low a ble co st . A co st t hat is e lig ib le t o c la im f o r pur pos es of r eim b urs em e nt as ne ce ssa r y and r e le va nt t o t he de liver y o f a un it o f out put 10 . O pp ort unit y c ost . The co st of t he be ne f it of p ur s u ing an a lt e r na t ive co ur s e o f a ct ion 11 . O pe rat ing c ost . An y c o st t ha t s up po rt s t he op er at io ns t o pr o vide t he out put B. C ost a nd cha r ge 1. The m ea ni ng of t he term c o st de pe nd s o n t he pe r sp ec t ive f or t he ana lys is . The f o llow ing e xam p les s ho w d if f er ing p er s pect ives . 2. P r ovid er s m ay inc l ud e hos p it a ls, phys ic ia n o f f ic es , or amb ulat o r y sur ger y ce nt e r s, and t he t erm c o st m e ans t he t ot al co st s fo r p r ovid ing t he s pe c if ic se r vice ( s). 3. P ayor s m ay inc lud e ins ur ance com pa nies , Med ic ar e, o r Med ic aid , a nd t he t erm c os t m e ans t he pr ice t hat t hey have t o p ay to obt ain t he se r vice ( i. e., char g es by p rovid er s ) . 4. C harg es d o not eq ua l t he pa ym e nt t o p rovid er s . D epe nd ing o n t he co nt r a ct ua l t e rm s, m a ny p r ovid er s r ece ive o nly a pe r ce nt ag e o f t he c har g es f or p aym ent . The se ar e c alled d isc o unt ed cha r g e s. Ma ny p r ovid er s t o da y r ec eive a lum p sum am o unt o f do lla r s f or e ach ep is od e o f c ar e, e . g., dia g nos is - r elat e d gr oup s (DR Gs) or c as e ra t e pa ym e nt . Th is m ay also apply t o b ot h inpa t ie nt and o ut p at ient t r eatm e nt s. 5. Co nt r act ua l t e rm s ar e r ar e ly r ev ie we d a nd va r y wit h dif f e r ent insur anc e ca rr ie rs . This c r ea te s a dd it iona l co nf us io n as t o the c os ts a ss oc ia t ed f or va r io us se r vice s or t he r ap ies . 6. A r ec og niza b le wa y t o r e s olve t he se hur d le s is t o use t he c ost t o c ha r ge (R CC) r at io f or t he co st es t im at io n. Mu lt i p ly t he RC C by t he pat ient 's char g e t o yie ld t he es t im a ted c ost. RCC ca n be ob t aine d f r om t he ind ividua l ho sp it a l's C e nt er s f or Me dica r e a nd Med ic aid S erv ic es (C MS ) yea r ly c os t r ep or t. C. Ba sic st e ps in a sse ssi ng co st 1. De f ine t he un it s o f ser vic e o r out p ut
2. De t erm ine t he num b er of s er vic e o r o ut p ut unit s pr o vide d 3. De t erm ine c ost dr ive r s of t he se unit s o f s er vic e o r out p ut 4. Ca lc ulat e t ot al co st s, d ir e ct or ind ir ec t , r e la t ed t o t he p rovis io n o f t his out put or ser vice 5. Ca lc ulat e t he a ve r age co st and inc r em e nt a l c os t
III. ELEMENTS OF A GOOD STUDY A. S o und ob jec t ive ( s) . The s t udy ha s wel l- de f ine d o bj e ct ive( s ) and answe r ab le ques t io n( s ) . B. P er spe ct i ve ( s) . The r e is a d ef ine d p er s pect ive f or a na lys is ( e. g. , pa t ient , p ayo r, pro vide r , s oc ie t y) . In ma ny c as e s, s t udy pe r spe ct ive de t erm ines t he c o st - eff e ct ive ne s s o f a n int e r ve nt i on. Most of t he p ub lished PE g uide l ines sug ge st t ha t soc iet al p er s p ect ive b e co ns id er e d a s an ad dit io na l pe r sp ect ive f or a na lys is. C. Pa t ient popul a t io n c ho se n m us t be wit hin t he s c op e of a na lys is. P at ient se lec t io n cr it er ia t hat are t oo st r inge nt p os e a t hre at t o e xt e r na l va lid it y. P at ient s ele c t io n c r it e r ia t ha t ar e t oo lib er a l ar e a t hr e at t o int er na l va lid it y. C onside r at ion is a lso give n t o com o r bid it y a nd m ult ip le t r e atm ent mo da lit ies . D. P o ssible com para t or s a nd t heir ef f ect ivene ss. Al l r e le va nt a lt e r na t ives f or c om par iso n a r e ide nt if ie d. C ho se n com pa rat or( s) s hould be r easo na ble and is t he cur r ent pr ef err ed st anda r d tr e atm ent . In som e ins t a nc es no t r ea tm ent ( plac eb o) is co ns id er e d a s an alt er nat ive . P. 13 06
E. Met r ic s f or c ost s a nd conse que nce s. Me as ur e s chos en f o r cos ts and co ns eq ue nc e s c an a ff ec t t he r es ult s of t he a nalys is . B ia se s ca n be int r o duc ed int o t he analys is if unit s o f m eas ur e s ar e no t c le ar ly d ef ine d. This m a y pose a pr o blem wit h a m ult ic o unt r y s t ud y in t he ag gr ega t io n o f t he f ina l c o st s a nd co ns eq uence s b eca us e c urr ency e xc ha ng e r at e s ma y f luct uat e f rom t im e t o t im e. F. Inclu sio n of r ele va nt c ost s a nd co nseq ue nc e s in t he a na lysis ar e ba se d o n t he pe rsp ect ive cho se n. The c om put at io n o f c ost s and co ns eq ue nc e s s ho uld b e tr ansp ar e nt t o r ead er s. T he k ey is r epr od ucib il it y. R eade rs s hould be ab le t o us e t he publis hed c omput a t io n m e t ho ds wit h t he loc a l da t a t o va lid at e t he f ind ing s . G. A va lid da ta sour ce . De pe nd ing o n t he de sig n of t he st udy, d at a c an com e f r om clin ic a l t r ia ls, o bse r va t io na l s t ud ie s, he alt hc ar e claim dat abas es, char t r e view s, a nd epid em iolo g ica l d at a. Ea c h of the s our c es of t he se dat a wer e de signed f or som e o t her p ur p ose t ha n e c onom ic ana lys is . L im it at io ns ar e lis t e d in V II I. H. D isco unt i ng f or co st s a nd c onse que nc e s. Much d isc uss io n has be en de vo t ed t o t he a ppr opr iat enes s of d is co unt ing c o st s a nd co ns e quence s as well as t he d is co unt r at e. The c ons ensus at t his t im e is t o disc ount bo t h
co sts a nd co nse quence s . The d is co unt r a t e no rma ll y is t he op po rt un it y c os t of using r es o ur c es. Ma ny r es ear c he r s have us ed the g ove r nm ent b ond r at e. R egar d les s , t he r ese ar cher m ust of fe r t he j us t if ica t io n f o r t he c hos en dis c ou nt r at e (s). I. Inc r em e nta l a na ly si s p r ov id es an ins ig ht o n t he c omp ar iso n f or co st ge ne r at ed f r om o ne alt er nat ive t o anot her alt e r na tive , and t he ad dit io na l be ne f it y ie lde d fr om t he inc r e as ed co st . J. S ensit i vit y a na ly si s s ho uld inc l ud e a ll t he pla us ib le va lues a nd t he ir j ust if ica t io n f or t he ke y p ar am et ers . K. T im e ho r izo n of t he a na ly si s c over s t he f ull dur at ion o f tr eatm ent f or t he dise as e pr oce ss. F or e xam ple, t he t im e ho r izon f or t he cho les t e r ollow er ing a ge nt 's tr eatm ent s ho uld b e t he lif e s pa n fr om t he st ar t da y of t r ea tm ent t o t he e nd of lif e . L. Appr opr ia t e ne ss a nd c om pre he nsi ve ne ss of p r esent at io n a nd disc uss ion of t he st udy resul t s. S im ila r to t he clin ic a l st ud ies , t he pr e se nt at io n o f s t ud y r es ult s should no t b e b ias e d. I nt e r ve nt iona l alt e r nat ive s a nd st ud y lim it a t io ns m us t b e ad dr e ss ed . G e ne r aliza b i lit y a nd ap plica b il it y ar e a ls o d is cuss e d.
IV. PHARM ACOECONOMIC METHODOLOGIES A. C ost of illne ss ( CO I) is t he eva lua t io n a nd a ss es sme nt of t he r es o ur c es us ed in t r ea t ing a n illn es s . Th is t e chnique is use d t o o bt a in t he b as eline co st inf orm at ion b ef o re t he int r od uc t io n o f a ne w int er ve nt io n. C os ts ar e me as ur ed in t erm s of do lla r s. Lik e any PE a na lys i s, t he evalua t or ne ed s t o de f ine t he a na lys is pe r sp ec t ive. A d if f e rent per s pe ct ive wil l c ha ng e t he co st st r uct ur e . For exam p le , f r om a p at ient 's p er spe ct ive, t he c o st of i llnes s will inc lude t he tr a ns por t at io n t o and fr om t he tr eatm ent s it e . Tim e d ur at io n o f t he dise as e ca n b e c r it ica l i n d et erm in ing t he c ost a nd m ay b e a s our ce of bia s. N o c om par is on is m ade in t h is t ype of analy s is . B. C ost- be nef it a na l ysis ( C B A) is a too l use d t o d et erm ine p r io r it y f or t he r es our ce allo ca t io n. The t e chniq ue c an be app lie d t o t he c omp ar iso n of he a lt hc ar e pr o gr am s a nd wit h no n - he a lt hc a r e pr og r am s, s uc h a s soc ia l welf ar e pr o gr am s. For exam p le, one c a n com p are t he c ost s and be ne f it s o f a c or o na r y r isk f ac t or r e duct io n p r og r am a nd t he c hi ld hoo d im m unizat io n pr o gr am and t he dome s t ic vio le nce pr e ve nt ion p r og r am . This t e chn ique co ns is t s of ide nt if yi ng a l l o f t he b enef it s t ha t ac crue f r om t he pr ogr am and co nver t i ng t hem int o do lla r s i n t he ye ar t ha t t hey oc c ur . The s t ream of co st s and b enef it s ar e t he n dis c ou nt e d t o p r es ent value at t he se le ct e d dis c ount r ate . N et be ne f it is com put ed f or ea ch pr ogr am a nd ca n t he n be com pa r ed wit h ot her pr ogr ams. C. C ost-m inim izat i on a na ly sis ( C MA). The unde r ly ing a ss um pt io n f or t his t yp e of a na lys is a ss um es t ha t cons eq ue nc es a r e e qu iva le nt . Ther e f ore , o nl y co st is com par ed. The chea pe st P. 13 07
int e r vent io n w i ll b e c hos en f or im plem ent a t io n. E qu iva le nt out com es m ay no t ne ce s sar ily b e e qual. O ne nee ds t o det erm ine t he k ey out c om e of eac h com pa r at or . For e xa m ple , t wo dr ug s m a y ha ve t he e quiva le nt t he r ap eut ic va lue b ut d if f er ent s id e e ff e ct pr of ile s. In s uch c as es , conse quenc es m ay no t be eq uiva le nt , and t his t e chnique is not ap pr opr ia t e . CE A shou ld be us ed inst e ad. D. C ost- ef fe ct ive ne ss a na ly si s ( CE A) is a t ec hniq ue t o as sist t he de cisio n mak er in id e nt if ying a p r ef er r ed c ho ic e am ong p os s ib le a lt e r na t ives wit hin sim i lar c o ns eq ue nc e s (e .g. , sam e t he r apeut ic c ate go r y) in t erm s of he alt h im pr o vem ent c r ea t ed ( e. g., lif e yea r ga ined , cl in ic a l c ur es ) . It is not t o b e us ed t o com pa r e d if f er ent c onse que nc es fo r each a lt e r na t ive, s uch as b loo d pr e ss ur e r ed uct ion t o de gre e o f c ho le st e r ol low er ing. C onse que nc es c an be int e rm ed ia t e o ut com es or sur r og ate o utc om e s such as t he r eperf usio n t im e of t he ve ss el af t er t hr omb olyt ic t he r ap y. G ener a lly, t he inc r em e nt a l c ost o f a pr og ram or an int e rve nt io n f r om a s pe cif ie d p ers pe ct ive is c om p ar ed t o t he incr e m ent al he a lt h e f f ect s. An e xa m ple is t he co st per un it o f b loo d pr e ss ur e r ed uct ion wit h ea c h a nt i hype r t ens ive a ge nt c omp ar ed. The r es ult s of t he analys is no r m all y a r e sta t ed in t e rm s of c os t p er unit o f ef fe ct ive nes s. E. C o st- ut ilit y a na ly sis ( CU A) . U nl ik e CE A, CU A m ea sur es t he co ns eq ue nc e s i n t e rm s of t he qualit y - adj us t e d lif e ye ar (Q ALY) ga ine d. The r es ult s o f t he a na lys is ar e no rm all y e xpr e ss ed a s a c os t p er Q ALY. The met r ic of Q AL Y inc or p or at es bot h t he im pr ovem e nt in quant it y of lif e , qua lit y of l if e, and t he pr ef er e nc e ( ut i lit y va lue ) of t he he alt h s t at e. The r e ar e t hr e e s o ur ces o f obt a ini ng ut i lit y va l ue s f o r hea lt h st a t es in CU A: j ud gm e nt t o est im at e t he ut ilit y va lues , value s f rom t he lit er at ur e, or value s elic it ed f rom a s am p le of s ubj e ct s. C om m on t e chniq ues f or elic it ing ut ilit y va lue s ar e r at ing s ca le ( visua l a na log sc ale) , st a nd ar d gam ble, a nd t im e t r ad eof f. F ive c ir c um s t anc es ha ve b ee n s umm ar iz ed t hat det a il whe n CU A ma y be t he a ppr opr ia t e t e c hn ique t o a pp ly. 1. W he n qualit y of lif e is t he o nly o ut c om e 2. W he n qualit y and q ua nt it y of lif e ar e he alt h out com es 3. W he n t he int er ve nt io n af f e ct s b ot h m o rt al it y an d m o rbid it y a nd a com b ined unit of o ut com e is d es ir e d 4. W he n t he int er ve nt io n be ing c om p ar e d has a wid e r a ng e o f p ot e nt ial out com es and a c omm o n unit of out c om e is ne ed ed 5. W he n t he obj e ct ive is t o com pa r e a g old st anda r d int er vent io n t hat alr e ad y ha s t he cost per Q AL Y. Q ALY is c a lc ula t e d b y m ult ip ly ing t he ut i lit y va lue s obt aine d f o r t he s p ec if ic hea lt h st at e wit h the q ua nt it y of lif e ye ar s sp ent in t hat s pe c if ic hea lt h st a t e. C omp ar iso n ca n t hen b e m a de f or t he pr o gr am and i nt e r ve nt io n. F. Mul t iat tr ib ut e ut ili t y t heo ry ( MAUT ) or a na lysi s ( MA U A) is a no t he r t ec hn iq ue f r eq ue nt ly us ed in as s es sing ut ilit ies . In t h is sit ua t io n, s eve r al at tr ibut es c an be inc l ud ed , s uc h a s cl inica l e f f ect a nd f ina nc ia l ef f ec t as
well as q ua lit y o f lif e. It is po ss ib le t o pr ef ere nt ia ll y weig h t he de cisio n ba se d o n w ha t t he pr io r it ie s a r e for t he de cisio n m ak er a nd t hen ap ply t he weig ht s to id ent if y t he m o st pre f er ab le t he rap y, se r vice , a nd so o n. As ev ide nce d f r om t he f o llow ing t hr e e e xam ples , t he i nd iv id ua l's pe r spec t ive will ha ve a maj o r ef f ect o n t he f ina l d ec is io n m ade , b as ed on t he leve ls o f pr io r it y c ho se n f or e va luat io n. 1. A phys ic ia n m a y view c lin ic a l out com e t o r e pr es ent 70% of t he de cisio n, f ollowe d b y pat ie nt ' s q ua lit y o f lif e (20%), and las t t he c os ts ( 1 0% ). 2. A ho sp it a l a dm in is t r at or m a y vie w t he f ina nc ia l o ut c om es ( 70%) as a maj o r pr ior it y, f ollowe d b y t he c lin ic a l out com e (20% ), a nd la s t t he q ua lit y of lif e ( 10%) . 3. A pat ie nt w it h he a lt h ins ur a nc e m ight v iew t he c lin ic a l o ut com e ( 4 5%) and q ua lit y o f lif e ( 4 5% ) a s t he t op pr ior it ie s a nd have m inim a l c once r n for t he f inanc ia l o ut com es ( 1 0%) of suc h a de cisio n. G. W i lling ne ss t o pay (W TP) t e c hn ique is us ed to asse s s t he per ce ived va lue o r be ne f it of a pr o duc t and se r vice . The W TP val ue s c an b e o bta ined t hr o ug h t w o app r oa che s: 1. Indir ec t m eas ur em ent , whic h e xa m ines in ac t ual pa ym e nt s pre vio us r ea lwor ld d ec is io ns t ha t in vo lve t r ad e- of f s bet we en money a nd e xpe c t ed out com es P. 13 08
2. D ir ect m eas ur em ent , whic h use s sur vey m et hod s t o e l ic it sta t ed dollar o n t he per ce ived b enef it s. I n t his s ec ond app ro ac h, r es ea rcher s a re seek ing t o pr o vide suf f ic ie nt ba ck gr o und inf o rm at ion t o cr e at e wit hin t he r es po nd ent 's m ind a hypo t he t ic al m ark et in w hic h t he p er s on pro v ide s a j udgm ent of t he va lue o f t he pr opos ed s er vic e. 3. The cha lle ng e o f using co nt i ng e nt valuat io n is to pr e se nt wit h in t he ques t io nna ir e s uf f icie nt , c le ar ly o r ga nize d inf o rm at io n t o a llow t h is j ud gm e nt t o occ ur . B a sic f a ct s ne ed t o b e give n a t t he a ppr opr ia t e t im e. U nlik e CB A, W TP t ak es int o c o ns id er a t io n t he p s yc ho lo g ic a l a sp ec t s of t he illnes s as we ll a s t he phys ica l d et e r io ra t io n. The use o f W TP as an out c om e me as ur e is t heo ret ic all y c ons is t ent wit h we lf a r e eco nom ic s. It a ls o pr ovid es a m e ans t o a ss ig n d ol lar va lues t o he alt h o ut c o me s.
V. DECISION ANALYSIS is a s ys t em at ic a ppr oa ch t o de c is io n m ak ing u nde r co nd it io ns o f unce r t aint y. It is a t ool f or he lp i ng t he d ec is io n m a ke rs ide nt if y op t io ns t ha t ar e avai lab le , pr e dict t he c onse quenc es and va lue of ea ch o pt ion ba se d o n t he pro ba bilit ies as s igne d t o eac h o pt ion, and choo se t he o pt ion t hat has t he be st pa yo ff . D ec is io n a na lys is c an b e inc or p ora t ed int o t he pharm aco ec onom ic s eva lua t io n. St ep s in pe r f orm ing a d ec is io n a na lys is a r e as f ol lo ws:
A. Ide nt if y a nd bound t he de cision. All t he g r ound r ules s uc h a s analys is pe r spect ive, com pa r at or s se le ct ion, t im e s pa n, a nd de c is ion r u les a r e ide nt if ie d a nd c lar if ie d. B. D e ve lop a d ec isi o n t r e e (F ig ur e 61 - 1) . The d ec is io n m ake r wil l s t r uc t ur e t he de cisio n in t he f orm of a t re e w it h br a nc he s f rom lef t t o r ight . Ea ch br a nc h is a s egm ent of a p at h t hat lea ds t o an o utc om e. The pr o cess o f se tt ing up t he t r ee help s t he dec is io n m ak er put thoug ht s on pa per and pr o vide s a n e valuat ion f o r ea ch opt io n t ha t o cc ur s . C. Asse ss a nd a ssig n pr oba b ilit ie s. P rob ab ilit y r ela t e d t o ea c h br anch is as se ss e d a nd ass ig ne d. P r ob ab ilit ies c an be o bt ained f r om t he publis hed lit e r at ur e, an exp er t p anel, or cli nica l t r ia ls .
Figure 61-1. Decision tree with probabilities included.
P. 13 09
Figure 61-2. Completed decision tree after averaging out and folding back.
D. Va lue out come s. Fo r each of t he o ut c om e po ssib il it ie s, as sign a va lue . This c a n b e in t he f orm of m one t ar y or ut i lit y va lu es .
E. Ca lculat e t he e xpe ct ed va lue . U s ing t he a vera ging- o ut and fo ld ing- b ack met hod , st art f r om t he r ight and work b ack war d t o t he le f t, a nd ca lc ulat e t he e xpe ct e d va lue b y m ult ip ly ing t he out com e va lue to ea ch ass ig ne d pr o babil it y ( Fig ur e 6 1- 2). F. C hoose t he pr ef e rr ed co ur se of a ct ion. D e pend ing o n t he gro und r u le s se t in t he b eg inning o f e it her o pt im izat io n or m inim izat ion, c ho os e t he be st co ur s e o f a ct ion. G. P erfo rm a sensit i vit y a na ly si s. Ass ig n d if f e r ent val ue s t o a ll p la us ib le out com es and r es olve t he d ec is io n t r e e t o ide nt if y t he r ob us t nes s of t he da t a a nd / or r es ult s.
VI. PATIENT-REPORTED OUTCOMES (PRO). PRO r ef er s t o any out com es b ased on d ata pr o vid e d b y p at ie nt o r p at ient pr o xy. It inc lude s he a lt h- r elat e d q ualit y of l if e data. PRO d at a c an be co lle ct e d dur ing t he c li nic a l t r ia l. E xa m ple s of PRO d at a inc l ud e p at ient sa t is f act io n w it h t r eatm ent a nd pr o vide r s, f unc t io na l s t at us, ps ychos oc ia l well- be ing, tr e at me nt com pl ianc e/ a dher e nc e, and d is ea se s ym pt om s. The r e is a g r owing am o unt of int er e st in ad ding PRO d ata int o t he dr ug - r e view and eva lua t io n p r oces s. A. H ea lt h- r ela ted qua lit y of l if e (H RQO L). A lt ho ugh qua l it y of lif e f oc use s on all as p ec t s of lif e , HRQO L f oc use s o nl y on a pat ient 's nonc li nica l inf o rm at ion s uc h a s f unct io na l st at us, well- be ing, p er c ept io n of hea lt h, r et ur n t o wo rk f r om a n i llnes s , and o t her hea lt h out c om es t ha t ar e dir ect ly af fe ct by hea lt h st at us. S t anda rdize d ques t io nna ir e s ar e us ed t o c apt ur e HRQO L d at a in a va r ie t y of r es ear ch s et t ing s. D ata ar e o bta ined eit he r by t ele pho ne int er vie w, s elf - a dm inis t r a t io n, p er s o na l f ace -t o- f ac e int e r view, ob se r vat io n, or m a il- in s ur vey. S uc h s t a nd ard ized ques t io nna ir es c an also be div id ed int o ge ne r al he alt h s t at us inst r um ents—f or exa m p le , , S hor t - Form 36 (S F- 36), S ho rt- Form 1 2, S F-1 0 f or C hild r en, SF - 8 He alt h S ur veys , sic k ne ss im p act p rof ile s ( S IP) —or d is ea se - sp ec if i c ins t r um e nt (e. g., McG ill P ain In ve nt or y, B eck D e pr e s sion S cale , Funct io n al P. 13 10 Liv ing I nd e x—C a nc e r ). The g ener a l hea lt h s t at us inst r um ent s me as ur e t he glo ba l hea lt h st at us, whe r eas t he dise as e - sp ec if ic ins t r um e nt s t a r ge t t he dis ea s e- s pecif ic is sues . B. S hort f orm sur vey s a r e t he mo st fr e quent ly us ed gener a l hea lt h st at us ins t r ume nt s. Ther e ar e a va r iet y of d im ensions av ailab le , de pe nd ing o n t he chos en s ho r t f orm ins t r um ent . The or ig ina l S F - 3 6 i nc lude s p hys ic a l f unct io ns, so cial f unct ions , em ot io na l r o le, phys ic al r ole, b od ily p a in, me nt al he alt h, g ener a l hea lt h, and vit alit y. Ot he r s ur vey ins t r um e nt s m ay co nt a in on ly som e of t hes e dime ns io ns . Int e r est ed rea der s ca n exp lor e t he t he f ollo w ing W eb sit e: www. q ua lit ym et r ic . com f or m or e inf orm at ion. C. P syc hom et r ic p r opert ie s. B ef o re us ing a ny in st r um ent , t he re sea rcher m ust unde r s t and t he ps yc hom et r ic pr o per t ie s of the chos en inst r um ent . The
ps yc hom et ric pr o pe rt ie s c ons is t of t he rel iab ilit y a nd va l id it y inf orm at ion o f t he inst r um ent. In ad dit io n, t he se ns it ivit y and s pe c if ic it y o f t he ins t r um e nt ar e also im port a nt . 1. Re lia bili t y is a m ea sur e of c o ns is t ency. C a n we re pr oduc e t he sam e sc ore und er t he s ame c ondit io ns wit h t he s am e in di vid ua l? St a t is t ic al met hod s of m e as ur ing r eliab ilit y a r e Cr onba ch's α, P ears on's r c oe ff ic ie nt , and t he κ st a t is t ic . 2. V a lid it y is a m e as ur e of acc ur a cy. Is t he ins t r um e nt meas ur ing what it is supp os ed t o m ea sur e? Typ es of va lid it y a r e cont ent val id it y, co ns tr uct va lid it y, c r it e r ion va lid it y, a nd c onver ge nt /dive r ge nt va lid it y. 3. U se of t he inst r um e nt. The ps ychom e tr ic p roper t ies pr e clud e “m ixi ng and m at ching” s ect ions o f e st a bl is he d q ue st io nna ir e s o r selec t io n o f a se ct ion of an est a blished que st ion na ir e f or a dm inis t ra t ion wit ho ut r ec alibr a t ing t he ins t r um ent 's ps ychom et r ic pr o per t ie s.
VII. MODELING STUDIES. Ma t hem at ic al m o de ling is w id e ly use d to da y in t he ec o nom ic eval ua t ion o f me dica t io ns a nd he alt hc ar e t e chno lo g ie s . A. The g oa l f or m o de ling is t o ass em b le evid e nce of co s ts a nd o ut c om e s in a fo rm t ha t c an pr oj e ct lo ng - t erm c ons eq ue nc es . Mo de l- ba s ed eval ua t io ns ar e gr eat t oo ls f or he alt hc ar e de cisio n m ak er s. B. Mat hem at ic al m od els p r ovid e t he cost - co ns eq ue nce est im at es t hat ca nnot b e r evea le d b y ra ndom ize d co ntr o l t r ials o r ep id em io lo g ic a l s t ud ie s be ca us e of t he dur at ion r eq uir ed f or long - t e rm st ud ie s ( 1 0- 2 0 ye ar s) . C. R esult s de r ived f r om m od eli ng as s is t de cisio n m ak er s in m ak ing inf o rm ed dec is ions . How ever , t he qual it y of t he de cis ion is ba se d com p le t ely on t he tr ut hf u lnes s of t he pr oj e ct e d r es ult s, w hic h in t ur n de pe nd s o n t he inp ut inf orm a t io n a nd as s um pt io ns im p os ed f or ea ch m od el. D. The I nt e r na t io na l S o c iet y o f P harm a co ec o nom ics a nd O ut com es R esea rch ( IS POR ) re comm ends t he fo llo w ing c r it e r ia f or as ses sing t he qua lit y of m o de ls : m od el str uc t ur e , d at a us e d a s i np ut s f o r t he m o de l, a nd mo de l val id at io n.
1
VIII. 1997 FDA MODERNIZATION ACT, SECTION 114, HEALTH CARE ECONOMIC INFORMATION A. “H e alt h c are ec o nom ic inf orm at ion p r ov ide d t o a fo rm ula r y comm itt e e, or ot her s im ilar e nt it y, in t he c our se of t he c omm itt ee or e nt it y ca rr yi ng out it s r es po ns ib ilit ies f or t he selec t io n o f d r ug s f or m a na ge d c are or ot her sim i la r or g anizat io ns , s ha ll no t be conside r ed to be f alse or m islea di ng unde r t his pa r agr ap h if t he hea lt h ca r e ec onom ic inf o rm at io n d ir e ct ly r ela t e s t o a n ind ic at io n ap pr o ve d … f or s uc h dr ug a nd is ba s ed on c om pet e nt a nd r eliab le sc ie nt if ic evid e nce . ” ( Fr om t he FD A' s Mode r niza t io n Ac t o f 1 99 7, ht t p :// www .f da. g ov/ cde r/ guid a nce / s8 30enr .t xt ) P. 13 11
B. H ealt h e co nom ic inf orm at io n m e ans a ny a na lys is t hat ide nt if ie s, me as ur es , or com par es t he e co nom ic c onse quence s inc lud i ng t he c os t s of t he r ep r es ent e d hea lt h out c om e s, o r t he us e of a dr ug t o t he us e of a no t he r dr ug, o r to anot her he alt hc ar e int er ve nt io n, or t o no i nt e r ve nt ion. C. K ey conce pt s of t he a ct 1. A ve nue f or t he pharm a ce ut ica l ind us t r y t o p r ov id e OR and/ o r PE r es ear ch st ud ie s t o d ec is io n m ake r s 2. E co nom ic inf orm at ion c an be p rovid ed in t he f orm of C MA, CB A, CU A, CO I, a nd cos tqual it y of lif e . 3. Com pe te nt a nd r el ia ble s cie nt if ic inf o rm a t io n pe rt ain ing t o a n a ppr ove d ind ic at io n 4. S t anda rd of c om p et e nt and re liab le s c ient if ic inf o rm at ion ha s no t be en ad dr ess ed.
IX. PRACTICAL ISSUES IN INTERPRETING OUTCOMES RESEARCH AND PHARM ACOECO NOMIC STUDIES A. C om par isons be tw ee n ec onom i c st ud y a nd ra nd om iz ed cli nic a l t r ia ls (RCT s) 1. E co nom ic st udies a r e c ar r ied out in a n o bs er vat iona l en v ir onm ent , wher e as RC Ts de pe nd on r ig or o us exp er im e nt a l d es ig n w it h st r ict inc lus ion/ e xc lus io n cr it er ia . 2. RC Ts r ely o n hig hl y c ont r o lle d a nd ar t if ic ia l c lin ic a l se t t ings t o dem onst r at e cli nica l e f f ic ac y. C lin ic a l a nd e c onom ic end po int s o f t he st udy m ay not be t he sam e. In a dd it io n, RC Ts t e nd t o ha ve ad dit io na l p r oto co l c ost s ( e. g., ext r a t es ts ) and inf la t e d benef it s ( e. g., m edic at io n c om p lia nc e, ap pro pr ia t ene ss of ut i lizat io n) . 3. E co nom ic st udies have lar g e s am p le size s, whe r ea s RC Ts ar e l im it e d t o a r ela t ive l y sm all s am p le size . 4. E co nom ic st udies a r e g ener a liza b le t o t he bro ade r pat ie nt p op ulat io n, wher e as RC Ts ar e lim it ed t o t hos e inc lude d wit hi n t he st r ing ent ent r y cr it er ia, w hic h m ight no t r ep r es ent t he t yp ic al pa t ie nt r e c eiv ing t he t es te d t her a py. B. Mult i ple co unt r ie s' OR a nd P E st udi es 1. The r e a r e sig nif ic ant d if f e r ence s in ph ys ic ia n p r act ic e p at t er ns and car e - de li ve r y syst em s am o ng dif f er e nt co unt r ie s. 2. D if fer e nt m et hod s of f und ing he alt hc ar e and a ll oc at ing he a lt h e xpe nd it ur es m ak e it a lm ost im p os s ible t o c alc u lat e c os ts . 3. P at ient s' co nc er ns and b elie f s a r e dif f er e nt . C. B ud ge tar y co nst ra int s. De c is io n m ak ing s ho u ld no t be sole ly ba s ed on t he inf o rm at ion f r om t he PE analys is be ca us e mos t pub l is he d P E st ud ie s d o not im po s e budg et a r y co ns t rai nt a s par t of t he a na lys is. C os t- ef f ecti v e d oes no t e qual af fo r da bl e. I n a dd it io n, one s hou ld a ls o co ns id er the im plem ent a t ion c os ts of t he pr o gr am. In m a ny ins t ance s , im plem e nt at io n c o sts m ay e xc e ed t he b enef it s or ef fe ct ive nes s o f t he pr ogr am. D. R epr od uc ibili t y 1. Oft en, owing t o j our nal sp ac e l im it a t io n, le ngt h y co st com put at ions ar e el im inat e d f r om t he p ublis hed ar t icle. S uc h pr a ct ice c rea tes an im p os s ible a ud it i ng m ec ha nism
f or t he der ivat io n and c om p ut a t io n of c ost s. Cr it ic al as se ssm ent o f t h is se ct ion o f t he publ is he d a r t ic le is ne ce s sa r y t o e ns ur e t he val id it y and r e lia bi lit y o f t he r esult s . 2. Mode ling is a n ap pr o pr iat e m et hod when t he d is ea se and t r ea tm ent in que st ion ha s a le ng t hy t im e spa n a nd et hica l d ile m ma o f wit hdr a wing t r eatm ent . H o weve r, as sum pt ions a nd inp ut val ue s t o t hes e mod e ls a re not t r ansp ar e nt to r e ader s. P. 13 12
3. B ot h is sues m ak e it a lm o st im po ss ib le t o r epr od uc e t he st udy r e sult s using t he loc a l da t a. E. Lim it at io ns of c la im data st udie s. C la im dat a are de signed f o r bil lin g p ur p os e s. The r e is no dif f ere nt iat io n be t we en com or b id co nd it ions a nd c om p lic at ions in co ding da t a. This c a n p ose a pr ob lem in q ua lit y b enc hm ark s t udie s . In ad dit ion, c od ing pr a ct ice m ay b e d if f er ent f rom one ins t it ut io n t o ano t he r , a t hr ea t t o r eliab ilit y. P. 13 13
STUDY QUESTIONS D ir ect ions: E ac h o f t he q ue s t io ns , st at em ent s , or inc om p le t e s t at em e nt s in t h is se ct ion ca n be co rr ect ly a ns we r ed or c omp le t ed by o ne of t he sug ge st e d a nswe rs or phr as es. C hoo se t he b est ans wer . 1. T he under ly i ng a ssum pt io n of co st -m ini m iza t ion a na ly si s (C MA) is ( A) c alc ulat io n of co st m inim i za t io n r a t io . (B ) c onse quence s ar e eq ui va le nt . (C ) co st s ar e eq ui va le nt . (D ) no m or e t han t wo com par ato r s in an y ana lys is . V ie w Answe r 1. The answe r i s B[ se e] .2. W hi ch one of t he se st a t em e nt s is not t r ue f or t he dif f e r ence s b etw e en ec onom ic st udie s a nd ra nd om ized cli nic a l t ria ls (RCT s) ? ( A) G ener a liza b il it y and ap plica b i lit y o f t he r e sult s dif f er be t wee n ec onom ic st udie s and RC Ts. (B ) C li nic a l end po int and e co nom ic end po int ar e id ent ic a l. (C ) RC Ts te nd t o ha ve inf la t e d b enef it s a nd a dd it io na l p r oto c ol- d r iven c os t s. (D ) S amp le s ize o f t he e co nom ic st ud y is nor m a lly la r ge r t han in t he RC T. V ie w Answe r 2. The answe r i s B[ se e] .3. I n c hoo sing a n i nst r um e nt t o mea sur e t he hea lt h- r ela t ed qua lit y of lif e (HRQO L) , at t e nt ion sho uld b e pa id t o ( A) rel ia b il it y and va lid it y of t he inst r um ent. (B ) s ensit iv it y and s p ec if ic it y o f t he ins t r um e nt . (C ) le ng t h o f t he ins t r um e nt . (D ) All of t he ab ove V ie w Answe r 3. The answe r i s D[ se eand] . 4. In c ho osi ng a st ud y per spe ct ive, t he curr e nt p ha rma co ec onom ic (PE) g uid eline s ha ve sugg e st ed w hic h one of t he f ol low ing p er spec t ives t o be incl ude d? ( A) s oc ie t y
(B ) pa yor s (C ) pat ie nt s (D ) pro vide r s V ie w Answe r 4. The answe r i s A[ se e] .5. W he n i nt e rpr et ing a m ult ina t io n ec onom i c c lini ca l tr ia l , w ha t issue nee ds spe ci a l a tt ent ion? ( A) c os t c om put at io ns (B ) he alt hc a r e f und ing a nd c os t- al loc a t ing m echan is m s ? (C ) pat ie nt s ' va r ia t io ns and b el ief s (D ) All of t he ab ove V ie w Answe r 5. The answe r i s D[ se eand] . 6. W hich one of t he se pha rma co ec onom ic (PE ) te chniq ue s d oes not a ddr e ss bo t h c ost a nd conse q ue nce s? ( A) c os t- be ne f it analys is (B ) c os t- ef f ec t ivenes s ana lys is (C ) co st- ut i lit y a na lys is (D ) co st of ill ne ss V ie w Answe r 6. The answe r i s D[ se e] .7. W hi ch of t he f o llow ing i s a n exam ple of a c lini ca l out com e ind ica t or ? ( A) do llar s sp ent tr e at ing ac ut e m yoc ar dia l i nf a r ct io n (B ) res o ur c es use d in d ia gnos ing t he p r es e nc e of m e dic a l e rr or s (C ) dur at ion of ho sp it a liza t ion a nd m ort a lit y ver s u s d is char g e rat e f or ve nt r icu la r f ibr i lla t io n p at ient s tr eat ed wit h am io da r one (D ) f unc t io na l c ap ac it y of pat ie nt s tr e at e d wit h r am ip r il in t he pr ese nce of ca r dio vas cu la r r is k f act ors V ie w Answe r 7. The answe r i s C[ se e] .P.1 31 4
ANSWERS AND EXPLANATIONS 1. T he a nsw er is B [ s ee IV .C] . C MA as s um es a ll co ns eq ue nc e s c ompar ed ar e equi va le nt . For t his r e as on, o nly t he co st of e ac h alt er nat ive is c om par ed. The le as t exp ensi ve alt er nat i ve w il l b e chos en. 2. T he a nsw er is B [ s ee IX. A] . C lin ic a l a nd e co nom ic end p oint s ar e g ener a lly not eq ua l. In t he s eq ue nc e of t he st udy e ve nt s , eff ic a cy s ho uld c om e bef ore eff ect ive ne ss . 3. T he a nsw er is D [ s ee V I.C. 1, 2 an d 3]. All of t he c hara cte r is t ic s lis t e d r e quir e att e nt ion. 4. T he a nsw er is A [ s ee III.B ] . The s oc ie t al pe r spect ive m us t be inc lud ed . It is crit ic a l i n t he he a lt hc ar e envir o nm e nt to ide nt if y t he pe r spe ct ive f r om whic h a d ec is io n is b ei ng m ad e be ca us e t ha t pe rs pe ct ive dir ec t ly a f fect s t he f ina l d ec is io n. The de cis ion t o a dd a hig h- c os t, mode rat ely e ff ect ive t he r ap y f or t he t r eatm e nt of hos pit ali ze d se pt ic pa t ient s m ig ht b e d if f er e nt if viewe d fr om a ho s pit al f orm ular y c om m it te e ( in - ho us e
budg et a r y co nc er ns) t ha n f r om t he loc al com m unit y ( saving li ve s at wha t ever e xpe ns e) . 5. T he a nsw er is D [ s ee IX. B. 1, 2 a nd 3]. All of t he iss ues st ate d nee d spec ia l a tt ent io n an d p lay a m aj or r o le in de ve lo p ing m ult i na t io n e co nom ic eval ua t io ns t o avoid c arr yin g o ut a s t udy, whic h w he n com p le t ed canno t b e g ener a lize d t o t he b roa d p at ie nt p op ulat io n. 6. T he a nsw er is D [ s ee IV . A] . The c ost of ill ne ss m et ho do lo gy is ca rr ie d o ut as an a ss essm ent of t he ne c essa r y r es our ces, whic h wil l b e use d t o tr e at a des ig na t e d il lnes s. R es our ce s ar e m ea sur ed in t erm s of d olla r s, a nd t her e ar e no c omp ar a to r gr o up s in t he eval ua t io n. 7. T he a nsw er is C [ s ee I. A. 3.] . C lin ic a l o ut com es inc lud e t he f ollow i ng : le ng t h of hos p it a l s t ay, a dver s e dr ug r ea ct ions, ho sp it a l r e adm iss io n, and d ea t h. Thes e a re de f inab le m e as ur es of a pa t ient 's r esp ons e t o a give n t r e at me nt , suc h a s am io da r one us ed f or t he t re atm e nt of vent r ic u lar f ibr i lla t io n.
Appendix A Prescription Dispensing Information and Metrology Prescriptions PARTS OF THE PRESCRIPTION A pr e s cr ipt io n is an or d er f or m e dic a t io n f o r us e by a pat ie nt t ha t is is sued b y a phys ic ia n, d ent is t , vet er inar ia n, or ot her l ic ense d p r act it io ner w ho is aut hor ize d t o pr e sc r ib e m e dic a t io n o r by t heir ag ent via a c ol lab or at ive pr a ct ice ag r eem ent . A pr e sc r ip t io n is usua l ly wr it t e n on a s ing le s he et of p ap er t ha t is c omm only im pr int ed wit h t he pr es cr ibe r 's nam e, a ddr es s , and t elep ho ne num ber. A m e dica t io n o r de r is sim i lar t o a pr e s cr ipt io n, but it is wr it t e n o n t he pa t ie nt char t and int e nd ed f or us e by a p at ient in a n i ns t it ut io na l s et t ing . All pr es c r ip t ions shou ld co nt ain a cc ur a te and a ppr op r ia t e inf o rm at ion ab out t he pa t ient a nd t he m e dic at ion t hat is be ing p re s cr ibe d. In a dd it io n, a pr es cr ipt ion o r de r f or a co nt r ol led sub st a nce m ust c ont ain t he f ollo wi ng inf orm at io n:
D at e of is sue
Ful l nam e and a ddr es s of t he pa t ie nt
Dr ug nam e, str e ng t h, do sa ge f orm , and quant it y p re s cr ibe d
D ir ec t io ns f or use
N am e, ad dr e ss, a nd D r ug E nf or cem ent Ag enc y ( D E A) num b er of t he pr e sc r ib er
S ig na t ur e of t he pre s cr ibe r
A wr it t en pr e sc r ip t io n o r de r is r e quir e d fo r s ub stanc e s l is t ed in S ched ule II. Pr es cr ipt ions f or c ont ro lle d s ubs t ance s lis t e d in S c he du le I I ar e ne ve r r ef illa b le. Any o t he r pr es cr ipt io n t ha t ha s no ind ica t io n o f r ef ills is not r ef il la b le . Pr es cr ipt ions f or m edica t io ns t hat a re lis t ed in S che du le s I I I, IV, and V m ay be iss ued eit he r in wr it i ng or or al ly t o t he pharm a cist . If a ut hor ize d b y t he pr e s cr ibe r , t he se pr e scr ipt ions m a y b e r ef il le d up t o f ive t im es wit hi n 6 m ont hs o f t he d at e o f iss ue. If t he p r es cr ibe r wis he s t he pat ie nt t o c o nt inue t o t ake t he m e dic a t ion a f ter 6 mo nt hs or f ive r e f ills, a new p re scr ip t io n o r der is r eq uir ed .
THE PRESCRIPTIO N LABEL In a dd it io n t o t he nam e of t he pat ient , t he pharm acy, a nd t he pr es cr ibe r , t he pr e sc r ip t io n lab e l s hou ld ac cur at e ly id ent if y t he m e dica t io n a nd pr o vide d ir ec t io ns f or it s us e. The la be l f o r a pre scr ip t io n o r der f or a co nt r o lle d subs t anc e m ust co nt a in t he f ollow i ng inf orm at io n:
N am e and a dd r es s of t he phar ma cy
S er ia l n um ber assigned t o t he pre s cr ipt io n by t he p ha rm ac y
D at e of t he in it ia l f i lli ng
N am e of t he pat ie nt
N am e of t he pr e scr ib er
D ir ec t io ns f or use
C aut io na r y s t a tem e nt s a s r e quir e d b y la w
*
AUXILIARY LABELS Auxil iar y, o r ca ut ionar y, lab e ls p r ovid e a dd it iona l im po rt ant inf or m at io n a bo ut t he pr o per us e of t he me dica t io n. E xam ples inc lud e “ S hak e W e ll” f or s usp ensions or em uls io ns; “ For E xt er nal U se O nly” f or P. 13 16 t op ic al lot io ns, so lut ions , or cr e am s; and “ May C aus e Dr o ws ines s” f or m e dic a t ions t ha t de pre s s t he ce nt r a l ner vo us s ys t em . The inf o rm at io n co nt a ined on au xili ar y lab e ls s hou ld b e br o ug ht t o t he att e nt ion of t he pat ie nt whe n t he m ed ic at ion is dis pe nse d. The pha rm a cist shou ld plac e o nly ap pr op r ia t e auxi lia r y lab e ls o n t he pr e sc r ip t io n c ont a ine r be c ause t oo m a ny la be ls m ay c onf us e t he pa t ie nt .
BEFORE DISPENSING THE PRESCRIPTION D oub le- c he ck t he a cc ura cy of t he pre scr ipt i on. P r ovide undi vide d a t t ent ion w hen f illi ng t he p r escr ip t ion.
C he ck t he pat ient inf o rma t io n ( e. g ., nam e, ad dre ss , d at e o f bir t h, t elep ho ne num ber) .
C he ck t he pat ient p r of ile (e . g. , a lle r gie s , m ed ic al co nd it io ns , ot her dr ug s, inc lud ing over - t he-c o unt er m e dica t io ns ) .
C he ck t he dr ug ( e .g., co rr ect d r ug nam e, co rr ect s pe l li ng , ap pr opr iat e dr ug f or t he pat ie nt ' s c ondit io n) , a nd ver if y t ha t t her e ar e no k no wn dr ug int e r ac t ions. A lw ay s ver if y t he nam e of t he dr ug. B ew a re of dr ug na m es t ha t look a like ( see t ab le ) .
C he ck t he dos a ge, inc l ud ing t he d r ug str engt h, t he d osa ge for m ( e. g. , ca ps ule, l iq u id , m od if ied r elea se ), t he ind ivid ua l do se , t he t ot a l d aily d os e , t he dur at ion of tr eatm ent , a nd t he unit s (e. g ., m g, m L, t sp, t b sp ).
C he ck t he lab el. Com p are t he dr ug disp ens ed wit h t he p r es cr ipt io n. Ve r if y t he N at iona l Dr ug C o de (NDC) num b er. E nsur e t ha t t he inf o rm at io n is ac cur ate , t hat t he pat ie nt dir ec t io ns ar e acc ur at e and e as ily und er s t o od, and t ha t t he a uxil iar y la be ls ar e ap pr opr iat e .
P rovide pa t ient co un se li ng . B e sure t ha t t he pat ie nt f ully und er st a nds t he dr ug t r ea tme nt a s w ell a s a ny pr eca uti ons.
Examples of Drugs with Similar Names
Brand name
Celebrex
Cerebyx
Celexa
Generic name
Celecoxib capsules
Fosphenytoin sodium injection
Citalopram HCl
Manufacturer
Searle
Parke-Davis
Forest
Indication
Osteoarthritis and rheumatoid arthritis
Prevention and treatment of seizures
Major depression
Dangerous or Confusing Abbreviations N um er ous c omm o n abb r evia t io ns a nd sym bo ls have b ee n a s sociat e d w it h err o rs. D et a ile d l is t s of t he se ca n be f ound a t t he we bs ite s of t he Ins t it ut e f o r S af e Me dica t io n P rac t ic es ( IS MP ) and J o int C om m iss io n f o r t he Ac cr ed it a t io n o f H ea lt hca r e O r gan izat ions ( JC AHO) at : ht t p :// www . ism p. o rg/ Too ls / ab br e viat ions l is t . pd f. ht t p :// www .j c aho. or g/ a ccr edit ed + o rg anizat io ns / p at ient + s af et y/ 0 6_dnu_ lis t . p df. The J C AHO has c r eat ed a “Do N ot U se” list o f a bb r evia t io ns t hat it s ac cr e dit ed or g anizat io ns s ho uld not allow t o b e use d. [ bla c k r ight - po int ing a r r owhea d] “U” or “ IU ” f or uni t s: t he “U ” ha s be en m isint e r pr et ed a s va rious num b ers s uc h as zer o , fo ur ; se r ious ha rm ha s o c cur r ed wit h insu lin a nd he pa r in a s a r es ult of c onf usio n. Fo r exa m p le , a pa t ie nt r ec eive d 6 6 un it s of ins ul in ins t e ad of 6 unit s. The o r de r was wr it t en f or “ 6u” o f r eg ular i ns ul in but was m is int er pr et ed . The w or d “ un it s ” s ho uld b e wr it t en o ut in f u ll. [ bla c k r ight - po int ing a r r owhea d] “QD, Q .D, qd, q. d. ”: comm o n abb re viat io ns f o r da ily ha ve be en m is int er p r et e d as “Q ID ” or “ qid” a nd o ve r do se s ha ve o cc ur r e d. “D aily” shou ld be wr it t e n out in f ul l. [ bla c k r ight - po int ing a r r owhea d] “Q.O. D , QO D, q od” : c omm o n a bbr eviat io ns f o r ever y ot he r da y ha ve be en m is int er pr ete d as Q ID ( f o ur t im es d aily) . Th is shou ld be wr it t e n o ut com plet e ly as “ eve r y ot her day. ” P. 13 17
[ bla c k r ight - po int ing a r r owhea d] Tra il ing ze r o: when a do se is or der ed and f ollowe d wit h a d ec im a l p oint a nd a ze r o, s uch as 2 . 0 m g or 25 . 0 m g, err ors c an oc cur. The de cim a l p oint m a y be m iss ed a nd an o ve r do se c an oc c ur . F or e xam p le, W a rf ar in 2 . 0 mg m ay b e m isint e r pre t ed as 2 0 m g. Tra il ing zer o s s hou ld b e avoide d a nd t he d ose wr it t e n wit ho ut t he add it io na l zer o , f or exam p le W ar fa r in 2 m g r at her t ha n 2 . 0 m g. [ bla c k r ight - po int ing a r r owhea d] Lac k of lea d ing ze r o: a dr ug 's do se m ay be les s t ha n 1 m g, such a s D igo xi n. O f t en t he d os e ma y be wr it t e n wit hout a lea di ng zer o ,
such as D igo xi n . 2 5 mg, r at he r t han as D igo xin 0 . 25 m g. Er ror s have o c curr ed be ca us e t he de cim al p oint is m iss e d. F or e xam ple, W ar f ar in . 5 m g ma y be int e r pr et e d a s W a rf ar in 5 m g. Le ad ing zer o es s hould b e inc lude d, s o t he do s e is wr it t e n a s “D ig oxin 0. 2 5 m g or W a rf ar in 0 . 5 m g.” ▶MS , MSO 4, MgSO 4 : Abbr evia t io ns f or m o rp hin e sulf a t e ( MS , MSO 4 ) ha ve b ee n conf used w it h Ma gnesium sulf a t e ( MgS O 4 ). It is r e comm end t o w r it e out ea ch nam e in f ull r a t he r t ha n usi ng a b br e via t ions: mo r phine sul f at e or m ag ne si um sul f a t e. In a ddi t ion t o t he a bo ve a b br evia t ions, t her e are num e rous o t he r ha za rd ous sy m b ols a nd a bbre vi at io ns w hic h s ho uld be review e d w it h ca ut io n w hen used on p r escr ip t ions. E xa mp les include : ▶“ cc ”: Of t en us e d ins t ea d o f “m L.” Th is ha s be en m is int er p ret ed as a “ 0” ( zer o ). U se “m L. ” [ bla c k r ight - po int ing a r r owhea d] “µ g”: U s ed f o r “m ic r og r am s ,” f or exam p le , Le vo t hyr o xine 25 0 µg. d aily. The sym bo l has be en m is t ak e n fo r “ m g. ” and o ver d os es ha ve oc c ur r e d. B es t t o us e “m cg .” Or wr it e o ut “mic r og r am s .” [ bla c k r ight - po int ing a r r owhea d] “< ” o r “ >”: S ym bo ls f or “ les s t ha n” (<) or “ gre at er t ha n” ( >) ha ve b ee n m ist ak e n f or e ac h ot her or m is int e rp re t ed as num b ers . B e st to wr it e out as “ les s t ha n” o r “gr ea t er t han. ” [ bla c k r ight - po int ing a r r owhea d] “HCT ”: An ab br e viat ion f or “ hydr o co rt is one” ha s be en m isi nt e r pr et e d as “ hydr o ch lo r ot hia zide . ” B est t o wr it e name o ut c omp le t ely. [ bla c k r ight - po int ing a r r owhea d] “HC l ”: An a bb r evia t io n f or “ hyd r oc hlor ic a c id” ha s be en m isi nt e r pr et e d as “KC l” ( pot as sium c hlor id e) . B es t t o wr it e o ut nam e com p le t ely. P. 13 18
Common Abbreviations C onside r ab le va r ia t ion o cc ur s in t he us e o f c ap it a lizat ion, it a lic izat io n, a nd punc t ua t io n i n a bb r evia t io ns . The f ol low ing list s hows t he a bbr evia t io ns t hat ar e mo st oft en enco unt e r ed by p ha rma c is t s.
Common Abbreviations A, aa ., o r aa of e ac h a. c. be f or e m ea ls ad t o, up t o a. d. r ight e ar a d lib. at p le as ur e , f re ely a.m .
mor ning am p. am pule a nt e be f or e a q. wat er a. s. lef t ear a sa as pir i n a. u. ea ch ea r, b ot h ea rs b. i. d. t wic e a da y BP Br it is h P harm ac o po eia BS A bo dy sur f ace ar ea c. o r c wit h ca p. o r ca ps. ca ps ule cp ches t pain D. A.W . dis pe nse as wr it t en cc or cc. cub ic c ent im et er com p. com po und, c omp ounde d dil. dil ut e D.C ., d c, or disc. dis c ont inue disp. dis pe nse div. div id e, t o b e d iv id ed dl o r dL de cil it e r d. t. d. give of s uch do se s DW dis t il led wa t er
D 5W de xt r o se 5% in wat e r elix . eli xi r e.m . p. as dir ect ed et and ex a q. in w at e r f l or f ld f lui d f l oz f lui d o unc e f t. mak e g or Gm gr am ga l. ga llo n GI ga str o int es t ina l gr or g r. gr a in gt t or gt t. dr o p, d r op s H hypo de rm ic h. o r hr . ho ur h. s. at b edt im e IM int r am us c ula r inj . inj ect io n IV int r a veno us IVP int r a veno us p us h IVPB int r a veno us p ig gyba c k K po t assium l or L
lit e r lb. po und µ Gr eek m u M m ix 2
m or M
2
sq ua r e m et er mc g, m c g., or µg m icro gram mE q m illieq u iva lent mg or m g. m illigr a m m l or m L m illil it e r µl o r µL m icro lit er m inim N&V na us ea and vo m it ing Na so dium N. F. N at iona l Form ula r y N o. num ber noc t . nig ht , in t he night no n r ep . do no t r ep eat NPO no t hing by m out h N.S ., N S, or N/S no rm a l s al ine 1/ 2 NS ha lf - s tr engt h norm al s ali ne O pint o. d. r ight e ye , eve r y d ay o. l. o r o. s. lef t eye OTC
over t he co unt er o. u. ea ch eye, bo t h eyes oz . ounc e p. c. af te r m ea ls PDR P hy si ci an s' D es k R ef er e nc e p.m . af te r no on, e ve ni ng p. o. by m out h P pt pr e cip it a t e d pr f or t he r ec t um pr n o r p.r . n. as ne ed ed pt . pint pul v. po wde r pv f or vag ina l us e q. ever y q. d. ever y da y q. h. ever y hour q. 4 hr . ever y f o ur hour s q. i. d. f our t im e s a day q. o. d. ever y ot he r da y q. s. a s uff ic ient q ua nt it y q. s. ad a s uff ic ient q ua nt it y t o m ak e R r ect al R. L. or R/ L R inge r' s lac t a t e
pr e sc r ip t io n s. o r s wit hout S ig. wr it e on la be l sol . so lut io n S.O .B. shor t nes s of br e at h s. o . s. if t her e is ne ed ( o nc e o nly) ss. or ss one- ha lf st a t. im m ed iat e ly sub c, subq, or s. c. subc ut a neo us ly sup . or sup p supp os it o r y susp. susp ens ion sy r. syr up ta b. t ab let ta l. such, s uc h a o ne P. 13 19
ta l. d os. such do s es t bsp . or T t ab les p oo nf u l t . i.d. t hr e e t im es a da y t r. or t inct . t inct ur e t sp. or t. t ea spoo nf ul TT t ab let t r it ur at es U or u. un it u. d. or ut dic t.
as dir ect ed ung . ointm ent U.S .P. or US P U nit ed S t at es P harm a co po eia w/ v weig ht / vo lum e
Metrology THE METRIC, APOTHECARY, AND AVOIRDUPOIS SYSTEMS Metric system 1. Ba si c unit s
Mass
=
g or gram
Length
=
m or meter
Volume
=
L or liter 1 cc (cubic centimeter) of water is approximately equal to 1 mL and weighs 1 g.
2. P ref ixes
kilo-
103, or 1000 times the basic unit
hekto-
102, or 100 times the basic unit
deka-
101, or 10 times the basic unit
deci-
10-1, or 0.1 times the basic unit
centi-
10-2, or 0.01 times the basic unit
milli-
10-3, or 0.001 times the basic unit
micro-
10-6, or one-millionth of the basic unit
nano-
10-9, or one-billionth of the basic unit
pico-
10-12, or one-trillionth of the basic unit
E xa m ples of t he se pr ef ixe s i nc lude m ill igr a m (m g), w hich eq ua ls one - t ho us andt h o f a gr am , a nd dec ilit er (d L), which eq ua ls 10 0 mL, o r 0. 1 L.
Apothecary system 1. V olum e (f lui ds or liq uid )
60 minims ()
=
8 fluidrachms (480 minims)
=
16 fluidounces
=
1 pint (pt or 0)
2 pints (32 fluidounces)
=
1 quart (qt)
4 quarts (8 pints)
=
1 gallon (gal or C)
2. Ma ss (w ei ght )
1 fluidrachm or fluidram (f
1 fluidounce (f
or
)
) or (
)
20 grains (gr)
=
1 scruple (
3 scruples (60 grains)
=
1 drachm or dram (
8 drachms (480 grains)
=
12 ounces (5760 grains)
=
1 ounce (
)
)
)
1 pound (lb)
Avoirdupois system 1. V olum e
1 fluidrachm
=
60 min.
1 fluid ounce
=
8 fl. dr.
=
480 min.
=
16 fl. oz.
=
7680 min.
=
2 pt.
=
32 fl. oz.
=
4 qt.
=
128 fl. oz.
1 pint
1 quart
1 gallon
P. 13 20
2. Ma ss (w ei ght ) The g r ain is c om m on t o bot h t he apo t he car y and t he avo ir dupo is sys t em s.
43 7. 5 gr a ins ( g r) = 1 o unc e ( o z) 16 ounc es ( 7 00 0 gr ains ) = 1 p ound ( lb )
CONVERSION Exact equivalents E xa c t eq uiva le nt s ar e use d f or t he co nver s io n o f s pe cif ic qua nt it ies in pharm ace ut ica l f o rm ula s and p r es c r ipt ion c om p ound ing . 1. L engt h
1 meter (m)
=
39.37 in.
1 inch (in)
=
2.54 cm.
1 ml
=
16.23 minims ()
1
=
0.06 mL
=
3.69 mL
=
29.57 mL
1 pt
=
473 mL
1 gal (U.S.)
=
3785 mL
2. V olum e
1f
1f
3. Ma ss
1g
=
15.432 gr
1 kg
=
2.20 lb (avoir.)
1 gr
=
0.065 g or 65 mg
1 oz (avoir.)
=
28.35 g
=
31.1 g
1 lb (avoir.)
=
454 g
1 lb (apoth.)
=
373.2 g
1
(apoth.)
4. Ot her equiva lent s
1 oz (avoir.)
1
(apoth.) 1 gal (U.S.)
1 fl
(water)
1 gr (apoth.)
=
437.5 gr
=
480 gr
=
128 fl
=
455 gr
=
1 gr (avoir.)
Approximate equivalents P hys ic ia ns m a y us e a ppr oxim at e eq uiva lent s t o pr e scr ib e t he do se quant it ies us ing t he m etr ic a nd a pot he ca r y syst em s of weight s and m e as ur es, res pec t ive ly . H ouse ho ld un it s ar e of ten use d t o inf o rm t he pat ie nt of t he size of t he dos e. I n v ie w of t he alm o st un iver s al pr a ct ice of us ing a n or d ina r y ho us eho ld t e as p oo n t o adm inist e r m ed ic at ion, a t easp oo n ma y be co nsid er e d 5 m L . H o wever, whe n ac cur ate m eas ur em ent of a liq u id do se is r equir e d, t he USP r ecomm ends t he us e of a c alibr a t e d or al syr inge or dr op per.
1 fluid dram
=
1 teaspoonful
=
5 mL
4 fluidounces
=
120 mL
8 fluidounces
=
1 cup
=
240 mL
1 grain
=
65 mg
1 kg
=
2.2 pounds (lb)
Appendix B Common Prescription Drugs and Over-theCounter Products The FDA Approved Drug Product s With Therapeutic Equivalence Evaluation: The Orange Book The U nit e d S t at es Foo d and D r ug Adm inis t r a t io n (F D A) p ub lis he s t he bo ok, A ppr oved Dr u g P r od uct s Wi t h T her ap eu ti c E q ui val e nce E va lu ati on , of t en k now n a s t he O r ange Bo ok. An e lec t r o nic ver s io n o f t he O ran ge B ook is ava ila b le o n t he Int e r ne t at ht t p: // www.f d a. g ov/c de r/ o b/. This b ook is also r epr od uc e d b y t he U nit ed St at es P harm a co pe ial C o nvent io n, I nc . , in t he p ub lic a t ion, US P D I, V olum e III, A ppr oved Dr u g P r od uct s and Leg al R equi r eme nt s. The t e xt s, whic h ar e publ is he d a nn ua lly, id ent if y t he pr e sc r ip t io n a nd no np r es cr ipt io n pr o duct s t hat ar e f o rma ll y a pp r oved b y t he FD A on t he bas is of sa f et y a nd ef fect ive nes s . They a ls o p r ovid e t he FD A' s t he rap eut ic eq ui va le nc e eva lua t io ns f or a ppr ove d m ult ip le - so ur c e pr e sc r ip t io n d r ug pr o duc ts. The Or a ng e B ook is a dr ug pr oduct se le ct ion gu id e fo r p ha rma c is t s t o use when dis pe ns ing a g ener ic d r ug pr o duct as a subst it ut e f or t he br and - nam e eq uiva le nt . A f ew d r ug pr od uc ts t ha t we r e o n t he m ark et bef or e 1 93 8 r e ce ived a “ gr a nd f at he r ed” FD A a ppr ova l. The se pr o duc ts a r e assum ed t o be s af e and ef f ect ive b ec ause of t he ir lo ng usa ge ( e. g. , d ig oxin t ab le t s , phenob ar b it a l t a blet s) . The se olde r pr o d uc t s do no t have t her a pe ut ic eq uiva lenc e r a t ings at t hi s t im e. The Or a ng e B ook use s va r io us c od es to ind ic at e ther a pe ut ic eq uiva le nc e. The f ir s t let t er “ A” de signat e s dr ug p rod uc t s t hat t he FD A co ns id er s t her a pe ut ica lly eq uiva le nt t o a p harm ac e ut ica lly eq u i va le nt d r ug p r od uc t. The se pr o duc ts ca n b e sa f ely s ubs t it ut ed . The f ir s t le t t er “B” des ig na t es d r ug pro duct s t ha t , fo r va r io us r ea so ns, t he FD A d oe s no t c onside r bio eq uiva le nt t o t he pharm ac e ut ica lly eq uiva le nt d r ug pr o duct .
Therapeutic Equivalence Evaluation Codes A Codes Dr ug pr oduc t s t ha t t he FD A c onside r s t he r ap eut ic al ly eq uiva le nt t o ot he r pharm ace ut ica lly eq uiva le nt p r od ucts
AA
Products in conventional dosage forms that do not present bioequivalence problems
AB
Products that meet necessary bioequivalence requirements
AN
Solutions and powders for aerosolization
AO
Injectable oil solutions
AO
Injectable aqueous solutions, and in certain instances, intravenous nonaqueous solutions
AT
Topical products
B Codes Dr ug pr oduc t s t ha t t he FD A d oe s not co ns id er t her ap eut ic all y eq uiva le nt t o ot her pharm ace ut ica lly eq uiva le nt p r od ucts at t his t im e P. 13 22
B*
Drug products that require further FDA investigation and review to determine therapeutic equivalence
BC
Extended-release dosage forms (capsules, injectables, and tablets)
BD
Active ingredients and dosage forms that have documented problems with bioequivalence
BE
Delayed-release oral dosage forms
BN
Products in aerosol-nebulizer drug-delivery systems
BP
Active ingredients and dosage forms that have potential problems with bioequivalence
BR
Suppositories or enemas that deliver drugs for systemic absorption
BS
Drug products that have drug standard deficiencies
BT
Topical products that have bioequivalence issues
BX
Drug products for which the data are sufficient to determine therapeutic equivalence
P. 13 23
P. 13 24
P. 13 25
Top 200 Prescription Drugs by Trade Name and Generic Namea Rank
Trade Name
Generic Name
1
Lortab
Hydrocodone/acetaminophen
2
Synthroid
Levothyroxine
3
Xanax
Alprazolam
4
Potassium Chloride
Potassium Chloride
5
Glucophage
Metformin
6
Zestril/Prinivil
Lisinopril
7
Ultram
Tramadol
8
Lasix
Furosemide
9
Lipitor
Atorvastatin
10
Percocet
Oxycodone/acetaminophen
11
Tenormin
Atenolol
12
Toprol-XL
Metoprolol succinate
13
Lopressor
Metoprolol tartrate
14
Hydrochlorothiazide
Hydrochlorothiazide
15
Coumadin
Warfarin
16
Norvasc
Amlodipine
17
Amoxil
Amoxicillin
18
OxyContin
Oxycodone ER
19
Zithromax and Zmax
Azithromycin
20
Darvocet
Propoxyphene/acetaminophen
21
Zoloft
Sertraline
22
Zantac
Ranitidine
23
Zocor
Simvastatin
24
Lexapro
Escitalopram
25
Nexium
Esomeprazole
26
Seroquel
Quetiapine
27
Proventil
Albuterol
28
Singulair
Montelukast
29
Plavix
Clopidogrel
30
Deltasone
Prednisone
31
Effexor XR
Venlafaxine
32
Elavil
Amitriptyline
33
Ativan
Lorazepam
34
Neurontin
Gabapentin
35
Glucotrol and Glucotrol XR
Glipizide
36
Naprosyn and ECNaprosyn
Naproxen
37
Wellbutrin (SR, XL)
Bupropion
38
Desyrel
Trazodone
39
Prilosec
Omeprazole
40
Dyazide
Triamterene/hydrochlorothiazide
41
Flexeril
Cyclobenzaprine
42
Duragesic
Fentanyl transdermal system
43
Prozac
Fluoxetine
44
Fosamax
Alendronate
45
Vasotec
Enalapril
46
Prevacid
Lansoprazole
47
Lantus
Insulin glargine
48
Premarin
Conjugated estrogens
49
Lanoxin
Digoxin
50
Valium
Diazepam
51
Keflex
Cephalexin
52
Paxil CR
Paroxetine
53
Reglan
Metoclopramide
54
Cardizem CD
Diltiazem
55
Ambien
Zolpidem
56
Celexa
Citalopram
57
Advair
Fluticasone/salmeterol
58
Zestoretic
Lisinopril/hydrochlorothiazide
59
Vytorin
Simvastatin/ezetimibe
60
Zyrtec
Cetirizine
61
Fioricet
Butalbital/acetaminophen/caffeine
62
Diflucan
Fluconazole
63
Ortho Tri-Cyclen
Ethinyl estradiol/norgestimate
64
Depakote ER
Divalproex
65
Adderall XR
Dextroamphetamine/amphetamine
66
Celebrex
Celecoxib
67
Diovan
Valsartan
68
Lotrel
Amlodipine/benazepril
69
Allegra
Fexofenadine
70
Klonopin
Clonazepam
71
Augmentin XR
Amoxicillin/clavulanate
72
Cymbalta
Duloxetine
73
Risperdal
Risperidone
74
Levaquin
Levofloxacin
75
Aldactone
Spironolactone
76
Lyrica
Pregabalin
77
Zyloprim
Allopurinol
78
Protonix
Pantoprazole
79
Actos
Pioglitazone
80
Dilantin
Phenytoin
81
Kenalog
Triamcinolone
82
Motrin
Ibuprofen
83
Altace
Ramipril
84
Coreg
Carvedilol
85
Isoptin and Isoptin SR
Verapamil
86
Estrace
Estradiol
87
Catapres
Clonidine
88
Soma
Carisoprodol
89
Zetia
Ezetimibe
90
Amaryl
Glimepiride
91
Flomax
Tamsulosin
92
Diovan-HCT
Valsartan/hydrochlorothiazide
93
Humalog
Insulin lispro
94
Flonase
Fluticasone propionate
95
Tylenol with Codeine
Acetaminophen/codeine
96
Aricept
Donepezil
97
Mevacor
Lovastatin
98
Accupril
Quinapril
99
Miralax
Polyethylene glycol 3350
100
MS Contin
Morphine sulfate
101
Cozaar
Losartan
102
Ditropan
Oxybutynin
103
Detrol
Tolterodine
104
TriCor
Fenofibrate
105
Combivent
Ipratropium/albuterol
106
Zyprexa
Olanzapine
107
Crestor
Rosuvastatin
108
Remeron
Mirtazapine
109
Procardia and Procardia XL
Nifedipine
110
Imdur
Isosorbide mononitrate
111
Topamax
Topiramate
112
Actonel
Risedronate
113
Atrovent
Ipratropium
114
Medrol
Methylprednisolone
115
Tessalon
Benzonatate
116
Ultracet
Tramadol/acetaminophen
117
Sinequan
Doxepin
118
Ritalin SR and LA
Methylphenidate
119
Avandia
Rosiglitazone
120
Cipro XR
Ciprofloxacin
121
Bactrim or Septra
Sulfamethoxazole/trimethoprim
122
Folic Acid
Folic acid
123
Phenergan
Promethazine
124
Macrodantin and Macrobid
Nitrofurantoin
125
Pyridium
Phenazopyridine
126
Hyzaar
Losartan/hydrochlorothiazide
127
Dilacor XR
Diltiazem
128
Vibramycin/VibraTabs
Doxycycline hyclate
129
Capoten
Captopril
130
Tegretol
Carbamazepine
131
Concerta
Methylphenidate
132
Trileptal
Oxcarbazepine
133
Evista
Raloxifene
134
Glucovance
Glyburide/metformin
135
Namenda
Memantine
136
Cardura
Doxazosin
137
NovoLog
Insulin aspart
138
Flagyl
Metronidazole
139
Nasonex
Mometasone furoate
140
Restoril
Temazepam
141
Micronase
Glyburide
142
Xopenex
Levalbuterol
143
Xalatan
Latanoprost
144
Mycostatin
Nystatin
145
Benicar
Olmesartan
146
Alesse
Ethinyl estradiol/levonorgestrel
147
Abilify
Aripiprazole
148
DuoNeb
Ipratropium/albuterol
149
Armour Thyroid
Thyroid, dessicated
150
Ziac
Bisoprolol/hydrochlorothiazide
151
Lotensin
Benazepril
152
Phenobarbital
Phenobarbital
153
Cleocin
Clindamycin
154
Theophylline
Theophylline
155
Pravachol
Pravastatin
156
Lamictal
Lamotrigine
157
Voltaren
Diclofenac
158
Spiriva
Tiotropium
159
Cogentin
Benztropine mesylate
160
Mobic
Meloxicam
161
Strattera
Atomoxetine
162
Yasmin
Ethinyl estradiol/drospirenone
163
Ortho-Novum 7/7/7
Ethinyl estradiol/norethindrone
164
Hytrin
Terazosin
165
Avapro
Irbesartan
166
Veetids
Penicillin V
167
Lopid
Gemfibrozil
168
Skelaxin
Metaxalone
169
Inderal
Propanolol
170
Zovirax
Acyclovir
171
Benicar-HCT
Olmesartan/hydrochlorothiazide
172
Adipex-P
Phentermine
173
Bactroban
Mupirocin
174
AcipHex
Rabeprazole
175
Pepcid
Famotidine
176
Imuran
Azathioprine
177
Bentyl
Dicyclomine
178
Clozaril
Clozapine
179
Biaxin XL
Clarithromycin
180
Methadone
Methadone
181
Provera
Medroxyprogesterone
182
Requip
Ropinirole
183
Prempro
Conjugated estrogens/medroxyprogesterone
184
Lithonate & Lithotabs
Lithium carbonate
185
Buspar
Buspirone
186
Omnicef
Cefdinir
187
Lunesta
Eszopiclone
188
Relafen
Nabumetone
189
Allegra-D
Fexofenadine/pseudoephedrine
190
Niaspan
Niacin
191
Bumex
Bumetanide
192
Demadex
Torsemide
193
Lotrisone
Clotrimazole/betamethasone
194
Lomotil
Diphenoxylate/atropine
195
Lactulose
Lactulose
196
Monopril
Fosinopril
197
Guaifenex PSE
Guaifenesin/pseudoephedrine
198
Flovent
Fluticasone propionate
199
Imitrex
Sumatriptan
200
Antivert
Meclizine
a
This table contains the top 200 prescription drugs dispensed through independent, chain, food store, mass merchandiser, and deep discount pharmacies. All forms of the same generic equivalent drug are grouped together and listed under the brand name when appropriate. Rankings are based on total number of prescriptions for August 2004 to August 2005, as measured by SFI's Prescription Drug Audit. Insulin products are included in the tally. Adapted with permission from Prescription Drug Cards, 23rd ed. SFI Medical Publishing, 2007. P. 13 26
P. 13 27
Top Over-the-Counter (OTC) Drugsa
Trade Name
Drug Use
Abreva®
Cold sore medication
Actifed®
Allergy and cold relief
Advil®
Analgesic
Afrin®
Nasal decongestant
Aleve®
Analgesic
ALternaGEL®
Antacid
Anbesol®
Oral cavity analgesic
Anusol®
Hemorrhoidal agent
Azo Standard®
UTI analgesic
Bayer® Aspirin
Analgesic
Benadryl® Oral
Allergy and cold relief
BEN-GAY®
Topical analgesic
Betadine®
Antiseptic
Bonine®
Motion sickness medication
Bufferin®
Analgesic
Caladryl®
Topical antipruritic
Carmex®
Cold sore medication
Cepastat®
Oral cavity analgesic
Chlor-Trimeton®
Allergy and cold relief
Chloraseptic®
Oral cavity analgesic
Citrucel®
Laxative
Claritin®
Allergy and cold relief
Claritin-D®
Allergy and cold relief
Colace®
Stool softener
COLD-EEZE®
Cold relief
Compound W®
Keratolytic
Cortaid®
Topical antipruritic
Debrox®
Ear wax removal aid
Delsym®
Cough suppressant
Dramamine®
Motion sickness medication
Dulcolax®
Laxative
Duofilm®
Keratolytic
Emetrol®
Antiemetic
Estroven®
Menopause support
Excedrin®
Analgesic
FiberCon®
Laxative
Fungi-Nail®
Topical antifungal
Gas-X®
Antiflatulent
Gyne-Lotrimin®
Vaginal antifungal
Herpecin-L®
Cold sore medication
Imodium A-D®
Antidiarrheal
Ivy Dry®
Topical antipruritic
Lactaid®
Digestive aid
Lactinex®
Antidiarrheal
Lamisil® AT
Antifungal
Listerine®
Oral cavity antiseptic
Lotrimin AF®
Topical antifungal
Maalox® & Maalox® Plus
Antacid
Metamucil®
Laxative
Midol® & Midol® PMS
Analgesic
Monistat® Vaginal
Vaginal antifungal
Motrin® IB
Analgesic
Mucinex® (Adult)
Expectorant
Mylanta®
Antacid
Mylicon® Drops
Antiflatulence
Myoflex®
Topical analgesic
Naphcon® A
Ophthalmic anti-allergy
NasalCrom®
Allergy and cold relief
Neo-Synephrine®
Nasal decongestant
Neosporin®
Topical anti-infective
NicoDerm® CQ
Smoking cessation aid
Nicorette®
Smoking cessation aid
Nix®
Pediculicide
Nizoral® Shampoo
Topical antifungal
NoDoz®
Analeptic
NyQuil®
Cough and cold relief
Ocean®
Nasal decongestant
Opcon-A®
Ophthalmic anti-allergy
Orabase®
Oral cavity analgesic
OralBalance®
Oral moisturizer
Os-Cal®
Essential mineral
Pamprin®
Analgesic
PediaCare®
Cough and cold relief
Pepcid® Complete
Acid reducer
Pepcid-AC®
Acid reducer
Pepto Bismol®
Antidiarrheal
Peri-Colace®
Stool softener plus laxative
Phillips' MOM®
Laxative/antacid
Pin-X®
Anthelmintic
Preparation H®
Hemorrhoidal agent
Prilosec® OTC
Acid reducer
RID®
Pediculicide
Robitussin® (Adult)
Cough relief
Rogaine®
Hair growth stimulant
Salivart®
Saliva substitute
Senokot®
Laxative
Similasan Earache Relief®
Earache relief
Slow-Mag®
Essential mineral
Sominex®
Sleeping aid
Sudafed®
Allergy and cold relief
Tagamet HB 200®
Acid reducer
Tavist®
Allergy and cold relief
Tears Naturale®
Artificial tears
Triaminic® Oral
Cough and cold relief
Tums®
Antacid
Tylenol®
Analgesic
Tylenol® Allergy & Sinus
Allergy and cold relief
Tylenol® Cold & Flu (Adult)
Allergy and cold relief
Tylenol® PM
Analgesic
Unisom®
Sleeping aid
Zantac® OTC
Acid reducer
Zicam® Cold Remedy
Cold relief
Zilactin® and Zilactin-B®
Cold sore medication
Zostrix®
Topical analgesic
a
This table contains the top OTC drugs by pharmacist recommendation in specific therapeutic classes. Adapted with permission from Nonprescription Drug Cards, 6th ed. SFI Medical Publishing, 2006.
Appendix B Common Prescription Drugs and Over-theCounter Products The FDA Approved Drug Product s With Therapeutic Equivalence Evaluation: The Orange Book The U nit e d S t at es Foo d and D r ug Adm inis t r a t io n (F D A) p ub lis he s t he bo ok, A ppr oved Dr u g P r od uct s Wi t h T her ap eu ti c E q ui val e nce E va lu ati on , of t en k now n a s t he O r ange Bo ok. An e lec t r o nic ver s io n o f t he O ran ge B ook is ava ila b le o n t he Int e r ne t at ht t p: // www.f d a. g ov/c de r/ o b/. This b ook is also r epr od uc e d b y t he U nit ed St at es P harm a co pe ial C o nvent io n, I nc . , in t he p ub lic a t ion, US P D I, V olum e III, A ppr oved Dr u g P r od uct s and Leg al R equi r eme nt s. The t e xt s, whic h ar e publ is he d a nn ua lly, id ent if y t he pr e sc r ip t io n a nd no np r es cr ipt io n pr o duct s t ha t ar e f o rma ll y a pp r ove d b y t he FD A on t he bas is of sa f et y a nd ef fect ive nes s . They a ls o p r ovid e t he FD A' s t he rap eut ic eq ui va le nc e eva lua t io ns f or a ppr ove d m ult ip le - so ur c e pr e sc r ip t io n d r ug pr o duc ts. The Or a ng e B ook is a dr ug pr oduct se le ct ion gu id e fo r p ha rma c is t s t o use when dis pe ns ing a g ener ic d r ug pr o duct as a subst it ut e f or t he br and - nam e eq uiva le nt . A f ew d r ug pr od uc ts t ha t we r e o n t he m ark et bef or e 1 93 8 r e ce ived a “ gr a nd f at he r ed” FD A a ppr ova l. The se pr o duc ts a r e assum ed t o be s af e and ef f ect ive b ec ause of t he ir lo ng usa ge ( e. g. , d ig oxin t ab le t s , phenob ar b it a l t a blet s) . The se olde r pr o duc t s do no t have t her a pe ut ic eq uiva lenc e r a t ings at t hi s t im e. The Or a ng e B ook use s va r io us c od es to ind ic at e ther a pe ut ic eq uiva le nc e. The f ir s t let t er “ A” de signat e s dr ug p rod uc t s t hat t he FD A co ns id er s t her a pe ut ica lly eq uiva le nt t o a p harm ac e ut ica lly eq ui va le nt d r ug p r od uc t. The se pr o duc ts ca n b e sa f ely s ubs t it ut ed . The f ir s t le t t er “B” des ig na t es d r ug pro duct s t ha t , fo r va r io us r ea so ns, t he FD A d oe s no t c onside r b io eq uiva le nt t o t he pharm ac e ut ica lly eq uiva le nt d r ug pr o duct .
Therapeutic Equivalence Evaluation Codes A Codes Dr ug pr oduc t s t ha t t he FD A c onside r s t he r ap eut ic al ly eq uiva le nt t o ot he r pharm ace ut ica lly eq uiva le nt p r od ucts
AA
Products in conventional dosage forms that do not present bioequivalence problems
AB
Products that meet necessary bioequivalence requirements
AN
Solutions and powders for aerosolization
AO
Injectable oil solutions
AO
Injectable aqueous solutions, and in certain instances, intravenous nonaqueous solutions
AT
Topical products
B Codes Dr ug pr oduc t s t ha t t he FD A d oe s not co ns id er t her ap eut ic al ly eq uiva le nt t o ot her pharm ace ut ica lly eq uiva le nt p r od ucts at t his t im e P. 13 22
B*
Drug products that require further FDA investigation and review to determine therapeutic equivalence
BC
Extended-release dosage forms (capsules, injectables, and tablets)
BD
Active ingredients and dosage forms that have documented problems with bioequivalence
BE
Delayed-release oral dosage forms
BN
Products in aerosol-nebulizer drug-delivery systems
BP
Active ingredients and dosage forms that have potential problems with bioequivalence
BR
Suppositories or enemas that deliver drugs for systemic absorption
BS
Drug products that have drug standard deficiencies
BT
Topical products that have bioequivalence issues
BX
Drug products for which the data are sufficient to determine therapeutic equivalence
P. 13 23
P. 13 24
P. 13 25
Top 200 Prescription Drugs by Trade Name and Generic Namea Rank
Trade Name
Generic Name
1
Lortab
Hydrocodone/acetaminophen
2
Synthroid
Levothyroxine
3
Xanax
Alprazolam
4
Potassium Chloride
Potassium Chloride
5
Glucophage
Metformin
6
Zestril/Prinivil
Lisinopril
7
Ultram
Tramadol
8
Lasix
Furosemide
9
Lipitor
Atorvastatin
10
Percocet
Oxycodone/acetaminophen
11
Tenormin
Atenolol
12
Toprol-XL
Metoprolol succinate
13
Lopressor
Metoprolol tartrate
14
Hydrochlorothiazide
Hydrochlorothiazide
15
Coumadin
Warfarin
16
Norvasc
Amlodipine
17
Amoxil
Amoxicillin
18
OxyContin
Oxycodone ER
19
Zithromax and Zmax
Azithromycin
20
Darvocet
Propoxyphene/acetaminophen
21
Zoloft
Sertraline
22
Zantac
Ranitidine
23
Zocor
Simvastatin
24
Lexapro
Escitalopram
25
Nexium
Esomeprazole
26
Seroquel
Quetiapine
27
Proventil
Albuterol
28
Singulair
Montelukast
29
Plavix
Clopidogrel
30
Deltasone
Prednisone
31
Effexor XR
Venlafaxine
32
Elavil
Amitriptyline
33
Ativan
Lorazepam
34
Neurontin
Gabapentin
35
Glucotrol and Glucotrol XR
Glipizide
36
Naprosyn and ECNaprosyn
Naproxen
37
Wellbutrin (SR, XL)
Bupropion
38
Desyrel
Trazodone
39
Prilosec
Omeprazole
40
Dyazide
Triamterene/hydrochlorothiazide
41
Flexeril
Cyclobenzaprine
42
Duragesic
Fentanyl transdermal system
43
Prozac
Fluoxetine
44
Fosamax
Alendronate
45
Vasotec
Enalapril
46
Prevacid
Lansoprazole
47
Lantus
Insulin glargine
48
Premarin
Conjugated estrogens
49
Lanoxin
Digoxin
50
Valium
Diazepam
51
Keflex
Cephalexin
52
Paxil CR
Paroxetine
53
Reglan
Metoclopramide
54
Cardizem CD
Diltiazem
55
Ambien
Zolpidem
56
Celexa
Citalopram
57
Advair
Fluticasone/salmeterol
58
Zestoretic
Lisinopril/hydrochlorothiazide
59
Vytorin
Simvastatin/ezetimibe
60
Zyrtec
Cetirizine
61
Fioricet
Butalbital/acetaminophen/caffeine
62
Diflucan
Fluconazole
63
Ortho Tri-Cyclen
Ethinyl estradiol/norgestimate
64
Depakote ER
Divalproex
65
Adderall XR
Dextroamphetamine/amphetamine
66
Celebrex
Celecoxib
67
Diovan
Valsartan
68
Lotrel
Amlodipine/benazepril
69
Allegra
Fexofenadine
70
Klonopin
Clonazepam
71
Augmentin XR
Amoxicillin/clavulanate
72
Cymbalta
Duloxetine
73
Risperdal
Risperidone
74
Levaquin
Levofloxacin
75
Aldactone
Spironolactone
76
Lyrica
Pregabalin
77
Zyloprim
Allopurinol
78
Protonix
Pantoprazole
79
Actos
Pioglitazone
80
Dilantin
Phenytoin
81
Kenalog
Triamcinolone
82
Motrin
Ibuprofen
83
Altace
Ramipril
84
Coreg
Carvedilol
85
Isoptin and Isoptin SR
Verapamil
86
Estrace
Estradiol
87
Catapres
Clonidine
88
Soma
Carisoprodol
89
Zetia
Ezetimibe
90
Amaryl
Glimepiride
91
Flomax
Tamsulosin
92
Diovan-HCT
Valsartan/hydrochlorothiazide
93
Humalog
Insulin lispro
94
Flonase
Fluticasone propionate
95
Tylenol with Codeine
Acetaminophen/codeine
96
Aricept
Donepezil
97
Mevacor
Lovastatin
98
Accupril
Quinapril
99
Miralax
Polyethylene glycol 3350
100
MS Contin
Morphine sulfate
101
Cozaar
Losartan
102
Ditropan
Oxybutynin
103
Detrol
Tolterodine
104
TriCor
Fenofibrate
105
Combivent
Ipratropium/albuterol
106
Zyprexa
Olanzapine
107
Crestor
Rosuvastatin
108
Remeron
Mirtazapine
109
Procardia and Procardia XL
Nifedipine
110
Imdur
Isosorbide mononitrate
111
Topamax
Topiramate
112
Actonel
Risedronate
113
Atrovent
Ipratropium
114
Medrol
Methylprednisolone
115
Tessalon
Benzonatate
116
Ultracet
Tramadol/acetaminophen
117
Sinequan
Doxepin
118
Ritalin SR and LA
Methylphenidate
119
Avandia
Rosiglitazone
120
Cipro XR
Ciprofloxacin
121
Bactrim or Septra
Sulfamethoxazole/trimethoprim
122
Folic Acid
Folic acid
123
Phenergan
Promethazine
124
Macrodantin and Macrobid
Nitrofurantoin
125
Pyridium
Phenazopyridine
126
Hyzaar
Losartan/hydrochlorothiazide
127
Dilacor XR
Diltiazem
128
Vibramycin/VibraTabs
Doxycycline hyclate
129
Capoten
Captopril
130
Tegretol
Carbamazepine
131
Concerta
Methylphenidate
132
Trileptal
Oxcarbazepine
133
Evista
Raloxifene
134
Glucovance
Glyburide/metformin
135
Namenda
Memantine
136
Cardura
Doxazosin
137
NovoLog
Insulin aspart
138
Flagyl
Metronidazole
139
Nasonex
Mometasone furoate
140
Restoril
Temazepam
141
Micronase
Glyburide
142
Xopenex
Levalbuterol
143
Xalatan
Latanoprost
144
Mycostatin
Nystatin
145
Benicar
Olmesartan
146
Alesse
Ethinyl estradiol/levonorgestrel
147
Abilify
Aripiprazole
148
DuoNeb
Ipratropium/albuterol
149
Armour Thyroid
Thyroid, dessicated
150
Ziac
Bisoprolol/hydrochlorothiazide
151
Lotensin
Benazepril
152
Phenobarbital
Phenobarbital
153
Cleocin
Clindamycin
154
Theophylline
Theophylline
155
Pravachol
Pravastatin
156
Lamictal
Lamotrigine
157
Voltaren
Diclofenac
158
Spiriva
Tiotropium
159
Cogentin
Benztropine mesylate
160
Mobic
Meloxicam
161
Strattera
Atomoxetine
162
Yasmin
Ethinyl estradiol/drospirenone
163
Ortho-Novum 7/7/7
Ethinyl estradiol/norethindrone
164
Hytrin
Terazosin
165
Avapro
Irbesartan
166
Veetids
Penicillin V
167
Lopid
Gemfibrozil
168
Skelaxin
Metaxalone
169
Inderal
Propanolol
170
Zovirax
Acyclovir
171
Benicar-HCT
Olmesartan/hydrochlorothiazide
172
Adipex-P
Phentermine
173
Bactroban
Mupirocin
174
AcipHex
Rabeprazole
175
Pepcid
Famotidine
176
Imuran
Azathioprine
177
Bentyl
Dicyclomine
178
Clozaril
Clozapine
179
Biaxin XL
Clarithromycin
180
Methadone
Methadone
181
Provera
Medroxyprogesterone
182
Requip
Ropinirole
183
Prempro
Conjugated estrogens/medroxyprogesterone
184
Lithonate & Lithotabs
Lithium carbonate
185
Buspar
Buspirone
186
Omnicef
Cefdinir
187
Lunesta
Eszopiclone
188
Relafen
Nabumetone
189
Allegra-D
Fexofenadine/pseudoephedrine
190
Niaspan
Niacin
191
Bumex
Bumetanide
192
Demadex
Torsemide
193
Lotrisone
Clotrimazole/betamethasone
194
Lomotil
Diphenoxylate/atropine
195
Lactulose
Lactulose
196
Monopril
Fosinopril
197
Guaifenex PSE
Guaifenesin/pseudoephedrine
198
Flovent
Fluticasone propionate
199
Imitrex
Sumatriptan
200
Antivert
Meclizine
a
This table contains the top 200 prescription drugs dispensed through independent, chain, food store, mass merchandiser, and deep discount pharmacies. All forms of the same generic equivalent drug are grouped together and listed under the brand name when appropriate. Rankings are based on total number of prescriptions for August 2004 to August 2005, as measured by SFI's Prescription Drug Audit. Insulin products are included in the tally. Adapted with permission from Prescription Drug Cards, 23rd ed. SFI Medical Publishing, 2007. P. 13 26
P. 13 27
Top Over-the-Counter (OTC) Drugsa
Trade Name
Drug Use
Abreva®
Cold sore medication
Actifed®
Allergy and cold relief
Advil®
Analgesic
Afrin®
Nasal decongestant
Aleve®
Analgesic
ALternaGEL®
Antacid
Anbesol®
Oral cavity analgesic
Anusol®
Hemorrhoidal agent
Azo Standard®
UTI analgesic
Bayer® Aspirin
Analgesic
Benadryl® Oral
Allergy and cold relief
BEN-GAY®
Topical analgesic
Betadine®
Antiseptic
Bonine®
Motion sickness medication
Bufferin®
Analgesic
Caladryl®
Topical antipruritic
Carmex®
Cold sore medication
Cepastat®
Oral cavity analgesic
Chlor-Trimeton®
Allergy and cold relief
Chloraseptic®
Oral cavity analgesic
Citrucel®
Laxative
Claritin®
Allergy and cold relief
Claritin-D®
Allergy and cold relief
Colace®
Stool softener
COLD-EEZE®
Cold relief
Compound W®
Keratolytic
Cortaid®
Topical antipruritic
Debrox®
Ear wax removal aid
Delsym®
Cough suppressant
Dramamine®
Motion sickness medication
Dulcolax®
Laxative
Duofilm®
Keratolytic
Emetrol®
Antiemetic
Estroven®
Menopause support
Excedrin®
Analgesic
FiberCon®
Laxative
Fungi-Nail®
Topical antifungal
Gas-X®
Antiflatulent
Gyne-Lotrimin®
Vaginal antifungal
Herpecin-L®
Cold sore medication
Imodium A-D®
Antidiarrheal
Ivy Dry®
Topical antipruritic
Lactaid®
Digestive aid
Lactinex®
Antidiarrheal
Lamisil® AT
Antifungal
Listerine®
Oral cavity antiseptic
Lotrimin AF®
Topical antifungal
Maalox® & Maalox® Plus
Antacid
Metamucil®
Laxative
Midol® & Midol® PMS
Analgesic
Monistat® Vaginal
Vaginal antifungal
Motrin® IB
Analgesic
Mucinex® (Adult)
Expectorant
Mylanta®
Antacid
Mylicon® Drops
Antiflatulence
Myoflex®
Topical analgesic
Naphcon® A
Ophthalmic anti-allergy
NasalCrom®
Allergy and cold relief
Neo-Synephrine®
Nasal decongestant
Neosporin®
Topical anti-infective
NicoDerm® CQ
Smoking cessation aid
Nicorette®
Smoking cessation aid
Nix®
Pediculicide
Nizoral® Shampoo
Topical antifungal
NoDoz®
Analeptic
NyQuil®
Cough and cold relief
Ocean®
Nasal decongestant
Opcon-A®
Ophthalmic anti-allergy
Orabase®
Oral cavity analgesic
OralBalance®
Oral moisturizer
Os-Cal®
Essential mineral
Pamprin®
Analgesic
PediaCare®
Cough and cold relief
Pepcid® Complete
Acid reducer
Pepcid-AC®
Acid reducer
Pepto Bismol®
Antidiarrheal
Peri-Colace®
Stool softener plus laxative
Phillips' MOM®
Laxative/antacid
Pin-X®
Anthelmintic
Preparation H®
Hemorrhoidal agent
Prilosec® OTC
Acid reducer
RID®
Pediculicide
Robitussin® (Adult)
Cough relief
Rogaine®
Hair growth stimulant
Salivart®
Saliva substitute
Senokot®
Laxative
Similasan Earache Relief®
Earache relief
Slow-Mag®
Essential mineral
Sominex®
Sleeping aid
Sudafed®
Allergy and cold relief
Tagamet HB 200®
Acid reducer
Tavist®
Allergy and cold relief
Tears Naturale®
Artificial tears
Triaminic® Oral
Cough and cold relief
Tums®
Antacid
Tylenol®
Analgesic
Tylenol® Allergy & Sinus
Allergy and cold relief
Tylenol® Cold & Flu (Adult)
Allergy and cold relief
Tylenol® PM
Analgesic
Unisom®
Sleeping aid
Zantac® OTC
Acid reducer
Zicam® Cold Remedy
Cold relief
Zilactin® and Zilactin-B®
Cold sore medication
Zostrix®
Topical analgesic
a
This table contains the top OTC drugs by pharmacist recommendation in specific therapeutic classes. Adapted with permission from Nonprescription Drug Cards, 6th ed. SFI Medical Publishing, 2006.
Appendix D National And State Boards of Pharmacy Contact Information This a pp end ix co nt a ins t he m ost r e ce nt c o nt act in f orm at io n f o r t he nat iona l and st at e bo ar d s of p ha rm ac y. A c ur re nt lis t ing o f c ont act inf o rm at ion f or st at e bo ar d s of pharm ac y is m aint a ined at t he N at iona l As so ciat ion of B oa r ds o f P harm a cy we bs it e , ht t p :// www . na bp .c om . In a dd it io n, co nt a ct inf orm at io n f o r al l t he p harm ac y sc hoo ls in t he U nit ed S ta t es c an b e f o und at t he Am er ica n Ass oc ia t io n o f Co lle ge s of P ha rm ac y W e b s it e , www .aa cp. or g. Nat io na l Assoc ia t ion of B oar ds of P ha rma cy C arm en A. C a t izone E xe c ut ive D ir ec to r 1600 Fe ehanv ille D r ive Mo unt Pr o s pe ct , IL 6 00 56P hone: 84 7/ 3 91 - 4406 Fa x: 84 7/ 391 -45 02W e b sit e: ww w. na bp. net Sta te B oa r ds of P ha rma cy Ala ba ma Sta t e B oa rd of P ha rma cy Lo uise F ost er JonesE xec ut ive Se cre t ar y1 0 I nver nes s C ent er , Su it e 11 0B irm ing ha m , AL 35 24 2P hone: 205/ 981 -22 80 Fa x: 205/ 981 - 23 30W eb sit e: www.a lb op . com E-m ail: lj o ne s@ alb op .c om Ala ska B oar d of P harm ac y S he r ZinnL ice ns ing E xa m iner PO B ox 1 10 80 6J unea u, AK 9 98 11 - 08 06P hone: 9 07 / 465 -25 89 Fax: 9 07 / 465- 29 74W e b s it e: www. c omm er ce .st at e. ak . us/ oc c/ p pha. htm E -m a il: sher _ zinn@ c om m er ce. st ate . ak . us(t hr oug h t he D iv is io n of O cc up at iona l L ice ns ing) Ar izo na Sta t e B oa r d of P ha rm acy Har la n W a nd E xe cut ive D ir ec t or 44 25 W est O li ve Ave nue , S uit e 14 0G le nd a le, AZ 8 53 02 - 3844P hone: 623 /4 63- 27 27 Fa x: 62 3/9 3405 83W eb s it e : www. pharm a cy.s t at e. a z. usE -m ail: hwand@ azs bp . com Ar ka nsa s Sta te B oar d of P harm ac y C ha rl es S. Ca m pbe llE xe cut ive D ir ec to r 10 1 E as t C a pit ol, S uit e 21 8L it t le R ock , AR 72 20 1P ho ne : 50 1/ 68 2- 0 190F ax: 5 01/ 68 201 95W eb s it e : www. ark ans as. go v/ as bpE -m ai l: c ha r lie. c am pbe ll@ ark ans as. go v Ca lif or nia Sta te B oar d of P harm a cy Pa t ri cia F. Har r is E xec ut ive O f f ic e r 16 25 N ort h Ma rk et B ou leva r d, N 2 19S a cr am ent o, C A 9 5834P hone: 9 16/ 5 74 - 79 00 Fa x: 91 6/ 5 74 86 18W eb s it e : www. pharm a cy.c a.g ov/E -m a il: pa tric ia _ har r is @ d c a. c a. go v C olo ra do Sta t e B oa r d of P ha rm a cy S usa n L. Wa r re nP r ogr am D ir ect or 15 60 Br oa dwa y, S uit e 13 10D enver , C O 8020 2- 5 14 3P hone : 30 3/ 89 4- 7 80 0Fa x: 30 3/ 89 477 64W eb s it e : www. dor a. st at e.c o . us/ p ha rma c yE -ma il: susa n. w ar r e n@ do ra. st at e. c o. us C onnec t ic ut Comm issio n o f P harm ac y Mic he lle S yl ve st r e Dr ug C ont r o l Ag ent a nd B oar d Adm in is t r at orSt at e O ff ic e B ui ld ing , 1 65 C ap it o l Ave nue R o om 1 47H ar tf or d, C T 06 10 6P hone: 860/ 713 -60 70 Fa x: 860/ 713 - 72 42W eb sit e: www. c t. go v/dc p/ sit e/ d ef a ult . as pE -m ai l: m ic he lle. s yl ve st r e@ ct. g ov P. 13 89
D ela w are Sta t e Boa r d of P ha rm a cy Da vid W. D ry de nE xe cut ive S ec r et ar yD iv is io n of P r of e ss io na l R e gu la t io nC a nno n B uld i ng 86 1 S ilver L ake B o ule var d , S uit e 20 3D o ve r , DE 19 904P ho ne : 30 2/ 7 44- 452 6Fa x: 302/ 73 9- 2 71 1W eb s it e : www. d pr. d elawa r e. g ovE -m a il: de bo p@ st at e. de . us
D ist r ic t of C olum b ia B oa rd of P ha rma cy B onni e Ra mp er sa ud E xe cut ive D ir ec to r 717 Four t ee nt h S t r ee t NW , S uit e 600W ash ingt o n, D C 2000 5P ho ne : 202 / 72 4 49 00 Fax: 2 02/ 7 27- 8471W eb s it e : www. dc he alt h. dc . go vE -m ail: gr a phelia. r am se ur@ dc. g ov Flor id a B oa rd of P ha rma cy Re b ec ca P o st o nE xe cut ive D ir ec t or 4052 Ba ld C yp r es s W a y, B in #C 0 4Tal lahas s ee , FL 323 99 -32 54P ho ne : 850 /24 5- 4 29 2Fax: 8 50 /41 369 82W eb s it e : www. do h.s t at e. f l. us/m g aE - ma il: r eb ec ca _po st o n@ do h. st at e. f l. us Ge or g ia S tat e B oa r d of P ha rm ac y S ylvia L. “Sa nd y” B ondE xe cut ive D ir ec to rPr of es siona l Lice ns ing B o ard s 237 C o lise um D r ive Mac on, G A 3 1217 38 58P ho ne : 4 78/ 207- 164 0F ax: 4 78/ 207- 1 66 0W eb s it e : www. s os. st at e .g a. us/ p lb / phar m acyE -m a il: sibo nd @ s os .s t at e. g a. us Guam Boa r d of E xa m iner s f or P ha rm a cy Ja ne M. D ie go S ec r et ar y f or t he Bo ar dPO B ox 2 81 6H a gat na , GU 96 93 2P hone: 67 1/7 35 -74 06 e xt 1 1F ax: 6 71/ 735- 74 13E -m ail: jm die go @ d phs s. g ovg uam . ne t Haw a ii Sta te B oa rd of P ha rma cy Le e Ann T eshi ma E xec ut ive O f f ice rPO B o x 34 69H onol ulu, H I 9 68 01P hone: 80 8/ 5 86- 26 94 Fa x: 80 8/ 5 86- 2874W eb sit e: www. hawa ii. g ov/ d cc a/ ar e as/ pvl/ bo ar ds/ p ha rm ac yE -m ai l: p ha rm ac y@ dcc a. hawa ii. go v Ida ho B oa rd of P ha rma cy R ic ha rd Ma r k uson E xe c ut ive D ir e cto r 33 80 Am e r ic ana Ter r a c e, S uit e 3 20Boise , ID 83 70 6P hone: 20 8/3 34 - 23 56Fa x: 20 8/ 33 4- 3 53 6W eb sit e: www. a cc es s ida ho . o r g/ b op/Em a il: rm ark us on@ b op. st ate . id . us Illi no is D epa rtm ent of F ina nc ia l a nd P r of essio na l R eg ula t ion, D ivi sio n of P rof e ssiona l R e gulat i on- S tat e Boa r d of P ha rma cyK im S cott P ha rm ac y B oa r d Lia is o n32 0 W est W a shingt o n, 3 rd Flo orS pr ingf ie l d, IL 6 2786P ho ne: 2 17/ 782 85 56 Fax: 2 17/ 7 82- 7645W eb s it e : www. id f pr. c omE -m ail: PR FGROU P 10@ idf p r. com (t hr ough D ep art me nt of Pr of es siona l R eg ulat io n) Ind ia na B oa rd of P ha rm acy Ma r t y A lla i n, D ire cto r D ir e ct or 40 2 W e st W a shingt o n St r ee t, Ro om W 0 72 Ind ia na po lis , IN 46 20 4- 2 739Pho ne : 31 7/ 234 -20 67 Fa x: 317/ 23 342 36W eb s it e : htt p: // www. i n. g ov/ p la/ ba nd c/ isb p/E -m ail: pla4 @ p la . IN .g ov Iow a Boa r d of P ha rma cy E xam iner s Llo yd K. J es se nE xe cut ive D ir ec to r/S e cr et ar y4 00 S o ut hwes t E ight h S tr e et , S uit e E Des Moine s, IA 5 03 09 46 88P ho ne : 5 15/ 281- 594 4F ax: 5 15/ 281- 4 60 9W eb s it e : www. st a te . ia . us / ib pe E-m ai l: Llo yd .j e ss e n@ ibp e. st at e. ia. us Ka nsa s S t at e B oa rd of P ha rma cy D e bra L. B i lling sl ey E xec ut i ve S ec r et ar y/D ir e ct or L ando n S t at e O ff ice B uild ing , 900 Jack son, R o om 5 60 To pek a, K S 66 61 2- 1 23 1P hone: 78 5/ 2 96- 40 56 Fa x: 78 5/ 296- 842 0W eb s it e : ht t p :// www .ka ns a s. g ov/p ha rm ac yE -m ail: pharm a cy@ pharm acy. st ate .k s. us K ent uck y B oa r d of P ha rma cy Mic ha el A. B ur le so nE xe c ut ive D ir ec t orS pind let op Adm in is t r a t ion B uild ing, S uit e 3 02 ,26 24 R e sear c h P ar k Dr ive , L e xingt o n, K Y 40 51 1P hone: 859/ 246 -28 20 Fa x: 859/ 246 - 28 23W eb sit e: ht tp :/ /p ha rm ac y.k y. g ov/E ma il: m ike . b ur le s on@k y. g ov P. 13 90
Loui si a na B oar d of P harm ac y Ma lc olm J. B r oussa r dE xe cut ive D ir e ct or 56 15 C or p or a te Bou le va r d, S uit e 8EB at o n R o ug e, LA 70 80 8 -2 53 7P hone : 22 5/9 25 64 96 Fax: 2 25/ 9 25- 6499W eb s it e : www. la bp . com E-m ai l: m br ouss ar d@ lab p. c om Ma ine B oa r d of P ha rm acy G era l dine B et t sB oar d Adm in is t r at o rD epa rtm ent of Pr ofe s siona l/ F ina nc ia l R eg ula t io n3 5 S t ate H o us e St at ionAug ust a, ME 0433 3P hone: 20 7/ 624 -86 89 Fa x: 207/ 624 - 86 37H ear ing Im p air ed: 207 /62 4- 8 56 3P FR/O LR W eb sit e: www.m ai ne pr o f es s iona lr eg . or gE-m a il: f or a ll L ic e ns i ng and Boa rd Me et ing Inf o rm at ion/ I nq uir es a nd f or App lic at io n p ack et s: k e lly. l. m c la ug hl in@ m aine. go vE nf o rcem ent inqu ir ie s: gr e gor y. w. cam ero n@ m aine. go vAdm in is t r at ion and a ll ot her Inq uir ies : ge r ald ine. l. be tt s@m aine . go v Ma ryla nd B oa r d of P ha rm ac y La V er ne Ge or ge Na esea E xec ut ive D ir e ct or4 20 1 P at t ers on Ave n ue B a lt im o re, MD 21 21 5- 2 299P ho ne : 41 0/ 7 64- 4 755Fa x: 41 0/ 35 862 07W eb s it e : htt p: // www. d hm h. s tat e.m d. us / pharm a cyb oar d/E -ma il: Ina es ea @ d hm h. st at e .m d. us Ma ssa c hu se t t s B oar d of R egi st ra t ion in P harm a cyC ha rl es R. Yo ung E xec ut ive D ir ec to r 239 C a use way St ree t, 2nd Flo orB ost on, MA 02 11 4P hone: 61 7/ 9 73 - 08 00 Fa x: 61 7/ 973 -09 83W e b sit e: ww w.m as s. go v/ dp l/ bo ard s/ ph/ inde x. ht m E -m a il: char les . yo ung@ s t at e.m a. us Mi chi ga n Boa r d of P ha rm ac y Ra e Ram sde llD ir e ct or , L ic ensi ng D iv is io n6 11 W e st Ot t awa, 1 st Flo or P O B ox 3 06 70 La ns ing, MI 48 90 9- 8 17 0P ho ne : 51 7/ 33 5- 0 91 8F ax: 51 7/ 373 -21 79W e b sit e: ht t p:/ / www.m ichig a n. go v/ he alt hlice ns eE m ail: r hr ams d@m ic higa n. g ov Mi nne so t a B oa r d of P ha rm a cy C ody C . Wi berg E xec ut ive D ir ec t or 2 82 9 U nive r sit y Ave nue SE , S uit e 5 30 Minne ap o lis, MN 5541 4- 3 251P hone : 61 2/6 17- 22 01 Fa x: 61 2/ 617 -22 12W e b sit e: ht t p:/ / www. phcybr d .s t at e.m n. us E -m a il: C od y.W ib er g@ st a te.m n. us Mi ss iss ipp i Sta te B oar d of P ha rm a cy Le la nd Mc D ivit t E xec ut i ve D ir e ct or 204 Ke y Dr ive, S uit e C Madiso n, MS 39 110P ho ne : 60 1/ 6 05 - 5 38 8 F ax: 6 01/ 605- 954 6W eb s it e : www.m bp .s t at e.m s. us E-m a il: lm cd iv it t @ m bp . st at e.m s. us Mi sso ur i B oa rd of P ha rma cy K e vin E. K i nk ade Exec ut ive D ir ec t orP O B o x 62 5J ef f er son C it y, MO 6 51 02P hone: 5 73/ 7 51 - 00 91 Fa x: 57 3/ 526 -34 64W e b sit e: ht t p :// www . pr .m o. go v/pharm acist s . aspE -m ai l: k evin. k ink a de@ pr .m o. g ov Mo nt a na B oa r d of P ha rma cyE xe cut ive D ir ect or PO B o x 20 05 13 30 1 S o ut h P ark Ave nue , 4t h Floo rH elena, MT 59 62 0- 0 51 3P ho ne : 4 06 / 84 1-2 35 5F ax: 4 06 / 84 123 05W eb s it e : ht t p ://m t. g ov/ d li/ b sd / lice ns e / bs d_ bo ar d s/ pha_ bo ard / bo ar d _p ag e. as pE -ma il: dlibs dp ha @ s t at e.m t. us N ebra ska B oa r d of P ha rma cy B e ck y W isell E xe c ut i ve S e cr et ar yP O B ox 94 98 6L inc o l n, NE 685 09- 49 86P hone: 4 02/ 47 1- 2 118 Fax: 4 02 /4 71- 35 77W e b s it e : www. hhs . s t at e . ne . usE - ma il: be ck y. wis el l@ h hs s . ne . go v N eva da St at e B oa rd of P ha rma cy Lar ry L. P i nso nE xe c ut ive S ecr et ar y55 5 D o uble E ag le C ir c uit , S uit e 11 00Reno , NV 8 9521P hone: 7 75 / 850 -14 40 Fa x: 7 75/ 850 14 44W eb s it e : htt p: // st at e. nv. us/ pharm ac yE -m ail: p ha rm ac y@ go vm a il. st a t e. nv. us P. 13 91
N ew Ham pshir e B oa r d of P ha rm ac y Pa ul G. B oissea uE xec ut ive S ec ret ar y5 7 R eg iona l D r iveC onco r d, NH 0330 1- 85 18P ho ne : 6 03 / 27 1- 2 35 0F ax: 6 03/ 27 1- 2 856W eb sit e: ww w. nh. g ov/ pharm a cyE -m a il: pharm ac y. bo ard @ nh. go v N ew J er sey B oa rd of P ha rm acy Joa nne B o yer Exec ut ive D ir e ct or 1 24 H alse y St r ee tN e wark , N J 0 71 01P hone: 9 73/ 5 04 - 64 50 Fax: 9 73/ 6 48- 3355W eb sit e: www. s tat e. nj . us/ lps / ca/ b oar ds. htm E -m ail: b oyerj @ dca . lp s. st at e. nj . us N ew Me xic o B oa r d of P ha rm a cy W i llia m H ar vey E xec ut ive D ir e ct or /C hie f D urg Ins pe ct or 520 0 Oak land N E , S uit e AAl buq uer q ue , N M 8 71 13P hone: 5 05/ 2 2298 30 Fax: 5 05/ 2 22- 9845W eb s it e : www. st at e. nm . us / pharm a cyE -m a il: W illia m .H ar ve y@ st a te . nm . us N ew Yor k B oa rd of P ha rma cy La w r ence H . Mokhi be r E xe cut ive S ec r et ar y89 W ashingt o n A ve nue, 2nd F loo r W Alb an y, N Y 122 34 - 10 00P hone: 5 18/ 4 74- 38 17 ext . 13 0Fa x: 51 8/ 47 3- 6 995W eb sit e: www. o p. nyse d. g ovE -m a il: pharm bd@m a il. nyse d. g ov N or t h C a rol ina B oa r d of P ha rma cy Ja c k W . Ca m pbe ll IV E xec ut ive D ir e ct orP O B ox 45 60C ha pe l H i ll, NC 27 515- 456 0P ho ne : 919/ 94 2-4 45 4F ax: 91 9/ 96 7- 5 75 7W eb s it e : www. ncb op . or gE-m a il: j cam pb ell@ ncb op . or g N or t h D a k ota S tat e B oar d of P harm ac y How a rd C . A nde r so n J r E xec ut i ve D ir ec to rPO B o x 13 54B is m ar ck , ND 5 85 02 - 1354P hone: 7 01/ 3 28 - 95 35 Fa x: 70 1/ 3 28 95 36W eb s it e : www. no dak p ha rm ac y.com E -m ail: n db op h@ bt ine t . net Ohio Stat e B oa r d of P ha rm ac y W ill iam T. W insl ey E xec ut i ve D ir e ct or 7 7 S o ut h H igh St r ee t R o om 1 70 2C olum bus, OH 43 215 - 61 26P ho ne : 6 14/ 46 6- 4 143F ax: 6 14/ 75 248 36W eb s it e : www. pharm a cy.o hio . g ovE -m ai l: e xe c@ bo p. st a te . oh. us Ok la homa S ta t e B oar d of P ha rm a cy Br ya n H . Pot t er E xec ut ive D ir ec t or4 54 5 Linco ln B o ule var d , S uit e 11 2Ok la ho m a C it y, OK 731 05 -34 88P ho ne: 405 /52 138 15 Fax: 4 05/ 5 21- 3758W eb s it e : www. pharm a cy.o k. g ovE -m a il: pharm ac y@ p ha rm ac y. ok . go v Ore go n S t at e B oa rd of P ha rma cy Ga r y A. S chna be l E xec ut ive D ir e c t or 8 00 N or t hea st Or eg on St re et , S uit e 15 0P o rt la nd , O R 9 72 32P hone: 971/ 673 -00 01 Fa x: 97 1/ 673 -00 02W e b sit e: ww w.phar m acy. st a te. or. usE - ma il: pharm ac y.bo ard@ st a te. or. us P ennsyl va nia S tat e B oa rd of P ha rm acy Me la nie Zim m erm a nE xec ut i ve S ec r et ar yPO Bo x 26 49 Harr isb ur g , P A 17 105 - 264 9P ho ne : 717 / 78 3-7 15 6F ax: 71 7/ 787 -77 69W e b sit e: ww w.do s. st a te . pa . us / p ha rm E -m ail: s t- phar ma cy@ st at e. pa. us P ue r to R ic o B oa rd of P ha rm a cy Ma dga B ouet Exe cut ive D ir ec t or , D ep ar tm ent of H ea lt h, B oar d of P ha rm ac yC all B o x 1 02 00, S ant ur c e, PR 0 09 08P ho ne: 7 87/ 72 4 72 82 Fax: 7 87- 72 5- 7 903E -m ail: m bo ue t@ sa lud. g ov. pr R hod e I sla nd B oa rd of P ha rma cy Ca t he r ine A. C or dy E xe c ut ive D ir e ct o r3 C ap it o l H ill, Room 20 5P r ovid ence , R I 0 290 8- 5 09 7P hone: 40 1/ 222 -28 37 Fa x: 401/ 222 21 58W eb s it e : www. he alt h. r i. go v/ hs r / pro f ess io ns / pharm a cy.p hp E -m ai l: ca t hyc @ d oh. st at e. r i. us P. 13 92
S out h Ca r olina D e pa r tm ent of La bor , Lic ensi ng , a nd Re gul a t io n-B oa r d of P ha rma cy LeeAnn B und r ick Adm inis t r a t orK ing s t r ee B uild ing1 10 C ent er vie w D r ive , S uit e 3 06C olum b ia, SC 2 9210P hone: 8 03/ 8 96 - 4700 Fa x: 80 3/ 896 -45 96W e b sit e: www. llr on line. c om /P O L/ p ha rm ac yE -m ail: b undr ic i@ llr . s c. go v S out h Da kota S tat e B oa rd of P ha rm acy D e nni s M. Jones E xec ut ive S e c ret ar y4 30 5 S out h Lo uis e Ave n ue , S uit e 10 4S iou x Fa l ls , SD 571 06P hone: 60 5/ 3 62 - 27 37 Fa x: 60 5/ 362 -27 38W e b sit e: ww w.s t at e. s d. us/ do h/ p ha rm ac yE -m ail: de nn is . j ones@ st at e. sd. us T enne ssee B oa r d of P harm ac y T er r y We bb Gr ind er Int er im E xec ut ive D ir ec to r Te nnes se e D ep ar tm e nt of C omm er c e and Ins ur a nc e, B oa rd of P har ma cyD a vy Cr ock ett Towe r, 2 nd Floo r 50 0 J am es R ob ert s on Pk wyN as hvi lle , TN 3 724 3 11 49P ho ne : 6 15/ 741- 271 8F ax: 6 15/ 741- 2 72 2W eb s it e : www. s tat e.t n. us / c omm e rce/ bo ar d s/ pharm a cyE -m ail: t err y. gr ind er @ st at e. t n. us T exa s S ta t e B oa rd of P ha rma cy Ga y D o dsonE xe cut ive D ir e cto r 33 3 Gua da lup e, Tow er 3 , S uit e 60 0Aus t in, TX 78 70 1 - 3 94 2P ho ne : 51 2/ 30 5-8 00 0F ax: 512 / 30 580 82W eb s it e : www.t sb p. st at e .t x. us E -m ail: g ay. d od so n@ t sb p. st at e. t x. us Uta h Boa r d of P ha rma cy D ia na L. Ba ker B ur ea u Manag er PO B ox 1 46 74 1S a lt L ak e C it y, U T 84 114- 6 74 1P ho ne : 80 1/ 5 30- 617 9Fa x: 801/ 53 0- 6 51 1W eb s it e : ht t p :// www . dopl. ut a h. go v/ E -ma il: db ak er @ ut ah. gov(t hr o ug h D ivis i on of O c c up at iona l and Pr of e ss io na l L ic ens ing ) V erm ont B oa r d of P ha rm acy P egg y At kinsB o ar d Adm in is t r at or Off ic e of Pr ofe s siona l R eg ula t io n2 6 Ter r a ce S t r eet Mont pe lie r , V T 05 60 9 - 11 06P ho ne : 80 2/ 828 -23 73 Fa x: 802/ 828 - 24 65W eb sit e: w ww. vtpr of es s io na ls . or gE -m ai l: pa tk ins @ s ec. st at e. vt. us V ir gin Isla nds B oa rd of P ha rma cy Ly dia T . S cot t E xec ut ive Ass is t ant D e partm ent of He alt hS chne id er Re giona l C ent er 48 S ug ar E st at eSt . Tho m as , V I 00 80 2P hone . 34 0/ 774 -01 17 Fa x: 340/ 777 - 40 01E-m ai l: lyd ia. sc ot t @ usv i- d oh. or g V ir ginia B oa rd of P ha rma cy E liza bet h Sc ott R usse llE xec ut i ve D ir e ct or6 60 3 W est Br oa d S tr eet, 5t h Flo orR ichm ond, V A 232 30 - 17 12P hone: 8 04 / 662 -99 11 Fax: 80 4/ 662 -93 13W e b sit e: ww w.dhp. sta t e. va . us / p ha rm ac y/ de afa ult . ht m( or t hr ough D epartm e nt of H e alt h Pr of e s sions a t www. dhp.s tat e. v a. us )E -m ail: sc ott i. r uss el l@ d hp . vir g i nia. g ov Wa shing t on S tat e B oa rd of P ha rm acy S t even M. Sa xe E xec ut i ve D ir e ct orPO B ox 47 86 3O lym pia, W A 985 04- 7 863P hone: 36 0/ 2 36- 48 25 Fa x: 36 0/ 5 86- 43 59W eb sit e: ht t p s: // for t res s. wa. g ov/ d oh/ hp qa 1/ hp s4 / pharm acy/ d ef a ult . ht mE -m ail: St eve n. S a xe@ do h. wa. g ov We st V ir ginia B oa rd of P ha rm a cy W il lia m T . D ougl a ss J r E xec ut i ve D ir e ct o r a nd Ge ner a l Co unse l2 32 Cap it o l S t r eetC ha r le st o n, WV 25 301P ho ne : 30 4/ 55 8- 0 55 8F ax: 30 4/ 558 -05 72W e b sit e: ht t p:/ / www. wvb op .c om /E -ma il: wdo ug la ss @ w vb op .c om P. 13 93
W isco nsi n P ha rm a cy E xam ining B oa rd T om R ya nB ur ea u D ir ect o r14 00 E a st W ashingt o nP O B ox 8 93 5Ma dis o n, W I 5 37 08 - 8935P hone: 6 08 / 266 -21 12 Fa x: 608/ 267 06 44W eb s it e : htt p: // www. d r l. st a te. w i. us/E -ma il: t ho m as .r yan@ d r l. st at e. wi. us
Wy om ing Sta t e B oar d of P ha rm a cy Ja m es T. C ar de rE xec ut i ve D ir e c t or 6 32 S o ut h D avid St r eetC as per , W Y 82 60 1P ho ne : 307 /23 4 -0 29 4F ax: 3 07 /23 4- 7 22 6W e b s it e : ht t p :// p ha rm ac yb oa rd. st at e. wy. us /E -m a il: w yb op @s t at e. wy. us R epr int ed wit h pe rm is sion f r om N at iona l Ass o c iat io n of B oa rds of P ha rm ac y, Mount Pr os pec t, IL .
Appendix E Budgeting for Drug Information Resources Basic Library References
Costa
American Hospital Formulary Service (AHFS) Drug Information
$ 239.00
Drug Facts and Comparisons
$ 226.95
Handbook on Injectable Drugs
$ 234.00
Handbook of Non-Prescription Drugs: An Interactive Approach to Self-Care
$ 149.95
Martindale: The Complete Drug Reference
$ 550.00
Nonprescription Product Therapeutics
$ 94.95
Physicians' Desk Reference
$ 94.95
Remington's Pharmaceutical Sciences
$ 137.00
USP DI (three-volume set)
$ 412.00
Additional Resources References
Costa
Drug-drug interaction Drug Interactions Analysis and Management
$ 210.00
Drug Interaction Facts
$ 235.00
Evaluations of Drug Interactions
$ 240.00
Herbal PDR for Herbal Medicines The Review of Natural Products Natural Medicine Comprehensive Database Natural Standard Herb and Supplement Reference
$ 59.95 $ 169.00 $ 92.00 $ 133.00
Internal medicine Cecil Medicine
$ 219.00
Harrison's Principles of Internal Medicine
$ 137.75
Pediatrics Pediatric Dosage Handbook
$ 49.95
The Harriet Lane Handbook
$ 54.95
Pharmacokinetics Applied Biopharmaceutics and Pharmacokinetics
$ 62.95
Clinical Pharmacokinetics
$ 46.00
Concepts in Clinical Pharmacokinetics
$ 66.00
Applied Pharmacokinetics and Pharmacodynamics: Principles of Therapeutic Drug Monitoring
$ 79.95
Pharmacology Goodman and Gilman's The Pharmacological Basis of Therapeutics
$ 140.00
Pregnancy/breast-feeding Drugs in Pregnancy and Lactation
$ 99.00
Therapeutics Applied Therapeutics: The Clinical Use of Drugs
$ 213.00
Pharmacotherapy: A Pathophysiologic Approach
$ 206.00
Textbook of Therapeutics: Drug and Disease Management
$ 213.00
CD ROM computer systems/programs Clinical Pharmacology
$ 5,800.00
Lexi-Comp Online
$ 3,000.00
DataKinetics
$ 1,225.00
Facts and Comparisons 4.0 (online)
$ 2,000.00
Iowa Drug Information System
$ 9,000+
IPA
$ 3,000+
Medline MedTeach Patient Education Program UPTODATE (stand alone)
$ 20,000+ $ 611.00 $ 1,611.93
Micromedex Diseasedex
Must contact representative for price
Drugdex
Must contact representative for price
Poisindex
Must contact representative for price
Other Micromedex databases CareNotes
Must contact representative for price
Drug-Reax
Must contact representative for price
Kinetidex
Must contact representative for price
Martindale: The Complete Drug Reference
Must contact representative for price
PDR
Must contact representative for price
P&T Quik
Must contact representative for price
Reprorisk
Must contact representative for price
Major Online Vendors American Chemical Society Dialog EBSCO Elsevier Gale Group National Library of Medicine Ovid OCLC First Search ProQuest ScienceDirect Thomson Wolters Kluwer
a
Costs are approximate and are based on 2007 figures. Costs vary depending upon selection of format site versus individual license fees, concurrent users, number of beds in facility, or number of students enrolled. Institutional subscriptions are more expensive than individual subscriptions. It is important to have the appropriate site license.
45 Seizure Disorders Az i t a R a z z a g h i
I. INTRODUCTION A. D e f i n i t i o n s 1 . S e i z u r e s a r e c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y a n e xc e s s i v e , h yp e r s yn c h r o n o u s d i s c h a r g e o f c o r t i c a l n e u r o n a c t i v i t y, wh i c h c a n b e m e a s u r e d b y t h e e l e c t r o e n c e p h a l o g r a m ( E E G ) . I n ad d i t i o n , t h e r e m a y b e d i s t u r b a n c e s i n c o n s c i o u s n e s s , s e n s o r y m o t o r s ys t e m s , s ub j e c t i v e we l l - b e i n g , a n d o b j e c t i v e b e h a v i o r ; s e i z u r e s a r e u su a l l y b r i e f , wi t h a b e g i n n i n g a n d a n e n d , a n d m a y p r o d u c e p o s t s e i z u r e i m p a i r m e n t . 2 . E p i l ep s y i s d e f i n e d a s a c h r o n i c s e i z u r e d i s o r d e r , o r g r ou p o f d i s o r d e r s , characterized by seizures that usually recur unpredictably in the absence of a c o n s i s t e n t pr o v o k i n g f a c t o r . T h e t e r m e p i l e p s y i s d e r i v e d f r o m t h e G r e e k wo r d m e a n i n g “ t o s e i z e u p o n ” o r “ t a k i n g h o l d o f . ” I t wa s f i r st d e s cr i b e d b y H u g h l i n g s J a c k s o n i n t h e 1 9 t h c e n t u r y a s a n i n t e r m i t t e n t d e r a n g e m e n t o f t h e n e r v o us s ys t e m d u e t o a s u d d e n , e xc e s s i v e , d i s o r d e r l y d i s c h a r g e o f c e r e b r a l n e u r o n s . 3 . C o n vu l s i o n s a r e v i o l e n t , i n v o l u n t a r y c o n t r a c t i o n s o f t h e vo l u n t a r y m u s c l e s . A p a t i e n t m a y h a v e e p i l e p s y o r a s e i z u r e d i s o r d e r wi t h o u t c o n v u l s i o n s . B . C l a s s i f i c a t i o n . A n a lt e r n a t i v e s e i z u r e c l a s s i f ic a t i o n i s b e i n g d e v e l o p e d t h a t i s p u r e l y s ym p t o m b a s e d . T h i s c o n s i s t s o f f o u r c at e g o r i e s : s e n s o r i a l ( a u r a s ) , c o n s c i o u s n e s s , a u t o n o m i c , a n d m o t or . A l s o, t h e i n t e r n a t i o n a l l e a g u e a g a i n s t epilepsy is establishing a four-level descriptive seizure classification based on s ym p t o m s , a p a t h o p h y s i o l o g i c a l s e i z u r e , a n e p i l e p t i c s yn d r o m e , a n d f u nc t i o n a l d i s a b i l i t y. A t p r e s e n t , t he r e a r e t wo s ys t e m s o f cl a s s i f i c a t i o n o f s e i z u r e di s o r d e r : o n e i s b a s e d o n t h e s e i z u r e t yp e a n d c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s ( T a b l e 4 5 - 1 ) , a n d t h e o t h e r i s based on the P.984 c h a r a c t e r i s t ic s o f t h e e p i l e p s y ( i n c l u d i n g a g e a t o n s e t , e t i o l o g i c a l f a c t o r s, a n d f r e q u e n c y) a n d c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t he s e i z u r e ( T a b l e 4 5 - 2 ) .
Table 45-1. International Classification of Epileptic Seizures
I.
Partial seizures (seizures beginning locally) A.
B.
Simple partial seizures (consciousness not impaired) 1.
With motor symptoms
2.
With somatosensory or special sensory symptoms
3.
With autonomic symptoms
4.
With behavioral symptoms
Complex partial seizures (with impairment of consciousness) 1.
2.
C.
II.
Beginning as simple partial seizures and progressing to impairment of consciousness a.
Without automatisms
b.
With automatisms
With impairment of consciousness at onset a.
With no other features
b.
With features of simple partial seizures
c.
With automatisms
Partial seizures (simple or complex), secondarily generalized
Generalized seizures (bilaterally symmetric, without localized onset)
A.
III.
Absence seizures 1.
True absence seizures (petit mal)
2.
Atypical absence seizures
B.
Myoclonic seizures
C.
Clonic seizures
D.
Tonic seizures
E.
Tonic-clonic seizures (grand mal)
F.
Atonic seizures
Unclassified seizures
Reprinted from Commission on Classification and Terminology of the International League against Epilepsy. Proposal for classification of epilepsies and epileptic syndromes. Epilepsia 1985;26:268-278. 1 . P a r t i a l se i z u r e s a r e t h e m o s t c om m o n s e i z u r e t yp e , o c c u r r i n g i n a p p r o xi m a t e l y 8 0 % o f p a t i e n t s wi t h e p i l e p s y.
Table 45-2. Classification of Epilepsies and Epileptic Syndromes I.
Localized-related (focal, local, partial) epilepsies and syndromes A.
Idiopathic (with age-related onset) 1.
Benign childhood epilepsy with centrotemporal spikes (rolandic epilepsy)
2.
Childhood epilepsy with occipital paroxysms
B.
C. II.
Symptomatic 1.
Chronic progressive epilepsia partialis continua of childhood
2.
Syndromes characterized by specific modes of precipitation
3.
Temporal lobe epilepsies
4.
Frontal lobe epilepsies
5.
Parietal lobe epilepsies
6.
Occipital lobe epilepsies
Cryptogenic
Generalized epilepsies and syndromes A.
Idiopathic (with age-related onset) 1.
Benign neonatal familial convulsions
2.
Benign neonatal convulsions
3.
Benign myoclonic epilepsy in infancy
4.
Childhood absence epilepsy (pyknolepsy)
5.
Juvenile absence epilepsy
6.
Juvenile myoclonic epilepsy
B.
C.
7.
Epilepsy with generalized tonic-clonic seizures on awakening
8.
Other generalized idiopathic epilepsies not defined above
9.
Epilepsies with seizures precipitated by specific modes of activation
Cryptogenic or symptomatic (in order of age) 1.
West syndrome (infantile spasms)
2.
Lennox-Gastaut syndrome
3.
Epilepsy with myoclonic-astatic seizures
4.
Epilepsy with myoclonic absences
Symptomatic 1.
2.
III.
Nonspecific etiology a.
Early myoclonic encephalopathy
b.
Early infantile epileptic encephalopathy with suppression burst
c.
Other symptomatic generalized epilepsies not defined above
Specific syndromes and generalized seizures complicating other disease states
Epilepsies and syndromes undetermined whether focal or generalized
A.
B. IV.
a
With both focal and generalized seizures 1.
Neonatal seizures
2.
Severe myoclonic epilepsy in infancy
3.
Epilepsy with continuous spike waves during slowwave sleep
4.
Acquired epileptic aphasia (Landau-Kleffner syndrome)a
5.
Other undetermined epilepsies not defined above
Without unequivocal generalized or focal features
Special situations A.
Febrile convulsions
B.
Isolated seizures or isolated status epilepticus
C.
Seizures occurring only when there is an acute metabolic or toxic event due to such factors as alcohol, drugs, eclampsia, and nonketotic hyperglycemia
Believed to be a localized-related epilepsy.
Reprinted with permission from Bleck TP. Convulsive disorders: the use of anticonvulsant drugs. Clin Neuropharmacol 1990;1:198-209. P.985
a . C l i n i c a l a n d EE G c h a n g e s i n d i c a t e i n i t i a l a c t i v a t i o n o f a s ys t e m o f n e u r o n s limited to part of one cerebral hemisphere that may spread to other or all brain areas. Manifestations of the seizures depend on the site of the epileptogenic focus in the brain.
b . P a r t i a l s ei z u r e s a r e s u b c l a s s i f i e d a s s i m p l e ( u s u a l l y u n i l a t e r a l i n v o l v e m e n t ) o r c o m p l e x ( us u a l l y b i l a t e r a l i n v o l v e m e n t ) . I m p a i r m e n t o f c o n s c i o u s n e s s i s a f e a t u r e o f c o m p l e x s e i z u r e s . Co n s c i o u s n e s s i s d e f i n e d a s t h e d e g r e e o f a wa r e n e s s a n d r e s p o n s i v e n e s s o f t h e pa t i e n t t o e xt e r n a l l y a p p l i e d s t i m u l i . ( 1 ) S i mp l e p a r t i a l s e i zu r e s g e n e r a l l y d o n o t c a u s e l o s s o f c o n s c i o u s n e s s . Si g n s a n d s ym p t o m s o f s i m p le p a r t i a l s e i z u r e s m a y b e p r i m a r i l y m o t o r , s e n s o r y, s o m a t o s e n s o r y, a u t o n o m i c , o r b e h a v i o r a l . T h e se s i g n s a n d s ym p t o m s m a y h e l p p i n p o i n t t h e s i t e o f t h e ab n o r m a l b r a i n d i s c h a r g e , f o r e xa m p l e , l o c a l i z e d n u m b n e s s o r t i n g l i n g r e f l e c t s a d ys f u n c t i o n i n t h e s e n s o r y c o r t e x, l o c a t e d i n t h e p a r i e t a l l o b e . ( a ) M o t o r s i g n s i n c l u d e c o n v u l s i v e j e r k i n g , c h e wi n g m o t i o n s , a n d l i p sm a c k i n g . (b) Sensory and somatosensory manifestations include paresthesias and auras. ( c ) Au t o n o m i c s i g n s in c l u d e s we a t i n g , f l u s h i n g , a n d p u p i l d i l a t i o n . ( d ) B eh a vi o r a l m a n i f e st a t i o n s , wh i c h a r e s o m et i m e s a c c o m p a n i e d b y i m p a i r e d c o n s c i o u s n e s s , i n c l u d e d é j à v u e xp e r i e n c e s , s t r u c t u r e d h a l l u c i n a t i o n s , a n d d ys p h a s i a . ( 2 ) C o m p l ex p a r t i a l s e i z u r e s a r e ac c o m p a n i e d b y i m p a i r e d c o n s c i o u s n e s s ; h o we v e r , i n s o m e c a s e s , t h e i m p a i r m e n t p r e c e d e s o r f o l l o ws t h e s e i z u r e . T h e s e seizures have variable manifestations. (a) Purposeless behavior is common. ( b ) T h e a f f ec t e d p e r s o n m a y h a v e a g l a s s y s t a r e , m a y wa n d e r a b o u t a i m l e s s l y, a n d m a y s p e a k u n i n t e l l i g i b l y. ( c ) P s yc h o m o t o r ( t e m p o r a l l o b e ) e p i l e p s y m a y l e a d t o a g g r e s s i v e b e h a v i o r ( e . g . , o u t b u r s t s o f r a g e o r v i o le n c e ) . ( d ) P o s t i c t a l c o n f u s i o n u s u a l l y p e r s i s t s f o r 1 - 2 m i n a f t e r t he s e i z u r e e n d s . ( e ) A u t o m a t is m ( e . g. , p i c k i n g a t c l o t he s ) i s c o m m o n a n d m a y f o l l o w v i s u a l , a u d i t o r y, or olfactory hallucinations. 2 . G en e r a l i z e d s e i z u r e s a r e d i f f u se , a f f e ct i n g b o t h c e r e b r a l h e m i s p h e r e s . a . C l i n i c a l a n d EE G c h a n g e s i n d i c a t e i n i t i a l i n v o l v e m e n t o f b o t h h e m i sp h e r e s . (1) Consciousness may be impaired, and this impairment may be the initial manifestation. (2) Motor manifestations are bilateral. ( 3 ) T h e i ct a l E E G p a t t e r n s i n i t i a l l y a r e b i l a t e r a l a n d p r e s u m a b l y r e f l e c t n e u r o n a l d i s c h a r g e , wh i c h i s wi d e s p r e a d i n b o t h h e m i s p h e r e s . b . T h e r e a r e t h r e e t yp e s o f g e n e r a l i z e d s e i z u r e s . ( 1 ) I d i o p a t h i c e p i l e p si e s h a v e a n a g e - r e l a t e d o n s e t , t yp i c a l c l i n i c a l a n d E E G c h a r a c t e r i s t ic s , a n d a p r e s u m e d g e n e t i c o r i g i n . ( 2 ) S ym p t o m a t i c e p i l ep s i e s a r e c o n s i d e r e d t h e c o n s e q u e n c e o f a k n own o r s u s p e c t e d u n d e r l y i n g d i s o r d e r o f t h e c e n t r a l n e r v o u s s ys t e m ( C N S ) . ( 3 ) C r yp t o g e n i c e p i l ep s y r e f e r s t o a d i s o r d e r f o r wh i c h t h e c a u s e i s h id d e n o r o c c u l t ; it i s p r e s u m e d t o b e s ym p t o m a t i c , b u t t he c a u s a l f a ct o r s a r e u n kn o wn . I t i s a g e r e l a t e d , b u t o f t e n d o e s n o t h a v e we l l - d e f i n e d c l i n i c a l a n d E E G c h ar a c t e r i s t i c s. c . S i g n s a n d s ym p t o m s o f g e n e r a l i z e d s e i z u r e s m a y b e m i n o r o r m a j o r . ( 1 ) Ab s e n c e ( p e t i t m a l ) s e i z u r e s pr e s e n t a s a l t e r a t i o n s o f co n s c i o u s n e s s (absences) lasting 10-30 sec.
( a ) S t a r i n g ( wi t h o c c a s i o n a l e ye b l i n k i n g ) a n d l o s s o r r e d u c t i o n i n p o s t u r a l t o n e a r e t y p i c a l . I f t he s e i z u r e t ak e s p l a c e d u r i n g c o n v e r s a t i o n , t h e in d i v i d u a l m a y b r e a k o f f in midsentence. (b) Enuresis and other autonomic components may occur during absence seizures. ( c ) S o m e p at i e n t s e xp e r i e n c e 1 0 0 o r m o r e a b s e n c e s d a i l y. ( d ) O n s e t o f t h i s s e i z u r e t yp e o c c u r s f r o m a g e 3 t o 1 6 ye a r s ; i n m o s t p a t ie n t s , absence seizures disappear by age 40. ( 2 ) M yo c l o n i c ( b i l a t e r a l m a s s i ve e p i l e p t i c m y o c l o n u s ) s e i z u r e s p r e se n t a s i n v o l u n t a r y j e r k i n g o f t he f a c i a l , l i m b , o r t r u n k m u s c l e s , p os s i b l y i n a r h yt h m i c manner. ( 3 ) C l o n i c se i z u r e s a r e c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y s u s t a i n e d m u s c l e co n t r a c t i o n s a l t e r n a t i n g wi t h r e l a xa t i o n . P.986
( 4 ) T o n i c s ei z u r e s i n v o l v e s u s t a i n e d t o n i c m u sc l e e xt e n s i o n ( s t i f f e n i n g ) . ( 5 ) G e n e r a l i z e d ( g r a n d m a l ) t o n i c - c l o n i c s e i zu r e s c a u s e s u d d e n l o s s o f consciousness. ( a ) T h e i n d i v i d u a l b e c o m e s r i g i d a n d f a l l s t o t he g r o u n d . R e s p i r a t i o n s a r e i n t e r r u p t e d . T h e l e g s e x t e n d , a n d t h e b a c k a r c h e s ; c o n t r a ct io n o f t h e d ia p h r a g m m a y i n d u c e g r u n t i n g . T hi s t o n i c p h a s e l a s t s f o r a b o u t 1 m i n . ( b ) A c l o n i c p h a s e f o l l o ws , m a r k e d b y r a p i d b i l a t e r a l m u s c l e j e r k i n g , m us c l e f l a c c i d i t y, a n d h yp e r v e n t i l a t i o n . I n c on t i n e n c e , t o n g u e b i t i n g , t a c h yc a r d i a , a n d h e a v y salivation sometimes occur. ( c ) D u r i n g t h e p o s t i c t a l p h a s e , t h e i n d i v i d u a l m a y e xp e r i e n c e h e a d a c h e , c o n f u s i o n , d i s o r i e n t a t i o n , n a u s e a , d r o ws i n e s s , a n d m u s c l e s o r e n e s s . T h i s p h a s e m a y l a s t f o r hours. ( d ) S o m e p a t i e n t s wi t h e p i l e p s y h a v e s e r i a l g r a n d m a l s e i z u r e s , r e g a i n i n g c o n s c i o u s n e s s b r i e f l y b e t we e n a t t a c k s . I n s o m e c a s e s , g r a n d m a l s e i z u r e s o c c u r r e p e a t e d l y wi t h n o r e c o v e r y o f c o n s c i o u s n e s s b e t we e n a t t a c k s ( s t a t u s e p i l ep t i cu s ) ; t h i s d i s o r d e r i s d i s c u s s ed i n I I I . A. ( 6 ) At o n i c s e i z u r e s ( d r o p a t t a c k s ) a r e c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y a s u d d e n l o s s o f p o s t u r a l t o n e s o t h a t t h e i n d i v i d u a l f a l l s t o t he g r o u n d . T h e y o c c u r p r i m a r i l y i n c h i l d r e n . C . Ep i d e m i o l o g y 1 . M o s t c o m m o n n e u ro l o g i c a l d i so r d e r 2 . E p i l e p s y h a s a p r e v a l e n c e o f a p p r o xi m a t e l y 1 % ( i . e . , 5 0 0 , 0 0 0 c a s e s p e r 5 0 m i l l i o n p e r s o n s wo r l d wi d e ) . 3 . I n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s, t h e p r e v a l e n c e o f e p i l e p s y i s 6 . 4 2 ca s e s p e r 1 0 0 0 p e o p l e . 4 . T h e o n s et o f s e i z u r e s i s g r e a t e s t d u r i n g t h e 1 s t ye a r o f l i f e ; t h i s p r o ba b i l i t y d e c r e a s e s e a c h d e c a d e a f t e r t h e 1 s t ye a r u n t i l a g e 6 0 . A p p r o xi m a t e l y 1 o f 5 0 c h i l d r e n a n d 1 o f 1 0 0 a du l t s a r e a f f e c t e d . 5 . A p p r o x i m a t e l y 7 0 % o f p e o p l e wi t h e p i l e p s y h a v e o n l y o n e s e i z u r e t yp e ; t h e r e m a i n d e r h a v e t wo o r m o r e s e i z u r e t yp e s . D . C a u s e . So m e s e i z u r e s a r i s e s e c on d a r y t o o t h e r c o n d i t i o n s . H o we v e r , i n m o s t c a s e s , t h e ca u s e o f t h e s e i z u r e i s u n k n o wn .
1. Primary (idiopathic) seizures have no identifiable cause. a . T h i s t yp e o f s e i z u r e a f f e c t s a b o u t 7 5 % o f p e o p l e wi t h e p i l e p s y. b . T h e o n s e t o f p r i m a r y s e i z u r e s t yp i c a l l y o c c u r s b e f o r e a g e 2 0 . c . B i r t h t r a um a , h e r e d i t a r y f a c t o r s , a n d u n e xp l a i n e d m e t a b o l i c d i s t u r b a n c e s h a v e been proposed as possible causes. 2 . S e c o n d ar y s e i z u r e s ( s ym p t o m a t i c o r a c q u i r e d s e i z u r e s) o c c u r s e c on d a r y t o a n identifiable cause. a. Disorders that may lead to secondary seizures include (1) Intracranial neoplasms ( 2 ) I n f e c t i o u s d i s e a s e s , s u c h a s m en i n g i t i s , i n f l u e n z a , t o xo p l a s m o s i s , m u m p s , m e a s l e s , a n d s yp h i l i s (3) High fever (in children) ( 4 ) H e a d t r au m a (5) Congenital diseases ( 6 ) M e t a b o l i c d i s o r d e r s , s u c h a s h yp o g l yc e m i a a n d h yp o c a l c e m i a ( 7 ) A l c o h o l o r d r u g wi t h d r a wa l ( 8 ) L i p i d s t or a g e d i s o r d e r s (9) Developmental abnormalities b . A g e a t s e i z u r e o n s e t i s a s s o c i a t ed wi t h s p e c i f i c c a u s e s ( T a b l e 4 5 - 3 ) . E . P a t h o p h y s i o l o g y. Se i z u r e s r e f l e c t a s u d d e n , a b n o r m a l , e xc e s s i v e n e u r o n a l d i s c h a r g e i n t h e c e r e b r al c o r t e x . A ny a b n o r m a l n e u r o n a l d i s c h a r g e c o u l d p r e c i p i t a t e a seizure (Figure 45-1). 1 . N o r m a l f i r i n g o f n e u ro n s , wh i c h u s u a l l y o r i g i n a t e f r o m t he g r a y m a t t e r o f o n e o r m o r e c o r t i c al o r s u b c o r t ic a l a r e a s , r e q u i r e s t h e f o l l o wi n g e l e m e n t s : a. Voltage-dependent ion channels are involved in action-potential propagation or burst generation. P.987
Table 45-3. Probable Causes of Recurrent Seizures by Age Group Age at Seizure Onset
Probable Cause of Seizure
Birth-1 month
Birth injury or anoxia, congenital hereditary diseases, and metabolic disorders
1-6 months
As above, plus infantile spasms
6 months-2 years
Infantile spasms, febrile convulsions, birth injury or anoxia, meningitis, and head trauma
3-10 years
Birth injury or anoxia, meningitis, cerebral vessel thrombosis, and idiopathic epilepsy
10-18 years
Idiopathic epilepsy and head trauma
18-25 years
Idiopathic epilepsy, trauma, neoplasm, and withdrawal from alcohol or drugs
35-60 years
Trauma, neoplasm, vascular disease, and withdrawal from alcohol or drugs
> 60 years
Vascular disease, neoplasm, degenerative disease, and trauma
b . N e u r o t r an s m i t t e r s co n t r o l n e u r o n a l f i r i n g , i n c l u d i n g e xc i t a t o r y n e u r o t r a n s m i t t e r s, a c e t yl c h o l i n e , n o r e p i n e p h r i n e , h i s t a m i n e , c o r t i co t r o p i n - r e l e a s i n g f a c t o r s ( C R F s) , i n h i b i t o r y n e u r o t r a n s m i t t e r s , γ - a m i n o b u t yr i c a c i d ( G A B A ) , a nd d o p a m i n e ; t h e r e f o r e , n o r m a l n e u r o n a l a c t i v i t y r e q u i r e s a d e q u a t e i o n s ( e . g . , s o d i u m , p o t a s s i um , c a l c i u m ) ; e x c i t a t o r y a n d i n h i b i t o r y n e u r o t r a n s m i t t e r s; a n d g l u c o s e , o xyg e n , a m i n o a c i d s , a n d a d e q u a t e s ys t e m i c p H . c . P e o p l e wi t h e p i l e p s y m a y b e g e n e t i c a l l y p r e d i s p o s e d t o a l ow e r s e i z u r e threshold. d . A d i e n c e p h a l i c n e r ve g r o u p t h at n o r m a l l y s u p p r e s s e s e xc e s s i v e b r a i n d i s c h a r g e m a y b e d e a f f e r e n t a t e d , h yp e r s e n s i t i v e , a n d v u l n e r a b l e t o a c t i v a t i o n b y v a r i o u s s t i m u l i i n i n d i v i d u a l s wi t h e p i l e p s y.
Figure 45-1. Gross anatomy of the brain. Clinical manifestation of seizures depends on the area of the cortex that is affected and its function, the degree of irritability, and the identity of the impulse.
P.988
e . D u r i n g s e i z u r e s , t h e r e i s a n i n c r e a s e d u s e o f e n e r g y, o x y g e n , a n d , c o n s e q u e n t l y, a n i n c r e a s e d p r o d u c t i o n o f c a r b o n di o xi d e . B e c a u s e o f t h e l im i t e d c a p a c i t y t o i n c r e a s e t h e b l o o d f l o w t o t h e b r a i n , t h e b l o o d s u p p l y m a y b e o x yg e n d e f i c i e n t . T h e r a t i o o f s u pp l y t o d e m a n d d e c r e a s e s wh e n t h e s e i z u r e e p i s o d e i s p r o l o n g e d , l e a d i n g t o i n c r e a s e d i s c h e m i a a n d n e u r o n a l d e s t r u c t i o n . T h u s it i s cr u c i a l t o d i a g n o s e seizures and treat them as soon as possible. 2 . Ab n o r m a l e l e c t r i c a l b r a i n a c t i vi t y o c c u r r i n g d u r i n g a s e i z u r e u s u a l l y p r o d u c e s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c c h an g e s o n t h e E EG . E a c h p a r t o f t h e c o r t ic a l a r e a h a s i t s o wn function, and the clinical presentation of a seizure depends on the site, the degree of irritability of the area, and the intensity of the impulse. 3 . S e i z u r e ac t i v i t y m a y i n c l u d e t h r e e m a j o r p h a s e s . a . A p r o d r o m e m a y p r e c e d e t h e s e i z u r e b y h o u r s o r d a ys . ( 1 ) C h a n g e s i n b e h a v i o r o r m o o d t yp i c a l l y o c c u r d u r i n g t h e p r o d r o m e . ( 2 ) T h i s p h as e m a y i n c l u d e a n a u r a — a s u b j e c t i v e s e n s a t i o n , s u c h a s an u n u s u a l smell or flashing light. b . T h e i c t a l p h a s e i s t he s e i z u r e i t se l f . I n s o m e c a s e s , i t s on s e t i s h e r a l d e d b y a s c r e a m o r c r y. c. The postictal phase takes place immediately after the seizure. ( 1 ) E xt e n s o r p l a n t a r r e f le xe s m a y a p p e a r . ( 2 ) T h e p a t ie n t t yp i c a l l y e xh i b i t s l e t h a r g y, c o n f u s i o n , a n d b e h a v i o r a l c h a n g e s . F . C l i n i c a l e va l u a t i o n 1 . H i s t o r y i n c l u d e s a n e v a l u a t i o n o f t h e s e i z u r e , i n c l u d i n g i n t e r v i e ws o f t h e p a t i e n t ' s f a m i l y a n d e y e wi t n e s s a c c o u n t s t o e st a b l i s h a. The frequency and duration of the episodes b. Precipitating factors c . T h e t i m e s a t wh i c h e p i s o d e s o c c u r d. The presence or absence of an aura e . I c t a l a c t i vi t y f. Postictal state 2 . P h ys i c a l a n d n e u ro l o g i c a l e x a m i n a t i o n s a r e t h e t o o l s wi t h wh i c h t o i d e n t i f y a n u n d e r l y i n g c a u s e t o r u l e o u t d i s e a s e s t h a t m a n i f e s t a s s e i z ur e s ( T a b l e 45 - 4 ) . 3 . L ab o r a t o r y t e s t s m a y a l s o i d e n t i f y a n u n d e r l yi n g c a u s e . a . L i v e r a n d k i d n e y f u n c t i o n t e s t s , co m p l e t e b l o o d c o u n t ( C B C ) , u r i n a l ys i s , a n d serum drug levels (e.g., antidepressants and amphetamines may precipitate s e i z u r e s ) a r e n e c e s s a r y. b . L u m b a r p u n c t u r e m a y b e r e q u i r e d f o r e v i d e n ce o f c e r e b r os p i n a l f l u i d ( C S F ) i n f e c t i o n f o r p a t i e n t s wi t h a f e v e r wh o h a v e s e i z u r e s .
Table 45-4. Disorders That Mimic Epilepsy
Gastroesophageal reflux
Movement disorders
Breath-holding spells
Shuddering attacks
Migraine
Paroxysmal choreoathetosis
Confusional
Nonepileptic myoclonus
Basilar
Tics and habit spasms
With recurrent abdominal pain and cyclic vomiting Sleep disorders (especially parasomnias) Cardiovascular events
Psychological disorders
Panic disorder
Hyperventilation attacks
Pallid infantile syncope
Pseudoseizures
Vasovagal attacks
Rage attacks
Vasomotor syncope Arrhythmias Reprinted with permission from Scheurer ML, Pedley TA: The evaluation and treatment of seizures. N Engl J Med 1990;323:1469. Copyright © 1990 Massachusetts Medical Society. All rights reserved. P.989
4 . N e u r o l o g i c a l i m ag i n g s t u d i e s , in c l u d i n g M R I a n d / o r CT , c o m p l e m e n t e l e c t r o p h ys i o l o g i c a l s t u d i e s a n d c a n i d e n t i f y s t r u c t u r a l b r a i n d i s o r d e r s ( a n a t o m i c a l abnormalities).
a . A n M RI c a n d e t e c t c er e b r a l l e s i o n s r e l a t e d t o e p i l e p s y a n d s h o u l d b e u s e d i n a l l c a s e s , e s p e c i a l l y i n p a t i e n t s wi t h p a r t i a l s e i z u r e , t o e xc l u d e b r a i n a b n o r m a l i t i e s . b . P o s i t r o n - e m i s s i o n t o m o g r a p h y ( P ET ) , s i n g l e - p h o t o n e m i s s i o n CT ( SP E CT ) , a n d s t a b l e xe n o n - e n h a n c e d x- r a y C T o f f e r f u n c t i o n a l v i e ws o f t he b r a i n t o de t e c t h yp o m e t a b o l i s m o r r e l a t i v e h yp o p e r f u s i o n . P ET a n d S P E CT s c a n s a r e n o t a v a i l a b l e in all institutions. c . E E G st u d i e s m e a s u r e t h e e l e c t r i ca l a c t i v i t y o f t h e b r a i n . T h e s e s t u d i e s h e l p i d e n t i f y f u n c t i o n a l c e r e b r a l c h a n g e s u n d e r l yi n g s t r u c t u r a l a bn o r m a l i t i e s a n d a r e u s e f u l wi t h M R I f o r p a t ie n t s c o n s i d e r e d f o r e p i l e p s y s u r g e r y. ( 1 ) A n E EG i s u s e f u l f o r c l a s s i f yi n g t h e s e i z u r e o r a s a n a d d i t i o n a l d i a g n o s t i c t o o l , b u t t h e E EG b y i t s e l f c an n o t r u l e s e i z u r e s i n o r o u t , b e c a u s e s o m e p a t i e n t s wi t h n o r m a l i n t e r i c t a l E E G s ha v e s e i z u r e d i s o r d e r s . ( 2 ) T h e b e s t t i m e t o o b t a i n a n E E G i s d u r i n g a s e i z u r e e p i s o d e . E E G r e co r d i n g s d o n e wh i l e t h e p a t i e n t i s a s l e e p c a n o f t e n r e c o r d t h e a b n o r m a l a c t i v i t y; t h e r e f o r e , E E G s p e r f o r m e d d u r i n g a s l e e p - i n d u c e d s t a t e u nd e r n o r m a l c o n d i t i o n s o r i n a s l e e p d e p r i v e d s t a t e c a n b e m o r e s en s i t i v e f o r m a k i n g a d i a g n o s i s . G . T r e a t m e n t o b j e c t i ve s 1 . T o p r e v e n t o r s u p p r es s s e i z u r e s o r r e d u c e t he i r f r e q u e n c y t h r o u g h d r u g t h e r a p y 2 . T o c o n t r ol o r e l i m i n a t e t h e f a c t o r s t h a t c a u s e o r p r e c i p i t at e s e i z u r e s 3 . T o p r e v e n t s e r i o u s co n s e q u e n c e s o f s e i z u r e s , s u c h a s an o xi a , a i r wa y o c c l u s i o n , o r i n j u r y, b y p r o t e c t i n g t h e t o n g u e a n d p l a c i n g a p i l l o w u n d e r t h e v i ct i m ' s h e a d 4 . T o e n c o u r a g e a n o r m a l l i f e s t yl e a n d p r e v e n t t h e p a t i e n t f r o m f e e l i n g l i k e o r b e i n g t r e a t e d a s an i n v a l i d 5. Short- and long-term side effects 6 . D r u g i n t er a c t i o n s
II. THERAPY A. P r i n c i p l es o f d r u g t h e r a p y 1 . S e i z u r e co n t ro l . A p p r o xi m a t e l y 5 0 % o f p a t i e n t s wi t h e p i l e p s y a c h i e v e c o m p l e t e s e i z u r e c o n t r o l t h r o u g h d r u g t h e r a p y. I n a n o t h e r 2 5 % , d r u g s r e d u c e t h e f r e q u e n c y o f s e i z u r e s . P eo p l e wi t h e p i l e p s y g e n e r a l l y r e q u i r e c o n t i n u o u s d r u g t h e r a p y f o r a t l e a s t 2 s e i z u r e - f r e e ye a r s b e f o r e t h e d r u g d i s c o n t i n u a t i o n c a n b e c o n s i d e r e d . 2. Initial treatment a . B e f o r e a nt i c o n v u l s i v e d r u g t r e a t m e n t i s i n s t it u t e d , t r e a t a b l e u n d e r l yi n g c a u s e s o f the seizure activity should be excluded. b . A s i n g l e p r i m a r y d r u g t h a t i s m os t a p p r o p r i a t e f o r t h e s ei z u r e t yp e m u s t b e s e l e c t e d . I f t h e r e i s m o r e t h a n o n e a p p r o p r i a t e p r i m a r y d r u g , t h e n a g e , s e x, a n d c o m p l i a n c e o f t h e p a t i en t m u s t b e co n s i d e r e d . c . F o r p a t i e n t s wi t h n e wl y d i a g n o s e d e p i l e p s y, a d m i n i s t e r l o w d o s e s f o r a f e w d a ys . P a t i e n t s m ay r e s p o n d t o a d o s a g e t h a t i s l o we r t h a n t h a t t r ad i t i o n a l l y p r e s c r i b e d i n i t i a l l y b y t h e i r p h ys i c i a n s , a n d t h i s m a y h a v e i m p o r t a n t i m p l i c a t i o n s i n t e r m s o f l i m i t i n g a d v e r s e e f f e c t s . T h e i n c i d e n c e o f a d v e r se e f f e c t s i n cr e a s e s wi t h i n c r e a s i n g d r u g l e v e l s , e v e n wh e n t h e p l a s m a c o n c e n t r a t i o n s a r e m a i n t ai n e d wi t h i n t h e s o called therapeutic or optimal range.
d . B e t we e n o n e f o u r t h a n d o n e t h i r d o f t h e m a i n t e n a n c e d o s e o f a s i n g l e m e d i c a t i o n i s u s e d t o be g i n t h e r a p y ; i t i s t h e n i n c r e a s e d o v e r 3 - 4 we e k s . T h e e xc e p t i o n s a r e p h e n yt o i n a n d p h e n o b a r b i t a l , wh i c h c a n b e s t a r t e d wi t h t h e l o a d i n g o r m a i n t e n a n c e d o s e . T h e do s e s h o u l d b e t i t r a t e d un t i l s e i z u r e c o n t r o l o r i nt o l e r a b l e s i d e e f f e c t s occur. e . W it h t h e in i t i a t i o n o f t h e r a p y, b l o o d c o n c e n t r a t i o n s o f m e d i c a t i o n s s h o u l d b e measured: ( 1 ) T o e s t a b l i s h t h e r a p e u t i c r a n g e s a n d d o s a g e r e g i m e n s b a s e d o n s ym p t o m a t i c toxicity or seizure frequency ( 2 ) T o a s s e s s t h e p a t i en t ' s c o m p l i a n c e wi t h t h e r a p y ( 3 ) T o c o n t r o l t h e c o r r e la t i o n a m o n g t h e d o s e , b lo o d l e v e l s , a n d c l i n i c a l t h e r a p e u t i c levels or toxicity ( a ) P h e n yt o i n f o l l o ws n o n l i n e a r k i n e t i c s , a s d r u g l e v e l s i n c r e a s e d r a m a t i c a l l y ( m o r e t h a n o n e f o l d ) wi t h o n l y a s m a l l i n c r ea s e i n t h e d o s e . H o we v e r , b e f o r e t h i s t wo f o l d P.990 i n c r e a s e i n d r u g l e v e l wi t h a s m a l l in c r e a s e i n d o s e , t h e r e i s a p r e d i c t a b l e l i n e a r i n c r e a s e wi t h d o s e i n c r e a s e s ; f o r t h is r e a s o n , i t i s r e c o m m en d e d t o i n c r e a s e t h e d o s e i n s m a l l i n c r e m e n t s t o b e a b l e t o p r e d i c t wh e n t h e d r u g f o l l o ws t h e n o n l i n e a r k i n e t i c . W h e n t h i s h a p p e n s , t h a t m e an s t h e m a xi m u m r a t e of h e p a t i c e n z ym e c l e a r a n c e i s r e a c h e d a n d t h e b o d y c a n n o l o n g e r c l e a r t h e dr u g a s i t i s in t r o d u c e d i n t o t h e b o d y. ( b ) I f p h ys i c a l e xa m i n a t i o n r e v e a l s a n e w o n s e t o f n ys t a g m u s ( e xc e p t wi t h p h e n yt o i n , i n wh i c h n ys t a g m u s d e v e l o p s b e f o r e c l i n i c a l i n t o xi c a t i o n ) , a t a xi a , a n d u n s t e a d y wi d e g a i t , t h e n e x t d o s e i n c r e a s e s h o u l d b e m i n i m a l . ( c ) T h e r e i s n o j u s t i f i c a t io n f o r i n c r ea s i n g d r u g d o s a g e wh e n a p a t i e n t ' s s e i z u r e s a r e f u l l y c o n t r o l l e d , e v e n i f t h e p l a s m a c o n c e n t r a t i o n i s b e l o w t h e l o we r l i m i t o f t h e t h e r a p e u t i c r a n g e . I f t h e p a t i e n t c o n t i n u e s t o h a v e s e i z u r e s wi t h o u t a n y e v i d e n c e o f a d v e r s e e f f ec t s at a p l a sm a c o n c e n t r a t i o n n e a r t h e t o xi c r a n g e , t h e r e a r e t wo approaches: ( i ) S o m e c l in i c i a n s i n c r e a s e t h e d o s a g e a c c o r d i n g t o c l i n i c a l r e s p o n s e u p t o t h e highest tolerated limit. ( i i ) S o m e c l in i c i a n s d o n o t i n c r e a s e t h e d o s a g e b e c a u s e o f t he l i k e l i h o o d o f p r o d u c i n g a d v e r s e e f f e ct s . ( d ) C a r b a m a z e p i n e h a s a n a u t o i n d u c t i o n m e t a b o l i s m p r o p e r t y, wh i c h m e a n s t h a t i f t h e d o s e i s in c r e a s e d t wo f o l d , b l o o d l e v e l s i n c r e a s e l e s s t h an t wo f o l d b e c a u s e o f increased metabolism. ( 4 ) T o d e t e r m i n e t h e f r ee d r u g l e v e l , wh i c h i s h e l p f u l i n p a t i e n t s wh o a r e i n t h e therapeutic range but have side effects or no response. The plasma protein binding may be altered in these patients by some other disease state or medication. B e c a u s e o f t h i s a l t e r a t io n , t h e r e i s m o r e f r e e d r u g a v a i l a b l e i n t h e s ys t e m t h a n t h e t o t a l l e v e l s h o ws , e s p e c i a l l y wi t h p h e n yt o i n , v a l p r o i c a c i d , a n d c a r b a m a z e p i n e . 3 . P a r a d o x i c a l i n t o xi c a t i o n o c c u r s wh e n a h i g h c o n c e n t r a t io n o f a s i n g l e d r u g c a u s e s a n i n c r e a s e d f r e q u e n c y o f s e i z u r e s wi t h o u t c l a s s i c a l a d v e r s e e v e n t s . T h i s is c o m m o n wi t h h yd a n t o i n s a n d c a r b a m a z e p i n e . T h e p r o p o s e d r e a s o n i s t ha t t h e i r
e f f e c t o n t he c e r e b e l l u m i s b l o c k ed a t h i g h c o n c e n t r a t i o n s . M a n a g e m e n t u s u a l l y r e q u i r e s n o m o r e t h a n wi t h h o l d i n g e n o u g h d o s e s o f t h e d r ug t o a l l o w t h e c o n c e n t r a t i o n t o d r i f t d own . 4 . W h e n s e iz u r e s c a n n o t b e c o n t r o l le d , t h e r e a r e t wo o p t i o n s . a . T h e i n i t i al d r u g c a n b e s u b s t i t u t ed wi t h a n o t h e r a g e n t . T hi s i s a c c o m pl i s h e d b y g r a d u a l l y d i s c o n t i n u i n g t h e i n i t i a l d r u g wh i l e s i m u l t a n e o u s l y i n c r e a s i n g t h e d o s a g e o f t h e s e c o nd a g e n t . T he n t h e d o s a g e o f t h e s ec o n d a g e n t i s t it r a t e d u p t o t h e m a i n t e n a n c e l e v e l a s t he i n i t i a l a g e n t i s g r a d u a l l y d i s c o n t i n u e d . T h e r e a r e t h r e e main advantages of gradual substitution: ( 1 ) I t a l l o ws e v a l u a t i o n o f t h e e f f e c t s o f i n d i v i d u a l d r u g s ( 2 ) I t r e d u c es t h e r i s k o f t o x i c i t y ( 3 ) I t r e d u c es t h e r i s k o f a d v e r s e d r u g i n t e r a c t i o n s b . A s e c o n d d r u g c a n b e a d d e d . C o m b i n a t i o n t h e r a p y i s r e s e r v e d f o r p at i e n t s wi t h s e v e r e e p i l e p s y t o r a p i d l y c o n t r o l t h e s e i z u r e s . Ra p i d c o n t r o l c a n b e i m p o r t a n t f o r p s yc h o s o c i a l r e a s o n s a s we l l a s f o r t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f a m o r e f a v o r a b l e p r o g n o s i s . 5 . L o n g - t e rm d r u g t r e at m e n t . M o s t p h ys i c i a n s r e v i e w t h e p a t i e n t ' s c o nd i t i o n wh e n t h e p a t i e n t h a s b e e n s e i z u r e f r e e f or 2 ye a r s . T h i s h a s i m p o r t a n t i m p l i ca t i o n s i n children because early termination of treatment has better remission rates compared wi t h a d u l t s . I t is r e c o m m e n d e d t o g r a d u a l l y d e c r e a s e t h e d o s e , o v e r at le a s t 6 m o n t h s . T h e a g e o f o n s e t o f e p i l e p s y, t h e p r e s e nc e o f a n u n d e r l yi n g n e u r o l o g i c a l c o n d i t i o n , a n d a n y a b n o r m a l E E G s sh o u l d b e c o n s i d e r e d . 6 . D i s e a s e s a n d c o n d i t i o n s t h a t a l t e r a n t i ep i l e p t i c d r u g - p r o t e i n b i n d i n g s a. Liver disease b. Hypoalbuminemia c. Burns d. Pregnancy e. High protein-binding drugs or antiepileptic agents. (Most important interactions are discussed under individual agents.) 7 . M e d i c a t i o n s . S o m e m e d i c a t i o n s d e c r e a s e l e v e l s o f p h e n yt o i n , c a r b a m a z e p i n e , phenobarbital, and primidone by enhancing their metabolism. These drugs also c a u s e f a l s e d e c r e a s e s i n t h yr o i d f u n c t i o n t e s t s. P.991
a. Oral contraceptives b . O r a l h yp o g l yc e m i c s c. Glucocorticoids d . T r i c yc l i c a n t i d e p r e s s a n t s e. Azathioprine f . C yc l o s p o r i n e g. Quinidine h . T h e o p h yl l i n e i. Warfarin j . D o x yc yc l i n e k. Levodopa
8 . O ve r vi ew o f d ru g t h er a p y i n s e i zu r e d i s o r d er a . M o n o t h er a p y. S t a r t t h e d r u g t h e r a p y a s s i n g l e a g e n t . b . D o s a g e t r e a t m e n t . Us e a l o w d o s e f o r a f e w d a ys . P a t i e n t s wi t h n e wl y d i a g n o s e d e p i l e p s y m a y r e s p o n d t o d o s a g e s t h a t a r e l o we r t h a n t h o s e p r e s c r i b e d i n i t i a l l y b y t h e i r p h ys i c i a n s , a n d t h i s m a y h a v e i m p o r t a n t i m p l i c a t i o n s i n t e r m s o f a d v e r s e e f f e c t s. T h e i n c i d e n c e o f a d v e r s e e f f e c t s i n c r e a s e s wi t h i n c r e a s i n g d r u g d o s a g e , e v e n wh e n t h e p l a s m a c o n c e n t r a t i o n i s m a i n t a i n e d wi t h i n t h e s o - c a l l e d t h e r a p e u t i c or optimal range. c . D r u g m o n i t o r i n g . T he r e i s n o j u s t i f i c a t i o n f o r i n c r e a s i n g d r u g d o s a g e wh e n a p a t i e n t i s f u ll y c o n t r o l l e d , e v e n i f t h e p l a s m a c o n c e n t r a t i o n i s b e l o w t h e l o we r l i m i t o f t h e t h e r a p e u t i c r a n g e . I f t h e p a t i en t c o n t i n u e s t o h a v e s e iz u r e s wi t h o u t a n y e v i d e n c e o f a d v e r s e e f f ec t s at a p l a sm a c o n c e n t r a t i o n n e a r t h e t o xi c r a n g e , t h e r e a r e t wo a p p r o a c h e s : ( 1 ) S o m e c l in i c i a n s i n c r e a s e t h e d o s a g e a c c o r d i n g t o c l i n i c a l r e s p o n s e u p t o t h e highest tolerated limit. ( 2 ) S o m e c l in i c i a n s d o n o t i n c r e a s e t h e d o s a g e b e c a u s e o f t he l i k e l i h o o d o f producing adverse events. 9 . Ad ve r s e e f f e c t s o f an t i co n vu l s i ve d r u g s a . Al t e r n a t i o n i n c o g n i t i o n an d m e n t a t i o n ( 1 ) S e d a t i o n a n d d e p re s s i o n a r e t h e m o s t c om m o n s ym p t o m s o f o v e r d o s e o f a n t i c o n v u l s i v e d r u g s , b ut t h e y a r e d i f f i c u l t t o a s s e s s . F o r e xa m p l e , b a r b i t u r a t e s c o m m o n l y c a u s e d e p r e s s i o n , wi t h p r i m i d o n e b e i n g t h e wo r s t o f f e n d e r ; d ia z e p a m a n d clorazepate are less likely to cause depression. Barbiturates, clonazepam, and t r i m e t h a d i o n e c o m m o n l y c a u s e c o g n i t i v e i m p a i r m e n t , r a n g in g f r o m s e ns a t i o n t o confusion. ( 2 ) E x c i t a t i o n c a n b e a p a r a d o x i c a l e f f e ct o f b a r b i t u r a t e s wi t h yo u n g e r c h i l d r e n a n d t h e e l d e r l y. F o r e x a m p l e , f e l b a m a t e c a n c a u s e r e s t l e s s n e s s a n d h yp e r a c t i v i t y. b . D e t e r i o ra t i o n o f mo t o r p e r f o r ma n c e a n d p ri m a r y c o o r d i n a t i o n i n c l u d e s t r e m b l i n g h a n d s , s t a g g e r i n g wh e n r o u n d i n g c o r n e r s , a n d m i ld l i m b a t a xi a . D r u g s a s s o c i a t e d wi t h t h e s e e f f e c t s i n c l u d e h yd a n t o i n s , m et h s u xi m i d e , c a r b a m a z e p i n e , a n d p r i m i d o n e . T h e s e ef f e c t s a r e l es s c o m m o n wi t h b a r b i t u r a t e s a n d l a m o t r i g i n e a n d a r e r a r e l y s e e n wi t h g a b a p e n t i n . c . G a s t r o i n t e s t i n a l s ym p t o m s i n c l ud e n a u s e a a n d v o m i t i n g . T wo p u r p o s e d mechanisms include ( 1 ) A l o c a l ef f e c t o n t h e s t o m a c h , a s i n t h e c a s e o f v a l p r o i c a c i d ; d i v a l p r o e x a c i d , h o we v e r , h a s l e s s i n c i d e n c e c o m p a r e d wi t h v a l p r o i c a c i d . T he s e s ym p t o m s d e c r e a s e i n i n c i d e n c e i f t h e d r u g is g i v e n wi t h m e a l s . ( 2 ) A b r a i n s t e m e f f e ct , a s i n t h e c a se s o f f e l b a m a t e a n d c a r b a m a z e p i n e . N a u s e a a n d v o m i t i n g c a u s e d b y t h e s e d r u g s a r e a s s o c i a t e d wi t h b r a i n s t e m i n v o l v e m e n t ; t h e r e f o r e , d r u g l e v e l s p l a y a r o l e i n t h e s e s ym p t o m s . A d m i n is t r a t i o n i n sm a l l e r , m o r e f r e q u e n t d o s e s d e c r e a s e s t h e i n c i d e n c e o f t h e s e s ym p t o m s b y l o we r i n g t h e transient peak concentration. d . Ap p e t i t e a n d b o d y w e i g h t . F e w a n t i c o n v u l s a n t s a f f e ct ap p e t i t e s e p a r a t e f r o m n a u s e a a n d v o m i t i n g , i n c l u d i n g a n o r e xi a o r i n c r e a s e d a p p e t i t e .
( 1 ) D r u g s t h a t c a u s e an o r e x i a a r e f e l b a m a t e , a n d t o a l e s s e r e xt e n t , carbamazepine, ethosuximide, and valproic acid. ( 2 ) D r u g s t h a t c a u s e i n c r e a s e d a p p e t i t e a r e v a l p r o i c a c i d , a n d t o a le s s e r e xt e n t , carbamazepine. e. Headache and dizziness ( 1 ) D i f f u s e h e a d a c h e s m a y b e c a u s e d b y e t h o s u xi m i d e a n d , t o a l e s s e r e xt e n t , b y methsuximide and felbamate. P.992
( 2 ) D i z zi n e ss s e e n i n a s s o c i a t i o n wi t h a n t i c o n v u l s a n t s i s c a u s e d b y a c o m b i n a t i o n o f a t a x i a a n d l o s s o f e ye m o v e m e n t c o o r d i n a t i o n , wh i c h i s p a r t o f m o t or c o o r d i n a t i o n s ym p t o m s . B . Sp e c i f i c a n t i s e i zu r e a g e n t s . T a bl e 4 5 - 5 l i s t s t h e u s e s o f a n t i e p i l e p t i c m e d i c a t i o n s b a s e d o n s e i z u r e t y p e . T a b l e 4 5 - 6 li s t s c l a s s if i ca t i o n s o f a n t i c o n v u l s i v e d r u g s . T a b le 4 5 - 7 l i s t s d o s a g e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f a n t i e p i l e p t i c m e d i c a t i o n s . 1. Carbamazepine (Tegretol) a . M e c h a n i s m s o f a c t i o n . C a r b a m a z e p i n e i s c h e m i c a l l y r e l a t e d t o t r i cyc l i c a n t i d e p r e s s a n t s . I t s m ec h a n i s m o f a c t i o n i s u n k n o wn i n t h e t r e a t m e n t o f s e i z u r e d i s o r d e r s , b u t i t i s t h o u g h t t o a c t b y r e d u c i n g p o l ys yn a p t i c r e s p o n s e s a n d b l o c k i n g t h e p o s t t e t an i c p o t e n t i a t i o n . b . Ad m i n i s t r a t i o n a n d d o s a g e ( T ab l e 4 5 - 7 ) ( 1 ) Ad u l t s a n d c h i l d r en > 1 2 ye a r s o f ag e r e c e iv e a n i n i t i a l o r a l d o s e o f 2 0 0 m g t wi c e d a i l y . T h i s m a y b e i n c r e a s e d g r a d u a l l y t o 8 0 0 - 2 0 0 0 m g d a i l y ( u s u a l l y g i v e n i n divided doses). ( 2 ) C h i l d r e n < 1 2 u s u a l l y r e c e i v e 1 0 - 2 0 m g / k g da i l y i n t wo o r t h r e e d i v i de d d o s e s . c . P r e c a u t i o n s an d m o n i t o r i n g e f f e c t s ( 1 ) C a r b a m a z e p i n e s h o u l d b e u s e d wi t h c a u t i o n i n p a t i e n t s wi t h b o n e m a r r o w depression. A CBC should be obtained and platelets measured to determine b a s e l i n e l e v e l s b e f o r e t h e r a p y, a n d l e v e l s s h o u l d b e m o n i t o r e d d u r i n g t h e r a p y. A p l a s t i c a n e m i a a n d a g r a n u l o c yt o s i s h a v e b e e n r e p o r t e d . ( 2 ) T r i c yc l i c a n t i d e p r e s s a n t s s h o u l d b e a v o i d e d i f t h e r e i s a h i s t o r y o f h yp e r s e n s i t i v i t y t o t r i c yc l i c s . M o n o a m i n e o xi d a s e ( M A O ) i n h i b i t o r s s h o u l d b e d i s c o n t i n u e d 2 we e k s b e f o r e c a r b a m a z e p i n e t h e r a p y. ( 3 ) C a r b a m a z e p i n e s h o u l d b e u s e d c a u t i o u s l y i n p a t i e n t s wi t h g l a u c o m a b e c a u s e o f i t s m i l d a n t ic h o l i n e r g i c e f f e c t s . ( 4 ) C a r b a m a z e p i n e i s a n e n z ym e i n d u c e r ; t h e r e f o r e , t h e h a l f - l i f e ( t 1 / 2 ) d e c r e a s e s o v e r 3 - 4 we e k s ( t 1 / 2 1 8 - 5 4 h r ; t 1 / 2 10 - 2 5 h r ) ; f o r m a xi m a l e n z ym e i n d u c t i o n , l e v e l s should be rechecked to avoid breakthrough seizures. ( 5 ) C a r b a m a z e p i n e i s m e t a b o l i z e d i n t h e l i v e r t o 1 0 - 1 1 e p o xi d e , wh i c h a l s o h a s a n t i c o n v u l s a n t a c t i v i t y; c a r b a m a z e p i n e m a y i n d u c e i t s o wn m e t a b o l i s m . (6) Potential for drug interaction in elderly patients. ( 7 ) Ad ve r s e e f f e c t s . T he p h ys i c i a n s h o u l d b e n o t i f i e d i f a n y o f t h e f o l l o wi n g a d v e r s e e f f ec t s o c c u r : j au n d i c e , a b d o m i n a l p a i n , p a l e s t o o l , d a r k e n e d u r i n e , u n u s u a l bruising and bleeding, fever, sore throat, or an ulcer in the mouth. The most
c o m m o n s i d e e f f e c t s a r e d i z z i n e s s , d r o ws i n e s s , u n s t e a d i n e s s , n a u s e a , a n d vomiting.
Table 45-5. Uses of Antiepileptic Medications Based on Seizure Type
Seizure Type Choice 1
Choice 2
Drug Therapy Choice 3 Choice 4
Simple partial
Carbamaze pine (alone or combinatio n)
Phenytoin
Primidone Lamotrigin e Oxcarbaze pine
Gabapenti n, levetiracet am Zonisamid e
Complex partial
Carbamaze pine Lamotrigin e
Phenytoin
Phenobarbi tal Zonisamid e Oxcarbaze pine
Valproic acid Primidone Topiramat e Tiagabine
Primary generalize d Tonicclonic
Valproic acid Lamotrigin e
Carbamaze pine
Phenytoin Valproic acid
Phenobarb ital Topiramat e Tiagabine
Absence
Lamotrigin e,a ethosuximi de
Zonisamide , valproic acid
Myocloni c atonic
Valproic acid Valproic acid
Clonazepa m Clonazepa m
Zonisamid ea
Felbamate a (alone or in combinati on)
Status epilepticu s
Diazepam
Phenytoin
Phenobarbi tal
Psychom otor a
Phenytoin
Also indicated for treatment of Lennox-Gastaut syndrome in children.
P.993
Table 45-6. Anticonvulsive Drug Classification Barbiturat Hydantoi Succinimi Sulfonami Oxazolidin BenzodiazeMiscellane es ns des des ediones pine ous Pheno barbit al
Phen ytoin
Ethos uximi de
Zonis amide
Param ethadi one
Clonaz epam
Lamot rigine
Primi done
Meph enyto in
Meths uximi de
Trime thadio ne
Diazep am
Felba mate
Gabap entin
Meph obarbi tal
Ethot oin
Phens uximi de
Loraze pam
Cloraz epate dipota ssium
Prega balin
Carba mazep ine
Oxcar bazepi ne
Fosph enyto in
Valpro ic acid
Topira mate Tiagab ine Leveti raceta m
P.994
Table 45-7. Dosages Characteristic of Antiepileptic Medications
Drug
Therapeut Protei ic Range Usual nof Total Enzy Enzym Adult Plasma Major Bindin me e Loadi Dose Concentra Mode of g Induc Inhibit ng (mg/da HalfEliminat Level tion er or Dose y) life (hr) (µg/mL) ion (%)
Carbama zepine
+/ -
-
N o
80 020 00
11a -22
4-12
Hep atic
7 58 0
Phenytoi n
+/ -
-
Y es
30 070 0
2272 1-2 (fr ee)
5-20
Hep atic
9 0
Phenobar bital
+/ -
-
Y es
9030 0
10 0
15-40
Hep atic > rena l
4 06 0
Primidon e
+/ -
-
N o
75 030 00
15a ,b
5-12
Hep atic
2 02 5
Valproic acid
+/ -
+
Y es
10 0030 00
1520
50150
Hep atic
7 59 0
Ethosuxi mide
+/ -
-
N o
75 010 00
3060c
40100
Hep atic > rena l
0
Felbamat e
+/ -
+
N o
24 00
2023
30100
Hep atic > rena l
2 22 5
Gabapen tin
-
-
Y es
90 010 00
5-7
5-7
Ren al
< 3
Lamotrig ine
+/ -
-
N o
20 040 0
25 12. 6d 70e
2-6
Hep atic > rena l
5 5
Topiram ate
+/ -
-
N o
20 040 0
1523
n/a
Ren al > hepa tic
91 5
Tiagabin e
-
-
N o
3256
6-8
n/a
Hep atic
9 6
Levetirac etam
-
-
Y es
50 030 00
7
n/a
Ren al
< 1 0
Zonisami de
-
-
N o
10 060 0
2450
n/a
Hep atic
4 06 0
Oxcarba zepine
+/ -
+
N o
90 018 00
4-9
n/a
Hep atic
4 06 0
a
The half-life decreases autometabolism after chronic use.
b
Metabolized in part to phenobarbital.
c
Lower range in children and higher range in adults.
d
Receiving other enzyme-inducing drugs.
e
Valproic acid slows the metabolism.
P.995
( a ) C N S e f f e c t s . T h e s e i n c l u d e d i z z i n e s s , a t a xi a , a n d d i p l o p i a . I f d i p l o p i a a n d ataxia are common and occur after a dose, the schedule could be adjusted to include more frequent administration or a larger proportion of the dose at night. C N S s i d e e f f e c t s m a y d e c r e a s e wi t h c h r o n i c a d m i n i s t r a t i o n . ( b ) G a s t r o i n t e s t i n a l ( G I ) e f f e c t s . T h e s e m o s t co m m o n l y i n c l u d e n a u s e a , v o m i t i n g , a n d a n o r e xi a . ( c ) M e t a b o l i c e f f e c t s . Hyp o n a t r e m i a o c c u r s a f t er s e v e r a l we e k s t o m o n t h s o f t h e r a p y, a n d t h e i n c i d e n c e i n c r e a s e s wi t h a g e . T h e a n t i d i u r e t i c h o r m on e ( A D H ) l e v e l m a y b e l o w. L e v e l s o f 12 5 - 1 3 5 m E q / L wi t h o u t s ym p t o m s s h o u l d b e m o n i t o r e d . F l u i d r e s t r i c t i o n sh o u l d b e i n s t i t u t e d wh e n l e v e l s d e c r e a s e t o < 1 2 5 m E q / L wi t h o r wi t h o u t s ym p t o m s . A n o t h e r a g e n t s h o u l d b e u s e d i f f l u i d d o s e r e d u c t i o n d o e s n o t h e l p o r t h e seizures recur. ( d ) H e m a t o p o i e t i c e f f ec t s . A p l a s t ic a n e m i a i s r a r e . T h r o m b o c yt o p e n i a a n d a n e m i a h a v e a 5 % i n c i d e n c e , a n d t h e y r e s p o n d t o a c e ss a t i o n o f d r u g t h e r a p y. L e u k o p e n i a i s t h e m o st c o m m o n h e m a t o p o i e t i c s i d e e f f e c t : 1 0 % o f c a s e s a r e t r a n s i e n t , a n d
a b o u t 2 % o f p a t i e n t s h a v e p e r s i s t e n t l e u k o p e n i a b u t d o n o t s e e m t o h a ve i n c r e a s e d i n f e c t i o n s e v e n wi t h wh i t e b l o o d c e l l ( W B C ) c o un t s o f 3 0 0 0 / m L . ( e ) D e r m a t o l o g i c a l e f f ec t s . P r u r i t i c a n d e r yt h e m a t o u s r a s he s , t h e S t e ve n s - J o h n s o n s yn d r o m e , a n d l u p u s e r yt h e m a t o s u s h a v e b e e n r e p o r t e d . d . S i g n i f i c an t i n t e r a c t i o n s ( 1 ) An t i e p i l e p t i c d r u g s , s u c h a s p h e n yt o i n , p ri m i d o n e , a n d p h en o b a r b i t al , d e c r e a s e t h e l e v e l o f c ar b a m a z e p i n e ( i n c r e a s e m e t a b o l i s m ) . ( 2 ) V a l p r o i c a c i d i n c r e a s e s t h e l e v el o f c a r b a m az e p i n e ( d e c r e a s e s m e t a b o l i s m ) . ( 3 ) O t h e r m e d i c a t i o n s s u c h a s e r yt h r o m yc i n , i s o n i a zi d , ci m e t i d i n e , p r o p o x yp h e n e , d i l t i a z e m , a n d ve r a p a m i l i n c r e a s e t h e l e v e l o f c a r b a m az e p i n e (decrease metabolism). (4) Carbamazepine decreases levels of calcium channel blockers, increasing its o wn l e v e l . ( 5 ) C a r b a m a z e p i n e d e c r e a s e s t h e e f f e c t of wa r f a r i n . ( 6 ) A n t i b i o t ic s i n c r e a s e t h e l e v e l o f c a r b a m a z e p i n e . ( 7 ) C a r b a m a z e p i n e d e c r e a s e s t r i c yc l i c a n t i d e p r e s s a n t l e v e l s . 2 . P h en yt o i n ( Di l a n t i n ) a. Mechanism of action ( 1 ) P h e n yt o i n i n h i b i t s t h e s p r e a d o f s e i z u r e s a t t h e m o t o r c or t e x a n d b l o c k s p o s t t e t a n i c p o t e n t i a t i o n b y i n f l u e n c i n g s yn a p t i c t r a n s m i s s i o n . T h e r e i s a n a l t e r n a t i o n o f i o n f l u xe s i n d e p o l a r i z a t i o n , r e p o l a r i z a t i o n , a n d m e m b r a n e s t a b i l i t y p h a s e a n d a l t e r n a t i n g c a l c i u m u p t a k e i n p r e s yn a p t i c t e r m i na l s . ( 2 ) P h e n yt o i n i s e f f e ct i ve f o r t h e t r ea t m e n t o f g e n e r a l i z e d t o n i c - c l o n i c ( g r a n d m a l ) s e i z u r e s a n d f o r p a r t i a l s e i z u r e s , b o t h s i m p l e a n d c o m p l e x. I t i s n o t e f f e c t i v e f o r absence seizures. b . Ad m i n i s t r a t i o n a n d d o s a g e ( T ab l e 4 5 - 7 ) ( 1 ) T h e u s ua l d a i l y d o s e f o r a d u l t s i s 3 0 0 - 7 0 0 m g , wi t h a d j u s t m e n t s m a d e a s needed. (a) Regular daily doses above 500 mg are poorly tolerated. ( b ) A l o a d i n g d o s e o f 9 0 0 m g t o 1. 5 g m a y b e g i v e n i n t r a v e n o u s l y ( I V ) . T h e i n f u s i o n r a t e s h o u l d n o t e xc e e d 5 0 m g / m i n . ( A l t e r n a t i v e l y, a n o r a l l o a d i n g d o s e m a y b e given.) ( 2 ) T h e u s ua l d a i l y d o s e f o r c h i l d re n i s 4 - 7 m g / k g d i v i d e d e v e r y 1 2 h r . A n I V l o a d i n g d o s e o f 1 5 m g / kg m a y b e g i v e n . ( 3 ) P h e n yt o i n s o d i u m i s a v a i l a b l e a s c a p s u l e s a n d p a r e n t e r a l s o l u t i o n . P h e n yt o i n i s available as tablets and oral suspension. c . P r e c a u t i o n s an d m o n i t o r i n g e f f e c t s ( 1 ) I V p h e n y t o i n s h o u l d n o t b e u s e d i n p a t i e n t s wi t h s i n u s b r a d yc a r d i a , s i n o a t r i a l b l o c k , s e c on d - a n d t h i r d - d e g r e e a t r i o v e n t r i c u l a r ( A V ) b l o c k , o r A d a m s - S t o k e s s yn d r o m e . ( 2 ) P h e n yt o i n s h o u l d b e u s e d c a u t i o u s l y i n p a t i e n t s wi t h m yo c a r d i a l i n s u f f i c i e n c y and hypotension. ( 3 ) E l i m i n a t i o n o f p h e n yt o i n c o n v e r t s f r o m f i r st - or d e r e l i m i n a t i o n ( p r o p o r t i o n a l t o i t s c o n c e n t r a t i o n ) t o z e r o - o r d e r e l i m i n a t i o n ( a f i xe d a m o u n t p e r u n i t t i m e ) , us u a l l y a t h i g h t h e r a p e u t i c l e v e l s . T h e d a i l y d o s e o f p h e n yt o i n c a n b e i n c r e a s e d 1 0 0 m g d a i l y
u n t i l t h e r a p e u t i c b l o o d l e v e l s a r e a t t a i n e d , a f t e r wh i c h i n c r e a s e s o f 3 0 - 50 m g wi l l a v o i d t wo f o l d t o t h r e e f o ld i n c r e a s e s i n b l o o d l e v e l s . P.996
( 4 ) I t i s n e c e s s a r y t o m e a s u r e f r e e d r u g l e v e l s o r c o r r e c t t he t o t a l l e v e l wh e n aluminum levels are abnormal or the patient has renal failure. (5) Potential for drug interaction in elderly patients. ( 6 ) Ad ve r s e e f f e c t s . T he p h ys i c i a n s h o u l d b e n o t i f i e d i f a n y o f t h e f o l l o wi n g a d v e r s e e f f ec t s o c c u r : s wo l l e n o r t e n d e r g u m s , s k i n r a s h , na u s e a a n d v o m i t i n g , s wo l l e n g l a n d s , b l e e d i n g , j a u n d i c e , f e v e r , o r s o r e t h r o a t ( i. e . , s i g n s o f i n f e c t i o n o r bleeding). ( a ) C N S e f f e c t s i n c l u d e a t a xi a ( l i m i t i n g s i d e e f f e c t ) , d ys a r t h r i a , a n d i n s o m n i a . T r a n s i e n t h y p e r k i n e s i a m a y f o l l o w I V p h e n yt o i n i n f u s i o n . A lc o h o l i c b e v e r a g e s s h o u l d b e a v o i d e d wh i l e o n t h i s m e d i c a t i o n . ( b ) G I e f f e ct s m o s t c o m m o n l y i n c l u d e n a u s e a a n d v o m i t i n g . P h e n yt o i n s h o u l d b e t a k e n wi t h f o o d t o e n h a n c e a b s o r p t i o n a n d d e c r e a s e G I u p se t . ( c ) D e r m a t o l o g i c a l e f f ec t s i n c l u d e m a c u l o p a p u l a r r a s h e s so m e t i m e s wi t h f e v e r , S t e v e n s - J o h n s o n s yn d r o m e , a n d l u p u s e r yt h e m a t o s u s . G i n g i v a l h yp e r p l a s i a m a y b e reduced by frequent brushing and appropriate oral care. ( d ) Co n n e c t i ve t i s s u e d i s o r d e r s i n cl u d e a c o a r s e n i n g o f t h e f a c i a l f e a t ur e s . ( e ) H e m a t o p o i e t i c e f f ec t s i n c l u d e t h r o m b o c yt o p e n i a , l e u k o p e n i a , a n d g r a n u l o c yt o p e n i a . ( f ) M i s c e l l an e o u s e f f e c t s i n c l u d e h yp e r g l yc e m i a a n d i n c r e a s e d b o d y h a i r . d . S i g n i f i c an t i n t e r a c t i o n s ( 1 ) An t i e p i l e p t i c d r u g s , s u c h a s c a r b a m a z e p i n e , va l p r o i c a c i d , c l o n az e p a m , a n d p h e n o b a rb i t a l , d e c r e a s e t h e l e v e l o f p h e n yt o i n ( i n c r e a s e m e t a b o l i s m ) . ( 2 ) P h e n yt o i n i n c r e a s e s t h e c o n ve r s i o n o f p r i m i d o n e t o p h e n o b a r b i t a l ( i n c r e a s e s metabolism). ( 3 ) O t h e r m e d i c a t i o n s s u c h a s d i s u l f i r a m , i s o n i a z i d , ch l o ra m p h e n i co l , a n d p r o p o x yp h e n e i n c r e a s e t h e l e v e l o f p h e n yt o i n ( d e c r e a s e m e t a b o l i s m ) . ( 4 ) D r u g s wh o s e e f f i c a cy i s i m p a i r e d b y p h e n yt o i n i n c l u d e c o r t i c o s t e ro i d s , d i g i t o x i n , d o x yc y c l i n e , e s t r o g e n s, f u ro s e m i d e , o r a l c o n t r a c e p t i ve s , q u i n i d i n e , r i f a m p i n , t h e o p h yl l i n e , vi t a m i n D , a n d e n t e r a l n u t ri t i o n al t h e r a p y. ( 5 ) C o u m a r i n a n d w ar f ar i n a n t i c o a gu l a n t s i n c r e a s e t h e s e r um p h e n yt o i n l e v e l s a n d p r o l o n g t h e s e r u m h a l f - l i f e o f p h e n yt o i n b y i n h i b i t i n g i t s m e t ab o l i s m . ( 6 ) P h e n yt o i n d e c r e a s e s t r i c yc l i c a n t i d e p r e s s a n t l e v e l s . ( 7 ) P h e n yt o i n i n t e r a c t s wi t h d i a b e t e s a n d a r t h r i t i s m e d i ca t i o n s . 3 . F o s p h e n yt o i n ( C e r e b yx ) a. Mechanism of action ( 1 ) W at e r - s ol u b l e p r o d r u g o f p h e n yt o i n . I t i s c o n v e r t e d t o p h e n yt o i n b y t h e b l o o d s t r e a m p h o s p h a t a s e s , wi t h a h a l f - l i f e o f a bo u t 8 m i n i n b o t h a d u l t s a n d children. ( 2 ) I t i s i n d i c a t e d f o r p at i e n t s wh o c a n n o t t a k e o r a l d r u g s , an d i n t h e a c u t e t r e a t m e n t f or s t at u s e p i l e p t i c u s .
( 3 ) A d m i n i s t e r e d v i a I V o r i n t r a m u s cu l a r ( I M ) i n j e c t i o n ( 4 ) A d o s e c o n v e r s i o n t a b l e s h o u l d b e u s e d t o c on v e r t t h e p he n yt o i n d o s e t o f o s p h e n yt o i n . ( 5 ) C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s s i m il a r t o p h e n yt o i n ( 6 ) Ad va n t a g e s ( a ) F o s p h e n yt o i n i s a n a q u e o u s s o l u t i o n , u n l i k e p h e n yt o i n , wh i c h i s a n a l k a l i n e s o l u t i o n ; t h e r e f o r e , t h e r e i s n o n e e d t o a d d p r o p yl e n e g l yc o l a n d e t h a n o l t o t h e solution. ( b ) F o s p h e n yt o i n c a u s e s l e s s s of t - t is s u e i n j u r y a t t h e s it e of i n j e c t i o n . W h e n a d m i n i s t e r e d b y I M i n j e c t i o n , i t i s co m p l e t e l y a b s o r b e d a n d h a s m o r e pr e d i c t a b l e s e r u m c o n c e n t r a t i o n t ha n I M - i n j e c t e d p h e n yt o i n . 4 . V a l p r o i c a c i d ( D e p a ko t e ) a. Mechanism of action ( 1 ) I n c r e a s es l e v e l s o f G A B A ( 2 ) P o t e n t i a t e s a p o s t s yn a p t i c G A B A r e s p o n s e b y i n h i b i t i n g t h e e n z ym a t i c r e s p o n s e f o r t h e c a t ab o l i s m o f G A B A ( 3 ) A f f e c t s t h e p o t a s s i u m c h a n n e l , c r e a t i n g a d i r e c t m e m b r an e - s t a b i l i z i n g e f f e c t b . Ad m i n i s t r a t i o n a n d d o s a g e ( T ab l e 4 5 - 7 ) (1) For adults, valproic acid is administered orally in a usual dose of 1000-3000 mg daily in divided doses. P.997
( 2 ) F o r c h i l d r e n , v a l p r o i c a c i d i s a dm i n i s t e r e d o r a l l y i n a d o s e o f 1 5 - 6 0 m g / k g d a i l y, d i v i d e d i n t o t wo o r t h r e e d o s e s . ( 3 ) M e d i c a t io n s h o u l d b e t a k e n wi t h f o o d t o r e d u c e G I u p s e t . ( 4 ) T a b l e t s o r c a p s u l e s s h o u l d b e s wa l l o we d , n o t c h e we d , t o a v o i d i r r i t a t i o n o f t h e mouth and throat. c . P r e c a u t i o n s an d m o n i t o r i n g e f f e c t s . T h e r e a r e s o m e r ep o r t s o f h e p a t o t o xi c i t y a n d i n c r e a s e d l i v e r f u n c t i o n t e s t s, wh i c h a r e m o s t l y r e v e r s i b l e . T h e s e v er i t y a n d i n c i d e n c e o f h e p a t o t o xi c i t y i n c r e a s e wh e n t h e p a t i e n t i s yo u n g e r t h a n 2 ye a r s o f age. d . Ad ve r s e e f f e c t s . C o n t a c t t h e p h ys i c i a n i f a b d o m i n a l p a i n , n a u s e a , v o m i t i n g , o r a n o x i a o c c u r s ; t h e s e c ou l d b e s ym p t o m s o f p a n c r e a t i t i s . ( 1 ) C N S e f f e c t s i n c l u d e t r e m o r , a t axi a , d i p l o p i a , l e t h a r g y, d r o ws i n e s s , b e h a v i o r a l changes, and depression. ( 2 ) G I e f f e ct s i n c l u d e n a u s e a a n d i n c r e a s e d a p p e t i t e . E n t e r i c - c o a t e d d i v a l p r o e x s o d i u m m a y r e d u c e t h e se s i d e e f f e c t s . ( 3 ) D e r m a t o l o g i c a l e f f ec t s i n c l u d e a l o p e c i a a n d p e t e c h i a e . ( 4 ) H e m a t o p o i e t i c e f f ec t s i n c l u d e t h r o m b o c yt o p e n i a , b r u i s i n g , h e m a t o m a , a n d bleeding. ( 5 ) H e p a t i c e f f e c t s i n c l u d e m i n o r e l e v a t i o n s o f a s p a r t a t e a m i n o t r a n s f e r a s e ( A ST ) , a l a n i n e a m i n o t r a n s f e r a s e ( A LT ) , a nd l a c t a t e d e h yd r o g e n a s e ( L D H ) . ( 6 ) E n d o c r i n e e f f e c t s in c l u d e d e c r e a s e d l e v e l s o f p r o l a c t in , r e s u l t i n g i n i r r e g u l a r menses, and secondary amenorrhea.
( 7 ) P a n c r e a t i c e f f e c t s in c l u d e a c u t e p a n c r e a t i t i s . ( 8 ) M e t a b o l i c e f f e c t s i n c l u d e h y p e r a m m o n e m i a o wi n g t o r en a l o r i g i n . Discontinuation may be considered if lethargy develops. e. Significant interactions ( 1 ) An t i e p i l e p t i c d r u g s (a) Primidone decreases valproic acid clearance (increases metabolism). ( b ) P h e n o b a r b i t a l a n d p h e n yt o i n di s p l a c e p r o t e i n b i n d i n g , r e s u l t i n g i n a n i n c r e a s e d t o t a l p h e n yt o i n l e v e l a n d a n i n c r e a s e o r n o c h a n g e o f f r e e p h e n yt o i n . ( c ) C l o n a z ep a m i n c r e a s e s C N S t o xi c i t y i n p a t i e n t s o n v a l p r o i c a c i d . ( 2 ) O t h e r me d i c a t i o n s ( a ) As p i r i n i n c r e a s e s t h e l e v e l o f v al p r o i c a c i d . ( b ) W a r f a r i n i n h i b i t s t he s e c o n d a r y p h a s e o f p l a t e l e t a g g r e g a t i o n . ( c ) An t a c i d s i n c r e a s e t h e l e v e l o f va l p r o i c a c i d . ( 3 ) L ab o r a t o r y t e s t s ( a ) F a l s e - p o s i t i v e u r i n e k e t o n e t e s t s m a y r e s u l t i n p a t i e n t s t ak i n g v a l p r o i c a c i d ; t h u s p a t i e n t s wi t h d i a b e t e s m u s t u s e c au t i o n wh e n u s i n g u r i n e t e s t s . ( b ) T h yr o i d f u n c t i o n t e s t s m a y b e a l t e r e d b y a n t i e p i l e p t i c d r u g s . 5 . P h en o b ar b i t a l ( L u m i n a l ) a . M e c h a n i s m o f a c t i o n . P h e n o b a r b i t a l i n c r e a s e s t h e s e i z ur e t h r e s h o l d b y d e c r e a s i n g p o s t s y n a p t i c e xc i t a t i o n b y s t i m u l a t i n g p o s t s yn a p t i c G A B A - A r e c e p t o r inhibitor responses as a CNS depressant. b . Ad m i n i s t r a t i o n a n d d o s a g e ( T ab l e 4 5 - 7 ) (1) For adults, phenobarbital is administered orally at 90-300 mg daily (in three d i v i d e d d o s e s o r a s a s in g l e d o s e a t b e d t i m e ) . ( 2 ) C h i l d r e n t yp i c a l l y r e c e i v e 3 - 6 m g / k g d a i l y i n t wo d i v i d e d d o s e s . A d j us t m e n t i s made as needed. c . P r e c a u t i o n s an d m o n i t o r i n g e f f e c t s ( 1 ) P h e n o b a r b i t a l p r o d u c e s r e s p i r a t o r y d e p r e s s i o n , e s p e c i a l l y wi t h p a r e n t e r a l administration. ( 2 ) P h e n o b a r b i t a l s h o u l d b e u s e d wi t h c a u t i o n i n p a t i e n t s wi t h h e p a t i c d i s e a s e wh o may need dose adjustments. ( 3 ) P h e n o b a r b i t a l h a s s e d a t i v e e f f e c t s i n a d u l t s an d p r o d u c e s h yp e r a c t i v i t y i n children. ( 4 ) A b r u p t di s c o n t i n u a t i o n o f p h e n o b a r b i t a l p r o d u c e s wi t h d r a wa l c o n v u l s i o n s . I f t h e d r u g m u s t be d i s c o n t i n u e d , a n o t h e r G A B A - A a g o n i s t ( e . g . , be n z o d i a z e p i n e , p a r a l d e h yd e ) s h o u l d b e s u b s t i t u t e d . (5) Potential for drug interaction in elderly patients. ( 6 ) Ad ve r s e e f f e c t s . T he p h ys i c i a n s h o u l d b e n o t i f i e d i f a n y o f t h e f o l l o wi n g a d v e r s e e f f ec t s o c c u r : s o r e t h r o a t , m o u t h s o r e s, e a s y b r u i s i n g o r b l e e d i n g , a n d a n y s i g n s o f i n f ec t i o n . P.998
( a ) C N S e f f e c t s i n c l u d e a g i t a t i o n , co n f u s i o n , l e t h a r g y, a n d d r o ws i n e s s . P a t i e n t s should avoid alcohol and other CNS depressants.
( b ) R e s p i r a t o r y e f f e c t s i n c l u d e h yp o v e n t i l a t i o n a n d a p n e a . ( c ) C a r d i o va s c u l a r e f f e c t s i n c l u d e b r a d yc a r d i a a n d h yp o t e n s i o n . ( d ) G I e f f e ct s i n c l u d e n a u s e a , d i a r r h e a , a n d c o n s t i p a t i o n . I f G I u p s e t i s e x p e r i e n c e d , p h e n o b a r b i t a l s h o u l d b e t a k e n wi t h f o o d . ( e ) H e m a t o l o g i c a l e f f e ct s i n c l u d e m e g a l o b l a s t i c a n e m i a a f t er c h r o n i c u se ( a r a r e side effect). ( f ) M i s c e l l an e o u s e f f e c t s i n c l u d e o s t e o m a l a c i a a n d S t e v e n s - J o h n s o n s yn d r o m e , b o t h o f wh i c h a r e r a r e . d . S i g n i f i c an t i n t e r a c t i o n s ( 1 ) An t i e p i l e p t i c d r u g s , s u c h a s va l p r o i c a c i d a n d p h e n yt o i n , i n c r e a s e t h e l e v e l of phenobarbital (decrease metabolism). ( 2 ) O t h e r d r u g s s u c h a s a c e t a z o l am i d e , c h l o ra m p h e n i co l , c i m e t i d i n e, a n d f u r o s e m i d e i n c r e a s e t he l e v e l o f p h e n o b a r b i t a l ( d e c r e a s e m e t a b o l i s m ) . ( 3 ) R i f a m p i n , p yr i d o x i n e , a n d e t h a n o l d e c r e a s e t h e l e v e l o f p h e n o b a r b i t a l (increase metabolism). 6 . P r i m i d o n e ( M ys o l i n e) a . M e c h a n i s m o f a c t i o n . P r i m i d o n e i s a m e t a bo l i t e o f p h e n o b a r b i t a l a n d p h e n yl e t h y l m a l o n a m i d e ( P E M A) , wh i c h h a s s o m e a n t i c o n v u l s i v e e f f e ct s . I t h a s d r u g c h a r a c t e r i s t ic s s i m i l a r t o p h e n o b a r b i t a l , wi t h s o m e d i f f e r e n ce s i n d o s e a n d h a l f - l i f e . b . Ad m i n i s t r a t i o n a n d d o s a g e ( T ab l e 4 5 - 7 ) ( 1 ) P r i m i d o n e h a s a s h o r t h a l f - l i f e of 7 h r , wh i c h m a y r e q u i r e t h r e e - t i m e s d a i l y dosing. ( 2 ) P r i m i d o n e i s t o l e r a t ed b e t t e r if st a r t e d a t 5 0 m g a t n i g h t f o r 3 d a ys u n t i l t h e target daily dose is reached. 7 . E t h o s u xi m i d e ( Z a r o n t i n ) a. Mechanism of action ( 1 ) E t h o s u xi m i d e m a y i n h i b i t t h e s o d i u m - p o t a s s i u m a d e n o s i n e t r i p h o s p h a t a s e ( N a + / K + AT Pa s e ) s ys t e m a n d t h e r e d u c e d f o r m of n i c o t i n a m i d e a d e n i n e d i n u c l e o t i d e p h o s p h a t e ( N A D P H ) l i n k e d a l d e h yd e r e d u c t a s e ( wh i c h i s n e c e s s a r y f o r t h e f o r m a t i on o f γ - h yd r o x y b u t yr a t e , wh i c h i s a s s o c ia t e d wi t h t h e i n d u c t i o n o f a b s e n c e s e i z u r e s ) . ( 2 ) E t h o s u xi m i d e r e d u c e s o r e l i m i n a t e s t h e E EG a b n o r m a l i t y; h o we v e r , a b s e n c e s e i z u r e s a r e t h e o n l y s e i z u r e s i n wh i c h t h e n o r m a l E E G h a s c l i n i c a l v a l u e ( i . e . , wh e n t h e E E G a b n o r m a l i t y i s c o r r e ct e d , t h e s e i z u r e s a r e a l s o c o n t r o l l e d ) . ( 3 ) E t h o s u xi m i d e i s a r e la t i v e l y b e n i g n a n t i c o n v u l s a n t wi t h m i n i m u m p r o t e i n b i n d i n g . b . Ad m i n i s t r a t i o n a n d d o s a g e ( T ab l e 4 5 - 7 ) . E t h o s u x i m i d e i s u s u a l l y g i v e n o r a l l y i n a n i n i t i a l d o s e o f 5 0 0 m g d a i l y i n a d u l t s a n d o l d e r c h i l d r en a n d 2 5 0 m g d a i l y i n c h i l d r e n ag e s 3 - 6 ye a r s . T h e d o s e m a y b e r a i s e d b y 2 5 0 m g e v e r y we e k t o a m a xi m u m o f 1 . 5 g d a i l y i n a d u l t s . c . P r e c a u t i o n s an d m o n i t o r i n g e f f e c t s ( 1 ) B l o o d d y s c r a s i a s h a v e b e e n r e p o r t e d , m a k i ng p e r i o d i c b l o o d c o u n t s n e c e s s a r y. ( 2 ) T h e r e h av e b e e n r e p o r t s o f h e p a t i c a n d r e n a l t o xi c i t y; t h u s p e r i o d i c r e n a l a n d l i v e r f u n c t i on m o n i t o r i n g i s n e c e s s a r y. ( 3 ) C a s e s o f s ys t e m i c l u p u s e r yt h e m a t o s u s h a v e b e e n r e p o r t e d . d . Ad ve r s e e f f e c t s
( 1 ) G I e f f e ct s i n c l u d e n a u s e a a n d v o m i t i n g . S m a l l d o s e s m a y l e s s e n t h e s e e f f e c t s . E t h o s u xi m i d e s h o u l d b e t a k e n wi t h f o o d i f G I u ps e t o c c u r s. ( 2 ) H e m a t o p o i e t i c e f f ec t s i n c l u d e e o s i n o p h i l i a , g r a n u l o c yt o p e n i a , l e u k o p e n i a , a n d lupus. ( 3 ) C N S e f f e c t s i n c l u d e d r o ws i n e s s , b l u r r e d v i si o n , f a t i g u e , l e t h a r g y, h i c c u p s , a n d h e a d a c h e s . A l c o h o l i c b e v e r a g e s s h o u l d b e a v o i d e d wi t h t h i s m e d i c a t i o n . ( 4 ) P s yc h i a t r i c - p s yc h o l o g i c a l e f f ec t s i n c l u d e c o n f u s i o n a n d e m o t i o n a l i n s t a b i l i t y. ( 5 ) D e r m a t o l o g i c a l e f f ec t s i n c l u d e p r u r i t u s , p ho t o s e n s i t i v i t y, u r t i c a r i a , a n d S t e v e n s - J o h n s o n s yn d r o m e . ( 6 ) G e n i t o u r i n a r y e f f e c t s i n c l u d e in c r e a s e d f r e q u e n c y o f u r i n a t i o n , v a g i n a l bleeding, renal damage, and hematuria. ( 7 ) M i s c e l l a n e o u s e f f e c t s i n c l u d e pe r i o r b i t a l e d e m a a n d m u s c l e we a k n e s s . P a t i e n t s s h ou l d a l s o b e a d v i s e d o f t h e r i s k s o f exp o s u r e t o s u n l i g h t a n d u l t r a v i o l e t light. P.999
e. Significant interactions. ( 1 ) An t i e p i l e p t i c d r u g s , s u c h a s c a r b a m a z e p i n e , d e c r e a s e t h e l e v e l o f e t h o s u xi m i d e ( i n c r e a s e s m e t a b o l i s m ) . ( 2 ) V a l p r o i c a c i d i n c r e a s e s t h e l e v el o f e t h o s u xi m i d e ( d e c r e a s e s m e t a b o l i s m ) . 8. Clonazepam (Klonopin) a . M e c h a n i s m o f a c t i o n . C l o n a z e p a m i s a p o t en t G A B A - A a g o n i s t , b u t i t s e f f i c a c y decreases over several months of treatment. b . Ad m i n i s t r a t i o n a n d d o s a g e ( 1 ) F o r a d u l t s , c l o n a z e p a m i s a n o r al a g e n t t h a t m a y b e g i v e n i n a n i n i t i a l d o s e o f 1 . 5 m g d a i l y d i v i d e d t wo o r t h r e e t i m e s . T h e d o se m a y b e i n c r e a s e d t o a m a xi m u m o f 2 0 m g d a il y. ( 2 ) C h i l d r e n s h o u l d r e c e i v e 0 . 0 1 - 0 . 0 3 m g d a i l y i n t wo o r t h r e e d o s e s . T h e d o s a g e m a y b e i n c r e a s e d t o a m a xi m u m o f 0 . 2 m g / k g da i l y. c . P r e c a u t i o n s an d m o n i t o r i n g e f f e c t s ( 1 ) P a t i e n t s wi t h p s yc h o s e s , a c u t e na r r o w- a n g l e g l a u c o m a , a n d s i g n i f i c a n t l i v e r d i s e a s e s h o u l d u s e t h i s m e d i c i n e c a u t i o u s l y. ( 2 ) Ad ve r s e e f f e c t s ( a ) C N S e f f e c t s i n c l u d e d r o ws i n e s s , a t a xi a , a n d b e h a v i o r d i s t u r b a n c e s i n c h i l d r e n ; these may be corrected by dose reduction. ( b ) R e s p i r a t o r y e f f e c t s i n c l u d e h yp e r s a l i v a t i o n a n d b r o n c h i a l h yp e r s e c r e t i o n . ( c ) M i s c e l l a n e o u s e f f e c t s i n c l u d e a n e m i a , l e u k o p e n i a , t h r o m b o c yt o p e n i a , r e s p i r a t o r y d e p r e s s i o n , a n o r e xi a , a n d we i g h t l o s s . d . S i g n i f i c an t i n t e r a c t i o n s ( 1 ) An t i e p i l e p t i c d r u g s , s u c h a s p h e n yt o i n , i n cr e a s e t h e l e v e l o f c l o n a z e p a m (decrease metabolism). ( 2 ) O t h e r d r u g s . C l o n a z e p a m d e c r e a s e s t h e e f f i c a c y o f l e vo d o p a a n d i n c r e a s e s t h e serum level of digoxin. 9 . F el b a m a t e ( F e l b a t o l )
a . M e c h a n i s m o f a c t i o n . A p r o p o se d m e c h a n i s m o f a c t i o n i s t h a t t h e d r u g i n t e r a c t s wi t h g l yc i n e m o d u l a t o r y s i t e o n N - m e t h yl - D - a s p a r t a t e ( N M DA ) r e c e p t o r s. B l o c k a d e o f N M D A m ay c o n t r i b u t e t o n e u r o p r o t e c t i v e e f f e ct s o f f e l b a m a t e . F e l b a m a t e i s u s e d a s m o n o t h e r a p y o r a d j u n c t i v e t h e r a py o r wi t h o u t s e c o n d a r y g e n e r a l i z a t i o n i n a d u l t s a n d g e n e r a l i z e d s e i z u r e s a s s o c i a t ed wi t h L e n n o x- G a s t a u t s yn d r o m e i n c h i l d r e n . T h e U . S . F o o d a n d D r u g A d m i n i s t r a t i o n ( F D A ) r e c o m m e n d e d t h a t u s e o f f e lb a m a t e b e r e s t r i c t e d t o o n l y t h o s e p a t i e n t s wh o a r e r e f r a ct o r y t o o t h e r m e d i c a t i o n s a n d i n wh o m t h e r i s k - b e n e f i t r e l a t i o n s h i p wa r r a n t s i t s u s e , b e c a u s e o f s e v e r e h e p a t o t o x i c i t y. b . Ad m i n i s t r a t i o n a n d d o s a g e ( T ab l e 4 5 - 7 ) ( 1 ) Ad u l t s a n d c h i l d r en > 1 4 ye a r s o f a g e ( 2 ) M o n o t h e r a p y, i n i t i a l l y 1 . 2 g i n t hr e e t o f o u r d o s e s d a i l y. T h e d o s a g e m a y b e i n c r e a s e d i n 6 0 0 - m g i n c r e m e n t s e v er y 2 we e k s t o 2 . 4 g d a i l y b a s e d o n c l i n i c a l r e s p o n s e a n d , t h e r e a f t e r , 3 . 6 g d a i l y i f n e c e s s a r y. ( 3 ) A d j u n c t i v e t h e r a p y, 1 . 2 g i n t h r ee t o f o u r d o s e s d a i l y, wi t h r e d u c t i o n o f t h e d o s a g e o f o t h e r a n t i e p i l e p t i c d r u g s by 2 0 % - 3 3 % . T h e d o s a g e o f f e l b a m a t e m a y b e i n c r e a s e d i n i n c r e m e n t s o f 1 . 2 g at we e k l y i n t e r v a l s t o a m a xi m u m o f 3. 6 g d a i l y. ( 4 ) C o n v e r s i o n t o m o n o t h e r a p y i n i t i a l l y 1 . 2 g d a i l y i n t h r e e t o f o u r d o s e s , wi t h r e d u c t i o n o f t h e d o s a g e o f o t h e r a n t ie p i l e p t i c d r u g s b y 3 3 % a t we e k 3 . T he f e l b a m a t e d o s a g e m a y b e i n c r e a s e d t o 3 . 6 g d a i l y, a n d o t h e r a n t i e p i l e p t i c d r u g s d i s c o n t i n u e d o r d o s a g e f u r t h e r r e d u c e d i n s t e p wi s e f a s h i o n . ( 5 ) C h i l d r e n 2 - 1 4 ye a r s o f a g e wi t h L e n n o x- G a s t a u t s yn d r o m e , a s a d j u n c t i v e t h e r a p y, i n i t i a l l y 1 5 m g / k g d a i l y i n t h r e e t o f o u r d o s e s . T h e d o s a g e o f o t h e r a n t i e p i l e p t i c d r u g s i s r ed u c e d b y 2 0 % . T h e a m ou n t o f f e l b a m a t e m a y b e i n c r e a s e d i n i n c r e m e n t s o f 1 5 m g / k g a t we e k l y i n t e r v a l s t o 4 5 m g / k g d a i l y. F u r t h e r r ed u c t i o n i n t h e d o s a g e o f o t h e r a n t ie p i l e p t i c d r u g s m a y b e n e c e s s a r y. c . P r e c a u t i o n a n d m o n i t o ri n g e f f ec t s . T h e r e ar e t wo v e r y s e r i o u s t o xi c e f f e ct s , a p l a s t i c a n e m i a a n d l i v e r f a i l u r e , wh i c h l e a d t o d e a t h f o r s om e p a t i e n t s . ( 1 ) F o r a p l a s t i c a n e m i a , t h e o n s e t r a n g e f r o m 5 t o 3 0 we e k s o f i n i t i a t i on o f t h e r a p y . W e e k l y o r b i we e k l y C B C s a r e r e c o m m e n d e d i n i t i a l l y. ( 2 ) F o r l i v e r , t o xi c i t y t i m e b e t we e n i n i t i a t i o n o f t r e a t m e n t a n d d i a g n o s i s o f t h e s e c a s e s r a n g e s f r o m 1 4 t o 2 5 7 d a ys . I t i s r e c o m m en d e d t h a t l i v e r f u n c t i o n t e s t s b e p e r f o r m e d b e f o r e i n i t i a t i o n o f t h e r a p y t o i d e n t i f y p a t i e n t s wh o h a v e e v i d e n c e o f preexisting P.1000 l i v e r d a m a g e . L i v e r f u n ct i o n t e s t s s ho u l d a l s o b e p e r f o r m e d we e k l y o r b i we e k l y. T h e F D A r e c o m m e n d s t h a t t h i s d r u g b e u s e d o n l y i n p a t i e n t s wh o a r e r e f r a ct o r y t o o t h e r m e d i c a t i o n s a n d i n wh o m t h e r i s k - be n e f i t r e l a t i o n s h i p wa r r a n t s i t s u s e . ( 3 ) P h o t o a l l e r g y o r p h o t o t o xi c i t y m a y o c c u r ; p a t ie n t s s h o u l d t a k e p r o t e c t iv e m e a s u r e s a g a i n s t e xp o s u r e t o u l t r av i o l e t l i g h t o r s u n l i g h t . ( 4 ) I n s t r u c t p a t i e n t s t o st o r e m e d i c a t i o n i n i t s o wn t i g h t l y c l o s e d c o n t a i n e r a t r o o m t e m p e r a t u r e a wa y f r o m e xc e s s i v e h e a t , d i r e c t su n l i g h t , a n d m o i s t u r e . ( 5 ) Ad ve r s e e f f e c t s . C on t a c t t h e p h ys i c i a n i f s i g n s o f i n f e c t i o n ( e . g . , b l e e d i n g o r bruising) occur.
( a ) T h i s d r ug h a s t h e p o t e n t i a l t o c au s e a p l a s t i c a n e m i a ( b o n e m a r r o w) . ( b ) T h e p a t ie n t s h o u l d b e m o n i t o r e d f o r t h e s e t oxi c i t i e s b y C B C s a n d l i v e r f u n c t i o n t e s t s we e k l y o r b i we e k l y u n t i l d i s c o n t i n u a t i o n o f a n y s i g n o f t h e s e t o xi c i t i e s o c c u r s . ( c ) C N S e f f e c t s a r e i n s o m n i a , h e a d a c h e , a n xi e t y, h yp e r a c t i v i t y, a n d f a t i g u e . ( d ) C a r d i o va s c u l a r e f f e c t s a r e p e r i p h e r a l e d e m a , v a s o d i l a t i o n , h yp o t e n s i o n , a n d h yp e r t e n s i o n . ( e ) O c u l a r ef f e c t s a r e d ip l o p i a a n d b l u r r e d v i s i o n . ( f ) G I e f f e c t s a r e a n o r e xi a , we i g h t d e c r e a s e , a n d n a u s e a . ( g ) H e m a t o l o g i c a l e f f e ct s m a y i n c l u d e l ym p h a d e n o p a t h y, l e u k o p e n i a , a n d t h r o m b o c yt o p e n i a . ( h ) M e t a b o l i c / n u t r i t i o n e f f e c t s m a y i n c l u d e h yp o k a l e m i a a n d h yp o n a t r e m i a . d . S i g n i f i c an t i n t e r a c t i o n s ( 1 ) F e l b a m a t e a n d p h e n yt o i n . F e l b a m a t e c a u s e s a n i n c r e a s e i n p h e n yt o i n p l a s m a c o n c e n t r a t i o n . P h e n yt o i n d o u b l e s f e l b a m a t e c l e a r a n c e , r e su l t i n g i n 4 5 % d e c r e a s e i n felbamate levels. (2) Felbamate and carbamazepine. Felbamate causes a decrease in carbamazepine levels and an increase in carbamazepine metabolites. In addition, carbamazepine causes a 50% increase in felbamate clearance, resulting in a 40% d e c r e a s e i n s t e a d y- s t a t e t r o u g h l e v e l s . ( 3 ) F e l b a m a t e a n d va l p r o i c a c i d . F e l b a m a t e c a u s e s a n i n c r e a s e i n v a l p r o i c a c i d levels, but valproic acid does not affect felbamate levels. ( 4 ) Ad ve r s e e f f e c t s . S ig n s a n d s ym p t o m s a s so c i a t e d wi t h i n c r e a s e d p l a s m a l e v e l a n d t o x i c i t y a r e a n o r e x i a , n a u s e a , vo m i t i n g , i n s o m n i a , a n d h e a d a c h e . 1 0 . G a b ap e n t i n ( N e u r o n t i n ) a . M e c h a n i s m o f a c t i o n . I t i s a n a n a l o g o f G AB A . I t i n c r e a s e s G A B A t u r n o v e r , b u t i t d o e s n o t b i n d t o G A B A or a n y o t h e r e s t a b l i s h e d n e u r o t r a n s m i t t e r r e c e p t o r . I t s m e c h a n i s m o f a c t i o n i s c u r r e n t l y u n k n o wn , a l t h o u g h i t b i n d s t o a s p e c i f i c r e c e p t o r in t h e b r a i n a n d i n h i b i t s v o l t a g e - d e p e n d e n t s o d i u m c u r r e n t s. I t h a s b e e n s h o wn t o b e e f f e c t i v e a s a n a d d - o n d r u g i n p a t i e n t s wi t h p a r t i a l s e i z u r e wi t h o r wi t h o u t secondary generalization. b . Ad m i n i s t r a t i o n a n d d o s a g e ( T ab l e 4 5 - 7 ) ( 1 ) P a t i e n t s > 1 2 ye a r s r e c e i v e 9 0 0 m g t o 1 . 8 g d a i l y, a d m i n i s t e r e d a s ad j u n c t i v e t h e r a p y i n t h r e e d i v i d e d d o s e s . T it r a t i n g t o a n e f f e c t i v e d os e n o r m a l l y c a n b e a c h i e v e d wi t h i n 3 d a ys b y i n i t i a t i n g t h e r a p y wi t h 3 0 0 m g a n d t h e n i n c r e a s i n g t h e d o s e i n 3 0 0 - m g i n c r e m e n t s o v e r t h e n e xt 2 d a ys t o e st a b l i s h a d o s a g e o f 9 0 0 m g d a i l y i n t h r e e d o s e s . I f ne c e s s a r y, t h e d o s a g e m a y b e i n c r e a s e d t o 1 . 8 g d a i l y. T o m i n i m i z e p o t e n t i a l s i d e e f f e c t s , e s pe c i a l l y s o m n o l e n c e , d i z z i n e s s , o r f a t i g u e , t h e first dose on day 1 may be administered at bedtime. ( 2 ) P a t i e n t s 3 - 1 2 ye a r s o f a g e s h o u l d r e c e i v e 1 0 - 1 5 m g / k g / da y i n 3 d i v i d e d d o s e s u p t o 2 5 - 5 0 m g / k g / d a y. ( 3 ) T h e d r u g i s p r i m a r i l y e xc r e t e d r e n a l l y; t h e r e f o r e , t h e d o sa g e s h o u l d b e a d j u s t e d f o r p a t i e n t s wh o h a v e c o m p r o m i s e d r e n a l f u n c t i o n . (4) The drug does not bind to plasma protein. There are no significant p h a r m a c o k i n e t i c i n t e r a c t i o n s wi t h o t h e r c o m m o n l y u s e d a n t i e p i l e p t i c d r u g s .
(5) If gabapentin is discontinued or an alternate anticonvulsant medication is added, i t s h o u l d b e d o n e g r a d u a l l y o v e r a m i n i m u m o f 1 we e k . c . P r e c a u t i o n s an d m o n i t o r i n g e f f e c t s ( 1 ) T h e v a l ue o f m o n i t o r i n g b l o o d c o n c e n t r a t i o n h a s n o t b e e n e s t a b l i s h e d a n d wo u l d n o t a l t e r b l o o d c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f o t he r a n t i e p i l e p t i c d r u g s wh e n u s e d t o g e t h e r . ( 2 ) I t h a s a l o w l e v e l o f t o xi c s i d e e f f e c t s , wh i c h i n c l u d e s o m n o l e n c e , d i z z i n e s s , a t a x i a , a n d m i n i m a l i n t e r a c t i o n wi t h o t h e r d r u g s . P.1001
( 3 ) G a b a p e n t i n i s u s e f u l i n p a t i e n t s wh o a r e t a k i n g o t h e r m e d i c a t i o n s f o r e p i l e p s y o r other chronic diseases. It may be especially useful for elderly patients. ( 4 ) G a b a p e n t i n i s we l l a b s o r b e d o r a l l y; i t c a n b e t a k e n wi t h o r wi t h o u t f o o d . H o we v e r , p a t i e n t s wh o h a v e G I p r o b l e m s m i g h t ha v e p r o b l e m s wi t h a b s o r p t i o n . ( 5 ) Ad ve r s e e f f e c t s . C om m o n s i d e e f f e c t s a r e so m n o l e n c e , d i z z i n e s s , a t a xi a , f a t i g u e , we i g h t g a i n a n d n ys t a g m u s . ( a ) C N S e f f e c t s a r e s o m n o l e n c e , d i z z i n e s s , a t a xi a , a n d f a t i g u e . ( b ) G I e f f e ct s i n c l u d e d y s p e p s i a , d r yn e s s o f m o u t h , c o n s t i pa t i o n , a n d i n c r e a s e d appetite. ( c ) O c u l a r ef f e c t s a r e d i p l o p i a , b l u r r e d v i s i o n , a n d n ys t a g m u s . d . S i g n i f i c an t i n t e r a c t i o n s ( 1 ) An t a c i d s a n d g a b ap e n t i n . A n t a c i d s r e d u c e t h e b i o a v a i l a b i l i t y o f g a b a p e n t i n b y 2 0 % ; g a b a p e n t i n c o u l d b e t a k e n 2 h r a f t e r a n t a ci d u s e . ( 2 ) C i m e t i d i n e a n d g a b a p e n t i n . C im e t i d i n e d e c r e a s e s t h e r e n a l e xc r e t i o n o f g a b a p e n t i n b y 1 4 % a n d c o n s e q u e n t l y i n c r e a s e s g a b a p e n t i n p l a s m a l e v e l s ( h o we v e r , t h i s a m o u n t i s n o t c l i n i ca l l y s i g n i f i c a n t ) . ( 3 ) O r a l c o n t r a c e p t i ve s a n d g ab a p e n t i n . O r a l c o n t r a c e p t i v e s i n c r e a s e t h e l e v e l o f norethindrone by 13%; this amount may not be clinically significant. 1 1 . L a m o t ri g i n e ( L a m i c t a l ) a . M e c h a n i s m o f a c t i o n . I t s a n t i e pi l e p t i c e f f e c t i s s i m i l a r t o t h a t of p h e n yt o i n . I t s effect may be the result of inhibition of voltage-dependent sodium currents and r e d u c t i o n o f s u s t a i n e d r e p e t i t i v e n e u r o n a l a c t i v i t y. I t i s i n d i c a t e d f o r t h e t r e a t m e n t of partial seizures and secondary generalized tonic-clonic seizures that are not c o n t r o l l e d wi t h o t h e r d r ug s . I t i s a l s o u s e d t o t r ea t L e n n o x - G a s t a u t s yn d r o m e . L a m o t r i g i n e i s b r o a d s p e c t r u m , a s we l l t o l e r a t e d a s m o n o t h e r a p y, a n d p r o b a b l y t h e l e a s t t e r a t og e n i c o f t h e f i r s t - l i n e a ge n t s . I t m a y a g g r a v a t e s e v e r e m yo c l o n i c e p i l e p s y. b . Ad m i n i s t r a t i o n a n d d o s a g e ( T ab l e 4 5 - 7 ) ( 1 ) Ad u l t s ( > 1 6 ye a r s ) , i n i t i a l l y 5 0 m g / d a y i n t wo d i v i d e d d o s e s ( p a t i e n t s t a k i n g v a l p r o i c a c i d s h o u l d b e g i v e n 2 5 m g e v e r y o t h e r d a y) , u p t o 1 0 0 m g / d a y ( u p t o 2 5 m g d a i l y wi t h v a l p r o i c a c i d t r e a t m e nt ) . ( 2 ) C h i l d r e n 2 - 1 2 ye a r s 0 . 6 m g / k g / da y i n t wo d i v i d e d d o s e d ( 0 . 1 5 m g / kg / d a y o n v a l p r o i c a c i d t r e a t m e n t ) , u p t o 1 . 2 m g / k g / d a y ( u p t o 0 . 3 m g / k g / d a y wi t h v a l p r o i c a c i d treatment).
( 3 ) T h e s m a l l e s t a v a i l a b l e c h e wa b l e d i s p e r s i b l e t a b l e t i s 5 m g . T h e n , a f t e r 2 we e k s , i n c r e a s e b y 0 . 3 m g / k g / da y i n o n e t o t wo d i v i d e d d o s e s , u p t o 2 0 0 m g / d a y. ( 4 ) S wa l l o w c h e wa b l e d i s p e r s i b l e t a b l e t wh o l e , c h e we d , o r i n d i s p e r s i n g wa t e r o r d i l u t e d f r u i t j u i c e . I f c h e we d , c o n s u m e a s m a l l a m o u n t o f wa t e r o r d i l u t e f r u i t j u i c e t o a i d i n s wa l l o wi n g . T o d i sp e r s e , a d d t h e c h e wa b l e d i s p e r s i b l e t a b l e t t o a sm a l l a m o u n t o f l iq u i d ( 1 t e a s p o o n o r e n o u g h t o c o v e r t h e m e d i c a t i o n ) . A p p r o x i m a t e l y 1 m i n l a t e r , wh e n t h e t a b l e t i s c o m p l et e l y d i s p e r s e d , s wi r l t h e s o l u t i o n a n d c o n s u m e t h e e n t i r e qu a n t i t y i m m e d i a t e l y. ( 5 ) F o r p a t i e n t s t a k i n g v a l p r o i c a c i d , t h e i n i t i a l do s e i s 5 0 m g d a i l y f o r 2 we e k s , f o l l o we d b y m a i n t e n a n c e d o s e s o f 10 0 - 2 0 0 m g d a i l y i n t wo d i v i d e d d o s e s . ( 6 ) R e d u c e d c l e a r a n c e i n t h e e l d e r l y n e c e s s i t a t es d o s a g e r e d u c t i o n . ( 7 ) P a t i e n t s wi t h h e p a t i c i m p a i r m e n t m a y r e q u i r e d o s a g e r e d u c t i o n b e c a u s e o f reduction in metabolism. c . P r e c a u t i o n s an d m o n i t o r i n g e f f e c t s ( 1 ) T h e v a l ue o f m o n i t o r i n g p l a s m a c o n c e n t r a t i o n h a s n o t b e e n e s t a b l i s h e d . ( 2 ) C a u t i o n s h o u l d b e u s e d f o r p a t ie n t s t a k i n g t h i s d r u g . I t m a y a d v e r s e l y a f f e c t t he p a t i e n t ' s m et a b o l i s m o r c o m p l i c a t e t h e e l i m i n a t i o n o f t h e d r u g b e c a u s e o f r e n a l , h e p a t i c , o r ca r d i a c i m p a i r m e n t . (3) Lamotrigine binds to melanin and can accumulate in melanin-rich tissue over t i m e . P e r i o di c o p h t h a l m o l o g i c a l m o n i t o r i n g i s r e c o m m e n d e d . ( 4 ) P h o t o s e n s i t i z a t i o n ( p h o t o a l l e r g y a n d p h o t o t o xi c i t y) p a t i e n t s s h o u l d t a k e p r o t e c t i v e m e a s u r e s a g a i n s t e x p o s u r e t o u l t r a v i ol e t l i g h t o r su n l i g h t . ( 5 ) S e r i o u s r a s h e s r e q u i r i n g h o s p i t a l i z a t i o n h a v e b e e n r e p o r t e d . T h e i n c id e n c e o f r a s h e s , i n c l u d i n g S t e v e n s - J o h n s o n s yn d r o m e , i s a p p r o xi m a l l y 1 % i n p a t i e n t s < 1 6 y e a r s o l d a n d 0 . 3 % i n a d u l t s . R a r e c a s e s o f t o xi c e p i d e r m a l n e c r o l ys i s o r r a s h r e l a t e d d e a t h h a v e o c c u r r e d . M o s t r a s h e s o c c u r wi t h i n 2 - 8 we e k s o f i n i t i a l treatment. P.1002
( 6 ) Ad ve r s e e f f e c t s . T he m o s t c o m m o n s i d e e f f e c t s a r e d i zz i n e s s , d i p l o p i a , a t a xi a , blurred vision, nausea, dose-related rash and vomiting. ( a ) C N S e f f e c t s a r e h e a d a c h e , d i z z i n e s s , a n d a t a xi a t i c s ( i n c h i l d r e n ) . ( b ) G I e f f e ct s a r e n a u s e a , v o m i t i n g , d i a r r h e a , an d d ys p e p s i a . ( c ) O c u l a r ef f e c t s a r e d i p l o p i a , b l u r r e d v i s i o n , a n d v i s i o n a b n o r m a l i t y. ( d ) D e r m a t o l o g i c a l e f f ec t s a r e p r u r i t u s , a n d a r a s h m a y f o r m s i m i l a r t o t h a t f o u n d wh e n u s i n g p h e n yt o i n a n d c a r b a m a z e p i n e . I n m a n y c a s e s , t h e r a s h d i s a p p e a r s d u r i n g c o n t i n u e d t h e r a p y, b u t 1 % - 2 % o f p a t i e n t s wi t h t h e r as h r e p r e s e n t a m o r e s e r i o u s a l l e r g i c r e a c t i o n . O c c a s i o n a l l y, p a t i e n t s h a v e d e v e l o p e d t h e S t e ve n s J o h n s o n s yn d r o m e . C o n c o m i t a n t u se wi t h v a l p r o i c a c i d m a y i n c r e a s e t h e l i k e l i h o o d o f s e r i o u s r a s h . T h e o cc u r r e n c e s o f l i f e - t h r e a t en i n g r a s h t h a t we r e r e p o r t e d d e v e l o p e d wi t h i n 2 - 8 we e k s f o l l o wi n g t h e r a p y; o t h e r c a s e s of r a s h h a v e b e e n r e p o r t e d d e v e l o p i n g u p t o 6 m o n t h s a f t e r t h e r a p y. T h e i n c i d e n c e o f r a s h i s h i g h e r i n children than in adults. (e) Monotherapy during pregnancy found no teratogenic effect.
d . S i g n i f i c an t i n t e r a c t i o n s (1) Carbamazepine decreases lamotrigine concentration by 70% and increases carbamazepine levels. ( 2 ) P h e n o b a r b i t a l o r p r im i d o n e d e c r e a s e s l a m o t r i g i n e c o n c e n t r a t i o n b y 4 0 % . ( 3 ) V a l p r o i c a c i d d e c r e a s e s t h e m et a b o l i s m o f l a m o t r i g i n e a n d e xt e n d s i t s h a l f - l i f e t o 6 0 h r , wh i c h n e c e s s i t a t e s a d o s e r e d u c t i o n . 1 2 . T o p i r a m a t e ( T o p a ma x ) a . M e c h a n i s m o f a c t i o n . T o p i r a m a t e i s a d e r i va t i v e o f f r u ct o s e . I t d e c r e a s e s r a p i d hippocampal neuronal firing, possibly because of sodium- or calcium-channel i n h i b i t i o n . I t i s a l s o a we a k c a r b o n i c a n h yd r a s e i n h i b i t o r a n d a s o d i u m - c h a n n e l b l o c k i n g a g e n t . T o p i r am a t e p o t e n t ia t e s t h e a ct i v i t y o f G A B A . I t h a s b e e n s h o wn t o b e e f f e c t i v e a d j u n c t i v e t h e r a p y f o r p a r t i a l s e i z u r e t r e a t m e n t i n a d u l t s , t on i c - c l o n i c s e i z u r e , i n f a n t i l e s p a s m s , a n d L e n n o x- G a s t a u t s yn d r o m e . b . Ad m i n i s t r a t i o n a n d d o s a g e ( T ab l e 4 5 - 7 ) ( 1 ) Ad u l t s 1 7 ye a r s a n d o l d e r , 2 5 - 5 0 m g / d a y, u p t o 4 0 0 m g / da y i n t wo d i v i d e d d o s e s . C h i l d r e n 2 - 1 6 ye a r s , 1 - 3 m g / k g / d a y, u p t o 5 - 9 m g / kg / d a y i n t wo d i v i d e d doses. ( 2 ) T o p i r a m a t e i s 8 0 % bi o a v a i l a b l e , a n d f o o d d o e s n o t a f f e c t i t s b i o a v a i l a b i l i t y. ( 3 ) D o s e a d j u s t m e n t i s n e c e s s a r y f o r p a t i e n t s wi t h r e n a l o r h e p a t i c i m p a i r m e n t s . ( 4 ) E n z ym e - i n d u c i n g a n t i c o n v u l s i v e d r u g s c a n d e c r e a s e t o p i r a m a t e l e v e l s , b u t t o p i r a m a t e h a s a s i g n i f i c a n t e f f e c t on m e t a b o l i s m o f ot h e r an t i c o n v u l s i v e d r u g s . ( 5 ) I n i t i a l t r e a t m e n t i s 50 m g d a i l y, f o l l o we d b y t i t r a t i o n t o an e f f e c t i v e d o s a g e . M o r e t h a n 4 0 0 m g d a i l y h a s n o t b e e n s h o wn t o i m p r o v e r e s p o n s e . c . P r e c a u t i o n a n d m o n i t o ri n g e f f ec t s ( 1 ) I n c r e a s ed i n c i d e n c e o f k i d n e y s t o n e s ( r e n a l c a l c u l u s ) i n o l d e r p a t i e n t s wh o r e c e i v e d t h i s d r u g . P a t ie n t s s h o u l d b e a d v i s e d t o i n c r e a s e i n t a k e o f f l u i d s wh i l e taking topiramate. ( 2 ) P a r e s t h es i a i s a c o m m o n s i d e e f f e c t o f a n h yd r a s e i n h i b i t o r s . ( 3 ) Ad ve r s e e f f e c t s ( a ) T h e p h ys i c i a n s h o u l d b e n o t i f i e d i f a n y o f t h e f o l l o wi n g a d v e r s e e f f ec t s o c c u r : ( i ) B r e a s t pa i n i n f e m a l e s ( i i ) N a u s e a o r t r e m o r , wh i c h a r e d o s e - r e l a t e d s i d e e f f e c t s. ( i i i ) B a c k p ai n , c h e s t p a in , d ys p e p s i a , o r l e g p a i n ( b ) C N S e f f e c t s m o s t l y s e e n i n 6 0 0 m g / d a y d o s e i n c l u d e p s yc h o m o t o r s l o wi n g , d i f f i c u l t y wi t h c o n c e n t r a t i o n a n d s p e e c h , s o m n o l e n c e , f a t i g u e , a s t h e n i a , we i g h t l o s s , c o g n i t i v e d i s t u r b a n c e s a n d d i f f i c u l t i e s , t r e m o r s , d i z z i n e s s , a t a xi a , a n d h e a d a c h e . ( c ) G I e f f e ct s i n c l u d e u p s e t , s u c h as n a u s e a , vo m i t i n g , a n d g a s t r o e n t e r i t i s . (d) Genitourinary effects include renal calculi nephro. ( e ) C a r d i o va s c u l a r e f f e c t s i n c l u d e c h e s t p a i n , p a l p i t a t i o n , a n d v a s o d i l a t i o n . ( f ) O c u l a r ef f e c t s i n c l u d e a b n o r m a l v i s i o n , e ye p a i n , d i p l o p i a , a n d o p e n a n g l e glaucoma. ( g ) H e m a t o l o g i c a l e f f e ct s i n c l u d e a n e m i a , e p i s t a xi s , l e u k o p e n i a , a n d a p l a s t i c anemia. ( h ) O t h e r : m e t a b o l i c a c i d o s i s , h yp o h i d r o s i s ( i n c h i l d r e n ) P.1003
d . S i g n i f i c an t i n t e r a c t i o n s ( 1 ) P h e n yt o i n a n d c a r b a m a z e p i n e wi l l i n c r e a s e c l e a r a n c e . ( 2 ) T o p i r a m a t e i n c r e a s e s t h e c l e a r an c e o f o t h e r d r u g s t h a t a r e c l e a r e d b y c yt o c h r o m e P 4 5 0 . 13. Tiagabine (Gabitril) a. Mechanism of action. Tiagabine is designed to act on the inhibitory action of G A B A b y b l o c k i n g i t s up t a k e , t h e r eb y p r o l o n g i n g i t s a ct i o n a f t e r s yn a p t i c r e l e a s e . I t i s i n d i c a t e d a s a d j u n c t i v e t h e r a p y f o r p a r t i a l s e iz u r e s a n d s e c o n d a r y g e n e r a l i z e d tonic-clonic seizures. b . Ad m i n i s t r a t i o n a n d d o s a g e ( T ab l e 4 5 - 7 ) ( 1 ) S t a r t i n g d o s e o f 4 m g d a i l y f o r 2 we e k s m a y b e i n c r e a s e d 4 - 8 m g we e k l y t h e r e a f t e r , t o a m a i n t e n a n c e d o s e o f 3 2 - 5 6 m g d a i l y. ( 2 ) M a x i m u m r e c o m m en d e d d o s a g e f o r c h i l d re n i s 3 2 m g d a i l y; m a xi m u m r e c o m m e n d e d d o s a g e f o r a d u l t s i s 5 6 m g d a i l y. ( 3 ) A h i g h - f a t m e a l d e c r e a s e s t h e r at e o f t i a g a b i n e a b s o r p t i o n b u t d o e s n o t a f f e ct t h e e x t e n s i o n o f a b s o r p t i o n . T i a g a b i n e s h o u l d b e t a k e n wi t h f o o d . c . P r e c a u t i o n s an d m o n i t o r i n g e f f e c t s ( 1 ) M o d e r a t e l y s e v e r e t o s e v e r e g en e r a l i z e d w e a k n e s s h a s b e e n r e p o r t e d . I t r e s o l v e s i n a l l c a s e s a f t e r r e d u c t i o n i n d o s e o r d i s c o n t i n u a t i o n o f t h e r ap y. ( 2 ) O p h t h a l m i c e f f e c t s , a s i n d i c a t e d b y a n i m a l s t u d i e s , i n c lu d e t h e p o s s i b i l i t y f o r r e s i d u a l b i n d i n g t o r e t i n a a n d m e l a n i n b i n d i n g ; t h i s f i n d i n g , h o we v e r , h a s n o t b e e n c o n f i r m e d i n h u m a n s t u d i e s . P e r i o d i c o p h t h a l m o l o g i c a l m o n i t o r i n g i s n e c e s s a r y. ( 3 ) D e r m a t o l o g i c a l e f f ec t s i n c l u d e t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f s e v e r e r a s h t o St e ve n s J o h n s o n s yn d r o m e , a s r e p o r t e d i n c l i n i c a l s t u d i e s . ( 4 ) Ad ve r s e e f f e c t s (a) CNS effects are confusion, dizziness, and fatigue. ( b ) G I e f f e ct s a r e u p s e t s t o m a c h , na u s e a , m o u t h u l c e r a t i o n , a n d a n o r e x i a . d . S i g n i f i c an t i n t e r a c t i o n s . P h e n o b a r b i t a l , p h e n yt o i n , a n d c a r b a m a z e p i n e wi l l increase tiagabine clearance. 1 4 . Z o n i s a m i d e ( Z o n eg r a n ) a . M e c h a n i s m o f a c t i o n . I t i s n o t we l l k n o wn . I t m a y b l o c k t h e s e n s i t i ve s o d i u m c h a n n e l s a n d T - t y p e c a l c i u m c h a n n e l s . I t i s a n e f f e c t i v e a ge n t f o r r e f r ac t o r y p a r t i a l s e i z u r e , g e n e r a l i z e d s e i z u r e i n d i c a t e d f o r a d j u n c t t h e r a p y f o r p a r t i a l s ei z u r e f o r a d u l t s , i n f a n t i l e s p a s m , m i xe d s e i z u r e t yp e s o f L e n n o x- G a s t a u t s yn d r o m e , m yo c l o n i c , a n d g e n e r a l i z e d t o n i c - c l o n i c s e i z u r e . b . Ad m i n i s t r a t i o n a n d d o s a g e ( T ab l e 4 5 - 7 ) ( 1 ) Ad u l t s a n d c h i l d r en > 1 6 ye a r s o f a g e , 1 0 0 m g d a i l y; wi t h i n 2 we e k s , i n c r e a s e t o 2 0 0 m g / da i l y i n 2 - we e k b a s e s , up t o 6 0 0 m g d a i l y. ( 2 ) C a n b e t a k e n wi t h o r wi t h o u t f o o d . c . P r e c a u t i o n s an d m o n i t o r i n g e f f e c t s ( 1 ) M a y i n c r e a s e m e a n c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f s e r u m cr e a t i n i n e a n d b l o o d , u r e a , n i t r o g e n ; r e n a l f u n c t i o n s h o u l d b e m o n i t o r e d p e r i o d i c a l l y. (2) May increase serum alkaline phosphatase.
( 3 ) M a y p r o d u c e d r o ws i n e s s . ( 4 ) S i d e e f f e c t s . T h e ph ys i c i a n s h o u l d b e c o n t a c t e d i f s u d d e n p a i n o r a b d o m i n a l p a i n o c c u r s o r i f b l o o d i n u r i n e i s d e t e c t e d ; t h e se s ym p t o m s c o u l d i n d i c a t e a k i d n ey s t o n e . I n c r ea s e f l u i d i n t a k e t o d e c r ea s e t h e r i s k o f s t o n e f o r m a t i o n . A l s o, c o n t a ct t h e p h ys i c i a n i f f e v e r , s o r e t h r o a t , o r a l u l c e r , o r e a s y b r u i s i n g i s s e e n ; t h e s e s ym p t o m s c o u l d b e t h e r e s u l t o f a h e m a t o l o g i ca l c o m p l i c at i o n . ( 5 ) M o s t c om m o n l y r e p o r t e d a d v e r s e e v e n t s a r e s o m n o l e n c e , a n o r e x i a , d i z zi n e ss , h e a d a c h e , n a u s e a , a l l e r g i c r e a c t i o n s , a g i t a t i o n , a n d w eig h t l o s s . (a) CNS effects are ataxia, confusion, tremor, and abnormal thinking. ( b ) C a r d i o va s c u l a r e f f e c t s a r e p a l p i t a t i o n , t a ch yc a r d i a , a n d v a s c u l a r i n s u f f i c i e n c y. (c) Dermatologic effects are maculopapular rash, acne alopecia, and p h o t o s e n s i t i v i t y. ( d ) O t h e r e f f e c t s a r e b l a d d e r c a l c u l u s , l e u k o p e n i a , a n d h yp o h i d r o s i s ( c h i l d r e n ) . d . S i g n i f i c an t i n t e r a c t i o n s ( 1 ) Z o n i s a m id e i n d u c e s l i ve r e n z ym e s b y i n c r e a s i n g m e t a b o l i s m a n d t h r o u g h clearance of zonisamide and decreases half-life. ( 2 ) F o o d wi l l d e l a y a b s o r p t i o n b u t wi l l n o t a f f e ct t h e b i o a v a i l a b i l i t y o f t h e d r u g . P.1004
1 5 . L e ve t i r a c e t a m ( K e p p r a ) a . M e c h a n i s m o f a c t i o n . I t i s a p yr r o l i d o n e d e r i v a t i v e a n d i s c h e m i c a l l y u n r e l a t e d t o o t h e r a n t ie p i l e p t i c d r u g s . I t d i s p l a ys i n h i b i t o r y p r o p e r t i e s in t h e k i n d l i n g m o d e l i n r a t s . I t i s u s e d a s a d j u n c t i v e t h e r a py i n t h e t r e a t m e n t o f p a r t i a l s e i z u r e i n a d u l t patients. b . Ad m i n i s t r a t i o n a n d d o s a g e ( T ab l e 4 5 - 7 ) . S t a r t i n g d o s e o f 1 0 0 0 m g / d a y g i v e n i n t wo d i v i d e d d o s e s m a y b e i n c r e a s e d e v e r y 2 we e k s , t o a m a xi m u m o f 3 0 0 0 m g / d a y. c . P r e c a u t i o n s an d m o n i t o r i n g e f f e c t s ( 1 ) H e m a t o l o g i c a l e f f e ct s a r e m i n o r , b u t t h e r e is a st a t i s t i ca l l y s i g n i f i c a n t d e c r e a s e compared to placebo in total mean RBC count, mean hemoglobulin, and mean hematocrit. (2) Decrease in WBC count and neurophil count ( 3 ) I t a l s o ca u s e s d r o ws i n e s s . ( 4 ) S i d e e f f e c t s . M o s t co m m o n l y r e p o r t e d a d v e r s e e v e n t s ar e s o m n o l en c e , w ea k n e s s ( a s t h e n i a ) , i n f e c t i o n , a nd d i zz i n e s s . (a) CNS effects are somnolence, dizziness, depression, and nervousness. ( b ) C a r d i o va s c u l a r e f f e c t s a r e p a l p i t a t i o n , t a ch yc a r d i a , a n d v a s c u l a r i n s u f f i c i e n c y. ( c ) R e s p i r a t o r y e f f e c t s a r e p h a r yn g i t i s , r h i n i t i s , a n d i n c r e a s e d c o u g h . ( d ) M i s c e l l an e o u s e f f e c t s a r e we a k n e s s , h e a d a c h e , a n d i n f e c t i o n . e. Significant interactions. Levetiracetam does not influence the plasma c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f e x i s t i n g a n t i e p i l e p t i c d r u g s , a nd o t h e r a n t i e p i l ep t i c d ru g s d o n o t i n f l u e n c e t h e p h a r m a c o k i n e t i c e f f e ct s o f l e v e t i r a c e t a m . 1 6 . O x c a r b a z e p i n e ( T ri l e p t a l ) a . M e c h a n i s m o f a c t i o n . T h i s d r u g p r o d u c e s b l o c k a d e o f vo l t a g e - s e n s i t i v e s o d i u m c h a n n e l s , r e s u l t i n g i n s t a b i l i z a t i o n o f h yp e r e xc i t e d n e u r a l m e m b r a n e s , i n h i b i t i o n o f
r e p e t i t i v e n e u r o n a l f i r i n g , a n d d i m i n u t i o n o f p r o pa g a t i o n o f s yn a p t i c i m p u l s e s . T h e se a c t i o n s a r e t h o u g h t t o b e i m p o r t a n t i n t h e p r e v e n t i o n o f s e i zu r e s p r e a d i n t h e i n t a c t b r a i n . I n a dd i t i o n , i n c r e a s e d p o t a s s i u m c o n d u c t a n c e a n d m o d u l a t i o n o f h i g h - v o l t a g e a c t i v a t e d c al c i u m c h a n n e l s m a y c o n t r i b u t e t o t he a n t i c o n v u l s a n t e f f e ct s o f t h e d r u g . b . Ad m i n i s t r a t i o n a n d d o s a g e ( T ab l e 4 5 - 7 ) ( 1 ) C h i l d r e n 4 - 1 6 ye a r s , 8 - 1 0 m g / k g/ d a y t o 6 0 0 m g / d a y a s a d j u n c t i v e t h e r a p y a n d 8 1 0 m g / k g d a y a s m o n o t h e r a p y. ( 2 ) Ad u l t s , 6 0 0 m g / d a y a s a d j u n c t i v e t h e r a p y a n d 1 2 0 0 m g / d a y a s m o n o t h e r a p y. A d o s a g e a d j u s t m e n t i s n e e d e d f o r p a t i e n t s wi t h r e n a l f a i l u r e ; n o d o s a g e a d j u s t m e n t i s n e e d e d f o r p a t i e n t s wi t h m i l d t o m od e r a t e h e p a t i c i m p a i r m en t . ( 3 ) C a n b e t a k e n wi t h o r wi t h o u t f o o d . c . P r e c a u t i o n a n d m o n i t o ri n g e f f ec t s ( 1 ) C l i n i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t h yp o n a t r em i a ( s o d i u m < 1 2 5 m m o l / L ) c a n d e v el o p d u r i n g t h e r a p y. (2) Side effects ( a ) U s e o f t h i s p r o d u c t h a v e b e e n a s s o c i a t e d wi t h C N S e f f ec t s s u c h a s c o g n i t i v e s ym p t o m s ( p s yc h o m o t o r s l o wi n g , d i f f i c u l t c o n c e n t r a t i n g ) . ( b ) M a y r e d u c e t h e e f f i ca c y o f o r a l co n t r a c e p t i v e . ( 3 ) Ad ve r s e e f f e c t s ( a ) C N S e f f e c t s a r e d i z z i n e s s , s o m n o l e n c e , h e a d a c h e , a t a xi a , f a t i g u e , a n d v e r t i g o . ( b ) G I e f f e ct s a r e v o m i t i n g , n a u s e a , a n d a b d o m i n a l p a i n . ( c ) N e u r o mu s c u l a r a n d s k e l e t a l e f f e c t s a r e a b n o r m a l g a i t a n d t r e m o r . ( d ) O c u l a r ef f e c t s a r e D i p l o p i a , n ys t a g m u s , a n d a b n o r m a l v i s i o n . ( e ) E n d o c r i n e a n d m e t a b o l i c e f f e ct s c o m m o n in e l d e r l y i n c l u d e h yp o n a t r e m i a ( l o w l e v e l o f s o d i u m i n t h e b lo o d ) . (f) Dermatologic: rash. d . S i g n i f i c an t i n t e r a c t i o n s ( 1 ) O x c a r b a z e p i n e i n h i b i t s c yt o c h r o m e P 4 5 0 2 C 1 9 a n d i n d u c e s c yt o c h r o m e P 4 5 0 3 A4 / 5 wi t h p o t e n t i a l l y i m p o r t a n t e f f e c t s o n p l a sm a c o n c e n t r a t i o n s o f o t he r d r u g s . ( 2 ) S e r u m co n c e n t r a t i o n s o f p h en yt o i n a n d p h en o b a r b i t al a r e i n c r e a s e d . ( 3 ) I t d e c r e as e s o r a l c o n t r a c e p t i ve e f f e ct s , b e n z o d i a z e p i n e , a n d c a l c i u m c h a n n e l blockers. ( 4 ) C r o s s - s en s i t i v i t y wi t h c a r b a m a z e p i n e ( 2 5 % - 3 0 % ) . 17. Less common drugs are listed in Table 45-8. P.1005
Table 45-8. Less Common Drugs Used in Practice
Drug Mephoba rbital
Labeled Indication • • •
•
•
•
Mepheny toin
• •
Therape Major utic Total Range of Protei Plasma Adult Usual n Concentr Dose Mode of Bindin Half-Life ation (mg/day Eliminat g (hr) (mg/L) ion Level )
Grand mal Petit mal Gets conve rted to pheno barbit al Indica ted when pheno barbit al must be decrea sed becau se of excess ive drows iness Hyper excita bility Mood distur bance s
11-67
n/a
400 600
Liv er
4 06 0
Tonicclonic Psych
95 (activ e
n/a
200 600
Liv er > rena
9 0
•
•
Ethotoin
• •
•
omoto r Status epilep ticus Used with pheny toin; togeth er more sedati ve compa red to pheny toin alone
metab olite)
Tonicclonic Psych omoto r Used as secon d-line therap y; less toxic and less effecti ve than pheny toin (alone or combi ned)
3-9a
l
15-50
200 0300 0
Liv er
N / A
Methsuxi mide
• •
Phensuxi mide
• •
Parameth adionec
• •
Absen ce Does not precip itate tonicclonic (comp ared to other succin imides )
2-40b
n/a
120 0
Liv er
n/ a
Absen ce Less toxic and less effecti ve compa red to other succin imides
8b
n/a
100 0300 0
Uri ne, bile
n/ a
Absen ce Useful when other seizur es exist with absen ce seizur e
n/a
n/a
900 240 0
Liv er > rena l
n/ a
Trimetha dionec
•
Note: Do not use with mephe nytoin
•
Absen ce Useful when other seizur es exist with absen ce seizur e Note: Do not use with mephe nytoin
6-13 days
≥ 700
900 240 0
Liv er
0
Simpl e partial seizur e
6
n/a
150 600
Ren al
0
•
•
Pregabali n
•
a
At high doses, nonlinear kinetic like phenytoin.
b
Active metabolite.
c
Possible fetal malformation if used during pregnancy.
P.1006
1 8 . V a g u s n e r ve s t i m u l a t i o n ( V N S) a . I t i s u s e d a s a d j u n c t i v e t h e r a p y f o r a d u l t s a n d c h i l d r e n > r 1 2 ye a r s o f a g e wh o s e partial seizures are refractory to antiepileptic medications. b . A p r o g r am m a b l e s i g n a l g e n e r a t o r t h a t i s i m p l a n t e d i n t h e p a t i e n t ' s le f t u p p e r c h e s t h a s a b i p o l a r V N S l e a d t h a t c on n e c t s t h e ge n e r a t o r t o t h e l e f t v a g u s n e r v e i n t h e n e c k , a p r o g r a m m i n g wa n d t h a t u s e s r a d i o - f r e q u e n c y s i g n a l s t o c o m m u n i c a t e n o n i n v a s i v e l y wi t h t h e g e n e r a t o r , a n d h a n d h e l d m a g n e t s u s e d b y t h e p a t i e n t o r caregiver to manually turn the stimulator on or off. c . T h e i m p l an t a t i o n p r o c e d u r e u s u a l l y l a s t s 1 h r u n d e r g e n e r a l a n e s t h e s i a . O n c e p r o g r a m m e d , t h e g e n e r a t o r wi l l d e l i v e r i n t e r m i t t e n t s t i m u l a t i on a t t h e d e s ir e d s e t t i n g until any additional programming is entered. C . Su r g e r y. I f s e i z u r e s d o n o t r e s p o n d t o d r u g t h e r a p y, s u r g e r y m a y b e p e r f o r m e d t o r e m o v e t h e e p i l e p t o g e n i c b r a i n r e g i o n . T h e m o s t c o m m on i s c o r t i c a l e xc i s i o n ( l o b e c t o m y) . B e t we e n 7 0 % a n d 8 0 % o f p a t i e n t s wh o h a v e a n t e r i o r t e m po r a l l o b e c t o m y h a v e f e we r s e i z u r e s . B e t we e n 3 0 % a n d 4 0 % p a t i e n t s wh o h a v e f r o n t a l l o b e c t o m y h a v e f e we r s e i z u r e s . 1. Indications for surgery are intractable or disabling seizures recurring for 6-12 m o n t h s . S h ou l d b e c o n s i d e r e d f o r p a t i e n t s wi t h m e d i c a l l y r e f r a c t o r y s e i z u r e s . 2 . I n s t e r e o t a x i c s u r g er y, t h e s u r g e o n u s e s t h r e e - d i m e n s i o n a l c o o r d i n a t e s t o g u i d e a n e e d l e t h r o u g h a h o l e d r i l l e d i n t h e s k u l l , t h e n d e s t r o ys a b n o r m a l p a t h wa ys v i a s m a l l i n t r a ce r e b r a l i n c i s i o n s . 3 . O t h e r s u r g i c a l ap p ro a c h e s i n c l u d e t e m p o r a l l o b e r e s e c t i o n , r e m o v a l o f t h e t e m p o r a l l o b e t i p , a n d c er e b r a l h e m i s p h e r e c t o m y.
III. Complications A. C o n vu l s i ve s t a t u s e p i l e p t i c u s . T h i s d i s o r d e r i s c h a r a ct e r i z e d b y r a p i d r e p e t i t i o n o f g e n e r a l i z e d t o n i c - c l o n i c s e i z u r e s wi t h n o r e c o v e r y o f c o n s c i o u s n e s s b e t we e n s e i z u r e s . T hi s l i f e - t h r e a t e n i n g c o n d i t i o n m a y p e r s i s t f o r h o u r s o r e v e n d ays ; i f it lasts longer than 1 hr, severe permanent brain damage may result. 1. Causes of status epilepticus include poor therapeutic compliance, intracranial i n f e c t i o n o r n e o p l a s m , a l c o h o l wi t h d r a wa l , d r u g o v e r d o s e , a n d m e t a b o l i c i m b a l a n c e . 2 . M a n ag e m e n t a . A p a t e n t a i r wa y m u s t b e m a i n t a i n e d . b . I f t h e c a u s e o f t h e c on d i t i o n i s u n k n o wn , d e xt r o s e 5 0 % i n wa t e r ( 2 5 - 3 0 m L ) i s g i v e n v i a I V i n c a s e h yp o g l yc e m i a i s t h e c a u s e . c. If the seizures persist, diazepam (10 mg) is administered via IV at a rate not e x c e e d i n g 2 m g / m i n u n t il t h e s e i z u r e s s t o p o r 2 0 m g h a s b e e n g i v e n . d . P h e n yt o i n o r f o s p h en yt o i n i s t h e n a d m i n i s t e r e d v i a I V n o f a s t e r t ha n 5 0 m g / m in t o a m a xi m u m d o s e o f 11 - 1 8 m g / k g . B l o o d p r e s s u r e i s m o n i t o r e d t o d e t e c t h yp o t e n s i o n . e . I f t h e s e m e a s u r e s d o n o t s t o p t h e s e i z u r e s , o n e o f t h e f o l l o wi n g d r u g s i s g i v e n . ( 1 ) D i a z e p am i s g i v e n a s a n I V d r i p o f 5 0 - 1 0 0 m g d i l u t e d i n 5 0 0 m L d e xt r o s e 5 % i n wa t e r , i n f u s e d a t 4 0 m L/ h r u n t i l t h e s e i z u r e s s t op .
( 2 ) P h en o b a r b i t a l i s g iv e n a s a n I V i n f u s i o n o f 8 - 2 0 m g / kg n o f a s t e r t h a n 1 0 0 mg/min. f . I f s e i z u r e s c o n t i n u e d e s p i t e t h e s e m e a s u r e s , o n e o f t h e f o l l o wi n g s t e p s i s t h e n taken. ( 1 ) P a r a l d eh yd e i s g i v e n v i a I V i n a d o s a g e o f 0 . 1 0 - 0 . 1 5 m L / k g d i l u t e d t o a 4 % solution in normal saline solution. ( 2 ) L i d o c a i n e i s g i v e n in a n I V l o a d i n g d o s e o f 5 0 - 1 0 0 m g , f o l l o we d b y a n i n f u s i o n of 1-2 mg/min. ( 3 ) G e n e r a l a n e s t h e s i a i s i n d u c e d wi t h v e n t i l a t o r y a s s i s t a n c e a n d n e u r o m u s c u l a r junction blockade. B . N o n c o n vu l s i ve s t a t u s e p i l e p t i c u s . T h i s c o n d i t i o n p r e s e n t s a s r e p e a t ed a b s e n c e s e i z u r e s o r c o m p l e x p a r t i a l s e i z u r e s . T h e p a t i e n t ' s m e n t a l st a t e f l u c t u a t es ; c o n f u s i o n , i m p a i r e d r e s p o n s e s , a n d a u t o m a t i s m s a r e p r o m in e n t . I n i t i a l m a n a g e m e n t t yp i c a l l y i n v o l v e s i n t r a v e n o u s d i a z e p a m . C o m p l e x p a r t i a l s t a t u s e p i l e p t i c u s m a y a l s o n e c e s s i t a t e a dm i n i s t r a t i o n o f s u c h d r u gs a s p h e n yt o i n o r phenobarbital. P.1007
IV. Seizure Disorder and Pregnancy A. E p i d e m i o l o g y. A b o u t 0 . 5 % of a l l p r e g n a n c i e s o c c u r i n wo m e n wi t h e p i l e p s y. B . P r e c o n ce p t i o n c o u n s e l i n g . T he r i s k s f o r m o t h e r a n d f e t u s s h o u l d b e d i s c u s s e d , i n c l u d i n g t h e r i s k s of f e t a l m a l f o r m at i o n a s s o c i a t e d wi t h a n t i e p i l e p t i c d r u g s a n d other genetic factors. C . D r u g t h er a p y 1 . I f t h e p a t ie n t i s s e i z u r e f r e e f o r a t l e a s t 2 ye a r s , wi t h d r a wa l o f t h e d r ug s h o u l d b e c o n s i d e r e d . I f a n t i e p i l e p t i c d r u g t h e r a p y i s n e c e s s a r y, a s wi t c h t o m o n o t h e r a p y should be made if possible. 2. Five antiepileptic medications have been used or studied in pregnant patients: c a r b a m a z e p i n e , p h e n o b a r b i t a l , p h e n yt o i n , p r i m i d o n e , a n d v a l p r o i c a c i d . Monotherapy of lamotrigine during pregnancy found no teratogenic effect. C o n g e n i t a l m a l f o r m a t i o n s a s s o c i a t e d wi t h t h e s e d r u g s i n c l u d e c r a n i o f a c i a l a b n o r m a l i t i e s , c a r d i a c de f e c t s , a n d n e u r o n a l t u b e d e f e c t s . M o s t o f t h e s t u d i e s d i d n o t c o n s i d e r p a t e r n a l g e n e t i c f a c t o r s, e n v i r o n m e n t a l f a c t o r s, d r u g d o s i n g , o r c o m b i n a t i o n t h e r a p y. 3 . A n t i e p i l e p t i c d r u g s i n t e r f e r e wi t h f o l a t e m e t a bo l i s m . A d m in i s t r a t i o n o f f o l i c a c i d , 4 m g d a i l y, a n d m u l t i v i t a m i n s d e c r e a s e s t h e r i s k of m a l f o r m at io n , e s p e c i a l l y o f t h e neuronal tube. 4 . V i t a m i n K, 1 0 m g p e r d a y f o r t h e l a s t 1 - 2 m o nt h s o f g e s t a t i o n , wi l l h e l p p r e v e n t n e o n a t a l h e m o r r h a g e , e s p e c i a l l y i n c a s e s o f p he n yt o i n o r p h e n o b a r b i t a l u s e . 5 . S e i z u r e di s o r d e r a n d o r a l c o n t r a c e p t i v e s . G ab a p e n t i n , l a m o t r i g i n e , l e v e t i r a c e t a m , e t h o s u xi m i d e , v a l p r o a t e , z o n i s a m i d e a n d t i a g a b i n e d o n o t a f f e c t t h e ef f ic a c y o f o r a l contraceptives.
6 . S e i z u r e di s o r d e r a n d t h e e l d e r l y p o p u l a t i o n . T h e n e w g e n e r a t i o n o f an t i e p i l e p t i c d r u g s s u c h a s l e v e t i r a c e t a m a n d g a b a p e n t i n m a y b e m o r e u s e f u l o wi n g t o l o w l e v e l s o f p r o t e i n b i n d i n g a n d s a f e r s i d e e f f e c t s . A l s o , t h e n e we r a g e n t s h a v e l e s s p o t e n t i a l f o r d r u g i n t er a c t i o n s t h an a g e n t s e l i m i n a t e d f r om t h e l i v e r . D . M o n i t o ri n g 1 . F r e e s e r u m a n t i e p i l e p t i c d r u g l e v e l s s h o u l d b e m o n i t o r e d m o n t h l y, i m m e d i a t e l y b e f o r e t h e n e x t d o s e ; a n d t h e d o s e sh o u l d b e a d j u s t e d t o t h e l o we s t d o s e p r o v i d i n g adequate control. 2 . S e r u m α - f e t o p r o t e i n l e v e l s s h o u l d b e c h e c k e d , a n d u l t r as o n o g r a p h y s h o u l d b e p e r f o r m e d a t 1 6 we e k s o f g e s t a t i o n t o e v a l u a t e f o r f e t a l n e u r o n a l t u b e d e f e c t s. A n a l t e r n a t i v e t o t h e s e t e st s i s a m n i o ce n t e s i s , e s pe c i a l l y i f t h e m o t h e r i s t a k i n g valproate or carbamazepine. 3 . C o m p r e h e n s i v e u l t r a s o n o g r a p h y s h o u l d b e p e r f o r m e d a t 1 8 a n d 2 2 we e k s o f g e s t a t i o n f o r p a t i e n t s t a k i n g a n t i e p i l e p t i c d r u g s t h a t c a u s e ca r d i a c a n o m a l i e s . 4 . I n t r a p a r t u m p l a n s s h o u l d i n c l u d e I V a d m i n i s t r a t i o n o f a s ho r t - a c t i n g benzodiazepine. If there is concern about fetal or maternal respiratory depression, a d m i n i s t e r i n g i n t r a v e n o u s p h e n yt o i n o r i n t r a m u s cu l a r p h e n o b a r b i t a l s h o u l d b e c o n s i d e r e d . C l o t t i n g s t ud i e s s h o u l d b e p e r f o r m e d , a n d 1 m g v i t a m i n K sh o u l d b e g i v e n t o t h e i n f a n t . N u r se s a n d p h ys i c i a n s s h o u l d b e a l e r t e d f o r p o s s i b l e h e m o r r h a g e o f t h e i n f a n t a n d a p p r i s e d t h a t t h e in f a n t m a y e xp e r i e n c e a n t i e p i l e p t i c d r u g wi t h d r a wa l . P.1008
STUDY QUESTIONS D i r e c t i o n s : E a c h o f t h e q u e s t i o n s , st a t e m e n t s , or i n c o m p l e t e s t a t e m e n t s i n t h i s s e c t i o n c a n b e c o r r e c t l y a n s we r e d o r c o m p l e t e d b y o n e o f t he s u g g e s t e d a n s we r s o r p h r a s e s . C h o o s e t h e b es t a n s we r . 1 . P h en yt o i n i s e f f e c t i ve f o r t h e t r e a t m e n t o f a l l o f t h e f o l l ow i n g t yp e s o f seizures except (A) generalized tonic-clonic. ( B ) s i m p l e pa r t i a l . (C) complex partial. (D) absence. (E) grand mal. V i e w A n s we r 1 . T h e an s w e r i s D [ s ee] . 2. W h i c h o f t h e f o l l o w in g a n t i c o n vu l s a n t s i s co n t r a i n d i c a t e d i n p a t i e n t s w i t h a h i s t o r y o f h yp e r s e n s i t i vi t y t o t ri c yc l i c a n t i d e p r e s s a n t s ? ( A ) p h e n yt o i n ( B ) e t h o s u xi m i d e (C) acetazolamide (D) carbamazepine (E) phenobarbital
V i e w A n s we r 2 . T h e an s w e r i s D [ s ee] . 3. W h i c h a n t i c o n vu l s i ve d r u g r e q u i r e s t h e r a p e u t i c mo n i t o ri n g o f p h e n o b a r b i t a l s e r u m l e ve l s a s w el l a s i t s ow n s e r u m l e ve l ? ( A ) p h e n yt o i n (B) primidone (C) clonazepam (D) ethotoin ( E ) c a r b a m az e p i n e V i e w A n s we r 3 . T h e an s w e r i s B [ s ee a n d] . 4. W h i c h an t i co n vu l s i ve d r u g t r e a t m e n t h a s a h i g h e r i n c i d en c e o f ki d n e y s t o n e s ? ( A ) p h e n yt o i n ( B ) c a r b a m az e p i n e ( C ) t o p i r a m at e (D) tiagabine V i e w A n s we r 4 . T h e an s w e r i s C [ s ee 5 . W h a t a re t h e mo s t c o m m o n ad ve r s e e f f e c t s o f an t i co n vu l s i ve d r u g s ? (A) headache and dizziness ( B ) g a s t r o i n t e s t i n a l s ym p t o m s ( C ) a l t e r n a t io n o f c o g n i t i o n a n d m e n t a t i o n ( D ) a d v e r s e e f f e c t s o n ap p e t i t e a n d b o d y we i g h t ( E ) a l l o f t he a b o v e V i e w A n s we r 5 . T h e an s w e r i s E[ s e e - 9] 6 . W h i ch a n t i e p i l ep t i c d r u g h as t h e l e a s t e f f e c t o n t h e e f f i c a c y o f o r al c o n t r a c e p t i ve s ? ( A ) p h e n yt o i n (B) tiagabine (C) gabapentin (D) lamotrigine (E) C and D V i e w A n s we r 6 . T h e an s w e r i s E[ s e e 7 . W h i c h o f t h e f o l l ow i n g d r u g s co u l d c a u s e h yp o n a t r e m i a ? ( A ) c a r b a m az e p i n e ( B ) p h e n yt o i n (C) oxcarbazepine (D) felbamate (E) topiramate ( F ) A , C , a nd D V i e w A n s we r 7 . T h e an s w e r i s F [ s ee] . P . 1 0 0 9
ANSWERS AND EXPLANATIONS 1 . T h e a n sw er i s D [ s ee I . B. 2 . c . ( 1 ) ] . P h e n yt o i n ( d i p h e n yl h yd a n t o i n ) i s t he m o s t c o m m o n l y p r e s c r i b e d h yd a n t o i n f o r s e i z u r e d i s o r d e r s . I t i s on e o f t h e p r e f e r r e d d r u g s f o r g e n e r a l i z e d t o n i c - c l o n i c ( g r a n d
m a l ) s e i z u r e s a n d f o r p ar t i a l s e i z u r e s , b o t h s i m p l e a n d c o m p l e x. H o we v e r , p h e n yt o i n i s n o t e f f e c t iv e f o r a b s e nc e ( p e t i t m a l ) s e i z u r e s . 2 . T h e a n sw er i s D [ s ee I I . B . 1. c . ( 2) ] . C a r b a m a z e p i n e i s s t r u ct u r a l l y r e l a t e d t o t h e t r i cyc l i c a n t i d e p r e s s a n t s ( e. g . , a m i t r i p t yl i n e , d e s i p r a m i n e , i m i p r a m i n e , n o r t r i p t yl i n e , p r o t r i p t yl i n e ) a n d s h o u l d n o t b e a d m i n i s t e r e d t o p a t i e n t s wi t h h yp e r s e n s i t i v i t y t o a n y o f t h e t r i c yc l i c a n t i d e p r e s s a n t s . 3 . T h e a n sw er i s B [ s ee I I . B . 5 a n d 6 ] . Primidone's antiseizure activity may be partly attributable to phenobarbital. In p a t i e n t s r e c e i v i n g p r i m i d o n e , s e r u m l e v e l s o f b ot h p r i m i d o n e a n d p h e n o b a r b i t a l should be measured. 4 . T h e a n sw er i s C [ s ee I I . B . 1 2 ] T h e r e i s a hi g h e r i n c i d e n c e o f k i d n e y s t o n e s ( r e n a l c a l c u l u s ) wi t h t o p i r a m a t e administration. 5 . T h e a n sw er i s E [ s e e I . B. 1 , 2 - 9 ] A l t e r n a t i o n i n c o g n i t i o n a n d m e n t a t i o n , g a s t r o i n t e s t i n a l s ym p t o m s , a p p e t i t e a n d b o d y we i g h t , a n d h e a d a c h e a n d d i z z i n e s s a r e a l l c o m m o n a d v e r s e e f f e ct s o f anticonvulsive drugs. 6 . T h e a n sw er i s E [ s e e I V . C. 5 ] Gabapentin and lamotrigine do not increase the metabolism of oral contraceptives to a c l i n i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t l e v e l ; t h e r e f o r e , t h e y c o u l d b e u s e d wi t h o r a l c o n t r a c e p t i v e s . 7 . T h e a n sw er i s F [ s ee I I . B . 1; I I . B. 9 ; I I . B . 1 6 ] . C a r b a m a z e p i n e , o x c a r b a z e p i n e , a n d f e l b a m a t e a l l c a u s e h yp o n a t r e m i a .
46 Parkinson Disease Az i t a R a z z a g h i
I. DISEASE STATE AND PATHOLOGY A. D e f i n i t i o n . P a r k i n s o n d i s e a s e i s a s l o wl y p r o g r e s s i v e d e g e n e r a t i v e n e u r o l o g i c a l d i s e a s e c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y t r e m o r , r i g i d i t y, b r a d yk i n e s i a ( s l u g g i s h n e u r o m u s c u l a r r e s p o n s i v e n e s s ) , a n d p os t u r a l i n s t a b i l i t y. P a r k i n s o n d i s e a s e wa s f i r s t d e s c r i b e d b y D r . J a m e s Pa r k i n s o n i n 1 8 1 7 a s “ s h a k i n g p a l s y. ” B . I n c i d e n ce 1 . I t h a s a p r e v a l e n c e o f 1 - 2 p e r 1 0 0 0 o f t h e g e ne r a l p o p u l a t i o n a n d 2 p e r 1 0 0 a m o n g p e o p l e > 6 5 ye a r s . 2 . O n s e t g e n e r a l l y o c c u r s b e t we e n a g e 5 0 a n d 6 5 ; i t u s u a l l y o c c u r s i n t h e 6 0 s . C. Pathogenesis. Parkinson disease is a neurodegenerative disease associated wi t h d e p i g me n t a t i o n o f t h e s u b s t a n t i a n i g r a a n d t h e l o s s o f d o p a m i n er g i c i n p u t t o t h e b a s a l g a n g l i a ( e xt r a p yr a m i d a l s ys t e m ) ; i t i s c h a r a c t e r iz e d b y d i s t i n c t i v e m o t o r d i s ab i l i t y. T h e b a s a l g a n g l i a a r e r e s p o n s i b l e f o r i n i t i a t i n g , s e q u e n c i n g , a n d m o d u l a t i n g m o t o r a c t i v it y. 1. In healthy individuals, dopamine is produced by neurons that project from the s u b s t a n t i a n i g r a t o t h e ne o s t r i a t u m ( wh i c h i n c l u d e c a u d a t e a n d p u t a m e n ) a n d g l o b u s p a l l i d u s . I n t h e s e a r e a s , d o p a m i n e a c t s a s a n i n h i b i t o r y n e u r o t r a n s m i t t er . 2 . L e wy b o d i e s a r e wi d e s p r e a d b u t o c c u r e s p e c i a l l y i n t h e b a s a l g a n g l i a , b r a i n s t e m , s p i n a l c o r d , a n d s ym p a t h e t i c g a n g l i a . 3. In Parkinson disease, the loss of dopamine-producing neurons in the substantia n i g r a r e s u l t s i n a n i m b a l a n c e b e t we e n d o p a m i n e , a n i n h i b i t o r y n e u r o t r a n s m i t t e r , a n d t h e e x c i t a t o r y n e u r o t r a n s m i t t e r a c e t yl c h o l i n e . A l t e r a t i o n s i n t h e c o n c e n t r a t i o n s o f o t h e r n e u r o t r a n s m i t t e r s , s u c h a s n o r e p i n e p h r i n e , s e r o t o n i n , a n d γ - a m i n o b u t yr i c a c i d ( G A B A ) , a r e a l s o i n v o l v e d i n t h e p a t h o p h ys i o l o g y o f P a r k i n s o n d i s e a s e ( F i g u r e 4 6 1). D . C a u s e . Se v e r a l f o r m s o f P a r k i n s on d i s e a s e h a v e b e e n r e c o g n i z e d . 1. Primary (idiopathic) Parkinson disease a . T h i s i s a ls o c a l l e d c l a s s i c P a r k i n s o n d i s e a s e o r p a r a l ys i s a g i t an s . b . T h e c a u se i s u n k n o wn ; a n d wh i l e t r e a t m e n t m a y b e p a l l i a t i v e , t h e d is e a s e i s incurable. c . M o s t p a t ie n t s s u f f e r f r o m t h i s t yp e o f p a r k i n so n i s m . d . H yp o t h es e s o f n e u ro n a l l o s s i n i d i o p a t h i c P a r k i n s o n d i s e a s e a r e a s f o l l o ws : ( 1 ) Ab s o r p t i o n o f h i g h l y p o t e n t n eu r o t o x i n s ( e n vi r o n m e n t a l ) , s u c h as c a r b o n m o n o x i d e , m a n g a n e s e , s o l v e n t s , a n d N - m e t h yl - 4 - p h e n yl - 1 , 2 , 3 , 6 - t e t r a hyd r o p yr i d i n e ( M PT P ) , wh i c h i s a p r o du c t o f i m p r o p e r s yn t h e s i s o f a s yn t h e t i c h e r o i n - l i k e c o m p o u n d . E x p o s u r e t o t h e s e a g e n t s , a l o n e o r in c o m b i n a t i o n wi t h t h e n e u r o n a l l o s s o f a g e , m a y b e t h e c a u s e o f P a r k i n so n d i s e a s e . ( 2 ) E x p o s u re t o t h e f r e e r a d i c a l s . N o r m a l l y, d o p a m i n e i s c a t a b o l i z e d b y m o n o a m i n e o xi d a s e ( M A O ) . H yd r o g e n p e r o xi d e a n d p r o d u c t i o n o f f r e e r a d i c a l s — b o t h t o xi c t o c e l l s — a r e p r o d u c t s o f c a t a b o l i s m . P r o t e c t i v e m e c h a n i s m s , e n z ym e s , a n d f r e e r a d i c a l s c a v e n g e r s , s u c h a s v i t a m i n s E a n d C , p r o t ec t c e l l s f r o m d a m a g e .
I t is p r o p o s e d t h a t e i t h e r a d e c r e a s e i n t h e s e p r o t e c t i v e m e ch a n i s m s o r a n i n c r e a s e i n t h e p r o d u c t i o n o f d o p a m i n e c a u s e s a d e s t r u ct i o n o f t h e n e u r o n s b y f r e e r a d i c a l s . e . G e n e t i c s f a c t o r s: G e n e s t h a t l i n k t o P a r k i n s o n d i s e a s e s u c h a s a l p h a - s yn u c l e i n a n d P a r k i n a r e f u r t h e r be i n g s t u d i e d i n t r e a t m e n t a n d d i a g n o s i s o f P a r k i n s o n disease. 2 . S e c o n d ar y p a r k i n s o n i s m — f r o m a k n ow n ca u s e a . O n l y a s m a l l p e r c e n t a g e o f c a s e s a r e s e c o n d a r y, a n d m a n y o f t h e s e a r e c u r a b l e . b. Secondary parkinsonism may be caused by drugs, including dopamine a n t a g o n i s t s , s u c h a s t h e f o l l o wi n g : P.1011
Figure 46-1. Extrapyramidal system involved in Parkinson disease. (Reprinted with permission from Netter F. Ciba Collection of Medical Illustrations. West Caldwell, NJ: Ciba Geigy Pharmaceuticals, 1983:69.)
P.1012
(1) Phenothiazines (e.g., chlorpromazine, perphenazine) ( 2 ) B u t yr o p h e n o n e s ( e . g . , h a l o p e r i d o l ) (3) Reserpine c . P o i s o n i n g b y c h e m i c a l s o r t o x i n s m a y b e t h e c a u s e ; t h e se i n c l u d e (1) Carbon monoxide poisoning ( 2 ) H e a v y- m e t a l p o i s o n i n g , s u c h a s t h a t b y m a n g a n e s e o r m e r c u r y ( 3 ) M PT P , a c o m m e r c i a l c o m p o u n d u s e d i n o r g a n i c s yn t h e s i s a n d f o u n d ( a s a s i d e product) in an illegal meperidine analog d. Infectious causes include (1) Encephalitis (viral) ( 2 ) S yp h i l i s e . O t h e r c a us e s i n c l u d e (1) Arteriosclerosis
( 2 ) D e g e n e r a t i v e d i s e a s e s o f t h e c en t r a l n e r v o u s s ys t e m ( C N S ) , s u c h a s progressive supranuclear palsy ( 3 ) M e t a b o l i c d i s o r d e r s , s u c h a s W i ls o n d i s e a s e E . Si g n s a n d s ym p t o m s 1. Tremor a . T r e m o r m a y b e t h e i n i t i a l c o m p l a i n t i n s o m e pa t i e n t s . I t i s m o s t e v i d e n t a t r e s t ( r e s t i n g t r em o r ) a n d wi t h l o w- f r e q u e n c y m o v e m e n t . W h e n t h e t h u m b a n d f o r e f i n g e r a r e i n v o l v e d , i t i s k n o wn a s t h e p i l l - r o l l i n g t r e m o r . B ef o r e pi l l s we r e m a d e b y m a c h i n e , p h a r m a c i s t s m a d e t a b l e t s ( p i l l s ) b y h a n d , h e n c e t h e n a m e ( F i gu r e 4 6 - 2 ) . b . S o m e p a t i e n t s e xp e r i e n c e a c t i o n t r e m o r ( m os t e v i d e n t du r i n g a c t i v i t y) , wh i c h c a n e x i s t wi t h o r b e f o r e t h e r e s t i n g t r e m o r d e v e l o p s . 2 . L i m b r i g i d i t y i s p r e s e n t i n a l m o s t a l l p a t i e n t s. I t i s d e t e c t e d c l i n i c a l l y wh e n t h e a r m r e s p o n d s wi t h a r a t c h e t - l i k e ( i . e . , c o g wh e e l i n g ) m o v e m e n t wh e n t h e l i m b i s m o v e d p a s s i v e l y. T h i s i s o wi n g t o a t r e m o r t h a t i s s u p e r i m p o s e d o n t h e r i g i d i t y. 3 . Ak i n e s i a o r b r a d yk i n e s i a . A k i n e si a i s c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y d i f f i c u l t y i n i n i t i a t i n g m o v e m e n t s , a n d b r a d yk i n e s i a i s a s lo wn e s s i n p e r f o r m i n g co m m o n v o l u n t a r y movements, including P.1013 s t a n d i n g , wa l k i n g , e a t i n g , wr i t i n g , a n d t a l k i n g . T h e l i n e s o f t h e p a t i e n t ' s f a c e a r e s m o o t h , a n d t h e e xp r e s s i o n i s f i x e d ( m a s k e d f a c e ) wi t h l i t t l e e v i d e n c e o f spontaneous emotional responses (Figure 46-3).
Figure 46-2. Resting (or static) tremors. (Adapted from Bates B. A Guide to Physical Examination and History Taking. 5th ed. Philadelphia: Lippincott, 1991:197.)
Figure 46-3. Masked face of Parkinson disease. (Adapted from Bates B. A Guide to Physical Examination and History Taking. 5th ed. Philadelphia: Lippincott, 1991:197.)
4 . G a i t a n d p o s t u r a l d i f f i c u l t i e s . Ch a r a c t e r i s t i ca l l y, p a t i e n t s wa l k wi t h a s t o o p e d , f l e x e d p o s t u r e ; a s h o r t , s h u f f l i n g s t r id e ; a n d a d i m i n i s h e d a r m s wi n g i n r h yt h m wi t h t h e l e g s . T he r e m a y b e a t e n d e n c y t o a c c e l e r a t e o r f e st i n a t e ( F i g u r e 4 6 - 4 ) . 5 . C h a n g e s i n m e n t a l s t a t u s . M e n t al s t a t u s c h a n g e s , i n c l u d i n g d e p r e s s i o n ( 5 0 % ) , d e m e n t i a ( 2 5 % ) , a n d p s yc h o s i s , a r e a s s o c i a t e d wi t h t h e d i s e a s e a n d m a y b e p r e c i p i t a t e d o r wo r s e n e d b y d r u g s . 6 . U n i f i ed Pa r k i n s o n d i s e a s e r a t i n g s c a l e ( U PD R S ) a . T o e va l u a t e t h e c l i n i c a l e f f i c a c y o f a n t i p a r k i n s o n d r u g s a n d t o m o n i t o r d i s e a s e p r o g r e s s i o n , m o s t i n v e s t i g a t o r s h av e u s e d t h e U P D R S . ( 1 ) T h e d i s ad v a n t a g e s a s s o c i a t e d wi t h t h e u s e of s c a l e s f o r r a t i n g t h e f un c t i o n a l a n d m o t o r d i s a b i l i t i e s o f p a t i e n t s wi t h P a r k i n s o n d i s e a s e i n c l u d e t h e p o t e n t i a l o f i n t e r r a t e r v ar i a b i l i t y a n d i m p r e c i s i o n b e c a u s e o f t h e s e m i q u a n t i t a t i v e s c or i n g . ( 2 ) T h e r e s ul t o f t e s t i n g d e p e n d s h i g h l y o n t h e s t a g e o f t h e di s e a s e , wh e t h e r t h e patient is being evaluated during an on or off period, and the relative distribution of the improvement across all the items evaluated. b . P a r t I o f t h e U P D R S i s a n e va l u a t i o n o f m e n t a t i o n , b eh a vi o r , a n d m o o d . c . P a r t I I i s a s e l f - r e p o rt e d e va l u a t i o n o f t h e ac t i vi t i e s o f d a i l y l i vi n g ( AD L s ) a n d i n c l u d e s s p e e c h , s wa l l o wi n g , h a n d wr i t i n g , a b i l i t y t o c u t f o o d , d r e s s i n g , hyg i e n e , f a l l i n g , s a l i v a t i n g , t u r n i n g i n b e d , a n d wa l k i n g . d . P a r t I I I i s a c l i n i c i a n - s c o r e d m o t o r e va l u a t i o n . ( 1 ) P a t i e n t s a r e e v a l u a t e d f o r s p e e c h, r e st - t r e m o r f a c i a l e xp r e s s i o n a n d m o b i l i t y, a c t i o n o r p o s t u r a l t r e m or o f h a n d s , r i g i d i t y, f i n g e r t a p s , h a n d m o v e m e n t s, r a p i d a l t e r n a t i v e p r o n a t i o n - s u p i n a t i o n m o v e m e n t o f ha n d s , l e g a g i l i t y, e a s e o f a r i s i n g f r om a c h a i r , p o s t u r e , p o s t u r al s t a b i l i t y, g a i t , a n d b r ad yk i n e s i a . P.1014
Figure 46-4. Characteristic walk of patients with Parkinson disease. (Adapted from Bates B. A Guide to Physical Examination and History Taking. 5th ed. Philadelphia: Lippincott, 1991:553.)
( 2 ) E a c h i t em i s e v a l u a t e d o n a s c a l e o f 0 - 4 . (a) A rating of 0 on the motor performance evaluation scale indicates normal performance. ( b ) A r a t i n g o f 4 o n t h e m o t o r p e r f o r m a n c e e v a l u a t i o n s c a l e i n d i c a t e s s e ve r e l y i m p a i r e d p er f o r m a n c e . e . P a r t I V i s t h e H o eh n a n d Y ah r st a g i n g o f s e v e r i t y o f P a r ki n s o n d i s e a s e ( T a b l e 46-1). f . P a r t V i s t h e S c hw an a n d En g l a n d AD L s c a l e .
Table 46-1. Stages of Parkinson Disease
Stage Characteristics 0
No clinical signs evident
I
Unilateral involvement, including the major features of tremor, rigidity, or bradykinesia; minimal functional impairment
II
Bilateral involvement but no postural abnormalities
III
Mild to moderate bilateral disease, mild postural imbalance, but still ability to function independently
IV
Bilateral involvement with postural instability; patient requires substantial assistance
V
Severe disease; patient restricted to bed or wheelchair unless aided
Reprinted with permission from Hoehn MM, Yahr MD. Parkinsonism: Onset, progression, and mortality. Neurology 1967;17:427. P.1015
F . D i a g n o si s 1. Diagnosis depends on clinical findings. 2 . T e s t s ( i n c l u d i n g i m a g i n g ) a r e m o st o f t e n u s e d t o r u l e o u t a n o r i g i n o f s e c o n d a r y Parkinson disease. 3. New technologies—for example, positron-emission tomography (PET) scan—are u s e d t o v i s ua l i z e d o p a m i n e u p t a k e i n t h e s u b s t an t i a n i g r a a n d b a s a l g a n g l i a . T h e P ET s c a n m e a s u r e s t h e e xt e n t o f n e u r o n a l l o s s i n t h e s e a r e a s . 4 . A s p e c i f i c f o r m o f s i n g l e - p h o t o n e m i s s i o n c o m p u t e d t o m o g r a p h y ( S P E CT ) c a n b e h e l p f u l f o r d i a g n o s i s o f p a r k i n s o n i a n s yn d r o m e s a n d n o n p a r k i n s o n i s m syn d r o m e s , particularly essential tremor. 5 . O t h e r d i s e a s e s t h a t ar e s i m i l a r t o P a r k i n s o n d i s e a s e a r e m u l t i p l e s ys t e m a t r o p h y ( s t r i a t o n i g r a l d e g e n e r a t i o n , o l i v o p o n t o c e r e b e l l a r a t r o p h y, s h y- d r a g g e r s yn d r o m e ) , c o r t i c o b a s a l g a n g l i o n i c d e g e n e r a t i o n , a n d p r o g r e s s i v e s u p r a n u c l e a r p a l s y. 6 . O t h e r i n v e s t i g a t i o n a l d i a g n o s t i c t o o l s : ( i ) T r an s c r a n i a l u l t r a s o u n d , ( i i ) e xa i m e d e f i c i t s i n o lf a c t i o n , a n d ( i i i ) d e t e c t i o n o f o l i g o m e t r i c a l p l a - s yn u c e l i n i n b l o o d o f p a t i e n t s wi t h P a r k i n s o n d i s e a s e . G . T r e a t m e n t ( F i g u r e 46 - 5 ) 1 . N o n d ru g t r e a t m e n t
a. Exercise is an important adjunctive therapy and is most beneficial. Although e x e r c i s e d o e s n o t h e l p wi t h t h e s ym p t o m s o f Pa r k i n s o n d i s e a s e , r e g u l a r f o c u s e d e x e r c i s e , s t r e t c h i n g , a n d s t r e n g t h e n i n g a c t i v i t i e s c a n h a v e a p o s i t i v e e f f ec t o n mobility and mood. b . N u t r i t i o n . P a t i e n t s wi t h P a r k i n s on d i s e a s e a r e a t i n c r e a se d r i s k o f p o o r n u t r i t i o n , we i g h t l o s s , a n d r e d u c e d m u s c l e m a s s . E xa m p l e s o f t h e b e n e f i c i a l e f f e c t s of p r o p e r n u t r i t i o n i n t h i s g r o u p o f p a t i e n t s i n cl u d e t h e f o l l o wi n g : ( 1 ) S u f f i c i e n t f i b e r a n d f lu i d i n t a k e h e l p p r e v e n t c o n s t i p a t i o n a s s o c i a t e d wi t h Parkinson disease and the medications used to treat the disease. ( 2 ) C a l c i u m s u p p l e m e n t a t i o n h e l p s m a i n t a i n t h e e xi s t i n g b o n e s t r u c t u r e. ( 3 ) E xc e s s i v e d i e t a r y p r o t e i n i n t h e l a t e s t a g e s o f t h e d i s e a s e c a u s e s e r r a t i c r e s p o n s e s t o l e v o d o p a t h e r a p y. ( 4 ) A l a r g e b o d y o f l i t e r a t u r e s u p p o r t s t h e p a t ho p h ys i o l o g i c a l r o l e o f a n t i o xi d a n t s i n the neuroprotective role and decrease in progression in Parkinson disease. P r o d u c t s s uc h a s α - t o c op h e r o l o r v i t a m i n , c r e a t in e , c o e n z ym e Q 1 0 a c t a s s c a v e n g e r s o f f r e e r a d i c a l wh i c h a r e h a r m f u l t o c e l l s . 2 . D r u g t h e r a p y f o r s y m p t o m a t i c r e l i e f . T r e a t m e n t i s d i v id e d i n t o t wo g e n e r a l i z e d c a t e g o r i e s : s ym p t o m a t i c t h e r a p i e s a n d p r e v e n t i v e o r p r o t e c t iv e m e a s u r e s . Neuroprotective strategies are used to slow the development and progression of the disorder. H . D r u g t r ea t m e n t : N eu r o p ro t e c t i ve t r e a t m e n t 1 . M AO - B , s u c h a s s e l e g i l i n e a n d t o c o p h e r o l ( v i t a m i n E ) , a ct s a s a sc a ve n g e r o f free radicals. 2 . D o p a m i n e a g o n i s t s s e r v e a s s c av e n g e r s o f f r e e r a d i c a l s a n d d e c r e a s e d o p a m i n e t u r n o v e r , wh i c h r e d u c e s o xi d a t i v e s t r e s s . D u r i n g e a r l y d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h e d i s e a s e , t h e r e a r e i n c r e a s e s i n o xi d a t i v e s t r e s s . F o u r c l as s e s o f d r u gs a r e a v a i l a b l e : a . A n t i c h o l i n e r g i c s ( f o r r e s t i n g t r e m or ) b . P r e c u r s o r o f d o p a m i n e ( e . g . , c a r bi d o p a / l e v o d o p a ) c . D i r e c t - a ct i n g d o p a m i n e a g o n i s t s ( e . g . , b r o m oc r i p t i n e ) d . I n d i r e c t - ac t i n g d o p a m i n e a g o n i s t s (1) Decrease reuptake (e.g., amantadine) (2) Decrease metabolism (e.g., selegiline) 3 . D r u g t h e r a p y f o r t r e a t i n g a s s o ci a t e d s ym p t o m s a . T ri c yc l i c a n t i d e p r e s s a n t s a r e u se d t o t r e a t d e p r e s s i o n . T h e y e x h i b i t s o m e dopaminergic and anticholinergic effects. b . β - Bl o c k er s , e s p e c i a l l y p r o p r a n o l o l wi t h i t s h ig h l i p o p h i l i c i t y, b e n z o d i a z e p i n e s , a n d p r i m i d o n e , a r e m e d i c a t i o n s u s e d f o r a c t i o n t r e m o r . U su a l l y, p a t i e n t s s h o w a clinical response in low doses. P.1016
Figure 46-5. Management of Parkinson disease.
P.1017
c . An t i h i s t am i n e s . D i p he n h y d r a m i n e h yd r o c h l o r i d e h a s s o m e m i l d a n t i c h o l i n e r g i c e f f e c t s a n d i s u s e d f o r sym p t o m a t i c r e l e a s e o f m i l d t r e m o r ; b e c a u s e o f i t s a d v e r s e r e a c t i o n i n t h e C N S , i t sh o u l d b e u s e d wi t h c a u t i o n i n t h e e l d e r l y. 4 . G en e r a l p r i n ci p l e s o f d r u g t h er a p y a . I f a p a t i en t d o e s n o t r e s p o n d t o a n a g e n t i n o n e c l a s s , an o t h e r c l a s s s h o u l d b e t r i e d . St u d i e s s h o w t h a t s o m e p a t i e n t s r e s p o n d t o o n e a g e n t wh e n t h e y f a i l t o respond to the other. b . T h e r a p y s h o u l d b e s t a r t e d wi t h a l o w d o s e a n d t i t r at e d u p . R e s p o n s e u s u a l l y i s s e e n wi t h i n a f e w d a ys a f t e r st a r t i ng t h e r a p y. c . I f a s e c o n d a g e n t i s a d d e d t o t h e d r u g t h e r a p y, t h e d o s e o f t h e f i r s t m e d i c a t i o n should be decreased to minimize side effects. d . D r u g t h e r a p y s h o u l d n e v e r b e d i s c o n t i n u e d s u d d e n l y b e c a u s e wi t h d r a wa l m a y e x a c e r b a t e t h e s ym p t o m s . 5 . D e f i n i t i o n s c o n c e r n i n g d r u g t h er a p y a . D ys k i n e s i a s / d ys t o n i a a r e t yp i c a l l y o r a l - f a c i a l m o v e m e n t s, g r i m a c i n g , o r j e r k y a n d wr i t h i n g m o v e m e n t s o f t h e t r u n k a n d e xt r e m i t i e s . T h e y a r e a l wa ys r e v e r s i b l e wi t h a n t i p a r k i n s o n i a n m e d i c a t i o n s , a n d t h e y d e c r e a s e o r d i m i n i s h wi t h d o s e r e d u c t i o n . Sym p t o m s o f P a r k i n s o n d i s e a s e m a y r e a p p e a r b y r e d u c i n g t h e d o s e , a n d i t i s t h e c l i n i c a l j u d g m e n t o f t h e p h ys i c i a n o r t h e p r e f e r e n c e o f t h e p a t i en t wh e t h e r t o c o n t i n u e wi t h t h e d r u g r e g i m e n o r t o l e r a t e t h e s i d e e f f e c t s . T h e r e a r e t h r e e t yp e s o f d ys k i n e s i a s / d ys t o n i a : p e a k d o s e d ys k i n e s i a , b i p h a s i c d ys k i n e s i a s , a n d o f f - p e r i o d d ys t o n i a . A l l c o u l d b e n e f i t f r o m s u st a i n e d - r e l e a s e p r e p a r a t i o n s . ( 1 ) P e a k - d o s e d ys k i n e s i a ( a ) C o u l d b e c o r r e c t e d wi t h s u s t a i n e d - r e l e a s e p r e p a r a t i o n s . ( b ) D e c r e a se L - d o p a d o s e , o r a d d ca t e c h o l - O - m e t h yl t r a n s f e r a s e ( C O M T ) i n h i b i t o r . ( c ) A d d a m an t a d i n e . ( d ) P e r f o r m s u r g e r y.
( 2 ) B i p h a s i c d ys k i n e s i a s ( a ) C o u l d b e c o r r e c t e d wi t h s u s t a i n e d - r e l e a s e p r e p a r a t i o n s . ( b ) D e c r e a se L - d o p a d o s e a n d i n c r e a s e d o p a m i n e r g i c d o s e . I f s ym p t o m s a r e st i l l p r e s e n t , a CO M T i n h i b i t o r s h o u l d b e a d d e d . ( c ) A m a n t a di n e m a y b e h e l p f u l . ( 3 ) O f f - p e r i od d ys t o n i a (a) Decrease L-dopa dose. (b) Increase dopaminergic dose. b . O n - o f f e f f e c t d e s c r i b e s o s c i l l a t i o n s i n r e s p o n s e ( a t t h e r ec e p t o r s i t e ) a n d s u d d e n c h a n g e s i n m o b i l i t y f r o m n o s ym p t o m s t o f u l l pa r k i n s o n i a n s ym p t o m s i n a m a t t e r o f m i n u t e s . N o d i r e c t r e l a t io n s h i p b e t we e n t h e o n - o f f e f f e c t a n d d r u g l e v e l s h a s b e e n f o u n d . U s u a l l y, a s e c o n d d r u g i s a d d e d t o t h e t h e r a p y r e g i m e n t o c o r r e c t t h e ef f e ct . Reducing the dose of one drug and adding a second drug may also be useful. Could be managed by adding entacapone, dopamine agonist, amantadine, or selegiline. c . E n d - d o se e f f e c t , k no wn a l s o a s t h e w ea r i n g - o f f e f f e c t , o c c u r s a t a l a t t e r p a r t o f t h e d o s i n g i n t e r v a l ; i t ha p p e n s a f t e r a f e w ye a r s o f L - d o p a t h e r a p y. R e d u c e t h e single L-dopa dose and spread the total L-dopa dose over a larger number of single doses. Change to a dopamine agonist and use a sustained-release formulation of Ldopa. Could be managed by adding entacapone, dopamine agonist, amantadine, or selegiline. d . D r u g h o l i d a y. L o n g - t e r m l e v o d o p a u s e r e s u l t s i n d o wn r e g u l a t i o n o f d o p a m i n e r e c e p t o r s . A d r u g h o l i d a y a l l o ws s t r i a t a l n i g r a d o p a m i n e r e c e p t o r s t o b e r e s e n s i t i z e d , a l t h o u g h c o n t r o v e r s y e xi s t s r e g a r d i n g t h e c o n s e q u e n c e s a n d t h e o u t c o m e o f t h i s h o l i d a y. 6 . P h ys i c a l r e h a b i l i t a t i o n r e s t o r e s p a t i e n t s ' p hys i c a l f u n c t i o n a n d i n d e p e n d e n c e t h r o u g h p h y s i c a l a n d o c c u p a t i o n a l t h e r a p y. S u c h t h e r a p y h e l p s p a t i e n t s wi t h managing big and small muscle groups by focusing on maintaining coordination, d e x t e r i t y, f l e xi b i l i t y, a n d r a n g e o f m o t i o n s . 7 . P s yc h o l o g i c a l r e h a b i l i t a t i o n p r o v i d e s s u p p o r t f o r p a t i e n t s a n d t h e i r f a m i l i e s . K e e p i n m i n d t h a t p a t i en t s wi t h P a r k i n s o n d i s e a s e h a v e a h i g h i n c i d e n c e o f depression and that, in later stages of the disease, they develop dementia (Table 46-2). 8 . S e c o n d ar y e f f e c t s o f P a r k i n s o n d i s e a s e i n c l u d e a . C a r d i o va s c u l a r e f f ec t s , i n c l u d i n g o r t h o s t a t i c h yp o t e n s i o n a n d a r r h yt h m i a b . G a s t r o i n t e s t i n a l e f f e c t s , i n c l u d i n g c o n s t i p a t i o n a n d h yp e r s a l i v a t i o n c . G en i t o u ri n a r y e f f e c t s , i n c l u d i n g i n c r e a s e d u r i n a r y f r e q u e n c y a n d i m p o t e n c e P.1018
Table 46-2. Overview of Parkinson Disease Management
Stage
Characteristics
Treatment Considerations Physical Psychosocial
Early
Fully functional May have unilateral tremor, rigidity
Preventive exercise program
Education Information
Early middle
Symptoms bilateral, bradykinesia, rigidity Mild speech impairment Axial rigidity, stooped posture, stiffness Gait impairment begins
Corrective exercise program
Counseling Support group Monitor for depression
Late middle
All symptoms worse but independent in ADLs May need minor assistance Balance problems
Compensatory and corrective exercise Speech therapy Occupational therapy
Caregiver issues (medications, mobility) Monitor for dementia
Late
Severely disabled, impaired Dependent with ADLs
Compensatory exercise Dietary concerns Skin care Hygiene Pulmonary function
Dementia Depression
ADLs, activities of daily living. Reprinted with permission from Custin TM. Overview of Parkinson's disease management. Phys Ther 1995;75: 363-373. This material is copyrighted, and any further reproduction or distribution is prohibited.
d . C e n t r a l n e r vo u s s ys t e m e f f e c t s , i n c l u d i n g h a l l u c i n a t i o n s , d e p r e s s i o n , a n d p s yc h o s i s . C o u l d b e t r e a t e d wi t h r e d u c i n g o r e l i m i n a t i n g a m a n t a d i n e , s e l e g i l i n e , a n t i c h o l i n e r g i c s , o r d o pa m i n e a g o n i s t s . 9 . L a t e d i s a b i l i t i e s o f Pa r k i n s o n d i s e a s e c a n b e d i v i d e d i n t o t wo g r o u p s . a . L e vo d o p a - r e l a t e d d i s a b i l i t i e s , wh i c h i n c l u d e m o t o r f l u c t u a t i o n , d ys k i n e s i a , n e u r o p s yc h i a t r i c t o x i c i t y, a n d r e d u c e d r e s p o n s e b . N o n - l e vo d o p a - r e l a t e d d i s a b i l i t i e s , wh i c h i n c l u d e c o g n i t i v e i m p a i r m e n t , i n s t a b i l i t y r e s u l t i n g i n m o r e f r e q u e n t f a l l s , g a i t di s t u r b a n c e , i n c o n t i n e n c e , d ys p h a g i a , a n d s p e e c h d i s t u r b a n c e c . L a t e d i s a b i l i t i e s m a n a g e m e n t t h e r a p i e s i n c l u d e t h e f o l l o wi n g : (1) Motor fluctuation. Altering the levodopa dosage and timing, using alternative m e a n s o f l e v o d o p a a d m i n i s t r a t i o n , d e l i v e r y, a n d a b s o r p t i o n ; u s i n g d i r e c t - a c t i n g d o p a m i n e a g o n i s t s o r exp e r i m e n t a l a g o n i s t s ; a l t e r i n g m e t a b o l i s m o f d o p a m i n e a n d levodopa parental agonists; using glutamate antagonists; and performing functional neurosurgery (2) Miscellaneous late disabilities and management therapies include ( a ) U r i n a r y u r g e n c y: o x yb u t y n i n ( b ) U ri n a r y r e t e n t i o n : a p o m o r p h i n e ( c ) C o n s t i p a t i o n : f i b e r , p o l ye t h yl e n e g l yc o l s ( d ) T e n e s mu s : c l o n a z e p a m , a p o m o r p h i n e ( e ) H yp e r s a l i va t i o n : a nt i h i s t a m i n e , a n t i c h o l i n e r g i c ( f ) D ys p h a g i a : l i q u i d l e v o d o p a ( g ) Sw ea t i n g c r i s e s : β - b l o c k e r s , a n t i c h o l i n e r g i c a g e n t s ( h ) D a yt i m e s l e e p i n e s s : s e l e g i l i n e ( i ) Ni g h t m ar e s : a m i t r i p t y l i n e , c l o n a z e p a m ( j ) P a n i c a t t a c k s a n d d e p r e s s i o n : l i q u i d l e v o d o p a , a m i t r i p t yl i n e ( k ) O r t h o s t a t i c h yp o t en s i o n : d o m p e r i d o n e , d e s m o p r e s s i n ( l ) D ys p h o n i a : r e d u c e le v o d o p a d o s a g e , s p e e c h t h e r a p y ( m ) P a i n : am i t r i p t yl i n e , f l u v o x a m i n e P.1019
II. INDIVIDUAL DRUGS A. An t i c h o l i n e r g i c ag e n t s a r e u s e d f o r m i l d s ym p t o m s , p r e do m i n a n t l y t r e m o r s . 1 . M e c h a n i s m o f a c t i o n . T h i s c l a s s o f d r u g s b l o c k s t h e e xc i t a t o r y n e u r o t r a n s m i t t er c h o l i n e r g i c i n f l u e n c e i n t h e b a s a l g a n g l i a . T h e s e d r u g s a r e m o r e e f f e ct i v e f o r t r e m or a n d r i g i d i t y t h a n f o r b r ad yk i n e s i a a n d l e s s e f f ec t i v e f o r p o st u r a l i m b a l a n c e . 2 . Ad m i n i s t r a t i o n a n d d o s a g e ( T ab l e 4 6 - 3 ) 3 . P r e c a u t i o n s an d m o n i t o r i n g e f f e c t s a . A n t i c h o l i n e r g i c s s h o u l d b e u s e d wi t h c a u t i o n i n p a t i e n t s wi t h o b s t r u c t ed g a s t r o i n t e s t i n a l ( G I ) o r ge n i t o u r i n a r y ( G U ) t r a ct s, n a r r o w- a n g l e g l a u c o m a , o r s e v e r e c a r d i a c d i s e a s e . P h ys i c i a n s s h o u l d b e n o t i f i e d i f a r a p i d h ea r t b e a t o r eye p a i n a r e experienced. (Frequent ophthalmological visits are recommended.) b. The sedative side effects of antihistamines may be beneficial in some patients.
c . A l c o h o l a n d o t h e r C N S d e p r e s s a n t s s h o u l d b e u s e d wi t h c a u t i o n . d . Ad ve r s e e f f e c t s o f an t i c h o l i n e r g i c t h e r a p y i n c l u d e t h e f o l l o wi n g : ( 1 ) P e r i p h er a l a n t i c h o l i n e r g i c e f f ec t s i n c l u d e d r y m o u t h ( h a r d c a n d i e s m a y b e h e l p f u l ) ; d e c r e a s e d s we a t i n g , r e s u l t i n g i n d e c r e a s e d t o l e r a n c e t o h e a t ; u r i n a r y r e t e n t i o n ; co n s t i p a t i o n ( s t o o l s o f t e ne r s m a y b e h e l p f u l ) ; i n c r e a s e d i n t r a o c u l a r t e n s i o n ; a n d n a u s e a . B e c a u s e o f p a t i e n t s ' d e c r ea s e d t o l e r a n c e t o h e a t , t h e s e a g e n t s s h o u l d b e u s e d wi t h c a u t i o n i n h o t we a t h e r . T h e y s h o u l d a l s o b e t a k e n wi t h f o o d t o m i n im i z e G I u p s e t .
Table 46-3. Dosage Range and Characteristics of Drug Treatment
Drug
Time to Peak Daily Dosage Concentration Half-Life (hr) Range (mg/day) (hr)
Anticholinergic agents Benztropine
n/a
n/a
1-6
Biperiden
1-1.5
18.4-24.3
2-8
Procyclidine
1.1-2
11.5-12.6
6-20
Trihexyphenidyl
1-1.3
5.6-10.2
2-15
n/a
n/a
50-400
Carbidopa/levodopa
1
1-1.75
10/100200/2000
Carbidopa/levodopa, sustained-release
2
>standard treatment
10/40025/1000, in 2-3 divided doses
Amantadine
4-8
9.7-14.5
100-400
Bromocriptine
1-3
3-8
2.5-40
Ethopropazine Dopamine agents
Selegiline
0.5-2
2-20.5
5-10
Selegiline Oral Disintegrating table*
1
1-3 hrs
0.5-1 mg
Rasagiline
1
1.3-3hrs
0.5-1mg
Pramipexole
1-2 (3-4a)
8-12b
1.5-4.5, in 3 divided doses
Ropinirole
1-2 (3-4a)
6
3-24, in 3 divided doses
0.5-4
70
0.5-6
Tolcapone
2
2-3
300-600
Entacapone
1
2-3
200-1600
Rotigotine
15-27
5-7 hrs
2-6mg
1
40 min
2-6mg
Non-ergot dopamine agents
COMT inhibitor
Apomorphine hydrochloride injection (SC) a
With food.
b
Over 65 years of age. COMT, catechol-O-methyltransferase; n/a, not available. *
avoids first pass effect
SC: subcutaneous injection
P.1020
( 2 ) C N S e f f e c t s i n c l u d e d i z z i n e s s , d e l i r i u m , d i s o r i e n t a t i o n , a n xi e t y, a g i t a t i o n , h a l l u c i n a t i o n s , a n d i m p a i r e d m e m o r y. T h e i n c i d e n c e o f C N S e f f e ct s i n cr e a s e s i n elderly individuals. ( 3 ) C a r d i o va s c u l a r e f f e c t s i n c l u d e h yp o t e n s i o n a n d o r t h o s t a t i c h yp o t e n s i o n . 4. Significant interactions a . S i d e e f f ec t s m a y b e p o t e n t i a t e d b y o t h e r d r u g s wi t h a n t i c h o l i n e r g i c a c t i v i t y s u c h a s a n t i h i s t am i n e s , an t i d e p r e s s a n t s , a n d p h e n o t h i a z i n e s . b. Anticholinergic agents increase digoxin levels. c . W h e n a n t i c h o l i n e r g i c a g e n t s a r e t a k e n wi t h h a l o p e r i d o l , t h e f o l l o wi n g o c c u r s : ( 1 ) S c h i z o p h r e n i c s ym p t o m s m a y i n c r e a s e . (2) Haloperidol levels may decrease. ( 3 ) T h e s e v e r i t y o f ( n o t t h e r i s k of ) t a r d i v e d ys k i n e s i a m a y i n c r e a s e . d . W h e n p h e n o t h i a zi n es a r e t a k e n wi t h a n t i c h o l i n e r g i c d r u g s , t h e e f f e ct s o f t h e p h e n o t h i a z i n e s d e c r e a s e a n d t h e a n t i c h o l i n e r g i c s ym p t o m s i n c r e a s e . e . P a t i e n t s o n h i g h d o s e s o f a n t i c ho l i n e r g i c s c o m b i n e d wi t h l e vo d o p a s h o u l d b e wa t c h e d f o r d e c r e a s e d l e v o d o p a a c t i v i t y b e c a u s e o f a d e l a ye d g a s t r i c em p t yi n g time. B . D o p a m i n e p r e c u r s o r. L e vo d o p a / c a r b i d o p a is t h e m o st ef f e c t i v e d r u g f o r m a n a g i n g P a r k i n s o n d i s e a s e ; h o we v e r , p r o l o n g e d u s e d e c r e a s e s i t s t h e r a p e u t i c e f f e c t s ( t h e r e i s a d e c l i n e i n e f f i c a c y a f t e r 3 - 5 ye a r s ) a n d i n c r e a s e s a d v e r s e d r u g r e a c t i o n s . Do p a m i n e d o e s n o t c r o s s t h e b l o o d - b r a i n b a r r i e r ; t h e r e f o r e , a p r e c u r s o r is used. Peripheral conversion of levodopa to dopamine causes adverse reactions l i k e n a u s e a , v o m i t i n g , ca r d i a c a r r h yt h m i a s , a n d p o s t u r a l h yp o t e n s i o n . T o d e c r e a s e the peripheral conversion and peripheral adverse effects, a peripheral dopa decarboxylase inhibitor (carbidopa) is added to levodopa. 1. Mechanism of action a . L e vo d o p a i s c o n ve r t e d t o d o p a m i n e b y t h e e n z ym e d o p a d e c a r b o x y l a s e , wh i c h e l e v a t e s C N S l e v e l s o f do p a m i n e .
b . T h e s u st a i n e d - r e l e a s e f o r m u l a t i o n i s d e s i g n e d t o r e l e a s e t h e d r u g o ve r 4 - 6 h r , thereby inhibiting variation in plasma concentration and decreasing motor f l u c t u a t i o n “ o f f ” t i m e o r im p r o v i n g o v e r a l l d o s e r e s p o n s e i n p a t i e n t s wi t h a d v a n c e d disease. 2 . Ad m i n i s t r a t i o n a n d d o s a g e ( T ab l e 4 6 - 3 ) a . I t i s n e c e s s a r y t o g i v e a t l e a s t 1 00 m g d a i l y o f c a r b i d o p a t o d e c r e a s e t h e i n c i d e n c e o f t h e p e r i p h e r a l c o n v e r s i o n o f l e v o d o p a a n d G I s id e e f f e c t s ( e . g . , n a u s e a ) a n d i n c r e a s e t he b i o a v a i l a b i l i t y o f l e v o d o p a f o r t h e C N S . b . I f c a r b i d o p a i s g i v e n i n a s e p a r a t e d o s a g e f o r m , t h e d o se o f l e v o d o p a c a n b e decreased by 75%. c . I f p a t i e n t s s t i l l c o m p l a i n o f G I s i de e f f e c t s a f t e r c o m b i n a t i o n l e v o d o p a / c a r b i d o p a , plain carbidopa can be given. d . S u s t a i n e d - r e l e a s e p r e p a r a t i o n s a r e a p p r o xi m a t e l y 3 0 % l e s s b i o a v a i l a b l e a s c o m p a r e d wi t h l e v o d o p a / c a r b i d o p a . B e c a u s e o f t h i s l o we r b i o a v a i l a b i l i t y, t h e d a i l y dosage should be higher. If a patient is receiving a standard preparation and needs t o b e c o n v e r t e d t o t h e su s t a i n e d - r e l e a s e d o s e , a p p r o xi m a t e l y 1 0 % m o r e l e v o d o p a s h o u l d i n i t i a l l y b e a d d e d t o t h e d a i l y d o s a g e a n d a t l e a s t 3 da ys s h o u l d p a s s b e t we e n i n c r e a s e d d o s a g e s ; t h e n g r a d u a l l y i n c r e a s e t h e l e v o d o p a d o s e u p t o 3 0 % of standard preparation. e . W it h t h e s u s t a i n e d - r e l e a s e p r e p a r a t i o n , t h e pe a k p l a s m a c o n c e n t r a t i o n i s l o we r and the trough plasma concentration is higher. f . T h e s u s t ai n e d - r e l e a s e p r e p a r a t i o n c o u l d b e d i v i d e d i n h a l f a t t h e s c o r e d p o i n t o n l y. T h e t a b l e t s h o u l d n o t b e c h e we d o r c r u s he d . g . W h e n c a r b i d o p a i s g i v e n t o p a t i e n t s b e i n g t r e a t e d wi t h l e v o d o p a , g i v e t h e t wo d r u g s a t t h e s a m e t i m e, s t a r t i n g wi t h n o m o r e t ha n 2 0 % t o 2 5 % o f t h e p r e v i o u s d a i l y d o s a g e o f l e v o d o p a a n d i n i t i a t i n g t h e r a p y wi t h c a r b i d o p a a n d l e v o d o p a . h . L o n g - t e r m t r e a t m e n t c o u l d l e a d t o m o t o r f l u c t u a t i o n a n d d ys k i n e s i a s , e s p e c i a l l y at high doses. 3 . P r e c a u t i o n s an d m o n i t o r i n g e f f e c t s a . L e v o d o p a m u s t b e u se d wi t h c a u t i o n i n p a t i e n t s wi t h n a r r o w- a n g l e g l a u c o m a . b . L e v o d o p a m a y a c t i v a t e a m a l i g n a n t m e l a n o m a i n p a t i e n t s wi t h s u s p i c i o u s u n d i a g n o s e d s k i n l e s i o n s o r a h i s t or y o f m e l a n o m a . P.1021
c . T h e ef f i ca c y o f l e v o d o p a d e c l i n e s wi t h l o n g - t e r m t h e r a p y b y d e s e n s i t i z i n g t h e r e c e p t o r s o r b e c a u s e o f t h e d e c r e a s e d n u m b e r o f r e c e p t o r s, r e s u l t i n g f r om t h e progression of the disease. d . Ad ve r s e d r u g r e a c t i o n s ( 1 ) G I e f f e ct s i n c l u d e a n o r e x i a , n a u s e a a n d v o m i t i n g , a n d a b d o m i n a l d i s t r e s s . L e v o d o p a s h o u l d b e t a k e n wi t h f o o d t o m i n i m i z e s t o m a c h u ps e t . ( 2 ) C a r d i o va s c u l a r e f f e c t s i n c l u d e p o s t u r a l h yp o t e n s i o n a n d t a c h yc a r d i a . ( 3 ) M u s c u l o s k e l e t a l e f f e c t s i n c l u d e d ys t o n i a o r c h o r e i f o r m m u s c l e m o ve m e n t . (4) CNS effects include confusion, memory changes, depression, hallucinations, a n d p s yc h o s i s . P h ys i c i a n s s h o u l d b e n o t i f i e d i f a n y o f t h e s e s ym p t o m s o c c u r .
( 5 ) H e m a t o l o g i c a l e f f e ct s i n c l u d e h e m o l yt i c a n e m i a , l e u k o p e n i a , a n d a g r a n u l o c yt o s i s ( r a r e ) . 4. Significant interactions a . An t a c i d s c a u s e r a p i d a n d c o m p l e t e i n t e s t i n a l l e v o d o p a a b s o r p t i o n ( b y d e c r e a s i n g g a s t r i c e m p t yi n g t i m e ) . b . H yd a n t o i n d e c r e a s e s t h e e f f e c t i ve n e s s o f l e vo d o p a . c . M e t h i o n i n e i n c r e a s e s t h e c l i n i c al s i g n s o f P ar k i n s o n d i s e a s e . d . M e t o cl o p r a m i d e i n c r e a s e s t h e b i o a v a i l a b i l i t y o f l e v o d o p a , wh i c h d e c r e a s e s t h e e f f e c t s o f m e t o c l o p r a m i d e o n g a s t r i c e m p t yi n g a n d o n l o we r e s o p h a g e a l p r e s s u r e . A s a d o p a m i n e b l o c k e r , i t m a y a l s o p r e c i p i t a t e p a r k i n s o n i a n s ym p t o m s . e . F a l s e - p o si t i v e r e s u l t s a r e s e e n wi t h t h e C o o m b s t e s t . f . T h e u r i c ac i d t e s t i n c r e a s e s wi t h t h e c a l o r i m e t r i c m e t h o d bu t n o t wi t h t h e u r i c a s e method. g . H y p e r t e n s i v e r e a c t i o n s m a y o c c u r i f l e v o d o p a i s a d m i n i s t e r e d t o p a t ie n t s r e c e i v i n g M AO i n h i b i t o r s a n d f u r a z o l i d o n e. M A O i n h i b i t o r s m u s t b e d i s c o n t i n u e d 2 we e k s b e f o r e s t a r t i n g l ev o d o p a . h . A d m i n i s t e r i n g p a p a ve r i n e m a y d e c r e a s e t h e e f f e c t o f l e vo d o p a . i . T r i c yc l i c a n t i d e p r e s s a n t s d e c r e a s e t h e r a t e a n d e xt e n t o f a b s o r p t i o n o f l e v o d o p a ; h y p e r t e n s i v e e p i s o d e s h a v e b e e n r e p o r t e d wh e n l e v o d o p a i s c o m b i n e d wi t h t r i c yc l i c a n t i d e p r e s s a n t s . j . F o o d d e c r e a s e s t h e r at e a n d e x t e n t o f a b s o r p t i o n a n d t r a n s p o r t t o t h e C N S a c r o s s t h e bl o o d - b r a i n b a r r i e r . A p r o t e i n - r e s t r i ct e d d i e t m a y a l s o h e l p m i n i m i z e t h e “ f l u c t u a t i o n s ” ( i . e. , t h e de c r e a s e d r e s p o n s e t o l e v o d o p a ) a t t h e e n d o f e a c h d a y o r a t v a r i o u s t im e s o f t h e da y. C . D i r e c t - ac t i n g d o p a m i n e a g o n i s t s a r e c l a s s i f i e d a s e r g o t d e r i v a t i v e s ( s u c h a s b r o m o c r i p t i n e ) a n d n o n e r g o l i n e s ( s u c h a s p r a m ip e x o l e a n d r o p i n i r o l e ) . 1 . T h e s e a ge n t s m i m i c d o p a m i n e a g o n i s t a n d r e d u c e m o t o r f l u c t u a t i o n s. 2. Drugs in this class have a range of half-lives, and the half-life of any particular drug can vary among patients. 3 . T h e s e d r u g s a r e n o t m e t a b o l i z e d b y t h e o xi d a t i v e p a t h wa y a n d d o n o t p r o d u c e free-radical metabolites. 4 . D o p a m i n e a g o n i s t s m a y h a v e a d i r e c t a n t i o x i d a t i v e e f f e ct . 5 . T h e y t a k e l o n g e r t h a n L - d o p a t o r e a c h e f f e c t iv e d o s e s a n d r e q u i r e s u p p l e m e n t a r y L - d o p a f o r r e l i e f o f s ym p t o m s a f t e r a v a r yi n g p e r i o d o f t i m e. 6 . C o m m o n s i d e e f f e c t s a r e n a u s e a a n d p s yc h i a t r i c s i d e e f f e c t s s i m i l a r t o L - d o p a s u c h a s h a l l u c i n a t i o n s a n d d e l u s i o n s ; d ys k i n e s i a s a r e l e s s c o m m o n . 7 . O t h e r a d v e r s e e f f e c t s a r e h e a d a c h e , n a s a l c o n g e s t i o n , e r yt h r o m e l a l g i a , p l e u r a l a n d r e t r o p e r i t o n e a l f i b r o s i s , p u l m o n a r y i n f i l t r a t e s , a n d v a s os p a s m ( e xc e p t wi t h t h e n e w, n o n - e r g o t d e r i v a t i v e s s u c h a s r o p i n i r o l e ) . 8. Annual chest radiographs have been recommended for patients on high-dose t h e r a p y wi t h b r o m o c r i p t in e t o d e t e c t p l e u r o p u l m o n a r y c h a n g e s . 9 . N e w d o p a m i n e r g i c a g o n i s t s ( n o n - e r g o t d e r i v a t i v e s ) c a u s e p o s t u r a l h yp o t e n s i o n , s l e e p d i s t u r b a n c e s , p e r i p h e r a l e d e m a , c o n s t i p a t io n , n a u s e a , d ys k i n e s i a s , a n d confusion. 1 0 . B r o m o cr i p t i n e ( P a r l o d e l )
P.1022
a . M e c h a n i s m o f a c t i o n . B r o m o c r ip t i n e i s r e s p o n s i b l e f o r d i r e c t l y s t i m u l a t i n g p o s t s y n a p t i c d o p a m i n e r e c e p t o r s ; it i s m o st c om m o n l y u s e d a s a n a d j u n c t t o levodopa therapy in patients: ( 1 ) W it h a de t e r i o r a t i n g r e s p o n s e t o l e v o d o p a ( 2 ) W it h a l im i t e d c l i n i c a l r e s p o n s e t o l e v o d o p a s e c o n d a r y t o a n i n a b i l i t y t o t o l e r a t e higher doses ( 3 ) W h o a r e e xp e r i e n c i n g f l u c t u a t i o n s i n r e s p o n s e t o l e v o d o p a b . Ad m i n i s t r a t i o n a n d d o s a g e ( T ab l e 4 6 - 3 ) ( 1 ) I n i t i a l l y, p a t i e n t s a r e g i v e n o n e h a l f o f a t a b l e t t wi c e d a i l y, wh i c h i s t h e n i n c r e a s e d t o o n e t a b l e t t wi c e d a i l y e v e r y 2 - 3 d a ys . ( 2 ) P a t i e n t s ' r e s p o n s e s a r e e xt r e m e l y v a r i a b l e . M a n y p a t i e n t s s h o w a d o p a m i n e a n t a g o n i s t r e s p o n s e a t b o t h l o w a n d h i g h d o s e s , wi t h t h e d e s i r a b l e a g o n i s t response in the midrange. ( 3 ) B e c a u s e p o s t u r a l h y p o t e n s i o n m a y r e s u l t f r om t h e f i r s t f e w d o s e s o f b r o m o c r i p t i n e , t h e f i r s t do s e s h o u l d b e a d m i n i s t e r e d wi t h t h e p a t i e n t l yi n g d o wn , and sudden changes in posture should be avoided. c . P r e c a u t i o n s an d m o n i t o r i n g e f f e c t s ( 1 ) B r o m o c r ip t i n e m a y c a u s e a f i r s t - d o s e p h e n o m e n o n t h a t c a n t r i g g e r s u d d e n c a r d i o v a s c u l a r c o l l a p s e . I t s h o u l d b e u s e d wi t h c a u t i o n i n p a t i e n t s wi t h a h i s t o r y o f m yo c a r d i a l i n f a r c t i o n o r a r r h yt h m i a s . ( 2 ) E a r l y i n t h e r a p y, d i z z i n e s s , d r ows i n e s s , a n d f a i n t i n g m a y o c c u r , s o p a t i e n t s s h o u l d b e c a u t i o u s a b o u t d r i v i n g o r o p e r a t i n g m a c h i n e r y. A p h ys i c i a n s h o u l d b e n o t i f i e d i f t he s e s ym p t o m s a p p e a r . ( 3 ) C a r d i a c d ys r h yt h m i a s . P a t i e n t s o n b r o m o c r i p t i n e we r e f o u n d t o h a v e s i g n i f i c a n t l y m o r e e p i s o d e s o f a t r i a l p r e m a t u r e c o n t r a c t i o n s a n d s i n u s t a c h yc a r d i a . ( 4 ) O t h e r ad ve r s e e f f e c t s ( a ) G I e f f e ct s , i n c l u d i n g a n o r e xi a , n a u s e a , v o m i t i n g , a n d a b d o m i n a l d i s t r e s s , m a y b e d e c r e a s e d b y t a k i n g b r o m o c r i p t i n e wi t h f o o d . ( b ) C a r d i o va s c u l a r e f f e c t s i n c l u d e p o s t u r a l h yp o t e n s i o n ( t o wh i c h t o l e r a n c e d e v e l o p s ) a n d t a c h yc a r d i a . B l o o d p r e s s u r e m u st b e m o n i t o r e d , p a r t i c u l a r l y f o r p a t i e n t s t a k in g a n t i h yp e r t e n s i v e m e d i c a t i o n . ( c ) P u l m o n a r y e f f e c t s , i n c l u d i n g r e v e r s i b l e i n f i l t r a t i o n s , p l eu r a l e f f u s i o n s , a n d p l e u r a l t h i c k e n i n g , m a y d e v e l o p a f t e r l o n g - t e r m t r e a t m e n t , so p u l m o n a r y f u n c t i o n s h o u l d b e m o n i t o r e d i n p a t i e n t s t r ea t e d l o n g e r t h a n 6 m o n t h s . (d) CNS effects, including confusion, memory changes, depression, and h a l l u c i n a t i o n s , a s we l l a s p s yc h o s i s m a y b e e x a c e r b a t e d b y b r o m o c r i p t i n e ; t h u s p a t i e n t s wi t h p s yc h i a t r i c i l l n e s s e s m u s t b e m on i t o r e d . d . S i g n i f i c an t i n t e r a c t i o n s ( 1 ) A c o m b in a t i o n o f a n t i h yp e r t e n s i ve d r u g s an d b r o m o c r i p t i n e c o u l d d e c r e a s e blood pressure. ( 2 ) D o p a m i n e a n t ag o n i s t s i n c r e a s e t h e e f f e c t o f b r o m o c r i p t i n e . D . I n d i r e c t - a c t i n g d o p am i n e a g o n i s t s
1 . S e l e g i l i n e ( E l d e p r yl ) a. Mechanism of action ( 1 ) M AO c a t a b o l i z e s v a r i o u s c a t e c h o l a m i n e s ( e . g . , d o p a m i n e , n o r e p i n e p h r i n e , e p i n e p h r i n e ) , s e r ot o n i n , a n d v a r i o u s e xo g e n o u s a m i n e s ( e . g . , t yr a m i n e s ) f o u n d i n f o o d s ( e . g . , a g e d c h e e s e , b e e r , wi n e , s m o k e d m e a t ) a n d d r u g s . L a c k of M AO i n t he i n t e s t i n a l t r a c t c a u s e s a b s o r p t i o n o f t h e s e a m i ne s , c r e a t i n g a h yp e r t e n s i v e c r i s i s . M A O t yp e A i s p r e d o m i n a n t l y f o u n d i n t h e i n t e s t in a l t r a c t , a n d M A O t yp e B i n t h e b r a i n . T h e y d i f f e r i n t h e i r s u b s t r at e s p e c i f i c i t y a n d t i s s u e d i s t r i b u t i o n . T h i s s p e c i f i c i t y d e c r e a s e s wi t h s e l e g i l i n e a s t h e d o s e i n c r e a s e s . M o s t p a t i e n t s e x p e r i e n c e s i d e e f f e c t s a t d o s e s o f s e l e g i l i n e h i g h e r t h a n 3 0 - 4 0 m g / d a y. ( 2 ) S e l e g i l i n e i s a s e l e c t i v e i n h i b i t o r o f M AO - B , wh i c h p r e v e n t s t h e b r e ak d o wn o f dopamine selectively in the brain at recommended doses. ( 3 ) S e l e g i l i n e i s m o s t c om m o n l y u s e d a s a n a d j u n c t wi t h l e v o d o p a / c a r b i d o p a wh e n p a t i e n t s e x p e r i e n c e a “ we a r i n g - o f f ” p h e n o m e n o n ; i t d e c r e a s es t h e a m o u n t o f o f f time and decreases the dose needed of levodopa/carbidopa by 10% to 30%. ( 4 ) R e s u l t s o f s o m e st ud i e s s h o w t h a t s e l e g i l i n e d e l a ys t h e t i m e b e f o r e t r e a t m e n t wi t h a m o r e p o t e n t d o p a m i n e r g i c d r u g l i k e l e v o d o p a i s n e e d e d ; t h e p r o p o s e d mechanism P.1023 o f a c t i o n i s t h a t a n o xi d a t i o n m e c h a n i s m c o n t r i b u t e s t o t h e em e r g e n c e a n d p r o g r e s s i o n o f P a r k i n s on d i s e a s e . b . Ad m i n i s t r a t i o n a n d d o s a g e ( T ab l e 4 6 - 3 ) . Exc e e d i n g t h e r e c o m m e n d e d d o s e o f 1 0 m g / d a y i n c r e a s e s t h e r i s k o f l o s i n g M A O s e l e c t i v i t y. ( 1 ) O r a l c a p s u l e / t ab l e t : 5 m g ( m a xi m u m o f 1 0 m g / d a y) ( 2 ) O r a l d i si n t eg r a t i n g t a b l e t : 1 . 2 5 m g d a i l y m a y b e i n c r e a s e d u p t o 2 . 5 m g d a i l y. D i s i n t e g r a t i n g t a b l e t s m a xi m u m o f 2 . 5 m g d a i l y. ( 3 ) T r a n sd e r m a l : 6 m g / 2 4 h a p p l y u p p e r t o r s a , h i g h o n t h e o u t e r s u r f a ce o f t h e u p p e r a r m , a v o i d e x p o s u r e o f a p p l i c a t i o n s i t e t o e x t e r n a l h e a t r e s o u r c e s. E xc e s s i v e h e a t wi l l i n c r e a s e a b s o r p t i o n c . P r e c a u t i o n s an d m o n i t o r i n g e f f e c t s ( 1 ) H yp e r t e n s i ve c r i s i s ( s e e I I . D. 1 . a . 1 ) . (2) Levodopa-associated side effects may be increased because the increased a m o u n t s o f d o p a m i n e r e a c t wi t h s u p e r s e n s i t i v e p o s t s yn a p t i c r e c e p t o r s . R e d u c i n g t h e d o s e o f le v o d o p a / c a r b i d o p a b y 1 0 % t o 3 0 % m a y d e c r e a s e l e v o d o p a s i d e e f f e ct s. ( 3 ) P a t i e n t s s h o u l d b e e d u c a t e d a b o u t f o o d s a n d d r u g s c o n t ai n i n g t yr a m i n e a n d t h e s i g n s a n d s y m p t o m s o f h yp e r t e n s i v e r e a c t i o n s . ( 4 ) C N S e f f e c t s i n c l u d e d i z z i n e s s , co n f u s i o n , h e a d a c h e , h a l l u c i n a t i o n s , v i v i d d r e a m s , d ys k i n e s i a s , b e h a v i o r a l a n d m o o d c h a n g e s , a n d d e p r e s s i o n . Pa t i e n t s wh o e x p e r i e n c e i n s o m n i a s h o u l d a v o i d t a k i n g t h e d r u g l a t e i n t he d a y. ( 5 ) C a r d i o va s c u l a r e f f e c t s i n c l u d e o r t h o s t a t i c h yp o t e n s i o n , h yp e r t e n s i o n , a r r h yt h m i a , p a l p i t a t i o n s , s i n u s b r a d yc a r d i a , a n d s yn c o p e . ( 6 ) G I e f f e ct s i n c l u d e n a u s e a a n d a b d o m i n a l p a i n a n d l e a d t o G I b l e e d i n g , we i g h t l o s s , p o o r ap p e t i t e , a n d d ys p h a g i a . ( 7 ) G U e f f e c t s i n c l u d e s l o w u r i n a t i o n , t r a n s i e n t n o c t u r i a , a n d p r o s t a t i c h yp e r t r o p h y.
( 8 ) D e r m a t o l o g i c a l e f f ec t s i n c l u d e i n c r e a s e d s we a t i n g , d i a p h o r e s i s , a n d p h o t o s e n s i t i v i t y. ( 9 ) H e p a t i c e f f e c t s i n c l u d e m i l d a n d t r a n s i e n t e l e v a t i o n s i n l i v e r f u n c t io n t e s t s. d . C Y P 2 B 6 i n h i b i t o r s ma y i n c r e a s e l e ve l o f s e l e g e l i n e . Al s o s e l e g i l i n e h a ve a c t i ve m e t a b o l i t e ( n - d es m e t h yl s e l e g e l i n e a n d a m p h e t a m i n e ) e x a m p l e o f s u c h significant interactions are: ( 1 ) M AO i n h i b i t o r s a r e c o n t r a i n d i c a t e d wi t h m e p e r i d i n e a n d o t h e r o p i o i d s . A d m i n i s t r a t io n wi t h o p i o i d s s h o u l d b e a v o i d e d . ( s e r o t o n i n s yn d r o m e ) . D e a t h h a s o c c u r r e d a f t e r i n i t i a t i o n o f s e l eg i l i n e sh o r t l y a f t e r d i s c o n t i n u a t i o n o f f l u o x e t i n e . A t l e a s t 5 we e k s s h o u l d e l a p s e b e t we e n d i s c o n t i n u a t i o n o f f l u o xe t i n e a n d i n i t i a t i o n o f s e l e g i l i n e . ( s e r o t o ni n s yn d r o m e ) ( 2 ) R a s a g i l i n e : s i m i l a r t o s e l e g i l i n e . T h e d i f f e r e n t i s 5 - t o 10 - f o l d g r e a t e r p o t e n c y, h i g h e r o r a l a b s o r p t i o n . U n l i k e s e l e g i l i n e i t i s n o t m e t a b o l i t e s t o a m p h e t am i n e derivatives (see Table 46-3) 2 . Am a n t a d i n e ( S ym m e t r e l ) a . M e c h a n i s m o f a c t i o n . A m a n t a d i n e i s a n a n t i v i r a l a g e n t ( u s e d t o p r e ve n t influenza). ( 1 ) A m a n t a di n e i n c r e a s e s d o p a m i n e l e v e l s a t p o s t s yn a p t i c r e c e p t o r s i t es b y d e c r e a s i n g p r e s yn a p t i c r e u p t a k e a n d e n h a n c i n g d o p a m i n e s yn t h e s i s a n d r e l e a s e . ( 2 ) I t m a y a l s o h a v e s o m e a n t i c h o l i n e r g i c e f f e c t s . I t d e c r e a s e s t r e m o r , r ig i d i t y, a n d b r a d yk i n e s i a . ( 3 ) I t c a n b e g i v e n i n c o m b i n a t i o n wi t h l e v o d o p a a s P a r k i n s on d i s e a s e p r o g r e s s e s . ( 4 ) C l i n i c a l e f f e c t s o f a m a n t a d i n e c a n b e s e e n wi t h i n t h e f i r s t f e w we e k s o f t h e r a p y, u n l i k e t h e o t h e r a n t i p a r k i n s o n i a n m e d i c a t i o n s ( e . g . , c a r b i d o p a / l e v o d o p a ) , wh i c h n e e d we e k s t o m o n t h s t o s h o w t h e i r f u l l c l i n i c a l e f f e c t s . b . Ad m i n i s t r a t i o n a n d d o s a g e ( T ab l e 4 6 - 3 ) ( 1 ) A m a n t a di n e s h o u l d b e s t a r t e d at 1 0 0 m g / d a y. T h i s m a y b e i n c r e a s e d t o 2 0 0 - 3 0 0 mg/day as a maintenance dose. ( 2 ) P a t i e n t s e x p e r i e n c i n g a d e c l i n e i n r e s p o n s e m a y b e n e f i t f r o m t h e f o l lo wi n g : ( a ) D i s c o n t in u i n g t h e d r u g f o r a f e w we e k s , t h e n r e s t a r t i n g i t ( b ) U s i n g t he d r u g e p i s o d i c a l l y, o n l y wh e n t h e p a t i e n t ' s c o nd i t i o n m o s t n e e d s a therapeutic boost ( 3 ) A m a n t a di n e i s a l s o a v a i l a b l e i n l i q u i d f o r m f or p a t i e n t s wi t h d ys p h a g i a . c . P r e c a u t i o n s an d m o n i t o r i n g e f f e c t s ( 1 ) A m a n t a di n e s h o u l d b e u s e d wi t h c a u t i o n i n p a t i e n t s wi t h r e n a l d i s e a s e , c o n g e s t i v e h e a r t f a i l u r e ( C H F ) , p e r ip h e r a l e d e m a , h i s t o r y o f s e i z u r e s , an d m e n t a l s t a t u s c h a ng e s . I t m a y b e n e c e s s a r y t o m o d i f y d o s a g e s i n p a t i e n t s wi t h r e n a l failure. P.1024
( 2 ) T o l e r a n c e u s u a l l y d e v e l o p s wi t h i n 6 - 1 2 m o n t h s . I f t o l e r a n c e o c c u r s , a n o t h e r d r u g f r o m a d if f e r e n t c l a s s c an b e a d d e d , o r t h e d o s e m a y b e i n c r e a s e d . ( 3 ) P a t i e n t s s h o u l d b e i n f o r m e d a b o u t t h e s i d e - e f f e c t p r of i l e . ( a ) P e r i p h er a l a n t i c h o l i n e r g i c e f f ec t s i n c l u d e t h o s e m e n t i o n e d i n I I . A. 3. d . ( 1 ) .
( b ) C N S e f f e c t s i n c l u d e s e i z u r e s a s we l l a s t h o s e m e n t i o n e d i n I I . A . 3. d . ( 2 ) . ( c ) C a r d i o va s c u l a r e f f e c t s . P a t i e n t s m a y d e v e l o p C H F . P er i o d i c b l o o d p r e s s u r e m o n i t o r i n g a n d e l e c t r o c a r d i o g r a m s ( E C G s ) a r e n e c e s s a r y i n p a t i e n t s wi t h m yo c a r d i a l i n f a r c t i o n o r a r r h yt h m i a s . ( d ) D e r m a t o l o g i c a l e f f ec t s i n c l u d e l i ve d o r e t i cu l a r i s , a d i f f u s e r o s e - c ol o r m o t t l i n g o f t h e s k i n , wh i c h i s r e v e r s i b l e o n d i s c o n t i n u a t i o n o f t h e d r ug . ( e ) H e m a t o l o g i c a l e f f e ct s . P e r i o d i c c o m p l e t e b l o o d c o u n t s ( C B C s ) s h o u l d b e d o n e f o r p a t i e n t s wi t h l o n g - t e r m t h e r a p y. ( 4 ) R e n a l f u n c t i o n i m p ai r m e n t . D o s e a d j u s t m e n t i s n e c e s s a r y i n p a t i e n t s wi t h r e n a l function impairment. d . S i g n i f i c an t i n t e r a c t i o n s ( 1 ) A m a n t a di n e i n c r e a s e s t h e a n t i c ho l i n e r g i c e f f e c t s o f a n t i c h o l i n e r g i c d r u g s , r e q u i r i n g a d e c r e a s e i n t h e d o s a g e o f t h e a n t i c ho l i n e r g i c d r u g . ( 2 ) H yd r o c h l o r o t h i a z i d e p l u s t r i a m t e r e n e d e c r e a s e s t h e u r i n a r y e xc r e t i o n o f amantadine and increases its plasma concentration. E . No n e r g o t d o p a m i n e a g o n i s t s 1 . P r a m i p e xo l e a n d r o p i n i r o l e a r e i n d i c a t e d f o r b o t h e a r l y a n d a d v a n c e d s t a g e s o f Parkinson disease. 2 . B o t h s e l e c t i v e l y b i n d t o d o p a m i n e r e c e p t o r s an d a c t i v a t e t h e D 2 - r e c e p t o r b u t h a v e l i t t l e o r n o a f f i n i t y t o t h e D 1 - r ec e p t o r . T h ey h a v e g r e a t e r a f f i n i t y f o r t h e D 3 r e c e p t o r t h an f o r t h e D 2 - r e c e p t o r . T he i n c i d e n c e o f a d v e r s e ev e n t s ( s u c h a s pleuropulmonary fibrosis and retroperitoneal fibrosis, coronary vasoconstriction, e r yt h r o m e l a l g i a , a n d R a yn a u d p h e n o m e n o n ) , i s l o w c o m p a r e d t o n o n s e l e c t i v e dopamine agonists. 3 . N o n - e r g o t d o p a m i n e a g o n i s t s h av e a l o w p o t e n t i a l f o r t he d e v e l o p m e n t o f m ot o r f l u c t u a t i o n s a n d d ys k i n e s i a . a . P r a m i p e xo l e ( M i r a p ex ) (1) Mechanism of action ( a ) D 2 s u b f a m i l y o f d o p a m i n e r e c e p t o r s . P r a m i pe xo l e f u l l y s t i m u l a t e s t he d o p a m i n e r e c e p t o r s t o wh i c h i t b i n d s . I t s a c t i on m a y b e r e l a t e d t o i t s ca p a c i t y t o f u n c t i o n a s a n a n t i o xi d a n t a n d o x yg e n f r e e - r a d i c a l s c a v e n g e r . ( b ) P r a m i p e xo l e a l s o h a s a n t i d e p r e s s a n t a c t i v i t y i n m o d e r a t e d e p r e s s i o n , wh i c h m a y b e r e l a t e d t o i t s p r e f e r en t i a l b i n d i n g t o t h e d o p a m i n e D 1 - r e ce p t o r s u b t yp e . ( c ) L o n g - a c t i n g d o p a m i n e a g o n i s t s a p p e a r t o h a v e a l o we r r i s k o f i n d u c i n g a b n o r m a l m o v e m e n t s . T h e i r u s e as i n i t i a l t r e at m e n t i n e a r l y P a r k i n s o n d i s e a s e s e e m s wa r r a n t e d , p a r t i c u l a r l y f o r t h o s e wi t h d i s e a s e o n s e t a t a yo u n g e r a g e . ( 2 ) Ad m i n i s t r a t i o n a n d d o s a g e ( a ) I n i t i a l t r e a t m e n t : s t ar t i n g d o s e o f 0 . 3 7 5 m g d a i l y g i v e n i n t h r e e d i v i d e d d o s e s . ( b ) D o n o t in c r e a s e m o r e f r e q u e n t l y t h a n e v e r y 5 - 7 d a ys . ( c ) M a i n t e n a n c e t r e a t m e n t : 1 . 5 - 4 . 5 m g d a i l y i n t h r e e d i v i d e d d o s e s wi t h o r wi t h o u t levodopa. ( d ) W h e n g i v e n i n c o m b i n a t i o n wi t h l e v o d o p a , c o n s i d e r r e d u c t i o n o f l e vo d o p a d o s e by an average of 27% from baseline. ( e ) T it r a t e s lo wl y t o b a l a n c e b e n e f i t s a n d s i d e e f f e c t s , s u c h as d ys k i n e s i a , hallucinations, somnolence, and dry mouth.
( f ) M a y b e t a k e n wi t h f o o d t o r e d u c e t h e o c c u r r e n c e o f n a u s e a . F o o d de c r e a s e s t h e r a t e o f a b s or p t i o n b u t no t t h e e x t e n t o f a b s o r p t i o n . ( g ) D o s a g e a d j u s t m e n t i s n e c e s s a r y i n p a t i e n t s wi t h r e n a l f u n c t i o n i m p a i r m e n t . (h) Weak protein bound 15% ( i ) N ot e xt e n s i v e l y m e t a b o l i z e d ; > 9 0 % o f t h e do s e i s e xc r e t e d u n c h a n g e d i n u r i n e . ( j ) D o s e n e ed s t o b e d e cr e a s e d b y 2 5 % i n t h e e l d e r l y. ( 3 ) P r e c a u t i o n s an d m o n i t o r i n g e f f e c t s ( a ) D o s e r ed u c t i o n n e c e s s a r y i n p a t i e n t s > 6 5 ye a r s , a n d i n p a t i e n t s wi t h r e n a l function impairment or failure P.1025
( b ) S ym p t o m a t i c h yp o t e n s i o n ( i ) D o p a m i n e r g i c a g e n t s a p p e a r t o im p a i r t h e s ys t e m i c r e g u l a t i o n o f b l o o d p r e s s u r e , wh i c h r e s u l t s i n o r t h o s t at i c h yp o t e n s i o n . ( i i ) M o n i t o r in g a n d e d u c a t i o n o f t h e p a t i e n t i s n e c e s s a r y, e s p e c i a l l y d u r i n g doseescalation periods. ( c ) H a l l u c i n a t o r y e f f e c t s a r e i n c r e a s e d i n p a t i e n t s > 6 5 ye a r s o f a g e wi t h e a r l y o r advanced stages of Parkinson disease. (d) Other effects include nausea, insomnia, constipation, dizziness, somnolence, GI s i d e e f f e c t s, a n d v i s u a l h a l l u c i n a t i o n s . S l e e p a t t a c k b y f a l l i n g s l e e p d u r i n g a c t i v i t y daily living. (4) Significant interactions ( a ) C i m e t i d i n e r e d u c e s r e n a l c l e a r a n c e o f p r a m ip e x o l e . ( b ) N o i n t e r a c t i o n wi t h s e l e g i l i n e , p r o b e n e c i d , o r d o m p e r i d o n e . ( c ) W h e n c om b i n e d wi t h l e v o d o p a , t h e d o s a g e o f l e v o d o p a m u s t b e d e cr e a s e d b y 27%. b. Ropinirole (Requip) (1) Mechanism of action is similar to pramipexole. ( 2 ) Ad m i n i s t r a t i o n a n d d o s a g e (a) Initial treatment: 0.25 mg three times daily ( b ) T i t r a t e we e k l y i n c r e m e n t s . ( c ) A f t e r we e k 4 , i f n e c e s s a r y, d a i l y d o s a g e m a y b e i n c r e a s e d b y 1 . 5 m g / d a y o n a we e k l y b a s i s u p t o 9 m g/ d a y, t o a t o t a l o f 2 4 m g / d a y. (d) Discontinue gradually over a 7-day period. Decrease the frequency of a d m i n i s t r a t i o n f r o m t h r e e t i m e s t o t wo t i m e s d a i l y f o r 4 d a ys , a n d t h e n o n c e d a i l y f o r t h e r e m a i n d e r o f t h e we e k . ( e ) W h e n g iv e n i n c o m b i n a t i o n wi t h l e v o d o p a , c o n s i d e r r e d u c t i o n o f l e vo d o p a d o s e . ( f ) M a y b e t a k e n wi t h f o o d t o r e d u c e t h e o c c u r r e n c e o f n a u s e a . F o o d de c r e a s e s t h e r a t e o f a b s or p t i o n , b u t no t t h e e x t e n t o f a b s o r p t i o n . ( g ) M e t a b o l i z e d b y t h e l i v e r ( c yt o c h r o m e P 4 5 0 1 A 2 ) , a n d f i r st - p a s s e f f e c t . ( h ) S m o k i n g i n d u c e s t h e l i v e r m e t a bo l i s m . ( i ) B e t we e n 3 0 % a n d 4 0 % p r o t e i n b o u n d ( 3 ) P r e c a u t i o n s an d m o n i t o r i n g e f f e c t s
( a ) S yn c o p e . B r a d yc a r d i a i s o b s e r v e d i n p a t i e n t s t r e a t e d wi t h r o p i n i r o l e . M o s t c a s e s o c c u r wi t h i n t h e f ir s t 4 we e k s o f t h e r a p y a n d a r e u s u a l l y a s s o c i a t e d wi t h a r e c e n t increase of dose. ( b ) B i n d s t o m e l a n i n - c o n t a i n i n g t i s s u e s l i k e t h e eye s a n d s k i n . ( c ) S ym p t o m a t i c h yp o t e n s i o n ( i ) D o p a m i n e r g i c a g e n t s a p p e a r t o im p a i r t h e s ys t e m i c r e g u l a t i o n o f b l o o d p r e s s u r e , wh i c h r e s u l t s i n o r t h o s t at i c h yp o t e n s i o n . ( i i ) M o n i t o r in g a n d e d u c a t i o n o f t h e p a t i e n t i s n e c e s s a r y, e s p e c i a l l y d u r i n g doseescalation periods. ( d ) H a l l u c i n a t o r y e f f e c t s a r e i n c r e a s e d i n p a t i e n t s > 6 5 ye a r s o f a g e wi t h e a r l y o r advanced stages of Parkinson disease. ( e ) O t h e r s id e e f f e c t s i n c l u d e n a u s e a , d i z z i n e s s , s o m n o l e n c e , h e a d a c h e , f at i g u e , a n d a b n o r m a l v i s i o n . S le e p a t t a c k , b y f a l l i n g a s l e e p d u r i n g a c t i v i t y d a i l y l i v i n g . (4) Significant interactions ( a ) S m o k i n g i n d u c e s t h e l i v e r m e t a bo l i s m , b u t t he a f f e c t o f sm o k i n g o n c l e a r a n c e o f ropinirole has not been studied. ( b ) T h e r e i s n o i n t e r a c t i o n b e t we e n l e v o d o p a , t h e o p h yl l i n e , d i g o xi n , o r domperidone. (c) Estrogens decrease the clearance of ropinirole by approximately 36%. ( d ) C i p r o f l ox a c i n i n c r e a s e s r o p i n i r o l e a r e a u n d e r t h e c u r v e ( A U C ) b y 8 4 % a n d m a xi m u m p l a s m a c o n c e n t r a t i o n b y 6 0 % . c. Rotigotine (Neupro) ( 1 ) M e c h a n i s m o f a c t i o n : N o n e r g o l i n e D 3 / D 2 / D 1 d o p a m i n e a g o n i s t , i t s t im u l a t e s d o p a m i n e D 2 r e c e p t o r s wi t h i n t h e c a u d a t e - p u t a m e n i n t h e br a i n . ( 2 ) Ad m i n i s t r a t i o n a n d d o s a g e : ( a ) S t a r t a t 2 m g / 2 4 h o u r s , m a y b e i n c r e a s e d we e k l y b y 2 m g / 2 4 h o u r s i f t o l e r a t e d a n d i f a d d i t i o n a l t h e r a p e u t i c e f f e c t is n e e d e d . P.1026
( b ) T h e l o we s t e f f e c t i v e d o s e i s 4 m g / 2 4 h o u r s . ( c ) T h e h i g h e s t r e c o m m e n d e d d o s e i s 6 m g / 2 4 ho u r s . ( 3 ) P r e c a u t i o n s an d m o n i t o r i n g : ( a ) S i mi l a r R o p i n i ro l e (b) Weight gain and fluid retention: due to development of peripheral edema (fluid retention) ( c ) Ap p l i c a t i o n - s i t e r e a c t i o n s : l o c al i z e d e r yt h e m a , e d e m a , o r p r u r i t u s l im i t e d t o the patch area ( d ) S u l f i t e se n s i t i vi t y: c o n t a i n s a s u l f i t e t h a t m ay c a u s e a l l e r g i c - t yp e r e a c t i o n s , i n c l u d i n g a n a p h y l a c t i c s ym p t o m s a n d l i f e t h r e a t e n i n g o r l e s s s e v e r e a s t h m a t i c e p i s o d e s i n c e r t a i n s u s ce p t i b l e p e r s o n s . ( 4 ) D r u g i n t e r a c t i o n s . D o p a m i n e a g o n i s t s ( e g , a n t i p s yc h o t i c s , m e t o c l o p r a m i d e ) may decrease efficacy of rotigotine. d . Ap o m o r p h i n e H yd r o c h l o ri d e I n j e c t i o n S C ( Ap o k yn ) (1) Mechanism of action:
( a ) s t i m u l a t in g o f p o s t s yn a p t i c d o p a m i n e D 2 - t yp e r e c e p t o r s wi t h i n C a u d a t e a n d putamen in brain ( b ) S u b c u t a n e o u s i n j e c t i o n i s i n d i c a t e d f o r a c ut e i n t e r m i t t en t t r e a t m e n t i f h yp o m o b i l i t y “ o f f ” e p i s o d e s ( e n d o f d o s e we a r i n g , u n p r e d i c t a b l e o n / o f f e p i s o d e s ) ( 2 ) Ad m i n i s t r a t i o n a n d d o s a g e : (a) Doses more than 6 mg is not recommended ( b ) D o s e s h o u l d b e s t a r t e d a t 2 m g i n c r e a s e t o m a xi m u m o f 6 m g . ( c ) I t s h o u l d b e a d m i n i s t r a t e d a t “ of f ” s t at e s h o u l d b e g i n t e s t d o s e a t 2 m g wh e r e blood pressure can be monitored. Blood pressure should be monitored predose at 20, 40, and 60 minutes post dose standing up. ( d ) I f p a t i e n t d e v e l o p e d o r t h o s t a t i c hyp o t e n s i o n s h o u l d n o t r e c e i v e d A p o m o r p h i n e ( e ) P a t i e n t s wh o h a v e a s i g n i f i c a n t i n t e r r u p t i o n i n t h e r a p y ( m o r e t h a n a we e k ) should be restarted on a 0.2 mL (2 mg) dose and gradually titrated to effect. ( 3 ) P r e c a u t i o n s an d m o n i t o r i n g : ( a ) P r o f o u nd h yp o t e n s i o n a n d l o s s o f c o n s c i o u s n e s s wh e n g i v e n wi t h 5 H T 3 antagonist class (including ondansetron, granisetron) ( b ) Q T p r o l o n g a t i o n a n d p o t e n t i a l p r o - a r r h yt h m i a e f f e c t . P a t i e n t s h o u l d b e m o n i t o r e d f o r p a l p i t a t i o n s yn c o p y a n d s i g n s f o r e p i s o d e o f t o r s a d e s d e p o i n t s . (c) Sleep attack, falling asleep during daily activities. (d) Hallucination ( e ) S u l f i t e se n s i t i vi t y: c o n t a i n s a s u l f i t e t h a t m ay c a u s e a l l e r g i c - t yp e r e a c t i o n s , i n c l u d i n g a n a p h y l a c t i c s ym p t o m s a n d l i f e - t h r e a t e n i n g o r l e s s s e v e r e a s t h m a t i c e p i s o d e s i n c e r t a i n s u s ce p t i b l e p e o p l e (4) Drug interactions: ( a ) 5 HT 3 a nt a g o n i s t s u ch a s o n d a n s e t r o n , g r a n i s e t r o n , d o l a s e t r o n , p a l o n o s e t r o n ) results in hypotension ( b ) A n t i h yp e r t e n s i v e m ed i c a t i o n s a n d v a s o d i l a t o r s wh i c h m a y r e s u l t s i n h yp o t e n s i o n . ( c ) C o n t r a i n d i c a t e d wh e n u s e d wi t h o t h e r d r u g s t h a t h a v e p o t e n t i a l t o p r o l o n g Q T , Q T C i n t e r v a l . I t i n c r e a s e s r i s k of l i f e - t h r e a t e n i n g a r r h yt h m i a s . 4. COMT inhibitors a. Tolcapone (Tasmar) (1) Mechanism of action ( a ) T o l c a p o n e i s a s e l e c t i v e a n d r ev e r s i b l e i n h i b i t o r o f CO M T a n d i s u s e d a s a n a d j u n c t t o l e v o d o p a / c a r b i d o p a t h e r a p y. ( b ) T o l c a p o n e i n h i b i t s C O M T b o t h p e r i p h e r a l a n d c e n t r a l l y. ( c ) C O M T i s t h e m a i n e nz ym e r e s p o n s i b l e f o r p e r i p h e r a l a n d c e n t r a l m e t a b o l i s m o f c a t e c h o l a m i n e s , i n c l u d i n g l e v o d o p a . A d d i t i o n o f a C O M T i nh i b i t o r r e s u l t s i n t h e doubling of the elimination half-life of levodopa and in increased oral bioavailability of levodopa by 40%-50%. ( d ) T o l c a p o n e i s i n d i c a t e d a s a n a d j u n c t t h e r a p y t o c a r b i d o p a / l e v o d o p a t h e r a p y. ( 2 ) Ad m i n i s t r a t i o n a n d d o s a g e (a) Starting dose of 100-200 mg, three times daily ( b ) U s u a l d ai l y d o s e o f 2 0 0 m g , t h r ee t i m e s d a i l y
( c ) I f p a t i e n t f a i l s t o s h o w e xp e c t e d b e n e f i t a f t e r 3 we e k s o f t r e a t m e n t , di s c o n t i n u e d r u g b e c a u s e o f a s s o c i at e d r i s k of l iv e r f a i l u r e . R a p i d wi t h d r a wa l o r a b r u p t reduction P.1027 d o s e c o u l d l e a d t o h yp e r p yr e xi a a n d c o n f u s i o n sym p t o m s s u c h a s h i g h f e v e r a n d s e v e r e r i g i d i t y s i m i l a r t o t h o s e i n n e u r o l e p t i c m a l i g n a n t s yn d r o m e . ( 3 ) P r e c a u t i o n s an d m o n i t o r i n g ( a ) L i ve r t o x i c i t y. H i g h r i s k o f f a t a l l i v e r f a i l u r e h a s b e e n r e p o r t e d wi t h t o l c a p o n e . D i s c o n t i n u e u s e i f s u b s t a n t i a l b e n e f i t i s n o t s e e n wi t h i n 3 we e k s o f c o m m e n c e m e n t o f t h e r a p y. ( b ) D o n o t us e i n p a t i e n t s wi t h l i v e r d i s e a s e o r i n p a t i e n t s wh o h a v e t wo a l a n i n e a m i n o t r a n s f e r a s e ( A LT ) o r a s p a r t a t e a m i n o t r a n s f e r a s e ( A ST ) v a l u e s g r e a t e r t h a n the upper limit of normal. ( c ) A d v i s e pa t i e n t r e g a r d i n g s e l f - m o n i t o r i n g f o r li v e r d i s e a s e ( i . e . , c l a y- c o l o r e d s t o o l , j a u n d i c e , f at i g u e , a p p e t i t e l o s s , o r l e t h a r g y) . ( d ) M o n i t o r A ST a n d A LT e v e r y 2 we e k s f o r t h e f i r st ye a r , t h e n e v e r y 4 we e k s f o r t h e n e x t 6 m o n t h s a n d e v e r y 8 we e k s t h e r e a f t e r . ( e ) M AO a nd C O M T a r e t wo m a j o r e n z ym e s ys t e m s i n v o l v e d i n t h e m et a b o l i s m o f c a t e c h o l a m i n e s ; c o m b i n a t i o n o f t o l ca p o n e wi t h a n o n s e l e c t i v e M A O i n h i b i t o r wi l l r e s u l t i n i n h i b i t i o n o f t h e p a t h wa y r e s p o n s i b l e f o r n o r m a l c a t e c h o l a m i n e m e t a b o l i s m . ( f ) T o l c a p o n e c a n b e t a ke n c o n c o m i t a n t l y wi t h a s e l e c t i v e M A O - B i n h i b i t o r , s u c h a s s e l e g i l i n e i n r e c o m m e n d e d d o s e o f l e s s o r e q u a l t o 1 0 m g/ d a y. (g) Fibrolic complications, such as retroperitoneal fibrosis, pulmonary infiltrates or effusion or pleural thickening. (4) Other side effects ( a ) O r t h o s t at i c h yp o t e n s i o n . T o l c a p o n e e n h a n c e s l e v o d o p a b i o a v a i l a b i l i t y a n d , t h e r e f o r e , m a y i n c r e a s e t h e o c c u r r en c e o f o r t h os t a t i c h yp o t e n s i o n . ( b ) D i a r r h e a u s u a l l y m a n i f e s t s wi t h i n 6 - 1 2 we e k s a f t e r a d m i n i s t r a t i o n o f t o l c a p o n e , b u t c a n d e v e l o p a s e a r l y a s 2 we e k s a f t e r a d m i n i s t r a t i o n . Di a r r h e a n o r m a l l y r e s o l v e s a f t e r d i s c o n t i n u a t i o n o f t he d r u g . ( c ) H a l l u c i n a t i o n s a r e so m e t i m e s a c c o m p a n i e d b y c o n f u s i o n , i n s o m n i a , a n d e x c e s s i v e d r e a m i n g . H a l l u c i n a t o r y e f f e c t s u s u a l l y o c c u r a f t er i n i t i a t i o n o f t o l c a p o n e and are usually resolved by decreasing the dose of levodopa. ( d ) T o l c a p o n e m a y p o t e n t i a t e t h e do p a m i n e r g i c s i d e e f f e ct o f l e v o d o p a a n d m a y c a u s e o r e x a c e r b a t e p r e e xi s t i n g d y s k i n e s i a . D e c r e a s e d d o s e s o f l e v o d o p a m a y o r m a y n o t a l l e v i a t e t h e s ym p t o m s . ( e ) S e v e r e c a s e s o f r h a bd o m yo l ys i s h a v e b e e n r e p o r t e d , wh i c h p r e s e n t as f e v e r , a l t e r n a t i o n o f c o n s c i o u s n e s s , a n d m u s c u l a r r i g i d i t y. ( f ) O t h e r s . D ys p e p s i a , a b d o m i n a l c r a m p i n g , m i l d p a r e s t h e s i a o f t h e l e g s, a n d temporary discoloration of urine have also been noted but are not considered clinically important. ( g ) D ru g i n t e r a c t i o n s . A l t h o u g h n o d r u g i n t e r a c t i o n s t u d i e s h a v e b e e n c o n d u c t e d , c o n c u r r e n t u s e o f t o l c ap o n e a n d d r u g s t h a t a r e m e t a b o l i z e d b y t h e C O M T s ys t e m ( i . e . , m e t h yl d o p a , d o b u t a m i n e , a p o m o r p h i n e ) s h o u l d b e m o n i t o r e d . T o lc a p o n e a l s o
h a s a f f i n i t y f o r t h e c yt o c h r o m e P 4 5 0 2 C 9 i s o e n z ym e , s i m i l a r t o wa r f a r i n . C o a g u l a t i o n p a r a m e t e r s s h o u l d b e m o n i t o r e d wh e n t o l c a p o n e i s a d m i n i s t e r e d wi t h wa r f a r i n . b . E n t a c a p o n e ( C o m t an ) (1) Mechanism of action ( a ) E n t a c a p o n e i s a s e l e c t i v e a n d r e v e r s i b l e i n h i b i t o r o f CO M T a n d p e r m i t s additional levodopa to reach the brain. It does not have any anti-Parkinson effect of i t s o wn . ( b ) I t a c t s on l y p e r i p h e r a l l y b y i n h i b i t i n g C O M T . ( c ) I t i m p r o ve s t h e d u r a t i o n o f o n t i m e a n d d e c r e a s e s t h e d u r a t i o n o f o f f t i m e . ( d ) I t i s i n d ic a t e d a s a n a d j u n c t t o t ho s e o n l e v o d o p a / c a r b i d o p a t h e r a p y wh o e x p e r i e n c e t h e s i g n s a n d s ym p t o m s o f e n d - o f - do s e we a r i n g - o f f . ( 2 ) Ad m i n i s t r a t i o n a n d d o s a g e ( a ) D o s a g e : 2 0 0 m g wi t h e a c h d o s e o f L - d o p a u p t o 8 t i m e s d a i l y wi t h a m a xi m u m d o s e o f 1 6 0 0 m g d a i l y. ( b ) R a p i d wi t h d r a wa l c o u l d l e a d t o e m e r g e n c y s i g n s a n d s ym p t o m s o f Pa r k i n s o n d i s e a s e s u c h a s h y p e r p yr e xi a a n d c o n f u s i o n ( s ym p t o m s r e se m b l i n g n e u r o l e p t i c m a l i g n a n t s yn d r o m e ) . (c) Levodopa + carbidopa and Entacapone: Available in 4 strengths, each in a 1: 4 r a t i o o f c a r bi d o p a t o l e v o d o p a a n d c o m b i n e d wi t h e n t a c a p o n e 2 0 0 m g i n a s t a n d a r d release formulation, 50, 100, 150, and 200 mg of Levodopa. P.1028
( 3 ) P r e c a u t i o n s an d m o n i t o r i n g e f f e c t s ( a ) M AO . C O M T a n d M A O a r e t wo m a j o r e n z ym e s i n t h e m e t a b o l i s m o f catecholamines. Do not use together. ( b ) D ru g s me t a b o l i z e d b y C O M T . Dr u g s t h a t a r e m e t a b o l i z e d b y t h i s p a t h wa y, s u c h a s i s o p r o t e r e n o l , e p i n e p h r i n e , n o r e p i n e p h r i n e , d o p a m i n e , a n d d o b u t a m i n e , a s we l l a s m e t h yl d o p a , m a y i n t e r a c t a n d m ay r e s u l t i n i n c r e a s e d h e a r t r at e , a r r h yt h m i a s , a n d a n e xc e s s i v e i n c r e a s e i n b l o o d p r e s s u r e . ( c ) H e p a t i c f u n c t i o n i mp a i r m e n t . T h e m a j o r i t y o f t h e d r u g is m e t a b o l i z e d b y t h e l i v e r ; t h e r e f o r e , u s e c a ut i o n i n p a t i e n t s wh o h a v e l i v e r f u n c t io n a b n o r m a l i t i e s . ( d ) F i b r o t i c c o m p l i c a t i o n . C a s e s of r e t r o p e r i t o n e a l f i b r o s i s , p u l m o n a r y i n f i l t r a t e s , pleural effusion, and pleural thickening have been reported. These complications m a y r e s o l v e wh e n t h e d r u g i s d i s c o n t i n u e d , b u t co m p l e t e r e s o l u t i o n m a y n o t a l wa ys occur. ( e ) B i l i a r y e x c r e t i o n . En t a c a p o n e i s e xc r e t e d b y b i l e ; t h e r e f o r e , u s e c a u t i o n wi t h d r u g s k n o wn t o i n t e r f e r e wi t h b i l i a r y e xc r e t i o n , s u c h a s p r o b e n e c i d , e r yt h r o m yc i n , and ampicillin. ( 4 ) O t h e r s i d e e f f e c t s . D ys k i n e s i a / h yp e r k i n e s i a , n a u s e a , u r i n e d i s c o l o r a t i o n ( b r o wn i s h o r a n g e ) , d i a r r h e a , a n d a b d o m i n a l p a i n ( 5 ) D r u g i n t e r a c t i o n s . M a y i n t e r a c t wi t h d r u g s t h a t a r e m e t a b o l i z e d b y t h e l i v e r c yt o c h r o m e P 4 5 0 .
III. SURGICAL TREATMENT. A l l s u r g e r i e s r e q u i r e n e e d l e i n s e r t i o n i n t o t h e b r a i n , wh i c h i n t u r n i n c r ea s e s t h e r i sk of hemorrhage. A. G l o b u s p a l l i d u s i n t er n u s ( G p i ) p a l l i d o t o m y 1. Definition. A pallidotomy entails the surgical resection of parts of the globus pallidus. 2 . Ad va n t a g e s . I m p r o ve s c o n t r a l a t e r a l d ys k i n e s i a 3 . D i s a d va n t a g e s . I n c r e a s e d r i s k o f d a m a g e t o o t h e r p a r t s o f t h e b r a i n , in c l u d i n g optic nerve and internal capsule, and risk of emotional, behavioral, and cognitive deficits B . D e e p - b r ai n s t i m u l a t i o n 1 . D e f i n i t i o n . H i g h - f r e q u e n c y s t i m u l a t i o n t h a t in d u c e s f u n c t i o n a l i n h i b i t i o n o f t a r g e t regions of the brain by implanting an electrode into a target site and connecting the lead to a subcutaneously placed pacemaker. 2 . Ad va n t a g e s . N o d e st r u c t i v e l e s io n i s f o r m e d. St i m u l a t i o n p a r a m e t e r s c a n b e r e a d j u s t e d a t a n y t i m e t o i m p r o v e e f f ic a c y o r d e c r e a s e a d v e r s e e v e n t s . 3 . D i s a d va n t a g e s . S i d e e f f e c t s a s s oc i a t e d wi t h e q u i p m e n t ( s u c h a s l e a d b r e a k s , infection, skin erosion, mechanical malfunction, and need for battery replacement). O t h e r s i d e ef f e c t s i n c l u d e p a r e s t h e s i a l i m b d ys t o n i a , a t a xi a , i n t r a c e r e b r a l hemorrhage, seizure, and confusion. C . F e t al n i g r a l t r a n s p l a n t a t i o n 1 . D e f i n i t i o n . I m p l a n t a t i o n o f e m b r yo n i c d o p a m i n e r g i c c e l l s i n t o t h e d e n e r v a t e d striatum to replace degenerated neuronal cells. 2 . Ad va n t a g e s . I m p l a n t e d c e l l s a l l s u r v i v e , a n d i n n e r v a t i o n o f t h e st r i a t u m i s a c c o m p l i s h e d i n a n o r g a n o t yp i c m a n n e r . D o e s n o t n e c e s s i t at e m a k i n g a d e s t r u c t i v e lesion. 3 . D i s a d va n t a g e s . O pt im a l t r a n s p l a n t v a r i a b l e s a n d t a r g e t si t e n o t d e f i ne d . A l s o c l i n i c a l s t u d i e s s h o we d d e v e l o p m e n t a t yp i c a l d y s k i n e s i a s d u r i n g o f f p e r io d . D . U s e o f ge n e t i c a l l y e n g i n e e r e d v i r u s e s ( A d e n o - a s s o c i a t e d v i r u s , A A V) t o c a r r y l e v o d o p a - d o p a m i n e c o n v e r t i n g e n z ym e a r o m a t i c L - a m i n o d e c a r b o x yl a s e ( A A D C ) t o increase effectiveness of levodopa, as result decrease doses of levodopa and s u b s e q u e n t l y d e c r e a s e d ys k i n e s i a s a n d o t h e r s i d e e f f e c t s as s o c i a t e d wi t h l e v o d o p a . E . N e u r o n a l r e g e n e r a t i o n : d e l i v e r i n g e i t h e r g r o wt h f a ct o r s o r s t e m c e l l s t o p r o d u c e d dopamine producing neurons. P.1029
STUDY QUESTIONS D i r e c t i o n s : E a c h o f t h e q u e s t i o n s , st a t e m e n t s , or i n c o m p l e t e s t a t e m e n t s i n t h i s s e c t i o n c a n b e c o r r e c t l y a n s we r e d o r c o m p l e t e d b y o n e o f t he s u g g e s t e d a n s we r s o r p h r a s e s . C h o o s e t h e b es t a n s we r . 1 . W h i ch o f t h e f o l l ow in g d r u g s i s a c a t e c h o l -O - m e t h yl t r a n s f e r a s e ( C O M T ) i n h i b i t o r a n d h a s r e p o rt s o f f a t a l l i ve r t o x i c i t y w i t h i t ? ( A ) T o l c a p on e
( B ) E n t a c a po n e (C) Rasagiline (D) Selegiline V i e w A n s we r 1 . T h e an s w e r i s A [ s ee] . 2. L e vo d o p a i s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h w hi ch o f t h e f o l l ow i n g p r o b l e m s ? ( A ) G a s t r o i nt e s t i n a l s i d e e f f e c t s (B) Involuntary movements ( C ) D e c l i n e i n e f f i c a c y a f t e r 3 - 5 ye a r s ( D ) A l l o f t he a b o v e V i e w A n s we r 2 . T h e an s w e r i s D [ s ee a n d] . 3. Am a n t a d i n e h a s w h i c h o f t h e f o l l ow i n g ad va n t a g e s o ve r l e vo d o p a ? ( A ) M o r e r a p i d r e l i e f o v e r s ym p t o m s ( B ) H i g h e r su c c e s s r a t e ( C ) B e t t e r l on g - t e r m e f f e c t s V i e w A n s we r 3 . T h e an s w e r i s A [ s ee a n d] . 4. W h i c h d r u g i s a n o n - e r g o t d o p a m i n e ag o n i s t a n d h a s a s i d e - e f f e c t p r o f i l e d i f f e r e n t f r o m t h e r e s t o f t h e dopaminergic agents? ( A ) E n t a c a po n e (B) Levodopa/carbidopa (C) Ropinirole (D) Selegiline V i e w A n s we r 4 . T h e an s w e r i s C [ s ee a n d] . 5. W h i c h o f t h e f o l l ow i n g m e d i c a t i o n s i s i n d i c a t e d a s a n a d j u n c t t o c a rb i d o p a / l e vo d o p a t h e r a p y? ( A ) P r a m i p exo l e ( B ) B r o m o cr i p t i n e ( C ) A m a n t ad i n e (D) Tolcapone V i e w A n s we r 5 . T h e an s w e r i s D [ s ee] . P . 1 0 3 0
ANSWERS AND EXPLANATIONS 1 . T h e a n sw er i s A [ s e e I I . E . 4. a . ( 3) . ( a ) ] . S e v e r e c a s e s o f h e p a t o ce l l u l a r i n j u r y — i n c l u d i n g f u l m i n a n t l i v e r f a i l u r e , wh i c h c a u s e s d e a t h — h a v e b e e n r e p o r t e d . P a t i e n t s s h ou l d b e m o n i t o r e d a n d i n s t r u c t e d t o l o o k f o r s i g n s o f l i v e r d i s e a s e s u c h a s c l a y- c o l o r e d s t o o l , j a u n d i c e , f a t i g u e , l o s s o f a p p e t i t e , a n d l e t h a r g y. 2 . T h e a n sw er i s D [ s ee I I . B . 3. c a nd d ] . L e v o d o p a c a n c a u s e G I s i d e e f f e ct s s u c h a s n au s e a a n d v o m i t i n g , p a r t ic u l a r l y wh e n s t a r t i n g t r e a t m e n t . B o we l i r r e g u l a r i t y a n d g a s t r o i n t e s t i n a l b l e e d i n g c a n a l s o o c c u r . W i t h l o n g - t er m l e v o d o p a t h e r a p y, i n v o l u n t a r y c h o r e i f o r m m o ve m e n t s c a n d e v e l o p , a n d t h e e f f i c a c y o f t h e dr u g d e c l i n e s . O t h e r u n wa n t e d e f f e c t s o f l e v o d o p a i n c l u d e t a c h yc a r d i a a n d c a r d i a c a r r h yt h m i a s , p o s t u r a l h yp o t e n s i o n , a n d p s yc h i a t r i c disturbances such as confusion or depression. 3 . T h e a n sw er i s A [ s e e I I . D . 2 . a. ( 4) , I I . D . 2 . c an d d ] .
A m a n t a d i n e i s m o s t e f f i ca c i o u s wi t h i n t h e f i r st f ew we e k s , wh e r e a s b e n e f i t s f r o m l e v o d o p a m a y n o t b e s e e n f o r we e k s t o m o n t h s . A m a n t a d i n e i s m o r e b e ne f i c i a l t h a n t h e a n t i c h o l i n e r g i c s b u t i s l e s s e f f e c t i v e t h a n l e v o d o p a . U n f o r t u n a t e l y, t h e e f f i c a c y o f a m a n t a d i n e d e c l i n e s a f t e r 6 - 1 2 m o n t h s o f t h e r a p y. T h e ef f i c a c y o f l e v o d o p a d e c l i n e s a f t e r 3 - 5 ye a r s o f t h e r a p y. 4 . T h e a n sw er i s C [ s ee I I . E . 3. a a n d b ] . Non-ergot dopamine agonists, such as ropinirole, are indicated for both early and advanced stages of Parkinson disease. These drugs selectively bind to dopamine r e c e p t o r s an d a c t i v a t e t h e D 2 - r e c e p t o r , b u t h a ve l i t t l e o r n o a f f i n i t y f o r t h e D 1 r e c e p t o r . T he y h a v e a g r e a t e r a f f i n i t y f o r t h e D 3 - r e c e p t o r t h an f o r t h e D 2 - r e c e p t o r . The incidence of adverse events (e.g., pleuropulmonary fibrosis and retroperitoneal f i b r o s i s , c o r o n a r y v a s o c o n s t r i c t i o n , e r yt h r o m e l a l g i a , a n d R a yn a u d p h e n o m e n o n ) i s low compared to nonselective dopamine agonists. Non-ergot dopamine agonists h a v e a l o w p o t e n t i a l f o r t h e d e v o l v e m e n t o f m o t o r f l u c t u a t i on s a n d d ys k i n e s i s . 5 . T h e a n sw er i s D [ s ee I I . E . 4. a . ( 1) . ( d ) ] . T o l c a p o n e i s a n i n h i b i t o r o f CO M T en z ym e u s e d t o m et a b o l i z e c a t e c h o l a m i n e s , including levodopa. It is indicated as an adjunct therapy to carbidopa/levodopa t h e r a p y.
47 Schizophrenia R e b e k a h R . Ar t h u r G ru b e
I. INTRODUCTION A. S c h i z o p h r e n i a i s a m a j o r p s yc h o l o g i c a l d i s o r d e r a f f e c t in g a p p r o x i m a t e l y 1 % o f the population. B . I t i s a d i se a s e t h a t c an m a r k e d l y a f f e c t s o c i a l a n d o c c u p a t i o n a l f u n c t i o n i n g , i n t e r p e r s o n a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s , m o r b i d i t y, a n d m o r t a l i t y. 1 . A s m a n y a s 4 5 % o f t h e h o m e l e s s p o p u l a t i o n i n t h e U n i t ed S t a t e s s u f f e r f r o m schizophrenia. 2 . M o r t a l i t y r a t e s o f p a t i e n t s wi t h s c h i z o p h r e n i a a r e t wo t o f o u r t i m e s h ig h e r t h a n the general population. 3. Suicide attempt rates for patients suffering from schizophrenia range from 20% to 4 2 % , wi t h a s u c c e s s r a t e o f 1 0 % . C . T h e c o s t o f s c h i z o p h r e n i a o n t h e U . S . e c o n om y i s e s t i m at e d t o b e $ 62 . 7 b i l l i o n p e r ye a r . O n e h a l f o f t h i s c o s t i s t h e r e s u l t o f in d i r e c t l o s s e s , s u c h a s l o s t wo r k .
II. PATHOPHYSIOLOGY. T h e a c t u a l c a u s e o f s c h iz o p h r e n i a i s u n c e r t a i n , h o we v e r m u l t i p l e t h e o r i e s e xi s t , e a c h o f wh i c h p r o v i d e s p a r t i a l e x p l a n a t i o n s . T h es e i n c l u d e g e n e t i c t h e o r i e s , t h e d o p a m i n e t h e o r y, t h e n e u r o d e v e l o p m e n t a l t h e o r y, a n d p s yc h o s o c i a l t h e o r i e s . A. G e n e t i c t h e o r i e s . A s t r o n g g e n e t i c l i n k e xi s t s f o r t h e d ev e l o p m e n t o f schizophrenia. 1 . S c h i z o p h r e n i a o c c u r s i n 1 % o f t he g e n e r a l p o p u l a t i o n ; h o we v e r , t h i s i n c r e a s e s t o 1 0 % i f a f i r s t - d e g r e e r e l a t i v e h a s a h i s t o r y o f s ch i z o p h r e n i a . 2 . T h e r is k o f d e v e l o p i n g s c h i z o p h r e n i a f u r t h e r i n c r e a s e s t o 4 0 % wh e n b o t h p a r e n t s have a history of schizophrenia. 3 . M o n o z yg o t i c t wi n s h a v e d e m o n s t r a t e d a 4 8% r i s k o f b o t h t wi n s d e v e l o p i n g s c h i z o p h r e n i a i f o n e t wi n h a s t h e d i s e a s e . 4 . S t u d i e s ar e o n g o i n g t o l o c a t e s p e c i f i c g e n e s li n k e d t o t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f schizophrenia. B . D o p a m i n e t h e o r y. T h i s t h e o r y p o s t u l a t e s t ha t d o p a m i n e h yp e r a c t i v i t y i n t h e b r a i n i s r e s p o n s i b l e f o r p s yc h o t i c s ym p t o m s p r es e n t i n s c h iz o p h r e n i a . 1 . W h i l e d op a m i n e h y p e r a c t i v i t y i s p r e s e n t i n t h e m e s o l i m b i c p a t h wa y , o t h e r a r e as of the brain, such as the prefrontal, frontal, and temporal cortices, have decreased d o p a m i n e a c t i v i t y d u r i n g a c u t e p s yc h o s i s . a . T yp i c a l a n t i p s yc h o t i c s b l o c k d o p a m i n e a c t i v i t y i n t h e b r a i n . B l o c k a d e o f d o p a m i n e wi t h t h e s e a g e n t s h a s n o t r e s u l t e d in a r e s p o n s e f o r a l l p a t ie n t s . b . T h e d o p a m i n e t h e o r y h a s n o t b e e n f o u n d t o be a c o m p l e t e e xp l a n a t i o n f o r schizophrenia. 2. Other neurotransmitters thought to be involved in schizophrenia include 5h yd r o x yt r y p t a m i n e ( s e r o t o n i n ; 5 - H T ) a n d g l u t a m a t e . a . T h e r o l e o f 5 - HT i s l ar g e l y e v i d e n c e d b y t h e b l o c k a d e o f 5 - HT wi t h t h e n e we r a t yp i c a l a n t i p s yc h o t i c s .
b . T h e r o l e o f g l u t a m a t e i s a l s o b e i n g e v a l u a t e d b e c a u s e o n e o f i t s m a j or f u n c t i o n s i s t o r e g u l a t e d o p a m i n e a c t i v i t y. G l u t a m a t e d e f i ci e n c y h a s b e e n f o u n d t o c a u s e s i m i l a r e f f e c t s t o t h a t o f d o p a m i n e h yp e r a c t i v i t y. C . N e u r o d eve l o p m e n t a l t h e o r y. T hi s t h e o r y s u g g e s t s t h a t s c h i z o p h r e n i a o c c u r s a s a r e s u l t o f a n i n u t e r o d i s t u r b a n c e d u r i n g p r e g n a n c y. P o t e n t i a l c a u s e s o f t h i s d i s t u r b a n c e i n c l u d e u p p e r - r e s p i r a t o r y i n f e c t i o n s , o b s t e t r i c c om p l i c a t i o n s , a n d n e o n a t a l h y p o x i a . S t u d i e s e xi s t t h a t l i n k P.1032 t h e s e p r e n a t a l c o n d i t i o n s wi t h a n i n c r e a s e d r i s k o f d e v e l o p m e n t o f s c h i z o p h r e n i a ; h o we v e r , t h i s t h e o r y c o n t i n u e s t o b e e v a l u a t e d . D . P s yc h o s o c i a l t h eo r i e s . T h e s e t h e o r i e s p r o p o s e t h a t s i t u a t i o n s s u c h a s s t r e s s , poor interpersonal skills, conflicting family communication, and various s o c i o e c o n o m i c i n f l u e n c e s a r e l i n k e d t o t h e d e ve l o p m e n t o f s c h i z o p h r e n i a . W h i l e t h e s e t h e o r i e s h a v e b e e n u n p r o v e d , s u c h s i t u a t io n s c a n s e r v e a s t r i g g e r s f o r t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h e d i s ea s e i n p e o p l e wi t h a p r e d i s p o s i t i o n .
III. DIAGNOSIS AND CLINICAL FEATURES A. S c h i z o p h r e n i a i s d i ag n o s e d b a se d o n D i a g n o s t i c a n d S t a t i s t i c a l M an u a l o f M e n t a l D i s o r d e r s , 4 t h e d . ( D S M - I V - T R) c r it e r i a . 1 . A p a t i e n t m u s t h a v e at l e a s t t wo o f t h e f o l l o wi n g s ym p t o m s : d e l u s i o n s , h a l l u c i n a t i o n s , d i s o r g a n i z e d s p e e c h , d i s o r g a n i z e d o r c a t a t on i c b e h a v i o r , a n d negative symptoms. 2 . T h e s ym p t o m s s h o u l d b e p r e s e n t f o r a t l e a s t 1 m o n t h , wi t h a t l e a s t 6 m o n t h s o f c o n t i n u o u s p r o d r o m a l o r r e s i d u a l s ym p t o m s . 3 . A t l e a s t on e a r e a o f t h e p a t i e n t ' s s o c i a l o r o c c u p a t i o n a l f u n c t i o n i n g s h o u l d b e significantly affected. 4 . O t h e r c o nd i t i o n s c a u s i n g s i m i l a r s ym p t o m s s u c h a s s c h i z oa f f e c t i v e d i so r d e r , m o o d d i s o r d e r s , s u b s t a nc e a b u s e , a n d g e n e r a l m e d i c a l c o n d i t i o n s s h o u l d b e r u l e d out. B . F i v e t yp e s o f s c h i z o ph r e n i a e x i s t ( T a b l e 4 7 - 1 ) . C . T h e c l i n i c a l f e a t u r e s o f s c h i z o p h r e n i a a r e c a t e g o r i z e d a s p o s i t i ve , n e g a t i ve , o r d i s o rg a n i z e d s ym p t o m s ( T a b l e 4 7 - 2 ) . T h e m o s t c o m m o n s ym p t o m s a r e h a l l u c i n a t i o n s a n d d e l u s i o n s. 1 . A n h a l l u ci n a t i o n i s a p e r c e p t i o n d i s t u r b a n c e i n s e n s o r y e xp e r i e n c e s o f t h e e n v i r o n m e n t . H a l l u c i n a t i o n s c a n b e a u d i t o r y, v i s u a l , o l f a c t o r y, o r t a c t i l e . A u d i t o r y hallucinations are most common.
Table 47-1. Types of Schizophrenia
Type
Presentation
Catatonic
Motor symptoms are most notable. The patient may either demonstrate rigid immobility or excessive purposeless movement. The patient may be silent and withdrawn or may become loud and shout. Bizarre voluntary movements such as posturing may also occur. The patient may fluctuate between the two extremes.
Disorganized
The patient tends to have disorganized speech and behavior with a flat affect. Hallucinations and delusions are not well formed and fragmented. The patient may also have bizarre mannerisms and grimacing.
Paranoid
The most common type of schizophrenia. Patients are usually preoccupied with paranoid delusions or auditory hallucinations. Cognitive function is usually preserved; if thought disorder is present, it does not prevent description of delusions or hallucinations.
Residual
The patient does not have acute psychosis, but some symptoms of schizophrenia remain. Largely negative symptoms are seen, such as flat affect, social withdrawal, and loose associations. Prominent delusions or hallucinations are not present.
Undifferentiated
The patient meets the criteria for a diagnosis of schizophrenia but does not meet the criteria for a specific type, or the patient may meet the criteria for multiple types of schizophrenia. No one type appears to be dominant.
P.1033
Table 47-2. Symptoms of Schizophrenia
Positive SymptomsNegative Symptoms
Disorganized Symptoms
Delusions
Affective flattening
Disorganized speech
Hallucinations
Alogia
Thought disorder
Combativeness
Anhedonia
Disorganized behavior
Insomnia
Amotivation
Poor attention
Apathy Asocial behavior 2 . A d e l u s i o n i s a n i n co r r e c t o r f a ls e b e l i e f . De l u s i o n s c a n b e r e l i g i o u s , p a r a n o i d / p e r s e c u t o r y, g r a n d i o s e , s o m a t i c , i nf l u e n t i a l , o r s e xu a l . P e r s e cu t o r y o r p a r a n o i d d e l u s i o n s a r e t h e m o s t c om m o n .
IV. RISK FACTORS. R i s k f a c t o r s f o r t h e d e ve l o p m e n t o f s c h i z o p h r e n i a i n c l u d e a f a m i l y h i s t o r y o f s c h i z o p h r e n i a , a n y p o t e n t i a l c a u s e o f f e t a l h yp o xi c b r a i n d a m a g e , h i s t o r y o f b i r t h c o m p l i c a t i o n s , a d v a n c e d a g e o f m ot h e r d u r i n g p r e g n a n c y, b i r t h d u r i n g wi n t e r m o n t h s , s u bs t a n c e a b u s e , s i n g l e m a r i t a l s t at u s , l o we r s o c i o e c o n o m i c c l a s s , u r b a n e n v i r o n m e n t , a n d e n v i r o n m e n t a l s t r es s .
V. TREATMENT GOALS AND OBJECTIVES. T h e r e i s c u r r e n t l y n o k n o wn c u r e f o r s c h i z o p h r e n i a . T r e a t m e n t o p t i o n s i n c l u d e p s yc h o t h e r a p y a s we l l a s p h a r m a c o t h e r a p y. T h e g o a l s a n d o b j e c t i v e s o f t r e a t m e nt a r e a s f o l l o ws : A. M i n i m i z e s ym p t o m s o f s c h i z o p h r e n i a B. Improve quality of life and social/occupational functioning C. Prevent relapse and hospitalization D . M i n i m i z e a d v e r s e e f f ec t s of m e d i ca t i o n s E . P r e v e n t s u i c i d e a t t e m p t s o r s e l f - ha r m
VI. PHARMACOTHERAPY: ANTIPSYCHOTIC MEDICATIONS A. T wo g e n e r a t i o n s o f a n t i p s yc h o t i c m e d i c a t i o n s a r e a v a i l a b l e f o r t r e at m e n t : f i r s t g e n e r a t i o n o r t yp i c a l an t i p s yc h o t i c s a n d s e c o n d - g e n e r a t i o n o r a t yp i c a l a n t i p s yc h o t i c s . 1 . T h e c h o i ce o f a n a p p r o p r i a t e a n t i p s yc h o t i c a g e n t d e p e n d s o n t h e p a t ie n t ' s p r e v i o u s e x p e r i e n c e s wi t h a n t i p s yc h o t i c m e d i c a t i o n s , a d v e r s e e f f e ct s , t h e p a t i e n t ' s
c o n c o m i t a n t m e d i c a l c o n d i t i o n s , m e d i c a t i o n i n t e r a c t i o n s , a nd t h e p a t i e n t ' s preference. 2 . C u r r e n t Am e r i c a n P s y c h i a t r i c A s so c i a t i o n ( A P A ) g u i d e l i n e s r e c o m m e n d u s i n g a n a t yp i c a l a n t i p s yc h o t i c f i r s t , o wi n g t o l e s s r i s k f o r e xt r a p yr a m i d a l s ym p t o m s ( E P S) . P a t i e n t s wh o p r e f e r o r ha v e a h i s t o r y o f r e s p o n s e t o t yp i c a l a n t i p s yc h o t i c s m a y f i r s t u s e t yp i c a l a n t i p s yc h o t i c s . 3 . R e s p o n s e t o m e d i c a t io n s i s n o t im m e d i a t e , an d m a xi m a l t r e a t m e n t r e s p o n s e m a y take 6 months or longer to be seen. 4. After a treatment response is seen, patients should be maintained on the current t h e r a p y f o r a m i n i m u m o f 6 m o n t h s. M o s t p a t i e n t s wi l l r e q u i r e c h r o n i c t he r a p y, b e c a u s e 8 0 % o f f i r s t - e pi s o d e p a t i e n t s wh o d o n o t r e c e i v e an t i p s yc h o t i c t r e a t m e n t wi l l r e l a p s e wi t h i n 5 y e a r s . P.1034
Table 47-3. Properties of Typical Antipsychotics Dose CPZ Rangea Equivale (mg/day Sedatio nt n EPS ) a
Agent
Orthostati Anticholiner c gic Side Hypotensio Effects n
Chlorpromaz ine (Thorazine)
100
300 100 0
++ +
++
++
+++
Trifluoperazi ne (Stelazine)
5
515
+
++ +
+
+
Thioridazine (Mellaril)
100
300 800
++ +
+
+++
+++
Perphenazine (Trilafon)
10
1664
++
++
+
+
Fluphenazine (Prolixin)
2
520
+
++ +
+
+
Thiothixene (Navane)
5
1550
+
++ +
+
++
Haloperidol (Haldol)
2
520
+
++ +
+
+
Molindone (Moban)
10
30100
++
++
+
+
Loxapine (Loxitane)
10
30100
+
++
+
+
a
Data from Lehman AF, Lieberman JA, Dixon LB, et al. Practice guideline for treatment of patients with schizophrenia, 2nd ed. Am J Psych 2004;161:1-56. CPZ, chlorpromazine; EPS, extrapyramidal symptoms; +++, high; ++, moderate; +, low. B . T yp i c a l a n t i p s yc h o t i c m e d i c a t i o n s ( T a b l e 4 7 - 3 ) 1 . M e c h a n i s m o f a c t i o n . T h e a n t i ps yc h o t i c e f f e c t o f t h e s e m e d i c a t i o n s i s p r i m a r i l y m e d i a t e d t h r o u g h t h e b l o c k a d e o f d o p a m i n e r e c e p t o r s . T h es e a g e n t s a l s o h a v e a c t i v i t y a t h i s t a m i n e , m us c a r i n i c , a n d α - r e c e p t o r s , a l t h o u g h t h e s e r e c e p t o r s a r e n o t r e s p o n s i b l e f o r d e s i r e d t h e r a p e u t i c a c t i v i t y. 2 . P o t e n c y. T yp i c a l a n t i p s yc h o t i c a g e n t s a r e c la s s i f i e d b y t h e i r p o t e n c y f o r t h e d o p a m i n e r e c e p t o r i n t o h i g h - , m o d e r a t e - , a n d l ow- p o t e n c y a n t i p s yc h o t i c s . H i g h p o t e n c y a g e n t s h a v e a hi g h e r a f f i n i t y f o r t h e d o p a m i n e r e c e p t o r a n d a r e a s s o c i a t e d wi t h h i g h e r r i s k f o r t h e de v e l o p m e n t o f E P S. L o w- p o t e n c y a g e n t s h a v e l e s s a f f i n i t y for dopamine receptors; and although they have less risk for causing EPS, they are a s s o c i a t e d wi t h m o r e a d v e r s e e f f e ct s f r o m t h e i r a c t i v i t y a t h i s t a m i n e , m u s c a r i n i c , and α-receptors. 3 . E f f i c a c y. W h e n d o s e d i n e q u i v a l e n t d o s e s , t h e v a r i o u s t yp i c a l a n t i p s yc h o t i c s h a v e s i m i l a r e f f i c a c y. E q u i v a l e n t d o s e s a r e d e s c r i b e d u s i n g c h l o r p r o m a zi n e ( C P Z ) e q u i va l e n t s ( T a b l e 4 7 - 3 ) . T yp i c a l a n t i p s yc h o t i c s a r e t h o u g h t t o b e a s e f f e c t i v e a s a t yp i c a l a n t i p s yc h o t i c s f o r p o s i t i v e sym p t o m s b u t a r e l e s s e f f e c t i v e f o r ne g a t i v e s ym p t o m s . 4 . Ad ve r s e e f f e c t s . T yp i c a l a n t i p s yc h o t i c s a r e as s o c i a t e d wi t h s e v e r a l ad v e r s e e f f e c t s ( T a bl e s 4 7 - 3 a n d 4 7 - 4 ) . a . T h e a ct i v it y o f t h e v a r i o u s t y p i c a l a n t i p s yc h o t i c s a t t h e d op a m i n e , α - , m u s c a r i n i c , a n d h i s t a m i n e r e c e p t o r s a r e r e s p on s i b l e f o r m a n y o f t h e a d v e r s e e f f e ct s o f t h e s e medications (Table 47-5).
b . E x t r a p yr a m i d a l si d e e f f e c t s c a n o c c u r wi t h a l l t h e t yp i c a l a n t i p s yc h o t i c s , e s p e c i a l l y w i t h h i g h - p o t e n c y t yp i c a l a n t i p s yc h o t i c s . F o u r t yp e s o f e xt r a p yr a m i d a l s i d e e f f e c t s h a v e b e e n d e s c r i b e d : a c u t e d ys t o n i a , a k a t h i s i a , p s e u d o p a r k i n s o n i s m , a n d t a r d i v e d ys k i n e s i a . ( 1 ) Ac u t e d y s t o n i a d e s c r i b e s s u d d e n m u s c l e sp a s m s t h a t p r i m a r i l y o c c u r i n t h e e ye , n e c k , f a c e , a n d t h r o a t m u s c l e s. ( a ) T yp e s o f a c u t e d ys t o n i a i n c l u d e t o r t i c o l l i s ( a m u s c l e s p a s m o f t h e n e ck c a u s i n g t h e h e a d t o b e t wi s t e d t o t h e s i d e ) , r e t r o c o l l i s ( a m u s c l e s pa s m o f t h e ne c k c a u s i n g t h e h e a d t o b e p u l l e d b a c k ) , t r i s m u s ( a m u s c l e sp a s m o f t h e m o u t h c a u s i n g t h e j a w t o b e c l e n c h e d ) , a n d o c u l o g yr i c c r i s i s ( a s p a s m o f t h e e ye m u s c l e s c a u s i n g o n e o r b o t h e ye s t o b e c o m e f i xe d i n a n u p wa r d g a z e ) . P.1035
Table 47-4. General Adverse Effects of Antipsychotics Typical Antipsychotics
Atypical Antipsychotics
Sedation
Sedation
Anticholinergic effects
Anticholinergic effects (clozapine, olanzapine)
Blurred vision
Orthostatic hypotension
Constipation
Moderate to severe weight gain
Dry mouth
Diabetes mellitus
Urinary retention
Hypercholesterolemia
Extrapyramidal symptoms
Hyperprolactinemia (risperidone)
Lowered seizure threshold
Lowered seizure threshold
Orthostatic hypotension
QT prolongation
Hyperprolactinemia
Neuroleptic malignant syndrome
Moderate weight gain
Extrapyramidal symptoms
QT prolongation
Sexual dysfunction
Photosensitivity Temperature dysregulation Neuroleptic malignant syndrome Sexual dysfunction Elevated liver enzymes ( b ) A c u t e d ys t o n i a s c a n o c c u r wi t h i n h o u r s o f i n it i a t i n g t h e m e d i c a t i o n o r i n c r e a s i n g t h e d o s e . T h i s i s m o s t c o m m o n i n yo u n g m e n a n d i n p a t i e n t s u s i n g h i g h d o s e s o f h i g h - p o t e n c y t y p i c a l a n t i p s yc h o t i c s . ( c ) M a n a g e m e n t i n c l u d e s t h e u s e of a n t i c h o l i n e r g i c a g e n t s l i k e b e n z t r o p i n e a n d d i p h e n h yd r a m i n e ; i f i n e f f e c t i v e , b e n z o d i a z e p i n e s c a n a l s o be u s e d . P r ev e n t i o n o f f u t u r e r e a c t io n s m a y b e a c h i e v e d b y d e c r e a s i n g t h e d o s e o f a n t i p s yc h o t i c , u s i n g o r a l a n t i c h o l i n e r g i c s , o r c h a n g i n g t h e r a p y t o a n a t yp i c a l a n t i p s yc h o t i c . ( 2 ) Ak a t h i s i a i s d e s c r i b e d a s m o t o r r e s t l e s s n e ss a s s o c i a t ed wi t h i n t e r n a l a g i t a t i o n and feelings of having to move. ( a ) P a t i e n t s wi t h a k a t h i s i a m a y p a c e o r b e u n a b l e t o s i t st i l l . T h i s m a y o c c u r wi t h i n d a ys t o a f ew m o n t h s a f t e r t h e i n i t i at i o n o f t h e r a p y o r i n c r e a s e i n d o s e . ( b ) T r e a t m en t o f a k at h i s i a i n c l u d e s d o s e r e d u c t i o n o f t h e a nt i p s yc h o t i c , l i p o p h i l i c β b l o c k e r s , b e n z o d i a z e p i n e s , o r a n t i c ho l i n e r g i c s . T h e r a p y m a y a l s o b e c h a n g e d t o a n a t yp i c a l a n t i p s yc h o t i c . ( 3 ) P s e u d o p a r k i n s o n i sm c l i n i c a l l y a p p e a r s s i m i l a r t o i d i o p a t h i c P a r k i n s o n d i s e a s e , a n d i n c l u d e s s ym p t o m s l i k e s h u f f l i n g g a i t , m a s k- l i k e f a c e , co g wh e e l r i g i d i t y, a n d r e s t i n g o r p il l - r o l l i n g t r e m o r . ( a ) T h i s c a n o c c u r wi t h i n 1 - 3 m o n t h s a f t e r st a r t in g t h e r a p y o r i n c r e a s i n g t h e d o s e o f t h e a n t i p s yc h o t i c a g e n t . ( b ) T h i s i s t r e a t e d b y c h a n g i n g t o a n a t yp i c a l a n t i p s yc h o t i c , d e c r e a s i n g t h e d o s e , and/or adding an anticholinergic agent.
Table 47-5. Adverse Effects by Receptor Affinities
Receptor AntagonizedAdverse Effects Histamine
Sedation Weight gain
Dopamine
Extrapyramidal symptoms Hyperprolactinemia
Muscarinic
Anticholinergic adverse effects Cognitive impairment Tachycardia
Alpha
Orthostatic hypotension Reflex tachycardia
Serotonin
Weight gain
P.1036
( 4 ) T a r d i ve d ys k i n e s i a ( T D ) u s u a l l y d o e s n o t o cc u r u n t i l t h e p a t i e n t h a s b e e n t a k i n g a n t i p s yc h o t i c s f o r a ye a r o r m o r e . I t i s a m o v e m e n t d i s o r d e r t h a t c a n o c c u r in v a r i o u s l o c a t i o n s o f t h e b o d y, i n c l u d i n g t h e f a c e , t o n g u e , h i p s , a n d e xt r e m i t i e s . ( a ) M o v e m en t s c a n b e dys t o n i c ( f i xe d ) o r c h o r e o a t h e t o i d ( r h yt h m i c ) . C o m m o n m o v e m e n t d i s o r d e r s i n c l u d e t o n g u e c h e wi n g , l i p s m a c k i n g , a n d r h yt h m i c m o v e m e n t s of the trunk. ( b ) T D m a y b e i r r e v e r s i b l e , s o p a t i e n t s t a k i n g an t i p s yc h o t i c s s h o u l d b e m o n i t o r e d closely for the appearance of any movement disorders. ( c ) T o o l s s uc h a s t h e Ab n o r m a l I n v o l u n t a r y M o v e m e n t S c a le ( A I M S) o r D ys k i n e s i a I d e n t i f i c a t i o n S ys t e m C o n d e n s e d U s e r S c a l e ( DI S C U S ) a r e a v a i l a b l e t o a s s i s t i n monitoring patients. ( d ) T r e a t m en t s h o u l d i n c l u d e s t o p p i n g t h e a n t i p s yc h o t i c . M u l t i p l e a g e n t s h a v e b e e n u s e d t o a t t em p t t o t r e a t T D, a l t h o u g h n o n e h a s b e e n d e f i n i t i v e l y p r o v e n t o b e e f f e c t i v e . T he s e i n c l u d e v i t a m i n E , b e n z o d i a z e p i n e s , b a c l o f e n , a n d r e s e r p i n e .
c . N e u r o l e p t i c m a l i g n a n t s yn d r o me ( N M S ) i s an u n c o m m o n b u t p o t e n t i a l l y f a t a l a d v e r s e e f f ec t o f a n t i p s yc h o t i c s . S i gn s a n d s ym p t o m s i n c l u d e f e v e r , s e v e r e r i g i d i t y, a l t e r e d m e n t a l s t a t u s , un s t a b l e b l o o d p r e s s u r e , t a c h yc a r d i a , i n c o n t i n e n c e , e l e v a t e d c r e a t i n e k i n a s e , a n d i n c r e a s e d wh i t e b l o o d c o u n t . ( 1 ) N M S h a s a s u d d e n o n s e t , a n d s ho u l d p r o m p t i m m e d i a t e d i s c o n t i n u a t i o n o f a l l a n t i p s yc h o t i c s . (2) Treatment includes supportive care and the use of bromocriptine and/or dantrolene. C . At yp i c a l a n t i p s yc h o t i c m e d i c a t i o n s ( T a b l e 4 7 - 6 ) 1 . S e v e n a t yp i c a l a n t i p s yc h o t i c s a r e c u r r e n t l y o n t h e U . S . m a r k e t : c l o za p i n e ( C l o z a r i l ) , r is p e r i d o n e ( R i s p e r d a l ) , o l a n z a p i n e ( Z y p r e x a ) , q u e t i a p i n e ( S e r o q u e l ) , z i p r a s i d o n e ( G e o d o n ) , a r i p i p r a z o l e ( A b i l i f y) , a n d p a l i p e r i d o n e ( I n v e g a ) . 2 . T h e m e ch a n i s m o f a c t i o n f o r a t yp i c a l a n t i p s yc h o t i c s i s d i f f e r e n t f r o m t h a t of t h e t y p i c a l a n t i p s yc h o t i c s . W i t h t h e e xc e p t i o n o f a r i p i p r a z o l e , t h e a t yp i c a l a n t i p s yc h o t i c s a r e d o p a m i n e a n t a g o n i s t s b u t a l s o b lo c k 5 - HT 2 A - r e c e p t o r s . T h e y b l o c k 5 - H T t o a g r e a t e r e xt e n t t h a n d o p a m i n e . A r i p i p r a z o l e i s a p a r t i a l d o p a m i n e a n d 5 - H T 1 A - a g o n i s t and a 5-HT2A-antagonist. 3 . R e c e p t o r a f f i n i t y d i f f e r s f o r t h e va r i o u s a t yp i c a l a n t i p s yc h o t i c s . A l l at yp i c a l a n t i p s yc h o t i c s h a v e a c t iv i t y a t t h e 5 - HT 2 A - r e c e p t o r a n d d o p a m i n e r e c e p t o r . D if f e r e nt agents have different activity for histamine, α-, and muscarinic receptors (Table 476). 4 . A t yp i c a l a n t i p s yc h o t i c s h a v e i n c r e a s e d e f f i c a cy f o r n e g a t i v e s ym p t o m s c o m p a r e d t o t yp i c a l a n t i p s yc h o t i c s . W i t h t h e e xc e p t i o n o f c lo z a p i n e , a l l a n t i p s yc h o t i c s a r e t h o u g h t t o ha v e s i m i l a r e f f i c a c y f o r p o s i t i v e s ym p t o m s . C l o za p i n e h a s d e m o n s t r a t e d e f f i c a c y f o r t r e a t m e n t - r ef r a c t o r y s c h i z o p h r e n i a . 5 . Ad ve r s e e f f e c t s . A t y p i c a l a n t i p s yc h o t i c s d i f f e r f r o m t yp i c a l a n t i p s yc h o t i c s i n t h ei r a d v e r s e e f f ec t p r o f i l e ( T a b l e 4 7 - 4 ) . O wi n g t o t h e i r h i g h e r a f f i n i t y f o r 5 - H T - r e c e p t o r s c o m p a r e d t o d o p a m i n e r e c e p t o r s , t h e y a r e a s s o c i a t e d wi t h l e s s E P S a nd h yp e r p r o l a c t i n e m i a t h a n t y p i c a l a n t i p s yc h o t i c s . Ho we v e r , t h e y h a v e p r o b l e m a t i c a d v e r s e e f f ec t s , wh i c h l i m i t t h e i r u s e ( T a b l e 4 7 - 6 ) . a . A t yp i c a l a n t i p s yc h o t i c s h a v e b e e n l i n k e d wi t h we i g h t g a i n , h yp e r l i p i d e m i a , a n d h yp e r g l yc e m i a . T h e r i sk f o r t h e d ev e l o p m e n t o f t h e s e m e t ab o l i c a d v e r s e e f f e c t s d i f f e r s a m o ng a g e n t s . b . A r e c e n t m e t a - a n a l ys i s o f t h e a t yp i c a l a n t i p s yc h o t i c s d e m o n s t r a t e d a n i n c r e a s e d r i s k o f d e a t h i n p a t i e n t s wi t h d e m e n t i a . A t yp i c a l a n t i p s yc h o t i c s n o w c a r r y a b l a c k b o x w a rn i n g c a u t i o n i n g p r o v i d e r s a g a i n s t t h e u s e o f a t yp i c a l a n t i p s yc h o t i c s i n t h e t r e a t m e n t o f d e m e n t i a - r e l a t ed p s yc h o s i s . F o r m o r e i nf o r m a t i o n , r e f e r t o S c h n e i d e r L S , D a g e r m a n K S , I n s e l P . R i s k o f de a t h wi t h a t yp i c a l a n t i p s yc h o t i c d r u g t r e a t m e n t f or d e m e n t i a . J A M A 2 0 0 5 ; 2 9 4 : 1 9 3 4 - 1 9 4 3 . 6 . C l o z a p i n e wa s t h e f i r s t a t yp i c a l a n t i p s yc h o t i c t o b e m a r ke t e d i n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s , i s t he o n l y a n t i p s yc h o t i c wi t h n o r i s k o f E P S o r T D an d i s t h e o n l y a n t i p s yc h o t i c wi t h p r o v e n e f f i c a c y f o r t r e a t m e n t - r e f r a c t o r y s c h i z o p h r e n i a . H o we v e r , c l o z a p i n e i s i n d i c a t e d o n l y i n p a t i e n t s wh o h a v e f a i l e d t wo t o t h r e e a n t ip s yc h o t i c s ( i n c l u d i n g t yp i c a l a n d a t yp i c a l a n t i p s yc h o t i c s ) b e c a u s e o f i t s r i s k o f a g r a n u l o c yt o s i s . C o m p l e t e b l o o d c o u n t ( C B C ) m u s t b e m o n i t o r e d a t b a s e l i n e , e v e r y we e k f o r t h e f i r s t
6 m o n t h s o f t h e r a p y, e v e r y o t h e r we e k f o r t h e n ext 6 m o n t h s , a n d t h e n e v e r y m o n t h t h e r e a f t e r . C l o z a p i n e m a y a l s o l o we r s e i z u r e t h r e s h o l d i n p a t i e n t s , e s p ec i a l l y wi t h h i g h e r d o s e s . C l o z a p i n e s h o u l d b e u s e d wi t h c a u t i o n i n p a t i e n t s a t r i s k f o r s e i z u r e s o r wi t h a h i s t o r y o f a s e i z u r e d i s o r d e r . P.1037
Table 47-6. Properties of Atypical Antipsychotics
Medication
Dose Recept Orthostat a Range or ic Anticholine Hypotensi Weight (mg/da Affinity Sedatio a n EPS rgic Effects Gain y) on
Clozapin e
15 060 0
D, 5HT , M, H1, α
++ +
0
+++
+++
+++
Risperid one
28
D, 5HT , H1, α
+
+ to + +
0
+
++
Olanzapi ne
10 30
D, 5HT , M, H1, α
++
+
++
+
++++
Quetiapi ne
30 080 0
D, 5HT , H1, α
++
+
0
++
++
Ziprasido ne
12 020 0
D, 5HT , H1, α
0
+
0
0
0
Aripipraz ole
10 30
D, 5HT , H1, α
+
+
0
0
0
Paliperid oneb
312
D, 5HT , H1 ,α
+
+ to + +
0
+
unkno wn
a
Data from Lehman AF, Lieberman JA, Dixon LB, et al. Practice guideline for treatment of patients with schizophrenia, 2nd ed. Am J Psych 2004;161:1-56. 5-HT, 5-hydroxytryptamine (serotonin); α, alpha; D, dopamine; EPS, extrapyramidal symptoms; H1, histamine; M, muscarinic; +++, high; ++, moderate; +, low. b
Data from Invega package insert, 2007. Titusville, NJ, Janssen, L.P.
P.1038
7 . U n i q u e f o r m u l a t i o n s o f a t yp i c a l a n t i p s yc h o t i c s a r e a v a i l a b l e f o r p a t i e n t s . a . O r a l l y d i s i n t e g r a t i n g t ab l e t s . Ri s p e r i d o n e a n d o l a n z a p i n e b o t h a r e a v a i l a b l e a s orally disintegrating tablets, and are manufactured as Risperdal M tablets and Zyprexa Zydis tablets. b . P a r e n t e r a l f o r m u l a t i o n s . Z i p r a s id o n e a n d o l a n z a p i n e a r e a v a i l a b l e i n p a r e n t e r a l f o r m u l a t i o n s f o r u s e i n a c u t e l y a g i t a t e d p a t i e n t s wi t h s c h i z o p h r e n i a . ( 1 ) Z i p r a s i do n e m a y b e g i v e n a s 1 0 o r 2 0 m g i n t r a m u s c u l a r l y. T h e 1 0 - m g d o s e m a y b e r e p e a t e d i n 2 h r , a n d t h e 2 0 m g d o s e m a y b e r e p e a t e d i n 4 h r . T h e m a xi m u m daily dose is 40 mg. ( 2 ) O l a n z a p i n e m a y b e g i v e n a s 1 0 m g i n t r a m u sc u l a r l y. T h e 1 0 - m g d o s e m a y b e r e p e a t e d e v e r y 2 h r , u p t o a m a x i m u m o f 3 0 m g d a i l y.
D . R a p i d t ra n q u i l i z a t i o n i s u s e d f or a c u t e l y p s yc h o t i c p a t i e n t s wi t h a g g r e s s i o n o r wh o a r e s e v e r e l y a g i t a t e d . P a r e n t e r al t yp i c a l o r a t yp i c a l a g e n t s m a y b e u s e d i n t h e s e p a t i e n t s . T yp i c a l a g e n t s a v a i l a b l e i n a p a r e n t e r a l f o r m i n c l u d e c h l o r p r o m a z i n e ( T h o r a z i n e ) , f l u p h e n a z i n e ( P r o l i x i n ) , a n d h a l o p e r i d o l ( H a l d o l ) . A s d e s c r i b ed e a r l i e r , a v a i l a b l e a t yp i c a l a g e n t s i n c l u d e z i p r a s i d o n e a n d o l a n z a p i n e . E . No n c o mp l i a n t p a t i e n t s . T h o s e p a t i e n t s wi t h a h i s t o r y o f n o n c o m p l i a n c e o r wh o have frequent hospitalizations secondary to noncompliance may be candidates for a l o n g - a c t i n g i n t r a m u s c u l a r f o r m u l a t i on o f a n t i p s yc h o t i c . C u r r e n t l y t h r e e o p t i o n s e xi s t : haloperidol decanoate, fluphenazine decanoate, and long-acting risperidone (Risperdal Consta). 1 . H a l o p e r i d o l d e c a n o a t e i s g i v e n i n t r a m u s c u l a r l y e v e r y 3 - 4 we e k s . T h e s t a r t i n g d o s e s h o u l d b e 1 0 - 1 5 t im e s t h e t o t al d a i l y d o s e o f o r a l h a l o p e r i d o l . T h i s e q u a t i o n i s o n l y a r o u g h c o n v e r s i o n , a n d t h e l o we s t e f f e c t i v e d o s e s h o u l d b e g i v e n . T h e f i r s t d o s e s h o u l d n o t e x c e e d 1 0 0 m g , a n d s u b s e q u e n t d o s e s s h o u l d n o t e xc e e d 4 5 0 m g . 2 . F l u p h en a z i n e d e c a n o a t e i s a d m in i s t e r e d i n t r a m u s c u l a r l y e v e r y 2 - 3 we e k s . T h e starting dose is 1.2-1.6 times the total daily dose of oral fluphenazine. The m a xi m u m d o s e o f f l u p h e n a z i n e d e c a n o a t e i s 1 0 0 m g a t a n y o n e t i m e . T he l o we s t e f f e c t i v e d os e o f t h i s f or m u l a t i o n s h o u l d b e u s e d . 3 . L o n g - a c t i n g r i sp e r i d o n e i s a d m i n i s t e r e d i n t r a m u s c u l a r l y e v e r y 2 we e k s . A n e f f e c t i v e d os e o f o r a l r is p e r i d o n e s h o u l d f i r s t be i d e n t i f i e d b e f o r e c h a n g i n g t o t h e l o n g - a c t i n g f o r m u l a t i o n . P a t i e n t s s h ou l d b e s t a r t e d a t 2 5 m g e v e r y 2 we e k s a n d c o v e r e d wi t h o r a l m e d i c a t i o n s f o r 3 we e k s a f t e r i n i t i a t i o n . D o s e s m a y b e i n c r e a s e d t o a m a xi m u m o f 5 0 m g e v e r y 2 we e k s . F . An t i p s y c h o t i c a g en t s m a y b e s wi t c h e d f o r s ev e r a l r e a s o n s , s u c h a s la c k o f e f f i c a c y a n d a d v e r s e e f f e c t s . W h e n s wi t c h i n g a n t i p s yc h o t i c a g e n t s , t h e o r i g i n a l a g e n t s h o u l d b e t i t r at e d d o wn wh i l e t h e n e w a g e n t i s t i t r at e d u p . I f c h a n g i n g f r o m a t y p i c a l a n t i p s yc h o t i c t o a n a t yp i c a l a n t i p s yc h o t i c s e c o n d a r y t o E PS , a n t i c h o l i n e r g i c a g e n t s m a y b e c o n t i n u e d u n t i l t h e t yp i c a l a g e n t i s c o m p l e t el y d i s c o n t i n u e d u n l e s s t h e n e w a g e n t i s c l o z a p in e . C l o z a p i n e h a s h i g h a n t i c h o l i n e r g i c e f f e c t s , t h u s a d d i t i o n a l a n t i c h o l i n e r g i c a g e n t s wo u l d n o t b e i n d i c a t e d . G . Ad j u n c t i ve t h e r a p y. I n p a t i e n t s wi t h p a r t i a l o r n o r e s p o n s e t o t h e r ap y a f t e r a n a d e q u a t e t r ia l o f a n a n t ip s yc h o t i c , a s e c o n d a n t i p s yc h o t i c s h o u l d b e t r i e d . A f t e r t h e f a i l u r e o f t wo t o t h r e e an t i p s yc h o t i c s , t h e p a t i e n t m e e t s t h e c r i t e r i a f o r cl o z a p i n e , and its use should be considered. Augmentation is an option for those patients u n a b l e t o t a k e c l o z a p i n e o r wi t h p a r t i a l / n o r e s po n s e . C l o z a p i n e h a s b e e n s t u d i e d i n c o m b i n a t i o n wi t h t y p i c a l a n d a t y p i c a l a n t i p s yc h o t i c s . O t h e r op t i o n s f o r au g m e n t a t i o n include mood stabilizers, such as lithium, valproic acid, and carbamazepine. Antidepressants have also been used in patients suffering from depressive s ym p t o m s . E l e c t r o c o n v u l s i v e t h e r a p y ( E C T ) h a s a l s o b e e n u s e d a s a n a d j u n c t i v e t h e r a p y i n p a t i e n t s wi t h p a r t i a l o r n o r e s p o n s e t o a n t i p s yc h o t i c s . P.1039
STUDY QUESTIONS
D i r e c t i o n s : E a c h o f t h e q u e s t i o n s , st a t e m e n t s , or i n c o m p l e t e s t a t e m e n t s i n t h i s s e c t i o n c a n b e c o r r e c t l y a n s we r e d o r c o m p l e t e d b y o n e o f t he s u g g e s t e d a n s we r s o r p h r a s e s . C h o o s e t h e b es t a n s we r . F o r q u e s t i o n s 1 - 5 : DG is a 2 3 - ye a r - o l d f e m a l e c o m m i t t e d t o t h e i n p a t i e n t p s yc h i a t r i c wa r d b y h e r p a r e n t s . T he y s t a t e t h a t s h e h a s r e ce n t l y b e e n u n d e r a l a r g e a m o u n t o f st r e s s f r o m c ol l e g e , a n d t h e y h a v e n o t i c e d o v e r t h e p a s t ye a r t h a t s h e h a s b e c o m e m o r e wi t h d r a wn f r o m h e r f r i e n d s a nd s o c i a l a c t iv i t i e s . T h e y a l s o s t a t e t h a t s h e a n g e r s m o r e e as i l y t h a n s h e u s e d t o a s a c h i l d , a n d t h i s m o r n i ng t h e y f o u n d h e r wi t h a k n i f e t r yi n g t o s l i t h e r wr i s t s . DG st a t e s t h a t t h e v o i c e s k e e p t e l l i n g h e r s h e i s ba d a n d t h a t s h e s h o u l d k i l l h e r s e l f . S h e d o e s n o t a d m i t t o an y v i s u a l hallucinations but describes multiple voices (male and female) talking to her c o n t i n u o u s l y t e l l i n g h e r t h a t s h e s ho u l d h a r m h e r s e l f o r t h a t p e o p l e a r e o u t t o g e t h e r . S h e k ee p s t e l l i n g yo u t h a t h e r p a r e n t s a r e t r yi n g t o g e t r i d o f h e r , an d s h e wa n t s t o l e a v e . S h e a p p e a r s t o b e a h e a l t h y yo u n g wo m a n a l t h o u g h n o t i c e a b l y agitated. Her medical history is significant only for smoking one pack/day since age 1 6 . D G i s d i a g n o s e d wi t h s c h i z o p h r e n i a . 1 . W h i ch t yp e o f s c h i z o p h r e n i a i s D G l i k e l y e x p e r i e n c i n g b a s e d u p o n h e r p r e s e n t i n g s i g n s a n d sym p t o m s ? ( A ) c a t at o n i c (B) disorganized (C) paranoid (D) residual V i e w A n s we r 1 . T h e an s w e r i s C [ s ee] . 2. W h i c h o f t h e f o l l o w in g o f D G ' s s ym p t o m s i s b e s t d e s c r i b e d a s a n e g a t i ve s y m p t o m o f s c h i zo p h r e n i a ? ( A ) s o c i a l wi t h d r a wa l (B) auditory hallucinations (C) delusions (D) agitation V i e w A n s we r 2 . T h e an s w e r i s A [ s ee] . 3. T h e m e d i c a l t e a m d e c i d e s t o i n i t i a t e t r e a t m e n t f o r DG . W h i c h o f t h e f o l l ow in g a n t i p s yc h o t i c m e d i c a t i o n s i s the best initial treatment for this patient? (A) haloperidol (B) risperidone (C) thioridazine (D) clozapine V i e w A n s we r 3 . T h e an s w e r i s B [ s ee] . 4. W h i c h o f t h e f o l l o w in g i s n o t a p o t en t i al ad ve r s e e f f e c t o f t h e me d i c a t i o n s e l e c t e d f o r D G i n q u e s t i o n 3 ? ( A ) we i g h t g a i n (B) pseudoparkinsonism (C) sedation (D) urinary retention V i e w A n s we r 4 . T h e an s w e r i s D [ s ee] . 5. DG i s s t a b i l i z e d o n t h e m e d i c a t i o n p r e s c r i b e d a n d i s d i s ch a r g e d h o m e . D G i s r e ad m i t t ed i n t o t h e p s yc h i a t r i c w ard 1 ye a r l a t e r f o r a u d i t o r y a n d vi s u a l h a l l u c i n a t i o n s s e c o n d a r y t o n o n c o m p l i a n c e
o n h e r c u r re n t t r e a t m e n t r e g i m e n . W h i c h o f t h e f o l l ow i ng t r e a t m e n t o p t i o n s i s m o s t a p p r o p r i a t e f o r DG a t t h i s t i m e ? (A) haloperidol decanoate ( B ) l o n g - a c t in g r i s p e r i d o n e (C) clozapine monotherapy ( D ) a d j u n c t i v e c l o z a p i n e wi t h h a l o p e r i d o l V i e w A n s we r 5 . T h e an s w e r i s B [ s ee a n d a n d] . Fo r q u e s t i o n s 6 - 8 : T W i s a 5 2 - ye a r - o l d f e m a l e wi t h a h i s t o r y o f s c h i z o p h r e n i a a n d d i a b e t e s m e l l i t u s t yp e 2 . S h e h a s b e e n t r e a t e d f o r m a n y y e a r s wi t h h a l o p e r i d o l wi t h g o o d r e s p o n s e ; ho we v e r , s h e h a s r e c e n t l y d e v e l o p e d l i p s m a c k i n g a n d t o n g u e c h e wi n g . 6 . W h a t t yp e o f a d ve r s e e f f e c t i s T W e x p e r i e n c i n g ? ( A ) a k a t h i s ia (B) acute dystonia (C) pseudoparkinsonism ( D ) t a r d i v e d ys k i n e s i a V i e w A n s we r 6 . T h e an s w e r i s D [ s ee a n d] . 7. W h i c h o f t h e f o l l ow i n g m e d i c a t i o n s h a s b e e n u s e d t o t r e a t t h e ad ve r s e e f f e c t d e s c r i b e d i n q u e s t i o n 6? ( A ) v it a m i n E (B) propranolol (C) diphenhydramine (D) amantadine V i e w A n s we r 7 . T h e an s w e r i s A [ s ee] . P . 1 0 4 0
8 . N ow t h a t T W i s e x p er i e n c i n g t h i s r e a c t i o n , h e r h e a l t h ca r e p r o vi d e r s w an t t o c h a n g e h e r t h e r a p y t o a d i f f e r e n t a n t i p s yc h o t i c . W h i c h o f t h e f o l l ow i n g a n t i p s yc h o t i c s i s t h e b e s t t r e a t m e n t o p t i o n f o r h e r ? (A) olanzapine (B) risperidone (C) quetiapine (D) fluphenazine V i e w A n s we r 8 . T h e an s w e r i s C [ s ee] . 9. W h i c h o f t h e f o l l o w in g a t yp i c a l a n t i p s yc h o t i c s w o u l d b e t h e l e a s t l i k e l y t o c a u s e w ei g h t g a i n ? (A) risperidone (B) olanzapine (C) quetiapine (D) aripiprazole V i e w A n s we r 9 . T h e an s w e r i s D [ s ee] . 1 0 . W h i c h o f t h e f o l l ow i n g s t a t e m e n t s d o e s n o t d es c r i b e a w ay i n w h i ch a t yp i c a l a n t i p s yc h o t i c s d i f f e r f r o m t yp i c a l a n t i p s yc h o t i c s ? ( A ) At yp i c a l a n t i p s yc h o t i c s h a v e a h ig h e r a f f i n i t y f o r s e r o t o n i n r e c e p t o r s t h a n dopamine receptors. ( B ) At yp i c a l a n t i p s yc h o t i c s a r e m o r e e f f i c a c i o u s f o r p o s i t i v e s ym p t o m s t h a n t yp i c a l a n t i p s yc h o t i c s .
( C ) A t yp i c a l a n t i p s yc h o t i c s a r e m o r e l i k e l y t o c a u s e we i g h t g a i n a n d h y p e r l i p i d e m i a t h a n t yp i c a l a n t i p s yc h o t i c s . ( D ) A t yp i c a l a n t i p s yc h o t i c s a r e l e s s li k e l y t o c a u s e e xt r a p yr a m i d a l s ym p t o m s ( E P S ) t h a n t yp i c a l a n t i p s yc h o t i c s . V i e w A n s we r 1 0 . T h e a n s w e r i s B [ se e a n d] . P. 1 0 4 1
ANSWERS AND EXPLANATIONS 1 . T h e a n sw er i s C [ s ee T a b l e 4 7 - 1 ] . D G ' s p r o m i n e n t s ym p t o m s i n c l u d e we l l - f o r m e d h a l l u c i n a t i o n s a n d d e l u s i o n s . T h e se hallucinations and delusions are characteristic of paranoid schizophrenia. DG also d o e s n o t m e e t t h e c r i t e r ia f o r a n y o t h e r t yp e o f s c h i z o p h r e n i a . 2 . T h e a n sw er i s A [ s e e T a b l e 4 7 - 2 ] . S o c i a l wi t h d r a wa l o r a s o c i a l b e h a v i o r i s a n e g a t iv e s ym p t o m o f sc h i z o p h r e n i a . H a l l u c i n a t i o n s , d e l u s i o n s , a n d a g i t a t i o n a r e a l l p o s i t i v e s ym p t o m s o f s c h iz o p h r e n i a . 3 . T h e a n sw er i s B [ s ee V I . A. 2 ; V I . C . 1 ; VI . C. 6 ] . T h e A m e r i ca n P s yc h i a t r i c A s s o c i a t io n c u r r e n t l y r e c o m m e n d s u s i n g a t yp i c a l a n t i p s yc h o t i c s f i r s t o v e r t yp i c a l a n t i p s yc h o t i c s , u n l e s s t h e p a t i e n t h a s a p r e f e r e n c e . H a l o p e r i d o l a n d t h i o r i d a z i n e a r e t yp i c a l a n t i p s yc h o t i c s . C l o za p i n e s h o u l d b e u s e d o n l y f o r t r e a t m e n t r ef r a c t o r y p a t i e n t s b e c a u s e o f i t s a d v e r s e e f f e c t p r o f i le . 4 . T h e a n sw er i s D [ s ee T a b l e 4 7 - 4 ; T a b l e 4 7 - 6 ] . R i s p e r i d o n e h a s b e e n a s s o c i a t e d wi t h m o d e r a t e we i g h t g a i n , l o w t o m o d e r a t e r i s k of E P S , a n d l ow r i s k o f s ed a t i o n . I t h a s n o t b e e n a s s o c i a t e d wi t h a n t i c h o l i n e r g i c s effects such as urinary retention. 5 . T h e a n sw er i s B [ s ee V I . A. 1 a n d 2 , VI . E. 1 , 2 a n d 3 ] . D G h a s a h is t o r y o f r e s p o n s e wi t h r i s p e r i d o n e ; h o we v e r , s h e i s e xp e r i e n c i n g a r e l a p s e o f s ym p t o m s o wi n g t o n o n c o m p l i a n c e . A l o n g - a c t i n g f o r m u l a t i o n i s i n d i c a t e d t o a s s i s t wi t h m e d i c a t i o n c o m p l i a n c e . A s s h e h a s n o t f a i l e d m u l t i p l e a n t i p s yc h o t i c s , DG is not a candidate for clozapine or adjunctive clozapine. Long-acting risperidone i s p r e f e r r e d i n t h i s p a t i e n t o v e r h a l o p e r i d o l d e c a n o a t e o wi n g t o t h e p a t i e n t ' s r e s p o n s e h i s t o r y a n d i t s p r e f e r a b l e a d v e r s e e f f ec t p r o f i l e . 6 . T h e a n sw er i s D [ s ee V I . B. 4 . b . ( 1 ) , ( 2 ) , ( 3 ) an d ( 4 ) ] . T W i s e x p e r i e n c i n g l i p s m a c k i n g a n d t o n g u e c h e wi n g o f a l a t e o n s e t , wh i c h i s b e s t described as tardive dyskinesia. 7 . T h e a n sw er i s A [ s e e V I . B. 4 . b . ( 4 ) . ( d ) ] . Vitamin E, benzodiazepines, baclofen, and reserpine have all been used in the t r e a t m e n t of t a r d i v e d ys k i n e s i a , a l t h o u g h n o n e h a s b e e n d e f i n i t i v e l y p r o v e n t o b e effective. 8 . T h e a n sw er i s C [ s ee T a b l e 4 7 - 3 ; T a b l e 4 7 - 6 ] . B e c a u s e T W i s e x p e r i e n c i n g t a r d i v e d ys k i n e s i a , h e r t h e r a p y s h o u l d b e c h a n g e d t o a n a t yp i c a l a n t i p s yc h o t i c . H e r m e d i c a l h i s t o r y i s s i g n i f i c a n t f o r t yp e 2 d i a b e t e s m e l l i t u s . O la n z a p i n e i s a s s o c i a t e d wi t h a h i g h r i s k o f c a u s i n g we i g h t g a i n , a n d o t h e r metabolic symptoms and should not be used in this patient. Risperidone has a low
t o m o d e r a t e r i s k of E PS. O t h e r a t yp i c a l a n t i p s yc h o t i c s , s u c h a s q u e t i a p i n e , t h a t c a r r y a l o we r r i s k o f EPS wo u l d b e p r e f e r a b l e . 9 . T h e a n sw er i s D [ s ee T a b l e 4 7 - 6 ] . O l a n z a p i n e h a s a h i g h r i s k o f c a u s i n g we i g h t g a i n . R i s p e r i d o n e a n d q u e t i a p i n e h a v e a m o d e r a t e r i s k o f c a u s i n g we i g h t g a i n . A r i p i p r a z o l e i s a s s o c i a t e d wi t h a l o w r i s k o f we i g h t g a i n . 1 0 . T h e a n sw er i s B [ s ee V I . C. 2 , 3, 4 a n d 5 . a ; T a b l e 4 7 - 4 ] . A t yp i c a l a n t i p s yc h o t i c s h a v e a h i g h e r a f f i n i t y f o r s e r o t o n i n r e c e p t o r s t h a n d o p a m i n e r e c e p t o r s , wh e r e a s t y p i c a l a n t i p s yc h o t i c s h a v e no a c t i v i t y a t s e r o t o n i n r e c e p t o r s . A t yp i c a l a n d t yp i c a l a n t i p s yc h o t i c s h a v e s i m i l a r e f f i c a c y f o r p o s i t i v e s ym p t o m s o f s c h i z o p h r e n i a ; h o we v e r , a t yp i c a l a n t i p s yc h o t i c s h a v e i n c r e a s e d e f f i c a c y a g a i n s t n e g a t i v e s y m p t o m s . A t yp i c a l a n t i p s yc h o t i c s a r e m o r e l i k e l y t o c a u s e s i gn i f i c a n t we i g h t g a i n a n d h y p e r l i p i d e m i a a n d l e s s l i k e l y t o c a u s e E P S t h a n t yp i c a l a n t i p s yc h o t i c s .
48 Mood Disorders R e b e k a h R . Ar t h u r G ru b e
I. DEFINITION. M o o d d i so r d e r s a r e d e s c r i b e d a s a n e l e v a t i o n o r d e p r e s s i o n i n m o o d t ha t p e r s i s t s o v e r a p e r i o d o f t im e a n d a f f e c t s t h e a b i l i t y o f t he p e r s o n t o f u n c t i o n . T he s e d i s o r d e r s a r e a s s o c i a t e d wi t h s i g n i f i c a n t m o r b i d i t y, m o r t a l i t y, a n d f i n a n c i a l c o s t . Mood disorders can cause a 10- to 20-fold increase in suicide rates and impair s o c i a l a n d o c c u p a t i o n a l f u n c t i o n i n g . T wo c o m m o n t yp e s o f m o o d d i s o r d e r s a r e m a j o r d ep re s s i o n a n d b i p o l a r d i s o r d e r .
II. MAJOR DEPRESSION A. M a j o r d e p r e s s i ve d i s o r d e r i s d ef i n e d a s a m o o d d i s o r d e r i n wh i c h t h e p a t i e n t h a s o n e o r m o r e e p i s o d e s o f m a j o r d e p r e s s i o n b u t h a s n o h i s t o r y o f m a n i a , m i xe d , o r h yp o m a n i a e p i s o d e s . M a j o r d e p r e s s i v e e p i s o d e s a r e d e s c r i b e d i n I I . D . B . Ep i d e m i o l o g y 1 . D e p r e s s i o n o c c u r s i n 1 6 . 2 % o f t he U n i t e d S t at e s p o p u l a t i o n . R e s u l t s f r o m r e c e n t s t u d i e s i n d i c a t e t h a t 6 . 6 % o f t h e po p u l a t i o n h a s e x p e r i e n c e d a n e p i s o d e i n t h e p r i o r 12 months. 2 . D e p r e s s i o n o c c u r s m o r e f r e q u e n t l y i n wo m e n t h a n m e n , wi t h wo m e n h a v i n g a l i f e t i m e r i s k o f 1 . 7 - 2 . 7 t im e s h i g h e r t h a n m e n . 3 . T h e h i g h e s t r i s k o f d e p r e s s i o n o c c u r s i n a d u l t s b e t we e n t h e a g e s o f 2 5 t o 4 4 years, although depression may occur at any age. C . P a t h o p h y s i o l o g y. T h e p a t h o p h y s i o l o g y o f d e p r e s s i o n i s n o t c o m p l e t e l y k n o wn , h o we v e r s e v e r a l t h e o r i e s e xi s t : g e n e t i c t h e o r i e s , t h e b i o g e n i c a m i n e t h e o r y, a n d t h e d ys r e g u l a t i o n t h e o r y. 1 . A s wi t h m a n y p s y c h i a t r i c d i s o r d e r s , a g e n e t i c l i n k e xi s t s f o r d e p r e s s i o n . P e o p l e wh o h a v e a p a r e n t o r s ib l i n g wi t h a h i s t o r y o f d e p r e s s i o n h a v e a 1 . 5 - 3 t i m e s g r e a t e r r i s k f o r d e v e l o p i n g d e p r e s s i o n t h a n t h e g e n e r a l p o p u l a t i o n . B e t we e n 8 % a n d 1 8 % o f p a t i e n t s wi t h m a j o r d e p r e s s i o n h a v e a p a r e n t o r s i b l i n g wi t h a h i s t o r y o f d e p r e s s i o n . 2 . T h e b i o g e n i c a m i n e t h e o r y wa s o r i g i n a l l y d e s c r i b e d i n t h e 1 9 5 0 s a n d i s t h e b a s i s f o r p as t a n d c u r r en t p h a r m a c o l o g i c a l t r e a t m e n t o p t i o n s . T h i s t h e or y s u g g e s t s t h a t d e p r e s si o n i s a s s o c i a t e d wi t h d e c r e a s e d l e ve l s o f n o r e p i n e p h ri n e ( N E ) , 5 h yd r o x yt r y p t a m i n e ( s e r o t o n i n ; 5 - H T ) , a n d d o p a m i n e ( D A) i n t h e b r a i n . 3 . T h e d ys r e g u l a t i o n t h e o r y wa s d e v e l o p e d a f t e r t h e b i o g e n i c a m i n e t h e o r y a n d s u g g e s t s t ha t i mp a i r e d h o m e o s t a s i s o f N E , 5 - H T , an d D A i n t h e b r a i n i s a s s o c i a t e d wi t h d e p r e s s i o n r a t h e r t h a n a b s o l u t e l e v e l s o f t h e s e n e u r o t r a n s m i t t e r s. T h i s t h e o r y i n p a r t a t t e m p t s t o e xp l a i n t h e c h a n g e s i n n e u r o t r a n s m i t t e r r e c e p t o r s e n s i t i v i t i e s wi t n e s s e d i n t h e f i r s t f ew we e k s o f p h a r m a c o t h e r a p y. D . D i a g n o s i s a n d c l i n i ca l f e a t u r e s 1 . M a j o r d ep r e s s i v e e p i s o d e s a r e d i a g n o s e d u s i n g t h e D i a g n o s t i c a n d St a t i s t i c a l M a n u a l o f M e n t a l D i s o r d e r s , 4 t h e d . ( D S M - I V - T R) c r i t e r i a . T o m e e t t h e c r i t e r i a f o r a m a j o r d e p r e s s i v e e p i s o d e , p a t i e n t s sh o u l d e xp e r i e n c e a t l e a s t f iv e o r m o r e p e r s i s t e n t sym p t o m s f o r a t l e a s t 2 we e k s . T h e s e s ym p t o m s i n c l u d e d e p r e s s e d m o o d ,
l o s s o f i n t e r e s t o r p l e a su r e i n a c t i v i t i e s , c h a n g e i n a p p e t i t e , u n i n t e n t i o n a l we i g h t g a i n o r l o s s , i n s o m n i a o r e xc e s s s e d a t i o n , p s yc h o m o t o r a g i t a t i o n o r r e t ar d a t i o n , d e c r e a s e d e n e r g y o r f a t i g u e , f e e l i n g s o f wo r t h l e s s n e s s o r i na p p r o p r i a t e g u i l t , d e c r e a s e d a b i l i t y t o c o n c e n t r a t e , a nd r e c u r r e n t t h o u g h t s o f su i c i d e , d e a t h , o r suicide attempt.1 P.1043
2 . S ym p t o m s s h o u l d i m p a i r s o c i a l o r o c c u p a t i o n a l f u n c t i o n i n g a n d s h o u l d n o t b e r e l a t e d t o a g e n e r a l m e d i c a l c o n d i t i o n o r s u b s t a nc e a b u s e . 3 . P a t i e n t s p r e s e n t i n g wi t h e x c e s s i v e s e d a t i o n ( h yp e r s o m n i a ) , i n c r e a s e d a p p e t i t e , we i g h t g a i n , a n d a g i t a t i o n a r e c l a s s i f i e d a s e xp e r i e n c i n g a t yp i c a l d e p r e s s i o n . E . T r e a t m e n t o p t i o n s . T hr e e t r e a t m e n t o p t i o n s e xi s t f o r t h e t r e a t m e n t o f d e p r e s s i o n : p h a r m a c o t h e r a p y, p s y c h o t h e r a p y, a n d e l e c t r o c o n vu l s i ve t h e r a p y ( E C T ) . T h e c h o i c e o f wh i c h t r e a t m en t o p t i o n o r c o m b i n a t i o n o f t r e a t m e nt o p t i o n s t o u s e s h o u l d b e p a t i e n t s p e c i f i c a n d i n f l u e n c e d b y t h e s e v e r i t y o f s ym p t o m s a n d patient preference. 1 . P h a r m a c o t h e r a p y o p t i o n s ( a n t i d e p r e s s a n t s ) . P h a r m a co t h e r a p y c a n b e u s e d f o r m i l d t o s e v er e m a j o r d e p r e s s i o n a n d p r o d u c e s a r e s p o n s e i n 4 0 % - 7 0 % o f p a t i e n t s . A n t i d e p r e s s a n t s h a v e s im i l a r e f f i c a cy; h o we v e r , t h e y d i f f e r in a d v e r s e e f f e c t s, m e c h a n i s m o f a c t i o n , m e d i c a t i o n i n t e r a c t i o n s , an d c o s t . T h er e f o r e , s e l ec t i o n o f p h a r m a c o l o g i c a g e n t s f o r p a t i e n t s sh o u l d b e b a s e d o n t h e sp e c i f i c s ym p t o m s t h e p a t i e n t i s e xp e r i e n c i n g , a d v e r s e e f f ec t s of t h e m e d i c a t i o n s , m e d i c a t i o n i n t e r a c t i o n s , p a t i e n t p r e f e r e n c e , a n d a b i l i t y o f p a t i e n t t o a f f o r d t h e m e d i c a t i o n . P a t i en t s wi t h a h i s t o r y o f r es p o n s e t o a p a r t i c u l a r a g e n t m a y r e s t a r t t h a t a g e n t i f d e s i r ed . a . M o n o a m i n e o xi d a s e i n h i b i t o r s ( M AO I s ) ( T ab l e 4 8 - 1 ) ( 1 ) I n d i c a t i o n s . M O A I s h a v e n u m e r o u s a d v e r s e e f f e ct s a n d m e d i c a t i o n i n t e r a c t i o n s and are indicated only in patients refractory to other antidepressants. These agents a l s o h a v e a r o l e i n p a t i e n t s p r e s e n t in g wi t h a t yp i c a l d e p r e s s i o n . ( 2 ) M e c h a n i s m o f a c t i o n . M O AI s i n h i b i t m o n o a m i n e o xi d a s e , wh i c h i s r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e b r e ak d o wn o f n e u r o t r a n s m i t t e r s s u c h a s D A , 5 - HT , an d N E . B y b l o c k i n g t h i s e n z ym e , l e v e l s o f t h e s e a m i n e s i n c r e a s e i n t h e b r a i n . ( 3 ) Ad ve r s e e f f e c t s . M A O I s h a v e n u m e r o u s a d v e r s e e f f e ct s t h a t l i m i t t h e i r u s e . T h e s e i n c l ud e h yp e r t e n s i v e c r i s e s , s e r o t o n i n s yn d r o m e , o r t h o s t a t i c h yp o t e n s i o n , p e r i p h e r a l e d e m a , we i g h t g a i n , a n d s e xu a l d ys f u n c t i o n . ( a ) H yp e r t e n s i ve c r i s e s c a n o c c u r wh e n i n c r e a s e d l e v e l s o f s ym p a t h e t i c a m i n e s , s u c h a s N E , b u i l d u p i n t h e b o d y, wh i c h c a n b e t h e r e s u l t o f i n g e s t i o n o f t yr a m i n e c o n t a i n i n g f o o d s l i k e wi n e a n d c h e e s e o r t h e a dm i n i s t r a t i o n o f s ym p a t h o m i m e t i c a g e n t s ( e . g . , d e c o n g e s t a n t s ) . P at i e n t s s h o u l d b e c o u n s e l e d r e g a r d i n g t h e r i s k f o r d r u g a n d f o o d i n t e r a c t i o n s wh e n t a k i n g M A O I s. ( b ) S e r o t o n i n s yn d r o m e c a n o c c u r wh e n l e v e l s o f 5 - HT b e c o m e t o o h i g h , u s u a l l y a s t h e r e s u l t o f t h e u s e o f m u l t i p l e s e r o t o n e r g i c a g e n t s . M AO I s i n c o m b i n a t i o n wi t h s e l e c t i v e s e r o t o n i n - r e u p t a k e i n h i b i t o r s , t r i c yc l i c a m i n e s , s e r o t o n i n a n d n o r e p i n e p h r i n e r e u p t a k e i n h i b i t o r s , a n d a n y o t h e r a g e n t wi t h s e r o t o n e r g i c a c t i v i t y
c a n l e a d t o s e r o t o n i n s yn d r o m e . T he c l i n i c a l m a n i f e s t a t i o n s o f s e r o t o n i n s yn d r o m e are given in Table 48-2. b . M a n y t r i c y c l i c a m i n es ( T C As ) a r e c o m m e r c ia l l y a v a i l a b l e i n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s and can be classified as tertiary and secondary (Table 48-3). ( 1 ) I n d i c a t i o n s . O wi n g t o t h e i r n u m e r o u s a d v e r s e e f f e ct s , T C A s a r e n o t u s u a l l y i n d i c a t e d f i r s t - l i n e f o r t he t r e a t m e n t o f d e p r e s s i o n . ( a ) T C A s m a y b e c o n s i d e r e d f o r p a t i e n t s wi t h a h i s t o r y o f r e s p o n s e t o T CA s , p a t i e n t s r e f r a c t o r y t o o t h e r m e d i c a t i o n s , o r p a t ie n t s wi t h c o - m o r b i d i t i e s t h a t m i g h t benefit from TCAs, such as neuropathic pain and migraines. ( b ) T C A s s ho u l d n o t b e u s e d i n p a t i e n t s wi t h s u i c i d a l i d e a t i o n s a n d s h o u l d p r o b a b l y b e a v o i d e d i n p a t i e n t s wi t h c a r d i o v a s c u l a r c o n d i t i o n s , c l o s ed a n g l e g l a u c o m a , u r i n a r y r e t e n t i o n , o r s e ve r e p r o s t a t e h yp e r t r o p h y.
Table 48-1. Monoamine Oxidase Inhibitors Starting Dose Dose (mg/day Rangea(mg/day Anticholinergi Sedatio Weight ) c Effects n Gain )
Agent Phenelzine (Nardil)
10
15-90
++
++
++ +
Isocarboxazid (Marplan)
20
20-40
++
++
++
Tranylcypromin e (Parnate)
10
10-40
++
+
++
Selegiline (Emsam) patch
6
6-12
++
0
+
a
For normal adults. Doses may need to be adjusted for elderly patients or those with impaired renal or hepatic function. +++, high; ++, moderate; +, slight. P.1044
Table 48-2. Signs and Symptoms of Serotonin Syndrome
Cognitive-Behavioral Dysfunction
Autonomic Nervous System Dysfunction
Neuromuscular Dysfunction
Confusion
Diarrhea
Myoclonus
Hypomania
Shivering
Hyperreflexia
Agitation
Fever
Tremor
Diaphoresis
Seizure
Change in blood pressure
Death
Nausea and vomiting ( 2 ) M e c h a n i s m o f a c t i o n . T C A s p r o d u c e t h e i r a n t i d e p r e s s a n t e f f e ct b y i n h i b i t i n g t h e r e u p t a k e o f 5 - H T a n d N E . T C A s a l so h a v e e f f e ct a t α - a d r e ne r g i c , h i s t am i n e , a n d c h o l i n e r g i c r e c e p t o r s . I n d i v i d u a l T CA s h a v e d i f f e r e n t a f f i n i t ie s f o r t h e s e r e c e p t o r s . ( 3 ) Ad ve r s e e f f e c t s . S ev e r a l a d v e r s e e f f e c t s e xi s t f o r T C A s a n d m a y d i f f e r b e t we e n agents, depending on their affinity for α-adrenergic, cholinergic, and histamine receptors (Table 48-3). ( a ) T e r t i a r y T CA s h a v e b e e n a s s o c i a t e d wi t h a h i g h e r r i s k o f c a u s i n g a n t i c h o l i n e r g i c a d v e r s e e f f ec t s ( b l u r r e d v i s i o n , c o n s t i p a t i o n , u r i n a r y r e t e n t i o n , d r y m o u t h ) , s e d a t i o n , we i g h t g a i n , a n d o r t h o s t a t i c h yp o t e n s i o n t h a n s e c o n d a r y T C A s . ( b ) A d d i t i o n a l a d v e r s e e f f e c t s i n c l u d e t a c h yc a r d i a , Q T p r o l on g a t i o n , c a r d i a c c o n d u c t i o n a b n o r m a l i t i e s , d e c r e a s e d s e i z u r e t hr e s h o l d , a n d s e xu a l d ys f u n c t i o n . T CA s m a y b e l e t h a l wh e n t a k e n a s an o v e r d o s e . ( c ) O wi n g t o t h e i r a c t i v it y o n s e r o t o n i n , T C A s h a v e t h e p o t e n t i a l f o r c a u s i n g s e r o t o n i n s yn d r o m e wh e n u s e d i n c o m b i n a t i o n wi t h o t h e r s e r o t o n e r g i c a g e n t s . ( 4 ) M e d i c a t i o n i n t e r a c t i o n s . T C As a r e s u b s t r a t e s o f v a r i o us c yt o c h r o m e P 4 5 0 e n z ym e s a n d l e v e l s c a n b e a f f e c t e d b y e n z ym e i n h i b i t o r s a n d i n d u c e r s . c . S e l e c t i ve s e r o t o n i n re u p t a k e i n h i b i t o r s ( S SR I s ) . F i v e SS R I s a r e c u r r e n t l y a v a i l a b l e i n t h e U n i t e d St a t e s f o r t h e t r e a t m e n t of d e p r e s s i o n ( T a b l e 4 8 - 4 ) : f l u o x e t i n e ( P r o z a c ) , p a r o xe t i n e ( P a xi l ) , s e r t r a l i n e ( Z o l o f t ) , c i t a l o p r a m ( C e l e xa ) , a n d e s c i t a l o p r a m ( L e xa p r o ) . T h e s e m e d i c a t i o n s a r e c o n s i d e r e d t o b e f i r s t l i n e f o r t h e t r e a t m e n t of d e p r e s s i o n , a n d m a n y a r e a l s o P.1045 i n d i c a t e d f o r a n x i e t y, p a n i c d i s o r d e r , p o s t - t r a u m a t i c s t r e s s di s o r d e r , a n d o b s e s s i v e compulsive disorder.
Table 48-3. Tricyclic Amines
Agent
Dose Orthostatic Rangea Hypotensio Cardiac Weight (mg/day Anticholinerg ic Effects Sedation n Effects Gain )
Tertiary amine Amitriptyli ne (Elavil)
50300
++++
+++ +
++++
++ +
+++ +
Doxepin (Sinequan)
50300
+++
+++ +
++
++
+++ +
Imipramine (Tofranil)
50300
+++
+++
++++
++ +
+++ +
Trimiprami ne (Surmontil)
50300
++++
+++ +
+++
++ +
+++ +
Nortriptylin e (Pamelor)
25150
++
++
+
++
+
Desipramin e (Norpramin )
50300
+
++
++
++
+
Protriptylin e (Vivactil)
1060
++
+
++
++ +
+
Secondary amine
a
For normal adults. Doses may need to be adjusted for elderly patients or those with impaired renal or hepatic function. ++++, very high; +++, high; ++, moderate; +, slight. Table 48-4. Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitors and Serotonin and
Norepinephrine Reuptake Inhibitors
Agent
Starting Dose (mg/day)
Dose Range (mg/day)
Half-Life
CYP450 Isoenzyme Inhibition
Fluoxetine (Prozac)
10-20
20-80; 90 mg weeklya
7-9 daysb
2D6, 2C9/19 (potent); 3A4 (mild)
Paroxetine (Paxil)
10-20
20-60
21 hr
2D6 (potent)
Sertraline (Zoloft)
25-50
50-200
24 hr
2D6 (mild)
Citalopram (Celexa)
10-20
20-60
35 hr
2D6 (mild)
Escitalopram (Lexapro)
5-10
10-20
27-32 hr
2D6 (mild)
Venlafaxine (Effexor)
75
150-375
11 hr
2D6 (mild)
Duloxetine (Cymbalta)
40
40-60
9-19 hr
2D6 (moderate)
a
Fluoxetine can be given in a once-weekly formulation in patients stabilized on fluoxetine 20 mg daily; should be started 1 week after the last dose of fluoxetine. b
Norfluoxetine is an active metabolite of fluoxetine and has a half-life of 7-9 days. The half-life of fluoxetine alone is 2-3 days. CYP450, cytochrome P450. ( 1 ) M e c h a n i s m o f a c t i o n . S S R I s e xe r t t h e i r a n t i d e p r e s s a n t e f f e c t b y b l o c k i n g t h e reuptake of serotonin. ( 2 ) Ad ve r s e e f f e c t s ( a ) S S R I s ha v e b e e n a s s o c i a t e d wi t h n a u s e a , v o m i t i n g , i n s o m n i a , s e d a t i o n , s e xu a l d ys f u n c t i o n , h e a d a c h e , a g i t a t i o n , a n d t r e m o r .
( b ) P a r o x e t i n e h a s a l s o b e e n a s s o c i a t e d wi t h a n t i c h o l i n e r g i c a d v e r s e e f f e c t s , s u c h a s b l u r r e d v i s i o n , d r y m o u t h , c o n s t i pa t i o n , a n d u r i n a r y r e t e n t i o n . ( c ) T h e s e ag e n t s h a v e b e e n a s s o c i a t e d wi t h s e r o t o n i n s yn d r o m e wh e n u s e d i n c o m b i n a t i o n wi t h o t h e r se r o t o n e r g i c a g e n t s . ( 3 ) M a n y S S R I s a r e s u bs t r a t e s a n d i n h i b i t o r s o f t h e c yt o c h r o m e P 4 5 0 s ys t e m a n d m a y i n t e r a c t wi t h o t h e r m e d i c a t i o n s . ( 4 ) A b r u p t di s c o n t i n u a t i o n o f S S R I s h a s b e e n a s s o c i a t e d wi t h w i t h d r aw a l s ym p t o m s , s u c h a s n i g h t m a r e s , v i vi d d r e a m s , t r e m o r , a n xi e t y, n a u s e a , a n d p o o r c o n c e n t r a t i o n . F l u o xe t i n e h a s l i t t l e r i s k o f c a u s i n g s yn d r o m e u p o n d i s c o n t i n u a t i o n , l i k e l y b e c a u s e o f i t s l o n g h a l f - l i f e . W i t h t h e e xc e p t i o n o f f l uo xe t i n e , S S R I s s h o u l d b e s l o wl y t a p e r e d wh e n d i s c o n t i n u e d t o p r e v e n t t h i s s yn d r o m e . d . S e r o t o n i n a n d n o r ep i n e p h ri n e r e u p t a k e i n h i b i t o r s ( SN R I s ) ( T a b le 4 8 - 4 ) . T wo S N R I s a r e cu r r e n t l y a v a i l a b l e f o r t h e t r e a t m e n t of d e p r e s s i o n : v e n l a f a xi n e ( E f f e xo r ) a n d d u l o xe t i n e ( C ym b a l t a ) . D a t a h a ve s h o wn t h e s e m e d i c a t i o n s t o h a v e e f f i c a c y f o r t h e t r e a t m en t n o t o n l y o f d e p r e s s i o n b u t a l s o o f p a i n f u l p e r i p h e r a l n e u r o p a t h i e s . D u l o x e t i n e c a r r i e s a U . S. F o o d a n d D r u g A d m i n i s t r a t i o n ( F DA ) i n d i c a t i o n f o r t h e t r e a t m e n t of p a i n i n d i a b e t i c n e u r o p a t h y. ( 1 ) M e c h a n i s m o f a c t i o n . S N R I s i n h i b i t t h e r e u p t a k e o f 5 - HT a n d N E , t h e r e b y i n c r e a s i n g t h e i r l e v e l s . T h e s e m e d i c a t i o n s d i f f er f r o m T C As i n t h a t t h e y h a v e l i t t l e a c t i v i t y f o r α - a d r e n e r g i c , c h o l i n e r g i c , o r h i s t a m in e r e c e p t o r s . ( 2 ) Ad ve r s e e f f e c t s . S NR I s h a v e a n a d v e r s e e f f e c t p r o f i l e s im i l a r t o t h a t o f t h e S S R I s . C o m m o n a d v e r s e e f f e c t s i n cl u d e n a u s e a , h e a d a c h e , s o m n o l e n c e , d r y m o u t h , d i z z i n e s s , se xu a l d ys f u n c t i o n , a n d i n s o m n i a . V e n l a f a xi n e a n d d u l o x e t i n e h a v e a l s o b e e n a s s o c i a t e d wi t h e l e v a t i o n s o f d i a s t o l i c b l o o d p r e s s u r e , p a r t i c u l a r ly wi t h h i g h e r doses. ( 3 ) M e d i c a t i o n i n t e r a c t i o n s . V e n l a f a xi n e a n d d u l o x e t i n e a r e b o t h s u b s t r a t e s f o r t h e c yt o c h r o m e P 4 5 0 i s o e n z y m e s ys t e m a n d a r e m i l d t o m o d e r a t e i n h i b i t o r s o f t h e i s o e n z ym e 2 D 6 ( T a b l e 4 8 - 4 ) . S N R I s s h o u l d n o t b e u s e d wi t h M A O I s o r ot h e r s e r o t o n e r g i c a g e n t s o wi n g t o r i s k o f s e r o t o n i n syn d r o m e . e. Bupropion (Wellbutrin) (Table 48-5). ( 1 ) T h e m e ch a n i s m o f a c t i o n f o r b up r o p i o n i s n o t c o m p l e t e l y u n d e r s t o o d . B u p r o p i o n i s k n o wn t o i n h i b i t t h e r e u p t a k e o f d o p a m i n e a n d t o a s m a l l e r e xt e n t t h e reuptake of serotonin and norepinephrine. P.1046
Table 48-5. Miscellaneous Antidepressants
Agent
Starting Dose (mg/day)
Bupropion (Wellbutrin)
75-150
Mirtazapine (Remeron)
15
Trazodone (Desyrel)
50-100
Dose Range (mg/day) 200-450
Cytochrome P450 Isoenzyme Inhibition 2D6
30-45
Does not inhibit
150-600
Does not inhibit
( 2 ) I n a d d i t io n t o i t s i n d i c a t i o n f o r de p r e s s i o n , b u p r o p i o n i s a l s o i n d i c a t e d f o r smoking cessation. ( 3 ) C o m m o n a d ve r s e e f f e c t s a s s o c i a t e d wi t h t h e u s e o f b u p r o p i o n i n c l u d e n a u s e a , vomiting, and insomnia. ( a ) B u p r o p i o n h a s b e e n a s s o c i a t e d wi t h l e s s s e xu a l d ys f u n c t i o n t h a n m a n y o t h e r a n t i d e p r e s s a n t m e d i c a t i o n s , s u c h as S S R I s. ( b ) B u p r o p i o n h a s b e e n a s s o c i a t e d wi t h a n i n c r e a s e d r i s k f o r s e i z u r e s a n d i s c o n t r a i n d i c a t e d i n p a t i e n t s a t r i s k f o r s e i z u r e s . T h i s i n c l u d e s p a t i e n t s wi t h t h e f o l l o wi n g m e d i c a l d i s o r d e r s : s e i z u r e d i s o r d e r , h i s t o r y o f a n o r e xi a o r b u l i m i a , o r u s i n g o r wi t h d r a wi n g f r o m m e d i c a t i o n s s u c h a s a l c o h o l o r b e n z o d i a z e p i n e s . D o s e s > 450 mg should not be used, and dose increases should be gradual. f. Mirtazapine (Remeron) (Table 48-5). ( 1 ) M i r t a z a pi n e a n t a g o n i z e s α - a d r e n e r g i c a n d 5 H T 2 , 3 - r e c e p t o r s , c a u s i n g a n i n c r e a s e i n l e v e l s o f N E a n d 5 - H T . I n a d d i t i o n , m i r t a z a p i n e h a s a c t i vi t y a t h i s t a m i n e ( H ) receptors. ( 2 ) Ad ve r s e e f f e c t s f o r m i r t a z a p i n e i n c l u d e s e d a t i o n , we i g h t g a i n , c o n s t i p a t i o n , d r y m o u t h , a n d in c r e a s e d a p p e t i t e . S e d a t i o n , i n c r e a s e d a p p e t i t e , a n d we i g h t g a i n c a n b e p r o b l e m a t i c , p a r t i c u l a r l y a t l o we r d o s e s . M i r t az a p i n e h a s a l o we r r i s k f o r c a u s i n g s e x u a l d ys f u n c t i o n a s co m p a r e d t o S S R I s . g . T r a z o d o n e ( D e s yr e l ) ( T a b l e 4 8 - 5 ) . ( 1 ) T h e m e ch a n i s m o f a c t i o n f o r t r a z o d o n e i s n o t c o m p l e t e l y u n d e r s t o o d , b u t i s t h o u g h t t o be o wi n g a n i n c r e a s e i n 5 - HT . ( 2 ) T r a z o d on e i s i n d i c a t e d f o r t h e t r e a t m e n t o f d e p r e s s i o n , a l t h o u g h i t i s n o t frequently used because of sedation. It is more frequently used in low doses as adjunctive treatment for insomnia in depressed patients. ( 3 ) T h e m o s t c o m m o n ad ve r s e e f f e c t s o f t r a z o d o n e i n c l u d e s e d a t i o n , n a u s e a , a n d o r t h o s t a t i c hyp o t e n s i o n . T r a z o d o n e h a s r a r e l y b e e n a s s o c i a t e d wi t h p r i a p i s m a n d QT prolongation. h. Nefazodone (Serzone). Nefazodone is a medication structurally similar to t r a z o d o n e . I t wa s c o n s i d e r e d t o b e f ir s t l i n e f o r t r e a t m e n t o f d e p r e s s i o n ; h o we v e r ,
r e c e n t r e p o r t s o f h e p a t o t o xi c i t y h a v e l i m i t e d i t s u s e a n d l e d t o a b l a c k b o x w ar n i n g for possible liver failure leading to death. ( 1 ) N e f a z o d o n e i n h i b i t s 5 - H T 2 - r e c e p t o r s a n d b l o c k s t h e r e u p t a k e o f N E an d 5 - H T . ( 2 ) Ad ve r s e e f f e c t s . C om m o n a d v e r s e e f f e ct s f o r n e f a z o d o n e i n c l u d e d r y m o u t h , n a u s e a , c o n s t i p a t i o n , o r t h o s t a t i c h yp o t e n s i o n , a n d s e d a t i o n . T h e m o st se v e r e a d v e r s e e f f ec t a s s o c i a t ed wi t h n e f a z o d o n e i s h e p a t i c f a i l u r e . ( a ) R e p o r t e d r a t e s b y t h e F D A e s t im a t e 1 c a s e o f l i v e r f a i l u r e r e s u l t i n g i n d e a t h o r t r a n s p l a n t p e r 2 5 0 , 0 0 0 - 3 5 0 , 0 0 0 p a t i e n t - ye a r s . ( b ) N o k n o wn p r e d i c a t o r s f o r t h e d ev e l o p m e n t o f l i v e r f a i l u r e a r e a v a i l a b l e . I f n e f a z o d o n e i s u s e d , l i v er f u n c t i o n en z ym e s s h o u l d b e m o n i t o r e d r o u t i n e l y. ( c ) T h e g e n e r i c p r o d u c t i s st i l l a v a i l a b l e , a l t h o u g h b r a n d n a m e n e f a z o d o n e wa s wi t h d r a wn f r o m t h e U . S. m a r k e t i n 2 0 0 4 . ( 3 ) N e f a z o d o n e i s h i g h l y p r o t e i n b o u n d a n d i s a n i n h i b i t o r o f c yt o c h r o m e P 4 5 0 i s o e n z ym e 3 A 4 , l e a d i n g t o t h e p o t e nt i a l f o r m u l t ip l e d r u g - d r u g i n t e r a c t i o n s . 2. Duration of treatment. Treatment is divided into three phases: acute phase, continuation phase, and maintenance phase. a . T h e a c u t e p h a s e b eg i n s wi t h t h e i n i t i a t i o n o f t h e r a p y u n t i l r e m i s s i o n i s r e a c h e d , t y p i c a l l y l a s t i n g b e t we e n 6 a n d 1 2 we e k s . b . T h e c o n t i n u a t i o n p h a s e b e g i n s a f t e r r e m i ss i o n i s r e a c h e d a n d t yp i c a l l y l a s t s b e t we e n 6 a n d 9 m o n t h s . M e d i c a t i o n f r o m t h e a cu t e p h a s e i s c o n t i n u e d d u r i n g t h i s p h a s e t o p r e v e n t r e l a p s e o f d e p r e s si o n . P.1047
c . A m a i n t en a n c e p h a s e i s u s e d i n p a t i e n t s wi t h a h i g h r i s k o f r e c u r r e n c e o f d e p r e s s i o n , s u c h a s t h os e wi t h a h i s t o r y o f m u l t i p l e e p i s o d e s o f d e p r e s si o n , h i s t o r y o f s u i c i d a l t h o u g h t s , a n d s e v e r e d e p r e s s i o n . T he s e p a t i e n t s s h o u l d r e c e i v e m a i n t e n a n c e t r e a t m e n t f o r 2 - 3 ye a r s , a n d m a n y m a y r e c e i v e l i f e - l o n g t h e r a p y. 3 . Ad m i n i s t r a t i o n a n d d o s a g e ( a ) A n t i d e p r e s s a n t s a r e u s u a l l y s t a r t e d a t l o w d o s e s a n d s l o wl y t i t r a t e d u p t o r e a c h t a r g e t d o s e s o v e r a p e r io d o f a f e w we e k s t o p r e v e n t a d v e r s e r e a c t i o n s . C l i n i c a l r e s p o n s e d e t e r m i n e s i f t h e d o s e s h o u l d b e f u r t he r t i t r a t e d . W h i l e f u l l e f f e c t s m a y n o t b e s e e n f o r 4 - 6 we e k s , o f t e n s o m e s i g n s a n d s ym p t o m s o f d e p r e s s i o n s u c h a s i n s o m n i a m a y r e s o l v e m o r e r a p i d l y. P a t i e n t s m u s t r e c e i v e m a xi m u m t o l e r a t e d d o s e s f o r 4 - 6 we e k s wi t h o u t r e s p o n s e t o b e c l a s s i f i e d a s i n e f f e c t i ve . ( b ) I f p a t i e n t s r e c e i v e on l y a p a r t i a l o r n o r e s p on s e , o t h e r an t i d e p r e s s a n t s m a y b e considered. When changing to another antidepressant agent, caution should be u s e d t o p r e ve n t s e r o t o n i n s y n d r o m e . T h e s e g u i d e l i n e s s h o u l d b e f o l l o we d i f changing to or from a MAOI: ( 1 ) A 2 - we e k wa s h o u t p e r i o d s h o u l d b e o b s e r v e d wh e n c h a n g i n g t o a M A O I f r o m a n a n t i d e p r e s s a n t wi t h o u t a l o n g h a l f - l i f e a n d wh e n c h a n g i n g f r o m a M AO I t o a n o t h e r antidepressant. ( 2 ) A 5 - we e k wa s h o u t p e r i o d s h o u l d b e o b s e r v e d wh e n c h a n g i n g t o a M A O I f r o m a n a n t i d e p r e s s a n t wi t h a l o n g h a l f - l i f e , s u c h a s f l u ox e t i n e .
4 . Au g m e n t a t i o n o f t h er a p y. W h e n p a t i e n t s f a i l t o f u l l y o r p a r t i a l l y r e s p o n d t o t wo o r m o r e m ed i c a t i o n s , a u g m e n t a t i o n o f a n t i d e p r e s s a n t t h e r ap y wi t h a n o t h e r a g e n t may be considered. ( a ) L i t h i u m a n d t h yr o i d h o r m o n e h a v e b e e n u s e d f o r a u g m e n t a t i o n o f an t i d e p r e s s a n t m e d i c a t i o n s . L i t h i u m a ug m e n t a t i o n i s c u r r e n t l y p r e f e r r e d o v e r t h yr o i d a u g m e n t a t i o n . ( b ) D u a l a n t i d e p r e s s a n t a u g m e n t a t i o n h a s a l s o b e e n u s e d . A g e n t s t h a t ha v e b e e n u s e d i n c l u d e b u p r o p i o n , T CA s , a n d m i r t a z a p i n e . 5 . S u i c i d e ri s k . R i s k o f s u i c i d e i s a l wa ys a c o n c e r n i n p a t i e n t s s u f f e r i n g f r o m a m a j o r d e p r e s s i v e e p i s o d e . I n a d o l e s c e n t s a n d ch i l d r e n , r e c e n t s t u d i e s h a v e s h o wn a l i n k b e t we e n a n t i d e p r e s s a n t u s e a n d r i s k o f i n cr e a s e d s u i c i d a l t h o u g h t s a n d a c t i o n s . B e c a u s e o f t h i s i n c r e a s e d r i s k , t h e F D A h a s n ow i s s u e d a b l a c k b o x w arn i n g f o r a l l a n t i d e p r e s s a n t s t h a t a n i n c r e a s e i n s u i c i d a l t h o u g h t s a n d a c t i o n s m a y o c c u r wi t h t h e r a p y a n d t h a t a d o l e s c e n t s a n d ch i l d r e n r e c e i v i n g t h i s t h er a p y s h o u l d b e c l o s e l y monitored.
III. BIPOLAR DISORDER A. D e f i n i t i o n . B i p o l a r d i s o r d e r o r m a n i c d e p r e s s i o n i s a s yn d r o m e i n wh i c h p a t i e n t s suffer from episodes of mania and depression. Mania is an unusually elevated mood a n d i s d e s c r i b e d i n g r e a t e r d e t a i l i n I I I . D . 1. B . Ep i d e m i o l o g y 1 . B i p o l a r I a n d I I d i s o r d e r s a f f e c t 3 . 7 % - 3 . 9 % o f t h e U. S . p o p u l a t i o n . I n p a t i e n t s p r e s e n t i n g wi t h d e p r e s s i o n , 2 1 % - 4 9 % o f p a t i e n t s h a v e b i p o l a r d i s o r d e r . 2 . B i p o l a r I d i s o r d e r o c c u r s e q u a l l y i n m e n a n d wo m e n a l t h o u g h b i p o l a r I I d i s o r d e r t e n d s t o o c cu r m o r e c o m m o n l y i n wo m e n . 3 . A l t h o u g h p a t i e n t s m a y p r e s e n t wi t h b i p o l a r d i s o r d e r a t a ny a g e , m o s t p a t i e n t s h a v e a n a v e r a g e a g e o f o n s e t o f 2 1 ye a r s , wi t h p e a k o n s e t o c c u r r i n g b e t we e n t h e a g e s o f 1 5 a n d 2 4 ye a r s . 4 . S u i c i d e o c c u r s i n 1 0% - 1 5 % o f p a t i e n t s wi t h b i p o l a r I d i s o r d e r . C . P a t h o p h y s i o l o g y. As wi t h m a n y p s yc h i a t r i c d i s o r d e r s , t h e p a t h o p h y s i o l o g y f o r b i p o l a r d i s o r d e r i s n o t c om p l e t e l y u n d e r s t o o d , a l t h o u g h m a n y t h e o r i e s e xi s t . 1 . A p o s i t i v e f a m i l y h i s t o r y i s p r e s e n t i n 8 0 % - 9 0 % o f p a t i e n t s wi t h b i p o l a r d i s o r d e r . T h e r ef o r e , g e n e t i c s i s be l i e v e d t o p l a y a r o l e i n i t s p a t h o p h ys i o l o g y, a l t h o u g h a d i r e c t g e n e t i c l i n k h a s no t b e e n d i s c o v e r e d . P.1048
2 . L i k e m a j o r d e p r e s s i o n , b i p o l a r d i s o r d e r i s b e l i e v e d t o b e ca u s e d b y a n i m b al a n c e o f n e u r o t r a n s m i t t e r s . H o we v e r , i n b i p o l a r d i s o r d e r , t h e n eu r o t r a n s m i t t e r l e v e l s f l u c t u a t e a n d m a y b e s i m i l a r o r r e ve r s e d , d e p e n d i n g o n t h e p a t i e n t ' s c u r r e n t c l i n i c a l presentation. a. A manic episode is believed to result from elevations in NE. b . D e p r e s s i o n h a s b e e n a s s o c i a t e d wi t h a d e c r e a s e i n N E . 3 . A d ys r e g u l a t i o n o f γ - a m i n o b u t yr i c a c i d ( G AB A) m a y p l a y a r o l e i n b i p o l a r d i s o r d e r . A d e f i c i e n c y i n G A B A, a n i n h i b i t o r y n e u r o t r a n s m i t t e r , m a y l e a d t o m a n i a c a u s e d b y u n o p p o s e d e xc i t a t o r y n e u r o t r a n s m i t t e r s , s u c h a s D A a n d N E .
4 . I n c r e a s e d a n d d e c r e a s e d l e v e l s o f c a l c i u m i n t h e c e r e b r os p i n a l f l u i d ( C S F ) h a v e b e e n d e t e c t e d i n d e p r e s s e d a n d m a n i c i n d i v i d u a l s , r e s p e c t iv e l y. C h a n g e s i n t h e e x t r a c e l l u l a r a n d i n t r a c e l l u l a r c a l c i u m l e v e l s , wh i c h c a n a f f ec t t h e e xc i t a b i l i t y o f n e u r o n s , m a y b e a f a c t or i n e m o t i o n a l v a r i a t i o n s a n d s wi t c h e s f r o m d e p r e s s i o n t o mania. 5 . R e c e n t r es e a r c h h a s f o c u s e d o n G p r o t e i n s a n d t h e i r e f f e c t s o n m o od stabilization. G proteins are involved in signal transduction and activation of second m e s s e n g e r s ys t e m s f o r v a r i o u s n e u r o t r a n s m i t t e r s , l i k e N E, 5- HT , a n d DA . a . T h e c u r r e n t t h e o r y p r o p o s e s t h a t h yp e r a c t i v e G p r o t e i n s ca u s e m o o d i n s t a b i l i t y; a n d b y n o r m a l i z i n g G p r o t e i n s , m o o d s t a b i l i t y wi l l o c c u r . b. G proteins and glutamate may also play a role in the long-term potentiation and c yc l i n g o f m o o d d i s o r d e r s . ( 1 ) G l u t a m at e b i n d i n g t o G p r ot e i n s li n k e d t o N - m e t h yl - D - a s p a r t a t e ( N M D A ) r e c e p t o r s m a y b e i n v o l v e d i n l o n g - t e r m p o t e n t ia t i o n . ( 2 ) S e r o t o n i n a n d N E a r e i n v o l v e d i n b i p o l a r i l l n e s s , b u t t h e c yc l i n g a n d l o n g - t e r m potentiation may be mediated by glutamate and the medications that affect the g l u t a m a t e s ys t e m . 6 . P s yc h o s o c i a l a n d p h ys i c a l s t r e s s o r s h a v e b e e n p r o p o s e d t o t r i g g e r e a r l y episodes of bipolar disorder, although these stressors may or may not trigger later e p i s o d e s . T h e s e l a t e r e p i s o d e s a n d c yc l i c e p i s o d e s a r e t h o u g h t t o b e ca u s e d b y i n c r e a s e d s e n s i t i v i t y o r e l e c t r o p h ys i o l o g i c k i n d l i n g o f t h e b r a i n . D. Diagnosis. Bipolar disorder is diagnosed using DSM-IV-TR criteria. The s ym p t o m s s h o u l d i m p a i r s o c i a l o r o cc u p a t i o n a l f u n c t i o n i n g a n d s h o u l d n o t b e r e l a t ed t o a g e n e r a l m e d i c a l c o n d i t i o n o r u s e o f a s u b st a n c e . 1 . M a n i a i s d e s c r i b e d a s a t l e a s t a 1 - we e k p e r i o d o f a c o n t in u o u s l y e l e v a t e d o r i r r i t a b l e m o o d , a l t h o u g h s h o r t e r d u r a t i o n s o f s ym p t o m s a r e a c c e p t a b l e i f t h e p a t i e n t i s h o s p i t a l i z e d . I n a d d i t io n t o e l e v a t e d m o o d , t he p a t i e n t s h o u l d e x p e r i e n c e a t l e a s t t h r e e o f t h e f o l l o wi n g s ym p t o m s : e l e v a t e d s e l f - es t e e m o r g r a n d i o s e i d e a t i o n s , r e d u c e d n e e d f o r s l e e p , p r e s s u r e d s p e e c h , r a c i n g t h o u g h t s o r f l i g h t of i de a s , e a s i l y d i s t r a c t e d , ps yc h o m o t o r a g i t a t i o n , a n d e xc e s s i v e i n v o l v e m e n t i n h i g h r i s k a c t i v i t i e s . 2 2 . H yp o m a n i a h a s s i m i la r s ym p t o m s t o t h a t of m a n i a ; h o we v e r , s ym p t o m s a r e n o t a s s e v e r e . H yp o m a n i a i s d i a g n o s e d b y a n e l e v a t e d m o o d p r e s e n t f o r at l e a s t 4 d a ys , wi t h a t l e a s t t h r e e o f t h e s a m e s ym p t o m s a s d e s c r i b e d f o r m a n i a . T h e s e s ym p t o m s s h o u l d n o t i n t e r f e r e wi t h s o c i a l o r o c c u p a t i o n a l f u n c t i o n i n g a n d s h o u l d n o t c a u s e hospitalization. 2 . A mi x e d d i s o rd e r i s d i a g n o s e d wh e n t h e c r i t e r i a f o r b o t h m a n i a a n d a m a j o r d e p r e s s i v e e p i s o d e a r e m e t e v e r y d a y f o r n e a r l y 1 we e k , a f f e c t s s o c i a l a n d occupational functioning, and is not caused by a general medical condition or substance. 3. Bipolar disorder may be classified into bipolar I disorder, bipolar II disorder, c yc l o t h ym i a , a n d r a p i d c yc l i n g . a . B i p o l a r I d i s o rd e r . Pa t i e n t s a r e cl a s s i f i e d wi t h b i p o l a r I d i s o r d e r wi t h a h i s t o r y o f at least one mixed or manic episode and at least one major depressive episode.
b . B i p o l a r I I d i s o r d e r . Pa t i e n t s a r e cl a s s i f i e d wi t h b i p o l a r I I d i s o r d e r wi t h a h i s t o r y o f a t l e a s t on e e p i s o d e o f h y p o m a n i a a n d o n e m a j o r d e p r e s s i v e e p i s o d e b u t h a v e n e v e r e x p e r i e n c e d m a n i a o r a m i xe d e p i s o d e . P.1049
c . C yc l o t h ym i c d i s o r d er . P a t i e n t s a r e c l a s s i f i e d wi t h c yc l o t h ym i c d i s o r d e r wi t h a t l e a s t a 2 - ye a r h i s t o r y o f m u l t i p l e e p i s o d e s o f h yp o m a n i a a n d d e p r e s s i v e s ym p t o m s . T h e s e p a t i en t s h a v e n e v e r m e t f u l l c r i t e r i a f o r a m a j o r d e p r e s s i v e o r m a n i c e p i s o d e . d . R a p i d c yc l i n g . P a t i en t s t h a t e xp e r i e n c e a t l e a s t f o u r d e p r e s s i v e , m an i c , h yp o m a n i c , o r m i xe d e p i s o d e s wi t h i n a 1 2 - m o n t h p e r i o d o f t im e a r e d e s cr i b e d a s r a p i d c yc l i n g . E . C l i n i c a l c o u r s e . T h e c o u r s e o f b i p o l a r d i s o r d e r i s v a r i a b l e a n d p a t i e n t s p e c i f i c. 1 . P a t i e n t s f r e q u e n t l y p r e s e n t wi t h e p i s o d e s o f d e p r e s s i o n . P a t i e n t s p r es e n t i n g wi t h d e p r e s s i o n s h o u l d a l wa y s b e q u e s t i o n e d f o r a h i s t o r y o f s i g n s a n d s ym p t o m s o f mania. 2 . E p i s o d e s v a r y i n l e n g t h a n d s e v e r i t y; h o we v e r , t h e y m a y l a s t f r o m d a ys t o m o n t h s if untreated. 3 . T h e d u r a t i o n o f t i m e be t we e n e p i s o d e s v a r i e s . C o m m o n l y, 4 ye a r s o r m o r e m a y s e p a r a t e t h e f i r s t a n d se c o n d e p i s o d e b u t s u b s e q u e n t e p i s o d e s a r e m o r e f r e q u e n t . Untreated patients may experience 10 or more episodes during their life. 4 . T h e m a n ag e m e n t o f t h i s d i s o r d e r c a n b e c o m p l i c a t e d b y m i xe d e p i s o d e s , r a p i d c yc l i n g , a n d s u b s t a n c e a b u s e . F. Treatment options 1. Pharmacotherapeutic options. Mood stabilizers have historically been the m a i n s t a ys o f t h e r a p y f o r b i p o l a r d i s o r d e r . A g e n t s i n c l u d e l i t h i u m ( E s k a l i t h, L i t h o n a t e , L i t h o b i d ) , v a l p r o i c a c i d ( De p a k e n e , D e p a k o t e ) , a n d c a r b a m a z e p i n e ( T e g r e t o l , Ca r b a t r o l , E qu e t r o ) . R e c en t l i t e r a t u r e h a s s u p p o r t e d t h e u s e o f a t yp i c a l a n t i p s yc h o t i c s a s m o n o t h e r a p y o r a d j u n c t i v e t r e a t m e n t s i n bi p o l a r m a n i a . A g e n t s f o r t h e t r e a t m en t o f d e p r e ss i v e e p i s o d e s i n p a t i e n t s wi t h b i p o l a r r e m a i n s m o r e l i m i t e d , wi t h r e c e n t d a t a e m e r g i n g f o r l a m o t r i g i n e ( L a m i c t a l ) , q u e t i ap i n e ( S e r o q u e l ) , a n d o l a n z a p i n e - f l u o x e t i n e ( S ym b y a x ) . T he 2 0 0 5 T e xa s I m p l e m e n t a t i o n o f M e di c a t i o n Algorithms update for the treatment of bipolar I disorder is summarized in Table 486. a . L i t h i u m is a f i r s t - l i n e a g e n t f o r t he a c u t e a n d m a i n t e n a n c e t r e a t m e n t o f m a n i a a n d h y p o m a n i a . I t i s a l s o f i r s t - l i n e f o r t h e m a i n t e n a n c e t r e a t m e n t o f m i xe d e p i s o d e s a n d i s u s e f u l a s a d j u n c t i v e t r e a t m e nt i n d e p r e s s i v e e p i s o d e s . ( 1 ) L i t h i u m is a v a i l a b l e a s l i t h i u m ca r b o n a t e a n d l i t h i u m c i t r a t e . L i t h i u m c a r b o n a t e i s a v a i l a b l e a s r e g u l a r ( E s k a l i t h ) , c o n t r o l l e d - r e l e a s e ( E s k a l i t h C R ) , o r e xt en d e d r e l e a s e ( L i t h o b i d ) t a b l e t s a n d l i t h i u m c i t r at e ( L it h o n a t e ) i s a v a i l a b l e a s s yr u p . (2) Pharmacokinetics ( a ) B e t we e n 6 0 % a n d 1 0 0 % o f l i t h i u m i s a b s o r be d f r o m t h e g a s t r o i n t e s t i n a l t r a c t . T h e e x t e n t o f a b s o r p t i o n i s n o t a f f ec t e d b y f o o d . T h e r a t e o f a b s o r p t i o n v a r i e s , d e p e n d i n g o n t h e f o r m u la t i o n . ( i ) L it h i u m ci t r a t e s yr u p r e a c h e s p e a k c o n c e n t r a t i o n s i n 1 5 - 6 0 m i n .
(ii) Immediate-release tablets and capsules peak in 1-3 hr. (iii) Extended-release tablets have peak concentrations in 4-12 hr. ( b ) L it h i u m i s d i s t r i b u t e d i n t o t ot a l b o d y wa t e r a n d p e n e t r a t e s m a n y b o d y t i s s u e s , s u c h a s t h e t h yr o i d , b o n e , a n d b r a i n . L i t h i u m i s n o t h i g h l y p r o t e i n b o u n d .
Table 48-6. Algorithms for Treatment of Bipolar I Disorder Type of Episode
Monotherapy Options First- Monotherapy Options Line Second-Line
Acute mania
Lithium, VPA, aripiprazole, quetiapine, risperidone, ziprasidone
Olanzapine, CBZ
Acute mixed
VPA, aripiprazole, quetiapine, risperidone, ziprasidone
Olanzapine, CBZ
Acute depressive
Lamotrigine or lamotrigine plus anti-manic
Quetiapine, olanzapinefluoxetine
Maintenance mania or mixed
Lithium, VPA, or lamotrigine
Olanzapine
Depression
Lamotrigine plus anti-manic or lamotrigine
CBZ, carbamazepine; VPA, valproic acid. Adapted from Suppes T, Dennehy EB, Hirschfeld RM, et al. The Texas implementation of medication algorithms: Update to the algorithm for treatment of bipolar I disorder. J Clin Psychiatry 2005;66:870-886. P.1050
( c ) L i t h i u m is e l i m i n a t e d p r i m a r i l y t h r o u g h t h e k i d n e ys . I t i s f i l t e r e d b y t h e g l o m e r u l i i n t h e k i d n e ys a n d i s a l s o c l e a r e d b y r e n a l t u b u l a r r e a b s o r p t i o n . C h a n g e s i n r e n a l function can significantly affect the clearance of lithium. ( 3 ) T h e m e ch a n i s m o f a c t i o n f o r l i t h i u m i s c u r r e n t l y u n k n o wn , a l t h o u g h s e v e r a l t h e o r i e s e xi s t . ( a ) L i t h i u m is t h o u g h t t o h e l p c o r r e c t d e s yn c h r o n i z e d b i o l o g i c a l r h yt h m s i n p a t i e n t s wi t h b i p o l a r d i s o r d e r .
( b ) L it h i u m m a y a f f e c t m e m b r a n e s t a b i l i z a t i o n . ( c ) L i t h i u m m a y a u g m e n t h o m e o s t a s i s b y e n h a n c i n g t h e f u n c t i o n o f s ec o n d a r y m e s s e n g e r s ys t e m s , e s p e c i a l l y c yc l i c a d e n o s i n e m o n o p h o s p h a t e ( c A M P ) , c yc l i c g u a n o s i n e m o n o p h o s p h a t e ( c G M P) , a n d p h o s p h a t i d yl i n o s i t o l . ( d ) L it h i u m c a n i n h i b i t N E r e l e a s e a n d a c c e l e r a t e i t s m e t ab o l i s m . ( e ) L i t h i u m m a y d e c r e a s e r e c e p t o r s e n s i t i v i t y a n d i n c r e a s e p r e s yn a p t i c r e u p t a k e o f NE and 5-HT. ( 4 ) L i t h i u m h a s a n a r r o w t h e r a p e u t i c i n d e x , wi t h a t h e r a p e u t i c r a n g e o f 0 . 5 - 1 . 2 m E q / L . T o xi c i t y i s a s s o c i a t e d wi t h l e v e l s > 1. 5 m E q / L . P a t i e nt s p r e s e n t i ng wi t h a c u t e m a n i a g e n e r a l l y r e q u i r e l e v e l s i n t h e h i g h e r e n d o f t he t h e r a p e u t i c r a n g e t h a n t h o s e o n m a i n t e n a n c e t h e r a p y. ( a ) P a t i e n t s a r e g e n e r a l l y s t a r t e d o n 3 0 0 m g t wo t o t h r e e t i m e s d a i l y o f l i t h i u m a n d t i t r a t e d u p by 3 0 0 m g i n c r e m e n t s a s n e e d e d t o a c h i e v e t h e r a p e u t i c e f f e c t s a n d m i n i m i z e t o x i c i t y. ( b ) P a t i e n t - s p e c i f i c f a c t o r s s h o u l d b e c o n s i d e r e d wh e n d e c i d i n g t h e a p p r o p r i a t e i n i t i a l d o s e o f l i t h i u m , su c h a s a g e , we i g h t , a n d r e n a l f u n c t i o n . ( c ) S e r u m co n c e n t r a t i o n s m a y b e m o n i t o r e d 3 d a ys a f t e r i n i t i a t i o n t h e r a p y o r c h a n g i n g d o s e s . L e v e l s s h o u l d b e o b t a i n e d 1 2 h r a f t e r t h e do s e , u s u a l l y i n t h e m o r n i n g b e f o r e t h e f i r s t d o s e o f t h e d a y. ( 5 ) C l i n i c a l r e s p o n s e . C l i n i c a l r e s p o n s e m a y b e s e e n wi t h i n 2 we e k s a f t e r l it h i u m i n i t i a t i o n f o r t h e t r e a t m en t o f a c ut e m a n i a . W h e n u s e d i n d e p r e s s i o n , r e s p o n s e s m a y n o t o c c u r f o r 4 - 6 we e k s . ( 6 ) P r e c a u t i o n s an d a d ve r s e e f f e c t s ( a ) L i t h i u m h a s a n a b s o l u t e c o n t r a i n d i c a t i o n i n p a t i e n t s e xp e r i e n c i n g a c u t e r e n a l f a i l u r e o r wo m e n i n t h e i r f i r st t r i m e s t e r o f p r e g n a n c y. ( b ) L it h i u m h a s t h e f o l l o wi n g r e l a t i v e c o n t r a i n d i c a t i o n s : r e na l i m p a i r m e n t , c a r d i o v a s c u l a r d i s e a s e , d e h yd r a t i o n , p r e g n a n c y, s e i z u r e d i s o r d e r , a n d t hyr o i d disease. ( c ) L i t h i u m h a s n u m e r o u s a d ve r s e e f f e c t s ( T ab l e 4 8 - 7 ) . C e r t a i n a d v e r s e e f f e ct s i n d i c a t e t o xi c i t y. I f t o xi c i t y o c c u r s , l i t h i u m s h o u l d b e i m m e d i a t e l y d i s c o n t i n u e d , t h e p a t i e n t s h o u l d b e p r o p e r l y h yd r a t e d , s t o m a c h c on t e n t s s h o u l d b e e m p t i e d wi t h g a s t r i c l a v a g e , a n d i f s ev e r e t o x i c i t y o c c u r s ( l e ve l ≥ 3 m E q / L ) , h e m o d i a l ys i s m a y b e indicated. ( 7 ) M a n y m e d i c a t i o n s a n d d i s e a s e s t a t e s m a y a f f e c t l i t h i u m le v e l s i n t h e b o d y (Table 48-8). ( a ) U s e o f l i t h i u m wi t h a n t i p s yc h o t i c s o r b e n z o d i a z e p i n e s m a y i n c r e a s e t h e r i s k f o r C N S t o xi c i t y, e s p e c i a l l y i f u s e d t o g e t h e r l o n g t e r m . ( b ) U s e o f l it h i u m wi t h m e d i c a t i o n s t h a t c a n i n c r e a s e 5 - HT m a y c a u s e s e r o t o n i n s yn d r o m e .
Table 48-7. Adverse Effects of Lithium
Early Onset
Long-Term Use
Toxicity
Gastrointestinal upset
Weight gain
Severe drowsiness
Nausea
Altered taste
Coarse hand tremor
Polydipsia
Decreased libido
Muscle twitching
Nocturia
Hypothyroidism
Seizures
Dry mouth
Rash
Choreoathetosis
Hand tremor
Acne
Vomiting
Leukocytosis
Psoriasis
Confusion
Polyuria
Alopecia
Vertigo
P.1051
Table 48-8. Factors That Change Lithium Concentrationsa Increase Lithium Levels Angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors Angiotensin II receptor blockers Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs Thiazides Dehydration Renal dysfunction Sodium loss Fluoxetine a
Decrease Lithium Levels Acetazolamide Methylxanthines (e.g., theophylline, caffeine) Osmotic diuretics Pregnancy (third trimester) Sodium supplements Urine alkalinizers (ex. sodium bicarbonate)
Not an all-inclusive list.
b . V a l p ro i c a c i d ( V P A) i s i n d i c a t e d i n t h e a c u t e a n d c h r o n i c t r e a t m e n t of m a n i a , h yp o m a n i a , m i x e d d i s o r d e r s , a n d r ap i d c yc l i n g . I t i s a l s o u se d a s a d j u n c t i v e treatment in depressive episodes (Table 48-6).
( 1 ) M e c h a n i s m o f a c t i o n . T h e m e c ha n i s m o f a c t i o n f o r V P A i s n o t e n t i r el y k n o wn . E f f i c a c y f o r V P A i s t h o u g h t t o b e r e la t e d t o i t s ab i l i t y t o i n c r e a s e l e v e l s o f G A B A . ( 2 ) M a n y f o r m u l a t i o n s e x i s t f o r V PA. V P A i s f o r m u l a t e d a s v a l p r o i c a c i d ( D e p a k e n e ) i n c a p s u l e s a n d s yr u p , a s d i v a l p r o e x i n d e l a ye d - r e l e a s e t a b l e t s ( D e p a k o t e ) a n d e x t e n d e d - r e l e a s e t a b l e t s ( D e p a k o t e E R ) , an d a s v a l p r o a t e i n intravenous solution (Depacon). ( 3 ) V P A i s ge n e r a l l y i n i t i a t e d a t d o s e s o f 2 0 m g / kg / d a y g i v e n i n d i v i d e d d o s e s f o r i n p a t i e n t s a n d 2 5 0 m g t h r e e t i m e s da i l y f o r o u t p a t i e n t s . T h e c u r r e n t t h e r a p e u t i c r a n g e ( 5 0 - 1 2 5 µ g / m L ) wa s o r i g i n a l l y d e s c r i b e d f o r t h e t r e a t m e n t o f s e i z u r e d i s o r d e r s a n d h a s n o t b e e n e s t a b l i s h e d f o r e f f i c a c y i n b i p o l a r d i s o r d e r . H o we v e r , t h i s r a n g e c a n s t i l l b e u s e f u l t o m in i m i z e t o xi c i t i e s a n d a s se s s c o m p l i a n c e . ( a ) L e v e l s m a y b e f i r s t ob t a i n e d a f t e r 4 - 5 d a ys o f t h e r a p y. T h e s e v a l u e s s h o u l d b e r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f t r o u g h v a l u e s a n d a r e f r e q u e n t l y o b t a i n e d i n t h e m o r n in g s b e f o r e the first dose of medication. ( b ) P a t i e n t s t h a t a r e t r e a t e d f o r 4 - 6 we e k s wi t h V P A c o n c e n t r a t i o n s o f 8 0 - 1 2 0 µ g / m L wi t h o u t c l i n i c a l r e s p o n s e m a y b e c l a s s i f i e d a s f a i l u r e s o f VP A t h e r a p y. ( 4 ) Ad ve r s e e f f e c t s . C om m o n a d v e r s e e f f e ct s o f V P A i n c l u d e n a u s e a , v o m i t i n g , d ys p e p s i a , s e d a t i o n , e l e v a t e d l i v e r e n z ym e s , h a i r l o s s , a n d t r e m o r . L e ss f r e q u e n t a d v e r s e e f f ec t s i n c l u d e t h r o m b o c yt o p e n i a , l e u k o p e n i a , p a n c r e a t i t i s , we i g h t g a i n , a n d l i v e r f a i l u r e . V P A h a s a l s o b e e n a s s o c i a t e d wi t h p o l yc ys t i c o v a r i a n syn d r o m e i n wo m e n o f ch i l d - b e a r i n g a g e . ( a ) G a s t r o i n t e s t i n a l a d v e r s e e f f e ct s m a y b e m i n i m i z e d b y l o we r i n g t h e d o s e o r b y u s i n g d i v a l p r o e x f o r m u l a t i o n s i n s t e a d o f v a l p r o i c a c i d o r s od i u m v a l p r o a t e . ( b ) L i v e r f u nc t i o n t e s t s an d c o m p l e t e b l o o d c o u n t s s h o u l d b e m o n i t o r e d a t b a s e l i n e , e v e r y m o n t h f o r t h e f i r s t 2 m o n t h s of t h e r a p y, a n d t h e n e v e r y 6 - 1 2 m o n t h s thereafter. ( 5 ) M e d i c a t i o n i n t e r a c t i o n s . V P A h a s t h e p o t e n t i a l f o r m u l t ip l e d r u g i n t e r a c t i o n s . V P A i s h i g h l y p r o t e i n b o u n d i n t h e b o d y, t h u s l e v e l s c a n i n c r e a s e i n t h e p r e s e n c e o f a n o t h e r m e d i c a t i o n t h a t is h i g h l y p r o t e i n b o u n d . V P A i s a l s o a s u b s t r a t e a n d i n h i b i t o r o f t h e c yt o c h r o m e P 4 5 0 i s o e n z ym e 2 C 9 a n d c a n p o t e n t i a l l y e l e v a t e l e v e l s o f o t h e r m ed i c a t i o n s t h a t a r e m e t ab o l i z e d v i a t h i s i s o e n z ym e . c . C a r b a m a z e p i n e ( C BZ ) i s i n d i c a t e d i n t h e t r ea t m e n t o f b i p o l a r d i s o r d e r a n d i s c o n s i d e r e d t o b e a s e c o n d - l i n e a g e n t o wi n g t o i t s n u m e r o u s a d v e r s e e f f ec t s a n d medication interactions (Table 48-6). ( 1 ) T h e m e ch a n i s m o f a c t i o n f o r C BZ i s n o t c o m p l e t e l y k n o wn ; h o we v e r , i t s e f f i c a c y i n b i p o l a r d i s o r d e r i s t h o u g h t t o b e t h e r e s u l t o f it s ef f e c t s o n G AB A a n d G p r o t e i n l i n k e d s e c o n d m e s s e n g e r s ys t e m s , s u c h a s c A M P . (2) CBZ should be initiated at doses of 200-600 mg/day given in divided doses and i n c r e a s e d b y 2 0 0 m g / d a y t o u s u a l d o s e s o f 8 0 0 - 1 0 0 0 m g / d a y. P.1052
(a) A therapeutic range of 4-12 µg/mL has been described for seizure disorders. W h i l e c o r r e l a t i o n b e t we e n t h i s r a n g e a n d e f f i c a c y h a v e n o t b e e n f u l l y e s t a b l i s h e d f o r b i p o l a r d i s o r d e r , i t i s u s e d t o m i ni m i z e a d v e r s e e f f e ct s .
( b ) L e v e l s m a y b e o b t a i n e d 5 - 7 d a ys a f t e r i n i t i a t in g t h e r a p y. L e v e l s s h o u l d c o n t i n u e d t o b e o b t a i n e d i n t h e f o l l o wi n g f e w we e k s b e c a u s e C B Z c o n c e n t r a t i o n s wi l l d e c r e a s e i n t h e b o d y o n c e a u t o i n d u c t i o n o c c u r s . ( c ) P a t i e n t s wh o a r e t r e a t e d f o r 4 - 6 we e k s wi t h C B Z c o n c e n t r a t i o n s o f 6 - 1 2 µ g / m L wi t h o u t c l i n i c a l r e s p o n s e m a y b e c l a s s i f i e d a s f a i l u r e s o f C B Z t h e r a p y. ( 3 ) Ad ve r s e e f f e c t s . C BZ i s a s s o c i a t e d wi t h n u m e r o u s a d v e r s e e f f e ct s , m a n y o f wh i c h a r e d o s e r e l a t e d . ( a ) F r e q u e n t a d v e r s e e f f e c t s i n c l u d e d i z z i n e s s , d r o ws i n e s s , a t a xi a , f a t ig u e , b l u r r e d v i s i o n , d i p l o p i a , n ys t a g m u s , c o n f u si o n , h e a d a c h e , n a u s e a , v o m i t i n g , d i a r r h e a , a n d d ys p e p s i a . T h e g a s t r o in t e s t i n a l a d v e r s e e f f e ct s o f C BZ a r e o f t e n d o s e r e l a t e d . ( b ) A d d i t i o n a l a d v e r s e e f f e c t s i n c l u d e r a s h , l e u ko p e n i a , t h r o m b o c yt o p e n i a , h yp o n a t r e m i a , e l e v a t i o n i n l i v e r e n z ym e s , a n d we i g h t g a i n . ( c ) S e v e r e id i o s yn c r a t i c r e a c t i o n s m a y a l s o o c c u r , i n c l u d i n g a g r a n u l o c yt o s i s , a p l a s t i c a n e m i a , s e v e r e t h r o m b o c yt o p e n i a , l i v e r f a i l u r e , S t e ve n s - J o h n s o n s yn d r o m e , and pancreatitis. ( d ) C o m p l e t e b l o o d c o u n t s , l i v e r f un c t i o n t e s t s, t h yr o i d t e s t s , a n d e l e c t r o l yt e s should be monitored at baseline and every 3-6 months. ( 4 ) M e d i c a t i o n i n t e r a c t i o n s . C B Z i s a n i n d u c e r o f m a n y h e p a t i c e n z ym e s responsible for metabolism of medications and, therefore, has numerous medication interactions. Oral contraceptive levels in the body can be decreased in patients taking CBZ. Alternative forms of contraception should be used in patients taking C B Z . C B Z c a n a l s o i n d u c e i t s o wn m e t a b o l i s m ( a u t o i n d u c t i o n ) . D e c r e a s e s i n C B Z l e v e l s i n t h e b o d y m a y b e s e e n a f t e r 3 - 3 0 d a ys o f t h e r a p y. C B Z l e v e l s s ho u l d b e m o n i t o r e d a n d a d j u s t e d a c c o r d i n g l y. d . L a m o t ri g i n e i s i n d i c a t e d i n t h e t r e a t m e n t o f b i p o l a r d i s o r d e r , p r i m a r i l y i n p a t i e n t s p r e s e n t i n g wi t h d e p r e s s i o n ( T a b l e 4 8 - 6 ) . ( 1 ) T h e m e ch a n i s m o f a c t i o n f o r l am o t r i g i n e i s n o t c o m p l e t e l y u n d e r s t o o d . I t i s currently thought to be related to its ability to decrease release of glutamate and aspartate by blocking sodium channels. ( 2 ) O wi n g t o t h e r i s k o f r a s h , l a m o t r ig i n e s h o u l d b e i n i t i a t e d a t l o w d o s e s ( 2 5 m g / d a y) a n d s l o wl y i n c r e a s e d b y 2 5 m g e v e r y 1 - 2 we e k s . L a m o t r i g i n e s h o u l d b e a d m i n i s t e r e d t wi c e d a i l y i n d o s e s > 5 0 m g . P a t ie n t s wh o a r e t a k i n g l a m o t r i g i n e wi t h V P A s h o u l d d e c r e a s e t h e d o s e b y h a l f o wi n g t o a s i g n i f i c a n t m e d i c a t i o n i n t e r a c t i o n . ( 3 ) C o m m o n a d ve r s e e f f e c t s i n c l u d e d i z z i n e s s , d i p l o p i a , n a u s e a , v o m i t in g , r a s h , p h o t o s e n s i t i v i t y, a t a x i a , h e a d a c h e , a n d b l u r r e d v i s i o n . R a s h e s m a y b e s e v e r e a n d l i f e - t h r e a t e n i n g s u c h a s S t e v e n s - J o h n s o n r a s h , an d p a t i e n t s s h o u l d i m m e d i a t e l y discontinue the medication if a rash appears. e . At yp i c a l a n t i p s yc h o t i c s h a v e r e ce n t l y b e e n t h e s u b j e c t o f m u l t i p l e st u d i e s i n t h e t r e a t m e n t of b i p o l a r d i s o r d e r . T h e s e m e d i c a t i o n s a r e i n d i c a t e d i n t h e t r e a t m e n t o f b i p o l a r d i s o r d e r ( T a b l e 4 8 - 6 ) . F o r i n f o r m a t i o n r e g a r d i n g d o s i n g , a d v e r s e e f f e c t s, a n d m e c h a n i s m o f a c t i o n s e e C h a p t e r 4 7 . O l a n za p i n e i s a v a i l a b l e i n a f o r m u l a t i o n wi t h f l u o x e t i n e ( S ym b ya x) a n d i s a p p r o v e d f o r de p r e s s i v e e p i s o d e s i n b i p o l a r disorder. f . Ad d i t i o n al a n t i c o n vu l s a n t s
( 1 ) G a b ap en t i n h a s b ee n e v a l u a t e d i n t wo t r i a l s f o r i t s u s e i n a c u t e m an i a a n d h a s n o t b e e n s h o wn a t t h i s t i m e t o i m p r ov e s ym p t o m s . I t i s n o t i n d i c a t e d f o r monotherapy in bipolar disorder but may be used as adjunctive therapy to assist wi t h s ym p t o m s s u c h a s a n xi e t y. ( 2 ) O x c a r b az e p i n e i s a m e d i c a t i o n s t r u c t u r a l l y s i m i l a r t o c ar b a m a z e p i n e b u t wi t h f e we r a d v e r s e e f f e ct s . I t i s p o s t u l a t e d t o h a v e si m i l a r t h e r a p e u t i c e f f e c t s i n b i p o l a r d i s o r d e r t o c a r b a m a z e p i n e ; h o we v e r , st u d i e s d e m o n s t r a t i n g i t s e f f i c a c y a r e l i m i t e d . I t c u r r e n t l y i s r e c o m m e n d e d o n l y i n c o m b i n a t i o n wi t h o t h e r m o o d s t a b i l i z e r s . g . An t i d e p r e s s a n t s s h o u l d b e u s e d c a u t i o u s l y i n p a t i e n t s wi t h b i p o l a r d i s o r d e r b e c a u s e o f t h e r i s k o f i n d u c i n g m a n i a . W h e n p o ss i b l e , p a t i e n t s s h o u l d b e r e c e i v i n g mood stabilizers at goal doses before initiating antidepressants and should be c a u t i o u s l y m o n i t o r e d . B u p r o p i o n a n d p a r o x e t i n e h a v e b e e n a s s o c i a t e d wi t h l e s s r i s k of inducing mania than other antidepressants and may be preferable. 2 . T r e a t m e n t d u r a t i o n / p h a s e s . T h e t r e a t m e n t of b i p o l a r d i s o r d e r i s st r u ct u r e d s i m i l a r l y t o t h a t o f d e p r e s s i o n wi t h a c u t e , c o n t i nu a t i o n , a n d m a i n t e n a n c e p h a s e s . Maintenance treatment is P.1053 s t r o n g l y r e c o m m e n d e d f o r a l l p a t i e n t s wi t h b i p o l a r d i s o r d e r , e s p e c i a l l y t h o s e wi t h a f a m i l y h i s t o r y. 3 . T r e a t m e n t a u g m e n t at i o n a . P a t i e n t s wi t h n o o r p a r t i a l r e s p o n s e t o m o n o t h e r a p y m a y r e c e i v e c om b i n a t i o n t h e r a p y wi t h t wo a g e n t s . A g e n t s t h a t c a n b e c o m b i n e d i n c l u d e l i t h i u m ; VP A ; a n d t h e a t yp i c a l a n t i p s yc h o t i c s o l a n z a p i n e , q u e t i a p i n e , r i s p e r i d o n e , a n d z i p r a s i d o n e . A t yp i c a l a n t i p s yc h o t i c s , i f u s e d , s h o u l d b e c o m b i n e d wi t h e i t h e r V P A o r l i t h i u m a n d n o t c o m b i n e d wi t h a n o t h e r a t yp i c a l a n t i p s yc h o t i c . b . F o r d e p r e s s i v e e p i s o d e s , l a m o t r i g in e m a y b e c o m b i n e d wi t h a n o t h e r m o o d s t a b i l i z e r a s f i r st - l i n e t he r a p y a n d t h e o l a n z a p i n e - f l u o x e t i n e c o m b i n a t i o n p r o d u c t i s a second-line option. 4. Treatment options in pregnancy a. Multiple agents used in the treatment of bipolar disorder have been associated wi t h b i r t h d e f e c t s . ( 1 ) L i t h i u m , V P A , a n d CB Z a r e p r e gn a n c y c a t e g o r y D m e d i c a t i o n s . ( 2 ) L i t h i u m h a s b e e n a s s o c i a t e d wi t h b i r t h d e f ec t s , p r i m a r i ly i n t h e f i r s t t r i m e st e r . ( 3 ) V P A a n d C B Z s h o u l d b e u s e d d u r i n g p r e g n a n c y o n l y i f t h e b e n e f i t s o u t we i g h t h e r i s k s . I f t h e d e c i s i o n i s m a d e t o u s e t h e s e m e d i c a t i o n s d u r i n g p r e g n a n c y, f o l i c a c i d s h o u l d b e g i v e n t o m i n im i z e t h e r i sk o f d e f e ct s . ( 4 ) L a m o t r i g i n e a n d o xc a r b a z e p i n e a r e p r e g n a n c y c a t e g o r y C m e d i c a t i o n s . P.1054
STUDY QUESTIONS
D i r e c t i o n s : E a c h o f t h e q u e s t i o n s , st a t e m e n t s , or i n c o m p l e t e s t a t e m e n t s i n t h i s s e c t i o n c a n b e c o r r e c t l y a n s we r e d o r c o m p l e t e d b y o n e o f t he s u g g e s t e d a n s we r s o r p h r a s e s . C h o o s e t h e b es t a n s we r . 1 . W h i ch o f t h e f o l l ow in g s t a t e m e n t s a b o u t d e p r e s s i o n i s t r u e ? ( A ) T h e i n c i d e n c e o f d e p r e s s i o n i s g r e a t e r i n m e n t h a n i n wo m e n . ( B ) D e p r e s s io n o c c u r s m o s t f r e q u e n t l y i n a d u l t s b e t we e n t h e a g e s o f 6 0 a n d 8 5 years. (C) Depression has no genetic link. (D) Depression is diagnosed using the DSM-IV-TR criteria. V i e w A n s we r 1 . T h e an s w e r i s D [ s ee a n d] . 2. A p a t i e n t w i t h m a j o r d e p r e s s i o n s h o u l d r e c e i ve a n t i d e p r e s s a n t t h er a p y f o r a t l e a s t ( A ) 2 we e k s . ( B ) 6 we e k s . ( C ) 2 m o n t hs . ( D ) 6 m o n t hs . V i e w A n s we r 2 . T h e an s w e r i s D [ s ee] . F o r q u e s t i o n s 3 - 4 : A 3 6 - ye a r - o l d wo m a n p r e s e n t s wi t h a 2 - m o n t h h i s t o r y o f d e p r e s s e d m o o d , a n h e d o n i a , i n c r e a s e d a p p e t i t e , we i g h t g a i n , h yp e r s o m n o l e n c e , a n d s u i c i d a l i d e a t i o n . T h i s i s t h e p a t i e n t ' s first episode of major depression. 3 . W h i ch o f t h e f o l l ow in g a n t i d e p re s s a n t s w ou l d b e m o s t a p p ro p ri a t e i n t h e t r e a t m e n t o f t h i s p a t i en t ? ( A ) a m i t r i p t yl i n e (B) sertraline (C) phenelzine (D) mirtazapine V i e w A n s we r 3 . T h e an s w e r i s B [ s ee a n d] . 4. W h i c h o f t h e f o l l ow i n g i s n o t a p o t en t i al ad ve r s e e f f e c t o f t h e me d i c a t i o n s e l e c t e d f o r t h e p a t i e n t i n q u e s t i o n 3? ( A ) s e x u a l d ys f u n c t i o n (B) nausea (C) urinary retention (D) insomnia V i e w A n s we r 4 . T h e an s w e r i s C [ s ee] . 5. W h i c h o f t h e f o l l o w in g m e d i c a t i o n s w o u l d mo s t l i k e l y e x a c e r b a t e a p r e e x i s t i n g s e i z u r e d i so r d e r ? ( A ) v e n l a f a xi n e (B) trazodone (C) bupropion ( D ) p a r o xe t i n e V i e w A n s we r 5 . T h e an s w e r i s C [ s ee] . 6. A p a t i e n t w h o h a s r e c e i ve d c i t a l o p r a m 4 0 m g / d a y f o r 2 w e e k s f o r t h e t r e at m e n t o f ma j o r d e p r e s s i o n c o m p l a i n s t h a t t h e m e d i c a t i o n i s n o t w o r k i n g a n d w ou l d l i k e t o b e s w i t ch e d t o a n o t h e r a g e n t . W h a t i s t h e ap p r o p r i a t e r e c o m m e n d a t i o n ? ( A ) P r o v i d e t h e p a t i e n t wi t h s o m e i n f o r m a t i o n o n m o n o a m i n e o xi d a s e i n h i b i t o r s ( M A O I s ) a nd c a l l t h e p h ys i c i a n t o r e c o m m e n d s wi t c h i n g t h e p a t i e n t t o p h e n e l z i n e .
( B ) E n c o u r ag e t h e p a t i e n t t o c o n t i n u e wi t h t h e c u r r e n t r e g i m e n , a n d i n f o r m h i m o r h e r t h a t it m a y t a k e 4 - 6 we e k s b e f o r e t h e f u l l r es p o n s e i s e v i d e n t . ( C ) R e c o m m e n d a d d i n g l i t h i u m t o a ug m e n t t h e cu r r e n t r e g i m e n . ( D ) R e c o m m e n d s wi t c h i n g t o m i r t a z a p i n e b e c a u s e o f t h e r a p e u t i c f a i l u r e wi t h citalopram. V i e w A n s we r 6 . T h e an s w e r i s B [ s ee I I . E . 3. a - b] . 7 . A p a t i e n t d i a g n o s e d w i t h d e p r e s s i o n w as u n s u c c e s s f u l l y t r e a t e d w i t h f l u o x e t i n e . F l u o x e t i n e w a s d i s c o n t i n u ed , a n d 1 4 d a ys l a t e r , t h e p a t i e n t st a r t e d t h e r a p y w i t h p h en e l z i n e . T h e n , 3 d a ys a f t e r p h e n e l z i n e w a s s t a r t e d , t h e p a t i en t p re s e n t e d w i t h h yp e r r e f l e x i a , f e ve r , e l e va t e d b l o o d p r e s s u r e , c o n f u s i o n , a n d d i a r r h e a . W h a t i s t h e m o s t l i ke l y c a u s e o f t h i s c l i n i ca l p r e s e n t at i o n ? ( A ) s e r o t o n in s yn d r o m e ( B ) s e r o t o n in wi t h d r a wa l s yn d r o m e (C) hypertensive crisis ( D ) n e u r o l e p t i c m a l i g n a n t s yn d r o m e V i e w A n s we r 7 . T h e an s w e r i s A [ s ee I I . E . 3. b ;] .P . 1 0 5 5
8 . A p a t i e n t p r e s e n t s w i t h p r e s s u re d s p e e c h , i n a b i l i t y t o s l e e p f o r 72 h r , b i z a r r e d r e s s , i n a p p r o p ri a t e ma k e u p , an d g r a n d i o s e d e l u si o n s t h a t i n t e r f e re w i t h so c i a l f u n c t i o n i n g . W h i c h o f t h e f o l l ow i ng i s t h e m o s t l i ke l y d i a g n o s i s ? (A) depression ( B ) e u t h ym i a (C) hypomania (D) mania V i e w A n s we r 8 . T h e an s w e r i s D [ s ee] . 9. W h i c h o f t h e f o l l o w in g m e d i c a t i o n s w o u l d b e c o n s i d e r e d f i r s t - l i n e mo n o t h e r a p y f o r a n a c u t e e p i s o d e of mania? (A) gabapentin (B) lithium (C) lamotrigine (D) haloperidol V i e w A n s we r 9 . T h e an s w e r i s B [ s ee] . 1 0 . W h i c h o f t h e f o l l ow i n g i s t h e a p p r o p r i a t e t h e r a p e u t i c r a n g e f o r l i t h i u m i n t h e t r e a t m e n t o f m a n i a? ( A ) 0 . 4 - 0. 6 m E q / L ( B ) 0 . 6 - 1. 5 m E q / L (C) 1.0-2.0 mEq/L (D) 0.5-1.2 mEq/L V i e w A n s we r 1 0 . T h e a n s w e r i s D [ se e] . 1 1 . W h i c h o f t h e f o l l ow i n g m o o d s t a b i l i z e r s w ou l d b e mo s t a p p r o p ri a t e i n a p at i e n t w i t h l i ve r d i s e a s e ? (A) lithium (B) valproic acid (C) carbamazepine (D) none of the above
V i e w A n s we r 1 1 . T h e a n s w e r i s A [ se e a n d] . 1 2 . A 3 2 - ye a r - o l d , 7 0 - k g m a n d i a g n o s e d w i t h b i p o l ar I d i so r d e r i s b e i n g t re a t e d w i t h va l p r o i c a c i d ( VP A) . W h i c h o f t h e f o l l ow i n g i s a r e a s o n a b l e l o a d i n g d o s e f o r V P A i n t h i s p a t i e n t ? ( A ) 2 5 0 m g t wi c e a d a y ( B ) 5 0 0 m g t wi c e a d a y (C) 250 mg three times a day (D) 500 mg three times a day V i e w A n s we r 1 2 . T h e a n s w e r i s D [ se e] . 1 3 . W h i c h o f t h e f o l l ow i n g f a c t o r s m a y i n c r e a s e l i t h i u m co n c e n t r a t i o n ? (A) caffeine (B) osmotic diuretics (C) increased fluid intake (D) nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs V i e w A n s we r 1 3 . T h e a n s w e r i s D [ se e] . P. 1 0 5 6
ANSWERS AND EXPLANATIONS 1 . T h e a n sw er i s D [ s ee I I . B , C a nd D ] . T h e D S M - I V- T R c r it e r i a p r o v i d e t h e d i a g n o s t i c g u i d e l i n e s f o r p s yc h i a t r i c d i s o r d e r s . D e p r e s s i o n o c c u r s m o r e o f t e n i n wo m e n t h a n i n m e n a n d i n a d u l t s b e t we e n t h e a g e s o f 2 5 a n d 4 4 . A h i g h e r in c i d e n c e o f d e p r e s s i o n o c c u r s a m o n g p a t i e n t s wi t h a p o s i t i v e f a m i l y h i s t o r y, s u p p o r t i n g a g e n e t i c l i n k . 2 . T h e a n sw er i s D [ s ee I I . E . 2] . P a t i e n t s s h ou l d r e c e i v e a n t i d e p r e s s a n t t h e r a p y t h r o u g h t h e c o n t i n u a t i o n p h a s e , wh i c h i s g e n e r a l l y 6 - 9 m o n t h s . 3 . T h e a n sw er i s B [ s ee I I . E . 1. a , b a n d c ; I I . E . 1 . f ; T a b l e 48 - 1 ; T a b l e 48 - 3 ] . S e r t r a l i n e , a n S S R I , i s a g o o d f i r s t - l in e a g e n t , p a r t i c u l a r l y i n p a t i e n t s wh o wo u l d b e n e f i t f r o m t h e s t i m u l a t o r y s i d e e f f e c t s . A m it r i p t yl i n e a n d m i r t a z a p i n e wo u l d n o t b e g o o d a l t e r n a t i v e s b e c a u s e o f t h i s p a t i e n t ' s h yp e r s o m n o l e n c e a n d we i g h t g a i n . I n a d d i t i o n , a T CA ( a m it r ip t yl i n e ) i s n o t r e c o m m en d e d i n p a t i e n t s a t r i s k f o r s u i c i d e . A l t h o u g h s o m e a s p e c t s o f t h i s p a t i en t ' s d e p r e s si o n m a y b e c o n s i d e r e d a t yp i c a l , a n M A O I wo u l d n o t b e s e l e c t e d a s f i r s t - l i n e t h e r a p y, g i v e n t h a t i t i s t h e p a t i e n t ' s f i r s t episode of depression. 4 . T h e a n sw er i s C [ s ee I I . E . 1. c . ( 2) ] . S e r t r a l i n e h a s b e e n a s s o c i a t e d wi t h n a u s e a , s e xu a l d ys f u n c t i o n , a n d i n s o m n i a . S e r t r a l i n e d o e s n o t e xp r e s s a n t i c h o l i n e r g i c a c t i v i t y a n d wo u l d , t h e r e f o r e , n o t c a u s e u r i n a r y r e t e n t i o n . O f t h e S S R I s, o n l y p a r o xe t i n e h a s b e e n a s s o c i a t e d wi t h c a u s i n g a n t i c h o l i n e r g i c a d v e r s e e f f e c t s. 5 . T h e a n sw er i s C [ s ee I I . E . 1. e . ( 3) ( b ) ] . A l t h o u g h a l l a n t i d e p r e s s a n t s c a n l o we r t h e s e i z u r e t h r e s h o l d , b u p r o p i o n i s c o n t r a i n d i c a t e d i n p a t i e n t s wi t h s e i z u r e d i s o r d e r . B u p r o p i o n i s s p e c i f i c a l l y c o n t r a i n d i c a t e d i n p a t i e n t s wi t h a s e i z u r e d i s o r d e r . P a r o xe t i n e wa s a s s o c i a t e d wi t h a 0 . 1 % i n c i d e n c e o f s e i z u r e s d u r i n g c l i n i c a l t r i a l s . S e i z u r e as s o c i a t e d wi t h v e n l a f a x i n e o c c u r s i n f r eq u e n t l y ( 1 / 1 0 0 t o 1 / 1 0 0 0 p a t i e n t s ) . T h e o v e r d o s a g e o f
t r a z o d o n e m a y b e a s s o c i a t e d wi t h s e i z u r e s ; b u t a t n o r m a l do s e s , t r a z o d o n e i s n o t t h o u g h t t o al t e r t h e s e i zu r e t h r e s h o l d . 6 . T h e a n sw er i s B [ s ee I I . E . 3. a - b ] . A n a n t i d e p r e s s a n t m u s t b e g i v e n a t t h e m a xi m u m t o l e r a t e d d o s e f o r 4 - 6 we e k s b e f o r e i t i s c o n s i d e r e d a t h e r a p e u t i c f a i l u r e ; t he r e f o r e , t h e b e s t r e c o m m e n d a t i o n i s t o c o n t i n u e wi t h t h e c u r r e n t r e g i m e n f o r at l e a s t 2 m o r e we e k s . M A O I s ar e r e s e r v e d f o r r e f r a c t o r y d e p r e s s e d p a t i e n t s a n d a r e n o t i nd i c a t e d i n t h i s p a t i e n t s ce n a r i o . L i t h i u m i s a n a p p r o p r i a t e a u g m e n t a t i v e a g e n t b u t i s n o t i n d i c a t e d u n t i l t he p a t i e n t h a s f a i l e d t wo o r t h r e e d i f f e r e n t a n t i d e p r e s s a n t t r i a l s . 7 . T h e a n sw er i s A [ s e e I I . E . 3. b ; T a b l e 4 8 - 2 ] . S e r o t o n i n s yn d r o m e m a y r e s u l t wh e n s t a r t i n g an M A O I i m m e d i a t e l y a f t e r a n o t h e r a g e n t t h a t in c r e a s e s s e r o t o n i n l e v e l s . G e n e r a l l y, a 2 - we e k wa s h o u t p e r i o d i s r e c o m m e n d e d ; h o we v e r , f l u o x e t i n e r e q u i r e s a 5 - we e k wa s h o u t p e r i o d b e c a u s e o f n o r f l u o x e t i n e ( a c t i v e m et a b o l i t e ) . 8 . T h e a n sw er i s D [ s ee I I I . D. 1 ] . T h e c l i n i c a l p r e s e n t a t i o n d e s c r i b e d i s c o n s i s t e n t wi t h m a n i a . H yp o m a n i a g e n e r a l l y d o e s n o t i m p a i r f u n c t i o n i n g . E u t h ym i a i m p l i e s n o r m a l m o o d , wh e r e a s d e p r e s s i o n t y p i c a l l y i n v o l v e s m o r e n e u r o v e g e t a t i v e s ym p t o m s . 9 . T h e a n sw er i s B [ s ee T a b l e 4 8 - 6 ] . Lithium is considered to be first-line monotherapy for euphoric mania. Gabapentin has demonstrated utility as a mood stabilizer but is considered only an adjunctive t h e r a p y. L a m o t r i g i n e i s a n a n t i c o n v u l s a n t t h a t cu r r e n t l y h a s d a t a s u p p o r t i n g i t s u s e i n d e p r e s s i v e e p i s o d e s o f b i p o l a r d i s o r d e r , b u t n o t a s f i r s t - li n e m o n o t h e r a p y f o r m a n i a . H a l o p e r i d o l i s a t r a d i t i o n a l a n t i p s yc h o t i c t h a t m a y b e u s e d p a r e n t e r a l l y t o m a n a g e a c u t e a g i t a t i o n b u t i s n o t a pp r o p r i a t e a s f i r st - l i n e m o n o t h e r a p y. 1 0 . T h e a n sw er i s D [ s ee I I I . F . 1. a . ( 4 ) ] . T h e t h e r a p e u t i c r a n g e o f l i t h i u m i s 0 . 5 - 1 . 2 m E q/ L . W h e n u s in g l i t h i u m i n t h e t r e a t m e n t of a c u t e m a n i a , t h e u p p e r e n d o f t h e t h e r a p e u t i c r a n g e i s t yp i c a l l y u s e d . 1 1 . T h e a n sw er i s A [ s e e I I I . F . 1. a . ( 6 ) a n d ( 7 ) ; I I I . F . 1 . b . ( 4 ) ; I I I . F . 1 . c. ( 3 ) . ( b ) ; T a b l e 48-7]. L i t h i u m i s n o t k n o wn t o c a u s e h e p a t i c d ys f u n c t i o n , n o r i s it m e t a b o l i z e d v i a t h e l i v e r . H o we v e r , b o t h v a lp r o i c a c i d a n d c a r b a m a z e p i n e c a n i m p a i r l i v e r f u n c t i o n . P.1057
1 2 . T h e a n sw er i s D [ s ee I I I . F . 1. b . ( 3 ) ] . T h e a p p r o p r i a t e l o a d i n g d o s e f o r V P A i n a c u t e m a n i a i s 2 0 m g / k g / d a y; t h e r e f o r e , i n t h i s p a t i e n t , t h e a p p r o p r i a t e l o a d i n g d o s e i s 1 4 0 0 m g / d a y. T h i s e q u a t i o n a p p r o x i m a t e s t h e n e e d f o r t h e p a t i en t , a n d i t i s a p p r o p r i a t e t o r o u n d u p t o a v a i l a b l e dosage forms. 1 3 . T h e a n sw er i s D [ s ee T a b l e 4 8 - 8 ] . C a f f e i n e , o s m o t i c d i ur e t i c s , a n d i n c r e a s e d fluid intake all decrease lithium concentrations. Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs decrease renal blood flow and decrease lithium clearance, resulting in increased lithium concentrations.
49 Asthma and Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease R o y A. P l e a s a n t s
I. ASTHMA A. D e f i n i t i o n . A s t h m a i s a c h r o n i c i n f l a m m a t o r y d i s o r d e r o f t h e a i r wa ys . I t i n v o l v e s c o m p l e x i n t e r a c t i o n s b e t we e n m a n y c e l l s ( e . g . e o s i n o p h i l s , m a s t c e l l s ) a n d i n f l a m m a t o r y m e d i a t o r s ( e . g . i n t e r l eu k i n s , l e u k o t r i e n e s ) t h a t r e s u l t i n i n f l a m m a t i o n , obstruction (partially or completely reversible after treatment or resolves s p o n t a n e o u s l y) , i n c r e a s e d a i r wa y r e s p o n s i v e n e s s ( i . e . , h yp e r r e s p o n s i v e n e s s ) , a n d e p i s o d i c a s t h m a s ym p t o m s ( s e e I . G . 1 ) . N e u t r o ph i l s m a y p l a y a n i m p o r t a n t r o l e i n s o m e a s t h m a e xa c e r b a t i o n s . B . C l a s s i f i c a t i o n . A s t hm a s e v e r i t y c l a s s i f i c a t i o n s a c c o r d i n g t o t h e 2 0 07 e xp e r t p a n e l r e p o r t o f t h e N a t i o n a l H e a r t , Lu n g , a n d B l o o d I n s t i t u t e i n c l u d e m i l d i n t e r m i t t e n t a s t h m a i n a d d i t i o n t o m i l d , mo d er a t e , a n d s e ve r e p e r s i s t e n t a s t h m a ( T a b l e 4 9 - 1 ) . T h e a s t h m a g u i d e l i n e s h i g h l i g h t t h a t d i s e a s e se v e r i t y i s u s e d t o i n i t i a t e t h e r a p y a n d a s t h m a c o n t r o l s h o u l d b e u s e d t o m o n i t o r t h e r a p y. T h e 2 0 0 7 Guidelines have also been modified to incorporate domains of both disease risk and i m p a i r m e n t t o d e t e r m i n e d i s e a s e s e v e r i t y. T h e g u i d e l i n e s d e f i n e i m p a i r m e n t a s t h e f r e q u e n c y a n d i n t e n s i t y o f s ym p t o m s a n d f u n c t io n a l l i m i t a t i o n s t h e p a t i e n t i s c u r r e n t l y i s e xp e r i e n c i n g o r h a s r e ce n t l y e xp e r i e n c e d . R i s k i s d e f i n e d a s t h e l i k e l i h o o d o f a s t m a e xa c e r b a t i o n s , p r o g r e s s i v e d e c l i n e i n l u n g f u n c t i o n ( o r f o r c h i l d r e n l u n g g r o wt h ) , o r a d v e r s e e f f e c t s f r o m m e d i c a t i o n s . A p a t i e n t ' s se v e r i t y c l a s s i f i c a t i o n p l a ys a n i m p o r t a n t r o le i n d e t e r m i n i n g t h e m o s t a p p r o p r i a t e p h a r m a c o t h e r a p e u t i c a p p r o a c h a n d i s d e t e r m i n e d b y: 1 . S ym p t o m s ( s h o r t - a ct in g B - a g o n i s t u s e , n o c t ur n a l s ym p t o m s ) 2 . I n t e r f e r e n c e wi t h n o r m a l d a i l y a c t i v i t y 3. Lung function (spirometry to determine FEV1 and FVC) 4. Frequency of exacerbations C . I n c i d e n ce . I n 2 0 0 2 , a c c o r d i n g t o C D C d a t a , a p p r o xi m a t e l y 3 1 m i l l i o n A m e r i c a n s had ever been told they had asthma during their lifetime. In 2002, 20 million people i n t h e U . S. h a d a s t h m a ( ~ 7 % o f p o p u l a t i o n ) . 1 . I t h a s b ee n e s t i m a t e d t h a t 8 . 3 % m i l l i o n c h i l d r e n a g e 1 8 ye a r s a n d y o u n g e r h a v e asthma. 2 . A s t h m a im p r o v e s i n m a n y c h i l d r e n a s t h e y a g e ; 5 0 % a p p e a r t o h a v e “ o u t g r o wn ” a s t h m a b y t h e i r m i d - t e e n s . H o we v e r , i t i s i n c o r r e c t t o c o n s i d e r t h a t t h e s e i n d i v i d u a l s n o l o n g e r h a v e a s t h m a , b e c a u s e m a n y e v e n t u a l l y h a v e a r e t u r n o f s ym p t o m s . 3 . S i x t y p e r c e n t o f a st hm a t i c s h a v e a t l e a s t o n e a s t h m a f l a r e e a c h ye a r 4. Although death from asthma remains uncommon, death rates had been increasing i n r e c e n t ye a r s b u t a p p e a r t o h a v e r e a c h e d a p l a t e a u . I n 1 99 9 , t h e r e we r e 4 6 5 7 d e a t h s a t t r ib u t e d t o a s t h m a . T h e m o s t c o m m o n c a u s e o f d ea t h i s b e l i e v e d t o b e i n a d e q u a t e a s s e s s m e n t o f t h e s e v e r it y o f a i r wa y o b s t r u c t i o n b y e i t h e r p r a c t i t i o n e r o r p a t i e n t , l e a d i n g t o s u b o p t i m a l t h e r a p y.
5 . T h e c o st t o s o c i e t y o f a s t h m a i s su b s t a n t i a l . I n 2 0 0 0 a l o n e , i t i s e s t im a t e d t h a t d i r e c t c o s t s r e l a t e d t o as t h m a e xc e e d e d $ 8 . 1 b i l l i o n . T h e s e c o s t s i n c l u d e $ 2 . 4 b i l l i o n f o r m e d i c a t i o n s a n d $ 3 . 5 b i l l i o n f o r h o s p i t a l i z a t i o n s . I n d i r e c t c o s t s o f a st h m a a r e e s t i m a t ed a t $ 4 . 6 b i ll i o n . A c u t e ca r e v i s i t s ( e . g . , h o s p i t a l i z a t i o n s ) a c co u n t f o r t h e m a j o r i t y o f h e a l t h c a r e c o s t s f o r as t h m a . D . C a u s e . Pr e c i p i t a t i n g f a c t o r s o f an a c u t e a s t hm a e xa c e r b a t i o n m a y i n c l u d e t h e f o l l o wi n g : 1 . A l l e r g e n s ( e . g . , p o l l e n , h o u s e d u s t m it e , a n im a l d a n d e r , m o l d , c o c kr o a c h e s , f o o d ) a . C o n c u r r e n t p r e d i s p o s i t i o n t o a l l e r g y i s h i g h l y p r e v a l e n t i n p a t i e n t s wi t h a s t h m a , especially children. P.1059
Table 49-1. Classification of Asthma Severity
b . F o r e xa m p l e , a l l e r g i c r h i n i t i s i s r ep o r t e d i n 4 5 % o f p a t i e n t s wi t h a s t h m a compared to 20% of the general population. 2 . O c c u p a t i o n a l e x p o s u r e s ( e . g . , c he m i c a l i r r i t a n t s , f l o u r , wo o d , t e xt i l e d u s t s ) 3 . V i r a l r e s pi r a t o r y t r a c t i n f e c t i o n s 4. Exercise 5 . E m o t i o n s ( e . g . , a n xi e t y, s t r e s s , h a r d l a u g h t e r o r c r yi n g ) 6 . E x p o s u r e t o i r r i t a n t s ( e . g . , s t r o n g o d o r s , c h em i c a l s , f u m e s ) 7 . E n v i r o n m e n t a l e x p o s u r e s ( e . g . , we a t h e r c h a n g e s , c o l d a i r , s u l f u r d i o x i d e , cigarette smoke) 8. Drugs a . R e a c t i o n s t o d r u g s m a y o c c u r a s a r e s u l t o f h yp e r s e n s i t i v i t y o r a s a n e xt e n s i o n o f the pharmacological effect. b. Problematic drugs include ( 1 ) A s p i r i n an d o t h e r n o n s t e r o i d a l a n t i - i n f l a m m a t o r y d r u g s s u c h a s i b u p r o f e n ( n o t e : c yc l o o x yg e n a s e 2 i n h i b i t o r s a r e n o t r e c o m m e n d e d f o r u s e i n a s p i r i n - s e n s i t i v e asthma patients) (2) Antiadrenergic and cholinergic drugs (e.g., β-adrenergic blockers, bethanechol)
( 3 ) M e d i c a t io n s ( o r f o o ds ) t h a t c o n t a i n t a r t r a z i ne , s u l f i t e s, be n z a l k o n i u m c h l o r i d e , and other preservatives ( 4 ) E x c i p i en t s i n i n h a l e d d ru g s t h a t a r e d e r i va t i ve s o f l eg u m e s ( s o yb e a n s ) i n peanut allergic patients. E.g. oleic acid P.1060
E . P a t h o l o g y. O n p o s t m o r t e m e xa m i n a t i o n o f p a t i e n t s wi t h a s t h m a , t h e f o l l o wi n g c h a r a c t e r i s t ic s h a v e b e e n i d e n t i f i e d : 1 . H yp e r t r o p h y o f s m o o t h m u s c l e 2 . A i r wa ys c o n t a i n i n g p l u g s c o n s i s t i n g o f i n f l a m m a t o r y c e l l s a n d t h e i r de b r i s , proteins, and mucus 3 . I n f l a m m a t o r y c e l l u l a r i n f i l t r a t e wi t h v a s o d i l a t i o n , d e n u d e d a i r wa y e p i t h e l i u m , a n d microvascular leakage 4 . V a s o d i l a t i o n o f t h e v as c u l a t u r e 5 . D e n u d e d a i r wa y e p i t h e l i u m 6 . M i c r o v a sc u l a r l e a k a g e 7. Collagen deposition in basement membranes F . P a t h o p h y s i o l o g y ( F ig u r e 4 9 - 1 ) 1. Major contributing processes a . I n f l a m m at o r y c e l l s ( i. e . , m a s t c e ll s , e o s i n o p h i l s , a c t i v at e d T c e l l s, m a c r o p h a g e s , a n d e p i t h e l i a l c e l l s ) s e c r e t e m e d i a t o r s a n d i n f l u e n c e t h e a i r wa y s d i r e c t l y o r v i a neural mechanisms. b . Ai rw a y o b s t r u c t i o n is r e s p o n s i b l e f o r m a n y o f t h e c l i n i ca l m a n i f e s t a t i o n s o f asthma. ( 1 ) S e v e r i t y o f o b s t r u c t i o n i s v a r i a b l e a n d b e l i e v e d t o b e a r es u l t o f b r o n c h o c o n s t r i c t i o n , a i r wa y wa l l e d e m a , m u c u s p l u g f o r m a t i o n , a i r wa y r e m o d e l i n g , s m o o t h m u s c l e h yp e r t r o p h y, a n d h y p e r p l a s i a . ( 2 ) A i r wa y o b s t r u c t i o n r e d u c e s v e n t i l a t i o n t o s o m e l u n g r e g i o n s , wh i c h c a u s e s a v e n t i l a t i o n / p e r f u s i o n ( V / Q ) i m b a l a n c e t h a t l e a d s t o h yp o xe m i a . T h i s i s r ef l e c t e d b y a P.1061 r e d u c t i o n i n t h e p a r t i a l p r e s s u r e o f ar t e r i a l o x yg e n ( P a O 2 ) o bs e r v e d i n m o d e r a t e t o severe exacerbations.
Figure 49-1. The pathophysiology of asthma.
c . H yp e r r e s p o n s i ve n e s s , a n e xa g g e r a t e d r e s p o n s e t o c e r t a i n s t i m u l i , is a n i m p o r t a n t f ea t u r e o f a st h m a a n d a p p e a r s t o c o r r e l a t e wi t h c l i n i c a l s e v e r i t y a n d m e d i c a t i o n r e q u i r e m e n t s . I n c r e a s e d l e v e l s o f i n f la m m a t o r y m e d i a t o r s a n d i n f i l t r a t i o n by inflammatory cells are thought to be the primary mechanisms responsible for a i r wa y h yp e r r e s p o n s i v e n e s s . d . Ai rw a y i n f l a m m a t i o n i s c r u c i a l t o d e v e l o p m e n t o f a st h m a a n d c o n t r i b u t e s t o a i r wa y h yp e r r e s p o n s i v e n e s s , a i r f l ow o b s t r u c t i o n , r e s p i r a t o r y s ym p t o m s , a n d d i s e a s e c h r o n i c i t y. I n f l a m m a t o r y c e l l s a n d t he i r m e d i a t o r s a r e r e s p on s i b l e f o r a l t e r e d mucociliary function, epithelial disruption ranging from minor ciliary loss to severely d e n u d e d e p i t h e l i u m , i n c r e a s e d a i r wa y p e r m e a b i l i t y ( t o i n h a l e d a l l e r g e n s , i r r i t a n t s , a n d i n f l a m m a t o r y m e d i a t o r s ) , a n d r ed u c e d c l e a r a n c e o f i n f l a m m a t o r y m e d i a t o r s . ( 1 ) A c u t e i nf l a m m a t i o n i s a s s o c i a t ed wi t h e a r l y r e c r u i t m e n t o f c e l l s t o t he a i r wa y. ( 2 ) S u b a c u t e i n f l a m m a t i o n i s a s s o c i a t e d wi t h r e c r u i t e d a n d r e s i d e n t c e l l a c t i v a t i o n , resulting in more persistent inflammation. ( 3 ) C h r o n i c i n f l a m m a t i o n i s a s s o c i a t e d wi t h p e r s i s t e n t c e l l da m a g e a n d o n g o i n g r e p a i r , r e s u l t i n g i n a i r wa y a b n o r m a l i t i e s t h a t m a y b e c o m e p e r m a n e n t . e . A l t e r a t i o n i n a u t o n o mi c n eu r a l co n t ro l a l s o c o n t r i b u t e s t o o b s t r u c t i on . ( 1 ) E l e v a t e d p a r a s ym p a t h e t i c t o n e a n d r e f l e x b r o n c h o c o n s t r i c t i o n m a y o c c u r a s a r e s u l t o f i n cr e a s e d c h o l i n e r g i c s e n s i t i v i t y o r a c h a n g e i n m u s c a r i n i c r e c e p t o r function. ( 2 ) I n c r e a s ed s m o o t h m u s c l e r e s p o n s i v e n e s s m a y b e t h e r e s u l t o f s m o o t h m u s c l e h yp e r t r o p h y. E xp o s u r e o f t h e n e r v e e n d i n g s , c a u s e d b y i n f l a m m a t i o n , m a y a l s o contribute. f . Ai rw a y r e m o d e l i n g ca n r e s u l t f r om p e r s i s t e n t i n f l a m m a t i o n f r o m c h r o n i c a s t h m a . T h e r e s u l t i n g d a m a g e c a n yi e l d p e r m a n e n t a i r wa y a b n o r m a l i t i e s b e c a u s e o f s u b b a s e m e n t m e m b r a n e c o l l a g e n d e p o s i t i o n a n d f i b r o s i s . H yp e r t r o p h y o f t h e a i r wa y s m o o t h m u s c l e i s a n o t h e r f o r m o f t is s u e r e m o d e l i n g i n a s t h m a . T h e s e ev e n t s m a y o c c u r e v e n i n t h e f a c e of m i l d d i s e a s e b u t a i r wa y r e m o d e l i n g d o e s n o t n e c e s s a r i l y occur in all asthma patients. 2 . S e q u e n c i n g o f e ve n t s i n a s t h m a
a . T ri g g e r i n g . I n a n a l l e r g i c a s t h m a p a t i e n t , a f t e r e xp o s u r e t o a n a l l e r g i c t r i g g e r , t h e a n t i g e n b i n d s t o i m m u n o g l o b u l i n E ( I g E ) , wh i c h i s a t t a ch e d t o a c t i va t e d m a s t c e l l s . N o n a l l e r g i c f a c t o r s ( e . g . , a s p i r in , v i r a l i n f e ct i o n s ) m a y a l s o f u n c t i o n a s t r i g g e r s . V i r a l i n f e c t i o n s s e r v e a s a n i m p o r t a n t ca u s e o f wo r s e n e d a s t h m a . b. Early and late responses ( 1 ) T h e e a r l y a s t h m a t i c r e s p o n s e be g i n s wi t h i n 3 0 m i n o f t r i g g e r e x p o s u r e ( u s u a l l y o n l y s e v e r a l m i n u t e s a f t e r e xp o s u r e ) a n d r e s o l v e s wi t h i n 2 h r . T h i s r e su l t s i n c o n s t r i c t i o n o f t h e a i r wa y s m o o t h m u s c l e s , b r o n c h o s p a s m , a n d s u b s e q u e n t l y a s t h m a s ym p t o m s . T h i s r e s p o n s e c a n b e b l o c k e d b y t h e a d m i n i s t r a t i o n o f s h o r t - a c t i n g β a g o n i s t s ( a l b u t e r o l [ V e n t o l i n , P r o v en t i l ] , b it o l t e r o l [ M a xa i r ] o r l e v a l b u t e r o l [ Xo p e n e x ] ) . ( 2 ) T h e l a t e a s t h m a t i c r e s p o n s e i nv o l v e s a s e co n d d e c l i n e i n l u n g f u n c t i o n t y p i c a l l y 4 - 8 h r a f t e r t h e i n i t i a l t r i g g e r e xp o s u r e . T h e e a r l y a s t h m a r e s po n s e d o e s not necessarily progress into the late asthmatic response. The late asthmatic r e s p o n s e , p r i n c i p a l l y a n i n f l a m m a t o r y r e s p o n s e , i s c h a r a c t e r iz e d b y p e r s i s t e n t a i r f l o w o b s t r u c t i o n , a i r wa y i n f l a m m a t i o n , a n d b r o n c h i a l h yp e r r e s p o n s i v e n e s s . T h e r e s p o n s e m a y l a s t s e v e r a l d a ys , a n d b r o n c h i a l h yp e r r e a c t i v i t y m a y p e r s i s t f o r s e v e r a l we e k s . T h i s r e sp o n s e c a n b e b l o c k e d b y t h e a d m i n i s t r a t i o n o f c o r t i c o s t e r o id s — i n h a l e d s t e r o i d s s u ch a s b u d e s o n i d e ( P u l m i c o r t ) a n d l e u k o t r i e n e m o d i f i e r s s u c h a s m o n t el u k a s t ( S i n g u l a i r ) o r c r om o n e s ( i . e . , c r o m o l yn s o d i u m ( I n t a l ) or nedocromil (Tilade). G . Cl i n i c a l e va l u a t i o n 1 . P h ys i c a l f i n d i n g s a . I n a s ym p t o m a t i c p a t i e n t s , p h ys i c a l f i n d i n g s o f a s t h m a a r e o f t e n n o t p r e s e n t . b . P h ys i c a l f i n d i n g s d e p e n d o n t h e s e v e r i t y o f t he u n d e r l yi n g d i s e a s e a n d t h e s e v e r i t y o f t h e e xa c e r b a t i o n . R e g a r d l e s s o f t h e u n d e r l yi n g d i s e a s e s e v e r i t y, p a t i e n t s c a n h a v e m i l d , m o d e r a t e , o r s e v e r e e xa c e r b a t i o n s ( T a b l e 49 - 2 ) . c . P a t i e n t s wi t h c h r o n i c , p o o rl y c o n t ro l l e d , se ve r e a s t h m a m a y h a v e e v i d e n c e o f c h r o n i c h yp e r i n f l a t i o n , i n c l u d i n g b a r r e l c h e s t a nd d e c r e a s e d d i a p h r a g m a t i c excursion, similar to chronic obstructive pulmonary disease d . Ac u t e e x a c e r b a t i o n s m a y h a v e a s u d d e n o r g r a d u a l o n s e t . S ym p t o m s a r e frequently nocturnal or occur in the early morning hours. P.1062
Table 49-2. Stages of Severity of an Acute Asthmatic Attack
Stage
Symptoms
FEV1 or FVC
Arterial pH
Pao2
Paco2
I Mild
Breathlessne ss while walking, speaks in sentences, moderate wheezing
> 70% of norma l
Norma l or ↑
Norma l or ↓
Norma l or ↓
II Moderate
Dyspnea while at rest, talks in phrases, loud wheezing throughout expiration
40%69% of norma l
↑
> 60 mmHg
< 42 mmHg
III Severe
Breathlessne ss while at rest, speaks in words, loud wheezing, coughing difficulty speaking, accessory chest muscle use, and chest hyperinflatio n
< 40% of norma l
Norma l or ↓
< 60 mmHg
> 42 mmHg
IV Respirator y failure
Severe respiratory distress, confusion, lethargy, cyanosis, disappearanc e of breath sounds, and pulsus paradoxus >12 mm Hg
< 25% of norma l
↓↓
↓
↑↑
FEV1, forced expiratory volume in 1 sec; FVC, forced vital capacity; Pao2; partial pressure of arterial oxygen; Paco2; partial pressure of arterial carbon dioxide; ↑, increased; ↓, decreased; ↑↑, markedly increased; ↓↓, markedly decreased. (1) Common findings in an acute exacerbation include ( a ) S h o r t n e ss o f b r e a t h ( b ) W h e e z i n g ( u s u a l l y o c c u r s a t t h e e n d o f e xh a l a t i o n b u t m ay b e h e a r d t h r o u g h o u t i n s p i r a t i o n a n d e xh a l a t i o n i n m o r e s ev e r e a s t h m a) (c) Chest tightness (d) Cough ( e ) T a c h yp n e a a n d t a c h y c a r d i a ( m o d e r a t e t o s ev e r e e xa c e r b a t i o n s ) ( f ) P u l s u s pa r a d o x u s ( s e v e r e e x a c e r b a t i o n s ) ( 2 ) B e t we e n a c u t e a s t hm a e xa c e r b a t i o n s , t h e pa t i e n t m a y b e a s ym p t o m a t i c . 2. Diagnostic test results a . P u l m o n ar y f u n c t i o n t e s t s d e t e r m i n e t h e d e g r e e o f a i r wa y o b s t r u c t i o n a n d m a y b e n o r m a l b e t we e n e x a c e r b a t i o n s . T h e 2 0 0 7 N H L B I A st h m a G u i d e l i n e s r e c o m m e n d s p i r o m e t r y i n a l l a s t h m a p a t i e n t s > 5 y. o . t o d e t e r m i n e t h a t ai r wa y o b s t r u c t i o n i s a t least partially reversible. Breathing tests include spirometry and peak flow meter testing. ( 1 ) F o r c e d e x p i r a t o r y vo l u m e i n 1 s e c o n d ( F E V 1 ) a n d f o r c e d v i t a l c ap a c i t y ( F V C ) b o t h d e c r e a s e d u r i n g a n a c u t e e xa c e r b a t i o n . T he s p i r o m e t e r i s u s e d t o g e n e r a t e t h e FEV1 and FVC. ( 2 ) R e s i d u a l v o l u m e ( R V) a n d t o t a l lu n g c a p a c i t y ( T L C ) m a y i n c r e a s e i n a s t h m a b e c a u s e o f a i r t r a p p i n g a n d s u b s e q u e n t l u n g h yp e r i n f l a t i o n . ( 3 ) P e a k e x p i r a t o r y f l o w ra t e ( P EF R ) , o b t a i n e d t h r o u g h t h e p a t i e n t f o r ce f u l l y b r e a t h i n g o u t i n t o a p ea k f l ow m e t e r , c o r r e l a t e s we l l wi t h F E V 1 . H o we v e r , P EF R m e a s u r e m e n t i s n o t u s e d i n m a k i n g t h e d i a g n o s i s o f a st h m a . P E F R m e a su r e m e n t c a n b e u s e d t o m o n i t o r c o n t r o l o f a st h m a . ( a ) U s e s o f P E F R m o n i t o r i n g a t h o m e i n c l u d e a s s e s s m e n t o f t h e r a p y, t r i g g e r i d e n t i f i c a t i o n , a n d a s s e s s m e n t o f t he n e e d f o r r e f e r r a l t o em e r g e n c y c a r e .
( b ) P E F R m o n i t o r i n g a t h o m e i s r e co m m e n d e d f o r p a t i e n t s wh o h a v e h a d s e v e r e e x a c e r b a t i o n s , wh o a r e p o o r p e r c e i v e r s o f a st h m a s ym p t o m s , a n d wh o h a v e moderate to severe disease. (c) PEFR is best measured in early morning, before medication administration. More f r e q u e n t m o n i t o r i n g o v e r a f e w we e k s m a y a l s o b e i n d i c a t e d t o i d e n t i f y s p e c i f i c p a t t e r n s a n d t o i d e n t i f y a p a t i e n t ' s p e r s o n a l b e s t P EF R m e a s u r e m e n t . I n t h i s c a s e , P.1063 m e a s u r e m e n t s a r e t a k e n b e f o r e m e d i c a t i o n s a r e t a k e n i n t he m o r n i n g ( i . e . , o n a wa k e n i n g ) . ( 4 ) P r o vo c a t i o n t e s t i n g wi t h h i s t am i n e o r m e t h a c h o l i n e c h a l l e n g e m a y b e p e r f o r m e d t o a s s e s s h yp e r r e s p o n s i v e n e s s a n d t o r u l e o u t as t h m a i n a pa t i e n t wh o h a s h a d n o r m a l p u l m o n a r y f u n c t i o n t e s t r e s u l t s b u t i n wh o m a s t h m a i s st i l l suspected. b . B l o o d a n a l ys i s , a l t h o u g h n o t t y p i c a l l y u n d e r t a k e n i n a s t h m a , t yp i c a l l y s h o ws a s l i g h t l y i n c r e a s e d wh i t e b l o o d c e l l ( W B C ) c o un t d u r i n g a n a c u t e e xa c e r b a t i o n ; e o s i n o p h i l i a a l s o m a y b e p r e s e n t . Le u k o c yt o s i s m a y b e p r e s e n t b e c a u s e o f W B C d e m a r g i n a t i o n t h a t o c c ur s wh e n p a t i e n t s r e c e i v e s ys t e m i c c o r t i c o s t e r o i d s. c . P u l s e o xi m e t r y i s a n o n i n v a s i v e m e a n s o f a ss e s s i n g t h e d e g r e e o f h yp o xe m i a d u r i n g a n a c u t e e xa c e r b a t i o n . T h e oxi m e t e r m e a s u r e s o x yg e n s a t u r a t i o n i n a r t e r i a l blood (SaO2) and pulse. d . Ar t e r i a l b l o o d g a s m e a s u r e m e n t s m a y b e r e q u i r e d t o h e l p g a u g e t h e s e v e r i t y o f t h e a s t h m a e xa c e r b a t i o n ( T a b l e 4 9 - 2 ) . ( 1 ) I n t h e e a r l y s t a g e s o f a n a s t h m a e xa c e r b a t i o n , h yp e r ve n t i l a t i o n r e su l t s i n a d e c r e a s e i n t h e p a r t i a l p r e s s u r e o f ar t e r i a l c a r b o n d i o xi d e ( P a C O 2 ) . I f t he e x a c e r b a t i o n p r o g r e s s e s a n d t h e a i r wa ys r e m a i n n a r r o we d , r e s p i r a t o r y m u s c l e s m ay f a t i g u e a n d t h e P a C O 2 le v e l i n c r e a s e s . ( 2 ) R e s p i r a t o r y a c i d o s i s i s a p o o r p r o g n o s t i c s i g n . I t d e v e l o p s i f h yp o x e m i a wo r s e n s a n d t h e p a t i e n t ' s r e s p i r a t or y r a t e i s n ot m a i n t a i n e d o wi n g t o r es p i r a t o r y fatigue. This results in a rising PaCO2 level. e . A n e l e c t ro c a r d i o g r am ( E C G ) m ay s h o w s i n u s t a c h yc a r d i a . A n E CG m a y b e particularly useful in an older patient. f . A c h e s t ra d i o g r a p h m a y b e n o r m a l o r c o u l d d e t e c t a c c om p a n yi n g p n e u m o t h o r a x , a t e l e c t a s i s , o r p n e u m o n i a . E v i d e n c e o f h yp e r i n f l a t i o n m a y b e p r e s e n t i n a c u t e asthma and in chronic, poorly controlled asthma. A chest radiograph may also be n e e d e d t o e xc l u d e o t h e r c a u s e s o f t h e p a t i e n t ' s s ym p t o m s . 3. Signs of respiratory distress include a . U s e o f a cc e s s o r y m u s c l e s b . I n a b i l i t y t o s p e a k i n se n t e n c e s o r a m b u l a t e o wi n g t o d ys p n e a c . D e c l i n i n g m e n t a l s t at u s d . P E F R < 50 % o f p r e d i c t e d ( o r p e r s o n a l b e s t ) e . C ya n o s i s f . S u p r a s t e r n a l r e t r a c t i on s g. Absence of respiratory sounds h. Increasing PaCO2
i . U n a b l e t o s l e e p f o r e xt e n d e d t i m e b e c a u s e o f s h o r t n e s s o f b r e a t h 4 . P a t i e n t s wi t h p o t e n t i a l l y f a t a l a s t h m a s h o u l d b e q u i c k l y i d e n t i f i e d a n d a g g r e s s i v e l y m a n a g e d . T h e s e p a t i en t s h a v e t h e f o l l o wi n g c h a r a c t e r i s t i cs : a . H i s t o r y o f s e v e r e e xa c e r b a t i o n s , p a r t i c u l a r l y e xa c e r b a t i o n s t h a t d e v el o p s u d d e n l y b . P o o r s e l f - p e r c e p t i o n o f a s t h m a s ym p t o m s a n d s e v e r i t y c . H i s t o r y o f i n t u b a t i o n o r i n t e n s i v e ca r e u n i t ( I CU ) a d m i s s i o n f o r a st h m a d . T wo o r m o r e h o s p i t a l i z a t i o n s o r t hr e e o r m o r e v i s i t s t o t h e e m e r g e n c y d e p a r t m e n t f o r a s t h m a wi t h i n 1 y e a r e . H o s p i t a l i z a t i o n o r t r e at m e n t i n t h e e m e r g e n c y d e p a r t m e n t f o r a s t h m a wi t h i n t h e last month f . F r e q u e n t β - a g o n i s t u s e ( i . e . , m o r e t h a n t wo c a n i s t e r s p e r m o n t h ) , c u r r e n t s ys t e m i c s t er o i d t r e a t m en t , o r r e c e n t s ys t e m i c s t e r o i d wi t h d r a wa l g . C o n c u r r e n t c o n d i t i o n s ( e . g . , c a r d i o v a s c u l a r o r p s yc h i a t r i c d i s e a s e , s ub s t a n c e a b u s e , l o w s o c i o e c o n o m i c s t at u s [ p a r t i c u l a r l y i n u r b a n a r e a s ] ) H. Therapy 1 . T r e a t m e n t o b j e c t i ve s a . T h e g o a l o f t h e r a p y i s t o p r o v i d e sym p t o m a t i c c o n t r o l wi t h n o r m a l i z a t i o n o f l i f e s t yl e a n d t o r et u r n p u l m o n a r y f u n c t i o n a s c l os e t o n o r m a l a s p o s s i b l e . b . T h e t r e a t m e n t g o a l s l i s t e d i n t h e 2 0 0 7 N H L B I ' s e xp e r t p a n e l u p d a t e r e p o r t i n c l u d e t h e f o l l o wi n g : ( R e d u c e I mp a i r m e n t ) ( 1 ) P r e v e n t c h r o n i c a n d t r o u b l e s o m e s ym p t o m s d a y o r n i g h t (2) Maintain normal pulmonary function ( 3 ) M a i n t a i n n o r m a l a c t iv i t y l e v e l s i n c l u d i n g e x e r c i s e a n d a t t e n d a n c e a t wo r k o r school P.1064
( 4 ) M i n i m a l u s e o f s h o r t - a c t i n g i n h a l e d β 2 - a g o n i s t ( < 2 t i m e s p e r we e k ) f o r q u i c k r e l i e f o f s ym p t o m s ( n o t i n c l u d i n g u s e p r i o r t o e xe r c i s e ) ( 5 ) M e e t p a t i e n t a n d f am i l y e x p e c t a t i o n s (Reduce Risk) ( 1 ) P r e v e n t r e c u r r e n t e x a c e r b a t i o n s a n d m i n i m i z e n e e d f o r ED v i s i t s o f hospitalizations ( 2 ) P r e v e n t lo s s o f l u n g f u n c t i o n ( 3 ) P r o v i d e o p t i m a l p h a r m a c o t h e r a p y a n d wi t h m i n i m a l o r n o a d v e r s e e f f e c t s f r o m medications 2 . M a n ag e m e n t o f a c u t e a s t h m a e x a c e r b a t i o n s a . H o m e - b as e d t r e a t m en t o f a n a c ut e a s t h m a exa c e r b a t i o n ( F i g u r e 4 9 - 2 ) b . T r e a t m e n t o f a n a c u t e a s t h m a e xa c e r b a t i o n i n t h e h o s p i t a l o r e m e r g e n c y department (Figure 49-3)
Figure 49-2. The NIH treatment algorithm for the home-based management of asthma exacerbations. (NIH highlights of the expert panel report 3; Guidelines for the diagnosis and management of asthma. NIH Publication No 804051 August 2007, Figure 5-4.)
P.1065
Figure 49-3. NIH treatment algorithm for management of asthma exacerbations in the emergency department and hospital. FEV1, forced expiratory volume in 1 sec; PEF, peak expiratory flow; PCO2, partial pressure of carbon dioxide. (From NIH highlights of the expert panel report 3: Guidelines for the diagnosis and management of asthma [NIH Publication No. 084051]. August 2007, Figure 5-6.)
P.1066
3 . M a n ag e m e n t o f p e r s i s t e n t a s t h ma a . A s t e p wi s e a p p r o a c h t o p h a r m a c o l o g i c a l t h e r a p y i s r e c o m m e n d e d t o g a i n a n d m a i n t a i n c o n t r o l o f a st h m a i n b o t h t h e i m p a i r m e n t a n d r i s k do m a i n s ( T a b l e 4 9 - 3 ) . T h e t yp e , a m o u n t , a n d s c h e d u l i n g o f m e d i c a t i o n i s d i c t a t e d b y a s t h m a s e v e r i t y f o r i n i t i a t i n g t h e r a p y a n d t h e l e v e l o f a st h m a c o n t r o l f o r a d j u s t i ng t h e r a p y.
b . A t e a c h st e p , p a t i e n t s s h o u l d c o n t r o l t h e i r e n vi r o n m e n t t o a v o i d o r c o n t r o l f a c t o r s , wh e n p o s s i b l e , t h a t m a k e t he i r a s t h m a wo r s e ( e . g . , a l l e r g e n s , i r r i t a n t s ) . T h i s r e q u i r e s s p e c i f i c d ia g n o s i s a n d e d u c a t i o n . c . I n h a l e d s t e r o i d s a r e c o n s i d e r e d t o b e f i r st - l i n e a n t i - i n f l a m m a t o r y a g e n t s i n asthma. d . C o m b i n a t i o n p r o d u c t s f o r a s t h m a a r e f o r m o t e r o l / b u d e s o n i d e ( S ym b i c o r t ) a n d f l u t i c a s o n e / s a l m e t e r o l ( A d v a i r ) . T h es e p r o d u c t s a r e i n d i c a t e d f o r m o d e r a t e o r s e v e r e p e r s i s t e n t a s t h m a . T h e 2 0 0 7 N H L B I A st hm a G u i d e l i n e s g i v e e q u a l we i g h t t o increasing the dose of the inhaled steroid compared to adding a long-acting B2a g o n i s t t o t he i n h a l e d s t e r o i d i n u n c o n t r o l l e d c h r o n i c a s t h m a . I n t h e U . S . , A d v a i r i s a v a i l a b l e a s a n M D I a n d D P I ( D i s k u s) , S ym b i c o r t i s a v a i l a b l e a s a n M D I . e. Inhaled β-agonists such as albuterol and levalbuterol are used as needed for a c u t e s ym p t o m s f o r a l l l e v e l s o f s e ve r i t y. (1) Daily or increasing use of a short-acting inhaled β2-agonist suggests the need f o r a d d i t i o n a l l o n g - t e r m c o n t r o l l e r ( i. e . , a n t i - i n f la m m a t o r y) t h e r a p y. ( 2 ) P r e t r e a t m e n t wi t h e i t h e r a n i n h a l e d β - a g o n i s t , m o n t e l u k a s t , c r o m o l yn s o d i u m , o r nedocromil may be used before exercise or allergen exposure. f . A r e s c u e c o u r s e o f s y s t e m i c c o r t ic o s t e r o i d ( e . g . , p r e d n i s o n e ) m a y b e n e e d e d a t any time and at any step. 4 . P r e ve n t i o n a n d t r e a t m e n t o f e xe r c i s e - i n d u c e d b r o n c h o s p a s m ( E I B ) a . S t e p s t o p r e v e n t E I B s h o u l d b e i m p l e m e n t e d i n a l l p a t i e n t s wi t h a s t h m a . b . P a t i e n t s s h o u l d b e a d v i s e d t h a t a wa r m u p p e r i o d m i g h t b e h e l p f u l i n p r e v e n t i n g EIB. c . E I B c a n us u a l l y b e p r e v e n t e d wi t h o n e o f t h e f o l l o wi n g o p t i o n s . ( 1 ) S h o r t - a ct i n g β - a g o n i s t s ( e . g . , a lb u t e r o l ) s h o u l d b e a d m i n i s t e r e d 1 5 m i n b e f o r e e x e r c i s e . T he s e a r e c o n s i d e r e d t h e d r u g o f c h o i c e f o r EI B. (2) Long-acting β-agonists—salmeterol (Serevent) and formoterol (Foradil)—should b e a d m i n i s t e r e d 3 0 - 6 0 m i n b e f o r e e xe r c i s e . W h e n s a l m e t e r o l i s u s e d ch r o n i c a l l y f o r E I B , s o m e pa t i e n t s m a y l o s e p r o t e c t i o n t o wa r d t h e e n d o f t h e 1 2 - h r d o s i n g i n t e r v a l . B e c a u s e o f it s r a p i d o n se t , f o r m o t e r o l m a y b e d o s e d 1 5 m i n b e f o r e e xe r c i s e . G e n e r a l l y, s h o r t - a c t i n g a g e n t s a r e p r e f e r r e d o v e r l o n g - a c t i n g β - a g o n i s t s . ( 3 ) C r o m o l y n s o d i u m a n d n e d o c r o m i l m a y b e u s e d t o p r e v e n t E I B a n d e xa c e r b a t i o n s r e l a t e d t o exp o s u r e t o o t h e r a s t h m a t r i g g e r s . C r o m o l yn a n d n e d o c r o m i l s h o u l d b e a d m i n i s t e r e d n o m o r e t h a n 1 h r b e f o r e e xe r c i s e o r e xp o s u r e . ( 4 ) L e u k o t r i e n e m o d i f i e r s g i v e n d a i l y h e l p wi t h E I B b u t s h o u l d n o t b e u s e d o n a a s n e e d e d b a s i s j u s t b e f o r e e xe r c i s e . d . R e g a r d l e s s o f t h e p r o p h yl a c t i c a p p r o a c h , a l l p a t i e n t s wh o e xp e r i e n c e E I B s h o u l d h a v e a s h o r t - a c t i n g β - a g o n i s t a v a i l a b l e f o r t r e a t m e n t o f b r ea k t h r o u g h s ym p t o m s . 5. Concurrent diseases a . Al l e r g i c r h i n i t i s , s i n u s i t i s , g a s t r o e s o p h ag ea l r e f l u x d i s e a s e f r e q u e n t l y c o e xi s t wi t h a s t h m a . O t h e r n o t ab l e c o m o r b i d i t i e s i n a s t h m a i n c l u d e v o c a l c o r d d ys f u n c t i o n ( V C D ) a n d o b s t r u c t i v e s le e p a p n e a . b . G E R D i s f r e q u e n t i n p e r s o n s wi t h o b s t r u c t i ve l u n g d i s e a s e . M a n a g e m e n t o f G ER D wi t h p r o t o n p u m p i n h i b i t o r s ( P PI s ) , s u c h a s p a n t o p r a z o l e ( P r o t o n i x) c a n i m p r o v e
a s t h m a s ym p t o m s a n d i n s o m e p a t i e n t s ' b r e a t h in g t e s t s. H 2 - a n t a g o n i s t s , s u c h a s r a n i t i d i n e ( Z a n t a c ) a r e le s s e f f e c t i ve t h a n P P I s i n t h i s s i t u a t i o n . c . A s t h m a co n t r o l h a s b e e n s h o wn t o i m p r o v e i f t h e s e c o n d i t i o n s a r e a d e q u a t e l y controlled. I . T h e r a p e u t i c a g en t s 1 . β - Ag o n i s t s — a l b u t e r o l , f o r m o t e r o l , a r f o r m o t e r o l , l e v a l b u t e r o l , m e t a p r ot e r e n o l (Metaprel), pirbuterol, salmeterol a . S h o r t - a ct in g β - a g o n i s t s ( a l b u t e r o l , l e v a l b u t e r o l , p i r b u t e r o l , m e t a p r o t e r e n o l ) a r e b e s t r e s e r v ed f o r wo r s e n i n g s ym p t o m s , t r e a t m en t o f a c ut e e xa c e r b a t i o n s , a n d p r o p h y l a xi s f o r EI B . A s se s s i n g t h e f r e q u e n c y o f s h o r t - a c t i n g β - a g o n i s t u s e f o r r e s c u e t h e r a p y c a n h e l p d e t e r m i n e t h e p a t i e n t ' s l e v e l o f a st h m a c o n t r o l. T h o s e r e q u i r i n g r e g u l a r u s e ( e . g . , e v e r y d a y) , o f s h o r t - a c t i n g β - a g o n i s t s h a v e u n c o n t r o l l e d d i s e a s e a n d s h o u l d r e c e i v e m o r e a g g r e s s i v e c o n t r o l l e r t h e r a p y. P.1067
Table 49-3. Medications Recommended for Long-term Control of Asthma Age 0-4 Yearsa
Age 5-11 Yearsa
Age ≥ 12 Yearsb
1 (intermittent asthma)
Short-acting inhaled β2agonist taken as needed to treat symptoms
Short-acting inhaled β2agonist taken as needed to treat symptoms
Short-acting inhaled β2agonist taken as needed to treat symptoms; short-acting inhaled β2 agonist, cromolyn, or nedocromil taken shortly before exercise in patients known to have exercise-induced bronchospasm
2 (persistent asthma)
Inhaled corticosteroid (low dose) daily; cromolyn or montelukast is an alternative (but not
Inhaled corticosteroid (low dose) daily; cromolyn, leukotrienereceptor antagonist, nedocromil, or
Inhaled corticosteroid (low dose) daily; cromolyn, leukotrienereceptor antagonist, nedocromil, or
Step
preferred)
theophylline is an alternative
sustained-release theophylline is an alternative (but not preferred)
3 (persistent asthma)
Inhaled corticosteroid (medium dosage)
Inhaled corticosteroid (low dosage) plus long-acting β2-agonist, leukotrienereceptor antagonist, or theophylline; or inhaled corticosteroid (medium dosage)
Inhaled corticosteroid (low dosage) and long-acting β2agonist; or inhaled corticosteroid (medium dosage); inhaled corticosteroid (low dosage) plus either leukotrienereceptor antagonist, theophylline, or zileuton is an alternative (but not preferred)
4 (persistent asthma)
Inhaled corticosteroid (medium dosage) plus either longacting β2agonist or montelukast
Inhaled corticosteroid (medium dosage) and long-acting β2agonist; inhaled corticosteroid (medium dosage) plus either leukotrienereceptor antagonist or theophylline is an alternative (but not preferred)
Inhaled corticosteroid (medium dosage) and long-acting β2agonist; inhaled corticosteroid (medium dosage) plus leukotrienereceptor antagonist, theophylline, or zileuton is an alternative (but not preferred)
5 (persistent asthma)
Inhaled corticosteroid (high dosage) plus either long-acting β2agonist or montelukast
Inhaled corticosteroid (high dosage) and long-acting β2-agonist; inhaled corticosteroid (high dosage) plus either leukotrienereceptor antagonist or theophylline is an alternative (but not preferred)
Inhaled corticosteroid (high dosage) and long-acting β2-agonist; omalizumab may be considered for patients with sensitivity to relevant perennial allergens
6 (persistent asthma)
Inhaled corticosteroid (high dosage) and oral systemic corticosteroid plus either long-acting β2agonist or montelukast
Inhaled corticosteroid (high dosage), oral systemic corticosteroid, and long-acting β2-agonist; inhaled corticosteroid (high dosage) and oral systemic corticosteroid plus either leukotrienereceptor antagonist or theophylline is an alternative (but not preferred)
Inhaled corticosteroid (high dosage), oral systemic corticosteroid, and long-acting β2-agonist; omalizumab may be considered for patients with sensitivity to relevant perennial allergens
a
For all six steps, a short-acting β2-agonist should be used as needed to relieve symptoms of asthma. b
For all six steps, a short-acting β2-agonist—up to three treatments at 20minute intervals—should be used as needed to relieve symptoms of asthma. Short-course therapy with an oral systemic corticosteroid may be needed.
Adapted from: Expert Panel report 3: Guidelines for the diagnosis and management of asthma. Available online at www.nblbi.nih.gov/guidelines/asthma/epr3/index.htm; last accessed April 10, 2008.
P.1068
b. Indications for long-acting β-agonists ( 1 ) M a i n t e n a n c e t r e a t m e n t o f m o d er a t e a n d s e ve r e p e r s i s t e n t a s t h m a i n c o m b i n a t i o n wi t h i n h a l e d c o r t i c o s t e r o i d s , p a r t i c u la r l y f o r p a t i e n t s wi t h f r eq u e n t n o c t u r n a l s ym p t o m s . ( a ) L o n g - a c t i n g β 2 - a g o n i s t s ( s a l m e t er o l , f o r m ot e r o l , a r f o r m t e r o l ) s h o u l d n o t b e u s e d a s s o l e t h e r a p y f o r a n a c u t e a s t h m a e xa c e r b a t i o n i n l i e u o f sh o r t - a c t i n g a g e n t s . ( b ) R e s e a r ch i n d i c a t e s t h a t r a t h e r t h a n i n c r e a s i n g t h e d o s e o f t h e i n h a l e d c o r t i c o s t e r o id i n u n c o n t r o l l e d c h r o n i c a s t h m a , ad d i n g a l o n g - a c t i n g β - a g o n i s t r e s u l t s i n a g r e a t e r i m p r o v e m e n t i n s ym p t o m s a n d b r e a t h i n g t e s t s. ( c ) R e c e n t wa r n i n g s h a v e b e e n p l a c e d i n t h e p a c k a g e i n s e r t s f o r l o n g - a c t i n g β 2 a g o n i s t s r e g a r d i n g a n i n c r e a s e d r i s k o f a st h m a de a t h . T h i s h a s l e d t o t h e 2 0 0 7 N I H Asthma Guidelines giving higher priority to increasing the dose of inhaled steroids as compared to adding a long-acting B2-agonist to current inhaled steroid dose to manage uncontrolled chronic asthma. ( 2 ) P r o p h yl a x i s o f E I B ( 3 ) P a t i e n t s wi t h a s t h m a a n d c o n c u r r e n t c h r o n i c o b s t r u c t i v e p u l m o n a r y d i s e a s e (COPD) c . T h e r a p e u t i c e f f e c t s . T h e s e s ym p a t h o m i m e t i c a g e n t s r e l i e v e b r o n c h o c o n s t r i c t i o n d u r i n g a c u t e a s t h m a e xa c e r b a t i o n s a s we l l a s d u r i n g c h r o n i c t h e r a p y a n d p r e v e n t e x a c e r b a t i o n s f r o m o c cu r r i n g d u r i n g e xe r c i s e . d. Mechanism of action ( 1 ) β 2 - A g o n is t s s t i m u l a t e β 2 - r e c e p t or s , a ct i v a t i ng a d e n yl c yc l a s e , wh i c h i n c r e a s e s i n t r a c e l l u l a r p r o d u c t i o n o f c yc l i c a d e n o s i n e m o n o p h o s p h a t e ( c A M P ) . ( a ) I n c r e a s ed i n t r a c e l l u l a r c A M P a n d a c t i v a t i o n o f c A M P r e su l t i n b r o n c h o d i l a t i o n , improved mucociliary clearance, and reduced inflammatory cell mediator release. ( b ) S t i m u l a t io n o f β 2 - r e ce p t o r s i n s ke l e t a l m u s c l e a c c o u n t s f o r t r e m o r . ( 2 ) β - A g o n i s t s d i f f e r i n t h e i r a f f i n i t y f o r t h e β 1 - a n d β 2 - r e c e p t o r s . A g e n t s wi t h g r e a t e r β 1 - r e c e p t o r a f f i n i t y a r e m o r e l i k e l y t o c a u s e c a r d i a c e f f e c t s.
e . Ad m i n i s t r a t i o n a n d d o s a g e (1) Whenever possible, agents should be administered via inhalation to minimize s ys t e m i c e x p o s u r e a n d a d v e r s e r e a c t i o n s . S ys t e m i c a d m i n i s t r a t i o n s h ou l d b e r e s e r v e d f o r p a t i e n t s wh o c a n n o t u s e i n h a l a t i o n t h e r a p y. ( 2 ) R e g i m e n s wi t h l o n g - a c t i n g β 2 - a g o n i s t s s h o u l d a l s o i n c l u d e a c o n c u r r e n t i n h a l e d c o r t i c o s t e r o id , u n l e s s i t is b e i n g u s e d o n l y t o p r e v e n t E I B. A l l r e g i m e n s c o n t a i n i n g l o n g - a c t i n g a g e n t s s h o u l d a l s o i n c l u d e a s h o r t - ac t i n g a g e n t f o r t r e a t m e n t o f a c u t e s ym p t o m s . (3) Dosage information is provided in Table 49-4. P.1069
P.1070
P.1071
Table 49-4. β-Adrenergic Agonists Used in the Treatment of Asthma or COPD
Agent
Severe Acute Pediatric Adult
Chronic Pediatric Adult
Duratio Site of n of Commen Action Action ts
Albu terol NEB : 0.5% (5 µg/m l)
ET: 0.15 mg/kg (mini mum 2.5 mg) q 20 min × 3 doses, then 0.150.30 mg/kg up to 10 mg q 1-4
ET: 2.55.0 mg q 20 min ×3 dose s, then 2.510.0 mg q 1-4 hr prn or 10-
Not curre ntly reco mme nded
Not curre ntly reco mme nded
β1 rec ept ors + β2 rec ept ors ++ +
3-8 hr inh alat ion. 4-8 hr oral
May mix with crom olyn or iprat ropiu m NEB . May doub le dose for mild exac
MDI : 0.09 mg/p uff
hr prn or 0.5 mg/kg /hr contin uousl y QR: 0.05 mg/kg (mini mum 1.25 mg; maxi mum 2.5 mg) in 2-3 mL saline q 4-6 hr
15 mg/h r conti nuou sly QR: 1.255.00 mg in 23 mL salin eq 4-8 hr
ET: 48 puffs q 20 min × 3 doses, then q 1-4 hr with spacer QR: 2 puffs t.i.d. q.i.d. prn PT: 12 puffs 5 min before exerci
ET: 4-8 puffs q 20 min up to 4 hr, then q 1-4 hr prn QR: 2 puffs t.i.d. q.i.d. prn. PT: 2 puffs 5 min befor
erbat ions
Not curre ntly reco mme nded
Not curre ntly reco mme nded
Oral: 4-mg susta ined relea se
se
e exerc ise
Not curren tly recom mend ed
Not curre ntly reco mme nded
0.30.6 mg/k g/da y (max imu m8 mg/d ay)
4 mg q 12 hr
ET: 0.15 mg/kg (mini mum 2.5 mg) q 20 min × 3 doses, then 0.150.30 mg/kg up to 10 mg q 1-4 hr prn or 0.5 mg/kg /hr contin uousl y
ET: 2.55.0 mg q 20 min ×3 dose s, then 2.510.0 mg q 1-4 hr prn or 1015 mg/h r conti nuou sly QR: 0.5-
Not curre ntly reco mme nded
Not curre ntly reco mme nded
Biolt erol NEB : 0.2% (2 mg/ mL)
β1 rec ept ors + β2 rec ept ors ++ +
6-8 hr
Dilut e NEB with 2-3 ML norm al salin e. Do not mix NEB with other NEB solut ions Thou ght to be abou t half as pote
3.5 mg in 23 mL salin eq 4-8 hr MDI : 0.37 mg/p uff
nt as albut erol on a milli gram basis
ET: 48 puffs q 20 min×3 doses, then q 1-4 hr with spacer QR: 2 puffs t.i.d. q.i.d. prn PT: 12 puffs 5 min before exerci se
ET: 4-8 puffs q 20 min up to 4 hr, then q 1-4 hr prn QR: 2 puffs t.i.dq.i.d. prn PT: 2 puffs 5 min befor e exerc ise
Not curre ntly reco mme nded
Not curre ntly reco mme nded
ET: 0.01 mg/kg /dose up to
ET: 0.30.5 mg/d ose q
Not curre ntly reco mme
Not curre ntly reco mme
Epin ephr ine SC: 1:10 00 (1 µg/m L)
αrec ept ors ++
1-4 hr SC; 1-3 hr
0.30.5 mg q 20 min × 3 doses
20 min ×3 dose s
nded
nded
+ β1 rec ept ors ++ + β2 rec ept ors ++ +
inh alat ion
Not curren tly recom mend ed
Not curre ntly reco mme nded
≥5 years :1 caps ule q 12 h
1 caps ule q 12 h
β1 rec ept ors + β2 rec ept ors ++ ++
1012 hr
For mote rol DPI: 12 mg/c aps for inhal ation
Appr oved for chro nic treat ment in child ren > 5 years old and for prev entio n of EIB in child ren > 12 years old Use at
least 15 min befor e exer cise for EIB prop hyla xis Leva lbute rol NEB : 0.63 mg 1.25 mg
MDI : see albut rol dosin g Pirb uter ol
6-11 years: QR: 0.31 mg t.i.d. prn >11 years: 0.631.25 mg t.i.d. prn
QR: 0.63 mg t.i.d. (q 68 hr) up to 1.25 mg t.i.d. 6-8 hr)
Not curre ntly reco mme nded
Not curre ntly reco mme nded
β1 rec ept ors + β2 rec ept ors ++ ++
6-8 hr
MDI : 0.2 mg/p uff
ET: 48 puffs q 20 min × 3 doses, then q 1-4 hr with spacer QR: 2 puffs t.i.d. q.i.d. prn PT: 12 puffs 5 min before exerci se
ET: 4-8 puffs q 20 min up to 4 hr, then q 1-4 hr prn QR: 2 puffs t.i.d. q.i.d. prn PT: 2 puffs 5 min befor e exerc ise
Not curre ntly reco mme nded
Not curre ntly reco mme nded
β1 rec ept ors + β2 rec ept ors ++ ++
5 hr
Thou ght to be abou t half as pote nt as albut erol on a milli gram basis
MDI : 0.02 5 mg/p uff
Not curren tly recom mend ed
Not curre ntly reco mme nded
>4 years : 1-2 puffs q 12 hr
2 puffs q 12 hr
β1 rec ept ors +
1012 hr
Not indic ated for acute exac erbat ions
DPI: 0.05 mg/i nhala tion
Not curren tly recom mend
Not curre ntly reco mme
>4 years :1 inhal ation
1 inhal ation q12 hr
β2 rec ept ors ++
Salm etero l
Take 3060 min befor
ed
nded
q 12 hr
++
MDI : 0.2 mg/p uff
QR: 2 puffs t.i.d. q.i.d. prn PT: 12 puffs 5 min before exerci se
QR: 2 puffs t.i.d. q.i.d. prn PT: 2 puffs 5 min befor e exerc ise
Not curre ntly reco mme nded
Not curre ntly reco mme nded
SC: 0.1% (1 µg/m L)
ET: 0.01 mg/kg q 20 min × 3 doses, then q 2-6 hr prn
ET: 0.25 mg q 20 min ×3 dose s
Not curre ntly reco mme nded
Not curre ntly reco mme nded
e exer cise for EIB prop hyla xis
Terb utali ne β1 rec ept ors + β2 rec ept ors ++ ++
3-6 hr inh alat ion 1.54 hr par ente ral
4-8 hr oral
DPI, dry-power inhaler; ET, emergency treatment; FDA, U.S. Food and Drug Administration; MDI, metered dose inhaler; NEB, solution for nebulizer; QR, quick response; P T, prophylactic treatment; SC, subcutaneous.
Pare ntera l solut ion not FDA appr oved for nebu lizati on
Adapted from National Institutes of Health, National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute. National Asthma Education and Prevention Program expert panel report 2: Guidelines for the diagnosis and management of asthma [NIH Publication 97-4051] July 1997:91, Figure 3-5d (NIH ERR-2, Fig. 35d)
P.1072
f . P r e c a u t i o n s a n d m o n i t o ri n g e f f ec t s ( 1 ) C o m m o n a d v e r s e e f f e c t s o f β - a g o n i s t s i n c l u d e t r e m o r , p a l p i t a t i o n , t a c h yc a r d i a , n e r v o u s n e s s , a n d h e a d a c h e . L e g c r a m p s m a y o c c u r wi t h h i g h d o s e s o wi n g t o h yp o k a l e m i a . ( 2 ) N o n s e l e c t i v e β - a g o n i s t s ( e. g . , i so p r o t e r e n o l ( I s u p r e l ) m ay i n d u c e m yo c a r d i a l i s c h e m i a , m yo c a r d i a l n e c r o s i s , a n d a r r h yt h m i a s b e c a u s e o f e xc e s s i v e c a r d i a c s t i m u l a t i o n . U s e o f β 2 - s el e c t i v e a g e n t s ( e. g . , a l b u t e r o l , b i t o l t e r o l ) i s p r e f e r r e d . ( 3 ) T a c h yp h yl a x i s ( f o r m o f t o l e r a n c e ) c a n o c c u r wi t h r e g u l a r u s e o f i n h a l e d o r o r a l β-agonists. Suggested mechanisms include ( a ) A d e c r e as e i n t h e n u m b e r o f a ct i v e β - r e c e p t o r s o wi n g t o m o v e m e n t o f r e c e p t o r s f r o m t h e c e l l s u r f a c e i n t o t h e c e l l ( d o w n re g u l a t i o n ) ( b ) A d e c r ea s e d s e n s i t i v i t y i n t h e β - r e c e p t o r s t o s t i m u l i , m a k i n g t h e m u n a b l e t o a c t i v a t e a d e n yl c yc l a s e ( i ) T h e c l i n i c a l s i g n i f i c a n c e o f t h i s e f f e c t i s u n c le a r wi t h n o r m a l d o s e s o f β - a g o n i s t s. ( i i ) T h i s e f f ec t m a y b e l e s s e n e d b y a d d i n g c o r t i c o s t e r o i d s t o t h e r e g i m e n . ( 4 ) H yp o k a l e m i a m a y o c c u r i n s o m e p a t i e n t s , pa r t i c u l a r l y t h o s e r e c e i v i n g c o n c u r r e n t m e d i c a t i o n s t h a t c a u s e h yp o k a l e m i a ( e . g . , d i u r e t i c s , a m p h o t e r i c i n ) a n d high doses, including inhaled agents. ( 5 ) P a r a d o xi c a l b r o n ch o c o n s t ri c t i o n f o u n d wi t h β - a g o n i s t s m a y b e t h e r e s u l t o f a “ c o l d - F r e o n e f f e c t ” o r t he u s e o f a d d i t i v e s s u c h a s b e n z a l k o n i u m c h l o r i d e i n t h e formulation. ( 6 ) U n l i k e a l b u t e r o l , wh i c h i s a r a c em i c m i xt u r e o f a l b u t e r o l ' s R - a n d S - i so m e r s , l e v a l b u t e r o l H C l ( Xo p e n e x) i s c o m p o s e d o f t h e a c t i v e R - e n a n t i o m e r . ( 7 ) S ys t e m i c a d v e r s e r ea c t i o n s wh e n t h e r e c o m m e n d e d s t a r t i n g d o s e o f l e v a l b u t e r o l i s u s e d a p p e a r t o b e s im i l a r t o o r sl i g h t l y l e s s f r e q u e n t t h a n t h e e f f e ct s o f a l b u t e r o l . W h e n t h e do s e o f l e v a l b u t e r o l i s i n c r e a s e d t o 1. 2 5 m g , h o we v e r , t h e i n ci d e n c e o f a d v e r s e r e a c t i o n s i s s i m i l a r t o t h e co r r e s p o n d i n g d o s e o f a l b u t e r o l . ( 8 ) I t i s i m p o r t a n t t o b e a wa r e o f s i g n i f i c a n t d r u g - d r u g i n t e r a c t i o n s .
( a ) C o n c o m i t a n t u s e o f sys t e m i c β - a g o n i s t s wi t h m o n o a m i n e o x i d a s e i n h i b i t o r s , t r i c yc l i c a n t i d ep r e s s a n t s , o r m e t h yl d o p a m a y i n f r e q u e n t l y l e a d t o s e ve r e h yp e r t e n s i o n . T h e r is k wi t h a e r o s o l i z e d a g e n t s m a y b e s m a l l e r . ( b ) β - Ad r e n e r g i c b l o c ke r s ( e s p e c i a l l y n o n s e l e c t i v e a g e n t s a s p r o p r a n o l o l ) precipitate bronchospasm and increase the dose of β-agonist necessary to achieve b r o n c h o d i l a t i o n . T h e r i s k o f b r o n c h o sp a s m s h o u l d b e we i g h e d a g a i n s t t h e p o t e n t i a l b e n e f i t s o f β - b l o c k e r s . β 1 - S e l e c t i v e a g e n t s s u ch a s m e t o p r o l o l ( T o p r o l XL ) m a y b e u s e d c a r e f u l l y ( e . g . , i n t h e h o s p i t a l ) , i n a s t h m a pa t i e n t s wh e n t h e r i s k - be n e f i t r a t i o i n d i c a t e s s u c h , a s i n a n a c u t e m yo c a r d i a l i n f a r c t i o n . ( c ) β - Ag o n i s t s s h o u l d n o t b e c o m b i n e d wi t h o t h e r s ym p a t h o m i m e t i c a g e n t s b e c a u s e o f a d d i t i v e ca r d i o v a s c u l a r e f f e ct s . Va s o c o n s t r i c t o r a n d v a s o p r e s s o r e f f ec t s of e p i n e p h r i n e a r e a n t a g o n i z e d b y β - a d r e n e r g i c b l o c k i n g a g en t s ( e . g. , phentolamine). ( 9 ) T h e e f f ec t s of β - a g o n i s t s s h o u l d b e c l o s e l y m o n i t o r e d i n t h e e l d e r l y a n d i n p a t i e n t s wi t h a h i s t o r y o f h yp e r t h yr o i d i s m , d i a b e t e s , s e i z u r e s , a r r h yt h m i a s , a n d coronary artery disease. 2. Corticosteroids a. Therapeutic effects. Corticosteroids suppress the inflammatory response and d e c r e a s e a i r wa y h y p e r r e s p o n s i v e n e s s . b. Mechanism of action. Corticosteroids bind to glucocorticoid receptors on the c yt o p l a s m o f c e l l s . T h e a c t i v a t e d r ec e p t o r r e g u l a t e s t r a n s c r i p t i o n o f t ar g e t g e n e s . (1) Corticosteroids reduce inflammation via: ( a ) I n h i b i t i o n o f t r a n s c r ip t i o n a n d r e l e a s e o f i n f l a m m a t o r y g e n e s ( b ) I n c r e a s ed t r a n s c r i p t io n o f a n t i - i n f l a m m a t o r y g e n e s t h a t p r o d u c e p r o t e i n s t h a t p a r t i c i p a t e i n o r s u p p r e s s t h e i n f l am m a t o r y p r o c e s s (2) Clinical effects include (a) Reduced production of inflammatory mediators ( b ) E n h a n c e d β - a d r e n e r g i c r e c e p t o r e xp r e s s i o n ( t h u s m a k i ng t h e β 2 - a g on i s t wo r k better) (c) Decreased mucus production ( d ) P r e v e n t io n o f e n d o t h e l i a l a n d v a s c u l a r l e a k a g e ( e ) P a r t i a l r e v e r s a l o f t is s u e - r e m o d e l i n g P.1073
c . Ad m i n i s t r a t i o n a n d d o s a g e ( 1 ) T h e r e i s n o s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n ce i n t h e c l i n i c a l e f f i c a c y o f t h e c o r t i co s t e r o i d agents currently available. The route of administration is determined by the condition of the patient. ( 2 ) S ys t e m i c c o r t i c o s t e r o i d s a r e u s e d f o r r a pi d r e s p o n s e d u r i n g a n e x a c e r b a t i o n . I m p r o v e m e n t i n p u l m o n a r y f u n c t i o n m a y b e g i n wi t h i n 1 - 3 h r ; h o we v e r , t h e m a xi m u m effect is not achieved until 6-9 hr, or longer, after administration. Supplemental d o s e s s h o u l d b e a d m i n i s t e r e d t o p at i e n t s wh o a r e a l r e a d y t a k i n g s ys t e m i c c o r t i c o s t e r o id s wh e n t h e y e x p e r i e n c e a n e xa c e r b a t i o n , e v e n i f t h e e xa c e r b a t i o n i s mild.
( 3 ) I n t r a ve n o u s co r t i c o s t e r o i d s ( e . g . , m et h yl p r e d n i s o l o n e ( S o l u - M e d r o l ) a r e a d m i n i s t e r e d t o p a t i e n t s wh o a r e u n a b l e t o t a k e o r a l m e d i c a t i o n s i n s e v e r e e x a c e r b a t i o n s . L a r g e d o s e s ( e . g . m e t h yl p r e d n i s o l o n e 6 0 m g o r 1 2 5 m g in t r a v e n o u s l y [ I V] ) c a n b e q u i c k l y a d m i n i s t e r e d ; h o we v e r , p a t i e n t s c a n u s ua l l y b e s wi t c h e d t o o r a l therapy as soon as they show clinical improvement and can tolerate oral medication. ( 4 ) O r a l c o rt i c o s t e r o i d s a r e a c c e p t a b l e a s e m e r g e n c y t r e a t m e n t i f t h e p a t i e n t c a n tolerate the oral route and is not believed to be in imminent danger of respiratory a r r e s t . P r e d n i s o n e a n d p r e d n i s o l o n e ( P r e l o n e) a r e t h e m o s t f r e q u e n t l y u s e d o r a l c o r t i c o s t e r o id s . ( a ) P r e d n i s o n e a n d p r e d n i s o l o n e a r e f r e q u e n t l y a d m i n i s t e r e d i n s h o r t “ bu r s t s ” o v e r 3 - 1 0 d a ys [ s e e I . I . 2 . c. ( 2 ) . ( b ) ] t o t r e a t a c u t e e xa c e r b a t i o n s i n t h e o u t p a t i e n t s e t t i n g a n d i n t h e e m e r g e n c y d e p a r t m e n t . T h i s t yp e o f r e g i m e n m a y a l s o b e u s e d t o r a p i d l y achieve asthma control. ( b ) D u r i n g bu r s t t h e r a p y, t h e s e a g e n t s m a y b e a d m i n i s t e r e d f o r 3 - 1 0 d a ys i n o n e o r t wo d a i l y d o s e s a n d t h e n d i s c o n t i n u e d . W h e n u se d i n t h i s f as h i o n , t a p e r i n g i s n o t u s u a l l y n e c e s s a r y, b u t is o f t e n d o n e b y p h ys i c i a n s . H o we v e r , i f a p a t i e n t ' s c o n d i t i o n a p p e a r s t o wo r s e n a f t e r t h e l a s t d o s e h a s b e e n a d m i n i s t e r e d , i t i s r e a so n a b l e t o reinstitute the corticosteroid and then begin a tapering regimen. ( 5 ) B e c a u s e i n h a l ed c o r t i c o s t e r o i d s a r e l e a s t li k e l y t o p r o d u c e a d v e r s e r e a c t i o n s , t h e i n h a l e d r o u t e s h o u l d b e u s e d wh e n e v e r p o s s i b l e f o r c h r on i c t r e a t m e nt . ( a ) I n h a l e d c o r t i c o s t e r o id s s h o u l d n o t b e u s e d a l o n e t o t r e a t s e r i o u s a c u t e exacerbations. ( b ) I n h a l ed s t e r o i d s a re t h e p r e f e r r e d a n t i - i n f l a m m t o r y t h e r a p y f o r c h r o n i c asthma. (c) In milder outpatient flares, doses of the inhaled steroids may be increased t e m p o r a r i l y ( a l t h o u g h t h i s i s c o n t r o ve r s i a l ) . ( d ) T h e n u m b e r o f c o r t i co s t e r o i d s a v a i l a b l e f o r i n h a l a t i o n t h e r a p y i s i n c r e a s i n g . T h e most recent addition is mometasone (Asmanex). (e) Dosages of inhaled corticosteroids are provided in Table 49-5. When asthma c o n t r o l i s a c h i e v e d , a t t e m p t s s h o u l d b e m a d e t o u s e t h e l o we s t e f f e c t i v e d o s e t o m a i n t a i n c o n t r o l ( s t e p - do wn t h e r a p y ) . S i d e e f f e ct s o f i n h a l e d s t e r o i d s ( an d s ys t e m i c steroids) are dose dependent. ( f ) I n h a l e d c o r t i c o s t e r o i d s a r e c o n s i d e r e d f i r s t - l i ne a n t i - i n f l a m m a t o r y t h e r a p y f o r m i l d t o s e v er e p e r s i s t e n t a s t h m a i n b o t h a d u l t s a n d c h i l d r e n . ( 2 ) T r e a t m e n t o f a s t h ma e x a c e r b a t i o n i n a d u l t s ( a ) F o r t r e a t m e n t o f a s ev e r e e x a c e r b a t i o n , p r e d n i s o n e m a y b e g i v e n a t a d o s e o f 2 m g / k g ( m a xi m u m o f 6 0 m g / d a y) . F or i n t r a v e n o u s t r e a t m e n t , m e t h yl p r e d n i s o l o n e i s given at a dosage of 120-180 mg/day in three or four divided doses for 48 hr or until t h e p a t i e n t c a n t o l e r a t e o r a l m e d i c a t i o n s . T h e d os a g e i s t h e n r e d u c e d t o 6 0 - 8 0 m g / d a y u n t i l P E F R r e a ch e s 7 0 % p r e d i c t e d ( o r pe r s o n a l b e s t ) . ( b ) F o r o u t pa t i e n t b u r s t t h e r a p y, t h e d o s a g e o f p r e d n i s o n e i s 1 - 2 m g / k g/ d a y ( m a x i m u m o f 6 0 m g / d a y) i n o n e o r t wo d i v i d e d d o s e s f o r 3 - 1 0 d a ys . ( 3 ) T r e a t m e n t o f a s t h ma e x a c e r b a t i o n i n c h i l d r e n ( a ) F o r i n p a t i e n t t r e a t m en t o f a s e v er e e xa c e r b a t i o n , p r e d n i s o n e , m e t h yl p r e d n i s o l o n e , o r p r e d n i s o l o n e i s g i v e n a t a d o s a g e o f 1 m g / k g e v e r y 6 h r f o r
4 8 h r . T h e do s a g e i s t h e n r e d u c e d t o 1 - 2 m g / k g/ d a y ( m a xi m u m o f 6 0 m g/ d a y) i n t wo divided doses until PEFR is 70% predicted (or personal best). ( b ) F o r o u t pa t i e n t b u r s t t h e r a p y, t h e d o s a g e o f p r e d n i s o n e i s 1 - 2 m g / k g/ d a y ( m a x i m u m o f 6 0 m g / d a y) i n o n e o r t wo d i v i d e d d o s e s f o r 3 - 1 0 d a ys . d . P r e c a u t i o n s an d m o n i t o r i n g e f f e c t s ( 1 ) S ys t e m i c c o r t i c o s t e r o i d s ( a ) C a r e f u l m o n i t o r i n g i s n e c e s s a r y i n p a t i e n t s wi t h d i a b e t e s ( st e r o i d s co m m o n l y i n c r e a s e b l o o d s u g a r ) , hyp e r t e n s i o n , a d r e n a l s u p p r e s s i o n , c o n g e s t i v e h e a r t f a i l u r e P.1074 ( f l u i d r e t e n t io n o wi n g t o m i n e r a l o c o r t i c o i d e f f e c t s ) , p e p t i c u l ce r d i s e a s e , c a n d i d i a s i s , i m m u n o s u p p r e s s i o n , o s t e o p o r o s i s , c h r o n i c i n f e c t i o n s , c at a r a c t s , g l a u c o m a , m ya s t h e n i a g r a v i s , a n d p s yc h i a t r i c d i s e a s e s ( e . g . , d e p r e s s io n , p s yc h o s i s ) . S o m e o f t h e s e s i d e - e f f ec t s b e g i n s ho r t l y a f t e r be g i n n i n g s ys t e m i c s t e r o i d s ( e . g . , h yp e r g l yc e m i a ) , wh e r e a s o t h e r s ( e . g . , o s t e op o r o s i s ) o n l y o c c u r wi t h long-term use.
Table 49-5. Estimated Comparative Daily Dosages for Inhaled Corticosteroidsa
Drug
Low Daily Dose Adult Child
Medium Daily Dose Adult Child
High Daily Dose Adult Child
Beclomethaso ne CFC: 42 or 84 µg/puff
168504 µg
84336 µg
504840 µg
336672 µg
>840 µg
>672 µg
HFA: 40 or 80 µg/puff
80240 µg
80160 µg
240480 µg
160320 µg
>480 µg
>320 µg
200600 µg
200 400 µg
6001200 µg
400800 µg
>120 0 µg
>800 µg
Budesonide DPI: 200 µg/inhalation
Inhalation suspension for nebulization (child dose)
0.5 mg
1.0 mg
2.0 mg
Flunisolide 250 µg/puff
500100 0 µg
500 750 µg
1000 2000 µg
1000 1250 µg
>200 0 µg
>125 0 µg
MDI:b 44, 110, or 220 µg/puff
88264 µg
88176 µg
264660 µg
176440 µg
>660 µg
>440 µg
DPI: 50, 100, or 250 µg/inhalation
100300 µg
100 200 µg
300600 µg
200400 µg
>760 0 µg
>400 µg
200 µg
NA
400 µg
NA
>400 µg
NA
400100 0 µg
400 800 µg
1000 2000 µg
8001200 µg
>200 0 µg
>120 0 µg
Fluticasone
Mometasone DPI: 200 ug/inhalation (not approved for persons < 12 yo) Triamcinolone 100 µg/puff
a
In all cases, the lowest dose to maintain control should be used. Some doses
are outside package labeling. b
MDI doses are actuator doses (i.e., amount leaving actuator).
CFC, chlorofluorocarbons; DPI, dry-powder inhaler; HFA, hydrofluoroalkanes; MDI, metered dose inhaler. Modified from National Asthma Education and Prevention Program expert panel report guidelines for the diagnosis and management of asthma— NHLBI Asthma Guidelines 2007. August 2007.
( b ) I f a p r o lo n g e d c o u r s e o f s ys t e m i c t h e r a p y i s n e c e s s a r y t o m a i n t a i n a s t h m a c o n t r o l , i n t er f e r e n c e wi t h t h e h y p o t h a l a m i c - p i t u i t a r y- a d r e n a l a xi s i s l e s s e n e d b y a s i n g l e m o r n i n g d o s e ( i . e . , 6 - 8 A M ) or a l t e r n a t e - d a y t h e r a p y. F o r a l t e r n a t e - d a y t h e r a p y, t h e d o s e i s t wi c e t h a t o f t h e s i n g l e m o r n i n g d o s e . (c) Patients on regular systemic therapy should be closely monitored and should receive regular ophthalmological evaluations and osteoporosis screening, and p r e v e n t a t i v e t h e r a p y ( e . g . , c a l c i u m , v i t a m i n D , bi s p h o s p h o n a t e s ) i f i n d i c a t e d . ( 2 ) I n h al e d c o r t i c o s t e ro i d s ( a ) L o c a l e f f e c t s a s s o c i at e d wi t h i n h a l e d c o r t i c o s t e r o i d s i n c l u d e h o a r s e n e s s ( d ys p h o n i a ) , a n d f u n g a l i n f e c t i o n ( c an d i d i a s i s ) o f t h e m o u t h a n d t h r o a t . L o c a l s i d e e f f e c t s c a n b e l e s s e n e d t h r o u g h m o u t h r i n s i n g , u s e o f a s p ac e r , a n d u s e o f c e r t a i n inhaled steroid products. ( b ) T h e U . S. F o o d a n d D r u g A d m i n i s t r a t i o n ( F D A) r e c e n t l y r e v i s e d t h e wa r n i n g l a b e l s o n i n h a l e d c o r t i c o s t e r o i d p r o d u c t s t o i n c l u d e d o s e - r e l a t e d s l o wi n g o f g r o wt h v e l o c i t y i n c h i l d r e n ( a p p r o x i m a t e l y o n e t h i r d i n . p e r ye a r ) . S h o r t l y a f t e r P.1075 t h e l a b e l i n g wa s r e v i s e d , t wo m a j o r p u b l i c a t i o n s d e m o n s t r a t e d s h o r t - t e r m g r o wt h s u p p r e s s i o n o f a p p r o x i m a t e l y 1 c m i n t h e f i r st ye a r o f b u d e s o n i d e t r e a t m e n t , b u t wi t h o u t l o n g - t e r m ef f e ct s o n f i n a l a d u l t h e i g h t . Ho we v e r , c h i l d r e n s h o u l d b e t r e a t e d wi t h t h e l o we s t e f f e c t i v e d o s e a n d s h o u l d b e r e m i n d e d t h a t p o o r l y c o n t r o l l e d a s t h m a a l s o s l o ws g r o wt h . ( c ) L a r g e d o s e s o f i n h a l e d c o r t i c o s t e r o i d s m a y r e s u l t i n s ys t e m i c e f f e ct s, s u c h a s r e d u c e d b o n e d e n s i t y, c h a n g e s i n a d r e n a l f u n c t i o n , s k i n c h an g e s , a d r e n a l s u p p r e s s i o n , a n d c a t a r ac t f o r m a t i o n . F u r t h e r st ud y i s n e e d e d t o f u l l y u n d e r s t a n d t h e s e e f f e ct s a n d t o d e t e r m i n e t h e i r c l i n i c a l s i g n i f i c a n c e . H o we v e r , p a t i e n t s r e c e i v i n g h i g h d o s e s o f i n h a l e d c o r t i c o s t e r o i d s sh o u l d b e c l o s e l y m o n i t o r e d a n d should receive regular ophthalmological evaluations and osteoporosis screening and treatment (e.g., calcium, vitamin D) if indicated. ( d ) S p a c e r s ( e . g . A e r o Ch a m b e r ) a r e g e n e r a l l y p r e s c r i b e d f o r p a t i e n t s wh o r e c e i v e m o d e r a t e t o h i g h d o s e s o f i n h a l e d c o r t i c o s t e r o i d s v i a m e t e r ed d o s e i n h a l e r s ( M D I s ) .
P a t i e n t s s h ou l d a l s o g a r g l e , r i n s e t he i r m o u t h an d t h r o a t , an d e xp e c t o r a t e a f t e r a d m i n i s t r a t i o n . B o t h o f t h e s e i n t e r v e n t i o n s m i n i m i z e o r o p h a r yn g e a l d r u g d e p o s i t i o n , local adverse reactions, and gastrointestinal absorption. ( i ) S t e r o i d s i n d r y- p o wd e r i n h a l e r s ( P u l m i c o r t F le xh a l e r ) g e n e r a l l y h a v e a l o we r incidence of local side effects. ( i i ) A n e w f o r m o f b e c l o m e t h a s o n e ( Q v a r ) M D I al s o h a s a l o w i n c i d e n c e o f l o c a l s i d e e f f e c t s. (3) Significant interactions ( a ) C o n c u r r e n t u s e o f h e p a t i c m i c ro s o m a l en zym e i n d u c e r s ( e . g . , r i f am p i n , b a r b i t u r a t e s , h yd a n t o i n s ) c a u s e s e n h a n c e d c o r t i c o s t e r o i d m e t a b o l i s m , r e d u c i n g t h e r a p e u t i c e f f i c a c y. ( b ) C o n c u r r e n t u s e o f es t r o g e n s , o r a l c o n t r a c e p t i ve s , i t ra c o n a z o l e ( S p o r a n o x ) , o r m a c r o l i d e a n t i b i o t i c s ( e . g . , e r yt h r o m yc i n , c l a r i t h r o m yc i n [ B i a xi n ] ) m a y d e c r e a s e c o r t i c o s t e r o id c l e a r a n c e . ( c ) C yc l o s p o r i n e m a y i n c r e a s e t h e p l a s m a c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f c o r t i c o s t e r o id s . ( d ) A d m i n i s t r a t i o n o f p o t a s s i u m - d e p l e t i n g d i u r et i c s ( e . g . , t h i a z i d e s , f u r o s e m i d e ) o r o t h e r p o t a s s i u m - d e p l e t i n g d r u g s ( e . g . , a m p h o t e r i c i n ) wi t h c o r t i c o s t e r o i d s c a u s e s e n h a n c e d h yp o k a l e m i a . S e r u m p o t as s i u m s h o u l d b e c l o s e l y m o n i t o r e d , e s p e c i a l l y i n p a t i e n t s o n d i g i t al i s g l y c o s i d e s . 3 . L eu k o t r i e n e m o d i f i e r s a r e t h e n e we s t a g e n t s wi t h a n t i - i n f l a m m a t o r y p r o p e r t i e s t o b e a p p r o v e d f o r u s e in a s t h m a . Le u k o t r i e n e s a r e i m p o r t a n t p a r t i c i p a n t s i n a st h m a p a t h o p h y s i o l o g y. C e l l u l a r e f f e c t s o f le u k o t r i e n e s i n c l u d e e n h a n c e d m i g r a t i o n o f e o s i n o p h i l s a n d n e u t r o p h i l s , i n c r e a s e d a d h e s i o n o f l e u k o c yt e s , a n d i n c r e a s e d m o n o c yt e a n d n e u t r o p h i l a g g r e g a t i o n . L e u k o t r i e n e s a l s o i n c r e a s e c a p i l l a r y p e r m e a b i l i t y a n d c a u s e s m o o t h m u sc l e c o n t r a c t io n . a . L eu k o t r i e n e m o d i f i e r s c u r r e n t l y a v a i l a b l e i n t h e U n i t e d St a t e s i n c l u d e m o n t e l u k a s t , z a f i r l u k a s t ( A c c o l a t e ) , z i l e u t o n ( Z yf l o ) . (1) Therapeutic effects ( a ) L e u k o t r i e n e m o d i f i e r s h a v e a n t i - i n f l a m m a t o r y a n d b r o n c h o d i l a t o r a c t i v i t y. T h e y m a y a l l o w r e d u c t i o n i n c o r t i c o s t e r o id d o s e s i n so m e p a t i e n t s . ( b ) B e c a u s e t h e y m a y b e l e s s e f f e ct i v e a n t i - i n f l a m m a t o r y a g e n t s t h a n i n h a l e d c o r t i c o s t e r o id s , t h e y a r e c o n s i d e r e d s e c o n d - l i n e a g e n t s . ( c ) I n c h i l d r e n , f o r wh o m a d m i n i s t r a t i o n o f i n h a l e d d r u g s i s c h a l l e n g i n g , o r a l leukotriene receptor antagonists may be particularly useful. ( d ) T h e y m a y b e u s e f u l i n p a t i e n t s wi t h c o n c u r r e n t a l l e r g i c r h i n i t i s a n d a s t h m a . ( 2 ) M e c h a n i s m o f a c t i o n . T h e l e u ko t r i e n e r e c e p t o r a n t a g o n i s t s a r e s e le c t i v e c ys t e i n y l l e u k o t r i e n e 1 ( c ys - L T - 1 ) r ec e p t o r a n t a g o n i s t s ; t h e r e f o r e , t h e y p r e v e n t l e u k o t r i e n e s f r o m i n t e r a c t i n g wi t h t h e i r r e c e p t o r s . Z i l e u t o n , a l e u k o t r i e n e m o d i f i e r , b l o c k s t h e ef f e c t s o f 5 - l i p o - o x yg e n a s e a n d u l t i m a t e l y b l o c k s l e u k o t r i e n e p r o d u c t i o n . ( 3 ) Ad m i n i s t r a t i o n a n d d o s a g e ( a ) T h e d o sa g e o f z a f i r l u k a s t i n c h i l d r e n > 1 2 ye a r s a n d a d u l t s i s 2 0 m g t wi c e d a i l y. F o o d r e d u c e s b i o a v a i l a b i l i t y, s o z a f i r l u k a s t s h o u l d b e t a k e n a t l e a s t 1 h r b e f o r e o r 2 h r a f t e r m e a l s . C h i l d r e n 5 - 1 1 ye a r s o f a g e s h o u l d r e c e i v e 1 0 m g t wi c e d a i l y.
( b ) T h e d o s a g e o f m o n t e l u k a s t i n ad o l e s c e n t s 1 5 ye a r s o f a g e o r o l d e r a n d a d u l t s i s o n e 1 0 - m g t a b l e t o n c e e v e r y e v e n i n g . T h e d o s a g e f o r c hi l d r e n 6 - 1 4 ye a r s o f a g e i s o n e 5 - m g c h e wa b l e t a b l e t o n c e e v e r y e v e n i n g . C h i l d r e n a g e s 2 - 5 s h o u l d P.1076 r e c e i v e o n e 4 - m g c h e wa b l e t a b l e t o n c e e v e r y e v e n i n g . F o o d d o e s n o t a p p e a r t o c h a n g e b i o a v a i l a b i l i t y. ( 4 ) P r e c a u t i o n s an d m o n i t o r i n g e f f e c t s (a) Adverse reactions to montelukast are uncommon and include headache, d i z z i n e s s , a n d d ys p e p s i a . ( b ) A d v e r s e r e a c t i o n s a s s o c i a t e d wi t h z a f i r l u k a s t i n c l u d e h e a d a c h e , d i z z i n e s s , nausea, and diarrhea. ( c ) C h u r g - St r a u s s s yn d r o m e , a f o r m o f e o s i n o p h i l i c v a s c u l i t i s , h a s r a r e l y b e e n a s s o c i a t e d wi t h z a f i r l u k a s t , m o n t e l u k a s t , a n d p r a n l u k a s t ( a v a i l a b l e i n J a p a n ) . I t h a s u s u a l l y, b u t n o t a l wa y s , o c c u r r e d i n p a t i e n t s wh o s e c h r o n i c s t e r o i d r e g i m e n s we r e t a p e r e d a n d d i s c o n t i n u e d . A t - r i s k p at i e n t s s h o u l d b e m o n i t o r e d f o r v a s cu l i t i c r a s h , e o s i n o p h i l i a , a n d i n c r e a s i n g p u l m o n a r y, c a r d i a c , a n d n e u r o p a t h i c s ym p t o m s . ( d ) S i g n i f i ca n t d r u g - d ru g i n t e r a c t i o n s m a y o c c u r . ( i ) As p i r i n in c r e a s e s z a f i r l u k a s t l e ve l s . ( i i ) E r yt h r o m y c i n , t h e o p h yl l i n e , a n d t e r f e n a d i n e d e c r e a s e z a f i r l u k a s t concentrations. ( i i i ) Z a f i r l u ka s t m a y i n c r e a s e t h e a n t i c o a g u l a n t e f f e c t o f w ar f a r i n a n d l e ve l s o f dofetilide. ( i v) D r u g i n t e r a c t i o n s a p p e a r t o b e le s s s i g n i f i c a n t wi t h m o n t e l u k a s t . P a t ie n t s wh o a r e r e c e i v i n g m o n t e l u k a s t wi t h h e p a t i c e n z ym e i n d u c e r s ( e. g . , r i f a m p i n, p h e n o b a r b i t a l ) s h o u l d b e m o n i t o r e d c l o s e l y. ( v) T h e c h ewa b l e f o r m s o f m o n t e l u ka s t ( 4 - a n d 5 - m g t a b l e t s) c o n t a i n a sp a r t a m e a n d s h o u l d b e a v o i d e d i n p a t i e n t s wi t h p h e n yl k e t o n u r i a . b . T h e o n l y l i p o x yg e n a s e i n h i b i t o r a p p r o v e d b y t h e F D A i s z i l e u t o n ( Z yf l o ) . Z i l e u t o n m a y a l l o w r e d u c t i o n i n c o r t ic o s t e r o i d d o s e s i n s o m e p a t i e n t s . ( 1 ) T h e r a p e u t i c e f f e c t s . L i p o x yg e n a s e i n h i b i t o r s h a v e a n t i - i n f l a m m a t o r y a n d b r o n c h o d i l a t o r a c t i v i t y. ( 2 ) M e c h a n i s m o f a c t i o n . L i p o x yg e n a s e i n h i b i t o r s p r e v e n t t h e f o r m a t i on o f l e u k o t r i e n e s . Z i l e u t o n b l o c k s 5 - l i p o x yg e n a s e , t h e e n z ym e r e s p o n s i b l e f o r leukotriene formation. ( 3 ) Ad m i n i s t r a t i o n a n d d o s a g e . I n a d u l t s a n d c h i l d r e n 1 2 ye a r s o f a g e a n d o l d e r , t h e d o s a g e o f z i l e u t o n i s 6 0 0 m g f ou r t i m e s d a i ly. I t m a y b e t a k e n wi t h o u t r e g a r d t o m e a l s . A n ew f o r m u l a t i o n , Z i l e u t o n C R , m a y b e d o s e d t wi c e d a i l y. ( 4 ) P r e c a u t i o n s an d m o n i t o r i n g e f f e c t s ( a ) Z i l e u t o n i s c o n t r a i n d i c a t e d i n p a t i e n t s wi t h h e p a t i c f u n c t i on i m p a i r m e n t a n d s h o u l d b e m o n i t o r e d c l o s e l y i n p a t i e n t s wh o d r i n k l a r g e q u a n t i t i e s o f a l c o h o l . ( b ) A d v e r s e e f f e c t s i n c l u d e h e a d a c h e , a b d o m i n a l p a i n , a s t h e n i a , n a u s e a , d ys p e p s i a , a n d m ya l g i a . D r u g t h e r a p y wa s d i s c o n t i n u e d i n a l m o s t 1 0 % o f p a t i e n t s owi n g t o s i d e e f f e c t s, a l t ho u g h t h i s wa s s i m i l a r t o p l a c e b o . ( c ) S i g n i f i c a n t d r u g - d ru g i n t e r a c t i o n s m a y o c c u r .
( i ) Z i l e u t o n i n c r e a s e s c o n c e n t r a t i o n s o f p r o p r a n o l o l , t e r f e n a d i n e, a n d t h e o p h yl l i n e . ( i i ) T h e a n t ic o a g u l a n t e f f e c t of w a r f a r i n i s i n c r e a s e d b y z i l e u t o n . ( d ) H e p a t i c e n z ym e s ( e . g . , a l a n i n e a m i n o t r a n s f e r a s e [ A LT ] ) m a y b e c o m e e l e v a t e d d u r i n g t h e r a p y, wi t h m o s t o c c u r r e n ce s d u r i n g t h e f i r s t s e v e r a l m o n t h s o f t h e r a p y. S ym p t o m a t i c h e p a t i t i s ha s b e e n r e p o r t e d . T h e r ef o r e , t h e m an u f a c t u r e r r e c o m m e n d s t h a t s e r u m A L T b e c h e ck e d b e f o r e i n i t i a t i o n o f t r e a t m e n t , m o n t h l y f o r 3 m o n t h s , a n d e v e r y 2 - 3 m o n t h s f o r t he r e s t of t h e f i r st ye a r . A L T s h o u l d b e c h e c k e d p e r i o d i c a l l y thereafter. ( i ) P a t i e n t s s h o u l d b e m o n i t o r e d c l o s e l y f o r s i g n s o r s ym p t o m s o f l i v e r dys f u n c t i o n ( e . g . , r i g h t up p e r q u a d r a n t a b d o m i n a l p a i n , f l u - l i k e s ym p t o m s , f a t i g u e , na u s e a , l e t h a r g y, i t c h i n g , j a u n d i c e ) . ( i i ) I f A LT i nc r e a s e s t o m o r e t h a n f iv e t i m e s t h e u p p e r l i m i t o f n o r m a l , t h e r a p y s h o u l d b e d i s c o n t i n u e d a n d t h e p a t i e n t s h o u l d b e m o n i t o r e d u n t i l e n z ym e s normalize. 4 . C r o m o l yn s o d i u m an d n e d o c r o m i l so d i u m a . T h e r a p e u t i c e f f e c t s . C r o m o l yn s o d i u m a n d n e d o c r o m i l s o d i u m a r e n o n s t e r o i d a l d r u g s wi t h a n t i - i n f l a m m a t o r y p r o p e r t i e s . T h e s e m e d i c a t i o n s a r e l e s s e f f e ct i v e i n t h e i r a n t i - i n f l a m m a t o r y p r o p e r t i e s t ha n t h e i n h a l e d c o r t i c o s t e r o i d s ; h o we v e r , b e c a u s e o f t h e i r e xc e l l e n t s a f e t y p r o f i l e , t h e y a r e s o m e t i m es u s e d i n c hi l d r e n . P.1077
( 1 ) W h e n u s e d p r o p h yl a c t i c a l l y, c r o m o l yn s o d i u m a n d n e d o c r o m i l s o d i u m p r e v e n t t h e e a r l y a n d l a t e r e s p o n s e o f a s t hm a . (2) When used as maintenance therapy for asthma, these medications suppress n o n s p e c i f i c a i r wa y r e a c t i v i t y. b . M e c h a n i s m o f a c t i o n . C r o m o l yn s o d i u m a n d n e d o c r o m i l s o d i u m a r e b e l i e v e d t o act locally by stabilizing mast cells and thereby inhibiting mast cell degranulation. c . Ad m i n i s t r a t i o n a n d d o s a g e ( 1 ) C r o m o l y n s o d i u m i s a v a i l a b l e a s a n M D I ( 80 0 m g p e r in h a l a t i o n ) , a n d a n e b u l i z e r s o l u t i o n ( 2 0 m g / 2 m L ) . T he r e q u i r e d d o s a g e i s t wo p u f f s of t h e M D I o r 2 0 mg of nebulizer solution. Because of the dosage needed to achieve asthma control, the nebulizer is preferred. ( 2 ) N e d o c r o m i l so d i u m i s a v a i l a b l e a s a n M D I ( 1 . 7 5 m g p e r i n h a l a t i o n ) . T h e r e q u i r e d d o s a g e i s t wo i n h a l a t i o n s f o u r t i m e s a d a y. ( 3 ) W h e n u s e d f o r p r o p h yl a xi s o f E I B , cr o m o l yn s o d i u m a n d n e d o c r o m i l s o d i u m s h o u l d b e a d m i n i s t e r e d 1 h r b e f o r e e xe r c i s e . ( 4 ) A f t e r a dm i n i s t r a t i o n , i n i t i a l i m p r o v e m e n t i s se e n wi t h i n 1 - 2 we e k s ; h o we v e r , t h e m a xi m u m e f f e c t m a y t a k e l o n g e r . d . P r e c a u t i o n s an d m o n i t o r i n g e f f e c t s ( 1 ) C r o m o l y n s o d i u m a n d n e d o c r o m i l s o d i u m a r e n o t e f f e c t i ve d u r i n g an a c u t e asthma exacerbation. They should be used only for maintenance therapy of p e r s i s t e n t as t h m a o r f o r p r e v e n t i o n o f E I B.
( 2 ) B o t h d r ug s a r e we l l - t o l e r a t e d , a l t h o u g h p a r a d o xi c a l b r o n c h o s p a s m , wh e e z i n g , c o u g h i n g , n a s a l c o n g e s t i o n , a n d i r r it a t i o n o r d r yn e s s o f t h e t h r o a t m a y o c c u r . 5 . T h e o p h yl l i n e c o m p o u n d s ( m e t h yl x a n t h i n e s) a. Indications ( 1 ) T h e o p h yl l i n e c o m p o u n d s m a y b e c o n s i d e r e d i f β - a g o n i s t s a n d c o r t ic o s t e r o i d s f a i l t o c o n t r o l an a c u t e a s t hm a e xa c e r b a t i o n . ( 2 ) T h e o p h yl l i n e i s a n a l t e r n a t i v e t o l o n g - a c t i n g β - a g o n i s t s i n t h e t r e a t m e n t o f p e r s i s t e n t as t h m a . ( 3 ) T h e o p h yl l i n e i s m o s t b e n e f i c i a l a s a n a d j u v a n t t o i n h a l e d c o r t i c o st e r o i d s i n p a t i e n t s wi t h n o c t u r n a l o r e a r l y m o r n i n g s ym p t o m s . b. Therapeutic effects ( 1 ) T h e o p h yl l i n e c o m p o u n d s p r o d u c e b r o n c h o d i l a t i o n t o a l es s e r e xt e n t t h a n β agonists. ( 2 ) N o n b r o n c h o d i l a t o r e f f e c t s i n c l u d e r e d u c e d m u c u s s e c r e t io n , e n h a n c e d m u c o c i l i a r y t r a n s p o r t , i m p r o v e d d i a p h r a g m a t i c c o n t r a c t i l i t y, a n d p o s s i b l y r e d u c e d f a t i g a b i l i t y. (3) There may also be notable degree of anti-inflammatory activity c . M e c h a n i s m o f a c t i o n . T h e o p h yl l i n e - i n d u c e d p h o s p h o d i e s t e r a s e i n h i b i t i o n r e s u l t s i n i n c r e a s e d l e v e l s o f c AM P . d . Ad m i n i s t r a t i o n a n d d o s a g e ( 1 ) O r a l t h er a p y ( e . g . , s u s t a i n e d - r e l e a s e t h e o p h yl l i n e s ) a l l o ws f o r a l o n g e r d o s i n g i n t e r v a l a n d i m p r o v e s c o m p l i a n c e . C o m p l i a n c e t o o r a l t h e o p h yl l i n e a l s o m a y b e b e t t e r t h a n t h a t o f i n h a l e d b r o n c h o d i l a t o r s a n d c or t i c o s t e r o i d s. ( a ) B e c a u s e t h e o p h yl l i n e d o e s n o t d i s t r i b u t e we l l i n t o f a t t y t i s s u e , d o s a g e s s h o u l d b e c a l c u l a t e d u s i n g l e a n b o d y we i g h t . ( b ) T h e i n i t ia l d o s e o f t he o p h y l l i n e f o r a d u l t s a n d c h i l d r e n > a g e 1 i s 1 0 m g / k g / d a y ( m a x i m u m o f 3 0 0 m g / d ay) g i v e n i n d i v i d e d d o s e s . U s u a l d o sa g e s h o u l d b e a d j u s t e d t o a c h i e v e se r u m t h e o p h yl l i n e c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f 5- 1 5 µ g / m L ( 5 - 1 0 µ g / m L a c c e p t a b l e ) . ( c ) T h e d o sa g e c a n b e t i t r a t e d s l o wl y u p wa r d a n d t h e s e r u m l e v e l m o n i t o r e d u n t i l a therapeutic level is obtained. ( d ) T h e u s ua l m a x i m a l d a i l y d o s e i n a d u l t s i s 80 0 m g / d a y. ( e ) T h e m a x i m u m r e c o m m e n d e d d o s a g e i n c h i l d r e n < a g e 1 is 0 . 2 × ( a g e i n we e k s ) + 5 = m g / k g/ d a y a n d i n c h i l d r e n ≥ 1 ye a r i s 1 6 m g / k g / d a y, g i v e n i n d i v i d e d d o s e s . ( f ) U l t r a - s u s t a i n e d r e l e a s e t h e o p h yl l i n e f o rm u l a t i o n s ( T h e o - 2 4 a n d U n i p h yl ) m a y b e d o s e d o n c e d ai l y. ( g ) I n a d d i t io n t o t h e o p h yl l i n e , o t h e r m e t h yl xa n t h i n e c o m p o u n d s a r e a v a i l a b l e ( e . g . , o x t r i p h y l l i n e , d yp h yl l i n e ) b u t i n f r e q ue n t l y u s e d . D o s i n g o f t he s e c o m p o u n d s i s b a s e d on theophylline content (Table 49-6). P.1078
Table 49-6. Theophylline Content of Theophylline-Containing Products
Preparation
Theophylline Content Equivalent Dose (%) (mg)
Theophylline anhydrous (most oral solids)
100
100
Theophylline monohydrate (oral solutions)
91
110
Aminophylline anhydrous
86
116
Aminophylline hydrous
79
127
Oxtriphylline
64
156
( 2 ) I n t r a ve n o u s t h e r a p y. A l t h o u g h f r e q u e n t l y u s e d i n t h e p a s t , I V a d m i n i s t r a t i o n i s n o w u n c o m m o n . I V a d m i n i s t r a t i o n i s g e n e r a l l y u s e d o n l y i n h o s p i t a l i z e d p a t i e n t s f or wh o m o r a l t h e r a p y i s n o t p o s s i b l e ( e . g . , v o m i t i n g, n o t h i n g b y m o u t h ) . ( a ) T h e u s ua l l o a d i n g d o s e f o r a d u lt s a n d c h i l d r e n n o t p r e v i o u s l y r e c e i v i n g a m e t h yl x a n t h i n e i s 5 m g / k g o f t h e o p h yl l i n e a d m i n i s t e r e d o v e r 2 0 - 3 0 m i n a t a r a t e n o t exceeding 25 mg/min. ( b ) T h e u s ua l m a i n t e n an c e i n f u si o n r at e o f t h e o p h yl l i n e i n h e a l t h y n o n s m o k i n g a d u l t s o n n o i n t e r a c t i n g d r u g s i s 0 . 4 m g / k g / h r . T h i s r a t e s h ou l d b e a d j u s t e d f o r f a c t o r s t h a t a f f e c t t h e o p h yl l i n e m e t a b o l i s m a n d s e r u m l e v e l s ( s e e T a b l e 4 9 - 7 ) . d . P r e c a u t i o n s an d m o n i t o r i n g e f f e c t s ( 1 ) T h e o p h yl l i n e s a r e c o n t r a i n d i c a t e d i n p a t i e n t s wi t h h yp e r s e n s i t i v i t y t o xa n t h i n e c o m p o u n d s a n d s h o u l d b e u s e d c a u t i o u s l y i n p a t i e n t s wi t h a h i s t o r y o f p e p t i c u l c e r or untreated seizure disorder. ( 2 ) A d v e r s e e f f e c t s i n c l u d e n a u s e a , v o m i t i n g , d i a r r h e a , a n o r e xi a , p a l p i t a t i o n s , d i z z i n e s s , r e s t l e s s n e s s , n e r v o u s n e s s , i n s o m n i a , s e i z u r e s , r e d u c e d l o we r e s o p h a g e a l s p h i n c t e r t on e , a n d r e d u c e d c o n t r o l o f g a s t r o e s o p h a g e a l r e f l u x d i s e a s e . P a t i e n t s wh o e xp e r i e n c e a d v e r s e g a s t r o i n t e s t i n a l e f f e c t s s ho u l d b e e v a l u a t e d t o r u le o u t t h e o p h yl l i n e t o xi c i t y v e r s u s l o c a l g a s t r o i n t e s t i n a l e f f e c t . ( 3 ) T h e o p h yl l i n e c l e a r a n c e c a n b e a l t e r e d b y s e v e r a l f a c t o r s a n d d r u g i n t e r a c t i o n s ( T a b l e 4 9 - 7 ) . C l o s e d r u g - l e v e l m o n i t o r i n g i s r e q u i r e d f o r p a t i e n t s wi t h f a c t o r s t h a t alter theophylline clearance. ( 4 ) C a r e f u l m o n i t o r i n g i s r e q u i r e d i n p a t i e n t s wi t h h e p a t i c d i s e a s e , h yp o xe m i a , h yp e r t e n s i o n , c o n g e s t i ve h e a r t f a i l u r e , a l c o h o l i s m , a n d i n t h e e l d e r l y. B e c a u s e o f d e v e l o p m e n t a l c h a n g e s i n t h e n e o n a t e a n d c h i l d , d o s i n g m u s t b e c a r e f u l ly e s t a b l i s h e d a n d m o n i t o r e d i n t h e s e p o p u l a t i o n s a s we l l .
( 5 ) T h e r a p e u t i c d r u g mo n i t o ri n g o f s e r u m l e v e l s , a d v e r s e r e a c t i o n s , a n d c o n c o m i t a n t d r u g u s e i s e s s e n t i a l f o r l o n g - t e r m t h e r a p y o wi n g t o t h e o p h yl l i n e ' s a g e a n d c o n d i t i o n - s p e c i f i c c le a r a n c e . ( a ) T h e r a p e u t i c e f f e c t i s a c h i e v e d a n d t o xi c i t y m i n i m i z e d b y k e e p i n g d r u g c o n c e n t r a t i o n s a t 5 - 1 5 µg / m L . ( b ) Dr u g l e v e l s s h o u l d b e a s s e s s e d a t s t e a d y s t a t e ( t yp i c a l h a l f - l i f e 8 h r , u p t o 2 4 h r in severe heart and liver failure), ( c ) D u r i n g o r a l t h e r a p y, t r o u g h d r u g l e v e l s s h o u l d b e o b t a i n e d a t st e a d y s t a t e . ( d ) D yp h yl l i n e s e r u m l e v e l s s h o u l d b e m o n i t o r e d d u r i n g t h e r a p y b e c a u s e s e r u m t h e o p h yl l i n e l e v e l s wi l l n o t m e a s u r e d yp h yl l i n e . T h e m i n i m a l e f f e ct i v e t he r a p e u t i c c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f d yp h y l l i n e i s 1 2 µ g / m L . 6 . An t i c h o l i n e r g i c s . B r o n c h o d i l a t i o n o c c u r s wh e n t h e s e d r u g s b l o c k p o s t g a n g l i o n i c m u s c a r i n i c r e c e p t o r s i n t h e a i r wa y. R e s p o n s e t o a n t i c h o l i n e r g i c s i s m o st p r o n o u n c e d i n p a t i e n t s wi t h f i xe d a i r wa y o b s t r u c t i o n ( e . g . , C O P D ) . a . I p r a t r o p i u m b ro m i d e ( A t r o v e n t ) is a q u a t e r n a r y a m m o n i u m c o m p o u n d . (1) Indications ( a ) I p r a t r o p i u m b r o m i d e i s r e c o m m en d e d f o r u s e i n c o m b i n a t i o n wi t h β - a g o n i s t s f o r t h e t r e a t m en t o f a n a c ut e a s t h m a exa c e r b a t i o n i n t h e e m e r g e n c y d e p a r t m e n t o r h o s p i t a l s e t t i n g s . H o we v e r , b e n e f i t s i n t h e c h r o n i c m a n a g e m e n t o f a st h m a h a v e n o t been established. ( b ) I p r a t r o p iu m b r o m i d e m a y b e p a r t i c u l a r l y u s e f u l i n o l d e r p a t i e n t s a n d p a t i e n t s wi t h c o e xi s t i n g C O P D . P.1079
Table 49-7. Factors That Alter Theophylline Clearance Factors that increase theophylline clearance (decrease levels) Age 1-9 years Drugs Carbamazepine Phenobarbital Phenytoin Rifampin
Fever Food (may delay or reduce absorption of some sustained-release products) High-protein diet Smoking (marijuana and tobacco) Factors that decrease theophylline clearance (increase levels) Age Elderly Premature neonates Term infants <6 months Cor pulmonale Congestive heart failure, decompensated Drugs Allopurinol β-Blockers (nonselective) Calcium channel blockers Cimetidine Fluoroquinolones (ciprofloxacin)
Influenza virus vaccine Macrolides (clarithromycin, erythromycin) Oral contraceptives Ticlopidine Zafirlukast Fever/viral illness Fatty foods (may increase rate of absorption of some products) High-carbohydrate diet Liver dysfunction (e.g., cirrhosis) ( c ) I p r a t r o p i u m s h o u l d n o t b e u s e d a l o n e t o t r e a t a n a s t h m a e xa c e r b a t i o n . ( d ) I p r a t r o p iu m b r o m i d e i s a n a l t e r n a t i v e b r o n c h o d i l a t o r i n s o m e p a t i e n t s wh o c a n n o t t o l e r a t e β - a g o n i s t s a n d i n p a t i e n t s wh o p r e s e n t wi t h b r o n c h o s p a s m i n d u c e d by a β-blocker. ( 2 ) Ad m i n i s t r a t i o n a n d d o s a g e (a) Closed-mouth MDI technique or the use of a spacer is recommended for patients receiving anticholinergic therapy via MDI. ( b ) T h e st a r t i n g d o s e o f t h e M D I i s t wo i n h a l a t i o n s f o u r t i m e s a d a y. W h e n a d m i n i s t e r e d v i a n e b u l i z e r , t h e d o s e i s 5 0 0 µ g ( 2 . 5 m L ) f o u r t i m e s a d a y. ( 3 ) P r e c a u t i o n s an d m o n i t o r i n g e f f e c t s ( a ) I f t h e a n t i c h o l i n e r g i c s p r a y c o n t a c t s t h e e ye , i n t r a o c u l a r p r e s s u r e m a y i n c r e a s e . ( b ) T h e o n s e t o f a ct i o n ( a p p r o x i m a t e l y 1 5 m i n ) a n d p e a k e f f e c t ( 1 - 2 h r ) a r e m o r e delayed than for β-agonists. b. Aerosolized atropine is used rarely now that ipratropium bromide nebulization s o l u t i o n i s a v a i l a b l e o wi n g t o a t r o p in e ' s h i g h i n c i d e n c e o f sys t e m i c a d v e r s e e f f e ct s . 7 . An t i h i s t am i n e s a r e us e f u l f o r p a t i e n t s wi t h c o e xi s t i n g a l l e r g i c r h i n i t i s ; h o we v e r , t h e i r r o l e i n t h e t r e a t m en t o f a st h m a r e m a i n s u n c l e a r . A n t i h is t a m i n e s c om p e t e wi t h h i s t a m i n e f o r H 1 - r e c e p t o r s i t e s o n e f f e c t o r c e l l s a n d t h u s h e l p p r e v e n t t he h i s t a m i n e - m e d i a t e d r e s p o n s e s t h a t in f l u e n c e a s t h m a . 8 . An t i b i o t i c s a r e g e n e r a l l y n o t u s e d f o r t h e t r ea t m e n t o f a st h m a , u n l e s s o t h e r s i g n s o f i n f ec t i o n a r e p r e s e n t .
P.1080
9 . M a g n e s i u m s u l f a t e , a d m i n i s t e r e d i n t r a v e n o u s l y, m a y b e u s e f u l i n s o m e p a t i e n t s b e c a u s e o f i t s m o d e s t ab i l i t y t o c a u s e b r o n c h o d i l a t i o n . W h e n a d m i n i s t e r e d i n t r a v e n o u s l y, i t a l s o i m p r o v e s r e s p i r a t o r y m u s c l e s t r e n g t h in h yp o m a g n e s e m i c p a t i e n t s . R es e a r c h h a s s u g g e s t e d t h a t m a g n e s i u m m a y r e d u c e a d m i s s i o n r a t e a n d i m p r o v e F EV 1 i n s e v e r e, a c u t e a s t hm a e xa c e r b a t i o n s a n d i n s t a b l e , c h r o n i c a s t h m a . 10. Immunotherapy (allergy shots) improves asthma control in some patients and is i n e f f e c t i v e in o t h e r s . A r e c e n t m e t a - a n a l ys i s d e m o n s t r a t e d t h a t i m m u n ot h e r a p y m a y i m p r o v e l u n g f u n c t i o n , r e d u c e s ym p t o m s , a n d d e c r e a s e m e d i c a t i o n r e q u i r e m e n t s i n a significant number of patients. 1 1 . M u cu s m a y c o n t r i b u t e t o a i r wa y o b s t r u c t i o n i n a s t h m a . H o we v e r , b e c a u s e s o m e i n h a l e d m u c o l yt i c s s u c h a s a c e t yl c ys t e i n e m a y p r e c i p i t a t e b r o n c h o s p a s m , t h e y s h o u l d n o t b e u s e d f o r t h e t r e a t m e n t o f p a t i e n t s wi t h a s t h m a . 1 2 . O m a l i z u m a b ( X o l a i r) i s a n a n t i - I g E c o m p o u n d u s e d f o r se v e r e a s t h m a a n d c o n c u r r e n t a l l e r g i e s . I t i s u s u a l l y a d m i n i s t e r e d t wi c e m o n t h l y a s a n i n j e c t i o n i n a s p e c i a l t y p h y s i c i a n ' s o f f i c e . L i f e - t h r e a t e n i n g a n a p h yl a xi s h a s r a r e l y b e e n r e p o r t e d wi t h t h i s m e d i c a t i o n . J . D r u g d e l i ve r y o p t i o n s 1. MDIs a . W h e n a dm i n i s t e r e d wi t h g o o d t e c h n i q u e a n d a s p a c e r , t h e e f f i c a c y o f M D I s i s s i m i l a r t o t h a t o f n e b u l i z e r s , d e s p i t e t h e l o we r d o s e s a d m i n i s t e r e d wi t h a n M D I a n d s p a c e r . T h e o n l y M D I t ha t c o m e s wi t h a b u i l t - i n s p a c e r i s t he A z m a c o r t (triamcinolone) inhaler. b . F o r s m a l l c h i l d r e n t o b e a b l e t o u s e a n M D I , a s p a c e r wi t h a f a c e m as k m u s t b e used. c . M D I s c a n b e d i f f i c u l t t o u s e . S t e ps f o r p r o p e r l y u s i n g a n M D I a r e o u t li n e d i n Table 49-8. d . M D I s c a n b e a d m i n i s t e r e d t o p a t ie n t s o n m e ch a n i c a l v e n t i l a t i o n wi t h t h e u s e o f a n a t t a c h m e n t d e v i c e d e s i g n e d f o r t h e m e c h a n i c a l v e n t i l a t o r c i r c u i t . H i gh e r d o s e s o f t h e β 2 - a g o n i s t a r e of t e n u s e d i n t h i s s e t t i n g . e . B r e a t h - a c t u a t e d M D I s ( e . g . , M a xa i r A u t o h a l e r ) r e q u i r e t h e p a t i e n t t o u se a c l o s e d - m o u t h t e c h n i q u e . W h e n i n h a l a t i o n i s b e g u n , t h e m e d ic a t i o n i s r e le a s e d a u t o m a t i c a l l y. T h i s t yp e o f i n h a l e r i s u s e f u l f o r a p a t i e n t wh o i s h a v i n g p r o b l e m s coordinating actuation and inhalation. 2 . S p a c e r s a n d h o l d i n g c h a m b e r s ( e . g . , A e r oC h a m b e r , A e r o V e n t , E l l i p s e , InspirEase, Opti-Chamber) a. Spacers and holding chambers reduce the amount of drug deposited in the oral c a v i t y. b . T h e u s e o f s p a c e r s an d h o l d i n g c h a m b e r s m a y m i n i m i z e l o c a l a n d s ys t e m i c adverse reactions. c . A d d i t i o n o f a s p a c e r in a p a t i e n t wi t h p o o r M D I t e c h n i q u e m a y i m p r o v e p u l m o n a r y delivery of the agent.
d . S p a c e r s s h o u l d b e c o n s i d e r e d i n a l l p a t i e n t s wh o a r e r e c e i v i n g m e d i u m t o h i g h doses of inhaled corticosteroids.
Table 49-8. Procedure for the Proper Use of Metered Dose Inhalers (MDIs) Assemble MDI, if necessary. Remove cap and inspect mouthpiece for foreign objects. Attach MDI to spacer (if applicable). Shake MDI (with spacer). Tilt head back slightly and exhale fully. Position inhaler: Wrap lips around spacer mouthpiece. Position inhaler 1-2 in. from open mouth. Wrap lips around inhaler mouthpiece. Just as you begin to inhale, depress canister once to release medication. Continue inhaling slowly (over 3-5 sec) until lungs are full. Hold breath for 5-10 sec. Wait 1 min before repeating steps to deliver additional puffs. Rinse mouth out after use of inhaled steroids. P.1081
e . T h e y a r e e s p e c i a l l y b e n e f i c i a l f o r p a t i e n t s wi t h p o o r h a n d - l u n g c o o r d i n a t i o n , s u c h a s v e r y yo u n g a n d o l d .
f . D e v i c e s v a r y i n c o n s t r u c t i o n a n d e f f i c a c y. T h e p r e s e n c e o f a o n e - wa y m o u t h p i e c e v a l v e , i n h a l a t i o n r a t e wh i s t l e , s i z e , a n d d u r a b i l i t y a r e a l l f a c t o r s t h a t s ho u l d b e c o n s i d e r e d wh e n s e l e c t i n g a p a r t i c u l a r s p a c e r f or a p a t i e n t . S o m e n e w s p a c e r s h a v e a n t i - s t a t i c i nt e r i o r s t o m in i m i z e a d h e r e n c e o f a e r o s o l p a r t i c l e s t o t h e i n t er i o r o f t h e spacer. 3. Nebulizers a . C o m p a r e d t o M DI a nd s p a c e r a d m i n i s t r a t i o n , n e b u l i z e r s r e q u i r e l e s s p a t i e n t coordination during administration of multiple inhalations. b. Disadvantages of nebulizers include cost, preparation and administration time, size of the device, and drug delivery inconsistencies among devices. c . D e s p i t e t h e d i s a d v a n t a g e s , n e b u l i z a t i o n i s r ec o m m e n d e d f o r d e l i v e r y o f h i g h d o s e β - a g o n i s t s a n d a n t ic h o l i n e r g i c s i n s e v e r e exa c e r b a t i o n s a n d f o r d el i v e r y o f c r o m o l yn s o d i u m t o c h i l d r e n . 4 . D r y- p ow d e r i n h a l e rs a . D r y- p o wd e r i n h a l e r s ( D P I s ) a r e co m i n g t o t h e m a r k e t a s a r e s u l t o f t he i n t e r n a t i o n a l m o v e t o a vo i d t h e u s e o f c h l o r o f l u o r o c a r b o n ( C F C ) p r o p e l l a n t s . T h e y are also being used more frequently because many patients find them easier to use than an MDI. b . D r y- p o wd e r i n h a l e r s r e q u i r e t h e u s e r t o : ( 1 ) F i r s t l o ad t h e d o s e i n t o t h e d e l i v e r y c h a m b e r ( 2 ) E xh a l e f u l l y ( 3 ) I n h a l e r a p i d l y o r s l o wl y , d e p e n d i n g o n t h e d e v i c e ( v e r s u s o n l y s l o w i n h a l a t i o n required for MDI administration) (4) Use the closed-mouth technique ( 5 ) A v o i d e xh a l i n g i n t o t h e m o u t h p i e c e b e f o r e i n h a l a t i o n . c . S p a c e r s a r e n o t u s e d wi t h d r y- p o wd e r i n h a l e r s . d . P a t i e n t s s h o u l d b e a d v i s e d t o k ee p t h e s e d e v i c e s a wa y f r o m m o i s t u r e . K. Nonpharmacological treatment 1 . H u m i d i f i e d o x yg e n is a d m i n i s t e r e d t o a l l p a t i e n t s wi t h s e v e r e , a c u t e a s t h m a t o r e v e r s e h yp o x e m i a . A l t ho u g h t h e f r a c t i o n o f i n s pi r e d o x yg e n ( F I O 2 ) a d m in i s t e r e d i s b a s e d o n t h e p a t i e n t ' s ar t e r i a l b l o o d g a s s t at u s , 1 - 3 L / m i n i s g e n e r a l l y g i v e n v i a f a c e m a s k or n a s a l c a n n u l a . T h e g o a l i s t o k e e p t h e S a O 2 > 9 0 % ( > 9 5 % i f t h e p a t i e nt is pregnant or has heart disease). 2 . H e l i o x i s a m i xt u r e o f h e l i u m a n d o x yg e n t h a t h a s a l o we r d e n s i t y t h a n a i r . B e c a u s e o f it s d e c r e a s e d a i r f l o w r e s i s t a n c e , h e l i o x m a y i n c r e a s e v e n t i l a t i o n d u r i n g acute asthma exacerbations. Because conflicting information has been published in s t u d i e s u s i n g h e l i o x, i t s r o l e i n a s t h m a i s u n c l e a r . 3 . I n t r a ve n o u s f l u i d s an d e l e c t r o l yt e s m a y b e r e q u i r e d i f t h e p a t i e n t i s v o l u m e depleted. 4 . E n vi r o n m e n t a l c o n t r o l a n d a l l e r g e n a v o i d a n c e a r e i m p o r t a n t i n t h e m a n a g e m e n t o f a p a t i e n t wi t h a s t h m a . a . A v a i l a b l e d a t a s u g g e s t t h a t a v o i d a n c e o f k n o wn a l l e r g e n s c a n i m p r o v e a s t h m a control.
b . S o m e m ea s u r e s i n c l u d e u s e o f a l l e r g e n - r e s i s t a n t m a t t r e s s a n d p i l l o w e n c a s e m e n t s , u s e of h i g h - f i l t r a t i o n va c u u m c l e a n e r s , r e m o va l o f c a r p e t s a n d draperies, and avoidance of furry pets. 5 . V a c c i n e s ( e . g . , i n f l u en z a v i r u s , po l yv a l e n t p n e u m o c o c c a l s ) a r e r e c om m e n d e d t o p r e v e n t i n f e c t i o n , wh i c h m a y p r e c i p i t a t e a n e xa c e r b a t i o n .
II. CHRONIC OBSTRUCTIVE PULMONARY DISEASE A. D e f i n i t i o n s . T h e 2 0 0 1 N a t i o n a l H e a r t , L u n g , a n d B l o o d I n s t i t u t e / W o r l d H e a l t h O r g a n i z a t i o n ( N H L B I / W H O ) G l o b a l I n i t i a t i v e f o r C h r o n i c O bs t r u c t i v e L u n g D i s e a s e ( G O L D ) d e f i n i t i o n o f C O P D i s “ a d i se a s e s t a t e ch a r a c t e r i z e d b y a i r f l o w l i m i t a t i o n t h a t i s n o t f u l l y r e v e r s i b l e . T h e a i r f lo w l i m i t a t i o n i s u s u a l l y b o t h p r o g r e s s i v e a n d a s s o c i a t e d wi t h a n a b n o r m a l i n f l a m m a t o r y r e s p o n s e o f t h e lu n g s t o n o xi o u s p a r t i c l e s o r g a s e s . ” T h e A m e r i c a n T h o r a c i c So c i e t y d e f i n i t i o n i s s i m i la r : a d i s e a se s t a t e c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y t h e p r e s e n c e o f a i r f l o w l i m i t a t i o n o wi n g t o ch r o n i c b r o n c h i t i s o r e m p h ys e m a ; t h e a i r f l o w o b s t r u c t i o n i s g e n e r a l l y p r o g r e s s i v e , m a y b e a c c o m p a n i e d b y a i r wa y h yp e r r e a c t i v i t y, a n d m a y b e p a r t i a l l y r e v e r s i b l e . T h e t wo m a j o r f o r m s o f C O P D — c h ro n i c P.1082 b r o n ch i t i s a n d e m p h ys e m a — f r e q u e n t l y c o e xi s t . CO P D a l so c o e xi s t s wi t h a s t h m a . T h e s e g u i d e l i n e s h a v e b e e n u p d a t e d a n n u a l l y. 1 . C h r o n i c b r o n ch i t i s is c h a r a c t e r iz e d b y e xc e s s i v e m u c u s p r o d u c t i o n b y t h e t r a c h e o b r o n c h i a l t r e e , wh i c h r e s u l t s i n a i r wa y o b s t r u c t i o n a s a r e s u l t o f e d e m a a n d b r o n c h i a l i n f l a m m a t i o n . B r o n c h i t i s i s c o n s i d e r e d c h r o n i c wh e n t h e p a t i e n t h a s a c o u g h p r o d u c i n g m o r e t ha n 3 0 m L o f s p u t u m i n 24 h r f o r a t l ea s t 3 m o n t hs o f t h e y e a r f o r 2 c o n s e c u t i v e y e a r s a n d o t h e r c a u s e s o f c h r o n i c co u g h h a v e b e e n excluded. 2 . E m p h ys e m a i s m a r k ed b y p e r m a n e n t a l v e o l a r e n l a r g e m e n t d i s t a l t o t he t e r m i n a l b r o n c h i o l e s a n d d e s t r u c t i v e c h a n g e s o f t h e a l v e o l a r wa l l s . T he r e i s a l a c k o f u n i f o r m i t y i n a i r s p a c e e n l a r g e m e n t , r e s u l t i n g i n l o s s o f a l v e ol a r s u r f a c e a r e a . T h e c o l l a p s e o f t h e s e s m a l l a i r wa ys r e s u l t s i n a i r f l ow l i m i t a t i o n t h a t i s i n d e p e n d e n t o f exertion. B . I n c i d e n ce . A p p r o x i m a t e l y 1 7 m i l l i o n A m e r i c a n s h a v e C O P D . C O P D is t h e f o u r t h l e a d i n g c a u s e o f d e a t h in t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s a n d t h e l e a d i n g c a u s e o f h o s p i t a l i z a t i o n i n t h e o l d e r p o p u l a t i o n . I t i s m o s t c om m o n l y d i a g n o s e d i n o l d e r m e n ; h o we v e r , t h e i n c i d e n c e i s i n c r e a s i n g i n wo m e n o wi n g t o a n i n c r e a s i n g p o p u l a t i o n o f wo m e n smokers. Women may be more likely to have more rapidly progressive COPD than men. C . C a u s e . Va r i o u s f a c t or s h a v e b e e n i m p l i c a t e d i n t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f CO P D , i n c l u d i n g t h e f o l l o wi n g : 1 . C i g a r e t t e s m o k i n g i s t h e p r i m a r y c a u s a l f a c t o r f o r t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f C O P D, present in >90% of patients. a . O n e m e c h a n i s m s u g g e s t s t h a t pu l m o n a r y h y p e r r e a c t i v i t y s e c o n d a r y t o s m o k i n g r e s u l t s i n p e r s i s t e n t a i r wa y o b s t r u c t i o n .
b . T h e r e i s a l s o a n i n c r e a s e d r i s k o f C O P D i n pe o p l e wh o h a v e α 1 - a n t i t r yp s i n ( A A T ) d e f i c i e n c y. O n e i n t h r e e p e o p l e wi t h g e n e t i c A AT d e f i c i e n c y d e v e l o p e m p h ys e m a , usually as young adults. ( 1 ) A AT i s a s e r i n e p r o t e a s e i n h i b i t o r , a n d i t i s a l s o a n a c u t e - p h a s e r e a c t i v e p r o t e i n . T h e m a j o r ph ys i o l o g i c a l f u n c t i o n o f A AT i s i n h i b i t i o n o f n e u t r o p h i l e l a s t a s e . ( 2 ) A AT d e f ic i e n c y s h o u l d b e s u s p e c t e d wh e n e m p h ys e m a d e v e l o p s e a r l y i n t h e a b s e n c e o f a s i g n i f i c a n t s m o k i n g h i s t o r y. 2 . E x p o s u r e t o i r r i t a n t s s u c h a s s u l f u r d i o xi d e ( a s i n p o l l u t e d a i r ) , n o xi o u s g a s e s , and organic or inorganic dusts 3 . A h i s t o r y o f r e s p i r a t o r y i n f e c t i o n s o r b r o n c h i a l h yp e r r e a c t i v i t y 4 . S o c i a l , e co n o m i c , a n d h e r e d i t a r y f a c t o r s D. Pathophysiology 1 . C h r o n i c b r o n ch i t i s a. Respiratory tissue inflammation results in vasodilation, congestion, mucosal e d e m a , a n d g o b l e t c e l l h yp e r t r o p h y. T h e s e e v e n t s t r i g g e r g ob l e t c e l l s t o p r o d u c e excessive amounts of mucus. b . C h a n g e s i n t i s s u e i nc l u d e i n c r e a s e d s m o o t h m u s c l e , c a r t i l a g e a t r o p h y, i n f i l t r a t i o n o f n e u t r o p h i l s a n d o t h e r ce l l s , a n d i m p a i r m e n t o f c i l i a . c . A i r wa ys b e c o m e b l o c k e d b y t h i c k , t e n a c i o u s m u c o u s s e c r e t i o n s , wh i c h t r i g g e r a productive cough. d . N o r m a l l y s t e r i l e a i r wa ys c a n b e c o m e c o l o n i z e d wi t h S t r e p t o c o c c u s p n e u m o n i a e , H a e m o p h i l u s i n f l u e n za e , M o r a x e l l a c a t a r r h a l i s , S t a p h y l o c o c c u s a u r e u s , a n d Pseudomonas aeruginosa species. Recurrent lung infections (viral and bacterial) r e d u c e c i l i a r y a n d p h a g o c yt i c a c t i v i t y, i n c r e a s e m u c u s a c c u m u l a t i o n , we a k e n t h e b o d y' s d e f e n s e s , a n d f ur t h e r d e s t r oy s m a l l b r o n c h i o l e s . e . A s t h e a i rw a ys d e g e n e r a t e , o v e r a l l g a s e xc h a n g e i s i m p a i r e d , c a u s i n g e x e r t i o n a l d ys p n e a . f . H yp o xe m i a r e s u l t s f r om a V/ Q i m b a l a n c e a n d i s r e f l e c t e d in a n i n c r e a s i n g a r t e r i a l c a r b o n d i o xi d e t e n s i o n ( i . e . , i n c r e a s i n g P a C O 2 ) . g . S u s t a i n e d h yp e r c a p n i a ( i n c r e a s e d P a C O 2 ) d e s e n s i t i z e s t h e b r a i n ' s r e s p i r a t o r y control center and central chemoreceptors. As a result, compensatory action to c o r r e c t h yp o x e m i a a n d h yp e r c a p n i a ( i . e . , a r e s p i r a t o r y r a t e o r d e p t h i n c r e a s e ) d o e s n o t o c c u r . I n s t e a d , h yp o xe m i a P.1083 serves as the stimulus for breathing. Use of narcotics or benzodiazepines, especially in combination, should be done cautiously in these patients to avoid respiratory failure. 2 . E m p h ys e m a a . An a t o m i c a l c h a n g e s a r e t h e r es u l t o f l o s s o f t i s s u e e l as t i c i t y. ( 1 ) I n f l a m ma t i o n a n d ex c e s s i ve m u c u s s e c r e t i o n ( a s f r o m l o n g - s t a n d i n g c h r o n i c b r o n c h i t i s ) ca u s e a i r t r ap p i n g i n t h e a l v e o l i . T h i s c o n t r i b u t e s t o b r e a k d o wn o f t h e b r o n c h i o l e s , a l v e o l a r wa l l s , a n d c o n n e c t i v e t i s su e . (2) As clusters of alveoli merge, the number of alveoli diminishes, leading to increased space available for air trapping.
( 3 ) D e s t r u ct i o n o f a l v e o l a r wa l l s c a u s e s c o l l a p s e o f s m a l l a i r wa ys o n e xh a l a t i o n a n d disruption of the pulmonary capillary beds. ( 4 ) T h e s e c h a n g e s r e s u l t i n V/ Q a b n o r m a l i t i e s ; b l o o d i s s h u n t e d a wa y f r o m d e s t r o ye d a r e a s t o m a i nt a i n a c o n s t a n t V / Q r at i o , u n l i k e t h e c a s e i n c h r o n i c bronchitis. ( 5 ) H y p e r c a p n i a a n d r e s p i r a t o r y a c i d o s i s a r e u n c o m m o n i n e m p h ys e m a b e c a u s e V / Q imbalance is compensated for by an increased respiratory rate. b . T h e r e a r e s p e c i f i c r e g i o n s o f t h e l u n g i n wh i c h c h a r a c t e r i s t i c a n a t om i c a l c h a n g e s o f e m p h ys e m a o c c u r . ( 1 ) I n c e n t r i l o b u l a r ( c e nt r i a c i n a r ) e m p h ys e m a a s s o c i a t e d wi t h c i g a r e t t e s m o k i n g , d e s t r u c t i o n i s c e n t r a l , s el e c t i v e l y i n v o l v i n g r e s p i r a t o r y b r o n c h i o l e s . T yp i c a l l y, b r o n c h i o l e s a n d a l v e o l a r d u c t s b e c om e d i l a t e d a n d m e r g e . ( 2 ) I n p a n l o b u l a r ( p a n a c i n a r ) e m p h ys e m a , a l l l u n g s e g m e n t s a r e i n v o l ve d . T h e a l v e o l i e n l a r g e a n d a t r o p h y, a n d t h e p u l m o n a r y v a s c u l a r b e d i s d e s t r o ye d . T h i s f o r m o f e m p h ys e m a i s a s s o c ia t e d wi t h A AT d e f i c i e n cy. ( 3 ) I n p a r a s e p t a l e m p h ys e m a , t h e l un g p e r i p h e r y a d j a c e n t t o f i b r o t i c r e g i o n s i s t h e s i t e o f a l v e ol a r d i s t e n t i o n a n d a l v e o l a r wa l l d e s t r u c t i o n . T h i s i s a s s o c i a t e d wi t h s p o n t a n e o u s p n e u m o t h o r a x. E . C l i n i c a l e va l u a t i o n 1 . P h ys i c a l f i n d i n g s a . P r e d o mi n a n t c h r o n i c b r o n c h i t i s t yp i c a l l y h a s a n i n s i d i o u s o n s e t a f t e r a g e 4 5 . ( 1 ) A ch r o n i c p r o d u c t i ve c o u g h i s t h e h a l l m a r k o f c h r o n i c br o n c h i t i s . I t o c c u r s f i r st i n wi n t e r , t h e n p r o g r e s s e s t o ye a r - r o u n d . I t i s us u a l l y wo r s e i n t h e m o r ni n g . Smoking cessation can help lessen the productive cough. ( 2 ) E x e r t i o n a l d ys p n e a , t h e m o s t c om m o n p r e s e n t i n g s ym p t o m , i s p r o g r e s s i v e . H o we v e r , t he s e v e r i t y o f t h i s s ym p t o m m a y n o t r e f l e c t t h e s e v e r i t y o f t h e d i s e a s e . ( 3 ) O t h e r c om m o n f i n d i n g s i n c l u d e o b e s i t y, r h o n c h i a n d wh e e z e s o n a u s c u l t a t i o n , p r o l o n g e d e xp i r a t i o n , a n d a n o r m a l r e s p i r a t o r y r a t e . A s t h e d i s e a s e p r o g r e s s e s , r i g h t v e n t r i cu l a r f a i l u r e i s c o m m o n , wh i c h p r e s e n t s a s j u g u l a r v e n o u s d i s t e n t i o n , p e r i p h e r a l e d e m a , h e p a t o m e g a l y, a n d c a r d i o m e g a l y. B e c a u s e p a t i e n t s t en d t o d e v e l o p c ya n o s i s , t h e t e r m b l u e b l o a t e r i s s o m e t im e s u s e d t o d e s c r i b e p a t i e n t s wi t h chronic bronchitis. b . P r e d o mi n a n t e m p h ys e m a h a s a n i n s i d i o u s o n s e t , a n d sym p t o m s o c c u r a f t e r a g e 55. ( 1 ) T h e co u g h i s c h r o n ic b u t l e s s p r o d u c t i v e t h a n i n c h r o n i c b r o n c h i t i s . ( 2 ) E x e r t i o n a l d ys p n e a i s p r o g r e s s i v e , c o n s t a n t , s e v e r e , m or e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f e m p h ys e m a t h a n c h r o n i c b r o n c h i t i s . ( 3 ) O t h e r c om m o n f i n d i n g s i n c l u d e we i g h t l o s s , t a c h yp n e a , p u r s e d - l i p b r e a t h i n g , p r o l o n g e d e xp i r a t i o n , a c c e s s o r y c h e s t m u s c l e u s e , h yp e r r e s o n a n c e o n p e r c u s s i o n , d i a p h r a g m a t i c e x c u r s i o n , a n d d i m i n i s h e d b r e a t h s o u n d s . B ec a u s e p a t i e n t s a r e a b l e t o m a i n t a i n r e a s o n a b l y g o o d o x y g e n a t i o n b e c a u s e o f t h e i r t a c h yp n e a , t h e t e r m p i n k p u f f e r i s s o m e t i m e s u s e d t o d e s c r ib e p a t i e n t s wi t h e m p h ys e m a . N o t e ho we v e r , t h a t t h e p i n k p u f f e r a n d b l u e b l o a t e r p r e s e n t a t i o n s a r e n o t s p e c i f ic f o r t h e r e sp e c t i v e diseases.
c . P a t i e n t s m a y h a v e e l e m e n t s a n d p h ys i c a l f i n d i n g s f r o m ea c h o f t h e s e d i s e a s e s s i m u l t a n e o u s l y. C o m o r b i d i t e s s u c h as C H F , C A D, st r o k e , D M , a n d d e p r e s s i o n a r e common in COPD patients. 2. Diagnostic test results a . C O P D p a t i e n t s wi t h c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s ym p t o m s o f c o u g h , d y s p n e a , s p u t u m p r o d u c t i o n , a n d / o r e x p o s u r e t o k n own r i s k f a c t o r s ( e . g . , sm o k i n g ) s h o u l d b e e v a l u a t e d f o r a C O P D d i a g n o s i s . I f t h e p a t i e n t h a s F E V 1 / F VC < 7 0 % a n d a postbronchodilator FEV1 <80% predicted, he or she has airflow limitation that is not f u l l y r e v e r s i b l e . P a t i e n t s wi t h a s m o k i n g h i s t o r y ( e . g . > 2 0 p a c k ye a r h i s t o r y a n d > 4 5 years old) should be considered for the diagnosis. Spirometry can be used to help make the diagnosis. P.1084
b . C h r o n i c b r o n ch i t i s ( 1 ) B l o o d a n a l ys i s m a y r e v e a l p o l yc yt h e m i a a s a r e s u l t o f t o e r yt h r o p o i e s i s s e c o n d a r y t o h yp o x e m i a . W it h b a c t e r i a l i n f e c t i o n , t h e W B C c o u n t m a y b e i n c r e a s e d . ( 2 ) S p u t u m in s p e c t i o n r e v e a l s t h i c k p u r u l e n t o r m u c o p u r u l e n t s p u t u m t in g e d ye l l o w, wh i t e , g r e e n , o r g r a y; a n a c u t e c h a n g e i n c o l o r a n d / o r q u a n t i t y s u g g e s t s i n f e c t i o n . (3) Arterial blood gas studies may show a markedly decreased PaO2 level (45-60 m m H g ) , r e f le c t i n g h yp o x e m i a , a n d a P a C O 2 l e v e l t h a t i s n o r m a l o r e l e va t e d ( 5 0 - 6 0 m m H g ) , r e f le c t i n g h yp e r c a p n i a . (4) Pulmonary function tests may be normal in the early disease stages. Later, they show a reduced FEV1/FVC ratio, increased residual lung volume, a decreased vital c a p a c i t y, a n d a d e c r e a s e d F E V 1 . U nl i k e e m p h ys e m a , c h r o n i c b r o n c h i t i s p a t i e n t s t e n d t o h a v e n o r m a l d i f f u s i n g c a p a c i t y, n o r m a l s t a t i c l u n g c om p l i a n c e , a n d n o r m a l t o t a l l u n g c a p a c i t y. ( 5 ) C h e s t r ad i o g r a p h t y p i c a l l y i d e n t i f i e s l u n g h yp e r i n f l a t i o n , a b a r r e l c h e s t , a n d increased bronchovascular markings. ( 6 ) A n E CG m a y r e v e a l r i g h t v e n t r i c u l a r h yp e r t r o p h y a n d c h a n g e s c o n s i s t e n t wi t h cor pulmonale. c . E m p h ys e m a ( 1 ) S p u t u m in s p e c t i o n r e v e a l s s c a n t y s p u t u m t h a t i s c l e a r o r m u c o i d . I n f ec t i o n s a r e less frequent than in chronic bronchitis. ( 2 ) A r t e r i a l b l o o d g a s s t u d i e s t yp i c a l l y i n d i c a t e a r e d u c e d o r n o r m a l P aO 2 l e v e l ( 6 5 7 5 m m H g ) a n d , i n l a t e d i s e a s e s t a g e s , a n i n c r e a s e d P a C O 2 l e v e l ( 5 0 - 60 m m H g ) . ( 3 ) P u l m o n a r y f u n c t i o n t e s t s s h o w a r e d u c e d F EV 1 / F V C r at i o , n o r m a l o r in c r e a s e d s t a t i c l u n g c o m p l i a n c e , r e d u c e d F E V 1 a n d d i f f u s in g c a p a c i t y, a n d i n c r e a s e d T L C a n d RV. ( 4 ) C h e s t r ad i o g r a p h u s u a l l y r e v e a l s b u l l a e , b l e b s , a f l a t t e ne d d i a p h r a g m , l u n g h yp e r i n f l a t i o n , v e r t i c a l he a r t , e n l a r g e d a n t e r o p o s t e r i o r c h e s t d i a m e t e r , de c r e a s e d v a s c u l a r m a r k i n g s i n t h e l u n g p e r i p h e r y, a n d a l a r g e r e t r o s t e r n a l a i r s p a c e . F . T r e a t m e n t o b j e c t i ve s e n d o r s e d b y G O L D i n c l u d e t h e f o l l o wi n g 1 . P r e v e n t di s e a s e p r o g r e s s i o n ( s m o k i n g c e s s a t i o n )
2 . R e l i e v e s y m p t o m s a n d i m p r o v e e xe r c i s e t o l e r a n c e ( e n a b l e t h e p a t i e n t t o p e r f o r m normal daily activities) 3. Improve health status 4 . P r e v e n t an d t r e a t e xa c e r b a t i o n s 5 . P r e v e n t an d t r e a t c om p l i c a t i o n s 6. Reduce mortality G. Therapy 1 . P h a r m a c o l o g i c a l t r ea t m e n t . T h e r a p y i s b a s e d o n d i s e a s e s t a g i n g , wh i c h i s determined by spirometry (Table 49-9). a . S h o r t - a ct in g a n t i c h o l i n e r g i c s a n d β - a g o n i s t s , a l o n e o r i n c o m b i n a t i o n , a r e t h e m o s t c o m m on l y u s e d i n i t i a l a g e n t s . L o n g - a c t i n g b r o n c h o d i l a t o r s , s u c h a s s a l m e t e r o l , f o r m o t e r o l , t i o t r o p i u m ( S p i r i v a ) , a n d t h e o p h yl l i n e a r e a d d e d t o t h e s h o r t - a c t i n g a g e n t s . M e t h yl xa n t h i n e s a r e u s u a l l y a d d e d wh e n t h e r e s p o n s e t o o t h e r a g e n t s i s i n a d e q u a t e . I n a d d i t i o n t o b r o n c h o d i l a t i o n , t h e s e a g e n t s c a n d e c r e a s e d ys p n e a , i m p r o v e e xe r c i s e c a p a c i t y, i m p r o v e q u a l i t y o f l i f e , a n d d e c r e a s e t h e f r eq u e n c y a n d s e v e r i t y o f e xa c e r b a t i o n s , e s p e c i a l l y t i o t r o p i u m . b . B r o n c h o d i l a t o r s a r e t h e m o s t i m po r t a n t t h e r ap y f o r s ym p t o m s i n C O PD . F i g u r e 49-4 indicates a strategy of use. c . I n h a l e d c o r t i c o s t e r o i d s , s u c h a s f lu t i c a s o n e a n d b u d e s o n i d e , h a v e s h o wn s m a l l b e n e f i t s i n F E V 1 ; t h e m a jo r i t y o f t h e i r b e n e f i t o c cu r s i n r e d u c i n g t h e s e v e r i t y o f e x a c e r b a t i o n s , n o t t h e n u m b e r o f e xa c e r b a t i o n s . d . An t i c h o l i n e r g i c s ( e. g . , i p r a t r o p i u m b r o m i d e , t i o t r o p i u m b r o m i d e , a t r o p i n e ) ( 1 ) I n d i c a t i o n s . A n t i c ho l i n e r g i c s m a y b e u s e d a s f i r st - l i n e b r o n c h o d i l a t o r s o r i n c o n j u n c t i o n wi t h β - a g o n i s t s i n t h e t r e a t m e n t o f C O P D b e c a u s e t h e s e a g e n t s a r e t he m o s t p o t e n t b r o n c h o d i l a t o r s f o r t h e co n d i t i o n . P.1085
Table 49-9. Therapy at Each Stage of COPD Old
0: At Risk I: Mild
II: Moderate IIB IIA
New
0: At Risk I: Mild
II: Moderate II: Severe
Charact eristics
III: Severe IV: Very Severe
Chro nic symp toms
FEV1/F VC<70 %
FEV1/F VC<70 %
FEV1/F VC<70 %
FEV1/F VC<70 %
Expo sure to risk
FEV1≥ 80%
50% ≤FEV1< 50%
30% ≤ FEV1<5 0%
FEV1< 30% or FEV1<5 0%
factor s Norm al spiro metry
With or without symptom s
With or without symptom s
With or without symptom s
predicted plus chronic respirato ry failure
Avoidance of risk factor(s); influenza vaccination Add short-acting bronchodilator when needed Add regular treatment with one or more long-acting bronchodilators Add rehabilitation Add inhaled glucocorticosteroids if repeated exacerbations Add longterm oxygen if chronic respirato ry failure Consider surgical treatmen ts FEV1, forced expiratory volume in 1 sec; FEV, forced vital capacity. Reprinted with permission from Global Initiative for Chronic Obstructive Lung Disease (GOLD). Global Strategy for the Diagnosis, Management, and
Prevention of Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease. Updated 2006. www.goldcopd.org.
P.1086
Figure 49-4. Stepped care approach to bronchodilators in COPD. AC, anticholinergic; LA, long acting; PDE, phosphodiesterase; SA, short acting.
( 2 ) M e c h a n i s m o f a c t i o n . I p r a t r o p i um b r o m i d e , t i o t r o p i u m b r o m i d e , a n d a t r o p i n e produce bronchodilation by competitively inhibiting cholinergic responses. I p r a t r o p i u m b r o m i d e a n d t i o t r o p i u m b r o m i d e a l s o r e d u c e s p u t u m v o l u m e wi t h o u t a l t e r i n g v i s c o s i t y. S o m e s t u d i e s h a v e s h o wn a n i n c r e a s e d r e s p o n s e t o t he s e a g e n t s i n C O P D wh e n t h e y a r e c o m b i n e d wi t h β - a g o n i s t s . T i o t r o p i u m h a s g r e a t e r a f f i n i t y f o r c h o l i n e r g i c r e c e p t o r s t h an i p r a t r o p i u m . ( 3 ) Ad m i n i s t r a t i o n a n d d o s a g e ( a ) I p r a t r o p i u m b r o m i d e i s t h r e e t o f iv e t i m e s m o r e p o t e n t a n d h a s s i g n i f i c a n t l y f e we r s i d e e f f e c t s t h a n a t r o p i n e , wh i c h i s r a r e l y u s e d t o d a y s i n c e t h e d e v e l o p m e n t of nebulized ipratropium. ( b ) I n i t i a l M D I d o s i n g o f i p r a t r o p i u m b r o m i d e i s t wo i n h a l a t i o n s ( 4 0 µ g ) f o u r t i m e s d a i l y, b u t d o s i n g c a n b e i n c r e a s e d t o s i x i n h a l a t i o n s f o u r t i m e s d a i l y wi t h o u t s i g n i f i c a n t r i s k . T h e s e h i g h e r d o s e s a r e o f t e n r eq u i r e d t o a c h i e v e t h e r a p e u t i c
b e n e f i t . A dm i n i s t r a t i o n s h o u l d b e v i a M D I wi t h s p a c e r o r M DI a l o n e u s i n g a c l o s e d mouth technique. ( c ) D o s i n g o f i p r a t r o p i u m b r o m i d e so l u t i o n i s 5 0 0 µ g / 2 . 5 m L ( 1 u n i t d o se v i a l ) o r m o r e v i a n e b u l i z e r f o u r t i m e s d a i l y. ( d ) T i o t r o p i u m b r o m i d e c a p s u l e s c o n t a i n 2 2 . 5 µ g t i o t r o p i u m b r o m i d e m o n o h yd r a t e , equivalent to 18 µg tiotropium. ( i ) T i o t r o p i u m i s a n i n h a l a t i o n p o wd e r c o n t a i n e d i n a h a r d ca p s u l e . I t s h o u l d b e a d m i n i s t e r e d o n c e d a i l y o n l y v i a a H a n d i H a l e r d e v i c e , wh i c h d e l i v e r s 1 0 µ g tiotropium. (ii) Patients should generally not be placed on both ipratropium and tiotropium b e c a u s e o f t h e i n c r e a s e d r i s k o f a n t i c h o l i n e r g i c s i d e e f f e c t s, a n d n o a d d i t i o n a l b r o n c h o d i l a t i o n i s l i k e l y a c h i e v e d b y a d d i n g i p r a t r o p i u m . F o r e xa m p l e , i f a C O P D p a t i e n t i s c ur r e n t l y o n i p r a t r o p i u m / a l b u t e r o l ( C o m b i v e n t , D uo N e b ) , a n d t i o t r o p i u m i s s t a r t e d , t h e a l b u t e r o l s h o u l d b e c o n t i n u e d a s t h e s h o r t - a ct i n g b r o n c h o d i l a t o r a n d ipratropium discontinued. e . β - Ag o n i s t s ( s e e I . I . 1 ; T a b l e 4 9 - 4 ) (1) Indications. β2-Agonists may be used as first-line bronchodilators or in c o n j u n c t i o n wi t h a n t i c h o l i n e r g i c a g e n t s i n t h e m a i n t e n a n c e t r e a t m e n t o f C O P D . S h o r t - a c t i n g a g e n t s a r e u s e d r e g u l a r l y o r o n a n a s - n e e d e d b a s i s f o r s ym p t o m s . S o m e p a t i e n t s m a y r e s p o n d c l i n i c a l l y t o t h e p r o l o n g e d t r e a t m e n t wi t h β 2 - a g o n i s t s e v e n a f t e r de m o n s t r a t i n g P.1087 l a c k o f a c u t e r e v e r s i b i l i t y ( s p i r o m e t r y t e s t i n g s h o wi n g < 1 2 % o r < 2 0 0 - m L i n c r e a s e i n F E V 1 ) t o s ho r t - a c t i n g ag e n t s . ( 2 ) M e c h a n i s m o f a c t i o n . β 2 - A g o n i st s r e l i e v e d ys p n e a c a u s e d b y a i r wa y o b s t r u c t i o n , a l t h o u g h t h e r e s p o n s e i s u s u a l l y n o t a s s i g n i f i c a n t a s i n p a t ie n t s wi t h a s t h m a . T h es e a g e n t s m a y a l s o i n c r e a s e m u c o c i l i a r y c l e a r a n c e b y s t i m u l a t i n g c i l i a r y a c t i v i t y ( h e l p s p a t i e n t s e xp e c t o r a t e s p u t u m ) . ( 3 ) Ad m i n i s t r a t i o n a n d d o s a g e ( a ) β 2 - A g o n is t s a r e a d m i n i s t e r e d v i a i n h a l a t i o n ( e . g . , d r y- p o w d e r i n h a l e r , n e b u l i z e r , M D I wi t h o r wi t h o u t a s pa c e r ) , u n l e s s t h e p a t i e n t c a n n o t u s e t h e d r u g p r o p e r l y; t h e n a n o r a l a g e n t i s u s e d ca u t i o u s l y. ( b ) β 2 - A g o n i s t s of t h e s a m e d u r a t i o n s h o u l d n o t b e u s e d i n c o m b i n a t i o n b e c a u s e a n a d e q u a t e d o s e o f a s i n g l e a g e n t p r o v i d e s p e a k b r o n c h o d i l a t i o n . H o we v e r , it i s r e a s o n a b l e t o a d m i n i s t e r a l o n g - a c t i n g p r o d u c t ( e. g . , s a l m e t er o l , f o r m ot e r o l ) o n a r e g u l a r b a s i s wi t h a s h o r t - a c t i n g a ge n t r e s e r v ed f o r a s - n e ed e d o r r e s cu e t h e r a p y. ( c ) S a l m e t e r o l a n d f o r m o t e r o l ( l o n g - a c t i n g β - a g o n i s t s ) a r e ad m i n i s t e r e d t wi c e d a i l y. T h e y m a y a l s o b e u s e d i n c o m b i n a t i o n wi t h i p r a t r o p i u m b r o m i d e o r t i o t r op i u m . N e i t h e r a g e n t i s u s e d on a n a s - n e e d e d b a s i s f o r r e s c u e t h e r a p y, a l t h o u g h f o r m o t e r o l d o e s h a v e a r a p i d o n s e t o f a ct i o n . (d) Inhaler devices that require a rapid inspiratory rate may result in suboptimal l u n g d e p o s i t i o n i n t h e C O P D p a t i e n t wi t h l i m i t e d i n s p i r a t o r y c a p a c i t y. A n M D I o r n e b u l i z e r m a y b e m o r e o p t i m a l i n t h i s t yp e o f p a t i e n t . f . T h eo p h yl l i n e ( s e e I . I . 5 )
( 1 ) I n d i c a t i o n s . T h e o p h yl l i n e c o m p o u n d s t yp i c a l l y a r e a d d e d t o t h e dr u g r e g i m e n a f t e r a n u n su c c e s s f u l t r ia l o f i p r a t r op i u m b r o m i d e a n d β - a d r e n e r g i c s . T he o p h yl l i n e a p p e a r s t o h a v e a g r e a t e r c l i n i c a l r o l e i n C O P D t h a n i n a s t hm a . O t h e r s im i l a r a g e n t s ( p h o s p h o d i e s t e r a s e i n h i b i t o r s ) a r e in d e v e l o p m e n t . ( 2 ) M e c h a n i s m o f a c t i o n . I n CO P D , t h e o p h yl l i n e c o m p o u n d s a r e u s e d be c a u s e t h e y i n c r e a s e m u c o c i l i a r y c l e a r a n c e , s t i m u l a t e t h e r es p i r a t o r y d r i v e , e n h a n c e d i a p h r a g m a t i c c o n t r a c t i l it y, i m p r o v e t h e v e n t r i c u l a r e j e c t i o n f r a c t i o n , a n d s t i m u l a t e r e n a l d i u r e s i s . T h e i r b r o n c h o d i l a t o r p r o p e r t i e s a r e m o d e s t , a t b e s t . T h eo p h yl l i n e may be used in lieu of other long-acting bronchodilators or in combination. ( 3 ) Ad m i n i s t r a t i o n a n d d o s a g e . A t r i a l o f 1 - 2 m o n t h s wi t h t h e s e r u m d r u g l e v e l maintained at 5-12 µg/mL and maximized ( a ) B e c a u s e o f t h e n o n b r o n c h o d i l a t o r e f f e ct s o f m e t h yl xa n t h i n e s , t h e y m a y b e continued in the face of a clinical response, even in the absence of improved FEV1. ( b ) I f n o c h an g e o c c u r s i n t h e p a t i e n t ' s c l i n i c a l co n d i t i o n a n d / o r F E V 1 , t he o p h yl l i n e t h e r a p y s h o u l d b e d i s c o n t i n u e d o wi n g t o t h e p ot e n t i a l f o r s i d e e f f e c t s. ( 4 ) P r e c a u t i o n s an d m o n i t o r i n g e f f e c t s . S e r u m d r u g l e v e l s s h o u l d b e c l o s e l y m o n i t o r e d i n a l l p a t i e n t s , e s p e c i a l l y t h o s e wi t h s i g n s o f t o xi c i t y ( t a c h yc a r d i a , n a u s e a , v o m i t i n g ) a s we l l a s wi t h l i v e r i m p a i r m e n t , c o n g e s t i v e h e a r t f a il u r e a n d / o r c o r p u l m o n a l e a s a r e s u l t o f r e d u c e d t h e o p h yl l i n e m e t a b o l i s m . P ot e n t i a l d r u g i n t e r a c t i o n s ( e . g . wi t h c i p r o f l o xa c i n ) m a y wa r r a n t b l o o d t e s t i n g . g . C o r t i co s t e r o i d s ( s e e I . I . 2 ; T a b l e 4 9 - 5 ) (1) Indications ( a ) S ys t e m i c c o r t i c o s t e r o i d s ( p r e f e r a b l y o r a l ) a r e i n d i c a t e d i n t h e t r e a t m e n t o f a c u t e C O P D e xa c e r b a t i o n s a n d c h r o n i c a l l y i n s o m e s e v e r e pa t i e n t s . ( b ) I n h a l ed c o r t i c o s t e ro i d s p l a y a l e s s p r o m i n e n t r o l e i n C O P D t h a n i n a s t h m a . ( c ) C a n d i d a t e s f o r p r o l on g e d u s e o f i n h a l e d c o r t i c o s t e r o i d t he r a p y s h o u l d ( i ) B e s ym p t o m a t i c a n d h a v e a d o c u m e n t e d s p i r o m e t r i c r e s po n s e ( i . e . , a n i n c r e a s e i n F E V 1 o f a t l e a s t 1 5 % a n d 2 0 0 m L a f t e r 6 we e k s t o 3 m o n t hs o f u s e ) ( i i ) H a v e a n F E V 1 < 5 0 % p r e d i c t e d , wi t h a h i s t o r y o f r e p e a t e d e xa c e r b a t i o n s r e q u i r i n g s y s t e m i c c o r t ic o s t e r o i d s o r a n t i b i o t i c s ( d ) L o n g - t e r m u s e o f s ys t e m i c st e r oi d s s h o u l d b e a v o i d e d i f p o s s i b l e . O st e o p o r o s i s of the spine and ribs is especially common in COPD patients receiving frequent or m a i n t e n a n c e s ys t e m i c s t e r o i d s . I t ha s b e e n r e c e n t l y r e c o g n i z e d t h a t i n h a l e d s t e r o i d s i n c r e a s e t h e r i s k o f b a c t e r i a l p n e u m o n i a i n C O P D p at i e n t s . ( 2 ) Ad m i n i s t r a t i o n a n d d o s a g e ( a ) F o r o r a l u s e i n o u t p a t i e n t m a n a g e m e n t o f a cu t e e xa c e r b a t i o n s , p r e d n i s o n e o r p r e d n i s o l o n e i s a d m i n i s t e r e d a t a do s a g e o f 4 0 m g / d a y f o r 1 0 d a ys . (b) The dose of oral (e.g., prednisolone) or intravenous corticosteroids (e.g., m e t h yl p r e d n i s o l o n e ) f o r h o s p i t a l m a n a g e m e n t o f a c u t e C O PD e xa c e r b a t i o n s i s n o t established. P.1088 H o we v e r , d o s e s a n d d u r a t i o n o f t h e r a p y s h o u l d b e l i m i t e d ( e . g . , 3 0 - 4 0 m g / d a y o f p r e d n i s o l o n e f o r 1 0 - 1 4 d a ys ) t o a v o i d s i g n i f i c a n t a d v e r s e e f f e c t s. ( c ) I n CO P D, i n h a l e d s t e r o i d s a r e n o t a s ef f i c a c io u s a s i n a st h m a p a t i e n t s .
( d ) I n a p p r o p r i a t e p a t i e n t s , c o r t i c o st e r o i d s m a y b e a d m i n i s t e r e d v i a d r y- p o wd e r i n h a l e r o r M D I wi t h s p a c e r . (e) Response to oral corticosteroids does not predict response to inhaled c o r t i c o s t e r o id s . ( f ) M e d i u m d o s e s o f i n h a l e d c o r t i c o s t e r o i d s a r e r e c o m m e n d e d f o r C O PD ( e . g . , F l o v e n t 1 1 0 µ g 2 p u f f s t wi c e a d a y o r t h e c o m b in a t i o n o f A d v a i r 2 5 0 µ g 1 p u f f t wi c e a d a y) . ( g ) I n h a l e r d e v i c e s t h a t r e q u i r e a r a p i d i n s p i r a t o r y r a t e ( e . g . , P u l m i c o r t F le xh a l e r ) are generally not desirable in COPD patients. h . An t i b i o t i c s (1) Indications ( a ) A n t i b i o t ic s a r e u s e d t o t r e a t e xa c e r b a t i o n s wi t h s u s p e c t e d i n f e c t i o n a s e v i d e n c e d b y a n i n c r e a s e i n v o l u m e o r c h a n g e i n c o l o r o r v i sc o s i t y o f t h e s p u t u m , a l o n g wi t h d y s p n e a . ( b ) P r e v e n t io n o f i n f e c t io n wi t h c h r o n i c a n t i b i o t i c t h e r a p y i s c o n t r o v e r s i a l a n d s h o u l d b e c o n s i d e r e d o n l y i n p a t i e n t s wi t h m u l t i p l e e xa c e r b a t i o n s a n n u a l l y ( i . e . , m o r e t h a n t wo p e r ye a r ) . ( 2 ) An t i b i o t i c t h e r a p y ( a ) A m b u l a t o r y a n t i b i o t i c t r e a t m e n t o f e xa c e r b a t i o n s i n p a t i e n t s wi t h C O P D i s r e c o m m e n d e d wh e n t h e r e i s e v i d e n c e o f wo r s e n i n g d ys p n e a a n d c o u g h wi t h p u r u l e n t sputum and increased sputum volume. ( i ) H o s p i t a l o r l a b o r a t o r y a n t i b i o g r a m s s h o u l d b e r e v i e we d wh e n s e l e c t i n g a n a p p r o p r i a t e a g e n t f o r S. p n e u m o n i a e , M . c at a r r ha l i s , a n d H . i n f l u e n za e . ( i i ) A g e n t s m a y i n c l u d e e i t h e r a s e co n d - g e n e r a t i o n c e p h a l o s p o r i n ( e . g . , c e f u r o xi m e , c e f a c l o r ) , t r im e t h o p r i m - s u l f a m e t h o xa z o l e , a β - l a ct a m wi t h o r wi t h o u t a β - la c t a m a s e i n h i b i t o r ( e . g . , a m o xi c i l l i n , a m o x i c i l l i n - c l a v u l a n a t e ) , m a c r o l i d e s ( a z i t h r o m yc i n [ Z i t h r o m a x ] ) , o r a n o r a l f l u o r o q u i n o l o n e ( c i p r o f l o x a c i n [ C i p r o ] , l e v o f l o xa c i n [Levaquin]). ( i i i ) I f i n f e c t i o n wi t h M . p n e u m o n i a e o r L e g i o n e l l a p n e u m o p h i l a i s a c o n ce r n , a l t h o u g h u n c o m m o n i n C O P D f l a r e s, a m a cr o l i d e o r f l u o r o q u i n o l o n e m a y b e a d d e d . ( b ) A n t i b i o t i c t r e a t m e n t o f p n e u m o n i a i n h o s p i t a l i z e d p a t i e n t s wi t h C O PD i n c l u d e s e i t h e r a s e c o n d - o r t h i r d - g e n e r a t i o n c e p h a l o s p o r i n ( e . g . , c e f u r o xi m e , c e f t r i a xo n e , c e f o t a x i m e ) o r a β - l a c t am wi t h o r wi t h o u t a β - l ac t a m a s e i n h i b i t o r ( e . g . , a m o xi c i l l i n c l a v u l a n a t e - [ A u g m e n t in ] , p i p e r a c i l l i n - t a z o b a c t a m [ Z o s yn ] ) , a m a c r o l i d e , o r fluoroquinolone. ( c ) C O P D ex a c e r b a t i o n s a r e t r e a t e d f o r 3 - 1 0 da ys , d e p e n d i n g o n t h e a g e n t u s e d ( e . g . , m o xi f l o x a c i n 4 0 0 m g × 5 d a ys ) a n d t h e p a t i e n t . i . M u co l yt i c s ( e . g . , i o d i n a t e d g l yc e r o l ) m a y i m p r o v e s p u t u m c l e a r a n c e a n d d i s r u p t mucus plugs. j . E x p e c t o ra n t s ( e . g . , gu a i f e n e s i n ) m a y b e u s e d . P o t a s s i um i o d i d e s h o u l d b e a v o i d e d b e c a u s e o f s i d e e f f e ct s a s so c i a t e d wi t h i o d i n e t h e r a p y. k . An t i o x i d a n t s ( e . g . , N - a c e t yl c ys t e i n e ) m a y r e d u c e e x a c e r b a t i o n f r e q u e n c y. H o we v e r , r o u t i n e u s e c a n n o t b e r e c o m m e n d e d b a s e d o n c u r r e n t l y a v a i l a b l e d a t a . l . I n f l u e n z a vi r u s va c c i n e i s r e c o m m e n d e d b e c a u s e o f i t s a b i l i t y t o r e d u c e d e a t h and serious illness by almost 50%.
2. Nonpharmacological Therapy a. Vaccinations ( 1 ) I n f l u e n za v a c c i n a t i o n a d m i n i s t e r e d e a c h F a l l / W i n t e r . Po l y va l e n t p n eu m o c o c c a l vaccine is recommended by the American Thoracic Society b . O x yg e n T h e r a p y ( 1 ) R e c o m m e n d e d f o r h yp o xe m i a c h r o n i c a l l y o r d u r i n g e x a c e r b a t i o n s . C u r r e n t l y r e c o m m e n d e d t o a d m i n i s t e r o x yg e n a t l e a s t 1 5 ho u r s / d a y. (2) Reverses hypoxemia (particularly at night and during exercise). ( 3 ) I n d i c a t i on s f o r h o m e o x yg e n t r e a t m e n t i n c l u d e ( a ) P a O 2 < 5 5 m m H g or S a O 2 < 8 8% ( b ) P a O 2 o f 5 5 - 6 0 m m H g o r S a O 2 < 8 9 % wi t h e v i d e n c e o f c o r p u l m o n a l e , p u l m o n a r y h yp e r t e n s i o n , o r p o l yc yt h e m i a ( h e m a t o c r i t > 5 5% ) . P.1089
( 4 ) P a t i e n t s h o s p i t a l i z e d f o r CO P D exa c e r b a t i o n s s h o u l d r e c e i v e c o n t r o l l e d o x yg e n t o k e e p P a O 2 > 6 0 m m Hg o r S a O 2 > 9 0 % . A r t e r i al b l o o d g a s ( A B G ) t e s t s m a y b e p e r f o r m e d 3 0 m i n a f t e r p l a c i n g t h e p a t i e n t o n o x yg e n t o i d e n t i f y a n d m i n i m i z e C O 2 retention. c . C h e s t p h y s i o t h e r a p y l o o s e n s s e c r e t i o n s , h e l p s r e e xp a n d t h e l u n g s , an d increases the efficacy of respiratory muscle use. Techniques include postural d r a i n a g e , c h e s t p e r c u s s io n a n d v i b r a t i o n , c o u g h i n g , a n d d e e p b r e a t h i n g . T h e s e e f f o r t s m a y h e l p p a t i e n t s wi t h l o b a r a t e l e c t a s i s o r wh o p r o d u c e l a r g e q u a n t i t i e s ( i . e . , > 2 5 m L/ d a y ) o f s p u t u m . d . P h ys i c a l r e h a b i l i t a t i o n i m p r o v e s t h e p a t i e n t ' s e xe r c i s e t o l e r a n c e a n d q u a l i t y o f l i f e . A p u l m o n a r y r e h a b i l i t a t i o n p r o g r a m u s u a l l y i n c l u d e s p h ys i c a l c o n d i t i o n i n g a n d s o c i a l , p s yc h o l o g i c a l , a n d n u t r i t i o n a l i n t e r v e n t i o n s . T h i s c a n b e a n e f f ec t i v e intervention. e . S m o k i n g c e s s a t i o n an d a v o i d a n c e o f o t h e r i r r i t a n t s h a s be e n s h o wn t o s l o w t h e r a t e o f d e c l in e i n F E V 1 in C O P D p a t ie n t s . I t i s ob v i o u s l y o n e o f t h e m o st i m p o r t a n t i n t e r v e n t i o n s . N i c o t i n e g u m , p a t c h e s , i n h a l e r s , lo z e n g e s , b u p r o p i o n , v a r e n i c l i n e ( C h a n t i x ) , a n d c l o n i d i n e m a y b e u s e f u l i n s m o k in g c e s s a t i o n . B e h a v i o r i n t e r v e n t i o n s i g n i f i c a n t l y e n h a n c e s t h e e f f e c t i v en e s s o f p h a r m a c o l o g i c a l t h e r a p y i n s m o k i n g cessation. f . Su r g e r y. T h e r e i s a gr o wi n g b o d y o f e v i d e n c e t h a t l u n g v ol u m e r e d u c t i o n s u r g e r y m a y b e b e n e f i c i a l t o p a t i e n t s wi t h s e v e r e e m p h ys e m a . C l i n i c a l t r i a l s h av e n o w d e l i n e a t e d p r o p e r p a t i e n t s e l e c t i o n f o r t h i s t yp e o f s u r g e r y. L u n g t r a n s p l a n t a t i o n i s also performed in selected patients. H . C o mp l i c a t i o n s o f CO P D 1 . P u l m o n ar y h yp e r t e n s i o n . W i t h d e c r e a s e d p u l m o n a r y v a s c u l a r b e d s p a c e ( o wi n g t o l u n g c o n g e s t i o n ) , p u l m o n a r y a r t e r i a l p r e s s u r e i n c r e a s e s . I n s o m e c as e s , p r e s s u r e i n c r e a s e s e n o u g h t o c a u s e c o r p u l m o n a l e ( r i g h t v e n t r i c u l a r h yp e r t r o p h y) wi t h consequent heart failure. 2 . Ac u t e r e s p i r a t o r y f a i l u r e . I n a d v a n c e d s t a g e s o f CO P D , t h e b r a i n ' s r e s p i r a t o r y c e n t e r m a y b e c o m e s e r i o u s l y c o m p r o m i s e d , l e a d i n g t o p o o r c e r e b r a l o x yg e n a t i o n
a n d a n i n c r e a s e d P a C O 2 l e v e l . H yp o xi a a n d r e s p i r a t o r y a c i d o s i s m a y e n s u e . I f t h e c o n d i t i o n p r o g r e s s e s , r es p i r a t o r y f a i l u r e o c c u r s . 3 . I n f e c t i o n . I n c h r o n i c b r o n c h i t i s , t r a p p i n g o f e xc e s s i v e m u c u s , a i r , a n d b a c t e r i a i n t h e t r a c h e o b r o n c h i a l t r e e s e t s t h e s t a g e f o r i n f e c t i o n . I n a dd i t i o n , i m p a i r m e n t o f c o u g h i n g a n d d e e p b r e a t h i n g , wh i c h n o r m a l l y c l e a n s e s t h e l u n g s , l e a d s t o d e s t r u c t i o n o f r e s p i r a t o r y c i l i a . O n c e a n i n f e c t i o n s e t s i n , r e in f e c t i o n c a n e a s i l y occur. 4 . P o l yc yt h e m i a . A n i nc r e a s e i n r e d b l o o d c e l l s i n f r e q u e n t l y c a n l e a d t o h yp e r c o a g u l a b l e s t a t e s , e m b o l i s m , a n d s t r o k e . T h i s h a p p e n s u n c o m m o n l y t o d a y d u e t o t h e wi d e s p r e a d u s e o f s u p p l e m e n t a l o x yg e n i n C O P D p a t ie n t s . P.1090
STUDY QUESTIONS D i r e c t i o n s f o r q u e s t i o n s 1 - 7 : E a c h o f t h e q u e s t io n s , s t at e m e n t s , o r i n c o m p l e t e s t a t e m e n t s i n t h i s s e c t i o n c a n b e c o r r e c t l y a n s we r e d o r c o m p l e t e d b y o n e o f t h e s u g g e s t e d a n s we r s o r p h r a s e s . C h o o s e t h e b e st a n s we r . 1 . T h e s ym p t o m s o f a l l e r g e n - m e d i a t e d a s t h m a r e s u l t f r o m w h i c h o f t h e f o l l ow i n g ? ( A ) I n c r e a s e d r e l e a s e o f m e d i a t o r s f r o m m a s t c el l s ( B ) I n c r e a s e d a d r e n e r g i c r e s p o n s i v e n e s s o f t h e a i r wa ys ( C ) I n c r e a s ed v a s c u l a r p e r m e a b i l i t y o f b r o n c h i a l t i s s u e (D) Decreased calcium influx into the mast cells ( E ) D e c r e a se d p r o s t a g l a n d i n p r o d u c t i o n V i e w A n s we r 1 . T h e an s w e r i s A [ s ee I . D. 4 . ( a ) ;] . 2 . Ac u t e e x a c e r b a t i o n s o f a s t h m a c a n b e t r i g g e r e d b y a l l o f t h e f o l l ow i ng e x c e p t ( A ) B a c t e r i a l o r v i r a l p ne u m o n i a . ( B ) H yp e r s e n s i t i v i t y r e a c t i o n t o p e n i c i l l i n . ( C ) D i s c o n t in u a t i o n o f a s t h m a m e d i c a t i o n . ( D ) H o t , d r y we a t h e r . ( E ) St r e s s f ul e m o t i o n a l e v e n t s . V i e w A n s we r 2 . T h e an s w e r i s D [ s ee] . 3. A 4 5 - y e a r - o l d m a l e w i t h a h i st o r y o f a s t h m a h a s a p e a k e x p i r a t o r y f l ow r a t e ( P EF R ) o f 6 5 %, n o c t u r n al w h ee z i n g o n c e a mo n t h , a n d d a y t i m e w h e e z i n g u s u al l y l e s s t h a n tw i c e a w ee k . Ac c o r d i n g t o t h e N a t i o n a l I n s t i t u t e s o f H e a l t h ( NI H ) g u i d e l i n e s f o r t h e t r e a t m e n t o f a s t h m a , h e h a s w h i c h t yp e ? ( A ) M i l d i n t er m i t t e n t (B) Mild persistent (C) Moderate persistent (D) Severe persistent V i e w A n s we r 3 . T h e an s w e r i s C [ s ee] . 4. T h e p at i e n t i n q u es t i o n 3 sh o u l d be treated with which two agents? (A) Inhaled steroid and ipratropium (B) Inhaled steroid and albuterol MDI (as needed)
(C) Inhaled steroid and aspirin V i e w A n s we r 4 . T h e an s w e r i s B [ s ee] . 5. A 1 5 - y e a r - o l d f e m a l e i s b r o u g h t t o t h e e m e r g e n c y d e p a r t m e n t . Sh e i s b r e a t h i n g 3 0 t i m e s p e r m i n u t e , i s u n ab l e t o s p e a k i n f u l l s e n t en c e s , a n d h a s a p e a k e x p i r a t o r y f l ow r at e ( P E F R) < 5 0 % predicted. The preferred first-line therapy for her asthma exacerbation is ( A ) T h e o p h yl l i n e (B) β-agonist (C) Corticosteroid ( D ) C r o m o l yn s o d i u m (E) A and B (F) B and C V i e w A n s we r 5 . T h e an s w e r i s F [ s ee] . 6. T h e p ri m a r y g o a l s o f a s t h m a t h e r a p y i n a n a d u l t p at i e n t i n c l u d e a l l o f t h e f o l l ow i n g ex c e p t ( A ) M a i n t a i n n o r m a l a c t iv i t y l e v e l s . ( B ) M a i n t a i n c o n t r o l o f sym p t o m s . ( C ) A v o i d ad v e r s e e f f e ct s o f a s t h m a m e d i c a t i o n s . ( D ) P r e v e n t a c u t e e xa c e r b a t i o n s a n d c h r o n i c s ym p t o m s . ( E ) P r e v e n t d e s t r u c t i o n o f l u n g t i s s ue . V i e w A n s we r 6 . T h e an s w e r i s E[ s e e] . 7. W h i c h o f t h e f o l l o w in g t e s t s i s used at home to assess therapy and determine if a patient with asthma should seek emergency care? ( A ) F o r c e d e xp i r a t o r y v o l u m e i n o n e s e c o n d ( F E V 1 ) ( B ) F o r c e d vi t a l c a p a c i t y ( F V C ) ( C ) T ot a l l u n g c a p a c i t y ( T L C ) ( D ) P e a k e xp i r a t o r y f l o w r a t e ( P E F R) ( E ) R e s i d u a l v o l u m e ( R V) V i e w A n s we r 7 . T h e an s w e r i s D [ s ee] . P . 1 0 9 1
D i r e c t i o n s f o r q u e s t i o n 8 : T h e i n c om p l e t e s t a t em e n t i n t h i s s e c t i o n c a n b e c o r r e c t l y a n s we r e d o r co m p l e t e d b y o n e o r m o re o f t h e s u g g e s t e d a n s we r s . C h o o s e t h e a n s we r , A- E . 8 . T h e d i s ea s e p r o c e s s o f c h r o n i c b r o n c h i t i s i s c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y I . t h e d e s t ru c t i o n o f ce n t r a l a n d p e r i p h e r a l p o r t i o n s o f t h e a c i n u s . I I . a n i n c r e a s e d n u mb e r o f mu c o u s g l a n d s an d g o b l e t ce l l s . I I I . ed e m a a n d i n f l a m ma t i o n o f t h e b r o n c h i o l es . A if I only is correct B if III only is correct C if I and II are correct D if II and III are correct E if I, II, and III are correct V i e w A n s we r 8 . T h e an s w e r i s D [ s ee a n d] . Di r e c t i o n s f o r q u e s t i o n s 9 - 1 1 : E a c h d e s c r i p t i o n i n t h i s s e c t i o n i s m o s t c l o s e l y a s s o c i a t e d wi t h o n e o f t h e f o l l o wi n g a g e n t s . T h e a g e n t s m a y b e u s e d m o r e t h a n o n c e o r n o t a t al l . C h o o s e t h e b e s t a n s we r , A- E .
9 . D e c r e a s e s t h e o p h yl l i n e c l e a r a n c e A cimetidine B albuterol C ipratropium bromide D epinephrine E atropine V i e w A n s we r 9 . T h e an s w e r i s A [ s ee] . 1 0 . H a s an t i ch o l i n e r g i c a c t i vi t y w i t h f ew s i d e e f f e c t s A cimetidine B albuterol C ipratropium bromide D epinephrine E atropine V i e w A n s we r 1 0 . T h e a n s w e r i s C [ se e] . 1 1 . H a s h i g h β 2 - a d re n e r g i c s e l e c t i vi t y A cimetidine B albuterol C ipratropium bromide D epinephrine E atropine V i e w A n s we r 1 1 . T h e a n s w e r i s B [ se e] . P. 1 0 9 2
ANSWERS AND EXPLANATIONS 1 . T h e a n sw er i s A [ s e e I . D. 4 . ( a ) ; F i g u r e 4 9 - 1 ] . I n a s t h m a , ai r b o r n e a n t i g e n b i n d s t o t h e m a st c el l , a c t i v a t i n g t h e I g E- m ed i a t e d p r o c e s s . M ed i a t o r s ( e . g . , h i s t a m i n e , l e u k o t r i e n e s , p r o s t a g l a n d i n s ) a r e t he n released, causing bronchoconstriction and tissue edema. 2 . T h e a n sw er i s D [ s ee I . D; F i g u r e 4 9 - 1 ] . E x a c e r b a t i o n s o f a st h m a c a n b e t r ig g e r e d b y a l l e r g e n s , r e s p i r a t o r y i n f e c t i o n s , o c c u p a t i o n a l s t i m u l i ( e . g. , f u m e s f r om g a s o l i n e o r p a i n t ) , em o t i o n s , a n d e n v i r o n m e n t a l f a c t o r s . St u d i e s h a v e s h o wn t h a t c o l d a i r c a n c a u s e r e l e a s e o f m a s t cell mediators by an undetermined mechanism. Hot, dry air does not cause this release. 3 . T h e a n sw er i s C [ s ee T a b l e 4 9 - 3 ] . T h e p a t i e n t h a s m o d e r a t e p e r s i s t e n t a s t h m a . A l l t h r e e p a r a m e t e r s a r e c on s i s t e n t wi t h m i l d p e r s i s t e n t a s t hm a . I f a n y o n e o f t h e t h r e e p a r a m e t e r s i n d i c a t e d m o d e r a t e p e r s i s t e n t as t h m a , t h e n t h e p a t i e n t wo u l d b e c l a s s i f i e d a s m o d e r a t e a s t h m a ( P EF R = 65%). 4 . T h e a n sw er i s B [ s ee F i g u r e 4 9 - 3 ] . I n h a l e d s t e r o i d s a r e t h e a n t i - i n f l a m m a t o r y d r u g o f c h o i c e owi n g t o p r o v e n e f f i c a c y. A l l p a t i e n t s s h o u l d b e p r e s c r i b e d a s h o r t - a c t i n g β 2 - a g o n i s t t o u s e a s r e sc u e t h e r a p y f o r wo r s e n i n g s ym p t o m s . I f c h r o n i c s ym p t o m s wo r s e n , a l o n g - a c t i n g β 2 - a g o n i s t c a n
be added (e.g., Adavir). Remember that increasing the dose of the inhaled steroid m a y n o t i m p r o v e s ym p t o m s , a l o n g - a c t i n g b r o n c h o d i l a t o r i s m o r e l i k e l y t o d o s o . 5 . T h e a n sw er i s F [ s ee F i g u r e 4 9 - 3 ] . P a t i e n t i s ob v i o u s l y i n r e s p i r a t o r y d i s t r e s s . A g g r e s s i v e t r e a t m e n t wi t h o x yg e n , s ys t e m i c s t er o i d s , a n d s h o r t - a c t i n g b r o n c h o d i l a t o r s i s i n d i c a t e d . I p r at r o p i u m c o u l d a l s o b e a d d e d t o t h e a lb u t e r o l i n t h e a c u t e s e t t i n g . 6 . T h e a n sw er i s E [ s e e I . F , I . H . 1 ; I I . D] . A s t h m a i s c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y r e v e r s i b l e a i r wa y o b s t r u c t i o n i n r e s p o n s e t o s p e c i f i c s t i m u l i . M a s t c e l l s r e l e as e m e d i a t o r s , wh i c h t r i g g e r b r o n c h o c o n s t r i c t i o n . A f t e r a n a c u t e a t t a c k, i n m o s t c as e s s ym p t o m s a r e m i n im a l , a n d p a t h o l o g i c a l c h a n g e s a r e n o t p e r m a n e n t . U n l i k e as t h m a , c h r o n i c o b s t r u c t iv e p u l m o n a r y d i s e a s e d o e s c a u s e p r o g r e s s i v e a i r wa y d e s t r u c t i o n , c h r on i c b r o n c h i t i s b y e xc e s s i v e m u c u s p r o d u c t i o n a n d o t h e r c h a n g e s , a n d e m p h ys e m a b y d e s t r u c t io n o f t h e a c in u s . 7 . T h e a n sw er i s D [ s ee I . G . 2 . a. ( 3 ) ] . F o r h o m e m o n i t o r i n g , P E F R i s t h e be s t t e st f o r a s s e s s m e n t o f t h e r a p y, t r i g g e r i d e n t i f i c a t i o n , a n d t h e ne e d f o r r e f e r r a l t o e m e r ge n c y c a r e . I t i s r e c o m m en d e d f o r p a t i e n t s wh o h a v e h a d s e v e r e e xa c e r b a t i o n s o f a s t h m a , wh o a r e p o o r p e r c e i v e r s o f a s t h m a s ym p t o m s , a n d t h o s e wi t h m o d e r a t e t o se v e r e d i s e a s e . 8 . T h e a n sw er i s D ( I I , I I I ) [ s e e I I . D . 1 a n d 2 ] . C h r o n i c b r o n c h i t i s i s c ha r a c t e r i z e d b y a n i n c r e a s e i n t h e n u m b e r o f m u co u s a n d g o b l e t c e l l s o wi n g t o b r o n c h i a l i r r i t a t i o n . T h i s r e su l t s i n i n c r ea s e d m u c u s p r o d u c t i o n . O t h e r c h a n g e s i n c l u d e e d e m a a n d i n f l a m m a t i o n o f t h e b r o n ch i o l e s a n d c h a n g e s i n s m o o t h m u s c l e a n d c a r t i l a g e . E m p h ys e m a i s a pe r m a n e n t d e s t r u c t i o n o f t h e c e n t r a l a n d p e r i p h e r a l p o r t i o n s o f t h e a c i n u s d i s t a l t o t he b r o n c h i o l e s . I n t h i s d i s e a s e , a d e q u a t e o x yg e n r e a c h e s t h e a l v e o l a r d u c t , o wi n g t o i n c r e a s e d r a t e o f breathing, but perfusion is abnormal. 9 . T h e a n sw er i s A [ s e e T a b l e 4 9 - 8 ] . 1 0 . T h e a n sw er i s C [ s ee I I . G . 1 . a ] . 1 1 . T h e a n sw er i s B [ s ee T a b l e 4 9 - 4 ] . C i m e t i d i n e , a n H 2 - r e c e p t o r a n t a g o n i s t , d e c r e a s e s t h e o p h yl l i n e c l e a r a n c e b y i n h i b i t i n g h e p a t i c m i c r o so m a l m i x e d - f u n c t i o n o xi d a s e m e t a b o l i s m , t h u s in c r e a s i n g s e r u m t h e o p h yl l i n e c o n c e n t r a t i o n s . T h e o p h yl l i n e c l e a r a n c e c a n b e d e c r e a s e d b y 4 0 % d u r i n g t h e f i r s t 2 4 h r o f c o n c u r r e n t t h e r a p y. A n t i c h o l i n e r g i c a g e n t s s u c h a s atropine and ipratropium bromide produce bronchodilation by competitively inhibiting cholinergic receptors. The disadvantages of atropine include dry mouth, t a c h yc a r d i a , a n d u r i n a r y r e t e n t i o n . I p r a t r o p i u m b r o m i d e i s t h r e e t o f i v e t i m e s m o r e p o t e n t t h a n a t r o p i n e a n d d o e s n o t h a v e t h e s e s id e e f f e c t s. A l b u t e r o l i s o n e o f t h e m o s t β 2 - s e le c t i v e a d r e n e r g i c a g e n t s a v a i l a b l e . O t h e r s u c h a g e n t s i n c l u d e t e r b u t a l i n e , b i t o l t e r o l , a n d p i r b u t e r o l . A g e n t s wi t h β 2 - s e l e c t i vi t y d i l a t e b r o n c h i o l e s wi t h o u t c a u s i n g s i d e e f f e c t s r e l a t e d t o β 1 - s t i m u la t i o n ( e . g . , in c r e a s e d h e a r t r a t e ) .
50 Osteoarthritis and Rheumatoid Arthritis T i n a H a r r i s o n T h o rn h i l l
I. DEFINITION AND CAUSE A. O s t e o a r t h r i t i s ( O A) i s a c o m m o n c h r o n i c c o n d i t i o n o f c a r t i l a g e degeneration. Secondary changes can occur in the bone, leading to pain, d e c r e a s e d f u n c t i o n i n g , a n d e v e n d i s a b i l i t y. O A a f f e c t s n e a r l y 2 1 m i l l i o n m i d d l e - a g e d a n d e l d e r l y A m e r i c a n s . I t is t h e m o st c o m m o n f or m o f a r t h r i t is . A l t h o u g h n o t a l wa ys s y m p t o m a t i c , m o s t p e o p l e o v e r t h e a ge o f 5 5 ye a r s h a v e r a d i o l o g i c a l e v i d e n c e o f t h e d i s e a s e . U n t i l a g e 5 5 ye a r s , O A af f e c t s m e n m o r e f r e q u e n t l y t h a n wo m e n , b u t a f t e r a g e 5 5 , wo m e n a r e m o r e l i ke l y to have the disease. B . R h eu m a t o i d a r t h ri t i s ( R A) i s a c h r o n i c , s ys t e m i c a u t o im m u n e d i s e a s e t h a t i n v o l v e s i n f l a m m a t io n i n t h e m em b r a n e l i n i n g o f t h e j o i nt s a n d o f t e n a f f e c t s i n t e r n a l o r g a n s . M o s t p a t i e n t s e xh i b i t a c h r o n i c f l u c t u a t i n g c o u r s e o f d i s e a s e t h a t c a n r e s u l t in p r o g r e s s i v e j o i n t d e s t r u c t i o n , d e f o r m i t y, a n d d i s a b i l i t y. R A a f f e c t s 1% o f t h e U . S . p o p u l a t i o n . I t o c c u r s t wo t o t h r e e t i m e s m o r e o f t e n in wo m e n , a n d t h e p e a k o n s e t o c c u r s b e t we e n t h e 4 t h a n d 6 t h decades of life.
II. NORMAL JOINT ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY A. T h e s yn o vi a l j o i n t c on s i s t s o f t wo b o n e e n d s c o v e r e d b y a r t i c u l a r cartilage. The roles of articular cartilage include 1. Enabling frictionless movement of the joint 2 . D i s t r i b u t in g t h e l o a d a c r o s s t h e jo i n t ( s h o c k a b s o r b e r ) , t o p r e v e n t damage 3 . P r o m o t i ng s t a b i l i t y d u r i n g u s e B . C a r t i l ag e i s a v a s c u l a r a n d a n e u r a l . I t i s m e t a b o l i c a l l y a c t i v e a n d u n d e r g o e s c o n t i n u a l i n t e r n a l r e m o d e l i n g . I t i s c om p o s e d p r i m a r i l y o f wa t e r b u t i s a l s o m a d e f r o m c h o n d r o c yt e s a n d e xt r a c e l l u l a r m a t r i x . C . C h o n d r o c yt e s c o n t r o l t h e s yn t h e s i s a n d d e g r a d a t i o n o f t h e m a t r i x. T h e y p r o d u c e p r o t e o g l yc a n s a n d c o l l a g e n i n t h e e xt r a c e l l u l a r m a t r i x t o m a i n t a i n t h e i n t e g r i t y o f t h e m a t r ix i n h e a l t h y c a r t i l a g e . D . T h e j o i n t c a p s u l e i s a f i b r o u s o u t e r l a ye r t h a t e n c a p s u l a t e s t h e j o i n t . T h e j o i n t c ap s u l e i s l i n e d b y s yn o vi u m , a m e m br a n e t h a t p r o d u c e s a v i s c o u s f l u i d t h a t l u b r i c at e s t h e j o i n t . E . T h e s yn o vi a l f l u i d i s c o m p o s e d , i n p a r t , of h ya l u r o n i c a c i d . G l u c o s a m i n e i s a c o m p o n e n t o f h ya l u r o n i c a c i d . T h e r o l e o f hya l u r o n i c a c i d i s t o m a i n t a i n f u n c t i o n a l a n d s t r u c t u r al c h a r a c t e r i st i c s o f t h e ex t r a c e l l u l a r m a t r i x. F . B u r s a e a r e s m a l l s a c s t h a t a r e l in e d wi t h s yn o v i a l m e m b r a n e a n d f i l l e d wi t h f l u i d t o p r o v i d e c u s h i o n i n g a n d l u b r i c a t i o n f o r t h e m o v em e n t o f t h e joint.
III. OSTEOARTHRITIS
A. P a t h o p h y s i o l o g y. T h e d i s e a s e i s n o t a n o r m a l p a r t o f t h e a g i n g p r o c e s s ; h o we v e r , t h e r e a r e m a n y a g e - r e l a t e d c h a n g e s t h a t c o n t r i b u t e t o t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f O A. 1 . T h e s t r e ng t h o f t e n d o n s , l i g a m e n t s , a n d m u s cl e s d e c l i n e s wi t h a d v a n c i n g age and may contribute to the development of the disease. P.1094
2 . T h e n u m be r o f c h o n d r o c yt e s d e c l i n e s o wi n g t o a p o p t o s i s ( c e l l d e a t h ) , decreased proliferation, or both. 3 . T h e s yn t h e s i s o f n o r m a l p r o t e o g l yc a n s i s r e d u c e d . 4 . C h o n d r o c yt e s l o s e t h e a b i l i t y t o p r o m o t e h e a l i n g a n d c a r t i l a g e r e m o d e l i n g , r e s u l t i n g i n c a r t i l a g e m a t r i x d e g r a d a t i o n . P r o t e og l yc a n s a r e depleted. 5 . M a t r i x m et a l l o p r o t e i n a s e s ( M M Ps ) a n d p r o i n f l a m m a t o r y c yt o k i n e s promote cartilage degradation. 6 . I n t e r l e u k in 1 ( I L - 1 ) h a s s e v e r a l r o le s i n t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f O A : a . R e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e in d u c t i o n o f c h o n d r o c yt e s a n d s yn o v i a l c e l l s t o s yn t h e s i z e M M P s b . I n h i b i t s t h e s yn t h e s i s o f t yp e I I c o l l a g e n a n d p r o t e o g l yc a n s , p r e v e n t i n g collagen from repairing itself c . E n h a n c e s n i t r i c o x i d e p r o d u c t i o n a n d i n d u c e s c h o n d r o c yt e a p o p t o s i s 7 . P a i n o c c ur s a s a r e s u l t o f a. Osteophytes (spurs of cartilage and bone at the joint) b . S yn o v i t i s c. Bursitis d. Tendonitis B . R i s k f a c t o r s f o r O A in c l u d e a d v a n c e d a g e , f e m a l e g e n d e r , m u s c l e we a k n e s s , o b e s i t y, j o i n t t r a u m a , h e r e d i t y, c o n g e n i t a l o r d e v e l o p m e n t a l a n a t o m i c a l d e f e c t s , a n d r e p e t i t i v e st r e s s . C . C l i n i c a l p r e s e n t a t i o n . O A i s c h ar a c t e r i z e d b y a d e e p , l o c a l i z e d a c h e i n a j o i n t . P a i n a n d s t i f f n e s s u s u a l l y o c c u r s wi t h r e s t o r i m m o b i l i t y a n d l a s t s < 3 0 m i n u t e s . I n f l a m m a t i on , i f p r e s e n t , i s m i l d . P at i e n t s wi l l o f t e n c o m p l a i n o f c r e p i t u s , a po p p i n g o r c r a c k i n g n o i s e , h e a r d i n t h e j o i n t u p o n m o v i n g . O A m o s t c o m m on l y a f f e c t s t h e h i p s , k n e e s , n e c k , a n d h a n d s . D . D I AG N O S I S 1 . P h ys i c a l e x a m i n a t i o n . J o i n t t e n d e r n e s s , d i m i n i s h e d r a n g e o f m o t i on , c r e p i t u s , a bn o r m a l i t i e s i n j o i n t s h a p e . 2 . L ab o r a t o r y t e s t s . N o s p e c i f i c l a b t e s t s a r e d ia g n o s t i c f o r O A ; h o we v e r , i f a r t h r o c e n t e s i s i s p e r f or m e d , s yn o v i a l f l u i d wi l l r e v e a l m i l d l e u k o c yt o s i s wi t h p r e d o m i n a n c e o f m o n o n u c l e a r l ym p h o c yt e s . 3 . R a d i o g r ap h y. N a r r o wi n g o f j o i n t sp a c e ( o wi n g t o l o s s o f ca r t i l a g e ) , s u b c h o n d r a l s c l e r o s i s , a n d o s t e o p h yt e s a r e s e e n. 4 . T h e Am e r i c a n C o l l e g e o f R h e u m a t o l o g y ( A C R ) h a s d e f i n e d c r i t e r i a f o r OA of the hip, knee, and hand:
a . O A o f t h e h i p i s c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y h i p p a i n a n d a t l e a s t t wo o f t h e f o l l o wi n g : ( 1 ) E r yt h r o c yt e s e d i m e n t a t i o n r a t e ( E S R ) < 2 0 m m / h r ( 2 ) R a d i o g r a p h i c e v i d e n c e o f f e m or a l o r a c e t ab u l a r o s t e o p h yt e s ( 3 ) R a d i o g r a p h i c e v i d e n c e o f j o i n t s p a c e n a r r o wi n g b . O A o f t h e k n e e i s c h ar a c t e r i z e d b y k n e e p a i n , r a d i o g r a p h i c e v i d e n c e o f o s t e o p h yt e s , a n d a t l e a st o n e o f t h e f o l l o wi n g : (1) Age > 50 years ( 2 ) M o r n i n g s t i f f n e s s t h at l a s t s < 3 0 m i n u t e s (3) Articular crepitus on motion c . O A o f t h e h a n d i s c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y h a n d p a i n , a c h i n g , o r st i f f n e s s a n d a t l e a s t t h r e e o f t h e f o l l o wi n g : ( 1 ) H a r d t i s su e e n l a r g e m e n t o f ≥ 2 d i s t a l i n t e r p h a l a n g e a l ( D I P) j o i n t s ( 2 ) H a r d - t i ss u e e n l a r g e m e n t o f ≥ 2 s e l e c t e d j o i n t s ( 2 n d a n d 3 r d D I P an d / o r proximal interphalangeal [PIP], and the 1st carpometacarpal joints of both hands) ( 3 ) F e we r t h a n t h r e e s wo l l e n m e t a c a r p o p h a l a n g e a l ( M C P ) j oi n t s (4) Deformity of at least one of ten selected joints P.1095
E. Treatment 1. Goals a . C o n t r o l pa i n a n d o t h e r s ym p t o m s b . M a i n t a i n o r i m p r o v e jo i n t m o b i l i t y c. Correct or minimize functional limitations and disability 2. Nonpharmacological treatments a . P a t i e n t ed u c a t i o n m a y i n c l u d e t i p s o n j o i n t p r o t e c t i o n , c om m u n i t y exercise programs, and support groups. b . W e i g h t l o s s ( i f o v e r we i g h t ) h a s b e e n s h o wn t o d e c r e a s e p a i n a n d s ym p t o m s o f O A . c . Ae r o b i c e x e r c i s e p r o g r a m s ; b e d r e s t a n d i m m o b i l i t y a r e n o t n e c e s s a r y wi t h O A . d . P h ys i c a l t h e r a p y f o r r a n g e - o f - m o t i o n e xe r c i s e s a n d s t r e ng t h e n i n g . e . As s i s t i ve d e vi c e s ( e . g . , c a n e s , wa l k e r s , c r ut ch e s ) m a y h e l p d e c r e a s e t h e l o a d o n a j o i n t ; h o we v e r , p a t i e n t s s h o u l d b e i n s t r u c t e d on t h e i r p r o p e r u s e f o r s af e t y. f . Ac u p u n c t u r e l e a d s t o i m p r o v e m e n t s i n p a i n a n d f u n c t i o n a f t e r 2 6 we e k s , c o m p a r e d t o p l a c e b o o r a r t h r i t i s e d uc a t i o n i n p a t i e n t s wi t h m i l d k n e e O A . g . W e d g e i n s o l e s c a n he l p r e d u c e m e c h a n i c a l s t r e s s i n p e r s o n s wi t h m e d i a l k n e e O A. h . T h e r m a l t h e r a p y ( e . g . , h o t s h o we r o r t u b , i ce p a c k ) m a y b e o f b e n e f i t f o r s o m e p a t i e n t s wi t h O A . 3 . P h a r m a c o l o g i c a l t r ea t m e n t
a . Ac e t a m i n o p h e n ( A P AP ) i s c o n s i d e r e d f i r s t - l i ne t h e r a p y b y t h e A C R f o r O A o f t h e h ip o r k n e e . I t h a s e x c e l l e n t a n a l g e s i c a n d a n t i p yr e t i c a c t i v it y, b u t n o a n t i - i n f l a m m a t o r y e f f e ct s . ( 1 ) A d o s e of ≤ 4 g / d a y i s r e c o m m e n d e d t o a v o i d t o xi c i t y. C o n c o m i t a n t u s e o f o t h e r m ed i c a t i o n s wi t h a c e t a m i n o p h e n s h o u l d b e e v a l u a t e d c l o s e l y t o avoid overdose. ( 2 ) H e p a t o t o x i c i t y c a n o c c u r i n p a t i e n t s t a k i n g > 4 g a c e t a m i n o p h e n a d a y. S ym p t o m s ca n i n c l u d e n a u s e a , v o m i t i n g , a b d o m i n a l p a i n , m a l a i s e , a n d d i a p h o r e s i s . I n p a t i e n t s wi t h c h r o n i c s t a b l e l i v e r d i s e a s e , d o s e s o f u p t o 4 g / d a y d i d n o t c a u s e a n y e v i d e n c e o f h e p a t o t o x i c i t y. ( 3 ) B e c a u s e t h e r e i s l it t le , i f a n y, i n f l a m m a t i o n i n t h e O A j o i n t , A P A P h as b e e n s h o wn t o b e e q u a l l y e f f i c a c i o u s a s i b u p r o f e n a n d n a p r o xe n i n p a t i e n t s wi t h m i l d t o m o d e r a t e O A p a i n . ( 4 ) S t u d i e s h a v e s h o wn e i t h e r A P A P i m m e d i a t e - r e l e a s e o r e x t e n d e d - r e l e a s e i s e f f e c t i v e in t r e a t i n g m i l d t o m o d e r a t e l y- s e v e r e O A p a i n . b . N o n s t e ro i d a l a n t i - i n f l a m m a t o r y d r u g s ( N S AI D s ) a n d c y c l o o x yg e n a s e 2 ( C O X - 2 ) s p e c i f i c i n h i b i t o r s a r e in d i c a t e d i n O A t r e a t m en t wh e n t h e r e s p o n s e t o A P A P i s i n ad e q u a t e ( T ab l e 5 0 - 1 ) . ( 1 ) M e c h a n i s m o f a c t i o n . N S A I D s a r e n o n s e l e c t i v e i n h i b i t o r s o f CO X- 1 a n d - 2 a s we l l a s t h r o m b o xa n e s yn t h e t a s e . ( 2 ) An a l g e s i a i s s e e n wi t h a s h o r t t r e a t m e n t d u r a t i o n a n d a t l o we r d o s e s ( e . g . , i b u p r o f e n ≤ 1 2 0 0 m g / d a y) . ( 3 ) An t i - i n f l a m m a t o r y r e s p o n s e i s s e e n wi t h h i g h e r d o s e s a n d u s u a l l y r e q u i r e s s e v e r a l d a ys o f t h e r a p y t o a c h i e v e a n t i - i n f l a m m a t o r y a f f e ct .
Table 50-1. Selected Anti-Inflammatory Drugs Generic (Brand)
Initial Daily Dose
Maximum Daily Dose
Nonacetylated salicylates Salsalate (Disalcid)
1000 mg twice a day
3000 mg
Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs Aspirin (various) Diclofenac (Voltaren) Ibuprofen (Motrin, Advil)
650 mg every 4 hr
6000 mg
75 mg twice a day
200 mg
400 mg three times a day
3200 mg
Naproxen (Naprosyn, Aleve)
500 mg twice a day
1500 mg
Nabumetone (Relafen)
1000 mg once a day
2000 mg
Sulindac (Clinoril)
150 mg twice a day
400 mg
Tolmetin (Tolectin)
400 mg three times a day
1800 mg
100 mg twice a day
400 mg
Cyclooxygenase 2 inhibitor Celecoxib (Celebrex) P.1096
( 4 ) Ad ve r s e e f f e c t s . T he F D A m a n da t e s t h a t a p u b l i s h e d N S A I D M e d i ca t i o n G u i d e b e i s s u e d wi t h a l l N S A I D p r es c r i p t i o n s i n f o r m i n g p a t i e n t s a b o u t t h e p o t e n t i a l a d v e r s e e f f e ct s . ( a ) G a s t r o i n t e s t i n a l ( G I ) t o xi c i t y i s c a u s e d b y d i r e c t m u c o sa l i n j u r y a n d i n h i b i t i o n o f p r o s t a g l a n d i n s . S ym p t o m s i n c l u d e d ys p e p s i a , u l c e r a t i o n , a n d bleeding. ( i ) CO X- 2 i n h i b i t o r s m a y b e a n o p t i o n f o r p a t i e n t s wi t h a h i s t o r y o f p e p t i c u l c e r d i s e a s e ; h o we v e r , t h e G I s a f et y o f t h e s e ag e n t s h a s n o t b e e n demonstrated long term. ( i i ) P e o p l e a t r i s k f o r G I t o x i c i t y i n c l u d e t h e e l d e r l y a n d t h o s e wi t h a h i s t o r y o f p e p t i c u l ce r d i s e a s e , c h r o n i c a l c o h o l u s e , h i g h - d o s e o r m u l t i p l e N S A I D u s e , c o n c o m i t a n t c o r t i co s t e r o i d u s e , a n d N S A I D t r e a t m e n t of < 3 m o n t h s . ( b ) R en a l t oxi c i t y r e s u l t s f r o m t h e in h i b i t i o n o f p r o s t a g l a n d i n s . W h i l e t h e r i s k s a r e l ow ( ~ 5 % ) , i t d o e s n o t a p p e a r t o b e d o s e d e p e n d e n t a n d i s usually reversible. ( i ) E f f e c t s ca n i n c l u d e h yp e r k a l e m i a , h yp o n a t r e m i a , i n c r e a s e d s e r u m c r e a t i n i n e , s o d i u m a n d wa t e r r e t e n t i o n , a n d a c u t e r e n a l f a i l u r e . ( i i ) P e o p l e a t r i s k f o r r e na l t o xi c i t y i n c l u d e t h e e l d e r l y a n d t h o s e wi t h p r e e x i s t i n g r e n a l d i s e a s e , h yp e r t e n s i o n , d i a b e t e s m e l l i t u s , co n g e s t i v e h e a r t f a i l u r e , c i r r ho s i s , a n d v ol u m e d e p l e t i o n ( e . g . , h e m o r r h a g e , se p s i s , d i u r e t i c s , diarrhea). ( c ) H e m a t o l o g i c a l e f f e ct s a r e t h e r es u l t o f d e c r ea s e d p l a t e l e t a g g r e g a t i o n .
( d ) H ep a t i c t o xi c i t y, a l t h o u g h n o t c o m m o n , c a n in c l u d e e l e v a t e d l i v e r e n z ym e s . P a t i e n t s a t r is k i n c l u d e t h o s e wi t h a h i s t o r y o f h e p a t i t i s , alcoholism, and heart failure. ( e ) C N S e f f e c t s c a n i n cl u d e s e d a t i o n , c o n f u s i o n , a n d m e n t a l s t a t u s c h a n g e s a n d a r e p r i m a r i l y s e e n i n t h e e l d e r l y. ( f ) Al l e r g i c r e a c t i o n s , su c h a s a s t hm a , u r t i c a r ia , a n d p h o t o s e n s i t i v i t y, m a y be seen. Cross-sensitivity has been seen in patients allergic to aspirin. ( g ) C a r d i o va s c u l a r ( C V) e f f e ct s ( e . g . , m yo c a r d i a l i n f a r c t i o n , st r o k e , h yp e r t e n s i o n , a n d h e a r t f a i l u r e ) h a ve b e e n r e p o r t e d . R o f e c oxi b a n d v a l d e c o x i b we r e v o l u n t a r i l y wi t h d r a wn f r o m t h e m a r k e t i n 2 00 5 o wi n g t o t h e i r a s s o c i a t i o n wi t h C V d i s e a s e a n d m o r t a l i t y. S t u d i e s o f c e l e c o x i b h a v e s h o wn a d o s e - r e l a t e d i n c r e a s e i n C V e v e n t s i n p a t i e n t s wi t h a h i s t o r y o f c o l o r e c t a l n e o p l a s i a wh o we r e a t r i s k o f r e c u r r e n t a d e n o m a t o u s p o l yp s . T h e U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) recommends using celecoxib at t h e l o we s t p o s s i b l e d o s e f o r l e a s t t im e p o s s i b l e . c. Other oral analgesics ( 1 ) T r a m a d o l ( U l t r a m ) . C o n s i d e r e d a g o o d c h o i c e wh e n t h e p a t i e n t ' s p a i n i s u n r e l i e v e d b y N S A I D s , wh e n t h e p a t i e n t c a n n o t t a k e N S AI D s , o r wh e n t h e p a t i e n t e x p e r i e n c e s b r e a k t h r o u g h p a i n wh i l e t a k i n g N S A I D s . ( a ) M e c h a n i s m o f a c t i o n . C e n t r a l l y a c t i n g a n a l g e s i c t h a t i n hi b i t s t h e reuptake of norepinephrine and serotonin and mildly binds to the µreceptor. ( b ) Do s e . 50 - 1 0 0 m g e v e r y 4 - 6 h r , no t t o e xc e e d 4 0 0 m g / d a y; a n d 3 0 0 m g / d a y i n t h e e l d e r l y. I n p a t i e n t s wi t h i m p a i r e d r e n a l f u n c t i o n ( c r e a t i n i n e c l e a r a n c e [ C r C l ] < 3 0 m L / m i n ) , t he d o s a g e i n t e r v a l s h o u l d b e e v e r y 1 2 h r , wi t h a m a x i m u m d o s e o f 2 0 0 m g . T h e e xt e n d e d r e l e a s e f o r m u l a t i o n i s d o s e d 1 0 0 m g d a i l y wi t h a m a xi m u m d o s e o f 3 0 0 m g / d a y. ( c ) Ad ve r s e e f f e c t s . A lt h o u g h i t i s n o t a n o p i o i d a n a l g e s i c , i t s s i d e e f f e ct s a r e s i m i l a r : n a u s e a , c o n s t i p a t i o n , r as h , d i z z i n e s s , s o m n o l e n c e , a n d o r t h o s t a t i c hyp o t e n s i o n . ( d ) D ru g i n t e r a c t i o n s . C a r b a m a z e p i n e c a n d e c r e a s e t h e e f f e c t s o f t r a m a d o l . I nc r e a s e d t o xi c i t y c a n o c c u r wi t h t h e co n c o m i t a n t u s e o f q u i n i d i n e , c i m e t i d i n e , a n d s e l e c t i v e s e r o t o n i n r e u p t a k e i n h i b i t o r s ( S S RI s; e . g . , p a r o x e t i n e , s e r t r a l i n e , f l u o xe t i n e ) . ( 2 ) O p i a t e an a l g e s i c s ( e . g . , c o d e i n e , o x yc o d o n e ) a r e u s u a l l y r e s e r v e d f o r p a t i e n t s wh o f a i l s i n g l e - o r m u l t i p l e - a n a l g e s i c t h e r a p y. T h e y m a y a l s o b e u s e f u l f o r a cu t e e xa c e r b a t i o n s o f p a i n . S i d e e f f ec t s c a n i n c l u d e c o n s t i p a t i o n , s e d a t i o n , na u s e a , r e s p i r a t o r y d e p r e s s i o n , a n d co n f u s i o n . ( 3 ) P r o p o x yp h e n e. T h e u s e o f p r o p o x yp h e n e i s c o n t r o v e r s ia l , a s i t h a s demonstrated efficacy similar to acetaminophen. The clinician must also consider the acetaminophen content (650 mg) of propoxyphene/acetaminophen (e.g., Darvocet-N 100 mg) and the potential f o r o v e r d o s e . P r o p o x yp h e n e s h o u l d b e a v o i d e d i n t h e e l d e r l y. ( 4 ) T o p i c a l a n a l g e s i c s ( e . g . , c a p s a i c i n ) a r e e f f ec t i v e i n r e l i e v i n g O A p a i n i n s o m e p a t i e n t s . T o p i c al t h e r a p y c a n b e u s e d i n c o n j u n c t i o n wi t h o r a l
t h e r a p y o r a s m o n o t h e r a p y. C a p s a i c i n i s d e r i v e d f r o m h o t c h i l i p e p p e r s a n d wi t h c h r o n i c u s e ( > 2 we e k s ) wo r k s P.1097 b y d e p l e t i n g s t o r e s o f s ub s t a n c e P . P a t i e n t s s h ou l d b e c o u n s e l e d t o wa s h h a n d s t h o r o u g h l y a f t e r a p p l i c a t i o n t o a v o i d c o n t a c t wi t h o t h e r s k i n t o a vo i d burning and stinging. (5) Intra-articular injections ( a ) C o r t i c o st e r o i d s m a y b e u s e f u l i n k n e e O A wh e n i n f l a m m a t i o n i s p r e s e n t b u t a r e n o t r o u t i n e l y r e c o m m e n d e d i n h i p O A o wi n g t o a d m i n i s t r a t i o n d i f f i c u l t i e s . D u r a t i o n o f a c t i o n i s u p t o 4 we e k s . B e c a u s e o f a d v e r s e e f f ec t s o n t h e b o n e , i n j e c t i o n s s h o u l d b e l i m i t e d t o t h r e e o r f o u r pe r ye a r . L o n g t e r m b e n e f i t s a n d s a f e t y h a v e n o t b e e n e s t a b l i s h e d d e f i n i t i v e l y. ( b ) H ya l u r o n i c a c i d d er i va t i ve s . I n d i c a t e d f o r t h e t r e a t m e n t o f k n e e O A wh e n t r e a t m e n t f a i l u r e t o o t h e r t h e r a p i e s o c c u r s . I n t e n d e d t o i m p r o v e e l a s t i c i t y a n d v i s c o s i t y o f s yn o v i a l f l u i d . S o d i u m h ya l u r o n a t e ( H ya l g a n ; 2 m L we e k l y f o r 5 we e k s ) a n d h yl a n p o l ym e r s ( S yn vi s c ; 2 m L we e k l y f o r 3 we e k s ) a r e t h e t wo a g e n t s c u r r e n t l y a v a i l a b l e . M o s t b e n e f i t s a r e s e e n a f t e r the last dose; effects are superior to placebo and comparable to c o r t i c o s t e r o id i n j e c t i o n s . T h e s e a g e n t s s h o u l d b e u s e d wi t h c a u t i o n i n p a t i e n t s wi t h a l l e r g i e s t o a v i a n p r o t e i n s , f e a t h e r s , a n d e g g p r o d u c t s . P a t i e n t s s h ou l d b e c o u n s e l e d t o a v o i d s t r e n u o u s o r p r o l o n g e d ( > 1 h r ) we i g h t - b e a r i n g a c t i v i t i e s wi t h i n 4 8 h r a f t e r t r e a t m e n t . ( 6 ) Ad j u n c t i ve t r e a t m e n t s . T h e s e ag e n t s a r e wi d e l y u s e d b y p a t i e n t s ; h o we v e r , e f f i c a c y h a s n o t b e e n c o n s i s t e n t l y d e m o n s t r a t e d in c o n t r o l l e d trials. ( a ) G l u co s a m i n e a c t s as a s u b s t r at e f o r a n d p r o m o t e s t h e s yn t h e s i s o f t h e g l yc o s a m i n o g l yc a n s . ( i ) T h e d o s e i s 5 0 0 m g t h r e e t i m e s a d a y. ( i i ) Si d e e f f e c t s m a y i n c l u d e G I d i sc o m f o r t , f a t ig u e , a n d s k i n r a s h . ( b ) Ch o n d r o i t i n h e l p s p r o t e c t a g a i n s t t h e b r e ak d o wn o f c o l l a g e n a n d p r o t e o g l yc a n s . I t i s u s ua l l y f o u n d i n c o m b i n a t i o n wi t h g l u c o s a m i n e , b u t t h e added benefits are not clear. ( i ) T h e d o s e i s 1 2 0 0 m g / d a y. ( i i ) Si d e e f f e c t s c a n i n c l u d e p r o l o n g e d b l e e d i n g t i m e a n d n a u s e a . ( c ) T h e m e c h a n i s m o f S- a d e n o s yl m e t h i o n i n e ( S AM e ) i s u n c l e a r ; h o we v e r , i t d o e s p l a y a r o l e i n m a i n t a i n i n g c a r t i l a g e . T h e do s e i s 6 0 0 m g / d a y f o r 2 we e k s , t h e n 4 0 0 m g / d a y . ( 7 ) S u rg i c a l i n t e r ve n t i o n s ( e . g . , a r t h r o s c o p y, j o i n t r e p l a c e m e n t ) a r e c o n s i d e r e d wh e n p a i n i s s e v e r e a n d n o t r e s p o n d i n g t o m e d i c a l t r e a t m e n t o r wh e n d i s a b i l i t y i n t e r f e r e s wi t h d a i l y a c t i v i t i e s .
IV. RHEUMATOID ARTHRITIS A. E t i o l o g y a n d p a t h o g e n e s i s . T h e c a u s e o f RA i s n o t f u l ly u n d e r s t o o d b u t a p p e a r s t o b e m u l t i f a c t o r i a l . I t i s co n s i d e r e d a n a u t o i m m u n e d i s e a s e , i n
wh i c h t h e b o d y l o s e s i t s a b i l i t y t o d i s t i n g u i s h b e t we e n s yn o v i a l a n d f o r e i g n t i s s u e . O t h er f a c t o r s i n vo l v e d i n R A a r e a s f o l l o ws : 1 . E n vi r o n m e n t a l i n f l u e n c e s , s u ch a s b a c t e r ia l a n d v i r a l i n f e c t i o n s , a r e t h o u g h t t o pl a y a r o l e i n t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f R A. 2 . G en e t i c m a r k e r s , s u c h a s h u m a n l e u k o c yt e a n t i g e n D R 4 ( H L A - D R 4 ) , h a v e b e e n a s s o c i a t e d wi t h t r i g g e r i n g t h e i n f l a m m a t o r y p r o c e s s i n R A . H o we v e r , s u c h m a r k e r s a r e n o t c o n si d e r e d d i a g n o s t i c b e c a u s e a s u p t o 3 0 % o f p e o p l e wi t h H L A - D R 4 n e v e r d e v e l o p R A . 3 . T u m o r n e c r o s i s f a c t o r α ( T NF - α ) , I L - 1 , I L - 6 , a n d g r ow t h f a c t o r s propagate the inflammatory process, and agents found to alter these c yt o k i n e s s h o w p r o m i s e i n r e d u c i n g p a i n a n d d e f o r m i t y. 4 . I n f l a m e d s yn o vi u m i s a h a l l m a r k o f t h e p a t h o p h ys i o l o g y o f R A. S yn o v i u m p r o l i f e r a t e s a b n o r m a l l y, g r o wi n g i n t o t h e j o i n t s p a c e a n d i n t o t h e b o n e , f o r m in g a p a n n u s . T h e p a n n u s m i g r a t e s t o t h e a r t i c u la r c a r t i l a g e a n d i n t o t h e s u b c h o n d r a l b o n e . T h r o u g h s t i m u l a t i o n b y t h e c yt o k i n e s , t h e c e ll s o f t h e p a n n u s p r o d u c e p r o t e o l yt i c e n z ym e s , wh i c h d e g r a d e c a r t i l a g e . T h e s e s a m e c yt o k i n e s a c t i v a t e o s t e o c l a s t s, wh i c h c a u s e s t h e d e m i n e r a l i z a t i o n o f bone. B. Clinical manifestations 1 . T h e o n s et o f R A i s i n s i d i o u s . I n ea r l y d i s e a s e , s ym p t o m s i n c l u d e m a l a i s e a n d a n o r e xi a , a c c o m p a n i e d b y s ym m e t r i c a l l y t e n d e r a n d s wo l l e n j o i n t s . Pain in the joints is common and aggravated by movement. P.1098
2 . M o s t c o m m o n l y, t h e j o i n t s f i r s t a f f e c t e d b y R A i n c l u d e t h e M C P a n d P I P j o i n t s o f t h e h a n d s , t h e m e t a t a r s o p h a l a n g e a l ( M T P ) j o i n t s, an d t h e wr i s t s . O t h e r a r e a s a f f e ct e d b y R A i n c l u d e t h e s p i n e , s h o u l d e r , a n k l e , a n d h i p . C. Clinical course. The severity of the disease is variable. 1 . W it h i n 4 m o n t h s o f d ia g n o s i s , i r r e v e r s i b l e j o i n t d a m a g e i s d e t e c t a b l e o n r a d i o g r a p h i c i m a g e s . T he r a t e a t wh i c h j o i n t d a m a g e o c c u r s i s g r e a t e s t d u r i n g t h e 1 s t ye a r . 2 . P r o g n o s i s i s p o o r e s t wi t h a n e a r l y o n s e t o f t he d i s e a s e , si g n i f i c a n t f u n c t i o n a l d i s a b i l i t y d u r i n g t h e 1 s t ye a r , i n v o l v e m e n t o f 2 0 o r m o r e j o i n t s , t h e p r e s e n c e o f r h e u m a t o i d n o d u l e s , o r e xt r a - a r t i c u l a r i n v o l v e m e n t . 3 . E x t r a - a r t ic u l a r m a n i f e s t a t i o n s c a n i n c l u d e r h e u m a t o i d n o d u l e s , a n e m i a , p e r i p h e r a l n e u r o p a t h y, k i d n e y d i s e a s e , C V ef f e ct s , a n d p u l m o n a r y d i s e a s e . 4 . O s t e o p o r o s i s m a y o c c u r s e c o n d a r y t o R A i n p a t i e n t s r e ce i v i n g t r e a t m e n t wi t h c o r t i c o s t e r o i d s . D . D i a g n o s i s a n d c l i n i ca l e va l u a t i o n . T h e A C R c l a s s i f i e s RA b y h a v i n g a t l e a s t f o u r o f t h e f o l l o wi n g s e v e n c r i t e r i a , a n d t he f i r s t f o u r cr i t e r i a m u s t h a v e b e e n p r e s e n t f o r a t l e a s t 6 we e k s : 1 . M o r n i n g st i f f n e s s f o r 1 h r 2 . A r t h r i t i s of t h r e e o r m o r e j o i n t a r e a s o f t h e h a n d , wr i s t , e lb o w, k n e e , a n k l e , o r f oo t
3 . A r t h r i t i s of h a n d j o i n t s — s we l l i n g i n a t l e a s t o ne a r e a i n a wr i s t , M C P , o r PIP joint 4 . S ym m e t r i c a l a r t h r i t i s — s i m u l t a n e o u s i n v o l v e m e n t o f t h e s a m e j o i n t a r e a s on both sides of the body 5. Rheumatoid nodules—observable subcutaneous nodules, over bony p r o m i n e n c e s o r e xt e n s o r s u r f a c e s 6 . S e r u m r h e u m a t o i d f a c t o r a n d a n t i - c yc l i c c i t r u l l i n a t e d p e p t i d e a n t i b o d y (see VIII.E.3) 7. Radiological changes (see VIII.F) E. Laboratory assessment 1 . R h e u m a t o i d f a c t o r ( R F ) i s f o u n d i n > 6 0 % o f p a t i e n t s wi t h R A ; h o we v e r , a s m a n y a s 5 % o f h e a l t h y i n d i v i d u a l s wi l l h a v e e l e v a t e d t i t e r s o f R F . I f i n i t i a l l y n e g a t i v e , t h e t es t c a n b e r e p e a t e d i n 6 - 1 2 m o n t h s . T h e m o s t c o m m o n l y f o u n d r h e u m a t o i d f a c t o r s a r e I g M a n d I g G . I g A is a l s o a g o o d i n d i c a t o r b e c a u s e i t c o r r e l a t e s we l l wi t h t h e e r yt h r o c yt e s e d i m e n t a t i o n r a t e ( E S R ) . R F is n o t a n a c c u r a t e m e a s u r e o f d i s e a se p r o g r e s s i o n . 2 . E S R an d C - r e a c t i ve p r o t e i n ( C R P ) a r e m a r ke r s o f i n f l a m m a t i o n a n d a r e u s u a l l y e l e v a t e d i n p a t i e n t s wi t h R A . T h e y c a n a l s o h e l p i n d i c a t e t h e a c t i v i t y o f t h e d i s e a s e , b u t t h e y d o n o t i n d i c a t e d i s e a s e s e v e r i t y. 3 . A n t i - c yc l i c c i t r u l l i n a t e d p e p t i d e a n t i b o d i e s ( a n t i - C C P ) a r e f o u n d i n m o s t p a t i e n t s wi t h R A a n d a r e u s e f u l i n p r e d i c t i n g e r o s i v e d i s e a s e . 4 . B e c a u s e a n e m i a i s a c o m m o n f e a t u r e o f R A, a c o m p l e t e b l o o d c o u n t ( C B C ) s h o u l d b e r e g u l a r l y o b t a i n e d . A n e m i a a s s o c i a t e d wi t h R A t e n d s t o b e h yp o c h r o m i c i n 5 0 % - 1 0 0 % o f R A c as e s , a n d m i ld l e u k o c yt o s i s i s e v i d e n t i n 25% of cases. 5 . T h e an t i n u c l e a r a n t i b o d y ( AN A) t e s t i s p o s i t i v e i n 1 5 % o f p a t i e n t s wi t h RA. F . R a d i o g r ap h i c e x a m i n a t i o n . B a se l i n e e v a l u a t i o n s o f t h e f e e t a n d h a n d s a r e i m p o r t a n t t o a sc e r t a i n s t r u c t u r a l d a m a g e . A s t h e d i s e as e p r o g r e s s e s , evidence of periarticular osteopenia becomes apparent. The radiograph is a g o o d i n d i c a t o r o f t h e e xt e n t o f b o n e e r o s i o n a n d c a r t i l a g e l o s s . A n M R I s t u d y d e t e c t s t h e p r o l i f er a t i v e p a n n u s . P.1099
G . T r e a t m e n t o b j e c t i ve s . T h e g o a l s i n t h e m a n ag e m e n t o f RA a r e 1. To prevent or control joint damage 2 . T o p r e v e n t l o s s o f f un c t i o n 3. To decrease pain 4. To maintain the patient's quality of life 5 . T o a v o i d o r m i n i m i z e a d v e r s e e f f ec t s of t r e a t m e n t H . P r o g n o s i s . P o o r p r o gn o s t i c f a ct o r s i n c l u d e a c t i v e d i s e a s e wi t h m u l t i p l e t e n d e r a n d s wo l l e n j o i n t s , e v i d e n c e o f e r o s i o n s s e e n o n r a d i o g r a p h s , e l e v a t e d R F a n d / o r A n t i - C C P a n t i b o d y, a n d e l e v a t e d E S R an d / o r C R P . A d d i t i o n a l l y, wo r s e o u t c o m e s , i n c l u d i n g d i s a b i l i t y a n d m o r b i d i t y, a r e
a s s o c i a t e d wi t h f e m a l e g e n d e r , a d v a n c i n g a g e , c i g a r e t t e s m o k i n g , a n d genotype. I . T h e r a p y. T h e A m e r i c a n C o l l e g e o f R h e u m a t o l o g y ( A C R ) p u b l i s h e d u p d a t e d t r e a t m e n t r e c om m e n d a t i o n s i n 2 0 0 8 o n n o n - b i o l o g i c a l a n d b i o l o g i c a l d i s e a s e m o d i f yi n g d r u g s . N o n p h a r m a c o l o g i c a l t h e r a p y a n d t r e a t m e n t wi t h a n t i - i n f l a m m a t o r y d r u g s wa s n o t i n c l u d e d i n t h e 2 0 0 8 r e p o r t . 1 . N o n p h a r m a c o l o g i c a l . O p t i m a l t he r a p y i n v o l v e s b o t h d r u g - a n d n o n d r u g t h e r a p y; h o we v e r , n o n - d r u g t h e r a p y i s c o n s i d e r e d a d j u v a n t . P a t i e n t s sh o u l d b e i n s t r u c t ed o n j o i n t p r o t e c t i o n a n d r a n g e - o f - m o t i o n e xe r c i s e s . R e g u l a r l y s c h e d u l e d r e s t p e r i o d s a r e i m p o r t a n t t o r e d u c e p h ys i c a l s t r e s s o n t h e j o i n t s . P h ys i c a l t h e r a p y a n d o c c u p a t i o n a l t h e r a p y m a y h e l p p a t i e n t s m a i n t a i n t h e i r a c t i v i t i e s o f d a i l y l i v i n g . A r t h r i t i s su p p o r t g r o u p s m a y h e l p wi t h p s yc h o l o g i c a l we l l - b e i n g . 2. Pharmacological. Drug therapy for RA involves the treatment of s ym p t o m s f o r p a i n m a n a g e m e n t a n d t h e u s e o f d i s e a s e m o d i f yi n g a g e n t s . D r u g s wi t h a n t i - i n f l a m m a t o r y a c t i v i t y a r e t h e a g e n t s o f c h o i c e f o r t h e s ym p t o m a t i c r e l i e f o f R A, b u t t h e s e sh o u l d n o t b e u s e d a s m on o t h e r a p y. T h e s e d r u g s a r e c o m m on l y u s e d a s “ b r i d g e t h e r a p y” a s m o s t d i s e a s e m o d i f yi n g a g e n t s h a v e a d e l a ye d o n s e t o f a ct i o n . F a ct o r s su c h a s c o s t , t o x i c i t y, c o m p l i a n c e , a n d o n s e t o f a c t i o n i n f l u e n c e t h e s e l e c t i o n o f t h e d i s e a s e - m o d i f yi n g d r u g s . a . An t i - i n f l am m a t o r y d r u g s ( e . g . , sa l i c yl a t e s , NS A I D s , a n d C O X- 2 i n h i b i t o r s ) r e d u c e j o i n t p a i n a n d s we l l i n g , b u t t h e y d o n o t a l t e r t h e c o u r s e o f t h e d i s e a s e o r p r e v e n t jo i n t d e s t r u c t i o n ( T a b l e 5 0 - 1 ) . b . C o r t i co s t e r o i d s . L o w- d o s e s ys t e m i c c o r t i c o st e r o i d s ( e . g . , p r e d n i s o n e , m e t h yl p r e d n i s o l o n e ) c a n wo r k we l l e i t h e r o r a l l y o r p a r e n t e r a l l y. T h e y h a v e e x c e l l e n t a n t i - i n f l a m m a t o r y a c t i v i t y a n d a r e i m m u n o s u p p r e s s a n t . T h e l o we s t e f f e c t i v e d os e s h o u l d b e u s e d b e c a u s e o f a d v e r s e e f f e ct s ( e. g . , h yp e r g l yc e m i a , G I t o xi c i t y, o s t e o p o r o s i s ) . T h es e a g e n t s h a v e s h o wn t o s l o w j o i n t d a m a g e ; h o we v e r , t h e y a r e o f t e n u s e d t o “ b r i d g e ” t h e r a p y a s p a t i e n t s s t a r t o n d i s e a s e - m o d i f yi n g a n t i r h e u m a t i c d r u g s o r d u r i n g a n a c u t e a t t a ck . c . N o n - b i o l o g i c a l d i s ea s e - m o d i f yi n g a n t i r h e u m a t i c d r u g s ( D M AR D s ) ( T a b l e 5 0 - 2 ) a r e u s e d t o r e d u c e o r pr e v e n t j o i n t d a m a g e a n d p r e s e r v e j o i n t f u n c t i o n a n d s h o u l d b e c o n s i d e r e d wi t h i n 6 m o n t h s o f d i a g n o s i s . NO T E —t h e 2 0 0 8 r e c o m m e n d a t i o n s o n l y a s s e s s e d t h e u s e o f m e t h o t r e xa t e ( M T X) , l e f l u n o m i d e , s u l f a s a l a z i n e , h yd r o x y c h l o r o q u i n e ( H C Q ) , a n d m i n o c yc l i n e . O t h e r n o n - b i o l o g i c a l D M A R D s we r e n o t m e n t i o n e d d u e t o l a c k o f c l i n i c a l e f f i c a c y, s i d e e f f e c t s , o r b o t h . ( 1 ) M e t h o t re x a t e ( M T X ; R h e u m a t r e x ) wo r k s b y i n h i b i t i n g d i h yd r o f o l a t e reductase and is considered standard therapy for RA. It is approved as m o n o t h e r a p y f o r R A , a n d i s o f t e n u se d c o n c u r r e n t l y wi t h o t h e r D M A R D s o r b i o l o g i c a l s i f r e s p o n s e is p o o r t o m o n o t h e r a p y o r d i s e a s e b u r d e n i s h i g h . T o x i c i t y i s o f t e n d o s e - r el a t e d ( e . g . , G I , l i v e r , p u l m o n a r y, h e m a t o l o g i c ) a n d c a n o c c u r a t a n yt i m e d u r i n g t h e r a p y.
( 2 ) L e f l u n o m i d e ( Ar a v a ) i n h i b i t s p yr i m i d i n e s yn t h e s i s a n d i s i n d i c a t e d a s m o n o t h e r a p y f o r R A o r c a n b e u s e d i n c o m b i n a t i o n wi t h M T X. ( i ) L i v e r t o xi c i t y c a n d e v e l o p wi t h i n 6 m o n t h s o f u s e . L i v e r f un c t i o n t e s t s should be performed as recommended by the manufacturer. ( i i ) I n t h e e v e n t o f s e r i ou s a d v e r s e d r u g r e a c t i o n s o r i f t h e p a t i e n t wi s h e s t o b e c o m e p r e g n a n t , t h e us e o f c h o l e st yr a m i n e i s r e c o m m e n d e d t o a i d i n t h e e l i m i n a t i o n o f l e f l u n o m i d e b e c a u s e e l i m i n a t i o n c a n t a k e u p t o 2 ye a r s wi t h o u t a b i n d i n g a g e n t . ( 3 ) S u l f a s a l a z i n e , H yd r o x yc h l o r o q u i n e ( H C Q ) , a n d m i n o cy c l i n e c a n b e u s e d a s m o n o t h e r a p y o r i n c o n j u n c t i o n wi t h M T X. S u l f a s a l a z i n e i s r e c o m m e n d e d i n p a t i e n t s wi t h o u t p o o r p r o g n o s t i c i n d i c a t o r s r e g a r d l e s s o f d i s e a s e d u r a t i o n o r d i s e a s e b u r d e n . H yd r o x yc h l o r o q u i n e a n d m i n o c yc l i n e m a y b e u s e d i f t h e d u r a t i o n o f d i s e a s e a c t i v i t y i s ≤ 2 4 m o n t h s o r < 6 m o nt h s r e s p e c t i v e l y , a n d i f t h e d i s e a s e b u r d e n i s l o w. P.1100
P.1101
Table 50-2. Disease-Modifying Antirheumatic Drugs (DMARDs)
Agent (Brand)
Time to Effect (month Starting s) Dose
Adverse Effects
Monitorin g Parameter Some Drug s Interactions
Traditional DMARDs Methotrexat e (Rheumatre x)
0.5 -6
7.5-15 mg PO weekl y
Nausea, diarrhea, mouth ulcers, hepatotoxi city, pulmonary toxicity, myelosupp ression
LFTs, SrCr, CBC, chest x-ray Hepati tis B and C serolo gy
Penicillin, cyclospori ne, NSAIDs
Sulfasalazin e (Azulfidine)
13
500 mg PO
Nausea, diarrhea, rash,
CBC, LFTs, SrCr
Iron, digoxin, warfarin
BID; gradu ally increa se to 2-3 g/day in 2-4 divide d doses
photosensi tivity
Hydroxychl oroquine (Plaquenil)
26
200300 mg PO BID
Ocular toxicity, rash, nausea, myopathy
Eye exam, SrCr, CBC, LFTs
Cimetidine
Minocycline (Dynacin)
n/d
100 mg PO BID
GI, rash
CBC, LFTs
Calcium, magnesium , aluminum, iron
Biologicals Leflunomid e (Arava)
14
100 mg/da y PO ×3 days (load) , then 10-20 mg/da y
Diarrhea, nausea, infection, rash, HTN, alopecia, liver toxicity
LFTs, CBC, SrCr, PPD, Hepati tis B and C serolo gy
MTX, rifampin, warfarin
Etanercept (Enbrel)
0.2 53
50 mg SC weekl y
Abdomina l pain, HA, injection site reactions,
PPD, CBC, LFTs, SrCr
cyclophosp hamide
infections Infliximab (Remicade)
0.5
3 mg/kg IV over 2 hr at weeks 0, 2, and 6; then every 8 weeks
Nausea, HA, abdominal pain, dizziness, hepatic, hematolog ic, infections
PPD, CBC, LFTs, SrCr
None known
Adalimuma b (Humira)
0.2 51
40 mg SC every 2 weeks
Injection site reactions, infection, rash, HA
PPD, CBC, LFTs, SrCr
None known
Anakinra (Kineret)
0.2 51
100 mg/da y SQ
HA, injection site reactions, infection
CBC with neutro phil counts, LFTs, SrCr
Entanercep t, thalidomid e
Abatacept (Orencia)
n/d
10 mg/kg IV at day 0; then 2 weeks ,4 weeks , and contin uing every 4 weeks
Injection site reactions, infections, HA, nausea, HTN, nasophary ngitis
PPD, CBC, LFTs, SrCr
Anakinra, TNFantagonists
Rituximab (Rituxan)
n/d
1000 mg IV at days 0 and 14
Injection site reactions, HTN, infections, nausea, arthralgia
Hepati tis B serolo gy, CBC, LFTs, SrCr
Cisplatin
Less Frequently Used DMARDs Gold Salts (Aurolate)
36
25-50 mg IM every 2-4 weeks
Itching, rash, stomatitis, proteinuria , conjunctiv itis
CBC with differe ntial, SrCr, urinaly sis
Penicillami ne
Dpenicillamin e (Cuprimine)
36
125250 mg PO daily; increa se gradu ally to 250 mg TID
Nausea, rash, photosensi tivity, myelosupp ression
CBC, SrCr
Gold, iron, zinc, antacids, digoxin, antimalaria ls
Azathioprin e (Imuran)
23
50150 mg/da y
Chills, fever, N/V, diarrhea, leucopenia
CBC, LFTs
Allopurino l
Cyclosporin e (Neoral)
24
3-10 mg/kg /day
HTN, HA, nausea, paresthesi a, leukopenia
BP, SrCr, LTFs, serum drug levels
CYP-450 3A/4 inhibitors, MTX, digoxin, allopurinol
, glucocortic oids BP, blood pressure; CBC, complete blood count; HA, headache; HTN, hypertension; IM, intramuscularly; IV, intravenously; LFTs, liver function tests; MTX, methotrexate; n/d, no data available; N/V, nausea and vomiting, NSAIDs, nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs; PO, by mouth; PPD, tuberculosis skin test; SC, subcutaneously; SrCr, serum creatinine; including 2008 recommendations by the ACR.
P.1102
d . T h e n e we s t c l a s s o f ag e n t s u s e d a s R A d i s e a s e m o d i f i e r s a r e t h e B i o l o g i c a l D M AR D s ( T a b l e 5 0 - 2 ) . T h e s e a g e n t s s h o u l d b e u s e d o n l y a f t e r failure of nonbiological DMARDs. They can also reduce or prevent joint d a m a g e a n d p r e s e r v e j o i n t f u n c t i o n . N O T E: t h e on l y b i o l o g i c a l s i n c l u d e d i n t h e 2 0 0 8 g u i d e l i n e s a r e a b a t a c e p t , a d a l i m u m a b , e t a n e r c e p t , i n f l i xi m a b , a n d r i t u x i m a b . T h e r e m a i n i n g b i o l o g i c D M A R D s we r e n o t i n c l u d e d b e c a u s e o f v e r y i n f r e q u e n t u s e , t h e h i g h i n c i d e n c e o f s i d e e f f e c t s, o r bo t h . ( 1 ) T NF - a l p h a b l o c k e r s ( e . g . , e t a n er c e p t ( E n b r el ) , I n f l i xi m a b ( R e m i c a d e ) , a n d a d a l i m u m a b ( H u m i r a ) ) i n h i b i t t he i n f l a m m a t o r y r e s p o n s e m e d i a t e d i n i m m u n e c e l l s . Et a n e r c e p t a n d a d a l i m u m a b c a n b e u s e d a s m o n o t h e r a p y o r i n c o n j u n c t i o n wi t h M T X. I nf l i xi m a b i s o n l y F . D . A. a p p r o v e d f o r u s e wi t h MTX in RA. These drugs are recommended if high disease activity is p r e s e n t e a r l y i n t h e c o u r s e o f t h e i l l n e s s ( < 3 m o n t h s ) wi t h f e a t u r e s p o o r p r o g n o s i s . T h e s e d r u g s a r e u s u a l l y c o n s i d e r e d wh e n p a t i e n t s d o n o t achieve an acceptable response to MTX o other non-biological DMARDs. ( 2 ) Ab a t a c e p t ( O r e n c i a) i s t h e f i r st s e l e c t i v e m o d u l a t o r o f a c o - s t i m u l a t o r y s i g n a l r e q u i r e d f o r f u l l T c e l l a c t i v a t io n . I t i s u s ed a s m o n o t h e r a p y o r c o n c o m i t a n t l y wi t h n o n - b i o l o g i c D M A R D s ; h o we v e r , c o n c u r r e n t a d m i n i s t r a t i o n wi t h T N F a n t a g o n i s t s o r a n a k i n r a i s n o t r e c o m m e n d e d . P a t i e n t s wi t h c h r o n i c o b s t r u c t i v e p u l m o n a r y d i s e a s e s h o u l d b e m o n i t o r e d c l o s e l y f o r wo r s e n i n g r e s p i r a t o r y s t a t u s . T h e 2 0 0 8 r e c o m m e n d a t i o n s s t a t e a b a t a c e p t s h o u l d b e u s e d i n p a t i e n t s wi t h a t l e a s t m o d e r a t e d i s e a s e a c t i v i t y a n d p o o r p r o g n o s t i c i n d i c a t o r s wh o f a i l M T X a n d o t h e r D M AR D s . ( 3 ) R i t u x i ma b ( R i t u x a n ) i s a n a n t i - C D 2 0 m o n o c l o n a l a n t i b o d y. D e p l e t i o n o f t h e C D 2 0 + B c e l l s a p p e a r s t o af f e ct t h e a u t o i m m u n e r e s p o n s e a n d h e l p s wi t h t h e c h r o n i c s yn o v i t i s a s s o c i a t ed wi t h R A . I t i s u s e d wh e n t h e p a t i e n t f a i l s M T X an d / o r m u l t i p l e D M A R D s a n d h a s h i g h d i s e a s e b u r d e n a n d p o o r
prognosis. Severe, even fatal, infusion reactions have been reported. A d o s e i s g i v e n a t we e k s 0 a n d 1 4 ; t im e t o r e - t r ea t i s u n d e t e r m i n e d . ( 4 ) A n a k i n r a ( K i n e r e t ) i s a n I L - 1 r e ce p t o r a n t a g o n i s t . I t i s us e d a s m o n o t h e r a p y o r i n c o n j u n c t i o n wi t h a n y D M A R D e xc e p t a T N F b l o c k e r . T h e m a n u f a c t u r e r r e c o m m e nd s t h a t a b a s e l i n e n e u t r o p h i l c o u n t b e o b t a i n e d a n d then re-evaluated monthly for 3 months; and quarterly thereafter for the f i r s t ye a r . e . C o m b i n a t i o n t h e r a p y. C o n c u r r e n t u s e o f s ev e r a l n o n - b i o l o g i c a l D M A R D a g e n t s h a s b e e n s t u d i e d . T h e 2 0 0 8 g u i d e l i n e s s u p p o r t t h e f o l l o wi n g combinations: MTX + HCQ, MTX + sulfasalazine, MTX + leflunomide, and s u l f a s a l a z i n e + H CQ + M T X. S o m e p a t i e n t s c u r r e n t l y r e c e i v i n g D M A R D t h e r a p y wi t h n e w o r wo r s e n i n g s ym p t o m s h a v e be n e f i t e d f r om c o m b i n a t i o n t h e r a p y. C o m b i n a t i o n t h e r a p y wi t h m u l t i p l e b i o l o g i c a l D M A R D s we r e n o t recommended in the 2008 guidelines due to increased side effects and/or l a c k o f e f f i ca c y. f. Treatment recommendations are published by the American College of R h e u m a t o l o g y a n d a r e a v a i l a b l e a t w w w. r h e u m a t o l o g y. o r g . 3 . S u rg i c a l t r e a t m e n t ( e . g . , c a r p a l t u n n e l r e l e a s e , t ot a l j o i n t a r t h r o p l a s t y, j o i n t f u s i o n ) m a y b e c o n s i d e r e d wh e n p a i n i s s e v e r e , r a n g e o f m o t i o n i s l o s t , o r j o i n t f u n c t i o n i s p o o r o wi n g t o j o i n t d a m a g e . P a t i e n t s wi t h g o o d preoperative functional status generally have a relatively fast rate of r e c o v e r y. P.1103
STUDY QUESTIONS D i r e c t i o n s f o r q u e s t i o n s 1 - 3 : T h e qu e s t i o n s i n t h i s s e c t i o n c a n b e c o r r e c t l y a n s we r e d o r co m p l e t e d b y o n e o r m o re o f t h e s u g g e s t e d a n s we r s . C h o o s e t h e a n s we r , A- E . 1 . W h i ch o f t h e f o l l ow in g s t a t e m e n t s b e s t c h a r a c t e r i z e s o s t e o a r t h r i t i s ( O A) ? ( I ) O A i s a s ys t e m i c d i s e a s e t h a t i s c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y p r o f o u n d , d i f f u s e i n f l a m m a t i o n , r e s u l t i n g i n j o i n t d es t r u c t i o n , d e f o r m i t y, a n d d i s a b i l i t y. ( I I ) O A i s a c o m m o n d i s o r d e r c h a ra c t e r i z e d b y c a r t i l a g e d e g e n e r a t i o n t h a t c a n c a u s e j o i n t p ai n , d e c r e a s e d f u n c t i o n i n g , a n d d i sa b i l i t y. ( I I I ) O A, t h e m o s t co m m o n f o r m o f a r t h r i t i s , c a n r e s u l t f r o m a g e - r e l a t e d c h a n g e s i n t h e j o i n t , l o s s o f f u n c t i o n o f t h e ch o n d ro c yt e s , a n d p r o t e o g l yc a n d ep l e t i o n . A if I only is correct B if III only is correct C if I and II are correct D if II and III are correct E if I, II, and III are correct
V i e w A n s we r 1 . T h e an s w e r i s D ( I , I I ) [ s e e I A ; a n d] . F o r q u es t i o n s 2 - 3 : B e t t y i s 6 5 y e a r s o l d ; i s o b e s e ; a n d h a s T yp e 2 d i a b e t e s m e l l i t u s , d i a b e t i c n e p h r o p a t h y, r e n a l i n s u f f i c i e n c y, a n d h yp e r t e n s i o n . S h e wo r k s a s a s e a m s t r e s s . S h e wa s a c t i v e a s a yo u n g e r wo m a n , p l a ye d s e v e r a l s p o r t s a n d s k i e d . S h e in j u r e d h e r r i g h t k n e e i n a s k i i n g a c c i d e n t . S h e co m p l a i n s o f h a n d p a i n a n d s t i f f n e s s a n d r i g h t k n e e p a i n a n d s t i f f n e s s . M o r n i n g s t i f f ne s s lasts < 30 min. No crepitus is heard on joint manipulation. 2 . Al l o f t h e f o l l ow i n g n o n p h a r m a c o l o g i c a l t r ea t m e n t s s h o u l d b e recommended for Betty except ( I ) l o s e w ei g h t (II) engage in aerobic exercise programs ( I I I ) l i mi t a ct i vi t y t o ≤ 30 m i n a t o n e t i m e a n d r e s t t h e j o i n t a s o f t en a s possible A if I only is correct B if III only is correct C if I and II are correct D if II and III are correct E if I, II, and III are correct V i e w A n s we r 2 . T h e an s w e r i s B ( I I I ) [ s e e] . 3. W h i c h o f t h e f o l l ow i n g p h a r m a c o l o g i c a l a g en t s i s r e l a t i ve l y c o n t r a i n d i c a t e d f o r t h e t r e a t m e n t o f B e t t y' s o st e o a r t h r i t i s ( O A) ? ( I ) o x yc o d o n e (II) acetaminophen ( I I I ) d i cl o f en a c A if I only is correct B if III only is correct C if I and II are correct D if II and III are correct E if I, II, and III are correct V i e w A n s we r 3 . T h e an s w e r i s B ( I I I ) [ s e e I I I . E . 4. b . ( i i )] .D i r ec t i o n s f o r q u e s t i o n s 4 - 8 : E a ch o f t h e q u es t i o n s , st a t em e n t s , o r i n c o m p l e t e s t a t e m e n t s i n t h i s s e c t i o n c a n b e c o r r e c t l y a n s we r e d o r c o m p l e t e d b y o n e o f t h e s u g g e s t e d a n s we r s o r p h r a s e s. C h o o s e t he b e s t a n s we r . 4 . W h i ch s et o f f a c t o r s i s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h a p o o r p r o g n o s i s o f r h e u m a t o i d a r t h r i t i s ( RA) ? ( A ) a b s e n c e o f r h e u m a t o i d f a c t o r ( RF ) , m i n i m a l in f l a m m a t i o n , l i m i t e d joint involvement at the onset ( B ) f a m i l y h i s t o r y o f t h e d i s e a s e , h i g h s e r u m c o nc e n t r a t i o n s o f e r yt h r o c yt e s e d i m e n t a t i o n r a t e ( E SR ) a n d c - r ea c t i v e p r o t e i n ( C R P ) (C) poor response to aspirin or other nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory d r u g s ( N S A I D s ) , a n d f em a l e g e n d e r ( D ) g o o d r e s p o n s e t o m e t h o t r e xa t e ( M T X) , p r e se n c e o f r h e u m a t o i d factor, low ESR and/or CRP ( E ) h i g h R F a n d a n t i - c yc l i c c i t r u l l i n a t e d p e p t i d e ( a n t i - C C P ) a n t i b o d y titers, radiographic evidence of multiple joint erosions
V i e w A n s we r 4 . T h e an s w e r i s E[ s e e] . 5. Al l o f t h e f o l l ow i ng s t a t e m e n t s a r e t r u e a b o u t t h e u s e o f h ya l u r o n i c a c i d d er i va t i ve s e x c e p t w h i ch o n e ? ( A ) I n j e c t i o n s m u s t b e g i v e n i n we e k l y i n t e r v a l s , a n d o p t i m a l e f f e c t s a r e se e n a f t e r the last dose. ( B ) T h e s e a r e v i a b l e o p t i o n s f o r p a t ie n t s wi t h o s t e o a r t h r i t i s ( O A ) of t h e h i p . ( C ) P a t i e n t s s h o u l d a v o i d s t r e n u o u s a c t i v i t i e s f o r 2 d a ys a f t er t r e a t m e n t . ( D ) U s e c a ut i o n wh e n p r e s c r i b i n g t h e s e p r o d u c t s t o p a t i e n t s wi t h a l l e r g y t o e g g s o r feathers. ( E ) T h e s e a r e c o n s i d e r e d s e c o n d - l i n e t h e r a p y wh e n o t h e r t r e a t m e n t s h a v e f a i l e d . V i e w A n s we r 5 . T h e an s w e r i s B [ s ee] . P . 1 1 0 4
6 . W h i ch o f t h e f o l l ow in g a g e n t s n e c e s s i t a t e s a n o ph t h a l m i c e x a m i n a t i o n t o m o n i t o r f o r t o xi c i t y? (A) penicillamine ( B ) m et h o t r e x a t e (C) hydroxychloroquine ( D ) c yc l o s p o r i n e (E) auranofin V i e w A n s we r 6 . T h e an s w e r i s C [ s ee] . 7. W h i c h o f t h e f o l l o w in g b i o l o g i c a l d i s e a s e - m o d i f yi n g a n t i r h e u m a t i c d r u g s ( D M AR D s ) c a n b e g i ve n o r a l l y? (A) Leflunomide ( B ) Et a n e r c e p t ( C ) A b a t a c ep t (D) Anakinra ( E ) I n f l i xi m a b V i e w A n s we r 7 . T h e an s w e r i s A [ s ee] . 8. O s t e o p o r o si s i s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e u s e o f w hi ch o f t h e f o l l ow i n g d r u g s u s e d i n r h eu m a t o i d a r t h ri t i s ( R A) ? (A) leflunomide (B) prednisone ( C ) m e t h o t r e xa t e (D) penicillamine ( E ) h yd r o x y c h l o r o q u i n e V i e w A n s we r 8 . T h e an s w e r i s B [ s ee] . P . 1 1 0 5
ANSWERS AND EXPLANATIONS 1 . T h e a n sw er i s D ( I , I I ) [ s e e I A ; I I I . A . 1 , 2 , 3 , 4 , 5 , 6 a n d 7 ] . O s t e o a r t h r i t is i s n o t c o n s i d e r e d a d i s e a s e o f i n f la m m a t i o n . Al t h o u g h t h e r e a r e t i m e s o f m i n o r i n f la m m a t i o n ( e . g . , O A f l a r e) , it i s l o c a l i z e d t o t h e af f e c t e d j o i n t ( s ) . 2 . T h e a n sw er i s B ( I I I ) [ s e e I I I . E. 2 ] . N o n p h a r m a c o l o g i c a l t r e a t m e n t s h o u l d i n c l u d e a e r o b i c e xe r c i s e , p h ys i c a l t h e r a p y, j o i n t p r o t e c t i o n , t h e r m a l t h e r a p y, a n d we i g h t l o s s ( i f t h e p a t ie n t i s o v e r we i g h t ) . 3 . T h e a n sw er i s B ( I I I ) [ s e e I I I . E. 4 . b . ( i i ) ] .
P a t i e n t s a t h i g h e r r i s k o f r e n a l t o xi c i t y i n c l u d e t h e e l d e r l y; p a t i e n t s wi t h h yp e r t e n s i o n , d i a b e t e s , h e a r t f a i l u r e , o r c i r r h o s i s ; p a t i e n t s wh o a r e v o l u m e d e p l e t e d ; a n d p a t i e n t s wh o h a v e p r e e xi s t i n g r e n a l d i s e a s e . 4 . T h e a n sw er i s E [ s e e I V . H] . F a c t o r s a s so c i a t e d wi t h a p o o r p r o g n o s i s f o r R A i n c l u d e a c t i v e d i s e a s e wi t h m u l t i p l e t e n d e r a n d s wo l l e n j o i n t s , e v i d e n c e o f e r o s i o n s s e e n o n r a d i o g r a p h s , e l e v a t e d R F a n d / o r A n t i - C C P a n t i b o d y, a n d e l e v a t e d E S R an d / o r C R P . A d d i t i o n a l l y, wo r s e o u t c o m e s , in c l u d i n g d i s a b i l i t y a n d m o r b i d i t y, a r e a s s o c i a t e d wi t h f e m a l e g e n d e r , a d v a n c i n g a g e , c i g a r e t t e s m o k i n g , a n d g e n o t yp e . 5 . T h e a n sw er i s B [ s ee I I I . E. 3 . c; 5 . b . ] . H ya l u r o n i c a c i d d e r i v a t i v e s a r e i n d i c a t e d o n l y f o r O A o f t h e k n e e . 6 . T h e a n sw er i s C [ s ee T a b l e 5 0 - 2 ] . A n o p h t h a l m i c e x a m i s r e c o m m e n d e d wh e n p a t i e n t s a r e r e ce i v i n g h yd r o x yc h l o r o q u i n e . 7 . T h e a n sw er i s A [ s e e T a b l e 5 0 - 2 ] . The only biological DMARD that can be given orally is leflunomide. 8 . T h e a n sw er i s B [ s ee I V . I . 2. b . ] . S t e r o i d ( e . g . , p r e d n i s o n e ) u s e c a n l ea d t o o s t e o p o r o s i s ; t h e r e f o r e , p a t i en t s t a k i n g p r e d n i s o n e s h o u l d c o n s i d e r t h e r a p y wi t h c a l c i u m a n d a b i s p h o s p h o n a t e .
51 Hyperuricemia and Gout L a r r y N . Sw a n s o n
I. INTRODUCTION A. D e f i n i t i o n s 1 . H yp e r u r i c e m i a r e f e r s t o a s e r u m u r i c a c i d l ev e l t h a t i s e l e v a t e d m o r e t h a n t wo standard deviations above the population mean. In most laboratories, the upper limit o f n o r m a l i s 7 m g / d L ( u r ic a s e m e t h o d ) . H o we v e r , t h e l e v e l va r i e s wi t h t h e l a b o r a t o r y m e t h o d u s e d ; t h e u p p e r l i m i t o f n o r m a l i s a b o u t 1 m g / d L l owe r f o r wo m e n t h a n f o r men. 2 . G o u t i s a d i s e a s e t h a t i s c h a r a c t er i z e d b y r e c u r r e n t a c u t e a t t a c k s o f u r a t e c r ys t a l - i n d u c e d a r t h r i t i s. I t m a y i n c l u d e t o p h i —d e p o s i t s o f m o n o s o d i u m u r a t e — i n a n d a r o u n d t h e j o i n t s a n d c a r t i l a g e a n d i n t h e k i d n e ys , a s we l l a s u r i c a c id nephrolithiasis. B . G en e r a l i n f o r m a t i o n 1 . T h e p r e va l e n c e o f g o u t i s b e l i e v e d t o b e 8 . 4 p e r 1 0 0 0 i n d i v i d u a l s i n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s b u t t h i s e s t i m a t e i s b a s e d o n p a t i e n t s e l f - r e p o r t i n g ; t h u s t h i s f i g ur e m a y overestimate the true prevalence. 2 . M o s t g o u t v i c t i m s a r e m e n ( a p p r o x i m a t e l y 9 5 % o f c a s e s ) ; m o s t wo m e n wi t h t h e disease are postmenopausal. 3 . T h e m e a n a g e a t d i s e a s e o n s e t i s 4 7 ye a r s . 4 . T h e r is k o f d e v e l o p i n g g o u t i n c r e a s e s a s t h e s e r u m u r i c ac i d l e v e l r i s e s . V i r t u a l l y a l l g o u t p a t i e n t s h a v e a s e r u m u r i c ac i d l e v e l > 7 m g / d L . 5 . R e s e a r c h s h o ws t h a t a m o n g p a t i e n t s wi t h a s e r u m u r i c a ci d l e v e l a b o v e 9 m g / d L , t h e c u m u l a t i v e i n c i d e n c e o f g o u t r ea c h e d 2 2 % a f t e r 5 ye a r s . 6 . G o u t h a s a f a m i l i a l t en d e n c y; 1 0 % - 6 0 % o f ca s e s o c c u r in f a m i l y m e m b e r s o f p a t i e n t s wi t h t h e d i s e a s e . 7 . O b e s i t y, h yp e r t e n s i o n , h y p e r l i p i d e m i a , a t h e r o s c l e r o s i s , a n d a l c o h o l a b u s e a r e o f t e n a s s o c ia t e d wi t h h yp e r u r i c e m i a a n d g o u t . C e r t a i n n u t r i t io n a l s t r a t e g i e s ( i . e . , a c h i e v i n g i d e a l b o d y we i g h t o r l i m i t a t i o n o f a l c o h o l i n t a k e ) c a n t r e a t b o t h t h e h yp e r u r i c e m i a a n d t h e a s s o c i a t e d co n d i t i o n s . C. Uric acid production and excretion 1 . U r i c a c i d , a n e n d p r o d u c t o f p u ri n e m e t a b o l i s m , i s p r o du c e d f r o m bo t h d i e t a r y a n d e n d o g e n o u s s o u r c e s . I t s f o r m a t i o n r e s u l t s f r o m t h e c o nv e r s i o n o f ad e n i n e a n d g u a n i n e m o i e t i e s o f n u c le o p r o t e i n s a n d n u c l e o t i d e s ( F i g u r e 51 - 1 ) . 2 . X a n t h i n e o x i d a s e c a t a l yz e s t h e r e a c t i o n t h a t o c c u r s a s t h e f i n a l s t e p in t h e degradation of purines to uric acid. 3 . T h e b o d y u l t i m a t e l y e xc r e t e s u r i c a c i d v i a t h e k i d n e ys ( 3 0 0 - 6 0 0 m g / d a y; t wo t h i r d s o f t o t a l u r i c a c i d ) a n d v i a t h e g a s t r o i n t e s t i n a l ( G I ) t r a ct ( 1 0 0 - 3 0 0 m g / d a y; o n e t h i r d o f t h e t o t a l u r i c a c id ) . 4 . U r i c a c i d h a s n o k n o wn b i o l o g i c a l f u n c t i o n . 5 . T h e b o d y h a s a t ot a l u r i c a c i d c o n t e n t o f 1. 0 - 1 . 2 g ; t h e d a i l y t u r n o v e r r a t e i s 6 0 0 800 mg.
6 . A t a p H of 4 . 0 - 5 . 0 ( i . e. , i n u r i n e ) , u r i c a c i d e xi s t s a s a p o o r l y s o l u b l e f r e e a c i d ; a t p h ys i o l o g i c a l p H , i t e x i s t s p r i m a r i l y a s m o n o s o d i u m u r a t e s al t . 7 . U r i c a c i d f i l t r a t i o n , r e a b s o r p t i o n , a n d s e c r e t i o n s i t e s a r e sh o wn i n F i g u r e 5 1 - 2 . P.1107
Figure 51-1. Uric acid formation. HGPRT, hypoxanthine-guanine phosphoribosyltransferase; PRPP, phosphoribosyl-1-pyrophosphate. [Adapted with permission from DiPiro J, Talbert R, Yee G, et al. Pharmacotherapy—A Pathophysiologic Approach, 5th ed. The McGraw-Hill companies, 2002:1660.]
D . C a u s e . Hy p e r u r i c e m i a a n d g o u t m a y b e p r i m a r y o r s e c o n d a r y. 1 . P r i m a r y h yp e r u r i c e m i a a n d g o u t a p p a r e n t l y r e s u l t f r om a n i n n a t e d e f e c t i n p u r i n e m e t a b o l i s m o r u r i c a c i d e xc r e t i o n . T he e xa c t c a u s e o f t h e d e f e c t u s u a l l y i s u n k n o wn . a . H yp e r u r i c e m i a m a y r e s u l t f r o m u ri c a c i d o ve r p r o d u c t i o n , i m p ai r e d re n a l c l e a r a n c e o f u ri c a c i d , o r a c o m b i n a t i o n o f t h es e . b . S o m e p a t i e n t s wi t h p r i m a r y h yp e r u r i c e m i a a n d g o u t h a v e a k n o wn e n z ym a t i c d e f e c t , s u c h a s h yp o x a n t h i n e - g u a n i n e p h o s p h o r i b o s yl t r a n s f e r a s e ( H G P RT ) d e f i c i e n c y o r p h o s p h o r i b o s yl - 1 - p yr o p h o s p h a t e ( P R P P ) s yn t h e t a s e e xc e s s ( F i g u r e 51-1). c . P r i n c i p a l l y f o r t h e r a p e u t i c p u r p o s e s , p a t i e n t s wi t h p r i m a r y h yp e r u r i c e m i a a n d g o u t c a n b e c l a s s i f i e d a s o ve r p r o d u c e r s o r u n d e r e x c r e t o r s o f u r i c a c i d . ( 1 ) O ve r p r o d u c e r s ( a b o u t 1 0 % o f pa t i e n t s ) s yn t h e s i z e a b n o r m a l l y l a r g e a m o u n t s o f uric acid and excrete excessive amounts: > 800-1000 mg daily on an unrestricted diet P.1108 o r > 6 0 0 m g d a i l y o n a p u r i n e - r e s t r i c t e d d i e t . T he s e i n d i v i d u a l s g e n e r a l l y h a v e a markedly increased miscible urate pool (> 2.5 g).
Figure 51-2. Uric acid filtration, reabsorption, and secretion sites. At the glomerulus, uric acid is filtered and enters the proximal tubule. There, approximately 99% of uric acid is reabsorbed into the bloodstream. At the distal tubule, uric acid is secreted; subsequently, about 75% of the amount secreted is reabsorbed. Therefore, almost all urinary uric acid is excreted at the distal tubule.
(2) Underexcretors (about 90% of patients) generally produce normal or nearly n o r m a l a m o u n t s o f u r i c a c i d b u t e xc r e t e < 6 0 0 m g d a i l y o n a p u r i n e - r e s t r i c t e d d i e t . They generally have only a slightly increased miscible urate pool. Some u n d e r e xc r e t o r s a r e a l s o o v e r p r o d u c e r s . 2 . S e c o n d ar y h yp e r u r i c e m i a a n d g o u t d e v e l o p d u r i n g t h e c o u r s e o f a n o t h e r d i s e a s e o r a s a r e s u l t o f d r u g t h e r a p y. a . H e m a t o l o g i c a l c a u se s o f h y p e r u r i c e m i a a n d g o u t ( a s s oc i a t e d wi t h i n c r e a s e d n u c l e i c a c i d t u r n o v e r a nd b r e a k d o wn t o u r i c a c id ) ( 1 ) L ym p h o p r o l i f e r a t i v e d i s o r d e r s ( 2 ) M ye l o p r o l i f e r a t i v e d i s o r d e r s ( 3 ) C e r t a i n h e m o l yt i c a n e m i a s a n d h e m o g l o b i n o p a t h i e s b . C h r o n i c r e n a l f a i l u re . I n t h i s c on d i t i o n , r e d u c e d r e n a l c l e a r a n c e o f u r i c a c i d c a n l e a d t o h yp e r u r i c e m i a . c. Drug-induced disease ( 1 ) As p i r i n a n d o t h e r sa l i c yl a t e s i n h i b i t t u b u l a r s e c r e t i o n o f u r i c a c i d wh e n g i v e n i n l o w d o s e s ( e . g . , < 2 g / d a y o f a s p i r i n ) . A t h i g h d o s e s , t h e se a g e n t s f r eq u e n t l y cause uricosuria. ( 2 ) C yt o t o x i c d r u g s i n c r e a s e u r i c a c i d c o n c e n t r a t i o n s b y e n h a n c i n g n u c l e i c a c i d t u r n o v e r a n d e xc r e t i o n . ( 3 ) D i u r e t i cs ( e xc e p t s p i r o n o l a c t o n e ) m a y c a u s e h yp e r u r i c e m i a ; m o s t l ik e l y, t h i s o c c u r s e i t h e r v i a v o l u m e d e p l e t i o n , wh i c h , i n t u r n , i n c r e a s e s p r o xi m a l t u b u l a r r e a b s o r p t i o n , o r v i a im p a i r e d t u b u l a r s e c r e t i o n o f u r i c a c i d . ( 4 ) E t h a m b u t o l a n d n i co t i n i c a c i d i n c r e a s e u r i c a c i d c o n c e n t r a t i o n s b y c o m p e t i n g wi t h u r a t e f o r t u b u l a r s ec r e t i o n s i t e s, t h e r e b y d e c r e a s i n g u r i c a c i d e xc r e t i o n . P.1109
( 5 ) C yc l o s p o r i n e d e c r e a s e s r e n a l u r a t e c l e a r a n c e , a s d o p yr a z i n a m i d e a n d l e vo d o p a . ( 6 ) E t h a n o l a l t e r s u r i c ac i d m e t a b o l i s m b o t h b y i n c r e a s i n g u r i c a c i d p r o d u c t i o n through an increase in adenine nucleotide catabolism and by suppressing renal
u r i c a c i d e xc r e t i o n a s a r e s u l t o f l ac t a t e i n h i b i t i o n o f r e n a l t u b u l a r u r i c a c i d secretion. d . M i s c e l l an e o u s d i s o r d e r s . D i a b e t i c k e t o a c id o s i s , p s o r i a s i s , a n d c hr o n i c l e a d p o i s o n i n g a r e e xa m p l e s o f c o n d i t i o n s t h a t m a y c a u s e h yp e r u r i c e m i a . E. Pathophysiology 1 . G o u t y a r t h r i t i s d e v e l o p s wh e n m o n o s o d i u m u r a t e c r ys t a l s a r e d e p o s i t e d i n t h e s yn o v i u m o f i n v o l v e d j o i n t s . 2 . A n i n f l am m a t o r y r e s p o n s e t o m o n o s o d i u m u r a t e c r ys t a l s l e a d s t o a n a t t a c k of a c u t e g o u t y a r t h r i t i s ; p a i n f u l j o i n t s we l l i n g i s c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y r e d n e s s , wa r m t h , a n d t e n d e r n e s s . A s ys t e m i c r e a c t i o n m a y a c c o m p a n y j o i n t s ym p t o m s . 3 . I f g o u t p r o g r e s s e s u n t r e a t e d , t o p h i , o r t o p h ac e o u s d ep o s i t s ( d e p o s i t s o f m o n o s o d i u m u r a t e c r ys t a l s ) e v e n t u a l l y l e a d t o j o i n t d e f o r m i t y a n d d i s a b i l i t y; k i d n e y i n v o l v e m e n t m a y l e a d t o r e n a l i m p a i r m e n t . H o we v e r , t h e s e d e v e l o p m e n t s a r e uncommon in the general gout population and represent late complications of h yp e r u r i c e m i a . 4 . R e n a l c o m p l i c a t i o n s o f h yp e r u r i c e m i a a n d g o u t c a n h a v e s e r i o u s c o n s e q u e n c e s . a . Ac u t e t u b u l a r o b s t r u c t i o n (1) This complication may develop secondary to uric acid precipitation in the c o l l e c t i n g t u b u l e s a n d u r e t e r s , wi t h s u b s e q u e n t b l o c k a g e a n d r e n a l f a i l u r e . I t i s m o s t c o m m on i n p a t i e n t s wi t h g o u t s e c o n d a r y t o m ye l o p r o l i f e r a t i v e o r l ym p h o p r o l i f e r a t i v e d i s o r d e r s , p a r t i cu l a r l y a f t e r c h e m o t h e r a p y wh e n a l l o p u r i n o l i s omitted. ( 2 ) A n o t h e r a g e n t , u r a t e o x i d a s e ( Ra s b u r i c a s e ) , m a y b e u s e d i n t h e p r op h yl a xi s a n d t r e a t m e n t o f h yp e r u r i c e m i a i n p e d i a t r i c p a t i e n t s wi t h l e u k e m i a , l ym p h o m a , a n d s o l i d t u m o r m a l i g n a n c i e s wh o a r e r e c e i v i n g a n t i c a n c e r t h e r a p y. T h i s a ge n t wo r k s b y c o n v e r t i n g u r i c a c i d i n t o a l l a n t o i n , wh i c h i s f i v e t i m e s m o r e s o l u b l e i n u r i n e t h a n u r i c acid. b . U r o l i t h i as i s . O c c u r r in g i n a b o u t 2 0 % o f g o u t p a t i e n t s , u r o l i t h i a s i s i s c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y f o r m a t i o n o f u r i c a ci d s t o n e s i n t h e u r i n a r y t r a c t . L o w u r i n e p H s e e m s t o b e a c o n t r i b u t in g f a c t o r . T h e r i s k o f u r o l i t h i a s i s r i s e s a s s e r u m a n d u r i n a r y uric acid levels increase. c . C h r o n i c u r a t e n e p h ro p a t h y. I n t h i s c o m p l i c a t i o n , u r a t e de p o s i t s a r i s e i n t h e r e n a l i n t e r s t i t i u m . M o st c l i n i c i a n s a g r e e , h o we v e r , t h a t c h r o ni c h yp e r u r i c e m i a r a r e l y, i f e v e r , l e a d s t o c l i n i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t n e p h r o p a t h y. T h e p r e se n c e o f c o n c o m i t a n t d i s e a s e ( e . g . , d i a b e t e s m e l l i t u s , h yp e r t e n s i o n ) m a y e x p l a i n t h e f i n d i n g o f n e p h r o p a t h y i n g o u t p a t ie n t s . F . C l i n i c a l p r e s e n t a t i o n . C l i n i c a l e v a l u a t i o n a n d t h e n e e d f o r i n t e r v e n t io n d e p e n d on the clinical presentation. 1 . As y m p t o m a t i c h yp e r u r i c e m i a 2 . Ac u t e g o u t y a r t h r i t i s 3. Intercritical gout 4. Chronic tophaceous gout
II. ASYMPTOMATIC HYPERURICEMIA
i s c h a r a c t e r iz e d b y a n e l e v a t e d s e r u m u r i c a c i d le v e l b u t h a s n o s i g n s o r s ym p t o m s o f d e p o s i t i o n d i s e a s e ( a r t h r i t i s , t o p h i , o r u r o l i t h ia s i s ) . A. C l i n i c a l p r e s e n t a t i o n . N o d e f i n i t i v e e v i d e n c e i n d i c a t e s t h a t a s ym p t o m a t i c h yp e r u r i c e m i a i s h a r m f u l. S e r u m u r a t e l e v e l s o f up t o 1 3 m g / d L i n m e n a n d 1 0 m g / L i n wo m e n h a v e n o t b e e n s h o wn t o c a u s e a d e t e r i o r a t i o n i n r e n a l f u n c t io n . C l i n i c i a n s c a n n o t p r e d i c t wh i c h a s y m p t o m a t i c pa t i e n t s wi l l d e v e l o p g o u t s ym p t o m s o r h yp e r u r i c e m i a - r e l a t e d c o m p l i c a t i o n s . H o we v e r , t h e r i s k o f s ym p t o m d e v e l o p m e n t a n d c o m p l i c a t i o n s i n c r e a s e s a s t h e s e r u m u r i c ac i d l e v e l r i s e s . B . T h e r a p y. A s ym p t o m a t i c h yp e r u r i c e m i a d o e s n o t h a v e a n y a d v e r s e e f f ec t s b e f o r e t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f g o ut . T h e r e f o r e , d r u g t r e a t m e n t i s n o t r e q u i r e d , a l t h o u g h i t i s p r u d e n t t o d e t e r m i n e t he c a u s e s o f t h e h yp e r u r i c e m i a a n d c o r r e c t t h e m , i f p o s s i b l e . S u p p o r t i ve i n t e r ve n t i o n s m a y i n c l u d e m a i n t e n a n c e o f a d e q u a t e u r i n e o u t p u t ( t o p r e v e n t u r i c a c i d s t o n e f o r m a t i o n ) , av o i d a n c e o f h i g h p u r i n e f o o d s , a n d r e g u l a r medical appointments to monitor the serum uric acid level and check for clinical evidence of deposition disease. P.1110
III. ACUTE GOUTY ARTHRITIS. This clinical presentation of gout is characterized by painful arthritic attacks of sudden onset. A. P a t h o g e n e s i s . M o n os o d i u m u r a t e c r ys t a l s f o r m i n a r t ic u l a r t i s s u e s ; t h i s p r o c e s s s e t s o f f a n in f l a m m a t o r y r e a c t i o n . T r a u m a , e xp o s u r e t o c o l d , o r a n o t h e r t r i g g e r i n g e v e n t m a y b e i n v o l v e d i n t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h e a c u t e a t t ac k . B . S i g n s a n d s ym p t o m s 1 . T h e i n i t i a l a t t a c k i s ab r u p t , u s u a l l y o c c u r r i n g a t n i g h t o r in t h e e a r l y m o r n i n g a s s yn o v i a l f l u i d i s r e a b s o r b e d . T h i s s ev e r e a r t h r i t ic p a i n p r o g r e s s i v e l y wo r s e n s a n d generally involves only one or a few joints. a . T h e a f f e ct e d j o i n t s t y p i c a l l y b e c o m e h o t , s wo l l e n , a n d e xt r e m e l y t e n d e r . S e v e n t e e n t h c e n t u r y B r i t i s h p h ys i c i a n T h o m a s S yd e n h a m d e s c r i b e d h i s p e r s o n a l e x p e r i e n c e wi t h g o u t t h i s wa y: “ N o w i t i s a v i o l e n t s t r e t c h i n g a n d t e a r i n g o f t h e l i g a m e n t s — n o w, i t i s a g n a wi n g p a i n a n d n o w a p r e s s u r e an d t i g h t e n i n g . S o e x q u i s i t e a n d l i v e l y … i s t h e f e e l i n g o f t h e p a r t af f e c t e d , t h a t i t c a n n o t b e a r t h e we i g h t o f b e d c l o t h e s n o r t h e j a r of a p e r s o n wa l k i n g i n t h e r o o m . ” b . T h e m o s t c o m m o n s i t e o f t h e i n i t i a l a t t a c k i s t h e f i r s t m et a t a r s o p h a l a n g e a l j o i n t ; a n a t t a c k t h e r e i s k n o wn a s p o d a g r a . O t he r s i t e s t h a t m a y b e a f f e c t e d i n c l u d e t h e i n s t e p , an k l e , h e e l , k n e e , wr i s t , el b o w, a n d f i n g e r s . 2 . T h e f i r s t f e w u n t r e a t e d a t t a c k s t yp i c a l l y l a s t 3 - 1 4 d a ys . L a t e r a t t a ck s m a y a f f e c t m o r e j o i n t s a n d t a k e s e v e r a l we e k s t o r e s o l v e . 3 . D u r i n g r e c o v e r y, a s e d e m a s u b s i d e s , l o c a l d e s q u a m a t i o n a n d p r u r i t u s m a y o c c u r . 4 . S ys t e m i c s ym p t o m s d u r i n g a n a c u t e a t t a c k m a y i n c l u d e f e v e r , c h i l l s , a n d malaise. C. Diagnostic criteria
1 . D e f i n i t i ve d i ag n o s i s o f g o u t y a r t h r i t i s c a n b e m a d e b y d e m o n s t r a t i o n o f m o n o so d i u m u r a t e c r y s t a l s i n t h e s yn o v i a l f l u i d o f a f f e c t ed j o i n t s . T h es e n e e d l e s h a p e d c r ys t a l s a r e t e r m e d n e g a t i v e l y b i r e f r i n g e n t wh e n v i e we d t h r o u g h a p o l a r i z e d l i g h t m i c r o sc o p e . 2 . S e r u m an a l ys i s u s u a l l y r e v e a l s a n a b o v e - n o r m a l u r i c a c id l e v e l : h o we v e r , t h i s f i n d i n g i s n o t s p e c i f i c f o r a c u t e g o u t . O t h e r c o mm o n s e r u m f i n d i n g s i n c l u d e l e u k o c yt o s i s a n d a m o d e r a t e l y e l e v a t e d e r yt h r o c yt e s e d i m e n t a t i o n r a t e . 3 . A d r a m a t i c t h e r a p e u t i c r e s p o n se t o c o l ch i ci n e m a y b e h e l p f u l i n e s t a b l i s h i n g the diagnosis, but this is not absolute because other causes of acute arthritis may r e s p o n d a s we l l . 4 . W h e n f l u i d c a n n o t b e a s p i r a t e d f r o m t h e a f f e ct e d j o i n t , a d i a g n o si s o f g o u t i s s u p p o r t e d b y: a. A prior history of acute monarticular arthritis (especially of the big toe) f o l l o we d b y a s ym p t o m - f r e e p e r i o d b . T h e p r e s e n c e o f h yp e r u r i c e m i a c . R a p i d r e s o l u t i o n o f sym p t o m s a f t e r c o l c h i c i n e t h e r a p y 5 . O t h e r c o n d i t i o n s t h at m a y m i m i c g o u t i n c l u d e p s e u d o g o u t ( c a l c i u m p yr o p h o s p h a t e d i h yd r a t e c r ys t a l d i s e a s e ) o r s ep t i c a r t h r it i s. D . T r e a t m e n t g o al s 1. To relieve pain and inflammation 2 . T o t e r m i na t e t h e a c u t e a t t a c k 3 . T o r e s t o r e n o r m a l f un c t i o n t o t h e a f f e ct e d j o i n t s E. Therapy 1 . G en e r a l t h e r a p e u t i c p r i n ci p l e s a . T h e af f e ct e d j o i n t ( o r j o i n t s ) s h o u l d b e i m m o b i l i z e d . b . A n t i - i n f l am m a t o r y d r u g t h e r a p y s h o u l d b e g i n i m m e d i a t e l y. F o r m a xi m a l t h e r a p e u t i c e f f e c t i v e n e ss , t h e s e d r u g s s h o u l d b e k e p t o n h a n d s o t h a t t h e p a t i e n t may begin therapy as soon as a subsequent attack begins. P.1111
c . U r a t e - l o we r i n g d r u g s s h o u l d n o t b e g i ve n u n t i l t h e a c u t e a t t a c k i s c o n t r o l l ed , a s t h e s e d r ug s m a y p r o l o n g t h e a t t ac k b y c a u s i n g a c h a n g e i n u r i c a c i d e q u i l i b r i u m . 2 . S p e c i f i c d r u g s. A n y o f t h e f o l l o wi n g a g e n t s m a y b e u s e d : a . N o n s t e r o i d a l a n t i - i n f l a m m a t o r y d r u g s ( N S AI D s ) ( 1 ) I n d i c a t i o n s . M o s t ph ys i c i a n s c o n s i d e r t h e s e d r u g s t h e ag e n t s o f c h oi c e , e s p e c i a l l y t h e n e we r N S A I D s . T h e se d r u g s m a y b e p r e f e r r ed wh e n t r e a t m e n t i s d e l a y e d s i g n i f i c a n t l y a f t e r s ym p t o m o n s e t o r wh e n t h e p a t i e n t c a n n o t t o le r a t e t h e adverse GI effects of colchicine. ( a ) I n d o m e t h a c i n ( I n d oc i n ) i s u s u a l l y g i v e n i n a d o s e o f 5 0 m g t h r e e t im e s d a i l y u n t i l p a i n i s t o l e r a b l e ; t h e n t h e d o s e i s r a p i d l y r e d u c e d t o c o m p l e t e c e s sa t i o n o f t h e d r u g . D e f i n i t e r e l i e f o f pa i n u s u a l l y o c c u r s wi t h i n 2 - 4 h r . T en d e r n e s s a n d h e a t u s u a l l y s u b s i d e i n 2 4 - 3 6 h r , a n d s we l l i n g g r a d u a l l y d i s a p p e a r s i n 3 - 5 d a ys . D o n o t use the sustained-release dosage form.
( b ) S p e c i f i c N S AI D s — s u c h a s n a p ro x e n ( N a p r o s yn ) 7 5 0 m g f o l l o we d b y 2 5 0 m g e v e r y 8 h r u n t i l t h e a t t a c k s u b s i d e s o r s u l i n d a c ( C l i n o r i l ) 2 0 0 m g t wi c e a d a y t o s t a r t , r e d u c in g t h e d o s e wi t h s a t i s f a c t o r y r e s p o n s e ( 7 d a ys o f t h e r a p y a r e u s u a l l y a d e q u a t e ) — a r e s p e c i f i c a l l y a p p r o v e d f o r t h i s i nd i c a t i o n , b u t m a n y o t h e r N S A I D s h a v e b e e n u s e d s u c c e s sf u l l y. T h e r e i s n o e v i d e n c e t h a t a n y p a r t i c u l a r N S A I D i s m o r e e f f e c t i v e t h a n o t h e r s i n t h e t r ea t m e n t o f a n a c u t e g o u t y a t t a c k . S o m e h a v e a l s o u s e d s e l e c t i v e c yc l o o x yg e n a s e 2 ( C O X- 2 ) in h i b i t o r s f o r t h e s e a t t a ck s . ( 2 ) P r e c a u t i o n s an d m o n i t o r i n g e f f e c t s ( a ) Ad ve r s e e f f e c t s o f i n d o m e t h a c i n a r e u s u a l l y d o s e r e l a t e d . T h e s e ef f e c t s o c c u r i n 1 0 % - 6 0 % o f p a t i e n t s a n d m a y wa r r a n t d r u g d i s c o n t i n u a t i o n . T h e y p r i m a r i l y i n c l u d e G I c o m p l a i n t s o f n a u s e a a n d a b d o m i n a l d i s c o m f o r t an d c e n t r a l n e r v o u s s ys t e m ( C N S ) e f f e c t s o f h e a d a c h e s a n d d i z z i n e s s . I n d o m e t h a c i n s h o u l d b e t a k e n wi t h f o o d o r m i l k t o m i n i m i z e g a s t r i c m u c o s a l i r r it a t i o n . ( b ) P r e c a u t i o n s . N S A I Ds , i n g e n e r a l , r e q u i r e c au t i o u s u s e i n p a t i e n t s wi t h a h i s t o r y o f h y p e r t e n s i o n , c o n g e s t i v e h e a r t f a il u r e ( C H F ) , p e p t i c u l c e r d i s e a s e , o r m i l d t o moderate renal failure. b . C o l ch i c i n e . T h e t r a d i t i o n a l d r u g f o r r e l i e v i n g p a i n a n d i n f l a m m a t i o n a n d e n d i n g t h e a c u t e a t t a c k , c o l c h i c i n e i s m o s t e f f e c t i v e wh e n i n i t i a t e d 1 2 - 3 6 h r a f t e r s ym p t o m s b e g i n ( t h e p e r i o d o f m a xi m a l l e u k o c yt e m i g r a t i o n ) . S o m e wo u l d u s e t h i s ag e n t o n l y i f t h e p a t i e nt i s i n t o l e r a n t t o N S A I Ds o r f o r t h o s e wh o h a v e u s e d c o l c h i c i n e successfully in the past. ( 1 ) M e c h a n i s m o f a c t i o n . C o l c h i c i n e a p p a r e n t l y i m p ai r s l eu k o c yt e m i g r a t i o n t o i n f l a m e d a r e a s a n d d i s r u p t s u r a t e d ep o s i t i o n a n d t h e s u b s e q u e n t i n f l a m m a t o r y response. ( 2 ) D o s a g e a n d ad m i n i s t r a t i o n (a) Oral regimen ( i ) T h e e f f e ct i v e d o s e o f c o l c h i c i n e i n p a t i e n t s wi t h a c u t e g o u t i s c l o s e t o t h a t wh i c h c a u s e s G I sy m p t o m s . T h e d r u g u s u a l l y i s a d m i n i s t e r e d o r a l l y i n a d o s e o f 1 . 2 m g i n i t i a l l y, f o l l o we d b y 0 . 6 m g e v e r y 2 h r u n t i l p a i n r e l i e f o c c u r s o r a b d o m i n a l d i s c o m f o r t or d i a r r h e a d e v e l o p s o r a t o t a l d o s e of 6 t o 8 m g h a s b e e n a d m i n i s t e r e d . E x c e p t i n p a t i e n t s wh o h a v e r e n a l o r h e p a t i c d ys f u n c t i o n o r a r e e l d e r l y a n d f r a i l , c o l c h i c i n e g i v e n i n t h i s wa y i s s a f e , a l t h o u g h i t e n t a i l s s o m e d i s c o m f o r t f o r t h e patient. ( i i ) M o s t p a t i e n t s h a v e so m e p a i n r e l i e f b y 1 8 h r a n d d i a r r h e a b y 2 4 h r ; j o i n t i n f l a m m a t i o n s u b s i d e s g r a d u a l l y wi t h i n 4 8 h r f or 7 5 % - 8 0 % o f p a t i e n t s . ( i i i ) D u r i n g s u b s e q u en t a t t a c k s , p a t i e n t s m a y r e c e i v e h a l f o f t h e t o t a l d o s e a d m i n i s t e r e d f o r t h e i n i t i a l a t t a c k , t he n r e c e i v e t h e r e m a i n i n g h a l f a s 0 . 6 m g e v e r y 1-2 hr. ( b ) I n t r a ve n o u s ( I V ) r e g i m e n . T h i s r o u t e i s u s e d r a r e l y n o w wh e n N S A I D s a r e c o n t r a i n d i c a t e d o r wh e n p a t i e n t s c a n n o t t a k e o r al m e d i c a t i o n s . ( i ) A s i n g l e d o s e o f 2 m g u s u a l l y i s g i v e n i n 3 0 m L o f n o r m al s a l i n e s o l u t i o n a n d i n f u s e d s l o wl y o v e r 5 m i n . T wo a d d i t i o n a l d o s e s o f 1 m g e a ch m a y b e g i v e n a t 6 - h r i n t e r v a l s , b u t t h e t o t a l do s e s h o u l d n e ve r e x c e e d 4 m g . T he d o s e s s h o u l d b e r e d u c e d b y a t l e a s t 5 0 % i n p a t i e n t s wi t h h e p a t i c o r r e n a l d i se a s e o r i n e l d e r l y
p a t i e n t s . B ec a u s e i t c a us e s t i s s u e i r r i t a t i o n , c o l c h i c i n e s h o u l d n e ve r b e g i ve n i n t r a m u s c u l a r l y o r s u b c u t a n e o u s l y. ( i i ) I V a d m i n i s t r a t i o n m ay r e l i e v e a c u t e g o u t y a r t h r i t i s m o r e r a p i d l y t h a n o r a l a d m i n i s t r a t i o n . H o we v e r , s e v e r e t o xi c i t y m a y o c c u r wi t h o u t wa r n i n g b e c a u s e t h e e a r l y s i g n s o f t o xi c i t y ( e . g . , G I h yp e r m o b i l i t y) m a y n o t o c c u r . P.1112
( 3 ) P r e c a u t i o n s an d m o n i t o r i n g e f f e c t s ( a ) G I d i s t re s s ( e . g . , na u s e a , a b d o m i n a l c r a m p s , d i a r r h e a ) o c c u r s i n u p t o 8 0 % o f patients receiving oral colchicine. This dosage form should be avoided in patients wi t h p e p t i c u l c e r d i s e a s e a n d o t h e r G I d i s o r d e r s. ( b ) L o c a l e xt r a va s a t i o n ( c a u s i n g l o c a l p a i n a n d n e c r o s i s ) ca n o c c u r wi t h a d m i n i s t r a t i o n o f I V c o lc h i c i n e . T h i s r i s k c a n b e r e d u c e d b y u s e o f a se c u r e I V l i ne . ( c ) C o l c h i ci n e t h e r a p y m a y c a u s e b o n e m a r r o w d e p r e s s i o n . T h i s r a r e e f f e c t d e v e l o p s m a i n l y i n p a t i e n t s wh o r e c e i v e e xc e s s i v e d o s e s o r wh o h a v e u n d e r l yi n g renal or hepatic disease. Excessively high acute doses (especially given i n t r a v e n o u s l y) o r l o n g - t e r m t h e r a p y m a y r e s u l t i n n e u r o l o g i c a l , r e n a l , h e p a t i c , o r o t h e r t o xi c i t y. c. Corticosteroids ( 1 ) I n t r a - a r t i c u l a r i n j e c t i o n s o f a co r t i c o s t e r o i d a r e u s u a l l y v e r y e f f e c t i ve i n p a t i e n t s wi t h a c u t e m o n a r t i c u l a r g o u t , a n d t h e i r u s e i s b e c om i n g m o r e wi d e s p r e a d a s e x p e r i e n c e wi t h t h e d i a g n o s t i c a s p i r a t i o n o f j o i n t s i n c r e a s e s . A s p i r a t io n a l o n e can sometimes greatly reduce the pain of gout. The appropriate dose of c o r t i c o s t e r o id s i s r e l a t e d t o t h e s i z e o f t h e j o i n t : A n i n t r a - a r t ic u l a r d o s e o f triamcinolone hexacetonide (e.g., Aristospan intra-articular) 20-40 mg for a large j o i n t s u c h a s t h e k n e e an d l o we r d o s e s f o r s m a ll e r j o i n t s ( 2 ) S ys t e m i c c o r t i c o s t e r o i d t h e r ap y i s a d m i n i s t e r e d u s u a l l y o n l y wh e n N S A I D s a n d c o l c h i c i n e h a v e b e e n i n e f f e c t i v e o r a r e c o n t r a i n d i c a t e d . T h er e a r e r e p o r t s o f g o o d r e s p o n s e s , wi t h o u t a r eb o u n d e f f e c t , t o o r a l p r ed n i s o n e ( 3 0 - 5 0 m g p e r d a y i n i t i a l l y, wi t h t h e d o s e t a p e r e d d u r i n g a p e r i o d o f 7 - 1 0 d a ys ) . I V g l u c o c o r t i c o i d s o r s u b c u t an e o u s AC T H a r e o p t i o n s i f p a t i e n t s c a n ' t r e c e i v e o r a l p r e d n i s o n e . O n e a p p r o a c h i s t o g i v e 4 0 - 8 0 U S P u n i t s o f a d r e n o c o r t i c o t r o p i c h o r m o n e ( A C T H ) t wi c e d a i l y f o r 2 d a ys a n d t h e n o n c e d a i l y f o r s e v e r a l a d d i t i o n a l d a ys a s n e e d e d . O t h e r s h a v e u s e d 4 0 U a s a s i ng l e i n j e c t i o n .
IV. INTERCRITICAL GOUT i s t h e s ym p t o m - f r e e p e r i o d a f t e r t h e f i r s t a t t a ck . T h i s p h a s e m a y b e i n t e r r u p t e d b y the recurrence of acute attacks. A. O n s e t o f s u b s e q u e n t a t t a c k s va r i e s . I n m o st p a t i e n t s , t h e s e c o n d a t t a c k o c c u r s wi t h i n 1 y e a r o f t h e f i r s t , b u t i n s o m e i t m a y b e d e l a ye d f o r 5 - 1 0 ye a r s . A s m a l l p e r c e n t a g e o f p a t i e n t s ne v e r e xp e r i e n c e a s e c o n d a t t a c k. I f h yp e r u r i c e m i a i s insufficiently treated, subsequent attacks may become progressively longer and more severe and may involve more than one joint. B . T r e a t m e n t g o al s
1 . T o r e d u c e t h e f r e q u e n c y a n d s e v e r i t y o f r e c ur r e n t a t t a c ks 2. To minimize urate deposition in body tissues, thereby preventing progression to chronic tophaceous gout C . T h e r a p y. G o u t c a n b e p r e v e n t e d b y i d e n t i f yi n g a n d c o r r e c t i n g t h e ca u s e o f h yp e r u r i c e m i a o r b y a d m i n i s t e r i n g d r u g s t h a t i n h i b i t t h e s yn t h e s i s o f u r a t e o r i n c r e a s e i t s e xc r e t i o n . 1 . N o n d ru g u r a t e - r e d u ci n g m e a s u r e s . P o t e n t i a l l y r e v e r s i b l e f a c t o r s t ha t c o n t r i b u t e to increased urate production include a high-purine diet (e.g., all meats, including o r g a n m e a t s , s e a f o o d , be a n s , p e a s , a s p a r a g u s ) , o b e s i t y, a n d r e g u l a r a l c o h o l c o n s u m p t i o n . T h e p u r i ne c o n t e n t o f t h e d i e t d oe s n o t u s u a l l y c o n t r i b u t e m o r e t h a n 1 . 0 m g / d L t o t h e s e r u m u r a t e c o n c en t r a t i o n , b u t m o d e r a t i o n i n d i e t a r y p u r i n e c o n s u m p t i o n s h o u l d b e c o n s i d e r e d . W e i g h t r e d u c t i o n s o m e t im e s r e d u c e s t h e s e r u m u r i c a c i d l e v e l s l i g h t l y; h o we v e r , c r as h d i e t s s h ou l d b e a v o i d e d . D r i n k i n g t wo o r more beers increased the risk of gout by 2.5-fold in one study vs. a 1.6-fold i n c r e a s e f o r o t h e r s p i r i t s . W i n e wa s n o t a s s o c i at e d wi t h a n i n c r e a s e d r i s k o f g o u t . 2 . P r o p h yl a x i s a f t e r r e so l u t i o n o f a n a c u t e g o u t a t t a c k m a y c o n s i s t o f l o w - d o s e c o l c h i c i n e, 0 . 6 m g t wi c e d a i l y i n t h e p a t i e n t wi t h n o r m a l r e n a l f u n c t i o n . a . Ad ve r s e e f f e c t s f r o m c o l c h i c i n e a t t h e s e d o se s a r e u s u a l l y u n c o m m o n . I n p a t i e n t s , p a r t i c u l a r l y t h e e l d e r l y, wh o d e v e l o p l o o s e o r d i a r r h e a l s t o o l s , 0 . 6 m g d a i ly o r e v e r y o t h e r d a y m i g h t s u f f i c e. b . L ow - d o se N S AI D s m a y a l s o b e u s e d , b u t t h e i n c i d e n c e o f s i d e e f f e c t s i s t yp i c a l l y h i g h e r t h a n wi t h l o w d o s e s o f c o l c h ic i n e . P.1113
c . G e n e r a l l y , p r o p h yl a x i s i s a d m i n i st e r e d f o r 6 m o n t h s a f t er n o r m a l s e r u m u r i c a c i d levels are achieved. Prolonged use of these agents may prevent recurrent episodes o f g o u t y a r t h r i t i s , b u t t he y d o n o t p r e v e n t t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f s i l e n t b o n y e r o s i o n s and tophi deposits. 3 . U r a t e - r e d u c i n g d ru g t h e r a p y. G o u t m a y b e p r e v e n t e d b y r e d u c i n g s e r u m u r a t e c o n c e n t r a t i o n s t o v a l u e s < 6 . 0 m g/ d L . A r e d u c t i o n t o < 5 . 0 m g / d L m a y b e r e q u i r e d f o r t h e r e s o r p t i o n o f t o ph i . T h e d e c is i o n t o b e g i n d r u g t h e r a p y s h o u l d b e c a r e f u l l y c o n s i d e r e d , a s u r a t e - l o we r i n g d r u g t r e a t m e n t s h o u l d b e l i f e l o n g . U r a t e - r ed u c i n g d r u g s i n c l u d e u r i c o su r i c s , wh i c h i n c r e a s e r e n a l u r i c a c i d e xc r e t i o n , a n d t h e x a n t h i n e o xi d a s e i n h i b i t o r , a l l o p u ri n o l , wh i c h r e d u c e s u r i c a c i d p r o d u c t i o n . a . I n d i c a t i o n s f o r t h e r ap y wi t h a d r u g t h a t l o we r s s e r u m u r a t e c o n c e n t r a t i o n s s h o u l d b e c o n s i d e r e d wh e n a l l o f t he f o l l o wi n g c r i t e r i a a r e m e t : ( 1 ) T h e c a us e o f t h e h yp e r u r i c e m i a c a n n o t b e c o r r e c t e d o r , i f c o r r e ct e d , d o e s n o t l o we r t h e s e r u m u r a t e co n c e n t r a t i o n t o < 7. 0 m g/ d L . ( 2 ) T h e p a t ie n t h a s h a d t wo o r t h r e e d e f i n i t e a t t a c k s o f g o u t o r h a s t o p h i . ( 3 ) T h e p a t ie n t i s c o n v in c e d o f t h e n e e d t o t a k e m e d i c a t i o n r e g u l a r l y a n d permanently. b. Specific drug ( 1 ) T h e o n l y a v a i l a b l e U r i c o s u r i c on t h e U . S. m a r k e t i s n o w p r o b e n e c i d ( B e n e m i d ) . T h i s d r u g i s p r e f e r r e d f or u n d e r e x c r e t o r s . L o n g - t e r m u r i c o s ur i c t h e r a p y r e d u c e s t h e
i n c i d e n c e o f g o u t y a r t h r i t i s a t t a c k s , p r e v e n t s f o r m a t i o n o f n ew t o p h i , a n d h e l p s r e s o l v e e xi s t i n g t o p h i . ( a ) M e c h a n i s m o f a c t i o n . P r o b e n e c i d b l o c k s u r i c a c i d r e a b s o r p t i o n a t t he p r o xi m a l c o n v o l u t e d t u b u l e , t h e r e b y i n c r e a s i n g t h e r a t e of u r i c a c i d e xc r e t i o n ( F i gu r e 5 1 - 2 ) . ( b ) I n d i c a t i o n s . U r i c o su r i c s g e n e r a l l y a r e u s e d t o r e d u c e h yp e r u r i c e m i a i n p a t i e n t s wh o e x c r e t e < 6 0 0 m g of u r i c a c i d pe r d a y. ( c ) D o s a g e a n d ad m i n i s t r a t i o n ( i ) P r o b en e c i d i s g i v e n i n i t i a l l y i n t wo d a i l y o r a l d o s e s o f 25 0 m g f o r 1 we e k , t h e n i n c r e a s e d t o 5 0 0 m g t wi c e d a i l y e v e r y 1 - 2 we e k s u n t i l t h e se r u m u r i c a ci d l e v e l drops below 6 mg/dL. Most patients respond to a dose of 1.5 g/day or less. ( d ) P r e c a u t i o n s an d m o n i t o r i n g e f f e c t s ( i ) U r ic o s u r i c t h e r a p y s h o u l d n o t b e i n i t i a t ed d u r i n g a n ac u t e g o u t at t a c k . D u r i n g t h e f i r s t 6 - 12 m o n t h s o f t h e r a p y, t h e s e d r u g s m ay i n c r e a s e t h e f r e q u e n c y, s e v e r i t y, a n d d u r a t i o n o f a c u t e at t a c k s ( b y c h a n g i n g t h e e q u i l i b r i u m o f b o d y u r a t e ) . T h e r ef o r e , s o m e c l i n i c i a n s a d m i n i s t e r p r o p h yl a c t i c c o l c h i c i n e c o n c o m i t a n t l y d u r i n g t h e e a r l y m o n t h s o f u r i c os u r i c t h e r a p y. ( i i ) T h e ri s k i s m i n i mi z ed b y c o n c u r r e n t l y a d m i n i s t e r i n g p ro p h yl a c t i c d r u g s ( s e e I V . C . 2 ) , d e la yi n g u r a t e - l o we r i n g t h e r a p y u n t i l s e v e r a l we e k s a f t e r t h e l as t a t t a c k of g o u t , a n d s t a r t i n g t h e r a p y wi t h a l o w d o s e o f t h e d r u g t h a t is c h o s e n . W h e n u s e d c o n c u r r e n t l y wi t h u r a t e - l o we r i n g d r u g s , c o l c h i c i n e m a y b e d i s c o n t i n u e d a f t e r t h e serum urate level becomes normal and is stable for 6 months. ( i i i ) P a t i e n t s s h o u l d m a i n t a i n a h i g h f l u i d i n t ak e ( a t l e a s t 2 L / d a y) a n d a h i g h u r i n e output during uricosuric therapy to decrease renal urate precipitation. The greatest p o t en t i al r i s k s o f t h e r a p y wi t h u r i c o s u r i c d r u g s a r e t h e f o r m a t i o n o f u r i c a c i d c r ys t a l s i n u r i n e a n d t h e d e p o s i t i o n o f u r i c a c i d i n t h e r e n a l t u b u l e s , p e l vi s , o r u r e t e r , c a u si n g r e n a l c o l i c o r t h e d e t e r i o r a t i o n o f r e n a l f u n c t io n . T h e s e r is k s c a n b e r e d u c e d b y i n i t i a t i n g t h e r a p y wi t h a l o w d o s e a n d i n c r e a s i n g t h e d o s e s lo wl y a n d b y m a i n t a i n i n g a h i g h u r i n e v o l u m e . A l ka l i n i z a t i o n o f t h e u r i n e is u s u a l l y n o t n e c e s s a r y ( b u t c a n b e a c h i e v e d wi t h 1 g o f s o d i u m b i c a r b o n a t e t a k e n 3 - 4 t i m e s d a i l y; p l u s a h i g h f l u i d i n t a k e o f a t l e a s t 2 L/ d a y) . ( i v) U r i c o s u r i c s a r e c o n t r a i n d i c a t e d i n p a t i e n t s wi t h u r i n a r y t r a ct st o n e s . ( v) T h e s e d r u g s g e n e r a l l y a r e i n e f f e c t i v e i n p a t i e n t s wi t h c r e a t i n i n e c l e a r a n c e s below 50-60 ml/min. ( vi ) As p i r i n a n d o t h e r s a l i c yl a t e s a n t a g o n i z e t h e a c t i o n o f u r i c o s u r i c s . D a i l y l ow d o s e a s p i r i n f o r a n t i p l a t e l e t f u n c t i on p r o b a b l y d o e s n o t h ave t h i s e f f e c t . P.1114 I n a s m a l l st u d y, t h e a d d i t i o n o f l o w d o s e a s p i r i n t o p r o b e n e c i d t h e r a p y d i d n o t a l t e r the daily excretion of uric acid nor the serum uric acid level. ( vi i ) P r o b e n e c i d i s we l l t o l e r a t e d b y m o s t p a t i e n t s , b u t i t o c ca s i o n a l l y c a u s e s a d ve r s e e f f e c t s — f o r e xa m p l e , G I d i s t r e s s ( 8 % ) a n d h yp e r s e n s i t i v i t y r e a c t i o n s ( 5 % ) . ( 2 ) T h e o n l y x a n t h i n e o x i d a s e i n h i b i t o r a v a i l a b l e o n t h e U . S . m a r k e t is a l l o p u ri n o l . ( a ) M e c h a n i s m o f a c t i o n . A l l o p u r i n o l a n d i t s l o n g - a c t i n g m e t a b o l i t e , o x yp u r i n o l , b l o c k t h e f i na l s t e p s i n ur i c a c i d s yn t h e s i s b y i n h i b i t i n g xa n t h i n e o xi d a s e , a n
e n z ym e t h a t c o n v e r t s xa n t h i n e t o u r i c a c i d ( F i g ur e 5 1 - 1 ) . T hu s t h e d r u g r e d u c e s t h e s e r u m u r i c ac i d l e v e l wh i l e i n c r e a s i n g t h e r e n a l e x c r e t i o n o f t h e m o r e s o lu b l e o x y p u r i n e p r e c u r s o r s ; t h i s d e c r e a s e s t h e r i s k o f u r i c a c i d s t on e s a n d n e p h r o p a t h y. ( b ) I n d i c a t i o n s . A l l o p u r i n o l i s c o n s i d e r e d b y m a n y t o b e t h e d r u g o f c h oi c e f o r l o we r i n g u r i c a c i d l e v e l s b e c a u s e o f i t s e f f e c t i v en e s s i n b o t h u n d e r e xc r e t o r s a n d o v e r p r o d u c e r s , b u t i t i s s p e c i f i c a l l y t h e p r e f e r r ed u r a t e - r e d u c i n g a g e n t f o r p a t i e n t s i n t h e f o l l o wi n g c a t e g o r i e s : ( i ) P a t i e n t s wh o a r e c l e a r l y o v e r p r o d u c e r s ( o v e r e xc r e t o r s ) o f u r i c a c i d ( i i ) P a t i e n t s wi t h r e c u r r e n t t o p h a c e o u s d e p o s i t s o r u r i c a c i d s t o n e s ( i i i ) P a t i e n t s wi t h r e n a l i m p a i r m e n t ( b u t d o s e n e e d s t o b e d e c r e a s e d ) ( c ) D o s a g e a n d ad m i n i s t r a t i o n . A l lo p u r i n o l i s g i v e n i n i t i a l l y i n a d a i l y d o s e o f 1 0 0 3 0 0 m g ( p r e f e r a b l y a s a s i n g l e d o s e ) , t h e n i n c r ea s e d i n we e k l y i n c r e m e n t s i f n e e d e d . T yp i c a l l y, t h e u r i c a c i d l e v e l s t a r t s t o f a l l a f t e r 1 - 2 d a ys wi t h m a xi m a l e f f e c t f o r a g i v e n d o s e i n 7 - 1 0 d a ys . A d o se o f 3 0 0 m g/ d a y r e d u c e s s e r u m u r at e c o n c e n t r a t i o n s t o n o r m a l v a l u e s i n 8 5 % o f p a t i e n t s wi t h g o u t . T h e n o r m a l d o s e o f 3 0 0 m g / d a y i s f o r a p a t ie n t wi t h n o r m a l r e n a l f u n c t i o n ; t h e do s e s h o u l d b e d e c r e a s e d t o 2 0 0 m g / d a y f o r a p a t i e n t wi t h a c r ea t i n i n e c l e a r a n c e ( C r C l ) o f 6 0 m L / m i n a n d t o 1 0 0 m g / da y f o r a p a t i e n t wi t h a C r C l o f 3 0 m L/ m i n . ( d ) P r e c a u t i o n s an d m o n i t o r i n g e f f e c t s . A l l o p u r i n o l i s g e n e r a l l y we l l t o l e r a t e d . ( i ) A r a s h de v e l o p s i n a p p r o x i m a t e l y 2 % o f p a t i e n t s t r e a t e d wi t h a l l o p u r i n o l a n d i n approximately 20% of those receiving both allopurinol and ampicillin. The rash usually subsides after the allopurinol has been discontinued and may not recur if t h e r a p y i s r e s u m e d wi t h a l o we r d o s e . ( i i ) T h e m o st s e r i o u s s i de e f f e c t o f a l l o p u r i n o l , wh i c h o c c u r s i n < 1 i n 1 00 0 c a s e s , i s e x f o l i a t i ve d e r m a t i t i s , o f t e n wi t h va s c u l i t i s, f eve r , l i ve r d y s f u n c t i o n , e o s i n o p h i l i a , a n d a c u t e i n t e r s t i t i al n e p h ri t i s. U p t o 2 0 % o f p a t i e n t s wi t h t h i s t yp e o f r e a c t i o n b e c o m e v e r y s i c k . I t is m o r e l i k e l y t o o c c u r i n pa t i e n t s wi t h r e n a l d i s e a s e o r t h o s e r e ce i v i n g d i u r e t i c t h e r a p y. P r e d n i s o n e s e e m s t o b e e f f e ct i v e i n s u c h p a t i e n t s , b u t t h e d i s c o n t in u a t i o n o f a l l o p u r i n o l a n d t h e u s e o f s u p p o r t i v e t h e r a p y may be sufficient in cases that are not severe. ( i i i ) A l l o p u r i n o l m a y i n d u c e m o r e f r e q u e n t a c u t e g o u t a t t a ck s . T h i s r i sk c a n b e m i n i m i z e d b y a d m i n i s t r a t i o n o f l o w d o s e s a n d c o n c u r r e n t c o l c h i c i n e t h e r a p y. (3) Other drugs that increase uric acid excretion (a) Losartan (Cozaar), an angiotensin II receptor blocker (ARB), might be a useful a n t i h yp e r t e n s i v e a g e n t i n t h e p a t i e n t wh o h a s b o t h h yp e r u ri c e m i a a n d h yp e r t e n s i o n b e c a u s e t h i s a g e n t ca n l o we r s e r u m u r i c a c i d l e v e l s b y i n h i b i t i n g t h e u p t a k e o f u r i c a c i d b y t h e u r a t e a n i o n e xc h a n g e t r a n s p o r t e r in t h e p r o xi m a l t u b u l e . T h i s e f f e c t is m i n i m a l o r n o t s e e n i n o t h e r A R B s . ( b ) F e n o f i b ra t e ( T r i C o r ) i s a f i b r i c a c i d a g e n t u s e d t o t r e a t e le v a t e d c h o l e s t e r o l a n d t r i g l yc e r i d e l e v e l s . I t h a s b e e n s h o wn t o d e c r e a se s e r u m u r i c l e v e l s b y i n c r e a s i n g r e n a l u r i c a c i d c l e a r a n c e a n d wo u l d b e a u s e f u l a g e n t i n t h e p a t i e n t wi t h b o t h h yp e r l i p i d em i a a n d h yp e r u r i c e m i a . ( c ) F eb u x o st a t , a n o n - pu r i n e - b a s e a n a l o g xa n t h i n e o x i d a s e i n h i b i t o r , i s a n i n v e s t i g a t i o n a l a g e n t t h a t m a y e v e n t u a l l y r e a c h t h e U . S . m ar k e t .
V. CHRONIC TOPHACEOUS GOUT. T h i s r a r e c l in i c a l p r e s e n t a t i o n m a y d e v e l o p i f h yp e r u r i c e m i a a n d g o u t r e m a i n u n t r e a t e d f o r m a n y ye a r s . A. P a t h o g e n e s i s . P e r s i s t e n t h yp e r u r i c e m i a l e a d s t o t h e d e ve l o p m e n t o f t o p h i i n t h e s yn o v i a , o l e c r a n o n b u r s a e , a n d v a r i o u s p e r i a r t i c u l a r l o c a t i o n s . E v e n t u a l ly, a r t i c u l a r c a r t i l a g e m a y b e d e s t r o y e d , r e s u l t i n g i n j o i n t d e f o r m i t i e s , b on e e r o s i o n s , d e p o s i t i o n o f t o p h i wi t h i n t i s s u e s , an d r e n a l d i s e a s e . P.1115
B . C l i n i c a l e va l u a t i o n 1 . P a t i e n t s m a y d e v e l o p l a r g e s u b c u t a n e o u s t o p h i i n t h e p i n n a o f t h e ext e r n a l e a r ( t h e c l a s s i c s i t e ) a s we l l a s i n o t h e r l o c a t i o n s . 2 . T yp i c a l l y , t h e u r a t e po o l i s m a n y t i m e s t h e n or m a l s i z e . C . T h e r a p y. A l l o p u r i n o l a n d p r o b e n e c i d m a y b e g i v e n i n c o m b i n a t i o n t o t r e a t s e v e r e cases. P.1116
STUDY QUESTIONS D i r e c t i o n s f o r q u e s t i o n s 1 - 3 : E a c h o f t h e q u e s t io n s , s t at e m e n t s , o r i n c o m p l e t e s t a t e m e n t s i n t h i s s e c t i o n c a n b e c o r r e c t l y a n s we r e d o r c o m p l e t e d b y o n e o f t h e s u g g e s t e d a n s we r s o r p h r a s e s . C h o o s e t h e b e st a n s we r . 1 . Al l o f t h e f o l l ow i n g st a t e m e n t s c o n c e r n i n g a n a c u t e g o u t y a r t h r i t i s a t t a c k a r e c o r r e c t e x c e p t w h i ch o n e ? ( A ) T h e d i a g n o s i s o f g o u t i s e n s u r e d b y a g o o d t h e r a p e u t i c r e s p o n s e t o co l c h i c i n e b e c a u s e n o o t h e r f o r m o f a r t h r it i s r es p o n d s t o t hi s d r u g . ( B ) T o b e en s u r e d o f t he d i a g n o s i s , m o n o s o d i u m u r a t e cr ys t a l s m u s t b e i d e n t i f i e d i n t h e s yn o v i a l f l u i d o f t h e a f f e c t e d j o i n t . ( C ) A t t a c k s f r e q u e n t l y o c c u r i n t h e m i d d l e o f t he n i g h t . ( D ) A n u n t r ea t e d a t t a c k m a y l a s t u p t o 2 we e k s . ( E ) T h e f i r st a t t a c k u s u a l l y i n v o l v e s o n l y o n e j o i n t , m o st f r eq u e n t l y t h e b i g t o e ( f i r s t metatarsophalangeal joint). V i e w A n s we r 1 . T h e an s w e r i s A [ s ee a n d] . 2. A 4 2 - ye a r - o l d o b e s e m a n h a s b e e n d i a g n o s e d w i t h g o u t . H e h a s h a d t h r e e a c u t e a t t a c k s t h i s ye a r , a n d h i s u r i c a c i d l e ve l i s p r e s e n t l y 1 1 . 5 mg / d L ( u p p e r l i mi t o f n o rm a l i s 7 m g / d L ) . H e h a s n o o t h er d i s e a s e s . R a t i o n al t r ea t m e n t o f t h i s p a t i en t d u r i n g t h e i n t e r va l p e r i o d b e tw e e n g o u t y a t t a c k s m i g h t i n c l u d e an y o f t h e f o l l ow i n g e x c e p t ( A ) a c e t a m in o p h e n o r a s p i r i n 6 5 0 m g a s n e e d e d f o r j o i n t p a i n . (B) probenecid. (C) colchicine. (D) allopurinol. ( E ) a d e c r e as e i n c a l o r i c i n t a k e .
V i e w A n s we r 2 . T h e an s w e r i s A [ s ee] . 3. A 4 5 - y e a r - o l d m a n i s a d m i t t ed t o t h e h o s p i t al w i t h t h e d i a g n o s i s o f a n a c u t e a t t a c k o f g o u t . Hi s s e r u m u r i c a c i d i s 1 0 . 5 m g / d L ( n o r m a l i s 3 - 7 m g / dL ) . W h i c h o f t h e f o l l ow i n g w o u l d b e t h e mo s t e f f e c t i ve i n i t i a l t r e a t m e n t p l a n ? ( A ) B e f o r e t r e a t i n g t h i s p a t i e n t , i m m ob i l i z e t h e a f f e c t e d j o i n t a n d o b t a i n a 2 4 - h r u r i n a r y u r i c a c i d l e v e l t o d e t e r m i n e wh i c h d r u g , e i t h e r a l l o p u r i n o l o r p r o b e n e c i d , wo u l d b e t h e b e s t a g e n t t o i n i t i a t e t h e r a p y. ( B ) B e g i n o r a l c o l c h i c i n e 1 . 2 m g i n i t ia l l y, f o l l o we d b y 0 . 6 m g e v e r y 2 h r u n t i l r e l i e f i s o b t a i n e d , g a s t r o i n t e s t i n a l d i s t r e s s o cc u r s , o r a m a xi m u m o f 8 m g h a s b e e n t a k e n ; a l s o , b e g i n p r o b e n e c i d 2 5 0 m g t wi c e a d a y c o n c u r r e n t l y. ( C ) A d m i n i s t e r o r a l i n d o m e t h a c i n 5 0 m g t h r e e t im e s a d a y f o r 2 d a ys ; t h e n g r a d u a l l y t a p e r t h e d o s e o v e r t h e n e xt f e w d a ys . ( D ) A d m i n i s t e r o r a l n a p r o x e n 7 5 0 m g , f o l l o we d b y 2 5 0 m g e v e r y 8 h r f o r 3 we e k s . ( E ) G i v e c o lc h i c i n e 0 . 5 m g i n t r a m u sc u l a r l y f o l l o we d b y 1 m g i n t r a v e n o u s p i g g yb a c k e v e r y 1 2 h r f o r 2 we e k s . V i e w A n s we r 3 . T h e an s w e r i s C [ s ee] . P . 1 1 1 7
D i r e c t i o n s f o r q u e s t i o n 4 : T h e q u es t i o n i n t h i s s e c t i o n c a n b e c o r r e c t l y a n s we r e d o r c o m p l e t e d b y o n e o r m o r e o f t h e s u g g e s t e d a n s we r s . C h o o s e t h e a n s we r , A- E . 4 . Al l o p u ri n o l i s r e c o mm e n d e d i n st e a d o f p r o b e n e c i d i n t h e t r e a t m e n t o f h yp e r u r i c e m i a i n w h i ch o f t h e f o l l ow i n g s i t u at i o n s ? ( I ) w h en t h e p a t i e n t h a s s e ve r a l l a r g e t o p h i o n t h e e l b ow s a n d k n e e s ( I I ) w h e n t h e p a t i en t h as a n e s t i m at e d c r e a t i n i n e c l e a r a n c e o f 1 5 m L / m i n ( I I I ) w h en t h e p a t i e n t h a s l e u k e mi a a n d t h e r e i s c o n c e r n r e g a r d i n g r e n a l precipitation of urate A if I only is correct B if III only is correct C if I and II are correct D if II and III are correct E if I, II, and III are correct V i e w A n s we r 4 . T h e an s w e r i s E( I , I I , I I I ) [ s e e] .D i r e c t i o n s f o r q u e s t i o n 5 : T h e i n c o m p l e t e s t a t e m en t i n t h i s s e c t i o n c a n b e c o r r e c t l y a n s we r e d o r co m p l e t e d b y o n e of t h e s u g g e s t e d a n s we r s o r p h r a s e s . C h o o s e t h e b e s t an s we r . 5 . I n a p a t i e n t w h o h a s h a d d o cu me n t e d g o u t y a r t h r i t i s an d h yp e r u r i c e m i a a n d w ho a l so h a s h yp e r t e n s i o n , a p r e f e r r e d a n t i h yp e r t e n s i ve a g e n t w o u l d b e ( A ) h yd r o c h l o r o t h i a z i d e (B) losartan (C) clonidine (D) lisinopril (E) irbesartan V i e w A n s we r 5 . T h e an s w e r i s B [ s ee P . 1 1 1 8
ANSWERS AND EXPLANATIONS 1 . T h e a n sw er i s A [ s e e I I I . B. 1 a n d 2 ; I I I . C. 1 ; I I I . C . 3] . Other forms of acute arthritis may respond to colchicine, so that the diagnosis of gout cannot be established unequivocally by a good response to this agent. A d e f i n i t i v e d i a g n o s i s r e q u i r e s t h e p r e s e n c e o f u r a t e c r ys t a l s i n t h e a f f e ct e d j o i n t , a l t h o u g h t h e p r e s e n c e o f o t h e r s ym p t o m s o r l a b o r a t o r y f i n d i n g s m a y s u g g e s t a probable diagnosis of gout. 2 . T h e a n sw er i s A [ s e e I . D. 2 . c . ( 1 ) ; I V . C ] . A s p i r i n i n d o s e s < 2 g / da y c a n i n h i b i t u r i c a c i d se c r e t i o n . W e i g h t r e d u c t i o n , a l l o p u r i n o l o r p r o b e n e c i d t o l o we r t h e s e r u m u r i c a c i d l e v e l s , a n d p r o p h yl a c t i c c o l c h i c i n e a r e a l l a p p r o p r i a t e i n t e r ve n t i o n s i n t h e i n t e r v a l p h a s e t o r e d u ce t h e i n c i d e n c e o f a c u t e g o u t y a t t a c k s. 3 . T h e a n sw er i s C [ s ee I I I . E. 1 . c; I I I . E . 2 . a; I I I . E . 3 . b . ( 1 ) . ( d ) . ( i ) ; I V. C ] . O f t h e s e l e ct i o n s , t h e m o s t e f f e c t i v e i n i t i a l p l a n i n t r e a t i n g an a c u t e a t t ac k o f g o u t i s t o a d m i n i s t e r i n d o m e t h a c i n o r a l l y, g i v i n g 5 0 m g t h r e e t i m e s a d a y f o r 2 - 3 d a ys , t h e n g r a d u a l l y t a p e r i n g t h e d o s a g e o v e r t h e n e xt f e w d a ys . E v e n t h o u g h j o i n t i m m o b i l i z a t i o n i s a n a p p r o p r i a t e i n i t i a l s t e p , d r ug s f o r p a i n r e l i e f s h o u l d b e a d m i n i s t e r e d a s s o o n a s p o s s i b l e . U r i c a c i d m od i f i c a t i o n t h e r a p y ( a l l o p u r i n o l o r p r o b e n e c i d ) s h o u l d n o t b e i n i t i a t e d u n t i l t h e a c u t e a t t a ck i s u n d e r c o n t r o l . I n i t i a t i n g t h e r a p y wi t h p r o b e n e c i d a t t h i s p o i n t m a y p r o l o n g t h e r e s o l u t i o n o f a n a cu t e a t t a c k o f g o u t y a r t h r i t i s , wh i c h c a n u s u a l l y b e a c c o m p l i s h e d wi t h i n 7 d a ys o f NS A I D t h e r a p y. C o l c h i c i n e s h o u l d n e v e r b e g i v e n i n t r a m u s c u l a r l y b e c a u s e i t ca u s e s t i s s ue irritation. 4 . T h e a n sw er i s E ( I , I I , I I I ) [ s e e I V . C ] . I n t h e t r e a t m e n t o f h yp e r u r i c e m i a , a l l o p u r i n o l i s i n d i c a t e d r a t h e r t h a n p r o b e n e c i d wh e n l a r g e t o p h i a r e p r e s e n t , wh e n t h e c r e a t i n i n e c l e a r a n c e i s < 5 0 - 6 0 m L / m i n ( p r o b e n e c i d wo u l d b e i n e f f e c t i v e , b u t t h e a l l o p u r i n o l d o s a g e wo u l d h a v e t o b e d e c r e a s e d ) , wh e n t h e p a t i e n t i s a n o v e r p r o d u c e r o f u r i c a c id , a n d wh e n t h e r e i s a n e e d t o p r e v e n t t h e f o r m a t i o n o f l ar g e a m o u n t s o f u r i c a c i d ( e . g . , wh e n c o n d i t i o n s such as leukemia are present). 5 . T h e a n sw er i s B [ s ee I V . C. 3 . b . ( 3 ) . ( a ) ] L o s a r t a n , a n a n g i o t e n s i n I I r e c e p t o r b l o c k e r h a s b e e n s h o wn t o i n c r e a se u r i n a r y u r i c a c i d s e c r e t i o n a n d c a n , t h e r e f o r e , l owe r s e r u m u r i c a c i d l e v e l s . H yd r o c h l o r o t h i a z i d e a c t u a l l y d e c r e a s e s u r i n a r y u r i c a c i d e xc r e t i o n a n d m u s t b e us e d c a u t i o u s l y i n g o u t p a t i e n t s , i f a t a l l . T h e o t h e r a n t i h yp e r t e n s i v e a g e n t s m e n t i o n e d h a v e m i n i m a l o r n o e f f e c t s o n t he s e r u m u r i c a c i d .
52 Peptic Ulcer Disease and Related AcidAssociated Disorders P a u l F . So u n e y An t h o n y E . Z i m m e r m a n n
I. INTRODUCTION A. D e f i n i t i o n 1 . P e p t i c u l c e r d i s e a s e ( P U D ) r ef e r s t o a g r o u p o f d i s o r d e r s c h a r a c t e r iz e d b y c i r c u m s c r i be d l e s i o n s o f t h e m u c o sa o f t h e u p pe r g a s t r o i n t e s t i n a l ( G I ) t r a c t ( p a r t i c u l a r l y t h e s t o m a c h a n d d u o d e n u m ) . T h e le s i o n s o c c u r i n r e g i o n s e xp o s e d t o gastric juices. 2 . G a s t r o e so p h a g e a l r ef l u x d i s e a s e ( G E R D ) r e f e r s t o t h e r e t r o g r a d e m o v e m e n t o f g a s t r i c c o n t e n t s f r o m t he s t o m a c h in t o t h e e s o p h a g u s . R e f l u x m a y o c c u r wi t h o u t c o n s e q u e n c e s a n d t h u s b e c o n s i d e r e d a n o r m a l p h ys i o l o g i c a l p r o c e s s , o r i t m a y l e a d t o p r o f o u n d s ym p t o m a t i c o r h is t o l o g i c a l c o n d i t i o n s ( e . g . , G E R D ) . W h e n r e f l u x l e a d s t o i n f l a m m a t i o n ( wi t h o r wi t h o u t e r o s i o n s o r u l c e r a t i on s ) o f t h e es o p h a g u s , i t i s c a l l e d r e f l u x ( e r o s i ve ) e s o p h a g i t i s . M o s t p a t i e n t s ( 5 0 % - 7 0 % ) r e p o r t t yp i c a l s ym p t o m s b u t l a c k e v i de n c e o f e s o p h a g e a l m u c o s a l i n j u r y ( n o n e r o s i ve r e f l u x disease; NERD). 3 . D ys p e p s i a i s d e f i n e d a s p e r s i s t e n t o r r e c u r r e n t a b d o m i n a l p a i n o r a b d o m i n a l d i s c o m f o r t ce n t e r e d i n t h e u p p e r a b d o m e n . B. Manifestations 1 . D u o d en a l u l c e r s a l m o s t a l wa ys d e v e l o p i n t h e d u o d e n a l b u l b ( t h e f i r s t f e w c e n t i m e t e r s o f t h e d u o d e n u m ) . A f ew, h o we v e r , a r i s e b e t we e n t h e b u l b a n d t h e ampulla. 2 . G a s t r i c u l c e r s f o r m m o s t c o m m on l y i n t h e a n t r u m o r a t t he a n t r a l - f u n d a l j u n c t i o n . 3 . L e s s c o m m o n f o r ms o f p e p t i c u l c e r d i s e a s e a . S t r e s s u l c e r s r e s u l t f r o m s e r i o u s t r a u m a o r i l ln e s s , m a j o r b u r n s , c o a g u l o p a t h y n o t r e l a t e d t o a n t i c o a g u l a n t t h e r a p y, n e e d f o r m e c h a n i c a l v e n t i l a t i o n > 4 8 h r , o r o n g o i n g s e p s i s . T h e m o s t c o m m o n s i t e o f s t r e ss u l c e r f o r m a t i o n i s t h e p r o xi m a l p o r t i o n o f t he s t o m a c h . b . Z o l l i n g e r- E l l i s o n s yn d r o m e i s a s e v e r e f o r m o f p e p t i c u l c e r d i s e a s e i n wh i c h i n t r a c t a b l e u l c e r s a r e a cc o m p a n i e d b y e xt r e m e g a s t r i c h yp e r a c i d i t y a n d a t l e a s t o n e gastrinoma (a non-β-islet cell tumor of the pancreas or another site). c . S t o m a l u l c e r s ( a l s o c a l l e d m a r g i n a l u l c e r s ) m a y a r i s e a t t h e a n a s t om o s i s o r i m m e d i a t e l y d i s t a l t o i t in t h e s m a l l in t e s t i n e i n p a t i e n t s wh o h a v e u n d e r g o n e u l c e r s u r g e r y a n d h a v e e xp e r i e n c e d s u b s e q u e n t u l c e r r e c u r r e n c e a f t e r a s ym p t o m - f r e e period. d . D r u g - a s so c i a t e d u l c e r s o c c u r i n p a t i e n t s wh o c h r o n i c a l l y i n g e s t s u b s t a n c e s t h a t d a m a g e t h e g a s t r i c m u co s a , s u c h as n o n s t e r o i d a l a n t i - i n f l a m m a t o r y d r u g s ( N S A I D s ) . 4 . R e f l u x es o p h ag i t i s is m o s t o f t e n r e c o g n i z e d b y t h e p r e s e n c e o f r e c u r r e n t s ym p t o m s ( e . g . , h e a r t bu r n ) o r a l t e r e d e p i t h e l i a l m o r p h o l o g y v i s u a l i z e d r a d i o l o g i c a l l y, e n d o s c o p i c a l l y, o r h i s t o l o g i c a l l y.
a. Heartburn is substernal burning or regurgitation that may radiate to the neck. O t h e r s ym p t o m s i n c l u d e b e l c h i n g , wa t e r b r a s h , c h e s t p a i n , a s t h m a , c h r o n i c c o u g h , h o a r s e n e s s , a n d l a r yn g i t i s . b . E n d o s c o p i c e v a l u a t i o n d e t e c t e d B a r r e t t e s o p h a g u s ( B E) i n 6 % o f p a t i e n t s wi t h frequent heartburn. Barrett's esophagus is a premalignant condition that may lead to adenocarcinoma of the esophagus or esophagogastric junction. P.1120
C . Ep i d e m i o l o g y 1 . I n c i d e n ce . P e p t i c u l c e r d i s e a s e i s t h e m o st co m m o n d i s o r d e r o f t h e u p p e r G I tract. a . D u o d en a l u l c e r s a f f ec t 4 % - 1 0 % o f t h e U. S . p o p u l a t i o n ; g a s t r i c u l ce r s o c c u r i n 0.03%-0.05% of the population. b. Nearly 80% of peptic ulcers are duodenal; the others are gastric ulcers. c . M o s t d u o d e n a l u l c e r s a p p e a r i n p e o p l e b e t we e n a g e 2 0 a n d 5 0 ; o n s e t o f g a s t r i c u l c e r s u s u a l l y o c c u r s b e t we e n a g e 4 5 a n d 5 5 . d . T h e 1 - ye a r p o i n t p r e v a l e n c e o f a c t i v e g a s t r i c o r d u o d e n a l u l c e r i n t he U n i t e d S t a t e s i n m e n a n d wo m e n i s a b o u t 1 . 8 % ; t h e l i f e t i m e p r e v a l e n c e o f p e p t i c u l c e r r a n g e s f r o m 1 1 % t o 1 4% f o r m e n an d 8 % t o 1 1 % f o r wo m e n . e . A p p r o x i m a t e l y 1 0 % - 2 0 % o f g a s t r ic u l c e r p a t i e n t s a l s o h a ve a c o n c u r r e n t d u o d e n a l ulcer. f . I n t h e U n it e d S t a t e s, 4 4 % o f t h e a d u l t p o p u l a t i o n e xp e r i e n c e h e a r t b u r n a t l e a s t o n c e a m o n t h ; 1 4 % t a k e s o m e t yp e o f “ i n d i g e s t i o n ” m e d i c a t i o n a t l e a s t t wi c e a we e k . O f p a t i e n t s wi t h G E R D s ym p t o m s wh o h a v e u n d e r g o n e e n d o s c o p y, 5 0 % - 6 5 % have apparent esophagitis. g . T h e a n n u a l p r e v a l e n c e o f d ys p e p s i a i n W e s t er n c o u n t r i e s i s a p p r o xi m a t e l y 2 5 % ; 2 % - 5 % o f p r i m a r y- c a r e c o n s u l t a t i o n s a r e f o r d ys p e p s i a . 2. Hospitalization a . H o s p i t a l i z a t i o n r a t e s in t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s f o r p e p t i c u l c e r s h a v e b e e n d e c l i n i n g ; t h e s e r a t e s d r o p p e d f r o m 2 5 . 2 p e r 1 0 , 0 0 0 i n 1 9 6 5 t o 1 6 . 5 pe r 1 0 , 0 0 0 i n 1 9 8 1 . T h i s r e f l e c t s a d e c r e a s e i n h o s p i t a l i z a t i o n f o r u n c o m p li c a t e d c a s e s o wi n g t o i n c r e a s e d outpatient diagnosis and treatment. There has been little change in hospitalization rates since then. b . T h e r e h as b e e n l i t t l e o r n o d e c r e a s e i n d u o d e n a l u l c e r p e r f o r a t i o n s a n d o n l y a slight decrease in hemorrhages. 3. Mortality a . T h e m o r t a l i t y r a t e f o r g a s t r i c u l c er s d e c l i n e d b e t we e n 1 9 6 2 a n d 1 9 7 9 f r o m 3 . 5 p er 100,000 to 1.1 per 100,000. b . F o r d u o d e n a l u l c e r , t h e m o r t a l i t y r a t e d e c l i n e d f r o m 3. 1 pe r 1 0 0 , 0 0 0 t o 0 . 9 p e r 100,000. c . A l t h o u g h d e a t h f r o m G E R D i s u nc o m m o n , m o r b i d i t y i s n o t , b e c a u s e o f t h e p r e v a l e n c e o f t h e we l l - r e c o g n i z e d c o m p l i c a t i o n s s u c h a s es o p h a g e a l u l c e r a t i o n ( 5 % ) , s t r i c t ur e f o r m a t i o n ( 4 % - 2 0 % ) , a n d t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f B a r r e t t c o l u m n a r - l i n e d esophagus (8%-20%).
D. Description 1 . U l c e r s i ze . T h e a v e r a g e d u o d e n a l u l c e r t yp i c a l l y h a s a d i a m e t e r < 1 c m ; m o s t g a s t r i c u l c e r s a r e s o m ewh a t l a r g e r ( 1 - 2 . 5 c m i n d i a m e t e r ) . 2 . M o s t u l c e r s a r e s h a r pl y d e m a r c a t e d a n d h a v e a r o u n d , o va l , o r e l l i p t i c a l s h a p e . 3 . T h e m u c os a s u r r o u n d i n g t h e u l c e r t yp i c a l l y i s i n f l a m e d a n d e d e m a t o u s . 4 . U l c e r s p en e t r a t e t h e m u s c u l a r i s p r o p ri a a n d , i n s o m e c a s e s , e xt e n d i n t o t h e serosa or even into the pancreas. 5 . F i b r o u s t is s u e , g r a n u l a t i o n t i s s u e , a n d n e c r o t i c d e b r i s f o r m t h e u l c e r b a s e . During ulcer healing, a scar forms as epithelium from the edges covers the ulcer surface. 6 . N e a r l y a l l d u o d e n a l u l c e r s a r e b en i g n ; u p t o 1 0 % o f g a s t r i c u l c e r s a r e m a l i g n a n t . E . C a u s e . T h e t wo m a j o r o b s e r v a t i o n s r e g a r d i n g P U D a r e t h e c a u s a l r e l a t i o n s h i p a m o n g N S A I D i n t a k e ; g as t r o d u o d e n a l m u c o s a l i n j u r y; t h e p a t h o g e n e s i s o f g a s t r i c u l c e r a n d , t o a l e s s e r ex t e n t , d u o d e n a l u l c e r ; a n d t h e a s s o c ia t i o n o f H e l i c o b a c t e r p yl o r i i n f e c t i o n i n t h e p a t h o g e n e s i s o f d u o d e n a l u l c e r ( a n d t o a l e s s e r ext e n t , gastric ulcer). 1. H. pylori (formerly Campylobacter pylori) is a gram-negative microaerophilic, s p i r a l b a c t e r i u m wi t h m u l t i p l e f l a g e l l a t h a t l i v e s a n d i n f e c t s t h e g a s t r i c m uc o s a . T h i s b a c t e r i u m i s a b l e t o s u r v i v e i n t h e a ci d i c g a s t r i c e n v i r o n m e n t b y i t s a b i l i t y t o p r o d u c e u r e a s e , wh i c h h yd r o l yz e s u r e a i n t o a m m o n i a . A m m o n i a n e u t r a l i z e s g a s t r i c h yd r o c h l o r i c a c i d ( H C l ) , c r e a t i n g a n e u t r a l c l o u d s u r r o u n d i n g t h e o r g a n i s m . a . I n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s, t h e p r e va l e n c e o f H . p y l o r i i n c r e a s e s wi t h a g e f r o m a p p r o x i m a t e l y 1 0 % a t 2 0 ye a r s o f a g e t o a p p r o xi m a t e l y 5 0 % a t 6 0 ye a r s o f a g e ; a p p r o x i m a t e l y 1 7 % o f H . p y l o r i - p o s i t i v e i n d i v i d u a l s wi l l d e v e l o p a d u o d e n a l u l c e r . Prevalence is higher in developing countries. P.1121
b . H . p y l o r i is a s s o c i a t ed wi t h s e v e r a l c o m m o n G I d i s o r d e r s. ( 1 ) A l wa ys p r e s e n t i n t he s e t t i n g o f a c t i v e c h r o n i c g a s t r i t i s ( 2 ) P r e s e n t in t h e v a s t m a j o r i t y o f d u o d e n a l ( > 9 0 % ) a n d g a s t r i c ( 6 0 % - 9 0 % ) u l c e r s . R e c e n t s t u d i e s i n d i c a t e a d e c l i n e i n t h e p r e v a l e n c e o f H . p y lo r i i n d u o d e n a l u l c e r patients. ( 3 ) S o m e t i m e s p r e s e n t wi t h n o n u l c e r d ys p e p s i a ( p r o b a b l y i n 5 0 % o f c as e s ) ; e r a d i c a t i o n o f H . p y l o r i , wh e n p r e s e n t , l e a d s t o s ym p t o m i m p r o v e m e n t i n o n l y a b o u t one half of treated patients. ( 4 ) I n g a st r ic c a n c e r , 8 5% - 9 5 % ( A l t h o u g h t h e a s s o c i a t i o n i s s t r o n g , n o ca u s a l r e l a t i o n s h i p h a s ye t b e e n p r o v e n i n g a s t r i c c a n ce r . T h e W o r ld H e a l t h O r g a n i z a t i o n h a s c l a s s i f i e d H . p y l o r i as a G r o u p 1 c a r c i n o g e n . ) c . H . p y l o r i e r a d i c a t i o n c a n c u r e p ep t i c u l c e r s an d r e d u c e u l c e r r e c u r r e n c e ; i t c a n eliminate the need for maintenance therapy in many ulcer patients. 2 . G en e t i c f a c t o r s a . T h e l i f et im e p r e v a l e n c e o f d e v e l o p i n g a n u l c e r i n f i r s t - d eg r e e r e l a t i ve s o f u l c e r p a t i e n t s i s ab o u t t h r e e f o l d g r e a t e r t ha n i n t h e g e n e r a l p o p u l a t i o n . T h i s m a y b e s e c o n d a r y t o c l u s t e r i n g o f H . p y l o r i wi t h i n f a m i l i e s .
b . P e o p l e wi t h b l o o d t yp e O h a v e a n a b o v e - n o r m a l i n c i d e n c e o f d u o d e n a l u l c e r s . 3 . S m o k i n g . S m o k e r s h av e a n i n c r e a s e d r i s k o f de v e l o p i n g p e p t i c u l c e r d i s e a s e . I n a d d i t i o n , c i g a r e t t e s m o k in g d e l a y s u l c e r h e a l i n g a n d i n c r e a s e s t h e r i s k an d r a p i d i t y o f r e l a p s e a f t e r t h e u l c e r h e a l s . N i co t i n e d e c r e a s e s b i l i a r y a n d p a n c r e a t i c b i c a r b o n a t e s e c r e t i o n . Sm o k i n g a l s o a c c e l e r a t e s t h e e m p t yi n g o f st o m a ch a c i d i n t o the duodenum. 4 . N S AI D s . W h e n i n g e s t e d c h r o n i c a l l y, a s p i r i n , i n d o m e t h a c i n , a n d o t h e r N S A I D s promote gastric ulcer formation. a . T h e s e d r u g s m a y i n j u r e t h e g a s t r i c m u c o s a b y a l l o wi n g b a c k - d i f f u s i o n o f h yd r o g e n i o n s i n t o t h e m u c o s a . b . N S A I D s a l s o i n h i b i t t h e s yn t h e s i s o f p r o s t a g l a n d i n s , wh i c h a r e s u b s t a nc e s wi t h a c yt o p r o t e c t i v e e f f e ct o n t h e m u c o s a . c . S e l e c t i v e c yc l o o x yg e n a s e 2 ( C O X- 2 ) i n h i b i t o r s , c e l e c o xi b o r r o f e c o xi b , a r e a s s o c i a t e d wi t h f e we r u l c e r s t h a n no n s e l e c t i v e N S A I D s , wi t h r a t e s c o m p a r a b l e t o p l a c e b o a t 3 m o n t h s . Q ue s t i o n s r e g a r d i n g l o n g - t e r m s a f e t y o f C O X- 2 i n h i b i t o r s r e m a i n . W i t h t h e r e c e n t d o c u m e n t a t i o n o f i n c r e a s i n g C O X- 2 e xp r e s s i o n wi t h t h e p r o g r e s s i o n o f B E t o c a nc e r , t r i a l s ha v e b e e n i n i t i a t e d u s i n g C O X- 2 s e l e c t i v e i n h i b i t o r s i n B E p a t i e n t s t o p r e v e n t de v e l o p m e n t o f c a n c e r . 5 . Al c o h o l . A k n o wn m u c o s a l i r r i t a n t , a l c o h o l c au s e s m a r k e d i r r i t a t i o n of t h e g a st r i c m u c o s a i f i ng e s t e d i n l a r g e q u a n t i t i e s a t c o n c e n t r a t i o n s o f 20 % o r g r e a t e r . T h e o n l y a s s o c i a t i o n b e t we e n e t h a n o l i n t a k e a n d u l c e r d i s e a s e e xi s t s i n p a t i e n t s wi t h p o r t a l cirrhosis. 6 . C o f f e e . Bo t h r e g u l a r a n d d e c a f f e i n a t e d c o f f e e c o n t a i n p e p t i d e s t h a t s t im u l a t e r e l e a s e o f g a s t r i n , a h o r m o n e t h a t t r i g g e r s t h e f lo w o f g a s t r i c j u i c e . H o we v e r , a d i r e c t l i n k be t we e n c o f f e e a n d p e p t i c u l c e r d i s e a s e h a s n o t b e e n p r o v e n . 7 . C o r t i c o s t e r o i d s . C o n t r o v e r s y o v e r wh e t h e r s ys t e m i c c o r t ic o s t e r o i d t he r a p y i s a s s o c i a t e d wi t h i n c r e a s e d r i s k f o r t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f p e pt i c u l c e r d i se a s e h a s , f or t h e m o s t p a r t , b e e n r e s o l v e d . E v i d e n c e f o r t h i s d i r e c t a s s o ci a t i o n h a s a l wa ys b e e n we a k i n p r e v i o u s r e t r o s p e c t i v e r e v i e ws / t r i a l s a n d r e f l e c t e d t h e c o n c u r r e n t u s e o f an N S A I D . C u r r e n t d a t a s u p p o r t n o l i n k b e t we e n s t e r o i d s a n d p e p t i c u l c e r d is e a s e i n t h e a b s e n c e o f c o n c u r r en t N S A I D u se . 8 . As s o c i a t e d d i s o r d e rs . P e p t i c u l ce r d i s e a s e i s m o r e c o m m o n i n p a t i e n t s wi t h h yp e r p a r a t h y r o i d i s m , e m p h ys e m a , r h e u m a t o i d a r t h r i t i s , a n d a l c o h o l i c c i r r h o s i s . 9 . Ad va n c e d a g e. D e g e n e r a t i o n o f t h e p yl o r u s p e r m i t s b i l e r e f l u x i n t o t h e s t o m a c h , creating an environment that favors ulcer formation. 1 0 . P s yc h o l o g i c a l f a c t o r s . O n c e a ss i g n e d k e y r o l e s i n t h e p a t h o g e n e s i s o f P U D, s t r e s s a n d pe r s o n a l i t y t yp e n o w a r e v i e we d a s r e l a t i v e l y m i n o r i n f l u e n c e s . F . P a t h o p h y s i o l o g y. U lc e r s d e v e l o p wh e n a n i m b a l a n c e e xi s t s b e t we e n f a c t o r s t ha t p r o t e c t g a s t r i c m u c o s a a n d f a c t o r s t h a t p r o m o t e m u c o s a l co r r o s i o n . A p p r o xi m a t e l y 9 0 % o f p a t i e n t s wi t h d u o d e n a l u l c e r a n d 7 0 % o f p a t i e n t s wi t h g a s t r i c u l ce r h a v e H . pylori infection. P.1122
1 . P r o t e c t i ve f a c t o r s
a . N o r m a l l y, t h e m u c o s a s e c r e t e s a t h i c k m u c u s t h a t s e r v e s a s a b a r r i e r b e t we e n l u m i n a l a c i d a n d e p i t h e l i a l c e l l s . T h is b a r r i e r s l o ws t h e i n wa r d m o v e m e n t o f h yd r o g e n i o n s a n d a l l o ws t h e i r n e u t r a l i z a t i o n b y b i c a r b o n a t e i o n s i n f l u i d s s e c r e t e d by the stomach and duodenum. b. Alkaline and neutral pancreatic biliary juices also help buffer acid entering the d u o d e n u m f r o m t h e st o m a c h . c. An intact mucosal barrier prevents back-diffusion of gastric acids into mucosal c e l l s . I t a l s o h a s t h e c a pa c i t y t o s t i m u l a t e l o c a l b l o o d f l o w, wh i c h b r i n g s n u t r i e n t s a n d o t h e r s u b s t a n c e s t o t h e a r e a a n d r e m o v e s t o xi c s u b s t a n c e s ( e . g . , h yd r o g e n i o n s ) . M u c os a l i n t e g r i t y a l s o p r o m o t e s c e l l g r o wt h a n d r e p a i r a f t e r l o c a l t r a u m a . 2 . C o r r o si ve f a c t o r s . Pe p t i c u l c e r d i s e a s e r e f l e c t s t h e i n a b i l i t y o f t h e ga s t r i c m u c o s a t o r e s i s t c o r r o s io n b y i r r i t a n t s , s u c h a s p e p s i n , H C l , a n d o t h e r g a s t r i c secretions. a . E x p o s u re t o g a s t r i c a c i d a n d p e p s i n i s n e ce s s a r y f o r u l c e r d e v e l o p m e n t . b . D i s r u p t e d m u co s a l b a r r i e r i n t e g r i t y a l l o ws g a s t r i c a c i ds t o d i f f u s e f r o m t h e l u m e n b a c k i n t o m u c o s a l c e l l s , wh e r e t h e y c a u s e i n j u r y. 3 . P h ys i o l o g i c a l d e f e c t s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h p e p t i c u l c e r d i s ea s e . R e s e a r c h e r s h a v e i d e n t i f i e d v a r i o u s p h ys i o l o g i c a l d e f e c t s i n p a t i e nt s wi t h d u o d e n a l a n d g a s t r i c u l c e r s. a . D u o d en a l u l c e r p a t i e n t s m a y h a v e t h e f o l l owi n g d e f e c t s : ( 1 ) I n c r e a s ed c a p a c i t y f o r g a s t r i c a ci d s e c r e t i o n ( a ) S o m e d uo d e n a l u l c e r p a t i e n t s h a v e u p t o t wi c e t h e n o r m a l n u m b e r o f p a r i e t a l c e l l s ( wh i c h p r o d u c e H C l ) . (b) Nearly 70% of duodenal ulcer patients have elevated serum levels of p e p s i n o g e n I a n d a c o r r e s p o n d i n g i n c r e a s e i n p e p s i n - s e c r e t i n g c a p a c i t y. ( 2 ) I n c r e a s ed p a r i e t a l c e l l r e s p o n s i v e n e s s t o g a s t r i n (3) Above-normal postprandial gastrin secretion ( 4 ) D e f e c t i ve i n h i b i t i o n o f g a s t r i n r el e a s e a t l o w p H , p o s s i b l y l e a d i n g t o f a i l u r e t o suppress postprandial acid secretion ( 5 ) A b o v e - n o r m a l r a t e of g a s t r i c e m p t yi n g , r e s u l t i n g i n d e l i v e r y o f a g r e a t e r a c i d load to the duodenum b . G a s t r i c u l c e r p a t i en t s t yp i c a l l y e xh i b i t t h e f o ll o wi n g c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s: ( a ) D e f i c i e n t g a s t r i c m u c o s a l r e s i s t a n c e , d i r e c t m u c o s a l i n j u r y, o r b o t h ( b ) E l e v a t e d s e r u m g a s t r i n l e v e l s ( i n a c i d h yp o s e c r e t o r s ) ( c ) D e c r e a s e d p yl o r i c p r e s s u r e a t r es t a n d i n r e sp o n s e t o a c i d o r f a t i n t h e duodenum ( d ) D e l a ye d g a s t r i c e m p t yi n g ( e ) I n c r e a s ed r e f l u x o f b i l e a n d o t h e r d u o d e n a l c o n t e n t s ( f ) S u b n o r m a l m u c o s a l l e v e l s o f p r os t a g l a n d i n s ( t h e s e l e v e l s n o r m a l i z e o n c e t h e ulcer heals) 4 . G E R D r eq u i r e s b o t h i n i t i a t i o n a n d p e r p e t u a t i o n o f t h e r e f lu x o f g a s t r i c c o n t e n t s . E s o p h a g i t i s d e v e l o p s wh e n n o x i o u s s u b s t a n c e s i n t h e r e f l u xa t e ( i . e . , a c id , p e p s i n ) a r e i n c o n t a c t wi t h t h e e s o p h a g e a l m u c o s a l o n g e n o u g h t o c a u s e i r r i t at i o n a n d inflammation. a . I n p a t i e n t s wi t h G E RD , 6 5 % o f r e f l u x e v e n t s o c c u r v i a t r a n s i e n t r e l a xa t i o n ( T L E S R ) . T he m a i n d i f f er e n c e b e t we e n n o r m a l i n d i v i d u a l s a n d t h o s e wi t h G E R D i s
t h e f r e q u e n c y o f T L E S R. G E R D p a t ie n t s h a v e m o r e f r e q u e n t a n d p r o l o n g e d T L E S R. T L ES R r e p r e s e n t s a d e c r e a s e i n l o we r e s o p h a g e a l s p h i n c t e r ( L E S ) p r es s u r e t h a t i s n o t a s s o c i a t e d wi t h s wa l l o wi n g o r p e r i s t a l s i s . b . O t h e r m ec h a n i s m s o f L E S i n c o m p e t e n c e a r e i n c r e a s e d a b d o m i n a l p r e s s u r e a n d s p o n t a n e o u s r e f l u x d u r i n g p e r i o d s o f v e r y l o w L E S p r e s s u r e. c . S u c h m o t i l i t y p r o b l e m s a r e p e r m i ss i v e — t h a t i s, t h e y a l l o w r e f l u x o f a c i d a n d o t h e r noxious substances. 5 . M a n y d i s e a s e s c a u s e d ys p e p t i c s ym p t o m s , i n c l u d i n g P U D , G E R D , g a st r i c c a n c e r , a n d b i l i a r y t r a c t d i s e a s e . H o we v e r , i n m a n y c a s e s , n o c l e a r p a t h o l o g i c a l r e a s o n f o r a p a t i e n t ' s sy m p t o m s c a n b e d e t e r m i n e d . D ys p e p s i a i n t h e a b s e n c e o f a n i d e n t i f i a b l e o r g a n i c c a u s e i s f r e q u e n t l y d e s c r i b e d a s “ f u n c t io n a l ” o r “ n o n u l c e r ” d ys p e p s i a . G . Cl i n i c a l p r e s e n t a t i o n . S i g n s a n d s ym p t o m s o f P U D v a r y wi t h t h e p a t i e n t ' s a g e a n d t h e l o c a t i o n o f t h e l e s i o n . O n l y a b o u t 5 0 % o f p a t i e n t s e xp e r i e n c e c l a s s i c u l c e r s ym p t o m s . T h e r e m a i n d e r a r e a s ym p t o m a t i c o r r e p o r t v a g u e o r a t yp i c a l s ym p t o m s . P.1123
1 . P a i n . P a t i e n t s t yp i c a l l y d e s c r i b e h e a r t b u r n o r a g n a wi n g , b u r n i n g , a c h i n g , o r cramp-like pain. Some patients report abdominal soreness or hunger sensations. It i s u n c l e a r wh e t h e r p e p t i c u l c e r p a i n r e s u l t s f r o m c h e m i c a l s t i m u l a t i o n o r f r o m spasm. a . D u o d en a l u l c e r p ai n u s u a l l y i s r e s t r i c t e d t o a s m a l l , m i de p i g a s t r i c a r e a n e a r t h e x i p h o i d . P a i n m a y r a d i a t e b e l o w t h e c o s t a l m a r g i n s i n t o t h e ba c k o r t h e r ig h t s h o u l d e r . P a i n f r o m a du o d e n a l u l c e r f r e q u e n t l y a wa k e n s t h e p a t i e n t b e t we e n m i d n i g h t a n d 2 A . M . ; i t i s a l m o s t n ev e r p r e s e n t b e f o r e b r e a k f a s t . b. Gastric ulcer pain is less localized. It may be referred to the left subcostal region. Gastric ulcer rarely produces nocturnal pain. c . G E R D p a t i e n t s m o st c o m m o n l y p r e s e n t wi t h h e a r t b u r n , b e l c h i n g , r e g u r g i t a t i o n , o r wa t e r b r a s h ; a t yp i c a l p re s e n t a t i o n s i n c l u d e c h e s t p a i n , h o a r s e n e s s / l a r yn g i t i s , l o s s o f d e n t a l e n a m e l , a s t h m a , c h r o n i c co u g h , o r d ys p e p s i a . C o m p l i c a t i o n s o f G E R D i n c l u d e e s o p h a g e a l u l c e r a t i o n , s t r ic t u r e s , B E , a n d a d e n o c a r c i n o m a o f t h e esophagus or esophagogastric junction. d . D ys p e p s i a a p p l i e s b r o a d l y t o a r a n g e o f s ym p t o m s , i n c l ud i n g a b d o m i n a l o r r e t r o s t e r n a l p a i n a n d d i s c o m f o r t , h ea r t b u r n , n a u s e a , v o m i t i ng , a n d o t h e r s ym p t o m s r e f e r a b l e t o t h e p r o xi m a l G I t r a c t . e . F o o d u s ua l l y r e l i e v e s d u o d e n a l u l c e r p a i n b u t m a y c a u s e g a s t r i c u l c e r p a i n . T h i s f i n d i n g m a y e x p l a i n wh y d u o d e n a l u l c e r p a t i e n t s t e n d t o g a i n we i g h t , wh e r e a s g a s t r i c u l c e r p a t i e n t s m ay l o s e we i g h t . P a i n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c a l l y o c c u r s 9 0 m i n t o 3 h r a f t e r m e a l s in d u o d e n a l u l c e r p a t i e n t s , wh e r e a s p a i n i n g a s t r i c u l c e r p a t ie n t s i s usually present 45-60 min after a meal. Food aggravates reflux disease. 2 . N a u s e a a n d vo m i t i n g m a y o c c u r wi t h e i t h e r u l c e r t yp e . 3 . D i s e a s e c o u r s e . B o t h d u o d e n a l a n d g a s t r i c u l c e r s t e n d t o b e c h r o n i c , wi t h s p o n t a n e o u s r e m i s s i o n s a n d e xa c e r b a t i o n s . W i t h i n a ye a r o f t h e i n i t i a l s ym p t o m s , most patients experience a relapse.
a. In many cases, relapse is seasonal, occurring more often in the spring and autumn. b . A l l p a t i e n t s wi t h a c o n f i r m e d d u o d e n a l o r g a s t r i c u l c e r s h o u l d b e t e s t e d f o r H . p y l o r i i n f e c t i o n . I f t h e p at i e n t i s H. py l o r i - p o s i t i v e , e r a d i c a t i o n t h e r a p y wi l l r e d u c e the recurrence rate significantly and preclude the need for maintenance medication. c . G E R D i s a l s o a c h r o n i c d i s e a s e ; m o s t p a t i e n t s wi t h r e f l u x e s o p h a g i t i s wh o a r e h e a l e d wi t h a n t i s e c r e t o r y d r u g t h e r a p y wi l l e xp e r i e n c e a r e c u r r e n c e wi t h i n 6 m o n t h s o f d i s c o n t i n u a t i o n o f t he h e a l i n g r e g i m e n . M a i n t e n a n c e t h e r a p y r e d u c e s t h e recurrence of esophagitis. H . C l i n i c a l e va l u a t i o n 1 . P h ys i c a l f i n d i n g s. Pa t i e n t s wi t h p e p t i c u l c e r d i s e a s e m a y e xh i b i t s u p e r f i c i a l a n d deep epigastric tenderness and voluntary muscle guarding. With duodenal ulcer, p a t i e n t s a l s o m a y s h o w u n i l a t e r a l s p a s m o v e r t h e d u o d e n a l b u l b . G a s t r ic u l c e r p a t i e n t s m a y h a v e we i g h t l o s s . 2. Diagnostic test results a . B l o o d t es t s m a y s h o w h y p o c h r o m i c a n e m i a . b . S t o o l t e st s m a y d e t e c t o c c u l t b l o o d i f t h e u l ce r i s c h r o n i c. c . G a s t r i c se c r e t i o n t e s t s m a y r e v e a l h yp e r s e c r e t i o n o f HC l i n d u o d e n a l u l c e r p a t i e n t s a n d n o r m a l o r s u b n o r m a l H C l s e c r e t i o n i n g a s t r i c u lc e r p a t i e n t s . d . U p p e r G I s e r i e s ( b a r i u m x - r a y) r e v e a l s t h e u l c e r c r a t e r i n u p t o 8 0 % o f c a s e s . Duodenal bulb deformity suggests a duodenal ulcer. e . U p p e r G I e n d o s c o p y, t h e m o s t sp e c i f i c t e s t , m a y b e d o n e i f b a r i u m x- r a y yi e l d s i n c o n c l u s i v e r e s u l t s . T h is p r o c e d u r e c o n f i r m s a n u l c e r i n a t l e a s t 9 5 % o f c a s e s a n d m a y d e t e c t u l c e r s n o t de m o n s t r a b l e b y r a d i o g r a p h y. f . Bi o p s y m i g h t b e n e c e s s a r y t o d e t e r m i n e wh e t h e r a g a s t r ic u l c e r i s m a l i g n a n t . g . H . p y l o r i s t a t u s i s d e t e r m i n e d b y n o n i n v a s i v e t e s t s ( n o t r e q u i r i n g e n d o s c o p y) o r i n v a s i v e m e t h o d s ( r e q u i r i n g e n d o s c o p y) . ( 1 ) N o n i n va s i ve . S e r o l o g y, t h e t e s t o f c h o i c e wh e n e n d o s c o p y i s n o t i n d i c a t e d , i s i n e x p e n s i v e . S e v e r a l o f f i c e t e s t s a r e a v a i l a b l e . B r e a t h t e s t s ca n a l s o b e u s e d t o d e t e c t t h e or g a n i s m a n d a r e u n i q u e l y s u i t e d a s n o n i n v a s i v e m e a n s o f co n f i r m i n g e r a d i c a t i o n o f H . p y l o r i a f t e r t h e r a p y. F a l s e - n e g a t i v e b r e a t h t e s t s m a y o c c u r i n p a t i e n t s r e c e i v i n g p r o t o n p u m p i n h i b i t o r s , a n t i bi o t i c s , o r b i s m u t h c o m p o u n d s . ( 2 ) I n va s i ve . T h e s e m e t h o d s i n c l u d e h i s t o l o g i c a l v i s u a l i z a t i o n o f H . p y lo r i o r m e a s u r e m e n t o f u r e a s e a c t i v i t y, wh i c h r e q u i r e b i o p s y. P.1124
I . T r e a t m e n t o b j e c t i ve s 1 . R e l i e v e p a i n a n d o t h e r s ym p t o m s a n d p r o m o t e h e a l i n g 2 . P r e v e n t co m p l i c a t i o n s 3 . M i n i m i z e r e c u r r e n c e ( e r a d i c a t e H . p y l o r i i n P UD ) 4. Maintain adequate nutrition 5 . T e a c h t h e p a t i e n t a b o u t t h e d i s e a s e t o i m p r ov e t h e r a p e u t i c c o m p l i a n c e 6. Maintain the patient symptom free
II. THERAPY A. D r u g t h er a p y. P e p t i c u l c e r p a t i e n t s u s u a l l y a r e t r e a t e d wi t h a n t a c i d s , h i s t a m i n e -
2 - ( H 2 ) r e c ep t o r a n t a g o n i s t s , o r p r ot o n p u m p i n h i b i t o r s ; o t he r d r u g s a r e a d d e d a s n e c e s s a r y. D r u g r e g i m e n s t h a t s u p p r e s s n o c t u r na l a c i d s e c r e t i o n a r e f ou n d t o r e s u l t i n t h e h i g h e s t d u o d e n a l u l c e r h e a l i n g r a t e s . D r u g t h e r a p y t yp i c a l l y p r o v i d e s p r o m p t s ym p t o m a t i c r e l i e f a n d p r o m o t e s u l ce r h e a l i n g wi t h i n 4 - 6 we e k s ( F i g u r e 5 2 - 1 ) . G E R D m a n a g e m e n t r e q u i r e s m o r e ag g r e s s i v e a c i d s u p p r e s s i o n r e g i m e n s ; t h e p h a r m a c o d y n a m i c e n d p o i n t i s t o m ai n t a i n t h e p H i n t h e e s op h a g u s a t 4 o r m o r e (Figure 52-2). 1 . An t a c i d s . T h e s e c o m p o u n d s , wh i c h n e u t r a l i z e g a s t r i c a c id , a r e u s e d t o t r e a t u l c e r p a i n a n d h e a l t h e u l c e r . S t u d ie s s h o w a n t a c i d s a n d H 2 - r e c e p t o r an t a g o n i s t s t o b e e q u a l l y e f f e c t i v e. A nt a c i d s a r e a v a i l a b l e a s m a g n e s i u m, a l u m i n u m , o r c a l c i u m. T h e m o s t wi d e l y u s e d a n t a c i d s a r e m i xt u r e s o f a l u m i n u m h yd r o xi d e a n d m a g n e s i u m h yd r o x i d e ( T a b l e 5 2 - 1 ) . D u o d e n a l u l c e r s r a r e l y o c c u r i n t h e a b s e n c e o f a c i d o r wh e n t h e h o u r l y m a xi m u m a c i d o u t p u t i s < 1 0 m E q . P ep t i c a c t i v it y d e c r e a s e s a s a c i d i t y decreases; experimental ulcer formation is inhibited by antacids; and acid-reducing operations cure ulcers. a . M e c h a n i s m o f a c t i o n a n d t h e r a p e u t i c e f f ec t s . A n t a c i ds r e d u c e t h e c o n c e n t r a t i o n a n d t o t a l lo a d o f a c i d i n t h e g a s t r i c c o n t e n t s . By i n c r e a s i n g g a s t r i c p H , a n t a c i d s a l s o i n h i b i t p e p s i n a c t iv i t y. I n a d d i t i o n , t h e y s t r e n g t h e n t h e g a s t r i c mucosal barrier. b. Choice of agent ( 1 ) N o n s ys t e m i c a n t a c i d s ( e . g . , m a g n e s i u m o r a l u m i n u m s u b s t a n c e s ) a r e p r e f e r r e d t o s ys t e m i c a n t a c i d s ( e . g . , s o d i u m bi c a r b o n a t e ) f o r i n t e n s i v e u l c e r t h e r ap y b e c a u s e they avoid the risk of alkalosis. ( 2 ) L i q u i d an t a c i d f o r m s h a v e a g r e a t e r b u f f e r in g c a p a c i t y t h a n t a b l e t s . H o we v e r , t a b l e t s a r e m o r e c o n v e n i e n t t o c a r r y. W i t h e i t h e r d o s a g e f o r m , t h e s i ze a n d frequency of doses may limit patient compliance. ( 3 ) An t a c i d m i x t u r e s ( e. g . , a l u m i n u m h yd r o x i d e wi t h m a g n e s i u m h yd r o x i d e ) p r o v i d e m o r e e v e n , s u s t a i n e d a c t i o n t h a n s in g l e - a g e n t a n t a c i d s a n d p e r m i t a lo we r d o s a g e o f e a c h c o m p o u n d . I n a d d i t i o n , c o m p o u n d s i n a m i xt u r e m a y i n t e r a c t s o a s t o n e g a t e e a c h o t h e r ' s u n t o wa r d e f f e c t s. F o r i ns t a n c e , t h e c o n s t i p a t i n g e f f e ct o f a l u m i n u m h yd r o x i d e m a y c o u n t e r t h e d i a r r h e a t h a t m a g n e s i u m h yd r o xi d e f r e q u e n t l y p r o d u c e s . (4) Calcium carbonate usually is avoided because it causes acid rebound, may d e l a y p a i n r e l i e f a n d u l c e r h e a l i n g , a n d i n d u c e s c o n s t i p a t i o n . A n o t h e r po t e n t i a l a d v e r s e e f f ec t o f t h i s c om p o u n d i s h yp e r c a l c e m i a ; t h e r i sk i s i n c r e a s e d i f c a l c i u m c a r b o n a t e i s t a k e n wi t h m i l k o r a n o t h e r a l k a l i n e s u b s t a n c e . T h e m i l k - a l ka l i s yn d r o m e ( i . e . , h yp e r c a l c e m i a , a l k a l o s i s , a z o t e m i a , n e p h r o c a l c i n o s i s ) c a n a l s o o cc u r . c . Ad m i n i s t r a t i o n a n d d o s a g e ( 1 ) A n t a c i d s d i f f e r g r e a t l y i n a c i d - n e u t r a l i z i n g c a p a c i t y ( A N C ) , d e f i n e d as t h e n u m b e r o f m i l l i e q u i v a l e n t s ( m E q ) o f a 1 N s o l u t io n o f H C l t ha t c a n b e b r o u g h t t o a p H o f 3 . 5 i n 1 5 m i n . F o r m o s t d u o d e n a l u l c e r p a t i e n t s , a p p r o xi m a t e l y 5 0 m E q / h r o f available antacid is needed for ongoing neutralization of gastric contents. T h e r ef o r e , t h e r e q u i r e d d o s a g e d e p e n d s o n t h e A N C o f t h e s p e c i f i c a n t a c i d .
( 2 ) I n t h e f as t i n g s t a t e, a n t a c i d s h a v e o n l y a t r a n s i e n t i n t r a g a s t r i c b u f f e r i n g e f f e c t ( 1 5 - 2 0 m i n ) . W h e n i n g e s t e d 1 h r a f t er a m e a l , t he y h a v e a m u c h m o r e p r o l o n g e d effect, about 3-4 hr; therefore, they should optimally be taken 1 and 3 hr after meals a n d b e f o r e s l e e p . C o n s e q u e n t l y, t h e t yp i c a l a n t a c i d r e g i m e n c a l l s f o r do s e s 1 a n d 3 hr after meals and at bedtime. P.1125
Figure 52-1. Treatment strategy for management of duodenal ulcer. CLO, Campylobacter-like organism; DU, duodenal ulcer; GI, gastrointestinal; NSAIDs, nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs.
(3) Dosage ( a ) B e c a u s e t h e A N C of a n t a c i d p r o d u c t s v a r i e s wi d e l y, n o s t a n d a r d d o s a g e c a n b e g i v e n i n t e r m s o f m i l l i l i t e r s o f s u s p e n s i o n o r n u m b e r o f t a b l e t s . H o we v e r , p a t i e n t s wi t h d u o d e n a l u l c e r s g e n e r a l l y r e q u i r e i n d i v i d u a l d o s a g e s o f 8 0 - 1 6 0 m E q o f A N C ( e q u i v a l e n t t o 3 0 - 6 0 m L o f M yl a n t a o r M a a l o x) . T h u s t h e t o t a l d a i l y d o s a g e m a y b e a s m u c h a s 4 2 0 m L o f M yl a n t a o r M a a l o x i f t h e s t a n d a r d s e v e n t i m e s - d a i l y d o s i n g r e g i m e n i s u s e d . B e c a u s e o f t h e l a r ge d o s e s r e q u i r e d , i n c r e a s e i n a d v e r s e e f f e ct s , n e e d f o r f r eq u e n t a d m i n i s t r a t i o n , a nd p o o r p a t i e n t c o m p l i a n c e , t h e i r r o l e i n t h e management of PUD is limited. ( b ) A n t a c i d t h e r a p y u s u a l l y c o n t i n u e s f o r 6 - 8 we e k s . d . P r e c a u t i o n s an d m o n i t o r i n g e f f e c t s (1) Calcium carbonate- and magnesium-containing antacids should be used c a u t i o u s l y i n p a t i e n t s wi t h s e v e r e r e n a l d i s e a s e . P.1126
Figure 52-2. Treatment strategy for management of gastroesophageal reflux disease. EGD, esophagogastroduodenoscopy; H2RA, histamine 2-receptor antagonist; OTC, over the counter; PPI, proton pump inhibitor. [Adapted with permission from Peterson WL. GERD evidencebased therapeutic strategies [AGA Consensus Development Panel], 2002. Available at www.gastro.org/userassets/documents/GERDmonograph.pdf.]
( 2 ) S o d i u m b i c a r b o n a t e i s c o n t r a i n d i c a t e d i n p a t i e n t s wi t h h yp e r t e n s i o n , c o n g e s t i v e h e a r t f a i l u r e ( C H F ) , s e ve r e r e n a l d i s e a s e , a n d e d e m a . I t s ho u l d n o t b e u s e d f o r u l c e r t h e r a p y. ( 3 ) A l l a n t a ci d s s h o u l d b e u s e d c a u t i o u s l y i n e l d e r l y p a t i e n t s ( p a r t i c u l a r l y t h o s e wi t h d e c r e a s e d G I m o t i l i t y) a n d r e n a l l y i m p a i r e d p a t i e n t s . ( 4 ) A l u m i n u m - c o n t a i n i n g a n t a c i d s sh o u l d b e u s e d c a u t i o u s l y i n p a t i e n t s wh o s u f f e r f r o m d e h yd r a t i o n o r i n t e s t i n a l o b s t r u c t i o n . P.1127
Table 52-1. Comparison of Common Antacids
Brand Name
Acid-Neutralizing Therapeutic Amount Sodium Capacity (mEq/mL (140 mEq) (mL or Content (mg/5 or tablet) number of tablets) mL or tablet) Concentrated liquids
Aluminum hydroxide, magnesium hydroxide Maalox TC
5.4
26
0.035
Aluminum hydroxide, magnesium hydroxide, simethicone Mylanta DS
5.0
28 Regular liquids
Aluminum hydroxide, magnesium hydroxide, simethicone
0.050
Gelusil
2.4
58
0.090
Maalox Plus
2.6
54
0.040
Mylanta
2.5
56
0.030
Riopan Plus
3.0
47
0.013
2.0
70
0.100
Aluminum hydroxide Amphojel
Tablets Aluminum hydroxide, magnesium hydroxide, simethicone Gelusil II
21
6.7
0.00
Maalox Plus
11.4
12.2
0.00
Riopan Plus
13.5
10.4
0.00
Maalox Extra Strength
23.4
6.0
0.040
Tums
10.0
14
0.00
Tums E-X
15.0
9.3
0.11
Titralac
7.5
18.7
0.00
Calcium carbonate
Calcium carbonate and magnesium hydroxide Rolaids
8.5
16.5
0.040
Mylanta Max Strength
24.0
5.8
0.026
16.0
8.75
0.080
Aluminum hydroxide Amphojel
( 5 ) T h e c o m b i n a t i o n o f c a l c i u m c a r b o n a t e wi t h a n a l k a l i n e s u b s t a n c e ( e . g . , s o d i u m b i c a r b o n a t e ) a n d m i l k m a y c a u s e t h e m i l k - a l k a l i s yn d r o m e . ( 6 ) A l wa ys c h e c k b r a n d n a m e e x t e n s i o n p r o d u c t s f o r m a j o r in g r e d i e n t c h a n g e s ( i . e . , M a a l o x T o t al S t o m a c h Re l i e f c o n t a i n s b i s m u t h su b s a l i c yl a t e ) . (7) Chronic administration of calcium carbonate-containing antacids should be a v o i d e d b e c a u s e o f h yp e r c a l c e m i a a n d c a l c i u m i o n s t i m u l a t i o n o f a c i d se c r e t i o n . ( 8 ) A l u m i n u m o r m a g n e s i u m t o x i c i t y i s u n l i k e l y i n p a t i e n t s wi t h n o r m a l r e n a l f u n c t i o n . T he e n c e p h a l o p a t h y o f t i s su e d e p o s i t i o n o f a l u m i n u m o c c u r s o nl y i n d i a l ys i s p a t i e n t s r e c e i v i n g a l u m i n u m h yd r o x i d e f o r c o n t r o l o f h yp e r p h o s p h a t e m i a . C h r o n i c u s e o f m a g n e s i u m - c o n t a i n i n g a n t a c i d s i s n o t a d v i sa b l e i n p a t i e n t s wi t h r e n a l i n s u f f i c i e n c y. (9) Constipation can occur in patients using calcium carbonate- and aluminumcontaining antacids. (10) Diarrhea is a common adverse effect of magnesium-containing antacids. If d i a r r h e a o c c u r s , t h e p a t i e n t m a y a l t e r n a t e t h e a n t a c i d m i xt u r e wi t h a l u m i n u m h yd r o x i d e . ( 1 1 ) H yp o p h o s p h a t e m i a a n d o s t e o m a l a c i a c a n o c c u r wi t h l o n g - t e r m u s e o f a l u m i n u m h yd r o x i d e , b u t t h e s e c o nd i t i o n s c a n a l s o o c c u r wi t h s h o r t - t e r m u s e i n s ev e r e l y m a l n o u r i s h e d p a t i e n t s , su c h a s a l c o h o l i c s . e . S i g n i f i c a n t i n t e r a c t i o n s . B e c a u s e a n t a c i d s a l t e r g a s t r i c p H a n d a f f ec t a b s o r p t i on o f i n g e s t e d s u b s t a n c e s , t h e y h a v e a h i g h p o t e n t i a l f o r d r u g in t e r a c t i o n s . T o e n s u r e c o n s i s t e n t ab s o r p t i o n a n d t h e r a p e u t i c e f f i c a c y, o r a l l y a d m i n i s t e r e d d r u g s s h o u l d b e given 30-60 min before antacids. P.1128
( 1 ) A n t a c i d s b i n d wi t h t e t r a c yc l i n e an d f l u o ro q u i n o l o n e s , i n h i b i t i n g t h e a b s o r p t i o n a n d r e d u c i n g t h e r a p e u t i c e f f i c a c y.
( 2 ) A n t a c i d s m a y d e s t r o y t h e c o a t i n g o f e n t e ri c - c o a t e d d r u g s , l e a d i n g t o p r e m a t u r e drug dissolution in the stomach. ( 3 ) A n t a c i d s m a y i n t e r f e r e wi t h t h e a b s o r p t i o n o f m a n y d r u g s , i n c l u d i n g c i m e t i d i n e, r a n i t i d i n e , d i g o x i n , i so n i a z i d , a n t i c h o l i n e r g i cs , i ro n p ro d u c t s , a n d p h e n o t h i a zi n e s ( s e e I I . A . 2 . e . ( 3 ) ) . ( 4 ) A n t a c i d s m a y r e d u c e t h e t h e r a p e u t i c e f f e ct s o f s u c r a l f a t e ( s e e I I . A. 3 . d ) . 2 . H 2 - r e c e p t o r a n t ag o n i s t s . T h e s e d r u g s m a y b e p r e f e r r e d t o o t h e r a n t iu l c e r a g e n t s b e c a u s e o f t h e i r c o n v e n i e n c e a n d l a c k o f e f f e ct o n G I m o t i l i t y. A l t h o u g h r e a s o n a b l y e f f e c t i v e i n t r e a t i n g m i l d t o m o d e r a t e G E R D s ym p t o m s , H 2 - r e c e p t o r a n t a g o n i s t s a r e less reliable for healing erosive esophagitis. All current choices require multiple, d i v i d e d d o s e s f o r G E RD m a n a g e m e n t . a . M e c h a n i s m o f a c t i o n a n d t h e r a p e u t i c e f f ec t s . H 2 - r e c e p t o r a n t a g o n i s t s c o m p e t i t i v e l y i n h i b i t t h e a c t i o n o f h i st a m i n e a t p ar i e t a l c e l l r e c e p t o r s i t e s, r e d u c i n g t h e v o l u m e a n d h yd r o g e n i o n c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f ga s t r i c a c i d se c r e t i o n s ( F i g u r e 5 2 - 3 a n d T a b l e 52 - 2 ) . T h e s e a g o n i s t s a c c e l e r a t e t h e h e a l i n g o f m o s t u l c e r s. b . C h o i c e o f a g e n t . C i m e t i d i n e ( T a g a m e t ) , r an i t i d i n e ( Z an t a c ) , f a m o t i d i n e ( P e p c i d ) , o r n i z a t i d i n e ( Ax i d ) m a y b e a d m i n i s t e r e d t o t r e a t p e p t i c u l c e r s o r h yp e r s e c r e t o r y s t a t e s ( e . g . , Z o l l i n g e r - E l l i s o n s yn d r o m e ) . ( 1 ) C i m e t i d i n e , t h e f i r st H 2 - r e c e p t o r a n t a g o n i s t a p p r o v e d f o r c l i n i c a l u s e , r e d u c e s gastric acid secretion by approximately 50% (at a total daily dosage of 1000 mg). ( 2 ) R a n i t i d i n e , a m o r e p o t e n t d r u g , c a u s e s a 70 % r e d u c t i o n i n g a s t r i c a c i d secretion (at a total daily dosage of 300 mg). ( 3 ) F a m o t i d i n e i s t h e m o s t p o t e n t H 2 - r e c e p t o r an t a g o n i s t . Af t e r a 4 0 - m g d o s e , m e a n n o c t u r n a l g a s t r i c a c i d s e c r e t i o n i s r ed u c e d b y 9 4 % f o r u p t o 1 0 h r . ( 4 ) N i z a t i d i n e , t h e n e we s t H 2 - r e c e p t o r a n t a g o n i s t , m a y b e u s e d t o t r e a t a n d p r e v e n t recurrence of duodenal ulcers.
Figure 52-3. Sites of drug action in a parietal cell. HCl, hydrochloric acid; PPIs, proton pump inhibitors.
P.1129
Table 52-2. H2-Receptor Antagonists
Characteristic
Cimetidine (Tagamet)
Ranitidine (Zantac)
Famotidine Nizatidine (Pepcid) (Axid)
Ring structure
Imidazole
Furan
Thiazole
Thiazole
Relative potency
1
4-10
4-10
20-50
Active ulcer
800
300
40
300
Maintenance
400
150
20
150
Bioavailability (F) (%)
60-70
50-60
40-45
90-100
Peak time (tmax) (hr)
1-3
1-3
1-3.5
0.5-3
Volume of distribution (L/kg)
1
1.4
1.1-1.4
0.8-1.6
Protein binding (%)
20
15
15-22
32-35
Renal elimination (%)
60-75
30 oral; 70 intravenous
65-70
65-75
Normal
2
2-3
2.5-4
1.6
Anuric
4-5
4-10
20+
6-8.5
Clearance (L/h)
30-48
46
19-29
40-60
Evening dose (mg)
Half-life (hr)
Reprinted with permission from Hurwitz A. Clinical pharmacology of agents
for the treatment of acid-related disorders. In Zakim D, Dannenberg AJ, eds. Peptic Ulcer Disease and Other Acid-Related Disorders. New York, Academic Research Associates, 1991:343.
c . Ad m i n i s t r a t i o n a n d d o s a g e (1) Cimetidine usually is administered orally in a dosage of 300 mg four times daily ( wi t h m e a l s a n d a t b e d t i m e ) f o r u p t o 8 we e k s . ( a ) A l t e r n a t iv e l y, d u o d e n a l u l c e r p a t i e n t s m a y r e c e i v e 4 0 0 m g t wi c e d a i l y o r 8 0 0 m g a t b e d t i m e . A n 8 0 0 - m g b e d t i m e d o s e i s a l s o e f f e c t i v e i n t r ea t i n g g a s t r i c u l c e r s . ( b ) H o s p i t a l iz e d p a t i e n t s m a y r e c e i v e p a r e n t e r a l d o s e s o f 3 00 m g i n t r a v en o u s l y every 6 hr. ( c ) F o r d u o d e n a l u l c e r p r o p h yl a x i s , 4 0 0 m g m a y b e g i v e n o r a l l y a t b e d t i m e . ( H o we v e r , i n 2 0 % - 4 0 % o f p a t i e n t s , t h e u l c e r r ec u r s d e s p i t e c i m e t i d i n e p r o p h yl a xi s . ) I s F D A - a p p r o v e d f o r p r ev e n t i o n o f UG I B a t 5 0 m g / h o u r a s a c o n t i n u o u s i n f u s i o n . ( 2 ) R a n i t i d i n e u s u a l l y i s g i v e n o r a l l y i n a d o s a g e o f 1 5 0 m g t wi c e d a i l y. D u o d e n a l u l c e r p a t i e n t s m a y r e c e i v e 3 0 0 m g a t b e d t i m e , a l t e r n a t i v e l y. T h e r a p y c o n t i n u e s f o r u p t o 8 we e k s . (a) Hospitalized patients may receive ranitidine by the intravenous or intramuscular route (50 mg every 6-8 hr). ( b ) P r o p h yl a c t i c t h e r a p y m a y b e a d m i n i s t e r e d t o r e d u c e t h e r i s k o f u l c e r r e c u r r e n c e . T h e a p p r o v e d p r o p h yl a c t i c d o s a g e i s 1 5 0 m g a t b e d t i m e . ( c ) R a n i t i d i n e 1 5 0 m g t wi c e d a i l y c a n b e a d m i n i s t e r e d t o m a i n t a i n h e a l i n g o f e r o s i ve esophagitis; for this purpose, it is better than placebo but less effective than the proton pump inhibitors. ( d ) R a n i t i d i n e b i s m u t h c it r a t e , c o m b i n e d wi t h a n t i b i o t i c s s u c h a s c l a r i t h r om yc i n , i s i n d i c a t e d f o r e r a d i c a t i o n o f H . p y l o r i i n p a t i e n t s wi t h d u o d e n a l u l c e r . (3) Famotidine, administered to duodenal ulcer patients, is given in an oral dosage o f 4 0 m g a t b e d t i m e f o r a c u t e t h e r a p y f o r a m a xi m u m o f 8 we e k s . F o r p r o p h yl a c t i c t h e r a p y, t h e d o s a g e i s 2 0 m g a t b e dt i m e . (a) Hospitalized patients may receive an intravenous injection of 20 mg every 12 hr. ( b ) A s wi t h c i m e t i d i n e a n d r a n i t i d i n e , t h e u l c e r m a y r e c u r a f t e r d r u g d i sc o n t i n u a t i o n . (4) Nizatidine, for the treatment of duodenal ulcers, is given orally in a dosage of 3 0 0 m g o n c e d a i l y a t b e d t i m e o r 1 50 m g t wi c e d a i l y f o r u p t o 8 we e k s . F o r p r o p h y l a c t i c t h e r a p y, t he d o s a g e i s 1 5 0 m g a t be d t i m e . d . P r e c a u t i o n s an d m o n i t o r i n g e f f e c t s
( 1 ) R a n i t i d i n e m u s t b e us e d c a u t i o u s l y i n p a t i e n t s wi t h h e p a t i c i m p a i r m en t . H e p a t o t o xi c i t y i s u n u s u a l a n d o c c u r s m o s t o f t e n d u r i n g i n t r a v e o u s a d m i n i s t r a t i o n . C i m e t i d i n e h a s a l s o b e e n a s s o c i a t e d wi t h h e p a t o t o xi c i t y. P.1130
( 2 ) C i m e t i d i n e m a y c a u s e s u c h h e m a t o l o g i c a l d i s o r d e r s a s t h r o m b o c yt o p e n i a , a g r a n u l o c yt o s i s , a n d a p l a s t i c a n e m i a . ( 3 ) A l l o f t he s e a g e n t s m a y c a u s e h e a d a c h e a n d d i z z i n e s s . C i m e t i d i n e a d d i t i o n a l l y m a y l e a d t o c o n f u s i o n , p a r t i c u l a r l y i f p a t i e n t s a r e > 6 0 ye a r s o f a g e o r if t h e d o s a g e i s n o t a d j u s t e d f o r p a t i en t s wi t h d e c r e a s e d k i d n e y o r l i v e r f u n c t i o n . A l l a g e n t s r e q u i r e d o s a g e r e d u c t i o n s i n p a t i e n t s wi t h i m p a i r e d r e n a l f u n c t i o n . ( 4 ) C i m e t i d i n e h a s a we a k a n d r o g e n i c e f f e ct , p o s s i b l y r e s u l t i n g i n m a l e g yn e c o m a s t i a a n d i m p o t e n c e . ( 5 ) C i m e t i d i n e a n d r a n i t i d i n e r a r e l y c a n c a u s e b r a d yc a r d i a , wh i c h i s r e ve r s i b l e o n d i s c o n t i n u a t i o n o f t h e r ap y. ( 6 ) E v a l u a t e H . p y l o r i s t a t u s i n a n y p a t i e n t wi t h c o n f i r m e d u l c e r d i s e a s e ; e r a d i c a t i o n o f H . p y l o r i r e d u c e s t h e n e e d f o r m a i n t e n a n c e t h e r a p y i n p a t i e n t s wi t h d u o d e n a l o r g a s t r i c u l c e r s . P at i e n t s wi t h c o m p l i c a t e d u l c e r d i s e a s e s h o u l d c o n t i n u e m a i n t e n a n c e t h e r a p y u n t i l t h e e r a d i c a t i o n o f H . p yl o r i . (7) Tolerance develops frequently to histamine 2-receptor antagonists (H2RAs) and may explain diminished responses to these agents over time. e. Significant interactions ( 1 ) C i m e t i d i n e b i n d s t h e c yt o c h r o m e P 4 5 0 s ys t e m o f t h e l i v er a n d t h u s m a y i n t e r f e r e wi t h t h e m e t a b o l i s m o f su c h d r u g s a s p h e n yt o i n , t h e o p h yl l i n e , p h en o b a r b i t a l , l i d o c a i n e , w ar f a r i n , i m i p r a m i n e , d i a z e p a m , a n d p r o p r an o l o l . ( 2 ) C i m e t i d i n e d e c r e a s e s h e p a t i c b l o o d f l o w, p o s s i b l y r e s u l t i n g i n r e d u c e d c l e a r a n c e o f p ro p r a n o l o l a n d l i d o c a i n e . ( 3 ) An t a c i d s i m p a i r a b s o r p t i o n o f c im e t i d i n e a n d r a n i t i d i n e a n d s h o u l d b e g i v e n 1 h r apart from these drugs. ( 4 ) C i m e t i d i n e i n h i b i t s t h e e xc r e t i o n o f p r o c a i n a m i d e b y c o m p e t i n g wi t h t h e d r u g f o r the renal proximal tubular secretion site. 3 . S u c r a l f a t e ( C a r a f a t e ) . T h i s m u c os a l p r o t e c t an t i s a n o n a b s o r b a b l e d i s a c c h a r i d e containing sucrose and aluminum. a . M e c h a n i s m o f a c t i o n a n d t h e r a p e u t i c e f f ec t s . S u c r a l f a t e a d h e r e s t o t h e b a s e o f t h e u l c e r c r a t e r , f o r m i n g a p r o t e c t i ve b a r r i e r a g a i n s t g a s t r i c a c i d s a n d b i l e s a l t s . (1) Sucralfate's ulcer-healing efficacy compares favorably to that of the H2RAs. ( 2 ) D u o d e n a l u l c e r s r e s po n d b e t t e r t h a n g a s t r i c u l c e r s t o s uc r a l f a t e t h e r a p y. b . Ad m i n i s t r a t i o n a n d d o s a g e ( 1 ) A n o r a l a g e n t , s u c r al f a t e u s u a l l y i s g i v e n i n a d o s a g e o f 1 g f o u r t i m e s d a i l y ( 1 h r b e f o r e m e a l s ) a n d a t b e d t i m e . Un l e s s r a d i o g r a p h y o r e n d o s c o p y d o c u m e n t s e a r l i e r u l c e r h e a l i n g , t h e r a p y c o n t i n u e s f o r 4 - 8 we e k s . (2) Continued sucralfate therapy after remission postpones ulcer relapse more e f f e c t i v e l y t h a n d o e s c i m e t i d i n e t h e r a p y.
( 3 ) T h e r e i s n o e v i d e n c e t h a t c o m b i n i n g s u c r a l f a t e wi t h H 2 R A s i m p r o v e s h e a l i n g o r reduces recurrence rates. c . P r e c a u t i o n s an d m o n i t o r i n g e f f e c t s . C o n s t i p a t i o n i s t h e m o s t c o m m o n a d v e r s e effect of sucralfate. d . S i g n i f i c an t i n t e r a c t i o n s ( 1 ) An t a c i d s m a y r e d u c e m u c o s a l b i n d i n g o f s u c r a l f a t e , d e cr e a s i n g i t s t h e r a p e u t i c e f f i c a c y a n d t h u s s h o u l d b e g i v e n 3 0 - 6 0 m i n a p a r t f r o m s u c r a l f a t e i f u s ed i n c o m b i n a t i o n u l c e r t h e r ap y. ( 2 ) S u c r a l f a t e m a y i n t e r f e r e wi t h t h e a b s o r p t i o n o f o r a l l y a d m i n i s t e r e d d i g o x i n , t e t r a c yc l i n e , p h e n yt o i n , i r o n , c i p r o f l o x a c i n a n d o th e r f l u o r o q u i n o l o n e s , a n d c i m e t i d i n e if d o s e s a r e g i v e n s i m u l t a n e o u s l y. 4 . G I an t i ch o l i n e r g i c s ( e . g . , b e l l a d o n n a l e a f , a t r o p i n e , p r o p a n t h e l i n e ) s o m e t i m e s a r e u s e d a s a d j u n c t i v e a g e n t s f o r r e l i e f o f r e f r a c t o r y d u o d e n a l u l c e r p a i n . H o we v e r , these agents have no proven value in ulcer healing. a. Mechanism of action. Anticholinergics decrease basal and stimulated gastric acid and pepsin secretion. ( 1 ) G i v e n i n c o m b i n a t i o n wi t h a n t a c i d s , a n t i c h o l i n e r g i c s d e l a y g a s t r i c e m p t yi n g , t h e r e b y p r o l o n g i n g a n t a c i d r e t e n t i o n . T h e y a r e m o s t e f f e c t iv e wh e n t a k e n a t n i g h t and in large doses. ( 2 ) A n t i c h o l i n e r g i c s o c c a s i o n a l l y a r e u s e d i n p a t i e n t s wh o d o n o t r e s p o n d t o H 2 receptor antagonists alone. P.1131
b . Ad m i n i s t r a t i o n a n d d o s a g e ( 1 ) T a k e n 30 m i n b e f o r e f o o d , a n t i ch o l i n e r g i c s i n h i b i t m e a l - s t i m u l a t e d a c i d s e c r e t i o n by 30%-50% for a duration of 4-5 hr. ( 2 ) T h e o p t im a l e f f e c t i ve d o s e v a r i e s f r o m p a t i e n t t o p a t i e n t . c . P r e c a u t i o n s an d m o n i t o r i n g e f f e c t s ( 1 ) A l l a n t i ch o l i n e r g i c s h a v e s i d e e f f e c t s t o v a r yi n g d e g r e e s , s u c h a s d r y m o u t h , b l u r r e d v i s i o n , t a c h yc a r d i a , u r i n a r y r e t e n t i o n , a n d c o n s t i p a t i o n . ( 2 ) T h e s e d r u g s a r e c o n t r a i n d i c a t e d i n p a t i e n t s wi t h g a s t r i c u lc e r s b e c a u s e t h e y p r o l o n g g a s t r i c e m p t yi n g . T h e y a l s o a r e c o n t r a i n d i c a t e d i n p a t i e n t s wi t h n a r r o wangle glaucoma and urinary retention. 5 . P r o s t a g l a n d i n s . T h es e a g e n t s su p p r e s s g a s t r i c a c i d s e cr e t i o n a n d m a y g u a r d t h e g a s t r i c m u co s a a g a i n s t d a m a g e f r o m N S A I D s. M i s o p r o s t o l ( C yt o t e c ) h a s b e e n a p p r o v e d f o r u s e i n t h e p r e v e n t i o n o f g a s t r i c u l ce r s c a u s e d b y N S A I D s . a. Mechanism of action. Misoprostol has both antisecretory (inhibiting gastric acid s e c r e t i o n ) a n d m u c o s a l p r o t e c t i v e pr o p e r t i e s . NS A I D s i n h i b i t p r o s t a g l a n d i n s yn t h e s i s , a n d a d e f i c i e n c y o f p r o s t a g l a n d i n wi t h i n t h e g a s t r i c m u c o s a m a y l e a d t o d i m i n i s h i n g b i c a r b o n a t e a n d m u c u s s e c r e t i o n , co n t r i b u t i n g t o t h e m u c o sa l d a m a g e c a u s e d b y N S A I D s . M i s op r o s t o l i n c r e a s e s b i c a r b o n a t e a n d m u c u s p r o d u c t i o n a t d o s e s o f 2 0 0 µ g a n d a b o v e — d o s e s t h a t c a n a l so b e a n t i s e c r e t o r y. M i s o p r o s t o l a l s o m a i n t a i n s m u c o s a l b l o o d f l o w. b . Ad m i n i s t r a t i o n a n d d o s a g e
(1) Misoprostol is indicated for the prevention of NSAID-induced gastric ulcers in p a t i e n t s a t hi g h r i s k f o r c o m p l i c a t i o n s f r o m g a s t r i c u l c e r s ( e. g . , p a t i e n t s > 6 0 ye a r s o f a g e , p a t ie n t s wi t h c o n c o m i t a n t d e b i l i t a t i n g d i s e a s e , p a t i e n t s wi t h a h i s t o r y o f ulcers). ( 2 ) M i s o p r o s t o l h a s n o t be e n s h o wn t o p r e v e n t d u o d e n a l u l c e r s i n p a t i e n t s t a k i n g NSAIDs. ( 3 ) T h e r e c om m e n d e d a d u l t d o s a g e i s 2 0 0 µ g f o u r t i m e s d a i ly wi t h f o o d ; i t m u s t b e t a k e n f o r t he d u r a t i o n o f N S AI D t h er a p y. I f t h i s d o s e c a n n o t b e t o l e r a t ed , 1 0 0 µ g four times daily can be used. (4) Adjustment of dosage in renally impaired patients is not routinely needed. c . P r e c a u t i o n s an d m o n i t o r i n g e f f e c t s ( 1 ) M i s o p r o s t o l i s c o n t r a in d i c a t e d i n p r e g n a n t wo m e n b e c a u s e o f i t s a b o r t i f a c i e n t p r o p e r t y. P a t i e n t s m u s t b e a d v i s e d o f t h e a b o r t if a c i e n t p r o p e r t y a n d wa r n e d n o t t o give the drug to others. ( 2 ) M i s o p r o s t o l s h o u l d n o t b e u s e d i n wo m e n wi t h c h i l d b e a r i n g p o t e n t i a l u n l e s s t h e p a t i e n t r e q u i r e s N S A I D t h e r a p y a n d i s a t h i g h r i sk o f c o m p l i c a t i o n s f r o m g a s t r i c u l c e r s a s s o c i a t e d wi t h u s e o f t h e NS A I D s o r i s a t h i g h r i s k o f d e v e l o p i n g g a s t r i c ulceration. In such a patient, misoprostol may be prescribed if the patient: ( a ) I s c a p a b l e o f c o m p l y i n g wi t h e f f e c t i v e c o n t r ac e p t i v e m e a s u r e s ( b ) H a s r e c ei v e d b o t h o r a l a n d wr i t t e n wa r n i n g s o f t h e h a z a r d s o f m i s o p r o s t o l , t h e r i s k o f p o s s i b l e c o n t r a c e p t i o n f a i l u r e , a n d t h e d an g e r t o o t h e r wo m e n o f c h i l d b e a r i n g potential should the drug be taken by mistake ( c ) H a d a ne g a t i v e s e r u m p r e g n a n c y t e s t wi t h i n 2 we e k s b e f o r e b e g i n n i n g t h e r a p y ( d ) W i l l b e g i n m i s o p r o s t o l o n l y o n t h e 2 n d o r 3 r d d a y o f t h e n e xt n o r m a l m e n s t r u a l period ( 3 ) T h e m o s t f r e q u e n t a d v e r s e e f f e ct s a r e d i a r r he a ( 1 4 % - 4 0 % ) a n d a b d o m i n a l p a i n (13%-20%). Diarrhea is dose-related, usually develops early in the course (> 2 we e k s ) , a n d i s o f t e n s e l f - l i m i t i n g . D i s c o n t i n u a t i o n o f m i s o p r os t o l i s n e c es s a r y i n a b o u t 2 % o f p a t i e n t s . Ad m i n i s t r a t i o n wi t h f o o d m i n i m i z e s t he d i a r r h e a . d . S i g n i f i c an t i n t e r a c t i o n s . N o n e h a s b e e n r e p o r t e d . 6 . P r o t o n p u m p i n h i b i t o r s ( P PI s ) . O m e p r a z o l e ( P r i l o s e c ) wa s t h e f i r s t P P I a v a i l a b l e i n t h e U n i t e d St a t e s , f o l l o we d b y l a n s o p r a z o l e ( P re va c i d ) , r ab e p r a z o l e ( Ac i p h e x ) , p a n t o p r a z o l e ( P r o t o n i x) , an d e s o m e p r a z o l e ( N e x i u m ) ( T a b l e 5 2 - 3 ) . T h e i n t r a v en o u s f o r m s o f e s o m e p r a z o l e , l a n s o p r a z o l e a n d p a n t o p r a z o l e h a v e b e e n a p p r o v e d b y t h e U . S. F oo d a n d D r u g A d m i n i s t r a t i o n ( F D A ) . a . M e c h a n i s m o f a c t i o n a n d t h e r a p e u t i c e f f ec t s . T h e g as t r i c p r ot o n p u m p H + / K + AT P a s e h a s a s u l f h yd r y l g r o u p n e a r t h e p o t a s s i u m - b i n d i n g s i t e o n t h e l um i n a l s i d e of the canalicular membrane. Omeprazole sulfonamide (the active form) forms a s t a b l e d i s u l f i d e b o n d wi t h t h i s s p e c i f i c s u l f h yd r yl , t h e r e b y i n a c t i v a t i n g t he AT P a s e a n d s h u t t i n g o f f a c i d s e cr e t i o n . A l l o t h e r P P I s e xh i b i t a s i m i l a r i r r e v e r s i b l e mechanism of action. P.1132
Table 52-3. Pharmacokinetics Proton Pump Inhibitors
Characteristic
Lansoprazo Pantoprazo Omeprazol le Rabeprazol le Esomeprazo e (Prilosec) (Prevacid) e (Aciphex) (Protonix) le (Nexium)
Bioavailabili ty (%)
30-40
80-85
52
77
64-89
Time to peak plasma concentratio n (hr)
0.53.5
1.7
2.0-5.0
1.1-3.1
1.56
Plasma elimination half-life (hrs)
0.5-1
1.3-1.7
1.0-2.0
1.0-1.9
0.851.25
Protein binding (%)
95
97
96
98
97
Urinary excretion of oral dose (%)
77
14-23
30-35
71-80
80
( 1 ) B e c a u s e o f t h e p o t e n c y a n d m a r k e d r e d u c t i o n i n g a s t r i c a c i d i t y, t h e P P I s a r e m o r e r a p i d l y e f f e ct i v e t ha n o t h e r a p p r o v e d a g e n t s i n t r e a t i ng p e p t i c u l c e r d i s e a s e ( i . e . , P PI s t e n d t o c o n t r o l s ym p t o m s a n d h e a l u l c e r s m o r e r a p i d l y t h a n o t h e r a n t i u l c e r d r u g s ) . P PI s pr o v i d e e f f e c t i v e h e a l i n g o f d u o d e n a l u l c e r s ; h e a l i n g r a t e s a t 4 we e k s a r e s i m i l a r t o t h o s e r e p o r t e d f o r H 2 - r ec e p t o r a n t a g o n i s t t h e r a p y a t 8 we e k s . ( 2 ) A l l P PI s a r e e f f e c t i v e i n h e a l i n g e r o s i v e e s o p h a g i t i s , p r o v i d e m o r e r a p i d s ym p t o m r e l i e f a n d m o r e c o n s i s t e n t h e a l i n g t h a n H 2 - r e c e p t o r a n t a g o n i s t s , a n d a r e also effective in maintenance of healing of erosive esophagitis. ( 3 ) A l l P PI s e x c e p t p a n t o p r a z o l e h a v e b e e n a p p r o v e d i n v a r i o u s c o m b i n a t i o n s o f antibiotics for the eradication of H. pylori (Table 52-4).
Table 52-4. Food and Drug Administration-Approved Oral Regimens Used to Eradicate Helicobacter pylori and Reduce the Risk of Duodenal Ulcer Recurrence
Drug Combination Omeprazole
Dose and Frequency
Duration
20 mg
Days 1-10
20 mg every day b.i.d.
Days 11-28a
Clarithromycin
500 mg b.i.d.
Days 1-10
Amoxicillin
1 g b.i.d.
Days 1-10
Lansoprazole
30 mg b.i.d.
14 days
Amoxicillin
1 g tid
14 days
Clarithromycin
500 mg b.i.d.
14 days
Lansoprazole
30 mg b.i.d.
10 days
Amoxicillin
1 g b.i.d.
10 days
Clarithromycin
500 mg b.i.d.
10 days
Esomeprazole
40 mg every day
10 days
Amoxicillin
1 g b.i.d.
10 days
Clarithromycin
500 mg b.i.d.
10 days
Rabeprazole
20 mg b.i.d.
7 days
Amoxicillin
1 g b.i.d.
7 days
Clarithromycin
500 mg b.i.d.
7 days
Bismuth subsalicylate
525 mg q.i.d.
Days 1-14
Metronidazole
250 mg q.i.d.
Days 1-14
Tetracycline HCl
500 mg q.i.d.
Days 1-14
H2RA of choice
Ulcer healing regimen
Days 1-28
a
In patients with an ulcer present at the time of initiation of therapy, additional omeprazole treatment is recommended for ulcer healing and relief of symptoms. H2RA, H2-receptor antagonist; HCl, hydrochloric acid. P.1133
( 4 ) P P I s h a ve r e s u l t e d i n s i g n i f i c a n t im p r o v e m e n t i n p a t i e n t s wi t h p a t h o l o g i c a l h yp e r s e c r e t o r y c o n d i t i o n s ( e . g . , Z o l l i n g e r - E l l i s o n s yn d r o m e ) a n d G E R D c o m p a r e d t o H2-receptor antagonists. (5) Esomeprazole and lansoprazole have been approved by the FDA for healing and p r e v e n t i o n o f N S AI D - i n d u c e d g a s t r i c u l c e r s . ( 6 ) O m e p r a zo l e a n d l a n s o p r a z o l e h a v e b e e n a p p r o v e d b y t h e F D A f o r u se i n i n f a n t s a n d c h i l d r e n f o r t h e s h o r t - t e r m t r e a t m e n t o f G ER D a n d e r o s i v e e s o p h a g i t i s . O m e p r a z o l e i s a p p r o v e d f o r u s e i n ch i l d r e n a g e s 2 - 1 6 ye a r s , a n d l a n s o p r a z o l e i s a p p r o v e d f o r u s e i n c h i ld r e n 1 - 1 1 ye a r s o l d . b . Ad m i n i s t r a t i o n a n d d o s a g e ( 1 ) P P I s a r e m o r e p o t e n t t h a n H 2 - b l o c k e r s . I n t he u s u a l d o s a g e ( o m e p r a z o l e 2 0 m g d a i l y) , t h e s e a g e n t s i n h i b i t > 9 0 % o f 2 4 - h r a c i d s e c r e t i o n i n m o s t p a t i e n t s , r a r e l y p r o d u c i n g a c h l o r h yd r i a . E s o m e p r a z o l e 4 0 m g d a i l y p r o v i d e d s i g n i f i c a n t l y h i g h e r intragastric pH values above 4 during 24-hr monitoring compared to lansoprazole 30 mg, rabeprazole 20 mg, omeprazole 20 mg, and pantoprazole 40 mg. ( 2 ) P P I s s h ou l d o p t i m a l l y b e t a k e n i n t h e m o r n in g 3 0 - 6 0 m i n b e f o r e e a t i n g ; f o o d a c t i v a t e s p ar i e t a l c e l l s , m a xi m i z i n g t h e e f f e c t o f t h e P P I . O p t i m a l b i n d i n g t o p r o t o n p u m p s o c c u r s wh e n t h e p u m p s a r e a c t i v e l y s e c r e t i n g . (3) Recommended adult dosages ( a ) E r o s i v e e s o p h a g i t i s i n i t i a l l y i s h e a l e d wi t h 2 0 m g o m e p r a z o l e o r e q u i v a l e n t d o s e s o f o t he r P P I s f o r 8 - 1 2 we e k s ; o n l y o m e p r a z o l e h a s a d e m o n s t r a t e d d o s e response in GERD patients (patients failing omeprazole 20 mg daily may benefit f r o m h i g h e r d o s e s ; t h i s h a s n o t b e e n d e m o n s t r a t e d wi t h e s o m e p r a z o l e , lansoprazole, rabeprazole, or pantoprazole). In addition, esomeprazole 40 mg every d a y h a s b e e n s h o wn t o p r o d u c e s i g n i f i c a n t l y h i g h e r h e a l i n g r a t e s t h a n o m e p r a z o l e 2 0 m g o r l an s o p r a z o l e 3 0 m g a c r o ss a l l g r a d e s o f e r o s i v e es o p h a g i t i s .
( b ) E s o m e p r a z o l e 2 0 - 4 0 m g , l a n s o p r a z o l e 3 0 m g , o m e p r a z o l e 2 0 m g , r ab e p r a z o l e 2 0 m g , a n d p a n t o p r a z o l e 4 0 m g m a y b e u s e d t o m a n a g e G E R D sym p t o m s i n p a t i e n t s wh o h a v e f a i l e d p r e v i o u s t h e r a p y wi t h H 2 - r e c e p t o r a n t a g o n i s t t h e r a p y. ( c ) T h e r e c om m e n d e d d o s a g e t o m a i n t a i n h e a l i n g o f e r o s i v e e s o p h a g i t i s i s e s o m e p r a z o l e 2 0 m g , om e p r a z o l e 2 0 m g , l a n s o p r a z o l e 1 5 m g , p a n t o p r a z o l e 4 0 m g , o r r a b e p r a z o l e 2 0 m g d a i l y f o r a s l o n g a s m e d i c a l l y n e c e s s a r y. (d) Duodenal ulcer healing requires omeprazole 20 mg, lansoprazole 15 mg, or r a b e p r a z o l e 2 0 m g o n c e d a i l y. M o s t p a t i e n t s h e a l wi t h i n 4 we e k s . ( 4 ) E s o m e p r a z o l e , l a n s o p r a z o l e , a n d o m e p r a z o l e a r e d e l a ye d - r e l e a s e c a p s u l e s a n d s h o u l d b e t a k e n b e f o r e e a t i n g , c a n b e u s e d c o n c o m i t a n t l y wi t h a n t a c i d s , a n d s h o u l d n o t b e c h e we d o r c r u s he d . C a p s u l e c o n t e n t s c an b e s p r i n k l e d o n f o o d s ( i . e . , a p p l e s a u c e ) o r m i x e d wi t h a c i d i c j u i c e s . S u s p e n s i o n s o f o m e p r a z o l e o r l a n s o p r a z o l e i n s o d i u m b i c a r b o n a t e h a v e b e e n u s e d f o r a d m in i s t r a t i o n t o p a t i e n t s wi t h nasogastric and jejunostomy tubes. ( 5 ) R a b e p r a z o l e a n d p a n t o p r a z o l e a r e a v a i l a b l e a s e n t e r i c - co a t e d t a b l e t s t h a t s h o u l d n o t b e c r u s h e d o r c h e we d . ( 6 ) L a n s o p r a z o l e i s a v a i l a b l e a s t h e f i r st o r a l l y d i s i n t e g r a t i n g t a b l e t f o r m u l a t i o n . I t i s p l a c e d o n t h e t o n g u e , wi t h o r wi t h o u t wa t e r , u n t i l d i s s o l v e d . H o we v e r , i t n e e d s t o b e s wa l l o we d t o b e a b s o r b e d . ( 7 ) O m e p r a zo l e i n s o d i u m b i c a r b o n a t e p o wd e r f o r s u s p e n s i o n ( Z e g e r i d ) is t h e f i r s t P P I a p p r o v e d b y t h e F DA f o r r e d u c t io n i n t h e r i sk o f u p p e r G I b l e e d i n g i n c r i t i c a l l y i l l p a t i e n t s . I t h a s a p e a c h / m i n t f l a v o r t h a t i s t o le r a b l e . I t i s d o s e d a t 4 0 m g e v e r y 6 h r t i m e s t wo d o s e s ( a s a l o a d i n g d o s e ) , t h e n 4 0 m g d a i l y. ( 8 ) N o d o s i n g a d j u s t m e n t s a r e n e c e ss a r y i n p a t i e n t s wi t h i m p a i r e d r e n a l o r h e p a t i c f u n c t i o n o r in t h e e l d e r l y. ( 9 ) I n t r a v e n o u s p a n t o p r a z o l e i s i n d i c a t e d f o r m a n a g e m e n t o f e r o s i v e es o p h a g i t i s a n d t r e a t m e n t o f Z o l l i n g e r - E l l i s o n s yn d r o m e . E so m e p r a z o l e , l a n s o p r a z o l e , a n d p a n t o p r a z o l e a r e c u r r e n t l y b e i n g wi d e l y u s e d f o r t h e t r e a t m e n t o f a c u t e b l e e d i n g gastric ulcers, though not FDA approved. ( 1 0 ) I n t r a v en o u s e s o m e p r a z o l e ( 2 0 - 4 0 m g d a i l y) a n d l a n s o p r a z o l e ( 3 0 m g d a i l y) a r e F D A a p p r o v e d f o r t h e sh o r t - t e r m u se i n p a t i e n t s wi t h G E R D wi t h a h i s t o r y o f e r o s i v e esophagus unable to take oral medications. ( 1 1 ) I n p a t i en t s wi t h n o c t u r n a l s i g n s a n d s ym p t o m s o f G E R D, t wi c e d a i l y P P I s h a v e b e e n e f f e c t i v e wh e n t a k e n a p p r o p r i a t e l y. T h e a d d i t i o n o f a n H 2 R A t o t h e t wi c e - d a i l y P P I h a s s h o wn l i t t l e a d d e d b e n e f i t a n d i s n o t r e co m m e n d e d . P.1134
c . P r e c a u t i o n s an d m o n i t o r i n g e f f e c t s ( 1 ) H e a d a c h e , d i a r r h e a , a b d o m i n a l p a i n , n a u s e a a n d v o m i t i n g , a n d f l a t u le n c e h a v e been reported in > 1% of patients. ( 2 ) F e v e r , f a t i g u e , m a l a i s e , e l e v a t e d l i v e r e n z ym e s , d i z z i n e s s , v e r t i g o , sk i n r a s h , a n d i t c h i n g h a v e b e e n r e p o r t e d i n < 1 % o f p a t i en t s . d . S i g n i f i c an t i n t e r a c t i o n s
( 1 ) O m e p r a zo l e i n t e r f e r e s wi t h t h e h e p a t i c m i c r o s o m a l e n z ym e m e t a b o l i s m ( c yt o c h r o m e P 4 5 0 ) o f d i a z e p a m , w ar f a r i n , a n d p h e n yt o i n , a l t h o u g h c l i n i c a l l y significant interactions are infrequent. ( 2 ) L a n s o p r a z o l e m a y i n c r e a s e c l e a r a n c e o f t he o p h yl l i n e b y a p p r o xi m a t e l y 1 0 % . ( 3 ) B e c a u s e g a s t r i c p H p l a ys a r o l e i n t h e b i o a v a i l a b i l i t y o f k e t o c o n a zo l e , a m p i c i l l i n es t e r s , a n d i r o n s a l t s , pr o l o n g e d g a s t r i c a c i d i nh i b i t i o n wi t h P P I s m a y decrease the absorption of these agents. ( 4 ) A n t a c i d s m a y b e u s e d c o n c o m i t a n t l y wi t h a l l P P I s . ( 5 ) N o c l i n i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t d r u g i n t e r a c t i o n s h a v e b e e n r e p o r t e d t o d a t e wi t h esomeprazole, rabeprazole, or pantoprazole. ( 6 ) F o o d m ay r e d u c e t h e b i o a v a i l a b i l i t y o f e s o m e p r a z o l e a n d l a n s o p r a z o l e b y 5 0 % ; f o o d d o e s n o t r e d u c e t he b i o a v a i l a b i l i t y o f o m e p r a z o l e o r r a b e p r a z o l e . 7 . B i s m u t h c o m p o u n d s. I n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s , bi s m u t h s u b sa l i c yl a t e ( P e p t o - B i s m o l ) is the only available bismuth product. a . M e c h a n i s m o f a c t i o n . B i s m u t h p r e v e n t s a d h e s i o n o f H . p y l o r i t o g as t r i c m u c o s a , d e c r e a s e s r e s i s t a n c e wh e n u s e d wi t h o t h e r a n t i- H . p y l o r i a ge n t s , i n h i b i t s r e l e a s e o f p r o t e o l yt i c e n z ym e s , a n d s u p p r e s s e s H . p y l o r i g r o wt h . b . Ad m i n i s t r a t i o n a n d d o s a g e ( 1 ) B i s m u t h s u b s a l i c y l a t e i s h i g h l y e f f e c t i v e wh e n c o m b i n e d wi t h P P I s an d / o r a n t i b i o t i c s . E r a d i c a t i o n r a t e s wi t h t h e s e c o m b i n a t i o n s a r e > 8 0 % ( T a b l e 5 2 - 4 ) . ( 2 ) P r e f e r r ed r e g i m e n wi t h b i s m u t h : b i s m u t h s u b s a l i c yl a t e 5 2 5 m g f o u r t i m e s a d a y, m e t r o n i d a z o l e 2 5 0 m g f ou r t i m e s a d a y, t e t r a c yc l i n e 5 0 0 m g f o u r t i m e s a d a y p l u s P P I ( o m e p r az o l e 2 0 m g e v e r y d a y o r l a n s o p r a z o l e 3 0 m g e v e r y d a y) f o r 2 we e k s total. This regimen provides consistently high eradication rates (> 90%) and may be u s e f u l f o r pa t i e n t s wh o h a v e f a i l e d p r e v i o u s t h e r a p y. T h i s r e g i m e n i s n o t c u r r e n t l y FDA approved. c . P r e c a u t i o n s an d m o n i t o r i n g e f f e c t s ( 1 ) C N S t o x i c i t y wi t h h i g h e r d o s e s , in c l u d i n g n e u r o t o x i c i t y ( 2 ) T i n n i t u s , h yp e r p yr e xi a , t a c h yc a r d i a , a n d c o n f u s i o n ( s a l i c yl i s m ) f r o m h i g h d o s e s o f b i s m u t h su b s a l i c yl a t e d . R e ve r s i b l e p ro t o n p u m p i n h i b i t o r s a r e c u r r e n t l y u n d e r d e v e l o p m e n t b y a n u m b e r o f p h a r m a c e u t i c a l c o m p a n i e s ( A st r a Z e ne c a a n d A l t a n a ) . W h e n c o m p a r e d wi t h t h e c u r r e n t l y a v a i l a b l e i r r e v e r s i b l e p r o t o n p u m p i n h i b i t o r s , t h e s e a g e n t s a r e e x p e c t e d t o o f f e r m o r e r a p i d s ym p t o m r e s o l u t i o n , c o n t r o l p H m o r e q u i c k l y, a c h i e v e h i g h e r p H l e v e l s , a n d s us t a i n t h e s e m o r e a g g r e s s i v e p H l e v e l s c o n s i s t e n t l y o v e r a 24-hr period. 8 . P r o k i n e t i c a g e n t s . Ci s a p r i d e ( P r o p u l s i d ) i s c u r r e n t l y t h e o n l y a p p r o v e d a g e n t i n t h i s c l a s s ; ho we v e r , t h e m a n u f a c t u r e r ( J a n s s e n P h a r m a c e u t i c a ) h a s d i sc o n t i n u e d m a r k e t i n g of c i s a p r i d e in t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s o wi n g t o t h e a g en t ' s h i g h l y a r r h yt h m o g e n i c p o t e n t i a l . T h e m a n u f a c t u r e r wi l l s u p p l y c i s a p r i d e t h r o u g h a l i m i t e d a c c e s s p r o g r a m f o r t h o s e wh o m e e t s p e c i f i c e l i g i b i l i t y c r i t e r i a a n d f o r wh o m o t h e r t h e r a p i e s a r e n o t e f f e c t iv e . M e t o c l op r a m i d e a n d e r yt h r o m yc i n h a v e we l l - s t u d i e d p r o k i n e t i c e f f e c t s , a n d pr u c a l o p r i d e i s s t i l l u n d e r r e v i e w b y t h e F D A . a . M e c h a n i s m o f a c t i o n . C i s a p r i d e p r o d u c e s r e l e a s e o f a c e t yl c h o l i n e f r o m t h e m ye n t e r i c p l e xu s a n d t h e r e b y m a y i n c r e a s e g a s t r i c e m p t yi n g a n d L E S p r e s s u r e ;
c i s a p r i d e d o e s n o t a f f e c t T L E S R . I t do e s n o t i n c r e a s e o r d e c r e a s e g a s t r i c a c i d secretion. b . Ad m i n i s t r a t i o n a n d d o s a g e . C i sa p r i d e i s i n d i c a t e d f o r t h e r e l i e f o f no c t u r n a l s ym p t o m s o f r e f l u x ; it i s a d m i n i s t e r e d i n d o s e s o f 1 0 - 2 0 m g f o u r t i m e s a d a y. c . P r e c a u t i o n s an d m o n i t o r i n g ( 1 ) T h e mo s t c o m m o n s i d e e f f e c t s a r e d i a r r h e a , a b d o m i n a l p a i n , a n d h e a d a c h e . O t h e r l e s s co m m o n e f f ec t s i n c l u d e b r o n c h o s p a s m , a n g i o e d e m a , a n d d e p r e s s i o n . ( 2 ) C i s a p r i d e i s c o n t r a i n d i c a t e d i n p a t i e n t s wi t h a h i s t o r y o f i s c h e m i c h e a r t d i s e a s e , r e s p i r a t o r y f a i l u r e , c o n g e s t i v e h e a r t f a i l u r e , r e n a l f a i l u r e , s e ve r e d e h yd r a t i o n , a r r h yt h m i a s , o r m e d i c a t io n s t h a t p r ol o n g t h e Q T i n t e r v a l . S e r i o u s c a r d i a c a r r h yt h m i a s , i n c l u d i n g v e n t r i c u l a r t ac h yc a r d i a a n d t o r s a d e s d e p o i n t e s , h a v e b e e n reported. P.1135
d . S i g n i f i c an t i n t e r a c t i o n s ( 1 ) K e t o c o n a z o l e p o t e nt l y i n h i b i t s t h e m e t a b o l i s m o f c i s a p r i d e , r e s u l t i n g i n a n e i g h t f o l d i n c r e a s e i n t h e a r e a u n d e r t h e c u r v e ( AU C ) o f c i s a pr i d e . C o - a d m i n i s t r a t i o n o f c i s a p r i d e a n d k e t o c o n a z o l e c a n r e s u l t i n p r o l o n g a t i o n o f t h e Q T i n t e r va l o n t h e electrocardiogram (ECG). Co-administration of itraconazole, fluconazole, or intravenous miconazole is similarly contraindicated. ( 2 ) T h e f o l l o wi n g o r a l o r i n t r a v e n o u s d r u g s a r e co n t r a i n d i c a t e d wi t h c i s a p r i d e . These may lead to elevated cisapride blood levels and increased potential for a r r h yt h m i a s . a . A n t i b i o t i cs : e r yt h r o m yc i n , c l a r i t h r o m yc i n , s p a r f l o xa c i n b . P r o t e a s e i n h i b i t o r s : i n d i n a v i r , r i t on a v i r c . A n t i a r r h yt h m i c s : q u i n i d i n e , p r o c a i n a m i d e , s o t a l o l ( 3 ) T h e a c c e l e r a t i o n o f g a s t r i c e m p t yi n g b y c i s a p r i d e c o u l d a f f e c t t h e r at e o f a b s o r p t i o n o f o t h e r d r u gs . P at i e n t s r e c e i v i n g n a r r o w t h e r a p e u t i c d r u g s or o t h e r d r u g s t h a t r e q u i r e c a r e f u l t i t r a t i o n sh o u l d b e m o n i t o r e d c l o s e l y. ( 4 ) C o a g u l a t i o n t i m e s i n p a t i e n t s r e ce i v i n g o r a l a n t i c o a g u l a n t s h a v e i n c r e a s e d i n some cases. ( 5 ) C i m e t i d i n e m a y i n c r e a s e p e a k p l a s m a c o n c e n t r a t i o n a n d A U C o f c i sa p r i d e . e . γ - Am i n o b u t yr i c a c i d B ( G AB A B ) a g o n i s t s ( i . e . , b a c l o f e n ) h a v e b e e n s h o wn t o s i g n i f i c a n t l y r e d u c e r e f lu x e p i s o d e s i n h e a l t h y v o l u n t e e r s a n d G E R D p a t ie n t s . Several compounds are under development that have greater peripheral specificity a n d a r e e xp e c t e d t o p r ov i d e f e we r C N S - r e l a t e d a d v e r s e e f f e c t s , wh i l e p r o v i d i n g e f f e c t i v e n o r m a l i z a t i o n o f T R L E S. f . T e g a s e r o d ( Z e l n o r m ) , a s e l e c t i v e 5 - h yd r o x yt r yp t a m i n e 4 ( 5 - H T 4 ) r e c ep t o r agonist, is a promotility drug that is available through a restricted access program o n l y. E a r l y s t u d i e s h a v e d e m o n s t r a t e d t h a t t e g a s e r o d r e d u c e s e s o p h a g e a l a c i d e x p o s u r e b y e n h a n c i n g e s o p h a g e a l a c i d c l e a r a n c e a n d g a s t r i c e m p t yi n g a n d / o r r e d u c i n g T RL E S b u t m o r e d e f i n i t i v e s t u d i e s a r e n e e d e d . I n i t ia l s t u d i e s i n p a t i e n t s wi t h h e a r t b u r n h a v e s h o wn a d e c r e a s e i n e s o p h a g e a l p a i n . 9 . S e d a t i ve s a r e u s e f u l a d j u n c t s i n p r o m o t i n g r e s t f o r h i g h l y a n xi o u s u l c e r p a t i e n t s .
B . O t h e r t h e r a p e u t i c me a s u r e s 1 . M o d i f i c a t i o n o f d i e t a n d so c i a l h a b i t s a . P r e v i o u s l y e m p h a s i z e d i n u l c e r t he r a p y, s t r i c t d i e t a r y l i m i t a t i o n s n o w a r e c o n s i d e r e d l a r g e l y u n n e c e s s a r y. ( 1 ) B l a n d o r m i l k - b a s e d d i e t s f o r m e r l y we r e r e c o m m e n d e d ; h o we v e r , r e se a r c h i n d i c a t e s t h a t t h e s e d i e t s d o n o t s p ee d u l c e r h e a l i n g . I n f a ct , m o s t e xp e r t s n o w a d v i s e u l c e r p a t i e n t s t o a vo i d m i l k b e c a u s e r e c e n t s t u d i e s s h o w t h a t m i l k i n c r e a s e s g a s t r i c a c i d s e c r e t i o n . Al s o , b e c a u s e m i l k l e a v e s t h e st o m ac h q u i c k l y, i t l a c k s a n e x t e n d e d b u f f e r i n g a c t i on . ( 2 ) S m a l l , f r e q u e n t m e a l s , a l s o p r e v io u s l y r e c o m m e n d e d , c a n wo r s e n u l c e r p a i n b y c a u s i n g a c i d r e b o u n d 2 - 4 h r a f t e r ea t i n g . b . C u r r e n t d i e t a r y g u i d e l i n e s e m p h a s i z e a v o i d i n g f o o d s a n d b e v e r a g e s k n o wn t o e x a c e r b a t e g a s t r i c d i s co m f o r t o r p r o m o t e a c i d s e c r e t i o n . T h i s c a t e g o r y t yp i c a l l y includes coffee, caffeinated beverages, and alcohol. c . S m o k i n g . P a t i e n t s wh o s m o k e s ho u l d b e e n c o u r a g e d t o q u i t b e c a u s e s m o k i n g m a r k e d l y s l o ws u l c e r h e a l i n g , e v e n d u r i n g o p t i m a l u l c e r t he r a p y. d . N S AI D s s h o u l d b e a v o i d e d b y u l c e r p a t i e n t s . 2 . S u rg e r y. A n u l c e r p a t i e n t wh o d e v e l o p s c o m p l i c a t i o n s m a y r e q u i r e s u r g e r y— s o m e t i m e s o n a n e m e r g e n c y b a s i s ( s e e I I I ) . I n ca p a c i t a t i n g r e c u r r e n t u l c e r s a l s o m ay wa r r a n t s u r g e r y. a . T yp e s o f s u r g i c a l p ro c e d u r e s f or u l c e r d i s e a s e i n c l u d e a n t r e c t o m y a n d t r u n c a l v a g o t o m y ( B i l l r o t h I p r o ce d u r e ) , p a r t i a l g a s t r e c t om y a n d t r u n c a l v a g o t o m y ( B i l l r o t h I I p r o c e d u r e ) , h i g h l y s e l e c t i v e ( p r o xi m a l g a s t r i c ) va g o t o m y, a n d t o t a l g a s t r e c t o m y ( t h e t r e a t m e n t of c h o i c e f o r Z o l l i n g e r - E l l i s o n s yn d r o m e t h a t i s un r e s p o n s i v e t o m e d i c a l management). ( 1 ) A va g o t o m y s e v e r s a b r a n c h o f t h e v a g u s n e r v e , t h e r e by d e c r e a s i n g H C l secretion. ( 2 ) A n a n t r e c t o m y, b y r e m o v i n g t h e a n t r u m , e l i m i n a t e s s o m e a c i d - s e c r e t i n g m u c o s a a s we l l a s t h e m a j o r s o u r c e o f g a s t r i n . b . T h e g e n e r a l i n d i c a t i o n s f o r a n t i r ef l u x s u r g e r y a r e f a i l u r e o f m e d i c a l t he r a p y t o h e a l o r p r e v e n t r e l a p s e o f e r o s i v e es o p h a g i t i s , i n a b i l i t y o f m e d i c a l t h e r a p y t o p r e v e n t r e c u r r e n c e o f st r i c t u r e , o r a p a t i e n t wh o s e l i f e s t yl e i s a d v e r s e l y a f f e c t e d b y the need for medical P.1136 t h e r a p y. L a p a r o s c o p i c f u n d o p l i c a t i o n i s c u r r en t l y t h e g o l d s t a n d a r d f or G E R D a n d s u c c e s s f u l l y r e l i e v e s s y m p t o m s a n d h e a l s l e s i o n s i n a p p r o x i m a t e l y 8 5 % o f p a t i e n t s. H o we v e r , r e c e n t s t u d i e s h a v e d e m o n s t r a t e d t h at m o st p a t i en t s r e q u i r e c o n t i n u e d m e d i c a l t h e r a p y a f t e r f un d o p l i c a t i o n . 3 . E m e r g i n g e n d o s c o p i c t h e r a p i es . T h r e e e nd o s c o p i c t e c h n i q u e s t o t r e a t G E R D have recently been introduced. a. Augmentation of LES pressure may be achieved by delivery of radiofrequency e n e r g y t o t h e m u s c l e o f t h e g a s t r o e so p h a g e a l j u n c t i o n ( S t r et t a p r o c e d u r e ) . T h e r a d i o f r e q u e n c y i s d e l i v e r e d b y m e a n s o f a f l e xi b l e c a t h e t e r m a d e u p o f a b o u g i e t i p , a b a l l o o n - b a s k e t c o m b i na t i o n , a n d f o u r - n e e d l e d e l i v e r y s h e a t h s .
b . A n o t h e r en d o s c o p i c p r o c e d u r e , t he E n d o C i n c h , a u g m e n t s t h e L E S b y s u t u r i n g o f the mucosa. c . T h e t h i r d e n d o s c o p i c / e n d o l u m i n a l t r e a t m e n t is b y u s e o f E n t e r yx i n j e c t i o n . d. Early studies have demonstrated good feasibility in performing these procedures a n d a n o v e r a l l s a t i s f a c t o r y s a f e t y p r o f i l e . F u r t he r s t u d i e s ar e n e c e s s a r y t o a s s e s s l o n g - t e r m f ai l u r e r a t e , ea r l y v e r s u s l a t e c o m p l i c a t i o n s , a n d s u c c e s s r a t e i n t h e d i f f e r e n t G ER D g r o u p s .
III. COMPLICATIONS o f p e p t i c u l ce r d i s e a s e c a u s e a p p r o x i m a t e l y 7 0 0 0 d e a t h s i n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s a n n u a l l y. A. H e m o r r h a g e . T h i s l i f e - t h r e a t e n i n g c o n d i t i o n d e v e l o p s f r o m wi d e s p r e a d g a s t r i c m u c o s a l i r r i t a t i o n o r u l c e r a t i o n wi t h a c u t e b l e e d i n g . 1 . C l i n i c a l f e a t u r e s . T he p a t i e n t m ay v o m i t f r e s h b l o o d o r a c o f f e e g r o un d s - l i k e substance. Other signs include passage of bloody or tarry stools, diaphoresis, and s yn c o p e . W i t h m a j o r b l o o d l o s s , m an i f e s t a t i o n s o f h yp o vo l e m i c s h o c k m a y a p p e a r : T h e p u l s e r a t e m a y e xc e e d 1 1 0 , o r s ys t o l i c b l o o d p r e s s u r e m a y d r o p b e l o w 1 0 0 . 2 . M a n ag e m e n t a . P a t i e n t s t a b i l i z a t i o n , b l e e d i n g c e s s a t i o n , a n d m e a s u r e s t o p r e v e n t f ur t h e r bleeding are crucial. ( 1 ) A i r wa y, b r e a t h i n g , a n d c i r c u l a t i o n m u s t b e en s u r e d . ( 2 ) I n t r a v e n o u s c r ys t a l l o i d s a n d c o l l o i d s ( e . g . , h e t a s t a r c h ) s h o u l d b e i n f u s e d a s needed. ( 3 ) T h e p a t ie n t ' s e l e c t r ol yt e s t a t u s m u s t b e m on i t o r e d a n d a n y i m b a l a n c e s c o r r e c t ed p r o m p t l y. b . G a s t r i c l a va g e m a y b e p e r f o r m e d v i a a n a s o g a s t r i c o r o r o g a s t r i c t u be ; i c e d s a l i n e s o l u t i o n i s i n s t i l l e d u n t i l t h e as p i r a t e r e t u r n s f r e e o f b l o o d . c. Vasoconstrictors or continuous infusion proton pump inhibitors have been a d m i n i s t e r e d wi t h g o o d r e s p o n s e . ( 1 ) D e c r e a s e r e b l e e d i n g r a t e s we r e f o u n d wh e n t h e c o n t i n u o u s i n f u s i o n P P I m a i n t a i n e d t h e g a s t r i c pH t o 6 o r a b o v e . T h e d os e s r e q u i r e d we r e m u c h h i g h e r t h a n normal doses (e.g. pantoprazole 80 mg bolus plus 8 mg/hr or lansoprazole 90 mg b o l u s p l u s 9 m g / h r ) . H owe v e r , n o n e o f t h e i n t r av e n o u s P P I s a r e c u r r e n t ly F D A approved for this indication. ( 2 ) V a s o p r es s i n , a n a g e n t t h a t c a u s e s c o n t r a c t i o n o f t h e G I s m o o t h m us c l e , m a y b e g i v e n t o c o n s t r i c t v e s s e ls a n d c o n t r ol b l e e d i n g b u t o n l y i n p a t i e n t s wi t h h e m o r r h a g i c gastritis. d . E m e r g e n c y s u r g e r y u s u a l l y i s i n d i c a t e d i f t he p a t i e n t d o e s n o t r e s p on d t o medical management. B . P e r f o r a t i o n . P e n e t r at i o n o f a p ep t i c u l c e r t hr o u g h t h e g a s t r i c o r d u o d e n a l wa l l r e s u l t s i n t h is a c u t e e m er g e n c y. P e r f o r a t i o n m o s t c o m m o n l y o c c u r s wi t h u l c e r s l o c a t e d i n t h e a n t e r i o r d u o d e n a l wa l l . 1 . C l i n i c a l f e a t u r e s . S u d d e n a c u t e u p p e r a b d o m i n a l p a i n , r i g i d i t y, g u a r d i n g , r e b o u n d t e n d e r n e s s , a n d a b s e n t o r d i m i n i s h e d b o we l s o u n d s a r e t yp i c a l m a n i f e s t a t i o n s . S e v e r a l h o u r s a f t e r o n s e t , s ym p t o m s m a y a b a t e s o m e wh a t ; t h i s
a p p a r e n t r e m i s s i o n i s da n g e r o u s l y m i s l e a d i n g b e c a u s e p e r i t o n i t i s a n d s h o c k m a y ensue. 2 . M a n ag e m e n t . E m e r g e n c y s u r g e r y i s a l m o s t a lwa ys n e c e s s a r y. C. Obstruction. Inflammatory edema, spasm, and scarring may lead to obstruction o f t h e d u o d e n a l o r g a s t r i c o u t l e t . T h e p yl o r u s a n d p r o xi m a l d u o d e n u m a r e t h e m o s t c o m m o n o b s t r u c t i o n s i t es . P.1137
1 . C l i n i c a l f e a t u r e s . T yp i c a l p a t i e n t c o m p l a i n t s i n c l u d e p o s t p r a n d i a l v o m i t i n g o r b l o a t i n g , a p p e t i t e a n d we i g h t l o s s , an d a b d o m i n a l d i s t e n t i o n . T ym p a n y a n d a s u c c u s s i o n s p l a s h m a y b e a u d i b l e o n p h ys i c a l e xa m i n a t i o n . G a s t r i c a s p i r a t i o n a f t e r a n o v e r n i g h t f a s t t yp i c a l l y y i e l d s m o r e t h a n 2 0 0 m L o f f o o d r e s i d u e o r c l e a r f l u i d c o n t e n t s . ( G a s t r i c c a n c er m u s t b e r ul e d o u t a s t he c a u s e o f ob s t r u c t i o n . ) 2 . M a n ag e m e n t a . C o n s e r va t i ve m e a s u r e s ( a s i n r o u t i n e u l c e r t h e r a p y) a r e i n d i c a t e d i n m o s t c a s e s of obstruction. b . P a t i e n t s wi t h m a r k e d o b s t r u c t i o n m a y r e q u i r e c o n t i n u o u s g a s t r i c su c t i o n wi t h c a r e f u l m o n i t o r i n g o f f l u i d a n d e l e c t r o l yt e s t a t u s . A s a l i n e l o a d t e s t m a y b e performed after 72 hr of continuous suction to test the degree of residual obstruction. c . I f < 2 0 0 m L o f g a s t r i c c o n t e n t s ar e a s p i r a t e d , l i q u i d f e e d i n g s c a n b e g i n . As p i r a t i o n is p e r f o r m e d a t l e a s t d a i l y f o r t h e n e xt f e w d a ys t o m o n i t o r f o r r e t e n t i o n and to guide dietary modifications as the patient progresses to a full regular diet. d . S u rg e r y i s i n d i c a t e d i f m e d i c a l m a n a g e m e n t f a i l s . D . Po s t s u r g i c a l c o mp l i c a t i o n s 1 . D u m p i n g s yn d r o m e . A f f e ct i n g a b o u t 1 0 % o f p a t i e n t s wh o h a v e u n d e r g o n e p a r t i a l g a s t r e c t o m y , t h i s d i s o r d e r i s c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y r a p i d g a s t r i c e m p t yi n g . a . C a u s e s . T h e m e c h a n i s m u n d e r l yi n g d u m p i n g s yn d r o m e i s p o o r l y d e f i n e d . H o we v e r , i n t e s t i n a l e x p o s u r e t o h yp e r t o n i c c h ym e m a y p l a y a k e y r o l e b y t r i g g e r i n g r a p i d s h i f t s o f f l u i d f r o m t h e p l a s m a t o t h e i n t e st i n a l l u m e n . b . C l i n i c a l f e a t u r e s . T he p a t i e n t m ay e x p e r i e n c e we a k n e s s , d i z z i n e s s , a n xi e t y, t a c h yc a r d i a , f l u s h i n g , swe a t i n g , a b d o m i n a l c r a m p s , n a u s e a , v o m i t i n g , a n d d i a r r h e a . ( 1 ) M a n i f e s t a t i o n s m a y d e v e l o p 1 5 - 3 0 m i n a f t e r a m e a l ( e a r l y d u m p i n g s yn d r o m e ) o r 9 0 - 1 2 0 m i n a f t e r a m e a l ( l a t e d u m p i n g s yn d r o m e ) . ( 2 ) R e a c t i v e h yp o g l y c e m i a m a y p a r t l y a c c o u n t f o r s o m e c a s es o f l a t e d u m p i n g s yn d r o m e . c . M a n ag e m e n t . T h e p a t i e n t u s u a l l y i s a d v i s e d t o e a t s i x s m a l l m e a l s o f h i g h p r o t e i n a n d f a t c o n t e n t a n d l o w c a r b o h yd r a t e c o n t e n t . F l u i d s s h o u l d b e i n g e s t e d 1 h r b e f o r e o r a f t e r a m e a l bu t n e v e r wi t h a m e a l . An t i ch o l i n e r g i c s m a y b e g i v e n t o s l ow f o o d p a s s a g e i n t o t h e i nt e s t i n e . 2 . O t h e r p o s t s u r g i c a l c o m p l i c a t i o n s i n c l u d e r e f l u x g a s t r i t i s , a f f e r e n t bl i n d l o o p s yn d r o m e , s t o m a l u l c e r a t i o n , d i a r r h e a , m a l a b s o r p t i o n , e a r l y s a t i e t y, a n d i r o n deficiency anemia.
E . R e f r a c t o r y u l c e r s . U l c e r s t h a t f ai l t o h e a l o n a p r o l o n g e d c o u r s e o f d r u g t r e a t m e n t s h o u l d n o t b e c o n f u s e d wi t h u l c e r s t ha t r e c u r af t er t h e r a p y i s s t o p p e d . I t i s d i f f i c u l t t o p r e d i c t wh i c h p a t i e n t s wi l l h a v e a r e f r a c t o r y u l c e r . 1 . D i f f e r e n t i a l d i ag n o s i s . A n y c o m p l i a n t p a t i e n t wh o c o n t i n u e s t o h a v e d ys p e p t i c s ym p t o m s a f t e r 8 we e k s o f t h e r a p y s h o u l d h a v e g a s t r o s c o p y a n d b i o p s y t o e xc l u d e rare causes of ulceration in the duodenum, such as Crohn disease, tuberculosis, l ym p h o m a , p u l m o n a r y o r s e c o n d a r y c a r c i n o m a , a n d c yt o m e g a l o v i r u s ( C M V ) i n f e ct i o n i n i m m u n o d e f i c i e n t p a t i e n t s . F a s t i ng p l a s m a g a s t r i n c o n c e n t r a t i o n s h o u l d b e m e a s u r e d t o e x c l u d e Z o l l i n g e r - E l l i s o n s yn d r o m e . 2. Treatment a . A v a i l a b l e d a t a i n d i c a t e t h a t o n l y m a xi m u m a c i d i n h i b i t i o n , wi t h a r e g i m e n s u c h a s o m e p r a z o l e ( 2 0 m g t wi c e a d a y) o r l a n s o p r a z o l e ( 3 0 m g t wi c e a d a y) , o f f e r s a d v a n t a g e s o v e r c o n t i n u e d t h e r a p y wi t h s t a n d a r d a n t i u l c e r r e g i m e n s . b . E r a d i c a t i o n o f H . p y l o r i i n f e c t i o n , wh e n p r e s e n t , i s l i k e l y t o f a c i l i t a t e h e a l i n g a n d alter the natural history of refractory ulcers. c . E v e r y e f f o r t s h o u l d b e m a d e t o d is c o v e r a n d r e d u c e o r e l i m i n a t e N S A I D u s e . d . P e r f o r m su r g e r y. F . M a i n t e n an c e r e g i m en s 1 . D e s p i t e he a l i n g a f t e r wi t h d r a wa l o f t h e r a p y, 7 0 % o f u l c e r s r e c u r i n 1 ye a r , a n d 9 0 % i n 2 ye a r s . S i m i l a r ly, e r o s i v e e s o p h a g i t i s wi l l r e c u r i n m o r e t h a n 8 0 % o f i n d i v i d u a l s wi t h i n 1 y e a r a f t e r d i s c on t i n u a t i o n o f a n t i s e c r e t or y t h e r a p y. 2 . C a n d i d a t e s f o r l o n g - t e r m m a i n t e n a n c e t h e r a p y i n c l u d e p a t i e n t s wi t h s e r i o u s c o n c o m i t a n t d i s e a s e s ; f o u r r e l a p s e s p e r ye a r ; o r a c o m b i n a t i o n o f r i s k f ac t o r s , producing a more severe P.1138 n a t u r a l h i s t o r y o f p e p t i c d i s e a s e ( e . g . , o l d a g e , m a l e s e x, a l o n g h i s t o r y o f a s p i r i n o r N S A I D u s e , h e a v y a l c o h o l i n t a k e , c ig a r e t t e s m ok i n g , a h i s t or y o f p e p t i c u l c e r d i s e a s e i n a n i m m e d i a t e r e l a t i v e , h ig h m a xi m a l a c i d o u t p u t , a n d a h i s t o r y o f u l c e r complications). 3 . P a t i e n t s wi t h c o n f i r m e d u l c e r d i s e a s e s h o u l d b e e v a l u a t e d f o r p r e s e nc e o f H . p y l o r i . E r a d i c a t i o n o f H . p y l o r i m i n i m i z e s t h e r e cu r r e n c e o f ul c e r d i s e a s e . P a t i e n t s wi t h a h i s t o r y o f c o m p l i c a t e d u l c e r d i s e a s e s h o u l d h a v e H . py l o r i e r a d i c a t i o n confirmed. P.1139
STUDY QUESTIONS D i r e c t i o n s f o r q u e s t i o n s 1 - 6 : E a c h o f t h e q u e s t io n s , s t at e m e n t s , o r i n c o m p l e t e s t a t e m e n t s i n t h i s s e c t i o n c a n b e c o r r e c t l y a n s we r e d o r c o m p l e t e d b y o n e o f t h e s u g g e s t e d a n s we r s o r p h r a s e s . C h o o s e t h e b e st a n s we r . 1 . Z Z i s a 43 - y e a r - o l d f e m a l e w i t h a c h i e f co mp l a i n t o f h em a t e m e s i s a n d a b d o mi n a l p a i n . S e ro l o g y i s p o s i t i ve f o r H . p y l o r i . W h i c h o f t h e f o l l ow i n g w o u l d be the best regimens to treat ZZ?
( A ) o m e p r a zo l e 2 0 m g d a i l y p l u s c l a r i t h r o m yc i n 5 0 0 m g b . i . d. × 1 4 d a ys ( B ) l a n s o p r a z o l e 3 0 m g b . i . d . p l u s t e t r a c yc l i n e 5 0 0 m g q . i . d. × 1 4 d a ys ( C ) r a b e p r a z o l e 2 0 m g b . i . d . p l u s am o xi c i l l i n 1 g b . i . d . p l u s cl a r i t h r o m yc i n 5 0 0 m g b.i.d. × 7 days ( D ) e s o m e p r a z o l e 4 0 m g b . i . d . p l u s a m o xi c i l l i n 5 0 0 m g b . i . d . p l u s c l a r i t hr o m yc i n 5 0 0 m g b . i . d . × 7 d a ys ( E ) p a n t o p r a z o l e 4 0 m g b . i . d . p l u s a m o xi c i l l i n 1 g b . i . d . p l u s c l a r i t h r o m yc i n 5 0 0 m g t . i . d. × 1 0 da ys V i e w A n s we r 1 . T h e an s w e r i s C [ s ee] . H el i c o b ac t e r p y l o ri , 2 . Al l o f t h e f o l l ow i n g s t a t e m e n t s c o n c e r n i n g a n t a c i d t h er a p y u s e d i n t h e t r e a t m e n t o f d u o d e n al o r g a s t r i c u l c e r s a r e c o r r e c t e x c e p t w h i ch o n e? ( A ) A n t a c i d s m a y b e u s e d t o h e a l t he u l c e r b u t a r e i n e f f e c t iv e i n c o n t r o l l i n g u l c e r pain. (B) Antacids neutralize acid and decrease the activity of pepsin. ( C ) I f u s e d a l o n e f o r u l c e r t h e r a p y, a n t a c i d s s h o u l d b e a d m i n i s t e r e d 1 h r a n d 3 h r after meals and before bedtime. ( D ) I f d i a r r he a o c c u r s , t h e p a t i e n t m a y a l t e r n a t e t h e a n t a c i d p r o d u c t wi t h a l u m i n u m h yd r o x i d e . (E) Calcium carbonate should be avoided because it causes acid rebound and induces constipation. V i e w A n s we r 2 . T h e an s w e r i s A [ s ee] . 3. As p a r t o f a co m p r e h e n s i ve m a n a g e m e n t s t r a t e g y t o t r e a t p e p t i c u l c e r d i s e a s e , p a t i en t s s h o u l d b e e n c o u r a g ed t o d o al l o f t h e f o l l ow in g e x c e p t ( A ) d e c r e a se c a f f e i n e i n g e s t i o n . (B) eat only bland foods. (C) stop smoking. (D) avoid alcohol. ( E ) a v o i d t he u s e o f m i lk a s a t r e a t m e n t m o d a l i t y. V i e w A n s we r 3 . T h e an s w e r i s B [ s ee] . 4. A g a s t r i c u l c e r p at i e n t r e q u i re s c l o s e f o l l o w - u p t o d o c u m e n t co m p l e t e u l c e r h e a l i n g b e ca u s e ( A ) p e r f o r a t io n i n t o t h e in t e s t i n e i s co m m o n . ( B ) s p o n t a n e o u s h e a l i n g o f t h e u l c er m a y o c c u r i n 3 0 % - 5 0 % o f c a s e s. ( C ) t h e r e i s t h e r i s k of t h e u l c e r b e i n g c a n c e r o u s . ( D ) s ym p t o m s t e n d t o be c h r o n i c a n d r e c u r . ( E ) we i g h t l o s s m a y b e s e v e r e i n g a s t r i c u l c e r p a t i e n t s . V i e w A n s we r 4 . T h e an s w e r i s C [ s ee] . 5. I T i s a 5 8 - ye a r - o l d m a l e ad m i t t e d t o t h e i n t e n s i ve c a r e u n i t w i t h a c u t e r e s p i r a t o r y f a i l u r e a n d t h ro m b o c yt o p e n i a . H e i s a t h i g h r i s k f o r an u p p e r g as t r o i n t e s t i n a l b l e e d . W h i c h o f t h e f o l l ow i n g a g e n t s a r e a p p r o ve d b y t h e U . S . F o o d a n d D ru g Ad m i n i s t r a t i o n ( F DA) f o r t h e p r e ve n t i o n o f t h i s t yp e o f b l e e d ? ( A ) s u c r a l f at e (B) famotidine (C) esomeprazole (D) lansoprazole ( E ) o m e p r a zo l e
V i e w A n s we r 5 . T h e an s w e r i s E[ s e e I I . 6 . B] . 6. Al l o f t h e f o l l ow i n g p ro vi d e a c i d s u p p r es s i o n s i m i l a r t o o m e p ra z o l e 2 0 mg e ve r y d a y e x c e p t ( A ) l a n s o p r a z o l e 3 0 m g e v e r y d a y. ( B ) p a n t o p r a z o l e 4 0 m g e v e r y d a y. ( C ) r a b e p r a z o l e 2 0 m g e v e r y d a y. ( D ) f a m o t i d in e 2 0 m g t wi c e a d a y. ( E ) a l l p r o v id e e q u i v a l e n t a c i d s u p p r e s s i o n . V i e w A n s we r 6 . T h e an s w e r i s D [ s ee] . P . 1 1 4 0
D i r e c t i o n s f o r q u e s t i o n s 7 - 8 : T h e qu e s t i o n s a n d i n c o m p l e t e s t a t e m e n t s i n t h i s s e c t i o n c a n b e c o r r e c t l y a n s we r e d o r c o m p l e t e d b y o n e o r m o r e o f t h e su g g e s t e d a n s we r s . C h o o s e t h e a n s we r , A- E . 7 . C o r r e c t st a t e m e n t s c o n c e r n i n g c i g a r e t t e sm o k i n g a n d u l c e r d i s e as e i n c l u d e w hi ch o f t h e f o l l ow i n g ? ( I ) S m o k i n g d e l a ys h e a l i n g o f g a s t r i c a n d d u o d e n a l u l c e r s . ( I I ) N i co t i n e d e c r e a s e s b i l i a r y a n d p a n c r e a t i c b i c a r b o n a t e s e c r e t i o n . ( I I I ) S m o k i n g a c c e l e r a t e s t h e e m p t yi n g o f s t o m a c h a c i d i n t o t h e d u o d e n u m. A if I only is correct B if III only is correct C if I and II are correct D if II and III are correct E if I, II, and III are correct V i e w A n s we r 7 . T h e an s w e r i s E( I , I I , I I I ) [ s e e] .8 . W h e n a d m i n i s t e r e d a t t h e s a m e t i m e , a n t a c i d s c an d e c r e a s e t h e t h e r a p e u t i c e f f i c a c y o f w h i c h o f t h e f o l l ow i n g d r u g s ? ( I ) su c r a l f a t e (II) ranitidine ( I I I ) ci m e t i d i n e A if I only is correct B if III only is correct C if I and II are correct D if II and III are correct E if I, II, and III are correct V i e w A n s we r 8 . T h e an s w e r i s E( I , I I , I I I ) [ s e e] .D i r e c t i o n s f o r q u e s t i o n s 9 1 3 : E a c h d e s c r i p t i o n i n t h i s s e c t i o n is m o s t c l o se l y a s s o c i a t e d wi t h o n e o f t h e f o l l o wi n g a g e n t s . E a c h a g e n t i s u s e d o n l y o n c e . C h o o s e t he b e s t a n s we r , A- E . 9. may cause diarrhea A sodium bicarbonate B a l u m i n u m h yd r o xi d e C calcium carbonate D magnesium hydroxide E propantheline V i e w A n s we r 9 . T h e an s w e r i s D [ s ee] . 1 0 . c a n n o t b e u s e d b y p a t i e n t s w i t h h e a r t f a i l u re
A sodium bicarbonate B a l u m i n u m h yd r o xi d e C calcium carbonate D magnesium hydroxide E propantheline V i e w A n s we r 1 0 . T h e a n s w e r i s A [ se e] . 1 1 . i f u se d w i t h m i l k a n d a n a l k a l i n e s u b s t a n c e c a n c a u s e m i l k - a l k a l i s yn d r o m e A sodium bicarbonate B a l u m i n u m h yd r o xi d e C calcium carbonate D magnesium hydroxide E propantheline V i e w A n s we r 1 1 . T h e a n s w e r i s C [ se e] . 1 2 . m a y c a u s e d r y m o u t h A sodium bicarbonate B a l u m i n u m h yd r o xi d e C calcium carbonate D magnesium hydroxide E propantheline V i e w A n s we r 1 2 . T h e a n s w e r i s E [ se e] . 1 3 . c a n b e a l t e r n a t e d w i t h a n a n t a c i d m i xt u r e t o c o n t r o l d i a r r h e a. A sodium bicarbonate B a l u m i n u m h yd r o xi d e C calcium carbonate D magnesium hydroxide E propantheline V i e w A n s we r 1 3 . T h e a n s w e r i s B [ se e] . P. 1 1 4 1
ANSWERS AND EXPLANATIONS 1 . T h e a n sw er i s C [ s ee T a b l e 5 2 - 4 ] . T h o u g h a l l a g e n t s a r e u s e f u l i n t h e t r e a t m e n t o f H e l i c o b a c t e r p y l o r i , o n ly t h e c o m b i n a t i o n o f r a b e p r a zo l e wi t h a m o xi c i l l i n a n d c l a r i t h r o m yc i n f o r 7 d a ys i s c o r r e c t . T h e o t h e r do s e s a n d d u r a t i o n o f t h e r a p y a r e i n c o r r e c t . 2 . T h e a n sw er i s A [ s e e I I . A . 1] . A n t a c i d s h a v e b e e n s h o wn t o h e a l p e p t i c u l c e r s , a n d t h e i r m a i n u s e i n m o d e r n t h e r a p y i s t o c o n t r o l u l c e r p a i n . A n t ac i d s s h o u l d b e t a k e n 1 h r a n d 3 h r a f t e r m e a l s b e c a u s e t h e m e a l p r o l o n g s t h e a c i d b u f f e r i n g e f f ec t o f t h e a n t a c i d . I f d i a r r h e a b e c o m e s a p r o b l e m wi t h a n t a c i d u s e , a n a l u m i n u m h yd r o xi d e p r o d u c t c an b e a l t e r n a t e d wi t h t h e a n t a c i d m i xt u r e ; t h i s t a k e s a dv a n t a g e o f t h e c o n s t i p a t i n g property of aluminum. Because calcium carbonate causes acid rebound and c o n s t i p a t i o n , i t s u s e s h ou l d b e a v o i d e d . 3 . T h e a n sw er i s B [ s ee I I . B . 1. a . ( 1) ] . B l a n d f o o d d i e t s a r e n o l o n g e r r e c o m m e n d e d i n t h e t r e a t m en t o f u l c e r d i s e a s e b e c a u s e r e s e a r c h i n d i c a t e s t h a t b l a n d o r m i l k - b as e d d i e t s d o n o t a c c e l e r a t e u l c e r
h e a l i n g . S t ud i e s s h o w t h a t p a t i e n t s c a n e a t a l m o s t a n yt h i n g ; h o we v e r , t h e y s h o u l d a v o i d f o o d s t h a t a g g r a v a t e t h e i r u l ce r s ym p t o m s . 4 . T h e a n sw er i s C [ s ee I . D. 6 ] . B e t we e n 5 % a n d 1 0 % o f g a s t r i c u l c er s m a y b e t h e r e s u l t o f ca n c e r . T h e u l c e r m a y r e s p o n d t o t h e r a p y; h o we v e r , f a i l u r e o f t h e u l c e r t o d e c r e a s e s a t i s f a ct o r i l y i n s i z e a n d t o h e a l wi t h t h e r a p y m a y s u g g e s t c a n c e r . Cl o s e f o l l o w- u p i s n e c e s s a r y t o document complete ulcer healing. 5 . T h e a n sw er i s E [ s e e I I . 6 . B ] . T h o u g h a l l o f t h e s e a g e n t s h a v e b e e n u s e d wi t h s u c c e s s i n t h e p r e v e n t i o n o f G I b l e e d s i n c r i t i c a l l y i l l p a t i e n t s , o n l y o m e p r a z o l e ( a s a p o wd e r f o r o r a l s u sp e n s i o n ) h a s b e e n F D A a p p r o v e d f o r t h i s i nd i c a t i o n . 6 . T h e a n sw er i s D [ s ee I I . A . 6. b . ( 1) ] . D o s e s o f o m e p r a z o l e 2 0 m g , l a n s o p r a z o l e 3 0 m g , p a n t o p r a z o l e 4 0 m g , an d r a b e p r a z o l e 2 0 m g a d m in i s t e r e d o n c e d a i l y p r o v i d e s i m i l a r l e v e l s o f a c i d suppression. All provide significantly better acid inhibition than famotidine, even at d o s e s o f 2 0 m g t wi c e a d a y o r m o r e . 7 . T h e a n sw er i s E ( I , I I , I I I ) [ s e e I . E . 3 ; I I . B. 1 . c ] . C l i n i c a l s t u d i e s h a v e s h o wn t h a t s m o k i n g i n c r e a s e s s u s c e p t ib i l i t y t o u l c e r d i s e a s e , i m p a i r s s p o n t a n e o u s a n d d r u g - i n d u c e d h e a l i n g , a n d i n c r e a s e s t h e r i s k an d r a p i d i t y o f r e c u r r e n ce o f t h e u l c er . T h e s e f i nd i n g s m a y r e s u l t i n p a r t f r o m n i c o t i n e ' s a b i l i t y t o d e c r e a s e b i l i a r y a n d p a n c r e a t i c b i c a r b o n a t e s e c r e t i o n , t h u s de c r e a s i n g t h e b o d y' s a b i l i t y t o n e u t r a l i z e a c i d i n t h e d u o d e n u m . A l s o , t h e a c c e l e r a t e d e m p t yi n g o f s t o m a c h a c id i n t o t h e du o d e n u m m a y p r e d i s p o s e t o d u o d e n a l u l c e r a n d m a y decrease healing rates. 8 . T h e a n sw er i s E ( I , I I , I I I ) [ s e e I I . A. 1 . e . ( 3 ) ; I I . A. 3 . d ] . T h e m e a n p e a k b l o o d c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f c i m et i d i n e a n d t h e a r e a u n d e r t h e 4 - h r c i m e t i d i n e b l o o d c o n c e n t r a t i o n c u r ve we r e b o t h r e d u c e d s i g n i f i c a n t l y wh e n c i m e t i d i n e wa s a d m i n i s t e r e d a t t h e s a m e t i m e as a n a n t a c i d . T h e a b s o r p t i o n o f r a n i t i d i n e i s a l s o r e d u c e d wh e n i t i s t a k e n c o n c u r r e n t l y wi t h a n a l u m i n u m m a g n e s i u m h yd r o x i d e a n t a c i d m i xt u r e . T o a v o i d t h i s i n t e r a ct i o n , t h e a n t a c i d s h o u l d be administered 1 hr before or 2 hr after the administration of cimetidine or r a n i t i d i n e . A n t a c i d s m a y r e d u c e m u co s a l b i n d i n g o f s u cr a l f a t e , d e c r e a s i n g i t s t h e r a p e u t i c e f f i c a c y. A n t a c i d s s h o u l d , t h e r e f o r e , b e g i v e n 3 0 - 6 0 m i n b e f o r e o r a f t e r sucralfate. 9 . T h e a n sw er i s D [ s ee I I . A . 1. b . ( 3) ] . 1 0 . T h e a n sw er i s A [ s e e I I . A . 1. d . ( 2) ] . 1 1 . T h e a n sw er i s C [ s ee I I . A . 1. d . ( 5) ] . 1 2 . T h e a n sw er i s E [ s e e I I . A . 4. c . ( 1) ] . P.1142
1 3 . T h e a n sw er i s B [ s ee I I . A . 1. b . ( 3) ] . M a g n e s i u m - c o n t a i n i n g p r o d u c t s t e n d t o c a u s e d ia r r h e a , p o s s i b l y b e c a u s e o f magnesium's ability to stimulate the secretion of bile acids by the gallbladder. B e c a u s e o f it s s o d i u m c o n t e n t , s o d i u m b i c a r b o n a t e i s c o n t r ai n d i c a t e d i n p a t i e n t s
wi t h C H F , h y p e r t e n s i o n , s e v e r e r e na l d i s e a s e , a n d e d e m a . S o d i u m b i c a r b o n a t e i s n o l o n g e r u s e d i n p e p t i c u l c e r t h e r a p y. I n a d d i t i o n t o c a u s i n g a c i d r e b o u n d , c a l c i u m c a r b o n a t e , i f t a k e n wi t h m i l k a n d a n a l k a l i n e s u b s t a n c e f o r l o n g p e r i o d s , m a y c a u s e m i l k - a l k a l i s yn d r o m e . I t a l s o m a y c a u s e a d v e r s e e f f e ct s s u ch a s h yp e r c a l c e m i a , a l k a l o s i s , a z o t e m i a , a n d n e p h r o c a l c i n o s i s . P r o pa n t h e l i n e , l i k e o t h e r a n t i c h o l i n e r g i c agents, may cause dry mouth, blurred vision, urinary retention, and constipation. These agents sometimes are used as adjuncts to relieve duodenal ulcer pain. They a r e c o n t r a i n d i c a t e d i n g a s t r i c u l c e r b e c a u s e t h e y d e l a y g a s t r i c e m p t yi n g . A l u m i n u m h yd r o x i d e i s c o n s t i p a t i n g a n d c a n b e a l t e r n a t e d wi t h t h e p a t i e n t ' s c u r r e nt a n t a c i d wh e n t h a t a n t a c i d p r o d u c t i s c a u s i n g d i a r r h e a .
53 Diseases of the Bowel: Inflammatory Bowel Disease and Irritable Bowel Syndrome Eric Coldiron
I. INTRODUCTION A. D e f i n i t i o n 1 . I n f l a m m at o r y b ow el d i s e a s e ( I BD ) i s a d e s ig n a t i o n c o m m o n l y u s e d t o d e s c r i b e t wo i d i o p a t h i c d i s e a s e s o f t h e g a s t r o i n t e s t i n a l t r a c t wi t h c l o s e l y r e l a t e d c l i n i c a l p r e s e n t a t i o n s . T h e s e d i s e a s e s a r e u l c e r a t i ve c o l i t i s ( U C ) a n d C r o h n d i s e a s e ( C D ) . 2 . U C i s a ch r o n i c i n f l a m m a t o r y c o n d i t i o n o f t he g a s t r o i n t e s t i n a l t r a c t m u c o s a a n d i s p r i m a r i l y f o u n d i n t h e r ec t u m a n d c ol o n . 3. CD is chronic transmural inflammation of the gastrointestinal mucosa and can be found throughout the gastrointestinal tract from the mouth to the anus. CD most c o m m o n l y a f f e c t s t h e sm a l l b o we l a n d c o l o n . 4 . I r r i t a b l e b ow el s yn d r o m e ( I B S ) h a s b e e n d e f i n e d a s a f un c t i o n a l b o we l d i s o r d e r i n wh i c h a b d o m i n a l p a i n o r d i s c o m f o r t i s a ss o c i a t e d wi t h d e f e c a t i o n o r ch a n g e s i n b o we l h a b i t s a n d wi t h f e a t u r e s o f di s o r d e r e d d e f e c a t i o n . B. Manifestations 1. IBD a . U C o n s e t i s f r e q u e n t l y i n s i d i o u s wi t h i n c r e a s i n g s t o o l u r g e n c y a n d f r e q u e n c y. I n a d d i t i o n t o u r g e n c y, b l o o d y s t o o l a n d m u c u s i n t h e s t o o l c a n a l s o g r a d u a l l y i n c r e a s e . T he g e n e r a l c o u r s e o f U C c a n b e g e n e r a l i z e d a s b o u t s o f v a r i e d d i s e a s e i n t e n s i t y i n t e r s p e r s e d wi t h a s ym p t o m a t i c p e r i o d s . b . C D o n s e t i s t y p i c a l l y i n s i d i o u s b u t c a n b e a s s e v e r e o r f ul m i n a t e d i s e a s e . D e s p i t e s i m i l a r i t i e s o f C D p r e s en t a t i o n , t h e r e a r e p a t t e r n s o f s ym p t o m s t h a t r e l a t e t o d i s e a s e l o c a t i o n a n d t yp e ( e . g . , i n f la m m a t o r y, f i b r o s t e n o t i c , f i s t u l i z i n g ) t h a t c a n b e useful in determining therapy decisions. 2. IBS a . I B S c a n be c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y p a i n r e l i e v e d b y d e f e c a t i o n , a l t e r n a t i n g b o we l h a b i t s , abdominal distention, mucus in the stool, and a sensation of incomplete defecation. I B S u s u a l l y o c c u r s a s e it h e r c o n s t i pa t i o n p r e d o m i n a n t o r d i a r r h e a p r e d o m i n a n t . b . C o n s t i p at i o n - p r e d o m i n a n t I B S t e n d s t o p r es e n t wi t h p a i n a n d p e r i o d i c c o n s t i p a t i o n a l t e r n a t i n g wi t h n o r m a l p e r i o d s o f b o we l f u n c t i o n . P a i n h a s b e e n d e s c r i b e d a s c o l i c k y, p e r i o d i c , a n d / o r a c o n t i n u o u s d u l l a c h e . D e f e c a t i o n m a y r e l i e v e t h e p a i n a n d e a t i n g c a n c o m m o n l y t r i g g e r s ym p t o m s . O t h e r c o m m o n s ym p t o m s a r e b l o a t i n g , n a u s e a s , d ys p e p s i a , f l a t u l e n c e , a n d h e a r t b u r n . c. Diarrhea-predominant IBS is commonly characterized by precipitous diarrhea o c c u r r i n g i m m e d i a t e l y o n r i s i n g o r du r i n g m e a l s o r i m m e d i a t e l y p o s t p r a n d i a l l y. Nocturnal episodes are rare. Other common presenting complaints are pain, b l o a t i n g , r e c t a l u r g e n c y, a n d i n c o n t i n e n c e . d . I B S c a n al s o b e a l t e r n a t i n g f r o m co n s t i p a t i o n t o d i a r r h e a o n a c o n t i n u a l b a s i s . C . Ep i d e m i o l o g y o f I BD . I t h a s b ee n e s t i m a t e d t h a t a p p r o xi m a t e l y 1 m i l l i o n A m e r i c a n s h a v e I B D . I t is e s t i m a t e d t h a t r o u g h l y h a l f h a v e UC a n d h a l f h a v e C D .
1 . U C i n c i d e n c e a n d p re va l e n c e r a t e s h a v e r e m a i n e d r e l a t i v e l y c o n s t a n t i n N o r t h A m e r i c a a n d n o r t h e r n E ur o p e a n d a p p e a r t o b e in c r e a s i n g i n s o u t h e r n Eu r o p e a n d E a s t A s i a . UC h i s t o r i c a l l y h a s b e e n m o r e c o m m o n t h a n C D . P.1144
a . U C i n c i d e n c e r a t e s i n N o r t h A m e r ic a a r e r e p o r t e d t o b e a r o u n d 1 1 c a s e s p e r 1 0 0 , 0 0 0 p a t i e n t s . R e c e n t p r e v a l e n c e r a t e s f o r UC i n N o r t h Am e r i c a a r e r e p o r t e d t o b e 1 6 9 - 2 2 9 p e r 1 0 0 , 0 0 0 p a t i e n t s . Ra t e s a r e c om p a r a b l e i n n o r t h e r n E u r o p e a n countries. b . U C i n c i d e n c e a n d p r e v a l e n c e r a t e s a r e l o we r i n s o u t h e r n E u r o p e , A s i a , a n d L a t i n America. 2 . C D i n c i d e n c e a n d p re va l e n c e r a t e s h a v e s e e n a m a r k e d r i s e s i n c e t h e e a r l y 1 9 5 0 s . T h e r e i s a g r e a t v a r i a n c e i n p u b l i s h e d i n c i d e n c e r a t e s o f C D. A r ea s o f h i g h e r C D i n c i d e n c e a r e g e n e r a l l y s i m i l a r t o t h o s e o f h ig h e r U C i n c i d e n c e . C D h a s r e c e n t l y become more common than UC in some areas. a . R e p o r t e d C D i n c i d e n c e r a t e f o r No r t h A m e r i ca i s e s t i m a t e d t o b e 5 ca s e s p e r 100,000 patients. CD prevalence rates in North America are estimated to be around 50 cases per 100,000 patients. CD rates for northern Europe are comparable to those in North America. b . R a t e s f o r s o u t h e r n Eu r o p e , A f r i ca , a n d A s i a h a v e b e e n r e p o r t e d t o b e l o we r t h a n t h o s e s e e n i n N o r t h A m er i c a a n d n o r t h e r n E u r o p e . 3 . G eo g r a p h i c a l - r e l a t ed c o mp o n en t s a. Northern regions have historically reported higher rates of IBD than southern regions. Rates in southern Europe have recently seen increasing incidence rates compared to historical rates. b. CD rates have been reported to be higher in urban areas. c. UC rates have been reported to be higher in rural areas. d. IBD rates have historically been higher in developed countries compared to lessd e v e l o p e d c o u n t r i e s . T hi s d i f f e r e n c e h a s b e e n s h o wn t o d e c r e a s e a s l e s s - d e v e l o p e d a r e a s a r e d e v e l o p e d a n d a m o r e W e s t e r n d i e t is a d o p t e d . 4 . E t h n i c , ra c i a l , an d s o c i o e c o n o m i c c o m p o n e n t s a . T h e r is k f o r I B D a n d C D i n p a r t i cu l a r i s h i g h e r i n J e ws o f E u r o p e a n d e s c e n t t h a n i n n o n - J e ws . W h i l e I B D p r e v a l e n c e i s r e p o r t e d t o b e h i g h e r i n J e ws c o m p a r e d t o n o n - J e ws t h e r e i s c o n s i d e r a b l e v a r i a t i o n wi t h i n J e wi s h p o p u l a t i o n s f r o m d i f f e r e n t geographical locations. b . N o n - J e wi s h wh i t e s h i s t o r i c a l l y h a v e b e e n c o n s i d e r e d t o b e a t h i g h e r r i s k f o r I B D c o m p a r e d t o A f r i c a n Am e r i c a n s , b u t t h a t d i f f e r e n c e h a s b e e n q u e s t i o n e d i n r e c e n t r e p o r t s . B l ac k s i n Af r i c a t e n d t o b e a t l e s s r i sk f o r I B D t h a n e i t h e r N o r t h A m e r i c a n wh i t e s o r A f r i c a n A m e r i ca n s . c . A s i a n s a pp e a r t o b e a t l o we r r i s k f o r d e v e l o p i n g I B D t h a n wh i t e s . H o we v e r , m i g r a n t A s ia n s t o t h e Un i t e d K i n g d o m h a v e b e e n s h o wn t o b e a t h i g h e r r i s k f o r U C t h a n n o n m i g r a n t s , n e a r ly e q u a l i n g t h e r i s k o f d e v e l o p i n g C D a s U K - b o r n wh i t e s . d . I n c i d e n c e r a t e s of I BD h a v e h i s t o r i c a l l y b e e n r e p o r t e d t o b e h i g h e r i n h i g h e r socioeconomic classes.
5 . Ag e - a n d s e x - r e l a t e d c o mp o n en t s a . I B D i s m or e c o m m o n in yo u n g a d u l t p a t i e n t s t h a n o l d e r p a t i e n t s . b . C D h a s hi s t o r i c a l l y d e m o n s t r a t e d a b i m o d a l d i s t r i b u t i o n i n r e g a r d t o ag e o f d i a g n o s i s ; a l a r g e p e a k i s s e e n i n t he 2 n d a n d 3 r d d e c a d e s a n d a s e c o n d , s m a l l e r p e a k a p p e a r s i n l a t e r d ec a d e s . c. The average age of UC diagnosis is in the 4th decade. d . M e n a n d wo m e n a r e a t s i m i l a r r i sk o f d e v e l o p i n g I B D . e . W o m e n ar e a t i n c r e as e d r i s k o f de v e l o p i n g C D c o m p a r e d t o m e n . f . M e n a r e a t s l i g h t l y i n c r e a s e d r i s k o f d e v e l o p i n g U C c o m p a r e d t o wo m e n , a l t h o u g h t h e d i f f e r e nc e a p p r o a c h e s u n i t y. 6. Other contributing factors a . S m o k i n g h a s b e e n a s s o c i a t e d wi t h a d e c r e a s e i n U C r a t es , b u t t h e r is k f a ct o r s t o g e n e r a l h e a l t h d o n o t wa r r a n t f o r g o i n g c o u n s e l i n g p a t i e n t s o n t h e b e n e f i t s o f smoking cessation. ( 1 ) F o r m e r s m o k e r s a r e a t i n c r e a s e d r i s k of d e v el o p i n g U C . ( 2 ) S m o k i n g h a s b e e n s h o wn t o b e a r i s k f a c t o r f o r d e v e l o p i n g C D . C D p a t i e n t s wh o a c t i v e l y s m o k e a l s o h a v e i n c r e a s e d m o r b i d i t y c o m p a r e d t o CD p a t i e n t s wh o s t o p smoking. b . Ap p e n d e c t o m y h a s b e e n s h o wn t o b e p r o t ec t i v e i n r e g a r d t o d e v e l o p m e n t o f U C. c . U s e o f o ra l c o n t r a c e p t i ve s h a s b e e n a s s o c i a t e d wi t h i n c r e a s e d r i s k o f developing IBD. 7 . G en e t i c p r e d i s p o s i t i o n t o I B D i s a n a r e a o f r e c e n t r e s e a r c h . a . G e n e t i c pr e d i s p o s i t i o n t o I B D i s su g g e s t e d b y, a m o n g o t he r f a c t o r s , e p i d e m i o l o g i c s t u d i e s , st u d i e s o f t wi n s , f a m i l y a g g r e g a t i o n s t u d i e s , a n d e t h n i c differences in disease patterns. P.1145
b . T h e n u c le o t i d e o l i g o m e r i z a t i o n d o m a i n 2 ( N O D 2 ) / c a s p a s e a c t i v a t i on a n d r e c r u i t m e n t d o m a i n 1 5 ( C A R D 1 5 ) g e n e t i c m u t a t io n f o r e xa m p l e i s s e e n m o r e o f t e n in C D t h a n i n t h e g e n e r a l p o p u l a t i o n . T h e m u t a t i on h a s b e e n a s s o c i a t e d wi t h a l t e r e d i m m u n e r e s p o n s e t o b a c t e r i a . T h e r e a r e l i m i t a t i o n s t o t h e us e f u l n e s s o f N O D 2 / C A R D 1 5 i n c l i n i c a l p r a c t i c e ; h o we v e r , t h e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f t h i s m u t a t i o n a n d o t h e r s h a s op e n e d t h e d o o r f o r m o r e wo r k c o n c e r n i n g g e n e t i c p r e d i s p o s i t i o n a n d p o s s i b l e d i s e a s e m e c h a n i s m , wh i c h , i n t u r n , m ay l e a d t o n e w m o d e s o f t h e r a p y. D . Ep i d e m i o l o g y o f I BS 1 . I B S i s r e p o r t e d t o b e m o r e c o m m o n i n wo m e n t h a n m e n . 2. There is a decrease in IBS frequency in elderly patients. 3 . P r e v a l e n c e s e e m s t o b e e q u a l i n wh i t e s a n d b l a c k s a n d l o we r i n H i s p a n i c s . Overall prevalence rates are estimated at 2.9%. 4 . I B S a p p e a r s t o b e a s c o m m o n i n A s i a , S o u t h A m e r i c a , a nd I n d i a a s i n W e st e r n countries. 5 . I B S u s u a l l y p r e s e n t s b e t we e n t h e a g e s o f 3 0 a n d 5 0 , wi t h s i g n i f i c a n t d e c r e a s e s at ages > 50. E. Description
1 . I B D i s c hr o n i c i n f l a m m a t i o n o f t h e g a s t r o i n t e s t i n a l t r a c t . 2. UC is chronic recurring mucosal inflammation of the colon. a . P r o c t i t i s. I n f l a m m at i o n o f t h e r e c t u m b . P r o c t o s i g m o i d i t i s . C o l i t i s a f f e ct i n g t h e r e c t u m a n d s i g m o i d c o l o n c . L e f t - s i d ed c o l i t i s . D i s e a s e s t a r t in g a t t h e r ec t u m a n d e xt e n d i n g r e t r o g r a d e t o t h e s p l e n i c f l e x u r e o f t h e co l o n d. Pancolitis. Disease affecting the entire colon e . B a c kw a sh i l e i t i s . I n f l a m m a t i o n o f t h e t e r m i na l i l e u m o wi n g t o r e t r o g r a d e f l o w o f colonic contents in pancolitis patients 3 . C D i s c h r o n i c r e c u r r i n g t r a n s m u r a l i n f l a m m a t i o n o f t h e ga s t r o i n t e s t i n a l t r a c t . a . I l e o c o l i t i s . T h e m o st c o m m o n f o r m o f C D, a f f e c t i n g t h e i l e u m a n d c o l o n b . I l e i t i s. CD a f f e c t i n g t h e i l e u m c . G a s t r o d u o d e n al C r o h n d i s e a s e . C D a f f e ct i n g t h e s t o m ac h a n d d u o d e n u m d . J e j u n o i l ei t i s . C D p r od u c i n g i n f l a m m a t i o n o f t h e j e j u n u m a n d i l e u m e . C r o h n ' s ( g r a n u l o m a t o u s ) c o l i t i s . C D a f f e c t in g o n l y t h e c o l o n 4. IBS a . I B S i s r e c o g n i z e d a s b e i n g p a r t o f f u n c t i o n a l b ow el d i s e a s e . b . I B S i s c ha r a c t e r i z e d b y s ym p t o m s o f a b d o m i n a l p a i n o r d i s c o m f o r t t h a t i s a s s o c i a t e d wi t h d i s t u r b e d d e f e c a t i o n p a t t e r n s . I B S i s t yp i c a l l y o f a c o n s t i p a t i o n ( I B S - C ) o r di a r r h e a p r e d o m i n a n t ( I BS - D ) t yp e wi t h a m i n o r i t y o f p a t i e n t s a l t e r n a t i n g b e t we e n t h e t wo ( I B S - A ) o r o f a m i xe d p r e s e n t a t i o n ( I B S- M o r m i xe d ) . F. Cause 1 . I B D i s t ho u g h t t o b e c a u s e d b y a p o o r l y u n d e r s t o o d c o m pi l a t i o n o f e n v i r o n m e n t a l a n d g e n e t i c f a c t o r s a n d p o s s i b l y i n f e c t i o u s a g e n t s . I B D i s l ik e l y a r e s u l t o f m u lt i p l e e n v i r o n m e n t a l f a c t o r s t ha t e l i c i t a n ab n o r m a l i m m u n e r e s p o n s e i n g e n e t i c a l l y susceptible individuals. a . T h e r e i s s i g n i f i c a n t o v e r l a p b e t we e n t h e c l i n i c a l p r e s e n t a t i o n s o f U C a n d C D , t h e t wo m a i n i d i o p a t h i c i n f l a m m a t o r y d i s e a s e s t a t e s t h a t m a k e up I B D . T h u s a c l e a r d i f f e r e n t i a l d i a g n o s i s b e t we e n U C a n d C D i s n o t a l wa ys p o s s i b l e . b . T h e r e i s c l e a r e v i d e n c e o f i m m u ne s ys t e m a c t i v a t i o n wi t h s u b s e q u e n t i n f i l t r a t i o n o f t h e t i s s u e b y l ym p h o c yt e s , m a c r op h a g e s , a n d o t h e r c e l l s . T h e e xa c t t r i g g e r o f t h i s a p p a r e n t p o o r l y r e g u l a t e d i m m u n e r e s p o n s e h a s ye t t o b e d e f i n e d . c . P o s s i b l e m e c h a n i s m s p o s t u l a t e d f o r I B D d i s e as e i n i t i a t i o n i n c l u d e v i r u s o r bacterial infection, dietary antigens or inappropriate immune response to normally nonantigenic microbes, and the possibility of an inappropriate immune response to i n t e s t i n a l a u t o a n t i g e n s e xp r e s s e d o n t h e i n t e s t i na l e p i t h e l i u m . P.1146
d. Regardless of cause, there appears to be failure of normal suppressor m e c h a n i s m s wi t h a r e s u l t a n t o v e r l y v i g o r o u s a n d a b n o r m a l l y l o n g i m m u n e r e s p o n s e to a disease trigger. e. IBD occurs 30-100 times more frequently in first-degree relatives of IBD patients compared to the general population
f . I n f e c t i o u s c o l i t i s c a n m i m i c I B D. D i f f e r e n t i a l d i a g n o s i s i n c l u d e s b a c t e r i a l , protozoal, and viral pathogens (notably Clostridium difficile, fungal protozoal viral, and helminthic pathogens). g. Ischemic colitis and neoplastic diseases such as cecal adenocarcinoma, l ym p h o m a , a n d m e t a s t a t i c c a n c e r s m a y a l s o p r e s e n t l i k e I BD . h . M i c r o s c o p i c co l i t i s a n d o t h e r i n f l a m m a t o r y d i s e a s e s s u c h a s c e l i a c sp r u e , a n d e o s i n o p h i l i c c o l i t i s c a n p r e s e n t i n m u c h t h e sa m e m a n n e r a s I B D . i . D ru g - i n d u c e d e n t e r o c o l i t i s c a n i n d u c e I B D - l i k e s ym p t o m s . T h e m os t c o m m o n l y implicated classes of drugs are nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), gold c o m p o u n d s , o r a l c o n t r ac e p t i v e s , e nt e r i c p o t a s s iu m s u p p l e m e n t s , p a n c r ea t i c e n z ym e s , p h o s p h o s o d a b o we l p r e p s , a n d t h e r m a l i n j u r y s e c o n d a r y t o c o l o s t o m y irrigation. j . O t h e r p o s s i b l y c o n f o u n d i n g d i s e a s e s i n c l u d e e n d o m e t r i o s i s a n d d i ve r t i c u l a r disease. 2. IBS a . T h e e xa c t c a u s e o f I BS i s u n k n o wn , a n d n o a n a t o m i c c a u s e h a s ye t t o b e elucidated. b. Possible comorbid factors—such as viral gastroenteritis, emotional health, diet, e n v i r o n m e n t , c o n c u r r e n t d r u g t h e r a p y, a n d h o r m o n e s — h a v e b e e n i m p l i c a t e d i n g a s t r o i n t e s t i n a l ( G I ) d ys m o t i l i t y. c. Anxiety disorders, particularly panic disorder; major depressive disorder; and somatization disorder have also been implicated as possible initiating factors for IBS. d . L e a r n e d a b e r r a n t i l l n e s s b e h a v i o r , i n wh i c h p a t i e n t s m a y t e n d t o e xp r e s s emotional conflict as a GI complaint, usually abdominal pain, may also be a c o n t r i b u t i n g d i s e a s e s t a t e . T h e c l i n i ci a n e v a l u a t i n g p a t i e n t s wi t h I B S , p ar t i c u l a r l y t h o s e wi t h r e f r a c t o r y s y m p t o m s , s ho u l d i n v e s t i g a t e f o r u n r e s o l v e d p s yc h o l o g i c a l i s s u e s , i n c l u d i n g t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f s e xu a l o r p h ys i c a l a b u s e . G. Pathophysiology 1. IBD a . U C . P h ys i o l o g i c c h a n g e s i n U C b e g i n wi t h e d e m a f o l l o we d b y l o s s o f f i n e v a s c u l a r p a t t e r n a n d i n c r e a s e d m u c o s a l f r i a b i l i t y. U l c e r a t i o n , e xu d a t e s , a n d p s e u d o p o l y p s m a y a l s o b e p r e s e n t . W i t h l o n g e r d i s e a s e h i s t o r y, t h e c o l o n m a y begin to become featureless and tubular in nature. UC tends to occur in a contiguous manner. b . C D . I n f l am m a t i o n a n d s u b s e q u e n t i n j u r y o f t i s s u e k n o wn a s c r yp t i t i s l e a d s t o crypt abscess and subsequently focal aphthoid ulceration. The inflammatory process c a n p r o g r e s s wi t h i n f l u x a n d p r o l i f e r a t i o n o f m a cr o p h a g e s a n d o t h e r i n f l a m m a t o r y c e l l s . T r a n s m u r a l i n f l a m m a t i o n m a y l e a d t o l ym p h e d e m a a n d b o we l wa l l t h i c k e n i n g . T h i s t h i c k e ni n g c a n l e a d t o f i b r o s i s . A f f e ct e d a r e a s a r e u s u a l l y s h a r p l y d e m a r c a t e d f r o m n o r m a l a d j a c e n t t i ss u e a n d g i v e r i s e t o t h e s k i p l e s i o n a p p e a r a n c e o f C D . 2. IBS a . A b n o r m a l i t i e s i n i n t e s t i n a l m o t i l i t y i n I B S a p p e a r t o b e r e l at e d t o u n d e r l yi n g m u s c l e d ys f u n c t i o n a s we l l a s h yp e r a c t i v e r e s po n s e t o i n i t i a t i n g f a c t o r s, s u c h a s f o o d o r p a r a s ym p a t h o m i m e t i c d r u g s .
b . A b n o r m a l i n c r e a s e s i n f r e q u e n c y a n d a m p l i t u d e o f c o n t r ac t i o n s c a n le a d t o f u n c t i o n a l c o n s t i p a t i o n , wh e r e a s d i m i n i s h e d m o t o r f u n c t i on o f t h e u n de r l yi n g musculature can lead to diarrhea. c . H yp e r s e n s i t i v i t y t o n o r m a l a m o u n t s o f i n t r a l u m i n a l d i s t e n t i o n e xi s t s , a s d o e s a heightened perception of pain in the presence of normal quantity and quality of intestinal gas. d. The pain of IBS may be caused by abnormally strong contraction of the intestinal smooth muscle or by increased sensitivity of the intestine to distention. e . H yp e r s e n s i t i v i t y t o t he h o r m o n e s g a s t r i n a n d c h o l e c ys t o k i n i n m a y a l s o b e p r e s e n t . H o we v e r , h o r m o n a l f l u c t u a t i o n s h a v e n o t c o r r e l a t ed wi t h c l i n i c a l s ym p t o m s . f. The caloric density of food intake may increase the magnitude and frequency of m yo e l e c t r i c a l a c t i v i t y a n d g a s t r i c m o t i l i t y. F a t in g e s t i o n m a y c a u s e a d e l a ye d p e a k o f m o t o r a c t i v i t y, wh i c h c a n b e e xa g g e r a t e d i n I B S . g . T h e f i r s t f e w d a ys o f m e n s t r u a t i o n c a n l e a d t o t r a n s i e n t l y e l e v a t e d p r o s t a g l a n d i n E2 (PGE2), resulting in increased pain and diarrhea. P.1147
H. Clinical presentation 1 . U C . M o s t p a t i e n t s wi l l p r e s e n t wi t h s ym p t o m s r e l a t e d t o al t e r e d s t o o l f r e q u e n c y, b o we l s e n s a t i o n , a n d a b d o m i n a l p a i n . a . M o s t U C c a s e s b e g i n a s m i l d d i se a s e a n d wo r s e n s a s t he d i s e a s e c o u r s e progresses. b . U C u s u a l l y f o l l o ws a c h r o n i c i n t e r m i t t e n t c o u r s e . c . Q u i e s c e n t p e r i o d s t en d t o b e l o n g , wi t h i n t e r s p e r s e d a c u t e a t t a ck s . d . A t t a c k s or f l a r e s c a n l a s t we e k s t o m o n t h s . e . S o m e p a t i e n t s s u f f e r f r o m c o n t i n uo u s d i s e a s e . f . S e v e r e UC c a n r e s u l t i n t o xi c m e g a c o l o n , a li f e - t h r e a t e n i n g c o n d i t i o n . g . E l d e r l y p a t i e n t s c a n r a r e l y p r e s e n t wi t h c o n s t i p a t i o n s e c o n d a r y t o r e c t a l s p a s m . h . T yp i c a l p r e s e n t i n g sym p t o m s o f U C a r e a s f o l l ow s: ( 1 ) I n c r e a s ed s t o o l f r e qu e n c y (2) Hematochezia (3) Tenesmus ( 4 ) L o we r l e f t q u a d r a n t p a i n ( 5 ) N a u s e a , v o m i t i n g , a n d we i g h t l o s s ( u s u a l l y o n l y i n s e v e r e d i s e a s e ) i . E x t r a i n t es t i n a l m a n i f e s t a t i o n s o f U C (1) Arthralgias ( 2 ) A n k yl o s i n g s p o n d yl i t i s ( 3 ) P yo d e r m a g a n g r e n o s u m , e r yt h e m a n o d o s u m (4) Aphthous ulcers ( 5 ) I r it i s a n d u v e i t i s 2 . C D . M a n y p a t i e n t s p r e s e n t wi t h a c u t e s ym p t o m s m i m i c k i ng a p p e n d i c i t i s o r i n t e s t i n a l o b s t r u c t i o n . C D c a n b e e x a c e r b a t e d b y i n f e c t i o n s , s m o k i n g , an d N S A I D u s e . W h i l e no t we l l c o r r e l a t e d i n c o n t r o l l e d t r i a l s , s t r e s s i s of t e n i m p l i c a t e d b y p a t i e n t s a n d f a m i l y m e m b e r s a s a c on t r i b u t i n g f a c t o r .
a . A s i g n i f i c a n t n u m b e r o f p a t i e n t s ha v e a h i s t o r y o f p e r i a n a l d i s e a s e , e sp e c i a l l y f i s s u r e s a n d f i st u l a s , wh i c h a r e s o m e t i m e s t h e m o s t p r o m i ne n t o r e v e n i n i t i a l complaint. b . E x t r a i n t e s t i n a l m a n i f e s t a t i o n s c an b e m o r e p r o m i n e n t t ha n G I s ym p t o m s i n pediatric patients. c . T yp i c a l p r e s e n t i n g sym p t o m s o f C D a r e a s f o l l ow s: (1) Abdominal pain (2) Diarrhea ( 3 ) W e i g h t lo s s (5) Fever d . E x t r a i n t es t i n a l m a n i f e s t a t i o n s o f C D (1) Arthralgias ( 2 ) A c u t e p er i p h e r a l a r t h r i t i s ( 3 ) A n k yl o s i n g s p o n d yl i t i s , p e r i p h e r a l a r t h r i t i s ( 4 ) E r yt h e m a n o d o s u m , p yo d e r m a g a n g r e n o s u m , S we e t s yn d r o m e ( 5 ) I r i d o c yc l i t i s , u v e i t i s , a n d e p i s c l e r i t i s 3. IBS a . I B S s ym p t o m s a r e f r eq u e n t i n p a t i e n t s wi t h a c t i v e d i s e a s e . b . S ym p t o m s m a y b e c l a s s i f i e d wi t h e i t h e r t h e ne w R o m e I I I c r i t e r i a o r m a y s t i l l b e c l a s s i f i e d wi t h t h e Ro m e I I c r i t e r i a wh i c h c e n t e r a r o u n d b o we l m o v e m e n t a n d a b d o m i n a l p a i n . T h e c l i n i c a l s ym p t o m s a r e t h e sa m e r e g a r d l e s s o f h o w t h e y a r e classified. ( 1 ) A b d o m i n a l p a i n h a s b e e n c h a r a c t e r i z e d a s c r a m p y, l o c a l i z e d t o t h e l owe r l e f t a b d o m e n wi t h v a r i a b l e i n t e n s i t y. P a t i e n t p r e s e n t a t i o n i s h i g h l y v a r i a b l e wi t h r e g a r d t o i n t e n s i t y, l o c a t i o n a n d d u r a t i o n o f p a i n . S o m e wo m e n wi l l h a v e e xa c e r b a t i o n s c o i n c i d i n g wi t h m e n s t r u al p e r i o d s . ( 2 ) A l t e r a t i on o f b o we l h a b i t s i s t h e s e c o n d m a j o r i d e n t i f yi n g s ym p t o m o f I B S. T h e y include diarrhea, constipation, and alternating diarrhea and constipation. ( 3 ) I B S c a n a l s o p r e s e n t wi t h b l o a t i n g , g a s , b e l ch i n g , h e a r t b u r n , r e f l u x d i s e a s e , a c h a l a s i a , e a r l y f e e l i n g o f f u l l n e s s on e a t i n g a n d n a u s e a , p a i n f u l m e n s t r ua t i o n , s e x u a l d ys f u n c t i o n , a n d f r e q u e n t o r u r g e n t u r i n a t i o n . c . I B S t e n d s t o wa x a n d wa n e o v e r t h e l o n g t e r m ; p a t i e n t s h a v e a c u t e b o u t s o f d i s e a s e i n t e r s p e r s e d wi t h p e r i o d s o f n o d i s e a s e . W h i l e t ot a l p r e v a l e n c e n u m b e r s remain relatively constant, studies of defined patient populations at various time periods show the same number of active patients but the individual patients may be different. P.1148
Table 53-1. Differences between Ulcerative Colitis (UC) and Crohn Disease (CD)
Characteristic
UC
CD
Abdominal pain
Infrequent
Frequent
Bloody diarrhea
Frequent
Occasional
Perianal involvement
Rare
Frequent
Perianal fistula
Rare
Frequent
Rectovaginal fistula
Rare
Common
Fever
Occasional
Frequent
Weight loss
Occasional
Frequent
Palpable mass
Rare
Common
Intra-abdominal abscess
Rare
Common
Bowel obstruction
Rare
Common
Antibiotic response
Rare
Frequent
Skip lesions
Rare
Frequent
Contiguous disease
Frequent
Infrequent
Effect of smoking
Often improves
Often worsens
ASCA positive
15%
65%
p-ANCA positive
70%
20%
Serologic markers
ASCA, anti-Saccharomyces cerevisiae antibody; p-ANCA, perinuclear antineutrophil cytoplasmic antibody.
I . Cl i n i c a l eva l u a t i o n 1 . I B D D if f er e n c e s i n t y p i c a l c l i n i c a l p r e s e n t a t i o n b e t we e n U C a n d C D a r e summarized in Table 53-1. a. UC ( 1 ) P a t i e n t s ym p t o m s a r e u s u a l l y t h e f i r s t s i g n s o f d i s e a s e . D i a r r h e a , b l e e d i n g , t e n e s m u s , m u c u s i n t he s t o o l , a n d p a i n a r e t h e m o s t c o m m o n . ( 2 ) T h e s e v e r i t y o f s ym p t o m s c o r r e la t e s wi t h d i s e a s e s e v e r i t y. ( 3 ) A c u t e d is e a s e c a n b e a s s o c i a t e d wi t h i n c r e a s e d C - r e a c t i v e p r o t e i n , p l a t e l e t c o u n t , e r yt h r o c yt e s e d i m e n t a t i o n r a t e ( E S R ) , an d a d e c r e a s e i n h e m o g l o b i n . ( 4 ) S e r u m a lb u m i n c a n f a l l q u i c k l y i n s e v e r e d i s e a s e . ( 5 ) S i g m o i d o s c o p y c a n b e u s e f u l f o r a s s e s s i n g d i s e a s e s e v e r i t y a n d e xt e n t b e f o r e t h e r a p y. C a r e m u s t b e us e d i n s e v e r e d i s e a s e a s r i s k o f p e r f o r a t i o n i s in c r e a s e d b . U C d i s e a s e c l a s s i f i c a t i o n a c c o r d i n g t o e xt e n t ( d i s t a l vs . e xt e n s i v e ) a n d s e v e r i t y i s o f u s e i n d e t e r m i n i n g t h e r a p y. ( 1 ) M i l d U C h a s b e e n d e f i n e d a s l e s s t h a n f o u r s t o o l s p e r da y wi t h o r wi t h o u t b l o o d , normal ESR. ( 2 ) M o d e r a t e U C h a s b e e n d e f i n e d a s m o r e t h a n f o u r st o o l s p e r d a y b u t m i n i m a l s i g n s o f t o xi c i t y ( f e v e r , t a c h yc a r d i a , a n e m i a , o r e l e v a t e d E S R ) . ( 3 ) S e ve r e U C h a s b e e n d e f i n e d a s m o r e t h a n s i x b l o o d y s t o o l s p e r d a y, e v i d e n c e o f t o x i c i t y a s d e m o n s t r a t e d b y f e v e r , t ac h yc a r d i a , a n e m i a , o r e l e v a t e d E S R . ( N o t e : E l e v a t e d E S R i s n o t a l wa ys p r e s e n t , e v e n i n t h e m o s t s e v e r e U C . ) ( 4 ) F u l mi n at e U C h a s be e n d e f i n e d a s m o r e t h an t e n b o we l m o v e m e n t s , c o n t i n u o u s b l e e d i n g , t o xi c i t y, a b d o m i n a l t e n d e r n e s s a n d d i s t e n s i o n , n e e d f o r b l o o d t r a n s f u s i o n , and colonic dilation (toxic megacolon). ( 5 ) I n a d d i t io n t o c l a s s i f y i n g U C a s m i l d t o f u l m in a t e , i t i s u se f u l t o a s c e r t a i n t h e e f f e c t t h e d is e a s e i s h a v i n g o n p a t i e n t a c t i v i t y wi t h a g l o b a l a s s e s s m e n t a p p r o a c h , i n c l u d i n g e x t r a i n t e s t i n a l m a n i f e s t a t io n s ( o c u l a r , o r a l , j o i n t , s k i n , m o o d s) , g e n e r a l h e a l t h ( l a b o r a t o r y e v a l u a t i o n f o r a ne m i a , l i v e r f u n c t i o n t e s t s ) , a n d q u a l i t y o f l i f e ( i m p a i r m e n t a t wo r k o r sc h o o l , i n t e r p e r s o n a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s ) . b. CD
( 1 ) C D p a t i e n t s m a y p r e s e n t wi t h e l e v a t e d E S R ; C - r e a c t i v e p r o t e i n ; a n d , i n m o r e s e v e r e d i s e a s e , wi t h h y p o a l b u m i n e m i a , a n e m i a , a n d l e u k o c yt o s i s . ( 2 ) C D c a n o c c u r t h r o ug h o u t t h e b o we l ; t h e s i t e o f d i s e a s e a f f e ct s t h e d i s e a s e c o u r s e a n d t r e a t m e n t c ho i c e s . P.1149
( 3 ) I l e o c o l i t i s i s t h e m os t c o m m o n f o r m o f C D. I t h a s b e e n ch a r a c t e r i z e d b y r i g h t l o we r q u a d r a n t p a i n a n d d i a r r h e a a n d c a n m i m i c a c u t e a p p e n d i c i t i s . P a in c a n b e colicky and usually precedes defecation and is relieved by defecation. ( 4 ) J e j u n o i l e i t i s . E xt e n s i v e i n f l a m m a t i o n c a n l e a d t o l o s s o f a b s o r p t i v e s u r f a c e s wi t h r e s u l t a n t m a l a b s o r p t i o n a n d s t e a t o r r h e a . T h i s m a l a b s o r p t i v e s t at e c a n l e a d t o d i e t a r y d e f i c i e n c y, h yp o a l b u n e m i a , e l e c t r o l yt e i m b a l a n c e s , c o a g u l o p a t h y, a n d increased risk of bone fractures. ( 5 ) C o l i t i s pa t i e n t s t e n d t o p r e s e n t wi t h l o w- g r a d e f e v e r , d i a r r h e a , v o m i t in g , a n d epigastric pain. ( 6 ) P e r i a n a l C D p a t i e n t s m a y p r e s e n t wi t h i n c o n t i n e n c e , s t r i ct u r e , a n o r e ct a l f i st u l a , and perirectal abscess. c . C D c l a s s i f i c a t i o n b as e d o n s e v e r i t y a n d l o c a t i o n i s u s e f ul f o r d e t e r m in i n g t h e r a p y. ( 1 ) M i l d t o m o d e r a t e d i s e a s e h a s b e e n u s e d t o d e f i n e C D i n p a t i e n t s wh o a r e a m b u l a t o r y; wh o a r e a b l e t o t a k e f oo d o r a l l y; wh o h a v e n o s ym p t o m s o f d e h yd r a t i o n , n o s i g n s o f t o xi c i t y ( h i g h f e v e r , r i g o r s , p r o st r a t i on ) , n o a b d o m i n a l t e n d e r n e s s , n o p a i n f u l m a s s , a n d n o o b s t r u c t i o n ; o r wh o h a v e we i g h t l o s s > 1 0 % . ( 2 ) M o d e r a t e t o s e ve r e d i s e a s e d e s c r i b e s p a t i e n t s wh o h a v e f a i l e d t o r e s p o n d t o t h e r a p y f o r m i l d t o m o de r a t e d i s e a s e o r t h o s e wi t h m o r e p r om i n e n t s ym p t o m s o f f e v e r , s i g n i f i c a n t we i g h t l o s s , a b d o m i n a l p a i n o r t e n d e r n e s s , i n t e r m i t t e n t n a u s e a o r v o m i t i n g ( wi t h o u t o b s t r uc t i o n ) , o r a n e m i a . ( 3 ) S e ve r e t o f u l mi n a n t d i s e a s e d e s c r i b e s p a t i e n t s wi t h p e r s i s t i n g s ym p t o m s d e s p i t e t h e r a p y wi t h s t e r o i d s a s o u t p a t i e n t s o r p a t i e n t s wi t h h i g h f e v e r , p e r s i s t e n t v o m i t i n g , o b s t r u c t i o n , r eb o u n d t e n d e r n e s s , c a c he xi a , o r e v i d e n c e o f a b s c e s s . ( 4 ) R e m i s s i o n r e f e r s t o p a t i e n t s wh o h a v e r e s p o n d e d t o a c u t e m e d i c a l t h e r a p y o r wh o h a v e h a d s u r g i c a l i n t e r v e n t i o n a n d d o n o t h a v e g r o s s e v i d e n c e o f r e s i d u a l C D . P a t i e n t s wh o r e q u i r e s t e r o i d s t o m ai n t a i n c o n t r o l o f C D a r e c o n s i d e r e d s t e r o i d dependant and are not considered to be in remission. ( 5 ) C D d i s e a s e l o c a t i o n i s o f t e n c la s s i f i e d a s b e i n g i l e o c o l i c , s m a l l b owe l , c o l o n i c , o r a n o r e c t a l . T h e V i e n n a c l a s s i f i c a t i o n of d i s ea s e l o c a t i o n a n d t yp e o f C D i s a l s o o f t e n u s e d . C D t yp e i s k n o wn t o c h a n g e i n r e g a r d t o t yp e a n d l o c a t i o n d u r i n g t h e disease course. ( a ) T e r m i n a l i l e u m d i s e a s e i s C D i n l e s s t h a n on e t h i r d o f t h e s m a l l b o we l , wi t h o r wi t h o u t s p i l l o v e r i n t o t he c e c u m . ( b ) Co l o n CD i s c o l o n i c i n v o l v e m e n t a n y wh e r e f r o m t h e c e c um t o t h e r e ct u m , wi t h o u t s m al l b o we l o r u p p e r g a s t r o i n t e s t i n a l d i s e a s e . ( c ) I l e o c o l o n i s C D o f t h e t e r m i n a l i l e u m a n d a n y l o c a t i o n b e t we e n t h e a s c e n d i n g colon and the rectum.
( d ) Up p e r G I C D i s d i s e a s e i n a n y l o c a t i o n p r o x i m a l t o t h e t e r m i n a l i l e u m , wi t h o r wi t h o u t i n v o l v e m e n t d i s t a l t o t h e t e r m i n a l i l e u m . ( e ) T h e t yp e o f d i s e a s e is d e s c r i b e d a s i n f l a m ma t o r y, s t r i c t u r i n g , o r p en e t r a t i n g . ( 6 ) T h e C r o h n D i s e a s e Ac t i vi t y I n d e x ( C D AI ) i s a v a l i d a t e d m e a s u r e m e n t t o o l u s e d t o a s s e s s c l i n i c a l i m p r o v e m e n t . T h e C D A I i s a co m p l e t e s c o r i n g s ys t e m o f subjective aspects and objective observations. It is not normally used in clinical p r a c t i c e b u t i s e x t e n s i v e l y u s e d i n c l i n i c a l r e s e a r c h . C D s e v er i t y, a s d e f i n e d b y t h e C D A I , b r e a k s d o wn i n t o t h e f o l l o wi n g s t r a t if i c a t io n s : ( a ) A s c o r e o f ≤ 1 5 0 i s co n s i d e r e d c l i n i c a l r e m i s s i o n ( b ) A s c o r e o f < 1 5 0 a n d u p t o 4 5 0 i s c o n s i d e r e d m i l d t o m od e r a t e d i s e a s e . ( c ) A s c o r e o f > 4 5 0 i s co n s i d e r e d s e v e r e d i s e a s e . 2. IBS a . D i a g n o s i s o f I B S c o m m o n l y i n c l u d e s i d e n t i f yi n g p o s i t i v e s ym p t o m s b y m e d i c a l h i s t o r y. T h i s c a n b e g u i d e d b y o l d e r R o m e I I c r i t e r i a o r t h e r e c e n t l y p u b l i s h e d R o m e I I I c r i t e r i a . P h ys i c a l e xa m i s a l s o d o n e t o e xc l u d e n o n - I B S d i s e a s e ( a b d o m i n a l m a s s , p a l p a b l e l i v e r e t c) a s t h e m a j o r i t y o f I B S p a t i e n t s d o n o t h a v e t h e s e p h ys i c a l a b n o r m a l i t i e s . B o t h p a t i e n t h i s t o r y a n d p h ys i c a l e xa m a r e a l s o n e e d e d t o e xc l u d e I B D a n d m i c r o s c o p i c a n d e o s i n o p h i l i c c o l i t i s wh i c h c a n p r e s e n t i n similarly to IBS. b. Rome II diagnostic criteria for IBS ( 1 ) A t l e a s t 1 2 we e k s , wh i c h n e e d n o t b e c o n s e c u t i v e , i n t h e p r e c e d i n g 1 2 m o n t h s o f a b d o m i n a l d i s c o m f o r t o r p a i n t h a t ha s 2 o f 3 f ea t u r e s : P.1150
(a) Pain relieved by defecation; and/or ( b ) P a i n o n s e t a s s o c i a t ed wi t h a c h a n g e i n f r e q u e n c y o f s t o o l ; a n d / o r ( c ) P a i n o n s e t a s s o c i a t ed wi t h a c h a n g e i n f o r m ( a p p e a r a n c e ) o f s t o o l ( 2 ) S ym p t o m s t h a t c u m u l a t i v e l y s u p p o r t t h e d ia g n o s i s o f I B S : (a) Abnormal stool frequency (for research purposes, “abnormal” may be defined as g r e a t e r t h a n 3 b o we l m o v e m e n t s p e r d a y a n d l e s s t h a n 3 b owe l m o v e m e n t s p e r we e k ) ; ( b ) A b n o r m a l s t o o l f o r m ( l u m p y/ h a r d o r l o o s e / wa t e r y s t o o l ) ; ( c ) A b n o r m a l s t o o l p a s s a g e ( s t r a i n i n g , u r g e n c y, o r f e e l i n g o f i n c o m p l e t e evacuation); ( d ) P a s s a g e o f m u c u s; ( e ) B l o a t i n g o r f e e l i n g o f a b d o m i n a l d i s t e n s i o n . T h e d i a g n o s i s o f a f u n c t io n a l b o we l d i s o r d e r ( I BS ) a l wa y s p r e s u m e s t h e a b s e n c e o f a s t r u ct u r a l o r b i o c h e m i c a l e x p l a n a t i o n f o r t h e s ym p t o m s . c. Rome III diagnostic criteria for IBS ( 1 ) R e c u r r e n t a b d o m i n a l p a i n o r d i s c o m f o r t a t le a s t 3 d a ys p e r m o n t h in t h e l a s t 3 m o n t h s a s s o c i a t e d wi t h 2 o r m o r e o f t h e f o l l o wi n g : ( a ) I m p r o v em e n t wi t h d e f e c a t i o n ( b ) O n s e t a s s o c i a t e d wi t h a c h a n g e i n a f r e q u e n c y o f s t o o l ( c ) O n s e t a ss o c i a t e d wi t h a c h a n g e i n f o r m ( a p p e a r a n c e ) o f s t o o l
( 2 ) C r i t e r i a f u l f i l l e d f o r t h e l a s t 3 m on t h s wi t h s ym p t o m s o n se t a t l e a s t 6 m o n t h s prior to diagnosis. ( 3 ) D i s c o m f o r t m e a n s an u n c o m f o r t a b l e s e n s a t i o n n o t d e s c r i b e d a s p a i n . ( 4 ) I n p a t h op h ys i o l o g y r e s e a r c h a n d c l i n i c a l t r i a l s , a p a i n / d i sc o m f o r t f r e qu e n c y o f a t l e a s t 2 d a ys a we e k d u r i n g s c r e e n i n g e v a l u a t i o n f o r s u b j e c t e l i g i b i l i t y d . R o u t i n e b l o o d t e s t i n g i s n o r m a l i n m o s t s u s p e ct e d I B S p a t ie n t s a n d h e l p s r u l e o u t other possible diagnosis. e . S i g m o i d o s c o p y a n d c o l o n o s c o p y a r e d o n e t o v i s u a l i z e t h e b o we l wh e n c l i n i c a l l y a p p r o p r i a t e t o e xc l u d e o t h e r p o s s i b l e d i a g n o s e s . J . T r e a t m e n t o b j e c t i ve s 1. IBD a . I n d u c e r em i s s i o n wi t h c o n t r o l o f a c u t e i n f l a m m a t o r y f l a r e b. Maintain remission as long as possible d . N o r m a l i z e b o we l f u n c t i o n wh e n p o s s i b l e e. Maintain nutritional status f . I m p r o v e qu a l i t y o f l i f e ( Q O L ) 2. IBS a. Alleviate discomfort b . N o r m a l i z e b o we l h a b i t s c. Minimize negative effect on patient QOL
II. THERAPY A. Ag e n t s u s e d i n I B D 1 . Am i n o s a l i c yl a t e s a r e g e n e r a l l y c o n s i d e r e d t o b e e f f e ct i v e t h e r a p y o f U C a n d C D (Table 52-2). a . D e s c r i p t i o n . T h e c om m e r c i a l l y a v a i l a b l e a g e n t s a l l d e l i v e r t h e a ct i ve 5 a m i n o s a l y c i l a t e m o i e t y. ( 1 ) T h e o l d e s t a g e n t s u l f a s a l a z i n e ( A z u l f i d i n e ) c o n t a i n s a 5 - a m i n o s a l i c yl i c a c i d ( 5 A S A ) m o l e c u l e a z o - b o u n d t o s u l f a p yr i d i n e . T h i s b o n d i s c l e a v e d b y i n t e s t i n a l f l o r a t o r e l e a s e t h e a c t i v e 5 - A S A m o i e t y. ( 2 ) N e we r a g e n t s h a v e b e e n d e v e l o p e d t o a l l o w d o s i n g wi t h o u t t h e s u l f ap yr i d i n e m o i e t y, wh i c h h a s b e e n i m p l i c a t e d i n m a n y o f t h e c o m m o n a d v e r s e e v e n t s a n d i n t o l e r a n c e s t o s u l f a s a l az i n e . ( 3 ) S u l f a s a l a z i n e i s c o n s i d e r e d b y m a n y t o b e t h e f i r s t c h o i c e o wi n g t o i t s l o n g h i s t o r y o f u se , c o n v i n c i n g c l i n i c a l t r ia l d a t a , a n d r e l a t i v e l y l o w c o s t . P.1151
Table 53-2. Aminosalicylates
Drug (Brand)
How Supplied
Formulation
Delivery Site
Oral agents Azo bond Balsalazide (Colazal)
750 mg
Aminobenzoylalanine carrier
Colon
Olsalazine (Dipentum)
250 mg
5-ASA dimer
Colon
Sulfasalazine (Azulfidine)
500 mg
Sulfapyridine carrier
Colon
Mesalamine (Asacol)
400 mg
Eudragit S (pH 7)
Distal ileum, colon
Mesalamine (Claversal, Mesasal, Salofalk)
250 mg
Eudragit L (pH 6)
Ileumcolon
250 mg, 500 mg
Ethylcellulose granules
Stomach, colon
4g
60-mL suppositories
Rectum, splenic flexure
Delayed release
Sustained release Mesalamine (Pentasa)
Topical agents Mesalamine (Rowasa)
Mesalamine (Canasa)
500 mg, 1000 mg
Suppositories
Rectum
5-ASA, 5-aminosalicylic acid
( 4 ) D i s a d v a n t a g e s o f s ul f a s a l a z i n e a r e i n c r e a s e d i n c i d e n c e o f a d v e r s e ev e n t s . ( 5 ) T o p i c a l 5 - A S A h a s be e n a d d e d t o o r a l 5 - A S A wi t h i m p r o v e d r e s p o n s e a n d t i m e to response. b . M e c h a n i s m o f a c t i o n . 5 - A S A d i f f e r s f r o m s al i c yl i c a c i d b y t h e a d d i t i o n o f a n amino group. ( 1 ) 5 - A S A d r u g s h a v e v a r i a b l e e f f e c t s o n a r a c h id o n i c a c i d m e t a b o l i t e s , u n l i k e t h e s a l i c yl a t e s , wh i c h b l o c k p r o s t a g l a n d i n s yn t h e s i s b y i n h i b i t i n g c yc l o o x yg e n a s e 1 ( C O X- 1 ) a n d C O X- 2 e n z ym e s . (2) At low concentrations, 5-ASA drugs increase prostaglandin production, and at h i g h e r c o n c e n t r a t i o n s t h e y i n h i b i t p r o s t a g l a n d i n s a n d p r o s t ac yc l i n s . c . Ad m i n i s t r a t i o n a n d d o s a g e . T he r e a r e c u r r e n t l y s e v e r a l 5 - A S A d e r iv a t i v e s a v a i l a b l e ( T a b l e 5 3 - 2 ) . D o s a g e s i n U C a r e b a s e d o n d i s e a s e l o c a t i o n , se v e r i t y, a n d overall patient condition. d . P r e c a u t i o n s an d a d ve r s e e f f e c t s (1) Sulfasalazine. ( a ) M o s t c om m o n a d v e r s e e v e n t s : f e v e r , d i z z i n e s s , h e a d a c h e , i t c h i n g , r a s h , p h o t o s e n s i t i v i t y, G I u p s e t , n a u s e a , v o m i t i n g , d i a r r h e a , a n d r e v e r s i b l e o l i g o s p e r m i a . ( b ) L e s s c om m o n : St e v e n s - J o h n s o n s yn d r o m e , L ye l l s yn d r o m e , g r a n u l o c yt o p e n i a , l e u c o p e n i a , t h r o m b o c yt o p e n i a , a p l a s t i c a n e m i a , h e m o l yt i c a n e m i a , a n d h e p a t i t i s . ( c ) I n t o l e r a n c e o f t h e s u l f a p yr i d i n e m o i e t y o f s u l f a s a l a z i n e i s c o m m o n a n d i s i m p l i c a t e d i n m a n y a d v e r s e e v e n t s a s s o c i a t e d wi t h s u l f a s a l a z i n e . ( 2 ) M e s a l a m i n e ( As a c o l ) . ( a ) M o s t c om m o n a d v e r s e e v e n t s : di a r r h e a , h e a d a c h e , a b d o m i n a l p a i n , c r a m p s , flatulence, and gas. ( b ) L e s s c om m o n : a l o p e c i a a n d s k i n r a s h . ( c ) R a r e : p er i c a r d i t i s a n d m yo c a r d i t i s . (3) Olsalazine (Dipentum). ( a ) M o s t c om m o n a d v e r s e e v e n t s : di a r r h e a a n d l o o s e s t o o l s . ( b ) L e s s c om m o n : a b d o m i n a l p a i n , r a s h , a n d i t ch i n g . ( c ) R a r e b u t s e r i o u s : p an c r e a t i t i s , he p a t o t o xi c i t y, i n t e r s t i t i a l n e p h r i t i s , a n d b o n e marrow suppression.
e. Significant interactions ( 1 ) T h e a m i n o s a l i c yl a t e s m a y i n c r e a s e r i s k o f t o xi c i t y a n d l e u k o p e n i a wh e n g i v e n i n c o m b i n a t i o n wi t h m e r c a p t o p u r i n e b y d e c r e a s i n g m e r c a p t o p u r i n e c l e a r a n c e . ( 1 ) T h e 5 - AS A d r u g s ha v e a l s o b e e n a s s o c i a t e d r a r e l y wi t h e xa c e r b a t i o n o f I B D. P.1152
2 . S t e r o i d s . S t e r o i d s a r e u s e f u l f o r p a t i e n t s r e f r a c t o r y t o 5 - A S A a n d p a t i e n t s wi t h s e v e r e s ym p t o m s r e q u i r i n g r a p i d c o n t r o l . a . S ys t e m i c c o r t i co s t e r o i d s a r e e f f e c t i v e t r e a t m e n t f o r a cu t e U C a n d C D . U s e a s m a i n t e n a n c e t h e r a p y f o r I B D i s n o r m a l l y a v o i d e d a s t h e r i sk o f s ys t e m i c a d v e r s e e f f e c t s o u t we i g h s l i m i t e d b e n e f i t . S t e r o i d d e p en d e n c y— wh e n a p a t i e n t i s u n a b l e t o b e t a p e r e d c o m p l e t e l y o f f o f st e r o i d s — d o e s o c c u r a n d s h o u l d n o t b e c o n f u s e d wi t h maintenance. b . T o p i c a l an d n o n s ys t e m i c s t e r o i d s i n t h e f o r m o f e n e m as , s u p p o s i t or i e s , a n d i l e a l r e l e a s e f o r m u l a t i o n s h a v e b e e n e f f e ct i v e i n t r e a t i n g I B D. T h e r e c t a l ly d e l i v e r e d topical formulations of steroids are of particular use in left-sided disease. Budesonide (Entocort) is an oral steroid delivered in an ileal controlled-release f o r m u l a t i o n t h a t a c t s i n a t o p i c a l m a n n e r s e c o n d a r y t o v e r y h i g h f i r s t - p as s m e t a b o l i s m b y t h e l i v e r . B u d e s o n i d e h a s b e e n s h o wn t o b e e f f e c t i v e i n I B D wh e n t h e t a r g e t e d - r e l e a s e f o r m u l a t i o n i s a b l e t o r e a c h t he s i t e o f d i s e a s e . c . M e c h a n i s m o f a c t i o n . T h e g l u co c o r t i c o i d a n d m i n e r a l o c o r t i c o i d e f f e c t s o f t h e s t e r o i d s u s e d i n I B D a r e wi d e r a n g i n g . T h e a n t i - in f l a m m a t o r y e f f e ct s a r e l i k e l y t h e r e s u l t o f g l uc o c o r t i c o i d s u p p r e s s i o n o f p r o i n f l am m a t o r y c yt o k i n e s . d . P r e c a u t i o n s an d a d ve r s e e f f e c t s . T h e r a p y wi t h o r a l a n d i n t r a v e n o u s ( I V ) c o r t i c o s t e r o id s p r o d u c e s ys t e m i c a f f e c t s , c a n e f f e c t m u l t i p l e o r g a n s ys t e m s , a n d s h o u l d b e c l o s e l y m o n i t o r e d f o r a d ve r s e e v e n t s . ( 1 ) A d v e r s e e f f e c t s o f s t e r o i d s i n I BD t h e r a p y a r e r e l a t e d t o d o s e a n d l e n g t h o f d o s i n g a n d a r e t h e t yp i c a l g l u c o c o r t i c o i d a n d m i n e r a l o c o r t i c o i d e f f e c t s se e n wi t h e x o g e n o u s s t e r o i d t h e r a p y. ( 2 ) S ys t e m i c s t e r o i d s a r e m o r e p r o n e t o i n d u c i n g a d v e r s e e f f e c t s. T o p i ca l d e l i v e r y and targeted delivery of low bioavailability steroids have been developed to reduce t h e r i s k of ad v e r s e e f f e c t s . ( 3 ) M i n i m i z i n g d u r a t i o n o f t h e r a p y a s we l l a s t a p e r i n g p a t i e n t s o f f o f s ys t e m i c s t e r o i d s a r e a l s o m e t h o d s o f m i n i m iz i n g a d v e r s e e f f e c t s a s m u c h a s p o s s i b l e . ( 4 ) A f f e c t s on b o n e m a s s m a y b e o f s i g n i f i c a n t i m p o r t a n c e b e c a u s e I B D p a t i e n t s a r e o f t e n a l s o a t r i s k of n u t r it i o n a l d e f i c i t . 3 . Az a t h i o p r i n e ( I m u r an ) an d 6 - m e r c a p t o p u r i n e ( 6 - M P ; P u r i n e t h o l ) a r e e f f e c t i v e at inducing and maintaining remission in IBD. Response is slow and may take m o n t h s t o be f u l l y e f f e c t i v e . 6 - M P o r a z a t h i o p r i n e i s e f f e ct i ve f o r p a t i e n t s wh o d o n o t r e s p o n d t o o r a l s t e r o i d s b u t a r e n o t s o a c ut e l y i l l s o a s t o r e q u i r e I V t h e r a p y. a. Mechanism of action. Azathioprine and 6-MP are purine antimetabolite drugs wh i c h i n t e r f e r e wi t h D N A s yn t h e s i s , d i s r u p t i n g t h e i n f l a m m a t o r y r e s p o n s e s e e n i n IBD.
b . D o s i n g an d a d m i n i s t r a t i o n . T h e r e i s k n o wn m e t a b o l i c d i f f e r e n c e s i n r e g a r d t o t h i o p u r i n e m e t h yl t r a n s f e r a s e ( T P M T ) a ct i v i t y, wh i c h c a n l e a d t o t o xi c i t y i n p a t i e n t s wi t h l o w o r a b s e n t T P M T a c t i v it y. T e s t i n g f o r T P M T p h e n o t yp e c a n b e u s e f u l i n initial dosing. ( 1 ) C o n s e n s u s o n t h e v al u e o f m o n i t o r i n g o f m e t a b o l i t e l e v e l s d u r i n g t h e r a p y h a s not been reached. ( 2 ) M o n i t o r in g c o m p l e t e b l o o d c o u n t s 4 we e k s a f t e r s t a r t i n g t h e r a p y a n d t h e n m o n t h l y d u r i n g t h e r a p y s h o u l d b e d o n e t o m o n i t or f o r t o xi c i t y. ( 3 ) A z a t h i o p r i n e i s 5 0 % 6 - M P b y m o l e c u l a r we i g h t a n d e q u i v a l e n t d o s e s a r e t wi c e t h a t o f 6 - M P. c . P r e c a u t i o n s an d a d ve r s e e f f e c t s ( 1 ) B o n e m ar r o w s u p p r e s s i o n ( 2 ) B o t h a z at h i o p r i n e a n d 6 - M P h a ve b e e n i m p l i c a t e d i n i n c r e a s e d r i s k f o r E p s t e i n B a r r - r e l a t e d n o n - H o d g k i n l ym p h o m a . T h i s r i s k a p p e a r s t o b e s m a l l b u t is s e r i o u s . 4 . M e t h o t r ex a t e ( R h e u m a t r e x ) g i v e n p a r e n t e r a l l y i s a n e f f e c t i v e t r e a t m e n t f o r i n d u c i n g r e m i s s i o n , m a in t a i n i n g r e m i s s i o n , a n d s t e r o i d s p a r i n g i n C D . O r a l m e t h o t r e xa t e i s a l s o e f f e c t i v e f o r m a i n t a i n i n g r e m i s s i o n i n C D . M e t h o t r e xa t e a p p e a r s t o b e o f l i t t l e us e i n U C . a . M e c h a n i s m o f a c t i o n . M e t h o t r exa t e i s a f o l a t e a n a l o g a n d i n h i b i t s d i h yd r o f o l a t e r e d u c t a s e wi t h m u l t i p l e m o d e s o f a n t i - i n f l a m m a t o r y e f f e c t s . b . D o s i n g an d a d m i n i s t r a t i o n . ( 1 ) I n d u c i n g r e m i s s i o n o f a c t i v e C D : 2 5 m g i n t r am u s c u l a r l y ( I M ) we e k l y h a s b e e n s h o wn t o b e e f f e ct i v e . ( 2 ) M a i n t a i n i n g r e m i s s i o n a n d a s s t er o i d - s p a r i n g t h e r a p y: 1 5 m g I M we e k l y h a s b e e n s h o wn t o b e e f f e ct i v e . ( 3 ) O r a l m e t h o t r e xa t e 1 2 . 5 - 2 5 m g p e r we e k d o e s n o t a p p e a r t o b e a s e f f e c t i v e a s parenteral dosing. P.1153
c . P r e c a u t i o n s an d a d ve r s e e f f e c t s ( 1 ) M e t h o t r exa t e i s a k n o wn t e r a t o g e n a n d s h o u l d b e a v o i d e d o r u s e d wi t h e xt r e m e c a u t i o n i n p a t i e n t s o f c h i l d - b e a r i n g a g e ( f e m a l e a n d m a l e ) a n d o n l y wh e n a l l o t h e r therapies have been ineffective and the patients understand the risks involved. ( 2 ) T h e d o se s u s e d i n C D a r e l o we r t h a n t h o s e u s e d i n o n c o l o g y a n d t h e a d v e r s e events seen are generally less severe. ( 3 ) T h e m o s t c o m m o n r i s k s a r e r a s h, n a u s e a , p n e u m o n i t i s o r M y c o p l a s m a pneumonia, and elevated serum transaminases. ( 4 ) I B D p a t i e n t s t r e a t e d wi t h m e t h o t r e xa t e a p p e a r t o b e a t lo w r i s k f o r he p a t i c t o x i c i t y. (5) It is important to avoid alcohol consumption because it can increase the risk of h e p a t i c t o x i c i t y i n I B D p a t i e n t s o n m e t h o t r e xa t e . 5 . C yc l o s p o r i n e ( N e o r al ) an d t a c r o l i m u s ( P r o g r a f ) a r e p o t e n t i m m u n o s u p p r e s s i v e a g e n t s t h a t h a v e b e e n s h o wn t o b e e f f e c t i v e i n I B D . T h e y a r e t yp i c a l l y u s e d f o r
severe IBD because there are little data to support efficacy in mild disease to offset the potential toxicities of these agents. a . M e c h a n i s m o f a c t i o n . B o t h c yc l o s p o r i n e a n d t a c r o l i m u s a r e c a l c i n e u r i n i n h i b i t o r s a n d a r e p o t e n t i n h i b i t o r s o f T l ym p h o c yt e a c t i v a t i o n . b . D o s i n g an d a d m i n i s t r a t i o n . B ef o r e t h e r a p y i s i n i t i a t e d p a t i e n t s s h o u l d b e s c r e e n e d f o r p o t e n t i a l d r u g i n t e r a c t io n s , n o r m a l r e n a l f u n c t i o n , c h o l e s t e r o l l e v e l s , b l o o d p r e s s u r e , a n d e l e c t r o l yt e s t a t u s t o h e l p a v o i d t o xi c i t y. ( 1 ) C yc l o s p o r i n e i s s t a r t e d a t 2 - 4 m g / k g / d a y I V a n d t i t r a t e d t o l e v e l s o f 2 5 0 - 3 5 0 ng/mL. ( 2 ) T a c r o l i m u s i s i n i t i a t ed a t 0 . 1 - 0 . 15 m g / k g t wi c e we e k l y a n d t i t r a t e d t o t r o u g h concentrations of 10 to 20 ng/mL. ( 3 ) P a t i e n t s wh o r e s p o n d a r e d i s c h a r g e d o n o r a l d r u g . O r a l c yc l o s p o r i n e i s d o s e d a t t wi c e t h e i n t r a v e n o u s d o s e , d i v i d e d t wi c e a d a y. ( 4 ) A z a t h i o p r i n e o r 6 - M P i s a d d e d a s s o o n a s p o s s i b l e a n d o r a l s ys t e m i c s t e r o i d s a r e o f t e n g iv e n c o n c o m i t a n t l y f o r 3 - 4 m o n t h s . ( 5 ) C yc l o s p o r i n e a n d t a c r o l i m u s a r e n o r m a l l y s t o p p e d a t 3 - 4 m o n t h s . A s t e r o i d t a pe r i s a l s o s t a r t e d a t 3 - 4 m o n t h s a n d s h o u l d b e d o n e o v e r 4 8 we e k s . c . P r e c a u t i o n s an d a d ve r s e e ve n t s . C yc l o s p o r i n e a n d t a c r o l i m u s b o t h h a v e s h o r t a n d l o n g - t e r m a d v e r s e ev e n t s t h a t ca n b e s e r i o u s . T h e m o s t c o m m o n l y s e e n i n I B D p a t i e n t s a r e p a r e s t h e s i a s , h yp e r t e n s i o n , h yp e r t r i c h o s i s , r e n a l i n s u f f i c i e n c y, infection, gingival hyperplasia, and seizure. ( 1 ) P a t i e n t s s h o u l d b e m o n i t o r e d f o r e f f e c t s o n b l o o d p r e s s u r e , e l e c t r o l yt e s , r e n a l function, and cholesterol. ( 2 ) H y p o c h o l e s t e r o l e m i a a n d h yp o m a g n e s e m i a i n c r e a s e t h e r i s k o f s e i z u r e . d . S i g n i f i c an t i n t e r a c t i o n s . C a r e m u s t b e u s e d i n c o n c o m i t a n t d o s i n g o f t h e s e a g e n t s wi t h o t h e r d r u g s t h a t c a n a d ve r s e l y a f f e c t r e n a l f u n c t io n s u c h a s N S A I D s . C yc l o s p o r i n e h a s b e e n n o t e d t o i n c r e a s e m e t h o t r e xa t e a n d m e t h o t r e xa t e m e t a b o l i t e concentrations. 6. Biologics. Infliximab (Remicade), adalimumab (Humira), and certolizumab pegol ( C i m z i a ) a r e c u r r e n t l y t h e m a i n b i o l o g i c t h e r a p i e s u s e d i n I BD . T h e s e a ge n t s a r e a n t i - t u m o r n e c r o s i s f ac t o r ( a n t i - T N F ) t h e r a p y. ( 1 ) I n f l i x i m a b , a d a l i m u m a b a n d c e r t o l i z u m a b p e g o l a r e e f f ec t i v e f o r i n d u c i n g a n d m a i n t a i n i n g c l i n i c a l r e m i s s i o n o f C D . I n f l i xi m a b h a s b e e n s h o wn t o b e e f f e c t i v e i n t r e a t i n g e n t e r o c u t a n e o u s f i st u l a e . I nf l i xi m a b i s a l s o e f f e c t i v e i n U C . ( 2 ) I n f l i x i m a b a n d a d a l i m u m a b h a v e a l s o b e e n s h o wn t o b e e f f e ct i v e f or t r e a t i n g a n k yl o s i n g s p o n d y l i t i s . O t h e r b i o l o g i c s o f n o t e a r e l i s t e d i n T a b l e 5 3 - 3 . a . An t i - T N F t h e r a p y m e c h a n i s m o f a c t i o n . T N F i s a c yt o k i n e i n v o l v e d i n m u l t i p l e p r o i n f l a m m a t o r y a n d p r o l i f e r a t i v e p a t h wa ys i n I B D . I nf l i xi m a b i s a c h i m er i c m o u s e h u m a n m o n o c l o n a l T N F a n t i b o d y m a d e u p o f h u m a n i m m u n o g l o b u l i n G 1 ( I gG 1 ) c o n s t a n t r e gi o n s , h u m a n κ l i g h t c h a i n s , a n d m o n o c l o n a l m u r i n e r e g i o n s t h a t r e c o g n i z e T N F . A d a l i m u m a b i s a r e co m b i n a n t h u m a n I g G 1 m o n o c l o n a l a n t i b o d y wi t h human heavy and light chain variable regions and human IgG1:k constant regions. C e r t o l i z u m a b i s a r e c o m b i n a n t , h u m a n i z e d a n t i b o d y F a b ' f r ag m e n t t o h um a n T N F a l p h a wh i c h i s c o n j u g a t e d t o a 4 0 kD a p o l ye t h yl e n e g l yc o l . T h e s e a g e n t s b i n d T N F ,
p r e v e n t i n g t h e c yt o k i n e f r o m b i n d i n g t o c e l l s u r f a c e r e c e p t o r s a n d s u b s e q u e n t l y d e c r e a s i n g i n f l a m m a t i o n d u e t o a c t i va t e d T l ym p h o c yt e s a n d m o n o c yt e s . P.1154
Table 53-3. Biologic Therapies of Note in Inflammatory Bowel Disease (IBD) Drug (Brand)
Mechanism
Efficacy in IBD/Comments
Adalimumab (Humira)
Humanized IgG1 monoclonal antibody to TNF
Effective in CD
Infliximab (Remicade)
Chimeric (mouse/human) IgG1 monoclonal antibody to TNF
Effective in CD and UC
Certizumab pegol (Cimzia®)
Humanized pegylated Fab' fragment TNF antibody
Effective in CD
Natalizumab (Tysabri)
Humanized IgG4 monoclonal antibody to α4 integrin, which selectively inhibits leukocyte adhesion
Removed from U.S. market in 2005 secondary to association with progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy (PML). Natalizumab was made available again in 2006 via a restrictive company administered access program for use in multiple sclerosis. Place in therapy is yet to be fully elucidated and the benefit must clearly outweigh the risks.
Etanercept (Enbrel)
p75-Soluble TNF receptor FC fusion protein that binds TNF
Not of benefit
CD, Crohn disease; IgG, immunoglobulin G; PML, progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy; TNF, tumor necrosis factor; UC, ulcerative colitis. b . D o s i n g an d a d m i n i s t r a t i o n .
( 1 ) I n f l i x i m a b i n i t i a l d o s i n g i s 5 m g / kg i n a t h r e e - d o s e i n d u c t i o n r e g i m e n . A d o s e i s g i v e n a t 0 , 2, a n d 6 we e k s t o h e l p r e d u c e h u m a n a n t i c h i m e ri c a n t i b o d i es ( H AC A) f o r m a t i o n . Du r a t i o n o f t he r a p e u t i c e f f e c t a p p e a r s t o b e 8 - 1 0 we e k s a n d d o s i n g e v e r y 8 we e k s h a s b e e n a d v o c a t e d . H A C A f o r m a t i o n an d i n f u s i o n - r e l a t e d a d v e r s e r e a c t i o n s c a n a l s o b e d e c r e a s e d wi t h c o n c o m i t a n t a d m i n i s t r a t i o n o f a z a t h i o p r i n e , 6 M P , o r m e t ho t r e xa t e . T he s e i m m u n o s u p p r e s s a n t d r u g s h a v e n o t b e e n s h o wn t o i m p r o v e c l i n i c a l d i s e a s e c o n t r o l wh e n g i v e n c o n c o m i t a n t l y wi t h i n f l i xi m a b . (2) Adalimumab is initially dosed 160 mg on day one as four 40 mg injections on the f i r s t d a y o r t wo 4 0 m g i n j e c t i o n s p e r d a y f o r t wo d a ys , f o l l o we d b y 8 0 m g t wo we e k s l a t e r o r a t d a y 1 5 . T wo we e k s l a t e r ( d a y 2 9 ) m a i n t e n a n c e t h e r a p y i s b e g u n a t 4 0 m g e v e r y o t h e r we e k . ( 3 ) C e r t o l i z u m a b p e g o l i s g i v e n a s 40 0 m g o n d a y o n e a n d a t we e k s 2 a n d 4 a s t wo 2 0 0 m g s u b c u t a n e o u s i n j e c t i o n s , f ol l o we d b y 4 0 0 m g e v e r y 4 we e k s . c . P r e c a u t i o n s an d a d ve r s e e f f e c t s . A n t i - T N F t h e r a p y i s g e n e r a l l y c o n s i d e r e d s a f e in long-term therapy of CD. ( 1 ) A c u t e a na p h yl a c t o i d i n f u s i o n - r e l a t e d r e a c t i o n s o c c u r i n ap p r o x i m a t e l y 2 2 % o f p a t i e n t s t r ea t e d wi t h i n f l i xi m a b . T h e s e r e a c t i o n s a r e m o r e co m m o n i n p a t i e n t s wh o t e s t p o s i t i v e f o r a n t i b o dy t o i n f l i xi m a b a n d a r e l e s s f r e q u e n t i n p a t i e n t s g i v e n c o n c o m i t a n t i m m u n o s u p p r e s s i v e d r u g s . S e v e r e a n a p h yl a c t i c r e a c t i o n s a r e r a r e . H yp e r s e n s i t i v i t y r e a c t i o n s a r e r e p o r t e d t o b e r a r e wi t h a d a l i m u m a b a n d c e r t o l i z u m a b pegol. ( 2 ) D e l a ye d h yp e r s e n s i t i v i t y r e a c t i o n s , i n c l u d i n g m ya l g i a s , r a s h , f e v e r , a r t h r a l g i a s , p r u r i t u s , e de m a , u r t i c a r i a , s o r e t h r oa t , a n d d ys p h a g i a o c c u r 3 - 1 2 d a ys a f t e r i n f l i x i m a b i n f u s i o n a n d a r e m u c h l e ss c o m m o n , s e e n i n a p p r o xi m a t e l y 2 % o f p a t i e n t s r e c e i v i n g m a i n t e n a n c e i n f l i xi m a b t h e r a p y. ( 3 ) A l l t h r e e a g e n t s c a r r y b l a c k b o x w ar n i n g s f o r i n c r e a s e d r i s k of t u b e r c u l o s i s a n d o t h e r o p p o r t u n i s t i c i n f e ct i o n s . ( 4 ) I n c r e a s ed r a t e s o f m a l i g n a n c i e s h a v e a l s o b e e n a s s o c i a t e d wi t h a n t i - T N F t h e r a p y. 7 . An t i b i o t i c s . N o s p e c i f i c i n f e c t i o us a g e n t a s be e n i d e n t i f i e d i n e i t h e r U C o r C D . a . M e t r o n i d a z o l e ( F l ag yl ) a n d c i p r o f l o x a c i n ( C i p r o ) a r e us e d wi d e l y b y c o n v e n t i o n as P.1155 m a i n t e n a n c e t h e r a p y i n C D b u t c o nt r o l l e d t r i a l r e s u l t s d o n o t c o n c l u s i v e l y s u p p o r t this use. b . U s e o f b r o a d - s p e c t r u m a n t i b i o t i c s i n U C i s l im i t e d t o e m p i r i c t r e a t m e n t o f f u l m i n a n t d i s e a s e o r i n p a t i e n t s wi t h t o xi c m e g a c o l o n f o r wh o m s h o r t - t e r m u s e o f t h e s e a n t i b i o t i c s c a n b e j u s t i f i e d o wi n g t o t h e i nc r e a s e d r i s k o f p e r f o r at i o n o r b a c t e r e m i a . M e t r o n i d a z o l e h a s b e e n u s e f u l i n p a t i e n t s s u f f e r in g f r o m p o u c h i t i s a f t e r b o we l r e s e c t i o n s u r g e r y t h a t i n v o l v e s f o r m a t i o n o f a po u c h . c . R i f a xi m i n ( Xi f a x a n T M ) i s a n o v e l no n s ys t e m a t i c a n t i b i o t i c c u r r e n t l y a v a i l a b l e f o r t r e a t i n g t r a ve l e r s d i a r r h e a c a u s e d b y n o n i n v a s i v e s t r a i n s o f E . c o l i a n d is u n d e r s t u d y f o r t r ea t i n g I B D . C o n c l u s i v e e v i d e n c e d o e s n o t e xi s t t o s u p p o r t t h i s u s e t o date.
8 . P r o b i o t i c a n d p r e b i o t i c t h e r a p y. P r o b i o t i c t he r a p y i n v o l v e s u s i n g e x o g e n o u s l y administered bacteria such as Lactobacillus GG, Saccharomyces boulardii, and n o n p a t h o g e n i c E . c o l i , f o r e xa m p l e , i n a n a t t e m pt t o n o r m a l i z e t h e i n t e s t in a l e n v i r o n m e n t f l o r a a n d t hu s d e c r e a s e i n f l a m m a t o r y t r i g g e r s . a . C o n t r o l l e d t r i a l s o f p r o b i o t i c t h e r a p y i n I B D h a v e ye t t o d e f i n e c l i n i c a l u t i l i t y. b . R e m i s s i o n m a i n t e n a n c e o f p o u c h i t i s wi t h V S L # 3 , a p r o b i o t i c p r e p a r a t io n o f f o u r l a c t o b a c i l l i s t r a i n s , t h r ee B i f i d o b a c t e r i u m s t r a i n s , a n d o n e S t r e p t o c o c cu s s t r a i n wa s s h o wn t o b e o f b e n e f i t . c . P r o b i o t i cs a r e o r a l l y a d m i n i s t e r e d s u b s t a n c e s l i k e n o n d i g e s t e d c a r b o h yd r a t e s wi t h t h e g o a l o f f a c i l i t a t in g g r o wt h o f c o m m e n s a l g u t f l o r a t o d i s p l a c e p o s s i b l e antigenic microorganisms. d . T h e r e a r e c u r r e n t l y l i t t l e d a t a t o su p p o r t t h e u s e o f p r o b i o t i c s . 9 . An t i s p a s m o d i c s an d a n t i d i a r r h e a l s . C r a m p in g a n d a b d o m i n a l I B S - l ik e s ym p t o m s a r e o f t e n n o t e d i n I B D p at i e n t s . Us e o f s ym p t o m a t i c t h e r a p i e s i s n o t we l l defined in the published IBD literature because most research is aimed at the i n f l a m m a t o r y p r o c e s s . O n c e a c t i v e i n f l a m m a t i o n i s c o n t r o l le d o r r u l e d o u t , anticholinergic antispasmodics are frequently used judiciously to treat cramping or d i s c o m f o r t in I B D i n f l a m m a t i o n , a s ar e a n t i d i a r r h e a l s i n m i l d o r q u i e s c e n t d i s e a s e . All of these agents should be avoided in serious disease because they may further i m p a i r t h e c o l o n a n d i n c r e a s e r i s k o f t o xi c m e g a c o l o n . 1 0 . An t i d e p r e s s a n t s a n d a n xi o l yt i c s h a v e b e e n u s e d wh e n s p e c i f i c p a t ie n t s ym p t o m s wa r r a n t t h e i r u s e a s a d j u v a n t t h e r a p y. 1 1 . An a l g e s i c s . T h e r e is r a r e l y a n e e d f o r p a i n c o n t r o l i n UC a s t h e d i se a s e i s l i m i t e d t o t he m u c o s a o f t h e c o l o n wi t h l i m i t e d i n v o l v e m e n t o f t is s u e c o n t a i n i n g p a i n r e c e p t o r s . Na r c o t i c s a r e t o b e a v o i d e d i n U C t h e r a p y o u t s i d e o f p e r i o p e r a t i v e s i t u a t i o n s b e c a u s e t h e y i n c r e a s e t he r i s k o f t o xi c m e g a c o l o n a n d c a n m a s k s i g n s o f perforation. NSAID medications should be avoided because they have been implicated in inducing IBD flares. 1 2 . S u r g e r y. S u r g i c a l r es e c t i o n o f t h e c o l o n i s co n s i d e r e d c u r a t i v e i n U C . S u r g i c a l r e s e c t i o n o f b o we l i n C D i s n o t c u r a t i v e b e c a u s e t h e d i s e a s e wi l l o f t e n r e c u r a t t h e r e s e c t i o n s i t e a s we l l a s o t h e r s i t e s. a . S u r g e r y i n U C i s m o st c o m m o n l y i n d i c a t e d f o r d i s e a s e r e f r a c t o r y t o m e d i c a l t h e r a p y, i n a b i l i t y t o we a n t h e p a t i e n t o f f o f h i g h c o r t i c o s t e r o id d o s a g e s , s e r i o u s d r u g s i d e e f f e c t s o r i n t ol e r a n c e , a n d o c c u r r e n c e o f p r e m a l i g n a n t o r m a l i g n a n t changes in the colon. b . A p p r o x i m a t e l y o n e t h i r d o f U C p a t i e n t s e v e n t u a l l y u n d e r g o c o l e c t o m y. P a t i e n t s wi t h e x t e n s i v e d i s e a s e ( p a n c o l i t i s ) u n d e r g o c o l e c t o m y m o r e t h a n p a t i e n t s wi t h l e s s extensive (distal) disease and also usually require colectomy sooner than patients wi t h l e s s e xt e n s i v e d i s e a s e . c . U C s u rg e r y c a n b e d i v i d e d i n t o t wo t yp e s : t ho s e t h a t p r es e r v e c o n t i n e n c e a n d t h o s e t h a t do n o t a n d s u b s e q u e n t l y r e q u i r e a p p l i a n c e s t o c o ll e c t t h e f e c a l m a t e r i a l . (1) Proctocolectomy with permanent ileostomy is the oldest procedure and i n v o l v e s f o r m a t i o n o f a n a b d o m i n a l s t o m a c o n n e c t e d t o t h e i l e u m . A n ext e r n a l a p p l i a n c e i s u s e d t o c o l le c t f e c a l m a t e r i a l .
( 2 ) P r o c t o c o l e c t o m y w i t h c o n t i n en t i l eo s t o my i n v o l v e s c r e a t i o n o f a p o u c h i n s i d e t h e a b d o m e n u s i n g t h e t e r m i n a l i l e u m . A s m a l l le a k p r o o f o p e n i n g i s c r e a t e d i n t h e a b d o m e n wa l l a n d t h e p o u c h i s p e r i o d i c a l l y d r a i n e d . ( 3 ) C o l e c t o m y w i t h i l eo r e c t a l a n as t o m o s i s i nv o l v e s r e m o v i n g d i s e a s e d l a r g e b o we l a n d r e a t t a c h i n g t h e r e m a i n i n g s m a l l i n t e s t i n e t o a p r e s e r v e d r e c t u m . W h i l e b o we l m o v e m e n t s v i a t h e r e c t u m a r e p r e s e r v e d , p a t i e n t s a r e a t r i s k o f r e l a p s e because the rectum is often involved in UC. P.1156
( 4 ) I l e a l p o u c h an a l an a s t o m o s i s ( I P AA) i s t h e m o s t c o m m o n s u r g i c a l p r o c e d u r e d o n e f o r I BD . T h e l a r g e b o we l a n d r e c t u m a r e r e m o v e d , wi t h p r e s e r v a t i o n o f t h e a n a l s p h i n c t e r . A t u b u l a r p o u c h i s f o r m e d f r o m t he s m a l l i n t e s t i n e a n d a t t a c h e d t o t h e p r e s e r v e d s p h i n c t e r , wh i c h a l l o ws b o we l m o v e m e n t s wi t h o u t e xt e r n a l b a g s o r appliances. A temporary ileostomy is often used during healing. d . C D s u r g er y, wh i l e n o t c u r a t i v e , i s r e q u i r e d i n a v e r y h i g h p e r c e n t a g e o f p a t i e n t s . S u r g i c a l i n t e r v e n t i o n c a n b e l i m i t e d t o s p e c i f i c ar e a s o f d i s ea s e d b o we l o r t o t a l i l e o s t o m y o r c o l e c t o m y. S u r g e r y i s m o s t c o m m on l y i n d i c a t e d i n C D r e f r a c t o r y t o m e d i c a l t h e r a p y, m e d i c a t i o n s i d e e f f e c t s , o r st e r o i d d e p e n d e n c y. ( 1 ) S m a l l b o we l r e s e c t i o n i s p r e f e r r ed i n m o s t p at i e n t s wi t h i l e a l o r i l e o c o l i c C D . P r i m a r y a n a s t o m o s i s v er s u s i l e o s t o m y ( p e r m a n e n t o r t e m po r a r y) c h o i c e i s b a s e d o n p a t i e n t s t a t us a n d C D s ev e r i t y. ( 2 ) L a r g e b o we l C D m a y r e q u i r e s o m e d e g r e e o f r e s e ct i o n se c o n d a r y t o t h e t yp i c a l CD disease course involving “skip lesions.” Primary anastomosis of the preserved b o we l m a y b e p r e f e r r e d f o r p a t i e n t Q O L r e a s o n s b u t h a s b e e n l i n k e d t o e a r l i e r reoccurrence of CD. ( 3 ) C o l e c t o m y wi t h i l e o r e c t a l a n a s t o m o s i s , wh i l e i n c r e a s i n g r i s k of e a r l ie r C D r e c u r r e n c e , i s u s e f u l i n yo u n g p a t i e n t s f o r wh o m i l e o s t o m y m a y a d v e r s e l y a f f e c t QOL. ( 4 ) P r o c t o c ol e c t o m y a n d i l e o s t o m y i s p r e f e r r e d in p a t i e n t s wi t h e xt e n s i v e p e r i a n a l disease or pancolitis CD. ( 5 ) S t r i c t u r ep l a s t y c a n a l s o b e u s e f u l i n s t r i ct u r in g C D . e . P o u c h i t i s i s t h e m o s t c o m m o n co m p l i c a t i o n o f c o n t i n e n t i l e o s t o m y a n d I P A A . I t h a s b e e n c h a r a c t e r i z e d a s a s yn d r o m e i n c l u d i n g a c u t e n o n s p e c i f i c i n f la m m a t i o n o f t h e r e s e r v o i r p o u c h f o r m e d d u r i n g s u r g e r y wi t h u n k n o wn c a u s e . ( 1 ) I d i o p a t h i c p o u c h i t i s m u s t b e d i f f e r e n t i a t e d f r o m i n f l a m m a t i o n o f t h e p o u c h o wi n g t o a n a s t o m o t i c st r i c t u r e a n d i n f e c t i o n a s a r e s u l t o f k n o wn p a t h o g e n s . ( 2 ) B r o a d - s p e c t r u m a n t ib i o t i c s h a v e b e e n t h e m a i n m e d i c a l t h e r a p y u s e d f o r p o u c h i t i s . M e t r o n i d a z o l e a n d c i p r o f l o xa c i n h a v e b o t h b e e n e f f e c t i v e f o r a c u t e p o u c h i t i s a n d h a v e a l s o b e e n u s e d a s m a i n t e n a n c e t h e r a p y. ( 3 ) P r o b i o t i c t h e r a p y wi t h V S L # 3 h a s a l s o b e e n o f b e n e f i t . ( 4 ) P h a r m a co l o g i c t h e r a p y u s e d i n I B D h a s b e e n s h o wn t o b e o f m i xe d e f f i c a c y i n p o u c h i t i s . Su r g i c a l r e v i s i o n m a y b e r e q u i r e d i n c h r o n i c p o u c h i t i s u n r e s p o n s i v e t o m e d i c a l t h e r a p y. 13. Other therapy
a . N u t ri t i o n a l i s s u e s a r e i m p o r t a n t t o c o n s i d e r i n I B D . W h i le c o n c l u s i v e e v i d e n c e d o e s n o t e xi s t s h o wi n g t h a t p a r t i c u l a r f o o d s c a u se I B D , s p e c i a l a t t e n t i o n t o d i e t i n p a t i e n t s wi t h I B D c a n be b e n e f i c i a l . ( 1 ) N u t r i t i o na l a n d h y d r a t i o n d e f i c i e n c i e s c a n o c cu r s e c o n d a r y t o a p o o r l y f u n c t i o n i n g G I t r a c t a n d t h e c h r o n i c n a t u r e o f I BD . ( 2 ) F o o d s t h a t a r e k n o wn t o e x a c e r b a t e a n i n d i v i d u a l p a t i e n t ' s I B D s h o u l d b e a v o i d e d , a n d a we l l - b a l a n c e d d i e t s h o u l d b e e n c o u r a g e d t o m a i n t a i n n u t r i t i o n a l s t a t u s . R e s t r i c t i v e d i e t s a r e n o t n o r m a l l y r e q u i r e d . S i m p l y l i m i t i n g o f f e nd i n g f o o d s wh i l e e n c o u r a g i n g a b a l a n c e d d i e t i s u s u a l l y s u f f i c i e n t t o m a i n t a i n n u t r i t i o n a l s t a t u s. ( 3 ) P a r e n t e r a l f e e d i n g i s s e l d o m u s e d l o n g t e r m i n I B D b u t ca n b e u s e f u l t o i m p r o v e o r m a i n t a i n n u t r i t i o n a l s t a t u s i n s e ve r e l y i l l p a t i e n t s . c . E m o t i o n a l f a c t o r s . O wi n g t o t h e c h r o n i c n a t u r e o f I B D , m a n y s u f f e r e r s h a v e n e e d f o r e m o t i o n a l s u p p o r t d u r i n g t he c o u r s e o f t h e i r d i s e a s e . W h i l e I BD d o e s n o t a p p e a r t o b e d i r e c t l y a f f e c t e d b y e m o t i o n a l s t a t e , t h e Q O L e xp e r i e n c e d b y t h e s e s u f f e r e r s c a n b e n o t i c e a b l y a f f e c t e d i n a n e g a t i v e m a n n e r . M a n y wi l l b e n e f i t g r e a t l y b y s u p p o r t g r o u p s a n d c o n t i n u e d o p e n d i a l o g u e wi t h t h e i r h e a l t h c a r e p r o v i d e r s ; sometimes formal counseling or pharmacologic therapy may be needed. B. Drug Therapy for IBD and UC 1 . C l a s s i f yi n g U C b a s e d o n a n a t o m i c d i s e a s e e xt e n t i s u s e f u l f o r d e t e r m i n i n g m e d i c a l t h e r a p y. D i s t a l d i s e a s e ( b e l o w t h e s p l e n i c f l e xu r e ) c a n b e t r e a t e d e f f e c t i v e l y wi t h t o p i c a l t he r a p y. E xt e n s i v e d i s e a s e ( e xt e n d i n g p r o xi m a l t o t h e s p l e n i c f l e x u r e ) n o r m a l l y r e q u i r e s s ys t e m i c t h e r a p y. S e v e r i t y o f a c u t e UC i s a l s o u s e f u l i n d e t e r m i n i n g m e d i c a l t h e r a p y. S e v e r i t y i s g e n e r a l l y d e f i n e d a s m i l d , m o d e r a t e , se v e r e , o r f u l m i n a t e . P.1157
2 . M a n ag e m e n t o f mi l d t o mo d e r a t e U C d i s t al d i s e a s e . P at i e n t s wi t h m i l d t o m o d e r a t e d i s t a l U C r e s po n d we l l t o o r a l a n d t o p i c a l a m i n o s a l i c yl a t e s o r t o p i c a l s t e r o i d s f o r i n d u c i n g r e m i s s i o n ( c o n t r o l o f i n f l am m a t i o n ) . a . T o p i c a l m e s a l a m i n e i s s u p e r i o r t o t o p i c a l s t er o i d s o r o r a l a m i n o s a l i c yl a t e s . b . T o p i c a l m e s a l a m i n e p l u s o r a l a m i n o s a l i c yl a t e i s s u p e r i o r t o e i t h e r a l o n e . c . T o p i c a l m e s a l a m i n e m a y b e e f f e c t i v e i n p a t ie n t s r e f r a ct o r y t o o r a l aminosalicylates or topical steroids. d . I n f r e q u e n t l y, o r a l c o r t i c o s t e r o i d s m a y b e n e e d e d i n p a t i e n t s r e f r a c t o r y t o t o p i c a l / o r a l a m i n o s a l i c yl a t e s a n d t o p i c a l s t e r o i d s i n m a xi m a l d o s e s . e . T h e r a p y i s l a r g e l y d e t e r m i n e d b y p a t i e n t p r e f e r e n c e t o t he r a p y m o d a l i t y. f. Oral 5-ASA doses for inducing remission in mild to moderate distal disease are as f o l l o ws : (1) Sulfasalazine 4-6 g per day in four divided doses (2) Mesalamine 2-4.8 g per day in three divided doses (3) Balsalazide 6.75 g per day in three divided doses ( 4 ) O l s a l a z in e 1 . 5 - 3 g p e r d a y i n d i v i d e d d o s e s g . T h e o r a l 5 - A S A d r u g s t e n d t o wo r k i n 2 - 4 we e k s a n d a r e e f f e c t i v e i n a h i g h percentage of patients.
h . O r a l c o r t ic o s t e r o i d s . B u d e s o n i d e i s a n o r a l c o r t i c o s t e r o i d t h a t o f f e r s r e l a t i v e l y l o we r s ys t e m i c e xp o s u r e c o m p a r e d t o p r e d n i s o n e s e c o n d a r y t o h i g h f i r s t - p a s s m e t a b o l i s m . B u d e s o n i d e h a s b e e n e f f e c t i v e i n UC t r e a t m e n t b u t i s l i m i t ed t o U C wh e n t h e i l e a l r e l e a s e f o r m u l a t i o n c a n r e a c h t h e l o c a t i o n o f d i s e a s e . i . T o p i c a l t he r a p y g e n e r a l l y i n d u c e s r e m i s s i o n m o r e q u i c k l y t h a n o r a l t h e r a p y, a n d i t o f f e r s l e s s f r e q u e n t d o s i n g t h a n o r a l t h e r a p y. S u p p o s i t o r i e s r e a c h t h e d i s e a s e a p p r o x i m a t e l y 1 0 c m p r o xi m a l l y. H yd r o c o r t i s o n e f o a m r e a c h e s t h e d i s e a se 1 5 - 2 0 c m p r o x i m a l l y. E n e m a s r e a c h t h e d i s e a s e a p p r o xi m a t e l y t o t h e s p l e n i c f l e x u r e ( 5 2 - 5 6 cm) j . T o p i c a l 5 - A S A f o r i n d u c i n g a n d m a i n t a i n i n g r e m i s s i o n o f UC ( 1 ) M e s a l a m i n e s u p p o s i t o r i e s 5 0 0 m g t wi c e a d a y ( p r o c t i t i s ) ( 2 ) M e s a l a m i n e e n e m a s 1 - 4 g p e r d a y ( d i s t a l c o l i t i s p r o xi m a l l y t o t h e s p l e n i c flexure) k . T o p i c a l co r t i c o s t e r o i d s f o r i n d u c i n g r e m i s s i o n o f U C (1) Hydrocortisone enema 100 mg per day ( 2 ) H y d r o c o r t i s o n e f o a m , 1 0 % 1 a p p l i c a t i o n e v e r y d a y t o t wi c e a d a y l . O r a l p l u s t o p i c a l t h e r a p y c o n s i s t i n g o f o r a l m es a l a m i n e 2 . 4 g p e r d a y i n d i v i d e d doses plus mesalamine 4 g per day enema may induce remission of UC more q u i c k l y. 3 . M a i n t e n an c e o f d i s t al d i s e a s e a . 5 - AS A p r e p a r a t i o n d o s a g e s f o r m a i n t a i n i n g r e m i s s i o n o f d i s t a l d i s e a s e (1) Balsalazide 3-6 g per day ( 2 ) M e s a l a m i n e E u d r a g r i t - S 3. 2 g p er d a y ( 3 ) M e s a l a m i n e s u p p o s i t o r y 5 0 0 m g e v e r y d a y o r t wi c e a d a y ( 4 ) M e s a l a m i n e e n e m a 2 - 4 g d a i l y, e v e r y o t h e r d a y, o r e v e r y t h i r d d a y ( 5 ) O l s a l a z in e 1 g p e r d a y (6) Sulfasalazine 2 g per day ( 7 ) M e s a l a m i n e 1 . 6 g o r a l l y p e r d a y p l u s 4 - g e n e m a s t wi c e we e k l y i s a l s o e f f e ct i v e b . C o r t i c o s t e r o i d s , t o p i c a l a n d o r a l , a r e n o t e f f ec t i v e i n m a in t a i n i n g U C r e m i s s i o n and should not be used. 4 . M i l d t o mo d e r a t e e x t e n s i ve o r r e l a p s i n g d i s e a s e a . O r a l 5 - AS A (1) Sulfasalazine 4-6 g per day in four divided doses. Doses > 2 g per day appear to o f f e r l i t t l e be n e f i t . ( 2 ) N e we r 5 - A S A p r e p a r a t i o n s a r e g e n e r a l l y c o n s i d e r e d t o b e e q u a l t o s u l f a s a l a z i n e in regard to efficacy and are likely superior in regard to adverse events and t o l e r a n c e ; b u t t h e y a r e m o r e e xp e n s i v e . T h e d os a g e s u s e d a r e a m i n i m u m o f 2 g p e r d a y o f a c t i v e 5 - A S A m o ie t y t i t r a t e d u p t o a m a xi m u m o f 4. 8 g p e r d a y. b. Oral steroids ( 1 ) P r e d n i s o n e 4 0 - 6 0 m g p e r d a y ( m o d e s t e f f i c ac y g a i n wi t h 6 0 m g c o m p a r e d t o 4 0 m g ) u n t i l s i gn i f i c a n t c l i n i c a l e f f e c t i s s e e n f o l l o we d b y a d o s e t a p e r o f 5 - 1 0 m g we e k l y u n t i l a d a i l y d o s e o f 2 0 m g i s r e a c h e d . T a p e r i n g g e n e r a l l y c o n t i n u e s f r o m h e r e a t 2 . 5 m g p e r we e k u n t i l t h e pa t i e n t i s we a n e d f r o m o r a l s t e r o i d s . ( 2 ) H i g h e r d o s e s f o r l o ng e r p e r i o d s i n c r e a s e r i s k o f c o r t i c o st e r o i d - a s s o c i a t e d r i s k .
( 3 ) I B D p a t i e n t s r e c e i v i n g c o r t i c o s t e r o i d s f o r > 3 m o n t h s s ho u l d b e e v a l u a t e d a n d m a y b e n e f i t f r o m d u a l - e n e r g y x- r a y a b s o r p t i o m e t r y ( D E X A ) b o n e t e s t i n g a n d possibly preventative P.1158 t h e r a p y wi t h b i s p h o s p h o n a t e s , a l e n d r o n a t e ( F o sa m a x) , r i s e d r o n a t e ( A c t on e l ) , a n d etidronate (Didrocal). ( 4 ) F o r p a t i e n t s o n l o n g - t e r m c o r t i c os t e r o i d t h e r a p y a n d wh o h a v e s i g n i f i c a n t r i s k f a c t o r s , s u c h a s p r e v i o u s f r a c t u r e s , b i s p h o s p h o n a t e s , c a l c iu m s u p p l e m e n t a t i o n a t 1 1 . 5 g p e r d a y, a n d v i t a m i n D s u p p l e m e n t a t i o n a t 8 0 0 m g p e r d a y s h o u l d a l s o b e considered. ( 5 ) C o r t i c o s t e r o i d - i n d u c e d o s t e o p o r o s i s h a s a l s o b e e n s h o wn t o r e s p o n d t o t r e a t m e n t wi t h b i s p h o s p h o n a t e s . 5 . M a i n t e n an c e o f m i l d t o mo d e r a t e r e l a p s i n g d i s e a s e . S u l f a s a l a z i n e i s a s e f f e c t i v e a s e q u i v a l e n t d o s e s o f n e we r 5 - A S A a ge n t s a n d i s le s s c o s t l y i n l o n g - t e r m t h e r a p y. S ys t e m i c c o r t ic o s t e r o i d s a s a r u l e a r e n o t a c c e p t e d a s l o n g - t e r m t h e r a p y o p t i o n s o wi n g t o a d v e r se e v e n t s a n d q u e s t i o n a b l e t h e r a p e u t i c e f f e ct . 6 - M P o r a z a t h i o p r i n e h a s b e e n u s e f u l a s a st e r o i d s p a r i n g a g e n t a n d a s a l o n g - t e r m o p t i o n t o we a n p a t i e n t s o f f c o r t i c o s t e r o i d s . a . O r a l 5 AS A t h e r a p y (1) Balsalazide 3-6 g per day (2) Mesalamine 2-4 g per day ( 3 ) O l s a l a z in e 1 g p e r d a y (4) Sulfasalazine 2-4 g per day b . 6 - M P a n d a z a t h i o p r i n e 1 0 0 - 2 5 0 m g p e r d a y, m a xi m u m o f 2 . 5 m g / k g / da y 6 . M o d e r a t e t o s e ve r e d i s e a s e . UC p a t i e n t s wi t h m o d e r a t e t o s e v e r e d i s e a s e a r e a b l e t o b e m a n a g e d o n a n o u t p a t i e n t b a s i s o r m ay r e q u i r e h o s p i t a l i z a t i o n . P a t i e n t s wi t h s e v e r e d i s e a s e wh o a r e r e f r a ct or y t o m a xi m a l o r a l t h e r a p y a n d p a t i e n t s wi t h s i g n s o f t o xi c i t y s h o u l d b e h o s p i t a l i z e d . I n f e ct i o n wi t h e n t e r i c p a t h o g e n s s h o u l d b e r u l e d o u t . F a i l u r e t o d e m o n s t r a t e s ig n i f i c a n t i m p r o v e m e n t wi t h i n 7 - 1 0 d a ys i s a n i n d i c a t i o n f o r s u r g i c a l r es e c t i o n o r a l t e r n a t e i n t r av e n o u s t h e r a p y s u c h a s wi t h c yc l o s p o r i n e . a . I n t e n s i v e I V s t e r o i d t he r a p y i s i n d i c a t e d f o r p at i e n t s wi t h s e v e r e d i s e a s e wh o a r e h o s p i t a l i z e d . D o s e s wi t h p r e d n i s o l o n e ( 4 0 - 6 0 m g ) , h yd r o c o r t i s o n e ( 3 0 0 m g ) , o r m e t h yl p r e d n i s o l o n e ( 3 2 - 4 8 m g p e r d a y i n d i v i d e d d o s e s o r as c o n t i n u o u s i n f u s i o n ) h a v e b e e n s h o wn t o b e e f f e c t i v e . H ig h e r d o s e s a r e o f l i m i t ed b e n e f i t a n d i n c r e a s e t h e r i s k s o f s t e r o i d t o x i c i t y. b . E m p i r i c br o a d - s p e c t r u m a n t i b i o t i c s a r e o f l i t t l e u s e i n m o d e r a t e t o s ev e r e U C . c . W h e n p o ss i b l e , p a t i e n t s s h o u l d b e m a i n t a i n e d o n o r a l f e e d i n g s wi t h a m o d i f i e d d i e t t o r e d uc e a b d o m i n a l d i s c o m f o r t a n d d i a r r h e a a n d b o we l f r e q u e n c y. T ot a l p a r e n t e r a l n u t r i t i o n i s u se d wh e n o r a l f e e d s a r e n o t t o l e r a t ed a n d c a n b e e s p e c i a l l y u s e f u l i n p a t i e n t s wi t h s e v e r e n u t r i t io n a l d e p l e t i o n . d . I n p a t i e n t s wi t h s i g n s o f t o xi c i t y, n a r c o t i c s , a n t i d i a r r h e a l s , a n d a n t i c h o l i n e r g i c s s h o u l d b e a v o i d e d b e c a u s e t h e y c a n i n c r e a s e t h e r i s k o f wo r s e n i n g c o l o n i c d i l a t i o n and perforation.
e. 5-ASA should be stopped in the acute setting to avoid intolerance issues and the r a r e i n s t a n c e s o f 5 - A S A e xa c e r b a t i n g c o l i t i s . f . T o p i c a l s t e r o i d s m a y p r o v i d e b e n e f i t i n p a t i en t s wi t h r e c t a l u r g e n c y o r t e n e s m u s . g . I n t r a v e n ou s c yc l o s p o r i n e a t 2 - 4 m g / k g p e r da y a n d t i t r a t e d t o b l o o d l e v e l s b e t we e n 2 0 0 a n d 4 0 0 n g / m L h a s b e e n e f f e c t i v e i n a h i g h p e r c e n t a g e o f p a t i e n t s wh o d o n o t r e s p o n d t o m a xi m a l p a r e n t e r a l s t e r o i d s . h . O r a l c yc l o s p o r i n e a t t wi c e t h e d a i l y i n t r a v e n o u s d o s e i s gi v e n i n d i v i d e d d o s e s ( t wi c e a d a y) wi t h o r a l s t e r o i d s o n c e c l i n i c a l r e m i s s i o n i s r e a c h e d wi t h i n t r a v e n o u s c yc l o s p o r i n e . i . R e l a p s e on 5 - A S A t h e r a p y a l o n e a f t e r r e m i s s i o n i n d u c e d wi t h c yc l o s p o r i n e i s f r e q u e n t , a n d a z a t h i o p r i n e o r 6 - M P c a n b e b e n e f i c i a l wh e n a d d e d f o r m a i n t e n a n c e . j . S u l f a m e t ho xa z o l e / t r i m e t h o p r i m ( Ba c t r i m ) s h o u l d b e a d d e d a s p r o p h yl a xi s a g a i n s t P n e u m o c y s t i s p n e u m o n i a f o r p a t i e n t s o n c yc l o s p o r i n e . 7 . F u l mi n a n t d i s e a s e . Pa t i e n t s wi t h f u l m i n a n t c o l i t i s o r t o xi c m e g a c o l o n s h o u l d b e t r e a t e d a s no t e d f o r s e v e r e d i s e a s e a n d s h o u l d n o t t a k e a n yt h i n g b y m o u t h . B r o a d s p e c t r u m a nt i b i o t i c s a r e o f t e n u s e d e m p i r i c a l l y o wi n g t o t h e h i g h r i s k o f p e r f o r a t i o n . A n y wo r s e n i n g o f d i s e a s e a s e v i d e n c e d b y r a d i o l o g i c , c l i n i c a l , o r l a b o r a t o r y c h a n g e s wh i l e o n m e d i c a l t h e r a p y i s a n i n d i c a t i o n f o r i m m e d i a t e c o l e c t o m y. C . D r u g t h er a p y f o r C D d e p e n d s o n t h e d i s e a s e l o c a t i o n , d i s e a s e s e v e r i t y a n d a n y complications. 1 . M i l d t o mo d e r a t e C D a. 5-ASA orally (1) Mesalamine 3.2-4 g per day (2) Sulfasalazine 3-6 g per day P.1159
( 3 ) S p e c i f i c d i s e a s e l o c a t i o n s m a y d i c t a t e wh i c h p r e p a r a t i o n t o u s e b a se d o n s i t e o f delivery ( 4 ) S u l f a s a l a z i n e m a y b e m o r e e f f ec t i v e t h a n ne we r 5 - A S A s . I t a l s o i s le s s e x p e n s i v e b u t l e s s we l l t o l e r a t e d b . O r a l b r o ad - s p e c t r u m a n t i b i o t i c s h a v e b e e n u s e d wi t h l i m i t e d c o n t r o l l e d c l i n i c a l d a t a t o s u p p o r t s u c h u s e. (1) Added to 5-ASA therapy for failures (2) Metronidazole 750-1500 mg per day (3) Ciprofloxacin 1000 mg per day c. Budesonide orally ( 1 ) T a r g e t e d d e l i v e r y t o t h e i l e u m , wo r k s we l l i n i l e a l o r p r o x i m a l c o l o n d i s e a s e . ( 2 ) D o s e a t 9 m g p e r d a y f o r 8 - 1 6 we e k s ( 3 ) T a p e r e d 3 m g p e r we e k o v e r 2 - 4 we e k s d . I f t h e s e f a i l , t h e p r e se n t a t i o n c a n b e c o n s i d e r e d r e f r a c t o r y a n d t r e a t e d a s moderate to severe. 2 . M o d e r a t e t o s e ve r e C D a . S ys t e m i c s t e r o i d s (1) Prednisone 40-60 mg per day
( 2 ) H o s p i t a l i z a t i o n f o r i nt r a v e n o u s c o r t i c o s t e r o i d s m a y a l s o b e c o n s i d e r e d b . Az a t h i o p r i n e , 6 - M P , a n d m e t h o t r e x a t e (1) Effective for steroid failure (2) Azathioprine 2-3 mg/kg/day or 6-MP 1-1.5 mg/kg/day ( 3 ) M e t h o t r exa t e 2 5 m g / we e k I M , t ap e r e d t o 1 5 m g / we e k I M a f t e r 1 6 we e k s ( 4 ) A z a t h i o p r i n e , 6 - M P , a n d m e t h o t r e xa t e a r e a l l a n t i m e t a b o l i t e d r u g s a n d wi l l t a k e c o n s i d e r a b l e t i m e t o r ea c h f u l l e f f ec t , u p t o 3 - 4 m o n t h s m ay b e r e q u i r e d . ( 5 ) C o n c o m i t a n t u s e o f o r a l 5 - A S A o r a n t i b i o t i c s wi t h i m m u n o s u p p r e s s a n t t h e r a p y h a v e n o t b e e n s h o wn t o b e o f b e n e f i t i n c o n t r o l le d t r i a l s . c . An t i - T N F t h e r a p y ( 1 ) F o r p a t i e n t s r e f r a c t o r y t o o r d o n o t t o l e r a t e sys t e m i c s t e r o i d s a n d i m m u n o s u p p r e s s a n t t h e r a p y. ( 2 ) I n p e r i a n a l f i s t u l i z i n g C D i n f l i xi m a b i s e f f e ct i v e t h e r a p y. ( 3 ) I n f l i x i m a b 5 m g / k g at 0 , 2 , a n d 6 we e k s ( a ) R e l a p s e a t o n e ye a r i s h i g h i f i n f li xi m a b s t o p p e d ( b ) H A C A f or m a t i o n i s co m m o n i n n o n c o n t i n u o u s t h e r a p y a n d m a y d e c r e a s e e f f i c a c y o f f u t u r e c ou r s e s o f t h e r a p y. H A C A f o r m a t i o n m a y b e l i m i t e d wi t h c o n c o m i t a n t d o s i n g o f a z a t h i o p r i n e , 6 - M P , o r m et h o t r e xa t e . ( c ) C o n c o m i t a n t t h e r a p y wi t h 5 - A S A , s t e r o i d s , o r a n t i b i o t i c s is o f l it t l e a dd e d benefit. ( 4 ) A d a l i m u m a b 1 6 0 m g d a y o n e a n d 8 0 m g d a y 1 5 f o l l o we d b y 4 0 m g e v e r y o t h e r we e k s t a r t i n g a t d a y 2 9 . ( 5 ) C e r t o l i z u m a b p e g o l 4 0 0 m g d a y o n e a n d we e k s 2 a n d 4 f o l l o we d b y 4 0 0 m g e v e r y 4 we e k s . 3 . S e ve r e o r f u l m i n an t C D i n c l u d e s a c t i v e d i s ea s e o f a s e ve r e n a t u r e , t o xi c e n t e r i t i s o r c o l i t i s , m e ga c o l o n , s m a l l b o we l o b s t r u c t i o n , a nd a b d o m i n a l a b s c e s s . Patients often require hospitalization because of the severity of the disease and risk of complications. a . T yp i c a l t h e r a p y m a y i n c l u d e ( 1 ) I n t r a v e n o u s f l u i d s a n d b o we l r e s t ( p a r e n t e r a l n u t r i t i o n ) ( 2 ) I n t r a v e n o u s a n t i b i o t i c s wi t h m e t r o n i d a z o l e , a m i n o g l yc o s i d e s , a n d b r o a d s p e c t r u m p en i c i l l i n o r t h i r d - g e n e r a t i o n c e p h a l o s p o r i n s e m p i r i c a l l y f o r p o s s i b l e a b s c e s s o r in f e c t i o n s . ( 3 ) I n t r a v e n o u s c o r t i c o st e r o i d s b . A n t i - T NF t h e r a p y m a y b e u s e f u l f or p a t i e n t s wh o d o n o t r e s p o n d t o i n t r a v e n o u s c o r t i c o s t e r o id s . c . S u r g i c a l in t e r v e n t i o n m a y b e r e q u i r e d i n p a t i e n t s wh o d o n o t r e s p o n d t o i n t r a v e n o u s c o r t i c o s t e r o id s a n d i n f l i x i m a b . 4 . M a i n t e n an c e o f r e m i s s i o n s t r at e g i e s h a v e b e e n o f q u e s t i o n a b l e e f f i ca c y. H i s t o r i c a l l y, l o n g - t e r m t r e a t m e n t wi t h 5 - A S A a ge n t s a n d b r o a d - s p e c t r u m a n t i b i o t i c s h a s b e e n a d v o c a t e d wi t h a l a c k o f co n v i n c i n g c o n t r o l l e d c l i n i c a l d a t a t o s u p p o r t t h e s e m e a s u r e s . N e we r e v i d e n c e - b a s e d a p p r o a c h e s m a y c h a n g e t h e r a p y s t r a t e g i e s . P.1160
a. 5-ASA ( 1 ) M a y b e o f b e n e f i t bu t c l i n i c a l d a t a a r e m i xe d (2) Mesalamine 2.4-4.8 g per day or sulfasalazine 2-4 g per day b. Budesonide ( 1 ) D o s e s o f 6 - 9 m g p e r d a y h a v e b e e n u s e d wi t h p o s i t i v e e f f e c t . ( 2 ) A p p e a r s t o b e s a f e c o m p a r e d t o l o n g - t e r m s ys t e m i c st e r oi d s c. Immunosuppressants ( 1 ) A z a t h i o p r i n e , 6 - M P , m e t h o t r e xa t e , a n d a n t i - T NF t h e r a p y h a v e b e e n u s e d i n m a i n t e n a n c e ; b u t a d v e r s e e v e n t s m u s t b e we i g h e d c a r e f u l l y, e s p e c i a l l y i n p a t i e n t s wi t h m i l d d i s e a s e . ( 2 ) A z a t h i o p r i n e , 6 - M P , a n d m e t h o t r e xa t e m a y b e u s e f u l i n p a t i e n t s u n a b l e t o we a n o f f s ys t e m i c s t e r o i d s . ( 3 ) A n t i - T N F t h e r a p y i s e f f e c t i v e a t i nd u c i n g a n d m a i n t a i n i n g c l i n i c a l r e m i s s i o n i n C r o h n ' s d i s e a s e . C o n c o m i t a n t a z a t hi o p r i n e , 6 - M P , o r m e t h o t r e xa t e c a n a l s o r e d u c e H A C A f o r m at i o n wi t h i n f l i x i m a b i n j e c t i o n s a n d m a y i n c r e a s e e f f i c a c y. d . S ys t e m i c s t e r o i d s a r e n o r m a l l y a v o i d e d i n l o n g - t e r m t h e r a p y s e c o n d a r y t o s ys t e m i c t o x i c i t y; c o n v i n c i n g d a t a t o s u p p o r t t h e i r u s e a r e l ac k i n g . d . A n t i b i o t i cs h a v e n o t be e n s h o wn i n c o n t r o l l e d c l i n i c a l t r i a l s t o b e ef f e ct i v e i n maintaining medically induced remission. D. IBS 1 . T h e t r e a t m e n t o f I B S i s b a s e d o n t h e n a t u r e a n d s e v e r i t y o f s ym p t o m s , c o r r e l a t i o n o f s ym p t o m s t o f o o d i n t a k e a n d / o r d e f e c a t i o n , d e g r e e o f f u n c t i o n a l i m p a i r m e n t , a n d t h e p r e s e n c e o f p syc h o s o c i a l o r p s yc h i a t r i c d i s o r d e r s . T r e a t m e n t is h i g h l y p e r s o n a l i z e d a n d c a n b e g e n e r a l i z e d a s f o l l o ws . 2 . M i l d I B S i s t h e m o st c o m m o n d i s e a s e p r e s e n t a t i o n , a n d p a t i e n t s n o r m a l l y s u f f e r from few psychosocial problems. a. Education about the disease and support can be of great benefit. b . D i e t a n d li f e s t yl e c h a n g e s ( 1 ) S p e c i f i c f o o d s a r e u su a l l y n o t a s i m p o r t a n t a s t h e s i z e of m e a l s ; s m a l le r m e a l s a r e p r e f e r a b l e . C a r e s h o u l d b e u s e d a n d r e s t r i c t iv e d i e t s s h ou l d b e a v o i d e d . (2) Decrease fatty foods, gas-producing foods (3) Decrease alcohol (4) Decrease caffeine (5) Avoid dairy in lactose-intolerant patients ( 6 ) E xc e s s f i b e r c a n a l s o i n c r e a s e I B S s ym p t o m s (7) Prepare strategies to handle stress 3 . M o d e r a t e I B S s ym p t o m s a r e n o r m a l l y i n t e r m i t t e n t b u t c a n b e d i s a b l i n g a t t i m e s . T h e s e p a t i en t s s u f f e r f r o m m o r e s ym p t o m - r e l a t e d d i s t r e s s . P a t i e n t s ym p t o m s h i s t o r i c a l l y a r e a l s o a s s o c i a t e d wi t h m o r e g u t r e a c t i v i t y ( wo r s e wi t h e a t i n g a n d b e t t e r wi t h d e f e c a t i o n ) . a. Anticholinergics used as antispasmodics ( 1 ) D i c yc l o m i n e ( B e n t yl ) 2 0 m g b y m o u t h f o u r t im e s a d a y ( 2 ) H y o s c ya m i n e ( A n a s p a z ) 0 . 1 5 - 0 . 3 m g b y m o u t h f o u r t im e s a d a y ( 3 ) C l i d i n i u m p l u s c h l o r d i a z e p o x i d e ( L i b r a x) 2 . 5 / 5 m g 1 - 2 t ab s b y m o u t h b e f o r e every meal and at bedtime
( 4 ) H y o s c ya m i n e + s c o po l a m i n e , a t r o p i n e , p h e n o b a r b i t a l ( D o n n a t a l ) 1 - 2 t a b l e t s every 6-8 hr b. Antidiarrheals ( 1 ) D i p h e n o x y l a t e p l u s a t r o p i n e ( L o m o t i l ) 0 . 0 2 5 / 2 . 5 m g 2 t ab s b y m o u t h f o u r t i m e s a d a y, m a x i m u m o f 8 t a b l e t s p e r d a y ( 2 ) L o p e r a m i d e ( I m o d i u m ) 4 m g f o l lo we d b y 2 m g a f t e r e a c h u n f o r m e d b o we l movement up to a maximum of 16 mg per day c . T e g a s e r o d ( Z e l n o r m ) i s a 5 HT 4 ag o n i s t f o r c on s t i p a t i o n p r e d o m i n a n t I B S i n wo m e n a n d i s o n l y a v a i l a b l e i n t h e U S A t h r o u g h a m a n u f a c t u r e r s p o n so r e d a c c e s s program. ( 1 ) A c c e s s in t h e U S v i a a m a n u f a c t u r e r a d m i n i s t e r e d p r o g r a m ( 2 ) I B S d o s i n g (w o m e n o n l y) i s 6 m g b y m o u t h t wi c e a d a y b e f o r e m e a l s ( 3 ) C h r o n i c c o n s t i p a t i o n d o s i n g i s 6 m g b y m o u t h t wi c e a d a y b e f o r e m e a l s d . A l o s e t r o n ( L o t r o n e x ) i s a 5 - HT 3 a n t a g o n i s t a v a i l a b l e i n t h e U n i t e d S t at e s t h r o u g h a manufacturer-sponsored access program; it is to be used only for diarrheap r e d o m i n a n t I B S i n wo m e n . T h e d o se f o r s e v e r e I B S i n w o me n o n l y i s 0. 5 - 1 m g b y m o u t h t wi c e a d a y. P.1161
e . L o w- d o s e t r i c yc l i c a n t i d e p r e s s a n t s ( T C As ) c an b e e f f e c t i ve f o r p a i n co n t r o l . T h e d o s a g e s t yp i c a l l y u s e d a r e b e l o w t h e e f f e c t i v e d o s e s u s e d f o r c l i n i c a l d e p r e s s i o n . T CA a l s o m a y s l o w G I t r a n s i t t i m e a n d b e u s e f u l i n d i a r r h e a - p r e d o m i n a t e p a t i e n t cases. f . L u b i p r o s t o n e ( A m i t i z a T M ) i s a c h lo r i d e c h a n n e l a c t i v a t o r in d i c a t e d f o r i d i o p a t h i c c o n s t i p a t i o n . T h e r e is l im i t e d d a t a on t h e u s e o f l u b r p r o s t o n e i n I B S - C b u t i t h a s b e e n u s e d i n c r e a s i n g l y s e c o n d a r i l y t o t h e s u s p en s i o n o f m a r k e t i n g o f t e ga s e r o d i n t h e U . S . m ar k e t . g . P o l ye t h yl e n e g l yc o l ( M i r a l a x ® a n d o t h e r s ) i s a l a xa t i v e s o l u t i o n t h a t i n c r e a s e s t h e a m o u n t o f wa t e r i n t h e in t e s t i n a l t r ac t t o st i m u l a t e b o we l m o v e m e n t s . P ot a s s i u m , s o d i u m , a n d o t h e r m i n e r a l s a r e a l s o i n c l u d e d t o r e p l a c e e l e c t r o l yt e s t h a t a r e p a s s e d f r o m t h e b o d y i n t h e s t o o l . P o l ye t h yl e n e g l yc o l i s a v a i l a b l e b y p r e s c r i p t i o n o r O T C a n d i s g e n e r a l l y c o n s i d e r e d t o b e v er y s a f e f o r co n s t i p a t i o n a n d m a y b e o f b e n e f i t t o I B S - C p a t i en t s . C a u t i o n s h o u l d b e u s e d i n s e v e r e l y c o n s t i p a t e d p a t i e n t s o r p a t i e n t s wh o m a y h a v e a n o b s t r uc t i o n . 4 . S e ve r e I B S i s a v e r y s m a l l p r o p o r t i o n o f t h e e n t i r e I B S p o p u l a t i o n . G I c o m p l a i n t s c a n b e r e f r ac t o r y a n d o f c o n t i n u o u s n a t u r e . P s yc h o s o c i a l a n d p s yc h i a t r i c comorbidities are common. a . A n t i d e p r e s s a n t s , i n c lu d i n g t h e s e l e c t i v e s e r o t o n i n r e u p t a k e i n h i b i t o r s , a r e o f t e n u s e f u l i n s e v e r e I B S p a t i e n t s o wi n g t o t h e i n c r ea s e i n p s yc h o s o c i a l c o m p o n e n t s t o patient presentation. b . A n x i o l yt i c d r u g s , i n c l u d i n g d i a z e p a m , a r e o c ca s i o n a l l y u s e d f o r I B S wh e n p a t i e n t s a r e e x p e r i e n c i n g a c u t e a n xi e t y t h a t i s wo r s e n i n g t h e i r s ym p t o m s . I n l i g ht o f t h e r i s k o f d e p e n d e n c y, t h e s e d r u g s s h o u l d b e t a k e n f o r o n l y s h o r t p e r i o d s o f t i m e .
III. COMPLICATIONS A. I B D 1 . U C a n d CD h a v e m a n y s i m i l a r p r e s e n t i n g f e a t u r e s a s we l l a s c o m m o na l i t i e s i n c o m p l i c a t i o n s . T h e m a j o r i t y o f U C p a t i e n t s wi l l h a v e a c h r on i c r e l a p s i n g d i s e a s e c o u r s e . L e n g t h o f d i s e a s e i s r e l a t e d t o r i sk o f co l e c t o m y a n d c o l o r e c t a l c a n c e r . M o r t a l i t y i s s i m i l a r t o r at e s i n n o n - U C p o p u l a t i o n s . C D m ay i m p o s e a s l i g h t i n c r e a s e i n m o r t a l i t y wi t h l o n g s t a n d i n g d i s e a s e . 2 . M u s c u l o s k e l e t a l m a n i f e s t a t i o n s o f I B D a r e t h e m o s t c om m o n e xt r a i n t e s t i n a l manifestations of the disease. a . A r t h r a l g i a s i n t h e a b s e n c e o f a r t hr i t i s s i g n s a r e t h e m o s t co m m o n c o m p l a i n t . b . B e t we e n 5 % a n d 2 0 % o f I B D p a t ie n t s e xp e r i e n c e p e r i p h e r a l a r t h r i t i s p a i n t h a t i s s e l f - l i m i t i n g a n d c o i n c i d e s wi t h I B D f l a r e s a n d r e s o l v e s wi t h s u c c e s s f u l t r e a t m e n t of I B D . O c c u r r e n c e i s n e a r l y e q u a l b e t we e n m a l e s a n d f e m a l e s . c . A n k yl o s i n g s p o n d y l i t i s i n I B D i s le s s c o m m o n , a t a p p r o xi m a t e l y 5 % , a n d i s e q u a l i n U C a n d C D . M a l e s a r e a f f e c t e d m o r e t h a n f em a l e s a n d t h e c o u r s e i s u s u a l l y n o t r e l a t e d t o t he c o u r s e o f I B D . 3 . C D f i s t u l a s a n d ab s c e s s . L o n g - s t a n d i n g i n f l a m m a t i o n m a y p r o g r e s s i n t o p e n e t r a t i n g d i s e a s e , a b s c e s s f o r m a t i o n , a n d f i st u l a f o r m a t io n . T h e s e pe n e t r a t i n g communications can be from diseased organ to neighboring organ, peritoneum, and s k i n . F i st u l a t yp e s i n c l u d e p e r i a n a l , e n t e r o e n t e r i c , e n t e r o c u t a n e o u s , e n t e r o v e s i c a l , and rectovaginal. 4 . H e m o r r h a g e i n t h e c o l o n i s r e l a t i v e l y r a r e i n U C b u t i s s er i o u s . A c u t e h e m o r r h a g e a c c o u n t s f or a s i g n i f i c an t p e r c e n t a g e o f u r g e n t c o l e c t o m i e s i n U C . S e v e r e b l e e d i n g t e n d s t o o c c u r e a r l y i n t h e c o u r s e o f d i s e a se . H e m o r r h a g e i n C D i s extremely rare. 5 . S t r i c t u r e s o r n a r r o wi n g o f t h e c o lo n o r r e c t um o c c u r s i n a s m a l l p e r c e n t a g e o f t h e U C p o p u l a t i o n . I t i s im p o r t a n t t ha t n e a r l y o n e t h i r d o f s u c h s t r i ct u r e s m a y b e related to malignancy and so should be carefully evaluated. 6 . T o x i c m eg a c o l o n i s a s e r i o u s c o m p l i c a t i o n m a i n l y s e e n i n U C b u t oc c a s i o n a l l y i n C D a s we l l . I t o c c u r s wh e n t h e i n f l a m m a t o r y p r o c e s s c a u s e s t h e c o l o n t o d i l a t e , wi t h s u b s e q u e n t b o we l wa l l t h i n n i n g . T h is r e s u l t s i n t h e b o we l b e c o m i n g m o r e f r a g i l e . T h e m a j o r r is k i s b o we l p e r f o r a t i o n . B o we l d i l a t i o n t h a t d o e s n o t r e s p o n d t o t h e r a p y wi t h i n 7 2 h r i s c o n s i d e r e d a n i n d i c a t i o n f o r s u r g ic a l r e s e c t i o n . P.1162
7 . C a n c e r . O v e r a l l , U C p a t i e n t s a r e a t h i g h e r r is k o f d e v e l o p i n g c o l o r e c t a l c a n c e r c o m p a r e d t o p a t i e n t s wi t h o u t I B D . T h e r i s k t o i n d i v i d u a l s i s v a r i a b l e a n d i s r e l a t e d t o d u r a t i o n a n d e xt e n t o f U C a s we l l a s p a t i e n t - sp e c i f i c r i s k f a c t o r s . R i s k i s g r e a t e s t i n p a t i e n t s wi t h p a n c o l i t i s o f l o n g - s t a n d i n g d u r a t i o n . C o l o r e c t a l c a n c e r i s a l s o a r i sk i n C D p a t i e n t s , e s p e c i a l l y i f i t i s C D i n v o l v i n g t h e c o l o n . R i s k o f c a n c e r o f t h e sm a l l i n t e s t i n e h a s b e e n n o t e d i n C D a s we l l .
8 . P r i m a r y s c l e r o s i n g c h o l an g i t i s ( P S C ) i s t h e m o s t c o m m o n h e p a t o b i l i a r y c o m p l i c a t i o n o f I B D . P SC a f f e c t s m e n m o r e t h a n wo m a n . P S C i s m o r e c o m m o n i n UC than in CD. 9 . O s t e o p o r o s i s a s e v i de n c e d b y i n c r e a s e d f r a ct u r e s a n d d i m i n i s h e d b o n e d e n s i t y h a s b e e n s h o wn i n C D p a t i e n t s . 1 0 . Q u a l i t y o f l i f e. W h i l e m o s t I B D p a t i e n t s a r e a b l e t o l e a d n e a r l y n o r m a l l i v e s , m a n y d o s u f f e r s i g n i f i c an t l y d u r i n g a c t i v e f l a r e s o f d i s e a s e . T h e c h r o n i c n a t u r e o f d i s e a s e a l s o h a s a n e g a t i v e e f f e ct o n p a t i e n t Q O L . B . I B S. A lt ho u g h I B S h a s b e e n s h o wn t o p r o d u c e s u b s t a n t i a l p h ys i c a l d i s c o m f o r t a n d e m o t i o n a l d i s t r e s s , m o s t p a t i e n t s wi t h I B S do n o t d e v e l o p s e r i o u s o r l o n g - t e r m h e a l t h c o m p l i c a t i o n s . M o s t p a t i e n t s l e a r n t o c o n t r o l t h e i r i n di v i d u a l s ym p t o m s wi t h d i e t a n d l i f e s t yl e m o d i f i c a t i o n o r m ed i c a l t h e r a p y a s n e e d e d . P.1163
STUDY QUESTIONS D i r e c t i o n s : E a c h o f t h e q u e s t i o n s , st a t e m e n t s , or i n c o m p l e t e s t a t e m e n t s i n t h i s s e c t i o n c a n b e c o r r e c t l y a n s we r e d o r c o m p l e t e d b y o n e o f t he s u g g e s t e d a n s we r s o r p h r a s e s . C h o o s e t h e b es t a n s we r . F o r q u e s t i o n s 1 - 2 : A 35 - ye a r - o l d m a l e p r e s e n t s t o h i s p h ys i c i a n wi t h t h e p r i m a r y c o m p l a i n t s o f a b d o m i n a l p a i n a n d f r e q u e n t b o we l m o v e m e n t s o v e r t h e p a s t f e w we e k s . U p o n e xa m i n a t i o n a n d r o u t i n e l a b o r a t o r y t e s t i n g , h e i s f o u n d t o h a v e a l o wg r a d e f e v e r a n d a n e l e v a t e d e r yt h r o c yt e s e d i m e n t a t i o n r a t e ( E S R ) . F u r t h e r q u e s t i o n i n g r e v e a l s h e i s h a v i n g f o u r t o f i v e l o os e b o we l m o v e m e n t s e a c h d a y. T h e p a t i e n t i s a p a s t s m o k e r . St o o l a n t i g e n t e s t s a r e n e g a t i v e f o r k n o wn g a s t r o i n t e s t i n a l ( G I ) p a t h o g e n s . P h ys i c a l e xa m i n a t i o n a n d c o l o n o s c o p y r e v e a l c o n t i g u o u s a r e a s o f i n f l a m m a t i o n o f t h e r e c t u m a n d m o s t o f t h e d e s ce n d i n g c o l o n . T h e p h ys i c i a n diagnoses moderately severe ulcerative colitis. 1 . W h i ch t h e r a p y w o u l d b e t h e m o s t e f f e c t i ve f o r i n d u c i n g r e m i s s i o n ? (A) topical corticosteroids ( B ) t o p i c a l 5 - a m i n o s a l i c yl i c a c i d ( 5 - A S A ) (C) oral budesonide ( D ) t o p i c a l 5- A S A p l u s or a l 5 - A S A V i e w A n s we r 1 . T h e co r r e c t a n s w e r i s D [ s e e] . 2 . O n c e r e m i s s i o n i s a c h i e ve d , w h i c h t h e r a p y i s m o s t ap p r o p r i a t e f o r m a i n t e n a n c e ? ( A ) s u l f a s a la z i n e 2 g p e r d a y (B) balsalazide 2 g per day (C) olsalazine 4 g per day (D) topical corticosteroids V i e w A n s we r 2 . T h e co r r e c t a n s w e r i s A [ s e e] . F o r q u e s t i o n s 3 - 4 : A n 1 8y e a r - o l d f e m a l e wi t h m i l d C r o h n ' s d i s e a s e wh o i s b e i n g t r e a t e d wi t h o r a l s u l f a s a l a z i n e 4 g p e r d a y p r e s e n t s t o h e r p h ys i c i a n b e c a u s e h e r s ym p t o m s h a v e r e t u r n e d . S he i s a m b u l a t o r y wi t h n o s i g n s o f t o xi c i t y o r we i g h t l o s s . H e r d i s e a s e i s mainly of the ileum.
3 . W h a t w ou l d b e a l o g i c a l n e x t s t e p i n t h e r a p y? ( A ) i n t r a v e no u s c o r t i c o st e r o i d s (B) budesonide 9 mg per day (C) prednisone 40 mg orally per day (D) azathioprine 1 mg/kg per day V i e w A n s we r 3 . T h e co r r e c t a n s w e r i s B [ s e e] . 4 . T h e p a t i e n t f a i l s t h i s n e x t t h e r a p y a n d i s d e t e r mi n e d t o b e re f r a c t o r y. H e r s ym p t o m s a r e i n c r e a s i n g an d h e r s c h o o l i n g i s b e g i n n i n g t o s u f f e r . S h e i s al s o n o t e d t o h a ve b e e n i n t o l e r a n t o f a t r i a l o f 2 . 5 m g / k g d a y o f 6 - m e r c a p t o p u r i n e ( 6 - M P ) t h e r a p y. W h a t w o u l d b e a l o g i c a l n e x t s t e p i n t h e r a p y? (A) azathioprine 1mg/kg per day ( B ) m et r o n i d a z o l e 7 5 0 m g p e r d a y ( C ) s u r g i c a l r e s e c t i o n wi t h o s t o m y ( D ) i n f l i xi m a b 5 m g / k g at 0 , 2 , a n d 6 we e k s V i e w A n s we r 4 . T h e co r r e c t a n s w e r i s D [ s e e] . F o r q u e s t i o n 5 : A m a n wi t h d i a r r h e a - p r e d o m i n a n t I B S i s e x p e r i e n c i n g i n t e r r u p t i o n o f h i s wo r k a s a t r u c k d r i v e r b e c a u s e o f f r e q u e n t b o u t s o f d i a r r h e a . H e s t at e s h i s s ym p t o m s a r e wo r s e a f t e r e a t i n g , e s p e c i a l l y f r i e d f o o d s . H i s ph ys i c i a n d i s c u s s e s t h e p o s s i b l e b e n e f i t o f avoiding fat in his diet. The patient agrees to try but also asks for something to use in emergencies. 5 . W h a t w ou l d b e t h e m o s t a p p r o p r i a t e t h e r a p y t o u s e ? ( A ) a l o s e t r on 0 . 5 m g t wi c e a d a y ( B ) h yo s c ya m i n e 0 . 1 5 m g b y m o u t h a s n e e d e d ( C ) l o p e r a m i d e 4 m g t h en 2 m g a s ne e d e d u p t o 1 6 m g p e r d a y (D) fluoxetine 40 mg every day V i e w A n s we r 5 . T h e co r r e c t a n s w e r i s C [ s e e] . 6 . W h i c h i s m o s t a p p r o p ri a t e f o r a w o m an w i t h co n st i p a t i o n - p r e d o m i n a n t I B S ? (A) a restrictive bland diet ( B ) t e g a s e r o d 6 m g b y m o u t h t wi c e a d a y ( C ) a l o s e t r on 1 m g b y m o u t h t wi c e a d a y (D) excess dietary fiber V i e w A n s we r 6 . T h e co r r e c t a n s w e r i s B [ s e e] . 7 . P a t i e n t s w it h u l c e r a t i ve c o l i t i s an d C r o h n ' s d i se a s e p r e s e n t i n s i m i l ar w a ys . T h er e a r e s e ve r a l c l i n i c a l d i f f e r e n c e s b e tw e en t h e d i s e a s e s t h a t c a n h el p d i f f e r e n t i a t e t h e m . W h i c h o f t h e f o l l ow i n g c l i n i c a l f e a t u r e s i s m o r e c o m m o n i n C r o h n ' s d i s e a s e t h a n i n u l c e r a t i ve c o l i t i s? ( A ) a b n o r m a l b o we l m o v e m e n t s (B) slow onset of disease (C) joint pain (D) fistula formation V i e w A n s we r 7 . T h e co r r e c t a n s w e r i s D [ s e e] . P . 1 1 6 4
ANSWERS AND EXPLANATIONS
1 . T h e c o r re c t a n sw e r i s D [ s e e I I . B . 2 ] . T o p i c a l 5 - AS A t h e r a p y p l u s o r a l 5 - A S A t h e r a p y h a s b e e n s h o wn t o b e s u p e r i o r t o e i t h e r a l o n e o r t o p i c a l st e r o i d s a t i nd u c i n g r e m i s s i o n i n m i l d t o m o d e r a t e U C . B u d e s o n i d e i l e a l r e l e a s e wi l l n o t l i k e l y r e a c h t h e s i t e o f d i s e as e i n t h i s p at i e n t because he has left-sided disease. 2 . T h e c o r re c t a n sw e r i s A [ s e e I I . B . 3 ] . T h e c o r r e c t d o s e f o r b a l s a l a z i d e i s 3 - 6 g p e r d a y a n d f o r o l s a l a z i n e i s 1 g p e r d a y. T o p i c a l st e r o i d s h a v e n o p l a c e i n m a i n t e n a n c e o f U C . 3 . T h e c o r re c t a n sw e r i s B [ s e e I I . C . 1 ] . T h i s p a t i e n t h a s n o t r e s po n d e d t o 5 - A S A t h e r a p y f o r i n d u c i n g r e m i s s i o n o f h e r m i l d d i s e a s e . T h e p a t i e n t i s n o t s h o wi n g s i g n s o f s e v e r e d i s e a s e o r t o xi c i t y a n d a s s u c h n e i t h e r i n t r a v e n o u s n o r o r a l t h e r a p y wi t h s ys t e m i c c o r t i c o st e r o i d s i s wa r r a n t e d a t t h i s t i m e. A d o s e o f 1 m g / k g p e r d a y o f a z a t h i o p r i n e i s b e l o w t h e r e c o m m e n d e d d o s e f o r i n d u c i n g r e m i s s i o n . Az a t h i o p r i n e a l s o m a y t a k e s e v e r a l m o n t h s t o i nd u c e r e m i s s i o n . Bu d e s o n i d e i s a n i l e a l - r e l e a s e t h e r a p y, a n d h e r d i s e a s e i s m a i n l y c o n f i n e d t o t h a t a r e a . B ud e s o n i d e h a s b e e n s h o wn t o b e e f f e c t i v e i n m i l d a n d moderate CD. 4 . T h e c o r re c t a n sw e r i s D [ s e e I I . C . 2 ] . T h i s p a t i e n t i s i n t o l e r a n t t o a z a t h i o p r i n e a n d i t s h o u l d n o t b e u s e d . B r o ad - s p e c t r u m a n t i b i o t i c s a r e u n l i k e l y t o b e o f a n y b e n e f i t i n t hi s p a t i e n t a n d s h o u l d n o t b e u s e d . W h i l e l i k e l y t o b e b e n e f i c i a l , s u r g e r y wi t h a p e r m a n e n t o s t o m y wo u l d a l s o b e s e v e r e l y l i m i t i n g t o a yo u n g p a t i e n t b e c a u s e o f s o c i a l a n d Q O L c o n c e r n s . I nf l i xi m a b h a s b e e n s h o wn t o b e e f f e c t i v e f o r r e f r a c t o r y C D . 5 . T h e c o r re c t a n sw e r i s C [ s e e I I . D . 3 ] . This patient is male and as such alosetron is not an appropriate option for him. H yo s c y a m i n e i s a n e f f e ct i v e a n t i s p a s m o d i c b u t wi l l l i k e l y d o l i t t l e f o r h i s d i a r r h e a . T h e p a t i e n t m a k e s n o co m p l a i n t o f s e r i o u s e f f ec t o n h i s l if e a n d d o e s n o t s h o w s i g n s o f s e v e r e d i s e a s e . F u l l - d o s e a n t i d e p r e s s a n t f l u o xe t i n e d o s i n g i s n o t wa r r a n t e d . L o p e r a m i d e c a n b e o f u se i n m a n a g i n g m i l d t o m o d e r a t e s ym p t o m s o f IBS. 6 . T h e c o r re c t a n sw e r i s B [ s e e I I . D . 3 ] . T e g a s e r o d 6 m g b y m o u t h t wi c e a d a y wi t h m e a l s i s a p p r o p r i a t e a n d e f f ec t i v e t h e r a p y f o r wo m e n s u f f e r i n g f r o m co n s t i p a t i o n - p r e d o m i n a n t I B S. A l o s e t r o n i s e f f e c t i v e i n wo m e n wi t h d i a r r h e a - p r e d o m i n a n t I B S . R e s t r i c t i ve d i e t s a r e n o t n o r m a l l y o f b e n e f i t , a n d e xc e s s d i e t a r y f i b e r c a n i n c r e a s e I B S s ym p t o m s . 7 . T h e c o r re c t a n sw e r i s D [ s e e I . B . 1 ] . W h i l e t h e o ve r l a p o f c l i n i c a l p r e s e n t a t i o n o f t h e s e t wo d i s e a s e s i s s u b s t an t i a l , f i s t u l a f o r m a t i o n i s e xt r e m e l y r a r e i n u l c e r a t i v e c o l i t i s .
54 Diabetes Mellitus P e g g y C . Ya r b o r o u g h
I. INTRODUCTION A. D e f i n i t i o n . D i a b e t e s m e l l i t u s ( D M ) i s a c h r o n i c , p r o g r e s s iv e , s ys t e m i c d i s e a s e c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y d ys f u n c t i o n i n t h e f o l lo wi n g : 1 . M e t a b o l i s m o f f a t s, c a r b o h y d r a t e s , p r o t e i n , a n d i n s u l i n 2. Function and structure of blood vessels and nerves B . C l a s s i f i c a t i o n . T h e r e a r e f o u r c l i n i c a l c l a s s e s o f d i a b e t e s : t yp e 1 , t yp e 2 , g e s t a t i o n a l d i a b e t e s m e l l i t u s ( G DM ) , a n d o t he r s p e c i f i c t yp e s ( s e c o n d a r y D M ) . A lt h o u g h n o t a t yp e o f d i a b e t e s , p r e d i a b e t e s i s i n c l u d e d wi t h t h e classification of glucose abnormalities. 1 . T yp e 1 . Pr e v i o u s l y d e s c r i b e d a s i n s u l i n - d e p e n d e n t d i a b e t e s m e l l i t u s ( I D D M ) , j u v e n i l e o n s e t d i a b e t e s , o r ke t o s i s - p r o n e d i a b e t e s . Re s u l t s f r o m β cell destruction, usually leading to absolute deficiency of insulin secretion. β c e l l d e s t r uc t i o n m a y b e f r o m i m m u n e o r n o n i m m u n e f a c t o r s . a . M o s t c o m m o n i n c h i l d r e n a n d i n a d u l t s < 3 0 ye a r s o l d , b u t m a y o c c u r a t any age b . I m m u n e m e d i a t e d . M o r e t h a n 9 0 % o f t yp e 1 i s i m m u n e m e d i a t e d . ( 1 ) M a r k e r s o f i m m u n e de s t r u c t i o n o f β c e l l s a r e p r e s e n t . A l so r e l a t e d t o e n v i r o n m e n t a l f a c t o r s t ha t a r e st i l l p o o r l y d e f i n e d . ( 2 ) P r e d i s p o s e d t o k e t o a c i d o s i s, ac c u m u l a t i o n o f k et o n e b o d i e s i n b o d y t i s s u e s a n d f l u i d s ( s e e I I . B. 1 ) . (3) Depends on exogenous insulin-replacement therapy to prevent ketoacidosis and sustain life. ( 4 ) P a t i e n t s a r e a l s o p r o n e t o o t h e r a u t o i m m u n e d i so r d e r s — f o r e xa m p l e , G r a v e s d i s ea s e , H a s h i m o t o t h yr o i d i t i s , A d d i s o n d i s e a s e , v i t il i g o , c e l i a c s p r u e , a u t o i m m u n e h e p a t i t i s , m ya s t h e n i a g r a v i s , a n d p e r n i c i o u s a n e m i a . ( 5 ) R a t e o f β c e l l d e s t r uc t i o n i s v a r ia b l e ; r a p i d i n s o m e ( m a in l y i n f a n t s a n d children) and slow in others (mainly adults) ( 6 ) L a t e n t au t o i m m u n e d i a b e t e s i n a d u l t s ( L AD A) , a l s o d e s c r i b e d a s t yp e 1 . 5 d i a b e t e s , s l o wl y p r o g r e s s i v e t yp e 1 d i a b e t e s , l a t e n t t yp e 1 d i a b e t e s , y o u t h - o n s e t d i a b e t e s o f m a t u r i t y, a n d L A D A - t yp e 1 a n d L A D A - t yp e 2 . G o o d g l yc e m i c c o n t r o l m a y b e m a i n t a i n e d f o r s e v e r a l ye a r s wi t h s u l f o n yl u r e a s , but patient eventually becomes insulin dependent. c . I d i o p a t h i c t yp e 1 d i ab e t e s . N o kn o wn c a u s e ; < 1 0 % o f t yp e 1 i s idiopathic. (1) Strongly inherited, lacks immunological evidence for β cell a u t o i m m u n i t y, a n d i s n o t h u m a n l e u k o c yt e a n t i g e n ( H L A ) a s so c i a t e d . (2) May have permanent insulinopenia and be prone to ketoacidosis. ( 3 ) O r m a y h a v e e p i s o d i c k e t o a c i d o s i s a n d e xh i b i t s o m e d e g r e e o f i n s u l i n d e f i c i e n c y b e t we e n e p i s o d e s . A n a b s o l u t e r e q u i r e m e n t f o r i n s u l i n replacement therapy may come and go. ( 4 ) M o s t a r e o f Af r i c a n or A s i a n a n ce s t r y
d . T h e e s s en t i a l d i f f e r e n c e b e t we e n t yp e 1 a n d t yp e 2 D M i s t h a t i n s u l i n p r o d u c t i o n a n d s e c r e t i o n i n t yp e 1 i s d e s t r o ye d ; i n t yp e 2 D M , i n s u l i n production and secretion may be altered or reduced but is not totally lacking. 2 . T yp e 2 . Pr e v i o u s l y d e s c r i b e d a s n o n - i n s u l i n - d e p e n d e n t d i a b e t e s m e l l i t u s (NIDDM) or adultonset diabetes. Results from a progressive insulin secretory defect on the background of insulin resistance. a . A p p r o x i m a t e l y 9 0 % o f i n d i v i d u a l s wi t h d i a b e t e s i n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s ha v e t y p e 2 d i a b e t e s , wi t h a d i s p r o p o r t i o n a t e r e p r e s e n t a t i o n a m o n g c e r t a i n e t h n i c g r o u p s a n d t h e e l d e r l y. b . M a y p r e s e n t a s p r e d o m i n a n t l y i n s u l i n r e s i s t a n c e wi t h r e l a t i v e i n s u l i n d e f i c i e n c y t o p r e d o m i n a n t l y a n i n s u l i n s e c r e t o r y d e f e c t wi t h i n s u l i n resistance. P.1166
c . M o s t p a t ie n t s a r e o b e s e a t d i a g n o s i s ( a p p r o x i m a t e l y 8 0 % ) , e i t h e r b y t r a d i t i o n a l we i g h t c r i t e r ia o r b y i n c r e a s e d p e r c e n t a g e o f b o d y f a t d i s t r ib u t e d predominantly in the abdominal region. d . U s u a l l y d i a g n o s e d i n a d u l t s > 3 0 ye a r s o l d , b u t m a y o c c u r a t a n y a g e . T h e i n c i d e n c e o f t yp e 2 D M i n a d o l e s c e n t s i s i n c r e a s i n g , a p p a r e n t l y r e l a t e d to an increasing incidence of obesity in this age group, decreasing e x e r c i s e / p h ys i c a l a c t i v i t y, a n d g e n e t i c a n d o t h e r l i f e s t yl e f a c t o r s . e . I n s u l i n r es i s t a n c e m ay i m p r o v e b y i n t e r v e n t i o n s ( we i g h t l o s s , e xe r c i s e , medications), but seldom returns to normal. f. Endogenous insulin levels may appear normal, increased, or decreased, and the requirement for exogenous insulin is variable. Despite apparently “ n o r m a l ” o r “ i n c r e a s e d ” i n s u l i n l e v e l s , β c e l l d ys f u n c t i o n i s m a n i f e s t b y a r e l a t i v e i n s u l i n i n s u f f i c i e n c y t o m a i n t a i n e u g l yc e m i a , e s p e c i a l l y i n t h e f a c e of significant insulin resistance. g . D i m i n i sh e d i n c r e t i n e f f e c t s d e v e l o p e a r l y o r l a t e r i n t o t h e d i s e a s e h . N o t p r o ne t o k e t o s i s e x c e p t d u r i n g p e r i o d s o f s e v e r e p h ys i c a l s t r e s s s u c h a s i n f e c t i o n s , t r a u m a , or s u r g e r y. 3 . G e s t a t i o n a l d i ab e t e s m e l l i t u s . D e f i n e d a s a n y d e g r e e o f g l u c o s e i n t o l e r a n c e t h a t h a s i t s o n s e t o r i s f i r s t d e t e ct e d d u r i n g p r e g n a n c y. a . O c c u r s i n 2 % - 4 % o f pr e g n a n t wo m e n , g e n e r a l l y d u r i n g t h e s e c o n d o r third trimester. b . A f o l l o w- u p g l u c o s e t o l e r a n c e t e s t s h o u l d b e p e r f o r m e d a t 6 we e k s a f t e r p r e g n a n c y. G l u c o s e r e g u l a t i o n wo u l d t h e n b e r e c l a s s i f i e d a s D M , i m p a i r e d f a s t i n g g l u c o s e ( I F G ) , im p a i r e d g l u c o s e t o l e r a n c e ( I G T ) , o r n o r m o g l yc e m i a . In the majority of cases, glucose regulation returns to normal p o s t p r e g n a n c y. c . O c c u r r e n c e o f G D M in c r e a s e s f u t u r e r i s k f o r d e v e l o p i n g t yp e 2 d i a b e t e s .
4 . O t h e r s p e c i f i c t yp e s ( s e c o n d a r y d i a b e t e s ) . Br o a d t e r m us e d t o c l a s si f y p a t i e n t s wh o h a v e u n u s u a l c a u s e s o f d i a b e t e s o wi n g t o c e r t a i n d i s e a s e s o f t h e p a n c r e a s , g e n e t i c de f e c t s , e n d o c r i n o p a t h i e s , o r d r u g s. 5 . P r e d i ab e t e s . T e r m us e d t o r e f e r t o a n i n t e r m e d i a t e m e t a b o l i c s t a g e b e t we e n n o r m a l g l u c o s e h o m e o s t a s i s a n d d i a b e t e s . P r e d i a b e t e s i s a r i sk factor for future DM and cardiovascular disease (CVD). C. Diabetes demographics and statistics 1 . I n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s, a n e s t i m a t e d 6 . 3 % o f t he p o p u l a t i o n h a s D M , a n d nearly half as many individuals remain undiagnosed. 2 . T yp e 1 D M a c c o u n t s f o r a p p r o x i m a t e l y 1 0 % o f c a s e s a nd t yp e 2 f o r a b o u t 90% 3 . D M i s l i s t e d a s t h e s i x t h l e a d i n g c a u s e o f d ea t h i n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s; 1 b u t i t l i k e l y c o n t r i b u t e s t o o t h e r s i g n i f i c a n t c a u s es , s u c h a s he a r t d i s e a s e ( n u m b e r o n e c a u s e o f de a t h ) , c e r e br o v a s c u l a r d i s e a s e s ( n u m b e r t h r e e ) , a n d kidney disease (number nine). D . C a u s e . Va r i o u s f a c t or s c o n t r i b u t e t o t h e d e ve l o p m e n t o f D M . 1 . T yp e 1 DM . G e n e t i c p r e d i s p o s i t i o n , e n v i r o n m e n t a l f a c t or s , a n d autoimmunity have been proposed. a . G en e t i c s . C e r t a i n g en e t i c m a r k e r s i n t h e H L A s ys t e m h a v e b e e n s t r o n g l y l i n k e d wi t h t yp e 1 D M , a n d t h e r i s k of d e v e l o p i n g d i a b e t e s i s s u b s t a n t i a l l y i n c r e a s e d i n t h e o f f s p r i n g o f i n d i v i d u a l s d i a g n o s e d wi t h d i a b e t e s . b . E n vi r o n m e n t . N o t al l i n d i v i d u a l s a t g e n e t i c r i s k f o r t yp e 1 D M d e v e lo p t h e d i s e a s e . S o m e t yp e o f t r i g g e r , su c h a s a v i r u s ( e . g . , r u be l l a ) o r t o xi c c h e m i c a l , i s n e e d e d f o r t h e e xp r e s s i o n o f t h e g en e t i c p r o p e n s i t y f o r t yp e 1 DM. c . Au t o i m m u n i t y. A n au t o i m m u n e c o m p o n e n t , p e r h a p s s t i m u l a t e d b y t h e e n v i r o n m e n t a l t r i g g e r , i s i n v o l v e d i n t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f t yp e 1 d i a b e t e s . A n t i - i n s u l i n o r a n t i - β c e ll a n t i b o d i e s a r e p r e s e n t i n t h e b l o o d o f m o s t i n d i v i d u a l s a t t h e t i m e o f d i a g n o s i s o f t yp e 1 D M . P.1167
2 . T yp e 2 DM . G e n e t i c f a c t o r s , a β c e l l d e f e c t , a n d p e r i p h e r a l s i t e d e f ec t s have been implicated. a . G en e t i c s . T h e r e is a g r e a t e r t h a n 9 0 % c o n c o r d a n c e r a t e b e t we e n m o n o z yg o t i c t wi n s i f o n e h a s t yp e 2 d i a b e t e s . I t h a s b e e n e s t i m a t e d t h a t o f f s p r i n g o f i n d i v i d u a l s wi t h t yp e 2 d i a b e t e s h a v e a p p r o xi m a t e l y a 1 5 % chance of developing the disease. b . D i m i n i s h e d β c e l l f u n c t i o n i s p o s t u l a t e d t o c au s e a b n o r m a l i t i e s i n insulin secretion, resulting in a relative deficiency of insulin. c. A peripheral site defect is postulated to lead to insulin resistance (tissue insensitivity to the biological activity of insulin). This condition is thought to result primarily from postbinding abnormalities. 3 . S e c o n d ar y d i a b e t e s m a y a r i s e f r o m s u c h c on d i t i o n s a s e n d o c r i n e d i s o r d e r s ( e . g . , C u s h i n g s yn d r o m e ) , p a n c r e a t i c d i s e a s e , a n d t h e u s e o f
d r u g s t h a t an t a g o n i z e i n s u l i n ( e . g . , t h i a z i d e d i u r e t i c s , adrenocorticosteroids).
II. PATHOPHYSIOLOGY OF THE DIABETIC STATE A. N o r m a l g l u c o s e r e g u l a t i o n r e q u i r e s t h e i n t r ic a t e b a l a n c e o f i n s u l i n , c o u n t e r r e g u l a t o r y h o r m o n e s , i n t e s t in a l i n c r e t i n s , a n d a m yl i n h o r m o n e . A l t e r a t i o n s in t h e s e k e y c o m p o n e n t s f o r m t h e b as i s f o r m e d i c a t i o n s e l e c t i o n f o r t h e d i a be t i c s t at e . 1 . I n s u l i n i s r e s p o n s i b l e f o r a v a r i e t y o f e f f e ct s t h r o u g h o u t b o d y t i s s u e s . a . S t i m u l a t es g l u co s e t ra n s p o r t a c r o s s c e l l m em b r a n e s a n d p r o m o t e s t h e s t o r a g e o f gl u c o s e a s g l yc o g e n i n m u s c l e a n d l i v e r c e l l s b . E n h a n c e s f a t s t o r a g e ( l i p o g e n e s i s ) a n d p r e v e n t s t h e m ob i l i z a t i o n o f f a t f o r e n e r g y ( l i p o l ys i s a n d k e t o g e n es i s ) c . I n h i b i t s pr o d u c t i o n o f g l u c o s e f r om l i v e r o r m u s c l e g l yc o g e n ( g l yc o g e n o l y s i s ) d. Promotes incorporation of amino acids into proteins e . I n h i b i t s t h e f o r m a t i on o f g l u c o s e f r o m a m i n o a c i d s ( g l u co n e o g e n e s i s ) f . D e c r e a s e s t h e b r e a k d ow n o f f a t t y a c i d s t o k e t o n e b o d i e s 2 . C o u n t e r re g u l a t o r y h o r m o n e s a nt a g o n i z e t h e g l yc e m i c e f f e c t s o f i n s ul i n . a. Glucagon (produced in the α cells of the pancreas) b. Epinephrine c. Norepinephrine d . G r o wt h h o r m o n e e. Cortisol 3 . I n t e s t i n al h o r m o n e s , n o t a b l y g l u c a g o n - l i k e p e p t i d e 1 ( G L P - 1 ) a n d g l u c o s e - d ep e n d en t i n su l i n o t r o p i c p o l yp e p t i d e ( G I P ) , H o r m o n e s s e c r e t e d by the intestines, in response to ingestion of food, enhance the ability of orally administered glucose to stimulate pancreatic β cell secretion of insulin. a . T h e s e e f f e c t s a r e r e f e r r e d t o a s “ i n c r e t i n e f f ec t s . ” I n c r e t in s t a n d s f o r i n t e s t i n a l ( s t i m u l a t o r s f or ) s e c r e t i o n o f i n s u l i n . b. Incretins do not directly stimulate insulin secretion but instead enhance the ability of glucose to stimulate insulin secretion. c . P o s t p r a n d i a l s e c r e t i o n o f G L P - 1 i s d i m i n i sh e d i n D M . G L P - 1 a c t i o n s include ( 1 ) R e d u c e d r a t e o f g a s t r i c e m p t yi n g (2) Inhibited glucagon secretion by pancreatic α cells (3) Inhibited appetite ( 4 ) A l t e r e d β c e l l b i o s y n t h e s i s , r e su l t i n g i n i n c r e a s e d β c e l l m a s s a n d increased insulin secretory capacity d . G I P s e c r e t i o n i s n o r m a l o r i n c r ea s e d i n D M , b u t β c e l l r e s p o n s e i s d i m i n i sh e d . 4 . Am yl i n . A n e u r o h o r m o n e n o r m a l l y c o - s e c r e t e d wi t h i n s u l i n , b y p a n c r e a t i c β c e l l s i n r es p o n s e t o f oo d i n t a k e .
a . A m yl i n s e c r e t i o n i s d im i n i s h e d wh e n t h e r e i s β c e l l d e s t r uc t i o n o r d ys f u n c t i o n . b . A m yl i n l o w er s p o s t p r a n d i a l c o n c e n t r a t i o n s b y ( 1 ) S l o wi n g g a s t r i c e m p t y i n g o n i n g e s t i o n o f f o o d , t h u s r e d u c i n g t h e r a t e o f glucose influx into the bloodstream P.1168
(2) Suppressing nutrient-stimulated secretion of glucagon, thus reducing hepatic glucose output after meals ( 3 ) M o d u l a t i n g a p p e t i t e b y e n h a n c i n g s a t i e t y, r e s u l t i n g i n d e c r e a s e d f o o d intake B . Ab n o r m a l g l u c o s e re g u l a t i o n / h yp e r g l y c e m i c e m e r g e n c i e s a s s o c i a t e d wi t h d i a b e t e s . I n u n t r e a t e d t yp e 1 a n d t yp e 2 D M , t h e d i s e a se f o l l o ws a predictable progression from initial abnormalities of glucose metabolism to l i f e - t h r e a t e n i n g d i a b e t i c k e t o a c i d o s i s o r h yp e r g l y c e m i c h yp e r o s m o l a r n o n k e t o t i c sy n d r o m e . 1 . D i a b e t i c k e t o a c i d o si s ( D K A; t yp e 1 D M ) a . I n s u l i n d e f i c i e n c y r e s u l t s i n h yp e r g l yc e m i a . (1) Impaired glucose uptake in the peripheral tissues (primarily muscle) ( 2 ) R e d u c t i o n i n t h e c o n v e r s i o n o f g l u c o s e t o g l yc o g e n ( i m p a i r e d g l yc o g e n e s i s ) , p r i m a r i ly i n t h e l i v e r (3) Impaired insulin-induced suppression of hepatic glucose production ( n e o g l u c o g e n e s i s a n d g l yc o g e n o l y s i s ) b. As blood glucose (BG) concentrations increase, the glucose reabsorptive c a p a c i t y o f t h e k i d n e ys wi l l b e e x c e e d e d . T h i s oc c u r s a t a b o u t 1 8 0 m g / dL , r e f e r r e d t o as t h e r e n a l t h r e s h o l d f o r g l u c o s e . G l u c o s e i s t h e n e xc r e t e d i n t o t h e u r i n e , r e s u l t i n g i n a n o s m o t i c d i u r e s i s wi t h s u b s e q u e n t d e h yd r a t i o n a n d e l e c t ro l yt e a b n o r m a l i t i e s . c . I n s u f f i c i e n t g l u c o s e u p t a k e i n t h e p e r i p h e r a l t i s s u e s ( o wi n g t o i n s u l i n d e f i c i e n c y) c a u s e s t h e c e l l s t o u s e p r o t e i n a n d f a t a s e n e r g y s o u r c e s r a t h e r than glucose. d . B r e a k d o wn o f p r o t e i n yi e l d s c a r b o h yd r a t e / g l u c o s e m o i e t i e s , b u t wi t h i n s u f f i c i e n t in s u l i n , t h e a d d i t i o n a l g l u c o s e wo r s e n s h yp e r g l yc e m i a r a t h e r than serving as an energy source. e . B r e a k d o wn o f t r i g l yc e r i d e s ( t h e st o r e d f o r m o f f a t ) yi e l d s f r e e f a t t y a c i d s a n d g l yc e r o l t h r o u g h t he p r o c e s s o f l i p o l ys i s . W i t h o u t t h e a d m i n i s t r a t i o n o f i n s u l i n , t y p e 1 D M wi l l p r o g r e s s t o ke t o n e m i a a n d k e t o a c i d o s i s , a s d e s c r i b e d b e l o w: ( 1 ) I n c r e a s in g a m o u n t s o f g l yc e r o l l e a d s t o e n h a n c e d h e p a t i c g l u c o s e p r o d u c t i o n , f u r t h e r wo r s e n i n g h y p e r g l yc e m i a . ( 2 ) F r e e f a t t y a c i d s a r e b r o k e n d o wn i n t h e l i v e r i n t o k e t o n e b o d i e s , wh i c h a r e e x c r e t e d b y t h e k i d n e ys ( k e t o n u r i a ) . A c e t oa c e t a t e ( a ke t o n e b o d y) i s c o n v e r t e d i n t h e l i v e r t o a c e t o n e , wh i c h i s e xc r e t e d t h r o u g h t h e l u n g s . T hi s
i s a s s o c i a t e d wi t h a f r u i t y o d o r a n d c a n s o m e t i m e s b e d e t e c t e d o n t h e b r e a t h o f t he p a t i e n t . ( 3 ) A s t h e u t i l i z a t i o n ( b r e a k d o wn ) o f a d i p o s e t i s s u e c o n t i n u e s , k e t o n e p r o d u c t i o n e xc e e d s t h e c a p a c i t y f o r e xc r e t i o n , l e a d i n g t o a c c u m u l a t i o n i n the bloodstream (ketonemia). ( 4 ) I n c r e a s in g l e v e l s o f f r e e f a t t y a c i d s c o n t r i b u t e t o t h e d e ve l o p m e n t a n d wo r s e n i n g o f a c i d o s i s. ( 5 ) I n i t i a l l y, t h e r e i s c o m p e n s a t i o n f o r a c i d o s i s b y c h a n g e s i n b r e a t h i n g p a t t e r n s ( Ku s s m a u l b r e a t h i n g ) a n d b y b u f f e r i n g s ys t e m s o f t h e b l o o d ( e . g . , proteins, bicarbonate). ( 6 ) A s a c i d os i s c o n t i n u e s , b r e a t h i n g c o m p e n s a t i o n a n d b i c a r b o n a t e s t o r e s a r e i n s u f f i c ie n t o r d e p l e t e d . A s t at e o f k e t o s i s wi t h a c i d o s i s ( k e t o a c i d o si s ) then exists. ( 7 ) I f k et o a c i d o s i s i s n o t p r o m p t l y t r e a t e d b y i n s u l i n , c o m a a n d d e a t h wi l l e n s u e i n t yp e 1 D M . ( 8 ) T h e t o t a l l a c k o f i n s u l i n i n t y p e 1 D M i s a p r ed i s p o s i n g f a c t o r f o r D K A. P a t i e n t s wi t h t yp e 1 D M a r e d e s c r i b e d a s k e t o s i s p ro n e . 2 . H yp e r o s m o l a r h yp e r g l yc e m i c s t a t e ( H H S ) ( t yp e 2 D M ) a . I n s u l i n d e f i c i e n c y, o f t e n wi t h c o n c o m i t a n t i n su l i n r e s i s t a n c e , r e s u l t s in h yp e r g l yc e m i a (1) Impaired glucose uptake in the peripheral tissues (primarily muscle) ( 2 ) R e d u c t i o n i n t h e c o n v e r s i o n o f g l u c o s e t o g l yc o g e n ( i m p a i r e d g l yc o g e n e s i s ) , p r i m a r i ly i n t h e l i v e r (3) Impaired insulin-induced suppression of hepatic glucose production ( n e o g l u c o g e n e s i s a n d g l yc o g e n o l y s i s ) b . I n c r e a s i n g b l o o d g l u c o s e c o n c e n t r a t i o n s e xc e e d t h e g l u c o s e r e a b s o r p t i v e c a p a c i t y o f t h e k i d n e ys ( o c c u r s a t a bo u t 1 8 0 m g / d L , r e f e r r e d t o a s t h e r e n a l t h r e s h o l d f o r g l u co s e ) . G l u c o s e i s t h e n e xc r e t e d i n t o t h e u r i n e , r e s u l t i n g i n a n o s m o t i c d i u r e s i s wi t h s u b s e q u e n t d e h yd r a t i o n a n d e l e c t r o l yt e abnormalities. c . I n s u f f i c i e n t g l u c o s e u p t a k e i n t h e p e r i p h e r a l t i s s u e s ( o wi n g t o i n s u l i n deficiency and/or insulin resistance) causes the cells to use protein as e n e r g y s o u r c e s r a t h e r t h a n g l u c o s e . B r e a k d o wn o f p r o t e i n yi e l d s c a r b o h y d r a t e / g l u c o s e m o i e t i e s ; h o we v e r , wi t h P.1169 i n s u f f i c i e n t in s u l i n , t h e a d d i t i o n a l g l u c o s e wo r s e n s h yp e r g l yc e m i a r a t h e r than serving as an energy source. d . I n t yp e 2 D M , t h e p r e s e n c e o f e ve n m i n i m a l b l o o d l e v e l s o f e n d o g e n o u s i n s u l i n u s u a l l y p r e v e n t s t h e b r e a k d o wn o f f a t s an d s u b s e q u e n t k e t o n e m i a a n d k e t o a c i d o s i s . T h u s p a t i e n t s wi t h t yp e 2 D M a r e d e s c r i b e d a s k e t o s i s resistant. e. Although sufficient to suppress ketosis, endogenous insulin secretion in t y p e 2 D M i s i n s u f f i c i e nt f o r g l yc e m i c c o n t r o l . I f i n s u l i n i s n o t a d m i n i s t e r e d ,
p r o f o u n d d e h yd r a t i o n wi t h v e r y h i g h b l o o d g l u c o s e l e v e l s m a y o c c u r ; t h is s t a t e i s d e s c r i b e d a s H H S s yn d r o m e . C o m a a n d d e a t h m a y r e s u l t .
III. CLINICAL EVALUATION A. P h ys i c a l f i n d i n g s 1 . S ym p t o m s e ve r i t y a n d o n s e t h e lp d i f f e r e n t i a t e t yp e 1 f r o m t yp e 2 D M . a . T yp e 1 D M t yp i c a l l y p r e s e n t s wi t h a n a b r u p t o n s e t a n d a n a c u t e presentation. b . S ym p t o m s i n i n d i v i d u a l s wi t h t yp e 2 D M g e n e r a l l y d e v e l o p g r a d u a l l y , wi t h s o m e p a t i e n t s b e i n g a s ym p t o m a t i c or h a v i n g o n l y m i l d s ym p t o m s u p o n diagnosis. 2 . C l a s s i c si g n s a n d s ym p t o m s o f D M i n c l u d e p o l yd i p s i a ( e xc e s s i v e t h i r s t ) , p o l yu r i a ( e x c e s s i v e u r i n a t i o n ) , a n d p o l yp h a g i a ( e xc e s s i v e h u n g e r ) . O t h e r c o m m o n f i n d i n g s i n c l u d e d r y s k i n , f a t i g u e , we a k n e s s , f r e q u e n t s k in a n d v a g i n a l i n f e c t i o n s , we i g h t a l t e r a t i o n s , a n d v i s u a l d i s t u r b a n c e s . 3 . I n d i v i d u a l s wi t h t yp e 1 D M m a y a d d i t i o n a l l y p r e s e n t wi t h u n i n t e n t i o n a l we i g h t l o s s , wi t h o r wi t h o u t s i g n s a n d s ym p t o m s o f k et o a c i d o s i s . 4. Some of the progressive changes of long-standing DM may be evident at t h e t i m e of d i a g n o s i s o f t yp e 2 D M : d e t e r i o r a t i o n i n f u n c t i o n o r st r u c t u r e o f t h e r e t i n a , k i d n e y s , p e r i p h e r a l n e r v o u s s ys t e m , a n d i n t e g u m e n t a r y s ys t e m . B. Diagnostic testing or screening for prediabetes and diabetes2 1. Diabetes in nonpregnant adults a . T h e p r e f er r e d t e s t t o d i a g n o s e D M i n n o n p r e g n a n t a d u l t s i s t h e f a s t i ng p l a s m a g l u c o s e ( F PG ) . T h e 7 5 - g o r a l g l u c o s e t o l e r a n c e t e s t ( O G T T ) i s m o r e s e n s i t i v e a n d m o r e s p e ci f i c t h a n F PG , b u t O G T T i s r a r e l y p e r f o r m e d c o r r e c t l y i n t h e o u t p a t i e n t s e t t i n g . Be c a u s e o f e a s e o f p r o c es s , a c c e p t a b i l i t y t o p a t i e n t s , a n d l o we r c o s t , t h e F PG i s t h e p r e f e r r e d diagnostic tool. b. Three types of findings are accepted as the diagnosis of DM: ( 1 ) A r a n d o m ( c a s u a l ) pl a s m a g l u c o s e ( P G ) l e ve l > = 2 0 0 m g / d L wi t h c l a s s i c s ym p t o m s o f D M , i n c l u d i n g p o l yd i p s i a , p o l yu r i a , p o l yp h a g i a , a n d we i g h t l o s s . ( 2 ) F PG l e ve l > = 1 2 6 m g / d L . F a s t i n g = n o c a lo r i c i n t a k e f o r a t l e a s t 8 hours. ( 3 ) A 2 - h r p l a s m a g l u c o s e > = 2 0 0 mg / d L d u r i n g a n O G T T u si n g 7 5 g a n h y d r o u s g l u c o s e d i s s o l v e d i n wa t e r . c . I n t h e a b s e n c e o f u n e q u i v o c a l h yp e r g l yc e m i a wi t h a c u t e d e c o m p e n s a t i o n , t h e a b o v e c r i t e r i a s h o u l d b e c o n f i r me d w i t h r e p e a t t e s t i n g o n a d i f f e r en t d a y. d . N o t e t h a t t h e s e c r it e r i a d o n o t d i s t i n g u i s h b e t we e n t yp e 1 a n d t yp e 2 D M ; r a t h e r , t h e y o n l y i d e n t i f y t h e p r e s e n c e o f c l i n i ca l d i a b e t e s . 2 . G e s t a t i o n a l d i ab e t e s a . R i s k a s s es s m e n t f o r G D M s h o u l d b e u n d e r t a k e n a t t h e f i r s t p r e n a t a l vi s i t . M a r k ed o b e s i t y, p e r s o n a l h i s t o r y o f G D M , g l yc o s u r i a , d e l i v e r y o f a
p r e v i o u s l a r g e - f o r - g e s t a t i o n a g e i n f a n t , p o l yc ys t i c o v a r y s yn d r o m e , o r a s t r o n g f a m i ly h i s t o r y o f D M wo u l d c o n s t i t u t e a hi g h r i s k f o r G D M . b . H i g h - r i s k w o m en (1) Perform glucose testing as soon as possible ( 2 ) A F P G > 1 2 5 m g / d L o r c a s u a l PG > = 2 0 0 mg / d L , c o n f i r m e d o n a subsequent day P.1170 u n l e s s u n e q u i v o c a l s ym p t o m s o f h yp e r g l yc e m i a a r e p r e s e n t , c o n s t it u t e s a diagnosis of DM. ( 3 ) H i g h - r i s k wo m e n n o t f o u n d t o h a v e G D M at t h e i n i t i a l s c r e e n i n g s h o u l d b e t e s t e d b e tw e en 2 4 an d 2 8 w ee k s o f g e s t a t i on . T e st i n g sh o u l d f o l l o w o n e o f t wo a p p r o a c h e s : (a) One-step approach. Perform a diagnostic 100-g OGTT. ( b ) Tw o - s t ep a p p r o a c h ( i ) I n i t i a l s cr e e n i n g o f 5 0 - g o r a l g l u co s e l o a d ( g l u c o s e c h a l l e n g e t e s t ; G CT ) . A 1 - h r p l a s m a o r s e r u m g l u c o s e t h r e s h o l d v a l u e o f > = 1 4 0 m g / d L i d e n t i f i e s ~ 8 0 % o f G D M a n d > = 1 30 m g / d L i d e n t i f i e s 9 0 % o f G D M . ( i i ) P e r f o r m a d i a g n o s t i c 1 0 0 - g O G T T o n t h e s u b s e t o f wo m e n e xc e e d i n g t h e t h r e s h o l d v a l u e s f o r t h e G CT . D ia g n o s i s o f G D M m a y b e m a d e i f t wo v a l u e s e q u a l o r e x c e e d t h e f o l l o wi n g : {a} Fasting: 95 mg/dL { b } 1 h r : 1 80 m g / d L {c} 2 hr: 155 mg/dL { d } 3 h r : 1 40 m g / d L ( i i i ) A l t e r n a t i v e l y, a 7 5 - g t wo - h o u r g l u c o s e t o l e r a n c e t e s t m ay b e u s e d ; b u t t h a t t e s t i s n o t a s we l l v a l i d a t e d f o r d e t e c t i o n o f G D M . c . L ow - ri s k w o me n . R eq u i r e n o G D M s c r e e n i n g , b u t t h i s st a t u s i s l i m i t e d t o i n d i v i d u a l s m e e t i n g a l l o f t h e f o l l o wi n g c r i t e r i a : ( 1 ) Y o u n g e r t h a n 2 5 ye a r s o f a g e ( 2 ) N o r m a l bo d y we i g h t b e f o r e p r e g n a n c y (3)
Ethnic group with a low prevalence of GDM (e.g., n o t Hispanic, African
American, Asian, or Native American) ( 4 ) N o f i r s t - d e g r e e r e l a t i v e wi t h D M ( 5 ) N o h i s t or y o f p o o r o b s t e t r i c a l o u t c o m e 3 . T yp e 2 DM i n ch i l d r en a . G l u c o s e t e s t i n g s h o u l d b e p e r f o r m e d i n c h i l d r e n a t 1 0 ye a r s o f a g e o r a t o n s e t o f p u b e r t y ( i f p u b e r t y o c c u r s < 1 0 ye a r s o f a g e ) wh o e xh i b i t t h e f o l l o wi n g r i s k f a c t o r s f o r D M : ( 1 ) O ve rw e i g h t , d e f i n e d a s : b o d y m a s s i n d e x ( B M I ) > 8 5 t h p e r c e n t i l e f o r a g e a n d s e x , we i g h t f o r h e i g h t > 8 5 t h p e r c e n t i l e , o r we i g h t > 1 2 0 % o f i d e a l for height. ( 2 ) P l u s a n y t wo o f t h e f o l l o wi n g : (a) Family history of type 2 DM in first- or second-degree relative
( b ) R a c e / et h n i c i t y ( N a t i v e A m e r i c a n , Af r i c a n A m e r i c a n , L a t i n o , A s i a n A m e r i c a n , or P a c i f i c I s la n d e r ) ( c ) S i g n s o f i n s u l i n r e s i s t a n c e o r c o nd i t i o n s a s s o c i a t e d wi t h i n s u l i n r e s i s t a n c e — f o r e xa m p l e , a c a n t h o s i s n i g r i c a n s , h yp e r t e n s i o n , d ys l i p i d e m i a , p o l yc y s t i c o v a r y s yn d r o m e ( P C O S ) (d) Maternal history of DM or GDM b. Diagnostic criteria for DM are the same as listed for nonpregnant adults ( s e e I I I . A. 2 ) . c . F PG i s t he p r e f e r r e d t e s t f o r c h i l d r e n b e c a u s e o f it s e a s e o f t e st i n g a n d r e p r o d u c i b i l i t y. d . R e p e a t eve r y 2 y e a r s i f t e s t i n g is n e g a t i v e f o r D M . 4 . S c r e e n i n g f o r D M o r p r e d i a b e t es i n a s ym p t o m a t i c i n d i vi d u a l s a. Screening should be considered in individuals beginning at age 45, p a r t i c u l a r l y i n t h o s e wi t h a B M I > 2 5 k g / m 2 . b . S c r e e n i n g s h o u l d a l s o b e c o n s i d e r e d i n i n d i v i d u a l s < 4 5 ye a r s i f t h e y a r e o v e r we i g h t a n d h a v e o n e o r m o r e r is k f a ct o r f o r D M , s u c h as ( 1 ) H a b i t u a l l y p h ys i c a l l y i n a c t i v e ( 2 ) H a v e a f ir s t - d e g r e e r e l a t i v e wi t h D M ( 3 ) M e m b e r o f a h i g h - r i s k e t h n i c p o p u l a t i o n ( A f r ic a n A m e r i c a n , L a t i n o , N a t i v e A m e r i c a n , A s i a n A m e r i c a n , Pa c i f i c I s l a n de r ) ( 4 ) G i v e n b ir t h t o a b a b y we i g h i n g 9 l b o r h a s b e e n d i a g n o s e d wi t h G D M (5) Hypertension ( 6 ) H i g h - d e n s i t y l i p o p r o t e i n ( H D L ) ch o l e s t e r o l l e v e l < 3 5 m g / d L a n d / o r a t r i g l yc e r i d e l e v e l > 2 5 0 m g / d L (7) PCOS ( 8 ) O n p r e v io u s t e s t i n g , h a d I G T o r I F G P.1171
( 9 ) O t h e r c l in i c a l c o n d i t i o n a s s o c i a t e d wi t h i n s u l i n r e s i s t a n c e ( e . g . , acanthosis nigricans) (10) History of vascular disease c . A F PG t e s t o r 2 - h r 7 5- g O G T T m ay b e u s e d f o r s c r e e n i n g . d . I f n o r m a l , r e p e a t s c r ee n i n g e ve r y 3 ye a r s . e . D i a g n o si s o f p r e d i a b e t e s . N o n p r e g n a n t i n d i v i d u a l s n o t m e e t i n g t h e c r i t e r i a f o r d i a b e t e s b u t wi t h a b n o r m a l t e s t r e s u l t s c a n b e c la s s i f i e d a s h a v i n g I F T o r I G T . I n 2 0 0 2 , I F G a nd I G T we r e o f f i c i a l l y t e r m e d p r e d i a b e t e s. U s e o f t h i s t e r m b e t t e r c o m m u n i c a t e s t o i n d i v i d u a l s t h e s e r i o u s n e s s o f t h i s a b n o r m a l i t y i n t h e c o n t e xt o f p r o g r e s s i o n t o D M . ( 1 ) I F T . F a st i n g p l a s m a g l u c o s e l e v e l > 1 1 0 m g / d L a n d < 12 6 m g / d L ( 2 ) I G T . A 2- h r O G T T p la s m a g l u c o s e > 1 4 0 m g / d L a n d < 2 00 m g / d L
IV. DESIRED OUTCOMES OF DIABETES MANAGEMENT
wo u l d i n c l u d e , b u t a r e no t l i m i t e d t o, t h e f o l l o wi n g ( a d a p t f o r i n d i v i d u a l patient): A. M o r t a l i t y o u t c o m e s A v o i d d i a b e t e s - r e l a t e d p r e m a t u r e d e a t h . L i f e e x p e c t a n c y f o r A m e r i c an m a l e s i s 75 . 2 ye a r s a n d f o r Am e r i ca n f e m a l e s , 8 0 . 4 ye a r s 3 B. Morbidity outcomes 1. Retard progression of the disease 2 . P r e v e n t or i n a t i m e l y m a n n e r t r ea t a c u t e c om p l i c a t i o n s 3 . P r e v e n t , d e t e c t e a r l y, o r a d e q u a t e l y t r e a t v a sc u l a r a n d n e u r o p a t h i c d i s e a s e a n d p r e v e n t o r t r e a t r i s k f a ct o r s a s s o c i at e d wi t h t h o s e d i s e a s e s ( e . g . , h y p e r t e n s i o n , t o b a c c o u s e , t r i gl yc e r i d e s , ch o l e s t e r o l , o b e s i t y) 4 . P r e v e n t or m i n i m i z e dr u g - r e l a t e d p r o b l e m s a . S i d e e f f ec t s — a d v e r s e d r u g r e a c t i o n s ( A D R s ) b. Toxicity c . D r u g i n t er a c t i o n s ( d r u g - d r u g , d r u g - d i s e a s e , d r u g - f o o d , d r u g - l a b o r a t o r y) C . B e h a vi o r a l o u t c o m es 1 . A n n u a l e ye e xa m s 2. Routine self-monitoring of blood glucose (SMBG) 3 . D e v e l o p m e n t o f a c o n s i s t e n t s u p po r t s ys t e m 4. Adherence to medication regimen 5. Routine and timely medical examinations and laboratory tests 6 . A v o i d a n c e o f l i f e - st yl e o r o t h e r be h a v i o r s — f o r e xa m p l e , a l c o h o l , c a f f e i n e , n i co t i n e , c e r t a in o v e r - t h e - co u n t e r ( O T C) m e d i c a t i o n s — t h a t m a y i n c r e a s e t h e r i s k of d i a b e t e s - a s s o c i a t e d p r o b l e m s D . Ph a r m a c o e c o n o m i c o u t co m e s 1 . D r u g a n d t r e a t m e n t c o s t s wi t h i n p a t i e n t r e s o u r c e s 2 . C o s t - e f f ec t i v e a n d e f f i c i e n t u s e o f h e a l t h c a r e r e s o u r c e s E . Q u a l i t y- o f - l i f e o u t c o m e s 1 . M a t c h, o r o n l y m i n i m a l l y c h a n g e , p a t i e n t l i f e st yl e a n d a c t i v i t i e s wi t h disease treatment 2 . P a t i e n t sa t i s f a c t i o n wi t h p h a r m a c e u t i c a l c a r e a n d h e a l t h c a r e t e a m 3 . P o s i t i v e bu t r e a l i s t i c ou t l o o k f o r t h e f u t u r e P.1172
V. DESIRED THERAPEUTIC END POINTS FOR DIABETES MANAGEMENT i n c l u d e , b u t a r e n o t l i m i t e d t o , t h e f ol l o wi n g ( a d a p t f o r t h e i nd i v i d u a l patient): A. N o n p h a r m a c o l o g i c a l e n d p o i n t s 1. Attain and/or maintain BMI < 27. 2 . C e s s a t i on o f a l c o h o l i n t a k e , o r l im i t t o n o m or e t h a n 1 o z. p e r d a y f o r adult females or no more than 2 oz. per day for adult males. 3. Nicotine/tobacco cessation
4 . M o d e r a t e s o d i u m r e d u c t i o n t o a t l e a s t 2 3 0 0 m g / d a y. I n d i v i d u a l s wi t h s ym p t o m a t i c h e a r t f a i l u r e s h o u l d r e s t r i c t s o d i u m i n t a k e t o l e ss t h a n 2 0 0 0 m g / d a y. 4 5 . A t l e a s t 15 0 m i n / we e k o f m o d e r a t e - i n t e n s i t y a e r o b i c p h ys i c a l a c t i v i t y, ( 5 0 - 7 0 % o f m a xi m u m h e a r t r a t e ) , d i st r i b u t e d o v e r m o s t , i d e a l l y a l l , d a ys o f t h e we e k . 5 6 . I n t h e a b s e n c e o f c on t r a i n d i c a t i o n s , i n d i v i d u a l s wi t h t yp e 2 D M s h ou l d p e r f o r m r e s is t a n c e e xe r c i s e 3 t i m e s a we e k , t a r g e t i n g a l l m a j o r m u s c l e g r o u p s , p r o g r e s s i n g t o a t t a i n t h r e e s e t s o f 8 - 1 0 r e p e t i t i o n s a t a we i g h t t h a t c a n n o t b e l i f t e d m o r e t ha n 8 - 1 0 t i m e s . 6 B . Ph a r m a c o l o g i c a l e n d p o i n t s 1. Attain or maintain glycemic control. a . A D A g l yc e m i c g o a l s 7 ( 1 ) G l yc o s y l a t e d h e m o g l o b i n A I C ( Hb AI C ) g o a l : < 7 % ( b a s e d o n 6 % a s u p p e r l i m i t o f n o r m a l ) , f or p a t i e n t s i n g e n e r a l . F or a n i n d i v i d u a l p a t i e n t ' s g o a l , t h e H b A I C s h o u l d b e a s c l o s e t o n o r m a l a s p o s s i b l e wi t h o u t s i g n i f i c a n t h yp o g l y c e m i a . (2) Preprandial capillary plasma glucose: 70-130 mg/dL (3) Peak 1-2 hr postprandial capillary plasma glucose: < 180 mg/dL b . G e n e r a l e xp e r i e n t i a l , c l i n i c a l g o a l s ( 1 ) S M BG st a n d a r d d e v i a t i o n < 4 0 , b a s e d o n d a i l y t e s t i n g ( a t l e a s t o n c e d a i l y, a l t e r n a t i n g p r e b r e a k f a s t a n d pr e s u p p e r , wi t h o c c a s i o n a l 2 - h r postprandial, largest meal) ( 2 ) S M BG va l u e s : 5 0 % wi t h i n t a r g e t o f 7 0 - 1 4 0 m g / d L ; n o t m o r e t h a n 3 0 % above 200 mg/dL ( 3 ) N o m o r e t h a n o n e t o t wo e p i s o d e s o f m i l d hyp o g l yc e m i a p e r 1 - 2 we e k s 2 . A t t a i n o r m a i n t a i n l i p i d p r o f i l e wi t h i n t a r g e t r an g e . 8 a . L o w- d e n s i t y l i p o p r o t e i n ( L D L ) < 10 0 m g / d L . F o r i n d i v i d u a l s wi t h o v e r t C V D , a t a r g e t o f < 7 0 m g / d L s h o u l d b e c o n s i d e r e d . I f m a xi m a l , t o l e r a t e d d r u g t h e r a p y f a i l s t o a c h i e v e L D L t a r g e t s , a n ac c e p t a b l e a l t e r n a t i v e g o a l i s a r e d u c t i o n o f ~ 4 0 % f r om b a s e l i n e . b . T r i g l yc e r i d e s ( T G s ) < 1 5 0 m g / d L . W h e n T G s e xc e e d 2 0 0 m g / d L , a “ n o n HDL cholesterol” goal (total cholesterol minus HDL) of 130 mg/dL should be used. c. HDL > 40 mg/dL for males and > 50 mg/dL for females 3 . B l o o d p re s s u r e ( B P ) < 1 3 0 / 8 0 m m H g , wi t h m i n i m a l o r n o s i g n s o r s ym p t o m s o f o r t h o st a t i c h yp o t e n s i o n 4. Minimal or no peripheral edema 5 . U r i n a r y a l b u m i n e x c r e t i o n < 3 0 µg a l b u m i n / m g c r e a t i n i n e i n a s p o t c o l l e c t i o n ( a d j u s t e n d p o i n t b a s e d o n r e s u l t s of in i t i a l m i c r o a l b u m i n t e s t ) 6 . R e t e n t i o n o f r e c o g n i t io n o f h y p o g l yc e m i a s ym p t o m s
VI. THERAPY OF PREDIABETES.
M o d e s t we i g h t l o s s ( 5 - 10 % we i g h t l o s s ) a n d r eg u l a r p h ys i c a l a c t i v i t y ( ~ 3 0 m i n / d a y) h a v e b e e n s h o wn t o r e d u c e t h e r a t e of p r o g r e s s i o n o f p r e d i a b e t e s t o t yp e P.1173 2 D M . 9 O t h e r C V D r i s k f a c t o r s s u c h a s t o b a c c o u s e , h yp e r t e n s i o n , a n d d ys l i p i d e m i a s h o u l d a l s o b e a g g r e s s i v e l y m a n a g e d . S e l e c t e d p a t i e n t s m a y b e n e f i t b y a d j u n c t d r u g t h e r a p y. M e t f o r m i n , a c a r b o s e , o r l i s t a t , a n d r o s i g l i t a z o n e h a v e a l s o b e e n s h o wn t o r e d u c e pr o g r e s s i o n t o D M i n s i ng l e , o r f e w, t r i a l s , b u t n o t a s e f f e ct i v e l y a s i n t e n s i v e l i f e s t yl e i n t e r v e n t i o n s . 1 0 H o we v e r , t he A D A C o n s e n s u s P a n e l r e c o m m e n d s t h a t m e t f o r m i n s h o u l d b e t h e o n l y d r u g c o n s i d e r e d f o r u s e i n d i a b e t e s p r e v e n t i o n , a n d t h a t it s u s e b e l i m i t e d t o o b e s e i n d i v i d u a l s l e s s t h an 6 0 ye a r s o f a g e .
VII. THERAPY OF DIABETES MELLITUS. M e d i c a l n u t r i t i o n t h e r a p y, p h ys i c a l a c t i v i t y, p h a r m a c o t h e r a p y, S M B G , an d patient self-management education—especially concerning decision-making s k i l l s — a r e e s s e n t i a l f o r s u c c e s s f u l m a n a g e m e n t o f t h e m et a b o l i c a s p e c t s of DM and for the prevention of diabetes-related conditions. Although some p a t i e n t s wi t h “ e a r l y” t y p e 2 d i a b e t e s m a y n o t n e e d p h a r m a c o t h e r a p y f o r a wh i l e , t h e p r o g r e s s i v e n a t u r e o f t h e d i s e a s e u l t i m a t e l y r e s u l t s i n t h e r e q u i r e m e n t o f d r u g t h e r a p y. A. M e d i c a l n u t ri t i o n t h e r a p y ( M N T ) . M NT i n c o r p o r a t e s t h e p r i n c i p l e s o f g o o d n u t r i t i o n a p p l i e d t o t h e i n d i v i d u a l ' s d i a b e t e s c o n t r o l go a l s , e a t i n g p r e f e r e n c e s a n d h a b i t s , a n d c o n c u r r e n t m e d i c a l c o n d i t i o n s . S u c c e s s f u l M NT intervention is generally assessed by blood glucose and HbAIC level, LDL a n d H D L c h o l e s t e r o l a n d t r i g l yc e r i d e l e v e l s , b l o o d p r e s s u r e , a n d b o d y we i g h t . 1 . A n e f f e c t iv e M NT p l a n wi l l n o t b e m e r e l y a “ d i e t s h e e t ” g iv e n t o a l l p e o p l e wi t h d i a b e t e s . H o we v e r , s o m e o f t h e c om m o n a p p r o a c h e s t o d i a b e t e s M N T i n c l u d e t he f o l l o wi n g : 2 . C a r b o h yd r a t e ( C H O ) c o u n t i n g . T h e i n d i v i d u a l i s t a u g h t t o i d e n t i f y a n d quantify the amounts of CHO foods consumed at each meal and throughout t h e d a y. B o t h t h e a m o u n t ( g r a m s ) a s we l l a s t h e t yp e o f C H O ( g l yc e m i c i n d e x / g l yc e m i c l o a d ) i n a f o o d i n f l ue n c e b l o o d g l u c o s e l e v e l . U s u a l l y C H O i n t a k e i s 4 5 % - 6 0 % o f t ot a l c a l o r i e s , b a s e d o n c u r r e n t d i a b e t e s c o n t r o l , T G l e v e l s , k i d n e y f u n c t i o n , a n d o t h e r m e d i c a l c o n c e r n s a s we l l a s p a t i e n t choice. a. When DM therapy includes a premeal short-acting insulin dose (bolus), p a t i e n t s m a y b e t a u g h t t o a d j u s t t h e b o l u s d o s e t o m a t c h t h e C H O i n t a k e. b . E v e n wh e n b o l u s i n s u l i n i s n o t e m p l o ye d , p a t i e n t s n e e d t o b e t a u g h t t o m a i n t a i n c o n s i s t e n t C HO i n t a k e a t d e s i g n a t e d m e a l s a n d a c r o s s t h e d ay t o m a t c h t h e an t i d i a b e t e s e f f e c t s o f o r a l m e d i c a t i o n s o r i n t e r m e d i a t e - a c t i n g i n s u l i n s . A l l p a t i e n t s w it h d i a b e t e s s h o u l d b e t a u g h t t h e p r i nc i p l e s o f carbohydrate counting and identification.
c. Sugar and simple CHOs are to be counted as part of the CHO intake for the meal. 4
3 . F a t i n t a ke a n d t yp e o f f a t . ,
11
Sa t u r a t e d a n d t r a n s - f at t y a c i d s a r e t he
principal dietary determinant of plasma LDL cholesterol, the major risk f a c t o r f o r CV D . a . L i m i t i n t ak e o f s at u r a t e d f a t t o 7% o f t o t a l ca l o r i e s . P.1174
b . I n t a k e of t r a n s f at s ho u l d b e m i n i m i z e d . c . L i m i t d i e t a r y c h o l e s t e r o l t o 2 0 0 m g / d a y. d . T wo o r m o r e s e r v i n g s o f f i s h p e r we e k a r e r e c o m m e n d e d . 4 . P r o t ei n i n t a k e a n d t yp e o f p ro t e i n . T h e r e is i n s u f f i c i e nt e v i d e n c e t o d e m o n s t r a t e t h a t i nt a k e o f p r o t e i n i n t h e r a n g e o f 1 5 % - 2 0 % o f t o t a l c a l o r i e s ( wh i c h i s t h e a v e r a g e U . S . p r o t e i n co n s u m p t i o n ) i s a r i sk f a ct o r f o r t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f d i a b e t i c n e p h r o p a t h y. 4 I t i s r e c om m e n d e d t h a t d i a b e t e s patients adhere to the suggested RDA protein intake (0.8 g high-quality p r o t e i n / kg / d a y) , wh i c h wo u l d b e a b o u t 1 0 % o f t o t a l c a l o r i es . N o t e t h a t i n g e n e r a l , c e r e a l s , g r a i n s , n u t s , a n d ve g e t a b l e s a r e n o t i n c l u d e d a s s o u r c e s o f “ h i g h - q u a l i t y” p r o t e i n . 5 . F i b e r i n t a k e ( e . g . , b r a n , b e a n s , f r u i t s , wh o l e - g r a i n p r o d u c t s , v e g e t a b l e s ) i s t o b e e n c o u r a g e d ; h o we v e r , t h e r e i s n o e v i d e n c e t h a t p e o p l e wi t h diabetes need a greater amount of fiber than other Americans. Very large a m o u n t s o f f i b e r m a y b e n e f i t g l yc e m i c c o n t r o l , hyp e r i n s u l i n e m i a , a n d p l a s m a l i p i d s ; b u t t h e pa l a t a b i l i t y a n d g a s t r o i n t e s t i n a l s i d e e f f e c t s o f s u c h a m o u n t s o f f i b e r m a y b e u n a c c e p t a b l e t o m o st p eo p l e . 6 . S p a c e d i n t e r va l s b e tw e en m e a l s m a y b e h e l p f u l f o r m at c h i n g t h e h yp o g l y c e m i c a c t i o n s o f i n s u l i n o r i n s u l i n s e c r e t a g o g u e s o r wh e n p o s t p r a n d i a l g l yc e m i c n o r m a l i z a t i o n i s d e l a ye d . 7 . D i e t a r y a d j u s t m e n t al g o r i t h m s . A l t e r a t i o n o f d i e t a r y i n t a k e b a s e d o n f a c t o r s t h a t c h a n g e t h e b l o o d g l u c o s e l e v e l , s uc h a s s t r e s s, i l l n e s s , o r e x e r c i s e . F o r e xa m p l e , c o n s u m p t i o n o f a d d i t i o n a l c a r b o h yd r a t e a n d / o r protein before vigorous exercise. B . Ph ys i c a l a c t i vi t y ( e x e r c i s e ) . A ca r e f u l l y p l a n n e d a n d c o n s i s t e n t p r o g r a m o f p h ys i c a l a c t i v i t y e n h a n c e s g l u c o s e u p t a k e t o c el l s , t h e r e b y r e d u c i n g t h e B G l e v e l . I n a d d i t i o n , e x e r c i s e m a y i m p r o v e C H O m e t a b o l i sm a n d i n s u l i n s e n s i t i v i t y i n p a t i e n t s wi t h t yp e 2 D M ; m a y r e d u c e l e v e l s o f t r i g l yc e r i d e - r i c h v e r y l o w d e n s i t y l i p o p r o t e i n ( V L D L ) ; m a y r e d u c e b l o o d p r e s s u r e , e s p e c i a l l y i n h yp e r i n s u l i n e m i c s u b j e c t s; m a y e n h a n c e we i g h t l o s s a n d we i g h t m a i n t e n a n c e ; m a y r e d u c e r i s k of CV D ; a n d m ay p r e v e n t progression of prediabetes to DM. 1 . P h ys i c a l a c t i v i t y h a s p o t e n t i a l p r o b l e m s f o r in d i v i d u a l s wi t h d i a b e t e s . a . P a t i e n t s wi t h s e v e r e ( p r o l i f e r a t i v e ) r e t i n o p a t h y m u s t c o ns u l t a n o p h t h a l m o l o g i s t b e f o r e b e g i n n i n g a n y t yp e o f e xe r c i s e p r o g r a m . St r e n u o u s a c t i v i t y m a y p r e c i p i t a t e v i t r e o u s h e m o r r h a g e o r t r a ct i o n r e t in a l d e t a c h m e n t
i n t h e s e p a t i e n t s . T h e s e i n d i v i d u a l s s h o u l d a v o i d a n a e r o b i c e xe r c i s e a n d p h ys i c a l a c t i v i t y t h a t i n v o l v e s s t r a i n i n g , j a r r i n g , o r V a l s a l v a - l i k e m a n e u v e r s . b . P a t i e n t s wi t h c a r d i o va s c u l a r d i s e a s e ; t h o s e > 3 5 ye a r s o f a g e ; a n d i n d i v i d u a l s wi t h a u t o n o m i c n e u r o p a t h y, p e r i p h e r a l v a s c u l a r d i s e a s e , o r microvascular disease should receive a cardiovascular evaluation and s t r e s s t e s t be f o r e b e g i n n i n g a n e xe r c i s e p r o g r a m . c . P a t i e n t s wi t h s i g n i f i c a n t p e r i p h er a l n e u ro p at h y ( wi t h l o s s o f p r ot e c t iv e s e n s a t i o n i n t h e f e e t ) s ho u l d l i m i t we i g h t - b e a r i n g e xe r c i s e . R e p e t i t i v e e x e r c i s e o n i n s e n s i t i v e f e e t c a n l e a d t o u l c e r a t i on a n d f r a c t ur e s . T r e a d m i l l e x e r c i s e s , j o g g i n g , p r o l o n g e d wa l k i n g , a n d s t e p e xe r c i s e s a r e c o n t r a i n d i c a t e d ; s wi m m i n g , b i c yc l i n g , r o wi n g , c h a i r e xe r c i s e s , a r m e x e r c i s e s , a n d o t h e r n o n - we i g h t - b e a r i n g e x e r c i s e s h o u l d b e r e c o m m e n d e d . d . H i g h - i n t e n s i t y o r s t r en u o u s p h y s i c a l a c t i v i t y s h o u l d p r o b a b l y b e d i s c o u r a g e d i n i n d i v i d u a l s wi t h o ve r t n ep h r o p a t h y ( a l b u m i n u r i a > 2 0 0 m g / m i n ) , u n le s s b l o o d p r e s s u r e i s c ar e f u l l y m o n i t o r e d d u r i n g e xe r c i s e . 2 . Ae r o b i c a c t i vi t y ( e . g . , s wi m m i n g , wa l k i n g , r u n n i n g ) i s t h e p r e f e r r e d t yp e o f e x e r c i s e b e c a u s e o f i t s d e s i r a b l e h yp o g l yc e m i c e f f e ct s ( p r o m o t e s u t i l i z a t i o n o f g l u c o s e a s f u e l ) , a s we l l a s d e s i r a b l e e f f e c t s o n c a r d i o v a s c u l a r h e a l t h , h yp e r t e n s i o n , l i p i d p r o f i l e s , c ir c u l a t i o n , a n d we i g h t - l o s s e f f o r t s. Recommendations: a . A t l e a s t 15 0 m i n / we e k o f m o d e r a t e - i n t e n s i t y a e r o b i c p h ys i c a l a c t i v i t y ( 5 0 % - 7 0 % o f m a xi m u m h e a r t r a t e ) , b . A n d / o r a t l e a s t 9 0 m in / we e k o f v i g o r o u s a e r o b i c e x e r c i s e ( > 7 0 % o f m a xi m u m h e a r t r a t e ) . c . D i s t r i b u t e e xe r c i s e o v e r a t l e a s t 3 d a ys / we e k , wi t h n o m o r e t h a n 2 c o n s e c u t i v e d a ys wi t h o u t p h ys i c a l a c t i v i t y. 3 . An a e r o b i c a c t i vi t y ( e . g . , we i g h t l i f t i n g ) s h o u l d g e n e r a l l y b e a v o i d e d b y p e o p l e wi t h d i a b e t e s u n l e s s i t h a s b e e n s p e c i f i c a l l y a p p r o v e d b y appropriate medical specialists such as a cardiologist (because it could have potential deleterious cardiovascular or blood pressure P.1175 e f f e c t s) o r an o p h t h a l m o l o g i s t ( b e c a u s e i t c o u l d h a v e p o t e n t i a l d e l e t e r i o u s e f f e c t s u p o n u n d e r l yi n g r e t i n o p a t h y) . I n t h e a b se n c e o f c o n t r a i n d i c a t i o n s , r e c o m m e n d a t i o n s f o r pe o p l e wi t h t yp e 2 d i a b e t e s i n c l u d e a . P e r f o r m r e s i s t a n c e e x e r c i s e t h r e e t i m e s a we e k , t a r g e t in g a l l m a j o r muscle groups b . P r o g r e s s t o t h r e e s et s o f 8 - 1 0 r e p e t i t i o n s a t a we i g h t t h a t c a n n o t b e lifted more than 8-10 times 4 . T h e p h ys i c a l a c t i v i t y p l a n s h o u l d b e c o n s i s t e n t i n r e g a r d t o f r e q u e n c y ( d a i l y, o r a t l e a s t 3 - 4 d a ys p e r we e k ) , i n t e n s i t y, a n d d u r a t i o n . 5 . G e n e r a l gu i d e l i n e s t h a t m a y p r o v e h e l p f u l i n r e g u l a t i n g t h e g l yc e m i c r e s p o n s e t o p h ys i c a l a c t i v i t y i n c l u d e a . A s s e s s m e t a b o l i c c o n t r o l b e f o r e ph ys i c a l a c t i v i t y. A v o i d p h ys i c a l a c t i v i t y i f g l u c o s e l e v e l i s > 2 5 0 m g / d L a n d k e t o s i s i s p r es e n t ; u s e c au t i o n i f
g l u c o s e l e v e l i s > 3 0 0 m g / d L wi t h n o k e t o s i s . I n g e s t a d d i t i o n a l c a r b o h yd r a t e if glucose level is < 100 mg/dL. b . M o n i t o r bl o o d g l u c o s e b e f o r e a n d a f t e r p h ys i c a l a c t i v i t y ( u p t o s e v e r al h o u r s p o s t e x e r c i s e ) t o i d e n t i f y wh e n / i f c h a n g e s i n i n s u l i n o r f o o d i n t a k e a r e n e c e s s a r y a n d t o l e a r n i n d i v i d u a l g l yc e m i c r e s p o n s e s t o d i f f e r e n t p h ys i c a l activity conditions. c . C o n s u m e a d d e d c a r b o h yd r a t e a s n e e d e d t o a v o i d h yp o g l yc e m i a ; C H O b a s e d f o o d s h o u l d b e r e a d i l y a v a i l a b l e d u r i n g a n d a f t e r p h ys i c a l a c t i v i t y. C . I n s u l i n an d i n s u l i n an a l o g 1 . T yp e s o f i n s u l i n . R e f e r s t o o n s e t a n d d u r a t i o n o f i n s u l i n p r e p a r a t i o n (Table 54-1) a . R a p i d - a ct i n g i n s u l i n . L i s p r o ( H u m a l o g ) , a s p a r t ( N o v o L o g ) , a n d g l u l i s i n e (Apidra) insulins b. Short-acting insulin. Regular insulin (Humulin regular, Novolin regular) c . I n t e r m e d i a t e - a c t i n g i n s u l i n s . I s op h a n e i n s u l i n s u s p e n s i o n ( n e u t r a l protamine Hagedorn; NPH) insulin and detemir (Levemir) insulin d. Long-acting insulin. Glargine (Lantus) insulin. e . P r e m i x e d i n s u l i n p ro d u c t s . E a c h m i xt u r e g i v e s a r a p i d - o r s h o r t - a c t in g insulin as a premeal bolus plus an intermediate-acting insulin to control l a t e r h yp e r g l yc e m i a o r t h e s u b s e q u e n t m e a l . ( 1 ) 5 0 / 5 0 i n s u l i n : 5 0 % p r o t a m i n e l i s p r o i n s u l i n wi t h 5 0 % l i s p r o i n s u l i n , o r 5 0 % r e g u l a r i n s u l i n wi t h 5 0 % N P H i n s u l i n ( 2 ) 7 0 / 3 0 i n s u l i n : 7 0 % i n s u l i n a s p a r t p r o t a m i n e wi t h 3 0 % a s p a r t i n s u l i n o r 7 0 % N P H wi t h 3 0 % r e g u l a r i n s u l i n ( 3 ) 7 5 / 2 5 i n s u l i n : 7 5 % p r o t a m i n e l i s p r o i n s u l i n wi t h 2 5 % l i s p r o i n s u l i n f . E x t e m p o ra n e o u s mi x t u r e s . T wo i n s u l i n s m i xe d i n o n e s yr i n g e , b e f o r e a d m i n i s t r a t i o n . E xt e m p o r a n e o u s m i x t u r e s a l l o w t h e r a t i o t o be t a i l o r m a d e t o m a t c h t h e p a t i e n t ' s b l o o d g l u c o s e r e a d i n g , a n t i c i p a t e d e a t i n g o r p h ys i c a l a c t i v i t y, o r o t h e r f a ct o r s i n f l u e n c i n g t h e r e q u i r e m e n t f o r s p e c i f i c i n s u l i n action.
Table 54-1. Types of Insulin—Onset, Peak, and Duration of Actiona Variability in Effective Absorption and Duration (hr) Duration
Onset (hr)
Peak (hr)
Lispro (Humalog)
< 0.5
0.51.5
3-4
Minimal
Aspart (NovoLog)
< 0.5
0.71
3-5
Minimal
Agent Rapid acting
Glulisine (Apidra)
< 0.5
0.51.5
3-5
Minimal
0.51
2-4
5-8
Moderate
NPH
2-4
6-10
10-16
High
Detemir (Levemir)
3-4
6-12
12-18
Minimal
5
n/a
20-24
MinimalModerate
Short-acting Regular
Intermediateacting
Long-acting Glargine (Lantus) a
Approximate time action in nonpregnant adult, with normal renal function. n/a, not applicable, NPH, neutral protamine Hagedorn P.1176
2 . C h e m i c a l s o u r c e s o f c o m m e r c i a l i n s u l i n a v a i l a b l e i n t h e U n i t e d S t a t es a . B i o s yn t h e t i c h u m a n , a l s o c a l l e d h u m a n i n su l i n . P r o d u ce d b y r e c o m b i n a n t D N A t e c h n iq u e s b . I n s u l i n an a l o g . P r o du c e d b y c h e m i c a l a l t e r a t i o n o f h u m a n i n s u l i n 3 . C o n c e n t ra t i o n o f i n s u l i n p r o d u c t s a v a i l a b l e i n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s a. U-100: a concentration of 100 Units/mL b . U - 5 0 0 : c on c e n t r a t i o n o f r e g u l a r i n s u l i n o f 5 0 0 U n i t s / m L , f or p a t i e n t s wi t h i n s u l i n r e s i s t a n c e . B e c au s e o f i t s h i g h c o n c e n t r a t i o n , b i o a c t i v i t y o f U - 5 0 0 regular insulin mimics an intermediate-acting insulin. U-500 insulin is a prescription item. 4 . I n d i c a t i o n s . I n s u l i n t h e r a p y i s r e q u i r e d f o r a l l p a t i e n t s wi t h t yp e 1 D M a n d f o r t h o se wi t h t yp e 2 D M wh e n o t h e r i n j e c t a b l e o r o r a l a n t i d i a b e t e s t h e r a p i e s d o n o t a c h i e v e t h e d e s i r e d D M c o n t r o l. I n s u l i n a n d i n s u l i n a n a l o g s
m a y b e u s e d i n c o m b i n a t i o n wi t h c e r t a i n o r a l o r o t h e r i n j e ct a b l e a n t i d i a b e t e s a g e n t s i n t y p e 1 o r t yp e 2 D M . W h en d i e t a n d p h ys i c a l a c t i v i t y f a i l t o a c h i e v e g l yc e m i c c o n t r o l i n G D M o r wh e n a wo m a n wi t h d i a b e t e s b e c o m e s p r e g n a n t , i n s u l i n t h e r a p y s h o u l d b e i n s t i t u t e d r at h e r t h a n o r a l antidiabetes agents. 5 . M e c h a n i s m o f a c t i o n . I n s u l i n l o we r s b l o o d g l u c o s e a n d c o n t r i b u t e s t o g l u c o s e h o m e o s t a s i s by a v a r i e t y o f p h ys i o l o g i c a l a c t i o n s , i n c l u d i n g a. ↑Glucose uptake and utilization by peripheral tissues b . ↑ G l yc o g e n e s i s ( c o n v e r s i o n o f g l u c o s e t o g l yc o g e n i n l i v e r a n d m u s c l e ) c . ↓ G l yc o g e n o l ys i s ( p r o d u c t i o n o f g l u c o s e f r o m g l yc o g e n ) d . ↓ G l u c o n e o g e n e s i s ( f o r m a t i o n o f gl u c o s e f r o m n o n c a r b o h y d r a t e s , s u c h a s amino acids) e . ↓ L i p o l ys i s a n d k e t o g e n e s i s ( b r e a k d o wn o f f a t s t o k et o n e b o d i e s ) f . ↑F o r m a t i on o f p r o t e i n f r o m a m i n o a c i d s g . ↑ F o r m at io n o f a d i p o s e t i s s u e f r o m t r i g l yc e r i d e s a n d f a t t y a c i d s 6 . I n i t i a l d o s a g e o f i n s u l i n . A ss u m i n g a wa k i n g t i m e i n t h e m o r n i n g , m e a l s / s n a c k s s p a c e d c o n s i s t e n t l y d u r i n g t h e d a y a n d wa k i n g h o u r s , a n d a late evening bedtime, the following are examples only and do not include all insulin options. a . T yp e 1 DM , w i t h o u t c o n c o m i t a n t i n f e c t i o n o r p h ys i o l o g i c s t r e s s c o n d i t i o n . A t yp i c a l i n i t i a l t o t a l d a i l y d o s e ( T D D) i s e st i m a t ed a s 0 . 5 U n i t s / k g / d a y, wh i c h i s d i v i d e d i n t o t h r e e o r f o u r in j e c t i o n s p e r d a y. R e g i m e n s e m p l o yi n g o n l y o n e o r t wo i n j e c t i o n s p e r d a y d o n o t a c h i e v e e u g l yc e m i a i n t yp e 1 D M . ( 1 ) T h r e e i n je c t i o n s p e r d a y ( a ) P r e b r e a k f a s t i n j e c t i o n . T wo t h i r d s o f T D D . 2 5 % - 3 5 % o f t h e t ot a l b r e a k f a s t d os e i s g i v e n a s l i s p r o , a sp a r t , g l u l i s i n e , o r r e g u l a r i n s u l i n ; 6 5 % 75% of the total breakfast dose is given as NPH insulin (1:2 ratio). May be m i x e d e xt e m p o r a n e o u s l y o r m a y b e a c o m m e r c ia l p r e m i xe d p r o d u c t . ( b ) P r e s u p p e r i n j e c t i o n . B e t we e n 1 0 % a n d 2 0 % o f T D D . G i ve n a s l i s p r o , a s p a r t , g l u l i s i n e , o r r e gu l a r i n s u l i n ( c ) B e d t i m e ( 1 0 p . m . ) i n j e c t i o n . B e t we e n 1 0 % a n d 2 5 % o f T DD . G i v e n a s N P H o r d e t em i r i n s u l i n ( 2 ) F o u r i n j ec t i o n s p e r da y ( a ) P r e m e a l i n j e c t i o n s ( t h r e e i n j e c t i o n s ) . T ot a l o f 4 0 % - 5 0 % o f T D D. T o t a l a m o u n t i s d i v i d e d b e t we e n t h e t h r e e m e a l s i n a r a t i o p r o p o r t i o n a l t o t h e d e s i r e d / u s u a l r a t i o o f CH O i n g e s t i o n a t t h o s e t h r e e m e a l s . G i v e n a s l i sp r o , a s p a r t , g l u l i s i n e , o r r e gu l a r i n s u l i n b e f o r e e a c h m e a l ( b ) B e d t i m e i n j e c t i o n . B e t we e n 5 0 % a n d 6 0 % o f T D D, g i v e n a s N P H , detemir, or glargine insulin. Caveat: If NPH or detemir insulin is used for t h e b e d t i m e i n j e c t i o n i n t yp e 1 D M , t h e p r e m e a l i n s u l i n m u s t b e r e g u l a r insulin. ( 3 ) I n s u l i n pu m p t h e r a p y ( u s e o f e xt e r n a l p u m p t o p r o v i d e co n t i n u o u s subcutaneous insulin infusion)
( a ) P r e m e a l a n d p r e s n a c k b o l u s e s . Do s a g e b a s e d o n p r e m e a l B G l e v e l an d a n t i c i p a t e d C H O i n t a k e f o r t h e m e a l . I n it i a l e s t im a t e wo u l d b e s i m i l a r t o t h e i n i t i a l e s t i m a t e f o r t h e f o u r - i n j e c t i o n r e g i m e n ( se e V I I . C . 6 . a. ( 2 ) ) . G i v e n a s lispro, aspart, or glulisine insulin ( b ) B a s a l i n s u l i n . P r o g r a m m e d t o be d e l i v e r e d c o n t i n u o u s l y. I n i t i a l e s t i m a t e i s 5 0 % - 6 0 % o f T D D b u t m a y b e s u b s e q u e n t l y a l t e r e d t o g i ve d i f f e r i n g b a s a l i n f u s i o n s a t c e r t a i n t i m es o f t h e d a y. I n i t i a l r a t e is o f t e n 0. 5 - 1 . 2 5 U n i t s / hr , given as lispro, glulisine, or aspart insulin P.1177
b . T yp e 2 DM . I n i t i a l T DD i s 0 . 1 5 - 0 . 4 U n i t s / k g / da y b u t wi l l v a r y g r e a t l y, depending on degree of concomitant insulin resistance and degree of β cell d ys f u n c t i o n . ( 1 ) O n e i n j e c t i o n p e r d a y. B e d t i m e i n s u l i n o n l y, 0 . 2 5 U n i t s / kg / d a y, g i v e n a s NPH, detemir, or glargine insulin. Bedtime insulin is most often used in c o m b i n a t i o n wi t h o n e o r m o r e o r a l a n t i d i a b e t e s m e d i c a t i o n . M o n o t h e r a p y b e d t i m e i n s u l i n i s m o s t s u c c e s s f u l in t h e e a r l y s t a g e s o f t yp e 2 D M . ( 2 ) T wo i n j e c t i o n s p e r da y ( a ) P r e b r e a k f a s t i n j e c t i o n . T wo t h i r d s o f T D D , g i v e n a s a p r e m i x i n s u l i n (70/30, 75/25, or 50/50; choice depends on anticipated CHO intake at b r e a k f a s t a nd l u n c h ) ( b ) P r e s u p p e r i n j e c t i o n . O n e t h i r d o f T D D, g i v en a s a p r e m ix i n s u l i n ( 7 0 / 3 0 , 75/25, or 50/50; choice depends on anticipated CHO intake at supper) ( 3 ) T h r e e o r f o u r i n j e c t io n s p e r d a y. T yp e s , i n i t i a l r a t i o s , a nd r e g i m e n s a r e s i m i l a r t o t yp e 1 ( s e e V I I . C . 6. a . ) . c . A d j u s t i n it i a l d o s e s a n d r e g i m e n b a s e d o n o n g o i n g S M B G , s ym p t o m s o f h yp o g l y c e m i a o r h y p e r g l yc e m i a , a n d p e r i o d i c A I C r e s u l t s . 7. Routes of insulin administration a . S u b c u t an e o u s i n j e ct i o n . F o r r ou t i n e s e l f - a d m i n i s t r a t i o n o f i n s u l i n ( 1 ) S u c c e s sf u l i n s u l i n t h e r a p y r e q u i r e s p r e d i c t a b l e a n d c o n s i s t e n t i n s u l i n a b s o r p t i o n a n d i n s u l i n a c t i o n f r o m d a y t o d a y. ( 2 ) I n m a n y p a t i e n t s , a b s o r p t i o n o f r e g u l a r i n s u l i n i s f a st e s t f r o m t h e a b d o m e n , f o l l o we d b y t h e a r m , b u t t oc k s , a n d t h i g h . ( a ) U p o n i n i t i a t i o n o f i n s u l i n t h e r a p y, p a t i e n t s s ho u l d c a r e f u l l y m o n i t o r a n d r e c o r d t h e i r o wn v a r i a t i o n s i n a b s o r p t i o n . I f it i s d e t e r m i n e d t h a t t h e variation is sufficiently great, then a given injection (e.g., presupper dose) s h o u l d a l wa y s b e g i v e n i n t h e s a m e a n a t o m i c a l r e g i o n ( e . g . , a r m s ) . R a n d o m r o t a t i o n o f in j e c t i o n r e g i o n s s h o u l d b e a v o i d e d i n t h e s e i n d i v i d u a l s . ( b ) P h ys i c a l e xe r c i s e i n c r e a s e s b l o o d f l o w t o t h e e xe r c i s i n g a r e a , t h u s a c c e l e r a t i n g a b s o r p t i o n o f i n s u l i n i n j e c t e d a t t h a t s it e . T o a le s s e r e xt e n t , h o t s h o we r s , b a t h s , a n d m a s s a g e m a y h a v e a s i m i l a r e f f e ct . P a t i e n t s s h o u l d b e a d v i s e d t o a v o i d g i v i n g a n i n j e c t i o n i n t o a l i m b t h a t wi l l b e s u b s e q u e n t l y e x e r c i s e d o r h e a t e d . T he a b d o m e n m a y b e p r e f e r a b l e f o r t he p r e e xe r c i s e
i n j e c t i o n b e c a u s e t h a t ar e a i s t h e l ea s t l i k e l y t o h a v e s i g n i f i c a n t i n c r e a s e s in absorption. ( 3 ) W it h i n a n a n a t o m i c a l r e g i o n , t h e i n j e c t i o n s i t e s h o u l d b e r o t a t e d t o avoid lipohypertrophy and fibrosis. b . C o n t i n u o u s i n t r a ve n o u s ( i n s u l i n d r i p ) a d m in i s t r a t i o n o f r e g u l a r i n s u l i n , p r i m a r i l y i n t h e h o s p i t a l s e t t i n g . U s ed f o r t r e a t m e n t o f a c u t e h yp e r g l yc e m i a , k e t o a c i d o s i s , H H S , o r d ur i n g s u r g i c a l p r o c e d u r e s o r d e l i v e r y. c . C o n t i n u o u s s u b c u t an e o u s i n f u si o n ( i n su l i n p u m p t h e ra p y) ( 1 ) R a p i d - a c t i n g i n s u l i n i s i n f u s e d c on t i n u o u s l y d u r i n g t h e d a y i n a p a t i e n t s p e c i f i c p a t t e r n t o d e l i v e r l o w d o s e s o f i n s u l i n ( b a s a l i n s u l i n ) t o o f f s e t t he g l yc e m i c e f f e c t s o f d a i l y p a t t e r n s of c o u n t e r r e g u l a t o r y h o r m o n e s . ( 2 ) B e f o r e ea c h m e a l , t he p a t i e n t s e t s t h e p u m p t o d e l i v e r a b o l u s d o s e o f r a p i d - a c t i n g i n s u l i n t o c o n t r o l t h e g l yc e m i c e f f e c t s of t h e m e a l . T h e b o l u s d o s e i s d e t e r m i n e d b y a l g o r i t h m s t h at c o n s i d e r t he p r e m e a l g l u c o s e l e v e l , a n t i c i p a t e d d i e t a r y i n t a k e , a n d a c t i v it y. ( 3 ) O f f e r s t he p o t e n t i a l f o r t i g h t e r g lyc e m i c c o n t r o l . ( 4 ) I n d i c a t ed f o r s e l e c t ed i n d i v i d u a l s wi t h d i a b e t e s wi t h wi d e l y f l u c t u a t i n g b l o o d g l u c o s e l e v e l s ; i r r e g u l a r o r i n c o n s i s t e n t wo r k s c h e d u l e s , l i f e st yl e s , o r m e a l s ; o r wh o a c h i e v e l e s s - t h a n - d e s i r e d c o n t r o l u s i n g f r e q u e n t i n j e c t i o n routines. ( 5 ) R e q u i r e s f r e q u e n t SM B G ; t h o r ou g h t r a i n i n g i n t h e u s e of t h e i nf u s i o n e q u i p m e n t ; a n d a n a d v a n c e d u n d e r s t a n d i n g a n d a p p l i c a t i o n o f e xe r c i s e , d i e t a r y, a n d i n s u l i n a d j u s t m e n t p r ot o c o l s . 8 . Al t e r a t i o n s i n i n su l i n r e q u i r e me n t a . I n f e c t i o n , e xa c e r b a t i o n s o f o t h e r m e d i c a l p r o b l e m s , we i g h t g a i n , p u b e r t y, i n a c t i v i t y, h yp e r t h yr o i d i s m , a n d C u sh i n g d i s e a s e t e n d t o i n cr e a s e i n s u l i n needs. b . R e n a l f a i l u r e , a d r e n a l i n s u f f i c i e n cy, n u t r i e n t m a l a b s o r p t i o n , h yp o p i t u i t a r i s m , we i g h t l o s s , a n d i n cr e a s e d e xe r c i s e t e n d t o r e d u c e i n s u l i n needs. c. Drug-drug or drug-disease interactions may increase or decrease insulin requirements. P.1178
D . I n s u l i n se c r e t a g o g u e s ( o r a l h yp o g l yc e m i c a g e n t s ) 1 . Ag e n t s a . S u l f o n yl u r e a s (1) Chlorpropamide (Diabinese) ( 2 ) G l yb u r i d e ( D i a B e t a , M i c r o n a s e , G l yn a s e ) (3) Glipizide (Glucotrol) ( 4 ) G l i m e p i r i d e ( A m a r yl ) b. Meglitinides: Repaglinide (Prandin) c . P h e n yl a l a n i n e d e r i v a t i v e s : N a t e g l i n i d e ( S t a r l i x ) 2. Indications/contraindications
a . U s e i n t y p e 2 D M p r ed i c a t e d o n ( 1 ) A d e q u a t e c o n t r o l n o t a t t a i n e d b y m e d i c a l n u t r i t i o n t h e r a p y a n d p h ys i c a l activity alone (2) Or pharmacological intervention is required based on the presenting b l o o d g l u c o s e l e v e l s a n d d i a b e t e s s ym p t o m a t o l o g y ( 3 ) A n d t h e r e a r e s u f f i c ie n t n u m b e r s o f f u n c t i o n i n g β c e l l s ( 4 ) M a y b e u s e d a s m o n o t h e r a p y o r i n c o m b i n a t i o n wi t h o t h e r o r a l a n t i d i a b e t e s d r u g s , e xe n a t i d e , o r i n su l i n b . U s e i n t yp e 1 D M n o t i n d i c a t e d . P h a r m a c o l o g i c a l a c t i o n d e p e n d s o n functioning pancreatic β cells. c . I n s u l i n s ec r e t a g o g u e s ( 1 ) A r e n o t r e c o m m e n d e d f o r c h i l d r en , p r e g n a n t a n d l a c t a t i n g wo m e n ( 2 ) S h o u l d n o t b e u s e d f o r m e t a b o l i c c o n t r o l d u r in g s t r e s s f u l c o n d i t i o n s s u c h a s s e ve r e i n f e c t i o n , i n j u r y, o r s u r g e r y ( a l l o f wh i c h s t i m u l a t e t h e r e l e a s e o f c o u n t e r r e g u l a t o r y h o r m o n e s ) , wh i c h i n c r e a s e t h e r i s k of h yp e r g l yc e m i a . I n s u l i n t h e r a p y s h o u l d b e i n s t i t u t e d d u r i n g t h e s e c o n d i t i o n s . d . S u l f o n yl u r e a a g e n t s ( 1 ) A r e c o n t r a i n d i c a t e d i n p a t i e n t s wi t h a l l e r g y t o s u l f a a g e n t s . ( 2 ) H a v e b e e n a s s o c i a t e d wi t h a p o s s i b l e i n c r e a s e d r i s k o f c a r d i o v a s c u l a r m o r b i d i t y a n d m o r t a l i t y. ( 3 ) P o s e a r is k o f c h o l e s t a t i c j a u n d i c e e . C e r t a i n ag e n t s s h o u l d n o t b e u s e d i n p a t i e n t s wi t h s e v e r e r e n a l o r hepatic impairment. 3. Mechanisms of action a. Predominant effect is to stimulate pancreatic secretion of insulin b. Improve “first phase” release of insulin/increase sensitivity of β cells to glucose stimulus c. Lessor effects (1) Increase hepatic sensitivity to insulin (2) Increase number and/or sensitivity of insulin receptors in muscle and adipose tissue ( 3 ) R e d u c e p o s t r e c e p t o r d e f e c t ( t r a n s p o r t d e f e ct ) i n m u s c l e a n d a d i p o s e tissue 4 . C h o i c e o f a g e n t . T h e m o s t c l i n i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e nc e a m o n g t h e o r a l h yp o g l y c e m i c a g e n t s i s d u r a t i o n o f a ct i o n ( T a b l e 5 4 - 2 ) , wh i c h t h e n affects frequency of dosing and potential compliance issues. Other considerations include frequency and consistency of eating and exercise, a d d i t i o n a l p a t i e n t - s p e c i f i c r i s k f a c t o r s f o r s e v e r e h yp o g l yc e m i a ( e . g . , h yp o g l y c e m i a u n a wa r e n e s s ) , p a t i e n t - s p e c i f i c c on t r a i n d i c a t i o n s , a n d c o s t considerations. a . G l i m e p i r id e e x h i b i t s a n i n s u l i n - s p a r i n g e f f e c t c o m p a r e d t o o t h e r m em b e r s o f t h i s c l a s s , r e p o r t e d l y b y i t s r e l a t i v e l y g r e a t e r e xt r a p a n c r e a t i c e f f e ct . b . β C e l l s t im u l a t i o n o f i n s u l i n s e c r e t i o n i s m o r e g l u c o s e d e p e n d e n t wi t h r e p a g l i n i d e a n d n a t e g l i n i d e t h a n wi t h s u l f o n yl u r e a a g e n t s . T h i s a c t i o n ,
a l o n g wi t h i t s v e r y s h o r t a c t i o n , m a y p r e s e n t a r ed u c e d r i s k o f l a t e p o s t p r a n d i a l h yp o g l y c e m i a f o r s e l e c t e d i n d i v i d u a l s . c . C h l o r p r o p a m i d e h a s t h e l o n g e s t d u r a t i o n o f ac t i o n a n d p o s e s a r i s k t o p a t i e n t s wi t h r e n a l o r h e p a t i c i m p a i r m e n t . I t a l so c a u s e s m o r e s e v e r e a n d f r e q u e n t s i d e e f f e c t s ( i nc l u d i n g h y p o g l yc e m i a a n d h yp o n a t r e m i a ) t h a n o t h e r s u l f o n yl u r e a s . d . G l yb u r i d e h a s b e e n a s s o c i a t e d wi t h s e v e r e o r p r o l o n g e d h yp o g l yc e m i a i n t h e e l d e r l y. 5 . Ad m i n i s t r a t i o n a n d d o s a g e ( T ab l e 5 4 - 2 ) 6 . P a t i en t ed u c a t i o n a n d o t h e r co n c e r n s a . A d v e r s e e f f e c t s i n c l u d e g a s t r o i n t e s t i n a l ( G I ) d i s t u r b a n c e s ( e . g . , n a us e a , g a s t r i c d i s c o m f o r t , v o m it i n g , c o n s t i pa t i o n ) , t a c h yc a r d i a , h e a d a c h e , s k i n r a s h , a n d h e m a t o l o g i c a l p r o b l e m s ( e . g . , a g r a n u l o c yt o s i s , p a n c yt o p e n i a , h e m o l yt i c a n e m i a ) P.1179
Table 54-2. Oral Monotherapy: Type 2 Diabetesa Agent
Initial dose
α-glucosidase inhibitors Acarbose (Precose) Miglitol (Glyset)
Insulin sensitizers
Maximum Dose/Comments
25 mg/day with first bite of meal Instruct patient to increase dosage as tolerated (GI distress) Anticipate weeks to reach maximal therapeutic effect Sometimes given with just largest meal or may be given before each meal
50-100 mg four times a day with meals. 50 mg four times a day if TBW < 60 kg Diarrhea, abdominal distress may limit dosing or rate of dosage increase; GI effects usually diminish with continued use Increase in liver enzymes may occur When used with a hypoglycemic agent (sulfonylurea or insulin), patient must be taught importance of treating hypoglycemia with glucose-based product
500 mg once or
Short-acting: 2550
Metformin (Glucophage, Glucophage XR, Riomet solution)
500 mg once or twice a day with meals Instruct patient to increase dosage as tolerated (usually weekly) Daily dose of 1500 mg will likely be needed for therapeutic effect Metformin extended release 500 mg daily taken with evening meal
Short-acting: 2550 mg/day (850 mg four times a day). Note: 1000 mg two times a day gives maximum therapeutic effect Long-acting: 2000 mg/day Nausea and diarrhea, which usually subside after 5-10 days, may limit rate of dosage increase Teach patient lactic acidosis issues—for example, muscle aches, weakness Contraindicated in renal or liver disease, ETOH abuse, severe cardiopulmonary disease
Pioglitazone (Actos)
15 or 30 mg/day without regard to meals
45 mg/day in one dose
Rosiglitazone (Avandia)
2 mg/day without regard to meals
8 mg/day in one or two doses
Glucotrol 2.5 mg/day Glucotrol XL 5 mg/day
Short acting: 40 mg, give in two doses when dose reaches 15 mg Extended length: 20 mg, give in one or two doses
Diabeta, Micronase 2.5 mg/day Glynase 1.5 mg/day 2 mg qd 125 mg/day
20 mg in one or two doses Glynase microcrystalline 12 mg 6 mg/day in one or two doses 1000 mg, give in two
Sulfonylurea agents Glipizide (Glucotrol, Glucotrol XL) Glyburide (Diabeta, Micronase, Glynase) Glimepiride (Amaryl) Tolazamide
doses when dose reaches 500 mg Chlorpropamide (Diabinese)
100 mg/day
750 mg in one dose
Tolbutamide
250 mg/day
3000 mg in two or three doses
Not previously treated with hypoglycemic agent and HbAIc < 8.0%: 0.5-1.0 mg with each meal
4 mg with each meal or 16 mg total daily dose
Meglitinides
Repaglinide (Prandin)
Previously treated with hypoglycemic agent or HbAIc > 8.0%: 1-2 mg with each meal Phenylalanine derivatives Nateglinide (Starlix)
DPP-4 Inhibitors
120 mg four times a day, 1-30 min before each meal 60 mg four times a day for patients near target HbAIc
180 mg with each meal Uric acid levels may be elevated
Normal renal
100 mg, 50 mg, or 25
respiratory tract infection, nasopharyngitis, and headache. Generally weight neutral. a
Consult package insert for detailed prescribing details. Dosage should be reduced if frequent hypoglycemia occurs without apparent cause (such as medication error; changes in diet, exercise, or timing of regimen). When dosage reaches the minimum for a therapeutic agent, an attempt should be made to control diabetes by diet and exercise alone. ETOH, ethyl alcohol; GI, gastrointestinal; HbAIc, glycosylated hemoglobin AIc; TBW, total body weight. P.1180
b . B e s t i f t ak e n 3 0 - 4 5 m i n b e f o r e m e a l s , b u t m ay t a k e wi t h m e a l i f G I d i s t r e s s . E xc e p t : r e p a g l i n i d e o r n a t e g l i n i d e m u s t b e t a k e n 1 5 - 3 0 m i n b e f o r e a meal. c . N o t i f y p r e s c r i b e r i f s k in c h a n g e s o c c u r d . T e a c h p a t i e n t p r e v e n t i o n , r e c o g n i t i o n , t r e a t m e n t o f h yp o g l yc e m i a e. Sunburn precautions f . N o t if y p r e s c r i b e r i f u ne x p e c t e d / u n i n t e n d e d we i g h t g a i n o c c u r s g . H y p o g l yc e m i a a n d a l c o h o l i n t o l e r a n c e m a y o c c u r wi t h c h l o r p r o p a m i d e . A l c o h o l i n t o l e r a n c e i s l e s s c o m m o n wi t h o t h e r a g e n t s . h . P r i m a r y f a i l u r e . T h e a g e n t f a i l s t o c o n t r o l h yp e r g l yc e m i a wi t h i n t h e f i r s t 4 we e k s a f t e r i n i t i a t i o n . T h i s m o s t l ik e l y r e p r e s e n t s i n s u f f i c ie n t n u m b e r s o f functioning β cells. i . S e c o n d a r y F a i l u r e . T h e d r u g c o n t r o l s h yp e r g l yc e m i a i n i t i a l l y b u t f a i l s t o m a i n t a i n c o n t r o l . B e t we e n 5 % a n d 3 0 % o f i n i t i a l r e s p o n d e r s e xp e r i e n c e s e c o n d a r y f a i l u r e . I n m o s t i n s t a n c es , t h i s r e p r es e n t s p r o g r e s s i o n o f t he D M , wi t h a d i m i n i s h i n g n u m b e r o f f u n c t i o n i n g β c e l l s , r a t h e r t h a n a d r u g f a i l u r e . E . I n s u l i n se n s i t i z e r s 1 . Ag e n t s a. Biguanides: metformin (Glucophage, Riomet) b . T h i a zo l i d i n e d i o n e s ( T Z D ) (1) Pioglitazone (Actos) (2) Rosiglitazone (Avandia) c . C o m b i n a t i o n p r o d u ct s ( 1 ) M e t f o r m in / g l yb u r i d e ( G l u c o v a n c e ) ( 2 ) M e t f o r m in / g l i p i z i d e ( M e t a g l i p )
( 3 ) M e t f o r m in / r o s i g l i t a z o n e ( A v a n d a m e t ) ( 4 ) M e t f o r m in / p i o g l i t a z o n e ( A c t o p l u s m e t ) 2. Indications/Contraindications a . I n s u l i n s en s i t i z e r s a r e i n d i c a t e d i n i n d i v i d u a l s wi t h a s i g n i f i c a n t component of insulin resistance. b . U s e i n t yp e 2 D M ( 1 ) M o n o t h e r a p y u s e i n t yp e 2 D M p r e d i c a t e d o n ( a ) A d e q u a t e c o n t r o l n o t a t t a i n e d b y m e d i c a l n u t r i t i o n t h e r a p y a n d p h ys i c a l activity alone (b) Or pharmacological intervention is required based on the presenting b l o o d g l u c o s e l e v e l s a n d d i a b e t e s s ym p t o m a t o l o g y ( c ) A n d p a t ie n t h a s a d e q u a t e e n d o g e n o u s i n s u l i n ( 2 ) C o m b i n a t i o n t h e r a p y, wi t h o t h e r o r a l a n t i d i a b e t e s a g e n t s a n d / o r i n s u l i n c . U s e i n t y p e 1 D M . As a d j u n c t t o in s u l i n ; m u s t n o t b e u s e d a s monotherapy d . M e t f o r m in c o n t r a i n d i c a t i o n s a n d c a u t i o n s P.1181
( 1 ) S i t u a t i o n s wi t h p o t e n t i a l f o r i n c r ea s e d r i s k o f l a c t i c a c i d o s i s . L a c t i c acidosis is a rare but serious complication and is fatal in 50% of cases ( a ) R e n a l d y s f u n c t i o n ( se r u m c r e a t in i n e [ S C r ] > 1 . 4 m g / d L in f e m a l e s a n d > 1 . 5 m g / d L i n m a l e s ) . C on f i r m a d e q u a t e r e n a l f un c t i o n i n t h e e l d e r l y, e v e n i n t h e f a c e o f “ l o w” S C r l e v e l s . ( b ) H yp o p e r f u s i o n ( h yp o x i c s t a t e s ) —f o r e xa m p l e : ( i ) D u r i n g su r g e r y ( i i ) S e v e r e ca r d i o v a s c u l a r / p u l m o n a r y d ys f u n c t i o n ( i i i ) A c u t e m y o c a r d i a l i n f a r c t i o n o r he a r t f a i l u r e (c) Radiographic procedures using intravenous iodinated contrast agents ( p o t e n t i a l f o r t r a n s i e n t r e n a l d ys f u n c t i o n ) . D i s co n t i n u e m e t f o r m i n d u r i n g t h e p r o c e d u r e ; r e i n i t i a t e wh e n r e n a l f u n c t i o n i s r e e st a b l i s h e d a n d c o n f i r m e d . ( d ) C h r o n i c o r b i n g e i n g e s t i o n o f e t ha n o l ( e ) L i v e r d i s e a s e ( h e p a t i c f u n c t i o n im p o r t a n t f o r c l e a r a n c e o f b l o o d l a c t a t e ) ( 2 ) S e r u m v it a m i n B 1 2 l ev e l s m a y d e c l i n e , u s u a l l y wi t h o u t c l i n i c a l manifestations. ( 3 ) F o l l o w l a b e l e d r e c o m m e n d a t i o n s f o r m o n i t o r in g l i v e r f u n c t i o n , r e n a l f u n c t i o n , a n d v i t a m i n B 1 2 st a t u s . e. TZD contraindications and cautions ( 1 ) H e p a t i c d i s e a s e : i d i o s yn c r a t i c h e p a t i c f a i l u r e , a r a r e b u t s e r i o u s e v e n t , h a s o c c u r r e d d u r i n g t h e r a p y wi t h t r o g l i t a z o n e , a t h i a z o l i d i n e d i o n e r e m o v e d f r o m t h e U . S . m a r k et i n 1 9 9 9 . B e c a u s e o f t h e i r s t r u c t u r a l s i m i l a r i t y t o troglitazone, pioglitazone and rosiglitazone should be used cautiously in p a t i e n t s wi t h h e p a t i c d i s e a s e . C l i n i c a l d a t a h a v e n o t s h o wn e v i d e n c e o f drug-induced hepatoxicity from pioglitazone or rosiglitazone. (2) Follow labeled guidelines for routine monitoring of liver function.
( 3 ) W a r n i n g f o r u s e i n pa t i e n t s wi t h s e v e r e h e a r t f a i l u r e — Ne w Y o r k H e a r t A s s o c i a t i o n ( N Y H A ) c l a ss I I I o r I V c ar d i a c s t a t u s— o wi n g t o p o s s i b l e i n c r e a s e i n p l a s m a v o l u m e ( f o u n d in h u m a n s t u d i e s ) a n d h e a r t e n l a r g e m e n t (found in animal studies). (4) Safety in children or during pregnancy has not been established. ( 5 ) D o n o t us e T Z D a t m a x i m u m l a b e l e d d o s e wh e n c o m b i n e d wi t h i n s u l i n . 3. Mechanisms of action a . T h e s e a ge n t s a r e p h a r m a c o l o g i c a l l y a n t i h yp e r g l yc e m i c a g e n t s r a t h e r t h a n h yp o g l y c e m i c a g e n t s . b. Increase hepatic sensitivity to insulin, thereby suppressing hepatic glucose production. Major action for metformin; secondary action for pioglitazone and rosiglitazone. c. Reduce postreceptor defect (transport defect) in muscle and adipose t i s s u e ; t h i s d e f e c t a p p e a r s t o b e t he m a j o r c o m p o n e n t o f n a t u r a l l y o c c u r r i n g insulin resistance. Major action for pioglitazone and rosiglitazone; secondary action for metformin. d. Increase number and/or sensitivity of insulin receptors in muscle and adipose tissue, thereby addressing the cell surface binding defect; this d e f e c t c o r r el a t e s m o s t s i g n i f i c a n t l y wi t h h yp e r i n s u l i n e m i a . M a j o r a c t i o n f o r pioglitazone and rosiglitazone; secondary action for metformin. 4 . Ad m i n i s t r a t i o n a n d d o s a g e ( T ab l e 5 4 - 2 ) 5 . P a t i en t ed u c a t i o n a n d o t h e r co n c e r n s a . M e t f o r m in ( 1 ) M o s t n o t a b l e s u b j e c t i v e s i d e e f f ec t : G I d i s t u r b a n c e s ( l o o s e s t o o l s o r d i a r r h e a ) , u s u a l l y s u b s i d i n g a f t e r 7 - 1 0 d a ys ( 2 ) T a k e wi t h m e a l s t o m i n i m i z e G I u p s e t . ( 3 ) O p t i m a l B G e f f e c t s no t s e e n f o r 5 - 1 0 d a ys ( 4 ) H y p o g l y c e m i a i s n o t l i k e l y c a u s e d b y m e t f o r m i n b u t m a y o c c u r i f u s ed wi t h i n s u l i n o r i n s u l i n s e c r e t a g o g u e , ( 5 ) O f t e n a ss o c i a t e d wi t h s m a l l we i g h t l o s s ( 6 ) M e t f o r m in i s e xc r e t e d i n t o b r e a s t m i l k. b. Thiazolidinediones (TZD) ( 1 ) M o s t n o t a b l e s u b j e c t i v e s i d e e f f ec t s : e d e m a , we i g h t g a i n , h e a d a c h e , fatigue ( 2 ) H y p o g l y c e m i a i s n o t l i k e l y c a u s e d b y T Z D b ut m a y o c c u r i f u s e d wi t h insulin or secretagogue. ( 3 ) O p t i m a l B G e f f e c t s no t s e e n f o r 6 - 1 0 we e k s ( 4 ) T e a c h pa t i e n t s i g n s a n d s ym p t o m s o f l i v e r t o xi c i t y a n d t o r e p o r t t o prescriber if noticed P.1182
( 5 ) W at c h f or we i g h t g a i n , s h o r t n e s s o f b r e a t h , gi r t h e xp a n s i o n
( 6 ) A n i m a l st u d i e s s u g g e s t t h a t p i o g l i t a z o n e a n d r o s i g l i t a z o n e a r e s e c r e t e d i n b r e a s t m i lk , b u t i t i s no t k n o wn i f t h e s e d r u g s o r m e t a b o l i t e s a r e e xc r e t e d in human milk. ( 7 ) P r e m e n o p a u s a l a n o v u l a t o r y wo m e n m a y r e s u m e o v u l a t i o n d u r i n g t h e r a p y, p l a c i n g t h e p a t i e n t a t r i s k of p r e g n a n c y. F . α - G l u co s i d a s e i n h i b i t o r s 1 . Ag e n t s a. Acarbose (Precose) b . M i g l i t o l ( G l ys e t ) 2. Indications/contraindications a . U s e d i n in d i v i d u a l s wi t h s i g n i f i c a n t p o s t p r a n d i a l h yp e r g l yc e m i a . T h es e d r u g s h a v e m i n i m a l e f f e c t o n p r e p r an d i a l o r f a s t i n g b l o o d g l u c o s e l e v e l s . b . U s e i n t yp e 2 D M ( 1 ) M o n o t h e r a p y u s e i n t yp e 2 D M p r e d i c a t e d o n ( a ) A d e q u a t e c o n t r o l ( es p e c i a l l y p o s t p r a n d i a l ) n o t a t t a i n e d b y m e d i c a l n u t r i t i o n t h e r a p y a n d p h ys i c a l a c t i v i t y a l o n e (b) Or pharmacological intervention is required based on the presenting p o s t p r a n d i a l b l o o d g l u c o s e l e v e l s a n d d i a b e t e s s ym p t o m a t o l o g y ( c ) A n d p a t ie n t h a s a d e q u a t e e n d o g e n o u s o r e x o g e n o u s i n s u l i n . ( 2 ) C o m b i n a t i o n t h e r a p y, wi t h i n s u l i n o r o t h e r o r a l a n t i d i a b e t e s a g e n t s , notably insulin secretagogues c. Use in type 1 DM ( 1 ) A s a n a dj u n c t t o i n s ul i n t h e r a p y; m a y b e u s e f u l i n i n d i v i d u a l s wi t h d e l a y e d a b s o r p t i o n o f su b c u t a n e o u s i n s u l i n ( 2 ) N o t t o be u s e d a s m o n o t h e r a p y d . C o n t r a i n d i c a t e d i n i n f l a m m a t o r y b o we l d i s e a s e , c o l o n i c u l c e r a t i o n , o r o b s t r u c t i v e b o we l d i s o r d e r s ; c h r o n i c i n t e s t i n a l d i s o r d e r s o f d i g e s t i o n o r a b s o r p t i o n ; o r a n y m e d i c a l c o n d i t i o n t h a t m i g h t d e t e r i o r a t e wi t h i n c r e a s e d i n t e s t i n a l g a s f o r m at i o n . e. Contraindicated in cirrhosis of the liver. f . N o t i n d i c a t e d d u r i n g p r e g n a n c y, i n b r e a s t - f e e di n g wo m e n , o r i n c h i l d r e n . 3. Mechanism of action a . I n h i b i t s t h e i n t e s t i n a l e n z ym e α - g l u c o s i d a s e ( a c l a s s o f e n z ym e s ) . I n t e s t i n a l a b s o r p t i o n o f c o m p l e x c a r b o h yd r a t e s s u c h a s s t a r ch , d e xt r i n s , a n d d i s a c c h a r i d e s ( e . g . , s u c r o s e , m a l t o s e ) r e q u i r e s t h e a c t io n o f i n t e s t in a l α-glucosidase. b. Inhibition of α-glucosidase retards the degradation and thus the a b s o r p t i o n o f c a r b o h yd r a t e s , r e s u l t in g i n a s l o we r a n d s m a l l e r r i s e i n b lo o d g l u c o s e f o l l o wi n g t h e m e a l . 4 . Ad m i n i s t r a t i o n a n d d o s a g e ( T ab l e 5 4 - 2 ) 5 . P a t i en t ed u c a t i o n a n d o t h e r co n c e r n s a . M o s t n o t ab l e s u b j e c t i v e s i d e e f f ec t s : G a st r o in t e s t i n a l e f f e c t s , o c c u r r in g p r i m a r i l y a t i n i t i a t i o n o f t h e r a p y o r wh e n d o s a g e i s i n c r e a s e d : d i a r r h e a , a b d o m i n a l p a i n , a n d f l a t u l e n c e ( a b o u t 3 0 % , 1 0% - 2 0 % , a n d 4 2 % - 7 7 % , respectively).
( 1 ) G I s i d e e f f e c t s a r e u s u a l l y s e l f - l i m i t i n g a n d r e s o l v e i n s e v e r a l we e k s . ( 2 ) G I s i d e e f f e c t s c a n b e m i n i m i z e d b y s t a r t i n g wi t h a l o w d o s e a n d t h e n s l o wl y t i t r a t i n g d o s a g e u p wa r d . b . T a k e wi t h f i r s t b i t e o f m e a l . M e d i c a t i o n wi l l b e i n e f f e c t i v e m o r e t h a n 3 0 45 min after eating carbohydrates. c . H yp o g l y c e m i a n o t l i k e l y c a u s e d b y t h i s d r u g , b u t m a y o c c u r i f u s e d wi t h insulin or insulin secretagogue. d . H y p o g l yc e m i a m u s t b e t r e a t e d wi t h g l u c o s e , n o t c o m p l e x c a r b o h yd r a t e . e . F o l l o w l a b e l e d r e c o m m e n d a t i o n s f o r r o u t i n e l iv e r f u n c t i o n m o n i t o r i n g . G. Incretin mimetics 1 . Ag e n t : E x e n a t i d e ( Bye t t a ) 2. Indications/contraindications a . U s e d a s a n a d j u n c t t o m e t f o r m i n a n d / o r a s ul f o n yl u r e a a g e n t , t o r e d u c e p o s t p r a n d i a l h yp e r g l y c e m i a a n d t o im p r o v e H b A I C i n p a t i e n t s wi t h t yp e 2 D M wh o h a v e n o t a c h i e v e d d e s i r e d g l yc e m i c c o n t r o l u s i n g m e t f o r m i n a n d / o r s u l f o n yl u r e a . P.1183
b . E x e n a t i d e i s n o t r e c om m e n d e d ( h a s n o t b e e n s t u d i e d ) i n p a t i e n t s t a k i ng i n s u l i n , T Z Ds , m e g l i t i n i d e s , o r g l u c os i d a s e i n h i b i t o r s . 3. Mechanisms of actions. Reduces postprandial glucose rise; a n t i h yp e r g l y c e m i c a g e n t , n o t a h yp o g l yc e m i c a g e n t a . S t i m u l a t es g l u c o s e - m e d i a t e d i n s u l i n s e c r e t i o n ; i m p r o v e s / r e s t o r e s f i r s t phase of insulin release b . I n h i b i t s po s t p r a n d i a l g l u c a g o n r e l e a s e c . D e l a ys g a s t r i c e m p t yi n g d . I m p r o v e s s a t i e t y a n d t h u s r e d u c e s d i e t a r y i n t a k e ; p r o g r e s si v e we i g h t l o s s h a s o c cu r r e d , e v e n a f t e r 1 8 m on t h s e . L o we r s p o s t p r a n d i a l B G b u t a l s o l o we r s h yp e r g l yc e m i a i f i n j e c t e d d u r i n g f a s t i n g s t at e 4 . Ad m i n i s t r a t i o n a n d d o s a g e a . I n i t i a l : t wi c e a d a y 5 µ g s u b c u t a n e o u s l y t a k e n 3 0 m i n b e f o r e b r e a k f a s t a n d b e f o r e s u p p e r , f o r 3 0 d a ys . b. Maintenance: If 5-µg dose is tolerated, advance to 10 µg subcutaneously t wi c e a d a y b e f o r e m e a l s t h e r e a f t e r . c. Dose should be omitted if that meal is skipped. d . I f t h e p a t i e n t i s t a k i n g s u l f o n yl u r e a , t h e d o s e o f s u l f o n yl u r e a s h o u l d b e r e d u c e d wh e n e xe n a t i d e i s s t a r t e d . T h e d o s e of m e t f o r m i n ( i f t a k i n g ) d o e s not need to be changed. 5 . S M B G i s a n i mp o r t an t co m p o n en t o f d o s a g e t i t r a t i o n . a . B G t e st i n g b e f o r e m e a l s a n d 2 - h r p o s t p r a n d i a l b r e a k f a s t an d s u p p e r u n t i l d o s e i s e s t ab l i s h e d a n d d e t e r m i n e d t o b e e f f e ct iv e . b . F r e q u e n t S M B G i s a l s o i m p o r t a n t i f d o s e o f s u l f o n yl u r e a a g e n t h a s b e e n adjusted.
c . O n c e t h e d o s e s o f e x e n a t i d e , s u l f o n yl u r e a , a n d / o r m e t f o r m i n a r e s t a bl e , test before meal and at bedtime plus occasional 2 hr after meal, depending o n s t r i p c o ve r a g e . 6 . P a t i en t ed u c a t i o n a n d o t h e r co n c e r n s a. Inject no more than 1 hr before meal b. Inject in thigh, abdomen, or upper arm c . A v a i l a b l e i n p r e f i l l e d s yr i n g e s , e a c h c o n t a i n i n g 6 0 d o s e s . ( 1 ) T wo s i z e s : 5 µ g / d o s e a n d 1 0 µ g / d o s e ; p r e m e a s u r e d d o s e r e q u i r e s n o dosing choices ( 2 ) P e n n e e d l e s m u s t be p u r c h a s e d s e p a r a t e l y ( 3 ) E a c h p e n m u s t b e pr i m e d b e f o r e i n i t i a l d o s e (4) Clear, colorless injection ( 5 ) R e f r i g e r a t e , e v e n a f t e r o p e n i n g . D i s c a r d a f t e r 3 0 d a ys d . M o s t c o m m o n s i d e e f f e c t : m i l d t o m o d e r a t e n a u s e a , wh i c h d i s s i p a t e s o v e r t i m e . I n c r e a s e d o c c u r r e n c e o f h yp o g l yc e m i a , i n p a t i e n t s t a k i n g s u l f o n yl u r e a H . Ay m l i n re c e p t o r a g o n i s t 1 . Ag e n t : P r a m l i n t i d e ( S ym l i n ) 2. Indications/contraindications a . U s e d a s a n a d j u n c t t o i n s u l i n t o r e d u c e p o s t p r a n d i a l h yp e r g l yc e m i a a n d t o i m p r o v e H b A I C i n p a t i e n t s wi t h t yp e 1 D M o r i n s u l i n - r e q u i r i n g t yp e 2 D M wh o h a v e n o t a c h i e v e d d e s i r e d g l yc e m i c c o n t r o l u s i n g i n s u l i n . b. Patients not appropriate for pramlintide therapy (because of lack of s t u d i e s , o r po t e n t i a l h a r m ) : ( 1 ) P o o r c om p l i a n c e wi t h c u r r e n t i ns u l i n r e g i m e n o r S M BG (2) HbAIC > 9% ( 3 ) H i s t o r y o f r e c u r r e n t se v e r e h yp o g l yc e m i a r e q u i r i n g a s s i s t a n c e d u r i n g the past 6 months ( 4 ) H y p o g l y c e m i a u n a wa r e n e s s ( 5 ) C o n f i r m ed d i a g n o s i s o f g a s t r o p a r e s i s o r u s i n g d r u g s t h a t s t i m u l a t e gastrointestinal motility ( 6 ) P e d i a t r i c p a t i e n t s a n d p r e g n a n t o r n u r s i n g wo m e n 3. Mechanisms of action. Reduces postprandial glucose rise; a n t i h yp e r g l y c e m i c a g e n t n o t h yp o g l y c e m i c a g e n t a . D e l a ys g a s t r i c e m p t yi n g P.1184
b . S u p p r e s s e s g l u c o s e - s t i m u l a t e d se c r e t i o n o f g l u c a g o n c . E n h a n c e s s a t i e t y, r e s u l t i n g i n d e c r e a s e d a p p e t i t e a n d d e c r e a s e d f o o d intake 4 . Ad m i n i s t r a t i o n a n d d o s a g e a . D o s i n g f o r t yp e 1 DM (1) Step 1—initiation
( a ) R e d u c e p r e m e a l i n s u l i n d o s e ( r a p i d - a c t i n g , s h o r t - a c t i n g , o r f i xe d - m i x) b y 50% ( b ) S t a r t p r am l i n t i d e a t a d o s e o f 1 5 µ g s u b c u t a n e o u s l y j u s t b e f o r e e a c h major meal (c) Monitor blood glucose frequently (before and after meals and at bedtime) (2) Step 2—titration ( a ) I n c r e a s e p r a m l i n t i d e i n 1 5 - µ g i n c r e m e n t s t o a m a i n t e n a n c e d o s e o f 30 µ g o r 6 0 µ g , a s t o l e r a t ed ( b ) I n c r e a s e d o s e t o t h e n e xt i n c r e m e n t wh e n n o n a u s e a f o r 3 d a ys ( c ) I f n a u s e a p e r s i s t s at t h e 4 5 µ g or 6 0 µ g d o s e s , r e d u c e do s e t o 3 0 µ g ( d ) I f t h e 3 0 µ g d o s e i s n o t t o l e r a t ed , c o n s i d e r d i s c o n t i n u a t i o n ( 3 ) S t e p 3 — wh e n a s t a b l e p r a m l i n t i d e r e g i m e n h a s b e e n e s t a b l i s h e d , a d j u s t i n s u l i n d o s e s t o o p t i m i ze g l yc e m i c c o n t r o l . ( 4 ) S t e p 4 — i n s t r u c t p a t ie n t s t o c o n t a c t h e a l t h c a r e p r o f e s s i o n a l a t l e a s t o n c e a we e k u n t i l p r a m l i n t i d e d o s e i s s t a b l e a n d we l l t o l e r a t e d a n d B G l e v e l s a r e s t a b l e . N o t i f y p r o v i d e r i f na u s e a a n d / o r h yp o g l yc e m i a i s o n g o i n g , frequent, or increasingly severe. b . D o s i n g f o r t yp e 2 DM (1) Step 1—initiation ( a ) R e d u c e p r e m e a l i n s u l i n d o s e ( r a p i d - a c t i n g , s h o r t - a c t i n g , o r f i xe d - m i x) b y 50% ( b ) S t a r t p r am l i n t i d e a t a d o s e o f 6 0 µ g s u b c u t a n e o u s l y j u s t b e f o r e e a c h major meal (c) Monitor blood glucose frequently (before and after meals and at bedtime) (2) Step 2—titration ( a ) I n c r e a s e p r a m l i n t i d e t o a m a i n t e na n c e d o s e o f 1 2 0 µ g wh e n n o n a u s e a f o r 5 - 7 d a ys ( b ) I f n a u s e a p e r s i s t s at t h e 1 2 0 - µ g d o s e , r e d u c e d o s e t o 6 0 µ g ( 3 ) S t e p 3 — wh e n a s t a b l e p r a m l i n t i d e r e g i m e n h a s b e e n e s t a b l i s h e d , a d j u s t i n s u l i n d o s e s t o o p t i m i ze g l yc e m i c c o n t r o l . ( 4 ) S t e p 4 — i n s t r u c t p a t ie n t s t o c o n t a c t h e a l t h c a r e p r o f e s s i o n a l a t l e a s t o n c e a we e k u n t i l p r a m l i n t i d e d o s e i s s t a b l e a n d we l l t o l e r a t e d a n d B G l e v e l s a r e s t a b l e . N o t i f y p r o v i d e r i f na u s e a a n d / o r h yp o g l yc e m i a i s o n g o i n g , frequent, or increasingly severe. c . D o s e o n l y wh e n m a j o r m e a l i s c on s u m e d , d e f i n e d a s > 2 50 k c a l o r > 3 0 g CHO d. Dose should be omitted if that meal is skipped. 5 . S M B G i s a n i mp o r t an t co m p o n en t o f d o s a g e t i t r a t i o n . a . C o n d u c t S M B G at l ea s t b e f o r e an d a f t e r m ea l s a n d a t b e d t i m e . b . F r e q u e n t S M B G i s e ss e n t i a l , b e c a u s e t h e d o s e s o f i n s u l in a n d p r a m l i n t i d e wi l l n e e d t o b e a d j u s t e d f r e q u e n t l y a s t h e p r o p e r d o s e s a r e e s t a b l i s h e d a n d t h e p a t i e n t i s a b l e t o t o l e r a t e t he m a xi m u m d o s e
c . O n c e t h e d o s e s o f i n su l i n a n d p r a m l i n t i d e a r e s t a b l e , t e st b e f o r e m e a l s a n d a t b e d t i m e p l u s o c ca s i o n a l 2 h r a f t e r a m e a l , d e p e n d i n g o n s t r i p coverage 6 . P a t i en t ed u c a t i o n a n d o t h e r co n c e r n s a. Most common side effects: nausea 30%-40% (usually transient), i n c r e a s e d o c c u r r e n c e o f h yp o g l y c e m i a ( p a r t i c u l a r l y i n p a t i e n t s wi t h t yp e 1 D M ) , l o s s o f a p p e t i t e , v om i t i n g , a n d h e a d a c h e . b . A v a i l a b l e i n 5 - m L v i a l c o n t a i n i n g 0 . 6 m g / m L , f o r u s e wi t h a s yr i n g e ( 1 ) S ym l i n i s l a b e l e d i n m i l l i g r a m s p e r l i t e r ( m g / m L ) , n o t u n i t s , a n d i s d o s e d in micrograms (µg). ( a ) T h e U - 10 0 i n s u l i n s yr i n g e s a r e u s u a l l y u s e d f o r d o s i n g ( p r e f e r a b l y a 0 . 3 - c c s yr i n g e ) ; 6 µ g = 1 U o n t h e syr i n g e ( b ) T h i s l a be l i n g a n d t h e n e c e s s i t y f o r c o n v e r t in g t o v o l u m e f o r u s e i n a U 1 0 0 i n s u l i n s yr i n g e m a y b e c o n f u s i n g t o p a t i e n t s. ( c ) T h e U - 10 0 s yr i n g e s a r e g e n e r a l l y n o t a v a i l a b l e i n o t h e r c o u n t r i e s , wh i c h may further compound the dosing confusion for patients traveling abroad. ( 2 ) P a t i e n t ed u c a t i o n i s c r i t i c a l t o p r o p e r d o s i n g . c. Inject in abdomen or thigh (not arm) P.1185
d . T h e d e c i si o n t o d o s e b e f o r e a g i v e n m e a l i s b a s e d o n t h e c a r b o h yd r a t e ( o r c a l o r i e s ) c o n t e n t o f t h e m e a l . T hu s i t i s e s s en t i a l t h a t t h e p a t i e n t k n o ws t h e b a s i c s of c a r b o h y d r a t e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n a n d q u a n t i f i c a t i o n ( c a r b o h yd r a t e counting). e . D o n o t m i x S ym l i n i n j e c t i o n ( p H ~ 4 ) i n t h e s a m e s yr i n g e wi t h i n s u l i n ( p H ~ 7 ) . G i v e at t wo s e p a r a t e i n j e c t i o n s , a t l e a s t 2 in . a p a r t . f. Clear, colorless injection g . R e f r i g e r a t e u n t i l u s e . O p e n e d v i a l s m a y b e k e p t i n t h e r ef r i g e r a t o r o r a t r o o m t e m p e r a t u r e . Af t e r o p e n i n g , d i s c a r d a n y r e m a i n d e r a f t e r 2 8 d a ys . I . D i p e p t i d yl P e p t i d a s e - 4 ( D P P - 4 ) I n h i b i t o r s 1. Agents a. Sitagliptin (Januvia) b. Combination products (1) Sitagliptin/metformin (Janumet) 2. Indications/Contraindications a . T yp e 2 d i a b e t e s : u s e d t o r e d u c e f a s t i n g a n d p o s t p r a n d i a l h yp e r g l yc e m i a a n d t o i m p r o v e A 1 C i n p a t i e n t s wh o h a v e n o t a c h i e v e d d e s i r e d g l yc e m i c c o n t r o l u s i n g d i e t a n d e xe r c i s e , wi t h o r wi t h o u t o t h e r o r a l a n t i d i a b e t e s agents. (1) Monotherapy ( 2 ) C o m b i n a t i o n t h e r a p y wi t h m e t f o r m i n , t h i a z o l i d i n e d i o n e s , s u l f o n yl u r e a s ( 3 ) S u c c e s sf u l s i t a g l i p t i n t h e r a p y r e q u i r e s a d e q u a t e l e v e l s o f e n d o g e n o u s i n c r e t i n h o r m o n e s . S i t ag l i p t i n wi l l b e m o s t u s ef u l i n t h e e a r l y s t a g e s o f t yp e
2 d i a b e t e s ; i n a d v a n c e d s t a g e s o f t yp e 2 d i a b e t e s , l e v e l s o f G L P - 1 a n d G I P are significantly reduced or absent. b . T yp e 1 d i a b e t e s : c o n t r a i n d i c a t e d c . U s e i n p ed i a t r i c p a t i e n t s : s a f e t y a n d e f f i c a c y h a s n o t b e e n e s t a b l i s h e d , and is therefore not recommended. d. Pregnancy Category B: Merck & Company has established a registry to m o n i t o r p r e n a t a l s i t a g l i p t i n e xp o s u r e a n d p r e g n a n c y o u t c o m e s . A n y p r e n a t a l e x p o s u r e t o s i t a g l i p t i n s h o u l d b e r e p o r t e d t o t he R e g i s t r y b y c a l l i n g ( 8 0 0 ) 986-8999. e . U s e i n n ur s i n g wo m e n : S i t a g l i p t i n i s s e c r e t ed i n t h e m i l k o f l a c t at i n g r a t s, b u t i t i s n o t k n o wn wh e t h e r i t i s e xc r e t e d i n h u m a n m i l k . Us e c a u t i o n , o r avoid use during lactation. 3. Mechanisms of Action a . D P P - 4 i s a n e n d o g e n o u s e n z ym e wh i c h r a p i d l y i n a c t i v a t e s i n c r e t i n h o r m o n e s , n o t a b l y G L P - 1 a n d G I P. S i t a g l i p t i n i n h i b i t s D P P - 4 , t h e r e b y s l o wi n g t h e i n a c t i v a t i o n o f t h e i n c r e t i n h o r m o n e s a n d r e s u l t i n g i n i n c r e a s e d levels and prolonged action of these hormones. b . T h e t h e r a p e u t i c e f f e c t s o f D P P- 4 in h i b i t i o n wi l l e n h a n c e ( a n d t h e r e f o r e m i m i c ) t h e a c t i o n s o f G LP - 1 a n d G I P ( s e e I I . A. 3 . ) c . O t h e r s u bs t r a t e s f o r DP P - 4 i n c l u d e s u b s t a n c e P , g r o wt h h o r m o n e r e l e a s i n g h o r m o n e ( G H RH ) , n e u r o p e p t i d e Y ( N PY ) a n d p e p t i d e Y Y ( P Y Y) . R e p o r t s o f na s o p h a r yn g i t i s i n h u m a n s u b j e c t s t r ea t e d wi t h D P P - 4 i n h i b i t o r s m a y b e r e l a t e d t o a l t e r ed l e v e l s o f su b s t a n c e P . T h e c l i n i c a l i m p a c t o f DP P 4 i n h i b i t i o n u p o n o t h e r s u b s t r a t e s is u n c l e a r o r f o u n d n o t t o b e s i g n i f i c a n t . d . A t t h e r a p e u t i c d o s e s , s i t a g l i p t i n a p p e a r s t o b e s e l e c t i v e f o r D P P - 4 a nd d o e s n o t i n h i b i t D P P - 8 or D P P - 9 a ct iv i t y i n v i t r o . 4. Administration and dosage (Table 54-2) 5 . P a t i e n t ed u c a t i o n a n d o t h e r c o n ce r n s a . M o s t n o t ab l e s i d e e f f e c t s ( ≥ 5 % i n c i d e n c e ) : u p p e r r e s p i r a t o r y t r a c t infection, nasopharyngitis, headache b. Less frequent side effects (<5%): gastrointestinal reactions such as abdominal pain, nausea, diarrhea c . S i d e e f f ec t s r e p o r t e d f r o m p o s t m a r k e t i n g e xp e r i e n c e ( i n c i d e n c e n o t k n o wn ) : h yp e r s e n s i t i v i t y r e a c t i o n s , in c l u d i n g a n a p h yl a xi s , a n g i o e d e m a , rash, urticaria d . H y p o g l yc e m i a wi t h m o n o t h e r a p y i s r a r e . S i t a gl i p t i n i s a n a n t i h yp e r g l yc e m i c a g e n t r at h e r t h a n a h yp o g l yc e m i c a g e n t . e . H yp o g l y c e m i a m a y o c c u r wh e n s i t a g l i p t i n i s u s e d wi t h a s u l f o n yl u r e a agent. ( 1 ) d o s a g e o f t h e s u l f o nyl u r e a m a y n e e d t o b e a d j u s t e d ( 2 ) e d u c a t e p a t i e n t o n t h e s i g n s , s ym p t o m s , p r e v e n t i o n , a n d t r e a t m e n t of h yp o g l y c e m i a f . N o t if y p r e s c r i b e r i f s ym p t o m s o f f e v e r , i n f e c t io n , o r h yp e r s e n s i t i v i t y reaction occur. P.1186
g . ( F e m a l e s) N o t i f y p r e s c r i b e r i f yo u i n t e n d t o be c o m e p r e g n a n t , o r t h i n k y o u a r e p r e g n a n t , o r i f yo u p l a n t o b r e a s t - f e e d yo u r b a b y. h . A p a t i e n t i n f o r m a t i o n l e a f l e t i s a v ai l a b l e f r o m M e r c k & C o m p a n y a n d s h o u l d b e d i s p e n s e d wi t h e a c h d i s p e n s i n g o f J a n u v i a .
VIII. PATIENT EDUCATION AND SELF-CARE. Patient education about the disease and patient participation in medical c a r e a r e t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t a s p e c t s o f D M m a n a g e m e n t . W it h o u t p a t i e n t i n v o l v e m e n t a n d p a r t i c i p a t i o n , e v e n t h e i d e a l p h a r m a c o t h e r a p y , d i e t a r y, or o t h e r i n t e r ve n t i o n w i l l f a i l . P a t i e n t e d u c a t i o n i m p r o v e s u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e d i s e a s e ; p r o m o t e s op t i m a l p a t i e n t c h o i c e s r e g a r d i n g d i e t , m e d i c a t i o n , a n d e x e r c i s e ; a n d f a c i l i t a t e s d e c i s i o n - m a k i n g s k i l l s . N a t i o n a l , st a t e , a n d local diabetes professional groups have published guidelines to ensure t h o r o u g h a n d e f f e c t i v e t e a c h i n g c o n t e n t a n d m et h o d s . E xa m p l e s o f p a t i e n t e d u c a t i o n t o p i c s i n c l u d e , b u t a r e n o t l i m i t e d t o , t h e f o l l o wi n g : A. P r e ve n t i o n , r e c o g n i t i o n , a n d t re a t m e n t o f a c u t e h yp o g l yc e m i c a n d h yp e r g l yc e m i c e p i s o d e s . B . R e d u c t i o n o f mo d i f i a b l e r i s k f a c t o r s f o r t he d e v e l o p m e n t o f c h r o ni c complications 1. Achievement of HbAIC < 7% (based on upper limit of normal = 6%) 2. Smoking cessation 3. Normalization of blood pressure 4. Normalization of blood lipid profile 5 . R e d u c t i o n o f we i g h t t o a t l e a s t a B M I of 2 5 , i f a p p l i c a b l e 6 . R o u t i n e a s s e s s m e n t / sc r e e n i n g f o r a n d e a r l y t r e a t m e n t o f ch r o n i c complications C . P a t t e r n c o n t r o l . A d ju s t m e n t a l g o r i t h m s f o r d i e t , e xe r c i s e , a n d / o r medications based on trends in BG control. D . I m p l e m e n t a t i o n o f sp e c i f i c s e l f - c a r e m e a s u r e s 1 . F o o t c a r e . N e u r o p a t h y, p e r i p h e r a l v a s c u l a r d i s e a s e , t r au m a , a n d i n f e c t i o n i n c r e a s e t h e r is k f o r l o we r - e xt r e m i t y c o m p l i c a t i o n s a n d a m p u t a t i o n , c a u s i n g h o s p i t a l i z a t i o n s , d i s a b i l i t y, m o r b i d i t y, a n d m o r t a l i t y. a . I n s p e c t f ee t a n d i n t e r d i g i t a l a r e a s d a i l y, l o o k i n g f o r c h a n g e s i n c o l o r o r s k i n i n t e g r i t y. b . I n s p e c t s h o e s d a i l y b e f o r e p u t t i ng t h e m o n , t o d e t e c t l o o s e o b j e c t s or r o u g h s h o e m a t e r i a l s t ha t m a y i n j u r e o r i r r i t at e t h e s k i n . c . C l e a n f e e t d a i l y, a n d d r y t h o r o u g h l y. U s e f o r e a r m , e l b o w, o r a t h e r m o m e t e r t o c h e c k wa t e r t e m p e r a t u r e i f t h e p a t i e n t h a s n e u r o p a t h y induced sensation loss. d . M o i s t u r i ze d r y s k i n wi t h h a n d l o t i o n o r V a s e l i n e . A v o i d a r e a b e t we e n t h e toes. e . C u t t o e n a i l s s t r a i g h t ac r o s s , o r f o ll o w t h e n a t u r a l c u r v e o f t h e t o e . f . Av o i d s e l f - t r e a t m e n t o f c o r n s, c a l lu s e s , o r i n gr o wn t o e n a i l s .
g . W e a r we l l - f i t t i n g s h o e s a n d s o f t co t t o n s o c k s. A v o i d g o i n g b a r e f o o t . h . S e e k p r om p t m e d i c a l a t t e n t i o n f o r a n y p r o b l e m s i d e n t i f i e d ( e . g . , c u t s, b l i s t e r s , c a l lu s e s , u n h e a l i n g wo u n d s , o r s i g n s o f i n f e c t i o n s su c h a s r e d n e s s , s we l l i n g , d r a i n a g e , p u s , o r f e v e r ) . 2 . S k i n c a r e . D r y s k i n o c c u r s f r e q ue n t l y i n i n d i v i d u a l s wi t h D M o wi n g t o d e h y d r a t i o n ( s e c o n d a r y t o h yp e r g l yc e m i a - i n d u c e d d i u r e s i s ) a n d / o r anhidrosis (secondary to autonomic neuropathic condition, resulting in little o r n o p e r s p i r a t i o n ) . E l e va t e d b l o o d g l u c o s e l e v e l s a n d i m p a i r e d c i r c u l a t i o n a l s o i n c r e a s e t h e r i s k f or t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f sk i n i n f e c t i o n s . a . I n s p e c t sk i n d a i l y f o r a b r a s i o n s , p a i n , o r s we l l i n g . C o n s u l t t h e h e a l t h c a r e provider promptly if problems are noted. b . K e e p s k in c l e a n u s i n g a m i l d s o a p a n d wa r m ( n o t h o t ) wa t e r . c. Use moisturizing lotion (alcohol free and not oiled based) on dry skin areas. d . U s e s u n s c r e e n p r o d u c t s t h r o u g h o u t t h e ye a r . A s a p h ys i c a l s t r e s s, severe sunburn may raise BG. e . A v o i d s i t ua t i o n s wi t h p o t e n t i a l f o r l o c a l t r a u m a , e s p e c i a l l y t o l e g s a n d f e e t . I f i n j u r y o c c u r s , t he l e s i o n s h o u l d b e c o v e r e d wi t h s t e r i l e g a u z e a n d first-aid measures applied. P.1187
3 . D e n t a l ca r e . P e r i o d o n t a l d i s e a s e i s o f t e n a c ce l e r a t e d i n p e o p l e wi t h long-standing or poorly controlled diabetes. a . A ye a r l y d e n t a l e x a m i s r e c o m m en d e d . b. Effective brushing and flossing are essential. 4 . E ye c a r e . D i a b e t e s i s a l e a d i n g c a u s e o f v i s io n i m p a i r m e n t i n t h e U n it e d S t a t e s a n d t h e l e a d i n g c a u s e o f b l i n d n e s s f o r i nd i v i d u a l s b e t we e n t h e a g e s o f 2 0 a n d 7 4 ye a r s o f a g e . A ye a r l y d i l a t e d e ye e xa m i s r e c o m m e n d e d , wi t h m o r e f r e q u e n t f o l l o w- u p g u i d e d b y t h e s e v e r i t y o f d i s e a s e .
IX. ASSESSMENT OF GLYCEMIC CONTROL A. S e l f - m o n i t o ri n g o f b l o o d g l u co s e 1 . I n d i c a t e d f o r a l l i n d i v i d u a l s wi t h d i a b e t e s . T h e f r e q u e n c y a n d t i m e o f t e s t i n g v a r y a c c o r d i n g t o t yp e o f d i a b e t e s , t yp e o f a n t i d i a b e t e s m e d i c a t i o n , a n d g o a l s o f t h e r a p y. 2 . I n v o l v e s t h e p a t i e n t i n t h e t r e a t m en t p r o c e s s 3 . A l l o ws t h e p a t i e n t a n d t h e h e a l t h c a r e p r o v i d e r t o a ss e s s t h e i n d i v i d u a l ' s r e s p o n s e t o v a r i o u s f a c t o r s ( e . g . , l if e s t yl e m o d i f i c a t i o n s , n u t r i t i o n a l a l t e r a t i o n s , m e d i c a t i o n a d j u s t m e n t s , st r e s s , i l l n e s s , i n f e ct i o n , t r a u m a , c h a n g e s i n p h ys i c a l a c t i v i t y) 4 . G i v e s i m m e d i a t e f e e d b a c k a n d d a t a f o r t h e pa t i e n t t o u s e i n t h e a p p l i c a t i o n o f d i e t , e xe r c i s e , o r i n s ul i n a d j u s t m e n t a l g o r i t h m s ( d e c i s i o n making skills)
5 . A v a r i e t y o f t e s t i n g p r o d u c t s a n d p r o d u c t f e a t u r e s a r e a va i l a b l e . T h e u s e o f m e t e r s wi t h t e st m e m o r y f u n c t i o n s a n d t h e c ap a c i t y t o d o wn l o a d ( v i a c o m p u t e r ) SM B G r e s u l t s p r o v i d e s e f f i c i e n t a c c e s s a n d a n a l ys i s o f S M B G trends. 6 . C o n t i n u o u s g l u c o s e m o n i t o r i n g ( C G M ) . R e c e n t l y, t h e t e ch n o l o g y f o r c o n t i n u o u s m o n i t o r i n g o f i n t e r st i t i a l g l u c o s e h a s b e c o m e c o m m e r c i a l l y available. a . I n t e r s t i t i al f l u i d g l u c o s e c o r r e l a t e s h i g h l y wi t h b l o o d g l u c o s e . T h e CG M s ys t e m u s u a l l y e m p l o y s a s e n s o r d e v i c e i n s e r t e d i n t o t h e s ub c u t a n e o u s t i s s u e , a n d a m e c h a n i s m f o r t r a n sm i t t i n g t h e da t a t o a d e v ic e wh i c h t h e n d i s p l a ys t h e g l u c o s e l e v e l a s we l l a s s o m e st a t i st i c a l g l u c o s e d a t a . b . T h e s e s y s t e m s d o n ot r e p l a c e SM B G r e a d i n g s . S M BG v a l u e s a r e n e e d e d f o r s ys t e m c a l i b r a t i o n a n d a r e r e c o m m e n d e d f o r m a k i n g t r e a t m e n t decisions. c . C G M m a y b e a s u p p l e m e n t a l t o o l t o S M B G f o r s e l e c t e d t yp e 1 p a t i e n t s , e s p e c i a l l y t h o s e wi t h h yp o g l yc e m i a u n a wa r e n e s s ( t h e C G M d e v i c e h a s a l a r m s f o r hy p o - a n d h y p e r g l yc e m i a ) , wi d e l y f l u c t u a t i n g B G p a t t e r n s , o r t h e d e s i r e a n d m o t i v a t i o n t o o p t i m i z e g l yc e m i c c o n t r o l t h r o u g h o u t t h e d a y. B . U r i n e g l u c o s e t e s t i n g . N o l o n g e r r e c o m m en d e d b e c a u s e i t p r o v i d e s only retrospective information and does not reflect current blood glucose. R e s e r v e d o n l y f o r i n d i v i d u a l s u n a b l e o r u n wi l l i n g t o p e r f o r m S M B G . C . U r i n e k e t o n e m o n i t o r i n g . A n es s e n t i a l c o m p o n e n t o f d i a b e t e s m a n a g e m e n t , p a r t i c u l a r l y u n d e r t h e f o l l o wi n g c o n d i t i o n s : 1 . D u r i n g i l l n e s s i n a l l p a t i e n t s wi t h d i a b e t e s b e c a u s e e v e n t h o s e wi t h t yp e 2 D M c a n be c o m e k e t o t i c d u r i n g p e r i o d s o f s e ve r e s t r e s s, in f e c t i o n , o r trauma 2 . P a t i e n t s wi t h t yp e 1 D M wh e n b l o o d g l u c o s e i s c o n s i s t en t l y > 2 4 0 m g / d L 3 . P r e g n a n t wo m e n wi t h d i a b e t e s ( i n c l u d i n g g e s t a t i o n a l d i a b e t e s ) 4 . I n d i v i d u a l s a c t i v e l y t r yi n g t o l o s e we i g h t b y c a l o r i e r e s t r i c t i o n D . L o n g - t e rm m o n i t o ri n g o f g l yc e m i c c o n t r o l 1 . H b AI C t e s t a . R e f l e c t s a v e r a g e b l o o d g l u c o s e l e v e l o v e r t he p r e c e d i n g 2 - 3 m o n t h s . b . B a s e d o n a n u p p e r l i m i t o f n o r m a l b e i n g 6 % f o r H b A I C; an H b A I C l e v e l o f 7 . 0 % o r l o we r i n d i c a t e s g o o d o v e r a l l g l yc e m i c c o n t r o l , wh e r e a s > 7. 0 % r e v e a l s t h e n e e d f o r a d d i t i o n a l i n t e r v e n t i o n . F or m a n y i n d i v i d u a l s , a g o a l c l o s e r t o n or m a l m a y b e d e s i r a b l e , p r o v i d e d i t d o e s n o t p o s e u n d u e r i s k f o r h yp o g l y c e m i a . P.1188
c . U n d e r l yi n g h e m o g l o b i n o p a t h i e s m a y c a u s e a n o m a l o u s v a l u e s . d . I n g e n e r a l , t h e f r e q u e n c y o f H b A I C t e s t i n g i s a t l e a s t tw i ce a ye a r i n p a t i e n t s wi t h s t a b l e g l yc e m i c c o n t r o l a n d a t l e a s t q u a r t e r l y i n p a t i e n t s wh o s e t h e r a p y h a s r e c e n t l y c h a n g e d o r wh o a r e i n p o o r c o n t r o l . 2 . G l yc o s yl a t e d f r u c t o s a m i n e t e s t
a . M e a s u r e s g l yc e m i c c o n t r o l o v e r t he p r e c e d i n g 2 - 3 we e k s b . U s e f u l f o r s h o r t - t e r m f o l l o w- u p o f r e c e n t l y i m p l e m e n t e d i n t e r v e n t i o n s , wh e n t i m e l y a s s e s s m e n t o f t h e i n t e r v e n t i o n i s i m p o r t a n t ( e . g . , c h a n g e s i n d i a b e t e s t h e r a p y d u r i n g p r e g n a n c y) . c . P r o v i d e s a n a l t e r n a t i v e t e s t f o r g l yc e m i c c o n t r o l i n p a t i e n t s wi t h a b n o r m a l h e m o g l o b i n , wh i c h i n t e r f e r e s wi t h t h e a n i o n - e xc h a n g e chromatography methods for hemoglobin A1C
X. ACUTE CHANGES IN GLYCEMIC CONTROL A. H yp e r g l y c e m i a 1 . M i l d t o mo d e r a t e s e ve r i t y. R a p i d o n s e t ( wi t h i n h o u r s ) , n o m e t a b o l i c abnormalities a . Ac u t e - o n s e t h yp e r g l y c e m i a . O wi n g t o u n p l a n n e d e v e n t s u c h a s i l l n e s s , emotional distress, or excessive caloric intake b . H yp e r g l y c e m i a f o l l o w in g p r o l o n g e d o r s e ve r e h yp o g l yc e m i a . S o m o g yi e f f e c t o r r e bo u n d h y p e r g l yc e m i a ( n o t a b l y t yp e 1 D M ) c . H yp e r g l y c e m i a o c c u r r i n g a s a p a t t e r n i n t h e e a r l y m o r n i n g . ( 1 ) C a u s e d b y c o u n t e r r e g u l a t o r y h o r m o n e s ( i . e . , d a wn p h e n o m e n o n ) ( 2 ) C a u s e d b y n o c t u r n a l h e p a t i c g l u c o s e p r o d u c t i o n ( n o t a b l y t yp e 2 D M ) 2 . M o d e r a t e t o s e ve r e s e ve r i t y ( B G > 2 5 0 m g / dL ) . S h o r t d u r a t i o n ( o n e t o s e v e r a l d a y s ) , wi t h a c i d o s i s a n d k e t o s i s — d i a b et i c k e t o a c i d o s i s ( D K A) (see II.B.1) a . O f t e n t h e p r e s e n t i n g d i s o r d e r i n c h i l d r e n wi t h p r e v i o u s l y u n d i a g n o s e d type 1 DM b . P r e c i p i t a t i n g f a c t o r s i n c l u d e s t r e s s , i n f e ct i o n , e xe r c i s e , exc e s s i v e a l c o h o l c o n s u m p t i o n , im p r o p e r i n s u l i n t h e r a p y, a n d d i e t a r y n o n c o m p l i a n c e . c . P h ys i c a l f i n d i n g s i n c l u d e K u s s m a u l r e s p i r a t i o n s , a c e t o n e b r e a t h o d o r , d e h y d r a t i o n , d r y s k i n , p o o r s k i n t u r go r , r e d u c e d l e v e l o f c o n s c i o u s n e s s ( r a n g i n g f r o m c o n f u s i o n t o c o m a ) , an d a b d o m i n a l p a i n . d . L a b o r a t o r y f i n d i n g s i n c l u d e h yp e r g l yc e m i a , k e t o s i s , l o w a r t e r i a l p H a n d c a r b o n d i o xi d e p a r t i a l p r e s s u r e ( P C O 2 ) v a l u e s , a n d a b n o r m a l s e r u m e l e c t r o l yt e v a l u e s . e. Therapy involves fluid, intravenous insulin by continuous infusion, e l e c t r o l yt e r e p l a c e m e n t , a n d h o s p i t a l i z a t i o n . W i t h o u t t r e a t m e n t , d e a t h ensues. 3 . S e ve r e ( B G > 5 0 0 m g / d L ) . I nt e r m e d i a t e d u r a t i o n ( d a ys t o we e k s ) , wi t h p r o f o u n d d e h yd r a t i o n , d i m i n i s h e d c e n t r a l n e r v o u s s ys t e m ( C N S ) f u n c t i o n a n d i n c r e a s e d s e r u m o sm o l a l i t y, wi t h o u t k e t o s i s o r a c i d o s i s — H H S c o m a . a . O c c u r s p r i m a r i l y i n t yp e 2 D M b. Has a higher mortality rate than DKA c . P r e c i p i t at i n g f a c t o r s i n c l u d e i l l n e s s e s a n d c o n d i t i o n s t h a t i n c r e a s e i n s u l i n r e q u i r e m e n t s a n d p r e d i s p o s e t h e p a t i e n t t o d e h yd r a t i o n . ( 1 ) E xa m p l e s i n c l u d e s e v e r e b u r n s , G I b l e e d i n g , C N S i n j u r y, a n d a c u t e m yo c a r d i a l i n f a r c t i o n .
( 2 ) U s e o f g l u c o g e n i c d r u g s ( e . g . , st e r o i d s , g l u c a g o n , t h i a z i d e d i u r e t i c s , cimetidine, propranolol) ( 3 ) M e d i c a l p r o c e d u r e s o r h yp e r t o n i c h i g h - g l u c o s e p r o d u c t s s u c h a s i n t r a v e n o u s h yp e r a l i m e n t a t i o n , p e r i t o n e a l d i a l ys i s , a n d e n t e r a l n u t r i t i o n d . P h ys i c a l f i n d i n g s i n c l u d e p o l yu r i a , p o l yd i p s i a , d e h yd r a t i o n , h yp o t e n s i o n , r a p i d r e s p ir a t i o n s , a b d o m i n a l d i s c o m f o r t , n a u s e a , v o m i t i ng , t a c h yc a r d i a , p a l p i t a t i o n s , a n d p r o f o u n d s i g n s o f n e u r o l o g i c a l d e f i c i t s ( s uc h a s c o n f u s i o n , c o m a , g e n e r a l i z e d o r f o c a l s e i z u r e s , m yo c l o n i c j e r k i n g , an d hemiparesis). e . L ab o r a t o r y f i n d i n g s i n c l u d e h yp e r g l yc e m i a ( o f t e n s u b s t an t i a l l y a b o v e 500 mg/dL), absence of ketosis, and serum osmolarity > 320 mOsm/kg. C a l c u l a t e d a s f o l l o ws :
P.1189
wh e r e s o d i u m i s m e a s u r e d i n m i l l i e q u i v a l e n t s p e r l i t e r a n d g lu c o s e i s measured in milligrams per deciliter. f . T h e r a p y i n v o l v e s f l u i d , i n s u l i n , a n d e l e c t r o l yt e r e p l a c e m e n t . B . H yp o g l y c e m i a 1 . M i l d h yp o g l yc e m i a . P r i m a r i l y a d r e n e r g i c s ym p t o m s ( t a ch yc a r d i a , p a l p i t a t i o n s , s h a k i n e s s ) o r c h o l i n e r g i c ( s we a t i n g ) s ym p t o m s , o r e f f e ct s of m i l d C N S g l u c o p e n i a ( i n a b i l i t y t o c o n c e n t r a t e , di z z i n e s s , h u n g e r , b l u r r e d v i s i o n ) , b u t s ym p t o m s a r e n o t s e v e r e e n o u g h t o i n t e r f e r e wi t h s e l f m e d i c a t i o n f o r t h e h yp o g l yc e m i a . 2 . M o d e r a t e h yp o g l yc e m i a . T h e C N S i s m o r e m a r k e d l y d e p r i v e d o f g l u c o s e , e l i c i t i n g s ym p t o m s o f c o n f u s i o n , i n a p p r o p r i a t e b e h a v i o r , a n d i m p a i r m e n t o f m o t o r f u nc t i o n . T h e p a t i e n t i s m i ni m a l l y c a p a b l e o f s e l f t r e a t m e n t , an d a s s i s t a n c e i s u s u a l l y n e e d e d . T h e p a t i e n t i s n o t unconscious. 3 . S e ve r e h yp o g l yc e m i a . C o m a , s ei z u r e , a n d / o r i m p a i r m e n t o f m ot o r function to the extent that self-treatment is not possible. 4 . P s e u d o h yp o g l yc e m i a . P a t i e n t pe r c e i v e s h yp o g l yc e m i c s ym p t o m s ( u s u a l l y a d r e n e r g i c ) , b u t BG m a y b e n o r m a l , o r s l i g h t l y a b o v e n o r m a l , an d may be rapidly falling. 5 . H yp o g l yc e m i a u n aw ar e n e s s . P a t ie n t p e r c e i v e s n o o r m i n im a l s ym p t o m s . F a m i l y o r c o - wo r k e r s m a y n o t i c e n e u r o l o g i c a l i m p a i r m e n t o r s we a t i n g . B G m a y b e l o w t o s e r i o u s l y l o w. 6 . P r e c i p i t at i n g f a c t o r s a . R e l a t i v e o r a b s o l u t e e xc e s s o f i n s u l i n o r o r a l h yp o g l yc e m i c a g e n t b . D e l a ye d o r i n s u f f i c i en t f o o d i n t a ke c . M o r e e xe r c i s e t h a n us u a l
d. Alcohol ingestion e . D r u g i n t er a c t i o n r e s u l t i n g i n p o t e n t i a t i o n o f h yp o g l yc e m i c m e d i c a t i o n o r a d i r e c t h y p o g l yc e m i c e f f e c t f . Su b t l e c au s e s (1) Hormonal changes (e.g., drop in progesterone level as part of menstrual c yc l e ) ( 2 ) P a t i e n t s wi t c h e s t o a n e w b o t t l e o f i n s u l i n a n d , u n k n o wn t o t h e p a t i en t o r p h ys i c i a n , t h e p r e v i ou s b o t t l e h a d l o s t s o m e o f i t s p o t e n c y ( 3 ) G a s t r o p a r e s i s ( d e l a y e d e m p t y i n g o f t h e s t om a c h f o l l o wi n g a m e a l ) , a n autonomic neuropathy complication of diabetes ( 4 ) C h a n g e i n i n s u l i n i n j e c t i o n s i t e s , e s p e c i a l l y i f i n j e c t i o n wa s g i v e n a t a s u b c u t a n e o u s s i t e a s s oc i a t e d wi t h m u s c l e s u s e d f o r e xe r c i s e ( b l o o d f l o w, a n d t h u s i n s u l i n a b s o r p t i o n , i s i n c r e a s e d o wi n g t o t h e e xe r c i s i n g m u s c l e ) g. Treatment ( 1 ) C o n s c i o u s p a t i e n t . U s e 1 0 - 1 5 g f a s t - a c t i n g ( s i m p l e ) o r a l c a r b o h yd r a t e , s u c h a s 4 oz . o f f r u i t j u ic e , m i l k , o r r e g u l a r s o d a ; 2 - 4 g l u c o s e t a b l e t s o r h a r d c a n d y. H o n e y o r a g l u c o s e g e l p r o d u c t m a y b e p l a c e d i n t o t h e p a t i e n t ' s m ou t h , i f t h e pe r s o n i s t o o c o n f u s e d o r u n r e s p o n s i v e f o r s e l f t r e a t m e n t . T r e a t m e n t m ay b e r e p e a t e d i n 1 0 - 1 5 m i n i f BG d oe s n o t r e t u r n t o normal. ( 2 ) U n c o n sc i o u s p a t i e n t ( a ) I n t r a v e n o u s g l u c o s e , u s i n g 1 0 % o r 5 0 % d e xt r o s e s o l u t i o n ( b ) G l u c a g o n i n j e c t i o n . B e t we e n 0 . 5 a n d 1 m g g iv e n s u b c u t a n e o u s l y, i n t r a m u s c u l a r l y, o r i n t r a v e n o u s l y
XI. LONG-TERM COMPLICATIONS A. M a c r o va s c u l a r c o mp l i c a t i o n s ( c o r o n a r y a r t e r y, c e r e b r o va s c u l a r a n d p e r i p h e r a l va s c u l a r d i s e a s e ) 1 . At h e r o s c l e r o s i s ( c o r o n a r y, c e r e b r o v a s c u l a r , a n d p e r i p h e r a l v e s s e l s ) o c c u r s a t a n e a r l i e r a g e t h a n n o n d i a b e t i c i n d i v i d u a l s . W o m en wi t h d i a b e t e s l o s e t h e i r g e n d e r p r o t e c t i o n f r o m a t he r o s c l e r o s i s . P.1190
2 . P e r i p h e ra l va s c u l a r d i s e a s e m a y l e a d t o p a i n ( i n t e r m i t t e n t c l a u d i c a t i o n ) , c h r o n i c c o l d f e e t , o r i ns u f f i c i e n t c i r c u l a t i o n t o e n a b l e h e a l i n g o f d i s t a l l e s io n s ( u l t i m a t e l y l e a d i n g t o g a n g r e n e a n d a m p u t a t i o n ) . 3 . H yp e r t e n s i o n ( H T N) a . C o - e x i s t e n c e o f HT N a n d D M s t r ik i n g l y i n c r e a s e s t h e r i sk o f c a r d i o va s c u l a r d i s e a s e , d o u b l e s t h e r i s k o f c ar d i o v a s c u l a r d e a t h , a n d i n c r e a s e s i n c i d e n c e o f s t r o k e a n d t r a n s i e n t i s ch e m i c e ve n t s i n D M individuals. b . S e v e r i t y o r l a b i l i t y o f h yp e r t e n s i o n i s d e t e r m in e d b y f a c t o r s s u c h a s a g e , r a c e , s e x , gr e a t e r b o d y m a s s , d u r a t io n o f D M , an d p e r s i s t e n c e o f proteinuria.
c . A s s o c i a t ed wi t h a c c e l e r a t i o n o f r et i n o p a t h y, n e p h r o p a t h y, a n d atherosclerosis d . H y p e r i n s u l i n e m i a a n d / o r i n s u l i n r e s i s t a n c e m a y b e a s i g n i f i c a n t f a ct o r i n t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f DM h yp e r t e n s i o n . 4 . M o r t a l i t y f r o m c o ro n ar y a r t e r y d i s e a s e ( C A D ) i s t wo f o l d t o f o u r f o l d g r e a t e r i n b o t h m e n a n d wo m e n wi t h d i a b e t e s t h a n t h o s e wi t h o u t D M , a nd m o r t a l i t y f r o m c e r e b r o v a s c u l a r d i s e a s e i s t h r e e t o f i v e t im e s g r e a t e r . 5 . M a y p r e s e n t a s a t yp i c a l p r e s e n t a t i o n o f C A D , i n c l u d i n g s i l e n t m yo c a r d i a l i n f a r c t i o n an d l a c k o f ch e s t p a i n ( o wi n g t o a u t o n o m i c n e u r o p a t h y) . S ym p t o m s m a y b e l i m i t e d t o n a u s e a , s h o r t n e s s o f b r e a t h , s we a t i n g , a n d v o m i t i n g . 6 . M o d i f i ab l e r i s k f a c t o r s i n c l u d e h yp e r g l yc e m i a , h yp e r t e n s i o n , d ys l i p i d e m i a , t o b a c c o u s e , o b e s i t y, n u t r i t i o n , i n c r e a s e d i n s u l i n l e v e l s , p h ys i c a l i n a c t i v i t y, a n d i n c r e a s e d h o m o c ys t e i n e l e v e l s . 7 . P r e ve n t i o n a n d t r e a t m e n t s t r a t e g i e s t o s l o w t h e d e v e l o p m e n t a n d / o r progression of disease. a . A g g r e s s i ve m a n a g e m e n t o f h yp e r t e n s i o n , h yp e r l i p i d e m i a , a n d h yp e r g l yc e m i a b. Smoking cessation c . I n c r e a s e d p h ys i c a l a c t i v i t y d . D a i l y a s p i r i n t h e r a p y f o r t h o s e i nd i v i d u a l s wi t h n o c o n t r a i n d i c a t i o n s e. Drug therapy appropriate for the complication, including angiotensinc o n v e r t i n g e n z ym e ( A C E ) i n h i b i t o r t he r a p y a s a c o m p o n e n t o f HT N t h e r a p y and a cardioselective β-blocker agent for cardiac disease. B . E ye d i s e a s e s 1. Diabetic retinopathy a. A consequence of microvascular changes b . M o s t p r e v a l e n t e ye c o m p l i c a t i o n a n d i s o f t e n de t e c t a b l e wi t h i n 5 ye a r s a f t e r t h e d i a g n o s i s o f DM . Pr e s e n t in > 9 0 % o f p a t i e n t s wi t h t yp e 1 a n d 5 5 % - 8 0 % o f p a t i e n t s wi t h t yp e 2 D M , a f t e r 1 5 ye a r s o f d i a b e t e s . c. Leading cause of new blindness in the United States d. Categories of retinopathy ( 1 ) N o n p ro l i f e r a t i ve ( b a c k g r o u n d ) r e t i n o p a t h y. V a s c u l a r a b n o r m a l i t i e s i n c l u d e r e t i n a l m i c r o a n e u r ys m s ( e a r l y, m i l d s t a g e ) , b l o t h e m o r r h a g e s , a n d r e t i n a l e d e m a wi t h o r wi t h o u t “ h a r d ” e xu d a t e s . M a y p r o g r e s s t o m a c u l a edema. ( 2 ) P r e p r o l i f e r a t i ve r e t i n o p a t h y. W it h i n c r e a s i n g a b n o r m a l i t y o f t h e t i n y v e s s e l s , r e t in a l i s c h e m i a o c c u r s , g iv i n g r i s e t o t h e a p p e a r a n c e o f wh i t e p a t c h e s o f ox y g e n - s t a r v e d r e t i n a , kn o wn a s s o f t o r c o t t o n wo o l s p o t s . ( 3 ) P r o l i f e ra t i ve r e t i n o p a t h y ( a ) I n r e s p o n s e t o t h e l ac k o f o x yg e n , n e w b u t we a k v e s s e l s b e g i n t o g r o w (neovascularization). ( b ) T h e n e w v e s s e l s g r ow ( p r o l i f e r a t e ) o u t f r o m t h e r e t i n a l s u r f a c e , i n t o t h e v i t r e o u s c a vi t y. T h e s e ve s s e l s a r e f r a g i l e a n d m a y b l e e d i n t o t h e v i t r e ou s .
Hemorrhages into the vitreous can obscure vision, but they are usually reabsorbed in 1-3 months. (c) Traction retinal detachment. Scar tissue, and more new blood vessels, c o n t i n u e t o g r o w o n t o t h e v i t r e o u s . T h e v i t r e o u s p u l l s ( t r a ct io n ) o n t h e retina and detaches it. e . G e n e r a l l y d o e s n o t r es u l t i n v i s u al a l t e r a t i o n s u n t i l a d v a n c e d s t a g e s a r e reached f . T r e a t m e n t . L o s s o f v is i o n c a n b e r e d u c e d b y 5 0 % wi t h l a s e r photocoagulation if ocular changes are identified and treated in a timely manner. P.1191
2 . O t h e r o c ul a r c o m p l i c a t i o n s i n c l u d e c a t a r a c t s, p r i m a r y o p e n - a n g l e d g l a u c o m a , a n d i s c h e m i c o p t i c n e u r o p a t h y. 3 . M o d i f i ab l e r i s k f a c t o r s i n c l u d e h yp e r g l yc e m i a , h yp e r t e n s i o n , d ys l i p i d e m i a , a n d n i c o t i n e u s e . 4 . P r e ve n t i o n s t r a t e g i e s a . A g g r e s s i ve m a n a g e m e n t o f h yp e r t e n s i o n , h yp e r l i p i d e m i a , a n d b l o o d glucose b. Smoking cessation c . R o u t i n e o p h t h a l m o l o g i c s c r e e n i n g a n d f o l l o w- u p , i n c l u d i n g a n a n n u a l d i l a t e d e ye e x a m C . D i a b e t i c n e p h ro p a t h y 1 . D M i s t h e m o s t c o m m o n s i n g l e c a u s e o f e n d - st a g e r e n a l d i s e a s e ( E S R D ) in the United States and Europe. 2 . R e n a l f a i l u r e o c c u r s in 3 0 % - 4 0 % o f i n d i v i d u a l s wi t h t yp e 1 D M wi t h i n 3 0 y e a r s a f t e r d i a g n o s i s a n d 2 0 % - 3 0 % o f p a t i e n t s wi t h t yp e 2 D M . 3. Findings/progression a. First evidenced by the presence of urinary microalbuminuria (> 30 mg albumin/24 hr) b . C l i n i c a l o r d i p s t i c k p os i t i v e a l b u mi n u r i a ( > 3 00 m g / 2 4 h r ) c . P r o t e i n u r i a o f t e n a s s oc i a t e d wi t h h yp e r t e n s i o n , wh i c h a c c e l e r a t e s t h e rate of nephropathic changes d . P r o g r e s s iv e d e c r e a s e i n g l o m e r u l a r f i l t r at i o n r a t e wi t h r i s i n g s e r u m c r e a t i n i n e u n t i l E S R D oc c u r s . 4 . M o d i f i ab l e r i s k f a c t o r s i n c l u d e h yp e r g l yc e m i a , h yp e r t e n s i o n , t o b a c c o use, and excessive dietary protein intake. 5 . P r e ve n t i o n a n d t r e a t m e n t s t r a t e g i e s t o s l o w t h e d e v e l o p m e n t a n d / o r progression of disease. a . A g g r e s s i ve m a n a g e m e n t o f HT N a n d b l o o d g l u c o s e b . I n i t i a t i o n o f A C E i n h ib i t o r t h e r a p y c. Smoking cessation
d . L i m i t d a i l y d i e t a r y p r o t e i n i n t a k e t o 0 . 8 g / k g o f i d e a l b o d y we i g h t . N o t e t h a t l o we r p r o t e i n m e a l p l a n s s h o u l d b e u s e d wi t h c a u t i o n t o a v o i d m a l n u t r i t i o n a n d a s s o c i a t e d m u s c l e we a k n e s s . e . E a r l y i d e n t i f i c a t i o n a n d a g g r e s s i v e t r e a t m e nt o f u r i n a r y t r a c t i n f e ct i o n s f . Y e a r l y a s s e s s m e n t o f k i d n e y f u n c t i o n , i n c l u d i n g u r i n a l ys i s f o r d e t e c t io n o f microalbuminuria g . F o r E S RD , f l u i d a n d e l e c t r o l yt e r e s t r i c t i o n a s we l l a s i n t e r m i t t e n t o r c h r o n i c d i a l ys i s t r e a t m en t s , a s i n d i c a t e d b y s e v e r i t y o f p a t h o l o g y, l a b o r a t o r y f i n d i n g s , a n d p a t i e n t s ym p t o m a t o l o g y h . F o r E S RD , p a t i e n t an d c a r e g i v e r c o u n s e l i n g t o p r e p a r e t h e m f o r t h e p s yc h o s o c i a l , f i n a n c i a l , p h ys i c a l , m e d i c a l , a n d q u a l i t y- o f - l i f e c h a n g e s t h a t a c c o m p a n y d i a l ys i s a n d p o s s i b l e k i d n e y t r a n s p l a n t a t i o n D. Diabetic neuropathies 1 . P e r i p h e ra l n eu r o p a t h y a . T h e s e n s o r i m o t o r n e r v o u s s ys t e m i s m o st o f t en a f f e c t e d , b u t s ym p a t h e t i c o r p a r a s ym p a t h e t i c a b n o r m a l i t i e s m ay b e p r e s e n t a l s o . b . S e n s o r y d e f i c i t s a n d s ym p t o m s o r i g i n a t e i n t h e d i s t a l p o r t i o n s o f t h e l o we r e x t r e m i t i e s a n d g r a d u a l l y p r o g r e s s t o t h e u p p e r e xt r e m i t i e s , cr e a t i n g a stocking-glove distribution of pain and diminished sensation. c . S i g n s a n d s ym p t o m s d e p e n d o n t h e c l a s s a nd s t a g e o f ne r v e f i b e r l os s . ( 1 ) S m a l l - f i be r i n v o l v e m e n t i m p a i r s p e r c e p t i o n o f p a i n a n d t e m p e r a t u r e a n d may lead to numbness/tingling or loss of sensation. (2) Large-fiber involvement produces impaired balance and diminished proprioception. ( 3 ) M o t o r n e r v e d a m a g e r e s u l t s i n m u s c l e we a k n e s s / a t r o p h y. ( 4 ) T h e m a jo r i t y o f p a t ie n t s e x p e r i e n c e d a m a g e t o m o r e t h an o n e t yp e o f nerve. 2 . Au t o n o mi c n eu r o p a t h y i n v o l v e s m u l t i p l e s ys t e m s t h r o u g h o u t t h e b o d y. a . G en i t o u ri n a r y i m p a i r m e n t m a y l e a d t o n e u r o g e n i c b l a d d e r a n d s e xu a l d ys f u n c t i o n i n P.1192 both males (impotence, retrograde ejaculation) and females (diminished v a g i n a l l u b r i c a t i o n a n d o r g a s m f r e q ue n c y) . b . G a s t r o i n t e s t i n a l i mp a i r m e n t m ay l e a d t o g a s t r o p a r e s i s , n o c t u r n a l diarrhea, fecal incontinence, or chronic constipation. c . C a r d i o va s c u l a r i m p ai r m e n t m a y l e a d t o o r t ho s t a t i c h yp o t e n s i o n o r cardiac denervation syndrome. 3 . M o d i f i ab l e r i s k f a c t o r s i n c l u d e h yp e r g l yc e m i a , a l c o h o l u s e , t o b a c c o u s e , a n d h yp e r t e n s i o n . 4 . P r e ve n t i o n s t r a t e g i e s a . A g g r e s s i ve m a n a g e m e n t o f b l o o d p r e s s u r e an d b l o o d g l u c o s e . b. Smoking and alcohol cessation. c . P r o p e r f o o t c a r e t o p r e v e n t d e v e l o p m e n t o f l owe r - e xt r e m i t y c o m p l i c a t i o n s in the presence of peripheral neuropathy and diminished circulation.
E . F o o t , s k i n , a n d m u co u s m e m b ra n e c o m p l i c a t i o n s s t em f r o m v a s cu l a r changes and peripheral neuropathy that cause alterations in the nerves that c o n t r o l b l o o d f l o w a n d s k i n h yd r a t i o n . 1 . I n d i v i d u a l s wi t h D M a r e a t i n c r e a se d r i s k f o r t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f s k i n i n f e c t i o n s ca u s e d b y s t a p h yl o c o c c i , β - h e m o l yt i c s t r e p t o c o c ci , a n d f u n g u s . 2. Common infections include a . C u t a n e o u s i n f e c t i o n s s u c h a s f u r un c u l o s i s a n d c a r b u n c l e s b . C a n d i d a i n f e c t i o n s o f t h e g e n i t a l i a , u p p e r t h i gh s , a n d u n d e r t h e b r e a st s c . C e l l u l i t i s a n d / o r l o we r - e xt r e m i t y v a s c u l a r u l c e r s 3. Atrophic lesions (round painless lesions) and diabetic dermopathy ( r e d d i s h b r o wn p a p u l a r s p o t s ) a r e co m m o n , e s p e c i a l l y o n t h e l o we r extremities 4 . A n u l c e r at i n g n e c r o t i c l e s i o n c a l l e d n e c r o b i o si s l i p o i d i c a d i a b e t i c o r u m may develop on the anterior leg surface or the dorsum of the ankle. 5 . A p p r o x i m a t e l y 5 0 % o f p a t i e n t s wi t h D M o f 1 5 ye a r s ' d u r a t i o n h a v e peripheral neuropathy that may result in a loss of protective sensation and inability to detect even minor trauma. This places the patient at significant risk for the development of ulcers. 6 . I n j u r y, i n f e c t i o n , n e u r o p a t h y, v a s c u l a r d i s e a s e , o r i s c h e m i a m a y l e a d t o g a n g r e n e , wh i c h i s 2 0 t im e s m o r e co m m o n i n p e o p l e wi t h D M . 7 . P r e ve n t i o n s t r a t e g i e s a . G o o d g l yc e m i c c o n t r o l b . P r o p e r f oo t c a r e ( s e e V I I I . D . 1 ) a nd e a r l y d e t e c t i o n / i n t e r v e n t i o n o f identified problems. c . P r o p e r s ki n c a r e ( s e e V I I I . D . 2 ) d . S e n s o r y e x a m o f f e e t u s i n g a 5 . 0 7 ( 1 0 - g ) m on o f i l a m e n t t o i d e n t i f y p a t i e n t s wi t h l o s s o f p r ot e c t i v e s e n sa t i o n e . P a t i e n t ed u c a t i o n c o n c e r n i n g p r o t e c t i v e f o o t we a r ( e . g . , d e e p - s o l e d s h o e s , i n d i v i d u a l l y m o l d e d s h o e s , o r t h o t i c s ) a n d a v o i d a n c e o f f o o t i n j u r y, especially when a loss of protective sensation is noted. F . I m p o r t a n c e o f g l yc e m i c c o n t r o l a s p r e ve n t i ve o f c h r o n i c complications 1 . T h e Di a b e t e s C o n t r o l a n d Co m p l i c a t i o n s T ri a l ( D C CT ; 1 9 9 3 ) d e m o n s t r a t e d t h a t i n t e n s i v e t r e a t m e nt o f t yp e 1 d i a b e t i c p a t i e n t s d e l a ys t h e o n s e t a n d p r o g r e s s i o n o f d i a b e t i c r et i n o p a t h y, n e p h r o p a t h y, a n d n e u r o p a t h y. 2 . T h e Un i t e d K i n g d o m P r o s p e c t i ve D i a b e t e s S t u d y ( U K P D S ; 1 9 9 8 ) s i m i l a r l y d e m o n s t r a t e d t h a t t h e c o m p l i c a t i o n s o f t yp e 2 D M m a y b e r e d u c e d b y s t r i c t g l yc e m i c c o n t r o l , r e g a r d l e s s o f t h e t h e r a p e u t i c a g e n t c h o s e n t o attain that control. 3 . T h e f i n d i n g s o f t h e DC C T a n d U K P D S h a v e b e e n c o n f i r m e d b y n u m e r o u s o t h e r c l i n i c a l s t u d i e s . T he r e i s t o d a y n o r e a s o n f o r d o u b t t h a t g l yc e m i c c o n t r o l i s a m a j o r s t r a t eg y f o r t h e p r e v e n t i o n o f d i a b e t e s - r e l a t e d c o n d i t i o n s , r e d u c e d h e a l t h c a r e a n d s o c i e t a l c o s t s , a n d p r e s e r v a t i o n o f q u a l i t y- o f - l i f e issues.
XII. SIGNIFICANT DRUG INTERACTIONS AFFECTING GLYCEMIC CONTROL. This is only a partial list of potential drug interactions that may affect g l yc e m i c c o n t r o l . C o n s u l t st a n d a r d r e f e r e n c e s o r d r u g p a c ka g e i n s e r t s f o r more detailed information. P.1193
A. P o t e n t i a l h yp e r g l yc e m i a , a s a d o s e - d e p e n d e n t , d i r e c t g l u c o g e n i c e f f e c t . C o r t ic o s t e r o i d s , n i c o t i n i c a c i d , p h e n yt o i n , p e n t a m i d i n e ( l o n g - t e r m e f f e c t ) , p r ot e a s e i n h i b i t o r s , s ym p a t h o m i m e t i c s , i s o n i a z i d , f u r o s e m i d e , thiazide diuretics B . Po t e n t i a l h yp o g l yc e m i a , a s a d i r e c t h yp o g l y c e m i c e f f e ct ; m o n o a m i n e o x i d a s e ( M A O ) i n h i b i t o r s , f l u o xe t i n e , s a l i c yl a t e s ( l a r g e d o s e s ) , fenfluramine, alcohol, pentamidine (initial effect) C . P r o l o n g ed h yp o g l yc e m i a a n d m a s k i n g o f h yp o g l yc e m i c s ym p t o m s . β Blockers D . Al t e r e d p r o t e i n b i n d i n g o f , o r o t h e r d r u g i n t e r a c t i o n w i t h , s u l f o n yl u r e a a g e n t s . A lc o h o l , s a l i c yl a t e s , n o n s t e r o i d a l a n t i - i n f l a m m a t o r y d r u g s ( N S A I D s ) , m et h yl d o p a , c h l o r a m p h e n i c o l , M A O i n h i b i t o r s , c l o f i b r at e , probenecid
XIII. SPECIAL ISSUES IN DIABETES. These situations cause unique problems in the management of diabetes, but a r e b e yo n d t h e s c o p e o f t h i s c h a p t e r . R e a d e r s a r e e n c o u r a g e d t o l e a r n a b o u t t h e s e , a s t h e s e i ss u e s a r i s e d u r i n g t h e c o u r s e o f p h a r m a c y p r a c t i c e . A. P r e g n a n c y i n D M ( n o t G D M ) B. Pediatrics C. Adolescence D . G e r i a t r i cs E. Surgery F . D M m a n ag e m e n t d u r i n g h e m o d i a l ys i s o r p e r i t o n e a l d i a l ys i s G. Kidney transplantation H . S e l f - c a r e i s s u e s ( e . g. , S M BG , i n j e c t i o n s ) i n t h e v i s u a l l y i m p a i r e d o r b l i n d DM patient I . DM p a t i e n t s i n i n st i t u t io n a l i z e d f a c i l i t i e s J . P a n c r e a s a n d i s l e t c el l t r a n s p l a n t a t i o n P.1194
STUDY QUESTIONS D i r e c t i o n s : E a c h o f t h e q u e s t i o n s , st a t e m e n t s , or i n c o m p l e t e s t a t e m e n t s i n t h i s s e c t i o n c a n b e c o r r e c t l y a n s we r e d o r c o m pl e t e d b y o n e o f t h e s u g g e s t e d a n s we r s o r p h r a s e s . C h o o s e t h e b e st a n s we r .
1 . C u r r e n t c r i t e r i a u s ed i n t h e d i a g n o s i s o f d i a b e t e s m e l l i t u s ( D M ) i n c l u d e a l l o f t h e f o l l o w in g s ym p t o m s e x c e p t ( A ) f a s t i n g hy p e r g l yc e m i a . (B) polyuria. ( C ) p o l yd i p s i a . (D) tinnitus. ( E ) we i g h t l o s s . V i e w A n s we r 1 . T h e an s w e r i s D [ s ee a n d] . 2. T h e m o s t u s e f u l g l u c o s e t e st u s e d i n mo n i t o ri n g d i a b e t e s m e l l i t u s ( D M ) t h e r a p y i s ( A ) u r i n e m on i t o r i n g . (B) blood monitoring. ( C ) r e n a l f un c t i o n m o n i t o r i n g . (D) cardiovascular monitoring. (E) vascular monitoring. V i e w A n s we r 2 . T h e an s w e r i s B [ s ee a n d] . 3. W h i c h o f t h e f o l l ow i n g statements concerning insulin therapy is true? ( A ) C o m m e r c i a l i n s u l i n p r o d u c t s v a r y l i t t l e wi t h r e s p e c t t o t im e , c o u r s e , a n d d u r a t i o n o f h yp o g l yc e m i c a c t i v i t y. ( B ) R e g u l a r i n s u l i n c a n n o t b e m i xe d wi t h n e u t r a l p r o t a m i n e Hagedorn (NPH; isophane insulin suspension). ( C ) R e g u l a r i n s u l i n c a n n o t b e g i v e n i n t r a v e n o u s l y. ( D ) R e g u l a t i n g c a r b o h yd r a t e c o n s u m p t i o n i s a n e c e s s i t y f o r a l l diabetic patients. ( E ) I n s u l i n t h e r a p y d o e s n o t h a v e t o b e m o n i t o r e d c l o s e l y. V i e w A n s we r 3 . T h e an s w e r i s D [ s ee] . 4. A m a s s o f a d i p o se t i s s u e t h a t d e ve l o p s a t t h e i n j e c t i o n si t e i s u s u a l l y t h e r e s u l t o f t h e p a t i e n t ' s n e g l e c t t o ro t a t e t h e i n s u l i n i n j e c t i o n s i t e . T h i s i s kn ow n a s ( A ) l i p o a t r o p h y. ( B ) h yp e r t r o p h i c d e g e n e r a t i v e a d i p o s i t y. ( C ) l i p o h yp e r t r o p h y. (D) atrophic skin lesion. ( E ) d e r m a t it i s . V i e w A n s we r 4 . T h e an s w e r i s C [ s ee] . 5. Su l f o n yl u r e a a g e n t s ( a s monotherapy or in combination) are a primary mode of therapy in the treatment of ( A ) t yp e 1 d i a b e t e s m e l l i t u s p a t i e n t s . (B) diabetes patients experiencing severe hepatic or renal d ys f u n c t i o n . ( C ) p r e g n a n t wo m e n wi t h d i a b e t e s . ( D ) p a t i e n t s wi t h d i a b e t i c k e t o a c i d o s i s . ( E ) n o n - i n s u l i n r e q u i r i n g ( t yp e 2 ) D M p a t i e n t s . V i e w A n s we r 5 . T h e an s w e r i s E[ s e e] . 6. P a t i e n t s t a k i n g c h l o rp r o p a m i d e s h o u l d a vo i d p ro d u c t s co n t ai n i n g ( A ) a c e t a m in o p h e n . (B) ethanol.
(C) vitamin A. (D) penicillins. (E) milk products. V i e w A n s we r 6 . T h e an s w e r i s B [ s ee] . 7. T h e s t a n d a r d r e c o m m e n d e d d o s e o f g l yb u r i d e i s ( A ) 0 . 5 - 2 m g / d a y. ( B ) 1 . 2 5 - 2 0 m g / d a y. ( C ) 5 0 - 1 0 0 m g / d a y. ( D ) 2 0 0 m g / d a y. ( E ) 2 0 0 - 1 0 0 0 m g / d a y. V i e w A n s we r 7 . T h e an s w e r i s B [ s ee] . P . 1 1 9 5
F o r q u e s t i o n s 8 - 1 2 : A 2 0 - ye a r - o l d p r e v i o u s l y h e a l t h y m a n p r e s e n t s t o t h e e m e r g e n c y r o o m wi t h a 2 - we e k h i s t o r y o f p o l yu r i a , p o l yd i p s i a , a n d a 2 0 - l b u n i n t e n t i o n a l we i g h t l o s s . H e c o m p l ai n s o f we a k n e s s , f at i g u e , n a u s e a , a n d a b d o m i n a l p a i n . P h ys i c a l e x a m i n a t i o n r e v e a l s d r y, p a r c h e d m u c o u s m e m b r a n e s . B l o o d p r e s s u r e i s 1 1 0 / 7 0 m m H g an d t h e p u l s e i s 9 0 b e a t s p e r m i n u t e ( b p m ) s u p i n e ; b l o o d p r e s s u r e i s 9 0 / 6 0 m m H g , a n d pu l s e i s 1 2 0 b p m u p r i g h t . T em p e r a t u r e i s 1 0 0 ° F ( a xi l l a r y) ; r e s p i r a t o r y r a t e i s 2 4 b r e a t h s p e r m i n u t e . G e ne r a l e xa m i n a t i o n o f t h e h e a r t a n d l u n g s i s u n r e m a r k a b l e . N o r e t i n o p a t h y i s p r e s e n t . T h e a b d o m e n i s s o f t wi t h m i l d t e n d e r n e s s b u t n o r e b o u n d . L a b o r a t o r y v a l u e s a r e a s f o l l o ws :
Blood glucose
420 mg/dL
Sodium (Na)
130 mEq/L
Potassium (K)
3.7 mEq/L
Chloride (Cl)
97 mEq/L
Bicarbonate (HCO3)
10 mEq/L
Arterial blood gas
7.20 (pH)
Urinalysis Chest radiograph
+3 glucose and moderate ketones Unremarkable
Abdominal radiography
Unremarkable
8 . W h a t i s t h e m o s t l i k e l y d i a g n o si s i n t h i s p a t i e n t ? ( A ) t yp e 2 d i a b e t e s m e l l i t u s ( D M ) wi t h h yp e r o s m o l a r s t a t e ( B ) t yp e 1 D M wi t h d i a b e t i c k e t o a c id o s i s ( C ) t yp e 2 D M wi t h o u t h y p e r o s m o l a r s t a t e ( D ) t yp e 1 D M wi t h o u t d i a b e t i c k e t o a c i d o s i s V i e w A n s we r 8 . T h e an s w e r i s B [ s ee] . 9. I n i t i al a p p r o p r i a t e t h e r a p y includes ( A ) i n t r a v e no u s f l u i d s a n d a s u l f o n yl u r e a a g e n t ( B ) i n t r a v e no u s f l u i d s a l o n e ( C ) i n t r a v e no u s f l u i d s , 10 U o f s u b cu t a n e o u s r e g u l a r i n s u l i n , a n d discharge to home ( D ) i n t r a v e no u s f l u i d s , in t r a v e n o u s r e g u l a r i n s u l i n b y c o n t i n u o u s d r i p at 6 Units/hr, and hospital admission V i e w A n s we r 9 . T h e an s w e r i s D [ s ee] . 1 0 . Af t e r t h e a c u t e i l l n e s s h a s r e s o l ve d , w h at t h er a p y w o u l d b e a p p r o p r i a t e ? ( A ) N o n e , ob s e r v e o n l y ( B ) St a r t a s e c o n d - g e n e r a t i o n s u l f o n yl u r e a , p l u s d i e t a r y m o d i f i c a t i o n a n d p h ys i c a l a c t i v i t y r e g i m e n ( C ) D a i l y a d m i n i s t r a t i o n o f a r e g i m en o f n e u t r a l p r o t a m i n e H a g e d o r n (NPH; isophane insulin suspension) and regular insulin, plus dietary m o d i f i c a t i o n a n d p h ys i c a l a c t i v i t y r e g i m e n (D) Dietary modification alone V i e w A n s we r 1 0 . T h e a n s w e r i s C [ se e] . 1 1 . Ap p r o p r i a t e f o l l ow - u p o f t h e p a t i en t o n c e d i sc h a r g e d t o h o m e i n c l u d e s a l l o f t h e f o l l ow i ng except ( A ) p e r i o d i c m o n i t o r i n g o f h e m o g l o b i n A I C l e v e l s. ( B ) p e r i o d i c o p h t h a l m o l o g i c e xa m i n a t i o n s . ( C ) h o m e g l u c o s e m o n i t o r i n g wi t h a g l u c o s e m e t e r . ( D ) we i g h t - l o s s d i e t a n d a n a t t e m p t t o we a n f r o m i n s u l i n . V i e w A n s we r 1 1 . T h e a n s w e r i s D [ se e] . 1 2 . T h e p a t i e n t i s at h i g h r i s k f o r d e ve l o p i n g al l o f t h e f o l l o w in g c o m p l i c a t i o n s e xc e p t
( A ) h yp o g l y c e m i a . (B) coronary artery disease. ( C ) r e t i n o p a t h y. ( D ) n o n k e t o t i c h yp e r g l y c e m i a h yp e r o s m o l a r s t a t e. V i e w A n s we r 1 2 . T h e a n s w e r i s D [ se e] . P. 1 1 9 6
ANSWERS AND EXPLANATIONS 1 . T h e a n sw er i s D [ s ee I I I . A a n d B ] . F r e q u e n t u r i n a t i o n ( p o l yu r i a ) , t h i r st ( p o l yd i p s i a ) , a n d we i g h t l o s s a r e a l l c o m m o n s i g n s o f d i a b e t e s . W h e n t h e s e s ym p t o m s a r e p r e se n t , i t i s n e c e s s a r y t o h a v e a f a s t i n g o r r a n d o m ( c a s u a l ) b l o o d g l u c o s e l e v e l d r a wn t o d e t e r m i ne a d i a b e t i c s t a t e . A f a s t i n g b l o o d g l u c o s e l e v e l > 1 2 5 m g / d L o n m o r e t h a n o n e o c c a s i o n i s d i a g n o s t i c o f a d i a b e t i c s t a t e. 2 . T h e a n sw er i s B [ s ee I X. A a n d B ] . B l o o d g l u c o s e m o n i t o r i n g i s t h e m o st u s e f u l f o r m o f m o n i t o r i n g g l u c o s e levels. Urine monitoring provides only gross estimates of the current status a n d c a n n o t r u l e o u t h yp o g l yc e m i a . R e n a l f u n c t i o n a n d c a r d i o v a s c u l a r functions provide evidence of long-standing disease and are not useful for monitoring daily progress. 3 . T h e a n sw er i s D [ s ee V I I . A . 1; VI I . C . 7; T a b l e 5 4 - 1 ] . M a n y c o m m e r c i a l i n s u l i n p r e p a r a t i o n s v a r y wi t h r e s p e c t t o d u r a t i o n o f a c t i v i t y a n d t i m e f o r p e a k p l a s m a l e v e l . R e g u l a r i n s u l i n c a n b e m i xe d wi t h N P H a n d g i v e n i n t r a v e n o u s l y. A l l i n s u l i n t h e r a p i e s s h o u l d b e m o n i t o r e d c l o s e l y a n d o n a d a i l y b a s i s . C a r e f ul r e g u l a t i o n o f c a r b o h yd r a t e i n t a k e is v e r y i m p o r t a n t f o r a l l d i a b e t i c p a t i e n t s — c a r b o h yd r a t e c o n s u m p t i o n p l a ys a major role in the balance of glucose metabolism and antagonizes the e f f e c t s o f i n s u l i n t h e r a p y. 4 . T h e a n sw er i s C [ s ee V I I . C . 7 . a. ( 3 ) ] . L i p o h y p e r t r o p h y c o n s i s t s o f m a s s es o f a d i p o s e t i s s u e t h a t d e v e l o p a t t h e i n j e c t i o n s i t e , u s u a l l y i n p a t i e n t s wh o d o n o t r o t a t e t h e i n j e c t i o n s i t e s p r o p e r l y. T he m a s s e s g r a d u a l l y d i s a p p e a r i f i n j e c t i o n i n t h e se s i t e s i s avoided. 5 . T h e a n sw er i s E [ s e e V I I . D . 2 ; X. A . 2 ] . S u l f o n yl u r e a s s h o u l d n o t b e u s e d a s p r i m a r y t h e r a p y i n i n s u l i n - d e p e n d e n t ( t yp e 1 ) d i a b e t e s m e l l i t u s p a t i e n t s , i n t h o s e wh o h a v e s e v e r e h e p a t i c o r r e n a l d ys f u n c t i o n , o r i n t h o s e p a t i e n t s wh o a r e p r e g n a n t . D K A s h o u l d n e v e r b e t r e a t e d wi t h s u l f o n yl u r e a s ; t h i s c on d i t i o n m u s t b e t r e a t e d wi t h i n s u l i n , f l u i d s , a n d e l e c t r o l yt e r e p l a c e m e n t . H o we v e r , s u l f o n yl u r e a s h e l p r e d u c e b l o o d g l u c o s e l e v e l s i n t yp e 2 D M t h a t d o e s n o t r e s p o n d t o d i e t a l o n e . 6 . T h e a n sw er i s B [ s ee V I I . D . 6 . g] . A c u t e i n g e s t i o n o f e t h a n o l ( a l c o h o l ) b y p a t i e n t s wh o a r e t a k i n g a n y a n t i d i a b e t i c a g e n t c a r r i e s t h e r i s k o f s e v e r e h yp o g l yc e m i a p a r t i c u l a r l y b e c a u s e o f t h e p o t e n t i a l h yp o g l y c e m i c e f f e ct s of e t h a n o l ( e s p e c i a l l y i f
c o n s u m e d i n t h e f a st i n g s t a t e ) . I n ad d i t i o n , t h e i n t e r a c t i o n o f c h l o r p r o p a m i d e a n d e t h a n o l ( d i s u l f i r a m - l i k e r e a c t i o n ) i s n o t ab l e wi t h t h i s agent. 7 . T h e a n sw er i s B [ s ee T a b l e 5 4 - 2 ] . T h e s t a n d a r d r e c o m m e n d e d d o s e o f g l yb u r i d e i s 1 . 2 5 - 2 0 m g / d a y. D o s e s > 2 0 m g a r e n o t r e c o m m en d e d b y t h e m a n u f a c t u r e r . P at i e n t s m a y b e s t a r t e d o n a l o w d o s e ( e . g . , 1 . 25 m g / d a y) a n d t i t r a t e d up t o a n e f f e c t i v e o r a l d o s e , as clinically indicated. 8 . T h e a n sw er i s B [ s ee I I . B . 1; X. A. 2 ] . T yp e 1 D M wi t h D K A i s t h e m o s t l i k e l y d i a g n o s i s i n t h e p a t ie n t d e s c r i b e d i n t h e q u e s t i o n . T h e p a t i e n t p r e s e n t e d wi t h h i g h b l o o d s u g a r , we i g h t l o s s , a c i d o s i s , a n d p o s i t i v e u r i n e k e t o n e s ( h i g h l e v e l ) . T h i s i s a t yp i c a l p r e s e n t a t i o n o f D K A. 9 . T h e a n sw er i s D [ s ee X. A . 2 . d ] . T yp e 1 D M a l wa ys r e q u i r e s i n s u l i n t h e r a p y; i t c a n n e v e r b e l e f t u n t r e a t ed o r t r e a t e d wi t h d i e t o r l i q u i d s a l o n e a n d c a n n e v e r b e t r e a t e d wi t h s u l f o n yl u r e a a g e n t s . D K A r e q u i r e s h o s p i t a l i z a t i o n a n d s h o u l d b e t r e a t e d wi t h a n i n s u l i n d r i p u n t i l t h e a c i d o s i s c l e a r s . P a t i e nt s wi t h D K A a r e d e h yd r a t e d a n d m u s t be given intravenous fluids. 1 0 . T h e a n sw er i s C [ s ee V I I . C . 4 ] . P.1197
1 1 . T h e a n sw er i s D [ s ee V I I . C . 4 ; VI I I . D. 4 ; I X. A ; I X. D . 1 ] . A l l d i a b e t i c p a t i e n t s s h o u l d b e f o l l o we d wi t h p e r i o d i c h e m o g l o b i n A I C m e a s u r e m e n t s a n d o p h t h a l m o l o g i c e xa m i n a t i o n a n n u a l l y. H o m e g l u c o s e m o n i t o r i n g i s t h e o p t i m al wa y t o f o l l o w a p a t i e n t ' s l e v e l o f co n t r o l . W e i gh t l o s s a n d a n a t t e m p t t o we a n f r o m i n su l i n a r e a p p r o p r i a t e o n l y f o r t yp e 2 D M . T h o s e p a t i e n t s wi t h t yp e 1 d i a b e t e s c a n n o t b e we a n e d f r o m i n s u l i n t h e r a p y. 1 2 . T h e a n sw er i s D [ s ee I I . B . 2; X. A. 3 ] . H yp o g l y c e m i a i s a p o s s ib l e c o m p l i c a t i o n o f i n s u l i n t h e r a p y. A l l d i a b e t i c p a t i e n t s a r e a t r i sk f o r c o r o n a r y a r t e r y d i s e a s e a n d r e t i n o p a t h y. N o n k e t o t i c h yp e r g l yc e m i c h y p e r o s m o l a r c o m a i s t yp i c a l l y a c o m p l i c a t i o n o f t yp e 2 D M .