Coping with Evil in Religion and Culture (Currents of Encounter)

Coping with Evil in Religion and Culture

CURRENTS OF ENCOUNTER STUDIES ON THE CONTACT BETWEEN CHRISTIANITY AND OTHER RELIGIONS, BELIEFS, AND CULTURES VOL. 35

GENERAL EDITORS Jerald D. Gort Henry Jansen Lourens Minnema Hendrik M. Vroom Anton Wessels

ADVISORY BOARD Leonard Fernando (Delhi) James Haire (Canberra) James W. Heisig (Nagoya) Mechteld M. Jansen (Amsterdam) Kang Phee Seng (Hong Kong) Oddbjørn Leirvik (Oslo) Francis Anekwe Oborji (Rome) Jayakiran Sebastian (Philadelphia, PA) Nelly van Doorn-Harder (Valparaiso) Ulrich Winkler (Salzburg)

Coping with Evil in Religion and Culture Case Studies

Edited by

Nelly van Doorn-Harder and Lourens Minnema

Amsterdam - New York, NY 2008

Thisȱvolumeȱisȱpartȱofȱtheȱprojectȱon ȱTheȱProblemȱofȱEvilȱinȱReligiousȱTraditions:ȱOrigins,ȱFormsȱandȱCoping, organizedȱinȱcooperationȱwithȱtheȱVrijeȱUniversiteitȱAmsterdam andȱtheȱRoyalȱTropicalȱInstituteȱatȱAmsterdam onȱtheȱoccasionȱofȱ theȱ125thȱanniversaryȱofȱtheȱVrijeȱUniversiteit andȱtheȱexhibitionȱ“Religionȱ&ȱEvil” inȱtheȱTropenmuseumȱ(AmsterdamȱMuseumȱofȱTropicalȱEthnology). Theȱconference,ȱheldȱMarchȱ17Ȭ19,ȱ2005ȱwasȱmadeȱpossible byȱgenerousȱsubsidiesȱfromȱtheȱVrijeȱUniversiteit,ȱtheȱTropicalȱInstitute,ȱ theȱRoyalȱAcademyȱofȱArtsȱandȱSciences andȱtheȱNetherlandsȱOrganizationȱforȱAcademicȱResearch. ThisȱpublicationȱhasȱbeenȱmadeȱpossibleȱbyȱaȱgrantȱfromȱtheȱVrijeȱUniversiteit forȱaȱresearchȱprojectȱinȱcomparativeȱreligiousȱanthropologies.

Cover design: Pier Post The paper on which this book is printed meets the requirements of “ISO 9706:1994, Information and documentation - Paper for documents - Requirements for permanence”. ISBN: 978-90-420-2337-6 ©Editions Rodopi B.V., Amsterdam - New York, NY 2008 Printed in the Netherlands

TableȱofȱContents TheȱProblemȱofȱDefiningȱEvil NELLYȱVANȱDOORNȬHARDERȱANDȱLOURENSȱMINNEMA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 PARTȱI:ȱEvilȱinȱSpirit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 ImagesȱofȱEvilȱinȱPopularȱGhanaianȱChristianity BIRGITȱMEYER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 Druids,ȱDeerȱandȱ“WordsȱofȱPower”: ComingȱtoȱTermsȱwithȱEvilȱinȱMedievalȱIreland JACQUELINEȱBORSJE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 CopingȱwithȱWizardryȱinȱZimbabwe inȱAfricanȱInitiatedȱChurchesȱ(AICs) MARTHINUSȱL.ȱDANEEL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51 TheȱEvilȱComesȱfromȱOutside: EvilȱwithinȱReligionȱasȱaȱPsychosocialȱProblem amongȱAdolescentȱMoroccanȱGirlsȱinȱtheȱNetherlands EDIENȱBARTELS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71 ConqueringȱSatan,ȱDemons,ȱPrincipalities,ȱandȱPowers: GhanaianȱTraditionalȱandȱChristianȱPerspectivesȱonȱReligion, Evil,ȱandȱDeliverance J.ȱKWABENAȱASAMOAHȬGYADU . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85 AȱSchemaȱRepertoireȱApproachȱtoȱExorcism: TwoȱCaseȱStudiesȱofȱSpiritualȱWarfare PETERȱVERSTEEGȱANDȱANDRÉȱDROOGERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105 Howȱ‘Satanic’ȱIsȱSatanism? AȱNormativeȱDescription REENDERȱKRANENBORG . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125 PARTȱII:ȱEvilȱinȱSociety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135 “YouȱFollowȱtheȱPathȱofȱtheȱShaitan;ȱWeȱTryȱtoȱFollowȱtheȱRighteous Path”:ȱNegotiatingȱEvilȱinȱtheȱIdentityȱConstructionȱofȱYoung MoroccanȬDutchȱMuslims MARTIJNȱDEȱKONING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137

DefiningȱEvilȱtoȱStrengthenȱIslam: MuhammadiyahȱIdeologiesȱofȱGenderȱandȱMarriage NELLYȱVANȱDOORNȬHARDER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149 BeyondȱUjamaa: AfricanȱReligionȱandȱSocietalȱEvil FRANSȱWIJSEN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169 PARTȱIII:ȱCopingȱwithȱEvil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185 ReligionȱandȱEvilȱfromȱtheȱPerspective ofȱMimeticȱTheory ANDRÉȱLASCARIS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187 CopingȱwithȱHumanȱEvil: Shakespeare’sȱSenseȱofȱTragicȱRevenge LOURENSȱMINNEMA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201 TheȱPowerȱandȱLimitsȱofȱStories: OnȱtheȱQuestionsȱ“HowȱtoȱCopeȱwithȱEvil?” andȱ“HowȱtoȱAvoidȱEvil?” EDWINȱKOSTER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219 PrayerȱasȱaȱMeansȱofȱCopingȱwithȱEvil: ApproachesȱfromȱtheȱPerspectiveȱofȱLutheranȱDogmatics CHRISTIANEȱTIETZ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233 CopingȱwithȱTragedyȱandȱMalice R.ȱRUARDȱGANZEVOORT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247 GENERALȱINDEX . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261 CONTRIBUTORSȱTOȱTHISȱVOLUME . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265

TheȱProblemȱofȱDefiningȱEvil NellyȱvanȱDoornȬHarderȱandȱLourensȱMinnema TheȱvariousȱChristian,ȱMuslim,ȱtraditionalȱ(African),ȱandȱsecular (Western)ȱwaysȱofȱimaginingȱandȱcopingȱwithȱevilȱpresentedȱin thisȱ volumeȱ haveȱ severalȱ thingsȱ inȱ common.ȱ Theȱ mostȱ crucial, perhaps—andȱcertainlyȱtheȱmostȱstriking—aspectȱisȱtheȱproblem ofȱdefiningȱtheȱnatureȱorȱcharacteristicsȱofȱevilȱasȱsuch.ȱSomeȱarȬ gueȱthatȱevilȱhasȱanȱessenceȱthatȱremainsȱconstant;ȱothersȱsayȱits interpretationsȱdependȱonȱtimeȱandȱplace.1ȱTheȱcontributionsȱby Borsje,ȱMeyer,ȱVersteegȱandȱDroogers,ȱandȱvanȱDoornȬHarderȱin particularȱareȱillustrativeȱofȱtheȱlatterȱposition. Religiousȱ andȱ secularȱ interpretationsȱ ofȱ evilȱ mayȱ have changed,ȱbutȱtheȱhumanȱsearchȱforȱȱmeaningȱandȱpurpose,ȱhowȬ ever,ȱisȱneverȱending.ȱȱQuestionsȱofȱwhomȱtoȱblameȱandȱtoȱadȬ dress—God,ȱtheȱdevilȱorȱhumans—remainȱatȱtheȱcenterȱofȱourȱexȬ planationsȱandȱourȱstrategiesȱtoȱcomprehend,ȱdefine,ȱcounter,ȱor processȱtheȱevilȱweȱdoȱandȱtheȱevilȱdoneȱtoȱusȱbyȱpeople,ȱbyȱGod, byȱnature,ȱorȱbyȱaccident. Theȱcaseȱstudiesȱinȱthisȱbookȱwereȱoriginallyȱpresentedȱand discussedȱatȱaȱconferenceȱonȱevilȱorganizedȱbyȱtheȱVrijeȱUniversiȬ teitȱinȱAmsterdamȱinȱ2005.ȱUsingȱapproachesȱfromȱculturalȱanȬ thropology,ȱreligiousȱstudies,ȱtheology,ȱphilosophy,ȱpsychology, andȱ history,ȱ theȱ authorsȱ analyzeȱ andȱ defineȱ theȱ categoriesȱ in whichȱevilȱcanȱbeȱplaced.ȱThisȱexercise—asȱexpected—isȱnotȱclearȬ cutȱandȱshows,ȱforȱexample,ȱhowȱnotionsȱofȱevilȱareȱconstructed toȱanswerȱcertainȱneedsȱinȱsociety.

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ȱAuthorsȱsuchȱasȱMcGinn,ȱwhoȱwroteȱAntichrist:ȱTwoȱThousandȱYears ofȱtheȱHumanȱFascinationȱwithȱEvilȱ(2000),ȱoneȱofȱtheȱmostȱauthoritative worksȱonȱtheȱ“Antichrist,”ȱshowȱhowȱChristianȱnotionsȱofȱtheȱembodiȬ mentȱofȱpureȱevilȱthatȱwillȱappearȱinȱtheȱendȬtimeȱhaveȱchanged.ȱFewȱin theȱWesternȱworldȱbelieveȱnowadaysȱthatȱtheȱAntichristȱrefersȱtoȱanȱinȬ dividualȱwhoȱincarnatesȱhumanȱevilȱinȱitsȱtotality.ȱSuggestedȱforȱfurther readingȱareȱNiemanȱ(2002),ȱAwnȱ(1983),ȱȱRussellȱ(1977),ȱDonigerȱO’FlaȬ hertyȱ (1976),ȱ Ricoeurȱ (1967),ȱ Lingȱ (1962),ȱ ȱ Weilȱ (1997),ȱ andȱ Langton (1949).

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NELLYȱVANȱDOORNȬHARDERȱANDȱLOURENSȱMINNEMA

Theȱformsȱofȱexpressingȱandȱrepresentingȱofȱevilȱareȱmyriadȱand, asȱallȱofȱtheȱarticlesȱdemonstrate,ȱdependȱonȱtheȱworldviews,ȱbeȬ liefs,ȱimagination,ȱandȱculturalȱenvironmentsȱofȱgroupsȱandȱindiȬ vidualsȱ alike.ȱ Images,ȱ rituals,ȱ andȱ objectsȱ canȱ beȱ neutralȱ or becomeȱ bearersȱ ofȱ evilȱ forces,ȱ asȱ Birgitȱ Meyerȱ showsȱ inȱ her contributionȱ onȱ Ghanaianȱ images.ȱ Imagesȱ needȱ aȱ context,ȱ of course,ȱtoȱbeȱunderstoodȱinȱaȱcertainȱwayȱandȱtheirȱrelationship withȱtheȱobserverȱdependsȱonȱaȱlongȱprocessȱofȱarticulatingȱand repeatingȱcertainȱritualsȱandȱroutines. Whatȱisȱconsideredȱevilȱinȱaȱsocietyȱdependsȱonȱtheȱposition ofȱtheȱperceiver.ȱJacquelineȱBorsjeȱremarksȱthatȱ“Theȱdemonsȱof todayȱmayȱbeȱtheȱgodsȱofȱyesterdayȱorȱtomorrow.”ȱTheȱdruids andȱpreȬChristianȱkingsȱdescribedȱinȱherȱcontributionȱconsidered St.ȱPatrick,ȱtheȱbringerȱofȱtheȱChristianȱmessageȱtoȱIreland,ȱtoȱbe anȱevilȱinvaderȱwhoȱbroughtȱdeathȱandȱdestructionȱinȱtheȱwakeȱof hisȱ“good”ȱnews.ȱReenderȱKranenborg,ȱreasoningȱalongȱveryȱdifȬ ferentȱlines,ȱpresentsȱtheȱmessageȱofȱtheȱChurchȱofȱSatanȱasȱone thatȱencouragesȱselfȬrespecting,ȱproudȱpeopleȱtoȱacceptȱhumanȬ kindȱasȱitȱisȱandȱtoȱresistȱtheȱevilȱspiritȱofȱChristianityȱthatȱsupȬ pressesȱsoȬcalledȱ“cardinalȱsins.” Inȱtheȱmoreȱcontemporaryȱcontext,ȱweȱseeȱgroupsȱdefining evilȱforcesȱinȱorderȱtoȱdelineateȱtheȱ(imagined)ȱbordersȱofȱtheir ethnic,ȱsocial,ȱcultural,ȱorȱreligiousȱcommunities.ȱForcesȱofȱevil rangeȱ fromȱ spiritsȱ thatȱ canȱ takeȱ possessionȱ ofȱ one’sȱ mindȱ and bodyȱtoȱsocialȱandȱculturalȱforcesȱthatȱinfluenceȱone’sȱlifestyleȱand one’sȱlevelȱofȱreligiosity.ȱEvilȱisȱdefinedȱinȱaȱcomplexȱprocessȱof developingȱone’sȱidentityȱandȱitsȱdefinitionȱdependsȱprimarilyȱon theȱneedsȱofȱthoseȱconcerned.ȱAsȱdescribedȱbyȱMartijnȱdeȱKoning, theȱmethodsȱusedȱbyȱyoungȱMuslimsȱlivingȱinȱtheȱNetherlands areȱsimilarȱtoȱtheȱmethodsȱandȱapplicationsȱusedȱbyȱreformistȱor extremistȱMuslimsȱinȱIndonesia.ȱNellyȱvanȱDoornȬHarder’sȱpaper onȱ Muhammadiyahȱ ideologiesȱ ofȱ genderȱ andȱ marriageȱ shows thatȱ religiousȱ repertoiresȱ areȱ negotiatedȱ andȱ reproducedȱ inȱ inȬ teractionȱwithȱtheȱnebulousȱ“others”ȱwhoȱrangeȱfromȱDutchȱcoȬ lonialȱ powersȱ inȱ theȱ firstȱ halfȱ ofȱ theȱ twentiethȱ century,ȱ toȱ the West,ȱChristians,ȱandȱfeministsȱatȱtheȱbeginningȱofȱtheȱtwentyȬ firstȱcentury.ȱFransȱWijsenȱtakesȱupȱtheȱquestionȱofȱwhetherȱtradiȬ tionalȱAfricanȱreligionsȱcanȱbeȱusedȱtoȱfightȱsocialȱevilȱorȱwhether theyȱthemselvesȱareȱsourcesȱofȱsocialȱevil.ȱAfricanȱscholarsȱwho advocateȱaȱreturnȱtoȱtheȱpristineȱAfricanȱcommunityȱspirit,ȱwhile

THEȱPROBLEMȱOFȱDEFININGȱEVIL

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blamingȱtheȱWestȱforȱallȱtheȱevilsȱinȱAfrica,ȱshowȱthatȱdefining certainȱreligious,ȱspiritual,ȱsocial,ȱcultural,ȱorȱpoliticalȱforcesȱideoȬ logicallyȱasȱevilȱhelpsȱrecreateȱaȱsocioculturalȱidentityȱandȱsphere ofȱinfluenceȱforȱthem. Referencesȱtoȱspiritsȱcanȱalsoȱhelpȱtoȱredefineȱtheȱentireȱworldȱas aȱrealmȱwhereȱgoodȱandȱevilȱareȱclearlyȱdelimitedȱcategoriesȱorȱto declareȱentireȱsystemsȱofȱbeliefsȱorȱworldviewsȱtoȱbeȱevil. MarthinusȱDaneelȱandȱKwabenaȱAsamoahȬGyaduȱdescribe anȱAfricanȱworldviewȱwhereȱtheȱworldȱisȱdividedȱintoȱgoodȱand evilȱandȱȱwhereȱevilȱspirits,ȱdemons,ȱpowers,ȱandȱwitchcraftȱcan beȱovercomeȱonlyȱbyȱtheȱpowerȱofȱGod,ȱtheȱHolyȱSpirit,ȱandȱthe redeemingȱ bloodȱ ofȱ Christȱ inȱ aȱ cosmicȱ battle.ȱ Battlingȱ evilȱ by meansȱofȱSpiritȬdriven,ȱCharismaticȱexpressionsȱofȱChristianityȱalȬ lowsȱtheȱnewȱreligionȱtoȱgainȱinroadsȱintoȱAfricaȱand,ȱinȱtheȱlong run,ȱtoȱreplaceȱtheȱoriginalȱtribalȱreligions.ȱChristianȱmissionaries inȱancientȱIrelandȱusedȱtheȱsameȱstrategies,ȱforȱexample,ȱbyȱquotȬ ingȱ“TheȱDeer’sȱCry,”ȱwhichȱappealedȱtoȱtheȱpowerȱofȱGod,ȱJesus Christ,ȱandȱtheȱHolyȱSpirit. Edienȱ Bartelsȱ presentsȱ anȱ interestingȱ exampleȱ whereȱ the social,ȱculturalȱandȱspiritualȱrealmsȱintersect.ȱInȱtheȱworldviewȱof theȱMoroccanȱfamiliesȱsheȱdescribes,ȱtheȱsourceȱofȱevilȱisȱalways external:ȱ fromȱ sorcery,ȱ evilȱ spirits,ȱ orȱ possession.ȱ Thisȱ wayȱ of lookingȱatȱevilȱprotectsȱtheȱnuclearȱfamilyȱandȱitsȱstatusȱwithin theȱ ethnicȱ community.ȱ Itȱ helpsȱ defineȱ groupȱ boundariesȱ and movesȱresponsibilityȱforȱpsychologicallyȱandȱsociallyȱproblematic behaviorȱfromȱtheȱindividualȱandȱherȱorȱhisȱrelatives. Dramaticȱforcesȱonȱaȱglobalȱscaleȱareȱinvolvedȱinȱtwoȱcasesȱof exorcismȱdescribedȱbyȱPeterȱVersteegȱandȱAndréȱDroogers—one takenȱfromȱaȱDutchȱProtestantȱCharismaticȱorganizationȱandȱthe otherȱfromȱaȱBrazilianȱSpiritistȱhealingȱgroup.ȱInȱtheseȱexorcism cases,ȱaȱcomplaintȱleadsȱaȱpersonȱtoȱactivateȱschemasȱthatȱinterȬ pretȱ andȱ dealȱ withȱ afflictionȱ andȱ itsȱ reduction.ȱ Theseȱ schemas haveȱ aȱ rationalȱ side,ȱ includingȱ beliefsȱ regardingȱ causes,ȱ conseȬ quences,ȱandȱsolutions.ȱAtȱtheȱsameȱtime,ȱtheseȱschemasȱmayȱreȬ flectȱandȱgenerateȱemotionalȱandȱphysicalȱexpressions.ȱTheȱCharȬ ismaticȱandȱSpiritistȱgroupsȱstudiedȱhaveȱtheirȱownȱrepertoiresȱof schemasȱwithȱregardȱtoȱafflictionȱandȱhealing.ȱInȱbothȱcases,ȱwarȬ fare—understoodȱinȱaȱliteralȱsense—isȱaȱpowerfulȱschema.ȱItȱmay triggerȱchangesȱinȱtheȱpatient.ȱWithȱtheȱhumanȱbodyȱasȱtheȱbattleȬ

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field,ȱexorcistsȱareȱengagedȱinȱaȱwarȱbetweenȱgoodȱandȱevil,ȱpurȬ ityȱandȱimpurity,ȱhealthȱandȱsickness,ȱandȱthatȱevenȱhasȱeschatoȬ logicalȱovertones.ȱTheȱschemaȱrepertoireȱapproachȱshowsȱtheȱcreȬ ativeȱprocessȱofȱindividualsȱandȱhealersȱinȱtheirȱsearchȱforȱmeanȬ ingȱ inȱ suffering:ȱ byȱ combiningȱ schemasȱ fromȱ differentȱ reperȬ toires—religion,ȱscience,ȱandȱtheȱmilitaryȱsphere—situationsȱcan beȱtransformed. Asȱvictimsȱofȱorȱdoersȱofȱevilȱdeedsȱ(or,ȱforȱthatȱmatter,ȱgoodȱones asȱwell),ȱourȱlivesȱareȱtransformedȱbyȱwhateverȱmethodȱofȱcoping weȱfollow.ȱDaneelȱdescribesȱtheȱuniqueȱsituationȱwhereȱwitches andȱwizardsȱareȱnotȱonlyȱreleasedȱfromȱtheȱspiritsȱthatȱusedȱto possessȱthemȱbutȱareȱrehabilitatedȱwithinȱtheirȱrespectiveȱsocieȬ tiesȱ andȱ families.ȱ Bothȱ victimsȱ andȱ perpetratorsȱ findȱ reliefȱ in prayer,ȱasȱChristianeȱTietzȱpointsȱout,ȱor,ȱasȱEdwinȱKosterȱsugȬ gests,ȱ simplyȱ hearingȱ aboutȱ whatȱ hasȱ happenedȱ toȱ othersȱ may helpȱusȱreconsiderȱourȱownȱcondition,ȱandȱlearningȱwhatȱcomȬ mittingȱevilȱdeedsȱhasȱdoneȱforȱothersȱmayȱhelpȱusȱrefrainȱfrom committingȱ futureȱ ones.ȱ Andréȱ Lascarisȱ arguesȱ thatȱ doingȱ the unexpected,ȱaskingȱforȱforgivenessȱorȱgrantingȱit,ȱisȱtheȱonlyȱesȬ capeȱfromȱevilȱandȱtheȱformȱofȱredemptionȱoneȱshouldȱseekȱifȱone hasȱsufferedȱorȱusedȱviolence.ȱAȱmoreȱcommonȱbutȱnoȱlessȱcomȬ plicatedȱ wayȱ ofȱ copingȱ withȱ evilȱ constitutesȱ theȱ pursuitȱ ofȱ reȬ venge,ȱasȱLourensȱMinnema’sȱdiscussionȱofȱShakespeare’sȱHamlet illustrates. Soȱfar,ȱweȱhaveȱspokenȱaboutȱwhatȱRuardȱGanzevoortȱdeȬ finesȱasȱ“malice”;ȱevilȱdeedsȱorȱviolenceȱthatȱareȱdoneȱdeliberateȬ ly.ȱHisȱcontributionȱpointsȱoutȱthatȱdiscerningȱbetweenȱtragedy andȱmaliceȱhelpsȱbothȱvictimsȱandȱtheirȱcounselorsȱtoȱovercome sufferingȱ andȱ toȱ comeȱ toȱ termsȱ withȱ differentȱ formsȱ ofȱ evilȱ in lives.ȱ Theȱ intendedȱ inflictionȱ ofȱ sufferingȱ (malice)ȱ isȱ different fromȱtheȱunintendedȱinflictionȱofȱsufferingȱ(tragedy);ȱeachȱtypeȱof sufferingȱ requiresȱ differentȱ healingȱ processesȱ forȱ theȱ victims. Peopleȱ canȱ copeȱ moreȱ easilyȱ withȱ unintendedȱ evilȱ thanȱ with intendedȱevil.ȱItȱisȱespeciallyȱimportantȱtoȱpreventȱtheȱvictimȱfrom viewingȱtheȱevilȱthatȱsheȱhasȱexperiencedȱasȱintendedȱpunishment andȱthatȱsheȱthusȱdrawsȱallȱblameȱtoȱherself;ȱinstead,ȱsheȱshould beȱempoweredȱtoȱresistȱevilȱandȱtoȱconsiderȱGodȱasȱbeingȱonȱher sideȱinȱthisȱendeavor.ȱWhileȱmostȱworksȱonȱevilȱtryȱtoȱdefine,ȱunȬ derstand,ȱorȱclassifyȱit,ȱdefiningȱtheȱintentionȱbehindȱtheȱevilȱdeed

THEȱPROBLEMȱOFȱDEFININGȱEVIL

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orȱdefiningȱwhoȱisȱresponsibleȱforȱit—asȱseveralȱofȱtheȱcontribuȬ tionsȱinȱthisȱbookȱshow—greatlyȱinfluencesȱtheȱcopingȱstrategies ofȱtheȱvictim. Bibliography Awn,ȱ Peterȱ J.ȱ (1983).ȱ Satan’sȱ Tragedyȱ andȱ Redemption:ȱ IblÎsȱ inȱ Sufiȱ PsyȬ chology.ȱLeiden:ȱBrill. DonigerȱO’Flaherty,ȱWendy.ȱ(1976).ȱTheȱOriginsȱofȱEvilȱinȱHinduȱMythoȬ logy.ȱBerkeley:ȱUniversityȱofȱCaliforniaȱPress. Langton,ȱEdward.ȱ(1949).ȱȱEssentialsȱofȱDemonology:ȱAȱStudyȱofȱJewishȱand Christianȱ Doctrines.ȱ Itsȱ Originȱ andȱ Development.ȱ London:ȱ Theȱ EpȬ worthȱPress. Ling,ȱTrevorȱO.ȱ(1962).ȱȱBuddhismȱandȱtheȱMythologyȱofȱEvil.ȱLondon:ȱAlȬ lenȱ&ȱUnwin. McGinn,ȱBernard.ȱ(2000).ȱ Antichrist:ȱTwoȱThousandȱYearsȱofȱtheȱHuman FascinationȱwithȱEvil.ȱNewȱYork:ȱColumbiaȱUniversityȱPress. Nieman,ȱSusan.ȱ(2002).ȱEvilȱinȱModernȱThought:ȱAnȱAlternativeȱHistoryȱof Philosophy.ȱPrinceton/Oxford:ȱPrincetonȱUniversityȱPress.ȱ Ricoeur,ȱPaul.ȱ(1967).ȱTheȱSymbolismȱofȱEvil.ȱNewȱYork:ȱHarperȱ&ȱRow. Russell,ȱJeffreyȱBurton.ȱ(1977).ȱTheȱDevil:ȱPerceptionsȱofȱEvilȱfromȱAntiquity toȱPrimitiveȱChristianity.ȱIthaca:ȱCornellȱUniversityȱPress. Weil,ȱSimone.ȱ(1997).ȱGravityȱandȱGrace.ȱLondon/NewȱYork:ȱRoutledge.

PartȱI

EvilȱinȱSpirit

ImagesȱofȱEvilȱ inȱPopularȱGhanaianȱChristianity BirgitȱMeyer

Abstract Focusingȱonȱimagesȱofȱevil,ȱthisȱpaperȱexploresȱdifferencesȱbetweenȱtheȱmodes ofȱ lookingȱ inducedȱ byȱ theȱ expositionȱ Allȱ Aboutȱ Evilȱ atȱ theȱ Royalȱ Tropical MuseumȱinȱAmsterdamȱonȱtheȱoneȱhandȱandȱtheȱChristianȱsettingȱinȱwhich theȱitemsȱonȱdisplayȱfeatureȱinȱGhanaȱonȱtheȱother.ȱWhileȱimagesȱofȱevilȱare moreȱorȱlessȱharmlessȱdepictionsȱinȱtheȱcontextȱofȱtheȱexposition,ȱinȱtheȱGhaȬ naianȱ settingȱ theyȱ mayȱ easilyȱ slipȱ intoȱ evilȱ imagesȱ thatȱ renderȱ presentȱ the veryȱforceȱthatȱtheyȱdepict.ȱTracingȱtheȱgenesisȱofȱChristianȱattitudesȱtowards imagesȱofȱevilȱinȱGhana,ȱtheȱpaperȱfocusesȱonȱtheȱcontinuedȱimportanceȱofȱthe imageȱofȱSatanȱinȱpopularȱGhanaianȱChristianity.ȱItȱisȱarguedȱthatȱChristianȬ ityȱ propoundsȱ aȱ religiousȱ aestheticsȱ thatȱ inducesȱ particularȱ “lookingȱ acts” andȱ attitudesȱ towardsȱ evilȱ throughȱ whichȱ imagesȱ ofȱ evilȱ achieveȱ aȱ realityȱ of themselves.ȱ

Introduction Inȱ ourȱ contemporaryȱ world,ȱ imagesȱ ofȱ evilȱ abound.ȱ ConcomiȬ tantȱ withȱ processesȱ ofȱ massȱ mediatization,ȱ films,ȱ videos,ȱ postȬ ers,ȱandȱpaintingsȱfeaturingȱevilȱforcesȱspreadȱallȱoverȱtheȱglobe. Whatȱ doȱ peopleȱ seeȱ andȱ feelȱ whenȱ theyȱ lookȱ atȱ suchȱ images? Givenȱthatȱwaysȱofȱviewingȱimagesȱareȱacquiredȱthroughȱsocial learningȱprocessesȱratherȱthanȱbeingȱinnate,ȱtheȱquestionȱisȱhow viewingȱ isȱ constitutedȱ inȱ differentȱ culturalȱ andȱ religiousȱ conȬ texts.ȱModernȱWesternȱapproachesȱofȱlookingȱatȱimagesȱtendȱto denyȱ theirȱ power,ȱ stressingȱ thatȱ imagesȱ areȱ mereȱ representaȬ tionsȱ unaffectedȱ byȱ theirȱ content.ȱ Usingȱ aȱ recentȱ expositionȱ of imagesȱofȱevilȱatȱtheȱRoyalȱTropicalȱInstituteȱinȱAmsterdamȱasȱa startingȱ point,ȱ thisȱ paperȱ highlightsȱ theȱ limitsȱ of,ȱ andȱ alternaȬ tivesȱ to,ȱ thisȱ modeȱ ofȱ looking.ȱ Displayingȱ seriesȱ ofȱ imagesȱ of evilȱ inȱ theȱ frameȱ ofȱ anȱ expositionȱ seemsȱ toȱ induceȱ aȱ distanced viewȱ whichȱ approachesȱ theseȱ imagesȱ asȱ mereȱ representations. 9

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However,ȱinȱtheȱculturalȱandȱreligiousȱcontextȱfromȱwhichȱthese imagesȱ deriveȱ andȱ whichȱ theyȱ address,ȱ imagesȱ ofȱ evilȱ mayȱ be approachedȱ inȱ anȱ entirelyȱ differentȱ manner.ȱ Concentratingȱ on popularȱ Pentecostalȱ Christianityȱ inȱ Ghana,ȱ thisȱ paperȱ explores theȱslippageȱthroughȱwhichȱimagesȱofȱevilȱareȱtransformedȱinto evilȱ images,ȱ givingȱ theȱ viewersȱ theȱ unsettlingȱ experienceȱ that theȱ evilȱ representedȱ inȱ theȱ pictureȱ becomesȱ aȱ realȱ forceȱ that transcendsȱtheȱimage.ȱPentecostalȱChristianityȱpropoundsȱaȱreȬ ligiousȱaestheticsȱthatȱinducesȱaȱparticularȱmodeȱofȱlookingȱand aȱcertainȱattitudeȱtowardȱimagesȱofȱevil. Inȱrecentȱyears,ȱtheȱanthropologyȱofȱAfricaȱhasȱpaidȱconsidȬ erableȱattentionȱtheȱimaginationȱofȱevilȱinȱAfricaȱandȱelsewhere. Farȱfromȱrelegatingȱimagesȱofȱevilȱtoȱaȱtraditionalȱpast,ȱanthroȬ pologistsȱ approachȱ themȱ asȱ crystallizationsȱ ofȱ deeplyȬfeltȱ tenȬ sionsȱandȱanxieties,ȱarisingȱfromȱaȱcomplicatedȱinterplayȱofȱpoȬ litical,ȱeconomic,ȱsocialȱandȱreligiousȱforces.1ȱSince,ȱasȱJeanȱand JohnȱComaroffȱputȱit,ȱimagesȱofȱevilȱembodyȱ“allȱtheȱcontradicȬ tionsȱofȱtheȱexperienceȱofȱmodernityȱitself,”ȱwitchcraftȱandȱevil spiritsȱ haveȱ becomeȱ keyȱ fociȱ (Comaroffȱ andȱ Comaroffȱ 1993: xxix).ȱDespiteȱtheȱemphasisȱplacedȱonȱtheȱimportanceȱofȱtheȱimȬ agination,ȱ however,ȱ processesȱ ofȱ imagingȱ andȱ theȱ practicesȱ of depictionȱ andȱ theȱ viewsȱ toȱ whichȱ theyȱ giveȱ riseȱ haveȱ largely beenȱ neglected—asȱ ifȱ theȱ imaginationȱ isȱ confinedȱ toȱ theȱ inȬ visibleȱandȱhasȱtoȱdoȱwithȱaȱdreamȬlikeȱinnerȱstate.2 Theȱ limitationsȱ ofȱ thisȱ positionȱ becameȱ clearȱ toȱ meȱ whenȱ I wasȱ anȱ advisorȱ inȱ theȱ preparationȱ ofȱ theȱ exhibitionȱ Allȱ About EvilȱatȱtheȱRoyalȱTropicalȱInstituteȱinȱAmsterdamȱ(12/04Ȭ09/05). Theȱexpositionȱshowcasedȱpastȱandȱpresentȱimagesȱofȱevilȱfrom differentȱ culturesȱ aroundȱ theȱ globe,ȱ featuringȱ stuffedȱ uncanny animalsȱlikeȱwolvesȱandȱsnakes,ȱimagesȱofȱdjinns,ȱKali,ȱIndoneȬ sianȱ evilȱ spirits,ȱ mermaids,ȱ andȱ theȱ devilȱ inȱ variousȱ shapes,ȱ as wellȱ asȱ fragmentsȱ fromȱ computerȱ games,ȱ horrorȱ movies,ȱ andȱ a 1

ȱ Cf.ȱ Comaroffȱ andȱ Comaroffȱ 1999,ȱ 1993;ȱ Geschiereȱ 1997;ȱ Meyer 1999a;ȱseeȱalsoȱCloughȱandȱMitchellȱ2001;ȱȱTaussigȱ1980,ȱ1995;ȱThoden vanȱVelzenȱandȱVanȱWeteringȱ1988. 2

ȱOnȱtheȱotherȱhand,ȱscholarsȱinȱtheȱanthropologyȱofȱartȱandȱaesthetȬ icȱtheoryȱinȱgeneral,ȱevenȱthoughȱtheyȱwereȱinterestedȱinȱimages,ȱshowed littleȱinterestȱinȱimagesȱofȱevilȱandȱtheȱhorrific,ȱasȱifȱaestheticsȱisȱlimited toȱtheȱbeautiful.ȱButȱseeȱWendlȱ2004.ȱ

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compilationȱ ofȱ scenesȱ fromȱ Ghanaianȱ videofilmsȱ andȱ movie postersȱ (whichȱ Iȱ compiledȱ fromȱ myȱ researchȱ onȱ religionȱ and filmȱinȱGhana).ȱTheȱexpositionȱseemsȱtoȱfitȱinȱperfectlyȱwithȱour postmodernȱmediaȱageȱinȱwhichȱpicturesȱofȱevilȱpopȱup,ȱvanish andȱ reemergeȱ inȱ newȱ versionsȱ inȱ allȱ spheresȱ ofȱ everydayȱ life, fromȱ advertisementsȱ toȱ museumȱ expositions,ȱ fromȱ politicsȱ to entertainment,ȱ fromȱ religionȱ toȱ cinema.ȱ Thinkingȱ aboutȱ theȱ exȬ positionȱ raisesȱ intriguingȱ questionsȱ aboutȱ theȱ relationshipȱ beȬ tweenȱ imagesȱ ofȱ evilȱ andȱ thoseȱ whoȱ lookȱ atȱ them.ȱ Howȱ isȱ this relationshipȱ constitutedȱ inȱ theȱ contextȱ ofȱ theȱ Allȱ Aboutȱ Evilȱ exȬ position?ȱHowȱdoesȱthisȱdifferȱfromȱtheȱcontextȱofȱaȱchurch,ȱfor instance,ȱ orȱ theȱ settingȱ ofȱ aȱ horrorȱ film?ȱ Howȱ wouldȱ theȱ items onȱdisplayȱbeȱviewedȱbyȱtheȱpeopleȱfromȱwhoseȱlifeȱworldsȱthey originate?ȱ Andȱ howȱ doȱ theȱ possibilitiesȱ ofȱ massȱ mediation, whichȱ seemȱ crucialȱ forȱ theȱ spreadȱ ofȱ imagesȱ ofȱ evilȱ acrossȱ the globe,ȱimpingeȱonȱthatȱrelationship? Forȱme,ȱtheseȱquestionsȱaroseȱasȱaȱresultȱofȱaȱvisitȱtoȱtheȱexȬ positionȱwithȱourȱson,ȱSybren,ȱwhoȱwasȱtenȱyearsȱoldȱatȱtheȱtime andȱ initiallyȱ veryȱ reluctantȱ toȱ comeȱ along,ȱ sinceȱ suchȱ images tendȱtoȱgiveȱhimȱnightmares.ȱAfterȱheȱhadȱlookedȱatȱtheȱwhole expositionȱ veryȱ carefully,ȱ however,ȱ heȱ toldȱ meȱ thatȱ heȱ wasȱ no longerȱ afraid.ȱ Becauseȱ heȱ hadȱ seenȱ moreȱ imagesȱ thanȱ heȱ could everȱremember,ȱnoȱparticularȱoneȱwouldȱappearȱinȱhisȱdreams. Heȱ wasȱ onlyȱ aȱ bitȱ concernedȱ aboutȱ oneȱ uglyȱ greenishȱ witch whomȱheȱdidȱnotȱlookȱatȱclosely,ȱforȱfearȱthatȱherȱimageȱmight stickȱ inȱ hisȱ mindȱ andȱ makeȱ himȱ feelȱ afraid.ȱ Iȱ doȱ notȱ knowȱ exȬ actlyȱwhatȱreactionsȱtheȱorganizersȱanticipatedȱorȱwantedȱtoȱinȬ vokeȱfromȱtheȱvisitors.ȱOneȱofȱtheȱexposition’sȱexplanatoryȱtexts statesȱ thatȱ theȱ veryȱ actȱ ofȱ depictingȱ evilȱ alreadyȱ entailsȱ anȱ atȬ temptȱatȱdisempoweringȱit,ȱasȱifȱtheȱsheerȱactȱofȱvisualȱrepresenȬ tationȱ couldȱ neutralizeȱ theȱ dangerousȱ powerȱ itȱ represented.ȱ As Sybren’sȱexperienceȱsuggests,ȱthisȱmayȱalsoȱpertainȱtoȱtheȱactȱof lookingȱatȱtheȱexposition.ȱHere,ȱitȱisȱprimarilyȱtheȱoverwhelming amountȱofȱimagesȱofȱevilȱthatȱmayȱturnȱaȱvisitȱtoȱtheȱexposition intoȱ aȱ kindȱ ofȱ exorcizingȱ experience,ȱ throughȱ whichȱ someȱ “inȬ ner”ȱdemonsȱfearedȱupȱuntilȱnowȱareȱrelativizedȱasȱfigmentsȱof theȱ imagination.ȱ Excessivelyȱ serialized,ȱ theyȱ appearȱ inflated— mereȱimagesȱandȱnothingȱthatȱoneȱneedsȱtoȱfear. Ponderingȱ myȱ son’sȱ reaction,ȱ Iȱ alsoȱ realizedȱ thatȱ manyȱ of theȱ itemsȱ exposedȱ wouldȱ beȱ lookedȱ uponȱ quiteȱ differentlyȱ in

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theirȱoriginalȱcontext.ȱInȱmyȱownȱresearchȱamongȱChristiansȱin Ghana,ȱforȱinstance,ȱIȱoftenȱencounteredȱrestrictionsȱconcerning theȱdepictionȱofȱevilȱbeingsȱoutȱofȱfearȱthatȱtheȱveryȱactȱofȱdepicȬ tionȱ andȱ exposureȱ mightȱ bringȱ themȱ toȱ life.ȱ Thisȱ attitudeȱ may wellȱ stemȱ fromȱ nineteenthȬcenturyȱ Protestantȱ missionaryȱ attiȬ tudesȱtowardȱworshipingȱidols,ȱwhichȱtheyȱsoughtȱtoȱburnȱsoȱas toȱ markȱ theȱ defeatȱ ofȱ “heathendom”ȱ byȱ theȱ Christianȱ God. Similarly,ȱasȱIȱfoundȱduringȱmyȱresearch,ȱtheȱwayȱinȱwhichȱthe clipsȱdistilledȱfromȱGhanaianȱvideofilmsȱfeaturingȱoccultȱforces wouldȱ beȱ viewedȱ inȱ Ghana,ȱ whereȱ manyȱ peopleȱ seeȱ themȱ as trueȱ revelationsȱ ofȱ theȱ “powersȱ ofȱ darkness,”ȱ isȱ differentȱ from howȱtheyȱwouldȱbeȱviewedȱinȱtheȱmuseumȱwhereȱtheyȱwereȱinȬ cludedȱinȱtheȱcategoryȱofȱhorrorȱmovies. Itȱ seemsȱ thatȱ theȱ conditionȱ ofȱ possibilityȱ forȱ theȱ Allȱ About EvilȱexpositionȱisȱtheȱassumptionȱthatȱthereȱisȱaȱgapȱbetweenȱdeȬ pictionsȱofȱevilȱandȱtheȱevilȱtheyȱdepict,ȱimplyingȱthatȱtheȱforces depictedȱhaveȱbeenȱsuccessfullyȱcapturedȱwithinȱframeworksȱof entertainmentȱandȱmassȱconsumptionȱinȱwhichȱhorrorȱ(andȱthe temporaryȱangstȱinvokedȱbyȱit)ȱisȱaȱmatterȱofȱspectacleȱandȱfun. Thisȱ stanceȱ seemsȱ toȱ echoȱ aȱ particularlyȱ Westernȱ attitudeȱ that maintainsȱ aȱ strictȱ distinctionȱ betweenȱ representationȱ andȱ presȬ enceȱ andȱ attemptsȱ ȱ toȱ denyȱ theȱ “powerȱ ofȱ images”ȱ overȱ the modernȱ subjectȱ (Freedbergȱ 1989).3ȱ Itȱ wouldȱ beȱ farȱ tooȱ facileȱ to claimȱ thatȱ theȱ representationalȱ modesȱ associatedȱ withȱ modȬ ernityȱhaveȱputȱanȱendȱtoȱ“theȱpowerȱofȱimages”ȱinȱgeneralȱand toȱ imagesȱ ofȱ evilȱ inȱ particular,ȱ inȱ theȱ senseȱ thatȱ theseȱ areȱ once andȱforȱallȱonȱtheȱsafeȱsideȱofȱmereȱdepictionsȱandȱfarȱremoved fromȱtheȱevilȱtheyȱseekȱtoȱrepresent. TheȱquestionȱofȱtheȱpowerȱofȱimagesȱinȱthisȱeraȱofȱmassȱreȬ production,ȱ asȱ theȱ impressiveȱ workȱ ofȱ W.J.T.ȱ Mitchellȱ (1994) shows,ȱisȱcomplex,ȱandȱcertainlyȱfarȱtooȱlargeȱtoȱbeȱaddressedȱin

3

ȱInȱWesternȱencountersȱwithȱindigenousȱpopulations,ȱitȱisȱexactly thisȱ attitudeȱ thatȱ hasȱ beenȱ seenȱ asȱ aȱ distinguishingȱ featureȱ ofȱ nonȬ Westernȱ“primitive”ȱpeople,ȱinȱtheȱsenseȱthatȱanimismȱandȱfetishismȱare partȱofȱtheirȱculture,ȱtestifyingȱtoȱtheirȱincapacityȱtoȱdistinguishȱbetween objectsȱ andȱ livingȱ beings.ȱ However,ȱ asȱ Pietzȱ (1985Ȭ1988)ȱ andȱ Fabian (2000)ȱargued,ȱtheȱfetishȱemergedȱfromȱtheȱinterfaceȱofȱtheȱencounter, thusȱshowingȱthatȱthisȱattitudeȱisȱpresentȱamongȱWesternersȱasȱwellȱ(see alsoȱVerripsȱ1994).

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thisȱpaper.ȱHereȱIȱwillȱfocusȱonȱmassȬproducedȱimagesȱofȱevilȱin Ghana,ȱwhereȱIȱhaveȱbeenȱconductingȱresearchȱonȱtheȱinterface betweenȱ popularȱ andȱ Christianȱ imaginationsȱ ofȱ evilȱ sinceȱ the lateȱ 1980s.ȱ Theȱ growingȱ popularityȱ ofȱ Pentecostalismȱ inȱ Ghana gaveȱriseȱnotȱonlyȱtoȱanȱeverȬincreasingȱnumberȱofȱPentecostalȬ Charismaticȱ churchesȱ andȱ Pentecostalȱ prayerȱ groupsȱ inȱ mainȬ streamȱ churchesȱ (Giffordȱ 2004;ȱ deȱ Witteȱ 2003)4ȱ butȱ alsoȱ toȱ the intertwiningȱ ofȱ popularȱ cultureȱ andȱ Christianityȱ inȱ whichȱ the imageȱofȱtheȱdevilȱplaysȱaȱprominentȱroleȱ(Meyerȱ2004a).ȱDrawȬ ingȱChristianityȱintoȱtheȱsphereȱofȱentertainmentȱand,ȱviceȱversa, entertainmentȱintoȱtheȱsphereȱofȱChristianityȱyieldsȱanȱintricate mixtureȱofȱanxietyȱandȱfunȱvisȬàȬvisȱimagesȱofȱevil.ȱTheȱimplicaȬ tionsȱ andȱ dynamicsȱ ofȱ theȱ intertwiningȱ ofȱ Christianityȱ andȱ enȬ tertainmentȱ canȱ beȱ studiedȱ fruitfullyȱ byȱ focusingȱ onȱ theȱ GhaȬ naianȱ videofilmȱ industryȱ thatȱ emergedȱ inȱ theȱ lateȱ 1980s.5ȱ StimȬ ulatedȱbyȱindependentȱculturalȱentrepreneursȱwhoȱwantȱtoȱproȬ duceȱ filmsȱ thatȱ appealȱ toȱ massȱ audiences,ȱ videofilmsȱ offerȱ a suitableȱ venueȱ forȱ studyingȱ theȱ popularȱ imaginationȱ andȱ the centralȱroleȱofȱChristianityȱand,ȱaboveȱall,ȱtheȱimageȱofȱtheȱdevil inȱitȱ(Meyerȱ1999b).ȱMyȱmainȱconcernȱisȱtoȱshowȱthatȱinȱtheȱconȬ textȱofȱChristianȱentertainmentȱofferedȱbyȱGhanaianȱandȱNigerȬ ianȱvideofilms,ȱimagesȱofȱevil,ȱalthoughȱthrivingȱbecauseȱofȱthe modernȱ possibilitiesȱ ofȱ massȱ production,ȱ ultimatelyȱ refuseȱ to appearȱ simplyȱ asȱ representationsȱ andȱ tendȱ toȱ retainȱ theȱ someȬ whatȱexcessiveȱpotentialȱforȱpartiallyȱmergingȱwithȱtheȱevilȱthey depict,ȱcallingȱforȱadequateȱaction. ProtestantȱImagesȱofȱEvil InȱorderȱtoȱunderstandȱtheȱobsessionȱwithȱsatanicȱforcesȱinȱGhaȬ naianȱpopularȱcultureȱinȱgeneral,ȱandȱinȱvideofilmsȱinȱparticular, weȱshouldȱindicateȱhowȱChristianȱimagesȱofȱevilȱcameȱtoȱGhana. TheȱimageȱofȱtheȱdevilȱhasȱbeenȱquiteȱappealingȱtoȱAfricanȱconȬ vertsȱeverȱsinceȱtheȱspreadȱofȱtheȱnineteenthȬcenturyȱProtestant missionaryȱ movement.ȱ Whileȱ liberalȱ theology,ȱ followingȱ FriedȬ richȱ Schleiermacherȱ (1861)ȱ andȱ others,ȱ struggledȱ toȱ doȱ away 4

ȱSeeȱalsoȱAsamoahȬGyaduȱinȱthisȱvolume,ȱpp.ȱ85Ȭ103.

5

ȱAlthoughȱvideoȱtechnologyȱwasȱused,ȱtheȱintentionȱwasȱtoȱproduce filmsȱthatȱcouldȱbeȱscreenedȱinȱtheȱcinema.ȱCf.ȱMeyerȱ1999b;ȱ2006.ȱ

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withȱ theȱ imageȱ ofȱ theȱ devilȱ asȱ aȱ separateȱ reality,ȱ inȱ theȱ rural areasȱ fromȱ whichȱ mostȱ missionariesȱ workingȱ forȱ theȱ Baselȱ and Bremenȱ missionsȱ originated,ȱ theȱ devilȱ andȱ demonsȱ wereȱ still consideredȱ toȱ beȱ powerfulȱ realitiesȱ (asȱ Blumhardt’sȱ KrankengeȬ schichteȱ derȱ Gottliebinȱ Dittusȱ [1978]ȱ illustrates).ȱ Theseȱ missionarȬ ies,ȱ whoȱ stoodȱ atȱ theȱ cradleȱ ofȱ theȱ Evangelicalȱ Presbyterian Churchȱ andȱ theȱ Presbyterianȱ Churchȱ ofȱ Ghana,ȱ tookȱ theȱ image ofȱtheȱdevilȱwithȱthemȱtoȱtheȱGoldȱCoastȱ(laterȱGhana).ȱPreachȬ ingȱ thatȱ “theȱ godsȱ ofȱ theȱ heathensȱ areȱ demons,”ȱ andȱ thatȱ AfriȬ cansȱ actuallyȱ worshipedȱ Satan—albeitȱ unknowingly—theȱ misȬ sionariesȱdiabolizedȱindigenousȱreligiousȱtraditions.ȱAtȱtheȱsame time,ȱhowever,ȱtheyȱaffirmedȱtheȱrealityȱandȱpowerȱofȱlocalȱgods andȱ spirits,ȱ nowȱ recastȱ asȱ Christianȱ demonsȱ operatingȱ under Satan’sȱ authority.ȱ Africanȱ convertsȱ adoptedȱ thisȱ viewȱ quiteȱ eaȬ gerly.ȱ Invisibleȱ forcesȱ thatȱ hadȱ hithertoȱ beenȱ moreȱ ambivalent wereȱ nowȱ recastȱ asȱ entirelyȱ evilȱ andȱ demonic.ȱ Asȱ Iȱ showedȱ in moreȱdetailȱinȱTranslatingȱtheȱDevilȱ(1999a),ȱtheȱdualismȱofȱGod andȱ theȱ devilȱ wasȱ atȱ theȱ basisȱ ofȱ aȱ popularȱ grassrootsȱ underȬ standingȱ ofȱ Christianity,ȱ anȱ understandingȱ thatȱ wasȱ obsessed withȱ theȱ realityȱ ofȱ occultȱ forces—soȱ muchȱ soȱ thatȱ theȱ missionȬ ariesȱ worriedȱ aboutȱ Christians’ȱ persistentȱ preoccupationȱ with powersȱ fromȱ whichȱ theyȱ wereȱ supposedȱ toȱ haveȱ brokenȱ away throughȱtheirȱconversion. Theȱ strongȱ emphasisȱ onȱ theȱ devil,ȱ throughȱ whichȱ preȬ Christianȱreligionsȱasȱwellȱasȱnewȱdemonicȱforces6ȱwereȱexperiȬ encedȱasȱpowerfulȱexistentȱrealitiesȱthatȱcouldȱonlyȱbeȱovercome byȱtheȱChristianȱGod,ȱisȱaȱcharacteristicȱandȱenduringȱfeatureȱof Christianityȱ inȱ Ghanaȱ and,ȱ forȱ thatȱ matter,ȱ inȱ Africaȱ (Meyer 2004b).7ȱWhileȱtheȱtheologicallyȱtrainedȱleadershipȱinȱtheȱmainȬ streamȱ churchesȱ soughtȱ toȱ getȱ awayȱ fromȱ theȱ emphasisȱ onȱ the devilȱandȱtoȱdevelopȱaȱtheologyȱthatȱwasȱmoreȱpositiveȱtoward indigenousȱreligionȱandȱculture,ȱtheȱlinkȱbetweenȱSatanȱandȱthe localȱ godsȱ (andȱ witchcraft)ȱ remainedȱ strongȱ atȱ theȱ grassroots level.ȱ Africanȱ Independentȱ Churchesȱ and,ȱ later,ȱ PentecostalȬ

6

ȱForȱinstance,ȱMamiȱWater,ȱaȱforeignȱspiritȱwhichȱisȱhalfȱwomanȱand halfȱ fishȱ andȱ presidesȱ overȱ aȱ consumerȱ paradiseȱ atȱ theȱ bottomȱ ofȱ the ocean—Satan’sȱmostȱseductiveȱdemonȱ(cf.ȱWendlȱ1991). 7

ȱSeeȱalsoȱDaneelȱinȱthisȱvolume,ȱpp.ȱ51Ȭ70.

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Charismaticȱchurchesȱoweȱtheirȱpopularityȱatȱleastȱinȱpartȱtoȱthe factȱthatȱtheyȱlinkȱupȱeasilyȱwithȱsuchȱpopularȱunderstandings, andȱ allowȱ forȱ anȱ understandingȱ ofȱ traditionalȱ godsȱ andȱ witchȬ craftȱasȱpowerfulȱthoughȱworrisomeȱrealitiesȱfromȱwhichȱpeople seekȱtoȱbeȱdeliveredȱbutȱwhichȱcontinuouslyȱthreatenȱtoȱreȬposȬ sessȱ theirȱ bodiesȱ andȱ mindsȱ (Meyerȱ 1998).ȱ Theȱ imageȱ ofȱ the devilȱ allowsȱ accessȱ toȱ thoseȱ godsȱ andȱ spiritsȱ fromȱ whichȱ good Christiansȱareȱsupposedȱtoȱ“breakȱaway”ȱbutȱareȱstillȱperceived asȱinterferingȱinȱtheirȱlivesȱinȱunexpectedȱways—henceȱtheȱneed toȱ beȱ vigilantȱ andȱ toȱ beȱ assuredȱ ofȱ beingȱ filledȱ withȱ theȱ Holy Spirit. Itȱ isȱ importantȱ toȱ noteȱ thatȱ Protestantȱ Christianityȱ didȱ not onlyȱ introduceȱ aȱ dualismȱ ofȱ Godȱ andȱ devilȱ asȱ aȱ conceptual structure,ȱinȱwhichȱtheȱlatterȱfiguredȱasȱanȱextensivelyȱinflatable category,ȱbutȱalsoȱaȱparticularȱiconographyȱofȱtheȱmainȱprotagȬ onists.ȱTheȱsecondȱcommandmentȱnotwithstanding,ȱmissionȱsoȬ cieties’ȱ Bibleȱ storyȱ booksȱ containedȱ illustrationsȱ ofȱ Jesusȱ (alȬ thoughȱnotȱGodȱHimself)ȱandȱtheȱdevil.ȱMissionariesȱalsoȱintroȬ ducedȱaȱhostȱofȱnewȱpictures,ȱsuchȱasȱtheȱlithographȱcalledȱThe BroadȱandȱNarrowȱPath,ȱwhichȱexpressedȱaȱparticularȱworldview, inȱtheȱsenseȱofȱaȱparticularȱwayȱofȱlookingȱatȱtheȱworldȱ(Meyer 1999a:ȱ31Ȭ38).ȱImagesȱofȱJesusȱalsoȱbecameȱpartȱofȱpopularȱProȬ testantȱ Christianȱ materialȱ culture.ȱ Christianȱ picturesȱ canȱ be boughtȱ throughoutȱ southernȱ Ghana.ȱ Nextȱ toȱ endlesslyȱ copied, handȬpaintedȱ imagesȱ ofȱ Jesusȱ (oftenȱ inspiredȱ byȱ Daȱ Vinci’sȱ reȬ presentationȱ ofȱ Jesusȱ atȱ theȱ Lastȱ Supper),ȱ thereȱ areȱ massȬproȬ ducedȱpostersȱwhichȱoftenȱfeature,ȱcomicȱstripȬlikeȱdepictionsȱof theȱotherwiseȱinvisibleȱstruggleȱbetweenȱdivineȱandȱsatanicȱforȬ ces. TheȱfactȱthatȱSatanȱisȱfearedȱasȱanȱevilȱandȱdestructiveȱpowȬ erȱdidȱnotȱputȱanȱendȱtoȱtheȱdepictionȱofȱevil.ȱOnȱtheȱcontrary, picturesȱofȱevilȱareȱtremendouslyȱpopularȱandȱwidespread.ȱFor manyȱbelievers,ȱSatanȱisȱnotȱsimplyȱaȱconceptualȱcontainerȱbutȱa realȱ spirit,8ȱ withȱ aȱ particularȱ appearanceȱ andȱ theȱ capacityȱ to bindȱ potentialȱ followersȱ throughȱ intimateȱ encountersȱ andȱ seȬ ductionȱ byȱ moneyȱ andȱ wealth.ȱ Thereȱ areȱ aȱ greatȱ numberȱ of 8 ȱ Theȱ devilȱ hadȱ beenȱ expelledȱ fromȱ heaven,ȱ takingȱ withȱ himȱ all kindsȱofȱfallenȱangelsȱwhoȱbecameȱevilȱspiritsȱpopulatingȱtheȱsea,ȱthe earthȱandȱtheȱsky.

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bookletsȱ inȱ circulationȱ inȱ whichȱ bornȬagainȱ Christiansȱ recount theirȱactualȱencountersȱwithȱtheȱdevil,ȱsuchȱasȱatȱtheȱbottomȱof theȱ oceanȱ (Eniȱ 1988;ȱ Ellisȱ andȱ terȱ Haarȱ 1998,ȱ 2004).ȱ Suchȱ bookȬ lets,ȱ asȱ wellȱ asȱ accountsȱ ofȱ personalȱ testimoniesȱ aboutȱ involveȬ mentȱ withȱ theȱ “powersȱ ofȱ darkness”ȱ priorȱ toȱ conversion,ȱ are sourcesȱofȱinspirationȱforȱpopularȱmaterializationsȱofȱtheseȱmore elusiveȱ andȱ vagueȱ notionsȱ andȱ experiencesȱ inȱ concreteȱ depicȬ tionsȱ ofȱ evilȱ (forȱ instance,ȱ Samȱ Bea’sȱ filmȱ Deliveranceȱ fromȱ the Powersȱ ofȱ Darknessȱ [Accraȱ 1992]ȱ appearsȱ toȱ beȱ inspiredȱ byȱ Eni’s bookȱ andȱ similarȱ accounts).ȱ Withȱ theȱ riseȱ ofȱ theȱ Ghanaianȱ and Nigerianȱ videofilmȱ industry,ȱ whichȱ setȱ outȱ toȱ visualizeȱ how Christiansȱimaginedȱinvisibleȱevilȱforces,ȱChristianȬinspiredȱenȬ tertainmentȱbecameȱpopularȱthroughoutȱsouthernȱGhana. ImagesȱofȱEvilȱ/ȱEvilȱImages Capitalizingȱ onȱ theȱ popularityȱ ofȱ Pentecostalism,ȱ locallyȱ made videofilmsȱfeatureȱimagesȱofȱevilȱsuchȱasȱtheȱdevil,ȱdemons,ȱand witchesȱexcessivelyȱ(Meyerȱ1999b).ȱManyȱvideofilmsȱfollowȱthe popularityȱ ofȱ Pentecostalismȱ andȱ depictȱ theȱ struggleȱ between evilȱ andȱ divineȱ forces,ȱ whichȱ isȱ excessivelyȱ invokedȱ inȱ PenteȬ costalȱsermons,ȱsongsȱandȱprayerȱmeetings.ȱAȱgreatȱmanyȱfilms featureȱ scenesȱ inȱ whichȱ piousȱ Christiansȱ appearȱ ableȱ toȱ save themselvesȱ fromȱ hopelessȱ situations,ȱ suchȱ asȱ fromȱ beingȱ killed byȱ aȱ ritualȱ murderer.ȱ Accordingȱ toȱ theseȱ videofilms,ȱ callingȱ on theȱ nameȱ ofȱ Jesusȱ atȱ theȱ veryȱ lastȱ minuteȱ instantlyȱ invokesȱ the fireȱ ofȱ theȱ Holyȱ Spiritȱ thatȱ destroysȱ theȱ Christian’sȱ opponent. Thisȱisȱmuchȱtoȱtheȱentertainmentȱofȱtheȱaudiencesȱwhichȱenjoy witnessingȱ theȱ defeatȱ ofȱ theȱ powersȱ ofȱ darkness.9ȱ Attending manyȱ showingsȱ withȱ audiencesȱ inȱ largeȱ cinemas,ȱ smallȱ video parlorsȱ orȱ atȱ home,ȱ Iȱ wasȱ struckȱ overȱ andȱ overȱ againȱ byȱ the spectators’ȱactiveȱinvolvementȱwithȱwhatȱtheyȱsawȱonȱscreen.ȱA runningȱ commentaryȱ onȱ theȱ filmsȱ wouldȱ beȱ interruptedȱ someȬ timesȱbyȱshoutsȱencouragingȱaȱcharacterȱinȱtheȱfilmȱwhoȱwasȱin

9

ȱIȱoftenȱencounteredȱbornȬagainȱChristiansȱexperiencingȱpleasure inȱtalkingȱaboutȱSatan’sȱcertainȱdefeat.ȱInȱpersonalȱtestimonies,ȱSatan,ȱalȬ thoughȱfearsomeȱandȱpowerful,ȱcanȱalsoȱbecomeȱanȱobjectȱofȱfunȱand mockeryȱ(certainȱpreachersȱwouldȱevenȱintersperseȱtheirȱtalkȱaboutȱSatan withȱcontemptuousȱlaughter).ȱ

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dangerȱ toȱ holdȱ on,ȱ andȱ rejoicingȱ atȱ anȱ evildoer’sȱ deservedȱ (at timesȱveryȱviolent)ȱpunishment.ȱAlthoughȱthereȱareȱmomentsȱof tensionȱ andȱ fear,ȱ spectators—andȱ hereȱ oneȱ isȱ remindedȱ ofȱ EmȬ manuelȱ Burke’sȱ reflectionsȱ onȱ experiencesȱ ofȱ theȱ sublime— knowȱthatȱtheyȱareȱsafe,ȱandȱhenceȱexperienceȱ“aȱcorresponding pleasureȱ inȱ theȱ ‘tensionȱ ofȱ ourȱ nerves’ȱ (asȱ Burkeȱ putsȱ it)ȱ orȱ an adrenalineȱhighȱ(asȱweȱmightȱputȱit)”ȱ(Zuckertȱ2003:ȱ223).ȱMany spectatorsȱ wouldȱ viewȱ moviesȱ notȱ merelyȱ asȱ filmsȱ butȱ asȱ inȬ scribedȱ intoȱ aȱ Pentecostalȱ projectȱ ofȱ revelationȱ thatȱ assertsȱ the powerȱ ofȱ theȱ Christianȱ worldviewȱ (Meyerȱ 2004a).ȱ Iȱ oftenȱ enȬ counteredȱ peopleȱ whoȱ toldȱ meȱ thatȱ theyȱ hadȱ heardȱ aȱ similar storyȱ asȱ aȱ testimonyȱ inȱ churchȱ orȱ hadȱ evenȱ goneȱ throughȱ perȬ sonalȱ experiencesȱ withȱ occultȱ forcesȱ similarȱ toȱ thoseȱ visualized inȱmovies. Inȱ theȱ courseȱ ofȱ myȱ researchȱ onȱ setsȱ andȱ interviewsȱ with filmmakers,ȱactorsȱandȱtechnicians,ȱIȱunderstoodȱthatȱdepictions ofȱevilȱandȱtheȱspiritualȱpowersȱattributedȱtoȱthemȱ(whichȱwere representedȱthroughȱspectacularȱspecialȱeffects)ȱtendȱtoȱhaveȱan adverseȱ effectȱ onȱ representationsȱ ofȱ evil.ȱ Althoughȱ evilȱ forces andȱtheirȱabodesȱhaveȱtoȱbeȱmadeȱupȱforȱtheȱmovie,ȱIȱoftenȱdisȬ cernedȱ mixedȱ feelingsȱ concerningȱ theirȱ representation.ȱ ProȬ ducersȱ andȱ actorsȱ haveȱ the—albeitȱ vague—ideaȱ thatȱ theȱ devil dislikesȱbeingȱexposedȱandȱhenceȱseeksȱtoȱsabotageȱtheȱproducȬ tionȱ ofȱ certainȱ scenesȱ thatȱ revealȱ hisȱ machinations.ȱ Soȱ itȱ may happenȱ thatȱ theȱ cameraȱ refusesȱ toȱ workȱ whenȱ certainȱ scenes depictingȱevilȱforcesȱareȱtoȱbeȱfilmed,ȱthatȱactorsȱfeelȱspiritually troubledȱwhenȱplayingȱtheȱrolesȱofȱwitchesȱorȱspiritualists,ȱthat setȱdesignersȱandȱdirectorsȱareȱafraidȱtoȱemployȱoriginalȱmaterȬ ialsȱ whenȱ settingȱ upȱ aȱ shrine.ȱ Inȱ allȱ theseȱ instances,ȱ imagesȱ of evilȱ areȱ notȱ mereȱ representationsȱ butȱ tendȱ toȱ allowȱ theȱ actual manifestationȱofȱtheȱrepresentedȱevilȱpowers:ȱanȱuncannyȱblurȬ ringȱofȱsignifierȱandȱsignifiedȱwhereȱthatȱwhichȱbeginsȱasȱbeing madeȱupȱmayȱeventuallyȱbecomeȱreal.ȱTheȱonlyȱwayȱtoȱprevent theȱ forcesȱ unleashedȱ throughȱ representationȱ isȱ theȱ powerȱ of prayer—aȱ beliefȱ thatȱ isȱ alsoȱ expressedȱ inȱ theȱ filmsȱ themselves. Inȱthisȱway,ȱfilmsȱandȱwhatȱhappensȱonȱsetȱareȱpartȱandȱparcel ofȱtheȱsameȱlifeȱworld. Evilȱneedsȱtoȱbeȱimagedȱsoȱthatȱitȱcanȱbeȱrevealed,ȱbutȱthis depictionȱ needsȱ toȱ beȱ doneȱ withinȱ theȱ confinesȱ ofȱ aȱ Christian dualisticȱstructure,ȱthusȱleavingȱnoȱdoubtȱaboutȱtheȱpowerȱofȱthe

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ChristianȱGodȱtoȱovercomeȱtheȱpowersȱofȱdarkness.ȱThisȱimplies thatȱvideofilmsȱoftenȱendȱwithȱbiblicalȱquotesȱthatȱsuggestȱaȱparȬ ticularȱ Christianȱ understanding.ȱ Evenȱ thoughȱ evilȱ forcesȱ have beenȱ visualizedȱ excessivelyȱ onȱ theȱ screen,ȱ theȱ videofilmsȱ stress thatȱ theirȱ powerȱ isȱ inferiorȱ toȱ God’s.ȱ Ifȱ thisȱ isȱ notȱ theȱ case,ȱ as oftenȱ happensȱ withȱ audiencesȱ watchingȱ aȱ movieȱ thatȱ endsȱ inȱ a cliffhanger,ȱ (atȱ leastȱ ideal)ȱ Christianȱ spectatorsȱ articulateȱ this structureȱ themselvesȱ byȱ invokingȱ Jesusȱ andȱ theȱ powerȱ ofȱ the Holyȱ Spirit.ȱ Oneȱ couldȱ evenȱ sayȱ thatȱ theȱ Christianȱ dualistic structureȱallowsȱforȱexcessiveȱportrayalsȱofȱtheȱoperationsȱofȱocȬ cultȱforces,ȱtherebyȱturningȱspectatorsȱintoȱprurientȱwitnessesȱof theȱ forbiddenȱ andȱ hidden.ȱ Christianȱ entertainmentȱ allowsȱ for voyeurismȱandȱfunȱbutȱatȱtheȱsameȱtimeȱassertsȱtheȱrealȱdanger ofȱ evil,ȱ ifȱ itȱ isȱ notȱ encounteredȱ inȱ aȱ Christianȱ perspectiveȱ and heldȱinȱcheckȱbyȱtheȱpowerȱofȱJesus. Conclusion Imagesȱ ofȱ evilȱ doȱ notȱ haveȱ anyȱ intrinsicȱ powerȱ byȱ themselves. Whatȱ suchȱ imagesȱ canȱ doȱ toȱ peopleȱ andȱ peopleȱ toȱ themȱ deȬ pends,ȱ asȱ theȱ Ghanaianȱ materialȱ discussedȱ hereȱ shows,ȱ onȱ the particularȱ wayȱ inȱ whichȱ theȱ relationshipȱ betweenȱ imagesȱ and personsȱ isȱ understood,ȱ articulatedȱ andȱ rehearsedȱ throughȱ parȬ ticularȱroutines.ȱTheȱexpositionȱAllȱAboutȱEvilȱwasȱsetȱupȱonȱthe basisȱofȱanȱassumedȱsplitȱbetweenȱrepresentationȱandȱpresence, whichȱmakesȱitȱpossibleȱtoȱviewȱtheȱimagesȱofȱevilȱdisplayedȱas harmlessȱ orȱ evenȱ hilarious.ȱ Onceȱ theȱ veryȱ sameȱ objectsȱ onȱ disȬ playȱ inȱ theȱ museumȱ areȱ transposedȱ intoȱ anotherȱ context,ȱ howȬ ever,ȱtheyȱmayȱbeȱperceivedȱasȱpowerfulȱandȱinduceȱfear.ȱSuch anȱ experienceȱ ofȱ fearȱ mayȱ beȱ activelyȱ soughtȱ asȱ aȱ leisureȱ activȬ ity,ȱasȱisȱtheȱcaseȱwhenȱwatchingȱaȱhorrorȱfilmȱthatȱsuccessfully luresȱspectatorsȱintoȱtemporarilyȱsuspendingȱtheirȱdisbelief.ȱBut peopleȱmayȱalsoȱseekȱtoȱavoidȱit,ȱasȱisȱtheȱcaseȱwithȱtheȱboycott ofȱHarryȱPotterȱandȱotherȱȱmoviesȱportrayingȱtheȱoccultȱbyȱconȬ servativeȱ Christians,ȱ whichȱ seemsȱ toȱ beȱ motivatedȱ byȱ theȱ fear thatȱ theȱ evilȱ forcesȱ depictedȱ mayȱ actuallyȱ materializeȱ inȱ the spectators’ȱlives.ȱTheȱshort,ȱthoughȱendlesslyȱrepeatedȱseriesȱof scenesȱ involvingȱ evilȱ forcesȱ inȱ Ghanaianȱ videofilmsȱ onȱ display inȱ theȱ exposition,ȱ alsoȱ differsȱ markedlyȱ fromȱ theȱ contextȱ ofȱ reȬ ceptionȱ inȱ Ghana.ȱ Whereas,ȱ inȱ theȱ contextȱ ofȱ theȱ exposition theseȱscenesȱtestifyȱtoȱGhanaianȱvideofilmmakers’ȱcreativityȱand

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abilityȱtoȱblendȱfigmentsȱofȱtheȱpopularȱimaginationȱwithȱspecȬ tacularȱ specialȱ effects,ȱ inȱ Ghana,ȱ asȱ Iȱ triedȱ toȱ show,ȱ videofilms addressȱ spectatorsȱ asȱ Christiansȱ keenȱ toȱ witnessȱ theȱ victoryȱ of divineȱpowerȱoverȱsatanicȱforces. Veryȱ muchȱ unlikeȱ horrorȱ movies,ȱ theȱ videofilmsȱ discussed inȱthisȱpaperȱdoȱnotȱseekȱtoȱmakeȱspectatorsȱsuspendȱtheȱdisbeȬ liefȱthatȱmarksȱthemȱasȱmodernȱrationalȱpeople.ȱOnȱtheȱcontrary, videofilmsȱproduceȱreligiousȱimagesȱthatȱareȱhighlyȱindebtedȱto Christianity.ȱ Religiousȱ images,ȱ asȱ Davidȱ Morganȱ arguedȱ with regardȱtoȱAmericanȱProtestantism,ȱplayȱaȱkeyȱroleȱinȱattributing realityȱtoȱdivineȱrepresentations,ȱmakingȱitȱseemȱasȱifȱtheȱpicture possessesȱ “itsȱ referentȱ withinȱ itself”ȱ (Morganȱ 1998:ȱ 9;ȱ seeȱ also Latourȱ2001).ȱButȱimagesȱareȱnotȱconvincingȱbyȱthemselves;ȱthey workȱ inȱ theȱ contextȱ ofȱ particularȱ grammarsȱ andȱ repertoiresȱ of usageȱ whichȱ induceȱ particularȱ dispositionsȱ andȱ practicesȱ toȬ wardȱthem.ȱHereȱlookingȱatȱimagesȱisȱnotȱsimplyȱemployingȱthe facultyȱofȱvision;ȱlookingȱatȱimagesȱinȱtheȱcontextȱofȱvisualȱpiety, asȱ Morganȱ asserts,ȱ isȱ inscribedȱ inȱ particularȱ Protestantȱ unȬ derstandingsȱofȱvisionȱandȱacquiredȱpracticesȱofȱlookingȱwhich ensureȱ aȱ religiousȱ perspectiveȱ onȱ andȱ experienceȱ ofȱ divineȱ imȬ agesȱ (seeȱ alsoȱ Meyerȱ 2006).ȱ Thisȱ religiousȱ perspectiveȱ isȱ both priorȱ toȱ andȱ affirmedȱ byȱ suchȱ images,ȱ therebyȱ implicatingȱ the spectatorȱ inȱ aȱ particularȱ worldview.ȱ Oneȱ keyȱ effectȱ ofȱ popular aestheticȱ experienceȱ inducedȱ byȱ massȬproducedȱ religiousȱ imȬ ages,ȱthen,ȱisȱ“toȱabsorbȱconsciousnessȱbyȱconcentratingȱitȱinȱthe featureȱofȱanȱobjectȱwithoutȱtransformingȱtheȱparametersȱofȱperȬ ception”ȱ(Morganȱ1998:ȱ16). Althoughȱ Morganȱ isȱ writingȱ aboutȱ picturesȱ ratherȱ than filmsȱandȱdoesȱnotȱmentionȱdemonsȱandȱtheȱ devil,ȱhisȱanalysis isȱ helpfulȱ inȱ understandingȱ theȱ powerȱ attributedȱ toȱ imagesȱ of evilȱ inȱ theȱ contextȱ ofȱ Ghanaianȱ andȱ Nigerianȱ videofilms.ȱ As videofilmsȱ thriveȱ parasiticallyȱ onȱ Pentecostalȱ imaginationsȱ of theȱstruggleȱbetweenȱGodȱandȱevil,ȱsupplementingȱitȱwithȱaȱvisȬ ualȱ dimension,ȱ theyȱ tapȱ intoȱ andȱ affirmȱ alreadyȱ existingȱ reperȬ toiresȱofȱlookingȱatȱimagesȱthatȱareȱpartȱandȱparcelȱofȱaȱperson’s socializationȱ asȱ aȱ Christianȱ orȱ evenȱ bornȬagainȱ believer.ȱ Inȱ so doing,ȱfilmsȱreiterateȱtheȱPentecostalȱworldview,ȱwhichȱstresses theȱneedȱtoȱrevealȱbyȱdivineȱinterventionȱwhatȱremainsȱhidden toȱtheȱnakedȱeye.ȱInȱthisȱsense,ȱvideofilmsȱextendȱpopularȱChrisȬ

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tianȱaestheticȱexperienceȱintoȱtheȱrealmȱofȱentertainment.ȱVideoȬ filmsȱthatȱfailȱtoȱdoȱsoȱwillȱbeȱflops. Soȱfar,ȱtheȱanalysisȱpinpointsȱtheȱconstitutiveȱroleȱplayedȱby tangible,ȱ materialȱ imagesȱ inȱ theȱ imaginationȱ ofȱ evil.ȱ Material, publiclyȱaccessibleȱimagesȱstimulateȱasȱwellȱasȱfeedȱonȱinnerȱimȬ ages.ȱInȱorderȱtoȱunderstandȱpracticesȱofȱimaginingȱevil,ȱtheȱinȬ terconnectionȱ ofȱ outward,ȱ publiclyȱ accessibleȱ imagesȱ andȱ inner imagesȱneedsȱtoȱbeȱtakenȱintoȱaccountȱ(Kramerȱ2001).ȱInȱGhana, Iȱ haveȱ oftenȱ encounteredȱ peopleȱ claiming,ȱ inȱ testimoniesȱ or books,ȱtoȱhaveȱhadȱaȱtrueȱencounterȱwithȱevilȱspiritsȱorȱevenȱthe devilȱhimself,ȱpriorȱtoȱtheirȱconversion.ȱAfterȱbeingȱbornȱagain, suitableȱ devicesȱ areȱ foundȱ forȱ renderingȱ theseȱ experiencesȱ into picturesȱandȱtextualȱdescriptions.ȱForȱinstance,ȱtheȱpainterȱKwaȬ meȱ Akotoȱ (aliasȱ Almightyȱ God,ȱ aȱ nameȱ heȱ tookȱ afterȱ hisȱ conȬ version)ȱ producesȱ andȱ sellsȱ aȱ hostȱ ofȱ imagesȱ depictingȱ evil forcesȱ suchȱ asȱ witches,ȱ theȱ devilȱ andȱ ȱ saintsȱ connectedȱ toȱ the devilȱinȱsomeȱwayȱ(e.g.ȱSt.ȱAnthony,ȱunderȱwhoseȱspellȱheȱwas untilȱ theȱ womanȱ whoȱ becameȱ hisȱ wifeȱ savedȱ him).ȱ Theseȱ and otherȱ imagesȱ appearȱ toȱ recycleȱ earlierȱ picturesȱ butȱ areȱ authenȬ ticatedȱ asȱ revelationsȱ ofȱ theȱ natureȱ ofȱ theȱ powersȱ ofȱ darkness, andȱevenȱlegitimateȱtheȱspiritualȱpowerȱofȱthoseȱnarratingȱsuch experiences.ȱIȱtakeȱitȱthat,ȱgivenȱthatȱproblemsȱofȱsufferingȱand evilȱareȱintrinsicȱtoȱhumanȱexperience,ȱreligionsȱoweȱatȱleastȱpart ofȱtheirȱappealȱtoȱtheȱfactȱthatȱtheyȱattemptȱtoȱrepresentȱevilȱso asȱtoȱgraspȱit,ȱalbeitȱpartially.ȱInȱtheȱGhanaianȱcontext,ȱsuchȱreȬ presentationsȱ ofȱ evilȱ areȱ inscribedȱ intoȱ aȱ Christianȱ understandȬ ingȱ thatȱ presumesȱ thatȱ theȱ powerȱ ofȱ visionȱ andȱ revelationȱ are practical,ȱ individuallyȱ empoweringȱ devicesȱ inȱ theȱ struggle againstȱevil.ȱThatȱisȱwhyȱtheȱdevil,ȱitȱisȱsaid,ȱdoesȱnotȱlikeȱtoȱbe representedȱ andȱ prefersȱ toȱ actȱ inȱ secret.ȱ Here,ȱ picturingȱ occurs withȱtheȱaimȱtoȱfightȱevilȱthroughȱaȱstrategyȱofȱvisualizationȱthat seeksȱtoȱtrapȱevilȱinȱaȱframe,ȱtherebyȱundoingȱitȱofȱitsȱpower.ȱAs theȱ examplesȱ discussedȱ inȱ thisȱ paperȱ show,ȱ however,ȱ visualizȬ ationȱ ofȱ evilȱ isȱ alwaysȱ perceivedȱ toȱ beȱ atȱ theȱ riskȱ ofȱ rendering aliveȱ andȱ powerfulȱ thatȱ whichȱ isȱ supposedȱ toȱ beȱ defeated.ȱ The representationalȱ frameȱ appearsȱ tooȱ weakȱ orȱ porousȱ toȱ contain theȱ representedȱ evil.ȱ Evilȱ becomesȱ aliveȱ andȱ henceȱ canȱ beȱ deȬ featedȱ byȱ virtueȱ ofȱ beingȱ pictured,ȱ providedȱ thisȱ pictureȱ is placedȱinȱaȱChristianȱconceptualȱstructure,ȱyetȱatȱtheȱsameȱtime tendsȱtoȱeschewȱbeingȱframedȱbecauseȱofȱitsȱexcessiveȱpotential.

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Theȱ questionȱ remainsȱ asȱ toȱ whatȱ happensȱ toȱ theȱ powerȱ of picturesȱ ofȱ evilȱ onceȱ theyȱ areȱ lookedȱ uponȱ fromȱ aȱ perspective thatȱ isȱ notȱ orȱ noȱ longerȱ linkedȱ toȱ aȱ particularȱ religiousȱ regime, suchȱ asȱ fundamentalistȱ Christianityȱ orȱ Pentecostalism,ȱ andȱ the conceptualȱ schemes,ȱ dispositionsȱ andȱ repertoiresȱ ofȱ religious practicesȱthatȱgoȱalongȱwithȱthem.ȱInȱtheȱsameȱwayȱasȱtechnoloȬ giesȱ ofȱ massȱ reproductionȱ haveȱ notȱ destroyedȱ theȱ possibility thatȱ aȱ copyȱ assumesȱ partȱ ofȱ theȱ powerȱ itȱ representsȱ (andȱ perȬ hapsȱ evenȱ increasesȱ ourȱ fearȱ ofȱ images,ȱ givenȱ theirȱ excessive presenceȱ andȱ theȱ underminingȱ ofȱ repertoiresȱ consideredȱ suitaȬ bleȱforȱaddressingȱevil),ȱtheȱdeclineȱofȱinstitutionalizedȱreligion inȱEuropeȱdoesȱnotȱeraseȱtheȱfearȱofȱevil.ȱAȱrepresentationȱofȱthe devilȱ orȱ otherȱ evilȱ picturesȱ mayȱ appearȱ harmlessȱ ifȱ placedȱ inȱ a seriesȱ ofȱ similarȱ pictures,ȱ butȱ mayȱ induceȱ fear,ȱ orȱ aȱ diffusely frighteningȱfeeling,ȱdependingȱonȱtheȱdispositionsȱofȱtheȱspectaȬ tors,ȱifȱitȱisȱplacedȱinȱaȱcontextȱinȱwhichȱitȱappearsȱuniqueȱor— inȱ aȱ flash—evenȱ real,ȱ itsȱ massȬproducedȱ natureȱ notwithstandȬ ing.ȱ Whileȱ myȱ son’sȱ relativizingȱ experience,ȱ instigatedȱ byȱ the serialityȱthatȱcharacterizesȱtheȱexpositionȱofȱpicturesȱofȱevil,ȱhas aȱ strongȱ relativizingȱ potential,ȱ Iȱ senseȱ alreadyȱ thatȱ thisȱ experiȬ enceȱisȱnotȱableȱtoȱbreakȱtheȱspellȱofȱimagesȱofȱevilȱforȱgood.ȱThe specterȱofȱtheȱgreenishȱwitchȱheȱsawȱinȱpassingȱisȱstillȱaround. Bibliography Blumhardt,ȱJohanȱChristoph.ȱ(1978).ȱDieȱKrankengeschichteȱderȱGottliebin Dittus.ȱHerausgegebenȱundȱeingeleitetȱvonȱGerhardȱSchäfer.ȱGöttingen: Vandenhoekȱ&ȱRuprecht. Clough,ȱPaulȱandȱJonȱMitchellȱ(eds).ȱ(2001).ȱTheȱPowersȱofȱGoodȱandȱEvil. Oxford:ȱBerghahnȱPublishers. Comaroff,ȱJeanȱandȱJohnȱComaroffȱ(eds).ȱ(1993).ȱModernityȱandȱItsȱMalȬ contents:ȱRitualȱandȱPowerȱinȱȱPostcolonialȱAfrica.ȱChicago:ȱTheȱUniȬ versityȱofȱChicagoȱPress. (1999).ȱ“OccultȱEconomiesȱandȱtheȱViolenceȱofȱAbstraction:ȱNotes FromȱtheȱSouthȱAfricanȱPostcolony.”ȱAmericanȱEthnologistȱ26:ȱ279Ȭ 303. DeȱWitte,ȱMarleen.ȱ(2003).ȱ“AltarȱMedia’sȱLivingȱWord:ȱTelevisedȱCharȬ ismaticȱChristianityȱinȱGhana.”ȱJournalȱofȱReligionȱinȱAfricaȱ33:ȱ172Ȭ 202. Ellis,ȱ Stephenȱ andȱ Gerrieȱ terȱ Haar.ȱ (1998).ȱ “Religionȱ andȱ Politicsȱ in SubȬSaharanȱAfrica.”ȱJournalȱofȱȱModernȱAfricanȱStudiesȱ36:ȱ175Ȭ201.

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(2004).ȱ Worldsȱ ofȱ Power.ȱ Religiousȱ Thoughtȱ andȱ Politicalȱ Practiceȱ in Africa.ȱNewȱYork:ȱOxfordȱUniversityȱPress. Eni,ȱ Emmanuel.ȱ (1988).ȱ Deliveredȱ fromȱ theȱ Powersȱ ofȱ Darkness.ȱ Second Edition.ȱIbadan:ȱScriptureȱUnion. Fabian,ȱ Johannes.ȱ (2000).ȱ Outȱ ofȱ ourȱ Minds:ȱ Reasonȱ andȱ Madnessȱ inȱ the Explorationȱ ofȱ Centralȱ Africa.ȱ Berkeley:ȱ Universityȱ ofȱ California Press. Freedberg,ȱDavid.ȱ(1989).ȱTheȱPowerȱofȱImages:ȱStudiesȱinȱtheȱHistoryȱand TheoryȱofȱResponse.ȱChicago:ȱUniversityȱofȱChicagoȱPress. Gifford,ȱ Paul.ȱ (2004).ȱ Ghana’sȱ Newȱ Christianity:ȱ Pentecostalismȱ inȱ aȱ GloȬ balisingȱAfricanȱEconomy.ȱLondon:ȱHurst. Geschiere,ȱPeter.ȱ(1997).ȱTheȱModernityȱofȱWitchcraft:ȱPoliticsȱandȱtheȱOcȬ cultȱ inȱ Postcolonialȱ Africa.ȱ Charlottesvilleȱ andȱ London:ȱ University PressȱofȱVirginia. Kramer,ȱ Fritz.ȱ (2001).ȱ “Praktikenȱ derȱ Imagination.”ȱ In:ȱ G.ȱ vonȱ GraeȬ venitzȱetȱal.ȱ(eds).ȱDieȱUnvermeidlichkeitȱderȱBilder.ȱTübingen:ȱGunȬ terȱNarrȱVerlag.ȱPp.ȱ17Ȭ29. Latour,ȱ Bruno.ȱ (2002).ȱ “Whatȱ isȱ Iconoclash?ȱ Orȱ isȱ Thereȱ aȱ Worldȱ beȬ yondȱtheȱImageȱWars?”ȱIn:ȱBrunoȱLatourȱandȱPeterȱWeibelȱ(eds). Iconoclash:ȱ Beyondȱ theȱ Imageȱ Warsȱ inȱ Science,ȱ Religion,ȱ andȱ Art. Karlsruhe/Cambridgeȱ MA:ȱ 2km/Centerȱ forȱ Artȱ andȱ Media/The MITȱPress.ȱPp.ȱ14Ȭ18. Meyer,ȱBirgit.ȱ(1998).ȱȱ“MakeȱaȱCompleteȱBreakȱwithȱtheȱPast:ȱMemory andȱ PostȬcolonialȱ Modernityȱ inȱ Ghanaianȱ Pentecostalistȱ DisȬ course.”ȱJournalȱofȱReligionȱinȱAfricaȱXXVII:ȱ316Ȭ49. (1999a).ȱTranslatingȱtheȱDevil:ȱReligionȱandȱModernityȱamongȱtheȱEwe inȱGhana.ȱIALȬSeries.ȱEdinburgh:ȱEdinburghȱUniversityȱPress. (1999b).ȱ “Popularȱ Ghanaianȱ Cinemaȱ andȱ ‘Africanȱ Heritage’.” AfricaȱTodayȱ46:ȱ93Ȭ114. (2004a).ȱ “Praiseȱ theȱ Lord:ȱ Popularȱ Cinemaȱ andȱ Pentecostalite StyleȱinȱGhana’sȱNewȱPublicȱSphere.”ȱAmericanȱEthnologistȱ31:ȱ92Ȭ 110. (2004b).ȱ “Christianityȱ inȱ Africa:ȱ Fromȱ Africanȱ Independentȱ to PentecostalȬCharismaticȱChurches.”ȱAnnualȱReviewȱofȱAnthropology 33:ȱ447Ȭ74. (2006).ȱ “Impossibleȱ Representations:ȱ Pentecostalism,ȱ Vision,ȱ and Videoȱ Technologyȱ inȱ Ghana.”ȱ In:ȱ Birgitȱ Meyerȱ andȱ Annelies Moorsȱ(eds).ȱReligion,ȱMediaȱandȱtheȱPublicȱSphere.ȱBloomington:ȱInȬ dianaȱUniversityȱPress.ȱPp.ȱ290Ȭ312.

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Mitchell,ȱ W.J.T.ȱ (1994).ȱ Pictureȱ Theory.ȱ Chicago:ȱ Universityȱ ofȱ Chicago Press. Morgan,ȱDavid.ȱ(1998).ȱVisualȱPiety:ȱAȱHistoryȱandȱTheoryȱofȱPopularȱReȬ ligiousȱImages.ȱBerkeleyȱandȱLosȱAngeles:ȱUniversityȱofȱCalifornia Press. Pietz,ȱWilliam.ȱ(1985Ȭ1988)ȱ“TheȱProblemȱofȱtheȱFetish.”ȱIȱResȱ9:ȱ5Ȭ17,ȱII Resȱ13:ȱ23Ȭ45,ȱIIIȱResȱ16:ȱ105Ȭ123. Schleiermacher,ȱFriedrich.ȱ(1861).ȱDerȱchristlicheȱGlaubeȱnachȱdenȱGrundȬ satzenȱderȱevangelischenȱKirche.ȱFünfteȱunveränderteȱAusgabe.ȱVol.ȱ1. Berlin:ȱGeorgȱReimer. Spyer,ȱPatriciaȱ(ed.).ȱ(1998).ȱBorderȱFetishisms:ȱMaterialȱObjectsȱinȱUnstaȬ bleȱSpaces.ȱLondon:ȱRoutledge. Taussig,ȱ Michael.ȱ (1980).ȱ Theȱ Devilȱ andȱ Commodityȱ Fetishismȱ inȱ South America.ȱChapelȱHill:ȱTheȱUniversityȱofȱNorthȱCarolinaȱPress. (1995).ȱ “Theȱ Sunȱ Givesȱ Withoutȱ Receiving:ȱ Anȱ Oldȱ Story.”ȱ ComȬ parativeȱStudiesȱinȱSocietyȱandȱHistoryȱ37:ȱ368Ȭ98. ThodenȱvanȱVelzen,ȱH.U.EȱandȱW.ȱvanȱWetering.ȱ(1988).ȱTheȱGreatȱFaȬ therȱ andȱ theȱ Danger:ȱ Religiousȱ Cults,ȱ Materialȱ Forces,ȱ andȱ Collective Fantasiesȱ inȱ theȱ Worldȱ ofȱ theȱ Surinameseȱ Maroons.ȱ Dordrecht:ȱ Foris Publications. Verrips,ȱ Jojada.ȱ (1994).ȱ “Theȱ Thingȱ Didn’tȱ Doȱ Whatȱ Iȱ Wanted.”ȱ Inȱ J. Verripsȱ (ed.).ȱ Transactions:ȱ Essaysȱ inȱ Honorȱ ofȱ Jeremyȱ Boissevain. Amsterdam:ȱHetȱSpinhuis.ȱPp.ȱ35Ȭ53. Wendl,ȱ Tobias.ȱ (1991).ȱ Mamiȱ Wataȱ oderȱ einȱ Kultȱ zwischenȱ denȱ Kulturen. Münster:ȱLitȱVerlag. (ed.)ȱ(2004).ȱAfricaȱScreams.ȱWuppertal:ȱPeterȱHammerȱVerlag. Zuckert,ȱRachel.ȱ(2003).ȱ“AweȱorȱEnvy:ȱHerderȱcontraȱKantȱonȱtheȱSubȬ lime.”ȱTheȱJournalȱofȱAestheticsȱandȱArtȱCriticismȱ61ȱ(3):ȱ217Ȭ32.

Druids,ȱDeerȱandȱ“WordsȱofȱPower” ComingȱtoȱTermsȱwithȱEvilȱinȱMedievalȱIreland JacquelineȱBorsje Abstract Thisȱ contributionȱ describesȱ whatȱ isȱ understoodȱ byȱ evil,ȱ asȱ perceivedȱ within Irishȱmedievalȱtexts,ȱbothȱbyȱtheȱauthorsȱandȱbyȱtheȱgroupsȱdescribedȱinȱthe texts.ȱItȱattemptsȱtoȱincludeȱtheȱpointsȱofȱviewȱofȱpossibleȱaudiencesȱorȱreaders ofȱ theȱ textsȱ asȱ well.ȱ Theȱ definitionȱ ofȱ evilȱ employedȱ hereȱ thusȱ coversȱ multiȬ formȱ aspectsȱ ofȱ evilȱ asȱ foundȱ inȱ theseȱ texts.ȱ Theseȱ manifestationsȱ ofȱ evilȱ are representedȱbyȱvariousȱkindsȱofȱperceivedȱdanger,ȱrangingȱfromȱbodilyȱtoȱspirȬ itualȱharm.ȱTheȱcopingȱstrategiesȱdiscussedȱhereȱreferȱtoȱtheȱbeliefȱinȱtheȱpowȬ erȱofȱwordsȱasȱaȱformȱofȱpostulatedȱprotection.

Introduction Inȱ religion,ȱ evilȱ isȱ believedȱ toȱ beȱ everywhereȱ andȱ toȱ appearȱ in anyȱ form.ȱ Iȱ defineȱ evilȱ asȱ thatȱ whichȱ isȱ believedȱ toȱ causeȱ orȱ to representȱharm.1ȱAȱthoughtȬprovokingȱmetaphorȱforȱevilȱisȱsugȬ gestedȱinȱaȱDutchȱnovelȱfromȱtheȱ1980s:ȱweȱshouldȱnotȱcompare theȱ battleȱ withȱ evilȱ toȱ aȱ heroicȱ fightȱ againstȱ aȱ dragonȱ butȱ with theȱdailyȱcleaningȱofȱourȱdwellingȱplacesȱ(Meinkemaȱ1984:ȱ288). Dustȱandȱdirt—visibleȱandȱinvisible—areȱeverywhereȱandȱthere isȱnoȱendȱtoȱtheȱtaskȱofȱcleaningȱup. Despiteȱ theȱ omnipresenceȱ andȱ multiformityȱ ofȱ evil,ȱ some religionsȱhaveȱtriedȱtoȱnameȱandȱidentifyȱevilȱasȱaȱcategoryȱand asȱaȱpartȱofȱaȱsystem.ȱChristianityȱhasȱfollowedȱJudaismȱinȱassoȬ ciatingȱevilȱwithȱsupernaturalȱbeingsȱandȱhumanȱacts.ȱTheȱdevil andȱ demonsȱ areȱ saidȱ toȱ beȱ theȱ supernaturalȱ representativesȱ of evil;ȱsinȱisȱanotherȱwordȱforȱevilȱhumanȱdeedsȱandȱthoughts. OurȱfocusȱisȱonȱmedievalȱIrishȱliterature—oneȱofȱtheȱearliȬ estȱwrittenȱvernacularsȱinȱEurope.ȱWithinȱthisȱrichȱtradition,ȱthe faceȱofȱevilȱchangesȱaccordingȱtoȱgenre.ȱHeroicȱtextsȱorȱsagasȱare 1

ȱIȱamȱindebtedȱtoȱJohnȱCareyȱandȱJanȱPlatvoetȱforȱcommentsȱonȱan earlierȱversionȱofȱthisȱpaper.

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somewhatȱ elusiveȱ whenȱ oneȱ triesȱ toȱ pinpointȱ whatȱ exactlyȱ is consideredȱtoȱbeȱevil.ȱInȱhagiography,ȱhowever,ȱaȱclearȱdistincȬ tionȱ betweenȱ goodȱ andȱ evilȱ canȱ oftenȱ beȱ found.ȱ Iȱ willȱ discuss threeȱ relatedȱ examplesȱ fromȱ differentȱ genresȱ inȱ orderȱ toȱ show howȱ theȱ medievalȱ Irishȱ portrayedȱ evilȱ andȱ triedȱ toȱ comeȱ to termsȱwithȱit.ȱWeȱwillȱstartȱwithȱaȱhagiographicȱtale.ȱTheȱsecond textȱisȱaȱlorica,ȱwhichȱisȱaȱformȱofȱverbalȱprotectionȱagainstȱevil. OurȱthirdȱexampleȱisȱaȱsoȬcalledȱmythologicalȱtale.2 TheȱLocationȱofȱEvilȱinȱHagiography InȱtheȱfifthȱcenturyȱSt.ȱPatrickȱsailedȱtoȱIreland,ȱinȱresponseȱtoȱa visionȱ inȱ whichȱ theȱ Irishȱ askedȱ himȱ toȱ return.ȱ Heȱ hadȱ been broughtȱthereȱearlierȱbyȱforceȱandȱhadȱlivedȱinȱIrelandȱforȱseverȬ alȱ yearsȱ asȱ aȱ slave.ȱ Thisȱ formerȱ shepherdȱ becomesȱ aȱ spiritual shepherdȱ forȱ peopleȱ and,ȱ ifȱ weȱ canȱ trustȱ theȱ relevantȱ docuȬ ments,ȱ hisȱ secondȱ visitȱ changedȱ Irelandȱ completely.3ȱ The Christianizationȱ ofȱ Irelandȱ isȱ generallyȱ ascribedȱ toȱ Patrick,ȱ alȬ thoughȱ weȱ areȱ nowȱ awareȱ thatȱ thisȱ attributionȱ isȱ toȱ aȱ certain extentȱaȱsymbolicȱone.ȱTheȱconversionȱofȱIrelandȱisȱdescribedȱas aȱ revolutionȱ inȱ theȱ supernaturalȱ worldȱ asȱ well.ȱ Thus,ȱ inȱ The Talesȱ ofȱ theȱ Eldersȱ ofȱ Irelandȱ fromȱ theȱ twelfthȱ century,ȱ weȱ read thatȱ“thereȱwasȱaȱdemonȱonȱtheȱbottomȱofȱeveryȱsingleȱbladeȱof grassȱ inȱ Ireland”ȱ beforeȱ Patrickȱ setȱ footȱ there,ȱ but,ȱ becauseȱ of him,ȱthereȱisȱnowȱanȱangelȱonȱeveryȱbladeȱofȱIrishȱgrassȱȱ(DoolȬ eyȱandȱRoeȱ1999:ȱ177).

2

ȱAȱdivisionȱofȱtheȱsagasȱintoȱfourȱcyclesȱ(theȱUlsterȱCycle,ȱHistorical orȱKings’ȱCycle,ȱMythologicalȱCycle,ȱandȱFinnȱCycle)ȱisȱcommonȱinȱCeltic Studies.ȱThereȱare,ȱhowever,ȱmanyȱoverlapsȱbetweenȱtheȱcycles.ȱForȱinȬ stance,ȱtheȱsupernaturalȱbeingsȱinȱtheȱMythologicalȱCycleȱareȱfoundȱin allȱfourȱcycles,ȱandȱallȱfourȱcyclesȱdealȱwithȱmythologicalȱaspects.ȱFor hagiographyȱasȱmythology,ȱseeȱNagyȱ1997;ȱ2002:ȱ124Ȭ26. 3

ȱTheȱmostȱimportantȱofȱtheseȱareȱtheȱConfessio,ȱgenerallyȱtakenȱtoȱbe byȱPatrickȱhimselfȱ(edition:ȱBielerȱ1993;ȱtranslation:ȱHowlettȱ1994);ȱtwo seventhȬcenturyȱ Latinȱ Livesȱ ofȱ Patrickȱ byȱ Muirchúȱ andȱ byȱ Tírechán (editionȱandȱtranslation:ȱBielerȱ1979),ȱandȱaȱMiddleȱIrishȱLifeȱofȱPatrick (edition:ȱMulchroneȱ1939;ȱtranslation:ȱStokesȱ1887).ȱWeȱcanȱdistinguish roughlyȱtheȱfollowingȱperiodsȱforȱtheȱIrishȱlanguage:ȱ600–900ȱ(OldȱIrish), 900–1200ȱ(MiddleȱIrish),ȱ1200–1650ȱ(EarlyȱModernȱIrish).

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TheȱstoryȱofȱhowȱPatrickȱmadeȱIrelandȱaȱlandȱofȱChristians isȱ toldȱ atȱ lengthȱ inȱ oneȱ ofȱ theȱ earliestȱ versionsȱ ofȱ hisȱ hagioȬ graphy:ȱTheȱLifeȱofȱPatrick,ȱwrittenȱbyȱMuirchúȱmoccuȱMacthéni inȱtheȱseventhȱcentury.ȱTheȱdualisticȱstructure,ȱcommonȱinȱhagiȬ ography,ȱwasȱalsoȱusedȱbyȱMuirchú.ȱSt.ȱPatrickȱandȱhisȱfollowȬ ersȱrepresentȱgoodȱandȱtheȱdruidsȱofȱtheȱkingȱofȱIrelandȱrepreȬ sentȱevil.4ȱMuirchúȱusesȱtheȱTenachȱorȱOldȱTestamentȱasȱaȱmodȬ elȱforȱhisȱdescriptionȱofȱtheȱhostileȱencountersȱbetweenȱtheȱsaint andȱtheȱkingȱwithȱhisȱdruids.ȱThomasȱO’Loughlinȱrightlyȱcalled thisȱ confrontationȱ aȱ “biblicalȱ trialȱ ofȱ divinities.”5ȱ Ourȱ firstȱ exȬ ampleȱconsistsȱofȱsuchȱanȱencounter,ȱinȱwhichȱevilȱshowsȱitself inȱtheȱformȱofȱtreason.ȱAȱfierceȱconflictȱbetweenȱSt.ȱPatrickȱand theȱkingȱwithȱhisȱdruidsȱendsȱinȱdarknessȱandȱdeath.ȱThenȱthe followingȱoccurs: AndȱtheȱqueenȱwentȱtoȱPatrickȱandȱsaidȱtoȱhim:ȱ“Oȱjustȱand powerfulȱ man,ȱ doȱ notȱ bringȱ deathȱ uponȱ theȱ king!ȱ Forȱ the kingȱ willȱ comeȱ andȱ bendȱ hisȱ kneesȱ andȱ adoreȱ yourȱ lord.” Andȱtheȱkingȱcame,ȱimpelledȱbyȱfear,ȱandȱbentȱhisȱkneesȱbeȬ foreȱ theȱ holyȱ man,ȱ andȱ pretendedȱ toȱ doȱ himȱ reverence thoughȱheȱdidȱnotȱmeanȱit;ȱandȱafterȱtheyȱhadȱpartedȱandȱthe kingȱhadȱgoneȱaȱshortȱdistanceȱaway,ȱheȱcalledȱholyȱPatrick withȱfalseȱwords,ȱwishingȱtoȱkillȱhimȱbyȱanyȱmeans.ȱPatrick, however,ȱknewȱtheȱwickedȱthoughtsȱofȱtheȱwickedȱking.6ȱHe blessedȱhisȱcompanions,ȱ eightȱmenȱwithȱaȱboy,ȱinȱtheȱname

4

ȱMuirchúȱstatesȱthisȱexplicitlyȱwhenȱheȱdescribesȱtheȱfunctionaries atȱtheȱking’sȱcourt:ȱ“HicȱautemȱscivosȱetȱmagosȱetȱaurispicesȱetȱincanȬ tatoresȱetȱomnisȱmalaeȱartisȱinventoresȱhabuerat,ȱquiȱpoterantȱomniaȱscire etȱprovidereȱexȱmoreȱgentilitatisȱetȱidolatriaeȱantequamȱessent.”ȱI.e.ȱ[The king]ȱhadȱaroundȱhimȱsagesȱandȱdruids,ȱfortuneȬtellersȱandȱsorcerers, andȱtheȱinventorsȱofȱeveryȱevilȱcraft,ȱwho,ȱaccordingȱtoȱtheȱcustomȱofȱpaȬ ganismȱandȱidolatry,ȱwereȱableȱtoȱknowȱandȱforeseeȱeverythingȱbefore itȱhappened”ȱ(Bielerȱ1979:ȱ74Ȭ75,ȱI.10,ȱemphasisȱmine). 5

ȱThomasȱO’Loughlinȱ(2003).ȱJohnȱCareyȱkindlyȱremindedȱmeȱof Muirchú’sȱapocryphalȱsourcesȱ(inȱI.17),ȱwhenȱheȱcomparesȱtheȱconfronȬ tationȱwithȱthatȱbetweenȱPeterȱandȱSimonȱMagusȱ(Passioȱss.ȱPetriȱetȱPauli andȱActusȱPetriȱcumȱSimone;ȱseeȱBielerȱ1979:ȱ88). 6

ȱ Althoughȱ Bielerȱ usesȱ “wicked”ȱ inȱ connectionȱ withȱ thoughtsȱ as well,ȱpessimusȱisȱactuallyȱusedȱonlyȱonceȱinȱconnectionȱwithȱtheȱking.

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JACQUELINEȱBORSJE ofȱ Jesusȱ Christ,ȱ andȱ startedȱ onȱ hisȱ wayȱ toȱ theȱ king,ȱ andȱ the kingȱ countedȱ themȱ asȱ theyȱ wentȱ along,ȱ andȱ suddenlyȱ they disappearedȱfromȱtheȱking’sȱeyes;ȱinstead,ȱtheȱpagansȱmereȬ lyȱ sawȱ eightȱ deerȱ withȱ aȱ fawnȱ going,ȱ asȱ itȱ were,ȱ intoȱ the wilds.ȱ Andȱ kingȱ Loíguire,ȱ sad,ȱ frightened,ȱ andȱ inȱ great shame,ȱ wentȱ backȱ toȱ Taraȱ atȱ dawnȱ withȱ theȱ fewȱ whoȱ had escaped.ȱ(Bielerȱ1979:ȱ91,ȱI.18)

Theȱkingȱthusȱfeignsȱsubservienceȱbutȱinȱfactȱsecretlyȱplans toȱkillȱtheȱsaint.ȱHisȱfalseȱwordsȱareȱcontrastedȱwithȱ“theȱgood words”7ȱ ofȱ theȱ saint.ȱ Patrick’sȱ blessingȱ inȱ theȱ nameȱ ofȱ Jesus Christȱ savesȱ lives:ȱ theȱ clericsȱ disappearȱ andȱ deerȱ areȱ seen escapingȱ intoȱ theȱ wild.ȱ Theȱ king’sȱ evilȱ planȱ failsȱ andȱ Muirchú describesȱhisȱemotionalȱreaction:ȱLoegaireȱexperiencesȱsadness, fearȱ andȱ humiliation.ȱ Theȱ firstȱ twoȱ kindsȱ ofȱ feelingȱ areȱ underȬ standable,ȱbutȱwhyȱwouldȱheȱbeȱashamed? JosephȱNagyȱsuggestsȱanȱanswerȱtoȱthisȱquestionȱinȱhisȱbrilȬ liantȱ monographȱ onȱ theȱ religiousȱ andȱ culturalȱ changesȱ inȱ IreȬ landȱbroughtȱaboutȱbyȱChristianityȱandȱliteracy,ȱwhichȱarrived handȱinȱhand.ȱNagyȱconnectsȱthisȱepisodeȱwithȱCelticȱkingship mythology,ȱinȱwhichȱaȱheroȱmayȱbecomeȱkingȱthroughȱsuccessȬ fullyȱ huntingȱ deerȱ (Nagyȱ 1997:ȱ 88;ȱ alsoȱ see:ȱ Bromwichȱ 1961). Thisȱ explainsȱ whyȱ Loegaireȱ feelsȱ humiliated:ȱ theȱ escapeȱ ofȱ the saintȱandȱhisȱfollowersȱsignifiesȱnotȱmerelyȱaȱfailedȱplanȱbutȱalȬ soȱ exposesȱ aȱ failedȱ king.ȱ Howȱ seriousȱ thisȱ isȱ shouldȱ beȱ underȬ stoodȱinȱtheȱlightȱofȱtheȱfactȱthatȱkingshipȱwasȱseenȱasȱsacredȱin medievalȱ Irishȱ ideologyȱ (see,ȱ e.g.,ȱ Draakȱ 1959;ȱ Wormaldȱ 1986; McCone,ȱ 1990:ȱ 107Ȭ37).ȱ Inȱ Celticȱ kingshipȱ mythology,ȱ deerȱ are oftenȱ transformedȱ supernaturalȱ beingsȱ (Nagyȱ 1997:ȱ 88).ȱ These areȱ theȱ áesȱ síde,ȱ “theȱ peopleȱ ofȱ theȱ [hollow]ȱ hills,”ȱ sometimes calledȱfairiesȱorȱelves.ȱItȱisȱ possibleȱthatȱtheseȱwereȱtheȱancient godsȱofȱpreȬChristianȱtimes.8ȱAnotherȱtraditionȱtellsȱaboutȱharpȬ ersȱ whoȱ becomeȱ transformedȱ intoȱ deerȱ whenȱ pursuedȱ byȱ the king’sȱmen.ȱTheyȱareȱalsoȱidentifiedȱasȱdruidsȱwithȱgreatȱsuperȬ

7

ȱTheȱLatinȱbenedicere,ȱ“toȱbless,”ȱliterallyȱmeansȱ“toȱspeakȱgood, well.” 8 ȱForȱmoreȱinformationȱonȱthisȱtheoryȱseeȱCareyȱ1999ȱandȱBorsje 2003.ȱTheȱlatterȱprovidesȱanotherȱexampleȱinȱwhichȱSaintȱPatrickȱisȱassoȬ ciatedȱwithȱtheȱáesȱsíde.

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naturalȱ knowledgeȱ (O’Rahillyȱ 1976:ȱ 30,ȱ 151).ȱ Itȱ isȱ fascinating thatȱSt.ȱPatrickȱisȱassociatedȱwithȱthisȱspecificȱimage,ȱjustȱasȱthe elvesȱandȱtheȱdruidsȱare. Thereȱ is,ȱ moreover,ȱ anotherȱ elementȱ inȱ thisȱ taleȱ thatȱ apȬ pearsȱ toȱ haveȱ aȱ counterpartȱ inȱ theȱ sagas.ȱ Muirchúȱ tellsȱ usȱ that theȱkingȱcountsȱtheȱapproachingȱsaintȱalongȱwithȱhisȱfollowers. Thisȱ elementȱ ofȱ tryingȱ toȱ countȱ opponentsȱ alsoȱ occursȱ inȱ the Oldȱ Irishȱ Battleȱ ofȱ Magȱ Muccramaȱ fromȱ theȱ earlyȱ ninthȱ century. Supernaturalȱ swineȱ (muccaȱ gentliuchta)ȱ comeȱ outȱ ofȱ theȱ caveȱ of Crúachanȱandȱlayȱtheȱlandȱwaste.ȱTheȱearthȱtheyȱtouchȱbecomes barrenȱforȱsevenȱyears.ȱTheyȱcannotȱbeȱkilled,ȱbutȱtheȱtextȱsugȬ gestsȱanotherȱwayȱtoȱputȱanȱendȱtoȱthisȱevil:ȱcountingȱtheȱpigs wouldȱmakeȱthemȱleaveȱtheȱland.ȱThis,ȱhowever,ȱturnsȱoutȱtoȱbe impossible:ȱnobodyȱarrivesȱatȱtheȱsameȱnumber.ȱThenȱtheȱking andȱ queenȱ tryȱ toȱ countȱ them.ȱ Whenȱ oneȱ pigȱ jumpsȱ overȱ their chariot,ȱtheȱqueenȱgrabsȱaȱleg,ȱbutȱtheȱpigȱleavesȱitȱinȱherȱhand togetherȱwithȱhisȱskin.ȱAsȱaȱresult,ȱtheȱpigsȱdisappearȱforeverȱ(O Dalyȱ1975:ȱ48Ȭ49;ȱcf.ȱStokesȱ1894:ȱ470). TheȱkingȱandȱqueenȱareȱportrayedȱhereȱinȱtheirȱsacralȱfuncȬ tionȱ ofȱ protectingȱ theȱ land,ȱ andȱ countingȱ isȱ theirȱ method.ȱ Evil “invaders”ȱdestroyȱtheȱfertilityȱofȱtheȱland.ȱWhereȱdoesȱthisȱevil comeȱ from?ȱ Theȱ onlyȱ informationȱ weȱ haveȱ isȱ theȱ placeȱ where theȱswineȱcomeȱfromȱandȱtheȱadjectivesȱthatȱdescribeȱthem.ȱThe BattleȱofȱMagȱMuccramaȱidentifiesȱtheȱcaveȱofȱCrúachanȱasȱ“IreȬ land’sȱGateȱtoȱHell”ȱ(OȱDalyȱ1975:ȱ48Ȭ49).ȱTheȱOldȱIrishȱAdvenȬ turousȱ Journeyȱ ofȱ Neraȱ describesȱ theȱ caveȱ asȱ anȱ entranceȱ toȱ the worldȱ ofȱ theȱ áesȱ sídeȱ orȱ elvesȱ (Meyerȱ 1889).ȱ Theȱ adjectiveȱ used forȱtheȱpigsȱisȱgentliucht,ȱaȱtermȱderivedȱfromȱLatinȱgentilis,ȱand meansȱ“gentilism,ȱheathenism;ȱespeciallyȱheathenȱlore,ȱwizardȬ ry,ȱ heathenȱ spells,ȱ etc.”ȱ (Quinȱ 1983).ȱ Aȱ variantȱ versionȱ ofȱ the taleȱcallsȱthemȱ“aȱherdȱofȱdruidicȱswine.”9ȱInȱtheȱformȱofȱthese swine,ȱevilȱisȱthusȱdifficultȱtoȱcategorize:ȱtheȱpossibilitiesȱrange fromȱfairyȱtoȱsupernaturalȱtoȱdruidicȱtoȱdemonicȱandȱinfernal. Returningȱ toȱ Muirchú’sȱ tale,ȱ weȱ canȱ concludeȱ thatȱ justȱ as theȱkingȱandȱqueenȱtriedȱtoȱbanishȱtheȱdestructiveȱinvadersȱby counting,ȱsoȱKingȱLoegaireȱtriedȱtoȱcountȱtheȱevilȱinvadersȱwho 9 ȱMuctretȱdrúidechtaȱ(Stokesȱ1894:ȱ470).ȱThisȱvariantȱversionȱdescribes theȱactsȱofȱtheȱkingȱandȱqueenȱtoȱprotectȱtheirȱlandȱasȱaȱhuntȱ(selg)ȱas well.

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threatenedȱ hisȱ land.ȱ Lookingȱ atȱ itȱ fromȱ thisȱ perspectiveȱ ȱ overȬ turnsȱtheȱusualȱhagiographicȱideology,ȱinȱwhichȱtheȱsaintȱsymȬ bolizesȱ “good”ȱ andȱ notȱ “evil.”ȱ Thereȱ is,ȱ however,ȱ anotherȱ asȬ pectȱ ofȱ evilȱ thatȱ weȱ shouldȱ consider:ȱ notȱ onlyȱ isȱ beautyȱ inȱ the eyeȱofȱtheȱbeholder,ȱbutȱevilȱisȱasȱwell.10ȱWhatȱisȱevilȱtoȱmeȱmay beȱ goodȱ toȱ another.ȱ Theȱ demonsȱ ofȱ todayȱ mayȱ beȱ theȱ godsȱ of yesterdayȱorȱtomorrow.ȱMuirchúȱexplicitlyȱstatesȱthatȱPatrick’s adventȱmeansȱevilȱtoȱtheȱkingȱandȱtheȱstatusȱquo.ȱInȱaȱflashback heȱtellsȱaboutȱtheȱdruidsȱwhoȱhaveȱbeenȱprophesyingȱtheȱrevolȬ utionȱthatȱwillȱbeȱbroughtȱaboutȱbyȱChristianityȱandȱPatrick.ȱA foreignȱ wayȱ ofȱ lifeȱ andȱ aȱ newȱ kingdomȱ willȱ come.ȱ Thisȱ new teachingȱwillȱ“overthrowȱkingdoms,ȱkillȱtheȱkingsȱwhoȱofferȱreȬ sistance,ȱ seduceȱ theȱ crowds,ȱ destroyȱ allȱ theirȱ gods,ȱ banishȱ all theȱ worksȱ ofȱ theirȱ craft,ȱ andȱ reignȱ forȱ ever”ȱ (Bielerȱ 1979:ȱ 77; I.10).ȱ Muirchúȱ translatesȱ aȱ druidicȱ poemȱ onȱ St.ȱ Patrick,ȱ which declaresȱthatȱheȱwillȱchantȱimpietyȱ(incantabitȱnefas;ȱBielerȱ1979: 77;ȱ I.10).ȱ Thus,ȱ St.ȱ Patrickȱ isȱ describedȱ asȱ anȱ evilȱ invaderȱ who bringsȱdeathȱandȱdestruction.11 Itȱ isȱ interestingȱ thatȱ Muirchú,ȱ despiteȱ theȱ dualismȱ thatȱ is commonȱinȱhagiography,ȱgivesȱexpressionȱinȱsomeȱwaysȱtoȱthe perspectiveȱ ascribedȱ toȱ theȱ druids.ȱ Weȱ noticeȱ thisȱ perspective alsoȱinȱtheȱterminologyȱusedȱforȱtheȱsupernaturalȱbeingsȱvenerȬ atedȱ byȱ theȱ preȬChristianȱ Irish.ȱ Whenȱ Muirchúȱ writesȱ asȱ the narrator,ȱheȱrefersȱtoȱthemȱasȱ“falseȱgods”ȱandȱ“idols”ȱandȱȱvenȬ erationȱofȱthemȱasȱ“idolatry,”ȱbutȱwhenȱheȱhasȱtheȱdruidsȱspeak forȱthemselves,ȱtheyȱcallȱtheseȱsupernaturalȱbeingsȱ“gods”ȱ(BielȬ erȱ1979:ȱI.1,ȱI.10,ȱI.13,ȱI.15,ȱ[I.10,ȱI.16]).ȱInȱaȱdescriptionȱofȱaȱconȬ

10

ȱWithȱregardȱtoȱtheȱmetaphorȱofȱdirtȱforȱevilȱ(seeȱabove),ȱcompare MaryȱDouglasȱwhoȱplaysȱwithȱthisȱsayingȱasȱfollowsȱ(1991:ȱ2):ȱ“SoȱprimȬ itiveȱreligiousȱfear,ȱtogetherȱwithȱtheȱideaȱthatȱitȱblocksȱtheȱfunctioning ofȱtheȱmind,ȱseemsȱtoȱbeȱaȱfalseȱtrailȱforȱunderstandingȱtheseȱreligions. Hygiene,ȱbyȱcontrast,ȱturnsȱoutȱtoȱbeȱanȱexcellentȱrouteȱ....ȱAsȱweȱknow it,ȱdirtȱisȱessentiallyȱdisorder.ȱThereȱisȱnoȱsuchȱthingȱasȱabsoluteȱdirt:ȱit existsȱ inȱ theȱ eyeȱ ofȱ theȱ beholder.ȱ Ifȱ weȱ shunȱ dirt,ȱ itȱ isȱ notȱ becauseȱ of cravenȱfearȱ....ȱ[Itȱisȱbecause]ȱDirtȱoffendsȱagainstȱorder.ȱEliminatingȱitȱis ...ȱaȱpositiveȱeffortȱtoȱorganiseȱtheȱenvironment.”ȱIȱamȱgratefulȱtoȱJan Platvoet,ȱwhoȱremindedȱmeȱofȱthisȱpassage. 11

ȱCf.ȱalsoȱtheȱdarknessȱandȱdeathȱthatȱSt.ȱPatrickȱcalledȱforthȱprior toȱtheȱking’sȱambush.

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testȱ inȱ signsȱ (signa)ȱ betweenȱ aȱ druidȱ andȱ Patrick,ȱ Muirchúȱ is, however,ȱ unambiguousȱ withȱ respectȱ toȱ hisȱ ownȱ viewȱ ofȱ these supernaturalȱ beings.ȱ Inȱ thisȱ episode,ȱ theȱ druidȱ isȱ firstȱ saidȱ to utterȱmagicȱincantationsȱ(incantationesȱmagicae)ȱthatȱbringȱsnow. Whenȱtheyȱareȱupȱtoȱtheirȱwaistsȱinȱsnow,ȱtheȱsaintȱchallenges theȱdruidȱtoȱremoveȱitȱagain,ȱbutȱthisȱturnsȱoutȱtoȱbeȱimpossible forȱ theȱ nextȱ twentyȬfourȱ hours.12ȱ Patrickȱ commentsȱ thatȱ the druidȱ isȱ onlyȱ capableȱ ofȱ doingȱ evil;ȱ heȱ cannotȱ perform supernaturalȱ actsȱ thatȱ produceȱ goodȱ (Bieler,ȱ 1979:ȱ I.20:ȱ Potes malumȱ etȱ nonȱ bonumȱ facere).ȱ Hisȱ blessingȱ thenȱ makesȱ theȱ snow disappear.ȱ Theȱ druidȱ createsȱ aȱ secondȱ sign—aȱ veryȱ dense darkness—byȱ invokingȱ demons.ȱ Withȱ thisȱ choiceȱ ofȱ words, Muirchúȱ isȱ writingȱ fromȱ theȱ Christianȱ perspectiveȱ onceȱ more butȱ acknowledgesȱ theȱ supernaturalȱ entitiesȱ thatȱ theȱ druid invokes.ȱ Theȱ sourceȱ ofȱ hisȱ powerȱ areȱ theȱ “demons”ȱ whoȱ are defeatedȱ inȱ thisȱ “trialȱ ofȱ divinities.”13ȱ Patrick’sȱ prayerȱ and blessingȱdispelȱtheȱdarkness. Inȱ thisȱ contest,ȱ bothȱ theȱ druidȱ andȱ Patrickȱ useȱ wordsȱ as instruments,ȱjustȱasȱPatrick’sȱblessingȱisȱaȱverbalȱinstrumentȱby whichȱ heȱ isȱ ableȱ toȱ escapeȱ theȱ king’sȱ ambush.ȱ Wordsȱ areȱ thus usedȱinȱtheȱperceivedȱconfrontationsȱwithȱevil:ȱasȱanȱinstrument inȱ aȱ contestȱ andȱ asȱ aȱ formȱ ofȱ postulatedȱ protectionȱ against physicalȱ violence.ȱ Ourȱ secondȱ exampleȱ isȱ anotherȱ instanceȱ of presumedȱverbalȱprotection. ProtectionȱagainstȱEvilȱbyȱUsingȱWordsȱofȱPower InȱmedievalȱIreland,ȱaȱcertainȱtypeȱofȱrhetoricalȱproseȱwasȱused forȱ protectionȱ againstȱ evil.ȱ Thisȱ typeȱ ofȱ textȱ wasȱ knownȱ asȱ a “breastplate,”ȱ loricaȱ inȱ Latinȱ andȱ lúirechȱ inȱ Irishȱ (seeȱ Gougaud 1911Ȭ1912).ȱ Jamesȱ Kenneyȱ describesȱ theseȱ textsȱ asȱ “litanyȬlike prayers,”ȱ “strangeȱ pieces”ȱ inȱ whichȱ “theȱ ideasȱ andȱ formulaeȱ of

12

ȱCf.ȱtheȱsecondȱsectionȱofȱthisȱpaperȱasȱwell.

13

ȱMuirchúȱalsoȱrefersȱtoȱSatanȱandȱtheȱdevilȱwhenȱdescribingȱaȱsuȬ pernaturalȱattackȱandȱevilȱinspiration.ȱInȱtheȱfirstȱinstance,ȱSt.ȱPatrickȱsufȬ fersȱfromȱanȱexperienceȱthatȱweȱmightȱcallȱsleepȱparalysisȱorȱaȱnightmare and,ȱinȱtheȱsecondȱinstance,ȱaȱkingȱisȱsaidȱtoȱcommitȱsuicideȱatȱtheȱdevil’s instigationȱ(seeȱBielerȱ1979:ȱI.2,ȱI.12).ȱPatrick’sȱConfessioȱalsoȱcontainsȱa descriptionȱofȱSatan’sȱnocturnalȱattack.

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paganȱincantationsȱwereȱconvertedȱtoȱtheȱuseȱofȱChristianȱdevoȬ tion”ȱ(Kenneyȱ1979:ȱ254).ȱHeȱalsoȱsuggestsȱanȱinvertedȱdevelopȬ ment,ȱ inȱ whichȱ “genuineȱ hymns”ȱ wereȱ usedȱ asȱ loricaeȱ with “magicalȱproperties.”14 Theȱ nameȱ loricaȱ probablyȱ owesȱ itsȱ existenceȱ toȱ biblicalȱ deȬ scriptionsȱ ofȱ spiritualȱ armor.ȱ Oneȱ couldȱ thinkȱ ofȱ theȱ following passageȱ fromȱ theȱ Newȱ Testament15ȱ (sinceȱ theȱ medievalȱ Irish usedȱLatinȱversionsȱofȱtheȱBible,ȱweȱwillȱtranslateȱfromȱtheȱVulȬ gateȱhere): PutȱonȱtheȱarmorȱofȱGod, thatȱyouȱmayȱbeȱableȱtoȱstandȱagainstȱtheȱdeceitsȱofȱtheȱdevil, Forȱourȱwrestlingȱisȱnotȱagainstȱfleshȱandȱblood butȱagainstȱprincipalitiesȱandȱpowers, againstȱtheȱrulersȱofȱtheȱworldȱofȱthisȱdarkness, againstȱtheȱspiritsȱofȱwickednessȱinȱtheȱhighȱplaces. ThereforeȱtakeȱuntoȱyouȱtheȱarmorȱofȱGod, thatȱyouȱmayȱbeȱableȱtoȱresistȱinȱtheȱevilȱday, andȱtoȱstandȱperfectȱinȱallȱthings. Standȱtherefore,ȱhavingȱyourȱloinsȱgirtȱaboutȱwithȱtruth, andȱhavingȱonȱtheȱbreastplateȱ(lorica)ȱofȱjustice, andȱyourȱfeetȱshodȱwithȱtheȱpreparationȱofȱtheȱgospelȱofȱpeace: inȱallȱthingsȱtakingȱtheȱshieldȱofȱfaith, wherewithȱyouȱmayȱbeȱableȱtoȱextinguishȱallȱtheȱfieryȱdartsȱofȱthe mostȱwickedȱone. Andȱtakeȱuntoȱyouȱtheȱhelmetȱofȱsalvation, andȱtheȱswordȱofȱtheȱSpirit,

14

ȱAlsoȱseeȱDraakȱ1955:ȱ10.ȱTheȱoriginȱandȱdevelopmentȱofȱthisȱgenre needsȱfurtherȱstudy,ȱespeciallyȱinȱtheȱlightȱofȱrecentȱinsightsȱinȱCelticȱand religiousȱstudies. 15

ȱPredecessorsȱofȱthisȱimageryȱcanȱbeȱfoundȱinȱtheȱTenachȱorȱOld Testament.ȱSee,ȱforȱinstance,ȱPsalmȱ90,ȱinȱwhichȱGod’sȱshieldȱprotectsȱthe believerȱfromȱtheȱterrorȱofȱtheȱnight,ȱtheȱarrowȱflyingȱbyȱday,ȱtheȱpestȬ ilenceȱwalkingȱinȱdarknessȱandȱtheȱmiddayȱdemonȱ(theȱHebrewȱoriginal refersȱtoȱdestructionȱthatȱdevastatesȱatȱnoon);ȱandȱseeȱtheȱimageryȱinȱIsaiȬ ahȱ59:17:ȱGodȱputtingȱonȱjusticeȱasȱaȱbreastplate,ȱaȱhelmetȱofȱsalvation, theȱgarmentsȱofȱvengeance,ȱandȱzealȱasȱaȱcloak.

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whichȱisȱtheȱwordȱofȱGod. ByȱallȱprayerȱandȱsupplicationȱprayingȱatȱallȱtimesȱinȱtheȱSpirit. (Ephesiansȱ6:11Ȭ18)

Withȱtheseȱdivineȱattributes,ȱtheȱreadersȱareȱexhortedȱtoȱdefend themselvesȱagainstȱspiritualȱenemies.ȱTheseȱpostulatedȱdemonic adversariesȱ areȱ notȱ ofȱ fleshȱ andȱ blood.ȱ Weȱ seeȱ hereȱ aȱ clear dichotomy,ȱ justȱ asȱ inȱ hagiography:ȱ Godȱ andȱ goodȱ versusȱ evil spiritsȱ andȱ darkness.ȱ Theȱ secondȱ signȱ ofȱ theȱ druid,ȱ theȱ calling forthȱofȱtenebrae,ȱwithȱSt.ȱPatrickȱprayingȱforȱsunlightȱcan,ȱthereȬ fore,ȱbeȱseenȱasȱaȱsymbolicȱstatementȱasȱwell.ȱDarknessȱwasȱasȬ sociatedȱwithȱevil,ȱandȱhence,ȱtheȱnightȱwasȱalsoȱconnectedȱwith evil.ȱ Thus,ȱ inȱ Iȱ Thessaloniansȱ 5:8,ȱ Christiansȱ areȱ placedȱ inȱ the categoryȱofȱtheȱday: Butȱletȱus,ȱwhoȱareȱofȱtheȱday,ȱbeȱsober, havingȱonȱtheȱbreastplateȱ(lorica)ȱofȱfaithȱandȱlove,ȱandȱforȱaȱhelȬ metȱtheȱhopeȱofȱsalvation.

Aȱ famousȱ Irishȱ specimenȱ ofȱ thisȱ spiritualȱ armorȱ isȱ theȱ eighthȬ centuryȱ Faídȱ Fiada,ȱ “Theȱ Deer’sȱ Cry”ȱ (Binchyȱ 1966:ȱ 234Ȭ37; Careyȱ1998:ȱ128).ȱBeforeȱstudyingȱitsȱcontents,ȱIȱwillȱfirstȱdiscuss itsȱreceptionȱhistory. Theȱ titleȱ “Theȱ Deer’sȱ Cry”ȱ stemsȱ fromȱ aȱ Middleȱ Irishȱ preȬ faceȱ toȱ theȱ textȱ inȱ theȱ Liberȱ Hymnorumȱ fromȱ theȱ eleventhȱ cenȬ tury.ȱ Accordingȱ toȱ thisȱ preface,ȱ St.ȱ Patrickȱ composedȱ “The Deer’sȱ Cry”ȱ inȱ orderȱ toȱ escapeȱ fromȱ theȱ ambushȱ laidȱ byȱ King Loegaireȱ andȱ hisȱ menȱ (cf.ȱ theȱ episodeȱ discussedȱ above).16ȱ The prefaceȱ notȱ onlyȱ callsȱ thisȱ textȱ aȱ hymnȱ butȱ alsoȱ creditsȱ itȱ with supernaturalȱpower.ȱTwoȱclaimsȱwereȱmade:ȱfirst,ȱtheȱtextȱproȬ tectedȱ Patrickȱ andȱ hisȱ followersȱ byȱ theirȱ transformationȱ into deerȱ orȱ byȱ illusion.17ȱ Second,ȱ theȱ textȱ willȱ protectȱ anyoneȱ who recitesȱitȱfromȱdanger.

16

ȱ“SaintȱPatrick’sȱBreastplate”ȱisȱanȱalternative,ȱlaterȱtitle.ȱAsȱDraak (1955:ȱ9)ȱpointsȱout,ȱanȱearlierȱbutȱuncertainȱlinkȱbetweenȱtheȱtextȱandȱSt. PatrickȱisȱfoundȱinȱtheȱBookȱofȱArmaghȱ(anȱIrishȱmanuscriptȱdatedȱ807). Thereȱ areȱ fourȱ honorsȱ dueȱ toȱ Patrickȱ fromȱ allȱ Irishȱ monasteriesȱ and churches;ȱtheȱfourthȱis:ȱcanticumȱeiusȱScotticumȱsemperȱcanere,ȱ“toȱchantȱhis Gaelicȱ[.i.e.ȱIrish]ȱcanticleȱalways”ȱ(Bielerȱ1979:ȱ166Ȭ67). 17

ȱSeeȱtheȱthirdȱsectionȱofȱthisȱpaperȱasȱwell.

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MaartjeȱDraakȱconnectsȱthisȱtextȱwithȱearlyȱIrishȱspellsȱthat areȱsaidȱtoȱworkȱforȱaȱdayȱandȱaȱnightȱ(Draakȱ1955:ȱ9Ȭ12).ȱOne ofȱ herȱ examplesȱ isȱ theȱ abovementionedȱ magicȱ incantationȱ by theȱdruidȱwhoȱcouldȱnotȱremoveȱtheȱsnowȱuntilȱtheȱsameȱtime theȱnextȱday.ȱSimilarly,ȱsheȱargues,ȱitȱwasȱbelievedȱthatȱtheȱperȬ sonȱ whoȱ recitedȱ thisȱ loricaȱ wouldȱ beȱ protectedȱ fromȱ harmȱ for twentyȬfourȱ hours.ȱ Draakȱ pointsȱ outȱ thatȱ notȱ onlyȱ doesȱ the prefaceȱ prescribeȱ dailyȱ recitationȱ butȱ theȱ textȱ itselfȱ alsoȱ refers regularlyȱ toȱ “today.”ȱ Theȱ prefaceȱ callsȱ theȱ textȱ aȱ hymn,ȱ but Draakȱ seesȱ itȱ asȱ aȱ charm.ȱ Sheȱ isȱ awareȱ ofȱ theȱ Newȱ Testament backgroundȱ ofȱ theȱ termȱ loricaȱ butȱ pointsȱ outȱ thatȱ thisȱ genreȱ is partȱ ofȱ theȱ twilightȱ zoneȱ betweenȱ theȱ preȬChristianȱ andȱ the Christianȱ worldviews.18ȱ Althoughȱ Christianȱ elementsȱ formȱ a partȱ ofȱ it,ȱ sheȱ rejectsȱ theȱ termȱ “prayer”ȱ forȱ thisȱ text.ȱ Herȱ arguȬ mentȱ isȱ thatȱ theȱ textȱ doesȱ notȱ askȱ forȱ protectionȱ butȱ accomȬ plishesȱit.ȱUtteringȱtheȱwordsȱcausesȱprotection.ȱNobodyȱisȱadȬ dressed;ȱthereȱisȱnoȱThou.ȱTheȱonlyȱexceptionȱisȱtheȱfinalȱstanza inȱ Latinȱ (Salusȱ tua,ȱ Domine,ȱ sitȱ semperȱ nobiscum),ȱ whichȱ she assumesȱtoȱbeȱaȱlaterȱadditionȱ(Draakȱ1955:ȱ10Ȭ11). Draakȱseesȱ“TheȱDeer’sȱCry”ȱasȱtheȱmostȱpaganȱrepresentaȬ tiveȱ ofȱ theȱ genreȱ ofȱ loricaeȱ (Draakȱ 1955:ȱ 10).ȱ Johnȱ Carey,ȱ howȬ ever,ȱseesȱtheȱtextȱasȱrisingȱ“wellȱaboveȱtheȱsemiȬmagicalȱpragȬ matismȱ ofȱ manyȱ ofȱ itsȱ otherȱ survivingȱ representatives”ȱ (Carey 1998:ȱ127).ȱCarey’sȱqualificationȱofȱ“semiȬmagicalȱpragmatism” seemsȱ toȱ referȱ toȱ theȱ sameȱ phenomenonȱ thatȱ Draakȱ emphaȬ sized:ȱ textsȱ thatȱ areȱ believedȱ toȱ offerȱ protectionȱ whenȱ theyȱ are voiced.ȱCareyȱcomparesȱtheȱgenreȱwithȱincantations.ȱTheȱpostuȬ latedȱ efficacyȱ ofȱ bothȱ kindsȱ ofȱ textȱ dependsȱ onȱ exhaustive enumerationȱ(Careyȱ1998:ȱ127).ȱSupernaturalȱprotectiveȱentities, bodyȱpartsȱtoȱbeȱprotectedȱandȱdangersȱfromȱwhichȱoneȱwants toȱ beȱ protectedȱ areȱ listed.ȱ Theȱ personȱ whoȱ uttersȱ “Theȱ Deer’s Cry”ȱ doesȱ notȱ seemȱ toȱ invokeȱ supernaturalȱ beingsȱ orȱ natural phenomenaȱbutȱtoȱgirdȱoneselfȱwithȱtheirȱpresumedȱpowerȱand virtues.ȱ Nonetheless,ȱ Careyȱ definesȱ loricaeȱ asȱ “protectiveȱ prayȬ

18

ȱSimilarly,ȱWolfgangȱMeidȱ(1990:ȱ27)ȱwrites:ȱ“Theȱtransitionȱfrom aȱ‘druidic’ȱtoȱaȱChristianȱworldviewȱisȱclarifiedȱbyȱtwoȱpoems,ȱbothȱbeȬ longingȱtoȱtheȱcategoryȱofȱmagicalȱarmorȱcalledȱloricaȱ(“breastplate”): theyȱ areȱ theȱ invocationsȱ forȱ protectionȱ fromȱ enemiesȱ andȱ dangers“ (translatedȱfromȱtheȱoriginalȱGerman).ȱSeeȱalsoȱGougaudȱ1912:ȱ115Ȭ22.

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35

ers”ȱ andȱ callsȱ theȱ reciterȱ aȱ “suppliant,”ȱ whoȱ isȱ “suspendedȱ in prayerfulȱsubmissionȱtoȱanȱubiquitousȱDeity”ȱ(Careyȱ1998:ȱ127). Theȱ basisȱ forȱ thisȱ differentȱ readingȱ ofȱ theȱ textȱ isȱ foundȱ in theȱMiddleȱIrishȱpreface.ȱWeȱsawȱthatȱDraakȱfocusedȱonȱtheȱexȬ hortationȱtoȱreciteȱtheȱloricaȱdaily.ȱCarey,ȱhowever,ȱtakesȱtheȱesȬ sentialȱ featureȱ ofȱ spiritualȱ engagementȱ intoȱ account,ȱ whichȱ is demandedȱ duringȱ recitation.ȱ Thisȱ removesȱ theȱ groundsȱ for qualifyingȱtheȱpostulatedȱprocessȱofȱprotectiveȱefficacyȱasȱautoȬ matic.ȱWeȱfind,ȱembeddedȱbetweenȱreferencesȱtoȱtheȱlegendary originȱ ofȱ theȱ text,19ȱ aȱ declarationȱ ofȱ itsȱ ongoing,ȱ dailyȱ useȱ and miraculousȱeffect: Andȱitȱisȱaȱbreastplateȱofȱfaith, toȱprotectȱbodyȱandȱsoulȱagainstȱdemonsȱandȱpeople20ȱandȱvices. Ifȱ anyoneȱ recitesȱ itȱ everyȱ day,ȱ withȱ hisȱ mindȱ fixedȱ whollyȱ upon God,ȱdemonsȱwillȱnotȱstandȱagainstȱhim, itȱwillȱprotectȱhimȱagainstȱpoisonȱandȱenvyȱ(=theȱevilȱeye),21

19

ȱTheȱstructureȱofȱtheȱprefaceȱisȱasȱfollows.ȱWeȱfirstȱreadȱaboutȱthe author,ȱtimeȱandȱcauseȱofȱtheȱhymn.ȱThenȱtheȱquotedȱdeclarationȱfollows, afterȱ whichȱ theȱ prefaceȱ concludesȱ withȱ theȱ descriptionȱ ofȱ theȱ miracle workedȱbyȱPatrick’sȱsingingȱtheȱhymnȱcalledȱ“TheȱDeer’sȱCry.” 20

ȱCareyȱtranslatesȱthisȱasȱ“men.”

21

ȱAnotherȱlorica,ȱassociatedȱwithȱSaintȱBrendanȱ(Moranȱ1872:ȱ27Ȭ44), mentionsȱtheȱevilȱeyeȱexplicitlyȱafterȱpoisonȱandȱenvyȱinȱaȱlistȱofȱevils:ȱ“... defendeȱmeȱDomineȱabȱigne,ȱaȱfulgure,ȱaȱtonitruo,ȱaȱgrandine,ȱaȱnive,ȱa pluvia,ȱaȱpericulis,ȱaȱterraemotu,ȱabȱomnibusȱmalis,ȱaȱveneficiis,ȱabȱinvidȬ iis,ȱetȱaȱmalisȱoculis,ȱauribus,ȱetȱaȱpericulisȱlaciȱetȱtenebrarum,ȱaȱdemonio, etȱaȱsagittaȱvolanteȱinȱdie,ȱaȱnegotioȱperambulanteȱinȱtenebrisȱ(Moran 1872:ȱ42).ȱI.e.ȱ“...ȱdefendȱme,ȱLord,ȱfromȱfire,ȱfromȱlightning,ȱfromȱthunȬ der,ȱfromȱhail,ȱfromȱsnow,ȱfromȱrain,ȱfromȱdangers,ȱfromȱearthquakes, fromȱallȱevils,ȱfromȱpoisonsȱ(or:ȱmagicȱpotions),ȱfromȱenviesȱandȱfrom evilȱeyes,ȱearsȱ(?),ȱandȱfromȱtheȱdangersȱofȱtheȱpitȱandȱofȱdarkness,ȱfrom theȱdemon,ȱandȱfromȱtheȱarrowȱthatȱfliesȱbyȱday,ȱfromȱtheȱtroubleȱ(or: pestilence)ȱthatȱwalksȱthroughȱtheȱdarkness.”ȱThisȱlastȱpartȱquotesȱPsalm 90:5Ȭ6,ȱ whichȱ wasȱ traditionallyȱ sungȱ atȱ nightȱ forȱ protectionȱ against dangerȱ(cf.ȱabove).ȱIncidentally,ȱGougaudȱ(1912:ȱ103)ȱquotesȱfromȱaȱdifȬ ferentȱmanuscript,ȱwhichȱreadsȱabȱomnibusȱhominibusȱmalisȱetȱveneficiisȱand whichȱrefersȱtoȱtheȱmiddayȱdemonȱfromȱtheȱGreekȱ(andȱitsȱLatin)ȱtranslaȬ tionȱofȱPsalmȱ90.

36

JACQUELINEȱBORSJE itȱwillȱguardȱhimȱagainstȱsuddenȱdeath, itȱwillȱbeȱaȱbreastplateȱforȱhisȱsoulȱafterȱdeath.22

Onceȱ more,ȱ theȱ biblicalȱ backgroundȱ isȱ clear:ȱ aȱ breastplateȱ of faithȱ(andȱlove)ȱisȱmentionedȱinȱIȱThessaloniansȱ5:8ȱandȱaȱsimȬ ilarȱexhortationȱonȱspiritualȱengagementȱduringȱprayerȱisȱfound inȱ Ephesiansȱ 6:18ȱ (seeȱ above).ȱ Theȱ latterȱ textȱ suggestsȱ divine armorȱ againstȱ spiritualȱ enemies;ȱ theȱ prefaceȱ toȱ theȱ Irishȱ text promisesȱ safetyȱ notȱ onlyȱ fromȱ spiritualȱ dangerȱ butȱ alsoȱ from enemiesȱ ofȱ fleshȱ andȱ blood.ȱ Theȱ protectionȱ ofȱ bodyȱ andȱ soul againstȱdemons,ȱpeopleȱandȱvicesȱhasȱbeenȱtakenȱoverȱfromȱthe loricaȱ itself.ȱ Theȱ demarcationȱ betweenȱ spiritualȱ andȱ corporal dangerȱisȱnotȱalwaysȱeasyȱtoȱdraw,ȱasȱweȱcanȱsee,ȱforȱinstance, concerningȱ theȱ dangerȱ “envy.”ȱ Itȱ shouldȱ beȱ notedȱ thatȱ format, “envy”ȱ (whichȱ Careyȱ translatesȱ asȱ “jealousy”),ȱ couldȱ alsoȱ be translatedȱasȱ“theȱevilȱeye”ȱ(seeȱBorsjeȱandȱKellyȱ2003:ȱȱ3,ȱ29Ȭ31). Peopleȱwhoȱlookedȱatȱsomethingȱwithȱadmirationȱorȱenvyȱwere believedȱtoȱbeȱableȱtoȱdoȱphysicalȱdamageȱtoȱtheȱobjectȱorȱperȬ sonȱatȱwhichȱtheyȱwereȱlookingȱ(cf.ȱalsoȱLatinȱinvideo).ȱTheȱevil eyeȱ wasȱ veryȱ muchȱ fearedȱ andȱ peopleȱ tookȱ verbalȱ andȱ ritual precautionsȱagainstȱitsȱeffect.ȱTheȱmentionȱofȱformatȱinȱtheȱpreȬ faceȱ mayȱ beȱ basedȱ uponȱ theȱ loricaȱ itself,ȱ althoughȱ foirmdechaib aicnidȱisȱdifficultȱtoȱtranslateȱ(seeȱbelow). IsȱthisȱloricaȱaȱpreȬChristianȱcharmȱwithȱChristianȱinterpolaȬ tionsȱ(Draak)ȱorȱaȱprayerȱforȱprotectionȱinȱtheȱformȱofȱanȱincanȬ tationȱ (Carey)?ȱ Iȱ proposeȱ thatȱ theȱ termsȱ attributedȱ laterȱ toȱ the text,ȱ suchȱ asȱ hymn,ȱ charmȱ andȱ prayerȱ beȱ leftȱ asideȱ andȱ that moreȱ neutralȱ termsȱ beȱ used.ȱ Weȱ areȱ dealingȱ withȱ “wordsȱ of power”:ȱ wordsȱ thatȱ areȱ believedȱ toȱ beȱ capableȱ ofȱ influencing realityȱ inȱ aȱ materialȱ sense,ȱ althoughȱ notȱ throughȱ empirically verifiableȱmethods.ȱTheseȱwordsȱareȱbelievedȱtoȱhaveȱtheȱpower toȱ transformȱ realityȱ eitherȱ throughȱ someȱ intrinsicȱ powerȱ they possessȱorȱthroughȱtheȱagencyȱofȱaȱsupernaturalȱentityȱ(Fanger 1999:ȱ98).ȱTurningȱnowȱtoȱ“TheȱDeer’sȱCry,”ȱweȱnoticeȱaȱdiverse rangeȱofȱpresumedȱentitiesȱwhoseȱpostulatedȱprotectiveȱpower isȱdrawnȱupon:

22

ȱCareyȱ1998:ȱ130.ȱForȱanȱeditionȱofȱtheȱIrishȱtext,ȱseeȱStokesȱand Strachanȱ1987:ȱII.ȱ354.

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1. TodayȱIȱgirdȱmyself Withȱaȱmightyȱpower: invocationȱofȱtheȱTrinity, beliefȱinȱtheȱThreeness, confession23ȱofȱtheȱOneness, inȱtheȱCreator’sȱpresence. 2. TodayȱIȱgirdȱmyself WithȱtheȱpowerȱofȱChrist’sȱbirthȱtogetherȱwithȱhisȱbaptism, Withȱtheȱpowerȱofȱhisȱcrucifixionȱtogetherȱwithȱhisȱburial, Withȱ theȱ powerȱ ofȱ hisȱ resurrectionȱ togetherȱ withȱ hisȱ ascenȬ sion, Withȱ theȱ powerȱ ofȱ hisȱ descentȱ toȱ pronounceȱ theȱ judgmentȱ of Doomsday. 3. TodayȱIȱgirdȱmyself Withȱtheȱpowerȱofȱtheȱorderȱofȱtheȱcherubim, Withȱtheȱobedienceȱofȱangels, Withȱtheȱministryȱofȱtheȱarchangels, Withȱtheȱexpectationȱofȱresurrectionȱforȱtheȱsakeȱofȱaȱreward, Withȱtheȱprayersȱofȱpatriarchs, Withȱtheȱpredictionsȱofȱprophets, Withȱtheȱpreceptsȱofȱapostles, Withȱtheȱfaithȱofȱconfessors, Withȱtheȱinnocenceȱofȱholyȱvirgins, Withȱtheȱdeedsȱofȱrighteousȱmen. 4. TodayȱIȱgirdȱmyself Withȱtheȱstrengthȱofȱheaven, Lightȱofȱtheȱsun, Brightnessȱofȱtheȱmoon, Brillianceȱofȱfire, Speedȱofȱlightning, Swiftnessȱofȱwind, Depthȱofȱsea, Firmnessȱofȱearth, Stabilityȱofȱrock.

23 ȱCareyȱtranslatesȱtheȱIrishȱtermȱ(faísitiuȱinȱtheȱdativeȱsingular)ȱas “affirmation”ȱhereȱandȱinȱstanzaȱ8ȱasȱ“proclamation.”ȱIȱhaveȱreplacedȱhis translationsȱwithȱtheȱprimaryȱmeaningȱgivenȱinȱQuinȱ1983.

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JACQUELINEȱBORSJE 5. TodayȱIȱgirdȱmyself WithȱtheȱstrengthȱofȱGod TheȱmightȱofȱGodȱ TheȱmindȱofȱGodȱ TheȱeyeȱofȱGodȱ TheȱearȱofȱGodȱ TheȱwordȱofȱGodȱ TheȱhandȱofȱGodȱ TheȱpathȱofȱGodȱ TheȱshieldȱofȱGodȱ TheȱhelpȱofȱGodȱ

toȱdirectȱme. toȱexaltȱme, toȱleadȱme, toȱwatchȱoverȱme, toȱhearȱme, toȱspeakȱtoȱme, toȱdefendȱme, toȱgoȱbeforeȱme, toȱguardȱme, toȱprotectȱme,

Againstȱtheȱsnaresȱofȱdemons, Againstȱtheȱtemptationsȱofȱvices, Againstȱtheȱenviousȱonesȱbyȱnatureȱ(?),24 Againstȱeveryoneȱwhoȱwishesȱmeȱill, Farȱandȱnear, Amongȱfewȱandȱamongȱmany. 6. TodayȱIȱinterposeȱallȱtheseȱpowersȱbetweenȱmyself Andȱeveryȱharshȱpitilessȱpowerȱwhichȱmayȱcomeȱagainstȱmy bodyȱandȱmyȱsoul, Againstȱtheȱincantations25ȱofȱfalseȱprophets, Againstȱtheȱblackȱlawsȱofȱpaganism, Againstȱtheȱcrookedȱlawsȱofȱheretics, Againstȱtheȱencirclementȱofȱidolatry,

24 ȱTheȱeditedȱtextȱreadsȱfoirmdechaib,ȱwhichȱCareyȱemendsȱasȱfoirmȬ thechtaib.ȱCareyȱtranslatesȱthisȱasȱ“againstȱtheȱtendenciesȱ(?)ȱofȱnature.” Theȱmanuscriptsȱreadȱirnechtaib,ȱfoirmdechaib,ȱformdechaib.ȱIȱbaseȱmyȱtenȬ tativeȱtranslationȱonȱtheȱtranslationȱofȱformtechȱinȱtheȱdictionaryȱ(Quin 1983)ȱasȱ“envious,”ȱwhereȱthisȱtextȱisȱquotedȱasȱanȱexample.ȱPresumably, format,ȱ“envy,”ȱorȱ“theȱevilȱeye,”ȱinȱtheȱMiddleȱIrishȱprefaceȱmayȱhave beenȱinfluencedȱbyȱthisȱphrase.ȱWhatȱisȱmentionedȱhereȱmightȱreferȱto peopleȱwhoȱpossessȱtheȱevilȱeyeȱand,ȱtherefore,ȱareȱenviousȱbyȱnature. Specificȱ possessorsȱ ofȱ theȱ evilȱ eyeȱ areȱ mentionedȱ inȱ aȱ Middleȱ Irish commentaryȱonȱanȱOldȱIrishȱlawȱfragmentȱ(seeȱBorsjeȱandȱKellyȱ2003:ȱ31, 34Ȭ39). 25 ȱCareyȱtranslatesȱthisȱpluralȱformȱofȱtinchetalȱasȱ“predictions,”ȱbut Quinȱ(1983)ȱdefinesȱtheȱtermȱasȱ“theȱactȱofȱcastingȱspells,ȱincantation.” Manyȱofȱtheȱexamplesȱinȱthisȱdictionaryȱascribeȱthisȱactȱtoȱdruids.

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Againstȱtheȱspellsȱofȱwomenȱandȱsmithsȱandȱdruids, Againstȱeveryȱknowledgeȱwhichȱharmsȱone’s26ȱbodyȱandȱsoul. 7. MayȱChristȱprotectȱmeȱtoday Againstȱpoison, Againstȱburning, Againstȱdrowning, Againstȱwounding,27 Thatȱmanyȱrewardsȱmayȱcomeȱtoȱme. MayȱChristȱbeȱwithȱme,ȱChristȱbeforeȱme,ȱChristȱbehindȱme, Christȱwithinȱme,ȱChristȱbeneathȱme,ȱChristȱaboveȱme, Christȱtoȱmyȱright,ȱChristȱtoȱmyȱleft, Christȱ whereȱ Iȱ lieȱ down,ȱ Christȱ whereȱ Iȱ sit,ȱ Christȱ whereȱ I stand, Christȱinȱtheȱheartȱofȱeveryoneȱwhoȱthinksȱofȱme, Christȱinȱtheȱmouthȱofȱeveryoneȱwhoȱspeaksȱtoȱme, Christȱinȱeveryȱeyeȱwhichȱlooksȱonȱme, Christȱinȱeveryȱearȱwhichȱhearsȱme. 8. TodayȱIȱgirdȱmyself withȱaȱmightyȱpower: invocationȱofȱtheȱTrinity, beliefȱinȱtheȱThreeness, confessionȱofȱtheȱOneness,ȱ inȱtheȱCreator’sȱpresence. SalvationȱisȱofȱtheȱLord,ȱSalvationȱisȱofȱtheȱLord,ȱSalvationȱis ofȱChrist, mayȱyourȱsalvation,ȱLord,ȱbeȱalwaysȱwithȱus. (Careyȱ1998:ȱ130Ȭ35)

Theȱ textȱ consistsȱ ofȱ eightȱ stanzasȱ inȱ Irish;ȱ theȱ firstȱ andȱ theȱ last areȱidentical.ȱTheȱconclusionȱisȱformedȱbyȱanȱadaptationȱofȱthe

26

ȱȱCareyȱtranslatesȱ“aȱman’s.”

27

ȱItȱisȱtemptingȱtoȱseeȱthisȱlistȱreflectedȱinȱtheȱMiddleȱIrishȱpreface: poisonȱwouldȱreferȱtoȱpoisonȱandȱenvyȱ(=ȱtheȱevilȱeye;ȱforȱtheȱassociation ofȱ theȱ evilȱ eyeȱ withȱ poison,ȱ seeȱ Borsjeȱ andȱ Kellyȱ 2003:ȱ 5Ȭ9);ȱ burning, drowning,ȱandȱwounding—thisȱtrioȱisȱwellȱknownȱasȱtheȱmotifȱofȱthreeȬ foldȱ deathȱ (see,ȱ e.g.ȱ Wardȱ 1970;ȱ Radnerȱ 1983;ȱ Wileyȱ 2001:ȱ 277Ȭ78)— wouldȱreferȱtoȱsuddenȱdeath.

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JACQUELINEȱBORSJE

lastȱ verseȱ ofȱ Psalmȱ 3ȱ inȱ Latin.28ȱ Eachȱ stanzaȱ coversȱ aȱ certain metaȬempiricalȱ orȱ empiricalȱ fieldȱ ofȱ whichȱ theȱ perceivedȱ powȬ ersȱareȱcalledȱforthȱforȱtheȱsakeȱofȱprotection:ȱstanzaȱ1ȱrefersȱto theȱTrinity,ȱ2ȱtoȱeventsȱfromȱtheȱlifeȱofȱChrist,ȱ3ȱtoȱangelicȱand humanȱ orders,ȱ 4ȱ toȱ nature,ȱ 5ȱ toȱ God,ȱ 7ȱ toȱ Christȱ andȱ 8ȱ toȱ the Trinityȱ again,ȱ roundingȱ offȱ withȱ theȱ Latinȱ prayerȱ toȱ Christ. Stanzasȱ5,ȱ6ȱandȱ7ȱenumerateȱtheȱevilsȱfromȱwhichȱoneȱwantsȱto beȱprotected. ApplyingȱClaireȱFanger’sȱdefinitionȱofȱ“wordsȱofȱpower”ȱto thisȱtext,ȱIȱconcludeȱthatȱtheseȱwordsȱareȱnotȱregardedȱasȱhaving anȱ intrinsicȱ powerȱ butȱ constituteȱ anȱ appealȱ toȱ theȱ strengthsȱ of supernaturalȱentities,ȱsuchȱasȱtheȱTrinity,ȱGodȱandȱJesusȱChrist. Moreover,ȱ itȱ isȱ asȱ ifȱ theȱ textȱ surroundsȱ theȱ evilsȱ listedȱ literally withȱ divineȱ protection:ȱ theyȱ areȱ enclosedȱ byȱ aȱ descriptionȱ of Godȱasȱanȱanthropomorphicȱguardȱwithȱaȱshieldȱ(stanzaȱ5)ȱand byȱ aȱ portrayalȱ ofȱ Christȱ asȱ anȱ invisibleȱ forceȱ surroundingȱ the speakerȱonȱallȱsides,ȱperhapsȱcomparableȱtoȱanȱenvelopingȱmist (stanzaȱ7).ȱStanzaȱ5ȱgivesȱtheȱgeneralȱoutlineȱofȱ“evil”:ȱtheȱtraps ascribedȱtoȱevilȱsupernaturalȱbeings,ȱtheȱseductionȱofȱsinfulȱbeȬ havior,ȱandȱpeopleȱthoughtȱtoȱbeȱharmful.ȱStanzaȱ6ȱputsȱtheȱinȬ vokedȱpowersȱasȱaȱkindȱofȱshieldȱbetweenȱtheȱspeakerȱandȱthe presumedȱ evilȱ powers.ȱ Interestingly,ȱ stanzaȱ 6ȱ describesȱ verbal andȱconceptualȱdanger.ȱWhatȱtheȱspeakerȱfearsȱareȱincantations; wrongȱ kindsȱ ofȱ lawsȱ eitherȱ withinȱ orȱ outsideȱ ofȱ Christianity; “wordsȱofȱpower”ȱfromȱwomen,ȱsmithsȱ andȱdruids;ȱandȱ“fatal knowledge,”ȱ thoughtȱ toȱ leadȱ peopleȱ astray,ȱ therebyȱ ruining one’sȱlifeȱonȱearthȱandȱone’sȱsoulȱafterȱdeath.ȱStanzaȱ7ȱenumerȬ atesȱmainlyȱphysicalȱevils.

28

ȱCareyȱ1998:ȱ129,ȱ135.ȱThisȱpsalm,ȱwhichȱdescribesȱGod’sȱprotecȬ tionȱagainstȱone’sȱenemies,ȱisȱtraditionallyȱpartȱofȱtheȱnightȱofficeȱ(Taft 1986:ȱ118,ȱ134,ȱ169,ȱ199,ȱ221,ȱ230,ȱ279).ȱTheȱlastȱverseȱreads:ȱ“Dominiȱest salusȱetȱsuperȱpopulumȱtuumȱbenedictioȱtua”;ȱi.e.,ȱ“Salvationȱisȱofȱthe Lordȱandȱyourȱblessingȱuponȱyourȱpeople.”ȱVerseȱ4ȱofȱtheȱtranslationȱof theȱHebrewȱpsalmȱalsoȱrefersȱtoȱdivine,ȱspiritualȱarmor:ȱ“tuȱautemȱDomȬ ineȱclipeusȱcircaȱme”;ȱi.e.,ȱ“butȱyou,ȱOȱGod,ȱareȱaȱshieldȱaroundȱme.”ȱThis psalmȱisȱoneȱofȱtheȱ“maledictoryȱpsalms”ȱ(seeȱWileyȱ2001:ȱ265).ȱIȱamȱinȬ debtedȱtoȱMartinȱMcNamara,ȱwhoȱdrewȱmyȱattentionȱtoȱthisȱalternative ritualȱmedievalȱIrishȱuseȱofȱtheȱpsalm.

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41

Again,ȱ weȱ seeȱ druidsȱ describedȱ asȱ peopleȱ associatedȱ with evil,ȱ castingȱ spells.ȱ Womenȱ areȱ alsoȱ mentionedȱ inȱ thisȱ context: thisȱmayȱreferȱnotȱonlyȱtoȱhumanȱrepresentativesȱbutȱalsoȱtoȱsuȬ pernaturalȱwomen.29ȱTheȱexactȱsameȱexpressionȱ(brechta(e/i)ȱban, “theȱ spellsȱ ofȱ women”)ȱ isȱ usedȱ inȱ theȱ Oldȱ Irishȱ Adventureȱ of Connlaeȱ(seeȱMcConeȱ2000).ȱAȱkingȱcallsȱhisȱdruidȱwhenȱaȱwoȬ manȱfromȱtheȱsídȱthreatensȱtoȱlureȱhisȱsonȱaway.ȱHeȱcomplains aboutȱ aȱ deceitfulȱ contestȱ withȱ invisibleȱ beings:ȱ hisȱ sonȱ willȱ be abductedȱ byȱ evilȱ movesȱ andȱ women’sȱ spellsȱ (McConeȱ 2000: 149Ȭ56).ȱTheȱwomanȱisȱinvisibleȱtoȱhumanȱbeings,ȱbutȱtheyȱcan hearȱher.ȱTheȱonlyȱoneȱwhoȱseesȱherȱisȱtheȱsonȱofȱtheȱkingȱand heȱ fallsȱ inȱ loveȱ withȱ her.ȱ Theȱ chantingȱ ofȱ theȱ druidȱ expelsȱ the womanȱtemporarily.30ȱAfterȱaȱmonth,31ȱherȱvoiceȱisȱheardȱagain. Ironically,ȱsheȱnowȱwarnsȱtheȱkingȱofȱdruids’ȱspellsȱinȱaȱprophȬ ecyȱonȱtheȱcomingȱofȱSt.ȱPatrick: Hisȱlawȱwillȱsoonȱcomeȱtoȱyou. Heȱwillȱdestroyȱtheȱspellsȱofȱtheȱdruidsȱ(brichtuȱdruad)ȱofȱbaseȱteaching Inȱfrontȱofȱtheȱblack,ȱbewitchingȱDevil. (McConeȱ2000:ȱ181ȱ(cf.ȱ122);ȱemphasisȱmine)

29

ȱCf.ȱCareyȱ1998:ȱ133,ȱn.ȱ13.ȱTheȱpossibilityȱthatȱwomenȱofȱfleshȱand bloodȱareȱmeantȱshouldȱnotȱbeȱruledȱout,ȱdespiteȱtheȱverbalȱparallelȱin theȱ Oldȱ Irishȱ taleȱ mentionedȱ below.ȱ Inȱ anotherȱ eighthȬcenturyȱ lorica, calledȱCétnadȱnȬAíse,ȱ“AȱChantȱofȱLongȱLife”ȱ(Careyȱ1998:ȱ136Ȭ38),ȱdanȬ gerousȱwomenȱareȱmentionedȱamongȱthievesȱandȱwarriors:ȱNímȬmillethar teól,ȱnáȱcuireȱban,ȱnáȱcuireȱbuiden,ȱ“Mayȱnoȱthiefȱdestroyȱme,ȱnorȱaȱcomȬ panyȱofȱwomen,ȱnorȱaȱcompanyȱofȱwarriors”ȱ(Careyȱ1998:ȱ137).ȱAnother loricaȱinȱIrishȱfromȱKlosterneuburg,ȱCodexȱregularumȱMs.ȱ587,ȱfromȱthe eleventhȱorȱtwelfthȱcenturyȱalsoȱrefersȱtoȱwomen’sȱspellsȱ(Zeussȱ1871: 954Ȭ55;ȱ Stokesȱ 1873Ȭ1875:ȱ 112Ȭ15)ȱ andȱ possiblyȱ anotherȱ mentionsȱ woȬ men’sȱjudgementsȱ(O’Kelleherȱ1910:ȱ236Ȭ37,ȱ239). 30

ȱThisȱisȱanotherȱexampleȱofȱtheȱmotifȱofȱspellsȱbeingȱeffectiveȱfor aȱcertainȱperiodȱofȱtime. 31

ȱDuringȱthisȱmonthȱConnlae,ȱtheȱson,ȱneitherȱeatsȱnorȱdrinks.ȱThe onlyȱthingȱheȱdigestsȱisȱanȱappleȱthrownȱtoȱhimȱbyȱtheȱwoman.ȱThisȱmirȬ aculousȱappleȱstaysȱwhole,ȱnoȱmatterȱhowȱmuchȱheȱeatsȱfromȱit.ȱOne couldȱcompareȱthisȱnarrativeȱmotifȱwithȱtheȱspecialȱdietȱofȱEthneȱofȱthe TúathaȱDéȱDanannȱdescribedȱinȱpartȱ3ȱofȱthisȱpaper.ȱBothȱConnlaeȱand Ethneȱareȱgoingȱtoȱmigrateȱfromȱoneȱworldȱtoȱanother.ȱForȱaȱstudyȱon similarȱmotifsȱasȱrepresentingȱritesȱdeȱpassage,ȱseeȱWileyȱ1995.

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Atȱtheȱendȱofȱtheȱtaleȱtheȱwomanȱandȱtheȱyoungȱmanȱdisappear inȱ aȱ crystalȱ ship,32ȱ neverȱ toȱ beȱ seenȱ again.ȱ Thisȱ textȱ datesȱ from theȱeighthȱcenturyȱ(McConeȱ2000:ȱ29).ȱItȱillustratesȱtheȱdangers attributedȱ toȱ spellsȱ byȱ womenȱ andȱ druids,ȱ andȱ refersȱ toȱ PatȬ rick’sȱlaw.ȱ Suchȱspellsȱandȱpaganȱandȱhereticalȱlawsȱareȱcalled evilsȱinȱ“TheȱDeer’sȱCry,”ȱwhichȱisȱalsoȱfromȱtheȱeighthȱcentury. Theȱ narrative,ȱ however,ȱ isȱ notȱ asȱ clearȱ inȱ distinguishingȱ beȬ tweenȱgoodȱandȱevilȱasȱtheȱloricaȱis.33 TheȱForcesȱofȱDarkness,ȱMistȱandȱInvisibility InȱtheȱfirstȱpartȱofȱthisȱpaperȱIȱpointedȱoutȱaȱsimilarityȱbetween Patrick,ȱ druidsȱ andȱ elves:ȱ theirȱ talentsȱ asȱ describedȱ inȱ theȱ litȬ eratureȱincludeȱtheirȱtransformationȱintoȱdeer.ȱTheȱtextualȱtradiȬ tionȱis,ȱhowever,ȱratherȱsubtleȱonȱthisȱpoint.ȱMuirchúȱmerelyȱreȬ fersȱ toȱ whatȱ witnessesȱ haveȱ seen:ȱ theȱ kingȱ noȱ longerȱ seesȱ the clericsȱ andȱ theȱ Irishȱ seeȱ deerȱ disappear.ȱ Bothȱ invisibilityȱ and transformationȱ seemȱ toȱ beȱ implied.ȱ Theȱ motifȱ ofȱ theȱ fawn strengthensȱ theȱ ideaȱ ofȱ transformation:ȱ itȱ wouldȱ referȱ toȱ PatȬ rick’sȱ youngȱ pupilȱ Benignus.ȱ Hisȱ nameȱ inȱ Irish,ȱ Benén,ȱ moreȬ over,ȱ hintsȱ atȱ bennán,ȱ theȱ Irishȱ wordȱ forȱ “fawn,ȱ calf.”ȱ The doubleȱmotifȱofȱtransformationȱandȱinvisibilityȱisȱalsoȱpresentȱin theȱMiddleȱIrishȱLifeȱofȱ Patrick.ȱAccordingȱtoȱthisȱtext,ȱPatrick’s blessingȱ callsȱ forthȱ aȱ dícheltair,ȱ “aȱ covering,ȱ concealment,ȱ disȬ guise,ȱinvisibility,ȱanȱinvisibilityȱspell.”ȱTheȱtext,ȱhowever,ȱalso explicitlyȱ identifiesȱ theȱ deerȱ andȱ theȱ fawnȱ asȱ Patrick,ȱ hisȱ men andȱ theȱ boyȱ (Mulchroneȱ 1939:ȱ 30Ȭ31;ȱ Stokesȱ 1887:ȱ 46Ȭ47).ȱ The MiddleȱIrishȱprefaceȱtoȱtheȱloricaȱsaysȱthatȱPatrickȱandȱhisȱmen lookedȱ likeȱ deerȱ inȱ theȱ eyesȱ ofȱ theirȱ enemies.34ȱ Thisȱ seemsȱ to hintȱthatȱtheȱtransformationȱwasȱaȱmatterȱofȱsimpleȱillusion.ȱThe title,ȱ Faídȱ fiada,ȱ “Theȱ Deer’sȱ Cry,”ȱ mightȱ alsoȱ containȱ aȱ word

32

ȱForȱtheȱmotifȱofȱboatsȱfromȱdiverseȱmaterialsȱandȱtheirȱsymbolic meaning,ȱseeȱWoodingȱ2001. 33

ȱThereȱareȱmanyȱwaysȱtoȱviewȱthisȱtale;ȱforȱaȱsurveyȱofȱtheȱliteraȬ tureȱandȱtheȱdiscussion,ȱseeȱMcConeȱ2000:ȱ47Ȭ119. 34

ȱ Stokesȱ andȱ Strachanȱ 1987:ȱ II,ȱ 354:ȱ “Conidȱ annsinȱ atchessaȱ fiad luchtȱnaȱnetarnadeȱcomtisȱaigeȱaltaȱ7ȱiarróeȱinaȱndiaidȱ.i.ȱBenen”;ȱCarey 1998:ȱ130:ȱ“soȱthatȱitȱseemedȱtoȱthoseȱwhoȱlayȱinȱwaitȱthatȱtheyȱwereȱwild deerȱwithȱaȱfawnȱfollowingȱthemȱ(thatȱwasȱBenén).”

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43

playȱonȱféthȱfia(da).ȱThisȱconceptȱrefersȱtoȱinvisibilityȱandȱisȱconȬ nectedȱwithȱdruids,ȱelvesȱandȱtheȱTúathaȱDéȱDanannȱinȱMiddle Irishȱandȱlaterȱtexts.35 Theȱ Túathaȱ Déȱ Danannȱ areȱ supernaturalȱ inhabitantsȱ of Ireland.ȱThereȱareȱmanyȱmedievalȱandȱmodernȱspeculationsȱon theirȱ natureȱ andȱ origin.ȱ Accordingȱ toȱ theȱ Earlyȱ Modernȱ Irish taleȱ “Theȱ Fosterageȱ ofȱ theȱ Houseȱ ofȱ theȱ Twoȱ Vessels”ȱ (Dobbs 1930;ȱDuncanȱ1932),36ȱtheȱTúathaȱDéȱDanannȱliveȱinȱtheȱhollow hillsȱ ofȱ Ireland.ȱ Eachȱ hollowȱ hillȱ hasȱ aȱ leader.ȱ Justȱ asȱ theȱ Irish areȱ saidȱ toȱ haveȱ aȱ highȱ king,ȱ soȱ doȱ theȱ supernaturalȱ beings. Theirȱ highȱ kingȱ isȱ calledȱ Manannánȱ macȱ Lir,ȱ whoȱ livesȱ elseȬ where,ȱinȱtheȱLandȱofȱPromise.ȱHeȱisȱmoreȱpowerfulȱandȱknowlȬ edgeableȱ thanȱ theȱ others.ȱ Interestingly,ȱ theȱ Túathaȱ Déȱ Danann areȱ alsoȱ saidȱ toȱ venerateȱ gods.37ȱ Inȱ fact,ȱ thisȱ textȱ showsȱ aȱ clear hierarchy.ȱ Theȱ Túathaȱ Déȱ Danannȱ areȱ powerfulȱ beingsȱ (cuȬ machtaig,ȱ §ȱ 3),ȱ butȱ Manannánȱ isȱ superiorȱ toȱ them:ȱ heȱ isȱ very powerfulȱ (mórcumachtach,ȱ §§ȱ 2,ȱ 9).ȱ Thereȱ is,ȱ however,ȱ someone whoȱisȱsuperiorȱtoȱhim,ȱsomeoneȱwhoȱisȱalmightyȱ(uilechumachȬ tach;ȱ§§ȱ4,ȱ9):ȱGodȱtheȱhighȱkingȱwhoȱcreatedȱheaven,ȱearth,ȱsea andȱ theȱ fourȱ elementsȱ (§ȱ 4).ȱ Manannánȱ knewȱ ofȱ thisȱ superior GodȱlongȱbeforeȱtheȱarrivalȱofȱChristianity.ȱHeȱtellsȱhisȱprotégé Oengusȱ ofȱ theȱ tenȱ ordersȱ ofȱ angelsȱ andȱ ofȱ theȱ fallȱ andȱ banishȬ mentȱ ofȱ theȱ tenthȱ orderȱ throughȱ prideȱ (seeȱ McConeȱ 1990:ȱ 149Ȭ 51).ȱ Theseȱ angelsȱ areȱ nowȱ demons.ȱ Hereȱ weȱ findȱ aȱ fascinating weavingȱtogetherȱofȱtraditions.ȱManannánȱdoesȱnotȱcallȱhisȱown

35

ȱAccordingȱtoȱaȱlegalȱcommentaryȱ(Binchyȱ1978:ȱV,ȱ1612,ȱll.ȱp.ȱ8Ȭ9), druidsȱareȱsaidȱtoȱpracticeȱtheȱfethȱfia.ȱFéȱorȱféthȱfiadaȱ(orȱfia(d))ȱisȱsaidȱto makeȱtheȱhollowȱhillsȱ(síde)ȱandȱtheirȱinhabitantsȱ(áesȱsíde)ȱinvisibleȱtoȱhuȬ manȱeyes,ȱexceptȱonȱSamain,ȱtheȱfeastȱofȱtheȱbeginningȱofȱwinter,ȱasȱdeȬ scribedȱ inȱ e.g.ȱ “Theȱ Boyhoodȱ Deedsȱ ofȱ Finn”ȱ (Meyerȱ 1881Ȭ1883:ȱ 202; Nagyȱ1985:ȱ216)ȱandȱ“TheȱTalesȱofȱtheȱEldersȱofȱIreland”ȱ(Stokesȱ1900: 143,ȱ 318;ȱ Dooleyȱ andȱ Roeȱ 1999:ȱ 145Ȭ46).ȱ Anȱ exampleȱ concerningȱ the TúathaȱDéȱDanannȱisȱdiscussedȱinȱthisȱthirdȱpartȱofȱtheȱpaper. 36

ȱTheȱtextȱdatesȱfromȱtheȱfourteenthȱcenturyȱ(Murphyȱ1961:ȱ32).

37

ȱTheȱtaleȱrefersȱtoȱthisȱideaȱasȱfollows:ȱtheyȱswearȱbyȱ“theȱbeautiful godsȱofȱadoration”;ȱOengusȱasksȱwhetherȱthereȱisȱ“aȱgodȱoverȱourȱgods” (§ȱ4).ȱLater,ȱPatrickȱtellsȱOengusȱtoȱ“shunȱvainȱgods”ȱ(§ȱ12).ȱInȱthisȱtext, theȱTúathaȱDéȱDanannȱare,ȱtherefore,ȱneitherȱgodsȱnotȱdemons,ȱbutȱin otherȱtextsȱtheyȱmayȱbeȱidentifiedȱasȱtheȱformerȱorȱtheȱlatter.

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peopleȱ demons,ȱ butȱ thereȱ isȱ aȱ wellȬknownȱ traditionȱ thatȱ does indeedȱidentifyȱtheȱTúathaȱDéȱDanannȱwithȱtheseȱfallenȱangels (Careyȱ1990:ȱ32,ȱn.ȱ8).38 Manannánȱisȱportrayedȱinȱthisȱtextȱasȱaȱprophet,ȱhighȱking andȱ aȱ cultureȱ hero.ȱ Heȱ instructsȱ theȱ Túathaȱ Déȱ Danannȱ about theirȱ dwellingsȱ andȱ teachesȱ themȱ powerfulȱ supernaturalȱ arts. Theseȱ includeȱ theȱ féthȱ fiada,ȱ byȱ meansȱ ofȱ whichȱ theȱ Túathaȱ Dé Danannȱ becameȱ invisibleȱ toȱ humanȱ eyesȱ (§ȱ 2).ȱ Theȱ féthȱ fiadaȱ is mentionedȱagainȱatȱtheȱendȱofȱtheȱtaleȱwhereȱtheȱprotagonistȱis aȱ beautiful,ȱ charming,ȱ modestȱ girlȱ ofȱ theȱ Túathaȱ Déȱ Danann, calledȱ Eithne.ȱ Afterȱ aȱ visitorȱ insultsȱ her,ȱ sheȱ suddenlyȱ cannot eatȱandȱdrinkȱanyȱmore.ȱTheȱonlyȱthingȱthatȱsheȱisȱcapableȱofȱdiȬ gestingȱisȱtheȱmilkȱfromȱtwoȱspecialȱcowsȱfromȱIndia,ȱmilkedȱby herȱ intoȱ aȱ goldenȱ vesselȱ (§ȱ 7).ȱ Oengusȱ ownsȱ oneȱ cowȱ andȱ MaȬ nannánȱtheȱother.ȱEithneȱlivesȱalternatelyȱinȱtheirȱhousesȱsoȱthat sheȱ canȱ haveȱ accessȱ toȱ thisȱ specialȱ food.ȱ Manannánȱ explains thatȱ theȱ insultȱ changedȱ herȱ nature:ȱ sheȱ hasȱ becomeȱ different fromȱtheȱTúathaȱDéȱDanannȱonȱtwoȱcounts.ȱFirst,ȱanȱangelȱhas takenȱ theȱ placeȱ ofȱ herȱ accompanyingȱ demon.ȱ Second,ȱ sheȱ now veneratesȱ theȱ Trinityȱ insteadȱ ofȱ theȱ artsȱ ofȱ druidsȱ andȱ devilry (§§ȱ8,ȱ9). ThisȱtextȱassociatesȱtheȱTúathaȱDéȱDanannȱwithȱdemonsȱin aȱcreativeȱway:ȱtheyȱareȱportrayedȱasȱpossessedȱbyȱdemonsȱand theirȱreligionȱisȱcharacterizedȱasȱ“magic”ȱconnectedȱwithȱdruids andȱdevils. Eithneȱ livesȱ inȱ thisȱ wayȱ untilȱ theȱ timeȱ ofȱ Kingȱ Loegaireȱ (§ 9).ȱ St.ȱ Patrickȱ arrivesȱ and,ȱ theȱ textȱ tellsȱ us,ȱ heȱ banishesȱ the druidsȱandȱdemonsȱfromȱIrelandȱ(§ȱ10).ȱTheȱIrishȱbecomeȱChrisȬ tians,ȱ butȱ theȱ Túathaȱ Déȱ Danannȱ liveȱ onȱ asȱ ifȱ nothingȱ has changed.ȱOneȱday,ȱEithneȱisȱswimmingȱwithȱherȱfriendsȱinȱthe Riverȱ Boyne.ȱ Theyȱ areȱ allȱ invisible,ȱ butȱ Eithneȱ suddenlyȱ loses herȱ féthȱ fiada.ȱ Sheȱ doesȱ notȱ noticeȱ thatȱ herȱ friendsȱ haveȱ left.ȱ A

38

ȱAnotherȱinterestingȱdetailȱinȱthisȱpartȱofȱtheȱtextȱisȱthatȱGodȱneedȬ edȱwordsȱofȱpowerȱtoȱdriveȱtheȱevilȱangelsȱfromȱheaven.ȱThisȱcharmȱ(sén) wasȱalsoȱusedȱbyȱtheȱTúathaȱDéȱDanannȱtoȱtakeȱIrelandȱfromȱprevious inhabitantsȱ(theȱFirȱBolg),ȱandȱtheȱIrishȱusedȱitȱtoȱtakeȱtheȱkingshipȱfrom theȱTúathaȱDéȱDanannȱ(§ȱ4).ȱManannánȱteachesȱtheȱcharmȱtoȱhisȱprotegé, whoȱusesȱitȱtoȱtakeȱoverȱtheȱmostȱimpressiveȱhollowȱhillȱinȱtheȱlandȱ(§ȱ5), whichȱcausedȱenvyȱamongȱallȱtheȱpowerfulȱTúathaȱDéȱDanannȱ(§ȱ3).

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clericȱ seesȱ herȱ andȱ theyȱ talkȱ together.ȱ Sheȱ tellsȱ himȱ thatȱ from nowȱonȱsheȱbelongsȱtoȱtheȱpeopleȱofȱGodȱandȱnoȱlongerȱtoȱthe Túathaȱ Déȱ Danann.ȱ Hisȱ psalmsȱ soundȱ moreȱ beautifulȱ toȱ her thanȱtheȱwonderfulȱmusicȱfromȱtheȱLandȱofȱPromise.ȱWhenȱshe bendsȱoverȱhisȱbook,ȱsheȱisȱsuddenlyȱableȱtoȱreadȱ(§§ȱ10,ȱ11). Afterȱaȱwhile,ȱtheȱTúathaȱDéȱDanannȱcomeȱtoȱlookȱforȱher. Sheȱseesȱthem,ȱbutȱtheyȱremainȱhiddenȱtoȱtheȱclericȱbecauseȱof theȱféthȱfiadaȱ(§ȱ11).ȱTheȱclericȱsummonsȱPatrickȱtoȱtheȱsceneȱto protectȱ her,ȱ andȱ Oengusȱ andȱ Patrickȱ quarrelȱ overȱ her.ȱ When Oengusȱ threatensȱ toȱ abductȱ theȱ girl,ȱ Patrickȱ replies:ȱ “The strengthȱ andȱ theȱ powerȱ ofȱ theȱ Lordȱ fromȱ meȱ againstȱ you”ȱ (§ 12).39ȱ God’sȱ powerȱ isȱ thusȱ invokedȱ verballyȱ andȱ usedȱ asȱ a shield,ȱaccordingȱtoȱtheȱtale.ȱTheȱgirlȱstaysȱwithȱPatrickȱbutȱdies ofȱsadness,ȱafterȱwhichȱherȱsoulȱgoesȱtoȱheaven. Theȱ taleȱ isȱ concluded40ȱ withȱ aȱ promiseȱ byȱ Patrickȱ thatȱ the tellingȱofȱthisȱtaleȱwillȱbringȱmanyȱblessingsȱtoȱthoseȱwhoȱlisten toȱitȱcarefully.ȱHereȱagain,ȱwordsȱareȱcreditedȱwithȱtremendous power:ȱ tellingȱ theȱ taleȱ ofȱ theȱ girlȱ fromȱ theȱ Túathaȱ Déȱ Danann wouldȱbringȱsuccessȱinȱenterprisesȱandȱfamilyȱlife,ȱsafetyȱduring journeysȱ acrossȱ water,ȱ duringȱ lawȱ suitsȱ andȱ huntsȱ andȱ protecȬ tionȱfromȱfightsȱandȱweaponsȱ(§ȱ12). Invisibilityȱ wasȱ traditionallyȱ associatedȱ withȱ supernatural beings.ȱSt.ȱPatrickȱalsoȱusedȱit,ȱaccordingȱtoȱtheȱolderȱtextsȱthatȱI haveȱ discussed.ȱ Inȱ thisȱ Earlyȱ Modernȱ Irishȱ tale,ȱ however,ȱ the invisibilityȱofȱtheȱTúathaȱDéȱDanannȱbecameȱaȱsymbolȱofȱitsȱinȬ compatibilityȱ withȱ Christianity.ȱ Theȱ textȱ statesȱ thatȱ theȱ Túatha DéȱDanannȱcouldȱjoinȱthisȱnewȱreligiousȱorder,ȱwhereasȱunamȬ biguousȱrepresentativesȱofȱevil,ȱinȱthisȱtaleȱdruidsȱandȱdemons, mustȱleaveȱtheȱland.

39

ȱNertȱ7ȱcumhachtaȱinȱChoimdedhȱuaimsiȱattȱagaidhȱ(Duncanȱ1932:ȱ201). Theȱwordȱnertȱinȱtheȱdativeȱsingularȱisȱoftenȱusedȱinȱ“TheȱDeer’sȱCry”ȱto indicateȱtheȱpowersȱthatȱareȱinvoked. 40 ȱItȱendsȱinȱtheȱusualȱmedievalȱIrishȱfashionȱbyȱgivingȱtheȱtitleȱofȱthe taleȱatȱtheȱend.ȱTheȱpromiseȱofȱPatrickȱis,ȱtherefore,ȱclearlyȱanȱaddition toȱtheȱtale.

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Conclusion Inȱanȱearlierȱstudy,ȱIȱnotedȱthatȱthereȱwereȱatȱleastȱtwoȱoptions forȱ dealingȱ withȱ evilȱ accordingȱ toȱ medievalȱ Irishȱ textsȱ (Borsje 1996:ȱ 331Ȭ34).ȱ Theȱ firstȱ wasȱ toȱ lookȱ forȱ safetyȱ andȱ securityȱ by formulatingȱ rulesȱ thatȱ allowȱ peopleȱ toȱ locateȱ andȱ avoidȱ evil. Theȱ secondȱ wasȱ toȱ interpretȱ theȱ meaningȱ ofȱ evilȱ andȱ giveȱ itȱ a placeȱinȱone’sȱworldview.ȱTheȱwayȱtoȱcopeȱwithȱtheȱevilȱthatȱwe haveȱdiscussedȱinȱtheȱpresentȱpaperȱisȱtoȱutterȱ“wordsȱofȱpowȬ er.”ȱTheȱtextsȱcreditȱsuchȱwordsȱwithȱsomeȱkindȱofȱsupernatural powerȱ thatȱ wasȱ believedȱ toȱ beȱ capableȱ ofȱ transformingȱ reality andȱbringingȱaboutȱsafety. Beingȱ confrontedȱ withȱ evilȱ mayȱ causeȱ feelingsȱ ofȱ despair andȱleadȱtoȱpassivityȱandȱdepression.ȱCopingȱmechanismsȱhelp oneȱ fightȱ theseȱ feelings.ȱ Theȱ beliefȱ inȱ wordsȱ ofȱ powerȱ was probablyȱ suchȱ aȱ sourceȱ ofȱ supportȱ forȱ medievalȱ Irishȱ people whenȱfacedȱwithȱevil. Toȱ returnȱ toȱ theȱ metaphorȱ withȱ whichȱ weȱ began:ȱ thisȱ isȱ a firstȱstepȱinȱourȱcontinuousȱtaskȱofȱcleaning.ȱInȱourȱsecularized viewȱ ofȱ theȱ worldȱ andȱ withȱ ourȱ knowledgeȱ ofȱ theȱ monstrous evilsȱofȱourȱdayȱandȱage,ȱweȱrealizeȱonlyȱtooȱwellȱthatȱitȱisȱjustȱa firstȱstep. Bibliography Bieler,ȱLudwig.ȱ(1979).ȱTheȱPatricianȱTextsȱinȱtheȱBookȱofȱArmagh.ȱScripȬ toresȱ Latiniȱ Hiberniaeȱ X.ȱ Dublin:ȱ Dublinȱ Instituteȱ forȱ Advanced Studies. (1993).ȱ Libriȱ epistolarumȱ Sanctiȱ Patriciiȱ episcopi:ȱ Introduction,ȱ Text andȱCommentary.ȱDublin:ȱRoyalȱIrishȱAcademy. Binchy,ȱDanielȱA.ȱ(1966).ȱ“VariaȱIIIȱ(3.ȱAtomriug;ȱ4.ȱTheȱDateȱofȱtheȱSoȬ calledȱ‘HymnȱofȱPatrick’).”ȱÉriuȱ20:ȱ232Ȭ37. (1978).ȱ Corpusȱ Iurisȱ Hiberniciȱ adȱ fidemȱ codicumȱ manuscriptorum. Vols.ȱ1Ȭ6.ȱDublin:ȱDublinȱInstituteȱforȱAdvancedȱStudies. Borsje,ȱ Jacqueline.ȱ (1996).ȱ Fromȱ Chaosȱ toȱ Enemy:ȱ Encountersȱ withȱ MonȬ stersȱ inȱ Earlyȱ Irishȱ Texts.ȱ Anȱ Investigationȱ Relatedȱ toȱ theȱ Processȱ of Christianizationȱ andȱ theȱ Conceptȱ ofȱ Evil.ȱ Instrumentaȱ Patristica XXIX.ȱTurnhout:ȱBrepols. (2003).ȱ“DeȱgoedeȱburenȱvanȱGod:ȱVerschillendeȱvormenȱvanȱinȬ culturatieȱvanȱhetȱvolkȱvanȱdeȱelfenheuvelsȱinȱhetȱmiddeleeuwse Ierseȱchristendom.”ȱIn:ȱCorsȱvanȱderȱBurgȱetȱal.ȱ(eds.).ȱVeelkleurig christendom.ȱContextualisatieȱinȱNoord,ȱZuid,ȱOostȱenȱWest.ȱReligieus

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pluralismeȱenȱmulticulturaliteitȱ3.ȱZoetermeer:ȱMeinema.ȱPp.ȱ197Ȭ 210. andȱFergusȱKelly.ȱ(2003).ȱ‘‘’TheȱEvilȱEye’ȱinȱEarlyȱIrishȱLiterature andȱLaw.”ȱCelticaȱ24:ȱ1Ȭ39. Bromwich,ȱ Rachel.ȱ (1961).ȱ “Celticȱ Dynasticȱ Themesȱ andȱ theȱ Breton Lays.”ȱÉtudesȱCeltiquesȱ9:ȱ439Ȭ74. Carey,ȱJohn.ȱ(1990).ȱ“Time,ȱMemory,ȱandȱtheȱBoyneȱNecropolis.”ȱProȬ ceedingsȱofȱtheȱHarvardȱCelticȱColloquiumȱ10:ȱ24Ȭ36. (1998).ȱ Kingȱ ofȱ Mysteries:ȱ Earlyȱ Irishȱ Religiousȱ Writings.ȱ Dublin: FourȱCourtsȱPress. (1999).ȱ“TheȱBaptismȱofȱtheȱGods.”ȱIn:ȱJohnȱCarey.ȱAȱSingleȱRayȱof theȱ Sun:ȱ Religiousȱ Speculationȱ inȱ Earlyȱ Ireland.ȱ Andover/AberystȬ wyth:ȱCelticȱStudiesȱPublications.ȱPp.ȱ1Ȭ38. Dobbs,ȱ Margaretȱ C.ȱ (1930).ȱ “Altromhȱ tighiȱ daȱ medar.”ȱ Zeitschriftȱ für celtischeȱPhilologieȱ18:ȱ189Ȭ230. Dooley,ȱAnnȱandȱHarryȱRoe.ȱ(1999).ȱTalesȱofȱtheȱEldersȱofȱIrelandȱ(AcalȬ lamȱnaȱSenórach).ȱOxford:ȱOxfordȱUniversityȱPress. Douglas,ȱMary.ȱ(1991)ȱPurityȱandȱDanger:ȱAnȱAnalysisȱofȱtheȱConceptsȱof PollutionȱandȱTaboo.ȱRepr.ȱLondonȱandȱNewȱYork:ȱRoutledge. Draak,ȱ Maartje.ȱ (1955).ȱ Betoveringȱ voorȱ eenȱ etmaal.ȱ Amsterdam:ȱ MeulȬ enhoff. (1959).ȱ “Someȱ Aspectsȱ ofȱ Kingshipȱ inȱ Paganȱ Ireland.”ȱ In:ȱ Studies inȱtheȱHistoryȱofȱReligions.ȱSupplementsȱtoȱNumenȱ4:ȱTheȱSacralȱKingȬ ship.ȱLeiden:ȱBrill.ȱPp.ȱ651Ȭ63. Duncan,ȱLilian.ȱ(1932).ȱ“AltramȱTigeȱDáȱMedar.”ȱÉriuȱ11:ȱ184Ȭ225. Fanger,ȱClaire.ȱ(1999).ȱ“ThingsȱDoneȱWiselyȱbyȱaȱWiseȱEnchanter:ȱNeȬ gotiatingȱtheȱPowerȱofȱWordsȱinȱtheȱThirteenthȱCentury.”ȱEsoteriȬ caȱ1:ȱ97Ȭ131. Gougaud,ȱ Louis.ȱ (1911).ȱ “Étudeȱ surȱ lesȱ loricaeȱ celtiquesȱ etȱ surȱ lesȱ priȬ èresȱquiȱs’enȱrapprochent.”ȱBulletinȱd’ancienneȱlittératureȱetȱd’archéȬ ologieȱchrétiennesȱ1:ȱ265Ȭ81. (1912).ȱ “Étudeȱ surȱ lesȱ loricaeȱ celtiquesȱ etȱ surȱ lesȱ prièresȱ quiȱ s’en rapprochentȱ (Suite).”ȱ Bulletinȱ d’ancienneȱ littératureȱ etȱ d’archéologie chrétiennesȱ2:ȱ33Ȭ41,ȱ101Ȭ27. Howlett,ȱD.R.ȱ(1994).ȱLiberȱEpistolarumȱSanctiȱPatriciiȱepiscopi:ȱTheȱBook ofȱLettersȱofȱSaintȱPatrickȱtheȱBishop.ȱDublin:ȱFourȱCourtsȱPress. Kenney,ȱJamesȱF.ȱ(1979).ȱTheȱSourcesȱforȱtheȱEarlyȱHistoryȱofȱIreland:ȱEcȬ clesiastical:ȱ Anȱ Introductionȱ andȱ Guide.ȱ Repr.ȱ Dublin:ȱ Fourȱ Courts Press. McCone,ȱKim.ȱ(1990).ȱPaganȱPastȱandȱChristianȱPresentȱinȱEarlyȱIrishȱLitȬ erature.ȱMaynoothȱMonographsȱ3.ȱMaynooth:ȱAnȱSagart.

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(2000).ȱ Echtraeȱ Chonnlaiȱ andȱ theȱ Beginningsȱ ofȱ Vernacularȱ Narrative WritingȱinȱIreland:ȱAȱCriticalȱEditionȱwithȱIntroduction,ȱNotes,ȱBiblioȬ graphyȱ andȱ Vocabulary.ȱ Maynoothȱ Medievalȱ Irishȱ Texts.ȱ I.ȱ MayȬ nooth:ȱDepartmentȱofȱOldȱandȱMiddleȱIrish,ȱNationalȱUniversity ofȱIreland. Meid,ȱWolfgang.ȱ(1990).ȱ“DieȱDichtungȱderȱirischenȱFrühzeitȱimȱÜberȬ gangȱ zurȱ Schriftkultur.”ȱ In:ȱ Wolfgangȱ Meid.ȱ Formenȱ dichterischer Spracheȱ imȱ Keltischenȱ undȱ Germanischen.ȱ Innsbruckerȱ Beiträgeȱ zur Sprachwissenschaft.ȱ Vorträgeȱ undȱ kleinereȱ Schriftenȱ 45.ȱ InnsȬ bruck:ȱInstitutȱfürȱSprachwissenschaftȱderȱUniversitätȱInnsbruck. Meinkema,ȱHannes.ȱ(1984).ȱTeȱkwaderȱmin.ȱAmsterdam:ȱContact. Meyer,ȱ Kuno.ȱ (1881Ȭ1883).ȱ “Macgnimarthaȱ Find.”ȱ Revueȱ Celtiqueȱ 5: 195Ȭ204. (1889).ȱ“TheȱAdventuresȱofȱNera.”ȱRevueȱCeltiqueȱ10:ȱ212Ȭ28. Moran,ȱPatrickȱFrancis.ȱ(1872).ȱActaȱSanctiȱBrendani:ȱOriginalȱLatinȱDocȬ umentsȱConnectedȱwithȱtheȱLifeȱofȱSaintȱBrendan,ȱPatronȱofȱKerryȱand Clonfert.ȱDublin:ȱKelly. Mulchrone,ȱ Kathleen.ȱ (1939).ȱ Bethuȱ Phátraic:ȱ Theȱ Tripartiteȱ Lifeȱ ofȱ PatȬ rick.ȱDublin:ȱRoyalȱIrishȱAcademy. Murphy,ȱ Gerard.ȱ (1961).ȱ Theȱ Ossianicȱ Loreȱ andȱ Romanticȱ Talesȱ ofȱ MeȬ dievalȱIreland.ȱDublin:ȱAtȱtheȱThreeȱCandles. Nagy,ȱ Josephȱ Falaky.ȱ (1985).ȱ Theȱ Wisdomȱ ofȱ theȱ Outlaw:ȱ Theȱ Boyhood DeedsȱofȱFinnȱinȱGaelicȱNarrativeȱTradition.ȱBerkeleyȱetȱal.:ȱUniverȬ sityȱofȱCaliforniaȱPress. (1997).ȱ Conversingȱ withȱ Angelsȱ andȱ Ancients:ȱ Literaryȱ Mythsȱ ofȱ MeȬ dievalȱIreland.ȱDublin:ȱFourȱCourtsȱPress. (2002).ȱ “Mythȱ andȱ Legendumȱ inȱ Medievalȱ andȱ Modernȱ Ireland.” In:ȱ Gregoryȱ Schremppȱ andȱ Williamȱ Hansenȱ (eds).ȱ Myth:ȱ Aȱ New Symposium.ȱ Bloomington/Indianapolis:ȱ Indianaȱ Universityȱ Press. Pp.ȱ124Ȭ38. Oȱ Daly,ȱ Máirín.ȱ (1975).ȱ Cathȱ Maigeȱ Mucrama:ȱ Theȱ Battleȱ ofȱ Magȱ MuȬ crama.ȱIrishȱTextsȱSocietyȱL.ȱDublin:ȱIrishȱTextsȱSociety. O’Kelleher,ȱA.ȱ(1910).ȱ“AȱHymnȱofȱInvocation.”ȱÉriuȱ4:ȱ235Ȭ39. O’Loughlin,ȱ Thomas.ȱ (2003).ȱ “Readingȱ Muirchú’sȱ TaraȬeventȱ within itsȱ Backgroundȱ asȱ aȱ Biblicalȱ ‘Trialȱ ofȱ Divinities’.”ȱ In:ȱ Janeȱ CartȬ wrightȱ(ed.).ȱCelticȱHagiographyȱandȱSaints’ȱCults.ȱCardiff:ȱUniverȬ sityȱofȱWalesȱPress.ȱPp.ȱ123Ȭ35. O’Rahilly,ȱCecile.ȱ(1976).ȱTáinȱBóȱCúailnge:ȱRecensionȱI.ȱDublin:ȱDublin InstituteȱforȱAdvancedȱStudies.

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Quin,ȱE.G.ȱ(ed.).ȱ(1983).ȱDictionaryȱofȱtheȱIrishȱLanguage:ȱBasedȱMainlyȱon OldȱandȱMiddleȱIrishȱMaterials.ȱCompactȱedition.ȱDublin:ȱRoyalȱIrȬ ishȱAcademy. Radner,ȱJoanȱNewlon.ȱ(1983).ȱ“TheȱSignificanceȱofȱtheȱThreefoldȱDeath inȱ Celticȱ Tradition.”ȱ In:ȱ P.K.ȱ Fordȱ (ed.).ȱ Celticȱ Folkloreȱ andȱ ChrisȬ tianity.ȱ Studiesȱ inȱ Memoryȱ ofȱ Williamȱ W.ȱ Heist.ȱ Santaȱ Barbara: McNallyȱ&ȱLoftin.ȱPp.ȱ180Ȭ99. Stokes,ȱWhitley.ȱ(1873Ȭ1875).ȱ“TheȱKlosterneuburgȱIncantation.”ȱRevue Celtiqueȱ2:ȱ112Ȭ15. (1887).ȱTheȱTripartiteȱLifeȱofȱPatrickȱwithȱOtherȱDocumentsȱRelatingȱto thatȱSaint.ȱVol.ȱ1Ȭ2.ȱLondon:ȱEyreȱandȱSpottiswoode. (1894).ȱ “Theȱ Proseȱ Talesȱ inȱ theȱ Rennesȱ Dindshenchas.”ȱ Revueȱ CelȬ tiqueȱ15:ȱ272Ȭ336,ȱ418Ȭ84. (1900).ȱ “Acallamhȱ naȱ Senórach.”ȱ In:ȱ W.ȱ Stokesȱ andȱ Ernstȱ WindȬ isch.ȱIrischeȱTexteȱIV.1.ȱLeipzig:ȱHirzel. andȱ Johnȱ Strachan.ȱ (1987).ȱ Thesaurusȱ Palaeohibernicus.ȱ Vol.ȱ 1Ȭ2. Repr.ȱDublin:ȱDublinȱInstituteȱforȱAdvancedȱStudies,. Taft,ȱRobert.ȱ(1993).ȱTheȱLiturgyȱofȱtheȱHoursȱinȱEastȱandȱWest:ȱTheȱOriȬ ginsȱ ofȱ theȱ Divineȱ Officeȱ andȱ itsȱ Meaningȱ forȱ Today.ȱ Repr.ȱ CollegeȬ ville:ȱTheȱLiturgicalȱPress. Weber,ȱ Robertusȱ etȱ al.ȱ (1983).ȱ Bibliaȱ Sacraȱ iuxtaȱ Vulgatamȱ versionem. Rev.ȱed.ȱStuttgart:ȱDeutscheȱBibelgesellschaft. Ward,ȱDonaldȱJ.ȱ(1970).ȱ“TheȱThreefoldȱDeath:ȱAnȱIndoȬEuropeanȱTriȬ functionalȱ Sacrifice?”ȱ In:ȱ Jaanȱ Puhvelȱ (ed.).ȱ Mythȱ andȱ Lawȱ among theȱ IndoȬEuropeans.ȱ Berkeleyȱ etȱ al.:ȱ Universityȱ ofȱ Californiaȱ Press. Pp.ȱ132Ȭ42. Wiley,ȱ Danȱ M.ȱ (1995).ȱ “Baptizingȱ theȱ Fairies:ȱ Theȱ ChristianȬConverȬ sionȱTypesceneȱasȱaȱRiteȱdeȱPassage.”ȱProceedingsȱofȱtheȱHarvardȱCelȬ ticȱColloquiumȱ15:ȱ139Ȭ46. (2001).ȱ“TheȱMaledictoryȱPsalms.”ȱPeritiaȱ15:ȱ261Ȭ79. Wooding,ȱJonathanȱM.ȱ(2001).ȱ“StȱBrendan’sȱBoat:ȱDeadȱHidesȱandȱthe LivingȱSeaȱinȱColumbanȱandȱRelatedȱHagiography.”ȱIn:ȱJohnȱCarȬ eyȱetȱal.ȱ(eds).ȱStudiesȱinȱIrishȱHagiography:ȱSaintsȱandȱScholars.ȱDubȬ lin:ȱFourȱCourtsȱPress.ȱPp.ȱ77Ȭ92. Wormald,ȱP.ȱ(1986).ȱ“CelticȱandȱAngloȬSaxonȱKingship:ȱSomeȱFurther Thoughts.”ȱIn:ȱPaulȱE.ȱSzarmachȱ(ed.).ȱSourcesȱofȱAngloȬSaxonȱCulȬ ture.ȱKalamazoo:ȱWesternȱMichiganȱUniversity.ȱPp.ȱ151Ȭ83. Zeuss,ȱI.C.ȱ(1871).ȱGrammaticaȱCeltica.ȱBerlin:ȱWeidmann.

CopingȱwithȱWizardryȱinȱZimbabwe inȱAfricanȱInitiatedȱChurchesȱ(AICs) MarthinusȱL.ȱDaneel

Abstract TheȱmainȱfocusȱofȱthisȱcontributionȱisȱtheȱexorcismȱworkȱofȱtheȱZimbabwean bishopsȱNyashaȱandȱKiyaiȱZawaȱasȱtheyȱcombatȱevilȱcausedȱbyȱwizardryȱand spiritȱ possession.ȱ Theyȱ confrontȱ practicingȱ wizardsȱ (sorcerersȱ andȱ witches) andȱtheȱspiritsȱthatȱinduceȱsuchȱactivitiesȱinȱtheirȱ“holyȱplaces,”ȱwhereȱthey useȱ Christianȱ symbolsȱ ofȱ deliveranceȱ andȱ liberationȱ againstȱ theȱ backdropȱ of beliefsȱinȱmagic.ȱTheseȱbishopsȱhelpȱpeopleȱtoȱcopeȱwithȱevilȱthroughȱtheȱallȬ importantȱinterrelationsȱbetweenȱtheȱhealingȱprophetȱandȱpatients—manyȱof whomȱareȱselfȬconfessedȱwizards.ȱTheirȱcounselingȱsessionsȱhelpȱtheȱafflicted wizardsȱandȱwitchesȱ(varoyi)ȱandȱprovideȱaȱgenuineȱopportunityȱforȱrehabiliȬ tationȱinȱsocietyȱviaȱmembershipȱinȱ“churchesȱofȱreconciliation.”

Introduction AfricanȱInitiatedȱChurchesȱinȱZimbabweȱandȱmuchȱofȱsouthern Africaȱ representȱ betweenȱ 50%ȱ andȱ 60%ȱ ofȱ Africanȱ Christianity today.ȱTheirȱoverallȱgrowthȱrateȱappearsȱtoȱbeȱoutstrippingȱthat ofȱ theȱ soȬcalledȱ “mainline”ȱ missionȱ churches.ȱ Asȱ aȱ distinct,ȱ if schismaticallyȱ fragmented,ȱ phenomenonȱ basedȱ onȱ anȱ African missionaryȱ initiative,ȱ theyȱ thereforeȱ countȱ asȱ aȱ Christianȱ force toȱbeȱreckonedȱwith.ȱAtȱtheȱcoreȱofȱtheȱAIC’sȱenactmentȱofȱthe Gospel,ȱtheȱgoodȱnewsȱisȱaȱministryȱofȱfaithȱhealing;ȱaȱministry thatȱincorporatesȱcomprehensiveȱpreoccupationȱwithȱprophetic healers,ȱmainlyȱfromȱtheȱZionistȱandȱApostolicȱchurchesȱ(totalȬ ingȱsomeȱ80%ȱofȱallȱAICs),ȱwithȱaȱwideȱrangeȱofȱancestral,ȱalien, vengefulȱ andȱ wizardryȱ spiritsȱ believedȱ toȱ influenceȱ allȱ aspects ofȱAfricanȱlife,ȱbothȱpositivelyȱandȱnegatively. Integralȱtoȱaȱhealingȱministryȱisȱtheȱdetectionȱandȱexpulsion ofȱ evilȱ forcesȱ throughȱ richlyȱ variedȱ formsȱ ofȱ exorcism.ȱ Theȱ inȬ fluenceȱ ofȱ theȱ Bibleȱ onȱ theȱ AICsȱ hasȱ certainlyȱ broughtȱ aboutȱ a commonȱperceptionȱofȱevilȱasȱrelatedȱtoȱorȱderivingȱfromȱSatan. 51

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TheȱwordȱSatanȱthereforeȱfeaturesȱregularlyȱinȱworshipȱservices andȱpropheticȱconsultationsȱwithȱafflictedȱpatients.ȱButȱtheȱperȬ sonificationȱofȱevilȱthatȱthreatensȱandȱdestroysȱindividuals,ȱfamȬ iliesȱ andȱ socialȱ harmonyȱ stillȱ remainsȱ firstȱ andȱ foremostȱ the traditionallyȱperceivedȱvaroyiȱ(“wizards,”ȱi.e.,ȱtheȱpredominantȬ lyȱ maleȱ sorcerer,ȱ andȱ femaleȱ witches).1ȱ Insofarȱ asȱ community andȱfamilyȱcrisesȱexacerbateȱpreoccupationȱwithȱwizardry,ȱproȬ pheticȱexorcismsȱprovideȱreliefȱinȱtermsȱofȱpersuasiveȱmanifestȬ ationsȱofȱGod’sȱpowerȱoverȱevil.ȱUnderȱsuchȱcircumstances,ȱfor manyȱ believers—inȱ bothȱ theȱ AICsȱ andȱ “mainline”ȱ churches— exorcismȱisȱanȱeffectiveȱmeansȱforȱcommunicatingȱtheȱChristian goodȱnewsȱofȱChrist’sȱLordshipȱoverȱallȱprincipalitiesȱandȱpowȬ ersȱ inȱ theȱ universe.ȱ Itȱ isȱ understandableȱ thatȱ propheticȱ healers whoȱ successfullyȱ combatȱ wizardryȱ eventuallyȱ “specialize”ȱ as exorcistsȱand/orȱwizardryȱdetectors.ȱToȱtheȱextentȱthatȱtheirȱreȬ cruitmentȱ ofȱ followersȱ andȱ buildingȱ aȱ churchȱ revolveȱ around suchȱ ministry,ȱ theyȱ developȱ whatȱ couldȱ beȱ calledȱ “wizardry eradicationȱmovements.” Inȱ thisȱ paperȱ Iȱ willȱ firstȱ ofȱ allȱ presentȱ aȱ fewȱ contrasting theologicalȱ viewpointsȱ inȱ anȱ attemptȱ toȱ provideȱ aȱ theoretical frameworkȱwithinȱwhichȱtoȱinterpretȱtheȱwizardryȬconfronting ministriesȱofȱZimbabweanȱAICs.ȱThenȱIȱwillȱgiveȱaȱbriefȱsketch ofȱ theȱ activitiesȱ ofȱ prophetsȱ engagedȱ inȱ suchȱ ministryȱ andȱ the impactȱ ofȱ theirȱ workȱ onȱ individualsȱ afflictedȱ byȱ evil.ȱ Finally, myȱ evaluationȱ ofȱ theȱ propheticȱ activitiesȱ underȱ consideration willȱnecessarilyȱbeȱpreliminaryȱandȱtentativeȱdueȱtoȱtheȱcursory

1

ȱForȱdescriptiveȱpurposes,ȱtheȱtermȱ“wizardry”ȱisȱusedȱinȱthisȱpaper asȱtheȱequivalentȱofȱtheȱShonaȱtermȱuroyiȱinȱitsȱbroadestȱmeaning.ȱThis broadȱconceptualȱframework—referringȱtoȱevil,ȱantisocialȱactsȱbyȱboth malesȱandȱfemales—distinguishesȱbetweenȱsorceryȱandȱwitchcraft.ȱThe formerȱinvolvesȱmainlyȱtheȱuseȱofȱdestructiveȱmedicine;ȱtheȱlatterȱrefers toȱpsychicȱacts,ȱwithȱorȱwithoutȱtheȱuseȱofȱwitchȱfamiliarsȱand/orȱevil medicine.ȱInȱthisȱpaper,ȱwitchesȱinȱgeneralȱareȱfemales.ȱTheyȱcanȱbeȱclasȬ sifiedȱasȱeitherȱhereditaryȱwitchesȱorȱwitchesȱwho,ȱwithoutȱanyȱ“superȬ natural”ȱpressure,ȱacceptȱtheirȱprofessionȱbyȱhavingȱwitchcraftȱmedicines rubbedȱ intoȱ incisionsȱ inȱ theirȱ bodiesȱ madeȱ byȱ otherȱ witches.ȱ Bishop Nyasha’sȱexorcismȱministryȱdrawsȱlargeȱnumbersȱofȱpotentialȱorȱpracȬ ticingȱhereditaryȱwitchesȱwhoȱseekȱliberationȱfromȱȱancestralȱspiritsȱwho afflictȱthem.ȱForȱaȱdetailedȱdescriptionȱofȱShonaȱwizardryȱbeliefs,ȱseeȱGelȬ fandȱ1967:ȱpassim),ȱCrawfordȱ1967:74f.ȱandȱDaneelȱ1971:ȱ156Ȭ77.

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andȱimpressionisticȱnatureȱofȱtheȱdataȱpresented.ȱWhateverȱthe natureȱ ofȱ myȱ observations,ȱ however,ȱ theȱ underlyingȱ assumpȬ tionȱremains,ȱnamely,ȱthatȱtheȱenactedȱtheologyȱofȱtheȱAfricanȱInȬ itiatedȱChurchesȱformsȱaȱvitallyȱsignificantȱcomponentȱofȱaȱdeȬ velopingȱandȱrichlyȱtexturedȱAfricanȱChristianȱtheology. TheologicalȱViewpoints Broadlyȱspeaking,ȱchurchȱleadersȱandȱacademicsȱareȱdividedȱinȬ toȱtwoȱcampsȱasȱregardsȱtheȱevaluationȱofȱexorcismȱasȱaȱpastorȬ alȱmeansȱofȱcombatingȱwizardry.ȱTheȱoneȱgroupȱemphasizesȱthe liberatingȱvalueȱofȱaȱministryȱthatȱappearsȱtoȱdealȱwithȱtheȱexisȬ tentialȱneedsȱandȱfearsȱofȱpeopleȱinȱaȱrituallyȱandȱpsychologicalȬ lyȱ satisfyingȱ manner.ȱ Theȱ otherȱ groupȱ isȱ skepticalȱ ofȱ theȱ longȬ termȱimpactȱofȱexorcismȱinȱthatȱitȱtendsȱtoȱreinforceȱtraditional cosmology,ȱandȱtherebyȱenslavesȱpeopleȱtoȱtheȱworldȱofȱdemons, wizardryȱbeliefsȱandȱfears,ȱwithoutȱprovidingȱaȱrealisticȱChrisȬ tianȱsolution. InȱtheȱformerȱgroupȱtheȱtwoȱmostȱwellȬknownȱexamplesȱof practicingȱexorcistsȱareȱtheȱRomanȱCatholicȱFathersȱEmmanuel Milingo,ȱ theȱ formerȱ Archbishopȱ ofȱ Lusaka,ȱ andȱ M.P.ȱ Hebga,ȱ a JesuitȱpriestȱinȱCameroon.ȱWhereasȱHebga’sȱexorcismsȱintegratȬ edȱpowerfulȱprayer,ȱtheȱreadingȱofȱbiblicalȱpassagesȱandȱtouchȬ ingȱ theȱ bodyȱ ofȱ aȱ demonȬpossessedȱ personȱ withȱ theȱ crucifix withinȱtheȱsecludedȱconfinesȱofȱaȱchurch,ȱFr.ȱMilingoȱdeveloped anȱ astoundingȱ ministryȱ inȱ Lusakaȱ duringȱ theȱ 1970s,ȱ drawing vastȱ crowdsȱ toȱ hisȱ healingȱ sessions.ȱ Accusedȱ ofȱ unorthodoxy, Milingoȱ wasȱ summonedȱ toȱ Romeȱ forȱ intensiveȱ investigation, whichȱledȱtoȱhisȱresigningȱhisȱseeȱinȱ1982.ȱInȱhisȱbook,ȱTheȱWorld inȱBetweenȱ(1984),ȱMilingoȱdevelopsȱaȱsimplifiedȱdemonologyȱas theȱ causeȱ ofȱ muchȱ ofȱ theȱ sufferingȱ heȱ hasȱ encounteredȱ inȱ his Africanȱministry.ȱConvincedȱofȱtheȱrealityȱofȱSatanȱandȱdemonic forces,ȱMilingoȱcallsȱonȱfellowȱbelieversȱtoȱstopȱbeingȱ“spiritual diplomats”ȱ andȱ toȱ engageȱ boldlyȱ inȱ theȱ fightȱ againstȱ Satan.ȱ In hisȱ ownȱ ministryȱ ofȱ exorcismȱ orȱ deliverance,ȱ heȱ isȱ convinced thatȱheȱsharesȱtheȱpowerȱandȱauthorityȱofȱChristȱtheȱMessiahȱto castȱoutȱSatanȱandȱanyȱevilȱspiritsȱ(Milingoȱ1984:ȱ119).ȱHeȱchalȬ lengesȱtheȱchurchȱuniversalȱnotȱonlyȱtoȱpreachȱtheȱmiraclesȱnarȬ ratedȱ inȱ theȱ Gospelȱ butȱ alsoȱ toȱ invokeȱ deliberatelyȱ theȱ healing powersȱgivenȱbyȱChristȱtoȱhisȱchurchȱ(Milingoȱ1984:ȱ103).

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Inȱ myȱ earlierȱ publicationsȱ onȱ theȱ AICs,ȱ Iȱ highlightedȱ the positiveȱ recruitmentȱ valueȱ ofȱ propheticȱ exorcismsȱ (e.g.ȱ Daneel 1974:ȱ 362).ȱ Iȱ arguedȱ that,ȱ forȱ Africanȱ believers,ȱ suchȱ activity symbolizesȱtheȱliberatingȱandȱprotectiveȱfunctionȱofȱtheȱchurch. Inȱthisȱrespect,ȱIȱwasȱsupportiveȱofȱJ.V.ȱTaylor’sȱ(1963:ȱ211)ȱcall forȱ“theȱdevelopmentȱofȱaȱproperlyȱsafeguardedȱministryȱofȱexȬ orcism”ȱ inȱ theȱ churchȱ ofȱ Africa.ȱ Apartȱ fromȱ exposingȱ someȱ of theȱ weaknessesȱ inȱ AICȱ propheticȱ praxisȱ Iȱ emphasizedȱ particuȬ larlyȱtheȱinculturatedȱmessageȱofȱreconciliationȱconveyedȱtoȱthe wizards—theȱ outcastsȱ andȱ misfitsȱ ofȱ society,ȱ onceȱ stigmatized —inȱ aȱ mannerȱ thatȱ providesȱ newȱ hopeȱ ofȱ socialȱ rehabilitation andȱacceptance. Amongȱ theȱ criticsȱ ofȱ exorcismȱ asȱ aȱ pastoralȱ toolȱ against wizardryȱ inȱ theȱ churchȱ ofȱ Africa,ȱ Shorter’sȱ (1985:ȱ 95)ȱ reservaȬ tionsȱ deriveȱ fromȱ hisȱ concernȱ aboutȱ theȱ misleadingȱ illusionȱ of controlȱoverȱevil,ȱtheȱinjusticeȱofȱwitchcraftȱaccusationsȱandȱthe witchȱfinder’sȱpretenseȱtoȱjudgeȱtheȱwitchȱinȱtheȱend.ȱWitchcraft accusation,ȱinȱhisȱview,ȱisȱaȱformȱofȱselfȬsalvationȱandȱselfȬjustiȬ ficationȱatȱtheȱexpenseȱofȱwhoeverȱisȱbrandedȱtheȱcommonȱeneȬ myȱofȱsocietyȱ(Shorterȱ1985:ȱ96).ȱTheȱwitchȱfinderȱusurpsȱtheȱpoȬ sitionȱ ofȱ Godȱ byȱ actingȱ asȱ bothȱ judgeȱ andȱ executioner.ȱ Hisȱ or herȱ accusationsȱ destroyȱ theȱ socialȱ personalityȱ ofȱ theȱ witchȱ and serveȱonlyȱtoȱstrengthenȱtheȱfearȱofȱwitchcraftȱinsteadȱofȱprovidȬ ingȱ aȱ genuineȱ solutionȱ ofȱ trueȱ liberation.ȱ Shorterȱ (1985:ȱ 90) viewedȱMilingoȱasȱimposingȱaȱmedievalȱtheoryȱofȱEuropeanȱdeȬ monologyȱ onȱ theȱ traditionalȱ Africanȱ spiritȱ world.ȱ Milingo’s ministry,ȱinȱconsequence,ȱattributedȱdiabolicalȱpossessionȱindisȬ criminatelyȱ toȱ allȱ kindsȱ ofȱ mentalȱ andȱ physicalȱ afflictions (Shorterȱ 1985:ȱ 197).ȱ Theȱ endȱ result,ȱ Shorterȱ said,ȱ couldȱ onlyȱ be heightenedȱfearsȱofȱdemonsȱandȱevilȱspirits,ȱreinforcingȱtheȱduȬ alisticȱ worldviewȱ ofȱ absoluteȱ goodȱ versusȱ absoluteȱ bad,ȱ atȱ the expenseȱofȱfaithȱinȱtheȱhealingȱpowerȱofȱGod. Withoutȱ rejectingȱ exorcismȱ entirely,ȱ Shorterȱ suggestsȱ that theȱsolutionȱtoȱwizardryȱshouldȱbeȱsoughtȱinȱalternativeȱmeasȬ ures:ȱfirst,ȱtheȱrefusalȱtoȱenterȱintoȱdiscussionȱonȱtheȱobjectivity ofȱwizardryȱbeliefs;ȱsecond,ȱtheȱdeliberateȱrelinquishmentȱofȱthe dualisticȱ philosophyȱ underlyingȱ wizardryȱ beliefs;ȱ andȱ third, transformationȱ ofȱ theȱ socialȱ worldȱ throughȱ socioeconomicȱ deȬ velopmentȱandȱChristianȱcommunityȱbuilding,ȱi.e.,ȱtheȱcreation ofȱaȱsettingȱwhichȱwillȱdispelȱwizardryȬrelatedȱfears.

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Likeȱ Shorterȱ andȱ Singletonȱ (1980:ȱ 23),ȱ Davidȱ Boschȱ (1987: 52Ȭ60)ȱ optsȱ forȱ aȱ shiftȱ fromȱ theȱ Africanȱ traditionalȱ interpretive frameworkȱtoȱaȱnewȱparadigm.ȱHeȱunderscoresȱAndrewȱWalls’ distinctionȱ betweenȱ theȱ indigenizationȱ principle,ȱ inȱ whichȱ the Christianȱfaithȱisȱincarnatedȱinȱaȱparticularȱculture,ȱandȱtheȱpilȬ grimȱ principle,ȱ throughȱ whichȱ Godȱ inȱ Christȱ transformsȱ culture (Wallsȱ 1982:ȱ 97Ȭ99).ȱ Oneȱ wonders,ȱ ofȱ course,ȱ whetherȱ these principlesȱofȱchurchȱpraxisȱcouldȱbeȱinterpretedȱasȱmutuallyȱexȬ clusive.ȱ Theȱ AICȱ exorcismȱ ministriesȱ discussedȱ belowȱ would seemȱ toȱ indicateȱ considerableȱ overlap.ȱ Theirȱ applicationȱ ofȱ the indigenizationȱ principle,ȱ evenȱ ifȱ incomplete,ȱ seldomȱ impliesȱ a merelyȱ passiveȱ adaptationȱ ofȱ theȱ Christianȱ faithȱ toȱ indigenous cultureȱbutȱrevealsȱgenuineȱtrendsȱofȱChrist’sȱtransformationȱof culture,ȱwithȱgreaterȱprospectsȱofȱexorcismȱeffectingȱaȱparadigm shiftȱ thanȱ Bosch’sȱ somewhatȱ categoricalȱ applicationȱ ofȱ theȱ two principlesȱ allow.ȱ Inȱ myȱ view,ȱ theȱ distinctionȱ betweenȱ theȱ two principlesȱ isȱ relevantȱ onlyȱ forȱ anȱ evaluationȱ ofȱ theȱ wizardry pastorateȱofȱtheȱAICsȱtoȱtheȱextentȱthatȱitȱdisplaysȱdifferentȱemȬ phasesȱratherȱthanȱabsoluteȱantithesis. Whatȱ thenȱ areȱ Bosch’sȱ requirementsȱ forȱ aȱ paradigmȱ shift? First,ȱ Christiansȱ shouldȱ helpȱ theirȱ communityȱ liberateȱ itself fromȱtheȱtraditionalȱscapegoatȱtheoryȱbyȱinvokingȱtheȱmessageȱof Christ,ȱ theȱ trueȱ “Scapegoat”ȱ whoȱ boreȱ theȱ sinsȱ ofȱ thisȱ world onceȱ andȱ forȱ all.ȱ Second,ȱ Christianȱ teachingȱ shouldȱ emphasize theȱcoȬresponsibilityȱofȱallȱindividualsȱforȱwhatȱgoesȱwrongȱinȱsoȬ ciety,ȱ lestȱ theȱ tendencyȱ toȱ blameȱ aȱ wizardȱ encouragesȱ aȱ superȬ ficialȱunderstandingȱofȱconversion.ȱThird,ȱaȱnewȱunderstandingȱof humanȱsufferingȱshouldȱreplaceȱtheȱphilosophyȱthatȱlinksȱsufferȬ ingȱwithȱevilȱdeeds,ȱwithȱtheȱimputationȱofȱwizardryȱasȱaȱresult. Fourth,ȱaȱfundamentalȱchangeȱinȱattitudeȱtowardsȱmagicȱisȱrequired. Healing,ȱ reconciliationȱ andȱ mutualȱ serviceȱ shouldȱ replaceȱ the searchȱ forȱ andȱ eliminationȱ ofȱ theȱ allegedȱ causeȱ ofȱ misfortune. Fifth,ȱtheȱChristianȱmessageȱthatȱevilȱhasȱnoȱfutureȱshouldȱbeȱproȬ claimed.ȱ Rather,ȱ theȱ futureȱ liesȱ withȱ Godȱ (Boschȱ 1987:ȱ 58Ȭ59). Satanȱ andȱ allȱ manifestationsȱ ofȱ evilȱ canȱ thereforeȱ onlyȱ beȱ seen asȱhavingȱbeenȱconqueredȱinȱadvanceȱbyȱGod. HoweverȱmuchȱIȱagreeȱwithȱtheseȱrequirementsȱforȱaȱparaȬ digmȱ shiftȱ asȱ aȱ longȬterm,ȱ ifȱ urgent,ȱ objective,ȱ theȱ questionȱ reȬ mainsȱ asȱ toȱ howȱ oneȱ isȱ toȱ conveyȱ thisȱ messageȱ effectivelyȱ inȱ a societyȱ thatȱ stillȱ byȱ andȱ largeȱ appliesȱ theȱ scapegoatȱ theory,

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believesȱ inȱ magic,ȱ andȱ includesȱ largeȱ numbersȱ ofȱ misfitsȱ and marginalȱ figures—thoseȱ alreadyȱ accusedȱ andȱ stigmatizedȱ who areȱsearchingȱforȱaȱlastingȱsolution.ȱWhatȱdoȱweȱdoȱwithȱtheȱafȬ flictedȱmembersȱofȱfamiliesȱwhoȱhaveȱhadȱaȱhistoryȱofȱinherited wizardryȱ practicesȱ forȱ generations?ȱ Whenȱ theyȱ appealȱ toȱ the church,ȱdoȱ weȱavoidȱtalkingȱaboutȱtheȱobjectiveȱrealityȱofȱwizȬ ardryȱinȱtheirȱlivesȱforȱfearȱofȱgivingȱcredenceȱtoȱsuchȱbeliefs,ȱas Shorterȱ wouldȱ haveȱ it?ȱ Orȱ doȱ weȱ confrontȱ thoseȱ beliefsȱ inȱ the nameȱ ofȱ theȱ oneȱ Scapegoat,ȱ Christ,ȱ andȱ exorciseȱ theȱ invading spiritsȱasȱpartȱofȱtheȱsolutionȱtoȱaȱtraditionȬbasedȱproblem?ȱThe wizardryȬeradicatingȱ prophetsȱ ofȱ theȱ Chingombeȱ chiefdomȱ in easternȱGutuȱofferȱspecificȱresponsesȱtoȱtheseȱquestions. AICȱProphetsȱConfrontingȱEvil:ȱChingombeȱCaseȱStudies OverȱaȱspanȱofȱfortyȱyearsȱIȱhaveȱmanagedȱperiodicallyȱtoȱvisit andȱobserveȱtheȱworkȱofȱfourȱuroyiȱspecialistsȱinȱtheȱChingombe chiefdom.ȱ Theirȱ preoccupationȱ withȱ wizardryȱ emergedȱ toȱ a largeȱ extentȱ asȱ aȱ specializedȱ extensionȱ ofȱ theȱ standardȱ faithȬ healingȱ practices,ȱ includingȱ exorcism,ȱ inȱ whichȱ theȱ healersȱ of virtuallyȱ allȱ theȱ SpiritȬtypeȱ churches—Zionistsȱ andȱ Apostles alike—inȱ theȱ regionȱ engage.ȱ Bishopȱ Mutendi’sȱ Zionȱ Christian Churchȱ (ZCC),ȱ forȱ instance,ȱ practicedȱ exorcismȱ throughȱ “JorȬ dan”ȱ baptisms;ȱ theȱ Ndazaȱ (Holyȱ Cord)ȱ Zionistȱ groupsȱ invoked spiritȱpossessionȱinȱafflictedȱindividuals,ȱthenȱtiedȱthemȱupȱwith “holyȱcords”ȱandȱexpelledȱtheȱinvadingȱspirit(s)ȱthroughȱdirect commands,ȱ whileȱ theȱ Marankeȱ Apostlesȱ (vaPostori)ȱ induced spiritȱ possessionȱ throughȱ rotationalȱ movementsȱ (kudzungudza) ofȱtheȱheadsȱofȱafflictedȱindividualsȱpriorȱtoȱtheȱexpulsionȱofȱdeȬ mons.ȱWhatȱsetȱtheȱuroyiȱspecialistsȱapartȱfromȱotherȱprophetic healersȱ wasȱ theȱ increasedȱ scaleȱ ofȱ uroyiȱ ministry,ȱ theȱ developȬ mentȱofȱaȱdistinctiveȱindividualȱstyleȱofȱtreatingȱuroyiȬrelatedȱafȬ flictions,ȱaȱgrowingȱimageȱofȱtheȱhealerȱinȱsocietyȱasȱaȱ“wizardȬ ryȱeradicator,”ȱand,ȱinȱsomeȱinstances,ȱtheȱincreasedȱorȱsoleȱuse ofȱ wizardryȱ eradicationȱ asȱ aȱ recruitmentȱ deviceȱ forȱ churchȱ exȬ pansion. UroyiȱSpecialistsȱandȱtheirȱChurches First,ȱ Prophetȱ Jakaȱ Mukurumbera,ȱ aȱ renownedȱ healerȱ ofȱ the Marankeȱ Apostles,ȱ developedȱ aȱ smallȱ healingȱ colonyȱ inȱ northȬ ernȱ Chingombe,ȱ whereȱ heȱ achievedȱ prominenceȱ duringȱ the

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1960sȱ forȱ hisȱ treatmentȱ ofȱ theȱ victimsȱ ofȱ wizardryȱ attacks.ȱ As oneȱ whoȱ hadȱ beenȱ poisonedȱ inȱ hisȱ youthȱ byȱ aȱ sorcerer,ȱ he tendedȱ toȱ payȱ specialȱ attentionȱ toȱ patientsȱ afflictedȱ byȱ similar problems.ȱ Heȱ wasȱ regardedȱ asȱ anȱ expertȱ inȱ detectingȱ theȱ evil medicinesȱ transferredȱ byȱ varoyiȱ toȱ theirȱ victimsȱ throughȱ poiȬ soningȱ(kudyisa,ȱlit.ȱ“toȱbeȱmadeȱtoȱeat”),ȱtheȱfootȱtrapȱ(chitsinga) andȱmysticalȱpropulsionȱ(chiposo:ȱtoȱbeȱ“thrown”ȱat).ȱInȱaȱChrisȬ tianizedȱ versionȱ ofȱ theȱ traditionalȱ doctor’sȱ cuppingȱ orȱ “biting out”ȱ (kuruma)ȱ ofȱ badȱ medicineȱ fromȱ theȱ patient’sȱ body,ȱ Jaka wasȱ believedȱ toȱ beȱ ableȱ toȱ locateȱ theȱ evilȱ medicineȱ and/orȱ deȬ monicȱ spiritȱ inȱ theȱ victim’sȱ bodyȱ firstȱ andȱ thenȱ removeȱ it throughȱ theȱ powerȱ ofȱ theȱ Holyȱ Spirit.ȱ Thisȱ wasȱ doneȱ byȱ presȬ singȱtheȱtipȱofȱhisȱholyȱstaffȱtoȱtheȱinfectedȱpartȱofȱtheȱpatient’s bodyȱ untilȱ theȱ evilȱ substanceȱ movedȱ throughȱ theȱ staffȱ intoȱ his handȱ holdingȱ theȱ topȱ ofȱ theȱ staff.ȱ Theȱ destructiveȱ substance, whichȱ alwaysȱ resembledȱ clottedȱ blood,ȱ wasȱ thenȱ burntȱ inȱ an openȱfireȱ(Daneelȱ1974:ȱ262Ȭ66). Second,ȱ inȱ 1966ȱ Prophetȱ Elisonȱ Mutingwendeȱ launchedȱ a newȱ Apostolicȱ Churchȱ calledȱ theȱ Shingaȱ Postoraȱ (“Courageous Apostles”).ȱTheȱleadershipȱofȱthisȱchurchȱconsistedȱofȱaȱnumber ofȱ followersȱ ofȱ theȱ famousȱ Apostleȱ Johnȱ Masowe,ȱ whoȱ had givenȱ upȱ hopeȱ thatȱ theȱ latterȱ wouldȱ everȱ returnȱ toȱ Zimbabwe. Elison’sȱ expertiseȱ consistedȱ lessȱ inȱ straightforwardȱ accusations ofȱ wizardry,ȱ anȱ offenseȱ punishableȱ atȱ theȱ timeȱ byȱ upȱ toȱ seven years’ȱ imprisonmentȱ underȱ theȱ Witchcraftȱ Suppressionȱ Act, thanȱ inȱ theȱ detectionȱ andȱ destructionȱ ofȱ evilȱ “medicines”ȱ hidȬ denȱ byȱ varoyiȱ inȱ theȱ homesteadsȱ andȱ fieldsȱ ofȱ theirȱ victimsȱ in theȱ formȱ ofȱ snakes,ȱ horns,ȱ hoovesȱ orȱ otherȱ containersȱ ofȱ desȬ tructiveȱ medicines.ȱ Atȱ times,ȱ daysȱ ofȱ discussionȱ betweenȱ proȬ phet,ȱvillageȱeldersȱandȱafflictedȱfamiliesȱwouldȱleadȱtoȱworship ceremonies,ȱ climaxingȱ inȱ cleansingȱ ritualsȱ ofȱ removingȱ makona (lit.ȱ “horns,”ȱ oftenȱ referringȱ toȱ anyȱ containerȱ holdingȱ destrucȬ tiveȱpotions)ȱfromȱcornfieldsȱorȱgrazingȱareasȱinȱorderȱtoȱprotect agriculturalȱ produce,ȱ andȱ fromȱ homesteadsȱ toȱ secureȱ theȱ lives ofȱvillagersȱinȱfaith.ȱConversionȱmessagesȱwouldȱbeȱwovenȱinto suchȱservices.ȱInvariably,ȱtherefore,ȱvillageȱcleansingȱwouldȱculȬ minateȱinȱ“Jordan”ȱbaptisms,ȱwithȱtheȱnumericalȱgrowthȱofȱthe ShingaȱPostoraȱmovementȱasȱaȱresult. Inȱ1980ȱBishopȱNyasha,ȱaȱformerȱChurchȱofȱChristȱevangelȬ ist,ȱformedȱtheȱPentecostȱChurchȱinȱChingombeȱasȱaȱresponseȱto

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visionsȱ thatȱ hisȱ healingȱ ministryȱ shouldȱ culminateȱ inȱ aȱ new Apostolicȱtypeȱofȱchurch.ȱThisȱwasȱpartlyȱanȱattemptȱtoȱrevive theȱ Apostolicȱ traditionȱ begunȱ byȱ Jakaȱ andȱ Elisonȱ asȱ wizardry eradicators.ȱ Theȱ newȱ movementȱ aroseȱ atȱ aȱ timeȱ whenȱ many peopleȱ inȱ ruralȱ societyȱ wereȱ sufferingȱ fromȱ theȱ aftereffectsȱ of theȱ warȱ ofȱ liberation.ȱ Someȱ ofȱ themȱ hadȱ beenȱ accusedȱ ofȱ wizȬ ardry,ȱtheȱprevailingȱidiomȱduringȱchimurengaȱforȱscapegoating suspectȱcollaboratorsȱofȱtheȱSmithȱregime.ȱOthersȱwereȱsocially insecureȱbecauseȱofȱbrokenȱmarriagesȱfollowingȱyearsȱofȱforced separation,ȱillegitimateȱchildren,ȱextramaritalȱrelations,ȱetc.,ȱand thereforeȱ inȱ direȱ needȱ ofȱ aȱ protectiveȱ andȱ stableȱ anchorage.ȱ In particular,ȱ Nyashaȱ wasȱ concernedȱ aboutȱ theȱ needsȱ ofȱ vulneraȬ bleȱ womenȱ underȱ suchȱ circumstances.ȱ Nextȱ toȱ hisȱ preoccupaȬ tionȱwithȱ“warȱcausalties,”ȱNyashaȱalsoȱtreatedȱwomenȱwhoȱbeȬ longedȱtoȱfamiliesȱwithȱaȱhistoryȱofȱinheritedȱinvolvementȱwith uroyi.ȱ Theȱ regularȱ afflictionȱ ofȱ suchȱ womenȱ byȱ matrilinealȱ anȬ cestorsȱwasȱinterpretedȱinȱShonaȱsocietyȱasȱaȱcallȱtoȱinheritȱand perpetrateȱwitchcraft. Inȱ turn,ȱ Prophetȱ Bishopȱ Kiyaiȱ Zawaȱ startedȱ withȱ hisȱ ZviȬ rewoȱ zavaPostoriȱ Kerekeȱ (“Proverbsȱ ofȱ theȱ Apostlesȱ Church”)ȱ in theȱ earlyȱ 1990s,ȱ withȱ itsȱ baseȱ inȱ theȱ Dewendeȱ Rurchaseȱ Area southȱofȱChingombe.ȱAsȱaȱuroyiȱexorcist,ȱheȱcateredȱtoȱtheȱsame kindȱofȱclienteleȱasȱNyashaȱandȱfacedȱsimilarȱcircumstancesȱinȱa conflictȬriddenȱsocietyȱwhereȱtheȱmanyȱfacesȱofȱevilȱwereȱmaniȬ festȱinȱaȱplummetingȱeconomy,ȱpoliticalȱoppressionȱandȱtheȱdeȬ clineȱofȱlivingȱconditionsȱandȱlifeȱexpectationsȱdueȱtoȱfoodȱshorȬ tagesȱandȱtheȱendlessȱdeathsȱofȱHIV/AIDSȱvictims.ȱInȱsuchȱconȬ ditions,ȱ strainedȱ interȬpersonalȱ relationsȱ andȱ wizardryȱ accusaȬ tionsȱ abound.ȱ Bothȱ Kiyaiȱ andȱ Nyashaȱ areȱ stillȱ activeȱ inȱ their churchesȱandȱtoȱsomeȱextentȱinȱcompetitionȱwithȱeachȱother. KiyaiȱtriedȱtoȱgainȱtheȱadvantageȱoverȱhisȱfellowȱuroyiȱspeȬ cialistsȱ byȱ claimingȱ thatȱ heȱ “kills”ȱ demonsȱ inȱ theȱ nameȱ ofȱ the triuneȱChristianȱGod,ȱaȱsuperiorȱformȱofȱexorcistȱexpulsionȱthat removesȱtheȱevilȱspiritsȱonceȱandȱforȱallȱfromȱtheȱlivesȱofȱhisȱfolȬ lowers.ȱ Moreover,ȱ heȱ takesȱ hisȱ followersȱ toȱ labyrinthineȱ caves inhabitedȱ byȱ hyenas,ȱ snakes,ȱ owlsȱ andȱ bats,ȱ whichȱ areȱ considȬ eredȱtoȱbeȱtheȱveryȱlairsȱofȱevil. Kiya’sȱchurchȱisȱyoungerȱandȱnumericallyȱsmallerȱthanȱNyȬ asha’s.ȱYetȱKiyaiȱisȱmoreȱprogressiveȱinȱsomeȱrespectsȱthanȱhis Pentecostȱcounterpartȱinȱthatȱheȱnotȱonlyȱintegratesȱ“converted

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witches”ȱintoȱhisȱchurchȱasȱmembersȱbutȱalsoȱappointsȱthemȱas officeȬbearersȱatȱprayerȱmeetingsȱandȱasȱfellowȱfaithȬhealers.ȱIn otherȱ words,ȱ heȱ placesȱ themȱ inȱ keyȱ positionsȱ whereȱ theyȱ can witnessȱpubliclyȱtoȱtheirȱfaithȱandȱliberationȱfromȱtheȱperpetraȬ tionȱofȱuroyi. FeaturesȱofȱPropheticȱUroyiȱMinistries HolyȱPlaces Centralȱ toȱ allȱ fourȱ propheticȱ uroyiȱ ministriesȱ discussedȱ hereȱ is theȱenactmentȱofȱliberativeȱritualȱproceduresȱinȱorȱatȱaȱholyȱplace whereȱtheȱreignȱofȱGodȱoverȱevilȱisȱfeltȱtoȱbeȱsymbolicallyȱmaniȬ fest.ȱ Forȱ Jakaȱ andȱ hisȱ followers,ȱ theȱ rightȱ placeȱ andȱ theȱ right timeȱ wasȱ earlyȱ eveningȱ atȱ hisȱ courtyardȱ whenȱ theȱ Holyȱ Spirit shookȱ theȱ prophet’sȱ bodyȱ andȱ staffȱ asȱ heȱ extractedȱ theȱ hidden devicesȱofȱevil—symbolsȱofȱmalice,ȱhatredȱandȱanger—fromȱthe bodiesȱ ofȱ hisȱ patientsȱ toȱ theȱ rhythmicȱ chantsȱ andȱ songsȱ ofȱ the leadȱwomen.ȱTheȱholinessȱwroughtȱbyȱGod’sȱpresenceȱwasȱemȬ phasizedȱ byȱ theȱ neatȱ whiteȱ garmentsȱ ofȱ theȱ Apostles,ȱ theirȱ exȬ pectantȱ faces,ȱ theȱ sweptȱ courtyardȱ andȱ theȱ feelingȱ ofȱ lingering peaceȱfollowingȱtheȱritualȱasȱvillageȱvoicesȱcarriedȱdeepȱintoȱthe night. Forȱ Elisonȱ Mutingwendeȱ andȱ hisȱ “Courageousȱ Apostles,” theȱholyȱplaceȱmovedȱfromȱtheȱhomesteadȱofȱoneȱafflictedȱfamiȬ lyȱ toȱ theȱ next.ȱ Theȱ risingȱ expectationsȱ ofȱ villagersȱ became palpableȱ asȱ theȱ prophet,ȱ afterȱ daysȱ ofȱ discussion,ȱ openedȱ the finalȱ ceremonyȱ forȱ theȱ detectionȱ andȱ burningȱ ofȱ theȱ wizard’s “hornsȱ ofȱ death”ȱ withȱ aȱ prayerȱ toȱ Christ,ȱ theȱ Delivererȱ from evil. Forȱ Bishopȱ Nyasha,ȱ theȱ “Bethesdaȱ pool,”ȱ namedȱ afterȱ the NewȱTestamentȱpoolȱinȱJohnȱ5:1Ȭ15,ȱisȱtheȱholyȱplace,ȱtheȱhealing watersȱ ofȱ Christ,ȱ whichȱ allowsȱ noȱ compromiseȱ withȱ evil.ȱ Here theȱChristȱfigure,ȱmirroredȱinȱtheȱpropheticȱleader,ȱunmasksȱthe deceptionȱandȱdestructiveȱintentionsȱofȱbothȱtheȱinhabitingȱevil spiritȱandȱitsȱhost,ȱtheȱuroyi.ȱInȱtheȱ“fight”ȱinȱtheȱwaterȱbetween goodȱandȱevil,ȱwhereȱtheȱcleansingȱwaterȱisȱforcefullyȱsplashed intoȱblindingȱsheetsȱatȱtheȱconfessingȱwizard,ȱAfricaȱ“reads”ȱthe messageȱ aboutȱ God’sȱ reignȱ that,ȱ toȱ useȱ Bosch’sȱ terminology, “evilȱhasȱnoȱfuture.” Inȱturn,ȱforȱBishopȱKiyai,ȱtheȱmountainȱlabyrinthȱofȱcaves— whetherȱ inȱ Mt.ȱRasaȱnextȱtoȱChingombe,ȱMt.ȱDewendeȱfurther

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south,ȱorȱMt.ȱNyandaȱnearȱMasvingoȱtown—constitutes,ȱforȱthe purposeȱofȱritual,ȱGod’sȱholyȱplace.ȱAccordingȱtoȱhim,ȱZhame, theȱholyȱplace containsȱ theȱ powerȱ ofȱ God,ȱ itȱ hasȱ Godȱ [i.e.ȱ Godȱ isȱ present] .…Yourȱownȱproblemsȱofȱenslavement/addictionȱ[lit.ȱ“ofȱbeȬ ingȱ tiedȱ down”],ȱ ofȱ beingȱ hatedȱ byȱ othersȱ [sinceȱ peopleȱ reȬ sentȱ witches],ȱ theȱ threatsȱ ofȱ ngoziȱ [vengeful]ȱ andȱ zvikwambo [prowlingȱandȱruthless]ȱspirits,ȱorȱshaviȱspiritsȱafflictingȱyour bodies,ȱcomeȱtoȱanȱendȱhere.

Oneȱsenses,ȱbehindȱitȱall,ȱtheȱpresenceȱofȱtheȱfathomlessȱGodȱof creation,ȱtheȱOneȱwhomȱRudolfȱOttoȱrefersȱtoȱasȱmysteriumȱtreȬ mendum,ȱtheȱdeityȱofȱAfricaȱwhoȱaddressedȱhis/herȱpeopleȱfrom theȱ graniteȱ worldȱ ofȱ caveȱ shrinesȱ longȱ beforeȱ theȱ Gospelȱ arȬ rived,ȱtheȱOneȱwhoȱallowedȱMosesȱofȱtheȱIsraelitesȱtoȱapproach Hisȱ holyȱ mountain,ȱ theȱ Fatherȱ whoȱ surrenderedȱ Hisȱ Son,ȱ so thatȱtheȱdestructiveȱheatȱofȱuroyiȱcanȱfadeȱinȱtheȱcoolnessȱofȱreȬ demption. ChristianȱSymbolsȱofȱDeliveranceȱfromȱEvil SymbolsȱandȱsymbolicȱactionȱareȱofȱgreatȱimportanceȱinȱtheȱspeȬ cializedȱ ministriesȱ ofȱ combatingȱ evil.ȱ Theyȱ illustrateȱ orȱ dramaȬ tizeȱtheȱpresenceȱandȱpowerȱofȱGod,ȱtranslateȱfaith,ȱhopeȱorȱreȬ latedȱ intangiblesȱ intoȱ concrete,ȱ visualȱ signsȱ ofȱ divineȱ engageȬ mentȱ inȱ theȱ hereȱ andȱ nowȱ orȱ giveȱ vividȱ expressionȱ toȱ people distancingȱ themselvesȱ fromȱ theȱ Destroyer,ȱ fromȱ hatingȱ and harmingȱ theirȱ fellowȱ humanȱ beings.ȱ Ritualȱ actionȱ andȱ visible symbols,ȱ anȱ emotionȬpackedȱ theaterȱ integratingȱ theȱ counterȬ balancingȱ forcesȱ ofȱ lightȬheartedȱ humorȱ andȱ lifeȬandȬdeath seriousness,ȱlightȱandȱdarkness,ȱallȱofȱitȱinȱtheȱholyȱenclosureȱor pool,ȱmeshȱtogetherȱintoȱaȱpotentȱstatementȱofȱidentificationȱof andȱliberationȱfromȱevil. Whenȱtheȱprophet’sȱholyȱstaffȱisȱplantedȱinȱriverȱsandȱatȱthe sideȱofȱtheȱpoolȱwithȱprayer,ȱthereȱisȱaȱshowȱofȱdeepȱrespectȱfor theȱ presenceȱ ofȱ God’sȱ Spiritȱ inȱ theȱ waterȱ ofȱ theȱ Bethesdaȱ pool. Throughoutȱtheȱentireȱceremonyȱtheȱstaffȱstandsȱinȱtheȱwaterȱas aȱ symbolicȱ reminderȱ ofȱ theȱ divineȱ powerȱ thatȱ triumphsȱ over evil.ȱ Beforeȱ theȱ staffȱ isȱ removedȱ towardsȱ theȱ endȱ ofȱ theȱ cereȬ monyȱ churchȱ membersȱ andȱ onlookersȱ atȱ timesȱ scoopȱ upȱ and drinkȱ theȱ SpiritȬempoweredȱ waterȱ inȱ anticipationȱ ofȱ aȱ divine cureȱorȱfutureȱwellȬbeing.

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Nextȱtoȱtheȱforcefulȱimmersionȱandȱ“hitting”ȱofȱtheȱwizard withȱ sheetsȱ ofȱ waterȱ toȱ demonstrateȱ God’sȱ victoryȱ overȱ evil symbolically,ȱ aȱ pieceȱ ofȱ redȱ clothȱ isȱ tiedȱ aroundȱ theȱ patient’s waist.ȱ Itȱ symbolizesȱ theȱ cleansing,ȱ protectiveȱ andȱ redemptive powerȱ ofȱ Christ’sȱ blood.ȱ Liberationȱ fromȱ theȱ uroyiȱ spiritȱ is thereforeȱaccompaniedȱbyȱdeliveranceȱfromȱsin.ȱNyasha’sȱexorȬ cismȱdoesȱnotȱprovideȱtheȱpatientȱwithȱaȱconvenientȱexcuseȱby placingȱ allȱ theȱ blameȱ onȱ theȱ wizardryȬinducingȱ uroyiȱ spirit. Publicȱ confessionȱ ofȱ guiltȱ confirmsȱ personalȱ involvementȱ and abuseȱofȱindividualȱresponsibilityȱbyȱtheȱpatient.ȱMoreover,ȱthe redȱclothȱsymbolizesȱtheȱcommonȱgroundȱbetweenȱtheȱsuffering ofȱ Christ,ȱ theȱ oneȱ Scapegoatȱ forȱ theȱ wholeȱ world,ȱ andȱ theȱ sufȬ feringȱ ofȱ theȱ realȱ orȱ potentialȱ wizardȱ asȱ aȱ resultȱ ofȱ socialȱ disȬ criminationȱandȱisolation. TheȱholyȱstaffȱasȱaȱsymbolȱofȱGod’sȱpowerȱisȱequally,ȱifȱnot more,ȱ prominentȱ inȱ Kiyai’sȱ cavesȱ thanȱ inȱ Nyasha’sȱ Bethesda pool.ȱ Withoutȱ itȱ thereȱ isȱ noȱ safeȱ entryȱ intoȱ theȱ graniteȱ underȬ world. Kiyai’sȱ“underworld”ȱsermonsȱareȱmainlyȱvariationsȱonȱthe themeȱofȱGod’sȱpowerȱvanquishingȱSatan,ȱtheȱuroyiȱandȱallȱevil powersȱonȱearth.ȱHereȱtheȱoriginalȱsanctityȱofȱGod’sȱearthȱand hisȱfavoredȱplacesȱonȱhighȱareȱrestored,ȱasȱareȱtheȱhumansȱwho wereȱ inhabitedȱ byȱ demons.ȱ Inȱ thisȱ case,ȱ deliveranceȱ obtainsȱ a widerȱmeaningȱthanȱtheȱexorcisticȱexpulsionȱofȱevilȱspiritsȱfrom humans.ȱ For,ȱ asȱ anȱ Africanȱ “Moses,”ȱ Kiyaiȱ alsoȱ representsȱ the “deliverance”ȱ ofȱ God’sȱ mountainsȱ fromȱ theȱ disrespectfulȱ deȬ stroyersȱofȱtreesȱandȱwildlife.ȱInȱanȱearthȬkeepingȱministryȱthat runsȱ parallelȱ toȱ theȱ traditionalistȱ spiritȱ medium’sȱ protectionȱ of theȱ ancestralȱ holyȱ grove,ȱ Kiyaiȱ becomesȱ theȱ keeperȱ ofȱ theȱ reȬ mainingȱ klipspringers,ȱ rockȱ rabbitsȱ andȱ birdȱ populationsȱ of Mwari’sȱmountainȱgroves.ȱHeȱalsoȱactsȱasȱprotectorȱofȱtheȱnjuzu waterȱspiritsȱthatȱheȱclaimsȱtoȱobserveȱinȱtheȱcaveȱpools. Uponȱ completionȱ ofȱ hisȱ sermonȱ inȱ theȱ subterraneanȱ labyȬ rinth,ȱ theȱ singing,ȱ loudȱ prayersȱ byȱ allȱ presentȱ andȱ speakingȱ in tonguesȱstartȱandȱbuildȱtoȱaȱfeverishȱpitchȱinȱrecognitionȱofȱthe HolyȱSpirit’sȱpresence.ȱOneȱafterȱtheȱother,ȱtheȱnewlyȱconfessed witchesȱandȱtheȱoddȱsorcererȱdropȱtoȱtheȱground,ȱconvulsingȱin theȱ throesȱ ofȱ spiritȱ possession.ȱ Theȱ prophetȱ thenȱ calmlyȱ deals withȱ eachȱ possessedȱ person,ȱ pressingȱ theȱ transparentȱ amber knobȱofȱhisȱholyȱstaffȱagainstȱhisȱorȱherȱhead,ȱprayingȱforȱdelivȬ

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eranceȱandȱthenȱvirtuallyȱinformingȱtheȱevilȱspiritȱofȱitsȱimminȬ entȱ death.ȱ Onceȱ allȱ theȱ demonsȱ haveȱ “departedȱ inȱ death”ȱ and theȱ dustȱ hasȱ settledȱ aroundȱ theȱ prostrateȱ bodiesȱ ofȱ theirȱ hosts, nowȱ apparentlyȱ inȱ deepȱ sleepȱ orȱ quietȱ rest,ȱ theȱ prophetȱ asks thatȱallȱcandlesȱbeȱsnuffedȱout.ȱInȱtheȱutterȱdarknessȱeverybody isȱ requestedȱ toȱ breatheȱ deeplyȱ ofȱ God’sȱ unpollutedȱ mountain airȱandȱbeȱawareȱofȱdivineȱpresence. TheȱWizardryȱEradicatorȱandȱtheȱPatient LongȱcounselingȱsessionsȱformȱanȱintegralȱpartȱofȱtheȱuroyiȱspeȬ cialist’sȱministry.ȱRepetitiveȱdiscussionsȱoverȱaȱperiodȱofȱweeks orȱmonthsȱeventuallyȱrevealȱtheȱperpetrationȱofȱwizardryȱasȱthe causeȱofȱtheȱpatient’sȱillness,ȱtheȱafflictionsȱcausedȱbyȱdeceased witchesȱwhoȱtryȱtoȱpersuadeȱaȱrelativeȱtoȱengageȱinȱwitchcraft, orȱ aȱ practicingȱ wizardȱ whoȱ seeksȱ theȱ exorcismȱ ofȱ anȱ invading uroyiȱspiritȱand/orȱdestructionȱofȱevilȱmedicinesȱasȱtheȱfirstȱstep toȱaȱnormalȱlife. Inȱ turn,ȱ Bishopsȱ Nyashaȱ andȱ Kiyaiȱ haveȱ bothȱ developed elaborateȱsystemsȱofȱcounselingȱinȱrecentȱyears.ȱPrivateȱsessions areȱarrangedȱforȱselfȬconsciousȱnovicesȱorȱwitchesȱalreadyȱpubȬ liclyȱ condemnedȱ byȱ society.ȱ Confessionsȱ byȱ varoyiȱ inȱ theȱ preȬ senceȱ ofȱ theȱ leaderȱ areȱ thenȱ followedȱ upȱ byȱ jointȱ discussions withȱtheȱnewcomersȱinȱgroupsȱcomprisingȱtheȱchurch’sȱleading womenȱ andȱ convertedȱ witches.ȱ Inȱ thisȱ stillȱ confidentialȱ but moreȱopenȱchurchȱcontext,ȱtheȱwillingnessȱofȱtheȱselfȬconfessed witchȱtoȱmakeȱaȱpublicȱconfessionȱinȱtheȱBethesdaȱpoolȱisȱtested. ItȱisȱoftenȱinȱtheȱpresenceȱofȱandȱcounselingȱbyȱformerlyȱpracticȬ ingȱ witchesȱ whoȱ hadȱ risenȱ toȱ positionsȱ ofȱ responsibilityȱ and prominenceȱinȱtheirȱchurchȱthatȱtheȱwitchȱstillȱtoȱbeȱconvertedȱis persuadedȱ toȱ riskȱ publicȱ exposureȱ inȱ orderȱ toȱ achieveȱ genuine change,ȱforgivenessȱandȱreentryȱintoȱsociety,ȱasȱopposedȱtoȱfacȬ ingȱ theȱ traditionalȱ practiceȱ ofȱ ostracismȱ inȱ disgraceȱ following theȱconfessionȱofȱpracticingȱorȱsuspectȱwitchesȱinȱsearchȱofȱdeȬ liverance.ȱ Broadlyȱ speaking,ȱ Kiyaiȱ adoptsȱ aȱ similarȱ strategy. Bothȱ exorcismȱ healersȱ useȱ Christianȱ terminologyȱ toȱ categorize theȱintrusiveȱuroyiȱorȱotherȱspiritsȱtroublingȱaȱpatientȱasȱanȱunȬ wantedȱ devilȱ (satani)ȱ orȱ demonȱ (dhimoni).ȱ Butȱ theyȱ areȱ suffiȬ cientlyȱ conversantȱ withȱ allȱ aspectsȱ ofȱ traditionalȱ cosmologyȱ to refrainȱfromȱapplyingȱaȱsimplisticȱdemonology.ȱCarefulȱprobing revealsȱ whetherȱ theȱ patientȱ isȱ besetȱ byȱ alienȱ shaviȱ spiritsȱ who wantȱtheȱpatientȱtoȱpracticeȱtraditionalȱmedicineȱasȱaȱnganga,ȱby

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aȱngoziȱspiritȱseekingȱrevengeȱforȱaȱmurderȱorȱsomeȱotherȱseriȬ ousȱ offenseȱ committedȱ byȱ theȱ afflictedȱ person’sȱ relatives,ȱ byȱ a neglectedȱancestralȱspiritȱ(mudzimu)ȱthatȱmerelyȱurgesȱsacrifice inȱ theȱ traditionalȱ sense,ȱ orȱ byȱ aȱ realȱ uroyiȱ spirit—theȱ patient’s deceasedȱ grandmother,ȱ auntȱ orȱ mother—whoȱ wantsȱ aȱ living descendantȱtoȱinheritȱandȱpracticeȱtheȱdeceased’sȱprofessionȱof witchcraft. Sustainedȱ counselingȱ allowsȱ prophetȱ andȱ patientȱ toȱ deterȬ mineȱtheȱinvasiveȱspirit’sȱidentityȱclearly.ȱTheȱsoȬcalledȱ“lesser demons,”ȱ suchȱ asȱ shaviȱ spiritsȱ canȱ thenȱ beȱ expelledȱ through faithȱ healingȱ prayersȱ andȱ theȱ layingȱ onȱ ofȱ hands,ȱ whileȱ the moreȱ dangerousȱ uroyiȱ demonsȱ areȱ subjectedȱ toȱ theȱ expulsion ritualsȱ ofȱ Bethesdaȱ orȱ Zhameȱ asȱ mentionedȱ above.ȱ Itȱ isȱ signifȬ icant,ȱhowever,ȱthatȱtheȱtraditionalȱcosmology,ȱwhichȱstillȱfuncȬ tionsȱ asȱ aȱ substratumȱ andȱ conditionsȱ theȱ beliefȱ systemsȱ ofȱ nuȬ merousȱAfricanȱChristians,ȱisȱtakenȱseriouslyȱandȱdealtȱwithȱdiȬ rectlyȱ byȱ theseȱ prophetȬhealers.ȱ Inȱ thisȱ way,ȱ theȱ goodȱ newsȱ of Christ’sȱliberatingȱpowerȱandȱtheȱreignȱofȱHisȱkingdomȱisȱintroȬ ducedȱexistentiallyȱintoȱtheȱwizard’sȱhiddenȱworldȱofȱdemonic oppressionȱ andȱ starkȱ terrorȱ asȱ aȱ conditionȱ forȱ aȱ newȱ dayȱ of peaceȱandȱpurposeȱinȱlife. TheȱTestimoniesȱofȱConvertedȱWitches Theȱtestimoniesȱofȱfemaleȱwitchesȱtreated,ȱconvertedȱandȱintroȬ ducedȱtoȱchurchȱlifeȱbyȱBishopsȱNyashaȱandȱKiyaiȱZawaȱareȱimȬ portantȱ indicatorsȱ ofȱ theȱ valueȱ attributedȱ toȱ theirȱ uroyiȱ miniȬ striesȱ byȱ theȱ marginalizedȱ andȱ stigmatizedȱ womenȱ inȱ ZimbabȬ we’sȱ troubled,ȱ ruralȱ society.ȱ Asȱ aȱ child,ȱ Eniaȱ Mukanyangeȱ unȬ wittinglyȱinheritedȱ(kumutsaȱmapfiva:ȱ“toȱliftȱtheȱcookingȱstones” ofȱ aȱ deceasedȱ witch)ȱ theȱ evilȱ practiceȱ fromȱ theȱ spiritȱ ofȱ her grandmotherȱwhoȱhadȱbeenȱaȱnotoriousȱwitch.ȱForȱexample,ȱtoȬ getherȱwithȱotherȱwitches,ȱsheȱallegedlyȱkilledȱandȱateȱtheȱflesh ofȱchildren,ȱincludingȱfourȱofȱherȱownȱgrandchildren,ȱasȱaȱresult ofȱwhichȱherȱremainingȱchildrenȱandȱgrandchildrenȱfledȱtoȱothȬ erȱpartsȱofȱtheȱcountry.ȱGuiltȬriddenȱandȱjudgedȱinȱsocietyȱasȱa witch,ȱ performingȱ inȱ leagueȱ withȱ herȱ lateȱ grandmother,ȱ Enia hadȱ noȱ doubtsȱ atȱ allȱ aboutȱ herȱ responsibilityȱ forȱ theȱ deaths mentionedȱaboveȱandȱtheȱregularȱ“eating”ȱofȱhumanȱflesh. Herȱ narrationȱ ofȱ Kiyaiȱ Zawa’sȱ sympatheticȱ treatmentȱ and expulsionȱ ofȱ theȱ evilȱ spirit,ȱ asȱ wellȱ asȱ theȱ dramaticȱ changesȱ in herȱlifeȱthatȱfollowed,ȱisȱquiteȱmoving.ȱNotȱonlyȱhasȱsheȱjoinedȱa

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church,ȱsheȱhasȱalsoȱbecomeȱaȱprayerȱleader.ȱSheȱisȱblessedȱwith manifestationsȱofȱtheȱHolyȱSpiritȱandȱhasȱtakenȱtheȱinitiativeȱin reachingȱoutȱtoȱothersȱandȱwitnessingȱforcefullyȱaboutȱherȱown deliveranceȱ fromȱ evil.ȱ Thereȱ wasȱ soonȱ aȱ generalȱ responseȱ by peopleȱfromȱtheȱsurroundingȱvillagesȱflockingȱtoȱKiyai’sȱchurch. Enia’sȱ storyȱ isȱ confirmedȱ byȱ Kiyaiȱ himselfȱ andȱ theȱ village eldersȱwithȱwhomȱIȱspoke.ȱNobodyȱseemsȱtoȱdoubtȱthatȱaȱcomȬ pleteȱ transformationȱ hasȱ takenȱ placeȱ throughȱ theȱ mercyȱ and powerȱofȱGodȱinȱtheȱformerȱandȱlongȬestablishedȱwitch.ȱSheȱhas beenȱ reinstatedȱ asȱ aȱ wifeȱ andȱ motherȱ inȱ herȱ family,ȱ whereȱ her childrenȱnowȱentrustȱherȱwithȱtheȱcareȱofȱtwoȱofȱherȱgrandchildȬ ren.ȱSheȱhasȱmovedȱtoȱaȱpositionȱofȱcharismaticȱleadershipȱwith aȱ compassionȱ forȱ othersȱ inȱ Kiyai’sȱ church.ȱ Andȱ inȱ widerȱ society sheȱhasȱbeenȱgivenȱaȱpositionȱwithȱtheȱvillageȱcouncilȱandȱwider politicalȱresponsibilities.ȱAllȱofȱthisȱcontrastsȱsharplyȱwithȱtradiȬ tionalȱpractice,ȱwhereȱofficialȱdetectionȱbyȱaȱngangaȱandȱaȱpublic confessionȱofȱpracticingȱwitchcraftȱcouldȱhaveȱledȱtoȱEnia’sȱosȬ tracismȱorȱdeath. Evaluation OnȱtheȱbasisȱofȱthisȱbriefȱsketchȱoneȱcanȱventureȱonlyȱaȱprelimȬ inaryȱ evaluationȱ ofȱ aȱ fewȱ prominentȱ trendsȱ inȱ theȱ prophetic AICȱuroyiȱministriesȱunderȱconsideration. TheȱReignȱofȱGodȱandȱPropheticȱControl AllȱfourȱApostolicȱmovementsȱinȱChingombeȱresembleȱtheȱwidȬ erȱ bodyȱ ofȱ Shonaȱ SpiritȬtypeȱ churchesȱ inȱ thatȱ theyȱ established anȱ imageȱ ofȱ propheticȱ controlȱ overȱ wizardryȱ activitiesȱ inȱ the nameȱ ofȱ theȱ Christianȱ God’sȱ reignȱ overȱ allȱ theȱ earth.ȱ Inȱ their struggleȱwithȱevil,ȱtheȱpropheticȱuroyiȱspecialistsȱcontributedȱto aȱcommonȱunderstandingȱofȱtheirȱchurchesȱasȱ“protectiveȱinstiȬ tutions.”ȱInȱanȱearlierȱstudy,ȱIȱnotedȱthat althoughȱ itȱ isȱ recognizedȱ thatȱ theȱ majorityȱ ofȱ wizards,ȱ even withinȱ theseȱ churches,ȱ areȱ neverȱ completelyȱ cured,ȱ thereȱ is someȱ consolationȱ inȱ theȱ knowledgeȱ thatȱ theȱ prophetsȱ know whoȱ theȱ wizardsȱ areȱ andȱ thatȱ theyȱ reduceȱ theȱ inclinations andȱpowersȱofȱchurchȱmembersȱwhoȱperpetrateȱsuchȱevilsȱto aȱ minimumȱ throughȱ repeatedȱ exposureȱ inȱ public.ȱ (Daneel 1974:ȱ293)

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Thisȱ observationȱ holdsȱ trueȱ forȱ theȱ ministriesȱ ofȱ Jakaȱ MukurȬ umberaȱandȱElisonȱMutingwendeȱinsofarȱasȱtheirȱexposureȱand eliminationȱofȱuroyiȱmedicinesȱwereȱconsideredȱbyȱtheirȱfollowȬ ersȱ toȱ placeȱ aȱ curbȱ onȱ wizardryȱ activities.ȱ Butȱ Nyasha’sȱ and Zawa’sȱministriesȱreflectȱaȱmoreȱpowerfulȱassertionȱofȱtheȱcomȬ pleteȱ eradicationȱ ofȱ wizardry.ȱ Theirsȱ is,ȱ therefore,ȱ notȱ aȱ mere “pestȬcontrolȱservice,”ȱasȱShorterȱ(1985:97)ȱqualifiesȱwitchȬfindȬ ingȱ movements,ȱ “whichȱ resultsȱ inȱ strengtheningȱ people’sȱ fear ofȱwitchesȱandȱconsequentlyȱtheirȱacceptanceȱofȱtheȱ[witchcraft] theory.”ȱ Nyasha’sȱ andȱ Kiyaiȱ Zawa’sȱ counselingȱ andȱ followȬup careȱofȱtheȱexorcised,ȱtheirȱinsistenceȱonȱtheȱqualityȱofȱChristian discipleshipȱ andȱ perseveringȱ prayerȱ byȱ theȱ liberatedȱ wizard, andȱtheirȱtotalȱrelianceȱonȱGod’sȱpowerȱgoȱaȱlongȱwayȱinȱestabȬ lishingȱfaithȱandȱconfidenceȱinȱGod’sȱreign,ȱHisȱfuture,ȱandȱHis salvificȱdeliveranceȱorȱliberation,ȱthusȱmodifyingȱtheȱtraditional basisȱ forȱ theȱ fearȱ ofȱ wizardry.ȱ Theȱ transformationȱ associated withȱconversionȱandȱspiritȱexpulsionȱinȱtheȱPentecostaȱandȱProȬ verbsȱofȱtheȱApostlesȱChurchȱgoesȱdeeperȱthanȱmerelyȱaȱ“temporȬ aryȱrespiteȱfromȱfear”ȱ(Shorterȱ1985:ȱ97).ȱItȱreachesȱdownȱtoȱthe intellectualȱfabricȱofȱwizardryȱbeliefsȱbyȱforciblyȱblowingȱupȱthe traditionalȱ beliefȱ inȱ theȱ incorrigibilityȱ ofȱ wizardsȱ andȱ byȱ deȬ monstratingȱ toȱ congregationsȱ thatȱ retaliationȱ andȱ theȱ eliminaȬ tionȱofȱwizardsȱasȱpunishmentȱcanȱbeȱreplacedȱbyȱlovingȱaccepȬ tanceȱ andȱ socialȱ rehabilitation.ȱ Hereinȱ liesȱ theȱ beginningȱ ofȱ a slowlyȱunfoldingȱparadigmȱshift. Theȱprocessȱofȱtransformation,ȱhowever,ȱisȱunevenȱandȱinȬ complete,ȱasȱisȱtheȱChristianȱexperienceȱofȱconversion.ȱProphetȬ icȱcontrolȱandȱdiscipline,ȱtherefore,ȱremainsȱimportantȱasȱaȱform ofȱsupportȱagainstȱevilȱinȱtheȱeventȱofȱaȱformerȱwizard’sȱrelapse. TheȱpropheticȱinsightȱthatȱevenȱtheȱstaunchestȱbelieverȱcanȱsucȬ cumbȱtoȱtemptationȱinȱitselfȱmilitatesȱagainstȱtheȱtraditionalȱduȬ alisticȱphilosophyȱbehindȱwizardry,ȱnamelyȱanȱantithesisȱofȱabȬ soluteȱgoodȱandȱabsoluteȱevil. TheȱChristologicalȱDimension Theȱimpressionȱoneȱgetsȱfromȱobservingȱtheȱuroyiȱprophet’sȱexȬ orcismȱ inȱ theȱ Bethesdaȱ poolȱ orȱ mountainȱ caveȱ isȱ thatȱ Christ playsȱaȱsubordinateȱrole.ȱTheȱfocusȱinȱritualȱactionȱandȱproclamȬ ationȱappearsȱtoȱbeȱvirtuallyȱexclusivelyȱonȱtheȱpresenceȱofȱthe Holyȱ Spirit,ȱ manifestȱ inȱ theȱ SpiritȬempoweredȱ andȱ therefore cleansingȱwaterȱinȱtheȱpoolȱasȱwellȱasȱtheȱspeakingȱinȱtonguesȱof

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prophetsȱandȱbelievers,ȱandȱtheȱpowerfulȱruleȱofȱGodȱtheȱFather whoȱ subjectsȱ andȱ rendersȱ allȱ evilȱ powerless.ȱ Thisȱ impression couldȱleadȱtoȱtheȱmisleadingȱideaȱthatȱChrist,ȱtheȱonceȬandȬforȬ allȱScapegoatȱonȱtheȱcross,ȱisȱinsufficientlyȱacknowledgedȱbyȱthe exorcistȱ andȱ hisȱ followers,ȱ asȱ aȱ resultȱ ofȱ whichȱ theȱ Christian substitutionȱ ofȱ theȱ traditionalȱ scapegoatȱ inȱ Africa,ȱ theȱ muroyi, doesȱnotȱarise.ȱIfȱtrue,ȱthisȱwouldȱbeȱaȱseriousȱlimitationȱinȱview ofȱBosch’sȱChristocentricȱrequirementȱasȱpriorityȱforȱaȱparadigm shift. Thereȱ are,ȱ however,ȱ twoȱ factorsȱ inȱ AICȱ theologyȱ that shouldȱ beȱ takenȱ intoȱ account:ȱ First,ȱ inȱ churchesȱ whereȱ percepȬ tionsȱ ofȱ theȱ Trinityȱ areȱ notȱ necessarilyȱ subjectȱ toȱ preciseȱ definȬ ition,ȱ theȱ roleȱ ofȱ Godȱ theȱ Sonȱ isȱ oftenȱ interpretedȱ inȱ kinship termsȱ asȱ “subordinate”ȱ toȱ thatȱ ofȱ Godȱ theȱ Father.ȱ Theȱ Son, therefore,ȱ isȱ notȱ forgottenȱ orȱ absentȱ inȱ theȱ exorcismȱ butȱ Heȱ is somehowȱ presupposedȱ orȱ presentȱ withinȱ theȱ Godheadȱ whose reignȱoverȱevilȱisȱcelebratedȱwhenȱtheȱdemonsȱfleeȱorȱ“die.”ȱBy implication,ȱ itȱ isȱ theȱ sufferingȱ Christ,ȱ whoȱ diesȱ onȱ theȱ crossȱ as theȱScapegoatȱforȱtheȱwholeȱworldȱandȱthenȱtriumphsȱasȱSavior andȱVictorȱinȱtheȱresurrection,ȱwhoȱintroducesȱGod’sȱreignȱand providesȱwithinȱthatȱdispensationȱtheȱconditionȱforȱnewȱlifeȱto theȱ Africanȱ varoyi.ȱ Theȱ redȱ clothȱ aroundȱ theȱ muroyi’sȱ waistȱ in theȱBethesdaȱpoolȱisȱaȱsilentȱreminderȱofȱChrist’sȱbloodȱwashing awayȱ theȱ sinsȱ ofȱ theȱ repentantȱ wizardȱ orȱ witchȱ andȱ providing trueȱdeliveranceȱtoȱhimȱorȱher. Second,ȱthereȱisȱaȱveryȱrealȱsenseȱinȱwhich,ȱasȱiconicȱleader, theȱpropheticȱexorcistȱmirrorsȱtheȱlifeȱandȱministryȱofȱChrist:ȱhe “becomes”ȱ anȱ Africanȱ Christȱ toȱ hisȱ followers.ȱ Oneȱ shouldȱ not isolateȱ theȱ climacticȱ eventȱ ofȱ exorcism,ȱ whereȱ littleȱ mentionȱ is madeȱ ofȱ Christ,ȱ fromȱ theȱ wideȬrangingȱ ministryȱ thatȱ encomȬ passesȱ it.ȱ Forȱ itȱ isȱ inȱ theȱ sustainedȱ counselingȱ sessionsȱ before andȱ afterȱ exorcismȱ thatȱ menȱ likeȱ Nyashaȱ andȱ Kiyaiȱ challenge theirȱ clientsȱ toȱ beȱ convertedȱ andȱ acceptȱ salvationȱ inȱ Christ.ȱ In theirȱ careȱ andȱ concernȱ forȱ theȱ outcastsȱ ofȱ society,ȱ theirȱ clients encounter,ȱfaceȱtoȱface,ȱtheȱChristȱofȱtheȱBook,ȱtheȱOneȱofȱcomȬ passionȱturnedȱAfrican. MinistriesȱofȱReconciliation TheȱmessageȱofȱreconciliationȱisȱcentralȱtoȱNyasha’sȱandȱKiyai’s ministries.ȱ Itȱ isȱ withȱ goodȱ reasonȱ thatȱ womenȱ whoȱ haveȱ been exorcisedȱinȱtheȱPentecostaȱreferȱtoȱthisȱchurchȱspontaneouslyȱas

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kerekeȱ yokuwadzanisaȱ (“theȱ churchȱ ofȱ reconciliation”).ȱ Theirȱ hisȬ toriesȱ byȱ andȱ largeȱ confirmȱ thatȱ theirȱ relationsȱ withȱ their spousesȱorȱotherȱfamilyȱmembersȱimprovedȱasȱaȱdirectȱresultȱof Bethesdaȱ treatmentȱ and,ȱ inȱ mostȱ cases,ȱ theirȱ relationships changedȱintoȱthoseȱofȱloveȱandȱacceptanceȱagainstȱbackgrounds ofȱstrife,ȱrejectionȱandȱsuffering. Theȱ healingȱ andȱ reconciliationȱ achievedȱ byȱ theȱ Apostolic prophetsȱ doȱ notȱ contributeȱ toȱ aȱ sweepingȱ fundamentalȱ change inȱ Africanȱ attitudesȱ towardsȱ magicȱ orȱ replaceȱ theȱ traditional preoccupationȱ withȱ theȱ causesȱ ofȱ misfortune,ȱ toȱ theȱ extentȱ reȬ quiredȱ byȱ Boschȱ forȱ aȱ majorȱ paradigmȱ shift.ȱ Yet,ȱ thereȱ isȱ a worldȱofȱdifferenceȱbetweenȱtheȱministriesȱdescribedȱaboveȱand theȱAfricanȱworldȱofȱwitchȱfindingȱandȱexorcism,ȱdescribedȱby Shorterȱ asȱ merelyȱ facilitatingȱ theȱ exorcist’sȱ illusionȱ ofȱ control overȱevil,ȱtheȱusurpationȱofȱGod’sȱpositionȱbyȱtheȱwitchȱfinder whoȱ pretendsȱ toȱ judgeȱ theȱ witchȱ andȱ inȱ theȱ processȱ onlyȱ sucȬ ceedsȱ inȱ destroyingȱ his/herȱ socialȱ standingȱ andȱ inȱ reinforcing theȱexistingȱfearsȱofȱwitchcraft. ContraryȱtoȱShorter’sȱinsistenceȱonȱtheȱavoidanceȱofȱdiscusȬ sionȱ aboutȱ theȱ objectivityȱ ofȱ wizardryȱ beliefs,ȱ theȱ Apostolic churchesȱofȱreconciliationȱdoȱjustȱthat.ȱInȱsuchȱministry,ȱtheȱrisk ofȱaȱprophet’sȱjudgmentalismȱandȱofȱcoercionȱasȱaȱformȱofȱconȬ trolȱ overȱ theȱ sociallyȱ marginalizedȱ wizards,ȱ desperateȱ forȱ a cure,ȱ isȱ indeedȱ real.ȱ Butȱ theȱ savingȱ graceȱ ofȱ Godȱ isȱ evidentȱ in theȱlivesȱofȱuroyiȱspecialistsȱlikeȱNyashaȱandȱKiyaiȱandȱmanyȱof theirȱfollowers.ȱContraryȱtoȱShorter’sȱassertions,ȱsocialȱrehabiliȬ tationȱofȱconvertedȱwitchesȱratherȱthanȱostracismȱandȱalienation appearȱtoȱbeȱtheȱresult.ȱPsychologicallyȱandȱreligiouslyȱsuchȱsoȬ lutionsȱ areȱ muchȱ moreȱ positiveȱ andȱ worthyȱ ofȱ supportȱ than avoidingȱ confrontationȱ withȱ theȱ persistentȱ worldȱ ofȱ wizardry beliefȱ andȱ praxis,ȱ whileȱ theȱ theoreticallyȱ construedȱ paradigm shiftȱhasȱnotȱyetȱbeenȱfullyȱrealized. LimitationsȱofȱtheȱUroyiȱMinistries Theȱ prophetȬexorcist’sȱ preoccupationȱ withȱ Satanȱ andȱ demons couldȱleadȱtoȱaȱsimplisticȱdemonologyȱwherebyȱallȱkindsȱofȱailȬ mentsȱandȱmentalȱillnessesȱareȱattributedȱtoȱdemonȱpossession andȱareȱtoȱbeȱcuredȱbyȱexorcism.ȱThisȱtendsȱtoȱhappenȱwhenȱa popularȱexorcistȱlikeȱFr.ȱMilingoȱachievesȱsuchȱprominenceȱthat thousandsȱofȱpeopleȱflockȱtoȱhisȱhealingȱsessions.ȱConsequently, theȱexorcismȱofȱdemonsȱbecomesȱaȱmassȱspectacle,ȱindiscriminȬ

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atelyȱ appliedȱ andȱ insufficientlyȱ basedȱ onȱ counselingȱ andȱ folȬ lowȬupȱ toȱ achieveȱ lastingȱ results.ȱ Nyashaȱ andȱ Kiyai’sȱ inclinaȬ tionȱ toȱ useȱ theȱ wordsȱ “Satan”ȱ andȱ “demons”ȱ forȱ allȱ kindsȱ of spiritȱ andȱ uroyiȱ possessionsȱ inȱ theirȱ attemptȱ toȱ stayȱ withinȱ the orbitȱofȱwhatȱtheyȱunderstandȱasȱbiblicalȱtruthȱmayȱleadȱtoȱthe impressionȱ thatȱ they,ȱ too,ȱ operateȱ onȱ theȱ basisȱ ofȱ aȱ simplistic demonology.ȱIȱhaveȱindicated,ȱhowever,ȱthatȱinȱrealityȱtheyȱdisȬ tinguishȱclearlyȱbetweenȱtheȱdifferentȱtypesȱofȱuroyiȱdemons,ȱa hostȱ ofȱ otherȱ spiritȱ possessionsȱ orȱ afflictionsȱ unrelatedȱ toȱ wizȬ ardryȱandȱminorȱailments,ȱtheȱhealingȱofȱwhichȱdoȱnotȱrequire BethesdaȱorȱZhameȱexorcisms. MisinterpretationȱofȱexorcistȱsymbolismȱremainsȱaȱdistinctȱposȬ sibilityȱ inȱ propheticȱ movementsȱ despiteȱ theȱ clearȱ distinctions oftenȱ madeȱ byȱ theȱ principalȱ leaderȱ betweenȱ symbolsȱ andȱ the beingsȱorȱpowersȱrepresentedȱbyȱthem.ȱThusȱaȱmagicalȱinterpreȬ tationȱofȱtheȱBethesdaȱeventȱcouldȱeasilyȱleadȱtoȱparticipantsȱat theȱ poolȱ attributingȱ inherentȱ efficacyȱ andȱ remedialȱ qualitiesȱ to theȱwaterȱwithoutȱfullyȱunderstandingȱtheȱsymbolizedȱpowerȱof theȱHolyȱSpirit.ȱItȱisȱalsoȱpossibleȱthatȱtheȱredȱclothȱandȱitsȱproȬ tectiveȱqualityȱinȱtheȱpoolȱacquireȱsuchȱimportanceȱinȱtheȱritual contextȱ thatȱ itȱ losesȱ itsȱ instructiveȱ valueȱ concerningȱ theȱ wider salvificȱ implicationsȱ ofȱ Christ’sȱ blood.ȱ Orȱ elseȱ treatmentȱ with Kiyai’sȱ staffȱ inȱ Zhameȱ couldȱ beȱ attributedȱ suchȱ importanceȱ by theȱliberatedȱwitchȱthatȱtheȱdivineȱpotencyȱemanatingȱfromȱthe staffȱ inȱ theȱ exorcist’sȱ handsȱ overridesȱ andȱ obscuresȱ theȱ perseȬ veringȱprayersȱofȱtheȱwitch,ȱrequestedȱbyȱtheȱprophet. ȱTheȱoccurrenceȱofȱsuchȱmisinterpretationsȱdoesȱnotȱnecesȬ sarilyȱinvalidateȱtheȱexorcisticȱministryȱinȱitsȱentirety.ȱInȱAfrica theȱ tendencyȱ amongȱ Christiansȱ toȱ attachȱ magicalȱ interpretaȬ tionsȱ to,ȱ forȱ instance,ȱ theȱ sacramentalȱ elementsȱ ofȱ breadȱ and wineȱisȱaȱcommonȱphenomenon,ȱbothȱinȱtheȱ“historical”ȱandȱin theȱ Africanȱ Initiatedȱ Churches.ȱ Theȱ repeatedȱ proclamationȱ of theȱ Gospelȱ asȱ anȱ integralȱ partȱ ofȱ exorcistȱ procedureȱ andȱ the prophetȬhealer’sȱ manifestȱ faithȱ inȱ theȱ triuneȱ Christianȱ Godȱ act asȱ powerfulȱ correctivesȱ whichȱ deepenȱ theȱ understandingȱ of thoseȱsufficientlyȱopenȱtoȱreligiousȱreorientation. Ofȱ cardinalȱ importanceȱ isȱ theȱ questionȱ ofȱ whetherȱ theȱ AIC prophet’sȱ exorcisticȱ confrontingȱ ofȱ evilȱ leadsȱ toȱ theȱ patient’s completeȱ deliveranceȱ fromȱ oppressiveȱ evil.ȱ Isȱ theȱ afflictedȱ patient trulyȱ liberatedȱ untoȱ independentȱ choicesȱ andȱ spirituality?ȱ Or doesȱaȱnewȱdependenceȱonȱtheȱuroyiȱ eradicatorȱimplyȱtheȱsubȬ

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stitutionȱofȱoneȱkindȱofȱ“enslavement”ȱforȱanother?ȱIȱhaveȱlittle doubtȱthatȱatȱleastȱsomeȱpatientsȱtreatedȱbyȱNyashaȱandȱKiyai— andȱ alsoȱ byȱ theȱ lateȱ Jakaȱ andȱ Elison—acquireȱ aȱ kindȱ ofȱ “capȬ tive”ȱ statusȱ inȱ theȱ churchȱ throughȱ aȱ combinationȱ ofȱ external andȱinternalȱcoerciveȱfactors.ȱRelativesȱand/orȱvillageȱneighbors ofȱ reputedȱ wizardsȱ mayȱ wellȱ demandȱ expulsionȱ ofȱ theȱ wizard fromȱaȱparticularȱvillageȱcommunityȱifȱnoȱconvincingȱsolutionȱis found.ȱ Inȱ suchȱ instances,ȱ theȱ potentialȱ outcastȱ mayȱ adhereȱ to theȱ prophet’sȱ strictȱ disciplinaryȱ codeȱ inȱ aȱ desperateȱ attemptȱ to stabilizeȱherȱorȱhisȱtenuousȱsocialȱstatusȱwithȱtheȱriskȱofȱcreating aȱsituationȱofȱdependency.ȱHowever,ȱtheȱministriesȱofȱbothȱNyȬ ashaȱ andȱ Kiyaiȱ emphasizeȱ theȱ individualȱ responsibilitiesȱ of theirȱ membersȱ toȱ suchȱ anȱ extentȱ thatȱ theyȱ provideȱ aȱ powerful inducementȱ forȱ overlyȱ dependentȱ followersȱ toȱ developȱ from captiveȱsecurityȱtoȱindependenceȱandȱfreedom. Finally,ȱIȱwishȱtoȱpointȱoutȱthatȱregardlessȱofȱsomeȱobvious weaknesses,ȱtheȱoverwhelminglyȱpositiveȱevidenceȱobservedȱin theȱ ministriesȱ ofȱ Bishopȱ Nyashaȱ andȱ Zawaȱ pointȱ inȱ theȱ direcȬ tionȱ ofȱ genuineȱ liberationȱ andȱ healingȱ forȱ thoseȱ besetȱ byȱ evil; weȱ couldȱ beȱ witnessingȱ hereȱ theȱ movementȱ ofȱ God’sȱ Spiritȱ in theȱAfricanȱnight.ȱNyasha’sȱandȱZawa’sȱexorcismȱimplicitlyȱenȬ compassesȱbothȱtheȱindigenizingȱandȱpilgrimȱprinciplesȱreferredȱto byȱWallsȱ(1982).ȱInasmuchȱasȱtheirȱministriesȱcourageouslyȱand innovativelyȱ addressȱ theȱ oldȱ paradigm—takingȱ theȱ traditional beliefsȱ andȱ relatedȱ fearsȱ seriously,ȱ confrontingȱ themȱ withȱ the goodȱnewsȱthatȱdeniesȱtheȱincorrigibilityȱofȱtheȱwizard,ȱreplaces theȱ traditionalȱ punitiveȱ measuresȱ withȱ reconciliationȱ andȱ proȬ motesȱ theȱ socialȱ rehabilitationȱ ofȱ theȱ scapegoat—theyȱ contribȬ uteȱpersuasivelyȱtowardsȱaȱparadigmȱshift.ȱThisȱparadigmȱshift isȱ notȱ asȱ sweepingȱ andȱ articulateȱ asȱ itȱ appearsȱ onȱ paperȱ in Bosch’sȱ theoreticalȱ treatiseȱ (1987).ȱ Yet,ȱ itȱ militatesȱ againstȱ the traditionalȱ scapegoatȱ theoryȱ byȱ introducingȱ theȱ humanizing messageȱofȱChrist’sȱsacrificeȱintoȱtheȱworldȱofȱsufferingȱexperiȬ encedȱbyȱtheȱcasualtiesȱofȱthatȱtheory.ȱInȱtheirȱownȱimaginative way,ȱ theseȱ ministriesȱ proclaimȱ theȱ enigmaticȱ butȱ joyfulȱ truth thatȱevilȱhasȱnoȱfuture,ȱforȱtheȱonlyȱworthwhileȱfutureȱliesȱwith God.

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Bibliography Bosch,ȱD.J.ȱ(1987).ȱ“TheȱProblemȱofȱEvilȱinȱAfrica:ȱAȱSurveyȱofȱAfrican Viewsȱ onȱ Witchcraftȱ andȱ ofȱ theȱ Responseȱ ofȱ theȱ Christian Church.”ȱInȱP.G.R.ȱdeȱVilliersȱ(ed.).ȱLikeȱaȱRoaringȱLion:ȱEssaysȱon theȱ Bible,ȱ theȱ Churchȱ andȱ Demonicȱ Powers.ȱ Pretoria:ȱ Universityȱ of SouthȱAfrica.ȱ Crawford,ȱJ.R.ȱ(1967).ȱWitchcraftȱandȱSorceryȱinȱRhodesia.ȱLondon:ȱAfriȬ canȱInternationalȱInstitute. Daneel,ȱ M.L.ȱ (1971).ȱ Oldȱ andȱ Newȱ inȱ Southernȱ Shonaȱ Independent Churches.ȱVol.ȱ1.ȱBackgroundȱandȱRiseȱofȱtheȱMajorȱMovements.ȱThe Hague:ȱMouton. (1974).ȱOldȱandȱNewȱinȱSouthernȱShonaȱIndependentȱChurches.ȱVol.ȱ2. Churchȱ Growth:ȱ Causativeȱ Factorsȱ andȱ Recruitmentȱ Techniques.ȱ The Hague:ȱMouton. (1988).ȱOldȱandȱNewȱinȱSouthernȱShonaȱIndependentȱChurches.ȱVol.ȱ3. LeadershipȱandȱFissionȱDynamics.ȱGweru:ȱMamboȱPress. Gelfand,ȱM.ȱ(1967).ȱTheȱAfricanȱWitch.ȱLondon:ȱLivingstone. Ingenoza,ȱ A.O.ȱ (1985).ȱ “Africanȱ Weltanschauungȱ andȱ Exorcism:ȱ The Questȱ forȱ theȱ Contextualizationȱ ofȱ theȱ Kerygma.”ȱ Africanȱ TheoȬ logicalȱJournalȱ14:ȱ179Ȭ93. Lagerwerf,ȱ L.ȱ (1987).ȱ Witchcraft,ȱ Sorceryȱ andȱ Spiritȱ Possession:ȱ Pastoral ResponsesȱinȱAfrica.ȱGweru:ȱMamboȱPress. Milingo,ȱE.ȱ(1985).ȱTheȱWorldȱinȱBetween:ȱChristianȱHealingȱandȱtheȱStrugȬ gleȱforȱSpiritualȱSurvival.ȱMaryknoll:ȱOrbis. Shorter,ȱA.ȱ(1985).ȱJesusȱandȱtheȱWitchdoctor:ȱAnȱApproachȱtoȱHealingȱand Wholeness.ȱMaryknoll:ȱOrbis. Singleton,ȱM.ȱ(1980).ȱWho’sȱWhoȱinȱAfricanȱWitchcraft?ȱProȱMundiȱVita: Dossiers.ȱAfricanȱDossierȱ12.ȱPp.ȱ1Ȭ41. Taylor,ȱ J.V.ȱ (1963).ȱ Theȱ Primalȱ Vision:ȱ Christianȱ Presenceȱ amidȱ African Religion.ȱLondon:ȱSCM. Walls,ȱ A.F.ȱ (1982).ȱ “Theȱ Gospelȱ asȱ theȱ Prisonerȱ andȱ Liberatorȱ ofȱ CulȬ ture.”ȱMissionaliaȱ10:ȱ93Ȭ105.

TheȱEvilȱComesȱfromȱOutside EvilȱwithinȱReligionȱasȱaȱPsychosocialȱProblem amongȱAdolescentȱMoroccanȱGirls inȱtheȱNetherlands EdienȱBartels

Abstract Amongȱ Moroccanȱ migrantsȱ inȱ theȱ Netherlandsȱ andȱ theirȱ interpretationsȱ of theȱ mentalȱ healthȱ ofȱ andȱ mentalȱ disturbancesȱ amongȱ adolescentȱ daughters, evilȱisȱseenȱasȱaȱsupernaturalȱpowerȱthatȱarisesȱprimarilyȱfromȱdealingȱwith spirits,ȱtheȱevilȱeye,ȱorȱsorcery.ȱThisȱevilȱcomesȱfromȱoutsideȱorȱfromȱoutsidȬ ers,ȱi.e.ȱthoseȱwhoȱdoȱnotȱbelongȱtoȱtheȱsameȱfamilyȱandȱwantȱtoȱinflictȱharm. Thisȱ relationalȱ interpretationȱ ofȱ evilȱ notȱ onlyȱ fitsȱ aȱ relationalȱ viewȱ ofȱ the worldȱbutȱalsoȱabsolvesȱindividualsȱandȱfamilyȱmembersȱofȱanyȱblameȱorȱreȬ sponsibility.ȱ Thus,ȱ theȱ familyȱ continuesȱ toȱ beȱ aȱ solidȱ unitȱ whileȱ potentially problematicȱbehaviorȱisȱblamedȱonȱevilȱcomingȱprimarilyȱfromȱoutside—from outsideȱ theȱ individualȱ andȱ fromȱ outsideȱ aȱ person’sȱ extendedȱ family.ȱ This worldviewȱ clashesȱ withȱ thatȱ ofȱ Dutchȱ medicalȱ andȱ socialȱ workersȱ whose methodologiesȱ areȱ basedȱ onȱ individualȱ biologicalȱ assumptionsȱ thatȱ allowȱ no roomȱforȱtheȱevilȱpowersȱofȱpopularȱreligion.ȱ

ȱ Introduction TheȱpowersȱofȱgoodȱandȱevilȱplayȱaȱleadingȱroleȱinȱtheȱfolkȱIsȬ lamȱ ofȱ theȱ Moroccanȱ ruralȱ population.ȱ Goodȱ powers,ȱ baraka, comeȱfromȱ Godȱandȱ areȱ passedȱonȱ toȱ peopleȱ throughȱ holyȱobȬ jects,ȱlikeȱtheȱKoran,ȱwhenȱtheyȱactȱpiouslyȱandȱdevoutlyȱbyȱgoȬ ingȱ toȱ theȱ mosqueȱ andȱ shrines.ȱ Inȱ Islamicȱ popularȱ religion, saintsȱareȱthose—maleȱorȱfemale,ȱusuallyȱdeceased—whoȱhave aȱ specialȱ bondȱ withȱ God.ȱ Saintsȱ areȱ importantȱ forȱ peopleȱ beȬ causeȱ theyȱ canȱ actȱ asȱ mediatorsȱ forȱ themȱ viaȱ barakaȱ whenȱ they prayȱ forȱ prosperityȱ andȱ canȱ preventȱ disastersȱ causedȱ byȱ evil powers,ȱbâs.ȱDisasterȱandȱadversityȱareȱcausedȱbyȱtheȱpowersȱof evilȱ thatȱ areȱ invokedȱ byȱ jnunȱ (spirits),ȱ byȱ impersonalȱ powers 71

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likeȱ witchcraft,ȱ asȱ isȱ theȱ caseȱ withȱ theȱ evilȱ eye,ȱ ain,ȱ andȱ by powersȱwieldedȱbyȱpeopleȱsuchȱasȱsorcery,ȱi.e.ȱsuhur. Saintsȱhaveȱpowerȱoverȱspirits.ȱTraditionalȱhealers,ȱtheȱdeȬ putiesȱofȱsaints,ȱcanȱfightȱagainstȱtheȱevilȱeye,ȱbreakȱspellsȱand driveȱoutȱspirits.ȱSaintsȱareȱseenȱasȱtheȱfoundersȱofȱaȱfirqa,ȱaȱpatȬ rilinealȱ groupȱ ofȱ relatives.ȱ Eachȱ yearȱ aȱ feastȱ isȱ dedicatedȱ to saintsȱ andȱ allȱ firqaȱ membersȱ comeȱ togetherȱ atȱ thisȱ timeȱ toȱ reȬ ceiveȱ theȱ barakaȱ fromȱ theirȱ holyȱ ancestor,ȱ whichȱ isȱ effected throughȱ gatheringȱ togetherȱ andȱ sacredȱ sacrifice.ȱ Evilȱ powers ariseȱ primarilyȱ fromȱ dealingȱ withȱ spiritsȱ suchȱ asȱ jnunȱ orȱ from theȱ evilȱ eyeȱ orȱ throughȱ peopleȱ whoȱ deliberatelyȱ wishȱ toȱ cause misfortuneȱviaȱsuhur.ȱEvilȱspiritsȱliveȱinȱforestsȱorȱinȱotherȱplacȬ es,ȱsuchȱasȱ caverns,ȱ thatȱ areȱconnectedȱ toȱ theȱunderworld.ȱThe jnun,ȱwhichȱareȱneitherȱgoodȱnorȱevil,ȱstrikeȱbyȱchanceȱorȱoutȱof envy. Theȱ evilȱ eyeȱ isȱ anȱ impersonalȱ unconsciousȱ powerȱ castȱ by jealousy.ȱ Sorceryȱ isȱ saidȱ toȱ beȱ usedȱ deliberatelyȱ andȱ withȱ a specificȱ purposeȱ inȱ mind.ȱ Thoseȱ whoȱ useȱ sorceryȱ areȱ always outsiders,ȱ i.e.ȱ peopleȱ whoȱ doȱ notȱ belongȱ toȱ theȱ sameȱ family. Membersȱ ofȱ oneȱ familyȱ shareȱ barakaȱ withȱ oneȱ anotherȱ and,ȱ in principle,ȱdoȱnotȱbringȱmisfortuneȱorȱevilȱonȱoneȱanother.ȱThis relationalȱ interpretationȱ ofȱ evilȱ notȱ onlyȱ fitsȱ intoȱ aȱ relational viewȱofȱtheȱworldȱbutȱalsoȱmakesȱitȱpossibleȱtoȱexculpateȱindiȬ vidualsȱwithinȱtheȱfamily.ȱThisȱmakesȱitȱpossibleȱtoȱkeepȱthem withinȱtheȱfamilyȱandȱtoȱcontinueȱtheȱfamilyȱasȱaȱsolidȱunit:ȱevil comesȱprimarilyȱfromȱoutside,ȱfromȱoutsideȱtheȱindividualȱand fromȱoutsideȱaȱpersonȇsȱextendedȱfamily.1 Withȱ theȱ arrivalȱ ofȱ Moroccanȱ immigrantsȱ inȱ Westernȱ EurȬ ope,ȱ ideasȱ inȱ folkȱ Islamȱ startedȱ toȱ playȱ aȱ roleȱ inȱ socialȱ welfare andȱ medicalȱ assistance,ȱ especiallyȱ inȱ theȱ areaȱ ofȱ psychosocial assistance.ȱMoroccanȱimmigrantsȱbeganȱtoȱturnȱtoȱDutchȱsocial workersȱandȱmedicalȱpractitionersȱforȱassistance,ȱbutȱDutchȱsoȬ cialȱworkersȱandȱphysiciansȱdidȱnotȱseeȱanyȱroomȱforȱreligionȱin theȱ assistanceȱ theyȱ offered.ȱ Althoughȱ theȱ soȬcalledȱ antipsyȬ

1 ȱThisȱviewȱofȱevilȱasȱcomingȱfromȱoutsideȱmakesȱitȱclearȱwhyȱthe positionȱofȱwomenȱisȱambivalentȱinȱthisȱpatrilinealȱandȱpatrilocalȱsociety andȱwhyȱthereȱisȱaȱpreferenceȱforȱmarriageȱwithinȱtheȱfamily.

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chiatryȱ movement2ȱ withinȱ theȱ mentalȱ healthȱ fieldȱ hasȱ beenȱ a majorȱ influenceȱ forȱ aȱ longȱ time,ȱ withinȱ regularȱ psychiatryȱ a strongȱemphasisȱonȱbiologicalȱprimacyȱhasȱdeveloped.ȱReligion wasȱ notȱ givenȱ anyȱ placeȱ inȱ otherȱ formsȱ ofȱ mentalȱ healthȱ care andȱassistanceȱeither.3ȱThisȱisȱsignificant,ȱbecauseȱgivingȱdueȱatȬ tentionȱtoȱreligionȱwouldȱappearȱtoȱbeȱaȱconditionȱforȱsuccessful therapy. Theȱ focusȱ hereȱ isȱ primarilyȱ onȱ aȱ person’sȱ ownȱ experience ofȱevil.ȱInȱaȱreviewȱofȱtwoȱcasesȱinvolvingȱMoroccanȱgirlsȱfrom theȱfirstȱgenerationȱofȱimmigrantȱfamilies,ȱitȱbecomesȱclearȱhow evilȱworksȱinȱtheȱperceptionȱofȱtheseȱfamiliesȱandȱhowȱtheȱsoȬ cialȱ welfareȱ andȱ medicalȱ assistanceȱ providedȱ dealsȱ withȱ this perception.ȱ Comparisonsȱ showȱ thatȱ professionalȱ socialȱ workȬ ersȱandȱmedicalȱpractitionersȱinȱtheȱNetherlands,ȱwhoȱareȱseen asȱ outsidersȱ byȱ theseȱ families,ȱ canȱ “invoke”ȱ aȱ “newȱ formȱ of evil.”ȱWhen,ȱonȱtheȱotherȱhand,ȱDutchȱsocialȱworkersȱandȱmedȬ icalȱpractitionersȱareȱsuccessfulȱinȱinsertingȱthemselvesȱintoȱthe familyȱor,ȱtoȱputȱitȱinȱWesternȱterms,ȱinȱdevelopingȱaȱrelationȬ shipȱofȱtrust,ȱtheyȱareȱsometimesȱableȱtoȱchangeȱtheȱimagesȱand practicesȱ concerningȱ evilȱ powersȱ andȱ evenȱ bringȱ aboutȱ aȱ shift inȱtheȱexplanationsȱgivenȱforȱsuchȱthings.ȱTheȱcommonȱexplanȬ ationȱ givenȱ inȱ folkȱ religionȱ thenȱ givesȱ wayȱ toȱ anȱ explanation thatȱ isȱ givenȱ byȱ officialȱ Islam.ȱ Theȱ evilȱ takesȱ onȱ aȱ different characterȱandȱisȱunderstoodȱinȱtermsȱofȱtheȱindividual.ȱBefore weȱfocusȱonȱtheȱtwoȱcasesȱmentionedȱabove,ȱweȱwillȱlookȱatȱthe viewȱ ofȱ evilȱ asȱ theȱ causeȱ ofȱ spiritualȱ sufferingȱ fromȱ theȱ perȬ spectiveȱofȱanthropology. EvilȱwithinȱReligionȱasȱaȱPsychosocialȱProblem Withinȱ anthropology,ȱ keyȱ conceptsȱ haveȱ beenȱ developedȱ to helpȱusȱunderstandȱtheȱoperationȱofȱcultureȱwithinȱtheȱmedical

2

ȱ Thisȱ movementȱ focusesȱ onȱ theȱ socialȱ causesȱ ofȱ psychiatricȱ and mentalȱhealthȱproblems. 3

ȱItȱisȱnotȱtheȱquestionȱofȱcooperationȱbetweenȱsocialȱworkȱandȱheath careȱonȱtheȱoneȱhandȱandȱ“traditional”ȱtherapyȱonȱtheȱotherȱ(Hofferȱ2004) thatȱisȱcentralȱtoȱthisȱpaperȱbutȱratherȱtheȱrecognitionȱofȱreligionȱandȱthe worldviewȱofȱtheȱclientȱasȱanȱimportantȱfactorȱthatȱshouldȱbeȱtakenȱinto account.ȱȱ

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sciences,ȱinȱpsychiatryȱandȱinȱtheȱsocialȱsciences.ȱDiseaseȱandȱillȬ nessȱareȱkeyȱconcepts.ȱTheseȱconceptsȱmakeȱitȱpossibleȱtoȱclarify howȱ changesȱ occurȱ withinȱ culturesȱ andȱ clinicalȱ pictures,ȱ and howȱchangesȱdevelopȱinȱpeopleȇsȱinterpretationsȱofȱevil.ȱDisease refersȱtoȱtheȱdysfunctionȱofȱorgansȱorȱorganismsȱorȱtoȱtheȱdysȬ functionȱ ofȱ (neuroȬȱ orȱ psychoȬ)ȱ physiologicalȱ processesȱ inȱ the body.ȱ Theȱ useȱ ofȱ biomedicalȱ knowledgeȱ andȱ techniquesȱ is aimedȱ atȱ aȱ cureȱ (organicȱ recovery),ȱ thatȱ is,ȱ atȱ healingȱ inȱ the senseȱofȱgainingȱcontrolȱoverȱdisease.ȱIllnessȱrefersȱtoȱtheȱdefinȬ ition,ȱ labelingȱ andȱ explanationȱ ofȱ aȱ disorderȱ byȱ aȱ sickȱ person andȱtheȱpeopleȱwhoȱareȱimportantȱforȱhimȱorȱherȱasȱaȱproblem inȱtheȱlifeȱofȱtheȱpatientȱthatȱextendsȱbeyondȱphysicalȱdysfuncȬ tionȱ (seeȱ Richtersȱ 1996).ȱ Onȱ theȱ basisȱ ofȱ theȱ relationshipȱ beȬ tweenȱ diseaseȱ andȱ illness,ȱ itȱ isȱ possibleȱ toȱ studyȱ cultureȱ within clinicalȱrealityȱand,ȱatȱtheȱsameȱtime,ȱtoȱincludeȱtheȱpersonalȱinȬ terpretationsȱ ofȱ diseaseȱ andȱ evil.ȱ Butȱ thisȱ doesȱ notȱ addressȱ the relationshipȱ ofȱ theȱ personȱ withȱ theȱ surroundingȱ society.ȱ The conceptȱofȱsicknessȱisȱusedȱtoȱdenoteȱtheȱsocialȱcauseȱofȱdisease: politicalȱ andȱ economicȱ factorsȱ canȱ beȱ manifestedȱ inȱ diseases. Thisȱ conceptȱ comesȱ fromȱ aȱ moreȱ sociallyȱ criticalȱ andȱ medical anthropologicalȱ approachȱ inȱ whichȱ societyȱ isȱ includedȱ within clinicalȱ practiceȱ (Richtersȱ 1996).ȱ Thisȱ lastȱ approachȱ makesȱ it clearȱ thatȱ thereȱ isȱ aȱ connectionȱ betweenȱ societyȱ andȱ sickness andȱthatȱitȱhasȱstrongȱpoliticalȱassociations.ȱAccordingȱtoȱRichȬ ters,ȱ whenȱ theȱ illnessȱ andȱ diseaseȱ approachȱ isȱ used,ȱ theȱ ineȬ qualityȱ ofȱ powerȱ betweenȱ theȱ expertȱ andȱ theȱ clientȱ isȱ diminȬ ishedȱorȱevenȱnonȬexistent.ȱStill,ȱtheȱquestionȱremainsȱasȱtoȱhow changesȱ canȱ beȱ understoodȱ throughȱ theseȱ concepts.ȱ Thisȱ is knownȱ withȱ respectȱ toȱ theȱ conceptȱ ofȱ disease:ȱ underȱ theȱ inȬ fluenceȱ ofȱ medicalȱ research,ȱ medicalȱ explanationsȱ areȱ continuȬ allyȱunderȱdiscussion,ȱbutȱtheȱconceptsȱofȱillnessȱandȱsicknessȱare neitherȱ permanentȱ norȱ stableȱ andȱ areȱ continuallyȱ undergoing change.ȱInȱtheȱcaseȱofȱsickness,ȱsicknessȱandȱpatternsȱofȱsickness areȱrelatedȱprimarilyȱtoȱmaterialȱtermsȱandȱpowerȱrelationships. Inȱ thisȱ paperȱ weȱ willȱ notȱ discussȱ howȱ changesȱ inȱ culture andȱ societyȱ influenceȱ sickness,ȱ sicknessȱ behaviorȱ andȱ theȱ patȬ ternsȱofȱsickness.ȱTheȱconceptsȱofȱdisease,ȱillness,ȱandȱsicknessȱare alsoȱexplainedȱbyȱmeansȱofȱtheȱconceptȱofȱ“explanatory”ȱmodȬ

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elsȱ (Richtersȱ 1996).4ȱ Thereȱ isȱ alsoȱ theȱ questionȱ concerningȱ the relationshipȱ betweenȱ changesȱ inȱ theȱ surroundingȱ societyȱ and changesȱinȱtheȱpatternsȱofȱsickness.ȱInȱthisȱpaperȱweȱwillȱfocus primarilyȱonȱillness,ȱtheȱexperienceȱandȱinterpretationȱofȱillness byȱclientsȱandȱtheȱshiftsȱ thatȱ occurȱwithinȱthisȱsphere.ȱInȱother words:ȱ Howȱ doesȱ theȱ interpretationȱ ofȱ illnessȱ changeȱ fromȱ the perspectiveȱ ofȱ folkȱ religionȱ asȱ aȱ resultȱ ofȱ ȱ theȱ interpretationȱ of evilȱpowerȱwithinȱtheȱrelationalȱworldviewsȱamongȱMoroccans whoȱareȱanȱethnicȱgroupȱinȱanȱimmigrantȱsituation?ȱȱIȱwillȱanaȬ lyzeȱespeciallyȱtheirȱconfrontationȱwithȱDutchȱsocialȱandȱmedicȬ alȱworkers.ȱThisȱsocialȱworkȱandȱmedicalȱcareȱalsoȱinvolvesȱthe questionȱofȱdiseaseȱforȱMoroccanȱpatientsȱandȱthusȱtheȱrelationȬ shipȱbetweenȱillnessȱandȱdiseaseȱcanȱbeȱincluded.ȱToȱanalyzeȱthis relationship,ȱIȱwillȱuseȱDeȱRuijter’sȱtheoriesȱ(1998)ȱasȱmyȱstartȬ ingȱ point.ȱ Deȱ Ruijterȱ distinguishesȱ betweenȱ twoȱ mechanisms thatȱ areȱ operativeȱ andȱ inȱ conflictȱ atȱ theȱ sameȱ time,ȱ i.e.ȱ the searchȱ forȱ meaningȱ andȱ change,ȱ andȱ thenȱ looksȱ atȱ theȱ connecȬ tionȱbetweenȱtheȱtwo.ȱTheȱsearchȱforȱmeaningȱrequiresȱconfirmȬ ation,ȱ whereasȱ changeȱ canȱ ensueȱ fromȱ thisȱ confirmation.ȱ The followingȱ caseȱ studiesȱ ofȱ twoȱ youngȱ Moroccanȱ womenȱ illusȬ trateȱtheseȱfindings. CaseȱStudies:ȱNadiaȱandȱFatima Nadia Nadiaȱwasȱ14ȱwhenȱIȱmetȱherȱinȱtheȱsecureȱjuvenileȱinstitution inȱwhichȱsheȱhadȱbeenȱplaced.ȱSheȱwasȱtheȱoldestȱdaughterȱofȱa Berberȱ familyȱ ofȱ fiveȱ childrenȱ (twoȱ daughters,ȱ oneȱ sonȱ and anotherȱtwoȱdaughters).ȱSheȱwasȱinȱtheȱsecondȱyearȱofȱpreȬvoȬ cationalȱsecondaryȱeducationȱ(VMBOȬt).ȱHerȱfatherȱhadȱattendȬ edȱprimaryȱschoolȱinȱMorocco,ȱhadȱlivedȱinȱtheȱNetherlandsȱfor twentyȱ years,ȱ spokeȱ Dutchȱ andȱ wasȱ aȱ productionȱ lineȱ worker. Herȱ motherȱ hadȱ comeȱ toȱ theȱ Netherlandsȱ later,ȱ wasȱ illiterate, spokeȱlittleȱDutchȱandȱworkedȱasȱaȱhousekeeper.ȱForȱmoreȱthan aȱ yearȱ Nadiaȱ hadȱ beenȱ anȱ offȬandȬonȱ runawayȱ andȱ hadȱ been

4

ȱTheȱexplanatoryȱmodelsȱbyȱKleinmanȱ(1980)ȱareȱparticularlyȱwell known.ȱButȱevenȱwithȱrespectȱtoȱtheseȱexplanatoryȱmodels,ȱtheȱquestion canȱbeȱaskedȱasȱtoȱhowȱchangeȱtakesȱplaceȱinȱtheȱdifferentȱexplanatory modelsȱandȱinȱrelationȱtoȱoneȱanother.

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engagedȱ inȱ prostitutionȱ viaȱ aȱ boyfriend.ȱ Sheȱ hadȱ oftenȱ been absentȱfromȱhomeȱatȱnight;ȱsheȱgotȱintoȱfightsȱwithȱherȱmother andȱ fledȱ atȱ timesȱ toȱ theȱ neighbors,ȱ whoȱ thenȱ calledȱ theȱ police. Sheȱ hadȱ runȱ awayȱ fromȱ aȱ fosterȱ familyȱ andȱ hasȱ nowȱ been placedȱunderȱsupervision. Sinceȱ Nadiaȱ startedȱ runningȱ away,ȱ herȱ parentsȱ haveȱ conȬ sultedȱdifferentȱtraditionalȱhealers.ȱInȱherȱparents’ȱeyes,ȱNadiaȇs behaviorȱwasȱtheȱresultȱofȱsorceryȱbroughtȱaboutȱbyȱoneȱofȱtheir acquaintancesȱ whoȱ wasȱ enviousȱ ofȱ them.ȱ Nadiaȱ hadȱ stayedȱ at hisȱ house.ȱ Sheȱ hadȱ sometimesȱ goneȱ withȱ herȱ parentsȱ toȱ these consultationsȱ withȱ theȱ healersȱ andȱ tookȱ partȱ inȱ theȱ rituals. Sometimesȱsheȱrefusedȱtoȱgoȱandȱremainedȱinȱtheȱcarȱinȱfrontȱof theȱ healer’sȱ houseȱ instead.ȱ Theȱ fatherȱ thenȱ sawȱ theȱ healerȱ and wasȱ givenȱ medicineȱ toȱ takeȱ backȱ homeȱ forȱ her.ȱ Theȱ family supervisorȱ sawȱ Nadiaȱ asȱ anȱ adolescentȱ whoȱ hadȱ beenȱ disciȬ plinedȱ tooȱ strictlyȱ andȱ wasȱ perhapsȱ evenȱ physicallyȱ beaten.ȱ A socialȱ workerȱ whoȱ knowsȱ theȱ familyȱ wellȱ suspectedȱ thatȱ she wasȱsufferingȱfromȱborderlineȱpersonalityȱdisorderȱandȱpseudologica fantastica. NadiaȇsȱparentsȱwantedȱtoȱtakeȱherȱtoȱMoroccoȱtoȱhaveȱher treatedȱbyȱaȱtraditionalȱhealer.ȱSinceȱsheȱhadȱbeenȱplacedȱunder supervision,ȱ theyȱ neededȱ theȱ permissionȱ ofȱ theȱ juvenileȱ court judgeȱ toȱ doȱ so.ȱ Butȱ theȱ judgeȱ wasȱ afraidȱ thatȱ theȱ fatherȱ would leaveȱherȱinȱMoroccoȱandȱthereforeȱrefusedȱtoȱgrantȱpermission. Soȱ Nadiaȱ wasȱ returnedȱ toȱ theȱ secureȱ institutionȱ andȱ thenȱ esȬ capedȱjustȱwhen,ȱaccordingȱtoȱtheȱgroupȱleader,ȱeverythingȱwas goingȱ veryȱ well.ȱ Threeȱ weeksȱ later,ȱ sheȱ calledȱ herȱ parentsȱ and askedȱ themȱ ifȱ sheȱ couldȱ comeȱ home.ȱ Theȱ fatherȱ tookȱ timeȱ off fromȱworkȱandȱtookȱherȱviaȱBrusselsȱtoȱMorocco,ȱwhereȱfamily tookȱ herȱ in.ȱ Theyȱ visitedȱ aȱ healerȱ onȱ variousȱ occasions.ȱ He treatedȱ Nadiaȱ usingȱ ritualsȱ andȱ medicines.ȱ Whenȱ sheȱ returned toȱ theȱ Netherlands,ȱ Nadiaȱ seemedȱ toȱ beȱ cured.ȱ Sheȱ wasȱ calm, foundȱ aȱ jobȱ andȱ startedȱ toȱ learnȱ Arabic.ȱ Theȱ familyȱ supervisor reportedȱpositivelyȱonȱher,ȱandȱtheȱjuvenileȱcourtȱjudgeȱdidȱnot thinkȱitȱwasȱnecessaryȱtoȱsummonȱNadiaȱtoȱappearȱbeforeȱhim. SheȱenrolledȱinȱanȱMBOȱ(basicȱvocationalȱtraining)ȱprogram. Afterȱtheȱsummerȱholidays,ȱNadiaȱbeganȱworkingȱatȱaȱteleȬ marketingȱoffice.ȱSheȱspentȱallȱtheȱmoneyȱsheȱearnedȱonȱclothes andȱwasȱrestlessȱandȱthin.ȱEventually,ȱsheȱranȱawayȱfromȱhome again.ȱTheȱparentsȱstillȱsuspectedȱsorceryȱwasȱbehindȱthis.ȱThe

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protectionȱagainstȱtheȱcurseȱthatȱtheyȱhadȱacquiredȱinȱMorocco hadȱlostȱitsȱpowerȱinȱtheȱNetherlands.ȱWithȱtheȱassistanceȱofȱthe socialȱ worker,ȱ theyȱ beganȱ toȱ realizeȱ thatȱ thisȱ courseȱ ofȱ action wasȱ notȱ producingȱ anyȱ results.ȱ Theyȱ cameȱ toȱ realizeȱ thatȱ their daughterȱhadȱpsychologicalȱproblemsȱthatȱneededȱtreatment. Weȱ canȱ seeȱ thatȱ thereȱ areȱ differentȱ perspectivesȱ regarding Nadia’sȱproblems.ȱTheȱsupervisorȱsawȱNadia’sȱbehaviorȱasȱnorȬ malȱ adolescentȱ behavior,ȱ whereasȱ theȱ socialȱ workerȱ andȱ her parentsȱ suspectedȱ thatȱ thereȱ wasȱ aȱ moreȱ seriousȱ problem.ȱ The juvenileȱ courtȱ judgeȱ hadȱ forbiddenȱ aȱ visitȱ toȱ Moroccoȱ because heȱ didȱ notȱ trustȱ theȱ father,ȱ evenȱ thoughȱ theȱ fatherȱ wouldȱ do anythingȱ forȱ her.ȱ Theȱ parentsȱ feltȱ thatȱ theyȱ wereȱ beingȱ saboȬ tagedȱbyȱtheȱDutchȱyouthȱwelfareȱassistance. Theȱ parentsȱ explainedȱ theirȱ viewsȱ inȱ termsȱ ofȱ sorceryȱ and soughtȱaȱcureȱfromȱaȱtraditionalȱhealer.ȱThisȱsolutionȱisȱcontroȬ versialȱ withinȱ theȱ Moroccanȱ community.ȱ Membersȱ ofȱ the mosqueȱwhereȱherȱfatherȱpraysȱmadeȱitȱclearȱthat,ȱaccordingȱto theȱ Koran,ȱ oneȱ shouldȱ notȱ combatȱ sorceryȱ throughȱ traditional healers.ȱ Oneȱ shouldȱ fightȱ sorceryȱ byȱ followingȱ theȱ rightȱ path, byȱ embracingȱ Islam.ȱ Assistanceȱ receivedȱ fromȱ medicalȱ doctors fitsȱ withinȱ thisȱ orthodoxȱ viewȱ becauseȱ theȱ latterȱ haveȱ received theirȱgiftȱfromȱGod. TheȱfamilyȱinȱMoroccoȱ tookȱNadiaȱinȱandȱmadeȱitȱclearȱto herȱ that,ȱ despiteȱ herȱ shamefulȱ behavior,ȱ sheȱ wasȱ aȱ memberȱ of theȱfamily.ȱTheȱexplanationȱthatȱthisȱbehaviorȱwasȱtheȱresultȱof sorceryȱprovidedȱtheȱopportunityȱtoȱabsolveȱNadiaȱofȱblameȱas anȱindividual—afterȱall,ȱtheȱcauseȱwasȱexternal.ȱOverȱtheȱcourse ofȱtime,ȱtheȱparentsȱchangedȱfromȱinterpretingȱtheirȱdaughter’s deviantȱ behaviorȱ inȱ theȱ termsȱ providedȱ byȱ folkȱ religionȱ to understandingȱitȱinȱaȱwayȱmoreȱcompatibleȱwithȱtheȱviewȱheld byȱofficialȱIslamȱandȱwithinȱwhichȱthereȱwasȱroomȱforȱWestern medicalȱ assistance:ȱ i.e.ȱ sorceryȱ becomesȱ aȱ psychologicalȱ probȬ lem.ȱEvenȱthoughȱtheyȱacceptedȱaȱmedicalȱexplanation,ȱherȱparȬ entsȱdidȱnotȱabandonȱtheirȱbeliefȱinȱsorcery.ȱTheyȱsimplyȱadded somethingȱ toȱ theirȱ interpretation,ȱ i.e.ȱ theȱ possibilityȱ thatȱ there wasȱaȱpsychologicalȱproblem. Fatima Fatimaȱ wasȱ theȱ youngestȱ daughterȱ ofȱ firstȱ generationȱ immiȬ grants,ȱbothȱofȱwhomȱhadȱhadȱlittleȱeducation.ȱHerȱolderȱsisters wereȱ marriedȱ andȱ livedȱ inȱ theȱ neighborhood.ȱ Asȱ theȱ youngest

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daughter,ȱ Fatimaȱ hadȱ alwaysȱ hadȱ aȱ specialȱ relationshipȱ with herȱ father—daddyȇsȱ littleȱ girl.ȱ Sheȱ wasȱ 14ȱ yearsȱ oldȱ andȱ folȬ lowedȱ theȱ lowerȱ preȬvocationalȱ secondaryȱ educationȱ (VMBOȬt program).ȱ Atȱaȱyoungȱage,ȱFatimaȱhadȱbeenȱinvolvedȱinȱaȱseriousȱcar accidentȱandȱhadȱhadȱaȱnearȬdeathȱexperience.ȱAfterwards,ȱshe wasȱ veryȱ approachableȱ butȱ engagedȱ inȱ extremeȱ behavior. Strangeȱ thingsȱ happenedȱ atȱ school:ȱ sheȱ fainted,ȱ oftenȱ talked aboutȱ theȱ fearȱ ofȱ deathȱ andȱ usedȱ drugsȱ likeȱ hashȱ andȱ XTC. Withoutȱ consultingȱ herȱ parents,ȱ theȱ schoolȱ calledȱ inȱ theȱ local RIAGGȱ (regionalȱ instituteȱ forȱ mentalȱ health).ȱ Theȱ parentsȱ susȬ pectedȱ thatȱ sheȱ wasȱ possessedȱ byȱ spiritsȱ andȱ inȱ theȱ meantime triedȱ toȱ consultȱ aȱ traditionalȱ healer.ȱ Theyȱ broughtȱ aȱ powerful healerȱ fromȱ Morocco,ȱ whichȱ costȱ themȱ aȱ greatȱ dealȱ ofȱ money. Theyȱ informedȱ theȱ psychiatristȱ atȱ theȱ RIAGGȱ inȱ chargeȱ ofȱ FaȬ tima’sȱtreatmentȱaboutȱthis.ȱSheȱtoldȱthemȱthatȱitȱwasȱtheirȱdeȬ cisionȱ toȱ tryȱ thisȱ formȱ ofȱ assistanceȱ andȱ saidȱ thatȱ sheȱ didȱ not wantȱtoȱgetȱinvolvedȱinȱit.ȱ Theȱtraditionalȱhealerȱarrivedȱandȱvisitedȱtheȱfamilyȱhome inȱ orderȱ toȱ conductȱ theȱ necessaryȱ ceremony.ȱ Theȱ parentsȱ were orderedȱ toȱ keepȱ theirȱ daughterȱ insideȱ forȱ fourteenȱ days.ȱ The homeȱwasȱmadeȱsecureȱforȱthisȱpurposeȱandȱoneȱofȱtheȱparents remainedȱwithȱFatimaȱconstantlyȱsoȱthatȱsheȱwouldȱkeepȱtoȱthe therapeuticȱ regime.ȱ Theyȱ reportedȱ herȱ atȱ schoolȱ asȱ sick,ȱ and cancelledȱ herȱ appointmentȱ atȱ theȱ RIAGG.ȱ Butȱ theȱ receptionist whoȱtookȱtheȱmessageȱfailedȱtoȱpassȱitȱon.ȱTheȱpsychiatristȱwho wasȱ treatingȱ herȱ claimedȱ thatȱ theȱ parentsȱ wereȱ notȱ keepingȱ to theirȱagreementȱandȱwentȱtoȱtheȱfamilyȱhome.ȱThereȱsheȱfound aȱ subduedȱ andȱ indolentȱ Fatimaȱ whoȱ wasȱ beingȱ keptȱ locked inside.ȱ Anȱ argumentȱ ensued.ȱ Theȱ parentsȱ wantedȱ toȱ keepȱ folȬ lowingȱ theȱ ordersȱ ofȱ theȱ healerȱ whileȱ theȱ psychiatristȱ assessed theȱsituationȱasȱurgentȱandȱwantedȱtoȱtakeȱFatimaȱandȱplaceȱher inȱ care.ȱ Theȱ psychiatristȱ feltȱ threatenedȱ andȱ calledȱ theȱ police. Theȱ policeȱ arrivedȱ and,ȱ whileȱ severalȱ neighborsȱ watched,ȱ took Fatimaȱintoȱcustodyȱandȱtookȱherȱtoȱaȱshelter.ȱTheȱparentsȱwere notȱ toldȱ whereȱ theirȱ daughterȱ hadȱ beenȱ taken.ȱ Fatimaȇsȱ sisters thenȱthreatenedȱtheȱhealthȱworkerȱbyȱtelephoneȱandȱtheȱconflict escalated.ȱ Fatimaȱ herselfȱ didȱ notȱ thinkȱ thatȱ sheȱ wasȱ sickȱ or neededȱ help.ȱ Sheȱ wasȱ thenȱ givenȱ permissionȱ toȱ goȱ toȱ Morocco onȱholidayȱandȱtoȱstayȱwithȱtheȱfamilyȱthere.

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Moreȱthanȱever,ȱtheȱfamilyȱwasȱconvincedȱatȱthisȱpointȱthat Fatimaȇsȱ problemȱ wasȱ theȱ resultȱ ofȱ sorceryȱ andȱ spiritȱ possesȬ sion.ȱ Theȱ investmentȱ theyȱ hadȱ madeȱ inȱ theȱ traditionalȱ healer hadȱbeenȱwastedȱandȱtheȱgoodȱheȱhadȱdoneȱhadȱbeenȱruinedȱby theȱDutchȱpsychiatrist.ȱTheirȱlackȱofȱunderstandingȱforȱtheȱconȬ ductȱofȱtheȱpsychiatristȱwasȱenormous.ȱTheȱeverȬpresentȱfearȱof MoroccanȱparentsȱthatȱDutchȱwelfareȱworkersȱandȱpoliceȱwould takeȱ theirȱ childrenȱ awayȱ fromȱ themȱ hadȱ actuallyȱ beenȱ conȬ firmed.ȱ Inȱ theȱ end,ȱ evenȱ theȱ Dutchȱ socialȱ assistanceȱ system couldȱnotȱprovideȱaȱrealisticȱtherapy. Theȱ viewsȱ ofȱ thoseȱ involvedȱ differedȱ inȱ thisȱ caseȱ asȱ well. Theȱ parentsȱ understoodȱ theirȱ daughter’sȱ behaviorȱ inȱ termsȱ of spiritȱpossessionȱandȱsorcery.ȱThisȱcombinationȱindicatedȱthatȱit wasȱ aȱ veryȱ seriousȱ matterȱ forȱ theȱ parents.ȱ Stermanȱ (1996)ȱ calls thisȱ explanationȱ attribution.ȱ Anthropologistsȱ speakȱ ofȱ illness. TheȱexplanationsȱofȱsorceryȱandȱspiritȱpossessionȱfitȱintoȱaȱrelaȬ tionalȱworldviewȱthatȱisȱcharacteristicȱofȱpopularȱIslamicȱbelief inȱ northernȱ Morocco.ȱ Thisȱ viewȱ statesȱ thatȱ evilȱ powersȱ come fromȱoutside.ȱThisȱisȱparticularlyȱtrueȱinȱrespectȱofȱsorcery.ȱOn theȱotherȱhand,ȱspirits,ȱwhichȱareȱalsoȱmentionedȱinȱtheȱKoran, areȱ moreȱ diffuse.ȱ Forȱ protectionȱ andȱ exorcismȱ peopleȱ consult theȱfqih,ȱaȱtraditionalȱhealerȱwhoȱconductsȱritualsȱandȱprovides medicinesȱand/orȱamuletsȱ(seeȱHofferȱ1994,ȱ2000).ȱ Analysis WhatȱcanȱtheȱcasesȱofȱFatimaȱandȱNadiaȱteachȱusȱaboutȱtheȱefȬ fectȱofȱevilȱandȱtheȱproblemȱofȱMoroccanȱgirlsȱinȱtheȱDutchȱsoȬ cialȱwelfareȱandȱmedicalȱsystem?ȱToȱanswerȱthis,ȱweȱmustȱfirst ascertainȱ whoȱ theȱ victimȱ ofȱ thisȱ evilȱ is.ȱ Beliefȱ inȱ spiritȱ possesȬ sionȱ andȱ sorceryȱ occursȱ inȱ Northȱ Africa,ȱ fromȱ Moroccoȱ toȱ SoȬ malia.ȱ Itȱ affectsȱ groupsȱ inȱ weakȱ positionsȱ primarily.ȱ Inȱ hisȱ reȬ searchȱintoȱzarȱpossessionȱinȱSomalia,ȱLewisȱ(1971)ȱcameȱtoȱthe conclusionȱthatȱitȱaffectsȱprimarilyȱwomenȱandȱthoseȱmenȱwho areȱseenȱasȱsocialȱfailures.ȱWilsonȱ(1967)ȱandȱBoddyȱ(1989)ȱalso sawȱ thisȱ differenceȱ withȱ regardȱ toȱ theȱ theȱ sexesȱ inȱ zarȱ possesȬ sion.ȱAndȱinȱMoroccoȱandȱTunesia,ȱitȱisȱprimarilyȱwomenȱwho areȱtheȱvictimsȱofȱjnunȱ(Bartelsȱ1993).ȱTheȱlocalȱpopulationȱholds theȱsameȱview.ȱTheȱexplanationȱforȱthisȱcanȱbeȱfoundȱinȱtheȱrole ofȱ women.ȱ Becauseȱ ofȱ theȱ natureȱ ofȱ theirȱ work,ȱ e.g.ȱ when startingȱ aȱ fireȱ inȱ theȱ hearth,ȱ tendingȱ theȱ garden,ȱ womenȱ runȱ a greaterȱriskȱofȱconfrontingȱjnunȱthanȱmenȱdo,ȱandȱbecauseȱthey

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haveȱtoȱdealȱwithȱwasteȱandȱblood.ȱTheyȱfallȱvictimȱmoreȱoften becauseȱ ofȱ theȱ naturalȱ processesȱ ofȱ theȱ femaleȱ body,ȱ i.e.ȱ menȬ struationȱ andȱ birth.ȱ Jnunȱ areȱ aȱ threatȱ primarilyȱ inȱ transitional situationsȱ whenȱ bloodȱ flows.ȱ Pregnantȱ womenȱ andȱ women whoȱhaveȱjustȱgivenȱbirthȱareȱmoreȱoftenȱtormentedȱbyȱspirits. Itȱ isȱ theȱ socialȱ positionȱ ofȱ theȱ victimsȱ ofȱ spiritȱ possession thatȱmakesȱitȱpossibleȱtoȱmakeȱaȱsocialȱscientificȱanalysis.ȱInȱthis context,ȱ Lewisȱ (1971)ȱ speaksȱ ofȱ possessionȱ byȱ zarȱ spiritsȱ asȱ a warȱwagedȱbetweenȱtheȱsexes.ȱPossessionȱisȱaȱstrategyȱthatȱwoȬ menȱuseȱtoȱovercomeȱtheȱconsequencesȱofȱtheirȱsubordinateȱpoȬ sition.ȱThroughȱspiritȱpossession,ȱwomenȱcanȱforceȱmenȱtoȱtake themȱ intoȱ consideration.ȱ Wilsonȱ (1967)ȱ criticizesȱ thisȱ approach andȱindicatesȱhowȱspiritȱpossessionȱworksȱbetweenȱmembersȱof theȱ sameȱ sex.ȱ Boddyȱ (1989)ȱ andȱ Sengersȱ (2003)ȱ emphasizeȱ that thisȱ principleȱ ofȱ conflictȱ betweenȱ theȱ sexesȱ (Lewis)ȱ orȱ between womenȱ(Wilson)ȱisȱtooȱanchoredȱinȱtheȱWesternȱconceptȱofȱindiȬ vidualismȱ andȱ thatȱ spiritȱ possessionȱ isȱ tooȱ complexȱ toȱ beȱ exȬ plainedȱfromȱthisȱsociologicalȱperspective.ȱMorseyȱ(1978)ȱrelates theȱdifferenceȱbetweenȱtheȱsexesȱinȱtheȱpreventionȱofȱspiritȱposȬ sessionȱinȱEgyptȱnotȱtoȱconflictȱbutȱratherȱtoȱdifferencesȱinȱpowȬ er.ȱDifferencesȱinȱpowerȱareȱnotȱstaticȱbutȱshiftȱwithȱchangesȱin theȱlifeȱcyclesȱofȱindividualsȱandȱdevelopmentsȱwithinȱtheȱfamiȬ liesȱ ofȱ whichȱ theȱ individualsȱ areȱ aȱ part.ȱ Butȱ possessionȱ canȱ be seenȱinȱaȱbroaderȱlightȱifȱpowerȱisȱmadeȱcentral.ȱRatherȱthanȱbeȬ ingȱ aboutȱ winnersȱ orȱ losers,ȱ itȱ isȱ aboutȱ “exercisingȱ influence” andȱthisȱpointȱofȱdepartureȱisȱlessȱethnoȬcentricȱthanȱconflict.ȱA similarȱ viewȱ canȱ beȱ developedȱ forȱ sorcery.ȱ Itȱ isȱ primarily womenȱwhoȱareȱaccusedȱofȱsorceryȱandȱmenȱalsoȱfearȱit.ȱInȱliterȬ ature,ȱsorceryȱorȱwitchcraftȱisȱseenȱasȱaȱformȱofȱ“femaleȱpower,” basedȱ onȱ aȱ unequalȱ genderȱ relationȱ (Ferchiouȱ 1989).ȱ Howȱ can weȱ useȱ thisȱ interpretation?ȱ Nadiaȱ andȱ Fatimaȱ areȱ twoȱ “female youngȱpeople.”ȱWeȱcanȱperhapsȱseeȱthisȱevilȱasȱaȱformȱofȱ“adolȬ escenceȱpower”ȱorȱ“youthȱpower,”ȱbasedȱonȱaȱunequalȱgeneraȬ tionȱrelation. ConflictsȱbetweenȱGenerations Byȱ meansȱ ofȱ theȱ above,ȱ spiritȱ possessionȱ andȱ sorceryȱ canȱ be placedȱwithinȱtheȱcontextȱofȱhumanȱrelationships.ȱButȱthisȱdoes notȱ provideȱ anyȱ answerȱ toȱ theȱ questionȱ ofȱ whatȱ isȱ actually beingȱmanifestedȱthroughȱspiritȱpossessionȱandȱsorcery.ȱTurner

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(1967)ȱstatesȱthatȱsymbolsȱhaveȱanȱexpressiveȱdimensionȱandȱan instrumentalȱ dimension.ȱ Theȱ instrumentalȱ dimensionȱ isȱ anȱ exȬ tensionȱofȱtheȱexerciseȱofȱpower.ȱTheȱexpressiveȱdimensionȱadȬ dressesȱ whatȱ peopleȱ wantȱ toȱ communicateȱ viaȱ symbols;ȱ inȱ the casesȱofȱNadiaȱandȱFatimaȱitȱwasȱtheȱexpressionȱofȱtheirȱsocial problems. Inȱ myȱ searchȱ forȱ theȱ “message”ȱ inȱ theȱ socialȱ problemsȱ of NadiaȱandȱFatima,ȱexpressedȱthroughȱspiritȱpossessionȱandȱsorȬ cery,ȱ Iȱ discoveredȱ thatȱ generationalȱ problemsȱ existȱ withinȱ the contextȱ ofȱ Moroccansȱ inȱ theȱ Netherlandsȱ asȱ anȱ ethnicȱ group. TheseȱproblemsȱconcernȱMoroccansȱasȱanȱethnicȱgroupȱandȱnot asȱ immigrants.ȱ Bothȱ girlsȱ haveȱ livedȱ inȱ theȱ Netherlandsȱ from birthȱandȱthusȱcannotȱbeȱcalledȱimmigrantsȱwithȱrespectȱtoȱtheir problems.ȱFromȱanȱanthropologicalȱperspective,ȱtheȱexpression ofȱbeingȱ“caughtȱbetweenȱtwoȱcultures”ȱcannotȱbeȱusedȱeither, evenȱ thoughȱ youngȱ peopleȱ themselvesȱ useȱ thisȱ explanation, whichȱ meansȱ thatȱ youngȱ peopleȱ liveȱ inȱ aȱ kindȱ ofȱ “noȬman’s land.”ȱ Thisȱ view—whichȱ holdsȱ thatȱ immigrantsȱ areȱ noȱ longer completelyȱbutȱonlyȱpartlyȱatȱhomeȱinȱtheirȱcountryȱofȱoriginȱor inȱ theirȱ countryȱ ofȱ residence—impliesȱ aȱ staticȱ conceptȱ ofȱ culȬ ture,ȱ i.e.ȱ cultureȱ asȱ somethingȱ withȱ bordersȱ thatȱ peopleȱ enter andȱ leave.ȱ Inȱ fact,ȱ cultureȱ isȱ moreȱ aȱ continuousȱ processȱ of findingȱ meaningȱ inȱ life,ȱ theȱ courseȱ ofȱ whichȱ isȱ determinedȱ by theȱcohesionȱofȱrelatedȱbitsȱofȱmeaningȱ(Bartelsȱ1993:ȱ71).ȱUnlike Dutchȱ families,ȱ immigrantȱ familiesȱ areȱ orientedȱ towardȱ differȬ entȱculturalȱsystems.ȱTheyȱdoȱnotȱliveȱbetweenȱcultures;ȱrather, theyȱ takeȱ partȱ inȱ severalȱ culturalȱ systems.ȱ Thisȱ isȱ notȱ extraorȬ dinary.ȱMostȱpeopleȱparticipateȱinȱseveralȱ(sub)cultures.ȱButȱfor Moroccanȱ youngȱ people,ȱ itȱ isȱ significantȱ thatȱ theȱ culturesȱ in whichȱtheyȱtakeȱpartȱnotȱonlyȱdifferȱbutȱalsoȱareȱopposedȱtoȱone anotherȱonȱmanyȱpointsȱ(Tennekesȱ1990:ȱ158). Spiritȱ possessionȱ andȱ sorcery,ȱ asȱ anȱ expressionȱ ofȱ generaȬ tionalȱ problemsȱ withinȱ theȱ contextȱ ofȱ anȱ ethnicȱ group,ȱ makeȱ it clearȱthatȱitȱisȱimportantȱtoȱdelineateȱboundaries.ȱEthnicȱgroups areȱgroupsȱinȱwhichȱtheȱpeopleȱinvolvedȱseeȱthemselvesȱasȱbeȬ ingȱdifferentȱfromȱthoseȱoutsideȱtheȱgroupȱandȱareȱseenȱasȱbeing differentȱ byȱ thoseȱ othersȱ basedȱ onȱ culturalȱ characteristics,ȱ reliȬ gion,ȱlanguageȱandȱheritage.ȱFromȱthisȱperspective,ȱethnicityȱis somethingȱdifferentȱfromȱculture:ȱitȱisȱnotȱaboutȱcultureȱasȱsuch butȱ ratherȱ aboutȱ theȱ functionȱ ofȱ culturalȱ characteristicsȱ inȱ reȬ

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lationshipsȱ betweenȱ groups.ȱ Ethnicityȱ demarcatesȱ boundaries betweenȱgroups.ȱWithinȱthemȱtheȱdifferencesȱorȱopposedȱcharȬ acteristicsȱareȱimportant.ȱToȱmaintainȱitselfȱasȱaȱgroup,ȱtheȱolder generationȱmustȱretainȱpossessionȱofȱyoungȱpeople.ȱSoȱitȱisȱimȬ portantȱforȱMoroccanȱparentsȱthatȱtheirȱchildrenȱcontinueȱtoȱfeel MoroccanȱandȱmaintainȱtheȱdifferencesȱbetweenȱtheȱDutchȱpopȬ ulationȱandȱtheȱMoroccanȱcommunity. Theȱ positionȱ ofȱ bothȱ Nadiaȱ andȱ Fatima,ȱ whoȱ are,ȱ respecȬ tively,ȱtheȱoldestȱandȱyoungestȱdaughtersȱinȱlargeȱfamilies,ȱcan beȱcharacterizedȱinsideȱbothȱtheseȱfamiliesȱasȱtheȱ“appleȱofȱtheir father’sȱeye.”ȱBothȱgirlsȱareȱadolescentsȱandȱcanȱnoȱlongerȱconȬ tinueȱinȱthisȱrole.ȱTheȱphysicalȱdevelopmentȱofȱgirlsȱatȱthisȱage requiresȱ distanceȱ fromȱ theȱ fathersȱ andȱ fromȱ otherȱ menȱ and boys.ȱTheȱconductȱandȱtheȱreputationȱofȱdaughtersȱȱdetermines theȱ positionȱ ofȱ theȱ fathersȱ inȱ theȱ widerȱ Moroccanȱ community. BothȱgirlsȱfindȱthemselvesȱinȱaȱtransitionalȱsituationȱthatȱcanȱalȬ soȱbeȱdeterminantȱforȱtheirȱparticipationȱinȱtheȱMoroccanȱcomȬ munity. Inȱherȱparents’ȱeyes,ȱNadiaȱisȱdisplayingȱ“Dutch”ȱbehavior. Thatȱisȱalsoȱtheȱviewȱofȱtheȱfamilyȱsupervisor.ȱȱSheȱoccasionally staysȱoutȱatȱnightȱandȱspendsȱtimeȱwithȱboys.ȱAccordingȱtoȱthe familyȱsupervisor,ȱsheȱisȱaȱdifficultȱadolescentȱwhoȱneedsȱtoȱbe givenȱ someȱ space.ȱ Inȱ herȱ parents’ȱ view,ȱ herȱ reputationȱ asȱ a virginȱhasȱbeenȱdamaged,ȱasȱaȱresultȱofȱwhichȱtheȱhonorȱofȱher fatherȱ andȱ herȱ familyȱ hasȱ beenȱ besmirched.ȱ Sheȱ hasȱ alsoȱ been calledȱaȱ“whore.”ȱBecauseȱofȱthisȱreputation,ȱherȱsisterȱhasȱbeen ostracizedȱ byȱ otherȱ Moroccanȱ youngȱ peopleȱ atȱ school.ȱ Nadia saysȱ thatȱ runningȱ awayȱ isȱ anȱ internalȱ impulseȱ thatȱ sheȱ cannot fight.ȱ Byȱ identifyingȱ theȱ sourceȱ ofȱ theȱ problemȱ asȱ sorcery,ȱ itȱ is possibleȱ forȱ theȱ parentsȱ toȱ placeȱ theȱ causeȱ ofȱ thisȱ behaviorȱ beȬ yondȱ theirȱ ownȱ responsibility,ȱ thatȱ ofȱ theirȱ family,ȱ extended familyȱandȱNadia’sȱresponsibility.ȱInȱthisȱwayȱtheyȱcanȱabsolve Nadiaȱ ofȱ guiltȱ andȱ enableȱ herȱ toȱ remainȱ aȱ partȱ ofȱ theȱ family, bothȱ hereȱ andȱ inȱ Morocco.ȱ Atȱ theȱ sameȱ time,ȱ theyȱ showȱ that theyȱ areȱ stillȱ Moroccanȱ andȱ haveȱ notȱ becomeȱ Dutch.ȱ Theyȱ are thusȱ successfulȱ inȱ continuingȱ toȱ functionȱ withinȱ theȱ Moroccan community.ȱ Theȱ supervisingȱ socialȱ workerȱ triesȱ toȱ includeȱ the interpretationȱofȱtheȱparentsȱinȱtheȱsocialȱwelfareȱassistanceȱproȬ videdȱinȱorderȱtoȱhelpȱthemȱseeȱotherȱpossibleȱcausesȱofȱNadiaȇs

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behavior.ȱ Nadiaȱ remainsȱ inȱ theȱ Netherlandsȱ andȱ continuesȱ to experienceȱproblems. Inȱherȱparents’ȱeyes,ȱFatimaȱisȱdisplayingȱ“Dutch”ȱbehavior asȱ well.ȱ Sheȱ wantsȱ considerableȱ freedomȱ toȱ experimentȱ with otherȱyoungȱpeopleȱandȱdrugs.ȱToȱaȱcertainȱextent,ȱsheȱhasȱbeen excusedȱ becauseȱ ofȱ herȱ experienceȱ asȱ aȱ child.ȱ Fatima’sȱ reputaȬ tionȱisȱinȱdanger.ȱTheȱparentsȱthinkȱsheȱhasȱaȱveryȱseriousȱprobȬ lemȱandȱ thusȱbringȱ inȱaȱ powerfulȱtraditionalȱ healerȱ fromȱMorȬ occo,ȱtherebyȱredeemingȱtheȱfamily’sȱhonor.ȱTheyȱalsoȱfollowed theȱ school’sȱ recommendationsȱ toȱ contactȱ theȱ RIAGG,ȱ thus maintainingȱ theirȱ tiesȱ toȱ Dutchȱ society.ȱ Theyȱ behaveȱ likeȱ reȬ sponsibleȱ parents,ȱ inȱ theȱ eyesȱ ofȱ bothȱ Moroccansȱ andȱ Dutch people.ȱButȱdueȱtoȱtheȱactionsȱtakenȱbyȱtheȱDutchȱpsychiatrist, theyȱ canȱ noȱ longerȱ followȱ theȱ directionȱ thatȱ Dutchȱ societyȱ has indicatedȱandȱtheyȱreturnȱtoȱtheȱideaȱthatȱevilȱhasȱcausedȱtheir daughterȇsȱproblems.ȱFinally,ȱFatimaȱreturnsȱtoȱMorocco. Conclusion InȱtheȱviewȱofȱMoroccanȱimmigrantȱparents,ȱtheȱsourceȱofȱprobȬ lemsȱ withȱ theirȱ childrenȱ liesȱ inȱ externalȱ evilȱ powers.ȱ Withȱ this wayȱofȱthinking,ȱtheyȱareȱableȱtoȱkeepȱtheirȱchildrenȱwithinȱthe familyȱ andȱ ethnicȱ group.ȱ Theȱ childrenȱ areȱ alsoȱ absolvedȱ ofȱ reȬ sponsibilityȱ forȱ theirȱ actionsȱ inȱ thisȱ way.ȱ Dutchȱ socialȱ workers workȱfromȱtheȱviewpointȱofȱanȱindividualȱbiomedicalȱmodelȱin whichȱthereȱisȱnoȱplaceȱforȱtheȱevilȱpowersȱofȱpopularȱreligion. ButȱifȱDutchȱsocialȱworkersȱandȱmedicalȱpractitionersȱintroduce theȱideaȱofȱillnessȱinȱtheȱassistanceȱtheyȱprovideȱandȱtheȱparents offerȱ confirmation,ȱ then,ȱ asȱ Deȱ Ruijterȱ argues,ȱ theyȱ canȱ atȱ the sameȱtimeȱperhapsȱbringȱaboutȱaȱchangeȱinȱthinkingȱonȱtheȱpart ofȱtheȱparents.ȱConfirmationȱrequiresȱacceptanceȱandȱremoving theȱ distinctionsȱ betweenȱ diseaseȱ andȱ illnessȱ soȱ thatȱ clientsȱ can graduallyȱ changeȱ theirȱ thinkingȱ aboutȱ theȱ evilȱ theyȱ perceive, thusȱ makingȱ assistanceȱ providedȱ byȱ Dutchȱ socialȱ andȱ medical workersȱpossible. Bibliography Bartels,ȱEdien.ȱ(1993).ȱ“Eénȱdochterȱisȱbeterȱdanȱduizendȱzonen.”ȱArabische vrouwen,ȱsymbolenȱenȱmachtsverhoudingenȱtussenȱdeȱseksen.ȱUtrecht: JanȱvanȱArkel.

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Boddy,ȱJanice.ȱ(1989).ȱWombsȱandȱAlienȱSpirits:ȱWomen,ȱMen,ȱandȱtheȱZar CultȱinȱNorthernȱSudan.ȱWisconsinȱandȱLondon:ȱTheȱUniversityȱof WisconsinȱPress. DeȱRuijter,ȱA.ȱ(1998)ȱ“Invoegenȱenȱuitsluiten;ȱdeȱsamenlevingȱalsȱareȬ na.”ȱ In:ȱ C.H.M.ȱ Geuijenȱ (ed.).ȱ Multiculturalisme.ȱ Utrecht:ȱ Lemma BV. Ferchiou,ȱSophie.ȱ(1989).ȱ“Pouvoir,ȱcontreȬpouvoirȱetȱsociétéȱenȱmutaȬ tion:ȱ l’exempleȱ tunisien.”ȱ In:ȱ Femmesȱ etȱ Pouvoir.ȱ Peuplesȱ MéȬ diterranéensȱ48Ȭ49:ȱ81Ȭ93. Hoffer,ȱ C.B.M.ȱ (1994).ȱ Islamitischeȱ genezersȱ enȱ hunȱ patiënten.ȱ GezondȬ heidszorg,ȱreligieȱenȱzingeving.ȱAmsterdam:ȱHetȱSpinhuis. (2000).ȱVolksgeloofȱenȱreligieuzeȱgeneeswijzenȱonderȱmoslimsȱinȱNederȬ land.ȱAmsterdam:ȱThelaȱThesis. (2004).ȱGGZ,ȱreligieȱenȱallochtoneȱcliënten.ȱIslamitischeȱvisiesȱalsȱvoorȬ beeld.ȱUtrecht:ȱGGZȱNederland.ȱ Kleinman,ȱ A.ȱ (1980).ȱ Patientsȱ andȱ Healersȱ inȱ theȱ Contextȱ ofȱ Culture:ȱ An Explorationȱ ofȱ theȱ Borderlandȱ betweenȱ Anthropology,ȱ Medicineȱ and Psychiatry.ȱBerkeley:ȱUniversityȱofȱCaliforniaȱPress. Lewis,ȱ Ioanȱ M.ȱ (1971).ȱ Ecstaticȱ Religion:ȱ Anȱ Anthropologicalȱ Studyȱ of SpiritȱPossessionȱandȱShamanism.ȱHarmondsworth:ȱPenguin. Morsey,ȱSoheirȱA.ȱ(1978).ȱ“SexȱDifferencesȱandȱFolkȱIllnessȱinȱanȱEgypȬ tianȱVillage.”ȱIn:ȱLoisȱBeckȱandȱNikkiȱKeddieȱ(eds).ȱWomenȱinȱthe MuslimȱWorld.ȱCambridge:ȱHarvardȱUniversityȱPress.ȱPp.ȱ599Ȭ617. Richters,ȱA.ȱ(1996).ȱ“Medischeȱenȱpsychiatrischeȱantropologie:ȱeenȱterȬ reinverkenning.”ȱIn:ȱJ.ȱdeȱJongeȱandȱM.ȱvanȱdenȱBergȱ(eds).ȱTransȬ cultureleȱ Psychiatrieȱ enȱ Psychotherapie.ȱ Handboekȱ voorȱ hulpverlening enȱbeleid.ȱLisse:ȱSwetsȱ&ȱZeitlinger. Sengers,ȱ Gerda.ȱ (2003).ȱ Womenȱ andȱ Demons:ȱ Cultȱ Healingȱ inȱ Islamic Egypt.ȱ Internationalȱ Studiesȱ inȱ Sociologyȱ andȱ Socialȱ AnthropoloȬ gyȱSeries.ȱVolȱ86.ȱLeiden:ȱBrill. Sterman,ȱ D.ȱ (1996).ȱ Eenȱ olijfboomȱ opȱ deȱ ijsberg.ȱ Transcultureelȱ psychiȬ atrischeȱ visieȱ opȱ enȱ behandelingȱ vanȱ deȱ problemenȱ vanȱ jongeȱ NoordȬ Afrikanenȱ enȱ hunȱ families.ȱ Utrecht:ȱ Nederlandsȱ Centrumȱ BuitenȬ landers. Tennekes,ȱJ.ȱ(1990).ȱDeȱonbekendeȱdimensie.ȱOverȱcultuur,ȱcultuurverschilȬ lenȱenȱmacht.ȱApeldoorn/Louvain:ȱAcco. Turner,ȱV.ȱ(1967).ȱTheȱForestȱofȱSymbols.ȱIthaca:ȱCornellȱGarantȱUniverȬ sityȱPress. Wilson,ȱ Peter.ȱ (1967).ȱ “Statusȱ Ambiguityȱ andȱ Spiritȱ Possession.”ȱ Man 2:ȱ366Ȭ78.

ConqueringȱSatan,ȱDemons,ȱPrincipalities, andȱPowers GhanaianȱTraditionalȱandȱChristianȱPerspectivesȱon Religion,ȱEvil,ȱandȱDeliverance J.ȱKwabenaȱAsamoahȬGyadu

Abstract Thisȱ paperȱ discussesȱ someȱ ofȱ theȱ innovativeȱ religiousȱ responsesȱ toȱ evilȱ in Ghanaianȱ life.ȱ Itȱ focusesȱ onȱ howȱ indigenousȱ Christianity,ȱ oftenȱ inspiredȱ by Pentecostal/Charismaticȱpiety,ȱhasȱappropriatedȱAfricanȱtraditionalȱreligious worldviewsȱ ofȱ soȬcalledȱ mysticalȱ causalityȱ inȱ theȱ searchȱ forȱ answersȱ toȱ the mysteriesȱofȱlife.ȱThisȱpaperȱrelatesȱtwoȱrealȱincidentsȱfromȱtheȱtraditionalȱreȬ ligiousȱandȱChristianȱcontextsȱinȱGhanaȱtoȱillustrateȱhowȱAfricansȱgenerally interpretȱ andȱ thenȱ searchȱ forȱ solutionsȱ toȱ misfortunesȱ inȱ theȱ religiousȱ and theologicalȱ realmsȱ ofȱ life.ȱ Itȱ furtherȱ describesȱ howȱ Ghanaianȱ Christians,ȱ in desperateȱ searchesȱ forȱ ayaresaȱ neȱ ogyee,ȱ “healingȱ andȱ deliverance,”ȱ visit variousȱprayerȱplacesȱlookingȱforȱGod’sȱinterventionȱandȱtheȱvariousȱsymbols, icons,ȱ andȱ rhetoricȱ associatedȱ withȱ thoseȱ processes.ȱ Theȱ roleȱ ofȱ theȱ religious functionary—traditionalȱpriest,ȱMuslimȱcleric,ȱorȱChristianȱprophetȱandȱpasȬ tor—asȱoneȱwithȱtheȱabilityȱtoȱ“see”ȱintoȱtheȱsupernaturalȱrealmȱandȱuseȱits resourcesȱforȱtheȱbenefitȱofȱthoseȱinȱsearchȱofȱsalvationȱisȱcriticalȱtoȱthisȱdisȬ cussion.

Introduction Theȱwordsȱusedȱinȱtheȱtitle,ȱ“ConqueringȱSatan,ȱDemons,ȱPrinȬ cipalities,ȱandȱPowers,”ȱbelongȱtoȱaȱpopularȱAfricanȱPentecostȬ al/Charismaticȱchorus,ȱwhichȱisȱalsoȱpopularȱinȱGhanaianȱnonȬ Pentecostalȱchurches.ȱTheȱneedȱtoȱidentify,ȱstruggleȱwith,ȱcomȬ batȱ andȱ eventuallyȱ conquerȱ supernaturalȱ evilȱ isȱ aȱ centralȱ issue forȱAfricanȱreligionsȱgenerally.ȱInȱtheȱChristianȱarena,ȱtheȱproviȬ sionȱofȱritualȱcontextsȱforȱdealingȱwithȱsupernaturalȱevilȱisȱimȬ portantȱforȱAfricanȱindependentȱindigenousȱchurchesȱinȱparticȬ ular.ȱTheseȱtypesȱofȱChristianȱchurchesȱtendȱtoȱshareȱtheȱstrong 85

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traditionalȱreligiousȱworldviewsȱofȱspiritualȱcausality.ȱInȱkeepȬ ingȱ withȱ thisȱ worldview,ȱ themesȱ relatingȱ toȱ “overcoming,” “dominating,”ȱ orȱ “defeating”ȱ evilȱ powersȱ andȱ “breaking through”ȱ debilitatingȱ conditionsȱ areȱ commonȱ inȱ Pentecostal/ Charismaticȱrhetoric.ȱTheȱfullȱlyricsȱofȱthisȱchorusȱare: WeȱconquerȱSatan Weȱconquerȱdemons Weȱconquerȱprincipalities Weȱconquerȱpowers ShoutȱHallelujah.

Asȱusedȱinȱthisȱchorus,ȱSatan,ȱdemons,ȱprincipalitiesȱandȱpowȬ ersȱ haveȱ oneȱ thingȱ inȱ common:ȱ theyȱ areȱ consideredȱ toȱ beȱ the principalȱsourcesȱofȱevilȱinȱlifeȱandȱexistence.ȱPentecostal/CharȬ ismaticȱChristianityȱisȱaboutȱtheȱexperienceȱofȱtheȱpowerȱofȱthe Holyȱ Spiritȱ andȱ theȱ useȱ ofȱ thisȱ powerȱ toȱ conquerȱ evil.ȱ The churchesȱ thatȱ shareȱ thisȱ worldviewȱ includeȱ theȱ olderȱ African InitiatedȱChurches,ȱtheȱclassicalȱPentecostalȱdenominationsȱand theȱnewerȱCharismaticȱchurches.ȱOurȱconcernȱinȱthisȱdiscussion isȱmainlyȱwithȱtheȱCharismaticȱchurches.ȱTheȱdistinctiveȱmarks ofȱCharismaticȱChristianityȱareȱspeakingȱinȱtongues,ȱprophecy, healing,ȱdeliverance,ȱandȱempowermentȱforȱsuccessfulȱliving. AfricanȱChristiansȱhaveȱfoundȱPentecostal/CharismaticȱtheȬ ologiesȱ ofȱ dominionȱ andȱ alleviationȱ ofȱ sufferingȱ relevantȱ to theirȱstruggleȱwithȱfearsȱandȱinsecuritiesȱinȱaȱuniverseȱinȱwhich evilȱ isȱ consideredȱ hyperactiveȱ (Cortenȱ andȱ MarshallȬFratani 2001:ȱ5).ȱGenerally,ȱtheȱmainȱconcernȱofȱAfricanȱtraditionalȱreliȬ gions,ȱasȱweȱnoteȱlater,ȱisȱtoȱsolicitȱtheȱhelpȱofȱbenevolentȱtransȬ cendentȱ beingsȱ inȱ orderȱ toȱ dealȱ withȱ theȱ powersȱ ofȱ evil.ȱ This pavesȱ theȱ wayȱ forȱ whatȱ theȱ Akanȱ ofȱ Ghanaȱ referȱ toȱ asȱ nkwa, “lifeȱinȱitsȱfullness.”ȱIndeed,ȱinȱaȱstudyȱonȱtheȱanthropologyȱof evilȱ inȱ Ghana,ȱ Birgitȱ Meyerȱ notesȱ howȱ theȱ inabilityȱ ofȱ tradiȬ tionalȱGhanaianȱmissionȱchurchesȱtoȱtakeȱtheȱexperienceȱofȱthe HolyȱSpiritȱseriouslyȱtoȱ“wardȱoffȱorȱcastȱoutȱevilȱspirits”ȱandȱto offerȱ peopleȱ “protectionȱ andȱ healing”ȱ inȱ Hisȱ powerȱ areȱ causes ofȱtheȱdriftȱintoȱPentecostalismȱ(Meyerȱ1999:ȱxviii). Mbusu,ȱEvil,ȱandȱMysticalȱCausality Inȱ Ghana,ȱ theȱ responseȱ toȱ evilȱ takesȱ Christiansȱ fromȱ diverse confessionalȱ backgroundsȱ toȱ Romanȱ Catholicȱ grottos,ȱ PenteȬ

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costal/Charismaticȱ healingȱ camps,ȱ prayerȱ services,ȱ andȱ secludȬ edȱmountainȱsitesȱtoȱstruggleȱinȱprayerȱinȱtheȱsearchȱforȱayaresa (healing),ȱ ogyeeȱ (deliverance)ȱ andȱ tumiȱ (power)ȱ toȱ overcomeȱ eȬ vil.ȱInȱtheȱChristianȱcontext,ȱtheseȱ“struggles”ȱareȱpartȱofȱ“spirȬ itualȱwarfare”—theȱprodigiousȱstruggleȱtoȱbreakȱthroughȱcondiȬ tionsȱthatȱpreventȱtheȱrealizationȱofȱpositiveȱlifeȱdestinies.ȱInȱAfȬ ricanȱ religiousȱ practicesȱ greaterȱ attentionȱ isȱ paidȱ toȱ “supernatȬ ural”ȱ thanȱ toȱ “natural”ȱ evil.ȱ However,ȱ theȱ twoȱ sourcesȱ ofȱ the humanȱ predicamentȱ areȱ notȱ mutuallyȱ exclusive.ȱ Amongȱ the Akan,ȱforȱexample,ȱ“destiny”ȱisȱhyebereȱorȱnkrabeaȱandȱ“evil”ȱis mbusu.ȱMbusuȱisȱusedȱinȱconnectionȱwithȱtheȱrepercussionsȱofȱa breachȱinȱtraditionalȱtaboos,ȱthatȱis,ȱakyiwade,ȱabominationsȱand prohibitions.ȱ Suchȱ breachesȱ triggerȱ mysticalȱ consequencesȱ for bothȱ theȱ offenderȱ andȱ theȱ community.ȱ Thus,ȱ whenȱ taboosȱ are broken,ȱ theȱ consequencesȱ requireȱ religiousȱ ritesȱ ofȱ purification forȱrestorationȱ(Gyekyeȱ1995:ȱ133Ȭ34). Whenȱusedȱinȱconnectionȱwithȱlifeȱinȱgeneral,ȱevilȱisȱseenȱas thatȱwhichȱpreventsȱpeopleȱfromȱlivingȱwholeȱlives.ȱAccording toȱtheȱChristologyȱofȱaȱGhanaianȱChristianȱchorus,ȱJesusȱisȱ“the changerȱofȱevilȱdestinies.”ȱInȱthatȱsense,ȱinȱbothȱtraditionalȱand indigenousȱ Christianȱ worldviews,ȱ evilȱ isȱ definedȱ asȱ anything thatȱ destroysȱ life.ȱ Thus,ȱ theȱ performanceȱ ofȱ traditionalȱ ritual, accordingȱtoȱMeyer,ȱ “theȱpivotȱofȱEweȱreligiousȱlife,”ȱisȱaimed atȱ achievingȱ “health,ȱ fertility,ȱ protection,ȱ andȱ successȱ inȱ life” (Meyerȱ 1999:ȱ 61,ȱ 68).ȱ Inȱ theȱ processȱ ofȱ conversion,ȱ theȱ Ewe Christians,ȱ weȱ areȱ told,ȱ “measuredȱ theȱ successȱ ofȱ Christianity byȱitsȱcapacityȱtoȱcounteractȱevilȱatȱleastȱasȱsuccessfullyȱasȱEwe religion”ȱ(Meyerȱ1999:ȱ138).ȱPentecostalȱunderstandingsȱofȱevil areȱthusȱsimilarȱtoȱthoseȱofȱtraditionalȱreligionsȱinȱspiteȱofȱaȱradȬ icalȱdifferenceȱinȱhowȱtoȱrespondȱwhenȱcalamityȱstrikes.ȱThusȱin Ghana,ȱ theȱ Pentecostal/Charismaticȱ phenomenonȱ ofȱ ayaresaȱ ne ogyeeȱ (healingȱ andȱ deliverance)ȱ isȱ nowȱ availableȱ asȱ aȱ formȱ of pastoralȱcareȱinȱseveralȱChristianȱtraditionsȱdueȱtoȱitsȱpopularȬ ity. Thisȱpaperȱpresupposesȱthatȱtraditionalȱnotionsȱofȱmystical causalityȱ andȱ theȱ creationȱ ofȱ ritualȱ contextsȱ forȱ wrestlingȱ with evilȱ defineȱ religiousȱ activityȱ inȱ Ghanaianȱ lifeȱ (Baëtaȱ 1967:ȱ 19). UnderlyingȱallȱtheȱreligiousȱritualsȱaimedȱatȱsolicitingȱdivineȱinȬ terventionȱfromȱevilȱisȱtheȱAfricanȱbeliefȱthatȱweȱliveȱinȱaȱworld thatȱ isȱ “intentional,”ȱ whereȱ thingsȱ doȱ notȱ happenȱ byȱ chance.

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Supernaturalȱ interventionsȱ areȱ thereforeȱ neededȱ toȱ copeȱ with evil.ȱ Inȱ aȱ newspaperȱ publication,ȱ aȱ retiredȱ Ghanaianȱ diplomat, K.B.ȱ Asante,ȱ regrettedȱ theȱ Ghanaianȱ penchantȱ forȱ resortingȱ to shrinesȱ andȱ “juju”ȱ toȱ beȱ successfulȱ inȱ life.ȱ Heȱ evenȱ calledȱ this supernaturalisticȱinterpretationȱofȱeventsȱoneȱofȱtheȱbanesȱofȱthe country’sȱdevelopment: Manyȱ visitȱ shrinesȱ andȱ consultȱ jujuȱ men.ȱ Theyȱ seekȱ protecȬ tionȱfromȱMallamsȱ[Muslimȱclerics]ȱwithȱpowerfulȱtalismans andȱtheirȱprayersȱandȱincantationsȱtoȱputȱtheȱDevilȱatȱbayȱto confoundȱ theirȱ enemies.ȱ Theyȱ flockȱ toȱ priestsȱ whoȱ invoke theȱ blessingsȱ ofȱ theȱ goodȱ Lordȱ inȱ mysteriousȱ ways.ȱ TeleviȬ sionȱ dramaȱ supportsȱ theȱ viewȱ thatȱ manyȱ areȱ obsessedȱ with theȱpowerȱofȱtheȱsupernaturalȱ.…Ourȱdevelopmentȱplansȱare unlikelyȱ toȱ yieldȱ theȱ desiredȱ resultsȱ ifȱ weȱ maintainȱ this mindset.ȱ(Asanteȱ2003:ȱ3)

However,ȱ thisȱ mindsetȱ isȱ notȱ entirelyȱ alienȱ toȱ theȱ religious worldȱofȱtheȱBibleȱwithinȱwhichȱtheȱdifferentȱstreamsȱofȱPenteȬ costalsȱ operate.ȱ Theȱ worldviewȱ isȱ reflectedȱ inȱ theȱ familiar wordsȱofȱSt.ȱPaul: PutȱonȱtheȱfullȱarmorȱofȱGodȱsoȱthatȱyouȱcanȱtakeȱyourȱstand againstȱ theȱ devil’sȱ schemes.ȱ Forȱ ourȱ struggleȱ isȱ notȱ against fleshȱ andȱ blood,ȱ butȱ againstȱ theȱ rulers,ȱ againstȱ theȱ auȬ thorities,ȱ againstȱ theȱ powersȱ ofȱ theȱ darkȱ worldȱ andȱ against theȱspiritualȱforcesȱofȱevilȱinȱtheȱheavenlyȱrealms.ȱ(Ephesians 6:11Ȭ12)

SpiritualȱWarfareȱinȱPentecostal/CharismaticȱHermeneutics TheȱperceivedȱabilityȱofȱPentecostal/CharismaticȱChristianityȱto dealȱ withȱ supernaturalȱ evilȱ soȱ asȱ toȱ setȱ peopleȱ freeȱ andȱ put themȱonȱtheȱpathȱtoȱwhatȱisȱreferredȱtoȱasȱ“biblicalȱprosperity” isȱfrequentlyȱadvertisedȱinȱtheȱGhanaianȱmedia.ȱNonȬdenominȬ ationalȱprayerȱservicesȱareȱadvertisedȱandȱofferedȱatȱvariousȱloȬ cationsȱ byȱ Pentecostal/Charismaticȱ churches.ȱ Theȱ namesȱ of theseȱ meetingsȱ rangeȱ fromȱ “Jerichoȱ Hour,”ȱ “Hourȱ ofȱ RestoraȬ tion,”ȱ “Hourȱ ofȱ Deliverance,”ȱ “Timeȱ ofȱ Divineȱ Intervention,” “Altarȱ ofȱ Refuge,”ȱ toȱ “Jabezȱ Hour.”ȱ Theseȱ meetingsȱ areȱ often heldȱ onȱ Fridayȱ becauseȱ Fridayȱ isȱ theȱ dayȱ onȱ whichȱ Jesusȱ shed hisȱ bloodȱ andȱ itȱ isȱ believedȱ thatȱ fastingȱ andȱ prayerȱ forȱ divine

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interventionȱareȱparticularlyȱeffectiveȱonȱthisȱdayȱbecauseȱofȱthe availabilityȱ ofȱ healingȱ inȱ theȱ atonement.ȱ Theȱ listȱ ofȱ promises advertisedȱ forȱ theseȱ meetingsȱ isȱ endless:ȱ healing,ȱ travelȱ visas, employment,ȱ marriage,ȱ children,ȱ andȱ otherȱ suchȱ practicalȱ conȬ cernsȱ ofȱ life.ȱ Pentecostal/Charismaticȱ leadersȱ areȱ promotedȱ in theȱ mediaȱ asȱ possessingȱ specialȱ anointing,ȱ divineȱ powerȱ and mandatesȱtoȱhelpȱpeopleȱchangeȱtheirȱ“negative”ȱdestinies. InterpretingȱandȱRespondingȱtoȱMisfortune:ȱTwoȱCaseȱStudies Theȱ Asuoyaaȱ Trainȱ Disasterȱ ofȱ 1981ȱ andȱ aȱ 2003ȱ Prayerȱ Vigil heldȱbyȱtheȱthenȱGhanaȱAirwaysȱCorporationȱserveȱasȱillustraȬ tionsȱ forȱ howȱ theȱ mindsetȱ ofȱ mysticalȱ causalityȱ formulatesȱ reȬ sponsesȱtoȱevilȱinȱbothȱtheȱtraditionalȱandȱChristianȱcontexts.1ȱIn myȱinterpretation,ȱtheȱworldviewsȱandȱdiagnosesȱforȱtheȱprobȬ lemsȱ inȱ theȱ twoȱ religiousȱ contexts—traditionalȱ andȱ Christian —wereȱtheȱsame,ȱbutȱtheȱresponsesȱdiffered. A.ȱAsuoyaaȱAccidentȱandȱTraditionalȱReligiousȱIntervention TheȱAsuoyaaȱtrainȱdisasterȱoccurredȱinȱJanuaryȱ1981ȱinȱtheȱNew JuabenȱTraditionalȱAreaȱinȱtheȱEasternȱRegionȱofȱGhana.ȱTwenȬ tyȬtwoȱpassengersȱlostȱtheirȱlivesȱandȱtwoȱhundredȱandȱthirtyȬ threeȱwereȱseriouslyȱinjured.ȱTheȱtrainȱinvolvedȱinȱtheȱaccident wasȱaȱcompleteȱwreck,ȱandȱtheȱnationȱwasȱthrownȱintoȱmournȬ ingȱ forȱ months.ȱ Duringȱ thisȱ period,ȱ peopleȱ everywhereȱ were searchingȱ forȱ anȱ explanation.ȱ Theȱ traditionalȱ authoritiesȱ ofȱ the Newȱ Juabenȱ Traditionalȱ Area,ȱ ledȱ byȱ theȱ lateȱ Omanheneȱ (paraȬ mountȱ chief),ȱ Nanaȱ Kwakuȱ Boatengȱ II,ȱ wereȱ quickȱ toȱ explain theȱdisasterȱinȱtermsȱofȱtheȱ“angerȱofȱtheȱgods”ȱagainstȱtheȱpeoȬ pleȱforȱneglectȱofȱritualȱduties.ȱInȱotherȱwords,ȱthisȱwasȱnotȱconȬ sideredȱ aȱ naturalȱ disasterȱ fromȱ theȱ traditionalȱ religiousȱ viewȬ point.ȱ Theȱ paramountȱ chiefȱ thereforeȱ appealedȱ toȱ theȱ governȬ mentȱ “toȱ arrangeȱ aȱ fittingȱ sacrificeȱ forȱ theȱ appeasementȱ ofȱ the godsȱ andȱ theȱ ritualȱ purificationȱ ofȱ theȱ accidentȱ spot”(Daily Graphicȱ[Januaryȱ16,ȱ1981]).

1 ȱTheȱgovernmentȱofȱGhanaȱliquidatedȱGhanaȱAirwaysȱasȱaȱnational corporationȱinȱ2005ȱandȱreplacedȱitȱwithȱtheȱprivatelyȬownedȱGhanaȱInȬ ternationalȱAirlines.

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Suchȱ purificationȱ wasȱ deemedȱ necessaryȱ toȱ dismissȱ the ghostsȱofȱtheȱdeadȱfromȱtheȱspotȱandȱpreventȱthemȱfromȱhauntȬ ingȱ theȱ place.ȱ Theȱ spiritsȱ ofȱ thoseȱ whoȱ dieȱ suchȱ violentȱ deaths couldȱ becomeȱ agitatedȱ andȱ mayȱ causeȱ troubleȱ untilȱ appeased byȱ appropriateȱ rituals.ȱ Theȱ governmentȱ acquiescedȱ inȱ thisȱ suȬ pernaturalisticȱ explanationȱ ofȱ theȱ Asuoyaaȱ trainȱ disaster.ȱ The viceȬpresidentȱ ofȱ theȱ Republicȱ ofȱ Ghanaȱ atȱ theȱ time,ȱ J.W.S.ȱ de Graftȱ Johnson,ȱ ledȱ aȱ highȬpoweredȱ delegationȱ ofȱ ministersȱ to theȱsceneȱofȱtheȱaccident.ȱConfirmingȱtheȱtraditionalȱinterpretaȬ tionȱthatȱtheȱaccidentȱwasȱcausedȱmystically,ȱViceȬPresidentȱde GraftȱJohnson—anȱarchitectȱbyȱprofession—“orderedȱlibationȱto beȱpouredȱtoȱappeaseȱtheȱgodsȱinȱtheȱareaȱofȱtheȱdisaster”ȱ(Daily Graphicȱ[Januaryȱ15,ȱ1981]).ȱItȱwasȱsubsequentlyȱreportedȱinȱthe Ghanaianȱ dailiesȱ that:ȱ “Aȱ cow,ȱ aȱ numberȱ ofȱ sheepȱ andȱ fowls wereȱslaughteredȱandȱtheirȱbloodȱsprinkledȱonȱtheȱAsuoyaaȱrail linesȱ whileȱ piecesȱ ofȱ theȱ meatȱ wereȱ alsoȱ scatteredȱ alongȱ the rails.ȱLibationȱwasȱalsoȱpouredȱtoȱpacifyȱtheȱgods”ȱ(DailyȱGraphȬ icȱ[Januaryȱ21,ȱ1981]). Theȱ purificationȱ ceremonyȱ wasȱ notȱ lackingȱ inȱ religious drama.ȱ Inȱ Africanȱ traditions,ȱ theȱ naturalȱ environment—mounȬ tains,ȱrivers,ȱforests,ȱrocks,ȱtheȱsea,ȱetc.—areȱoftenȱconsideredȱto beȱtheȱabodeȱofȱvariousȱspirits.ȱDuringȱtheȱceremony,ȱtheȱspirit ofȱtheȱriverȱAsuoyaaȱ(Asuoȱmeansȱ“river,ȱwater”)ȱpossessedȱthe 24ȬyearȬoldȱtraditionalȱpriestessȱ(okomfo)ȱAdwoaȱAnan.ȱSheȱproȬ phesiedȱ inȱ theȱ nameȱ ofȱ theȱ deityȱ whoȱ claimedȱ toȱ haveȱ served theȱcommunityȱforȱgenerationsȱasȱaȱsourceȱofȱwater.ȱYet,ȱasȱthe deityȱ claimed,ȱ herȱ generosityȱ hadȱ notȱ beenȱ reciprocated.ȱ The oracleȱ spokeȱ asȱ follows:ȱ “Iȱ [Riverȱ Asuoyaa]ȱ haveȱ beenȱ comȬ pelledȱtoȱtakeȱtheȱlivesȱofȱhumanȱbeingsȱbecauseȱIȱhaveȱbeenȱdeȬ niedȱmyȱannualȱsacrificeȱofȱoneȱliveȱsheep;ȱnoȱritesȱwhatsoever haveȱbeenȱperformedȱforȱmeȱforȱaȱlongȱtime.”ȱConsequentlyȱthe riverȱ deity,ȱ stillȱ speakingȱ throughȱ theȱ priestess,ȱ requestedȱ that additionalȱ immediateȱ offeringsȱ beȱ madeȱ andȱ thatȱ sheepȱ be slaughteredȱannuallyȱatȱtheȱspotȱofȱtheȱaccident.ȱTheseȱwereȱto beȱ performedȱ inȱ similarȱ fashionȱ asȱ theȱ offeringsȱ madeȱ forȱ the ancestorsȱ inȱ traditionalȱ religions,ȱ byȱ sprinklingȱ ritualȱ food aroundȱtheȱareaȱwhereȱtheȱdisasterȱoccurred.ȱInȱtheȱabsenceȱof theseȱsacrifices,ȱtheȱoracleȱwarned,ȱ“Iȱwillȱcontinueȱtoȱcauseȱthe lossȱofȱhumanȱlivesȱatȱthisȱspot.”

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TechnologyȱandȱTraditionȱinȱTension Theȱ 1981ȱ Asuoyaaȱ trainȱ disasterȱ wasȱ notȱ theȱ firstȱ toȱ occurȱ on thatȱparticularȱspot.ȱItȱwasȱmerelyȱtheȱmostȱtragicȱofȱaȱseriesȱof accidentsȱ thatȱ hadȱ occurredȱ thereȱ asȱ aȱ resultȱ ofȱ whatȱ technical expertsȱhadȱearlierȱdiagnosedȱasȱaȱbadȱcurveȱinȱtheȱrailȱline.ȱThe Graphicȱ editorialȱ ofȱ Januaryȱ 15,ȱ 1981,ȱ actuallyȱ recalledȱ theȱ fact thatȱthreeȱotherȱmajorȱtrainȱaccidentsȱhadȱoccurredȱonȱtheȱsame siteȱbetweenȱ1975ȱandȱ1980.ȱIndeed,ȱaȱWestȱAfricaȱmagazineȱreȬ portȱnotedȱhowȱaȱ“railȱdiversionȱhadȱbeenȱrecommendedȱseverȬ alȱyears”ȱpriorȱtoȱtheȱ1981ȱaccident.ȱAccordingȱtoȱthisȱreport,ȱa technicalȱ assessmentȱ byȱ aȱ BritishȬGhanaianȱ teamȱ ofȱ expertsȱ reȬ commendedȱaȱdiversionȱofȱtheȱAsuoyaaȱrailȱlineȱawayȱfromȱthe placeȱofȱtheȱaccidentȱdueȱtoȱtheȱdangerousȱnatureȱofȱthatȱcurve. Itȱ cameȱ toȱ lightȱ thatȱ thisȱ technicalȱ reportȱ hadȱ beenȱ shelvedȱ for aboutȱ20ȱyearsȱbeforeȱtheȱaccident.ȱItȱalsoȱtranspiredȱthatȱGhaȬ na’sȱ leadingȱ technologicalȱ university,ȱ theȱ Kwameȱ Nkrumah Universityȱ ofȱ Scienceȱ andȱ Technology,ȱ hadȱ conductedȱ itsȱ own studyȱ inȱ 1978ȱ andȱ madeȱ similarȱ recommendationsȱ whichȱ had alsoȱbeenȱshelvedȱforȱlackȱofȱfunds. Whatȱ causedȱ publicȱ outrageȱ wasȱ that,ȱ followingȱ theȱ 1981 disaster,ȱmoneyȱwasȱfoundȱbyȱtheȱPresidentȱofȱtheȱRepublicȱof Ghanaȱatȱtheȱtime,ȱDr.ȱHillaȱLimann,ȱtoȱprovideȱaȱliveȱcowȱfor eachȱ ofȱ theȱ thenȱ nineȱ regionsȱ ofȱ Ghanaȱ “forȱ nationalȱ purificaȬ tionȱandȱprayersȱforȱtheȱvictimsȱofȱtheȱAsuoyaaȱtrainȱdisaster” (DailyȱGraphicȱ[Januaryȱ24,ȱ1981]).ȱTheȱgovernmentȱcameȱunder muchȱcriticismȱfromȱsectionsȱofȱtheȱpublicȱforȱbeingȱaccommoȬ datingȱandȱsubscribingȱtoȱtheȱsupernaturalȱcausationȱtheory.ȱIn fairnessȱtoȱtheȱgovernment,ȱitȱdidȱnot,ȱunlikeȱtheȱtraditionalȱauȬ thorities,ȱ limitȱ itsȱ interpretationȱ ofȱ theȱ disasterȱ toȱ supernatural causality.ȱ Indeed,ȱ byȱ theȱ middleȱ ofȱ thatȱ year,ȱ theȱ government madeȱ10ȱmillionȱcedisȱavailableȱforȱtheȱrepairȱofȱtheȱdangerous portionȱofȱtheȱAsuoyaaȬKoforiduaȱrailroad.ȱNevertheless,ȱIȱconȬ tendȱ thatȱ inȱ concedingȱ toȱ theȱ traditionalȱ viewȱ thatȱ theȱ gods neededȱ toȱ beȱ appeasedȱ andȱ thatȱ theȱ soulsȱ ofȱ theȱ departedȱ be pacifiedȱ soȱ thatȱ theyȱ wouldȱ notȱ hauntȱ theȱ place,ȱ theȱ governȬ mentȱhadȱsuccumbedȱtoȱtraditionalȱtheoriesȱofȱmysticalȱcausalȬ ity. GhanaȱAirways:ȱChristianȱDeliveranceȱforȱaȱNationalȱAirline Asȱ weȱ notedȱ earlier,ȱ thisȱ theoryȱ ofȱ mysticalȱ causalityȱ alsoȱ inȬ formsȱstrategiesȱforȱcopingȱwithȱevilȱinȱindigenousȱPentecostal/

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Charismaticȱ Christianity.ȱ Theȱ followingȱ incident,ȱ inȱ whichȱ the staffȱ ofȱ theȱ nowȱ defunctȱ Ghanaȱ Airwaysȱ heldȱ aȱ prayerȱ vigilȱ to reverseȱitsȱmisfortunes,ȱaptlyȱillustratesȱtheȱpointȱofȱaȱcontempȬ oraryȱ Christianȱ approachȱ toȱ dealingȱ withȱ evil.ȱ Theȱ Ghanaȱ AirȬ waysȱ prayerȱ vigilȱ hadȱ asȱ itsȱ themeȱ “Christȱ isȱ theȱ Answer.”2 AccordingȱtoȱaȱJoyȱFMȱnewsȱbulletin,ȱitȱwasȱorganizedȱinȱorder toȱ“toȱseekȱGod’sȱinterventionȱforȱtheȱailingȱairline.”ȱWhenȱthe programȱ wasȱ airedȱ onȱ nationalȱ televisionȱ inȱ Juneȱ 2003,ȱ the Ghanaȱ Airwaysȱ staff,ȱ includingȱ expatriateȱ consultants,ȱ were seenȱ withȱtheirȱhandsȱraised,ȱaskingȱ“Godȱinȱheaven”ȱtoȱinterȬ vene.ȱ Asȱ partȱ ofȱ theȱ processȱ ofȱ “healingȱ andȱ deliverance,”ȱ the staffȱwhoȱparticipatedȱinȱtheȱvigilȱwereȱinstructedȱtoȱraiseȱtheir rightȱhandsȱandȱmakeȱtheȱfollowingȱdeclarationȱaimedȱatȱnulliȬ fyingȱtheȱactivitiesȱofȱevilȱpowersȱagainstȱtheȱairline:ȱ Lord,ȱ Lord,ȱ Lord,ȱ anything,ȱ anything,ȱ anything,ȱ thatȱ was broughtȱ intoȱ thisȱ companyȱ thatȱ hasȱ becomeȱ aȱ pointȱ ofȱ conȬ tactȱwithȱprincipalitiesȱandȱpowers,ȱweȱnullifyȱit,ȱweȱnullify itȱbyȱreasonȱofȱtheȱanointing;ȱinȱtheȱNameȱofȱJesus.

Accordingȱtoȱ Ghanaianȱbeliefs,ȱsoȬcalledȱ“patternism”ȱisȱaȱmaȬ jorȱtoolȱforȱdiagnosingȱtheȱinfluenceȱofȱsupernaturalȱpowersȱin theȱ affairsȱ ofȱ people.ȱ Atȱ theȱ timeȱ theȱ prayerȱ vigilȱ wasȱ held, GhanaȱAirways’ȱproblemsȱhadȱacquiredȱaȱconsistentlyȱnegative pattern.ȱ Theȱ organizersȱ ofȱ theȱ vigilȱ invitedȱ Lawrenceȱ Tetteh,ȱ a LondonȬbasedȱ Ghanaianȱ Charismaticȱ evangelist,ȱ toȱ leadȱ the battleȱ againstȱ theȱ supernaturalȱ enemiesȱ ofȱ theȱ corporation.ȱ He wasȱselectedȱforȱhisȱreputationȱasȱoneȱhavingȱtheȱrequisiteȱlevel ofȱ “anointing”ȱ forȱ suchȱ situationsȱ ofȱ supernaturalȱ powerȱ enȬ counters.ȱInȱPentecostal/Charismaticȱhermeneutics,ȱ“anointing” isȱtheȱspecialȱorȱextraordinaryȱgraceȱthatȱaȱpersonȱpossessesȱthat enablesȱhimȱorȱherȱtoȱmanifestȱtheȱpowerȱofȱtheȱHolyȱSpirit,ȱesȬ peciallyȱ inȱ counteractingȱ theȱ effectsȱ ofȱ evil.ȱ Inȱ thatȱ respect,ȱ the anointedȱpastorȱbecomesȱtheȱequivalentȱofȱtheȱtraditionalȱpriest orȱ divinerȱ inȱ theȱ Africanȱ Christianȱ imagination.ȱ Theȱ “anointȬ ing”ȱ isȱ thereforeȱ associatedȱ withȱ supernaturalȱ powerȱ andȱ abilȬ ity.ȱ Inȱ effect,ȱ theȱ managementȱ ofȱ Ghanaȱ Airwaysȱ believedȱ that inȱviewȱofȱtheȱ“mysterious”ȱnatureȱofȱsomeȱofȱtheȱproblemsȱof 2

ȱForȱaȱfullȱdiscussionȱofȱthisȱeventȱandȱitsȱimplicationsȱforȱreligion inȱGhanaianȱpublicȱlife,ȱseeȱAsamoahȬGyaduȱ2005:ȱ93Ȭ117.

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theȱairline,ȱdivineȱinterventionȱwasȱneededȱtoȱbringȱthingsȱback toȱnormal. InȱbothȱtheȱAfricanȱtraditionalȱandȱPentecostalȱworldviews ofȱ mysticalȱ causality,ȱ thereȱ isȱ theȱ beliefȱ inȱ aȱ sacramentalȱ uniȬ verseȱinȱwhichȱtheȱphysicalȱservesȱasȱaȱvehicleȱforȱtheȱspiritual. Actsȱofȱcommissionȱandȱomissionȱorȱevenȱutterancesȱcouldȱthus serveȱasȱ“pointsȱofȱcontact”ȱwithȱevilȱpowersȱandȱgiveȱthemȱacȬ cessȱintoȱone’sȱlifeȱandȱendeavors.ȱTheseȱareȱreferredȱtoȱasȱ“deȬ monicȱ doorways”ȱ inȱ healingȱ andȱ deliveranceȱ discourse.ȱ Inȱ the GhanaȱAirwaysȱcase,ȱitȱcouldȱhaveȱbeenȱthatȱsomeone,ȱinȱanȱatȬ temptȱ toȱ secureȱ hisȱ ownȱ positionȱ orȱ toȱ edgeȱ outȱ aȱ competitor throughȱsupernaturalȱmeans,ȱhadȱperformedȱcertainȱtraditional ritualsȱ orȱ broughtȱ medicinesȱ inȱ theȱ formȱ ofȱ talismansȱ (usually obtainedȱ fromȱ Muslimȱ clerics)ȱ intoȱ theȱ company.ȱ Theseȱ are popularlyȱcalledȱ“Africanȱelectronics”ȱandȱareȱusedȱinȱallȱkinds ofȱ situations,ȱ includingȱ armedȱ robbery,ȱ becauseȱ theyȱ areȱ beȬ lievedȱtoȱmakeȱcriminalsȱinvincible.ȱFromȱaȱPentecostal/CharisȬ maticȱ pointȱ ofȱ view,ȱ suchȱ formsȱ ofȱ nonȬChristianȱ medicines mayȱ haveȱ openedȱ theȱ corporationȱ toȱ theȱ assaultsȱ ofȱ demonic powers.ȱ Theȱ ancestorsȱ andȱ deitiesȱ thatȱ traditionalȱ Africansȱ inȬ vokeȱ inȱ timesȱ ofȱ crisesȱ haveȱ survivedȱ inȱ theȱ Africanȱ Christian religiousȱ consciousnessȱ asȱ demons,ȱ principalitiesȱ andȱ powers, andȱtheseȱareȱwhatȱevangelistȱLawrenceȱTettehȱledȱtheȱworkers toȱattackȱbyȱtheȱdeclarationsȱtheyȱmade. Religion,ȱMbusuȱ(Evil),ȱandȱtheȱSymbolsȱofȱOgyeeȱ(Deliverance) Asȱnotedȱearlier,ȱinȱprinciple,ȱmbusuȱorȱevil,ȱcouldȱbeȱcausedȱnaȬ turallyȱorȱsupernaturally.ȱWhatȱisȱnatural,ȱhowever,ȱmayȱquickȬ lyȱ acquireȱ supernaturalȱ dimensionsȱ becauseȱ evilȱ powersȱ could takeȱadvantageȱofȱnaturalȱcrisesȱandȱworsenȱtheȱplightȱofȱitsȱvicȬ tims.ȱInȱtheȱcaseȱofȱtheȱAsuoyaaȱdisaster,ȱforȱexample,ȱtheȱtradiȬ tionalȱ authoritiesȱ didȱ notȱ seeȱ repairsȱ asȱ unnecessary.ȱ Theirȱ inȬ terpretationȱwasȱthatȱtheȱcurveȱmayȱhaveȱbeenȱdangerous,ȱbutȱit stillȱ neededȱ aȱ supernaturalȱ factorȱ suchȱ asȱ theȱ deity’sȱ angerȱ at theȱ sinȱ ofȱ theȱ communityȱ orȱ witchcraftȱ toȱ causeȱ theȱ accident. Similarly,ȱinȱtheȱcaseȱofȱGhanaȱAirways,ȱmanagementȱandȱstaff wereȱnotȱobliviousȱofȱtheȱfactȱthatȱtheirȱproblemsȱwereȱattributȬ ableȱinȱpartȱtoȱmismanagement,ȱcorruption,ȱandȱundueȱgovernȬ mentȱ interference.ȱ Duringȱ theȱ crisis,ȱ itȱ actuallyȱ cameȱ toȱ light thatȱmoreȱthanȱtheȱacceptableȱnumberȱofȱcomplimentaryȱtickets

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hadȱ goneȱ toȱ powerfulȱ peopleȱ inȱ governmentȱ overȱ theȱ years, plungingȱ theȱ onceȱ vibrantȱ corporationȱ intoȱ aȱ precipitousȱ deȬ cline.ȱTheȱenormityȱofȱtheȱproblemsȱofȱGhanaȱAirwaysȱandȱthe factȱthatȱtheyȱhadȱdefiedȱallȱsolutionsȱhadȱsimplyȱlentȱcredence toȱwhatȱmanyȱGhanaiansȱtendȱtoȱbelieve—thatȱwitchesȱandȱdeȬ monsȱ couldȱ “hijack”ȱ theȱ fortunesȱ ofȱ aȱ publicȱ corporationȱ or evenȱtheȱentireȱnationȱandȱdestroyȱitsȱfuture. Whetherȱ weȱ areȱ talkingȱ aboutȱ aȱ trainȱ accidentȱ leadingȱ to theȱlossȱofȱlives,ȱtheȱdeclineȱofȱaȱpublicȱcompany,ȱvisitsȱtoȱgrotȬ tosȱ orȱ healingȱ camps,ȱ peopleȱ areȱ lookingȱ forȱ ogyeeȱ orȱ deliverȬ anceȱ fromȱ mbusu,ȱ evils,ȱ thatȱ plagueȱ theirȱ affairs.ȱ Basedȱ onȱ my observationsȱofȱhealingȱandȱdeliveranceȱrituals,ȱIȱdefineȱthatȱexȬ pressionȱas: Theȱ deploymentȱ ofȱ divineȱ resources,ȱ thatȱ isȱ powerȱ andȱ auȬ thorityȱinȱtheȱnameȱandȱbloodȱofȱJesus—perceivedȱinȱpneuȬ matologicalȱtermsȱasȱtheȱinterventionȱofȱtheȱ Holyȱ Spirit—to provideȱ releaseȱ forȱ demonȬpossessed,ȱ demonȬoppressed, broken,ȱ disturbedȱ andȱ troubledȱ persons,ȱ inȱ orderȱ thatȱ vicȬ timsȱmayȱbeȱrestoredȱtoȱproperȱfunctioningȱorder,ȱthatȱis,ȱto healthȱ andȱ wholeness;ȱ andȱ beingȱ thusȱ freedȱ fromȱ demonic influenceȱ andȱ curses,ȱ theyȱ mayȱ enjoyȱ God’sȱ fullnessȱ ofȱ life understoodȱ toȱ beȱ availableȱ inȱ Christ.ȱ (AsamoahȬGyadu 2005a:ȱ165)

TheȱsearchȱforȱhealingȱandȱdeliveranceȱinȱAfricanȱChristianityȱis notȱ limitedȱ inȱ anyȱ wayȱ toȱ aȱ particularȱ traditionȱ orȱ denominaȬ tion.ȱTheȱritualsȱofȱdeliveranceȱfromȱevilȱinvolveȱvariousȱproceȬ dures,ȱ symbols,ȱ andȱ iconsȱ thatȱ canȱ carryȱ differentȱ interpretaȬ tions,ȱ purposes,ȱ andȱ meaningsȱ dependingȱ onȱ anȱ individual’s need.ȱIȱwillȱprovideȱfiveȱexamplesȱbelow. CopingȱwithȱEvilȱDemandsȱExtensiveȱRitualsȱofȱDeliverance Followingȱ theȱ definitionȱ givenȱ above,ȱ theȱ underlyingȱ worldȬ viewȱofȱdeliveranceȱ isȱ basedȱonȱtheȱbeliefȱthatȱindividualsȱand communitiesȱ canȱ comeȱ underȱ demonicȱ possessionȱ orȱ oppresȬ sionȱ forȱ whichȱ theyȱ needȱ God’sȱ interventionȱ toȱ escape.ȱ “DeȬ monicȱ possession”ȱ isȱ theȱ inhabitingȱ ofȱ aȱ personȱ byȱ anȱ alien spiritȱand,ȱinȱitsȱextremeȱform,ȱdrivingȱtheȱvictimȱmad.ȱInȱ“deȬ monicȱ oppression,”ȱ lifeȱ simplyȱ becomesȱ aȱ failureȱ asȱ aȱ resultȱ of theȱ influenceȱ ofȱ witches,ȱ demonsȱ andȱ otherȱ powers.ȱ Forȱ inȬ stance,ȱ itȱ isȱ believedȱ thatȱ demonsȱ canȱ spirituallyȱ removeȱ the

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“facialȱ glory”ȱ ofȱ someȱ women,ȱ wherebyȱ evenȱ veryȱ physically attractiveȱ womenȱ mayȱ stillȱ appearȱ unattractiveȱ toȱ menȱ and thereforeȱfailȱtoȱsecureȱhusbands.ȱSuchȱaȱsituationȱisȱconsidered toȱ beȱ demonȱ oppression,ȱ sinceȱ theȱ failureȱ toȱ findȱ aȱ husband makesȱ theȱ lifeȱ ofȱ theȱ womanȱ involvedȱ miserable.ȱ Whetherȱ a person’sȱ crisisȱ resultsȱ fromȱ possessionȱ orȱ oppression,ȱ certain thingsȱ hinderȱ thatȱ person’sȱ progressȱ inȱ life,ȱ as,ȱ forȱ example,ȱ in theȱcaseȱofȱGhanaȱAirways.ȱInȱthoseȱcircumstancesȱtheȱanointed menȱandȱwomenȱofȱGodȱneedȱtoȱpray,ȱbind,ȱandȱcastȱoutȱthose powersȱthatȱmayȱbeȱhinderingȱpeopleȱfromȱexperiencingȱGod’s abundantȱlifeȱinȱChrist. Theȱpopularityȱofȱtheȱdeliveranceȱphenomenonȱisȱwhatȱhas ledȱtoȱtheȱriseȱofȱspecializedȱprayingȱcentersȱinȱGhana.ȱKingsley Larbiȱplacesȱtheȱ“Pentecostalist”ȱhealingȱcampsȱofȱGhanaȱfirmly withinȱ theȱ contextȱ ofȱ theȱ generalȱ Pentecostal/Charismaticȱ reȬ newalȱinȱtheȱcountry,ȱdescribingȱthemȱasȱ“majorȱcentersȱofȱhealȬ ingȱnextȱonlyȱtoȱtheȱestablishedȱhospitals.”ȱPeopleȱvisitȱhealing camps: Becauseȱ ofȱ sicknessȱ andȱ theȱ needȱ forȱ healing;ȱ theyȱ goȱ there becauseȱ ofȱ financialȱ andȱ economicȱ problems;ȱ theyȱ goȱ there becauseȱ ofȱ lawsuits;ȱ theyȱ goȱ thereȱ becauseȱ theyȱ areȱ strugȬ glingȱwithȱdrunkennessȱandȱtheyȱwantȱtoȱovercomeȱit;ȱthey goȱthereȱbecauseȱofȱeducationalȱissues;ȱtheyȱgoȱthereȱbecause theyȱareȱinȱneedȱofȱaccommodationȱ…ȱtheyȱgoȱthereȱbecause ofȱ theȱ problemȱ ofȱ badȱ orȱ frightfulȱ dreams;ȱ theyȱ goȱ there becauseȱ ofȱ allegedȱ problemsȱ withȱ demonsȱ andȱ witchcraft; theyȱgoȱthereȱbecauseȱofȱsocialȱexpectations,ȱparticularlyȱthe needȱtoȱprovideȱforȱtheirȱfamilies.ȱ(Larbiȱ2002:ȱ407)

ParticularlyȱinȱtheȱPentecostal/Charismaticȱcontext,ȱtheseȱrituals ofȱdeliveranceȱinvolveȱintenseȱprayersȱandȱfasting,ȱconfessionȱof sins,ȱ repentanceȱ andȱ theȱ renunciationȱ ofȱ evil.ȱ Theȱ manȱ orȱ woȬ manȱ ofȱGodȱwhoȱpresidesȱoverȱtheȱexerciseȱfirstȱdiagnosesȱthe problemȱ orallyȱ orȱ throughȱ fillingȱ outȱ aȱ “deliveranceȱ questionȬ naire”ȱthatȱfieldsȱextensiveȱquestionsȱmeantȱtoȱrevealȱtheȱfactors inȱ aȱ person’sȱ religiousȱ andȱ socialȱ backgroundȱ thatȱ accountȱ for hisȱorȱherȱpredicament.ȱTheseȱfactorsȱareȱdescribedȱinȱtermsȱof “curses”ȱthatȱmayȱwellȱbeȱgenerationalȱinȱnature.ȱThoseȱseeking deliveranceȱinȱanyȱofȱtheȱPentecostal/CharismaticȱcentersȱareȱofȬ tenȱrequiredȱtoȱrenounceȱanyȱparticipationȱinȱtraditionalȱrituals

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suchȱ asȱ libationȱ asȱ theseȱ belongȱ toȱ theȱ “doorways”ȱ through whichȱ demonsȱ enterȱ aȱ person’sȱ life.ȱ Theȱ declarationsȱ madeȱ by theȱ Ghanaȱ Airwaysȱ staffȱ underȱ theȱ evangelist’sȱ directionȱ were meantȱtoȱtakeȱcareȱofȱthisȱaspectȱofȱtheȱdeliveranceȱprocess. AȱStrongȱCorrelationȱbetweenȱDeliveranceȱandȱOfferings InȱAfricanȱtraditionalȱreligions,ȱrituals,ȱsacrifices,ȱofferingsȱand pledgesȱ areȱ themselvesȱ “vehiclesȱ ofȱ sacredȱ power.”ȱ Benjamin Rayȱ explainsȱ thatȱ inȱ Africanȱ Christianity,ȱ “prayersȱ andȱ offerȬ ingsȱnotȱonlyȱsayȱthings,ȱtheyȱareȱsupposedȱtoȱdoȱthings”ȱ(Ray 1993:ȱ268).ȱSimilarly,ȱJamesȱFernandezȱobservesȱinȱhisȱstudyȱof aȱpropheticȱmovementȱinȱGhana,ȱtheȱApostlesȱRevelationȱSociȬ ety,ȱ that,ȱ inȱ theȱ understandingȱ ofȱ theȱ members,ȱ sacrificeȱ orȱ ofȬ feringȱ “hadȱ coerciveȱ forceȱ overȱ theȱ supernatural”ȱ (Fernandez 1970:ȱ 260).ȱ Asȱ withȱ theȱ traditionalȱ sacrificesȱ ofȱ pacificationȱ folȬ lowingȱ theȱ trainȱ disaster,ȱ aȱ commonȱ elementȱ thatȱ oneȱ enȬ countersȱ inȱ placesȱ ofȱ prayerȱ pilgrimageȱ isȱ theȱ givingȱ ofȱ offerȬ ings.ȱThereȱareȱregularȱofferingsȱandȱpledgesȱfromȱpeopleȱwho eitherȱgiveȱmoneyȱtoȱ“testȱtheȱfaithfulnessȱofȱtheȱLord,”ȱorȱgive inȱ thanksgivingȱ forȱ breakthroughsȱ receivedȱ followingȱ prayer. Pilgrimsȱ alsoȱ returnȱ toȱ giveȱ offeringsȱ becauseȱ theyȱ previously, likeȱ Jacobȱ atȱ Bethelȱ (Genesisȱ 28:20Ȭ22),ȱ mightȱ haveȱ pledgedȱ to payȱdesignatedȱamountsȱinȱcaseȱofȱansweredȱprayers. Inȱ traditionalȱ thinking,ȱ ifȱ theseȱ obligationsȱ wereȱ notȱ fulȬ filled,ȱ asȱ weȱ foundȱ atȱ theȱ Asuoyaaȱ trainȱ disaster,ȱ theȱ underȬ standingȱ wasȱ thatȱ peopleȱ wereȱ inȱ dangerȱ ofȱ exposingȱ themȬ selvesȱandȱtheirȱactivitiesȱtoȱevil.ȱThisȱisȱaȱworldviewȱthatȱisȱalso presentȱinȱAfricanȱChristianity.ȱOneȱofȱtheȱcardinalȱteachingsȱof Pentecostal/Charismaticȱ Christianityȱ isȱ thatȱ ifȱ peopleȱ wantȱ to prosper,ȱtheyȱmustȱgiveȱ“tithesȱandȱofferings”ȱtoȱGod.ȱTheȱfolȬ lowingȱquoteȱfromȱaȱsermonȱbyȱGhana’sȱBishopȱCharlesȱAgyin Asareȱ ofȱ theȱ Wordȱ Miracleȱ Bibleȱ Churchȱ andȱ quotedȱ byȱ Paul Giffordȱisȱveryȱinstructiveȱforȱourȱpurposes: Ifȱ youȱ don’tȱ payȱ yourȱ tithesȱ youȱ areȱ bringingȱ troubleȱ on yourselfȱ ....ȱ Whenȱ youȱ takeȱ God’sȱ titheȱ youȱ bringȱ yourself underȱaȱcurse.ȱYouȱpreventȱGodȱfromȱbeingȱableȱtoȱblessȱyou ....ȱIfȱyouȱtithe,ȱyouȱwillȱsucceedȱ(whereȱothersȱdon’t).ȱAsȱyou payȱ yourȱ tithe,ȱ peopleȱ willȱ lookȱ atȱ youȱ andȱ sayȱ “Youȱ are blessed”ȱ....ȱIfȱpeopleȱareȱgoingȱtoȱgiveȱyouȱaȱjob,ȱyouȱareȱthe

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oneȱtheyȱlookȱforȱbecauseȱyouȱareȱnotȱtakingȱwhatȱbelongsȱto God.ȱ(Giffordȱ2004:ȱ62)

Inȱotherȱwords,ȱinȱGhana’sȱnewȱChristianity,ȱaȱperson’sȱability toȱdealȱwithȱevilȱisȱdirectlyȱlinkedȱtoȱfinancialȱgenerosity.ȱDurȬ ingȱ “Jerichoȱ Hour”ȱ atȱ theȱ Christianȱ Actionȱ Faithȱ Ministryȱ on Thursdayȱ Marchȱ 10,ȱ 2005,ȱ forȱ example,ȱ membersȱ wereȱ supȬ posedȱ toȱ “speakȱ toȱ theirȱ offering”ȱ andȱ sayȱ whatȱ theyȱ wanted theȱ offeringsȱ toȱ achieveȱ forȱ them.ȱ Afterȱ aȱ shortȱ timeȱ ofȱ mass prayerȱoverȱtheȱofferings,ȱBishopȱJamesȱSaah,ȱwhoȱwasȱleading theȱ prayerȱ session,ȱ instructedȱ thoseȱ attendingȱ toȱ holdȱ theirȱ enȬ velopesȱcloseȱtoȱtheirȱmouthsȱandȱdeclareȱasȱfollows:ȱ“Money,ȱI wantȱyouȱtoȱgoȱandȱachieveȱforȱmeȱgreaterȱthings;ȱreturnȱtoȱme inȱPoundsȱSterling,ȱUSAȱDollars,ȱEuros,ȱYen,ȱSwissȱfrancs,ȱand Rupees.”ȱ Thisȱ phenomenonȱ hasȱ createdȱ aȱ spiritȱ ofȱ givingȱ in theseȱchurches,ȱbutȱitȱhasȱalsoȱengenderedȱaȱcertainȱattitudeȱto givingȱ thatȱ bordersȱ onȱ theȱ commercializationȱ ofȱ religion.ȱ In makingȱofferingsȱpartȱofȱtheirȱspirituality,ȱitȱisȱtheȱunderstandȬ ingȱofȱAfricanȱChristiansȱthatȱtheȱfavorsȱtheyȱseekȱfromȱdivine powersȱ areȱ notȱ securedȱ byȱ wordsȱ only.ȱ Itȱ isȱ understoodȱ that supplicationsȱshouldȱbeȱbackedȱbyȱsensibleȱtokensȱofȱappreciaȬ tionȱ toȱ theȱ divineȱ powersȱ inȱ orderȱ toȱ keepȱ evilȱ atȱ bay.ȱ Thisȱ is becauseȱofferingsȱareȱbelievedȱtoȱhaveȱaȱspecialȱabilityȱnotȱonly toȱ cleanseȱ aȱ personȱ fromȱ evilȱ but,ȱ particularlyȱ inȱ theȱ Christian context,ȱtoȱquickenȱdivineȱfavorȱasȱwell. ReligiousȱFunctionaries’ȱCriticalȱRoleȱasȱMediators OfȱDeliverance MadamȱKateȱTenkorang,ȱoneȱofȱtheȱcustodiansȱatȱaȱPentecostal healingȱcampȱofȱtheȱCanaanȱPrayerȱCampȱinȱAccra,ȱbelievesȱshe isȱ anointedȱ byȱ Godȱ andȱ setȱ apartȱ toȱ bringȱ ogyeeȱ toȱ peopleȱ in bondage.ȱ Duringȱ theȱ deliveranceȱ process,ȱ theȱ landȱ atȱ herȱ healȬ ingȱ campȱ itselfȱ becomesȱ aȱ placeȱ ofȱ refugeȱ forȱ thoseȱ beingȱ purȬ suedȱbyȱevil.ȱAȱsacredȱplaceȱorȱ“theȱshrine,”ȱasȱvanȱderȱLeeuw putsȱit,ȱisȱ“aȱcenterȱofȱpower”ȱ(vanȱderȱLeeuwȱ1964:ȱ397).ȱInȱthe Africanȱ traditionalȱ religiousȱ context,ȱ theȱ centerȱ ofȱ theseȱ superȬ naturalȱinterventionsȱisȱtheȱshrineȱwhereȱtheȱakomfoȱ(priests)ȱare locatedȱandȱfromȱwhereȱtheyȱserveȱtheȱcommunity.ȱJohnȱEkem describesȱtheȱpriests’ȱroleȱasȱfollows:

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J.ȱKWABENAȱASAMOAHȬGYADU Akomfoȱ functionȱ asȱ intermediariesȱ betweenȱ theirȱ communiȬ tiesȱandȱdeitiesȱintoȱwhoseȱserviceȱtheyȱhaveȱbeenȱcalled.ȱIn aȱ typicalȱ priestlyȱ capacity,ȱ theyȱ presentȱ theȱ community’s needsȱ toȱ theȱ deitiesȱ andȱ interpretȱ theȱ deities’ȱ wishesȱ toȱ the communityȱ .…ȱ Itȱ isȱ notȱ uncommonȱ toȱ findȱ groupsȱ orȱ indiȬ vidualsȱ flockingȱ toȱ variousȱ Akanȱ shrinesȱ onȱ festive,ȱ calamiȬ tous,ȱandȱordinaryȱoccasionsȱtoȱapproachȱtheȱdeitiesȱforȱhelp. (Ekemȱ1994:ȱ45Ȭ46)

InȱtheȱtraditionalȱAfricanȱcontext,ȱtheȱtraditionalȱpriestȱorȱdivinȬ erȱisȱprimarilyȱaȱ“seer”ȱwhoȱbringsȱcommunicationȱfromȱtheȱdiȬ vineȱbecauseȱheȱorȱsheȱhasȱaccessȱtoȱthatȱrealm.ȱFollowingȱthis traditionalȱfunction,ȱtheȱpropheticȱroleȱhasȱremainedȱanȱintegral partȱofȱindigenousȱChristianityȱinȱAfrica.ȱIndeed,ȱlookingȱatȱthe centralȱ roleȱ thatȱ prophetsȱ playedȱ inȱ theȱ olderȱ independent churches,ȱ Baëtaȱ predictedȱ thatȱ “prophetism”ȱ wasȱ goingȱ toȱ reeȬ mergeȱinȱAfricanȱChristianityȱlongȱafterȱtheȱeraȱofȱtheȱolderȱinȬ dependentȱ churchesȱ hadȱ passed.3ȱ Itȱ hasȱ doneȱ soȱ inȱ dramatic ways. TheȱAkanȱofȱGhana,ȱforȱexample,ȱreferȱtoȱsuchȱaȱ“seer”ȱas anȱ OdeȬyifo,ȱ aȱ “revealerȱ ofȱ things”ȱ orȱ “revealerȱ ofȱ divineȱ secȬ rets.”ȱEverywhereȱacrossȱtheȱlengthȱandȱbreathȱofȱGhana,ȱpeoȬ pleȱ portrayȱ themselvesȱ asȱ havingȱ divineȱ unctionȱ thatȱ allows themȱtoȱfunctionȱasȱprophetsȱandȱrevealersȱofȱdestinies.ȱInȱfact, asȱGiffordȱobservedȱinȱhisȱbookȱGhana’sȱNewȱChristianity,ȱthese newȱ prophetsȱ withȱ theirȱ “specialȱ anointing”ȱ claimȱ toȱ haveȱ the graceȱ “toȱ identifyȱ andȱ destroyȱ yourȱ blockageȱ andȱ ensureȱ your blessedȱ destiny.”ȱ Christianity,ȱ Giffordȱ notes,ȱ withȱ referenceȱ to theȱ newȱ Charismaticȱ churchȱ prophets,ȱ isȱ stillȱ aboutȱ progress andȱ success,ȱ butȱ theȱ crucialȱ meansȱ nowȱ isȱ propheticȱ gifts (Giffordȱ 2004:ȱ 89,ȱ 90).ȱ Inȱ theȱ ministryȱ ofȱ theȱ prophets,ȱ weȱ also encounterȱ theȱ elementȱ ofȱ giving.ȱ Manyȱ distributeȱ “prophetic envelopes”ȱ intoȱ whichȱ peopleȱ putȱ moneyȱ or,ȱ afterȱ ministering inȱparticularȱchurches,ȱ“propheticȱofferings”ȱareȱtakenȱforȱthem. Atȱoneȱservice,ȱaȱmanȱsittingȱcloseȱtoȱmeȱsimplyȱwroteȱ“forȱopen doors”ȱ onȱ theȱ propheticȱ envelope,ȱ thusȱ immediatelyȱ invoking theȱconnectionȱbetweenȱofferingsȱandȱblessings.

3

ȱSeeȱmyȱ“Foreword”ȱinȱBaëtaȱ2004.

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SacramentalsȱasȱImportantȱElements InȱDealingȱwithȱtheȱEffectsȱofȱEvil Connectedȱ toȱ theȱ criticalȱ rolesȱ religiousȱ functionariesȱ playȱ as mediatorsȱ ofȱ supernaturalȱ powerȱ areȱ theȱ “sacramentals”ȱ that theyȱ supplyȱ asȱ sourcesȱ ofȱ protectionȱ andȱ preventionȱ against evil.ȱTheȱcross,ȱtheȱBible,ȱherbs,ȱsand,ȱsoap,ȱpiecesȱofȱlinen,ȱwaȬ ter,ȱandȱotherȱsuchȱsubstances,ȱaccompaniedȱbyȱappropriateȱritȬ ualsȱofȱhealingȱandȱdeliverance,ȱhaveȱalwaysȱbeenȱpartȱofȱindeȬ pendentȱindigenousȱChristianityȱinȱAfrica.ȱBelieversȱonȱpilgrimȬ ageȱmayȱreturnȱwithȱtokensȱofȱtheȱplace,ȱbelievingȱthemȱtoȱhave therapeuticȱ value.ȱ Thisȱ explainsȱ why,ȱ inȱ Ghana,ȱ peopleȱ collect herbs,ȱ andȱ otherȱ substancesȱ fromȱ pilgrimageȱ sites,ȱ believing thatȱ theyȱ haveȱ beenȱ infusedȱ withȱ supernaturalȱ power.ȱ The sand,ȱ vegetation,ȱ andȱ anyȱ waterȱ sourcesȱ inȱ placesȱ ofȱ religious pilgrimageȱ areȱ thereforeȱ cherishedȱ asȱ substancesȱ thatȱ mayȱ be usedȱforȱdivineȱtherapeuticȱpurposes. InȱcontemporaryȱGhanaianȱChristianity,ȱtheȱoliveȱoilȱinȱparȬ ticular,ȱasȱaȱsubstanceȱforȱmediatingȱtheȱanointingȱandȱhealing process,ȱ isȱ anȱ importantȱ elementȱ inȱ theȱ fightȱ againstȱ evil. Anointingȱ servicesȱ usingȱ oliveȱ oilȱ thusȱ rankȱ amongȱ theȱ most frequentlyȱ advertisedȱ Pentecostal/Charismaticȱ servicesȱ inȱ GhaȬ na.ȱ Duringȱ theseȱ servicesȱ blessedȱ oliveȱ oilȱ isȱ appliedȱ notȱ only forȱ theȱ purposeȱ ofȱ healingȱ butȱ alsoȱ forȱ thatȱ ofȱ “anointingȱ for power,”ȱ“anointingȱforȱfinancialȱsuccess,”ȱ“anointingȱforȱbreakȬ through,”ȱ andȱ evenȱ “anointingȱ forȱ vengeance.”4ȱ Theȱ lastȱ is neededȱ forȱ defeatingȱ one’sȱ enemies.ȱ Theȱ anointingȱ isȱ available inȱallȱtheȱprayerȱplacesȱmentionedȱandȱpeopleȱflockȱforȱitȱwhenȬ everȱtheȱopportunityȱisȱoffered. TheȱRelationshipȱbetweenȱOgyeeȱandȱtheȱSymbols OfȱChrist’sȱPassion Inȱ traditionalȱ Africanȱ religions—asȱ inȱ Christianȱ theology— bloodȱisȱtheȱlocusȱofȱlifeȱ(Hebrewsȱ9:12Ȭ14,ȱ22).ȱTheȱsheddingȱof bloodȱisȱthusȱaȱrequirementȱforȱtheȱremovalȱofȱevilȱandȱtheȱreȬ storationȱ ofȱ theȱ traumatizedȱ “souls”ȱ ofȱ personsȱ andȱ communiȬ ties.ȱ Together,ȱ theȱ powersȱ inȱ theȱ bloodȱ ofȱ Christȱ andȱ hisȱ cross mayȱbeȱinvokedȱtoȱcounterȱthreatsȱandȱeffectsȱofȱevilsȱandȱcursȬ

4

ȱForȱaȱstudyȱofȱtheȱphenomenonȱofȱanointingȱinȱGhanaianȱPenteȬ costalismȱseeȱAsamoahȬGyaduȱ2005c.

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es.ȱ Thisȱ associationȱ betweenȱ symbolicȱ representationsȱ ofȱ the PassionȱofȱChristȱandȱhealingȱisȱreflectiveȱofȱtheȱgeneralȱspirituȬ alityȱ ofȱ Ghanaianȱ churches.ȱ Forȱ example,ȱ duringȱ Wesleyan Methodistȱcampȱmeetingsȱcertainȱsitesȱareȱ“setȱapart”ȱbyȱprayȬ er.ȱWithȱtheȱerectionȱofȱaȱcrossȱatȱtheȱcenterȱofȱaȱpark,ȱaȱprofane spaceȱ isȱ transformedȱ intoȱ aȱ sacredȱ one.ȱ Atȱ theȱ closeȱ ofȱ these campȱmeetings,ȱcampersȱscrambleȱforȱpartȱofȱtheȱearthȱusedȱto erectȱ theȱ crossȱ forȱ whateverȱ miraculousȱ powersȱ theȱ crossȱ is perceivedȱ toȱ haveȱ acquiredȱ overȱ theȱ period.ȱ Inȱ theȱ Churchȱ of theȱTwelveȱApostles,ȱanȱAfricanȱindependentȱchurch,ȱtheȱprinȬ cipalȱ purposeȱ ofȱ theȱ crossȱ andȱ otherȱ religiousȱ symbolsȱ usedȱ in edwumaȱ(workȱorȱworkȱofȱhealing)ȱserveȱasȱsymbolicȱagentsȱfor attractingȱsunsumȱ(spirit)ȱtoȱfacilitateȱtheȱworkȱofȱhealing. InȱhisȱstudyȱofȱNdembuȱritual,ȱVictorȱTurnerȱdistinguishes betweenȱ twoȱ majorȱ ritualȱ types:ȱ ritualsȱ ofȱ afflictionȱ andȱ rituals ofȱcontinuity.ȱRitualsȱofȱcontinuityȱemployȱwhiteȱcolorȱsymbolȬ ism,ȱ whereasȱ ritualsȱ ofȱ afflictionȱ useȱ red,ȱ indicatingȱ danger, struggle,ȱandȱafflictionȱ(Turnerȱ1966:ȱ48Ȭ49).ȱTheȱChurchȱofȱthe TwelveȱApostlesȱrefersȱtoȱedwumaȱinȱtermsȱofȱaȱ“wrestlingȱconȬ test”ȱwithȱtheȱpowersȱofȱevil.ȱInȱBreidenbach’sȱwords,ȱ withinȱ theȱ ritualȱ [ofȱ edwuma]ȱ theyȱ continuouslyȱ singȱ songs thatȱ reflectȱ theȱ themeȱ thatȱ theyȱ areȱ warriors,ȱ thatȱ theyȱ are readyȱforȱstruggleȱwithȱdangerousȱandȱmalignantȱforces,ȱand furtherȱ thatȱ theyȱ areȱ assuredȱ ofȱ victory.ȱ (Breidenbachȱ 1976: 139)

Fridayȱ isȱ theȱ dayȱ onȱ whichȱ theȱ healingȱ ritualȱ ofȱ edwumaȱ takes place.ȱThatȱwasȱtheȱdayȱonȱwhichȱChristȱdied,ȱandȱtheȱcolorȱred symbolizesȱHisȱbloodȱshedȱonȱthatȱday. Suchȱ physicalȱ representationsȱ ofȱ theȱ sufferingȱ andȱ victory ofȱChristȱareȱabsentȱfromȱtheȱnewȱCharismaticȱchurches.ȱNeverȬ theless,ȱCharismaticȱrhetoricȱstillȱdrawsȱveryȱmuchȱonȱtheȱsymȬ bolsȱofȱtheȱpassionȱofȱChristȱinȱtheȱstruggleȱagainstȱevil.ȱInȱthe fightȱ againstȱ supernaturalȱ evil,ȱ Ghanaianȱ PentecostalȬCharisȬ maticȱ preachers,ȱ Christians,ȱ healers,ȱ andȱ gospelȱ lifeȱ artistes,ȱ as weȱ notedȱ above,ȱ callȱ uponȱ “theȱ moreȱ efficaciousȱ powerȱ inȱ the bloodȱ ofȱ Christ”ȱ toȱ curseȱ theȱ powersȱ afflictingȱ theȱ victimsȱ of sicknessȱ andȱ evil.ȱ Thusȱ theȱ expression,ȱ Yesuȱ mogyaȱ nkaȱ w’anim (“theȱ bloodȱ ofȱ Christȱ strikeȱ youȱ inȱ theȱ face”)ȱ isȱ oneȱ thatȱ is

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commonlyȱusedȱasȱaȱpotentȱprayerȱdirectedȱatȱseenȱandȱunseen evilȱpowers. Conclusion MartynȱPercyȱhasȱidentifiedȱ“aȱsoundȱfocusȱonȱpower”ȱasȱhavȬ ingȱ theȱ potentialȱ toȱ createȱ whatȱ heȱ refersȱ toȱ asȱ aȱ “masterȱ key” forȱ theologyȱ andȱ religiousȱ studiesȱ (Percy 1998: vii).ȱ Inȱ theȱ conȬ textȱ ofȱ ourȱ discussion,ȱ “power”—locatedȱ inȱ prayer,ȱ ritual,ȱ sacȬ redȱspacesȱandȱpilgrimages,ȱreligiousȱfunctionariesȱandȱsoȱon— definesȱtheȱsupernaturalȱresourcesȱthatȱareȱneededȱtoȱdealȱwith theȱ effectsȱ ofȱ evil.ȱ Thisȱ isȱ howȱ Jesusȱ hasȱ beenȱ receivedȱ inȱ AfriȬ canȱ Christianity.ȱ Heȱ isȱ theȱ oneȱ whoȱ dealsȱ withȱ evilȱ andȱ sets peopleȱ freeȱ toȱ fulfillȱ theirȱ destiniesȱ inȱ aȱ worldȱ inȱ whichȱ Satan, likeȱ aȱ lion,ȱ isȱ veryȱ activelyȱ destroyingȱ people.ȱ Inȱ theȱ collected prayersȱofȱtheȱlateȱAfuaȱKuma,ȱanȱilliterateȱfarmerȱandȱmember ofȱ theȱ Churchȱ ofȱ Pentecost,ȱ theȱ perceptionȱ ofȱ Jesusȱ asȱ theȱ one whoȱcanȱdealȱwithȱevilȱisȱarticulatedȱasȱfollows: Theȱ mountainsȱ ofȱ Jerusalemȱ surroundȱ us;ȱ weȱ areȱ inȱ the midstȱ ofȱ theȱ mountainsȱ ofȱ Zion.ȱ Satan,ȱ yourȱ bulletsȱ can’t touchȱus.ȱIfȱSatanȱsaysȱheȱwillȱriseȱupȱagainstȱusȱweȱareȱstill theȱ peopleȱ ofȱ Jesus.ȱ Ifȱ Satanȱ troublesȱ us,ȱ Jesusȱ Christ,ȱ You whoȱ areȱ theȱ lionȱ ofȱ theȱ grasslands;ȱ Youȱ whoseȱ clawsȱ are sharp,ȱ willȱ tearȱ outȱ hisȱ entrailsȱ andȱ leaveȱ themȱ onȱ the groundȱforȱtheȱfliesȱtoȱeat.ȱ(QuotedȱinȱBediakoȱ2000:ȱ11)

Whenȱ Ghanaianȱ Christiansȱ singȱ “Weȱ conquerȱ Satan,ȱ powers, principalitiesȱ andȱ powers,”ȱ theyȱ believeȱ thatȱ thisȱ conquestȱ is possibleȱ inȱ theȱ mightȱ andȱ strengthȱ ofȱ Jesusȱ Christȱ whoȱ hasȱ alȬ readyȱaccomplishedȱthatȱtaskȱonȱbehalfȱofȱthoseȱwhoȱacceptȱhis power.ȱ Theȱ keyȱ textȱ hereȱ isȱ Colossiansȱ 2:15:ȱ “andȱ havingȱ disȬ armedȱ theȱ powersȱ andȱ authorities,ȱ heȱ madeȱ aȱ publicȱ spectacle ofȱthem,ȱtriumphingȱoverȱthemȱbyȱtheȱcross.”ȱItȱisȱinȱsharingȱin thisȱ victoryȱ thatȱ manyȱ indigenousȱ Christiansȱ believeȱ must resultȱ inȱ prosperity.ȱ Contemporaryȱ Pentecostal/Charismatic theologiesȱ ofȱ prosperityȱ doȱ notȱ promiseȱ muchȱ thatȱ isȱ different fromȱwhatȱtraditionalȱreligiousȱritualȱaimsȱatȱasȱfarȱasȱlivingȱin theȱ presentȱ worldȱ isȱ concerned.ȱ Theȱ causalȱ explanationȱ ofȱ evil inȱtheȱtwoȱreligiousȱcontextsȱareȱidentical.ȱItȱisȱonlyȱinȱtheirȱreȬ sponsesȱthatȱweȱfindȱdifferences.

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ȱ Thisȱ explainsȱ whyȱ Pentecostal/Charismaticȱ Christianity, withȱ itsȱ emphasisȱ onȱ prayer,ȱ experience,ȱ powerfulȱ manifestaȬ tionsȱ ofȱ theȱ Holyȱ Spirit,ȱ vibrantȱ andȱ expressiveȱ formsȱ ofȱ worȬ ship,ȱ highlyȱ interventionistȱ orȱ dominionȱ theology,ȱ hasȱ become theȱmostȱpopularȱformȱofȱChristianȱpietyȱinȱAfricaȱtoday. Bibliography Asante,ȱK.B.ȱ(2003).ȱ“HaveȱYouȱEverȱHeardȱofȱMamiȱWater?”ȱGhanaian ChronicleȱonȱSaturday.ȱ(Aprilȱ12). AsamoahȬGyadu,ȱ Kwabena,ȱ J.ȱ (2005a).ȱ Africanȱ Charismatics:ȱ Current Developmentsȱ withinȱ Independentȱ Indigenousȱ Pentecostalismȱ inȱ GhaȬ na.ȱLeiden:ȱE.J.ȱBrill. (2005b).ȱ“‘ChristȱisȱtheȱAnswer’:ȱWhatȱisȱtheȱQuestion?ȱAȱGhana AirwaysȱPrayerȱVigilȱandȱitsȱImplicationsȱforȱReligion,ȱEvil,ȱand PublicȱSpace.”ȱJournalȱofȱReligionȱinȱAfricaȱ35:ȱ93Ȭ117. (2005c).ȱ“UnctionȱtoȱFunction:ȱReinventingȱtheȱOilȱofȱInfluenceȱin AfricanȱPentecostalism.”ȱJournalȱofȱPentecostalȱTheologyȱ13:ȱ231Ȭ56. Baëta,ȱChristianȱG.ȱ(1967).ȱ“ChristianityȱandȱHealing.”ȱOrita:ȱJournalȱof ReligiousȱStudiesȱȱ1:ȱ51Ȭ61. Banton,ȱMichaelȱ(ed.).ȱ(1966).ȱAnthropologicalȱApproachesȱtoȱtheȱStudyȱof Religion.ȱNewȱYork:ȱFrederickȱandȱPraeger. Bediako,ȱKwame.ȱ(2000).ȱJesusȱinȱAfrica:ȱTheȱChristianȱGospelȱinȱAfrican HistoryȱandȱExperience.ȱAkropong,ȱAkwapim:ȱRegnum. Breidenbach,ȱ Paul,ȱ S.ȱ (1976).ȱ “Colorȱ Symbolismȱ andȱ Ideologyȱ inȱ a GhanaianȱHealingȱMovement.”ȱAfricaȱ46:ȱ137Ȭ45. Corten,ȱ Andréȱ andȱ Ruthȱ MarshallȬFrataniȱ (ed.).ȱ (2001).ȱ Betweenȱ Babel andȱPentecost:ȱTransnationalȱPentecostalismȱinȱAfricaȱandȱLatinȱAmerȬ ica.ȱBloomingtonȱandȱIndianapolis:ȱIndianaȱUniversityȱPress. Ekem,ȱ Johnȱ D.K.ȱ (1994).ȱ Priesthoodȱ inȱ Context:ȱ Aȱ Studyȱ ofȱ Akanȱ TradiȬ tionalȱPriesthoodȱinȱDialogicalȱRelationȱtoȱtheȱPriestȬChristologyȱofȱthe Epistleȱ toȱ theȱ Hebrews,ȱ andȱ itsȱ Implicationsȱ forȱ aȱ Relevantȱ Functional PriesthoodȱinȱSelectedȱChurchesȱamongȱtheȱAkanȱofȱGhana.ȱHamburg: VerlagȱanȱderȱLottbek. Fernandez,ȱ Jamesȱ W.ȱ (1970).ȱ “Rededicationȱ andȱ Prophetism.”ȱ Cahiers d’EtudesȱAfricainesȱ38:ȱ228Ȭ305. Gifford,ȱPaul.ȱ(2004).ȱGhana’sȱNewȱChristianity:ȱPentecostalismȱinȱaȱGloȬ balizingȱ Africanȱ Economy.ȱ Bloomingtonȱ andȱ Indianapolis:ȱ Indiana UniversityȱPress. Gyekye,ȱ Kwame.ȱ (1995).ȱ Africanȱ Philosophicalȱ Thought:ȱ Theȱ Akanȱ ConȬ ceptualȱScheme.ȱRev.ȱed.ȱPhiladelphia:ȱTempleȱUniversityȱPress.

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Larbi,ȱKingsley.ȱ(2002).ȱPentecostalism:ȱTheȱEddiesȱofȱGhanaianȱChristianȬ ity.ȱAccra:ȱCPCS. Meyer,ȱ Birgit.ȱ (1999).ȱ Translatingȱ theȱ Devil:ȱ Religionȱ andȱ Modernity amongȱtheȱEweȱinȱGhana.ȱEdinburgh:ȱEdinburghȱUniversityȱPress. Percy,ȱ Martyn.ȱ (1998).ȱ Powerȱ andȱ theȱ Church:ȱ Ecclesiologyȱ inȱ aȱ Ageȱ of Transition.ȱLondon:ȱCassell. Ray,ȱ Benjaminȱ C.ȱ (1993).ȱ “Aladuraȱ Christianity:ȱ Aȱ Yorubaȱ Religion.” JournalȱofȱReligionȱinȱAfricaȱ23:ȱ266Ȭ91. Turner,ȱVictor,ȱW.ȱ(1966).ȱ“ColorȱClassificationȱinȱNdembuȱRitual.”ȱIn: MichaelȱBantonȱ(ed.).ȱAnthropologicalȱApproachesȱtoȱtheȱStudyȱofȱReȬ ligion.ȱNewȱYork:ȱFrederickȱandȱPraeger. VanȱderȱLeeuw,ȱG.ȱ(1964).ȱReligionȱinȱEssenceȱandȱManifestation.ȱPrinceȬ ton:ȱPrincetonȱUniversityȱPress.

AȱSchemaȱRepertoireȱApproach toȱExorcism TwoȱCaseȱStudiesȱofȱSpiritualȱWarfare PeterȱVersteegȱandȱAndréȱDroogers

Abstract Thisȱ paperȱ testsȱ aȱ methodologicalȱ approachȱ inȱ theȱ fieldȱ ofȱ theȱ studyȱ ofȱ evil, thusȱ contributingȱ toȱ theȱ phenomenologyȱ ofȱ evil.ȱ Insightsȱ fromȱ cognitiveȱ anȬ thropology,ȱinȱparticularȱtheȱschemaȱrepertoireȱapproach,ȱareȱusedȱtoȱunderȬ standȱ theȱ expulsionȱ ofȱ evilȱ inȱ twoȱ ratherȱ differentȱ casesȱ ofȱ healingȱ through exorcism.ȱItȱisȱsuggestedȱthatȱtheȱschemaȱrepertoireȱapproachȱisȱaȱhelpfulȱtool inȱ describingȱ andȱ understandingȱ whatȱ happensȱ inȱ suchȱ cases.ȱ Byȱ analyzing theȱschemasȱthatȱareȱused,ȱtheȱcommonȱelementsȱinȱtheȱtwoȱcasesȱcanȱbeȱmade visible.ȱ Bothȱ casesȱ areȱ characterizedȱ byȱ whatȱ inȱ oneȱ ofȱ themȱ hasȱ comeȱ toȱ be calledȱ “spiritualȱ warfare.”ȱ Theȱ firstȱ caseȱ isȱ thatȱ ofȱ aȱ Dutchȱ evangelical Charismaticȱ Christianȱ organization.ȱ Thisȱ isȱ comparedȱ withȱ exorcismȱ inȱ a groupȱofȱBrazilianȱspiritists.ȱInȱeachȱcase,ȱoneȱparticularȱpersonȱisȱchosenȱas theȱfocusȱofȱtheȱdescriptionȱandȱanȱinventoryȱisȱmadeȱofȱtheȱschemasȱthatȱare activatedȱ inȱ exorcistȱ practice.ȱ Usingȱ schemaȱ repertoiresȱ fromȱ different origins,ȱ allȱ thoseȱ involvedȱ establishȱ aȱ connectionȱ betweenȱ theȱ biographical dataȱofȱtheȱpatientȱandȱtheȱworldview,ȱdiagnosisȱandȱmethodsȱofȱtheȱreligious groupȱwhereȱtheȱpatientȱseeksȱrelief.

Introduction Inȱtheȱlastȱtenȱyears,ȱtheȱstudyȱofȱspiritualȱafflictionȱandȱhealing hasȱ benefitedȱ greatlyȱ fromȱ culturalȬphenomenologicalȱ apȬ proaches.ȱThomasȱCsordas’ȱembodimentȱ approachȱ(1990;ȱ1994; 2002),ȱinȱparticular,ȱhasȱprovedȱtoȱbeȱfruitful.ȱInȱthisȱpaper,ȱwe argueȱ thatȱ insightsȱ fromȱ cognitiveȱ anthropology,ȱ inȱ particular thoseȱweȱcallȱaȱschemaȱrepertoireȱapproach,ȱcanȱprovideȱaȱcomȬ plementaryȱ interpretiveȱ frameworkȱ throughȱ whichȱ theȱ experȬ ienceȱofȱafflictionȱasȱwellȱasȱpracticesȱofȱspiritualȱhealingȱcanȱbe describedȱandȱanalyzedȱwithȱmoreȱprecision. 105

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Theȱ schemaȱ repertoireȱ approachȱ takesȱ itsȱ inspirationȱ in particularȱfromȱconnectionismȱinȱcognitiveȱanthropologyȱ(Bloch 1998;ȱ D’Andradeȱ 1995:ȱ 136;ȱ Straussȱ andȱ Quinnȱ 1997).ȱ Schemas canȱbeȱviewedȱasȱculturallyȱacceptedȱminimalȱscriptsȱ(orȱscenarȬ iosȱ orȱ prototypesȱ orȱ models)ȱ forȱ andȱ ofȱ aȱ certainȱ act,ȱ thought, emotion,ȱ sensationȱ orȱ image.ȱ Onȱ theȱ oneȱ hand,ȱ theseȱ schemas steerȱtheȱbodyȱand,ȱonȱtheȱother,ȱtheyȱofferȱmodesȱforȱtheȱinterȬ pretationȱ ofȱ whatȱ happensȱ inȱ theȱ body.ȱ Schemasȱ haveȱ motivaȬ tionalȱforce,ȱgeneratingȱandȱguidingȱbehaviorȱinȱaȱcertainȱdirecȬ tion.ȱ Inȱ otherȱ words,ȱ suchȱ anȱ approachȱ paysȱ attentionȱ toȱ the wayȱ inȱ which,ȱ inȱ differentȱ culturalȱ contexts—whichȱ mayȱ also includeȱtheȱculturalȱcontextȱofȱacademicȱmedicine—experiences ofȱ afflictionȱ andȱ healingȱ areȱ caused,ȱ objectified,ȱ organizedȱ and eliminatedȱ(cf.ȱMoermanȱandȱJonasȱ2002;ȱCsordasȱ1992). Weȱcombineȱtheȱconceptȱofȱschemaȱwithȱthatȱofȱrepertoire. Aȱrepertoireȱisȱaȱcollectionȱofȱschemas.ȱTheȱtermȱrepertoireȱand itsȱ combinationȱ withȱ “schema”ȱ haveȱ atȱ leastȱ fourȱ advantages thatȱreflectȱcurrentȱthinkingȱonȱculturalȱprocesses.ȱFirstȱofȱall,ȱa repertoireȱisȱsubjectȱtoȱchangeȱandȱisȱdynamic.ȱSecond,ȱaȱreperȬ toireȱ isȱ neverȱ fullyȱ activated.ȱ Third,ȱ thereȱ mayȱ beȱ inconsistenȬ ciesȱinȱtheȱrepertoire.ȱFinally,ȱaȱrepertoireȱisȱsociallyȱconstructed butȱ usedȱ primarilyȱ onȱ theȱ actorȱ level.ȱ Inȱ viewȱ ofȱ theseȱ advanȬ tagesȱitȱisȱaȱusefulȱtoolȱinȱtheȱattemptȱtoȱgoȱbeyondȱsuchȱdichoȬ tomiesȱ asȱ theȱ actor/structureȱ whichȱ haveȱ frustratedȱ theorizing inȱtheȱsocialȱsciences. Forȱtheȱsakeȱofȱanalysis,ȱrepertoireȱshouldȱnotȱbeȱthoughtȱof asȱidenticalȱwithȱculture.ȱInȱtheȱcurrentȱglobalizingȱcontext,ȱpeoȬ pleȱbecomeȱacquaintedȱwithȱmanyȱrepertoiresȱinȱdifferentȱfields (inȱ theȱ Bourdieuanȱ sense)ȱ andȱ withȱ veryȱ diverseȱ origins.ȱ The humanȱ culturalȱ capacityȱ canȱ beȱ seenȱ asȱ aȱ dispositionȱ forȱ the handlingȱ andȱ managingȱ ofȱ theȱ supplyȱ andȱ demandȱ sideȱ of availableȱandȱcirculatingȱrepertoires.ȱTheseȱrepertoiresȱmayȱfind theirȱrootsȱinȱwhatȱusedȱtoȱbeȱcalledȱ“cultures”ȱbutȱcanȱalsoȱbe theȱ productȱ ofȱ newȱ eventsȱ withinȱ theȱ contextȱ ofȱ globalization andȱhybridization. Combiningȱ theȱ conceptsȱ ofȱ schemaȱ andȱ repertoire,ȱ theȱ adȬ vantageȱofȱaȱschemaȱrepertoireȱapproachȱforȱtheȱstudyȱofȱexorȬ cismȱandȱspiritualȱwarfareȱisȱthatȱitȱprovidesȱaȱmoreȱorȱlessȱhoȬ listicȱandȱintegratedȱviewȱofȱexperienceȱandȱmeaning,ȱshowing howȱ scriptsȱ areȱ appropriated,ȱ orȱ embodied,ȱ atȱ theȱ individual

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level.ȱ Thenȱ itȱ becomesȱ visibleȱ thatȱ meaningsȱ fromȱ differentȱ reȬ pertoiresȱmayȱcomeȱtogether,ȱsometimesȱinȱidiosyncraticȱparalȬ lelȱcombinations.ȱThisȱmakesȱitȱpossibleȱtoȱseeȱtheȱlinkȱbetween theȱstructuralȱandȱtheȱactor’sȱlevelȱofȱtheȱconstructionȱofȱmeanȬ ing.ȱ Another,ȱ moreȱ generalȱ advantageȱ ofȱ suchȱ anȱ approachȱ is thatȱtheȱdelicateȱrelationshipȱbetweenȱcontinuityȱandȱchange,ȱa staticȱandȱaȱdynamicȱframework,ȱaȱstructuralȱandȱaȱprocessȬoriȬ entedȱ perspectiveȱ canȱ beȱ viewedȱ inȱ aȱ dualisticȱ way.ȱ Although schemasȱappearȱtoȱgovernȱbehaviorȱandȱperception,ȱasȱwhenȱa personȱ isȱ possessedȱ byȱ orȱ liberatedȱ fromȱ aȱ demon,ȱ theseȱ scheȬ masȱmayȱatȱtheȱsameȱtimeȱbeȱchangedȱinȱtheȱprocess,ȱasȱwhen newȱexperiencesȱinȱexorcistȱpracticeȱsuggestȱnewȱschemas.ȱEven faithfulȱ reproductionȱ isȱ anȱ activeȱ andȱ dynamicȱ event.ȱ The connectednessȱofȱschemasȱdrawsȱattentionȱtoȱtheȱoftenȱcomplex processesȱ thatȱ takeȱ placeȱ inȱ casesȱ ofȱ exorcism.ȱ Thisȱ aspectȱ also suggestsȱ thatȱ exorcismȱ isȱ aȱ contextualizedȱ phenomenon,ȱ using repertoiresȱ thatȱ haveȱ beenȱ incorporatedȱ byȱ theȱ participantsȱ in theȱ event.ȱ Althoughȱ theȱ stageȱ forȱ theȱ enactmentȱ ofȱ exorcist practiceȱ isȱ individual,ȱ theȱ individualȱ person,ȱ asȱ aȱ sociallyȱ inȬ formedȱ bodyȱ (Bourdieuȱ 1977:ȱ 124),ȱ isȱ alwaysȱ partȱ ofȱ theȱ social andȱ religiousȱ contexts.ȱ Thisȱ becomesȱ visibleȱ inȱ theȱ schemaȱ reȬ pertoiresȱ usedȱ byȱ bothȱ exorcistȱ andȱ exorcized.ȱ Repertoireȱ isȱ a fittingȱtermȱhereȱbecauseȱitȱcombinesȱcontinuityȱandȱchange,ȱis usedȱselectivelyȱandȱisȱnotȱalwaysȱcompletelyȱactivated. Inȱ thisȱ paperȱ weȱ willȱ analyzeȱ twoȱ ethnographicȱ casesȱ of exorcism,ȱ oneȱ takenȱ fromȱ aȱ Dutchȱ Protestantȱ Charismaticȱ orȬ ganizationȱ(researchedȱbyȱVersteegȱ[1995])ȱandȱtheȱotherȱfromȱa Brazilianȱ Spiritistȱ healingȱ groupȱ (researchedȱ byȱ Droogers [1991]).ȱ Inȱ bothȱ cases,ȱ exorcistsȱ useȱ theȱ humanȱ bodyȱ asȱ aȱ batȬ tlefieldȱ onȱ whichȱ toȱ wageȱ aȱ warȱ onȱ goodȱ andȱ evil,ȱ purityȱ and impurity,ȱhealthȱandȱillness.ȱItȱhasȱeschatologicalȱovertones,ȱas itȱisȱpartȱofȱaȱdramaticȱandȱsometimesȱheroicȱstruggleȱthatȱwill endȱwithȱhistory.ȱTheȱbodyȱisȱtheȱtheaterȱonȱwhichȱtheȱdramatic forcesȱofȱaȱglobalȱscaleȱplayȱoutȱtheirȱroles. Theȱ interpretationȱ ofȱ eachȱ ofȱ theȱ twoȱ concreteȱ casesȱ conȬ tributesȱ toȱ aȱ moreȱ generalȱ formulationȱ ofȱ anȱ answerȱ toȱ ourȱ reȬ searchȱ question:ȱ Inȱ whatȱ senseȱ isȱ spiritualȱ warfareȱ basedȱ on schemaȱrepertoires?ȱTheȱmoreȱorȱlessȱcommonȱscenarioȱthatȱwe intendȱ toȱ exploreȱ seemsȱ toȱ workȱ inȱ theȱ followingȱ way.ȱ Inȱ the twoȱcasesȱofȱexorcismȱthatȱwillȱbeȱdescribedȱbelow,ȱaȱcomplaint

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leadsȱ aȱ personȱ toȱ activateȱ schemasȱ thatȱ interpretȱ andȱ handle afflictionȱandȱitsȱreduction.ȱTheseȱschemasȱhaveȱaȱrationalȱside, includingȱbeliefsȱregardingȱcauses,ȱconsequencesȱandȱsolutions. Simultaneously,ȱ theseȱ schemasȱ mayȱ reflectȱ andȱ generateȱ emoȬ tionalȱ andȱ physicalȱ expressions.ȱ Academicȱ medicineȱ offersȱ a prestigiousȱbutȱnotȱalwaysȱeffectiveȱrepertoireȱofȱsuchȱschemas. Withinȱ popularȱ religion,ȱ repertoiresȱ regardingȱ afflictionȱ and healthȱabound.ȱTheȱCharismaticȱandȱSpiritistȱgroupsȱstudiedȱin thisȱchapterȱhaveȱtheirȱownȱrepertoiresȱofȱschemasȱwithȱregard toȱafflictionȱandȱhealth.ȱTheseȱincludeȱscriptsȱthatȱareȱsupposed toȱ bringȱ healingȱ orȱ atȱ leastȱ aȱ reductionȱ ofȱ affliction.ȱ Inȱ both cases,ȱwarfareȱisȱaȱpowerfulȱschema,ȱtakenȱliterallyȱandȱnotȱjust metaphorically.ȱItȱmayȱtriggerȱchangesȱinȱtheȱ patient.ȱDependȬ ingȱ onȱ theȱ characteristicsȱ andȱ afflictionȱ ofȱ theȱ client,ȱ aȱ flexible strategyȱ isȱ designed,ȱ makingȱ theȱ utmostȱ useȱ ofȱ whatȱ available schemaȱ repertoiresȱ haveȱ toȱ offer.ȱ Thus,ȱ ifȱ needȱ be,ȱ allȱ relevant meaningsȱandȱpracticesȱcanȱbeȱactivatedȱfromȱtheȱrepertoires. DutchȱCharismaticȱChristians TheȱWarfareȱSchema “Charismatic”ȱisȱusedȱasȱanȱinclusiveȱtermȱtoȱdescribeȱaȱtypeȱof Christianȱ faithȱ thatȱ emphasizesȱ theȱ powerȱ ofȱ theȱ Holyȱ Spirit andȱtheȱspiritualȱempowermentȱofȱbelievers.ȱCharismaticȱChrisȬ tianityȱ originatedȱ inȱ Pentecostalism,ȱ fromȱ whichȱ itȱ movedȱ into differentȱ churchesȱ andȱ movementsȱ worldwide,ȱ includingȱ the mainlineȱ churches.ȱ Atȱ theȱ currentȱ time,ȱ Charismaticȱ Christians numberȱ aroundȱ halfȱ aȱ billion.ȱ Inȱ theȱ Netherlands,ȱ theȱ CharisȬ maticȱ movementȱ remainedȱ ratherȱ marginalȱ untilȱ theȱ second halfȱ ofȱ theȱ twentiethȱ century.ȱ Charismaticȱ Christianȱ growthȱ is notȱ substantialȱ inȱ theȱ Netherlandsȱ orȱ otherȱ Westernȱ European countries,ȱ evenȱ thoughȱ Charismaticȱ Christianityȱ seemsȱ toȱ be successfulȱ inȱ attractingȱ believersȱ fromȱ mainlineȱ Protestant churches.ȱ Conversely,ȱ aȱ growingȱ numberȱ ofȱ Dutchȱ Protestant churchesȱ haveȱ adoptedȱ Charismaticȱ practices.ȱ Theȱ influenceȱ of Charismaticȱ Christianityȱ hasȱ alsoȱ resultedȱ inȱ theȱ launchingȱ of severalȱ ministriesȱ ofȱ healingȱ thatȱ oftenȱ operateȱ independently ofȱanyȱchurchȱstructure. Centralȱ toȱ Charismaticȱ Christianȱ religionȱ isȱ theȱ beliefȱ that theȱpowerȱofȱtheȱHolyȱSpiritȱisȱavailableȱtoȱtheȱchurchȱtodayȱjust asȱitȱwasȱexperiencedȱbyȱtheȱapostolicȱchurchȱofȱtheȱNewȱTestaȬ

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ment,ȱ whichȱ Karlaȱ Poeweȱ hasȱ calledȱ theȱ “Firstȱ Centuryȱ ChrisȬ tianȱschema”ȱ(Poeweȱ1989:ȱ364).ȱThisȱpowerȱisȱexperiencedȱforeȬ mostȱinȱtheȱcharismata,ȱtheȱgiftsȱofȱtheȱSpirit,ȱsuchȱasȱglossolalia, prophecyȱandȱhealing.ȱPoeweȱpointsȱtoȱtheȱmetonymicalȱholism ofȱthisȱreligiousȱschema,ȱwhichȱreplacesȱtheȱsecularȱworldview thatȱtreatsȱbody,ȱmind,ȱsoul,ȱspiritȱandȱmatterȱasȱseparateȱentiȬ ties.ȱ Realityȱ isȱ treatedȱ asȱ anȱ interdependentȱ wholeȱ whereȱ difȬ ferentȱ phenomenaȱ influenceȱ oneȱ another.ȱ Realityȱ hasȱ aȱ “naturȬ al”ȱappearance,ȱwhichȱisȱdetermined,ȱhowever,ȱbyȱ“theȱspiritual world.”ȱ Theȱ latterȱ isȱ portrayedȱ asȱ aȱ placeȱ whereȱ theȱ forcesȱ of Godȱ andȱ theȱ devilȱ areȱ atȱ war,ȱ aȱ warȱ thatȱ affectsȱ theȱ natural realityȱ thatȱ humanȱ beingsȱ inhabit.ȱ Thisȱ struggleȱ isȱ whatȱ CharȬ ismaticȱ Christiansȱ callȱ “spiritualȱ warfare,”ȱ andȱ theyȱ seeȱ themȬ selvesȱasȱsoldiersȱpartakingȱinȱthisȱwar.ȱTheȱbasisȱofȱaȱspiritual warfareȱ schemaȱ isȱ theȱ battleȱ betweenȱ goodȱ andȱ evil.ȱ Biblical textsȱandȱimagesȱconstituteȱtheȱbasisȱofȱthisȱschema,ȱsuchȱasȱthe battleȱ“againstȱtheȱspiritualȱhostsȱofȱwickednessȱinȱtheȱheavenly places”ȱandȱtheȱnotionȱofȱputtingȱonȱ“theȱwholeȱarmorȱofȱGod” (e.g.ȱEphesiansȱ6).ȱClearly,ȱspiritualȱwarfareȱfunctionsȱasȱaȱscheȬ maȱ forȱ actionȱ andȱ interpretation.ȱ Thusȱ Charismaticȱ Christians easilyȱ readȱ demonicȱ activityȱ andȱ spiritualȱ warfareȱ intoȱ theȱ BiȬ ble.ȱOldȱTestamentȱimagesȱofȱtheȱenemiesȱofȱIsrael,ȱsuchȱasȱ“loȬ custs”ȱorȱtheȱ“lootingȱenemy,”ȱareȱidentifiedȱasȱdiabolicalȱpowȬ ers.ȱSimilarly,ȱtheȱcurrentlyȱpopularȱideaȱofȱ“territorialȱdemons” isȱtakenȱfromȱaȱreferenceȱtoȱtheȱ“angelȱofȱPersia”ȱinȱtheȱbookȱof Daniel.ȱ Althoughȱ invisibleȱ inȱ theȱ “natural”ȱ sense,ȱ theȱ spiritual warȱbetweenȱgoodȱandȱevilȱpermeatesȱeveryȱaspectȱofȱexistence onȱearth;ȱconflicts,ȱmisconductȱasȱwellȱasȱȱdiseasesȱandȱnatural disastersȱareȱallȱbelievedȱtoȱbeȱtheȱdirectȱorȱindirectȱoutcomeȱof demonicȱinfluences. Demonicȱaffliction,ȱorȱdemonizationȱasȱitȱisȱoftenȱcalled,ȱis seenȱasȱanȱaspectȱofȱSatan’sȱattemptȱtoȱcontrolȱandȱenslaveȱpeoȬ ple.ȱ Withinȱ thisȱ picture,ȱ demonsȱ areȱ seenȱ asȱ personalȱ beings withȱwillȱandȱintelligence.ȱTheyȱareȱrestlessȱentitiesȱwithȱaȱcomȬ pletelyȱ evilȱ nature,ȱ desiringȱ constantlyȱ toȱ oppressȱ peopleȱ and takeȱcontrolȱofȱtheirȱlives.ȱDemonsȱrevealȱthemselvesȱasȱspecific weaknessesȱ orȱ vices,ȱ suchȱ asȱ addictionȱ orȱ feelingsȱ ofȱ rejection. NonȬbelieversȱareȱunawareȱofȱtheȱrealityȱofȱtheȱdemonicȱworld butȱ believersȱ engageȱ inȱ battleȱ withȱ itȱ throughȱ theȱ giftsȱ and powerȱofȱtheȱHolyȱSpirit.ȱTheȱbelieverȱlearnsȱtoȱseeȱandȱdiscern

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theȱ spiritualȱ realityȱ behindȱ naturalȱ appearancesȱ andȱ receives faithȱtoȱspeakȱwordsȱofȱpowerȱtoȱ(en)counterȱevil.ȱTheȱministry ofȱdeliveranceȱorȱexorcism,ȱanȱageȬoldȱpracticeȱwithinȱtheȱChrisȬ tianȱ tradition,ȱ isȱ theȱ mostȱ practicalȱ sideȱ ofȱ “spiritualȱ warfare.” WithinȱCharismaticȱChristianity,ȱdeliveranceȱhasȱbecomeȱaȱspeȬ cializedȱ doctrineȱ andȱ practice.ȱ Althoughȱ notȱ allȱ Charismatic believersȱandȱchurchesȱwillȱadhereȱtoȱthisȱview,ȱtheȱministryȱof deliveranceȱ isȱ ofȱ continuingȱ interestȱ toȱ Charismaticȱ Christians andȱ theȱ teachingȱ andȱ practiceȱ ofȱ deliveranceȱ seemsȱ toȱ beȱ conȬ stantlyȱ revisedȱ andȱ elaborated.ȱ Charismaticȱ Christiansȱ underȬ standȱ healingȱ andȱ exorcismȱ asȱ signsȱ thatȱ accompanyȱ theȱ proȬ clamationȱ ofȱ theȱ Kingdomȱ ofȱ Godȱ (cf.ȱ Markȱ 16:17Ȭ18).ȱ They stateȱthatȱeveryȱbelieverȱhasȱtheȱauthorityȱinȱtheȱHolyȱSpiritȱto deliverȱ peopleȱ fromȱ evil.ȱ Deliveranceȱ isȱ oftenȱ promotedȱ asȱ a Christianȱ dutyȱ “toȱ setȱ theȱ captivesȱ free.”ȱ Inȱ practice,ȱ however, notȱallȱbelieversȱengageȱinȱthisȱministry,ȱwhichȱisȱoftenȱconsidȬ eredȱdifficultȱandȱevenȱdangerous.ȱTheȱministryȱofȱdeliverance requiresȱ “onȬtheȬjob”ȱ trainingȱ andȱ experience,ȱ andȱ deliverance specialistsȱoftenȱhaveȱspecificȱgiftsȱthatȱenableȱthemȱtoȱdoȱit.ȱOfȬ ten,ȱ theyȱ themselvesȱ haveȱ hadȱ dramaticȱ personalȱ experiences withȱtheȱdemonicȱworldȱinȱtheȱpast. Fromȱaȱschemaȱapproach,ȱspiritualȱwarfareȱrepresentsȱaȱlarȬ gerȱschemaȱrepertoireȱfromȱwhichȱspecificȱschemasȱareȱactivatȬ ed,ȱmostȱnotablyȱtheȱministryȱofȱdeliverance.ȱButȱspiritualȱwarȬ fareȱ isȱ certainlyȱ anȱ expansiveȱ schema,ȱ whichȱ believersȱ seeȱ as pertainingȱ toȱ manyȱ aspectsȱ ofȱ churchȱ lifeȱ andȱ religiousȱ pracȬ tices.ȱ Theȱ schematicȱ aspectȱ ofȱ thisȱ demonologicalȱ worldview meansȱ that,ȱ toȱ someȱ believers,ȱ spiritualȱ warfareȱ isȱ aȱ paradigm forȱ experienceȱ andȱ actionȱ ratherȱ thanȱ aȱ doctrine.ȱ Asȱ aȱ specific viewȱandȱorderingȱofȱreality,ȱspiritualȱwarfareȱhasȱbecomeȱvery elaborate,ȱbothȱasȱbeliefȱandȱtechnique.ȱThisȱisȱparticularlyȱvisiȬ bleȱ inȱ individualȱ casesȱ ofȱ demonicȱ afflictionȱ andȱ deliverance, whereȱschemasȱreconstructȱandȱreorderȱpersonalȱexperience. Ursula Ursulaȱisȱ44ȱyearsȱoldȱandȱaȱformerȱclientȱofȱNewȱLife,1ȱaȱDutch Charismaticȱ therapeuticȱ organizationȱ thatȱ offersȱ pastoralȱ care

1

ȱ Theȱ namesȱ ofȱ theȱ individualsȱ andȱ organizationsȱ haveȱ been changed.

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onȱanȱambulantȱbasis.ȱNewȱLifeȱisȱaȱvolunteerȱhealingȱministry thatȱcombinesȱreligiousȱandȱsecularȱmethods,ȱrangingȱfromȱBiȬ bleȱ teachingȱ toȱ therapeuticȱ consultsȱ andȱ toȱ exorcism.ȱ Ursula wasȱpartȱofȱtheȱNewȱLifeȱorganizationalȱboardȱbutȱhadȱtoȱresign followingȱherȱdivorce.ȱThisȱwasȱoneȱyearȱafterȱourȱinterview. AtȱtheȱtimeȱofȱtheȱinterviewȱUrsulaȱwasȱmarriedȱandȱliving inȱ aȱ provincialȱ cityȱ inȱ theȱ middleȱ ofȱ theȱ Netherlands.ȱ Sheȱ had goneȱtoȱartȱschoolȱandȱworkedȱasȱaȱhighȱschoolȱartȱteacher.ȱHer churchȱbackgroundȱwasȱDutchȱReformedȱandȱsheȱbelongedȱtoȱa liberalȱ churchȱ inȱ herȱ hometown.ȱ Sinceȱ herȱ contactȱ withȱ New Life,ȱsheȱhasȱjoinedȱanȱindependentȱCharismaticȱchurch,ȱwhere sheȱ wasȱ recentlyȱ baptized.ȱ Ursulaȱ hadȱ sufferedȱ fromȱ severe psychosomaticȱ complaintsȱ sinceȱ sheȱ hadȱ beenȱ 30,ȱ suchȱ asȱ exȬ tremeȱ physicalȱ tension,ȱ resultingȱ inȱ headacheȱ andȱ badlyȱ funcȬ tioningȱbowels.ȱForȱaȱlongȱtimeȱsheȱhadȱnoȱideaȱaboutȱherȱphysȬ icalȱcondition.ȱSheȱdidȱnotȱfeelȱlikeȱsheȱhadȱproblemsȱbutȱonly thatȱ sheȱ wasȱ “stuck”ȱ inȱ herȱ body.ȱ Sheȱ feltȱ cluelessȱ aboutȱ what wasȱgoingȱon: Iȱ can’tȱ sayȱ Iȱ wasȱ deeplyȱ unhappy.ȱ I’veȱ beenȱ toȱ allȱ kindsȱ of schools,ȱbutȱIȱdidn’tȱknowȱanythingȱaboutȱlife,ȱaboutȱpeople. Youȱ liveȱ likeȱ aȱ robot.ȱ Youȱ doȱ asȱ youȱ haveȱ toȱ do,ȱ butȱ what wasȱgoingȱonȱinsideȱme,ȱIȱdidn’tȱhaveȱanyȱclue.

AboutȱthatȱtimeȱUrsulaȱbecameȱinterestedȱinȱalternativeȱworldȬ viewsȱ andȱ medicineȱ andȱ startedȱ readingȱ aboutȱ Bhaghwan, KrishnamurtiȱandȱRosicrucianȱthought.ȱSheȱstartedȱconsultingȱa naturalȱhealthȱpractitionerȱwhoȱhelpedȱherȱ“release”ȱherȱbody. Whenȱ sheȱ wasȱ 32,ȱ Ursula’sȱ problemsȱ hadȱ worsenedȱ andȱ she wasȱ nowȱ sufferingȱ fromȱ hyperventilationȱ andȱ aȱ fearȱ ofȱ death. Becauseȱofȱherȱbreathingȱproblems,ȱsheȱvisitedȱaȱphysiotherapȬ istȱ andȱ inȱ theseȱ sessionsȱ experiencedȱ certainȱ sensationsȱ that worriedȱ her.ȱ Sheȱ feltȱ “twoȱ thingsȱ clashingȱ intoȱ eachȱ other”ȱ inȬ sideȱ herȱ body.ȱ Theȱ physiotherapist,ȱ whoȱ happenedȱ toȱ beȱ a Christian,ȱ ȱ explainedȱ toȱ herȱ thatȱ herȱ breathingȱ wasȱ “occupied territory”:ȱitȱwasȱ“underȱSatan’sȱcontrol.” Theȱ physiotherapistȱ alsoȱ gaveȱ herȱ aȱ bookȱ aboutȱ anȱ Indian guruȱwhoȱhadȱbecomeȱaȱChristian.ȱȱUrsulaȱwasȱvagueȱaboutȱthe roleȱ ofȱ thisȱ therapist,ȱ butȱ heȱ obviouslyȱ knewȱ moreȱ aboutȱ UrȬ sula’sȱbackground.ȱTheȱbookȱheȱgaveȱherȱhadȱaȱtremendousȱinȬ fluenceȱ onȱ herȱ life.ȱ Itȱ madeȱ herȱ awareȱ ofȱ theȱ existenceȱ ofȱ good

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andȱ evilȱ forcesȱ andȱ howȱ theyȱ interfereȱ inȱ theȱ livesȱ ofȱ humans. DuringȱthisȱperiodȱsheȱheardȱGodȱ“speak”ȱforȱtheȱfirstȱtime:ȱ“a voiceȱ inȱ myȱ head,ȱ saying:ȱ Iȱ amȱ theȱ Lordȱ yourȱ God,ȱ castȱ away yourȱidols.”ȱAlthoughȱsheȱhadȱneverȱheardȱtheȱvoiceȱofȱGodȱshe wasȱcertainȱitȱwasȱHim.ȱSheȱclaimsȱthat,ȱasȱaȱconsequence,ȱshe stoppedȱalternativeȱtreatmentȱandȱthrewȱawayȱallȱherȱbooksȱon alternativeȱworldviews.ȱUrsulaȱsaysȱthatȱsheȱgraduallyȱbecame convincedȱthatȱherȱproblemsȱwereȱmoreȱspiritualȱthanȱphysical inȱ nature.ȱ Throughȱ herȱ experiencesȱ sheȱ notȱ onlyȱ becameȱ interȬ estedȱinȱChristianȱbeliefȱbutȱalsoȱconverted,ȱfollowingȱanȱexperiȬ enceȱofȱ“deepȱremorse”ȱforȱherȱsins.ȱAȱdifficultȱperiodȱofȱstrugȬ gleȱbegan. Onȱtheȱadviceȱofȱherȱfamilyȱdoctor,ȱwhoȱwasȱalsoȱaȱChrisȬ tian,ȱ sheȱ contactedȱ Newȱ Life.ȱ Afterȱ aȱ periodȱ ofȱ fourȱ monthsȱ of therapyȱ Ursulaȱ decidedȱ toȱ goȱ onȱ aȱ weekendȱ retreatȱ withȱ New Life.ȱ Theseȱ retreatsȱ areȱ anȱ importantȱ partȱ ofȱ theȱ Newȱ Lifeȱ apȬ proach.ȱGuestsȱspendȱmostȱofȱtheȱretreatȱonȱtheirȱown,ȱpraying andȱ readingȱ theȱ Bible,ȱ andȱ theyȱ oftenȱ experienceȱ important breakthroughsȱ andȱ insightsȱ duringȱ theseȱ retreats.ȱ Ursulaȱ also hadȱ aȱ breakthroughȱ experienceȱ duringȱ herȱ retreatȱ whenȱ she sawȱ aȱ vision,ȱ anȱ imageȱ fromȱ herȱ childhood,ȱ ofȱ anȱ atticȱ inȱ a friend’sȱ house.ȱ Thisȱ atticȱ wasȱ filledȱ withȱ littleȱ lightsȱ andȱ BudȬ dhaȱstatues.ȱWhenȱsheȱtoldȱtheȱretreatȱleadersȱaboutȱtheȱvision, theyȱdecidedȱthatȱUrsulaȱneededȱdeliveranceȱbecauseȱitȱseemed clearȱthatȱsheȱhadȱbeenȱsubjectȱtoȱdemonicȱinfluenceȱatȱanȱearly ageȱ throughȱ theȱ spiritualȱ influenceȱ atȱ herȱ friend’sȱ place.ȱ Asȱ a consequence,ȱUrsulaȱwasȱsetȱfreeȱfromȱevilȱspiritsȱatȱtheȱretreat. Sheȱ saidȱ thatȱ sheȱ hadȱ seenȱ aȱ “beastȱ withȱ horribleȱ teeth”ȱ atȱ the momentȱofȱexorcism. Ursula’sȱdeliveranceȱtriggeredȱaȱsequenceȱofȱeventsȱandȱin herȱstoryȱsheȱidentifiesȱseveralȱdifferentȱexperiencesȱhappening withinȱ twoȱ days.ȱ Followingȱ herȱ deliverance,ȱ sheȱ wasȱ “slainȱ in theȱ Spirit”,ȱ i.e.ȱ sheȱ sufferedȱ aȱ kindȱ ofȱ faintingȱ spellȱ whichȱ is takenȱtoȱmeanȱthatȱsomebodyȱhasȱbeenȱstronglyȱaffectedȱbyȱthe HolyȱSpirit.ȱAfterȱthatȱsheȱreceivedȱ“baptismȱinȱtheȱSpirit”ȱand subsequentlyȱ receivedȱ theȱ giftȱ ofȱ speakingȱ inȱ tongues.ȱ Sheȱ exȬ periencedȱaȱsurrenderȱtoȱGodȱandȱfeltȱthatȱGodȱhadȱ“pouredȱhis love”ȱ intoȱ herȱ heart.ȱ Finally,ȱ Ursulaȱ wasȱ anointedȱ withȱ oilȱ to signifyȱhealingȱthroughȱtheȱHolyȱSpirit.

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Theȱdiagnosisȱbyȱtheȱretreatȱteam,ȱwhichȱUrsulaȱaccepts,ȱreȬ mainsȱvague,ȱhowever.ȱSheȱhadȱnoȱclearȱanswerȱtoȱtheȱquestion howȱsheȱcouldȱhaveȱbeenȱsubjectȱtoȱdemonsȱbyȱlookingȱatȱBudȬ dhaȱ statues.ȱ Sheȱ emphasizedȱ thatȱ theȱ statuesȱ representedȱ an “invisibleȱspiritualȱworld,”ȱbutȱsheȱadmitsȱthatȱsheȱdoesȱnotȱunȬ derstandȱ theȱ causalityȱ betweenȱ theȱ eventȱ andȱ herȱ illness.ȱ The factȱ thatȱ sheȱ believesȱ thatȱ Godȱ revealedȱ itȱ toȱ herȱ throughȱ aȱ viȬ sionȱisȱthusȱfarȱmoreȱimportant. Ursulaȱ continuedȱ toȱ sufferȱ fromȱ breathingȱ problemsȱ after thisȱ experience,ȱ distinguishingȱ betweenȱ hyperventilationȱ and “attacks.”ȱ Theȱ differenceȱ betweenȱ theȱ twoȱ physicallyȱ similar phenomenaȱisȱthatȱtheȱattacksȱstopȱwhenȱsheȱsaysȱtheȱnameȱof Jesus,ȱ whereasȱ theȱ hyperventilationȱ doesȱ not.ȱ Ursulaȱ experienȬ cesȱ otherȱ occasionsȱ ofȱ deliveranceȱ concerningȱ herȱ breathing problems.ȱSheȱmentionsȱexplicitlyȱoneȱinstanceȱduringȱaȱhealing conference.ȱAtȱthatȱconference,ȱsheȱvisitedȱaȱprayingȱsessionȱfor breathingȱproblems.ȱAtȱthisȱsession,ȱanȱunknownȱmanȱtoldȱher thatȱ“throughȱfearȱofȱdeath”ȱsheȱwasȱ“aȱslaveȱofȱSatan”ȱandȱhe commandedȱherȱtoȱmoveȱherȱtoesȱ“andȱliveȱinȱtheȱnameȱofȱJesus fromȱyourȱtoesȱtoȱyourȱhead.” Evenȱafterȱthisȱnewȱexperienceȱofȱdeliverance,ȱUrsula’sȱfear remained.ȱButȱthenȱsheȱreceivedȱaȱ“wordȱofȱGod”,ȱfromȱDaniel 5:23,ȱthroughȱwhichȱsheȱwasȱassuredȱthatȱherȱbreathȱisȱinȱGods hands.ȱAlthoughȱtheȱattacksȱcontinue,ȱUrsulaȱnowȱfeelsȱthatȱshe isȱnoȱlongerȱoccupiedȱbyȱevilȱforces.ȱSheȱwasȱrecentlyȱbaptized byȱimmersionȱandȱfeltȱthatȱthisȱdefinitelyȱseveredȱeveryȱ“bond withȱtheȱkingdomȱofȱdarkness.” Schemas Ifȱ weȱ lookȱ atȱ theȱ operativeȱ schemasȱ inȱ Ursula’sȱ case,ȱ weȱ are struckȱfirstȱofȱallȱbyȱtheȱprominenceȱofȱtheȱbodyȱandȱembodied experience.ȱTheȱbodyȱisȱperceivedȱasȱtheȱstageȱwhereȱherȱafflicȬ tionȱisȱhappening,ȱandȱherȱlifeȱstoryȱisȱclearlyȱtoldȱfromȱanȱemȬ bodiedȱperspective.ȱToȱUrsula,ȱherȱbodyȱdisplaysȱherȱcondition; itȱisȱtheȱincorporationȱandȱexpressionȱofȱgoodȱandȱevil,ȱofȱhealth andȱ sickness.ȱ Whatȱ isȱ theȱ relationȱ betweenȱ bodyȱ andȱ embodiȬ mentȱinȱthisȱcontextȱandȱinȱwhatȱsenseȱcanȱtheyȱbeȱseenȱasȱbasic schemas?ȱ Inȱ aȱ narrowȱ sense,ȱ theȱ bodyȱ isȱ theȱ physicalȱ personal body,ȱandȱinȱa,ȱwider,ȱculturalȱsense,ȱtheȱbodyȱisȱaȱspecificȱemȬ bodimentȱ throughȱ interactionȱ withinȱ severalȱ culturalȱ contexts.

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Embodimentȱcanȱthusȱbeȱseenȱasȱtheȱsociallyȱinformedȱbodyȱof aȱperson. Withinȱ herȱ Charismaticȱ environment,ȱ bodilyȱ experienceȱ is stimulatedȱ mostȱ clearlyȱ whereȱ believersȱ expectȱ theȱ Holyȱ Spirit toȱbeȱliterallyȱfeltȱbyȱallȱsortsȱofȱdramaticȱsensations.ȱȱSimilarly, theȱbodyȱisȱaȱstrongȱtheologicalȱconceptȱthroughȱwhichȱCharisȬ maticȱChristiansȱconstructȱhumanȬdivineȱinteractions,ȱinterperȬ sonalȱrelationshipsȱandȱnotionsȱofȱpersonalȱgrowth.ȱInȱtheȱlatter sense,ȱtheȱbodyȱcanȱindeedȱbeȱseenȱasȱaȱbasicȱschemaȱforȱspiritȬ ualȱ warfareȱ inȱ Charismaticȱ Christianȱ religion.ȱ Moreȱ significant isȱtheȱfactȱthat,ȱasȱaȱschema,ȱtheȱbodyȱseemsȱtoȱmoldȱtheȱspecific personalȱ embodimentȱ ofȱ theȱ individual.ȱ Charismaticȱ Christian repertoiresȱ becomeȱ embodied—inȱ thisȱ caseȱ veryȱ dramatically throughȱ aȱ seriesȱ ofȱ subsequentȱ experiences.ȱ Anȱ interestingȱ exȬ ampleȱ isȱ theȱ experienceȱ ofȱ “receivingȱ God’sȱ loveȱ inȱ theȱ heart,” whichȱisȱpresentedȱinȱtheȱNewȱLifeȱcontextȱasȱaȱseparateȱevent, followingȱRomansȱ5:5.ȱTheȱidentificationȱofȱthisȱseparateȱexperiȬ ence,ȱincludingȱitsȱscripturalȱevidence,ȱisȱofȱaȱfairlyȱrecentȱdate andȱ hasȱ aȱ Northȱ Americanȱ origin,ȱ whereȱ itȱ isȱ relatedȱ toȱ minisȬ triesȱfocusedȱonȱinnerȱhealing. Moreȱ difficultȱ toȱ pinpointȱ butȱ clearlyȱ presentȱ inȱ Ursula’s storyȱisȱtheȱschemaȱofȱaȱspiritualȱworld.ȱTheȱspiritualȱschemaȱis visibleȱ forȱ theȱ firstȱ timeȱ inȱ theȱ wayȱ sheȱ moreȱ orȱ lessȱ implicitly relatesȱherȱphysicalȱconditionȱandȱherȱgrowingȱinterestȱinȱalterȬ nativeȱ worldviewsȱ andȱ medicine.ȱ Viewedȱ fromȱ aȱ schemaȱ apȬ proach,ȱthisȱcanȱbeȱseenȱasȱaȱpreparationȱforȱaȱspiritualȱwayȱof dealingȱ withȱ problems,ȱ whichȱ sheȱ wouldȱ acquireȱ afterȱ her Christianȱ conversionȱ andȱ deliverance.ȱ Becauseȱ theȱ schemas overlap,ȱitȱbecomesȱeasierȱforȱaȱpersonȱtoȱmakeȱsmallerȱorȱlarger adjustments.ȱInȱherȱstory,ȱhowever,ȱtheȱschemasȱdoȱnotȱseemȱto playȱ thisȱ roleȱ butȱ areȱ treatedȱ asȱ aȱ performanceȱ modelȱ toȱ show theȱpersonalȱdramaȱofȱreligiousȱchange.ȱThusȱtheȱspiritualȱscheȬ maȱ isȱ usedȱ toȱ createȱ aȱ contrastȱ betweenȱ Ursula’sȱ oldȱ andȱ new life.ȱInȱotherȱwords,ȱtheȱspiritualȱschemaȱisȱsubmittedȱtoȱaȱconȬ versionȱschema.ȱInȱaȱrelatedȱwayȱtheȱcoincidencesȱofȱaȱChristian physiotherapistȱ andȱ aȱ Christianȱ familyȱ doctorȱ serveȱ aȱ similar roleȱinȱtheȱstory,ȱbutȱitȱsuggestsȱthatȱtheȱactualȱChristianȱinfluȬ encesȱinȱherȱlifeȱwereȱmuchȱstronger,ȱalthoughȱUrsulaȱdoesȱnot explicitlyȱtellȱaboutȱthem.

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Theȱthemeȱofȱcontrolȱisȱtheȱotherȱdominantȱschema,ȱlinking bothȱbodyȱandȱspiritualȱschemas.ȱControlȱisȱveryȱimportantȱfor theȱclientȱinȱthatȱitȱisȱessentialȱtoȱtheȱsuccessȱofȱtheȱhealingȱproȬ cess.ȱ Controlȱ isȱ aȱ changeȱ ofȱ worldviewȱ throughȱ whichȱ aȱ situaȬ tionȱinȱtheȱselfȱcanȱbeȱperceivedȱandȱevaluated.ȱThisȱisȱevident firstȱ ofȱ allȱ inȱ theȱ severalȱ experiencesȱ ofȱ deliveranceȱ through whichȱherȱbreathingȱisȱnotȱjustȱhealedȱbutȱliberatedȱfromȱsuperȬ naturalȱ influencesȱ thatȱ keepȱ theȱ personȱ inȱ bondage.ȱ Inȱ this sense,ȱdeliveranceȱisȱforemostȱtheȱdramaticȱtestimonyȱthatȱgood willȱconquerȱevil.ȱTheȱsubsequentȱexperiencesȱofȱtheȱSpiritȱpoint toȱ theȱ factȱ thatȱ theȱ balanceȱ ofȱ powerȱ isȱ definitelyȱ onȱ theȱ good side.ȱ Moreover,ȱ thisȱ powerȱ isȱ felt,ȱ asȱ itȱ inhabitsȱ herȱ body.ȱ In Ursula’sȱ storyȱ herȱ abilityȱ toȱ distinguishȱ betweenȱ naturalȱ and spiritualȱ affliction,ȱ asȱ theȱ exampleȱ ofȱ hyperventilationȱ vs.ȱ “atȬ tacks”ȱ shows,ȱ isȱ alsoȱ aȱ meansȱ toȱ takeȱ controlȱ overȱ one’sȱ own life.ȱ Similarly,ȱ “words”ȱ fromȱ Godȱ helpȱ herȱ feelȱ moreȱ secure withȱherselfȱandȱherȱphysicalȱcondition.ȱFinally,ȱbaptismȱsigniȬ fiesȱcontrol,ȱfirstly,ȱasȱaȱchoiceȱforȱaȱnewȱlifeȱfreeȱfromȱevilȱinfluȬ ences,ȱ andȱ secondly,ȱ asȱ aȱ submissionȱ toȱ aȱ Godȱ whoȱ heals,ȱ reȬ storesȱandȱisȱinȱcharge. BrazilianȱSpiritists AnotherȱWarfareȱSchema Theȱ secondȱ caseȱ isȱ takenȱ fromȱ aȱ Brazilianȱ Spiritistȱ (Kardecist) healingȱgroup.ȱAlthoughȱthisȱcaseȱbelongsȱtoȱaȱveryȱdifferentȱreȬ ligiousȱsector,ȱwhichȱisȱoftenȱevenȱ“demonized”ȱbyȱCharismatic Christians,ȱ similaritiesȱ abound.ȱ Hereȱ tooȱ theȱ bodyȱ isȱ theȱ locus ofȱ aȱ globalȱ spiritualȱ warfareȱ againstȱ evilȱ forces.ȱ Inȱ thisȱ caseȱ as well,ȱtheȱbodyȱmustȱbeȱliberatedȱfromȱtheȱinfluenceȱofȱdemonic spirits.ȱ Althoughȱ thisȱ warfareȱ isȱ notȱ exactlyȱ eschatologicalȱ in nature,ȱthereȱisȱalsoȱanȱhistoricalȱawareness,ȱconnectedȱwithȱthe turnȱ ofȱ theȱ century.ȱ Anotherȱ commonȱ characteristicȱ isȱ theȱ way inȱwhichȱreligiousȱandȱscientificȱelementsȱareȱcombined. Butȱ thereȱ areȱ alsoȱ significantȱ differences.ȱ Thus,ȱ inȱ contrast toȱ theȱ Charismaticȱ position,ȱ notȱ allȱ spiritsȱ areȱ demons.ȱ MoreȬ over,ȱdemonicȱ(or,ȱtoȱuseȱtheirȱjargon,ȱ“obsessing”)ȱspiritsȱmust beȱconvertedȱandȱnotȱjustȱexorcized.ȱThisȱalsoȱmeansȱthatȱtreatȬ mentȱ focusesȱ moreȱ onȱ theȱ demonicȱ spiritȱ thanȱ itsȱ victim.ȱ AnȬ otherȱ differenceȱ isȱ thatȱ beliefȱ inȱ reincarnationȱ isȱ centralȱ toȱ the healingȱ methodsȱ ofȱ thisȱ group,ȱ aȱ notionȱ categoricallyȱ conȬ

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demnedȱ byȱ Charismaticȱ Christians.ȱ Eachȱ newȱ reincarnationȱ is understoodȱ asȱ progressȱ inȱ wisdomȱ andȱ moralȱ quality;ȱ thereȱ is noȱregression. Theȱ groupȱ onȱ whichȱ weȱ willȱ focusȱ inȱ thisȱ caseȱ studyȱ is calledȱ Casaȱ doȱ Jardim,ȱ literallyȱ “Gardenȱ House,”ȱ afterȱ the buildingȱinȱtheȱgardenȱofȱtheȱSpiritistȱHospitalȱofȱtheȱsouthȱBraȬ zilianȱ cityȱ ofȱ Portoȱ Alegre,ȱ whereȱ theȱ groupȱ metȱ fromȱ 1965, whenȱitȱwasȱfounded,ȱuntilȱ1987.ȱOnȱSaturdayȱmornings,ȱaȱteam ofȱaboutȱsevenȱspiritistsȱreceivedȱpatientsȱinȱeachȱroomȱinȱorder toȱtreatȱthem.ȱInȱ1987ȱtheȱhospitalȱboardȱevictedȱtheȱgroupȱfrom theȱ Gardenȱ Houseȱ onȱ theȱ groundsȱ thatȱ itsȱ membersȱ andȱ their approachȱ wereȱ unorthodox.ȱ Theȱ groupȱ firstȱ movedȱ toȱ anȱ UmȬ bandaȱcenterȱandȱthenȱtoȱaȱspiritistȱcenterȱthatȱdidȱnotȱsupport theȱ board’sȱ disciplinaryȱ measures.ȱ Theyȱ finallyȱ movedȱ toȱ a houseȱ onȱ theȱ otherȱ sideȱ ofȱ theȱ streetȱ fromȱ thisȱ spiritistȱ center. Despiteȱ havingȱ movedȱ fromȱ theȱ originalȱ premises,ȱ theȱ group keptȱ itsȱ name.ȱ Itȱ nowȱ claimsȱ thatȱ itȱ treatsȱ 10,000ȱ visitorsȱ per yearȱ(seeȱtheȱPortugueseȱwebsite:ȱwww.casadojardim.com.br). Sinceȱitsȱbeginningȱinȱtheȱ1960s,ȱitsȱleader,ȱaȱmedicalȱdoctor calledȱJoséȱLacerdaȱdeȱAzevedoȱ(1919Ȭ1997),ȱhadȱdevelopedȱhis ownȱhealingȱmethod,ȱwhichȱheȱcalledȱapometria.ȱItȱwasȱanȱidioȬ syncraticȱ versionȱ ofȱ theȱ Kardecistȱ worldview,ȱ addingȱ elements fromȱvariousȱotherȱworldviews:ȱchakrasȱfromȱtheosophy,ȱpuriȬ fyingȱspiritsȱfromȱAfroȬBrazilianȱUmbanda,ȱandȱconversionȱ(of maliciousȱspirits)ȱinȱJesus’ȱnameȱfromȱChristianity.ȱButȱLacerda didȱ notȱ onlyȱ useȱ religiousȱ notions;ȱ heȱ alsoȱ workedȱ withȱ sciȬ entificȱ insights,ȱ especiallyȱ fromȱ medicalȱ scienceȱ andȱ quantum physics.ȱ Inȱ aȱ 300Ȭpageȱ bookȱ inȱ Portuguese—alsoȱ availableȱ in EnglishȱasȱSpiritȱandȱMatter:ȱNewȱHorizonsȱforȱMedicineȱ(Lacerda deȱ Azevedoȱ 1988;ȱ 1997)—theȱ combinationȱ ofȱ religionȱ andȱ sciȬ enceȱ isȱ veryȱ muchȱ present.ȱ Theȱ scientificȱ discourseȱ reflectsȱ the compositionȱ ofȱ theȱ group.ȱ Manyȱ membersȱ ofȱ theȱ groupȱ have hadȱ anȱ academicȱ training.ȱ Severalȱ medicalȱ doctorsȱ participate andȱregularlyȱsendȱtheirȱownȱpatientsȱtoȱtheȱhealingȱsessionȱof theirȱteam.ȱThatȱseveralȱarmyȱofficersȱalsoȱtakeȱpartȱisȱnotȱwithȬ outȱsignificanceȱforȱtheȱwarfareȱsymbolism. Inȱ thisȱ group,ȱ healingȱ usuallyȱ meansȱ thatȱ theȱ “obsessing” spiritȱisȱtoȱbeȱdetachedȱfromȱtheȱpatient’sȱbody,ȱthroughȱwhich theȱpatientȱisȱ“disobsessed.”ȱTheȱmalignantȱspiritȱmustȱbeȱperȬ suadedȱ toȱ followȱ itsȱ destinyȱ byȱ acceptingȱ itsȱ nextȱ incarnation.

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Quiteȱ often,ȱ theȱ obsessingȱ spiritȱ isȱ saidȱ toȱ haveȱ takenȱ revenge forȱhavingȱsufferedȱatȱtheȱhandsȱofȱtheȱcurrentȱpatient.ȱTheȱobȬ sessingȱspiritȱmayȱalsoȱbeȱthatȱofȱaȱmagician.ȱAnotherȱpossible diagnosisȱ isȱ theȱ useȱ ofȱ whatȱ theȱ mediumsȱ callȱ “blackȱ magic,” usuallyȱassociatedȱwithȱaȱtypeȱofȱritualȱpracticeȱfromȱAfroȬBraȬ zilianȱreligionȱthatȱisȱmeantȱtoȱharmȱaȱperson. Whenȱtheȱpatientȱisȱadmittedȱtoȱtheȱroomȱwhereȱoneȱofȱthe teamsȱ isȱ working,ȱ andȱ hasȱ explainedȱ hisȱ orȱ herȱ problem,ȱ the team’sȱ coordinatorȱ asksȱ theȱ spiritȱ mediumsȱ toȱ “open”ȱ theȱ paȬ tient’sȱ“frequency.”ȱTheyȱareȱsupposedȱtoȱlookȱforȱevilȱandȱobȬ sessingȱ spirits.ȱ Inȱ orderȱ toȱ doȱ so,ȱ theȱ mediumsȱ mustȱ detach theirȱownȱspiritsȱfromȱtheirȱbodies.ȱTheȱcoordinatorȱdoesȱthisȱby countingȱ fromȱ 7ȱ toȱ 0,ȱ thenȱ seeksȱ synchronyȱ withȱ theȱ spiritual worldȱ byȱ countingȱ fromȱ 0ȱ toȱ 7.ȱ Counting,ȱ eitherȱ forwardsȱ or backwards,ȱ accompaniesȱ theȱ transmissionȱ ofȱ mentalȱ impulses andȱ isȱ alsoȱ usedȱ toȱ raiseȱ orȱ lowerȱ theȱ frequencyȱ ofȱ aȱ person— whetherȱ mediumȱ orȱ patient—orȱ spirit.ȱ Inȱ bothȱ casesȱ theȱ freȬ quencyȱ isȱ takenȱ toȱ beȱ anȱ indicatorȱ ofȱ theȱ energyȱ level.ȱ MoreȬ over,ȱ highȱ andȱ lowȱ frequenciesȱ areȱ indicatorsȱ ofȱ highȱ andȱ low moralȱ standardsȱ andȱ evenȱ ofȱ beautyȱ andȱ ugliness.ȱ Highly evolvedȱspirits,ȱoftenȱconnectedȱwithȱaȱsophisticatedȱhospitalȱin theȱ spiritȱ world,ȱ helpȱ theȱ healingȱ team.ȱ Theseȱ spiritsȱ areȱ atȱ a highȱ energyȱ level,ȱ andȱ inȱ aȱ moralȱ senseȱ alsoȱ representȱ theȱ top. Eachȱteamȱhasȱoneȱofȱtheseȱspiritsȱasȱcounselor,ȱwhichȱmanifests itselfȱinȱoneȱofȱtheȱmediums. Onceȱ spotted,ȱ theȱ obsessingȱ spiritȱ thenȱ manifestsȱ itselfȱ in oneȱ ofȱ theȱ mediums.ȱ Theȱ coordinatorȱ startsȱ treatmentȱ immeȬ diately,ȱ beginningȱ aȱ dialogue.ȱ Itȱ isȱ aȱ consequenceȱ ofȱ theȱ diagȬ nosticȱ viewȱ thatȱ theȱ spiritȱ whoȱ isȱ supposedȱ toȱ causeȱ theȱ paȬ tient’sȱafflictionȱisȱtreated,ȱratherȱthanȱtheȱpatient.ȱTheȱusualȱseȬ quenceȱisȱthat,ȱafterȱhavingȱbeenȱdiscoveredȱandȱembodied,ȱthe obsessingȱ spiritȱ scornfullyȱ resistsȱ treatment,ȱ thenȱ gradually givesȱ inȱ andȱ inȱ theȱ endȱ acceptsȱ beingȱ putȱ onȱ aȱ reincarnation track.ȱ Inȱ someȱ casesȱ theȱ spiritȱ isȱ consideredȱ toȱ beȱ tooȱ evilȱ and tooȱharmfulȱtoȱbeȱtreatedȱandȱleftȱuntouched. Theȱ warfareȱ symbolismȱ thatȱ isȱ typicalȱ inȱ theȱ Charismatic Newȱ Lifeȱ case,ȱ canȱ alsoȱ beȱ foundȱ inȱ theȱ Casaȱ doȱ Jardim.ȱ IndiȬ vidualȱtreatmentsȱareȱpartȱofȱaȱlargerȱsetting,ȱaȱwarȱagainstȱevil. Obsessingȱspiritsȱareȱthoughtȱtoȱbeȱorganizedȱinȱarmiesȱandȱto haveȱ militaryȱ bases,ȱ especiallyȱ whenȱ magiciansȱ playȱ aȱ role.

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Theyȱ mustȱ beȱ combatedȱ byȱ militaryȱ means,ȱ sometimesȱ with veryȱ sophisticatedȱ weaponsȱ suchȱ asȱ laserȱ beams.ȱ Theȱ groupȱ is constantlyȱawareȱofȱtheȱthreatȱrepresentedȱbyȱtheȱarmiesȱofȱobȬ sessingȱspirits.ȱAsȱIȱsawȱhappeningȱmoreȱthanȱonceȱduringȱthe openingȱ ceremonyȱ thatȱ allȱ theȱ teamȱ membersȱ attend,ȱ bases wereȱdetectedȱnearȱtheȱpremisesȱwhereȱtheȱgroupȱwasȱworking. Beforeȱanythingȱelse,ȱtheseȱhadȱtoȱbeȱdestroyed. Atȱ theȱ timeȱ ofȱ thisȱ fieldwork,ȱ withȱ theȱ approachȱ ofȱ the twentyȬfirstȱcentury,ȱaȱspecialȱmotiveȱplayedȱaȱrole.ȱTheȱhealers ofȱ theȱ Casaȱ doȱ Jardimȱ sawȱ themselvesȱ asȱ involvedȱ inȱ aȱ huge campaignȱ toȱ purifyȱ theȱ earthȱ ofȱ evilȱ spirits.ȱ Obsessingȱ spirits mustȱbeȱeitherȱconvertedȱorȱforcedȱtoȱabandonȱthisȱplanet.ȱInciȬ dentally,ȱinȱtheȱviewȱofȱtheȱgroup’sȱmembers,ȱthisȱisȱnotȱtheȱfirst timeȱ thatȱ aȱ planetȱ hasȱ beenȱ purgedȱ ofȱ lowȱ andȱ immoralȱ eleȬ ments.ȱItȱisȱanȱacceptedȱbeliefȱinȱBrazilianȱKardecistȱcirclesȱ(see Armondȱ 1986)ȱ thatȱ lowȬlevelȱ spiritsȱ wereȱ evictedȱ atȱ oneȱ time fromȱ theȱ solarȱ systemȱ ofȱ Capellaȱ andȱ sentȱ toȱ theȱ planetȱ earth. Yet,ȱ comparedȱ toȱ whatȱ populatedȱ theȱ earthȱ atȱ thatȱ time,ȱ these lowerȱ spiritsȱ wereȱ infinitelyȱ moreȱ “civilized”ȱ andȱ beganȱ what wereȱ laterȱ consideredȱ toȱ beȱ theȱ “civilizations”ȱ ofȱ theȱ earth, contrastedȱwithȱtheȱ“savage”ȱorȱ“primitive”ȱpeoples.ȱAtȱtheȱbeȬ ginningȱ ofȱ theȱ twentyȬfirstȱ century,ȱ historyȱ willȱ repeatȱ itself and,ȱafterȱanȱallȬoutȱwarȱagainstȱevil,ȱtheȱearthȱwillȱstartȱaȱnew phase.ȱTheȱstartȱofȱthisȱnewȱphaseȱisȱChrist’sȱsecondȱcomingȱas theȱspiritȱofȱloveȱandȱpeace.ȱTheȱspiritsȱthatȱareȱbeingȱsentȱaway nowȱ willȱ receiveȱ aȱ newȱ opportunityȱ onȱ anotherȱ planet.ȱ The healingȱgroupȱwillȱthusȱcontributeȱtoȱwhat,ȱfromȱanȱevolutionist perspective,ȱ itȱ understandsȱ asȱ anȱ importantȱ phaseȱ inȱ human history.ȱ Moreover,ȱ thisȱ convictionȱ wasȱ linkedȱ withȱ theȱ belief thatȱ Brazilȱ wasȱ anȱ electedȱ nation,ȱ theȱ heartȱ ofȱ theȱ world,ȱ as shownȱbyȱitsȱshapeȱonȱtheȱworldȱmapȱ(Xavierȱ1983).ȱEvilȱforces seekȱ toȱ preventȱ Brazilȱ fromȱ playingȱ thisȱ role,ȱ butȱ theȱ country willȱ makeȱ itsȱ contributionȱ anyway.ȱ Thatȱ isȱ whyȱ theyȱ once treatedȱ notȱ anȱ individualȱ patientȱ butȱ theȱ Brazilianȱ nationȱ asȱ a wholeȱ(Droogersȱ1991). Rosa RosaȱisȱtheȱeleventhȱpatientȱtoȱbeȱtreatedȱbyȱLacerda’sȱteamȱthis morning.ȱ Likeȱ mostȱ patients,ȱ sheȱ isȱ white.ȱ Sheȱ isȱ aboutȱ 30ȱ and —judgingȱ fromȱ herȱ clothesȱ andȱ speechȱ patterns—appearsȱ to belongȱtoȱtheȱlowerȱmiddleȱclass.ȱWhenȱaskedȱaboutȱherȱmarital

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status,ȱ sheȱ saysȱ sheȱ isȱ divorced.ȱ Rosaȱ saysȱ sheȱ isȱ seekingȱ help becauseȱ sheȱ suffersȱ fromȱ painȱ inȱ herȱ ovaries.ȱ Sheȱ isȱ askedȱ to takeȱherȱshoesȱoffȱbecauseȱtheyȱareȱthoughtȱtoȱinsulateȱherȱtoo muchȱagainstȱtheȱenergyȱstreamsȱwithȱwhichȱtheȱteamȱworks. Whenȱ Lacerdaȱ startsȱ counting,ȱ herȱ frequencyȱ isȱ opened. Severalȱmediumsȱreactȱandȱspotȱpossibleȱcausesȱofȱtheȱwoman’s trouble.ȱOneȱofȱthemȱmentionsȱtrabalhoȱ(“work”),ȱshortȱforȱmaȬ liciousȱ magic,ȱ allegedlyȱ doneȱ eitherȱ byȱ spiritsȱ ofȱ ancientȱ maȬ giciansȱorȱmembersȱofȱtheȱAfroȬBrazilianȱcults.ȱInȱfact,ȱtheȱspirit ofȱaȱmagicianȱimmediatelyȱmanifestsȱitselfȱinȱtheȱsameȱmedium andȱbeginsȱbyȱlaughingȱloudly.ȱThenȱtheȱspiritȱdeclaresȱthrough herȱ mouth:ȱ “Iȱ wantȱ whatȱ isȱ mine.ȱ Andȱ Iȱ amȱ aȱ beauty!”ȱ When Lacerdaȱ ordersȱ him/herȱ toȱ undoȱ theȱ magic,ȱ s/heȱ refuses.ȱ “She hasȱ toȱ remainȱ veryȱ sad.ȱ Sheȱ willȱ haveȱ toȱ payȱ me.”ȱ Lacerdaȱ inȬ vitesȱhim/herȱforȱ“aȱrideȱonȱaȱcloud,”ȱwhichȱmeansȱputtingȱthe spiritȱonȱtheȱroadȱforȱaȱnewȱincarnation.ȱItȱresponds:ȱ“Youȱcan’t doȱthisȱtoȱme!ȱMyȱbeautyȱwillȱmakeȱherȱsad.”ȱLacerdaȱresponds thatȱheȱonlyȱseesȱuglinessȱandȱthatȱrealȱbeautyȱwillȱcomeȱifȱthe spiritȱfollowsȱhisȱinstructions.ȱ“Youȱwillȱbeȱbeautifulȱifȱyouȱdo well.ȱ Whyȱ makeȱ herȱ pay?ȱ Youȱ areȱ aȱ witchȱ andȱ willȱ remainȱ in thisȱ uglyȱ state.”ȱ Inȱ theȱ meantimeȱ Rosaȱ sitsȱ withȱ handsȱ raised andȱ eyesȱ closed.ȱ Atȱ aȱ certainȱ moment,ȱ oneȱ ofȱ theȱ femaleȱ team membersȱstartsȱstrokingȱRosa’sȱbelly. Thenȱ theȱ medium—orȱ betterȱ theȱ spirit—startsȱ crying.ȱ LaȬ cerdaȱputsȱmoreȱpressureȱonȱtheȱspirit:ȱ“Youȱhaveȱgoat’sȱlegsȱalȬ readyȱ andȱ horns.ȱ Youȱ callȱ thatȱ beauty?”ȱ Theȱ cryingȱ spiritȱ tells Lacerdaȱ thatȱ his/herȱ chiefȱ makesȱ him/herȱ actȱ asȱ s/heȱ does.ȱ LaȬ cerdaȱisȱadvisedȱnotȱtoȱcallȱthisȱchiefȱbecauseȱthenȱheȱwillȱgetȱa soundȱ beating.ȱ Magicianȱ spiritsȱ manifestȱ themselvesȱ regularly throughȱ mediumsȱ inȱ theȱ casesȱ thatȱ areȱ treatedȱ inȱ theȱ Casaȱ do Jardim.ȱVeryȱoftenȱtheȱgangsȱorȱevenȱarmiesȱtoȱwhichȱtheyȱbeȬ longȱ areȱ annihilatedȱ andȱ putȱ onȱ aȱ reincarnationȱ track.ȱ AcȬ cordingly,ȱthisȱturnȱinȱtheȱdialogueȱcouldȱbeȱtheȱstartȱofȱanother battleȱ withȱ gangsȱ ofȱ spirits,ȱ butȱ Lacerdaȱ optsȱ forȱ anotherȱ scenȬ ario.ȱHisȱanswerȱisȱtoȱcallȱoneȱofȱtheȱangelsȱthatȱregularlyȱcome toȱ assistȱ theȱ teamȱ inȱ itsȱ work.ȱ Withȱ theȱ angel’sȱ help,ȱ heȱ conȬ tinuesȱ hisȱ effortsȱ toȱ sendȱ theȱ spiritȱ toȱ reincarnation.ȱ “Youȱ will beȱ beautifulȱ onlyȱ ifȱ youȱ doȱ well.”ȱ Thenȱ theȱ spiritȱ givesȱ inȱ and announcesȱ thatȱ (s)heȱ hasȱ undoneȱ theȱ trabalho.ȱ Itȱ evenȱ accepts reincarnationȱandȱafterȱsomeȱtimeȱleavesȱtheȱmedium.

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Butȱ someȱ ofȱ theȱ mediumsȱ stillȱ suspectȱ moreȱ thanȱ trabalho. Lacerdaȱ countsȱ onceȱ more,ȱ andȱ aȱ spiritȱ manifestsȱ itselfȱ inȱ the sameȱ medium,ȱ declaring:ȱ “Iȱ willȱ notȱ leave,ȱ Iȱ willȱ notȱ goȱ away. Sheȱhadȱtoȱreceiveȱme,ȱbutȱsheȱsentȱmeȱaway.ȱIȱhadȱtoȱcomeȱinto thisȱincarnation,ȱforȱher,ȱandȱsheȱsentȱmeȱaway.”ȱWhenȱLacerda approachesȱ theȱ medium,ȱ theȱ spiritȱ says:ȱ “No!ȱ Don’tȱ cut!”ȱ But Lacerdaȱ affirmsȱ thatȱ theȱ spiritȱ willȱ goȱ toȱ theȱ hospitalȱ inȱ the spiritȱ worldȱ withȱ whichȱ heȱ worksȱ oftenȱ andȱ whereȱ heȱ sends spiritsȱforȱhealingȱandȱincarnation.ȱTheȱspiritȱcries:ȱ“Youȱcutȱmy umbilicalȱcord!”ȱbutȱLacerdaȱpromisesȱherȱaȱnewȱoneȱfromȱthe spiritȱhospital.ȱTheȱspiritȱstillȱcomplains:ȱ“Iȱcan’t,ȱIȱhaveȱtoȱcome withȱ her.ȱ Thatȱ isȱ whatȱ theyȱ toldȱ me,ȱ Iȱ haveȱ toȱ remainȱ closeȱ to her.”ȱ Theȱ mediumȱ nowȱ startsȱ toȱ cryȱ withȱ loudȱ andȱ highȱ sobs andȱ keepsȱ sayingȱ thatȱ itȱ wantsȱ toȱ remainȱ withȱ “her.”ȱ Butȱ LaȬ cerdaȱcontinuesȱcounting,ȱprovokingȱ“anȱirresistibleȱsleep,ȱyou goȱforȱaȱdeepȱsleep.”ȱTheȱmediumȱreturnsȱtoȱherȱnormalȱ state. Someȱ ofȱ theȱ mediumsȱ suggestȱ cleaningȱ upȱ theȱ patient’sȱ envirȬ onment,ȱwhichȱisȱdoneȱbyȱLacerda’sȱcounting.ȱThenȱoneȱofȱthe mediumsȱ asksȱ Rosaȱ whetherȱ thereȱ isȱ anȱ orphanageȱ inȱ her neighborhood.ȱ Sheȱ wantsȱ herȱ toȱ workȱ withȱ childrenȱ “soȱ that [she]ȱwillȱsucceedȱinȱbecomingȱmuchȱbetter,”ȱandȱtellsȱherȱthat itȱisȱaȱmatterȱofȱ“affectiveȱnecessity”ȱandȱnotȱjustȱoneȱofȱspendȬ ingȱ moneyȱ toȱ buyȱ sweetsȱ forȱ theȱ children.ȱ Lacerdaȱ closesȱ this partȱ ofȱ theȱ sessionȱ byȱ sayingȱ “Thankȱ Jesus!”ȱ Rosaȱ leavesȱ the roomȱandȱtheȱnextȱpatientȱwalksȱin. Theȱ caseȱ isȱ interestingȱ andȱ exceptionalȱ forȱ combiningȱ the troubleȱcausedȱbyȱaȱspiritȱmagicianȱandȱbyȱanotherȱspirit,ȱwho isȱ stillȱ connectedȱ withȱ Rosaȱ byȱ anȱ umbilicalȱ cord.ȱ Usually,ȱ a spiritȱ thatȱ sufferedȱ atȱ theȱ handsȱ ofȱ theȱ patient’sȱ spiritȱ inȱ a formerȱ life,ȱ inȱ anȱ earlierȱ incarnation,ȱ causesȱ theȱ patient’sȱ trouȬ ble,ȱ butȱ inȱ thisȱ caseȱ theȱ suggestionȱ byȱ theȱ mediumsȱ isȱ thatȱ the spiritȱthatȱisȱstillȱconnectedȱwithȱRosaȱisȱthatȱofȱherȱabortedȱbaȬ by.ȱByȱcuttingȱtheȱumbilicalȱcord,ȱLacerdaȱfreesȱRosaȱfromȱthis link.ȱ Thisȱ isȱ supposedȱ toȱ endȱ herȱ ovaryȱ pain.ȱ Moreover,ȱ there wasȱalsoȱaȱspiritȱmagicianȱwhoȱrefusedȱincarnationȱandȱwanted toȱkeepȱherȱunderȱcontrol. Schemas TheȱCasaȱdoȱJardimȱhealingȱgroupȱcombinesȱaȱnumberȱofȱreperȬ toires,ȱ treatingȱ themȱ asȱ similarȱ orȱ evenȱ identical,ȱ asȱ whenȱ reliȬ giousȱconceptsȱandȱconceptsȱfromȱphysicsȱareȱconsideredȱcomȬ

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plementary.ȱAnȱexampleȱisȱhowȱnotionsȱofȱfrequencyȱandȱenerȬ gyȱ areȱ givenȱ aȱ moralȱ andȱ estheticȱ meaning,ȱ withȱ lowȱ frequenȬ ciesȱrepresentingȱaȱlowȱmoralȱlevelȱandȱugliness.ȱSimilarly,ȱnoȬ tionsȱfromȱdifferentȱreligions,ȱdespiteȱbeingȱtakenȱbyȱtheirȱproȬ ponentsȱ asȱ belongingȱ toȱ anȱ exclusiveȱ andȱ idiosyncraticȱ reperȬ toire,ȱareȱbroughtȱtogether.ȱThus,ȱwhen,ȱasȱisȱtheȱcaseȱwithȱNew Life,ȱ aȱ greatȱ dealȱ ofȱ attentionȱ isȱ paidȱ toȱ theȱ body,ȱ ideasȱ from Kardecismȱandȱtheosophy,ȱandȱultimatelyȱfromȱHinduismȱand Buddhism,ȱareȱcombined.ȱInterestingly,ȱtheȱnotionȱofȱ“body”ȱis alsoȱusedȱforȱspiritualȱandȱmoralȱaspects.ȱSchemasȱfromȱapparȬ entlyȱdifferentȱcontextsȱandȱoriginsȱareȱlinked.ȱThusȱtheȱglobalȬ izingȱ world,ȱ amplyȱ availableȱ inȱ anȱ immigrantȱ country,ȱ isȱ inteȬ gratedȱintoȱtheȱspiritistȱworldview,ȱevenȱgivingȱBrazilȱtheȱstatus ofȱanȱelectȱcountry,ȱaȱpromisedȱland. Thisȱ globalȱ perspectiveȱ doesȱ notȱ excludeȱ attentionȱ toȱ indiȬ vidualȱsituations.ȱOnlyȱoneȱpatientȱisȱtreatedȱatȱaȱtimeȱandȱheȱor sheȱreceivesȱsufficientȱattentionȱtoȱestablishȱsomeȱspiritistȱdiagȬ nosis.ȱRosa’sȱcaseȱisȱinteresting,ȱbecauseȱitȱcombinesȱtwoȱofȱthe causesȱthatȱtheȱCasaȱdoȱJardimȱgroupȱviewsȱasȱessentialȱinȱspirȬ itistȱ diagnostic:ȱ actsȱ byȱ aȱ magicianȱ andȱ aȱ spirit.ȱ Differentȱ scheȬ masȱareȱappealedȱtoȱinȱorderȱtoȱestablishȱtreatmentȱand—ȱhopeȬ fully—healing.ȱForȱaȱwhileȱattentionȱappearsȱtoȱbeȱgivenȱtoȱanyȬ thingȱelseȱbutȱRosa,ȱbutȱtheȱmediumȱstrokingȱherȱbellyȱgivesȱher aȱ placeȱ inȱ whatȱ happens.ȱ Inȱ addition,ȱ sheȱ hearsȱ whatȱ isȱ said. TheȱultimateȱexplanationȱforȱRosa’sȱtroublesȱ(someȱformȱofȱmaȬ gic,ȱplusȱaȱvengefulȱspiritȱofȱanȱabortedȱchild)ȱappealsȱtoȱdifferȬ entȱrepertoires.ȱInȱfact,ȱtheȱreferenceȱtoȱabortionȱhasȱconnections withȱmoreȱthanȱoneȱrepertoireȱandȱschema.ȱThereȱisȱanȱelement ofȱrefusedȱreproduction,ȱwhichȱisȱimplicitlyȱcondemnedȱbyȱthe mediums.ȱTheȱmoralȱdimensionȱofȱtheȱbodilyȱprocessȱofȱbecomȬ ingȱ pregnantȱ andȱ gettingȱ anȱ abortionȱ isȱ emphasized,ȱ without beingȱ mentionedȱ asȱ such.ȱ Theȱ child’sȱ spiritȱ fallsȱ outsideȱ the usualȱschemaȱofȱangryȱspiritsȱfromȱaȱformerȱincarnation,ȱbutȱthe revengeȱelementȱisȱpresent.ȱTheȱideaȱthatȱaȱspiritȱstaysȱcloseȱto itsȱ victimȱ isȱ aȱ matterȱ ofȱ commonȱ senseȱ forȱ thisȱ spiritistȱ group. Theȱ abortionȱ isȱ consideredȱ toȱ beȱ immoralȱ andȱ cannotȱ endȱ the linkȱ betweenȱ motherȱ andȱ child.ȱ Theȱ cuttingȱ ofȱ theȱ umbilical cordȱseversȱthatȱlink.ȱTheȱchildȱspiritȱisȱdirectedȱsimultaneously toȱitsȱnextȱincarnation. Whatȱ happensȱ inȱ theȱ caseȱ ofȱ theȱ Casaȱ doȱ Jardimȱ exorcism practiceȱ isȱ thatȱ schemasȱ haveȱ beenȱ takenȱ fromȱ differentȱ reperȬ

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toires,ȱandȱputȱtogetherȱandȱsystematizedȱintoȱaȱnewȱrepertoire, mostȱ explicitlyȱ inȱ Lacerda’sȱ bookȱ onȱ hisȱ methodȱ ofȱ healing. Schemasȱ fromȱ physicsȱ (energy,ȱ frequency)ȱ andȱ fromȱ religious sourcesȱ(reincarnation,ȱspirits)ȱareȱconnectedȱwithȱmoralȱ(cleanȬ singȱ ofȱ theȱ planet)ȱ andȱ nationalisticȱ (Brazil’sȱ centralȱ role)ȱ conȬ cepts.ȱTheȱviewȱthatȱemergesȱasȱaȱwholeȱisȱtranslatedȱintoȱaȱritȬ ualȱpracticeȱwithȱaȱminimalȱscriptȱforȱtheȱtreatmentȱofȱaȱpatient, whichȱisȱthenȱindividualizedȱaccordingȱtoȱtheȱcharacteristicsȱof theȱ caseȱ andȱ theȱ mediumisticȱ experienceȱ ofȱ theȱ teamȱ members thatȱ happenȱ toȱ beȱ present.ȱ Theȱ patientȇsȱ bodyȱ isȱ sociallyȱ and culturallyȱinformed,ȱindeed. Conclusion WhatȱaddedȱvalueȱcanȱbeȱattributedȱtoȱaȱdescriptionȱandȱanalyȬ sisȱ ofȱ exorcismȱ and—moreȱ specifically—spiritualȱ warfareȱ in termsȱ ofȱ schemaȱ repertoires?ȱ Weȱ haveȱ shownȱ inȱ ourȱ compariȬ sonȱhowȱweȱcanȱlookȱatȱschemaȱrepertoiresȱinȱtheȱcaseȱofȱexorȬ cismȱ asȱ interpretiveȱ frameworksȱ thatȱ highlightȱ relationsȱ beȬ tweenȱ differentȱ domainsȱ withinȱ aȱ healingȱ process.ȱ Thisȱ is shownȱinȱtheȱwayȱtheȱafflictedȱandȱtheȱhealersȱestablishȱaȱconȬ nectionȱ betweenȱ theȱ biographicalȱ materialȱ ofȱ theȱ patientsȱ and theȱ worldview,ȱ diagnosis,ȱ andȱ methodsȱ ofȱ theȱ religiousȱ group whereȱ theȱ patientsȱ seekȱ relief.ȱ Aȱ schemaȱ repertoireȱ approach showsȱ theȱ creativeȱ processȱ ofȱ individualsȱ andȱ theirȱ healersȱ in theirȱ searchȱ forȱ theȱ meaningȱ ofȱ suffering.ȱ Inȱ thisȱ way,ȱ theȱ apȬ proachȱthatȱisȱproposedȱandȱtestedȱhereȱmakesȱclearȱhowȱaȱculȬ turalȱexperienceȱofȱillnessȱandȱhealingȱbecomesȱindividuallyȱinȬ ternalizedȱ andȱ subsequentlyȱ externalized,ȱ howȱ someȱ schemas withinȱaȱrepertoireȱareȱemphasizedȱandȱenhanced,ȱwhereasȱothȬ ersȱ areȱ leftȱ outȱ ofȱ theȱ individualȱ healingȱ storyȱ andȱ theȱ healing procedure. Inȱ theȱ casesȱ weȱ described,ȱ schemasȱ fromȱ differentȱ reperȬ toires,ȱ suchȱ asȱ religion,ȱ science,ȱ theȱ militaryȱ sphere,ȱ areȱ comȬ binedȱforȱtheirȱpowerȱtoȱtransformȱtheȱsituation.ȱWeȱstressȱthat schemaȱrepertoiresȱdoȱnotȱofferȱaȱtheoryȱinȱtheȱsenseȱofȱexplanȬ atoryȱ reasoning,ȱ letȱ aloneȱ causalȱ explanations.ȱ Whatȱ theyȱ do offerȱisȱaȱviewȱofȱandȱanȱapproachȱtoȱtheȱproductionȱofȱcultural experiencesȱ andȱ meanings,ȱ whichȱ haveȱ moreȱ toȱ sayȱ aboutȱ the dynamicȱwayȱinȱwhichȱpeopleȱdealȱwithȱtheirȱsocialȱandȱculturȬ alȱ surroundings.ȱ Inȱ thisȱ sense,ȱ itȱ helpsȱ toȱ discloseȱ individual

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livesȱ inȱ relationȱ toȱ structuralȱ constraints.ȱ Clearly,ȱ schemasȱ are academicȱ constructionsȱ ofȱ howȱ weȱ thinkȱ thatȱ theȱ livedȱ experiȬ enceȱ hereȱ ofȱ exorcismȱ andȱ spiritualȱ warfareȱ shouldȱ beȱ deȬ scribed.ȱThisȱimpliesȱthatȱschemasȱdoȱnotȱimposeȱtheirȱmeaning onȱpeopleȱinȱanȱautomaticȱway.ȱSchemasȱareȱusedȱbyȱpeopleȱto achieveȱ aȱ certainȱ effectȱ andȱ inȱ thisȱ wayȱ theyȱ areȱ filledȱ with meaningȱandȱthusȱwithȱtheȱpowerȱtoȱtransformȱsituations. Inȱtheȱaboveȱcases,ȱweȱhaveȱshownȱthatȱthisȱuseȱofȱschemas isȱnotȱjustȱtheȱprivilegeȱofȱreligiousȱspecialistsȱbutȱthatȱtheirȱcliȬ ents,ȱ althoughȱ moreȱ clearlyȱ soȱ inȱ theȱ firstȱ caseȱ thanȱ inȱ theȱ secȬ ond,ȱ mayȱ exerciseȱ similarȱ kindsȱ ofȱ powerȱ asȱ well.ȱ Theȱ power distributionȱwithinȱreligiousȱgroupsȱis,ȱofȱcourse,ȱextremelyȱdiȬ verseȱandȱthisȱshouldȱbeȱtakenȱintoȱaccountȱinȱtheȱapplicationȱof aȱschemaȱrepertoiresȱapproachȱinȱtheȱstudyȱofȱreligiousȱhealing andȱtheȱstudyȱofȱreligionȱinȱgeneral.ȱInȱthatȱsense,ȱtheȱpatient’s courseȱthroughȱtheȱtreatmentȱisȱaȱresultȱofȱtheȱhealers’ȱpowerȱto suggestȱtheȱadoptionȱofȱnewȱschemasȱfromȱdifferentȱrepertoires. Theȱ concreteȱ eventsȱ thatȱ markȱ theȱ healingȱ sessionȱ canȱ beȱ used creatively,ȱwithȱtheȱfinalȱgoalȱofȱproducingȱpersonalȱandȱsomeȬ timesȱ tailorȬmadeȱ solutions.ȱ Muchȱ emphasisȱ isȱ putȱ onȱ theȱ difȬ ferenceȱ betweenȱ beforeȱ andȱ after,ȱ chaosȱ andȱ order,ȱ lackȱ ofȱ seȬ curityȱ andȱ control.ȱ Theȱ patients’ȱ dependenceȱ orȱ evenȱ despair opensȱ themȱ toȱ newȱ schemas.ȱ Theȱ dramaticȱ natureȱ ofȱ exorcism andȱtheȱsimplicityȱofȱdualistȱworldviewsȱhelpȱtoȱconvinceȱpeoȬ pleȱofȱtheirȱvalue.ȱTheirȱeffectȱmayȱthereforeȱbeȱaȱmatterȱofȱselfȬ fulfillingȱmechanisms.ȱTheȱpatients’ȱidentityȱisȱreconstructedȱin theȱprocess.ȱPatientsȱmayȱsubsequentlyȱturnȱintoȱhealersȱthemȬ selves. Interestinglyȱtheȱtwoȱcasesȱalsoȱshowȱhowȱhealersȱandȱtheir patients,ȱ inȱ aȱ complexȱ combinationȱ ofȱ perspectives,ȱ findȱ their wayȱ betweenȱ theȱ polesȱ thatȱ characterizeȱ socialȱ scienceȱ theorizȬ ing.ȱWhetherȱitȱisȱaȱmatterȱofȱtheȱactors’ȱpositionȱwithȱregardȱto structures,ȱorȱtheirȱexperiencingȱtheȱtensionȱbetweenȱcontinuity andȱrupture,ȱinȱbothȱcasesȱpeopleȱfindȱtheirȱwayȱthroughȱtheȱalȬ ternatives. TheȱschemaȱrepertoireȱapproachȱisȱprimarilyȱaȱtoolȱinȱmapȬ pingȱwhatȱhappensȱinȱcasesȱasȱdescribedȱhere.ȱComplementing otherȱapproaches,ȱitȱcanȱbeȱusedȱasȱaȱheuristicȱinstrumentȱinȱunȬ derstandingȱ whatȱ isȱ happeningȱ whenȱ peopleȱ seekȱ healing throughȱexorcism.

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Bibliography Armond,ȱEdgard.ȱ(1986).ȱOsȱExiladosȱdaȱCapela:ȱEsboçoȱsintéticoȱdaȱevoluȬ çãoȱespiritualȱdoȱmundo.ȱSaoȱPaulo:ȱEditoraȱAliança. Bloch,ȱ Maurice.ȱ (1998).ȱ Howȱ Weȱ Thinkȱ Theyȱ Think:ȱ Anthropologicalȱ ApȬ proachesȱ toȱ Cognition,ȱ Memoryȱ andȱ Literacy.ȱ Boulder:ȱ Westview Press. Csordas,ȱThomasȱJ.ȱ(1990).ȱ“EmbodimentȱasȱaȱParadigmȱforȱAnthropoȬ logy.”ȱEthosȱ18:ȱ5Ȭ47. (1992).ȱ “Theȱ Afflictionȱ ofȱ Martin:ȱ Religious,ȱ Clinical,ȱ andȱ PheȬ nomenologicalȱ Meaningȱ inȱ aȱ Caseȱ ofȱ Demonicȱ Oppression.”ȱ In: AtwoodȱGainesȱ(ed.).ȱEthnopsychiatry:ȱTheȱCulturalȱConstructionȱof ProfessionalȱandȱFolkȱPsychiatries.ȱAlbany:ȱStateȱUniversityȱofȱNew YorkȱPress.ȱPp.ȱ125Ȭ70. (1994).ȱ Theȱ Sacredȱ Self:ȱ Aȱ Culturalȱ Phenomenologyȱ ofȱ Charismatic Healing,ȱBerkeley:ȱTheȱUniversityȱofȱCaliforniaȱPress. (2002).ȱBody/Meaning/Healing.ȱNewȱYork:ȱPalgraveȱMacMillan. DȇAndrade,ȱ Roy.ȱ (1995).ȱ Theȱ Developmentȱ ofȱ Cognitiveȱ Anthropology. Cambridge:ȱCambridgeȱUniversityȱPress. Droogers,ȱ André.ȱ (1991).ȱ “Brazilȱ asȱ aȱ Patient:ȱ Politicalȱ Healingȱ and ‘Newȱ Age’ȱ inȱ aȱ Spiritistȱ Group.”ȱ In:ȱ Andréȱ Droogersȱ etȱ al.ȱ (eds). Popularȱ Powerȱ inȱ Latinȱ Americanȱ Religions.ȱ Saarbrückenȱ andȱ Fort Lauderdale:ȱBreitenbach.ȱPp.ȱ237Ȭ59. Lacerdaȱ deȱ Azevedo,ȱ José.ȱ (1988).ȱ Espírito/Matéria:ȱ Novosȱ Horizontes paraȱaȱMedicina.ȱPortoȱAlegre:ȱPalotti. (1997).ȱ Spiritȱ &ȱ Matter:ȱ Newȱ Horizonsȱ forȱ Medicine.ȱ Tempe:ȱ New FalconȱPublications. Moerman,ȱDanielȱE.ȱandȱWayneȱB.ȱJonas.ȱ(2002).ȱ“Deconstructingȱthe PlaceboȱEffectȱandȱFindingȱtheȱMeaningȱResponse.”ȱAnnalsȱofȱInȬ ternalȱMedicineȱ136:ȱ471Ȭ76. Strauss,ȱ Claudiaȱ andȱ Naomiȱ Quinn.ȱ (1997).ȱ Aȱ Cognitiveȱ Theoryȱ ofȱ CulȬ turalȱMeaning.ȱCambridge:ȱCambridgeȱUniversityȱPress. Versteeg,ȱ Peter.ȱ (1995).ȱ Bezetȱ gebied.ȱ Deȱ demonologieȱ vanȱ charismatische groepenȱinȱNederland.ȱHilversum:ȱStichtingȱVuur. Xavier,ȱ Franciscoȱ Cândido.ȱ (1983).ȱ Brasil,ȱ Coraçãoȱ doȱ Mundo,ȱ Pátriaȱ do Evangelhoȱ(PeloȱespíritoȱHumbertoȱdeȱCampos).ȱRioȱdeȱJaneiro:ȱFedȬ eraçãoȱEspíritaȱBrasileira.

Howȱ“Satanic”ȱIsȱSatanism? AȱNormativeȱDescription ReenderȱKranenborg

Abstract OneȱofȱtheȱbestȬknownȱandȱmostȱrepresentativeȱmovementsȱtoȱcallȱthemselves “Satanist”ȱisȱtheȱChurchȱofȱSatan,ȱfoundedȱinȱCaliforniaȱinȱ1966ȱbyȱSzandor LaVey.ȱ Itȱ wasȱ initiatedȱ toȱ worshipȱ Satanȱ andȱ thusȱ opposeȱ theȱ evilȱ thatȱ was perceivedȱinȱtheȱChristianȱspiritȱofȱtheȱestablishedȱchurches.ȱInȱthisȱcontribuȬ tionȱtheȱauthorȱdiscussesȱtheȱquestionȱwhetherȱtheȱlabelȱ“satanic,”ȱinȱtheȱusuȬ alȱ senseȱ ofȱ beingȱ evilȱ andȱ harmfulȱ toȱ peopleȱ isȱ applicableȱ toȱ theȱ “Satanist” ChurchȱofȱSatan.ȱHowȱ“satanic”ȱisȱSatanism?

Introduction Whenȱspeakingȱaboutȱ“evil,”ȱsomeȱpeopleȱreferȱtoȱtheȱdevilȱor Satan,ȱsince,ȱinȱtheirȱview,ȱSatanȱisȱtheȱoriginȱofȱallȱthingsȱevil. Inȱ otherȱ words,ȱ Satanȱ isȱ theȱ causeȱ allȱ theȱ badȱ thingsȱ onȱ earth. Amongȱ otherȱ things,ȱ thisȱ isȱ anȱ orthodoxȱ “Christian”ȱ view,ȱ as theȱconnectionȱbetweenȱevilȱandȱtheȱdevilȱisȱselfȬevidentȱforȱthe moreȱ orthodoxȱ orȱ conservativeȱ formsȱ ofȱ Christianity.ȱ Butȱ evil andȱ theȱ devilȱ areȱ alsoȱ closelyȱ intertwinedȱ inȱ everydayȱ speech, andȱ “theȱ devil”ȱ alwaysȱ refersȱ toȱ anȱ evilȱ power.ȱ Peopleȱ may discussȱ theȱ natureȱ andȱ extentȱ ofȱ evil,ȱ butȱ theyȱ allȱ agreeȱ that “evil”ȱ isȱ trulyȱ evil.ȱ Theȱ contentȱ ofȱ evilȱ differsȱ inȱ everyȱ religion andȱ culture.ȱ Opinionsȱ differȱ widely,ȱ but,ȱ again,ȱ evilȱ isȱ ubiquiȬ tous.ȱ Inȱ thisȱ paper,ȱ Iȱ willȱ useȱ theȱ notionȱ ofȱ evilȱ asȱ itȱ isȱ underȬ stoodȱinȱtheȱChristianȱworld. EvilȱisȱconnectedȱwithȱSatan,ȱwhoȱisȱtheȱultimateȱevilȱpowȬ er.ȱToȱtheȱorthodoxȱorȱconservativeȱChristianȱbeliever,ȱthisȱcanȬ notȱsimpleȱbeȱaȱstatement,ȱforȱifȱheȱunderstandsȱtheȱdevilȱasȱevil writȱ large,ȱ heȱ hasȱ toȱ determineȱ hisȱ ownȱ positionȱ andȱ respond accordingly.ȱ Itȱ isȱ notȱ possibleȱ toȱ beȱ indifferentȱ toȱ Satan.ȱ Asȱ a rule,ȱ believersȱ pledgeȱ toȱ fightȱ evilȱ andȱ Satan.ȱ Itȱ isȱ notȱ enough 125

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forȱ aȱ believerȱ toȱ beȱ careful;ȱ heȱ hasȱ toȱ act.ȱ Heȱ shouldȱ notȱ sucȬ cumbȱ toȱ theȱ temptationsȱ ofȱ theȱ devilȱ butȱ fightȱ activelyȱ against allȱ theȱ evilȱ heȱ findsȱ inȱ himselfȱ andȱ inȱ theȱ world.ȱ Hisȱ position towardȱtheȱdevilȱhasȱtoȱbeȱoneȱofȱaversionȱandȱdefense;ȱinȱfact, evilȱshouldȱneverȱhaveȱexistedȱinȱtheȱfirstȱplace. However,ȱthisȱisȱnotȱtheȱonlyȱattitudeȱpracticedȱwithinȱthat partȱofȱtheȱworldȱwhichȱisȱculturallyȱdominatedȱbyȱChristianity. RudolfȱOttoȱspokeȱofȱtheȱNuminousȱasȱtheȱmysteriumȱtremendum etȱ fascinosum.ȱ Thisȱ alsoȱ appliesȱ toȱ theȱ devil.ȱ Onȱ theȱ oneȱ hand, theȱdevilȱinstillsȱgreatȱfearȱinȱpeople.ȱBut,ȱonȱtheȱotherȱhand,ȱhe isȱ interestingȱ andȱ fascinating.ȱ Thisȱ fascinationȱ withȱ Satanȱ can takeȱatȱleastȱtwoȱforms.ȱTheȱfirstȱstopsȱshortȱofȱsheerȱfascination withȱtheȱexistenceȱofȱtheȱdevil,ȱtheȱinfluenceȱofȱhisȱpower,ȱand allȱtheȱbadȱthingsȱthatȱhappen.ȱButȱthisȱdoesȱnotȱimplyȱthatȱevil isȱ good;ȱ onȱ theȱ contrary,ȱ theȱ devilȱ canȱ strikeȱ terrorȱ intoȱ one’s veryȱheart.ȱTheȱsecondȱformȱisȱquiteȱdifferent:ȱhereȱpeopleȱsurȬ renderȱthemselvesȱtoȱSatan,ȱtheyȱwantȱtoȱworshipȱhim,ȱvenerate him,ȱ andȱ liveȱ accordingȱ toȱ hisȱ norms.ȱ Inȱ suchȱ casesȱ weȱ can speakȱ ofȱ “Satanism”ȱ asȱ aȱ religionȱ inȱ whichȱ theȱ “ultimateȱ realȬ ity”ȱisȱnotȱGodȱbutȱtheȱpowerȱofȱevil.ȱInȱotherȱwords,ȱinȱSatanȬ ism,ȱSatanȱis—phenomenologically—theȱhighestȱgod. Theȱterminologyȱisȱconfusing.ȱOneȱcouldȱseeȱ“Satanist”ȱasȱa synonymȱ forȱ evil,ȱ inȱ whichȱ caseȱ Satanistȱ religiousȱ movements areȱevil.ȱOneȱcouldȱalsoȱuseȱtheȱtermȱinȱaȱpurelyȱformalȱandȱdeȬ scriptiveȱ sense,ȱ inȱ whichȱ caseȱ Satanistȱ religiousȱ movements worshipȱaȱhigherȱbeingȱknownȱasȱSatan,ȱtheȱpowerȱofȱevil,ȱbut areȱ notȱ necessarilyȱ evilȱ themselves.ȱ Weȱ shouldȱ distinguishȱ beȬ tweenȱ “Satanist”ȱ andȱ “satanic.”ȱ Iȱ useȱ theȱ termȱ “Satanist”ȱ inȱ a purelyȱ formalȱ andȱ descriptiveȱ sense,ȱ devoidȱ ofȱ valueȱ judgȬ ments.ȱ Iȱ useȱ theȱ termȱ “satanic”ȱ inȱ aȱ normativeȱ sense,ȱ referring toȱ allȱ thingsȱ thatȱ Iȱ wouldȱ considerȱ “evil,”ȱ thatȱ is,ȱ “harming otherȱhumanȱbeingsȱintentionally.” Myȱ mainȱ questionȱ willȱ be:ȱ Canȱ Satanismȱ beȱ consideredȱ a religionȱthatȱis,ȱinȱessence,ȱ“satanic,”ȱthatȱis,ȱaȱreligionȱthatȱisȱinȬ tendedȱtoȱharmȱpeople? SzandorȱLaVey’sȱChurchȱofȱSatan Thereȱ areȱ manyȱ groupsȱ andȱ movementsȱ thatȱ explicitlyȱ label themselvesȱSatanist.ȱTheȱmostȱwellȬknownȱandȱrepresentativeȱis theȱ “Churchȱ ofȱ Satan,”ȱ foundedȱ inȱ Californiaȱ inȱ 1966ȱ byȱ SzanȬ

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dorȱLaVeyȱ(1931Ȭ1976).ȱTheȱchurchȱwasȱestablishedȱtoȱworship Satan.ȱAccordingȱtoȱLaVey: TheȱSatanistȱ‘God’ȱ–ȱbyȱwhateverȱnameȱheȱisȱcalled,ȱorȱbyȱno nameȱ atȱ allȱ –ȱ isȱ theȱ balancingȱ factorȱ inȱ natureȱ andȱ isȱ not concernedȱwithȱsuffering.ȱThisȱpowerfulȱforceȱwhichȱpermeȬ atesȱ andȱ balancesȱ theȱ universeȱ isȱ farȱ tooȱ impersonalȱ toȱ care aboutȱ theȱ happinessȱ orȱ miseryȱ ofȱ fleshȬandȬbloodȱ creatures onȱthisȱmoundȱofȱdirtȱonȱwhichȱweȱlive.ȱ(LaVeyȱ1969:ȱ40)

Or,ȱdefinedȱdifferently: Satanȱisȱtheȱspiritȱofȱprogress,ȱtheȱinspirerȱofȱallȱgreatȱmoveȬ mentsȱthatȱcontributeȱtoȱtheȱdevelopmentȱofȱcivilizationȱand theȱ advancementȱ ofȱ mankind.ȱ Heȱ isȱ theȱ spiritȱ thatȱ leadsȱ to freedom,ȱtheȱembodimentȱofȱallȱheresiesȱthatȱliberate.

FromȱaȱChristianȱperspective,ȱSatanismȱisȱintrinsicallyȱevil:ȱpeoȬ pleȱ mustȱ notȱ worshipȱ Satan,ȱ theȱ essenceȱ ofȱ evil,ȱ orȱ wantȱ toȱ do hisȱwill.ȱIfȱoneȱsaysȱthisȱtoȱaȱmemberȱofȱtheȱChurchȱofȱSatan,ȱhe willȱdenyȱoutrightȱthatȱSatanȱisȱintrinsicallyȱevil,ȱbecauseȱheȱbeȬ lievesȱthatȱitȱisȱgoodȱtoȱworshipȱSatan.ȱThisȱdifferenceȱofȱinsight isȱ reflectedȱ inȱ differencesȱ concerningȱ theȱ viewȱ ofȱ evilȱ thatȱ we findȱ inȱ theȱ Christianȱ churchesȱ andȱ theȱ Churchȱ ofȱ Satan.ȱ TradiȬ tionally,ȱtheȱRomanȱCatholicȱChurchȱrefersȱtoȱtheȱsevenȱcardinȬ alȱ sinsȱ ofȱ pride,ȱ envy,ȱ gluttony,ȱ lust,ȱ anger,ȱ greedȱ andȱ sloth. Peopleȱ whoȱ engageȱ inȱ suchȱ actsȱ haveȱ sinnedȱ gravely,ȱ andȱ will haveȱ difficultyȱ findingȱ forgiveness.ȱ Ifȱ theyȱ commitȱ theseȱ sins consciously,ȱitȱwillȱbeȱallȱtheȱworseȱforȱthem.ȱDeliberateȱsinsȱare veryȱbad,ȱandȱalmostȱunforgivable. LaVeyȱdealsȱextensivelyȱwithȱtheȱsevenȱcardinalȱsinsȱinȱhis SatanicȱBibleȱfromȱaȱSatanistȱperspective.ȱHeȱcharacterizesȱthem asȱ instrumentsȱ ofȱ suppressionȱ byȱ theȱ Christianȱ church—supȬ pressionȱofȱgoodȱhumanȱpotential.ȱThus,ȱcommittingȱtheseȱcarȬ dinalȱ sinsȱ bringsȱ liberationȱ andȱ enrichment;ȱ itȱ meansȱ thatȱ the individualȱ isȱ evolvingȱ towardȱ aȱ fullerȱ andȱ richerȱ formȱ ofȱ huȬ manity.ȱ Thereȱ isȱ nothingȱ wrongȱ withȱ pride.ȱ Itȱ isȱ goodȱ toȱ be proudȱofȱoneself;ȱaȱpersonȱisȱnotȱnothingȱandȱisȱallowedȱtoȱbeȱa humanȱ being.ȱ Thereȱ isȱ nothingȱ wrongȱ withȱ greed:ȱ itȱ isȱ not wrongȱtoȱenjoyȱorȱtoȱownȱmaterialȱthings.ȱDoesȱtheȱBibleȱnotȱsee richesȱ asȱ aȱ blessingȱ fromȱ God?ȱ Thereȱ isȱ nothingȱ wrongȱ with lust.ȱ Sexualityȱ isȱ aȱ giftȱ toȱ humankind.ȱ Whyȱ shouldȱ humans beingsȱ notȱ enjoyȱ itȱ fully?ȱ Peopleȱ shouldȱ engageȱ inȱ sexualȱ relaȬ

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tionsȱ asȱ oftenȱ asȱ theyȱ want,ȱ withȱ whomeverȱ theyȱ wantȱ (proȬ videdȱtheȱotherȱpartyȱconsents)ȱandȱwhereverȱoneȱwants.ȱThere isȱ nothingȱ wrongȱ withȱ anger.ȱ Itȱ unleashesȱ enormousȱ energy withinȱ humanȱ beings.ȱ Someoneȱ whoȱ isȱ angryȱ mayȱ beȱ inspired toȱdoȱthingsȱheȱmightȱnotȱotherwiseȱdareȱtoȱdo.ȱHeȱfindsȱenergy andȱpowerȱandȱtheȱpossibilityȱofȱdoingȱhisȱownȱwillȱandȱrealizȬ ingȱ hisȱ ownȱ ideals.ȱ Thereȱ isȱ nothingȱ wrongȱ withȱ thisȱ creative energy.ȱIȱcouldȱalsoȱdiscussȱLaVey’sȱthoughtsȱonȱtheȱotherȱcarȬ dinalȱ sins,ȱ butȱ theȱ pointȱ hasȱ beenȱ made:ȱ LaVeyȱ seesȱ theȱ seven cardinalȱ sinsȱ asȱ veryȱ goodȱ andȱ veryȱ positiveȱ humanȱ qualities thatȱ shouldȱ notȱ beȱ suppressedȱ butȱ realized.ȱ Thereȱ isȱ nothing wrongȱwithȱthem. Inȱthisȱcase,ȱSatanȱisȱnotȱtheȱpowerȱofȱevilȱbutȱaȱkindȱofȱenȬ ergyȱthatȱpermeatesȱandȱdeterminesȱallȱthings.ȱThisȱisȱreminisȬ centȱofȱNewȱAgeȱandȱneopaganism.ȱSatanȱisȱalsoȱtheȱpowerȱthat makesȱhumanȱbeingsȱrealizeȱtheirȱpotential.ȱHumansȱareȱpartȱof nature,ȱwithȱmuchȱpotentialȱwithinȱthemselves,ȱevenȱtheȱdeepȬ estȱSelfȱwithinȱhumanȱbeingsȱcanȱbeȱcalledȱ“devil.”ȱHereȱ“devȬ il”ȱdoesȱnotȱreferȱtoȱtheȱevilȱwithinȱaȱhumanȱbeingȱbutȱtoȱaȱpart ofȱtheȱcosmicȱenergyȱdwellingȱinsideȱthatȱperson.ȱAȱhumanȱbeȬ ingȱhasȱtoȱgoȱtoȱhisȱ“devil,”ȱtoȱhisȱdeeperȱSelf,ȱandȱdevelopsȱhis potentialȱ inȱ thatȱ process.ȱ Humanȱ beingsȱ areȱ essentiallyȱ good, butȱtheȱinfluenceȱofȱtheȱchurchȱhasȱmadeȱthemȱviewȱthemselves asȱbad,ȱsinfulȱandȱevil.ȱTheyȱhaveȱalsoȱgottenȱtheȱideaȱthatȱthey areȱforbiddenȱtoȱexploitȱtheirȱnaturalȱpotential;ȱtheyȱareȱnotȱalȬ lowedȱtoȱfeelȱdesireȱorȱtoȱstandȱupȱforȱthemselves;ȱtheyȱhaveȱto loveȱ theirȱ neighborȱ andȱ denyȱ themselves.ȱ LaVeyȱ protestsȱ veȬ hementlyȱ againstȱ suchȱ ideas,ȱ claimingȱ insteadȱ thatȱ humanȱ beȬ ingsȱ haveȱ theȱ rightȱ toȱ be,ȱ theyȱ doȱ notȱ needȱ toȱ beȱ ashamedȱ of themselves,ȱtheȱsoȬcalledȱcardinalȱsinsȱareȱnotȱsinsȱbutȱelements ofȱ humanityȱ thatȱ areȱ essentiallyȱ goodȱ (seeȱ aboveȱ inȱ theȱ introȬ duction)ȱandȱoneȱdoesȱneedȱtoȱputȱone’sȱneighborȱaheadȱofȱoneȬ self.ȱ LaVeyȱ writes:ȱ “Weȱ areȱ selfȬrespecting,ȱ proudȱ people—we areȱSatanists”ȱandȱ“SatanismȱisȱtheȱonlyȱreligionȱknownȱtoȱMan thatȱacceptsȱManȱasȱheȱis”ȱ(LaVeyȱ1969:ȱ54,ȱ53). Humanȱbeingsȱneedȱtoȱbeȱliberatedȱfromȱallȱtheseȱnegative ideasȱaboutȱthemselves.ȱThisȱmayȱmeanȱthatȱweȱareȱsummoned toȱ hate.ȱ Weȱ areȱ notȱ obligatedȱ toȱ loveȱ ourȱ neighbor;ȱ rather,ȱ we mustȱ loveȱ ourselvesȱ firstȱ andȱ hateȱ allȱ thoseȱ whoȱ opposeȱ us. Christianȱ organizations,ȱ forȱ instance,ȱ wantȱ toȱ suppressȱ human

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beings.ȱThereȱareȱalsoȱ“mentalȱvampires”ȱwhoȱsuckȱtheȱstrength outȱ ofȱ othersȱ andȱ blackmailȱ themȱ emotionally.ȱ Andȱ thereȱ are weakȱandȱmiserableȱpeopleȱwhoȱappealȱtoȱsomethingȱinȱothers andȱmakeȱthemȱwantȱtoȱhelpȱthemȱandȱdenyȱthemselves.ȱLaVey alsoȱstatesȱthatȱweȱshouldȱnotȱallowȱourselvesȱtoȱbecomeȱoverȬ poweredȱbutȱshouldȱstandȱupȱfirmlyȱforȱourselves.ȱIfȱsomebody strikesȱ usȱ onȱ theȱ leftȱ cheek,ȱ weȱ areȱ notȱ toȱ turnȱ theȱ rightȱ cheek butȱhitȱbackȱtwiceȱasȱhard.ȱWeȱshouldȱnotȱallowȱourselvesȱtoȱbe intimidated.ȱInȱshort,ȱitȱcouldȱbeȱsaidȱthatȱLaVeyȱwantsȱhuman beingsȱ toȱ developȱ fully,ȱ inȱ everyȱ respect,ȱ andȱ thatȱ nothing shouldȱstopȱthemȱfromȱdoingȱso.ȱThereȱisȱonlyȱȱoneȱproviso:ȱthis developmentȱmayȱnotȱhappenȱatȱtheȱexpenseȱofȱothers. Thisȱ bringsȱ usȱ toȱ theȱ Satanistȱ wayȱ ofȱ life.ȱ Whatȱ doesȱ a Satanistȱ do?ȱ Twoȱ thingsȱ areȱ important:ȱ magicalȱ practicesȱ and theȱ blackȱ Mass.ȱ Magicȱ entailsȱ workingȱ withȱ theȱ energyȱ inȱ naȬ tureȱ(i.e.ȱtheȱSatanistȱpower)ȱtoȱachieveȱcertainȱaims.ȱThereȱare threeȱ formsȱ ofȱ magic:ȱ sexualȱ magic,ȱ compassionateȱ magic,ȱ and destructiveȱmagicȱ(orȱcursing).ȱMagicȱisȱalwaysȱpracticedȱcollecȬ tively—thus,ȱatȱtheȱservicesȱofȱtheȱChurchȱofȱSatan.ȱTheȱaimȱis writtenȱonȱaȱpieceȱofȱpaper,ȱwhichȱisȱthenȱburnedȱrituallyȱwhile incantationsȱareȱrecitedȱcollectivelyȱtoȱmakeȱtheȱmagicȱmoreȱefȬ fective.ȱInȱsexualȱmagicȱ(loveȱmagic),ȱtheȱaimȱisȱtoȱwinȱaȱbelovȬ edȱpersonȱandȱbindȱhim/herȱtoȱoneself.ȱInȱcompassionateȱmagic someoneȱisȱsentȱextraȱpowerȱorȱenergyȱviaȱrituals.ȱInȱdestructive magicȱanȱindividualȱisȱcondemnedȱtoȱdeathȱwithinȱtheȱmeeting. Iȱ willȱ notȱ takeȱ upȱ theȱ questionȱ asȱ toȱ whetherȱ allȱ theseȱ things actuallyȱ work.ȱ LaVeyȱ maintainsȱ thatȱ hisȱ magicȱ isȱ highlyȱ effecȬ tiveȱ (andȱ sendsȱ outȱ strongȱ warningsȱ toȱ hisȱ adversaries);ȱ howȬ ever,ȱ heȱ alsoȱ speaksȱ ofȱ aȱ catharsis,ȱ asȱ theȱ magicȱ enablesȱ people toȱgiveȱfullȱutteranceȱtoȱtheirȱdeepestȱwishes.ȱHereȱitȱisȱaȱkindȱof psychotherapy.ȱ Theȱblackȱmassȱisȱclearlyȱaȱparodyȱofȱtheȱcelebrationȱofȱthe Eucharistȱ andȱ isȱ modeledȱ onȱ theȱ blackȱ massesȱ thatȱ wereȱ celeȬ bratedȱinȱtheȱeighteenthȱcentury.ȱSatanȱisȱinvoked,ȱtheȱbodyȱofȱa nakedȱ womanȱ isȱ usedȱ asȱ anȱ altar,ȱ theȱ hostȱ isȱ desecrated,ȱ and hymnsȱ areȱ sungȱ toȱ venerateȱ Satan.ȱ LaVeyȱ speaksȱ atȱ length aboutȱtheȱmeaningȱofȱtheȱblackȱmass,ȱclaimingȱthatȱitȱisȱaȱpsyȬ chodrama,ȱ inȱ whichȱ peopleȱ canȱ beȱ freedȱ fromȱ allȱ theȱ frustraȬ tionsȱinheritedȱfromȱtheȱchurch.ȱItȱisȱaȱkindȱofȱpurification.

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Ofȱcourse,ȱaȱlotȱmoreȱcanȱbeȱsaidȱaboutȱtheȱideasȱandȱpracȬ ticesȱofȱtheȱChurchȱofȱSatanȱandȱeverythingȱisȱclearlyȱexplained inȱtheȱtwoȱbookletsȱTheȱSatanicȱBibleȱandȱTheȱSatanicȱRituals.ȱItȱis formulatedȱ thereȱ moreȱ stronglyȱ thanȱ Iȱ haveȱ done,ȱ butȱ thereȱ is noȱessentialȱdifference.ȱTheȱChurchȱofȱSatanȱisȱnotȱ“satanic”ȱin theȱsenseȱthatȱitȱisȱintendedȱtoȱharmȱpeopleȱdeliberately.ȱOnȱthe contrary,ȱ itȱ wantsȱ humanȱ beingsȱ toȱ developȱ theirȱ potentialȱ as muchȱasȱpossible.ȱObviously,ȱtheȱcallȱtoȱhateȱandȱtheȱcursesȱare notȱexactlyȱfriendly,ȱbutȱnobodyȱhasȱbeenȱhurtȱbyȱthisȱchurchȱso far.ȱItȱshouldȱbeȱsaidȱthatȱinȱmanyȱcasesȱtheȱSatanistȱelementȱis meantȱasȱaȱprovocation.ȱItȱisȱaȱprotestȱagainstȱtheȱdominantȱculȬ ture,ȱ andȱ especiallyȱ againstȱ theȱ dominantȱ religion,ȱ theȱ Roman CatholicȱChurch.ȱBothȱareȱclearlyȱrejectedȱandȱoftenȱinȱaȱshockȬ ingȱ manner.ȱ Thisȱ isȱ whyȱ manyȱ ofȱ theȱ textsȱ areȱ soȱ extremeȱ and whyȱ theyȱ callȱ onȱ Satan.ȱ Itȱ isȱ notȱ reallyȱ aboutȱ worshipingȱ the powerȱofȱevil—itȱisȱaboutȱbeingȱprovocative;ȱitȱisȱaȱreaction.ȱThe questionȱremainsȱasȱtoȱwhetherȱthisȱreactionȱisȱtooȱstrongȱorȱtoo provocative. Again,ȱ theȱ Churchȱ ofȱ Satanȱ cannotȱ beȱ describedȱ asȱ “saȬ tanic.”ȱ Aleisterȱ Crowleyȱ (whoȱ hasȱ influencedȱ Satanismȱ very much)ȱsaysȱ“DoȱwhatȱthouȱwiltȱshallȱbeȱtheȱwholeȱofȱtheȱLaw” andȱ “Thereȱ isȱ noȱ Lawȱ beyondȱ Doȱ whatȱ thouȱ wilt,”ȱ in combinationȱwithȱtheȱwordsȱ”LoveȱisȱtheȱLaw,ȱloveȱunderȱwill.” Thisȱ adageȱ canȱ alsoȱ beȱ foundȱ inȱ theȱ broadȱ spectrumȱ ofȱ neopaȬ ganismȱ andȱ allȱ formsȱ ofȱ Wicca.ȱ Oneȱ ofȱ theȱ mostȱ wellȬknown neopaganistȱ authors,ȱ Vivianeȱ Crowley,ȱ callsȱ itȱ theȱ greatȱ lawȱ of neopaganistȱethics:ȱ“Ifȱitȱharmsȱnone,ȱdoȱwhatȱyouȱwill.”ȱLaVey hasȱintegratedȱthisȱgoldenȱruleȱintoȱhisȱethicsȱasȱwell. TheȱChurchȱofȱSatanȱcannotȱbeȱdescribedȱasȱ“satanic.”ȱCan weȱ applyȱ thisȱ conclusionȱ toȱ allȱ theȱ Satanistȱ groupsȱ andȱ moveȬ ments?ȱIȱhaveȱnotȱstudiedȱallȱofȱthem,ȱofȱcourse,ȱbutȱIȱdoȱhave theȱ impressionȱ thatȱ thisȱ conclusionȱ appliesȱ toȱ allȱ thoseȱ Iȱ have studied.ȱNoneȱofȱtheseȱgroupsȱare,ȱinȱessence,ȱantiȬhuman.ȱWe canȱ seeȱ this,ȱ forȱ instance,ȱ inȱ theȱ Dutchȱ Satanskerk,ȱ established byȱMaartenȱLamers,ȱinȱtheȱ1980s.ȱLamersȱhardlyȱeverȱmentions Satan,ȱandȱwhenȱheȱdoes,ȱseesȱhimȱasȱidenticalȱtoȱtheȱpaganȱgod Pan,ȱ i.eȱ inȱ aȱ neopaganisticȱ way.ȱ Weȱ doȱ notȱ findȱ destructive magicȱ hereȱ andȱ weȱ neverȱ findȱ theȱ injunctionȱ toȱ hateȱ one’s neighbor.ȱ Toȱ Lamers,ȱ selfȬdevelopmentȱ isȱ alsoȱ veryȱ important, manifestingȱitselfȱmostȱofȱtheȱtimeȱinȱsexuality.ȱThisȱisȱsoȱpromȬ

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inentȱthat,ȱrightȱupȱtoȱtheȱpresent,ȱmanyȱpeopleȱbelieveȱthatȱthe Satanskerkȱisȱjustȱanotherȱnameȱforȱaȱsexȱclub,ȱinȱwhichȱtheȱsaȬ tanicȱaspectsȱcanȱbeȱfoundȱinȱtheȱmanyȱSMȱgames,ȱatȱmost. Thereȱ areȱ exceptions,ȱ however.ȱ Withinȱ theȱ broadȱ rangeȱ of Satanistȱ groupsȱ weȱ knowȱ ofȱ atȱ leastȱ twoȱ trulyȱ “evil”ȱ religions thatȱ wantedȱ toȱ hurtȱ peopleȱ asȱ muchȱ asȱ possible.ȱ Theseȱ two groupsȱoriginatedȱinȱtheȱsoȬcalledȱ“postȬhippieȱSatanism”ȱatȱthe endȱofȱtheȱ1960s:ȱtheȱ“FourȱMovement”ȱandȱtheȱ“MansonȱFamȬ ily.”ȱ Murder,ȱ slaughter,ȱ sacrificeȱ wereȱ practicedȱ inȱ these groups.ȱ Itȱ shouldȱ beȱ notedȱ thatȱ theseȱ wereȱ veryȱ smallȱ groups, andȱ veryȱ muchȱ theȱ exception.ȱ Theirȱ existenceȱ doesȱ notȱ prove thatȱ Satanistȱ groupsȱ areȱ “satanic”ȱ butȱ ratherȱ thatȱ degeneration alsoȱ existsȱ withinȱ theȱ religiousȱ traditionȱ ofȱ Satanismȱ (asȱ inȱ the Christianȱtradition,ȱsuchȱasȱȱtheȱDutchȱcaseȱofȱMeerkerkȱinȱthe 1940s1). RitualȱSatanism TheȱideaȱofȱterribleȱSatanistȱmovementsȱisȱfoundȱmostlyȱinȱstorȬ iesȱ aboutȱ “ritualȱ Satanism.”ȱ Inȱ theseȱ storiesȱ theseȱ groupsȱ meet clandestinelyȱandȱtheȱritualsȱareȱalwaysȱperformedȱinȱtheȱdark, inȱaȱwood,ȱorȱaȱcrypt,ȱorȱaȱdampȱdarkȱcellar.ȱSomewhereȱthere isȱ anȱ altar,ȱ whichȱ isȱ indeedȱ usedȱ forȱ sacrificesȱ andȱ theȱ altarȱ is surroundedȱ byȱ blackȱ candles.ȱ Theȱ typicalȱ Satanistȱ symbols, suchȱasȱtheȱupturnedȱpentacleȱorȱcross,ȱcanȱbeȱobserved.ȱAllȱthe participants,ȱ maleȱ andȱ female,ȱ wearȱ blackȱ hoodedȱ cloaksȱ and oneȱofȱthemȱisȱaȱpriest.ȱEveryoneȱstandsȱaroundȱtheȱaltar.ȱDurȬ ingȱ theȱ ritual,ȱ disgustingȱ thingsȱ happen,ȱ mostlyȱ inȱ connection withȱ theȱ sacrifice.ȱ Inȱ someȱ cases,ȱ anȱ animalȱ isȱ sacrificed—aȱ cat perhaps—butȱ aȱ babyȱ isȱ best.ȱ Theȱ infantȱ isȱ slaughteredȱ ritually (someȱ storiesȱ sayȱ thatȱ itȱ isȱ tornȱ apart),ȱ andȱ itsȱ bloodȱ isȱ caught andȱdrunkȱbyȱtheȱparticipantsȱ(whoȱbelieveȱthatȱtheȱbloodȱofȱan infantȱcontainsȱvitalȱpowerȱandȱenergy).ȱWeȱalsoȱfindȱstoriesȱin whichȱadultsȱareȱsacrificedȱ(andȱtheirȱbloodȱalsoȱdrunk).ȱThere areȱ alsoȱ childrenȱ amongȱ theȱ participants.ȱ Theyȱ areȱ forcedȱ by theirȱparentsȱtoȱbeȱpresent,ȱwithȱtheȱintentionȱofȱraisingȱthemȱas Satanists.ȱInȱallȱcases,ȱtheseȱchildrenȱareȱsexuallyȱabusedȱduring

1

ȱȱAȱsmallȱisolatedȱfamily,ȱwithȱsomeȱothersȱwhoȱhadȱjoinedȱthem, believedȱthatȱoneȱofȱthemȱwasȱtheȱdevilȱhimself;ȱsoȱtheyȱmurderedȱhim.

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theȱrituals.ȱTheyȱareȱforcedȱtoȱeatȱdisgustingȱthingsȱandȱtoȱperȬ formȱweirdȱact.ȱWeȱalsoȱfindȱstoriesȱinvolvingȱaȱkindȱofȱgroup sex,ȱinȱwhichȱtheseȱchildrenȱhaveȱtoȱparticipate.ȱDuringȱtheȱrituȬ als,ȱtheȱsacrificesȱandȱtheȱsexualȱacts,ȱtextsȱareȱrecitedȱtoȱinvoke Satan.ȱHisȱpresenceȱgivesȱpowerȱtoȱtheȱmeetingȱandȱbringsȱeven moreȱevil.ȱUsually,ȱSatanȱisȱsupposedȱtoȱbeȱpresentȱasȱaȱpower, butȱ sometimesȱ heȱ isȱ physicallyȱ presentȱ withȱ allȱ theȱ attributes: horns,ȱclovenȱhooves,ȱandȱsulphur.ȱIfȱheȱturnsȱup,ȱheȱhasȱsexual intercourseȱwithȱallȱtheȱparticipants,ȱwhichȱisȱterribleȱandȱfearȬ some.ȱ Meetingsȱ likeȱ theseȱ takeȱ placeȱ veryȱ oftenȱ andȱ evȬ erywhere.ȱAsȱbrainwashingȱtechniquesȱareȱused,ȱnobodyȱdares toȱ speakȱ aboutȱ them,ȱ soȱ itȱ allȱ isȱ keptȱ veryȱ secret—butȱ these thingsȱhappenȱallȱtheȱsame. WeȱcouldȱsayȱthatȱtheseȱritualisticȱSatanistȱmeetingsȱdoȱpreȬ sentȱ usȱ withȱ aȱ satanicȱ religionȱ thatȱ isȱ terribleȱ andȱ evil.ȱ Theȱ inȬ tentionȱisȱtoȱharmȱpeople,ȱsoȱtheȱparticipantsȱareȱalwaysȱhurtȱin someȱ wayȱ orȱ other.ȱ Thisȱ isȱ clearȱ fromȱ storiesȱ toldȱ byȱ adults aboutȱwhatȱhappenedȱwhenȱtheyȱwereȱyoung,ȱwhenȱtheyȱwere forcedȱtoȱvisitȱtheseȱmeetingsȱandȱwereȱabusedȱinȱritualȱSatanist sex. Butȱ thereȱ isȱ aȱ problemȱ here:ȱ thisȱ ritualȱ Satanismȱ doesȱ not exist.ȱ Theȱ kindȱ ofȱ meetingsȱ justȱ sketchedȱ aboveȱ doesȱ notȱ hapȬ penȱ inȱ reality.ȱ Noȱ babiesȱ areȱ sacrificed,ȱ theȱ devilȱ doesȱ notȱ apȬ pearȱ atȱ theseȱ rituals—notȱ aȱ singleȱ traceȱ ofȱ suchȱ meetingsȱ has everȱbeenȱfound.ȱWeȱonlyȱhaveȱstoriesȱaboutȱthem,ȱbecauseȱthat isȱwhereȱtheyȱexist.ȱTheyȱareȱfantasy.ȱAllȱtheseȱstoriesȱhaveȱbeen relatedȱwhileȱthoseȱtellingȱthemȱwereȱunderȱhypnosis,ȱandȱtheir contentȱ isȱ theȱ resultȱ ofȱ wishfulȱ thinkingȱ orȱ suggestionsȱ byȱ the hypnotist.ȱObviously,ȱweȱareȱdealingȱwithȱproblemsȱofȱaȱmental natureȱhere,ȱbutȱthisȱisȱneitherȱtheȱtimeȱnorȱtheȱplaceȱtoȱexplore them.ȱInȱshort,ȱweȱdoȱnotȱfindȱaȱ“satanic”ȱreligionȱinȱ“ritualistic Satanism.” Conclusion Toȱ recapitulate,ȱ ourȱ mainȱ questionȱ was:ȱ “Howȱ ‘satanic’ȱ isȱ SaȬ tanism?”ȱandȱweȱdefinedȱ“satanic”ȱasȱ“evilȱandȱharmfulȱtoȱpeoȬ ple.”ȱ Weȱ foundȱ thatȱ groupsȱ thatȱ callȱ themselvesȱ “Satanist”ȱ are not,ȱ asȱ aȱ rule,ȱ “satanic”;ȱ theyȱ areȱ simplyȱ differentȱ andȱ inȱ most casesȱ (neo)paganistic.ȱ Theȱ onlyȱ exceptionȱ isȱ thatȱ sometimes veryȱsmallȱgroupsȱofȱthreeȱorȱfourȱpeopleȱcanȱdoȱterribleȱthings.

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Butȱtheseȱtinyȱgroupsȱareȱnotȱatȱallȱrepresentativeȱofȱtheȱwhole butȱareȱmentallyȱdisturbedȱpeople. Bibliography Baddely,ȱGavin.ȱ(1999).ȱLuciferȱRising.ȱLondon:ȱPlexusȱPublishing. Crowley,ȱAleister.ȱ(1976).ȱTheȱBookȱofȱtheȱLaw.ȱYorkȱBeach:ȱSamuelȱWeiȬ ser. Crowley,ȱVivianne.ȱ(1996).ȱPrinciplesȱofȱPaganism.ȱSanȱFrancisco:ȱThorȬ sons. DeȱRaedtȱvanȱWien,ȱStefan.ȱ(1997).ȱAbraxas.ȱAllesȱOverȱSatanȱenȱhetȱSaȬ tanisme.ȱBaarn/Antwerp:ȱHadewych. Introvigne,ȱ Massimo.ȱ (1997).ȱ Enqueteȱ Surȱ Leȱ Satanisme.ȱ Paris:ȱ Editions Dervy. LaVey,ȱ Antonȱ Szandor.ȱ (1969).ȱ Theȱ Satanicȱ Bible.ȱ Newȱ York:ȱ Avon Books. (1972).ȱȱTheȱSatanicȱRituals.ȱNewȱYork:ȱAvonȱBooks. Richardson,ȱJamesȱT.ȱetȱal.ȱ(1991).ȱTheȱSatanismȱScare.ȱHawthorne:ȱAlȬ dineȱdeȱGruyter.

PartȱII

EvilȱinȱSociety

“YouȱFollowȱtheȱPathȱofȱtheȱShaitan;ȱWe TryȱtoȱFollowȱtheȱRighteousȱPath” NegotiatingȱEvilȱinȱtheȱIdentityȱConstructionȱof YoungȱMoroccanȬDutchȱMuslims MartijnȱdeȱKoning

Abstract ThisȱarticleȱanalyzesȱhowȱimagesȱofȱevilȱareȱusedȱbyȱMuslimȱyoungȱpeopleȱto categorizeȱtheȱotherȱandȱtoȱdefineȱthemselves.ȱTheȱconceptȱofȱevilȱplaysȱaȱrole inȱ theȱ constructionȱ ofȱ aȱ Muslimȱ identityȱ andȱ thereforeȱ widensȱ theȱ gapȱ beȬ tweenȱ Muslimsȱ andȱ nonȬMuslims.ȱ Thisȱ contributionȱ willȱ alsoȱ showȱ how youngȱMuslimsȱchangeȱthisȱconceptȱinȱorderȱtoȱcloseȱtheȱgapȱbetweenȱthemȬ selvesȱ andȱ nonȬMuslims.ȱ Thisȱ articleȱ seesȱ Islamȱ asȱ aȱ completeȱ repertoireȱ of activities,ȱaȱtypeȱofȱtoolboxȱcontainingȱpracticesȱ(suchȱasȱprayerȱandȱfasting, theȱwearingȱofȱaȱheadscarf)ȱandȱbeliefsȱ(suchȱasȱinȱShaitanȱ[theȱdevil],ȱtaghut [tyrantȱ orȱ falseȱ god],ȱ kafirȱ (unbeliever),ȱ dajjalȱ [liar,ȱ antiȬChrist]ȱ andȱ evil) andȱexperiences.ȱMostȱMuslimsȱseeȱevilȱasȱcomingȱfromȱoutside.ȱEveryȱMusȬ limȱ isȱ bornȱ neitherȱ goodȱ norȱ evilȱ andȱ hasȱ theȱ possibilityȱ ofȱ reachingȱ perfecȬ tion.ȱAtȱtheȱsameȱtime,ȱ“evil”ȱisȱnotȱaȱclearlyȱdefinedȱelementȱofȱtheȱMuslim repertoireȱbutȱsomethingȱthatȱhasȱtoȱbeȱnegotiated.ȱThisȱmeansȱthatȱ“evil”ȱis partȱofȱtheȱidentityȱpoliticsȱofȱyoungȱMuslims:ȱtheȱnegotiationsȱaboutȱtheȱdeȬ finitionȱandȱinterpretationȱofȱideas,ȱpracticesȱandȱexperiencesȱthatȱconstitute aȱcertainȱidentity.ȱDistinctiveȱforȱMuslimȱidentitiesȱorȱMuslimȱpoliticsȱisȱthe referenceȱ toȱ experiences,ȱ beliefs,ȱ practices,ȱ symbols,ȱ andȱ traditionsȱ thatȱ conȬ stituteȱ“Islam.”

Introduction “Aȱ Muslimȱ followsȱ theȱ straightȱ path,ȱ theȱ pathȱ ofȱ Allah”ȱ isȱ a standardȱ refrainȱ byȱ Muslimȱ youngȱ peopleȱ whenȱ explaining whatȱitȱmeansȱtoȱbeȱaȱMuslim.ȱTheȱstraightȱpath,ȱAllahȱandȱthe conceptȱ ofȱ goodȱ playȱ importantȱ rolesȱ inȱ theseȱ youngȱ people’s constructionȱ ofȱ aȱ religiousȱ identity.ȱ Identityȱ alwaysȱ entailsȱ not onlyȱidentifyingȱoneselfȱbutȱalsoȱidentifyingȱtheȱother.ȱOneȱway 137

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ofȱcategorizingȱtheȱotherȱcanȱconsideredȱtoȱbeȱtheȱotherȱsideȱof theȱ coinȱ ofȱ theȱ straightȱ path.ȱ Theȱ otherȱ sideȱ ofȱ Allahȱ andȱ the conceptȱ ofȱ “good”ȱ isȱ definingȱ othersȱ asȱ peopleȱ whoȱ followȱ the pathȱofȱtheȱdevil,ȱShaitan.ȱ Theȱtransitionȱfromȱmoderateȱtowardsȱmoreȱradicalȱwhenȱit comesȱdownȱtoȱbeliefsȱconcerningȱevilȱisȱsmooth.ȱThisȱisȱnotȱto sayȱthatȱmoderateȱmeansȱinherentlyȱradical,ȱbutȱthatȱweȱshould lookȱ moreȱ closelyȱ atȱ theȱ developmentsȱ thatȱ areȱ importantȱ for youngȱ peopleȱ inȱ general.ȱ Thereȱ isȱ aȱ remarkableȱ difference betweenȱ theȱ “moderate”ȱ groupsȱ andȱ theȱ radicalȱ groupsȱ when weȱ takeȱ theirȱ searchȱ forȱ trueȱ Islamȱ asȱ aȱ startingȱ point.ȱ Inȱ the moreȱ radicalȱ stanceȱ weȱ seeȱ theȱ viewpointȱ thatȱ everythingȱ that influencesȱthisȱpurityȱshouldȱbeȱbanned;ȱitȱisȱconsideredȱtoȱbeȱof theȱdevil.ȱWhereasȱinȱtheȱcaseȱofȱtheȱmoderateȱMuslimȱthereȱis stillȱroomȱforȱnegotiation,ȱinȱtheȱcaseȱofȱtheȱfundamentalistsȱand radicalsȱtheirȱidentityȱhasȱbecomeȱsoȱfixedȱthatȱanyȱnegotiation isȱ consideredȱ toȱ beȱ aȱ compromiseȱ withȱ Shaitan,ȱ orȱ taghutȱ or dajjal.ȱInȱtheȱcaseȱofȱtheȱmoderateȱMuslims,ȱevilȱisȱoneȱofȱtheȱeleȬ mentsȱ ofȱ theȱ religiousȱ repertoireȱ thatȱ canȱ beȱ negotiated;ȱ inȱ the caseȱ ofȱ theȱ radicalȱ groupsȱ itȱ isȱ theȱ mostȱ importantȱ element. Theyȱ seemȱ toȱ beȱ involvedȱ inȱ aȱ constantȱ andȱ apocalypticȱ war betweenȱgoodȱandȱevil.ȱAtȱtheȱsameȱtime,ȱgroupsȱuseȱIslamȱasȱa meansȱ forȱ defendingȱ theirsȱ interestsȱ andȱ needs—theȱ politȬ icizationȱ ofȱ Islam.ȱ Conceptsȱ ofȱ goodȱ andȱ evilȱ canȱ beȱ usedȱ here toȱ mobilizeȱ groups.ȱ Thisȱ isȱ somethingȱ thatȱ isȱ seldomȱ doneȱ by theȱmoreȱmoderateȱgroupsȱbutȱclearlyȱhappensȱwithinȱtheȱradȬ icalȱ groups.ȱ Theyȱ useȱ conceptsȱ suchȱ asȱ kufrȱ andȱ taghutȱ toȱ moȬ bilizeȱpeopleȱtoȱfightȱagainstȱtheȱ“enemiesȱofȱIslam”ȱwhoȱfight Muslimsȱwhereverȱtheyȱcan—inȱIraq,ȱIsraelȱandȱtheȱPalestinian areas—andȱwhoȱinsultȱthemȱandȱtheirȱprophetsȱasȱHirsiȱAliȱand Theoȱ vanȱ Goghȱ did.ȱ Evilȱ isȱ oneȱ ofȱ theȱ elementsȱ ofȱ theȱ Muslim repertoireȱ thatȱ isȱ continuouslyȱ negotiatedȱ andȱ therebyȱ proȬ duced,ȱ reproducedȱ andȱ transformedȱ inȱ interactionȱ withȱ nonȬ MuslimsȱandȱotherȱMuslims. IdentityȱconstructionȱalwaysȱoccursȱinȱinteractionȱwithȱothȬ ers,ȱ insideȱ andȱ outsideȱ theirȱ ownȱ religious,ȱ ethnicȱ orȱ peer group.ȱ Thereȱ isȱ aȱ balanceȱ ofȱ powerȱ withinȱ andȱ betweenȱ these divergentȱgroups.ȱThatȱisȱwhyȱtheȱtermsȱ“identityȱpolitics”ȱ(ErȬ iksenȱ1993)ȱorȱ“Muslimȱpolitics”ȱ(EickelmanȱandȱPiscatoriȱ1996) areȱusefulȱhere.ȱInȱmyȱview,ȱidentityȱpoliticsȱshouldȱbeȱtakenȱto meanȱtheȱnegotiationsȱaboutȱtheȱdefinitionȱandȱinterpretationȱof

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ideas,ȱ practicesȱ andȱ experiencesȱ thatȱ constituteȱ aȱ certainȱ idenȬ tity.ȱ Theȱ referenceȱ toȱ experiences,ȱ beliefs,ȱ practices,ȱ symbols, andȱ traditionsȱ thatȱ constituteȱ “Islam”ȱ isȱ distinctiveȱ forȱ Muslim identitiesȱ orȱ Muslimȱ politics.1ȱ Theȱ conceptsȱ ofȱ identityȱ politics andȱ negotiationsȱ areȱ usefulȱ hereȱ inȱ theȱ senseȱ thatȱ theyȱ make clearȱ thatȱ peopleȱ makeȱ choicesȱ inȱ relationshipȱ toȱ otherȱ people. Theyȱ showȱ clearlyȱ thatȱ peopleȱ areȱ activeȱ agentsȱ butȱ thatȱ they areȱ alsoȱ restrainedȱ byȱ largerȱ contexts.ȱ Thisȱ articleȱ isȱ basedȱ on researchȱ thatȱ wasȱ doneȱ inȱ aȱ Moroccanȱ mosqueȱ inȱ Goudaȱ (a smallȱ cityȱ inȱ theȱ westernȱ Netherlands)ȱ andȱ onȱ theȱ analysisȱ of differentȱwebsites. TheȱDevil’sȱSeduction TheȱsearchȱforȱtrueȱIslamȱisȱprobablyȱtheȱmostȱimportantȱcharȬ acteristicȱ ofȱ theȱ negotiationȱ processȱ inȱ whichȱ Muslimsȱ areȱ inȬ volved.ȱAllȱMuslimsȱinȱmyȱresearch,ȱwhetherȱliberal,ȱmoderate, orȱ ȱ radical—statedȱ thatȱ theyȱ wantȱ aȱ trueȱ Islamȱ thatȱ hasȱ been strippedȱ ofȱ Moroccanȱ elements.ȱ Royȱ (2005)ȱ callsȱ itȱ aȱ questȱ for authenticityȱ andȱ states:ȱ “Itȱ isȱ anȱ endeavourȱ toȱ reconstructȱ a ‘pure’ȱ religionȱ outsideȱ traditionalȱ orȱ westernȱ cultures,ȱ outside theȱ veryȱ conceptȱ ofȱ cultureȱ itself.”ȱ Jacobsonȱ (1997:ȱ 243)ȱ points outȱthatȱthisȱremindsȱusȱofȱoneȱofȱtheȱcoreȱconceptsȱofȱorthodox Islamicȱ thought,ȱ thatȱ Islamȱ encompassesȱ aȱ fixedȱ andȱ perfect coreȱ ofȱ doctrines,ȱ entailingȱ thatȱ “reform”ȱ withinȱ Islamȱ should alwaysȱ beȱ aȱ matterȱ ofȱ returningȱ toȱ theȱ originalȱ truthsȱ revealed toȱ theȱ Prophetȱ Muhammad.ȱ However,ȱ thisȱ isȱ notȱ onlyȱ typical forȱ Muslims.ȱ Weȱ seeȱ thisȱ kindȱ ofȱ questȱ forȱ authenticityȱ among manyȱ youngȱ people,ȱ secularȱ orȱ religiousȱ (Borgmanȱ etȱ al.ȱ 2003; vanȱ Harskampȱ 2000).ȱ Theȱ searchȱ forȱ aȱ trueȱ Islamȱ meansȱ that manyȱyoungȱMuslimsȱturnȱtoȱtheȱbasicȱquestion:ȱWhatȱisȱIslam? Forȱmostȱofȱtheȱyoungȱpeopleȱinȱmyȱresearch,ȱthisȱcomesȱdown toȱ theȱ eternalȱ fightȱ betweenȱ goodȱ andȱ evil.ȱ Theyȱ haveȱ toȱ fight againstȱtheȱdevil’sȱseductionȱandȱthatȱisȱsomethingȱtheyȱhaveȱto 1

ȱSeeȱEickelmanȱandȱPiscatoriȱ1996:ȱ20Ȭ21.ȱEickelmanȱandȱPiscatori makeȱnoȱmentionȱofȱexperiencesȱinȱtheirȱdefinition.ȱMostȱofȱtheȱtimeȱthis isȱnotȱincludedȱinȱtheȱconceptȱofȱidentitiesȱandȱidentityȱpolitics.ȱEriksen (1993),ȱBentleyȱ(1987,ȱ1991),ȱandȱYelvingtonȱ(1991)ȱpointȱout,ȱeachȱinȱhis ownȱway,ȱwhyȱidentityȱisȱmoreȱthanȱjustȱanȱinstrumentȱforȱtheȱrealization ofȱ one’sȱ interestsȱ andȱ thatȱ experiencesȱ areȱ anȱ importantȱ baseȱ forȱ the emergenceȱofȱidentities.

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doȱ theirȱ wholeȱ lifeȱ andȱ whereverȱ theyȱ areȱ sinceȱ theȱ devilȱ is everywhereȱasȱwell.ȱThisȱomnipresenceȱofȱtheȱdevilȱservesȱasȱan incentiveȱ forȱ taqwa:ȱ theȱ fearȱ ofȱ Godȱ orȱ theȱ awarenessȱ ofȱ God’s presence.ȱ Itȱ remindsȱ peopleȱ that,ȱ toȱ beȱ aȱ goodȱ Muslim,ȱ they haveȱtoȱfightȱconstantlyȱagainstȱtheȱdevilȱandȱhisȱseductionȱbeȬ causeȱAllahȱisȱalsoȱeverywhereȱandȱwatching.ȱ Dutchȱ societyȱ isȱ sometimesȱ referredȱ toȱ asȱ aȱ societyȱ filled withȱ fitna.ȱ Fitnaȱ literallyȱ meansȱ chaos,ȱ butȱ itȱ canȱ alsoȱ meanȱ an ordealȱorȱaȱstruggleȱforȱpowerȱamongȱMuslims.ȱTheȱlatterȱrefers toȱtheȱbreakupȱofȱtheȱMuslimȱcommunityȱ(Kepelȱ2004).ȱFitnaȱis sometimesȱseenȱasȱtheȱsexualȱpowerȱofȱwomenȱoverȱmen.ȱButȱat allȱtimesȱfitnaȱisȱtheȱworkȱofȱtheȱdevilȱwhichȱleadsȱpeopleȱaway fromȱ Allah.ȱ Evilȱ isȱ relatedȱ toȱ Dutchȱ societyȱ inȱ thisȱ way.ȱ The consequenceȱ isȱ thatȱ theȱ fightȱ betweenȱ goodȱ andȱ evilȱ seemsȱ to markȱaȱveryȱstrongȱboundaryȱbetweenȱMuslimsȱandȱkafirȱ(unbeȬ lievers).ȱThisȱisȱnotȱnecessarilyȱso,ȱhowever,ȱbecauseȱtheȱconcept ofȱ kafirȱ isȱ somethingȱ thatȱ isȱ negotiable.ȱ Mostȱ youngȱ peopleȱ are veryȱpragmaticȱandȱtheirȱDutchȱnonȬMuslimȱfriendsȱareȱnotȱkaȬ fir;ȱtheyȱareȱnonȬMuslimsȱbutȱtheyȱareȱgoodȱpeople,ȱasȱsomeȱalȬ soȱcommentedȱaboutȱme.ȱTheȱconceptȱkafirȱ(orȱkufr,ȱi.e.ȱ“disbeȬ lief”)ȱisȱnotȱstaticȱandȱcanȱhaveȱ differentȱmeaningsȱinȱdifferent circumstancesȱ asȱ shownȱ inȱ theȱ followingȱ fragmentȱ ofȱ anȱ interȬ view: Aisha:ȱ Kafirȱ meansȱ peopleȱ whoȱ doȱ notȱ believeȱ inȱ God.ȱ So youȱcouldȱsayȱatheists.ȱWellȱno,ȱnotȱonlyȱatheists,ȱIȱamȱtellȬ ingȱ itȱ wrong.ȱ Someoneȱ whoȱ doesȱ notȱ believeȱ butȱ alsoȱ does notȱ understandȱ thatȱ youȱ doȱ believe.ȱ Thereȱ isȱ noȱ underȬ standing. MdK:ȱAreȱDutchȱpeopleȱkafir? Aisha:ȱ Noȱ notȱ allȱ ofȱ them.ȱ Thereȱ areȱ Christians,ȱ Catholics andȱ Jews.ȱ Thereȱ areȱ atheistsȱ whoȱ showȱ understandingȱ but thereȱareȱalsoȱpeopleȱwhoȱdon’tȱdoȱthatȱatȱall.ȱTheyȱhaveȱno understandingȱandȱaskȱquestionsȱallȱtheȱtime.ȱAndȱifȱyouȱanȬ swerȱthem,ȱtheyȱtellȱyouȱwellȱthatȱisȱimpossible.ȱWhyȱdoȱyou believeȱthat?ȱThatȱisȱaȱkafirȱforȱme.

Thisȱshowsȱthatȱthereȱisȱroomȱforȱcompromise.ȱThisȱcanȱbeȱlegitȬ imizedȱbyȱtheȱyoungȱpeopleȱpointingȱoutȱthatȱtheyȱdoȱnotȱlive inȱanȱIslamicȱcountryȱbutȱalsoȱbyȱmeansȱofȱtheȱconceptȱofȱ“life asȱ aȱ test.”ȱ “Toȱ liveȱ Islam”ȱ isȱ relatedȱ toȱ theȱ convictionȱ thatȱ this

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lifeȱ isȱ aȱ testȱ forȱ theȱ afterlife.ȱ Oneȱ hasȱ toȱ proveȱ oneselfȱ before Godȱandȱthatȱisȱsomethingȱoneȱhasȱtoȱdoȱinȱthisȱlife.ȱAtȱtheȱsame time,ȱ however,ȱ peopleȱ acknowledgeȱ thatȱ theyȱ areȱ fallibleȱ and susceptibleȱ toȱ theȱ devil’sȱ seduction.ȱ Youngȱ peopleȱ certainly haveȱtoȱ“learn”ȱIslam.ȱTheyȱareȱconsideredȱtoȱbeȱnaturallyȱgood orȱtabulaȱrasa.ȱEveryoneȱhasȱtheȱpotentialȱofȱreachingȱperfection. Evilȱisȱthusȱnotȱanȱinherentȱhumanȱcharacteristicȱbutȱanȱexternal temptation:ȱpeopleȱhaveȱtoȱstriveȱforȱperfectionȱandȱcanȱbecome strongerȱasȱtheyȱgetȱolderȱinȱresistingȱtheȱtemptationsȱofȱevil.ȱIsȬ lamȱthusȱbecomesȱaȱpersonalȱprojectȱthatȱoneȱhasȱtoȱaccomplish (Tennekesȱ 1991).ȱ Thisȱ isȱ oftenȱ combinedȱ withȱ theȱ expression, “Maybeȱlaterȱ...ȱmaybeȱlaterȱIȱwillȱpray”ȱorȱ“maybeȱlaterȱIȱwill wearȱ aȱ headscarf.”ȱ Itȱ isȱ anȱ issueȱ forȱ them,ȱ andȱ itȱ isȱ solelyȱ beȬ tweenȱthemȱandȱAllahȱasȱtheyȱstateȱit.ȱThisȱshowsȱthatȱidentity negotiationȱtakesȱplaceȱnotȱonlyȱbetweenȱpeopleȱbutȱalsoȱwithin people.ȱPeopleȱreflectȱonȱtheirȱthoughtsȱandȱdecisions:ȱDoȱIȱact inȱaccordanceȱwithȱmyȱconscience?ȱHowȱdoȱIȱbalanceȱmyȱbeliefs andȱ practicesȱ withȱ lifeȱ inȱ Dutchȱ societyȱ andȱ withȱ myȱ parents’ wishesȱorȱGod’sȱwill?ȱ(Østbergȱ2003:ȱ164).ȱAgain,ȱthisȱrelatesȱto theȱdeculturalizationȱofȱreligionȱthatȱisȱtakingȱplace.ȱInȱorderȱto findȱaȱbalancedȱoutcomeȱforȱtheirȱnegotiationsȱtheyȱstripȱaway everythingȱ fromȱ Islamȱ thatȱ theyȱ feelȱ isȱ notȱ necessaryȱ orȱ disadȬ vantageousȱforȱthem.ȱWhatȱisȱleftȱis,ȱaccordingȱtoȱthem,ȱtheȱcore ofȱ Islam.ȱ Inȱ thisȱ processȱ theyȱ redefineȱ conceptsȱ likeȱ evilȱ and kafirȱtoȱadjustȱthemȱtoȱtheirȱneeds.ȱOfȱcourse,ȱthisȱdoesȱnotȱmean thatȱ anythingȱ goes;ȱ theirȱ parents,ȱ peers,ȱ religiousȱ authorities andȱnonȬMuslimsȱareȱpartȱofȱthisȱnegotiatingȱprocessȱasȱwell.ȱIn mostȱ ofȱ theȱ casesȱ inȱ myȱ researchȱ thisȱ wasȱ noȱ problem.ȱ Onȱ the contrary,ȱ thisȱ deculturalizationȱ ofȱ religionȱ wasȱ notȱ meantȱ asȱ a breakȱwithȱtheirȱparentsȱorȱwithȱDutchȱsocietyȱbutȱtoȱaccommoȬ dateȱ bothȱ ofȱ them.ȱ Therefore,ȱ Iȱ doȱ notȱ agreeȱ withȱ Royȱ (2005) whoȱseesȱthisȱdeculturalizationȱasȱtheȱmainȱreasonȱforȱradicalizȬ ation.ȱ Deculturalizationȱ isȱ aȱ processȱ thatȱ occursȱ amongȱ most youngȱ Muslimsȱ nowadays.ȱ Bothȱ thoseȱ whoȱ areȱ veryȱ piousȱ as wellȱasȱthoseȱwhoȱareȱnotȱmakeȱuseȱofȱtheȱdistinctionȱbetween religionȱandȱculture.ȱToȱaȱlargeȱextent,ȱitȱisȱaȱdiscourseȱandȱdoes notȱnecessarilyȱrelateȱtoȱdailyȱpractice.ȱThisȱdoesȱnotȱmeanȱthat deculturalizationȱdoesȱnotȱplayȱanyȱroleȱinȱradicalization.ȱInȱthe nextȱsectionȱIȱwillȱfocusȱonȱtheȱmoreȱradicalȱMuslimsȱandȱtheir useȱofȱevilȱinȱsearchingȱforȱtrueȱIslam.

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FightingȱtheȱGreatȱSatan Onȱ2ȱNovemberȱ2004ȱtheȱDutchȱfilmmakerȱandȱopinionȱmaker Theoȱ vanȱ Goghȱ wasȱ killedȱ byȱ aȱ MoroccanȬDutchȱ Muslim,ȱ MoȬ hammedȱ Bouyeri,ȱ whoȱ shotȱ himȱ severalȱ times,ȱ cutȱ hisȱ throat, andȱfinallyȱstuckȱaȱknifeȱwithȱaȱletterȱtoȱDutchȱMPȱHirsiȱAliȱatȬ tachedȱtoȱitȱinȱhisȱbody.ȱTheȱletterȱcontainedȱseveralȱreferences toȱ Hirsiȱ Aliȱ asȱ aȱ soldierȱ ofȱ evil.ȱ Severalȱ daysȱ afterȱ theȱ murder, severalȱ peopleȱ ofȱ theȱ soȬcalledȱ “Hofstadȱ group”ȱ wereȱ arrested inȱTheȱHagueȱandȱotherȱplaces.ȱInȱDecemberȱ2004ȱaȱfundraising campaignȱforȱtheȱfamiliesȱofȱtheseȱpeopleȱappearedȱonȱtheȱinterȬ netȱunderȱtheȱnameȱProjectȱDistress.ȱTheȱmessageȱcontainedȱthe followingȱline:ȱ“Manyȱbrothersȱhaveȱbeenȱarrestedȱbyȱtheȱtaghut governmentȱ ofȱ Holland.“ȱ Taghutȱ meansȱ falseȱ gods,ȱ butȱ itȱ also meansȱ tyrant.ȱ Thisȱ impliesȱ thatȱ theȱ governmentȱ wasȱ commitȬ tingȱ shirk;ȱ obeyingȱ otherȱ godsȱ insteadȱ ofȱ Allah.ȱ Byȱ upholding lawsȱ otherȱ thanȱ Allah’s,ȱ byȱ judgingȱ byȱ humanȱ lawsȱ insteadȱ of byȱ Allah’sȱ guidance,ȱ theȱ Dutchȱ governmentȱ wasȱ committing oneȱofȱtheȱgreatestȱsinsȱpossibleȱandȱthisȱ“proved”ȱthatȱtheȱgovȬ ernmentȱwasȱkufrȱ(unbeliever). Shirkȱ goesȱ againstȱ oneȱ ofȱ theȱ mainȱ principlesȱ ofȱ Islam:ȱ taȬ wheedȱ (unity).ȱ Whereasȱ inȱ theȱ caseȱ ofȱ moreȱ moderateȱ Muslims whoȱtryȱtoȱbuildȱaȱbridgeȱtowardsȱnonȬMuslims,ȱtheȱconceptȱof kafirȱisȱnarrowedȱtoȱthoseȱwhoȱareȱexplicitlyȱaggressiveȱtowards Islam,ȱinȱtheȱradicalȱviewȱkafirȱisȱbroadenedȱtoȱincludeȱallȱwho doȱ somethingȱ consideredȱ toȱ beȱ againstȱ Islam.ȱ Theȱ meaningȱ of theȱconceptȱkafirȱhasȱchangedȱslightlyȱinȱrecentȱyears.ȱForȱsome, theȱconceptsȱofȱkafirȱandȱtaghutȱwereȱapplicableȱtoȱtheȱwholeȱof Dutchȱsociety.ȱThisȱdoesȱnotȱnecessarilyȱleadȱtoȱviolence;ȱsome groupsȱconcludedȱthatȱtheyȱneedȱtoȱinformȱandȱeducateȱpeople aboutȱIslamȱinȱorderȱtoȱrestoreȱtheȱimageȱandȱperhapsȱconvert peopleȱ toȱ Islam.ȱ Butȱ othersȱ concludedȱ thatȱ theȱ Dutchȱ were enemiesȱofȱIslamȱandȱthatȱthereforeȱterrorismȱwasȱallowed.ȱThe permissionȱtoȱuseȱterrorismȱwasȱbasedȱonȱaȱstatementȱmadeȱby Sheikhȱ Azzam,ȱ “Terrorȱ againstȱ theȱ enemiesȱ ofȱ Islamȱ isȱ partȱ of ourȱ aqeedah!”ȱ andȱ anotherȱ messageȱ originallyȱ foundȱ onȱ the websiteȱ ofȱ theȱ Muhajirounȱ movementȱ inȱ theȱ UK:ȱ “Whoever deniesȱthatȱterrorismȱisȱpartȱofȱIslamȱisȱkafir”:2ȱ 2

ȱTheȱDutchȱtranslationȱofȱtheȱmessageȱisȱfoundȱonȱhttp://forums. marokko.nl/archive/index.php/tȬ318351.html.

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SoȱifȱyouȱsupportȱthemȱinȱtheirȱkufrȱorȱagainstȱMuslims,ȱyou areȱawliyaa’,ȱyouȱareȱalliedȱtoȱthemȱandȱkafir,ȱthatȱisȱwhyȱibn Hazmȱsaidȱafterȱquotingȱthisȱayah,ȱ“Ifȱyouȱgiveȱthemȱaȱcup ofȱwaterȱyouȱareȱkafir.”3

RadicalȱDutchȱMuslimȱgroupsȱ(thatȱis,ȱthoseȱMuslimsȱwhoȱapȬ pealȱtoȱaȱviolentȱjihadȱinȱorderȱtoȱchangeȱsociety)ȱoftenȱuseȱtexts fromȱ theȱ Britishȱ Muhajirounȱ organizationȱ suchȱ asȱ Whoȱ isȱ the KafirȱandȱWhoeverȱDeniesȱthatȱTerrorismȱisȱaȱPartȱofȱIslamȱisȱKafir. TheirȱconvictionȱthatȱIslamȱisȱunderȱsiegeȱisȱstrengthenedȱbyȱthe invasionȱofȱIraqȱandȱAfghanistanȱandȱtheȱfightingȱinȱChechnya. Theyȱ useȱ messagesȱ fromȱ AlȬZarqawiȱ andȱ Binȱ Ladenȱ toȱ make propagandaȱforȱthisȱjihad. Inȱadditionȱtoȱthisȱclearȱinternationalȱconnection,ȱitȱisȱobviȬ ousȱthatȱtheyȱareȱinfluencedȱbyȱDutchȱsocietyȱasȱwell.ȱItȱisȱtheir convictionȱ thatȱ Dutchȱ societyȱ isȱ goingȱ theȱ wrongȱ way,ȱ i.e.ȱ secȬ ular,ȱ tooȱ liberalȱ whereȱ womenȱ andȱ homosexualityȱ areȱ conȬ cernedȱ butȱ especiallyȱ because,ȱ inȱ theirȱ view,ȱ Dutchȱ societyȱ has becomeȱanȱenemyȱofȱIslamȱbecauseȱofȱtheȱmockeryȱbyȱTheoȱvan Goghȱ andȱ Hirsiȱ Ali.ȱ Submissionȱ I,ȱ togetherȱ withȱ otherȱ events suchȱ asȱ 9/11ȱ andȱ theȱ electionȱ campaignȱ withȱ Fortuynȱ madeȱ it clearȱforȱthemȱthatȱtheyȱareȱnotȱaȱpartȱofȱDutchȱsociety,ȱnoȱmatȬ terȱ howȱ integratedȱ orȱ assimilatedȱ theyȱ are.ȱ Andȱ becauseȱ this strivingȱforȱaȱpureȱIslamȱandȱjihadȱmeansȱsoȱmuchȱandȱisȱrelated toȱ beingȱ authenticȱ asȱ anȱ individual,ȱ theyȱ haveȱ narrowedȱ the spaceȱ forȱ negotiatingȱ toȱ suchȱ anȱ extentȱ thatȱ almostȱ everyȱ form ofȱcriticismȱofȱIslamȱisȱseenȱasȱaȱpersonalȱattack.ȱ ItȱisȱnotȱonlyȱradicalȱMuslimsȱwhoȱmarkȱtheȱboundariesȱbeȬ tweenȱMuslimsȱandȱnonȬMuslimsȱsoȱstrongly.ȱInȱtheirȱcompetiȬ tionȱoverȱwhatȱtrueȱIslamȱexactlyȱis,ȱsomeȱgroupsȱuseȱimagesȱof evilȱ inȱ portrayingȱ otherȱ groupsȱ orȱ personsȱ asȱ falseȱ Muslimsȱ or asȱliars.ȱForȱexample,ȱtheȱsalafiȱwebsite,ȱSelefiepublikaties.com,4 includesȱ anȱ articleȱ concerningȱ Amrȱ Khaledȱ onȱ theirȱ website. AmrȱKhaledȱisȱconsideredȱtoȱbeȱaȱveryȱmodernȱIslamicȱscholar whoȱ regularlyȱ appearsȱ onȱ Iqraȱ Television,ȱ whichȱ canȱ beȱ reȬ ceivedȱ allȱ overȱ theȱ worldȱ byȱ satelliteȱ dish.ȱ Becauseȱ heȱ wearsȱ a 3

ȱhttp://www.militantislammonitor.org/article/id/223.

4 ȱȱAllȱtheȱhyperlinksȱmentionedȱinȱthisȱpaperȱwereȱactiveȱwhenȱthis paperȱwasȱwritten.ȱTheȱhyperlinksȱareȱregularlyȱupdatedȱonȱmyȱpersonal website:ȱhttp://martijn.religionresearch.org.

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suitȱandȱdoesȱnotȱhaveȱaȱbeard,ȱheȱisȱcriticizedȱandȱaccusedȱof beingȱaȱdajjal.5ȱTheȱtranslatorȱofȱtheȱArabȱtextȱstatesȱthatȱdajjalȱis usedȱforȱaȱpersonȱwhoȱpossessesȱallȱtheȱcharacteristicsȱofȱfalseȬ ness.ȱAccordingȱtoȱhim,ȱitȱisȱaȱwordȱthatȱisȱoftenȱusedȱbyȱscholȬ arsȱinȱtalkingȱaboutȱliars,ȱswindlersȱandȱcharlatans.ȱDajjalȱisȱalso whatȱ theȱ pseudoȬmessiahȱ whoȱ comesȱ atȱ theȱ endȱ ofȱ timesȱ is called.ȱThisȱchargeȱisȱthereforeȱaȱveryȱsevereȱone.ȱTheȱdenunciaȬ tionȱofȱAmrȱKhaledȱbyȱSelefiepublikaties.comȱisȱnothingȱnew.ȱ Sheikhȱ Fawazȱ ofȱ theȱ Asȱ Soennahȱ mosqueȱ inȱ Theȱ Hagueȱ is consideredȱ toȱ beȱ aȱ veryȱ radicalȱ Muslimȱ byȱ manyȱ nativeȱ nonȬ Muslims.ȱNevertheless,ȱsomeȱsalafiȱgroupsȱdoȱnotȱconsiderȱhim toȱbeȱaȱsalafiȱatȱallȱbutȱaȱmemberȱofȱtheȱMuslimȱBrotherhoodȱ(alȬ Ichwaanie)ȱ(whichȱoneȱshouldȱnotȱbe,ȱaccordingȱtoȱSelefiepubliȬ katies).ȱTheȱsameȱisȱsaidȱofȱImamȱAhmadȱSalaamȱofȱaȱmosque inȱTilburg.6ȱBothȱSalaamȱasȱwellȱasȱFawazȱareȱaccusedȱofȱbeing theȱsourceȱofȱbid’ahȱ(renewalȱagainstȱIslam)ȱandȱofȱfitna. Inȱaȱfewȱcases,ȱdajjalȱisȱconnectedȱwithȱBushȱand/orȱAmerȬ icaȱ andȱ theȱ warȱ againstȱ terror.7ȱ Thisȱ showsȱ thatȱ definingȱ dajjal (andȱ evil)ȱ isȱ informedȱ byȱ politicalȱ aspectsȱ asȱ wellȱ asȱ religious ones.ȱCombiningȱtheseȱaspectsȱmeansȱthatȱattributingȱreligious elementsȱsuchȱasȱevilȱandȱdajjalȱtoȱaȱpoliticalȱconflictȱturnsȱaȱpoȬ liticalȱ conflictȱ intoȱ aȱ conflictȱ betweenȱ goodȱ andȱ evilȱ and,ȱ cerȬ tainlyȱinȱcaseȱofȱdajjal,ȱintoȱpartȱofȱtheȱfinalȱbattleȱbetweenȱgood andȱ evilȱ (Saritoprakȱ 2003).ȱ Thisȱ isȱ shownȱ alsoȱ onȱ theȱ Azzam websiteȱ(followersȱofȱBinȱLaden’sȱmentorȱSheikhȱAzzam)ȱwhere afterȱ theȱ 9/11ȱ attacksȱ aȱ photographȱ ofȱ theȱ Pentagonȱ (afterȱ the attack)ȱwasȱpublishedȱwithȱtheȱtitle:ȱTheȱMonumentalȱStruggleȱof GoodȱVersusȱEvil.8ȱThisȱmessageȱalsoȱshowsȱhowȱtheȱbeliefsȱcon 5 ȱhttp://www.selefiepublikaties.com/Artikelen/Degeleerdenoverde Egyptische_AmrChaalid%5b1%5d.pdf,ȱpageȱ1,ȱfootnoteȱbyȱtranslator. 6

ȱhttp://www.selefiepublikaties.com/Artikelen/DeconnectievanAhȬ medSalaammetalȬIchwaanalȬMoeslimiennagekeken.pdf.ȱSelefiepublikaȬ ties.comȱalsoȱhasȱanȱarticleȱonȱtheȱMuslimȱBrotherhood:ȱTheȱbitterȱtruth aboutȱDjama’atoelȬIchwaanȱalȱMoeslimien. 7

ȱForȱexample:ȱ//www.maghrebonline.nl/forum2000/viewtopic.php? TopicID=1878ȱandȱhttp://www.turksestudent.nl/forum/index.php?show topic=6078&st=15. 8

ȱȱTheȱAzzamȱwebsiteȱisȱnoȱlongerȱonline.ȱTheȱmessageȱcanȱbeȱfound atȱhttp://www.militantislammonitor.org/article/id/239.ȱForȱmoreȱinformȬ

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cerningȱ goodȱ andȱ evilȱ areȱ informedȱ byȱ outsidersȱ inȱ quoting GeorgeȱW.ȱBush:ȱ“Thisȱwillȱbeȱaȱmonumentalȱstruggleȱofȱgood versusȱevil,ȱbutȱgoodȱwillȱprevail.”ȱ DiscussionȱandȱConclusion Thisȱshortȱoverviewȱmakesȱclear,ȱfirst,ȱthatȱ“evil”ȱisȱnotȱaȱclearly definedȱ elementȱ ofȱ theȱ Islamicȱ repertoireȱ butȱ somethingȱ that hasȱ toȱ beȱ negotiated.ȱ Second,ȱ theȱ transitionȱ fromȱ moderate towardȱ moreȱ radicalȱ isȱ smoothȱ whenȱ itȱ comesȱ downȱ toȱ beliefs concerningȱ evil.ȱ Thisȱ isȱ notȱ toȱ sayȱ thatȱ moderateȱ meansȱ inherȬ entlyȱradical,ȱbutȱthatȱweȱshouldȱlookȱmoreȱcloselyȱatȱtheȱdevelȬ opmentsȱthatȱareȱimportantȱforȱyoungȱpeopleȱinȱgeneral.ȱThere isȱalsoȱaȱremarkableȱdifferenceȱbetweenȱtheȱ“moderate”ȱgroups andȱtheȱradicalȱgroupsȱifȱweȱtakeȱtheirȱsearchȱforȱtrueȱIslamȱasȱa startingȱpoint.ȱInȱtheȱmoreȱradicalȱstance,ȱweȱseeȱtheȱviewpoint thatȱeverythingȱthatȱinfluencesȱthisȱpurityȱshouldȱbeȱbanned;ȱit isȱconsideredȱtoȱbeȱofȱtheȱdevil.ȱWhereasȱthereȱisȱstillȱroomȱfor negotiationȱ inȱ theȱ caseȱ ofȱ theȱ moderateȱ Muslim,ȱ forȱ theȱ salafis andȱ radicalsȱ theirȱ identityȱ hasȱ becomeȱ soȱ fixedȱ thatȱ anyȱ negoȬ tiationȱisȱconsideredȱtoȱbeȱaȱcompromiseȱwithȱShaitan,ȱorȱtaghut orȱ dajjal.ȱ Forȱ moderateȱ Muslims,ȱ evilȱ isȱ oneȱ ofȱ theȱ elementsȱ of theȱreligiousȱrepertoireȱthatȱcanȱbeȱnegotiated,ȱwhereasȱforȱȱradȬ icalȱ Muslims,ȱ itȱ isȱ theȱ mostȱ importantȱ elementȱ (jihadȱ isȱ someȬ timesȱ consideredȱ toȱ beȱ theȱ sixthȱ pillarȱ ofȱ Islam).ȱ Theyȱ seemȱ to beȱ involvedȱ inȱ aȱ constantȱ andȱ apocalypticȱ warȱ betweenȱ good andȱevil.ȱAtȱtheȱsameȱtime,ȱgroupsȱuseȱIslamȱasȱaȱmeansȱforȱdeȬ fendingȱ theirȱ interestsȱ andȱ needs;ȱ weȱ canȱ callȱ thisȱ aȱ politicizaȬ tionȱ ofȱ Islam.ȱ Conceptsȱ ofȱ goodȱ andȱ evilȱ canȱ beȱ usedȱ hereȱ to mobilizeȱgroups.ȱThisȱisȱsomethingȱthatȱisȱseldomȱdoneȱbyȱthe moreȱ moderateȱ groupsȱ butȱ isȱ clearlyȱ theȱ caseȱ withȱ theȱ radical groups.ȱ Thisȱ senseȱ ofȱ aȱ crisisȱ isȱ notȱ typicalȱ forȱ theȱ radicalȱ groups; weȱcanȱseeȱitȱamongȱmoreȱmoderateȱMuslimsȱasȱwell.ȱThisȱdoes notȱmeanȱthatȱtheȱsearchȱforȱtrueȱIslamȱalsoȱentailsȱaȱcrisis.ȱPeoȬ pleȱdevelopȱtheirȱidentityȱthroughoutȱtheirȱlivesȱandȱmostȱofȱthe timeȱ thisȱ searchȱ isȱ alwaysȱ aȱ continuingȱ one.ȱ Forȱ youngȱ MusȬ lims,ȱchoicesȱhaveȱtoȱbeȱmadeȱinȱthisȱsearchȱfromȱaȱrangeȱofȱinȬ terpretationsȱ concerningȱ theȱ Islamicȱ faithȱ throughȱ negotiations ationȱonȱthisȱmessageȱandȱtheȱAzzamȱwebsiteȱseeȱBuntȱ2003.

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aboutȱ theȱ definitionȱ ofȱ theȱ religionȱ thatȱ areȱ conductedȱ with peers,ȱ parents,ȱ imams,ȱ nonȬMuslimsȱ andȱ themselves.ȱ Butȱ the searchȱforȱ“true”ȱIslamȱisȱnotȱconductedȱwithoutȱaȱstruggle,ȱand thisȱperhapsȱplaysȱaȱroleȱinȱtheȱdiscourseȱofȱ“beingȱinȱbetween cultures”ȱorȱ“strippingȱIslamȱofȱMoroccanȱtraditions.”ȱThisȱdisȬ courseȱ showsȱ thatȱ youngȱ peopleȱ sometimesȱ feelȱ stressedȱ inȱ a situationȱwhereȱtheirȱidentityȱpoliticsȱareȱfrustrated.ȱOnȱtheȱone hand,ȱ Moroccanȱ religiousȱ organizationsȱ areȱ notȱ alwaysȱ willing toȱ meetȱ theȱ desiresȱ andȱ needsȱ ofȱ theseȱ youngȱ people.ȱ Onȱ the otherȱ hand,ȱ manyȱ youngȱ Muslimsȱ feelȱ thatȱ nonȬMuslimsȱ exȬ cludeȱIslamȱ asȱaȱforeignȱreligion.ȱAsȱaȱresult,ȱmanyȱMoroccanȬ DutchȱyoungȱpeopleȱfeelȱthatȱtheyȱareȱnotȱacceptedȱasȱMuslims. Bourdieuȱ (1977)ȱ arguesȱ thatȱ crisesȱ turnȱ people’sȱ habitusȱ and doxaȱ intoȱ discourse.ȱ Culturalȱ meaningȱ thatȱ wasȱ previously takenȱ forȱ grantedȱ isȱ thusȱ broughtȱ toȱ theȱ forefrontȱ ofȱ theȱ conȬ sciousnessȱandȱselfȬunderstandingȱofȱsocialȱactors.ȱThisȱisȱrelatȬ edȱ toȱ theȱ processȱ ofȱ objectificationȱ thatȱ comesȱ aboutȱ inȱ aȱ situȬ ationȱ whereȱ religionȱ isȱ noȱ longerȱ selfȬevident:ȱ theȱ processȱ in whichȱ religionȱ becomesȱ aȱ topicȱ ofȱ discussion,ȱ reflectionȱ and studyȱ(Eickelmanȱ1992;ȱTennekesȱ1991).ȱOneȱofȱtheȱconsequenȬ cesȱisȱthatȱreligionȱisȱseenȱasȱanȱunchangingȱsystem,ȱclearlyȱdisȬ tinguishableȱfromȱotherȱsystems,ȱwithȱclearlyȱdefinedȱcharacterȬ isticsȱ(aȱchecklist)ȱandȱanȱauthenticȱcore.ȱTheȱsearchȱforȱthisȱtrue Islamȱ seemsȱ toȱ indicateȱ that,ȱ asȱ ifȱ oneȱ wantedȱ toȱ reinventȱ the authentic,ȱ primordialȱ identity.ȱ Thisȱ means,ȱ therefore,ȱ thatȱ the searchȱ forȱ trueȱ Islamȱ isȱ notȱ aȱ “deculturalization”ȱ ofȱ religion (evenȱthoughȱthatȱisȱtheȱdiscourseȱthatȱisȱused)ȱbutȱprimordialȬ ization:ȱtheȱprocessȱinȱwhichȱidentityȱisȱseenȱasȱfundamentalȱto one’sȱ beingȱ andȱ withȱ anȱ authentic,ȱ stableȱ andȱ aȱ coreȱ thatȱ is givenȱ aȱ priori.ȱ Becauseȱ thisȱ searchȱ isȱ aȱ veryȱ personalȱ one,ȱ it mightȱ explainȱ whyȱ criticismȱ onȱ Islamȱ isȱ seenȱ asȱ aȱ personalȱ atȬ tackȱandȱwhyȱaȱpersonalȱattackȱisȱoftenȱseenȱasȱanȱattackȱonȱIsȬ lam. Theȱconceptȱofȱevilȱandȱrelatedȱconceptsȱplayȱanȱimportant roleȱinȱthisȱprocessȱbecauseȱitȱclearlyȱdemarcatesȱtheȱdifferences withȱ outsiders;ȱ itȱ givesȱ peopleȱ aȱ strongȱ identityȱ butȱ because theseȱ conceptsȱ areȱ negotiatedȱ itȱ doesȱ notȱ meanȱ thatȱ relationȬ shipsȱ withȱ outsidersȱ areȱ impossible;ȱ thisȱ happensȱ onlyȱ when primordializationȱisȱsoȱstrongȱthatȱanyȱrelationshipȱwithȱoutsidȬ ersȱisȱconsideredȱtoȱbeȱaȱpersonalȱimpairment.ȱAndȱbecauseȱthe

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struggleȱ betweenȱ goodȱ andȱ evilȱ isȱ suchȱ aȱ basicȱ one,ȱ evilȱ isȱ a veryȱpowerfulȱconceptȱandȱthereforeȱalsoȱveryȱsuitableȱforȱmoȬ bilizingȱpeople.ȱItȱoffersȱpeopleȱaȱperspectiveȱfromȱwhichȱcomȬ plexȱ andȱ contradictoryȱ knowledgeȱ suddenlyȱ assumeȱ aȱ shape andȱ theȱ salafiȱ groupsȱ andȱ radicalȱ groupsȱ whoȱ useȱ evilȱ inȱ this wayȱperhapsȱcreateȱanȱenvironmentȱinȱwhichȱyoungȱpeopleȱdo feelȱ welcomeȱ andȱ inȱ whichȱ theyȱ canȱ fulfilȱ theirȱ needsȱ andȱ deȬ sires.ȱ Theȱ questionȱ thatȱ remainsȱ openȱ forȱ debateȱ isȱ whyȱ do someȱ people,ȱ givenȱ theȱ senseȱ ofȱ crisisȱ andȱ theȱ processȱ ofȱ priȬ mordialization,ȱchooseȱandȱdefineȱelementsȱfromȱtheȱIslamicȱreȬ pertoireȱinȱaȱmoderateȱwayȱandȱothersȱmoreȱradicallyȱorȱinȱaȱsaȬ lafiȱway? Bibliography Bentley,ȱ G.C.ȱ (1987).ȱ “Ethnicityȱ andȱ Practice.”ȱ Comparativeȱ Studiesȱ in SocietyȱandȱHistoryȱ29:ȱ24Ȭ55. (1991).ȱ “Responseȱ toȱ Yelvington.”ȱ Comparativeȱ Studiesȱ inȱ Society andȱHistoryȱ33:ȱ169Ȭ75. Borgman,ȱE.ȱetȱal.ȱ(2003).ȱHunkeringȱnaarȱheelheid.ȱOverȱnieuweȱreligiosiȬ teitȱinȱNederland.ȱBudel:ȱDamonȱBV. Bourdieu,ȱ P.ȱ (1977).ȱ Outlineȱ ofȱ aȱ Theoryȱ ofȱ Practice.ȱ Cambridge:ȱ CamȬ bridgeȱUniversityȱPress. Bunt,ȱ G.ȱ (2003).ȱ Islamȱ inȱ theȱ Digitalȱ Age.ȱ Londonȱ andȱ Sterling:ȱ Pluto Press. Eickelman,ȱD.F.ȱ(1992).ȱ“MassȱHigherȱEducationȱandȱtheȱReligiousȱImȬ aginationȱ inȱ Contemporaryȱ Arabȱ Societies.”ȱ Americanȱ Ethnologist 19:643Ȭ55. andȱJ.ȱPiscatori.ȱ(1996).ȱMuslimȱPolitics.ȱPrinceton:ȱPrincetonȱUniȬ versityȱPress. Eriksen,ȱT.H.ȱ(1993).ȱEthnicityȱandȱNationalism.ȱLondon:ȱPlutoȱPress. Jacobson,ȱ J.ȱ (1997).ȱ “Religionȱ andȱ Ethnicity:ȱ Dualȱ andȱ Alternative Sourcesȱ ofȱ Identityȱ amongȱ Youngȱ Britishȱ Pakistanis.”ȱ Ethnicȱ and RacialȱStudiesȱ20:ȱ238Ȭ56. Kepel,ȱG.ȱ(2004).ȱTheȱWarȱForȱMuslimȱMinds:ȱIslamȱandȱtheȱWest.ȱCamȬ bridge:ȱHarvardȱUniversityȱPress. Østberg,ȱ S.ȱ (2003).ȱ “NorwegianȬPakistaniȱ Adolescents:ȱ Negotiating Religion,ȱ Gender,ȱ Ethnicityȱ andȱ Socialȱ Boundaries.”ȱ Nordicȱ JourȬ nalȱofȱYouthȱResearchȱ11:ȱ161Ȭ81. Roy,ȱO.ȱ(2005).ȱ“AȱClashȱofȱCulturesȱorȱaȱDebateȱonȱEurope’sȱValues?” ISIMȱReviewȱ15:ȱ6Ȭ7.

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Saritoprak,ȱ Z.ȱ (2003).ȱ “Theȱ Legendȱ ofȱ alȬDajjãlȱ (Antichrist):ȱ Theȱ PerȬ sonificationȱ ofȱ Evilȱ inȱ theȱ Islamicȱ Tradition.”ȱ Theȱ Muslimȱ World 93:ȱ291Ȭ307. Tennekes,ȱH.ȱ(1991).ȱ“EenȱantropologischeȱvisieȱopȱdeȱIslamȱinȱNederȬ land.”ȱMigrantenstudiesȱ7:ȱ2Ȭ22. VanȱHarskamp,ȱA.ȱ(2000).ȱHetȱnieuwȬreligieuzeȱverlangen.ȱ2ndȱed.ȱKamȬ pen:ȱUitgeverijȱKok. Yelvington,ȱ K.A.ȱ (1991).ȱ “Ethnicityȱ asȱ Practice?ȱ Aȱ Commentȱ onȱ BentȬ ley.”ȱComparativeȱStudiesȱinȱSocietyȱandȱHistoryȱ33:ȱ158Ȭ68.

DefiningȱEvilȱtoȱStrengthenȱIslam MuhammadiyahȱIdeologiesȱofȱGenderȱandȱMarriage NellyȱvanȱDoornȬHarder

Abstract Thisȱ paperȱ discussesȱ someȱ ofȱ theȱ strategiesȱ usedȱ byȱ Muhammadiyahȱ leaders toȱ defineȱ andȱ changeȱ theȱ social,ȱ political,ȱ religious,ȱ andȱ culturalȱ forcesȱ that preventȱ theȱ fulfillmentȱ ofȱ theirȱ viewȱ ofȱ Islam.ȱ Definingȱ evilȱ forces—which comeȱfromȱoutside—thusȱbelongsȱtoȱaȱrepertoireȱofȱreligiousȱnotionsȱthatȱare shapedȱ inȱ interactionȱ withȱ theȱ environment,ȱ withȱ theȱ ultimateȱ goalȱ ofȱ reinȬ statingȱ aȱ pristineȱ formȱ ofȱ Islamȱ inȱ Indonesia.ȱ Thus,ȱ theȱ processȱ ofȱ forming andȱdefiningȱnewȱinterpretationsȱandȱapplicationsȱofȱtheȱIslamicȱreligionȱproȬ videsȱsimultaneouslyȱtheȱmethodsȱforȱcopingȱwithȱpowersȱthatȱareȱconsidered toȱbeȱdestructiveȱtoȱtheȱreligiousȱactorsȱandȱtheirȱcommunity.

Introduction1 Onȱ Februaryȱ 6,ȱ 2005ȱ aȱ draftȱ ofȱ aȱ newȱ setȱ ofȱ moralityȱ lawsȱ was presentedȱtoȱtheȱIndonesianȱpublic.ȱTheȱgoalsȱofȱtheseȱnewȱlaws wereȱ toȱ replaceȱ theȱ penalȱ codeȱ inheritedȱ fromȱ Dutchȱ ruleȱ and “toȱbringȱIndonesiaȱintoȱlineȱwithȱmanyȱMuslimȱstates.”ȱThese lawsȱprescribedȱfinesȱofȱupȱtoȱUSȱ$ȱ33,000ȱforȱactsȱsuchȱasȱkissȬ ingȱinȱpublicȱandȱupȱtoȱUSȱ$ȱ3,300ȱforȱlivingȱtogetherȱinȱanȱunȬ marriedȱ state.2ȱ Theȱ lawsȱ hadȱ beenȱ inȱ theȱ makingȱ forȱ several years,ȱ beginningȱ underȱ theȱ leadershipȱ ofȱ theȱ MuhammadiyahȬ mindedȱJusticeȱMinisterȱYuzrilȱMahendra.ȱMostȱobserversȱconȬ 1

ȱPartsȱofȱthisȱarticleȱareȱbasedȱonȱmyȱbookȱ(2006).ȱȱAȱrevisedȱversion ofȱthisȱpresentȱarticleȱwasȱpublishedȱinȱDutch:ȱ“MohammadiyahȱideoȬ logie:ȱmaatschappelijkeȱhervormingȱviaȱgoedeȱzeden”ȱ(i.e.,ȱTheȱIdeology ofȱMuhammadiyah:ȱSocialȱReformȱviaȱGoodȱMorals),ȱin:ȱTheologischȱDeȬ batȱ3ȱ(2006). 2

ȱ ȱ BBCȱ news,ȱ Februaryȱ 6,ȱ 2005,ȱ “Indonesiaȱ Plansȱ Newȱ Morality Laws.”

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sideredȱ themȱ symptomaticȱ ofȱ theȱ nationȬwideȱ discussionsȱ on theȱroleȱIslamȱshouldȱplayȱinȱIndonesianȱsociety,ȱandȱtheȱclosely relatedȱ debatesȱ aboutȱ introducingȱ shari’ahȱ law.ȱ Someȱ ofȱ these discussionsȱ wereȱ broughtȱ toȱ theȱ foreȱ throughȱ theȱ lobbyingȱ acȬ tivitiesȱ ofȱ extremistȱ Muslimȱ groupsȱ thatȱ seemedȱ toȱ appearȱ out ofȱnowhereȱafterȱtheȱSuhartoȱregimeȱsteppedȱdownȱinȱ1998ȱand theȱeraȱofȱdemocracyȱandȱreformationȱstarted.ȱByȱrepressingȱexȬ tremistȱexpressionsȱofȱIslam,ȱtheȱSuhartoȱregimeȱhadȱgivenȱthe impressionȱ thatȱ theseȱ hadȱ hardlyȱ existed.ȱ Notȱ onlyȱ hadȱ they beenȱ presentȱ duringȱ theȱ regime,ȱ however,ȱ butȱ thereȱ haveȱ alȬ waysȱbeenȱthose,ȱespeciallyȱsinceȱtheȱbeginningȱofȱtheȱtwentieth century,ȱ whoȱ haveȱ soughtȱ toȱ purifyȱ Indonesianȱ societyȱ ofȱ imȬ morality,ȱvicesȱandȱexpressionsȱofȱcultureȱandȱtraditionȱdeemed inappropriateȱtoȱIslam. TheseȱapparentlyȱnewȱlawsȱandȱtheȱlivelyȱdiscussionsȱsurȬ roundingȱ themȱ seemȱ toȱ representȱ extremistȱ expressionsȱ ofȱ IsȬ lam.ȱHowever,ȱtheȱlaws’ȱargumentsȱandȱreasoningȱechoȱtextsȱas earlyȱ asȱ theȱ beginningȱ ofȱ theȱ twentiethȱ century,ȱ suchȱ asȱ those publishedȱ byȱ theȱ Muhammadiyahȱ organizationȱ andȱ otherȱ reȬ formistȱ movements.ȱ Theseȱ movementsȱ aroseȱ fromȱ aȱ desireȱ to purifyȱIslamȱofȱimpermissibleȱelementsȱthatȱitȱhadȱincorporated fromȱlocalȱculturesȱandȱtraditions.ȱInȱtheȱhistoricalȱcontext,ȱthe desireȱtoȱsuppressȱallȱthatȱwasȱconsideredȱ“evil”ȱledȱreformists toȱ forbid,ȱ amongȱ otherȱ things,ȱ menȱ andȱ womenȱ toȱ danceȱ toȬ getherȱ andȱ womenȱ toȱ cutȱ theirȱ hairȱ short,ȱ andȱ resultedȱ in viciousȱattacksȱonȱWesternȱmovies.ȱInȱfact,ȱthereȱseemsȱtoȱbeȱan obsessionȱwithȱcertainȱvicesȱthatȱhasȱcontinuedȱintoȱtheȱpresent: aȱrecentȱvideoȱonȱtheȱdeadlyȱtsunamiȱthatȱstruckȱgreatȱpartsȱof southeastȱ Asiaȱ onȱ Decemberȱ 26,ȱ 2004,ȱ startsȱ withȱ scenesȱ ofȱ the streetsȱofȱaȱlargeȱcityȱonȱNewȱYear’sȱEve.ȱItȱshowsȱscantilyȱclad youngȱ women,ȱ partyingȱ andȱ jokingȱ withȱ menȱ theirȱ age.ȱ Then theȱcameraȱshiftsȱtoȱwhatȱseemsȱtoȱbeȱaȱgroupȱofȱprostitutes.ȱAlȬ thoughȱ theȱ picturesȱ wereȱ notȱ takenȱ inȱ Aceh,ȱ theȱ areaȱ affected mostȱ severely,ȱ theȱ messageȱ isȱ clear:ȱ thisȱ isȱ theȱ sinfulȱ behavior thatȱledȱtoȱtheȱtsunami. Indeed,ȱ theȱ currentȱ lawsȱ reflectȱ partlyȱ theȱ desireȱ ofȱ many Indonesiansȱtoȱbeȱ“goodȱMuslims”ȱandȱpartlyȱtheȱdesireȱofȱcerȬ tainȱsegmentsȱofȱtheȱMuslimȱpopulationȱtoȱintroduceȱshari’ahȱor Islamicȱ lawȱ intoȱ Indonesianȱ society.ȱ Thisȱ desireȱ hasȱ beenȱ exȬ pressedȱ sinceȱ theȱ Indonesianȱ Muslimȱ kingdomsȱ ofȱ theȱ sevenȬ teenthȱcenturyȱandȱregainedȱprominenceȱafterȱIndonesia’sȱindeȬ

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pendenceȱ fromȱ Dutchȱ colonialȱ ruleȱ inȱ 1945ȱ (Salimȱ andȱ Azra 2003:ȱ 3).ȱ Itȱ expressedȱ itselfȱ inȱ uprisingsȱ andȱ inȱ theȱ chartersȱ of theȱIslamicȱparties,ȱsuchȱasȱtheȱmostlyȱMuhammadiyahȬminded Masyumiȱ party,ȱ thatȱ wereȱ basedȱ onȱ theȱ ideasȱ ofȱ theȱ Middle EasternȱreformerȱRashidȱRida.ȱTheȱlatterȱhadȱtaughtȱthatȱIslam canȱ flourishȱ fullyȱ onlyȱ withinȱ aȱ strongȱ Muslimȱ stateȱ thatȱ is basedȱ onȱ theȱ lawsȱ ofȱ Islam.ȱ Hence,ȱ theȱ Masyumiȱ partyȱ enȬ couragedȱ itsȱ membersȱ toȱ fightȱ aȱ jihadȱ forȱ independenceȱ (Noer 1973:ȱ43).ȱTheȱpartyȱwasȱalsoȱconcernedȱwithȱtheȱprohibitionȱof vicesȱ suchȱ asȱ gambling,ȱ andȱ theȱ consumptionȱ ofȱ alcoholȱ and opiumȱ (Noerȱ 1973:ȱ 44).ȱ Untilȱ theȱ 1960s,ȱ whenȱ theȱ government suppressedȱ extremistȱ groupsȱ suchȱ asȱ theȱ Darulȱ Islamȱ moveȬ ment,ȱtheseȱgroupsȱtriedȱtoȱenforceȱtheirȱagendaȱforȱtheȱapplicaȬ tionȱofȱIslamicȱlawȱthroughȱviolentȱattacksȱandȱtheȱdisruptionȱof society.ȱAlthoughȱshari’ahȱlawȱdidȱnotȱgainȱconstitutionalȱstatus, theȱSuhartoȱgovernmentȱintroducedȱatȱleastȱfiveȱlawsȱthatȱwere stronglyȱinfluencedȱbyȱtheȱshari’ah:ȱmarriageȱlaw,ȱlawsȱregulatȬ ingȱ theȱ Islamicȱ courtsȱ andȱ charitableȱ endowmentsȱ (waqf),ȱ and lawsȱ concerningȱ inheritanceȱ andȱ Islamicȱ bankingȱ (Salimȱ and Azraȱ2003:ȱ5).ȱ TheȱacceptanceȱofȱtheseȱlawsȱrevealsȱthatȱmanyȱIndonesian Muslimsȱtakeȱtheirȱreligionȱseriously.ȱMostȱofȱthemȱdoȱnotȱapȬ proveȱofȱvicesȱconsideredȱtoȱbeȱagainstȱorȱdetrimentalȱtoȱIslam. Butȱthisȱisȱaȱprivateȱattitude,ȱwithinȱtheȱprivateȱreligiousȱsphere whereȱthereȱisȱroomȱtoȱnegotiateȱmoralsȱandȱrules.ȱMembersȱof reformistȱorganizationsȱsuchȱasȱMuhammadiyahȱaimedȱatȱmovȬ ingȱ theseȱ privateȱ convictionsȱ intoȱ theȱ publicȱ arena,ȱ indicating certainȱ formsȱ ofȱ behaviorȱ toȱ beȱ pureȱ evil,ȱ andȱ thusȱ defining whatȱaȱgood—thatȱisȱreformist—Muslimȱshouldȱconsiderȱtoȱbe harmfulȱorȱevil.ȱInȱorderȱtoȱapplyȱtheirȱnewȱideologyȱtoȱsociety, theyȱ openedȱ aȱ discussionȱ thatȱ coveredȱ aȱ wideȱ rangeȱ ofȱ topics. Theseȱincluded,ȱforȱexample,ȱwhatȱtypeȱofȱdressȱaȱgoodȱreformȬ istȱMuslimȱshouldȱwear,ȱhowȱtoȱconductȱweddingȱceremonies, howȱ toȱ spendȱ one’sȱ income,ȱ ifȱ womenȱ wereȱ allowedȱ toȱ travel withoutȱtheirȱguardianȱ(mahram),ȱtoȱrideȱaȱbike,ȱorȱtoȱpreachȱin frontȱofȱaȱmixedȱaudience.ȱInȱfact,ȱtheȱtopicsȱhighlightedȱmainly genderȱissuesȱand,ȱasȱaȱcorollary,ȱtheȱinstituteȱofȱmarriage. Theȱ Muhammadiyahȱ organizationȱ wasȱ setȱ upȱ byȱ Ahmad Dahlanȱinȱ1912ȱasȱanȱantidoteȱagainstȱtwoȱinfluencesȱthat,ȱinȱhis view,ȱ keptȱ Indonesiansȱ fromȱ reachingȱ theirȱ potentialȱ ofȱ applyȬ

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ingȱ Islamicȱ moralsȱ andȱ laws.ȱ Theseȱ wereȱ colonialȱ Christianȱ inȬ fluencesȱandȱlocalȱsyncretisticȱexpressionsȱofȱIslam.ȱDahlanȱand otherȱ reformedȱ Muslimsȱ wereȱ influencedȱ byȱ theȱ ideasȱ ofȱ the EgyptianȱreformerȱMuhammadȱ‘Abduhȱ(1849Ȭ1905)ȱandȱhisȱdisȬ cipleȱ Rashidȱ Ridaȱ (1865Ȭ1935),ȱ whoȱ wantedȱ toȱ purifyȱ Islamȱ of theȱ influencesȱ ofȱ superstitions.ȱ ‘Abduhȱ wantedȱ especiallyȱ to constructȱanȱalternativeȱdiscourseȱtoȱthatȱofȱbackwardȱreligious leadersȱwhoȱreliedȱheavilyȱonȱfolkloristicȱtalesȱandȱpopularȱuse ofȱ Islamicȱ jurisprudenceȱ insteadȱ ofȱ takingȱ theȱ originalȱ injuncȬ tionsȱofȱtheȱQur’anȱseriously.ȱ JoiningȱMuhammadiyahȱrepresentedȱaȱseriousȱstepȱandȱimȬ pliedȱ totalȱ dedicationȱ andȱ commitmentȱ toȱ theȱ organizationȱ as wellȱ asȱ transformingȱ one’sȱ entireȱ lifestyle,ȱ clothingȱ andȱ circles ofȱ friends.ȱ Menȱ exchangedȱ indigenousȱ outfitsȱ forȱ pantsȱ and shirtsȱ withȱ aȱ tieȱ whileȱ womenȱ startedȱ toȱ wearȱ veilsȱ andȱ looseȬ fittingȱjackets.ȱOutwardȱchangeȱwasȱaȱsignȱofȱanȱinwardȱtransȬ formationȱtoȱbecomingȱaȱgood,ȱactiveȱMuslim.ȱIntenseȱscrutiny ofȱ one’sȱ motivationsȱ andȱ actionsȱ inȱ orderȱ toȱ understandȱ one’s callingȱasȱaȱgoodȱMuhammadiyahȱmemberȱwasȱpartȱofȱthisȱproȬ cess.ȱ Fromȱ earlyȱ on,ȱ Muhammadiyahȱ heldȱ regularȱ meetingsȱ to instillȱ itsȱ valuesȱ inȱ itsȱ newȱ members.ȱ Theseȱ values,ȱ however, hadȱ toȱ beȱ refinedȱ andȱ redefined;ȱ itȱ wasȱ aȱ processȱ thatȱ evolved overȱdecades. Theȱ processȱ ofȱ definingȱ values,ȱ goodȱ andȱ bad,ȱ wasȱ aimed atȱsettingȱboundariesȱbetweenȱreformistȱMuslimsȱandȱtheȱrestȱof Indonesiansȱ whoȱ wereȱ notȱ reformist,ȱ Christian,ȱ Hindu,ȱ BudȬ dhistȱ orȱ followedȱ indigenousȱ beliefs.ȱ Itȱ alsoȱ representedȱ anȱ atȬ temptȱtoȱmoveȱIndonesianȱIslamȱintoȱanȱimaginedȱsupranationȬ alȱcommunityȱofȱreformistȱMuslimsȱandȱwasȱbasedȱonȱteachings fromȱ theȱ Qur’anȱ andȱ theȱ foundingȱ fathersȱ ofȱ reformistȱ Islam. Whileȱreachingȱforȱaȱglobalȱcommunity,ȱtheȱredefinitionsȱnecesȬ sarilyȱ addressedȱ localȱ issues.ȱ Inȱ orderȱ toȱ understandȱ thisȱ proȬ cess,ȱȱIȱwillȱfirstȱexplainȱsomeȱofȱtheȱIslamicȱandȱreformistȱphiloȬ sophiesȱthatȱinfluencedȱtheȱideasȱconcerningȱevil.ȱ IslamicȱViewsȱofȱEvil PhilosophersȱsuchȱasȱSusanȱNeimanȱwhoȱhaveȱstudiedȱtheȱtopic ofȱevilȱhaveȱfoundȱthatȱwhatȱpeopleȱconsiderȱtoȱbeȱtheȱessence ofȱ evilȱ changesȱ sharplyȱ overȱ time.ȱ Locatingȱ evil,ȱ accordingȱ to Neiman,ȱisȱ“aȱmatterȱofȱsharpȱandȱcarefulȱanalysis—notȱofȱgenȬ

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eralȱ conceptsȱ butȱ ofȱ particularȱ instances”ȱ (Neimanȱ 2004:ȱ xiii). Weȱ humansȱ goȱ throughȱ signpostsȱ ofȱ moralȱ developmentȱ that changeȱ ourȱ perceptionsȱ and,ȱ amongȱ otherȱ things,ȱ consistȱ of noticingȱthingsȱweȱdidȱnotȱnoticeȱbefore. InȱorderȱtoȱdefineȱwhatȱshouldȱbeȱconsideredȱasȱmorallyȱreȬ prehensive,ȱevilȱandȱnotȱpermissibleȱforȱaȱgoodȱreformistȱMusȬ lim,ȱ Muhammadiyahȱ leadersȱ basedȱ theirȱ viewsȱ firstȱ andȱ foreȬ mostȱ onȱ theȱ Qur’anȱ and,ȱ second,ȱ onȱ theȱ teachingsȱ ofȱ theȱ reȬ formistsȱ Muhammadȱ ‘Abduhȱ andȱ Rashidȱ Rida.ȱ Theȱ Qur’anic viewȱpresentsȱtheȱviewȱthatȱGodȱcreatedȱhumans,ȱbothȱmenȱand women,ȱinȱtheȱbestȱfashionȱ(Q.ȱ95:4),ȱandȱthatȱGod’sȱcreationȱas aȱ wholeȱ isȱ forȱ justȱ endsȱ (Q.ȱ 15:85)ȱ andȱ notȱ forȱ idleȱ sportȱ (Q. 21:16).3ȱMenȱandȱwomenȱareȱcalledȱtoȱrighteousnessȱandȱareȱexȬ pectedȱ toȱ honorȱ theȱ rightsȱ ofȱ Godȱ (huquqȱ Allah),ȱ asȱ wellȱ asȱ the rightsȱofȱcreaturesȱ(huquqȱalȬ‘ibad).ȱ Fromȱtheȱbeginning,ȱhumanityȱfacedȱtwoȱdualities.ȱHuman lifeȱconsistedȱbothȱofȱclayȱandȱofȱtheȱdivineȱspiritȱ(Q.ȱ15:28,ȱ29). Andȱwhileȱhumansȱwereȱputȱatȱtheȱcenterȱofȱtheȱcosmicȱorderȱas God’sȱ vicegerentȱ (khalifah,ȱ Q.ȱ 2:30),ȱ theyȱ wereȱ alsoȱ confronted withȱtheȱchoiceȱbetweenȱgoodȱandȱevilȱasȱGodȱallowedȱtheȱdevil (ashȬShaitan)ȱ toȱ assaultȱ themȱ withȱ hisȱ forcesȱ (Q.ȱ 2:34Ȭ36ȱ andȱ Q. 7:19Ȭ25).ȱ Theȱ firstȱ choiceȱ humansȱ madeȱ wasȱ theȱ oneȱ bothȱ the womanȱ andȱ theȱ manȱ madeȱ toȱ eatȱ fromȱ theȱ forbiddenȱ tree, whichȱ ledȱ toȱ theirȱ expulsionȱ fromȱ Paradise.ȱ Theȱ Qur’anȱ does notȱ considerȱ thisȱ actȱ toȱ beȱ theirȱ “Fall”ȱ butȱ aȱ moralȱ choiceȱ that humansȱwillȱhaveȱtoȱmakeȱwhenȱpresentedȱwithȱtheȱoptionsȱofȬ feredȱbyȱGodȱandȱȱthoseȱofferedȱbyȱtheȱdevilȱ(Hassanȱ1997:ȱ87). Humanȱbeings,ȱMuslimsȱbelieve,ȱhaveȱtheȱfreedomȱofȱchoiceȱto rejectȱopportunitiesȱtoȱdoȱevilȱandȱtoȱchoose,ȱinstead,ȱtheȱgood thatȱisȱalwaysȱpresentedȱsimultaneously. Sinceȱ evilȱ isȱ consideredȱ toȱ ariseȱ fromȱ aȱ perversionȱ ofȱ huȬ manȱemotionsȱthatȱcorruptȱone’sȱintentionsȱ(Q.ȱ12:53),ȱtheȱQurȬ ’anȱexhortsȱindividualsȱtoȱpurifyȱtheirȱinnerȱsoulsȱandȱtheirȱinȬ tentionsȱ (AlȬGhazaliȱ 1997:ȱ 74).ȱ However,ȱ asȱ Muhammadȱ AlȬ Ghazaliȱ pointsȱ out,ȱ theȱ purposeȱ ofȱ Islamȱ isȱ notȱ personalȱ wellȬ beingȱandȱinnerȱbalanceȱforȱindividuals,ȱbutȱ“theȱrealizationȱof

3 ȱTheȱconciseȱdescriptionȱonȱtheȱQur’anicȱviewȱofȱtheȱcreationȱof goodȱ andȱ evilȱ isȱ basedȱ partlyȱ ȱ onȱ AlȬGhazaliȱ 1997:ȱ 70Ȭ79ȱ andȱ Hassan 1997:ȱ80Ȭ98.

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adl,ȱ justiceȱ atȱ allȱ levelsȱ ofȱ humanȱ endeavorȱ andȱ socialȱ conȬ course”ȱ(AlȬGhazaliȱ1997:ȱ75).ȱȱIndividualsȱareȱthusȱchargedȱto maintainȱ thisȱ balanceȱ byȱ performingȱ theirȱ dutiesȱ andȱ obligaȬ tionsȱ toȱ Godȱ andȱ theirȱ environment.ȱ Theseȱ obligationsȱ encomȬ passȱthoseȱtowardsȱparents,ȱasȱwellȱasȱthoseȱtowardsȱone’sȱfamȬ ilyȱandȱone’sȱsociety.ȱ Bothȱindividualsȱandȱcommunitiesȱareȱexpectedȱtoȱpromote theȱgoodȱcollectivelyȱbyȱfulfillingȱone’sȱobligationsȱtoȱGodȱand one’sȱ obligationsȱ toȱ humanity.ȱ Individualsȱ ignoringȱ theirȱ perȬ sonalȱ dutiesȱ willȱ leadȱ toȱ imbalancesȱ inȱ society.ȱ Causingȱ these imbalancesȱisȱconsideredȱasȱmuchȱaȱsinȱasȱtrespassingȱagainstȱa religiousȱinjunction.ȱHowever,ȱone’sȱintentionȱ(niyyah)ȱisȱtheȱulȬ timateȱ criterionȱ forȱ decidingȱ whetherȱ somethingȱ wasȱ aȱ willful trespassȱorȱnotȱ(Q.ȱ53:32).ȱTheȱQur’anȱandȱtraditionȱ(hadith)ȱare signpostsȱforȱtheȱbelieverȱtoȱknowȱhowȱtoȱbehave. God’sȱmercyȱandȱforgivenessȱisȱthenȱstressedȱforȱthoseȱwho repentȱandȱamendȱtheirȱbehavior.ȱTheȱstressȱisȱnotȱsoȱmuchȱon theȱ enormityȱ ofȱ theȱ sin,ȱ asȱ onȱ aȱ person’sȱ intentionȱ (niyyah)ȱ (Q. 6:54).ȱ Inȱ reality,ȱ thisȱ isȱ difficultȱ toȱ comprehend,ȱ withȱ theȱ result thatȱlistsȱofȱsinsȱwereȱdrawnȱup.4ȱTheȱgreatestȱevilȱofȱall,ȱhowȬ ever,ȱisȱtheȱsinȱofȱshirk,ȱorȱtheȱbeliefȱthatȱthereȱisȱmoreȱthanȱone Godȱ(Q.ȱ4:48,ȱ50).ȱȱ Theȱ religiousȱ worldviewsȱ ofȱ peoples,ȱ combinedȱ withȱ local culture,ȱtimeȱandȱcircumstancesȱthenȱgreatlyȱdetermineȱwhatȱis consideredȱ evil.ȱ Aȱ Muslimȱ doesȱ notȱ necessarilyȱ viewȱ anȱ autoȬ mobileȱ accident,ȱ theȱ destructiveȱ tsunamiȱ inȱ southeastȱ Asiaȱ on Decemberȱ26,ȱ2004,ȱorȱtheȱgreatȱearthquakeȱofȱLisbonȱ(1755)ȱas evil.ȱ Mostȱ Muslimsȱ willȱ considerȱ suchȱ toȱ beȱ aȱ testȱ thatȱ invites thoseȱinvolvedȱtoȱpracticeȱpatienceȱandȱtoȱimproveȱtheirȱbehavȬ ior.ȱ Also,ȱ thoseȱ whoȱ dieȱ inȱ suchȱ asȱ good,ȱ practicingȱ Muslims willȱgoȱtoȱparadise.ȱThus,ȱperishingȱinȱaȱnaturalȱdisasterȱisȱnot consideredȱevilȱfromȱtheȱpointȱofȱviewȱofȱthoseȱwhoȱenterȱparaȬ dise.ȱTheȱinfluentialȱMuslimȱphilosopherȱAlȬAsh’ariȱ(ca.ȱ873Ȭȱca. 935)ȱ providedȱ whatȱ isȱ consideredȱ toȱ beȱ aȱ typicalȱ Muslimȱ perȬ ceptionȱofȱevil.ȱAccordingȱtoȱhim,ȱqualifyingȱsomethingȱasȱevil

4

ȱAnnemiekȱSpronkȱremarksȱinȱherȱMAȱthesisȱ(2004:ȱ18)ȱthatȱlong listsȱenumeratingȱsinsȱareȱnowadaysȱpublishedȱviaȱtheȱInternet.ȱThese listsȱreflectȱaȱcasuisticȱapproachȱtoȱtheȱinterpretationȱofȱwhatȱisȱorȱisȱnot sin.ȱ

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dependsȱ onȱ theȱ circumstancesȱ andȱ onȱ theȱ personȱ whoȱ exȬ periencesȱ theȱ event.ȱ Asȱ AlȬAsh’ariȱ didȱ notȱ considerȱ evilȱ toȱ be partȱ ofȱ theȱ natureȱ ofȱ things,ȱ itȱ isȱ addedȱ byȱ theȱ personȱ whoȱ is respondingȱ toȱ aȱ particularȱ eventȱ (Antesȱ 1977:ȱ 181).ȱ Whatȱ matȬ tersȱinȱtheȱendȱisȱ thatȱGodȱisȱtranscendent,ȱandȱthatȱhisȱpower andȱwillȱareȱwithoutȱlimits.ȱInȱtheȱMuslimȱviewȱ(Q.ȱ42:11),ȱitȱis concurrentlyȱtheseȱqualitiesȱthatȱsecureȱaȱgoodȱrelationshipȱbeȬ tweenȱGodȱandȱtheȱbelieverȱ(Aslanȱ2001:ȱ39). MuhammadiyahȱandȱViewsȱofȱEvil AsȱMuhammadiyahȱstartedȱtoȱspreadȱitsȱreformistȱviewsȱinȱInȬ donesia,ȱitȱhadȱtoȱdistinguishȱpracticesȱandȱbeliefsȱitȱconsidered toȱ beȱ wrongȱ andȱ designȱ subsequentȱ strategiesȱ toȱ correctȱ these. Inȱ developingȱ thisȱ process,ȱ Qur’anȱ 3:104ȱ becameȱ oneȱ ofȱ MuȬ hammadiyah’sȱ mantras.ȱ Thisȱ verseȱ suggestsȱ thatȱ aȱ groupȱ of peopleȱwillȱarise,ȱ“enjoiningȱwhatȱisȱright,ȱandȱforbiddingȱwhat isȱwrong.” Amongȱ theȱ mainȱ sourcesȱ toȱ whichȱ Muhammadiyahȱ memȬ bersȱcouldȱreferȱforȱtheirȱideasȱaboutȱwhatȱwasȱrightȱorȱwrong inȱ societyȱ wereȱ theȱ Man¬rȱ Qur’anȱ Commentaries,ȱ whichȱ reȬ flectedȱtheȱmainȱphilosophiesȱofȱ‘AbduhȱandȱRida.ȱTheseȱwere startedȱinȱ1899ȱasȱaȱseriesȱofȱlecturesȱatȱalȬAzharȱUniversityȱby Muhammadȱ ‘Abduhȱ andȱ expandedȱ afterȱ hisȱ deathȱ byȱ hisȱ stuȬ dentȱRashidȱRida.ȱTheȱgoalȱofȱtheseȱteachingsȱwasȱtoȱchangeȱthe perceptionsȱ ofȱ Muslimsȱ whoȱ followedȱ aȱ faithȱ ofȱ blindȱ fatalism filledȱ withȱ superstitions,ȱ andȱ toȱ purifyȱ societyȱ fromȱ theȱ nonȬ Muslimȱ influencesȱ thatȱ cameȱ inȱ theȱ wakeȱ ofȱ Westernȱ colonial powers. TheȱCommentariesȱstressedȱthatȱsocietyȱdevelopsȱaccording toȱ meticulousȱ lawsȱ thatȱ expressȱ theȱ sunanȱ ofȱ God.ȱ Sunan,ȱ the pluralȱ ofȱ sunna,ȱ meansȱ literallyȱ “theȱ troddenȱ path,”ȱ andȱ refers toȱ theȱ conductȱ ofȱ theȱ forefathersȱ thatȱ exemplifiesȱ theȱ normȱ for theȱ behaviorȱ ofȱ succeedingȱ generationsȱ (vanȱ Nispenȱ totȱ SeveȬ naerȱ1996:ȱ35).ȱTheȱreformersȱbelievedȱthatȱtheȱsunanȱrepresentȬ edȱ theȱ realityȱ thatȱ Godȱ createdȱ theȱ world,ȱ peopleȱ andȱ human societyȱ accordingȱ toȱ fixedȱ lawsȱ andȱ preciseȱ andȱ regularȱ strucȬ tures.ȱ Inȱ thisȱ context,ȱ causeȱ andȱ effectȱ wereȱ obviousȱ andȱ deȬ pendedȱ onȱ theȱ actsȱ ofȱ peopleȱ (vanȱ Nispenȱ totȱ Sevenaerȱ 1996: 115,ȱ 116).ȱ Basedȱ onȱ thisȱ beliefȱ theȱ reformersȱ stressedȱ theȱ QurȬ

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’anicȱ wordsȱ ofȱ suraȱ 13:11:ȱ “Verilyȱ neverȱ willȱ Allahȱ changeȱ the conditionȱofȱaȱpeopleȱuntilȱtheyȱchangeȱitȱthemselves.”5 Theseȱ reformistȱ ideasȱ ofȱ ‘Abduhȱ andȱ Ridaȱ inspiredȱ MusȬ limsȱallȱoverȱtheȱworldȱtoȱreinvigorateȱtheirȱfaithȱandȱfindȱnew waysȱofȱtransformingȱitȱintoȱaȱforceȱtoȱchangeȱsociety.ȱInȱEgypt theyȱgaveȱriseȱtoȱtwoȱtrendsȱofȱthinking:ȱsecular,ȱandȱIslamistȱor fundamentalist.ȱ Secularȱ groupsȱ heldȱ thatȱ religionȱ shouldȱ reȬ mainȱinȱtheȱprivateȱdomain,ȱwhileȱtoȱthisȱdayȱIslamistsȱcontinue toȱlobbyȱforȱanȱIslamicȱstate.ȱThisȱledȱtoȱaȱreligiousȱsplitȱthatȱdisȬ ruptedȱsociety. Inȱ Indonesiaȱ thisȱ splitȱ neverȱ occurred,ȱ sinceȱ Muslimsȱ who acceptedȱ theȱ reformistȱ ideasȱ thereȱ consideredȱ carefullyȱ how theirȱideasȱcouldȱbeȱacceptedȱintoȱsocietyȱinȱorderȱtoȱchangeȱ it fromȱwithin.ȱAsȱaȱresult,ȱreformistsȱinfluencedȱallȱaspectsȱofȱInȬ donesianȱ life,ȱ rangingȱ fromȱ religiousȱ practice,ȱ educationȱ to medicalȱcare.ȱPartȱofȱtheirȱsuccessȱwasȱbuiltȱonȱtheȱdoubleȱstraȬ tegyȱthatȱstressedȱtolerance,ȱonȱtheȱoneȱhand,ȱtowardȱdeviating opinionsȱwhile,ȱonȱtheȱother,ȱclearlyȱdefiningȱtheȱboundariesȱof whatȱreformistsȱcouldȱtolerateȱandȱwhatȱtheyȱcouldȱnot.ȱInȱthe latterȱcategoryȱofȱissues,ȱbehaviors,ȱpractices,ȱtextsȱandȱformsȱof cultureȱ notȱ toȱ beȱ tolerated,ȱ weȱ findȱ whatȱ Muhammadiyah membersȱconsideredȱtoȱbeȱevil.6 Statedȱ inȱ generalȱ terms,ȱ everythingȱ thatȱ hindered,ȱ obȬ structedȱorȱharmedȱtheȱspreadȱofȱtheȱMuhammadiyahȱinterpreȬ tationȱofȱIslamȱcouldȱbeȱconsideredȱasȱevilȱandȱinȱfactȱcontinues toȱbeȱupȱtoȱthisȱday.ȱTheȱorganization’sȱdevelopmentȱtookȱplace overȱ severalȱ decadesȱ andȱ isȱ stillȱ evolvingȱ afterȱ nearlyȱ oneȱ cenȬ tury.ȱHowever,ȱatȱcertainȱdefiningȱmoments,ȱpointsȱofȱreference wereȱformulatedȱasȱtoȱwhatȱshapedȱaȱMuhammadiyahȱmember andȱ theȱ boundariesȱ thatȱ existedȱ betweenȱ Muhammadiyahȱ and theȱ nebulousȱ “other.”ȱ Inȱ translatingȱ Muhammadȱ ‘Abduh’sȱ viȬ sionȱ ofȱ theȱ sunanȱ Allah,ȱ aȱ casuistryȱ developedȱ thatȱ resultedȱ in

5

ȱTheȱtranslationȱofȱtheȱQur’anȱisȱbasedȱon:ȱ‘AbdullahȱYĀsufȱ‘AlÎ,ȱThe MeaningȱofȱtheȱHolyȱQur’¬nȱ(1991). 6 ȱDeliarȱNoerȱ(1973:ȱ81Ȭ83)ȱpointsȱtoȱthisȱtolerantȱattitudeȱinȱdiscusȬ sionsȱwithinȱMuhammadiyahȱandȱbetweenȱMuhammadiyahȱandȱtheȱoutȬ sideȱworld.

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theȱ definitionȱ ofȱ generalȱ ethicalȱ principles.7ȱ Theseȱ principles wereȱthenȱcombinedȱintoȱplansȱofȱaction,ȱdecidedȱuponȱduring theȱ nationalȱ meetings,ȱ taughtȱ inȱ coursesȱ andȱ schools,ȱ andȱ adȬ vertisedȱviaȱjournalsȱandȱotherȱMuhammadiyahȱwritings.ȱEvery leader,ȱ sympathizerȱ andȱ memberȱ wereȱ calledȱ toȱ practiceȱ the ethicalȱ rulesȱ soȱ thatȱ inȱ theȱ endȱ theyȱ becameȱ internalizedȱ and partȱofȱtheȱMuhammadiyahȱprinciplesȱandȱorganizationalȱstrucȬ ture.ȱInȱthisȱpaperȱIȱwillȱfocusȱonȱthisȱprocessȱwhereȱitȱresulted inȱtheȱideologiesȱconcerningȱgenderȱandȱmarriage. WhenȱanalyzingȱhistoricalȱandȱcontemporaryȱMuhammadȬ iyahȱ discourseȱ andȱ historicalȱ sourcesȱ ofȱ Muhammadiyahȱ pubȬ licationsȱ suchȱ asȱ conferenceȱ reports,ȱ andȱ itsȱ journalȱ Suaraȱ MuȬ hammadiyahȱ (Voiceȱ ofȱ Muhammadiyah)ȱ andȱ theȱ journalȱ ofȱ its women’sȱbranchȱSuaraȱ‘Aisyiyahȱ(Voiceȱofȱ‘Aisyiyah),ȱseveralȱreȬ curringȱtopicsȱemergeȱthatȱareȱconsideredȱevilsȱdestroyingȱsociȬ ety.ȱ Ifȱ weȱ attemptȱ toȱ categorizeȱ these,ȱ weȱ willȱ seeȱ thatȱ before 1945ȱmanyȱofȱtheȱtopicsȱdebatedȱrelateȱtoȱcolonial/Christianȱrule andȱ injunctions,ȱ localȱ indigenousȱ lawsȱ (adat),ȱ indigenousȱ rituȬ als,ȱandȱtraditionalistȱritualsȱandȱpracticesȱofȱIslamȱ(i.e.ȱthoseȱof nonȬreformistȬmindedȱ Muslims).ȱ Theȱ latterȱ becameȱ labeled “traditionalists.”ȱTheyȱareȱtheȱMuslimsȱwhoȱpracticeȱandȱfollow indigenousȱ beliefsȱ andȱ ritualsȱ asȱ longȱ asȱ theseȱ areȱ compatible withȱtheȱteachingsȱofȱIslam.ȱFollowersȱofȱthisȱtypeȱofȱIslamȱare nowadaysȱ associatedȱ withȱ theȱ Nahdlatulȱ Ulamaȱ (NU)ȱ moveȬ ment. Fastȱ forwardingȱ toȱ theȱ present,ȱ antiȬcolonialȱ discourses haveȱ beenȱ replacedȱ byȱ theȱ largerȱ categoryȱ ofȱ antiȬ“Western,” whereasȱtheȱdiscourseȱagainstȱChristianityȱhasȱtransformedȱinto multiȬlevelȱdiscussionsȱcomprisedȱof,ȱforȱexample,ȱtheȱissuesȱof mixedȱ marriages,ȱ antiȬWestern,ȱ andȱ antiȬmissionaryȱ topics. AdatȱlawsȱhaveȱbeenȱmoreȱorȱlessȱreplacedȱbyȱIndonesianȱlaws 7 ȱȱWhileȱresearchingȱthisȱpaper,ȱIȱwasȱinvitedȱtoȱbeȱaȱreaderȱofȱSally JaneȱWhite’sȱPh.D.ȱdissertationȱonȱReformistȱIslam:ȱGenderȱandȱMarriageȱin LateȱColonialȱDutchȱEastȱIndies,ȱ1900Ȭ1942ȱ(2004).ȱAsȱtheȱhistoricalȱmaterial producedȱbyȱMuhammadiyahȱandȱitsȱrelatedȱorganizationsȱsuchȱasȱthe women’sȱbranchȱ‘Aisyiyahȱȱformsȱaȱlimitedȱbodyȱofȱmaterial,ȱIȱnoticed thatȱmanyȱquotesȱinȱtheȱthesisȱoverlappedȱwithȱwhatȱIȱhadȱdiscoveredȱfor thisȱpaper.ȱHowever,ȱMs.ȱWhite’sȱanalysisȱgreatlyȱhelpedȱmeȱfocusȱon certainȱpointsȱthatȱMuhammadiyahȱconsideredȱespeciallyȱtoȱbeȱevil.ȱIȱam alsoȱgreatlyȱindebtedȱtoȱherȱmeticulousȱresearchȱofȱtheȱhistoricalȱsources.

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andȱhaveȱmovedȱtoȱtheȱareaȱofȱindigenousȱculture.ȱLocalȱbeliefs andȱ practicesȱ areȱ noȱ longerȱ consideredȱ toȱ beȱ destructiveȱ toȱ IsȬ lamȱbutȱstillȱsuspectedȱasȱbeingȱdestructiveȱtoȱtheȱeconomicȱand socialȱwellȬbeingȱofȱtheȱbelievers.ȱFinally,ȱtheȱwarȱofȱwordsȱwith NUȱMuslimsȱcontinuesȱtoȱbeȱwagedȱinȱsermons,ȱQur’anȱlessons andȱotherȱedifyingȱmoments.ȱInȱshort,ȱtheȱdiscussionsȱcoverȱall practices,ȱrules,ȱritualsȱandȱbeliefsȱthatȱgoȱagainstȱtheȱSunanȱof GodȱasȱformulatedȱbyȱMuhammadiyah.ȱInȱorderȱtoȱunderstand howȱ theȱ organizationȱ appliedȱ theseȱ philosophiesȱ inȱ itsȱ proȬ grams,ȱ itȱ isȱ instructiveȱ toȱ lookȱ backȱ atȱ eventsȱ fromȱ itsȱ earliest years. Colonial/ChristianȱRule:ȱImmorality “Immorality”ȱ wasȱ theȱ umbrellaȱ termȱ forȱ allȱ kindsȱ ofȱ vicesȱ that Muhammadiyahȱ condemnedȱ severely.ȱ Theseȱ included,ȱ forȱ exȬ ample,ȱ havingȱ aȱ concubine,ȱ committingȱ adultery,ȱ andȱ theȱ free mixingȱofȱsexes.ȱThisȱentireȱdebateȱconcerningȱimmoralityȱcenȬ tered,ȱ inȱ fact,ȱ onȱ theȱ positionȱ andȱ freedomȱ ofȱ women.ȱ During theȱ 1920sȱ andȱ 1930s,ȱ Muhammadiyahȱ journalsȱ discussedȱ at greatȱ lengthȱ whetherȱ orȱ notȱ womenȱ wereȱ allowedȱ toȱ cutȱ their hairȱ short,ȱ rideȱ bicycles,ȱ joinȱ theȱ girlsȱ scouts,ȱ orȱ participateȱ in sportsȱevents.8ȱNeitherȱtheȱ Qur’anȱnorȱtheȱhadithȱ(tradition)ȱreȬ ferredȱ toȱ theseȱ activitiesȱ andȱ Muslimsȱ ofȱ whateverȱ kindȱ pracȬ ticedȱsomeȱofȱthem.ȱAȱfatwaȱissuedȱbyȱNUȱinȱ1939ȱallowedȱthe NUȱNahdatoelȱFatatȱtoȱrideȱbikes,ȱwhereasȱreformistȱmenȱtried toȱ presentȱ argumentsȱ basedȱ onȱ healthȱ thatȱ proclaimedȱ women tooȱ weakȱ toȱ rideȱ bikesȱ orȱ thoughtȱ thatȱ theȱ virginityȱ ofȱ young girlsȱmightȱbeȱaffectedȱbyȱthisȱ(Hookerȱ2003:ȱ135). Upȱ untilȱ theȱ twentiethȱ century,ȱ Dutchȱ colonialȱ officialsȱ ofȬ tenȱlivedȱwithȱaȱconcubineȱwhomȱtheyȱseldomȱintendedȱtoȱmarȬ ry,ȱ asȱ inȱ manyȱ casesȱ theyȱ hadȱ aȱ wifeȱ atȱ home.ȱ Ofȱ course,ȱ this wasȱ deeplyȱ frownedȱ uponȱ byȱ Muhammadiyahȱ membersȱ since livingȱtogetherȱoutsideȱmaritalȱbondsȱwasȱconsideredȱdemeanȬ ingȱtoȱaȱwomanȱandȱconstitutedȱzina,ȱadultery,ȱwhichȱisȱaȱgreat infringementȱofȱIslamicȱlaw.ȱMoreover,ȱtheȱfactȱthatȱneitherȱthe concubineȱ norȱ herȱ childrenȱ hadȱ anyȱ rightsȱ to,ȱ forȱ example,ȱ inȬ

8

ȱȱSee,ȱe.g.,ȱtheȱarticlesȱin:ȱ“Pemandanganȱ‘Aisjijahȱ1928,”ȱandȱSoeara ‘Aisjijah,ȱno.ȱ7ȱ(Decemberȱ1927).

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heritanceȱ orȱ Dutchȱ benefitsȱ wasȱ aȱ greatȱ offence,ȱ especiallyȱ to Muhammadiyahȱ women.ȱ Althoughȱ theȱ practiceȱ hadȱ decreased byȱ theȱ 1930s,ȱ thisȱ formȱ ofȱ livingȱ togetherȱ wasȱ stillȱ avidlyȱ disȬ cussedȱ dueȱ toȱ aȱ newȱ marriageȱ ordinanceȱ inȱ 1937ȱ thatȱ was draftedȱ toȱ protectȱ Europeanȱ andȱ nativeȱ Christianȱ womenȱ who hadȱmarriedȱMuslimsȱfromȱpolygamyȱandȱtheȱIslamicȱunilateral talaqȱ divorce.9ȱ Moreover,ȱ theȱ ordinanceȱ touchedȱ uponȱ theȱ fact thatȱ thereȱ wereȱ mixedȱ marriages.ȱ Sinceȱ theȱ partnersȱ inȱ suchȱ a unionȱ hadȱ theȱ freedomȱ toȱ raiseȱ theirȱ childrenȱ inȱ eitherȱ faith, suchȱmaritalȱbondsȱcouldȱbeȱanȱinfringementȱonȱtheȱgrowthȱof Islamȱasȱwell. Takenȱ together,ȱ theȱ discoursesȱ concerningȱ behavior deemedȱinappropriateȱforȱMuslimȱwomenȱandȱconcerningȱconȬ cubinesȱ expressȱ grievancesȱ againstȱ Dutchȱ colonialȱ rule.ȱ The Dutchȱrodeȱonȱbikesȱandȱintroducedȱscouting,ȱmenȱandȱwomen dancedȱ togetherȱ andȱ hadȱ noȱ rulesȱ againstȱ mixingȱ freely.ȱ The marriageȱordinanceȱwentȱagainstȱIslamicȱinjunctionsȱthat,ȱbased onȱ theȱ Qur’an,ȱ allowȱ aȱ manȱ toȱ marryȱ upȱ toȱ fourȱ womenȱ and grantȱhimȱtheȱprivilegeȱofȱunilateralȱdivorce.ȱToȱaȱgreatȱextent, theȱmoralityȱdiscussionȱcameȱdownȱtoȱcreatingȱaȱclearȱreligious identityȱ andȱ aȱ divisionȱ betweenȱ “us”ȱ andȱ “them.”ȱ Asȱ M.B. Hookerȱ observedȱ inȱ theȱ contextȱ ofȱ theȱ discussionȱ concerning women’sȱ headȱ covering:ȱ “Inȱ otherȱ words,ȱ toȱ guardȱ aȱ personal moralityȱisȱtoȱbeȱaȱMuslimȱasȱdistinguishedȱfromȱaȱnonȬMuslim woman”ȱ(Hookerȱ2003:ȱ132).ȱOneȱofȱtheȱidealsȱatȱtheȱtimeȱheld byȱ nonȬMuslimȱ women’sȱ associationsȱ wasȱ aȱ unitedȱ Indonesia whereȱ menȱ andȱ womenȱ couldȱ socializeȱ freelyȱ whileȱ honoring theȱlimitsȱofȱsuchȱsocializationȱ(Blumbergerȱ1931:ȱ377).ȱȱ‘AisyiȬ yah,ȱ however,ȱ spentȱ muchȱ timeȱ andȱ energyȱ campaigning againstȱ itȱ asȱ itȱ consideredȱ freeȱ associationȱ toȱ beȱ amoralȱ behavȬ ior,ȱcontraryȱtoȱIslam.10ȱTakenȱallȱtogether,ȱtheseȱwereȱWestern,

9 ȱȱSinceȱ1882,ȱtheȱpenghulu,ȱreligiousȱofficialsȱwhoȱworkedȱwithinȱthe structureȱofȱtheȱMuslimȱcourts,ȱwereȱresponsibleȱforȱtheȱapplicationȱof Islamicȱlawȱinȱmattersȱofȱmarriage,ȱdivorceȱandȱinheritance.ȱInȱ1895,ȱthe Dutchȱgovernmentȱintroducedȱaȱmarriageȱordinanceȱthatȱtriedȱtoȱenforce thatȱdesignatedȱofficialsȱpresideȱatȱweddingȱceremonies,ȱandȱthatȱmarȬ riagesȱandȱdivorcesȱbeȱregistered. 10

ȱSee,ȱe.g.,ȱSoearaȱ‘Aisjijahȱ12ȱ(Decemberȱ1932):ȱ328,ȱandȱSikapȱTerȬ hadapȱLoearanȱ(AttitudeȱtowardsȱtheȱWorldȱOutside)ȱ(1940),ȱp.ȱ4Ȭ6.

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nonȬIslamicȱpracticesȱthatȱallȱcameȱdownȱtoȱ zina,ȱwhich,ȱinȱthe Muhammadiyahȱ view,ȱ continuesȱ toȱ representȱ theȱ rootsȱ ofȱ the destructionȱofȱtheȱmoralȱfabricȱofȱsociety.ȱȱMarriageȱwasȱandȱis consideredȱ toȱ beȱ theȱ antidoteȱ againstȱ thisȱ evilȱ andȱ theȱ coreȱ inȬ stitutionȱforȱprotectingȱMuslimsȱandȱtheirȱreligion. MarriageȱandȱtheȱHarmoniousȱFamily Theȱcoreȱofȱtheȱdiscussionsȱaboutȱimmoralȱbehaviorȱwasȱhowȱto applyȱGod’sȱsunanȱinȱsocietyȱandȱledȱMuhammadiyahȱtoȱfocus onȱ theȱ issueȱ ofȱ marriage,ȱ sinceȱ thisȱ providedȱ theȱ socialȱ unit withinȱ whichȱ Islamȱ wasȱ taught,ȱ protectedȱ orȱ destroyed.ȱ Dutch marriageȱlawsȱhadȱencroachedȱonȱMuslimȱpracticesȱandȱforced divorcesȱ andȱ marriagesȱ toȱ beȱ registeredȱ andȱ weddingsȱ hadȱ to beȱ performedȱ byȱ DutchȬapprovedȱ officials.11ȱ Theȱ Islamicȱ reȬ quirementȱforȱaȱvalidȱmarriageȱwasȱthatȱtheȱbrideȱhadȱgivenȱher consent,ȱ theȱ marriageȱ hadȱ takenȱ placeȱ inȱ theȱ presenceȱ ofȱ her guardianȱ orȱ wali,ȱ theȱ requiredȱ numberȱ ofȱ witnessesȱ wereȱ presȬ ent,ȱtheȱbrideȱpriceȱ(maskawin)ȱhadȱbeenȱpaid,ȱandȱtheȱijabȬkabul (offerȱandȱacceptance)ȱceremonyȱhadȱbeenȱperformed. Notȱ onlyȱ didȱ theȱ discussionȱ concernȱ theȱ requiredȱ rituals andȱ formalities,ȱ anȱ importantȱ aspectȱ ofȱ bringingȱ theȱ wedding ceremonyȱ intoȱ lineȱ withȱ Muhammadiyahȱ ethicsȱ wasȱ alsoȱ to transformȱ theȱ celebrationsȱ fromȱ elaborateȱ feastsȱ toȱ simple,ȱ fruȬ galȱgatherings.ȱEspeciallyȱtheȱwomenȱwereȱactivelyȱinvolvedȱin reducingȱexpenses;ȱnotȱonlyȱforȱweddingsȱbutȱforȱfuneralsȱand communityȱ festivitiesȱ asȱ well.12ȱ Moneyȱ thusȱ savedȱ couldȱ be usedȱ toȱ buildȱ theȱ primeȱ symbolsȱ ofȱ Muhammadiyahȱ presence inȱ communitiesȱ startingȱ withȱ kindergartensȱ andȱ followedȱ by clinicsȱandȱhospitals.ȱMedicalȱfacilitiesȱwereȱaȱpowerfulȱtoolȱto transmitȱreformistȱIslam.ȱForȱexample,ȱchildrenȱbornȱthereȱwere notȱ hailedȱ intoȱ thisȱ worldȱ underȱ theȱ pronouncementȱ ofȱ anȱ inȬ digenousȱ formulaȱ toȱ wardȱ offȱ evil,ȱ butȱ theȱ firstȱ wordsȱ whisȬ peredȱ inȱ theirȱ earsȱ wereȱ theȱ shahada,ȱ theȱ Islamicȱ confessionȱ of faith.

11

ȱForȱaȱcomprehensiveȱdescriptionȱofȱtheȱmarriageȱdebateȱseeȱWhite 2004:ȱch.ȱ4,ȱ“AȱReformistȱAgendaȱonȱMarriageȱLaw.” 12

ȱȱSeeȱtheȱarticleȱonȱtheȱ“’AisjijahȱReception”ȱinȱSoearaȱ‘Aisjijah,ȱno. 7Ȭ9ȱ(JulyȬSeptemberȱ1939).

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Theȱ discussionȱ onȱ marriageȱ constitutedȱ notȱ onlyȱ anȱ actȱ of resistanceȱ againstȱ Dutch/Christianȱ interferenceȱ butȱ wasȱ alsoȱ a frontalȱattackȱonȱtraditionalistȱMuslims.ȱEspeciallyȱinȱtheȱcircles ofȱ Qur’anȱ schoolsȱ (pesantren)ȱ traditionalistȱ Muslimsȱ didȱ not— andȱ sometimesȱ stillȱ doȱ not—allowȱ theirȱ childrenȱ toȱ chooseȱ a marriageȱpartnerȱfreely,ȱandȱchildȱmarriageȱwasȱnotȱunusualȱ(in principle,ȱ Islamicȱ lawȱ doesȱ notȱ giveȱ aȱ minimumȱ ageȱ forȱ marȬ riage).ȱ Havingȱpositionedȱitselfȱbyȱchoosingȱmarriageȱasȱoneȱofȱthe mainȱlynchpinsȱforȱitsȱeffortsȱtoȱconvertȱIndonesianȱMuslimsȱto reformistȱ Islam,ȱ Muhammadiyahȱ hadȱ toȱ comeȱ toȱ termsȱ with severalȱ contradictions.ȱ Inȱ theȱ contextȱ ofȱ theȱ Muslimȱ marriage, modernizingȱ meantȱ eliminatingȱ theȱ engagementȱ phaseȱ asȱ this couldȱ onlyȱ leadȱ toȱ theȱ sinȱ ofȱ premaritalȱ sex.ȱ Itȱ alsoȱ meantȱ reȬ turningȱtoȱtheȱIslamicȱinjunctionsȱthatȱincludedȱpolygamy,ȱchild marriageȱ andȱ unilateralȱ repudiation.ȱ Variousȱ Indonesianȱ woȬ men’sȱassociationsȱhadȱlobbiedȱpreciselyȱagainstȱtheseȱpractices. Inȱ 1928,ȱ 600ȱ womenȱ representingȱ thirtyȱ women’sȱ associations metȱ inȱ Yogyakartaȱ forȱ aȱ nationalȱ congressȱ whoseȱ mainȱ points onȱ theȱ agendaȱ wereȱ educationȱ andȱ marriage.ȱ Hereȱ theȱ differȬ encesȱbetweenȱtheȱreformistȱagendaȱandȱtheȱsecularȬnationalist aspirationsȱcameȱtoȱtheȱfore.ȱWhileȱtheȱmajorityȱofȱtheȱcongress sawȱpolygamyȱasȱaȱgreatȱevilȱthatȱdestroyedȱwomen’sȱlives,ȱSiti Moendjiah,ȱ oneȱ ofȱ theȱ ‘Aisyiyahȱ representatives,ȱ defendedȱ the practiceȱ withȱ greatȱ fervor.ȱ Inȱ herȱ view,ȱ itȱ preventedȱ menȱ from havingȱextramaritalȱaffairsȱandȱwomenȱwithȱnoȱhusbandsȱfrom turningȱtoȱprostitutionȱ(Blumbergerȱ1931:ȱ376Ȭ77;ȱseeȱalsoȱVreeȬ deȬdeȱStuersȱ1960:ȱch.ȱ6). VestingȱitsȱhopesȱforȱtheȱspreadȱofȱitsȱIslamicȱvisionȱonȱthe family,ȱ however,ȱ Muhammadiyahȱ membersȱ realizedȱ thatȱ the practiceȱofȱpolygamyȱwasȱcounterproductiveȱtoȱitsȱagendaȱtoȱIsȬ lamizeȱ society.ȱ Theȱ organizationȱ encouragedȱ womenȱ toȱ study andȱ toȱ becomeȱ leadersȱ ofȱ Islam.ȱ Extensiveȱ discussionsȱ were heldȱonȱwhetherȱorȱnotȱwomenȱwereȱallowedȱtoȱtravelȱbyȱthemȬ selvesȱ withoutȱ theirȱ mahramȱ orȱ maleȱ guardian.ȱ Dutchȱ lawȱ proȬ tectedȱ themȱ againstȱ theȱ practiceȱ ofȱ havingȱ moreȱ thanȱ oneȱ wife andȱ Muhammadiyahȱ membersȱ wereȱ awareȱ ofȱ polygamy’sȱ deȬ trimentalȱ effectsȱ onȱ theȱ familyȱ andȱ onȱ women.ȱ Polygamyȱ selȬ domȱimpliedȱfreeȱchoice,ȱandȱoftenȱledȱfamiliesȱintoȱpoverty—a viceȱ Muhammadiyahȱ battledȱ byȱ instillingȱ theȱ virtueȱ ofȱ frugalȬ

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ity.ȱNaturally,ȱtheȱdiscussionȱonȱtheseȱtopicsȱwentȱroundȱinȱcirȬ clesȱ asȱ theȱ authorityȱ ofȱ theȱ Qur’anicȱ textsȱ condoningȱ theȱ pracȬ ticesȱcouldȱnotȱbeȱdiminished. TheȱHarmoniousȱFamilyȱModel13 Inȱspiteȱofȱtheȱmanyȱcontradictoryȱdiscussions,ȱMuhammadiyah membersȱhadȱtoȱfocusȱonȱtheirȱultimateȱgoal:ȱtoȱapplyȱtheȱsunan ofȱ Godȱ andȱ beȱ differentȱ fromȱ traditionalistȱ Muslims.ȱ Thisȱ disȬ cussionȱnecessarilyȱcontinuedȱafterȱindependenceȱandȱledȱtoȱthe birthȱofȱtheȱsoȬcalledȱkeluargaȱsakina,ȱorȱ“harmoniousȱfamilyȱproȬ gram.”ȱ Theȱ conceptȱ ofȱ thisȱ familyȱ wasȱ launchedȱ officiallyȱ in 1985ȱandȱitȱdescribedȱhowȱaȱgoodȱMuslimȱfamilyȱoperated.ȱThis includedȱ topicsȱ suchȱ asȱ theȱ properȱ Islamicȱ wayȱ ofȱ choosingȱ a partner,ȱasȱwellȱasȱtheȱdutiesȱofȱhusbandȱandȱwifeȱtowardsȱtheir children,ȱ towardsȱ theirȱ parentsȱ andȱ towardsȱ eachȱ other.ȱ The idealȱ emergedȱ thatȱ byȱ worshipingȱ togetherȱ andȱ byȱ following theȱIslamicȱlegalȱrulesȱconcerningȱrightsȱandȱdutiesȱofȱtheȱspouȬ ses,ȱtheȱhusbandȱandȱwifeȱstrengthenedȱandȱimprovedȱtheirȱreȬ lationship.ȱTheyȱnoȱlongerȱperformedȱJavaneseȱceremonies,ȱbut theyȱdidȱperformȱtheȱfiveȱdailyȱprayers,ȱreadȱtheȱQur’anȱtogethȬ erȱ andȱ attendedȱ Qur’anȱ studiesȱ (pengajian)ȱ frequently,ȱ greeting eachȱotherȱwithȱtheȱArabicȱassalamuȱ‘alaykum,ȱi.e.ȱ“peaceȱbeȱupȬ onȱyou.”14 FollowingȱthisȱfamilyȱmodelȱpreventsȱvariousȱsinsȱthatȱMuȬ hammadiyahȱidentifiedȱasȱobstructingȱtheȱapplicationȱofȱGod’s sunan.ȱItȱkeepsȱoutȱWesternȱinfluencesȱsuchȱasȱthoseȱdescribed inȱaȱsermonȱdeliveredȱbyȱaȱfemaleȱMuhammadiyahȱpreacherȱin 1998: Nowadays,ȱwomenȱcanȱjustȱgetȱanyȱman;ȱinȱJakartaȱthereȱare richȱwomenȱwhoȱoverwhelmȱmenȱwithȱtheirȱpossessionsȱ… theȱ poorȱ boysȱ ...ȱ theyȱ startȱ toȱ thinkȱ thatȱ moneyȱ isȱ goodȱ for everything.ȱ Thisȱ isȱ theȱ wayȱ ofȱ thinkingȱ ofȱ peopleȱ fromȱ the

13

ȱForȱaȱelaborateȱdiscussionȱofȱtheȱharmoniousȱfamilyȱmodel,ȱsee vanȱDoornȬHarderȱ2006:ȱ114Ȭ24. 14

ȱ ȱ Seeȱ Indikatorȱ Keluargaȱ Sakinahȱ (Aȱ checklistȱ forȱ theȱ harmonious family)ȱ(Yogyakarta,ȱPPȱ‘AisyiyahȱBagianȱTabligh,ȱ1993).ȱThisȱisȱaȱcheck listȱtoȱhelpȱ‘AisyiyahȱpreachersȱidentifyȱfamiliesȱthatȱhaveȱnotȱyetȱreachȬ edȱallȱtheȱelementsȱofȱtheȱharmoniousȱfamily.

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eraȱ ofȱ globalizationȱ …ȱ theyȱ doȱ notȱ careȱ aboutȱ moralsȱ any longerȱ ...ȱ theyȱ goȱ toȱ theȱ localȱ hospitalȱ toȱ “buyȱ sperm”ȱ .… Theyȱ seeȱ noȱ objectionsȱ inȱ drinkingȱ alcohol,ȱ oneȱ beer,ȱ two beers,ȱthreeȱbeers,ȱwhatȱarisesȱisȱaȱspiritȱofȱbeerȱ[notȱofȱreliȬ gion].15

Theȱ harmoniousȱ familyȱ modelȱ notȱ onlyȱ protectsȱ itsȱ members, especiallyȱ women;ȱ itȱ alsoȱ rendersȱ impossibleȱ relationshipsȱ that haveȱ becomeȱ popularȱ amongȱ universityȱ studentsȱ sinceȱ the 1980s.ȱInfluencedȱbyȱpracticesȱfromȱtheȱMiddleȱEast,ȱyoungȱcouȬ plesȱ whoȱ wantȱ toȱ haveȱ anȱ engagementȱ periodȱ moreȱ orȱ less withoutȱbeingȱconsideredȱsinfulȱchooseȱtoȱ“legalize”ȱtheirȱsexuȬ alȱ relationshipȱ viaȱ aȱ secretȱ marriageȱ contractȱ (kawinȱ sirri)ȱ or temporaryȱ marriageȱ (mut`a).ȱ Theyȱ doȱ thisȱ toȱ preventȱ commitȬ tingȱfornicationȱ(zina)ȱ(FathuriȱSRȱ2004:ȱ32),ȱandȱsometimesȱjust pledgeȱ toȱ eachȱ otherȱ thatȱ theyȱ areȱ marriedȱ “withȱ onlyȱ Godȱ as witness”ȱ (Manshurȱ etȱ al.ȱ 2004:ȱ 22;ȱ seeȱ alsoȱ vanȱ DoornȬHarder 2006:ȱ 103).ȱ Theseȱ contractsȱ areȱ evil,ȱ accordingȱ toȱ MuhammadȬ iyahȱ ideology,ȱ becauseȱ theyȱ areȱ notȱ inȱ accordanceȱ withȱ official Islamicȱ rules:ȱ theyȱ areȱ neitherȱ registeredȱ officiallyȱ atȱ theȱ local OfficeȱforȱReligiousȱAffairsȱnorȱpubliclyȱannounced.ȱApartȱfrom that,ȱ theȱ womenȱ involvedȱ haveȱ noȱ rightsȱ andȱ canȱ evenȱ be harmed.ȱAsȱIbuȱUswatun,ȱaȱfemaleȱMuhammadiyahȱleaderȱexȬ pressedȱitȱinȱanȱinterviewȱonȱMayȱ29,ȱ1998:ȱ“Whatȱifȱheȱleaves herȱwithoutȱaȱtrace?ȱWhatȱifȱsheȱgetsȱpregnant?” Theȱ harmoniousȱ familyȱ modelȱ thusȱ helpsȱ defineȱ whatȱ is sinfulȱ andȱ whatȱ isȱ not.ȱ Itȱ isȱ aȱ toolȱ ofȱ Islamicȱ propagation,ȱ proȬ motesȱ frugalityȱ andȱ inȱ factȱ preventsȱ menȱ fromȱ havingȱ more thanȱoneȱspouseȱevenȱthoughȱpolygamyȱcanȱneverȱbeȱidentified asȱaȱsin.ȱHowever,ȱitsȱrepercussionsȱcanȱbeȱsinful.ȱTheȱfamilyȱis theȱ primaryȱ unitȱ ofȱ theȱ Muhammadiyahȱ organizationȱ where futureȱleadersȱareȱcultivatedȱandȱwhereȱtheyȱlearnȱproperȱMuȬ hammadiyahȱ behavior.ȱ Asȱ theȱ variousȱ vicesȱ ofȱ societyȱ were subduedȱ andȱ reformistȱ Islamȱ spreadȱ throughoutȱ Indonesia, God’sȱsunanȱinȱsocietyȱstartedȱtoȱcoincideȱsomehowȱwithȱHisȱsuȬ nanȱ withinȱ theȱ organization.ȱ Notȱ showingȱ upȱ atȱ meetings,ȱ not

15 ȱSermonȱIbuȱUswatun,ȱJanuaryȱ11,ȱ1998,ȱatȱ4:00ȱa.m.ȱinȱtheȱprayer houseȱforȱwomenȱinȱtheȱKauman,ȱandȱatȱ8:00ȱa.m.ȱinȱaȱcommunityȱhall inȱKotaȱGede.ȱCf.ȱvanȱDoornȬHarderȱ2006:ȱ98.

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holdingȱ meetingsȱ atȱ all,ȱ notȱ donatingȱ one’sȱ moneyȱ forȱ the growthȱ ofȱ theȱ movement,ȱ andȱ notȱ followingȱ theȱ ideasȱ ofȱ its foundingȱ fathers,ȱ becameȱ justȱ asȱ evilȱ asȱ dancingȱ andȱ cutting one’sȱhairȱshortȱhadȱbeenȱatȱtheȱbeginningȱofȱtheȱtwentiethȱcenȬ turyȱ(see,ȱe.g.,ȱMansoerȱn.d.). Conclusion:ȱEvilȱinȱtheȱPostȬȱSuhartoȱEra BeforeȱtheȱSuhartoȱgovernmentȱfell,ȱsocialȱevilsȱmentionedȱregȬ ularlyȱinȱMuhammadiyahȱwritingsȱandȱsermonsȱseemedȱeasyȱto define.ȱ Theyȱ wereȱ basedȱ onȱ historicalȱ experienceȱ andȱ received definiteȱ shapeȱ visȬàȬvisȱ Western/Christianȱ moralsȱ andȱ influȬ ences.ȱReligiousȱevilȱalsoȱcameȱfromȱtheȱtraditionalistȱMuslims whoȱupheldȱritualsȱandȱpursuedȱreligiousȱexperiencesȱthatȱwere consideredȱagainstȱtheȱproperȱIslamicȱteachingsȱorȱagainstȱMuȬ hammadiiyahȱ puritanicalȱ interpretationsȱ ofȱ theȱ worshipȱ rules. Indigenousȱ ritualsȱ andȱ beliefsȱ wereȱ notȱ soȱ muchȱ aȱ problemȱ as longȱasȱtheyȱwereȱnotȱpracticedȱbyȱMuslims,ȱi.e.ȱtraditionalists. IndonesiansȱwhoȱhadȱnotȱyetȱconvertedȱtoȱIslamȱwouldȱinȱtime beȱwonȱoverȱbyȱpowerfulȱpreachingȱandȱlogicalȱreasoningȱthat madeȱthemȱacceptȱtheȱobviousȱtruthȱofȱtheȱIslamicȱmessage. DuringȱtheȱSuhartoȱera,ȱhowever,ȱMuhammadiyahȱwasȱnot theȱ onlyȱ groupȱ thatȱ highlightedȱ Western/Christianȱ evils.ȱ The latterȱwereȱalsoȱtheȱtargetȱofȱacidicȱattacksȱbyȱextremistȬminded groupsȱsuchȱasȱDewanȱDakwahȱIslamiyah.ȱTheseȱgroupsȱoperȬ atedȱmostlyȱviaȱpublicationsȱthatȱbrokeredȱradicalȱWahhabiȱand Muslimȱ Brotherhoodȱ ideasȱ fromȱ theȱ Middleȱ East.ȱ Apartȱ from threatsȱ fromȱ theȱ West,ȱ theyȱ alsoȱ brandedȱ Islamicȱ movements thatȱsupportedȱtheȱemancipationȱofȱwomenȱandȱreligiousȱplurȬ alismȱasȱevil.ȱPartsȱofȱtheȱMuhammadiyahȱmembershipȱagreed wholeheartedlyȱ withȱ theseȱ trendsȱ ofȱ thinking;ȱ theȱ majority, however,ȱremainedȱmoderate. Theseȱ extremistȱ patternsȱ ofȱ thinkingȱ haveȱ nowȱ become problematicȱ forȱ Muhammadiyahȱ inȱ theȱ postȬSuhartoȱ era.ȱ Its membersȱhadȱworkedȱtirelesslyȱforȱnearlyȱoneȱcenturyȱtoȱmake IslamȱaȱforceȱthatȱcarriedȱIndonesianȱsocietyȱandȱplayedȱaȱsigniȬ ficantȱroleȱinȱrulingȱit.ȱAfterȱtheȱfallȱofȱSuharto,ȱMuhammadiyah leaderȱAmienȱRaisȱbecameȱtheȱSpeakerȱofȱParliamentȱandȱmany otherȱmembersȱroseȱtoȱleadershipȱpositionsȱwithinȱtheȱnewȱgovȬ ernments.ȱThereȱwasȱmuchȱtoȱlookȱbackȱonȱwithȱgreatȱsatisfacȬ tionȱ afterȱ nearlyȱ aȱ centuryȱ ofȱ reformistȱ activismȱ andȱ religious

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education.ȱTheȱmissionȱtoȱtransformȱIslamȱfromȱaȱbeliefȱsystem saturatedȱ withȱ localȱ practicesȱ intoȱ aȱ forceȱ forȱ societalȱ change hadȱ succeededȱ inȱ unprecedentedȱ ways.ȱ However,ȱ theȱ vision hadȱ beenȱ toȱ transformȱ societyȱ graduallyȱ andȱ notȱ byȱ force,ȱ as thisȱwouldȱbeȱcounterproductive.ȱ TheȱmethodȱofȱtransformingȱsocietyȱbyȱfocusingȱonȱmoralȬ ityȱandȱtheȱnuclearȱfamilyȱinitiallyȱwasȱveryȱsuccessfulȱbutȱhas nowȱlandedȱMuhammadiyahȱinȱaȱpermanentȱstateȱofȱcontradicȬ tionȱsinceȱtheȱsunanȱofȱGodȱenvisionedȱbyȱMuhammadiyah,ȱalȬ thoughȱ notȱ identicalȱ toȱ it,ȱ isȱ stillȱ closeȱ toȱ theȱ sunanȱ envisioned byȱ theȱ extremistȱ groups.ȱ Viaȱ myriadȱ booklets,ȱ theseȱ advocate viewsȱ thatȱ concernȱ womenȱ especially:ȱ polygamy,ȱ fullȱ veiling, andȱ temporaryȱ marriages—practicesȱ thatȱ Muhammadiyahȱ had moreȱ orȱ lessȱ hadȱ reasonedȱ awayȱ outȱ itsȱ wayȱ ofȱ thinking.ȱ ȱ ExȬ tremistsȱdemandȱthatȱwomenȱstayȱinside,ȱtravelȱonlyȱwithȱtheir maleȱguardian,ȱandȱrefrainȱfromȱaddressingȱmenȱinȱpublic. Forȱ Muhammadiyahȱ womenȱ especially,ȱ theseȱ practicesȱ reȬ presentȱ aȱ reversalȱ ofȱ theȱ religiousȱ rightsȱ whichȱ theyȱ struggled forȱ decadesȱ toȱ achieve.ȱ Toȱ counterȱ theȱ extremistȱ monologues, Muhammadiyahȱ membersȱ haveȱ toȱ reinventȱ theirȱ ownȱ disȬ courses.ȱ Onȱ theȱ politicalȱ level,ȱ theyȱ tryȱ toȱ satisfyȱ theȱ extremist demandsȱbyȱapprovingȱtheȱmoralityȱlawsȱwhileȱinsertingȱclausȬ esȱtoȱdecreaseȱtheirȱrigidity.ȱTheseȱmoves,ȱhowever,ȱrevealȱthat theȱ Muhammadiyahȱ religiousȱ frameȱ ofȱ referenceȱ hasȱ widened andȱhasȱbecomeȱdeeplyȱengrainedȱwithinȱIndonesianȱsociety.ȱIts frameȱofȱthinkingȱaboutȱevilȱhasȱshiftedȱvisȬàȬvisȱthatȱofȱextremȬ istsȱwhoseȱrigidȱideasȱderiveȱmostlyȱfromȱbarrenȱdesertsȱinȱSauȬ diȱArabia. Muhammadiyah’sȱ conundrumȱ isȱ thatȱ theȱ averageȱ IndoneȬ sianȱ Muslimȱ doesȱ notȱ seeȱ muchȱ differenceȱ betweenȱ theȱ moralȬ isticȱMuhammadiyahȱideasȱandȱthoseȱofȱextremists.ȱThisȱconfuȬ sionȱemergedȱduringȱtheȱpastȱelections,ȱforȱexample,ȱwhenȱthe MuhammadiyahȬbasedȱ PANȱ Partyȱ (Partaiȱ Amanatȱ Nasional; Nationalȱ Mandateȱ Party)ȱ wonȱ 52ȱ seatsȱ inȱ Parliament,ȱ whereas theȱ extremistȱ PKSȱ Partyȱ (Partaiȱ Keadilandȱ Sejahterah)ȱ wonȱ 45 seats.ȱPKSȱaimsȱatȱformingȱanȱIslamicȱsocietyȱbasedȱonȱtheȱmodȬ elȱ ofȱ theȱ firstȱ Muslimȱ communityȱ thatȱ emergedȱ inȱ Medinaȱ unȬ derȱtheȱleadershipȱofȱtheȱProphetȱMuhammedȱ(Nakamuraȱ2005: 35). Viewedȱfromȱtheȱoutside,ȱallȱthatȱseemsȱtoȱdivideȱMuhamȬ madiyahȱfromȱtheȱextremistȱgroupsȱisȱthatȱtheȱlatterȱdoȱnotȱyet

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endorseȱ theȱ notionȱ ofȱ theȱ harmoniousȱ familyȱ andȱ doȱ notȱ have womenȱleaders.ȱMoreover,ȱtheyȱdoȱnotȱcareȱifȱtheȱMuhammadiȬ yahȱideologyȱisȱspreadȱorȱnot—andȱthat,ȱtoȱMuhammadiyah,ȱis theȱultimateȱevil. Bibliography AisyiyahȱBagianȱTablighȱ(ed.).ȱ(1993).ȱIndikatorȱKeluargaȱSakinah.ȱYogȬ yakarta:ȱPPȱ‘AisyiyahȱBagianȱTabligh. AlȬGhazali,ȱMuhammad.ȱ(1997).ȱ“TheȱProblemȱofȱEvil:ȱAnȱIslamicȱApȬ proach.”ȱIn:ȱWilliamȱCenkerȱ(ed.).ȱ(1997).ȱEvilȱandȱtheȱResponseȱof WorldȱReligion.ȱSt.ȱPaul:ȱParagonȱHouse.ȱPp.ȱ70Ȭ79. Ali,ȱ Abdullahȱ Yusuf.ȱ (1991).ȱ Theȱ Meaningȱ ofȱ theȱ Holyȱ Qur’¬n.ȱ BrentȬ wood:ȱAmanaȱCorporation. Antes,ȱPeter.ȱ“TheȱFistȱAs’arites’ȱConceptionȱofȱEvilȱandȱtheȱDevil.”ȱIn: Seyyedȱ Hosseinȱ Nasrȱ (ed.).ȱ (1977).ȱ MéLangesȱ offertsȱ àȱ Henryȱ CorȬ bin.ȱTehran:ȱMcGillȱUniversity,ȱMcGillȱBranch. Aslan,ȱAdnan.ȱ(2001).ȱ“TheȱFallȱandȱtheȱOvercomingȱofȱEvilȱandȱSufȬ feringȱinȱIslam.”ȱIn:ȱPeterȱKoslowskiȱ(ed.).ȱTheȱOriginȱandȱtheȱOvȬ ercomingȱ ofȱ Evilȱ andȱ Sufferingȱ inȱ theȱ Worldȱ Religions.ȱ Dordrechtȱ et al.:ȱKluwerȱAcademicȱPublishers. Blumberger,ȱ Petrusȱ J.T.ȱ (1931).ȱ Deȱ Nationalistischeȱ Bewegingȱ inȱ NederȬ landschȬIndie.ȱHaarlem:ȱH.D.ȱTjeenkȱWillinkȱ&ȱSons. Cenker,ȱWilliamȱ(ed.).ȱ(1997).ȱEvilȱandȱtheȱResponseȱofȱWorldȱReligion.ȱSt. Paul:ȱParagonȱHouse. Fathuri,ȱS.R.ȱ(2004).ȱ“AntaraȱAkadȱdanȱBersetubuh.”ȱSyri’ahȱIV/30:ȱ32Ȭ 33. Hassan,ȱRiffat.ȱ(1997).ȱ“Feministȱ TheologyȱasȱaȱMeansȱofȱCombatting Injusticeȱ towardȱ Womenȱ inȱ Muslimȱ Communitiesȱ andȱ Culture.” In:ȱ Williamȱ Cenkerȱ (ed.).ȱ (1997).ȱ Evilȱ andȱ theȱ Responseȱ ofȱ World Religion.ȱSt.ȱPaul:ȱParagonȱHouse.ȱPp.ȱ80Ȭ98. Hooker,ȱM.B.ȱ(2003).ȱIndonesianȱIslam.ȱSocialȱChangesȱthroughȱContempȬ oraryȱFatawa.ȱHonolulu:ȱUniversityȱofȱHawai’iȱPress. Koslowski,ȱPeterȱ(ed.).ȱ(2001).ȱTheȱOriginȱandȱtheȱOvercomingȱofȱEvilȱand SufferingȱinȱtheȱWorldȱReligions.ȱDordrechtȱetȱal.:ȱKluwerȱAcademic Publishers. Manshur,ȱHadiȱetȱal.ȱ(2004).ȱ“TerpuruknyaȱIman.”ȱSyir’ahȱIV/30ȱ(May): 22Ȭ23. Mansoer,ȱK.H.M.ȱ(n.d.).ȱ12ȱTafsirȱLangkahȱMuhammadiyah.ȱYogyakarta: PPȱMuhammadiyah,ȱMajlisȱTabligh.

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Nakamura,ȱ Mitsuo.ȱ (2005).ȱ Islamȱ andȱ Democracyȱ inȱ Indonesia:ȱ ObservaȬ tionsȱ onȱ theȱ 2004ȱ Generalȱ andȱ Presidentialȱ Elections.ȱ Cambridge:ȱ IsȬ lamicȱLegalȱStudiesȱProgramȱHarvardȱLawȱSchool. Nasr,ȱ Seyyedȱ Hosseinȱ (ed.).ȱ (1977).ȱ Mélangesȱ offertsȱ àȱ Henryȱ Corbin. Tehran:ȱMcGillȱUniversity,ȱMcGillȱBranch. Neiman,ȱ Susan.ȱ (2004).ȱ Evilȱ inȱ Modernȱ Thought.ȱ Princeton/Oxford: PrincetonȱUniversityȱPress. Noer,ȱDeliar.ȱ(1973).ȱTheȱModernistȱMuslimȱMovementȱinȱIndonesiaȱ1900Ȭ 1942.ȱOxfordȱinȱAsia:ȱOxfordȱUniversityȱPress. Salim,ȱArskalȱandȱAzyumardiȱAzraȱ(eds).ȱ(2003).ȱShari’aȱandȱPoliticsȱin ModernȱIndonesia.ȱSingapore:ȱISEAS. SikapȱTerhadapȱLoearan.ȱ(1940).ȱPublishedȱbyȱtheȱjournalȱSoearaȱ‘Aisjijah. Spronk,ȱ Annemiek.ȱ (2004).ȱ “Ikȱ zoekȱ mijnȱ toevluchtȱ bijȱ God,ȱ wegȱ van deȱ vervloekteȱ satan.ȱ Overȱ deȱ islamitischeȱ visieȱ opȱ hetȱ kwaad.” UnpublishedȱMAȱthesis.ȱAmsterdam:ȱVrijeȱUniversiteit. Vanȱ DoornȬHarder,ȱ Pieternella.ȱ (2006).ȱ Womenȱ Shapingȱ Islam:ȱ IndoneȬ sianȱWomenȱReadingȱtheȱQur’an.ȱUrbana/Chicago:ȱUniversityȱofȱIlȬ linoisȱPress. VanȱNispenȱtotȱSevenaer,ȱChristian.ȱ(1996).ȱActivitéȱHumaineȱetȱAgirȱde Dieu.ȱLeȱConceptȱdeȱ‘SunanȱdeȱDieu’ȱdansȱleȱcommentaireȱcoraniqueȱdu Man¬r.ȱBeirut:ȱDarȱelȬMachreqȱSarlȱEditors. VreedeȬdeȱ Stuers,ȱ Cora.ȱ (1960).ȱ Theȱ Indonesianȱ Woman:ȱ Strugglesȱ and Achievements.ȱ‘sȬGravenhage:ȱMouton. White,ȱ Sallyȱ Jane.ȱ (2004).ȱ Reformistȱ Islam,ȱ Genderȱ andȱ Marriageȱ inȱ Late ColonialȱDutchȱEastȱIndies,ȱ1900Ȭ1942.ȱUnpublishedȱPh.D.ȱdissertaȬ tion.ȱCanberra:ȱAustralianȱNationalȱUniversity.

BeyondȱUjamaa AfricanȱReligionȱandȱSocietalȱEvil FransȱWijsen

Abstract Inȱourȱpresentȱglobalizedȱworld,ȱpeopleȱinȱlargeȱareasȱofȱAfricaȱstillȱlackȱsusȬ tainableȱincomes,ȱandȱsufferȱfromȱlowȱlifeȱexpectancyȱandȱexplodingȱpoverty. ThereȱareȱheatedȱdebatesȱbetweenȱEuropeanȱandȱAfricanȱscholars,ȱandȱamong Africansȱthemselvesȱonȱtheȱcausesȱofȱtheseȱconditions.ȱTheȱdominantȱtrendȱin theseȱ debatesȱ isȱ toȱ blameȱ theȱ Westȱ forȱ allȱ pastȱ andȱ presentȱ evilsȱ inȱ Africa: slavery,ȱ colonialism,ȱ andȱ neoȬliberalism.ȱ Asȱ aȱ solutionȱ toȱ theȱ continent’s problems,ȱ variousȱ Africanȱ scholarsȱ advocateȱ beginningȱ anȱ Africanȱ RenaisȬ sanceȱbyȱreturningȱtoȱtheȱtraditionalȱAfricanȱcommunityȱspirit,ȱcalledȱubunȬ tuȱ inȱ Southȱ Africaȱ orȱ ujamaaȱ inȱ Tanzania.ȱ Whetherȱ thisȱ elusiveȱ African spiritȱisȱstillȱpresentȱandȱifȱitȱeverȱexistedȱatȱall—orȱifȱitȱisȱinherentlyȱpeaceȬ ful,ȱasȱitsȱadvocatesȱsuggest—isȱunclear.ȱInȱAfrica,ȱcommunitiesȱareȱnotȱonly socialȱ butȱ spiritualȱ realitiesȱ asȱ well,ȱ creatingȱ aȱ strongȱ senseȱ ofȱ unity.ȱ The flipsideȱofȱthisȱworldviewȱisȱthatȱitȱcanȱleadȱtoȱauthoritarianȱandȱtotalitarian regimes,ȱtheȱsuppressionȱofȱindividualȱfreedomȱandȱofȱindustriousȱcreativity. Thisȱ paperȱ weighsȱ theȱ goodȱ andȱ badȱ sidesȱ ofȱ theȱ possibleȱ rehabilitationȱ of Africanȱreligions.

OnceȱuponȱaȱtimeȱinȱAfrica,ȱweȱpaidȱnoȱtaxes,ȱthereȱwasȱno crime,ȱthereȱwasȱnoȱpolice,ȱthereȱwasȱnoȱinflation,ȱthereȱwas noȱunemployment,ȱmenȱdidȱnotȱbeatȱorȱdivorceȱtheirȱwives, thenȱtheȱwhiteȱmenȱcameȱtoȱimproveȱthings!ȱ Nangoliȱ1986:ȱ18

Introduction AtȱanȱinternationalȱconferenceȱonȱmarginalizationȱinȱAfrica,ȱthe TanzanianȱtheologianȱLaurentiȱMagesaȱobserved:ȱ

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FRANSȱWIJSEN Anȱ alienated,ȱ exploited,ȱ poor,ȱ illiterate,ȱ unjust,ȱ malnourȬ ishedȱsituationȱwasȱwhatȱtheȱstruggleȱforȱpoliticalȱindependȬ enceȱ wasȱ wagedȱ toȱ overcome.ȱ Thatȱ wasȱ whyȱ itȱ gainedȱ so muchȱ massȱ supportȱ fromȱ peopleȱ tiredȱ ofȱ beingȱ degraded andȱ dehumanisedȱ byȱ systemsȱ ofȱ oppressionȱ thenȱ inȱ place throughoutȱ theȱ continent,ȱ andȱ hopingȱ forȱ aȱ restorationȱ of theirȱ dignityȱ andȱ identityȱ asȱ Africans.ȱ Yet,ȱ fortyȱ yearsȱ later weȱseemȱtoȱhaveȱmore,ȱnotȱless,ȱofȱtheseȱcalamities.ȱ(Magesa 2002:ȱ27)

ForȱMagesaȱandȱotherȱAfricanȱtheologians,ȱtheȱquestionȱofȱwhy Africaȱ isȱ inȱ suchȱ direȱ straitsȱ isȱ easyȱ toȱ answer.ȱ Whileȱ awareȱ of allȱ theȱ complexities,ȱ theyȱ maintainȱ thatȱ theȱ causesȱ areȱ alienaȬ tion,ȱ anthropologicalȱ povertyȱ andȱ culturalȱ death,ȱ which,ȱ in turn,ȱ areȱ consequencesȱ ofȱ Europeanȱ expansionȱ intoȱ Africaȱ via colonizationȱ andȱ Christianization.ȱ Givenȱ thisȱ diagnosis,ȱ the cureȱisȱclear: TheȱwayȱtoȱsocialȱharmonyȱandȱpeacefulȱcoȬexistenceȱliesȱin goingȱbackȱtoȱourȱAfricanȱpastȱandȱemulatingȱtheȱrichȱtreasures andȱpreciousȱstrandsȱofȱourȱculturalȱheritage.ȱOurȱlawȬmakȬ ingȱ andȱ lawȬenforcingȱ mustȱ reflectȱ ourȱ past—Africanȱ comȬ munalism.ȱ(Ebohȱ2004:ȱ219)

Inȱshort,ȱwhatȱisȱneededȱisȱanȱAfricanȱRenaissanceȱ(Magesaȱ2002) ofȱtheȱAfricanȱnotionsȱofȱwhatȱisȱcalledȱubuntuȱinȱSouthȱAfrica andȱujamaaȱinȱTanzaniaȱ(Mbigiȱ2000;ȱOnwubikoȱ1999). DefiningȱEvil Althoughȱ thereȱ areȱ manyȱ interpretationsȱ ofȱ theȱ conceptȱ ofȱ evil inȱ Africanȱ discussions,ȱ weȱ willȱ useȱ itȱ hereȱ inȱ theȱ senseȱ ofȱ a “hardȱ life”ȱ (maishaȱ magumu),ȱ i.e.ȱ theȱ oppositeȱ ofȱ “goodȱ life” (healthȱandȱwealth,ȱtheȱabundanceȱofȱspiritualȱpowerȱandȱvital force)ȱ(WijsenȱandȱTannerȱ2000).ȱSpecifically,ȱthisȱpaperȱisȱconȬ cernedȱ withȱ theȱ relationȱ betweenȱ Africanȱ religionȱ andȱ societal evil.ȱByȱ“Africanȱreligion,”ȱIȱmeanȱAfricanȱindigenousȱorȱtradiȬ tionalȱ religion.ȱ Iȱ willȱ notȱ dwellȱ onȱ theȱ questionȱ ofȱ whetherȱ or notȱAfricanȱreligionȱexistsȱorȱwhetherȱitȱisȱsimplyȱaȱWesternȱinȬ ventionȱorȱanȱAfricanȱconstructȱ(PlatvoetȱandȱvanȱRinsumȱ2002; vanȱ Rinsumȱ 2003).ȱ Iȱ assumeȱ thatȱ Africanȱ religionȱ doesȱ exist— constructedȱ orȱ invented—sinceȱ atȱ presentȱ itȱ isȱ aȱ realityȱ toȱ be reckonedȱ withȱ inȱ Africaȱ (Ellisȱ andȱ terȱ Haarȱ 2004).ȱ Byȱ “societal

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evil,”ȱIȱdoȱnotȱmeanȱinterpersonalȱharm,ȱsuchȱasȱjealousyȱwhen fellowȱ communityȱ membersȱ areȱ successful,ȱ fearȱ ofȱ peopleȱ outȬ sideȱ one’sȱ ownȱ community,ȱ orȱ personalȱ evilȱ suchȱ asȱ psycholoȬ gicalȱ orȱ physicalȱ suffering.ȱ Theseȱ sentimentsȱ areȱ activeȱ and aliveȱinȱAfricaȱbutȱhaveȱbeenȱanalyzedȱbyȱothersȱinȱgreaterȱdeȬ tailȱ(vanȱderȱVeenȱ2004;ȱSignerȱ2004).ȱIȱuseȱevilȱhereȱtoȱreferȱto structuralȱ evil,ȱ i.e.ȱ evilȱ embeddedȱ inȱ theȱ socialȱ structuresȱ of societyȱorȱtheȱcognitiveȱstructuresȱofȱsocialȱmorality.ȱIȱwillȱalso leaveȱasideȱtheȱSouthȱAfricanȱdebateȱonȱubuntu,ȱinterestingȱasȱit mayȱbeȱ(cf.ȱBoeleȱvanȱHensbroekȱ2001ȱandȱvanȱBinsbergenȱ2003: 427Ȭ57).ȱInstead,ȱIȱwillȱconcentrateȱonȱtheȱEastȱandȱWestȱAfrican debatesȱ andȱ willȱ addressȱ theȱ followingȱ questions:ȱ Areȱ African religionsȱconduciveȱtoȱpeacefulȱsocietiesȱorȱareȱtheyȱthemselves sourcesȱofȱsocietalȱevil?ȱDoȱAfricanȱreligionsȱhelpȱpeopleȱtoȱlive togetherȱpeacefullyȱandȱrespectȱoneȱanother,ȱorȱdoȱtheyȱdivide peopleȱandȱ“help”ȱsocietiesȱdistinguishȱbetweenȱgoodȱandȱbad individuals? FromȱNarrativeȱtoȱAnalysis Iȱwillȱbeginȱwithȱanȱautobiographicalȱnoteȱandȱthenȱmoveȱfrom narrativeȱ viaȱ analysisȱ andȱ evaluationȱ toȱ recommendations. Afterȱcompletingȱmyȱstudies,ȱIȱconductedȱfieldworkȱinȱSukumaȬ land,ȱ inȱ northwestȱ Tanzaniaȱ inȱ theȱ earlyȱ 1980s.ȱ Iȱ didȱ anȱ inȬ depthȱstudyȱofȱJuliusȱNyerere’sȱphilosophyȱofȱAfricanȱsocialism calledȱujamaaȱ(kinship,ȱbrotherhood),ȱwhichȱwasȱmuchȱadmired byȱEuropeanȱintellectualsȱandȱpoliticiansȱ(Mazruiȱ1967).ȱAtȱthe sameȱtime,ȱthisȱphilosophyȱwasȱhinderedȱbyȱȱdevelopmentȱaid thatȱ neglectedȱ theȱ principleȱ ofȱ selfȬreliance.ȱ Iȱ wasȱ eagerȱ toȱ go butȱsoonȱlearnedȱthatȱtheȱsituationȱonȱtheȱgroundȱwasȱveryȱdifȬ ferentȱfromȱhowȱitȱwasȱpresentedȱinȱbooks.ȱTheȱujamaaȱvillages thatȱ wereȱ supposedȱ toȱ implementȱ Nyerere’sȱ socialȱ philosophy wereȱ hardȱ toȱ find.ȱ Theȱ fewȱ ujamaaȱ villagesȱ thatȱ didȱ existȱ surȬ vived,ȱ mainlyȱ becauseȱ ofȱ theȱ millionsȱ ofȱ dollarsȱ pumpedȱ into themȱ byȱ Scandinavianȱ andȱ Dutchȱ fundingȱ agenciesȱ thatȱ were inspiredȱbyȱtheȱTanzanianȱexperiment. However,ȱ theyȱ wereȱ fascinatingȱ endeavorsȱ thatȱ hadȱ aȱ treȬ mendousȱimpactȱonȱtheȱsenseȱofȱnationalȱunityȱandȱIȱfeelȱprivȬ ilegedȱtoȱhaveȱhadȱtheȱopportunityȱtoȱexperienceȱatȱleastȱitsȱtail end.

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Theȱ ujamaaȱ policyȱ wasȱ abandonedȱ asȱ aȱ governmentȱ ideoȬ logyȱinȱ1985ȱbutȱremainedȱtheȱideologyȱofȱtheȱrulingȱparty,ȱthe Chamaȱ Chaȱ Mapinduzi,ȱ Partyȱ ofȱ theȱ Revolution.ȱ Asȱ anȱ experiȬ ment,ȱitȱwasȱaȱlearningȱprocessȱandȱweȱcanȱlearnȱfromȱbothȱits achievementsȱ andȱ itsȱ mistakes.ȱ However,ȱ Iȱ amȱ convincedȱ that fewȱ Tanzaniansȱ actuallyȱ wantȱ toȱ goȱ backȱ toȱ itsȱ rigidȱ policies. Forȱexample,ȱwhenȱIȱarrivedȱinȱnorthwestȱTanzania,ȱthereȱwasȱa seriousȱ shortageȱ ofȱ food.ȱ Peopleȱ wereȱ hungryȱ andȱ foodȱ was beingȱdistributedȱbyȱCatholicȱReliefȱServices,ȱaȱUSȬbasedȱfundȬ ingȱ agency.ȱ Strangelyȱ enough,ȱ thereȱ wasȱ enoughȱ foodȱ inȱ the country.ȱButȱtheȱ“selfȬreliance”ȱideologyȱpreventedȱtheȱoneȬparȬ tyȱ governmentȱ fromȱ allowingȱ foodȱ toȱ beȱ transportedȱ fromȱ one regionȱtoȱanother. TheȱSukumaȱofȱNorthwestȱTanzania Inȱ myȱ studyȱ ofȱ theȱ Sukuma—atȱ aboutȱ 10ȱ millionȱ peopleȱ the largestȱethnicȱgroupȱinȱTanzania—IȱcomparedȱtheȱpreȬcolonial, colonialȱ andȱ postȬcolonialȱ erasȱ (Wijsenȱ andȱ Tannerȱ 2002).ȱ SuȬ kumalandȱ isȱ anȱ interestingȱ areaȱ whereȱ foreignȱ influenceȱ was limitedȱ dueȱ toȱ harshȱ environmentalȱ conditionsȱ andȱ asȱ ofȱ now onlyȱ 25%ȱ ofȱ theȱ populationȱ haveȱ convertedȱ toȱ Islamȱ orȱ ChrisȬ tianity.ȱIȱfoundȱtheȱpeopleȱtoȱbeȱratherȱindividualisticȱandȱmaȬ terialistic;ȱ seekingȱ theȱ Goodȱ Lifeȱ inȱ theȱ fertilityȱ ofȱ theirȱ cows, theirȱ landȱ andȱ (forȱ theȱ men)ȱ theirȱ wivesȱ (Wijsenȱ andȱ Tanner 2000).ȱ Theirȱ everydayȱ religionȱ consistedȱ mainlyȱ ofȱ familyȬcenȬ teredȱ manipulationȱ ofȱ metaȬempiricalȱ powers.ȱ Ancestorsȱ were fearedȱratherȱthanȱloved.ȱReligiousȱscepticismȱandȱindifference wereȱwidespread. Thereȱwereȱnoȱcommunalȱrituals,ȱexceptȱinȱcasesȱofȱserious droughtȱorȱcattleȱraids.ȱSolidarityȱexistedȱbutȱmainlyȱwithinȱthe lineageȱ (ukoo)ȱ ofȱ anȱ extendedȱ familyȱ withȱ aȱ commonȱ ancestor. Asȱothersȱhaveȱobservedȱasȱwell,ȱthereȱwasȱlittleȱconcernȱforȱthe commonȱgoodȱ(Brandströmȱ1990;ȱDrangertȱ1993).ȱWithoutȱmakȬ ingȱanyȱkindȱofȱmoralȱjudgement,ȱweȱconcludedȱthatȱtheseȱcharȬ acteristicsȱ wereȱ consequencesȱ ofȱ ecologicalȱ circumstancesȱ and socialȱ structure.ȱ Theȱ Sukumaȱ peopleȱ wereȱ scatteredȱ acrossȱ the countryȱandȱhadȱtoȱmakeȱtheȱmostȱofȱscarceȱresourcesȱbecause ofȱinfertileȱsoilȱandȱsparseȱrainfall. TheȱfirstȱforeignȱinfluenceȱonȱtheȱSukumaȱtribeȱcameȱfrom Arabs,ȱ initiallyȱ viaȱ Sukumaȱ tradersȱ whoȱ broughtȱ backȱ Arab

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goodsȱandȱbeliefs,ȱandȱlaterȱon—althoughȱquiteȱlateȱcompared toȱ otherȱ regionsȱ ofȱ presentȬdayȱ Tanzania—throughȱ Arabsȱ who settledȱinȱKageyeȱinȱtheȱmidȬnineteenthȱcentury.ȱAlthoughȱUsuȬ kumaȱwasȱoffȱtheȱmainȱslaveȱroutes,ȱtheȱsmallȱArabȱsettlement wasȱengagedȱinȱslaveȱtrade,ȱtakingȱadvantageȱofȱtheȱsmallȱport atȱLakeȱVictoria.ȱThenȱEuropeanȱcolonistsȱarrived,ȱfirstȱtheȱGerȬ mansȱ andȱ laterȱ theȱ British.ȱ Becauseȱ mostȱ Sukumaȱ wereȱ subȬ sistenceȱ farmers,ȱ theȱ Britishȱ wantedȱ toȱ transformȱ theȱ farming systemȱ intoȱ oneȱ suitedȱ toȱ aȱ marketȱ economyȱ thatȱ wouldȱ yield surplusesȱ fromȱ theȱ farmersȱ toȱ payȱ forȱ theȱ colonialȱ adminisȬ tration,ȱ infrastructureȱ andȱ welfareȱ system.ȱ Atȱ first,ȱ theȱ British imposedȱregulationsȱonȱtheȱSukumaȱandȱlaterȱattemptedȱtoȱperȬ suadeȱ themȱ toȱ change.ȱ But,ȱ byȱ andȱ large,ȱ becauseȱ theȱ British wereȱ soȱ farȱ fromȱ theȱ capitalȱ Darȱ esȱ Salaam,ȱ theirȱ influenceȱ reȬ mainedȱ limited,ȱ sinceȱ theyȱ lackedȱ sufficientȱ personnelȱ andȱ the appropriateȱskills. Tannerȱ andȱ Iȱ observedȱ that,ȱ comparedȱ toȱ theȱ colonialȱ adȬ ministration,ȱ theȱ postȬindependenceȱ governmentȱ intruded muchȱmoreȱintoȱtheȱdailyȱlivesȱofȱordinaryȱpeopleȱ(Wijsenȱand Tannerȱ2002:ȱ109Ȭ44).ȱThisȱstatementȱinfuriatedȱseveralȱreviewȬ ersȱofȱourȱjointȱstudy.ȱTheȱpostȬindependenceȱsocialistȱgovernȬ mentȱ hadȱ quiteȱ anȱ efficientȱ butȱ alsoȱ authoritarianȱ system,ȱ enȬ forcingȱ itsȱ policiesȱ fromȱ theȱ capitalȱ Darȱ esȱ Salaamȱ viaȱ regions, districts,ȱ divisions,ȱ wardsȱ andȱ branchesȱ toȱ theȱ tenȱ familyȱ cells thatȱ existedȱ evenȱ inȱ theȱ mostȱ remoteȱ areas.ȱ Theȱ functionȱ ofȱ all theseȱgovernmentȱorgansȱwasȱtoȱsuperviseȱandȱcontrolȱtheȱimȬ plementationȱofȱtheȱgovernment’sȱpoliciesȱinȱtheȱarea.ȱTheȱminȬ istriesȱandȱdepartmentsȱofȱtheȱnationalȱgovernmentȱwereȱrepreȬ sentedȱatȱallȱlevelsȱbyȱaȱhugeȱstaffȱofȱgovernmentȱofficials.ȱThis systemȱwasȱjustifiedȱbyȱtheȱpoliticalȱideologyȱofȱnationalȱunity calledȱujamaaȱ(StögerȬEisingȱ2000;ȱSchweigmanȱ2001). IȱAmȱBecauseȱWeȱAre Inȱhisȱpleaȱforȱaȱtheologyȱofȱ“AfricanȱRenaissance,”ȱMagesaȱadȬ vocatesȱ thatȱ Africansȱ attemptȱ “toȱ sustainȱ andȱ accomplishȱ the hopeȱofȱindependenceȱusingȱtheȱcontinent’sȱownȱphilosophical visionȱinȱtheȱcontextȱofȱpresentȬdayȱrealities”ȱ(Magesaȱ2002:ȱ27). MagesaȱisȱaȱRomanȱCatholicȱpriestȱandȱtheologianȱwhoȱlectures atȱ theȱ Instituteȱ ofȱ Africanȱ Studiesȱ inȱ Nairobi.ȱ Heȱ takesȱ hisȱ inȬ spirationȱ fromȱ Juliusȱ Nyerereȱ andȱ otherȱ nationalȱ ideological

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philosophersȱ suchȱ asȱ Nkrumah,ȱ Senghor,ȱ Kenyattaȱ andȱ KaunȬ da.ȱ Accordingȱ toȱ thisȱ schoolȱ ofȱ thought,ȱ Africanȱ worldviews shouldȱbeȱmadeȱtoȱserveȱpoliticalȱends:ȱliberationȱfromȱoppresȬ sionȱandȱdevelopmentȱofȱhumanȱsocieties. Nationalȱ ideologicalȱ philosophiesȱ viewȱ traditionalȱ African societyȱ asȱ aȱ harmoniousȱ andȱ egalitarianȱ community,ȱ inȱ which theȱselfȬesteemȱofȱindividualsȱisȱassessedȱinȱtermsȱofȱtheirȱconȬ tributionȱtoȱtheȱwellȬbeingȱofȱtheȱcommunity.ȱMbitiȱsaysȱthatȱin Africaȱ theȱ viewȱ ofȱ “Iȱ am,ȱ becauseȱ weȱ are;ȱ andȱ sinceȱ weȱ are, thereforeȱIȱam”ȱisȱdominantȱ(Mbiti,ȱ1969:ȱ108Ȭ09).ȱTheȱonlyȱhierȬ archicalȱ principleȱ isȱ seniority,ȱ butȱ thisȱ principleȱ wasȱ traditionȬ allyȱȱbasedȱonȱrespect,ȱnotȱpower.ȱThereȱwasȱnoȱprivateȱproperȬ tyȱ andȱ peopleȱ collaboratedȱ forȱ theȱ sakeȱ ofȱ theȱ commonȱ good. Accordingȱtoȱtheseȱnationalȱideologicalȱphilosophers,ȱtheȱpeaceȬ fulȱcoexistenceȱinȱpreȬcolonialȱAfricaȱwasȱbrutallyȱdisruptedȱby Westernȱinfluences,ȱmainlyȱasȱaȱresultȱofȱtheȱpoliticalȱtheoryȱof individualȱ liberalismȱ andȱ theȱ economicȱ systemȱ ofȱ capitalism.ȱ The wayȱforwardȱisȱtoȱgoȱbackȱtoȱtheȱpast,ȱtoȱAfrica’sȱculturalȱheriȬ tage. Inȱhisȱpoliticalȱideology,ȱJuliusȱNyerereȱwasȱaȱtraditionalist inȱtheȱpurestȱsense.ȱȱAccordingȱtoȱhim,ȱtraditionalȱAfricanȱsocieȬ tyȱhadȱsocialistȱcharacteristics.ȱItȱwasȱbasedȱonȱmutualȱrespect, commonȱ propertyȱ andȱ anȱ obligationȱ toȱ work.ȱ Allȱ basicȱ comȬ moditiesȱwereȱheldȱinȱcommon.ȱThereȱwasȱconcernȱforȱoneȱanȬ otherȱandȱfarmersȱusedȱtoȱhelpȱoneȱanotherȱinȱtheirȱfieldsȱ(NyeȬ rereȱ 1967,ȱ 1968).ȱ Thus,ȱ inȱ hisȱ philosophicalȱ justificationȱ ofȱ poȬ liticalȱtheory,ȱNyerereȱrevertedȱtoȱtheȱnormsȱandȱvaluesȱofȱAfriȬ canȱculture.ȱTheȱfutureȱdevelopmentȱofȱmodernȱAfricanȱsociety wasȱ toȱ beȱ basedȱ onȱ theȱ traditionalȱ Africanȱ communityȱ spirit, ujamaa. Modern,ȱscientificȱorȱprofessionalȱAfricanȱphilosophersȱreȬ jectȱtheseȱviews.ȱKwasiȱWireduȱsummarizesȱtheȱ“threeȱevils”ȱof Africanȱ cultureȱ asȱ “anachronism,ȱ authoritarianismȱ andȱ superȬ naturalism”ȱ(Wireduȱ1980:ȱ1,ȱ5).ȱGyekyeȱholdsȱthatȱtheȱideaȱthat Africanȱ traditionalȱ societiesȱ wereȱ harmoniousȱ andȱ egalitarian, andȱ thatȱ theirȱ worldviewȱ wasȱ sharedȱ byȱ allȱ membersȱ ofȱ the group,ȱisȱ“overstatedȱandȱsomewhatȱmisleading”ȱ(Gyekyeȱ1997: 37).ȱ Hisȱ assessmentȱ ofȱ “theȱ Socialistȱ Interlude”ȱ isȱ harsh.ȱ Inȱ a criticalȱ responseȱ toȱ Juliusȱ Nyerere’sȱ assertions,ȱ heȱ pointsȱ out thatȱ “aȱ hierarchicalȱ socialȱ arrangement,ȱ suchȱ asȱ theȱ traditional Africanȱ systemȱ undoubtedlyȱ was—andȱ stillȱ is—wouldȱ notȱ be

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devoidȱ ofȱ exploitationȱ ofȱ someȱ sort”ȱ (Gyekyeȱ 1997:ȱ 151).ȱ FurȬ thermore,ȱheȱobservesȱthatȱNkrumah’sȱview thatȱtheȱpresuppositionsȱandȱpurposesȱofȱcapitalismȱareȱconȬ traryȱtoȱthoseȱofȱAfricanȱsocietyȱwillȱnotȱholdȱupȱtoȱaȱcloser scrutinyȱofȱtheȱideasȱandȱpracticesȱofȱeconomicȱthoughtȱand managementȱofȱtheȱtraditionalȱsystem.ȱ(Gyekyeȱ1997:ȱ156Ȭ57)

Nationalȱ ideologicalȱ philosophersȱ usedȱ theȱ traditionalȱ African valuesȱ toȱ justifyȱ oneȬpartyȱ governmentsȱ andȱ toȱ maintainȱ the statusȱquo.ȱSinceȱtheȱ“worldview”ȱisȱpresupposedȱtoȱbeȱcollecȬ tive,ȱsharedȱandȱuniform,ȱthereȱisȱlittleȱroomȱforȱindividualȱfreeȬ domȱandȱindustriousȱcreativity.ȱConsequently,ȱtheȱmythȱofȱuniȬ tyȱ leadsȱ toȱ repressiveȱ policiesȱ andȱ dictatorialȱ regimesȱ (HounȬ tondjiȱ1996;ȱAppiahȱ1992). “AfricansȱareȱNotoriouslyȱReligious” Theȱ communityȱ inȱ Africaȱ includesȱ theȱ departedȱ andȱ therefore theȱ communityȱ isȱ notȱ onlyȱ aȱ socialȱ butȱ alsoȱ aȱ spiritualȱ reality (Bujoȱ 1997;ȱ Nkemnkiaȱ 1999;ȱ Onwubikoȱ 1999;ȱ Ebohȱ 2004).ȱ In fact,ȱ inȱ theȱ Africanȱ worldview,ȱ theȱ socialȱ andȱ theȱ spiritualȱ doȬ mainsȱ canȱ hardlyȱ beȱ separated.ȱ Accordingȱ toȱ Mbiti,ȱ “Africans areȱnotoriouslyȱreligious”ȱ(Mbitiȱ1969:ȱ1).ȱAsȱIȱindicatedȱ inȱ the introduction,ȱIȱamȱnotȱgoingȱtoȱdebateȱtheȱquestionȱofȱwhether orȱ notȱ Africanȱ religionsȱ existȱ (Platvoetȱ andȱ vanȱ Rinsumȱ 2002; vanȱRinsumȱ2003;ȱAppiahȱ1992:ȱ107Ȭ36).ȱHereȱweȱareȱinterested mainlyȱinȱtheȱnatureȱofȱAfricanȱreligionȱandȱitsȱrelationȱtoȱsociȬ etalȱevil.ȱWeȱwillȱskipȱtheȱissueȱofȱwitchcraftȱandȱmagicȱasȱreaȬ sonsȱ forȱ theȱ lackȱ ofȱ technologicalȱ developmentȱ orȱ forȱ “why thereȱareȱnoȱskyscrapersȱinȱAfrica”ȱ(Signerȱ2004). Thereȱisȱaȱwidespreadȱconvictionȱthatȱworldȱreligionsȱand, moreȱparticularly,ȱtheȱmonotheisticȱreligions,ȱareȱorȱcanȱbecome intolerantȱbutȱthatȱreligionsȱ“withoutȱscriptures”ȱcannot.ȱIfȱone looksȱ atȱ presentȬdayȱ Africaȱ oneȱ mustȱ seriouslyȱ reconsiderȱ this proposition.ȱItȱwouldȱbeȱdifficultȱtoȱunderstandȱtheȱconflictsȱin Rwandaȱ orȱ Sudanȱ withoutȱ takingȱ Africanȱ religiosityȱ intoȱ acȬ count.ȱThisȱstatementȱisȱopposedȱbyȱscholarsȱwhoȱsayȱthatȱconȬ flictsȱinȱAfricaȱareȱethnic,ȱnotȱreligious.ȱTheirȱopposition,ȱhowȬ ever,ȱ deniesȱ theȱ intrinsicȱ relationȱ betweenȱ religiosityȱ andȱ ethȬ nicityȱinȱAfrica. Alreadyȱ decadesȱ ago,ȱ Peelȱ spokeȱ ofȱ Africanȱ religionsȱ as ethnicȱ religions,ȱ i.e.ȱ religionsȱ thatȱ caterȱ toȱ theȱ specificȱ needsȱ of

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particularȱ groupȱ (Peelȱ 1978:ȱ 443).ȱ Manyȱ conflictsȱ inȱ Africaȱ are indeedȱethnic,ȱbutȱtheyȱareȱoftenȱmotivatedȱbyȱmythsȱthatȱpeoȬ pleȱinȱtheȱWesternȱworldȱcallȱreligious.ȱTheȱMaasaiȱjustifyȱcattle raidingȱamongȱtheȱnonȬMaasaiȱbyȱclaimingȱthatȱallȱtheȱcattleȱin theȱworldȱwereȱgivenȱtoȱtheȱMaasaiȱbyȱGod.ȱTheȱsameȱapplies moreȱorȱlessȱtoȱtheȱAkambaȱkidnappingȱKikuyuȱwomenȱ(Getui 1999:ȱ13Ȭ14). ȱ TheȱRwandanȱTragedy Asȱ anȱ example,ȱ letȱ usȱ lookȱ moreȱ closelyȱ atȱ theȱ Rwandanȱ traȬ gedy.ȱ Theȱ Rwandanȱ tragedyȱ isȱ aȱ multidimensionalȱ problemȱ in whichȱethnocentricȱsentimentsȱmergeȱwithȱcolonialȱandȱanthroȬ pologicalȱprejudicesȱandȱpoliticalȱandȱeconomicȱpressures.ȱSome 400ȱ yearsȱ ago,ȱ theȱ Tutsiȱ invadedȱ theȱ Greatȱ Lakesȱ region.ȱ They establishedȱfeudalȱkingdomsȱandȱruledȱoverȱtheȱHutu.ȱInȱreturn, theȱHutuȱwereȱgrantedȱtheȱuseȱofȱlandȱandȱcattle,ȱandȱprotection byȱ theirȱ overlords.ȱ Theȱ Tutsiȱ ruleȱ wasȱ justifiedȱ byȱ aȱ myth,ȱ acȬ cordingȱtoȱwhichȱtheirȱsuperiorityȱwasȱordainedȱbyȱGodȱ(SkinȬ naderȱȱ2000:ȱ48Ȭ49). Duringȱ theȱ colonialȱ era,ȱ theȱ Belgiansȱ usedȱ theȱ Tutsiȱ asȱ an administrativeȱoverclass.ȱThisȱwasȱjustifiedȱbyȱinvokingȱtheȱHaȬ miticȱmyth,ȱaccordingȱtoȱwhichȱtheȱTutsiȱwereȱcloserȱtoȱSemitic stock,ȱthereforeȱnotȱ“real”ȱAfricansȱandȱthusȱmoreȱacceptableȱto theȱ colonials.ȱ Afterȱ independence,ȱ Kayibandaȱ ruled,ȱ notȱ asȱ a Tutsiȱnobleȱbutȱasȱaȱunifyingȱsymbol,ȱdetachedȱfromȱtheȱethnic fray.ȱ Oppositionȱ wasȱ mainlyȱ regional.ȱ Thisȱ changedȱ whenȱ the internationalȱcommunityȱforcedȱstructuralȱadjustmentȱprograms onȱRwanda,ȱresultingȱinȱgrowingȱunemploymentȱandȱruralȱpovȬ erty.ȱInȱaddition,ȱmultipartyȱdemocracy,ȱalsoȱimposedȱbyȱWestȬ ernȱagenciesȱasȱaȱconditionȱforȱdevelopmentȱaid,ȱmeantȱthatȱbeȬ longingȱtoȱanȱethnicȱminorityȱorȱmajorityȱbecameȱaȱpoliticalȱfacȬ torȱ(Lindenȱ1995:ȱ257Ȭ58). Undoubtedly,ȱ thisȱ shortȱ analysisȱ doesȱ notȱ doȱ justiceȱ toȱ all theȱcomplexitiesȱofȱthisȱmultidimensionalȱproblem.ȱButȱitȱisȱeviȬ dentȱthat,ȱinȱthisȱcase,ȱinternationalȱoppressionȱandȱdomination wentȱ handȱ inȱ handȱ withȱ intranationalȱ oppressionȱ andȱ dominaȬ tionȱ(Aguilarȱ1998).ȱTheȱconflictȱinȱRwandaȱwouldȱcertainlyȱnot haveȱ assumedȱ suchȱ tragicȱ dimensionsȱ withoutȱ outsideȱ influȬ ence.ȱButȱtheȱsuperiorityȱcomplexȱofȱtheȱTutsiȱandȱtheirȱoppresȬ sionȱofȱtheȱHutuȱwereȱfactorsȱbeforeȱtheȱEuropeansȱarrived.

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CritiqueȱofȱLiberalȱIndividualism MostȱAfricanȱRenaissanceȱtheologiansȱseeȱEuropeanȱindividualȬ isticȱ liberalismȱ asȱ theȱ rootȱ ofȱ allȱ evil.ȱ Accordingȱ toȱ them,ȱ this viewȱ ofȱ humanȱ natureȱ propagatesȱ excessiveȱ individualism, wherebyȱhumanȱbeingsȱareȱshutȱoffȱfromȱtheȱcommunityȱspirit. Moreover,ȱitȱpropoundsȱaȱviewȱofȱfreedomȱthatȱisȱdominatedȱby rights,ȱ notȱ dutiesȱ (Tarimoȱ 2004:ȱ 6Ȭ7,ȱ 36;ȱ Bujoȱ 1997:ȱ 144).ȱ Over againstȱ thisȱ view,ȱ Africanȱ Renaissanceȱ theologiansȱ haveȱ conȬ structedȱaȱviewȱofȱAfricanȱreligiousȱcommunitarianismȱasȱanȱalȬ mostȱ totalȱ antithesisȱ ofȱ Westernȱ liberalȱ individualismȱ (Bujo 1997;ȱOnwubikoȱ1999;ȱEbohȱ2004).ȱHere,ȱhumanȱbeingsȱ areȱ not independentȱ individualsȱ butȱ primarilyȱ membersȱ ofȱ aȱ social group.ȱNorȱareȱhumanȱbeingsȱfree,ȱforȱtheyȱmustȱobeyȱtheȱwill ofȱtheȱancestors,ȱwhoȱareȱandȱremainȱpartȱofȱtheȱcommunity. Butȱtoȱwhatȱextentȱisȱthisȱreligiousȱcommunitarianismȱbased onȱ whatȱ Robertsonȱ hasȱ calledȱ aȱ “nostalgicȱ paradigm”ȱ orȱ an “ideologyȱ ofȱ home”ȱ (Robertsonȱ 1995:ȱ 30,ȱ 35)?ȱ Andȱ doesȱ itȱ conȬ structȱ aȱ pictureȱ ofȱ traditionalȱ Africaȱ asȱ closed,ȱ homogeneous communitiesȱthatȱcoexistȱpeacefully?ȱToȱwhatȱextentȱwasȱȱsolidȬ arityȱ present?ȱ Wasȱ hospitalityȱ basedȱ onȱ generosityȱ orȱ onȱ reciȬ procity?ȱ Howȱ democraticȱ wasȱ Africa?ȱ Wasȱ decisionȬmaking basedȱonȱconsensusȱorȱonȱpersuasion?ȱProfessionalȱphilosophers areȱ somewhatȱ criticalȱ ofȱ theȱ Romanticȱ pictureȱ ofȱ traditional Africa.ȱ Theirȱ analysesȱ showȱ howȱ theȱ Africanȱ communityȱ spirit wasȱ “misinterpreted,”ȱ “oversimplified,”ȱ orȱ “misconstrued”ȱ by nationalȱ ideologicalȱ philosophersȱ (Gyekyeȱ 1997:ȱ 148Ȭ49).ȱ These philosophersȱ confusedȱ socioȬethicalȱ doctrinesȱ withȱ economic systems. Gyekyeȱhasȱdiscussedȱatȱlengthȱwhatȱheȱcallsȱtheȱ“negative featuresȱ ofȱ ourȱ Africanȱ cultures,”ȱ amongȱ themȱ theȱ “communiȬ tarianȱ ethos”ȱ (Gyekyeȱ 1997:ȱ 242Ȭ58).ȱ Apartȱ fromȱ theȱ internal groupȱ pressureȱ (whichȱ hindersȱ progressiveȱ membersȱ andȱ nurȬ turesȱ patronage),ȱ overstaffing,ȱ inefficiency,ȱ andȱ laziness,ȱ there areȱalsoȱevilsȱtowardȱpeopleȱoutsideȱtheirȱownȱgroup.ȱItȱisȱcomȬ monȱ knowledgeȱ thatȱ unethicalȱ actsȱ committedȱ byȱ aȱ memberȱ of oneȱ culturalȱ groupȱ areȱ condoned,ȱ ifȱ notȱ positivelyȱ accepted, whenȱdoneȱagainstȱmembersȱofȱanotherȱgroup.ȱInȱotherȱwords, “transȬethnicȱ unethicalȱ conductȱ isȱ oftenȱ allowedȱ toȱ passȱ asȱ ethȬ ical”ȱ (Gyekyeȱ 1997:ȱ 255).ȱ Professionalȱ philosophersȱ areȱ notȱ opȬ posedȱ toȱ communitarianismȱ perȱ seȱ butȱ toȱ itsȱ excesses,ȱ suchȱ as

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feudalism,ȱnepotism,ȱpaternalism,ȱandȱlackȱofȱfreedomȱandȱcreȬ ativityȱ(Hountondjiȱ1996;ȱAppiahȱ1992;ȱWireduȱ1980). OnȱGradingȱReligions Thereȱ isȱ anȱ ongoingȱ debateȱ withinȱ missiologyȱ onȱ theȱ valueȱ of AfricanȱreligionsȱinȱrelationȱtoȱChristianity.ȱItȱisȱrecognizedȱthat earlierȱ viewsȱ wereȱ inȱ error,ȱ basedȱ asȱ theyȱ wereȱ onȱ biasedȱ anȬ thropologicalȱ theoriesȱ ofȱ socialȱ Darwinismȱ andȱ theological viewsȱ ofȱ Christianȱ superiorityȱ (Idowuȱ 1973;ȱ Setiloaneȱ 1976; Kibichoȱ 1985;ȱ ByaruhangaȬAkiikiȱ 1982).ȱ Thereȱ hasȱ beenȱ aȱ rehaȬ bilitationȱ ofȱ Africanȱ religionsȱ inȱ bothȱ theȱ theologyȱ ofȱ religions andȱtheȱtheologyȱofȱinculturation:ȱAfricanȱreligions,ȱitȱisȱaverred, areȱfullyȱsalvificȱandȱChristȱwasȱalreadyȱpresentȱinȱAfricaȱbefore theȱ missionariesȱ came.ȱ Thusȱ thereȱ isȱ noȱ needȱ forȱ conversion, onlyȱforȱmakingȱmanifestȱwhatȱwasȱalreadyȱthere. Undoubtedly,ȱ theseȱ theologiesȱ haveȱ beenȱ veryȱ helpfulȱ in theȱ processȱ ofȱ decolonization.ȱ Theyȱ wereȱ instrumentalȱ inȱ the emancipationȱofȱAfricansȱandȱtheȱrediscoveryȱofȱAfricanȱidentiȬ ty.ȱTheyȱhelpedȱtoȱdoȱawayȱwithȱtheȱdominantȱviewȱthatȱrevelaȬ tionȱinȱAfricanȱreligionȱisȱaȱkindȱofȱinferiorȱorȱincompleteȱrevelaȬ tion,ȱsuperstition,ȱidolatryȱorȱpaganism,ȱaȱbarbaricȱandȱprimitive belief.ȱBut,ȱtakenȱtoȱextremes,ȱthisȱrehabilitationȱcanȱbecomeȱan obstacleȱ toȱ integralȱ liberation.ȱ Someȱ Africanȱ theologiansȱ now claimȱ thatȱ preȬcolonialȱ Africanȱ societiesȱ “wereȱ certainlyȱ more Godȱ fearing,ȱ andȱ thereforeȱ hadȱ betterȱ existentialȱ savingȬknowlȬ edgeȱofȱGod,ȱthanȱtheȱcolonialistȱChristianȱsocietiesȱtoȱwhichȱthe missionariesȱ whoȱ cameȱ toȱ evangeliseȱ themȱ belonged”ȱ (Kibicho 1981:ȱ343;ȱitalicsȱmine).ȱForȱthisȱreason,ȱtheseȱtheologians—such asȱNangoliȱ(1986:ȱ166Ȭ68),ȱwhomȱweȱquotedȱatȱtheȱbeginningȱof thisȱpaper—“urgeȱthoseȱblackȱpeoplesȱwhoȱareȱstillȱmembersȱof theȱ colonialȱ andȱ slaveȱ religionsȱ toȱ quitȱ themȱ andȱ joinȱ thisȱ true religionȱofȱAfricanȱspirituality”ȱ(Odakȱ1997:ȱ16). Theȱproblemȱwithȱthisȱtypeȱofȱreasoningȱisȱthatȱforȱeachȱevil thatȱ Africanȱ indigenousȱ believersȱ canȱ pointȱ toȱ inȱ Christianity, Christiansȱ canȱ pointȱ toȱ anȱ equallyȱ evidentȱ evilȱ inȱ Africanȱ reliȬ gion.ȱIsȱtheȱAfricanȱexplanationȱofȱevil,ȱwhichȱsaysȱthatȱallȱevils haveȱ aȱ personalȱ cause,ȱ betterȱ thanȱ theȱ Christianȱ explanationȱ of evil,ȱ whichȱ holdsȱ thatȱ evilsȱ areȱ ultimatelyȱ causedȱ byȱ aȱ nonȬhuȬ manȱ being,ȱ calledȱ theȱ “devil”ȱ orȱ “Satan”?ȱ Isȱ Christianȱ fatalism betterȱ thanȱ Africanȱ witchcraft?ȱ Afterȱ investigatingȱ theseȱ and

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otherȱ understandingsȱ ofȱ “theȱ sourcesȱ ofȱ evil,”ȱ Michaelȱ Kirwen, directorȱ ofȱ theȱ Instituteȱ ofȱ Africanȱ Studiesȱ inȱ Nairobi,ȱ realized howȱhisȱ“ownȱunderstandingȱofȱevilȱwasȱlimitedȱandȱfragmentȬ ed”ȱ andȱ concludedȱ “thatȱ theȱ Africanȱ explanationȱ wasȱ justȱ as logicalȱ andȱ consistent”ȱ asȱ hisȱ ownȱ (Kirwenȱ 1987:ȱ 46).ȱ Whoȱ is makingȱ theȱ assessmentȱ ofȱ whichȱ evilȱ isȱ moreȱ evilȱ thanȱ others andȱ onȱ whatȱ groundsȱ (rational?ȱ moral?ȱ practical?)?ȱ Thisȱ isȱ a complicated,ȱifȱnotȱimpossible,ȱtaskȱ(Hickȱ1981:ȱ465).ȱTheȱquesȬ tionsȱ toȱ beȱ askedȱ withȱ respectȱ toȱ returningȱ toȱ theȱ “pathsȱ ofȱ the ancestors”ȱareȱwhetherȱtheseȱpathsȱstillȱexistȱ inȱ ourȱglobalizing worldȱ andȱ whetherȱ theyȱ wereȱ asȱ peacefulȱ asȱ Africanȱ RenaisȬ sanceȱ theologiansȱ think.ȱ Currentȱ studiesȱ expressȱ someȱ doubts onȱ thisȱ scoreȱ (Abbink,ȱ deȱ Bruijnȱ andȱ vanȱ Walravenȱ 2003;ȱ ter Haarȱ 2000).ȱ Inȱ myȱ view,ȱ itȱ isȱ notȱ veryȱ helpfulȱ forȱ intercultural andȱinterreligiousȱdialogueȱsimplyȱtoȱexchangeȱblackȱandȱwhite Eurocentricȱ thinkingȱ forȱ blackȱ andȱ whiteȱ Afrocentricȱ thinking. Bothȱ approachesȱ areȱ ideologicalȱ andȱ mustȱ beȱ overcomeȱ ifȱ we wishȱtoȱliveȱtogetherȱpeacefullyȱinȱtoday’sȱglobalȱworld. TheȱWayȱForward Whatȱisȱtheȱwayȱforwardȱforȱdialogue?ȱAȱfirstȱstepȱisȱcertainlyȱa rediscoveryȱofȱAfricanȱagency,ȱbothȱinȱcausingȱandȱinȱcombating evilȱ(Malulekeȱ2002).ȱOneȱconsequenceȱofȱcommunitarianismȱis thatȱintrospectionȱhasȱnotȱbeenȱveryȱwellȱdevelopedȱinȱAfrica.ȱIn theȱ filmȱ Katiboȱ yeȱ ye,ȱ producedȱ byȱ Interactȱ inȱ Amsterdam,ȱ one canȱseeȱaȱgroupȱofȱSurinameseȱpeopleȱvisitingȱtheȱAsanteheneȱin Kumasi,ȱGhana.ȱTheȱSurinameseȱpeopleȱaskedȱtheȱspokesmanȱof theȱ Asanteheneȱ whyȱ hisȱ ancestorsȱ soldȱ theirȱ childrenȱ toȱ the whiteȱ people.ȱ “Well,”ȱ answeredȱ theȱ Asantehene,ȱ “itȱ sometimes happenedȱ thatȱ aȱ littleȱ princeȱ wasȱ givenȱ toȱ theȱ whiteȱ menȱ asȱ a present.”ȱTheȱSurinameseȱpersisted:ȱ“Thisȱisȱnotȱwhatȱweȱmean …ȱWhyȱdidȱyourȱancestorsȱsellȱtheirȱchildrenȱtoȱtheȱwhiteȱmen?” ButȱtheȱAsanteheneȱseemedȱdeafȱtoȱtheirȱquery. Atȱ itsȱ 2003ȱ meeting,ȱ theȱ Symposiumȱ ofȱ Episcopalȱ ConferȬ encesȱ inȱ Africaȱ andȱ Madagascarȱ publiclyȱ askedȱ forgivenessȱ for theȱroleȱplayedȱbyȱAfricansȱinȱnewȱandȱoldȱformsȱofȱslavery.ȱThe bishopsȱ acknowledgedȱ “thatȱ slaveryȱ tookȱ placeȱ thanksȱ toȱ the complicityȱ ofȱ someȱ Africans.”ȱ “Theȱ trade,”ȱ theȱ bishopsȱ wrote, “wouldȱnotȱhaveȱtakenȱplaceȱandȱwouldȱnotȱbeȱperpetuatedȱunȬ

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derȱ suchȱ harmfulȱ andȱ hiddenȱ formsȱ ifȱ weȱ didȱ notȱ bearȱ theȱ reȬ sponsibilityȱthatȱweȱhave.” Aȱ secondȱ stepȱ isȱ thatȱ bothȱ Africansȱ andȱ Europeansȱ should moveȱ fromȱ ideologyȱ toȱ science.ȱ Justȱ asȱ Europeanȱ scholarsȱ conȬ structedȱaȱoneȬsidedȱpictureȱofȱAfricaȱtoȱjustifyȱmissionȱandȱcoȬ lonialism,ȱ Africanȱ scholarsȱ constructedȱ aȱ oneȬsidedȱ pictureȱ of Africaȱ toȱ justifyȱ theȱ Africanȱ struggleȱ forȱ liberation.ȱ Nyerere knewȱ thatȱ heȱ oversimplifiedȱ hisȱ pictureȱ ofȱ ujamaa;ȱ hisȱ aimȱ was politicalȱ inspirationȱ ratherȱ thanȱ historicalȱ accuracyȱ (StögerȬEiȬ singȱ2000:ȱ138).ȱOfȱcourse,ȱideologyȱcanȱbeȱhelpfulȱinȱsituations ofȱdistress.ȱButȱtakenȱtooȱfarȱandȱinȱaȱnewȱcontext,ȱitȱisȱnoȱlonger beneficial.ȱ Europeanȱ andȱ Africanȱ scholarsȱ mustȱ studyȱ andȱ enȬ gageȱinȱdialogueȱaboutȱ“whatȱwentȱwrongȱwithȱAfrica”ȱ(vanȱder Veenȱ2004).ȱPerhapsȱtheȱexperimentȱofȱujamaaȱisȱtooȱrecentȱtoȱbe reflectedȱuponȱbyȱTanzaniansȱthemselves.ȱButȱsomeȱgoodȱstudȬ iesȱ haveȱ alreadyȱ beenȱ conducted,ȱ notablyȱ byȱ professionalȱ AfriȬ canȱphilosophersȱsuchȱasȱGyekye,ȱWiredu,ȱHountandjiȱandȱApȬ piah,ȱasȱweȱsawȱabove. Lastȱ butȱ notȱ least,ȱ anȱ interculturalȱ debateȱ inȱ anthropology, philosophyȱ andȱ theologyȱ isȱ neededȱ forȱ reflectionȱ onȱ conditions forȱtheȱpossibilityȱofȱsuchȱdialogue.ȱCertainlyȱnoȱreconciliationȱis possibleȱwithoutȱsomeȱsortȱofȱrestitutionȱforȱeverythingȱthatȱwas takenȱfromȱtheȱAfricans.ȱButȱrestitutionȱaloneȱisȱnotȱenoughȱ(TaȬ rimoȱ2004). Conclusion Theȱ questionsȱ addressedȱ byȱ thisȱ chapterȱ were:ȱ “Areȱ African religionsȱconduciveȱtoȱpeacefulȱsocietiesȱorȱareȱtheyȱthemselves sourcesȱofȱsocietalȱevil?”ȱandȱ“DoȱAfricanȱreligionsȱhelpȱpeople toȱ liveȱ togetherȱ peacefullyȱ andȱ respectȱ eachȱ other?”ȱ Iȱ amȱ inȬ clinedȱtoȱconclude—onȱtheȱbasisȱofȱourȱfieldworkȱamongȱtheȱSuȬ kumaȱ peopleȱ andȱ ourȱ readingȱ aboutȱ otherȱ Africanȱ societies— thatȱtheyȱdoȱsoȱmainlyȱwithinȱtheȱextendedȱfamily.ȱOutsideȱthe extendedȱfamily,ȱtheȱotherȱisȱconsideredȱtoȱbeȱaȱstrangerȱandȱpoȬ tentialȱ enemy.ȱ Thatȱ isȱ whyȱ Africanȱ leadersȱ likeȱ toȱ surround themselvesȱwithȱfamilyȱandȱclanȱmembers.ȱAnȱexceptionȱtoȱthe ruleȱisȱAfricanȱhospitality.ȱButȱinȱmanyȱAfricanȱsocietiesȱtheȱunȬ knownȱ guestȱ orȱ strangerȱ isȱ metȱ withȱ suspicionȱ (Olikenyiȱ 2001: 106).

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Inȱanȱeraȱofȱglobalization,ȱtheȱdebateȱonȱtheȱcausesȱofȱevilȱin Africaȱhasȱrevived.ȱWhereasȱtheȱdominantȱtrendȱisȱtoȱblameȱthe Westȱ forȱ allȱ theȱ evilsȱ inȱ Africa,ȱ thereȱ isȱ alsoȱ recognitionȱ ofȱ and reflectionȱ onȱ Africans’ȱ ownȱ responsibilityȱ inȱ theȱ presentȱ situaȬ tion.ȱInȱthisȱpaperȱIȱhaveȱreflectedȱonȱtheȱrelationȱbetweenȱAfriȬ canȱreligionȱandȱsocietalȱevil.ȱOneȱlessonȱtoȱbeȱlearnedȱfromȱthis reflectionȱ isȱ thatȱ theȱ rehabilitationȱ ofȱ Africanȱ religionȱ isȱ good andȱ necessaryȱ butȱ oneȱ mustȱ avoidȱ theȱ pitfallȱ ofȱ romanticizing theȱ past.ȱ Whileȱ notȱ denyingȱ theȱ advantagesȱ ofȱ religiousȱ comȬ munitarianism,ȱ weȱ recognizeȱ thatȱ thisȱ worldviewȱ hasȱ many weaknessesȱandȱmistakesȱsinceȱitȱcanȱeasilyȱleadȱtoȱauthoritarian andȱtotalitarianȱregimes,ȱtheȱsuppressionȱofȱindividualȱfreedom andȱofȱindustriousȱcreativity. Happily,ȱthisȱisȱnoȱlongerȱprimarilyȱaȱdebateȱbetweenȱEuroȬ peanȱ andȱ Africanȱ scholarsȱ onlyȱ (O’Donohueȱ 1989).ȱ Itȱ hasȱ beȬ comeȱaȱdebateȱprimarilyȱamongȱAfricanȱscholarsȱthemselves,ȱbeȬ tweenȱ menȱ andȱ women,ȱ theȱ olderȱ andȱ youngerȱ generations, AfricansȱlivingȱinȱAfricaȱandȱAfricansȱinȱtheȱdiaspora.ȱThisȱproȬ cessȱcanȱhelpȱAfricansȱtoȱcomeȱtoȱtermsȱwithȱtheirȱownȱhistory. Inȱ Africanȱ professionalȱ philosophyȱ thisȱ processȱ isȱ longȱ underȬ way;ȱinȱAfricanȱtheology,ȱhowever,ȱitȱhasȱjustȱstarted. Bibliography Abbink,ȱJ.ȱetȱal.ȱ(eds).ȱ(2003).ȱRethinkingȱResistance:ȱRevoltȱandȱViolenceȱin AfricanȱHistory.ȱLeiden/Boston:ȱBrill. Aguilar,ȱM.ȱ(1998).ȱTheȱRwandaȱGenocide.ȱEldoret:ȱAmeceaȱGabaȱPublicȬ ations. Appiah,ȱK.ȱ(1992).ȱȱInȱMyȱFather’sȱHouse:ȱAfricaȱinȱtheȱPhilosophyȱofȱCulȬ ture.ȱNewȱYork/Oxford:ȱOxfordȱUniversityȱPress.ȱȱ BoeleȱvanȱHensbroek,ȱP.ȱ(2001),ȱ“Introduction.”ȱAfricanȱRenaissanceȱand UbuntuȱPhilosophy.ȱSpecialȱIssueȱofȱQuestȱ15:ȱ3Ȭ7. Brandström,ȱ P.ȱ (1990).ȱ Boundlessȱ Universe:ȱ Theȱ Cultureȱ ofȱ Expansion amongȱ theȱ SukumaȬNyamweziȱ ofȱ Tanzania.ȱ Uppsalaȱ University:ȱ DeȬ partmentȱofȱCulturalȱAnthropology. Bujo,ȱ B.ȱ (1997).ȱ Theȱ Ethicalȱ Dimensionȱ ofȱ Community:ȱ Theȱ Africanȱ Model andȱ theȱ Dialogueȱ betweenȱ Northȱ andȱ South.ȱ Nairobi:ȱ Paulinesȱ PubȬ lications. ByaruhangaȬAkiiki,ȱA.ȱ(1982).ȱReligionȱinȱBunyoro.ȱNairobi:ȱKLB.

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Nangoli,ȱM.ȱ(1986).ȱNoȱMoreȱLiesȱaboutȱAfrica:ȱHereȱIsȱtheȱTruthȱfromȱan African.ȱEastȱOrange:ȱAfricanȱHeritageȱPublishers. Nknemnkia,ȱM.ȱ(1999).ȱAfricanȱVitalogy:ȱAȱStepȱForwardȱinȱAfricanȱThinkȬ ing.ȱNairobi:ȱPaulinesȱPublications. Nyerere,ȱJ.ȱ(1967).ȱFreedomȱandȱUnity.ȱDarȱesȱSalaam:ȱOxfordȱUniversity Press. (1968).ȱ Freedomȱ andȱ Socialism.ȱ Darȱ esȱ Salaam:ȱ Oxfordȱ University Press. Odak,ȱO.ȱ(1997).ȱKemeticism:ȱTheȱWorldȱReligionȱofȱBlackȱPeoples.ȱNairobi: MadoaȱCulturalȱServices. O’Donohue,ȱ J.ȱ (1989).ȱ “Theȱ Problemȱ ofȱ Africa.”ȱ Theȱ Africanȱ Mind:ȱ A JournalȱofȱReligonȱandȱPhilosophyȱinȱAfricaȱ1:ȱ136Ȭ49. Olikenyi,ȱG.ȱȱ(2001).ȱAfricanȱHospitality:ȱAȱModelȱforȱtheȱ Communication ofȱtheȱGospelȱinȱtheȱAfricanȱCulturalȱContext.ȱNettetal:ȱSteylerȱVerlag. Onwubiko,ȱO.ȱ(1999).ȱTheȱChurchȱasȱtheȱFamilyȱofȱGod:ȱUjamaa.ȱNsukka: FulladuȱPublishingȱCompany. Peel,ȱJ.ȱ(1978).ȱ“TheȱChristianizationȱofȱAfricanȱSociety:ȱSomeȱPossible Models.”ȱIn:ȱE.ȱFasholéȬLukeȱetȱal.ȱ(eds).ȱChristianityȱinȱIndependent Africa.ȱLondon:ȱRexȱColings.ȱPp.ȱ443Ȭ54. Platvoet,ȱJ.ȱandȱH.ȱvanȱRinsum.ȱ(2003).ȱ“IsȱAfricaȱIncurablyȱReligious? ConfessionȱandȱContestingȱanȱInvention.”ȱExchangeȱ32:ȱȱ123Ȭ53. Robertson,ȱ R.ȱ (1995).ȱ “Glocalization:ȱ TimeȬSpaceȱ andȱ HomogeneityȬ Heterogeneity.”ȱIn:ȱScottȱLashȱandȱRolandȱRobertsonȱ(eds).ȱGlobal Modernities.ȱLondonȱetȱal.:ȱSageȱPublications.ȱPp.ȱ25Ȭ44. Setiloane,ȱ G.ȱ (1976).ȱ Theȱ Imageȱ ofȱ Godȱ amongȱ theȱ SothoȬTswana.ȱ RotterȬ dam:ȱBalkema. Signer,ȱD.ȱ(2004).ȱDieȱökonomieȱderȱHexereiȱoderȱwarumȱesȱinȱAfrikaȱkeine Wolkenkratzerȱgibt.ȱWuppertal:ȱPeterȱHammerȱVerlag. Skinnader,ȱ J.ȱ (2002).ȱ “InterȬethnicȱ Conflictsȱ inȱ Africa:ȱ Theȱ Rwandan Tragedy.”ȱ In:ȱ P.ȱ Odozorȱ etȱ al.ȱ (eds).ȱ Africa:ȱ Towardsȱ Prioritiesȱ of Mission.ȱEnugu:ȱSpiritanȱInternationalȱSchoolȱofȱTheology.ȱPp.ȱ48Ȭ 56. Schweigman,ȱC.ȱȱ(2001).ȱ“Ujamaa:ȱAȱPhantom.”ȱQuestȱ15:ȱ113Ȭ25. StögerȬEising,ȱV.ȱ(2000).ȱ“UjamaaȱRevisited:ȱIndigenousȱandȱEuropean Influencesȱ inȱ Weaknessesȱ andȱ Mistakes.ȱ Nyerere’sȱ Socialȱ and PoliticalȱThought.”ȱAfricaȱ70:ȱ118Ȭ43. Tarimo,ȱA.ȱ(2004).ȱHumanȱRights,ȱCulturalȱDifferencesȱandȱtheȱChurchȱin Africa.ȱMorogoro:ȱSalvatorianum. Terȱ Haar,ȱ G.ȱ (2000).ȱ Rats,ȱ Cockroachesȱ andȱ Peopleȱ likeȱ Us:ȱ Viewsȱ ofȱ HuȬ manityȱandȱHumanȱRights.ȱTheȱHague:ȱInstituteȱofȱSocialȱStudies.

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VanȱBinsbergen,ȱW.ȱ(2003).ȱInterculturalȱEncounters:ȱAfricanȱandȱAnthroȬ pologicalȱ Lessonsȱ towardsȱ aȱ Philosophyȱ ofȱ Interculturality.ȱ Münster: LITȱVerlag. VanȱderȱVeen,ȱR.ȱ(2004).ȱWhatȱWentȱWrongȱwithȱAfrica?ȱAȱContemporary History.ȱAmsterdam:ȱRoyalȱTropicalȱInstitute. Vanȱ Rinsum,ȱ H.ȱ (2003).ȱ “Knowingȱ theȱ African:ȱ Edwinȱ W.ȱ Smithȱ and theȱ Inventionȱ ofȱ Africanȱ Traditionalȱ Religion.”ȱ In:ȱ J.ȱ Coxȱ andȱ G. terȱ Haarȱ (eds).ȱ Uniquelyȱ African?ȱ Africanȱ Christianȱ Identityȱ from CulturalȱandȱHistoricalȱPerspectives.ȱTrenton/Asmara:ȱAfricaȱWorld Press. Wijsen,ȱF.ȱandȱR.ȱTanner.ȱ(2000).ȱSeekingȱaȱGoodȱlife:ȱReligionȱandȱSociety inȱUsukuma,ȱTanzania.ȱNairobi:ȱPaulinesȱPublications. (2002).ȱ“IȱamȱjustȱaȱSukuma”:ȱGlobalizationȱandȱIdentityȱConstruction inȱNorthwestȱTanzania.ȱAmsterdam/NewȱYork:ȱEditionsȱRodopi.ȱ Wiredu,ȱK.ȱ(1980).ȱPhilosophyȱandȱanȱAfricanȱCulture.ȱCambridge:ȱCamȬ bridgeȱUniversityȱPress.

PartȱIII

CopingȱwithȱEvil

ReligionȱandȱEvilȱfromȱtheȱPerspective ofȱMimeticȱTheory AndréȱLascaris

Abstract Thisȱpaperȱisȱbasedȱonȱaȱspecificȱanthropology,ȱtheȱmimeticȱtheory,ȱdeveloped byȱtheȱFrenchȱliteraryȱscholarȱRenéȱGirardȱforȱdealingȱwithȱhumanȱviolence; evilȱasȱaȱculturalȱphenomenon.ȱHereȱviolenceȱisȱviewedȱasȱtheȱprimaryȱformȱof evil.ȱEarthquakes,ȱtornadoes,ȱandȱtheȱmorbidȱgrowthȱofȱcellsȱinȱtheȱbodyȱare calledȱevilȱinȱanȱanalogousȱway.ȱItȱisȱratherȱtheȱhumanȱresponseȱthatȱȱdetermȬ inesȱ whetherȱ somethingȱ isȱ evilȱ andȱ evokesȱ theȱ question:ȱ Howȱ doesȱ oneȱ cope withȱviolence?ȱUnmaskingȱtheȱscapegoatȱmechanismȱandȱrefusingȱtoȱapplyȱit helpsȱ preventȱ violence.ȱ Theȱ enemy,ȱ theȱ potentialȱ scapegoat,ȱ isȱ humanized throughȱ loveȱ andȱ theȱ distinctionȱ betweenȱ “us”ȱ andȱ “him”ȱ isȱ rejected.ȱ In manyȱ cases,ȱ doingȱ theȱ unexpectedȱ andȱ usingȱ paradoxicalȱ interventionsȱ may stopȱorȱpreventȱviolence.ȱTheȱviciousȱcircleȱofȱviolenceȱisȱbrokenȱbyȱaskingȱfor forgivenessȱ andȱ byȱ grantingȱ it.ȱ Forgivenessȱ isȱ notȱ toȱ beȱ understoodȱ asȱ an emotionȱbutȱfirstȱofȱallȱasȱanȱactȱofȱacceptance.ȱTheȱmimeticȱtheoryȱrelatesȱdiȬ rectlyȱ toȱ theȱ questionȱ ofȱ theȱ relationshipȱ betweenȱ religionȱ andȱ evil.ȱ Inȱ this theoryȱ theȱ worldȱ inȱ whichȱ weȱ liveȱ isȱ aȱ placeȱ ofȱ desire,ȱ conflictȱ andȱ violence; religionȱ isȱ aȱ wayȱ ofȱ containingȱ violenceȱ soȱ thatȱ humanȱ beingsȱ canȱ liveȱ toȬ getherȱinȱpeace.

Introduction Theȱ mimeticȱ theoryȱ originatedȱ withȱ Renéȱ Girardȱ whoȱ pointed toȱtheȱroleȱofȱimitationȱinȱPlatoȱandȱAristotle.ȱGirardȱformulated theȱhypothesisȱthatȱhumanȱbeingsȱdoȱnotȱdesireȱautonomously, asȱ Romanticismȱ suggests,ȱ butȱ byȱ imitatingȱ theȱ desiresȱ ofȱ other humanȱ beings.ȱ Theyȱ desireȱ especiallyȱ theȱ apparentlyȱ unique thingsȱ thatȱ othersȱ alreadyȱ possessȱ orȱ desire.ȱ Rivalryȱ results fromȱ thisȱ imitationȱ andȱ violenceȱ mayȱ thenȱ emerge.ȱ Rivalryȱ is highlyȱimitative:ȱitȱescalatesȱandȱisȱcontagious.ȱBecauseȱviolence isȱaȱthreatȱtoȱhumanȱcommunity,ȱsocietiesȱattemptȱtoȱovercome thisȱ violenceȱ byȱ theȱ violenceȱ ofȱ scapegoating,ȱ whichȱ produces 187

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peaceȱbetweenȱthoseȱwhoȱdriveȱoutȱtheȱscapegoat.ȱScapegoating becomesȱ aȱ sacrificialȱ riteȱ andȱ isȱ theȱ startingȱ pointȱ ofȱ religion, whichȱ isȱ aȱ wayȱ ofȱ keepingȱ violenceȱ reinedȱ in.ȱ Becauseȱ ofȱ its backgroundȱ inȱ theȱ Jewishȱ tradition,ȱ theȱ Christianȱ traditionȱ reȬ jectsȱscapegoatingȱasȱsuch.ȱFromȱtheȱperspectiveȱofȱtheȱmimetic theory,ȱevilȱoriginatesȱinȱhumanȱbehaviorȱandȱisȱaȱmatterȱofȱhuȬ manȱ responsibility.ȱ However,ȱ humanȱ beingsȱ participateȱ inȱ a traditionȱ ofȱ evilȱ andȱ scapegoatingȱ thatȱ mayȱ overpowerȱ their will.ȱ Religionȱ canȱ beȱ usedȱ toȱ defendȱ one’sȱ personalȱ andȱ social identity,ȱ toȱ convinceȱ peopleȱ toȱ sacrificeȱ theirȱ livesȱ andȱ toȱ obey withoutȱcriticism.ȱItȱisȱoftenȱmerciless.ȱViolenceȱcanȱbeȱstopped onlyȱbyȱforgivenessȱandȱpromise. BornȱinȱAvignonȱinȱFranceȱinȱ 1923,ȱ GirardȱmovedȱtoȱIndiȬ anapolisȱinȱAmericaȱinȱ1948.ȱAtȱthatȱtime,ȱtheȱpracticeȱofȱlynchȬ ingȱpeopleȱaccusedȱofȱseriousȱcrimesȱsuchȱasȱrapeȱhadȱnotȱasȱyet diedȱ outȱ completelyȱ inȱ theȱ Americanȱ south.ȱ Sinceȱ 1974ȱ he taughtȱFrenchȱliteratureȱandȱcultureȱatȱStanfordȱUniversity,ȱCalȬ ifornia.ȱHeȱhasȱpublishedȱaȱgreatȱdeal,ȱmainlyȱinȱFrench.ȱHeȱbeȬ ganȱasȱanȱadmirerȱofȱNietzscheȱbutȱlaterȱrejectedȱhisȱviewsȱand becameȱaȱChristian,ȱgoingȱinȱaȱdirectionȱoppositeȱtoȱthatȱofȱmost peopleȱ atȱ thisȱ time.ȱ Thisȱ didȱ notȱ makeȱ himȱ veryȱ popular. Moreover,ȱhisȱpopularityȱwasȱnotȱenhancedȱbyȱtheȱfactȱthatȱhis theoryȱseemsȱtoȱofferȱmanyȱexplanationsȱofȱimportantȱissuesȱin aȱ greatȱ varietyȱ ofȱ disciplinesȱ suchȱ asȱ religion,ȱ theology,ȱ psyȬ chology,ȱeconomics,ȱanthropology,ȱsociologyȱandȱphilosophy.ȱI cameȱintoȱcontactȱwithȱGirard’sȱmimeticȱtheoryȱinȱtheȱcontextȱof violenceȱ asȱ well.ȱ Iȱ wasȱ involvedȱ inȱ peaceȱ workȱ inȱ Northern IrelandȱforȱmanyȱyearsȱasȱaȱmemberȱofȱaȱcommitteeȱthatȱorganȬ izedȱconferencesȱforȱpeopleȱfromȱNorthernȱIreland.ȱTheseȱtook placeȱ inȱ Hollandȱ atȱ first,ȱ soȱ asȱ toȱ makeȱ itȱ possibleȱ forȱ themȱ to lookȱ atȱ theȱ “troubles”ȱ fromȱ someȱ distance.ȱ Conferencesȱ were laterȱheldȱinȱNorthernȱIrelandȱitself. MimeticȱTheoryȱinȱSixȱSteps IȱwillȱoutlineȱtheȱmimeticȱtheoryȱinȱsixȱstepsȱandȱgiveȱsomeȱexȬ amplesȱ thatȱ clarifyȱ thisȱ theory.ȱ Althoughȱ Girard’sȱ languageȱ is notȱveryȱdifficult,ȱmanyȱpeopleȱfindȱtheȱmimeticȱtheoryȱdifficult becauseȱitȱdemandsȱaȱnewȱwayȱofȱlookingȱatȱliterature,ȱreligion, societyȱ andȱ themselves.ȱ Asȱ longȱ asȱ Girardȱ isȱ readȱ fromȱ a FreudianȱorȱMarxistȱperspective,ȱhisȱwritingsȱremainȱclosed.ȱHe

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offersȱ aȱ newȱ paradigm.ȱ Theȱ valueȱ ofȱ hisȱ “hypothesis,”ȱ asȱ he callsȱhisȱtheory,ȱbecomesȱapparentȱbyȱworkingȱwithȱit.ȱAfterȱinȬ dicatingȱ theȱ sixȱ steps,ȱ Iȱ willȱ discussȱ evilȱ brieflyȱ asȱ aȱ cultural phenomenon,ȱtheȱtraditionȱofȱevil,ȱandȱtheȱrelationshipȱbetween religionȱandȱevil. First,ȱ theȱ mimeticȱ theoryȱ beginsȱ byȱ arguingȱ thatȱ imitation or,ȱtoȱuseȱtheȱGreekȱword,ȱmimesisȱisȱtheȱbasisȱofȱcultureȱandȱof humanȱ life.ȱ Thisȱ isȱ notȱ aȱ newȱ idea.ȱ Aristotleȱ hadȱ already claimedȱ thatȱ humanȱ beingsȱ differȱ fromȱ animalsȱ becauseȱ they areȱbetterȱatȱimitating.ȱHumanȱbeingsȱareȱbornȱwithȱalmostȱno instinctȱ atȱ all;ȱ theyȱ haveȱ toȱ learnȱ everythingȱ andȱ areȱ ableȱ to learnȱ becauseȱ ofȱ theirȱ greatȱ talentȱ ofȱ unconsciousȱ imitation. Comparedȱ withȱ mostȱ animals,ȱ newbornȱ babiesȱ areȱ totallyȱ deȬ pendant,ȱbutȱtheyȱhaveȱthisȱwonderfulȱgiftȱofȱbeingȱableȱtoȱimȬ itate.ȱ Childrenȱ cannotȱ stopȱ repeatingȱ theȱ wordsȱ adultsȱ sayȱ to them.ȱHumanȱlanguage,ȱwithoutȱwhichȱthinkingȱdoesȱnotȱseem toȱ beȱ possible,ȱ isȱ transferredȱ (andȱ transformed)ȱ fromȱ oneȱ genȬ erationȱtoȱtheȱnextȱthanksȱtoȱtheȱamazingȱabilityȱofȱchildrenȱto imitateȱ theirȱ parentsȱ andȱ othersȱ andȱ evenȱ toȱ learnȱ different languagesȱ atȱ theȱ sameȱ timeȱ withoutȱ confusingȱ them.ȱ Modern people,ȱ whoȱ wantȱ toȱ beȱ originalȱ andȱ autonomous,ȱ tendȱ toȱ unȬ derestimateȱtheȱroleȱofȱimitationȱinȱhumanȱlife.ȱHowever,ȱimitaȬ tionȱshouldȱnotȱbeȱunderstoodȱasȱmereȱcopying.ȱSinceȱeachȱperȬ sonȱ isȱ theȱ productȱ ofȱ aȱ greatȱ numberȱ ofȱ mimeticȱ relationships, heȱorȱsheȱwillȱimitateȱinȱhisȱorȱherȱownȱway. Second,ȱ Girardȱ discoveredȱ thatȱ humanȱ beingsȱ alsoȱ imitate oneȱ another’sȱ desires.ȱ Someoneȱ desiresȱ somethingȱ becauseȱ anȬ otherȱ makesȱ itȱ desirableȱ byȱ desiringȱ itȱ orȱ byȱ possessingȱ it.ȱ GiȬ rardȱmadeȱhisȱdiscoveryȱbyȱcomparingȱstoriesȱlikeȱ“TheȱTaleȱof Foolishȱ Curiosity”ȱ inȱ Cervantes’ȱ Donȱ Quixoteȱ withȱ storiesȱ like Dostoyevsky’sȱ “Theȱ Eternalȱ Husband.”ȱ Heȱ couldȱ alsoȱ haveȱ reȬ ferredȱ toȱ theȱ storyȱ ofȱ theȱ soȬcalledȱ Fallȱ ofȱ Adamȱ andȱ Eve.ȱ The serpentȱ(symbol,ȱamongȱotherȱthings,ȱofȱmimesisȱorȱimitationȱbeȬ causeȱofȱhowȱitȱmoves)ȱmakesȱtheȱfruitȱofȱtheȱtreeȱofȱtheȱknowlȬ edgeȱ ofȱ goodȱ andȱ evilȱ moreȱ desirableȱ thanȱ thatȱ ofȱ theȱ other treesȱandȱthusȱmarksȱitȱoutȱasȱsomethingȱimportant.ȱWhatȱisȱdeȬ siredȱisȱunimportant;ȱthereȱisȱnoȱreasonȱwhyȱthisȱparticularȱtree, ofȱ allȱ theȱ trees,ȱ appealsȱ toȱ Eve.ȱ Theȱ treeȱ isȱ madeȱ anȱ objectȱ of desireȱbyȱaȱthirdȱparty,ȱtheȱ“model,”ȱtoȱuseȱGirard’sȱownȱterm. TheȱserpentȱpresentsȱitselfȱasȱaȱmodelȱforȱEve,ȱandȱEveȱbecomes theȱmodelȱforȱAdam.ȱIfȱweȱwereȱtoȱdrawȱaȱdiagram,ȱweȱwould

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notȱdepictȱhumanȱdesireȱasȱaȱstraightȱlineȱbetweenȱsubjectȱand objectȱbutȱasȱaȱtriangle:ȱaȱsubjectȱthatȱdesiresȱanȱobjectȱbecauseȱit isȱ alreadyȱ desiredȱ byȱ orȱ evenȱ inȱ possessionȱ ofȱ anotherȱ human beingȱ whoȱ figuresȱ asȱ aȱ model.ȱ Indeed,ȱ commercialȱ advertising recognizesȱ thatȱ anythingȱ canȱ beȱ theȱ objectȱ ofȱ desire.ȱ Itȱ mayȱ be somethingȱ veryȱ trivial,ȱ butȱ ifȱ itȱ showsȱ thisȱ beautifulȱ woman, thisȱmagnificentȱmanȱbuyingȱsomething,ȱweȱtendȱtoȱfollowȱsuit andȱacceptȱthemȱasȱourȱmodels.ȱInȱmanyȱcasesȱweȱareȱnotȱreally interestedȱinȱtheȱobjectȱbutȱinȱwhatȱtheȱpossessionȱofȱthisȱobject willȱmakeȱusȱinȱourȱownȱeyesȱandȱinȱtheȱeyesȱofȱothers:ȱaȱperson ofȱ substance,ȱ someoneȱ apart,ȱ almostȱ aȱ god.ȱ “Imitation”ȱ isȱ naȬ turalȱ toȱ us,ȱ likeȱ gravity.ȱ Weȱ learnȱ languages,ȱ humanȱ behavior andȱ cultureȱ throughȱ imitation,ȱ butȱ seldomȱ doȱ weȱ realizeȱ that weȱdesireȱbyȱdesiringȱwhatȱanotherȱdesires.ȱIfȱthisȱotherȱperson meansȱ aȱ greatȱ dealȱ toȱ us,ȱ weȱ willȱ findȱ itȱ extremelyȱ difficultȱ to resistȱidentifyingȱwithȱhisȱorȱherȱdesire. Third,ȱ conflictȱ emergesȱ whenȱ twoȱ peopleȱ desireȱ theȱ same thing,ȱtheȱsameȱwoman,ȱtheȱsameȱman,ȱorȱobjectsȱnotȱprovided forȱ byȱ massȱ production.ȱ Theȱ expressionȱ “theȱ same”ȱ evokes feelingsȱ ofȱ harmonyȱ andȱ peaceȱ inȱ us:ȱ lovingȱ theȱ sameȱ ideas, sharingȱ theȱ sameȱ interests.ȱ Butȱ whatȱ actuallyȱ happensȱ when twoȱorȱmoreȱpeopleȱdesireȱtheȱsameȱobject?ȱRivalryȱbreaksȱout; aȱconflictȱarisesȱthatȱmayȱescalateȱand,ȱifȱitȱisȱnotȱcontained,ȱlead toȱ physicalȱ andȱ psychologicalȱ violence.ȱ Thomasȱ Hobbesȱ was alreadyȱawareȱofȱthisȱwhenȱheȱwroteȱinȱ1651:ȱ“Ifȱanyȱtwoȱmen desireȱ theȱ sameȱ thing,ȱ whichȱ neverthelessȱ theyȱ cannotȱ both enjoy,ȱ theyȱ becomeȱ enemies;ȱ andȱ inȱ theȱ wayȱ toȱ theirȱ Endȱ … endeavourȱtoȱdestroyȱorȱsubdueȱoneȱanȱother”ȱ(Leviathan,ȱI,ȱ13). Theȱ “model”ȱ thatȱ makesȱ meȱ imitateȱ another’sȱ desireȱ will oftenȱbeȱmyȱobstacleȱasȱwellȱandȱwillȱthusȱbecomeȱmyȱrival.ȱFor heȱ possessesȱ theȱ thing,ȱ theȱ partnershipȱ orȱ functionȱ Iȱ desireȱ or desiredȱbeforeȱme.ȱTheȱmoreȱheȱisȱanȱobstacleȱtoȱmyȱbecoming whatȱ heȱ isȱ orȱ gettingȱ whatȱ heȱ has,ȱ theȱ moreȱ heȱ becomesȱ my “model”—andȱviceȱversaȱasȱwell.ȱTheȱmoreȱresistanceȱtoȱmyȱdeȬ sireȱincreases,ȱtheȱmoreȱmyȱdesireȱincreases. Becauseȱ theȱ rivals—aȱ wordȱ derivedȱ fromȱ theȱ Frenchȱ riverȬ ain,ȱsomeoneȱlivingȱonȱorȱnearȱaȱ“riverbank”—areȱsubjectedȱto imitatingȱeachȱother,ȱtheyȱwillȱbecomeȱmoreȱandȱmoreȱalikeȱin theirȱactions,ȱwords,ȱbehavior,ȱandȱevenȱinȱoutlook.ȱInȱtheȱproȬ cessȱtheyȱloseȱsightȱofȱtheȱoriginalȱsourceȱofȱtheirȱconflict.ȱThey trulyȱbecomeȱ“comȬpetitors”:ȱtheyȱareȱseekingȱ“together.”ȱThey

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becomeȱ“brothers”ȱandȱ“sisters.”ȱTheȱBibleȱcontainsȱmanyȱstorȬ iesȱinȱwhichȱtwoȱbrothersȱorȱtwoȱsistersȱ(orȱcousins)ȱfightȱforȱthe sameȱthingȱandȱeitherȱkillȱeachȱotherȱorȱsolveȱtheirȱconflictȱinȱa ratherȱ moreȱ creativeȱ way:ȱ Cainȱ andȱ Abel,ȱ Abrahamȱ andȱ Lot, Esauȱ andȱ Jacob,ȱ Josephȱ andȱ hisȱ brothers,ȱ Sarahȱ andȱ Hagar, Rebeccaȱ andȱ Leah,ȱ Elizabethȱ andȱ Mary,ȱ Johnȱ theȱ Baptistȱ and Jesus,ȱPeterȱandȱPaul.ȱItȱmayȱbeȱthatȱeveryȱtimeȱweȱcomeȱacross aȱ biblicalȱ storyȱ aboutȱ twoȱ disciples,ȱ twoȱ blindȱ people,ȱ two peopleȱ whoȱ areȱ possessed,ȱ weȱ haveȱ aȱ storyȱ aboutȱ aȱ “mimetic crisis,”ȱ aȱ conflictȱ situationȱ thatȱ blindsȱ people,ȱ possessesȱ them, turnsȱ themȱ intoȱ peopleȱ whoȱ debateȱ whoȱ isȱ goingȱ toȱ beȱ the greatest. Oneȱ canȱ manipulateȱ peopleȱ byȱ makingȱ useȱ ofȱ theȱ mimetic characterȱ ofȱ desire.ȱ Tomȱ isȱ tryingȱ toȱ watchȱ TV,ȱ butȱ hisȱ baby sister,ȱ Naomi,ȱ willȱ notȱ stopȱ walkingȱ betweenȱ himȱ andȱ the screen.ȱThisȱisȱaȱconflict.ȱHowȱisȱitȱtoȱbeȱresolved?ȱTomȱcanȱslap Naomi,ȱbutȱitȱisȱveryȱlikelyȱthatȱthisȱwillȱleadȱtoȱaȱfightȱthatȱwill endȱupȱwithȱbothȱofȱthemȱbeingȱpackedȱoffȱtoȱbed.ȱOrȱheȱcould askȱoneȱofȱhisȱparentsȱforȱhelp,ȱbut—althoughȱTomȱmayȱnotȱreȬ alizeȱ it—thisȱ couldȱ beȱ aȱ dangerousȱ courseȱ asȱ well:ȱ hisȱ parents mayȱ disagreeȱ withȱ eachȱ otherȱ andȱ theȱ conflictȱ couldȱ spread, evenȱ endȱ inȱ divorce.ȱ Orȱ Tomȱ couldȱ findȱ himselfȱ havingȱ toȱ acȬ ceptȱaȱcompromiseȱwhichȱheȱwillȱhaveȱtoȱpayȱforȱeitherȱnowȱor later.ȱInȱfact,ȱheȱdoesȱnotȱhesitateȱaȱmoment:ȱheȱknowsȱwhatȱto do.ȱ Heȱ getsȱ upȱ andȱ startsȱ playingȱ withȱ hisȱ sisterȇsȱ doll.ȱ When sheȱseesȱthis,ȱ Naomiȱ runsȱtoȱherȱdoll,ȱandȱTomȱcanȱgoȱbackȱto watchingȱhisȱfavoriteȱprogramȱinȱpeace. Childrenȱ andȱ adultsȱ makeȱ useȱ ofȱ suchȱ stratagems, especiallyȱ inȱ loveȱ affairs.ȱ Seldomȱ areȱ adultsȱ asȱ cleverȱ asȱ little Tom.ȱ Aȱ muchȱ moreȱ normalȱ procedureȱ whenȱ (forȱ example) Maryȱ andȱ Iȱ areȱ quarrelingȱ isȱ forȱ meȱ toȱ growȱ angryȱ andȱ sayȱ or doȱ somethingȱ thatȱ makesȱ Maryȱ growȱ angryȱ andȱ sayȱ orȱ do somethingȱinȱreturn.ȱIȱrespondȱandȱMaryȱreplies,ȱandȱourȱanger growsȱandȱgrows.ȱOrȱIȱdesireȱsomethingȱJohnȱhasȱand,ȱbecause Iȱdesireȱit,ȱitȱbecomesȱmoreȱimportantȱforȱhim—hisȱprideȱinȱposȬ sessingȱ itȱ grows,ȱ withȱ theȱ resultȱ thatȱ Iȱ wantȱ toȱ haveȱ itȱ even more.ȱ Aȱ conflictȱ develops,ȱ escalates,ȱ intensifies,ȱ peopleȱ soon forgetȱ whatȱ theȱ originalȱ conflictȱ wasȱ about,ȱ andȱ theȱ moreȱ it buildsȱ up,ȱ theȱ moreȱ theyȱ feelȱ theȱ temptationȱ toȱ goȱ forȱ theȱ deȬ cisiveȱ knockoutȱ blow,ȱ soȱ asȱ toȱ breakȱ outȱ ofȱ theȱ symmetryȱ in whichȱ theyȱ haveȱ imprisonedȱ themselves.ȱ Andȱ thenȱ theyȱ disȬ

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coverȱ that,ȱ evenȱ ifȱ theyȱ couldȱ knockȱ Johnȱ out,ȱ heȱ (orȱ atȱ least someȱofȱhisȱfriends)ȱwillȱcomeȱroundȱsoonerȱorȱlater.ȱOr,ȱworse still,ȱothersȱmayȱbecomeȱupsetȱaboutȱtheȱwayȱIȱhaveȱgottenȱȱrid ofȱJohn;ȱtheyȱmayȱbecomeȱconvincedȱthatȱwhatȱIȱfoughtȱforȱwas somethingȱ clearlyȱ veryȱ important,ȱ andȱ tryȱ toȱ acquireȱ itȱ for themselves.ȱ Moreȱ andȱ moreȱ peopleȱ mayȱ beȱ drawnȱ intoȱ aȱ conȬ flict,ȱasȱitsȱmimeticȱcharacterȱmakesȱitȱcontagious. Asȱ aȱ rule,ȱ humanȱ beingsȱ doȱ notȱ realizeȱ thatȱ theyȱ areȱ imiȬ tating,ȱforȱtheyȱlikeȱtoȱthinkȱthatȱtheirȱdesiresȱareȱspontaneous. Moreover,ȱitȱisȱnotȱjustȱthisȱorȱthatȱpersonȱbutȱtheȱwholeȱculturȬ alȱ communityȱ thatȱ actsȱ asȱ aȱ model:ȱ theȱ Dutchȱ cannotȱ possibly surviveȱwithoutȱtheirȱcoffeeȱbreakȱinȱtheȱmorning,ȱbutȱtheȱEngȬ lishȱ areȱ supposedȱ toȱ drinkȱ teaȱ inȱ theȱ afternoon.ȱ Evenȱ theȱ past andȱgreatȱpeopleȱorȱeventsȱofȱtheȱpastȱcanȱbecomeȱourȱmodels. Fourth,ȱifȱallȱthisȱisȱtrue,ȱhowȱcanȱweȱfindȱpeace?ȱHowȱcan weȱ surviveȱ inȱ thisȱ chaos,ȱ inȱ whichȱ everybodyȱ becomesȱ everyȬ body’sȱ “brother,”ȱ “sister,”ȱ “double,”ȱ soȱ thatȱ weȱ cannotȱ even distinguishȱ friendsȱ fromȱ enemiesȱ andȱ everybodyȱ looksȱ alike? GirardȱfoundsȱhisȱanswerȱprimarilyȱinȱanȱanalysisȱofȱSophoclesȇ OedipusȱRex.ȱInȱthisȱplay,ȱOedipusȱisȱmarkedȱasȱaȱscapegoatȱand drivenȱ outȱ ofȱ theȱ city,ȱ asȱ aȱ resultȱ ofȱ whichȱ orderȱ isȱ restoredȱ in Thebesȱ andȱ theȱ crisis,ȱ symbolizedȱ byȱ theȱ plague,ȱ comesȱ toȱ an end.ȱAfterȱthisȱexpulsion,ȱeverythingȱbecomesȱclear:ȱtheȱinhabȬ itantsȱofȱThebesȱknowȱwhoȱisȱwhoȱagain,ȱandȱtheyȱcanȱbuildȱa newȱ communityȱ onȱ theȱ basisȱ ofȱ theirȱ newȱ unity.ȱ Inȱ hisȱ later tragedy,ȱOedipusȱColonus,ȱSophoclesȱstressedȱstillȱanotherȱaspect ofȱtheȱscapegoatȱmechanism:ȱOedipusȱisȱpresentedȱtoȱusȱasȱthe oneȱ whoȱ broughtȱ peaceȱ andȱ orderȱ toȱ theȱ city.ȱ Atȱ oneȱ andȱ the sameȱ time,ȱ heȱ isȱ theȱ criminalȱ andȱ theȱ holyȱ one.ȱ Becauseȱ ofȱ his crime,ȱwhichȱallowedȱtheȱcrowdȱtoȱdriveȱhimȱoutȱwithoutȱfeelȬ ingȱ guilt,ȱ heȱ restoredȱ peace,ȱ andȱ isȱ thereforeȱ holy.ȱ Forȱ modern people,ȱthisȱlogicȱisȱveryȱconfusing—theyȱfindȱitȱalmostȱimposȬ sibleȱtoȱunderstandȱtheȱnotionȱofȱtheȱsacredȱthatȱunitesȱinȱitself whatȱisȱhealingȱandȱwhatȱisȱdestructive. Accordingȱ toȱ Girard,ȱ lynchingȱ orȱ drivingȱ outȱ aȱ scapegoat —theȱtermȱitselfȱisȱborrowedȱfromȱLeviticusȱ16:ȱ20Ȭ22ȱ(whereȱit hasȱonlyȱaȱritualȱmeaning)ȱisȱtheȱoldestȱwayȱofȱformingȱaȱcomȬ munity.ȱTheȱAmericanȱsociologistȱJ.C.ȱTurnerȱsaysȱtheȱsameȱby showingȱ thatȱ socialȱ groupsȱ areȱ formedȱ byȱ selfȬcategorization. Hannahȱ Arendtȱ andȱ othersȱ haveȱ pointedȱ outȱ thatȱ Romeȱ was foundedȱafterȱRomulusȱmurderedȱRemusȱandȱthatȱCainȱfoundȬ

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edȱtheȱfirstȱcityȱafterȱmurderingȱAbelȱ(Genesisȱ4:17).ȱItȱisȱaȱcomȬ monȱ featureȱ inȱ manyȱ culturesȱ thatȱ societiesȱ ariseȱ becauseȱ ofȱ a murder.ȱUnityȱemergesȱinȱaȱdividedȱsocietyȱwhenȱaȱscapegoatȱis foundȱ andȱ drivenȱ out,ȱ almostȱ likeȱ aȱ miracle.ȱ Theȱ tensionsȱ inȱ a familyȱ orȱ groupȱ mayȱ evaporateȱ atȱ theȱ veryȱ momentȱ thatȱ the familyȱ orȱ groupȱ membersȱ startȱ gossipingȱ andȱ thusȱ scapegoatȬ ing.ȱ Whereas,ȱ inȱ situationsȱ ofȱ chaos,ȱ everybodyȱ wasȱ everyone else’sȱbrotherȱorȱsister,ȱeveryone’sȱ“double,”ȱaȱclearȱdistinction isȱagainȱdiscernible:ȱallȱagainstȱtheȱscapegoat. Fifth,ȱ thisȱ differenceȱ givesȱ usȱ theȱ possibilityȱ ofȱ (again) structuringȱ ourȱ societyȱ anew.ȱ Byȱ makingȱ useȱ ofȱ someȱ rite,ȱ we goȱonȱrememberingȱtheȱdayȱthatȱweȱdroveȱtheȱscapegoatȱout,ȱat theȱsameȱtimeȱcoveringȱupȱtheȱbloodyȱaspectsȱofȱitȱasȱmuchȱas possible,ȱ asȱ theseȱ mayȱ stirȱ upȱ uneasyȱ feelingsȱ andȱ thusȱ create newȱconflicts.ȱTheȱmostȱprimitiveȱriteȱisȱtheȱbloodȱsacrifice,ȱthe centerȱ ofȱ whatȱ weȱ callȱ religion.ȱ Accordingȱ toȱ Girard,ȱ itȱ isȱ the taskȱ ofȱ religionȱ toȱ createȱ peaceȱ byȱ institutionalizingȱ theȱ scapeȬ goatȱ mechanismȱ andȱ collectiveȱ murder;ȱ religionȱ protectsȱ us againstȱ theȱ violenceȱ thatȱ mayȱ emergeȱ withinȱ society.ȱ Whenȱ a sacrificialȱ riteȱ failsȱ toȱ bringȱ aboutȱ peaceȱ andȱ societyȱ becomes chaoticȱagain,ȱaȱ“sacrificialȱcrisis”ȱbeginsȱwhichȱcanȱbeȱresolved onlyȱbyȱfindingȱaȱnewȱscapegoat. Inȱfact,ȱGirardȱisȱtalkingȱaboutȱthingsȱwithȱwhichȱweȱareȱall onlyȱtooȱfamiliar—forȱweȱareȱaccustomedȱtoȱtheȱscapegoatȱmeȬ chanism.ȱ Weȱ couldȱ thinkȱ ofȱ theȱ “blackȱ sheep”ȱ thatȱ soȱ many familiesȱ“cherish,”ȱcomplainingȱaboutȱhimȱallȱtheȱtimeȱandȱyet knowingȱatȱtheȱsameȱtimeȱthatȱtheȱfamilyȱisȱthusȱunited.ȱOften, weȱ needȱ anȱ enemyȱ toȱ giveȱ ourselvesȱ aȱ senseȱ ofȱ identityȱ and reality.ȱWhenȱweȱareȱangryȱwithȱourȱfellowȱhumanȱbeingsȱand sayȱorȱthinkȱdreadfulȱthingsȱaboutȱthem,ȱweȱcanȱbeȱsureȱweȱare speakingȱ ofȱ ourselves,ȱ becauseȱ weȱ areȱ unableȱ toȱ copeȱ withȱ the darkȱsideȱofȱourselves. Sixth,ȱ doesȱ theȱ scapegoatȱ mechanismȱ stillȱ workȱ inȱ our (postȬ)modernȱsociety?ȱYes,ȱbutȱitsȱuseȱisȱnoȱlongerȱundisputed. Itȱisȱincreasinglyȱdifficultȱtoȱmakeȱitȱworkȱinȱanyȱsituation.ȱThe discussionsȱsurroundingȱtheȱwarȱinȱIraqȱareȱaȱgoodȱexampleȱof theȱgrowingȱdoubtsȱpeopleȱseemȱtoȱhaveȱconcerningȱviolenceȱin generalȱandȱeasyȱscapegoatingȱinȱparticular.ȱAȱbookȱthatȱgloriȬ fiesȱwarȱcannotȱbeȱwrittenȱanyȱmoreȱunlessȱdisguisedȱasȱaȱnovȬ el.

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Girardȱ attributesȱ thisȱ toȱ theȱ influenceȱ ofȱ theȱ Jewishȱ and Christianȱ traditions.ȱ Thereȱ isȱ aȱ generalȱ tendencyȱ inȱ theȱ Old Testamentȱ toȱ takeȱ sidesȱ withȱ theȱ scapegoatȱ andȱ toȱ declareȱ the killerȱ ofȱ theȱ scapegoatȱ guilty,ȱ ratherȱ thanȱ theȱ scapegoat.ȱ The authorsȱofȱtheȱstoriesȱofȱtheȱpassionȱofȱJesusȱunmaskȱhisȱtrialȱas aȱ formȱ ofȱ scapegoating.ȱ Ratherȱ thanȱ beingȱ onȱ theȱ sideȱ ofȱ the scapegoaters,ȱ asȱ authorsȱ mostȱ ofȱ theȱ timeȱ areȱ (voxȱ populi,ȱ vox Dei),ȱ theyȱ sideȱ withȱ theȱ victimȱ (voxȱ victimae,ȱ voxȱ Dei).ȱ The churchȱisȱmeantȱtoȱbeȱtheȱcommunityȱofȱthoseȱwhoȱunderstand thisȱ revelationȱ andȱ putȱ itȱ intoȱ practice.ȱ Inȱ thisȱ sense,ȱ ChrisȬ tianityȱisȱaȱwayȱoutȱofȱreligion,ȱevenȱinȱaȱsenseȱtheȱendȱofȱreliȬ gion. Theȱ coreȱ ofȱ theȱ Sermonȱ onȱ theȱ Mountȱ isȱ Jesusȇȱ injunction: “Loveȱ yourȱ enemiesȱ andȱ prayȱ forȱ thoseȱ whoȱ persecuteȱ you” (Matthewȱ5:44).ȱThroughȱlove,ȱtheȱenemy—theȱpotentialȱscapeȬ goat—isȱ humanized,ȱ isȱ madeȱ toȱ beȱ likeȱ us,ȱ andȱ theȱ distinction betweenȱ“us”ȱandȱ“him”ȱisȱrejected.ȱHere,ȱloveȱisȱtoȱbeȱunderȬ stoodȱasȱanȱactȱofȱgrantingȱacceptanceȱandȱaȱnewȱfuture,ȱrather thanȱasȱanȱemotion.ȱTheȱSermonȱonȱtheȱMountȱisȱnotȱaȱpieceȱof dubiousȱidealizationȱ butȱ aȱ profoundȱanalysisȱofȱhumanȱdesire, conflictȱ andȱ scapegoating.ȱ Itȱ offersȱ severalȱ examplesȱ ofȱ “doing theȱunexpected”ȱbyȱwhichȱtheȱviciousȱcirclesȱofȱconflictȱcanȱsudȬ denlyȱbeȱbroken:ȱforȱexample,ȱbyȱrefusingȱtoȱgiveȱbackȱtheȱburȬ denȱ thatȱ ourȱ enemyȱ (historicallyȱ speaking,ȱ theȱ Romanȱ soldier) madeȱusȱcarryȱforȱaȱmile.ȱAtȱthatȱmomentȱourȱenemyȱlosesȱhis powerȱ overȱ us,ȱ heȱ isȱ atȱ aȱ lossȱ andȱ mayȱ beȱ readyȱ forȱ aȱ genuine meeting.ȱ Weȱ haveȱ toȱ takeȱ theȱ risk,ȱ however,ȱ thatȱ heȱ mightȱ not beȱableȱtoȱbearȱconfrontingȱhimselfȱandȱwillȱtryȱtoȱgetȱridȱofȱus! However,ȱ “doingȱ theȱ unexpected”ȱ willȱ failȱ asȱ soonȱ asȱ itȱ beȬ comesȱ merelyȱ aȱ tacticalȱ device.ȱ Theȱ Sermonȱ onȱ theȱ Mountȱ deȬ mandsȱ aȱ changeȱ ofȱ heart,ȱ anȱ innerȱ refusalȱ toȱ useȱ violenceȱ and makeȱscapegoatsȱeitherȱofȱpeopleȱoutsideȱusȱorȱofȱthingsȱinside us. However,ȱbecauseȱChristiansȱareȱlivingȱinȱaȱworldȱofȱdesire andȱviolence,ȱtheirȱtheologyȱandȱcommunityȱlifeȱandȱorganizaȬ tionȱ areȱ alsoȱ aȱ partȱ ofȱ thisȱ world.ȱ Theȱ factȱ thatȱ manyȱ people todayȱthinkȱthatȱChristiansȱdoȱnotȱdeserveȱtoȱbeȱtakenȱseriously doesȱ notȱ ariseȱ fromȱ theȱ biblicalȱ messageȱ itselfȱ butȱ fromȱ what theyȱmakeȱofȱit,ȱcoveringȱitȱupȱinȱtheȱlanguageȱofȱscapegoating andȱ sacrifice.ȱ Forȱ instance,ȱ Cardinalȱ F.ȱ Arinze’sȱ letter,ȱ RedempȬ tionisȱ Sacramentum,ȱ writtenȱ inȱ collaborationȱ withȱ Cardinalȱ J.

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Ratzingerȱ (nowȱ Popeȱ Benedictȱ XVI)ȱ andȱ publishedȱ inȱ March 2004ȱwithȱtheȱapprovalȱofȱPopeȱJohnȱPaulȱII,ȱisȱaȱtypicalȱexamȬ pleȱofȱaȱsacrificialȱideology,ȱaimedȱatȱdoingȱawayȱwithȱtheȱidea ofȱtheȱEucharistȱasȱaȱmealȱthroughȱmentioningȱtheȱwordȱ“meal” onlyȱonceȱ(andȱthenȱinȱtheȱstatementȱthatȱ“theȱEucharistȱisȱnot onlyȱ aȱ meal”).ȱ Jacquesȱ Derridaȱ wouldȱ haveȱ lovedȱ toȱ pointȱ out thatȱ theȱ wordȱ “meal”ȱ isȱ theȱ keyȱ toȱ theȱ text,ȱ evenȱ thoughȱ itȱ is almostȱabsent. EvilȱandȱTradition,ȱReligionȱandȱEvil Whenȱ weȱ discussȱ evilȱ fromȱ theȱ perspectiveȱ ofȱ theȱ mimetic theory,ȱevilȱisȱseenȱfirstȱofȱallȱasȱaȱculturalȱphenomenon.ȱNature isȱneitherȱtheȱsubjectȱnorȱtheȱobjectȱofȱmimeticȱrivalry.ȱAlthough earthquakes,ȱ tornadoes,ȱ tsunamisȱ andȱ theȱ morbidȱ growthȱ of cancerȱcellsȱinȱtheȱbodyȱcannotȱbeȱcontrolledȱcompletelyȱbyȱhuȬ manȱbeings,ȱandȱcanȱbeȱveryȱdestructive,ȱtheȱenvironmentȱand ourȱ bodiesȱ areȱ influencedȱ byȱ scientificȱ inventionsȱ andȱ areȱ beȬ comingȱmoreȱandȱmoreȱaȱpartȱofȱculture.ȱNaturalȱdisastersȱare oftenȱtheȱresultȱofȱhumanȱdecisionsȱandȱplanning.ȱTheȱmimetic theoryȱpointsȱtoȱhumanȱbehaviorȱasȱtheȱsourceȱofȱevil.ȱHuman beingsȱsetȱthemselvesȱonȱtheȱpathȱtoȱrivalryȱandȱviolenceȱbyȱimȬ itatingȱtheȱdesiresȱofȱtheirȱneighborsȱandȱcovetingȱtheirȱpossesȬ sions.ȱ Theȱ soȬcalledȱ tenthȱ commandmentȱ (Exodusȱ 20:17)ȱ isȱ a summaryȱofȱtheȱfourȱcommandmentsȱthatȱprecedeȱit.ȱTheȱmimȬ eticȱ theoryȱ resistsȱ theȱ temptationȱ toȱ mystifyȱ evil.ȱ Itȱ makesȱ huȬ manȱbeingsȱresponsibleȱforȱitsȱpresenceȱinȱtheȱworld.ȱItȱseesȱvioȬ lenceȱasȱevilȱasȱtheȱprimaryȱformȱofȱevil. Theȱ oftenȱ apparentȱ irrationalityȱ ofȱ evilȱ isȱ theȱ consequence ofȱ theȱ factȱ thatȱ humanȱ beingsȱ participateȱ inȱ aȱ traditionȱ ofȱ evil. Fromȱ theirȱ birth,ȱ humanȱ beingsȱ areȱ stuckȱ inȱ thisȱ worldȱ andȱ in theȱtraditionsȱintoȱwhichȱtheyȱareȱbornȱandȱgrowȱup,ȱthanksȱto theirȱ greatȱ abilityȱ toȱ imitate.ȱ Perhapsȱ theȱ mostȱ importantȱ traȬ ditionȱisȱtheȱuseȱofȱtheȱscapegoatȱmechanism.ȱAlthoughȱpeople haveȱ aȱ certainȱ freedomȱ ofȱ will,ȱ theȱ traditionȱ thatȱ theyȱ inherit andȱimitateȱpenetratesȱtheȱlifeȱofȱtheȱindividual.ȱTheȱwillȱofȱthe individualȱbecomesȱpartȱofȱaȱsuprapersonalȱdynamismȱthatȱpreȬ cedesȱ itȱ andȱ influencesȱ theȱ individualȱ inȱ makingȱ rationalȱ and freeȱdecisions. Examplesȱ ofȱ tendenciesȱ inheritedȱ fromȱ theȱ historicalȱ conȬ textȱareȱtheȱpursuitȱofȱperfectionȱorȱofȱhappiness,ȱtheȱpursuitȱof

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completeȱ rationalȱ transparency,ȱ theȱ convictionȱ thatȱ one’sȱ famȬ ily,ȱnationȱorȱreligionȱcomeȱfirst,ȱandȱblamingȱanotherȱpersonȱor groupȱwhenȱaȱdisasterȱlooms. Oneȱmayȱwishȱtoȱbeȱfree,ȱbutȱtheȱcontextȱhasȱalreadyȱbeen decidedȱ uponȱ andȱ orientsȱ theȱ soȬcalledȱ freeȱ decision—oneȱ can thinkȱ ofȱ theȱ membersȱ ofȱ theȱ Jewishȱ councilsȱ whoȱ wereȱ freeȱ to decideȱ whomȱ theyȱ wouldȱ sendȱ toȱ Germany.ȱ Or,ȱ althoughȱ one mayȱ notȱ haveȱ approvedȱ ofȱ executingȱ people,ȱ oneȱ hasȱ killed withoutȱ feelingȱ responsibleȱ forȱ murderȱ becauseȱ aȱ traditionȱ or someȱ politicians,ȱ religiousȱ leadersȱ orȱ mediaȱ people,ȱ supported byȱanonymousȱindividuals,ȱgroupsȱandȱbureaucraticȱstructures madeȱ ethnicȱ cleansingȱ mostȱ desirable.ȱ Inȱ suchȱ casesȱ aȱ more powerfulȱ forceȱ imprisonsȱ one’sȱ personalȱ power.ȱ Theȱ Christian traditionȱcallsȱthisȱ“originalȱsin,”ȱbutȱthisȱtermȱmayȱcauseȱsome confusion,ȱforȱtheȱwordȱ“original”ȱseemsȱtoȱreferȱtoȱanȱeventȱin theȱpastȱandȱtheȱwordȱ“sin”ȱtoȱaȱsituationȱofȱfreeȱchoice. Accordingȱ toȱ Girard,ȱ religionȱ ritualizesȱ theȱ scapegoatȱ meȬ chanismȱ andȱ createsȱ peaceȱ inȱ bothȱ privateȱ andȱ publicȱ life.ȱ Its purposeȱ isȱ toȱ driveȱ outȱ evilȱ andȱ toȱ promoteȱ peaceȱ andȱ justice. Religionȱ attemptsȱ thisȱ byȱ usingȱ aȱ littleȱ violence.ȱ Itsȱ ritualsȱ can leadȱ toȱ theȱ emergenceȱ ofȱ aȱ king—basicallyȱ aȱ scapegoat—and theȱ foundingȱ ofȱ theȱ state,ȱ definedȱ asȱ theȱ organizationȱ withȱ a monopolyȱ onȱ theȱ useȱ ofȱ violence.ȱ Itȱ canȱ leadȱ toȱ theȱ emergence ofȱaȱGodȱfigure.ȱItȱisȱpossibleȱtoȱkillȱaȱkingȱifȱheȱdoesȱnotȱliveȱup toȱexpectationsȱ(oftenȱrain,ȱaȱgoodȱharvest,ȱvictory),ȱbutȱitȱisȱnot possibleȱ toȱ killȱ Godȱ whenȱ thingsȱ goȱ wrong.ȱ Peopleȱ become awareȱthatȱtheyȱareȱthemselvesȱtoȱblameȱandȱdiscoverȱthatȱevil originatesȱinȱhumanȱbehavior. Allȱtheȱreligionsȱareȱinȱaȱprocessȱofȱdecreasingȱviolenceȱand castingȱ itȱ out.ȱ Inȱ spiteȱ ofȱ thisȱ commonȱ originȱ ofȱ theȱ scapegoat mechanism,ȱ theȱ world’sȱ religionsȱ differȱ onȱ howȱ toȱ dealȱ with evilȱandȱviolenceȱandȱinȱtheirȱviewsȱofȱtheȱworldȱandȱofȱhuman existence.ȱ Theȱ connectionȱ betweenȱ religionȱ andȱ violenceȱ exȬ plainsȱwhyȱoneȱcanȱemphasizeȱeitherȱtheȱviolenceȱorȱtheȱpeaceȱa particularȱ religionȱ represents.ȱ Becauseȱ scapegoatingȱ isȱ atȱ the basisȱofȱhumanȱculture,ȱreligionȱisȱfeltȱtoȱbeȱtheȱpowerȱofȱtheȱenȬ ergyȱofȱtheȱwholeȱrealityȱuponȱus.ȱWhenȱrepresentativesȱofȱaȱreȬ ligionȱ supportȱ violentȱ behaviorȱ insteadȱ ofȱ containingȱ it,ȱ their violenceȱisȱoftenȱmerciless.ȱForȱGodȱisȱsupposedȱtoȱbeȱinȱfavor ofȱ thisȱ violenceȱ andȱ itȱ isȱ placedȱ withinȱ theȱ contextȱ ofȱ aȱ cosmic warȱbetweenȱgoodȱandȱevilȱandȱthisȱmakesȱcompromiseȱalmost

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impossible.ȱMoreover,ȱitsȱgoalȱisȱtoȱconvinceȱpeopleȱofȱreligious truthȱratherȱthanȱtoȱachieveȱaȱpoliticalȱgoal.ȱReligionsȱinȱwhich sacrificeȱ(andȱthusȱsomeȱviolence)ȱisȱstillȱinȱuseȱmayȱincreaseȱthe willingnessȱ toȱ sacrificeȱ one’sȱ life.ȱ Peopleȱ areȱ calledȱ onȱ toȱ give theirȱlivesȱforȱtheirȱreligion,ȱfamily,ȱclan,ȱtribe,ȱnationȱorȱfatherȬ land.ȱ Theirȱ sacrificeȱ isȱ theȱ highestȱ religiousȱ act.ȱ Theȱ realityȱ of warȱandȱterrorismȱmayȱbeȱgruesome,ȱbutȱpreachers,ȱpoliticians andȱartistsȱofferȱaȱgloriousȱpictureȱofȱdyingȱforȱone’sȱfatherland orȱforȱjusticeȱorȱforȱpeace.ȱActually,ȱsoldiersȱandȱterroristsȱsacriȬ ficeȱ theirȱ livesȱ forȱ theirȱ comrades.ȱ Inȱ theȱ end,ȱ loyaltyȱ toȱ the membersȱ ofȱ theȱ groupȱ whoȱ protectȱ oneȱ another,ȱ shareȱ almost everythingȱ andȱ feelȱ asȱ oneȱ overȱ againstȱ theirȱ commonȱ enemy, theirȱ scapegoat,ȱ makesȱ soldiersȱ andȱ terroristsȱ fight,ȱ runȱ risks andȱgiveȱtheirȱlife. Religionȱ isȱ usedȱ toȱ giveȱ aȱ kindȱ ofȱ sacrednessȱ toȱ one’sȱ perȬ sonalȱandȱsocialȱidentity.ȱTheȱNorthernȱIrishȱconflictȱisȱaȱconflict betweenȱ twoȱ ethnicȱ groups,ȱ butȱ beingȱ Irishȱ isȱ identifiedȱ with beingȱaȱCatholic,ȱevenȱthoughȱIrishmenȱmayȱbelongȱtoȱaȱProtesȬ tantȱChurchȱorȱareȱJewishȱorȱMoslem.ȱBecauseȱreligionsȱappeal toȱpeopleȱtoȱbeȱobedientȱtoȱtheirȱtraditions,ȱincestȱandȱdomestic violenceȱareȱoftenȱjustifiedȱbyȱsayingȱthatȱwomenȱandȱchildren shouldȱ obey,ȱ byȱ referringȱ toȱ theȱ divineȱ fatherȱ whoȱ isȱ repreȬ sentedȱbyȱtheȱfatherȱatȱhome. Isȱ itȱ betterȱ toȱ dispenseȱ ofȱ religionȱ altogether?ȱ Democratic states,ȱ forȱ instance,ȱ doȱ notȱ wageȱ warȱ againstȱ oneȱ another.ȱ It seemsȱtoȱmeȱthatȱviolenceȱdoesȱnotȱdisappearȱinȱtheȱsecularȱcity butȱoccursȱinȱformsȱsuchȱasȱenvy,ȱblamingȱtheȱother,ȱcrime,ȱterȬ rorism,ȱ economicȱ colonization,ȱ povertyȱ andȱ ecologicalȱ destrucȬ tion.ȱ Everybodyȱ isȱ equallyȱ freeȱ toȱ rivalȱ withȱ anybodyȱ else,ȱ but thoseȱ whoȱ areȱ notȱ equallyȱ gifted,ȱ alwaysȱ lose.ȱ Inȱ aȱ secular world,ȱ everybodyȱ canȱ becomeȱ aȱ godȱ whenȱ someoneȱ imitates his/herȱdesires,ȱandȱcanȱbecomeȱaȱsatanȱwhenȱheȱturnsȱoutȱtoȱbe anȱobstacle. ForgivenessȱandȱRepentance Becauseȱofȱmimesis,ȱtheȱviolentȱelementsȱinȱreligionȱandȱsociety evokeȱ newȱ actsȱ ofȱ violence.ȱ Theirȱ victims,ȱ individualsȱ and groups,ȱ willȱ feelȱ justifiedȱ inȱ applyingȱ violenceȱ inȱ return.ȱ The onlyȱwayȱoutȱofȱevilȱisȱforgiveness,ȱwhichȱsetsȱpeopleȱfreeȱfrom theȱviolentȱpast,ȱandȱpromise,ȱwhichȱcreatesȱtheȱhopeȱofȱ peace

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inȱ anȱ uncertainȱ future.ȱ Forgivenessȱ isȱ notȱ toȱ beȱ understoodȱ as anȱ emotionȱ butȱ primarilyȱ asȱ anȱ actȱ ofȱ acceptance.ȱ Theȱ person whoȱ offersȱ forgivenessȱ mayȱ haveȱ feelingsȱ ofȱ furyȱ andȱ disgust towardȱthoseȱwhoȱmadeȱhimȱsuffer.ȱInȱspiteȱofȱtheseȱemotions, heȱmayȱacceptȱandȱseeȱthemȱasȱhumanȱbeingsȱlikeȱhimself,ȱwho areȱlookingȱforȱjustice,ȱalbeitȱinȱtheȱwrongȱway.ȱHeȱdoesȱnotȱbeȬ friendȱ themȱ butȱ grantsȱ themȱ (andȱ himself)ȱ aȱ futureȱ thatȱ isȱ not dominatedȱbyȱtheȱevilȱpast.ȱOvercomingȱangryȱandȱhostileȱfeelȬ ingsȱmayȱtakeȱmanyȱyears,ȱbutȱforgivenessȱcanȱbeȱgivenȱbefore theȱ woundsȱ haveȱ beenȱ healed.ȱ Byȱ forgivingȱ oneȱ refusesȱ toȱ imȬ itateȱtheȱperpetratorȱandȱdoesȱnotȱtakeȱrevenge:ȱ oneȱinterrupts andȱ arrestsȱ theȱ viciousȱ circleȱ ofȱ actsȱ ofȱ injustice,ȱ followedȱ by actsȱofȱrevengeȱthatȱareȱseenȱasȱviolenceȱthatȱshouldȱbeȱreturned byȱ someȱ newȱ violenceȱ andȱ soȱ on,ȱ adȱ infinitum.ȱ Forgivenessȱ is notȱ denyingȱ guiltȱ orȱ smoothingȱ overȱ theȱ evilȱ actȱ butȱ rather heapingȱ burningȱ coalsȱ uponȱ theȱ evildoer’sȱ head,ȱ overcoming evilȱ withȱ goodȱ (Romansȱ 12:17Ȭ21).ȱ Itȱ isȱ aȱ promise:ȱ “inȱ spiteȱ of theȱ harmȱ youȱ didȱ toȱ me,ȱ Iȱ shallȱ notȱ doȱ youȱ anyȱ harm.”ȱ SimȬ ilarly,ȱ inȱ Scripture,ȱ repentanceȱ isȱ aboveȱ allȱ aȱ newȱ wayȱ ofȱ life, andȱ isȱ notȱ onlyȱ aȱ feelingȱ orȱ emotion.ȱ Asȱ theȱ Hebrewȱ wordȱ for beingȱrepentant,ȱshub,ȱsuggests:ȱrepentanceȱisȱ“returning”ȱtoȱthe wayȱ ofȱ theȱ Lord,ȱ makingȱ restitutionȱ andȱ payingȱ compensation forȱtheȱharmȱoneȱhasȱdone.ȱItȱisȱnotȱsimplyȱaȱchangeȱofȱheartȱbut aȱ changeȱ ofȱ behavior.ȱ Grantingȱ forgivenessȱ canȱ beȱ imitatedȱ by bothȱthoseȱwhoȱreceiveȱitȱandȱbyȱthoseȱwhoȱseeȱitȱbeingȱgranted (Matthewȱ 18:23Ȭ35).ȱ Theseȱ conceptsȱ ofȱ forgivenessȱ andȱ repentȬ anceȱrunȱcounterȱtoȱpietismȱandȱcongenialȱtraditionsȱthatȱhadȱa greatȱimpactȱonȱtheȱChristianȱChurchesȱforȱatȱleastȱtheȱlastȱtwo centuries. Bothȱforgivenessȱandȱpromiseȱcanȱbeȱconsideredȱtoȱbeȱacts ofȱfaith,ȱbecauseȱtheyȱtranscendȱtheȱmimeticȱbehaviorȱofȱhuman beingsȱandȱtheirȱreciprocalȱviolence.ȱOneȱcannotȱundoȱtheȱpast norȱ guaranteeȱ futureȱ happiness.ȱ Byȱ forgivingȱ anotherȱ person andȱbyȱmakingȱandȱkeepingȱaȱpromiseȱoneȱisȱdoingȱsomething “tremendousȱandȱfascinating,”ȱbreakingȱdownȱtheȱwallsȱofȱthe prisonȱ ofȱ aȱ violentȱ pastȱ andȱ buildingȱ smallȱ islandsȱ ofȱ relative safetyȱinȱanȱoceanȱofȱuncertainty.ȱAȱnewȱworldȱisȱcreated.

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Bibliography Bailie,ȱ G.ȱ (1995).ȱ Violenceȱ Unveiled:ȱ Humanityȱ atȱ theȱ Crossroads.ȱ New York:ȱCrossroadȱClassic. Gauchet,ȱ M.ȱ (1985).ȱ Leȱ désenchantementȱ duȱ monde:ȱ Uneȱ histoireȱ politique deȱlaȱreligion.ȱParis:ȱEditionsȱGallimard. Girard,ȱR.ȱ(1961).ȱMensongeȱromantiqueȱetȱvéritéȱromanesque.ȱParis:ȱGrasȬ set. (1972).ȱLaȱviolenceȱetȱleȱsacré.ȱParis:ȱGrasset. (1978).ȱ Desȱ chosesȱ cachéesȱ depuisȱ deȱ laȱ fondationȱ duȱ monde.ȱ Paris: GrassetȱetȱFasquelle. (1991).ȱAȱTheaterȱofȱEnvy:ȱWilliamȱShakespeare.ȱOxford:ȱ St.ȱAugusȬ tine’sȱPress. (2004).ȱLesȱoriginesȱdeȱlaȱculture.ȱParis:ȱDescléeȱdeȱBrouwer. Hobbes,ȱT.ȱ(1968ȱ[1651]).ȱLeviathan.ȱHarmondsworth:ȱPenguinȱClassics. Juergensmeyer,ȱM.ȱ(2000).ȱTerrorȱinȱtheȱMindȱofȱGod:ȱTheȱGlobalȱRiseȱof ReligiousȱViolence.ȱBerkeley:ȱUniversityȱofȱCaliforniaȱPress. McFadyen,ȱ A.ȱ (2000).ȱ Boundȱ toȱ Sin:ȱ Abuse,ȱ Holocaustȱ andȱ theȱ Christian DoctrineȱofȱSin.ȱCambridge:ȱCambridgeȱUniversityȱPress. Oughourlian,ȱ J.ȬM.ȱ (1982).ȱ Unȱ mimeȱ nomméȱ désir:ȱ Hystérie,ȱ transe,ȱ posȬ session,ȱadorcisme.ȱParis:ȱGrasset. Ricoeur,ȱ P.ȱ (1960).ȱ Laȱ Symboliqueȱ duȱ Mal.ȱ Paris:ȱ Aubier/Editionsȱ MonȬ taigne. Safranski,ȱ R.ȱ (1999).ȱ Dasȱ Böseȱ oderȱ Dasȱ Dramaȱ derȱ Freiheit.ȱ Frankfurt: Fischerȱ(Tb.). Simonȱ Simonse.ȱ (2004).ȱ “Kingsȱ andȱ Godsȱ asȱ Ecologicalȱ Agents:ȱ ReciȬ procityȱandȱUnilateralismȱinȱtheȱManagementȱofȱNaturalȱOrder.” Paperȱreadȱatȱtheȱ2004ȱAnnualȱConferenceȱofȱtheȱColloquiumȱon ViolenceȱandȱReligion,ȱGhostȱRange,ȱAbiquiu,ȱNewȱMexico,ȱMay 31ȬJuneȱ6,ȱ2004;ȱwww.Girard.nl.ȱ Williams,ȱ J.G.ȱ (1991).ȱ Theȱ Bible,ȱ Violenceȱ andȱ theȱ Sacred:ȱ Liberationȱ from theȱMythȱofȱSanctionedȱViolence.ȱSanȱFrancisco:ȱTrinityȱPressȱInterȬ national.

CopingȱwithȱHumanȱEvil Shakespeare’sȱSenseȱofȱTragicȱRevenge LourensȱMinnema Abstract Evilȱisȱlikeȱtheȱromanticȱ“sublime”:ȱitȱisȱbeyondȱtheȱlimit,ȱbeyondȱtheȱrange andȱ limitsȱ withinȱ whichȱ humanȱ natureȱ canȱ copeȱ withȱ realityȱ andȱ find balance.ȱ Evilȱ generatesȱ aȱ disproportionateȱ lackȱ ofȱ humanȱ balance.ȱ Butȱ the responsesȱitȱevokesȱareȱdisproportionateȱasȱwell.ȱTheyȱhaveȱbeenȱcontaminated byȱ theȱ disproportionalityȱ evilȱ bringsȱ about.ȱ Theȱ evilȱ toȱ whichȱ Hamletȱ isȱ exȬ posedȱinȱShakespeare’sȱHamletȱconsistsȱofȱfratricide,ȱillegitimateȱsuccession, andȱ incest.ȱ Theȱ copingȱ strategyȱ Hamletȱ isȱ expectedȱ toȱ practiceȱ isȱ revenge. Doesȱrevengeȱrepresentȱaȱcopingȱstrategyȱthatȱhasȱtheȱpotentialȱtoȱbalanceȱthe political,ȱ social,ȱ moral,ȱ andȱ psychologicalȱ wrongȱ broughtȱ aboutȱ byȱ human evil?ȱShakespeare’sȱwork,ȱandȱȱHamletȱinȱparticular,ȱtellsȱtheȱstoryȱofȱevil’s complexities.ȱ Twelveȱ literaryȱ criticsȱ willȱ shedȱ theirȱ lightȱ onȱ Shakespeare’s senseȱofȱtragicȱrevenge.

AȱBriefȱOutlineȱofȱtheȱPlotȱinȱHamlet Theȱ playȱ beginsȱ withȱ someȱ guardsȱ talkingȱ aboutȱ aȱ ghostȱ who resemblesȱHamlet’sȱfather,ȱtheȱlateȱkingȱofȱDenmark.ȱTheȱghost laterȱ tellsȱ Hamletȱ thatȱ heȱ (Hamlet’sȱ father)ȱ wasȱ poisonedȱ by Claudius,ȱHamlet’sȱuncle,ȱwhoȱquicklyȱassumedȱtheȱthroneȱand marriedȱHamlet’sȱmotherȱGertrude.ȱTheȱghostȱinstructsȱHamlet toȱ revengeȱ hisȱ murder.ȱ However,ȱ Hamletȱ delaysȱ andȱ spends mostȱofȱtheȱplayȱdebatingȱhisȱinabilityȱtoȱtakeȱrevengeȱandȱactȬ ingȱasȱifȱheȱhasȱgoneȱmadȱ(takingȱonȱanȱ“anticȱdisposition”).ȱBy mistake,ȱheȱkillsȱPolonius,ȱtheȱLordȱChamberlain,ȱandȱisȱsentȱto England,ȱ supposedlyȱ mad.ȱ Onȱ hisȱ return,ȱ heȱ fightsȱ ȱ Polonius’ son,ȱ Laertes,ȱ andȱ isȱ killedȱ afterȱ beingȱ stabbedȱ withȱ aȱ poisoned sword.ȱButȱbeforeȱheȱdies,ȱHamletȱkillsȱClaudius.ȱGertrudeȱalso diesȱasȱaȱresultȱofȱdrinkingȱfromȱaȱpoisonedȱcupȱofȱwine.ȱHamȬ let’sȱ closeȱ friendȱ Horatioȱ isȱ givenȱ theȱ taskȱ ofȱ tellingȱ Hamlet’s 201

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story,ȱ whileȱ Fortinbras,ȱ theȱ newȱ kingȱ ofȱ Norway,ȱ assumesȱ the throneȱofȱDenmark. RevengeȱasȱaȱTragicȱPlotȱPattern Everyȱwriterȱwhoȱshapesȱaȱtragicȱplotȱpatternȱfacesȱtheȱproblem ofȱ settingȱ theȱ eventsȱ inȱ motionȱ andȱ achievingȱ theȱ gradualȱ narȬ rowingȬdownȱofȱanȱopeningȱsituation,ȱinȱwhichȱaȱwideȱrangeȱof alternativeȱpossibilitiesȱisȱavailable,ȱtowardsȱtheȱpointȱwhereȱan endȱtakesȱonȱitsȱfullȱshape.ȱHowȱisȱaȱtragicȱplotȱsetȱinȱmotion? Shakespeare’sȱ historyȱ playsȱ areȱ differentȱ fromȱ hisȱ greatȱ trageȬ diesȱ (Hamlet,ȱ Othello,ȱ Kingȱ Learȱ andȱ Macbeth).ȱ Johnȱ Peckȱ and MartinȱCoyleȱwrite: Inȱtheȱhistoryȱplays,ȱwhenȱthingsȱbeginȱtoȱgoȱwrong,ȱitȱisȱbeȬ causeȱpeopleȱareȱweak,ȱorȱfallible,ȱorȱambitious,ȱorȱresentȱauȬ thority.ȱ Inȱ theȱ majorȱ tragedies,ȱ however,ȱ theȱ passionsȱ that disruptȱ lifeȱ areȱ farȱ moreȱ extreme:ȱ thereȱ isȱ aȱ focusingȱ onȱ the evilȱinȱhumanȱbeings,ȱanȱevilȱthatȱresultsȱnotȱjustȱinȱtheȱdeath ofȱtheȱtragicȱheroȱbutȱalsoȱinȱtheȱdeathsȱofȱtheȱinnocentȱand goodȱwhoȱseemȱtoȱbeȱsingledȱoutȱforȱdestructionȱforȱnoȱother reasonȱthanȱthatȱtheyȱareȱinnocentȱ....ȱTheȱmomentȱtheȱfaçade ofȱ orderȱ isȱ shattered,ȱ weȱ beginȱ toȱ seeȱ theȱ cruel,ȱ viciousȱ and murderousȱsideȱofȱpeople,ȱtoȱseeȱtheȱselfȬseeking,ȱhatredȱand violence.ȱItȱisȱasȱifȱaȱfalseȱsenseȱofȱaȱcivilisedȱlifeȱhasȱexisted, butȱ theȱ momentȱ theȱ usualȱ socialȱ restraintsȱ areȱ relaxedȱ an overwhelmingȱ forceȱ ofȱ evilȱ isȱ released,ȱ andȱ thisȱ createsȱ the terribleȱdisorderȱofȱtheȱcentralȱstagesȱofȱaȱtragedy.ȱ (Peckȱand Coyleȱ1995:ȱ52)

WhereasȱinȱShakespeare’sȱhistoryȱplays,ȱsuchȱasȱAntonyȱandȱCleȬ opatra,ȱ theȱ disruptiveȱ forceȱ isȱ love,ȱ inȱ tragediesȱ itȱ isȱ theȱ overȬ whelminglyȱdisruptiveȱforceȱofȱevil.ȱTheȱreleaseȱofȱevilȱsetsȱthe plotȱinȱmotion. Accordingȱ toȱ Michaelȱ Ewans,ȱ oneȱ ofȱ theȱ mostȱ common waysȱofȱshapingȱaȱtragicȱstoryȱ(bothȱancientȱandȱmodern)ȱisȱto showȱ aȱ patternȱ ofȱ disorderȱ asȱ rectifiedȱ butȱ atȱ aȱ terribleȱ cost. Sophocles’ȱ Oedipusȱ Tyrannusȱ qualifiesȱ theȱ openingȱ situationȱ of theȱ plagueȱ inȱ Thebesȱ explicitlyȱ asȱ aȱ pollutionȱ (miasma)ȱ inȱ need ofȱpurificationȱ(catharsis)ȱ(Ewansȱ1998:ȱ453).ȱShakespeare’sȱHamȬ letȱrevealsȱtheȱsameȱpattern:

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Hamletȱisȱaȱrevengeȱtragedy,ȱbased,ȱlikeȱRichardȱIIIȱandȱMacȬ beth,ȱ onȱ theȱ familiarȱ sequenceȱ ofȱ unlawfulȱ usurpationȱ and eventualȱreȬestablishmentȱofȱorder;ȱbutȱitȱisȱgroundedȱupon theȱ conceptȱ ofȱ miasma,ȱ broughtȱ outȱ inȱ theȱ earlyȱ exchange betweenȱMarcellusȱandȱHoratio:ȱ“Somethingȱisȱrottenȱinȱthe stateȱ ofȱ Denmark.”ȱ \ȱ “Heavenȱ willȱ directȱ it”ȱ (I.iv.90Ȭ1). (Ewansȱ1998:ȱ449Ȭ50)1

TheȱclimacticȱmomentȱofȱAristotelianȱrecognitionȱcomesȱwhen, afterȱ finallyȱ acceptingȱ thatȱ heȱ mustȱ avengeȱ hisȱ father’sȱ death (V.ii.63ff.),ȱHamletȱattemptsȱrevengeȱandȱrecognizesȱthatȱheȱhas achievedȱitȱonlyȱatȱtheȱpriceȱofȱhisȱownȱdeathȱ(V.ii.326ff.). TheȱplotȱofȱHamletȱrevolvesȱaroundȱtheȱrevengeȱmotifȱ(KeyȬ ishianȱ 2003:ȱ 52Ȭ67).ȱ But,ȱ asȱ Harryȱ Keyishianȱ observes,ȱ thereȱ is notȱ justȱ oneȱ singleȱ revenge.ȱ Hamlet’sȱ father,ȱ theȱ ghost,ȱ deȬ mandsȱ revengeȱ forȱ havingȱ beenȱ poisonedȱ secretlyȱ byȱ hisȱ broȬ therȱClaudius.ȱButȱHamletȱhasȱbeenȱoffendedȱbyȱhisȱmotherȱin marryingȱ Claudiusȱ tooȱ quicklyȱ andȱ thusȱ committedȱ incest.ȱ BeȬ sides,ȱtoȱaȱcertainȱextent,ȱtheȱghostȱandȱHamletȱhaveȱcompeting agendas,ȱasȱtheȱclosetȱsceneȱshows.ȱTheȱghostȱisȱfocusedȱonȱkilȬ lingȱClaudiusȱwhileȱignoringȱanyȱroleȱhisȱformerȱwifeȱGertrude mayȱ haveȱ played.ȱ Hamletȱ hasȱ aȱ differentȱ agenda.ȱ Hisȱ mother hasȱbitterlyȱdisappointedȱhim.ȱHeȱwantsȱtoȱtakeȱrevengeȱonȱher andȱClaudiusȱforȱthatȱreason. Shakespeare’sȱHamletȱisȱaȱrevengeȱplayȱwhoseȱplotȱpattern oftenȱ evokesȱ theȱ question:ȱ Whyȱ didȱ Hamletȱ delay?ȱ According toȱJoanȱRees,ȱtheȱanswersȱofferedȱmayȱbeȱpsychologicalȱorȱphilȬ osophical,ȱmoralȱorȱreligious,ȱbutȱtheȱquestionȱitselfȱisȱbasically relatedȱtoȱdramaticȱstructure.ȱPutȱbaldly,ȱitȱis:ȱHowȱdoesȱShakeȬ speareȱ fillȱ theȱ intervalȱ betweenȱ theȱ instigationȱ toȱ revengeȱ and theȱactualȱactȱofȱvengeanceȱ(Reesȱ1978)? Thatȱ findingȱ materialȱ forȱ theȱ middleȱ ofȱ aȱ revengeȱ playȱ of thisȱtypeȱconstitutesȱaȱrealȱproblemȱcanȱbeȱillustratedȱbyȱreferȬ enceȱtoȱKyd’sȱSpanishȱTragedy. Kydȱ followsȱ Senecanȱ precedentȱ byȱ havingȱ theȱ ghostȱ ofȱ AnȬ dreaȱ andȱ theȱ figureȱ ofȱ Revengeȱ describeȱ toȱ theȱ audience thoseȱ eventsȱ precedingȱ theȱ openingȱ ofȱ theȱ playȱ whichȱ will

1

Ewans’ȱessayȱ(cf.ȱp.ȱ450)ȱincludesȱaȱbriefȱbutȱpointedȱdiscussionȱof theȱquestionȱwhetherȱtheȱplotȱpatternȱshouldȱbeȱcalledȱ“religious.”

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LOURENSȱMINNEMA requireȱtoȱbeȱrevengedȱwithinȱtheȱaction,ȱbutȱheȱenlivensȱthe wholeȱsituationȱbyȱhisȱownȱdeviceȱofȱaȱsecondȱmurderȱwhich takesȱplaceȱwithinȱtheȱframeworkȱsetȱupȱbyȱtheȱfirstȱrevenge scheme.ȱ(Reesȱ1978:ȱ171)

ShakespeareȱrejectsȱKyd’sȱdoubleȱcrimeȱideaȱ(wisely,ȱsince Kyd’sȱexampleȱshowsȱhowȱdifficultȱitȱisȱtoȱsustainȱequalȱinterest inȱ both)ȱ andȱ retainsȱ theȱ usualȱ Senecanȱ situationȱ inȱ whichȱ the murderȱ toȱ beȱ avengedȱ hasȱ takenȱ placeȱ beforeȱ theȱ playȱ begins. Butȱheȱdefersȱdescribingȱtheȱoriginalȱcrimeȱuntilȱnearȱtheȱendȱof ActȱI.ȱUpȱtoȱthatȱtime,ȱweȱcannotȱbeȱcertainȱthatȱitȱisȱgoingȱtoȱbe aȱrevengeȱplayȱatȱallȱ(Reesȱ1978:ȱ171Ȭ72).2 Theȱ ghost’sȱ theologicalȱ insistenceȱ onȱ sinȱ andȱ divineȱ judgȬ ment,ȱonȱhisȱstayȱinȱpurgatoryȱforȱsinsȱcommittedȱinȱhisȱlifetime ofȱwhichȱheȱcouldȱnotȱbeȱabsolvedȱbeforeȱhisȱsuddenȱdeath,ȱinȬ troducesȱaȱreligiousȱdimensionȱthatȱlinksȱmurderȱtoȱdamnation, ClaudiusȱtoȱMilton’sȱSatanȱinȱParadiseȱLostȱ(BookȱIV),ȱconfession toȱ conscience,ȱ andȱ repentanceȱ toȱ redemptionȱ (Reesȱ 1978:ȱ 178Ȭ 84).ȱSatanȱstrugglesȱwithȱmanyȱdoubtsȱandȱmanyȱpassions,ȱfear, envyȱ andȱ despair.ȱ Inȱ theȱ end,ȱ howeverȱ heȱ confirmsȱ himselfȱ in evil.ȱ Likeȱ Milton’sȱ Satan,ȱ onȱ Mountȱ Niphates,ȱ hesitatingȱ forȱ a finalȱ instantȱ beforeȱ committingȱ himselfȱ irredeemablyȱ toȱ evil, Claudiusȱpraysȱthatȱheȱmayȱbeȱcapableȱofȱpenitenceȱevenȱwhile hisȱselfȬwillȱisȱassertingȱitselfȱsoȱthatȱrepentanceȱwillȱbeȱimposȬ sible.ȱ Likeȱ Satan,ȱ Claudiusȱ knowsȱ thatȱ heȱ cannotȱ trulyȱ repent. Forȱ Hamlet,ȱ andȱ theȱ ghost,ȱ Claudiusȱ isȱ noȱ lessȱ thanȱ evil,ȱ and Hamlet’sȱmissionȱisȱtoȱexorcizeȱevilȱfromȱtheȱstateȱofȱDenmark.3

2

ȱWhatȱoneȱmightȱexpectȱonȱtheȱbasisȱofȱtheȱfirstȱsceneȱisȱaȱpolitical conflict:ȱthatȱtheȱtwoȱyoungȱsonsȱofȱtheȱtwoȱdeadȱkingsȱ(KingȱHamletȱof DenmarkȱandȱKingȱFortinbrasȱofȱNorway)ȱwillȱbeȱtakingȱupȱtheȱquarrels ofȱtheirȱfathersȱandȱthatȱtheȱaudienceȱisȱbeingȱpreparedȱforȱaȱpoliticalȱand dynasticȱstruggle.ȱButȱinȱtheȱsecondȱscene,ȱClaudius’sȱfirstȱspeechȱdraws immediateȱattentionȱtoȱtheȱfamilyȱsituationȱofȱtheȱroyalȱhouse,ȱwhereas theȱthirdȱsceneȱdealsȱwithȱtheȱloveȱrelationshipȱbetweenȱOpheliaȱand PrinceȱHamlet. 3

ȱReesȱ1978:ȱ183Ȭ84:ȱ“IfȱClaudiusȱisȱevilȱandȱHamletȱisȱdedicatedȱto destroyingȱevil,ȱtheȱconsiderationsȱwhichȱareȱfittingȱtoȱlessȱdramaticȱcirȬ cumstancesȱmayȱhereȱbeȱinappropriate.ȱAsȱaȱrevengeȱplayȱHamletȱtakes anȱ almostȱ entirelyȱ subterraneanȱ course.ȱ Theȱ flashesȱ ofȱ violentȱ action whichȱoccasionallyȱburstȱtoȱtheȱsurface—theȱdeathsȱofȱOphelia,ȱPolonius

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AccordingȱtoȱBertȱO.ȱStates,ȱwhoȱdoesȱnotȱtakeȱHamlet’sȱinȬ terimȱkillingsȱforȱgrantedȱasȱcasualȱslaughters,ȱasȱReesȱandȱHoȬ ratioȱdo,ȱtheȱcontributionȱofȱtheȱthreeȱmembersȱofȱtheȱPolonius familyȱtoȱtheȱplotȱisȱessentiallyȱtheȱsameȱasȱthatȱofȱtheȱ“trebling device”:ȱ theyȱ allowȱ Shakespeareȱ toȱ avoidȱ furtherȱ development ofȱtheȱactionȱofȱHamlet’sȱrevengeȱagainstȱClaudiusȱ(Statesȱ1992: 159).ȱTheyȱdoȱnotȱachieveȱthisȱbyȱaȱrepetitionȱofȱthreeȱtrialsȱbut throughȱ aȱ repetition,ȱ inȱ theȱ Frenchȱ senseȱ ofȱ aȱ rehearsal,ȱ ofȱ the mainȱ action:ȱ inȱ effect,ȱ theyȱ “repeat”ȱ theȱ denouementȱ beforeȱ it occurs,ȱ likeȱ theȱ playersȱ ofȱ Murderȱ ofȱ Gonzagoȱ whoȱ provideȱ still anotherȱrepetition,ȱretardation,ȱorȱtreblingȱofȱtheȱ“mainȱline”ȱof actionȱ byȱ literallyȱ playingȱ outȱ theȱ crimeȱ andȱ theȱ revengeȱ in reverseȱ orderȱ (firstȱ Pyrrhus,ȱ thenȱ theȱ Playerȱ Kingȱ andȱ Queen). Thus,ȱ throughoutȱ Hamlet,ȱ oneȱ hasȱ theȱ senseȱ ofȱ theȱ delaysȱ that imitateȱtheȱendingȱthatȱisȱtoȱcomeȱeventually.4 RevengeȱasȱaȱRoyalȱDuty AlvinȱKernanȱoffersȱaȱhistoricoȬpoliticalȱreadingȱofȱHamletȱ(KerȬ nanȱ1995:ȱ10Ȭ11).ȱAlthoughȱtheȱplayȱwasȱwrittenȱcircaȱ1600/1601 andȱmayȱorȱmayȱnotȱhaveȱbeenȱperformedȱatȱElizabeth’sȱcourt,

andȱRosencrantzȱandȱGuildenstern—areȱincidentalȱeruptionsȱwhichȱtesȬ tifyȱtoȱtheȱgreatȱenergiesȱengaged.ȱ‘Accidentalȱjudgements,ȱcasualȱslaughȬ ters’,ȱHoratioȱcallsȱthemȱ(V.ii.376).ȱTheyȱareȱnotȱpartȱofȱaȱlinkedȱandȱdeȬ liberateȱschemeȱofȱmurderȱasȱtheȱdeathsȱinȱTheȱRevenger’sȱTragedyȱare,ȱnor diversionaryȱincidentsȱasȱepisodesȱinȱTheȱSpanishȱTragedyȱare.ȱOnlyȱinȱAct VȱdoesȱactionȱcomeȱtoȱtheȱsurfaceȱtoȱbeȱresolvedȱbyȱswordȬplayȱandȱstabȬ bing.”ȱ Duringȱ theȱ disastrousȱ end,ȱ Reesȱ argues,ȱ itȱ isȱ Hamletȱ whoȱ is clearedȱofȱtheȱstigmaȱofȱcoldȬheartedȱbutcheryȱandȱofȱunderhandȱplotȬ ting.ȱInstead,ȱitȱisȱClaudiusȱwhoȱdoesȱtheȱunderhandȱplotting,ȱandȱitȱis LaertesȱwhoȱassumesȱtheȱroleȱofȱunscrupulousȱpursuerȱofȱbloodȱvenȬ geanceȱwhileȱriskingȱdamnationȱ(IV.v.132Ȭ38). 4 ȱStatesȱ1992:ȱ111Ȭ12:ȱ“Inȱthis,ȱtheȱplayȱisȱratherȱlikeȱWaitingȱforȱGodot, toȱwhichȱitȱisȱoftenȱcompared.ȱAtȱsomeȱpointȱitȱdawnsȱonȱyouȱthatȱGodot isȱ aȱ redȱ herringȱ andȱ thatȱ theȱ realȱ dramaȱ isȱ theȱ dramaȱ ofȱ ‘theȱ middle’ —thatȱis,ȱofȱwaiting,ȱratherȱthanȱofȱarrivalȱandȱconfrontation,ȱorȱthatȱthe auxiliaryȱarrivalsȱareȱindeedȱtheȱrelevantȱarrivalsȱ....ȱHamlet,ȱlikeȱGodot, isȱaȱspecialȱcaseȱofȱaȱmiddleȱthatȱisȱdevotedȱtoȱproblematizingȱitsȱending byȱpreaching,ȱsoȱtoȱspeak,ȱaȱphilosophyȱofȱimpasse.ȱItȱisȱoneȱthingȱforȱa workȱtoȱdelayȱitsȱconclusionȱinȱtheȱinterestȱofȱtellingȱaȱgoodȱstory,ȱanȬ otherȱtoȱpursueȱsoȱselfȬconsciouslyȱtheȱproblemȱofȱconcluding.”

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Kernanȱ suggestsȱ thatȱ itȱ wasȱ stagedȱ atȱ Hamptonȱ Courtȱ asȱ the likelyȱopeningȱplayȱofȱtheȱStuartȱreign,ȱinȱfrontȱofȱtheȱnewȱking Jamesȱ I.ȱ Accordingȱ toȱ Kernan,ȱ Rolandȱ Mushatȱ Fryeȱ hasȱ conȬ vincinglyȱ shownȱ howȱ eventsȱ inȱ Scotlandȱ inȱ theȱ 1560sȱ thatȱ had beenȱ theȱ talkȱ ofȱ allȱ Europeȱ forȱ aȱ generationȱ providedȱ material forȱtheȱHamletȱplot.ȱInȱ1665,ȱtheȱmotherȱofȱJamesȱI,ȱMaryȱStuart, Queenȱ ofȱ Scotland,ȱ marriedȱ herȱ distantȱ cousinȱ Henry,ȱ Lord Darnley.ȱSheȱsoonȱcameȱtoȱloatheȱtheȱweakȱandȱviciousȱDarnley andȱtookȱupȱwithȱtheȱsinisterȱJamesȱHepburn,ȱtheȱfourthȱearlȱof Bothwell,ȱwhileȱsheȱwasȱpregnantȱwithȱJames.ȱMaryȱandȱBothȬ wellȱ conspiredȱ toȱ murderȱ Darnley,ȱ theȱ proclaimedȱ fatherȱ of James.ȱDarnleyȱwasȱmurderedȱbutȱMaryȱneverȱadmittedȱtoȱhavȬ ingȱ anyȱ partȱ inȱ theȱ murder.ȱ Likeȱ Gertrudeȱ inȱ theȱ play,ȱ she scarcelyȱ botheredȱ withȱ theȱ formalitiesȱ ofȱ mourningȱ andȱ was seenȱ everywhereȱ withȱ Bothwellȱ whoȱ wasȱ universallyȱ believed toȱbeȱtheȱmurderer.ȱOnȱMayȱ15,ȱthreeȱmonthsȱandȱoneȱweek— “nay,ȱ notȱ soȱ much,ȱ notȱ two”ȱ (I.ii.138)—afterȱ Darnley’sȱ death, MaryȱandȱBothwellȱmarried.ȱTheȱroyalȱscandalȱspreadȱthroughȬ outȱ Europe.ȱ Maryȱ wasȱ hastilyȱ condemnedȱ byȱ theȱ popeȱ and kingsȱalike.ȱJamesȱwasȱmadeȱkingȱatȱtheȱageȱofȱone.ȱTheȱdutyȱof revengeȱforȱtheȱmurderȱofȱhisȱfather,ȱKingȱHenryȱIȱofȱScotland (Darnley),ȱwasȱlaidȱexplicitlyȱonȱJamesȱasȱaȱchildȱbyȱhisȱgrandȬ parents.ȱToȱpreventȱJamesȱfromȱforgettingȱhisȱresponsibility,ȱthe Lennoxȱfamilyȱcommissionedȱaȱpaintingȱinȱ1567Ȭ1568,ȱTheȱDarnȬ leyȱMemorialȱbyȱLivinusȱdeȱVogelaare,ȱthatȱshowedȱtheȱtombȱof KingȱHenry.ȱBeforeȱtheȱtomb,ȱtheȱyouthfulȱJamesȱandȱmembers ofȱtheȱLennoxȱfamilyȱprayȱforȱrevengeȱinȱwordsȱthatȱappearȱon labelsȱ issuingȱ fromȱ theirȱ mouths.ȱ Aȱ plaqueȱ onȱ theȱ wallȱ comȬ mandsȱ theȱ Kingȱ ofȱ Scotsȱ toȱ rememberȱ hisȱ father’sȱ deathȱ until Godȱusesȱhimȱasȱtheȱmeansȱtoȱavengeȱitȱ(Kernanȱ1995:ȱ40). RevengeȱasȱtheȱOtherȱSideȱofȱAmbition Theȱsociopoliticalȱcontextȱisȱnotȱjustȱrelatedȱtoȱtheȱroyalȱfamily asȱ aȱ sociopoliticalȱ institutionȱ butȱ alsoȱ toȱ urbanȱ capitalismȱ asȱ a sourceȱofȱdisruptionȱofȱtheȱtraditionalȱorder.ȱRobertȱN.ȱWatson pointsȱ outȱ thatȱ theȱ popularityȱ ofȱ revengeȱ tragediesȱ atȱ theȱ time canȱbeȱunderstoodȱagainstȱtheȱbackgroundȱofȱthisȱnewȱphenomȬ enon.ȱ Thisȱ explanationȱ isȱ madeȱ possibleȱ throughȱ Watson’s seeingȱ revengeȱ andȱ ambitionȱ asȱ twoȱ sidesȱ ofȱ theȱ sameȱ coin. Bothȱ revengeȱ andȱ ambitionȱ areȱ symptomaticȱ ofȱ theȱ terrifying

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instabilityȱ ofȱ theȱ newȱ urbanȱ capitalistȱ economicȱ systemȱ whose essenceȱ wasȱ toȱ encourageȱ butȱ alsoȱ punishȱ ambitionȱ (Watson 2002:ȱ164).5ȱInȱaȱbroaderȱsense,ȱRenaissanceȱcultureȱcameȱtoȱadȬ vocateȱaȱRomanticȱandȱmodernȱnotionȱofȱdesireȱasȱinfiniteȱand inexhaustible. Theȱ stateȱ wouldȱ haveȱ beenȱ tooȱ weakȱ toȱ preventȱ private bloodȱvengeanceȱfromȱtakingȱplace: Shakespeare’sȱ brilliantȱ contemporary,ȱ Francisȱ Bacon,ȱ called revengeȱ “aȱ kindȱ ofȱ wildȱ justice,”ȱ andȱ itȱ mustȱ haveȱ beenȱ an importantȱsupplementȱtoȱofficialȱjusticeȱinȱanȱeraȱofȱveryȱlimȬ itedȱ policeȱ powersȱ andȱ severelyȱ enforcedȱ socialȱ hierarchy. (Watsonȱ2002:ȱ160)6

Butȱ religion,ȱ too,ȱ contributedȱ substantiallyȱ toȱ theȱ overallȱ instaȬ bility.ȱ Protestantism,ȱ Watsonȱ argues,ȱ provokedȱ exaltedȱ ambiȬ tionsȱ byȱ tellingȱ Christiansȱ toȱ aspireȱ toȱ directȱ communication withȱ Godȱ andȱ toȱ eternalȱ salvation,ȱ andȱ thenȱ tookȱ revengeȱ on thoseȱwhoȱpursuedȱsuchȱambitionsȱbyȱtellingȱthemȱtoȱdespairȱof everȱknowingȱanythingȱaboutȱGodȱorȱtheirȱownȱsalvation.ȱItȱleft manyȱ trueȱ believersȱ vacillatingȱ wildlyȱ betweenȱ aȱ faithȱ that God’sȱloveȱwouldȱexaltȱthemȱbeyondȱallȱcomprehension,ȱandȱa fearȱthatȱGod’sȱjustȱangerȱatȱsuchȱpresumptuousȱsinnersȱwould damnȱ themȱ beyondȱ anyȱ redemption.ȱ Norȱ wereȱ Catholics sparedȱtheȱpainfulȱdialecticȱofȱambitionȱandȱrevenge.ȱProtestant spokesmenȱ portrayedȱ Catholicismȱ asȱ allegianceȱ toȱ ambitious foreignȱ politicalȱ powers,ȱ justifyingȱ violentȱ officialȱ retribution; andȱasȱanȱoverweeningȱattemptȱtoȱcontrolȱGodȱandȱearnȱheavȬ en,ȱ deservingȱ punishmentȱ hereȱ inȱ anticipationȱ ofȱ punishment hereafter.ȱAndȱtheȱpersistentȱbadȱseasonsȱofȱflood,ȱplague,ȱand

5

ȱCf.ȱWatsonȱ2002:ȱ160Ȭ61:ȱ“Forȱtheȱmanyȱwhoȱmigratedȱtoȱurban centres,ȱthereȱwasȱneitherȱaȱsafetyȬnetȱtoȱpreventȱstarvationȱnorȱaȱglass ceilingȱtoȱpreventȱsocialȱclimbing—onlyȱaȱscrambleȱforȱmoney,ȱstatus, andȱfavoursȱfromȱtheȱpowerfulȱ....ȱFurthermore,ȱinȱaȱsocietyȱwhereȱstatus wasȱsoȱunstable,ȱambitionȱoftenȱledȱtoȱviolentȱrevenge,ȱasȱduelsȱoverȱhonȬ ourȱbecameȱanȱepidemicȱamongȱtheȱaristocraticȱelite.” 6

Theȱtextȱcontinues:ȱ“TheȱTudorȱmonarchiesȱmadeȱsomeȱprogressȱin controllingȱlawlessness,ȱbutȱthereȱmustȱhaveȱbeenȱsomeȱbasisȱforȱtheȱperȬ sistentȱjokesȱaboutȱincompetentȱconstablesȱandȱwatchesȱinȱElizabethan comedy.”

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famineȱatȱtheȱtimeȱwereȱnotȱonlyȱharshȱimplicitȱrepudiationsȱof theȱpromiseȱthatȱscienceȱwouldȱallowȱhumanityȱtoȱcomprehend andȱ ruleȱ theȱ createdȱ worldȱ butȱ widelyȱ andȱ explicitlyȱ preached asȱ divineȱ punishmentȱ ofȱ thatȱ ambitionȱ (Watsonȱ 2002:ȱ 164Ȭ65). Moreover,ȱ bloodȱ vengeanceȱ wasȱ suddenlyȱ theȱ onlyȱ thing mournersȱcouldȱdoȱonȱbehalfȱofȱtheȱdead.ȱTheȱCatholicȱtradition ofȱ prayingȱ andȱ payingȱ toȱ redeemȱ lovedȱ onesȱ fromȱ purgatory wasȱ outlawedȱ andȱ ridiculedȱ byȱ theȱ Reformationȱ (whichȱ began inȱWittenbergȱwhere,ȱShakespeareȱtellsȱus,ȱHamletȱwasȱȱeducatȬ ed)ȱandȱpromptlyȱtheȱElizabethanȱstageȱbeganȱdepictingȱcharacȬ tersȱusingȱrevengeȱ(asȱinȱTheȱSpanishȱTragedyȱasȱwellȱasȱHamlet) toȱredeemȱtormentedȱghostsȱ(Watsonȱ2002:ȱ174). Tragediesȱofȱrevengeȱandȱtragediesȱofȱambition—theseȱtwo typesȱ ofȱ tragedyȱ areȱ reciprocal,ȱ accordingȱ toȱ Watson.ȱ Theȱ first typeȱ depictsȱ theȱ willȱ toȱ superiorȱ power,ȱ theȱ secondȱ anȱ unwilȬ lingnessȱtoȱbeȱoverpowered: Tragediesȱ ofȱ ambitionȱ dependȱ onȱ theȱ protagonist’sȱ illusion thatȱanȱexceptionȱcanȱendure,ȱthatȱnoȱmindlessȱorȱjealousȱreȬ flexȱ inȱ natureȱ orȱ heavenȱ willȱ produceȱ aȱ reactionȱ equalȱ and oppositeȱtoȱtheȱheroicȱaction,ȱrecapturingȱexertionȱasȱmerely lostȱ heat.ȱ Tragediesȱ ofȱ revengeȱ dependȱ insteadȱ onȱ theȱ proȬ tagonist’sȱ illusionȱ thatȱ thingsȱ canȱ andȱ mustȱ beȱ madeȱ even (anȱ eyeȱ forȱ anȱ eye,ȱ aȱ humiliationȱ forȱ aȱ humiliation).ȱ The playsȱsuggestȱthatȱShakespeareȱoftenȱthoughtȱofȱambitionȱas aȱ doomedȱ effortȱ toȱ riseȱ aboveȱ aȱ positionȱ ofȱ equality,ȱ andȱ of revengeȱ asȱ aȱ doomedȱ effortȱ toȱ restoreȱ equality.ȱ (Watson 2002:ȱ163Ȭ64)

RevengeȱasȱaȱMoralȱDilemma Accordingȱ toȱ Harryȱ Levin,ȱ Hamletȱ facesȱ twoȱ dilemmas:ȱ the problemȱofȱwhatȱtoȱbelieveȱandȱtheȱproblemȱofȱhowȱtoȱactȱ(LeȬ vinȱ1959:ȱ105).ȱTheȱproblemȱofȱwhatȱtoȱbelieveȱisȱraisedȱbyȱthe problematicȱassumptionȱofȱtheȱtraditionalȱbeliefȱinȱghosts,ȱwhile theȱ problemȱ ofȱ howȱ toȱ actȱ isȱ raisedȱ byȱ theȱ problematicȱ asȬ sumptionȱ ofȱ theȱ traditionalȱ codeȱ ofȱ revengeȱ (Levinȱ 1959:ȱ 24). Whetherȱgoodȱorȱevilȱprevailsȱinȱthisȱworldȱseemsȱtoȱhingeȱon

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Hamlet’sȱ identificationȱ ofȱ theȱ ghost.7ȱ Revengeȱ isȱ basedȱ onȱ the lexȱtalionisȱandȱthisȱlawȱofȱtheȱbloodȱfeudȱrunsȱcounterȱtoȱboth theȱCatholicȱandȱProtestantȱreligionsȱ(Levinȱ1959:ȱ23). RevengeȱitselfȱisȱatȱtheȱheartȱofȱtheȱtragicȱconflictȱtoȱtheȱexȬ tentȱthatȱitȱconstitutesȱanȱimmoralȱsolutionȱtoȱaȱmoralȱproblem andȱisȱthereforeȱpartȱofȱtheȱmoralȱdilemmaȱofȱchoosingȱbetween twoȱevils.ȱWatsonȱwrites: Hamletȱ expressesȱ concernȱ thatȱ Godȱ hasȱ forbiddenȱ suicide, butȱ notȱ thatȱ Godȱ hasȱ forbiddenȱ revenge.ȱ Inȱ anyȱ case,ȱ HamȬ let’sȱsituationȱisȱambiguous,ȱsinceȱheȱpursuesȱnotȱonlyȱaȱperȬ sonalȱ vendettaȱ onȱ behalfȱ ofȱ hisȱ family,ȱ whichȱ Elizabethan commentatorsȱ condemned,ȱ butȱ alsoȱ officialȱ justiceȱ asȱ a princeȱ ofȱ theȱ state,ȱ whichȱ theyȱ tendedȱ toȱ approve.ȱ ShakeȬ speareȱ employsȱ suchȱ ambiguitiesȱ toȱ preventȱ theȱ audience fromȱseizingȱonȱaȱsimplisticȱmoralȱviewȱofȱtheȱprotagonist’s dilemma,ȱwhichȱmustȱbeȱirresolvableȱifȱitȱisȱtoȱbeȱfullyȱtragic. (Watsonȱ2002:ȱ173)

RevengeȱasȱaȱManifestationȱofȱProvidence Inȱ Hamlet’sȱ mind,ȱ providence,ȱ revengeȱ andȱ timingȱ areȱ interȬ twinedȱbecauseȱtheyȱareȱallȱrelatedȱtoȱ theȱ necessityȱandȱreality ofȱaȱmoralȱuniverse.ȱAccordingȱtoȱKeyishianȱ(2003:ȱ4Ȭ5),ȱȱstudies ofȱ revengeȱ haveȱ tendedȱ toȱ presupposeȱ aȱ Christianȱ perspective atȱ workȱ inȱ theȱ Renaissanceȱ playsȱ inȱ termsȱ ofȱ whichȱ theȱ adȬ monitionȱ“resistȱnotȱevil”ȱ(Matthewȱ5.39)ȱbecomesȱtheȱprimeȱdiȬ rectiveȱandȱthereforeȱoftenȱendsȱupȱcondemning,ȱevenȱdamning avengers.ȱKeyishianȱdoesȱnotȱshareȱthisȱfocus:

7

ȱLevinȱ1959:ȱ23:ȱ“Takingȱourȱghostlyȱwitnessȱatȱfaceȱvalue,ȱweȱmight recognizeȱitȱasȱtheȱsoulȱofȱHamlet,ȱȱtheȱElder,ȱreturningȱtoȱearthȱonȱaȱspeȬ cialȱmissionȱfromȱpurgatory,ȱinȱaccordanceȱwithȱtheȱorthodoxȱtenetsȱof theȱCatholicȱfaith.ȱTheȱReformation,ȱhowever,ȱrejectedȱtheȱdogmaȱofȱpurȬ gatory;ȱandȱweȱassociateȱWittenbergȱwithȱProtestantism.ȱTheȱardentȱProȬ testantȱsoonȱtoȱbeȱKingȱofȱEnglandȱhadȱrecentlyȱpublishedȱaȱtreatiseȱarȬ guingȱthatȱghostsȱwereȱnotȱsoulsȱofȱtheȱdeadȱbutȱdemonsȱwhoȱtempted theȱliving.ȱWhetherȱHamletȱwasȱbeingȱledȱastrayȱtoȱeternalȱȱdamnation orȱbeingȱenjoinedȱtoȱperformȱaȱsacredȱdutyȱwouldȱthusȱbeȱcontingentȱon theologicalȱquestionsȱwhichȱwereȱmoot.ȱEvenȱmoreȱperplexingȱareȱthe moralȱimplicationsȱofȱtheȱGhost’sȱcommand.”

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LOURENSȱMINNEMA Theȱ pointȱ Iȱ wantȱ toȱ stressȱ hereȱ isȱ thatȱ whileȱ revengeȱ isȱ freȬ quentlyȱcondemnedȱinȱRenaissanceȱthoughtȱandȱliterature,ȱit isȱalsoȱrecognizedȱasȱhavingȱpotentiallyȱaffirmativeȱandȱeven heroicȱfunctions.ȱShakespeare,ȱlikeȱotherȱwritersȱofȱhisȱtime, oftenȱfindsȱtheȱpursuitȱofȱrevenge,ȱthroughȱwhichȱvictimsȱof maliciousȱinjuryȱstriveȱtoȱreconstituteȱselfhood,ȱdefeatȱsocial evil,ȱandȱachieveȱjustice,ȱtoȱbeȱtheȱmostȱcurativeȱandȱapproȬ priateȱcourseȱaȱgivenȱcharacterȱcanȱtakeȱinȱaȱgivenȱsituation. (Keyishianȱ2003:ȱ1Ȭ2)

Westernȱ religiousȱ culture,ȱ inȱ fact,ȱ furnishesȱ theȱ metaphysȬ icalȱ underpinningȱ forȱ Shakespeare’sȱ accountȱ ofȱ theȱ urgeȱ toȱ reȬ vengeȱbecauseȱtheȱJudeoȬChristianȱtraditionȱholdsȱthatȱevilȱwill beȱpunishedȱeventually.ȱButȱinȱShakespeare’sȱtime, theȱ roleȱ ofȱ divineȱ providenceȱ inȱ humanȱ affairsȱ wasȱ coming toȱ beȱ questionedȱ (ifȱ discreetly)ȱ evenȱ amongȱ theȱ community ofȱChristianȱbelievers.ȱGivenȱtheȱpatentȱlackȱofȱjusticeȱobserȬ vableȱinȱtheȱworldȱatȱlargeȱandȱtheȱinadequacyȱofȱMedieval accountsȱ ofȱ evil,ȱ Eltonȱ writes,ȱ twoȱ explanationsȱ wereȱ set forth:ȱ“first,ȱthatȱprovidence,ȱifȱitȱexisted,ȱhadȱlittleȱorȱnoȱreȬ lationȱ toȱ theȱ particularȱ affairsȱ ofȱ individualȱ men;ȱ and,ȱ secȬ ond,ȱthatȱitȱoperatedȱinȱwaysȱbafflinglyȱinscrutableȱandȱhidȬ denȱ toȱ humanȱ reason.”ȱ Bothȱ attitudesȱ fedȱ skepticism,ȱ ifȱ not —asȱ Jonathanȱ Dollimoreȱ hasȱ maintained—outrightȱ revolt. Bothȱexplanationsȱcouldȱencourageȱvictimizedȱindividualsȱto takeȱjusticeȱintoȱtheirȱownȱhandsȱratherȱthanȱtoȱwaitȱforȱproȬ videnceȱtoȱmanifestȱitselfȱonȱtheirȱbehalf,ȱtoȱfeelȱtheyȱhadȱthe responsibilityȱ andȱ theȱ dutyȱ toȱ createȱ justiceȱ inȱ anȱ imperfect world.ȱ(Keyishianȱ2003:ȱ11)

Hamlet’sȱtripȱtoȱEnglandȱmarksȱaȱturnȱofȱevents.ȱWhatȱhapȬ pensȱ thereafter,ȱ Keyishianȱ argues,ȱ reflectsȱ aȱ sortȱ ofȱ Euripidean manipulationȱ(Keyishianȱ2003:ȱ63).ȱHamletȱturnsȱfromȱaȱMachiȬ avellianȱ strategistȱ intoȱ aȱ Christianȱ fatalistȱ or,ȱ rather,ȱ inȱ Actȱ V Hamletȱ movesȱ fromȱ aȱ Machiavellianȱ viewȱ ofȱ orderȱ toȱ aȱ proviȬ dentialȱoneȱ(Keyishianȱ2003:ȱ57ȱandȱ54ȱrespectively).ȱHavingȱ(by chance?)ȱ survivedȱ Claudius’sȱ plotȱ againstȱ him—whichȱ adds oneȱ moreȱ motiveȱ forȱ revenge—providenceȱ orȱ moralȱ inevitabilȬ ityȱisȱatȱworkȱandȱclearlyȱonȱHamlet’sȱ side,ȱHamletȱconcludes.

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Oneȱneedȱonlyȱwatchȱone’sȱchanceȱandȱacceptȱwhatȱprovidence brings:ȱ“Theȱreadinessȱisȱȱall”ȱ(V.ii.213Ȭ218).8 Inȱ Michaelȱ Hattaway’sȱ view,ȱ theȱ endingsȱ ofȱ Hamlet,ȱ MacȬ beth,ȱKingȱLear,ȱand,ȱpossibly,ȱRomeoȱandȱJulietȱturnȱinȱpartȱonȱthe outcomeȱ notȱ onlyȱ ofȱ battlesȱ butȱ ofȱ duelsȱ orȱ judicialȱ disputes (Hattawayȱ2002:ȱ103Ȭ22).ȱAȱduelȱwasȱaȱspeciesȱofȱtrial,ȱaȱdemonȬ strationȱ thatȱ aȱ claimȱ toȱ honorȱ wasȱ authenticȱ orȱ divinelyȱ orȬ dained.ȱItȱcouldȱalsoȱdestabilizeȱtheȱauthorityȱofȱtheȱking,ȱsince duelsȱ operatedȱ byȱ aȱ codeȱ ofȱ honorȱ whichȱ heȱ mightȱ notȱ be observingȱhimselfȱandȱsoughtȱaȱjudgementȱthatȱwasȱnotȱunder hisȱ control.ȱ Yet,ȱ Hattawayȱ suggests,ȱ inȱ mostȱ performancesȱ of theseȱ strugglesȱ thereȱ seemsȱ littleȱ evidenceȱ ofȱ aȱ divinelyȱ orȬ dainedȱ outcome,ȱ theȱ workingȱ ofȱ whatȱ Hamlet,ȱ followingȱ CalȬ vin,ȱ termedȱ “specialȱ providence”ȱ (V.ii.192).ȱ Sirȱ Thomasȱ More readȱ theȱ battleȱ ofȱ Bosworthȱ inȱ 1485—whereȱ theȱ firstȱ Tudor, HenryȱVII,ȱbecameȱkingȱbyȱdefeatingȱtheȱlastȱPlantagenetȱking, Richardȱ III—asȱ aȱ theodicy.ȱ Theȱ Tudorȱ andȱ Stuartȱ monarchs

8

ȱThereȱisȱnoȱneedȱtoȱbeȱconscienceȬstrickenȱbyȱtheȱdeathsȱofȱPoȬ lonius,ȱRosencrantzȱandȱGuildenstern.ȱProvidenceȱdeliversȱClaudiusȱinto hisȱhands.ȱHamlet’sȱfinalȱmoodȱisȱthatȱofȱaȱjustȱmanȱatȱpeaceȱwithȱhimself asȱaȱmortalȱbeingȱdoingȱhisȱbestȱunderȱterribleȱconditions,ȱaȱsettledȱstate ofȱmindȱexpressedȱinȱtermsȱofȱhisȱfaithȱinȱprovidence.ȱUnderȱtheȱguidȬ anceȱofȱprovidence,ȱall’sȱwellȱthatȱendsȱwell.ȱKeyishianȱwritesȱ(2003:ȱ67): “Andȱyetȱweȱwouldȱbeȱright,ȱIȱthink,ȱtoȱseeȱtheȱveryȱinvokingȱofȱproȬ videnceȱasȱtestimonyȱtoȱtheȱpowerȱofȱtheȱrevengeȱthemeȱtoȱopenȱunreȬ solvableȱquestionsȱofȱjusticeȱandȱorder,ȱquestionsȱthatȱwe,ȱlikeȱHamlet, mightȱhaveȱlikedȱtheȱchanceȱtoȱconsider.ȱTheȱplaywrightȱhasȱprovided anȱemotionallyȱsatisfyingȱclosure,ȱbutȱitȱisȱinȱaȱdifferentȱmodeȱthanȱthe playȱthatȱprecedesȱit,ȱandȱitȱhasȱtakenȱanȱactȱofȱGodȱtoȱprovideȱit.”ȱItȱis worthȱtakingȱnoteȱatȱthisȱpointȱofȱLevin’sȱargumentȱthatȱHamlet’sȱrevenge patternȱincludesȱaȱreversalȱwhichȱpresentsȱprovidentialȱinvolvementȱas aȱcaseȱofȱcosmicȱirony.ȱLevinȱmakesȱhisȱremarksȱinȱtheȱcontextȱofȱhis reflectionsȱonȱourȱtragicȱencountersȱwithȱsheerȱcontingencyȱandȱonȱtraȬ gedy’sȱattemptsȱtoȱindicateȱlimitsȱwhichȱweȱmayȱoverstepȱatȱourȱperil; Levinȱ(1959:ȱ104)ȱwrites:ȱ“Vengeanceȱisȱitsȱmostȱhabitualȱthemeȱbecause theȱrevengerȱisȱcalledȱuponȱtoȱtakeȱintoȱhisȱownȱhandsȱwhatȱmightȱbetter beȱleftȱtoȱprovidence,ȱhoweverȱweȱdefineȱit;ȱandȱifȱtheȱrevengeȱgetsȱout ofȱhandȱandȱgoesȱamiss,ȱasȱitȱisȱalmostȱboundȱtoȱdo,ȱifȱtheȱmistakenȱpurȬ posesȱfallȱuponȱtheirȱinventors’ȱheads,ȱthenȱthatȱreversalȱisȱanȱironicȱcomȬ mentaryȱuponȱtheȱwaysȱofȱhumanȱdestiny.”

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themselvesȱpreferredȱtoȱstressȱinheritanceȱofȱroyalȱbloodȱasȱthe reasonȱforȱtheirȱclaimȱtoȱholdȱauthority. RevengeȱasȱaȱRemedyȱforȱVictimization Keyishianȱ concentratesȱ onȱ theȱ dynamicsȱ ofȱ revenge:ȱ howȱ reȬ vengeȱisȱprovoked,ȱjustified,ȱconcluded.ȱHeȱdefinesȱrevengeȱpriȬ marilyȱ asȱ aȱ responseȱ toȱ victimizationȱ andȱ focusesȱ moreȱ onȱ its psychologicalȱthanȱitsȱmoralȱandȱethicalȱdimensions.ȱInȱfact,ȱhe stressesȱtheȱpotentialȱredemptiveȱfunctionsȱofȱrevenge: Theȱ maliciousȱ assaultsȱ onȱ whichȱ Iȱ focus,ȱ thoseȱ thatȱ most stronglyȱstimulateȱtheȱdesireȱforȱrevenge,ȱconfoundȱandȱdisȬ ruptȱtheȱvictim’sȱsenseȱofȱpossessingȱaȱstableȱandȱinviolable identity.ȱTheseȱcharactersȱdiscoverȱinsteadȱthatȱtheyȱareȱsubȬ jectȱ toȱ multipleȱ contingencies:ȱ malice,ȱ injustice,ȱ treachery, grief,ȱ unstableȱ values,ȱ andȱ deprivationsȱ ofȱ powerȱ orȱ status. Throughȱrevengeȱtheyȱattempt,ȱwithȱvaryingȱdegreesȱofȱjusȬ tificationȱ andȱ success,ȱ toȱ restoreȱ theirȱ integrity—theirȱ sense ofȱpsychicȱwholeness—andȱstabilizeȱtheirȱidentities,ȱoftenȱby restructuringȱthemȱaroundȱtheirȱnewȱrolesȱasȱrevengersȱ(reȬ taliatingȱforȱwrongsȱdoneȱtoȱthemselves)ȱorȱavengersȱ(retaliȬ atingȱ forȱ theȱ wrongsȱ andȱ sufferingsȱ ofȱ others).ȱ Oneȱ ofȱ the mostȱpoignantȱaspectsȱofȱtheȱdramaticȱrevengers’ȱsituationȱis theirȱ feelingȱ ofȱ alienationȱ fromȱ theȱ worldȱ andȱ itsȱ processes, asȱtheyȱhaveȱknownȱthemȱ....ȱTheseȱcharactersȱhaveȱinȱcomȬ monȱaȱsenseȱofȱimpotenceȱthatȱmakesȱtheirȱlivesȱunbearable; theyȱ feelȱ disempoweredȱ and,ȱ inȱ effect,ȱ erased.ȱ Theirȱ situaȬ tionȱ callsȱ forȱ someȱ redemptiveȱ declarationȱ ofȱ selfhood,ȱ and theyȱ chooseȱ anȱ actȱ ofȱ retaliationȱ thatȱ punishesȱ theȱ injurer, matching—andȱ therebyȱ inȱ someȱ psychologicalȱ senseȱ undoȬ ing—theȱoriginalȱharm.ȱ(Keyishianȱ2003:ȱ2Ȭ3)

VengefulȱviolenceȱhasȱitsȱrootsȱinȱhumiliationȱandȱfindsȱitsȱsoluȬ tionȱ inȱ symbolicallyȱ remakingȱ theȱ damagedȱ self.ȱ Thoughȱ venȬ geanceȱ composesȱ theȱ plotȱ ofȱ theȱ revengeȱ play,ȱ griefȱ composes itsȱessentialȱemotionalȱcontent.ȱBecauseȱvictimizationȱisȱrelated toȱtheȱprocessȱofȱmourning,ȱrevengeȱmayȱfunctionȱasȱaȱremedy forȱ grief,ȱ evenȱ ifȱ itȱ isȱ aȱ remedyȱ thatȱ risksȱ madness.ȱ Butȱ theȱ reȬ venger’sȱmadnessȱmayȱbeȱseenȱmoreȱasȱaȱfunctionȱofȱaȱcharacȬ ter’sȱ frustrationȱ andȱ impotenceȱ thanȱ ofȱ hisȱ orȱ herȱ attemptsȱ to avengeȱwrongsȱ(Keyishianȱ2003:ȱ6Ȭ7).

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Victimsȱ ofȱ injuryȱ whoȱ turnȱ toȱ revengeȱ areȱ outȱ toȱ achieve severalȱgoals: First,ȱtheyȱwishȱtoȱrestoreȱtheirȱselfȬesteemȱbyȱperformingȱacȬ tionsȱthatȱmakeȱthemȱfeelȱpotentȱandȱeffectual.ȱSecond,ȱthey seekȱ physicalȱ security,ȱ strivingȱ toȱ removeȱ orȱ disableȱ aȱ maȬ liciousȱfoeȱwho,ȱunchecked,ȱremainsȱaȱthreatȱtoȱsafety.ȱThird, theyȱ wishȱ toȱ maintainȱ theirȱ reputationsȱ againstȱ theȱ imȬ putationȱ ofȱ cowardiceȱ orȱ shame.ȱ Fourth,ȱ theyȱ seekȱ justice. Havingȱ been,ȱ asȱ theyȱ believe,ȱ wronglyȱ injuredȱ orȱ conȬ demned,ȱtheyȱseekȱtoȱinflictȱaȱsuitableȱandȱequitable—atȱleast equitable—injuryȱ uponȱ theȱ aggressor.ȱ Considerationsȱ like theseȱ liveȱ vividlyȱ inȱ theȱ mindsȱ ofȱ Shakespeare’sȱ dramatic creationsȱ andȱ areȱ oftenȱ portrayedȱ asȱ creditableȱ motivesȱ for revenge.ȱIndeed,ȱtheyȱareȱnot,ȱinȱthemselves,ȱevilȱgoals.ȱThey areȱ essentialȱ forȱ socialȱ andȱ personalȱ healthȱ andȱ serveȱ physȬ icalȱandȱmetaphysicalȱneeds;ȱifȱtheyȱareȱnotȱachieved—byȱreȬ vengeȱorȱsomeȱotherȱmeans—theȱconsequencesȱmayȱbeȱfatal. (Keyishianȱ2003:ȱ24)

Shakespeare,ȱ Keyishianȱ argues,ȱ distinguishesȱ sharplyȱ beȬ tweenȱauthenticȱrevengeȱandȱvindictiveness.ȱAuthenticȱrevenge isȱ aboutȱ justȱ retaliationsȱ forȱ realȱ injuries.ȱ Charactersȱ likeȱ Titus Andronicusȱ turnȱ toȱ revengeȱ becauseȱ otherȱ avenuesȱ forȱ achieȬ vingȱ vindication,ȱ honor,ȱ andȱ equityȱ haveȱ beenȱ closedȱ toȱ them. Vindictivenessȱ isȱ aȱ maliciousȱ stateȱ ofȱ mindȱ thatȱ resemblesȱ auȬ thenticȱrevengeȱlikeȱanȱevilȱtwin.ȱCharactersȱlikeȱIagoȱandȱShyȬ lockȱareȱmovedȱtoȱchronicȱresentfulnessȱbyȱaȱcombinationȱofȱenȬ vy,ȱ excessiveȱ pride,ȱ andȱ selfȬloathing.ȱ Mixedȱ charactersȱ like HamletȱandȱOthelloȱareȱproblematicȱtypesȱinȱwhomȱconflicting, complexlyȱtexturedȱimpulsesȱstruggleȱforȱsupremacy. PlaysȱlikeȱTitusȱAndronicusȱareȱexamplesȱofȱ“redemptiveȱreȬ venge,”ȱwhereasȱJuliusȱCaesarȱandȱOthelloȱareȱexamplesȱofȱ“deȬ structiveȱ revenge”;ȱ Hamletȱ andȱ Kingȱ Learȱ areȱ toȱ beȱ categorized asȱ“problematicȱrevenge”: Inȱ Hamletȱ andȱ Kingȱ Learȱ theȱ psychologyȱ ofȱ victimizationȱ is setȱforthȱinȱevenȱgreaterȱdetail,ȱwithȱparticularȱemphasisȱon problemsȱrelatedȱtoȱHamlet’sȱyouthȱandȱLear’sȱage.ȱCharacȬ tersȱ withȱ genuineȱ grievancesȱ undertakeȱ authenticȱ revenges; butȱ theirȱ revengesȱ areȱ renderedȱ problematicȱ byȱ thematic

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LOURENSȱMINNEMA complexitiesȱ andȱ byȱ theȱ dramaticȱ structuresȱ thatȱ contain them.ȱ(Keyishianȱ2003:ȱ52)

RevengeȱasȱUnrestrainedȱPassion Theȱnecessityȱofȱtakingȱrevengeȱisȱlikelyȱtoȱincludeȱtheȱnecessity ofȱbuildingȱupȱaȱsufficientȱdegreeȱofȱengagedȱpassion,ȱofȱinvestȬ ingȱemotionalȱenergyȱintoȱtheȱwillingnessȱtoȱcommitȱaȱmurder. Butȱthisȱcreatesȱtheȱriskȱofȱunrestrainedȱpassionȱorȱrage.ȱHamlet seemsȱincapableȱeitherȱofȱindulgingȱinȱpassionateȱrevengeȱ(reaȬ soningȱinsteadȱofȱacting)ȱorȱofȱrestrainingȱitȱasȱsoonȱasȱitȱisȱset intoȱmotionȱ(ragingȱlikeȱaȱmadman).ȱKeyishianȱwrites: Inȱ theȱ earlierȱ revengeȱ tradition,ȱ representedȱ byȱ Theȱ Spanish Tragedyȱ andȱ Titusȱ Andronicus,ȱ theȱ protagonists’ȱ worstȱ moȬ mentsȱofȱdistressȱandȱmiseryȱoccurȱwhileȱtheyȱwanderȱinȱigȬ noranceȱofȱtheirȱtrueȱsituation.ȱOnceȱtheyȱidentifyȱtheirȱeneȬ mies,ȱ theyȱ getȱ onȱ withȱ theȱ jobȱ ofȱ revengeȱ vigorously,ȱ effiȬ ciently,ȱ andȱ wittily.ȱ Impotenceȱ drivesȱ themȱ mad;ȱ revenge makesȱ themȱ sane.ȱ Inȱ theȱ revengeȱ revival,ȱ asȱ representedȱ by Hamletȱ andȱ Antonio’sȱ Revenge,ȱ knowingȱ theȱ factsȱ isȱ not enough;ȱ theȱ protagonistsȱ sufferȱ internalȱ conflictsȱ thatȱ proȬ longȱtheirȱmisery.ȱ(Keyishianȱ2003:ȱ59)

Accordingȱ toȱ Williamȱ Kerrigan,ȱ Shakespeare’sȱ periodȱ ȱ inȬ ventedȱaȱnewȱandȱinexhaustibleȱkindȱofȱambition—andȱdefined itȱasȱfundamentalȱtoȱhumanȱnature.ȱOverȱagainstȱaȱclassicalȱand medievalȱnotionȱofȱdesireȱasȱfinite,ȱseekingȱitsȱownȱendȱinȱsatisȬ faction,ȱ Renaissanceȱ cultureȱ cameȱ toȱ advocateȱ aȱ Romanticȱ and modernȱnotionȱofȱdesireȱasȱanȱinfiniteȱregress,ȱwillingȱtoȱinvent furtherȱgoalsȱinȱorderȱtoȱforestallȱperpetuallyȱitsȱownȱdemiseȱin stasisȱ(Kerriganȱ1996b:ȱ13Ȭ24).ȱBothȱKerriganȱandȱWatsonȱpoint outȱthatȱtheȱdilemmaȱHamletȱisȱfacingȱisȱwhetherȱorȱnotȱtoȱemȬ braceȱaȱStoicȱattitude.ȱWatsonȱsuggestsȱthatȱtheȱquestionȱ“Toȱbe orȱ notȱ toȱ be”ȱ doesȱ notȱ meanȱ “Shouldȱ Iȱ commitȱ suicide?”ȱ but ratherȱtheȱquestionȱHamletȱgoesȱonȱtoȱconsider:ȱ“ShouldȱIȱsurȬ viveȱbyȱstoicallyȱacceptingȱwrongsȱorȱdieȱperformingȱrevenge?” (Watsonȱ2002:ȱ172).9

9

ȱ Kerriganȱ suggestsȱ thatȱ theȱ nightȱ motifȱ standsȱ for,ȱ amongȱ other things,ȱrevenge,ȱwhereasȱHoratioȱstandsȱnotȱsoȱmuchȱforȱrestraintȱasȱfor

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CanȱthisȱShakespeareanȱpassionȱforȱrevengeȱbeȱrestrained? ThomasȱMcAlindonȱthinksȱitȱcanȱbecauseȱtheȱconceptionȱofȱthe naturalȱorderȱthatȱguidesȱChaucerȱandȱShakespeareȱisȱthatȱofȱa precariousȱ balanceȱ ofȱ contraryȱ forces,ȱ whichȱ impliesȱ thatȱ comȬ edyȱ(loveȱandȱunion)ȱisȱpotentialȱtragedyȱandȱthatȱtragedyȱ(diȬ visionȱ andȱ violence)ȱ isȱ comedyȱ manquéȱ (McAlindonȱ 1996:ȱ 10). McAlindonȱarguesȱthatȱthereȱisȱaȱconflictȱofȱinterestȱbetweenȱthe aggressiveȱ drivesȱ andȱ theȱ powerȱ ofȱ affectionȱ andȱ humanȱ love andȱunderstanding,ȱasȱNigelȱAlexanderȱobserved. ButȱifȱloveȱdrivesȱHamletȱtoȱtheȱextremeȱpointȱwhereȱoppoȬ sitesȱareȱdeeplyȱconfused,ȱitȱalsoȱseemsȱtoȱinhibitȱhimȱthere. Theȱ greatȱ holeȱ inȱ theȱ middleȱ ofȱ theȱ playȱ isȱ theȱ unwritten soliloquyȱinȱwhichȱHamletȱweighsȱtheȱrightsȱandȱwrongsȱof privateȱ revengeȱ andȱ identifiesȱ theȱ causeȱ ofȱ hisȱ delayȱ ....ȱ It alsoȱ allowsȱ Shakespeareȱ toȱ suggestȱ theȱ forceȱ ofȱ thatȱ instinct whichȱ preventsȱ Hamletȱ fromȱ becomingȱ anotherȱ Pyrrhusȱ or Laertesȱinȱtheȱquestȱforȱrevenge.ȱ(McAlindonȱ1996:ȱ112)

AccordingȱtoȱMcAlindon,ȱShakespeareȱintimatesȱthatȱwhenȱreaȬ sonȱoperatesȱasȱitȱshouldȱinȱhumanȱrelationships,ȱitȱisȱfollowing theȱ instinctȱ ofȱ humanȱ kindness.ȱ McAlindonȱ assumesȱ thatȱ itȱ is thisȱ instinctȱ thatȱ isȱ responsibleȱ forȱ theȱ delayȱ whichȱ Hamlet’s

indifference:ȱ“Giveȱmeȱthatȱmanȱ/ȱThatȱisȱnotȱpassion’sȱslave”ȱ(III.ii.71). Kerriganȱ(1996:ȱ51Ȭ52)ȱwrites:ȱ“Bothȱtheȱideals,ȱasȱGordonȱBradenȱobȬ serves,ȱbothȱAvengingȱNightȱandȱtheȱmanȱimmuneȱtoȱfortune,ȱderive fromȱSeneca.ȱInȱhisȱdramaȱweȱfindȱbloodȱandȱhorror,ȱstagesȱstrewnȱwith theȱcalamitiesȱofȱunrestrainedȱpassion.ȱInȱhisȱphilosophyȱweȱfindȱtheȱpreȬ ceptsȱofȱaȱstoicȱsageȱrecommendingȱapathy,ȱtheȱrigidȱcontrolȱofȱinternal realityȱagainstȱtheȱonslaughtsȱofȱfortune.ȱInȱtheȱdrama,ȱtheȱmanȱwhoȱin sufferingȱall,ȱsuffersȱall;ȱinȱtheȱphilosophy,ȱtheȱmanȱwhoȱinȱsufferingȱall, suffersȱnothingȱ....ȱPriorȱtoȱShakespeare,ȱtheȱtwoȱSenecanȱtraditionsȱhad rarelyȱencounteredȱeachȱother.ȱThisȱcollisionȱisȱpreciselyȱwhatȱweȱbehold inȱ“OȱwhatȱaȱrogueȱandȱpeasantȱslaveȱamȱI!”ȱandȱtheȱotherȱspeechesȱof selfȬreproachȱ....ȱButȱunderlyingȱthisȱtorrentȱofȱselfȬabuse,ȱandȱtheȱgallery ofȱdetestedȱsoulsȱitȱgenerates,ȱisȱthisȱconviction:ȱIȱmustȱbeȱindifferentȱtoȱmy revenge.ȱOfȱcourseȱHamletȱdoesȱnotȱconsciouslyȱpracticeȱthisȱstoicȱdisciȬ pline.ȱHeȱwouldȱratherȱbeȱAvengingȱNight.ȱButȱtheȱindifferenceȱisȱimplicȬ itȱinȱhisȱcynicalȱwit,ȱhisȱconstantȱsenseȱofȱsuperiorityȱtoȱthoseȱpurposeful soulsȱwithȱwhomȱheȱconverses,ȱandȱmostȱofȱallȱinȱhisȱselfȬreproaches. Shakespeareȱseededȱhisȱsoulȱwithȱaȱmysteriousȱandȱunwilledȱallegiance toȱapatheia.”

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reasonȱ cannotȱ accountȱ for.ȱ Supportȱ forȱ thisȱ interpretation,ȱ McȬ Alindonȱargues,ȱcanȱbeȱfoundȱinȱShakespeare’sȱattitudeȱtoȱfear. Shakespeareȱ seesȱ fearȱ asȱ anȱ importantȱ elementȱ inȱ theȱ rational humanityȱ thatȱ keepsȱ heroicȱ endeavorȱ fromȱ goingȱ beyondȱ the pale;ȱitȱisȱalliedȱtoȱpityȱandȱhumanȱkindnessȱandȱitȱisȱatȱtheȱvery heartȱofȱwhatȱweȱcallȱ“conscience”ȱ(McAlindonȱ1996:ȱ113). RevengeȱasȱtheȱPosthumousȱWorkȱofȱMockingȱDeath DespiteȱHamlet’sȱreluctanceȱtoȱindulgeȱinȱunrestrainedȱpassion, inȱ theȱ endȱ heȱ gathersȱ sufficientȱ passionȱ toȱ launchȱ hisȱ decisive strike.ȱ Butȱ hisȱ finalȱ moodȱ isȱ moreȱ strikingȱ thanȱ hisȱ strike.ȱ AcȬ cordingȱ toȱ Kerrigan,ȱ Hamlet’sȱ finalȱ moodȱ ofȱ calmnessȱ inȱ Act V.iiȱ hasȱ theȱ precedingȱ graveyardȱ sceneȱ asȱ itsȱ clueȱ (Kerrigan 1996:ȱ 122Ȭ51).ȱ Onceȱ obsessedȱ withȱ theȱ factsȱ ofȱ life,ȱ Hamletȱ is nowȱ fixatedȱ onȱ theȱ factsȱ ofȱ death.ȱ Heȱ nowȱ meditatesȱ onȱ the earthyȱafterlifeȱofȱtheȱbody:ȱ“Howȱlongȱwillȱaȱmanȱlieȱi’th’earth ereȱ heȱ rot?”ȱ (V.i.161).ȱ Whatȱ doesȱ heȱ learnȱ (Kerriganȱ 1996:ȱ 131Ȭ 32;ȱ123)?ȱTheȱfirstȱlessonȱisȱthatȱdeathȱundoesȱallȱtheȱtermsȱthat divideȱandȱseparateȱhumanȱbeingsȱbyȱreducingȱdifferenceȱtoȱinȬ distinction. ButȱthereȱisȱaȱsecondȱlessonȱwhichȱhasȱtoȱdoȱwithȱliteralȱdisȬ solution,ȱdeath’sȱattackȱonȱtheȱintegrityȱofȱtheȱbody.ȱWeȱdoȱnot restȱinȱpeace.ȱThereȱisȱdeathȱafterȱdeath,ȱtheȱdissolutionȱandȱdisȬ persionȱinȱandȱfromȱtheȱgrave,ȱtheȱposthumousȱdeathȱofȱbodily corruptionȱ andȱ putrefactionȱ inȱ theȱ handsȱ ofȱ “Ladyȱ Worm” (V.i.87). Deathȱ afterȱ death,ȱ notȱ Yorick,ȱ isȱ theȱ idealȱ beingȱ bornȱ in Hamlet’sȱ teemingȱ brain.ȱ Clearlyȱ struckȱ byȱ aȱ thought,ȱ he wondersȱ ifȱ Alexander,ȱ conquerorȱ ofȱ theȱ world,ȱ cameȱ toȱ his end.ȱOfȱcourseȱheȱdid:ȱdeathȱisȱnotȱaȱsplitter.ȱButȱIȱthinkȱthe submergedȱideaȱinȱtheȱtransitionȱfromȱYorickȱtoȱAlexanderȱis thatȱ death,ȱ theȱ deathȱ heȱ hasȱ justȱ verballyȱ imitated,ȱ rough tauntingȱdeath,ȱisȱoneȱhellȱofȱaȱrevenger.ȱ(Kerriganȱ1996:ȱ136)

ȱ

Theȱlessonsȱofȱtheȱgraveyardȱsceneȱrelieveȱtheȱpressuresȱon Hamlet.ȱ “Inȱ hisȱ detailedȱ probingȱ ofȱ ‘deathȱ afterȱ death’ȱ Hamlet learnsȱbothȱtheȱuniversalȱsovereigntyȱofȱhisȱaggressionȱandȱthe secretȱ ofȱ peacefulness”ȱ (Kerriganȱ 1996:ȱ 146).ȱ Hamletȱ will avengeȱ hisȱ fatherȱ butȱ needȱ notȱ planȱ aȱ rivalrousȱ Senecanȱ atroȬ city,ȱbecauseȱtheȱtaskȱofȱtotalȱrevengeȱinȱtheȱformȱofȱdeathȱafter

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deathȱ isȱ somethingȱ heȱ canȱ leaveȱ toȱ theȱ plottingȱ Godȱ ofȱ ChrisȬ tianityȱwhoseȱcurseȱwillȱhandleȱtheȱreallyȱroughȱstuff.10 Kerriganȱconcludes:ȱHowȱdifferentȱHamlet’sȱlastȱideaȱofȱreȬ vengeȱisȱfromȱhisȱfirst!ȱWeȱrememberȱHamletȱforȱtheȱeffectsȱof vengeanceȱonȱhisȱmindȱ(ActsȱIȬIV)ȱandȱfinallyȱforȱhisȱmind’sȱefȬ fectsȱonȱvengeanceȱ(ActȱV),ȱbecauseȱheȱrewroteȱtheȱbookȱonȱreȬ vengeȱwithinȱtheȱvolumeȱofȱhisȱbrainȱ(Kerriganȱ1996:ȱ151). Conclusion Kerrigan’sȱconclusionȱisȱveryȱlikelyȱtoȱbeȱjustified,ȱbutȱitȱisȱnot theȱonlyȱconclusionȱpossible.ȱNorȱisȱitȱtheȱconclusionȱtoȱthisȱpaȬ per,ȱevenȱthoughȱitsȱpositioningȱatȱtheȱendȱofȱtheȱpaperȱandȱits contentȱwhichȱrelatesȱtoȱtheȱendingȱofȱtheȱplayȱstronglyȱsuggest thatȱitȱshouldȱbeȱtakenȱasȱsuch.ȱInȱfact,ȱaȱclearȬcutȱconclusionȱto thisȱ paperȱ isȱ lackingȱ because,ȱ inȱ myȱ conceptionȱ ofȱ art,ȱ artȱ is neverȱconclusiveȱbutȱdramatizesȱlife’sȱcomplexities.ȱTheȱending ofȱaȱplayȱisȱnotȱtoȱbeȱconfusedȱwithȱaȱconclusionȱasȱifȱitȱwereȱthe author’sȱfinalȱstatementȱonȱtheȱissue.ȱShakespeareȱtellsȱtheȱstory ofȱrevenge’sȱcomplexities.ȱHeȱisȱnotȱwritingȱaȱphilosophical,ȱpoȬ litical,ȱtheological,ȱorȱpsychologicalȱtreatiseȱonȱtheȱbestȱstrategy forȱ copingȱ withȱ evil.ȱ Theȱ characterȱ Hamletȱ turnsȱ outȱ toȱ repreȬ sentȱ manyȱ differentȱ thingsȱ toȱ manyȱ differentȱ people,ȱ andȱ the sameȱ holdsȱ forȱ theȱ phenomenonȱ ofȱ revengeȱ asȱ aȱ copingȱ stratȬ egy,ȱ asȱ farȱ asȱ theȱ playȱ Hamletȱ isȱ concerned.ȱ Revengeȱ doesȱ and doesȱ notȱ haveȱ theȱ potentialȱ toȱ balanceȱ theȱ political,ȱ social, moral,ȱandȱpsychologicalȱwrongȱbroughtȱaboutȱbyȱhumanȱevil.

10

ȱKerriganȱ[1994]ȱ1996:ȱ138:ȱ“Thisȱisȱtheȱgreatȱtrickȱatȱtheȱendȱofȱthe play.ȱBecauseȱHamletȱdoesȱnotȱplanȱhisȱrevenge,ȱheȱseemsȱtoȱhaveȱsacȬ rificedȱsomeȱportionȱofȱhisȱwill.ȱConventionalȱrevengersȱareȱambitious. Theyȱwantȱtoȱappallȱtheȱgods,ȱhorrifyȱtheȱheavens.ȱTheyȱwantȱtoȱbeȱreȬ memberedȱforȱtheirȱartfulȱhorrors,ȱachievingȱpreeminenceȱinȱtheȱmemȬ orialsȱofȱpayȬback.ȱTheȱinnerȱdangerȱofȱtheȱgenreȱhasȱalwaysȱbeenȱthatȱits heroesȱcanȱbecomeȱvindictiveȱvillainsȱ....ȱButȱitȱisȱtheȱdistinctionȱofȱHamȬ let,ȱinȱtheȱlessonȱthatȱseizesȱtheȱhero’sȱmindȱwhenȱcontemplatingȱpoor Yorick,ȱtoȱshowȱthatȱtheȱmoralȱpath,ȱabjuringȱSenecanȱplansȱandȱends, canȱalsoȱsatisfyȱtheȱaggressionsȱofȱtheȱrevenger.ȱChristianityȱisȱmadeȱto seemȱfullyȱcompatibleȱwithȱHamlet’sȱvengefulȱspirit.”

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Bibliography Ewans,ȱMichael.ȱ(1998).ȱ“PatternsȱofȱTragedyȱinȱSophoclesȱandȱShakeȬ speare.”ȱ In:ȱ M.S.ȱ Silkȱ (ed.).ȱ Tragedyȱ andȱ theȱ Tragic:ȱ Greekȱ Theatre andȱBeyond.ȱOxford:ȱOxfordȱUniversityȱPress.ȱPp.ȱ438Ȭ57. Hattaway,ȱ Michael.ȱ (2002).ȱ “Tragedyȱ andȱ Politicalȱ Authority.”ȱ In: ClaireȱMcEachernȱ(ed.).ȱTheȱCambridgeȱCompanionȱtoȱShakespearean Tragedy.ȱCambridge:ȱCambridgeȱUniversityȱPress.ȱPp.ȱ103Ȭ22. Kernan,ȱ Alvin.ȱ (1995)ȱ Shakespeare,ȱ theȱ King’sȱ Playwright:ȱ Theaterȱ inȱ the Stuartȱ Court,ȱ 1603Ȭ1613.ȱ Newȱ Haven/London:ȱ Yaleȱ University Press. Kerrigan,ȱ William.ȱ (1996).ȱ Hamlet’sȱ Perfection.ȱ Baltimore/London:ȱ The JohnsȱHopkinsȱUniversityȱPress. (1996b).ȱ“MacbethȱandȱtheȱHistoryȱofȱAmbition.”ȱIn:ȱJohnȱO’Neill (ed.).ȱ Freudȱ andȱ theȱ Passions.ȱ Universityȱ Park:ȱ Pennȱ Stateȱ UniverȬ sityȱPress.ȱPp.ȱ13Ȭ24. Keyishian,ȱ Harry.ȱ (2003).ȱ Theȱ Shapesȱ ofȱ Revenge:ȱ Victimization,ȱ VenȬ geance,ȱ andȱ Vindictivenessȱ inȱ Shakespeare.ȱ Newȱ York:ȱ Humanity Books. Levin,ȱHarry.ȱ(1959).ȱTheȱQuestionȱofȱHamlet.ȱLondonȱetȱal.:ȱOxfordȱUniȬ versityȱPress. McAlindon,ȱ Thomas.ȱ (1996).ȱ Shakespeare’sȱ Tragicȱ Cosmos.ȱ Cambridge: CambridgeȱUniversityȱPress. Peck,ȱ Johnȱ andȱ Martinȱ Coyle.ȱ (1995).ȱ Howȱ toȱ Studyȱ aȱ Shakespeareȱ Play. 2ndȱed.ȱHampshire/NewȱYork:ȱPalgrave. Rees,ȱ Joan.ȱ (1978).ȱ Shakespeareȱ andȱ theȱ Story:ȱ Aspectsȱ ofȱ Creation.ȱ LonȬ don:ȱTheȱAthloneȱPress. States,ȱ Bertȱ O.ȱ (1992).ȱ Hamletȱ andȱ theȱ Conceptȱ ofȱ Character.ȱ Baltimore/ London:ȱTheȱJohnsȱHopkinsȱUniversityȱPress. Watson,ȱ Robertȱ N.ȱ (2002).ȱ “Tragediesȱ ofȱ Revengeȱ andȱ Ambition.”ȱ In: ClaireȱMcEachernȱ(ed.).ȱTheȱCambridgeȱCompanionȱtoȱShakespearean Tragedy.ȱCambridge:ȱCambridgeȱUniversityȱPress.ȱPp.ȱ160Ȭ81.

TheȱPowerȱandȱLimitsȱofȱStories OnȱtheȱQuestionsȱ“HowȱtoȱCopeȱwithȱEvil?” andȱ“HowȱtoȱAvoidȱEvil?” EdwinȱKoster

Abstract Thisȱ paperȱ arguesȱ that,ȱ evenȱ thoughȱ storiesȱ canȱ helpȱ usȱ toȱ copeȱ withȱ evil, moreȱ(theȱ“realityȱeffect”)ȱisȱneededȱtoȱpreventȱusȱfromȱdoingȱevil.ȱRegarding theȱfirstȱpartȱofȱthisȱthesis,ȱthisȱpaperȱconcentratesȱonȱtwoȱaspectsȱofȱevil:ȱthe “ethical”ȱoneȱ(theȱdimensionȱofȱevilȱthatȱfallsȱwithinȱtheȱcontextȱofȱfreeȱwill) andȱ theȱ “tragic”ȱ oneȱ (theȱ dimensionȱ ofȱ evilȱ thatȱ isȱ independentȱ ofȱ one’s thoughtsȱ andȱ actions).ȱ Withȱ respectȱ toȱ theȱ lastȱ partȱ ofȱ theȱ thesis,ȱ thisȱ paper willȱreferȱonlyȱtoȱtheȱethicalȱaspect.ȱThroughȱrecourseȱtoȱargumentsȱusedȱby Aristotleȱ andȱ Ricoeurȱ andȱ byȱ givingȱ twoȱ examplesȱ ofȱ storiesȱ narratedȱ in writtenȱandȱcinematicȱform,ȱitȱwillȱbeȱshownȱthatȱstoriesȱcanȱmediateȱevilȱand thatȱtheyȱcanȱhelpȱusȱtoȱcopeȱwithȱevil.ȱThus,ȱtheȱmainȱthesisȱofȱthisȱchapterȱis thatȱstoriesȱhaveȱtheȱpowerȱtoȱcreateȱanȱeffectȱonȱtheȱreaderȱbutȱthatȱtheyȱcan notȱpreventȱusȱfromȱdoingȱevil.ȱToȱdoȱthat,ȱtheȱ“realityȱeffect”ȱisȱneeded:ȱacȬ tualȱexperiencesȱthatȱsustainȱtheȱmessageȱofȱtheȱstory.

Introduction Muchȱofȱwhatȱweȱknowȱaboutȱourȱworldȱcomesȱtoȱusȱbyȱwayȱof imagesȱandȱwords.ȱFromȱnewspapers,ȱtelevisionȱbroadcastsȱand stories,ȱ forȱ instance,ȱ weȱ learnȱ aboutȱ allȱ kindsȱ ofȱ events.ȱ This holdsȱnotȱonlyȱforȱhistoricalȱeventsȱbutȱalsoȱforȱphenomenaȱlike evil.ȱInȱthisȱpaperȱIȱwillȱshowȱthatȱnarrativesȱcanȱmakeȱtheȱpheȬ nomenonȱ ofȱ evilȱ accessible.ȱ Inȱ particular,ȱ Iȱ willȱ demonstrate thatȱstoriesȱcanȱdiscloseȱtheȱ“ethical”ȱaspectȱofȱevilȱ(theȱdimenȬ sionȱ ofȱ evilȱ thatȱ fallsȱ withinȱ theȱ contextȱ ofȱ freeȱ will)ȱ andȱ the “tragic”ȱoneȱ(theȱdimensionȱofȱevilȱthatȱisȱindependentȱofȱone’s thoughtsȱandȱactions).ȱStoriesȱcanȱalsoȱhelpȱusȱtoȱcopeȱwithȱevil: theyȱmakeȱitȱpossibleȱtoȱthrowȱfreshȱlightȱonȱourȱexperiencesȱso thatȱweȱcanȱjudgeȱourȱownȱsituationȱinȱaȱnewȱway.ȱSometimes, 219

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storiesȱevenȱhelpȱusȱtoȱalterȱourȱattitudeȱandȱactions.ȱHowever, myȱthesisȱisȱthatȱtheyȱwillȱnotȱpreventȱusȱfromȱdoingȱevil.ȱThe powerȱofȱevilȱisȱtooȱstrongȱforȱthat. TheȱfirstȱsectionȱoutlinesȱtheȱimportantȱroleȱofȱstoriesȱinȱacȬ quiringȱ knowledgeȱ ofȱ evil.ȱ Theȱ startingȱ pointȱ hereȱ isȱ the thoughtȱofȱPaulȱRicoeur,ȱwhoseȱworkȱremainsȱtheȱmostȱimportȬ antȱreferenceȱhere,ȱalthoughȱhisȱanalysisȱwillȱbeȱsupplemented byȱ someȱ moreȱ recentȱ contributions.ȱ Theȱ secondȱ sectionȱ proȬ videsȱtwoȱexamplesȱofȱactualȱstoriesȱthatȱdiscloseȱevil.ȱFromȱthe endȱofȱthisȱsectionȱthroughȱtheȱthirdȱoneȱIȱtryȱtoȱmakeȱclearȱin whichȱ wayȱ storiesȱ canȱ helpȱ inȱ copingȱ withȱ evil.ȱ Anȱ important referenceȱhereȱisȱAristotle’sȱPoetics.ȱTheȱfourthȱsectionȱraisesȱthe questionȱofȱtheȱdegreeȱtoȱwhichȱstoriesȱcanȱpreventȱusȱfromȱdoȬ ingȱevil.ȱLearningȱfromȱtheȱlifeȱofȱOscarȱRomeroȱIȱwillȱglimpse atȱaȱpossibleȱwayȱtoȱavoidȱevil.ȱInȱtheȱfinalȱsectionȱIȱdrawȱsome conclusionsȱaboutȱtheȱpowerȱandȱlimitsȱofȱstoriesȱregardingȱthe problemȱofȱevil. TheȱImportantȱRoleȱofȱStoriesȱinȱAcquiringȱKnowledgeȱofȱEvil Inȱ general,ȱ itȱ canȱ beȱ saidȱ thatȱ mostȱ ofȱ ourȱ knowledgeȱ ofȱ the worldȱdoesȱnotȱcomeȱtoȱusȱbyȱwayȱofȱexperiencesȱbutȱbyȱwayȱof words.ȱMostȱofȱusȱwereȱnotȱpresentȱduringȱtheȱFirstȱWorldȱWar, butȱweȱallȱknowȱsomethingȱaboutȱtrenchȱwarfareȱand,ȱthanksȱto historicalȱ narratives,ȱ weȱ areȱ ableȱ toȱ recognizeȱ theȱ historical judgmentȱaboutȱthisȱperiodȱasȱaȱruptureȱin—atȱleast—European history.ȱButȱevenȱifȱweȱhadȱbeenȱinvolvedȱinȱeventsȱsuchȱasȱthe tsunamiȱ ofȱ Decemberȱ 26,ȱ 2004ȱ or,ȱ toȱ mentionȱ aȱ lessȱ disastrous example,ȱ theȱ 2006ȱ Worldȱ Footballȱ Championshipȱ inȱ Germany, weȱknowȱmostȱofȱwhatȱhappenedȱfromȱnewpaperȱarticles,ȱteleȬ visionȱ broadcastsȱ andȱ storiesȱ fromȱ othersȱ whoȱ wereȱ present duringȱtheseȱevents. Itȱseemsȱundeniableȱthatȱwordsȱandȱstoriesȱareȱnecessaryȱin acquiringȱ knowledgeȱ aboutȱ theȱ world.ȱ Withoutȱ theseȱ words and,ȱ moreȱ specifically,ȱ theseȱ stories,ȱ weȱ wouldȱ beȱ badlyȱ inȬ formed.ȱ Comingȱ fromȱ anotherȱ direction,ȱ theȱ philosopherȱ Paul RicoeurȱgivesȱaȱlongȱandȱwellȱthoughtȬoutȱargumentȱtoȱsustain theȱ claimȱ thatȱ allȱ kindsȱ ofȱ phenomenaȱ cannotȱ beȱ approached properlyȱwithoutȱtakingȱsymbolsȱandȱstoriesȱintoȱconsideration. InȱwhatȱfollowsȱIȱwillȱshortlyȱdescribeȱhisȱargumentȱ(appliedȱto

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theȱ exampleȱ ofȱ evil)ȱ whichȱ canȱ beȱ summarizedȱ inȱ hisȱ wellȬ knownȱmoveȱfromȱphenomenologyȱtoȱhermeneutics. Inȱ theȱ thirdȱ volumeȱ ofȱ Timeȱ andȱ Narrativeȱ Ricoeurȱ writes thatȱ“…ȱphenomenologyȱmustȱbeȱhermeneuticȱbecauseȱwhatȱis closestȱ toȱ usȱ isȱ alsoȱ whatȱ isȱ mostȱ coveredȱ over”ȱ (Ricoeurȱ 1988: 87).ȱThisȱstatementȱappliesȱtoȱevilȱasȱsomethingȱthatȱisȱcloseȱto theȱexperienceȱofȱeveryȱhumanȱbeingȱbutȱwhichȱisȱalsoȱhidden fromȱ usȱ andȱ notȱ entirelyȱ accessibleȱ toȱ unmediatedȱ reflection. Theȱ caseȱ ofȱ evilȱ isȱ evenȱ aȱ modelȱ forȱ Ricoeur,ȱ sinceȱ heȱ hasȱ deȬ monstratedȱhisȱmoveȱfromȱphenomenologyȱtoȱhermeneuticsȱby wayȱ ofȱ hisȱ threeȱ volumesȱ gatheredȱ underȱ theȱ comprehensive titleȱPhilosophyȱofȱtheȱWill.ȱHeȱstartsȱhisȱanalysisȱhereȱwithȱaȱpheȬ nomenologyȱofȱtheȱfreeȱwill,ȱ(Ricoeurȱ1966),ȱthenȱreflectsȱonȱthe badȱwillȱ(Ricoeurȱ1986),ȱandȱfinallyȱgivesȱspecialȱattentionȱtoȱthe symbolismȱ ofȱ evilȱ (Ricoeurȱ 1967).ȱ Letȱ usȱ lookȱ moreȱ closelyȱ at theȱtransitionȱfromȱphenomenologyȱtoȱhermeneutics. Oneȱ ofȱ theȱ mainȱ philosophicalȱ influencesȱ onȱ Ricoeurȱ was theȱGermanȱphenomenologistȱEdmundȱHusserl.ȱRicoeurȱwantȬ edȱ toȱ makeȱ useȱ ofȱ hisȱ phenomenologicalȱ methodȱ toȱ describe phenomenaȱ suchȱ asȱ freedomȱ andȱ nature.ȱ Byȱ reflectingȱ onȱ the distinctionȱ betweenȱ theȱ ontologicalȱ questionȱ onȱ theȱ oneȱ hand andȱtheȱsubjectiveȱprocessesȱofȱconsciousnessȱonȱtheȱother,ȱthis methodȱleadsȱtoȱknowledgeȱaboutȱtheȱappearanceȱofȱthingsȱ(RiȬ coeurȱ 1967:ȱ 202f.).ȱ Centralȱ toȱ Ricoeur’sȱ applicationȱ ofȱ theȱ pheȬ nomenologicalȱmethodȱisȱtheȱ“eideticȱreduction”:ȱaȱwayȱofȱdisȬ coveringȱ theȱ essentialȱ structuresȱ ofȱ things.ȱ Weȱ arriveȱ atȱ these structuresȱ throughȱ aȱ processȱ Husserlȱ callsȱ “freeȱ variation”ȱ or “imaginativeȱ variation.”ȱ Byȱ imaginingȱ theȱ removalȱ ofȱ certain featuresȱ fromȱ anȱ object,ȱ weȱ findȱ thatȱ someȱ ofȱ theseȱ operations wouldȱ leaveȱ theȱ objectȱ intact,ȱ whileȱ othersȱ wouldȱ destroyȱ the object.ȱTherefore,ȱtheȱprocessȱleadsȱtoȱaȱselectionȱofȱtheȱessential featuresȱofȱanȱobject.ȱThisȱmethodȱisȱcalledȱ“eidetics”ȱorȱ“eidetic reduction”ȱbecauseȱitȱgivesȱinsightȱintoȱtheȱessenceȱ(theȱeidos)ȱof theȱthingȱinȱquestionȱ(Sokolowskiȱ1995:ȱ348). Byȱanalyzingȱfreedomȱandȱnature,ȱRicoeurȱcomesȱtoȱseeȱthe limitsȱofȱtheȱphenomenologicalȱmethod.ȱFirstȱofȱall,ȱthisȱmethod limitsȱ oneȱ toȱ idealȱ descriptionsȱ of,ȱ forȱ example,ȱ theȱ freeȱ will. Theȱpresuppositionlessȱphilosophyȱofȱeideticsȱdelimitsȱtheȱfield ofȱpureȱdescriptionȱtoȱ“theȱneutralȱsphereȱofȱman’sȱmostȱfundaȬ mentalȱ possibilities.”ȱ Eideticsȱ canȱ presentȱ onlyȱ neutralȱ strucȬ tures,ȱ abstractionsȱ ofȱ concreteȱ representations.ȱ Therefore,ȱ the

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domainȱofȱfault,ȱtheȱdomainȱofȱfallibleȱhumansȱstandingȱbefore theȱ possibilityȱ ofȱ evilȱ hasȱ toȱ beȱ bracketedȱ andȱ inȱ Fallibleȱ Man Ricoeurȱ wantsȱ toȱ reintroduceȱ thatȱ whichȱ hadȱ beenȱ bracketed (Ricoeurȱ 1986:ȱ xli).ȱ Therefore,ȱ heȱ combinesȱ theȱ phenomenoloȬ gicalȱ methodȱ withȱ anȱ existentialȱ approach,ȱ leadingȱ toȱ aȱ transiȬ tionȱfromȱaȱdescriptionȱofȱidealȱpossibilitiesȱtoȱaȱdescriptionȱof actualȱ possibilities.ȱ However,ȱ theȱ existentialȱ approachȱ cannot describeȱtheȱfullȱactualityȱofȱfaultȱbutȱonlyȱfallibilityȱasȱaȱpossiȬ bilityȱ(cf.ȱRasmussenȱ1971:ȱ36Ȭ40ȱandȱHettemaȱ1996:ȱ19Ȭ21).ȱDue toȱ thisȱ combinationȱ ofȱ methods,ȱ evilȱ isȱ describedȱ asȱ theȱ ideal andȱactualȱpossibilityȱofȱtheȱbadȱwill,ȱanȱapproachȱthatȱRicoeur callsȱ “anȱ ethicalȱ interpretationȱ ofȱ evil”:ȱ “anȱ interpretationȱ in whichȱ evilȱ asȱ farȱ asȱ possibleȱ isȱ resetȱ withinȱ theȱ contextȱ of freedom”ȱ(Ricoeurȱ1962:ȱ205).ȱAccordingȱtoȱRicoeur,ȱtheȱethical interpretationȱofȱevilȱdoesȱnotȱdelineateȱtheȱfullȱmeaningȱofȱevil. “Whatȱ isȱ lacking,ȱ whatȱ isȱ lost,ȱ isȱ theȱ darksomeȱ experienceȱ of evilȱwhichȱcomesȱupȱinȱdifferentȱwaysȱinȱtheȱsymbolismȱofȱevil andȱ whichȱ constitutesȱ properlyȱ speakingȱ theȱ ‘tragic’ȱ aspectȱ of evil”ȱ(Ricoeurȱ1962:ȱ208).ȱTheȱtragicȱaspectȱofȱevilȱcannotȱbeȱinȬ ferredȱ fromȱ individualȱ culpabilityȱ andȱ actualȱ faults:ȱ itȱ isȱ aȱ diȬ mensionȱ ofȱ evilȱ “alreadyȱ there,”ȱ independentȱ ofȱ myȱ thought andȱaction. Fromȱ hisȱ studiesȱ onȱ Theȱ Philosophyȱ ofȱ Will,ȱ Ricoeurȱ conȬ cludesȱ firstȱ thatȱ thereȱ isȱ noȱ direct,ȱ nonȬsymbolicȱ languageȱ of evilȱ undergone,ȱ suffered,ȱ orȱ committed.ȱ “Primaryȱ symbols,” suchȱ asȱ stain,ȱ areȱ alwaysȱ usedȱ toȱ expressȱ experiencesȱ ofȱ evil. Accordingȱ toȱ Ricoeur,ȱ theseȱ symbolsȱ areȱ “primary”ȱ because theyȱareȱarticulatedȱbyȱelementaryȱlanguage.ȱNevertheless,ȱthey areȱ “symbols”:ȱ theȱ literalȱ meaningȱ ofȱ stainȱ providesȱ aȱ second meaningȱ andȱ theȱ analogousȱ relationȱ thatȱ bindsȱ theȱ second meaningȱ toȱ theȱ firstȱ cannotȱ beȱ objectivized.ȱ However,ȱ these primaryȱ symbolsȱ areȱ lessȱ articulatedȱ thanȱ whatȱ Ricoeurȱ calls “mythicalȱsymbols.”ȱOnlyȱaȱ(minimal)ȱinterpretationȱofȱmythicȬ alȱsymbolsȱcanȱrevealȱtheȱtragicȱdimensionȱofȱevil.ȱSo,ȱaccording toȱ Ricoeur,ȱ (i)ȱ aȱ symbolicȱ languageȱ isȱ necessaryȱ toȱ speakȱ of opaqueȱdimensionsȱofȱevil,ȱandȱ(ii)ȱonlyȱaȱhermeneuticsȱofȱsymȬ bolsȱ isȱ upȱ toȱ theȱ taskȱ ofȱ reflectingȱ onȱ theseȱ symbolsȱ (Ricoeur

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1962:ȱ 193Ȭ95).1ȱ Inȱ short:ȱ “phenomenologyȱ mustȱ beȱ hermeneutȬ ic.” InȱtheȱnextȱsectionȱIȱwillȱshowȱthatȱnarratives,ȱasȱoneȱform ofȱsymbolicȱlanguage,ȱareȱveryȱsuitableȱforȱdisclosingȱtheȱethical aspectȱofȱevilȱasȱwellȱasȱitsȱtragicȱaspect. TheȱMediationȱofȱEvilȱbyȱMythsȱandȱNarratives Anȱexampleȱofȱaȱnarrativeȱthatȱshowsȱbothȱaspectsȱofȱevilȱisȱthe movieȱInȱtheȱNameȱofȱtheȱFather.ȱThisȱfilmȱisȱbasedȱonȱtheȱcaseȱof theȱ “Guildfordȱ Four.”ȱ Onȱ theȱ eveningȱ ofȱ Octoberȱ 5,ȱ 1974,ȱ inȱ a pubȱinȱGuildfordȱ(England),ȱanȱIRAȱbombȱexplodes,ȱkillingȱfive people.ȱ Underȱ pressureȱ byȱ theȱ publicȱ demandȱ forȱ justice,ȱ the policeȱarrestȱsomeȱsquattersȱwhoȱhadȱrecentlyȱarrivedȱfromȱBelȬ fast,ȱ withoutȱ botheringȱ muchȱ aboutȱ theirȱ guiltȱ orȱ innocence. TheȱfatherȱofȱoneȱofȱthemȱisȱaccusedȱofȱparticipatingȱinȱIRAȱacȬ tivitiesȱwhenȱheȱcomesȱtoȱLondonȱtoȱhelpȱhisȱsonȱobtainȱaȱlawȬ yer.ȱAfterȱaȱshowȱtrial,ȱtheyȱareȱimprisonedȱforȱaboutȱ15ȱyears, duringȱ whichȱ periodȱ theȱ fatherȱ dies.ȱ Theȱ focusȱ ofȱ theȱ movie graduallyȱ shiftsȱ fromȱ theȱ politicalȱ processȱ toȱ theȱ intimateȱ relaȬ tionȱ betweenȱ fatherȱ andȱ son:ȱ fromȱ beingȱ virtualȱ strangersȱ they becomeȱ intimateȱ relatives.ȱ Theȱ titleȱ Inȱ theȱ Nameȱ ofȱ theȱ Fatherȱ is theȱexpressionȱforȱtheȱjusticeȱtheȱsonȱisȱseekingȱandȱwhichȱis,ȱat leastȱ partly,ȱ givenȱ inȱ theȱ endȱ whenȱ theȱ Guildfordȱ Fourȱ areȱ reȬ leasedȱ fromȱ prison,ȱ i.e.ȱ theȱ onesȱ whoȱ areȱ stillȱ alive.ȱ Sinceȱ the storyȱ isȱ aboutȱ guiltȱ andȱ innocence,ȱ theȱ presenceȱ ofȱ theȱ ethical dimensionȱofȱtheȱstoryȱneedsȱnoȱfurtherȱclarification.ȱTheȱtragic dimensionȱ ofȱ evil—asȱ somethingȱ thatȱ isȱ alreadyȱ there,ȱ beyond theȱgraspȱofȱtheȱmainȱfigures—isȱpresentȱinȱtheȱmovieȱasȱwell. Weȱcanȱseeȱitȱpatentlyȱobviousȱinȱtheȱarbitraryȱcharacterȱofȱthe arrestsȱofȱtheȱfatherȱandȱtheȱsonȱbutȱalsoȱinȱtheȱpressureȱofȱthe publicȱ toȱ catchȱ theȱ bombers,ȱ thusȱ urgingȱ theȱ policeȱ toȱ actȱ inȱ a moreȱorȱlessȱrandomȱway. Anotherȱ example,ȱ perhapsȱ theȱ mostȱ wellȬknownȱ inȱ ChrisȬ tianȱorȱpostȬChristianȱcultures,ȱisȱtheȱbiblicalȱstoryȱaboutȱAdam andȱ Eveȱ eatingȱ theȱ forbiddenȱ fruit:ȱ “theȱ Fallȱ ofȱ humankind.” 1

ȱInȱTheȱRuleȱofȱMetaphorȱandȱTimeȱandȱNarrativeȱRicoeurȱpaysȱatȬ tentionȱ toȱ theȱ roleȱ ofȱ poeticsȱ inȱ interpretingȱ aspectsȱ ofȱ reality.ȱ These worksȱcanȱbeȱseenȱasȱfittingȱintoȱRicoeur’sȱphilosophyȱofȱtheȱwill.ȱCf. Hettemaȱ1996:ȱ19.

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GodȱhadȱforbiddenȱAdamȱandȱEveȱtoȱeatȱtheȱfruitȱofȱtheȱ“treeȱof theȱknowledgeȱofȱgoodȱandȱevil.”ȱSeducedȱbyȱtheȱserpent,ȱthey disobeyȱ God’sȱ commandmentȱ andȱ theirȱ happyȱ lifeȱ inȱ paradise ends.ȱ Inȱ thisȱ story,ȱ bothȱ theȱ ethicalȱ andȱ theȱ tragicȱ dimensions areȱ present.ȱ Theȱ ethicalȱ dimensionȱ isȱ evidentȱ becauseȱ Adam andȱEveȱbreakȱtheȱrulesȱGodȱhadȱgivenȱthem.ȱTheyȱbecomeȱvicȬ timsȱ ofȱ theirȱ selfishȱ desireȱ toȱ becomeȱ asȱ wiseȱ andȱ powerfulȱ as theirȱ creator.ȱ Theȱ tragicȱ dimensionȱ isȱ presentȱ inȱ theȱ mythical figureȱofȱtheȱserpent.ȱOnȱtheȱoneȱhand,ȱtheȱserpentȱinȱtheȱthird chapterȱofȱGenesisȱisȱ“aȱwildȱcreature,”ȱbelongingȱtoȱtheȱnatural world.ȱOnȱtheȱotherȱhand,ȱitȱhasȱabilitiesȱbeyondȱthoseȱbelongȬ ingȱtoȱanimals:ȱitȱisȱsly,ȱableȱtoȱspeakȱandȱtoȱreasonȱconvincingȬ lyȱ overȱ againstȱ theȱ commandmentsȱ ofȱ God.ȱ Thisȱ isȱ whyȱ some interpretersȱseeȱtheȱserpentȱasȱaȱsymbolȱofȱtheȱpowerȱofȱtemptaȬ tionȱinȱhumanȱlifeȱ(Willisȱ1979:ȱ120Ȭ22;ȱ cf.ȱvanȱderȱHeideȱ2004: 121Ȭ23).ȱ Accordingȱ toȱ Ricoeur,ȱ theȱ serpentȱ inȱ thisȱ storyȱ exemȬ plifiesȱ “evilȱ alreadyȱ there.”ȱ Itȱ representsȱ aȱ formȱ ofȱ evilȱ thatȱ is moreȱancientȱthanȱhumankind.ȱ“TheȱserpentȱisȱtheȱOtherȱofȱhuȬ manȱevil”ȱ(Ricoeurȱ1962:ȱ200;ȱcf.ȱpp.ȱ199,ȱ209,ȱ212f.). Inȱ additionȱ toȱ disclosingȱ theȱ ethicalȱ andȱ tragicȱ dimensions ofȱ evil,ȱ storiesȱ haveȱ theȱ powerȱ toȱ intensifyȱ theseȱ dimensions. Storiesȱareȱnot,ȱofȱcourse,ȱpassiveȱcopiesȱofȱreality—asȱfarȱasȱthis canȱ beȱ saidȱ inȱ theȱ caseȱ ofȱ fictionalȱ andȱ religiousȱ stories.ȱ They canȱ beȱ seenȱ asȱ theȱ resultȱ ofȱ theȱ creativeȱ imaginationȱ ofȱ anȱ auȬ thor.ȱTheyȱconstructȱaȱworldȱbyȱwayȱofȱapplyingȱnarrativeȱskills suchȱ asȱ (i)ȱ playingȱ withȱ timeȱ andȱ spaceȱ inȱ representingȱ events andȱincidents,ȱ(ii)ȱcreatingȱspecificȱcharacterȱtraits,ȱ(iii)ȱintroduȬ cingȱseveralȱperspectivesȱofȱwhichȱtheȱnarrator’sȱpointȱofȱview isȱ theȱ mostȱ commonȱ one,ȱ (iv)ȱ theȱ useȱ ofȱ “emplotment”2ȱ asȱ a synthesisȱ ofȱ allȱ theseȱ differentȱ ingredients,ȱ andȱ (v)ȱ creatingȱ a specialȱ atmosphereȱ whichȱ isȱ mostȱ typicallyȱ feltȱ inȱ watchingȱ a movieȱ (asȱ aȱ kindȱ ofȱ narrative).ȱ Theȱ resultȱ ofȱ theȱ applicationȱ of theseȱnarrativeȱtoolsȱisȱanȱaestheticȱredescriptionȱofȱreality,ȱaȱreȬ enactmentȱofȱtheȱrealȱworldȱbyȱmagnifyingȱitsȱessentialȱfeatures. Itȱisȱeasyȱtoȱrecognizeȱthisȱinȱtheȱabovementionedȱexamples.

2 ȱInȱTimeȱandȱNarrativeȱRicoeurȱintroducesȱtheȱnotionȱofȱ“emplotȬ ment,”ȱbyȱwhichȱheȱmeansȱtheȱdynamicalȱactȱofȱarrangingȱmultipleȱand scatteredȱevents.

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TheȱexamplesȱofȱthisȱsectionȱandȱtheȱargumentȱofȱtheȱpreviȬ ousȱ oneȱ showȱ thatȱ storiesȱ canȱ mediateȱ evil:ȱ theyȱ makeȱ the phenomenonȱofȱevilȱaccessibleȱand—atȱleastȱtoȱaȱcertainȱdegree —intelligible.ȱ Theyȱ canȱ alsoȱ helpȱ readersȱ orȱ spectatorsȱ cope withȱ evilȱ inȱ theirȱ ownȱ lives.ȱ Theȱ storyȱ ofȱ Inȱ theȱ Nameȱ ofȱ theȱ FaȬ ther,ȱforȱinstance,ȱcanȱgiveȱtheȱspectatorȱsomeȱhopeȱthatȱlifeȱcan beginȱ again,ȱ evenȱ afterȱ suchȱ aȱ longȱ periodȱ ofȱ beingȱ subjectȱ to unjustȱ actsȱ andȱ decisions.ȱ Theȱ biblicalȱ storyȱ aboutȱ Adamȱ and Eveȱ mightȱ encourageȱ peopleȱ whoȱ believeȱ thatȱ thereȱ isȱ aȱ conȬ stantȱstruggleȱwithȱtheȱ(sometimesȱevil)ȱpowersȱthatȱpartlyȱdeȬ termineȱ ourȱ lives.ȱ Inȱ thisȱ way,ȱ storiesȱ canȱ makeȱ aȱ contribution toȱtheȱunderstandingȱofȱtheȱroleȱevilȱplaysȱinȱourȱlives—without theȱguaranteeȱthatȱtheyȱcanȱactuallyȱhelpȱusȱcomeȱtoȱtermsȱwith ourȱownȱpainȱandȱsorrow,ȱandȱwithȱourȱfeelingsȱofȱguilt.ȱInȱthe nextȱ sectionȱ Iȱ willȱ furtherȱ exploreȱ theȱ notionȱ ofȱ “copingȱ with evil”ȱwithȱexplicitȱreferenceȱtoȱtheȱeffectȱofȱtellingȱaȱstoryȱtoȱan audience. CopingȱwithȱEvil? Inȱ hisȱ importantȱ booksȱ onȱ Timeȱ andȱ Narrativeȱ Ricoeurȱ suggests thatȱ theȱ intersectionȱ betweenȱ theȱ worldȱ ofȱ theȱ textȱ andȱ the worldȱ ofȱ theȱ readerȱ canȱ createȱ theȱ powerȱ toȱ transformȱ life. ReadingȱaȱnarrativeȱinterruptsȱtheȱcourseȱofȱactionȱandȱcanȱbeȬ comeȱanȱimpetusȱtoȱnewȱaction.ȱIfȱthisȱisȱtheȱcase,ȱtheȱworldȱof theȱreaderȱisȱ(re)figuredȱdueȱtoȱtheȱconfrontationȱwithȱtheȱnarȬ rativeȱ(cf.ȱe.g.,ȱRicoeurȱ1988:ȱ3,ȱ159,ȱ179).ȱOneȱofȱtheȱmostȱinfluȬ entialȱtextsȱonȱtheȱpowerȱofȱnarrativeȱtoȱtransformȱlife—orȱbetȬ terȱonȱtheȱabilityȱtoȱbringȱaboutȱanȱeffectȱonȱtheȱpublic—isȱArisȬ totle’sȱ Poetics.ȱ Withȱ respectȱ toȱ theȱ effectȱ ofȱ aȱ tragedy,ȱ Aristotle claimsȱ thatȱ theȱ plotȱ mustȱ imitateȱ actionsȱ arousingȱ fearȱ and compassionȱ(1452b,ȱ31Ȭ33).ȱAccordingȱtoȱAristotle,ȱtoȱmakeȱthis possible,ȱ theȱ plotȱ ofȱ aȱ tragedyȱ mustȱ haveȱ aȱ singleȱ issue;ȱ the mainȱsubjectȱmustȱbeȱanȱintermediateȱkindȱofȱcharacter:ȱnotȱtoo virtuousȱandȱnotȱtooȱbad,ȱforȱinstance;ȱtheȱsubjectsȱinvolvedȱin theȱplotȱmustȱbeȱcloselyȱrelatedȱtoȱoneȱanother,ȱsuchȱasȱrelatives orȱfriends;ȱtheȱchangeȱinȱtheȱsubject’sȱfortuneȱmustȱbeȱcausedȱby aȱ farȬreachingȱ butȱ nonȬdeservedȱ faultȱ ofȱ theȱ subject;ȱ andȱ the tragedyȱmustȱhaveȱanȱunhappyȱendingȱ(1453a,ȱ5Ȭ25;ȱ1453b,ȱ12Ȭ 25).ȱIfȱallȱtheseȱconditionsȱhold,ȱthenȱtheȱplotȱisȱframedȱinȱsuchȱa wayȱ thatȱ theȱ eventsȱ andȱ incidentsȱ ofȱ theȱ storyȱ arouseȱ fearȱ and

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compassion—emotionsȱthat,ȱaccordingȱtoȱAristotle,ȱalsoȱcanȱbe arousedȱbyȱtheȱspectacleȱor,ȱȱweȱcouldȱsay,ȱtheȱ“specialȱeffects.” Takenȱ together,ȱ fearȱ andȱ compassionȱ createȱ theȱ effectȱ thatȱ ArȬ istotleȱcalledȱcatharsis.ȱItȱisȱfarȱfromȱclearȱwhatȱAristotleȱexactly meantȱ byȱ thisȱ conceptȱ (cf.ȱ Halliwellȱ 1986:ȱ 350Ȭ56;ȱ Schomakers 2000:ȱ 172,ȱ 175Ȭ77,ȱ 182,ȱ 189f.,ȱ 196)ȱ andȱ Iȱ willȱ notȱ giveȱ anȱ interȬ pretationȱ ofȱ myȱ own.ȱ Myȱ aimȱ isȱ onlyȱ toȱ understandȱ betterȱ the powerȱ narrativesȱ mightȱ haveȱ inȱ transformingȱ theȱ livesȱ ofȱ its public,ȱ andȱ Aristotle’sȱ analysisȱ isȱ helpfulȱ inȱ reachingȱ thisȱ aim. Fromȱhisȱdiscussionȱofȱtheȱeffectȱofȱtheȱtragedyȱonȱtheȱpublic,ȱI willȱ applyȱ aȱ fewȱ elementsȱ toȱ theȱ questionȱ ofȱ theȱ possibilityȱ of transformingȱtheȱpublicȱbyȱreadingȱaȱstoryȱorȱwatchingȱaȱmovie. Firstȱ ofȱ all,ȱ Aristotleȱ speaksȱ aboutȱ fear.ȱ Fearȱ isȱ invokedȱ in tragedy,ȱIȱthink,ȱbyȱtheȱnonȬdeservedȱfaultȱandȱbyȱtheȱunhappy ending.ȱ Itȱ isȱ clearȱ thatȱ aȱ similarȱ featureȱ canȱ beȱ recognizedȱ in storiesȱaboutȱevil.ȱTheȱeventsȱrelatedȱareȱatȱleastȱpartlyȱbeyond ourȱgrasp.ȱThisȱisȱtheȱtragicȱdimensionȱofȱtheseȱstories.ȱLooking atȱoneȱofȱtheȱaboveȱmentionedȱexamples,ȱitȱisȱnotȱhardȱtoȱpoint toȱ theȱ possibleȱ causesȱ ofȱ theȱ arousalȱ ofȱ fearȱ byȱ theȱ public.ȱ The arbitraryȱandȱunfairȱcaptureȱofȱtheȱGuildfordȱFourȱandȱtheȱunȬ happyȱendingȱofȱtheȱlifeȱofȱtheȱfather,ȱareȱclearȱinstancesȱofȱthis effect.ȱ Theseȱ storiesȱ canȱ provokeȱ aȱ holyȱ fearȱ inȱ theȱ wayȱ things goȱinȱourȱlivesȱorȱforȱtheȱworkingsȱofȱfate.ȱAsȱRichardȱKearney putsȱ it,ȱ “Catharticȱ aweȱ stopsȱ usȱ inȱ ourȱ tracks,ȱ throwsȱ usȱ off kilter,ȱdeworldsȱus”ȱ(Kearneyȱ2002:ȱ138).ȱItȱcanȱopenȱourȱeyesȱto theȱtragicȱdimensionȱofȱourȱownȱlives. Secondly,ȱaccordingȱtoȱAristotle,ȱcompassionȱisȱaroused.ȱIn myȱ view,ȱ thisȱ isȱ causedȱ byȱ theȱ specialȱ featuresȱ heȱ claimsȱ the actorsȱ ofȱ aȱ tragedyȱ mustȱ have.ȱ Theseȱ featuresȱ makeȱ itȱ possible toȱidentifyȱoneselfȱwithȱthemȱand,ȱbecauseȱofȱthis,ȱtheȱfeelingȱof compassionȱ canȱ beȱ aroused.ȱ Feelingȱ compassionȱ canȱ makeȱ the readerȱ orȱ spectatorȱ reflectȱ onȱ one’sȱ ownȱ actionsȱ andȱ thoughts andȱ itȱ canȱ causeȱ aȱ rearrangementȱ ofȱ one’sȱ lifeȱ storyȱ andȱ even one’sȱattitudeȱtoȱlife.ȱThus,ȱitȱcanȱhaveȱanȱimpactȱonȱtheȱmorals andȱethicsȱofȱtheȱreader. Thirdly,ȱ evenȱ thoughȱ itȱ isȱ onlyȱ minimallyȱ presentȱ inȱ ArȬ istotle,ȱtheȱspecialȱeffectsȱofȱtragedyȱcanȱcooperateȱinȱtheȱarousal ofȱ fearȱ andȱ compassion.ȱ Iȱ identifyȱ theseȱ effectsȱ partlyȱ withȱ the estheticȱ dimensionȱ ofȱ storiesȱ andȱ films.ȱ Thisȱ aestheticȱ dimenȬ sionȱ revealsȱ itselfȱ inȱ theȱ literaryȱ competenceȱ ofȱ anȱ authorȱ to constructȱaȱplotȱinȱwhichȱactingȱinȱignoranceȱgoesȱtogetherȱwith

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aȱpainfulȱdiscoveryȱofȱtheȱconsequences.ȱAnȱexampleȱofȱthisȱis theȱ remorseȱ ofȱ Eveȱ afterȱ eatingȱ theȱ forbiddenȱ fruit.ȱ Thisȱ can haveȱ anȱ effectȱ onȱ theȱ spectatorȱ asȱ well.ȱ Anotherȱ wayȱ inȱ which thisȱestheticȱdimensionȱshowsȱitselfȱisȱinȱtheȱheavyȱandȱalmost unbearableȱ atmosphereȱ ofȱ theȱ seductionȱ ofȱ Eveȱ byȱ theȱ serȬ pent—“theȱmostȱcunningȱofȱallȱwildȱanimals,”ȱasȱtheȱBibleȱputs it—inȱ Testament:ȱ Theȱ Bibleȱ inȱ Animation,ȱ theȱ movieȱ versionȱ of thisȱstory.ȱTheȱspectatorȱisȱcertainlyȱaffectedȱbyȱthisȱoppression ofȱ theȱ sceneȱ createdȱ byȱ rapidlyȱ changingȱ perspectivesȱ andȱ the soundȱofȱtheȱheartbeats. Takenȱ together,ȱ allȱ theseȱ elementsȱ haveȱ anȱ undeniableȱ efȬ fectȱonȱtheȱpublic.ȱAȱspecificȱstoryȱcharacterizedȱbyȱaȱparticular configurationȱthatȱcreatesȱaȱuniqueȱworldȱinȱtheȱimaginationȱof theȱ readerȱ isȱ combinedȱ with,ȱ second,ȱ moreȱ universalȱ features thatȱ makeȱ itȱ possibleȱ toȱ recognizeȱ allȱ kindsȱ ofȱ eventsȱ andȱ inȬ cidentsȱ asȱ wellȱ asȱ toȱ identifyȱ withȱ certainȱ characters,ȱ andȱ this combinationȱ bringsȱ aboutȱ aȱ transformationȱ ofȱ theȱ mindȱ (at least)ȱ ofȱ theȱ public.ȱ Inȱ otherȱ words,ȱ storiesȱ arrestȱ ourȱ attention byȱ theirȱ particularity,ȱ andȱ becauseȱ ofȱ theirȱ generalityȱ neverȱ let usȱgo. Becauseȱofȱtheȱfearȱandȱcompassionȱarousedȱbyȱaȱparticular story,ȱweȱbecomeȱawareȱofȱtheȱtragicȱandȱethicalȱdimensionsȱof evilȱinȱourȱownȱlives.ȱOnȱtheȱintersectionȱbetweenȱtheȱworldȱof theȱ narrativeȱ andȱ ourȱ ownȱ world,ȱ weȱ mayȱ beginȱ toȱ comeȱ to gripsȱwithȱtheȱevilȱsurroundingȱus.ȱThisȱeffectȱuponȱtheȱreader isȱ relatedȱ toȱ theȱ processȱ ofȱ “copingȱ withȱ evil.”3ȱ However,ȱ itȱ is notȱ yetȱ clearȱ whetherȱ narrativesȱ haveȱ theȱ powerȱ toȱ transform life,ȱasȱRicoeurȱsuggests.ȱIȱwillȱtakeȱupȱthisȱquestionȱinȱtheȱlast section. ToȱAvoidȱDoingȱEvil? Becauseȱstoriesȱareȱnotȱethicallyȱneutral,ȱtheyȱevokeȱaȱjudgment aboutȱtheȱwayȱtheȱactorsȱbehave.ȱInȱsomeȱwayȱtheyȱprovokeȱus toȱ judgeȱ ourȱ ownȱ realityȱ andȱ mayȱ helpȱ usȱ inȱ reflectingȱ onȱ our 3

ȱNoteȱthatȱthisȱconclusionȱisȱachievedȱwithoutȱ(i)ȱdealingȱexplicitly withȱtheȱdifficultȱquestionȱofȱtheȱinterpretationȱofȱcatharsisȱandȱ(ii)ȱȱclaimȬ ingȱthatȱGreekȱtragediesȱcanȱhelpȱinȱcopingȱwithȱevil.ȱAlthoughȱtheȱlast claimȱmayȱsoundȱodd,ȱthereȱareȱthoseȱwhoȱassertȱthatȱpeopleȱcanȱfind comfortȱinȱtragedies.ȱSeeȱe.g.ȱdeȱMulȱ2006:ȱ15f,ȱ111.ȱ

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ownȱtreatmentȱofȱsituationsȱinȱwhichȱevilȱloomsȱlarge.ȱThisȱefȬ fectȱisȱpossibleȱonlyȱifȱweȱhaveȱtheȱpowerȱofȱempathy.ȱRichard Kearney,ȱtheȱauthorȱofȱOnȱStories,ȱwritesȱthatȱthisȱpowerȱisȱaȱneȬ cessaryȱ conditionȱ forȱ notȱ committingȱ crimesȱ suchȱ asȱ murder andȱ otherȱ atrocitiesȱ (Kearneyȱ 2002:ȱ 139).ȱ Butȱ heȱ goesȱ evenȱ furȬ therȱwhenȱheȱassertsȱthatȱempathyȱwithȱnarrativeȱcharactersȱisȱa sufficientȱconditionȱtoȱavoidȱdoingȱevil:ȱ“Ifȱweȱpossessȱnarrative sympathy—enablingȱusȱtoȱseeȱtheȱworldȱfromȱtheȱother’sȱpoint ofȱview—weȱcannotȱkill”ȱ(Kearneyȱ2002:ȱ140).4 Iȱdoȱnotȱthinkȱthisȱisȱtrue.ȱListeningȱtoȱtheȱGospelȱdoesȱnot transformȱ usȱ intoȱ saints.ȱ Theȱ effectȱ onȱ theȱ imaginationȱ ofȱ the readerȱdoesȱnotȱautomaticallyȱhaveȱconsequencesȱforȱhisȱorȱher actions.ȱTheȱmainȱthesisȱofȱthisȱarticleȱisȱthatȱnarrativesȱhaveȱthe powerȱ toȱ createȱ anȱ effectȱ onȱ theȱ reader,ȱ butȱ thatȱ something moreȱ isȱ neededȱ toȱ bringȱ aboutȱ aȱ newȱ attitudeȱ inȱ generalȱ and thatȱmoreȱisȱneededȱtoȱpreventȱreadersȱfromȱdoingȱevilȱinȱparȬ ticular. Forȱ theȱ lastȱ partȱ ofȱ thisȱ thesis,ȱ Iȱ willȱ referȱ toȱ onlyȱ one example:ȱ theȱ wellȬknownȱ biographyȱ ofȱ theȱ archbishopȱ ofȱ San Salvador,ȱ Oscarȱ Romero.ȱ Inȱ Marchȱ ofȱ 1980,ȱ onlyȱ threeȱ years afterȱhisȱinvestitureȱasȱarchbishop,ȱRomeroȱwasȱassassinatedȱas heȱcelebratedȱMass.ȱOnȱtheȱoneȱhand,ȱhisȱelectionȱandȱinstallaȬ tionȱasȱarchbishopȱwasȱfeltȱtoȱbeȱaȱhugeȱvictoryȱforȱtheȱconserȬ vativeȱpartȱofȱtheȱRomanȱCatholicȱChurchȱandȱforȱtheȱpowerful rulersȱ whoȱ wereȱ tiredȱ ofȱ hisȱ predecessorȱ Chávezȱ whoȱ wasȱ not ableȱ toȱ controlȱ hisȱ rebelliousȱ clergy.ȱ Onȱ theȱ otherȱ hand,ȱ itȱ was feltȱ toȱ beȱ aȱ bigȱ disappointmentȱ byȱ theȱ poorȱ whoȱ fearedȱ that RomeroȱwouldȱreverseȱChávez’ȱprogressiveȱdirectionȱ(Dennisȱet al.ȱ 1983:ȱ 1Ȭ29).ȱ Andȱ indeed,ȱ Romero’sȱ attitudeȱ towardȱ theȱ pasȬ toralȱministryȱofȱRutilioȱGrande,ȱforȱinstance,ȱshowsȱtheȱreasons forȱ thisȱ judgment.ȱ Grandeȱ hadȱ publiclyȱ criticizedȱ richȱ landȬ ownersȱ whoȱ possessedȱ almostȱ allȱ theȱ fertileȱ land.ȱ Heȱ deȬ nouncedȱtheirȱbehaviorȱandȱcontinuedȱtoȱspeakȱoutȱagainstȱinȬ justice,ȱdespiteȱtheȱcost.ȱRomeroȱheldȱGrandeȱinȱhighȱregardȱbut alsoȱ thoughtȱ heȱ wasȱ tooȱ political,ȱ tooȱ foreignȱ toȱ whatȱ Romero calledȱtheȱbasicȱmissionȱofȱtheȱchurch,ȱandȱtooȱcloseȱtoȱrevoluȬ tionaryȱ ideasȱ (Sobrinoȱ 1990:ȱ 9).ȱ Inȱ short,ȱ bothȱ theȱ powerfulȱ as

4

ȱKearneyȱadmitsȱthatȱcatharsisȱisȱnotȱaȱremedyȱ(142)ȱbutȱalsoȱstates thatȱ“storiesȱalterȱourȱlivesȱasȱweȱreturnȱfromȱtextȱtoȱaction”ȱ(156).

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wellȱ asȱ theȱ poorȱ hadȱ reasonȱ toȱ viewȱ Romeroȱ withȱ someȱ apȬ prehension. However,ȱtheȱexpectationsȱofȱtheseȱgroupsȱdidȱnotȱpanȱout. Romeroȱisȱrememberedȱasȱanȱextraordinaryȱandȱpropheticȱman, aȱprominentȱfigureȱinȱliberationȱtheology,ȱandȱasȱaȱsymbolȱofȱreȬ bellionȱ overȱ againstȱ oppressiveȱ powers.ȱ Howȱ isȱ thisȱ possible? Toȱ explainȱ this,ȱ manyȱ referȱ toȱ theȱ murderȱ ofȱ Rutilioȱ Grande, whichȱ isȱ seenȱ byȱ someȱ asȱ theȱ reasonȱ forȱ Romero’sȱ radicalȱ conȬ version5ȱandȱbyȱothersȱasȱtheȱdeepeningȱandȱradicalizationȱofȱa processȱ thatȱ hadȱ alreadyȱ begunȱ (Berrymanȱ 1984:ȱ 124ȱ ).ȱ Jonȱ SoȬ brinoȱwritesȱthatȱ“…ȱasȱArchbishopȱRomeroȱstoodȱgazingȱatȱthe mortalȱremainsȱofȱRutilioȱGrande,ȱtheȱscalesȱfellȱfromȱhisȱeyes.” Atȱ thatȱ momentȱ Romero,ȱ accordingȱ toȱ Sobrino,ȱ knewȱ that Grandeȱ hadȱ beenȱ rightȱ inȱ hisȱ “politicalȱ theologyȱ andȱ praxis.” Althoughȱ Romeroȱ hadȱ beenȱ familiarȱ withȱ theȱ revolutionary messageȱ ofȱ theȱ Gospelȱ forȱ aȱ longȱ time,ȱ heȱ didȱ notȱ takeȱ theȱ deȬ cisionȱ toȱ standȱ onȱ theȱ sideȱ ofȱ theȱ poorȱ untilȱ now.ȱ Inȱ other words,ȱtheȱeffectȱofȱtheseȱbiblicalȱnarrativesȱdidȱnotȱalterȱhisȱatȬ titude.ȱ Onlyȱ theȱ almostȱ physicalȱ experienceȱ ofȱ theȱ evilȱ powers oppressingȱ theȱ poorȱ andȱ showingȱ noȱ mercyȱ “shookȱ himȱ up” andȱmadeȱhimȱchangeȱȱ(Sobrinoȱ1990:ȱ9f.). Kearneyȱ claimsȱ thatȱ theȱ fictionalȱ characterȱ ofȱ storiesȱ can helpȱ inȱ theȱ processȱ ofȱ theȱ transformationȱ ofȱ theȱ reader.ȱ He writesȱ thatȱitȱ“…ȱdetachesȱusȱfromȱtheȱactionȱunfoldingȱ before us,ȱ affordingȱ usȱ sufficientȱ distanceȱ toȱ graspȱ theȱ meaningȱ ofȱ it all”ȱ (Kearneyȱ 2002:ȱ 138).ȱ Butȱ itȱ is,ȱ inȱ fact,ȱ theȱ oppositeȱ thatȱ is needed.ȱInsteadȱofȱfocusingȱonȱtheȱfictionalȱcharacterȱofȱaȱstory asȱ anȱ incentiveȱ toȱ transformȱ ourȱ actions,ȱ weȱ needȱ aȱ stimulus thatȱcomesȱfromȱoutsideȱtheȱstory,ȱaȱstimulusȱthatȱIȱsuggestȱcallȬ ingȱtheȱ”realityȱeffect”ȱ(borrowedȱfromȱRolandȱBarthesȱbutȱgivȬ enȱanȱentirelyȱnewȱmeaning). Conclusion Symbolicȱ formsȱ suchȱ asȱ narrativesȱ canȱ makeȱ theȱ phenomenon ofȱ evilȱ accessible.ȱ Theyȱ canȱ haveȱ anȱ effectȱ onȱ theȱ public:ȱ good narrativesȱ provokeȱ usȱ toȱ judgeȱ ourȱ ownȱ situationȱ andȱ ourȱ exȬ 5 ȱȱBasedȱonȱtheȱpersonalȱexperiencesȱofȱBishopȱArturoȱRiveraȱyȱDaȬ mas.ȱCf.ȱvanȱderȱHarstȱ1981:ȱ7ȱandȱSobrinoȱ1990:ȱ9ȱ(butȱnotȱtooȱradical; seeȱp.ȱ7).

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periencesȱ inȱ aȱ newȱ way.ȱ Thisȱ isȱ whyȱ theyȱ canȱ helpȱ usȱ toȱ cope withȱ evil.ȱ Sometimesȱ storiesȱ evenȱ haveȱ theȱ powerȱ toȱ alterȱ our attitudeȱ andȱ actions.ȱ Iȱ haveȱ suggestedȱ thatȱ thisȱ changeȱ isȱ beȬ yondȱ theȱ powerȱ ofȱ theȱ narrative’sȱ enchantment.ȱ Beingȱ affected byȱstoriesȱisȱnotȱenoughȱtoȱpreventȱusȱfromȱdoingȱevil.ȱWeȱmust haveȱactualȱexperiencesȱwhichȱhaveȱsuchȱanȱimpactȱthatȱweȱare overwhelmedȱ byȱ theȱ “realityȱ effect.”ȱ Theȱ impactȱ ofȱ aȱ storyȱ on ourȱmind,ȱtogetherȱwithȱtheȱ“realityȱeffect,”ȱcanȱactȱasȱtheȱtrigȬ gerȱsoȱthatȱweȱbeginȱtoȱavoidȱdoingȱevil.ȱTheȱ“realityȱeffect”ȱis, ofȱ course,ȱ notȱ theȱ onlyȱ factorȱ thatȱ canȱ reinforceȱ theȱ powerȱ of narratives.ȱ Toȱ avoidȱ doingȱ evilȱ otherȱ factorsȱ suchȱ asȱ character traitsȱandȱ(communal)ȱprayer6ȱmightȱbeȱjustȱasȱimportant. Bibliography Berryman,ȱ Philip.ȱ (1984).ȱ Theȱ Religiousȱ Rootsȱ ofȱ Rebellion:ȱ Christiansȱ in theȱCentralȱAmericanȱRevolutions.ȱLondon:ȱSCM. Brockman,ȱJamesȱR.ȱ(1983).ȱTheȱWordȱRemains:ȱ Aȱ LifeȱofȱOscarȱRomero. Maryknoll:ȱOrbisȱBooks. DeȱMul,ȱJos.ȱ(2006).ȱDeȱdomesticatieȱvanȱhetȱnoodlot.ȱKampen:ȱKlement. Dennis,ȱ Marieȱ etȱ al.ȱ (2000).ȱ Oscarȱ Romero:ȱ Reflectionsȱ onȱ hisȱ Lifeȱ and Writings.ȱMaryknoll:ȱOrbisȱBooks. Halliwell,ȱStephen.ȱ(1986).ȱAristotle’sȱPoetics.ȱChapelȱHill:ȱTheȱUniverȬ sityȱofȱNorthȱCarolinaȱPress.ȱ Hettema,ȱTheoȱL.ȱ(1996).ȱReadingȱforȱGood:ȱNarrativeȱTheologyȱandȱEthics inȱ theȱ Josephȱ Storyȱ fromȱ theȱ Perspectiveȱ ofȱ Ricoeur’sȱ Hermeneutics. Kampen:ȱPharos. Kearney,ȱRichard.ȱȱ(2002).ȱOnȱStories.ȱLondonȱetȱal.:ȱRoutledge. Koster,ȱEdwin.ȱ(2005).ȱInȱbetoveringȱgevangen?ȱOverȱverhaalȱenȱrationaliȬ teit,ȱreligieȱenȱirrationaliteit.ȱBudel:ȱDamon. Rasmussen,ȱ Davidȱ M.ȱ (1971).ȱ MythicȬSymbolicȱ Languageȱ andȱ PhilosophȬ icalȱ Anthropology:ȱ Aȱ Constructiveȱ Interpretationȱ ofȱ theȱ Thoughtȱ of PaulȱRicoeur.ȱTheȱHague:ȱNijhoff. Ricoeur,ȱ Paul.ȱ (1962).ȱ “Theȱ Hermeneuticsȱ ofȱ Symbolsȱ andȱ PhilosophȬ icalȱReflection.”ȱInternationalȱPhilosophicalȱQuarterlyȱ2:ȱ191Ȭ218. (1966).ȱFreedomȱandȱNature:ȱTheȱVoluntaryȱandȱtheȱInvoluntary.ȱEvȬ anston:ȱNorthwesternȱUniversityȱPress.

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(1967a).ȱ Husserl:ȱ Anȱ Analysisȱ ofȱ hisȱ Phenomenology.ȱ Evanston: NorthwesternȱUniversityȱPress. (1967b).ȱTheȱSymbolismȱofȱEvil.ȱNewȱYork:ȱHarperȱ&ȱRow. (1978).ȱ Theȱ Ruleȱ ofȱ Metaphor:ȱ MultiȬdisciplinaryȱ Studiesȱ ofȱ theȱ CreaȬ tionȱofȱMeaningȱinȱLanguage.ȱLondon:ȱRoutledge. (1986).ȱFallibleȱMan.ȱNewȱYork:ȱFordhamȱUniversityȱPress. (1984Ȭ88).ȱ Timeȱ andȱ Narrative.ȱ Vol.ȱ 1Ȭ3.ȱ Chicagoȱ etȱ al.:ȱ Theȱ UniȬ versityȱofȱChicagoȱPress. Schomakers,ȱB.ȱ(2000).ȱ“Nawoord:ȱHetȱnutȱvanȱdeȱtragedie.”ȱIn:ȱArisȬ toteles,ȱOverȱpoëzie.ȱLeende:ȱDamon.ȱPp.ȱ115Ȭ196. Sobrino,ȱJon.ȱ(1990).ȱArchbishopȱRomero:ȱMemoriesȱandȱReflections.ȱMaryȬ knoll:ȱOrbisȱBooks. Sokolowski,ȱRobert.ȱ(1995).ȱ“Husserl,ȱEdmund.”ȱIn:ȱRobertȱAudiȱ(ed.). Theȱ Cambridgeȱ Dictionaryȱ ofȱ Philosophy.ȱ Cambridge:ȱ University Press.ȱPp.ȱ347Ȭ50. Testament:ȱ Theȱ Bibleȱ inȱ Animaton.ȱ Partȱ 9:ȱ “Creationȱ andȱ theȱ Flood.” Wales/Russia:ȱS4CȱChristmasȱFilms. VanȱderȱHarst,ȱPaul.ȱ(1981).ȱ“Verantwoording.”ȱIn:ȱOscarȱRomero.ȱDe bekeringȱ vanȱ eenȱ bisschop.ȱ Brievenȱ enȱ toesprakenȱ vanȱ deȱ vermoorde aartsbisschopȱ vanȱ Sanȱ Salvadorȱ Mgr.ȱ Oscarȱ Arnulfoȱ Romero.ȱ AmersȬ foort:ȱDeȱHorstink.ȱPp.ȱ7Ȭ10. VanȱderȱHeide,ȱAlbert.ȱ(2004).ȱ“Adam,ȱEva,ȱdeȱslangȱenȱdeȱschorpioen. Joodseȱverhalenȱoverȱdeȱoorsprongȱvanȱhetȱkwaad.”ȱIn:ȱCorsȱvan denȱ Burgȱ andȱ Lourensȱ Minnemaȱ (eds).ȱ Inȱ deȱ banȱ vanȱ hetȱ kwaad. Hetȱ kwaadȱ inȱ religieuzeȱ verhalenȱ wereldwijd.ȱ Zoetermeer:ȱ Meinema. Pp.ȱ121Ȭ28. Willis,ȱJohnȱT.ȱ(1979).ȱGenesis.ȱAustin:ȱSweetȱPublishingȱCompany.

PrayerȱasȱaȱMeansȱofȱCopingȱwithȱEvil ApproachesȱfromȱtheȱPerspective ofȱLutheranȱDogmatics ChristianeȱTietz

Abstract Prayerȱisȱaȱspecialȱkindȱofȱreligiousȱcopingȱwithȱevil;ȱitȱisȱnotȱanȱintellectual butȱanȱexistentialȱmodeȱofȱdealingȱwithȱevil.ȱThisȱpaperȱreflectsȱonȱthisȱpheȬ nomenon—firstȱ fromȱ theȱ perspectiveȱ ofȱ theȱ philosophyȱ andȱ psychologyȱ of religionȱandȱthenȱfromȱtheȱperspectiveȱofȱLutheranȱdogmaticsȱinȱconversation withȱ psychologicalȱ insights.ȱ Itȱ sketchesȱ whatȱ happensȱ whenȱ peopleȱ beginȱ to prayȱwhenȱtheyȱexperienceȱevil;ȱwhenȱsomethingȱharmfulȱhappensȱtoȱthemȱor toȱsomebodyȱelse.ȱByȱconcentratingȱonȱprayerȱinȱLutheranȱChristianity,ȱthis paperȱ arguesȱ why,ȱ fromȱ theȱ viewpointȱ ofȱ theȱ Lutheranȱ doctrineȱ ofȱ justiȬ fication,ȱprayerȱhelpsȱpeopleȱtoȱbeȱawareȱandȱtoȱ“accept”ȱtheȱevilȱtheyȱdidȱor suffered.ȱThisȱisȱaȱprocessȱofȱ“transitional”ȱacceptanceȱwhichȱdoesȱnotȱjustify orȱlevelȱtheȱevilȱbutȱconstitutesȱtheȱpreconditionȱforȱovercomingȱtheȱpowerȱof theȱevil.

Introduction Evilȱisȱpresentȱinȱeverybody’sȱlifeȱinȱoneȱwayȱorȱanother,ȱinvokȬ ingȱ questionsȱ like,ȱ “Whereȱ doesȱ evilȱ comeȱ from?”ȱ “Doȱ evil thingsȱhaveȱanyȱmeaning?”ȱ“Canȱoneȱovercomeȱevil?”ȱReligion arisesȱ fromȱ theseȱ questionsȱ andȱ triesȱ toȱ giveȱ answersȱ toȱ them. Weȱcanȱdistinguishȱtwoȱkindsȱofȱevilȱinȱprincipleȱinȱaȱperson’s life,ȱ i.e.ȱ whetherȱ someoneȱ isȱ moreȱ activeȱ orȱ moreȱ passiveȱ with regardȱtoȱtheȱevilȱthatȱoccurs.ȱThus,ȱweȱcanȱdistinguishȱbetween theȱ evilȱ peopleȱ doȱ andȱ theȱ evilȱ peopleȱ suffer.ȱ Religiousȱ ideas dealȱwithȱbothȱkindsȱofȱevil:ȱviaȱtheȱnotionȱofȱsinȱtheyȱfocusȱon theȱ evilȱ peopleȱ doȱ andȱ viaȱ theodicy,ȱ forȱ example,ȱ theyȱ explain theȱevilȱthatȱpeopleȱsuffer. Religionȱ isȱ notȱ onlyȱ anȱ intellectualȱ projectȱ butȱ alsoȱ helps oneȱcopeȱwithȱconcreteȱevilȱinȱanȱexistentialȱway.ȱIfȱweȱconsider 233

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theȱphenomenonȱofȱlanguage,ȱthereȱareȱtwoȱpossibleȱresponses toȱ evilȱ inȱ aȱ person’sȱ life:ȱ oneȱ canȱ eitherȱ talkȱ aboutȱ theȱ evilȱ or becomeȱ silentȱ becauseȱ ofȱ it.ȱ Bothȱ responsesȱ occurȱ regularly withinȱ religionȱ andȱ inȱ differentȱ situations:ȱ inȱ communityȱ with othersȱ andȱ whenȱ oneȱ isȱ alone,ȱ inȱ situationsȱ ofȱ meditationȱ and prayerȱandȱinȱsituationsȱofȱspiritualȱwelfare.ȱTheȱfollowingȱconȬ siderationsȱ focusȱ onȱ theȱ situationȱ ofȱ prayerȱ andȱ meditation whileȱ beingȱ aloneȱ inȱ prayerȱ toȱ aȱ personalȱ God.ȱ Thus,ȱ theȱ term prayerȱisȱusedȱbelowȱinȱtheȱsenseȱofȱindividualȱprayerȱtoȱaȱperȬ sonalȱ God.ȱ Iȱ doȱ notȱ intendȱ therebyȱ toȱ discreditȱ prayingȱ inȱ a communityȱorȱprayingȱtoȱaȱnonȬpersonalȱGod.ȱSimilarly,ȱIȱwill alsoȱnotȱdiscussȱtheȱtopicȱofȱintercessoryȱprayersȱeither. Theȱquestionȱis:ȱHowȱdoesȱprayerȱhelpȱoneȱcopeȱwithȱevil? Iȱ willȱ developȱ myȱ answerȱ inȱ threeȱ steps.ȱ First,ȱ fromȱ theȱ perȬ spectiveȱ ofȱ philosophyȱ andȱ psychologyȱ ofȱ religionȱ Iȱ ask:ȱ What makesȱ individualȱ prayerȱ toȱ aȱ personalȱ Godȱ suchȱ aȱ specialȱ and powerfulȱ meansȱ forȱ copingȱ withȱ evil?ȱ Moreȱ precisely:ȱ What happensȱwhenȱpeopleȱbeginȱtoȱpray,ȱthatȱis,ȱwhenȱtheyȱȱturnȱto God?ȱSecondly,ȱIȱwillȱask:ȱWhatȱhappensȱduringȱprayer?ȱIȱwill presentȱ aȱ Lutheranȱ understandingȱ ofȱ prayer,ȱ sinceȱ Iȱ wantȱ to pointȱ outȱ whyȱ prayerȱ helpsȱ peopleȱ toȱ beȱ awareȱ ofȱ and—asȱ I preferȱtoȱsay—“accept”ȱtheȱevilȱtheyȱdidȱorȱsuffered.ȱIȱwillȱend thisȱ articleȱ withȱ aȱ short,ȱ generalȱ summaryȱ regardingȱ theȱ relaȬ tionȱbetweenȱreligionȱandȱevil.ȱThisȱsummaryȱisȱintendedȱtoȱanȬ swerȱ theȱ criticismȱ ofȱ religionȱ thatȱ claimsȱ thatȱ religionȱ doesȱ not helpȱpeopleȱactuallyȱdealȱwith,ȱfightȱandȱovercomeȱevil,ȱforcing themȱ insteadȱ toȱ remainȱ inȱ aȱ passiveȱ roleȱ inȱ whichȱ theyȱ submit toȱ theȱ evil.ȱ Karlȱ Marxȱ formulatedȱ thatȱ criticismȱ inȱ aȱ classical way:ȱreligionȱisȱ“theȱopiumȱofȱtheȱpeople”ȱ(Marxȱ1981:ȱ378). PrayerȱasȱaȱPlaceȱtoȱCopeȱwithȱEvil InȱreligionsȱthatȱbelieveȱinȱaȱpersonalȱGod,ȱprayerȱisȱdefinedȱby aȱpersonalȱrelationshipȱandȱasȱtheȱmostȱbasicȱexpressionȱofȱthat relationshipȱbetweenȱaȱhumanȱbeingȱandȱGod,ȱbecauseȱinȱprayȬ erȱoneȱturnsȱconsciouslyȱtoȱtheȱpersonalȱGodȱ(Fraasȱ2000:ȱ497). Thisȱ invokesȱ theȱ question:ȱ Whatȱ doesȱ thisȱ essentialȱ featureȱ of prayerȱmeanȱforȱprayingȱwithȱregardȱtoȱevil?ȱ Inȱthisȱcontext,ȱitȱisȱimportantȱtoȱexplainȱfurtherȱmyȱuseȱof theȱwordȱ“evil,”ȱwhichȱIȱdefineȱhereȱasȱeverythingȱthatȱaȱperson thinksȱharmsȱhimȱorȱher.ȱThereȱareȱthusȱfourȱaspectsȱofȱprayer

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withȱregardȱtoȱsufferingȱevil.ȱFirst,ȱifȱpeopleȱareȱsuffering,ȱthey oftenȱ thinkȱ thatȱ theyȱ areȱ sufferingȱ alone.ȱ Forȱ example,ȱ Psalm 102:7f.ȱ ofȱ theȱ Hebrewȱ Bibleȱ says:ȱ “Iȱ haveȱ becomeȱ likeȱ aȱ bird aloneȱ onȱ aȱ roof.ȱ Allȱ dayȱ longȱ myȱ enemiesȱ tauntȱ me.”ȱ Toȱ pray whenȱ confrontedȱ withȱ evilȱ isȱ toȱ stepȱ outȱ ofȱ thisȱ loneliness,ȱ beȬ causeȱitȱmeansȱthatȱoneȱatȱleastȱhopesȱthatȱtheȱdeityȱisȱthereȱand listening.ȱSecond,ȱifȱaȱpersonȱisȱsufferingȱevil,ȱhisȱfeelingȱwillȱbe thatȱ somebodyȱ (orȱ something)ȱ isȱ againstȱ him.ȱ Inȱ Psalmȱ 27:2ȱ the believerȱ laments:ȱ “Evilȱ menȱ advanceȱ againstȱ meȱ toȱ devourȱ my flesh.”ȱThisȱfeelingȱthatȱsomeoneȱisȱagainstȱusȱoftenȱleadsȱtoȱthe feelingȱthatȱeverybodyȱ(orȱeverything)ȱisȱagainstȱus.ȱToȱpray,ȱi.e. toȱturnȱconsciouslyȱtoȱaȱpersonalȱGodȱthenȱmeansȱtoȱtrustȱthat atȱleastȱtheȱdeityȱisȱnotȱagainstȱus.ȱThird,ȱweȱmightȱsometimes evenȱfearȱorȱfeelȱthatȱGodȱisȱagainstȱus.ȱTheȱpsalmsȱoftenȱblame Godȱhimselfȱforȱdoingȱevil,ȱforȱexample:ȱ“youȱ[God]ȱhaveȱtaken meȱupȱandȱthrownȱmeȱaside”ȱ(Psalmȱ102:11;ȱcf.ȱPsalmȱ13:2).ȱTo prayȱ thenȱ meansȱ atȱ leastȱ hopingȱ thatȱ Godȱ isȱ somehowȱ present andȱ thatȱ weȱ canȱ approachȱ himȱ byȱ turningȱ toȱ himȱ andȱ thatȱ he willȱ thusȱ notȱ beȱ againstȱ usȱ foreverȱ (Fuchsȱ 1982:ȱ 196).ȱ Fourth, sufferingȱ evilȱ mightȱ notȱ alwaysȱ beȱ somethingȱ inȱ whichȱ weȱ are entirelyȱpassive,ȱinȱfact.ȱInȱmanyȱcases,ȱweȱareȱnotȱonlyȱvictims butȱ culpritsȱ asȱ well.ȱ Nonetheless,ȱ ourȱ dominantȱ feelingȱ while sufferingȱisȱoneȱofȱpassivity.ȱToȱprayȱwhenȱweȱareȱsufferingȱevil isȱ toȱ stepȱ outȱ ofȱ thisȱ passivity.ȱ (Thisȱ insightȱ isȱ trueȱ noȱ matter howȱ weȱ pray.ȱ Evenȱ ifȱ weȱ seeȱ prayerȱ asȱ anȱ interruptionȱ ofȱ our dailyȱ activityȱ andȱ thereforeȱ asȱ somethingȱ passive:ȱ atȱ leastȱ the decisionȱtoȱpray,ȱi.e.ȱtoȱturnȱtoȱGod,ȱisȱsomethingȱactive.)ȱWeȱcan thereforeȱ sayȱ thatȱ ifȱ prayerȱ andȱ consciouslyȱ turningȱ toȱ God whenȱ weȱ areȱ sufferingȱ doesȱ notȱ meanȱ theȱ endȱ ofȱ suffering,ȱ it doesȱmeanȱsteppingȱoutȱofȱsomeȱfeelingsȱandȱthoughtsȱthatȱacȬ companyȱtheȱsuffering.ȱ LetȱusȱnowȱmoveȱonȱtoȱtheȱsecondȱaspectȱandȱlookȱatȱprayȬ erȱ inȱ connectionȱ withȱ theȱ evilȱ thatȱ oneȱ does.ȱ Inȱ thisȱ context everythingȱthatȱharmsȱothersȱshouldȱbeȱcalledȱevil.ȱFreudȱpoints outȱthatȱtheȱindividualȱjudgmentȱthatȱsomeȱactȱmightȱbeȱevilȱis alwaysȱconnectedȱwithȱsocialȱfear,ȱi.e.ȱwithȱtheȱfearȱofȱtheȱwithȬ drawalȱofȱaffection,ȱaȱphenomenonȱknownȱasȱaȱbadȱconscience (Freudȱ 2000:ȱ 251).ȱ Toȱ avoidȱ thisȱ fear,ȱ peopleȱ preferȱ notȱ toȱ acȬ knowledgeȱwhatȱtheyȱdoȱandȱwhoȱtheyȱare.ȱAsȱJungȱindicated, peopleȱinsteadȱpreferȱtoȱconcernȱthemselvesȱwithȱtheȱdifficulties

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andȱ sinsȱ ofȱ others,ȱ thusȱ runningȱ awayȱ fromȱ themselvesȱ (Jung 1937:ȱ19f.). Asȱ Eugenȱ Drewermannȱ hasȱ shown,ȱ humanȱ beingsȱ have thatȱ socialȱ fearȱ alsoȱ visȬàȬvisȱ aȱ personalȱ God.ȱ Theȱ storyȱ ofȱ the Fallȱ ofȱ Adamȱ andȱ Eveȱ providesȱ aȱ perfectȱ exampleȱ ofȱ thisȱ meȬ chanismȱ whereȱ bothȱ areȱ afraidȱ ofȱ beingȱ repudiatedȱ byȱ God. Theyȱ areȱ afraidȱ ofȱ losingȱ theirȱ communionȱ withȱ God.ȱ Because ofȱthisȱfear,ȱtheyȱtryȱtoȱhideȱthemselvesȱfromȱGod,ȱanȱactȱthatȱis inconsistentȱ withȱ theirȱ longingȱ forȱ communionȱ withȱ God (Drewermannȱ1981:ȱ203f.). Threeȱ insightsȱ followȱ fromȱ theseȱ observations.ȱ First,ȱ if somebodyȱhasȱaȱbadȱconscienceȱwithȱregardȱtoȱGodȱbecauseȱof somethingȱ evilȱ heȱ hasȱ doneȱ andȱ isȱ afraidȱ thatȱ God’sȱ affection willȱ beȱ withdrawnȱ andȱ thenȱ beginsȱ toȱ pray,ȱ heȱ turnsȱ toward God.ȱHeȱnoȱlongerȱhidesȱfromȱGodȱandȱthusȱovercomesȱhisȱfear. Second,ȱ heȱ mayȱ beȱ awareȱ thatȱ hisȱ evilȱ deedȱ is—toȱ useȱ aȱ tradiȬ tionalȱterm—aȱsinȱagainstȱGodȱthatȱnotȱonlyȱcouldȱcauseȱGodȱto turnȱawayȱfromȱhimȱbutȱisȱhisȱownȱturningȱawayȱfromȱGod.ȱTo pray,ȱi.e.ȱtoȱturnȱtoȱGod,ȱisȱthenȱanȱexpressionȱofȱchangingȱone’s behaviorȱ (Brümmerȱ 2000:ȱ 496f.).ȱ Third,ȱ ifȱ somebodyȱ hasȱ aȱ bad conscienceȱwithȱregardȱtoȱanotherȱhumanȱbeingȱbecauseȱofȱthe evilȱheȱdidȱandȱthenȱbeginsȱtoȱpray,ȱthisȱcan,ȱofȱcourse,ȱbeȱaȱsign thatȱ heȱ isȱ notȱ facingȱ upȱ toȱ hisȱ actȱ andȱ seekingȱ forgivenessȱ and reconciliationȱwithȱtheȱotherȱwhomȱheȱhasȱoffended.ȱButȱitȱcan alsoȱ beȱ anȱ expressionȱ ofȱ one’sȱ helplessnessȱ andȱ ofȱ acknowlȬ edgingȱ theȱ seriousnessȱ ofȱ theȱ situation—whichȱ should,ȱ of course,ȱleadȱtoȱseekingȱreconciliationȱwithȱtheȱother. Again,ȱweȱcanȱthereforeȱsayȱthatȱprayingȱinȱtheȱfaceȱofȱevils oneȱ hasȱ committedȱ doesȱ notȱ undoȱ theseȱ evils,ȱ butȱ itȱ isȱ (orȱ at leastȱcouldȱbe)ȱaȱstepȱtowardȱfightingȱtheȱconsequencesȱofȱone’s evilȱdeed.ȱHavingȱsketchedȱtheȱfunctionȱofȱprayerȱinȱmoreȱgenȬ eralȱ terms,ȱ Iȱ willȱ nowȱ presentȱ aȱ Christian,ȱ especiallyȱ Lutheran understandingȱofȱprayer,ȱwhichȱwillȱbeȱdevelopedȱinȱconversaȬ tionȱwithȱpsychologicalȱinsights.ȱHowȱdoesȱaȱLutheranȱspirituȬ alityȱ ofȱ prayerȱ makeȱ itȱ possibleȱ toȱ copeȱ withȱ evil?ȱ Iȱ willȱ refer hereȱ toȱ severalȱ ideasȱ inȱ myȱ postdoctoralȱ thesisȱ Freedomȱ toȱ be Oneselfȱ(Tietzȱ2005).

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CopingȱwithȱEvilȱinȱChristianȱPrayer InȱbothȱtheȱJewishȱandȱChristianȱtraditions,ȱtheȱmainȱformȱprayȬ erȱtakesȱisȱthatȱofȱtalkingȱtoȱGod.ȱOfȱcourse,ȱprayerȱinȱtheȱJewish orȱ Christianȱ contextȱ alsoȱ includesȱ silence,ȱ whichȱ canȱ beȱ occaȬ sionedȱbyȱdesperation,ȱmeditationȱorȱadoration.ȱButȱtheȱpsalms inȱtheȱHebrewȱBibleȱtellȱespeciallyȱofȱpeopleȱwhoȱneedȱtoȱputȱan endȱtoȱtheirȱsilenceȱandȱtoȱbeginȱtalkingȱaboutȱwhatȱmadeȱthem silent,ȱ e.g.ȱ Psalmȱ 39:3Ȭ4:ȱ “Whenȱ Iȱ wasȱ silentȱ andȱ still,ȱ notȱ even sayingȱ anythingȱ good,ȱ myȱ anguishȱ increased.ȱ Myȱ heartȱ grew hotȱwithinȱme,ȱandȱasȱIȱmeditated,ȱtheȱfireȱburned;ȱthenȱIȱspoke withȱmyȱtongueȱ…ȱOȱLORD”ȱ(Hiekeȱ2000:ȱ47). Aȱ prayerȱ inȱ whichȱ oneȱ talksȱ aboutȱ theȱ evilȱ inȱ one’sȱ life helpsȱoneȱdealȱwithȱtheȱevilȱofȱtheȱpastȱandȱpresent,ȱwithȱone’s ownȱ evilȱ deedsȱ throughȱ repentanceȱ andȱ withȱ theȱ sufferingsȱ of evilȱ throughȱ lamentation.ȱ Throughȱ prayerȱ peopleȱ tryȱ toȱ avoid futureȱ evilȱ deedsȱ byȱ pleadingȱ thatȱ theyȱ themselvesȱ willȱ be changedȱ andȱ toȱ avoidȱ futureȱ sufferingȱ byȱ pleadingȱ forȱ further protectionȱorȱthatȱanȱevilȱsituationȱwillȱbeȱchanged. Ifȱ weȱ wantȱ toȱ understandȱ Christianȱ prayerȱ inȱ itsȱ Lutheran shape,ȱweȱalsoȱhaveȱtoȱask:ȱWhatȱcharacterizesȱChristianityȱinȱa Lutheranȱperspective?ȱAsȱtheȱLutheranȱscholarȱCarlȱHeinzȱRatȬ schowȱandȱothersȱhaveȱpointedȱout,ȱtheȱcentralȱandȱ“diacritical” principleȱ ofȱ Christianityȱ isȱ theȱ doctrineȱ ofȱ justificationȱ (RatȬ schowȱ1986).ȱWhatȱdoesȱthisȱmean? EvilȱandȱtheȱLutheranȱDoctrineȱofȱJustification Theȱ Christianȱ doctrineȱ ofȱ justificationȱ inȱ itsȱ Lutheranȱ formȱ beȬ ginsȱ withȱ theȱ presuppositionȱ thatȱ aȱ humanȱ beingȱ isȱ usually centeredȱ onȱ himself.ȱ Asȱ Lutherȱ said,ȱ “seȱ solamȱ videt,ȱ queritȱ et inȱ omnibusȱ intendit,“ȱ (i.e.ȱ “inȱ everythingȱ aȱ humanȱ beingȱ sees, searchesȱ andȱ intendsȱ onlyȱ itself”)ȱ (Lutherȱ 1938:ȱ 356).ȱ Thatȱ is whyȱ aȱ humanȱ beingȱ isȱ unableȱ toȱ enterȱ intoȱ communionȱ with God.ȱ Inȱ moreȱ traditionalȱ terms,ȱ humanȱ beingsȱ areȱ unjustȱ sinȬ nersȱwhoȱareȱunableȱtoȱenterȱintoȱcommunionȱwithȱtheȱjustȱGod byȱ themselves.ȱ Justificationȱ meansȱ thatȱ Godȱ himselfȱ grantsȱ the sinnerȱcommunionȱwithȱhimȱand,ȱthroughȱthatȱcommunion,ȱinȬ terruptsȱtheȱhumanȱbeing’sȱfocusȱonȱhimself.ȱHumanȱbeingsȱcan doȱnothingȱtoȱgainȱthisȱcommunionȱwithȱGodȱbutȱonlyȱbelieve thatȱGodȱhasȱalreadyȱestablishedȱit.ȱTheyȱwill,ȱofȱcourse,ȱchange

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throughȱthisȱcommunion,ȱbutȱtheyȱdoȱnotȱhaveȱtoȱchangeȱbefore theyȱareȱbroughtȱintoȱit. Theȱ Lutheranȱ doctrineȱ ofȱ justificationȱ describesȱ thisȱ comȬ munionȱ asȱ unconditional.ȱ Noȱ goodȱ deedȱ canȱ bringȱ aboutȱ this communionȱ andȱ noȱ evilȱ deedȱ canȱ destroyȱ itȱ becauseȱ itȱ is groundedȱinȱGod.ȱUsingȱaȱtermȱthatȱisȱfundamentalȱinȱPaulȱTilȬ lich’sȱtheology,ȱweȱcanȱdescribeȱthisȱkindȱofȱcommunionȱasȱ“acȬ ceptance.”ȱ Tillichȱ tookȱ thisȱ termȱ fromȱ psychoanalysis.ȱ He thoughtȱitȱwouldȱbeȱtheologicallyȱusefulȱbecauseȱtheȱideaȱofȱalȬ readyȱ beingȱ “accepted”ȱ byȱ Godȱ expressesȱ theȱ basicȱ insightȱ of justificationȱthatȱaȱpersonȱdoesȱnotȱhaveȱtoȱchangeȱbeforeȱbeing broughtȱintoȱcommunionȱwithȱGodȱ(Tillichȱ1998:ȱ674). WhatȱthenȱdoesȱthisȱideaȱofȱjustificationȱmeanȱforȱtheȱquesȬ tionȱofȱdealingȱwithȱevil?ȱAtȱtheȱoutset,ȱweȱhaveȱtoȱdefineȱwhat “good”ȱandȱ“evil”ȱmeanȱfromȱtheȱperspectiveȱofȱtheȱdoctrineȱof justification,ȱi.e.ȱfromȱtheȱideaȱthatȱGodȱgrantsȱtheȱsinnerȱcomȬ munionȱwithȱhimȱ(Jüngelȱ1998:ȱ87ff.).ȱ“Good”ȱisȱeverythingȱthat correspondsȱtoȱthisȱcommunionȱwithȱGod.ȱCanȱweȱthenȱsayȱthat “evil”ȱ isȱ everythingȱ thatȱ destroysȱ communionȱ withȱ God?ȱ No, becauseȱjustificationȱmeansȱthatȱGodȱholdsȱonȱtoȱthisȱcommunȬ ionȱ noȱ matterȱ whatȱ weȱ do.ȱ Forȱ thatȱ reason,ȱ weȱ shouldȱ define evilȱ moreȱ precisely:ȱ “evil”ȱ isȱ everythingȱ thatȱ wouldȱ destroy communionȱwithȱGod—ifȱGodȱhimselfȱdidȱnotȱholdȱtoȱthisȱcomȬ munion.ȱTheȱjustifyingȱGodȱisȱnotȱonlyȱinȱcommunionȱwithȱme, butȱ heȱ isȱ alsoȱ inȱ communionȱ withȱ everyȱ otherȱ humanȱ being. Thus,ȱ “good,”ȱ furthermore,ȱ isȱ beingȱ inȱ communionȱ withȱ other humanȱbeings.ȱConsequently,ȱ“evil”ȱisȱeverythingȱthatȱdestroys communionȱwithȱotherȱhumanȱbeings. ThisȱrealizationȱallowsȱmeȱtoȱdiscussȱChristianȱprayerȱfrom aȱLutheranȱperspective.ȱIf,ȱinȱaȱLutheranȱview,ȱGod’sȱcommunȬ ionȱwithȱhumanȱbeingsȱisȱqualifiedȱbyȱjustification,ȱthenȱprayer asȱ theȱ mostȱ intenseȱ communionȱ withȱ Godȱ isȱ characterizedȱ by justificationȱasȱwell. Firstȱofȱall,ȱjustificationȱencouragesȱpeopleȱtoȱpray.ȱWeȱcan pray,ȱ i.e.ȱ turnȱ toȱ God,ȱ becauseȱ weȱ knowȱ thatȱ Godȱ hasȱ already turnedȱtoȱus,ȱregardlessȱofȱwhetherȱweȱareȱworthyȱofȱitȱorȱnot. MartinȱLutherȱstatedȱitȱclearly:ȱourȱprayingȱisȱnotȱbasedȱonȱour personalȱ dignity.ȱ Godȱ willȱ listenȱ toȱ us,ȱ irrespectiveȱ ofȱ whether weȱ areȱ worthyȱ ofȱ itȱ (Lutherȱ 1986:ȱ 666).ȱ Whatȱ moreȱ precisely doesȱ theȱ ideaȱ ofȱ justificationȱ meanȱ inȱ regardȱ toȱ prayingȱ when confrontedȱwithȱevil?

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PrayingȱWhenȱConfrontedȱwithȱEvilȱWeȱHaveȱDone Weȱ canȱ mentionȱ threeȱ aspectsȱ here.ȱ First,ȱ inȱ prayerȱ theȱ comȬ munionȱ betweenȱ aȱ personȱ andȱ God,ȱ whichȱ isȱ characterizedȱ by acceptance,ȱ isȱ soȱ intenseȱ thatȱ aȱ personȱ canȱ acknowledgeȱ honȬ estlyȱandȱwithoutȱfearȱwhatȱheȱdid.ȱHeȱknowsȱthatȱGod’sȱcomȬ munionȱ withȱ himȱ doesȱ notȱ dependȱ onȱ hisȱ deedsȱ and,ȱ accordȬ ingly,ȱ cannotȱ beȱ destroyedȱ byȱ hisȱ deeds.ȱ Justificationȱ includes theȱhumanȱbeingȱasȱaȱwholeȱinȱtheȱcommunionȱwithȱGod.ȱOne’s deeds,ȱevenȱone’sȱevilȱdeeds,ȱhaveȱalreadyȱbeenȱincludedȱinȱthe communionȱwithȱGodȱasȱpartȱofȱoneself.ȱThus,ȱnothingȱthatȱone couldȱacknowledgeȱcouldȱdestroyȱGod’sȱrelationshipȱtoȱhim.ȱHe hasȱalreadyȱbeenȱaccepted. Inȱ prayer,ȱ aȱ personȱ isȱ awareȱ ofȱ God’sȱ closenessȱ andȱ comȬ munionȱwithȱhim.ȱThisȱawarenessȱinȱprayerȱencouragesȱrealistic selfȬawarenessȱ(Stollbergȱ1978:ȱ47).ȱAnnȱandȱBarryȱUlanovȱhave thereforeȱ calledȱ prayerȱ “primaryȱ speech”ȱ becauseȱ prayerȱ isȱ an unfilteredȱ wayȱ ofȱ speaking.ȱ “Inȱ prayerȱ weȱ sayȱ whoȱ inȱ factȱ we are—notȱ whoȱ weȱ shouldȱ be,ȱ norȱ whoȱ weȱ wishȱ weȱ were” (Ulanovȱ 1982:ȱ 1).ȱ Weȱ speakȱ thisȱ wayȱ inȱ prayerȱ because,ȱ inȱ the communionȱwithȱGod,ȱnobodyȱhasȱtoȱplayȱaȱpartȱandȱtoȱappear asȱotherȱthanȱheȱisȱ(Moltmannȱ1987:ȱ265). Thisȱmechanismȱagreesȱwithȱtheȱpsychologicalȱinsightȱthat anȱ awarenessȱ ofȱ oneselfȱ isȱ possibleȱ onlyȱ ifȱ aȱ personȱ feelsȱ acȬ cepted.ȱ Carlȱ R.ȱ Rogersȱ putȱ itȱ thisȱ wayȱ (referringȱ toȱ hisȱ own professionalȱcontext):ȱonlyȱifȱtheȱpsychologistȱacceptsȱtheȱclient willȱtheȱclientȱfeelȱtrulyȱfreeȱtoȱexploreȱallȱtheȱhiddenȱcornersȱof hisȱ internalȱ andȱ oftenȱ buriedȱ experienceȱ (Rogersȱ 1979:ȱ 48). WhileȱnotingȱthisȱsimilarityȱbetweenȱtheologicalȱandȱpsycholoȬ gicalȱ insights,ȱ weȱ neverthelessȱ haveȱ toȱ pointȱ outȱ anȱ important differenceȱwithȱregardȱtoȱhowȱChristiansȱdealȱwithȱevil.ȱRogers callsȱthisȱtheȱcharacteristicȱofȱtheȱpsychoanalyticȱacceptanceȱthat theȱpsychoanalystȱisȱkindlyȱdisposedȱtowardȱeveryȱsingleȱfacet ofȱ theȱ otherȱ personȱ (Rogersȱ 1979:ȱ 47).ȱ Butȱ God’sȱ acceptanceȱ is clearlyȱ differentȱ fromȱ thisȱ inȱ theȱ Christianȱ view.ȱ Godȱ isȱ not kindlyȱdisposedȱtowardsȱeveryȱenigmaticȱaspectȱofȱaȱhumanȱbeȬ ing—thisȱwouldȱignoreȱtheȱperson’sȱevilȱdeeds.ȱInȱtheȱChristian view,ȱ Godȱ isȱ kindlyȱ disposedȱ towardȱ theȱ personȱ inȱ theȱ sense thatȱ heȱ allowsȱ himȱ orȱ herȱ intoȱ ȱ communionȱ withȱ himself.ȱ But Godȱis,ȱhowever,ȱstronglyȱopposedȱtoȱthatȱperson’sȱevilȱdeeds.ȱ

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ItȱfollowsȱfromȱthisȱthatȱtheȱChristianȱcommunionȱbetween Godȱandȱtheȱhumanȱbeingȱisȱnotȱaȱneutralȱone.ȱWeȱstatedȱabove thatȱtheȱhumanȱbeingȱisȱacceptedȱbyȱGodȱintoȱcommunionȱwith him,ȱalongȱwithȱeverythingȱthisȱhumanȱbeingȱhasȱdone.ȱButȱthis doesȱnotȱmeanȱthatȱeverythingȱheȱdidȱisȱgood.ȱTheȱcommunion withȱGodȱisȱaȱcommunionȱinȱwhichȱGodȱsaysȱ“Yes”ȱtoȱtheȱperȬ sonȱasȱpartȱofȱtheȱcommunion,ȱbutȱalsoȱsaysȱ“Yes”ȱandȱ“No”ȱto theȱthingsȱtheȱpersonȱhasȱdone.ȱAsȱIȱhaveȱalreadyȱpointedȱout, thatȱ“Yes”ȱorȱ“No”ȱdependsȱonȱtheȱquestionȱofȱwhetherȱaȱdeed correspondsȱ toȱ thisȱ communionȱ orȱ doesȱ not.ȱ Praying—and thereforeȱbeingȱinȱanȱintenseȱcommunionȱwithȱGod—meansȱreȬ cognizingȱ whichȱ deedsȱ correspondȱ toȱ thisȱ communionȱ and whichȱdoȱnot.ȱThus,ȱ weȱcanȱsayȱthatȱprayerȱisȱtheȱspaceȱofȱbeȬ comingȱ awareȱ ofȱ whatȱ countsȱ asȱ anȱ evilȱ deedȱ andȱ whatȱ does not.ȱInȱprayer,ȱweȱbecomeȱawareȱofȱhowȱGodȱviewsȱourȱdeeds (Cappsȱ 1983:ȱ 93).ȱ Conversely,ȱ notȱ toȱ speakȱ aboutȱ ourȱ deedsȱ in prayerȱwouldȱnotȱonlyȱmeanȱhidingȱourselvesȱfromȱGodȱbut— toȱuseȱAugustine’sȱwords—hidingȱGodȱfromȱourselvesȱ(AugusȬ tineȱ1960:ȱ229). Secondly,ȱ beingȱ awareȱ ofȱ theȱ evilȱ thingsȱ weȱ haveȱ doneȱ is oneȱthing,ȱbutȱacceptingȱthemȱisȱanother.ȱWeȱcouldȱeitherȱtryȱto runȱ fromȱ thisȱ awarenessȱ orȱ acceptȱ whatȱ weȱ haveȱ done.ȱ We couldȱdescribeȱtheȱlatterȱphenomenonȱasȱselfȬacceptance. But,ȱ ofȱ course,ȱ thisȱ isȱ aȱ certainȱ kindȱ ofȱ acceptance.ȱ Weȱ are talkingȱ aboutȱ evilȱ thingsȱ hereȱ and,ȱ therefore,ȱ acceptingȱ them cannotȱ meanȱ thatȱ theyȱ becomeȱ positiveȱ orȱ good.ȱ Accepting themȱ cannotȱ meanȱ sayingȱ “Yes”ȱ toȱ themȱ asȱ such.ȱ Butȱ itȱ does meanȱ admittingȱ thatȱ theyȱ wereȱ thingsȱ thatȱ Iȱ myselfȱ did.ȱ They belongȱ toȱ meȱ (Gründelȱ 1985:ȱ 138).ȱ Sinceȱ Iȱ amȱ awareȱ thatȱ God doesȱ notȱ considerȱ Himselfȱ tooȱ goodȱ toȱ beȱ inȱ communionȱ with meȱandȱtoȱincludeȱmyȱdeedsȱinȱthisȱcommunion,ȱthisȱacceptance is,ȱ asȱ Paulȱ Tillichȱ putsȱ it,ȱ theȱ endȱ ofȱ “selfȬhateȱ andȱ selfȬconȬ tempt”ȱ (Tillichȱ 1987:ȱ 153).ȱ Thisȱ acceptanceȱ isȱ easierȱ ifȱ Iȱ know thatȱ theseȱ thingsȱ wereȱ whatȱ Iȱ didȱ butȱ notȱ whatȱ constitutesȱ my identity.ȱInȱtheȱLutheranȱview,ȱaȱperson’sȱidentityȱisȱconstituted byȱ God’sȱ beingȱ inȱ communionȱ withȱ himȱ andȱ notȱ byȱ whatȱ he did.ȱ Inȱ prayer,ȱ thisȱ acceptanceȱ occursȱ whenȱ oneȱ speaksȱ about theȱ evilȱ thingsȱ heȱ didȱ asȱ theȱ evilȱ thingsȱ heȱ did.ȱ Toȱ quoteȱ Ann andȱBarryȱUlanovȱagain:ȱInȱprayer,ȱwe

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stopȱ denying,ȱ sayȱ yesȱ toȱ theȱ moralȱ bumpsȱ andȱ rhythmic breaksȱ andȱ disfigurationsȱ ....ȱ Weȱ doȱ notȱ necessarilyȱ bless themȱ thisȱ way,ȱ orȱ evenȱ fullyȱ supportȱ them.ȱ Weȱ simply acceptȱtheȱfactȱthatȱtheyȱexistȱinȱus,ȱthatȱtheyȱareȱpartȱofȱus, andȱthatȱtheyȱcannotȱbeȱdenied.ȱ(Ulanovȱ1982:ȱ6)

Theyȱareȱevilȱbecauseȱtheyȱareȱnotȱinȱcorrespondenceȱwith theȱcommunionȱwithȱGod.ȱItȱisȱnotȱpossibleȱtoȱspeakȱsuccinctly aboutȱ thingsȱ thatȱ areȱ inȱ contradictionȱ toȱ theȱ communionȱ with God,ȱwhileȱbeingȱinȱanȱintenseȱcommunionȱwithȱGodȱinȱprayer. Itȱisȱonlyȱpossibleȱasȱconfessingȱthemȱasȱevilȱdeeds.ȱInȱthisȱconȬ fession,ȱ aȱ personȱ revealsȱ himselfȱ toȱ God.ȱ Thisȱ revelationȱ isȱ eaȬ sierȱ ifȱ theȱ personȱ knowsȱ thatȱ Godȱ alreadyȱ knowsȱ himȱ through andȱthrough.ȱ Thirdly,ȱifȱaȱpersonȱisȱawareȱofȱtheȱfactȱthatȱGodȱisȱinȱcomȬ munionȱwithȱhim,ȱnoȱmatterȱwhatȱheȱdid,ȱthenȱheȱhimselfȱcanȬ notȱ remainȱ inȱ theȱ actȱ ofȱ confession,ȱ inȱ saying:ȱ thisȱ wasȱ whatȱ I did.ȱ Becauseȱ thenȱ oneȱ wouldȱ focusȱ onȱ theȱ thingsȱ oneȱ didȱ oneȬ selfȱandȱnotȱonȱtheȱthingsȱGodȱdoes.ȱInstead,ȱconfessionȱofȱevil finallyȱhasȱtoȱbeȱconnectedȱwithȱaȱprayerȱthatȱGodȱforgiveȱthese deeds.ȱThusȱweȱsee:ȱAcceptanceȱandȱconfessionȱisȱnotȱanȱendȱin itself.ȱ Theȱ aimȱ ofȱ acceptingȱ theȱ evilȱ deedsȱ isȱ theȱ forgivenessȱ of theȱ acceptedȱ deeds.ȱ Therefore,ȱ acceptanceȱ ofȱ theȱ evilȱ deeds turnsȱoutȱtoȱbe,ȱasȱIȱcallȱit,ȱaȱ“transitional”ȱphase. ThatȱaȱpersonȱshouldȱacceptȱhisȱevilȱdeedsȱbecauseȱGodȱhas acceptedȱhimȱasȱaȱpersonȱdoesȱnot,ȱtherefore,ȱentailȱthatȱoneȱcan claimȱtoȱbeȱ“okay.”ȱInȱtheȱLutheranȱview,ȱGodȱisȱnotȱviewedȱas statingȱ thatȱ theȱ individualȱ isȱ “okay”ȱ butȱ ratherȱ asȱ sayingȱ “I’m withȱyou.”ȱAcceptingȱone’sȱownȱevilȱdeedsȱmeansȱbeingȱhonest toȱGodȱaboutȱhowȱoneȱisȱandȱwas.ȱButȱitȱalsoȱincludesȱtheȱwilȬ lingnessȱtoȱchange.ȱDealingȱwithȱtheȱevilȱoneȱhasȱdoneȱorȱdoes thereforeȱ meansȱ saying:ȱ “Yes,ȱ thisȱ isȱ howȱ Iȱ wasȱ orȱ howȱ Iȱ am, butȱIȱdoȱnotȱhaveȱtoȱstayȱthatȱway.” Thisȱ “transitional”ȱ acceptanceȱ isȱ necessaryȱ forȱ changeȱ beȬ cause,ȱ asȱ Jungȱ pointsȱ out,ȱ “Youȱ cannotȱ changeȱ thingsȱ thatȱ you don’tȱaccept”ȱ(Jungȱ1937:ȱ18f.).ȱSimilarly,ȱtheȱprayerȱforȱforgiveȬ nessȱwillȱbeȱconnectedȱwithȱaȱprayerȱforȱchangingȱone’sȱevilȱbeȬ haviorȱorȱcharacter. Ifȱtheȱevilȱdeedȱdestroyedȱcommunionȱwithȱanotherȱhuman being,ȱ thereȱ willȱ beȱ anȱ additionalȱ necessity:ȱ Theȱ awarenessȱ of theȱ evilȱ oneȱ hasȱ doneȱ willȱ beȱ completeȱ onlyȱ ifȱ oneȱ isȱ awareȱ of

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theȱ victim’sȱ perspectiveȱ ofȱ theȱ evil.ȱ Ifȱ theȱ victimȱ (orȱ hisȱ deȬ scendant)ȱ isȱ stillȱ reachable,ȱ talkingȱ withȱ theȱ victimȱ (orȱ hisȱ deȬ scendant),ȱcarefullyȱaskingȱhimȱtoȱtellȱhisȱsideȱofȱtheȱstoryȱand thenȱaskingȱforȱhisȱforgivenessȱisȱindispensableȱforȱcopingȱwith theȱevilȱoneȱdid. PrayingȱinȱtheȱEventȱofȱEvilȱSuffered Prayerȱalsoȱisȱimportantȱinȱregardȱtoȱtheȱevilȱthingsȱoneȱsuffered orȱisȱsuffering.ȱWeȱhaveȱalmostȱtheȱsameȱstructureȱhere.ȱFirst,ȱthe Lutheranȱdoctrineȱofȱjustificationȱargues,ȱasȱalreadyȱmentioned, thatȱtheȱcommunionȱbetweenȱGodȱandȱhumanȱbeingsȱisȱfoundȬ edȱbyȱGodȱandȱthatȱhumanȱbeingsȱcannotȱdoȱanythingȱtoȱbuild it.ȱInȱourȱcontextȱthisȱmeans:ȱNoȱevilȱthingȱoneȱsuffersȱdestroys thisȱcommunion;ȱnoȱoneȱisȱtooȱmiserableȱorȱtooȱweakȱforȱcomȬ munionȱwithȱGod.ȱ Peopleȱ whoȱ sufferȱ mayȱ feelȱ forsakenȱ byȱ God,ȱ but,ȱ forȱ LuȬ therans,ȱtheȱcrossȱofȱJesusȱChristȱisȱtheȱdeepestȱexpressionȱofȱthe factȱ thatȱ Godȱ isȱ withȱ thoseȱ whoȱ suffer.ȱ Godȱ himselfȱ suffersȱ on theȱcrossȱandȱfeelsȱforsakenȱbyȱGodȱ(Markȱ15:34).ȱInȱChrist,ȱGod sharesȱtheȱsufferingȱofȱhumanityȱandȱitsȱGodȬforsakenness.ȱThis meansȱthatȱGodȱisȱwithȱthoseȱwhoȱsuffer—evenȱifȱtheyȱfeelȱforȬ sakenȱ byȱ God.ȱ Therefore,ȱ evenȱ inȱ sufferingȱ oneȱ canȱ trustȱ in God’sȱcloseness.ȱ ItȱisȱthisȱclosenessȱofȱtheȱsufferingȱGodȱinȱprincipleȱthatȱcan encourageȱ peopleȱ toȱ beȱ awareȱ inȱ aȱ veryȱ honestȱ wayȱ ofȱ theȱ evil theyȱareȱsuffering.ȱFurthermore,ȱitȱcanȱencourageȱpeopleȱtoȱtell theseȱevilsȱtoȱtheȱsufferingȱGod.ȱGodȱknowsȱwhatȱtheyȱareȱtalkȬ ingȱaboutȱifȱtheyȱareȱtalkingȱaboutȱsuffering.ȱ Second,ȱtheȱprayerȱofȱlament,ȱtheȱpouringȱoutȱofȱone’sȱsufȬ feringsȱtoȱGod,ȱisȱtheȱspecialȱwayȱinȱwhichȱthisȱhappens.ȱInȱthis, aȱpersonȱacknowledgesȱandȱacceptsȱthatȱtheseȱevilȱthingsȱbelong toȱhisȱhistory.ȱToȱsayȱthatȱtheyȱbelongȱtoȱmyȱhistoryȱisȱtheȱonly wayȱtoȱacceptȱwhatȱIȱhaveȱtoȱsuffer.ȱHowever,ȱtheȱacceptanceȱof sufferingsȱ cannotȱ meanȱ claimingȱ themȱ toȱ beȱ good.ȱ Theȱ basic eventȱinȱsuchȱaȱprayerȱofȱlamentȱis,ȱasȱOttmarȱFuchsȱhasȱpointȬ edȱout,ȱaȱspeechȱactȱinȱwhichȱtheȱoneȱwhoȱisȱprayingȱisȱspeaking toȱGodȱaboutȱhisȱsuffering,ȱrememberingȱGod’sȱwillȱofȱsalvation andȱaddressingȱGodȱwithȱincreasingȱconfidence,ȱwhileȱwaiting forȱhisȱanswerȱandȱrescueȱdespiteȱandȱbeyondȱtheȱrealityȱofȱsufȬ feringȱ(Fuchsȱ1982:ȱ102).ȱInȱthisȱspeechȱactȱtheȱexperienceȱofȱsalȬ

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vationȱ andȱ theȱ experienceȱ ofȱ disasterȱ areȱ heldȱ sideȱ byȱ side (Fuchsȱ1982:ȱ99). Third,ȱweȱwillȱpleadȱthatȱGodȱendȱtheȱsufferingȱandȱchange theȱpresentȱsituationȱ(Hiekeȱ2000:ȱ63).ȱThisȱpleadingȱarisesȱfrom theȱ remembranceȱ thatȱ Godȱ helpedȱ beforeȱ andȱ fromȱ theȱ hope thatȱheȱwillȱhelpȱinȱtheȱfuture.ȱThroughȱpleading,ȱtheȱfutureȱfor whichȱoneȱhopesȱisȱconfidentlyȱbroughtȱintoȱtheȱcurrentȱrelation toȱGodȱwhileȱtheȱsituationȱisȱstillȱevilȱ(Fuchsȱ1982:ȱ120).ȱInȱthis confidence,ȱ theȱ oneȱ whoȱ isȱ prayingȱ doesȱ notȱ sayȱ “Yes”ȱ toȱ his sufferingȱ (whichȱ heȱ stillȱ hopesȱ willȱ beȱ changed)ȱ butȱ “Yes”ȱ to Godȱ(Fuchsȱ1982:ȱ120f.).ȱWhileȱtheȱbelieverȱisȱprayingȱconfidentȬ lyȱ toȱ theȱ oneȱ whomȱ heȱ feelsȱ hasȱ forsakenȱ him,ȱ aȱ soȬcalled “changeȱofȱmood“ȱmightȱtakeȱplace.ȱInȱthatȱchangeȱofȱmoodȱthe trustȱ inȱ God’sȱ closenessȱ inȱ principle,ȱ whichȱ wasȱ theȱ reasonȱ for praying,ȱbecomesȱtheȱawarenessȱofȱGod’sȱactualȱclosenessȱeven inȱ thisȱ situationȱ (Janowskiȱ 2001:ȱ 43ff.).ȱ Whateverȱ theȱ circumȬ stances—whetherȱorȱnotȱtheȱsituationȱdoesȱchange—God’sȱactuȬ alȱpresenceȱasȱsuchȱisȱhelpfulȱ(Fuchsȱ1982:ȱ195). Thus,ȱweȱcanȱseeȱthatȱtheȱacceptanceȱofȱtheȱevilȱoneȱsuffers isȱ notȱ anȱ endȱ inȱ itself.ȱ But,ȱ again,ȱ itȱ isȱ aȱ “transitional”ȱ accepȬ tance.ȱThisȱacceptanceȱisȱtransitionalȱinȱtheȱpleadingȱforȱchange inȱ theȱ situationȱ orȱ atȱ leastȱ inȱ realizingȱ God’sȱ actualȱ presence. Andȱ itȱ isȱ transitionalȱ inȱ notȱ holdingȱ onȱ toȱ theȱ lamentation.ȱ In theȱChristianȱview,ȱjustificationȱisȱnotȱonlyȱmyȱjustificationȱbut alsoȱtheȱjustificationȱofȱeveryȱotherȱhumanȱbeing.ȱInȱChrist,ȱthe Godȱwhoȱisȱinȱcommunionȱwithȱmeȱisȱalsoȱinȱcommunionȱwith theȱpersonsȱwhoȱharmedȱme.ȱForȱthatȱreason,ȱIȱamȱinȱanȱatȱleast indirectȱ communionȱ withȱ them.ȱ Ifȱ Iȱ heldȱ onȱ toȱ myȱ lamenting theȱevilȱthingsȱtheyȱdid,ȱIȱwouldȱnotȱrealizeȱtheȱfullȱextentȱofȱthis communion.ȱ Therefore,ȱ theȱ aimȱ ofȱ lamentingȱ theirȱ deedsȱ isȱ to forgiveȱthem.ȱToȱbeȱsure,ȱforgivenessȱisȱaȱlongȱandȱdifficultȱproȬ cess.ȱButȱitȱisȱnecessaryȱifȱoneȱisȱnotȱtoȱbeȱaȱprisonerȱofȱtheȱpast (Studzinskiȱ1986:ȱ89). Peopleȱalsoȱsufferȱevilȱforȱwhichȱnoȱhumanȱindividualȱisȱto beȱ blamed.ȱ Peopleȱ sufferȱ fromȱ naturalȱ disastersȱ orȱ diseases.ȱ In thoseȱ casesȱ thereȱ isȱ nobodyȱ whoȱ couldȱ beȱ forgiven.ȱ Prayingȱ in suchȱcircumstancesȱisȱnotȱeasy.ȱHereȱquestionsȱofȱtheodicyȱand ofȱ God’sȱ omnipotenceȱ arise.ȱ Thisȱ difficultȱ topicȱ mustȱ beȱ leftȱ to anotherȱarticle. Inȱshort,ȱweȱcitedȱthreeȱstepsȱinȱdealingȱwithȱevilȱinȱChrisȬ tianȱprayer:ȱfirst,ȱtheȱawarenessȱofȱtheȱevilȱoneȱhasȱdoneȱorȱsufȬ

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fered;ȱsecond,ȱtheȱacceptanceȱofȱtheȱevilȱinȱconfessionȱorȱlamentȬ ation;ȱ andȱ third,ȱ theȱ prayerȱ forȱ changeȱ inȱ oneselfȱ andȱ for forgivenessȱ orȱ theȱ prayerȱ forȱ aȱ changeȱ inȱ theȱ situationȱ andȱ my subsequentȱactȱofȱforgivingȱtheȱother.ȱ Conclusion Inȱ thisȱ paperȱ weȱ haveȱ seenȱ thatȱ religionȱ isȱ notȱ necessarilyȱ a placeȱforȱescapingȱfromȱevil.ȱItȱisȱnotȱnecessarilyȱ“theȱopiumȱof theȱpeople.”ȱOnȱtheȱcontrary,ȱitȱprovidesȱaȱspaceȱforȱveryȱhonȬ estlyȱ becomingȱ awareȱ ofȱ theȱ evil.ȱ Theȱ ideaȱ thatȱ thereȱ isȱ aȱ God whoȱalreadyȱknowsȱmeȱthroughȱandȱthroughȱandȱwhoȱisȱclose toȱ meȱ isȱ importantȱ forȱ thisȱ honesty.ȱ Inȱ thisȱ honestyȱ peopleȱ do notȱhideȱfromȱevilȱbutȱstepȱoutȱofȱsomeȱemotionsȱandȱstandȱup againstȱ theȱ badȱ consequencesȱ thatȱ accompanyȱ theȱ evil.ȱ ConȬ fessionȱ andȱ lamentationȱ areȱ twoȱ basicȱ mechanismsȱ forȱ this.ȱ In theseȱ mechanismsȱ peopleȱ acceptȱ theȱ evilȱ theyȱ doȱ andȱ theȱ evil theyȱsuffer.ȱThisȱacceptance,ȱwhichȱIȱcallȱtransitional,ȱisȱtheȱpreȬ conditionȱforȱchangingȱtheȱpowerȱofȱevil.ȱInȱprovidingȱaȱspace forȱ thisȱ transitionalȱ acceptance,ȱ religionȱ isȱ notȱ fixingȱ theȱ evil onceȱandȱforȱallȱbutȱopeningȱupȱtheȱpossibilityȱforȱchange.ȱReȬ ligionȱencouragesȱtheȱhopeȱthatȱchangeȱisȱpossible—beȱitȱofȱthe situationȱitselfȱorȱone’sȱsolitudeȱinȱthisȱsituation. Bibliography Augustine.ȱ(1960).ȱTheȱConfessionsȱofȱSt.ȱAugustine.ȱTransl.ȱJohnȱK.ȱRyȬ an.ȱGardenȱCity:ȱDoubleday. Brümmer,ȱVincent.ȱ(2000).ȱ“GebetȱV.ȱReligionsphilosophisch.“ȱIn:ȱReliȬ gionȱ inȱ Geschichteȱ undȱ Gegenwart,ȱ Vol.ȱ 3.ȱ 4thȱ ed.ȱ Tübingen:ȱ Mohr Siebeck.ȱPp.ȱ496Ȭ497. Capps,ȱDonald.ȱ(1983).ȱLifeȱCycleȱTheoryȱandȱPastoralȱCare.ȱPhiladelphia: FortressȱPress. Drewermann,ȱEugen.ȱ(1981)ȱStrukturenȱdesȱBösen.ȱDieȱjahwistischeȱUrgeȬ schichteȱ inȱ exegetischer,ȱ psychoanalytischerȱ undȱ philosophischerȱ Sicht. PartȱII.ȱMunichȱetȱal.:ȱSchöningh. Fraas,ȱHansȬJürgen.ȱ(2000).ȱ“GebetȱVI.ȱReligionspsychologisch.”ȱin:ȱReȬ ligionȱinȱGeschichteȱundȱGegenwart,ȱVol.ȱ3.ȱ4thȱed.ȱTübingen:ȱMohr Siebeck.ȱPp.ȱ497Ȭ99. Freud,ȱ Sigmund.ȱ (2000).ȱ Studienausgabe.ȱ Vol.ȱ IX.ȱ Frankfurtȱ amȱ Main: FischerȱTaschenbuch.

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Fuchs,ȱ Ottmar.ȱ (1982).ȱ Dieȱ Klageȱ alsȱ Gebet.ȱ Eineȱ theologischeȱ Besinnung amȱBeispielȱdesȱPsalmsȱ22.ȱMunich:ȱKösel. Gründel,ȱ Johannes.ȱ (1985).ȱ Schuldȱ undȱ Versöhnung.ȱ Mainz:ȱ MatthiasȬ Grünewald. Hieke,ȱThomas.ȱ(2000).ȱ“Schweigenȱwäreȱgotteslästerlich.ȱKlagegebete ȬȱAuswegeȱausȱdemȱverzweifeltenȱVerstummen.“ȱIn:ȱGeorgȱSteins (ed.).ȱ Schweigenȱ wäreȱ gotteslästerlich.ȱ Dieȱ heilendeȱ Kraftȱ derȱ Klage. Würzburg:ȱEchter.ȱPp.ȱ45Ȭ68. Janowski,ȱBernd.ȱ(2001).ȱ“DasȱverborgeneȱAngesichtȱGottes.ȱPsalmȱ13 alsȱ Musterȱ einesȱ Klageliedsȱ desȱ einzelnen.“ȱ Jahrbuchȱ fürȱ Biblische Theologieȱ16:ȱ25Ȭ53. Jung,ȱ Carlȱ Gustav.ȱ (1937).ȱ Dieȱ Beziehungenȱ derȱ Psychotherapieȱ zurȱ SeelȬ sorge.ȱZürich:ȱRascher. Jüngel,ȱ Eberhard.ȱ (1998).ȱ Dasȱ Evangeliumȱ vonȱ derȱ Rechtfertigungȱ des Gottlosenȱ alsȱ Zentrumȱ desȱ christlichenȱ Glaubens:ȱ Eineȱ theologische StudieȱinȱökumenischerȱAbsicht.ȱTübingen:ȱMohrȱSiebeck. Luther,ȱMartin.ȱ(1938).ȱDieȱVorlesungȱüberȱdenȱRömerbrief.ȱ1515Ȭ16.ȱWeiȬ marerȱAusgabe,ȱVol.ȱ56.ȱWeimar:ȱHermannȱBöhlausȱNachfolger. (1986).ȱ“GroßerȱKatechismus.“ȱIn:ȱDieȱBekenntnisschriftenȱderȱevanȬ gelischȬlutherischenȱKirche.ȱ10thȱed.ȱGöttingen:ȱVandenhoeckȱ&ȱRuȬ precht.ȱPp.ȱ543Ȭ733. Marx,ȱ Karl.ȱ (1981).ȱ Zurȱ Kritikȱ derȱ Hegelschenȱ Rechtsphilosophie.ȱ Karl MarxȱFriedrichȱEngelsȱWerke.ȱVol.ȱ1.ȱBerlin:ȱDietz.ȱPp.ȱ378Ȭ91. Moltmann,ȱ Jürgen.ȱ (1987)ȱ Derȱ gekreuzigteȱ Gott.ȱ Dasȱ Kreuzȱ Christiȱ als GrundȱundȱKritikȱchristlicherȱTheologie.ȱ5thȱed.ȱMunich:ȱKaiserȱVerȬ lag.ȱ Ratschow,ȱ Carlȱ Heinz.ȱ (1986).ȱ “Rechtfertigung.ȱ Diakritischesȱ Prinzip desȱChristentumsȱimȱVerhältnisȱzuȱanderenȱReligionen.”ȱIn:ȱCarl HeinzȱRatschow.ȱVonȱdenȱWandlungenȱGottes.ȱBeiträgeȱzurȱsystematȬ ischenȱ Theologie.ȱ Ed.ȱ C.ȱ KellerȬWentorfȱ andȱ M.ȱ Repp.ȱ Berlin/New York:ȱdeȱGruyter.ȱPp.ȱ336Ȭ75. Rogers,ȱCarl.ȱR.ȱ(1979).ȱEntwicklungȱderȱPersönlichkeit.ȱPsychotherapieȱaus derȱSichtȱeinesȱTherapeuten.ȱ3rdȱed.ȱStuttgart:ȱKlettȬCotta. Stollberg,ȱ Dieter.ȱ (1978).ȱ Wahrnehmenȱ undȱ Annehmen.ȱ Seelsorgeȱ inȱ TheȬ orieȱundȱPraxis.ȱGütersloh:ȱGütersloherȱVerlagshaus. Studzinski,ȱRaymond.ȱ(1986).ȱ“Erinnereȱdichȱundȱvergib:ȱDieȱpsychoȬ logischeȱDimensionȱderȱVergebung.“ȱConciliumȱ22:ȱ89Ȭ96. Tietz,ȱ Christiane.ȱ (2005).ȱ Freiheitȱ zuȱ sichȱ selbst.ȱ Entfaltungȱ einesȱ christȬ lichenȱ Begriffsȱ vonȱ Selbstannahme.ȱ Göttingen:ȱ Vandenhoeckȱ &ȱ RuȬ precht.

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CopingȱwithȱTragedyȱandȱMalice R.ȱRuardȱGanzevoort

Abstract Thisȱ paperȱ exploresȱ waysȱ ofȱ dealingȱ withȱ evilȱ basedȱ onȱ theȱ distinctionȱ beȬ tweenȱ tragedyȱ andȱ malice.ȱ Thisȱ distinctionȱ regardsȱ theȱ intentionȱ behindȱ the sufferingȱfromȱaȱvictim’sȱpointȱofȱview.ȱItȱtakesȱasȱitsȱstartingȱpointȱtheȱtheȬ oreticalȱ frameworkȱ ofȱ religiousȱ copingȱ andȱ empiricalȱ researchȱ inȱ theodicies. Theȱnotionȱofȱ“evil”ȱisȱlocatedȱinȱtheȱattributionsȱpeopleȱmakeȱandȱnotȱonȱthe basisȱofȱsomeȱabsoluteȱorȱessentialistȱclassificationȱbyȱaȱtheologian.ȱTheȱmaniȬ festationsȱofȱ“evil”ȱthatȱfigureȱinȱthisȱarticleȱareȱchildȱneglect,ȱsexualȱabuse, andȱinhumanityȱinȱtimesȱofȱwar.ȱTheodiciesȱareȱinterpretedȱasȱcopingȱstrateȬ gies.ȱ

Introduction Inȱrecentȱyears,ȱreligiousȱcopingȱhasȱbecomeȱaȱcentralȱthemeȱin theȱ psychologyȱ ofȱ religionȱ andȱ anȱ importantȱ contributionȱ to practicalȱtheology.ȱAmongȱotherȱthings,ȱreligionȱhasȱtoȱdoȱwith copingȱ withȱ theȱ contingenciesȱ ofȱ life,ȱ andȱ thatȱ meansȱ thatȱ we canȱ andȱ shouldȱ investigateȱ theȱ waysȱ inȱ whichȱ religionȱ contriȬ butesȱ toȱ orȱ hindersȱ coping.ȱ Inȱ aȱ sense,ȱ thisȱ isȱ closeȱ toȱ theȱ very heartȱofȱreligion.ȱReligionȱis,ȱofȱcourse,ȱmuchȱmoreȱthanȱcoping withȱcontingencyȱ(Luckmannȱ1991),ȱbutȱitȱhasȱcertainlyȱalways hadȱaȱspecialȱconnectionȱtoȱevilȱandȱsuffering.ȱSufferingȱisȱproȬ bablyȱ religion’sȱ greatestȱ incentiveȱ asȱ wellȱ asȱ itsȱ mostȱ stubborn problemȱ(Bowkerȱ1984).ȱTheȱquestȱforȱanswersȱorȱwaysȱofȱdealȬ ingȱwithȱsufferingȱcanȱbeȱfoundȱthroughoutȱtheȱreligiousȱworld. Evenȱifȱitȱisȱnotȱphrasedȱinȱreligiousȱterms,ȱtheȱquestȱitselfȱusuȬ allyȱhingesȱonȱreligiousȱissues. Inȱresearchȱonȱreligiousȱcoping,ȱaȱvastȱcollectionȱofȱexperiȬ encesȱwithȱevilȱhasȱbeenȱtheȱtopicȱofȱinvestigation.ȱThereȱareȱinȬ vestigationsȱofȱcasesȱofȱdisease,ȱespeciallyȱcancerȱandȱcoronary diseases,ȱandȱinvestigationsȱofȱrelationalȱcrises,ȱnotablyȱdivorce, mourning,ȱandȱviolence.ȱAȱthirdȱcategoryȱisȱfoundȱinȱcollective experiencesȱ likeȱ responsesȱ toȱ theȱ Gulfȱ war,ȱ majorȱ fires,ȱ floods, andȱterroristȱattacksȱ(Pargamentȱ 1997).ȱInȱmyȱownȱresearchȱon theȱ functionȱ ofȱ andȱ changeȱ inȱ faithȱ inȱ aȱ lifeȱ crisis,ȱ Iȱ included 247

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womenȱ withȱ breastȱ cancer,ȱ childrenȱ ofȱ divorcedȱ parents,ȱ widȬ owsȱ ofȱ fighterȱ pilots,ȱ unemployedȱ persons,ȱ andȱ soȱ onȱ (GanzeȬ voortȱ 1994).ȱ Aȱ subsequentȱ projectȱ wasȱ devotedȱ toȱ adultȱ male victimsȱofȱchildhoodȱsexualȱabuseȱ(Ganzevoortȱ2001).ȱInȱstudies likeȱ these,ȱ attentionȱ isȱ paidȱ toȱ bothȱ theȱ particularitiesȱ ofȱ each situationȱ andȱ theȱ commonȱ processesȱ ofȱ copingȱ withȱ theȱ threat orȱlossȱoneȱencounters. Thereȱis,ȱhowever,ȱaȱdimensionȱtoȱtheseȱinvestigationsȱthat untilȱ nowȱ hasȱ notȱ beenȱ madeȱ explicit:ȱ theȱ distinctionȱ between tragicȱandȱmaliciousȱevents.ȱItȱmakesȱaȱdifferenceȱinȱtheȱcoping processȱ asȱ toȱ whetherȱ oneȱ isȱ dealingȱ withȱ accidentalȱ misforȬ tunes,ȱsevereȱasȱtheyȱmayȱbe,ȱorȱwithȱactsȱofȱbadȱintentȱsuchȱas violence.ȱ Inȱ theȱ oneȱ caseȱ weȱ areȱ copingȱ withȱ theȱ tragicȱ dimenȬ sionȱofȱhumanȱexistenceȱand,ȱinȱtheȱother,ȱȱwithȱevilȱcommitted byȱothers.ȱThisȱdistinctionȱrelatesȱtoȱdebatesȱinȱtheȱresearchȱon psychotrauma:ȱthisȱisȱprobablyȱtheȱonlyȱdiagnosticȱconceptȱthat includesȱanȱetiologyȱandȱrefersȱexplicitlyȱtoȱaȱthreatȱtoȱtheȱperȬ son.ȱ Forȱ structuralȱ formsȱ ofȱ traumatizationȱ (asȱ inȱ politicalȱ opȬ pressionȱorȱdomesticȱviolence),ȱJ.ȱHermanȱpostulatesȱthatȱthere isȱalmostȱalwaysȱaȱperpetratorȱwhoȱisȱtoȱblameȱforȱtheȱtraumaȬ tizingȱeventȱ(Hermanȱ1992). Obviously,ȱ tragedyȱ andȱ maliceȱ areȱ notȱ alwaysȱ thatȱ easily distinguished,ȱ especiallyȱ becauseȱ theyȱ areȱ notȱ elementsȱ ofȱ the actualȱeventsȱbutȱofȱtheȱmeaningsȱattributedȱtoȱtheȱevents.ȱThe questionȱremains:ȱhowȱdoȱattributionsȱofȱtragedyȱandȱmaliceȱinȬ fluenceȱ theȱ religiousȱ copingȱ process?ȱ Inȱ thisȱ paperȱ Iȱ willȱ start withȱsomeȱexperiencesȱfromȱpastoralȱcounseling.ȱHereȱtheȱquesȬ tionȱwillȱtakeȱonȱfleshȱandȱblood.ȱInȱtheȱnextȱstep,ȱIȱwillȱreflect onȱtheȱconceptualizationȱofȱtheȱtermsȱtragedyȱandȱmalice.ȱAfter that,ȱIȱwillȱdiscussȱconsequencesȱforȱtheodicyȱconstructionsȱand religiousȱcopingȱstyles.ȱ CounselingȱKaren Theȱ counselingȱ caseȱ Iȱ willȱ presentȱ isȱ notȱ unique.ȱ Itȱ isȱ inȱ fact— unfortunately—soȱcommonȱthatȱIȱhaveȱcompiledȱitȱfromȱaȱseries ofȱencounters.ȱTheȱcaseȱconcernsȱaȱwomanȱinȱherȱfiftiesȱfromȱa mainstreamȱProtestantȱbackground.ȱWeȱwillȱcallȱherȱKaren.ȱShe soughtȱ counselingȱ followingȱ theȱ deathȱ ofȱ herȱ parentsȱ andȱ her primaryȱconcernȱwasȱhowȱsheȱcouldȱlearnȱtoȱtrustȱGodȱagain.ȱIn exploringȱherȱrelationshipȱwithȱherȱparents,ȱsheȱwasȱhesitantȱto

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admitȱ toȱ theȱ ambiguitiesȱ inherentȱ toȱ thatȱ relationship.ȱ Karen’s centralȱmessageȱwasȱthatȱherȱparentsȱprovidedȱwellȱforȱherȱand didȱtheȱbestȱtheyȱcould.ȱItȱtookȱseveralȱconversationsȱforȱherȱto admitȱ thatȱ theirȱ bestȱ wasȱ perhapsȱ notȱ goodȱ enoughȱ andȱ that theyȱ failedȱ toȱ giveȱ herȱ whatȱ sheȱ neededȱ most:ȱ caringȱ warmth andȱintimacy.ȱOnȱtopȱofȱthat,ȱtheyȱfailedȱtoȱprotectȱherȱfromȱan abusiveȱteenageȱrelationship.ȱInȱfact,ȱtheyȱwereȱnotȱevenȱaware thatȱtheirȱdaughterȱwasȱgoingȱthroughȱsuchȱpainfulȱandȱconfuȬ singȱexperiences. Wasȱ thatȱ somethingȱ forȱ whichȱ theyȱ couldȱ beȱ blamed?ȱ Not accordingȱ toȱ Karen,ȱ becauseȱ sheȱ understoodȱ allȱ tooȱ wellȱ that herȱparentsȱhadȱtoȱworkȱhardȱtoȱmakeȱendsȱmeet.ȱNotȱonlyȱdid theyȱ spendȱ mostȱ ofȱ theirȱ timeȱ inȱ theȱ bakeryȱ shop,ȱ theyȱ also caredȱ forȱ sixȱ childrenȱ andȱ devotedȱ theirȱ energyȱ toȱ theȱ church andȱotherȱgoodȱcauses.ȱTheȱfuneralsȱofȱherȱparentsȱhadȱincludȬ edȱlengthyȱtestimoniesȱaboutȱtheirȱmanyȱcontributionsȱandȱthe loveȱtheyȱhadȱspread.ȱInȱcontrast,ȱKarenȱhadȱknownȱloneliness andȱemotionalȱneglect.ȱBecauseȱherȱparentsȱcouldȱneverȱbeȱguilȬ tyȱofȱsuchȱaȱnegativeȱexperience,ȱKarenȱhadȱconcludedȱearlyȱon thatȱitȱhadȱtoȱbeȱherȱfault.ȱ Emotionallyȱ vulnerableȱ andȱ uncertain,ȱ sheȱ foundȱ became involvedȱ atȱ ageȱ fifteenȱ inȱ aȱ romanticȱ relationshipȱ withȱ aȱ man tenȱ yearsȱ herȱ senior,ȱ whoȱ soonȱ turnedȱ theȱ romanceȱ intoȱ coerȬ cionȱ andȱ exploitation.ȱ Obviously,ȱ sheȱ didȱ notȱ tellȱ herȱ parents aboutȱthis,ȱconvincedȱthatȱtheyȱwouldȱbeȱshockedȱbyȱtheȱsinful andȱirresponsibleȱdeedsȱofȱtheirȱdaughter.ȱSheȱguardedȱherȱseȬ cretȱuntilȱafterȱtheirȱdeath. Karenȱ feltȱ helpless,ȱ lonely,ȱ andȱ fullȱ ofȱ guiltȱ whenȱ sheȱ enȬ teredȱ counseling.ȱ Theȱ ideaȱ thatȱ allȱ thisȱ wasȱ notȱ herȱ faultȱ conȬ fusedȱ her.ȱ Theȱ notionȱ thatȱ herȱ parentsȱ wereȱ remissȱ inȱ their dutiesȱtowardȱherȱalmostȱoffendedȱher.ȱOr,ȱatȱleast,ȱitȱsoȱbelied herȱ fundamentalȱ understandingȱ ofȱ herselfȱ andȱ herȱ historyȱ that sheȱ wasȱ notȱ ableȱ toȱ contemplateȱ whatȱ thisȱ mightȱ mean.ȱ The counselorȱsetȱoutȱtoȱhelpȱherȱconstrueȱaȱmoreȱbalancedȱviewȱof herȱsituation,ȱsoȱthatȱsheȱwouldȱfinally,ȱperhaps,ȱbeȱableȱtoȱreȬ solveȱandȱreleaseȱtheȱpainȱofȱherȱpast—perhapsȱevenȱforgive. Inȱtheȱtermsȱofȱthisȱchapter,ȱtragedyȱandȱmaliceȱareȱclosely linkedȱinȱKaren’sȱstory.ȱItȱprobablyȱmakesȱsenseȱforȱherȱtoȱunȬ derstandȱ herȱ parents’ȱ shortcomingsȱ asȱ tragicȱ consequencesȱ of theirȱ ownȱ historyȱ andȱ situation.ȱ Theȱ wrongȱ theyȱ didȱ toȱ Karen wasȱ contraryȱ toȱ theirȱ intentions,ȱ atȱ least,ȱ thatȱ isȱ whatȱ Karen

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feels.ȱIfȱtheyȱhaveȱharmedȱher,ȱtheyȱprobablyȱdeserveȱexoneraȬ tion.ȱTheȱalternativeȱwouldȱbeȱtoȱblameȱherȱparentsȱforȱtheȱemoȬ tionalȱ neglectȱ theyȱ causedȱ her,ȱ butȱ thatȱ wouldȱ meanȱ thatȱ she wouldȱ haveȱ toȱ acceptȱ thatȱ theȱ veryȱ foundationȱ ofȱ herȱ lifeȱ was bad.ȱLikeȱmanyȱvictimsȱofȱneglectȱorȱviolence,ȱsheȱwouldȱrather considerȱherselfȱunworthyȱthanȱadmitȱtheȱnotionȱthatȱherȱprimȬ aryȱcaregiversȱfailedȱher.ȱOneȱofȱtheȱparadoxesȱofȱvictimization isȱ thatȱ victimsȱ preferȱ toȱ attributeȱ guiltȱ ratherȱ powerlessnessȱ to themselves.ȱTheȱproblemȱconnectedȱtoȱexoneratingȱherȱparents is,ȱ however,ȱ thatȱ Karenȱ runsȱ theȱ riskȱ ofȱ justifyingȱ herȱ parents’ actions,ȱ therebyȱ denyingȱ herȱ ownȱ suffering.ȱ Inȱ consequence,ȱ if herȱ sufferingȱ fromȱ herȱ parents’ȱ neglectȱ isȱ seenȱ asȱ tragic,ȱ Karen waivesȱ herȱ rightsȱ asȱ aȱ childȱ toȱ protestȱ againstȱ theȱ lackȱ ofȱ care andȱ love.ȱ Thisȱ tragicȱ attributionȱ isȱ inȱ factȱ Karen’sȱ wayȱ ofȱ deȬ fendingȱandȱcaringȱforȱherȱparents. TheȱactsȱofȱherȱsoȬcalledȱboyfriend,ȱonȱtheȱotherȱhand,ȱare easilyȱinterpretedȱasȱmalicious.ȱHeȱdisplaysȱnoȱgoodȱintentions thatȱresultȱtragicallyȱinȱunplannedȱharm.ȱHisȱbehaviorȱisȱcharacȬ terizedȱbyȱbadȱintent,ȱwillfullyȱusingȱaȱvulnerableȱchildȱforȱhis ownȱ gratification.ȱ Orȱ soȱ itȱ seems.ȱ Weȱ doȱ notȱ knowȱ enoughȱ of hisȱlifeȱstoryȱtoȱpassȱaȱfinalȱverdict.ȱPerhapsȱhisȱintentionsȱwere notȱthatȱnegativeȱeither,ȱandȱhisȱwrongdoingsȱmayȱbeȱtheȱresult ofȱ limitedȱ relationalȱ andȱ empathicȱ capacities.ȱ Itȱ mayȱ evenȱ be thatȱheȱhimselfȱhasȱbeenȱaȱvictimȱofȱviolenceȱorȱabuse.ȱInȱseeing hisȱ actionsȱ areȱ seenȱ asȱ malicious,ȱ aȱ blackȬandȬwhiteȱ portraitȱ of theȱsituationȱisȱconstruedȱthatȱmayȱnotȱbeȱcompletelyȱaccurate.ȱ IȱhopeȱitȱisȱclearȱthatȱIȱamȱnotȱtryingȱtoȱcloudȱtheȱethicalȱdiȬ mensionȱ ofȱ thisȱ counselingȱ case,ȱ letȱ aloneȱ excuseȱ aȱ rapeȱ disȬ guisedȱasȱromanticȱlove.ȱAllȱIȱamȱsayingȱisȱthatȱtheȱ distinction betweenȱtragicȱandȱmaliciousȱevilȱisȱofȱdirectȱimportȱforȱKaren’s understandingȱofȱherȱlifeȱstoryȱandȱthusȱforȱtheȱcounselingȱproȬ cess.ȱ Thisȱ distinctionȱ isȱ anȱ ethicallyȱ chargedȱ interpretationȱ of theȱ situation,ȱ notȱ aȱ factualȱ identification.ȱ Itȱ isȱ anȱ interpretation thatȱdirectlyȱinfluencesȱtheȱwaysȱinȱwhichȱKarenȱcanȱcopeȱwith herȱ trialsȱ andȱ tribulationsȱ andȱ anȱ inadequateȱ attributionȱ may harmȱherȱoptionsȱofȱresolvingȱthem. ConceptualizingȱTragedyȱandȱMalice Withȱthisȱsignificanceȱinȱmind,ȱIȱwillȱnowȱturnȱtoȱexploringȱthe conceptualȱ issuesȱ aroundȱ tragedyȱ andȱ malice.ȱ Inȱ conceptualizȬ

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ingȱthem,ȱIȱamȱtakingȱtheȱvictim’sȱperspective.ȱBothȱtermsȱthen referȱtoȱharmfulȱactionsȱorȱeventsȱfromȱwhichȱaȱpersonȱmayȱsufȬ fer.ȱThisȱperspective—focusingȱonȱtheȱpassiveȱdimensionȱofȱsufȬ fering—isȱradicallyȱdifferentȱfromȱmanyȱtraditionalȱconceptualȬ izationsȱfromȱanȱactor’sȱperspective.ȱInȱsuchȱtraditionalȱconceptȬ ualizations,ȱ theȱ coreȱ questionȱ isȱ whetherȱ ourȱ negativeȱ experiȬ encesȱareȱtheȱresultȱofȱourȱownȱsinsȱorȱofȱsomeȱdivineȱorȱcosmic force.ȱ Thisȱ isȱ aȱ constructionȱ basedȱ onȱ theȱ questionȱ ofȱ agency, andȱ eventuallyȱ itȱ isȱ framedȱ inȱ connectionȱ withȱ theȱ notionȱ of guilt.ȱ Inȱ theȱ classicalȱ actorȬorientedȱ perspective,ȱ weȱ canȱ work withȱ Leibniz’sȱ distinctionȱ betweenȱ metaphysical,ȱ physical,ȱ and moralȱevil.ȱMetaphysicalȱevilȱisȱtheȱimperfectionȱofȱhumanȱlife, physicalȱ evilȱ isȱ theȱ sufferingȱ thatȱ weȱ endure,ȱ andȱ moralȱ evilȱ is theȱsufferingȱorȱwrongȱthatȱweȱcauseȱ(Sarotȱ1997).ȱInȱhisȱanalyȬ sisȱ ofȱ tragedy,ȱ evil,ȱ andȱ theȱ goodȱ life,ȱ Marcelȱ Sarotȱ notesȱ that oneȱparticularȱeventȱmayȱbeȱinterpretedȱunderȱtwoȱheadings:ȱit mayȱ beȱ moralȱ evilȱ onȱ theȱ partȱ ofȱ theȱ aggressorsȱ andȱ physical evilȱ onȱ theȱ partȱ ofȱ theȱ victims.ȱ Interestingly,ȱ theȱ victim’sȱ perȬ spectiveȱhereȱbecomesȱdevoidȱofȱethicalȱmeaning. Inȱthisȱlineȱofȱthought,ȱtragedyȱisȱoneȱpossibleȱunderstandȬ ingȱofȱtheȱsituationȱthatȱblamesȱneitherȱGodȱnorȱhumans.ȱItȱmay applyȱ toȱ metaphysicalȱ andȱ physicalȱ evilȱ andȱ notȱ directlyȱ to moralȱevil.ȱTragedyȱisȱusuallyȱdefinedȱinȱreferenceȱtoȱitsȱancient literaryȱ meanings.ȱ Webster’sȱ Dictionaryȱ definesȱ itȱ asȱ aȱ serious dramaȱ typicallyȱ describingȱ aȱ conflictȱ betweenȱ theȱ protagonist andȱaȱsuperiorȱforceȱ(asȱdestiny)ȱandȱhavingȱaȱsorrowfulȱorȱdiȬ sastrousȱ conclusionȱ thatȱ excitesȱ pityȱ orȱ terror.ȱ Accordingȱ to Heering’sȱ interpretation,ȱ tragedyȱ alwaysȱ includesȱ unintended yetȱ inevitableȱ humanȱ guiltȱ (Heeringȱ 1961).ȱ Theȱ tragicȱ situation isȱfoundȱpreciselyȱwhereȱweȱcauseȱharmȱcontraryȱtoȱourȱintenȬ tions.ȱ Tragedyȱ thenȱ connectsȱ theȱ individual’sȱ responsibility withȱcircumstancesȱbeyondȱone’sȱcontrol,ȱfreedomȱwithȱnecessiȬ ty.ȱ Powerfulȱ forcesȱ forȱ thisȱ tragicȱ dramaȱ areȱ theȱ protagonist’s characterȱ andȱ highȱ principlesȱ andȱ fatefulȱ coincidences.ȱ Inȱ this literaryȱ understandingȱ ofȱ tragedy,ȱ theȱ protagonistȱ isȱ theȱ actor, asȱisȱclearȱfromȱtheȱuseȱofȱtermsȱlikeȱguiltȱandȱresponsibility. Inȱ ordinaryȱ language,ȱ theȱ “tragedy”ȱ hasȱ aȱ widerȱ rangeȱ of meanings.ȱItȱisȱusedȱtoȱdescribeȱaȱdisaster,ȱsmallȱorȱlarge,ȱmanȬ madeȱorȱanȱactȱofȱGod.ȱTheȱtermsȱ“tragedy”ȱandȱ“tragic”ȱcanȱbe foundȱ onȱ aȱ dailyȱ basisȱ inȱ newspapers,ȱ denotingȱ everything fromȱaȱtsunamiȱtoȱaȱdivorceȱandȱfromȱaȱterroristȱattackȱtoȱaȱdisȬ

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ease.ȱTheȱmainȱcomponentȱofȱtheȱtermȱseemsȱtoȱbeȱtheȱseverity ofȱtheȱundeservedȱsuffering.ȱInȱaȱtheologicalȱinterpretationȱfrom aȱ victim’sȱ perspective,ȱ tragedyȱ mayȱ referȱ toȱ theȱ dimensionȱ of fate,ȱtoȱtheȱfactualityȱofȱourȱexistence,ȱtoȱtransienceȱandȱvulneraȬ bility,ȱandȱtoȱfutilityȱ(cf.ȱKrijgerȱ2005).ȱFromȱanȱactor’sȱperspecȬ tive,ȱ theȱ notionȱ ofȱ theȱ tragicȱ heroȱ withȱ hisȱ orȱ herȱ unintended harmȱisȱaddedȱtoȱtheseȱmeanings.ȱ Tragedyȱisȱnotȱonlyȱanȱissueȱinȱtheȱrolesȱofȱvictimȱandȱactor. Itȱ isȱ alsoȱ aȱ keyȱ elementȱ inȱ theȱ roleȱ ofȱ theȱ helper,ȱ asȱ Andries Baartȱpointsȱoutȱinȱtheȱ“theoryȱofȱpresence”ȱthatȱheȱpresentsȱfor socialȱworkȱ(Baartȱ2001:ȱ687ff.).ȱHeȱpropagatesȱtheȱparadigmȱof tragicȱactionȱasȱaȱmodelȱforȱcomfortingȱpeopleȱinȱsuffering.ȱThis perspectiveȱdepartsȱfromȱtheȱvisionȱofȱfatefulȱdestinyȱinȱitsȱdedȬ icationȱtoȱtheȱfragileȱgood.ȱSurpassingȱtheȱlimitationsȱofȱtheȱattiȬ tudeȱofȱfateȱandȱtheȱdebilitatingȱtheodicyȱquestion,ȱtheȱtragicȱreȬ sponseȱdoesȱnotȱruleȱoutȱsufferingȱnorȱdoesȱitȱtryȱtoȱeraseȱit.ȱThe tragicȱ responseȱ acceptsȱ theȱ realityȱ ofȱ sufferingȱ andȱ offersȱ comȬ fortȱ byȱ participatingȱ inȱ enduringȱ theȱ suffering.ȱ Baartȱ acknowlȬ edgesȱthatȱtheȱtragicȱapproachȱneedsȱtoȱbeȱcomplementedȱbyȱreȬ sistanceȱtoȱevil.ȱIfȱweȱassume,ȱhowever,ȱthatȱsufferingȱoftenȱcanȬ notȱ beȱ resolved,ȱ theȱ roleȱ ofȱ theȱ comforterȱ inȱ tragedyȱ impliesȱ a responseȱ ofȱ presenceȱ andȱ solidarityȱ ratherȱ thanȱ aȱ solutionȱ to suffering. Allȱthisȱshowsȱhowȱtragedyȱisȱaȱcontainerȱconceptȱthatȱcan incorporateȱeverythingȱpainful,ȱevenȱthoseȱactionsȱthatȱareȱcharȬ acterizedȱ byȱ theȱ maliciousȱ intentionsȱ ofȱ theȱ actor.ȱ Theȱ core questionȱ definingȱ theȱ conceptȱ is,ȱ asȱ stated,ȱ whetherȱ orȱ notȱ we areȱresponsibleȱforȱanȱevent.ȱIfȱweȱare,ȱitȱisȱguilt.ȱIfȱweȱareȱnot,ȱit isȱ tragedy.ȱ Fromȱ aȱ victim’sȱ pointȱ ofȱ view,ȱ however,ȱ theȱ core questionȱ isȱ whetherȱ someoneȱ elseȱ isȱ toȱ blameȱ forȱ theȱ suffering weȱhaveȱtoȱendure.ȱHereȱweȱneedȱtoȱdifferentiateȱbetween,ȱfor example,ȱ sufferingȱ fromȱ terrorismȱ andȱ sufferingȱ fromȱ earthȬ quakes.ȱ Inȱ theȱ caseȱ ofȱ terrorism,ȱ weȱ areȱ temptedȱ toȱ makeȱ a clearȬcutȱattributionȱofȱguiltȱandȱmalice,ȱturningȱtheȱperpetrator intoȱ someȱ kindȱ ofȱ monster,ȱ withȱ theȱ pleasantȱ implicationȱ that weȱareȱpowerlessȱyetȱsinlessȱvictims.ȱInȱtheȱcaseȱofȱearthquakes, thisȱ attributionȱ isȱ muchȱ moreȱ difficult,ȱ andȱ aȱ moralȱ vacuum emerges.ȱAsȱIȱstatedȱearlier,ȱoneȱofȱtheȱparadoxesȱofȱvictimizaȬ tionȱisȱthatȱtheȱvictimȱmayȱtendȱtoȱattributeȱtheȱguiltȱtoȱhimȬȱor herself,ȱtherebyȱavoidingȱbothȱtragedyȱandȱmalice.

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Fromȱ theȱ explicitȱ perspectiveȱ ofȱ theȱ victim,ȱ tragedyȱ isȱ not contrastedȱwithȱsinȱorȱguiltȱbutȱwithȱmalice.ȱTheȱquestionȱisȱnot whichȱactorȱisȱresponsible—theȱpersonȱhimselfȱorȱsomeoneȱelse. HereȱtheȱquestionȱisȱwhetherȱmyȱsufferingȱshouldȱbeȱinterpretȬ edȱasȱaccidentalȱorȱintentional.ȱAgain,ȱthisȱquestionȱeasilyȱfocusȬ esȱonȱtheȱactor,ȱbecauseȱitȱrestsȱonȱtheȱassumedȱintentionsȱofȱthe wrongdoer.ȱInȱtheȱcaseȱofȱtragedy,ȱheȱorȱsheȱcausesȱevilȱdespite hisȱorȱherȱgoodȱintentionsȱorȱefforts.ȱWithȱmalice,ȱtheȱcausation ofȱevilȱisȱtheȱexplicitȱpurpose.ȱTheȱpostulatedȱactor’sȱintentionȱis whatȱ distinguishesȱ tragedyȱ fromȱ malice.ȱ Webster’sȱ Dictionary, forȱexample,ȱdefinesȱmaliceȱasȱtheȱintentȱtoȱcommitȱanȱunlawful actȱorȱtoȱcauseȱharmȱwithoutȱlegalȱjustificationȱorȱexcuse.ȱSomeȬ timesȱ theȱ termȱ isȱ usedȱ inȱ anȱ evenȱ moreȱ restrictiveȱ wayȱ asȱ reȬ ferringȱtoȱaȱdeepȬseatedȱoftenȱinexplicableȱȱdesireȱtoȱseeȱanother suffer.ȱ This,ȱ oneȱ couldȱ say,ȱ isȱ realȱ evil.ȱ Fromȱ thisȱ perspective, maliceȱ isȱ theȱ ethicalȱ identificationȱ ofȱ theȱ otherȱ personȱ asȱ reȬ sponsibleȱforȱevilȱdeeds. Atȱthisȱpointȱinȱmyȱexplorations,ȱIȱfoundȱaȱpaucityȱofȱclues inȱtheologicalȱdiscourse.ȱThereȱisȱenoughȱmaterialȱtoȱdiscussȱsin orȱ guiltȱ fromȱ theȱ actor’sȱ pointȱ ofȱ view,ȱ andȱ thereȱ areȱ several leadsȱ forȱ tragedy.ȱ Butȱ sufferingȱ asȱ aȱ resultȱ ofȱ malice,ȱ suffering fromȱ intentionalȱ evilȱ byȱ others,ȱ isȱ aȱ differentȱ case.ȱ Perhapsȱ we couldȱworkȱwithȱcategoriesȱfromȱliberationȱtheologyȱorȱexplore theȱ symbolicȱ meaningsȱ ofȱ demonicȱ possessionȱ andȱ exorcism, butȱforȱmainstreamȱbelieversȱandȱcongregations,ȱtheseȱcategorȬ iesȱ seemȱ ratherȱ exotic.ȱ Itȱ is,ȱ Iȱ wouldȱ say,ȱ noȱ coincidenceȱ that Karenȱfeltȱmoreȱatȱhomeȱwithȱguiltȱorȱtragedyȱandȱhadȱtrouble withȱ theȱ religiousȱ conceptȱ ofȱ malice.ȱ Sufferingȱ fromȱ malicious evilȱ mayȱ beȱ aȱ ratherȱ commonȱ experienceȱ inȱ humanȱ life;ȱ itȱ isȱ a marginalȱtopicȱinȱtheology. Asȱ aȱ consequenceȱ ofȱ thisȱ lackȱ ofȱ theologicalȱ articulation, manyȱ victimsȱ ofȱ maliciousȱ evilȱ tendȱ toȱ confuseȱ tragedyȱ and malice.ȱJustȱasȱKarenȱseemedȱtoȱlackȱtheȱvocabularyȱtoȱmakeȱacȬ curateȱ interpretationsȱ ofȱ herȱ childhoodȱ experiences,ȱ ourȱ public discourseȱ oftenȱ lacksȱ anyȱ distinctionȱ betweenȱ theȱ twoȱ terms. TheȱresultȱofȱthisȱconfusionȱbetweenȱtragedyȱandȱmaliceȱisȱseriȬ ous—bothȱonȱtheȱindividualȱandȱonȱtheȱcollectiveȱlevel.ȱItȱmay resultȱinȱtheȱinabilityȱtoȱacceptȱtheȱtragicȱandȱaȱsimilarȱfailureȱto resistȱmalice.ȱInstead,ȱweȱcanȱengageȱinȱfruitlessȱeffortsȱtoȱfight ourȱ tragicȱ fateȱ orȱ acceptȱ theȱ existenceȱ ofȱ intentionalȱ evil.ȱ From theȱ perspectiveȱ ofȱ theȱ victim,ȱ makingȱ anȱ adequateȱ interpretaȬ

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tionȱisȱcrucial.ȱItȱdeterminesȱwhatȱtheologicalȱanswersȱareȱtoȱthe pointȱandȱwhatȱtypeȱofȱtheodicyȱisȱwarranted. Karen’sȱTheodicy LetȱusȱreturnȱtoȱourȱconversationȱwithȱKaren.ȱTheȱquestionȱthat broughtȱ herȱ toȱ seekȱ pastoralȱ counselingȱ wasȱ howȱ sheȱ could learnȱtoȱtrustȱGodȱagain.ȱAsȱalways,ȱthisȱquestionȱregardingȱthe relationshipȱwithȱGodȱisȱinextricablyȱconnectedȱtoȱtheȱperson’s relationshipsȱwithȱfellowȱhumans.ȱForȱtheȱpastoralȱcounselor,ȱit isȱaȱmatterȱofȱtacticsȱasȱtoȱwhereȱtoȱstart:ȱinȱtheȱareaȱofȱhuman relationshipsȱorȱinȱtheȱreligiousȱdomain.ȱStill,ȱKaren’sȱquestion meritsȱaȱspecificȱexplorationȱofȱherȱrelationshipȱwithȱtheȱGodȱof herȱlifeȱstory.ȱSheȱwantsȱtoȱtrustȱGodȱagain,ȱbutȱsheȱisȱincapable ofȱdoingȱso. InȱKaren’sȱpersonalȱtheodicy,ȱtheȱconfusionȱbetweenȱtrageȬ dyȱ andȱ maliceȱ hasȱ resultedȱ inȱ aȱ complicatedȱ understandingȱ of God’sȱ roleȱ inȱ herȱ lifeȱ story.ȱ Consistentȱ withȱ theȱ theologyȱ she hadȱ beenȱ taughtȱ throughoutȱ herȱ life,ȱ thereȱ hadȱ toȱ beȱ aȱ reason forȱ allȱ sheȱ wentȱ through,ȱ andȱ thatȱ reasonȱ wouldȱ haveȱ toȱ do withȱGod.ȱObviously,ȱGodȱcouldȱnotȱbeȱtheȱmaliciousȱcauseȱof herȱ miseryȱ butȱ neitherȱ couldȱ itȱ haveȱ beenȱ beyondȱ hisȱ control. LikeȱaȱmodernȱJob,ȱsheȱponderedȱherȱtheodicyȱoptions.1 Sheȱ could,ȱ ofȱ course,ȱ assumeȱ thatȱ Godȱ madeȱ herȱ sufferȱ in retaliationȱforȱherȱsins.ȱThisȱtheodicyȱmodelȱwouldȱexplainȱwhy aȱ powerfulȱ Godȱ didȱ notȱ protectȱ herȱ fromȱ evil.ȱ Trustingȱ God wouldȱ thenȱ meanȱ surrenderingȱ toȱ hisȱ might,ȱ obeyingȱ hisȱ comȬ mands,ȱ andȱ believingȱ thatȱ thatȱ wouldȱ protectȱ herȱ fromȱ future punishment.ȱ Thisȱ preciseȱ structureȱ canȱ beȱ foundȱ inȱ theȱ way Karenȱhadȱinterpretedȱherȱparents’ȱneglect.ȱSheȱhadȱconcluded thatȱ itȱ mustȱ beȱ herȱ faultȱ andȱ thatȱ changeȱ dependedȱ onȱ herȱ reȬ pentance.ȱ Thisȱ theodicyȱ modelȱ takesȱ theȱ perspectiveȱ ofȱ the actor.ȱThatȱmeansȱthatȱKarenȱcanȱframeȱherȱlifeȱinȱtermsȱofȱguilt butȱ notȱ inȱ termsȱ ofȱ tragedyȱ andȱ malice.ȱ Thisȱ interpretation seemsȱlessȱthanȱadequateȱinȱlightȱofȱherȱlife.ȱItȱabsolvesȱbothȱher parentsȱandȱabusiveȱboyfriend,ȱandȱleavesȱherȱtoȱbearȱtheȱguilt forȱherȱmishaps.

1

ȱThisȱisȱbasedȱonȱtheȱresearchȱintoȱtheodicyȱbyȱJ.A.ȱvanȱderȱVenȱand hisȱcolleaguesȱinȱNijmegen.ȱSeeȱVanȱderȱVenȱandȱVossenȱ1995.

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Aȱ secondȱ optionȱ fromȱ researchȱ intoȱ theodicyȱ wouldȱ see Godȱ asȱ equallyȱ transcendentȱ butȱ wouldȱ accountȱ forȱ innocent suffering.ȱ Thisȱ isȱ theȱ planȱ model,ȱ accordingȱ toȱ whichȱ Godȱ deȬ terminesȱ theȱ worldȱ andȱ ourȱ livesȱ inȱ orderȱ toȱ realizeȱ hisȱ intenȬ tions.ȱThereȱisȱaȱplan—admittedlyȱaȱhiddenȱone—behindȱallȱour vicissitudes.ȱWeȱwillȱseeȱtheȱgrandȱschemeȱandȱtheȱmeaningȱof everythingȱatȱtheȱendȱofȱtime,ȱandȱweȱareȱsometimesȱallowedȱto catchȱ aȱ glimpseȱ ofȱ thatȱ inȱ thisȱ life.ȱ Forȱ Karen,ȱ thisȱ alsoȱ made someȱ sense,ȱ becauseȱ sheȱ hadȱ alwaysȱ understoodȱ thatȱ herȱ parȬ entsȱ couldȱ notȱ careȱ forȱ herȱ enoughȱ becauseȱ theyȱ hadȱ toȱ work hardȱandȱofferȱtheirȱtimeȱtoȱtheȱwiderȱcommunity.ȱTheȱeulogies atȱherȱparents’ȱfuneralsȱprovedȱthatȱtheyȱhadȱlivedȱaccordingȱto suchȱaȱplan,ȱandȱKarenȱcouldȱonlyȱconcludeȱthatȱsheȱhadȱtoȱbear herȱcrossȱinȱorderȱtoȱbeȱpartȱofȱtheȱplan. Itȱwasȱmuchȱharderȱtoȱseeȱhowȱtheȱabuseȱcouldȱbeȱpartȱofȱa divineȱplan.ȱIfȱKarenȱfollowedȱthisȱoption,ȱsheȱwouldȱjustȱhave toȱ trustȱ God,ȱ butȱ thatȱ wasȱ preciselyȱ herȱ problem.ȱ Thereȱ was someȱroomȱforȱtragedyȱinȱthisȱmodelȱbutȱonlyȱinȱtheȱsenseȱthat misfortunesȱ mayȱ beȱ inevitableȱ inȱ theȱ processȱ ofȱ unfoldingȱ the plan.ȱMaliceȱisȱdefused:ȱbehindȱtheȱbadȱintentionȱofȱtheȱaggresȬ sor,ȱthereȱisȱaȱpositiveȱplanȱofȱtheȱdivine.ȱResistanceȱtoȱevilȱthus seemsȱtoȱequalȱresistanceȱtoȱthisȱplanȱandȱtoȱGodȱHimself. Theȱ thirdȱ optionȱ bringsȱ theodicyȱ toȱ aȱ moreȱ personalȱ level. SufferingȱisȱagainȱpartȱofȱGod’sȱplanȱforȱtheȱworld,ȱbutȱhereȱitȱis believedȱ thatȱ Godȱ hasȱ pedagogicalȱ motivesȱ inȱ allowingȱ sufferȬ ing.ȱHereȱourȱmisfortunesȱareȱindeedȱnegativeȱexperiences,ȱbut theyȱ serveȱ toȱ makeȱ usȱ grow.ȱ Sufferingȱ teachesȱ andȱ disciplines. Inȱaȱway,ȱthatȱwouldȱmakeȱitȱeasierȱforȱKarenȱtoȱtrustȱGod.ȱItȱis betterȱ toȱ believeȱ thatȱ Heȱ inducesȱ thisȱ sufferingȱ forȱ ourȱ own goodȱthanȱtoȱbelieveȱthatȱweȱsufferȱforȱsomeȱgrandȱschemeȱthat mayȱ benefitȱ othersȱ yetȱ victimizesȱ us.ȱ Bothȱ tragedyȱ andȱ malice areȱdeconstructedȱhereȱandȱreinterpretedȱasȱlearningȱopportuniȬ ties.ȱ Inȱ radicalȱ versionsȱ (asȱ weȱ mayȱ findȱ inȱ someȱ versionsȱ of NewȱAgeȱspirituality),ȱthisȱlearningȱisȱsoughtȱbyȱourȱownȱsoul. Theȱeventsȱweȱencounterȱareȱwhatȱweȱneedȱinȱorderȱtoȱattainȱa newȱ level.ȱ Obviously,ȱ thisȱ wouldȱ helpȱ Karenȱ toȱ acceptȱ what happened,ȱ butȱ herȱ experiencesȱ wouldȱ noȱ longerȱ countȱ asȱ traȬ gedyȱnorȱasȱmalice.ȱEvilȱdoesȱnotȱexistȱanymore. Theȱfourthȱoptionȱisȱaȱcompassionȱmodel.ȱHereȱweȱfindȱno causativeȱ relationȱ betweenȱ Godȱ andȱ suffering.ȱ Godȱ isȱ theȱ allȬ lovingȱcompassionateȱcomradeȱandȱnotȱtheȱomnipotentȱrulerȱor

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manipulator.ȱ Asȱ aȱ consequence,ȱ sufferingȱ isȱ aȱ mystery,ȱ senseȬ lessȱinȱitself.ȱThisȱoptionȱappealsȱtoȱtheȱtragicȱdimensionȱofȱKarȬ en’sȱlifeȱstory.ȱEvenȱGodȱseemsȱtoȱbeȱaȱtragicȱfigure,ȱunableȱto resolveȱ theȱ miseryȱ ofȱ humans.ȱ Thatȱ wouldȱ helpȱ Karenȱ toȱ trust God—orȱherȱparentsȱforȱthatȱmatterȱ–ȱasȱhavingȱgoodȱintentions butȱ limitedȱ possibilities.ȱ Asȱ forȱ theȱ maliciousȱ actsȱ ofȱ herȱ boyȬ friend,ȱsheȱwouldȱhaveȱtoȱconcludeȱthatȱthisȱevilȱisȱmoreȱpowȬ erfulȱ thanȱ theȱ goodȱ thatȱ God’sȱ loveȱ mightȱ bring.ȱ Thisȱ option seemsȱmeaningfulȱvisȬàȬvisȱtragedyȱbutȱnotȱasȱmeaningfulȱinȱreȬ lationȱtoȱmalice. Theȱ sameȱ holdsȱ forȱ theȱ mysticalȱ theodicyȱ model.ȱ Here again,ȱGodȱisȱnotȱtheȱauthorȱorȱinventorȱofȱevil,ȱnorȱdoesȱHeȱuse itȱ forȱ someȱ planȱ orȱ purpose.ȱ Allȱ thatȱ happensȱ isȱ thatȱ inȱ the midstȱofȱmeaninglessȱaccidentalȱsufferingȱhumansȱmayȱexperiȬ enceȱaȱlongingȱforȱmysticalȱcommunionȱwithȱGod.ȱPerhapsȱsufȬ feringȱcanȱevenȱhaveȱaȱsacramentalȱdimensionȱinȱthatȱitȱallowsȱa uniqueȱlovingȱencounter.ȱMeaningfulȱasȱthisȱmayȱbe,ȱitȱcanȱalso functionȱ asȱ aȱ religiousȱ escapeȱ andȱ sublimationȱ ofȱ unbearable pain.ȱItȱmayȱbeȱanȱanswerȱinȱtragedy,ȱbutȱitȱobstructsȱourȱresistȬ anceȱ toȱ malice.ȱ Inȱ fact,ȱ thisȱ modelȱ exculpatesȱ God,ȱ butȱ itȱ does notȱ helpȱ usȱ inȱ copingȱ withȱ evil,ȱ unlessȱ perhapsȱ indirectly.ȱ The love,ȱ warmth,ȱ andȱ beautyȱ itȱ providesȱ areȱ nurturing,ȱ empowȬ eringȱ forcesȱ ofȱ healing,ȱ empoweringȱ inȱ orderȱ toȱ resistȱ evilȱ or avoidȱitȱandȱleaveȱitȱbehind. Theȱ lastȱ modelȱ isȱ oneȱ ofȱ vicariousȱ suffering.ȱ Moldedȱ after theȱimageȱofȱtheȱsufferingȱservant,ȱthisȱmodelȱspeaksȱofȱaȱparticȬ ularȱvocationȱforȱtheȱsufferer.ȱTheȱsufferer’sȱlovingȱrelationship withȱGodȱgroundsȱaȱchoiceȱforȱselfȬsacrifice,ȱsolidarityȱwithȱothȬ erȱsufferingȱhumans,ȱandȱresistanceȱtoȱevil.ȱGod’sȱloveȱisȱlocatȬ edȱ inȱ theȱ comfortȱ andȱ inspiration,ȱ Hisȱ omnipotenceȱ inȱ theȱ esȬ chatologicalȱpromiseȱofȱovercomingȱevil.ȱThisȱcomplexȱtheodicy mightȱbeȱhelpfulȱforȱKaren.ȱItȱaddressesȱtragedyȱandȱmaliceȱand offersȱresponsesȱfromȱacceptanceȱtoȱresistance.ȱItȱevenȱgivesȱher aȱ newȱ responsibilityȱ andȱ communionȱ withȱ others.ȱ Butȱ itȱ isȱ a complexȱstoryȱthatȱmayȱnotȱcomeȱacrossȱinȱsermons.ȱItȱisȱalsoȱa possiblyȱdangerousȱstory. CopingȱwithȱEvil Howȱ canȱ Karenȱ copeȱ withȱ herȱ experiencesȱ andȱ whatȱ canȱ her faithȱcontributeȱtoȱthat?ȱThisȱisȱtheȱquestionȱofȱresearchȱintoȱreliȬ

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giousȱ coping.ȱ Inȱ Kennethȱ Pargament’sȱ powerfulȱ overviewȱ of theȱfieldȱ(seeȱPargamentȱ1997),ȱweȱfindȱinvestigationsȱinȱaȱvarieȬ tyȱofȱcontexts,ȱsomeȱofȱwhichȱwereȱmentionedȱinȱtheȱbeginning ofȱ thisȱ paper.ȱ Iȱ alreadyȱ mentionedȱ theȱ inclusionȱ ofȱ categories likeȱdisease,ȱrelationalȱcrisesȱandȱviolence,ȱandȱcollectiveȱexperiȬ encesȱwithȱdisastersȱandȱwars.ȱInȱhisȱreviewȱofȱdozensȱofȱempirȬ icalȱinvestigationsȱinȱthisȱarea,ȱrelativelyȱfewȱprojectsȱfallȱunder theȱheadingȱofȱmalice.ȱMostȱsituationsȱareȱambiguousȱorȱcanȱbe understoodȱasȱtragedy.ȱThisȱisȱmyȱreadingȱofȱit,ȱbecauseȱtheȱdisȬ tinctionȱisȱnotȱmadeȱexplicitȱinȱhisȱbook.ȱPargamentȱpaysȱsome attentionȱtoȱthisȱmatterȱwhenȱheȱdiscussesȱhelpfulȱandȱharmful formsȱofȱreligiousȱcoping.ȱInȱhisȱoverviewȱofȱresearchȱprojects, heȱ concludesȱ thatȱ spiritualȱ support,ȱ congregationalȱ support, andȱ aȱ religiousȱ interpretationȱ ofȱ God’sȱ willȱ andȱ loveȱ tendȱ to showȱ aȱ significantȱ positiveȱ relationshipȱ withȱ copingȱ outcomes. Spiritualȱ discontentȱ andȱ discontentȱ withȱ theȱ congregationȱ as wellȱasȱanȱinterpretationȱofȱGod’sȱpunishmentȱusuallyȱshowsȱa significantȱ negativeȱ relationship.ȱ Aȱ collaborativeȱ copingȱ style, inȱ whichȱ bothȱ Godȱ andȱ theȱ personȱ areȱ expectedȱ toȱ actȱ inȱ reȬ sponseȱtoȱtheȱeventȱisȱalsoȱaȱpositiveȱcontributor,ȱinȱcomparison toȱ copingȱ stylesȱ inȱ whichȱ theȱ personȱ defersȱ everythingȱ toȱ God orȱ feelsȱ thatȱ Godȱ wouldȱ notȱ interfereȱ atȱ all.ȱ Inȱ hisȱ moreȱ recent research,ȱ Pargamentȱ isȱ lookingȱ atȱ whatȱ heȱ callsȱ sanctification, theȱprocessȱofȱimbuingȱaspectsȱofȱlifeȱwithȱaȱspiritualȱcharacter andȱsignificance.ȱTheȱlossȱorȱviolationȱofȱsuchȱaspectsȱresultsȱin differentȱ typesȱ ofȱ emotionalȱ distress,ȱ spiritualȱ change,ȱ postȬ traumaticȱgrowth,ȱandȱreligiousȱcopingȱ(Pargamentȱetȱal.ȱ2005). PargamentȱisȱcarefulȱtoȱnoteȱthatȱreligionȱmayȱfunctionȱdifȬ ferentlyȱ inȱ differentȱ situationsȱ forȱ differentȱ personsȱ andȱ inȱ difȬ ferentȱ traditions.ȱ Forȱ example,ȱ heȱ addressesȱ theȱ benefitsȱ and dangersȱ ofȱ forgiveness,ȱ pointingȱ toȱ theȱ risksȱ ofȱ prematureȱ forȬ giveness.ȱInȱthisȱclosingȱsectionȱofȱmyȱarticleȱIȱwillȱconsiderȱthe adequateȱ copingȱ issuesȱ forȱ situationsȱ ofȱ tragedyȱ andȱ malice.ȱ I willȱuseȱsomeȱinsightsȱfromȱmyȱinquiryȱintoȱtragedyȱandȱmalice inȱarmyȱchaplains’ȱreportsȱaboutȱtheirȱrecentȱmissionȱinȱIraq. Oneȱ ofȱ theȱ chaplainsȱ usedȱ hisȱ experiencesȱ inȱ Bosniaȱ asȱ a pointȱofȱreference.ȱWhenȱheȱwasȱthere,ȱhostilitiesȱwereȱrareȱand theȱtaskȱofȱtheȱmilitaryȱwasȱprimarilyȱhumanitarian.ȱHeȱfeltȱthe termȱtragedyȱwasȱtheȱmostȱadequateȱwayȱofȱdescribingȱtheȱsituȬ ationȱ thatȱ theȱ soldiersȱ encountered.ȱ Forȱ him,ȱ tragedyȱ didȱ not meanȱthatȱthereȱwasȱnoȱguiltȱonȱoneȱsideȱorȱtheȱother;ȱitȱmerely

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describedȱ theȱ presentȱ situationȱ inȱ whichȱ painȱ andȱ powerlessȬ nessȱ wereȱ theȱ mostȱ importantȱ elements.ȱ Itȱ couldȱ beȱ dubbed tragedyȱbecauseȱmaliciousȱactionsȱhadȱbecomeȱpartȱofȱtheȱpast. Theȱ situationȱ inȱ Iraqȱ wasȱ ratherȱ different.ȱ Hereȱ theyȱ encounȬ teredȱpeopleȱthatȱintendedȱtoȱharmȱthem,ȱasȱevidencedȱinȱnightȬ lyȱ shootingsȱ andȱ guerillaȱ attacks.ȱ Althoughȱ theȱ backgroundȱ of thisȱ situationȱ mightȱ beȱ interpretedȱ inȱ tragicȱ termsȱ asȱ well,ȱ the actualȱencountersȱwereȱofȱaȱmaliciousȱnature. Accordingȱ toȱ thisȱ chaplain,ȱ theseȱ twoȱ situationsȱ solicited completelyȱ differentȱ responses.ȱ Theȱ Bosnianȱ tragedyȱ elicited compassionateȱ careȱ andȱ willingnessȱ toȱ communicateȱ withȱ the localȱ population.ȱ Althoughȱ theyȱ hadȱ toȱ beȱ carefulȱ aboutȱ stillȬ presentȱthreats,ȱtheȱoverallȱresponseȱwasȱaȱhelpfulȱone.ȱInȱIraq, theȱ primaryȱ responseȱ consistedȱ ofȱ angerȱ andȱ fear.ȱ Theȱ overall languageȱusedȱtoȱdescribeȱtheȱIraqiȱpeopleȱwasȱthereforeȱmuch moreȱnegativeȱthanȱthatȱusedȱtoȱdescribeȱtheȱBosnians. Mostȱ ofȱ theȱ soldiersȱ wouldȱ notȱ employȱ religiousȱ language toȱ interpretȱ theseȱ situations.ȱ Interestingly,ȱ neitherȱ wouldȱ the chaplains.ȱ Althoughȱ theyȱ notedȱ thatȱ theseȱ situationsȱ could evokeȱreligiousȱquestions,ȱtheyȱfeltȱthatȱtheirȱreligiousȱtradition hadȱ noȱ adequateȱ vocabulary.ȱ Theȱ message—ifȱ itȱ canȱ beȱ called that—thatȱ guidedȱ theirȱ ministryȱ wasȱ oneȱ ofȱ personalȱ support andȱ comfort,ȱ complementedȱ whereȱ neededȱ byȱ aȱ criticalȱ reȬ sponseȱtoȱpossibleȱwrongdoing.ȱWhenȱaskedȱdirectlyȱaboutȱthe potentialȱ ofȱ theȱ languageȱ ofȱ tragedyȱ andȱ malice,ȱ theyȱ feltȱ that thisȱ mightȱ haveȱ helpedȱ themȱ inȱ distinguishingȱ theȱ situations theyȱ hadȱ beenȱ in.ȱ Itȱ mightȱ evenȱ haveȱ offeredȱ aȱ religiousȱ interȬ pretiveȱframeworkȱforȱtheseȱsituations,ȱaȱframeworkȱthatȱcould haveȱservedȱtheȱchaplainȱinȱarticulatingȱhisȱcareȱinȱsermonsȱand conversations.ȱThatȱmightȱhaveȱresultedȱinȱquestioningȱexplicitȬ lyȱ theȱ understandingȱ ofȱ theȱ Iraqiȱ situationȱ asȱ malicious.ȱ And this,ȱ inȱ turn,ȱ mightȱ haveȱ helpedȱ inȱ preventingȱ bitternessȱ and cynicism.ȱ Obviously,ȱ theȱ actualȱ situationȱ inȱ whichȱ theyȱ hadȱ to workȱ wasȱ probablyȱ tooȱ stressfulȱ andȱ confusingȱ toȱ allowȱ this kindȱ ofȱ interpretation,ȱ butȱ theȱ factȱ thatȱ thisȱ languageȱ wasȱ not availableȱmustȱbeȱseenȱasȱaȱhindranceȱforȱadequateȱtheological reflection. Inȱ Karen’sȱ situation,ȱ theȱ intricateȱ connectionȱ betweenȱ traȬ gedyȱ andȱ maliceȱ neededȱ toȱ beȱ unraveled.ȱ Herȱ parents’ȱ neglect wasȱperhapsȱtragicȱatȱfirstȱglanceȱandȱalsoȱinȱtheȱend,ȱbutȱinȱbeȬ tweenȱitȱneededȱtoȱbeȱaddressedȱasȱculpableȱnegligence.ȱKaren’s

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eventualȱ responseȱ wasȱ oneȱ ofȱ forgivenessȱ andȱ acceptance.ȱ She forgaveȱ ratherȱ thanȱ exculpateȱ herȱ parents’ȱ shortcomings,ȱ and sheȱlovinglyȱacceptedȱtheirȱtragicȱfailureȱinȱcaringȱforȱher.ȱObviȬ ously,ȱ thisȱ wasȱ aȱ longȱ andȱ hardȱ journey.ȱ Asȱ forȱ herȱ boyfriend, Karenȱ foundȱ refugeȱ inȱ herȱ pastor’sȱ acknowledgementȱ ofȱ her victimization.ȱ Thisȱ helpedȱ herȱ inȱ exoneratingȱ herselfȱ andȱ putȬ tingȱtheȱblameȱwhereȱitȱbelonged.ȱFinally,ȱKarenȱdecidedȱtoȱlet goȱ ofȱ herȱ vengefulnessȱ inȱ orderȱ toȱ becomeȱ theȱ freeȱ personȱ she wantedȱtoȱbe.ȱHerȱtrustȱinȱGodȱwasȱregainedȱslowlyȱwhenȱshe foundȱ Himȱ toȱ beȱ anȱ inspirerȱ ofȱ resistanceȱ toȱ maliceȱ andȱ ofȱ acȬ ceptanceȱinȱtragedy.ȱ Anȱ importantȱ dimensionȱ inȱ theȱ processȱ thatȱ Karenȱ went throughȱwasȱthatȱsheȱhadȱtoȱovercomeȱvictimhood.ȱInȱtheȱend, healingȱimpliesȱthatȱoneȱstepsȱawayȱfromȱtheȱdelimitingȱ“idenȬ tity”ȱ ofȱ beingȱ aȱ victimȱ ofȱ evil,ȱ andȱ developsȱ aȱ moreȱ nuanced understandingȱofȱbothȱselfȱandȱothers.ȱThatȱmayȱimplyȱtheȱdeȬ velopmentȱofȱaȱmoreȱactiveȱroleȱinȱwhichȱresistanceȱtoȱevilȱbeȬ comesȱpossibleȱȱ(inȱwhateverȱshape).ȱToȱtakeȱtheseȱsteps,ȱhowȬ ever,ȱsheȱneededȱtoȱseparateȱtragedyȱfromȱmalice,ȱbecauseȱthese twoȱ notionsȱ requestedȱ completelyȱ differentȱ responses.ȱ Itȱ was preciselyȱ theȱ confusionȱ betweenȱ theȱ twoȱ thatȱ madeȱ itȱ difficult forȱKarenȱtoȱbreakȱtheȱbondsȱofȱpassivity. Conclusion Inȱ theseȱ explorationsȱ ofȱ theȱ distinctionȱ betweenȱ tragedyȱ and malice,ȱIȱhaveȱchosenȱaȱpartlyȱnarrativeȱstyleȱandȱrealȬlifeȱfocus becauseȱ theȱ essentialȱ questionsȱ ofȱ theologyȱ andȱ evilȱ areȱ toȱ be answeredȱ byȱ ordinaryȱ peopleȱ inȱ theirȱ ordinaryȱ confrontations withȱ tragedyȱ andȱ malice.ȱ Ourȱ theologicalȱ explorationsȱ mayȱ be ofȱ someȱ helpȱ inȱ theseȱ struggles,ȱ andȱ itȱ isȱ forȱ thatȱ reasonȱ thatȱ I argueȱ forȱ theȱ fineȬtuningȱ ofȱ ourȱ theodicyȱ languageȱ toȱ account forȱtheȱdistinctionȱbetweenȱtragedyȱandȱmalice. Bibliography Baart,ȱA.ȱ(2001).ȱEenȱtheorieȱvanȱdeȱpresentie.ȱUtrecht:ȱLemma. Bowker,ȱ J.W.ȱ (1984).ȱ “Sufferingȱ asȱ aȱ Problemȱ ofȱ Religions.”ȱ In:ȱ F. Doughertyȱ(ed.).ȱTheȱMeaningȱofȱHumanȱSuffering.ȱNewȱYork:ȱHuȬ manȱSciences. Ganzevoort,ȱR.R.ȱ(1994).ȱEenȱcruciaalȱmoment.ȱFunctieȱenȱveranderingȱvan geloofȱinȱeenȱcrisis.ȱZoetermeer:ȱBoekencentrum.

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(2001).ȱReconstructies.ȱPraktischȬtheologischȱonderzoekȱnaarȱdeȱverhalȬ enȱvanȱmannenȱoverȱseksueelȱmisbruikȱenȱgeloof.ȱKampen:ȱKok. Heering,ȱ H.J.ȱ (1961).ȱ Tragiek.ȱ Vanȱ Aeschylusȱ totȱ Sartre.ȱ ’sȱ Gravenhage: L.J.C.ȱBoucher. Herman,ȱJ.ȱ(1992).ȱTraumaȱandȱRecovery.ȱNewȱYork:ȱBasicȱBooks. Krijger,ȱP.L.ȱ(2005).ȱDeȱtragiekȱvanȱdeȱschepping.ȱHetȱgedingȱrondomȱMarȬ cionȱinȱdeȱNederlandseȱtheologieȱvanȱdeȱtwintigsteȱeeuw.ȱZoetermeer: Boekencentrum. Luckmann,ȱ T.ȱ (1991).ȱ Dieȱ unsichtbareȱ Religion.ȱ Frankfurtȱ amȱ Main: Suhrkamp. Pargament,ȱ K.I.ȱ (1997).ȱ Theȱ Psychologyȱ ofȱ Religionȱ andȱ Coping:ȱ Theory, Research,ȱPractice.ȱNewȱYork:ȱGuilford. et.ȱal.ȱ(2005).ȱ“Sacrilege:ȱAȱStudyȱofȱSacredȱLossȱandȱDesecration andȱtheirȱImplicationsȱforȱHealthȱandȱWellȬBeingȱinȱaȱCommunȬ ityȱSample.”ȱJournalȱforȱtheȱScientificȱStudyȱofȱReligionȱ44:ȱ59Ȭ78. Sarot,ȱM.ȱ(1997).ȱHetȱgoedeȱleven.ȱIdealenȱvanȱeenȱgoedȱlevenȱinȱconfrontatie metȱdeȱtragiekȱvanȱhetȱbestaan.ȱZoetermeer:ȱBoekencentrum. VanȱderȱVen,ȱJ.A.ȱandȱE.ȱ(H.J.M.)ȱVossenȱ(eds).ȱ(1995).ȱSuffering:ȱWhy forȱGodȇsȱSake?ȱPastoralȱResearchȱinȱTheodicy.ȱKampen:ȱKokȱPharos.

GeneralȱIndex 131,ȱ 132,ȱ 138,ȱ 140,ȱ 145, 153,ȱ166 disease ................... 74,ȱ75,ȱ83, 247,ȱ252,ȱ257 doctrineȱofȱjustification .......... 233,ȱ237,ȱ238,ȱ242 druids ................ 2,ȱ25,ȱ27Ȭ31, 33,ȱ34,ȱ38Ȭ45 Dutch ............. 2,ȱ3,ȱ25,ȱ71Ȭ73, 75,ȱ 77,ȱ 79,ȱ 81Ȭ83,ȱ 105, 107,ȱ 108,ȱ 110,ȱ 111,ȱ 130, 131,ȱ 137,ȱ 140Ȭ43,ȱ 146, 149,ȱ 150,ȱ 157Ȭ61,ȱ 167, 171,ȱ192 duty ................. 110,ȱ205,ȱ206, 209,ȱ210

AfricanȱInitiatedȱChurches (AICs) ...... 51Ȭ55,ȱ68,ȱ86 ambition ............. 206Ȭ08,ȱ218 ancestors ............... 58,ȱ90,ȱ93, 172,ȱ177,ȱ179 blackȱMass ....................... 129 boundaries .............. 3,ȱ81,ȱ82, 143,ȱ147,ȱ152,ȱ156 CasaȱdoȱJardimȱgroup ...... 121 CharismaticȱChristians ............ 108Ȭ10,ȱ114,ȱ115 Charismaticȱmovement . 108 Christianity ............ 2,ȱ3,ȱ5,ȱ9, 10,ȱ 13Ȭ15,ȱ 19,ȱ 21,ȱ 22,ȱ 25, 28,ȱ30,ȱ40,ȱ43,ȱ45,ȱ49,ȱ51, 85Ȭ88,ȱ92,ȱ94,ȱ96Ȭ99,ȱ101Ȭ 03,ȱ 108,ȱ 110,ȱ 116,ȱ 125, 126,ȱ 157,ȱ 172,ȱ 178,ȱ 183, 194,ȱ217,ȱ233,ȱ237 ChurchȱofȱSatan ... 2,ȱ125Ȭ27, 129,ȱ130 confessing .................. 59,ȱ241

ethnicity .............. 81,ȱ82,ȱ147, 175,ȱ182 evilȱeye .................. 35,ȱ36,ȱ38, 39,ȱ71,ȱ72 evilȱspirit ................... 2,ȱ3,ȱ10, 15,ȱ20,ȱ33,ȱ53,ȱ54,ȱ58,ȱ59, 61Ȭ63,ȱ72,ȱ112,ȱ118 exorcism ............ 3,ȱ51Ȭ56,ȱ61, 62,ȱ 65Ȭ67,ȱ 69,ȱ 70,ȱ 79, 105Ȭ07,ȱ 110Ȭ12,ȱ 121Ȭ23, 253

dajjal .......... 137,ȱ138,ȱ144,ȱ145 demonicȱpossession ........ 94, 253 demons ............... 2,ȱ3,ȱ11,ȱ14, 16,ȱ 19,ȱ 25,ȱ 26,ȱ 30Ȭ32,ȱ 35, 36,ȱ 38,ȱ 43Ȭ45,ȱ 53,ȱ 54,ȱ 56, 58,ȱ 61Ȭ63,ȱ 66Ȭ68,ȱ 84Ȭ86, 93Ȭ96,ȱ107,ȱ109,ȱ113,ȱ115, 209 desire .......... 187,ȱ189Ȭ91,ȱ194 devil ............... 1,ȱ5,ȱ10,ȱ13Ȭ17, 19Ȭ23,ȱ 25,ȱ 31,ȱ 32,ȱ 41,ȱ 62, 88,ȱ 103,ȱ 109,ȱ 125,ȱ 126,

family ................ 3,ȱ45,ȱ52,ȱ59, 64,ȱ 67,ȱ 71Ȭ73,ȱ 75Ȭ79,ȱ 82, 83,ȱ 112,ȱ 114,ȱ 131,ȱ 154, 160Ȭ63,ȱ 165,ȱ 172,ȱ 173, 180,ȱ 183,ȱ 193,ȱ 196,ȱ 197, 204Ȭ06,ȱ209 fitna ........................... 140,ȱ144 forgiveness ........... 4,ȱ62,ȱ127,

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gender ........... 2,ȱ80,ȱ147,ȱ149, 151,ȱ157,ȱ167 Ghana ...... 9Ȭ16,ȱ18Ȭ22,ȱ85Ȭ87, 89Ȭ96,ȱ 98,ȱ 99,ȱ 102,ȱ 103, 179 Girard,ȱRené ............. 187Ȭ89, 192Ȭ94,ȱ196,ȱ199 guilt ....... 61,ȱ63,ȱ82,ȱ192,ȱ198, 223,ȱ225,ȱ249Ȭ54,ȱ257 hagiography ......... 26,ȱ27,ȱ30, 33,ȱ48,ȱ49 Hamlet ....... 4,ȱ201Ȭ06,ȱ208Ȭ11, 213Ȭ18 healing .......... 3,ȱ4,ȱ51,ȱ53Ȭ56, 58,ȱ 59,ȱ 63,ȱ 67Ȭ70,ȱ 74,ȱ 84, 86,ȱ 87,ȱ 89,ȱ 93Ȭ95,ȱ 97,ȱ 99, 100,ȱ102,ȱ105Ȭ10,ȱ112Ȭ18, 120Ȭ24,ȱ192,ȱ256,ȱ259 illness .............. 62,ȱ74,ȱ75,ȱ79, 83,ȱ84,ȱ107,ȱ113,ȱ122 immorality ............... 150,ȱ158 Indonesia .... 2,ȱ149,ȱ155,ȱ156, 159,ȱ163,ȱ166,ȱ167 Ireland ........... 2,ȱ3,ȱ25Ȭ28,ȱ31, 43,ȱ44,ȱ47,ȱ48,ȱ188 Islam .......... 71Ȭ73,ȱ77,137Ȭ39, 141Ȭ53,ȱ156Ȭ61,ȱ163,ȱ164, 166,ȱ167,ȱ172 Reformist ................ 152,ȱ157, 160,ȱ161,ȱ163,ȱ167 kafir ..................... 137,ȱ140Ȭ43 kufr ............ 138,ȱ140,ȱ142,ȱ143 LaVey,ȱSzandor ............. 125, 127Ȭ30,ȱ133

Lutheran .... 233,ȱ234,ȱ236Ȭ38 ȱ 240Ȭ42 magic ......... 31,ȱ34,ȱ35,ȱ51,ȱ55, 56,ȱ 67,ȱ 117,ȱ 119,ȱ 121, 129,ȱ130,ȱ175 malice .................... 4,ȱ59,ȱ212, 247Ȭ50,ȱ252Ȭ59 marriage .. 2,ȱ72,ȱ89,ȱ149,ȱ151, 157,ȱ159Ȭ61,ȱ163,ȱ167 mimeticȱtheory ......... 187Ȭ89, 195 Muhammadiyah .. 2,ȱ149Ȭ53, 155Ȭ66 narrative ....... 41,ȱ42,ȱ48,ȱ171, 221,ȱ 223Ȭ25,ȱ 227,ȱ 228, 230,ȱ231,ȱ259 Netherlands,ȱthe .... 2,ȱ71,ȱ73, 75Ȭ77,ȱ81,ȱ83,ȱ108,ȱ111 OedipusȱRex .................... 192 Patrick,ȱSt. ............... 2,ȱ26,ȱ27, 29Ȭ31,ȱ33,ȱ41,ȱ44,ȱ45 Pentecostalism ..... 10,ȱ13,ȱ14, 16,ȱ 17,ȱ 19,ȱ 21,ȱ 22,ȱ 85Ȭ89, 91Ȭ93,ȱ95Ȭ97,ȱ99Ȭ103,ȱ108 prayer ................ 4,ȱ13,ȱ16,ȱ31, 33,ȱ36,ȱ40,ȱ53,ȱ59,ȱ60,ȱ64, 65,ȱ 85,ȱ 87Ȭ89,ȱ 92,ȱ 96,ȱ 97, 99Ȭ102,ȱ 137,ȱ 163,ȱ 230, 233Ȭ44,ȱ246 Protestantism ... 3,ȱ12,ȱ13,ȱ15, 19,ȱ 107,ȱ 108,ȱ 197,ȱ 207, 209,ȱ248 providence ................. 209Ȭ11 responsibility ... 3,ȱ55,ȱ61Ȭ63, 71,ȱ82,ȱ83,ȱ180,ȱ181,ȱ188, 206,ȱ210,ȱ251,ȱ256 revenge ................. 4,ȱ63,ȱ116, 121,ȱ198,ȱ201Ȭ18

THEȱPROBLEMȱOFȱDEFININGȱEVIL Ricoeur,ȱPaul .......... 1,ȱ5,ȱ199, 219Ȭ25,ȱ227,ȱ230 Romero,ȱOscar .. 220,ȱ228Ȭ31 sacramentals ...................... 99 Satan ........ 2,ȱ9,ȱ14Ȭ16,ȱ31,ȱ51Ȭ 53,ȱ 55,ȱ 61,ȱ 67,ȱ 85,ȱ 86, 101,ȱ 125Ȭ30,ȱ 132,ȱ 133, 142,ȱ167,ȱ197,ȱ204 Satanism ....... 125Ȭ27,ȱ130Ȭ33 scapegoat ........ 55,ȱ56,ȱ61,ȱ66, 69,ȱ187,ȱ188,ȱ192Ȭ97 selfȬacceptance ................ 240 sexuality ................... 127,ȱ130 Shakespeare,ȱWilliam ... 199, 203Ȭ05,ȱ208Ȭ10,ȱ213,ȱ215Ȭ 18 sorcery ................ 3,ȱ52,ȱ70Ȭ72 76,ȱ77,ȱ79Ȭ82 Spiritist ........ 3,ȱ107,ȱ108,ȱ115, 116,ȱ121,ȱ124 Braziian .................. 105, 107,ȱ115,ȱ118 spiritualȱwarfare .............. 88, 105Ȭ07,ȱ 109,ȱ 110,ȱ 114, 115,ȱ123 sunan ............... 155,ȱ156,ȱ158, 160,ȱ162,ȱ163,ȱ165 sunna ................................ 155 symbol ................ 45,ȱ61,ȱ176, 189,ȱ224,ȱ229

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symbolism .... 5,ȱ68,ȱ100,ȱ102, 116,ȱ117,ȱ221,ȱ222,ȱ231 Tanzania ......... 169Ȭ172,ȱ181, 182,ȱ184 tragedy ............ 4,ȱ5,ȱ176,ȱ182, 183,ȱ 192,ȱ 202,ȱ 203,ȱ 205, 208,ȱ 214,ȱ 215,ȱ 218,ȱ 225, 226,ȱ247Ȭ59 victim ............ 4,ȱ5,ȱ79,ȱ80,ȱ94, 115,ȱ 121,ȱ 194,ȱ 242,ȱ 250, 252,ȱ253,ȱ259 violence ........... 4,ȱ21,ȱ31,ȱ142, 181,ȱ 187,ȱ 188,ȱ 190,ȱ 193Ȭ 99,ȱ 202,ȱ 212,ȱ 215,ȱ 247, 248,ȱ250,ȱ257 witch ................ 11,ȱ21,ȱ52,ȱ54, 62Ȭ68,ȱ70,ȱ119 witchcraft .......... 3,ȱ10,ȱ14,ȱ15, 22,ȱ 52,ȱ 54,ȱ 57,ȱ 58,ȱ 62Ȭ64, 67,ȱ 70,ȱ 72,ȱ 80,ȱ 93,ȱ 95, 175,ȱ178 women ............ 39Ȭ42,ȱ58,ȱ59, 62,ȱ63,ȱ66,ȱ72,ȱ75,ȱ79,ȱ80, 84,ȱ 95,ȱ 140,ȱ 143,ȱ 150Ȭ53, 158Ȭ67,ȱ 176,ȱ 181,ȱ 197, 248 Zimbabwe ................... 51,ȱ57

ContributorsȱtoȱthisȱVolume J.ȱKwabenaȱAsamoahȬGyaduȱisȱAssociateȱProfessorȱofȱContemporary ReligionsȱandȱPentecostal/CharismaticȱTheologyȱatȱtheȱTrinity TheologicalȱSeminary,ȱLegon,ȱGhana. Edienȱ Bartelsȱ isȱ Lecturerȱ inȱ Culturalȱ Anthropologyȱ inȱ theȱ Facultyȱ of SocialȱSciencesȱatȱtheȱVUȱUniversityȱAmsterdam. JacquelineȱBorsjeȱteachesȱReligiousȱandȱ CelticȱStudies,ȱspecializingȱin mythologyȱandȱliterature,ȱisȱaȱLecturerȱinȱMedievalȱIrishȱandȱEuropean CulturesȱatȱtheȱUniversityȱofȱUlsterȱandȱheadsȱtheȱNWOȬVIDIȱresearch projectȱ“TheȱPowerȱofȱWordsȱinȱMedievalȱIreland.” MarthinusȱL.ȱDaneelȱisȱEmeritusȱProfessorȱofȱtheȱUniversityȱofȱSouth Africaȱ andȱ hasȱ workedȱ partȬtimeȱ forȱ theȱ lastȱ decadeȱ asȱ Professorȱ of MissiologyȱatȱtheȱBostonȱUniversityȱSchoolȱofȱTheology. MartijnȱdeȱKoningȱisȱaȱpostȬdoctoralȱResearchȱFellowȱatȱtheȱInternational InstituteȱforȱtheȱStudyȱofȱIslamȱinȱtheȱModernȱWorldȱ(ISIM)ȱinȱLeiden. AndréȱF.ȱDroogersȱisȱProfessorȱEmeritusȱofȱCulturalȱAnthropologyȱatȱthe VUȱUniversityȱAmsterdam. EdwinȱKosterȱisȱLecturerȱinȱtheȱFacultyȱofȱPhilosophyȱatȱtheȱVUȱUniȬ versityȱAmsterdam. ReenderȱKranenborgȱwasȱaȱLecturerȱinȱReligiousȱStudiesȱatȱtheȱVUȱUniȬ versityȱAmsterdamȱuntilȱhisȱretirementȱinȱ2005. AndréȱLascarisȱisȱaȱmemberȱofȱtheȱstaffȱofȱtheȱDominicanȱStudyȱCentre forȱTheologyȱandȱSocietyȱ(DSTS)ȱinȱNijmegen. BirgitȱMeyerȱisȱProfessorȱofȱCulturalȱAnthropologyȱinȱtheȱDepartment ofȱSocialȱandȱCulturalȱAnthropologyȱatȱtheȱVUȱUniversityȱAmsterdam. LourensȱMinnemaȱisȱAssociateȱProfessorȱofȱReligiousȱStudiesȱatȱtheȱVU UniversityȱAmsterdam.ȱ Christianeȱ Tietzȱ isȱ HeisenbergȬScholarshipȱ Holderȱ ofȱ theȱ Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaftȱ andȱ Privatdozentinȱ atȱ theȱ Universityȱ ofȱ TüȬ bingen.

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NellyȱvanȱDoornȬHarderȱisȱAssociateȱProfessorȱofȱWorldȱReligionsȱand IslamȱatȱValparaisoȱUniversity,ȱUSAȱandȱVisitingȱProfessorȱinȱChristianȬ MuslimȱRelationsȱatȱtheȱVUȱUniversityȱAmsterdam. PeterȱVersteegȱisȱaȱpostȬdoctoralȱResearchȱFellowȱinȱtheȱFacultyȱofȱSocial SciencesȱatȱtheȱVUȱUniversityȱAmsterdam. FransȱWijsenȱisȱProfessorȱofȱWorldȱChristianityȱandȱInterreligiousȱRelaȬ tionsȱinȱtheȱFacultyȱofȱReligiousȱStudies,ȱRadboudȱUniversity,ȱNijmegen.