Fauna and Flora of the Bible (Helps for Translators)

FAUNA AND FLORA OF THE

BIBLE

Helps for Translators Series Technical Helps: Old Testament

Q uotations

in the New Testament

Short Bible Reference System New Testament Index The Theory and Practice of Translation Bible Index Fauna and Flora of the Bible Manuscript Preparation Marginal Notes for the Old Testament Marginal Notes for the New Testament The Practice of Translating

Handbooks: A Translator's Handbook on the Book of Joshua A Translator's Handbook on the Book of Ruth A Translator's Handbook on the Book of Amos A Translator's Handbook on the Books of Obadiah and Micah A Translator's Handbook on the Book of Jonah A Translator's Handbook on the Gospel of Mark A Translator's Handbook on the Gospel of Luke A Translator's Handbook on the Gospel of John A Translator's Handbook on the Acts of the Apostles

A Translator's Handbook on Paul's Letter to the Romans

A Translator's Handbook on Paul's First Letter to the Corinthians A Translator's Handbook on Paul's Letter to the Galatians

A Translator's Handbook on Paul's Letter to the Ephesians

A Translator's Handbook on Paul's Letter to the Philippians A Translator's Handbook on Paul's Letters to the Colossians and to Philemon

A Translator's Handbook on Paul's Letters to the Thessalonians A Translator's Handbook on the Letter to the Hebrews

A Translator's Handbook on the First Letter from Peter A Translator's Handbook on the Letters of John

Guides: A Translator's Guide to Selections from the First Five Books of the Old Testament

A Translator's Guide to Selected Psalms

A Translator's Guide to the Gospel of Matthew A Translator's Guide to the Gospel of Mark A Translator's Guide to the Gospel of Luke A Translator's Guide to Paul's First Letter to the Corinthians A Translator's Guide to Paul's Second Letter to the Corinthians A Translator's Guide to Paul's Letters to Timothy and to Titus

A Translator's Guide to the Letters to James, Peter, and Jude A Translator's Guide to the Revelation to John

HELPS FOR TRANSLATORS

FAUNA AND FLORA OF THE

BIBLE

Prepared in cooperation with the Committee on Translations

of the United Bible Societies

Second Edition

UNITED BmLE SOCIETIES London, New York, Stuttgart

©1972, 1980 by the United Bible Societies

All Rights Reserved No part of this book may be translated or reproduced in any

form without the Societies.

w r itten

permission of the United Bible

Printed in the United States of America

Books in the series of

Helps for Translators

may be ordered

from a national Bible Society or from either of the following

centers:

United Bible Societies

United Bible Societies

European Production Fund

1865 Broadway

D-7000 Stuttgart 80

New York, NY 10023

Postfach 81 03 40 West Germany

U.S. A.

L. C. Catalog Card Number: 81-452237 ISBN 0-8267-0021-7

ABS-1988-500-4000-CM-4-08513

Contents

vii

Introduction Introduction t o the S econ d Edition Abbreviations •

.

•

•

•

•

•

XV

•

System of Transliteration from Hebrew

Fauna

of

the

Bible

.

fr om Greek

System of Transliteration

xiii

.

.

xvii xvii

1

.

R7

Flora of the Bible Bibliography

199

Index of English and Latin T e rm s

203

Index of Greek Terms I ndex of Terms

.

.

.

from Other

.

.

.

.

208

.

209

Languages

210

Index of Hebrew and Aramaic Terms Index of Bible References

[ v]

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

215

Introduction For the Bible translator perhaps no aspect of his work is more com­ plex, confusing, and time-consuming than the problems encountered in attempting to render satisfactorily the terms for different plants and animals of the Scriptures. Though there are a number of books which have been published concerning the fauna and flora of the Bible, most of these prove to be of relatively little help to the translato r . In some instances these books simply contain too much information, and extracting what is specifically applicable to the translator's problems proves to be enormously difficult. Some treatments, es­ pecially those which are highly technical, deal so much with differ­ ences of scholarly viewpoints that the translator is often more confused than helped. In other instances no attempt is made to deal with some of the so-called "marginal" difficulties, for example, the use of such terms in figurative expressions--precisely the area in which the translator often encounters his most severe complications. In addition, many treatments of Biblical fauna and flora have inade­ quate illustrations, so that those who are participating in the trans­ lation program are not able to "picture" what the plant or animal would look like and therefore find it difficult to suggest a local equiv­ alent. In order to help translators deal with certain aspects of their problems of finding satisfactory equivalents, this special volume on the fauna and flora of the Bible has been prepared. As may be re adily noted from the system employed in dealing with the various terms, the names of animals and plants are listed alphabetically in English, normally based on the Revised Standard Version of the corresponding Hebrew and/or Greek terms. The suggested inter­ pretations or renderings are not, however, restricted to the equiv­ alents emplo yed as headings. Note, for example, the wide variety of usage under the term for owl. .

Immediately following the general term is the scientific designa­

tton, or designation s if two or more possible interpretations of a Hebrew o r Greek term are involved, e. g. the treatment of chameleon,

[ vii ]

a suggested translation of a Hebrew term which may also refer to a barn owl. Wherever possible or relevant, both the genus and the species of plants and animals are given, but often only the genus is mentioned, since there may be no way of knowing precisely which spe­ cies is involved. Furthermore, in many instances Hebrew and Greek terms designate classes of animals and plants rather than being names for particular species. The third type of information is the corresponding Hebrew and/ or Greek terms. In some instances there are a considerable number of words, as in the case of Hebrew terms for "goat, " and wherever pos­ sible or relevant, an attempt is made to distingui s h the various mean­ ings involved. Far more important than even the scientific nomenclature or the detailed listing of Greek and Hebrew equivalents is the next section under each term in which ( 1) the animal or plant is described, (2) any special peculiarities are listed (especially those which mi gh t be relevant in determining the meaning or usage of the Hebrew and Greek terms), (3) problems of identification are discussed (including the citing of scholarly evidence), and (4) features of appearance and be­ havior, helpful in explaining Biblical treatments (especially in figura ­ tive usage), are dealt with. In a number of cases there are also brief discussions of some critical problems, especially those involving historical evidence, for example, in the treatment of camel. This descriptive section is especially important to the translator and really constitutes the justification for this volume. For some terms there are unusually complex problems. For ex­ ample, in attempting to render behemoth (an English borrowing from Hebrew), it is suggested that in many contexts it would appear that hippopotamus would probably be t he most satisfactory equivalent. On the other hand, in Job 40.15 such a translation would be quite ridicu­ lous, for though most of the description which occurs in the following three verses may be said to fit the hippopotamus relatively well, the idea that his "tail becomes stiff like a cedar ' is simply not appropri­ ate, for the hippopotamus has a ridiculously small tail. Some persons have suggested that perh a p s the crocodile would be a more logical equivalent, and this is what the New E nglish Bible has used, but only by altering rather radically some of the syntactic structures, so

that the crocodile "devours cattle as if they were grass" rather than "eating grass like an ox. " This is, of course, only one of many dif­ ficulties which this volume considers. The final section under each heading consists of a list of refer­ ences, which are exhaustive if the term or terms are relatively in­ frequent; but if the occurrences are numerous the reader is referred to a concordance. Insofar as possible this book on fauna and flora tries to antici­ pate the major problems which Bible translators face, but quite natu­ rally not all the difficulties can be handled. Under sycamore, for example, it is clearly stated that this refers to a tree which belongs to the fig family (of which the mulberry is also a member). It does not state that the sycamore tree known generally in Europe and America, and which is such an appreciated shade tree, is in no way related to the Biblical sycamore. Furthermore, no attempt is made to resolve the many special problems which arise in individual con­ texts. For example, in speaking of the vine in John 15, one must at­ tempt to find some corresponding plant which is pruned in order to bear more fruit. In many parts of the world there is simply no vine -like plant which is so treated. It should also be quite under­ standable that this book makes no attempt to deal systematically with all the problems of Biblical symbolism. For example, in speaking of gathering "figs from thistles" (or thornbushes), the specific identification of the fruit fig is not so important as the fact of getting delicious fruit from a troublesome bush which is never known to produce fruit of any kind. On the other hand, in Luke 13 .7 the parable of digging around and fertilizing a fig tree so that it may have at least one more chance to produce fruit, may be regarded as being symbolically significant. At least for some exegetes this ref­ erence to the fig tree is an allusion to Israel. Problems such as these are treated in the various Translators Handbooks published by the United Bible Societies and really cannot be handled in detail in a volume such as this one, which is designed to provide general background information rather than specific solutions to particular problems. The actual answers which translators may arrive at may differ quite widely. In some instances one may be able to employ a term

[

ix

J

for a related species. Owls, for example, are almost worldwide, and though the specific owl existing in Bible times may not occur in the region of the receptor language, one can always choose the local term for an owl which is more or less of the same size and behavior habits. On the other hand, one may often have to employ a term for something belonging to quite a different species, but having some of the same essential features. For example, "cedar" in the Scrip­ tures refers to a wood which was aromatic and greatly valued for construction. (In reality, the English term cedar is often, in current usage, applied to wood which is produced by cypresses, junipers, and even certain tropical trees completely unrelated to cedars.) Ac­ cordingly, many translators have employed a term which designates this type of prized timber (and the corresponding trees) rather than attempt to borrow a word such as cedar, which would not have mean­ ing to the people. Another solution may be a general descriptive equivalent. For example, in place of "behemoth" one may use a term such as "huge animal. " Similarly, in talking about "wolves in sheep's clothing," some translators have used "fierce animals looking like tame ani­ mals." On the other hand, for this type of idiomatic saying, some languages already possess a well-established equivalent, e. g. "leop­ ards looking like goats. " In some instances translators have avoided the problems of a specific term by reproducing only one of the relevant components of such a term. In Exodus 16.31, manna is likened to "coriander seed. " It does not help the reader much to have one unknown sub­ stance, such as manna, likened to another unknown substance such as coriander seed. Hence, some translators have simply used a phrase such as "like small seed. " As already indicated, there is one more solution, namely, bor­ rowing; and for a number of animals and plants of the Bible this is seemingly the only satisfactory solution. For example, most trans­ lators simply borrow a term such as camel, adapting it generally to the form of the word as used in the dominant language (often a trade or national language) of the area. Whenever such "zero" words r

x

1

are i ntroduced into a text, there should be some marginal help, usu­ ally in a glossary. Which of the various solutions a translator may feel is warranted

in a particular instance will depend upon several factors.

For one

thi ng, he must carefully consider the existing tradition in translating, that is, the practice of other translations of the Scriptures into this receptor language. Of course, if the Bible is being translated into a language for the first time, one is in a sense freer to experiment, but only up to a point, for in all such instances there is normally

some relatively well-established tradition in the dominant trade or national language of the area, and more often than not any "new Ian­ guage" must conform to the patterns which have already been accepted as theologically valid. Another factor influencing the type of solution which a translator employs is the degree of cultural proximity to the Biblical life and

times. For example, a translator in East Africa can often approxi­ mate the fauna and flora of the Scriptures quite closely, for there

are so many animals and plants which are alike and so many cultural attitudes toward these which are similar. One must, however, also reckon with the factor of degree of cultural i nsecurity possessed by the people speaking a particular re­ ceptor language.

If such people are quite insecure, they are often

likely to demand very close adherence to the literal forms of the Biblical expressions and terms. They frequently prefer to have bor­ rowed words which they do not understand rather than venture to employ terms which may designate related, but not exact, equiv­ alents. Anything less than what is "technically correct" may be

interpreted by such persons as being a case of paternalism.

In cases in which the speakers of a receptor language are very

sophisticated in their knowledge of the world and the differences

which exist, one can also employ quite technical equivalents, but

what may seem perfectly understandable to educated people may be utterly unintelligible to the masses. One must, therefore, always proceed with caution in using highly specialized vocabulary. At the same time, what one places in the text of a translation will depend i n very large measure on what one is prepared to place

[

xi

]

in the footnotes or in the g l ossary . The Bible Societ ies generally

pub l ication of S criptu re s w ithout ade quate marginal helps They, therefore, want to encourage the in­ troduction of m a r gina l helps dealing with historical backgrounds and cul tu ral differences which may be essential for a satisfac to ry under­ standing of the text. A glossary of some two hundred words is usu­ ally a necessit y and an average of between one and two marginal notes per page is usually re qu i re d if people are to c om pr ehend the setting in which the Biblical events took place and if th ey are to appre­ ciate the c ul tural differences which contribu te so much to the meaning of the message. regard t he

as a serious deficiency .

The United Bible Societies are much indebted to

K. E. Jordt J ¢rgensen

the Rev. Dr.

for the basic research which went into the

paration of this volume.

pre­

Moreover, the Danish Bible Society is to

be e special l y thanked for its wholehearted support of

this

program

during the several years in which it was being carried out. Speci a l thanks is a lso due to the Rev. Clifford Culshaw for

h is

careful edit­

t he section on flora. It has been especially useful to have in the p r epar a tion of this volume the c oll abor ation of the artists who h ave prepared the excellent illustrative drawings: Mr. G. W. Smith for the section on fauna and Mrs. U. Lo l l e s gaard for the section on flora. Thanks are due to Mrs . J. Sheffiel d and especially to Miss E d yth Banks for prepa ring the f i n a l form of the ing and verification of

manuscr ipt.

Even though

this

volume

cannot be expected to provide automatic

answers to all the problems of fauna and flora which

the Bible trans­ l ate r fa c es , nevertheless, it shou l d go a long way in providing the indispensable b a ck gr ou nd information on the basis of w hi ch intelligent decision s can be made.

INTRODUCTION TO THE SECOND EDITION A number of translators and scholars have indicated

the

need for other indexes in addition to the Index of English and

Latin Tenns that was included in the first edition of this work. Therefore this second edition includes indexes of Greek, He­ brew, and Aramaic terms, of terms in certain other languages, and of Bible references.

We are much indebted to the following people who have con­ tributed to the compilation of these indexes: Rene-Peter Con­ tesse, Harold W. Fehderau, and H.W. HollanJer. Thanks are due to Paul C. Clarke, Gloria Horowitz, �rrol F. Rhode s , and Doro­ thy Ridgway for their part in editing and preparing the final form of the indexes.

Abbreviations BOOKS OF THE BIBLE Although not all of the 66 books of the Bible are referred to in this work, we list them in order here with their abbreviations: Gn

Genesis

Na

Nahum

Ex

Exodus

Hbk

Habakkuk

Lv

Leviticus

Zeph

Zephaniah

Nu

Numbers

Hg

Haggai

Dt

Deuteronomy

Zech

Zechariah

Jos

Joshua

Mal

Malachi

Jg

Judges

Mt

Matthew

Ru

Ruth

Mk

Mark

1 s

1 Samuel

1 K

1 Ch

1 Chronicles

2s

2K

Luke

2 Samuel

Jn

John

1 Kings

Ac

Acts

2Kings

Ro

1 Co

2 Co

2 Chronicles

2 Ch

Romans

1 Corinthians

2 Corinthians

Ezra*

Ga

Galatians

Ne

Nehemiah

Eph

Ephesians

Es

Esther

Php

Philippians

Ps

Job*

Col

Psalms

1 Th

Pr

Proverbs

Ec

Ecclesiastes

ss

Song of Solomon

Is

Isaiah

Je

Jeremiah

La

2Th

Colossians

1 Thessalonians

2Thessalonians

1 Ti

1 Timothy

2 Ti

2 Timothy

Phm

Philemon

Titus*

Lamentations

He

Hebrews

Ezk

Ezekiel

Jas

James

Dn

Daniel

Ho

Hosea

1 p

2P

Joel*

Am

*To

Lk

Obadiah

Jon

Jonah

Mi

Micah

2 Peter

1 Jn

1 John

3 Jn

3 John

2 Jn

Amos

Ob

1 Peter

Rv

2 John

Jude*

Revelation

avol"d possible confusion with other books and because these books are not frequently re fe r red to and the nam es are short, these are not abbreviated. ·

f

XV

1

OTHER ABBREVIATIONS

AG

AV

BOB BHH HOB ID

JB KB

Arnd t-G in grich Lex ic on*

Authorized (King james) Version of the Bible Brown-Driver-Briggs Lexicon•

Biblisch- Historische s Handworterbuch * Hastings Dictionary of the Bible*

Interpreter's Dict ionary of the Bible*

Jerusalem Bible

Koehler- Baumgartner Lexicon*

LXX

The Septuagint

NT

New Testament

NEB OT

OTTP

RSV

RV

cf

em Gk

Hb

kg

New En glish Bible

Old Testament

Old Testament Translation Problems (Hulst)*

Revised Standard Version of the Bible Revised Version (British) of the Bible

compare, see also centimetre(s)

m

mg

p

Greek

He brew

kilogram(s)

metre(s) margin page

v

verse

vv

verses

*For further information on these works, sec the Bibliog­

raphy, pages 199-201.

r xvi]

System of Transliteration from Hebrew ?

n

b

t:)

bh g gh

9

p

t.

�,

E)

ph

y

.... ,

�

ts

k

p

kh

q

i

r

7

1

tv

s

.,

;:,

1, :J

d

h.

dh

o,

7.)

m

w

sh

h

1, )

n

.t=l

t

w

D

s .

n

th

z

v

System of Transliteration from Greek a

L

i

b

}{.

k

9

A.

d

p

r

C1

s

1

"'["

t

).1

m

u

u'

e

'V

n

(j)

ph

z

E

X

X

ch

�I

e

0

0

4J

ps

th

Tt

p

w

0

[ xvii]

y

Fauna of the Bible Ant

Messor semirufus

Hebrew: nemalah DE SCRIPTION: The ant in question is the harvester ant, Messor semirufus, which is to be found everywhere in Palestine. It stores grain within its nests, and is therefore used as an illustration of industry, but it also causes much damage to farmers. REFERENCES:

Pr 6.6; 30.25

Ants

(Messor semirujw) [ I ]

Antelope Hebrew:

An ti l ope addax, O r yx leucoryx dish o n

DESCRIPTION:

TI1 e clean and unclean an i m a ls contained in the ca t­

a l o gu es of Lv and Dt are usually very difficult to identify.

true of the Hb dish on.

AV follows

LXX a nd renders it

'p

This is

ygarg ',

which litera l l y means a wh ite rump and is the Gk name of a kind of a nte lope .

Because of this Gk name,

it seems reasonable to connect

the animal in question with the An til ope a ddax, a native of North

Afric a , which h a s greyish-white hi nde r parts, a white patch on the

foreh ea d a nd twisted and ringed horns.

Antelope (Antilope addax) r ? 1

Antelope (Oryx leucoryx)

RSV tran slate s 'ibex ' , but according to Bodenh eimer this i s a m i sta ke . He i s incl ined to i denti fy the di shon with the Arabian o ryx, Oryx leuco ryx, the biggest a ntelope o f Iraq, which inhabits the des­ erts o f Arabia and great parts o f Afr ic a a nd has characte r istic long ho rns stretc h i ng s tra i ght bac kward s . Bode nhe ime r a rgues from the similarity between the Hb word d ishon and the Akkadian da - a s -su, which is the Arabi a n o ryx . JB has 'ant elope ' and NEB have 'a ntelop e ' for te?o in Dt

'white - rumped deer ' . RSV and NEB 14.5 and Is 51.20. See IBEX.

REFERENCE:

Dt 14.5

[ 3 ]

Ape

simire

Hebrew: qoph, tukki D ESCRIPTION: Apes are mentioned only once in the Old Testament and without definite description, so that a specification is mere guessing. Apes were listed among the goods imported by the luxury­ loving King Solomon on board his mighty mercantile fleet. Boden­ heimer points out that the reference in the same verse to 'ivory' makes East Africa most probable as the exporting area, so that the old translation of tukkiyim as 'peacocks' is most unlikely. He fol­ lows Albright, who identifies the Hb tukki with an Egyptian word ky meaning a species of ape, just as qoph is to be identified with the

Egyptian � another kind of monkey. For the RSV translation, see OTTP, p 38. JB has 'apes and baboons', NEB 'apes and monkeys'.

Feliks in BHH points out that in Ancient Egypt, as in Palestine at the time of the Mishna, guenons (long-tailed monkeys, Cerco­ pithecus pyrrhonotus) and baboons ( Papiobabuin) were kept as domes­ tic animals. An old Egyptian picture shows a man carrying ivory and a lion hide, with a baboon on a leash. The picture is part of a larger illustration representing tribute being paid to Pharoah from the Southern countries. R EF ERENCES: 1 K 10.22; 2 Ch 9.21

Arrowsnake Hebrew:

Otus scops ( ?) Eryx jaculus (?)

qippoz

DESCRIPTION: Many commentators now translate this Hb word 'arrowsnake' (so RV). The arrowsnake is a serpent which is able to coil itself back and dart forward quickly like an arrow, or to leap from a tree. The translation 'arrowsnake' has a long tradition and is linked with the Aramaic root qaphaz, 'to leap, spring'. ID finds it advisable to translate 'owl' like AV and RSV follow. , Ing the sugge stion made by Houghton, quoted in BDB under qippoz, that 'the ar rows nake does not incubate' (the word baqe'ah used in r

A

1

ans 'to hatch'), but whether Isaiah is to be credited with Is 34.15 me such accurate knowledge of natural history is questionable. JB has 'v i p er ' .

Driver in HOB suggests that qippoz may be a variety of the s a nd

partridge Caccabis s inaica (so NEB).

REFERENCE:

Ass

Is 34.15

WBd Ass

Equus asinus

Equus hemionus

Hebrew: l). amor , 'ayir (male ass), ?athon (she-ass) pere? (wild ass), 'arodh, 'aradh (Aramaic for wild ass)

Greek: on os ,

onarion

iUij)'Ozugion

(little donkey),

polos (colt or ass's foal),

(beast of burden, ass)

DESCRIPTION: The European ass of today cannot that of the Orient. The domestic as ses of Europe

be compared with are usually small,

stubborn and malicious animals, often cons id ered s tu p i d. In the East the ass de ve l ops into a beautiful, stately and lively animal.

The colour of the

ass in the Middle East

is

usua lly reddish

brown , which must also ha ve been its colour in Biblical times , as indicated by the Hb wo rd l;lamor, derived from the root meaning 'to be r e d ' . An a llus ion to the colour may be found als o in Jg 5.10, ' you who ride on tawny ass es ' , translating tsabor as 'tawny' (RSV and NEB.

AV and JB have 'white').

The s to ry of Salaam (Nm 22) s erves as an illustration of the s as 's character. The ass s ees the angel of the Lord, whom Salaam does not see, and halts each time. Salaam in his bl in d ness beats his animal and rebukes it. Finally the as s begins to talk and says (v 30): I "A m I

to

not your ass, up on

thi s day?

"No".'

which you have ridden all your life long

W a s I ever accusto med to do so to you?" And he s aid, This is not a description of a foolish or stubborn animal.

The ass was us ed as a mount from early times. Until the days of King Solomon the hors e was not used in Palestine. Bu t from that t i me

[ 5]

Wild

ass

(Equus hemionus)

on it was ridden by the warrio r , wher e a s th e a s s was u s e d by tho s e who were travelling pea c e fully, l ike the king of peac e (Zech 9 . 9) and Jesus entering Je rus alem ( Mt 21). The ass was al so the I s rael ite ' s bea s t of burden, and its frugal ity a nd staying power made it m o re u s e ful in that country than the horse or even the camel . After the return of the people from Babylonia we find that the s tatement o f sto c k number s ten tim es a s m a ny a s s e s as ho r s e s and c amels ( Ez ra 2 . 6 6-67; Ne 7 . 6 8 69) . ' Ox a nd a s s ' is an almo s t proverbial exp re s s ion for the dom e s tic anima l s at the tim e of Je sus (Lk 13 . 15; cf Lk 14.5). -

Th e a s s was also u s ed as a wo rking a ni m al , e. g. in grinding mill s . The word ' m illstone ' u s e d in Mt 1 8 . 6 a nd Mk 9 . 4 2 l iterally means 'a m ill stone worked by donkey powe r ' ( m ulo s oniko s ) . REFE R E NC ES : }J.am or : Cons ult a concordanc e ' ayir: G n 3 2 . 15; 4 9 . 11; Jg 10. 4 ; 12 . 14; Job ll . 12; Is 30.6, 2 4 ; Zech 9 . 9 [ 6]

?athon : Con sult a conco rdance pere?: Gn 16.12; Job 6.5; ll . l2; 24.5; 39.5; Ps l04.ll ; Is 32.14; Je 2.24; 14.6; Ho 8.9 'aro dh : Job 39.5 ' a ra dh : On 5.21 ono s: Mt 21.2, 5, 7 ; Lk 13.15; 14.5 (som e MSS ) ; Jn 12.15

o na r ion: Jn 12.14 palos : Mt 21.2, 5, 7; Mk 11.2, 4, 5, 7; Lk 19.30, 33, 35; J n 12.15 hupozugion: Mt 21.5; 2 P 2.16 OIFFICUL T PASSAGES: Jo b 11.12:

It s eems evident that this ver s e proverbial saying (Weis e r ): No o n e c a n expec t wis do m from a stupid man , any more than a wild a s s c an be expected to become a man. The Hb word pere? is tran s la ted 'zebra ' by Wei s e r (follow­ ingKB). JB h a s 'a young wild donkey grows ta me ' . is a

Undoubtedly the parallel i s m of Zech 9.9, ' riding o n a n a s s , on a colt, the foa l o f an a s s ' , h a s bec o m e the rea son why Jes u s , acc o r d­ ing to Mt 21.2, a s k s for an a s s and a c o l t, although he ne e d s only one moun t. He wishes to poin t out that he is now b r i n ging about the fulfilm ent of that old and ch eri shed prophecy. Not th at J e s u s m eant that Zec h a riah was talking about two s eparate a nimals ; h e wanted rather to show tha t th e literal agreement between h i s own c ommand an d the poetical fo rm of the prophet ' s wo rds w ould prove that no mere coinc idenc e but God h im s elf wa s directi ng the steps of th e Me s siah . The d iffi c u lty of the double au ton i n v 7, 'they put their c lothes on them , and he s a t on them ' , h a s made s o m e co m m entato rs ex plai n that Jesus wa s rid ing on each animal in turn. On thi s s ee Zahn, who reads auton ins tead of the firs t auton: ' they put the i r c l othe s on i t (the a nimal ) and he sat on th em (t he c lo th e s )'.

Bat

C h i ropt era

He bre w:

'atal l eph

DESCRIPTION: In th e Law of Moses the bat i s listed a mong the un­ cl ean birds ; but it b e l o n gs to the m a m m al s . It i s a quadruped whic h

[ 7 ]

Bat

(Chiroptera)

suckles its young. The 'wings ' are membranes connecting the fore and hind legs. The Hb name is used in general for all the many s pecies of bats in the area.

Modern zoologis ts have counted some twenty different

species in Palestine alone. There do es not s eem to be any doubt about the identification in view of the allusion to the creature's

haunts in Is 2.20:

on the day of the Lo rd the ido ls w ill be cas t forth

to the bats, i.e. into ruins and caves.

REFERENCES:

Bear

Lv

11.19; Dt 14.18;

Is 2.20

Ursus s yriacus

Hebrew:

dobh

DESCRIPTION:

Greek:

arko s

The Syrian bear which to day may be found in the

mountains of Lebanon and Anti-Lebanon is bro wn in colour and may reach a length of two metres and a weight of up to

[ 8 ]

250

kilos .

Its

fo o d cons ists of vegetables, roots, gras s, berries, fruits, nuts, ho ney and ants. In cas e s of emergency it als o feeds on game, o xen,

sh ee p or ho rses . The bear may be dangerous to man if provoked or 'robbed of her cubs' (2 S 17.8). The bear and the lion are often mentioned to gether in the Bible

(e. g. I S 1 7.37)

as they are the two larges t and s tro ngest beasts of

prey. Th ey may thus symbolize s trength and terro r (e. g. Am 5.19). Isaiah uses the growl of the bear to illustrate the impatience of the

Jews :

'We

all growl like bears'

(59.11).

The paws of the bear s o me­

times s erve as a dangerous weapon; this furnishes a clue to the inner meaning of the vision in Rv 13.2. REFERENCES:

do bh: arko s:

Co ns ult a concordance Rv

13.2

Bear (Ursus syriacus) [ 9 ]

Bees (A pis fasciata)

Bee

Apis

fa s ciata

Hebrew : debho rah DESCRIPTION: Th e way in wh ich the Bible compares bee s with a n army cha s ing and surro unding m a n s u gge s ts the s pecies s till com­ mon i n Palestine, Apis fasciata, which is very inclined to s ting.

The honey of wil d bee s is often referred to (e. g. Mk 1.6), but there is no indica tio n in the Bible of bee- keeping (known i n Egypt from 2400 BC) , except perhaps in Is 7 .18, w h e re the reference to hi s s ing (AV) or w h i s tl i n g (RSV, JB, NE B) fo r bee s may sugges t that

Hornet (Vespa orientalis)

r 10 1

a bee f a rmer could cause bees to swarm by this procedure (so

Brockington in HOB).

Wild be es lived in rocks and woods.

The word debhash may not only s ig n ify bee honey, b ut also the

honey or syrup extracted from such fruits as fi gs, dates and g r a pe s . 'A land flowi ng with mil k and hon ey ' (Ex 3. 8) thus does not stand for

a la nd of bees,

but a land rich in fruit.

REFE R E NC E S : Dt 1.44; Jg 14.8; Ps 118.12; Is 7.18 DIFFIC U L T PASSAGE: 1 S 14.26: Instead of helek debhash 'the fl ow ing of honey ' , some read halak debhorim 'its bees ha d fl ow n aw ay ', cf JB 'the swa rm had gone'.

Behemoth Hebrew:

perhaps Hippopo tamu s amphibius

behemoth

D E S C R IPTION : The head of the h ippopo tam us is almost quadran­ gular; its h igh ly developed s ense - or ga ns are placed in su ch a wa y tha t the an ima l ca n see, hear and smell a l most without bei n g seen, because its eyes, ears and nostrils c a n reach above the wa ter

while the rest of the a n i m a l l ies submerg ed in the river. Its mouth is enormous, with tu s ks re ach in g a length of 70 em, and i ts throat is short and heavy. The legs are un usual l y strong and s ho r t,

its

so that

belly a lmost reaches to the ground when the animal is on land.

The

this

h ippopo tamu s

spends most of its time in

the water where

appa re n tl y clumsy a nimal moves with great agility.

It lives on the g r ass and he rbs that grow in the rive r, and if it do e s not find e no ugh food there it comes on la nd. In spite of its

heavy body the h ippopo tamu s is a lso quite a gile on land, even on s teep and high banks. It usually come s ashore at n ight, but in d ay ­ light nobody can avoid notici n g where it has been, as it tr amp l es everyth ing in its path. Lotus plants a nd oth er herbage along the river Nile are consumed in large qu a nt it i es by hippopotami.

[ 11 ]

REFERENCES:

Lv 11.2; Job 40.15; Ps 73.22; Is 30.6 etc . Consult a concordance

PASSAGES: Job 40.15: behemo th is origi na l ly the plu­ ral of behema h ' wild bea s t ' , a nd in this pas sage probably shoul d be trans lated a ccord ingly. DIFFICULT

One reason fo r rendering the Hb wor d ' hippopotamus ' , as many modern tra ns lator s do, i s that th e Hb may be d eriv e d from an Egyp­ t ian word p-ih-mw which i s s u ppo s ed to mean ' the o x of the wa te r ' . But the e xis ten ce of th is Egyptian word i s pro bl ematica l. Fur ther, there are two difficulties in c onnec tio n w ith the deta iled description of the a nima l i n Job 40. One is v 17, 'He makes his ta il s tiff l ike a cedar', which d oe s not apply to the ridic ulo us ly s h ort ta il of a hippo­ pot amu s . Also , the m ention of the s inews a nd bone s of the a nimal in v 17f is not appropriate , as the very th ic k hide of the hippopotamus makes it impo s sible t o discern what i s be nea th. It is therefore advi s able to trans late Job 40.15 'wild bea s t'. NEB h as 'crocodile'. Lv 11. 2, Ps 73 . 22 and Is 30.6 etc . should be tra ns­ lated ' beast s '.

Birds of prey Hebrew:

'a yi�

DESCRIPTION: The Hb wor d may be der ived from a roo t which means 'to sc ream' or ' to shriek'. In ge neral it may be said th at specificati on of the birds o� prey me ntio ne d in the Bible is diffi ­ c ult. Proba bly th e authors of the Old Tes tament did no t always distinguish betwee n them, though in c a s es whe n som e k ind of desc riptio n is to be fou nd, it may be po s sible to do so. See VUL­ TIJRE.

Boden h ei mer has l isted th irty-th ree spec ie s of birds of prey which h a ve bee n found mum mifi ed in Egypt. REFERENCES: Gn 1 5.11; Job 28. 7; Is 18.6; 46.11; Je 12.9;

[ 12 ]

Ezk

39.4

Camel

Camel Hebrew:

Camelus dromedarius

gamal , belcher and bikherah ( youn g camel);

plural: Greek:

(Camelus dromedarius)

kirkaroth

kamelos

DESCRIPTION:

The camel belongs to the ruminants but has no clo­ ven hoof. The feet have cushion-like soles enveloped in ha r den e d skin. On Shalmaneser' s obelisk ( now in the British Museum in London ) one may see a portrait of the two-humped camel ( C amelus �ctrianus) wh i c h is bigge r , heavier and slower than the one­ humped (C. dr m darius).

o e

[ 13 ]

The c amel h a s been c alled 'the ship of the de s ert', and it is true that this animal is by nature adapted for life in des ert regions. This is not only bec aus e of its feet, but also becau s e of its s tomach which hol ds water cells and may s e rve a s a re s e rvoir la sting s ev­ eral days . The hump with its reserve store of fat also make s it po s sible for the animal to subs i s t on very littl e food during a de s ert journey. The original hom e of the camel wa s among the e astern ne igh­ bours of Pale s tine, the Midianites, the Amalekite s and 'all the peo­ ple of the Ea st' (Jg 7 .12 ). A well-fed bea s t of burden c an carry up t o 250 kg. This make s the de scr iption of the glory of the Je rus alem to come the more impre s sive ( Is 60. 6) and is an ind icat ion of the wealth of Abraham (Gn 24. 10) . C a m el ha ir was u s ed for tents and s o m etime s fo r c lothes ( Mk 1. 6) . REFERENCES: gamal: Consult a concordanc e bekh e r: Is 60. 6 bikherah: Je 2. 23 kirkaroth: Is 66. 2 0 (RSV, JB, NEB: 'dromeda ries') kam elo s : M t 3 . 4; 1 9 . 24; 23 . 24; Mk 1 . 6; 10 . 25 ; L k 18. 25 DIFFICULT PASSAG ES: Mt 19 . 2 4 (and parallel s ) , a proverbial say­ ing which compares one o f th e large st animal s , the c a mel, with one of the small est openings , the eye of a needle , in o rder to underline how difficult, not to say impo s s ible , it is for man to break away fro m earthly goods. A sim ilar pa radox is u s ed by Je sus in his warn­ ing against the Pha r i s ee s who 'strain out a gnat and swal low a camel' ( Mt 23. 24). The gnat is one of th e s mallest ins ects, and Je sus is alluding to the habit of filtering wine before drinking. Gn 12 . 16 says that fo r Sarah's sake Abraham wa s given ca mel s b y Ph aroah. But Dalman and Pro c ksch comment that c amel s were not to be found in Egypt at that time ( s e e a l s o Ex 9 .3 ) , but only much la ter, at the time of the Pe r sian war s . Either the autho r of this chapter is mis taken, or Pharoah m u s t have i m ported his gift . (Bodenh eimer s tates th at the camel is an anachronism in the patriarchal s tories . )

r

14 1

Chameleon ( Chamceleo vulgaris)

Chameleon

Chamc:eleo vulgaris

Bam Owl Tyto alba

Hebrew: tinshemeth

DESC R IPTION: We deal with these two in the s a m e artic le, because th ey repr e s e nt two different trans latio n s of the sa m e Hb word. In Lv 11.30 AV and Luth er translate tinshemeth 'mole ' . In our time s cholars are m o r e inc lin ed to consider it to be th e chameleon (so RSV and NEB. JB tran sl iterate s 'tin sham eth '). The reason is,

in the firs t place, that it is l i s ted a m o ng the reptile s , a nd the

chame leon belongs to the s a m e order a s the l izards . In the secon d place, the Hb nam e i s derived fro m a verb nasham 'to pant'. The lungs of a lizard are very large , and Pl iny's Natural Hi s to ry (8, 51) Proves tha t in anc ient ti mes l izards were believed to live on air.

One .peculiarity of the cl-tameleon is its power to c h ange colour a c cording to its surro u n d ing s . Its eyes m o ve independently of ea ch other, and it may a t the same time turn one eye upward s and the other downwards, In Palestine the cham e l eon lives in trees and bushes, clinging to the branches with its long tail.

[ 15 ]

JB trans l ate s l;10met a s 'chameleon'.

See LIZARD.

Lv 11.18 and Dt 14.16 deal with a bird. AV follows Vulgate in ren­ dering ' s wan'. Today zoologists s uggest Athene noctua, the little owl (so NEB), or Tyto alba, the barn owl, the breathing of which sounds like s no rting and thus gives an explanation of the Hb name.

RSV has ' water hen', JB 'ibis'.

REFERENCES: Lv 11.18, 3 0; Dt 14.16

Cock

Cock, Hen, Chicken

(Gallus domesticus)

Gallu s domesticus

Hebrew: s ekhwi, zarzir Greek: alektor (cock, rooster), ornis (hen), nos sia (brood of chicken s), nos sion (chicken) DESCRIPTION: Poultry farming originated in India, whence it spread to Babylon, Egypt, Greece and Palestine .

[ 16 ]

According to the T almud (Strack-Billerbeck I,

992) , t he Jew s were

forbi dden to have poultry in Je ru salem, becau se insect s and larv
Palest ine, however, portray a rooster and make it certain that this fowl wa s found in Biblical land s in the fir st millennium BC. The beautiful illu stration u sed by Jesus

brood under her wing s (Mt

of a hen gathering he r

23 . 37; Lk 1 3 . 34) indicate s that the domes­

tic hen wa s kept at least in some place s in Jerusalem at that time. The cock' s habit of crowing during the n ight made it a sign of the time, so that the third of the four Roman night-watches

3

a m. .

)

was named 'cock-crow' (Mk

(1 2 to

13 . 3 5 ) .

REFERENCES: sekhwi: Job 3 8 . 3 6 zarzir: Pr 3 0. 3 1 alektor: Mt 26 . 3 4 , 74 , 75; M k 1 4 . 3 0 , 6 8 , 72; Lk 2 2 . 34 , 60, 61 ; Jn 1 3 . 3 8 ; 18 . 27 _ nossia: Lk 1 3 . 3 4 no ssion: Mt 23 . 27 DIFFICULT PASSAGES: Job 3 8 . 3 6 : sekhwi i s doubtful.

in

JB

The significance of the word

There i s a tradition for translating it 'cock' as

(Vulgate and one of the Targums).

It may be derived from a

root meaning 'to look out, watch, hope for', becau se the habit of

ann oun c ing the coming of the day wa s attributed to the cock. Other s tr ansl ate 'appearance', which in thi s connection would mean north­

ern

lights, shooting stars etc., viewed a s indications of the weather. RSV 'mist s', NEB ' secrecy'. See al so OTTP, p 8 9 .

Pr 30 .31: The word zarzir mean s 'one who is girt around the loi ns'. Some tran slator s have 'cock' (ZUrich Bible, JB, RSV and

NEB),

be

following

LXX, Syriac and the Targum, and some take it to

anothe r animal, e. g. a greyhound or war horse.

Probably corrupt (a s suggested b y Kautz sch).

[ 17 ]

The text i s

Cormorant

Cormorant Heb r ew :

(Phalacrocorax)

Ph al ac roco rax

s h a l akh

D E S C R I PTION :

The c o r m o r a n t frequents swa mps a round th e S ea

Gal i l e e , La k e Huleh and th e M e d i t e r r a n e a n c o a s t , wh e r e it bu i l d s n e s t i n h igh tree s , u s ually i n l a rge c o l o n i e s . It i s a dark ­ coloured bird w it h a rath er l o n g n e c k . Un d e r th e bill i t h a s a s a c i n wh ich it k e e p s th e c aptured fi s h . Th e Hb na m e o r i gi nal l y de note s the h u r l i n g down ' of th e b i r d upo n its prey, ill u s trat i n g its ha bit o f d i v i n g i n t o d e e p wate r a n d s o m et i m e s prac tic a l l y s w i m m ing be n e a th the s u r face in i ts h W1 t fo r fi s h . 1l1 e greed o f th e co rmorant i s p ro ­ v e rbia l . It wa s c e remonially uncl ean to the J ew s . of

its

'

D r ive r in H OB c on s id e r s

' corm orant ' u n l ike ly for shalakh s in c e a l i s t o f owl s (see OWL). He s u g ge s t s the f i s h e r owl , Ketupa z e yl o n e n s i s ( s o NE B ) , a l th o u gh t h i s b ird i s no t c o m m o n i n Pa l e s ti n e . NEB fol l o w s

t h e wo rd

o c c ur s o n both o c c a s i o n s i n th e m i dd l e o f

Dr i v e r i n t ra n s l a t i n g ? a n a p hah as ' c o r m o ra nt ' .

[ 18 ]

See H E R ON .

R E F E R E NC ES :

Lv 1 1 . 1 7 ;

Dt 1 4 . 1 7

PASS A G E S : Is 3 4 . 1 1 ( RS V h a w k ' ) a n d Z eph 2 . 1 4 ( R S V •vu lture ' ) . In the s e p a s s a ge s AV h a s tra n s l a ted th e Hb qa ? ath a s ' • co rm o ra nt . Pe rhaps th e tra n slati o n p e l ic a n ( s o RV a n d JB) s h o u l d b e p r e fe r r e d . S e e PE LIC AN. NEB ha s ' horned owl ' . DI F F I C U L T

'

'

Crane

Cran e

Grus gru s

H ebr ew :

' a ghu r

'

(Grus gnts)

The c rane i s one of the l o n g - l e gged w a d i ng b i rd s . a n d legs . It breed s in No r thern E uro p e a nd As i a a n d go e s s o u th dur i n g th e win t e r . W i th a Wi n gs r ea d of 2 . 4 m , it i s th e l a r ge s t bird th a t fl i es over Pa l e s ti ne p ( Parmelee , p 1 84 ) . D ESC R IP TIO N :

It i s da rk gre y i n c o l ou r , w i t h a l o ng beak , n e c k

[ 19 ]

TI1 e d i c tiona ri e s ma inta i n th a t the m ea n i ng o f the Hb wo r d is u n c e r t a i n , a nd B O B po in ts out th a t th e c ry m a de by a c rane do e s not fi t th e conte xt o f I s 3 8 . 1 4 . S e e OTTP, p 1 6 2 . Th e o n l y c e rta i n thing t o be s a id ge s t s a m i grato ry b i r d .

i s t h a t th e c o n t e x t in Je 8 . 7 s ug­

AV sw a l l o w i s i nc o r ­ to render the H b a s ' w rynec k ' (Jynx to rguilla ) ; s e e Pa r m e l e e (an d N E B o f J e 8 . 7 ) . Th i s i s a s mall , s h y, m igra to ry b i r d , about the s iz e o f a sparrow. It h a s a m o noto no u s whi s tl ing no te wh ic h m i ght m a k e it fit Is 3 8 . 14 .

In m o d ern H b ' aghu r s ta nd s fo r ' c ra ne ' .

rec t.

'

'

So m e prefer

R E F E R E NC ES : Is 3 8 . 14 ; ]e 8 . 7 Deer

C e rvus

He brew :

e l a ph us

'7ayyal,

'7ayyalah (hi n d ), ' ophe r (young hart, stag)

DES C RIPTION: Bodenheimer enumera te s three species of the fa mily c e rvi dae, wh ich were l ivi n g in anc ient Pale stine, but have no w d i s a p ­ pea red . The last spe c i m en s w e re hunted i n 1 91 4 . The y are s till t o b e found in the northern parts of the M iddle E ast . The se are tne red dee r ( Cervus elaphus ) , the fallow deer ( Dama mesop otam ica) and the roe dee r ( Capre olus capreolus ) . Bodenhe imer is inclined to con s ider ?ayyal as a gene ral name for deer. See FA LLOW D E E R . RE FE RE NCES: ?ayyal: Dt 1 2 . 15 , 2 2; 14 . 5 ; 1 5 . 2 2; 1 K 4. 2 3 ; Ps 4 2 . 1; SS 2 . 9 , 1 7; 8.14 (NE B ' young w ild goat ' ); Is 3 5 . 6; La 1 . 6 (JB ' ram ' ) ?ayyalah: G n 4 9. 2 1 ; 2 S 2 2 . 3 4 ; Job 3 9. 1; Ps 1 8 . 3 3 ; 2 2 (title ) ; 2 9. 9 ; Pr 5 . 1 9; SS 2 . 7 ; 3 . 5 (NEB 'god ­ d e s se s ' ); ]e 14 . 5 ' opher: SS 2 . 9, 1 7 ; 4 . 5 ; 7 . 3 ; 8. 14 DIF FICU LT PASSAGES : Gn 4 9. 21: S ome understand ?ayyalah seluha h as the roe dee r . But most trans late ' a sw ift h ind ' (cf RSV ' a hind let loose ' ) , with re ference to the freedom and freque nt movement s of t he tr ibe . NE B ' a spre ad ing terebinth ' . JB translate s '7ayyalah in Ps 2 9. 9 as ' te rebinths ' , and RSV has ' oak s ' . [ 20 ]

Dog

Canis fam iliar i s

Hebr ew : kelebh

Gree k : kuon ,

kunar ion (littl e dog)

In appearanc e the dog m ent ioned in the Bible may have looked l ike a modern Al s atian, with short po i nted ears , a poi n t e d no s e and a long tai l . However, we should not th ink of Bibl i ­ cal dogs a s ' the c l o s est fr iend of ma n ' , o r a ho use dog, or a faith ­ ful companion. The dog of th e Bible i s an unclea n animal becau s e it feeds on carrio n. It i s d e sc ribed a s running wild in the village streets without a master ( Ps 5 9 . 6 ) . So the stranger arriving at the villa ge in the evening could find h im s elf s urrounded by ' a pac k o f dog s ' (Ps 2 2 . 1 6 - 21 ) . DESC R IPTION :

One quality of th e do g which was h ighly esteemed b y the Israe l ­ ites was it s watchfulne s s ( Is 5 6 . 1 0 ) . A dumb dog that c annot bark i s like a blind watchman. The word ' dog' i s u s ed figuratively, e . g. as a term o f abu s e by Goliath (1 S 17 . 4 3 ) . So too, Mephibo sheth reveals his hu mility by calling h imself 'a dead dog' (2 S 9 . 8 ) . The vorac ity of the dog, like that o f the pig, made it omnivorou s . Dogs s erved as sc avengers in the v illage street s , i n to whic h the hous ewives threw all the rubbi s h of the house . S o i t would b e n o kindne s s t o take bread from the children and give it to scavengin g dogs . It was also c usto m ary amon g Israelite s in the time o f Jesus to u s e the word a s a term of abuse for Gentiles ( Mt 1 5 . 2 6 ; Mk 7 . 27 ; and perhaps Mt 7 . 6 ) , who l ike do gs we re unclean . Kunarion, a s u s ed by Jesus , may have a m ilder tone and les s rigid meaning : some smal ler dogs might be a d m itted to the hous e and show a faith l ike that of the Canaanite w o m an in Mt 1 5 . 26. Th e word is also u sed symbolically in Php 3 . 2 t o i ndicate Jud a ­ ize rs a:rx:l in Rv 2 2 . 1 5 to refe r to unc lean pe ople in ge ne ral . In Dt 2 3 . 1 8 the word refe rs to a m ale p ro st itute .

RE F� R ENCE S:

k e l e bh: Ex 11 . 7; 2 2 . 31; Dt 23 . 1 8; Jg 7 . 5 ; 1 S 1 7 . 4 3 ; 24 . 14 ; 2 S 3 . 8 ; 9 . 8 ; 16 . 9 ; 1 K 14 .11; 1 6 . 4 ; 21 . 1 9 , 23 , 24 ; 2 2 . 3 8 ; 2 K 8 . 1 3 ; 9 . 1 0 , 3 6 ; Job 3 0 . 1 ; Ps 2 2 . 16 , 2 0; 59 . 6, 1 4 ; 68 . 23 ; Pr 2 6 . 1 1 , 1 7 ; Ec 9. 4 ; Is 5 6 . 1 0 , 11; 66. 3 ; Je 1 5 . 3

[ 21 ]

kuo n a nd kuna rion :

Mt 7 . 6 ; 1 5 . 2 6 , 2 7 ; Mk 7 . 27 , 2 8 ;

r::k" l 6 . 21 ; Php 3 . 2 ; 2 P 2 . 2 2 ; Rv 2 2 . 1 5

D I F F I C U L T PAS S A G E : Often the words o f L k 1 6 . 2 1 a r e u n d e r s too d a s a m a r k o f m e rcy sh own t o t h e poor m a n b y dogs , but n o t b y m a n . It m a y , h owev e r , be inte rpreted a s in c re a s i n g his s uffe r ings : he i s t oo weak to p r event th e to uc h o f an unc l e a n a n i m a l , wh i c h i s s c en t i n g a co r ps e . In t h at c a s e th e wo r d s alla kai s h o u l d i ndicate an in tensi f i c a ­ t i o n o f th e poo r man ' s m i s ery.

Dolphin, Dugong

Tur s iops trunc atu s , Dugo n g dugong

Hebrew : tal; a s h DESC R I PTION: Th e Red S e a dugong i s an a q u a t i c , h e r b i v o r o u s Th e male h a s t u s k - l i ke upper m a m m a l , bel o n g i n g to t h e s i rene s . inc i so r s . It i s fo und i n the Red S e a and the Gul f o f A q aba . Th e b o ttl e - no s e d dolph in ( Tu r s i o p s tr u nc a t u s ) be lo ng s to th e dolph ins (Delph in idre ) a nd i s f ou n d in th e e a s te rn Medite rran ean S ea . Different tran s lation s o f the wo rd tal; a s h have be en s u gge s te d . LXX renders it ' h ya c int h i n e ' , t h e Vu l ga te ' violet - c oloured ' , th e Ta r gu m ' c o s tl y ' . Luth er and AV have ' ba dge r ' , whi c h i s unl ikely i n the w i l der n e s s o f S i n a i , though the badger i s known i n Pal e st ine . Oth e r s ( Del itz s c h qu o t e d i n BDB a nd RS V) have ' goa t ' , wh ich i s not improbable fo r the c over ing of the tabe r na c l e in the w i ld e r n e s s . RV ' s ea l s k i n s ' , JB ' fine l e a th e r ' , NEB ' po rpo i s e -h ide ' (mg ' s ea - cow ' ) . Th e re s e e m s to be no j u s t ific ation fo r RSV ' s heeps kin ' in Nu 4 . 2 .5 . I n favo ur o f ' do lph i n ' , the Arabic word fo r th i s a n im a l i s much l i k e tal;lash. In favou r o f ' dugon g ' , travel l e r s h a v e notic ed tha t th e Be d o u i n m a k e s andals from its s k i n , and this fits w ith wh at E z ekiel s a y s ( 1 6 . 10 ) . He re RS V an d JB have ' l ea th e r ' , NEB ' s to u t h i de ' . S ome c om m e nt ator s leave open the que st ion of the m e aning of tal)ash in Ex od u s and Num be r s . Pe rhaps the word m e an s s im p l y ' le ather ' ( cf E gypt ian tl; s ) , but s o m e m ode r n s c h o lar s l ike Noth d o not h e s it ate t o ide nt i fy the le athe r u sed for th e c ove r ing of t he t a be rna cle w ith the sk in of the d u g on g or d o lp h i n . [ 22 ]

R E FE R E N C E S :

Dove

C olum ba

Hebr ew : G ree k :

Ex 2 5 . 5 ; 2 6 . 14 ; 3 5 . 7 , 23 ; 3 6 . 1 9; 3 9 . 3 4 ; Nu 4 . 6 , 8 ,

10- 1 2 , 14 , 25; Ezk 1 6 . 10

l ivia ,

Th rtu r c o m m u n i s

yo nah , to r, go zal (young dove ) p e r i s te ra

DE SC R I P TIO N : No other b i r d s are m e n t i o n e d s o o ften i n th e Bibl e a s do ve s and pige o n s . Pigeo n s not only l i ved w i l d i n c a v e s a nd mo unt a i n s but were do m e s t i c a ted ( I s 6 0 . 8 ) .

Cheyne i n ' Th e Po l y -

Dove ( Turtur communis) c hr o me E d i t i o n o f th e Bibl e ' even t ra n s l a t e s ' l ik e dove s to th e i r co t e s ' . Acc o rd in g to a nc i e n t zo olo gy th e dove h a s no b i l e ; c on s equ e n tl y t 1 W a s c o n s i d e r ed t o b e a v e ry peac e fu l a n d c l ea n b i r d , a n d i t be ­ c am e the s ym bo l of C h r i s t i a n virtue s ( e . g. o f gentl en e s s i n M t .

IO.I6).

It wa s u s e d a s

a s a c rific e

a nd s o l d in the Te mple .

[ 23 l

A s to the Ind ians of Ame r ica , s o t o the Psalmist the dove was a s ym bol of sw iftne s s (Nid a , ' Me s sage and Mis s ion ' , p 4 8; P s 5 5 . 6 ) . No a h , ac ting a s m any marine rs have done since his time, ob­ s erve d the fl ight of the bird s (Gn 8). The diffe rence in behavior betw een the raven and the dove i s inte res ting: the raven, a hardy and s tu rdy bird, did not return to the a rk but overcame the diffi ­ culties , wh ereas the dove ' found no place to s et her foot ' , a nd so returne d to Noah . NEB t ranslates 1? U S in Is 3 8. 14 as ' swallow ' . See SWA LLOW .

R E F E R E NC ES : yonah , to r, gozal : Con s ult a conc ordance peris tera : Mt 3 . 1 6 ; 1 0 . 1 6 ; 21 . 1 2 ; Mk 1 . 1 0 ; 11 . 1 5 ; Lk 2 . 24 ; 3 . 2 2 ; J n 1 . 3 2 ; 2 . 14 , 16 tru g6 n : Lk 2 . 24 (turtledove s - truz6 to coo). =

DIF F ICULT PASSAG E S : 2 K 6 . 2 5 : The text reads ' dove ' s dung' , a s in RSV. Benzinger suggests this may be a des i gnation fo r some very cheap food (c f JB 'wild onions ' ) . Linnaeu s , following an anc ien t tradition tha t go es back to the Gk herbalist Diosco ride s , believed that the bulbs o f Ornithogalum umbellatum , popularly known a s Sta r o f Bethlehem, were in fac t the ' dove ' s dung' that w a s eaten. Josephu s (A n tiq . 9, IV, 4 ) , m entioning the s iege of Samaria, al so speaks o f ' dove ' s dung' , but without identifying it. It may also be understood not a s food, but as fuel (so Dalman). NEB trans late s a s ' locust bean ' , referring t o the c arob ( q . v . ) . Eagle

See VU LTURE

Eagle Owl, Long-eared Owl, Bee-Eater

Bubo ascalaphus , As io otu s , Merops apia s te r

Hebrew : yanshuph DESC RIPTION: Mos t commentato rs are incl ined to identify this bird with a species o f larger owl s , the Egyptian e a gl e owl o r the ear owl . Driver in HDB suggests s c reech owl (Strix flammea) (s o NEB) . Th e Hb name m a y be derive d e i the r fr o m a ro o t nash aph , [ 24 ]

m e an in g ' to blow' , a s a h i n t to the s o u n d uttered by th e o wl s , or fr o rn a root nesheph ,

' tw il igh t ' , t h e tim e when the s e birds appea r .

Both the Bubo a s calaphu s and the A s io otu s l ive in cave s and

arn on g ruins i n th e regio n s a round Bee r s heba and th e c e n t r e of t h e

Edo rni t e s , Petra (cf Is 3 4 ) .

See al so OS TRIC H .

tr ans late ' be e - eate r ' , w h i c h i s a bird of about It fe e d s o n bee s a nd wa sps , h a s a l o n g beak a n d i s br ightl y colou red . S om e (e . g . Noth )

th e s iz e of th e th rush , found i n Mediterranean c ountri e s .

The Vulgate tra n s la t e s ' ibi s ' ( s e e H E RON ) ; so do e s R S V in Lv

11 . 1 7 , tho ugh it retains the 3 4 . 11 . R E F E RE NC ES :

Lv 1 1 . 1 7 ;

' o wl ' of AV and RV in Dt 14 . 1 6 a n d I s

Dt 1 4 . 1 6 ; Is 3 4 . 11

Eagle owl

(Bubo ascalaphus) [ 25 ]

Fallow deer (Dama mesopotamica) Fallow Deer Hebrew :

Da m a mesopotam i c a

yal) m u r

DESC R IPTION: S ome de rive the Hb n a m e from a r oot l) amar, ' to be red ' , a nd thus m a in tain tha t the ani m a l m ust be of a red dish col ­

our.

Modern expos i tor s waver betwe e n two po s s ib i l i t ie s :

the ya l)mur with the r oe deer fa l l ow dee r .

to ide n t i fy

(RV, R S V , JB a nd NEB), or with the

It is probabl y better t o follow Bodenhei mer a n d F e l i k s

( i n BHH) who iden tify

yal)mur

with the fallow dee r .

Bodenhe im e r

s a ys tha t th e roe deer does n o t seem t o be m en tioned i n

t h e Bible.

The fa l l ow dee r h as rather la rge h orns, a n d its c oa t i s yel l ow ­

brown wi th s po t s .

al s o

It

is native to the Mediterranean c ount ries .

DE E R.

R E F E R E NC ES :

Dt 1 4 . 5 ; 1

K 4 . 23

[ 26 ]

See

Fish

Squalua c a rcharia s

pi s c i s ,

He b rew : d a gh , daghah Gr e e k : ichth u s , ichthu d i o n , o p s a r i o n (l i t .

enal ia ( s e a c r eature s ) ,

' c ooked fo o d ' ) , p ro s phagi o n ( r el i s h , fi s h ) ,

keto s D E S C R IPTION :

Th e B ibl e does not m e n t i o n pa r ti c u l a r s p ec i e s o f

fish, but o n l y d iv i d e s the m into c lean and un c l ean ( Lv l l . 9 , 1 0 ) . A s most fish i n the r ive r s a nd l a k e s o f Pal e s tine have fi ns a n d s c a l e s , few o n l y were p l a c e d u n d e r p ro h i b i t i o n .

The Bibl e

do e s no t m e ntion fi s h i n g i n the Mediterranea n .

Tha t

th i s wa s do n e i s c l ea r , a n d th e n a m e o f t h e c i ty o f S idon ( d e r iv e d

fro m tsudh ' to fi s h ' ) i n d i c a t e s th e fa c t . It was probably done mo s tl y b y th e Phoenic ia n s . F i s h i n g i n the S e a o f Gal ilee i s often m e n t i on ed in t he New Te s t a m ent , a n d th e fi s h e r m e n i n th i s part of Pal e s t i n e played an i m po rta nt part in th e s to ry o f J e s u s .

Fishes o f the Sea o f Galilee

(above, Chromis nilotica;

below,

[ 27 ]

Labeobarbus canis)

I I I , boo k X , 7 ) d e s c r i b e s th e Sea o f Gal il ee , te m e n t i o n i n g tha t the wa. r i s fresh a n d c l ea r and go o d to d r i n k , a nd tha t th e r e are many s p e c i e s o f f i sh i n th i s l a k e wh ich a r e d i ff e rent from tho s e to b e fo und e l s e w h e re . Pre s e n t- da y zoologi s t s h a v e co unted about t h irty d i ffe r e n t spec ies o f f i s h in t h i s lake . Th e shoa l s are so m et i m e s unu s ual l y l a r ge . F i s h i n g wa s o ne of t h e mo s t c o m ­ m an oc c upa tions in th a t p a rt o f th e c o u n t r y , and th e town s a roun d th e l a ke w ere p o p u l a t e d wi t h fi s h e r m en .

Jud .

Jo s eph us ( Bell .

is

b e l ow the l e v e l o f t he Medi te rra nea n , a n d i s 20 km l o n g and 11 km ac r o s s a t i t s wid e s t po int . Th e S ea o f

Ga l i l e e

do n e wi th a hook ( Mt 1 7 . 2 7 ) , a c a s t - n et (Mt 4 . 1 8 ) or a drag- ne t ( Mt 13 . 4 7 ) . Th e re w as n o f i s h i n g i n th e Dead Sea becau s e o f i t s h i gh s a l t c o n t e rt t ( 2 5 %). Th i s i s a ll ud e d t o in E z k 4 7 . 7 - 1 2 . F i s h i n g wa s

F i s hin g in th e Sea o f Ga l i l e e wa s c a r r i e d out at n igh t .

Wh en th e

water wa s cool the fi sh c ame to the s u rfa c e a nd c o uld no t s ee the m e s h e s of the n e t . Th i s i s th e b a c kgro und o f S i mon ' s protes t ( Lk 5 . 5).

Fish wa s ofte n eate n b y t h e Jew s , a n d n o doubt sol d a t th e Fi s h 3 3 . 1 4 ) . It wa s e a ten bo iled, b ro i l e d , p ickled o r s mo k e d

Ga t e ( 2 C h

(J n

21 . 9 ; Lk 2 4 . 4 2 ) .

C o n sult a con c o r d a nc e Mt 7 . 1 0 ; 14 . 1 7 , 1 9 ; 1 5 . 3 6 ; 1 7 . 2 7 ; Mk 6 . 3 8 , Lk 5 . 6 , 9 ; 9 . 1 3 , 1 6 ; 11 . 11 ; 24 . 4 2 ; Jn 21 . 6 , 8 , 1 1 ;

R E F E R E NC ES : da g�. da ghah : ic h ttm s :

41,43;

1 co 1 5 . 3 9

ic hthu d i o n :

Mt 1 5 . 3 4 ;

e nalia : Ja s 3 . 7 -

o p s a r io n :

Jn 6. 9 , 1 1 ;

Mk 8 . 7

2 1 . 9 , 1 0 , 13

pro sphagi o n : J n 21 . 5

keres: Mt 1 2 . 4 0

-

DIF FIC U L T PASSAGES : Mt 7 . 1 0 : The co m p a r i son bet w een a fi sh and a s e r p e nt m a y s � e m s t r a nge to m a n y . Pe rhaps th i s s h o u l d be

u n d e r s t oo d i n c onnecti o n w ith

th e Law ( Lv 11 . 9 , 10) fo rbi dd i ng J ew s to e a t fis h without fi n s md sc a l e s , i . e. s e rpen t - l i ke fi s h . An o th e r exp l a n ation i s s ugge ste d by the obse rvations of a t ravel l e r i n

[ 28 ]

swi m m ing in th e Sea Pales tin e who noted a l a rge number o f s n a ke s G le e a n d o fte n b i ting th e h o o k s o f th e fi s he r m e n . J e s u s ' m e a n ­ o f ali ing , howeve r , is cle ar: un c le an fish or serpen t s are oft en c aught i n th e net al ong with the ed ibl e fish, and a m a n who i s n o t c a r e fu l m a y harm th os e h e has n o desi r e to ha r m . A s a n earthly father i s c a r e

­

ful about what he g iv e s h i s c h i ld ren to e at, so o ur heav e nly Fath er

gives us o nly what i s good for u s when w e pray. Jon

1.17; 2.1 :

Th e literal tran s lation of da gh gadhol ' a gr eat fis h '

(as in RS V , JB, N EB) is also j u stified by th e zoologi s t s ( a c c o r d i n g to Th e old idea o f th i s mon s t e r be i ng a whale (wh ich i s

Bodenh e i m er ) .

a mam mal) i s un l ikely, since the g\.lllet o f the whal e is too narrow to allow it to swallow a ma n . Al s o , wha l e s a r e rare i n the M e dite r ­ ranean .

The ' great fi s h ' i s lik ely to h a ve been a b i g s h a r k ,

carc harias glaucus , m en whole .

JB,

6

to

C f ke t o s ( Mt

but RSV has

'

whale .

7 m lo ng, which i s known t o have swallo w e d 1 2 . 40 ) , a big fish, s e a m on s te r ; s o NE B,

'

Flea

Flea

s qualua

(Pulex irritans)

Pu lex irritans

Hebrew :

par ' osh

DE SC R I PTI O N :

co nnection.

A descript ion of the flea will be unnec e s s a r y

in th i s

It i s sufficient t o not i c e that David r e fe r s to a fl e a a s very smal l a nd ins i gn ificant c reatur e , th u s str e s s i n g the d i ffer ­ a

en c e in status between Kin g Saul and himself (1 S 24 . 1 4 ) . RE F E R E NC ES :

l S

2 4 . 1 4 ; 2 6 . 2 0 (Mas oretic t e xt )

D IF F I� UL T

PASS AGE : I S 2 6 . 2 0 : The M asoret ic text has 'the k in g o f I sra el c a m e o RSV u t t o look for a fl ea ' (p ar ' o s h ehadh) (NEB) . nd f a JB ollow the Septua gin t re a d i n g ' ha s c o me o u t to s ee k m y soul ' (!!!!-phsh i , i . e . m y l ife ) , w h ic h i s undoubtedl y th e b e tte r , be c a u s e t he M e o t a s r ic t ext m ay be a n ec ho of 24 .14 (th u s H e rtzbe rg a n d Bud de ) .

[ 29 ]

Fly

Mu s c a

H e b re w :

z ebh u bh

DESC RIPTION: z e bhubh i s a general word fo r ' fl y ' w i th o u t s tate ­

m e nt a s to the spec ie s . Mu s c a vic i n a i s the hous efl y . Th e two pa s s a ge s in w h i c h th e fl y i s m entioned bo th prove what a nu i s an c e a nd danger it i s to th e i nh abitants o f warm c ountri e s .

Pl iny s '

Na tural Hi s to r y (1 0 . 2 8 ) sa ys that the people of antiqu i ty bel i eve d

fl i e s to be c a r rier s o f plague, a n d fea red th e m a c c o rd i ngly

.

Di s a gree ment s till preva il s a s to the o rigin a nd m ea n i n g of the

n ame of the god o f E kron (2 K 1 ) . Som e read Ba ' a l z ebhubh , ' th e lord o f fl ie s ' , indic a ting the extent t o whic h fl i e s were fea re d , so

that a go d was wo rs h ipped in the hope tha t h e m ight avert th e plague from the peopl e . Others mainta in i t to be a m i s ta k e fo r Ba ' al z ebhul (a s in Mt 1 0 . 2 5 ). zebh ul is th en de r ived fro m a s im i l a r word in Uga ­ r it ic m e a n i n g ' h igh , s ublim e ' . JB expl a i n s Ba a l zebhubh a s a mo c king pun on the god ' s real na m e , Ba alz ebul ' . '

'

R E F E R E NC E S : E c 1 0 . 1 ; Is 7 . 18 (JB m o s q ui t o ) '

'

Fly (Musca) r

�n

1

----- -

Foxes

Fox, Jackal Heb r ew :

--

-

:-- _--.--:- ----=::.""""""7" � =- --:::�

(left, Vulpes nilotica; right, Canis aureus)

V u lpe s n i lot ic a , V . fl ave s c e n s , C an i s

s h u ' a l , ta n ,

DESC R IPTIO N :

-�

2.!_

Gree k :

aurc u s

alOpe x

It s eem s c l e a r th a t the O T s o m e t i m e s u s e s th e

aure u s ) a s well as the fox (Vulpe s nil ot ic a , fl ave s ce ns ) , although the He brew s had two othe r n am e s for th i s an im al (t an , ? i) . The fox and the j ac k a l are v e r y m u c h a l ike ,

word shu ' a l for the j ackal

( Canis

ex c ep t t h a t the j a c ka l h a s a bro ade r h e ad , s ho r t e r no s e a n d ea r s , l o n ge r l e gs . The s i m i l a r i ty between t h e two a c c o un ts fo r t h e i r no t alw a ys be i n g d i s t i n gu i s h e d . I n th e OT , the re fore , th e c ontext mu st d ec i d e , w h e r e po s s ibl e , how the wo r d s h u ' a l s h o u l d he tra n s l a t e d .

an d

On �

d iffe renc e i n h a b i t m ay b e

�re atur e ,

dec i s iv e :

wh e rea s th e j a c k al i s gr e ga r io u s .

t h e fo x i s

a s o l ita r y

J a c k a l s s t a y t o get h e r

Pac k s a n d h i d e du r i n g th e da y i n s o m e c a ve , wh e re th e y c a n be It m a y t h e re fo re be m o r e c o r r ec t to tran s l a te ' th re e h u n ­ dred j a c ka l s ' i n J g 1 .'5 . 4 (as do e s N E B ) . 10

c a ugh t.

[ 31 ]

An o th er d i ffe renc e i s that the j a c k a l fee d s on c arri o n , whi c h the fox doe s not . Ps 63 . 1 0 m ay , there fore , more c orrectly be rendered ' p re y fo r ja c k a l s ' , as in RS V, JB and N E B .

Alt h ou gh th e word ' fox ' i n the Tal m u d and Midra s h i s o f t e n u s e d to c h a r a c te r ize a n i n s i gn ific a nt p e r so n (a s oppo s ed t o a ' l ion ', who i s a great ma n ) , it i s e v id e n t tha t i n N ehe m i a h a nd t h e So n g o f Solomon ' fox ' i s u s e d symbo l i c al l y o f t h e enem i e s o f God and his p e opl e , tho s e who te a r down and u n d e r m i ne in a c u n n i n g wa y. However, ' ja c kal ' wo ul d fit eq u a l l y well here . I n Lk 1 3 t he word al�p�x i s u sed m etaphorically o f a c un n i ng a n d c r a ft y ma n . It i n d i c ates th at J e s u s h ad s een th rough the pl ans o f th e t etr ar c h . ' F o x ' i s mo r e app r opri a t e h e r e . R E F E R E NC E S :

s h u ' a l : Jg 1 5 . 4 ; Ne 4 . 3 ; Ps 63 . 1 0 ; SS 2 . 1 5 ; La 5 . 1 8 ; Ez k 1 3 . 4 tan : Job 3 0 . 2 9 ; Ps 4 4 . 1 9 ; Is 1 3 . 2 2 ; 3 4 . 13 ; 3 5 . 7 ; 43 . 2 0 ; J e 9 . 1 1 ; 10. 2 2 ; 1 4 . 6; 49 . 3 3 ; 5 1 . 3 7 ; E z k 29 . 3 ; Mi 1 . 8 ; Ma l 1 . 3 7i : Is 13 . 2 2 ; 3 4 . 1 4 ( R S V ' hye na ' ) ; J e 5 0 . 3 9 ale>pex : Mt 8 . 20 ; L k 9 . 5 8 ; 1 3 . 3 2

Frog (Rana punctata)

[ 32 ]

Frog

Rana punc tata

H e b rew :

t s e phard e a '

Greek : batrach o s

D ES C R I PTIO N : The fro g i s a n amphibious a n i mal a nd i s m e n t io n ed i n two connections in th e Bibl e : i n th e s ec o nd Egyptian pl a gu e , a nd in the vis i o n o f Rv 1 6 . 1 3 . Frog plagu e s are s a i d to be not unco m m o n in E gyp t , b u t the inte n s ity d e s c r ibed i n t h e bo o k o f Exodus i s unu s u a l , and the fa c t t h a t the p l a gue s ta rted a n d s to pped on the c o m mand of God makes i t a m i ra c l e . The fro g in que s t ion i s probably R ana punc tata , the spo t t ed fr o g of Eg ypt . Th e v i s io n o f Rv 1 6 i s evide ntl y a n a l l u s ion to t h e E g yp t i a n pl a gu e . I t s s ymbol ic c h a ra c ter po i n t s to th e fa c t tha t th e fro g i n Per s ia n rel i gion belon g s to the c reatu r e s o f Ahr i m a n , the wic ked god . Th e frog is a s ymbol o f unc leanne s s , a demo n .

R E F E R E NC E S : t s ephardea ' : Ex 8 . 2 - 9 , 11 - 1 3 ; Ps 7 8 . 4 5 ; 105 . 3 0 b a t r a c h o s : Rv 1 6. 1 3

Gadfly H e bre w :

q eret s

D ES C R I PTION: a cattl e - biting fly.

AV ' de s truc tio n ' .

R E F E R E NC E : J e 4 6 . 2 0

Gazelle G a z e l l a do rc a s ,

Gaz ell a arabic a

Heb rew : t s e b h i , t s ebh i yyah

D ESC R I PTI ON : The Hb wo r d m ea n s ' beau t y ' , but i s al so th e name o f a gra c eful and beautiful ani m al . Mo s t autho r ities t o d ay i de n ti fy thi s animal with the gaz e l l e , i . e . Gaz e l l a do rc a s o r Gazella arabic a . It i s sm all e r t h a n t h e an telo pe, abo ut 1 m l o n g and 53 e m high. The hi gh colo u r of the fu r i s y ellowi s h brown (do rc a s ) o r gr e y ( a r abi c a ) .

[ 33 ]

It i s na t i v e to th e M i dd l e E a s t wh e r e i t l i v e s i n s m a l l h e r d s o r

a l o ne

.

It s o nl y m ea n s o f d e fe n c e a r e i t s c o l o u r a nd t h e s pe e d w i t h

which it can e s c a p e .

Th e h o rn s c a r r i e d b y bo th s ex e s a r e n o t u s ed

a s a w e a po n .

R E F E R E NC E S :

Dt 1 2 . 1 5 , 2 2 ; 1 4 . 5 ; 1 5 . 2 2 ; 2 S 2 . 1 8 ; 1 K 4 . 2 3 ; 1 Ch 1 2 . 8 ; Pr 6.5; SS 2.7, 9, 17; 3 . 5 ; 8 .14; Is 13 .14

t s e bh i :

ss 4.5; 7.3

Gecko

Gazelle (Gazella dorcas)

H e m i da c tyl u s tu rc i c u s

H e b r ew :

? a n aqah

DESC R IPTION :

Lu th e r rendered th e Hb wo r d a s ' h edge h o g' , bu t

a c c o r d i n g to t h e M i s h nah th e s k i n of t h e a ni m al m e n t i o n ed in

Lv

1 1 . 3 0 w a s del i c a t e , w h i c h c a n s c a r c e l y be s a i d o f a h e d ge h o g . Mo d e r n tran s l a t o r s h ave c o nn e c t e d th e

a ni mal ' s n a m e

with t h e

ide n t i c a l Hb noun d e no t i n g ' c r y i n g ' , a p l a i nt ive s o u n d o ft e n h e a rd

fro m gec ko e s .

[ 34 ]

In L v 11 the gec ko i s l i s ted a m o n g th e unc l ean a n i m al s , wher eas th e M i s h nah ( a c c o r d i n g t o Fel i k s i n BHH ) s a y s it s m e a t i s f i t fo r ea t in g . gec ko i s a well - k nown d e n i z e n o f h o u s e s in Pa l e s t i n e . It i s a w a l l - l i z a r d , wh ich ru n s over wal l s a n d c e i l i n g s b y m e a n s of th e s uc tio n p r o v i d e d by s u c k i n g - d i s c s on i t s toe s . It l iv e s on m o s q u i ­ to e s , fl i e s and s p i de r s . NEB tran s l ate s l e t a ? ah a s ' wall - ge c ko ' a n d koaJ:l a s ' s a n d -gec ko ' . S e e a l s o L I Z ARD and C HA M E L EON. Th e

R E F E R E NCE : Lv 1 1 . 3 0

Gecko (Hemidactylus turcicus)

Gnat, Mosquito Heb rew :

culex

k i n na m ,

DESC R I PTIO N :

fou n d i n th e

kinnim

Gree k :

konops

Va riou s s pec ie s o f gnats and m o s q u i to e s a r e

Th e i r bi te i s a l m o s t alway s e x t r e m e l y a nd fo ur s pe c ie s o f mo s q u i to a r e fever-c a rr i er s . The P r a c t i c e o f s t ra i n in g l i q u i d s refe rred to i n Mt 23 . 2 4 i s ba s ed on i r ri t a ti ng,

Middle Ea s t.

regul a tion s in Lv 1 1 . 3 2 £.

The th i rd o f th e E gyp tian plague s may have been of mo s quito e s . He ro d o t u s al s o ( II. 9 5 ) gi ve s a vivid de s c r i p t io n o f Egypt ian gn a ts .

[ 35 ]

He says they are i nnume rabl e , and that peopl e try to avo i d them by c l imbing h i gh towers to s l e ep during th e night, o r by covering the ir bed s with a fi s h ing net. Bodenhe i m e r , howev e r , i n ID s tates that the Hebrew wo rds ken, k i nnam, k i nnim refer to l ic e , Pediculus humanu s , the human body lous e . There i s l i ttl e do ubt, he says , that th e th ird E gyptian pl agu e refe r s t o th i s i n s e c t , a s i t w a s hel d i n great abom ination in E gypt. Jo s e phu s also (Antiqu ita te s Judaic� Book I I, 14, 3) identifies th i s pl a gue w i th a n atta c k o f l ic e . NE B ha s ' m aggot s ' . R E F E RE NC E S : kinnam , kinnim : Ex 8 . 1 6 , 1 7 , 1 8 ; Ps 1 05 . 31 ; Is 5 1 . 6 k6n6ps : Mt 2 3 . 2 4 DI F F IC U L T PASSAGE S : Is 51 . 6 has t h e H b w o r d ken, ' i n th e s a m e mann e r ' o r ' l ike this ' . The fir s t o f the s e translatio n s would poi n t bac kwa rds to t h e ' wearing o u t of a ga rment ' and ' the vani shing of smoke ' , which i s inadequate in connec tion with th e verb ' di e ' . The s econd ha s been adopted by some who imply a gesture m eaning ' l ik e no th ing' , perhaps a s n ap o f t h e finge r s . So me c o n s i d e r ken to be a collec tive noun to be tran s lated ' a swa rm o f mo s quitoe s ' . It i s bet� ter to read kinnam or k inn im, ' gnats ' . So RS V and RV m g. JB has ' ve r m in ' . Mt 23 . 24 : th e t ra n s l a tion ' gna t ' fo r kO nOps i s m o s t l ik ely. N E B has ' m idge ' . AG m entio n s the po s s ibil i ty th at t h e wo rd may r efe r to a c e rta i n wo rm found in wine .

Goat, Buck, Kid C apra h i rc u s m a m b r i c a Hebrew :

' ez , s e h , sa ' i r , tayi s h , ' a ttudh , tsaph i r , z e m e r (wild go a t ) , s e ' i rah , gedhi

Greek : e r ipho s , e r iph i o n (kid, h e .. go a t ) , �· a i geio s (of a goa t ) DESC RI PTION: The goa t belongs to the fa m il y of th e hollow-horned rum inan t s . A detailed de sc riptio n is unnec e s sary. Bl ac k was prob­ abl y the prevail i ng colour of Pal e s tinian goats (SS 1 . 5 ; 4 . 1 ; 6 . 5 ) , and [ 36 ]

Goat (Capra hircus mambrica)

' spec

kled and spotted goats ' were a rarity; that i s wh y Jacob ' s re ­ qu est sound s very modest ( Gn 3 0 . 3 2 ) . However, there may have bee n red go ats . (S ee 1 S 1 9 . 1 3 [ i f David was red -haired a n d no t ' ruddy ' , 1 S 16. 1 2] and Gn 27 . 1 6 , where Jacob makes up so as to resemble h i s re d, hai ry bro the r. )

Goa t ha i r w a s not co n s idered to be as us eful o r valuable as wo o l . Th is, a s well a s th e fact that t h e buck i s wilder than the ram , may be re le va �l t in conn ection with the s epara tion of th e goats from the sheep (Mt 2 5 . 3 2f) . Th e Syrian goat i s charac terized b y its long p e ndulo u s ea rs and backw a r d - c urving horn s . As a s ac r ifi c e the goat was u sed ' from th e i e ghth day o n ' ( Lv 2 2 . 27 ) . Th e s c apego a t i s m entioned in Lv 1 6 . 9 .

[ 37 ]

R E F E R E NC E S : tal;1a s h ( RSV ' go a t ) : s e e DO L PH IN ' e z , s-e h , s-a ' ir: Co n s ul t a concordanc e -ta yi s h : Gn 3 0 . 3 5 ; 3 2 . 1 4 ; 2 C h 17 . 11 ; Pr 3 0 . 3 1 ' a ttudh : C o n s u l t a c o n c o r d a n c e t s a p h i r : 2 Ch 29 . 2 1 ; E z ra 8 . 3 5 ; Dn 8 . 5 , 8 , 2 1 z em e r : D t 14 . 5 s e ' i rah : Lv 4 . 28 ; 5 . 6 gedh i : C o n s ult a conc o rdanc e e r i pho s : M t 2 5 . 3 2 ; L k 1 5 . 29 e r ip h io n : Mt 2 5 . 33 ( Lk 1 5 . 29 i n Codex B) tr a go s : He 9 . 1 2 , 13 , 1 9 ; 1 0 . 4 a i geios : He 1 1 . 37 '

DIF F I C U L T PASS AGES : It sh o u l d be noted that th e O T do e s no t always d i s t i n gu i s h between ' s heep ' and ' goa t ' . The Hb wo rd s e h ther efore may s o metim e s be tran slated ' l amb ' . Th e t ra n s l a t io n o f z em e r i s u n c e r ta i n : RSV a n d J B ' m o unta i n s h e ep ' , N EB ' roc k - goat' . Ed . K o n i g, ' Be rgz iege ' . Kautz sch be l ieve s it to be a k ind o f a nte ­ lope. ' attudh m a y i n s o m e connectio n s m ean ' leader' . s a ' i r in Gn 27 . 11 m e a n s ' h a i ry ' ; i n L v 1 7 . 7; 2 Ch 11 . 1 5 ; Is 1 3 . 21 ; 3 4 . 1 4 R S V and J B tran slate ' s a ty r ; o th er s expl a i n i t a s a kind o f demon in t h e shape o f a goat. '

Goose (Branta rujicullis)

r 38 1

Goose

Br a n ta

Heb r ew :

ba rb u ri m

DESC R IPTION: The Hb w or d s in l K 4 . 23 , barbu r im ? abhu s im , o f fa ttened fowl ( a s in RS V, NEB) . As t h e l i te r a l l y m e a n som e k i nd Hb b a r m e a n s ' pure white ' , s o m e c o m m e ntato r s have sugge s t e d the sw;;,- a s a c l e a n , wh i te b i r d . But Bod e nh e i m e r s a y s th a t no s w a n i s c o m m o n i n Pa l e s t i n e . O n t h e other h a n d , ivo r y c a rv i ngs fro m Me­ gi dd o w h ic h date fro m th e ten th c e n tu r y B C repr e s e n t p e a s a n t s c a r ry ing ge e s e to m a rk e t, a n d the o l d e s t E gyptian pa inti n gs o f b i r d s (fr o m t h e tom b of Ra - hotep a t Meidum ) s h ow d i f fe r en t k i n d s o f ge e s e fe ed i n g o n th e ground ( c f Pa rm el ee, p 8 2 ) . S ev e r a l t r a n s la to r s a re th e refo r e i n c l i n e d to i d e n t i f y the ba rbu r i m with ' ge e s e ' . Th e s p e c i e s

c annot be d e c i de d .

Othe r s ugge s tion s h av e been m a d e , s u c h a s t h e gu i n ea h e n a n d the l a rk - h eeled c u c koo ( C e n t r o p u s aegypt i c u s Sh el l ey), wh i c h w h e n stuffed w a s c o n s i d e r e d a gr e a t d el i c a c y in an c ie nt G re e c e ; J B t r an s ­ late s ' c uc koo ' . Th e A r a bi c n a m e fo r c h i c ken , b i r b i r , m a y h a ve been d e ri v e d fro m b a r b u r i m .

R E F E R ENC E : 1

K

4 . 23

Hare Lep u s s y ri a c u s Heb r ew :

? a rne bh e th

DESC RIPTIO N: Th e h a re i s l i s te d i n the Law a m o n g th e u n c l e a n an i ­ lll a l s on th e gr o u n d tha t: ' i t c h e w s the c u d , but d o e s not pa rt th e hoof' .

It i s ge ner a l l y a s s u m e d th a t the Hebrews thou ght the hare wa s a ru i n th rough m n� t o b s e rv i n g th e pec u l ia r m o vem e nts o f i t s j aws wh e n ch e wi n g . To d ay we knew tha t p h y s i o l o gi c a l l y the h a r e i s a ro d e n t, al th ou gh th e z ool ogi s t s Ol s e n a n d M a d s e n ( Inv e s t i ga t i o n s o n p s eudo ru H· n a tl O n -.!!_ m r a b b i t s ' 1 9 43 ) h a v e dem o n s t rated th a t the hare a nd th e . rabb·l t p e r fo r m a k i n d o f ru m m a n o n . ·

.

.

[ 39 ]

There a r e fou r spec ie s of hare in Pal e s ti n e . 6 Th e mo s t commo n i s the Le pu s syriac u s wh ich i s 6 0 e m s ho rter than the Eu ropean and h a s sho rter e a r s . R E F E R E NC ES :

Lv 11 . 6 ; Dt 1 4 . 7

Hare (Lepus syriacus) Hawk, Buzzard, Falcon, Harrier, Kite Acc ipiter n i s u s , Bu teo fero x , Falco peregrin u s , C i rc u s spp . , M ilvu s m i grans Hebrew : nets , ?ayya h , dayyah, da ?ah In mode rn Hb net s i s the nam e of the spa r row - hawk . One c an no t, howeve r, a s s u m e that Bibl i c al writers o r modern t ra n s ­ D E S C RI PTIO N :

lato r s dis ti ngu i s h acc urately between the va riou s spec ie s . HDB s ugge s ts the following ide ntific a tions : nets :

Dr iver i n

kes trel ( Falco t i nn u nculus ) and/o r spa r row - hawk ( Acc ipi ­ te r n i s us ) . RSV, J B a nd NEB all have ' hawk ' . ?ayyah : falco n ( Falco peregrinu s ) , but may well inc l ude the buz z a rd (Bu teo ferox ) or h ar r i e r ( C irc u s spp. ) . NEB ha s ' fal ­ co n ' , JB ' buzzard ' , RSV ' falco n ' i n Lv but ' kite ' i n Dt . ra ? ah , da ? a h , dayyah : k ite ( Milvu s m igran s ) . S o JB and NE B, and RSV in Lv , bu t ' bu z z a r d ' in Dt .

[ 40 ]

RE F E R E NC ES : ne ts : Lv 1 1 . 1 6 ; Dt 1 4 . 1 5 ; J o b 3 9 . 2 6 ?ayyah : L v 1 1 . 1 4 ; Dt 1 4 . 1 3 ; J o b 2 8 . 7 dayyah : Dt 1 4 . 1 3 ; Is 3 4 . 1 5 d a ?ah : L v 1 1 . 1 4 ( ? D t 1 4 . 1 3 ) DI F FI C U LT PASSAG ES : D t 1 4 . 1 3 : Th e wo rds ra ?ah and dayyah arc p ro ba bly bo th s c ribal er ro rs fo r d a ?ah , ' vulture ' ( q . v . ) o r ' k i te ' . RSV tra n slate s q a ? a th a s ' hawk ' i n I s 3 4 . 1 1 .

But s e e

P E LICAN.

Heron Ardea Hebrew :

? anaphah

DESC RIPTION : In m o d e rn Hb th i s is t h e n a m e fo r the hero n fam il y, and in Bibl i c al tim es al so it m a y have been a generic nam e , cover­ ing the seven s pec i e s o f th i s fam ily l i v i ng in Palestin e .

heron belongs t o th e waders . I t i s a large bi rd with a long bill and n e c k , and long legs suitabl e for wading in sh allow waters where it pro be s in th e mud fo r fis h and s m all repti l e s . Th e

Among the spec i e s living i n Pa l e s tine th e mo s t co mmon i s the h e ro n o r wh ite ibis (Ardea bu bul c u s ) . I t l iv e s pre do m i ­ nantl y o n Lake Huleh i n the no rth . Th e c o m mo n hero n (Ardea c in e ­ �) and the purpl e h e ro n ( Ardea p u rpu rea ) l ive near the r ive r Jo r ­ da n and o n th e c o a s t . buff- bac ked

Driver in HOB sugge s ts that ?anaphah may be the corm ora nt

(s o N EB). Th e re s eem s to be no j u s tifi c a t i o n fo r RSV' s tran slation o f _yan shuph as ' ibis ' in Lv ll . l 7 . S e e E AG L E OWL. RE F ERE NC ES : Lv l l . l 9 ; Dt 1 4 . 1 8 DI F F IC U LT PASSAG E :

Fo r J o b 3 9 . 1 3 , s e e O TTP, p 9 0 .

[ 41 ]

-

- -==-:.. =--� --� - - - ---

-':���i��=�� -�:���-� -

-·-·-

- -

: -�-{.�;;_�: -

Hoopoe ( Upupa epops)

Hoopoe Up up a Hebrew :

d u k h iph a th

D E S C R IPTION :

Th e h o o po e c o m e s t o Pal e s t i ne i n spr i n g eac h yea r .

I t i s c o n s pic uo u s fo r i t s p l u m a ge , tall c re s t a nd o d d m o v e m e n ts . I t

w a s j udge d u n c l e a n a s i t fi nds i t s foo d o n du n gh i l l s a nd d o e s not c l e a r i t s n e s t o f fil t h .

Th e fl e s h , th o u gh ta s ty to e a t , h a s a ba d

s m el l . RV , R S V , JB and N E B , w i th L X X a nd Vu l gate , tra n s l a te

' ho o po e ' .

AV ' l apw i ng' .

R E F E R E NC ES :

Lv l l . l 9 ;

Dt

14.18 r 42 1

Hornet V e s pa o r i ental i s He brew : ts i r ' ah

D E SC RI PTION : In modern Hb th e wo r d is u s ed fo r wa s p s i n gen e ra l ( Ve sp i dx ) , but i s co m monly rendered ' ho rnet ' i n Bibl e t ra n s l a t i o n s . l In a ll t h r ee refe r e nc e s the ho r n et s ta n d s a s a symbol o f m i ita r y 10. age ) for ce . ( F or illu s t r ation see p Som e m o d e r n expo s i to r s (KB, Noth) prefer to render the wo rd d e pr e s s io n o r ' d i sc o u rage m en t ' , c o m pa r i n g th e Hb with a n A r a b i c ver b <]ara ' a wh i c h m e a n s ' to s u bj ec t o n e s elf, to deba s e o ne s el f ' . C f NE B ' pa n ic ' . '

'

R E F E R E NC E S :

Horse

Ex

2 3 . 2 8 ; Dt 7 . 2 0 ; Jos 24 . 1 2

E q u u s c abal l u s

Hebrew :

�u�,

pa r a s h , re k h e s h ,

? abbi r

( l ite rally :

' s tro ng, val i a n t ' )

Greek : h ippo s D E S C RIPTIO N : The s tepp e s o f C en tral As ia are c o n s i dered to be th e original habitat of th e h o r s e , a n d i n the s e open spa c e s i t s spec ial qual i t i e s have developed . F rom C entral As ia th e bre e d in g of hors e s sprea d to w a r d s t h e south and we s t .

Boden h e i m er m en tions the ho r s e amo ng the ma m m a l s fro m the o f the Mount C a rm el c av e s (p 2 7 ) . The earl i e s t ev i ­ denc e fo r th e u s e o f wa r c h a r iots d rawn b y h o r s e s dates fro m th e ti me o f t h e Hy k s o s tr ibe s , who b e tw een 1 8 00 a n d 1 600 BC subj u ga ted par t s o f Me sopo tam ia , S yria and Egypt . Pal <Eol ith ic u m

Ac c o r d i ng to the Bibl e , th e ho r s e wa s not do m e s ti c a t e d by th e

J ew s u n t i l �e uc h ar e

th e days o f K i n g Solo m o n . H o r s e s me ntione d i n th e Pe nta ­ E gyp tia n, o r c o m e fro m neigh bou r in g c ountri e s . Ca na an ­ It e W a r � h a r i o t s a re m e nt i o ne d i n Jo s 1 7 . 1 6 a n d J g 5 . 2 2 . Ac c o r d i ng 1 t � Dt 7 . 1 6 , kee p ing hor s e s w a s con s idered by t he I s r ae l it e s t o be a o f i m p i e ty. Th i s i s w h y Jo s h ua (1 1 . 9 ) a n d late r Dav i d ( 2 S 8 . 4 ) m s t ru n g a ll c aptured ho r s e s . They l ed th e i r a r m i e s o n foot ( 8 18 .3 6) and n ot m ounte d on h o r s e ba c k .

�lgn ;

[ 43 ]

Horse

(Equus caballus)

A gre a t c h a n ge i n the c u l tu r a l l i fe

of I s r a e l

c a m e with King

Sol o m o n , w h o i m p o r t e d h o r s e s fro m Egypt a nd C i l i c i a ( 1 K p r e do m i n a n tl y fo r m i l i ta r y p u rpo s e s . to E gypt

fo r

10.28),

' To r e l y o n ho r s e s ' o r ' go

h el p ' ( I s 3 1 . 1 ) th e r e fo re i n d i c a te s t r u s t i n m a t e r i a l r e ­

s o u rc e s a n d n o t i n Go d .

Th e h o r s e wa s the mo un t o f the w a r r i o r , a n d b y e n t e r i n g J e r u ­

salem peac e .

o n an a s s J e s u s i n d i c ated tha t h e w a s c o m in g a s th e P ri n c e o f

C o lou r s p l a y a n i m po rta nt pa r t i n the book o f R e v e l a t i o n , a n d

the d i ffe r e n t

colours

of

the

fo ur

ho r s e s h ave a s ym bo l i c m e a n i n g :

wh i t e , fi e r y r e d , bl a c k a n d pa l e m e a n r e s pec t iv e l y v i c t o r y , v i o l e n c e ,

fa m i n e a n d d ea th .

[ 44 ]

R E F E R E NC ES : � u � : C o n s ult a c onco rdan c e p a ra s h : 1 S 8 . 1 1 ; 1 K 4 . 2 6 ; Is 21 . 7 , 9 ; 2 8 . 2 8 ; E z k 2 7 . 1 4 ; Joel 2 . 4 ; N a 3 . 3 ; Hbk 1 . 8 rekh e s h : I K 4 . 2 8 ; E s 8 . 1 0 , 14 ; Mi 1 . 13 ?abbir : may s ta nd fo r ' ho r s e ' i n : Jg 5 . 2 2 ; Je 8 . 1 6 ; 47 . 3 ; 5 0 . 1 1 h ippo s : ]as 3 . 3 ; R v 6 . 2 , 4 , 5 , 8 ; 9 . 7 , 9 , 1 7 , 19 ; 1 4 . 20; 1 8 . 1 3 ; 1 9 . 11 , 1 4 , 18, 19, 21

DIF F IC U LT PASSAG ES : Th e Hb wo rd pa r a s h is u s ed bo th fo r ' h o r s e ' ' and hor s em an ' , and n ot even t he c ontext will a lw a y s ma k e c l e a r

wh ic h i s m eant .

"abbir s tands fo r ' ho r s e ' in the above refe renc e s a c c o r ding to m o s t tra n s lato r s .

Hyena Hyae na s triata Hebrew :

t s e b ho ' im , tsabhua' (tsiy) Th e s triped h yen a , a carr ion - e ater wh i c h only nigh t , is q u i t e c o m mo n in Pa l e s tine a nd m a y h a v e been

DESCR I PTION :

appea r s a t

Hyena (Hyama striata)

[ 45 ]

so i n O T ti m e s . Som e s a y th a t the onl y e v i d e n c e fo r t h e exi st enc e o f t h e hye na a t tha t t i m e i s a geo gra p h ic a l na me ' th e v a l l e y o f the h ye n a s ' , the val l e y o f t s e bh o ' im , 1 S 1 3 . 1 8 . O the r s find this ani ­ m a l m e n tioned a l s o i n J e 1 2 . 9 ( s o NE B ) . S e e O TTP, p 1 6 5 . It i s v e r y l i k e l y t ha t the wo rd ts abh u a ' s h o u l d b e tra n s l a te d ' h ye n a ' ( th u s Fel i k s i n B HH , Da v i d s o n , L i s ows ky). Th e Hb wo r d t s i y m ea n s e ither a d e s ert dw e l l er o r a c reature tha t h owl s o r y el p s , tha t i s to s a y s o m e wild a n i m a l , w h i c h i s ide n t i ­ fi ed by s o m e tran s la to r s w i th the h ye na o r t h e wi l d c a t . Oth e r s tra n s l a te ' d e m o n ' . RS V tra ns l a t e s 2!_ a s ' h yena ' i n two pl a c e s .

R E F E R E NC ES :

Ps 7 2 . 9 ; 7 4 . 1 4 ; Is 1 3 . 21 ; 2 3 . 1 3 ; 3 4 . 1 4 ; Je 5 0 . 3 9

Capra i bex nubiana,

Hebrew :

ya ' e l ,

D E S C R I PTIO N :

FOX .

t sabhu a ' : Je 1 2 . 9 t s eb h o ' i m : 1 S 1 3 . 1 8 ; Ne 11 . 3 4

�: Ibex

Se c

C a pra bed e n

y a ' al ah Th e i b ex , a type of wild go a t ,

is s t i l l fo und i n

So uthern Pa l e s tine, S in a i , Egypt and Arab ia ; i t wa s k nown a l s o i n a n c i e n t ti m es , a s i s evi dent fro m r o c k c arvi ngs . Howev e r , i t i s

o ft e n d iffi c ul t i n t h e s e m o num e n t s to d i sti n g u i s h th e ibex fro m the Ca p ra h i r c u s , th e tr u e wild go a t . The rump o f the ibex i s mo re c o m p a c t a nd the ho r n s s lende r a nd c u rved bac k . Al l trans l a t i o n s rende r ' w i l d go a t ' . R E F E R E NC E S : 1 S 24 . 2 ; J o b 3 9 . 1 ; Ps 1 04 . 1 8 ; Pr 5 . 1 9

D I F F I C U L T PASSAG ES : In 1 S 2 4 . 2 t s ure h ayye ' e l im may well be a proper name for a p re c i p i c e ( s ee R S V , ' W ildgoat s ' R o c k s ' ) .

Dt 1 4 . 5 :

RS V tran s l a te s

d i shon a s ' i bex ' , b u t i t i s b e t t e r to

i de n tify th i s with th e a n t e l o p e .

" a qqo i n th e s a m e ver s e i s rendered ' ibe x ' by JB, bu t ' wild go a t ' by RS V a n d N E B ; t e ? o is ' a ntelo p e ' i n R S V and N E B . B u t the

[ 46 ]

Ibex

(Capra ibex nubiana)

identific ation of th e s e two Hb wo rd s is very doubtful . Trad itio nall y ox ' . Tr i stram identifi e s it w i th th e o ryx ( a s in J B ) , d e s c r i b e d u n d e r A N T E LOPE .

� is ' wild

Leech Hebrew :

H i ru d i ne a

' aluqah

Ac cording to Bo denhe i m e r (p 7 6 f) , leec hes h a ve se rv e d fo r c upp i n g blood i n m a ny d i ffe re n t d i s ea s e s at l e a s t s i nce 63 BC ,. Th e y we re u s ed i n s te a d o f c upping gl a s s e s , and wh en s a t i ­ a te d th e y dropped o ff b y th e w e i ght o f the blood s uc ked , o r we re f c o r e d to do s o wh e n s a lt wa s s p r i n kl e d o n t h e m .

DESC R I PTIO N :

Th e lo c a l gi a n t s pec i e s o f H i ru d i n e a

[ 47 ]

i s L i m na t i s n i l oti c a .

' aluqah m ay be der ived from a root wh ich co rresponds to the Ara bi c root m ean ing ' to adhere ' ; or it may be an Aram a ic loan word. Som e modern commentato r s cons ider the wo rd to be a proper name , not t o be translated. O r they conc e ive i t to b e a v am p i re - l i k e demon (R V m g) . ID s tates that there i s no di spute over the interpretation of ' aluqah as ' leech ' . R E F E R E NC E :

Pr

30. 15

Leech (Limnatis nilotica)

Leopard

Felis pardus

Hebrew : namer

Greek : pardal i s

DESC RIPTIO N : The l eopard i s o n e o f the mo st dange rou s beasts o f prey, dangerou s n o t o n l y t o dom e s tic animal s , but also t o man . Its m o vem ents are very grac eful . Its fur i s yellow on the ba c k and s i de s , with bla c k s po ts g r ouped in pat t ern s . Th e s e colours make i t easy fo r the animal to hide on th e fo rest floor with i t s c h anging light and shadow.

The leopard was c o m m on in Pal e s t ine i n OT tim e s and is s till found there occas ionally. Two plac e na m e s s uggest leopard s ' haunts : Nu 3 2 . 3 6 ' Beth - ni m ra h ' (leopa r d s ' hou s e ) , and I s 1 5 . 6 and ]e 4 8 . 34 ' th e wate rs of Nim rim ' . ' The mounta ins of l eopa r ds ' ( SS 4 . 8) m ay be rega rded a s a pl ac e na m e o r a po etic al term . The l u rking of the l eopard, th e suddenne s s of its u n expec ted a t ­ tac k, a n d i ts no i s el e s s movem ent s s ym bol iz e God ' s wrath ( Ho 1 3 . 7 ) . Th e s avagery o f the l eopard i s prove rbial . Isa iah c a n find no better illus tratio n of th e k ingdom o f pea c e than the leopard l yi ng down with th e k i d ( Is 11 . 6) .

[ 48 ]

Leopard (Felis pardus)

R E F E R E NC E S :

nam e r : SS 4 . 8 ; I s 1 1 . 6 ; Je 5 . 6 ; 13 . 2 3 ; Ho 1 3 . 7 ; Hbk 1 . 8 n e m a r ( Aram a i c ) : On 7 . 6 pardal i s : R v 1 3 . 2

DI F FI C U LT P ASS AG E S : Som e c om mentato rs p refer to tra n s late nam er in Hbk 1 . 8 a s ' c heeta h ' ( s o NEB) o r ' hu n t i ng l eopa rd ' a fte r Tris tra m , bec a u s e the c heetah wa s u s e d fo r hunt i n g i n t h e pa st .

As the tiger h a s never l ived in Pa les tine, the wo rd b abh a rbu roth Th e tig er ha s s tripe s , the l eopa r d spo ts . in J e 1 3 . 23 should be translated ' s pots ' and not ' s tripes ' .

[ 49 ]

Lion

Fel i s l e o (p e r s i c us ) ,

Heb rew :

Pa n t h e r a l e o (p e r s i c a )

? a r i , "arye h , lebh i , labh i " • layish , s hal,lal p l ur a l : bene labh i , gar , gur ( y oung l ions ) , kep h ir

Gre ek : l e� n

DESC RIPTION : Bodenh e imer says that i n anc i e nt t i m e s the terri­ to r i e s of the Afric an and Pers ian l i o n s m et i n the Midd l e Ea s t , and that up to the 1 9 th c e ntury the Pe r s i a n l io n wa s still fo und in Ira q . The l io n i s o n e o f th e la r ge s t and s t ro nge s t c a r n ivo re s , dange r ­ o u s no t only t o do m e s tic cattl e , but a l s o t o m an ( 1 K 1 3 . 2 4 ; 2 0. 3 6 ; 2 K 1 7 . 2 5 ) . I t s maj e s tic app e a ra n c e i s h e i gh t e n ed b y i t s swift mov e ­ m ents a n d fea rl e s s n e s s , and a l so by i t s mane. Th u s i t h a s be co m e a proverbial s y mbol o f maj esty a nd s tr e n gth . S ee J g 1 4 . 1 8 . Lion s a r e u s u a l l y fou nd i n pa i r s , though so m et i m e s i n l a r ge numbe rs . Th e l io n ' s l a i r i s a hollow i n the gro u n d , h i dden be h i n d s h r u bb er y . I n Pa l e s t i n e th e y s ee m t o pr e fe r t h e s u b- t r o p i c a l vege ­ ta tio n of th e Jo rdan val l ey ( ' th e j ungl e of the Jo rda n , Je 4 9 . 19 ) . Th e l io n l i e s in w a i t fo r i t s prey, killing s m al l e r an i m al s by a b lo w o f the paw , l a r ge r o n e s by a bit e i n the th roat. It d o e s no t sta y i n th e s a m e pl a c e m o re than a coupl e of days . But the big fo rests o f Lebano n s eem to have had ' den s of l io n s ' in Bibl ical t i m e s ( S S 4 . 8 ) , and t h e Bi bl e also m e n t i on s the Negeb, th e desert - l ike c o untry i n th e south o f Pal e s t i n e , a s the i r ho m e ( I s 3 0 . 6 ) . '

It s ho uld b e no ted that the l io n i s u s ed by the B ibl e as a symbol o f s trength in a good as well as i n a bad s en s e : ' th e l io n of the t r i b e o f Judah ' (Rv S . 5 ) , the c ruelty o f e n e m i e s (Je 51 . 3 8 ) , and the supr e m e e ne m y , the Devil (1 P 5 . 8 ) . F o r an effec tive a nd i m p r e s s ive desc r iptio n o f the peac e of the m e s s i anic k i n gdo m , s ee I s 11 . 6 , 7 : th e l ion shall eat s t raw like the ox ' . '

R E F ER E NC ES :

?ari a nd 1 a ryeh : Consult a co nco rdanc e

l ebhi , l abhi? : Gn 49 . 9 ; Nu 23 . 24 ; 2 4 . 9 ; Dt 3 3 . 20; Job 4 . 1 1 ; 3 8 . 3 9 ; Ps 57 . 4 ; I s 5 . 29 ; 3 0 . 6 ; Ho 13 . 8 ; Joel 1 . 6; Na 2 . 1 1 , 1 2

[ 50 J

}ayi s h : Jo b 4 . 1 1 ; Pr 3 0 . .3 0 ; I s 3 0 . 6

�

J o b 4 . 1 0 ; 1 0 . 1 6 ; 2 8 . 8 ; Ps 9 1 . 1 .3 ; Pr 2 6 . 1 3 ; ; 13 .7 5 . 1 4 Ho nd �: Gn 49 . 9 ; Dt 3 3 . 2 2 ; Je 5 1 . .3 8 ; La 4 . 3 ; a � Ezk 1 9 . 2 , 3 , 5 ; Na 2 . 1 1 , 1 2 keph i r : Co n s ul t a c o n c o r d a nc e �2 Ti 4 . 1 7 ; He 1 1 . 3 3 ; 1 P 5 . 8 ; Rv 4 . 7 ; 5 . 5 ; 9 . 8 , 1 7 ; Wo3 ; 1 3 . 2

DI F FICU LT

PAS S AG E S :

Is

21 . 8 :

s e e O TTP, p 1 4 3 .

s ee O TTP, p 1 4 5 . TI1e m ea n in g o f th e Hb wo rd meh e m i s not c l e a r , so s o m e c o m men ta to rs ( e . g. Proc k s c h ) m a k e a c o n ­ I t i s translate d in je ctu re and read nohe m , ' growl ing' o r ' r oaring ' . by D horme , , Ch e yne , K aut zs JB and N E B. ch s way th i Is 3 0 . 6 :

La 4 . 3 : gu r h ere s h o ul d be tra n s l a te d 'a yo un g j ac k a l ' (as RSV, JB) and not ' th e wh elp o f a l io n ' . N E B h a s ' whale s ' .

Ezk 3 8 . 1 3 : A s th e ' yo u ng l io n s ' have noth i n g to do w i th th e ' m ercha nts o f Ta r s h i s h ' , s o m e c o m m enta to rs r e a d i n s te a d o f keph ire yha , r o k e l eyha o r ke n a ' ane yh a , ' t he ir t r ad e s me n ' ( s o NE B ) . The LX X re ad s k om a i from H b k e p h ar e yh a , ' it s v i l l a ge s ' , and t h i s i s followed b y the RS V .

J o b 2 8 . 8 s h a l)a ts m a y b e tran s l a ted ' l i o n ' o r ' a p ro udly animal ' ( c f RSV a nd N E B ' p ro u d bea s ts ' ) .

Little Owl

wal k i n g

A th e ne noc tua glaux

Hebrew : k o �

DE S C R I PTION: Th e H b wo r d ko � i s to day u s ed fo r th e l i t tl e o w l , �h en e noc tua , a s i n Dt 1 4 . 1 6 ( R S V ) . D r i v e r i n HDB c o n s i d e r s i t m a y Well b e the tawny owl , S tr ix aluco (so N E B ) . N E B tra n s l a t e s t i n s h e ­ � i n L v 1 1 . 1 8 a n d Dt 1 4 . 1 6 a s ' l ittl e o wl ' . Se e C HA M E L E O �

the smal l e s t a m o ng the no c tu r na l b i rd s o f prey. It i s to be fo u n d e v e r yw h e re i n Pal e s t i ne i n l o n el y pl ac e s a m o ng ru in s and to m b s , i n roc k s a n d thickets . TI1e ps al m is t ( Ps 1 0 2 ) m e ntion s Th e

l i ttl e owl

is

[ 51 ]

th e o w l bec aus e he fe el s h i m s el f a ' des o l a te m o u rn e r a m idst ru i n s i n the des ert ' ( Wellha u s e n ) , c f vv 1 4 a n d 16 w ith v 6 . Owl s fee d o n m i c e and s e rpents , swallowing the p rey who le and a fterwards vo m i t ing th e i n di ge s tible pa rts such a s bo nes and fur . RE FER E NCES : L v 1 1 . 1 7 ; D t 1 4 . 1 6 ; P s 1 0 2 . 6

Lizard

Lac e rta

Hebrew : le�a ?ah This Hb word wh i c h o nly o c c ur s in Lv 11 . 3 0 is trans ­ lated ' l iz a rd ' in R SV . While Ges en i us and BDB rende r ' a k ind of l i z a rd ' , KB ' ge c k o ' , Bo denhei m e r i s i n c l ined to understa nd the Hb a s a common name for liza rds . N E B ' w a l l - gec ko ' . JB tran s l i terate s. DE S C R IPTION:

Liza r d s abou nd i n w arm c o unt r i e s , and a traveller once counte d 44 d i ffe r e n t spec ie s i n Pal estine; at any rate the number i s very great. Be s id e s the Lac e rtidce, s o m e of th e o th e r fa m i l i e s represe nted i n Pal e st i ne are the Scinc idce , Zonuridce, Aga m i dce and Monito ridce . Th e ' s a nd l iz a rd ' , with wh ich RSV i dentifies the Hb word I:Jomet ( Lv 1 1 . 3 0) , i s a s k i nk , a m em ber of the Sc inc idce . It i s c hi efly to be fo u n d i n de s e rt plac e s , where i ts ye l l o w i s h colour i s protec tive . Un ­ l i k e t he true l i z a r d i t do e s not cl imb, but hides u n de r s to ne s o r i n hol e s . NEB ' great l iz a r d ' , JB ' chameleon ' . RS V re nde r s koal) ( Lv 1 1 . 3 0) by ' l an d c roc o d ile ' . Th i s i s better kno wn under the nam e ' land mo n i to r ' , an d be l o ngs to the fa mil y of M o n i to r i d ce o r Varanidce. It l iv e s in th e d e s erts o f S . Pa l e s t i ne , Sina i a nd Egypt. It i s up to 1 . 5 m l o ng , with a l o n g s nout a nd sharp te eth . NEB ' sand - gec k o ' , JB tra n s l iterate s .

O n the whol e we are inc l i ned t o follow Bodenh e i m e r in h i s opin ­ io n tha t the re pt i l e s mentioned i n Lv 11 . 3 0 are all un identifiable. See al so G E C KO and C HA M E L E O N . F o r se mamith in P r 30. 2 8 , s e e S PID E R . R E F E R ENC E :

Lv

11.30

[ 52 ]

Locust, Grasshopper Hebrew: Gre ek:

Oedipo da m igrato ria, Loc u s ta v i r id i s s ima

? ar be h , gebh (only in plural: gebhim ) , gobhay , gazam , l}.aghabh , l}as il , l}argol , ye le q , �ol ' am , t se l at s al akr is

D E SC R IPTION : The m i grato ry locus t , to which probably m o s t o f the pa s sage s refer, belongs t o the o rder o f Orthopte ra wh ich i s divided into fo rty o r m o r e spec ie s . I t ha s s ix l egs a n d four wi ngs . Th e gra s shoppe r o r Loc usta viridi s s ima belongs to the Ac ridiidre family .

Th e locust is well known i n Palestine and Egypt and the Bible gives some vivid desc riptions of its habits , espec ially i n ' the plague of locusts ' in Ex 10 and the book o f Joel . So me o f the Hb wo rds which the translato r s render ' loc u s t ' o r ' gras shoppe r ' are derived from roots me aning ' to devour ' (gaz am) or ' to swallow ' (sol ' am ) , thus de s c r ibing the m ain c haracte r i s tic o f the insec t ; c f al so tselatsa l , a whi rring insect. The O T referenc e s give an idea of how disa s trous the attac k o f a loc u s t s wa r m might be to the c ountry, and therefo r e it is often a symbol o f God ' s destroying j udgm ent . The numerous Hb words whi c h are translated ' gras shoppe r ' , ' lo c u s t ' or ' c ricket ' m a y i ndicate different spec i e s b u t may a l so m ean the locust in different s tage s of development . It must be admitted tha t the different spec ies c annot be identified b y m eans of the H b wo rd s , e. g . i n L v 1 1 and Joel 1 . gives a n indic ation o f the s tage s o f loc u s t developm ent . Harves t begi n s i n Pal e s tine in April , and i n thi s mo nth the lo c u s t is a t the nymph � tage a n d m o r e vorac ious than at a ny oth er t i m e . Lo cus ts have three stage s : caterpilla r , nymph and m ature . The nym ph ha s sma l l wings , but c a nnot yet fly. Am 7 . 1 - 2

RE F E R E NC E S : ?arbeh : Consult a conco rdance gebh : Is 3 3 . 4 gobhay: Am 7 . 1 ; Na 3 .17 gazam : Joel l . 4 ; 2 . 2 5 ; Am 4 . 9 l;laghabh : Lv 11 . 22 ; Nu 13 . 33 ; 2 Ch 7 . 1 3 ; E c 1 2 . 5 ; I s 40 . 2 2

[ 53 ]

l) a s il : 1 K 8 . 3 7; 2 C h 6 . 2 8 ; Ps 7 8 . 4 6 ; Is 3 3 . 4 ; Joel 1 . 4 ; 2 . 2 5 l;l a rgo l : Lv 1 1 . 2 2 yele q : Ps 1 0 5 . 3 4 ; Je 5 1 . 1 4 , 2 7 ; Joel l . 4 ; 2 . 25 ; Na 3 . 1 5 , 1 6 : �£�m Lv 1 1 . 2 2

tselatsal : Dt 2 8 . 4 2 ; I s 1 8 . 1 akri s : Mt 3 . 4 ; Mk 1 . 6 ; Rv 9. 3 , 7

- ----

D I F F I C U L T PASS AG E S : In Na 3 . 1 7 keghobh go bhay i s pe rhaps a d i t ­ tography a n d shoul d rea d k eghobhay, but it do e s not affe c t th e mean ­

ing. E c 1 2 . 5 ha s b e en interpreted i n di fferen t wa ys .

RSV ' th e gra s s ­

h op p e r d rags itself al o n g ' i s pro babl y r i gh t , becau s e the wo rd l;l a gh a bh m a y i n d i c ate th e nymph o r c a te rpill a r , wh ich c reeps but c a nn o t fly. JB ' Th e g r a s s h o p p e r is h eavy with fo od ', NEB 'the locu s t ' s pa u n c h i s sw ollen ' .

I s 1 8 . 1 t s iltsal : the roo t ts - 1 - t s - l m ea ns ' to t i n gl e , quive r ' . tseltselim ' c ymbal s ' , tsel a tsal ' wh i r r i ng i n s ec t '. R S V a nd JB ' la n d of wh i r ring w in gs ' may be followe d . L XX r en d e r s ' s hip s , boat s ' ( s o NEB).

akr is in M atthew and M ark is s om e t im e s rendered ' c ar ob pod s ' . But the e at ing of l ocu s t s is nothing unu sual among de sert t r ibe s . Mole

Spalax e h re n be rg i

Hebrew : paph a r p a ra h TI1 e Syria n mole rat belo ngs to the rodents , and i s q u ite common in Pal e s ti n e . It h a s s o m e r e s e mblanc e to the E uro ­ pea n mo l e ; i t i s g re y in c o lo ur, but i s large r , r e a c h i n g a l ength of 2 0 e m , and i t does not b el o n g to the s a m e o rder . I t l iv e s under ­ ground a nd fee d s on vege tabl es , e s p e c ial l y b u l b s . D ESC R IPTIO N :

The Mas oret ic tex t in Is 2 . 2 0 ha s l;laph o r peroth , but it i s better to rea d with o ne Gre ek ver s io n l)aparparoth , the plu ral o f J:t a p ha rp a r a h , ' mo l e s ' . N E B ' dung-bee tl e s ' .

[ 54 ]

Mole (Spalax ehrenbergi) RE F E R E NC E :

Is

2. 20

DI F F IC U L T PAS S A G E S :

Lv

1 1 . 29 :

!) o l edh i s tra n s l a t e d ' m o l e ' i n

Ge s eniu s and J B , but t h e E u ropean talp a d o e s n o t l iv e i n Pa l e s t i n e . NEB ' m o l e - ra t ' .

ami RSV; Lv

BOB a nd Be rtho l e t t ra n s late ' we a s e l ' , a s do A V

th i s i s probabl y m o r e c o rrec t .

1 1 . 30

t i n s h e m eth i s o n l y tran s l i t e r a t e d i n s o m e v e r s io n s .

Othe r s tran s l a t e ' m o l e r a t ' , but m o s t i d ent i fy i t w i th the c h a m e l eo n

(q. v . ) .

Moth

Ti ne o l a p e l l i o n e l l a

H e b rew :

DE S C R I

' a sh ,

PTIO N :

�a �

Greek :

ses

Ti n e i d re i s a fa m il y b e l o n gi n g t o t h e o r d e r L epi do p ­

��. ·wh i c h i n c l u d e s mo t h s a n d butte r fl i e s . Onl y o ne o f th e s e s pe ­ ies i s re fe rred to in th e Bibl e , na m el y , th a t w h i c h i s k now n fo r

�

Its ab i l i ty to da m a ge wo o l l e n c lo t h e s .

that t h e h a rm i s d o n e no t by

Th e

th e full - grown [ 55 ]

Is ra e l i te s d i d no t k no w

i n s ec t , but by i t s l a rva

Moths (Tineola pellionella) wh ich ea t s the

wooll e n m aterial ,

in t o

wh ich th e eggs a r e pl ac ed by

th e fe m a l e i n s e c t .

R E F E R E NC ES :

a s h : Jo b 4 . 1 9 ; 1 3 . 2 8 ; 2 7 . 1 8 ; Ps 3 9 . ll ; Is 5 0 . 9 ; 5 1 . 8 ; Ho 5.12 ;;a � : I s 51 . 8 s e s : Mt 6 . 1 9 , 2 0 ; Lk 1 2 . 3 3 ; Ja s 5 . 2 ( s e tobr o to s : m o th e a t e n ) '

-

DIF F I C U L T PASSAGES : Job 2 7 . 1 8 : RSV r e ad s ' the ho us e wh i c h he bu ilds i s l i ke a spide r ' s web ' . fol lo w i n g the Greek and Sy ri ac v e r ­ s i o n s (JB s im i la r ) . We i s e r t ra n s l a t e s ' H e ha s bu il t h i s hou s e l i k e a moth ' , s a yi n g th a t th i s s i m il e of a ' m o th ' s ne s t ' expre s s e s the r a p i d des truc tio n o f wo r l dl y foundation s , w h i c h ove rnigh t c h a n ge s a r ich ma n into a begga r . NEB t r a n s l a t e s ' b i rd ' s n e s t ' here and i n Job 4 . 1 9 . I s 51 . 8 b : i s appro p r iate

R V and RSV t r a n s l at e the wo rd s a s a s ' w o r m ' , a n d it to tak e th i s as the l a r va of th e m o t h . [ 56 ]

Mouse

Murid<E

Heb rew :

' a khba r

D ESC R IPTION: The Hb wo rd ' a khba r i s a c o l l ec tive name fo r al l smal l er rodents of the fam ily murid<E ; a c lo s er identific a t ion o f the s pe c i e s i s mo re doubtful . In our ti m e more than twenty diffe rent s pe c i e s of smaller rodent s have been found i n Pal estine.

1 S 6 probabl y r efers to the Leva n t vo l e ( M ic rotus guentheri ) , eats up the c rops in the fields (JB and N E B ' ra t s ' ) . S o m e c o m ­ it as mentato rs thi n k th e s tory i n 1 S 5 a n d 6 sugge s ts that the m ic e m i gh t also h ave c a u s e d the tumo urs . Bodenhe im er doe s not s ee a n y con ­ nection between the epidem ic a nd the vol e s . Oth e r s u nde r s tand by the story that the gifts of gold offe red by the Ph ilistines were shaped as tum ours and o f the s ize of a mou s e . Th e J ews were fo rbidden t o e a t m i c e ( Lv l l and I s 6 6 . 1 7 : J B ' rat ' , NE B ' j erboa ' ) . RE F ER E NC ES :

Lv 1 1 . 2 9 ;

l

S 6 . 4 , 5 , 11, 1 8 ; I s 66.17

DIF F I C U LT PASS AG E : Je 5 . 2 6 : see OTTP, p 1 60 . It may be added that Bodenh e i m er regards shakh a s a word fo r m ice - here u s ed as a verb .

Mule

Equus a s inus mulu s , mula

H e brew :

pe re d h ( m )

pi rdah ( f)

DESC R IPTIO N : The mule is a hybrid between a mare and a male a s s . Mul es were not bred in the land o f I s ra el as c ro s s b r e edi n g Wa s prohibited in the Law of Mo s es ( Lv 19 . 1 9 ) . Con s equently they must have been imported fro m th e tim e o f King Davi d when they are fir s t ment ione d in t he B ible . E zekie l 2 7 . 14 r e port s the import at ion of m u l e s to Tyre from T o a r m a h g -

.

Th e m ul e wa s (and i s ) val ued h ighl y fo r ridin g and fo r c a rryi n g wa rm mounta i n region s .

h e avy burden s , e s p e c i al l y i n

[ 57 ]

R E F E R E NC E S :

p e r e dh :

C o n s ul t a

c o n c o rdance

pirda h : l K 1 . 3 3 , 3 8 , 4 4 D I F F I C U L T PASS A G ES : yem i m .

Gn 3 6 . 24 has a

A V a n d N E B t ra n s l a te ' mu l e s ' ; R V , RS V a n d J B

ga te in tra n s l a t i n g a l t e r th e

word o f dubio u s

' hot s p r ings ' . S o m e Hebrew to m a y i m , ' water ' .

E s 8 . 1 0 , 14 :

A V tra n s la te s the Hb

JB a nd NE B more co rrectly

Mule

r e kh e s h

(Equus asinus mulus)

SR

l

follow

c o m me n ta to r s pro po s e

' ( s wi ft ) h o r s e s ' .

r

m eaning:

' m ul e s ' .

Vul ­

to

R V , RSV,

Night-Hag Str ix He br ew :

(?)

fl a m m e a

l il ith

D E S C R IPTION:

AV t ra n s l a t e s ' s c re ec h owl ' , RSV ' n i gh t h a g ' .

Th e r e i s no un a n i m i ty a s to th e

rendering o f

lil ith .

Some author i t i e s

(l ik e ID) tra n s l a te ' o wl ' , o t h e r s ( l i k e Fel i k s ) e x pl a i n i t a s a n i gh t ­ d e m on . Driver in H DB s ugge s ts ' nigh t -j a r ' ( s o N E B) , fo r wh i c h s ee NIG H T H A W K .

Th e s c reec h owl ,

place s .

Strix

The n i gh t -hag, Lil i th

fla m m ea , l i v e s in Pal e s tine i n l o n e l y

( s o JB), w a s bel i eved to be a fe m a l e n igh t ­

de m o n , wh i c h haunted th e people o f E do m .

O rig i na l l y Lil ith w a s

the n a m e o f a fe mal e d e m o n co nt r o l l in g t h e gal e .

Known a l s o fro m

Babylo nian l ege nd s , s he

was said to l ive i n t h e d e s e r t s from wh ich Be c a u s e o f th e res embl a n c e betwee n Iilith and t h e Hebrew word fo r ' nigh t ' , la yil , she wa s sa id to be a

she a tta c k ed human b e i n gs .

night-demo n .

R E F E R E NC E :

Is

34.14

Night Hawk, Short-eared Owl

C a p r i m ulgus eu ropreu s , As i o fl a m m e u s

Hebrew: tai)ma1? The o nly c e rtain th ing to b e said a bo u t the tal) ma 1? I s ra e l i t e s ac c o rdin g to the La w . Mo dern s c h o l a r s d i s a gr ee upo n i t s i de n tity. KB s u gge s t s s o m e kind of owl; F e l ik s , in BHH , a fal c on; BDB , quot ing B o c h ar t , the m ale DE SC RIPTIO N:

bird i s th at it w a s u n c l e a n to th e

os tr ich .

The

m ean i n g o f the word i s un c e r t a i n .

th e nam e bi-rd.

tor y

�t

fro m a H b root ba m a � , ' v iol enc e ' ,

S . R . Driver

and sugge s t s

deriv es

a p re d a ­

In HDB D r i v e r s u gge s ts the s h o rt - eared o w l ( s o N E B ) ,

is ra r e a n d p e r h a p s o nl y a w i n t e r v i s ito r to Pa l e s t i n e .

sc r e e ch owl ' .

[ 59 ]

tho ugh

JB ha s

RS V t r a n s la te s ' n i ght hawk ' , wh i c h i s the goa ts uc ker , Capr i ­ m ulgus europaeu s , a m i grato ry bird, da rk - c oloured and s h o r t ­ l egge d , wh ic h hunts insects at night. Dur i n g the day i t r e s ts on

b r a nc h e s .

R E F E R E NC ES : Lv 11 . 1 6 ; D t 14 . 1 5

Onyeha S t rombu s Hebr ew : shel) eleth DE SC RIPT IO N : LXX ren d e r s th e Hb w o r d by �· w h i c h l iteral l y me an s a na il or a nyth i ng o f the s hape o f a nail , fo r i n s t ance the shel l o f a c o c kl e or mollu s c . C f N E B ' a ro mat i c shel l ' . The context in Exodu s refe rs t o an ingred ie nt of the incense to be bu rnt on t h e altar . Ce rt a in spe c ie s of m ollus c s ( o f the St rombu s fam i l y ) wh ich l ive in wa r m s h a l l o w water in the Mediter ranean and Red Seas , wh e n burnt give o ff an a ro m a t i c but pungent s m oke . O t hers take o nyc h a a s a kind o f roc k ro s e (C i s tu s sp . ) .

See

M YRRH.

R E F E R E NC E : Ex 3 0. 34

Ostrich

Stru th io c a m e lu s

H e brew : ya ' e� ya ' � n ah , bath h a yya ' a n ah , ___

r ena n i m

DESC R IPTIO N: The Hb ya ' anah is co n n e c ted by so m e wit � an Ara b ic wo rd m e a ni ng ' d e s ert ' , by other s with an Ara maic wo rd wh ich m ea n s 'gr e e d ' . Bath hayya ' a n a h is thus ' the daughter o f th e des ert ' , i . e . a d e s e rt fowl (cf NEB ' de s e rt ow l ' ) , o r a greedy b i rd . The i d e nti fic a ­ tion w i th 'o s tric h ' ( RV, RS V a nd JB) goe s bac k to the LXX and t h e Ta rgum . Drive r in HDB, howev e r , th inks that ba t h hayya ' anah i s m o s t probably the owl (a s i n AV) a nd s ugge s t s the e a gl e owl . H e re ­ j ec t s th e tr a n s l atio n ' o s tri c h ' ( tho ugh acc epti ng it fo r ya ' en and renanim , a s do e s N E B) on the gro unds that the o s tr i c h d o e s not n e ed

r 60 1

wa te r

( I s 43 . 20, c f 3 4 . 1 3 ) , does not haunt ruins ( Is 1 3 . 21 ; J e 5 0 . 3 9 )

and do e s not wail a s owl s d o ( M i 1 . 8 ) .

The Hb wo rd renanim , u s e d only i n Job 3 9 . 1 3 , m ay b e derived ' fr om a roo t wh i c h m eans ' to give a r i n ging c r y , a n d m a y thu s b e a n allu s ion to th e hoa r s e co mpl a i n i ng c ry u ttered by the bird a t n igh t . Th e ' mo u r n ing' m e n ti o n ed i n Mi 1 . 8 , s ays Bodenheimer, may well be that of an owl . The pa s sage i n J o b 3 9 conta i n s a detailed desc ription o f the habits o f th e o s tri c h : th e eggs are l a i d i n a hollow i n th e s a n d , whe re they a r e h a tche d b y the h eat o f the s u n and the sand, a nd a t tim e s also by t h e male bird ; the speed with wh i c h the o s t r ich ru n s , wh i c h i s hel pe d b y the swingi ng of i t s wings , sometim e s eve n s u rpa s s e s that o f a m ounted hunte r . On th i s s ee also O TTP, p 9 0 . R E F E R E NC ES : bath h a y y a ' a na h : Lv 1 1 . 1 6 ; Dt 1 4 . 1 5 ; J o b 3 0 . 29 ; Is 1 3 . 21 ; 3 4 . 13 ; 43 . 2 0 ; J e 5 0 . 3 9 ; M i 1 . 8 renanim : Job 3 9 . 1 3 ya ' e n :

La 4 . 3

Owl Driv e r i n HOB s u gge s ts that th e r e a r e eigh t H b wo rds fo r o wl s , i n des c endin g o rder o f s iz e i n the l i s t o f unclean b i rds i n Lv 11 . 1 6 - 1 8 a n d Dt 1 4 . 1 5 - 1 7 , as follows :

arranged

1. 2. 3.

4. 5. 6. 7. 8.

h a yya ' a nah : ' e agle owl ' ( RS V and JB ' ostrich ' , N E B 'de sert owl ' ) tabm a � : ' sh o rt - ea red owl ' (NEB; RSV ' nigh thawk ' , J B ' s c r eech owl ' ) s h a }). a p h : ' lo ng - eared owl ' ( N E B ; RSV and J B ' s eagul l ' ) ko � : ' tawny owl ' (NEB; RSV ' owl ' [ ' l ittl e owl ' i n Dt 1 4 . 1 6] ; J B ' ow l ' , ' ho r ned ow l ' , ' night o wl ' ) shalakh : ' fi s h er owl ; ( N E B; RSV a n d J B ' c o r m o ra nt ' ) ya n s huph : ' s c re ec h owl ' ( N E B ; R S V ' ib i s ' [ ' grea t o wl ' i n Dt 1 4 . 1 6] ; JB ' ba rn owl ' ) tin shem eth : ' l i ttl e owl ' ( NEB; RS V ' water h en ' , J B ' ibi s ' ) qa '>ath : ' s cops owl ' ( RSV a n d JB ' pe l i c a n ' , NEB ' ho rned owl ' )

bath

[ 61 ]

Al l owl s wo uld be unc l ean a s p r eda to rs fee d i n g o n raw fl e sh . Th e r e a re two oth er words tra n s l a ted ' owl ' i n E n gl i s h vers io n s . q i ppoz i n I s 3 4 . 1 5 i s m o s t l i kely ' ar rowsna k e ' ( s o R V ; J B ' v iper ' ) a nd not ' ow l ' (AV and RSV ) . See A R ROWS NAKE , but see als o PARTRIDGE ( s o NE B) . l il ith in Is 34. 14 is the n i ght j a r ( NE B and RS V ' night hag' ) and not the scree c h ow l (AV ) . JB t r ansl iter ate s . Th e identific ati o n o f the d ifferent spec i e s o f owl s i s very d iffi ­ Th e fac t tha t owls c h i efl y dwell in ru i n s and d e s erted plac e s , and that the hoot o f a n owl c a u s e d muc h s upersti tiou s fea r, ha s m ade it a s ym bol of desol atio n and deva s tation in the Bibl e . cult.

Ox,

Cow

bo s

Hebrew : baqar (ox , c a ttl e , h e rd), shor ( s i ngl e h e ad of ca t tl e ) , pa r ( young bul l ) , parah (cow), ' e gh e l (c alf) , ' e ghlah ( h e i fe r ) , ?eleph (c a ttl e ) , ?abb i r (l i t : s tron g, m igh ty) Greek : bou s , tauro s , kteno s , dama l i s (heifer), m o s c h o s (c a l f) , thremma ( c a t tl e ) , s i t i s ta (ca ttl e that have been fa ttened) An i n te r e s tin g po int a bo u t the desc r iption of t h i s a n i ­ m al in th e O T i s the e m ph a s i s on its b e auty . Th i s has m ade s o m e com m e n ta to r s t h ink o f o l d E gyptian a n d A s s yrian i l l u s t r a ti o ns , s how ­ i ng a s t a t el y a n i m a l not unl ike the I nd i a n z ebu , o r small humped ox . D ESC RIPTION :

wa s rich i n c attl e , e s pec iall y i n the Del ta a r ea , Go shen , wh e re th e Hebrews s ettled unde r Jo s eph . Abraha m rec e ived oxen a s a gi ft fro m Pharoah when he went i nto Egypt ( Gn 1 2 . 1 4 - 1 6 ) . In Pale s t ine c attle gr aze d on the pla in s (e . g. the plain of S h a ron ) , in B a s h a n a nd i n Gil e a d . The behaviour and habits of c attl e a re de ­ sc r i be d in the book of the h erd s man Amo s . Egypt

o f fa tte n i ng c a ttl e for s pec i a l pu rpo s e s i s m ention ed i n l K 1 . 9; 4 . 23 ; Mt 2 2 . 4 ; Lk 15 . 2 3 ; cf l S 2 8 . 24 ( ' e ghe l m arbe q , ' a sta ll­ fatt e ne d c a l f' ) . m ar be q lite r ally means ' a t ying pla ce ' . The c at tle tha t w e re to be fattened w e r e not intende d to ge t too much ex e rc i s e . Th e h a b it

[ 62 ]

C a t tl e w e re u s e d no t o n l y fo r s a c r i fi c i a l p u r po s e s a n d fo r foo d ,

but a l s o a s d r a u ght a n i m a l s gr a i n ( Dt 25 . 4 ;

1

( e . g . Lk

1 4 . 1 9 ) a nd fo r t r ea d i n g o u t

Co 9 . 9 ; 1 Ti 5 .1 8 ) .

Th e m i l k o f th e c o w i s o f te n m e n t i o n e d a s foo d ( Gn 1 8 . 8 ;

Eve n c h e e s e i s m e n t i o n e d (Jo b 1 0 . 1 0 ) ; Duh m c o m m e n t s ,

of a nc ient

ph ys i o l o gy ,

Jg 4.19).

' a sa mple

th e fo rmation o f th e e m b ryo i n t h e wo m b

'

pl a i ned i n te r m s o f the c u rd l i n g o f c h e e s e . ? a bb i r i n J g 5 . 2 2 i s ' b u l l ' o r

' h o rs e ' ; i n I s

ex ­

10.13 k e ? abbir i s

tr an s l a te d by s o m e ' l i k e a m i gh t y m a n ' , m o r e c o r r ec t l y R S V a n d

NEB

' l i k e a bul l ' .

In J n 4 . 1 2 A G expla i n th re m m a a s ' do m e s t i c a te d

c i al l y s h e e p o r go a t .

a ni mal ,

espe ­

'

R E F E R E NC E S :

Dt 7 . 1 3 ; 2 8 4 , 1 8 , 5 1 ; P s 8 . 7 ; 5 0 . 1 0 ; Pr 1 4 . 4 ;

? el eph :

.

I s 3 0 . 24

? a hb i r s i gn i fy i n g ' bu l l ' :

3 4 . 7 ; Je 4 6 . 1 5

P s 2 2 . 1 2 ; .5 0 . 1 3 ; I s 1 0 . 1 3 ;

Fo r o th e r Hb wo rd s c o n s ul t a c o n c o rda n c e

te ? o :

s e e IB E X

bo u s :

L k 1 3 . 1 .5 ; 1 4 . 5 , 1 9 ;

Jn

2 . 14, IS;

1

Co 9 . 9 ; 1 T i 5 . 1 8

ta u ro s :

Mt 2 2 . 4 ; A c 14 . 13 ; He 9 . 13 ; 1 0 . 4

k t e no s :

c a ttle :

Rv 1 8 . 1 3 ; a n i m a l s u s ed fo r r i d i n g :

L k 1 0 . 3 4 ; Ac 2 3 . 2 4 ; do m e s t ic ated a n i m a l s :

1 Co

15.39

m o s c ho s :

L k 1 5 . 2 3 , 2 7 , 3 0 ; He 9 . 1 2 1 9 ; ,

m o s c ho po i e6 :

s i t i s ta :

Mt

th rem m a : DI F F IC U L T PASSA G E S :

' to m a k e a c a l f ' Ac 7 . 4 1

22.4.

Jn

4.12

re ? em :

Ps 2 2 . 2 1 ; 2 9 . 6 ; 9 2 . 1 0 ; I s 3 4 . 7 ' unic o rn ' ) , Bo s p ri m igen i u s ,

da m al i s :

Rv

4.7

He 9 1 3 .

Nu 2 3 . 2 2 ; 2 4 . 8 ; D t 3 3 . 1 7 ; J o b 3 9 . 9 ;

i s ge n e r a l l y t ra n s l a ted ' w i l d o x ' ( A V

wh i c h in a n c i e n t t i m e s w a s hu n te d b y As syr i a n k i n gs . Th e Akk a d i a n wo r d ri mu u ndoubte d l y s ta n d s fo r th e au roc h s , o r w i l d ox . So m e c o m m e n t crto r s h av e c o n n e c ted the Hb

Wo rd w ith t h e A ra b i c r i m ' a n te l o pe ' . Th i s a n i ma l , how eve r , i s ra the r s h y a n d e a s y to ta m e w h ic h do e s not fi t t h e O T d e s c ri p tio n of a W il d , s tro ng a nd unta m ahl e an i m a l . ,

[ 63 ]

Partridge

Caccabi s c huka r o r Ammoperdix heyi

Hebrew : qore ? DESC RIPT ION : The roc k partridge o r Cac c a bis chukar was a favou rite ga m e bird in Bibl ical t i m es . It wa s hunted i n th e moun ­ t a in s of Pale s tine , a s its delicate fl e s h ma kes exc ell ent eating. Anothe r spec i e s which i s th e only pa rtri dge fo un d in the des ert of Enged i (cf l S 2 6 . 20) is the sand pa rtridge , Ammoperdix heyi. The wildernes s o f Z iph (l S 2 6 . 2 ) is aro und Engedi . The roc k pa rtridge i s a c o lourful bi r d with red l egs a nd b ill , and a wh ite throat edge d w ith a blac k l ine . Th e sand partridge i s o f m edium s i z e , with yell ow feet. The mal e has s andy buff plumage , the upper ta il c o verts penc illed and bar red with brown, the under - s u r face c h e s tnut and white ; the fem a l e i s greyi s h buff. Th i s partridge is a great runner and speeds along t h e ground w h en i t i s cha sed, until it beco m e s exhaus ted a nd can b e knocked d ow n by the hunter ' s s t ic k . Th e H b na me o f the pa rtridge , qor e ? , l i teral l y m e a n s ' the c a l l er ' , alludi ng to the pec ul i a r call the b i rd makes w hen frighte ned . The pa rtridge i s often s na red by m ea n s of a decoy. Ecc l e s i a s ­ tic u s ll . 3 0 mentio n s a ' dec o y partridge i n a c age ' which indicates th e c u s tom of c onceal ing a c a ge som ewh ere i n the hun ti ng area, with a captured bird i n s ide which with i ts call notes will attra c t wild bi rd s . J e 1 7 . ll , ' the partr idge that gath e r s a brood which s h e did no t hatch ' , refe r s to a n anc ient bel ief that the partridge s teal s eggs fro m other n e s t s but that hatched fledgl i ngs retu rn to the i r own m o ther . Th i s e r ro neous idea may be due to the fac t that the hen lays a n un u su ­ al l y l arge number o f eggs (a ne s t co nta ining 2 6 has been found ) ; o r to the fac t that th e c h ukar o r roc k partri dge lays two c l utch e s , o n e fo r the coc k to i nc ubate . Jeremiah and 1 Sam uel a r e therefo re (no t s urp r i s i ngl y ) us ing the s a m e Hb wo rd to d e s c ribe two different s p e ­ c i es . Dr iver in HDB sugge st s that qippoz (see ARROWS NAKE ) m a y be a var iety of the s and partr id ge Caccabis s inaic a , which hop s or l e ap s away w ith great agility when disturbed .

[ 64 ]

R E F E R EN C ES :

1 S 26. 20; je 17.11

jg 1 5 . 1 9 ' en haqqo re ? s houl d n o t b e tra ns l ated idge well ' , but ' the caller ' s well ' , a s i ndic ated in t h e RSV not e , a ' p rt r a s i t co m m em o ra te s S a m s o n ' s c al l i ng on God fo r h elp .

DI F F I C U L T PASSA G E :

Pelican Pel icanu s onoc rotalus He brew : qa ? ath DES C R IPTIO N : The Hb qa ?ath is one of the numerou s unc l ean birds in Lv 11 and Dt 1 4 who s e identific a tion i s doubtfu l . Many s c hola rs nowadays translate ' pel ican ' , mo s t o f the m howeve r noting that the O n e rea son fo r thi s i s that the m e a n i n g of the word i s unc e rta i n . p el i c a n frequen ts r i ve r s and lakes rather th an ruin s , a s it i s said to in Is 34 and Z eph 2 . Th e o n l y sure th ing we c an s a y about the Hb w ord i s that it stands fo r an unc lean bird, whi c h dwell s i n ruin s , a nd that the word may be derived from a root ' to th row out ' , cons eq uentl y 'a vom iter ' , which is taken by comm entator s to allude to the pel ican ' s all eged habit of throwing up food fo r i t s young fro m its c ro p . The pel ican i s a pic turesque b i r d with s nowy white feathe rs , bro ad wings the expa n s io n of whi c h i s 3 . 6 to 3 . 9 m , and a l a rge yel ­ l ow bill . ' Wh en it s it s m o tionles s a t the e dge of a swa mp , its h e ad a ga i nst i t s brea s t, dige s ting th e fis he s it has sc ooped u p in i t s pouc h , i t bec o m e s the very image o f brood i n g so rrow ' ( Pa rm elee , p

169 ).

Dr iver i n H DB s u gge s t s the scops owl , o tus scop s , wh ich i s qa ? ath ma y the n be an ono matopo eic word to repre s en t hooting. NEB has ho r n e d OWl' ( ' de se rt owl ' in P s 102 . 6); RSV 'pelic an ' in Lev it icus and Deute ­ ronomy , e l s ew he re 'vulture ' or ' hawk ' .

c o mm o n in o l ive grove s a nd about ru i n s in Pale s ti n e .

'

.RE F E R E NC ES :

Lv 1 1 . 1 8 ; Dt 1 4 . 1 7 ;

Ps

[ 65 ]

1 0 2 . 6 ; Is 3 4 . 11 ; Ze ph 2 .14

Porcupine , Bittern

Hys t rix c ri st a ta ( E u ro p ean po r c u p i n e )

Bo taurus stel l a r i s ( bitte r n ) Hebrew : q ippo d h D E SC R IPTIO N :

The Hb q ippo dh m a y be d erived fro m a v e r b wh ich

m e a n s ' t o roll up ' ; th is

l ed to the trad itional i dentific atio n w i th the p o r c u pine. 11uee s p ec i e s a r e fo u n d i n Pal e s t i n e , a m o ng them Hys tri x: c ri s tata . has

Th e c on tex t o f th e refere n c e s i n d i c a t e s tha t we h ave to do with

a n an i m al which haunts d e s o l a te pl ac e s . Th i s , in additi on to th e a ll u s i on to po ol s of water ' in I s 1 4 . 23 , ha s led so m e tra n s lato rs to r e n d e r the wo r d ' bittern ' , a bird with l o n g n ec k a nd l egs , whic h l ives n e a r ponds a n d moo r s ; it s weird and mo urnful c r i e s have al ­ wa ys c a u s ed superstitious dread. No defi n i te dec i s ion a s to identifi ­ c a t i o n c a n be m a d e . '

D r i ve r i n HOB rej ects ' po rc up i ne ' o n the grounds tha t i t c ould s c a rc el y l o dge in th e capita l s ' o f p i l l a r s i n Ni neveh ( Z eph 2 . 14 ) . ' Bit e t rn ' m i gh t fi t the ' poo l s o f wate r ' i n I s 1 4 . 23 but no t the deso ­ l a t e p l a c e s o f the o ther two pa s s age s . He s ugge s ts tha t the m ea n i n g r o l l ed u p ' o f qippodh w o u l d s u i t the b u s t a rd (oti s ) , wh i c h h a s a b u n c h ed - up nec k that swell s i n s o m e s pec i e s i n to a ru ff i n t h e breed ­ ing s ea s o n . At l ea s t t hree spec i e s a re s e e n in Pal e s tin e , s h y bi rd s wh i c h a re u s ua l l y fo u nd i n w a s te grou n d , op e n plac e s o r the de s e rt ed ge . N EB t ransla t e s ' bu s t a rd ' . '

'

A V has ' bittern ' . RV , fo l l ow in g LXX and Vulgate , has 'porcu ­ p ine ' · R. SV h as 'porcup ine ' in Is 3 4 . l l and ' hedgehog' e l s ewhe r e . JB has ' h edgehog' in Is aiah , ' heron ' in Zeph aniah . R E F E R E NC E S :

Quail

Is 1 4 . 2 3 ; 3 4 . 1 1 ; Z ep h 2 . 1 4

C o tu rn i x c oturn ix

Hebrew :

s el aw

D E S C R IPTION : Al l c o m m e n ta to r s are now i n agreement wi th re ga rd i d e ntific a tio n o f th i s bi r d . The qua i l i s a s m all m i gra to ry

t o th e

[ 66 ]

b i rd, 1 9 e m long. It i s brown o r s andy i n c olour w ith yellowi sh s t r ea k s , and c o m e s to Pal e s t ine during Ma rc h and April in e no rm ou s fl o c k s . I n i t s fl i ght it u s ual ly follows the wind , b u t if the wind s ud ­ d e nly ch ange s , the entire flo c k may be driven to the ground where it l ies exh au s ted and c a n e a s i l y be c aught o r killed . The ' sprea ding o ut ' m e ntioned i n Nu 1 1 was fo r the pu rpo s e o f dr y ing the fl e s h and thu s p re s e rv i ng i t fo r future u s e . Bodenheimer ( i n I D ) po ints o u t tha t the reference i n Nu 11 . 3 3 to c a u s ed b y the eating of qua il s h a s m edico - h i s to r ic al sup ­

a pla gu e po r t .

R E F E R E NC E S :

Ex

1 6 . 1 3 ; Nu 1 1 . 3 1 , 3 2 ; Ps 105 . 40

Quail (Coturnix coturnix)

Raven Heb re� :

Cor vidae Greek : ko rax

' o rebh

DE S C R IPTIO N :

fl ight of the tn e s s e n er g ,

As

his rec ko n i ng by the n o t a dove as h i s fi r s t highly d eve lo p ed bi r d a n d much

a w i s e s a il o r No ah m a de

b i r d s , s e nd i n g out a raven a nd b e c a u s e the r av e n i s a

[ 67 ]

a bl e to s u rv i ve

do ve .

Th e raven d i d n o t r e tu r n to the a rk .

It w as h e l p as i t feed s o n c a rr i o n a n d wou l d ' fi n d e no ugh t o e a t i n th e fl o a t i n g w r ec ka ge o f a flooded world ' ( Pa rm el ee , p 5 5 ) .

h a r d i e r th a n th e

wi thou t human

Th e raven i s l i s ted a m o n g t h e u nc l ea n b i rd s . Its n e s t i s u s u a l l y found i n s o l i t a r y plac e s . It i s a c o m m o n bi rd all o v e r Pal e s ti n e , h a s a bea u t i fu l bl a c k c o lo u r a n d i s a bo ut 6 2 e m long. Ac co r d i ng to Lv 1 1 , the Hb wo r d i s a general nam e fo r a l l ra v e n s ( Co rv i d a= ) . R E F E R E NC ES :

' o rebh : Gn 8 . 7 ; L v 1 1 . 1 5 ; Dt 1 4 . 1 4 ; l K 1 7 . 4 , 6 ; J o b 3 8 . 4 1 ; P s 1 47 . 9 ; P r 3 0 . 1 7 ; SS 5 . 1 1 ; I s 3 4 . 1 1 . (Jg 7 . 2 5 and I s 1 0 . 2 6 r e f e r to p l a c e na m e s . )

kora x :

D I F F IC U L T

PASS A G E :

Lk 1 2 . 2 4

Th e m i r a c l e by t h e b ro o k C her ith ( l K

Raven (Corvidw)

r 68 J

17),

whe re th e raven s brough t Elijah bread and m eat every mo rning a nd e ve n ing, has been interpreted in a natu ra l i stic way by s o m e c o m m e n ­ ta to r s : t h e y read ' Arabs ' in s tead o f ' rave n s ' . Th i s i s po s s ibl e by cha nging the vowel s , as th e cons onants of the wo rds ' Arabs ' a nd ' ' raven s are the same in Hebrew.

Rock badger (Procavia syriacus)

Rock

Badger, Syrian Coney

Proc avia s yr ia c u s

Hebrew : shaph an

DE SC RIPTION : Mo dern transl ato rs generally agree in identifying

thi s an imal with the rock ba dge r , al though it do e s no t belong to the rum i nants a m o ng wh ich it i s m e n t i o n e d in Lv 11 .

Whe n c he w i n g i t

mov e s its jaws in a way that resemble s a rum inant.

Th� roc k badger l ives among roc k s fro m th e De ad Sea va lley

t o Mt. Herm on . Ol der E u ro pean tran s lato r s , such as Lu ther a n d

AV, w ho were not fam i l i a r with th i s an imal , thought i t to be the rab ­ The roc k badger is a h e rbivoro u s a n i m a l about th e s iz e o f a ha r e . It belongs to t h e o rde r of Hyrac o idea and to the gro up of th e bi t .

r 69 1

s ubu n gul a te s . I t h a s n o hoofs but broad nail s . The toe s , four on the fo r e - l egs and three on the bac k l i m b s , a re connec ted with s kin a l m o s t like a web. Under i ts feet i t ha s pads l ike s u c k in g - d i s c s wh i c h e nable it to keep i t s footing o n s l ippery roc k s . Its habits a r e grega r io u s , rather l i k e tho s e of the marmot. Its fur i s yellow and brown, and i t ha s short ears and a ve ry s m a l l ta i l . J B tra n s late s ' hyra x ' ( ' ro c k rabbit' i n Prove rbs ) . R E F E R E NC ES : L v 1 1 . 5 ; D t 1 4 . 7 ; Ps 104 . 1 8 ; Pr 3 0 . 2 6

Scorpion Hebrew :

Buthus quinqu e s t riatu s ' aqrabh

Gree k :

sko rp io s

DESC RIPTION: Th e s c o rp io n belongs to the order o f Arachnida ancl is a k i n to the spider. It is quite c o m m o n in Mediterranean countri e s and wa s al s o i n Palestine i n Bibl ical tim es , a s i s shown b y a n a s c e n t south o f the Dead S e a nam e d Akrabbim ( Nu 3 4 . 4 ; ]o s 1 5 . 3 ; J g 1 . 3 6 ) .

It i s a s mall a n i m a l w ith eight l egs l ik e a spide r . Its m a i n characte r i s ti c s a r e i t s two c l aws , l i k e a lobs te r ' s , with w h i c h i t catc h e s and hol d s i t s prey, and i t s l o n g j o i nted t a i l w h i c h c a n be c u rl e d up over its head and which contain s the venom gland . Th e ta il a l so h a s a s ting, which i s extrem ely painfu l , a n d c an o n occa s ion even be dange rous to m a n ( Rv 9 . 5 , 1 0 ) . It feeds on loc u s t s and be e t l e s .

Scorpion (Buthus) r 70 1

H auc k po i n t s o u t th a t wh e n c o n t r ac t e d at rest a s c o rpio n m a y have s o m e s i m i l a r i t y t o a n egg, s o t h a t a p ers o n re ac h in g fo r a n e gg in th e da rk in a s mall ho u s e m i gh t m a k e a s e r io u s mi stake. M a ny em

lo ng.

spec ies o f sco rpion a re fo u n d i n Pa l e s t i n e , fro m 4 to 2 0

R E F E R EN C E S :

' a q rabh : Nu 3 4 . 4 ; Dt 8 . 1 5 ; Jo s 15 . 3 ; Jg 1 . 3 6 ; l K l 2 . ll , 1 4 ; 2 Ch 1 0 . 1 1 , 1 4 ; E z k 2. 6 s k o r p i o s : Lk 1 0 . 1 9 ; 1 1 . 1 2 ; Rv 9 . 3 , 5 , 1 0

DIF F IC ULT PASSAG ES : m a ' al eh ' aq rabb i m ( Nu 34 . 4 ; Jo s 1 5 . 3 ; J g 1 . 3 6) i s a geograph i c a l name whic h i n d i c a te s the p re s e n c e o f the anima l , as st ated above . The w ord ' aqrabh in l K ing s and 2 Ch r on i c le s refers n ot t o the an im al but to a w h ip c alle d a ' s c orp ion ' .

Sea Gull, Te rn

L a r u s o r S te r na

fluv i a til i s

Hebrew : s hapa ph DESC RIPTION: Th e roo t o f th e Hb wo rd s h a p ap h su gge s t s the m ea n ­ ing ' thin ' o r ' l ean ', and th i s , o f c o ur s e , i s a good d e sc r i pt i o n o f t h e co mmon tern , S terna fluviatil i s .

Today i t i s th e Hb n a m e fo r ' gull ' , but, a s Bo denh e i m e r s ays , whe th e r it was so in Bibl ical tim e s i s n o t c e r ta i n . Vul gate, LXX, RSV and J B t ran s late ' se agu l l ' , AV h a s ' c u c k oo ' , a nd Driv e r ( fo ll o w e d by N EB) s u gge s ts ' lo n g - e a re d owl ' , As ia o t u s . R E F ER ENC ES :

Lv 1 1 . 1 6 ; Dt 1 4 . 1 5

[ 71 ]

Serpent, Viper, Adder, Leviathan

Biti s varietans ( C e ra s te s c o r n u ta )

( Naj a haj e )

( Ec h i s colo rata )

nal}ash ,

He br ew : Gre e k :

?eph ' e h ,

tsepha ' ,

s h a raph , l iwyath a n ,

aph i s ,

ec hidna ,

DES C R IPTION:

pe then,

' ak h s h ubh,

he rpeto n ,

s h eph ipho n ,

zol).eleth

ta n n i n ,

aspis

Se rpents a r e among t h e mo s t wide spread repti l e s

a nd are to be found in all continent s ; the y dec rea s e in number and sp e c ie s towa rds the po l e s , but inc r e a s e as o n e app ro ache s the equa ­ to r . Th i rty - three different s pec ie s have b e e n found in Pal e s tine a nd

n e i ghbou ring c ou n t r i e s , twenty o f wh ich are po i s onou s . of v i p e r s

'

(Ps 140 . 3 )

' The po i s on

m ak e s th em feared by the inhabi tants .

The

po i s o n of e. g. the cobra ( Naj a h aj e ) is dangerous and may lead to

dea th with i n half a n h o u r . The s e rpen t ' s weapon of atta c k is its po i ­ s o n fa ng, but in Bibl i c al times it wa s bel i eved to be th e to ngue Qob

20. 1 6 ;

Ps

140. 3).

Other

d a n ge ro u s charac te r i s tic s o f th e s e r p e nt

notic ed by Bibl i c a l w r i t e r s are i ts i nc o n s picuou s way o f moving a nd th e e a s e with whic h it hide s itself.

So

it bec o m e s a s ymbol of th e

unexpec tedne s s of the Day o f the Lord ( Am

5 . 19 ) and an i l l u s tration (Mt 3 . 7 ; Gn

o f the treac h e ry and subtl ety of bo th m an and the devil

3 . 1). t s epha ' :

BOB says th a t the identific ation of th i s word i s diffic u l t .

He r efers t o Tr i s tra m , who s ugge s ts daboia xanth i na , a veno mou s

vipe r , but a dds tha t vipe r s do not l a y eggs , and quo tes Furre r who

propo s e s a il uroph i s vivax .

AV h a s ' c oc katric e ' ; R SV ' viper ' ; JB

' adde r ' , ' ba s il i s k ' and ' v iper ' ; N E B u s ually ' v ipe r ' .

p e th en i s u s ua lly rendered ' a sp ' o r ' c obra ' (Naj a haj e ) . " eph ' e h , acco rding to Bodenhei m e r , i s identified in mode r n Hb wi t h th e c a r pet v iper , Ec h i s colo rata , and th i s may al s o be the B i b l i ­ c al meaning.

Th e c a rpet v iper i s a po i s onou s s nake , quite co m m o n

in the J ericho plain . vipe r ' in Is

30).

RSV, J B an d

NEB

[ 72 ]

a l l h a ve

' viper' ( N EB ' s a nd ­

RE F E R E NC E S : nal)a sh : C onsult a c o nc o rdance ?eph ' e h : Job 2 0 . 1 6 ; Is 3 0 . 6; 5 9 . 5 ts epha ' : P r 23 . 3 2 ; I s 1 1 . 8 ; 1 4 . 29 ; 59 . 5 ; J e 8 . 1 7 pethen : Dt 3 2 . 3 3 ; Job 2 0 . 1 4 , 1 6 ; P s 5 8 . 4 ; 91 . 13 ; I s 11 . 8 s h eph ipho n : Gn 49 . 17 tannin : G n 1 . 21 ; Ne 2 . 1 3 ; Job 7 . 1 2 ; Ps 7 4 . 1 3 ; 14 8 . 7 ; Is 2 7 . 1 ; 51. 9; Je 5 1 . 3 4 ; La 4 . 3 ; E zk 2 9 . 3 ; 3 2 . 2 ( in a ll the s e pa s s age s the Hb word s tand s fo r som e ' s ea

mon s te r ' ; only in the following pas s age s shoul d tannin be tra n s l a ted ' s e rpent ' :

Ex 7 . 9 , 1 0 , 1 2 ; D t

3 2 . 3 3 ; Ps 91 . 1 3 ) Nu 2 1 . 6 , 8; Dt 8. 15 ; Is 14 . 2 9 (In Is 6 . 2 , 6 it s h ou ld be tran s lated ' se r aphim ' . ) l iwyath a n : Job 3 . 8 ; 41 . 1 ; Ps 7 4 . 1 4 ; 1 04 . 2 6 ; I s 2 7 . 1 a ph i s : M t 7 .10; 1 0 . 1 6 ; 2 .3 . 33 ; M k 1 6 . 1 8 ; L k 1 0 . 1 9 ; 11 . 1 1 ; Jn 3 . 14 ; 1 Co 10. 9 ; 2 Co 11. 3 ; R v 9 . 1 9 ; 1 2 . 9 , 14f; 20 . 2 ec h i dna : Mt 3 . 7 ; 1 2 . 34 ; 23 . 3 3 ; Lk 3 . 7 ; Ac 2 8 . 3 h e rpeto n : Ac 1 0 . 1 2 ; 1 1 . 1 6 ; Ro 1 . 23 ; Ja s 3 . 7 a s pi s : Ro 3 . 1 3 sharaph:

DIF F IC ULT PASS AG ES : 1 K 1 . 9 : ?e ben z ol}e leth i s th e n a m e o f a place in the neighbo u rhood of Jerusa l e m . RSV and JB render ' Th e S erpe n t' s Sto ne ' , bec au s e th e word may be derived fro m z ahal , ' to c reep , to c rawl ' (c f Dt 3 2 . 24 ; Mi 7 .17 ). NEB tra n s l iterates ' the s tone Zoheleth ' .

Ps 140 . 3 :

' akhshubh i s ' vipe r ' o r ' spider ' .

See S PID E R.

l iwyath a n , Leviath a n , i s der ived fro m a wo rd wh ich m e a n s ' to Win d ' .

Is 2 7.1 and P s 7 4 . 1 4 a re connec ted w i th the m yth olo gica l bac k ­ gro und o f the Is rael ite s , o f wh i c h w e know very l i t tl e . Bodenh e i m e r

sa y s i t i s th e prim ord ial drago n k nown i n C a naa nite m ytho logy.

It

may be i nflu enc ed by the Babylonian c reation m yth , th a t the c re ation o f the wo rl d w a s c au s ed by Go d ' s vic to r y ove r a snake o r a dragon

Wi th s ev en h ead s .

In th i s way o rde r wa s introduc ed.

Th e Talm ud ,

c o mm e n t i ng on th es e two pa s s age s , talk s o f a m a l e and a fem ale levia th an a s a h u ge fi sh o r s ea mon s ter. The female l eviathan h a s

bee n killed , the m ale will be killed b y t h e angel Mi c h a el o n the d a y o f j ud gm e n t .

[ 73 ]

The d er ivation of the wo r d sugge s t s a snake o r fi sh. J o b 3 . 8 m en t i o n s l e viatha n i n a way th at sugge s ts to s o m e c om m entato rs th e r m y , but i t m ay al s o be that the poet has in m i nd a h eav ­ E g yp t i a n a o n s ter, wh i c h by magic can be bro ugh t to dark en th e e n l y s nak e - m

h e a ve n . Jo b 41 . 1 i s o ften expl a ined a s the c rocodile (cf JB n o t e ) , bu t the de r iva tio n of the word doe s not fit the c roc od il e, who s e nec k a n d s p i n e a r e ent i rel y s ti ff, s o tha t a m a n on l a nd can esc ape f r o m it ea s il y by run n ing a z i gz a g c o urse. Som e c o m m en ta to rs have po i n ted out that ' d r a wi n g out th e tongue with a c o rd ' would not app ly in anc ien t tim e s , bec ause th e c ro c odile wa s t h o u gh t to have no t o n gu e . It d oe s have one, but it is flat a nd fas tened to th e lowe r

j aw .

,,

I t wa s o nc e th ou ght that the tongue of th e s nake wa s poi s o nou s and that the po i s ono u s snake bit w i th its ton gu e . Th i s m i gh t have led to the tr anslation ' s nake ' .

Som e of the wo rd s i n Job 41 : ' m e rc ha n t s ' , ' ha rpoo n s ' , ' fishing i n vv 6 ff s ugge s t fi s h ing, and s o m e trans l a te l iwya t h a n b y ' whal e ' (s o NE B) . Wh al e s have o ften b e e n c a ugh t in the Medite r ­ rane an, bo th in an c i e nt and rec e nt tim e s . A wh a l e i s too h e a vy to be c a u gh t by a hoo k (v 1 ), and i t s h ide c a n not be penetrated by ba rb s . Ev en the d ifficult v 5 c an be m ad e to s u i t the c o n t e x t , be ­ ca us e it i s s a id tha t wh e n fi s h er m e n i n the Nile have c augh t a rare fis h a n d w i s h to s how it, the y keep i t alive b y l ea v ing i t in the wa te r a fte r fast eni ng a ri ng to its n o s e and tying i t up with a l ine . Th i s c an s c ar c e l y b e done t o a whale . Ps 1 0 4 . 2 6 c a n , of cours e , b e

s pe a r s '

t r a ns l ated ' wha le ' .

should b e bo rne in m ind that a l l qu ota tion s dealing with l evia ­ th an are po e ti c a l . It

tannin, ' se a mon s te r ' or ' s e rp e nt ' should b e c a refu ll y distin ­ guished from tanni m , ' j ac kal ' o r po s s ib l y ' wol f ' . It i s often c o nfu s e d in t he Mas oretic text . In La 4 . 3 the kethib ta n n i n ( AV) is m o r e l ike ly tha n the q e r e ta nnim ( RSV) .

ech idna i n Ac 2 8 . 3 i s probably a non - po i sonou s sn ake with s m a l l

tee th .

[ 74 ]

Sheep, Lamb, Ram Hebrew :

Sheep (Ovis laticaudata) O v i s latic a u da ta

s eh pl u ral , t s o 'J n

( m ou n t a i n s h e e p ) ,

ta l eh

( s m a l l c attl e , ral;le l ( ew e ) ,

( l a m b ) , k a r (l a m b , r a m ) , yobh el

c ornet) Aram a ic :

Greek :

sh eep o r go at s ) , z e m c r

k ebh e s

d e kh a r

( l a m b ) , '7 a y il (ram), ( ram , r a m ' s ho r n ,

(ram ) , ? imma r (la m b )

a m n o s ( l a m b ) , p robato n ( s ma l l c a ttl e , sh eep), pro b a t i o n ( l i t t l e s h e e p ) , a ren (la m b), a r n i o n ( l a mb ) , p a s c h a (the Pasc hal l a m b )

--

DE S C RI P TIO N : Th e sheep m en t io ne d in th e Bible i s u s u a l l y t h e b ro ad - ta i l e d s h e e p ( Ov i s l a ti a u d a ta ) . Whe reas the ta i l o f o t h e r c

sh eep i s s ho rt, tha t of the broad - ta i l ed i s

long and broad , c o n ta i n i n g a m a s s o f fa t w h i c h m a w e i gh u p to 1 3 kg. Th e fa t ta i l wa s u s ed a s y a s a c r ifi c e , Ex 2 9 . 2 2 ; Lv 3 . 9 ; 7 . 3 ; 8 . 25 ; 9 . 1 9 . O n l y t h e ra m o f th is

sp ec i e s h a s h o r n s , but t h e r e a re o the r va r i e t i e s o f s h e e p i n Pales t i n e , o f Wh ic h t h e ew e also h a s h o r n s . Th e r a m ' s h o r n s m i gh t b e u s e d a s trumpe t s (Jo s 6 . 4 ) o r a s o i l - c o ntai n e r s ( I S 1 6 . 1 ) .

a r e o ft e n m e n t i o ne d a s ' s m a l l cattle ' , which go a t s a s wel l . O f the s e t h e s h eep were m o r e n u m e r o u s and llll. p ort ant . Th e rich man Nahal h a d 3 , 000 s h e ep and 1, 000 go a ts .

In

th e

�nc lu d e s

B i bl e s h e e p

[ 75 ]

m a n of who m J e s u s spo ke i n th e p ar a b l e ( Lk 1 5 . 4 ) w h o h ad on l y 1 00 sheep , c ould no t a ffor d to l o s e a s ingl e one o f the m .

(1 s

25 . 2) .

The

Mo st sheep were white ( Ps 1 4 7 .16 ; Is 1 . 1 8 ; On 7 . 9 ; Rv 1 . 1 4 ) R E F E R ENC E S :

Fo r seh a nd tso ? n c o ns ul t a co nco rdanc e zem er : Dt 1 4 5 ral;lel : Gn 31.38 ; 3 2 . 14 ; S S 6 . 6 ; Is 53. 7 For kebhe s , ?ayil and y obhel c on s u l t a conc ord ance ta l eh : 1 S 7 . �4 0 . 1 1 ; 6 5 . 2 5 kar : D t 3 2 . 1 4 ; 1 S 1 5 . 9 ; 2 K 3 . 4 ; Is 1 6 1 ; 3 4 . 6 ; Je 5 1 . 4 0 ; E z k 27 . 21 ; 39.18 ; Am 6 . 4 dekh a r : E z ra 6 . 9 , 1 7 ; 7 . 1 7 ? i m m a r : Ezra 6 . 9 , 1 7 ; 7 . 17 a m n o s : Jn 1 . 29 , 3 6 ; Ac 8 3 2 ; 1 P 1 . 19 F o r p r o b ato n c onsult a c oncordance p a s c h a : Mk 14 .12 ; Lk 2 2 7 ; 1 Co 5 . 7 p robatio n : J n 21 . 1 6 , 1 7 a re m : Lk 10.3 arnion : Jn 2 1 . 1 5 , and 2 9 tim es in Re v elati o n -

� .

.

.

.

D I F F IC U LT PASSA G E S :

Dt 1 4 . 5 :

and J B , fol low ing Tristram , translate z e m e r a s m o u n ta i n s h e ep ' ( O v i s tragelaphus ) . NE B ha s ' ro c k - goa t ' . The 'chamoi s ' of AV a nd RV d oe s no t o cc u r in the a r e a . RS V

'

For 1 S 9 . 24 , s ee OTTP, p 2 8 .

Snail

Mollus c a

He b r ew :

shabbelul

to a trad i tio n dating from earl y tim e s , t h i s word ha s b een identified with the s nail . S c h o l ar s have d e r i ve d the nam e from the verb balal , ' t o wa s te away, to fade away' . Wellhausen rende r s th e sentenc e : ' L i k e th e snail that d i s s o l v e s a s i t c rawl s ' . JB h a s ' slug' . In mo dern Hb the w o r d s tand s fo r ' s n ai l ' • but t h e po s s ibil ity rem a i n s tha t i n the Bibl e , where it o c c u r s o n l y o n c e , it ma y h ave no relation to any animal . Dr iver Q ournal o f DESC RIPTION:

Ac c o rd ing

[ 76 ]

The ological Stud ie s , X X� IV , 41£) argue s for the meaning ' m is car ­ ri age ' , cf ' untime ly birth ' in the paralle l l ine . NE B ' abort ive bir th ' . RE F E R E NC E : Ps 5 8 . 8

Snail (Mollusca)

Sparrow

Pas s er dom e s ticus

Hebrew : ts ippo r ( ? )

Gree k : s trouthion

DESC RIPTION: The sparrow, which always builds its nest close to the home of man, is so common all over the world that a desc ription of it is unnec e s sary.

Acco rding t o t h e Law of Mo s e s th e Jews were not fo rbidden to eat the fl e sh of the sparrow, and th e wo rds o f Jesus : ' Are not two spa rrows sold fo r a penny? ' i ndic ate that thi s was a cheap and co m ­ mon food for the o rdinary man i n Palestine . Jesus directs his words not to the powerful a nd rich, but to the wo rried and care - worn . Th i s is why h e makes u s e of the sparrow, a cheap and c om mon c rea ­ ture , a s a n illus tration . Som e tran slato rs also render the Hb wo rd tsippo r a s ' s parrow ' . This wo rd i s derived from a root meaning ' to c heep or whi s tl e ' , so

that

ts ipp or probably stands for ' bird' in genera l , leaving it to the

context to deci de , i f po s sible, wha t kind of bird is refer red to . The

spar row ' s habit o f s taying clo s e to huma n l iving quarters has c aus e d many comm entators to translate tsippor ' spa rrow ' in Ps 84. 3 and Ec 1 2 . 4 (so RSV, JB in Ps , and NEB).

REFE R ENC E S : For tsippo r co n sult a c o nc o rdanc e s trouthio n : Mt 10. 29, 31 ; Lk 1 2 . 6, 7 [ 77 ]

Spider

Aranea

Hebrew :

' akkabh i s h

D E S C RIP TIO N: Th e r e a r e 600 to 7 0 0 s p e c i e s o f Arach n i d a i n p re s e n t - day Palestin e . Pec ul ia r to t h e s p i d e r i s the web, refe r r ed to in t h e pa s s age s m en t i o n ed bel ow.

R E F E R E NC ES : Job 8 . 14 ; Is 5 9 . 5 DI F F I C U L T PAS S A G E S :

tra n s l a ted ' a s p ' ,

' v i p er ' .

Ps 140.3 :

The H b wo rd ' akhshubh i s u s ua l l y

But som e m o d e rn s c h o l a r s (e . g. Bo den ­

h e i m e r ) m a i n ta i n th a t th i s i s th e s a m e wo r d a s ' ak k a bh i s h ( s o N E B ,

' sp i d e r s ' poi s o n ' ) .

' a kkabh i s h .

S o m e l i ngu i s t s s a y that i t i s a c o r r upted fo r m of

3 0 . 2 8 : Th e H b s e m a m i t h i s o ften tra n slated ' l i z a r d ' (so R V, NEB), but Bo d e nh e i mer and o th e r s under s ta nd it fro m the context to be the s p i d e r . Whether the text s uppo rt s Boden he i m e r ' s c o n te n tion i s a m a tt e r for conj ec ture. Pr

RS V, J B a n d

Spider

Stork

(A ranea)

C i c o n i a alba , C ic o n i a n i gr a

Hebrew : {l a � idhah D E S C R I PTIO N :

Th e Hb na m e ma y be d e r ived from a root wh i c h

m e a n s ' goodn e s s , k i ndn e s s ' , a nd the b i rd wa s

probably so c a l l e d be ­

c a u s e it wa s c o n s id e re d to be a ffec tio nate to its yo ung, i n c o n t ra s t to t h e o s tr i c h ( q .

The

v. ).

s to rk i s a m i gra t o ry b i r d (Je

s outh - e ast Afr ic a , and i t i s known a l l

r 78 J

8 . 7 ), spending i t s w i n t e r s i n

over Europe a n d

Asia, where

it

feed s on s maller r e p t i l e s and fi s h in sw a m p s and c reeks .

eve r,

How ­

it i s general l y o m n ivorous , so that it wa s c o n s idered u n c l e a n

by the Law

It i s a big bird ,

h igh , with a long red The bl a c k s to r k i s entirely b l ac k , exc ept fo r th e bill and l e gs . In the the s to rk often bu i l d s o n h i gh t re e s (Ps 1 04 . 1 7 ) . t Or ien of Mo s e s .

bill an d l e gs , a l on g n e c k

a nd

1. 2

m

l a r ge bla c k win gs ( Zech 5 . 9 ) .

R E F E R E NC E S : L v 1 1 . 1 9 ; D t 1 4 . 1 8 ; J o b 3 9 . 1 3 ; Ps 1 04 . 1 7 ; J e 8 . 7 ; Z ech 5 . 9 OIF F IC U L T PASS AG E : tran s l a te s

l)e� idha h

Fo r Job 3 9 . 1 3

s e e OTTP, p

' o f love ' , R V ' k i ndly ' .

90.

RSV h e r e

Ho ffm an ' s emen datio n

l;taserah ( ' a re p i n i o n s a n d p l u m a ge la c k i ng ? ' ) m a k e s goo d s en s e .

Stork (Ciconia alba)

[ 79 ]

Swallow Hebrew :

and Swift dero r ,

DES C R IPTION:

C yp s el u s apus

H i r u n do ru s tic a ,

!? U !? ,

1? 1 1?

P re v iou s

Bible t r a ns lato r s d id not d i s t ingu i s h

be tween de ror and �U1? or � i � , but Tr istram has unde r l ine d two he m e t th e m

pe culiar it ie s about the sw allow and the sw ift , as

in Pale st ine , which m ay be of impo r t ance whe n it c ome s to an ident ification o f the bird in que s t io n . One i s th a t th e swallows of

Pal estine a re to a l a r ge exte nt

r e s ident , and th i s c i r c um s tanc e m ak e s it l e s s l i kely th a t the sw a l l ow

i s r e fe r red to in J e 8 . 7 , wh ere th e su� i s s a i d to ' k eep th e ti m e o f ..___,_ its c o m in g ' . The swift, o n the o th er hand , i s a m igrato ry b i r d .

Secondly, t h e twitte r i n g o f a swallow i s not a pa rti c ul a rly s tr i k i n g illu stratio n o f Ki ng H e z e k i a h ' s c ry o f

pain ( I s 3 8 . 1 4 ) , w h e r e a s the

swift of Pal e s tine is s a i d to have a no te ve ry m u c h l i ke

hum an s c ream ( s ee Parmel e e , p 1 7 4 ) .

a

p i e r c i ng

I t th e r e fo r e seem s adv i s abl e t o tran s l ate th e wo rds s u s a n d s i s ' swift ' , i n spite o f RV, RSV a nd JB ' swal l o w ' . NE B has ' s wift ' fo r ...__,_

Th e s e wo rds a r e u s ed in m o dern Hb fo r

s i s but ' dove ' fo r ..:,.__,a_ sus .

-=----t..-.

' swift ' .

d e ro r wa s u s e d in th e medieval Hb c o m m enta r i e s

R E F E R E NC ES :

R S V, JB,

dero r :

---

� U 1? :

si� :

S wine, Pig Hebrew :

fo r ' swal -

It s e e m s p rac tic al to t r a n s l ate

low ' ; it now m e an s ' s pa r row ' .

' swallow ' , a s do

· ·

NEB.

P s 8 4 . 3 ; Pr 2 6 . 2

Is 3 8 .14

J er 8 . 7

Sus s c ro fa

Gree k :

l)az i r

DESC RIPTION :

cho i ro s , h u s

S i n c e th e swine was an unc l e a n

we re fo rbidden to ea t i ts fle sh ( Lv 11.

7;

animal a n d Jews

D t 1 4 . 8 ) , the swine mentioned

in the Bibl e m u s t i n m o s t c a s e s h a v e b e e n t h e wild pig, s till c o m m o n in Pa l e s t i n e

p a r a ll e l s , s e e and th i s

may

below.

( Martin

No th ) .

wh i ch i s W ith rega rd t o Mk 5 and

Th e pig i s om nivo rou s , e v e n eat ing c a rr i on ,

be e nou gh to expl a i n the law .

[ 80 ]

Howeve r , it i s r e m a r k -

abl e th a t i t s un s avou r y a s pec t i s e m ph a s i z e d in th e c o mparativel y few p a s s a ge s wh e r e it i s m en t io n ed . The pig bec a m e the s ymbo l of fil t h i n e s s a n d pagani s m ( Pr 11 . 2 2 ; Mt 7 . 6 ; 2 P 2 . 2 2 ) . Du ring the

Bab yl o n i a n c aptivi ty th e people were l e d a s tra y and a te pork ( Is 6 5 . 2 - 4). Th e fa c t th a t th e Prod igal So n w a s s ent into ' th e fields to feed

' swin e indicates how deeply h e wa s hum i l a t e d ( Lk 1 5 . 1 5 ) .

RE F E R ENC ES : l) a z i r :

Lv 1 1 . 7 ; Dt 1 4 . 8 ;

66. 3 , 17

Ps 80.1 3 ; Pr 1 1 . 2 2 ; I s

65 . 4 ;

Mt 7 . 6 ; 8 . 3 0 - 3 2 ; Mk 5 . 11 - 13 , 1 6 ; Lk 8 . 3 2f; 15 .15f hu s : 2 P 2 . 2 2 cho i ro s :

DIF F IC ULT PASS A G E S :

Is

Som e c o m m e nta to r s a d d before l i b a t i o n o f pi g ' s bloo d . Paul Volz , who th i nk s th at th e a dd i ti o n makes the ver s e too l o n g, reads Q.om ed in s te a d o f d a m , wh ich give s the translation c ov e to us of 66.3 :

dam - l)az i r t h e wo rd no sek refe r ring t o the

'

pork ' . p

Mk 5 . 13 and pa ralle l s :

163 .

see ' A Tran s l a to r ' s Ha nd boo k o n Ma r k ' ,

Herd s m en and he rds

of p i g s were no t s u ppo s e d t o b e fou nd i n Jewish territo ry, b u t only a m o ng Ge n ti le neighbou r s .

[ 81 ]

Vulture (Eagle) He bre w :

Gre e k :

Gyp s

ful vu s ,

G yp a e tu s

ne s h c r

( Ara m a i c : ne s h a r ) , ' o z niyah

barbatus

d a ?ah ,

p e re 9 ,

ral) a m , ---

a eta s

i s a l a r ge bird o f prey with a w i n g ­ sprea d o f a s m u c h a s 2 m . At one tim e i t c o u l d be s e e n eve rywh e r e in Pal e s tine s o a r i ng a t a n i m m e n s e he igh t ( Tr i s tram ) . Head a n d nec k a r e feathe r l e s s , and i t fe e d s mo stly on c a r rion. D E S C R I PTIO N :

Th e v u l t u r e

Zoologi s ts o f a nc i ent times did not di s t ingu i s h b e tw e e n the dif­ ferent l a r g e b i r d s o f p r e y . Ar i s totle ( 4 th c ent BC ) a nd Pl iny ( l s t c e n t AD) c l a s s the vul tu r e a mong the e a gl e s . Th e c o ntext a nd the de s c r iption of the bird m u s t th e r e fore d e c id e whi c h tra n s lation

Vulture

(Aquila chrysatus) [ 82 ]

I n m o d e r n tim e s e ight s p ec i e s o f eagle a n d fou r o f vul ture a r e found i n Pa l e st i n e .

sh o uld be c ho s e n .

spec i e s

In t h e l i s t o f c l e a n and unclean bird s , it i s rea s o nable

to

tr a n s l a te ne s h e r ' e a gl e ' a nd pe re !? ' vul ture ' ( Lv 11 . 1 3 ; Dt 1 4 . 1 2 ) .

eagl e , Aqu ila h e l ia c a , c o m m o n i n Pa l e s t i ne , i s alm o s t c e r t a i n l y the bird desc ribed i n Pr 2 3 . 5 a s fl yin g t o w a r ds heaven . 2 S 1 . 2 3 ; Je 4 . 1 3 a n d La 4 . 1 9 (NEB ' vulture ' ) m a y refe r t o thi s s pe c ie s , o r t o th e golden ea gl e , Aquila ch rysaetu s , the fe m a l e of wh ic h h a s been known to catch h e r young o n her wings , a s de ­ scribed i n Ex 1 9 . 4 ; Dt 3 2 . 1 1 . Th e i m p e r i a l

Lv 11 . 1 4 : d a ? a h i s tr a n s l a t e d gup s ' v u l t u r e ' i n the LXX a n d m ilvus ' kite ' in the Vulgate , which is p robably the c o rrec t tra n s l a ­ tion ; s o RSV, JB and N E B. Lv 11 . 1 8 and Dt 14 . 1 2 : ral) a m ' c a r ri o n vul tu r e ' (vultur pe r c no p ­ terus) a s i n RSV m a y well be co rrect (so Berthelet). Dri v e r i n H DB, however, thinks ' vu l ture ' u n l i k e l y bec a u s e o f its s i z e a n d t h e p o s it i o n of ra}.lam i n the l i s t of b i r d s in L v 1 1 . 1 8 . The root r - 1). - m d e sc r i b e s a blac k and wh it e o bj ec t , a nd m a y the r e fo r e refer t o the o s p rey, Pandion h a l i a etu s , wh i c h f it s the ' bl a c k a n d wh ite' d e s c riptio n . I ts habits al s o would s ugge s t its p l a c e i n t h e l i s t between predato r y owl s on the one h and a n d fi s h e r b i r d s l i k e s to rk a nd hero n o n the o th e r .

In Lv 1 1 . 13 a n d Dt 14 . 1 2 ' o z niyah i s a l s o l i sted

It is diffi c u l t to i d e nt i fy .

as a

b i r d o f prey.

Tr i s tram s u gge s t s the o s p r e y ; o th e r s th i n k i t i s the bearded vul tur e , Gyp ae tu s ba rba tus ; D river in HDB s ugg e s t s th e sho rt - toed e a gl e . In p a s s ages in wh i c h th e word n e s h e r oc c u r s , u nl e s s s pec i f i c c h a r ac te r i s tic s o f th e vultu re a re d e s c ribed , the wo rd s h o ul d b e tra n s l a t e d ' eagl e ' . Suc h cha ra c te r i s t i c s a r e :

l ) fe ed i n g o n c a r rion . C f P r 3 0 . 1 7 , w h e r e p e r h a p s t h e re i s a l so an all us ion to th e vultu re ' s habit of s ta r t i n g o n t h e e y e s o r o t h e r s o ft Par ts pf th e victi m ' s bod y . Ho 8 . 1 m ay d e s c ribe a v u l t u r e s o a r i n g ove r a b a ttl efi e l d filled w ith c o rp s e s , bu t m a n y com m e n ta to r s em en d t e h

te x t a n d so ] B .

i n s tead

o f ' e a gl e ' o r ' vu l tu re ' r e a d ' wa tc h m a n ' ( n o t s e r ) ;

[ 83 ]

M i 1 . 1 6 ough t therefo r e to be tr a n s lated ' vulture ' ( i . e . th e gri ffo n - vu l tu re , gyps fulvus , o f E zk 1 7 . 3 , 7 , bec a u s e the gr iffo n - vulture i s remar k able fo r its large wing - s prea d ) as in J B and N EB, and not a s in RS V ' eagle ' . 2 ) bal dnes s o f h ead a nd n ec k .

3 ) n e s t i ng o n c l i ffs .

J o b 3 9 . 2 7 f; J e 49 . 1 6

4 ) gather i ng from a d i s ta nc e at the pro s pec t o f c a r rion . 28 . 49 ; Je 49 . 2 2 ; Hbk 1 . 8

Dt

Mo s t pass age s in whic h th e wo rd n e s h e r o c c u r s speak o f th e beauty and m aj e s ty o f a bird o f prey , which c a n most adequa tely be attr ibuted to the eagl e . Th i s i s also true of the two pa s s age s fro m the boo k o f Dan iel (ne s h a r ) . a e ta s in Mt 24 . 2 8 and Lk 1 7 . 3 7 s hould be rendered ' vu l ture ' and

in Revela tion probably ' eagle ' .

Drive r ' s m o re o r l e s s t e n t a t i v e identific atio ns in HDB may be s um m a rized a s follows :

n e s h e r - imper ial e agle , Aquila hel iaca , o r golden eagle, Aqu ila c h rys aetu s , o r griffo n - vu l tu re , Gyps ful v u s , a c c o rd i ng to c o ntext.

da ?ah k i t e , Mil y u s m i grans . pere� - vulture , perhap s Arr i a n ' s vultu re , Gypaetu s ba rbatu s . RSV ' o s s i frage ' , J B ' gr i ffo n ' , NEB ' black vul ture ' . ral;lam o s s i frage o r o s p rey , Pandion hal iaetus , so NEB. RSV v u l ture , JB ' white vul tu re ' . ' o z n iyah sho rt - to ed ea gl e , C i rcaetus ga l l i c u s . R S V and JB ' o sprey ' , NEB ' bea rd e d vulture ' . -

-

'

'

-

--

R E F E R ENC ES : nesh e r : Ex 1 9 . 4 ; Lv 11 . 13 ; Dt 1 4 . 1 2 ; 2 8 . 4 9 ; 3 2 . 11 ; 2 S 1 . 2 3 ; Job 9 . 2 6 ; 3 9 . 2 7 ; Ps 1 03 . 5 ; Pr 2 3 . 5 ; 3 0 .1 7 , 19 ; I s 4 0 . 3 1 ; J e 4 . 1 3 ; 4 8 .40; 4 9 . 1 6 , 2 2 ; La 4 . 1 9 ; Ezk 1 . 1 0 ; 1 0 . 14 ; 1 7 . 3 , 7 ; H o 8 . 1 ; O b 4 ; Mi 1 . 1 6 ; Hb k 1. 8 neshar : Dn 4 . 3 3 ; 7 . 4 da ?ah : Lv 1 1 . 14 pere � : Lv 1 1 . 1 3 ; Dt 1 4 . 1 2 ral;lain : Lv 11.1 8 ; D t 14.1 7 --

[ 84 ]

' ozn i yah : Lv 1 1 . 1 3 ; Dt 1 4 . 1 2 aeto s : M t 2 4 . 28 ; Lk 1 7 .3 7 ; Rv 4 . 7 ; 8 . 1 3 ; 1 2 . 14 .

Wolf C anis lupu s

Heb r ew :

ze ? ebh

Wolf (Canis lupus) Greek : luko s

D ES C R IPTIO N :

The wo l f was c o m m o n i n Pale s tine i n Biblical t i m e s In no rth e r n Win te r s wolves h unt i n pack s , but in s u m m er and in wa rm c o u n t r i e s th e wo lf i s a s o l i t a r y hunter. Bibl ic al a c c o u n ts o f Pal e s ti n i a n s h e p ­ he rqs tell o f m a n y bloody fi ght s betwee n ma n and wo l f. It is a res tl es s a n i m al , hu nting i t s prey m a i n l y by night.

.

Th e wolf' s h abi t o f s e e k i n g its prey at n i gh t i s m e nt ioned in Je 5 . 6 ; Hbk 1 . 8 a n d Z eph 3 . 3 : ' even i ng wolve s ' . Th e l atte r pas s a ge a ls o a ll u d e s to the proverbial greed i n e s s o f the wo l f . Bo th its c o u r ­ age a n d a l so its c ru elty a r e i n the m ind o f the pa triarc h J a c o b w h en he Pr e dic ts th e fa te o f th e tribe o f Be nj am in , Gn 49 . 27 . ,

The s trategy o f the w ol f is desc ribed i n J n 1 0 . 1 2 : snatching' and ' s c att e r i ng ' the floc k.

[ 85 ]

' s teal i ng' o r

The wo rd i s u s e d in t h e Bibl e not o nl y i n a l iteral s e n s e , but o fte n s ym bol i c a l l y abo u t m e n who s e q ua l i t i e s in s om e respects re ­ sembl e tho s e o f the wolf, s uc h a s l e a d e r s who rob th e peo ple , Ez k 2 2 . 27 , or teac h e r s who d ec e iv e th e i r di s c iple s , Mt 7 . 1 5 ; Ac 2 0 . 29 .

R E F E R E NC E S : z e " ebh : G n 4 9 . 2 7 ; J g 7 . 2 5 ; 8 . 3 ; P s 8 3 . l l ; I s 11 . 6 ; 65 . 2 5 ; J e 5 . 6 ; E z k 2 2 . 2 7 ; Hbk 1 . 8 ; Z eph 3 . 3 luko s : Mt 7 . 1 5 ; 1 0 . 1 6 ; Lk 1 0 . .3 ; J n 10 . 1 2 ; Ac 20. 2 9 DI F F I CULT PASSAG E S : It s hould be n o t e d th a t z e ? ebh i s u s ed a s a pro per name i n Jg 7 . 2 5 ; 8 . 3 ; Ps 8 3 . 11 .

Worm, Maggot v e rm i s Hebrew : tol e ' a h ,

r im m ah

Greek :

s k6 l e x

D ESC RIPTIO N : I t i s no t po s s ibl e t o giv e a general d e s c riptio n , as th e c o ntext m ust dec i d e wh at k i n d o f c rea tu re i s m ea n t . to l e ' ah u s u al l y stands for a worm t ha t d e s troys grap e s and pl an t s , d evo u r s corps e s a n d s ym bo l iz e s t h e weakne s s a nd i n s i gn i fi c a n c e o f m a n .

r imm ah i s derived fro m a roo t m e a n i n g ' to grow ro tte n ' a n d m a y be understood a s a wo rm wh ich c a u s e s o r ind i c ates c o r rupt i o n , a m a ggot. Th e word s ym bo l iz e s dec ay o r (Job 2 5 . 6 ) a n i n s ign i fi ­ cant m an.

R E F E R ENC ES : to l e ' a h : E x 1 6 . 20; Dt 2 8 . 3 9 ; Job 2 5 . 6 ; Ps 2 2 . 6 ; I s 1 4 . 1 1 ; 41 . 1 4 ; 66 . 24 ; J o n 4 . 7 (al so found i n m any pa s s a ge s i n Ex , L v a nd Nu , fo r the c occ u s i l i c i s o r c o c h i neal , a n i n s e c t p roduc i n g s c a r l e t dye) r i m m ah : Ex 1 6 . 2 4 ; Job 7 . 5 ; 1 7 1 4 ; 21 . 26 ; 24 . 20 ; 25 . 6 ; Is 14.11 s k6lex : Mk 9 . 48 (perhaps al so vv 44 a n d 4 6 ) sk olekobrot os: ' e aten by worm s ' , A c 1 2. 23 .

DIF F IC ULT PASSAGE : F o r Job 2 4 . 20 , wh i c h l itera l l y t ra n s l a ted gives no m eani ng, s e e OTTP, p 7 9 . I t is a d v i s abl e to read sh e m o ( ' h i s name ' ) i n s te a d o f r i m m a h ; so RS V a nd J B . [ 86 ]

Fl o ra of the Bible Acacia Heb rew :

Ac a c i a

raddiana

s h i tta h

DE S C RIPTION : The AV does not identify th i s tree, but s imply tra nsliterate s ' sh i ttah ' o r ' sh ittim ' . Today it is generally rec o gn i z e d th at s h itta h i s identic a l w i th the a c a c i a ( a s rendered by R V, RS V, JI3 and NE B). a m e m b e r of the M i m o s a fam il y. Four d i ffe rent i n mm b e i n g th e A. ra d spec i e s a r e found n Pa l e s ti n e , th e m o s t c o o

The

a c a c ia

is

Acacia

(A cacia raddiana)

flowerin g twig b. opening pod with seeds a.

r s1 1

d i an a , wh i c h grow s i n the valleys a round the Dead Sea . It is a n ;verg ree n tree , 3 to 5 . 5 m high , with s p i n y branche s c a r rying yel ­ low flowers ; its wood i s very u s eful fo r building pu rpo s e s . The oth er th r e e spe c i e s a re A. spinoc a rpa , A. a rabic a and A. albida . The wo rd s h i tt i m , plural o f s h itta h , is sometimes us ed to des ­ ignate different localiti e s , a s for ins tance the region eas t of the river Jo rda n oppo s ite Jericho : Nu 3 3 . 4 9 ; Joel 3 . 1 8 (a valley). R E F E R E NC ES : Ex 2 5 . 5 , 1 0 , 13 , 2 3 , 2 8 ; 2 6 . 1 5 , 2 6 , 3 2 , 3 7 ; 2 7 . 1 , 6 ; 3 0 . 1 , 5 ; 3 5 . 7 , 2 4 ; 3 6 . 20, 3 1 , 3 6 ; 3 7 . 1 , 4 , 1 0 , 1 5 , 2 5 , 2 8 ; 38.1, 6;

Dt 10 . 3 ; Is 41 . 1 9

Algum, Almug timber

Jun ipe ru s phoenicea exc elsa

Hebrew :

?almuggim

?algum m im ,

DESC RIPTION: Traditio nally, algum o r almug (JB ' algum m im ' , ' almuggi m ' ) has been regarded a s s and alwood , Pte rocarpu s s an ­ talinu s , wh ich may have been imported by King Solomon from s ou th e r n India and u s ed fo r the pillars and balustrades of th e tern ­ pie and ro yal palace . It i s a large tre e with very hard red wood, wh i c h takes a fine po l i s h . But Jo s ephu s says ( Antiq . VIII, 7 , 1 ) that the wood used fo r Solomon ' s templ e and palace was even ' wh iter a nd more sh ining' than that of the fig tree, so some commentato rs identify it with Santalum albu m . However, the white sandal tree , a native o f In d i a , is l i ttl e more than a bush and has no value a s timbe r . Bec a u s e algum is a l s o m entioned a s a native o f Lebanon ( 2 C h 2 . 8 ) , KB sugge s ts that i t i s identical with Juniperus phoenic ea ex ­ c el sa ' wh ich i s exc ellent timber and abundantly to be found on Mount Lebanon ' . There i s no val id r ea son fo r a s s um i ng that almug and algum are diffe rent tree s . R E F E RE NC ES : I K 1 0 . l l , 1 2 ; 2 C h 2 . 8 ; 9 . 1 0 , 11 r 88 1

Almond

'{_ Ll

( .-1 myydalus commu nis)

f ! ow c- r i n p; shoot. h . shoot with f ru i t c . seed

Almond tree Hebrew :

A m ygda l u s

a.

communis

s h a q ed h , l u z

Th e a l m o n d tree belo ngs t o t h e pea c h fa m i l y . It gr o ws w i l d in Pal es tine and Syria , rea c h i n g a h e i gh t of 4 . 5 to 6 m . Du ri ng th e winter i t sheds its leave s , wh i c h a r e oblong. Th e flo we rs , wh ite or p i n k , bloom a s early a s January, a p p e a r i n g l o n g before the leave s . Th i s ex pl a i n s t h e Hb na m e fo r the tr e e , ' t he Wak efu l ' ( s ee Je 1 . 1 1 ) . The fru it i s a drupe , i . e . a fl e sh y o r p u l p y fru it e n c lo s in g a stone , w h i c h i n th i s c a s e conta in s o i l . DESC R IPTION :

-Ec 1 2 . 5 m e n t i o n s the a l m o n d tree a s a s ign sp r in g w h ic h does not b r i n g j o y to an old m a n .

of the beauty of

Lu z i s al s o th e n a m e o f a town i n Eph ra i m , p ro b abl y d e r ive d fr om the fa ct t h a t the h ills a bo u n d e d w i th a l m o nd t re e s ( G n 2 8 . 19 ) . [ 89 ]

R E F E R ENC E S :

shaqedh : Gn 43 . 1 1 ; Nu 1 7 . 8 ; E c 1 2 . 5; Je l . l l Luz : Gn 2 8 . 1 9 ; 3 0 . 3 7

DIF F IC U L T PASS AG ES : E x 2 5 . 3 3 - 3 4 ; 3 7 . 1 9 - 20 : the Hb m e s huq ­ qadhim i s m o s t l ikel y a pa rtic i p i a l plu r a l of a verb der ived fro m sha g edh a nd i s u s u a l l y tra n s l a ted ' s haped like almonds ' , o r (JB)

' l i k e a l mo n d blo s s o m s ' .

Aloes

Al o e suc c o t r i n a ,

Heb rew :

?ahal im,

Aqu i l a r i a a gal l o c h a

? a haloth

Greek : a l o e

DESC R I PTION: Alo e s i s a n a rom a t i c s ub stanc e m entio ned i n th e Bibl e toge th er w i th m y r rh , bal m and o th e r fra gra nt plant s , e . g. Ps 4 5 . 8 ; Pr 7 . 1 7 ; Jn 1 9 . 3 9 .

Mo s t m o d e r n c o m m enta to rs c o n s i d e r tha t th e s e p a s sage s refe r t o two d i fferent pl a n ts . Th e pl a n t m e n tio n ed i n the O T i s l i ke l y to have been Aqu i l a ria aga l lo c h a , th e ea gl ewoo d , a l arge tree wh ich m ay re ach a h e igh t o f 3 6 m . It is na tive to s o u th - ea s t As i a a nd northern Indi a . Th e t r e e sec rete s a n a ro m a t i c res i n , e spec i al l y when i t i s o l d . The a l o e o f J o h n 19 i s th e Alo e succotrin a , nam ed a ft e r its native i s l a n d , So c o t ra i n th e Ind ian Oc ea n , south o f Arab i a . Its th i c k succul e n t leaves fo rm a t i ght ro s ette ; th e flowe r s a r e red a nd bel l - s h a p ed , growing together o n a s p i k e . The a ro m a t i c j u i c e i s extra c ted from th e l eave s . Al th o u gh the fra granc e i s very pl ea s ­ a n t , th e ta s t e i s bi tte r . Like myrrh , alo e s had to be i m po rted i n to I s rael , which made i t exp e n s ive. Th e l a r ge quan tity brought by Nic od e m u s , ' about a h u ndred poun d s w e i ght ' , i s a n i n d i c a t io n of h i s wealth . Th e Alo e i s a m ed i c i nal pl ant known from very early ti m e s a n d u s ed b y t h e E gyptia n s fo r emba l m i ng the dea d . R E F E R E NC E S :

?ahal i m , ? ahaloth : N u 24 . 6 (NEB ' l i gn - alo e s ' ) ; P s 4 5 . 8 ; Pr 7 . 1 7 ; SS 4 . 1 4 aloe : Jn 1 9 . 3 9

[ 90 ]

It may s e e m i nc o n g r u o u s th at Sa l a a m ' s d e ­ sc r i p t io n o f th e l a n d s c a p e i n Nu 2 4 . 6 i nc l u d e s m e n ti o n o f a t re e w h i c h i s n o t i n d i genou s . Bu t th e wo r d s a r e not to b e u n d e r s tood a s a n a u ­ the nt ic po rtra i t o f th e l a n d of C a n a a n ; h e ' s e e s t h e v i s io n o f th e Al ­ m ighty ' . SS 4 . 1 4 l i s t s c o s tl y p l a n t s a nd tr e e s w h i c h be l ong to th e ga r d e n o f a r i c h m a n who c a n a ffo rd to i m po r t t h e m fro m fo re i gn

DI F F IC U LT PASSAG E S :

cou nt r i e s .

Aloes

( A liie succotn:na)

f J t Jwt>rin!!: p l a nt. w i t h

[ 91 ]

�t !,lll

Plwrt.<•ned

b

c Apricot

b.

Apricot, Apple

(Prunus armeniaca)

flowering shoot shoot with fruit c. seed (stone) a.

Prunu s a r m e n iaca

Hebrew : tappuai:J DESC R IPTION : The Hb wo rd tappuai:J has u s ua l l y bee n rendered ' appl e ' (m a l u s ) . Th e l iteral m eaning o f the wo rd is 'a sweet ­ s m e l l i n g fru i t o r p l ant ' , a s it is derived from a root napai:J m ea n i n g ' to breathe o r blow ' .

Wh ile do m e sticate d appl e tree s a re now fo und i n Pa l e s t i ne , Po s t , q uo ted i n Moldenke , d e fi n i tely s tate s that he h a s not seen a ny wild s pec i m en s th ere , alth o u gh w ild app le t re e s are found in are a s ne ar by. Th e fru it of th e wild appl e tree is not very a tt rac ti v e , be i ng both s m a l l a nd a c i d , s o tha t i t i s e xtrem e l y unl ikel y that tappuab s ho uld be tra n s lated ' appl e ' .

r 92 J

Autho r it i e s d i ffe r , bu t m o s t m o d e r n bota n i s t s a re i n c l i n ed to

i de nt ify tappual) w i th th e a p r i c ot , Pr un u s a r m e n i a c a , w h i c h do e s s ee m ' to m e e t a l l req ui re m e n t s o f th e c o n te x t ' ( Tr i s tra m ) . I t i s abu n da n t i n Pa l e s t i n e , a n d mo s t probabl y h a s b e e n ever s i nc e B i bl i c a l tim e s .

Th e t r e e i s 9 m tall w i th r e d d i s h b a r k .

P ink

fl owers

appe ar be ­

its h e a r t - s haped l e a v e s . Mol d e n k e s a y s that i n C yp ru s a p r ico t s sti l l k nown a s ' go l d e n appl e s ' (c f Pr 2 5 . 1 1 ) . N E B t r an s lat e s a s ' a p r i c ot ' i n the S o n g o f So l o m o n .

for e a re

R E F E R E NC E S :

Pr 2 5 . 1 1 ; SS 2 . 3 , 5 ; 7 . 8 ; 8 . 5 ;

Joel 1. 12

OTH E R PASS A G E S : Dt 3 2 . 1 0 ; Ps 1 7 . 8 ; Pr 7 . 2 ; Z ec h 2 . 8 ; La 2 . 1 8 ( A V ) . Th e ' app l e o f t h e eye ' i s E n gl i sh id io m fo r th e Hb ' pu p i l o f the e ye ' ,

refe rr i n g to

Balm

a n yt h i n g ex t re m e l y p rec i o u s .

Balanites aegyp t iac a ,

Pi s ta c i a l e n t i s c u s

He b re w : t s o r i DESC R I PTIO N :

RS V

t r a n s l a t e s t s o r i a s ' ba l m ' ,

b u t t h e re h a s b e e n

and st i l l i s m u c h un c e r ta i n t y w i th r ega rd t o its i d e nt it y .

Ma n y c o m m e nta to r s toda y fo llow Mol d e n ke a n d ID i n s u gg e s t i n g that i n all pa s s age s exc ept Gn 4 3 . l l t s o r i s h o u l d be i d e nt i fi e d with Bal anite s aegyptiac a , the 'Jericho bal s a m ' which i s c o m m o n in th e Jo rdan valley and th e De a d Se a r e g i o n . Balanites aegyptia c a i s found a l l o v e r Egypt ( a s the na m e i m ­ Pl i e s ) a s w e l l a s in Pal e s tine . It is a d e s e rt p l a n t , wh ic h gro w s i n to a tr ee 2 . 7 to 4 . 5 m ta l l w ith th o r n y branc h e s , l e a t h e r y a nd wo o l l y leave s an d green flower s . Th e fr u i t s conta i n o i l wh ich i s sa i d to PD s s e s s he a l i ng pr o p e rt i e s . Po s t identifies it w i t h th e ' balm o f Gil ea d ' , C o mm ipho ra opoba l s amum , and q u o te s J o s ephus who s a i d th a t th i_ s pl a n t w a s c u ltiva ted in the Jericho pla in from th e t i me o f Sol o mo n . Moldenke d e n i e s tha t Comm ipho ra opoba l s a mum is na t iv e to Pa l e s ti ne and m a i n ta i n s t h at it i s ind igenou s to Arab i a . He a d d s tha t the way Gn 43 . 1 1 r efer s to -tsori s eem s to impl y an expo rt of nat iv e p rod uc t s .

[ 93 ]

A s Ba l a n i t e s aegypti a c a i s n a ti v e bo t h

to E g yp t a nd Pa l e s ti n e , b Jaco and Gn 4 3 . l l i mpl i e s tha t wa n t s h i s s o n s to ta k e s o m eth i n g n o t

fo u n d i n E gypt, Mo l d e n k e s ugge s t s tha t t s o r i h e r e m a y refe r to th e

P i s ta c i a l e n t i s c u s . Th i s i s d e n i e d , howeve r , by 10, w h i c h retai n s Bal a n i te s a e gyp ti ac a fo r t h e s a k e of c on s i s tenc y. It ma s t i c t r e e ,

do e s no t i nva r i a b l y fo l lo w t h a t o n e Hb wo rd a lways appl i e s to t h e s a m e pl a n t . In t h i s c a s e t s o r i c o u l d r e fe r to the gu m o r o i l fro m

m o re th a n o n e pl a n t .

Pi s ta c ia l e nt i s c u s i s a s h rub o r t ree , 1 to 3 m tal l , w i th ever ­ Th e m a s ti c o r ' ba l m ' i s the gum m y s a p w h ic h exud e s gre e n l e a ve s . fro m t h e s t e m a fte r i nc i s i o n s h ave be en m a de . S e e a l s o M Y R R H , S PI C E S , S TAC TE .

R E F E R E NC E S :

G n 3 7 . 25 ; 4 3 . 1 1 ; J e 8 . 2 2 ; 4 6 . 1 1 ; 5 1 . 8 ; E z k 2 7 . 1 7

Balm ( Pistacia lentiscus) part of sho<> t , with fruit

r 94 1

Bal m (Ralan ilr.� ;rgyptiarn)

a . t w i g w i t h f l o w<>rs :md IPav··� I! . p a r t. o f t l wm.v l > r:tll l'h , . . flowPr d . f r u i t

Barley

H ebrew :

Ho rde u m d i s ti c h o n s e ' o rah

G ree k :

k r i th e

A d e s c riptio n o f ba rl e y i s n o t nec e s s a ry a s i t i s o n e old e s t c u l t i va ted pl a nt s . It wa s grown i n E gyp t i n 5 0 00 B C a nd i s cul tivat e d to d a y o v e r m o s t o f t h e No rth e r n h em i s ph e re . B a r ­ l e y gro ws w e l l i n bo th wa r m a nd c o l d te m p e r a tu r e s a n d i n dry a n d d a m p c l i m a te s .

D E S C_R I PT IO N :

o f th e

r 9s 1

i n the de s c r i p t i o n of the fa m ine d u r i n g t h e s i e ge of Sa m a r i a ( 2 K 7 . 1 ) . Ord i n a ry foo d w a s very e x pe n s ive , b u t wh eat c o s t tw i c e a s much a s b a r l ey , the c h e a p e s t food o b ta i n a bl e . U s e d m a inl y fo r fe e d i n g _ c a t t l e , b a rl e y a l s o s e rved fo r m a k i n g bread i n t i m e s o f e m e r ge n c y , a s i n S a m a r i a d u r i n g th e s ie ge , and a m o ng th e poor ( 2 S 1 7 . 2 8 ; E z k It i s i n t e re s t i n g to note the p r i c e s o f wh e a t a n d ba r l e y

4 9 ; Rv 6 . 6). .

The l ow c o s t of ba rl e y m a k e s

it a s ym bol o f d i sp a ra ge m en t k 1 3 . 1 9 ) . ' A c a ke o f ba rl e y i n J g 7 . 1 3 i s a de ­ ( Ho 3 . 2 ; Nu 5 . 1 5 ; Ez ro ga to r y te rm fo r a n I s r a e l i t e , j u s t a s ' te nt ' s t a n d s fo r the Bedo u i n . '

Th e ba rley h a rv e s t c o m e s earl y , i n the lowe r r e g i o n s o f Pal e s ­ t i n e i n Ma rc h - Ap ril , i n th e moun ta i n s i n M a y , a month e a r l i e r th a n I t w a s t he re fore often ne ce s s ary t o e at bar ley whe at ( E x 9. 3 1 ) . c a k es e a r l y in th e yea r (2 K 4 . 4 2 ) . So , fo r exampl e , it do e s not ne ­ c e s s a ri ly imply pove rty wh e n Jes us feeds 5 000 peopl e with fi v e ba r ­ l ey l oav e s O n 6 . 9 ). Th i s w a s ea rly i n th e yea r , befo r e t h e Pa s sover (v 4 ) . R E F E R E NC E S :

s e 'orah : k r i th e :

C o n s ul t a c o n c o r d a n c e Rv

6.6

k r i th i no s ( ' m a de o f ba rl e y ' ) :

Jn

6 . 9 , 13

Bdellium Comm ipho ra ( A fr i c a na ) H e b r ew : be d ho l al;l D E S C RI PTIO N :

Mo s t m o d e rn com m enta to r s follow the o l d e s t tr a ­ to

d i ti o n a c c o r d i n g to wh i c h th e Hb wo rd i s e xpl a i n e d a s r e fe r ri n g

bdell imp , a yel lo w i s h tra n s pa r e n t and fragrant gum w h i c h fl o w s o ut fro m an i n c i s i o n in th e ba rk of a c e rta i n s h r u b , proba bl y s o m e s pe ­ c i e s of C o m m ip h o r a (pe rhaps Afr i c a na ) , wh i c h gro ws i n S o u t h Ar a ­ bia. m e an i ng ' bdell iu m ' i s , however , d o u b t ful . Ac c o rding to a l ater tr a d iti o n i t was under s tood to b e a pea rl o r s o m e prec io u s s to ne . 'The

R E F E R E NC E S :

Gn 2 . 1 2 ; Nu 1 1 . 7

[ 96 ]

BeaD

V i c i a fa ba

Hebr ew : D

po l

ESC R I PTIO N :

Th e broad b e a n h a s b e e n known a s foo d s i nc e th e

Bro nz e Age ( 3 000 - 2000 BC ) . It i s an annual p l a n t wh i c h reache s a h e i gh t o f 6 0 to 90 e m . Th e s m a l l ova l l ea v e s a re greyi s h - gree n ; th e fl o wers , s i tuated i n th e a x i l s between b r a n c h and l ea f, a r e whi te w ith a purpl i s h blotc h . Th e po d s a r e l a rge a nd c o nta i n th e

brow n c o m p r e s s e d s e eds .

The c ro p r ip e n s a t the t i m e o f in ga rden s a n d i n th e fi e l d s . wn gro foo d a nd a re e a t e n either bo i l ed o r

w h e a t h a rv e s t .

Bea n s a r e

Th ey c o n s t i tute a n o u r i s h i n g r o a s ted .

So m e t i m e s

th ey a re

m ixed wi th gra i n fl o u r fo r b read - m a k i ng. R E F E R E NC E S :

2

S

17 . 2 8 ; Ezk 4 . 9

b a.

[ 97 ]

Bean ( Vicia faba)

plant b. part of stem with leaf and young pod c . & d. flower

Bitter herbs Heb rew :

C e nta urea

m e ro r i m

D E S C RI PT IO N : Th e Hb w o r d m ea ns ' bi tte r ' . I n the two p a s s a ge s m e n t i o n e d below, i t i s u s ed i n co n nec tio n w i t h i n s t r u c t i o n s fo r th e pa s s o v e r m ea l , a nd i s t r a n s l a te d a s ' bitte r h e r b s ' i n m o s t ver ­ s io n s . S o m e m o d e rn s c h o l a r s i d ent i fy th i s h e rb wi th the C e n ta u r c a , of wh ich s everal s pec i e s a re foun d i n th e dese rt a rea s o f Pa l e s t i n e . I t h a s sm al l flowe r hea d s p rotec t ed by th o r n s , a n d i t s l eaves grow i n r o s e t t e s a nd are b i tte r in ta ste . Even now th e Bedo u i n eat th e m a s s al ad . M old e nke and othe r s are

m or e in c l ined to suppose that t he m e r or im w e r e plant s l ike e n d iv e ( C ic h o r iu m e nd i v i a ) , ch i c ory (Cichoriu m inty bu s ) , d ande l ion (Tar ax a cu m o ffic i­ n a le ) , a nd s o r re l ( Rumex a ce t oce l l a ) .

RE FE RE NCES : Ex 1 2 . 8; Nu 9. 1 1

Bitter herbs

[ 98 1

(Cichorium intybus)

Bitter herbs

Box tree Buxu s

Hebrew:

6

rn .

l o ngifo l i a

t e ?ash s hur

DESC RIPTION :

W ith

o blon g

Th e

l e a ve s .

l o n g - l e aved box is a n e v e rgreen s h rub or tr e e The r a th e r s l ender s t e m m ay a tta i n a h e i gh t

Th e woo d i s v e r y ha r d and s uitable fo r c a rpentry a nd

carving. re gions Pale s tine. !dentif� te ?ash s hur w the box �yPre s s',

ou s

Po s t ( a nd W a l k e r ) have

U str at ion

' box ' or ' ced ar ' .

of

fo und

it

of

wood­

growing in th e mo un ta i n ­

So m e bo tan i s ts therefo re a re inc l i n e d to

of

i th

:-

( Taraxacum vulgare)

box tree . )

rFI!R.l!NCES: L

t re e .

R S V t ra n s l a t e s ' pi n e ' , JB

See a l s o CYPR E SS.

I s 4! . ! 9 ; 6 0. 1 3 ; Ezk 2 7. 6

[ 99 ]

(See page

100 for

Broom He brew :

R e t a m a ra eta m

ro them

D E S C R I PT I O N :

Mo s t m o d e r n c o m m entato r s are of th e o p i n i o n th a t

th e wo rd rothem s ta nd s fo r the broo m , Arab ic ratam , which gro w s i n t h e d e s e rts o f Pa l e s t i n e a nd A ra b ia . I t i s a bu s h w i th m a n y bra n c h e s

a n d tw igs , a few s ma l l lea y e s , a n d l a rge c l u sters of wh i t e flow e r s . I t s woo d , to gether w i th the l a r ge s tem o f the root, i s u s ed b y th e

Bedo u i n fo r m a k i n g c ha rcoal ( s e e JB a n d N E B o f Ps 1 20 . 4 : c h a rcoal ' ) . AV and RV t ra n s l a te ' j u n i pe r ' . R E F E R E NC E S :

1 K 19.4,

5

Q B ' furze ' ) ; Job 3 0 . 4 ;

' red - h o t

Ps 1 2 0 . 4

DIF F I C U L T PASS A G E : Job 3 0 . 4 : Moldenke po i n t s o u t th a t the root o f broom i s po isonou s , a n d i dent i fi e s th e p l a n t w i th the s c a rlet

Box tree (B1aus longifolia) r 1 00 1

Broom (Retama ra:tam)

a.

Sxnom orium.

bran ches b . inflorescence c . tip of branch

Moffatt and Fohre r conj e cture lel)ummam ' for giv ­

ing Wa nnth ' , in s tead o f laQ.mam ' fo r the i r food ' . So also R V m g and RS V . Bu t the po int o f the vers e c ould b e that thes e refugee s t o

th�

de se rt ar e so hungry a nd starved that they a re glad to eat any ­

:lng.

I � ':h i c h

c as e , retain ' their food ' , with

JB and ,N EB. L�X

ep s t h i s Idea , though gr eatly expandi ng the vers e : Who enc i rc l e &altworts with loud c rie s , wh o s e food was sa itworts , who we r e ,"f.thout hono ur and o f no repute, and who ch ewed the roots of trees au se of gre a t h un ge r . '

L

r H ll

1

Caper plant Hebrew :

c appa ri s spino s a , c . s ic ul a

'� ahhiyonah

DESC R I PTION: Th e c aper pl ant grows everywh e re i n Pa l e s t i ne , Syr i a a nd Leba no n . I t s h eavy, drooping branc h e s c o ver the wall s of Je rusalem and the roc k s o f m any vall eys . It bloo m s in May, a n d i ts l a r ge white flowe r s a re open fo r o nly one n ight. The buds a r e pic k l ed i n v inegar and eaten a s a con d i m ent w i t h m ea t . Bo th fru it and buds a re s uppo s e d to s t i m ulate appetit e . In anc ient t i m e s caper - be r r ie s w e r e a l s o s a i d to s t i m u l a te s e x u a l de s i r e . ?abh i yonah, rendered ' de s ire ' i n AV and R S V , i s identified i n modern dic tio na r i e s with the c ape r be r ry ( so a l so J B and N E B) . Th i s acco rds with th e LXX ( kappa r i s ) a n d Vul gate (c appa r i s ) , a s well a s with t h e bota n i s ts Low, Po s t a nd Moldenke . The a c c ompa nying verb taph er (fro m para r ' to break ' ) i s t r a n s ­ l a ted either ' to fa il ' o r ' to bur s t ' , thus i l l u s tra ti ng the fa il ing pow ­ ers o f an o l d m a n , h i s lo s s o f ta s te and appetite . R E F E R E NC E :

Ec 1 2 . 5

a

b

Caper plant (Capparis spinosa) a.

flowering shoot

b. bud

[ 102 ]

c.

fruit

a.

Carob tree

Carob (Ceratonia siliqua)

leaf and fruit b. half of fruit with seed c. fl ower showing style and stamens

C e r a to n i a

s il iqua

Gr e ek : k e r a tio n DE SC R I PTI O N : Th e Gk word k e r a tio n l i te ra l l y m ea n s ' a l i ttl e h o r n ' , and o nly oc c u r s o nc e in th e N T, i n th e pa rable o f t h e Pro d i gal So n , e re i t s ta n d s fo r the · po d s ' o r ' h u s k s ' gen e ral l y e a t e n by pigs . e Po d of th e c a r o b t r e e i s s h ape d l i k e a l i ttl e h o r n , from 1 5 to 2 5

�

[ 103 ]

e m l ong and 2 . 5 to 3 . 7 e m broad; when ripe it h a s a r i c h c o ntent o f s yr up whi c h m akes it a valuab l e and nou r i s h ing food fo r c attle a n d pigs . Now, as i n the pa s t , the fru it o f th e c a rob tree i s a l s o eate n by poo r peopl e . Th e c a rob tree i s grown in almo st a l l Med i terranean countr i e s a n d h a s been i n troduc ed into Am e r ic a . It i s an eve rgreen tree reach i ng a h eight o f 9 m. The leave s r e s e mble tho s e o f the a s h tree. The flowers are s m al l , yellow or red, and the fru its ripen i n Apr i l and May. The c a rob tree is sometimes c al l e d ' St. John ' s b read tree ' be ­ c a u s e it has been a s s um ed that the honey eaten by John the Baptis t in the de s ert wa s not real honey but the s yrup pre s sed o ut o f the pod of the c a rob tre e . It is al so s o m etim es c a l l ed ' l o c u s t tree ' be ­ cause s o m e commentato r s m i s takenly a s s um e that the loc u sts m en ­ tioned i n Mt 3 . 4 were no t real insec ts but the fruits o f the c a rob tree . See LOC UST. R E F E R ENC E :

Cassia

Lk 1 5 . 1 6

C i nnamomum c a s s ia , Sau s s u rea lappa

Hebrew : q i ddah , qets i ' o th D ESC RIPTION : The de riva tion of the Hb wo rd qiddah a s well as i t s identific ation i s dubio u s , although s o m e h ave t r i e d t o expla i n it a s meaning ' a ba rk that peel s o ff' . The co ntext denotes a n a ro m atic plant, and �n old tra d i tion i dentifie s thi s with c a s s ia , a tree na ti ve to Ceylon and Ind i a , and much l ike the c i nnamon tree . The th i c k c o a r s e bark is u s ed a s a s pic e whe n peeled o ff and d r i e d , altho u gh it i s infe r io r to c innamon. The buds m a y a l s o be added to food as sea so n in g. The s m a l l e r l eaves a n d pod s are sometime s u s ed fo r medic inal purpo s e s .

Th e plant bea rs n o relation to the Linnaean genus C a s s ia , wh ich include s the s e nna s . AV, RV and RSV tra n s l i terate the Hb wo rd qetsi ' oth in Ps 4 5 . 8 a s ' c a s s ia ' . J B ' m yr rh and alo es waft fro m your robe s ' ; NEB ' yo u r

[ 104 ]

rob e s a re all fragran t w ith m y r rh and powder of a l o e s ' . So m e co m ­ rn ent a to rs , quo t e d i n Molden k e , s ugge s t th a t Da vid a nd Solomo n

c oul d h ave k nown the Indian o r r i s , Sa u s s u rea lappa . Th i s na tive o f the H i malaya s is a p e r e n n i al with l a r ge l eave s , a p ric kl y stem an d pu r p l e flower s . Its roo ts a re strongl y a rom a ti c and can be u s ed for p e rfu m e s and inc e ns e .

R E F ER E NC ES : q id dah : E x 3 0 . 2 4 ; Ezk 2 7 . 1 9 qets i ' o th : Ps 4 5 . 8

Cassia (Saussurea lappa) leaves and inflorescence

[ 105 ]

d

Castor oil plant (Ricinus communis) shoot with flowers b. inflorescence (female flowers above, male below) c. mature fruit d. seed a.

Castor oil plant Hebrew :

q iqayon

h ave been d i ffe rent op i n i o n s with r e ga rd to tra n s l a tion o f t h e Hb q iq ayo n . The Vu l ga te tra n s l a t e s a s ' iv y ' ; In t h e O r i e n t a n d N E B fo l l o w the LXX i n tra n s l a t i n g a s ' gourd ' . go urd , Cucu rbita pepo ( pu m pk i n ) develo ps a rapid gro wth w i t h po s s ib i l ity of giv i ng s h a d e a s t h e book of Jo nah v i v i dl y de ­

D E S C R I PTIO N :

t he AV

the the

Ric inus communis

Th e r e

,

s c r ibe s .

i nte rprete rs ( e . g. m a d e by J e rom e, t r a n s -

Mo s t m o d e rn bo ta n i s ts ( e . g. Mol d e nk e ) a nd

T. H . Ro b i n s o n ) h ave ado pted a s ugge s ti o n

[ 106 ]

}ato r o f t h e Vu lga te , tha t q i q a yon m i gh t be the c a s to r o il tree , R i ­ c inu s c o m m u n i s or Pa l m a Ch r i s ti . Th i s i s a fa s t - grow i ng pl a n t

a o f .3 m . I t s l e av e s are l a rge an d w ell o o r shade . It s fruits a re c a p s u l e s w i t h ui t e d f r s h re e e s As wel l a s the s e feature s , anoth e r rea ­ son fo r i de nti fying q iq a yo n w i th R ic i n u s c o m m u n i s i s th e s i m i l a r i ty

� h e i gh t pr oviding sh elter : ed c o nta i n ing o i l .

-

e Hb wo rd a nd th e E gyptian k i k i a n d As s y r i a n kukan i tu . e be tw en th B a nd N E B m g tra n sl ate a s ' c a s tor o i l pla n t' .

J

RE F E R E NC E S : Jon 4 . 6 , 7 , 9 , 1 0

a.

Ced a r (Cednu; libani)

out l i n P pf

l rPt'

1> . l > r a n t'h w i t h

[ 107 ]

I ' one

Cedar

Cedrus l i ban i

H e brew :

" e rez

DE SC R IPTION : The enth u s ia s m with wh ich t h e OT w r i t i n gs pra i s l' t h e ced ar of Le banon i s unde r s tandable . It i s a m aj e s tic tree o f gr eat beauty, re a ch i n g 2 7 m i n heigh t a n d 1 2 m i n girth . Its lo ng br a n c h e s spread o ut hor izontal ly from th e trunk , and th e l ea v e s J r c: da r k and evergreen , gl ittering l ike s i lve r i n t h e s u n . The c o n e s take th ree yea r s t o m atu r e . Th e f r a gr a n t wood i s m u c h so ugh t a f ­ t er fo r buil d i ng p u r po s e s , a s i t does not e a s i l y rot. Its gr e a t va l ue a s timb e r i s often m entioned, espec iall y i n th e h i s tory o f K i n g Solom o n . R E F E R ENC ES : C o n s ul t a conco rdanc e DI F F IC U L T PASSAG ES :

Lv 1 4 . 4 - 6 a nd 49 - 5 2 ;

Nu 1 9 . 6 .

Al tho u gh

tra n s l a te ? e rez i n the s e pas sa ge s a s ' c edar wood ' , it i s unders tood by s o m e s c h o l a r s t o b e a d i ffe r ent k ind o f c ed a r , o r a j u n i p e r . Wal ker i d e n t i f i e s i t with J un iperus oxycedru s , other schol a r s with Sabina phoe n i c i a , wh i c h grows in the S i na i m o u n ta i n s . C e d a r s o f L e b a n o n were never c o m mon outside Lebano n , a nd in the s e pa s sa ge s some ea s il y a va i l ­ abl e a rom a t i c woo d s eem s to be i m p l i e d . m o s t c o m m e n ta to r s ,

Is

44 . 1 4 : RSV,

i n c l u d i n g th e m o d ern o ne s ,

JB and NEB

t r a n s l at e ?oren a s ' c eda r ' ;

see L AU R E L.

Cinnamon

on

th i s

C in n a m o m u m z e yl a n ic um

Hebrew : qinnamon

Greek : k innamomon

DES C R IP TION: This eve rgr e e n tree , bel o nging to t h e Lau r el fa m i l y, i s a nativ e of C ey l o n and Ma l a ya . I t grow s to 9 m high and i s c ul ­ tivat ed fo r i ts valuab le inner bar k , fro m wh i c h the c i n n a m o n i s o b ­ ta i ne d . Th e ba rk i s c ut and th e n ea s il y peel ed o ff. C i n n a m o n w a s

u s e d a s a co ndiment bec au s e o f i t s de l i c i o u s fl a v o u r ; also a s a p e r ­ fum e and a n i n gr e d i e n t of ' hol y ' o i l .

[ 108 ]

R

E F E R E NC ES :

q innamon : Ex 3 0 . 23 ; Pr 7 . 1 7 ( N E B ' c a s s ia ' ) ; SS 4 . 1 4 kinnamo m o n : Rv 1 8 . 1 3 e

!

I,

d

b

Cinnamon

(Cinnanwmwn zcylanic um)

flowering shoot b . bark c. flower d. & e. bark and leaf of cinnamom u m cassia a.

atron tree, Sandarac tree

"-

. .;

Tetrac l i n i s a rticulata (or Thuj a a rti ­

c ul ata)

---

Greek : t hu in o s (lite rally:

' from the c itron tree ' )

D ES C R IPTION : The c i tro n tree , a c o n i fer belonging to the c yp re s s fa m ily, i s a tree o r shrub about 9 m h i gh , w i th redd i s h - brown ba r k and spreading o r asc end ing branc hes . Its brigh t - green l eave s a re Very s m a ll and scaly. The tree h a s always been h ighly valu ed fo r its fr agrant wood wh ich ta k e s o n a fin e dark pol i s h , and i t wa s said to be wo·r th its we ight in gold. Th e wood i s durabl e , u s ual l y res i s t ­ ing a ll a tta c k s by i n s ec t s . The tree i s a na tive o f Morocc o , the Atla s mounta i ns a nd Al ge r i a . It i s not rel a te d to the C itru s o r

orange.

[ 109 ]

R E F E R E NC E :

DI F F I C U L T

Rv 1 8 . 1 2

PASSAG E :

Mo l d e n k e ( a nd Po s t ) s ee m to h a v e d i s p e l l e t l

a l l dou bt a bo u t the i dent i fic a t i o n of x u l o n thu i no n , r e nd e r i n g d a r a c tree ' . ' th y i n e wood ' .

it ' Sa n ­

R S V a n d N E B s a y ' s c ented wood ' ; AV tra n s l i t e r a te s Th e Z U r i c h B i bl e h a s ' wo h l r i e c h e n d e s H o lz ' a n d

M e n ge ' Timj a h olz ' , a s doe s Da n i s h a n d J B ( F r e n c h ) .

J B ( E n gl i s h )

h a s ' s a n da l woo d ' .

Coriander Hebrew :

Cori a n d e r (Cor£a ndrum satz:v wn) a . p l a n t. /, . f ru i t r · . fru i t in!!: lu•ad d . t"l ' n t r a l f l < >rl't r· . o u t si< i l ' f l < m · t f. le a f

Co r i a n d r u m s a t i v u m ga dh

D E S C R I PTION :

Coriander

is

m en t i o n e d on l y

i l l u s t r a te wh a t m a n n a wa s l i k e .

[ no J

tw i c e i n t h e Bi bl e , to

C o r i a nd e r i s we ll known in Pa l e s t i n e .

It i s a n a n n u a l u m bel l i ­

ter o us p l a n t l i k e t h e c a r ro t , 61 e m h i gh , w i t h div ided l e a v e s and u rn ­ bel s o f pink o r wh i te fl owe r s . Th e p l an t ha s a s trong c h a ra c te r i s tic odo ur. I t s fru i t o r s e e d s a r e grey, gl o bul a r a n d t h e s iz e o f a s ma l l pea . Th ey a r e u s e d a s a s p i c e i n c o o k i n g, a n d the a ro m a t i c o il d e r ived fro m th e s e ed s is u s ed i n pe r fum e . REF ER E NC E S : Ex 1 6 . 3 1 ; Nu 1 1 . 7

Cot ton a.

Cotton, Levant Cotton

Hebr ew·:

(Gossypiwn h crbace wn)

p l a n t IJ . m at u w �apsnle, open c . n nr i p P f ru i t, with h ra c � t M

Go s s ypium h e rbac eum

k a rpa s

DES C R I PTION : C o t t o n i s a n a nnual pl ant, growing i n to a b u s h about 1.5 rn h i gh , with yellow or pink fl o w e r s and deepl y - lobed l eave s . I ts

fr uit i s a c apsule with several seeds dens ely covered w ith long whi te fl u ffy h a i r s . Co tto n i s mentioned only in E s 1 . 6 , i n a vivid desc r iption of the s umptuou s feas t held by the Pers ian king in his winter re s idenc e in Susa. Th e author tak e s pa ins to de s c r ibe t h e magnificent decora ­ tions of th e cou rtyard in fro nt of the palac e : ' Th ere were white c otton cu rta i ns and blue hangi ngs c aught up w i th cords ' ( RSV), pro bably so that they could s erve as an awni ng. AV and R V (but not RV m g) m i s takenly translate karpa s a s ' green ' . J B ha s ' wh i te and viol et ha ngings ' , and N E B ' wh i te c u rta ins ' . C o tton ha s been culti ­ vated in Pe r s ia from anc i ent times , and tree cotton, Go s s ypium arboreum , i s m entioned in th e cuneiform i n s c r iptions of Sennach e ­ rib. .

•

.

Al th o ugh the Greek trave l l e r and writer Pa usanias (2nd c entu ry AD) d e s c ribe s Judaea n cotton , some modern botan ists do ubt that i t w a s cultivated in Pal estine in Bibl ic al tim e s . However, Pau s a ni a s ' s ta te m ent i s s upported by th e Mi shna ( th e written doc t rines of the Jewi sh rabbis from the 3rd century AD) .

The Hb word l;mr l iterally mean s ' a white m aterial ' (o f l i nen o r cotton). I t appea r s o n l y i n E s 1 . 6 a n d 8 . 1 5 . I n E s 1 . 6 i t i s natu ral to connect th e wo rd with th e following karpa s and tra n s l a te ' white cot ­ ton ' . There i s no real j u s tifi c a tion fo r th e note ' o r c otto n ' i n R V m g of Gn 41 . 4 2. R E F E R E NC E :

Cucumber

Es 1.6

C u c um i s chate (Cucum i s m el o )

Hebrew : q i sh shu ? DESC R I PTION: A fru it wh i c h wa s grown in E gyp t in Bibl ic al t i m e s and is m entioned in N u 11 . 5 . I t wa s natural th at throughout the h e a t of the d e s e rt j o u rney the c hildren o f Israel were longing fo r the refres h m en t o f the Cucum i s c h a t e , wh ic h i s l ar ge r , sweeter and m o re watery and melon - l i ke than th e o r d i n a r y E u ropean c ucumber

[ 112 J

( C u c um i s s a tivu s ) . Even today a c uc u m b e r a n d a p i ec e o ft en m ake u p a m eal i n Egypt.

of bread

There s e e m s , however, to be s o m e do ubt w h e t h e r th e q i s h s hu ?

sho ul d be identified with C u c um i s c h a te o r with Cuc um i s m elo , t h e muskme l on , a s I D says . R E F E R ENC E S :

Nu 1 1 . 5 .

A c uc umbe r o r

m e n t i o n ed i n Is

m elon fiel d , m iq s h a h , i s 1 . 8 ; ]e 10. 5.

DIF F IC U LT PASSAG E : ] e 1 0 . 5 : Ge seni u s derives m i q s h a h from ' a n d t ra n s l a t e s ' h am m ered wo rk ' , ' s ta tu e . Mo s t m o d e r n com mentato r s tra n s late ' c ucumber fie l d ' , so RSV and R V m g. ]B ' m elon p a tc h , NEB ' pl o t o f c u c u mbe r s ' . AV ' up ri gh t a s a p a l m tree' , fo llowed by RV, may be ignored.

g-sh - h

'

Cucumber

(Cucumis chafe

[melo])

fru i t and leaves b. flower (m ale) c . bud (fe male) a.

[ 11 3 ]

b Cummin u.

Cummin

(Cuminwn cyminwn)

]J i a n t w i th fruiting hem!

IJ . fruit

Cum inum c ym i num

Hebrew : kammon

G reek : kum inon

DESC R IPTION : This i s a n an nual pl ant of the c a rrot fa m il y, n a t i v e to Mediterranean countrie s , 3 0 to 60 e m h igh a nd bearing umbe l s o f s ma l l wh it"e flowe r s . It is c ul t ivated fo r i t s seed s , wh i c h a re u s ed a s a spic e , fo r i n stance i n bread . Isa iah ( 2 8 . 2 5 , 2 7 ) give s a v ivid de s c r iption of h ow c um m in i s sown a nd h arve s t e d ; when r i pe i t i s bea ten with a ro d . Dt 1 4 . 2 2 a n d M i s h n a ( ' Al l wh i c h s e rv e s a s food and grows out o f

[ 114 ]

tbe

fi e l d m u s t be tithed ' ) s t r e s s th e d u t y o f t i th i n g e v e n t h e s m a l l e s t

truirs ·

tbi s . R

Th e wo rd s o f J e s u s t o the Pha r i s e e s i n M t 2 3 . 2 3 refe r to S ee al s o DI L L .

E F E R E NC E S :

kam m on : Is 2 8 . 2 5 , 27 kum i non : Mt 23 . 2 3

Cypress

Cupre s s u s s e m p e rv i re n s h o r iz o n ta l i s

Hebr ew :

te '7 a s h s h ur

DE SC R IP TION : Th e re i s m uc h d i s a gr e em e n t a s to th e r e nde r i n g of te ?ash s hur . So me (e . g. B DB, Mo l d e n k e , AV , R V a n d NE B ) t r a n s ­ l a te ' th e box tree ' ( Bu x u s l o ngi fo l ia ) , fo u n d fo rm e r l y in t h e Ga l i l ea n

hill s , n o r th e r n Pa l e s t i n e a n d Leban o n .

h

c.nucss (Cu press us sempcrvirens) " u t l i rw 1 1 f t n ' < ' /, . t.w i � , . _ ripe c o n e

a.

[ 115 ]

Others i den tify it w i t h some kind o f c o nifer o r ced ar . RSV usu ­ a l l y tra n s l a tes te ? a s h s h ur a s ' pine ' and bero s h a s ' c ypre s s ' . See PINE ( A L E PPO PIN E ) . TI1ere i s great confu s i o n in a l l ver s io n s , anc ient and modern, ove r the i dentity o f eve r greens i n the Bibl e . We follow ID which identifies t e ? a s h s h u r with C u p re s su s s e mperviren s h o r i z o ntal i s , a s do e s Fah rer and a l s o R V mg. Th e c ypre s s i s native to Pal e s t i n e and i s fo und growing w il d i n Gilead a n d Edo m a t the pre s e n t day. It is an evergreen, 9 to 15 m h i gh , with s pr eadi ng branch e s , s m all scale - l i ke l eave s and round cones . Th e durabil i ty o f the wood makes i t s u i table fo r build i ng purpo s e s . AV a nd JB translate tirzah i n I s 44 . 1 4 a s c ypr e s s ; R V and R S V ' holm tre e ' (q. v . ) '

'

R E F E R E NC ES : I s 4 1 . 1 9 ; 6 0 . 1 3 ; Ez k 2 7 . 6

a.

plant

Dill ( A nethum gmveolens)

/1 . fruiting head

c.

flowers

[ 116 ]

d . m ature s p l i t f ru i t

DiD

A ne th u m gr aveo l e n s

Gr� e k :

a n e th on

D E S C R IPTIO N :

h i gh

Dill is a n a nn u a l u mb el l i fe ro u s p l an t , 30 to 5 0 e m

with yellow flower s .

I t i s q u i t e c o m m o n i n Pa l e s tine , bo th w i l d

and c ult ivated , a n d i s grown fo r i ts s ee d s wh i c h c o nta i n a ro m a t i c

oil s u s ed a s a s ea so n i n g.

AV renders a n e th o n a s ' a n i se ' , Ph i l l i p s a s ' a n i s ee d ' . The Ju bi l ee B i b l e even a d d s a n i l l u s tration o f th i s p l a n t (wh i c h h a s som e re s em bl a n c e to d i l l ) .

Mol denke howeve r d o e s n o t q u e s t i o n i t s i d e nt i ­ fic at io n a s ' d i l l ' , a n d he i s s uppo rted b y Stra c k - B i l l e rb e c k . So m e t r a n s l a t i on s , i nc lu d i ng R S V a n d N E B , render t h e Hb w o r d qets al;l in I s 2 8 . 2 5 , 2 7 as ' d ill ' . JB ha s ' fe n n el ' . Bu t ac c o r d i n g to

Po s t, Mol de n ke , Ge s e n i u s , a nd Buh l , q e t s a l;l i s to be u n d e r s to o d a s N i ge l l a s at iv a , and k am m on a s c u m m i n , Cum in um cym inum . S e e C U MM I N and NUf M E G .

black cum m in , R E F E R E NC E :

M t 23 . 23

Ebony D i o s py r o s ebenum Hebrew : hobh n i m DESC R IPTION: The t h r e e spe c ie s of D io spyro s : ebe naster , me la­ noxy lon and e benum , t h e s o - c a l l ed ' d ate - tre e s ' , a r e n a t ive s o f Ind i a and C eylo n . Th ey a r e l a r ge s low - grow i n g trees w i th a s m o o th ba r k , le av e s n e a r l y l O e m l o n g, and s m a l l bell - sh aped p i n k flowe r s . It i s th e h e a r two o d o f th i s tr e e whic h makes i t v a l u a bl e . I t is bl a c k and v ery h a r d , a nd h a s b e e n u s e d by woo d c a rver s s i nc e a n t i qu i t y . To ge t h e r wi th ivo ry, i t i s u s ed fo r i n l a y i n g a nd ornam ental tu rn e r y . R E F E R E NC E :

Ezk 27.15

DI F F IC U L T PAS S AG E :

For the rend e r ing of geo graph i c a l n a m e s i n

th i s p a s s age , s e e O TTP, p

207 .

[ 117 ]

Fig tree, Fig He brew :

G re e k :

Ficus c a rica

t e ? e n ah ( f i g a n d fig tre e ) , pag ( e a rl y f i g) , b i k k u r a h ( e a rl y fi g ) , debh e l a h ( p r e s s e d f i g c a k e )

s uk e ( f i g t re e ) , s u k o n ( fig) , o l un thos ( l a t e f i g) Th e fi g

t r e e i s a n a t i v e o f We s te rn As i a , bu t w a s a n d s ti l l i s m u c h c u l t i va te d i n Pal e s t i n e . To ge t h e r w i th t h e v i n e and t h e ol i v e tre e , i t c o n s t ituted th e m o s t i mpo r ta n t a nd u s efu l fru i t tree o f th e I s r a e l i t e s . I f th e g ro u n d i s w e l l c u l t i va ted a n d the t r e e ta k e n c a r e o f, it w i l l rewa rd i ts owne r w i t h two a b u nda n t h a rv e s t s

DES C R IPTION :

yea r . Th e e a r l y fi gs r i p e n i n J u n e , th e l a te o n e s i n Augu s t a nd S e p t e m be r . Th e l a t e fi g s a re o fte n p re s s ed i n to c a k e s a nd thu s p r e s e r v e d fo r e x po r t . eve r y

Th e f i g t r e e grow s to a h e i gh t o f 6 m a nd h a s l o n g c u rv e d

b r anc h e s , w h i c h s o m e t i m e s give i t t h e a ppea ra n c e o f a l a r g e b u s h . I t s t r u n k a n d b r a nc h e s a re s mo o th ; t h e ba r k i s s i l v e r - gr ey i n c o l ­ our . Th e l e a v e s a r e l a rge a n d s h a p ed l i ke a ha n d , a n d th e th i c k fo l i age a ffo rd s a p l e a s a n t s h a d e

( s ee

e . g. J n

1.48).

Th e fru i t i s a well - k n o w n and po p u l a r del i c a c y i n

many

pa rts

o f th e wo r l d , and is ver y no u r i s h i n g bec a u s e of i t s h i gh s u ga r c o n ­

tent.

I t i s a l s o u s ed m e d i c i n a l l y ( 2 K 2 0 . 7 ) , c h i e fl y a p p r e c i a t e d fo r the i r f i n e fl a v o u r .

Ebony

(Diospyros ebenum) [ 118 ]

E a r l y fi g s a r e

Fig R E F E R E NC E S :

(Ficus carica)

t e ? c na h : Co n s u l t a c on c o rd a n c e pag: SS 2 . 1 3 d e h h e la h : 1 S 2 5 . 1 8 ; 3 0 . 1 2 ; 2 K 2 0 . 7 ; l C h 1 2 . 4 0 ; Is 3 8 . 21

Is 2 8 4 ; Je 2 4 . 2 ; Ho 9 . 1 0 ; Mi 7 . 1 Mt 2 1 . 1 9 - 21 ; 2 4 . 3 2 ; Mk 1 1 . 1 3 , 2 0 f ; 1 3 . 2 8 ; Lk 1 3 . 6f; 2 1 . 2 9 ; J n 1 . 4 8 , 5 0 ; J a s 3 . 1 2 ; Rv 6 . 1 3 s uko n : M t 7 . 1 6 ; M k 1 1 . 1 3 ; Lk 6 . 4 4 ; J a s 3 . 1 2

b i k ku ra h :

.

s uk e :

o l u ntho s :

Flax

Rv

6.13

L i n um u s i ta t i s s i m u m

Hebr ew : Greek :

pe s h e th , p i s h ta h l i no n , bu s s o s ,

DESCRiPTION:

s i n d o n , o th o n i a

F l a x i s o n e o f th e ol d e s t c ul t i v a te d

have be e n known fo r fou r to five

So il i s u n kno w n ,

but it w a s

t h ou s a n d yea r s .

pl a n ts , a n d m a y

I t s o r i gi na l na t i v e

probably i n Me s opo tam i a .

Th e c u l t iva ­

tion o f fl a x in a nc i e n t Pa l e s ti ne i s a tte s te d by t h e Ta l m u d .

[ 119 ]

It grows nea rl y o n e m h i gh , with s m all n a rrow l eave s , and its flower s have five bright bl ue p e tal s . Th e fruit i s a c ap s ul e ; the seeds conta i n an oil wh ich is u s ed a s foo d and i n th e pa i n t indus try. After the harve s t, fo rmerly c a rried out by pulling up the c rop with its root, th e stal ks were spread on the flat roofs o f the hou s e s to dry in th e s un . Then they were spl it and c om bed un til the fibres could be s epa rated and peel ed o ff. Th e s e were woven i nto l i ne n . The Hb a n d G k wo rd s s tand both fo r th e plan t, fla x , a n d for l in ­ en . Pi shtah and l i non can also mean ' w ic k ' . In the N T the fabric and the wick are m entioned , but not th e pla n t. Othon i a i s translated ' l inen c l o th e s ' , ' l inen c l o th s ' , ' strips of l inen c lo th ' by AV, RSV, J B a nd NEB. The Gk w ord is probably from '' etun of Pr 7 . 1 6 . R E F E R ENC ES :

Ex 9. 3 1 ; J os 2 . 6; Jg 15 . 14 ; Is 1 9 . 9 ; 4 2 . 3 ; Ezk 4 0 . 3 ; H o 2 . 5 , 9

pe s heth , p is htah:

Pr

a.

31 .13 ;

Flax

(Linum usitatissimum)

flowering plunt

b.

m a t u re

[ 120 ]

capsule

b c.

seed

l i no n : M t 1 2 . 20 (c f I s 4 2 . 3 ) ; R v 1 5 . 6 s in d6 n : M t 27 . 5 9 ; Mk 1 5 . 4 6 ; L k 23 . 53 . 1 4 . 5 l f it shoul d be t r a n s l ated ' tunic ' . othonia : J n 1 9 . 4 0 ; 2 0 . 5 , 7 bus so s : Lk 1 6 . 1 9

Frankincense

Bo swell i a Greek : l ibano s

He brew : l e bo nah DESC R I PTION :

I n Mk

F rankincense i s a bal s a mic gum e xu d i n g from th e

wood o f d i fferent spec i e s of s h r ubs and t r e e s belonging to th e gen u s Boswell i a . Th e ba rk i s i nc i s e d , and th e fi n es t q ua l i t y o f r e s i n i s

a.

Frankincense (Boswellia carterii) branch with leaves and flowers

[ 121 ]

'' · flower

o bta i ned i f th i s i s do n e not too earl y i n the yea r . The diffe ren t s pe ­ c ie s of Bo swel l ia a re native to Ind ia, the Soma l i coa s t and Ara b i a ; the Midianites i mpo rted fra nkinc en s e fro m Ephah a nd Sheba , Is 60. 6 ; J e 6 . 2 0 . Wh eth e r th e Bo s wellia wa s grown in Pal e s tine is rathe r dou btfu l . Th e ' hill o f fra nkinc e n s e ' m ention ed i n SS 4 . 6 a n d t h e pla c e name in Jg 2 1 . 1 9 d o n o t prove thi s . Frankinc e n s e wa s u s ed i n the offeri ngs i n the templ e and wa s a n i ngred ient o f the holy o i ntment. R E F E R ENC ES : l ebonah : Consult a c o nc o rdance l iba no s : Mt 2 . 1 1 ; Rv 1 8 . 1 3

a.

Galbanum (Perula galbaniflua)

part of fl owpri n g plant h. leaf with part of s w o l lPn s t a l k c . flower (female) d . flower (male) 1' . seeds

Galbanum

l;l el b e n a h

Heb re w :

D

F e r ul a ga lba n i fl u a

Ga l ba nu m i s a k i n d o f fra gra n t r e s i n wh i c h c o m e s

E S C R IPTI O N :

fro m the F e r u l a ga l ba n i fl u a , a n u m be l l i fe ro u s m e m b e r o f t h e c a r ­ ro t fa m i l y, a p e r e n n i a l w i th a s t ro n g t a p ro o t a n d a s t e m o ne m o r more h i gh . Its l eav e s a r e deeply c u t a nd i t s green i s h - wh i te fl o w e r s

ar e

ar ra nge d i n umbel s .

W hen r ipe the y o u n g s te m y i e l d s

a m ilky

Th e r e s i n o u s gu m j ui c e i f i t i s c u t a few i n c h e s above th e g r o u n d . d ifie s and c h a nge s to a n am be r c o l ou r . I f burnt i t give s so on s ol i off a v e r y p le a s ant od ou r . G a lb an u m i s a n a t iv e o f Pe r s ia . In Bib­ l ic a l t im e s it was im p o r t e d int o Pa le s t in e , where it w a s u s e d a s a n ingred ient o f t h e holy i n ce n s e . See a l s o M Y R R H . R E F E R ENC E :

Gopher

Ex 30.34

C u p re s s u s s e m p e r v i r e n s

(?)

Hebrew : go p h e r DESCR IPTION : Th e Hb wo r d o c c u r s o n l y o n c e i n t h e B i bl e , in c o n ­ nec tion w i th th e b u i l d i n g o f No ah ' s a r k . I t i s s t i l l a n o p e n q u e s t io n what k i nd o f m a t e r i al i s m e a n t . So m e t r a n s l a to r s a n d c o m m e n ta ­ to r s t h e r e fo r e p r e fe r s i m pl y to r e n d e r ' go ph e r w o o d ' , e v e n w i t h o u t any ex p l a na to r y n o te s ( e . g. R S V a n d ' Ou r L i v i ng Bibl e ' ) . Othe r s (e . g. NEB) d e r i v e i t f r o m a r o o t p a r a l l e l to th e Gk ku ­ c ypr e s s , w h i c h s e e m s l ik e l y a s the Ph o e n i c i a n s u s e d th i s k i n d o f wood fo r s h i pbu i l d i ng. I t h a s a l s o been po i n t e d o u t th at th e Wo rd i s s i m i l a r t o A r a m a i c a nd As s yr i a n wo r d s m e a n i n g ' b i tu m en ' . F i na ll y, s o m e c o m m e n t a to r s c o n s i d e r i t to b e a m i s s p e l l i n g o f a W o r d m e a n i n g ' b r i m s t o n e ' , o r s o m e fo r e i gn w o r d i n d i c a t i n g a k i n d

£? r i s s o s ,

of p i n e - wo o d GB ' re s i n o u s wood ' ) .

Bec au s e o f the wo rd ' e t s ( ' tr e e , wood ' ) w ith which i t i s c o n ­ nected , i t s e e m s s o m e k i n d o f pine t r e e i s i m p l i e d . RE F E R E NC E :

Gn 6 . 1 4

[ 123 ]

$,,,

b

a.

Gourd

(Citrullus colocynthis)

shoot. with fl owers and leavPS /1 . m a l<' f l mw r opened c . female flower cut t hrough

Gourd C it rullus colo cynth i s Hebrew : paqqu ' o th D E S C R IPTIO N : There i s l i ttle do ubt a bo u t the id enti fi c ation o f th i s pl ant, the c ha racteri s tic s of wh ich are s o vividly d e s c ribed i n 2 K 4 . Th e I-fu na m e i s der ived from a root � meaning ' to s pl i t ' o r ' to bu r s t ' , wh ich d e s c ribes th e fru i t ' s habit o f bu r s ting when r ipe .

The w ild gourd re s e m bl e s the c uc umbe r , with its s tem tra i l i n g along the groun d . Its leaves a r e deep - c u t , s haped rath e r l ike th o s e of the v i n e . Wh en ripe the fru i t i s d r i ed t o a powde r which i s u s ed medic i n a l l y fo r i t s s trong purgative q ual i tie s . N E B tran s l a te s pa q ­ qu ' o th a s ' b i tte r - appl e s ' . F o r ' go u rd ' i n Jon 4 . 6ff s ee C AS TO R OI L PLANT.

R E F E R E NC E : 2 K 4 . 3 9 [ 1 24 ]

DIF FIC U L T PASSAGE S : I K 6 . 1 8 ; 7 . 24 : peqa ' im ' gourd - s haped ' , r � ferring to th e c a rved o r na m e n ts i n the templ e .

Grass, Herb, Hay

Gra m inea2 (Buto m u s umbe l l a t u s )

H e brew : i)a t s i r , ?ai) u , d e s h e ? , J:t a s h a s h , ' e s ebh Gr eek :

c h o rto s ,

bo ta n e ,

l a c h a no n

D E S C RI PTIO N : Gra m ineae i s the bota n i c a l nam e wh ich c o m pr i s e s the whole gras s fa m il y . A botani s t travell i ng i n Pal e st i ne h a s i d e n ­ tified 4 60 d i ffe rent gra s s e s , so that in mo s t c a s e s it w i l l be i m po s ­ s i b l e to know wh ic h o f them i s mentioned i n the d i ffe rent Sc r i ptu re pa s s age s . An exc ept ion is ? a i) u , s a i d to be an E gyp t i a n word and often identifi ed with a p l a n t growi n g o n t h e borders o f the N i l e , with papyru s . Mo l d e nke su gge s t s tha t th i s i s Buto m u s u mhel l a tu s . RSV and N E B t ra n s l a te ' reed gra s s ' o r ' reed ' ; J B ' ru sh ' . In o th e r c o n n e c t i o n s th e word ' gra s s ' i s u s ed s ym bol i c al l y i n

the Bible ( e . g. i n P s 9 0 a n d Is 4 0 ) and b y J e s u s wh en he tal ks about

the gra s s that w i t h e r s d ur i ng the dro ugh t as an i l l u s tr a t i o n of hu m an life and wo rldl y gl o ry. The Gk w o rd cho rto s means gra s s in the fi e l d , or w i l d gra s s in contra s t to c u l t iva ted p l a n t s . In I Co 3 . 1 2 it m ea n s hay as bu i l d i ng mate r i al .

bota ne , o ri ginal l y a gene ric wo rd s i gn i fying ' herb ' , ' pl a n t ' o r

' fod der ' , s ho ul d b e rendered ' gr a s s ' o r ' u s e ful v e ge t a t i o n ' i n H b 6 . 7 .

lachano n i s another gene r i c wo rd m e a n i n g ' edible ga rd e n h e rb ' , ' v egeta bl e ' . In Ro 1 4 . 2 it i s u s e d in d e s c ribing p e r s o ns who are We ak in the i r c o nv ic tio ns .

R E F E R E NC E S : l:Ja t s i r : Consult a c o n c o rdanc e ?aJ;m : Gn 4 1 . 2 , 18 ; Job 8 . 11 (Ho 13 . 1 5 ) de'She ? : Gn 1 . 1 1 , 1 2 ; Dt 3 2 . 2 ; 2 S 2 3 . 4 ; 2 K 1 9 . 2 6 ; Job 6 . 5 ; 3 8 . 2 7 ; Ps 2 3 . 2 ; 3 7 . 2 ; Pr 2 7 . 2 5 ; Is 1 5 . 6 ; 3 7 . 2 7 ; 6 6 . 1 4 ; Je 1 4 . 5

J:t a s h a sh : I s 5 . 24 ; 3 3 . 1 1 ' e s ebh : Co n s ult a c o nc o rda nc e

[ 125 ]

c ho rto s : Mt 6 . 3 0 ; 14 . 1 9 ; Mk 6 . 3 9 ; Lk 1 2 . 2 8 ; Jn 6 . 1 0 ; 1 C o 3 . 1 2 ; Ja s 1 . 1 0 , 1 1 ; l P 1 . 24 ; R v 8 . 7 ; 9 . 4 botan e : Hb 6 . 7 lac h a non : Mt 1 3 . 3 2 ; Mk 4 . 3 2 ; Lk 1 1 . 4 2 ; Ro 1 4 . 2 D I F F IC U L T PASSAG ES : Ho 1 3 . 1 5 : Th e Hb tex t i s d i ffi c u l t a n d prob ­ ably c o rrupt, a n d the c o n t ext s u gge s t s a n e m e ndatio n a s in R S V , ' Though h e ma y fl o u r i s h as the reed p l a n t , ins tead o f ' though h e m a y fl o u r i s h a m o n g brother s ' . '

l). a t s i r

LE E K).

i n Nu 1 1 . 5 i s to b e rendered ' l eek ' ( s e e ONION, GAR LIC ,

Grass (Butomus u mbellat us) flower and upper p art of leaves

[ 126 ]

���:;

J(eDDA L a w s o n i a i n e r m i s He b r e w :

k oph er

DE SC R I PTIO N : AV renders th e Hb wo rd ' c a mph i re ' . Bu t c a m p h i r e o r c a m ph o r i s a pl a n t n ative t o C h i n a , n o t I i k e l y to h a v e bee n k no w n in P a l e s tine in Bibl i c a l ti m e s .

Th e bo t a n i s t s LOw , Po s t and M o l d e n k e i d e n t i fy th e w o r d w i t h th e h e n n a p l a n t , Laws o n i a i n e r m i s , probabl y a n a t i v e o f Ind i a , w h i c h gro ws w i l d and i s a l s o c ultiva ted in th e wa r m e r regio n s o f Pa l e s t i n e , suc h a s J e r i c ho , J a ffa , a nd t h e o a s i s o f E n ge d i (SS 1 . 1 4 ) on the s h o re s o f the Dead Sea .

a.

Henna

(Lawsunia inermis)

flowl'ring shoot

b. shoot with fruit.s

[ 127 ]

Th i s i s a s m a l l tree with l i gh t green s pear - s haped l eave s , t h o r n y b r a n c h e s an d s w ee t - s m e l l i n g flowers which grow in c l u s t e r s , It u s ed to be c u sto m a ry among w e a lt h y wo m en to w e a r a l i ttl e ba g f i l l e d w ith the aromatic henna flower s . l e av e s c on t a in a d ye wh ich w a s u sed a s a c o s m e t i c in anc ie nt E gy p t , as it i s t od ay am ong the A r abs , for c o l ou r in g the finge r - nail s and toe - n a i l s . Wh eth e r this wa s a c u s to m a m o n g the I s r a e l i t e s i s no t known fo r c e rta i n . Dt 2 1 . 1 0 - 1 4 , wh ere d i s a pp r o v a l o f th e for eigne rs ' u s e o f co s m e t i c s i s i m p li e d, may r efe r t o th i s T he

p r a c tic e . T he d ye i s p repared by m i x i n g d r i ed and c ru s h ed henna leaves with warm wate r .

R E F E R E NC ES : S S 1 . 1 4 ; 4 . 1 3 ( 7 . l l ) DIF F ICU LT PASSAGE : S S 7 . 1 1 : S e e O TTP, p 1 3 7 . R u d o l p h spe a k s i n s uppo rt of the tran s l ation ' henna b us h e s ' ( RS V and J B ' v i l l a ge s ' ) .

Holm Oak Qu erc u s ile x Hebrew : ti rzah DESC R I PTIO N : A c om menta tor c o nfronted w ith a n unknown wo rd l ike tirzah , wh i c h a ppea r s only onc e i n th e OT, i s tempted to su p ­ po s e t h at there ha s b e e n a s l ip o f the pen . So m e th erefore read t id hh a r : s e e PINE ( BRUTIAN PIN E ) . Mo s t comm entato rs to d a y fo l l o w th e rende r i n g o f the Vul ga te and t r a n s l a t e ' i l ex ' o r , l i k e R SV and NE B , ' h o l m t re e ' , t h o u gh the i d e n ti fi c at io n i s d o u btf u l . J B ha s ' c ypre s s ' . Th e Q uer cu s il e x i s a beauti ful tre e , wh ich ca n rea c h a h e i gh t

of 1 5 m . It i s a n a tiv e o f Mediterranea n countries whe re i t i s oft e n found gro w i n g o n the c o a s t o r in t h e m ou nta i n s , as i t l i k e s f i r m d r y gro und where its l on g roo t s c a n reach into th e s o i l . Its oblong l e a v e s a re l e a th e r y a nd eve rgree n , s mo o th and s h i n y on the s u r fa c e a nd l ighter undernea th . I t s fru i t i s a n a co rn . Wh e n not c ultiva te d , th i s tree usually grows alone .

[ 12 8 ]

Po s t identifies i t with the Pinus halepens i s :

s e e PIN E ( A L E PPO

piNE). R E F E R E NC E :

Is

44 . 1 4

Holm oak

c.

Hyssop Heb r ew :

((Juercus ilex)

twig w i th f ru i t /J . & d. d i fferent forms of leaves a.

:teorn e.

group of trees

Or i ga num m a ru ? ezobh

Gree k :

h u s sopo s

DE SC RiPTION : A

plant with a s h rub - l i k e ba s e and s t e m s wh i c h are er ec t, s t i ff and s t ro ng. When it grow s fro m the groun d it reac he s a he igh t of j us t under one m. It m a y al s o spring out of c revic e s in

Wal l s , c l i ffs and roc ks .

Its l eaves and branc h e s are h a i r y , a nd i ts

[ 129 ]

flo w e r s white. The p l a n t is aromatic , and the d r i e d l ea v e s a re u s e d as a co ndiment i n Pal e s ti n e a n d E gypt, wh e r e i t grow s . I t belo ngs to the m i nt fam il y. Th e l eaves and l i ttl e branc he s , when c o l l ec ted i n bun c h e s , were s u i table fo r spr i n k l i n g pu rpo s e s , as t he ha i ry s u r ­ fac e woul d hold the l iq u id . Fo r th i s r e a s o n th e pl a nt w a s u s ed i n the r itual pur if i c at i o n s of the Jew s . ln 1 K ings 4 . 3 3 it i s a s ym bo l o f hum il ity ove r a gain s t t he m aj e st y of the ced ar s of Le banon . N E B u s u a l l y t r a n s l a te s ')ezobh a s ' m a rj o ra m ' . R E F E R E NC E S :

?ezobh : E x 1 2 . 2 2 ; Lv 1 4 . 4 , 6 , 4 9 , 5 1 , 5 2 ; Nu 1 9 . 6 , l H ; l K 4 . 3 3 ; Ps 5 1 . 7 hu s s o po s : J n 1 9 . 2 9 ; H b 9 . 1 9

DI F FICU LT PASSAG E : J n 1 9 . 2 9. lt ha s often been con s id e red that t he re ed ( M k 1 5 . 3 6 ) t o wh ich t he spc!lge w a s fa stened w ou ld n e e d t o h ave been longe r t h an the ord inary stem of or iganum . This d ifficulty w a s fe lt by M olde nke , w h o sugge s t s t h a t t h e p l ant m e nt ioned he re s h ou ld be un d e r s t o o d a s s o r gh u m v u lgare . A n old c onje ctu re subst itute s hu s s o for hu s s op o . Th is read ing ( found in one 1 1th - century m inu s cu le ) h a s be e n fol l owed b y the NE B trans l a ­ tor s : ' t he y s o aked a sp onge w ith the w ine , fixed it on a j ave l in . . . ' . But if t h e cruc ified w a s r a i s ed only 1 . 8 m fr om t he g r ou nd , his m ou t h coul d be re ached by me an s of a stem of or iganum .

a.

Hy!Ssop (Origanum maru)

upper h a l f of floweri n g plant

[ 13 0 ]

1>. flower

Juniper

(Juniperus pha;nicia)

hraneh with fru i t

.JUDiper Hebrew :

J u n iperu s phoenic i a ' a r ' a r , ' a ro ' er

I t i s no t clear wh i c h tree i s m ea n t by th e Hb wo rds . R S V s i m p l y says ' sh rub ' a n d JB ' s crub ' , wh ile AV translate s ' h eath ' . Th e h eath tree, howeve r , does not grow i n the Pa l e s t i n i a n de s er t s . 10 ( fo l lowed by N E B) s u gg e s t s Jun ipe ru s phoenic ia, which i s found both s i ngl y and i n groups i n th e de s erts of S i na i and E do m . ' ar ' a r i s s ti l l · the A rabi c nam e fo r th i s sh rub . DE S C R IPTIO N :

It i s a s h rub o r s m al l tree w i th m i n u te l e a ve s l i k e sc a l e s , and s m al l ro u n d tawn y - c o l o u red c o ne s ; it grows i n the c ountrie s a round th e Me d i t e r r a ne a n s e a .

[ 1 31 ]

In Ps 1 02 . 1 7 th e tran s l a t i o n ' a n a k ed m a n ' , i . e . a l o n e l y o r d e s _ i tu te m a n , h a s been sugges ted fo r ' a r ' a r . Mo l d e nke i s m o r e i n ­ t c l i ned to identify th i s w i th Junipe r u s oxyc edrus . AV and R V tra n s ­ late roth em a s 'j unipe r ' . See BROOM. J B tra n s l ates bero sh a s ' j u niper ' i n s o m e pl ac e s . See PINE ( A L E PPO PINE ) . R E F E R E N C E S : Je 1 7 . 6 ; 4 8 . 6 D I F F I C U L T PASS A G E :

For J e 4 8 . 6 s e e O TTP, p 1 7 9.

Laurel (Law·us

a.

with flowers

nobilis)

b. with fruits

[ 132 J

J.,aurel, Sweet Bay Hebr ew :

? e z ra 9 ,

La uru s nobi l i s ?or e n

ESC R IPTION : The l a u r e l i s an evergreen tree , n a t i v e to Palest i n e , D h w e r e i t gr ows i n th e m o u n ta i n s , o n H e rm o n , Tabo r , Gil e a d and ca rm el . Th e o b l o n g l ea v e s are d a r k gre e n , w ith a gl o s s y surfac e ,

a nd th e fl o w e r s a re s m a l l , wh i t e and c l u ste r i n g . a

h e igh t o f 1 5 m . Wh e the r o r

Th e t r e e may a t ta i n

not th e l a u r e l i s m entioned i n th e Bible wo uld app e a r

to be a q u e s t i o n open to d i s c u s s io n b e tw e e n bo ta n i s ts a nd l i ngui st s . Mol d e nke m a i n ta i n s that th e Hb word ? ez ra)J i n Ps 3 7. 3 5 should be

b Lentil

c.

(Lens esculenta)

flowering shoot b. pods seed from edge d. seed from side a.

[ 133 ]

rende red ' l aurel ' . TI1e l i te r al t r a n s l a t i o n o f th e v e r s e i s , ' s p r e a d ­ i n g h i m s el f l ik e a l u x u r i a n t na tive ( tree ) ' { c f N E B ' r a n k a s a s p rea d ­ in g t r e e i n i ts n a t i v e s o i l ' ) . S e e O TTP, p 1 0 0 . Mo s t c o m m e n ta to r s follow a conj ec tu re p r o p o s ed b y th e L X X : ' to wer i n g l i k e t h e c eda r s o f Le b a no n ' . ?ore n i n I s 4 4 . 1 4 R S V, J B a nd N E B

Mo s t c o m m e n ta r i e s a n d d ic t io na r i e s t ra n s l a t e

as ' p i n e '

(a s i n

have ' c edar ' . l ingu i s t i c

reasons

R E F E R E NC E S :

Lentil

m ode r n

Hh ) ,

' fi r

tree ' , o r ' a s h '

.

H o w e v e r , ID fo l l o w s a s ugge s t i o n by Low , who fo r i d e n t i fi e s

?ez ra}) : ?o r e n :

" o r e n w i t h th e

l a urel

.

37.35 44.14

Ps Is

L e n s e s c u l en ta

Hebrew :

' adhashah

D ESC R I PTION : Among b o ta n i s ts i t s ee m s to he b e yo n d q ue s t i o n t h a t ' a dh a s h a h i s t h e l e n t i l , a s m a l l p e a - l i ke a n n u a l pl a n t w i t h a s l e n d e r s te m , co m p o u n d l ea v e s bea r i n g f i v e t o s i x pa i r s o f o bl o n g leafl ets , a nd v i o l e t flowe rs . E a c h o f t he s m a l l po d s c o n t a i n s a s i n gl e s e e d . Lentil s have been c u l t ivated i n t h e Ne a r Ea s t fro m anc i e n t ti m e s a nd th e y have be en an i m po r ta n t s o u r c e o f no u r i s h m e n t , a s they r e a d i l y grow even i n b a d s o i l . W h e n bo i l e d , l e n t i l s t u r n re d d i s h - bro w n . I n an e m e r ge n c y t h e y m a y b e m i xed with c e re a l s fo r b r e a d - m a k i n g ( Ezk 4 . 9) . R E F E R E NC ES :

Lily

G n 2 5 . 3 4 ; 2 S 1 7 . 2 8 ; 23 . 1 1 ; E z k 4 . 9

L i l i u m c h a l c edonicum , L i l i u m c a n d i d u m , An e mo n e c o ro na r i a , A n them i s pa l re s t i na , Nym ph rea a l ba , Gl a d i ol u s b yz a n t i n u s

Hebrew :

G r ee k :

s h u s h an , k r i no n

DESC R I PTION:

than o n e

sho sh a n , s h o s h a n nah

It i s l i k el y th a t t h e Hb w o r d s h u s h a n c o ver s m o r e the l il y fam i l y , a nd i t m a y e v e n i nc l u d e o th e r

s pe c i e s o f

[ 13 4 ]

ta rn i l i e s . Much d e p e n d s o n th e c o n tex t . 1 K 7 . 2 6 ( 2 Ch 4 . 5 ) d e ­ s th e mol ten b ra s s s e a i n Solom o n ' s te m p l e , a n d s a ys th a t s c r i be

i t S br i m wa s ' l i k e the b r i m o f a c u p , l i k e the flower o f a l i l y ' .

Th i s

c o rn p a ri s o n be tween a c u p a n d a flower m a k e s s o m e c o m m e nt a to r s th in k no t o f t h e l il y , b u t o f t h e E gyptia n l o t u s o r w a t e r l i l y (� ­

�a

l o tu s , Nymph ac a alba ) , th e s hape o f wh ich woul d b e tt e r s e r ve

th e p ur po s e of a water b a s i n .

Oth e r s tra n s l a te :

' th e b r i m wa s

w r o u gh t l i k e th e b r i m o f a c up , w i th fl o w e r s o f l i l i e s ' , r e fe r r i n g

to th e o r n a m e n t a t i o n o f th e b r i m .

J B tra n s l a te s :

' i t s r i m wa s

sh a p e d l i k e the r i m o f a c u p , l i k e a fl o w e r ' , wi th o u t s a y ing wh i c h

fl o we r . Bo ta n i s ts s a y th a t a m o n g th e m a n y d i ffe r e n t s p e c i e s of the l i l y fa m ily o n l y o n e grows i n Pal e s t i n e .

Lil ium c a nd i d um ,

Po s t m a i nta i n s th a t th i s o n e i s

t h e wh i te l i l y o r M a d o n n a l i l y ; o th e r s s a y tha t it i s

the Li l i u m c h a l c edo n i c u m , the r e d o n e .

Th e r e d l i l y appl i e s better

to the quo ta t i o n in SS 5 . 1 3 , ' h i s lips l i ke l i l i e s ' . ver s e ,

Th e o th e r hal f o f the

' d ro p p i ng s we et s m e l l i n g m y r rh ' , s e e m s , howev e r , to i n d i ­

cate a r a r e fragra nt flowe r . L ilie s are often m e nt ioned in the S ong o f S olom on , w he re it i s s aid that the y g r ow abund ant ly in v alleys and gard e n s .

But the name shu s h an ,

'lily ' , m ay be ge ne r i c , d e not ing any p lant w it h s h owy flowe r s .

In

the Ps al m s th e w o r d i s m e n t io n e d o nl y i n the t i tl e s , a s p a r t

of two m u s i c a l te r m s who s e m e a n i n g i s u n k nown t o u s . In the N T we f in d t h e word k r i no n , wh i c h i n G k l i te r a tu re i s

often to b e u n d e r s tood a s It i s u s e d by J e s u s i n th e

L il i u m c a n d i d u m o r L i l i u m c h a l c e do n i c um .

S e r m o n o n th e Mo u n t , w h e n h e s a y s :

Sol o m o n i n a l l h i s gl o ry w a s n o t a r ra y e d l ik e o n e o f th e s e . '

' Ev e n

Mo s t

comm e n ta t o r s now th i n k o f the Anem o n e c o ro n a r i a , the a n e m on e

With

beau t i ful b r i ght c o l o u r s w h i c h i s t o b e fo u n d o n th e h i l l s o f Cal i ­

l e e , w h e re i t would u n do ubtedl y h a ve be e n s e e n by the peop l e l i s t e n ­ i n g to Jesus .

An i n t e r e s t i n g th e o r y ha s been put fo rwa r d by Ha - R e ub e n i , a

Pro fe s s o r o f B i bl i c a l bo ta n y i n J e ru s a l e m ( qu o ted by Mo l d e n ke ) . He lll a i n ta i n s th a t J e s u s ' wo r d s i n d i c a te that h e w a s n o t m e n ti o n i n g a n e s p ec i al l y bea u ti ful o r c o n s p i c uou s flower l e i k a l i l y o r an a n e m o n e ,

[ 135 ]

Lily

(Anemone coronaria)

the c o n t r a r y a s m all and i n s i gn i fi c ant o ne , th e b e a u ty of whic h on l y be not i c e d by c l o s e s tudy. Th i s h a s l ed h i m to th e a s ­ su m p t i o n that th e flower i n qu e s ti o n i s An th e m i s p a l ae s t i n a , th e cam ­ o m i l e , a whi te da i s y - l ike p l a nt. Dal m an favo u r s Gl a d io l u s byz an ­ tinus , bec a u s e i ts pu r p l e c o lo u r wo ul d m at c h So lo mon ' s robe .

but

on

coul d

R E F E R ENC E S : shushan, shoshan, sh oshannah : 1 K 7 . 1 9 , 2 2 , 2 6 ; 2 Ch 4 . 5 ; t i tl e s of Ps 4 5 ; 6 0; 69 ; 80; SS 2 . 1 , 2 , 1 6 ; 4 . 5 ; 5 . 1 3 ; 6 . 2 , 3 ; 7 . 2 ; Ho 1 4 . 5 k r i non : Mt 6 . 2 8 ; Lk 1 2 . 2 7

Mallow Hebrew :

Atr ipl ex h a l i m u s m a l l ual;l The Hb wo rd m alluah i s der ived _:... •

m - 1 - 1) fro m a root m e a nin g ' s al t ' , a n d i s u s u a l l y identified w it h a s p ec i e s of s al tw o r t , Atr ipl ex h a l i mu s , wh i c h gr o w s a bu n da ntl y a round the shores of th e Dead Sea a nd in th e r egio n s e a s t o f S i n a i , th e c ountry o ft e n re c o g ­ n iz e d a s Uz , th e ho m e o f Job. N E B tra n s la t e s a s ' s altw ort ' . I t i s D E S C RI PTION :

___

[ 13 6 ]

to sp in ach , n ot to the c om m o n m a llow . A bu s hy s h r ub w ith ov a l le ave s , i t gr ow s u p to l m t a l l ; in the region o f the De ad Se a i t m a y e ve n reach 3 m . The bud s and yo u n g le ave s were e aten by the poor .

re lated

RE FE R E NC E S : Job 3 0 . 4 ,

and probably a l s o 2 4 . 2 4

Dillm an sugge st s that s ial; in J o b 3 0 . 4 ( RSV ' the le ave s o f bu s h ­ e s ' ) s h ou ld probably be m o re spe c ific: e . g. artem i s ia or wo rmwood

(q . v . ) .

DI F FI C U LT PA SSAG E : Job 24 . 24: Lite rally , ' They w ithe r and fad e like a ll ' . kak o l ( ' like a ll ' ) is d i fficu lt to expla in . M o st t r an s l at or s ,

there fore , follow the LXX wh i ch read s h o spe r m oloche , Hb ke m allu a l) (cf RSV ' l ike the m allow ' ) .

...'

Mallow

(A triplex halimus)

part of floweri ng plant b . flower ( m al e ) c . flower (female) a.

[ 137 ]

Mandrake

(Mandragora officinarum)

flowPring p b n t w i t h root b. flower c. p l a n t w i t h fruit a.

Mandrake, Love Apple Hebrew :

Ma ndra gu ra o ffic i na r u m

d udha ? i m

DESC R I PTIO N :

Com m e n ta to r s a gr e e o n th e i dentifi c a tion o f th e Hb

dudha ? i m , w h i c h i s c o m m o n l y t r a n s l ated ' m a ndrak e s ' .

It grow s

eve rywhe re in the fiel d s o f Pa l e s t i n e a nd Syria , and o n was te pla c e s th ro ugh o u t th e Med i te r ra n e a n a rea . lated to the n i gh t s h a d e , po ta to and to m a t o .

[ 138 ]

It i s a p e r e n n i a l re ­

Th e s te m l e s s h e r b h a s

large o v a l l e a v es a r r a n ge d i n a ro s e t t e , and p u rp l e flowe r s .

Th e

ye l l o w i s h green fru i t s ,

wh i c h a re ra t h e r l i k e plum s , r ip e n duri ng May, ' the d a y s o f whe at h arve st ' (Gn 3 0. 1 4 ) . -

Th e pec ul i a r s h ape o f t h e l a rge , fl e s h y, fo r k e d roots , w h i ch r e s e m bl e the l ow e r part o f th e h um a n bod y , ga ve r i s e to a p o pu l a r s up e r s t it i o n tha t th e m a n d ra k e woul d i nd u c e c o nceptio n . TI1 c pl a n t h a s been u s ed medic i na l l y, i t s e ffec t b e i n g na rc otic a nd pur ga ti v e . Botan i s t s do n o t a gr e e c o n c e r n i n g i t s odor, s o m e s a y in g it i s fr a ­ It s hould be bo rne i n m i n d that idea s gra n t, o t h e r s c al l i n g i t fet id . of fr agr a n ce d iffe r a mo n g peo pl e o f d i ffe r e n t c u l tu res . Mo s t com ­ m en tato r s t r an s l a t e SS 7 . 1 3 ' ma ndra k e s ' ( so R SV).

RE F E R E NC E S :

Gn 3 0 . 1 4 1 6 ; SS 7 . 1 3 -

Manna Hebrew :

man

m a n na

Greek :

The

th e Hb wo r d i s dubiou s , s o th a t a prec i s e i d e n t i fi c a t i o n i s n o t a v a i l abl e . S o m e tra n s l a t i o n s co nnec t the wo rd m a n i n E x 1 6 . 1 5 w i th th e i nte rroga t ive m a h ? , ' wh at ? ' . O thers render th e s e n te n c e ma n h u ? , ' th i s i s m a n n a ' . In We ste rn Ara m a i c � m e a n s ' who ' ; i n Syr i a c i t m e a n s ' wh a t ' . DE S C R IPTION:

d e riv a ti o n o f

Mo s t p r e s e n t - d a y c o m mentato rs c o n n ec t m a n n a w i th th e Ta m a r i x wa d i s o f th e S i n a i d e s e rt . In th i s th e y down fro m Sa i n t Ca th e r i ne ' s Mo n a s te ry a t S i n a i ( fo und ed 5 3 0 AD) wh i c h s ay s th at m onk s a n d p il gr i m s t ra v el ­ l in g t h r ou gh the d e s e rt o f S i n a i fro m t h e th ird c entu ry o nw a r d had o b s e r ved m a nn a fal l i n g from tam a r i s k s . I t i s known t h at up t o our t i m e Bed o u i n o f the S i n a i p e n i n s ul a u s e t h e n a m e m a n n fo r t he honey ­ li k e l i q u i d d ropp i n g fro m ta m a r i s ks . Th i s i s a s mall tree o r bus h , ma n n i fe ra wh i c h grow s i n the fo llo w a n o l d tradition handed

2. 7

to 4 . 5 m ta l l , with m a ny

gro w s in

bra n c h e s a n d s m a l l s c al e - l i k e l eave s . I t

th e d e s e rts o f Pal e s t i n e and S i n a i .

O ne th eo r y i s tha t m an n a exudes fro m the tw i gs o f th e t amar is k in h e av y d ro p s Th i s happe n s i n th e m o n th s o f M a y and J u n e , wh e n th e bark o f t h e tw igs i s punc tu red by c e rta i n s m a ll sc a l e - i n s e c ts .

[ 139 ]

( Co cc u s m a nniparus ) . Th e m anna appe a r s a s a s ticky, sweet l i q u i d , w h i c h quic k l y hardens a nd fal l s to th e ground a s yel l ow pe l l e t s . R c _ c ent i nve s t i gation s , howev e r , i ndic a te tha t m anna i s a s ec retio n o r exc rem ent from t h e two s c al e - l ic e N a j a co c c u s s erpe n ti nu s m i no r n n c! Tra dutina mannipara wh ic h s uc k e n o r m o u s quan t i t i e s o f l iq u id fro m the tam a r i s k tw igs i n s p r i ng i n order to c o l l e c t en ough n i t r o ge n fo r th ei r grubs . Th e s e theo r i e s fit th e d e s c r iption gi v e n by the B i b l e ( Ex 1 6 . 2 0 ) th at th e m anna h a d to be coll ected i m m e d i a te l y ; what w as le ft s o on be c ame ' fou l ' . Bu t a d i ffi c ul ty is appa rent whe n an a s s e s s m ent i s m a d e o f the qua ntity needed fo r s u c h a num e ro u s people wande r i n g th ro ugh the d e s e r t fo r fo rty years . To th i s mu s t be a d d e d t h e fa c t that th e m an na i n que s t i o n i s defic ient i n foo d valu e . Th e analys i s i nd i cates gl u co s e , fruc to s e , s o m e pec t i n , but n o p r o t e i n . Th i s h a s caus ed s o m e com m enta to rs to s ugge s t th a t the Bibl ical ma nn a wa s of various kin d s . Bes i des tho s e mentioned above , there i s a n alga l genus No s to c , wh ich grows up from the m o i s t gr o u n d d u r -

Melon

(Citrullus vulgaris)

[ 140 ]

ing t h e n i gh t, a nd a l i c h e n Lec anora e s c u l enta, which grows i n th e pl aJns and on the mo unta ins o f We ste rn As ia . As th i s i s l i ght , it

i s o fte n c a r ried lo n g d i s tan c e s by t h e wind. Mo reover , i t m u s t be re m e m b e r e d that m a n na wa s not the o n l y fo o d of the c h i l d r e n o f Is ­ rae l . They had dates ( Ex 1 5 . 27 ) , a n d the y b r o u gh t c a ttle with the m

from Eg)lJ t ( Ex 1 2 . 3 8 ) .

Someti m e s t h e y purc h a s ed fo od ( Dt 2 . 6 ) .

Ex 16. 15 , 3 1 , 3 5 ; N u 11. 6 , 7 , 9; Dt 8 . 3 , 1 6; ]os 5 . 1 2 ; Ne 9 . 20; Ps 7 8 . 2 4 m anna: J n 6 . 3 1 , 49; H e 9. 4 ; R v 2 . 1 7

RE FE RE NC E S : �:

Melon C i trullu s vul ga r i s Heb rew :

'> abha ttiai)

DESC R IPTIO N : Th i s is a s u c c ulent tra il ing pl an t which i s c ul t i ­ va te d i n Egyp t a l o n g the rive r Ni l e , where the d am p a nd war m e l i ­

mate m ake s a s ingle fru it grow to a w e ight of up to 14 kg. The watermel on is a favourite fruit in Egypt t o th is d ay. Bene ath the firm gre y is h - gre e n r i n d t here is an or ange - c oloured j u icy pulp. R E F E R E NC E :

Millet

Nu 1 1 . 5

P a n i c u m m i l i aceu m ( o r

So rghum vu l ga re )

Heb rew : doi) an D E SCRIPTION: M il l et, one o f the olde s t c e re al s , c a m e o rigina lly from In d i a or Pe r s i a . It is a gra s s reac h i n g a he i gh t o f about 9 0 e m .

Th e s ta l k s a r e u s e d a s fodder fo r c a ttl e , wh i l e t h e gra i n , coo k e d a s a

por r idge o r

m ixed i n to b r ead fl o u r , c an be eaten by m a n .

Bu t,

l ike s p elt , it is looked upo n a s an infe rio r gra i n co mpare d wi th i s u s ed to i n d i c a te the s ho r ta ge o f c e reals

'Wh e at, and in E z k 4 . 9 i t cau s e d by a s iege .

,.

[ 141 ]

The name Pan i c u m m iliaceum ( ' tho usand - grain ' ) wa s given to i t by the Swed ish botan i s t Lin naeus , beca u s e o f its fe rtil ity. Po s t i d e nti fie s dol;l a n w ith Sorghum vul ga re , th e

wh i ch i s a som ewha t ta l l e r gra s s tha n m i llet. R E F E R E NC E :

E z k 4.9

a.

Indian m il l et ,

( so m e readings al s o have i t in I s 2 8 . 25 )

1\f i l l e t ( Pan ic u m 111 iliacr11 nt ) fru i t ing head b . floweri ng spi k P I P t

[ 142 ]

1\t i n t (Mentha lo ngifolia) a.

Mint

Gr eek :

flowPri n g p l a n t

/J. f!owf'r

Mentha lo ngi fo l i a h e duo s rnon

D E SC R IPTION : Mint is an herb of th e m i nt fam i ly, belo nging to the l ab i at <E . Th e l eave s are spear - s haped and notc hed , and th e m any� flow e red l i l ac - c o loured who rl s fo rm c on ic al spike s . I t i s m e ntioned

o nly in the NT. The Gk nam e heduo s rn o n m e a n s ' sweet - s m e l l ing' , i n di c at i n g th e fragranc e o f the pl ant, due to i ts o il s . It grows in

d itc he s , o n r iver ban k s and even i n the mounta i n s . Th e Jews used m i nt a s a c o n d i m ent, e . g. when eating m ilk and c ucumber . M i nt

ste rn s and l eave s we re sc attered over the floors of the s ynagogues .

[ 143 ]

s m all , c h e a p and i n s i gn i fic a nt pl a n t i s m e nt i o n e d by J e s u s attac k o n the Pha r i s ee s . Ac co rd ing to Dt 1 2 . 1 7 ; 14 . 2 2 , 2 3 , t h e obl i gat ion t o ti the c o nc e r ned o nly gra i n , w in e a n d o i l . J e s u s a t ta c k s the Ph a r i s ee s fo r the i r metic ulous obs e rvanc e o f the l e tte r o f th e l a w w h i l e o v e r l o o k i n g th e s p i r i t o f i t , ' j u dgm ent, m e r c y and fa i t h · . Th i s

in hi s

R E F E R E NC E S :

Mt 2 3 . 2 .3 ; Lk 1 1 . 4 2

Mulberry tree

Mo ru s n i gra

Greek :

s ukam i no s

DES C R IPTI O N :

The mulberry tree , a n a t i v e o f P e r s i a but

c ultivated

in Pal e s tine a r o u n d AD 2 00 , belongs to th e gen us Mo ru s and to th e

�

d

l\1 ulberry (M o r u s nigra) sh oot w i t h ft>rn alc inflorescences h . shoot w i t h male i n florescen ces male flower d. female f l ower e. mature fruit a.

c.

[ 144 ]

familY M or a ce re .

b rO ad c rown .

It is a d e c id u ou s fru it - t ree up t o 6 m h igh w ith a When ripe the berrie s turn black a n d co nta i n a sw ee t

re d j u i c e .

black m ulbe r r y , m oron , is m ent io ned in I M ac c a be e s 6 . 3 4 in a pe cu l iar context: t he r e d ju ice of the be r r ie s w a s shown to the elephant s t o prov oke them to fight . The

Apart fro m th i s referenc e , th ere i s no evidenc e , a c c o rdi ng to mo de r n bota n i s ts and c o m menta to r s , that the m u l b e rry tree i s m en ­ tio ned i n th e Bibl e . The rea son fo r its incl u s ion in th i s l i st i s th a t the AV a nd o ther old tra n s l a tions r e n d e r the Hb wo rd baka .., i n 2 S 5.23, 24 a n d 1 Ch 1 4 . 1 4 , 1 5 a s ' m u l b e r r y tree s ' . RSV and J B have ' ba l ­ sam tree s ' a n d N E B ' aspens ' . Lk 1 7 . 6 also m entio n s the s u k a m i no s whi c h i s u s ual l y the Gk fo r ' m u l be r ry tre e ' . S e e S YC AMOR E .

Mustard Gre ek :

Bra s s ica

nigra

s i napi

Th e s eed d e s c ribed in the pa rable of J e s u s as ' the i s c o n s idered by most tra nslato r s to be th e c o m m o n blac k m u s tard s eed, Bra s s i c a n i gra . DESC R IPTIO N :

smal l e s t o f all s ee d s '

Bra s s ic a nigra is now a n an nual garden herb, but i n fo rm er

days i t grew wild in t h e fiel d s o f Pal e s tine ; the Jews sowed it in th e i r fields a nd not i n the i r ga rd e n s (Mt 13 . 3 1 ; Stra c k - Biller bec k I, 6 69 ) .

I n o u r d a y the seeds o f m u s tar d , wh ich a re c ontained in l inear pod s , are not c ons ide red to be th e s ma l l e s t of all seeds (a d i stin c tio n hel d by the o rc h i d ) . But i n the days o f J e s us th e smallest quantity o f

wa s proverbial l y c o mpa r e d w ith ' a m u s ta rd s e ed ' (Mt The b l a c k m u s ta rd s e ed ha s a s ec tion o f 1 mm an d we igh s 1 m g. The s eed w a s u s e d a s a condim ent and for p r e s e rv in g food . It c o nta i n s a n o il and wa s u s ed medic inally. so m eth ing

1 7 . 20).

The m u s tard plant do e s not usually grow as tal l a s a tree , but

tra ve lle rs rel ate tha t th e y have pas s e d t h r o ugh m u s ta rd fi elds in Wh ich all th e plan ts exc eeded the h e i ght of a m a n , and wh e re birds

Were a c tu a l l y s h e l te r i n g i n th e ' bra nc he s ' .

[ 1 45 ]

The s t e m o f the mu stard

pl a n t m a y be a s th i c k a s a m a n ' s a r m . Th e d es c r i pt i o n o f i t a s a t r e e in the p a r a bl e i s , therefore , not m i s l e a d i ng. '

'

Som e c o m m e n ta to r s h ave s ugge s te d tha t the s e ed m e n t i o n e d in the pa rable was not th a t of th e bl a c k m us ta r d , but o f a di fferent p l a n t , Salvado r a per s ic a . But th i s i s fo und i n the va l l eys o f the Jor ­ dan r i ve r , not i n t h e fi el d s . Mo reove r , i t s s eeds a re too l ar ge to f i t the de s c r i p t i o n give n i n the Go s pel s . R E F E R E NC E S :

M t 1 3 . 31 ; 1 7 . 2 0 ; Mk 4 .3 1 ; L k 1 3 . 1 9 ; 1 7 . 6 .

'l u s t a rd (Bra ssica nigm) a . f l n w e ri n !?; shoot 1> . pori c . sc!:'d rl. lowc•r l<' a f

[ 146 ]

b

/\ \! I

:\ l y r rh

Stactc

/, . fru i t

Myrrh

C o m m iph o r a

Hebrew :

mar

DE S C R I P T I O N :

(lot)

11 .

(Co m m iplwra myrrlw) b ra n l' h w i t h f ru i t

( Com miphora opoball>a m u m)

c.

fem a l ! • fioiH'r

m y r r ha

d. m a l <' fi. , l\'l' r

( C i s tu s s a l v i fo l i u s )

Gre e k :

s m u rn a

M y r r h i s a d a r k - red gu m w i t h

a

s trong a r o m a a n d a It exu d e s f r o m a bu s h o r t r e e hclo nging to a fa m i l y o f th e bur s e rac e re wh i c h g row s i n Arabia , Abys s i n i a a n d on t h e S o m a l i c o a s t o f E a s t Afr i c a . It i s no t na tive to P a l e s t i n e . Th i s t ree o r h u s h h a s a gr e a t num be r of k no tted bra nc h e s . TI1 e t,ru m ex u d e s fro m t h e b ra n c h a s a t h i c k l i ght - c o l o ured p a s te w h i c h , whe n e xpo s ed to the a tm o sphe re , s o o n h a r d e n s and ta k e s o n a brown i s h c o lo u r . Th e fi n e s t m yr r h w a s th e r e s i n s ec reted o f i t s e l f ( r a t h e r th a n by a r t i fi ­ C i al i n c i s i o n ) t h r o u gh th e ba r k , m a r - de ro r , m e n t i o n e d in Ex 3 0 a s an i n gre d i e n t o f th e h o l y o i n tm e n t , a nd mo s t l i k e l y a l so i n SS 5 . 5 , m a r bi tter ta s te .

�her,

' l iq u i d m y r rh ' .

[ 147 ]

a.

Myrrh (Cistus ladaniferus)

shoot with fruiting capsule and leaf b . flowers c . narrow l eaf

S o m e ric h and d i s tingu i s h e d p e o p l e

m ight h a v e h a d ' a mounta in the t re e wa s not na tive to Pal e s tine a nd t h e import o f myr rh m a d e it an e xp e n s i v e l uxury. This s h o u l d b e bo rne in m ind whe n r e a d ing E s 2 . 1 2 , .P s 4 5 . 8 , Pr 7 . 7 , SS 1 . 1 3 an d Mt 2 . 1 1 , where the m a g i brought royal g i ft s fo r the n ew - bo rn b a b y . of myrrh '

in the ir ga rd e n .

Bu t

Myrrh wa s a l s o u s ed fo r

m us m u s t have been

embalm ing the dead, Jn 1 9 . 3 9 . Nic ode ­ s inc e he c o ul d affo rd such a quan ­

a rich man

t ity of m yrrh and aloe s .

See also BALM, S TAC TE a n d SPIC ES .

R E F E R E NC E S :

mo r (lot) : Ex 3 0 . 23 ; E s 2 . 1 2 ; U3 ; 3 . 6 ; 4 . 6 , 1 4 ; 5 . 1 , 5 , 13 s murna :

Ps 4 5 . 8 ; Pr 7 . 7 ; SS

Mt 2 . 1 1 ; Mk 1 5 . 2 3 ; J n 1 9 . 3 9

r I4s 1

pi F F I C U L T PASS A G E S :

Mk 1 5 . 23 u s e s e s murn i s m eno s , t h e p e rfe c t

\ pass ive p art ic i pl e o f s m ur n iz6 ,

�

" ·

wh i c h m e a n s ' treated o r fl avo u red It w a s the J ew i s h c u s tom to o ffe r a s tro n g a r o m a tic The idea was to relieve drink o f wine to a man s en tenc ed to death . p a i n Jesus did not a c c ept th i s , b ec a u s e he wished to be fu l l y c o n ­ sc ious un t i l the l a s t moment.

with m yrr h

!.�,··'.,·' · his

l .

' .

.

In Gn 3 7 . 2 5 ; 4 3 . 1 1 lot i s rendered m yr rh in R S V and NE B (JB ' re s i n ' ) . The Hb wo rd is i de n t i f i ed by some s c h o l a r s w i th l a d a n um confu s ed w i th la udanum ) , a n arom atic gu m exude d fro m t h e t to be (no l ea v e s o f th e c i s tu s - r o s e , C i s tus s a lvifo l i u s , wh ich i s n a t i ve to Pal ­ e st i n e . An argument i n favo ur o f l adanum i s th e fac t th a t Gn 43 . 1 1 mentio n s g ift s from t h e c o un try to a for e i gn l a nd . C f E x 3 0 . 34 w h e r e she};l e l e t h , ' onycha ' , refe r s to a spec i e s o f th e genus C i s tu s (but s e e QNYC H A) . The gal b a n u m o f Ex 3 0 . 3 4 , };l e l b ena h , i s s i m i l a rl y a n a r o m a t i c re s i n extracted fro m various s pec i e s o f the ge nu s Ferul a , akin t o fe n ne l o r d il l . '

'

'

'

Myrtle

Myrtu s c o m m un i s

Hebrew :

ha d h a �

myr t l e i s a native o f A s i a Minor and th e Medi ­ terranean c ountries , wh e r e i t grow s mo s t ly i n v al l ey s o n m o i s t s o i l . I t i s a n e v e r green tree o r bu s h , wh ich m a y reach a h e i ght o f 1 . 5 m . The da r k gl o s s y l eave s a r e d e n s e o n the b r anche s , and the flowe r s are w h i te o r pink . Th e whole plant giv e s off an agreeable o do u r . It wa s u s e d by th e J e w s in the F ea s t of Tabe r nac l e s (Ne 8 . 1 5 ) . DE S C R IPTION :

Th e

R E F E R E NC ES :

Ne 8 . 1 5 ; Is 41 . 1 9 ; 5 5 . 1 3 ; Z e c h 1 . 8 , 1 0 , 11

DI F F I C U L T PASS AG ES :

Zech 1 . 8 , 1 0 , 11 : S o m e c o m m enta to rs fo l lo w

the LX X a nd read ' mou n ta i n s , ha r i m , i n s te a d of th e M a s oret ic tex t m yr t l e s , hadha � � im . '

'

'

' e ts - ' abhoth , L v 23 . 4 0 ; Ne 8 . 1 5 ; E z k 6 . 1 3 ; 20 . 28 ,

which

l i te ral l y

m e ans ' le a fy o r b r a nc h y tree s ' , or ' tr ee s h av i ng in t e r w ove n fo l i ­ age • , i s s o m etim e s identi fi ed with t he m yr tl e . RS V h a s ' l eafy tr ee ' .

[ 149 ]

Narcissus

Na rc i s s u s ta z e tta

Hebrew : l;abha t s t s e l e th DESC R IP TION : TI1e re i s l it t l e evidence to s uppo rt th e trad i t i o n a l rende r i n g ' ro s e ' , a nd i t i s l i k e l y tha t th e fl owe r referred t o i s th e n a rc i s s u s . Th i s grows with s everal fl ow e r s o n o n e s t e m , a n d i n Pal e s t i n e i s a b r i gh t gol d e n yel l o w . Wal k e r (fo l l ow i n g Mo l d e n k e ) s ugge s ts tha t th e ' ro s e o f S h a ro n ' 2 (SS . 1 ) m a y be a red tu l ip , Tul ipa s h a ro ne n s i s .

:\J y r t l c (:lfyrlns cnm iiUt nis) part of flmw·ri n g p l a n t b . fr u i t.

a.

[ 1 50 ]

In So n g of Solo m o n RSV and J B have ' ro s e ' ; i n Is a ia h RS V ' c ro ­

cus ;;

JB ' j o nq u i l ' .

N E B h a s ' a sphodel ' , a k i n d o f l il y .

· R E F E R E NC E S : SS 2 . 1 ; I s 3 5 . 1

Nard, Spikenard He brew :

nerd

Na rdo s tachys j atam a n s i Greek :

na rdo s

DESC R IPTIO N : Na rd grows in the H i m a l a yan c o u n t r i e s o f Bh u ta n a n d Nep al , a nd i n K a s h m i r . It belo ngs to the Val e r i a n fa m i l y . l11 e r oo t a nd low e r part o f th e s tem s a r e fragra n t . W h e n d r i e d , t h e y a r c u s ed

Nard (N ardostachys jala mansi)

[ 15 1 ]

i n pe rfume , and the o i ntment, known i n a nc ient t ime s , is a ppre c i at e d ev e n now by the women o f Ind i a . I n anc ient tim e s per fum ed o i n t m e n t a nd oil were kept in s ea l ed j a r s , wh ich could be opened only b y break ­ ing th e nec k . The fac t that perfu m e made fro m the nard plan t ha d to be i m ported (by th e Phoenic ia n s ) from India made the o i n tm e n t m e n ­ tio ned in the NT v e r y c o s t l y . '

'

Th i s precious perfume bec o m e s a symbol o f wealth and be a u ty, a s in SS 4 . 1 3 , 1 4 . Th i s pas s age d oe s not ind icate that n ard grew in P ale st ine ; t h e wh o l e de s cr i p t ion in the s e ve r s e s give s a picture of an id e al flowe r - garden , l ike P arad ise . R E F E R ENC E S : nerd : SS 1 . 1 2 ; 4 . 1 3 , 1 4 na rdo s : Mk 1 4 . 3 ; Jn 1 2 . 3 DI F F IC U L T PASSAG ES : Mk 1 4 . 3 ; Jn 1 2 . 3 : nardo s pi s tike i s gen erally tran s l a ted ' pure o r ' genu ine na rd The wo rd pi s ti ko s in the N T oc ­ c u r s only in the se two pa s s age s , and i ts d e r ivation i s doubtful . A G ( p 6 6 8 ) s u gge s t th at t h e word may b e der ived fro m Sanskrit pic ita , the nam e o f the plant Nardo s tachys j a tamans i . '

Nettle

' .

U rtica dioic a , Urtica pilul ifera

Hebrew : J:larul DESC R IPTION : The c o ntext s u gge s ts a ny kind of de s ert s h rub. BDB ide n tifies it with the c h i c k pea , C ic e r a rietinum . RSV trans l ates ' nettl e ' , though ' tho rn - bu s hes ' m igh t well be bette r. J B has ' nettl e ' o r ' th i s tl e ' , NE B ' sc rub ' o r weeds . '

'

In addi t ion to the a bove - mentioned, two o ther spec i e s o f the genus Urtica h a v e been found in Pal e s tine , Urti c a c audata and � urens . � an annual plant with b roa d , notc hed l eave s . S tem and l eave s are covered w ith s tinging h a ir s , and the fl owers are small and green. It grows in unweeded gardens a nd in areas whe re c u l t i ­ vation i s neglected . R E F E R E NC ES : Job 3 0 . 7 ; Pr 2 4 . 3 1 ; Zeph 2 . 9

[ 152 ]

Nettle

(urlica dioica)

u p per part of floweri ng plant

Nutmeg flower (Black Cummin) Heb rew :

Nigella

s a tiva

qets al;l

DE )C RIPTIO N :

This is an annual plant o f the C rowfoot fam il y , 3 0 e m h i gh . The flowers have yel lo w i s h or blue peta l s and many sta m eh s ; the leave s are feathery and finely d iv i ded. The fruit is a c ap sul e a n d conta i ns many small blac k a ro matic s eeds , wh ich l ike P ep per are used for s e a soning.

to )0

AV tran slates the Hb word ' fitch e s ' , RSV and NEB ' di l l ' , JB

[ 153 1

' fe n nel ' .

Bu t t h e d e s c r i p t i on given by I s a i a h of

the fr u i ts undoubtedl y

re fe r s

to

N i gel l a .

See

th e

wa y

D I L L.

o f t h resh i n

g

Is 2 8 . 2 5 , 2 7

R E F E R E NC ES :

N u t m eg flower (Nigrlla

sa/il!a)

plan t. /1 . fm i t. wit.h S<'!'d� (cu t. t hroug h ) c . t w o S<' pal � w i t.h rwt a i R t.ran sform<'d t o n ectari 1•s d. one petal transformed to ne<'t.ary c . dror of n P d a r a.

Oak

tree

Hebrew :

Qu e rc u s �elan,

D E S C R I PTIO N :

wo rd

? el o n o r

c oc c ifera ,

Q u e r c u s � gilops

��lion L i k e t h e Hb ?elah o r ?al l a h ( RS V ' te rebi n th ' ),

�allon

i s o ften s i m pl y r e n d e re d ' h ig tr e e ' .

n o doubt , h o wev e r , th a t th e Hh a u t h o r s s o m e ti m e s

tw e e n the

two na m e s , a s fo r

i n s ta n c e i n I s 6 . 1 3 a nd

[ 154 ]

th e

l11 er e i s

d i s ti n gu i sh b e ­ Ho 4 . 1 3 ( s e e RSV).

Th e Hb wor d s m a y refe r to d i ffe re nt s pec i e s o f oa k , but th e r e

is ·no una n i m ity among m o d e r n bota n i s ts a s to wh i c h o f th e s i x s pe ­ c i e s fo und i n Pa l e s ti ne a re r e ferred to in the Bibl i c a l q u o t a t i o n s . Only twO of

them will be d e s c r ibe d .

Po s t i d e n ti f i e s ? a l l a n w i th Qu erc u s c o c c i fe r a , a n evergr e e n 'which grows i n th e m o u n ta i n s a n d h a s s h o rt - s tem m e d , fi rm a n d o va l s p in y - to o thed l eaves a nd s o l i ta r y o r twi n a c o r n s . A dec iduo u s s pe ­ c i e s i s Querc u s cegilo p s , w h i c h reac h e s a he igh t o f 1 5 m a nd with its he av y t r u n k m a y well s ym bol i z e the beauty an d s tre ngth o fte n s po k e n o f in th e O T. Th e l eav e s a re l eathery w ith s tal k s , glo s s y o n the surfac e , oblo n g a nd s er ra ted . Th e a c o r n s a r e very l a r ge . Se e a l s o TE R E BINTH. ?allan as o a k . '

NEB tra n s l a te s ?elan as ' te re b i n th ' ,

'

RE F E R E NC E S :

? el o n : Gn 1 2 . 6 ; 1 3 . 1 8 ; 1 4 . 1 3 ; 1 8 . 1 ; Dt 1 1 . 3 0 ; J o s 1 9 . 3 3 ; Jg 4 . 1 1 ; 9 . 6 , 3 7 ; 1 s 1 0 . 3 ?al lon : Gn 3 5 . 8 ; I s 2 . 1 3 ; 6 . 1 3 ; 44 . 1 4 ; Ez k 2 7 . 6 ; Ho 4 . 1 3 ; Am 2 . 9; Z e ch 1 1 . 2

Oak (Quercus coccifcra)

[ 155 ]

Oliv e tree, Oil tree Heb rew : z ayith ,

Ol ea e u ropa' a, E l :Eagn u s an gu s tifo l i a

' ets s h e m e n

Greek : e l a ia , agr i e l a io s ( w i l d o l ive tree ) DESC RIPTION : Th e o l ive tree i s cha rac te r i s tic of the Pal e s t i n i a n flo ra a n d i s m entio ne d v e ry o ften in th e Bibl e . It i s a n a t ive of A s i a M i no r a nd Syri a , from whe r e it spread over No rth Afr i c a a n d th e Med i te r ra n e a n countries o f E u rope . Ac c o r d i n g to Dt 8 . 8 , t h e o l i v e tr ee was growing i n th e l a nd o f Canaan befo re th e Is rael ites c o n ­ que red it. Th e trunk o f a n ol ive tree i s very broad a nd r o ugh , and i s o ft e n twi s ted . Th e c rown o f th e tree c o n s i s t s o f fou r to s ix heavy bra nc h e s , eac h wi th s everal cl u s te r s of twigs , and th e who l e tree m a y rea c h a h e i gh t o f 24 m . The l e a f i s oblong and eve rgree n , and i t ha s bec o m e fa m o u s in wo rl d l ite r a tu re bec a u s e o f t h e ro l e i t p l a y e d i n the h i s to r y of the Flood ( Gn 8 ) . S i nc e then th e o l ive l e a f and th e dove have be ­ c o m e s ymbol s o f peac e . Th e ol ive tree grows very s lowly and m a y a tta i n a grea t a ge . It is d i ffic ult to eradicate an old o l i v e , bec aus e it will always sprout fr om the root. An old root s u r rounded w i th fres h young s hoots i s a n illus tration to th e ps al m i s ts of a c rowd o f c h ildren i n a Jewi s h ho m e ( Ps 1 2 8 . 3 ) .

Th e flowers , w h i c h appear i n Ma y, a r e bell - s haped a n d yel l ow ­ i s h , w i th a sweet odo u r . The fruit, shaped l ike a pru n e but s m a l l e r , i s gree n until September wh e n i t ripens a nd bec o m e s bl a c k . Th i rty ­ o n e perc ent o f the ripe fru it i s o i l . No t u n ti l th e tree i s th i r ty ye a r s o l d c a n the ful l yi eld b e expec ted, but a t that age i t i s v e r y fru i tfu l ( Ps 5 2 . 8 ; Je 11 . 1 6 ; Ho 1 4 . 6 ) . The fru it o n the uppe r b ra nc h e s wh i c h c anno t be reach ed from th e ground a r e beaten or k noc ked dow n w ith s t i c k s ( Is 1 7 . 6 ; 24 . 1 3 ) . Grafting is also mentioned . St . P au l ' s refe rence to g ra ft ing in o R 1 1 . 1 7 , 2 4 i s intent ionally strange . The usual course of a ct i on was graft cult ivated br anche s onto w ild tr e e s . P au l , h owe ve r , sp e ak s i n opp o s ite term s , comparing the Ge ntile s t o the wi ld shoot s which a re

[ 156 ]

to

c.

Olive tree a . flowering

(Olea europrea)

shoot b. flower section of fru i t d . shoot with fruit

gra fted on to the c ul tiv a t ed o l ive tree , th e peopl e o f I s ra e l , s o a s sh a re in its ble s s i ng. Th e w il d o l i ve tree (Olea e u ropaea o l e a s t e r ) ,

wh i c h

to

is a na t iv e

of Pal e s ti n e , is r e ga rd e d (p rob a bly wrongl y ) by som e a s the a nc e s to r of the d om e s t ic ol ive t re e . R E F E R E NC E S :

Consult

z a y i th :

a c o nc o rda n c e

o f o i l ' , ' o i l tree ' ) l K 6.23, 31, 32, 33 ; Ne 8 . 1 5 ; I s 4 1 . 1 9 e laia (olive tree , fruit o f olive ): Mt 2 1 . 1 ; 2 4 . 3 ; ' ets s h e m e n :

26:""3 0; Jn 8 .

e l a i on

1;

( ' fa t tree ' ,

' t r ee

13 . 3; 1 4 . 26; Lk 19. 3 7; 22. 3 9; 24; ] a s 3 . 12; Rv 1 1 . 4 gr ove ): Lk 1 9 . 2 9 ; 2 1 . 3 7; Ac 1 . 1 2

Mk 1 1 . 1 ;

Ro 1 1. 17,

( o l ive

1

D IF F I C U LT PASS A G E : K 6 , de s c r ib i n g th e bu i l d i n g o f th e t e m p l e , m en t io n s a k i n d o f woo d wh i c h i s re n d e r e d by s o m e tra n s l a to r s

'o l ive woo d , by oth e r s ' w i l d ol ive wood ' . It i s p r o ba bl y a dv i s a bl e to fo l l ow Mo l denke a nd o th ers who m a i nta i n tha t the ol iv e woo d i s of '

[ 1 57 l

n o u s e a s a bu i l d i ng m a te ri al o r fo r c a rv i n g bec a u s e th e tru n k o f th e t r ee i s r a th e r s ho r t a nd u s ual l y c o nto r t e d . TI1e y the re fo r e s u g ­ ge s t El rea gn u s a n gu s t i fo l i a , t h e na r row - l e a ved o l ea s te r , a s m a l l t ree o f the Olea s te r fam i l y 4 . 5 to 6 m ta l l , who s e s m al l leaves a re bl u e on th e s u r fac e a nd s il ve ry unde rneath . Th e f r u i ts , a l m o s t th e s iz e o f a n o l ive , yield an o i l wh i c h i s u nf i t fo r food b u t oft e n u s ed fo r m e d i c i nal p u r po s e s . It grows in Pa l e s t i ne and th e woo d is ha rd and s u i ta bl e fo r c a rvi ng. It i s s o m et i m e s c a l l e d ' w i l d o l ive ' , hut i t i s not a m e m be r o f the o l ive fa m il y.

Onion

c.

( A llium ccpa)

h u l b b. i n fl o rP.scen <'e flower d. l ower pnrt of stem a.

[ 15 8 J

()Ilion

Garlic

A l lium c e p a

H ebrew :

A l l ium s a t iv u m

bet s el ( o n i o n ) s h u m (ga rl i c ) IJ a ts i r

DESC R IPTIO N :

Leek

A l l i u m po r ru m

(leek)

Th e r e d o e s n o t s eem t o h a v e

been

a n y d i s c u s s io n

about the tran s l a t i o n o f the th re e H b wo r d s i n Nu l l . S , fo r t h e y w e r e al r ead y rende red ' o n i o n ' , ' ga r l i c ' a n d ' l e e k ' i n t h e e a rl y t ra n s l a ­ ti on s i n to G r e e k ( LX X ) , La ti n ( Vulga te ) a n d Sy riac ( Pe s h i tta ) . Th e Egypt i a n o n i o n ( Al l i u m c epa )

a pe re nn i a l v ege ta bl e ,

b e l o n g s to t h e l i l y fa m i l y . I t i s

th e bu l b grow i n g m uc h l a rge r tha n o n i o n s do

in W e s te r n E u r o p e . Th e p i n k o r w h i te fl o we r s a r e s i tu a te d i n gl o b u -

(

I

I

.\

I

4 -d a.

Leek

(A llium sativwn)

& b. stem with i nfl oresrence and b u l b i l s c. bulb

[ 1 59 l

l a r umbel s . Th e o n i o n i s p robabl y a n a ti v e o f Per s ia o r Egypt . I t w c ul t ivated fro m ea r l y d a ys , and c o n s ti t u t e d a n i m p ort a n t i t e m o f a s i t i s swe e t - ta s t i ng, no u r i s h i n g and ea s y to dige s t , be s ide s be i ng

di�s '

c h ea p .

Th e ga r l ic ( Al l i u m s a t iv u m ) i s a l so a member o f th e lily fa m i l y ,

i n a pp e a r a n c e very m u c h l i k e th e onion. S i nc e anc i ent t i m e s i t ha s be e n c ul t iva ted in E gyp t a nd Pal e s tine, whe r e it i s a favo ur i te d i s h ,

a nd i s both e a t e n raw a n d c o o k e d . Its c h a r a c te ri s t i c s trong fl avo u r to the Jews a nd E gypti a n s , bu t i t wa s d i s l i ked by t h e R o m a n s

a pp ea l ed

a n d anc ient Gre ek s .

The l e e k ( Al l i um po rru m ) d i ffe r s in appe a ranc e fro m t h e ga r l i c and o n i o n , i n tha t th e bulb i s oblong. Th i s vege tabl e a l s o ha s b e e n a very popul a r food a m o ng th e E gyp t i a n s from ve ry e a r l y da ys .

R E F E R E NC E :

Nu

11 .5

D I F F I C U L T PASS A G E :

Th e H b

l;l a t s i r

i s only t o b e t r a n s l a t e d ' l eek '

i n th i s pa s sage . In all othe r pa s s age s it mu s t be tra n s lated ' gra s s '

o r ' h e rb ' .

Palm Hebrew : Gre e k :

See G R AS S .

Phoen ix d actylife r a ta m a r ,

t i m o ra h ,

to m e r

p hoi n ix

DESC R I PTION :

c ha r a c te r i s t i c fe atu r e o f t h e pal m i s i t s s tra ight trun k , un u s ua l l y tough , wh ic h has no bra n c h e s b u t e n d s in a c i rc l e of great l eave s ; i t m a y reac h a h e ight o f 1 8 to 2 4 m . The roo t i s s t ro n g a n d fibro u s . A

Seen at a d is tanc e , th e shape o f the pa l m tree i s v e r y a ttra c t iv e , a n d i t wa s o f t e n u s ed a s a n o rnam en t b y a rc h itec ts (c f I K 6 . 2 9 ; Ez k 40 . 1 6 a nd 41 . 1 8 } . In Heb rew the l ea f o f the �ai m tree i s c a l l ed kippah , a wo rd d e ­ rived fro m the Hb ' h and ' . A pal m l ea f m ay h a ve s o m e s i m i l a r i t y t o a hum a n h a n d w ith sprea d finge r s . We may, however , find mo re r e ­ s e m bl a nc e between a p a l m l e a f and a feath er. In th e Bi b l e pal m

[ 160 ]

} eave s are o ften ina c c u ra tel y c a l led ' pa l m branc h e s ' ; c f Jn 1 2 . 1 3 in

· th e Greek and in s everal tran s l atio n s , e . g. RSV. The leave s ma y grow up to 2 . 7 m long. In the beginning they grow upwa rd, bu t a re .

bent down by th e i r own wei gh t .

Th ere c an b e n o do ubt that the palm m e n tioned i n the Bibl e i s

: the date pa l m , Phoenix dac tyl i fera , whi c h is qu i te c o m m o n i n Pal ­ .

estine a n d Egypt. Th is tre e m ay l i ve up to two hundred yea rs , and it

is only fu l l y developed after thirty year s . Pal m tree s s eem to grow

a.

Q.

[ 161 ]

Palm

(Phwnix dactylifera)

tree with fruit b . cl uster of ripe dates c. seed (stone)

wel l i n th e a r e a a r o u n d J er i c h o , fo r th e Bi bl e c a l l s i t ' th e c i ty o f p a l m t r e e s ' (Dt 3 4 . 3 ) . Jo s e ph u s c o n fi rm s th i s i n h i s .f t: w -i sh W a r s ( I V . 8 . 3 ) .

p a r t i c ul a rl y

C e r t a i n wo m e n i n the O T we re na m e d a ft e r th i s tree ( Gn 3 .S . 6 ; 2 s 1 3 . 1 ; 14 . 27 ) .

R E F E R E NC ES :

ta m a r ,

t i m o rah :

tam e r : Jg

4.5; ]e

Co n s u l t

a conco rda n c e

10. 5 ( in the l a tt e r pa s sage , ' p o st '

o r ' s c a rec row ' )

pho in i x : D I F F I C U L T PASS A G E S :

Jn

1 2 . 1 3 ; Rv 7 . 9

Som e

c om m e n ta to r s ( Budde ) a n d d i c t i o n a r i e s

t h a t da te s a r e a l s o m e nt i o n e d i n the Bibl e , n a m e l y i n SS 7 . 7 - 8 ( impl ied i n R S V , expl i c i tl y i n J B a n d N E B ). Th e wo rd i n q ue s t i o n i s th e Hb ? e s hko l , the m e a n i n g of wh i c h i s ' c l u s te r ' . It u s ua l l y s ta nd s fo r c l u s t e r s o f grap e s , bu t i n S S 1 . 1 4 i t s i gn i fi e s c l u s t e r o f h en na bl o s s o m s ' , a nd th e c o n te x t i n S S 7 . 7 - 8 a r gu e s fo r ' c l u s te r o f d a te s ' . ?e l is a Hb word w h i c h s ignifie s any large tree , and i s u su a l ly tra n s l a te d t e re b i n t h o r ' o a k ' . Ge s e n i u s a l s o give s the t ra n s l a t i o n ' p a l m tree ' i n I s 1 . 29 ; 5 7 . 5 ; 61 . 3 ; E z k 31 . 1 4 .

( Ge s e n i u s )

m a i n ta i n

'

'

'

na!)al i s ge n e r a l l y t ra n s l a ted ' va l l e y ' o r ' c reek ' . Ge s e n i u s m en ­ t i o n s the po s s ib i l ity o f tra n s l a t i n g th i s wo r d ' pa l m ' i n t h e fo l low i n g pa s s ages : N u 2 4 . 6 ; J o b 29 . 1 8 ; S S 6 . 1 1 . Th i s t r a n s la t i o n fo r J o h 2 9 . 1 1\ by th e Vul ga te ( s i c u t p a l m a ) , t o r e a d ken aoa l ' l ike th e pa l m ' i n s te a d o f -ka l.wl ' l i k e th e s a n d ' . See a l s o O TTP, p 8 2 f. fol l ows a c o nj e c t u r e s u gge s te d

Pine, Aleppo Pine Hebrew :

be ro s h ,

Pinu s h a l e p e n s i s beroth

D E S C R I PTI ON : Th e i d ent i fi c a tion o f th e Hb b e r o sh is fa r fr o m c e r ­ ta in a n d m a n y di ffe ren t s u gge s t i o n s a bout the i de n t i t y o f th e ever ­ gr e en s a n d c o n i fe r s m e n ti o ned i n t h e Bibl e h a ve been m a d e by b o ta ­ n i s t s a n d co m m e n ta to r s . So m e fo l l o w KB a nd tra n s l a t e ' Ph o en i c i a n j u nip e r ' (J B h a s ' j un ipe r ' i n s o m e p l a c e s ) . Th i s , howeve r , does

[ 1 62 ]

/

/ / ·�

'· -: �

. ---

---

-

Ale pp o Pine ( Pima; halepensis)

fit Ps 1 04 . 1 7 wh i ch pre sum e s a h igh tree in which the stork is OOild ing it s ne st . P o s t sugge st s the ced ar , othe r s the cypre s s . RSV anct JB u sually trans late ' cypre s s ' , NE B 'pine ' .

not

The Aleppo p ine is the large st and noblest am ong the pine s grow­ It is a conife r , nat ive to the Med ite rranean are a , \Vh i ch gr ows 3 to 1 8 m t all w ith d iffu se as cend ing branche s and ye l ­ low ish tw�g s . The bark of the younge r tree s is smooth and gre y . 'I'he leave s o r needle s are ar r ange d in bund le s o f two o r three , and the c on e s are redd ish- brown. The t im be r is suitable for be am s in � ild ing s . ing in t he Lebanon .

[ 1 63 ]

b e ros h :

S 6.5; 1 K 5 . 8 , 10; 6. 15, 34; 2 K 19 . 23 ; 2 Ch 2 . 8 ; Ps 1 04 . 1 7 ; I s 1 4 . 8 ; 3 7 . 2 4 ; 5 5 . 1 3 ; 60. 1 3 ; E z k 27 . 5 ; 3 1 . 8 ; Ho 1 4 . 8 ; Na 2 . 3 ; Z e c h

R E F E R E NC ES :

2

11.2

bero th : S S 1 . 1 7 DIF FICU LT PASSAG E S :

2 S 6.5:

The M a s oret i c text re ad s :

be k h o l

' at se bhe roshim 'with all art i c le s ( or , in s t rum e nt s ) of fir (or cy:-­

p ress ) wood ' .

It m a y be better to fol low the rea d i n g o f 1 Ch 1 3 . 8 : w i th all the i r m ight and with songs ' .

tekhol ' oz ubhesh i r i m For

Na 2 . 3 see O TTP,

Pine, Brutian Pine Hebrew :

'

p

246.

Pi nus brutia

tidhha r

DESCRIPTION: The Brutian pine grows i n t h e mountain s of north e r n Pal e s tine, where Po s t found i t in Gilead and Lebanon . I t reac h e s a

a.

Pistachio nu ts (Pistacia vera) part of flowering branch, showing leaves folded and unfolded b. female flower c. male flower d. seed from edge e. seed from side

r 1 64 1

h ei gh t o f 3 to 1 0 m . Its branch e s a re who rl e d , the l eave s tw in and rather th i c k ; longer, da rker a nd m o re r i gid than tho se o f the Al eppo pin e. Th e c o ne s are a rranged in who rl s , 3 to 6 at a tim e . Molden ke iden tifie s tidhhar with th i s co nife r . BDB a nd some o t h e r interprete rs (e . g. Buh l ) foll ow t h e V u lgate in tra ns l at ing ' el m ' , wh ich would fi t th e c i r c um s tance that th e Syr iac nam e fo r th i s tree , Ul m u s campe s tr i s , is dada r . But Mo ldenke doe s no t b elieve that i t i s ind i genous to Pa l e s t i n e . The l eave s o f th e com ­ m on elm tree a re oblong, s er rated and h a i ry o r s mooth . The yellow or green flowe rs are a rranged in c l u s te r s and the fru it i s winged . Oth er trans l a to rs , inc l uding RS V a n d J B , render ' plane tree ' N E B h a s 'fi r ' .

(q. v . ) .

RE F E R E NC E S :

Is 4 1 . 1 9 ; 6 0 . 1 .'3

Pistachio nuts

Pi s tac ia vera ,

Hebrew :

Pi s ta c ia .Pal <E s tina

botn i m

DESC R IPTION : RS V, JB and NEB a r e c o r rec t i n rendering botnim a s ' pista c h io nuts ' . Th e pi s tachio i s a native o f As ia Mino r , but i s fou nd al s o in Pal e s t i n e a nd Syria , espec ially in th e region of Dam a s c u s and Beirut. But it i s not a produc t of Egypt, and s o it i s s ui ta bl e fo r a gift to tha t c ountry ( Gn 43 . 1 1 ) . It is th e fru i t of a small tree whic h has a broad c rown . The fruits of the Pis tac ia Pal<Es tina are s m al l e r than tho s e of Pi s ta c i a vera and a re l e s s ta s ty . The fruit r ipens in Oc tober, a nd i s al mo s t the same s i z e as a hazel - nut , longish and tr iangul a r . It h a s a red s hell and a green a nd o il y k erne l . It ha s a Pl e a sant flavour, and i s eaten raw o r roa s ted w i th peppe r and s al t . i s al s o u s e d fo r seasoning choco l a tes .

It

RE F E R E NC E :

Gn 43 . 1 1

DI F Fie LlL T PASSAGES :

It i s doubtful i f th e nam e of a loc atio n i n

th e t ri be o f Gad, betonim (Jo s 1 3 . 2 6 ) , h a s a n y c o nnec tio n with botnim .

The nut m entioned in SS 6 . l l i s undoubtedly the walnut, Juglans !!gia .

[ 1 65 ]

a.

\

\\

\\

'

\\' · : .

·�

'

·'

:v I

,

,

\ ,,I·< ·"". . . •

-

\�. 1J . '\

I

I

· ·�

v

a.

Plane tree

Hebrew :

Plane tree (Platanus orientalis) leafy shoot with fruiti n g heads

b . leaf

Pl a tanus o rienta l i s

' a rm o n

D E S C R IPTION: The o ri ental pl a n e t r e e i s a native o f Pa l e s t i n e a n d Meso p ota m i a , where i t grows near wate r . Th e la rge l eaves , i n shape m u c h l i ke tho s e of th e v i n e , a r e da rk gr e e n o n t h e s u r fac e and wool l y underneath . Th e long branch es s p r e a d in every d i r ec ­ t i o n a nd o ffe r a c o m fo rtabl e sh a d e . The flowers a re green a n d i n ­ c o n s p i c uou s , and the fru i t s a re l i ke s m al l globes covered with spike s . The pl an e tree m a y reach a c o n s i derabl e h e i ght a n d a grea t age . Th e Hb wo rd may be de r ived fro m a r o o t : ' ba r e ' o r ' n aked ' , refe r ring to a pecul i a r ity o f the tre e ' s bar k , wh ich s c a l e s o ff i n r 1M 1

she et s .

Th i s explain s why J a c o b c h o s e b r a nc h e s from a pl a n e fo r The V u l ga te in bo th pa s s a ge s i dent i fi e s the Hb wi th E! a ta nu s ;· so d o e s th e Septuagint in Gn 3 0 . AV ha s ' c h e stnut tr ee ' . RSV and J B al so tr an s late tidhhar a s 'plane ' in I s 41. 19; 60. 13 . F o r h i s ' s t ra tagem ' .

thi s s e e PINE ( BR U T IA N

R E F E R E NC E S :

Gn 3 0 . 3 7 ; Ezk 3 1 . 8

Poison, Gall, Hemlock Hebrew :

ro? sh ,

·prNE ).

C o n i um m a c u l a tu m

ro sh

DESC R IPTI ON : Th e two Hb wo r d s i n d i c a te po i s o n o r venom o f s e r ­ p e n t s ( e . g. Dt 3 2 . 3 3 ; Jo b 2 0 . 1 6) ; bu t i n s o m e pa s s a ge s ( e . g. Ho 1 0 . 4 )

Poison

(Conium maculatum)

part of flower with in florescence b. fruiti n g head c . seed d. part of stem a.

[ 167 ]

i t m a y be un de r s tood a s a po i so nous plant , Con ium m acula tum , the he mlo c k , wh ich is q u i te c o m mo n all over Pal e s tine. It i s a perenn i a l o r b i en n ia l , e re c t a nd ma ny - branc hed wi th leaves l ike thos e o f t h e c arro t . The tin y white fl owers a re a r ranged i n umbel s , and th e roo t i s whi te a n d taperi ng. All parts o f the plant -- roo t, l eaves , a nd the s mall fru i t s - c o ntai n a dangerou s l y po i sonous oil . -

R E F E R E NC ES :

Pomegranate

Dt 2 9 1 8 ; 3 2 . 3 2 , 3 3 ; Job 2 0 . 1 6 ; Ps 69 . 2 1 ; .

J e 8 . 1 4 ; 9 . 1 5 ; 23 . 15; L a 3 . 5 , 1 9; Ho 1 0 . 4 ; Am 6 . 1 2 Pu n i c a grana tu m

Hebrew : r im mon DESC RIPTION: The po megra nate i s n a tive to m any coun tr ies in No rth Afri c a a nd Wes tern As ia . The Hb wo rd r immon ma y s tand fo r

Pomegranate

a.

fruit

(Punica granatum)

b. section of flower

[ 1 68 ]

c.

branch

the po m egra n a te tre e , the fru i t , o r the a r t i s t i c o rnam ents in th e

shape o f po m egrana tes such a s w e re to be found in th e te m pl e o f S o l o ­ mon (1 K 7 . 1 8 ) , o r o n th e s k i r t s o f Aa ron ' s e ph o d ( Ex 2 8 . 3 3 ) .

3 . 6 to 4 . 5 m h i gh with d a rk - gr e e n , s p ear - shape d l eave s , and branc hes c a r rying tho rns . I t h a s s c a rl e t , yel low a n d white fl o w e r s , a n d a fru it ( ac tu a l l y a berry) about th e size of an o ra n ge , with a h a r d red o r yell ow r i n d . The pulp i s d i ­ o r 1 0 p a r t i t io n s wh ich hold the num e rous s eeds . The vid e d into is del ic iou s a n d v e r y r efre s h ing to ea t b ec a u s e o f its copious ulp p j ui c e . Th e s ee d s y i e l d a s y r u p c a l l e d grenadi n e . Th e fl ow e r s a r e us e d in the t r e a t m ent o f d ys e n t e r y . Th e po m e gra na te t r e e i s

9

ci

c

Poplar c.

(Populus euphratica)

twig with male inflorescence b . twig with female inflorescence o.

mature fruit capsule and one seed d. & e. di ffere nt leaf shapes

[ 1 69 ]

Th i s pic tu re s que a n d b e a u tifu l tree a nd i t s fru i t w e re ve r y popu ­

l a r wi th a r t i s ts : ga rm e n t s

s e e the d e s c r i p t i o n o f S o l o m o n ' s t e m p l e a nd th e

of the p r i e s t s .

Th e na m e o f a l o c a l i ty , R i m m o n , e . g. J o s

c ate s the

15.32, pre s e n c e o f man y pomegra nates s o m e t i m e

Th e S y r i a n go d

R i m m o n m entioned i n 2 K 5 . 1 8

connected w i t h the po m e gr a n a t e .

R E F E R E NC ES : Consult

_

i n the p a s t .

i s h a rdl y to be

a c o n c o rd a n c e

Poplar (Euphrates Poplar) Hebrew :

p ro b a bl y i n d i

Popu l u s euph ra t i c a

' e rebh

D E S C R IPTI O N :

The E up h ra te s popla r is a h igh tree a nd v e r y c o m ­

m o n on t h e b an k s of broo k s a n d r iv e r s i n th e O r i e n t .

I t h a s two

fo r m s o f l ea v e s , s o m e broad and o v a l and o t h e r s ( o n the you nge r

shoots ) s p ea r - s h a p e d and o bl o n g l i ke t h e l e a v e s of the w i l l o w . Salix alba , which m a y be t r u e o f Lv 2 3 . 40 bec a u s e i n Pa l e s t i ne t h e p o p l a r i s c o n fi n e d t o t h e Jo rdan va l l e y . JB a nd R S V both alterna te b e tw e e n ' w illow ' a n d ' po p ­ W a l k e r i d e n t i fi e s the t r e e w i t h th e w i l l o w ,

l ar ' .

Bu t t h e t ra n s l a t i o n ' po p la r ' i s j u s t i fi e d i n a l l p a s s a ge s h y th e

fac t tha t t h e A r a b i c n a m e o f th i s tre e , gha rab, is co gnate w i t h the Hb

wo r d .

Th e fl ow e r s o f th e pop l a r are c a tk i n s , th e fr u i t s are c a p ­

s u l e s w i t h h a i r y s ee d s .

R E F E R E NC E S :

L v 2 3 . 4 0 ; Job 4 0 . 2 2 ; Ps 1 3 7 . 2 ; I s 1 5 . 7 ; 4 4 . 4

S u ae d a a s ph a l t ic a

Purslane Heb rew :

S e e a l so S TO R A X .

l;l a l l a m uth

DE S C R I PTI O N :

The m ea n i n g o f th i s w o r d is u n c e r t a i n , b u t i t i s u s u ­ (a s in R V m g a n d R SV). Th i s i s a s ue ­

a l l y take n to m e a n ' purslane '

c ul e n t p l a n t o f th e J u dea n de s e r t , r e l a ted to Atr ipl ex ha l i m u s ( s ee

M A L LO W ) .

all in

I t i s v e r y depend e nt u p o n r a i n , a n d s c a r c e l y a ppea r s a t

dry periods .

It gro w s to a

l e ave s a n d gre e n i s h fl owers .

height o f 4 5

[ 170 ]

em

and

h a s tubula r

Howeve r , a s Hb p e a s a n t s wo u l d u s e th e s a m e n a m e fo r d i ffe re n t pla nts a n d d i ffe rent n a m e s fo r the s a m e p l a n t w i th n o fe e l i n g o f c o n ­ th e w o r d s fo r ' m a l low ' a n d

tra d i c t i o n ,

to

At r i p l e x h a l i m u s . AV, R V

J B have

and

RE F E R E NC E :

Job

' th e wh i te

of

'

p u r s l a n e ' m a y w e l l bo t h

an

egg' ,

r e fe r

a n d N E B ' m allow ' .

6.6

Reed and Rod A r un do do n ax , Typha a n gu s t a t a , C yp e r u s p a p y r u s , Sc i rp u s

He b re w :

� uph ,

q a ne h ,

Gr eek : kalamo s ,

? a gh m o n ,

ga m e ? ,

?ebheh

ka l a m e

DESC R I PTI ON : 111 e d i ffe r e n t k i n d s o f g r a s s e s w i l l n o t a lwa ys be eas y to i d e n t i fy by m e a n s of the Hb or Gk n a m e s , a nd m a n y t r a n s l a ­ ti o n s ma y h ave to d e p e n d o n a c o nj ec t u r e .

Arun do d o n a x i s a gi a n t reed ,

muc h t a l l e r than a

m a n , wh i c h

grows in r i v e r s a n d wa te r s l i ke the N i l e , a nd i s w e l l k n o w n i n Pa l e s ­ tine a nd Syri a ; i n t h e J o r d a n v a l l e y i t gr ow s i n a l m o s t im penetrabl e th i c ke t s . The s te m c a n e a s il y be broken ( 2 K 1 8 . 21 ) , a n d i s u s ed fo r many purpo s e s , e . g. a s a m e a s u r i ng rod ( E z k 4 0 . 3 , 5 ; 4 2 . 1 6 - 1 9 ) , b u t it i s a l s o fl exible a n d s h ak e n by th e w i n d (Mt 1 1 . 7 ) . The fl o w e r s a r e wh ite a nd grow i n pl um e s . s up h :

I D i d e n t i fi e s i t wi th c a tta il , Typ h a a n gu s ta t a

c u r s in- c o n n ec ti o n

Red Sea ,

e.

.

It o fte n o c ­

w i th ya m , ' s ea ' : ya m - s u ph , ' s ea o f r u s h e s ' , the

g. E x 1 0 . 9 , a nd c o n s ul t a c o n c o rd a n c e .

ga m e '� i s u s u a l l y r e ga r ded

a s papyru s , C yp e r u s papyru s ( e . g .

RSV o f J o b 8 . 1 1 ; Is 1 8 . 2 ) . ,., a gh m o n , ' ru s h ' , ' bu l r u s h ' , i s i d e n t i fi ed by ID W i t h t h e genu s Sc i rp u s , a l a ke pla n t l o w e r t h a n the r e e d , w i t h fl e x ib l e s te m s . ?e bhe h is p ro b a b l y A r u n d o o r p a p y r u s . R E F E R E NC E S :

qa neh : C o n s u l t a c o nc o r d a n c e �m p h : E x 2 . 3 , 5 ; I s 1 9 . 6 ; Jo n 2 . 5 ( RS V ' w e e d s ' ) gam e ? : Ex 2 . 3 ; Job 8 . 11 ; I s 1 8. 2; 3 5 . 7 ?agh m o n : Job 41 . 2 ( R S V ' rope ' ) , 20 ; Is 9 . 1 4 ; 5 8 . 5 [ 1 71 ]

?ebheh : Job 9 . 2 6 kalam o s : Mt 11 . 7 ; 1 2 . 2 0 ; 2 7 . 2 9 , 3 0 , 4 8 ; Mk 1 5 . 1 9 , 3 6 · ' Lk 7 2 4 ; 3 J n 1 3 ; Rv 1 1 . 1 ; 2 l . l 5 , 1 6 kalam e : 1 C o 3 . 1 2 , ' s tal k ' o r ' straw ' . Ac c or d i n g t o A G , the meaning ' s tubbl e ' ( RS V) i s po s s ibl e h u t less l i k e l y .

.

D I F F ICU L T

PASSAGES : qaneh in Is 1 9 . 6 and 3 5 . 7 i s i den t ified by

Mol denke w ith Cype rus pap yru s .

I n Gn 41 . 5 , 2 2 , a c c o rdi ng to Ge senius qaneh m ea n s ' s talk o f gra in ' . In I K 1 4 . 1 5 ; 2 K 1 8 . 21 ; job 40. 21 ; Ps 6 8 . 3 0; Is 1 9 . 6 ; 3 5 . 7 ; 3 6. 6 ;

Reed

(Arundo donax)

young plant b. fl oweri ng spikelet c. fruiting head with mature seeds

a.

[ 172 ]

;

.

,

96

4 2 . 3 and E z k 2 . tra n s l a t e ' wa ter pl a n t ' o r ' re ed ' . is u s e d figu r a t ivel y to m ean w e ak s uppo r t.

1

In s o m e c a s e s it

27.19

2

3 0. 2 3 ; SS 4 . 4 ; J e 6 . 0 ; 43 . 24 ; Ezk a re t o be under s to o d . :· as an a ro m a t i c r e e d , a c o n s t i tuent of ano inting o i l , i m p o r t e d fr o m a calamus gon perhaps , y r . (Mold enke us Andropo ount matic ro a c , ta r � ide n t i fi es I� 4 3 . 24 . wi t h Sac charum o ff i_c i n a uii_l ) E z k 4 0. 3 , 5 ; �� 19 ' m e a s u n n g ro d Ezk 4 0. 5 - 8 ; 41 . 8 I s a u m t of m e a s u re ' (s ix ���j cubits ) . I s 46. 6 ' (be am of) s c al e s ' . Ex 2 5 . 3 1 , 3 2 , 3 5 ; 3 7 . 1 , 1 8 , it is u sed figurat ively fii ' shaft or branch of lamp - s tand ' . In Job of the shoulde r -j o i n t ( s h e k h e m ) . Ex

·

�

�

.

31. 22

}'

a.

Rue

(Ruta graveolens)

part of plant

b. flower

[ 1 73 J

c.

� 2 .16 -

·

fruit

7

? a ghm o n in Job 4 1 . 2 = rush twi s ted and used a s c o r d . F o r th 0 sam e wo rd i n Job 41 . 20 see OTTP, p 9 2 . ? agham m im in Je 51 . 3 2 is ? a gh m o n a c c o r d i n g to BOB. B u r n i ng o f s wa m p p l an t s i s c o m m o n pr a c t i c e a mo ng i nh a b i ta n t s o f s u c h a r e a s i n o r de r to a c c e l e ra t e

gr ow t h ( RS V 'the bu lw a r k s are b urne d w ith fire ' . ) Vol z rc ad 'i ' ' o f s a r e p u are b u r n e d , s ha rebu ' the sw a m p s a re dra i n e d ' . i n s te a d

th e i r

.

'

3

Rue

Jn l.3 ' pe n ' .

R u t a gra v eo l c n s ,

Gre e k :

o r Ruta c h a l e p en s i s

p e g a n on

D E S C R I PTION :

Ru e i s

a p l a n t o r s h ru b , wh i c h i n

Med i te r ra ne a n

c o u n t r i e s grows fro m 9 0 e m to 1 . 5 m ta l l a nd h a s y e l l o w i s h flowe r s

and s tro ng- s m e ll i n g l e a ve s .

Both s p e c i e s grow w i l d i n Pal e s t in e a n d S y r i a a n d were proba bl y

a l s o c u l ti v a ted th e re in NT t i m e s R u e wa s u s e d a s a c o nd i m e n t , and its fre s h le ave s w e r e u se d t o h e a l c e rta i n d i s e a s e s , i n s ec t s t i ngs and s na k e b i tes . .

On t i th i ng s e c C UM M I N . R E F E R E NC E :

Lk 1 1 . 4 2

Saffron

C r o c u s s a t i v u s ( o r C a r th a m u s tinc to r i u s )

H eb r ew :

karko m

D E S C R I PTIO N :

Am o n g th e va r i ou s fra gr a n t pl a n ts m en ti o n e d i n t h e

d e s c r i p t i o n o f a c o s t l y g a r d e n i n SS 4 we find t h e Hb k a r ko m .

1l 1 i s

i s ge n e r a l l y c o n s i de re d to be t h e blue - flowered s a ff r o n c ro c u s ,

C ro c u s s a t ivu s , who s e l o ng th read - l i k e s t igm a s , w h en

d r i ed a n d

pul v e r iz e d , yi eld a yel l ow dye u s e d in a n c i e n t tim e s fo r c o l o u r i n g fo o d , c lo t h i n g a n d wal l s . M i x e d w i th o i l t h i s a ro m a t i c p r o d uc t al s o s e rved a s a c o nd i m e n t ,

a pe r fum e

a nd

a m ed i c i n e .

Wh e th e r th e C ro c u s s a ti v u s w a s grown i n Pa l es ti n e i n B i bl i c a l

t i m e s c a n no t b e

s tated defi n itel y .

It does

n o t g r o w th ere to d a y . S S 4

m e n t io n s ka r ko m a m on g s ev e ra l fo r e i gn s pi c e s .

r r7 4

1

It h a s been sugge s ted tha t karkom may be a n ent i rely d i ff er e nt pla n t , C a rth a m u s tincto rius . Th i s native o f the M i ddl e E a s t i s a rn e mb e r o f th e th i s tl e fa mily, gr ow i n g em to 1 . 2 m tal l , with red fl o rets which yield a dye u s e d for c ol o uring c loth ing a nd foo d .

90

R E F E R E NC E : S S 4 . 1 4

Spelt

T r i t icum

Tritic u m dicoccum

s pelta ,

Heb rew : ku� � e meth (ku � �;>em i m ) DE S C R IPTIO N: S p elt i s a me mber of t h e gra s s fam il y a l l i e d to wheat. It has loo s e ears , and i t s triangular gra i n s do not loo s e n from the chaff wh e n r ipening. It ha s been known from anc ient tim e s in Egypt,

b

a

Saffron

a.

(Crocus sativus)

flowering plant

[ 175 ]

b. stigma

,• /

I

� b

��

((

IIy !)

�

tt · · �

Spel t Triticu m spelta b. Trit1'c wn dicoccum a.

spike and spihlets

where

it i s fou nd i n the tom bs .

in l e s s ferti l e

and hum i d s o il .

Wh il e i nfe rio r to

Po s t ide nti fie s th e Hb wo rd w i th

w ild emme r , Tr itic um d ic o c c um .

R E F E R E NC E S :

Ex 9.32; Is

whea t , it will gro w

Tr i ticum spelta , a nd ID w i th

2 8 . 2 5 ; Ez k 4 . 9

[ 176 ]

Spices, Balsam, Balsam tree Heb rew :

C o m m iph o ra o po bal s a m u m

bo s e m , be s e m , ba s a m

DESC R I P TIO N :

'

Spi c e s ' i s

th e wo r d u s ed b y mo s t m o d e r n tra n s l a ­

tion s to r e n d e r t h e s e H b wo rds . S o u t h e r n Arab i a (Sh eba ) wa s o n e o f the pl a c e s fro m w h i c h th e y w e re i m po r t e d ( 2 C h 9 . 1 ) . Th e y w e r e

i n th e

us e d

a n o i nt i n g

oil ( Ex 3 0 . 23 ) .

In SS 5 . 1 3 ; 6 . 2 t h e y a r e p roba bl y

to be i d e n t i fi ed with ' ba l m o f G i l ea d ' ( s e e N E B ' ba l s a m ' i n

6.2).

Bu t

th e Hb w o r d s refer to v a r i o u s s p i c e s wh i c h a rc no t a l w a y s i clc n t i fi ­

abl e .

ID i s i nc l i ned to i d e n t i fy t h e m w i t h C o m m i p h o r a opoba l s a m u m ,

' ba lm o f Gil ea d ' : a s h r u b o r s m a l l tree wh i c h i s n o t a n a t i v e o f o f Sou th e rn A ra b i a . It gro w s to 4 . 5 m a n d h a s s t i ff bra nc h e s , tr i fo l i a te l e a v e s a n d wh ite fl owe r s . 1l1 e b ra nc h e s e x u d e a plea s a n t - s mell i ng re s i n , w h i c h s o o n ha rde n s w h e n expo s ed t o the air. Th e gu m is u s e d fo r p e r f u m e a n d fo r m ed i c i n a l p u r po s e s . In Bibl ical t i m e s i t wa s c u l tivated i n th e J o rd a n v a lley n ea r J e r i c h o , pe r h a p s a l s o in G i l e a d . th e

Gi l ead but

Balsa m ( .1 sfmgalus tragaca n lha.) a.

shoot

1> . flowpr

c.

pod

Wal k e r says th a t be s e rn was As tra ga l u s traga c a ntha , a v e r y s m al l pl a n t 60 e rn h i gh , wh i c h grows eve r ywh e r e i n Pa l e s t i ne . Th e r e s i n e x u de s fro m th e tho r n s a n d i s c o l l ec ted during th e da y by r u b ­ bi ng t h e pla n t w i th a ball o f c o tto n . S e e a l s o B A L M , M Y R RH a nd S TAC TE . R E F E R ENC ES : C o n s u l t a conc o rdanc e Stade

Corn m ipho ra o po ba l s a m u m

Heb rew : nataph ,

lot

D E SC R IPTION : Stac te i s a r e s inous , a ro ma tic gum exud ing fro m s o m e spec i e s o f Corn rn ipho ra opoba l s a mu m . Other s ugge s t i o n s i n ­ c lude Styrax o ffic ina l i s o r C i s tu s sa lvi fo l i u s , but t h i s i s rej e c ted b y ID, wh i c h adds th a t it is do ubtful wh ether th e c i stus ro s e i s gu m ­ bea r i n g. S ta c te i s a spic e wh ic h wa s u s ed fo r inc e ns e . S e e a l s o BALM, M Y R R H and S PIC ES . ( For illu s t r at ion of s t a cte , see page 14 7. ) R E F E R E NC ES : nataph : E x 3 0 . 3 4 (J B ' s to rax ' ; N E B ' gu m re s i n ' ) lot : Gn 3 7 . 2 5 ; 4 3 . ll ( RS V a nd N E B ' m yrrh ' ; JB ' r e s in ' ) Storax tree He brew:

Styrax o ffic i nal i s

l ib hne h

D E S C R IPTION : Th e H b nam e , wh ich m a y perhaps be der ived fro m l a bha n , ' wh i te ' , h a s o ften bee n iden t i fi e d w i th the wh i te popla r , Pop�­ l u s alba (by Mol denke , many c o m m e ntato rs , RSV, JB and N E B) . We follow Po s t , ID and oth e r s , who take it as Styrax o ffic inal i s . J B t ra n s l a te s nataph a s ' s to rax ' . S e e S TAC TE . Th i s i s a s mall tree o r s h rub 3 t o 6 rn h i gh , a native o f As ia M ino r , Syria a nd Ga l il e e . Its white fl ow e r s r e s embl e tho s e of th e ora nge tree . Its oval l e av e s a r e gree n above a nd wh i te and c ottony below.

[ 178 ]

Storax a.

(Styrax officinalis)

flowering shoot

b. fruit

In Ho 4 . 1 3 t h ree d i ffe rent sac red tree s a re m e n t i on e d , u n d e r th e s h a dow o f wh i c h idolatrous incens e - burning too k pla c e . LXX u nd e r ­ stands the wh ite popl a r to be me a n t h e re , wh e r e a s i t h a s th e s to ra x i n Gn 3 0 . But the re i s no r ea s on fo r m a k i n g a d i s t i nc ti o n betwee n the two refere nc e s .

R E F E R E NC E S :

Sycamore Heb rew :

Gn 3 0 . 3 7 ; Ho 4 . 1 3

Ficu s s yc o m o r u s s h iqmah

Greek :

suko m o rea

The s yc a m o r e t r e e b e l o n gs to th e Ne ttl e fa m il y , l i k e th e m u lbe rr y and f i g t r e e s . I t gro w s in m a n y plac e s i n Pa l e s t i n e , e spec i al l y in th e p l a i n , fro m Gaz a t o J a ffa a nd Ha i fa , a n d i n t h e J e r i ­ cho val l e y . DESC R I PTIO N :

I t i s a b r o ad h e a v y t ree , 7 . 50 to I S m h i gh .

Th e branc h e s a re

s t rong and la rge , growing out from the trunk v e ry low down so th at th e tree i s easy to c l im b . It s ta nd s fi rmly on th e g r o u n d as t h e roo ts are very lo ng. Its wo o d wa s used fo r bu i l d ings , a nd the fac t t h a t th e Egyptia n s u s ed i t fo r th e i r m um m y c o ff i n s i s ev i d e n c e o f i t s durab i l i ty.

[ 1 79 ]

Th e l ea ve <> a r e e v e rgre e n a n d h e a r t - s h a p e d , a n d th e fru i t l o o k s l i k e fi gs , b u t i t s ta s te i s u n pl e a s a n t . Howev e r , i t w a s e a t e n h y po o r p eo pl e , a n d Am o s ( 7 . 1 4 ) w a s a ga th e r e r o f s yc a m o re fru i t . Th e H b ve r b m a y i n d i c a te th e wa y t h e s yc a m o r e f r u i t s w e r e e a te n ,

so

tha t

t h e p rope r t ra n s l a t i o n m a y n o t be ' ga th e r e r o f s yc a m o r e fr u i t ' , o r

' c u l t i v a to r ' , bu t

' o n e who

to m a k e th e m e d i b l e ' .

a.

n ip s

(with a

Sycamore

n a i l o r w i th i ro n ) t h e fr u i ts

(Fiws sycomrrus)

part of young stem with leaf-bearing twig b. d warf shoots w i th fruit

[ 1 80 ]

Sycamo re wood , though u sed in bu ild ing , was poorly thought of in comp aris o n w ith cedar ( I s 9. 10). In the NT the tree i s ment ioned in the sto ry of Zacchaeu s ( Lk

19.4) who climbed it in o rder to s ee Je su s .

R E FE RE NC ES: shiqm ah: 1 K 10. 2 7; 1 C h 2 7. 2 8; 2 Ch 1 . 1 5 ; 9. 2 7; Ps 78. 4 7; I s 9. 10; Am 7. 14 sukom ore a: Lk 1 9.4

1'1 11, I1-

';\ .

'\'�{,\,· :;;. v,/; \'-i .,

,�,.�.

d

b

(} \\ · 1\�' .

. .

Tamarisk

a.

(Tamarix aphylla)

flowering shoot c . flower

b. tip of branch d. fruit

[ 181 ]

D I F F IC UL T PASSAG E : N E B i s probabl y righ t in tran slating Lk 1 7 . 6 : you c o u l d say to th i s s yc amore - tree , Be rooted u p and r eplanted i n the sea ' , eve n though th e G k i s s ukam i no s , wh i c h i s gene ra ll y tra n s ­ l a ted ' mu l b e r ry tree . Lt5w sugge s ts tha t Luke did not diffe rentiate between t he s yc a more and the m ul b e r ry . The heigh t and weigh t o f th e s yc am o re m ake i t a m o r e adequate i l l u s tra tion o f wha t i s s a i d h ere about th e fo r c e o f fa i th . Th i s i s a l so s uppo r te d b y the fa c t tha t LXX tra n s l a te s s h i q m ah a s s u k am ino s . Bu t m o s t m odern trans l at i o n s have ' m u lberry tre e ' (q . v . ) . '

'

Tamarisk

H e br ew :

Tama r i x a ph yl l a ,

T. ga l l ica

? eshel

DESC R IPTIO N : The tam a ri s k i s a s m a l l , fa s t - growing tree w ith du rable wood, to be found abunda ntl y i n des erts , dun es a nd salt m a r s he s .

Tamarix ap h ylla i s leafles s a nd h a s green bra n c h e s a nd a wide c rown . It has s m a l l wh i t e flowe r s , and i ts frui t is a c a p s u l e with fea t h e r y s ee d s . NE B tran slate s Gn R E F E R E NC ES :

Terebinth Hebr ew :

Gn

21.33

21. 33;

'

l S 22.6;

Tu rpentine tr ee ,

?elah,

as ' Abraham p lan t ed a s trip of gro u nd .

31.13

Pi s ta c i a terebinthus

? a l l ah

DESC R I PTION : ID m a i n ta i n s t hat the ' nuts ' m entioned i n Gn 4 3 . 1 1 a re the fru i ts o f Pi s ta c i a te r e b i n th u s pal � stina ( s ee PIS TAC H IO NUTS) . Po s t and Mol denke , howeve r , ide ntify them w ith th e Pis ta c ia vera , and they rende r th e Hb '>elah a s te re b i n th , of wh i c h the above - m entioned P . T . pal � s tina i s a va riety. '

The terebinth m a y reach

a.

'

height of 7 . 5 to 9 m, and its broad

[ 182 ]

c ro w n , h eavy b ra nc h e s an d th i c k tru n k give i t a n i m p re s s ive a p ­ pea r a nc e l ik e that o f t h e oak tree . Th e tree , w h i c h us ua l l y s ta n d s alone , a ffo rd s plea s ant shade . It i s na tive to t h e Med i t e r ra nean countries . It i s no t a n ever g reen , and i t s fl o we r s a r e s m a l l a nd inconspic u o u s . The s te m co nta i n s aromatic t u r pe nt i n e , a r es i no u s j u ic e , w h i c h flows o u t when t h e ba rk i s c ut. Mo s t dic tiona r i e s s i m pl y tra n s l a te ? e l ah as ' b i g t r e e ' , as w i th � ( s e e O A K ) . It is p r a c t i c a l l y i m po s s ibl e to d i s t i n gu i s h b e tw e e n the s e two . R E F E R ENC ES : Co n s u l t a c o nc o rdanc e .

·���I

f . b

c

j

a.

Terebinth (Pistacia terebinthus) branch with fruit b. female flower c. male flower

[ 1 83 ]

i

I .

"l

(

1 1.i

·�

/,

b

· 1/p

0

,, .

.

'

'

Thorn

(Poterium spinosum)

young floweri ng plan t

a.

Thorn, Thistle, Brier, Bramble

H e h rew :

i? e n e h ,

') a t adh ,

n a ' a ts u ts ,

Lyc ium e uropaeum , Pote rium

s p i n o s u m , S o l anum in c anum (he ­ d heq ) , Cent aurc a , S c olymus

barq a nim ,

� i rpa dh ,

shayith , t s en ,

f:l o a l) ,

�. �·

sekh ,

b. fruit

m e s u kka h

darda r,

h e dh e q ,

qo t s , q i m m o s h , s h a m i r ,

Gree k : ak ant h a ( t h o rn s ) , ak ant h in o s (m ade of thorn s ) , tr ibolos (thistle ) , bat o s (thorn bus h ) D ES C R I PTIO N : A d r y c o u ntry l i ke P a l e s t i n e p ro d uc e s a r i c h va r i e ty o f tho rns a nd th i s tl e s , a nd it i s n o t a l w a y s po s s i b l e to dete r m i n e

w h ich pa rtic ul a r p l a n ts a re r e fe r re d to . Th e y a r e c ha r a c te r i s t i c o f a n a r ea w h i c h i s u n c u l t i v a t e d o r n e gl e c t e d . ' Th o r n s a n d th i s t l e s ' ma y th us be a s y m b o l o f th e pu n i s h m e n t a n d j ud gm e n t o f th e L o r d ( Gn 3 . 1 8 ; Is 7 . 23 - 2 5 ) , o r o f th e w o r k o f fa l s e p ro ph e t s ( M t 7 . 1 6 ) . I t i s t r u e th at m a n y th o rn bu s h e s b e a r b ea u t i fu l fl o we r s , b u t o n e c a n Th e tho r n bu s h i s , h owe v e r , nev e r ga t h e r gr a p e s o r f i g s fro m t h e m . s u itable fo r h e dge s . B i bl e r e a d e r s a n d c o m m en ta to rs h av e na tu r a l l y a l w a y s b e e n

e a ge r t o i d e n t i fy t h e p l a n t from w h i c h th e c ro w n o f th o r n s wa s pla ited by the sol di ers . Z i z yph u s h a s b e e n s ugge s te d fr o m t h e t i m e o f Li n ­ n a e u s , w h o a d d e d th e n a m e ' s p i na Ch r i s t i ' to i t . Th e d i ffi c u l ty, how eve r , pl a c e .

is t h a t th i s d o e s not gro w in the r e g i o n wh e re the e v e n t too k

M o d e r n b o ta n i s t s s o m e t i m e s s u gge s t Po te r i u m s p i n o s u m ,

w h i c h fo r m s a m a s s o f v e ge t a t i o n a l l o v e r the c o un t r y . I t g r o w s leaves tw i c e a yea r , a nd h a s s m a l l r e el fl owe r s . Th e t h o r n s a r c nu ­ m e ro u s a n d c ov e r t h e bu s h c o m p l e t e l y . M a c Kay w r ite s (p 1 70 ) , " Old R o m an c o in s s h ow

s ome of the E m ­

pe r o r s we a r ing spi ked c r own s , s o the t horns may h ave be e n c h o s e n to r e s e m b l e a r o ya l d i a d e m ,

and

n o t to c a u s e

pa i n .

L a u rel l ea v e s

made up the tra d i t ion a l c h a p l e t o f th e c o nq u e ro r , a nd a t h o rn y p l a n t

re s e mbl i ng l a urel m a y h a ve been u s e d . ' '

Mo l d e n k e quotes S m i th ' s s ugge s t i o n that th e bu rning bush ( Ex 3 . 2 ) m a y h ave b e e n th e c r im s on - flowe r e d m i s t l e to e Lo ra nthu s ac a c iae , wh ich i s q u i te c o m m o n i n Pa l e s t i n e w h e r e i t g ro w s on t h o r n y

s h r u b s a nd t ree s .

R E F E R E NC E S :

� e n eh : "

E x 3 . 2 , 3 , 4 ; Dt 3 3 . 1 6

a t a cl h :

G n 5 0 . 10 , 1 1 ;

J g 9. 14 , 15 ; P s 5 8. 9

ba rqa n i m :

Jg 8 . 7 , 1 6 hoa h : 1 S 1 3 . 6 ; 2 K 1 4 . 9 ; 2 C h 2 5 . 1 8 ; 3 3 . 1 1 ; � 2 ; Pr 2 6 . 9 ; SS 2 . 2 ; Is 3 4 . 1 3 ; Ho 9 . 6 darda r :

Jo b 3 1 . 4 0 ;

Gn 3 . 1 8 ; Ho 1 0 . 8

J:leclh eq : Pr 1 5 . 1 9 ; Mi 7 . 4 na ' a ts uts : Is 7 . 1 9 ; 5 5 . 1 3 � i rpa dh :

�ir:

Is

55.13

E c 7 . 6 ; Is 3 4 . 1 3 ; H o 2 . 6 ; A m 4 . 2 ; N a 1 . 1 0 Ez k 2 . 6 ; 2 8 . 24

!? ilio n :

[ 185 ]

qot s : Gn 3 . 1 8 ; Ex 2 2 . 6 ; Jg 8 . 7 , 1 6 ; 2 S 2 3 . 6 ; P s ll 8 . ! 2 '· -- I s 3 2 . 1 3 ; 3 3 . 1 2 ; J e 4 . 3 ; 1 2 . 1 3 ; E z k 2 8 . 2 4 ; Ho l0 . 8 q i m m o s h : Pr 2 4 . 3 1 ; Is 3 4 . 1 3 ; Ho 9 . 6 s h am i r : I s 5 . 6 ; 7 . 2 3 - 2 5 ; 9 . 1 8 ; 1 0 . 1 7 ; 2 7 . 4 ; 3 2 . 1 3 ; fe 1 7 . 1 ; Ezk 3 . 9 ; Zech 7 . 1 2

s h a y i th : I s 5 . 6 ; 7 . 2 3 - 2 5 ; 9 . 1 8 ; 1 0 . 1 7 ; 2 7 . 4 t s e n : J o b 5 . 5 ; Pr 2 2 . 5 s e k h : Nu 3 3 . .5 5 m e sukk ah , m e �u k ah , m e s u k ah : Pr 1 5 . 1 9; I s 5 . 5 ; Mi 7. 4 akant h a : Mt 7 . 1 6 ; 13 . 7 , 2 2 ; 2 7 . 2 9; M k 4 . 7 , 1 8 · Lk 6 . 4 4 ; 8 . 7 , 1 4 ; Jn 1 9. 2; He 6 . 8 ak anth in o s : Mk 1 5 . 1 7; Jn 1 9 . 5 t r i bo l o s :

b a to s :

Mt 7 . 1 6 ;

He 6 . 8

Mk 1 2 . 2 6 ; Lk 6 . 4 4 ; 2 0 . 3 7 ;

Ac 7.30, 35

In Jg 8 . 7 , 1 6 b a r q a n i m i s t r a n s l at e d by s o m e c om m e n t a t o r s a s ' th r e s h ing s l edge s ' ra th e r th an ' b r i e r s ' . D I F F I C U L T PA S S A G ES :

� e neh i s id ent ified

obovat a .

hy Low a s R u b u s sanc tu s , by

? at adh i s Ly c ium europ aeum .

Po s t

a s Ca s s i a

In 1 S 1 3 . 6 l) o a l) i s th ic kets a s h i d i n g plac e s . So m e rea d J:!ol i m , ' ho l e s ' ( s o R S V ) . l)oal) i n J o b 4 1 . 2 a n d 2 C h 3 3 . 1 1 s ho ul d b e rende red ' h o o k ' o r ' ri n g ' . � ir in Am 4 . 2 is a l s o to be rend e red ' h o ok ' o r ' ring' . In E z k 2 . 6 i n s tea d o f � a l l o n i m , the pl u ral o f $ i l i o n , s o m e rea d � o l i m wh i c h m e a n s ' re s i s t i ng ' . i n J e 1 7 . l ; E z k 3 . 9 ; Z ech 7 . 1 2 i s n o t to b e tra n s l ated ' tho r n ' but ' a d a m a n t ' . sham i r

t s e n i n Job 5 . 5 m a y perhaps be d el eted ( a s s u g ge s ted by Che yn e ) a s a do uble t o f tsa m m i m . 2

fl e s h ' .

Co 1 2 . 7 ha s th e well - k n ow n pa s s a ge abou t th e ' tho rn i n the The Gk wo rd ( s kolops ) l i tera l l y m ea n s ' a po i n t e d s ta k e ' .

r 186 1

Tumble weed Whi rling Dus t , A

Hebrew :

R o l l in g

Thing

Gu nd e l i a t ourne for t i i

ga l gal

The c o m m e nta to rs d i s a gree on the identific a t io n o f �lga l . Li te ral l y the wo rd means ' a wheel ' . N E B h a s ' th i s tl edown ' ; RS V tran s l a te s ' wh i r l i n g d u s t ' , bu t s e e ma r g i n fo r ' tu m bl ewe e d ' . Bo ta n i s t s have d i s c overed a t l e a s t thirty s p e c i e s o f t u m b l e we e d s i n Pa l e s t i n e . When r ipen i n g , the se plants c u rve in and fo r m a globe w h ich breaks off j u s t abo v e the gro und and is c a r r ied along th e ground by the wind l ike a r o l l i n g ball o r ' wh i r l i ng du s t ' . Th i s i s The dried c a l yx o f th i s tru e , for i n s t a n c e , of Gu ndel ia tou rnefo rtii . thi s tl e i s wh eel - shaped , and wh en i t i s bl o wn a l o n g b y the wind i t may c a u s e h o rs e s to shy. DES C R I PTI O N :

Moldenke a nd s everal oth e r s sugge s t the ' ro s e o f J e richo ' , but th i s pla nt is v e r y ra re i n Pal e s tine, and al s o it s tic k s to the ground fo r y e a r s a nd never rol l s o v er the surfac e, a c c o rd i ng to ID . Th i s s ta tes th e m o s t c o m mo n tumbl eweeds

An a s ta t i c a h i e r o c h untic a ,

Tumbleweed a.

(Anastatica hierochuntica)

part of plant with leaves and flowers b. plant knotted around ri pe seeds

[ 187 ]

i n Pa l e s ti n e to he : Gun d e l i a tou rn e fo r t i i , C ac h rys go n io c a rpa , A c l ­ l e n i a au t ra n i , a n d Sa l so l a k a l i . R E F E R E NC E S :

Ps 8 3 . 1 .'3 ; I s 1 7 . 1 3

Vine (vin eyard , vinegar, wine, grape) Heb rew :

v i t i s v i n ifera

geph c n , z e m o rah , s a r i gh , s ore q a h kerem : v i n eya rd � l) e m e r , m a s h qeh , � o bh e 'J , s he kh a r , she m e r , t i ro s h , m e z eg, s o r e q : w i n e ?e shkol h agephen , ?e s h k o l ' anahim , ' enabh : grape

Gre e k : a mpelo s a m pel o n : v i ne ya rd o i no s : wine gl euko s : sweet, n ew w i n e � (from Aram . s ik e ra H b sheka r ) : a s tro ng d r i n k d i f ­ fe rent from w i n e s ta phul e : bunch o f grapes botru s : c l u s te r o f grape s =

D E S C R IPTIO N : Th e grape v i ne has been known fro m a n c i e n t t i m e s a n d i t wa s c o m m o n a m o n g th e Canaa n i te s . I t s hom e i s s a i d to b e th e h i l l s o f Arm e n i a a n d a ro u n d th e C a s p i a n Sea , a nd a r e fe r e nc e to th i s m a y be fo und i n the s to ry o f No ah ( Gn 9 ) who pl an ted a v i n eya rd o n h i s retu rn fro m m o un t Ara r a t ( i n Arm e n ia ) , wh e re the a r k r e s t e d . Wine i s s el d o m m en t i o n ed i n th e pa t r i a rc h a l s to r i e s . Ab ra h a m d i e ! n o t o ffe r w i n e to h i s gu e s ts ( G n 1 8 ), bu t h e a c c epted i t fro m Mel c h i ­ z edek (Gn 1 4 ) . At tha t t i m e th e u s e of w i n e w a s charac te r i s t i c o f th e C a n a an i te s in c o ntra s t to t h e s tr i c t a n d s i m p l e m o ra l l i fe o f th e no ­ m a d s . B u t the d i s tinc tio n s d i s a ppea r e d a fte r the I s ra el ites h a d s et ­

tl ed i n the c o un try. Th e Naz i r i te s a n d th e Rec hab i te s ab s ta i ned from wi n e fo r rel i gi o u s rea s on s . But Joth a m ' s fa bl e (Jg 9) and the p a r a bl e s o f J e s u s prove th a t w i n e w a s a c o m m o n d r i n k a m ong t h e J ew s .

A v i n eya rd wa s often pu t ' o n a very fe r t i l e h i l l ' ( I s 5 ) , no t o n l y a h i l l w i th fe r t i l e groun d , but a l s o a plac e which c o ul d b e reac hed by th e s u n fro m a l l s id e s . But th e r e w e re v ineya r d s a l s o i n t h e val l eys , e . g. t h e v a l l e y o f Sh a r on , a nd even i n t h e dry So uth ( Ncgc b ) , to

[ 188 ]

@) d

a.

tip of sh oot c.

V i ne

(Vilis vinifcra)

b . part of s t l'm wi t.h ( ' l uster of grapes flowpr d. �<·<· t i on of �rape

wh i c h the geo graph i c a l n a m e s bea r witn e s s ( Nu 1 3 . 23 ) .

A v i n e ya rd

demands w o r k . Afte r t h e gro u n d h a s been p r epa r e d , a fen c e m u s t be erec ted a nd a w a tc h to w e r b u i l t . If a l l the prepa rato r y work has bee n carefull y do n e , th e own e r i s j u s t i fi e d i n e x p e c t i n g a goo d h a rves t , a n d h i s d i s a ppo i n t m en t i f th i s d o e s no t h a p p e n i s unde r s ta n d a b l e ( Is 5 ) .

Th e Bible a l s o m e n t i o n s v i nes th a t grow l i ke t r e e s a n d wh ich m a y dev el op a t r u n k o f q u i t e c o n s ide rabl e d i a m e te r . A m a n m a y s i t u n d e r h i s vin e ' (Mi 4 . 4 ) ; o r v in e s m a y c re ep al o n g the grou nd ( ' a l o w s p rea d ­ in g vin e ' , E z k 1 7 . 6 } , o r be s u pp o r t e d by fo rks , o r c l i mb over t r e e s . So m e tran s l a t i o n s i l l u s t r a te th i s , e . g . J B : ' It c o ve red t h e m o u n ta in s '

With i t s s ha d e ,

the

c e d a r s o f God

w i th its branch e s ' ( Ps 8 0 . 1 0 ).

r 1Ro 1

The be s t - l o v e d v i n e s w e r e tho s e p l a n te d nea r dwel l i ngs . ph r a s e wh i c h i s

o fte n r e pe a ted i n the h i s to r i c a l bo o k s :

Th e

' E ver y m a n

und e r h i s v i n e a nd u n d e r h i s fig tre e ' h a s be c o m e a l m o s t pro ve r b i a l fo r th e p ea c e ful c o n d i t i o n s wh i c h th e I s r a e l i t e s enj o ye d d ur i n g th e

re i gn o f So l o m o n .

W h a t k i n d s o f gr a p e s w e r e ra i s e d i n th o s e d a y s c a n n o t , o f

c o u r s e , b e know n . It i s i m po s s ib l e t o d r aw a n y c o nc l u s i o n s f r o m pre s e nt - da y c o n d i t io n s .

S i n c e the m i d d l e a g e s Pa l e s ti n i a n w i ne h a s

been m ade fro m wh i te grap e s , but m uc h s e e m s to i n d i c a te tha t i n

B i bl i c a l

t i m e s th e l a rge r e d grape s w e r e grow n .

m e nt i o n ed ,

' th e

R e d gra pe

j u ic e i s

blo o d o f grape s ' ( Gn 4 9 . 1 1 ; D t 3 2 . 1 4 ; Pr 2 3 . 3 1 ; Is

63 . 2 ) .

To the s e O T texts m i gh t be added th e wo r d s o f J e s u s at

14. 20.

F u r th er , the wo r d s or e q i s de r i v e d from a ro o t w h i c h m e a n s

th e

La s t Supp e r , wh e n h e c o m pa re s b l o o d a n d w i n e ( Mt 2 6 . 2 7 ) , a n d Rv

' b r ight red ' .

Th e w in e m e n t i o n e d i n th e B i b l e w a s fe rm ented a nd c o nta i n e d a l c o ho l . Th e r e i s noth i n g to i nd i c a te th a t th e y k new h o w

to

keep

gra p e j u i c e u n fe r m e n te d by m e tho d s l ik e m o d e rn pa s te u r i z a t i o n .

W i tho u t s p ec i a l treatm e n t i t w o u l d no t h av e b e e n po s s ible t o k e e p t h e

j u i c e u n fe r m ented m o r e th a n o n e o r tw o da y s i n tha t c l i ma te .

the Bible

h a s m a n y w a r n i n gs a ga i n s t intox i c a t io n .

R E FE R E N C E S : ge phen:

C onsult a c on c ordance

zem orah:

Na 2. 2

Al s o ,

Nu 13 . 23 ; Is 1 7. 1 0; Ezk 1 5 . 2 ( and 8 . 1 7 ) ;

s a r igh: G n 4 0 . 10 , 12; J oe l l . 7 s o r e qah: Gn 4 9. 1 1

ke rem:

Cons ult a con cord ance

yayin : C onsult a c onc ord ance l)e m e r : Dt 3 2 . 14 ; Is 2 7 . 2 m as hqe h: me ans any k ind of d r ink , a butler o r a d r ink ing v e s s e l : Gn 40 . 2 , 5 , 9, 13 , 20 , 21 , 23 ; 4 1 . 9; Lv 1 1 . 3 4; 1 K 10. 5 , 21; 2 Ch 9. 4 , 20; Ne l . ll; Is 3 2 . 6 � o bh e ? : I s 1 . 2 2; H o 4 . 1 8; Na 1 . 1 0 Dt 2 9. 6; Jg 13 . 4 , 7, 14; she kh ar : Lv 10. 9; Nu 6 . 3 ; 28. 1 S 1 . 1 5 ; P s 6 9 . 1 2 ; _!3" 2 0 . 1 ; 3 1 . 6 ; I s 5 . 1 1 , 2 2; 2 4 . 9 ; 2 8 . 7; 2 9. 9; 5 6 . 1 2; M i 2 . 11

7;

[ 190 ]

sheme r : t i ro s h :

Ps 7 5 . 8; I s 2 5 . 6 ;

J c 4 8 . 1 1 ; Z eph

1 .12

G n 2 7 . 2 8 , 3 7 ; Nu 1 8 . 1 2 ; Dt 7 . 1 3 ; 1 1 . 1 4 ; l -1-. 2 3 ; J g, 9 . 1 3 ; 2 K 1 8 . 3 2 ; 2 C h 3 1 . .'1 ;

1 8 .4; 28.51 ; 33 . 28 ;

3 2 . 2 8 ; Ne 5 . 1 1 ; 1 0 . 3 7 , 3 9 ; l 3 . S , l 2 ; P s - L 7 ; P r

;Ll n ;

..

I s 24 . 7 ; 3 6. 1 7 ; 62 . 8 ; ]e 3 1 . 1 2 ; Ho 4 . 1 1 ; 7 . 1 4 ; 9 . 2 ;

J o e l l . l O ; 2 . 2 4 ; M i 6 . 1 5 ; Hg 1 . 1 1 ; Z e c h 9 . 1 7

SS 7 . 2

m e z eg : soreq :

] c 2 . 21 Gn 40. 1 0 ; Nu

Is 5 . 2 ;

') e s h k o l :

1 3 . 2 3 , 2 4 ; Dt 3 2 . .1 2 ; SS 1 . 1 4 ;

7 . 7 , 8 ; I s 65 . 8 ; M i 7 . 1 ' e n a bh : G n 4 0 . 1 0 , 1 1 ; 4 9 . 1 1 ; Lv 2 5 . S ; 1\:u 6 . 3 ; 1 3 . 2 0 , 2 :3 ; Dt 2 3 . 2 4 ; 3 2 . 1 4 , 3 2 ; Ne 1 3 . 1 5 ; I s 5 . 2 , 4 ; Je 8 . 1 3 ; Ho 3 . 1 ; 9 . 1 0 ; Am 9 . 1 3 o i no s : Mt 9 . 1 7 ; 2 7 . 3 4 ; Mk 2 . 2 2 ; 1 .5 . 2 .1 ; L k 1 . 1 5 ; 5 . 3 7 , 38; 7. 13; 10.34; .

J n 2 . 3 , 9 , 1 0 ; 4 . 4 6 ; R o 1 4 . 2 1 ; E ph 10; 1 6.19; 1 7 .2;

5 . 1 8 ; I Ti 3 . 8 ; 5 . 2 3 ; Rv 6 . 6 ; l 4 . K ,

18.3, 13; 19.15

A c 2 . 13

gl e u k o s : s i k era : bo t ru s :

Rv 1 4 . 1 8

s ta ph u l e :

D I F F I C U L T PASS AG ES :

Lk l . I S

Mt 7 . 1 6 ; L k 6 . 4 4 ; R v 1 4 . 1 8

Nu 1 3 . 2 3 .

z e m o ra h :

Tra v e l l e r s i n Pa l e s ­

t i n e have o ften expres s e d th e i r w o n d e r a t the s i z e a n d w eigh t o f t h e gra pe c l u s t e r s .

Neve rth el e s s , th e d e s c r i p t i on o f the c l u s t e r i n 1\: u

1 3 . 2 3 has c a u s e d s o m e c o m m e n t a to r s to th i n k o f a n o t h e r f ru i t , the ba na n a . Bu t i f ba n a na s had grow n i n th i s a re a , th e y wo u l d doubte dl y h a v e b e e n m e n t i o n e d e l s ew h e r e i n th e Bi bl e .

Ezk

8.17.

Th e t r a n s l a t i o n o f z e m o r a h :

e.

g.

un ­

In a l l o t h e r q u o t e d pa s ­ H e re th e

s a ge s th e wo r d i s tra n s l a ted ' a b ra n c h o r tw i g o f t h e v i n e ' . m e a n i ng i s d u b i o u s .

Th e w r i tten tex t i s o ft e n tra n s l a t e d : ' Th e y a r c

s t r e tc h i n g ( l i t e ra l l y , s en d i ng) o u t t h e bra n c h to th e i r no s e . '

to be un d e r s tood a s th e r i t u a l o f s o m e i do l a trous wo r s h i p .

Th i s i s

l11 e v e r b

sh a l a h w o ul d , however , n o t be a d e q u a te i n th i s c o n n ec t i o n , m ea n i n g No r d o e s th i s ge s tu r e , a m e r e d e t a i l i n a n a s i t do e s ' to s e nd o u t ' . i do l a t ro u s Pe r s i a n r i tua l , fi t Go d ' s e x t r e m e a n ge r ( v 1 8 ) . So m e mo d e rn t r a n s l a to r s ,

therefore ,

c o r rec t io n ) ' m y no s e '

adopt t h e rea d i ng o f t h e qere ( s c r i b a l

( i . e . G od ' s

n o s e ) i n s te a d o f ' the i r no s e ' , a n d

[ 191 ]

r en d e r th e w o r d z c m o ra h ' ba d o d o u r ' o r ' m al e o r ga n ' , i n d i c a t i n g a n

o b s c e n e ge s tu re .

So m e tran s l a to r s r e n d e r y a yi n i n G n 9 . 2 4 ; 1 S 1 . 1 4 ; ' ' d ru n k e n n e s s . � obhe ? :

Ho 4 . 1 8

=

25 . 3 7 as

d r unkenne s s or w i n e bi b be r s ( s ee

BOB).

1 . 1 0 : l i te r a l l y th e wo rd s m ean ' a n d l i ke th e i r d r u n k a r d d r u n k e n ' , i . e . d r u n k a c c o r d i n g to t h e i r n a t u re , o r , a l t o get h e r i n ­ to x i c a t e d wi th w i ne . S o m e tra n s l a to r s ma i n ta i n that the tex t i s c o r ­ rupt a nd th at th e s e wo r d s sho uld be o m itted a s a d itt ogr aphy ( se e OTTP, p 2 4 6 ) . Othe r s ( e . g . E l l i ge r ) in st ea d o f s ebh u ? i m r ea d le bh i ? im ( l i on s ) , re fe r r ing to the fo rego i ng ' th o r n s ' i n w h i c h th e w i l d a n i m a l s h i de ( J e 4 . 7). Na

For Mt 27. 34

and M k 1 5 . 23 see

Th e s ym bo l i s m o f th e

Gn 4 9 . 2 2 a n d E z k 1 9 . 1 0 :

MYRRH.

v i n e i s a ppa rent from s uc h pa s s a ge s

as

a s t r o n g a nd a c t i v e m a n o r wo m a n , who s e

l i fe h a s bee n fru i t fu l , c a n be c o m p a r ed w i th the v i n e .

In s o m e p l a c e s ( R u 2 . 1 4 ; Ps 69 . 21 ; Pr 1 0 . 2 6 ; Mk 1 5 . 3 6 a n d pa rallel s ) t h e B i bl e m e n t i o n s a s o u r d r i n k , Hb � o m e t s , Gk ox o s , w h i c h i s s o m e t i m e s tra n s l a ted ' v i negar ' . It i s s up po s ed that th i s d r i nk wa s m a d e by m a k i ng th e grape j u ic e fe r m e n t a r t i fi c i a l l y , fo r

Vinegar

It m a y a l s o b e th at a ge r m o f t h e ac eto ­ M i x e d w i t h w a t e r i t wa s a pop ul a r d r i n k a m o n g soldie rs a n d wo r k m e n ( La tin p o s c a ) , a s i t wa s c h e a p e r th a n w i n e , a n d goo d fo r q u e nc h i n g th i r s t . W i t ho u t wa ter i t wo u l d b e v e r y s t ro n g a nd i n to x i c a ti n g, a n d c o ul d even c a u s e unc o n ­ s c i o us ne s s . i n s ta n c e by a d d i n g ba rl e y .

bac t e r fa m i l y wa s k n o w n i n th o s e d a y s .

Walnut Hebrew :

Jugla ns r e g i a ? e gh o z

DESC R IPTI O N: The ' ga r d e n o f nu t s ' ( AV) o r ' n u t o r c h a r d ' ( RSV) now ge n e r a l l y c o n s i de r e d to b e a ga r d e n o f w a l nu t t r e e s .

i s n ative to P e r s i a and We s tern As ia . It i s v e r y i t w a s grown i n the o r c h a r d s o f t h e r i c h i n Bibl i c a l

Th e wa l n u t tree

p r o ba b l e th a t

is

[ 192 ]

tim e s . Jo s ephus rec o r d s the w i de s p r e a d c ul t ivation o f w a l n u t trees in Pal e s tine in his day. It i s a handsome tre e w i th a broad c rown a nd fre s h green oval l eaves wh ich o ffe r welc o m e s hade a n d a n agreea ble fra gra n c e . The fru its a re n u t s , covered b y a thick r i n d wh ich yiel d s a b rown dye .

RE F E R E NC E : SS 6 . 1 1

d

Walnut

(Juglans regia)

twig with young fruit b. twig with male and female flowers c . fruit cut through d. walnut

a.

[ 193 ]

Weeds

Lo l i u m

( te m ul e ntum )

Greek : z iz a n i o n DESC R IPTION: Lo l i um t e m u l e n tu m i s a n a n n ua l pl ant, 5 0 t o 1 0 0 e m a n e re c t s te m bea r i ng fi v e to s ev e n l eave s . Befo r e i t b e a r s fr u i t Lo l i u m i s al m o s t i n d i s t i n gu i s h a bl e fro m wh ea t , a m o n g wh i c h i t o ft e n grow s a s a w e ed . Onl y when th e two c o m e i n to ea r c a n t h e y be d i s t i n gu i s hed. h i gh w i th

/

a

d

Weed a.

c.

(Lolium temulentum)

& b . Lol i u m tc m u l e n t u m

& d. barley ( H orde u m vulgare)

[ 194 ]

I t i s h a rd l y p o s s i bl e to

weed a

wh e a tf i e l d a n d

get i t fre e fr om

Lo l iu m , a s th e roo t s o f bo th gr a s s e s w il l be e n t a n gl e d . Th u s th e pa rabl e s a y s ( M t 1 3 . 29 ) : " No , l e s t i n t,ld. th e r i n g th e w e e d s yo u root u p t h e whea t alo n g w i th th e m .

h o u s e h o l d e r i n th e

·•

Lol i u m s ee d r e ta i n s i t s ge r m i na ti o n c ap a c i t y fo r s e v e ra l y e a r s , s u d d e nl y appea r i n s u c h q uan ­ t i t i e s t h a t the po o r fa r m e r bel i ev e s tha t h i s wh e a t ha s c h a n ged i n to wee d s . Hea vy r a i n fa l l fu r th e r s th e grow th of Lo l i u m bu t s l o w s 1l 1 e fa r m e r m i gh t l e t t h e two grow to geth e r down tha t o f w h e a t . u n t i l h a rve s t , when th e w e e d wa s s e p a rate d a n d bo u nd i n b u nd l e s ; o r he m i gh t u s e a s t r a i n e r a fte r t h e th r e s h i n g, b e c au s e the gra i n o f th e weed i s s m a l l e r tha n th a t o f th e wh e a t . It wa s n ec e s s a r y to be o n gua r d a ga i n s t Lo l ium , bec a u s e it i s po i so no u s . so

th a t i n r a i n y s ea s o n s th e w e ed m a y

A V a nd R V tra n s l a t e a s ' ta r e s ' ; J B a n d N E B a s ' da rnel ' .

R E F E R E NC E S :

M t 1 3 . 2 5 , 2 6 , 2 7 , 2 9 , 3 0 , 3 6 , 3 8 , 40

O I F F IC U L T PASS A G E : KB q uo te s Dalm a n who s u gge s t s th a t bo 'l sh ah i n Job 3 1 . 4 0 ( ' fo ul wee d s ' ) be u n de r s to o d as Lo lium t e m u l e n tum . ( N ot e the m i spr int in K B , p 1 0 6 : S o l i u m t e m u l e n tu m s hould be Lo l ium t e ­ Li sows k y r epea t s KB ' s m i s ta k e . ) m ul entum .

Wheat

Tr i t i c u m

Hebrew : � i tta h

� s tivum a nd Tr i t i c u m c o mpo s itum Gre ek : s ito s , a l e u ro n , s em idalis

DESC R IPTION : Wh ea t i s o ne o f th e o l de s t c ul t i va ted pl a n t s i n t h e wo r l d . It h a s been fou n d i n p re h i s to r ic s i te s by the Sw i s s l a k e s a nd in E gypti a n to m b s , a n d i s known to h ave been cul tiva ted i n M e s o p o ­ ta m ia and Pal e s t i n e . d i ffe r en t k i n d s o f wheat , a t l e a s t tw o a r e m entio ned i n th e Bibl e , T r i t i c u m � s tiv um a n d Tr. c o m po s i t u m ; th e fo r m e r i s th e c o m m o nl y known pre s e nt - day k i n d , a n d the l a tter i s the E gyp t i a n ' m um m y ' wheat with s even e a rs , the one mentioned A mo n g t h e s ev e r a l

i n Ph a ro a h ' s drea m ( Gn 4 1 . 5 ) . Wh e a t is u s u a l l y m e n t i o n e d fi r s t a m o n g t h e r e s o u r c e s o f a c o un tr y ( Dt 8 . 8 ; E z k 4 . 9 ) . Afte r n o m a d i c l i fe h a d

[ 195 ]

a.

Wheat (Triticum mstivum)

& b. spike from different angles c. spikelet d. part of stem with leaf e. seed

end ed w i t h Saul a n d Dav i d , a gr i c u l tu r e devel ope d a n d wh e a t be c a m e a n expo r t (l K 5 . 1 1 ) .

In Pales tine wheat i s sown i n Dec e m be r , s o m e w ee k s a fte r ba r ­ and wheat h a rves t i s a week o r two later than ba rley ha rv e s t The t i m e , Ap ril at earl i e s t , d e p e n d s o n the tempe ratu re a nd c l imate of the r egi o n

ley,

.

.

In

the pa rabl e of th e s o w e r

go o d s o i l

having a yield u p

Je s u s

spe a k s of s e ed wh i c h fel l o n

to a h undredfo l d .

r

19 6 1

Th i s i s no exa g gera tio n

a l th o u gh

it i s not th e rul e . It h a s be e n s ta te d , howev e r , tha t o ne s e e d c a n yield up to a h u n d re d a n d fi fty g ra i n s .

R E F E R E NC E S :

l;l i ttah : Con s u l t a conc o rd a n c e s i to s :

Mt 3 . 1 2 ; 1 3 . 2 5 , 2 9 , 3 0 ; Mk 4 . 2 8 ; Lk 3 . 1 7 ; 1 2 . 1 R ;

1 6 . 7 ; 2 2 . 3 1 ; J n 1 2 . 24 ; Ac ts 2 7 . 3 8 ;

1 8 .1 3 .

1 Co 1 5 . 3 7 ; R v 6 . 6 ;

The d i m i n u t i v e s i ti o n i s fo u n d i n A c 7 . 1 2

( s o m e s c ho l a r s rea d s ita i n s tead o f s it i a ) .

al euron ' m eal ' (made o f w h e a t ) : Mt 1 3 3 3 ; Lk 1 3 . 2 1 s e m i d a l i s ' fi n e fl o u r ' , the fi ne s t gra de o f wh ea t fl o u r : Rv 1 8 . 1 3 .

noted tha t i n M k 4 . 2 8 a n d Lk 1 2 . 1 8 s i t o s i s r e ndered ' gra i n ' ( i n ge ne ra l ) by m o s t tra n s l a t o r s . DIF F I C U L T PAS S AG E S :

I t s h o u l d be

Wormwood

( Artemisia arborescens) [ 197 ]

Wormwood Heb rew :

Artem i s i a j u da i c a Greek :

la ' anah

D E S C R IPTIO N :

a p s i n tho s ,

c ho l e

A p l a n t o f the ge n u s a r tem i s i a , w h i c h m a y grow to

th e s iz e o f a bu s h .

Th ere a r e s ev e r a l s p e c i e s a nd v ar iet ie s .

A rte m i ­

s i a j u d a i c a i s n a ti v e t o Pa l e s t in e ; i ts m a i n s t e m h a s s i d e s ho o t s c o v ­ e r e d w i th s m a l l wool l y gre e n l e av e s .

Th e j u i c e o f th e l e ave s h a s a

b i t t e r ta s te a n d m a y , i f d r un k u nm ixed , be nox i o u s , but m i x e d i n th e r i gh t propo r tio n s i t c a n be a u s e ful m e d i c i ne .

In s o m e pa s s a ge s

wo r m wo o d s ym bo l i z e s Go d ' s pun i s h m en t, o r s u ffe r i n g a n d s o rrow . R E F E R E NC E S :

la ' anah :

Dt 2 9 . 1 8 ;

Pr .S . 4 ;

J e 9 . 1 5 ; 2 3 . 1 5 ; La 3 . 1 5 , 1 9 ;

Am o s 5 . 7 ; 6 . 1 2 Rv 8 . 1 1 c h o l e : M t 2 7 . 3 4 c f A c 8 . 23 ap s i ntho s :

D I F F IC U LT PAS S A G E S :

LXX tra n s l a t e s l a ' a na h ' ga l l ' ( G k c hol � ) i n

La 3 . 1 5 a nd P r 5 . 4 ; b u t a l s o u s e s t h e wo rd ' ga l l ' t o tra n s l a te ro ? s h

i n D t 2 9 . 1 8 , Ps 69 . 21 ( ro ? s h i s a n u n i de n t i fi e d po i s o no u s pl a n t , s e e POIS ON) .

It t h e r e fo r e m a y b e j u s t i fi a b l e t o tra n s l a te c h o l e i n M t ---

2 7 . 3 4 ' wo rmwo o d ' .

[ 198 ]

Bi bliography Arndt, Will iam F . , a n d G i n gric h , F . W i l b u r .

A Gree k - E n gl i s h Le x i c o n o f the

New Te s ta m en t a n d Oth e r Early C h r i s t i a n L i te ra tu r e . Ch ic ago Pre s s , 1 9 5 7 .

Av i ga d , Berl i n ge r a nd S i l be r s te i n .

C a r m e l Flowe r s .

Ch ic a go :

Ha i fa :

Educa tion , 1964 . Ba re, Ga rl a n d . Bentz e n , Agge .

Lo ndo n :

Ha ndbag i K r i s tendo m s kundka b .

C openh a ge n :

------- ---.

Hebrii. i s c h e Arc hii.olo g i e .

Be rtho l e t , A.

C . B . Moh r , 1 8 9 9 .

" Le v i t ic u s " i n Ku rzcr Hand - Ko m m entar z u m Al t e n Te s ta m e n t .

Tti b i ngen : Bodenh e i m e r ,

J . C . B. Moh r , 1 9 0 1 . F. S.

A n i m a l a n d M a n i n B i b l e La n d s .

Bra tc h e r , Robe rt G. , a n d Nida , Euge n e A . pel of Ma r k .

Leiden :

E . J . B r i l l , 1 9 61 .

Le i d e n :

O x ford :

Lex i c o n o f t h e O l d Te s ta m e n t . Bud de, Ka r l .

E . J . B r il l , 1 9 60 .

A Tra n s l a to r ' s Ha ndbook o n th e Go s ­

Brow n , Franc i s ; Drive r , S . R . , a nd Br i ggs , C h a r l e s A .

A Hebrew a n d E n gl i s h

C l a r e n d o n Pr e s s , 1 9 5 9 .

" S a m ue l " a n d " S o n g of Solo m o n " in Kurzer Hand - Kom m e n ta r

Al ten Te s ta m e n t . Buh l ,

M un k s ga a r d , 1 9 4 2 .

L e ipz i g : Edua rd Pfe i ffe r , 1 9 2 7 .

" Ki ngs " in K u rz e r Han d - Kom m e nta r z u m Al ten Te s ta m e nt . F re i -

bur g : J .

F. P. W.

v a n Bu ren,

Depa r t m e n t o f

Un i ted B i b l e Soc i e t i e s ,

Pl a n ts and A n i m a l s of the Bibl e .

1969 . Benz i n ge r , Im m a n ue l .

Un i v . of

J e s aj a .

E . D.

Tub i n ge n :

C openhage n :

Gyl denda l s k e Bo ghandel , 1 9 1 2 .

Th e Fa una o f Anc i e n t Me sopo ta m ia a s R e p r e s e n ted i n Art. Vol .

1 8 o f Ana l ec ta O r i e ntal ia .

Rom e :

193 8 .

Cheyne , T. K . " Is a i ah " i n Th e Pol yc h r o m e Bibl e .

Dalm a n , G. H.

zum

J . C . B . Moh r , 1 9 0 2 a n d 1 8 9 8 .

Arbe i t un d S i tte in Pa H i s t i na .

Leipz i g :

G u t e r s lo h :

J . C . H i n r ic h s , 1 8 99 .

C . Bertel s m a n n , 1 9 2 8 -

1 9 64 . Dav i s , J o h n D. , and Gehm a n , H . S . delph ia :

Driver, S . R .

Wes tm i n s te r Dictionary of t h e Bibl e .

W e s tm i n s te r Pr e s s , 1 9 4 4 . " Le v i tic u s " i n Th e Po l ychrom e Bibl e .

1 89 8 .

Duhm , Be r nh a rd . b i n gen :

J.

Le ipz i g : J. C . H i nri c h s ,

"Job" i n K u r z e r Hand - Kom m e n ta r z u m Al ten Te s t a m e n t .

C . B. Moh r , 1 8 9 7 .

Eps tei n , Wilhel m .

Ph i l a ­

D i e M e d iz i n i m A1ten Te s ta m e n t .

Edgec o m b e , Winnie S .

S tuttga r t :

Til ­

F . E n ke, 1 9 01 .

Som e Maj o r Wee d s o f t h e No rth Beka ' a . Be irut : A m e r i c a n

Un ive rs ity, 1 9 5 9 . Ell iger, K . "Jo b " in Da s Al te Tes ta m en t Deuts c h . GOttinge n : 1 9 5 1 . Feil ber g, C . G . L a Te nte No ire . Copenhage n : Natio na1mu saeets S k r i ft e r , 1 9 4 4 .

Fev eik, Joh a nn e s . J¢de1a nd paa Jesu tid . Copenhage n : P. Ha a s e og S o n , 1 9 4 8 . Fah re r , Georg. Vol . XVI of K o m m entar z u m Al ten Te sta m e n t . Giite r s lohe : Verlags h a u s , 1 9 63 .

[ 1 99 ]

---------" Ezekiel " in Ha ndbuc h zum Al ten Tes tament. Thbinge n : J. C . B . Moh r, 19 5 5 . Galling, Kurt. Biblisches Reallexiko n . Tilbinge n : J . C . B . Mohr, 1 9 3 7 . Geseniu s , Wilhel m. Hebra i s c hes und Arlimaisches Worte rbuc h zum Alten Te s tament. Berl in : Springer Ve rlag, 1 9 5 4 . Hastings , Ja m e s . Dic tionary of the Bibl e. Revi s e d . Edinburgh : T. & T. Clark, 1 9 6 3 . Hauc k , D. F . " Luke " in Th eologischer Handko m m entar zum Neuen Te stament. Le ipz ig : 1 9 3 4 . Hehn, Vic tor . Kulturpflanzen und Hau s thi ere. Berl in : Gebrtider Bo rntraeger , 1894.

Herner, Sven. Di e Natur im Al ten Tes tament. Lund : 1 9 4 0 . Hertzberg, H. W . Samuel I & II, a Commentary. Londo n : S . C . M. Pres s , 1 9 6 4 . Hj erl - Hans e n , B. Kapernaum. Copenhagen : 1 9 4 0 . The Interprete r ' s Dictionary of the Bible, 4 vol s . New York : Abingdon Pres s , 1962.

Kautz s c h , E . (ed . ), Die Heil ige Schri ft des Al ten Tes taments . Ttibi ngen : J. C . B. Moh r, 1 9 2 2 . King, Eleano r . Pla nts of the Holy Sc ripture s . New York : N. Y . Bo tanic al Gar ­ den, 1 9 4 8 . Kinzler, A . Bibl ische Naturge s c h ichte . 1 9 0 2 . Koehler, Ludw ig, a nd Baum gartner, Walter. Lexicon in Veteris Te s tam enti Libro s . Leiden : E . J . Brill, 1 9 5 8 . Lewysohn, Ludwig. Zoologi e des Talm uds . Frankfurt - am - Main : J . Baer, 1 8 5 8 . Lisows ky, Ge rhard. Konkordanz zum Hebra ischen Alten Te stament. Stuttgart: WUrttembergische Bibela n s talt, 1 9 5 8 . Low, I. Die Flora der Juden, I - I V . Vienna : Verlagder Kohut Fo unda tio n, 1 9 3 4 . Mac Kay, Ala s tair I . Fa rming a nd Gardening in the Bibl e . Emma u s , Pa . : Roda l e Pre s s , 1 9 5 0 . Meis sner, Bruno . Babylonien und As syrien. Heidelberg: C . Winter, 1 9 2 0 - 1 9 2 5 . Moldenke, H. N. a n d A. L . Plants of the Bibl e . New York : Ronald Pre s s C o . , 1952.

Moortgat, An ton . Vordera s iatische rol l s iege l . Berlin : Gebr . Mann , 1 9 4 0 . Noth , Martin. The Ol d Tes tament Wo rl d. Lo n d o n : Blac k, 1 9 6 6 . - --Exodus , a Com m entary. Londo n : S . C . M. Pre s s , 1 9 6 2 . - - - - - - - - - - . Lev itic u s , a Commenta ry. Londo n : S . C . M. Pre s s , 1 9 6 5 . - - - - - - - - - - . Num be rs , a Commenta ry. Londo n : S . C . M. Pre s s , 1 9 6 8 . Olsen, H. , a n d Ma dsen, H. Inve stigation on Pseudo - Rumination i n Rabbits . 1 9 4 0 . Pa rm elee, A. All the Birds of the Bible. Londo n : Lutterwo rth Pre s s , 1 9 6 0 . Paterson, A . Palace of Sennacherib. The Hague : 1 9 1 5 . Pederson, J . Is rael , Its Life and C ulture, vol s . I - IV. Oxfo rd : The Univer s i ty Pre s s , 1 9 4 7 . Peterson, W. W. Da s Tier im Alten Tes tament. 1 9 2 8 . - - -

-

-

[ 200 ]

Po st, G. E .

Flora of Syri a , Pal e s tine and S i n a i . Be irut: Am erica n Pre s s , 1 9 3 2 . " Genes i s " i n Kom m entar z um Al ten Te s tament. Le ipz ig: A . Deichert, 1 9 2 4 . Reicke, Bo ; and Rost, Leona rd. Bibl i sc h - H i s to r i s c h e s Handwo rterbuc h . GOt­ t inge n : Va nderhoec k & Ruprec ht , 1 9 6 2 . Riehm , E . K. A. Handwo rte rbu c h de s bibl i s c h e n Al tertum s . Biele feld und Le ipz i g : Velhagen & Kl a s i ng, 1 8 9 3 . Ro binson, T . H . "Jonah" i n Ha ndbuch zum Al ten Tes ta m ent. Ttib ingen, J . C . B. Mohr, 1 9 6 4 . Rudolph , W . " Ruth , " " Song o f Solomon , " and " Lam enta tio n s " i n Ko m m enta r z um Alten Te s ta m ent. Gute r s l oh : Gerd Moh n, 1 9 6 2 . Schmoller, Alfred. Ha ndkonkordanz zum griec h i s c hen Neuen Te s ta m ent. Stu tt ga rt : Wii rt t em b e r gi s c h e Bibe l a n d s talt, 1 9 5 8 . Schneller, L. Kender d u Landet. C openha ge n : Schonbe rgs ke Forlag, 1 9 2 3 . Smith , J . B ib l e Pl ants . 1 8 7 8 . Stave , E ri k. Is rael i helg och soc ke n, I II. Upp s a l a : Lendbla d , 1919 . Strac k, Herm ann L. , and Billerbec k , Pa ul . Kom menta r zum N. T. aus Talmud und Midrasch. Mun ich : Bec k , 1 9 2 2 . Tri stram , H . B . Th e Fauna a n d Flora o f Pa les tine. Lo ndo n : The Co m m ittee of the Pal e stine Expl oration Fund, 1 8 8 4 . Vol z , Paul . "Jeremiah " i n Ko m m entar z um Al ten Testament. Leipz ig: A. Dei Proc k s c h , Otto .

-

c h e rt, 1 9 2 8 .

Walker, W . Al l the Plants o f th e Bible . Londo n : Lutterworth Pre s s , 1 9 5 8 . Ward, J . Seal Cylinders o f Western As i a . London : 1 9 1 0 . Weis er, Artur. "Job" in Das Alte Te s tam ent Deuts ch. GOttingen : Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1 9 5 6 . Wellhau s e n , Jul ius . " Ps al m s " i n The Polyc hrome Bibl e . Le ipz ig: J . C. Henrichs , 1904.

W oolley D . L . Ur Excava tion s , I - I II . Lo ndon : Briti s h Mus e u m , 1 9 3 6 - 1 9 6 4 . Zahn, Theodor . Da s Eva ngelium des Matthau s . Le ipzig: A. De ichert, 1 9 1 0 . ,

[ 20 1 }

I ndex of E nglish and Latin Term s ac a c ia 8 7 - 8 8

a rte m i s ia 1.'37

A cac ia

A rte m i s i a a r bore s c e n s

r add ia n a 8 7

A c c ipiter

nisus

A . judaica 198 Arund o d o nax 1 7 1 , 1 7 2

40

A c e t o ba c t e r 1 9 2

A c r id i i d ac 5 3 add e r 7 2 Ae l le n ia

1 97 ;

a s h t re e 1 3 4

5 9; A . orus 24 , 25 , 7 1

A s io fla m m e u s

autrani 1 8 8

A fr ic a n a 96

a s p 72 , 78

Agam id ae 52

a spe n 145

a sphod e l 1 5 1 a s s 5 - 7 , 44 A s t r agu lu s t ragacant h a 1 77 ,

A iluroph i s v iv ax 72 A le ppo pine 1 6 2 - 1 6 4 a l gu m 8 8

ccpa 1 5 8 , 1 5 9 ; A. po r rum 1 5 9 , 160; A. s a t ivum 1 5 9 , 1 6 0 almond 8 9- 90 almug 8 8

178

A l l iu m

Athene noctua 1 6 , 5 1

Atr iplcx h a l i m u s 1 3 6 , 13 7 ,

1 70 , 1 7 1 a u r oc h s 63

a l oe s 90 - 9 1 , 104 , 1 0 5

A l oe su c c ot r ina 90, 9 1

A m m op e r d ix hcv i 64

A m ygda l u s c o m m u n i s

ba boon

89

A nastat i c a h ie rochunt i c a 1 S 7

Andr opogon c a l a m u s a r om a t icu s 1 73

anem one 1 3 5

A ne m one c o r o n a r ia 13 4 ,

box

t re e

95 , l l S

b r a m ble 1 ll 4

Brant a r u fi c u l l u s 3 8 , 3 9

n igra 1 4 5 , 1 4 6 br ie r 1 8 4 , 1 8 6 broad be an 9 7 br oad - t a i l ed s h e e p 75 broom !DO Bras s i c a

Bru t i a n p ine 1 64 - 1 65

Bubo a s c a l a phu s 24 , 2 5 buc k 3 6 bu ff- bac ke d

bu l l 6 2 , 6 3 bu l r u s h 1 7 1

he ron 4 1

Bu r s c r a c c a e

bu s t a rd 66

4

ba d ge r 2 2 , 6 9 - 70

Bala n ite s ae gypt iac a 93 , 94 ba l s am , balm 9.3 - 95 , 1 4 5 , 1 7 7- 1 7 8

banana

n. c a r t e r i i 1 2 1

Botau ru s s t e l l a r i s 6 6

191

ba rley 95 - 96 , 1 9 2 , 1 94

ba rn ow l 1 5 , 1 6 , 6 1

14 7

But <.: o fc rox 4 0 But h u s q u i nque st r iat u s 70 But o m u s u m be l l a t u s 1 2 5 , 1 2 6 Bu x u s longifo l ia 9 9 , 1 0 0 , 1 1 5

bu z z ard 4 0

64; 5, 6 4

C a c c a b i s c h uk a r C.

s in a i c a

135 , 136

bas i l i s k 7 2

C a c h ry s gon ioca rpa

bat 7 - 8

calf 62

117

bay t re e 1 3 3 - 1 3 4

Ane t h u m grave o l e n s 1 1 6 , an i se ,

ant 1

a n bced 1 1 7

2 - 3 , :3 8 , 4 6 , 63 Anthe m i s p a l a c s t ina 1 3 4 ,

ante lope

136

A n t i l ope

ape 4

addax 2

be a n 9 7 be a r 8 - 9 be a rded vu l t u re 8.3 , 84

bee 1 0 - 1 1

be e - c a t e r

be e t le 5 4

Apis fa s c ia t a 1 0 app le

lxle l l i u m 1 96

24 , 25

1 1 - 12 of prey 1 2

behe m ot h

9 2 - 93

bird s

apr icot 92

B it i s v a r ie t an s 7 2

Aqu i la c h ry s a e t u s 8 2 ,

bitt e r apple s 1 2 4

Aqu i l a r ia a ga l l ocha 90

bitte rn 6 6

83 , 84; A . h e l i a c a 83 , 84

Arac lm id a 70 , 78 A ranca 78

Ardeabubu l c u s 4 1 ; A . c in ­ e re a 4 1 ; A . pu rpti"rC"a4i A r r i an ' s v u lt u re ar row snake

4 , 62

84

bitt e r he r bs 9 8 , 9 9

bla c k c u m m in 1 1 7 , 1 5 3 - 1 5 4

bla c k m u l be rry 1 4 5 bla c k s t o r k 7 9 bla c k v u l t u re 84

Bos 6 2 , 63

BoSwe llia

12 1 , 122;

[

2 03

l

188

came 1 6 , 1 .3 - 1 4 Ca m e lu s ba c t r i a n u s 13 , 1 4 ; C . d r omed a r iu s 1 .3 , 1 4 c a m om i le 1 .3 6

c a m p h ire , c a m ph o r 1 2 7 C an i s a u rc u s 3 1 ; C. fam i l ia r i s 2 1 ; C . lupus 85 cape r p l a n t 1 0 2 Cappar i s s i cula 1 0 2 ; C . s p in o s a 1 0 2 Capra bede n 4 6 ; C . h i r cu s m a m br k a 3 6 , .3 7; C . i be x nubiana

C

a�

4 6, 4 7

--­

c ap re o l u s

20

C a p r im u lgu s e u r opae u s

car ob 2 4 , 5 4 , 1 03 - 1 0 4

c a rpet v ipe r 72

59

C a r t h a m u s t in c t o r i u s 1 74 ,

1 75

du ng beet le 5 4

c oc k le 60

cas sia 104- 105 , 1 0 9 C a s s ia obova ta 1 86

Columba I iv i a 23

C om m i ph o r a 96; C. m y r r h a

c a st or be an , c a s t o r o i l

1 4 7; C . opoba l s am u m 93 ,

p l ant 1 0 6 - 1 0 7

1 4 7 , 1 77 , 1 78

cate rpillar 5 3 , 5 4 catta il 1 7 1

c oney 69- 70 Conium m a c u l atum

c o r iand e r 1 1 0 - 1 1 1

Ced ru s l ibani 1 0 7 , 1 0 8 Ce ntaure a 9 9 , 1 8 4

c o r m o r ant 1 8 , 1 9 , 4 1 , 6 1

C orv id ae 6 7 , 68

C erasteS c o rnu t a

Cotm·n ix c otu r n ix 6 6 ,

72

Ce ratonia s i l i qu a 10.3

Ce r c op ithe c u s py r r h on ot u s

4

E c h is c o l o r at a 7 2

E l a e gn u s angu st ifolia 1 5 6 ,

158

e l m 165

c ott on 1 1 1 - 1 1 2

Ce ntropus aegypt icu s s he l l e y 3 9

16 7, 168

C o r i andru m sat ivum 1 1 0

1 3 4 , 1 63

24 , 6 0 , 6 1 90 e a r owl 2 4 e bony 1 1 7 e aglewood

cattle 6 2 - 6 .3 ,

75 ceda r 9 9 , 1 0 7 , 10 8 , 1 1 6 , 1 3 0 ,

e a gle 8 2 - 85

e a gle ow l

c ow 6 2 - 63 crane 1 9 , 20

67

c r icket 53

end ive 9 8

E q u u s a s in us 5 ; E . a . m u lu s 5 7 , 5 8 ; E . c a b a l l u s 43 , 4 4 ;

E . h e m ion u s 5 , 6 4

Eryx j a c u l u s

c r o c od ile 1 2 , 5 2 , 74

E uph rate s p op u l ar 1 70

Chamae l e o v u l ga r i s 15 , 1 6

c r o c u s 1 5 1 , 1 74

falcon 4 0 , 5 9

c h am o is 76

cucum be r 1 1 2 - 1 13

Ce rv i d a e 2 0 Ce rv u s e la p h u s 20 c h am e l e on ,

che e t a h

1 5 , 1 6 , 5 2 , 55

49

chestnut 1 6 7

C r o c u s s a t iv u s 1 74 , 1 75 c u c k oo 3 9 , 7 1

Cucu m i s chate ( m e l o ) 1 1 2 ,

1 1 3 ; C . s a t ivu s 1 1 3

c h i ck e n 1 6 - 1 7 , 3 9

Cu c u r bit a p c p o 1 0 6

chick pe a 1 5 2

cu lex 3 5

c h i c o ry 9 8 C h i r opt e ra 7 , 8 Chrom i s n ilot i c a 2 7 Cicer a r iet inum 1 5 2

cym imum 1 1 4 , 1 1 7

1 14- 1 1 5 , 1 1 7 , 153

Cupre s s u s sempe r v i r e n s

1 15 , 1 1 6 , 1 2 3 Cynomor ium 1 0 1

C iconia a l ba 7 8 , 7 9;

c yp r e s s 9 9 , l 0 9 , 1 1 5 - 1 1 6 ,

C in n a m omum ca s s ia 104, 1 0 9 ;

C yp s e Iu s a pi; ..; 80

C . n igr a 78

C . zey lan i c u rn 1 0 8 , 1 0 9

c in nam o n 104 , 1 0 8- 1 0 9 C irc a e t u s g al l i cu s 8 4

C ir c u s spp. 4 0 C i stu s l adanife r u s 1 4 8; C.

C.

s a lv i fo l i u s 1 4 7 , 1 4 9 , 1 7 8 ;

sp, 60 r o se 1 4 9 , 1 7 8

c i s tu s

c itron 1 09- 1 1 0

C itru llu s c ol o c ynt h i s 1 24 ; C . vu l garis 1 4 0 , 1 4 1

c obra 7 2

Coccu s ilicu s 86; C . m a nn iparus 1 4 0

c o c h ine a l 8 6

cock 1 6 - 1 7 c o c k at r i ce 7 2

C ype r u s

Fe lis le o 5 0;

F. p ardu s 4 8 , 4 9

Fe rula galban i flu a

149

papy rus 1 7 1 , 1 72

1 23 , 1 2 8 , l n.3 , 1 64

Daboia xant h in a 7 2

s y c om o ru s 1 7 9 , 1 80

fig 1 1 8- 1 1 9 , 1 8 1 fir 1 3 4 , 1 64 , 1 65

fis h 2 7 - 2 8

fi she r ow l 1 8 , 6 1

fit ch 1 5 3

n ax 1 1 9 - 1 2 1 fle a 2 9

D a m a m e s opot a m i c a 2 0 , 2 6

fly 3 0 , 3 3

d a r ne l 1 95

fr ank inc e n s e

date p a lm 1 6 1

frog 3 2 , 3 3

deer 20, 26

fu r ze 1 00

d e s e r t ow l 6 0 , 6 1 , 65

g ad fly 3 3

d a nd e l i on 9 8

De lphinid ae 2 2

d il l 1 1 6 , 1 1 7 ' 1 5 3

D i os py r o s e be num 1 1 7 , 1 1 8

1 2 2 , 123 ,

F i c u s c a r i c a 1 1 8 , 1 1 9; F.

Cichorium e n d iv i a 9 8 ;

C . in ty bu s 9 8

40; F. t in nu n c u l u s 40 fallow deer 2 0 , 2 6

fe nne l l l 7 , 1 5 4

Cuiii'Im u m cu m m in

F a l c o pe r e gr inu s

fox 3 1 - 3 2

12 1- 122

ga lb an u m 1 2 2 , 1 2 3 , 1 4 9

ga l l 1 6 7 - 1 6 8 , 1 6 9 , 1 9 8

d og 2 1 - 2 2

G a l l u s d om e sticu s 1 6 , 1 7

d on k e y 5

Gazella

d olph in 2 2

ga r l i c 1 5 9 - 1 60

d o v e 23 - 2 4 , 80

a r a bi ca 3 3 ; G . dorca s 3 3 , 3 4

dromedary 1 3 , 1 4

gaze lle 3 3 - 3 4

Dugong d u gong

ge c k o 3 4 , 3 5 , 5 2

[

22

204

]

G lad i o lu s byzant inu s 1 3 4 , 1 3 6

gn at 1 4 , 3 5 - 3 6

goat 20 , 2 2 , 3 6- 3 8 , 4 6 , 63 , 75 ,

H ordeum d i s t i c h on 95

Le p id opt e r a 5 5

h o rne t 1 0 , 43

Leva nt c ot t on 1 1 1 - 1 1 2 le v ia t h a n 7 2 , 73

h orned ow l 1 9 , 6 1 , 65

horse 5 , 6 , 1 7 , 43 - 4 5 , 5 8 , 63

76 goat su c ke r 60

Hyaena st riata 4 5

g o lden e a g le 83 , 84

h y e n a 3 2 , 45 - 4 6

goo s e 3 8 , 3 9 goph e r 1 23

G o s s yp i u m arboreum 1 1 2 ; G.

he r bac eum

111

gourd 1 0 6 , 1 2 4 - 1 2 5

Gram ineae 1 2 5 g r apev ine 1 8 8 - 1 9 2

gr a s s 1 25 - 1 2 6 , 1 60 gra s s h o p pe r 5 3 - 5 4

gr e a t l i z ard 5 2

gr iffo n vulture 8 4

G ru s

g ru s

19

guenon 4

gu ine a hen 3 9

gu l l 6 1 , 7 1

Gund e l i a tournefor t i i 1 8 7 , 188

Gy p aet u s barbatu s 8 2 , 83 Gyps fu lv u s 8 2 , 8 4

l ign a l oe s 90 Lilith 5 9

Hyr ac oidea 69

L i l i u m c and id um 1 3 4 , 1 3 5 ;

L. chalcc don icum 1 3 4 , 1 :3 5

h y r ax 70

h y s s op 1 2 9 , 1 3 0

l i ly 1 3 4 - 1 3 6

H y s t r ix c r i s t a t a 6 6

Lim n at i s

n i l ot i ca

47, 48

L in u m u s it at i � � im u m 1 1 9 ,

ibex 3 , 4 6 - 4 7

1 20

ibis 1 6 , 25 , 4 1 , 6 1

ilex 1 2 8 impe r i a l e a g le 83 , 84

l ion 9, 5 0- 5 1 , 1 92 l i t t l e ow l 1 6 , 5 1 - 5 2 , 6 1 l i z ard 1 5 , 1 6 , 3 4 , 3 5 , 5 2 , 7 8

ivy 1 0 6

l o cu � t 5 3 - 5 4 , 104

j a c k a l 3 1 , 3 2 , 5 1 , 74

lo cu s t be a n 2 4 , 1 0 4

Locu sta v i r id is s im a 5.3

gre at ow l 6 1

gr e y h ound 1 7

L e pu s s y r i a c u s 3 9, 40

j e r boa 5 7

L o l i u m t e m u l e n t u m 1 94 , 1 95

j e r i c h o balsam 93

long- e a red ow l 24 , 6 1 , 7 1

j onqu i l

15 1

J ug l a n s regia 1 65 , 1 9 2 , 1 93

junipe r 100 , 1 0 8 , 13 1 - 1 3 2 , 1 6 2

Jun ipe rus phoen icea 1 3 1 ; ] . p h . exce l s a 8 8; ) . oxyce d ru s 1 0 8 , 1 3 2 Jynx t o rqu illa 2 0

L o r a n t h u s a c a c iae 1 8 5

lotus 135

lou s e 3 6

love apple 13 8 - 1 3 9

Ly c iu m e u r opaeum 1 84 , 1 8 6

Madonna l i ly 1 3 5

m aggot 3 6 , 8 6 h are 3 9- 4 0

ke s t r e l 4 0

harr ie r 40

Ketupa

ha rt 20 h awk 1 9 , 4 0 , 4 1 , 65 h ay 1 2 5 - 1 2 6

heath 1 3 1

hedge h og 3 4 , 6 6 h e i fe r 6 2

H e m id a c ty l u s t u rc i c u s 3 4 , 3 5

hem lock 1 6 7 - 1 6 8 hen 1 6

henna 1 2 7- 1 2 8 he r b 1 2 5 - 1 2 6 , 1 60

he ron 4 1 , 66 h ind 2 0 h ippopotamus 1 1 , 1 2

H ippop ot amu s amph i bi u s 1 1 , 12 H irud inea 4 7

Hiru nd o rustica 80

holm tree , holm oak 1 1 6 , 1 2 8- 1 2 9

h o opoe 4 2

k id 3 6

z e yl on e n s i s

m a llow 1 3 6 - 1 3 7, 1 7 1 18

k ite 4 0 , 4 1 , 83 , 84 Labe oba rbu s c an i s 2 7

La b i at ae

143

L a ce r t id ae 5 2 ladanum 1 4 9

l am b 3 8 , 75

land c r oc od i le 5 2

land m on i t o r 5 2 lapw ing 4 2 Larus fluv iat i lis 7 1 lau rel 1 0 8 , 132- 13 4 , 1 85 Lau ru s nobil i s 1 3 2 , 1 3 3

L aw s on ia inerm i s 1 2 7 Le c anora e s c u lenta 1 4 1

lee c h 4 7- 4 8

leek 1 2 6 , 1 5 9- 1 60 Lens e sculenta 1 3 3 , 1 3 4 lent i l 1 3 3 , 1 3 4 le opard 4 8 - 4 9

r 2os 1

M and r agora o ffi c ina rum 1 3 8 m and r ake 1 3 8 - 1 3 9 m an n a

1 3 9- 1 4 1

m a rj o ram 1 3 0

m a st i c t ree 9 4

me lon 1 13 , 140, 1 4 1

M e n t h a longifo l ia 1 4 3

M e r op s a p i a s t e r 2 4

M e s s o r scm ir u fu s 1 M ic r otu s guenthe ri 57

m id ge 3 6

m i llet 1 4 1 - 1 4 2

M i l v u s m igran s 4 0 , 8 4 m imosa 87

m int 1 4 3 - 1 4 4 m i s t le t oe 1 85

m ole , m o le m o l l u s c 60

r at

M o l lu s c a 76 , 7 7

Mon i t o r idae 5 2 m onkey 4 Moraceae 1 4 5

1 5 , 54- 55

M o ru s n igr a 1 4 4

ostrich

ot is 6 6

m o squ it o 3 0 , .3 5 - 3 6 m ot h

55 - 5 6

m ount a i n s he e p 3 8 , 75 , 76 m ou s e 5 7

m u lbe r ry t re e 1 4 4 - 1 4 5 , 1 8 2 m u le

5 7- 5 !>

5 9 , 60, 6 1

otlls

s c op s 4 , 6 5 Ov i s l a t i c audata 7 5 ; 0. t r age laph u s 7 6

ow l

4 , 1 5 , 1 6 , 1 8 , 1 9 , 24 , 5 1 -

5 2 , 5 9 , 6 0 , 6 1 , 6 2 , 65 , 7 1

Muridae 5 7

O X 6 , 6 2 - 63

m u s k m e lon 1 1 3

pa lm 1 60 - 1 6 2

M u sca v ic in a .3 0

pum p k in 1 0 6

Palm a C h r i s t i 1 0 7

Pand ion h a l iaet u s 83 , 84

1 4 9 , 1 50

My rtu s c om m un i i; 1 4 9 ,

P.

1 .'i 0

Naj a c oc c u s s e r pe nt inu s

Naj a h a j e 7 2

140

nar c i s s u s 1 5 0 - 1 5 1 Nar c i s s u s

t a zett a 1 5 0

nard 1 5 1 - 1 5 2

Nard ost a c h y s j a t a m a n s i 1 5 1 , 152

1 .'i 2 , 1 5 .'3 Nigclla :oat iv a 1 1 7 , 1 5 3 , 1 5 4

net t le

n ight h a g 5 9 , 6 2

n ight hawk 5 9 , 6 0 , 6 1

night

jar

pyga rg 2 qua i l 6 6 - 6 7 Que r c u s aegi lop s 1 5 4 , 1 5 5 ;

154, 155; i lex 1 2 8 , 1 2 9

Q . c o c c i fe ra

m y rrh 1 04 , 1 05 , 1 3 5 , 1 4 7 , 1 4 9 , myrtle

pu r s l ane 1 70 - 1 7 1

Q.

m u s t a rd 1 4 5 - 1 4 6

178

Pu n ic a granatum 1 6 8 purple he r on 4 1

5 9 , 62

n ight ow l 6 1

Nostoc 1 40 nut m e g 1 S .1 - 1 .'i -l

nut s 1 6 S , 1 92 , 1 93 Nym p h a c a alba 1 3 4 , 13 5 ;

l\ . lotu s 1 3 5

oak 2 0 , 1 2 8 , 1 5 4 - 1 5 5 , 1 6 2

Ocd ip o d a m igr a t o r i a 5 3 oil tn'e 1 5 6 - 1 5 8

m i l i a c eum 1 4 1 , 1 4 2

P a n t h c r a le o SO

Papiobabu in 4 p apyru s 1 2 5 , 1 7 1 , 1 7 2 part r id ge 5 , 64

P a s s e r d om e s t i c u s

pe a c o c k 4

77

Ped icu l u s h u m a n u s .3 6

pe l i c a n 1 9 , 6 1 , 65

on o c r ot a l u s 65 P h a l a c r o c o r ax 1 8 P h oe n i c i a n j un ipe r 1 6 2 Pe l i c a n u s

P h oe n ix d acty l i fe r a 1 60 , 1 6 1

pig 8 0 - 1 H p ige on 23

pine 9 9 , 1 1 6 , 1 23 , 1 3 4 , 1 6 2 -

1 64

P in u s brutia 164; P . h a le pcn s i s 1 2 9 , 1 6 2 , 1 63 p i s c i s 2 7- 2 9

p i s t a c h i o 1 6 4 , 1 65

P i s t a c ia lent i s c u s 93 , 94 , 95 ;

P.

palae stina

1 65 , 1 82 ;

P . terebin t h u s 1 8 2 , 1 8.'3 ; P. v e r a 1 64 , 1 65 , 1 8 2

p lane t r e e 1 6 5 , 1 66- 1 6 7

r a bb it 3 9 , 7 0

ram 20 , 75 R a n a pun c t a t a rat

57

1·ave n

.1 2 , .3 .3

2 4 , 6 7- 6 9

re d d e e r 2 0 r e d l i ly 1 3 5

r e d t u l ip 1 5 0 reed

1 2 5 , 1 3 0 , 1 7 1 - 1 74

101 R i t.: in u s c o m m un i s 1 0 6 , 1 0 7 Ret a m a r a e t a m 1 0 0 ,

rod : badge r 6 9

roc k goat 3 8 , 7 6

r o c k p a rt r id ge 6 4 rock rabbit 7 0 rock r o se 60 roc d e e r 2 0 , 2 6 rooster 16, 1 7

rose 1 5 0 , 1 5 1 , 1 7 8 , 1 8 7

rose of

jer icho

1 87

r o s e of S h a r o n 1 5 0

Rubu s s a nctu s 1 8 6 rue 1 73 , 1 74

R u m e x a ce t o c e l l a 89 r u s h 1 2 5 , 1 7 1 , 1 74

Rut a c h a lc pc n s i s 1 74 ;

R . grave o l e n s 1 73 , 1 74

Ole a e u r opaea 1 5 6 , 1 5 7

P la t a n u s o r ie nt a l i s 1 6 6 , 1 6 7 p o i s on 1 6 7 - 1 6 8

S a bina p h oe n i c i a 1 0 8

ol ive tree 1 5 6 - 1 5 8

pomegran a t e 1 6 8- 1 70

S a c c h a ru m

on ion 2 4 , 1 5 8 , 1 5 9 - 1 60

p op l a r

s a ffron 1 7 4 - 1 7:1

on y c h a

Pop u l u s a l ba 1 7 8;

ole a st e r 1 5 8

60 , 1 4 9

Origanum m a ru 1 2 9 , 1 3 0

Orn irhoga lu m u m be l l a t u m 2 -1 orris l O S Orthoptera

oryx 3 , -1 7

53

Oryx leu coryx 2 , 3 o sprey 83 ,

8-1

o s s i f ra ge 84

1 6 9 , 1 70 , 1 7 8

P . e uphrat i c a 1 6 9 , 1 70 p o r c u p in e 66

offi c inarum 1 73

S a l ix a l ba 1 70 Salsola

kali 1 88

s a l tw o r t 1 0 1 , 1 3 6

porpoi s e 2 2

S a lv a d o r a pe r s ic a

P r o c av ia s y r i a c u s 6 9

sandarac 1 0 9- 1 1 0

Pot e r i u m s p in o s u m 1 84 , 1 85

Prunus armen iaca

92 Pte rocarpu s s a n r a 1 in u s 88 Pu lex irrit an s 29

[ 206 ]

s a n d a lwood H 8 , 1 1 0

l-I b

!-"t.' Cko 3 :1 �and l iz ard S 2 s a nd part r idge 5 , 6 4 :; and

sand v ip e r 72 S an t a l u m a lbu m 8 8 s atyr 3 8

Sau s surea lappa 104 , 1 0 5

S c inc iclae 5 2 S c i rpu s 1 7 1

Sc o l y m u s 1 84

owl 6 1 , 65

s c op s

s c orp ion 70- 7 1

s c reech ow l 24 , 5 9 , 6 1 se a c ow 2 2 se agu ll 6 1 , 7 1 seal 2 2

serpent 4 , 2 H , 2 9, 7 2 - 74 shark 2 9

3 8 , 63 , 75 s h itta h , shittim 8 7 short - e a red owl 5 9 , 6 1 sheep 2 0 , 2 2 ,

short - toed eagle 83 , 84

Simiae 4 skink 5 2 s lug 76

snail 76- 7 7 s nake 4 , 2 8 , 2 9 , 7 2 - 74

Solanum in c anum 1 84 S o rgh u m vu lgare 1 3 0 , 1 4 1 , 14 2

sor re l 9 8

S p a l ax e h r e n bcrgi 5 4 , 5 5 s p ar r ow 7 7 , 8 0 sparrow hawk 4 0

spe lt 1 7 5 - 1 7 6

spice s 1 77 - 1 7 8

s p icie r 5 6 , 73 , 7 8

spikenard 1 5 1 - 1 5 2

spina C h r i s t i 1 85

Squ a l u a c a r c h a r i a s 2 7; S.

c.

st acte

stag 20

glau c u s 2 9

1 47, 178

Be t h le hem 2 4 S te rn a fluv i a t i l i s 7 1 St . Jolm ' s bread Hl4 storax 1 70- 1 7 9

S t a r of

stork 7 8 - 7 9

5 1; S . flam m e a 24 , 5 9 Strom bu s 60 St rut h io c a m c lu s bO Styrax o ffi c in a li s 1 7 8 , 1 7 9 Suac·da a sph a l t i c a ! 70

St r ix a l u c o

Sus scrofa

80 , 8 1

U. p i l u l i fe ra 1 .5 2 ; U . u re n s 1 5 2

swallow 2 0 , 80

1 6, 3 9 sweet bay 1 3 3 - 1 3 4

,;w an

sw i ft SO

swine 80-

Varanidae

Verm is 8 6

�r ie n t a l i s

81

s y c a m or e 1 7 9- 1 8 2

Ve s p id ae 4 3

fig 1 8 1

s y c a m ore

S y r i a n be a r 8 , 9 S yr i a n c o ne y

69- 70

tama risk 1 3 9, 1 8 1 , 1 8 2

Tamarix aph y l l a 1 8 1 , 1 8 2 ; T . ga l l i c a 1 8 2 ;

T . m an n ife r a 1 3 9

T a r ax a c u m o ffi c in a le 98 ;

T . v u lga re 9 9

t a re s 1 95

tawny ow l 5 1 , 6 1

t c rc binth 2 0 , 1 .5 4 , 1 5 5 , 1 6 2 , 1 8 2 - 1 83

tern

71

Tet r a c l in u s art icu lata 1 0 9

t h i s t le 1 5 2 , 1 8 4 , 1 8 7

T h uj a a rt i cu lata 1 0 9 t h y ine 1 10

S .'i T ine o l a p e llion e l l a 5 5 , 5 6 Trad u t ina m a !Ul ipara 1 4 0 Tine id ae

T r it icum ae s t ivum 1 95 , 1 96 ;

T . compositum 1 95 ; T . cl ioc o c c u m 1 75 , 1 76 ; T. spc lt a 1 75 , 1 76

Tul ipa s h a r onen s i s

1 50

t um bleweed 1 8 7- 1 8 8

t u rp e n t ine 1 8 2 , 1 83

truncatu s 2 2 t urtledove 2 4

T u r s io p s

Turtur c om m un i s

23 Typh a angustata 1 7 1 T yr o a l ba 1 5 , 1 6 L:lm u s

campe s t r i s 1 6 5

u n i c orn 6.1

llpupa epop s 4 2 U r s u s syriacus 8 , 9 U rt i c a ca u d a t a 1 5 2 ; U . cl io i c a 1 5. 2 , 1 5 .3 ;

[ 207 )

V i c i a faba 9 7 v ine 1 8 R- 1 92 v inegar 1 9 2 v iney ard 1 8 8 vipe r 5 , 6 2 , 7 2 , 7.3 , 7 8 V it i s v in i fe r a 1 8 8 , 1 S 9 vole S 7 V u lpe s fla v e s c e n s 3 1 ; V. n i l o t i c a 3 1 vu ltu re 1 9 , 4 1 , 6 5 , 82- 85 Vu ltu r pe r c n o p t c r u s 8.3 w a l l ge cko

.35, 52

wa lnut 1 6 .5 , 1 9 2 - 1 9.3

w a s p 4 .3

water h e n 1 6 , 6 1

wate rme lon 1 4 1 wea s e l .5 5

weed s 1 5 2 , 1 7 1 , 1 94 - 1 %

49

rulip 1 5 0

1 0 , 43

wate r l i ly 1 3 5

thorn 1 5 2 , 1 8 4 - 1 8 6

t i ge r

52

whale 2 9 ,

5 1 , 74

w he a t 96 , 1 94 , 1 % - 1 9 7

w h ir l ing d u :;t 1 8 7

ib i s 4 1 wh ite l i l y 1.3 5

w h itc

w h ite popl a r 1 7 8 , 1 79

white - l· umped dcl' r .3

w h ite sand a l 8 8

vu ltu re il 4 5, 6 , 7 w i ld c a t 4 6 w i ld goat 2 0 , :l 6 , 4 n w i l d o l iv e t r e e 1 5 11 , 1 5 7 , 1 5 8 w i ld ox 4 7 , 63 wh ite

wild

ass

w i l low 1 70

w in e 1 8 8 , 1 90 wolf

74 , 85 - 8 6

w o r m 3 6 , 5 6 , 86

wor mwood 1 3 7 , 1 9 7 , 1 98 wryne c k 20 zebra 7 Z iz yphu s 1 85 Z on u r id ae 5 2

Index of Greek Terms ena l ia 2 7 , 2 8

libanos 1 2 1 , 1 2 2

e r i p h ion 3 6 , 38

linon 1 1 9 , 1 2 0 , 1 2 1

e r i ph o s 3 6 , 38

lukos

85 , 86

g l e ukos 1 8 8 , 1 9 1

manna

1 3 9 , 14 1

gups 8 3

mo r on 1 4 5

heduo smo n 1 4 3

alektor 1 6 , 1 7

mo s ch o s 6 2 , 6 3

herp e t on 7 2 , 7 3

na r d o s 1 5 1 , 1 5 2

a l�uron 1 9 5 , 19 7

h i p po s 4 3 , 4 5

no s s i a 1 6 , 1 7

a l oe 9 0

h up o z u g i o n 5 , 7

no s s i o n

ae t o s 8 2 , 8 4 , 8 5 156

agr i � l a i o s a ige io s

36 , 38

akantha 1 8 4 , 1 8 6

184 , 186

akant h i n o s

ak r i s

5 3 , 54

a lo pex

31 , 32

hus

16 , 17

o in o s 1 8 8 , 1 9 1

80 , 8 1

o l un t h o s 1 1 8 , 1 1 9

amno s 7 5 , 7 6

hus sopo s 1 2 9 , 1 30

amp e lo n 1 8 8

i c h thud ion 2 7 , 2 8

ona r i o n 5 , 7

ich t hus 2 7 , 2 8

onos 5 , 7

k a l ame 1 7 1 , 1 7 2

o ph i s 7 2 , 7 3

ka l am o s 1 7 1 , 1 7 2

o p s a r io n 2 7 , 2 8

k a mel o s 1 3 , 1 4

ornis 16

arkos 8 , 9

ker a t ion 1 0 3

o t ho n i a 1 1 9 , 1 2 0 , 1 2 1

a r n i on 7 5 , 7 6

ke t o s 2 7 , 2 8 , 2 9

o xo s 1 9 2

aspis 72 , 7 3

k inn amo mo n 1 0 8 , 1 0 9

p a rd a l i s 4 8 , 4 9

ko no p s 3 5 , 3 6

pas cha 7 5 , 7 6

amp e l o s

188

a ne t h o n 1 1 7 a p s in t h o s a ren

198

75, 76

batos 184 , 186 b a t ra c h o s

33

b o t a ne 1 2 5 , 1 2 6

b o t rus 1 88 , 1 9 1 bous

62 , 6 3

b us s o s

119 , 121

korax 6 7 , 68

pe ganon 1 7 4

kr inon 1 3 4 , 1 3 5 , 1 3 6

p e r i s t er a 2 3 , 2 4

k r i the 9 5 , 9 6

pho i n i x 1 6 0 , 1 6 2

kr i t h i n o s 9 6

pa l o s 5 , 7

k teno s 6 2 , 6 3

p r o b a t ion 7 5 , 7 6

cho i r o s 80 , 8 1

kuminon

cho l'e 1 9 8

kuna r i on 2 1 , 2 2

114 , 115

ch o r t o s

125 , 126

k uo n

d a ma l i s

62 ,63

kupa r i s s o s

proba ton 7 5 , 7 6 p ro s p h a g ion 2 7 , 2 8 s em i d a l i s

21 , 22

e c h i d na 7 2 , 7 3 , 7 4

la c h a n o n

e la ia 1 5 6 , 1 5 7

leon

ses 5 5 , 5 6

123

125 , 126

r

sikera 188 , 1 9 1

s ina p i

50 , 5 1

<"\ 1"\ 0

1

195 , 197

145

s i n don

119 , 121

s m u r na

147 , 148

tauro s

t h r emma 6 2 , 6 3

s i t ion 1 9 7

s t a p h u 1�

s i t is t a

s t routh ion 7 7

t h u i no s

s ukamino s

tragos

62 , 6 3

s itos 1 9 5 , 1 9 7

skcilex 8 6

s u ke

s ko l o p s

s ukomo r e a

186

s ko r p i o s

70 , 7 1

1 88 , 1 9 1

144 , 14 5 , 182

62,63

10 9 ' 1 1 0

36 , 38

t r ib o 1 o s 1 8 4 , 1 8 6

1 1 8 , 1 19 179 , 181

s ukon 1 1 8 , 1 1 9

t r ugon 2 4 z i z an i o n

194

Index of Terms from Other Languages Akk a d i a n

La t in

As s y r i a n

da-as- s u

3

k u ka n i t u 1 0 7

r imu 6 3

posea

192

talpa

55

Eg;tE t ian Ar a b i c b i rb i r

39

kiki

�a r a ' a

43

ky 4

gharab mann

S an s k r i t

gf 4

170

1 39

picita 152

107

p- ih-mw 1 2 ths

Sy r i a c dadar

22

r a t am 1 0 0 rim 6 3

[

2 09

]

165

Index of Hebrew and Aramaic Terms ? abb i r 4 3 , 4 5 , 6 2 , 6 3

7 ar i 5 0

b e h emah 1 2

? ab ha t t i a h 1 4 1

' a rmon 1 6 6

b e h emo t h

? ab h i yo n a h 1 0 2

? arnebheth

' ad h a s ha h 1 3 4

' ar o d h 5 , 7

bene 1abh i 5 0

? a ghmo n 1 7 1 , 1 7 4

' ar o ' e r 1 3 1

b e r o s h 1 1 6 , 1 3 2 , 1 62 , 1 64

' ag hu r

? a r y eh 5 0

beroth 1 6 2 , 164

? a h a l im 9 0

' ash 5 5 , 56

b e s em 1 7 7 , 1 7 8

? a ha 1 o th 9 0

? a tadh

? ahu

' a ta1 1eph

.

.

19 , 20

125

' akhbar

.

39

184 , 18 5 , 1 8 6 7

' akh s h u b h

72, 73, 78

betse1

1 3 , 14

159

b ik h e r a h 1 3 , 1 4

.

57

bekher

11 , 1 2

7 a t hon 5 , 7

b ikku r a h 1 1 8 , 1 1 9

' a t tudh 3 6 , 38

b o s em 1 7 7

' a kkab h i s h 7 8

? a y :il 7 5 , 7 6

? a 1 gumm i m 8 8

' ay i r 5 , 6

? a l l ah 1 5 4 , 1 8 2

' ay i t

? al l a n 1 5 4 , 1 5 5

? ayyah 40 , 4 1

dagh

? a 1 mu g g im 8 8

? ayya 1 2 0

d a ghah

' a 1 uq ah 4 7 , 4 8

? ay y a 1 a h 2 0

d a rd a r 1 8 4 , 1 8 5

? anaphah 1 8 , 4 1

baka7

14 5

d a y yah 4 0 , 4 1

7 anaq ah 3 4

baqar

62

debha sh

? aq q o 46

b a r b u r im 3 9

d eb h e 1 a h 1 1 8 , 1 1 9

' a q ra b h 7 0 , 7 1

b a r q an im 1 8 4 , 1 8 5 , 1 8 6

d ebho r a h 1 0 , 1 1

' aradh 5 , 7

b a s am 1 7 7

d e khar

' ar ' a r 1 3 1 , 1 3 2

b a t h h a y y a ' a na h 6 0 , 6 1

deror 80

·� a r b e h 5 3

b edh o 1 ah 9 6

deshe?

.

bo t n im 1 6 5 .

12

d a ? a h 4 0 , 4 1 , 8 2 , 8 3 , 84

.

210

]

2 7 , 28 , 29 2 7 , 28

11

75, 76

1 25

2, 3, 46

d i s hon

' ez

36 , 38

125

h a s hash

dobh 8 , 9

? ezobh 1 2 9 , 1 3 0

has idhah

d o � an 1 4 1 , 1 4 2

7 e zrah

�a s i l

d ud h a ? i m 1 3 8

gach

d ukh i ph a t h 4 2

galga1

? eb h e h

171 , 172

g am a 1

' eghel

62

g a z am 5 3

1 3 3 , 1 34

no

1 3 , 14

gedhi

? elah

1 54 , 1 8 2 , 1 83 62 , 63

7 eleph

berner

53

� i � �ah

3 6 , 38

1 2 3 , 149

188 , 1 90

195 , 197

h o b bn im 1 1 7

' enabh

gor

53 , 54 171

ho 1 e d h

� orne �

123

5 0 , 51

go z a 1

home t s .

2 3 , 24

' erebh 1 7 0

gu r 5 0 , 5 1

7 erez

�abha r b u r o t b

108

184 , 1 8 5

gobhay

gopher

72 ,73

80 , 81

boah 184 , 1 8 5 , 1 8 6

? elan 1 5 4 , 1 5 5 , 18 3

? eph ' eh

1 2 5 , 1 26 , 1 59 , 160

gephen 1 8 8 , 1 9 0

gam e ?

188 , 1 9 1

�edheq

78

5 3 , 54

0 e 1 b enah

? eg h o z 162

�a z i r

187

g e b h ( - im )

7 e1

.

�a t s i r

' eghlah 6 2

192

.

"i

49

55 16 , 52

192

31 , 32 , 46

7 imma r

75 , 76

kamm o n

114 , 115 , 1 17

' esebh 125

habha t s t s e l e t b 1 5 0

kar

? eshe1

badba�

k a r knm

1 74 , 1 7 5

ka r p a s

111 , 112

1 82

7 e shko l

1 62 , 191

? e s hko 1

' anah im

? e shkol hagephen ' e t s- ' abho t h ' ets

.

�agbabh 188

188

14 9

s h em e n 1 5 6 , 1 5 7

? e t un 1 2 0

149 5 3 , 54

l 1 a l lamu t h 1 7 0 hama r

�argol ha r u l

[

5 3 , 54

152

211 ]

kebhe s 7 5 , 7 6 ke1 ebh 2 1

5,6

�apha rparah

75 , 76

54

ken

36

kep h i r

50 , 51

k e r em 1 8 8 , 1 9 0

koph e r 1 2 7

m e s u ka h 1 8 6

k inn am 3 5 , 3 6

m e s u kkah

k i n n im 3 5 , 3 6

me z e g 1 8 8 , 1 9 1

k i pp ah 1 6 0

m i q s hah

k i r ka r o t h

1 3 , 14

113

147 , 148

na ' a t su t s

ko a h 3 5 , 5 2 ko �

mor

1 84 , 1 8 6

162

na h a l

5 1 , 61

184 , 185

.

pa r ' o s h 2 9 1 25

p e q a ? im

pere ?

5, 7

p e r edh

57 , 58

pere� 8 2 , 8 3 , 84 peshe t h

11 9 , 1 2 0

pe then 7 2 , 7 3

ku s s eme t h 1 7 5

nahash 7 2 , 7 3

p i rd a h

ku s s emim 1 7 5

namer 4 8 , 4 9

pishtah 1 1 9 , 120

l a ' anah 1 9 8

n a a ph

labhi?

n e ma l a h 1

�

50

lay i s h 5 0 , 5 1 l eb h i

( - ? im )

nerd

pol

97

qa ? a t h 1 9 , 4 1 , 6 1 , 6 5

49

nemar

50, 192

178

5 7 , 58

1 7 1 , 17 2

qaneh

1 51 , 1 52

4

q a p ha z

l e b o na h 1 2 1 , 1 2 2

n c s h a r 8 2 , 84

l e t a ? ah 3 5 , 5 2

nesher

l i bhneh 1 7 8

nets 40 , 4 1

qets i ' oth

l il i th 5 9 , 6 2

' o p he r 2 0

q id d a h

' o r eb h 6 7 , 6 8

q immo s h 1 84 , 1 8 6

? o r e n 1 08 , 1 3 3 , 1 3 4

q i nnamon

1uz 8 9 , 90

' o zn iyah 8 2 , 8 3 , 8 4 , 8 5

q i p podh 66

ma l l u a h 1 3 6 , 1 3 7

pag

man

' paq q u o t h

1 iwy a t ha n lot

72 , 73 , 74

14 7 , 14 8 , 1 4 9 , 1 7 8

139 , 141

mashqeh

188, 190

m e r o r im 9 8 m e s u kah

186

8 2 , 8 3 , 84

118 , 1 19 124

par 62

parah

qe t sa

�

117, 153

q i q ayon

212

]

qore?

1 08 , 1 0 9

4 , 5 , 6 2 , 64

q i ppoz

q o ph

62

104 , 1 05

1 04 , 1 0 5

q i s h s hu ?

parash 4 3 , 4 5

[

qere t s 3 3

4 64

1 06 , 107 112 , 113

qots

184 , 186

s h a J: a p h 6 1 , 7 1

� irpadh

r a ? ah 4 0 , 4 1

sha�a t s

sis

ra ham 8 2 , 8 3 , 8 4

shakh 5 7

rahel

shalakh 1 8 , 6 1

� o l ' am 5 3 , 5 4

s h am i r 1 8 4 , 1 8 6

soreq

rekh e s h 4 3 , 4 5 , 5 8

sh a phan 6 9

s o r e q ah

r e na n im 6 0 , 6 1

shaqedh 8 9 , 9 0

�; u p h 1 7 1

r immah 8 6

sharaph 7 2 , 7 3

�u �

( 1 ) 24 , 80

r immon 1 6 8

shay i t h 184 , 1 8 6

sus

(2)

rosh 167

she�el e th

r o ' sh

s h e kh a r

75 , 76

167 , 198

51

60, 149

188 , 1 90

184 , 18 5

80

188 , 1 90 , 1 9 1

188 , 190

43,45

t a ha s h 2 2 , 3 8 t a h ma s .

5 9 , 61

•

r o t hem 1 0 0 , 1 3 2

s h em e r 1 8 8 , 1 9 1

t aleh 7 5 , 7 6

sa ' i r 3 6 , 38

s h e p h i p hon

t am a r

sar igh 1 8 8 , 1 9 0

s h i qmah 1 7 9 , 1 8 1 , 1 8 2

t an

� a 1? 5 5 , 5 6

shi t tah 8 7

t an n i n

seh 36 , 38 , 7 5 , 7 6

shor 62

t a pp u a � 9 2 , 9 3

s e ' i r ah 3 6 , 3 8

s h o shan 1 3 4 , 1 3 6

t a y i sh 3 6 , 3 8

s h o s h annah

t e ? ashshur 99 , 1 1 5 , 1 1 6

s ekh

1 84 , 1 8 6

72 , 73

134 , 1 3 6

.

1 60 , 1 6 2 31 , 32 , 74

( - n im )

72, 73, 74

s e khwi 1 6 , 1 7

shu ' al

s e l aw 6 6

shum 1 5 9

te?o

s emam i t h 5 2 , 7 8

s h u shan 1 3 4 , 1 3 5 , 1 3 6

t i d hhar

1 28 , 1 64 , 1 6 5 , 1 6 7

� en e h 1 8 4 , 18 5 , 1 8 6

s i ah 1 3 7

t imo r a h

1 60 , 1 6 2

s i ke r a

t i n s h em e t h 1 5 , 5 1 , 5 5 , 6 1

se

' o ra h 9 5 , 9 6

s h ab b e 1 u l s haha1

76

50, 51

3 1 , 32

•

188

s i 1 lon 184 , 1 8 5 , 1 8 6 sir

184 , 1 85 , 1 8 6

r

213

J

t e ? enah

1 18 , 1 1 9

3 , 46 , 47, 63

t irosh

18 8 , 1 9 1

t i r z ah

11 6

,

1 28

77

t o l e ' ah 8 6

t s ippor

t ome r

t s i r ' ah 4 3

ye 1 e q 5 3 , 54

t s iy 4 5 , 4 6

yemim 5 8

t so ? n

75 , 76

yobhe1

tsori

9 3 , 94

y o nah 2 3 , 24

160, 1 62

to r 2 3 , 2 4 t s a b hua '

�

t sa o r tsaph i r

t sebhi

45, 46

5 3 6 , 38 33, 34

t se b h i y y a h

33 , 34

t s eb ho ' im 4 5 , 4 6 t s elat sal t s en

5 3 , 54

184 , 186

t s epha '

72 , 73

t s e phardea '

33

yay i n 1 8 8 , 1 9 0 , 1 9 2

75 , 76

tukki 4

zar z i r 1 6 , 1 7

t u kk i y im 4

z ay i t h

ya ' a 1 a h 4 6

z e b hu b h

y a ' anah 6 0

z e ? ebh 8 5 , 8 6

ya ' e 1 4 6

zemer 3 6 , 38 , 7 5 , 76

ya ' e n 6 0 , 6 1

z emo r a h 1 8 8 , 1 9 0 , 1 9 1 , 1 9 2

yahm u r 2 6

zo

.

y an s hu p h 24 , 4 1 , 6 1

[

214

]

156 , 157

�e 1 e th

30

72, 73

I n d ex of Bible References G e ne s i s

1 . 11

125

1 . 12

125

1 . 21 ?. . 1 2 3 . 18

73 96 185 , 186 123

6 . 14

8 9

24 , 156

18R 192 155

9 . 24 12 . 6

12 . 12 . 13 . 14 14 .

14 1 6 16 18 -

62

14 155

188 13

15�

1 5 . 11

12 7 1 88

16 . 12

18 18 . 1 18. 8 2 1 . 33

24 . 10

2 5 . 34

27 . 11 27 . 16 2 7 . 28 , 37 28 . 19 30

30 . 1 4 30 . 14- 1 6

30 . 3 2

30 . 3 5 30 . 3 7

155 63

182 14 1 34 38 37 191 89 , 90 16 7 , 1 79 1 39 1 39 37

38

40 . 1 3 , 20 , 21 , 2 3 41 . 2 41 . 5 41 . 9 41 . 22 41 . 42 43. 11

49 . 9 49 . 11 49 . 1 7 49 . 2 2 49 . 2 7 50 . 1 0 , 1 1

Exo d u s

3.2 3 . 3,4 3.8 7 . 9 , 10 , 12 8 . 2- 9 8 . 1 1- 1 3

8 . 16 , 1 7 , 18 9.3 9 . 31 9 . 32

32 . 14 32 . 1 5

6

1 2 . 38

35 . 8 36 . 24 37 . 25

155

15 . 2 7 16 . 1 3 16. 15 16 . 20 1 6 . 24 16 . 31

58

94 , 14 9 , 178

38 . 6

40 . 2 , 5 , 9 40 . 10

40 . 1 1

40 . 1 2

162 190 190 , 19 1 191 190

190 1 25 172 , 195

190 172 112

9 0 , 9 3 , 9 4, 149 , 165 , 178 , 182 50 , 5 1 6 , 1 9 0 , 19 1 73 192 85 185

171

2. 3

�.5

90 , 1 6 7 , 179 76 38 , 7 6

31 . 38

( co n t . )

Gene s i s

10 11 . 7

171

22 . 6

[

215

28 . 33

14 96 176 53 21

23

88

88

30 . 2 4

105 , 1 2 3

30 . 34

60 , 1 4 9 , 1 78 2 3 , 88

35 . 7

33 36

173 173 90 173

1 69 75 88 109 , 14 8 , 173, 177

35 . 2 3

33

21

43 2 3 , 88 88

29 . 22 30 . 1 , 5 30. 2 3

11 73

23

35 . 24 36 . 19 36 . 20 , 31 , 36 37 . 1 , 4 , 10 ,

88

37 . 37 . 37 . 37 . 38 . 39 .

173 173 90

15

17 18 19 , 20 25 , 28 1,6 34

Lev i t i c u s

3.9 4 . 28 5.6 7.3 8 . 25 9 . 19

10 . 9

141

11

186

1 1. 2

8 3 , 84

19 . 4

.

185

1 30 141 141 67 1 39 , 14 1 86 , 140 86 111 , 141

16. 35

2 2 . 31 2 3 . 28 25 . 5 25 . 10 , 13 , 2 3 , 28 25 . 31 25 . 32 2 5 . 3 3 - 34 2 5 . 35 2 6 14 26 . 15 , 26 , 32 , 37 27 . 1 , 6

185

93

12 . 8 12. 22

Exodus ( c o n t . )

23 88

88

88

88

23 75

38

38 75 75 75 190

3 5 , 5 3 , 6 5, 69

12

L evi t i c u s

u.s

( cont

7

6

80 , 8 1

11 . 7

Numb e r s

( cont . )

De u t e r onomy

( cont . ) 128

191

2 1 . 1 0- 1 4

1 3 . 33

53

23. 18

21

1 3 . 24

ll. 9

27 , 28

17 . 8

23 . 24

191

27 , 28

90

11 . 10

18 . 12

25 . 4

63

11 . 1 3

83 , 84 , 85

191

19 . 6

l l . 14

8 3 , 84

1 0 8 , 1 30

19 . 18

130

28 . 18

21 . 6 ' 8

2 8 . 39

86

61 , 71

73

23. 22

28 . 42

54

1 1 . 1 6- 1 8

61

63

1 9 , 2 5 , 4 1,

2 3 . 24

11 . 1 7

l l . 16

ll . 18 1 1 . 19

4 0 - 4 1 , 60 ,

52

so

24 . 6

28 . 4

63 63

28 . 49

84

9 0 , 91 ,

28 . 51

63 , 191

162

29 . 6

190

63

29 . 18

168 , 19 8

32 . 2

125

1 6 , 5 1 , 6 5,

24 . 8

8 3 , 84

24 . 9

8 , 41 , 42 ,

28 . 7

190

3 2 . 10

93

79

32 . 36

48

32 . 1 l

8 3 , 84

3 3 . 55

186

3 2 . 14

7 6 , 19 0 ,

34 . 4

70 , 71

11 . 22

5 3 , 54

ll . 29

55 , 57

l l . 30

15 ' 1 6 ' 34, 35 , 5 2 , 5 5

so

Deut e ro nomy

11 . 32f

35

1 . 44

190

11

ll . 34

2.6

141

14 . 4

1 30

1 4 . 4- 6

108

14 . 6 , 49

1 30

14 . 4 9 - 5 2

10 8

14 . 51 , 5 2

1 30

16 . 9

37

17 . 7

38

19 . 19

57

22 . 27

37

2 3 . 40

149 , 1 70

25 . 5

191

191 32 . 24

73

32 . 32

1 6 8 , 19 1

32 . 33

7 3 , 16 7 , 168

7 . 13

63 , 19 1

3 3 . 16

185

7 . 20

43

33 . 1 7

63

so

141

3 3 . 20

156 , 195

33 . 22

8 . 15

71

33 . 28

191

8 . 16

141

34 . 3

162

8. 3

8.8

10 . 3

51

88 J oshua

11 . 14

19 1

l l . 30

155

5 . 12

12 . 15

20 , 34

n.4

75

12 . 17

144

11.9

43

12 . 22

165

141

2 0 , 34

1 3 . 26

65

15 . 3

70

23

14 14 . 5

3 , 20 , 26 ,

15 . 32

170

17 . 16

22 , 23

38 , 46 , 7 6

43

4 . 25

19 . 33

96

40 , 7 0

155

5 . 15

14 . 7

6.3

80 , 8 1

24 . 1 2

43

190 , 191

14 . 8

9 . ll

98

Numb e r s

4 . 6 , 8 , 1 012 , 14

ll . S

113 , 126 , 141 , 1 59 , 160

11 . 6

141

11 . 7

9 6 , 1 1 1 , 141

11 . 9

141

1 1 . 31 , 3 2

67

11 . 33

67

1 3 . 20

191

13 . 23

189 , 1 90 , 191

14 . 12

8 3 , 84 , 85

14 . 1 3

41

14 . 15

4 1 , 6 0 , 6 1. 7

1 4 . 1 5- 1 7

61

14 . 1 6

16 , 25 , 5 1 ,

Judges

1 . 36

1 70 , 17 1

4.5

162

4.U

155 63

52 , 61

4 . 19

14 . 17

1 9 , 6 5 , 34

5 . 22

43,45 , 63

14 . 18

8 , 41 , 42

7.5

21

14 . 22

114 ' 144

7 . 12

14

23

144 , 19 1

7 .13

96

15 . 22

20 , 34

7 . 25

68 , 86

17 . 16

43

18 . 4

191

8 . 7 , 16

185 , 186

14

.

216

8,3

86

J u d g e s ( co n t . ) 9 9.6 9 . 13 9 . 14 , 15 9 . 37 10. 4 1 2 . 14 13 . 4 , 7 , 14

14 . 8 14 . 1 8 15 . 4 15 . 19 21 . 19 Ru t h 2 . 14

1 S amue l 1 . 14 1 . 15

5 6 6 . 4 , 5 , 11, 18 7.9 8 . 11 9 . 24 13.6

13. 18

14 . 26 15 . 9 16 . 1 16 . 1 2 1 7 . 37 17 . 43 19 . 13 22 . 6 24 . 2 24 . 14 25 . 2 25 . 18 25 . 37 26 . 2 2 6 . 20 2 8 . 24 30 . 1 2 31 . 1 3

2 S amue l 1 , 23

2 . 18

1 88

155 191 185 155 6 6 190 11 50 31 , 32 65 122 192

192 190 57 57 57 76 45 76 185 , 186 46 11

76 75

37 9 21 37

182

46

21 , 29

76

1 19

192

64

2 9 , 6 4 , (> 5 62 119 182

8 3 , 84

34

2 Samue l ( co n t . ) 3.8 21 5 . 2 3 , 24 145 164 6.5 8.4 43 9.8 21 13 . 1 162 14 . 2 7 162 16 . 9 21 17 . 8 9 17 . 28 9 6 , 9 7 , 134 2 2 . 34 20 23.4 125 23.6 186 23 . 11 1 34 1 Kings 1.9 1 . 33 1 . 38 1 . 44 4 . 23 4 . 26 4 . 28 4 . 33 5 . 8 , 10 5 . 11 6 6 . 15

6 . 18 6 . 23 6 . 29 6 . 31 , 32 , 33 6 . 34 7 . 18

7 . 19 , 22

7 . 24

7 . 26 8 . 37 10 . 5

10 . 11 , 1 2

10 . 2 1 10 . 22 10 . 27 10 . 28 12 . 1 4 1 3 . 24 14 . 1 1

14 . 15 16 . 4

62 , 73 58 58 58 20 , 2 6 , 34 , 39 , 62 45 45 1 30 164 196

157 164 125 157 160 157 164

169 136

125

1 35 , 1 3 6 54 190 88 190

4

181 44 71 50 21

172 21

1 Kin g s

( c ont , )

17

17 . 4 , 6

19 . 4 , 5 20 . 36 21 . 19 , 2 3 , 24 2 2 . 38

2 King s 1 3.4 4 4 . 39 4 . 42 5 . 18 6 . 25 7.1

8.13 9 . 10 , 36 17 . 25 18 . 21 1 8 . 32 19 . 2 3 19 . 26 20 . 7 1 Chr o n i c l e s

12 . 8 12 . 4 0 13 . 8 14 . 1 4 , 1 5 27 . 28

2 Chr o n i c l e s 1 . 15

2.8 4.5 6 . 28

7 . 13

9.1

9.4 9 . 10 , 11 9 . 20 9 . 21 9 . 27 10 . 1 1 11 . 15

1 7 . 11 25 . 18 29 . 2 1 31 . 5 32 . 28

68

68

100

50

21

21

30

76

124 124

96 170

24 96 21

21 50

171, 172 19 1 1 64 125 118 , 119 34

119 164 145 18 1 181

8 8 , 1 64

1 35 , 1 36 54 53

17 7 190 88 190 4 181 71

38 38

185

38 19 1

19 1

2

Chr o n i c l e s ( c ont . ) 33 . 11

Ezra 2 . 6 6- 6 7

185 , 186

Job ( cont . )

137

24 . 24

44 . 19

( co n t . )

32

25 . 6

86

45

136

45 . 8

90 , 1 04 , 63

27 . 18

56

6

28. 7

12 , 41

fi . 9 , 1 7

76

28 . 8

51

50 . 10

7 . 17

76

29 . 18

162

50 . 13

63

8. 35

38

30 . 1

21

51 . 7

1 30

30 . 4

1 00 , 1 3 7

52 . 8

30 . 7

152

55 . 6

Nehemiah

57 . 4

58 . 4 58 . 8

77

19 1

38 . 27

185 , 19 5 125

58 . 9

185

17

21

38 . 39

so

59 . 6 , 14

149 , 157

60

136

4.3

32

5 . 11

9 . 20

so

32

73

10 . 3 7 , 3 9

156

24

173

190

2. 13

7 . 6 8- 6 9

105 , 1 48

31 . 22

1 . 11

8 . 15

6

30 . 29

31 . 40

38 . 36

73

141

38 . 41

68

63. 10

32

191

39

61

68 . 23

21

69

1 36 190

1 3 . 5 , 12

191

39 . 1

20

13. 15

191

39 . 5

7

Es t h e r

J ob

P s a lms

68 . 30

39 . 9

63

69 . 12

39 . 1 3

4 1 , 6 1 , 79

h9 . 21

41

172

168 , 19 2 , 198

1.6

112

2 . 12

148

39

84

72.9

8 . 10

45 , 58

40 . 15

12

73. 22

12

8 . 14

45 , 58

40 . 17

12

74

73

8 . 15

112

74 . 14

46 , 7 3

141

39 . 2 6 .

27

.

13

40 . 21

172

40 . 2 2

170

41

74

78 . 24

75. 8

46

191

3.8

7 3 , 74

41 . 1

73, 74

78. 45

33

4 . 10

51

41 . 2

171 , 174 ,

7 8 . 46

54

4 . 11 4 . 19 5.5 6.5

50 , 51

so

186 7 , 125

6.6

171

7.5

86

4 1 . 20

185 , 186

78.47

181

171, 174

80

1 36

8 0 . 10

Psalms 8. 7

63

17 . 8

93

18 . 3 3

86

83 . 13

188

84 . 3

7 7 , 80

125

7 . 12

73

20

90

8 . 11

125 , 171

18 . 36

43

91 . 13

8 . 14

78

22

20

92 . 10

9 . 26

84 , 1 7 2

10 . 16

51

( t it l e )

63

22 . 12

21

2 2 . 1 6- 2 1

1 89

83 . 11

102 . 6

51 , 7 3

63

52 , 65

10 2 . 1 7

132

11 . 12

6,7

22 . 16 , 20

21

103 . 5

84

13. 28

56

22 . 21

63

104 . 1 1

7

1 7 . 14

86

23. 2

125

104 . 17

79 , 163

20. 14

73

29 . 6

63

20

104 . 18

46 , 70

104 . 26

7 3 , 74

10 5 . 31

20 . 1 6

72, 73,

29 . 9

167 , 168

37 . 2

2 1 . 26

86

37 . 35

1 3 3 , 134

24 . 5

7

39 . 1 1

56

105 . 34

54

24 . 20

86

42.1

20

105 . 40

67

125

218

]

105 . 30

33 36

P s a lms

118 . 12

( cont . )

120 . 4

E c c l e s ia s t e s ( co n t . ) 1 1 , 186

12. 4

77

100

12 . 5

53 , 54 ,

128 . 3

156

89 , 9 0 ,

137 . 2

170

102

14 0 . 3

7 2 , 7 3 , 78

147 . 9

68

1 4 7 . 16

76

148 . 7

73

Prover b s 3 . 10

S o n g o f S o lomon 1.5

36

1 . 12

152

S o n g o f S o l omon ( c on t . ) 7 . 13

139

8.5

93

R . l4

20 , 34

I s a iah 1.8 1 . 18 1. 22

113 76

190

1 . 13

148

1 . 29

1 . 14

127 , 128 ,

2.13

155

162 , 191

2 . 20

8 , 54 , 5 5 188 , 189

19 1

162

5.4

198

1.17

164

5

5 . 19

20 , 4 6

2. 1

1 36 , 150 ,

5.2

6.5

34

151

5.4

6.6

1

2.2

185

5.5

186

7.2

93

2. 3,5

93

5.6

186

148

2.7

7.7 7 . 16 7 . 17

1 20

90 , 109

19 1 191

2.9

20 ' 34

5 . 11 , 22

190

2 0 , 34

5 . 24

125 50

2 . 13

119

5 . 29

10 . 26

192

2 . 15

32

6.2,6

73

11 . 22

81

2 . 16

1 36

6.13

154 , 155

14 . 4

63

2 . 17

20 , 34

7 . 18

1 0 , 1 1 , 30

15 . 19

185 , 186

3.5

2 0 , 34

7 . 19

185

3.6

148

4

174

9 . 10

181

20 . 1 22 . 5

190 186

7 . 2 1- 2 5

185-186

23 . 31

83 , 84

4.1

36

9 . 14

171

190

4.5

20 , 34 ,

9 . 18

186

2 3 . 32

73

24 . 31

152 , 186

4.6

25 . 11

93

4.8

26 . 2

80

4 . 13

26 . 9

185

4 . 14

26 . 11

23 . 5

10 . 1 3

63

10 . 17

186

4 8 , 4 9 , 50

10 . 26

68

128, 152

11 . 6

4 8 , 49 , 50

90 , 9 1 ,

11 . 7

50

21

109 , 148 ,

11 . 8

73

26 . 1 3

51

152 , 17 3 ,

1 3 . 14

34

26 . 1 7

21

175

13 . 21

38 , 46 , 51

1 36

1 2 2 , 148

27 . 25

125

5.1

148

13. 22

32

30 . 1 5 30 . 1 7

48

5.5

147 , 148

14 . 8

164

68 , 8 3 , 84

5 . 11

68

14 . 11

30 . 19

84

5 . 13

1 35 , 1 36 ,

14 . 2 3

66

30 . 2 5

1

14 8 , 1 7 7

14 . 29

73

30 . 2 6

70

6.2

1 36 , 1 7 7

15.6

48 , 125

30 . 2 8

52 , 7 8

11 . 3

15 . 7

170

30 . 3 0

51

6.5

1 36 36

16 . 1

76

30 . 3 1

17 , 38

6.6

76

17 . 6

156

162 , 165 , l9 3

17 . 10

190 188

31 . 6

31 . 1 3

Ecc l e s i a s t e s 7.6

9 · '·

10 . 1

190 1 20

185 21 30

n . ll

86

7.2

136 , 19 1

17 . 13

7.3

2 0 , 34

18 . 1

7.7

191

18 . 2

171

12

54

7 . 7- 8

162

18 . 6

7.8

9 3 , 191

19 . 6

171 , 172

7 . 11

128

19 . 9

1 20

219

I s a i ah

21. 7 21.8 21 . 9 23. 13 24 . 7 24. 9 24 . 1 3 25 6 27 . 1 27. 2 27 .4 28 . 7 28 . 25 .

28 . 2 7

28 . 28 29 . 9 30 30 . 6 30 . 24 31 . 1 32 . 6

32 . 1 3

32 . 14

33 . 4

3 3 . 11 3 3 . 12 34 34 . 6 34 . 7 34 . 1 1

34 . 1 3 34 . 1 3 34 . 14

34 . 15 35 . 1

35 . 6 35 . 7 36 . 6

36 . 1 7 37 . 24 37 . 2 7

(cont . )

45 51

45 46 191 190 156 191 73 190 186 190 114 , 115 ,

117 , 1 4 2 ,

154 , 1 7 6 114 , 117 , 154

45

190 72 6 , 1 2 , 50 , 51 , 7 3 6, 63 44

190 186 7

54 125

186

25 , 65 76 63 19 , 25 , 41 , 65 , 66 , 68 185 32 , 61

32 , 38 , 4 6 , 59 , 62 5 , 4 1 , 62 151 20 32 , 1 71 , 172 172

191 1 69 125

I s a i ah

38 , 14

( c on t . )

20 , 24 , 80

125

40

76 53 86 8 8 , 99 , 116 , 149 , 157 , 165 , 167 120 , 121 32 , 61 170 108 , 116 , 1 2 9 , 1 34 , 155 173 12

40 . 1 1 40 . 2 2 41 . 14 4 1 . 19

42 . 3 4 3 . 20 44 . 4 4 4 . 14

46 . 6 46 . 11 50 . 9 51 . 6 51 . 8 51 . 9 5 1 . 20 53 . 7 55 . 13

56 36

56 73 3 76 149 , 164 , 185 21 21 190 162 171 7 3 , 78 9 14 , 1 2 2 23 99 , 11 6 ' 1 64 , 165 ,

5 6 . 10 56 11 56 . 12 57 . 5 58 . 5 59 . 5 59 . 1 1 60 . 6 60 . 8 60 . 1 3 .

167

162 191 190 81 81 191 76 2 1 , 81 125 57 , 81

61 . 3 62 8 .

63. 2

6 5 . 2-4 65 . 4 65 . 8 65 . 25 66 . 3

66 . 14 66 . 17

14 86

6 6 . 20 66 . 24

[

220

]

J e r emiah

1 , 11 2 . 21 2 . 23 2 . 24 4.3 4.7 4 . 13 'i . 6 5 . 26 6 . 20 8.7

8 . 13 8 . 14 8 . 16 8 . 17 8 . 22 9 . 11 9 . 15 10 . 5

10 . 22

11 . 16 12 . 9 12. 13 13. 23 14 . 5 14. 6 15 . 3 17 . 1

17 6 1 7 . 11 .

23. 15 46 . 11 46 . 15

46 . 20 47 . 3 48. 6 48 . 1 1 4 8 . 34 48 . 40 49 . 16 49 . 19 49 . 2 2 49 . 33 50 11 50 39 .

.

51 . 8 51 . 14

51 . 27

51. 32

89 , 9 0 191 14 7

186 192 8 3 , 84 49 , 85 57 1 22 , 17 3 20 , 78 , 79 80 191 168

45 73 94 32

168, 198 1 1 3 , 1 62 32 156 12 , 46 186 49 2 0 , 1 25 7 , 32 21 186 132 64 , 65

168 , 19 8 94 63 33 45 132 191 48

84 84 50 84 32 45 32 ,46 , 61 94

54 54

1 74

J er emiah

5 1 . 34 51 . 37 5 1 . 38 51 . 40

( cont . )

L ament a t i o n s 1.6 2 . 18 3.5 3 . 15 3 . 19 4. 3 4 . 19 5 . 18 Ezekiel

1 . 10 2.6

3.9 4.9

6 . 13 8 . 17 10 . 14 13 . 4 13 . 19 15 . 2 16 . 10 17 . 3 17 . 6 17 . 7 19 . 2 , 3 , 5 1 9 . 10 20 . 28 22 . 27 27 . 5 27 . 6 2 7 . 14 27 . 15 27 . 17 27 . 19 27 . 21 28 . 24 29 . 3 29 . 6 31 . 8 3 1 . 14

73 32 50 , 51 76

20 93 168 198 168 , 198 51 , 61 , 74 83 , 84 32

84 7 1 , 185 , 186 1 8 1i 96 , 9 7 , 1 34 , 1 4 1 , 142 , 17 6 149 190 , 19 1 84 32 96 190 22 , 23 84 189 84 51 192 149 86 1 64 99 , 116 , 135 45 , 5 7 117 94 105 , 17 3 76 1 8 5 , 1 8 1i 32 , 7 3 173 164 , 167 162

Ez ek i e l ( c o n t , } 73 32 , 2 38 , 1 3 51 39 , 4 12 39 . 18 76 40 . 3 1 20 , 1 7 1 , 173 40 . 5 171 , 173 40 . 5-8 173 40 . 16 160 41. 8 173 41 . 18 160 4 2 . 1 6- 1 9 171, 173 4 7 . 7- 1 2 28 Da n i e l

4 . 33 5 . 21 7.4 7.6 7.9 8 . 5 , 8 ,21

H o s ea 2.5 2.6 2.9 3.1 3. 2 4 . 11 4 . 13 4 . 18 5 . 12 5 . 14 7 . 14 8.1 8.9 9.2 9.6 9 . 10 10 . 4 10 . 8 13 . 7 13 . 8 1 3 . 15 14 . 5 14 . 6 14 . 8

84 7 84 49 76 38

120 185 120 191 96 191 154 , 1 55 , 179 190 56 51 19 1 8 3 , 84 7 191 185 191 167 , 168 185 , 186 48 , 49 , 51 50 125 , 126 1 36 1 56 164

Joel

1

1.4 1.6 1.7 1 . 10 1 . 12 2.4 2 . 24 2 . 25

53 5 3 , 54 50 190 19 1 93 45 19 1 53 , 54

Amo s 2.9 4.2 4.9 5,7 5 . 19 6.4 6 . 12 7.1 7 . 1- 2 7 . 14 9 . 13

155 185 53 198 9 , 72 76 168 , 198 53 53 1 80 , 181 191

Ob a d i ah 4

84

J o nah 1 . 17 2.1

2.5 4 . 6ff 4.6,7,9, 10 4.7 Micah 1.8 1 . 13 1 . 16 2 . 11 4.4 6 . 15 7.1 7.4 7 . 17 N a h um 1 . 10 2.2

29 29 171 124 107 86

32 , 6 1 45 84 190 189 191 191 1 85 , 18 6 73

185 , 1 90 , 192 190

Nah um ( c o n t . ) 1 . 10 2.2 2.3 2 . 11 2 . 12 3. 3 3 . 15 , 16 3 . 17

Hab akkuk 1. 8

185 , 190 , 19 2 190 1 64 50 , 51 50 45 54 53 , 54

45 , 49 , 84 , 8 5

Z ephan iah 1 . 12 2 2.9 2 . 14 1. 3

191 65 152 1 9 , 65 , 6 6 85

Ha ggai 1 . 11

191

Z e ch a r iah 1 . 8 , 10 , 11 2.8 5.9 7 . 12 9.9 9. 17 11 . 2

149 93 79 186 6,7 191 1 5 5 ' 1 6 /f

Ma l a c h i 1.3

32

E c c l e s i a s t i cus 11 . 30 64 1 Ma c c ab e e s 6 . 34

Ma t t hew 2 . 11 3.4 3.7 3. 12

145

122 , 148 14 , 54 , 104 72, 73 197

}1a t th ew ( co n t 3 . 16 4 . 18 6 . 19 , 20 6 . 28 6 . 30 7.6 7 . 10 7 . 15 7 . 16 8 . 20 8 . 3 0- 3 2 9 . 17 10 . 16 10 . 25 10 . 29 , 31 11. 7 12 . 20 12 . 34 12 . 40 1 3 . 7 , 22 13 . 25 13 . 26 , 2 7 1 3 . 2 9 , 30 13 . 31 1 3 . 32 1 3 . 33 1 3 . 3 6 , 38 , 40 1 3 . 47 14 . 1 7 14 . 19 1 5 . 26 15 . 27 1 5 . 34 1 5 . 36 1 7 . 20 17 . 27 18 . 6 19 . 24 21 21. 1 21 . 2 21 . 5 21 . 7 21 . 12 2 1 . 19- 2 1 22 . 4

[ 222

.) 24 28 56 1 36 126 21 , 22 , 81 28 , 73 86 119 , 18 5 , 1 86 , 19 1 32 81 191 2 3 , 24 , 7 3 , 86 30 77 171, 172 1 21 , 1 7 2 73 28 , 29 186 19 5 , 197 195 195 , 197 14 5 , 1 4 6 126 197 195 28 28 28 , 126 21 , 22 22 28 28 145 , 146 28 6 14 6 157 7 7 7 24 119 62 , 63

Ma t thew ( c ont , ) 115 , 1 1 7 ' 23, 23 144 1 4 , 35 , 36 2 3 , 24 17 23, 27 23. 33 73 17 2 3 . 37 24 . 3 157 84 , 85 24 . 28 37 , 38 , 2 5 . 32 119 38 2 5 . 33 190 26 . 27 26 . 30 157 17 2 6 . 34 , 7 4 , 7 5 172 , 186 2 7 . 29 172 2 7 . 30 1 9 1 , 19 2 , 2 7 . 34 198 172 27 . 48 121 27 . 59 Ma r k 1.6 1 . 10 2 . 22

4 . 7 , 18 4 . 28 4 . 31 4 . 32 5 . 1 1- 1 3 5. 13 5 . 16 6 . 38 6 . 39 6 . 41 , 43 7 . 27 7 . 28 8. 7 9 . 42 9 . 48 10 . 2 5 11 . 1 11 . 2 , 4 , 5 , 7 11 . 1 3 1 1 . 20f 12 . 26 13. 3 1 3 . 28 1 3 . 35 14. 3

10 , 14 , 54 24 191 186 197 14 6 126 81 81 81 28 126 28 21 , 22 22 28 6 86 14

157 7 119 119 186 157 119

17

152

Mark

( c on t . ) 14 . 12 14 . 26 14. 51 15 . 17 1 5 . 19 15 . 2 3

76 157 121 186 172 1 4 8 , 14 9 , 1 9 1 , 19 2

15 . 36

1 30 , 1 7 2 ,

1 5 . 46

121

16 . 18

Luke

Luke

( co n t . ) 15.4 15 . 15f 15. 16 15 . 23 15 . 27 15 . 29 1 5 . 30 16 . 7

19 2

16 . 1 9

16 . 21 17 . 6

73

17. 19 . 19 . 19 .

37 4 29 30 , 3 3 , 35 19 . 37 20 . 3 7 21 . 29

1 . 15 2 . 24 3.7 3. 17 3 . 22 5.5 5.6,9 5 . 37 5 . 38

191

6 . 44

1 19 , 1 86 , 1 9 1

7 . 24 7 . 33 8 . 7 , 14 8 . 32 f 9 . 1 3 , 16

9 . 58 10 . 3 10 . 19 1 0 . 34 1 1 . 11 1 1 . 12 11 . 42 12 . 6 , 7 12 . 18 12 24 12 . 27 .

12. 28

12. 33 13

13 . 6 f

13 . 15 1 3 . 19 13. 13. 14 . 14.

32 34 5 19

191 24 73

197 24 28 28 191 172 191 1 86

81 28 32 76 , 86 71 , 7 3 6 3 , 19 1 28 , 7 3 71 126 , 144 , 174 77

197 68

1 36

126 56

32 119

6 , 7 , 63

146

32 17 6, 7 , 63 63

21 . 37

22 . 7

2 2 . 31 2 2 . 34 2 2 . 39

22 . 60 , 6 1

76 81 104 62 ,63

63

38

63

197 121 22 145 , 14 6 , 182 84 , 85 181 157 7 157 186

119 157

76

197 17 157 17

23. 53

121

24 . 42

28

J o hn

1.29

76

1 . 32

24

1 . 36 1 . 48

76 118

2 . 3 , 9 , 10

191

2 . 14

24

2. 16

24

2 . 15

3 . 14 4 . 12

4 . 46 6.9

6 . 10 6 . 11 6. 13 6 . 31 , 49

8.1 10. 1 2 12 . 3 12. 13

63

73 63 191

2 8 , 96 126

28 96 141 157

85 , 86 152

161 , 162

J o hn ( cont . ) 12 . 14 12 . 1 5 12 . 24

l J . 38 18 . 2 7

19 19 . 2 19 . 5 19 . 29 19 . 39 19 . 40 20 . 5 , 7 21 . 5 21 . 6 , 8 21 . 9

2 1 . 10

21 . 11

21 . 13 21. 15

21 . 16 , 17

Ac t s

1 . 12

2 . 13

7 . 3 0 , �: 5

7 . 41 8.23 8 . 32 10 . 1 2 11 . 16 12 . 23 14 . 1 3 20 . 29

23 . 24 27 . 3H 28. 3 Roman s

3. 13

11 . 11 . 14 . 14 .

17 24 2

21

1 Cor i n t h i a n s 3. 12 5.7 9.9 10 . 9

7 7

197 17 17 90 186 186 1 30 9 0 , 148 121

121 28 28

28 28 28

28 76 76

15 7 191 186 63 198 76

73

73

86 63 86

63

197 7 3 , 74

73 1 56 , 1 5 7 1 56 , 15 7 125 , 126 19 1 125 , 126 , 172

76 63 73

1 C o r inth i an s

( c ont . )

Reve l a t i on

15 . 37

197

1 . 14

76

1 5 . 39

28 , 6 3

2 . 17

141

4.7

5 1 , 63 ,

73

5.5

50 , 5 1

186

6. 2,4

85

2 Corinthians

11 . 3 12 . 7

,

45

5

9 6 , 19 1 ,

6.6

197

Eph e s i an s

5 . 18

191

45

6 . 13

1 19

162

7.9

Ph i l i p p i a n s

22

3.2

6.8

1 T imothy

126

8. 7 8 . 11

198

8 . 13

85

3.8

191

9.3

54 , 7 1

5 . 18

63

9.4

126

5 . 23

191

2 T imo thy 4 . 17

51

Heb r ews

9.5

7 0 , 71

9.7

4 5 , 54

9.8

51

9.9

45

9 . 10

70, 71

9 . 17

45, 51

9 . 19

45, 73

6.7

126

6.8

186

10 . 3

51

9.4

141

11 . 1

172

9 . 12

38 , 6 3

11 . 4

157

9 . 13

38 , 6 3

12 . 9

73

38 , 6 3 , 1 3

1 ::. . 1 4

9 . 19

10 . 4

38 , 6 3

11 . 33

51

11 . 37

38

J ames

1 . 10

126

7 3 , 65

1 :3 . 2

9, 4 9, 51

14 . 8 , 1 0

191

14 . 1 8

1 91

14 . 20

4 5 , 190

15 . 6

121

16 . 1 3

33

1 . 11 3. 3 3. 7

126

16. 19

191

45

17. 2

191

3 . 12

119

18 . 1 3

45, 63,

5.2

56

28 , 73

18 . 3

191 109 , 122 , 197

1 Peter 1 . 19 1

.

24

5.8

1 9 . 1 1 , 14

45

76

19 . 15

191

126

19 . 18 , 1 9 ,

51

2 P e t er

2 . 16

7

2 . 22

22

3 John v.

13

21

45

20 . 2

73

21 . 15 , 16

1 72 22

22 . 15

1 7 2 , 1 7 /f

224